,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #fcc ,,new ,,york1 ,,february #ah1 #ahhh4 ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xxv41 ,no4 #fcc4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,i4 ,,architecture4--,elements of ,architectural ,design4--,by ,h4,h4 ,,statham4--,the commencement of a series of lectures delivered before the ,london ,society of ,arts1 giving the line of development of the different styles and the aspirations of their originators4 #cd illustrations4 #ajajf ,,ii4 ,,astronomy4--,a ,fivefold ,comet4--,a curious astronomical deduction2 the probable division of one comet into five by the disturbing effects of the sun4 #a illustration4 #ajaaf ,,iii4 ,,biography4--,linnus4--,by ,c4,s4 ,,hallberg4--,the life and work of the great botanist1 his portrait and birthplace4 #b illustrations4 #ajaad ,,iv4 ,,chemistry4--,an ,apparatus for ,preparing ,sulphurous1 ,carbonic1 and ,phosphoric ,anhydrides4--,by ,h4,n4 ,,warren4--,a simple apparatus for this purpose described and illustrated4 #a illustration4 #ajaag ,the ,arrangement of ,atoms in ,space in ,organic ,molecules4--,a review of ,prof4 ,,johannes ,,wislicenus' recent theories on this abstract subject4 #ajaag ,the ,isolation of ,fluorine4--,note on this last isolation of an element1 with the properties of the gas4 #a illustration4 #ajaag ,v4 ,,electricity4--,observations on ,atmospheric ,electricity4--,by ,prof4 ,l4 ,,weber4--,abstract of a ,british ,association paper on this important subject4 #ajaad ,the ,menges ,thermo-,magnetic ,generator and ,motor4--,the direct conversion of electricity into heat2 the generator fully described4 #e illustrations4 #ajaac ,,vi4 ,,engineering4--,an ,investigation into the ,internal ,stresses ,occurring in ,cast ,iron and ,steel4--,by ,general ,,nicholas ,,kalakoutzky4--,first installment of an elaborate paper1 giving theoretical and experimental examination of this subject4 #b illustrations4 #ajaje ,hargreaves' ,thermo-,motor4--,a new caloric engine4--,its construction1 theory1 and cylinder diagrams4 #f illustrations4 #ajajd ,the ,compound ,steam ,turbine4--,a description and discussion of this motor1 in which a series of forty-five turbines are acted on by the current of steam4 #b illustrations4 #ajajc ,,vii4 ,,miscellaneous4--,cold ,storage for ,potatoes4--,the application of artificial cold to preserving potatoes4--,results obtained in actual experience4--,a practical paper by ,mr4 ,,edwin ,,taylor4 #ajaae ,,viii4 ,,physics4--,on a ,method of ,making the ,wave ,length of ,sodium ,light the ,actual and ,practical ,standard of ,length4--,by ,,albert ,a4 ,,michelson and ,,edward ,w4 ,,morley4--,description of the new standard of length and outlines of the practical method for its determination4--,the question of check determinations4 #a illustration4 #ajaae ,,ix4 ,,technology4--,progress of the ,sorghum ,sugar ,industry4-- ,elaborate report on the diffusion process as developed at the ,fort ,worth1 ,kan41 station4 #b illustrations4 #ajaaj ,the ,lowe ,incandescent ,gas ,burner4--,the well known advanced type of gas burner described and illustrated4 #a illustration4 #ajaaj 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,compound ,,steam ,,turbine4 ,last year the whole of the lighting of the ,newcastle ,exhibition was effected by the agency of seventeen of these motors1 of which four were spare1 giving in the aggregate #bhj electrical horse power4 ,as the steam was provided by the authorities of the exhibition1 it was good proof to the public that they had satisfied themselves that the consumption would not be extravagant1 as however favorable might be the terms on which the manufacturers would be willing to lend their engines1 they could scarcely be sufficiently tempting to compensate for an outrageous consumption of coal1 even in ,newcastle4 ,at the time we gave an account of the result of the test1 showing that the steam used was #fe lb4 per electrical horse power1 a very satisfactory result1 and equal to #dc lb4 per indicated horse power if compared with an ordinary engine driving a generator through a belt4 ,recently ,mr4 ,parsons has given an account of the theory and construction of his motor before the ,northeast ,coast ,institution1 and has quoted #eb lb4 of steam per electric horse power as the best result hitherto attained with a steam pressure of #ij lb4 ,as now made there are forty-five turbines through which the steam passes in succession1 expanding in each1 until it is finally exhausted4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,compound ,,steam ,,turbine4 ,the theoretical efficiency of a motor of this kind is arrived at by ,mr4 ,parsons in the following manner3 ,the efflux of steam flowing from a vessel at #ae4f lb4 per square inch absolute pressure through an orifice into another vessel at #ae lb4 pressure absolute is #cff ft4 per second1 the drop of pressure of #j4f lb4 corresponding to a diminution of volume of #d per cent4 in the opposite direction4 ,the whole #de turbines are so proportioned that each one1 starting from the steam inlet1 has #d per cent4 more blade area or capacity than that preceding it4 ,taking the pressure at the exhaust end to be #ae lb4 absolute1 that at the inlet end will be #fi lb4 above the atmosphere4 ,the steam enters from the steam pipe at #fi lb4 pressure1 and in passing through the first turbine it falls #b4fe lb4 in pressure1 its velocity due to the fall being #chf ft4 per second1 and its increase of volume #c4he per cent4 of its original volume4 ,it then passes through the second turbine1 losing #b4ee lb4 in pressure1 and gaining #c4he per cent4 in volume1 and so on until it reaches the last turbine1 when its pressure is #ae4f lb4 before entering1 and #ae lb4 on leaving4 ,the velocity due to the last drop is #cff ft4 per second4 ,the velocity of the wheels at #i1bjj revolutions per minute is #aej ft4 per second1 or #ci4i per cent4 of the mean velocity due to the head throughout the turbines4 ,comparing this velocity with the results of a series of experiments made by ,mr4 ,james ,b4 ,francis on a ,tremont turbine at ,lowell1 ,mass41 it appears that there should be an efficiency of #gb per cent4 if the blades be equally well shaped in the steam as in the water turbine1 and that the clearances be kept small and the steam dry4 ,further1 as each turbine discharges without check into the next1 the residual energy after leaving the blades is not lost as it is in the case of the water turbine1 but continues into the next guide blades1 and is wholly utilized there4 ,this gain should be equal to #c to #e per cent4 ,as each turbine of the set is assumed to give #gb4e per cent4 efficiency1 the total number may be assumed to give the same result1 or1 in other words1 over #gb per cent4 of the power derived from using the steam in a perfect engine1 without losses due to condensation1 clearances1 friction1 and such like4 ,a perfect engine working with #ij lb4 boiler pressure1 and exhausting into the atmosphere1 would consume #bj4e lb4 of steam per hour for each horse power4 ,a motor giving #gj per cent4 efficiency would1 therefore1 require #bi4bi lb4 of steam per horse power per hour4 ,the best results hitherto attained have been #eb lb4 of steam per hour per electrical horse power1 as stated above1 but it is anticipated that higher results will be attained shortly4 ,whether that be so or not1 the motor has many advantages to recommend it1 and among these is the increased life of the lamps due to the uniform rotation of the dynamo4 ,at the ,phoenix ,mills1 ,newcastle1 an installation of #aei ,edison-,swan lamps has been running1 on an average1 eleven hours a day for two years past1 yet in that time only #id lamps have failed1 the remaining #fe being in good condition after #f1ejj hours' service4 ,now1 if the lamps had only lasted #a1jjj hours on the average1 as is commonly assumed1 the renewals would have amounted to double the year's cost of fuel1 as at present consumed4 ,the present construction of the motor and dynamo is shown in the figures4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a though #f ,fig4 #b shows the arrangement of #ij complete turbines1 #de lying on each side of the central steam inlet4 ,the guide blades1 ,r1 are cut on the internal periphery of brass rings1 which are afterward cut in halves and held in the top and bottom halves of the cylinder by feathers4 ,the moving blades1 ,s1 are cut on the periphery of brass rings1 which are afterward threaded and feathered on to the steel shaft1 and retained there by the end rings1 which form nuts screwed on to the spindle4 ,the whole of this spindle with its rings rotate together in bearings1 shown in enlarged section1 ,fig4 #c4 ,steam entering at the pipe1 ,o1 flows all round the spindle and passes along right and left1 first through the guide blades1 ,r1 by which it is thrown on to the moving blades1 ,s1 then back on to the next guide blades1 and so on through the whole series on each hand1 and escapes by the passages1 ,p1 at each end of the cylinder connected to the exhaust pipe at the back of cylinder4 ,the bearings1 ,fig4 #c1 consist of a brass bush1 on which is threaded an arrangement of washers1 each successive washer alternately fitting to the bush and the block1 while being alternately #a_/cb smaller than the block outside and #a_/cb larger than the bush in the hole4 ,one broad washer at the end holds the bearings central4 ,these washers are pressed together by a spiral spring1 ,n1 and nut1 and1 by friction against each other1 steady or damp any vibration in the spindle that may be set up by want of balance or other cause at the high rate of speed that is necessary for economical working4 ,the bearings are oiled by a small screw propeller1 ,i1 attached to the shaft4 ,the oil in the drain pipes1 ,d and ,f1 and the oil tank1 ,d1 lies at a lower level than the screw1 but the suction of the fan1 ,k1 raises it up into the stand pipe1 ,h1 over and around the screw1 which gripes it and circulates it along the pipes to the bearings4 ,the course of the oil is as follows3 ,the oil is forced by the propeller1 ,i1 and oils the bearing1 ,a4 ,the greater part passes along the pipe1 ,e1 to the end bearing1 ,c2 some after oiling the bearing1 ,c1 drains back by the pipe1 ,f1 to the reservoir1 ,d2 the remaining oil passes along through the armature spindle1 oils the bearings1 ,b1 and drains into the reservoir1 ,d1 from which the oil is again drawn along the pipe1 ,g1 into the stand pipe1 ,h1 by the suction of the fan1 ,k4 ,the suction of the fan is also connected to the diaphragm1 ,l1 and forms1 with it and the spring1 ,m1 the principal part of the governor which actuates the throttle valve1 ,v4 ,fig4 #d is the electrical control governor1 which will be further described in connection with the dynamo4 ,it acts directly upon the controlling diaphragm1 ,l1 by admitting or closing a large access of air to it1 and thus exercises a controlling influence upon it4 ,the dynamo which forms the other portion of the electric generator1 ,fig4 #a1 is coupled to the motor spindle by a square tube coupling fitted on to the square spindle ends4 ,the armature is of the drum type4 ,the body is built up of thin iron disks threaded on to the spindle and insulated from each other by tracing paper4 ,this iron body is turned up and grooves milled out to receive the conducting wires4 ,for pressures of #fj to #hj volts there are fifteen convolutions of wire1 or #cj grooves4 ,the wire starting at b1 ,fig4 #f1 is led a quarter of a turn spirally1 c1 round the cylindrical portion1 a1 then passing along a groove longitudinally is again led a quarter turn spirally1 d1 round the cylindrical portion1 a1 then through the end washer1 and back similarly a quarter turn1 e1 then led along the diametrically opposite groove1 and lastly a little over a quarter turn1 f1 back to g1 where it is coupled to the next convolution4 ,the commutator is formed of rings of sections4 ,each section is formed of short lengths4 ,each length is dovetailed and interlocked between conical steel rings4 ,the whole is insulated with asbestos1 and1 when screwed up by the end nut1 forms1 with the steel bush1 a compact whole4 ,there are fifteen sections in the commutator1 and each coupling is connected to a section4 ,the whole armature is bound externally from end to end with brass or pianoforte steel wire4 ,the magnets are of soft cast iron and of the horseshoe type4 ,they are shunt-wound only4 ,on the top of the magnet yoke is the electrical control governor1 ,fig4 #d4 ,it consists of one moving spindle on which are keyed a small soft iron bar1 and also a double finger1 ,t4 ,there is also a spiral spring1 ,x1 attached at one end to the spindle1 and at the other to an adjustable top head and clamping nut1 ,y4 ,the double finger1 ,t1 covers or opens a small hole in the face1 ,u1 communicating by the pipe1 ,w1 to the diaphragm1 ,l4 ,the action of the magnet yoke is to attract the needle toward the poles of the magnet1 while by turning the head the spiral spring1 ,x1 is brought into tension to resist and balance this force1 and can be set and adjusted to any degree of tension4 ,the double finger1 ,t1 turns with the needle1 and1 by more or less covering the small air inlet hole1 ,u1 it regulates the access of air to the regulating diaphragm1 ,l4 ,the second finger is for safety in case the brushes get thrown off1 or the magnet circuit be broken1 in which case the machine would otherwise gain a considerable increase of speed before the diaphragm would act4 ,in these cases1 however1 the needle ceases to be attracted1 falls back1 and the safety finger closes the air inlet hole4 ,there is no resistance to the free movement of this regulator4 ,a fraction of a volt increase or decrease of potential produces a considerable movement of the finger1 sufficient to govern the steam pressure1 and in ordinary work it is found possible to maintain the potential within one volt of the standard at all loads within the capacity of the machine1 excepting only a slight momentary variation when a large portion of the load is switched on or off4 ,the resistance of the armature from brush to brush is only #j4jjcb ohm1 the resistance of the field magnets is only #ag4g ohms1 while the normal output of the dynamo is #bjj amperes at #hj volts4 ,this1 excluding other losses1 gives an efficiency of #ig per cent4 ,the other losses are due to eddy currents throughout the armature1 magnetic retardation1 and bearing friction4 ,they have been carefully measured4 ,by separately exciting the field magnets from another dynamo1 and observing the increased steam pressure required to maintain the speed constant1 the corresponding power was afterward calculated in watts4 ,the commercial efficiency of this dynamo1 after allowing for all losses1 is a little over #ij per cent4 ,in the larger sizes it rises to #id per cent4 ,assuming the compound steam turbine to give a return of #gj per cent4 of the total mechanical energy of the steam1 and the dynamos to convert #ij per cent of this into electrical output1 gives a resulting efficiency of #fc per cent4 ,as steam at #ij lb4 pressure above the atmosphere will with a perfect non-condensing engine give a horse power for every #bj4e lb4 of steam consumed per hour1 it follows that an electrical generator of #fc per cent4 efficiency will consume #cb4e lb4 of steam for every electrical horse power per hour4 ,again1 with steam at #aej lb4 pressure above the atmosphere1 a generator of the same efficiency would consume only #bb4b lb4 of steam per electrical horse power per hour4 ,the results so far actually obtained are a consumption of #eb lb4 per hour of steam for each electrical horse power with a steam pressure of #ij lb4 above the atmosphere4--,engineering4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,hargreaves' ,,thermo-,,motor4 ,from the researches and investigations of ,carnot1 ,joule1 ,rankine1 ,clausius1 and ,sir ,william ,thomson1 the science of thermo-dynamics has not only been brought into existence1 but fully matured4 ,we learn from it that whereas in the steam engine1 on account of the limited range of temperature in the working cylinder and the rapid conduction of steam during condensation1 no combination of cylinders can materially affect its present efficiency1 internally fired engines1 such as gas and caloric engines--being1 as it were1 less fettered--can have their already high efficiency increased by simply overcoming mechanical difficulties4 ,to this fact is no doubt due the recent remarkable development of gas and caloric engines4 ,the first caloric or hot air engine was invented by ,sir ,george ,cayley in #ahjg1 and in #ahbg ,dr4 ,robert ,stirling1 a ,scotch minister1 took out his first patent for a hot air engine1 which was the foundation of many subsequent machines1 and by the invention of the regenerator he converted what was practically a scientific toy into an efficient machine4 ,one of the most ardent workers in this field at the present time is ,mr4 ,james ,hargreaves1 of ,widnes1 who1 with a thorough theoretical knowledge of the subject has1 after many years of patient perseverance1 over come many of the mechanical difficulties1 and designed the engine of which the above is an illustration4 ,the sectional elevation1 shown in ,fig4 #a1 is an expanded view of the machine1 shown thus to enable the action of the machine to be more clearly understood2 the relative position of the different parts1 as actually made1 is shown in the side elevation 7,fig4 #d74 ,the principal working parts of the machine are the combustion chamber1 ,d1 which is of the form shown1 lined with fire brick1 and having an entrance1 with the door screwed down like a manhole lid2 the working cylinder1 ,a1 surrounded by the water casing1 ,k2 the piston1 ,b1 with a water lining1 and coupled to the end of the working beam by a parallel motion1 the beam being supported by two rocking columns1 ,z1 as in engines of the grasshopper type2 the air compressor1 ,c1 coupled directly to the piston of the working cylinder2 the injection pump1 ,f1 for supplying the fuel--creosote or coal tar--to the combustion chamber2 the regenerator ,e2 the receiver and separator1 ,v ,y2 the feed and exhaust valves1 ,m4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a--,,sectional ,,elevation--,,hargreaves' ,,thermo-,,motor4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,the action of the machine is as follows3 ,assuming the engine to be in condition for starting1 the sides of the combustion chamber1 ,d1 are red hot1 the chamber charged with air1 and the spray of creosote1 injected by the pump1 ,f1 is ignited2 the expansion of the gases produced by the combustion acts upon the bottom of the piston1 ,b1 forcing it to the top of the cylinder1 and thus1 by intermediate mechanism1 causing the crank shaft to revolve4 ,by the same stroke a charge of air is forced by the compressor1 ,c1 into the receiver through the pipe1 ,r4 ,the cylinder is1 of course1 single acting1 and on the down stroke of the piston1 ,b--which falls by its own weight and the momentum of the fly wheel--the exhaust gases are forced through the regenerator1 ,e1 which absorbs most of their heat2 they then pass through the exhaust valve1 placed immediately under the feed valve1 ,m1 along the pipe1 ,q1 up through the pipes1 ,t1 fitted into the receiver1 ,v1 down the pipes1 ,t1 fitted into the saturator1 ,y1 and out of the funnel fixed to the bottom of ,y4 ,illustration3 ,fig #c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,the charge of air for supplying the combustion chamber is forced by the compressor1 ,c1 through the pipe1 ,r1 outside the tubes1 ,t1 in the chambers1 ,v and ,y1 along the pipe1 ,p1 through the feed valve1 ,m1 and the regenerator1 ,e1 into the combustion chamber4 ,in its passage from the compressor1 it first picks up the residual heat of the exhaust gases in the tubes1 ,t1 and finally the heat absorbed by the regenerator1 ,e1 thus entering the combustion chamber in a highly heated state4 ,having described generally the passage of the air from the compressor to the working cylinder1 and back again to the funnel1 we will now describe the details4 ,the working cylinder1 ,a1 is fitted into the casting which forms the water casing1 ,k1 a space being left between the bottom of the cylinder and the casing1 which is filled with a non-conducting mixture of asbestos to protect it from the heat of combustion2 the bottom of the piston1 ,b1 has a similar protection1 and the regenerator has a lining of the same mixture1 to prevent any heat from escaping through the casting which holds it4 ,the water in the casing1 ,k1 and in the piston1 ,b1 is supplied by a small pump1 ,g1 which forces the water through the pipe1 ,p#d1 into the telescopic pipe1 ,l either into the piston1 ,b1 or through the pipe1 ,p#f1 into the casing1 ,k--the bottom of the casing being connected by the pipe1 ,p#aj1 with the auxiliary boiler1 ,w4 ,the steam generated in the casing1 ,k1 is carried to the boiler1 ,w1 by the pipe1 ,p#c1 and from the boiler it passes along the pipe1 ,p#b1 through the valve1 ,a#b1 into the chamber1 ,v1 thus giving up its heat to the incoming air1 with which it mixes4 ,the vapor gradually condenses at the bottom of the vessel1 ,y1 and the water so formed is drawn by the pump1 ,j1 along the suction pipe1 ,p#i1 and forced through the pipe1 ,p#h1 back to the chamber1 ,y1 through the valve1 ,a#a1 and in the form of spray plays on the tubes1 ,t1 and absorbing any residual heat4 ,the heat generated by compression in the cylinder1 ,c1 is absorbed by a spray of water from the pump1 ,h1 the vapor being carried along with the air through the pipe1 ,r1 to the chamber1 ,y1 where it is separated1 and falling to the bottom is circulated1 as just described1 by the pump1 ,j4 ,x is a small auxiliary air compressor1 to obtain the necessary compression to start the engine1 and is worked from the boiler1 ,w4 ,in future engines this compressor will be superseded by a specially designed injector1 which will produce the necessary pressure at a considerable reduction in cost4 ,when once the engine is started1 the fire of the auxiliary boiler can1 of course1 be drawn1 as the main engine afterward makes its own steam4 ,the regenerator1 ,e1 has circular ends of fire clay perforated1 the body being filled with fire clay spirals of the shape clearly shown in elevation in ,fig4 #b4 ,the injector valve for the creosote is shown to a larger scale in ,fig4 #c4 ,this valve has1 however1 been since considerably modified and improved4 ,the feed and exhaust valves1 ,m1 are actuated by cams keyed to a countershaft driven by bevel wheels from the main shaft4 ,the creosote pump1 ,f1 is also worked by a cam on the same shaft1 but the pumps1 ,g ,h ,j1 are worked by eccentrics4 ,a stop valve1 ,n1 is fixed to the supply pipe1 ,p1 under which is place a back pressure valve to retain the pressure in the combustion chamber4 ,the engine is regulated by an ordinary ,porter governor actuating the throttle valve1 ,o4 ,an engine1 as described1 has been constructed by ,messrs4 ,adair ,co41 engineers1 ,waterloo ,road1 ,liverpool1 and has been running most satisfactorily for several weeks1 the results being clearly shown by the indicator diagrams 7,figs4 #e and #f74 ,the results obtained by this motor are very remarkable1 and are a long way in advance of any previous performance1 as only a little over lb4 of fuel is used per i4h4p4 per hour4 ,it may be mentioned that the temperature of the combustion chamber is calculated to be about #b1ejj;,f41 and that of the exhaust gases does not exceed #ahj;,f4--,industries4 ,illustration3 ,diagram from cylinder--#be in4 diam1 #ah in4 stroke4 ,i4,h4,p41 #fc4 ,scale1 #a_/cj in4 ,mean pressure1 #bh4b lb4 ,,fig4 #e4 ,illustration3 ,diagram from air pump--#ae in4 diam41 #ah in4 stroke4 ,i4,h4,p41 #bc4 ,scale1 #a_/cj in--,mean pressure1 #bh4e lb4 ,,fig4 #f4 ,,diagrams ,,from ,,cylinder ,,and ,,air ,,pump4 ,net indicated horse power1 #dj2 revolutions per minute1 #ajj2 coal tar consumed per hour1 #bj4e lb42 coal tar per ,i4,h4,p4 per hour1 #j4eab lb4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,an ,,investigation ,,into ,,the ,,internal ,,stresses ,,occurring ,,in ,,cast ,,iron ,,and ,,steel4 ,,by ,,general ,,nicholas ,,kalakoutzky4 ,,no4 ,i4 ,determination of the ,influence of ,internal ,stresses on the ,strength of ,materials4--,we call internal stresses those which exist within the mass of any hollow cylinder or other body1 when it appears to be in a state of repose1 or not under the influence of external forces4 ,when pressure is applied to a hollow cylinder1 either externally or internally1 the interior layers into which its walls may be conceived to be divided are subjected to a new series of stresses1 the magnitude of which is independent of those already existing4 ,these additional stresses combine with the former in such a manner that at every point of the thickness of the cylinder they have common resultants acting in various directions4 ,thus1 if we call t the internal stress existing at a distance rx from the axis of the cylinder1 and in a direction tangential to its cross section1 and ,t the additional stress due to pressure inside the cylinder acting at the same point and in the same direction1 then the newly developed stress will be t ,t4 ,if ,r and r#j be the external and internal radii of the cylinder1 and if we suppose the external pressure nil1 then1 if the pressure inside the bore be ,p#j1 the stress on the radius rx is determined by the following expression deduced from the well-known fundamental formul of ,lame3#a r#j ,r 7rx7 ,t ,p#j ------- ------------- ,r-r#j 7rx7 ,from which we see that ,t is a maximum when rx r#j1 i4e41 for the layer immediately next to the bore of the cylinder4 ,calling t#j the internal stress in this layer1 and ,t#j the stress resulting from the action inside the bore of the pressure ,p#j1 and allowing that the sum of both these quantities must not exceed the elastic limit ,u of the material1 we have--,t#j ,u - t#j4 ,and for this value of ,t#j1 the corresponding pressure inside the bore will be ,r - r#j ,p 7,u - t#j7 ----------4 ,r r#j ,this pressure increases with the term 7,u - t#j74 ,with t#j positive1 i4e41 when the internal stresses in the thickness of the hollow cylinder are such that the metal of the layers nearest to the bore is in a state of tension and that of the outer layers in a state of compression1 then the cylinder will have the least strength when t#j has the greatest numerical value4 ,such stresses are termed injurious or detrimental stresses4 ,with t#j negative1 the strength of the cylinder increases with the numerical value of t#j1 and those stresses which cause compression in the layers nearest to the bore of the cylinder and tension in the outer layers are termed beneficial or useful stresses4 ,footnote #a3 ,lame holds that in a homogeneous tube subjected to the action of two pressures1 external and internal1 the difference between the tension and the compression developed at any point of the thickness of the tube is a constant quantity1 and that the sum of these two stresses is inversely proportional to the square of the radius of the layer under consideration4 ,let r#j1 ,r1 and rx be the respective radii1 p#j1 p1 and px the corresponding pressures1 and ,t#j1 ,t1 and ,tx1 the tensions1 then we have3 ,t#j - p#j ,tx - px 7#a7 7,t#j p#j7 r#j 7,tx px7 7rx7 7#b7 ,tx - px ,t - p 7#c7 7,tx px77rx7 7,t ,p7,r 7#d7 if the radii are known and p and p be given1 then deducing from the above equations the values ,t#j and ,t1 and also the variable pressure px1 we determine-- p#j r#j7,r 7rx77 - p ,r77rx7 r#j7 ,tx ---------------------------------------- -- 7,r r#j7 7rx7 ,this is the formula of ,lame1 from which1 making p #j1 we obtain the expression in the text4 ,for these reasons1 and in order to increase the power of resistance of a cylinder1 it is necessary to obtain on the inner layer a state of initial compression approaching as nearly as possible to the elastic limit of the metal4 ,this proposition is in reality no novelty1 since it forms the basis of the theory of hooped guns1 by means of which the useful initial stresses which should be imparted to the metal throughout the gun can be calculated1 and the extent to which the gun is thereby strengthened determined4 ,the stresses which arise in a hollow cylinder when it is formed of several layers forced on one upon another1 with a definite amount of shrinkage1 we call the stress of built-up cylinders1 in order to distinguish them from natural stresses developed in homogeneous masses1 and which vary in character according to the conditions of treatment which the metal has undergone4 ,if we conceive a hollow cylinder made up of a great number of very thin layers--for instance1 of wire wound on with a definite tension--in which case the inner layer would represent the bore of the gun1 then the distribution of the internal stresses and their magnitude would very nearly approach the ideally perfect useful stresses which should exist in a homogeneous cylinder2 but in hollow cylinders built up of two1 three1 and four layers of great thickness1 there would be a considerable deviation from the conditions which should be aimed at4 ,the magnitude of the stresses in built-up cylinders is determined by calculation1 on the presumption that initial stresses do not exist in the respective layers of the tube and of the hoops which make up the walls of the cylinder4 ,nevertheless1 ,rodman1 as early as the year #aheg1 first drew attention to the fact that when metal is cast and then cooled1 under certain conditions1 internal stresses are necessarily developed2 and these considerations led him1 in the manufacture of cast iron guns1 to cool the bore with water and to heat the outside of the moulds after casting4 ,although ,rodman's method was adopted everywhere1 yet up to the present time no experiments of importance have been made with the view of investigating the internal stresses which he had drawn attention to1 and in the transition from cast iron to steel guns the question has been persistently shelved1 and has only very lately attracted serious attention4 ,with the aid of the accepted theory relating to the internal stresses in the metal of hooped guns1 we can form a clear idea of the most advantageous character for them to assume both in homogeneous and in built-up hollow cylinders4 ,in proof of this1 we can adduce the labors of ,colonels ,pashkevitch and ,duchene1 the former of whom published an account of his investigations in the ,artillery ,journal for #ahhd--,st4 ,petersburg--and the latter in a work entitled ,basis of the ,theory of ,hooped ,guns1 from which we borrow some of the following information4 ,the maximum resistance of a tube or hollow cylinder to external stresses will be attained when all the layers are expanded simultaneously to the elastic limit of the material employed4 ,in that case1 observing the same notation as that already adopted1 we have-- ,r - r#j ,p#j ,t -------- 7#a7 r#j ,but since the initial internal stresses before firing1 that is previous to the action of the pressure inside the bore1 should not exceed the elastic limit1#b the value of ,r will depend upon this condition4 ,footnote #b3 ,we must1 however1 remark that in a built-up hollow cylinder the compression of the metal at the surface of the bore may exceed the elastic limit4 ,this cannot occur in the case of natural stresses4 ,in a hollow cylinder which in a state of rest is free from initial stresses1 the fiber of which1 under fire1 will undergo the maximum extension1 will be that nearest to the internal surface1 and the amount of extension of all the remaining layers will decrease with the increase of the radius4 ,this extension is thus represented-- 7r#j7 7rx7 ,r 7tx7 ,p#j ------------ 4 ------------ ,r - 7r#j7 7rx7 ,therefore1 to obtain the maximum resistance in the cylinder1 the value tx of the initial stress will be determined by the difference 7,t - t'x7199need to check the prime with library or work out the equations and since ,p#j is given by ,equation 7#a71 then _/ r#j 7rx7 ,r tx ,t 7 #a - ---------- ------------- 7 7#b7 ,r#j r#j 7rx7 _/ ,the greatest value tx t#j corresponds to the surface of the bore and must be t#j -,t1 therefore r#j ,r --------------- #b r#j 7,r r#j7 whence ,p#j ,t sqrt7#b7 #a4da ,t4 ,from the whole of the preceding1 it follows that in a homogeneous cylinder under fire we can only attain simultaneous expansion of all the layers when certain relations between the radii obtain1 and on the assumption that the maximum pressure admissible in the bore does not exceed #a4da ,u4 ,equation 7#b7 may be written thus-- ,r rx - ,rr tx ,t -------- 4 ---------- 7#c7 ,r r#j 7rx7 ,substituting successively rx r#j and rx ,r1 we obtain expressions for the stresses on the external and internal radii-- ,r - r#j ,r ,r - r#j t,r ,t -------- and tr#j -,t ---- -------- ,r r#j r#j ,r r#j ,therefore1 in a homogeneous hollow cylinder1 in which the internal stresses are theoretically most advantageous1 the layer situated next to the bore must be in a state of compression1 and the amount of compression relative to the tension in the external layer is measured by the inverse ratio of the radii of these layers4 ,it is further evident that the internal stresses will obey a definite but very simple law1 namely1 there will be in the hollow cylinder a layer whose radius is sqrt7,r r#j71 in which the stress is nil2 from this layer the stresses increase toward the external and the internal radii of the cylinder1 where they attain a maximum1 being in compression in the internal layers and in tension in the external ones4 ,the internal pressures corresponding to these stresses may be found by means of very simple calculations4 ,the expression for this purpose1 reduced to its most convenient form1 is as follows3 ,r _/ ,r _/ r#j px ,t -------- 7 --- - #a 7 7 #a - ----- 7 7#d7 ,r r#j rx _/ rx _/ ,in order to represent more clearly the distribution of stresses and pressures in the metal of a homogeneous ideally perfect hollow cylinder1 let us take1 as an example1 the barrel of a #f in4 gun--#aec mm4 ,let us suppose ,t #c1jjj atmospheres2 therefore1 under the most favorable conditions1 ,p#j #a4da ,t1 or #d1bcj atmospheres4 ,from ,equation 7#a7 we determine ,r #ahd4cf mm4 ,with these data were calculated the internal stresses and the pressures from which the curve represented in ,fig4 #a is constructed4 ,the stresses developed under fire with a pressure in the bore of #d1bcj atmospheres are represented by a line parallel to the axis of the absciss1 since their value is the same throughout all the layers of metal and equal to the elastic limit1 #c1jjj atmospheres4 ,if1 previous to firing1 the metal of the tube were free from any internal stresses1 then the resistance of the tube would be ,r - r#j ,p#j ,u ----------- 1 ,r r#j or #b1aae atmospheres--that is1 one-half that in the ideally perfect cylinder4 ,from this we perceive the great advantage of developing useful initial stresses in the metal and of regulating the conditions of manufacture accordingly4 ,unless due attention be paid to such precautions1 and injurious stresses be permitted to develop themselves in the metal1 then the resistance of the cylinder will always be less than #b1aae atmospheres2 besides which1 when the initial stresses exceed a certain intensity1 the elastic limit will be exceeded1 even without the action of external pressures1 so that the bore of the gun will not be in a condition to withstand any pressure because the tensile stress due to such pressure1 and which acts tangentially to the circumference1 will increase the stress1 already excessive1 in the layers of the cylinder2 and this will occur1 notwithstanding the circumstance that the metal1 according to the indications of test pieces taken from the bore1 possessed the high elastic limit of #c1jjj atmospheres4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,in order to understand more thoroughly the difference of the law of distribution of useful internal stresses as applied to homogeneous or to built-up cylinders1 let us imagine the latter having the external and internal radii of the same length as in the first case1 but as being composed of two layers--that is to say1 made up of a tube with one hoop shrunk on under the most favorable conditions--when the internal radius of the hoop sqrt7,r v#j7 or #aah4g mm41 ,fig4 #b1 has been traced1 after calculating1 by means of the usual well known formul1 the amount of pressure exerted by the hoop on the tube1 as well as the stresses and pressures inside the tube and the hoop1 before and after firing4 ,a comparison of these curves with those on ,fig4 #a will show the difference between the internal stresses in a homogeneous and in a built-up cylinder4 ,in the case of the hooped gun1 the stresses in the layers before firing1 both in the tube and in the hoop1 diminish in intensity from the inside of the bore outward2 but this decrease is comparatively small4 ,in the first place1 the layer in which the stresses are #j when the gun is in a state of rest does not exist4 ,secondly1 under the pressure produced by the discharge1 all the layers do not acquire simultaneously a strain equal to the elastic limit4 ,only two of them1 situated on the internal radii of the tube and hoop1 reach such a stress2 whence it follows that a cylinder so constructed possesses less resistance than one which is homogeneous and at the same time endowed with ideally perfect useful initial stresses4 ,the work done by the forces acting on a homogeneous cylinder is represented by the area a b c d1 and in a built-up cylinder by the two areas a' b' c' d' and a b c d4 ,calculation shows also that the resistance of the built-up cylinder is only #c1bfb atmospheres1 or #gb per cent4 of the resistance of a homogeneous cylinder4 ,by increasing the number of layers or rows of hoops shrunk on1 while the total thickness of metal and the caliber of the gun remains the same1 we also increase the number of layers participating equally in the total resistance to the pressure in the bore1 and taking up strains which are not only equal throughout1 but are also the greatest possible4 ,we see an endeavor to realize this idea in the systems advocated by ,longridge1 ,schultz1 and others1 either by enveloping the inner tubes in numerous coils of wire1 or1 as in the later imitations of this system1 by constructing guns with a greater number of thin hoops shrunk on in the customary manner4 ,but in wire guns1 as well as in those with a larger number of hoops--from four to six rows and more--the increase in strength anticipated is acknowledged to be obtained in spite of a departure from one of the fundamental principles of the theory of hooping1 since in the majority of guns of this type the initial compression of the metal at the surface of the bore exceeds its elastic limit4#c ,we have these examples of departure from first principles1 coupled with the assumption that initial stresses do not exist in any form in the metal of the inner tube previous to the hoops having been shrunk on2 but if the tube happen to be under the influence of the most advantageous initial stresses1 and we proceed either to hoop it or to envelope it with wire1 according to the principles at present in vogue1 then1 without doubt1 we shall injure the metal of the tube2 its powers of resistance will be diminished instead of increased1 because the metal at the surface of the bore would be compressed to an amount exceeding twice its elastic limit4 ,an example of injury inflicted in this way is to be found in the method adopted for hooping cast iron tubes cast by ,rodman's process4 ,if we take into consideration the undoubted fact of the existence to a considerable extent of useful initial stresses in these tubes1 then the hoops should be put on them either with very little shrinkage or none at all1 whereas ordnance authorities everywhere have applied to this case methods which are only correct for tubes which are free from initial stresses4 ,footnote #c3 ,in certain cases this1 of course1 may be an advantage1 as1 for instance1 when the inner tube is under injurious initial stresses2 but then1 in order to be able to apply the necessary shrinkage1 we must know the magnitude of these stresses4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b ,during the process of hooping guns it is very important to know how to take into account the value and mode of distribution of the prejudicial stresses in the inner tube1 should such exist4 ,knowing these stresses1 it is possible1 by regulating the tension of the hoops1 to reduce the compression of the metal at the surface of the bore to the proper extent1 thus doing away with the previously existing tension1 and by that means removing a source of weakness in the tube4 ,in precisely the same way in the shrinkage of gun hoops attention must be paid to the character and value of the stresses which arise in the course of their manufacture2 otherwise it will be impossible to hoop the barrel throughout in a proper manner4 ,if prejudicial stresses exist in the metal of a hoop before it is put in its place1 then1 when the gun is fired1 if it had been shrunk on with the degree of tension usually allowed1 the layer situated in the internal radius will be extended beyond admissible limits1 thereby causing the resistance of the gun to be less than that prescribed4#d ,footnote #d3 ,when the inner tube is strengthened by means of wire1 the initial or natural stresses in the latter may be neglected on account of its thinness2 but when the thickness of the hoops is reduced1 and the number of layers thereby increased1 then the value of the initial stresses in these hoops is a very important factor with respect to the decrease or increase ,of the powers of resistance of the gun4 ,it is evident1 from what has been said1 that in order to determine precisely the resistance of hollow cylinders to internal pressures1 and to make the correct calculations for hooping tubes1 it is absolutely necessary to know whether internal initial stresses exist in the tube and in the hoops1 and to ascertain what their nature and intensity may be--that is to say1 whether they are useful or detrimental2 yet it is incontestable that in the construction of modern ordnance no attention has been paid to the investigations indicated4 ,if it be possible to ignore these considerations in the manufacture of guns of small caliber1 and where the thickness of metal is not sufficiently great to admit of strongly developed internal stresses1 such is by no means the case with the colossal and costly weapons of the present day4 ,in these the thickness of metal in the tube and hoops is very great2 hence the extreme probability of very considerable internal stresses developing themselves4 ,that the strength of large guns is often far below that anticipated is demonstrated1 year by year1 by the repeated cases of failure4 ,consciousness as to the want of strength in such guns is made evident by the precautionary measures as to their use everywhere adopted4 ,the heavy artillery produced in the gun factories of ,europe is constructed with all the skill1 science1 and experience which engineers and artillerists can command1 and therefore it would seem that instances of defective strength should not arise4 ,such cases1 however1 do occur everywhere1 and irresistibly give rise to the suspicion that not only is the system of construction of guns of large caliber faulty1 but also that the conditions of their manufacture must be considered as defective4 ,bearing in mind the enormous sums of money expended by every nation in order to secure an armament of completely trustworthy guns1 this question demands speedy and searching investigation4 ,the first step in this direction is the study of the internal stresses inherent in the metal2 because1 if such exist1 and are capable of attaining1 under certain conditions1 considerable magnitudes1 then it is absolutely necessary to take advantage of them in order to increase the resistance of the metal1 instead of allowing them to act to its detriment4 ,the study of natural internal stresses is of importance1 not only with reference to gun making1 but also in respect of other structures where great resistance is required4 ,all have heard of the sudden failure of crank shafts and piston rods1 of the bursting of boiler shells and tubes1 of the breaking of tires1 etc4 ,in the majority of cases the investigations into the causes of such sudden failures have not led to any definite results4 ,it has usually been found that the metal possessed a satisfactory elastic resistance1 and satisfied all the conditions set down in the specifications4 ,had attention been paid during these investigations to the state of the internal stresses in the metal1 the cause of unlooked-for accidents might have been explained1 and steps would consequently have been taken to avoid them in future4 ,we are also familiar with the development of considerable internal stresses in various kinds of steel articles which are subjected to hardening and tempering2 for example1 as dies1 tools of various description1 sword blades1 and thin plates rolled at a low temperature or subjected to cold hammering4 ,in the foundry the appearance of internal stresses is of still more frequent occurrence4 ,the neglect of certain practical rules in casting1 and during the subsequent cooling1 leads to the spontaneous breakage of castings after a few hours or days1 although taken out of the sand apparently perfectly sound4 ,projectiles for penetrating armor plate1 and made of cast steel1 as well as shells which have been forged and hardened1 and in which the metal possessed an ultimate resistance of over twelve thousand 7#ab1jjj7 atmospheres1 with an elastic limit of more than six or seven thousand atmospheres1 will crack to a serious extent1 and even break up in the lathe1 while the recess for the copper ring is being turned out4 ,in shell of this nature1 as well as in chilled cast iron shell1 the heads are apt to fly off spontaneously either while they are lying in store or during transport4 ,such phenomena1 it seems to me1 demonstrate the existence of internal stresses of considerable magnitude in the metal of the projectiles1 and it is highly probable that the manufacture of many articles would have approached nearer to perfection had more attention been bestowed upon the study of the internal stresses which they were liable to4 ,having thus explained the nature and importance of the subject1 ,i will proceed to describe the experiments which ,i have made with a view to its illustration4--,london ,engineer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,elements ,,of ,,architectural ,,design4#a ,footnote #a3 ,delivered before the ,society of ,arts1 ,london1 ,november #bh1 #ahhg4 ,from the ,journal of the ,society4 ,,by ,h4,h4 ,,statham4 ,,lecture ,i4 ,judging from the nature of the correspondence on architecture and the duty of architects which is frequently seen in the columns of the daily papers1 the ,times especially1 it would seem that the popular notion of architecture now is that it is a study mainly of things connected with sanitary engineering--of the best forms of drain pipes and intercepting traps4 ,this is indeed a very important part of sound building1 and it is one that has been very much neglected1 and has been1 in fact1 in a comparatively primitive state until very recent times2 and therefore it is not surprising that there should be a reaction in regard to it1 and that newspapers which follow every movement of public opinion1 and try to keep pace with it1 should speak as if the drain pipe were the true foundation of architecture4 ,i have a great respect for the drain pipe1 and wish to see it as well laid and intercepted as possible2 but ,i think1 for all that1 that there is something in architecture higher than sanitary engineering4 ,i wish to consider it in these lectures as what ,i think it essentially is1 what it has evidently been in the eyes of all those of past days who have produced what we now regard as great architectural monuments1 namely1 as an intellectual art1 the object of which is to so treat the buildings which we are obliged to raise for shelter and convenience as to render them objects of interest and beauty1 and not mere utilitarian floors1 walls1 and roofs to shelter a race who care nothing for beauty1 and who only want to have their physical comfort provided for4 ,architecture1 then1 from the point of view from which ,i am asking you to regard it--and the only point of view in which it is worth the serious regard of thoughtful people--is the art of erecting expressive and beautiful buildings4 ,i say expressive and beautiful1 and ,i put expressive first1 because it is the characteristic which we can at least realize even when we cannot realize what can fairly be called beauty1 and it is the characteristic which comes first in the order of things4 ,a building may be expressive and thereby have interest1 without rising into beauty2 but it can never be1 architecturally speaking1 beautiful unless it has expression4 ,and what do we mean by expression in a building8 ,that brings us to the very pith of the matter4 ,we know pretty well what we mean when we say that a painted or sculptured figure is expressive4 ,we mean that1 while correctly representing the structure of the human figure1 it also conveys to our minds a distinct idea of a special emotion or sentiment1 such as human beings are capable of feeling and expressing by looks and actions4 ,expression in this sense a building cannot be said to have4 ,it is incapable of emotion1 and it has no mobility of surface or feature4 ,yet ,i think we shall see that it is capable of expression in more senses than one4 ,it may1 in the first place1 express or reflect the emotion of those who designed it1 or it may express the facts of its own internal structure and arrangement4 ,the former1 however1 can only1 ,i think1 be said to be realized in the case of architecture of the highest class1 and when taken collectively as a typical style4 ,for instance1 we can all pretty well agree that the medival cathedral expresses an emotion of aspiration on the part of its builders4 ,the age that built the cathedrals longed to soar in some way1 and this was the way then open to it1 and it sent up its soul in spreading vaults1 and in pinnacles and spires4 ,so also we can never look at ,greek architecture without seeing in it the reflection of a nature refined1 precise1 and critical2 loving grace and finish1 but content to live with the graces and the muses without any aspirations that spurned this earth4 ,we can hardly go further than this in attributing emotional expression to architecture4 ,but in a more restricted sense of the word expression1 a building may express very definitely its main constructive facts1 its plan and arrangement1 to a certain extent even its purpose1 so far at least that we may be able to identify the class of structure to which it belongs4 ,it not only may1 but it ought to do this1 unless the architecture is to be a mere ornamental screen for concealing the prosaic facts of the structure4 ,there is a good deal of architecture in the world which is in fact of this kind--an ornamental screen unconnected with the constructional arrangement of the building4 ,nor is such architecture to be entirely scouted4 ,it may be a very charming piece of scenery in itself1 and you may even make a very good theoretical defense for it1 from a certain point of view4 ,but on the whole1 architecture on that principle becomes uninteresting4 ,you very soon tire of it4 ,it is a mask rather than a countenance1 and tends to the production of a dull uniformity of conventional design4 ,for we must remember that architecture1 although a form of artistic expression1 is not1 like painting and sculpture1 unfettered by practical considerations4 ,it is an art inextricably bound up with structural conditions and practical requirements4 ,a building is erected first for convenience and shelter2 secondly only for appearance1 except in the case of such works as monuments1 triumphal arches1 etc41 which represent architectural effect pure and simple1 uncontrolled by practical requirements4 ,with such exceptions1 therefore1 a building ought to express in its external design its internal planning and arrangement2 in other words1 the architectural design should arise out of the plan and disposition of the interior1 or be carried on concurrently with it1 not designed as a separate problem4 ,then a design is dependent on structural conditions also1 and if these are not observed1 the building does not stand1 and hence it is obvious that the architectural design must express these structural conditions4 ,it must not appear to stand or be constructed in a way in which it could not stand 7like the modern shops which are supposed to stand on sheets of plate glass71 and its whole exterior appearance ought to be in accordance with1 and convey the idea of1 the manner and principle on which it is constructed4 ,the most important portions of the interior must be shown as such externally by the greater elaboration and emphasis of their architectural treatment4 ,if the general arrangement of the plan is symmetrical1 on either side of a center 7which1 however1 it cannot often be except in the largest type of monumental or public buildings71 the architectural treatment must be symmetrical4 ,if the building is necessarily arranged1 in accordance with the requirements of the plan1 unsymmetrically1 the architectural treatment must follow suit1 and the same principle must be carried out through all the details4 ,now this dependence of architectural design upon plan and construction is one of the conditions which is often overlooked by amateurs in forming a judgment upon architectural design2 and the overlooking of this is one reason of the uncertainty of opinion about architecture as compared with such arts as sculpture and painting4 ,few people know or care much about the structure and planning of buildings except those whose business it is to care about this2 and consequently they do not realize what it is which they should look for in the architectural design4 ,they like it or do not like it1 and they regard this as what is called a mere question of taste1 which1 according to the proverb1 is not to be disputed about4 ,in fact1 however1 the good or bad taste of an architectural design1 say1 if you like1 its correctness or incorrectness1 is to a considerable extent a matter of logical reasoning1 of which you must accurately know the premises before you can form a just conclusion4 ,but there is another reason for this prevalent uncertainty and vagueness of opinion1 arising out of the very nature of architectural art itself1 as compared with the imitative arts4 ,a painting of a figure on a landscape is primarily a direct imitation of the physical facts of nature4 ,i do not for a moment say it is only that1 for there is far more involved in painting than the imitation of nature2 but the immediate reference to nature does give a standard of comparison which to a certain extent every eye can appreciate4 ,but architecture is not an art which imitates natural forms at all1 except as minor decorations1 and it then does so1 or should do so1 only in a conventionalized manner1 for reasons which we shall consider later on4 ,architecture is1 like music1 a metaphysical art4 ,it deals with the abstract qualities of proportion1 balance of form1 and direction of line1 but without any imitation of the concrete facts of nature4 ,the comparison between architecture and music is an exercise of the fancy which may indeed be pushed too far1 but there is really a definite similarity between them which it is useful to notice4 ,for instance1 the regular rhythm1 or succession of accentuated points in equal times1 which plays so important a part in musical form1 is discernible in architecture as a rhythm in space4 ,we may treat a cottage type of design1 no doubt1 with a playful irregularity1 especially if this follows and is suggested by an irregularity1 of plan4 ,but in architecture on a grand scale1 whether it be in a ,greek colonnade or a ,gothic arcade1 we cannot tolerate irregularity of spacing except where some constructive necessity affords an obvious and higher reason for it4 ,then1 again1 we find the unwritten law running throughout all architecture that a progress of line in one direction requires to be stopped in a marked and distinct manner when it has run its course1 and we find a similarly felt necessity in regard to musical form4 ,the repetition so common at the close of a piece of music of the same chord several times in succession is exactly analogous to the repetition of cross lines at the necking of a ,doric column to stop the vertical lines of the fluting1 or to the strongly marked horizontal lines of a cornice which form the termination of the height or upward progress of an architectural design4 ,the analogy is here very close4 ,a less close analogy may also be felt between an architectural and a musical composition regarded as a whole4 ,a fugue of ,bach's is really a built-up structure of tones 7as ,browning has so finely put it in his poem1 ,abt ,vogler71 in accordance with certain ideas of relation and proportion1 just as a temple or a cathedral is a built-up structure of lines and spaces in accordance with ideas of relation and proportion4 ,both appeal to the same sense of proportion and construction in the brain2 the one through the ear1 the other through the eye4 ,then1 in regard to architecture again1 we have further limiting conditions arising not only out of the principle of construction employed1 but out of the physical properties of the very material we employ4 ,a treatment that is suitable and expressive for a stone construction is quite unsuitable for a timber construction4 ,details which are effective and permanent in marble are ineffective and perishable in stone1 and so2 on and the outcome of all this is that all architectural design has to be judged1 not by any easy and ready reference to exterior physical nature1 with which it has nothing to do1 but by a process of logical reasoning as to the relation of the design to the practical conditions1 first1 which are its basis1 and as to the relation of the parts to each other4 ,of course beyond all this there is in architecture1 as in music1 something which defies analysis1 which appeals to our sense of delight we know not how or why1 and probably we do not want to know2 the charm might be dissolved if we did4 ,but up to this point architectural design and expression are based on reasoning from certain premises4 ,the design is good or bad as it recognizes or ignores the logic of the case1 and the criticism of it must rest on a similar basis4 ,it is a matter of thought in both cases1 and without thought it can neither be designed nor appreciated to any purpose1 and this is the leading idea which ,i wish to urge and to illustrate in these lectures4 ,you may say3 ,may not a design satisfy all these logical conditions1 and yet be cold and uninteresting1 and give one no pleasure8 ,certainly it may4 ,indeed1 we referred just now to that last element of beauty which is beyond analysis4 ,but1 if we cannot analyze the result1 ,i rather think we can express what it is which the designer must evince1 beyond clear reasoning1 to give the highest interest to his architecture4 ,he must have taken an interest in it himself4 ,that seems a little thing to say1 but much lies in it4 ,as ,matthew ,arnold has said of poetry3 ,what poets feel not1 when they make ,a pleasure in creating1 ,the world1 in its turn1 will not take ,pleasure in contemplating4 ,the truth runs through all art4 ,there are1 alas1 so many people who do not seem to have the faculty of taking pleasure1 and there is so much architecture about our streets which it is impossible to suppose any one took pleasure in creating4 ,when a feature is put into a design1 not because the designer liked it1 but because it is the usual thing and it saves trouble1 it always proclaims that melancholy truth4 ,but where something is designed because the designer liked doing it1 and was trying to please his own fancy instead of copying what a hundred other men have done before1 it will go hard but he will give some pleasure to the spectator4 ,it is from this blessed faculty that a design becomes inspired with what is best described as character4 ,it is not the same thing as style4 ,i have something to say in my next lecture as to what ,i think style means1 but it is certain that a building may have style and yet want character1 and it may have a good deal of character and yet be faulty or contradictory in style4 ,we cannot define character1 but when we feel that it is present we may rely upon it that it is because the designer took interest and pleasure in his work1 was not doing it merely scholastically--in short1 he put something of his own character into it1 which means that he had some to put4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #a through #c ,now1 coming back to the axiom before mentioned1 that architectural design should express and emphasize the practical requirements and physical conditions of the building1 let us look a little more in detail into the manner in which this may be done4 ,we will take1 to begin with1 the very simplest structure we can possibly build--a plain wall 7,fig4 #a74b ,here there is no expression at all2 only stones piled one on another1 with sufficient care in coursing and jointing to give stability to the structure4 ,it is better for the wall1 constructively1 however1 that it should have a wider base1 to give it more solidity of foundation1 and that the coping should project beyond the face of the wall1 in order to throw the rain off1 and these two requirements may be treated so as to give architectural expression to our work 7,fig4 #b74 ,it now consists of three distinct portions--a plinth1 or base1 a superficies of wall1 and a coping4 ,we will mark the thickening at the base by a moulding1 which will give a few horizontal lines 7at ,b71 and the coping in the same way4 ,the moulding of the coping must also be so designed as to have a hollow throating1 which will act as a drip1 to keep the rain from running round the under side of the coping and down the wall4 ,we may then break up the superficies by inserting a band of single ornament in one course of this portion of the wall--not half way1 for to divide any portion of a building into mere halves has usually a weak and monotonous effect1 but about two thirds of the distance from the base line2 and this band of ornament not only breaks up the plain surface a little1 but also1 by carrying another horizontal line along the wall1 emphasizes its horizontality4 ,always emphasize that which is the essential characteristic of your structure4 ,a wall of this kind is essentially a long horizontal boundary4 ,emphasize its length and horizontality4 ,footnote #b3 ,the dark shaded portion in this and the next two diagrams show the section of the wall as seen if we cut it through and look at it endwise4 ,if we are millionaires1 and can afford to spend a great deal on a wall1 we may not only 7,fig4 #c7 carry further the treatment of the coping and base1 by giving them ornamental adjuncts as well as mouldings1 but we might treat the whole wall superficies as a space for surface carving1 not mechanically repeated1 but with continual variation of every portion1 so as to render our wall a matter of interest and beauty while retaining all its usefulness as a boundary1 observing that such surface ornament should be designed so as to fulfill a double object3 #a1 to give general relief to the surface of the wall2 #b1 to afford matter of interest to the eye on close inspection and in detail4 ,that is the double function of nearly all architectural ornament4 ,it is1 in the first place1 to aid the general expression and balance of the building1 and give point and emphasis where needed2 and1 in the second place1 to furnish something to the eye for study on its own account when viewed more closely4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #d through #i ,we will take another typical and simple erection1 a stone pillar to support the ends of two lintels or beams4 ,this may be simply a long squared piece set on end 7,fig4 #d71 and will perform its constructive functions perfectly well in that form2 but it is not only absolutely expressionless1 but is in one sense clumsy and inconvenient1 as taking up more space than need be1 presenting an unwieldy-looking mass when viewed at an angle1 and shutting out a good deal of light 7if that happen to be a matter of practical consequence in the case74 ,cutting off the angles 7,fig4 #e7 does not weaken it much1 and renders it much less unwieldy-looking1 besides giving it a certain degree of verticality of expression1 and rendering it more convenient as taking up less room and obstructing less light4 ,but though the column is quite strong enough1 the octagonal top does not make so good a seat or bearing for the ends of the lintels4 ,we will therefore put a flat square stone on the top of it 7,fig4 #f71 which will serve as a bed for the lintels to rest on securely4 ,but the angles of this bed plate1 where they project beyond the face of the column1 appear rather weak1 and are so actually to some extent--a double defect1 for it is not enough in architecture that a thing should be strong enough1 it is necessary that it should appear so1 architecture having to do with expression as well as with fact4 ,we will1 therefore1 strengthen this projecting angle1 and correct the abruptness of transition between the column and the bed plate1 by brackets 7,fig4 #g7 projecting from the alternate faces of the column to the angles of the bed plates4 ,as this rather emphasizes four planes of the octagon column at the expense of the other four1 we will bind the whole together just under the brackets by a thin band of ornament constituting a necking1 and thus we have something like a capital developed1 a definitely designed finish to our column1 expressive of its purpose4 ,this treatment of the upper end1 however1 would make the lower end rising abruptly from the ground seem very bare4 ,we will accordingly emphasize the base of the column1 just as we emphasized the base of the wall1 by a projecting moulding1 not only giving expression to this connection of the column with the ground1 but also giving it the appearance1 and to some extent the reality1 of greater stability1 by giving it a wider and more spreading base to rest on4 ,we have here still left the lines of one column vertically parallel1 and there is no constructive reason why they should not remain so4 ,there is1 however1 a general impression to the eye both of greater stability and more grace arising from a slight diminution upward4 ,it is difficult to account for this on any metaphysical principle1 but the fact has been felt by most nations which have used a columnar architecture1 and we will accept it and diminute 7so to speak7 our column 7,fig4 #h74 ,we have here taken a further step by treating the shaft of the column in two heights1 keeping the lower portion octagonal and reducing the upper portion to a circle1 and we now find it easier to treat the capital so as to have a direct and complete connection with the column1 the capital being here merely a spreading out of the column into a bracket form all round1 running it into the square of the bed plate4#c ,the spreading portion is emphasized by surface ornament1 and the necking is again emphasized1 this time more decisively1 by a moulding1 forming a series of parallel rings round the column4 ,if we wish to give our column an expression of more grace and elegance1 we can further reduce the thickness of it 7,fig4 #i71 and give more spread to the capital1 always taking care to be sure that the strength of the column is not reduced below what the weight which it has to carry requires4 ,in this case a bracket is shown above the capital1 projecting longitudinally only 7in the direction of the lintel bearing71 a method of giving a larger bearing surface for the ends of the lintels1 shortening their actual bearing#d 7in other words1 widening the space which can be bridged between column and column7 and giving a workmanlike appearance of stability to the construction at this point4 ,the idea of the division of the column into two sections1 suggested in ,fig4 #h1 is kept up in ,fig4 #i by treating the lower portion up to the same height with incised decorative carving4 ,the dotted lines on each side in ,fig4 #i give the outline of the original square column as shown in ,fig4 #d4 ,the finished column was within that block2 it is the business of the architectural designer to get it out4#e ,footnote #c3 ,this is the feature called abacus 7i4e41 tile7 in ,greek architecture1 but ,i am here considering it apart from any special style or nomenclature4 ,footnote #d3 ,bearing1 in building language1 is used in a double sense1 for the distance between the points of support1 and the extent to which the beam rests on the walls4 ,thus a beam which extends #bj feet between the points of support is a beam of #bj feet bearing4 ,if the beam is #bb feet long1 so that #a foot rests on the walls at each end1 it has #a foot bearing on the wall4 ,footnote #e3 ,none of the forms of column sketched here have any existence in reality4 ,they are purposely kept apart from imitation of accepted forms to get rid of the idea that architecture consists in the acceptance of any particular form sanctioned by precedent4 ,let us see if we can apply the same kind of process of evolving expression in regard to a building4 ,we will take again the very simplest form of building 7,fig4 #aj71 a square house with a door in the center and uniform rows of windows4 ,there cannot be said to be any architectural expression in this4 ,there is no base or plinth at all1 no treatment of the wall4 ,the slight projection at the eaves is only what is necessary to keep the rain from running down the walls1 and facilitate the emptying of the gutters1 and the even spacing of the windows is essential for constructive reasons1 to keep the masses of wall over each other1 and keep the whole in a state of equally balanced pressure4 ,the first thing we should do in endeavoring to give some expression to the building would be to give it a base or plinth 7,fig4 #aa71 and to mark that and the cornice a little more decidedly by mouldings and a line of paneling at the plinth4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #aj and #aa ,the house being obviously in three stories1 we should give it some echo externally of this division into horizontal stages by horizontal mouldings1 or what are called in architectural phraseology string courses1 not necessarily exactly at the floor levels1 but so as to convey the idea of horizontal division2 observing here1 as in the case of the wall and column1 that we should take care not to divide the height into equal parts1 which is very expressionless4 ,in this case we will keep the lower string close down on the ground floor windows1 and keep these rather low1 thus showing that the ground floor apartments are not the most important2 while the fact that the first floor ones are so is conversely made apparent by keeping these windows rather higher1 putting a double string course over them1 and a slight extra depth of moulding1 forming a kind of cornice over each4 ,the space left between these and the roof1 in which the attic windows are placed1 is treated with a series of mullions and panelings1 into which the attic windows are worked1 as part of the series of openings2 this gives a little richness of effect to the top story1 and a continuity of treatment1 which binds the whole series of windows together4 ,to have treated the whole of the walls and windows in this way would have been merely throwing away labor2 what little effect it has consists in the character given by the contrast of this top story treatment with the plain wall surfaces below4 ,the last thing is to emphasize the door1 as the principal opening in the walls1 and quite distinct in use and meaning from the other openings1 by giving it a little architectural frame or setting1 which may be done in many ways1 but in this case is done by the old fashioned device 7not very logical certainly7 of putting a little entablature over it1 and a column on either side2 there is1 however1 this to be said for it1 that the projecting tablature forms a semi-porch1 protecting those at the door somewhat from rain2 it must be carried in some way1 and columns are the readiest and most seemly manner of doing it1 and they also form1 practically1 something of a weather screen2 the bases on which they stand also form a framework or inclosing wall for the steps1 which are thus made part of the architectural design1 instead of standing out as an eyesore1 as on ,fig4 #aj4 ,we have now given the house a little general expression1 but it still is vague in its design as far as regards the distribution of the interior2 we do not know whether the first floor1 for instance1 is one large room1 or two or more rooms1 or how they are divided2 and the little house is very square and prim in effect4 ,let us try grouping the windows a little1 and at the same time breaking up the flat surface of the front wall 7,fig4 #ab74 ,here1 as before1 we have divided the building by a horizontal string1 but only by one main one on the first floor level1 keeping the same contrast1 however1 between a richer portion above and a plainer portion below2 we have divided the building vertically1 also1 by two projecting bays finishing in gables1 thus breaking also the skyline of the roof1 and giving it a little picturesqueness1 and we have grouped the windows1 instead of leaving them as so many holes in the wall at equal distances4 ,the contrast between the ground and first floor windows is more emphatic2 and it is now the more evident that the upper floor rooms are the best apartments1 from their ample windows2 it is also pretty evident that the first floor is divided into two main rooms with large bay windows1 and a smaller room or a staircase window1 between them2 the second floor windows are also shifted up higher1 the two principal ones going in to the gables1 showing that the rooms below them have been raised in height4 ,windows carried up the full height of these rooms1 however1 might be too large either for repose internally or for appearance externally1 so the wall intervening between the top of these and the sill of the gables is a good field for some decorative treatment1 confined to the bays1 so as to assist in separating them from the straight wall which forms the background to them4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab ,so far we have treated our building only as a private house4 ,without altering its general scale and shape we may suggest something entirely different from a private house4 ,on ,fig4 #ac1 we have tried to give a municipal appearance to it1 as if it were the guild hall of a small country town4 ,the plain basement and the wide principal doorway1 and the row of three very large equal-spaced windows above1 render it unquestionable that this is a building with a low ground story1 and one large room above4 ,a certain public building effect is given to it by the large and enriched cornice with balustrade above and paneling below1 and by the accentuation of the angles by projecting piers1 and by the turrets over them1 which give it quite a different character from that of a private house4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac ,if1 on the other hand1 the building were the free library and reading room of the same small country town1 we should have little doubt of this if we saw it as in ,fig4 #ad1 with the walls all blank 7showing that they are wanted for ranging something against1 and cannot be pierced for windows71 and windows only in the upper portion4 ,similarly1 if we want to build it as the country bank1 we should have to put the large windows on the ground floor1 bank clerks wanting plenty of light1 and the ground story being always the principal one2 and we might indulge the humor of giving it a grim fortress-like strength by a rusticated plinth 7i4e41 stones left or worked rough and rock-like7 and by very massive piers between the windows1 and a heavy cornice over them2 the residential upper floor forming a low story subordinate to the bank story4 ,it is true this would not satisfy a banker1 who always wants classic pilasters stuck against the walls1 that being his hereditary idea of bank expression in architecture4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #ad and #ae ,now if we proceed to take to pieces the idea of architectural design1 and consider wherein the problem of it consists1 we shall find that it falls into a fourfold shape4 ,it consists first in arranging the plan2 secondly1 in carrying up the boundary lines of this plan vertically in the shape of walls2 thirdly1 in the method of covering in the space which we have thus defined and inclosed2 and1 fourthly1 in the details of ornamentation which give to it the last and concluding grace and finish4 ,all building1 when it gets beyond the mere wall with which we began1 is really a method of covering in a space1 or1 if we may put it so1 a collection of spaces1 marked out and arranged for certain purposes4 ,the first thing that the architect has to do is to arrange these spaces on the ground so that they may conveniently meet the necessary requirements of the building4 ,convenience and practical usefulness come first2 but in any building which is worth the name of architecture something more than mere convenience has to be kept in mind1 even in the arrangement of the plan upon the site4 ,it is to be a combination of convenience with effectiveness of arrangement4 ,we shall probably find that some one compartment of the plan is of paramount importance4 ,we have to arrange the interior so that this most important compartment shall be the climax of the plan4 ,the entrance and the other subsidiary compartments must be kept subordinate to it1 and must lead up to it in such a manner that the spectator shall be led by a natural gradation from the subsidiary compartments up to the main one1 which is the center and raison d'etre of the whole--everything in the lines of the plan should point to that4 ,this is the great crux in the planning of complicated public buildings4 ,a visitor to such a building1 unacquainted with it previously1 ought to have no difficulty in finding out from the disposition of the interior which are the main lines of route1 and when he is on the line leading him up to the central feature of the plan4 ,there are public buildings to be found arranged on what may be called the rabbit warren system1 in which perhaps a great number of apartments are got upon the ground1 but which the visitor is obliged laboriously to learn before he can find his way about them4 ,that is not only inconvenient but inartistic planning1 and shows a want of logic and consideration1 and1 in addition to this1 a want of feeling for artistic effect4 ,i saw not long ago1 for instance1 in a set of competitive designs for an important public building1 a design exhibiting a great deal of grace and elegance in the exterior architectural embellishment1 but in which the principal entrance led right up to a blank wall facing the entrance1 and the spectator had to turn aside to the left and then to the right before finding himself on the principal axis of the plan4 ,that is what ,i should call inartistic or unarchitectural planning4 ,the building may be just as convenient when you once know its dodges1 but it does not appear so1 and it loses the great effect of direct vista and climax4 ,an able architect1 who had given much thought to a plan of a large building of this kind1 said to me1 in showing me his plan1 with a justifiable gratification in it1 ,it has cost me endless trouble1 but it is a satisfaction to feel that you have got a plan with backbone in it4 ,that is a very good expression of what is required in planning a complicated building1 but few outsiders have any notion of the amount of thought and contrivance which goes to the production of a plan with backbone2 a plan in which all the subordinate and merely practical departments shall be in the most convenient position in regard to each other1 and yet shall all appear as if symmetrically and naturally subordinate to the central and leading feature2 and if the public had a little more idea what is the difficulty of producing such a plan1 they would perhaps do a little more justice to the labors of the man who contrives the plan1 which they think such an easy business2 and no doubt it may appear an easy business1 because the very characteristic of a really good plan is that it should appear as if it were quite a natural and almost inevitable arrangement4 ,just as it is said in regard to literature that easy writing is hard reading1 so1 in regard to planning1 it is the complicated and rabbit warren plans that are the easiest to make1 because it is just doing what you please2 it is the apparently perfectly simple and natural plan which springs from thought and contrivance4 ,then there is the next step of raising the walls on the plan1 and giving them architectural expression4 ,this must not be thought of as an entirely separate problem1 for no truly architectural intellect will ever arrange a plan without seeing generally1 in his mind's eye1 the superstructure which he intends to rear upon it2 but the detailed treatment of this forms a separate branch of the design4 ,then comes the third and very important problem--the covering in of the space4 ,next to the plan1 this is the most important4 ,all building is the covering over of a space1 and the method of covering it over must be foreseen and provided for from the outset4 ,it largely influences the arrangement of the plan4 ,if there were no roofing1 you could arrange the walls and carry them up pretty much as you chose1 but the roofing of a large space is another matter4 ,it requires extra strength at certain points1 where the weight of the roof is concentrated1 and it has to be determined whether you will employ a method of roofing which exercises only a vertical pressure on the walls1 like the lid of a box1 or one which1 like an arch1 or a vault1 or a dome1 is abutting against the walls1 and requires counterforts to resist the outward thrust of the roof4 ,we shall come upon this subject of the influence of the roof on the design of the substructure more in detail later on4 ,then1 if the plan is convenient and effective1 the walls carried up with the architectural expression arising from the placing and grouping of the openings1 and the proper emphasizing of the base and the cornice1 and the horizontal stages 7if any7 of the structure1 and the roof firmly and scientifically seated on the walls2 after all these main portions of the structure are designed logically and in accordance with one another and with the leading idea of the building1 then the finishing touches of expression and interest are given by well designed and effective ornamental detail4 ,here the designer may indulge his fancy as he pleases1 as far as the nature of the design is concerned1 but not1 if you please1 as far as its position and distribution are concerned4 ,there the logic of architecture still pursues us4 ,we may not place ornament anywhere at haphazard on a building simply because it looks pretty4 ,at least1 to do so is to throw away great part of its value4 ,for everything in architectural design is relative2 it is to be considered in relation to the expression and design of the whole1 and ornament is to be placed where it will emphasize certain points or certain features of the building4 ,it must form a part of the grouping of the whole1 and be all referable to a central and predominating idea4 ,a building so planned1 built1 and decorated becomes1 in fact1 what all architecture--what every artistic design in fact should be--an organized whole1 of which every part has its relation to the rest1 and from which no feature can be removed without impairing the unity and consistency of the design4 ,you may have a very good1 even an expressive1 building with no ornament at all if you like1 but you may not have misplaced ornament4 ,that is only an excrescence on the design1 not an organic portion of it4 ,i have thought that it would be of use to those who are unacquainted with architectural procedure in delineating architecture by geometrical drawings if ,i took the opportunity of illustrating very briefly the philosophy of elevations1 plans1 and sections1 which many non-professional people certainly do not understand4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #af through #be ,a simple model of a building1 like that in ,fig4 #af1 will serve the purpose1 as the principle is the same in the most complicated as in the simplest building4 ,it must be remembered that the object of architectural drawings on the geometrical system is not to show a picture of the building1 but to enable the designer to put together his design accurately in all its parts1 according to scale1 and to convey intelligible and precise information to those who have to erect the building4 ,a perspective drawing like ,fig4 #af is of no use for this purpose4 ,it shows generally what the design is1 but it is impossible to ascertain the size of any part by scale from it1 except that if the length of one line were given it would be possible1 by a long process of projection and calculation1 to ascertain the other sizes4 ,the rationale of the architect's geometrical drawings is that on them each plane of the building 7the front1 the side1 the plan1 etc47 is shown separately and without any distortion by perspective1 and in such a manner that every portion is supposed to be opposite to the eye at once4 ,only the width of any object on one side can be shown in this way at one view2 for the width of the return side you have to look to another drawing2 you must compare the drawings in order to find out those relative proportions which the perspective view indicates to the eye at a glance2 but each portion of each side can be measured by reference to a scale1 and its precise size obtained1 which can only be guessed at roughly from the perspective drawing4 ,thus the side of the model is shown in ,fig4 #ai1 the end in ,fig4 #ag2 the two together give the precise size and proportions of everything outside to scale1 except the projection of the pilasters4 ,this has to be got at from the plan and section4 ,everything being drawn on one plane1 of course surfaces which are sloping on one elevation are represented as flat in the other4 ,for instance1 on ,no4 #ag the raking line of the sloping roof is shown at ,n4 ,so we know the slope of the roof1 but we do not know to what length it extends the other way4 ,this is shown on ,fig4 #ai1 where the portion showing the roof is also marked ,n1 and it will be seen that the surface which is sloping in ,fig4 #ag is seen in the side elevation only as a space between a top and bottom line4 ,we see the length of the roof here1 and its height1 but for its slope we go to the end elevation4 ,neither elevation tells us1 however1 what is inside the building2 but the section 7,fig4 #ah7 shows us that it has an arched ceiling1 and two stories1 a lower and a higher one4 ,the section is the building cut in half1 showing the end of the walls1 the height and depth of the window openings1 the thickness of the floor1 etc41 and as all parts which are opposite the eye are shown in the drawing1 the inside of the cross wall at the end of the building is shown as a part of the section drawing1 between the sectional walls4 ,in ,fig4 #bc the section is sketched in perspective1 to show more clearly what it means4 ,another section is made lengthwise of the building 7,fig4 #bj74 ,it is customary to indicate on the plan by dotted lines the portion through which the section is supposed to be made4 ,thus on the plans the lines ,a ,b and ,c ,d are drawn1 and the corresponding sections are labeled with the same lines4 ,as with the elevation1 one section must be compared with another to get the full information from them4 ,thus in ,fig4 #ah1 the ceiling1 ,m1 is shown as a semicircle2 in ,fig4 #bj1 it is only a space between the top and bottom lines4 ,it is1 certainly1 shaded here to give the effect of rotundity1 but that is quite a superfluity4 ,on ,fig4 #ah the height of the side windows is shown at ,f1 and the thickness of the wall in which they are made4 ,in ,fig4 #bj 7,f7 their width and spacing are shown4 ,in ,fig4 #ah some lines drawn across1 one over the other1 are shown at ,h4 ,these are the stairs1 of which in this section we see only the fronts1 or risers1 so that they appear merely as lines 7showing the edge of each step7 drawn one over the other4 ,at ,h on the plan1 ,fig4 #ba1 we again see them represented as a series of lines1 but here we are looking down on the top of them1 and see only the upper surfaces1 or treads1 the edges again appearing as a series of lines4 ,at ,h on the longitudinal section1 we see the same steps in section1 and consequently their actual slope1 which1 however1 could have been calculated from ,figs4 #ah and #ba1 by putting the heights shown in section with the width shown in plan4 ,the plan1 ,fig4 #ba1 shows the thickness and position on the floor of the pillars1 ,g ,g4 ,their height is shown in the sections4 ,the plan of a building is merely a horizontal section1 cutting off the top1 and looking down on the sectional top of the walls1 so as to see all their thicknesses4 ,i have drawn 7,fig4 #bd7 a perspective sketch of one end of the plan 7,fig4 #bb7 of the building1 on the same principle as was done with the section 7,fig4 #bc71 in order to show more intelligibly exactly what it is that a plan represents--the building with the upper part lifted off4 ,returning for a moment to the subject of the relation between the plan and the exterior design1 it should be noted that the plan of a building being practically the first consideration1 and the basis of the whole design1 the latter should be in accordance with the principle of disposition of the plan4 ,for example1 if we have an elevation 7shown in diagram7 showing two wings of similar design on either side of a center1 designed so as to convey the idea of a grand gallery1 with a suite of apartments on either side of similar importance--if the one side only of the plan contains such a suite1 and the opposite side is in reality divided up into small and inferior rooms1 filled in as well as may be behind the architectural design--the whole design is in that case only a blind or screen1 giving a false exterior symmetry to a building which is not so planned4 ,this is an extreme case 7or might be called so if it were not actually of pretty frequent occurrence72 but it illustrates in a broad sense a principle which must be carried out in all cases1 if the architecture is to be a real expression of the facts of the building4 ,in this lecture1 which is concerned with general principles1 a word may fittingly be said as to the subject of proportion1 concerning which there are many misapprehensions4 ,the word may be1 and is1 used in two senses1 first in regard to the general idea suggested in the words a well proportioned building4 ,this expression1 often vaguely used1 seems to signify a building in which the balance of parts is such as to produce an agreeable impression of completeness and repose4 ,there is a curious kind of popular fallacy in regard to this subject1 illustrated in the remark which used to be often made about ,st4 ,peter's1 that it is so well proportioned that you are not aware of its great size1 etc4--a criticism which has been slain over and over again1 but continues to come to life again4 ,the fact that this building does not show its size is true4 ,but the inference drawn is the very reverse of the truth4 ,one object in architectural design is to give full value to the size of a building1 even to magnify its apparent size2 and ,st4 ,peter's does not show its size1 because it is ill proportioned1 being merely like a smaller building1 with all its parts magnified4 ,hence the deception to the eye1 which sees details which it is accustomed to see on a smaller scale1 and underrates their actual size1 which is only to be ascertained by deliberate investigation4 ,this confusion as to scale is a weakness inherent in the classical forms of columnar architecture1 in which the scale of all the parts is always in the same proportion to each other and to the total size of the building so that a large ,doric temple is in most respects only a small one magnified4 ,in ,gothic architecture the scale is the human figure1 and a larger building is treated1 not by magnifying its parts1 but by multiplying them4 ,had this procedure been adopted in the case of ,st4 ,peter's1 instead of merely treating it with a columnar order of vast size1 with all its details magnified in proportion1 we should not have the fault to find with it that it does not produce the effect of its real size4 ,in another sense1 the word proportion in architecture refers to the system of designing buildings on some definite geometrical system of regulating the sizes of the different parts4 ,the ,greeks certainly employed such a system1 though there are not sufficient data for us to judge exactly on what principle it was worked out4 ,in regard to the ,parthenon1 and some other ,greek buildings1 ,mr4 ,watkiss ,lloyd has worked out a very probable theory1 which will be found stated in a paper in the ,transactions of the ,institute of ,architects4 ,vitruvius gives elaborate directions for the proportioning of the size of all the details in the various orders2 and though we may doubt whether his system is really a correct representation of the ,greek one1 we can have no doubt that some such system was employed by them4 ,various theorists have endeavored to show that the system has prevailed of proportioning the principal heights and widths of buildings in accordance with geometrical figures1 triangles of various angles especially2 and very probably this system has from time to time been applied1 in ,gothic as well as in classical buildings4 ,this idea is open to two criticisms1 however4 ,first1 the facts and measurements which have been adduced in support of it1 especially in regard to ,gothic buildings1 are commonly found on investigation to be only approximately true4 ,the diagram of the section of the building has nearly always1 according to my experience1 to be coaxed a little in order to fit the theory2 or it is found that though the geometrical figure suggested corresponds exactly with some points on the plan or section1 these are really of no more importance than other points which might just as well have been taken4 ,the theorist draws our attention to those points in the building which correspond with his geometry1 and leaves on one side those which do not4 ,now it may certainly be assumed that any builders intending to lay out a building on the basis of a geometrical figure would have done so with precise exactitude1 and that they would have selected the most obviously important points of the plan or section for the geometrical spacing4 ,in illustration of this point1 ,i have given 7,fig4 #be7 a skeleton diagram of a ,roman arch1 supposed to be set out on a geometrical figure4 ,the center of the circle is on the intersection of lines connecting the outer projection of the main cornice with the perpendiculars from those points on the ground line4 ,this point at the intersection is also the center of the circle of the archway itself4 ,but the upper part of the imaginary circle beyond cuts the middle of the attic cornice4 ,if the arch were to be regarded as set out in reference to this circle1 it should certainly have given the most important line--the top line1 of the upper cornice1 not an inferior and less important line2 and that is pretty much the case with all these proportion theories 7except in regard to ,greek ,doric temples72 they are right as to one or two points of the building1 but break down when you attempt to apply them further4 ,it is exceedingly probable that many of these apparent geometric coincidences really arise1 quite naturally1 from the employment of some fixed measure of division in setting out buildings4 ,thus1 if an apartment of somewhere about #cj feet by #be feet is to be set out1 the builder employing a foot measure naturally sets out exactly #cj feet one way and #be feet the other way4 ,it is easier and simpler to do so than to take chance fractional measurements4 ,then comes your geometrical theorist1 and observes that the apartment is planned precisely in the proportion of six to five4 ,so it is1 but it is only the philosophy of the measuring-tape1 after all4 ,secondly1 it is a question whether the value of this geometrical basis is so great as has sometimes been argued1 seeing that the results of it in most cases cannot be judged by the eye4 ,if1 for instance1 the room we are in were nearly in the proportion of seven in length to five in width1 ,i doubt whether any of us here could tell by looking at it whether it were truly so or not1 or even1 if it were a foot out one way or the other1 in which direction the excess lay2 and if this be the case1 the advantage of such a geometrical basis must be rather imaginary than real4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #bf through #bh ,having spoken of plan as the basis of design1 ,i should wish to conclude this lecture by suggesting also1 what has never to my knowledge been prominently brought forward1 that the plan itself1 apart from any consideration of what we may build up upon it1 is actually a form of artistic thought1 of architectural poetry1 so to speak4 ,if we take three such plans as those shown in ,figs4 #bf1 #bg1 and #bh1 typical forms respectively of the ,egyptian1 ,greek1 and ,gothic plans1 we certainly can distinguish a special imaginative feeling or tendency in each of them4 ,in the ,egyptian1 which ,i have called the type of mystery1 the plan continually diminishes as we proceed inward4 ,in the third great compartment the columns are planted thick and close1 so as to leave no possibility of seeing through the building except along a single avenue of columns at a time4 ,the gloom and mystery of a deep forest are in it1 and the plan finally ends1 still lessening as it goes1 in the small and presumably sacred compartment to which all this series of colonnaded halls leads up4 ,in the ,greek plan there is neither climax nor anti-climax1 only the picturesque feature of an exterior colonnade encircling the building and surrounding a single oblong compartment4 ,it is a rationalistic plan1 aiming neither at mystery nor aspiration4 ,in the plan of ,rheims 7,fig4 #bh7 we have the plan of climax or aspiration2 as in the ,egyptian1 we approach the sacred portion through a long avenue of piers2 but instead of narrowing1 the plan extends as we approach the shrine4 ,i think it will be recognized1 putting aside all considerations of the style of the superstructure on these plans1 that each of them in itself represents a distinct artistic conception4 ,so in the plan of the ,pantheon 7,fig4 #bi71 this entrance through a colonnaded porch into a vast circular compartment is in itself a great architectural idea1 independently of the manner in which it is built up4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #bi through #cd ,we may carry out this a little further by imagining a varied treatment on plan of a marked-out space of a certain size and proportion1 on which a church of some kind1 for instance1 is to be placed4 ,the simplest idea is to inclose it round with four walls as a parallelogram 7,fig4 #cj71 only thickening the walls where the weight of the roof principals comes4 ,but this is a plan without an idea in it4 ,the central or sacred space at the end is not expressed in the plan1 but is merely a railed-off portion of the floor4 ,the entrance is utterly without effect as well as without shelter4 ,if we lay out our plan as in ,fig4 #ca1 we see that there is now an idea in it4 ,the two towers1 as they must evidently be1 form an advanced guard of the plan1 the recessed central part connecting them gives an effective entrance to the interior2 the arrangement in three aisles gives length1 the apse at the end incloses and expresses the sacrarium1 which is the climax and object of the plan4 ,the shape of the ground1 however1 is not favorable to the employment of a long or avenue type of plan1 it is too short and square2 let us rather try a plan of the open area order1 such as ,fig #cb4 ,this is based on the short-armed ,greek cross1 with an open center area2 again there is an advanced guard in the shape of an entrance block with a porch2 and the three apses at the end give architectural emphasis to the sacrarium4 ,fig4 #ce is another idea1 the special object of which is to give an effect of contrast between the entrance1 approached first through a colonnaded portico1 then through an internal vestibule1 lighted from above1 and flanked by rows of small coupled columns2 then through these colonnaded entrances1 the inner one kept purposely rather dark1 we come into an interior expanding in every direction2 an effect of strong contrast and climax4 ,if our plot of ground again be so situated that one angle of it is opposite the vista of two or more large streets1 there and nowhere else will be the salient angle1 so to speak1 of the plan1 and we can place there a circular porch--which may1 it is evident1 rise into a tower--and enter the interior at the angle instead of in the center2 not an effective manner of entering as a rule1 but quite legitimate when there is an obvious motive for it in the nature and position of the site4 ,a new feature is here introduced in the circular colonnade dividing the interior into a central area and an aisle4 ,each of these plans might be susceptible of many different styles of architectural treatment2 but quite independently of that1 it will be recognized that each of them represents in itself a distinct idea or invention1 a form of artistic arrangement of spaces1 which is what plan1 in an architectural sense1 really means4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,lowe ,,incandescent ,,gas ,,burner4 ,this burner is in the form of a cylinder made of a composition in which magnesium predominates1 and gives a light of #baj candle power with a consumption of three and one-half cubic feet of gas per hour4 ,illustration ,the cylinder to be heated to incandescence is firmly held in place on a metal spindle1 which is slowly revolved by means of an ingenious clock-work in the base of the fixture4 ,the arrangement is such that by turning off the gas the clock-work is stopped1 and by the turning on of the gas1 it is again set in motion4 ,the movement of the spindle is so slow that a casual observer would not notice it1 there being only one revolution made in twenty-four hours4 ,the object of this movement is to continually present new surface to be heated1 as that which is exposed to the high temperature wears away1 similarly to the carbons used in electric lighting1 though much more slowly4 ,these burners can be made of #b1jjj candle power1 down to fifty candle power4 ,pure oxygen can now be obtained from the atmosphere at a cost of about twenty-five cents per #a1jjj cubic feet1 and the small amount required to supplement the fuel water gas in producing this light can be supplied under proper pressure from a very small pipe1 which can be laid in the same trench with the fuel gas pipe1 at much less cost than is required to carry an electric wire to produce an equal amount of light4 ,the oxygen pipe necessary to carry the gas under pressure need not exceed an inch and a half in diameter to supply #e1jjj lamps of #b1jjj candle power each4 ,the only reason why this burner has not been further perfected and placed upon the market is because of the continual preoccupation of ,prof4 ,lowe in other lines of invention1 and the amount of attention required by his large business interests4 ,besides1 the field for its usefulness has been limited1 as cheap fuel gas has only just begun to be generally introduced4 ,now1 however1 that extensive preparations are being made for the rapid introduction of the ,lowe fuel gas system into various cities1 this burner will receive sufficient attention to shortly complete it for general use in large quantities4 ,it is a more powerful and at the same time a softer light than is the electric incandescent or the arc light4 ,the light-giving property of a burner of #a1jjj candle power would not cost more than one cent for ten hours' lighting1 and the cylinder would only require to be changed once a week2 whereas the carbons of arc lights are changed daily4 ,the cost of the gas required to maintain such a lamp ten hours would be six cents1 allowing the same profit on the gas as when it is sold for other heating purposes4 ,the lamps complete will cost much less than the present electric lamps1 and after allowing a large profit to companies supplying them1 will not cost consumers more than one-fourth as much as arc lamps1 and will give a much clearer and steadier light4 ,since ,prof4 ,lowe perfected his first incandescent burner great progress has been made in this line of invention1 and it is no wonder that the attention of the whole gas fraternity of the country has been drawn to the subject of cheap fuel water gas1 which is so admirably adapted to all purposes of heat1 light1 and power4 ,while there is no doubt that light can be more cheaply produced by incandescence obtained by the use of fuel water gas than by any other means1 still a large amount of electric lighting will continue to hold its position1 and the electric system will gain ground for many uses4 ,but the electric light also can be more economically produced when fuel water gas is used as power to revolve the dynamos4 ,therefore1 we believe it to be for the best interests of every gas company that would move in the line of progress to commence without delay to make preparations for the introduction of fuel water gas1 if1 at first1 only as supplementary to their present illuminating gas business4-,progressive ,age4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,progress ,,of ,,the ,,sorghum ,,sugar ,,industry4 ,we are indebted to ,prof4 ,e4,b4 ,cowgill1 of ,kansas1 for a copy of his recent report to the ,kansas ,state ,board of ,agriculture concerning the operations of the ,parkinson ,sugar ,works1 at ,fort ,scott1 ,kansas4 ,the report contains an interesting historical sketch of the various efforts heretofore made to produce sugar from sorghum1 none of which proved remunerative until #ahhg1 when the persevering efforts of a few energetic individuals1 encouraged and assisted by a small pecuniary aid from government1 were crowned with success1 and gave birth1 it may justly be said1 to a new industry which seems destined shortly to assume gigantic proportions and increase the wealth of the country4 ,we make the following abstracts from the report3 ,the sorghum plant was introduced into the ,united ,states in #ahec-ed1 by the ,patent ,office1 which then embraced all there was of the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture4 ,its juice was known to be sweetish1 and chemists were not long in discovering that it contained a considerable percentage of some substance giving the reactions of cane sugar4 ,the opinion that the reactions were due to cane sugar received repeated confirmations in the formation of true cane sugar crystals in sirups made from sorghum4 ,yet the small amounts that were crystallized1 compared with the amounts present in the juices as shown by the analyses1 led many to believe that the reactions were largely due to some other substance than cane sugar4 ,during the years #ahgh to #ahhb1 inclusive1 while ,dr4 ,peter ,collier was chief chemist of the ,department of ,agriculture1 much attention was given to the study of sorghum juices from canes cultivated in the gardens of the department at ,washington4 ,dr4 ,collier became an enthusiastic believer in the future greatness of sorghum as a sugar producing plant1 and the extensive series of analyses published by him attracted much attention4 ,as a result large sugar factories were erected and provided with costly appliances4 ,hon4 ,john ,bennyworth erected one of these at ,larned1 in ,kansas4 ,s4,a4 ,liebold ,co4 subsequently erected one at ,great ,bend4 ,sterling and ,hutchinson followed with factories which made considerable amounts of merchantable sugar at no profit4 ,the factory at ,sterling was erected by ,r4,m4 ,sandy ,co41 of ,new ,orleans1 and while the sirup produced paid the expenses of the factory1 not a crystal of sugar was made4 ,the factory then1 in #ahhc1 changed hands1 and passed under the superintendency of ,prof4 ,m4,a4 ,scovell1 then of ,champaign1 ,illinois1 who1 with ,prof4 ,webber1 had worked out1 in the laboratories of the ,illinois ,industrial ,university1 a practical method for obtaining sugar from sorghum in quantities which at prices then prevalent would pay a profit on the business4 ,but prices declined1 and after making sugar for two years in succession1 the ,sterling factory succumbed4 ,the ,hutchinson factory at first made no sugar1 but subsequently passed under the management of ,prof4 ,m4 ,swenson1 who had successfully made sugar in the laboratory of the ,university of ,wisconsin4 ,large amounts of sugar were made at a loss1 and the ,hutchinson factory closed its doors4 ,in #ahhd1 ,hon4 ,w4,l4 ,parkinson fitted up a complete sugar factory at ,ottawa1 and for two years made sugar at a loss4 ,mr4 ,parkinson was assisted during the first year by ,dr4 ,wilcox1 and during the second year by ,prof4 ,swenson4 ,much valuable information was developed by the experience in those several factories1 but the most important of all was the fact that1 with the best crushers1 the average extraction did not exceed half of the sugar contained in the cane4 ,it was known to scientists and well informed sugar makers in this country that the process of diffusion was theoretically efficient for the extraction of sugar from plant cells1 and that it had been successfully applied by the beet sugar makers of ,europe for this purpose4 ,in #ahhc1 ,prof4 ,h4,w4 ,wiley1 chief chemist of the ,department of ,agriculture1 made an exhaustive series of practical experiments in the laboratories of the department on the extraction of the sugars from sorghum by the diffusion process1 by which the extraction of at least #he per cent4 of the total sugars present was secured4 ,the ,kansas delegation in ,congress became interested4 ,senator ,plumb made a thorough study of the entire subject1 and1 with the foresight of statesmanship1 gave his energies to the work of securing an appropriation of #ej1jjj for the development of the sugar industry1 which was granted in #ahhd1 and fifty thousand dollars more was added in #ahhe to the agricultural appropriation bill4 ,this was expended at ,ottawa1 ,kansas1 and in ,louisiana4 ,in that year ,judge ,parkinson1 at ,fort ,scott1 organized the ,parkinson ,sugar ,company4 ,taking up the work when all others had failed1 this company has taken a full share of the responsibilities and losses1 until it has at last seen the ,northern sugar industry made a financial success4 ,the report of #ahie showed such favorable results that in #ahhf the ,house made an appropriation of #ij1jjj1 to be used in ,louisiana1 ,new ,jersey1 and ,kansas4 ,a new battery and complete carbonatation apparatus were erected at ,fort ,scott4 ,about #fj1jjj of the appropriation was expended here in experiments in diffusion and carbonatation4 ,last year 7#ahhg7 the ,fort ,scott management made careful selection of essential parts of the processes already used1 omitted non-essential and cumbrous processes1 availed themselves of all the experience of the past in this country1 and secured a fresh infusion of experience from the beet sugar factories of ,germany1 and attained the success which finally places sorghum sugar making among the profitable industries of the country4 ,the success has been due1 first1 to the almost complete extraction of the sugars from the cane by the diffusion process2 second1 the prompt and proper treatment of the juice in defecating and evaporating2 third1 the efficient manner in which the sugar was boiled to grain in the strike pan4 ,total number tons of cane bought #c1hdj seed tops bought #dcg ----- ,total number tons of field cane #d1bgg ,there was something over #ejj acres planted4 ,some of it failed to come at all1 some fell upon the rocky places1 where they had not much earth1 and when the sun was risen they were scorched2 so that1 as nearly as we can estimate1 about #dej acres of cane were actually harvested and delivered at the works4 ,this would make the average yield of cane #i tons per acre1 or #ai per acre in dollars and cents4 ,,total ,,product ,,of ,,the ,,season1 #ahhg4 ,sugar1 #bce1hbf lb41 #e;c #ac1eei #ih ,state bounty1 #b;c #d1gaf #ec --------- #ag1bgf #ej ,sirups1 #ea1jjj gals17estimated7 #bj;c4 #aj1bjj #jj ,seed 7estimated7 #g1jjj #jj -------- ,value of total product #cd1dgf #ej ,,total ,,cost4 ,cane1 #c1hdj tons1 #b #g1fhj ,seed1 #ifg tons1 #c #a1icd ------- #i1fad #jj ,labor bill from ,august #ae to ,october #ae1 including labor for department experiments #e1gcg #af ,coal1 including all experiments #a1cie #gg ,salaries1 etc4 #c1ejj #jj ,insurance1 sundries1 etc4 #a1ejj #jj ---------- ,total #ba1gdf #ic ,total value #cd1dgf #ej ,total cost #ca1bdh #ic ---------- ,net #ac1cbi #eg ,to be paid by the department #f1ecd #ge ---------- ,total profit for season's work1 #ahhg #ai1gfd #cb ,,outline ,,of ,,the ,,processes ,,of ,,sorghum ,,sugar ,,making4 ,as now developed1 the processes of making sugar from sorghum are as follows3 ,first1 ,the topped cane is delivered at the factory by the farmers who can grow it4 ,second1 ,the cane is cut by a machine into pieces about one and a quarter inches long4 ,third1 ,the leaves and sheaths are separated from the cut cane by fanning mills4 ,fourth1 ,the cleaned cane is cut into fine bits called chips4 ,fifth1 ,the chips are placed in iron tanks1 and the sugar diffused1 soaked out with hot water4 ,sixth1 ,the juice obtained by diffusion has its acids nearly or quite neutralized with milk of lime1 and is heated and skimmed4 ,seventh1 ,the defecated or clarified juice is boiled to a semi-sirup in vacuum pans4 ,eighth1 ,the semi-sirup is boiled to grain in a high vacuum in the strike pan4 ,ninth1 ,the mixture of sugar and molasses from the strike pan is passed through a mixing machine into centrifugal machines which throw out the molasses and retain the sugar4 ,the process of the formation of sugar in the cane is not fully determined1 but analyses of canes made at different stages of growth show that the sap of growing cane contains a soluble substance having a composition and giving reactions similar to starch4 ,as maturity approaches1 grape sugar is also found in the juice4 ,a further advance toward maturity discloses cane sugar with the other substances1 and at full maturity perfect canes contain much cane sugar and little grape sugar and starchy matter4 ,in sweet fruits the change from grape sugar to cane sugar does not take place1 or takes place but sparingly4 ,the grape sugar is very sweet1 however4 ,cane sugar1 called also sucrose or crystallizable sugar1 when in dilute solution is changed very readily into grape sugar or glucose1 a substance which is much more difficult than cane sugar to crystallize4 ,this change1 called inversion1 takes place in over-ripe canes4 ,it sets in very soon after cutting in any cane during warm weather2 it occurs in cane which has been injured by blowing down1 or by insects1 or by frost1 and it probably occurs in cane which takes a second growth after nearly or quite reaching maturity4 ,to insure a successful outcome from the operations of the factory1 the cane must be so planted1 cultivated and matured as to make the sugar in its juice4 ,it must be delivered to the factory very soon after cutting1 and it must be taken care of before the season of heavy frosts4 ,,the ,,work ,,at ,,the ,,factory4 ,the operations of the factory are illustrated in the large diagram4 ,the first cutting is accomplished in the ensilage or feed cutter at ,e4 ,this cutter is provided with three knives fastened to the three spokes of a cast iron wheel which makes about #bej revolutions per minute1 carrying the knives with a shearing motion past a dead knife4 ,by a forced feed the cane is so fed as to be cut into pieces about one and a quarter inches long4 ,this cutting frees the leaves and nearly the entire sheaths from the pieces of cane4 ,by a suitable elevator1 ,f1 the pieces of cane1 leaves and sheaths are carried to the second floor4 ,the elevator empties into a hopper1 below which a series of four or five fans1 ,g1 is arranged one below the other4 ,by passing down through these fans the cane is separated from the lighter leaves1 much as grain is separated from chaff4 ,the leaves are blown away1 and finally taken from the building by an exhaust fan4 ,this separation of the leaves and other refuse is essential to the success of the sugar making1 for in them the largest part of the coloring and other deleterious matters are contained4 ,if carried into the diffusion battery1 these matters are extracted 7see reports of ,chemical ,division1 ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture71 and go into the juice with the sugar4 ,as already stated1 the process of manufacturing sugar is essentially one of separation4 ,the mechanical elimination of these deleterious substances at the outset at once obviates the necessity of separating them later and by more difficult methods1 and relieves the juice of their harmful influences4 ,from the fans the pieces of cane are delivered by a screw carrier to an elevator which discharges into the final cutting machine on the third floor4 ,this machine consists of an eight inch cast iron cylinder1 with knives like those of a planing machine4 ,it is really three cylinders placed end to end in the same shaft1 making the entire length eighteen inches4 ,the knives are inserted in slots and held in place with set screws4 ,the cylinder revolves at the rate of about twelve hundred per minute1 carrying the knives past an iron dead knife1 which is set so close that no cane can pass without being cut into fine chips4 ,from this cutter the chips of cane are taken by an elevator and a conveyer1 ,k1 to cells1 ,,mm1 of the diffusion battery4 ,the conveyer passes above and at one side of the battery1 and is provided with an opening and a spout opposite each cell of the battery4 ,the openings are closed at pleasure by a slide4 ,a movable spout completes the connection with any cell which it is desired to fill with chips4 ,,what ,,is ,,diffusion8 ,the condition in which the sugars and other soluble substances exist in the cane is that of solution in water4 ,the sweetish liquid is contained1 like the juices of plants generally1 in cells4 ,the walls of these cells are porous4 ,it has long been known that if a solution of sugar in water be placed in a porous or membraneous sack1 and the sack placed on water1 an action called osmosis1 whereby the water from the outside and the sugar solution from the inside of the sack each pass through1 until the liquids on the two sides of the membrane are equally sweet4 ,other substances soluble in water behave similarly1 but sugar and other readily crystallizable substances pass through much more readily than uncrystallizable or difficultly crystallizable4 ,to apply this properly to the extraction of sugar1 the cane is first cut into fine chips1 as already described1 and put into the diffusion cells1 where water is applied and the sugar is displaced4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a--;,,apparatus ,,for ,,manufacture ,,of ,,sorghum ,,by ,,the ,,diffusion ,,process4 ,,the ,,diffusion ,,battery1 as used at the ,parkinson factory1 consists of twelve iron tanks4 7,see diagram47 ,they are arranged in a line1 as shown in diagram1 ,fig4 #a4 ,each has a capacity of seventy-five cubic feet1 and by a little packing holds a ton of cane chips4 ,the cells are supported by brackets near the middle1 which rest on iron joists4 ,each cell is provided with a heater1 through which the liquid is passed in the operation of the battery4 ,the cells are so connected by pipes and valves that the liquid can be passed into the cells1 and from cell to cell1 at the pleasure of the operator4 ,the bottom of each cell consists of a door1 which closes on an annular rubber hose placed in a groove1 and filled with water1 under a pressure greater than that ever given to the liquids in the cell4 ,this makes a water tight joint whenever the trap door bottom is drawn up firmly against it4 ,the upper part is of cast iron and is jug shaped1 and is covered with a lid which is held with a screw on rubber packing4 ,in the jug neck and near the bottom the sides are double1 the inner plates being perforated with small holes to let water in and out4 ,the bottoms are double1 the inner plates being perforated like the neighboring sides1 and for the same purpose4 ,the cells1 of whose appearance a fair idea may be had from diagram1 ,fig4 #b1 are connected with a water pipe1 a juice pipe1 a compressed air pipe1 and the heaters1 by suitable valves4 ,the heaters are connected with a steam pipe4 ,this1 and the compressed air pipe1 are not shown in the diagram4 ,the water pipe is fed from an elevated tank1 which gives a pressure of twelve pounds per square inch ,the valve connections enable the operator to pass water into the cells at either the top or the bottom2 to pass the liquid from any cell to the next1 or to the juice pipe through the heater2 to separate any cell from any or all others1 and to turn in compressed air4 ,now let the reader refer to ,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b--;,,diffusion ,,process--,,manufacture ,,of ,,sorghum ,,sugar4 ,the cutters are started1 and cell #a is filled with chips4 ,this done1 the chips from the cutters are turned into cell #b2 cell #a is closed1 and cut off from the others1 and water is turned into it by opening valve1 c1 of cell #a 7see ,fig4 #b7 until it is filled with water among the chips4 ,when #b is filled with chips1 its valve1 a1 is raised to allow the liquid to pass down into the juice pipe4 ,valve a of #c is also raised4 ,now the juice pipe fills1 and when it is full the liquid flows through valve1 a1 of #c1 and into the heater between #b and #c1 and into the bottom of #b1 until #b is full of water among the chips4 7,this may be understood by following the course of the arrows shown in the diagrams of #i and #aj74 ,valve a of #b is now screwed down2 c is down and b is opened4 ,it will be readily seen by attention to the diagram that this changes the course of the flow so that it will no longer enter at the bottom1 but at the top of #b1 as shown by the arrows at cell #b4 ,it is to be observed that the water is continually pressing in at the top of #a1 and driving the liquid forward whenever a valve is opened to admit it to another cell1 heater1 or pipe4 ,when cell #c is full of chips1 its valves are manipulated just as were those of #b4 ,so as each succeeding cell is filled1 the manipulation of valves is repeated until cell #f is filled with liquid4 ,after passing through six cells of fresh chips1 this liquid is very sweet1 and is drawn off into the measuring tank shown at p in diagram1 ,fig4 #a1 and is thence conveyed for subsequent treatment in the factory4 ,to draw this juice from #f1 valve a of #g is raised to connect the heater between #f and #g with the juice pipe4 ,a gate valve in the juice pipe is opened into the measuring tank1 and the pressure of water into the top of #a drives the liquid forward through the bottom of #a1 through the heater1 into the top of #b1 out from the bottom of #b1 through the heater into the top of #c1 out from the bottom of #c1 through the heater into the top of #d1 out from the bottom of #d1 through the heater1 into the top of #e1 out from the bottom of #e1 through the heater1 into the top of #f1 and now out from the bottom of #f1 through the heater1 into the juice pipe1 and from the juice pipe into the measuring tank4 ,it will be understood that the liquid which is drawn from #f is chiefly that which was passed into #a when it was filled with chips4 ,there is doubtless a little mixing as the pressure drives the liquid forward4 ,but the lighter liquid is always pressed in at the top of the cells1 so that the mixing is the least possible4 ,the amount of liquid1 now called juice1 which is drawn from #f is #a1aaj liters1 or #bia gallons4 ,when this quantity has been drawn into the measuring tank1 the gate valve is closed1 and the valves connecting with #g are manipulated as were those of #f1 a measure of juice being drawn in the same way4 ,all this time the water has been passed into the top of #a1 and this is continued until the juice has been drawn from #i4 ,valve c to cell #a is now closed1 and compressed air is turned into the top of #a to drive the liquid forward into #aj4 ,after the water has thus been nearly all expelled from #a1 valve a of cell #b is lowered so as to shut off communication with the juice pipe1 and b1 of cell #b is closed4 a and b of cell #a have1 it will be observed1 been closed or down from the beginning4 ,cell #a is now isolated from all others4 ,its chips have been exhausted of sugar1 and are ready to be thrown out4 ,the bottom of #a is opened1 and the chips fall out into the car1 o 7see diagram1 ,fig4 #a71 and are conveyed away4 ,immediately on closing valves a and b of cell #b1 c is opened1 and the water presses into the top of #b1 as before into the top of #a1 and the circulation is precisely similar to that already described1 #b having taken the place of #a1 #c of #b1 and so on4 ,when #b is emptied1 #c takes the first place in the series and so on4 ,when #ab has been filled1 it takes the l#cth place4 7,the juice pipe returns from the termination of the series1 and connects with #a1 making the circuit complete47 ,the process is continuous1 and the best and most economical results are obtained if there is no intermission4 ,one cell should be filled and another emptied every eight minutes1 so that in twenty-four hours the number of cells diffused should be one hundred and eighty4 ,,what ,,has ,,taken ,,place ,,in ,,the ,,diffusion ,,cells4 ,for the purpose of illustration1 let us assume that when it has been filled with chips just as much water is passed into the cell as there was juice in the chips4 ,the process of osmosis or diffusion sets in1 and in a few minutes there is as much sugar in the liquid outside of the cane cells as in the juice in these cane cells2 i4e41 the water and the juice have divided the sugar between them1 each taking half4 ,again1 assume that as much liquid can be drawn from #a as there was water added4 ,it is plain that if the osmotic action is complete1 the liquid drawn off will be half as sweet as cane juice4 ,it has now reached fresh chips in #b1 and again equalization takes place4 ,half of the sugar from #a was brought into #b1 so that it now contains one and a half portions of sugar1 dissolved in two portions of liquid1 or the liquid has risen to three quarters of the strength of cane juice4 ,this liquid having three fourths strength passes to #c1 and we have in #c one and three fourths portions of liquid1 or after the action has taken place the liquid in #c is seven eighths strength4 ,one portion of this liquid passes to #d1 and we have one and seven eighths portions of sugar in two portions of liquid1 or the liquid becomes #ae_/af strength4 ,one portion of this liquid passes to #e1 and we have in #e one and fifteen sixteenths portions of sugar in two portions of liquid1 or the liquid is #ca_/cb strength4 ,it is now called juice4 ,from this time forward a cell is emptied for every one filled4 ,throughout the operation1 the temperature is kept as near the boiling point as can be done conveniently without danger of filling some of the cells with steam4 ,diffusion takes place more rapidly at high than at low temperatures1 and the danger of fermentation1 with the consequent loss of sugar1 is avoided4 ,,what ,,has ,,happened ,,to ,,the ,,chips4 ,by the first action of water in #a1 of the sugar was left in cell #a2 by the second was left1 by the third #a_/h was left1 by the fourth #a_/af was left1 by the fifth #a_/cb was left1 by the sixth #a_/fd was left1 by the seventh #a_/abh was left1 by the eighth #a_/bef was left1 by the ninth #a_/eab was left4 ,the fractions representing the strength of the juice on the one hand and the sugar left in each cell on the other hand1 after the battery is fully in operation1 are not so readily deduced4 ,the theory is easily understood1 however1 although the computation is somewhat intricate4 ,those who desire to follow the process by mathematical formula are referred to pages #i and #aj1 ,bulletin ,no4 #b1 ,chemical ,division ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 where will be found the formula furnished by ,professor ,harkness1 of the ,u4,s4 ,naval ,observatory4 ,for the sake of simplifying the explanation1 it was assumed that the water added is equal in volume to the juice in a cellful of cane chips4 ,in practice more water is added1 to secure more perfect exhaustion of the chips1 and with the result of yielding about thirteen volumes of juice for every nine volumes as it exists in the cane1 and of extracting #ib4jd per cent4 of all the sugars from the cane1 as shown by the report of ,dr4 ,c4,a4 ,crampton1 ,assistant ,chemist of the ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture4 ,,inversion ,,of ,,sugar ,,in ,,the ,,diffusion ,,cells4 ,in the experiments at ,fort ,scott in #ahhf1 much difficulty was experienced on account of inversion of the sugar in the diffusion battery4 ,the report shows that this resulted from the use of soured cane and from delays in the operation of the battery on account of the imperfect working of the cutting and elevating machinery1 much of which was there experimental4 ,under the circumstances1 however1 it became a matter of the gravest importance to find a method of preventing this inversion without in any manner interfering with the other processes4 ,on the suggestion of ,prof4 ,swenson1 a portion of freshly precipitated carbonate of lime was placed with the chips in each cell4#a ,in the case of soured cane1 this took up the acid which otherwise produced inversion4 ,in case no harmful acids were present1 this chalk was entirely inactive4 ,soured canes are not desirable to work under any circumstances1 and should be rejected by the chemist1 and not allowed to enter the factory4 ,so1 also1 delays on account of imperfect machinery are disastrous to profitable manufacturing1 and must be avoided4 ,but for those who desired to experiment with deteriorated canes and untried cutting machines1 the addition of the calcium carbonate provides against disastrous results which would otherwise be inevitable4 ,footnote #a3 ,for this improvement ,prof4 ,swenson obtained a patent ,oct4 #aa1 #ahhg1 the grant of which was recently made the subject of congressional inquiry4 ,immediately after it is drawn from the diffusion battery the juice is taken from the measuring tanks into the defecating tanks or pans4 ,these are large1 deep vessels1 provided with copper steam coils in the bottom for the purpose of heating the juice4 ,sufficient milk of lime is added here to nearly or quite neutralize the acids in the juice1 the test being made with litmus paper4 ,the juice is brought to the boiling point1 and as much of the scum is removed as can be taken quickly4 ,the scum is returned to the diffusion cells1 and the juice is sent by a pump to the top of the building1 where it is boiled and thoroughly skimmed4 ,these skimmings are also returned to the diffusion cells4 ,this method of disposing of the skimmings was suggested by ,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,it is better than the old plan of throwing them away to decompose and create a stench about the factory4 ,probably a better method would be to pass these skimmings through some sort of filter1 or1 perhaps better still1 to filter the juice and avoid all skimming4 ,after this last skimming the juice is ready to be boiled down to a thin sirup in ,,the ,,double ,,effect ,,evaporators4 ,these consist of two large closed pans provided within with steam pipes of copper1 whereby the liquid is heated4 ,they are also connected with each other and with pumps in such a way as to reduce the pressure in the first to about three fifths and in the second to about one fifth the normal atmospheric pressure4 ,the juice boils rapidly in the first at somewhat below the temperature of boiling water1 and in the second at a still lower temperature4 ,the exhaust steam from the engines is used for heating the first pan1 and the vapor from the boiling juice in the first pan is hot enough to do all the boiling in the second1 and is taken into the copper pipes of the second for this purpose4 ,in this way the evaporation is effected without so great expenditure of fuel as is necessary in open pans1 or in single effect vacuum pans1 and the deleterious influences of long continued high temperature on the crystallizing powers of the sugar are avoided4 ,from the double effects the sirup is stored in tanks ready to be taken into the strike pan1 where the sugar is crystallized4 ,,the ,,first ,,chance ,,to ,,pause4 ,at this point the juice has just reached a condition in which it will keep4 ,from the moment the cane is cut in the fields until now1 every delay is liable to entail loss of sugar by inversion4 ,after the water is put into the cells of the battery with the chips1 the temperature is carefully kept above that at which fermentation takes place most readily1 and the danger of inversion is thereby reduced4 ,but with all the precautions known to science up to this point the utmost celerity is necessary to secure the best results4 ,there is here1 however1 a natural division in the process of sugar making1 which will be further considered under the heading of ,auxiliary ,factories4 ,any part of the process heretofore described may be learned in a few days by workmen of intelligence and observation who will give careful attention to their respective duties4 ,,boiling ,,the ,,sirup ,,to ,,grain ,,the ,,sugar4 ,this operation is the next in course1 and is performed in what is known at the sugar factory as the strike pan1 a large air tight iron vessel from which the air and vapor are almost exhausted by means of a suitable pump and condensing apparatus4 ,as is the case with the saccharine juices of other plants1 the sugar from sorghum crystallizes best at medium temperature4 ,the process of boiling to grain may be described as follows3 ,a portion of the sirup is taken into the pan1 and boiled rapidly in vacuo to the crystallizing density4 ,if in a sirup the molecules of sugar are brought sufficiently near to each other through concentration--the removal of the dissolving liquid--these molecules attract each other so strongly as to overcome the separating power of the solvent1 and they unite to form crystals4 ,sugar is much more soluble at high than at low temperatures1 the heat acting in this as in almost all cases as a repulsive force among the molecules4 ,it is therefore necessary to maintain a high vacuum in order to boil at a low temperature1 in boiling to grain4 ,when the proper density is reached the crystals sometimes fail to appear1 and a fresh portion of cold sirup is allowed to enter the pan4 ,this must not be sufficient in amount to reduce the density of the contents of the pan below that at which crystallization may take place4 ,this cold sirup causes a sudden though slight reduction in temperature1 which may so reduce the repulsive forces as to allow the attraction among the molecules to prevail1 resulting in the inception of crystallization4 ,to discover this requires the keenest observation4 ,when beginning to form1 the crystals are too minute to show either form or size1 even when viewed through a strong magnifying glass4 ,there is to be seen simply a very delicate cloud4 ,the inexperienced observer would entirely overlook this cloud1 his attention probably being directed to some curious globular and annular objects1 which ,i have nowhere seen explained4 ,very soon after the sample from the pan is placed upon glass for observation1 the surface becomes cooled and somewhat hardened4 ,as the cooling proceeds below the surface1 contraction ensues1 and consequently a wrinkling of the surface1 causing a shimmer of the light in a very attractive manner4 ,this1 too1 is likely to attract more attention than the delicate1 thin cloud of crystals1 and may be even confounded with the reflection and refraction of light1 by which alone the minute crystals are determined4 ,the practical operator learns to disregard all other attractions1 and to look for the cloud and its peculiarities4 ,when the contents of the pan have again reached the proper density1 another portion of sirup is added4 ,the sugar which this contains is attracted to the crystals already formed1 and goes to enlarge these rather than to form new crystals1 provided the first are sufficiently numerous to receive the sugar as rapidly as it can crystallize4 ,the contents of the pan are repeatedly brought to the proper density1 and fresh sirup added as above described until the desired size of grain is obtained1 or until the pan is full4 ,good management should bring about these two conditions at the same time4 ,if a sufficient number of crystals has not been started at the beginning of the operation to receive the sugar from the sirup added1 a fresh crop of crystals will be started at such time as the crystallization becomes too rapid to be accommodated on the surfaces of the grain already formed4 ,the older and larger crystals grow more rapidly1 by reason of their greater attractive force1 than the newer and smaller ones on succeeding additions of sirup1 so that the disparity in size will increase as the work proceeds4 ,this condition is by all means to be avoided1 since it entails serious difficulties on the process of separating the sugar from the molasses4 ,in case this second crop of crystals1 called false grain or mush sugar has appeared1 the sugar boiler must act upon his judgment1 guided by his experience as to what is to be done4 ,he may take enough thin sirup into the pan to dissolve all of the crystals and begin again1 or1 if very skillful1 he may so force the growth of the false grain as to bring it up to a size that can be worked4 ,the completion of the work in the strike pan leaves the sugar mixed with molasses4 ,this mixture is called malada or masscuite4 ,it may be drawn off into iron sugar wagons and set in the hot room above mentioned1 in which case still more of the sugar which remains in the uncrystallized state generally joins the crystals1 somewhat increasing the yield of first sugars4 ,at the proper time these sugar wagons are emptied into a mixing machine1 where the mass is brought to a uniform consistency4 ,if the sugar wagons are not used1 the strike pan is emptied directly into the mixer4 ,,the ,,centrifugal ,,machines4 ,from the mixer the melada is drawn into the centrifugal machines4 ,these consist1 first1 of an iron case resembling in form the husk of mill stones4 ,a spout at the bottom of the husk connects with a molasses tank4 ,within this husk is placed a metallic vessel with perforated sides4 ,this vessel is either mounted or hung on a vertical axis1 and is lined with wire cloth4 ,having taken a proper portion of the melada into the centrifugal1 the operator starts it to revolving1 and by means of a friction clutch makes such connection with the engine as gives it about #a1ejj revolutions per minute4 ,the centrifugal force developed drives the liquid molasses through the meshes of the wire cloth1 and out against the husk1 from which it flows off into a tank4 ,the sugar1 being solid1 is retained by the wire cloth4 ,if there is in the melada the false grain already mentioned1 it passes into the meshes of the wire cloth1 and prevents the passage of the molasses4 ,after the molasses has been nearly all thrown out1 a small quantity of water is sprayed over the sugar while the centrifugal is in motion4 ,this is forced through the sugar1 and carries with it much of the molasses which would otherwise adhere to the sugar1 and discolor it4 ,if the sugar is to be refined1 this washing with water is omitted4 ,when the sugar has been sufficiently dried1 the machine is stopped1 the sugar taken out1 and put into barrels for market4 ,simple as the operation of the centrifugals is1 the direction of the sugar boiler as to the special treatment of each strike is necessary1 since he1 better than any one else1 knows what difficulties are to be expected on account of the condition in which the melada left the strike pan4 ,,capacity ,,of ,,the ,,sugar ,,factory4 ,a plant having a battery like that at ,fort ,scott1 in which the cells are each capable of containing a ton of cane chips1 should have a capacity of #ahj tons of cleaned cane1 or #bjj tons of cane with leaves1 or #bdj tons of cane as it grows in the field1 per day of twenty-four hours4 ,those who have given most attention to the subject think that a battery composed of one and a half ton cells may be operated quite as successfully as a battery of one ton cells4 ,such a battery would have a capacity of #cfj tons of field cane per day4 ,,the ,,cutting ,,and ,,cleaning ,,apparatus4 ,this consists of modifications of appliances which have long been used4 ,simple as it is1 and presenting only mechanical problems1 the cutting1 cleaning1 and evaporating apparatus is likely to be the source of more delays and perplexities in the operation of the sugar factory than any other part4 ,the diffusion battery in good hands works perfectly2 the clarification of the juice causes no delays2 the concentration to the condition of semi-sirup may be readily1 rapidly1 and surely effected in apparatus which has been brought to great perfection by long experience1 and in many forms2 the work at the strike pan requires only to be placed in the hands of an expert2 the mixer never fails to do its duty2 there are various forms of centrifugal machines on the market1 some of which are nearly perfect4 ,if1 then1 the mechanical work of delivering1 cutting1 cleaning1 and elevating the cane can be accomplished with regularity and rapidity1 the operation of a well adjusted sugar factory should proceed without interruption or delay from ,monday morning to ,saturday night4 ,,the ,,future ,,of ,,the ,,sorghum ,,sugar ,,industry4 ,an acre of land cultivated in sorghum yields a greater tonnage of valuable products than in any other crop1 with the possible exception of hay4 ,under ordinary methods of cultivation1 ten tons of cleaned cane per acre is somewhat above the average1 but under the best cultivation the larger varieties often exceed twelve1 while the small early amber sometimes goes below eight tons per acre4 ,let seven and a half tons of cleaned cane per acre be assumed for the illustration4 ,this corresponds to a gross yield of ten tons for the farmer1 and at two dollars per ton gives him twenty dollars per acre for his crop4 ,these seven and a half tons of clean cane will yield3 #gej pounds of sugar4 #a1jjj pounds of molasses4 #ijj pounds of seed4 #a1ejj pounds of fodder 7green leaves74 #a1ejj pounds of exhausted chips 7dried74 ,a total of #e1fej pounds4 ,the first three items1 which are as likely to be transported as wheat or corn1 aggregate #b1fej pounds per acre4 ,sorghum will yield seven and a half tons of cleaned cane per acre more surely than corn will yield thirty bushels or wheat fifteen bushels per acre4 ,in the comparison1 then1 of products which bear transportation1 these crops stand as follows3 ,sorghum1 at #g tons1 #b1fej pounds per acre4 ,corn1 at #cj bushels1 #a1fhj pounds per acre4 ,wheat1 at #ae bushels1 #ijj pounds per acre4 ,the sugar from the sorghum is worth say #e cents per pound2 the molasses1 #a cents per pound2 the seed1 cent per pound4 ,the sorghum products give market values as follows3 #gej pounds sugar at say #e cents1#b #cg4ej4 #a1jjj pounds molasses at say #a cents1#b #ag4ej4 #ijj pounds seed at say cent1#b #d4ej4 ,total value of sorghum1 less fodder1 #ei4ej4 ,the corn crop gives #a1fhj pounds1 at cent #h4dj4 ,the wheat crop gives #ijj pounds1 at #a cent1 #i4 ,footnote #b3 ,the sugar sold this year at #e cents per pound1 the molasses at #bj cents per gallon1 and the seed at ---- per bushel of #ef pounds4 ,the seed is of about equal value with corn for feeding stock4 ,thus it will be seen that the sorghum yields to the farmer more than twice as much per acre as either of the leading cereals1 and as a gross product of agriculture and manufacture on our own soil more than six times as much per acre as is usually realized from either of these standard crops4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a new process for producing iron and steel direct from the ore has been brought out in ,russia4 ,under the new process iron ore1 after being submitted to the smelting processes1 is taken direct from the furnace to the rolling mill and turned into thin sheets of the finest charcoal iron4 ,at present the process has only been commercially applied with charcoal fuel1 but experiments are stated to have shown that equal success can be obtained with coke4 ,the secret of the process lies in the construction of the furnace1 which is said to be simple and inexpensive4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,menges ,,thermo-,,magnetic ,,generator ,,and ,,motor4 ,we have received from ,m4 ,menges 7of the ,hague7 a most interesting description of an apparatus on which he has been at work for some time past1 with the object of generating electricity by the direct conversion of heat1 or1 as it might be more accurately described1 by a more direct conversion than that of an ordinary dynamo4 ,m4 ,menges' apparatus depends1 like that of ,edison1 upon the fact that the magnetic metals lose their magnetic permeability at a certain temperature4 ,it differs greatly1 however1 from its predecessor in important points1 especially in the fact that it does not require the aid of any external source of motive power4 ,in ,edison's pyromagnetic dynamo it will be remembered that it is necessary to provide some small amount of motive power from an extraneous source in order to revolve the shield by which the heat is alternately directed on one half or the other of the armature cores4 ,m4 ,menges' apparatus is1 on the contrary1 wholly automatic4 ,we proceed to give a free translation of the description furnished us by the inventor4 ,in attempting to employ the thermo-magnetic properties of iron or nickel in the construction of machines for the generation of electricity upon an industrial scale1 we are met with the difficulty that the heating and cooling of large masses of metal not only involves great loss of heat1 but also requires much time4 ,hence1 to obtain a useful effect of any importance1 it would appear necessary to employ machines of dimensions altogether impracticable4 ,by the device and method of construction now to be explained this difficulty has1 however1 been completely overcome4 ,the action of a magnetic pole diminishes so rapidly with the increase of distance that it may suffice to remove the armature to a distance relatively small compared with its own dimensions1 or with those of the magnet1 in order to reduce the action to a negligible value4 ,but if the magnet1 ,n ,s1 and the armature1 ,a1 being at a certain distance1 we bring between them a piece of iron or nickel1 d1 then the magnetic force upon ,a is immediately and very considerably increased4 ,in modern language1 the resistance of the magnetic circuit has been reduced by the introduction of a better magnetic conductor1 and the number of lines of force passing through ,a is proportionately increased4 ,the mass of the piece1 d1 may1 moreover1 be relatively small compared with that of ,n ,s and ,a4 ,if d be again withdrawn1 the magnetic resistance is increased1 and the lines through ,a are again a minimum4 ,now1 it is evident that we can also obtain the same effect by sufficiently heating and cooling the intermediate piece1 d2 and again1 with a broad field we can alter the distribution of the lines at will by heating or cooling one side of this piece or the other4 ,for this reason we will call the piece d the thermo-magnetic distributor1 or1 briefly1 the distributor4 ,we will now describe the manner in which this principle has been realized in the practical construction of both a thermo-magnetic generator and motor4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,fig4 #a shows an elevation and part section of one of the arrangements employed4 ,fig4 #b is a plan of the same machine 7in the latter the ring1 a a1 appearing on a higher plane than it actually occupies74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,n ,s is an electro-magnet1 a a the armature1 wound as a ,gramme ring1 and fixed to a frame with four arms1 which can turn freely upon a pivot midway between the poles4 ,the cross arms of the frame are attached at #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 ,fig4 #b4 ,between the magnets and the armature is placed the distributor1 d d1 where it occupies an annular space open above and below4 ,both the magnets and the armature are coated on the sides facing the distributor with mica or some other non-conductor of heat and electricity4 ,the distributor is attached to and supported by the cross arms1 so that it turns with the armature4 ,the distributor is composed of a ribbon of iron or nickel1 bent into a continuous zigzag4 ,this form has the advantage of presenting1 in the cool part of the distributor1 an almost direct road for the lines of force between the poles and the armature1 thus diminishing the magnetic resistance as far as possible4 ,at the same time the ,foucault currents are minimized4 ,to the same end it is useful to slit the ribbon1 as in ,fig4 #c4 ,this also facilitates the folding into zigzags4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,the distributor is heated at two opposite points on a diameter by the burners1 b b1 above which are the chimneys1 e e4 ,the cooling of the alternate section is aided by the circulation of cold air1 which is effected by means of the draught in the chimneys1 e e4 ,at the points of lowest temperature a jet of air or water is maintained4 ,the cross arms are insulated with mica or asbestos at the points where they extend from the armature to the distributor4 ,it will now be evident that while the distributor is entirely cool1 many of the lines of force pass from ,n to ,s without entering the armature core2 but if heat is applied at the points #a and #b in the figure1 so as to increase the magnetic resistance at these points1 then a great portion of the lines will leave the distributor1 and pass through the armature core4 ,under these conditions1 so long as heat is applied at two points equidistant from ,n and ,s1 we might1 if we so pleased1 cause the armature to be rotated by an external source of power1 and we should then have an ,e4,m4,f4 generated in the armature coils--that is to say1 the machine would work as an ordinary dynamo1 and the power expended in driving the armature would be proportionate to the output4 ,suppose next that the points of heating1 and with them the alternate points of cooling #ij deg4 apart1 are shifted round about #de deg41 so that the two hot regions are no longer symmetrically situated in respect to each pole of the field4 ,the distribution of the magnetization has therefore become unsymmetrical1 and the iron core is no longer in equilibrium in the magnetic field4 ,we have1 in fact1 the conditions of ,schwedoff's experiment upon a larger scale1 and if the forces are sufficient to overcome the frictional resistance1 a rotation of the ring ensues in the endeavor to restore equilibrium4 ,the regions of heating and cooling being fixed in space1 this rotation is continuous so long as the difference of temperature is maintained4 ,the ring in rotating carries with it the armature coils1 and of course an ,e4,m4,f4 is generated in the same way as if the motive power came from an external source4 ,in this respect the machine therefore resembles a motor generator1 and the rotation is entirely automatic4 ,the armature coils are connected with a commutator in the usual way1 and the field may1 of course1 be excited either in shunt or in series4 ,m4 ,menges says that the residual magnetization is sufficient in his machine to start the rotation by itself4 ,when the machine is to be used as a motor1 it is evident that the windings on the armature core need only be sufficient to supply current to excite the field1 or by the use of permanent magnets they may be dispensed with altogether4 ,m4 ,menges has further designed a large number of variations on the original type1 varying the arrangement of the several parts1 and employing armatures and fields of many different types1 such as are already in use for dynamos4 ,in ,fig4 #d a machine is represented in which the field is external to the armature4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,in ,fig4 #e we have a thermo-magnetic generator1 which corresponds to the disk machine in dynamos4 ,similar parts are indicated by the same letters in each of these figures1 so that no further detailed description is necessary4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,in another modification ,m4 ,menges proposes to rotate the burners and leave the armature and distributor at rest4 ,but in this case it is evident that the ,e4,m4,f4 produced would be much less1 because the magnetization of the core would only undergo a variation of intensity1 and would nowhere be reversed1 except1 perhaps1 just in front of the poles4 ,in machines modeled on the ,brush type it is evident that the distributor need not be continuous4 ,enough has1 however1 been said to indicate the extent of the field upon which the principle may be applied4--,the ,electrician4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,observations ,,on ,,atmospheric ,,electricity4#a ,footnote #a3 ,abstract of a paper read before the ,british ,association meeting at ,manchester1 ,september1 #ahhg4 ,,by ,,prof4 ,l4 ,,weber4 ,i will try to give a short report of some experiments ,i have made during the last year in regard to atmospheric electricity4 ,it was formerly uncertain whether the electrostatic potential would increase by rising from the surface of the earth to more elevated region of the atmosphere or not1 and also whether the potential in a normal--that is1 cloudless--state of the atmosphere was always positive or sometimes negative4 ,sir ,william ,thomson found by exact methods of measuring that the increase of the potential with elevation is very important1 and values about #ajj volts per meter4 ,that fact is proved by many other observers1 especially lately by ,mr4 ,f4 ,exner1 at ,vienna1 who found an increase of #fj to #fjj volts per meter4 ,the observations were made by means of an electrometer4 ,in respect of many inconveniences which are connected with the use of an electrometer1 ,i have tried the measurements with a very sensitive galvanometer4 ,in this case it is necessary to apply a separating air exhaust apparatus1 for example flame1 or a system of points at the upper end of the conductor1 which is elevated in the atmosphere4 ,in order to get a constant apparatus1 ,i have used #djj of the finest needles inserted in a metallic ribbon4 ,this system ,i have raised in the air by means of a captive balloon1 or by a kite1 which was attached to a conductor of twine or to a twisted line of the finest steel wire4 ,in this way ,i have attained a height of #ajj to #cjj meters4 ,when the lower end of the kite line was communicating with the galvanometer whose other terminal was in contact with the earth1 a current passed through the galvanometer4 ,for determining the strength of this current ,i proposed to called a micro-ampere the #aj-i part of an ampere4 ,at the height of about #ajj meters in the average the current begins to be regular1 and increases at the height of #cjj meters to #d1jjj or #e1jjj of these units4 ,the increase is very regular1 and seems to be a linear function of the height4 ,i have1 nevertheless1 found the smallest quantities of dust contained in the atmosphere or the lightest veil of cirrus disturbed the measurement very materially1 and generally made the potential lower4 ,in negative experiments of this nature ,i have made at ,breslau1 at the ,sohneekoppe1 and at the ,reisengebirge1 especially at the last station1 an increase of potential was observed1 not only by reason of the perpendicular height1 but also by reaching such regions of the atmosphere as were situated horizontally to about #bjj meters from the utmost steep of the same mountain1 ,sohneekoppe4 ,therefore it must1 according to ,mr4 ,exner1 be assumed that the surface of the air presents a surface of equal potential1 and that the falling surfaces of high potential were stretched parallel over the plane contours of the air1 and more thinly or narrow lying over all the elevated points1 as1 for example1 mountains1 church towers1 etc4 ,on the basis of these facts ,i think it easy to explain the electricity of thunder storm clouds1 in fact every cloud1 or every part of a cloud1 may be considered as a leading conductor1 such clouds as have for the most part perpendicular height4 ,after being induced the change results by supposing the conduction of electricity either from the upper or from the lower side1 according to greater or smaller speed of the air in the height4 ,in the first case the clouds will be charged positive1 in the other negative4 ,i am inclined1 therefore1 to state that the electricity of thunder storm clouds must be considered as a special but disturbed case of the normal electric state of the atmosphere1 and that all attempts to explain thunder storm electricity must be based on the study of the normal electric state of the atmosphere4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,linn,,us4#a ,footnote #a3 ,for the illustrations and many facts in the life of ,linnus we are indebted to the ,illustrated ,tidning1 ,stockholm4 ,,by ,c4,s4 ,,hallberg4 ,at intervals in the history of science1 long periods of comparative inertia have attended the death of its more distinguished workers4 ,as time progresses and the number of workers increases1 there is a corresponding increase in the number of men whose labors merit distinction in the literature of every language2 but as these accessions necessitate in most cases further division of the honors1 many names conspicuously identified with modern science fail of their just relative rank1 and fade into unmerited obscurity4 ,thus the earlier workers in science1 like ,scheele1 ,liebig1 ,humboldt1 and others of that and later periods1 have won imperishable fame1 to which we all delight to pay homage1 while others of more recent times1 whose contributions have perhaps been equally valuable for their respective periods1 are given stinted recognition of their services1 if indeed their names are not quite forgotten4 ,nothing illustrates so clearly the steps in the evolution of science as a review of the relative status of its representatives4 ,as in the political history of the world an epoch like that of the ,french revolution stands out like a mountain peak1 so in the history of science an epoch occurs rather by evolution than revolution1 when a hitherto chaotic1 heterogeneous mass of knowledge is rapidly given shape and systematized4 ,previous to the seventeenth century an immense mass of facts had accumulated through the labors of investigators working under the ,baconian philosophy1 but these facts had been thrown together in a confused1 unsystematic manner4 ,a man of master mind was then needed to grasp the wonders of nature and formulate the existing knowledge of them into a scientific system with a natural basis4 ,such a system was given by ,linnus1 and so great were its merits that it continues the foundation of all existing systems of classification4 ,charles ,linnus was born ,may #ac1 #agjg1 in a country place named ,roshult in ,smaland1 near ,skane1 ,sweden4 ,he was called ,charles after the well known ,swedish knight errant1 ,king ,charles ,,xii41 then at the height of his renown4 ,the natural beauty of his native place1 with its verdure-clad hills1 its stately trees1 and sparkling brooks fringed with mosses and flowers1 inspired the boy ,linnus with a love of nature and a devotion to her teachings which tinged the current of his whole life4 ,he was destined by his parents for the ministry1 and in accordance with their wish was sent to the ,vexio ,academy 7gymnasium74 ,here the dull theological studies interfered so much with his study of nature that he would have felt lost but for the sympathy of ,dr4 ,rothman1 one of his teachers1 a graduate of ,harderwyk ,university1 ,holland1 who had been a pupil of ,boerhaave 7the most eminent physician and scientist of his day71 and been much impressed by his scientific teachings4 ,illustration ,dr4 ,rothman took a great interest in ,linnus1 and assured his father that he would prove a great success financially and otherwise as a physician 7an occupation whose duties then included a study of all existing sciences74 ,the father was satisfied1 but dreaded the effect the announcement of such a career would have on the mother1 whose ambition had been to see her son's name among the long list of clergymen of the family who had been ministers to the neighboring church of ,stentrohult4 ,she finally yielded1 and the best possible use was made by ,linnus of ,dr4 ,rothman's tuition4 ,latin1 then the mother tongue of all scientists and scholars1 he wrote and spoke fluently4 ,at the age of twenty ,linnus entered the ,university of ,lund1 and remained there a year4 ,here he formed the acquaintance of a medical man1 a teacher in the university1 who opened his home and his library to him1 and took him on his botanical excursions and professional visits4 ,some time later1 on ,dr4 ,rothman's advice1 ,linnus entered the ,university of ,upsala1 then the most celebrated university of ,northern ,europe4 ,his parents were able to spare him but one hundred silver thalers for his expenses4 ,at the end of a year his money was spent1 his clothing and shoes were worn out1 and he was without prospects of obtaining a scholarship4 ,when things were at their gloomiest he accidentally entered into a discussion with a stranger in the botanical garden1 who turned out to be a clergyman scientist named ,celsius4 ,celsius1 while staying at ,upsala1 had conceived the plan of given a botanical description of biblical plants4 ,having learned that ,linnus had a herbarium of #fjj plants1 he took the young man under his protection1 and opened up to him his home and library4 ,while studying in this library1 his observations regarding the sexes in plants1 hitherto in a chaotic state1 took form1 stimulated by an abstract published in a ,german journal of ,vaillant's views1 and before the end of #agbi the basis of the sexual system had appeared in manuscript4 ,this treatise having been seen by a member of the university faculty1 ,linnus was invited to fill a temporary vacancy1 and lectured with great success therein one and a half years4 ,meanwhile the foundation of the celebrated treatises afterward published on the sexual system of classification and on plant nomenclature had been laid4 ,as in the history of most great men1 a seemingly great misfortune proved to be a turning point in his career4 ,the position he had temporarily filled with such credit to himself and profit to the students was claimed by its regular occupant1 and1 despite the opposition of the faculty1 ,linnus had to relinquish it4 ,the two subsequent years were spent in botanical investigations under the patronage of various eminent men4 ,during one of these he traveled through ,lapland to the shores of the ,polar ,sea1 and the results of this expedition were embodied in his ,lapland ,flora1 the first flora founded on the sexual system4 ,he delivered a peripatetic course of lectures1 and during one of these he formed the acquaintance of ,dr4 ,morus1 a pupil of the great ,boerhaave4 ,dr4 ,morus took ,linnus into partnership with him4 ,here again a seeming misfortune proved to be a great advantage4 ,linnus fell in love with the eldest daughter of ,dr4 ,morus1 but was denied her hand until he should graduate in medicine4 ,linnus1 to complete his studies as a physician1 then entered the ,university of ,harderwyk1 ,holland1 the alma mater of his first benefactor1 ,dr4 ,rothman1 and of the great ,boerhaave4 ,after two years' study he was graduated in medicine with high honors4 ,his thesis1 ,the ,cause of ,chills1 received special commendation4 ,he visited all the botanical gardens and other scientific institutions for which ,holland was then renowned4 ,a learned and wealthy burgomaster1 ,gronovius1 having read his ,systema ,natur in manuscript1 not only defrayed the cost of its publication1 but secured him the high honor of an interview with the great ,boerhaave--an honor for which even the ,czar ,peter the ,great had to beg4 ,boerhaave's interest was at once awakened1 and he gave ,linnus so strong a recommendation to ,dr4 ,burman1 of ,amsterdam1 that the influence of the scientific circles of the ,dutch metropolis was exerted in behalf of ,linnus1 and he was soon offered the position of physician superintendent of a magnificent botanical garden owned by a millionaire horticultural enthusiast1 ,clifford1 a director of the ,dutch ,east ,india ,company4 ,linnus' financial and scientific future was now secure4 ,publication of his works was insured1 and his position afforded him every opportunity for botanical research4 ,after five years' residence in ,holland1 during which he declined several positions of trust1 he determined to return to ,sweden4 ,his fame had become so widespread in ,western ,europe that his system was already adopted by scientists and made the basis of lectures at the ,dutch universities4 ,in the ,french metropolis he was greatly esteemed1 and during a visit thereto he was a highly distinguished guest4 ,illustration3 ,,roshult1 ,,sweden1 ,,birthplace ,,of ,,linn,,us4 ,his reception in ,sweden was rather frigid1 and but for the hearty welcome by his family and betrothed he would probably have returned to ,holland4 ,his amour propre was also doubtless wounded1 and he determined to remain and fight his way into the magic circle of the gilt-edged aristocracy which then monopolized all scientific honors in ,stockholm and the universities4 ,he acquired a great reputation for the treatment of lung disease1 and was popularly credited with the ability to cure consumption4 ,this reached the ears of the queen 7a sufferer from the disease71 who directed one of her councilors to send for ,linnus4 ,he soon recognized the name of ,linnus as one of great renown on the ,continent1 and at once took him under his protection4 ,the star of ,linnus was now in the ascendant4 ,he was soon delegated to various pleasant duties1 among which was the delivery of lectures on botany and mineralogy in the auditorium illustre at ,stockholm4 ,he at this time founded the ,swedish ,scientific ,academy1 and was its first president4 ,in #agda he was elected professor of medicine in ,upsala ,university1 which chair he exchanged for that of botany and the position of director of the botanical garden4 ,this opened up a new era for science in ,sweden4 ,he who was regarded as the world's greatest botanist abroad had at last been similarly acknowledged in his native land4 ,with the indomitable courage and tact characteristic of the man1 he set on foot a gigantic scientific popular educational project4 ,the government1 under his direction1 established a system of exploring expeditions into the fauna1 flora1 and mineralogy of the whole ,swedish peninsula1 partly for the purpose of developing the resources of the country1 partly in the interest of science1 but more especially to interest the mass of the people in scientific research4 ,the vast majority of the people of ,sweden1 like those of other countries1 were dominated by fetichic superstitions and absurd notions about plants and vegetables1 which were indorsed to a certain extent by popular handbooks devoted more to the dissemination of marvels than facts4 ,a popular clergyman1 for instance1 stated in a description of the maritime provinces that certain ducks grew upon trees4 ,the vast stride which was made by the populace in the knowledge of nature was due to these efforts of ,linnus1 who1 in order to further popularize science1 established and edited1 in conjunction with ,salvius1 a journal devoted to the discussion of natural history4 ,during this period1 on the first of ,may1 semi-weekly excursions were made from the university1 the public being invited to attend4 ,the people came to these excursions by hundreds1 and all classes were represented in them--physicians1 apothecaries1 preachers1 merchants1 and mechanics1 all joined the procession1 which left the university at seven in the morning1 to return at eve laden with zoological1 botanical1 and mineralogical specimens4 ,a man who could thus arouse popular enthusiasm for science a century and a half ago must have been a remarkable genius4 ,trusted students of ,linnus were sent on botanical exploring expeditions throughout the world4 ,the high renown in which ,linnus was held was shown in the significant title1 almost universally bestowed upon him1 of ,the ,flower ,king4--,western ,druggist4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,a ,,method ,,of ,,making ,,the ,,wave ,,length ,,of ,,sodium ,,light ,,the ,,actual ,,and ,,practical ,,standard ,,of ,,length4 ,,by ,,albert ,a4 ,,michelson ,,and ,,edward ,w4 ,,morley4 ,the first actual attempt to make the wave length of sodium light a standard of length was made by ,peirce4#a ,this method involves two distinct measurements3 first1 that of the angular displacement of the image of a slit by a diffraction grating1 and1 second1 that of the distance between the lines of the grating4 ,both of these are subject to errors due to changes of temperature and to instrumental errors4 ,the results of this work have not as yet been published2 but it is not probable that the degree of accuracy attained is much greater than one part in fifty or a hundred thousand4 ,more recently1 ,mr4 ,bell1 of the ,johns ,hopkins ,university1 using ,rowland's gratings1 has made a determination of the length of the wave of sodium light which is claimed to be accurate to one two hundred thousandth part#b4 ,if this claim is justified1 it is probably very near the limit of accuracy of which the method admits4 ,a short time before this1 another method was proposed by ,mace de ,lepinay4#c ,this consists in the calculation of the number of wave lengths between two surfaces of a cube of quartz4 ,besides the spectroscopic observations of ,talbot's fringes1 the method involves the measurement of the index of refraction and of the density of quartz1 and it is not surprising that the degree of accuracy attained was only one in fifty thousand4 ,footnote #a3 ,nature1 xx1 #ii1 #ahgi2 this ,journal1 ,,iii1 xviii1 #ea1 #ahgi4 ,footnote #b3 ,on the absolute wave lengths of light1 this ,journal1 ,,iii1 xxxiii1 #afg1 #ahhg4 ,footnote #c3 ,comptes ,rendus1 cii1 #aaec1 #ahhf2 ,journal1 de ,phys41 ,,ii1 v1 #daa1 #ahhf4 ,several years ago1 a method suggested itself which seemed likely to furnish results much more accurate than either of the foregoing1 and some preliminary experiments made in ,june have confirmed the anticipation4 ,the apparatus for observing the interference phenomena is the same as that used in the experiments on the relative motion of the earth and the luminiferous ether4 ,light from the source at s 7,fig4 #a71 a sodium flame1 falls on the plane parallel glass1 a1 and is divided1 part going to the plane mirror1 c1 and part to the plane mirror1 b4 ,these two pencils are returned along cae and bae1 and the interference of the two is observed in the telescope at e4 ,if the distances1 ac and ab1 are made equal1 the plane1 c1 made parallel with that of the image of b1 and the compensating glass1 d1 interposed1 the interference is at once seen4 ,if the adjustment be exact1 the whole field will be dark1 since one pencil experiences external reflection and the other internal4 ,if now b be moved parallel with itself a measured distance by means of the micrometer screw1 the number of alternations of light and darkness is exactly twice the number of wave lengths in the measured distance4 ,thus the determination consists absolutely of a measurement of a length and the counting of a number4 ,the degree of accuracy depends on the number of wave lengths which it is possible to count4 ,fizeau was unable to observe interference when the difference of path amounted to #ej1jjj wave lengths4 ,it seemed probable that with a smaller density of sodium vapor this number might be increased1 and the experiment was tried with metallic sodium in an exhausted tube provided with aluminum electrodes4 ,it was found possible to increase this number to more than #bjj1jjj4 ,now it is very easy to estimate tenths or even twentieths of a wave length1 which implies that it is possible to find the number of wave lengths in a given fixed distance between two planes with an error less than one part in two millions and probably one in ten millions4 ,but the distance corresponding to #djj1jjj wave lengths is roughly a decimeter1 and this cannot be determined or reproduced more accurately than say to one part in #ejj1jjj4 ,so it would be necessary to increase this distance4 ,this can be done by using the same instrument together with a comparer4 ,the intermediate standard decimeter1 lm 7,fig4 #b71 is put in place of the mirror1 b4 ,it consists of a prism of glass one decimeter long with one end1 l1 plane1 and the other slightly convex1 so that when it touches the plane1 m1 ,newton's rings appear1 and these serve to control any change in the distance1 lm1 which has been previously determined in wave lengths4 ,the end1 l1 is now adjusted so that colored fringes appear in white light4 ,these can be measured to within one-twentieth of a wave length1 and probably to within one-fiftieth4 ,the piece1 lm1 is then moved forward till the fringes again appear at m4 ,then the refractometer is moved in the same direction till the fringes appear again at l1 and so on till the whole meter has been stepped off4 ,supposing that in this operation the error in the setting of the fringes is always in the same direction1 the whole error in stepping off the meter would be one part in two millions4 ,by repetition this could of course be reduced4 ,a microscope rigidly attached to the carriage holding the piece1 lm1 would serve to compare1 and a diamond attached to the same piece would be used to produce copies4 ,all measurements would be made with the apparatus surrounded by melting ice1 so that no temperature corrections would be required4 ,probably there would be considerable difficulty in actually counting #djj1jjj wave lengths1 but this can be avoided by first counting the wave lengths and fractions in a length of one millimeter and using this to step off a centimeter4 ,this will give the nearest whole number of wave lengths1 and the fractions may be observed directly4 ,the centimeter is then used in the same way to step off a decimeter1 which again determines the nearest whole number1 the fraction being observed directly as before4 ,the fractions are determined as follows3 ,the fringes observed in the refractometer under the conditions above mentioned can readily be shown to be concentric circles4 ,the center has the minimum intensity when the difference in the distances1 ab1 ac1 is an exact number of wave lengths4 ,the diameters of the consecutive circles vary as the square roots of the corresponding number of waves4 ,therefore1 if x is the fraction of a wave length to be determined1 and y the diameter of the first dark ring1 d being the diameter of the ring corresponding to one wave length1 then x y_/d4 ,illustration3 ----- --- c ------------------------- ------------------------- l #b4 m --- ------------- --- _/ _/ ----------- - a_/ _/ _/ _/ b ,s----------_/_/d_/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/----- ------------ _/ 3 --------------- m e 3 ----------------------- 3 #a4 ,u ,there is a slight difficulty to be noted in consequence of the fact that there are two series of waves in sodium light4 ,the result of this superposition of these is that as the difference of path increases1 the interference becomes less distinct and finally disappears1 reappears1 and has a maximum of distinctness again1 when the difference of path is an exact multiple of both wave lengths4 ,thus there is an alternation of distinct interference fringes with uniform illumination4 ,if the length to be measured1 the centimeter for instance1 is such that the interference does not fall exactly at the maximum--to one side by1 say1 one-tenth the distance between two maxima1 there would be an error of one-twentieth of a wave length requiring an arithmetical correction4 ,among other substances tried in the preliminary experiments were thallium1 lithium1 and hydrogen4 ,all of these gave interference up to fifty to one hundred thousand wave lengths1 and could therefore all be used as checks on the determination with sodium4 ,it may be noted that in case of the red hydrogen line1 the interference phenomena disappeared at about #ae1jjj wave lengths1 and again at about #de1jjj wave lengths2 so that the red hydrogen line must be a double line with the components about one-sixtieth as distant as the sodium lines4--,amer4 ,jour4 ,science4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,rural ,,new ,,yorker ,,cold ,,storage ,,for ,,potatoes4 ,upon this subject ,i am able to speak with the freedom habitually enjoyed by some voluminous agricultural writers--my imagination will not be hampered by my knowledge4 ,in debatable climates1 like ,ohio1 ,illinois1 ,kansas and southward1 it is conceded that a great point would be gained by the discovery of some plan--not too expensive--that would make it safe to put away potatoes in the summer1 as soon as ripe1 so that they would go through the winter without sprouting and preserve their eating qualities till potatoes come again4 ,as it is1 digging must be deferred till late1 for fear of rot2 the fields of early varieties grow up with weeds after they are laid by4 ,in the spring a long interregnum is left between old potatoes fit to eat and the new crop1 and the seed stock of the country loses much of its vigor through sprouting in cellars and pits4 ,most farmers have had occasion to notice the difference between the yield from crisp1 unsprouted seed potatoes and that from the wilted1 sprouted tubers so often used4 ,some years ago ,professor ,beal made a test of this difference4 ,i speak from recollection1 but think ,i am right in saying that1 according to the published account which ,i saw1 he found one sprouting of seed potatoes lowered the yield #aj per cent42 each additional sprouting still further reduced the crop1 till finally there was no yield at all4 ,even a #aj per cent4 shrinkage in all that portion of the annual potato crop grown from sprouted seed would result in an aggregate loss of millions of bushels4 ,the question how to store potatoes and not have them sprout ,i have seen answered in the papers by recommending a cold cellar1 of about #dj degrees temperature4 ,if there are cellars that are cold in warm weather1 without the use of some artificial process1 ,i have not seen them4 ,the temperature of well water is about #de degrees only1 and anybody knows how much colder a well is than a cellar4 ,but the greatest difficulty comes in from the fact that potatoes are such a prolific source of heat in themselves4 ,if a #dj degree cellar could be found and be filled with potatoes1 the temperature would at once begin to rise1 and the later in the season1 the faster it would go up4 ,i repeat that a cellar filled with potatoes will have a much higher temperature than the same cellar would have if empty4 ,this ,i have learned as ,nimbus learned tobacco growing--by 'sposure4 ,i hope ,i won't be asked why4 ,i don't know4 ,the reason is unimportant4 ,the remedy is the thing4 ,the only help for it that ,i know of is to give the cellar plenty of ventilation1 put the potatoes in as clean as possible1 and then shovel them over every month or two4 ,this will keep the sprouting tendency in check very largely2 but it won't make it practicable to begin storing potatoes in ,july or cause them to keep in good flavor till ,june4 ,several years ago ,i placed some barrels of early ,ohio potatoes in the ,kansas ,city cold storage warehouses from ,march till ,july4 ,they were kept in a temperature of #ch degrees1 and came out crisp and very little sprouted4 ,the plan of this structure was very simple3 a three-story brick building so lined with matched lumber and tarred paper as to make three air-spaces around the wall4 ,in the top story was a great bulk of ice1 which was freely accessible to the air that1 when cooled1 passed through ducts to the different cool rooms4 ,the results were satisfactory1 but the system seemed too expensive for potatoes4 ,i have wondered whether it was necessary for potatoes to be kept as cold as #ch degrees4 ,would not a current of air passing through pipes showered with well water keep them cold enough8 ,wine vaults1 ,i believe1 are sometimes cooled by air currents forced through a cold water spray4 ,if the air blast of well water temperature would be sufficient1 the apparatus for producing it would be comparatively inexpensive--or at least much cheaper than those plans of cold storage where ice is stored in quantity over the cool room4 ,however1 any process that could be devised would probably be unprofitable to the small cropper1 and the larger the business done1 the less the cost per bushel4 ,if it should be found that individual operators could not reach such an improvement on a profitable scale1 why could not several of them pool their issues sufficiently to build1 jointly1 a potato elevator8 ,there are at least #ej1jjj bushels of potatoes held in store by farmers within three miles of where ,i live4 ,it seems to me there would be many advantages and economies in having that large stock under one roof1 one insurance1 one management2 on a side track where they could be loaded in any weather or state of the roads1 besides the great item that the temperature could be controlled1 by artificial means1 in one large building much cheaper than in several small ones4 ,,edwin ,,taylor4 ,edwardsville1 ,kans4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,knowledge4 ,a ,,fivefold ,,comet4 ,the figure illustrating this article is taken from ,l',astronomie1 and represents the remarkable southern comet of ,january1 #ahhg1 as drawn on successive days by ,mr4 ,finlay1 of ,cape ,town4 ,the comet was first seen by a farmer and a fisherman of ,blauwberg1 near ,cape ,town1 on the night of ,january #ah-ai4 ,the same night it was seen at the ,cordoba ,observatory by ,m4 ,thome4 ,on the next ,mr4 ,todd discovered it independently at the ,adelaide ,observatory1 and watched it till the #bgth4 ,on the #bb;d ,mr4 ,finlay detected the comet1 and was able to watch it till the #bith4 ,at ,rio de ,janeiro ,m4 ,cruls observed it from the #bc;d to the #beth2 and at ,windsor1 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,mr4 ,tebbutt observed the comet on the #bhth and #cjth4 ,moonlight interfered with further observations4 ,the comet's appearance was remarkable4 ,its tail1 long and straight1 extended over an arc of #cj degrees1 but there was no appreciable condensation which could be called the comet's head4 ,the long train of light1 described as nearly equal in brightness to the ,magellanic clouds1 seemed to be simply cut off at that end where in most comets a nucleus and coma are shown4 ,this comet has helped to throw light on one of the most perplexing puzzles which those most perplexing of all the heavenly bodies1 comets1 have presented to astronomers4 ,in the year #affh a comet was seen in the southern skies which attracted very little notice at the time1 and would probably have been little thought of since had not attention been directed to it by the appearance and behavior of certain comets seen during the last half century4 ,visible for about three weeks1 and discovered after it had already passed the point of its nearest approach to the sun1 the comet of #affh was not observed so satisfactorily that its orbit could be precisely determined4 ,in fact1 two entirely different orbits would satisfy the observations fairly1 though one only could be regarded as satisfying them well4 ,this orbit1 however1 was so remarkable that astronomers were led to prefer the other1 less satisfactory though it was1 in explaining the observed motions of the comet4 ,for the orbit which best explained the comet's movements carried the comet so close to the sun as actually to graze his visible surface4 ,moreover1 there was this remarkable1 and1 indeed1 absolutely unique peculiarity about the orbit thus assigned3 the comet 7whose period of revolution was to be measured by hundreds of years7 actually passed through the whole of that part of its course during which it was north of our earth's orbit plane in less than two hours and a half6 though this part of its course is a half circuit around the sun1 so far as direction 7not distance of travel7 is concerned4 ,that comet1 when at its nearest to the sun1 was traveling at the rate of about #ccj miles per second4 ,it passed through regions near the sun's surface commonly supposed to be occupied by atmospheric matter4 ,now1 had the comet been so far checked in its swift rush through those regions as to lose one thousandth part of its velocity1 it would have returned in less than a year4 ,but the way in which the comet retreated showed that nothing of this sort was to be expected4 ,i am not aware1 indeed1 that any anticipations were ever suggested in regard to the return of the comet of #affh to our neighborhood4 ,it was not till the time of ,halley's comet1 #afhb1 that modern astronomy began to consider the question of the possibly periodic character of cometic motions with attention4 7,for my own part1 ,i reject as altogether improbable the statement of ,seneca that the ancient ,chaldean astronomers could calculate the return of comets47 ,the comet of #afhj1 called ,newton's1 was the very first whose orbital motions were dealt with on the principles of ,newtonian astronomy1 and ,halley's was the first whose periodic character was recognized4 ,in #ahdc another comet came up from the south1 and presently returned thither4 ,it was1 indeed1 only seen during its return1 having1 like the comet of #affh1 been only discovered a day or two after perihelion passage4 ,astronomers soon began to notice a curious resemblance between the orbits of the two comets4 ,remembering the comparative roughness of the observations made in #affh1 it may be said that the two comets moved in the same orbit1 so far as could be judged from observation4 ,the comet of #ahdc came along a path inclined at apparently the same angle to the earth's orbit plane1 crossed that plane ascendingly at appreciably the same point1 swept round in about two hours and a half that part of its angular circuit which lay north of the earth's orbit plane1 and1 crossing that plane descendingly at the same point as the comet of #affh1 passed along appreciably the same course toward the southern stellar regions6 ,the close resemblance of two paths1 each so strikingly remarkable in itself1 could not well be regarded as a mere accidental coincidence4 ,illustration3 ,the ,constellations1 though unnamed1 can readily be identified1 when it is noted that the ,comet's course1 as here represented1 began in the constellation of the ,crane4 ,however1 at that time no very special attention was directed to the resemblance between the paths of the comets of #ahdc and #affh4 ,it was not regarded as anything very new or striking that a comet should return after making a wide excursion round the sun2 and those who noticed that the two comets really had traversed appreciably the same path around the immediate neighborhood of the sun1 simply concluded that the comet of #affh had come back in #ahdc1 after #age years1 and not necessarily for the first time4 ,it must be noticed1 however1 before leaving this part of the record1 that the comet of #ahdc was suspected of behaving in a rather strange way when near the sun4 ,for the first observation1 made rather roughly1 indeed1 with a sextant1 by a man who had no idea of the interest his observation might afterward have1 could not be reconciled by mathematicians 7including the well-known mathematician1 ,benjamin ,pierce7 with the movement of the comet as subsequently observed4 ,it seemed as though when in the sun's neighborhood the comet had undergone some disturbance1 possibly internal1 which had in slight degree affected its subsequent career4 ,according to some calculations1 the comet of #ahdc seemed to have a period of about thirty-five years1 which accorded well with the idea that it was the comet of #affh1 returned after five circuits4 ,nor was it deemed at all surprising that the comet1 conspicuous though it is1 had not been detected in #agac1 #agdh1 #aghc1 and #ahah1 for its path would carry it where it would be very apt to escape notice except in the southern hemisphere1 and even there it might quite readily be missed4 ,the appearance of the comet of #affh corresponded well with that of the comet of #ahdc4 ,each was remarkable for its extremely long tail and for the comparative insignificance of its head4 ,in the northern skies1 indeed1 the comet of #ahdc showed a very straight tail1 and it is usually depicted in that way1 whereas the comet of #affh had a tail showing curvature4 ,but pictures of the comet of #ahdc1 as seen in the southern hemisphere1 show it with a curved tail1 and also the tail appeared forked toward the end during that part of the comet's career4 ,however1 the best observations1 and the calculations based on them1 seemed to show that the period of the comet of #ahdc could not be less than #ejj years4 ,astronomers were rather startled1 therefore1 when1 in #ahhj1 a comet appeared in the southern skies which traversed appreciably the same course as the comets of #affh and #ahdc4 ,when ,i was in ,australia1 in #ahhj1 a few months after the great comet had passed out of view1 ,i met several persons who had seen both the comet of that year and the comet of #ahdc4 ,they all agreed in saying that the resemblance between the two comets was very close4 ,like the comet of #ahdc1 that of #ahhj had a singularly long tail1 and both comets were remarkable for the smallness and dimness of their heads4 ,one observer told me that at times the head of the comet of #ahhj could barely be discerned4 ,like the comets of #affh and #ahdc1 the comet of #ahhj grazed close past the sun's surface4 ,like them1 it was but about two hours and a half north of the earth's orbit place4 ,had it only resembled the other two in these remarkable characteristics1 the coincidence would have been remarkable4 ,but of course the real evidence by which the association between the comets was shown was of a more decisive kind4 ,it was not in general character only1 but in details1 that the path of the comet of #ahhj resembled those on which the other two comets had traveled4 ,its path had almost exactly the same slant to the earth's orbit plane as theirs1 crossed that plane ascendingly and descendingly at almost exactly the same points1 and made its nearest approach to the sun at very nearly the same place4 ,to the astronomer such evidence is decisive4 ,mr4 ,hind1 the superintendent of the ,nautical ,almanac1 and as sound and cautious a student of cometic astronomy as any man living1 remarked1 so soon as the resemblance of these comets' paths had been ascertained1 that if it were merely accidental1 the case was most unusual2 nay1 it might be described as unique4 ,and1 be it noticed1 he was referring only to the resemblance between the comets of #ahhj and #ahdc4 ,had he recalled at the time the comet of #affh1 and its closely similar orbit1 he would have admitted that the double coincidence could not possibly be merely casual4 ,but this was by no means the end of the matter4 ,indeed1 thus far1 although the circumstances were striking1 there was nothing to prevent astronomers from interpreting them as other cases of coincident1 or nearly coincident1 cometic paths had been interpreted4 ,hind and others1 myself included1 inferred that the comets of #ahhj1 #ahdc1 and #affh were simply one and the same comet1 whose return in #ahhj probably followed the return in #ahdc after a single revolution4 ,in #ahhb1 however1 two years and a half after the appearance of the comet of #ahhj1 another comet came up from the south1 which followed in the sun's neighborhood almost the same course as the comets of #affh1 #ahdc1 and #ahhj4 ,the path it followed was not quite so close to those followed by the other three as these had been to each other1 but yet was far too close to indicate possibly a mere casual resemblance2 on the contrary1 the resemblance in regard to shape1 slope1 and those peculiarities which render this family of comets unique in the cometary system1 was of the closest and most striking kind4 ,many will remember the startling ideas which were suggested1 by ,professor ,piazzi ,smyth respecting the portentous significance of the comet of #ahhb4 ,he regarded it as confirming the great pyramid's teaching 7according to the views of orthodox pyramidalists7 respecting the approaching end of the ,christian dispensation4 ,it was seen under very remarkable circumstances1 blazing close by the sun1 within a fortnight or three weeks of the precise date which had been announced as marking that critical epoch in the history of the earth4 ,moreover1 even viewing the matter from a scientific standpoint1 ,professor ,smyth 7who1 outside his pyramidal paradoxes1 is an astronomer of well deserved repute7 could recognize sufficient reason for regarding the comet as portentous4 ,many others1 indeed1 both in ,america and in ,europe1 shared his opinion in this respect4 ,a very slight retardation of the course of the comet of #ahhj1 during its passage close by the surface of the sun1 would have sufficed to alter its period of revolution from the thirty-seven years assigned on the supposition of its identity with the comet of #ahdc to the two and a half years indicated by its apparent return in #ahhb1 and if this had occurred in #ahhj1 a similar interruption in #ahcb would have caused its return in less than two and a half years4 ,thus1 circling in an ever narrowing 7or rather shortening7 orbit1 it would presently1 within a quarter of a century or so perhaps1 have become so far entangled among the atmospheric matter around the sun that it would have been unable to resist absolute absorption4 ,what the consequences to the solar system might have been1 none ventured to suggest4 ,newton had expressed his belief that the effects of such absorption would be disastrous1 but the physicists of the nineteenth century1 better acquainted with the laws associating heat and motion1 were not so despondent4 ,only ,professor ,smyth seems to have felt assured 7not being despondent1 but confident7 that the comet portended1 in a very decisive way1 the beginning of the end4 ,however1 we were all mistaken4 ,the comet of #ahhb retreated on such a course1 and with such variation of velocity1 as to show that its real period must be measured1 not by months1 as had been supposed1 nor even by years1 but by centuries4 ,probably it will not return till #fjj or #gjj years have passed4 ,had this not been proved1 we might have been not a little perplexed by the return of apparently the same comet in this present year4 ,a comet was discovered in the south early in ,january1 whose course1 dealt with by ,professor ,kruger1 one of the most zealous of our comet calculators1 is found to be partially identical with that of the four remarkable comets we have been considering4 ,astronomers have not been moved by this new visitant on the well-worn track as we were by the arrival of the comet of #ahhb1 or as we should have been if either the comet of #ahhb had never been seen or its path had not been shown to be so wide ranging4 ,whatever the comet of the present year may be1 it was not the comet of #ahhb returned4 ,no one even supposes that it was the comet of #ahhj1 or #ahdc1 or #affh4 ,nevertheless1 rightly apprehended1 the appearance of a comet traveling on appreciably the same track as those four other comets is of extreme interest1 and indeed practically decisive as to the interpretation we must place on these repeated coincidences4 ,observe1 we are absolutely certain that the five comets are associated together in some way2 but we are as absolutely certain that they are not one and the same comet which had traveled along the same track and returned after a certain number of circuits4 ,we need not trouble ourselves with the question whether two or more of the comets may not have been in reality one and the same body at different returns4 ,it suffices that they all five were not one2 since we deduce precisely the same conclusion whether we regard the five as in reality but four or three or two4 ,but it may be mentioned in passing as appearing altogether more probable1 when all the evidence is considered1 that there were no fewer than five distinct comets1 all traveling on what was practically the selfsame track when in the neighborhood of the sun4 ,there can be but one interpretation of this remarkable fact--a fact really proved1 be it noticed 7as ,i and others have maintained since the retreat of the comet of #ahhb71 independently of the evidence supplied by the great southern comet of the present year4 ,these comets must all originally have been one comet1 though now they are distinct bodies4 ,for there is no reasonable way 7indeed1 no possible way7 of imagining the separate formation of two or more comets at different times which should thereafter travel in the same path4 ,no theory of the origin of comets ever suggested1 none even which can be imagined1 could account for such a peculiarity4 ,whereas1 on the other hand1 we have direct evidence showing how a comet1 originally single1 may be transformed into two or more comets traveling on the same1 or nearly the same1 track4 ,the comet called ,biela's1 which had circuited as a single comet up to the year #ahdf 7during a period of unknown duration in the past--probably during millions of years71 divided then into two1 and has since broken up into so many parts that each cometic fragment is separately undiscernible4 ,the two comets into which ,biela's divided1 in #ahdf1 were watched long enough to show that had their separate existence continued 7visibly71 they would have been found1 in the fullness of time1 traveling at distances very far apart1 though on nearly the same orbit4 ,the distance between them1 which in #ahdf had increased only to about a quarter of a million of miles1 had in #aheb increased to five times that space4 ,probably a few thousands of years would have sufficed to set these comets so far apart 7owing to some slight difference of velocity1 initiated at the moment of their separation7 that when one would have been at its nearest to the sun1 the other would have been at its farthest from him4 ,if we could now discern the separate fragments of the comet1 we should doubtless recognize a process in progress by which1 in the course of many centuries1 the separate cometic bodies will be disseminated all round the common orbit4 ,we know1 further1 that already such a process has been at work on portions removed from the comet many centuries ago1 for as our earth passes through the track of this comet she encounters millions of meteoric bodies which are traveling in the comet's orbit1 and once formed part of the substance of a comet doubtless much more distinguished in appearance than ,biela's4 ,there can be little doubt that this is the true explanation of the origin of that family of comets1 five of whose members returned to the neighborhood of the sun 7possibly their parent7 in the years #affh1 #ahdc1 #ahhj1 #ahhb1 and #ahhg4a ,footnote #a3 ,it may be interesting to compare the orbital elements of the five comets above dealt with4 ,they may be presented as follows2 but it should be noticed that the determinations must be regarded as rough in the case of ,comets ,i4 and ,v41 as the observations were insufficient for exact determination of the elements3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,i4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,,iv4 ,v4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ #affh4 #ahdc4 #ahhj4 #ahhb4 #ahhg4 ,perih4 ,passage4 ,feb4 #bi ,feb4 #bg ,jan4 #bg ,sep4 #ag ,jan4 #aa ,log4 ,per4 ,dist4 #g4fgba #g4hcie #g4ggad #g4hhie #h4afdd ,long4 ,per4 #hj #ae' #gc #cj' #df #gd #aa' #ac #ee #cg' #bi #hi #da' ,long4 ,node4 #ceg #ag'cee #df' #dhcef #ag' #dcdf #a' #bgcei #da' ,inclination4 #abe #eh'adc #a' #caadc #g' #caada #ei' #djada #af' ,eccentricity4 #j4iiii #j4iiia #j4iiie #j4iii 444444 ,calculator4 ,henderson ,plantamour ,meyer ,kreutz ,finlay ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,but it is not merely as thus explaining what had been a most perplexing problem that ,i have dealt with the evidence supplied by the practical identity of these five comets' orbits4 ,when once we recognize that this1 and this only1 can be the explanation of the associated group of five comets1 we perceive that very interesting and important light has been thrown on the subject of comets generally4 ,to begin with3 what an amazing comet that must have been from which these five1 and we know not how many more1 were formed by disaggregative processes--probably by the divellent action of repulsive forces exerted by the sun6 ,those who remember the comets of #ahdc and #ahhb as they appeared when at their full splendor will be able to imagine how noble an appearance a comet would present which was formed of these combined together in one4 ,but the comet of #ahhj was described by all who saw it in the southern hemisphere as most remarkable in appearance1 despite the faintness of its head4 ,the great southern comet of the present year was a striking object in the skies1 though it showed the same weakness about the head4 ,that of #affh was probably as remarkable in appearance as even the comet of #ahhb4 ,a comet formed by combining all these together would certainly surpass in magnificence all the comets ever observed by astronomers4 ,and then1 what enormous periods of time must have been required to distribute the fragments of a single comet so widely that one would be found returning to its perihelion more than two centuries after another6 ,when ,i spoke of one member of the ,biela group being in aphelion when another would be in perihelion1 ,i was speaking of a difference of only three and one-third years in time2 and even that would require thousands of years4 ,but the scattered cometic bodies which returned to the sun's neighborhood in #affh and #ahhg speak probably of millions of years which have passed since first this comet was formed4 ,it would be a matter of curious inquiry to determine what may have been the condition of our sun1 what even his volume1 at that remote epoch in history4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,isolation ,,of ,,fluorine4 ,the element fluorine has at last been successfully isolated1 and its chief chemical and physical properties determined4 ,many chemists1 notably ,faraday1 ,gore1 ,pflaunder1 and ,brauner1 have endeavored to prepare this element in the free state1 but all attempts have hitherto proved futile4 ,m4 ,moissau1 after a long series of researches with the fluorides of phosphorus1 and the highly poisonous arsenic trifluoride1 has finally been able to liberate fluorine in the gaseous state from anhydrous hydrofluoric acid by electrolysis4 ,this acid in the pure state is not an electrolyte1 but when potassium fluoride is dissolved in it1 a current from ninety ,bunsen elements decomposes it1 evolving hydrogen from the negative and fluoride from the positive electrode4 ,illustration3 77 7-7 _/,a _/,a _/ ---- ----- _/_/ ,f ,h - -- - - -- - - - - - - -- - _/ - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - _/_/ _/ ,the apparatus employed in this process is constructed of platinum1 and is made in the form of a ,u tube1 as shown in the accompanying illustration1 with fluorspar stoppers1 through which the battery terminals1 made of platinum iridium alloy1 are led4 ,the gas is liberated at about the rate of two liters per hour1 and has very powerful chemical properties4 ,it smells somewhat like hypochlorous acid1 etches dry glass1 and decomposes water1 liberating ozone1 and forming hydrofluoric acid4 ,the non-metallic elements1 with the exception of chlorine1 oxygen1 nitrogen1 and carbon1 combine directly with it1 evolving in most cases both light and heat4 ,it combines with hydrogen1 even in the dark1 without the addition of any external energy1 and converts most metals into their fluorides4 ,gold and platinum are not attacked in the cold1 but when gently heated are easily corroded4 ,mercury readily dissolves the gas1 forming the protochloride2 iron wire also completely absorbs the gas1 while powdered antimony and lead take fire in it4 ,it is necessary in the electrolysis of the liquid hydrofluoric acid to cool the electrolytic cell by means of methyl chloride to -#ej ,c4 ,fluorine appears to thus fully confirm the predictions which have been made by chemists concerning its properties4 ,it is by far the1 most energetic of all the known elements1 and its position in the halogen series is established by its property of not liberating iodine from the iodides of potassium1 mercury1 and lead1 and also of setting free chlorine from potassium chloride4 ,with iodine it appears to form a fluoride4 ,no compound with oxygen has yet been obtained4--,industries4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,an ,,apparatus ,,for ,,preparing ,,sulphurous1 ,,carbonic1 ,,and ,,phosphoric ,,anhydrides4 ,,by ,h4,n4 ,,warren1 ,,research ,,analyst4 ,having had occasion to prepare a quantity of sulphurous anhydride1 for the purpose of reducing chromates previous to their analysis1 ,i made use of the following apparatus1 as represented in the accompanying figure4 ,it consists of a glass vessel1 ,a1 provided with three tubulars1 otherwise resembling a large ,wolff bottle1 the large tube1 ,b1 being provided with a stopper for the purpose of introducing pieces of sulphur from time to time into the small dish1 ,c1 intended for its reception1 and fed with air by means of the delivery tube1 ,d1 thus allowing the stream of gas caused by the consumption of the sulphur to escape by means of the exit tube1 ,e1 to the vessel desired to receive it4 ,illustration ,in using the apparatus the sulphur is first kindled by introducing a red hot wire through the tube1 ,b1 and replacing the stopper that has been momentarily removed for the introduction of the same4 ,a slight blast is now maintained from the bellows that are in connection with the pipe1 ,d1 until the whole of the sulphur is thoroughly kindled1 when a somewhat more powerful blast may be applied4 ,when the apparatus above described is in full working order1 from #b to #c lb4 of sodium carbonate may be converted into sodium sulphite in less than half an hour1 or several gallons of water saturated4 ,i have also on connecting the apparatus with a powerful refrigerator obtained in a short time a large quantity of liquid ,,so#b4 ,it will be found advantageous1 however1 during the preparation of sulphurous anhydride1 to employ a layer of water covering the bottom of the vessel to about #a inch in depth4 ,carbonic anhydride and phosphoric anhydride may also be readily obtained in any desired quantity by slight alteration2 but in case of phosphorus the air must be allowed to enter only gently1 since a rapid current would at all times determine the fracture of the vessel4--,chem4 ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,arrangement ,,of ,,atoms ,,in ,,space ,,in ,,organic ,,molecules4#a ,footnote #a3 ,ueber die raumliche ,anordnung der ,atome in organischen ,molekulen1 and ihre ,bestimmung in geometrisch-isomeren ungesattigten ,verbindungen4 ,von ,johannes ,wislicenus4--,abhandlungen der mathemalisch-physischen ,klasse der ,konigl4 ,sachsischen ,gesellschaft der ,wissenechaften4 ,band ,,xiv41 ,no4 #a4 ,the expression chemical structure1 as commonly used by chemists1 has1 as is well known1 nothing to do with the arrangement of atoms in space4 ,the structural formula does not profess to represent spatial relations1 but simply the connections which1 after a careful study of the transformations and modes of formation of the compound represented1 are believed to exist between the atoms4 ,nevertheless1 although we do not commonly consider the question of space relations1 it is clear that atoms must have some definite positions in space in the molecules1 and the only reason why we do not represent these positions is because we know practically nothing about them4 ,the most definite suggestion concerning space relations of atoms which has been made is that of ,le ,bel and ,van't ,hoff4 ,the well known hypothesis of these authors was put forward to account for a certain kind of so-called physical isomerism which shows itself in the action of substances upon polarized light4 ,since this hypothesis was proposed1 the number of cases of abnormal isomerism1 that is to say1 of cases of isomerism which cannot be accounted for by the commonly accepted method of explaining structure1 has increased to a considerable extent1 and the necessity for some new hypothesis1 or for some modification of the old ones1 has come to be pretty generally recognized4 ,among the cases of isomerism which it is at least difficult to explain by the aid of the prevailing views are those of maleic and fumaric acids2 citraconic and mesaconic acids2 certain halogen derivatives of crotonic acid and of cinnamic acid2 and coumaric and coumarinic acids4 ,more than one hypothesis has been proposed to account for these cases of isomerism1 but no one has shown itself to be entirely satisfactory4 ,quite recently ,johannes ,wislicenus1 ,professor of ,chemistry in the ,university of ,liepsic1 has made what has the appearance of being an important contribution toward the solution of the problem referred to4 ,the author shows that many of the facts known in regard to the relations between maleic and fumaric acids1 and the other substances which furnish examples of abnormal isomerism1 may be explained by the aid of an extension of the ,le ,bel-,van't ,hoff hypothesis4 ,it is difficult without the aid of models to give a clear idea concerning the hypothesis of ,wislicenus1 but some idea of it may be gained from the following4 ,if we suppose a carbon atom to exert its affinities in the directions of the solid angles of a tetrahedron1 as is done in the ,le ,bel-,van't ,hoff hypothesis1 then1 when two carbon atoms unite1 as in ethane1 the union will be between two solid angles of two tetrahedrons4 ,if the two carbon atoms unite by the ethylene kind of union1 the union will be along a line corresponding to one of the edges of each tetrahedron4 ,in the former case1 in which single union exists1 the two parts of the molecule represented by the two tetrahedrons can be supposed to be capable of revolving around an axis either in the same direction or in opposite directions4 ,this axis corresponds to the straight line joining the two carbon atoms4 ,in the case in which double union exists no such revolution is possible4 ,again1 if1 by addition to an unsaturated compound like ethylene1 a saturated compound is formed1 the kind of union between the carbon atoms is changed1 and the possibility of revolution of the two parts of the compound is given4 ,whether such revolution take place or not will be determined largely by the structure of the compound4 ,the tendency will be for those parts of the molecule which have the greatest specific affinity for one another to take those positions in which they are nearest to one another4 ,thus1 suppose that chlorine is added to ethylene4 ,by following the change on the model1 it is seen that in the resulting figure the two chlorine atoms in ethylene chloride are situated at angles of the two tetrahedrons which are nearest each other4 ,but chlorine has a stronger affinity for hydrogen than it has for chlorine1 and therefore each chlorine atom would tend to get as near a hydrogen atom as possible4 ,this involves a partial revolution of the two tetrahedrons in opposite directions around their common axis4 ,so also hydrogen would tend to take a position as near as possible to hydroxyl and to carboxyl1 while hydroxyl would avoid hydroxyl1 and carboxyl would avoid carboxyl4 ,these views are suggested as a result of a careful application of the original ,le ,bel-,van't ,hoff hypothesis1 and are1 of course1 of little value unless they can be shown to be in accordance with the facts4 ,the chief merit of the work of ,wislicenus consists in the fact that he has shown that a large number of phenomena which have been observed in the study of such cases of isomerism as were mentioned above find a ready explanation in terms of the new hypothesis1 whereas for most of these phenomena no explanation whatever has thus far been presented4 ,the most marked case presented is that of maleic and fumaric acids4 ,one by one1 the author discusses the transformations of these acids and their substitution products1 and becomes to this conclusion3 ,there is not to my knowledge a single fact known in regard to the relations between fumaric and maleic acids which is not explained by the aid of the above geometrical considerations1 not one which does not clearly support the new hypothesis4 ,among the facts which he discusses in the light of the hypothesis are these3 ,the formation of fumaric and maleic acids from malic acid2 the quantitative transformation of maleic into fumaric acid by contact with strong acids2 the transformation of the ethereal salts of maleic acid into those of fumaric acid by the action of a minute quantity of free iodine2 the formation of brommaleic acid and hydrobromic acid from the dibromsuccinic acid formed by the addition of two bromine atoms to fumaric acid2 the formation of dibromsuccinic acid from brommaleic acid and of isodibromsuccinic acid from bromfumaric acid by the action of fuming hydrobromic acid2 the conversion of brommaleic acid into fumaric and then into succinic acid by the action of sodium amalgam2 the formation of one and the same tribromsuccinic acid by the action of bromine on brommaleic and on bromfumaric acid2 and finally1 the conversion of maleic into inactive tartaric acid1 and of fumaric into racemic acid by potassium permanganate4 ,all these facts are shown to find a ready explanation by the aid of the new hypothesis4 ,further1 it is shown that the decompositions of the salts of certain halogen derivatives of organic acids1 which give up halogen salt and carbon dioxide1 as well as the formation of lactones and of anhydrides of dibasic acids1 are in perfect harmony with the hypothesis4 ,but the only way to get a clear conception in regard to the mass of material which the author has brought together and which he has shown to support his hypothesis is by a careful study of the original paper1 and the object of this notice is mainly to call the attention of ,american chemists to it4 ,as to the question what value to attach to the speculations which ,wislicenus has brought to our notice1 it is difficult to give any but a general answer4 ,no one can well have a greater fear of mere speculation1 which is indulged in independently of the facts1 than the writer of this notice4 ,great harm has been done chemistry1 and probably every other branch of knowledge1 by unwarranted speculation1 and every one who has looked into the matter knows how extremely difficult it is to emancipate one's self from the influence of a plausible hypothesis1 even when it can be shown that it is not in accordance with the facts4 ,it behooves every one1 therefore1 before accepting a new hypothesis1 no matter how fascinating it may appear at first sight1 to look carefully into the facts1 and to endeavor to determine independently whether it is well founded or not4 ,on the other hand1 there is some danger to be apprehended from a tendency1 sometimes observed1 to denounce everything speculative1 no matter how broad the basis of facts upon which it rests may be4 ,without legitimate speculation1 it is clear that there could be no great progress in any subject4 ,as far as the hypothesis under consideration is concerned1 the writer is firmly of the opinion that it is likely to prove of great value in dealing with a large number of chemical facts1 and that1 as it suggests many lines of research1 it will undoubtedly in the course of a few years exert a profound influence on chemistry4 ,whether the evidence which will be accumulated will or will not confirm the view that the tetrahedron form is characteristic of the simplest molecules of carbon compounds is not the most important question to be asked under the circumstances4 ,we should rather ask whether the testing of the hypothesis is or is not likely to bring us nearer to the truth4 ,it is a proposition that admits of no denial that a hypothesis which can be tested by experiment1 and which suggests lines of work and stimulates workers to follow them1 is a gain to science1 no matter what the ultimate fate of the hypothesis may be4--,amer4 ,chem4 ,jour4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,great ,,warmth ,,in ,,paper4 ,it should be thoroughly understood by all that any common paper1 coarse wrapping paper1 new or old newspapers1 etc41 are admirable to keep out cold or keep in warmth4 ,the blood of all domestic animals1 as well as of human beings1 must be always kept very near #ih degrees1 just as much in winter as in summer4 ,and this heat always comes from within the body1 whenever the atmosphere is not above #ih degrees temperature4 ,so long as the air is cooler than this1 the heat produced inside the body is escaping4 ,heat seeks a level4 ,if there is more in one of two bodies or substances side by side1 the heat will pass from the warmer into the colder1 until they are both of the same temperature4 ,moving air carries away vastly more heat than still air4 ,the thin film of air next to the body soon gets warm from it4 ,but if that air is moved along1 slowly or swiftly1 by a breeze1 be it ever so gentle1 new cooler air takes its place1 and abstracts more heat from the body4 ,anything that keeps the air next to the bodies of men and of animals from moving1 checks the escape of heat4 ,the thinnest paper serves to keep the air quiet4 ,a newspaper laid on a bed acts much as a coverlid to keep a film or layer of air quiet1 and thus less heat escapes from the bodies of the sleepers4 ,if paper is pasted up over the cracks of a house1 or of a barn or stable1 or under the joists of a house floor1 it has just the same effect4 ,every person who keeps animals will find it a wonderful and paying protection to them1 to put against the walls one1 two1 three1 or more layers of newspapers during cold weather4 ,if a person in riding finds his garments too cool1 a newspaper placed under the coat or vest1 or under or over the trousers1 even if only on the side next the wind1 will do a great deal to check the outflow of heat1 and keep him warm4 ,two or three thicknesses of newspaper crumpled a little1 and put under the coat or overcoat1 are almost as effective in keeping in warmth as an extra garment4 ,a slight crumpling keeps them a little separate1 and makes additional thin layers of air4 ,further3 ,heat does not pass through films of still air4 ,fibrous woolens1 furs1 loosely woven cotton1 down1 and the like1 contain a great deal of air confined in the meshes1 and are therefore excellent conservers of heat4 ,double walls of stone1 brick1 or wood1 or even of wall or roofing paper1 double glass1 double layers of anything that will have thin layers of still air between them1 prevent the escape of heat greatly4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,,architects ,,and ,,builders ,,edition4 #b4ej ,a ,year4 ,single ,copies1 #be ,cts4 ,this is a ,special ,edition of the ,,scientific ,,american1 issued monthly--on the first day of the month4 ,each number contains about forty large quarto pages1 equal to about two hundred ordinary book pages1 forming1 practically1 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