,transcriber's ,note3 ,this e-text contains a number of unusual characters3 a-macron e-macron e-breve i-macron oe ligature ,if they do not display properly1 use the transliterated version instead4 ,ancient ,art and ,ritual ,,jane ,,ellen ,,harrison ,geoffrey ,cumberlege ,,oxford ,,university ,,press ,,london ,,new ,,york ,,toronto ,first published in #aiac1 and reprinted in #aiah 7revised71 #aiai1 #aibg1 #aice and #aidh ,,printed ,,in ,,great ,,britain ,,prefatory ,,note ,it may be well at the outset to say clearly what is the aim of the present volume4 ,the title is ,ancient ,art and ,ritual1 but the reader will find in it no general summary or even outline of the facts of either ancient art or ancient ritual4 ,these facts are easily accessible in handbooks4 ,the point of my title and the real gist of my argument lie perhaps in the word and--that is1 in the intimate connection which ,i have tried to show exists between ritual and art4 ,this connection has1 ,i believe1 an important bearing on questions vital to-day1 as1 for example1 the question of the place of art in our modern civilization1 its relation to and its difference from religion and morality2 in a word1 on the whole enquiry as to what the nature of art is and how it can help or hinder spiritual life4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i have taken ,greek drama as a typical instance1 because in it we have the clear historical case of a great art1 which arose out of a very primitive and almost world-wide ritual4 ,the rise of the ,indian drama1 or the medival and from it the modern stage1 would have told us the same tale and served the like purpose4 ,but ,greece is nearer to us to-day than either ,india or the ,middle ,ages4 99 99 99 99 99 ,greece and the ,greek drama remind me that ,i should like to offer my thanks to ,professor ,gilbert ,murray1 for help and criticism which has far outrun the limits of editorial duty4 ,j4,e4,h4 ,newnham ,college1 ,cambridge1 ,june #aiac4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,note ,,to ,,the ,,fifth ,,impression ,the original text has been reprinted without change except for the correction of misprints4 ,a few additions 7enclosed in square brackets7 have been made to the ,bibliography4 #aidg ,,contents ,,chap4 ,,page ,i ,,art ,,and ,,ritual #i ,,ii ,,primitive ,,ritual3 ,,pantomimic ,,dances #bi ,,iii ,,periodic ,,ceremonies3 ,,the ,,spring ,,festival #di ,,iv ,,the ,,primitive ,,spring ,,dance ,,or ,,dithyramb1 ,,in ,,greece #ge ,v ,,the ,,transition ,,from ,,ritual ,,to ,,art3 ,,the ,,dromenon ,,and ,,the ,,drama #aai ,,vi ,,greek ,,sculpture3 ,,the ,,panathenaic ,,frieze ,,and ,,the ,,apollo ,,belvedere #agj ,,vii ,,ritual1 ,,art ,,and ,,life #bjd ,,bibliography #bec ,,index #bee ,,ancient ,,art ,,and ,,ritual ,,chapter ,i ,,art ,,and ,,ritual ,the title of this book may strike the reader as strange and even dissonant4 ,what have art and ritual to do together8 ,the ritualist is1 to the modern mind1 a man concerned perhaps unduly with fixed forms and ceremonies1 with carrying out the rigidly prescribed ordinances of a church or sect4 ,the artist1 on the other hand1 we think of as free in thought and untrammelled by convention in practice2 his tendency is towards licence4 ,art and ritual1 it is quite true1 have diverged to-day2 but the title of this book is chosen advisedly4 ,its object is to show that these two divergent developments have a common root1 and that neither can be understood without the other4 ,it is at the outset one and the same impulse that sends a man to church and to the theatre4 99 99 99 99 99 ,such a statement may sound to-day paradoxical1 even irreverent4 ,but to the ,greek of the sixth1 fifth1 and even fourth century ,b4,c41 it would have been a simple truism4 ,we shall see this best by following an ,athenian to his theatre1 on the day of the great ,spring ,festival of ,dionysos4 ,passing through the entrance-gate to the theatre on the south side of the ,acropolis1 our ,athenian citizen will find himself at once on holy ground4 ,he is within a temenos or precinct1 a place cut off from the common land and dedicated to a god4 ,he will pass to the left 7,fig4 #b1 p4 #add7 two temples standing near to each other1 one of earlier1 the other of later date1 for a temple1 once built1 was so sacred that it would only be reluctantly destroyed4 ,as he enters the actual theatre he will pay nothing for his seat2 his attendance is an act of worship1 and from the social point of view obligatory2 the entrance fee is therefore paid for him by the ,state4 ,the theatre is open to all ,athenian citizens1 but the ordinary man will not venture to seat himself in the front row4 ,in the front row1 and that only1 the seats have backs1 and the central seat of this row is an armchair2 the whole of the front row is permanently reserved1 not for individual rich men who can afford to hire boxes1 but for certain ,state officials1 and these officials are all priests4 ,on each seat the name of the owner is inscribed2 the central seat is of the priest of ,dionysos ,eleuthereus1 the god of the precinct4 ,near him is the seat of the priest of ,apollo the ,laurel-,bearer1 and again of the priest of ,asklepios1 and of the priest of ,olympian ,zeus1 and so on round the whole front semicircle4 ,it is as though at ,his ,majesty's the front row of stalls was occupied by the whole bench of bishops1 with the ,archbishop of ,canterbury enthroned in the central stall4 ,the theatre at ,athens is not open night by night1 nor even day by day4 ,dramatic performances take place only at certain high festivals of ,dionysos in winter and spring4 ,it is1 again1 as though the modern theatre was open only at the festivals of the ,epiphany and of ,easter4 ,our modern1 at least our ,protestant1 custom is in direct contrast4 ,we tend on great religious festivals rather to close than to open our theatres4 ,another point of contrast is in the time allotted to the performance4 ,we give to the theatre our after-dinner hours1 when work is done1 or at best a couple of hours in the afternoon4 ,the theatre is for us a recreation4 ,the ,greek theatre opened at sunrise1 and the whole day was consecrated to high and strenuous religious attention4 ,during the five or six days of the great ,dionysia1 the whole city was in a state of unwonted sanctity1 under a taboo4 ,to distrain a debtor was illegal2 any personal assault1 however trifling1 was sacrilege4 ,most impressive and convincing of all is the ceremony that took place on the eve of the performance4 ,by torchlight1 accompanied by a great procession1 the image of the god ,dionysos himself was brought to the theatre and placed in the orchestra4 ,moreover1 he came not only in human but in animal form4 ,chosen young men of the ,athenians in the flower of their youth--epheboi--escorted to the precinct a splendid bull4 ,it was expressly ordained that the bull should be worthy of the god2 he was1 in fact1 as we shall presently see1 the primitive incarnation of the god4 ,it is1 again1 as though in our modern theatre there stood1 sanctifying all things to our use and us to ,his service1 the human figure of the ,saviour1 and beside him the ,paschal ,lamb4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but now we come to a strange thing4 ,a god presides over the theatre1 to go to the theatre is an act of worship to the god ,dionysos1 and yet1 when the play begins1 three times out of four of ,dionysos we hear nothing4 ,we see1 it may be1 ,agamemnon returning from ,troy1 ,clytemnestra waiting to slay him1 the vengeance of ,orestes1 the love of ,phdra for ,hippolytos1 the hate of ,medea and the slaying of her children3 stories beautiful1 tragic1 morally instructive it may be1 but scarcely1 we feel1 religious4 ,the orthodox ,greeks themselves sometimes complained that in the plays enacted before them there was nothing to do with ,dionysos4 ,if drama be at the outset divine1 with its roots in ritual1 why does it issue in an art profoundly solemn1 tragic1 yet purely human8 ,the actors wear ritual vestments like those of the celebrants at the ,eleusinian mysteries4 ,why1 then1 do we find them1 not executing a religious service or even a drama of gods and goddesses1 but rather impersonating mere ,homeric heroes and heroines8 ,greek drama1 which seemed at first to give us our clue1 to show us a real link between ritual and art1 breaks down1 betrays us1 it would seem1 just at the crucial moment1 and leaves us with our problem on our hands4 ,had we only ,greek ritual and art we might well despair4 ,the ,greeks are a people of such swift constructive imagination that they almost always obscure any problem of origins4 ,so fair and magical are their cloud-capp'd towers that they distract our minds from the task of digging for foundations4 ,there is scarcely a problem in the origins of ,greek mythology and religion that has been solved within the domain of ,greek thinking only4 ,ritual with them was1 in the case of drama1 so swiftly and completely transmuted into art that1 had we had ,greek material only to hand1 we might never have marked the transition4 ,happily1 however1 we are not confined within the ,greek paradise4 ,wider fields are open to us2 our subject is not only ,greek1 but ancient art and ritual4 ,we can turn at once to the ,egyptians1 a people slower-witted than the ,greeks1 and watch their sluggish but more instructive operations4 ,to one who is studying the development of the human mind the average or even stupid child is often more illuminating than the abnormally brilliant4 ,greece is often too near to us1 too advanced1 too modern1 to be for comparative purposes instructive4 99 99 99 99 99 ,of all ,egyptian1 perhaps of all ancient deities1 no god has lived so long or had so wide and deep an influence as ,osiris4 ,he stands as the prototype of the great class of resurrection-gods who die that they may live again4 ,his sufferings1 his death1 and his resurrection were enacted year by year in a great mystery-play at ,abydos4 ,in that mystery-play was set forth1 first1 what the ,greeks call his agon1 his contest with his enemy ,set2 then his pathos1 his suffering1 or downfall and defeat1 his wounding1 his death1 and his burial2 finally1 his resurrection and recognition1 his anagnorisis either as himself or as his only begotten son ,horus4 ,now the meaning of this thrice-told tale we shall consider later3 for the moment we are concerned only with the fact that it is set forth both in art and ritual4 ,at the festival of ,osiris small images of the god were made of sand and vegetable earth1 his cheek bones were painted green and his face yellow4 ,the images were cast in a mould of pure gold1 representing the god as a mummy4 ,after sunset on the #bdth day of the month ,choiak1 the effigy of ,osiris was laid in a grave and the image of the previous year was removed4 ,the intent of all this was made transparently clear by other rites4 ,at the beginning of the festival there was a ceremony of ploughing and sowing4 ,one end of the field was sown with barley1 the other with spelt2 another part with flax4 ,while this was going on the chief priest recited the ritual of the sowing of the fields4 ,into the garden of the god1 which seems to have been a large pot1 were put sand and barley1 then fresh living water from the inundation of the ,nile was poured out of a golden vase over the garden and the barley was allowed to grow up4 ,it was the symbol of the resurrection of the god after his burial1 for the growth of the garden is the growth of the divine substance4 ,the death and resurrection of the gods1 and pari passu of the life and fruits of the earth1 was thus set forth in ritual1 but--and this is our immediate point--it was also set forth in definite1 unmistakable art4 ,in the great temple of ,isis at ,phil there is a chamber dedicated to ,osiris4 ,here is represented the dead ,osiris4 ,out of his body spring ears of corn1 and a priest waters the growing stalk from a pitcher4 ,the inscription to the picture reads3 ,this is the form of him whom one may not name1 ,osiris of the mysteries1 who springs from the returning waters4 ,it is but another presentation of the ritual of the month ,choiak1 in which effigies of the god made of earth and corn were buried4 ,when these effigies were taken up it would be found that the corn had sprouted actually from the body of the god1 and this sprouting of the grain would1 as ,dr4 ,frazer says1 be hailed as an omen1 or rather as the cause of the growth of the crops4#a ,even more vividly is the resurrection set forth in the bas-reliefs that accompany the great ,osiris inscription at ,denderah4 ,here the god is represented at first as a mummy swathed and lying flat on his bier4 ,bit by bit he is seen raising himself up in a series of gymnastically impossible positions1 till at last he rises from a bowl--perhaps his garden--all but erect1 between the outspread wings of ,isis1 while before him a male figure holds the crux ansata1 the cross with a handle1 the ,egyptian symbol of life4 ,in ritual1 the thing desired1 i4e4 the resurrection1 is acted1 in art it is represented4 ,no one will refuse to these bas-reliefs the title of art4 ,in ,egypt1 then1 we have clearly an instance--only one out of many--where art and ritual go hand in hand4 ,countless bas-reliefs that decorate ,egyptian tombs and temples are but ritual practices translated into stone4 ,this1 as we shall later see1 is an important step in our argument4 ,ancient art and ritual are not only closely connected1 not only do they mutually explain and illustrate each other1 but1 as we shall presently find1 they actually arise out of a common human impulse4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the god who died and rose again is not of course confined to ,egypt2 he is world-wide4 ,when ,ezekiel 7viii4 #ad7 came to the gate of the ,lord's house which was toward the north he beheld there the women weeping for ,tammuz4 ,this abomination the house of ,judah had brought with them from ,babylon4 ,tammuz is ,dumuzi1 the true son1 or more fully1 ,dumuzi-absu1 true son of the waters4 ,he too1 like ,osiris1 is a god of the life that springs from inundation and that dies down in the heat of the summer4 ,in ,milton's procession of false gods1 ,thammuz came next behind1 ,whose annual wound in ,lebanon allured ,the ,syrian damsels to lament his fate ,in amorous ditties all a summer's day4 ,tammuz in ,babylon was the young love of ,ishtar4 ,each year he died and passed below the earth to the place of dust and death1 the land from which there is no returning1 the house of darkness1 where dust lies on door and bolt4 ,and the goddess went after him1 and while she was below1 life ceased in the earth1 no flower blossomed and no child of animal or man was born4 ,we know ,tammuz1 the true son1 best by one of his titles1 ,adonis1 the ,lord or ,king4 ,the ,rites of ,adonis were celebrated at midsummer4 ,that is certain and memorable2 for1 just as the ,athenian fleet was setting sail on its ill-omened voyage to ,syracuse1 the streets of ,athens were thronged with funeral processions1 everywhere was seen the image of the dead god1 and the air was full of the lamentations of weeping women4 ,thucydides does not so much as mention the coincidence1 but ,plutarch#b tells us those who took account of omens were full of concern for the fate of their countrymen4 ,to start an expedition on the day of the funeral rites of ,adonis1 the ,canaanitish ,lord1 was no luckier than to set sail on a ,friday1 the death-day of the ,lord of ,christendom4 ,the rites of ,tammuz and of ,adonis1 celebrated in the summer1 were rites of death rather than of resurrection4 ,the emphasis is on the fading and dying down of vegetation rather than on its upspringing4 ,the reason of this is simple and will soon become manifest4 ,for the moment we have only to note that while in ,egypt the rites of ,osiris are represented as much by art as by ritual1 in ,babylon and ,palestine in the feasts of ,tammuz and ,adonis it is ritual rather than art that obtains4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have now to pass to another enquiry4 ,we have seen that art and ritual1 not only in ,greece but in ,egypt and ,palestine1 are closely linked4 ,so closely1 indeed1 are they linked that we even begin to suspect they may have a common origin4 ,we have now to ask1 what is it that links art and ritual so closely together1 what have they in common8 ,do they start from the same impulse1 and if so why do they1 as they develop1 fall so widely asunder8 ,it will clear the air if we consider for a moment what we mean by art1 and also in somewhat greater detail what we mean by ritual4 99 99 99 99 99 ,art1 ,plato#c tells us in a famous passage of the ,republic1 is imitation2 the artist imitates natural objects1 which are themselves in his philosophy but copies of higher realities4 ,all the artist can do is to make a copy of a copy1 to hold up a mirror to ,nature in which1 as he turns it whither he will1 are reflected sun and heavens and earth and man1 anything and everything4 ,never did a statement so false1 so wrong-headed1 contain so much suggestion of truth--truth which1 by the help of analysing ritual1 we may perhaps be able to disentangle4 ,but first its falsehood must be grasped1 and this is the more important as ,plato's misconception in modified form lives on to-day4 ,a painter not long ago thus defined his own art3 ,the art of painting is the art of imitating solid objects upon a flat surface by means of pigments4 ,a sorry life-work6 ,few people to-day1 perhaps1 regard art as the close and realistic copy of ,nature2 photography has at least scotched1 if not slain1 that error2 but many people still regard art as a sort of improvement on or an idealization of ,nature4 ,it is the part of the artist1 they think1 to take suggestions and materials from ,nature1 and from these to build up1 as it were1 a revised version4 ,it is1 perhaps1 only by studying those rudimentary forms of art that are closely akin to ritual that we come to see how utterly wrong-headed is this conception4 ,take the representations of ,osiris that we have just described--the mummy rising bit by bit from his bier4 ,can any one maintain that art is here a copy or imitation of reality8 ,however realistic the painting1 it represents a thing imagined not actual4 ,there never was any such person as ,osiris1 and if there had been1 he would certainly never1 once mummified1 have risen from his tomb4 ,there is no question of fact1 and the copy of fact1 in the matter4 ,moreover1 had there been1 why should anyone desire to make a copy of natural fact8 ,the whole imitation theory1 to which1 and to the element of truth it contains1 we shall later have occasion to return1 errs1 in fact1 through supplying no adequate motive for a widespread human energy4 ,it is probably this lack of motive that has led other theorizers to adopt the view that art is idealization4 ,man with pardonable optimism desires1 it is thought1 to improve on ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,modern science1 confronted with a problem like that of the rise of art1 no longer casts about to conjecture how art might have arisen1 she examines how it actually did arise4 ,abundant material has now been collected from among savage peoples of an art so primitive that we hesitate to call it art at all1 and it is in these inchoate efforts that we are able to track the secret motive springs that move the artist now as then4 ,among the ,huichol ,indians1#d if the people fear a drought from the extreme heat of the sun1 they take a clay disk1 and on one side of it they paint the face of ,father ,sun1 a circular space surrounded by rays of red and blue and yellow which are called his arrows1 for the ,huichol sun1 like ,phbus ,apollo1 has arrows for rays4 ,on the reverse side they will paint the progress of the sun through the four quarters of the sky4 ,the journey is symbolized by a large cross-like figure with a central circle for midday4 ,round the edge are beehive-shaped mounds2 these represent the hills of earth4 ,the red and yellow dots that surround the hills are cornfields4 ,the crosses on the hills are signs of wealth and money4 ,on some of the disks birds and scorpions are painted1 and on one are curving lines which mean rain4 ,these disks are deposited on the altar of the god-house and left1 and then all is well4 ,the intention might be to us obscure1 but a ,huichol ,indian would read it thus3 ,father ,sun with his broad shield 7or 'face'7 and his arrows rises in the east1 bringing money and wealth to the ,huichols4 ,his heat and the light from his rays make the corn to grow1 but he is asked not to interfere with the clouds that are gathering on the hills4 ,now is this art or ritual8 ,it is both and neither4 ,we distinguish between a form of prayer and a work of art and count them in no danger of confusion2 but the ,huichol goes back to that earlier thing1 a presentation4 ,he utters1 expresses his thought about the sun and his emotion about the sun and his relation to the sun1 and if prayer is the soul's sincere desire he has painted a prayer4 ,it is not a little curious that the same notion comes out in the old ,greek word for prayer1 euch4 ,the ,greek1 when he wanted help in trouble from the ,saviours1 the ,dioscuri1 carved a picture of them1 and1 if he was a sailor1 added a ship4 ,underneath he inscribed the word euch4 ,it was not to begin with a vow paid1 it was a presentation of his strong inner desire1 it was a sculptured prayer4 ,ritual then involves imitation2 but does not arise out of it4 ,it desires to recreate an emotion1 not to reproduce an object4 ,a rite is1 indeed1 we shall later see 7p4 #db71 a sort of stereotyped action1 not really practical1 but yet not wholly cut loose from practice1 a reminiscence or an anticipation of actual practical doing2 it is fitly1 though not quite correctly1 called by the ,greeks a dromenon1 a thing done4 ,at the bottom of art1 as its motive power and its mainspring1 lies1 not the wish to copy ,nature or even improve on her--the ,huichol ,indian does not vainly expend his energies on an effort so fruitless--but rather an impulse shared by art with ritual1 the desire1 that is1 to utter1 to give out a strongly felt emotion or desire by representing1 by making or doing or enriching the object or act desired4 ,the common source of the art and ritual of ,osiris is the intense1 world-wide desire that the life of ,nature which seemed dead should live again4 ,this common emotional factor it is that makes art and ritual in their beginnings well-nigh indistinguishable4 ,both1 to begin with1 copy an act1 but not at first for the sake of the copy4 ,only when the emotion dies down and is forgotten does the copy become an end in itself1 a mere mimicry4 ,it is this downward path1 this sinking of making to mimicry1 that makes us now-a-days think of ritual as a dull and formal thing4 ,because a rite has ceased to be believed in1 it does not in the least follow that it will cease to be done4 ,we have to reckon with all the huge forces of habit4 ,the motor nerves1 once set in one direction1 given the slightest impulse tend always to repeat the same reaction4 ,we mimic not only others but ourselves mechanically1 even after all emotion proper to the act is dead2 and then because mimicry has a certain ingenious charm1 it becomes an end in itself for ritual1 even for art4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is not easy1 as we saw1 to classify the ,huichol prayer-disks4 ,as prayers they are ritual1 as surfaces decorated they are specimens of primitive art4 ,in the next chapter we shall have to consider a kind of ceremony very instructive for our point1 but again not very easy to classify--the pantomimic dances which are1 almost all over the world1 so striking a feature in savage social and religious life4 ,are they to be classed as ritual or art8 ,these pantomime dances lie1 indeed1 at the very heart and root of our whole subject1 and it is of the first importance that before going further in our analysis of art and ritual1 we should have some familiarity with their general character and gist1 the more so as they are a class of ceremonies now practically extinct4 ,we shall find in these dances the meeting-point between art and ritual1 or rather we shall find in them the rude1 inchoate material out of which both ritual and art1 at least in one of its forms1 developed4 ,moreover1 we shall find in pantomimic dancing a ritual bridge1 as it were1 between actual life and those representations of life which we call art4 ,in our next chapter1 therefore1 we shall study the ritual dance in general1 and try to understand its psychological origin2 in the following chapter 7,,iii7 we shall take a particular dance of special importance1 the ,spring ,dance as practised among various primitive peoples4 ,we shall then be prepared to approach the study of the ,spring ,dance among the ,greeks1 which developed into their drama1 and thereby to1 we hope1 throw light on the relation between ritual and art4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1#b p4 #cbd4 #b ,vit4 ,nik41 #ac4 #c ,rep4 ,x1 #eif-i4 #d ,c4,h4 ,lumholtz1 ,symbolism of the ,huichol ,indians1 in ,mem4 of the ,am4 ,mus4 of ,nat4 ,hist41 ,vol4 ,,iii1 ,anthropology4 7#aijj47 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,primitive ,,ritual3 ,,pantomimic ,,dances ,in books and hymns of bygone days1 which dealt with the religion of the heathen in his blindness1 he was pictured as a being of strange perversity1 apt to bow down to gods of wood and stone4 ,the question why he acted thus foolishly was never raised4 ,it was just his blindness2 the light of the gospel had not yet reached him4 ,now-a-days the savage has become material not only for conversion and hymn-writing but for scientific observation4 ,we want to understand his psychology1 i4e4 how he behaves1 not merely for his sake1 that we may abruptly and despotically convert or reform him1 but for our own sakes2 partly1 of course1 for sheer love of knowing1 but also1--since we realize that our own behaviour is based on instincts kindred to his1--in order that1 by understanding his behaviour1 we may understand1 and it may be better1 our own4 ,anthropologists who study the primitive peoples of to-day find that the worship of false gods1 bowing down to wood and stone1 bulks larger in the mind of the hymn-writer than in the mind of the savage4 ,we look for temples to heathen idols2 we find dancing-places and ritual dances4 ,the savage is a man of action4 ,instead of asking a god to do what he wants done1 he does it or tries to do it himself2 instead of prayers he utters spells4 ,in a word1 he practises magic1 and above all he is strenuously and frequently engaged in dancing magical dances4 ,when a savage wants sun or wind or rain1 he does not go to church and prostrate himself before a false god2 he summons his tribe and dances a sun dance or a wind dance or a rain dance4 ,when he would hunt and catch a bear1 he does not pray to his god for strength to outwit and outmatch the bear1 he rehearses his hunt in a bear dance4 ,here1 again1 we have some modern prejudice and misunderstanding to overcome4 ,dancing is to us a light form of recreation practised by the quite young from sheer joie de vivre1 and essentially inappropriate to the mature4 ,but among the ,tarahumares of ,mexico the word nolvoa means both to work and to dance4 ,an old man will reproach a young man saying1 ,why do you not go and work8 7nolvoa74 ,he means ,why do you not dance instead of looking on8 ,it is strange to us to learn that among savages1 as a man passes from childhood to youth1 from youth to mature manhood1 so the number of his dances increase1 and the number of these dances is the measure pari passu of his social importance4 ,finally1 in extreme old age he falls out1 he ceases to exist1 because he cannot dance2 his dance1 and with it his social status1 passes to another and a younger4 99 99 99 99 99 ,magical dancing still goes on in ,europe to-day4 ,in ,swabia and among the ,transylvanian ,saxons it is a common custom1 says ,dr4 ,frazer1#e for a man who has some hemp to leap high in the field in the belief that this will make the hemp grow tall4 ,in many parts of ,germany and ,austria the peasant thinks he can make the flax grow tall by dancing or leaping high or by jumping backwards from a table2 the higher the leap the taller will be the flax that year4 ,there is happily little possible doubt as to the practical reason of this mimic dancing4 ,when ,macedonian farmers have done digging their fields they throw their spades up into the air and1 catching them again1 exclaim1 ,may the crop grow as high as the spade has gone4 ,in some parts of ,eastern ,russia the girls dance one by one in a large hoop at midnight on ,shrove ,tuesday4 ,the hoop is decked with leaves1 flowers and ribbons1 and attached to it are a small bell and some flax4 ,while dancing within the hoop each girl has to wave her arms vigorously and cry1 ,flax1 grow1 or words to that effect4 ,when she has done she leaps out of the hoop or is lifted out of it by her partner4 ,is this art8 ,we shall unhesitatingly answer ,no4 ,is it ritual8 ,with some hesitation we shall probably again answer ,no4 ,it is1 we think1 not a rite1 but merely a superstitious practice of ignorant men and women4 ,but take another instance4 ,among the ,omaha ,indians of ,north ,america1 when the corn is withering for want of rain1 the members of the sacred ,buffalo ,society fill a large vessel with water and dance four times round it4 ,one of them drinks some of the water and spirts it into the air1 making a fine spray in imitation of mist or drizzling rain4 ,then he upsets the vessel1 spilling the water on the ground2 whereupon the dancers fall down and drink up the water1 getting mud all over their faces4 ,this saves the corn4 ,now probably any dispassionate person would describe such a ceremonial as an interesting instance of primitive ritual4 ,the sole difference between the two types is that1 in the one the practice is carried on privately1 or at least unofficially1 in the other it is done publicly by a collective authorized body1 officially for the public good4 ,the distinction is one of high importance1 but for the moment what concerns us is1 to see the common factor in the two sets of acts1 what is indeed their source and mainspring4 ,in the case of the girl dancing in the hoop and leaping out of it there is no doubt4 ,the words she says1 ,flax1 grow1 prove the point4 ,she does what she wants done4 ,her intense desire finds utterance in an act4 ,she obeys the simplest possible impulse4 ,let anyone watch an exciting game of tennis1 or better still perhaps a game of billiards1 he will find himself doing in sheer sympathy the thing he wants done1 reaching out a tense arm where the billiard cue should go1 raising an unoccupied leg to help the suspended ball over the net4 ,sympathetic magic is1 modern psychology teaches us1 in the main and at the outset1 not the outcome of intellectual illusion1 not even the exercise of a mimetic instinct1 but simply1 in its ultimate analysis1 an utterance1 a discharge of emotion and longing4 ,but though the utterance of emotion is the prime and moving1 it is not the sole1 factor4 ,we may utter emotion in a prolonged howl1 we may even utter it in a collective prolonged howl1 yet we should scarcely call this ritual1 still less art4 ,it is true that a prolonged collective howl will probably1 because it is collective1 develop a rhythm1 a regular recurrence1 and hence probably issue in a kind of ritual music2 but for the further stage of development into art another step is necessary4 ,we must not only utter emotion1 we must represent it1 that is1 we must in some way reproduce or imitate or express the thought which is causing us emotion4 ,art is not imitation1 but art and also ritual frequently and legitimately contain an element of imitation4 ,plato was so far right4 ,what exactly is imitated we shall see when we come to discuss the precise difference between art and ritual4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,greek word for a rite as already noted is dromenon1 a thing done--and the word is full of instruction4 ,the ,greek had realized that to perform a rite you must do something1 that is1 you must not only feel something but express it in action1 or1 to put it psychologically1 you must not only receive an impulse1 you must react to it4 ,the word for rite1 dromenon1 thing done1 arose1 of course1 not from any psychological analysis1 but from the simple fact that rites among the primitive ,greeks were things done1 mimetic dances and the like4 ,it is a fact of cardinal importance that their word for theatrical representation1 drama1 is own cousin to their word for rite1 dromenon2 drama also means thing done4 ,greek linguistic instinct pointed plainly to the fact that art and ritual are near relations4 ,to this fact of crucial importance for our argument we shall return later4 ,but from the outset it should be borne in mind that in these two ,greek words1 dromenon and drama1 in their exact meaning1 their relation and their distinction1 we have the keynote and clue to our whole discussion4 99 99 99 99 99 ,for the moment we have to note that the ,greek word for rite1 dromenon1 thing done1 is not strictly adequate4 ,it omits a factor of prime importance2 it includes too much and not enough4 ,all things done are not rites4 ,you may shrink back from a blow2 that is the expression of an emotion1 that is a reaction to a stimulus1 but that is not a rite4 ,you may digest your dinner2 that is a thing done1 and a thing of high importance1 but it is not a rite4 ,one element in the rite we have already observed1 and that is1 that it be done collectively1 by a number of persons feeling the same emotion4 ,a meal digested alone is certainly no rite2 a meal eaten in common1 under the influence of a common emotion1 may1 and often does1 tend to become a rite4 ,collectivity and emotional tension1 two elements that tend to turn the simple reaction into a rite1 are--specially among primitive peoples--closely associated1 indeed scarcely separable4 ,the individual among savages has but a thin and meagre personality2 high emotional tension is to him only caused and maintained by a thing felt socially2 it is what the tribe feels that is sacred1 that is matter for ritual4 ,he may make by himself excited movements1 he may leap for joy1 for fear2 but unless these movements are made by the tribe together they will not become rhythmical2 they will probably lack intensity1 and certainly permanence4 ,intensity1 then1 and collectivity go together1 and both are necessary for ritual1 but both may be present without constituting art2 we have not yet touched the dividing line between art and ritual4 ,when and how does the dromenon1 the rite done1 pass over into the drama8 ,the genius of the ,greek language felt1 before it consciously knew1 the difference4 ,this feeling ahead for distinctions is characteristic of all languages1 as has been well shown by ,mr4 ,pearsall ,smith#f in another manual of our series4 ,it is an instinctive process arising independently of reason1 though afterwards justified by it4 ,what1 then1 is the distinction between art and ritual which the genius of the ,greek language felt after1 when it used the two words dromenon and drama for two different sorts of things done8 ,to answer our question we must turn for a brief moment to psychology1 the science of human behaviour4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we are accustomed for practical convenience to divide up our human nature into partitions--intellect1 will1 the emotions1 the passions--with further subdivisions1 e4g4 of the intellect into reason1 imagination1 and the like4 ,these partitions we are apt to arrange into a sort of order of merit or as it is called a hierarchy1 with ,reason as head and crown1 and under her sway the emotions and passions4 ,the result of establishing this hierarchy is that the impulsive side of our nature comes off badly1 the passions and even the emotions lying under a certain ban4 ,this popular psychology is really a convenient and perhaps indispensable mythology4 ,reason1 the emotions1 and the will have no more separate existences than ,jupiter1 ,juno1 and ,minerva4 ,a more fruitful way of looking at our human constitution is to see it1 not as a bundle of separate faculties1 but as a sort of continuous cycle of activities4 ,what really happens is1 putting it very roughly1 something of this sort4 ,to each one of us the world is1 or seems to be1 eternally divided into two halves4 ,on the one side is ourself1 on the other all the rest of things4 ,all our action1 our behaviour1 our life1 is a relation between these two halves1 and that behaviour seems to have three1 not divisions1 but stages4 ,the outside world1 the other half1 the object if we like so to call it1 acts upon us1 gets at us through our senses4 ,we hear or see or taste or feel something2 to put it roughly1 we perceive something1 and as we perceive it1 so1 instantly1 we feel about it1 towards it1 we have emotion4 ,and1 instantly again1 that emotion becomes a motive-power1 we re-act towards the object that got at us1 we want to alter it or our relation to it4 ,if we did not perceive we should not feel1 if we did not feel we should not act4 ,when we talk--as we almost must talk--of ,reason1 the ,emotions1 or the ,passions and the ,will leading to action1 we think of the three stages or aspects of our behaviour as separable and even perhaps hostile2 we want1 perhaps1 to purge the intellect from all infection of the emotions4 ,but in reality1 though at a given moment one or the other element1 knowing1 feeling1 or acting1 may be dominant in our consciousness1 the rest are always immanent4 ,when we think of the three elements or stages1 knowing1 feeling1 striving1 as all being necessary factors in any complete bit of human behaviour1 we no longer try to arrange them in a hierarchy with knowing or reason at the head4 ,knowing--that is1 receiving and recognizing a stimulus from without--would seem to come first2 we must be acted on before we can re-act2 but priority confers no supremacy4 ,we can look at it another way4 ,perceiving is the first rung on the ladder that leads to action1 feeling is the second1 action is the topmost rung1 the primary goal1 as it were1 of all the climbing4 ,for the purpose of our discussion this is perhaps the simplest way of looking at human behaviour4 99 99 99 99 99 ,movement1 then1 action1 is1 as it were1 the goal and the end of thought4 ,perception finds its natural outlet and completion in doing4 ,but here comes in a curious consideration important for our purpose4 ,in animals1 in so far as they act by instinct1 as we say1 perception1 knowing1 is usually followed immediately and inevitably by doing1 by such doing as is calculated to conserve the animal and his species2 but in some of the higher animals1 and especially in man1 where the nervous system is more complex1 perception is not instantly transformed into action2 there is an interval for choice between several possible actions4 ,perception is pent up and becomes1 helped by emotion1 conscious representation4 ,now it is1 psychologists tell us1 just in this interval1 this space between perception and reaction1 this momentary halt1 that all our mental life1 our images1 our ideas1 our consciousness1 and assuredly our religion and our art1 is built up4 ,if the cycle of knowing1 feeling1 acting1 were instantly fulfilled1 that is1 if we were a mass of well-contrived instincts1 we should hardly have dromena1 and we should certainly never pass from dromena to drama4 ,art and religion1 though perhaps not wholly ritual1 spring from the incomplete cycle1 from unsatisfied desire1 from perception and emotion that have somehow not found immediate outlet in practical action4 ,when we come later to establish the dividing line between art and ritual we shall find this fact to be cardinal4 ,we have next to watch how out of representation repeated there grows up a kind of abstraction which helps the transition from ritual to art4 ,when the men of a tribe return from a hunt1 a journey1 a battle1 or any event that has caused them keen and pleasant emotion1 they will often re-act their doings round the camp-fire at night to an attentive audience of women and young boys4 ,the cause of this world-wide custom is no doubt in great part the desire to repeat a pleasant experience2 the battle or the hunt will not be re-enacted unless it has been successful4 ,together with this must be reckoned a motive seldom absent from human endeavour1 the desire for self-exhibition1 self-enhancement4 ,but in this re-enactment1 we see at once1 lies the germ of history and of commemorative ceremonial1 and also1 oddly enough1 an impulse emotional in itself begets a process we think of as characteristically and exclusively intellectual1 the process of abstraction4 ,the savage begins with the particular battle that actually did happen2 but1 it is easy to see that if he re-enacts it again and again the particular battle or hunt will be forgotten1 the representation cuts itself loose from the particular action from which it arose1 and becomes generalized1 as it were abstracted4 ,like children he plays not at a funeral1 but at funerals1 not at a battle1 but at battles2 and so arises the war-dance1 or the death-dance1 or the hunt-dance4 ,this will serve to show how inextricably the elements of knowing and feeling are intertwined4 ,so1 too1 with the element of action4 ,if we consider the occasions when a savage dances1 it will soon appear that it is not only after a battle or a hunt that he dances in order to commemorate it1 but before4 ,once the commemorative dance has got abstracted or generalized it becomes material for the magical dance1 the dance pre-done4 ,a tribe about to go to war will work itself up by a war dance2 about to start out hunting they will catch their game in pantomime4 ,here clearly the main emphasis is on the practical1 the active1 doing-element in the cycle4 ,the dance is1 as it were1 a sort of precipitated desire1 a discharge of pent-up emotion into action4 ,in both these kinds of dances1 the dance that commemorates by re-presenting and the dance that anticipates by pre-presenting1 ,plato would have seen the element of imitation1 what the ,greeks called mimesis1 which we saw he believed to be the very source and essence of all art4 ,in a sense he would have been right4 ,the commemorative dance does especially re-present2 it reproduces the past hunt or battle2 but if we analyse a little more closely we see it is not for the sake of copying the actual battle itself1 but for the emotion felt about the battle4 ,this they desire to re-live4 ,the emotional element is seen still more clearly in the dance fore-done for magical purposes4 ,success in war or in the hunt is keenly1 intensely desired4 ,the hunt or the battle cannot take place at the moment1 so the cycle cannot complete itself4 ,the desire cannot find utterance in the actual act2 it grows and accumulates by inhibition1 till at last the exasperated nerves and muscles can bear it no longer2 it breaks out into mimetic anticipatory action4 ,but1 and this is the important point1 the action is mimetic1 not of what you see done by another2 but of what you desire to do yourself4 ,the habit of this mimesis of the thing desired1 is set up1 and ritual begins4 ,ritual1 then1 does imitate1 but for an emotional1 not an altogether practical1 end4 ,plato never saw a savage war-dance or a hunt-dance or a rain-dance1 and it is not likely that1 if he had seen one1 he would have allowed it to be art at all4 ,but he must often have seen a class of performances very similar1 to which unquestionably he would give the name of art4 ,he must have seen plays like those of ,aristophanes1 with the chorus dressed up as ,birds or ,clouds or ,frogs or ,wasps1 and he might undoubtedly have claimed such plays as evidence of the rightness of his definition4 ,here were men imitating birds and beasts1 dressed in their skins and feathers1 mimicking their gestures4 ,for his own days his judgment would have been unquestionably right2 but again1 if we look at the beginning of things1 we find an origin and an impulse much deeper1 vaguer1 and more emotional4 ,the beast dances found widespread over the savage world took their rise when men really believed1 what ,st4 ,francis tried to preach3 that beasts and birds and fishes were his little brothers4 ,or rather1 perhaps1 more strictly1 he felt them to be his great brothers and his fathers1 for the attitude of the ,australian towards the kangaroo1 the ,north ,american towards the grizzly bear1 is one of affection tempered by deep religious awe4 ,the beast dances look back to that early phase of civilization which survives in crystallized form in what we call totemism4 ,totem means tribe1 but the tribe was of animals as well as men4 ,in the ,kangaroo tribe there were real leaping kangaroos as well as men-kangaroos4 ,the men-kangaroos when they danced and leapt did it1 not to imitate kangaroos--you cannot imitate yourself--but just for natural joy of heart because they were kangaroos2 they belonged to the ,kangaroo tribe1 they bore the tribal marks and delighted to assert their tribal unity4 ,what they felt was not mimesis but participation1 unity1 and community4 ,later1 when man begins to distinguish between himself and his strange fellow-tribesmen1 to realize that he is not a kangaroo like other kangaroos1 he will try to revive his old faith1 his old sense of participation and oneness1 by conscious imitation4 ,thus though imitation is not the object of these dances1 it grows up in and through them4 ,it is the same with art4 ,the origin of art is not mimesis1 but mimesis springs up out of art1 out of emotional expression1 and constantly and closely neighbours it4 ,art and ritual are at the outset alike in this1 that they do not seek to copy a fact1 but to reproduce1 to re-enact an emotion4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we shall see this more clearly if we examine for a moment this ,greek word mimesis4 ,we translate mmsis by imitation1 and we do very wrongly4 ,the word mimesis means the action or doing of a person called a mime4 ,now a mime was simply a person who dressed up and acted in a pantomime or primitive drama4 ,he was roughly what we should call an actor1 and it is significant that in the word actor we stress not imitating but acting1 doing1 just what the ,greek stressed in his words dromenon and drama4 ,the actor dresses up1 puts on a mask1 wears the skin of a beast or the feathers of a bird1 not1 as we have seen1 to copy something or some one who is not himself1 but to emphasize1 enlarge1 enhance1 his own personality2 he masquerades1 he does not mimic4 ,the celebrants in the very primitive ritual of the ,mountain-,mother in ,thrace were1 we know1 called mimes4 ,in the fragment of his lost play1 schylus1 after describing the din made by the mountain gear of the ,mother1 the maddening hum of the bombykes1 a sort of spinning-top1 the clash of the brazen cymbals and the twang of the strings1 thus goes on3 ,and bull-voices roar thereto from somewhere out of the unseen1 fearful mimes1 and from a drum an image1 as it were1 of thunder underground is borne on the air heavy with dread4 ,here we have undoubtedly some sort of bull-roaring1 thunder-and wind-making ceremony1 like those that go on in ,australia to-day4 ,the mimes are not mimicking thunder out of curiosity1 they are making it and enacting and uttering it for magical purposes4 ,when a sailor wants a wind he makes it1 or1 as he later says1 he whistles for it2 when a savage or a ,greek wants thunder to bring rain he makes it1 becomes it4 ,but it is easy to see that as the belief in magic declines1 what was once intense desire1 issuing in the making of or the being of a thing1 becomes mere copying of it2 the mime1 the maker1 sinks to be in our modern sense the mimic2 as faith declines1 folly and futility set in2 the earnest1 zealous act sinks into a frivolous mimicry1 a sort of child's-play4 ,,footnotes #e ,these instances are all taken from ,the ,golden ,bough1#c ,the ,magic ,art1 ,i1 #aci ff4 #f ,the ,english ,language1 ,home ,university ,library1 p4 #bh4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,seasonal ,,rites3 ,,the ,,spring ,,festival ,we have seen in the last chapter that whatever interests primitive man1 whatever makes him feel strongly1 he tends to re-enact4 ,any one of his manifold occupations1 hunting1 fighting1 later ploughing and sowing1 provided it be of sufficient interest and importance1 is material for a dromenon or rite4 ,we have also seen that1 weak as he is in individuality1 it is not his private and personal emotions that tend to become ritual1 but those that are public1 felt and expressed officially1 that is1 by the whole tribe or community4 ,it is further obvious that such dances1 when they develop into actual rites1 tend to be performed at fixed times4 ,we have now to consider when and why4 ,the element of fixity and regular repetition in rites cannot be too strongly emphasized4 ,it is a factor of paramount importance1 essential to the development from ritual to art1 from dromenon to drama4 ,the two great interests of primitive man are food and children4 ,as ,dr4 ,frazer has well said1 if man the individual is to live he must have food2 if his race is to persist he must have children4 ,to live and to cause to live1 to eat food and to beget children1 these were the primary wants of man in the past1 and they will be the primary wants of men in the future so long as the world lasts4 ,other things may be added to enrich and beautify human life1 but1 unless these wants are first satisfied1 humanity itself must cease to exist4 ,these two things1 therefore1 food and children1 were what men chiefly sought to procure by the performance of magical rites for the regulation of the seasons4 ,they are the very foundation-stones of that ritual from which art1 if we are right1 took its rise4 ,from this need for food sprang seasonal1 periodic festivals4 ,the fact that festivals are seasonal1 constantly recurrent1 solidifies1 makes permanent1 and as already explained 7p4 #db71 in a sense intellectualizes and abstracts the emotion that prompts them4 ,the seasons are indeed only of value to primitive man because they are related1 as he swiftly and necessarily finds out1 to his food supply4 ,he has1 it would seem1 little sensitiveness to the sthetic impulse of the beauty of a spring morning1 to the pathos of autumn4 ,what he realizes first and foremost is1 that at certain times the animals1 and still more the plants1 which form his food1 appear1 at certain others they disappear4 ,it is these times that become the central points1 the focuses of his interest1 and the dates of his religious festivals4 ,these dates will vary1 of course1 in different countries and in different climates4 ,it is1 therefore1 idle to attempt a study of the ritual of a people without knowing the facts of their climate and surroundings4 ,in ,egypt the food supply will depend on the rise and fall of the ,nile1 and on this rise and fall will depend the ritual and calendar of ,osiris4 ,and yet treatises on ,egyptian religion are still to be found which begin by recounting the rites and mythology of ,osiris1 as though these were primary1 and then end with a corollary to the effect that these rites and this calendar were associated with the worship of ,osiris1 or1 even worse still1 instituted by the religion of ,osiris4 ,the ,nile regulates the food supply of ,egypt1 the monsoon that of certain ,south ,pacific islands2 the calendar of ,egypt depends on the ,nile1 of the ,south ,pacific islands on the monsoon4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in his recent ,introduction to ,mathematics#g ,dr4 ,whitehead has pointed out how the whole life of ,nature is dominated by the existence of periodic events4 ,the rotation of the earth produces successive days2 the path of the earth round the sun leads to the yearly recurrence of the seasons2 the phases of the moon are recurrent1 and though artificial light has made these phases pass almost unnoticed to-day1 in climates where the skies are clear1 human life was largely influenced by moonlight4 ,even our own bodily life1 with its recurrent heart-beats and breathings1 is essentially periodic4#h ,the presupposition of periodicity is indeed fundamental to our very conception of life1 and but for periodicity the very means of measuring time as a quantity would be absent4 ,periodicity is fundamental to certain departments of mathematics1 that is evident2 it is perhaps less evident that periodicity is a factor that has gone to the making of ritual1 and hence1 as we shall see1 of art4 ,and yet this is manifestly the case4 ,all primitive calendars are ritual calendars1 successions of feast-days1 a patchwork of days of different quality and character recurring2 pattern at least is based on periodicity4 ,but there is another and perhaps more important way in which periodicity affects and in a sense causes ritual4 ,we have seen already that out of the space between an impulse and a reaction there arises an idea or presentation4 ,a presentation is1 indeed1 it would seem1 in its final analysis1 only a delayed1 intensified desire--a desire of which the active satisfaction is blocked1 and which runs over into a presentation4 ,an image conceived presented1 what we call an idea is1 as it were1 an act prefigured4 ,ritual acts1 then1 which depend on the periodicity of the seasons are acts necessarily delayed4 ,the thing delayed1 expected1 waited for1 is more and more a source of value1 more and more apt to precipitate into what we call an idea1 which is in reality but the projected shadow of an unaccomplished action4 ,more beautiful it may be1 but comparatively bloodless1 yet capable in its turn of acting as an initial motor impulse in the cycle of activity4 ,it will later 7p4 #gj7 be seen that these periodic festivals are the stuff of which those faded1 unaccomplished actions and desires which we call gods--,attis1 ,osiris1 ,dionysos--are made4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to primitive man1 as we have seen1 beast and bird and plant and himself were not sharply divided1 and the periodicity of the seasons was for all4 ,it will depend on man's social and geographical conditions whether he notices periodicity most in plants or animals4 ,if he is nomadic he will note the recurrent births of other animals and of human children1 and will connect them with the lunar year4 ,but it is at once evident that1 at least in ,mediterranean lands1 and probably everywhere1 it is the periodicity of plants and vegetation generally which depends on moisture1 that is most striking4 ,plants die down in the heat of summer1 trees shed their leaves in autumn1 all ,nature sleeps or dies in winter1 and awakes in spring4 ,sometimes it is the dying down that attracts most attention4 ,this is very clear in the rites of ,adonis1 which are1 though he rises again1 essentially rites of lamentation4 ,the details of the ritual show this clearly1 and specially as already seen in the cult of ,osiris4 ,for the gardens of ,adonis the women took baskets or pots filled with earth1 and in them1 as children sow cress now-a-days1 they planted wheat1 fennel1 lettuce1 and various kinds of flowers1 which they watered and tended for eight days4 ,in hot countries the seeds sprang up rapidly1 but as the plants had no roots they withered quickly away4 ,at the end of the eight days they were carried out with the images of the dead ,adonis and thrown with them into the sea or into springs4 ,the gardens of ,adonis became the type of transient loveliness and swift decay4 99 99 99 99 99 ,what waste would it be1 says ,plutarch1#i what inconceivable waste1 for ,god to create man1 had he not an immortal soul4 ,he would be like the women who make little gardens1 not less pleasant than the gardens of ,adonis in earthen pots and pans2 so would our souls blossom and flourish but for a day in a soft and tender body of flesh without any firm and solid root of life1 and then be blasted and put out in a moment4 ,celebrated at midsummer as they were1 and as the gardens were thrown into water1 it is probable that the rites of ,adonis may have been1 at least in part1 a rain-charm4 ,in the long summer droughts of ,palestine and ,babylonia the longing for rain must often have been intense enough to provoke expression1 and we remember 7p4 #ai7 that the ,sumerian ,tammuz was originally ,dumuzi-absu1 ,true ,son of the ,waters4 ,water is the first need for vegetation4 ,gardens of ,adonis are still in use in the ,madras ,presidency4#aj ,at the marriage of a ,brahman seeds of five or nine sorts are mixed and sown in earthen pots which are made specially for the purpose1 and are filled with earth4 ,bride and bridegroom water the seeds both morning and evening for four days2 and on the fifth day the seedlings are thrown1 like the real gardens of ,adonis1 into a tank or river4 ,seasonal festivals with one and the same intent--the promotion of fertility in plants1 animals and man--may occur at almost any time of the year4 ,at midsummer1 as we have seen1 we may have rain-charms2 in autumn we shall have harvest festivals2 in late autumn and early winter among pastoral peoples we shall have festivals1 like that of ,martinmas1 for the blessing and purification of flocks and herds when they come in from their summer pasture4 ,in midwinter there will be a ,christmas festival to promote and protect the sun's heat at the winter solstice4 ,but in ,southern ,europe1 to which we mainly owe our drama and our art1 the festival most widely celebrated1 and that of which we know most1 is the ,spring ,festival1 and to that we must turn4 ,the spring is to the ,greek of to-day the noixis1 the ,opening1 and it was in spring and with rites of spring that both ,greek and ,roman originally began their year4 ,it was this spring festival that gave to the ,greek their god ,dionysos and in part his drama4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in ,cambridge on ,may ,day two or three puzzled and weary little boys and girls are still to be sometimes seen dragging round a perambulator with a doll on it bedecked with ribbons and a flower or two4 ,that is all that is left in most parts of ,england of the ,queen of the ,may and ,jack-in-the-,green1 though here and there a maypole survives and is resuscitated by enthusiasts about folk-dances4 ,but in the days of ,good ,queen ,bess merry ,england1 it would seem1 was lustier4 ,the ,puritan ,stubbs1 in his ,anatomie of ,abuses1#aa thus describes the festival3 ,they have twentie or fortie yoke of oxen1 every oxe havyng a sweete nosegaie of flowers tyed on the tippe of his hornes1 and these oxen draw home this ,maiepoole 7this stinckying idoll rather71 which is covered all over with flowers and hearbes1 bound round aboute with stringes from the top to the bottome1 and sometyme painted with variable colours1 with two or three hundred men1 women1 and children1 following it with great devotion4 ,and thus beyng reared up1 with handkerchiefes and flagges streaming on the toppe1 they strewe the ground about1 binde greene boughs about it1 set up summer haules1 bowers1 and arbours hard by it4 ,and then fall they to banquet and feast1 to leap and daunce aboute it1 as the heathen people did at the dedication of their idolles1 whereof this is a perfect patterne or rather the thyng itself4 ,the stern old ,puritan was right1 the maypole was the perfect pattern of a heathen idoll1 or rather the thyng itself4 ,he would have exterminated it root and branch1 but other and perhaps wiser divines took the maypole into the service of the ,christian ,church1 and still#ab on ,may ,day in ,saffron ,walden the spring song is heard with its ,christian moral-- ,a branch of ,may we have brought you1 ,and at your door it stands2 ,it is a sprout that is well budded out1 ,the work of our ,lord's hands4 ,the maypole was of course at first no pole cut down and dried4 ,the gist of it was that it should be a sprout1 well budded out4 ,the object of carrying in the ,may was to bring the very spirit of life and greenery into the village4 ,when this was forgotten1 idleness or economy would prompt the villagers to use the same tree or branch year after year4 ,in the villages of ,upper ,bavaria ,dr4 ,frazer#ac tells us the maypole is renewed once every three1 four1 or five years4 ,it is a fir-tree fetched from the forest1 and amid all the wreaths1 flags1 and inscriptions with which it is bedecked1 an essential part is the bunch of dark green foliage left at the top1 as a memento that in it we have to do1 not with a dead pole1 but with a living tree from the greenwood4 ,at the ritual of ,may ,day not only was the fresh green bough or tree carried into the village1 but with it came a girl or a boy1 the ,queen or ,king of the ,may4 ,sometimes the tree itself1 as in ,russia1 is dressed up in woman's clothes2 more often a real man or maid1 covered with flowers and greenery1 walks with the tree or carries the bough4 ,thus in ,thuringia1#ad as soon as the trees begin to be green in spring1 the children assemble on a ,sunday and go out into the woods1 where they choose one of their playmates to be ,little ,leaf ,man4 ,they break branches from the trees and twine them about the child1 till only his shoes are left peeping out4 ,two of the other children lead him for fear he should stumble4 ,they take him singing and dancing from house to house1 asking for gifts of food1 such as eggs1 cream1 sausages1 cakes4 ,finally1 they sprinkle the ,leaf ,man with water and feast on the food4 ,such a ,leaf ,man is our ,english ,jack-in-the-,green1 a chimney-sweeper who1 as late as #ahib1 was seen by ,dr4 ,rouse walking about at ,cheltenham encased in a wooden framework covered with greenery4 ,the bringing in of the new leafage in the form of a tree or flowers is one1 and perhaps the simplest1 form of spring festival4 ,it takes little notice of death and winter1 uttering and emphasizing only the desire for the joy in life and spring4 ,but in other and severer climates the emotion is fiercer and more complex2 it takes the form of a struggle or contest1 what the ,greeks called an agon4 ,thus on ,may ,day in the ,isle of ,man a ,queen of the ,may was chosen1 and with her twenty maids of honour1 together with a troop of young men for escort4 ,but there was not only a ,queen of the ,may1 but a ,queen of ,winter1 a man dressed as a woman1 loaded with warm clothes and wearing a woollen hood and fur tippet4 ,winter1 too1 had attendants like the ,queen of the ,may4 ,the two troops met and fought2 and whichever ,queen was taken prisoner had to pay the expenses of the feast4 ,in the ,isle of ,man the real gist of the ceremony is quite forgotten1 it has become a mere play4 ,but among the ,esquimaux#ae there is still carried on a similar rite1 and its magical intent is clearly understood4 ,in autumn1 when the storms begin and the long and dismal ,arctic winter is at hand1 the central ,esquimaux divide themselves into two parties called the ,ptarmigans and the ,ducks4 ,the ptarmigans are the people born in winter1 the ducks those born in summer4 ,they stretch out a long rope of sealskin4 ,the ducks take hold of one end1 the ptarmigans of the other1 then comes a tug-of-war4 ,if the ducks win there will be fine weather through the winter2 if the ptarmigans1 bad4 ,this autumn festival might1 of course1 with equal magical intent be performed in the spring1 but probably autumn is chosen because1 with the dread of the ,arctic ice and snow upon them1 the fear of winter is stronger than the hope of spring4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the intense emotion towards the weather1 which breaks out into these magical agones1 or contests1 is not very easy to realize4 ,the weather to us now-a-days for the most part damps a day's pleasuring or raises the price of fruit and vegetables4 ,but our main supplies come to us from other lands and other weathers1 and we find it hard to think ourselves back into the state when a bad harvest meant starvation4 ,the intensely practical attitude of man towards the seasons1 the way that many of these magical dramatic ceremonies rose straight out of the emotion towards the food-supply1 would perhaps never have been fully realized but for the study of the food-producing ceremonies of the ,central ,australians4 ,the ,central ,australian spring is not the shift from winter to summer1 from cold to heat1 but from a long1 arid1 and barren season to a season short and often irregular in recurrence of torrential rain and sudden fertility4 ,the dry steppes of ,central ,australia are the scene of a marvellous transformation4 ,in the dry season all is hot and desolate1 the ground has only patches of wiry scrub1 with an occasional parched acacia tree1 all is stones and sand2 there is no sign of animal life save for the thousand ant-hills4 ,then suddenly the rainy season sets in4 ,torrents fill the rivers1 and the sandy plain is a sheet of water4 ,almost as suddenly the rain ceases1 the streams dry up1 sucked in by the thirsty ground1 and as though literally by magic a luxuriant vegetation bursts forth1 the desert blossoms as a rose4 ,insects1 lizards1 frogs1 birds1 chirp1 frisk and chatter4 ,no plant or animal can live unless it live quickly4 ,the struggle for existence is keen and short4 ,it seems as though the change came and life was born by magic1 and the primitive ,australian takes care that magic should not be wanting1 and magic of the most instructive kind4 ,as soon as the season of fertility approaches he begins his rites with the avowed object of making and multiplying the plants1 and chiefly the animals1 by which he lives2 he paints the figure of the emu on the sand with vermilion drawn from his own blood2 he puts on emu feathers and gazes about him vacantly in stupid fashion like an emu bird2 he makes a structure of boughs like the chrysalis of a ,witchetty grub--his favourite food1 and drags his body through it in pantomime1 gliding and shuffling to promote its birth4 ,here1 difficult and intricate though the ceremonies are1 and uncertain in meaning as many of the details must probably always remain1 the main emotional gist is clear4 ,it is not that the ,australian wonders at and admires the miracle of his spring1 the bursting of the flowers and the singing of birds2 it is not that his heart goes out in gratitude to an ,all-,father who is the ,giver of all good things2 it is that1 obedient to the push of life within him1 his impulse is towards food4 ,he must eat that he and his tribe may grow and multiply4 ,it is this1 his will to live1 that he utters and represents4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the savage utters his will to live1 his intense desire for food2 but it should be noted1 it is desire and will and longing1 not certainty and satisfaction that he utters4 ,in this respect it is interesting to note that his rites and ceremonies1 when periodic1 are of fairly long periods4 ,winter and summer are not the only natural periodic cycles2 there is the cycle of day and night1 and yet among primitive peoples but little ritual centres round day and night4 ,the reason is simple4 ,the cycle of day and night is so short1 it recurs so frequently1 that man naturally counted upon it and had no cause to be anxious4 ,the emotional tension necessary to ritual was absent4 ,a few peoples1 e4g4 the ,egyptians1 have practised daily incantations to bring back the sun4 ,probably they had at first felt a real tension of anxiety1 and then--being a people hidebound by custom--had gone on from mere conservatism4 ,where the sun returns at a longer interval1 and is even1 as among the ,esquimaux1 hidden for the long space of six months1 ritual inevitably arises4 ,they play at cat's-cradle to catch the ball of the sun lest it should sink and be lost for ever4 ,round the moon1 whose cycle is long1 but not too long1 ritual very early centred1 but probably only when its supposed influence on vegetation was first surmised4 ,the moon1 as it were1 practises magic herself2 she waxes and wanes1 and with her1 man thinks1 all the vegetable kingdom waxes and wanes too1 all but the lawless onion4 ,the moon1 ,plutarch#af tells us1 is fertile in its light and contains moisture1 it is kindly to the young of animals and to the new shoots of plants4 ,even ,bacon#ag held that observations of the moon with a view to planting and sowing and the grafting of trees were not altogether frivolous4 ,it cannot too often be remembered that primitive man has but little1 if any1 interest in sun and moon and heavenly bodies for their inherent beauty or wonder2 he cares for them1 he holds them sacred1 he performs rites in relation to them mainly when he notes that they bring the seasons1 and he cares for the seasons mainly because they bring him food4 ,a season is to him as a ,hora was at first to the ,greeks1 the fruits of a season1 what our farmers would call a good year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the sun1 then1 had no ritual till it was seen that he led in the seasons2 but long before that was known1 it was seen that the seasons were annual1 that they went round in a ring2 and because that annual ring was long in revolving1 great was man's hope and fear in the winter1 great his relief and joy in the spring4 ,it was literally a matter of death and life1 and it was as death and life that he sometimes represented it1 as we have seen in the figures of ,adonis and ,osiris4 ,adonis and ,osiris have their modern parallels1 who leave us in no doubt as to the meaning of their figures4 ,thus on the #ast of ,march in ,thringen a ceremony is performed called ,driving out the ,death4 ,the young people make up a figure of straw1 dress it in old clothes1 carry it out and throw it into the river4 ,then they come back1 tell the good news to the village1 and are given eggs and food as a reward4 ,in ,bohemia the children carry out a straw puppet and burn it4 ,while they are burning it they sing-- ,now carry we ,death out of the village1 ,the new ,summer into the village1 ,welcome1 dear ,summer1 ,green little corn4 ,in other parts of ,bohemia the song varies2 it is not ,summer that comes back but ,life4 ,we have carried away ,death1 ,and brought back ,life4 ,in both these cases it is interesting to note that though ,death is dramatically carried out1 the coming back of ,life is only announced1 not enacted4 ,often1 and it would seem quite naturally1 the puppet representing ,death or ,winter is reviled and roughly handled1 or pelted with stones1 and treated in some way as a sort of scapegoat4 ,but in not a few cases1 and these are of special interest1 it seems to be the seat of a sort of magical potency which can be and is transferred to the figure of ,summer or ,life1 thus causing1 as it were1 a sort of ,resurrection4 ,in ,lusatia the women only carry out the ,death4 ,they are dressed in black themselves as mourners1 but the puppet of straw which they dress up as the ,death wears a white shirt4 ,they carry it to the village boundary1 followed by boys throwing stones1 and there tear it to pieces4 ,then they cut down a tree and dress it in the white shirt of the ,death and carry it home singing4 ,so at the ,feast of the ,ascension in ,transylvania4 ,after morning service the girls of the village dress up the ,death2 they tie a threshed-out sheaf of corn into a rough copy of a head and body1 and stick a broomstick through the body for arms4 ,then they dress the figure up in the ordinary holiday clothes of a peasant girl--a red hood1 silver brooches1 and ribbons galore4 ,they put the ,death at an open window that all the people when they go to vespers may see it4 ,vespers over1 two girls take the ,death by the arms and walk in front2 the rest follow4 ,they sing an ordinary church hymn4 ,having wound through the village they go to another house1 shut out the boys1 strip the ,death of its clothes1 and throw the straw body out of the window to the boys1 who fling it into a river4 ,then one of the girls is dressed in the ,death's discarded clothes1 and the procession again winds through the village4 ,the same hymn is sung4 ,thus it is clear that the girl is a sort of resuscitated ,death4 ,this resurrection aspect1 this passing of the old into the new1 will be seen to be of great ritual importance when we come to ,dionysos and the ,dithyramb4 ,these ceremonies of ,death and ,life are more complex than the simple carrying in of green boughs or even the dancing round maypoles4 ,when we have these figures1 these impersonations1 we are getting away from the merely emotional dance1 from the domain of simple psychological motor discharge to something that is very like rude art1 at all events to personification4 ,on this question of personification1 in which so much of art and religion has its roots1 it is all-important to be clear4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in discussions on such primitive rites as ,carrying out the ,death1 ,bringing in ,summer1 we are often told that the puppet of the girl is carried round1 buried1 burnt2 brought back1 because it personifies the ,spirit of ,vegetation1 or it embodies the ,spirit of ,summer4 ,the ,spirit of ,vegetation is incarnate in the puppet4 ,we are led1 by this way of speaking1 to suppose that the savage or the villager first forms an idea or conception of a ,spirit of ,vegetation and then later embodies it4 ,we naturally wonder that he should perform a mental act so high and difficult as abstraction4 ,a very little consideration shows that he performs at first no abstraction at all2 abstraction is foreign to his mental habit4 ,he begins with a vague excited dance to relieve his emotion4 ,that dance has1 probably almost from the first1 a leader2 the dancers choose an actual person1 and he is the root and ground of personification4 ,there is nothing mysterious about the process2 the leader does not embody a previously conceived idea1 rather he begets it4 ,from his personality springs the personification4 ,the abstract idea arises from the only thing it possibly can arise from1 the concrete fact4 ,without perception there is no conception4 ,we noted in speaking of dances 7p4 #dc7 how the dance got generalized2 how from many commemorations of actual hunts and battles there arose the hunt dance and the war dance4 ,so1 from many actual living personal ,may ,queens and ,deaths1 from many actual men and women decked with leaves1 or trees dressed up as men and women1 arises the ,tree ,spirit1 the ,vegetation ,spirit1 the ,death4 ,at the back1 then1 of the fact of personification lies the fact that the emotion is felt collectively1 the rite is performed by a band or chorus who dance together with a common leader4 ,round that leader the emotion centres4 ,when there is an act of ,carrying-out or ,bringing-in he either is himself the puppet or he carries it4 ,emotion is of the whole band2 drama--doing--tends to focus on the leader4 ,this leader1 this focus1 is then remembered1 thought of1 imaged2 from being perceived year by year1 he is finally conceived2 but his basis is always in actual fact of which he is but the reflection4 ,had there been no periodic festivals1 personification might long have halted4 ,but it is easy to see that a recurrent perception helps to form a permanent abstract conception4 ,the different actual recurrent ,may ,kings and ,deaths1 because they recur1 get a sort of permanent life of their own and become beings apart4 ,in this way a conception1 a kind of daimon1 or spirit1 is fashioned1 who dies and lives again in a perpetual cycle4 ,the periodic festival begets a kind of not immortal1 but perennial1 god4 ,yet the faculty of conception is but dim and feeble in the mind even of the peasant to-day2 his function is to perceive the actual fact year by year1 and to feel about it4 ,perhaps a simple instance best makes this clear4 ,the ,greek ,church does not gladly suffer images in the round1 though she delights in picture-images1 eikons4 ,but at her great spring festival of ,easter she makes1 in the remote villages1 concession to a strong1 perhaps imperative1 popular need2 she allows an image1 an actual idol1 of the dead ,christ to be laid in the tomb that it may rise again4 ,a traveller in ,euba#ah during ,holy ,week had been struck by the genuine grief shown at the ,good ,friday services4 ,on ,easter ,eve there was the same general gloom and despondency1 and he asked an old woman why it was4 ,she answered3 ,of course ,i am anxious2 for if ,christ does not rise to-morrow1 we shall have no corn this year4 ,the old woman's state of mind is fairly clear4 ,her emotion is the old emotion1 not sorrow for the ,christ the ,son of ,mary1 but fear1 imminent fear for the failure of food4 ,the ,christ again is not the historical ,christ of ,juda1 still less the incarnation of the ,godhead proceeding from the ,father2 he is the actual figure fashioned by his village chorus and laid by the priests1 the leaders of that chorus1 in the local sepulchre4 99 99 99 99 99 ,so far1 then1 we have seen that the vague emotional dance tends to become a periodic rite1 performed at regular intervals4 ,the periodic rite may occur at any date of importance to the food-supply of the community1 in summer1 in winter1 at the coming of the annual rains1 or the regular rising of a river4 ,among ,mediterranean peoples1 both in ancient days and at the present time1 the ,spring ,festival arrests attention4 ,having learnt the general characteristics of this ,spring ,festival1 we have now to turn to one particular case1 the ,spring ,festival of the ,greeks4 ,this is all-important to us because1 as will be seen1 from the ritual of this and kindred festivals arose1 we believe1 a great form of ,art1 the ,greek drama4 ,,footnotes3 #g ,chapter ,,xii3 ,periodicity in ,nature4 #h ,ibid4 #i ,de ,ser4 ,num4 #ag4 #aj ,frazer1 ,adonis1 ,attis1 and ,osiris1#c p4 #bjj4 #aa ,quoted by ,dr4 ,frazer1 ,the ,golden ,bough1#b p4 #bjc4 #ab ,e4,k4 ,chambers1 ,the ,medival ,stage1 ,i1 p4 #afi4 #ac ,the ,golden ,bough1#b p4 #bje4 #ad ,the ,golden ,bough1#b p4 #bac4 #ae ,resumed from ,dr4 ,frazer1 ,golden ,bough1#b ,,ii1 p4 #ajd4 #af ,de ,is4 et ,os41 p4 #cfg4 #ag ,de ,aug4 ,scient41 ,,iii1 #d4 #ah ,j4,c4 ,lawson1 ,modern ,greek ,folk-lore and ,ancient ,religion1 p4 #egc4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,spring ,,festival ,,in ,,greece ,the tragedies of schylus1 ,sophocles1 and ,euripides were performed at ,athens at a festival known as the ,great ,dionysia4 ,this took place early in ,april1 so that the time itself makes us suspect that its ceremonies were connected with the spring4 ,but we have more certain evidence4 ,aristotle1 in his treatise on the ,art of ,poetry1 raises the question of the origin of the drama4 ,he was not specially interested in primitive ritual2 beast dances and spring mummeries might even have seemed to him mere savagery1 the lowest form of imitation2 but he divined that a structure so complex as ,greek tragedy must have arisen out of a simpler form2 he saw1 or felt1 in fact1 that art had in some way risen out of ritual1 and he has left us a memorable statement4 ,in describing the ,carrying-out of ,summer we saw that the element of real drama1 real impersonation1 began with the leaders of the band1 with the ,queen of the ,may1 and with the ,death or the ,winter4 ,great is our delight when we find that for ,greek drama ,aristotle#ai divined a like beginning4 ,he says3 ,tragedy--as also ,comedy--was at first mere improvisation--the one 7tragedy7 originated with the leaders of the ,dithyramb4 ,the further question faces us3 ,what was the ,dithyramb8 ,we shall find to our joy that this obscure-sounding ,dithyramb1 though before ,aristotle's time it had taken literary form1 was in origin a festival closely akin to those we have just been discussing4 ,the ,dithyramb was1 to begin with1 a spring ritual2 and when ,aristotle tells us tragedy arose out of the ,dithyramb1 he gives us1 though perhaps half unconsciously1 a clear instance of a splendid art that arose from the simplest of rites2 he plants our theory of the connection of art with ritual firmly with its feet on historical ground4 99 99 99 99 99 ,when we use the word dithyrambic we certainly do not ordinarily think of spring4 ,we say a style is dithyrambic when it is unmeasured1 too ornate1 impassioned1 flowery4 ,the ,greeks themselves had forgotten that the word ,dithyramb meant a leaping1 inspired dance4 ,but they had not forgotten on what occasion that dance was danced4 ,pindar wrote a ,dithyramb for the ,dionysiac festival at ,athens1 and his song is full of springtime and flowers4 ,he bids all the gods come to ,athens to dance flower-crowned4 ,look upon the dance1 ,olympians2 send us the grace of ,victory1 ye gods who come to the heart of our city1 where many feet are treading and incense steams3 in sacred ,athens come to the holy centre-stone4 ,take your portion of garlands pansy-twined1 libations poured from the culling of spring4444 ,come hither to the god with ivy bound4 ,bromios we mortals name ,him1 and ,him of the mighty ,voice4444 ,the clear signs of his ,fulfilment are not hidden1 whensoever the chamber of the purple-robed ,hours is opened1 and nectarous flowers lead in the fragrant spring4 ,then1 then1 are flung over the immortal ,earth1 lovely petals of pansies1 and roses are amid our hair2 and voices of song are loud among the pipes1 the dancing-floors are loud with the calling of crowned ,semele4 ,bromios1 ,he of the loud cry1 is a title of ,dionysos4 ,semele is his mother1 the ,earth2 we keep her name in ,nova ,zembla1 ,new ,earth4 ,the song might have been sung at a ,carrying-in of ,summer4 ,the ,hor1 the ,seasons1 a chorus of maidens1 lead in the figure of ,spring1 the ,queen of the ,may1 and they call to ,mother ,earth to wake1 to rise up from the earth1 flower-crowned4 ,you may bring back the life of the ,spring in the form of a tree or a maiden1 or you may summon her to rise from the sleeping ,earth4 ,in ,greek mythology we are most familiar with the ,rising-up form4 ,persephone1 the daughter of ,demeter1 is carried below the ,earth1 and rises up again year by year4 ,on ,greek vase-paintings#bj the scene occurs again and again4 ,a mound of earth is represented1 sometimes surmounted by a tree2 out of the mound a woman's figure rises2 and all about the mound are figures of dancing dmons waiting to welcome her4 ,all this is not mere late poetry and art4 ,it is the primitive art and poetry that come straight out of ritual1 out of actual things done1 dromena4 ,in the village of ,megara1 near ,athens1 the very place where to-day on ,easter ,tuesday the hills are covered with throngs of dancing men1 and specially women1 ,pausanias#ba saw near the ,city ,hearth a rock called ,anaklethra1 ',place of ,calling-up1' because1 if any one will believe it1 when she was wandering in search of her daughter1 ,demeter called her up there2 and he adds3 ,the women to this day perform rites analogous to the story told4 ,these rites of ,calling up must have been spring rites1 in which1 in some pantomimic dance1 the uprising of the ,earth ,spirit was enacted4 ,another festival of ,uprising is perhaps more primitive and instructive1 because it is near akin to the ,carrying out of ,winter1 and also because it shows clearly the close connection of these rites with the food-supply4 ,plutarch#bb tells us of a festival held every nine years at ,delphi4 ,it was called from the name of the puppet used ,charila1 a word which originally meant ,spring-,maiden1 and is connected with the ,russian word yaro1 ,spring1 and is also akin to the ,greek ,charis1 grace1 in the sense of increase1 ,give us all grace4 ,the rites of ,charila1 the ,gracious ,one1 the ,spring-,maiden1 were as follows3 ,the king presided and made a distribution in public of grain and pulse to all1 both citizens and strangers4 ,and the child-image of ,charila is brought in4 ,when they had all received their share1 the king struck the image with his sandal1 the leader of the ,thyiades lifted the image and took it away to a precipitous place1 and there tied a rope round the neck of the image and buried it4 ,mr4 ,calderon has shown that very similar rites go on to-day in ,bulgaria in honour of ,yarilo1 the ,spring ,god4 ,the image is beaten1 insulted1 let down into some cleft or cave4 ,it is clearly a ,carrying out the ,death1 though we do not know the exact date at which it was celebrated4 ,it had its sequel in another festival at ,delphi called ,herois1 or the ,heroine4 ,plutarch#bc says it was too mystical and secret to describe1 but he lets us know the main gist4 ,most of the ceremonies of the ,herois have a mystical reason which is known to the ,thyiades1 but from the rites that are done in public1 one may conjecture it to be a ',bringing up of ,semele4' ,some one or something1 a real woman1 or more likely the buried puppet ,charila1 the ,spring-,maiden1 was brought up from the ground to enact and magically induce the coming of ,spring4 99 99 99 99 99 ,these ceremonies of beating1 driving out1 burying1 have all1 with the ,greeks1 as with the savage and the modern peasant1 but one real object3 to get rid of the season that is bad for food1 to bring in and revive the new supply4 ,this comes out very clearly in a ceremony that went on down to ,plutarch's time1 and he tells us#bd it was ancestral4 ,it was called the ,driving out of ,ox-hunger4 ,by ,ox-hunger was meant any great ravenous hunger1 and the very intensity and monstrosity of the word takes us back to days when famine was a grim reality4 ,when ,plutarch was archon he had1 as chief official1 to perform the ceremony at the ,prytaneion1 or ,common ,hearth4 ,a slave was taken1 beaten with rods of a magical plant1 and driven out of doors to the words3 ,out with ,ox-hunger6 ,in with ,wealth and ,health6 ,here we see the actual sensation1 or emotion1 of ravenous hunger gets a name1 and thereby a personality1 though a less completely abstracted one than ,death or ,summer4 ,we do not know that the ceremony of ,driving out ,ox-hunger was performed in the spring1 it is only instanced here because1 more plainly even than the ,charila1 when the king distributes pulse and peas1 it shows the relation of ancient mimic ritual to food-supply4 ,if we keep clearly in mind the object rather than the exact date of the ,spring ,song we shall avoid many difficulties4 ,a ,dithyramb was sung at ,delphi through the winter months1 which at first seems odd4 ,but we must remember that among agricultural peoples the performance of magical ceremonies to promote fertility and the food supply may begin at any moment after the earth is ploughed and the seed sown4 ,the sowing of the seed is its death and burial2 that which thou sowest is not quickened except it die4 ,when the death and burial are once accomplished the hope of resurrection and new birth begins1 and with the hope the magical ceremonies that may help to fulfil that hope4 ,the ,sun is new-born in midwinter1 at the solstice1 and our ,new year follows1 yet it is in the spring that1 to this day1 we keep our great resurrection festival4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we return to our argument1 holding steadily in our minds this connection4 ,the ,dithyramb is a ,spring ,song at a ,spring ,festival1 and the importance of the ,spring ,festival is that it magically promotes the food-supply4 99 99 99 99 99 ,do we know any more about the ,dithyramb8 ,happily yes1 and the next point is as curious as significant4 ,pindar1 in one of his ,odes1 asks a strange question3 ,whence did appear the ,graces of ,dionysos1 ,with the ,bull-driving ,dithyramb8 ,scholars have broken their own heads and one another's to find a meaning and an answer to the odd query4 ,it is only quite lately that they have come at all to see that the ,dithyramb was a ,spring ,song1 a primitive rite4 ,formerly it was considered to be a rather elaborate form of lyric poetry invented comparatively late4 ,but1 even allowing it is the ,spring ,song1 are we much further8 ,why should the ,dithyramb be bull-driving8 ,how can driving a ,bull help the spring to come8 ,and1 above all1 what are the slender-ankled ,graces doing1 helping to drive the great unwieldy ,bull8 ,the difficulty about the ,graces1 or ,charites1 as the ,greeks called them1 is soon settled4 ,they are the ,seasons1 or ,hours1 and the chief ,season1 or ,hour1 was ,spring herself4 ,they are called ,charites1 or ,graces1 because they are1 in the words of the ,collect1 the ,givers of all grace1 that is1 of all increase physical and spiritual4 ,but why do they want to come driving in a ,bull8 ,it is easy to see why the ,givers of all grace lead the ,dithyramb1 the ,spring ,song2 their coming1 with their fruits in due season is the very gist of the ,dithyramb2 but why is the ,dithyramb bull-driving8 ,is this a mere poetical epithet8 ,if it is1 it is not particularly poetical4 ,but ,pindar is not1 we now know1 merely being poetical1 which amounts1 according to some scholars1 to meaning anything or nothing4 ,he is describing1 alluding to1 an actual rite or dromenon in which a ,bull is summoned and driven to come in spring4 ,about that we must be clear4 ,plutarch1 the first anthropologist1 wrote a little treatise called ,greek ,questions1 in which he tells us all the strange out-of-the-way rites and customs he saw in ,greece1 and then asks himself what they meant4 ,in his #cfth ,question he asks3 ,why do the women of ,elis summon ,dionysos in their hymns to be present with them with his bull-foot8 ,and then1 by a piece of luck that almost makes one's heart stand still1 he gives us the very words of the little ritual hymn the women sang1 our earliest ,bull-driving ,spring ,song3 ,in ,spring-time1#be ,o ,dionysos1 ,to thy holy temple come2 ,to ,elis with thy ,graces1 ,rushing with thy bull-foot1 come1 ,noble ,bull1 ,noble ,bull4 ,it is a strange primitive picture--the holy women standing in springtime in front of the temple1 summoning the ,bull2 and the ,bull1 garlanded and filleted1 rushing towards them1 driven by the ,graces1 probably three real women1 three ,queens of the ,may1 wreathed and flower-bedecked4 ,but what does it mean8 ,plutarch tries to answer his own question1 and half1 in a dim1 confused fashion1 succeeds4 ,is it1 he suggests1 that some entitle the god as ',born of a ,bull' and as a ',bull' himself8 444 or is it that many hold the god is the beginner of sowing and ploughing8 ,we have seen how a kind of daimon1 or spirit1 of ,winter or ,summer arose from an actual tree or maid or man disguised year by year as a tree4 ,did the god ,dionysos take his rise in like fashion from the driving and summoning year by year of some holy ,bull8 ,first1 we must notice that it was not only at ,elis that a holy ,bull appears at the ,spring ,festival4 ,plutarch asks another instructive ,question3#bf ,who among the ,delphians is the ,sanctifier8 ,and we find to our amazement that the sanctifier is a ,bull4 ,a ,bull who not only is holy himself1 but is so holy that he has power to make others holy1 he is the ,sanctifier2 and1 most important for us1 he sanctifies by his death in the month ,bysios1 the month that fell1 ,plutarch tells us1 at the beginning of spring1 the time of the blossoming of many plants4 ,we do not hear that the ,sanctifier at ,delphi was driven1 but in all probability he was led from house to house1 that every one might partake in the sanctity that simply exuded from him4 ,at ,magnesia1#bg a city of ,asia ,minor1 we have more particulars4 ,there1 at the annual fair year by year the stewards of the city bought a ,bull1 the finest that could be got1 and at the new moon of the month at the beginning of seedtime they dedicated it1 for the city's welfare4 ,the ,bull's sanctified life began with the opening of the agricultural year1 whether with the spring or the autumn ploughing we do not know4 ,the dedication of the ,bull was a high solemnity4 ,he was led in procession1 at the head of which went the chief priest and priestess of the city4 ,with them went a herald and the sacrificer1 and two bands of youths and maidens4 ,so holy was the ,bull that nothing unlucky might come near him2 the youths and maidens must have both their parents alive1 they must not have been under the taboo1 the infection1 of death4 ,the herald pronounced aloud a prayer for the safety of the city and the land1 and the citizens1 and the women and children1 for peace and wealth1 and for the bringing forth of grain and of all the other fruits1 and of cattle4 ,all this longing for fertility1 for food and children1 focuses round the holy ,bull1 whose holiness is his strength and fruitfulness4 ,the ,bull thus solemnly set apart1 charged as it were with the luck of the whole people1 is fed at the public cost4 ,the official charged with his keep has to drive him into the market-place1 and it is good for those corn-merchants who give the ,bull grain as a gift1 good for them because they are feeding1 nurturing1 the luck of the ,state1 which is their own luck4 ,so through autumn and winter the ,bull lives on1 but early in ,april the end comes4 ,again a great procession is led forth1 the senate and the priests walk in it1 and with them come representatives of each class of the ,state--children and young boys1 and youths just come to manhood1 epheboi1 as the ,greeks called them4 ,the ,bull is sacrificed1 and why8 ,why must a thing so holy die8 ,why not live out the term of his life8 ,he dies because he is so holy1 that he may give his holiness1 his strength1 his life1 just at the moment it is holiest1 to his people4 ,when they shall have sacrificed the ,bull1 let them divide it up among those who took part in the procession4 ,the mandate is clear4 ,the procession included representatives of the whole ,state4 ,the holy flesh is not offered to a god1 it is eaten--to every man his portion--by each and every citizen1 that he may get his share of the strength of the ,bull1 of the luck of the ,state4 99 99 99 99 99 ,now at ,magnesia1 after the holy civic communion1 the meal shared1 we hear no more4 ,next year a fresh ,bull will be chosen1 and the cycle begin again4 ,but at ,athens at the annual ,ox-murder1 the ,bouphonia1 as it was called1 the scene did not so close4 ,the ox was slain with all solemnity1 and all those present partook of the flesh1 and then--the hide was stuffed with straw and sewed up1 and next the stuffed animal was set on its feet and yoked to a plough as though it were ploughing4 ,the ,death is followed by a ,resurrection4 ,now this is all-important4 ,we are so accustomed to think of sacrifice as the death1 the giving up1 the renouncing of something4 ,but sacrifice does not mean death at all4 ,it means making holy1 sanctifying2 and holiness was to primitive man just special strength and life4 ,what they wanted from the ,bull was just that special life and strength which all the year long they had put into him1 and nourished and fostered4 ,that life was in his blood4 ,they could not eat that flesh nor drink that blood unless they killed him4 ,so he must die4 ,but it was not to give him up to the gods that they killed him1 not to sacrifice him in our sense1 but to have him1 keep him1 eat him1 live by him and through him1 by his grace4 ,and so this killing of the sacred beast was always a terrible thing1 a thing they fain would have shirked4 ,they fled away after the deed1 not looking backwards2 they publicly tried and condemned the axe that struck the blow4 ,but their best hope1 their strongest desire1 was that he had not1 could not1 really have died4 ,so this intense desire uttered itself in the dromenon of his resurrection4 ,if he did not rise again1 how could they plough and sow again next year8 ,he must live again1 he should1 he did4 ,the ,athenians were a little ashamed of their ,ox-murder1 with its grotesque pantomime of the stuffed1 resurrected beast4 ,just so some of us now-a-days are getting a little shy of deliberately cursing our neighbours on ,ash ,wednesday4 ,they probably did not feel very keenly about their food-supply1 they thought their daily dinner was secure4 ,anyhow the emotion that had issued in the pantomime was dead1 though from sheer habit the pantomime went on4 ,probably some of the less educated among them thought there might be something in it1 and anyhow it was as well to be on the safe side4 ,the queer ceremony had got associated with the worship of ,olympian ,zeus1 and with him you must reckon4 ,then perhaps your brother-in-law was the ,ox-striker1 and anyhow it was desirable that the women should go2 some of the well-born girls had to act as water-carriers4 ,the ,ox-murder was obsolete at ,athens1 but the spirit of the rite is alive to-day among the ,ainos in the remote island of ,saghalien4 ,among the ,ainos the ,bear is what psychologists rather oddly call the main food focus1 the chief value centre4 ,and well he may be4 ,bear's flesh is the ,ainos' staple food2 they eat it both fresh and salted2 bearskins are their principal clothing2 part of their taxes are paid in bear's fat4 ,the ,aino men spend the autumn1 winter and spring in hunting the ,bear4 ,yet we are told the ,ainos worship the ,bear2 they apply to it the name ,kamui1 which has been translated god2 but it is a word applied to all strangers1 and so only means what catches attention1 and hence is formidable4 ,in the religion of the ,ainos the ,bear plays a chief part1 says one writer4 ,the ,bear receives idolatrous veneration1 says another4 ,they worship it after their fashion1 says a third4 ,have we another case of the heathen in his blindness8 ,only here he bows down not to gods of wood and stone1 but to a live thing1 uncouth1 shambling but gracious--a ,bear4 ,instead of theorizing as to what the ,aino thinks and imagines1 let us observe his doings1 his dromena1 his rites2 and most of all his great spring and autumn rite1 the dromenon of the ,bear4 ,we shall find that1 detail for detail1 it strangely resembles the ,greek dromenon of the ,bull4 ,as winter draws to a close among the ,ainos1 a young ,bear is trapped and brought into the village4 ,at first an ,aino woman suckles him at her breast1 then later he is fed on his favourite food1 fish--his tastes are semi-polar4 ,when he is at his full strength1 that is1 when he threatens to break the cage in which he lives1 the feast is held4 ,this is usually in ,september1 or ,october1 that is when the season of bear-hunting begins4 ,before the feast begins the ,ainos apologize profusely1 saying that they have been good to the ,bear1 they can feed him no longer1 they must kill him4 ,then the man who gives the ,bear-feast invites his relations and friends1 and if the community be small nearly the whole village attends4 ,on the occasion described by ,dr4 ,scheube about thirty ,ainos were present1 men1 women1 and children1 all dressed in their best clothes4 ,the woman of the house who had suckled the ,bear sat by herself1 sad and silent1 only now and then she burst into helpless tears4 ,the ceremony began with libations made to the fire-god and to the house-god set up in a corner of the house4 ,next the master and some of the guests left the hut and offered libations in front of the ,bear's cage4 ,a few drops were presented to him in a saucer1 which he promptly upset4 ,then the women and girls danced round the cage1 rising and hopping on their toes1 and as they danced they clapped their hands and chanted a monotonous chant4 ,the mother and some of the old women cried as they danced and stretched out their arms to the ,bear1 calling him loving names4 ,the young women who had nursed no ,bears laughed1 after the manner of the young4 ,the ,bear began to get upset1 and rushed round his cage1 howling lamentably4 ,next came a ceremony of special significance which is never omitted at the sacrifice of a ,bear4 ,libations were offered to the inabos1 sacred wands which stand outside the ,aino hut4 ,these wands are about two feet high and are whittled at the top into spiral shavings4 ,five new wands with bamboo leaves attached to them are set up for the festival2 the leaves according to the ,ainos mean that the ,bear may come to life again4 ,these wands are specially interesting4 ,the chief focus of attention is of course the ,bear1 because his flesh is for the ,aino his staple food4 ,but vegetation is not quite forgotten4 ,the animal life of the ,bear and the vegetable life of the bamboo-leaves are thought of together4 ,then comes the actual sacrifice4 ,the ,bear is led out of his cage1 a rope is thrown round his neck1 and he is perambulated round the neighbourhood of the hut4 ,we do not hear that among the ,ainos he goes in procession round the village1 but among the ,gilyaks1 not far away in ,eastern ,siberia1 the ,bear is led about the villages1 and it is held to be specially important that he should be dragged down to the river1 for this will ensure the village a plentiful supply of fish4 ,he is then1 among the ,gilyaks1 taken to each hut in the village1 and fish1 brandy1 and other delicacies are offered to him4 ,some of the people prostrate themselves in front of him and his coming into a house brings a blessing1 and if he snuffs at the food1 that brings a blessing too4 ,to return to the ,aino ,bear4 ,while he is being led about the hut the men1 headed by a chief1 shoot at the ,bear with arrows tipped with buttons4 ,but the object of the shooting is not to kill1 only apparently to irritate him4 ,he is killed at last without shedding of his sacred blood1 and we hope without much pain4 ,he is taken in front of the sacred wands1 a stick placed in his mouth1 and nine men press his neck against a beam2 he dies without a sound4 ,meantime the women and girls1 who stand behind the men1 dance1 lament1 and beat the men who are killing their ,bear4 ,the body of the dead ,bear is then laid on a mat before the sacred wands4 ,a sword and quiver1 taken from the wands1 are hung about the ,bear4 ,if it is a ,she-,bear it is also bedecked with a necklace and rings4 ,food and drink1 millet broth and millet cakes are offered to it4 ,it is decked as an ,aino1 it is fed as an ,aino4 ,it is clear that the ,bear is in some sense a human ,bear1 an ,aino4 ,the men sit down on mats in front of the ,bear and offer libations1 and themselves drink deep4 ,now that the death is fairly over the mourning ends1 and all is feasting and merriment4 ,even the old women lament no more4 ,cakes of millet are scrambled for4 ,the bear is skinned and disembowelled1 the trunk is severed from the head1 to which the skin is left hanging4 ,the blood1 which might not be shed before1 is now carefully collected in cups and eagerly drunk by the men1 for the blood is the life4 ,the liver is cut up and eaten raw4 ,the flesh and the rest of the vitals are kept for the day next but one1 when it is divided among all persons present at the feast4 ,it is what the ,greeks call a dais1 a meal divided or distributed4 ,while the ,bear is being dismembered the girls dance1 in front of the sacred wands1 and the old women again lament4 ,the ,bear's brain is extracted from his head and eaten1 and the skull1 severed from the skin1 is hung on a pole near the sacred wands4 ,thus it would seem the life and strength of the bear is brought near to the living growth of the leaves4 ,the stick with which the ,bear was gagged is also hung on the pole1 and with it the sword and quiver he had worn after his death4 ,the whole congregation1 men and women1 dance about this strange maypole1 and a great drinking bout1 in which all men and women alike join1 ends the feast4 ,the rite varies as to detail in different places4 ,among the ,gilyaks the ,bear is dressed after death in full ,gilyak costume and seated on a bench of honour4 ,in one part the bones and skull are carried out by the oldest people to a place in the forest not far from the village4 ,there all the bones except the skull are buried4 ,after that a young tree is felled a few inches above the ground1 its stump is cleft1 and the skull wedged into the cleft4 ,when the grass grows over the spot the skull disappears and there is an end of the ,bear4 ,sometimes the ,bear's flesh is eaten in special vessels prepared for this festival and only used at it4 ,these vessels1 which include bowls1 platters1 spoons1 are elaborately carved with figures of bears and other devices4 ,through all varieties in detail the main intent is the same1 and it is identical with that of the rite of the holy ,bull in ,greece and the maypole of our forefathers4 ,great is the sanctity of the ,bear or the ,bull or the ,tree2 the ,bear for a hunting people2 the ,bull for nomads1 later for agriculturists2 the ,tree for a forest folk4 ,on the ,bear and the ,bull and the ,tree are focussed the desire of the whole people4 ,bear and ,bull and ,tree are sacred1 that is1 set apart1 because full of a special life and strength intensely desired4 ,they are led and carried about from house to house that their sanctity may touch all1 and avail for all2 the animal dies that he may be eaten2 the ,tree is torn to pieces that all may have a fragment2 and1 above all1 ,bear and ,bull and ,tree die only that they may live again4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have seen 7p4 #ga7 that1 out of the puppet or the ,may ,queen1 actually perceived year after year there arose a remembrance1 a mental image1 an imagined ,tree ,spirit1 or ,summer1 or ,death1 a thing never actually seen but conceived4 ,just so with the ,bull4 ,year by year in the various villages of ,greece was seen an actual holy ,bull1 and bit by bit from the remembrance of these various holy ,bulls1 who only died to live again each year1 there arose the image of a ,bull-,spirit1 or ,bull-,daimon1 and finally1 if we like to call him so1 a ,bull-,god4 ,the growth of this idea1 this conception1 must have been much helped by the fact that in some places the dancers attendant on the holy ,bull dressed up as bulls and cows4 ,the women worshippers of ,dionysos1 we are told1 wore bulls' horns in imitation of the god1 for they represented him in pictures as having a bull's head4 ,we know that a man does not turn into a bull1 or a bull into a man1 the line of demarcation is clearly drawn2 but the rustic has no such conviction even to-day4 ,that crone1 his aged aunt1 may any day come in at the window in the shape of a black cat2 why should she not8 ,it is not1 then1 that a god 'takes upon him the form of a bull1' or is 'incarnate in a bull1' but that the real ,bull and the worshipper dressed as a bull are seen and remembered and give rise to an imagined ,bull-,god2 but1 it should be observed1 only among gifted1 imaginative1 that is1 image-making1 peoples4 ,the ,ainos have their actual holy ,bear1 as the ,greeks had their holy ,bull2 but with them out of the succession of holy ,bears there arises1 alas6 no ,bear-,god4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have dwelt long on the ,bull-driving ,dithyramb1 because it was not obvious on the face of it how driving a bull could help the coming of spring4 ,we understand now why1 on the day before the tragedies were performed at ,athens1 the young men 7epheboi7 brought in not only the human figure of the god1 but also a ,bull worthy of the ,god4 ,we understand1 too1 why in addition to the tragedies performed at the great festival1 ,dithyrambs were also sung--,bull-driving ,dithyrambs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we come next to a third aspect of the ,dithyramb1 and one perhaps the most important of all for the understanding of art1 and especially the drama4 ,the ,dithyramb was the ,song and ,dance of the ,new ,birth4 ,plato is discussing various sorts of odes or songs4 ,some1 he says1 are prayers to the gods--these are called hymns2 others of an opposite sort might best be called dirges2 another sort are pans1 and another--the birth of ,dionysos1 ,i suppose--is called ,dithyramb4 ,plato is not much interested in ,dithyrambs4 ,to him they are just a particular kind of choral song2 it is doubtful if he even knew that they were ,spring ,songs2 but this he did know1 though he throws out the information carelessly--the ,dithyramb had for its proper subject the birth or coming to be1 the genesis of ,dionysos4 ,the common usage of ,greek poetry bears out ,plato's statement4 ,when a poet is going to describe the birth of ,dionysos he calls the god by the title ,dithyrambos4 ,thus an inscribed hymn found at ,delphi#bh opens thus3 ,come1 ,o ,dithyrambos1 ,bacchos1 come4 444 ,bromios1 come1 and coming with thee bring ,holy hours of thine own holy spring4 444 ,all the stars danced for joy4 ,mirth ,of mortals hailed thee1 ,bacchos1 at thy birth4 ,the ,dithyramb is the song of the birth1 and the birth of ,dionysos is in the spring1 the time of the maypole1 the time of the holy ,bull4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and now we come to a curious thing4 ,we have seen how a spirit1 a dmon1 and perhaps ultimately a god1 develops out of an actual rite4 ,dionysos the ,tree-,god1 the ,spirit of ,vegetation1 is but a maypole once perceived1 then remembered and conceived4 ,dionysos1 the ,bull-,god1 is but the actual holy ,bull himself1 or rather the succession of annual holy ,bulls once perceived1 then remembered1 generalized1 conceived4 ,but the god conceived will surely always be made in the image1 the mental image1 of the fact perceived4 ,if1 then1 we have a song and dance of the birth of ,dionysos1 shall we not1 as in the ,christian religion1 have a child-god1 a holy babe1 a ,saviour in the manger2 at first in original form as a calf1 then as a human child8 ,now it is quite true that in ,greek religion there is a babe ,dionysos called ,liknites1 ,him of the ,cradle4#bi ,the rite of waking up1 or bringing to light1 the child ,liknites was performed each year at ,delphi by the holy women4 ,but it is equally clear and certain that the ,dionysos of ,greek worship and of the drama was not a babe in the cradle4 ,he was a goodly youth in the first bloom of manhood1 with the down upon his cheek1 the time when1 ,homer says1 youth is most gracious4 ,this is the ,dionysos that we know in statuary1 the fair1 dreamy youth sunk in reverie2 this is the ,dionysos whom ,pentheus despised and insulted because of his young beauty like a woman's4 ,but how could such a ,dionysos arise out of a rite of birth8 ,he could not1 and he did not4 ,the ,dithyramb is also the song of the second or new birth1 the ,dithyrambos is the twice-born4 ,this the ,greeks themselves knew4 ,by a false etymology they explained the word ,dithyrambos as meaning ,he of the double door1 their word thyra being the same as our door4 ,they were quite mistaken2 ,dithyrambos1 modern philology tells us1 is the ,divine ,leaper1 ,dancer1 and ,lifegiver4 ,but their false etymology is important to us1 because it shows that they believed the ,dithyrambos was the twice-born4 ,dionysos was born1 they fabled1 once of his mother1 like all men1 once of his father's thigh1 like no man4 ,but if the ,dithyrambos1 the young ,dionysos1 like the ,bull-,god1 the ,tree-,god1 arises from a dromenon1 a rite1 what is the rite of second birth from which it arises8 99 99 99 99 99 ,we look in vain among our village customs4 ,if ever rite of second birth existed1 it is dead and buried4 ,we turn to anthropology for help1 and find this1 the rite of the second birth1 widespread1 universal1 over half the savage world4 ,with the savage1 to be twice born is the rule1 not the exception4 ,by his first birth he comes into the world1 by his second he is born into his tribe4 ,at his first birth he belongs to his mother and the women-folk2 at his second he becomes a full-fledged man and passes into the society of the warriors of his tribe4 ,this second birth is a little difficult for us to realize4 ,a boy with us passes very gradually from childhood to manhood1 there is no definite moment when he suddenly emerges as a man4 ,little by little as his education advances he is admitted to the social privileges of the circle in which he is born4 ,he goes to school1 enters a workshop or a university1 and finally adopts a trade or a profession4 ,in the case of girls1 in whose upbringing primitive savagery is apt to linger1 there is still1 in certain social strata a ceremony known as ,coming ,out4 ,a girl's dress is suddenly lengthened1 her hair is put up1 she is allowed to wear jewels1 she kisses her sovereign's hand1 a dance is given in her honour2 abruptly1 from her seclusion in the cocoon state of the schoolroom1 she emerges full-blown into society4 ,but the custom1 with its half-realized savagery1 is already dying1 and with boys it does not obtain at all4 ,both sexes share1 of course1 the religious rite of ,confirmation4 ,to avoid harsh distinctions1 to bridge over abrupt transitions1 is always a mark of advancing civilization2 but the savage1 in his ignorance and fear1 lamentably over-stresses distinctions and transitions4 ,the long process of education1 of passing from child to man1 is with him condensed into a few days1 weeks1 or sometimes months of tremendous educational emphasis--of what is called initiation1 going in1 that is1 entering the tribe4 ,the ceremonies vary1 but the gist is always substantially the same4 ,the boy is to put away childish things1 and become a grown and competent tribesman4 ,above all he is to cease to be a woman-thing and become a man4 ,his initiation prepares him for his two chief functions as a tribesman--to be a warrior1 to be a father4 ,that to the savage is the main if not the whole ,duty of ,man4 ,this initiation is of tremendous importance1 and we should expect1 what in fact we find1 that all this emotion that centres about it issues in dromena1 rites done4 ,these rites are very various1 but they all point one moral1 that the former things are passed away and that the new-born man has entered on a new life4 ,simplest perhaps of all1 and most instructive1 is the rite practised by the ,kikuyu of ,british ,east ,africa1#cj who require that every boy1 just before circumcision1 must be born again4 ,the mother stands up with the boy crouching at her feet2 she pretends to go through all the labour pains1 and the boy on being reborn cries like a babe and is washed4 ,more often the new birth is simulated1 or imagined1 as a death and a resurrection1 either of the boys themselves or of some one else in their presence4 ,thus at initiation among some tribes of ,south-east ,australia1#ca when the boys are assembled an old man dressed in stringy bark fibre lies down in a grave4 ,he is covered up lightly with sticks and earth1 and the grave is smoothed over4 ,the buried man holds in his hand a small bush which seems to be growing from the ground1 and other bushes are stuck in the ground round about4 ,the novices are then brought to the edge of the grave and a song is sung4 ,gradually1 as the song goes on1 the bush held by the buried man begins to quiver4 ,it moves more and more and bit by bit the man himself starts up from the grave4 ,the ,fijians have a drastic and repulsive way of simulating death4 ,the boys are shown a row of seemingly dead men1 their bodies covered with blood and entrails1 which are really those of a dead pig4 ,the first gives a sudden yell4 ,up start the men1 and then run to the river to cleanse themselves4 ,here the death is vicarious4 ,another goes through the simulated death that the initiated boy may have new life4 ,but often the mimicry is practised on the boys themselves4 ,thus in ,west ,ceram#cb boys at puberty are admitted to the ,kakian association4 ,the boys are taken blindfold1 followed by their relations1 to an oblong wooden shed under the darkest trees in the depths of the forest4 ,when all are assembled the high priest calls aloud on the devils1 and immediately a hideous uproar is heard from the shed4 ,it is really made by men in the shed with bamboo trumpets1 but the women and children think it is the devils4 ,then the priest enters the shed with the boys1 one at a time4 ,a dull thud of chopping is heard1 a fearful cry rings out1 and a sword dripping with blood is thrust out through the roof4 ,this is the token that the boy's head has been cut off1 and that the devil has taken him away to the other world1 whence he will return born again4 ,in a day or two the men who act as sponsors to the boys return daubed with mud1 and in a half-fainting state like messengers from another world4 ,they bring the good news that the devil has restored the boys to life4 ,the boys themselves appear1 but when they return they totter as they walk2 they go into the house backwards4 ,if food is given them they upset the plate4 ,they sit dumb and only make signs4 ,the sponsors have to teach them the simplest daily acts as though they were new-born children4 ,at the end of twenty to thirty days1 during which their mothers and sisters may not comb their hair1 the high priest takes them to a lonely place in the forest and cuts off a lock of hair from the crown of each of their heads4 ,at the close of these rites the boys are men and may marry4 ,sometimes the new birth is not simulated but merely suggested4 ,a new name is given1 a new language taught1 a new dress worn1 new dances are danced4 ,almost always it is accompanied by moral teaching4 ,thus in the ,kakian ceremony already described the boys have to sit in a row cross-legged1 without moving a muscle1 with their hands stretched out4 ,the chief takes a trumpet1 and placing the mouth of it on the hand of each lad1 he speaks through it in strange tones1 imitating the voice of spirits4 ,he warns the boys on pain of death to observe the rules of the society1 and never to reveal what they have seen in the ,kakian house4 ,the priests also instruct the boys on their duty to their blood relations1 and teach them the secrets of the tribe4 ,sometimes it is not clear whether the new birth is merely suggested or represented in pantomime4 ,thus among the ,binbinga of ,north ,australia it is generally believed that at initiation a monstrous being called ,katajalina1 like the ,kronos of the ,greeks1 swallows the boys and brings them up again initiated2 but whether there is or is not a dromenon or rite of swallowing we are not told4 ,in totemistic societies1 and in the animal secret societies that seem to grow out of them1 the novice is born again as the sacred animal4 ,thus among the ,carrier ,indians#cc when a man wants to become a ,lulem1 or ,bear1 however cold the season1 he tears off his clothes1 puts on a bearskin and dashes into the woods1 where he will stay for three or four days4 ,every night his fellow-villagers will go out in search parties to find him4 ,they cry out ,yi6 ,kelulem 7,come on1 ,bear7 and he answers with angry growls4 ,usually they fail to find him1 but he comes back at last himself4 ,he is met and conducted to the ceremonial lodge1 and there1 in company with the rest of the ,bears1 dances solemnly his first appearance4 ,disappearance and reappearance is as common a rite in initiation as simulated killing and resurrection1 and has the same object4 ,both are rites of transition1 of passing from one state to another4 ,it has often been remarked1 by students of ancient ,greek and other ceremonies1 that the rites of birth1 marriage1 and death1 which seem to us so different1 are to primitive man oddly similar4 ,this is explained if we see that in intent they are all the same1 all a passing from one social state to another4 ,there are but two factors in every rite1 the putting off of the old1 the putting on of the new2 you carry out ,winter or ,death1 you bring in ,summer or ,life4 ,between them is a midway state when you are neither here nor there1 you are secluded1 under a taboo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to the ,greeks and to many primitive peoples the rites of birth1 marriage1 and death were for the most part family rites needing little or no social emphasis4 ,but the rite which concerned the whole tribe1 the essence of which was entrance into the tribe1 was the rite of initiation at puberty4 ,this all-important fact is oddly and significantly enshrined in the ,greek language4 ,the general ,greek word for rite was tlt4 ,it was applied to all mysteries1 and sometimes to marriages and funerals4 ,but it has nothing to do with death4 ,it comes from a root meaning to grow up4 ,the word tlt means rite of growing up1 becoming complete4 ,it meant at first maturity1 then rite of maturity1 then by a natural extension any rite of initiation that was mysterious4 ,the rites of puberty were in their essence mysterious1 because they consisted in initiation into the sanctities of the tribe1 the things which society sanctioned and protected1 excluding the uninitiated1 whether they were young boys1 women1 or members of other tribes4 ,then1 by contagion1 the mystery notion spread to other rites4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we understand now who and what was the god who arose out of the rite1 the dromenon of tribal initiation1 the rite of the new1 the second birth4 ,he was ,dionysos4 ,his name1 according to recent philology1 tells us--,dionysos1 ,divine ,young ,man4 ,when once we see that out of the emotion of the rite and the facts of the rite arises that remembrance and shadow of the rite1 that image which is the god1 we realize instantly that the god of the spring rite must be a young god1 and in primitive societies1 where young women are but of secondary account1 he will necessarily be a young man4 ,where emotion centres round tribal initiation he will be a young man just initiated1 what the ,greeks called a kouros1 or ephebos1 a youth of quite different social status from a mere pais or boy4 ,such a youth survives in our ,king of the ,may and ,jack-in-the-,green4 ,old men and women are for death and winter1 the young for life and spring1 and most of all the young man or bear or bull or tree just come to maturity4 ,and because life is one at the ,spring ,festival1 the young man carries a blossoming branch bound with wool of the young sheep4 ,at ,athens in spring and autumn alike they carry out the ,eiresione1 a branch of olive wound about with wool 444 and laden with all sorts of firstfruits1 that scarcity may cease1 and they sing over it3 ,eiresione brings ,figs and fat cakes1 ,and a pot of honey and oil to mix1 ,and a wine-cup strong and deep1 ,that she may drink and sleep4 ,the ,eiresione had another name that told its own tale4 ,it was called ,korythalia1#cd ,branch of blooming youth4 ,the young men1 says a ,greek orator1 are the ,spring of the people4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the excavations of ,crete have given to us an ancient inscribed hymn1 a ,dithyramb1 we may safely call it1 that is at once a spring-song and a young man-song4 ,the god here invoked is what the ,greeks call a kouros1 a young man4 ,it is sung and danced by young warriors3 ,ho6 ,kouros1 most ,great1 ,i give thee hail1 ,lord of all that is wet and gleaming2 thou art come at the head of thy ,daimones4 ,to ,dikt for the ,year1 ,oh1 march and rejoice in the dance and song4 ,the leader of the band of kouroi1 of young men1 the real actual leader1 has become by remembrance and abstraction1 as we noted1 a daimon1 or spirit1 at the head of a band of spirits1 and he brings in the new year at spring4 ,the real leader1 the first kouros as the ,greeks called him1 is there in the body1 but from the succession of leaders year by year they have imaged a spirit leader greatest of all4 ,he is lord of all that is wet and gleaming1 for the ,may bough1 we remember1 is drenched with dew and water that it may burgeon and blossom4 ,then they chant the tale of how of old a child was taken away from its mother1 taken by armed men to be initiated1 armed men dancing their tribal dance4 ,the stone is unhappily broken here1 but enough remains to make the meaning clear4 ,and because this boy grew up and was initiated into manhood3 ,the ,hor 7,seasons7 began to be fruitful year by year and ,dik to possess mankind1 and all wild living things were held about by wealth-loving ,peace4 ,we know the ,seasons1 the fruit and food bringers1 but ,dik is strange4 ,we translate the word ,justice1 but ,dik means1 not ,justice as between man and man1 but the order of the world1 the way of life4 ,it is through this way1 this order1 that the seasons go round4 ,as long as the seasons observe this order there is fruitfulness and peace4 ,if once that order were overstepped then would be disorder1 strife1 confusion1 barrenness4 ,and next comes a mandate1 strange to our modern ears3 ,to us also leap for full jars1 and leap for fleecy flocks1 and leap for fields of fruit and for hives to bring increase4 ,and yet not strange if we remember the ,macedonian farmer 7p4 #cb71 who throws his spade into the air that the wheat may be tall1 or the ,russian peasant girls who leap high in the air crying1 ,flax1 grow4 ,the leaping of the youths of the ,cretan hymn is just the utterance of their tense desire4 ,they have grown up1 and with them all live things must grow4 ,by their magic year by year the fruits of the earth come to their annual new birth4 ,and that there be no mistake they end3 ,leap for our cities1 and leap for our sea-borne ships1 and for our young citizens1 and for goodly ,themis4 ,they are now young citizens of a fencd city instead of young tribesmen of the bush1 but their magic is the same1 and the strength that holds them together is the bond of social custom1 social structure1 goodly ,themis4 ,no man liveth to himself4 99 99 99 99 99 ,crete is not ,athens1 but at ,athens in the theatre of ,dionysos1 if the priest of ,dionysos1 seated at the great ,spring ,festival in his beautiful carved central seat1 looked across the orchestra1 he would see facing him a stone frieze on which was sculptured the ,cretan ritual1 the armed dancing youths and the child to be year by year reborn4 ,we have seen what the ,dithyramb1 from which sprang the ,drama1 was4 ,a ,spring song1 a song of ,bull-driving1 a song and dance of ,second ,birth2 but all this seems1 perhaps1 not to bring us nearer to ,greek drama1 rather to put us farther away4 ,what have the ,spring and the ,bull and the ,birth ,rite to do with the stately tragedies we know--with ,agamemnon and ,iphigenia and ,orestes and ,hippolytos8 ,that is the question before us1 and the answer will lead us to the very heart of our subject4 ,so far we have seen that ritual arose from the presentation and emphasis of emotion--emotion felt mainly about food4 ,we have further seen that ritual develops out of and by means of periodic festivals4 ,one of the chief periodic festivals at ,athens was the ,spring ,festival of the ,dithyramb4 ,out of this ,dithyramb arose1 ,aristotle says1 tragedy--that is1 out of ,ritual arose ,art4 ,how and ,why8 ,that is the question before us4 ,,footnotes3 #ai ,poetics1 ,,iv1 #ab4 #bj ,see my ,themis1 p4 #dai4 7#aiab47 #ba ,i1 #dc4 #b4 #bb ,quaest4 ,grc4 ,,xii4 #bc ,op4 cit4 #bd ,qust4 ,symp41 #fic f4 #be ,the words in ,spring-time depend on an emendation to me convincing4 ,see my ,themis1 p4 #bje1 note #a4 #bf ,,ix4 #bg ,see my ,themis1 p4 #aea4 #bh ,see my ,prolegomena1 p4 #dci4 #bi ,prolegomena1 p4 #djb4 #cj ,frazer1 ,totemism and ,exogamy1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bbh4 #ca ,the ,golden ,bough1#b ,,iii1 #dbd4 #cb ,the ,golden ,bough1#b ,,iii1 #ddb4 #cc ,the ,golden ,bough1#b ,,iii1 p4 #dch4 #cd ,see my ,themis1 p4 #ejc4 ,,chapter ,v ,,transition ,,from ,,ritual ,,to ,,art3 ,,the ,,dromenon 7,,thing ,,done7 ,,and ,,the ,,drama ,probably most people when they go to a ,greek play for the first time think it a strange performance4 ,according1 perhaps1 more to their temperament than to their training1 they are either very much excited or very much bored4 ,in many minds there will be left a feeling that1 whether they have enjoyed the play or not1 they are puzzled3 there are odd effects1 conventions1 suggestions4 ,for example1 the main deed of the ,tragedy1 the slaying of hero or heroine1 is not done on the stage4 ,that disappoints some modern minds unconsciously avid of realism to the point of horror4 ,instead of a fine thrilling murder or suicide before his very eyes1 the spectator is put off with an account of the murder done off the stage4 ,this account is regularly given1 and usually at considerable length1 in a messenger's speech4 ,the messenger's speech is a regular item in a ,greek play1 and though actually it gives scope not only for fine elocution1 but for real dramatic effect1 in theory we feel it undramatic1 and a modern actor has sometimes much ado to make it acceptable4 ,the spectator is told that all these1 to him1 odd conventions are due to ,greek restraint1 moderation1 good taste1 and yet for all their supposed restraint and reserve1 he finds when he reads his ,homer that ,greek heroes frequently burst into floods of tears when a self-respecting ,englishman would have suffered in silence4 ,then again1 specially if the play be by ,euripides1 it ends not with a curtain1 not with a great decisive moment1 but with the appearance of a god who says a few lines of either exhortation or consolation or reconciliation1 which1 after the strain and stress of the action itself1 strikes some people as rather stilted and formal1 or as rather flat and somehow unsatisfying4 ,worse still1 there are in many of the scenes long dialogues1 in which the actors wrangle with each other1 and in which the action does not advance so quickly as we wish4 ,or again1 instead of beginning with the action1 and having our curiosity excited bit by bit about the plot1 at the outset some one comes in and tells us the whole thing in the prologue4 ,prologues we feel1 are out of date1 and the ,greeks ought to have known better4 ,or again1 of course we admit that tragedy must be tragic1 and we are prepared for a decent amount of lamentation1 but when an antiphonal lament goes on for pages1 we weary and wish that the chorus would stop lamenting and do something4 99 99 99 99 99 ,at the back of our modern discontent there is lurking always this queer anomaly of the chorus4 ,we have in our modern theatre no chorus1 and when1 in the opera1 something of the nature of a chorus appears in the ballet1 it is a chorus that really dances to amuse and excite us in the intervals of operatic action2 it is not a chorus of doddering and pottering old men1 moralizing on an action in which they are too feeble to join4 ,of course if we are classical scholars we do not cavil at the choral songs2 the extreme difficulty of scanning and construing them alone commands a traditional respect2 but if we are merely modern spectators1 we may be respectful1 we may even feel strangely excited1 but we are certainly puzzled4 ,the reason of our bewilderment is simple enough4 ,these prologues and messengers' speeches and ever-present choruses that trouble us are ritual forms still surviving at a time when the drama has fully developed out of the dromenon4 ,we cannot here examine all these ritual forms in detail2#ce one1 however1 the chorus1 strangest and most beautiful of all1 it is essential we should understand4 ,suppose that these choral songs have been put into ,english that in any way represents the beauty of the ,greek2 then certainly there will be some among the spectators who get a thrill from the chorus quite unknown to any modern stage effect1 a feeling of emotion heightened yet restrained1 a sense of entering into higher places1 filled with a larger and a purer air--a sense of beauty born clean out of conflict and disaster4 ,a suspicion dawns upon the spectator that1 great though the tragedies in themselves are1 they owe their peculiar1 their incommunicable beauty largely to this element of the chorus which seemed at first so strange4 ,now by examining this chorus and understanding its function--nay1 more1 by considering the actual orchestra1 the space on which the chorus danced1 and the relation of that space to the rest of the theatre1 to the stage and the place where the spectators sat--we shall get light at last on our main central problem3 ,how did art arise out of ritual1 and what is the relation of both to that actual life from which both art and ritual sprang8 99 99 99 99 99 ,the dramas of schylus certainly1 and perhaps also those of ,sophocles and ,euripides1 were played not upon the stage1 and not in the theatre1 but1 strange though it sounds to us1 in the orchestra4 ,the theatre to the ,greeks was simply the place of seeing1 the place where the spectators sat2 what they called the skn or scene1 was the tent or hut in which the actors dressed4 ,but the kernel and centre of the whole was the orchestra1 the circular dancing-place of the chorus2 and1 as the orchestra was the kernel and centre of the theatre1 so the chorus1 the band of dancing and singing men--this chorus that seems to us so odd and even superfluous--was the centre and kernel and starting-point of the drama4 ,the chorus danced and sang that ,dithyramb we know so well1 and from the leaders of that ,dithyramb we remember tragedy arose1 and the chorus were at first1 as an ancient writer tells us1 just men and boys1 tillers of the earth1 who danced when they rested from sowing and ploughing4 ,now it is in the relation between the orchestra or dancing-place of the chorus1 and the theatre or place of the spectators1 a relation that shifted as time went on1 that we see mirrored the whole development from ritual to art--from dromenon to drama4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the orchestra on which the ,dithyramb was danced was just a circular dancing-place beaten flat for the convenience of the dancers1 and sometimes edged by a stone basement to mark the circle4 ,this circular orchestra is very well seen in the theatre of ,epidaurus1 of which a sketch is given in ,fig4 #a4 ,the orchestra here is surrounded by a splendid theatron1 or spectator place1 with seats rising tier above tier4 ,if we want to realize the primitive ,greek orchestra or dancing-place1 we must think these stone seats away4 ,threshing-floors are used in ,greece to-day as convenient dancing-places4 ,the dance tends to be circular because it is round some sacred thing1 at first a maypole1 or the reaped corn1 later the figure of a god or his altar4 ,on this dancing-place the whole body of worshippers would gather1 just as now-a-days the whole community will assemble on a village green4 ,there is no division at first between actors and spectators2 all are actors1 all are doing the thing done1 dancing the dance danced4 ,thus at initiation ceremonies the whole tribe assembles1 the only spectators are the uninitiated1 the women and children4 ,no one at this early stage thinks of building a theatre1 a spectator place4 ,it is in the common act1 the common or collective emotion1 that ritual starts4 ,this must never be forgotten4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,theatre of ,epidaurus ,showing ,circular ,orchestra4 ,the most convenient spot for a mere dancing-place is some flat place4 ,but any one who travels through ,greece will notice instantly that all the ,greek theatres that remain at ,athens1 at ,epidaurus1 at ,delos1 ,syracuse1 and elsewhere1 are built against the side of hills4 ,none of these are very early2 the earliest ancient orchestra we have is at ,athens4 ,it is a simple stone ring1 but it is built against the steep south side of the ,acropolis4 ,the oldest festival of ,dionysos was1 as will presently be seen1 held in quite another spot1 in the agora1 or market-place4 ,the reason for moving the dance was that the wooden seats that used to be set up on a sort of grand stand in the market-place fell down1 and it was seen how safely and comfortably the spectators could be seated on the side of a steep hill4 ,the spectators are a new and different element1 the dance is not only danced1 but it is watched from a distance1 it is a spectacle2 whereas in old days all or nearly all were worshippers acting1 now many1 indeed most1 are spectators1 watching1 feeling1 thinking1 not doing4 ,it is in this new attitude of the spectator that we touch on the difference between ritual and art2 the dromenon1 the thing actually done by yourself has become a drama1 a thing also done1 but abstracted from your doing4 ,let us look for a moment at the psychology of the spectator1 at his behaviour4 99 99 99 99 99 ,artists1 it is often said1 and usually felt1 are so unpractical4 ,they are always late for dinner1 they forget to post their letters and to return the books or even money that is lent them4 ,art is to most people's minds a sort of luxury1 not a necessity4 ,in but recently bygone days music1 drawing1 and dancing were no part of a training for ordinary life1 they were taught at school as accomplishments1 paid for as extras4 ,poets on their side equally used to contrast art and life1 as though they were things essentially distinct4 ,art is long1 and ,time is fleeting4 ,now commonplaces such as these1 being unconscious utterances of the collective mind1 usually contain much truth1 and are well worth weighing4 ,art1 we shall show later1 is profoundly connected with life2 it is nowise superfluous4 ,but1 for all that1 art1 both its creation and its enjoyment1 is unpractical4 ,thanks be to ,god1 life is not limited to the practical4 ,when we say art is unpractical1 we mean that art is cut loose from immediate action4 ,take a simple instance4 ,a man--or perhaps still better a child--sees a plate of cherries4 ,through his senses comes the stimulus of the smell of the cherries1 and their bright colour urging him1 luring him to eat4 ,he eats and is satisfied2 the cycle of normal behaviour is complete2 he is a man or a child of action1 but he is no artist1 and no art-lover4 ,another man looks at the same plate of cherries4 ,his sight and his smell lure him and urge him to eat4 ,he does not eat2 the cycle is not completed1 and1 because he does not eat1 the sight of those cherries1 though perhaps not the smell1 is altered1 purified from desire1 and in some way intensified1 enlarged4 ,if he is just a man of taste1 he will take what we call an sthetic pleasure in those cherries4 ,if he is an actual artist1 he will paint not the cherries1 but his vision of them1 his purified emotion towards them4 ,he has1 so to speak1 come out from the chorus of actors1 of cherry-eaters1 and become a spectator4 ,i borrow1 by his kind permission1 a beautiful instance of what he well calls ,psychical ,distance from the writings of a psychologist4#cf ,imagine a fog at sea3 for most people it is an experience of acute unpleasantness4 ,apart from the physical annoyance and remoter forms of discomfort1 such as delays1 it is apt to produce feelings of peculiar anxiety1 fears of invisible dangers1 strains of watching and listening for distant and unlocalized signals4 ,the listless movements of the ship and her warning calls soon tell upon the nerves of the passengers2 and that special1 expectant tacit anxiety and nervousness1 always associated with this experience1 make a fog the dreaded terror of the sea 7all the more terrifying because of its very silence and gentleness7 for the expert seafarer no less than the ignorant landsman4 ,nevertheless1 a fog at sea can be a source of intense relish and enjoyment4 ,abstract from the experience of the sea-fog1 for the moment1 its danger and practical unpleasantness2 444 direct the attention to the features 'objectively' constituting the phenomena--the veil surrounding you with an opaqueness as of transparent milk1 blurring the outlines of things and distorting their shapes into weird grotesqueness2 observe the carrying power of the air1 producing the impression as if you could touch some far-off siren by merely putting out your hand and letting it lose itself behind that white wall2 note the curious creamy smoothness of the water1 hypercritically denying as it were1 any suggestion of danger2 and1 above all1 the strange solitude and remoteness from the world1 as it can be found only on the highest mountain tops2 and the experience may acquire1 in its uncanny mingling of repose and terror1 a flavour of such concentrated poignancy and delight as to contrast sharply with the blind and distempered anxiety of its other aspects4 ,this contrast1 often emerging with startling suddenness1 is like the momentary switching on of some new current1 or the passing ray of a brighter light1 illuminating the outlook upon perhaps the most ordinary and familiar objects--an impression which we experience sometimes in instants of direst extremity1 when our practical interest snaps like a wire from sheer over-tension1 and we watch the consummation of some impending catastrophe with the marvelling unconcern of a mere spectator4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it has often been noted that two1 and two only1 of our senses are the channels of art and give us artistic material4 ,these two senses are sight and hearing4 ,touch and its special modifications1 taste and smell1 do not go to the making of art4 ,decadent ,french novelists1 such as ,huysmann1 make their heroes revel in perfume-symphonies1 but we feel that the sentiment described is morbid and unreal1 and we feel rightly4 ,some people speak of a cook as an artist1 and a pudding as a perfect poem1 but a healthy instinct rebels4 ,art1 whether sculpture1 painting1 drama1 music1 is of sight or hearing4 ,the reason is simple4 ,sight and hearing are the distant senses2 sight is1 as some one has well said1 touch at a distance4 ,sight and hearing are of things already detached and somewhat remote2 they are the fitting channels for art which is cut loose from immediate action and reaction4 ,taste and touch are too intimate1 too immediately vital4 ,in ,russian1 as ,tolstoi has pointed out 7and indeed in other languages the same is observable71 the word for beauty 7krasota7 means1 to begin with1 only that which pleases the sight4 ,even hearing is excluded4 ,and though latterly people have begun to speak of an ugly deed or of beautiful music1 it is not good ,russian4 ,the simple ,russian does not make ,plato's divine muddle between the good and the beautiful4 ,if a man gives his coat to another1 the ,russian peasant1 knowing no foreign language1 will not say the man has acted beautifully4 ,to see a thing1 to feel a thing1 as a work of art1 we must1 then1 become for the time unpractical1 must be loosed from the fear and the flurry of actual living1 must become spectators4 ,why is this8 ,why can we not live and look at once8 ,the fact that we cannot is clear4 ,if we watch a friend drowning we do not note the exquisite curve made by his body as he falls into the water1 nor the play of the sunlight on the ripples as he disappears below the surface2 we should be inhuman1 sthetic fiends if we did4 ,and again1 why8 ,it would do our friend no harm that we should enjoy the curves and the sunlight1 provided we also threw him a rope4 ,but the simple fact is that we cannot look at the curves and the sunlight because our whole being is centred on acting1 on saving him2 we cannot even1 at the moment1 fully feel our own terror and impending loss4 ,so again if we want to see and to feel the splendour and vigour of a lion1 or even to watch the cumbrous grace of a bear1 we prefer that a cage should intervene4 ,the cage cuts off the need for motor actions2 it interposes the needful physical and moral distance1 and we are free for contemplation4 ,released from our own terrors1 we see more and better1 and we feel differently4 ,a man intent on action is like a horse in blinkers1 he goes straight forward1 seeing only the road ahead4 ,our brain is1 indeed1 it would seem1 in part1 an elaborate arrangement for providing these blinkers4 ,if we saw and realized the whole of everything1 we should want to do too many things4 ,the brain allows us not only to remember1 but1 which is quite as important1 to forget and neglect2 it is an organ of oblivion4 ,by neglecting most of the things we see and hear1 we can focus just on those which are important for action2 we can cease to be potential artists and become efficient practical human beings2 but it is only by limiting our view1 by a great renunciation as to the things we see and feel4 ,the artist does just the reverse4 ,he renounces doing in order to practise seeing4 ,he is by nature what ,professor ,bergson calls distrait1 aloof1 absent-minded1 intent only1 or mainly1 on contemplation4 ,that is why the ordinary man often thinks the artist a fool1 or1 if he does not go so far as that1 is made vaguely uncomfortable by him1 never really understands him4 ,the artist's focus1 all his system of values1 is different1 his world is a world of images which are his realities4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the distinction between art and ritual1 which has so long haunted and puzzled us1 now comes out quite clearly1 and also in part the relation of each to actual life4 ,ritual1 we saw1 was a re-presentation or a pre-presentation1 a re-doing or pre-doing1 a copy or imitation of life1 but1--and this is the important point1--always with a practical end4 ,art is also a representation of life and the emotions of life1 but cut loose from immediate action4 ,action may be and often is represented1 but it is not that it may lead on to a practical further end4 ,the end of art is in itself4 ,its value is not mediate but immediate4 ,thus ritual makes1 as it were1 a bridge between real life and art1 a bridge over which in primitive times it would seem man must pass4 ,in his actual life he hunts and fishes and ploughs and sows1 being utterly intent on the practical end of gaining his food2 in the dromenon of the ,spring ,festival1 though his acts are unpractical1 being mere singing and dancing and mimicry1 his intent is practical1 to induce the return of his food-supply4 ,in the drama the representation may remain for a time the same1 but the intent is altered3 man has come out from action1 he is separate from the dancers1 and has become a spectator4 ,the drama is an end in itself4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we know from tradition that in ,athens ritual became art1 a dromenon became the drama1 and we have seen that the shift is symbolized and expressed by the addition of the theatre1 or spectator-place1 to the orchestra1 or dancing-place4 ,we have also tried to analyse the meaning of the shift4 ,it remains to ask what was its cause4 ,ritual does not always develop into art1 though in all probability dramatic art has always to go through the stage of ritual4 ,the leap from real life to the emotional contemplation of life cut loose from action would otherwise be too wide4 ,nature abhors a leap1 she prefers to crawl over the ritual bridge4 ,there seem at ,athens to have been two main causes why the dromenon passed swiftly1 inevitably1 into the drama4 ,they are1 first1 the decay of religious faith2 second1 the influx from abroad of a new culture and new dramatic material4 ,it may seem surprising to some that the decay of religious faith should be an impulse to the birth of art4 ,we are accustomed to talk rather vaguely of art as the handmaid of religion2 we think of art as inspired by religion4 ,but the decay of religious faith of which we now speak is not the decay of faith in a god1 or even the decay of some high spiritual emotion2 it is the decay of a belief in the efficacy of certain magical rites1 and especially of the ,spring ,rite4 ,so long as people believed that by excited dancing1 by bringing in an image or leading in a bull you could induce the coming of ,spring1 so long would the dromena of the ,dithyramb be enacted with intense enthusiasm1 and with this enthusiasm would come an actual accession and invigoration of vital force4 ,but1 once the faintest doubt crept in1 once men began to be guided by experience rather than custom1 the enthusiasm would die down1 and the collective invigoration no longer be felt4 ,then some day there will be a bad summer1 things will go all wrong1 and the chorus will sadly ask3 ,why should ,i dance my dance8 ,they will drift away or become mere spectators of a rite established by custom4 ,the rite itself will die down1 or it will live on only as the ,may ,day rites of to-day1 a children's play1 or at best a thing done vaguely for luck4 ,the spirit of the rite1 the belief in its efficacy1 dies1 but the rite itself1 the actual mould1 persists1 and it is this ancient ritual mould1 foreign to our own usage1 that strikes us to-day1 when a ,greek play is revived1 as odd and perhaps chill4 ,a chorus1 a band of dancers there must be1 because the drama arose out of a ritual dance4 ,an agon1 or contest1 or wrangling1 there will probably be1 because ,summer contends with ,winter1 ,life with ,death1 the ,new ,year with the ,old4 ,a tragedy must be tragic1 must have its pathos1 because the ,winter1 the ,old ,year1 must die4 ,there must needs be a swift transition1 a clash and change from sorrow to joy1 what the ,greeks called a peripeteia1 a quick-turn-round1 because1 though you carry out ,winter1 you bring in ,summer4 ,at the end we shall have an ,appearance1 an ,epiphany of a god1 because the whole gist of the ancient ritual was to summon the spirit of life4 ,all these ritual forms haunt and shadow the play1 whatever its plot1 like ancient traditional ghosts2 they underlie and sway the movement and the speeches like some compelling rhythm4 ,now this ritual mould1 this underlying rhythm1 is a fine thing in itself2 and1 moreover1 it was once shaped and cast by a living spirit3 the intense immediate desire for food and life1 and for the return of the seasons which bring that food and life4 ,but we have seen that1 once the faith in man's power magically to bring back these seasons waned1 once he began to doubt whether he could really carry out ,winter and bring in ,summer1 his emotion towards these rites would cool4 ,further1 we have seen that these rites repeated year by year ended1 among an imaginative people1 in the mental creation of some sort of dmon or god4 ,this dmon1 or god1 was more and more held responsible on his own account for the food-supply and the order of the ,hor1 or ,seasons2 so we get the notion that this dmon or god himself led in the ,seasons2 ,hermes dances at the head of the ,charites1 or an ,eiresione is carried to ,helios and the ,hor4 ,the thought then arises that this man-like dmon who rose from a real ,king of the ,may1 must himself be approached and dealt with as a man1 bargained with1 sacrificed to4 ,in a word1 in place of dromena1 things done1 we get gods worshipped2 in place of sacraments1 holy bulls killed and eaten in common1 we get sacrifices in the modern sense1 holy bulls offered to yet holier gods4 ,the relation of these figures of gods to art we shall consider when we come to sculpture4 ,so the dromenon1 the thing done1 wanes1 the prayer1 the praise1 the sacrifice waxes4 ,religion moves away from drama towards theology1 but the ritual mould of the dromenon is left ready for a new content4 ,again1 there is another point4 ,the magical dromenon1 the ,carrying out of ,winter1 the ,bringing in of ,spring1 is doomed to an inherent and deadly monotony4 ,it is only when its magical efficacy is intensely believed that it can go on4 ,the life-history of a holy bull is always the same2 its magical essence is that it should be the same4 ,even when the life-dmon is human his career is unchequered4 ,he is born1 initiated1 or born again2 he is married1 grows old1 dies1 is buried2 and the old1 old story is told again next year4 ,there are no fresh personal incidents1 peculiar to one particular dmon4 ,if the drama rose from the ,spring ,song only1 beautiful it might be1 but with a beauty that was monotonous1 a beauty doomed to sterility4 ,we seem to have come to a sort of impasse1 the spirit of the dromenon is dead or dying1 the spectators will not stay long to watch a doing doomed to monotony4 ,the ancient moulds are there1 the old bottles1 but where is the new wine8 ,the pool is stagnant2 what angel will step down to trouble the waters8 99 99 99 99 99 ,fortunately we are not left to conjecture what might have happened4 ,in the case of ,greece we know1 though not as clearly as we wish1 what did happen4 ,we can see in part why1 though the dromena of ,adonis and ,osiris1 emotional as they were and intensely picturesque1 remained mere ritual2 the dromenon of ,dionysos1 his ,dithyramb1 blossomed into drama4 ,let us look at the facts1 and first at some structural facts in the building of the theatre4 ,we have seen that the orchestra1 with its dancing chorus1 stands for ritual1 for the stage in which all were worshippers1 all joined in a rite of practical intent4 ,we further saw that the theatre1 the place for the spectators1 stood for art4 ,in the orchestra all is life and dancing2 the marble seats are the very symbol of rest1 aloofness from action1 contemplation4 ,the seats for the spectators grow and grow in importance till at last they absorb1 as it were1 the whole spirit1 and give their name theatre to the whole structure2 action is swallowed up in contemplation4 ,but contemplation of what8 ,at first1 of course1 of the ritual dance1 but not for long4 ,that1 we have seen1 was doomed to a deadly monotony4 ,in a ,greek theatre there was not only orchestra and a spectator-place1 there was also a scene or stage4 ,the ,greek word for stage is1 as we said1 sken1 our scene4 ,the scene was not a stage in our sense1 i4e4 a platform raised so that the players might be better viewed4 ,it was simply a tent1 or rude hut1 in which the players1 or rather dancers1 could put on their ritual dresses4 ,the fact that the ,greek theatre had1 to begin with1 no permanent stage in our sense1 shows very clearly how little it was regarded as a spectacle4 ,the ritual dance was a dromenon1 a thing to be done1 not a thing to be looked at4 ,the history of the ,greek stage is one long story of the encroachment of the stage on the orchestra4 ,at first a rude platform or table is set up1 then scenery is added2 the movable tent is translated into a stone house or a temple front4 ,this stands at first outside the orchestra2 then bit by bit the scene encroaches till the sacred circle of the dancing-place is cut clean across4 ,as the drama and the stage wax1 the dromenon and the orchestra wane4 ,this shift in the relation of dancing-place and stage is very clearly seen in ,fig4 #b1 a plan of the ,dionysiac theatre at ,athens 7p4 #add74 ,the old circular orchestra shows the dominance of ritual2 the new curtailed orchestra of ,roman times and semicircular shape shows the dominance of the spectacle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,dionysiac ,theatre at ,athens4 ,greek tragedy arose1 ,aristotle has told us1 from the leaders of the ,dithyramb1 the leaders of the ,spring ,dance4 ,the ,spring ,dance1 the mime of ,summer and ,winter1 had1 as we have seen1 only one actor1 one actor with two parts--,death and ,life4 ,with only one play to be played1 and that a one-actor play1 there was not much need for a stage4 ,a scene1 that is a tent1 was needed1 as we saw1 because all the dancers had to put on their ritual gear1 but scarcely a stage4 ,from a rude platform the prologue might be spoken1 and on that platform the ,epiphany or ,appearance of the ,new ,year might take place2 but the play played1 the life-history of the life-spirit1 was all too familiar2 there was no need to look1 the thing was to dance4 ,you need a stage--not necessarily a raised stage1 but a place apart from the dancers--when you have new material for your players1 something you need to look at1 to attend to4 ,in the sixth century ,b4,c41 at ,athens1 came the great innovation4 ,instead of the old plot1 the life-history of the life-spirit1 with its deadly monotony1 new plots were introduced1 not of life-spirits but of human individual heroes4 ,in a word1 ,homer came to ,athens1 and out of ,homeric stories playwrights began to make their plots4 ,this innovation was the death of ritual monotony and the dromenon4 ,it is not so much the old that dies as the new that kills4 99 99 99 99 99 schylus himself is reported to have said that his tragedies were slices from the great banquet of ,homer4 ,the metaphor is not a very pleasing one1 but it expresses a truth4 ,by ,homer1 schylus meant not only our ,iliad and ,odyssey1 but the whole body of ,epic or ,heroic poetry which centred round not only the ,siege of ,troy but the great expedition of the ,seven ,against ,thebes1 and which1 moreover1 contained the stories of the heroes before the siege began1 and their adventures after it was ended4 ,it was from these heroic sagas for the most part1 though not wholly1 that the myths or plots of not only schylus but also ,sophocles and ,euripides1 and a host of other writers whose plays are lost to us1 are taken4 ,the new wine that was poured into the old bottles of the dromena at the ,spring ,festival was the heroic saga4 ,we know as an historical fact1 the name of the man who was mainly responsible for this inpouring--the great democratic tyrant ,peisistratos4 ,we must look for a moment at what ,peisistratos found1 and then pass to what he did4 ,he found an ancient ,spring dromenon1 perhaps well-nigh effete4 ,without destroying the old he contrived to introduce the new1 to add to the old plot of ,summer and ,winter the life-stories of heroes1 and thereby arose the drama4 ,let us look first1 then1 at what ,peisistratos found4 ,the ,april festival of ,dionysos at which the great dramas were performed was not the earliest festival of the god4 ,thucydides#cg expressly tells us that on the #abth day of the month ,anthesterion1 that is in the quite early spring1 at the turn of our ,february and ,march1 were celebrated the more ancient ,dionysia4 ,it was a three-days' festival4#ch ,on the first day1 called ,cask-opening1 the jars of new wine were broached4 ,among the ,botians the day was called not the day of ,dionysos1 but the day of the ,good or ,wealthy ,daimon4 ,the next day was called the day of the ,cups--there was a contest or agon of drinking4 ,the last day was called the ,pots1 and it1 too1 had its ,pot-,contests4 ,it is the ceremonies of this day that we must notice a little in detail2 for they are very surprising4 ,casks1 ,cups1 and ,pots1 sound primitive enough4 ,casks and ,cups go well with the wine-god1 but the ,pots call for explanation4 ,the second day of the ,cups1 joyful though it sounds1 was by the ,athenians counted unlucky1 because on that day they believed the ghosts of the dead rose up4 ,the sanctuaries were roped in1 each householder anointed his door with pitch1 that the ghost who tried to enter might catch and stick there4 ,further1 to make assurance doubly sure1 from early dawn he chewed a bit of buckthorn1 a plant of strong purgative powers1 so that1 if a ghost should by evil chance go down his throat1 it should at least be promptly expelled4 ,for two1 perhaps three1 days of constant anxiety and ceaseless precautions the ghosts fluttered about ,athens4 ,men's hearts were full of nameless dread1 and1 as we shall see1 hope4 ,at the close of the third day the ghosts1 or1 as the ,greeks called them1 ,keres1 were bidden to go4 ,some one1 we do not know whom1 it may be each father of a household1 pronounced the words3 ,out of the door1 ye ,keres2 it is no longer ,anthesteria1 and1 obedient1 the ,keres were gone4 ,but before they went there was a supper for these souls4 ,all the citizens cooked a panspermia or ,pot-of-all-,seeds1 but of this ,pot-of-all-,seeds no citizen tasted4 ,it was made over to the spirits of the under-world and ,hermes their daimon1 ,hermes ,psychopompos1 ,conductor1 ,leader of the dead4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have seen how a forest people1 dependent on fruit trees and berries for their food1 will carry a maypole and imagine a tree-spirit4 ,but a people of agriculturists will feel and do and think quite otherwise2 they will look1 not to the forest but to the earth for their returning life and food2 they will sow seeds and wait for their sprouting1 as in the gardens of ,adonis4 ,adonis seems to have passed through the two stages of ,tree-,spirit and ,seed-,spirit2 his effigy was sometimes a tree cut down1 sometimes his planted ,gardens4 ,now seeds are many1 innumerable1 and they are planted in the earth1 and a people who bury their dead know1 or rather feel1 that the earth is dead man's land4 ,so1 when they prepare a pot of seeds on their ,all ,souls' ,day1 it is not really or merely as a supper for the souls1 though it may be that kindly notion enters4 ,the ghosts have other work to do than to eat their supper and go4 ,they take that supper of all seeds1 that panspermia1 with them down to the world below1 that they may tend it and foster it and bring it back in autumn as a pot of all fruits1 a pankarpia4 ,thou fool1 that which thou sowest is not quickened except it die4 ,the dead1 then1 as well as the living--this is for us the important point--had their share in the dromena of the more ancient ,dionysia4 ,these agricultural spring dromena were celebrated just outside the ancient city gates1 in the agora1 or place of assembly1 on a circular dancing-place1 near to a very primitive sanctuary of ,dionysos which was opened only once in the year1 at the ,feast of ,cups4 ,just outside the gates was celebrated yet another festival of ,dionysos equally primitive1 called the ,dionysia in the ,fields4 ,it had the form though not the date of our ,may ,day festival4 ,plutarch#ci thus laments over the good old times3 ,in ancient days1 he says1 our fathers used to keep the feast of ,dionysos in homely1 jovial fashion4 ,there was a procession1 a jar of wine and a branch2 then some one dragged in a goat1 another followed bringing a wicker basket of figs1 and1 to crown all1 the phallos4 ,it was just a festival of the fruits of the whole earth3 wine and the basket of figs and the branch for vegetation1 the goat for animal life1 the phallos for man4 ,no thought here of the dead1 it is all for the living and his food4 99 99 99 99 99 ,such sanctities even a great tyrant might not tamper with4 ,but if you may not upset the old you may without irreverence add the new4 ,peisistratos probably cared little for1 and believed less in1 magical ceremonies for the renewal of fruits1 incantations of the dead4 ,we can scarcely picture him chewing buckthorn on the day of the ,cups1 or anointing his front door with pitch to keep out the ghosts4 ,very wisely he left the ,anthesteria and the kindred festival in the fields where and as they were4 ,but for his own purposes he wanted to do honour to ,dionysos1 and also above all things to enlarge and improve the rites done in the god's honour1 so1 leaving the old sanctuary to its fate1 he built a new temple on the south side of the ,acropolis where the present theatre now stands1 and consecrated to the god a new and more splendid precinct4 ,he did not build the present theatre1 we must always remember that4 ,the rows of stone seats1 the chief priest's splendid marble chair1 were not erected till two centuries later4 ,what ,peisistratos did was to build a small stone temple 7see ,fig4 #b71 and a great round orchestra of stone close beside it4 ,small fragments of the circular foundation can still be seen4 ,the spectators sat on the hill-side or on wooden seats2 there was as yet no permanent thetron or spectator-place1 still less a stone stage2 the dromena were done on the dancing-place4 ,but for spectator-place they had the south slope of the ,acropolis4 ,what kind of wooden stage they had unhappily we cannot tell4 ,it may be that only a portion of the orchestra was marked off4 99 99 99 99 99 ,why did ,peisistratos1 if he cared little for magic and ancestral ghosts1 take such trouble to foster and amplify the worship of this maypole-spirit1 ,dionysos8 ,why did he add to the ,anthesteria1 the festival of the family ghosts and the peasant festival in the fields1 a new and splendid festival1 a little later in the spring1 the ,great ,dionysia1 or ,dionysia of the ,city8 ,one reason among others was this--,peisistratos was a tyrant4 ,now a ,greek tyrant was not in our sense tyrannical4 ,he took his own way1 it is true1 but that way was to help and serve the common people4 ,the tyrant was usually raised to his position by the people1 and he stood for democracy1 for trade and industry1 as against an idle aristocracy4 ,it was but a rudimentary democracy1 a democratic tyranny1 the power vested in one man1 but it stood for the rights of the many as against the few4 ,moreover1 ,dionysos was always of the people1 of the working classes1 just as the ,king and ,queen of the ,may are now4 ,the upper classes worshipped then1 as now1 not the ,spirit of ,spring but their own ancestors4 ,but--and this was what ,peisistratos with great insight saw--,dionysos must be transplanted from the fields to the city4 ,the country is always conservative1 the natural stronghold of a landed aristocracy1 with fixed traditions2 the city with its closer contacts and consequent swifter changes1 and1 above all1 with its acquired1 not inherited1 wealth1 tends towards democracy4 ,peisistratos left the ,dionysia in the fields1 but he added the ,great ,dionysia in the city4 ,peisistratos was not the only tyrant who concerned himself with the dromena of ,dionysos4 ,herodotos#dj tells the story of another tyrant1 a story which is like a window opening suddenly on a dark room4 ,at ,sicyon1 a town near ,corinth1 there was in the agora a heroon1 a hero-tomb1 of an ,argive hero1 ,adrastos4 ,the ,sicyonians1 says ,herodotos1 paid other honours to ,adrastos1 and1 moreover1 they celebrated his death and disasters with tragic choruses1 not honouring ,dionysos but ,adrastos4 ,we think of tragic choruses as belonging exclusively to the theatre and ,dionysos2 so did ,herodotus1 but clearly here they belonged to a local hero4 ,his adventures and his death were commemorated by choral dances and songs4 ,now when ,cleisthenes became tyrant of ,sicyon he felt that the cult of the local hero was a danger4 ,what did he do8 ,very adroitly he brought in from ,thebes another hero as rival to ,adrastos4 ,he then split up the worship of ,adrastos2 part of his worship1 and especially his sacrifices1 he gave to the new ,theban hero1 but the tragic choruses he gave to the common people's god1 to ,dionysos4 ,adrastos1 the objectionable hero1 was left to dwindle and die4 ,no local hero can live on without his cult4 ,the act of ,cleisthenes seems to us a very drastic proceeding4 ,but perhaps it was not really so revolutionary as it seems4 ,the local hero was not so very unlike a local dmon1 a ,spring or ,winter spirit4 ,we have seen in the ,anthesteria how the paternal ghosts are expected to look after the seeds in spring4 ,the more important the ghost the more incumbent is this duty upon him4 ,noblesse oblige4 ,on the river ,olynthiakos#da in ,northern ,greece stood the tomb of the hero ,olynthos1 who gave the river its name4 ,in the spring months of ,anthesterion and ,elaphebolion the river rises and an immense shoal of fish pass from the lake of ,bolbe to the river of ,olynthiakos1 and the inhabitants round about can lay in a store of salt fish for all their needs4 ,and it is a wonderful fact that they never pass by the monument of ,olynthus4 ,they say that formerly the people used to perform the accustomed rites to the dead in the month ,elaphebolion1 but now they do them in ,anthesterion1 and that on this account the fish come up in those months only in which they are wont to do honour to the dead4 ,the river is the chief source of the food-supply1 so to send fish1 not seeds and flowers1 is the dead hero's business4 ,peisistratos was not so daring as ,cleisthenes4 ,we do not hear that he disturbed or diminished any local cult4 ,he did not attempt to move the ,anthesteria with its ghost cult2 he only added a new festival1 and trusted to its recent splendour gradually to efface the old4 ,and at this new festival he celebrated the deeds of other heroes1 not local but of greater splendour and of wider fame4 ,if he did not bring ,homer to ,athens1 he at least gave ,homer official recognition4 ,now to bring ,homer to ,athens was like opening the eyes of the blind4 99 99 99 99 99 ,cicero1 in speaking of the influence of ,peisistratos on literature1 says3 ,he is said to have arranged in their present order the works of ,homer1 which were previously in confusion4 ,he arranged them not for what we should call publication1 but for public recitation1 and another tradition adds that he or his son fixed the order of their recitation at the great festival of ,all ,athens1 the ,panathenaia4 ,homer1 of course1 was known before in ,athens in a scrappy way2 now he was publicly1 officially promulgated4 ,it is probable1 though not certain1 that the ,homer which ,peisistratos prescribed for recitation at the ,panathenaia was just our ,iliad and ,odyssey1 and that the rest of the heroic cycle1 all the remaining slices from the heroic banquet1 remained as material for dithyrambs and dramas4 ,the tyranny of ,peisistratos and his son lasted from #efj to #eja ,b4,c42 tradition said that the first dramatic contest was held in the new theatre built by ,peisistratos in #ece ,b4,c41 when ,thespis won the prize4 schylus was born in #ebe ,b4,c42 his first play1 with a plot from the heroic saga1 the ,seven ,against ,thebes1 was produced in #dfg ,b4,c4 ,it all came very swiftly1 the shift from the dithyramb as ,spring ,song to the heroic drama was accomplished in something much under a century4 ,its effect on the whole of ,greek life and religion--nay1 on the whole of subsequent literature and thought--was incalculable4 ,let us try to see why4 99 99 99 99 99 ,homer was the outcome1 the expression1 of an heroic age4 ,when we use the word heroic we think vaguely of something brave1 brilliant1 splendid1 something exciting and invigorating4 ,a hero is to us a man of clear1 vivid personality1 valiant1 generous1 perhaps hot-tempered1 a good friend and a good hater4 ,the word hero calls up such figures as ,achilles1 ,patroklos1 ,hector1 figures of passion and adventure4 ,now such figures1 with their special virtues1 and perhaps their proper vices1 are not confined to ,homer4 ,they occur in any and every heroic age4 ,we are beginning now to see that heroic poetry1 heroic characters1 do not arise from any peculiarity of race or even of geographical surroundings1 but1 given certain social conditions1 they may1 and do1 appear anywhere and at any time4 ,the world has seen several heroic ages1 though it is1 perhaps1 doubtful if it will ever see another4 ,what1 then1 are the conditions that produce an heroic age8 and why was this influx of heroic poetry1 coming just when it did1 of such immense influence on1 and importance to1 the development of ,greek dramatic art8 ,why had it power to change the old1 stiff1 ritual dithyramb into the new and living drama8 ,why1 above all things1 did the democratic tyrant ,peisistratos so eagerly welcome it to ,athens8 ,in the old ritual dance the individual was nothing1 the choral band1 the group1 everything1 and in this it did but reflect primitive tribal life4 ,now in the heroic saga the individual is everything1 the mass of the people1 the tribe1 or the group1 are but a shadowy background which throws up the brilliant1 clear-cut personality into a more vivid light4 ,the epic poet is all taken up with what he called klea andron1 glorious deeds of men1 of individual heroes2 and what these heroes themselves ardently long and pray for is just this glory1 this personal distinction1 this deathless fame for their great deeds4 ,when the armies meet it is the leaders who fight in single combat4 ,these glorious heroes are for the most part kings1 but not kings in the old sense1 not hereditary kings bound to the soil and responsible for its fertility4 ,rather they are leaders in war and adventure2 the homage paid them is a personal devotion for personal character2 the leader must win his followers by bravery1 he must keep them by personal generosity4 ,moreover1 heroic wars are oftenest not tribal feuds consequent on tribal raids1 more often they arise from personal grievances1 personal jealousies2 the siege of ,troy is undertaken not because the ,trojans have raided the cattle of the ,achans1 but because a single ,trojan1 ,paris1 has carried off ,helen1 a single ,achan's wife4 ,another noticeable point is that in heroic poems scarcely any one is safely and quietly at home4 ,the heroes are fighting in far-off lands or voyaging by sea2 hence we hear little of tribal and even of family ties4 ,the real centre is not the hearth1 but the leader's tent or ship4 ,local ties that bind to particular spots of earth are cut1 local differences fall into abeyance1 a sort of cosmopolitanism1 a forecast of pan-,hellenism1 begins to arise4 ,and a curious point--all this is reflected in the gods4 ,we hear scarcely anything of local cults1 nothing at all of local magical maypoles and ,carryings-out of ,winter and ,bringings-in of ,summer1 nothing whatever of ,suppers for the souls1 or even of worship paid to particular local heroes4 ,a man's ghost when he dies does not abide in its grave ready to rise at springtime and help the seeds to sprout2 it goes to a remote and shadowy region1 a common1 pan-,hellenic ,hades4 ,and so with the gods themselves2 they are cut clean from earth and from the local bits of earth out of which they grew--the sacred trees and holy stones and rivers and still holier beasts4 ,there is not a holy ,bull to be found in all ,olympus1 only figures of men1 bright and vivid and intensely personal1 like so many glorified1 transfigured ,homeric heroes4 ,in a word1 the heroic spirit1 as seen in heroic poetry1 is the outcome of a society cut loose from its roots1 of a time of migrations1 of the shifting of populations4#db ,but more is needed1 and just this something more the age that gave birth to ,homer had4 ,we know now that before the northern people whom we call ,greeks1 and who called themselves ,hellenes1 came down into ,greece1 there had grown up in the basin of the gean a civilization splendid1 wealthy1 rich in art and already ancient1 the civilization that has come to light at ,troy1 ,mycen1 ,tiryns1 and most of all in ,crete4 ,the adventurers from ,north and ,south came upon a land rich in spoils1 where a chieftain with a band of hardy followers might sack a city and dower himself and his men with sudden wealth4 ,such conditions1 such a contact of new and old1 of settled splendour beset by unbridled adventure1 go to the making of a heroic age1 its virtues and its vices1 its obvious beauty and its hidden ugliness4 ,in settled1 social conditions1 as has been well remarked1 most of the heroes would sooner or later have found themselves in prison4 ,a heroic age1 happily for society1 cannot last long2 it has about it while it does last a sheen of passing and pathetic splendour1 such as that which lights up the figure of ,achilles1 but it is bound to fade and pass4 ,a heroic society is almost a contradiction in terms4 ,heroism is for individuals4 ,if a society is to go on at all it must strike its roots deep in some soil1 native or alien4 ,the bands of adventurers must disband and go home1 or settle anew on the land they have conquered4 ,they must beat their swords into plowshares and their spears into pruning-hooks4 ,their gallant1 glorious leader must become a sober1 home-keeping1 law-giving and law-abiding king2 his followers must abate their individuality and make it subserve a common social purpose4 ,athens1 in her sheltered peninsula1 lay somewhat outside the tide of migrations and heroic exploits4 ,her population and that of all ,attica remained comparatively unchanged2 her kings are kings of the stationary1 law-abiding1 state-reforming type2 ,cecrops1 ,erechtheus1 ,theseus1 are not splendid1 flashing1 all-conquering figures like ,achilles and ,agamemnon4 ,athens might1 it would seem1 but for the coming of ,homer1 have lain stagnant in a backwater of conservatism1 content to go on chanting her traditional ,spring ,songs year by year4 ,it is a wonderful thing that this city of ,athens1 beloved of the gods1 should have been saved from the storm and stress1 sheltered from what might have broken1 even shattered her1 spared the actual horrors of a heroic age1 yet given heroic poetry1 given the clear wine-cup poured when the ferment was over4 ,she drank of it deep and was glad and rose up like a giant refreshed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have seen that to make up a heroic age there must be two factors1 the new and the old2 the young1 vigorous1 warlike people must seize on1 appropriate1 in part assimilate1 an old and wealthy civilization4 ,it almost seems as if we might go a step farther1 and say that for every great movement in art or literature we must have the same conditions1 a contact of new and old1 of a new spirit seizing or appropriated by an old established order4 ,anyhow for ,athens the historical fact stands certain4 ,the amazing development of the fifth-century drama is just this1 the old vessel of the ritual ,dithyramb filled to the full with the new wine of the heroic saga2 and it would seem that it was by the hand of ,peisistratos1 the great democratic tyrant1 that the new wine was outpoured4 99 99 99 99 99 ,such were roughly the outside conditions under which the drama of art grew out of the dromena of ritual4 ,the racial secret of the individual genius of schylus and the forgotten men who preceded him we cannot hope to touch4 ,we can only try to see the conditions in which they worked and mark the splendid new material that lay to their hands4 ,above all things we can see that this material1 these ,homeric saga1 were just fitted to give the needed impulse to art4 ,the ,homeric saga had for an ,athenian poet just that remoteness from immediate action which1 as we have seen1 is the essence of art as contrasted with ritual4 ,tradition says that the ,athenians fined the dramatic poet ,phrynichus for choosing as the plot of one of his tragedies the ,taking of ,miletus4 ,probably the fine was inflicted for political party reasons1 and had nothing whatever to do with the question of whether the subject was artistic or not4 ,but the story may stand1 and indeed was later understood to be1 a sort of allegory as to the attitude of art towards life4 ,to understand and still more to contemplate life you must come out from the choral dance of life and stand apart4 ,in the case of one's own sorrows1 be they national or personal1 this is all but impossible4 ,we can ritualize our sorrows1 but not turn them into tragedies4 ,we cannot stand back far enough to see the picture2 we want to be doing1 or at least lamenting4 ,in the case of the sorrows of others this standing back is all too easy4 ,we not only bear their pain with easy stoicism1 but we picture it dispassionately at a safe distance2 we feel about rather than with it4 ,the trouble is that we do not feel enough4 ,such was the attitude of the ,athenian towards the doings and sufferings of ,homeric heroes4 ,they stood towards them as spectators4 ,these heroes had not the intimate sanctity of home-grown things1 but they had sufficient traditional sanctity to make them acceptable as the material of drama4 ,adequately sacred though they were1 they were yet free and flexible4 ,it is impiety to alter the myth of your local hero1 it is impossible to recast the myth of your local dmon--that is fixed forever--his conflict1 his agon1 his death1 his pathos1 his ,resurrection and its heralding1 his ,epiphany4 ,but the stories of ,agamemnon and ,achilles1 though at home these heroes were local daimones1 have already been variously told in their wanderings from place to place1 and you can mould them more or less to your will4 ,moreover1 these figures are already personal and individual1 not representative puppets1 mere functionaries like the ,may ,queen and ,winter2 they have life-histories of their own1 never quite to be repeated4 ,it is in this blend of the individual and the general1 the personal and the universal1 that one element at least of all really great art will be found to lie2 and just here at ,athens we get a glimpse of the moment of fusion2 we see a definite historical reason why and how the universal in dromena came to include the particular in drama4 ,we see1 moreover1 how in place of the old monotonous plots1 intimately connected with actual practical needs1 we get material cut off from immediate reactions1 seen as it were at the right distance1 remote yet not too remote4 ,we see1 in a word1 how a ritual enacted year by year became a work of art that was a possession for ever4 99 99 99 99 99 ,possibly in the mind of the reader there may have been for some time a growing discomfort1 an inarticulate protest4 ,all this about dromena and drama and dithyrambs1 bears and bulls1 ,may ,queens and ,tree-,spirits1 even about ,homeric heroes1 is all very well1 curious and perhaps even in a way interesting1 but it is not at all what he expected1 still less what he wants4 ,when he bought a book with the odd incongruous title1 ,ancient ,art and ,ritual1 he was prepared to put up with some remarks on the artistic side of ritual1 but he did expect to be told something about what the ordinary man calls art1 that is1 statues and pictures4 ,greek drama is no doubt a form of ancient art1 but acting is not to the reader's mind the chief of arts4 ,nay1 more1 he has heard doubts raised lately--and he shares them--as to whether acting and dancing1 about which so much has been said1 are properly speaking arts at all4 ,now about painting and sculpture there is no doubt4 ,let us come to business4 ,to a business so beautiful and pleasant as ,greek sculpture we shall gladly come1 but a word must first be said to explain the reason of our long delay4 ,the main contention of the present book is that ritual and art have1 in emotion towards life1 a common root1 and further1 that primitive art develops normally1 at least in the case of the drama1 straight out of ritual4 ,the nature of that primitive ritual from which the drama arose is not very familiar to ,english readers4 ,it has been necessary to stress its characteristics4 ,almost everywhere1 all over the world1 it is found that primitive ritual consists1 not in prayer and praise and sacrifice1 but in mimetic dancing4 ,but it is in ,greece1 and perhaps ,greece only1 in the religion of ,dionysos1 that we can actually trace1 if dimly1 the transition steps that led from dance to drama1 from ritual to art4 ,it was1 therefore1 of the first importance to realize the nature of the dithyramb from which the drama rose1 and so far as might be to mark the cause and circumstances of the transition4 ,leaving the drama1 we come in the next chapter to ,sculpture2 and here1 too1 we shall see how closely art was shadowed by that ritual out of which she sprang4 ,,footnotes3 #ce ,see ,bibliography at end for ,professor ,murray's examination4 #cf ,mr4 ,edward ,bullough1 ,the ,british ,journal of ,psychology 7#aiab71 p4 #hh4 #cg ,,ii1 #ae4 #ch ,see my ,themis1 p4 #bhi1 and ,prolegomena1 p4 #ce4 #ci ,de ,cupid4 div4 #h4 #dj ,v1 #ff4 #da ,athen41 ,,viii1 ii1 #ccd f4 ,see my ,prolegomena1 p4 #ed4 #db ,thanks to ,mr4 ,h4,m4 ,chadwick's ,heroic ,age 7#aiab74 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,greek ,,sculpture3 ,,the ,,panathenaic ,,frieze ,,and ,,the ,,apollo ,,belvedere ,in passing from the drama to ,sculpture we make a great leap4 ,we pass from the living thing1 the dance or the play acted by real people1 the thing done1 whether as ritual or art1 whether dromenon or drama1 to the thing made1 cast in outside material rigid form1 a thing that can be looked at again and again1 but the making of which can never actually be re-lived whether by artist or spectator4 ,moreover1 we come to a clear threefold distinction and division hitherto neglected4 ,we must at last sharply differentiate the artist1 the work of art1 and the spectator4 ,the artist may1 and usually indeed does1 become the spectator of his own work1 but the spectator is not the artist4 ,the work of art is1 once executed1 forever distinct both from artist and spectator4 ,in the primitive choral dance all three--artist1 work of art1 spectator--were fused1 or rather not yet differentiated4 ,handbooks on art are apt to begin with the discussion of rude decorative patterns1 and after leading up through sculpture and painting1 something vague is said at the end about the primitiveness of the ritual dance4 ,but historically and also genetically or logically the dance in its inchoateness1 its undifferentiatedness1 comes first4 ,it has in it a larger element of emotion1 and less of presentation4 ,it is this inchoateness1 this undifferentiatedness1 that1 apart from historical fact1 makes us feel sure that logically the dance is primitive4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to illustrate the meaning of ,greek sculpture and show its close affinity with ritual1 we shall take two instances1 perhaps the best-known of those that survive1 one of them in relief1 the other in the round1 the ,panathenaic frieze of the ,parthenon at ,athens and the ,apollo ,belvedere1 and we shall take them in chronological order4 ,as the actual frieze and the statue cannot be before us1 we shall discuss no technical questions of style or treatment1 but simply ask how they came to be1 what human need do they express4 ,the ,parthenon frieze is in the ,british ,museum1 the ,apollo ,belvedere is in the ,vatican at ,rome1 but is readily accessible in casts or photographs4 ,the outlines given in ,figs4 #e and #f can of course only serve to recall subject-matter and design4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,panathenaic frieze once decorated the cella or innermost shrine of the ,parthenon1 the temple of the ,maiden ,goddess ,athena4 ,it twined like a ribbon round the brow of the building and thence it was torn by ,lord ,elgin and brought home to the ,british ,museum as a national trophy1 for the price of a few hundred pounds of coffee and yards of scarlet cloth4 ,to realize its meaning we must always think it back into its place4 ,inside the cella1 or shrine1 dwelt the goddess herself1 her great image in gold and ivory2 outside the shrine was sculptured her worship by the whole of her people4 ,for the frieze is nothing but a great ritual procession translated into stone1 the ,panathenaic procession1 or procession of all the ,athenians1 of all ,athens1 in honour of the goddess who was but the city incarnate1 ,athena4 ,a wonder enthroned on the hills and the sea1 ,a maiden crowned with a fourfold glory1 ,that none from the pride of her head may rend2 ,violet and olive leaf1 purple and hoary1 ,song-wreath and story the fairest of fame1 ,flowers that the winter can blast not nor bend1 ,a light upon earth as the sun's own flame1 ,a name as his name-- ,athens1 a praise without end4 ,,swinburne3 ,erechtheus1 #ada4 ,sculptural ,art1 at least in this instance1 comes out of ritual1 has ritual as its subject1 is embodied ritual4 ,the reader perhaps at this point may suspect that he is being juggled with1 that1 out of the thousands of ,greek reliefs that remain to us1 just this one instance has been selected to bolster up the writer's art and ritual theory4 ,he has only to walk through any museum to be convinced at once that the author is playing quite fair4 ,practically the whole of the reliefs that remain to us from the archaic period1 and a very large proportion of those at later date1 when they do not represent heroic mythology1 are ritual reliefs1 votive reliefs as we call them2 that is1 prayers or praises translated into stone4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,panathenaic ,procession4 ,of the choral dance we have heard much1 of the procession but little1 yet its ritual importance was great4 ,in religion to-day the dance is dead save for the dance of the choristers before the altar at ,seville4 ,but the procession lives on1 has even taken to itself new life4 ,it is a means of bringing masses of people together1 of ordering them and co-ordinating them4 ,it is a means for the magical spread of supposed good influence1 of grace4 ,witness the ,beating of the ,bounds and the frequent processions of the ,blessed ,sacrament in ,roman ,catholic lands4 ,the ,queen of the ,may and the ,jack-in-the-,green still go from house to house4 ,now-a-days it is to collect pence2 once it was to diffuse grace and increase4 ,we remember the procession of the holy ,bull at ,magnesia and the holy ,bear at ,saghalien 7pp4 #ib-ajj74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,panathenaic ,procession4 ,what1 then1 was the object of the ,panathenaic procession8 ,it was first1 as its name indicates1 a procession that brought all ,athens together4 ,its object was social and political1 to express the unity of ,athens4 ,ritual in primitive times is always social1 collective4 ,the arrangement of the procession is shown in ,figs4 #c and #d 7pp4 #agd1 #age74 ,in ,fig4 #c we see the procession as it were in real life1 just as it is about to enter the temple and the presence of the ,twelve ,gods4 ,these gods are shaded black because in reality invisible4 ,fig4 #d is a diagram showing the position of the various parts of the procession in the sculptural frieze4 ,at the west end of the temple the procession begins to form3 the youths of ,athens are mounting their horses4 ,it divides1 as it needs must1 into two halves1 one sculptured on the north1 one on the south side of the cella4 ,after the throng of the cavalry getting denser and denser we come to the chariots1 next the sacrificial animals1 sheep and restive cows1 then the instruments of sacrifice1 flutes and lyres and baskets and trays for offerings2 men who carry blossoming olive-boughs2 maidens with water-vessels and drinking-cups4 ,the whole tumult of the gathering is marshalled and at last met and1 as it were1 held in check1 by a band of magistrates who face the procession just as it enters the presence of the twelve seated gods1 at the east end4 ,the whole body politic of the gods has come down to feast with the whole body politic of ,athens and her allies1 of whom these gods are but the projection and reflection4 ,the gods are there together because man is collectively assembled4 ,the great procession culminates in a sacrifice and a communal feast1 a sacramental feast like that on the flesh of the holy ,bull at ,magnesia4 ,the ,panathenaia was a high festival including rites and ceremonies of diverse dates1 an armed dance of immemorial antiquity that may have dated from the days when ,athens was subject to ,crete1 and a recitation ordered by ,peisistratos of the poems of ,homer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,some theorists have seen in art only an extension of the play instinct1 just a liberation of superfluous vitality and energies1 as it were a rehearsing for life4 ,this is not our view1 but into all art1 in so far as it is a cutting off of motor reactions1 there certainly enters an element of recreation4 ,it is interesting to note that to the ,greek mind religion was specially connected with the notion rather of a festival than a fast4 ,thucydides#dc is assuredly by nature no reveller1 yet religion is to him mainly a rest from toil4 ,he makes ,perikles say3 ,moreover1 we have provided for our spirit by many opportunities of recreation1 by the celebration of games and sacrifices throughout the year4 ,to the anonymous writer known as the ,old ,oligarch the main gist of religion appears to be a decorous social enjoyment4 ,in easy aristocratic fashion he rejoices that religious ceremonials exist to provide for the less well-to-do citizens suitable amusements that they would otherwise lack4 ,as to sacrifices and sanctuaries and festivals and precincts1 the ,people1 knowing that it is impossible for each man individually to sacrifice and feast and have sacrifices and an ample and beautiful city1 has discovered by what means he may enjoy these privileges4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the procession of the ,panathenaia all ,athens was gathered together1 but--and this is important--for a special purpose1 more primitive than any great political or social union4 ,happily this purpose is clear2 it is depicted in the central slab of the east end of the frieze 7,fig4 #e74 ,a priest is there represented receiving from the hands of a boy a great peplos or robe4 ,it is the sacred robe of ,athena woven for her and embroidered by young ,athenian maidens and offered to her every five years4 ,the great gold and ivory statue in the ,parthenon itself had no need of a robe2 she would scarcely have known what to do with one2 her raiment was already of wrought gold1 she carried helmet and spear and shield4 ,but there was an ancient image of ,athena1 an old ,madonna of the people1 fashioned before ,athena became a warrior maiden4 ,this image was rudely hewn in wood1 it was dressed and decked doll-fashion like a ,may ,queen1 and to her the great peplos was dedicated4 ,the peplos was hoisted as a sail on the ,panathenaic ship1 and this ship ,athena had borrowed from ,dionysos himself1 who went every spring in procession in a ship-car on wheels to open the season for sailing4 ,to a seafaring people like the ,athenians the opening of the sailing season was all-important1 and naturally began not at midsummer but in spring4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,the sacred peplos1 or robe1 takes us back to the old days when the spirit of the year and the luck of the people was bound up with a rude image4 ,the life of the year died out each year and had to be renewed4 ,to make a new image was expensive and inconvenient1 so1 with primitive economy it was decided that the life and luck of the image should be renewed by re-dressing it1 by offering to it each year a new robe4 ,we remember 7p4 #fj7 how in ,thuringia the new puppet wore the shirt of the old and thereby new life was passed from one to the other4 ,but behind the old image we can get to a stage still earlier1 when there was at the ,panathenaia no image at all1 only a yearly maypole2 a bough hung with ribbons and cakes and fruits and the like4 ,a bough was cut from the sacred olive tree of ,athens1 called the ,moria or ,fate ,tree4 ,it was bound about with fillets and hung with fruit and nuts and1 in the festival of the ,panathenaia1 they carried it up to the ,acropolis to give to ,athena ,polias1 ,her-of-the-,city1 and as they went they sang the old ,eiresione song 7p4 #aad74 ,polias is but the city1 the ,polis incarnate4 ,this ,moria1 or ,fate ,tree1 was the very life of ,athens2 the life of the olive which fed her and lighted her was the very life of the city4 ,when the ,persian host sacked the ,acropolis they burnt the holy olive1 and it seemed that all was over4 ,but next day it put forth a new shoot and the people knew that the city's life still lived4 ,sophocles#dd sang of the glory of the wondrous life tree of ,athens3 ,the untended1 the self-planted1 self-defended from the foe1 ,sea-gray1 children-nurturing olive tree that here delights to grow1 ,none may take nor touch nor harm it1 headstrong youth nor age grown bold4 ,for the round of ,morian ,zeus has been its watcher from of old2 ,he beholds it1 and1 ,athene1 thy own sea-gray eyes behold4 ,the holy tree carried in procession is1 like the image of ,athena1 made of olive-wood1 just the incarnate life of ,athens ever renewed4 ,the ,panathenaia was not1 like the ,dithyramb1 a spring festival4 ,it took place in ,july at the height of the summer heat1 when need for rain was the greatest4 ,but the month ,hecatombaion1 in which it was celebrated1 was the first month of the ,athenian year and the day of the festival was the birthday of the goddess4 ,when the goddess became a war-goddess1 it was fabled that she was born in ,olympus1 and that she sprang full grown from her father's head in glittering armour4 ,but she was really born on earth1 and the day of her birth was the birthday of every earthborn goddess1 the day of the beginning of the new year1 with its returning life4 ,when men observe only the actual growth of new green life from the ground1 this birthday will be in spring2 when they begin to know that the seasons depend on the sun1 or when the heat of the sun causes great need of rain1 it will be at midsummer1 at the solstice1 or in northern regions where men fear to lose the sun in midwinter1 as with us4 ,the frieze of the ,parthenon is1 then1 but a primitive festival translated into stone1 a rite frozen to a monument4 99 99 99 99 99 ,passing over a long space of time we come to our next illustration1 the ,apollo ,belvedere 7,fig4 #f74 ,it might seem that here at last we have nothing primitive2 here we have art pure and simple1 ideal art utterly cut loose from ritual1 art for art's sake4 ,yet in this ,apollo ,belvedere1 this product of late and accomplished1 even decadent art1 we shall see most clearly the intimate relation of art and ritual2 we shall1 as it were1 walk actually across that transition bridge of ritual which leads from actual life to art4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,the ,apollo ,belvedere4 ,the date of this famous ,apollo cannot be fixed1 but it is clearly a copy of a type belonging to the fourth century ,b4,c4 ,the poise of the figure is singular and1 till its intent is grasped1 unsatisfactory4 ,apollo is caught in swift motion but seems1 as he stands delicately poised1 to be about to fly rather than to run4 ,he stands tiptoe and in a moment will have left the earth4 ,the ,greek sculptor's genius was all focussed1 as we shall presently see1 on the human figure and on the mastery of its many possibilities of movement and action4 ,greek statues can roughly be dated by the way they stand4 ,at first1 in the archaic period1 they stand firmly planted with equal weight on either foot1 the feet close together4 ,then one foot is advanced1 but the weight still equally divided1 an almost impossible position4 ,next1 the weight is thrown on the right foot2 and the left knee is bent4 ,this is of all positions the loveliest for the human body4 ,we allow it to women1 forbid it to men save to sthetes4 ,if the back numbers of ,punch be examined for the figure of ,postlethwaite it will be seen that he always stands in this characteristic relaxed pose4 ,when the sculptor has mastered the possible he bethinks him of the impossible4 ,he will render the human body flying4 ,it may have been the accident of a mythological subject that first suggested the motive4 ,leochares1 a famous artist of the fourth century ,b4,c41 made a group of ,zeus in the form of an eagle carrying off ,ganymede4 ,a replica of the group is preserved in the ,vatican1 and should stand for comparison near the ,apollo4 ,we have the same tiptoe poise1 the figure just about to leave the earth4 ,again1 it is not a dance1 but a flight4 ,this poise is suggestive to us because it marks an art cut loose1 as far as may be1 from earth and its realities1 even its rituals4 ,what is it that ,apollo is doing8 ,the question and suggested answers have occupied many treatises4 ,there is only one answer3 ,we do not know4 ,it was at first thought that the ,apollo had just drawn his bow and shot an arrow4 ,this suggestion was made to account for the pose2 but that1 as we have seen1 is sufficiently explained by the flight-motive4 ,another possible solution is that ,apollo brandishes in his uplifted hand the gis1 or goatskin shield1 of ,zeus4 ,another suggestion is that he holds as often a lustral1 or laurel bough1 that he is figured as ,daphnephoros1 ,laurel-,bearer4 ,we do not know if the ,belvedere ,apollo carried a laurel1 but we do know that it was of the very essence of the god to be a ,laurel-,bearer4 ,that1 as we shall see in a moment1 he1 like ,dionysos1 arose in part out of a rite1 a rite of ,laurel-,bearing--a ,daphnephoria4 ,we have not got clear of ritual yet4 ,when ,pausanias1#de the ancient traveller1 whose notebook is our chief source about these early festivals1 came to ,thebes he saw a hill sacred to ,apollo1 and after describing the temple on the hill he says3 ,the following custom is still1 ,i know1 observed at ,thebes4 ,a boy of distinguished family and himself well-looking and strong is made the priest of ,apollo1 for the space of a year4 ,the title given him is ,laurel-,bearer 7,daphnephoros71 for these boys wear wreaths made of laurel4 ,we know for certain now what these yearly priests are3 they are the ,kings of the ,year1 the ,spirits of the ,year1 ,may-,kings1 ,jacks-o'-the-,green4 ,the name given to the boy is enough to show he carried a laurel branch1 though ,pausanias only mentions a wreath4 ,another ancient writer gives us more details4#df ,he says in describing the festival of the ,laurel-,bearing3 ,they wreathe a pole of olive wood with laurel and various flowers4 ,on the top is fitted a bronze globe from which they suspend smaller ones4 ,midway round the pole they place a lesser globe1 binding it with purple fillets1 but the end of the pole is decked with saffron4 ,by the topmost globe they mean the sun1 to which they actually compare ,apollo4 ,the globe beneath this is the moon2 the smaller globes hung on are the stars and constellations1 and the fillets are the course of the year1 for they make them #cfe in number4 ,the ,daphnephoria is headed by a boy1 both whose parents are alive1 and his nearest male relation carries the filleted pole4 ,the ,laurel-,bearer himself1 who follows next1 holds on to the laurel2 he has his hair hanging loose1 he wears a golden wreath1 and he is dressed out in a splendid robe to his feet and he wears light shoes4 ,there follows him a band of maidens holding out boughs before them1 to enforce the supplication of the hymns4 ,this is the most elaborate maypole ceremony that we know of in ancient times4 ,the globes representing sun and moon show us that we have come to a time when men know that the fruits of the earth in due season depended on the heavenly bodies4 ,the year with its #cfe days is a ,sun-,year4 ,once this ,sun-,year established and we find that the times of the solstices1 midwinter and midsummer became as1 or even more1 important than the spring itself4 ,the date of the ,daphnephoria is not known4 ,at ,delphi itself1 the centre of ,apollo-worship1 there was a festival called the ,stepteria1 or festival of those who make the wreathes1 in which mystery a ,christian ,bishop1 ,st4 ,cyprian1 tells us he was initiated4 ,in far-off ,tempe--that wonderful valley that is still the greenest spot in stony1 barren ,greece1 and where the laurel trees still cluster--there was an altar1 and near it a laurel tree4 ,the story went that ,apollo had made himself a crown from this very laurel1 and taking in his hand a branch of this same laurel1 i4e4 as ,laurel-,bearer1 had come to ,delphi and taken over the oracle4 ,and to this day the people of ,delphi send high-born boys in procession there4 ,and they1 when they have reached ,tempe and made a splendid sacrifice return back1 after wearing themselves wreaths from the very laurel from which the god made himself a wreath4 ,we are inclined to think of the ,greeks as a people apt to indulge in the singular practice of wearing wreaths in public1 a practice among us confined to children on their birthdays and a few eccentric people on their wedding days4 ,we forget the intensely practical purport of the custom4 ,the ancient ,greeks wore wreaths and carried boughs1 not because they were artistic or poetical1 but because they were ritualists1 that they might bring back the spring and carry in the summer4 ,the ,greek bridegroom to-day1 as well as the ,greek bride1 wears a wreath1 that his marriage may be the beginning of new life1 that his wife may be as the fruitful vine1 and his children as the olive branches round about his table4 ,and our children to-day1 though they do not know it1 wear wreaths on their birthdays because with each new year their life is re-born4 99 99 99 99 99 ,apollo then1 was1 like ,dionysos1 ,king of the ,may and--saving his presence--,jack-in-the-,green4 ,the god manifestly arose out of the rite4 ,for a moment let us see how he arose4 ,it will be remembered that in a previous chapter 7p4 #gj7 we spoke of personification4 ,we think of the god ,apollo as an abstraction1 an unreal thing1 perhaps as a false god4 ,the god ,apollo does not1 and never did1 exist4 ,he is an idea--a thing made by the imagination4 ,but primitive man does not deal with abstractions1 does not worship them4 ,what happens is1 as we saw 7p4 #ga71 something like this3 ,year by year a boy is chosen to carry the laurel1 to bring in the ,may1 and later year by year a puppet is made4 ,it is a different boy each year1 carrying a different laurel branch4 ,and yet in a sense it is the same boy2 he is always the ,laurel-,bearer--,daphnephoros1 always the ,luck of the village or city4 ,this ,laurel-,bearer1 the same yesterday1 to-day1 and forever1 is the stuff of which the god is made4 ,the god arises from the rite1 he is gradually detached from the rite1 and as soon as he gets a life and being of his own1 apart from the rite1 he is a first stage in art1 a work of art existing in the mind1 gradually detached from even the faded action of ritual1 and later to be the model of the actual work of art1 the copy in stone4 ,the stages1 it would seem1 are3 actual life with its motor reactions1 the ritual copy of life with its faded reactions1 the image of the god projected by the rite1 and1 last1 the copy of that image1 the work of art4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we see now why in the history of all ages and every place art is what is called the handmaid of religion4 ,she is not really the handmaid at all4 ,she springs straight out of the rite1 and her first outward leap is the image of the god4 ,primitive art in ,greece1 in ,egypt1 in ,assyria1#dg represents either rites1 processions1 sacrifices1 magical ceremonies1 embodied prayers2 or else it represents the images of the gods who spring from those rites4 ,track any god right home1 and you will find him lurking in a ritual sheath1 from which he slowly emerges1 first as a dmon1 or spirit1 of the year1 then as a full-blown divinity4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in ,chapter ,,ii we saw how the dromenon gave birth to the drama1 how1 bit by bit1 out of the chorus of dancers some dancers withdrew and became spectators sitting apart1 and on the other hand others of the dancers drew apart on to the stage and presented to the spectators a spectacle1 a thing to be looked at1 not joined in4 ,and we saw how in this spectacular mood1 this being cut loose from immediate action1 lay the very essence of the artist and the art-lover4 ,now in the drama of ,thespis there was at first1 we are told1 but one actor2 later schylus added a second4 ,it is clear who this actor1 this protagonist or first contender was1 the one actor with the double part1 who was ,death to be carried out and ,summer to be carried in4 ,he was the ,bough-,bearer1 the only possible actor in the one-part play of the renewal of life and the return of the year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,may-,king1 the leader of the choral dance gave birth not only to the first actor of the drama1 but also1 as we have just seen1 to the god1 be he ,dionysos or be he ,apollo2 and this figure of the god thus imagined out of the year-spirit was perhaps more fertile for art than even the protagonist of the drama4 ,it may seem strange to us that a god should rise up out of a dance or a procession1 because dances and processions are not an integral part of our national life1 and do not call up any very strong and instant emotion4 ,the old instinct lingers1 it is true1 and emerges at critical moments2 when a king dies we form a great procession to carry him to the grave1 but we do not dance4 ,we have court balls1 and these with their stately ordered ceremonials are perhaps the last survival of the genuinely civic dance1 but a court ball is not given at a king's funeral nor in honour of a god4 ,but to the ,greek the god and the dance were never quite sundered4 ,it almost seems as if in the minds of ,greek poets and philosophers there lingered some dim half-conscious remembrance that some of these gods at least actually came out of the ritual dance4 ,thus1 ,plato1#dh in treating of the importance of rhythm in education says3 ,the gods1 pitying the toilsome race of men1 have appointed the sequence of religious festivals to give them times of rest1 and have given them the ,muses and ,apollo1 the ,muse-,leader1 as fellow-revellers4 ,the young of all animals1 he goes on to say1 cannot keep quiet1 either in body or voice4 ,they must leap and skip and overflow with gamesomeness and sheer joy1 and they must utter all sorts of cries4 ,but whereas animals have no perception of order or disorder in their motions1 the gods who have been appointed to men as our fellow-dancers have given to us a sense of pleasure in rhythm and harmony4 ,and so they move us and lead our bands1 knitting us together with songs and in dances1 and these we call choruses4 ,nor was it only ,apollo and ,dionysos who led the dance4 ,athena herself danced the ,pyrrhic dance4 ,our virgin lady1 says ,plato1 delighting in the sports of the dance1 thought it not meet to dance with empty hands2 she must be clothed in full armour1 and in this attire go through the dance4 ,and youths and maidens should in every respect imitate her example1 honouring the goddess1 both with a view to the actual necessities of war and to the festivals4 ,plato is unconsciously inverting the order of things1 natural happenings4 ,take the armed dance4 ,there is1 first1 the actual necessity of war4 ,men go to war armed1 to face actual dangers1 and at their head is a leader in full armour4 ,that is real life4 ,there is then the festal re-enactment of war1 when the fight is not actually fought1 but there is an imitation of war4 ,that is the ritual stage1 the dromenon4 ,here1 too1 there is a leader4 ,more and more this dance becomes a spectacle1 less and less an action4 ,then from the periodic dromenon1 the ritual enacted year by year1 emerges an imagined permanent leader2 a dmon1 or god--a ,dionysos1 an ,apollo1 an ,athena4 ,finally the account of what actually happens is thrown into the past1 into a remote distance1 and we have an tiological myth--a story told to give a cause or reason4 ,the whole natural process is inverted4 ,and last1 as already seen1 the god1 the first work of art1 the thing unseen1 imagined out of the ritual of the dance1 is cast back into the visible world and fixed in space4 ,can we wonder that a classical writer#di should say the statues of the craftsmen of old times are the relics of ancient dancing4 ,that is just what they are1 rites caught and fixed and frozen4 ,drawing1 says a modern critic1#ej is at bottom1 like all the arts1 a kind of gesture1 a method of dancing on paper4 ,sculpture1 drawing1 all the arts save music are imitative2 so was the dance from which they sprang4 ,but imitation is not all1 or even first4 ,the dance may be mimetic2 but the beauty and verve of the performance1 not closeness of the imitation impresses2 and tame additions of truth will encumber and not convince4 ,the dance must control the pantomime4 ,art1 that is1 gradually dominates mere ritual4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we come to another point4 ,the ,greek gods as we know them in classical sculpture are always imaged in human shape4 ,this was not of course always the case with other nations4 ,we have seen how among savages the totem1 that is1 the emblem of tribal unity1 was usually an animal or a plant4 ,we have seen how the emotions of the ,siberian tribe in ,saghalien focussed on a bear4 ,the savage totem1 the ,saghalien ,bear1 is on the way to be1 but is not quite1 a god2 he is not personal enough4 ,the ,egyptians1 and in part the ,assyrians1 halted half-way and made their gods into monstrous shapes1 half-animal1 half-man1 which have their own mystical grandeur4 ,but since we are men ourselves1 feeling human emotion1 if our gods are in great part projected emotions1 the natural form for them to take is human shape4 ,art imitates ,nature1 says ,aristotle1 in a phrase that has been much misunderstood4 ,it has been taken to mean that art is a copy or reproduction of natural objects4 ,but by ,nature ,aristotle never means the outside world of created things1 he means rather creative force1 what produces1 not what has been produced4 ,we might almost translate the ,greek phrase1 ,art1 like ,nature1 creates things1 ,art acts like ,nature in producing things4 ,these things are1 first and foremost1 human things1 human action4 ,the drama1 with which ,aristotle is so much concerned1 invents human action like real1 natural action4 ,dancing imitates character1 emotion1 action4 ,art is to ,aristotle almost wholly bound by the limitations of human nature4 ,this is1 of course1 characteristically a ,greek limitation4 ,man is the measure of all things1 said the old ,greek sophist1 but modern science has taught us another lesson4 ,man may be in the foreground1 but the drama of man's life is acted out for us against a tremendous background of natural happenings3 a background that preceded man and will outlast him2 and this background profoundly affects our imagination1 and hence our art4 ,we moderns are in love with the background4 ,our art is a landscape art4 ,the ancient landscape painter could not1 or would not1 trust the background to tell its own tale3 if he painted a mountain he set up a mountain-god to make it real2 if he outlined a coast he set human coast-nymphs on its shore to make clear the meaning4 ,contrast with this our modern landscape1 from which bit by bit the nymph has been wholly banished4 ,it is the art of a stage1 without actors1 a scene which is all background1 all suggestion4 ,it is an art given us by sheer recoil from science1 which has dwarfed actual human life almost to imaginative extinction4 ,landscape1 then1 offered to the modern imagination a scene empty of definite actors1 superhuman or human1 that yielded to reverie without challenge all that is in a moral without a creed1 tension or ambush of the dark1 threat of ominous gloom1 the relenting and tender return or overwhelming outburst of light1 the pageantry of clouds above a world turned quaker1 the monstrous weeds of trees outside the town1 the sea that is obstinately epic still4#ea ,it was to this world of backgrounds that men fled1 hunted by the sense of their own insignificance4 ,minds the most strictly bound in their acts by civil life1 in their fancy by the shrivelled look of destiny under scientific speculation1 felt on solitary hill or shore those tides of the blood stir again that are ruled by the sun and the moon and travelled as if to tryst where an apparition might take form4 ,poets ordained themselves to this vigil1 haunters of a desert church1 prompters of an elemental theatre1 listeners in solitary places for intimations from a spirit in hiding2 and painters followed the impulse of ,wordsworth4 ,we can only see the strength and weakness of ,greek sculpture1 feel the emotion of which it was the utterance1 if we realize clearly this modern spirit of the background4 ,all great modern1 and perhaps even ancient1 poets are touched by it4 ,drama itself1 as ,nietzsche showed1 hankers after dissolution into mystery4 ,shakespeare would occasionally knock the back out of the stage with a window opening on the 'cloud-capp'd towers4' ,but ,maeterlinck is the best example1 because his genius is less4 ,he is the embodiment1 almost the caricature1 of a tendency4 ,maeterlinck sets us figures in the foreground only to launch us into that limbus4 ,the supers jabbering on the scene are there1 children of presentiment and fear1 to make us aware of a third1 the mysterious one1 whose name is not on the bills4 ,they come to warn us by the nervous check and hurry of their gossip of the approach of that background power4 ,omen after omen announces him1 the talk starts and drops at his approach1 a door shuts and the thrill of his passage is the play4#eb ,it is1 perhaps1 the temperaments that are most allured and terrified by this art of the bogey and the background that most feel the need of and best appreciate the calm and level1 rational dignity of ,greek naturalism and especially the naturalism of ,greek sculpture4 ,for it is naturalism1 not realism1 not imitation4 ,by all manner of renunciations ,greek sculpture is what it is4 ,the material1 itself marble1 is utterly unlike life1 it is perfectly cold and still1 it has neither the texture nor the colouring of life4 ,the story of ,pygmalion who fell in love with the statue he had himself sculptured is as false as it is tasteless4 ,greek sculpture is the last form of art to incite physical reaction4 ,it is remote almost to the point of chill abstraction4 ,the statue in the round renounces not only human life itself1 but all the natural background and setting of life4 ,the statues of the ,greek gods are ,olympian in spirit as well as subject4 ,they are like the gods of ,epicurus1 cut loose alike from the affairs of men1 and even the ordered ways of ,nature4 ,so ,lucretius#ec pictures them3 ,the divinity of the gods is revealed and their tranquil abodes1 which neither winds do shake nor clouds drench with rains1 nor snow congealed by sharp frost harms with hoary fall3 an ever cloudless ether o'ercanopies them1 and they laugh with light shed largely around4 ,nature1 too1 supplies all their wants1 and nothing ever impairs their peace of mind4 ,greek art moves on through a long course of technical accomplishment1 of ever-increasing mastery over materials and methods4 ,but this course we need not follow4 ,for our argument the last word is said in the figures of these ,olympians translated into stone4 ,born of pressing human needs and desires1 images projected by active and even anxious ritual1 they pass into the upper air and dwell aloof1 spectator-like and all but spectral4 ,,footnotes3 #dc ,,ii1 #ch4 #dd ,oed4 ,col4 #fid1 trans4 ,d4,s4 ,mac,coll4 #de ,,ix1 #aj1 #d4 #df ,see my ,themis1 p4 #dch4 #dg ,it is now held by some and good authorities that the prehistoric paintings of cave-dwelling man had also a ritual origin2 that is1 that the representations of animals were intended to act magically1 to increase the supply of the animal or help the hunter to catch him4 ,but1 as this question is still pending1 ,i prefer1 tempting though they are1 not to use prehistoric paintings as material for my argument4 #dh ,laws1 #fec4 #di ,athen4 ,,xiv1 #bf1 p4 #fbi4 #ej ,d4,s4 ,mac,coll1 ,a ,year of ,post-,impressionism1 ,nineteenth ,century1 p4 #bi4 7#aiab47 #ea ,d4,s4 ,mac,coll1 ,nineteenth ,century ,art1 p4 #bj4 7#aijb47 #eb ,d4,s4 ,mac,coll1 op4 cit41 p4 #ah4 #ec ,,ii1 #ah4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,ritual1 ,,art ,,and ,,life ,in the preceding chapters we have seen ritual emerge from the practical doings of life4 ,we have noted that in ritual we have the beginning of a detachment from practical ends2 we have watched the merely emotional dance develop from an undifferentiated chorus into a spectacle performed by actors and watched by spectators1 a spectacle cut off1 not only from real life1 but also from ritual issues2 a spectacle1 in a word1 that has become an end in itself4 ,we have further seen that the choral dance is an undifferentiated whole which later divides out into three clearly articulate parts1 the artist1 the work of art1 the spectator or art lover4 ,we are now in a position to ask what is the good of all this antiquarian enquiry8 ,why is it1 apart from the mere delight of scientific enquiry1 important to have seen that art arose from ritual8 ,the answer is simple-- ,the object of this book1 as stated in the preface1 is to try to throw some light on the function of art1 that is on what it has done1 and still does to-day1 for life4 ,now in the case of a complex growth like art1 it is rarely if ever possible to understand its function--what it does1 how it works--unless we know something of how that growth began1 or1 if its origin is hid1 at least of the simpler forms of activity that preceded it4 ,for art1 this earlier stage1 this simpler form1 which is indeed itself as it were an embryo and rudimentary art1 we found to be--ritual4 ,ritual1 then1 has not been studied for its own sake1 still less for its connection with any particular dogma1 though1 as a subject of singular gravity and beauty1 ritual is well worth a lifetime's study4 ,it has been studied because ritual is1 we believe1 a frequent and perhaps universal transition stage between actual life and that peculiar contemplation of or emotion towards life which we call art4 ,all our long examination of beast-dances1 ,may-day festivals and even of ,greek drama has had just this for its object--to make clear that art--save perhaps in a few specially gifted natures--did not arise straight out of life1 but out of that collective emphasis of the needs and desires of life which we have agreed to call ritual4 99 99 99 99 99 ,our formal argument is now over and ritual may drop out of the discussion4 ,but we would guard against a possible misunderstanding4 ,we would not be taken to imply that ritual is obsolete and must drop out of life1 giving place to the art it has engendered4 ,it may well be that1 for certain temperaments1 ritual is a perennial need4 ,natures specially gifted can live lives that are emotionally vivid1 even in the rare high air of art or science2 but many1 perhaps most of us1 breathe more freely in the medium1 literally the midway space1 of some collective ritual4 ,moreover1 for those of us who are not artists or original thinkers the life of the imagination1 and even of the emotions1 has been perhaps too long lived at second hand1 received from the artist ready made and felt4 ,to-day1 owing largely to the progress of science1 and a host of other causes social and economic1 life grows daily fuller and freer1 and every manifestation of life is regarded with a new reverence4 ,with this fresh outpouring of the spirit1 this fuller consciousness of life1 there comes a need for first-hand emotion and expression1 and that expression is found for all classes in a revival of the ritual dance4 ,some of the strenuous1 exciting1 self-expressive dances of to-day are of the soil and some exotic1 but1 based as they mostly are on very primitive ritual1 they stand as singular evidence of this real recurrent need4 ,art in these latter days goes back as it were on her own steps1 recrossing the ritual bridge back to life4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it remains to ask what1 in the light of this ritual origin1 is the function of art8 ,how do we relate it to other forms of life1 to science1 to religion1 to morality1 to philosophy8 ,these are big-sounding questions1 and towards their solution only hints here and there can be offered1 stray thoughts that have grown up out of this study of ritual origins and which1 because they have helped the writer1 are offered1 with no thought of dogmatism1 to the reader4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we ,english are not supposed to be an artistic people1 yet art1 in some form or another1 bulks large in the national life4 ,we have theatres1 a ,national ,gallery1 we have art-schools1 our tradesmen provide for us art-furniture1 we even hear1 absurdly enough1 of art-colours4 ,moreover1 all this is not a matter of mere antiquarian interest1 we do not simply go and admire the beauty of the past in museums2 a movement towards or about art is all alive and astir among us4 ,we have new developments of the theatre1 problem plays1 ,reinhardt productions1 ,gordon ,craig scenery1 ,russian ballets4 ,we have new schools of painting treading on each other's heels with breathless rapidity3 ,impressionists1 ,post-,impressionists1 ,futurists4 ,art--or at least the desire for1 the interest in1 art--is assuredly not dead4 ,moreover1 and this is very important1 we all feel about art a certain obligation1 such as some of us feel about religion4 ,there is an ought about it4 ,perhaps we do not really care much about pictures and poetry and music1 but we feel we ought to4 ,in the case of music it has happily been at last recognized that if you have not an ear you cannot care for it1 but two generations ago1 owing to the unfortunate cheapness and popularity of keyed instruments1 it was widely held that one half of humanity1 the feminine half1 ought to play the piano4 ,this ought is1 of course1 like most social oughts1 a very complex product1 but its existence is well worth noting4 ,it is worth noting because it indicates a vague feeling that art has a real value1 that art is not a mere luxury1 nor even a rarefied form of pleasure4 ,no one feels they ought to take pleasure in beautiful scents or in the touch of velvet2 they either do or they don't4 ,the first point1 then1 that must be made clear is that art is of real value to life in a perfectly clear biological sense2 it invigorates1 enhances1 promotes actual1 spiritual1 and through it physical life4 ,this from our historical account we should at the outset expect1 because we have seen art1 by way of ritual1 arose out of life4 ,and yet the statement is a sort of paradox1 for we have seen also that art differs from ritual just in this1 that in art1 whether of the spectator or the creator1 the motor reactions1 i4e4 practical life1 the life of doing1 is for the time checked4 ,this is of the essence of the artist's vision1 that he sees things detached and therefore more vividly1 more completely1 and in a different light4 ,this is of the essence of the artist's emotion1 that it is purified from personal desire4 ,but1 though the artist's vision and emotion alike are modified1 purified1 they are not devitalized4 ,far from that1 by detachment from action they are focussed and intensified4 ,life is enhanced1 only it is a different kind of life1 it is the life of the image-world1 of the imagination2 it is the spiritual and human life1 as differentiated from the life we share with animals4 ,it is a life we all1 as human beings1 possess in some1 but very varying1 degrees2 and the natural man will always view the spiritual man askance1 because he is not practical4 ,but the life of imagination1 cut off from practical reaction as it is1 becomes in turn a motor-force causing new emotions1 and so pervading the general life1 and thus ultimately becoming practical4 ,no one function is completely cut off from another4 ,the main function of art is probably to intensify and purify emotion1 but it is substantially certain that1 if we did not feel1 we could not think and should not act4 ,still it remains true that1 in artistic contemplation and in the realms of the artist's imagination not only are practical motor-reactions cut off1 but intelligence is suffused in1 and to some extent subordinated to1 emotion4 99 99 99 99 99 ,one function1 then1 of art is to feed and nurture the imagination and the spirit1 and thereby enhance and invigorate the whole of human life4 ,this is far removed from the view that the end of art is to give pleasure4 ,art does usually cause pleasure1 singular and intense1 and to that which causes such pleasure we give the name of ,beauty4 ,but to produce and enjoy ,beauty is not the function of art4 ,beauty--or rather1 the sensation of ,beauty--is what the ,greeks would call an epigignomenon ti telos1 words hard to translate1 something between a by-product and a supervening perfection1 a thing like--as ,aristotle#ed for once beautifully says of pleasure--the bloom of youth to a healthy young body4 ,that this is so we see most clearly in the simple fact that1 when the artist begins to aim direct at ,beauty1 he usually misses it4 ,we all know1 perhaps by sad experience1 that the man who seeks out pleasure for herself fails to find her4 ,let him do his work well for that work's sake1 exercise his faculties1 energize as ,aristotle would say1 and he will find pleasure come out unawares to meet him with her shining face2 but let him look for her1 think of her1 even desire her1 and she hides her head4 ,a man goes out hunting1 thinks of nothing but following the hounds and taking his fences1 being in at the death3 his day is full--alas6 of pleasure1 though he has scarcely known it4 ,let him forget the fox and the fences1 think of pleasure1 desire her1 and he will be in at pleasure's death4 ,so it is with the artist4 ,let him feel strongly1 and see raptly--that is1 in complete detachment4 ,let him cast this1 his rapt vision and his intense emotion1 into outside form1 a statue or a painting2 that form will have about it a nameless thing1 an unearthly aroma1 which we call beauty2 this nameless presence will cause in the spectator a sensation too rare to be called pleasure1 and we shall call it a sense of beauty4 ,but let the artist aim direct at ,beauty1 and she is gone1 gone before we hear the flutter of her wings4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the sign manual1 the banner1 as it were1 of artistic creation is for the creative artist not pleasure1 but something better called joy4 ,pleasure1 it has been well said1 is no more than an instrument contrived by ,nature to obtain from the individual the preservation and the propagation of life4 ,true joy is not the lure of life1 but the consciousness of the triumph of creation4 ,wherever joy is1 creation has been4#ee ,it may be the joy of a mother in the physical creation of a child2 it may be the joy of the merchant adventurer in pushing out new enterprise1 or of the engineer in building a bridge1 or of the artist in a masterpiece accomplished2 but it is always of the thing created4 ,again1 contrast joy with glory4 ,glory comes with success and is exceedingly pleasant2 it is not joyous4 ,some men say an artist's crown is glory2 his deepest satisfaction is in the applause of his fellows4 ,there is no greater mistake2 we care for praise just in proportion as we are not sure we have succeeded4 ,to the real creative artist even praise and glory are swallowed up in the supreme joy of creation4 ,only the artist himself feels the real divine fire1 but it flames over into the work of art1 and even the spectator warms his hands at the glow4 ,we can now1 ,i think1 understand the difference between the artist and true lover of art on the one hand1 and the mere sthete on the other4 ,the sthete does not produce1 or1 if he produces1 his work is thin and scanty4 ,in this he differs from the artist2 he does not feel so strongly and see so clearly that he is forced to utterance4 ,he has no joy1 only pleasure4 ,he cannot even feel the reflection of this creative joy4 ,in fact1 he does not so much feel as want to feel4 ,he seeks for pleasure1 for sensual pleasure as his name says1 not for the grosser kinds1 but for pleasure of that rarefied kind that we call a sense of beauty4 ,the sthete1 like the flirt1 is cold4 ,it is not even that his senses are easily stirred1 but he seeks the sensation of stirring1 and most often feigns it1 not finds it4 ,the sthete is no more released from his own desires than the practical man1 and he is without the practical man's healthy outlet in action4 ,he sees life1 not indeed in relation to action1 but to his own personal sensation4 ,by this alone he is debarred for ever from being an artist4 ,as ,m4 ,andr ,beaunier has well observed1 by the irony of things1 when we see life in relation to ourselves we cannot really represent it at all4 ,the profligate thinks he knows women4 ,it is his irony1 his curse that1 because he sees them always in relation to his own desires1 his own pleasure1 he never really knows them at all4 ,there is another important point4 ,we have seen that art promotes a part of life1 the spiritual1 image-making side4 ,but this side1 wonderful though it is1 is never the whole of actual life4 ,there is always the practical side4 ,the artist is always also a man4 ,now the sthete tries to make his whole attitude artistic--that is1 contemplative4 ,he is always looking and prying and savouring1 savourant1 as he would say1 when he ought to be living4 ,the result is that there is nothing to savourer4 ,all art springs by way of ritual out of keen emotion towards life1 and even the power to appreciate art needs this emotional reality in the spectator4 ,the sthete leads at best a parasite1 artistic life1 dogged always by death and corruption4 99 99 99 99 99 ,this brings us straight on to another question3 ,what about ,art and ,morality8 ,is ,art immoral1 or non-moral1 or highly moral8 ,here again public opinion is worth examining4 ,artists1 we are told1 are bad husbands1 and they do not pay their debts4 ,or if they become good husbands and take to paying their debts1 they take also to wallowing in domesticity and produce bad art or none at all2 they get tangled in the machinery of practical reactions4 ,art1 again1 is apt to deal with risky subjects4 ,where should we be if there were not a ,censor of ,plays8 ,many of these instructive attitudes about artists as immoral or non-moral1 explain themselves instantly if we remember that the artist is ipso facto detached from practical life4 ,in so far as he is an artist1 for each and every creative moment he is inevitably a bad husband1 if being a good husband means constant attention to your wife and her interests4 ,spiritual creation deux is a happening so rare as to be negligible4 ,the remoteness of the artist1 his essential inherent detachment from motor-reaction1 explains the perplexities of the normal censor4 ,he1 being a practical man1 regards emotion and vision1 feeling and ideas1 as leading to action4 ,he does not see that art arises out of ritual and that even ritual is one remove from practical life4 ,in the censor's world the spectacle of the nude leads straight to desire1 so the dancer must be draped2 the problem-play leads straight to the ,divorce ,court1 therefore it must be censored4 ,the normal censor apparently knows nothing of that world where motor-reactions are cut off1 that house made without hands1 whose doors are closed on desire1 eternal in the heavens4 ,the censor is not for the moment a persona grata1 but let us give him his due4 ,he acts according to his lights and these often quite adequately represent the average darkness4 ,a normal audience contains many practical men whose standard is the same as that of the normal censor4 ,art--that is vision detached from practical reactions--is to them an unknown world full of moral risks from which the artist is qu artist immune4 ,so far we might perhaps say that art was non-moral4 ,but the statement would be misleading1 since1 as we have seen1 art is in its very origin social1 and social means human and collective4 ,moral and social are1 in their final analysis1 the same4 ,that human1 collective emotion1 out of which we have seen the choral dance arise1 is in its essence moral2 that is1 it unites4 ,art1 says ,tolstoy1 has this characteristic1 that it unites people4 ,in this conviction1 as we shall later see1 he anticipates the modern movement of the ,unanimists 7p4 #bdi74 ,but there is another1 and perhaps simpler1 way in which art is moral4 ,as already suggested1 it purifies by cutting off the motor-reactions of personal desire4 ,an artist deeply in love with his friend's wife once said3 ,if only ,i could paint her and get what ,i want from her1 ,i could bear it4 ,his wish strikes a chill at first2 it sounds egotistic2 it has the peculiar1 instinctive1 inevitable cruelty of the artist1 seeing in human nature material for his art4 ,but it shows us the moral side of art4 ,the artist was a good and sensitive man2 he saw the misery he had brought and would bring to people he loved1 and he saw1 or rather felt1 a way of escape2 he saw that through art1 through vision1 through detachment1 desire might be slain1 and the man within him find peace4 ,to some natures this instinct after art is almost their sole morality4 ,if they find themselves intimately entangled in hate or jealousy or even contempt1 so that they are unable to see the object of their hate or jealousy or contempt in a clear1 quiet and lovely light1 they are restless1 miserable1 morally out of gear1 and they are constrained to fetter or slay personal desire and so find rest4 99 99 99 99 99 ,this aloofness1 this purgation of emotion from personal passion1 art has in common with philosophy4 ,if the philosopher will seek after truth1 there must be1 says ,plotinus1 a turning away of the spirit1 a detachment4 ,he must aim at contemplation2 action1 he says1 is a weakening of contemplation4 ,our word theory1 which we use in connection with reasoning and which comes from the same ,greek root as theatre1 means really looking fixedly at1 contemplation2 it is very near in meaning to our imagination4 ,but the philosopher differs from the artist in this3 he aims not only at the contemplation of truth1 but at the ordering of truths1 he seeks to make of the whole universe an intelligible structure4 ,further1 he is not driven by the gadfly of creation1 he is not forced to cast his images into visible or audible shape4 ,he is remoter from the push of life4 ,still1 the philosopher1 like the artist1 lives in a world of his own1 with a spell of its own near akin to beauty1 and the secret of that spell is the same detachment from the tyranny of practical life4 ,the essence of art1 says ,santayana1 is the steady contemplation of things in their order and worth4 ,he might have been defining philosophy4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if art and philosophy are thus near akin1 art and science are in their beginning1 though not in their final development1 contrasted4 ,science1 it seems1 begins with the desire for practical utility4 ,science1 as ,professor ,bergson has told us1 has for its initial aim the making of tools for life4 ,man tries to find out the laws of ,nature1 that is1 how natural things behave1 in order primarily that he may get the better of them1 rule over them1 shape them to his ends4 ,that is why science is at first so near akin to magic--the cry of both is3 ,i'll do1 ,i'll do1 and ,i'll do4 ,but1 though the feet of science are thus firmly planted on the solid ground of practical action1 her head1 too1 sometimes touches the highest heavens4 ,the real man of science1 like the philosopher1 soon comes to seek truth and knowledge for their own sake4 ,in art1 in science1 in philosophy1 there come eventually the same detachment from personal desire and practical reaction2 and to artist1 man of science1 and philosopher alike1 through this detachment there comes at times the same peace that passeth all understanding4 ,attempts have been often made to claim for art the utility1 the tool-making property1 that characterizes the beginnings of science4 ,nothing is beautiful1 it is sometimes said1 that is not useful2 the beauty of a jug or a table depends1 we are often told1 on its perfect adaptation to its use4 ,there is here some confusion of thought and some obvious1 but possibly unconscious1 special pleading4 ,much of art1 specially decorative art1 arises out of utilities1 but its aim and its criterion is not utility4 ,art may be structural1 commemorative1 magical1 what-not1 may grow up out of all manner of practical needs1 but it is not till it is cut loose from these practical needs that ,art is herself and comes to her own4 ,this does not mean that the jugs or tables are to be bad jugs or tables1 still less does it mean that the jugs or tables should be covered with senseless machine-made ornament2 but the utility of the jug or table is a good in itself independent of1 though often associated with1 its merit as art4 ,no one has1 ,i think1 ever called ,art the handmaid of ,science4 ,there is1 indeed1 no need to establish a hierarchy4 ,yet in a sense the converse is true and ,science is the handmaid of ,art4 ,art is only practicable as we have seen1 when it is possible safely to cut off motor-reactions4 ,by the long discipline of ritual man accustomed himself to slacken his hold on action1 and be content with a shadowy counterfeit practice4 ,then last1 when through knowledge he was relieved from the need of immediate reaction to imminent realities1 he loosed hold for a moment altogether1 and was free to look1 and art was born4 ,he can never quit his hold for long2 but it would seem that1 as science advances and life gets easier and easier1 safer and safer1 he may loose his hold for longer spaces4 ,man subdues the world about him first by force and then by reason2 and when the material world is mastered and lies at his beck1 he needs brute force no longer1 and needs reason no more to make tools for conquest4 ,he is free to think for thought's sake1 he may trust intuition once again1 and above all dare to lose himself in contemplation1 dare to be more and more an artist4 ,only here there lurks an almost ironical danger4 ,emotion towards life is the primary stuff of which art is made2 there might be a shortage of this very emotional stuff of which art herself is ultimately compacted4 ,science1 then1 helps to make art possible by making life safer and easier1 it makes straight in the desert a highway for our ,god4 ,but only rarely and with special limitations easily understood does it provide actual material for art4 ,science deals with abstractions1 concepts1 class names1 made by the intellect for convenience1 that we may handle life on the side desirable to us4 ,when we classify things1 give them class-names1 we simply mean that we note for convenience that certain actually existing objects have similar qualities1 a fact it is convenient for us to know and register4 ,these class-names being abstract--that is1 bundles of qualities rent away from living actual objects1 do not easily stir emotion1 and1 therefore1 do not easily become material for art whose function it is to express and communicate emotion4 ,particular qualities1 like love1 honour1 faith1 may and do stir emotion2 and certain bundles of qualities like1 for example1 motherhood tend towards personification2 but the normal class label like horse1 man1 triangle does not easily become material for art2 it remains a practical utility for science4 ,the abstractions1 the class-names of science are in this respect quite different from those other abstractions or unrealities already studied--the gods of primitive religion4 ,the very term we use shows this4 ,abstractions are things1 qualities1 dragged away consciously by the intellect1 from actual things objectively existing4 ,the primitive gods are personifications--i4e4 collective emotions taking shape in imagined form4 ,dionysos has no more actual1 objective existence than the abstract horse4 ,but the god ,dionysos was not made by the intellect for practical convenience1 he was begotten by emotion1 and1 therefore1 he re-begets it4 ,he and all the other gods are1 therefore1 the proper material for art2 he is1 indeed1 one of the earliest forms of art4 ,the abstract horse1 on the other hand1 is the outcome of reflection4 ,we must honour him as of quite extraordinary use for the purposes of practical life1 but he leaves us cold and1 by the artist1 is best neglected4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there remains the relation of ,art to ,religion4#ef ,by now1 it may be hoped1 this relation is transparently clear4 ,the whole object of the present book has been to show how primitive art grew out of ritual1 how art is in fact but a later and more sublimated1 more detached form of ritual4 ,we saw further that the primitive gods themselves were but projections or1 if we like it better1 personifications of the rite4 ,they arose straight out of it4 ,now we say advisedly primitive gods1 and this with no intention of obscurantism4 ,the god of later days1 the unknown source of life1 the unresolved mystery of the world1 is not begotten of a rite1 is not1 essentially not1 the occasion or object of art4 ,with his relation to art--which is indeed practically non-existent--we have nothing to do4 ,of the other gods we may safely say that not only are they objects of art1 they are its prime material2 in a word1 primitive theology is an early stage in the formation of art4 ,each primitive god1 like the rite from which he sprang1 is a half-way house between practical life and art2 he comes into being from a half1 but only half1 inhibited desire4 99 99 99 99 99 ,is there1 then1 no difference1 except in degree of detachment1 between religion and art8 ,both have the like emotional power2 both carry with them a sense of obligation1 though the obligation of religion is the stronger4 ,but there is one infallible criterion between the two which is all-important1 and of wide-reaching consequences4 ,primitive religion asserts that her imaginations have objective existence2 art more happily makes no such claim4 ,the worshipper of ,apollo believes1 not only that he has imagined the lovely figure of the god and cast a copy of its shape in stone1 but he also believes that in the outside world the god ,apollo exists as an object4 ,now this is certainly untrue2 that is1 it does not correspond with fact4 ,there is no such thing as the god ,apollo1 and science makes a clean sweep of ,apollo and ,dionysos and all such fictitious objectivities2 they are eidola1 idols1 phantasms1 not objective realities4 ,apollo fades earlier than ,dionysos because the worshipper of ,dionysos keeps hold of the reality that he and his church or group have projected the god4 ,he knows that prier1 c'est laborer ,dieu2 or1 as he would put it1 he is one with his god4 ,religion has this in common with art1 that it discredits the actual practical world2 but only because it creates a new world and insists on its actuality and objectivity4 ,why does the conception of a god impose obligation8 ,just because and in so far as he claims to have objective existence4 ,by giving to his god from the outset objective existence the worshipper prevents his god from taking his place in that high kingdom of spiritual realities which is the imagination1 and sets him down in that lower objective world which always compels practical reaction4 ,what might have been an ideal becomes an idol4 ,straightway this objectified idol compels all sorts of ritual reactions of prayer and praise and sacrifice4 ,it is as though another and a more exacting and commanding fellow-man were added to the universe4 ,but a moment's reflection will show that1 when we pass from the vague sense of power or mana felt by the savage to the personal god1 to ,dionysos or ,apollo1 though it may seem a set back it is a real advance4 ,it is the substitution of a human and tolerably humane power for an incalculable whimsical and often cruel force4 ,the idol is a step towards1 not a step from1 the ideal4 ,ritual makes these idols1 and it is the business of science to shatter them and set the spirit free for contemplation4 ,ritual must wane that art may wax4 ,but we must never forget that ritual is the bridge by which man passes1 the ladder by which he climbs from earth to heaven4 ,the bridge must not be broken till the transit is made4 ,and the time is not yet4 ,we must not pull down the ladder till we are sure the last angel has climbed4 ,only then1 at last1 we dare not leave it standing4 ,earth pulls hard1 and it may be that the angels who ascended might descend and be for ever fallen4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it may be well at the close of our enquiry to test the conclusions at which we have arrived by comparing them with certain endoxa1 as ,aristotle would call them1 that is1 opinions and theories actually current at the present moment4 ,we take these contemporary controversies1 not implying that they are necessarily of high moment in the history of art1 or that they are in any fundamental sense new discoveries2 but because they are at this moment current and vital1 and consequently form a good test for the adequacy of our doctrines4 ,it will be satisfactory if we find our view includes these current opinions1 even if it to some extent modifies them and1 it may be hoped1 sets them in a new light4 ,we have already considered the theory that holds art to be the creation or pursuit or enjoyment of beauty4 ,the other view falls readily into two groups3 7#a7 ,the imitation theory1 with its modification1 the idealization theory1 which holds that art either copies ,nature1 or1 out of natural materials1 improves on her4 7#b7 ,the expression theory1 which holds that the aim of art is to express the emotions and thoughts of the artist4 ,the ,imitation theory is out of fashion now-a-days4 ,plato and ,aristotle held it2 though ,aristotle1 as we have seen1 did not mean by imitating ,nature quite what we mean to-day4 ,the ,imitation theory began to die down with the rise of ,romanticism1 which stressed the personal1 individual emotion of the artist4 ,whistler dealt it a rude1 ill-considered blow by his effective1 but really foolish and irrelevant1 remark that to attempt to create ,art by imitating ,nature was like trying to make music by sitting on the piano4 ,but1 as already noted1 the ,imitation theory of art was really killed by the invention of photography4 ,it was impossible for the most insensate not to see that in a work of art1 of sculpture or painting1 there was an element of value not to be found in the exact transcript of a photograph4 ,henceforth the ,imitation theory lived on only in the weakened form of ,idealization4 ,the reaction against the ,imitation theory has naturally and inevitably gone much too far4 ,we have thrown out the child with the bath-water4 ,all through the present book we have tried to show that art arises from ritual1 and ritual is in its essence a faded action1 an imitation4 ,moreover1 every work of art is a copy of something1 only not a copy of anything having actual existence in the outside world4 ,rather it is a copy of that inner and highly emotionalized vision of the artist which it is granted to him to see and recreate when he is released from certain practical reactions4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,impressionism that dominated the pictorial art of the later years of the nineteenth century was largely a modified and very delicate imitation4 ,breaking with conventions as to how things are supposed to be--conventions mainly based not on seeing but on knowing or imagining--the ,impressionist insists on purging his vision from knowledge1 and representing things not as they are but as they really look4 ,he imitates ,nature not as a whole1 but as she presents herself to his eyes4 ,it was a most needful and valuable purgation1 since painting is the art proper of the eye4 ,but1 when the new effects of the world as simply seen1 the new material of light and shadow and tone1 had been to some extent--never completely--mastered1 there was inevitable reaction4 ,up sprang ,post-,impressionists and ,futurists4 ,they will not gladly be classed together1 but both have this in common--they are ,expressionists1 not ,impressionists1 not ,imitators4 ,the ,expressionists1 no matter by what name they call themselves1 have one criterion4 ,they believe that art is not the copying or idealizing of ,nature1 or of any aspect of ,nature1 but the expression and communication of the artist's emotion4 ,we can see that1 between them and the ,imitationists1 the ,impressionists form a delicate bridge4 ,they1 too1 focus their attention on the artist rather than the object1 only it is on the artist's particular vision1 his impression1 what he actually sees1 not on his emotion1 what he feels4 ,modern life is not simple--cannot be simple--ought not to be2 it is not for nothing that we are heirs to the ages4 ,therefore the art that utters and expresses our emotion towards modern life cannot be simple2 and1 moreover1 it must before all things embody not only that living tangle which is felt by the ,futurists as so real1 but it must purge and order it1 by complexities of tone and rhythm hitherto unattempted4 ,one art1 beyond all others1 has blossomed into real1 spontaneous1 unconscious life to-day1 and that is ,music2 the other arts stand round arrayed1 half paralyzed1 with drooping1 empty hands4 ,the nineteenth century saw vast developments in an art that could express abstract1 unlocalized1 unpersonified feelings more completely than painting or poetry1 the art of ,music4 99 99 99 99 99 ,as a modern critic#eg has well observed3 ,in tone and rhythm music has a notation for every kind and degree of action and passion1 presenting abstract moulds of its excitement1 fluctuation1 suspense1 crisis1 appeasement2 and all this anonymously1 without place1 actors1 circumstances1 named or described1 without a word spoken4 ,poetry has to supply definite thought1 arguments driving at a conclusion1 ideas mortgaged to this or that creed or system2 and to give force to these can command only a few rhythms limited by the duration of a human breath and the pitch of an octave4 ,the little effects worked out in this small compass music sweeps up and builds into vast fabrics of emotion with a dissolute freedom undreamed of in any other art4 ,it may be that music provides for a century too stagnant and listless to act out its own emotions1 too reflective to be frankly sensuous1 a shadowy pageant of sense and emotion1 that serves as a katharsis or purgation4 ,anyhow1 an art that came out of the old world two centuries ago1 with a few chants1 love-songs1 and dances2 that a century ago was still tied to the words of a mass or an opera2 or threading little dance-movements together in a 'suite1' became in the last century this extraordinary debauch1 in which the man who has never seen a battle1 loved a woman1 or worshipped a god1 may not only ideally1 but through the response of his nerves and pulses to immediate rhythmical attack1 enjoy the ghosts of struggle1 rapture1 and exaltation with a volume and intricacy1 an anguish1 a triumph1 an irresponsibility1 unheard of4 ,an amplified pattern of action and emotion is given3 each man may fit to it what images he will4#eh 99 99 99 99 99 ,if our contention throughout this book be correct the ,expressionists are in one matter abundantly right4 ,art1 we have seen1 again and again rises by way of ritual out of emotion1 out of life keenly and vividly livid4 ,the younger generation are always talking of life2 they have a sort of cult of life4 ,some of the more valorous spirits among them even tend to disparage art that life may be the more exalted4 ,stop painting and sculping1 they cry1 and go and see a football match4 ,there you have life6 ,life is1 undoubtedly1 essential to art because life is the stuff of emotion1 but some thinkers and artists have an oddly limited notion of what life is4 ,it must1 it seems1 in the first place1 be essentially physical4 ,to sit and dream in your study is not to live4 ,the reason of this odd limitation is easy to see4 ,we all think life is especially the sort of life we are not living ourselves4 ,the hard-worked ,university professor thinks that ,life is to be found in a ,french caf2 the polished ,london journalist looks for ,life among the naked ,polynesians4 ,the cult of savagery1 and even of simplicity1 in every form1 simply spells complex civilization and diminished physical vitality4 ,the ,expressionist is1 then1 triumphantly right in the stress he lays on emotion2 but he is not right if he limits life to certain of its more elementary manifestations2 and still less is he right1 to our minds1 in making life and art in any sense coextensive4 ,art1 as we have seen1 sustains and invigorates life1 but only does it by withdrawal from these very same elementary forms of life1 by inhibiting certain sensuous reactions4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in another matter one section of ,expressionists1 the ,futurists1 are in the main right4 ,the emotion to be expressed is the emotion of to-day1 or still better to-morrow4 ,the mimetic dance arose not only nor chiefly out of reflection on the past2 but out of either immediate joy or imminent fear or insistent hope for the future4 ,we are not prepared perhaps to go all lengths1 to burn all museums because of their contagious corruption1 though we might be prepared to banish the nude for the space of ten years4 ,if there is to be any true living art1 it must arise1 not from the contemplation of ,greek statues1 not from the revival of folk-songs1 not even from the re-enacting of ,greek plays1 but from a keen emotion felt towards things and people living to-day1 in modern conditions1 including1 among other and deeper forms of life1 the haste and hurry of the modern street1 the whirr of motor cars and aeroplanes4 ,there are artists alive to-day1 strayed revellers1 who wish themselves back in the ,middle ,ages1 who long for the time when each man would have his house carved with a bit of lovely ornament1 when every village church had its ,madonna and ,child1 when1 in a word1 art and life and religion went hand in hand1 not sharply sundered by castes and professions4 ,but we may not put back the clock1 and1 if by differentiation we lose something1 we gain much4 ,the old choral dance on the orchestral floor was an undifferentiated thing1 it had a beauty of its own2 but by its differentiation1 by the severance of artist and actors and spectators1 we have gained--the drama4 ,we may not cast reluctant eyes backwards2 the world goes forward to new forms of life1 and the ,churches of to-day must and should become the ,museums of to-morrow4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is curious and instructive to note that ,tolstoy's theory of ,art1 though not his practice1 is essentially ,expressive and even approaches the dogmas of the ,futurist4 ,art is to him just the transmission of personal emotion to others4 ,it may be bad emotion or it may be good emotion1 emotion it must be4 ,to take his simple and instructive instance3 a boy goes out into a wood and meets a wolf1 he is frightened1 he comes back and tells the other villagers what he felt1 how he went to the wood feeling happy and light-hearted and the wolf came1 and what the wolf looked like1 and how he began to be frightened4 ,this is1 according to ,tolstoy1 art4 ,even if the boy never saw a wolf at all1 if he had really at another time been frightened1 and if he was able to conjure up fear in himself and communicate it to others--that also would be art4 ,the essential is1 according to ,tolstoy1 that he should feel himself and so represent his feeling that he communicates it to others4#ei ,art-schools1 art-professionalism1 art-criticism are all useless or worse than useless1 because they cannot teach a man to feel4 ,only life can do that4 ,all art is1 according to ,tolstoy1 good qu art that succeeds in transmitting emotion4 ,but there is good emotion and bad emotion1 and the only right material for art is good emotion1 and the only good emotion1 the only emotion worth expressing1 is subsumed1 according to ,tolstoy1 in the religion of the day4 ,this is how he explains the constant affinity in nearly all ages of art and religion4 ,instead of regarding religion as an early phase of art1 he proceeds to define religious perception as the highest social ideal of the moment1 as that understanding of the meaning of life which represents the highest level to which men of that society have attained1 an understanding defining the highest good at which that society aims4 ,religious perception in a society1 he beautifully adds1 is like the direction of a flowing river4 ,if the river flows at all1 it must have a direction4 ,thus1 religion1 to ,tolstoy1 is not dogma1 not petrifaction1 it makes indeed dogma impossible4 ,the religious perception of to-day flows1 ,tolstoi says1 in the ,christian channel towards the union of man in a common brotherhood4 ,it is the business of the modern artist to feel and transmit emotion towards this unity of man4 ,now it is not our purpose to examine whether ,tolstoy's definition of religion is adequate or indeed illuminating4 ,what we wish to note is that he grasps the truth that in art we must look and feel1 and look and feel forward1 not backward1 if we would live4 ,art somehow1 like language1 is always feeling forward to newer1 fuller1 subtler emotions4 ,she seems indeed in a way to feel ahead even of science2 a poet will forecast dimly what a later discovery will confirm4 ,whether and how long old channels1 old forms will suffice for the new spirit can never be foreseen4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we end with a point of great importance1 though the doctrine we would emphasize may be to some a hard saying1 even a stumbling-block4 ,art1 as ,tolstoy divined1 is social1 not individual4 ,art is1 as we have seen1 social in origin1 it remains and must remain social in function4 ,the dance from which the drama rose was a choral dance1 the dance of a band1 a group1 a church1 a community1 what the ,greeks called a thiasos4 ,the word means a band and a thing of devotion2 and reverence1 devotion1 collective emotion1 is social in its very being4 ,that band was1 to begin with1 as we saw1 the whole collection of initiated tribesmen1 linked by a common name1 rallying round a common symbol4 ,even to-day1 when individualism is rampant1 art bears traces of its collective1 social origin4 ,we feel about it1 as noted before1 a certain ought which always spells social obligation4 ,moreover1 whenever we have a new movement in art1 it issues from a group1 usually from a small professional coterie1 but marked by strong social instincts1 by a missionary spirit1 by intemperate zeal in propaganda1 by a tendency1 always social1 to crystallize conviction into dogma4 ,we can scarcely1 unless we are as high-hearted as ,tolstoy1 hope now-a-days for an art that shall be world-wide4 ,the tribe is extinct1 the family in its old rigid form moribund1 the social groups we now look to as centres of emotion are the groups of industry1 of professionalism and of sheer mutual attraction4 ,small and strange though such groups may appear1 they are real social factors4 ,now this social1 collective element in art is too apt to be forgotten4 ,when an artist claims that expression is the aim of art he is too apt to mean self-expression only--utterance of individual emotion4 ,utterance of individual emotion is very closely neighboured by1 is almost identical with1 self-enhancement4 ,what should be a generous1 and in part altruistic1 exaltation becomes mere megalomania4 ,this egotism is1 of course1 a danger inherent in all art4 ,the suspension of motor-reactions to the practical world isolates the artist1 cuts him off from his fellow-men1 makes him in a sense an egotist4 ,art1 said ,zola1 is the world seen through a temperament4 ,but this suspension is1 not that he should turn inward to feed on his own vitals1 but rather to free him for contemplation4 ,all great art releases from self4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the young are often temporary artists3 art1 being based on life1 calls for a strong vitality4 ,the young are also self-centred and seek self-enhancement4 ,this need of self-expression is a sort of artistic impulse4 ,the young are1 partly from sheer immaturity1 still more through a foolish convention1 shut out from real life2 they are secluded1 forced to become in a sense artists1 or1 if they have not the power for that1 at least self-aggrandizers4 ,they write lyric poems1 they love masquerading1 they focus life on to themselves in a way which1 later on1 life itself makes impossible4 ,this pseudo-art1 this self-aggrandizement usually dies a natural death before the age of thirty4 ,if it live on1 one remedy is1 of course1 the scientific attitude2 that attitude which is bent on considering and discovering the relations of things among themselves1 not their personal relation to us4 ,the study of science is a priceless discipline in self-abnegation1 but only in negation2 it looses us from self1 it does not link us to others4 ,the real and natural remedy for the egotism of youth is ,life1 not necessarily the haunting of cafs1 or even the watching of football matches1 but strenuous activity in the simplest human relations of daily happenings4 ,whatsoever thy hand findeth to do1 do it with thy might4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there is always apt to be some discord between the artist and the large practical world in which he lives1 but those ages are happiest in which the discord is least4 ,the nineteenth century1 amid its splendid achievements in science and industry1 in government and learning1 and above all in humanity1 illustrates this conflict in an interesting way4 ,to literature1 an art which can explain itself1 the great public world lent on the whole a reverent and intelligent ear4 ,its great prose writers were at peace with their audience and were inspired by great public interests4 ,some of the greatest1 for example ,tolstoy1 produced their finest work on widely human subjects1 and numbered their readers and admirers probably by the million4 ,writers like ,dickens1 ,thackeray1 ,kingsley1 ,mill1 and ,carlyle1 even poets like ,tennyson and ,browning1 were full of great public interests and causes1 and1 in different degrees and at different stages of their lives1 were thoroughly and immensely popular4 ,on the other hand1 one can find1 at the beginning of the period1 figures like ,blake and ,shelley1 and all through it a number of painters--the pre-,raphaelites1 the ,impressionists--walking like aliens in a ,philistine world4 ,even great figures like ,burne-,jones and ,whistler were for the greater part of their lives unrecognized or mocked at4 ,millais reached the attention of the world1 but was thought by the stricter fraternity to have in some sense or other sold his soul and committed the great sin of considering the bourgeois4 ,the bourgeois should be despised not partially but completely4 ,his life1 his interests1 his code of ethics and conduct must all be matters of entire indifference or amused contempt1 to the true artist who intends to do his own true work and call his soul his own4 ,at a certain moment1 during the eighties and nineties1 it looked as if these doctrines were generally accepted1 and the divorce between art and the community had become permanent4 ,but it seems as if this attitude1 which coincided with a period of reaction in political matters and a recrudescence of a belief in force and on unreasoned authority1 is already passing away4 ,there are not wanting signs that art1 both in painting and sculpture1 and in poetry and novel-writing1 is beginning again to realize its social function1 beginning to be impatient of mere individual emotion1 beginning to aim at something bigger1 more bound up with a feeling towards and for the common weal4 ,take work like that of ,mr4 ,galsworthy or ,mr4 ,masefield or ,mr4 ,arnold ,bennett4 ,without appraising its merits or demerits we cannot but note that the social sense is always there1 whether it be of a class or of a whole community4 ,in a play like ,justice the writer does not express himself1 he does not even merely show the pathos of a single human being's destiny1 he sets before us a much bigger thing--man tragically caught and torn in the iron hands of a man-made machine1 ,society itself4 ,incarnate ,law is the protagonist1 and1 as it happens1 the villain of the piece4 ,it is a fragment of ,les ,misrables over again1 in a severer and more restrained technique4 ,an art like this starts1 no doubt1 from emotion towards personal happenings--there is nothing else from which it can start2 but1 even as it sets sail for wider seas1 it is loosed from personal moorings4 ,science has given us back something strangely like a ,world-,soul1 and art is beginning to feel she must utter our emotion towards it4 ,such art is exposed to an inherent and imminent peril4 ,its very bigness and newness tends to set up fresh and powerful reactions4 ,unless1 in the process of creation1 these can be inhibited1 the artist will be lost in the reformer1 and the play or the novel turn tract4 ,this does not mean that the artist1 if he is strong enough1 may not be reformer too1 only not at the moment of creation4 ,the art of ,mr4 ,arnold ,bennett gets its bigness1 its collectivity1 in part--from extension over time4 ,far from seeking after beauty1 he almost goes out to embrace ugliness4 ,he does not spare us even dullness1 that we may get a sense of the long1 waste spaces of life1 their dreary reality4 ,we are keenly interested in the loves of hero and heroine1 but all the time something much bigger is going on1 generation after generation rolls by in ceaseless panorama2 it is the life not of ,edwin and ,hilda1 it is the life of the ,five ,towns4 ,after a vision so big1 to come back to the ordinary individualistic love-story is like looking through the wrong end of a telescope4 ,art of high quality and calibre is seldom obscure4 ,the great popular writers of the nineteenth century--,dickens1 ,thackeray1 ,tennyson1 ,tolstoy--wrote so that all could understand4 ,a really big artist has something important to say1 something vast to show1 something that moves him and presses on him2 and he will say it simply because he must get it said4 ,he will trick it out with no devices1 most of all with no obscurities4 ,it has vexed and torn him enough while it was pushing its way to be born4 ,he has no peace till it is said1 and said as clearly as he may4 ,he says it1 not consciously for the sake of others1 but for himself1 to ease him from the burden of big thought4 ,moreover1 art1 whose business is to transmit emotion1 should need no commentary4 ,art comes out of theoria1 contemplation1 steady looking at1 but never out of theory4 ,theory can neither engender nor finally support it4 ,an exhibition of pictures with an explanatory catalogue1 scientifically interesting though it may be1 stands1 in a sense1 self-condemned4 ,we must1 however1 remember that all art is not of the whole community4 ,there are small groups feeling their own small but still collective emotion1 fashioning their own language1 obscure sometimes to all but themselves4 ,they are right so to fashion it1 but1 if they appeal to a wider world1 they must strive to speak in the vulgar tongue1 understanded of the people4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is1 indeed1 a hopeful sign of the times1 a mark of the revival of social as contrasted with merely individualistic instincts that a younger generation of poets1 at least in ,france1 tend to form themselves into small groups1 held together not merely by eccentricities of language or garb1 but by some deep inner conviction strongly held in common4 ,such a unity of spirit is seen in the works of the latter group of thinkers and writers known as ,unanimists4 ,they tried and failed to found a community4 ,their doctrine1 if doctrine convictions so fluid can be called1 is strangely like the old group-religion of the common dance1 only more articulate4 ,of the ,unanimist it might truly be said1 il buvait l'indistinction4 ,to him the harsh old ,roman mandate ,divide et impera1 ,divide men that you may rule them1 spells death4 ,his dream is not of empire and personal property but of the realization of life1 common to all4 ,to this school the great reality is the social group1 whatever form it take1 family1 village or town4 ,their only dogma is the unity and immeasurable sanctity of life4 ,in practice they are ,christian1 yet wholly free from the asceticism of modern ,christianity4 ,their attitude in art is as remote as possible from1 it is indeed the very antithesis to1 the sthetic exclusiveness of the close of last century4 ,like ,st4 ,peter1 the ,unanimists have seen a sheet let down and heard a voice from heaven saying3 ,call thou nothing common nor unclean4 ,above all1 the ,unanimist remembers and realizes afresh the old truth that no man liveth unto himself4 ,according to the ,expressionist's creed1 as we have seen1 the end of art is to utter and communicate emotion4 ,the fullest and finest emotions are those one human being feels towards another4 ,every sympathy is an enrichment of life1 every antipathy a negation4 ,it follows then1 that1 for the ,unanimist1 ,love is the fulfilling of his ,law4 ,it is a beautiful and life-giving faith1 felt and with a perfect sincerity expressed towards all nature by the ,indian poet ,tagore1 and towards humanity especially by ,m4 ,vildrac in his ,book of ,love 7,livre d',amour74 ,he tells us in his ,commentary how to-day the poet1 sitting at home with pen and paper before him1 feels that he is pent in1 stifled by himself4 ,he had been about to re-tell the old1 old story of himself1 to set himself once more on the stage of his poem--the same old dusty self tricked out1 costumed anew4 ,suddenly he knows the figure to be tawdry and shameful4 ,he is hot all over when he looks at it2 he must out into the air1 into the street1 out of the stuffy museum where so long he has stirred the dead egotist ashes1 out into the bigger life1 the life of his fellows2 he must live1 with them1 by them1 in them4 ,i am weary of deeds done inside myself1 ,i am weary of voyages inside myself1 ,and of heroism wrought by strokes of the pen1 ,and of a beauty made up of formul4 ,i am ashamed of lying to my work1 ,of my work lying to my life1 ,and of being able to content myself1 ,by burning sweet spices1 ,with the mouldering smell that is master here4 ,again1 in ,the ,conquerors1 the poet dreams of the ,victorious ,one who has no army1 the ,knight who rides afoot1 the ,crusader without breviary or scrip1 the ,pilgrim of ,love who1 by the shining in his eyes1 draws all men to him1 and they in turn draw other men until1 at last3 ,the time came in the land1 ,the time of the ,great ,conquest1 ,when the people with this desire ,left the threshold of their door ,to go forth towards one another4 ,and the time came in the land ,when to fill all its story ,there was nothing but songs in unison1 ,one round danced about the houses1 ,one battle and one victory4 ,and so our tale ends where it began1 with the ,choral ,dance4 ,,footnotes3 #ed ,ethics1 ,x1 #d4 #ee ,h4 ,bergson1 ,life and ,consciousness1 ,huxley ,lecture1 ,may #bi1 #aiaa4 #ef ,religion is here used as meaning the worship of some form of god1 as the practical counterpart of theology4 #eg ,mr4 ,d4,s4 ,mac,coll4 #eh ,d4,s4 ,mac,coll1 ,nineteenth ,century ,art1 p4 #ba4 7#aijb47 #ei ,it is interesting to find1 since the above was written1 that the ,confession of ,faith published in the catalogue of the ,second ,post-,impressionist ,exhibition 7#aiab1 p4 #ba7 reproduces1 consciously or unconsciously1 ,tolstoy's view3 ,we have ceased to ask1 ,what does this picture represent8 and ask instead1 ,what does it make us feel8 ,,bibliography ,for ,ancient and ,primitive ,ritual the best general book of reference is3 ,,frazer1 ,j4,g4 ,the ,golden ,bough1 #crd edition1 #aiaa1 from which most of the instances in the present manual are taken4 ,part ,,iv of ,the ,golden ,bough1 i4e4 the section dealing with ,adonis1 ,attis1 and ,osiris1 should especially be consulted4 ,also an earlier1 epoch-making book3 ,,robertson ,,smith1 ,w4 ,lectures on the ,religion of the ,semites1 #ahhi #crd edition1 #aibg4 ,for certain fundamental ritual notions1 e4g4 sacrifice1 holiness1 etc4 ,for ,egyptian and ,babylonian ritual3 ,myth and ,ritual1 edited by ,s4,h4 ,,hooke1 #aicc4 ,for the ,greek ,drama1 as arising out of the ritual dance3 ,professor ,,gilbert ,,murray',s ,excursus on the ,ritual ,forms preserved in ,greek ,tragedy in ,j4,e4 ,,harrison',s ,themis1 #aiab1 and pp4 #cbg-dj in the same book2 and for the religion of ,dionysos and the drama1 ,j4,e4 ,,harrison',s ,prolegomena1 #aijg1 ,chapters ,,viii and ,x4 ,for the fusion of the ritual dance and hero-worship1 see ,w4 ,,leaf1 ,homer and ,history1 #aiae1 ,chapter ,,vii4 ,for a quite different view of drama as arising wholly from the worship of the dead1 see ,professor ,w4 ,,ridgeway1 ,the ,origin of ,tragedy1 #aiaj4 ,an important discussion of the relation of tragedy to the winter festival of the ,lenaia appears in ,a4,b4 ,,cook',s ,zeus1 vol4 i1 sec4 #f 7xxi7 #aiad4 ,more recent works on ,greek drama3 ,a4,w4 ,,pickard-,,cambridge1 ,dithyramb1 ,tragedy and ,comedy1 #aibg2 ,g4 ,,thomson1 ,aeschylus and ,athens1 #aida4 ,for ,primitive ,art3 ,,hirn1 ,y4 ,the ,origins of ,art1 #aijj4 ,the main theory of the book the present writer believes to be inadequate1 but it contains an excellent collection of facts relating to ,art1 ,magic1 ,art and ,work1 ,mimetic ,dances1 etc41 and much valuable discussion of principles4 ,,grosse1 ,e4 ,the ,beginnings of ,art1 #ahig1 in the ,chicago ,anthropological ,series4 ,valuable for its full illustrations of primitive art1 as well as for text4 ,,boas1 ,f41 ,primitive ,art1 #aibg4 ,for the ,theory of ,art3 ,,tolstoy1 ,l4 ,what is ,art8 ,translated by ,aylmer ,maude1 in the ,scott ,library4 ,,fry1 ,,roger ,e4 ,an ,essay in sthetics1 in the ,new ,quarterly1 ,april #aiji1 p4 #agd4 ,this is the best general statement of the function of ,art known to me4 ,it should be read in connection with ,mr4 ,bullough's article1 quoted on p4 #abi1 which gives the psychological basis of a similar view of the nature of art4 ,my own theory was formulated independently1 in relation to the development of the ,greek theatre1 but ,i am very glad to find that it is in substantial agreement with those of two such distinguished authorities on sthetics4 ,for my later conclusions on art1 see ,alpha and ,omega1 #aiae1 pp4 #bjh-bbj4 ,,caudwell1 ,c41 ,illusion and ,reality1 #aicg4 ,for more advanced students3 ,,dussauze1 ,,henri4 ,les ,rgles esthtiques et les lois du sentiment1 #aiaa4 ,m,,ller-,,freienfels1 ,r4 ,psychologie der ,kunst1 #aiab4 ,,index ,abstraction1 #bbd ,adonis1 rites of1 #ai1 #bj1 #ed-ef ----1 gardens of1 #adi ----1 as tree spirit1 #adi schylus1 #dg ,aesthete1 not artist1 #bad-bae ,agon1 #ae ,anagnorisis1 or recognition1 #ae ,anthesteria1 spring festival of1 #adg-adi ,apollo ,belvedere1 #aga ,aristotle on art1 #aih ,art and beauty1 #bac ---- and imitation1 #bcj ---- and morality1 #bae ---- and nature1 #aih ---- and religion1 #bbe ----1 emotional factor in1 #bf ----1 social elements in1 #bda-bdh ,ascension festival1 #fi ,bear1 ,aino festival1 #ib-ii ,beast dances1 #de1 #df ,beauty and art1 #baa ,bergson on art1 #acd ,birth1 rites of new1 #ajd-aac ,bouphonia1 #ia-ib ,bull-driving in spring1 #he ----1 festival at ,magnesia1 #hg ,cat's-cradle1 as magical charm1 #ff ,censor1 function of1 #baf ,charila1 spring festival1 #hj ,chorus in ,greek drama1 #aba-abh ,dancing1 a work1 #cj-ca ----1 magical1 #ca-ce ----1 commemorative1 #dd ,daphnephoros1 #ahf ,death and winter1 #fg-gb ,dik as way of life1 #aaf ,dionysis1 #ab1 #aej ,dionysis as ,holy ,child1 #ajc ---- as tree god1 #ajb ---- as young man1 #aac-aae ,dithyramb1 #ge-hi ,drama and ,dromenon1 #ce-ch ,easter1 in ,modern ,greece1 #gc ,eiresione1 #aad ,epheboi1 ,athenian1 #ab ,euch1 meaning of1 #be ,expressionists1 #bcb ,futurists1 #bcb ,ghosts as fertilizers1 #adi ,homer1 influence on drama1 #ade-aff ,hor or seasons1 #aaf ,idol and ideal1 #bbg ,impressionism1 #bca ,imitation1 #ba-bc ----1 ceremonies in ,australia1 #fd ,individualism1 #bda ,initiation ceremonies1 #fd1 #ajf-aac ,jack-in-the-,green1 #fj1 #ahg1 #aij ,kangaroos1 dance of1 #df ,landscape1 art of1 #aii-bja ,maeterlinck1 #bjj ,may-day at ,cambridge1 #eg ,may1 queen of the1 #eg-fa ----1 king of the1 #aic ,mime1 meaning of1 #dg ,mimesis1 #dc-dg ,music1 function of1 #bcc ,new birth1 #ajf-aac ,olympian gods1 #bjb ,orchestra1 meaning of1 #abc-abg ,osiris1 rites of1 #ae-bc1 #ea ,ox-hunger1 #ha ,panathenaia1 #agh ,panspermia1 #adh ,parthenon frieze1 #agf ,peisistratos1 #adf ,peplos of ,athena1 #ahj ,pericles on religion1 #agh ,personification and conception1 #gj-gc ,plato on art1 #ba-bc ,pleasure not joy1 #bac ,post-impressionists1 #bch ,prayer discs1 #bd ,presentation1 meaning of1 #ec ,psychical distance1 #abi-acd ,representation1 #cd-da ,resurrection1 rites of1 #ajj ,rites1 periodicity of1 #eb ,ritual forms in drama1 #ahh-ahi ,santayana on art1 #bbj ,semel1 bringing up of1 #ha ,spring song at ,saffron ,walden1 #ei ---- at ,athens1 #gg ,stage or scene1 #adb-ade ,summer1 bringing in of1 #fg-ga ,tammuz1 rites of1 #ah-bj ,tlt1 rite of growing up1 #aab ,theatre1 #aj-ac1 #acf ,themis1 as ritual custom1 #aag ,theoria and theory1 #bdh ,threshing-floor at dancing-place1 #abd ,tolstoy on art1 #acb1 #bch-bda ,totemism and beast dances1 #df1 #dg ,tragedy1 ritual forms in1 #aai-abb ----1 origin of1 #gf ,tug of war1 among ,esquimaux1 #fb ,unanimism1 #bdi-beb ,vegetation spirit1 #gb ,winter1 carrying out of1 #fh-gb ,wool1 sacred1 #ab ,world-soul1 #bdf ,wreaths1 festival of1 #ahi ----1 at ,greek weddings1 #aij ,zola on art1 #bdb 99 99 99 99 99 ,printed in ,great ,britain by ,the ,camelot ,press ,ltd41 ,london and ,southampton