,a ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,sci5ce ,by ,h5ry ,smi? ,williams1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,assi/$ ,by ,edw>d ,h4 ,williams1 ,m4,d4 ,9 ,five ,volumes ,volume ,,iv4 ,,mod]n ,,developm5t ,,( ,,! ,,*emical ,,& ,,biological ,,sci5ces ,,book ,,iv4 ,,mod]n ,,developm5t ,,( ,,! ,,*emical ,,& ,,biological ,,sci5ces ,,z reg>ds *ronology1 ! epo* cov]$ 9 ! pres5t volume is id5tical ) t view$ 9 ! prec$+ "o4 ,b n[ z reg>ds subject matt] we pass on to ^? div]se phases ( ! physical _w :i* are ! field ( ! *emi/1 & to ^? yet m intricate processes :i* h to d ) liv+ organisms4 ,s radical are ! *anges "h t we seem to be ent]+ new worlds2 & yet1 "h z be=e1 !re are intimations ( ! new discov]ies away back 9 ! ,greek days4 ,! solution ( ! problem ( respiration w rem9d u t ,anaxagoras half guess$ ! secret2 & 9 ^? div]sifi$ /udies :i* tell u ( ! ,daltonian atom 9 its wond]ful transmutations1 we %all be rem9d$ aga9 ( ! ,clazom5ian philosoph] & 8 successor ,democritus4 ,yet we %\ld press ! analogy mu* too f> 7 we to intimate t ! ,greek ( ! eld] day or any ?9k] ( a m rec5t p]iod _h p5etrat$1 ev5 9 ! vague/ way1 all ( ! my/]ies t ! n9ete5? c5tury has reveal$ 9 ! fields ( *emi/ry & biology4 ,at ! v mo/ ! insight ( ^? great ,greeks & ( ! wond]ful sev5te5?-c5tury philosoph]s :o s (t5 seem$ on ! v]ge ( our lat] discov]ies did no m ?an vaguely anticipate _! successors ( ?is lat] c5tury4 ,to ga9 an accurate1 really specific k ( ! prop]ties ( elem5t>y bodies 0 res]v$ = ! *emi/s ( a rec5t epo*4 ,! vague ,greek que/ion+s z to organic evolution 7 _w-wide f ! precise inductions ( a ,d>w94 ,if ! m$iaeval ,arabian endeavor$ to dull ! knife ( ! surgeon ) ! use ( drugs1 8 results h>dly m]it to be t]m$ ev5 an anticipation ( mod]n anae/hesia4 ,& :5 we speak ( prev5tive m$ic9e--( bact]iology 9 all its phases--we h to d ) a m>vell\s field ( :i* no previ\s g5]ation ( m5 _h ev5 ! slighte/ inkl+4 ,all 9 all1 !n1 ^? t lie be=e u are p]haps ! mo/ wond]ful & ! mo/ fasc9at+ ( all ! fields ( sci5ce4 ,z ! *apt]s ( ! prec$+ book c>ri$ u out into a macrocosm ( inconceivable magnitude1 our pres5t /udies are to reveal a microcosm ( equally inconceivable smallness4 ,z ! /udies ( ! physici/ attempt$ to reveal ! v nature ( matt] & ( en]gy1 we h n[ to seek ! solution ( ! yet m inscrutable problems ( life & ( m9d4 ,i4 ,,! ,,phlogi/on ,,!ory ,,9 ,,*emi/ry ,! developm5t ( ! sci5ce ( *emi/ry f ! sci5ce ( al*emy is a /rik+ example ( ! complete revolution 9 ! attitude ( obs]v]s 9 ! field ( sci5ce4 ,z has be5 po9t$ out 9 a prec$+ *apt]1 ! al*emi/1 hav+ a preconceiv$ idea ( h[ ?+s %\ld be1 made all 8 exp]im5ts to prove 8 preconceiv$ !ory2 :ile ! *emi/ rev]ses ?is attitude ( m9d & bases 8 conceptions on ! results ( 8 laboratory exp]im5ts4 ,9 %ort1 *emi/ry is :at al*emy nev] c\ld be1 an inductive sci5ce4 ,b ?is transition f "o po9t ( view to an exactly opposite "o 0 necess>ily a v sl[ process4 ,ideas t h held undisput$ sway ov] ! m9ds ( succe$+ g5]ations = hundr$s ( ye>s _c be ov]?r[n 9 a mom5t1 unless ! ag5t ( su* an ov]?r[ be s obvi\s t x _c be *all5g$4 ,! rudim5t>y *emi/ry t ov]?rew al*emy _h no?+ s obvi\s & palpable4 ,! great fir/ /ep 0 ! sub/itution ( ! "o pr9ciple1 phlogi/on1 = ! ?ree pr9ciples1 salt1 sulphur1 & m]cury4 ,we h se5 h[ ! exp]im5t ( burn+ or calc9+ su* a metal z lead de/roy$ ! lead z su*1 leav+ an entirely diff]5t sub/ance 9 its place1 & h[ ! orig9al metal c\ld be re/or$ by ! addition ( :eat to ! calc9$ product4 ,to ! al*emi/ ?is 0 mortification & revivification ( ! metal4 ,=1 z po9t$ out by ,p>acelsus1 any?+ t c\ld be kill$ by man c\ld also be revivifi$ by him1 al?\gh ?is 0 n possible to ! ?+s kill$ by ,god4 ,! burn+ ( su* sub/ances z wood1 wax1 oil1 etc41 0 also look$ ^u z ! same kill+ process1 & ! fact t ! al*emi/ 0 unable to revivify !m 0 reg>d$ z simply ! lack ( skill on 8 "p1 & 9 no wise affect+ ! !ory itself4 ,b ! iconocla/ic _s1 if n ! acceptance ( all ! tea*+s1 ( ! great ,p>acelsus _h be5 gradually tak+ root among ! bett] class ( al*emi/s1 & ab\t ! middle ( ! sev5te5? c5tury ,rob]t ,boyle 7#afbf-afia7 call$ att5tion to ! possibility ( mak+ a wrong d$uction f ! ph5om5on ( ! calc9ation ( ! metals1 because ( a v important factor1 ! action ( ! air1 :i* 0 g5]ally ov]look$4 ,& he urg$ 8 colleagues ( ! laboratories to give great] he$ to c]ta9 o!r ph5om5a t might pass unnotic$ 9 ! ord9>y calc9at+ process4 ,9 8 "w1 ,! ,sceptical ,*emi/1 he %[$ ! reasons = d\bt+ ! ?reefold con/itution ( matt]2 & 9 8 ,g5]al ,hi/ory ( ! ,air advanc$ "s novel & c>efully /udi$ !ories z to ! composition ( ! atmosph]e4 ,?is 0 an important /ep1 & al?\gh ,boyle is n directly responsible = ! phlogi/on !ory1 x is probable t 8 exp]im5ts on ! atmosph]e influ5c$ consid]ably ! real f\nd]s1 ,beck] & ,/ahl4 ,boyle gave v def9itely 8 idea ( h[ he ?\ght air might be compos$4 ,i conjecture t ! atmosph]ical air consi/s ( ?ree diff]5t k9ds ( corpuscles1 he says2 ! fir/1 ^? numb]less p>ticles :i*1 9 ! =m ( vapors or dry exhalations1 asc5d f ! e>?1 wat]1 m9]als1 vegetables1 animals1 etc42 9 a ^w1 :atev] sub/ances are elevat$ by ! cele/ial or subt]raneal heat1 & !nce diffus$ into ! atmosph]e4 ,! second may be yet m subtle1 & consi/ ( ^? exce$+ly m9ute atoms1 ! magnetical effluvia ( ! e>?1 ) o!r innum]able p>ticles s5t out f ! bodies ( ! cele/ial lum9>ies1 & caus+1 by _! influ5ce1 ! idea ( light 9 u4 ,! ?ird sort is its *>act]i/ic & ess5tial prop]ty1 ,i mean p]man5tly ela/ic p>ts4 ,v>i\s hypo!ses may be fram$ relat+ to ! /ructure ( ^! lat] p>ticles ( ! air4 ,!y might be resembl$ to ! spr+s ( wat*es1 coil$ up & endeavor+ to re/ore !mselves2 to wool1 :i*1 be+ compress$1 has an ela/ic =ce2 to sl5d] wires ( diff]5t sub/ances1 consi/5cies1 l5g?s1 & ?ickness2 9 great] curls or less1 ne> to1 or remote f ea* o!r1 etc41 yet all cont9u+ spr+y1 expansible1 & compressible4 ,la/ly1 !y may also be comp>$ to ! ?9 %av+s ( diff]5t k9ds ( wood1 v>i\s 9 _! l5g?s1 bread?1 & ?ickness4 ,& ?is1 p]haps1 w seem ! mo/ eligible hypo!sis1 because x1 9 "s measure1 illu/rates ! production ( ! ela/ic p>ticles we are consid]+4 ,= no art or curi\s in/rum5ts are requir$ to make ^! %av+s ^: curls are 9 no wise uni=m1 b seem+ly casual2 & :at is m rem>kable1 bodies t be=e seem$ unela/ic1 z beams & blocks1 w af=d !m47#a7 ,al?\gh ?is explanation ( ! composition ( ! air is mo/ crude1 x _h ! effect ( direct+ att5tion to ! fact t ! atmosph]e is n m]e no?+ness1 b a some?+ ) a def9ite composition1 & ?is s]v$ z a good f\ndation = future inve/igations4 ,to be sure1 ,boyle 0 nei!r ! fir/ nor ! only *emi/ :o _h suspect$ t ! air 0 a mixture ( gases1 & n a simple "o1 & t only c]ta9 ( ^! gases take "p 9 ! process ( calc9ation4 ,jean ,rey1 a ,fr5* physician1 & ,john ,may[1 an ,engli%man1 _h pre=m$ exp]im5ts :i* %[$ conclusively t ! air 0 n a simple sub/ance2 b ,boyle's "w 0 bett] kn[n1 & 9 its effect probably m important4 ,b ) all ,boyle's explanations ( ! composition ( air1 he /ill believ$ t !re 0 an inexplicable some?+1 a vital sub/ance1 :i* he 0 unable to fa?om1 & :i* lat] became ! basis ( ,/ahl's phlogi/on !ory4 ,comm5t+ on ?is my/]i\s sub/ance1 ,boyle says3 ,! difficulty we f9d 9 keep+ flame & fire alive1 ?\gh b = a little "t1 )\t air1 r5d]s x suspici\s t !re be disp]s$ ?r\gh ! re/ ( ! atmosph]e "s odd sub/ance1 ei!r ( a sol>1 a/ral1 or o!r =eign nature2 on acc\nt ( :i* ! air is s necess>y to ! sub/ance ( flame6 ,x 0 ?is idea t attract$ ! att5tion ( ,george ,ern/ ,/ahl 7#affj-agcd71 a pr(essor ( m$ic9e 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,halle1 :o lat] f\nd$ 8 new !ory ^u x4 ,/ahl's !ory 0 a developm5t ( an e>li] *emi/1 ,johann ,joa*im ,beck] 7#afce-afhb71 9 ^: foot/eps he foll[$ & ^: exp]im5ts he c>ri$ fur!r4 ,9 _m exp]im5ts ,/ahl _h be5 /ruck ) ! fact t c]ta9 sub/ances1 :ile diff]+ widely1 f "o ano!r 9 _m respects1 7 alike 9 combu/ibility4 ,f ?is he argu$ t all combu/ible sub/ances mu/ conta9 a common pr9ciple1 & ?is pr9ciple he nam$ phlogi/on4 ,?is phlogi/on he believ$ to be intimately associat$ 9 comb9ation ) o!r sub/ances 9 nature1 & 9 t condition n p]ceivable by ! s5ses2 b x 0 suppos$ to escape z a sub/ance burn$1 & become app>5t to ! s5ses z fire or flame4 ,9 o!r words1 phlogi/on 0 some?+ imprison$ 9 a combu/ible /ructure 7itself =m+ "p ( ! /ructure71 & only lib]at$ :5 ?is /ructure 0 de/roy$4 ,fire1 or flame1 0 ,,free phlogi/on1 :ile ! imprison$ phlogi/on 0 call$ ,,comb9$ ,,phlogi/on1 or comb9$ fire4 ,! peculi> quality ( ?is /range sub/ance 0 t x dislik$ fre$om & 0 always /riv+ to conceal itself 9 "s combu/ible sub/ance4 ,boyle's t5tative sugge/ion t heat 0 simply motion 0 app>5tly n accept$ by ,/ahl1 or p]haps x 0 unkn[n to him4 ,accord+ to ! phlogi/ic !ory1 ! "p rema9+ aft] a sub/ance 0 burn$ 0 simply ! orig9al sub/ance depriv$ ( phlogi/on4 ,to re/ore ! orig9al combu/ible sub/ance1 x 0 necess>y to heat ! residue ( ! combu/ion ) some?+ t burn$ easily1 s t ! fre$ phlogi/on might aga9 comb9e ) ! a%es4 ,?is 0 expla9$ by ! supposition t ! m combu/ible a sub/ance 0 ! m phlogi/on x conta9$1 & s9ce free phlogi/on s\ght always to comb9e ) "s suitable sub/ance1 x 0 only necess>y to mix ! phlogi/icat+ ag5ts1 su* z *>coal1 phosphorus1 oils1 fats1 etc41 ) ! a%es ( ! orig9al sub/ance1 & heat ! mixture1 ! phlogi/on ?us fre$ unit+ at once ) ! a%es4 ,?is !ory fitt$ v nicely z appli$ to ! calc9$ lead revivifi$ by ! gra9s ( :eat1 al?\gh ) "s o!r products ( calc9ation x did n seem to apply at all4 ,x w be se5 f ?is t ! phlogi/ic !ory 0 a /ep t[>ds *emi/ry & away f al*emy4 ,x l$ away f ! idea ( a _s 9 metals t c\ld n be se51 felt1 or appreciat$ by any ( ! s5ses1 & sub/itut$ = x a pr9ciple :i*1 al?\gh a falsely conceiv$ "o1 0 /ill mu* m tangible ?an ! _s1 s9ce x c\ld be se5 & felt z free phlogi/on & weigh$ & measur$ z comb9$ phlogi/on4 ,! def9it5ess ( ! /atem5t t a metal1 = example1 0 compos$ ( phlogi/on & an elem5t 0 mu* less enigmatic1 ev5 if wrong1 ?an ! /atem5t ( ! al*emi/ t metals are produc$ by ! spiritual action ( ! ?ree pr9ciples1 salt1 m]cury1 sulphur--p>ticul>ly :5 x is expla9$ t salt1 m]cury1 & sulphur 7 really n :at _! names impli$1 & t !re 0 no univ]sally accept$ belief z to :at !y really 74 ,! metals1 :i* are n[ reg>d$ z elem5t>y bodies1 7 consid]$ comp\nds by ! phlogi/ians1 & !y believ$ t ! calc9+ ( a metal 0 a process ( simplification4 ,!y not$1 h[ev]1 t ! rema9s ( calc9ation weigh$ m ?an ! orig9al product1 & ! natural inf]5ce f ?is w\ld be t ! metal mu/ h tak5 9 "s sub/ance r ?an h giv5 (f any?+4 ,b ! phlogi/ians _h n le>n$ ! all-important significance ( weights1 & _! explanation ( v>iation 9 weight 0 ei!r t su* ga9 or loss 0 an unimportant accid5t at be/1 or t phlogi/on1 be+ light1 t5d$ to light5 any sub/ance conta9+ x1 s t driv+ x out ( ! metal by calc9ation naturally left ! residue heavi]4 ,at fir/ ! phlogi/on !ory seem$ to expla9 9 an indisputable way all ! kn[n *emical ph5om5a4 ,gradually1 h[ev]1 z exp]im5ts multipli$1 x became evid5t t ! pla9 !ory z /at$ by ,/ahl & 8 foll[]s fail$ to expla9 satisfactorily c]ta9 laboratory reactions4 ,to meet ^! new conditions1 c]ta9 modifications 7 introduc$ f "t to "t1 giv+ ! !ory a flexibility t w\ld all[ x to cov] all cases4 ,b z ! numb] ( inexplicable exp]im5ts cont9u$ to increase1 & new modifications to ! !ory became necess>y1 x 0 f\nd t "s ( ^! modifications 7 directly contradictory to o!rs1 & ?us ! simple !ory became too cumb]some f ! numb] ( its modifications4 ,its support]s disagre$ among !mselves1 fir/ z to ! explanation ( c]ta9 ph5om5a t did n seem to accord ) ! phlogi/ic !ory1 & a little lat] z to ! !ory itself4 ,b z yet !re 0 no satisfactory sub/itute = ?is !ory1 :i*1 ev5 if unsatisfactory1 seem$ bett] ?an any?+ t _h gone be=e or c\ld be sugge/$4 ,b ! good effects ( ! era ( exp]im5tal rese>*1 to :i* ! !ory ( ,/ahl _h giv5 su* an impetus1 7 %[+ 9 ! attitude ( ! exp]im5t]s4 ,! works ( "s ( ! old] writ]s1 su* z ,boyle & ,hooke1 7 aga9 s\ght out 9 _! du/y corn]s & consult$1 & _! surmises z to ! possible mixture ( v>i\s gases 9 ! air 7 m c>efully consid]$4 ,/ill ! phlogi/on !ory 0 firmly gr\nd$ 9 ! m9ds ( ! philosoph]s1 :o c h>dly be c5sur$ = adh]+ to x1 at lea/ until "s satisfactory sub/itute 0 (f]$4 ,! f\ndation = su* a !ory 0 f9ally laid1 z we %all see pres5tly1 by ! "w ( ,black1 ,prie/ley1 ,cav5di%1 & ,lavoisi]1 9 ! eighte5? c5tury1 b ! phlogi/on !ory _c be said to h f9ally succumb$ until ! op5+ ye>s ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,,ii4 ,,! ,,beg9n+s ,,( ,,mod]n ,,*emi/ry ,,! ,,pneumatic ,,*emi/s ,mod]n *emi/ry may be said to h its beg9n+ ) ! "w ( ,/eph5 ,hales 7#afgg-agfa71 :o e>ly 9 ! eighte5? c5tury began 8 important /udy ( ! ela/icity ( air4 ,dep>t+ f ! po9t ( view ( mo/ ( ! sci5ti/s ( ! "t1 he consid]$ air to be a f9e ela/ic fluid1 ) p>ticles ( v diff]5t nature float+ 9 x2 & he %[$ t ^! p>ticles c\ld be sep>at$4 ,he po9t$ out1 also1 t v>i\s gases1 or airs1 z he call$ !m1 7 conta9$ 9 _m solid sub/ances4 ,! importance ( 8 "w1 h[ev]1 lies 9 ! fact t 8 g5]al /udies 7 along l9es lead+ away f ! accept$ doctr9es ( ! "t1 & t !y gave ! impetus to ! inve/igation ( ! prop]ties ( gases by su* *emi/s z ,black1 ,prie/ley1 ,cav5di%1 & ,lavoisi]1 ^: specific discov]ies are ! f\ndation-/ones ( mod]n *emi/ry4 ,,joseph ,,black ,! c>eful /udies ( ,hales 7 cont9u$ by 8 y\ng] confr]e1 ,dr4 ,joseph ,black 7#agbh-agii71 ^: exp]im5ts 9 ! weights ( gases & o!r *emicals 7 fir/ /eps 9 quantitative *emi/ry4 ,b ev5 m important ?an 8 discov]ies ( *emical prop]ties 9 g5]al 0 8 discov]y ( ! prop]ties ( c>bonic-acid gas4 ,black _h be5 educat$ = ! m$ical pr(ession 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,glasg[1 be+ a fri5d & pupil ( ! fam\s ,dr4 ,william ,cull54 ,b 8 lik+ 0 = ! *emical laboratory r ?an = ! practice ( m$ic9e4 ,)9 ?ree ye>s aft] complet+ 8 m$ical c\rse1 & :5 only tw5ty-?ree ye>s ( age1 he made ! discov]y ( ! prop]ties ( c>bonic acid1 :i* he call$ by ! "n ( fix$ air4 ,aft] discov]+ ?is gas1 ,black made a long s]ies ( exp]im5ts1 by :i* he 0 able to %[ h[ widely x 0 di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t nature4 ,?us1 9 #ageg1 he discov]$ t ! bubbles giv5 (f 9 ! process ( brew+1 :]e !re 0 vegetable f]m5tation1 7 compos$ ( x4 ,to prove ?is1 he collect$ ! cont5ts ( ^! bubbles 9 a bottle conta9+ lime-wat]4 ,:5 ?is bottle 0 %ak5 viol5tly1 s t ! lime-wat] & ! c>bonic acid became ?or\ghly mix$1 an insoluble :ite p[d] 0 precipitat$ f ! solution1 ! c>bonic acid hav+ comb9$ *emically ) ! lime to =m ! insoluble calcium c>bonate1 or *alk4 ,?is exp]im5t sugge/$ ano!r4 ,fix+ a piece ( burn+ *>coal 9 ! end ( a bell[s1 he arrang$ a tube s t ! gas com+ f ! *>coal w\ld pass ?r\gh ! lime-wat]1 &1 z 9 ! case ( ! bubbles f ! brew]'s vat1 he f\nd t ! :ite precipitate 0 ?r[n d[n2 9 %ort1 t c>bonic acid 0 giv5 (f 9 combu/ion4 ,%ortly aft]1 ,black discov]$ t by bl[+ ?r\gh a glass tube ins]t$ into lime-wat]1 *alk 0 precipitat$1 ?us prov+ t c>bonic acid 0 be+ con/antly ?r[n (f 9 respiration4 ,! effect ( ,black's discov]ies 0 revolution>y1 & ! attitude ( m9d ( ! *emi/s t[>ds gases1 or airs1 0 *ang$ f t "t =w>d4 ,mo/ ( ! *emi/s1 h[ev]1 attempt$ to h>monize ! new facts ) ! old] !ories--to expla9 all ! ph5om5a on ! basis ( ! phlogi/on !ory1 :i* 0 /ill dom9ant4 ,b :ile _m ( ,black's discov]ies c\ld n be made to h>monize ) t !ory1 !y did n directly ov]?r[ x4 ,x requir$ ! additional discov]ies ( "s ( ,black's fell[-sci5ti/s to complete its d[nfall1 z we %all see4 ,,h5ry ,,cav5di% ,?is "w ( ,black's 0 foll[$ by ! equally important "w ( 8 =m] pupil1 ,h5ry ,cav5di% 7#agca-ahaj71 ^: discov]y ( ! composition ( _m sub/ances1 notably ( nitric acid & ( wat]1 0 ( great importance1 add+ ano!r l9k to ! important *a9 ( evid5ce aga9/ ! phlogi/on !ory4 ,cav5di% is "o ( ! mo/ ecc5tric figures 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 be+ widely kn[n 9 8 own "t = 8 imm5se weal? & brilliant intellect1 & also = 8 peculi>ities & 8 morbid s5sibility1 :i* made him dread society1 & probably did mu* 9 det]m9+ 8 c>e]4 ,=tunately = him1 & incid5tally = ! cause ( sci5ce1 he 0 able to pursue laboratory inve/igations )\t be+ oblig$ to m+le ) 8 dread$ fell[-mortals1 8 e want be+ provid$ = by ! imm5se =tune inh]it$ f 8 fa!r & an uncle4 ,:5 a "y man1 z a pupil ( ,dr4 ,black1 he _h become imbu$ ) ! en?usiasm ( 8 tea*]1 cont9u+ ,black's inve/igations z to ! prop]ties ( c>bonic-acid gas :5 free & 9 comb9ation4 ,"o ( 8 fir/ inve/igations 0 report$ 9 #agff1 :5 he communicat$ to ! ,royal ,society 8 exp]im5ts = asc]ta9+ ! prop]ties ( c>bonic-acid & hydrog5 gas1 9 :i* he fir/ %[$ ! possibility ( weigh+ p]man5tly ela/ic fluids1 al?\gh ,torricelli _h be=e ?is %[n ! relative weights ( a column ( air & a column ( m]cury4 ,o!r important exp]im5ts 7 cont9u$ by ,cav5di%1 & 9 #aghd he ann\nc$ 8 discov]y ( ! composition ( wat]1 ?us robb+ x ( its "t-honor$ position z an elem5t4 ,b 8 claim to priority 9 ?is discov]y 0 at once disput$ by 8 fell[-c\ntryman ,james ,watt & by ! ,fr5*man ,lavoisi]4 ,lavoisi]'s claim 0 soon disall[$ ev5 by 8 own c\ntrym51 b = _m ye>s a bitt] controv]sy 0 c>ri$ on by ! p>tisans ( ,watt & ,cav5di%4 ,! two pr9cipals1 h[ev]1 seem nev] to h ent]$ into ?is controv]sy ) any?+ l ! same ardor z "s ( _! successors1 z !y rema9$ on ! be/ ( t]ms47#a7 ,x is c]ta91 at any rate1 t ,cav5di% ann\nc$ 8 discov]y (ficially be=e ,watt claim$ t ! ann\ncem5t _h be5 previ\sly made by him1 &1 :e!r "r or wrong1 ! honor ( sci5tific discov]ies seems to be accord$ naturally to ! man :o fir/ publi%es a demon/ration ( 8 discov]y4 ,engli%m5 v g5]ally admit ! ju/ness ( ,cav5di%'s claim1 al?\gh ! ,fr5* sci5ti/ ,arago1 aft] review+ ! evid5ce c>efully 9 #ahcc1 decid$ 9 favor ( ,watt4 ,x appe>s t some?+ l a ye> be=e ,cav5di% made kn[n 8 complete demon/ration ( ! composition ( wat]1 ,watt communicat$ to ! ,royal ,society a sugge/ion t wat] 0 compos$ ( dephlogi/icat$ air 7oxyg57 & phlogi/on 7hydrog57 depriv$ ( "p ( its lat5t heat4 ,cav5di% knew ( ! sugge/ion1 b 9 8 exp]im5ts refut$ ! idea t ! hydrog5 lo/ any ( its lat5t heat4 ,fur!rmore1 ,watt m]ely sugge/$ ! possible composition )\t prov+ x1 al?\gh 8 idea 0 practically correct1 if we c rightly int]pret ! vag>ies ( ! nom5clature !n 9 use4 ,b _h ,watt tak5 ! /eps to demon/rate 8 !ory1 ! great ,wat] ,controv]sy w\ld h be5 avoid$4 ,cav5di%'s report ( 8 discov]y to ! ,royal ,society cov]s some?+ l =ty pages ( pr9t$ matt]4 ,9 ?is he %[s h[1 by pass+ an electric sp>k ?r\gh a clos$ j> conta9+ a mixture ( hydrog5 gas & oxyg51 wat] is inv>iably =m$1 app>5tly by ! union ( ! two gases4 ,! exp]im5t 0 fir/ tri$ ) hydrog5 & common air1 ! oxyg5 ( ! air unit+ ) ! hydrog5 to =m wat]1 leav+ ! nitrog5 ( ! air /ill to be acc\nt$ =4 ,) pure oxyg5 & hydrog51 h[ev]1 ,cav5di% f\nd t pure wat] 0 =m$1 leav+ slight traces ( any o!r1 sub/ance :i* might n be int]pret$ z be+ ,*emical impurities4 ,!re 0 only "o possible explanation ( ?is ph5om5on--t hydrog5 & oxyg51 :5 comb9$1 =m wat]4 ,by exp]im5ts ) ! globe x appe>$1 wrote ,cav5di%1 t :5 inflammable & common air are explod$ 9 a prop] proportion1 almo/ all ! inflammable air1 & ne> "o-fif? ! common air1 lose _! ela/icity & are cond5s$ into dew4 ,& by ?is exp]im5t x appe>s t ?is dew is pla9 wat]1 & consequ5tly t almo/ all ! inflammable air is turn$ into pure wat]4 ,9 ord] to exam9e ! nature ( ! matt] cond5s$ on fir+ a mixture ( dephlogi/icat$ & inflammable air1 ,i took a glass globe1 hold+ #hhjj gra9 measures1 furni%$ ) a brass cock & an app>atus = fir+ by electricity4 ,?is globe 0 well exhau/$ by an air-pump1 & !n fill$ ) a mixture ( inflammable & dephlogi/icat$ air by %utt+ ! cock1 fa/5+ ! b5t glass tube into its m\?1 & lett+ up ! end ( x into a glass j> inv]t$ into wat] & conta9+ a mixture ( #ai1ejj gra9 measures ( dephlogi/icat$ air1 & #cg1jjj ( inflammable air2 s t1 ^u op5+ ! cock1 "s ( ?is mix$ air ru%$ ?r\gh ! b5t tube & fill$ ! globe4 ,! cock 0 !n %ut & ! includ$ air fir$ by electricity1 by means ( :i* almo/ all ( x lo/ its ela/icity 70 cond5s$ into wat] vapors74 ,! cock 0 !n aga9 op5$ s z to let 9 m ( ! same air to supply ! place ( t de/roy$ by ! explosion1 :i* 0 aga9 fir$1 & ! op]ation cont9u$ till almo/ ! :ole ( ! mixture 0 let into ! globe & explod$4 ,by ?is means1 ?\gh ! globe held n m ?an a six? "p ( ! mixture1 almo/ ! :ole ( x 0 explod$ !re9 )\t any fre% exhau/ion ( ! globe4 ,at fir/ ?is cond5s$ matt] 0 acid to ! ta/e & conta9$ two gra9s ( nitre1 b ,cav5di%1 suspect+ t ?is 0 due to impurities1 tri$ ano!r exp]im5t t prov$ conclusively t 8 op9ions 7 correct4 ,i !re=e made ano!r exp]im5t1 he says1 ) "s m ( ! same air f plants 9 :i* ! proportion ( inflammable air 0 great]1 s t ! burnt air 0 almo/ completely phlogi/icat$1 its /&>d be+ "o-t5?4 ,! cond5s$ liquor 0 !n n at all acid1 b seem$ pure wat]4 ,f ^! exp]im5ts he concludes t :5 a mixture ( inflammable & dephlogi/icat$ air is explod$1 9 su* proportions t ! burnt air is n mu* phlogi/icat$1 ! cond5s$ liquor conta9s a little acid :i* is always ( ! nitr\s k9d1 :atev] sub/ance ! dephlogi/icat$ air is procur$ f2 b if ! proportion be su* t ! burnt air is almo/ entirely phlogi/icat$1 ! cond5s$ liquor is n at all acid1 b seems pure wat]1 )\t any addition :atev]47#b7 ,^! same exp]im5ts1 :i* 7 und]tak5 to discov] ! composition ( wat]1 l$ him to discov] also ! composition ( nitric acid4 ,he _h obs]v$ t1 9 ! combu/ion ( hydrog5 gas ) common air1 ! wat] 0 slightly t+$ ) acid1 b t ?is 0 n ! case :5 pure oxyg5 gas 0 us$4 ,act+ ^u ?is obs]vation1 he devis$ an exp]im5t to det]m9e ! nature ( ?is acid4 ,he con/ruct$ an app>atus :]eby an electric sp>k 0 pass$ ?r\gh a vessel conta9+ common air4 ,aft] ?is process _h be5 c>ri$ on = sev]al weeks a small am\nt ( liquid 0 =m$4 ,?is liquid comb9$ ) a solution ( pota% to =m common nitre1 :i* detonat$ ) *>coal1 sp>kl$ :5 pap] impregnat$ ) x 0 burn$1 & gave out nitr\s fumes :5 sulphuric acid 0 p\r$ on x4 ,9 o!r words1 ! liquid 0 %[n to be nitric acid4 ,n[1 s9ce no?+ b pure air _h be5 us$ 9 ! initial exp]im5t1 & s9ce air is compos$ ( nitrog5 & oxyg51 !re seem$ no room to d\bt t nitric acid is a comb9ation ( nitrog5 & oxyg54 ,?is discov]y ( ! nature ( nitric acid seems to h be5 ab\t ! la/ "w ( importance t ,cav5di% did 9 ! field ( *emi/ry1 al?\gh almo/ to ! h\r ( 8 dea? he 0 con/antly occupi$ ) sci5tific obs]vations4 ,ev5 9 ! la/ mom5ts ( 8 life ?is habit ass]t$ itself1 accord+ to ,"l ,br\gham4 ,he di$ on ,m>* #aj1 #ahaj1 aft] a %ort illness1 probably ! fir/1 z well z ! la/1 :i* he ev] suff]$4 ,8 habit ( curi\s obs]vation cont9u$ to ! end4 ,he 0 desir\s ( m>k+ ! progress ( ! disease & ! gradual ext9ction ( ! vital p[]s4 ,) ^! ends 9 view1 t he might n be di/urb$1 he desir$ to be left alone4 ,8 s]vant1 return+ soon] ?an he _h wi%$1 0 ord]$ aga9 to leave ! *amb] ( dea?1 & :5 he came back a second "t he f\nd 8 ma/] _h expir$47#c7 ,,joseph ,,prie/ley ,:ile ! opul5t b diffid5t ,cav5di% 0 mak+ 8 important discov]ies1 ano!r ,engli%man1 a poor c\ntry prea*] nam$ ,joseph ,prie/ley 7#agcc-ahjd7 0 n only rivall+ him1 b1 if any?+1 out/ripp+ him 9 ! pursuit ( *emical discov]ies4 ,9 #agfa ?is "y m9i/] 0 giv5 a position z tutor 9 a noncon=mi/ academy at ,w>r+ton1 & "h1 = six ye>s1 he 0 able to pursue 8 /udies 9 *emi/ry & electricity4 ,9 #agff1 :ile on a visit to ,london1 he met ,b5jam9 ,frankl91 at ^: sugge/ion he publi%$ 8 ,hi/ory ( ,electricity4 ,f ?is "t on he made /eady progress 9 sci5tific inve/igations1 keep+ up 8 ecclesia/ical duties at ! same "t4 ,9 #aghj he remov$ to ,birm+ham1 hav+ !re = associates su* sci5ti/s z ,james ,watt1 ,b\lton1 & ,erasmus ,d>w94 ,elev5 ye>s lat]1 on ! anniv]s>y ( ! fall ( ! ,ba/ile 9 ,p>is1 a fanatical mob1 kn[+ ,prie/ley's sympa?ies ) ! ,fr5* revolutioni/s1 attack$ 8 h\se & *apel1 burn+ bo? & de/roy+ a great numb] ( valuable pap]s & sci5tific in/rum5ts4 ,prie/ley & 8 family escap$ viol5ce by flight1 b 8 mo/ *]i%$ possessions 7 de/roy$2 & ?ree ye>s lat] he quitt$ ,engl& =ev]1 remov+ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ^: /ruggle = lib]ty he _h *ampion$4 ,! la/ t5 ye>s ( 8 life 7 sp5t at ,nor?umb]l&1 ,p5nsylvania1 :]e he cont9u$ 8 sci5tific rese>*es4 ,e>ly 9 8 sci5tific c>e] ,prie/ley began inve/igations ^u ! fix$ air ( ,dr4 ,black1 &1 oddly en\gh1 he 0 /imulat$ to ?is by ! same ?+ t _h influ5c$ ,black--t is1 8 resid5ce 9 ! imm$iate neighborhood ( a brew]y4 ,x 0 dur+ ! c\rse ( a s]ies ( exp]im5ts on ?is & o!r gases t he made 8 greate/ discov]y1 t ( oxyg51 or dephlogi/icat$ air1 z he call$ x4 ,! /ory ( ?is important discov]y is probably be/ told 9 ,prie/ley's own words3 ,!re are1 ,i believe1 v few maxims 9 philosophy t h laid firm] hold ^u ! m9d ?an t air1 mean+ atmosph]ic air1 is a simple elem5t>y sub/ance1 inde/ructible & unalt]able1 at lea/ z mu* s z wat] is suppos$ to be4 ,9 ! c\rse ( my inquiries ,i 01 h[ev]1 soon satisfi$ t atmosph]ic air is n an unalt]able ?+2 = t1 accord+ to my fir/ hypo!sis1 ! phlogi/on ) :i* x becomes load$ f bodies burn+ 9 x1 & ! animals brea?+ x1 & v>i\s o!r *emical processes1 s f> alt]s & depraves x z to r5d] x altoge!r unfit = inflammation1 respiration1 & o!r purposes to :i* x is subs]vi5t2 & ,i _h discov]$ t agitation 9 ! wat]1 ! process ( vegetation1 & probably o!r natural processes1 re/ore x to its orig9al purity4444 ,hav+ procur$ a l5s ( twelve in*es diamet] & tw5ty in*es local di/ance1 ,i proce$$ ) ! greate/ alacrity1 by ! help ( x1 to discov] :at k9d ( air a great v>iety ( sub/ances w\ld yield1 putt+ !m into ! vessel1 :i* ,i fill$ ) quicksilv]1 & kept inv]t$ 9 a bas9 ( ! same 4444 ,) ?is app>atus1 aft] a v>iety ( exp]im5ts4444 on ! #a/ ( ,augu/1 #aggd1 ,i endeavor$ to extract air f m]curius calc9atus p] se2 & ,i pres5tly f\nd t1 by means ( ?is l5s1 air 0 expell$ f x v readily4 ,hav+ got ab\t ?ree or f\r times z mu* z ! bulk ( my mat]ials1 ,i admitt$ wat] to x1 & f\nd t x 0 n imbib$ by x4 ,b :at surpris$ me m ?an ,i c express 0 t a c&le burn$ 9 ?is air ) a rem>kably vigor\s flame1 v mu* l t enl>g$ flame ) :i* a c&le burns 9 nitr\s oxide1 expos$ to iron or liv] ( sulphur2 b z ,i _h got no?+ l ?is rem>kable appe>ance f any k9d ( air besides ?is p>ticul> modification ( vitr\s air1 & ,i knew no vitr\s acid 0 us$ 9 ! prep>ation ( m]curius calc9atus1 ,i 0 utt]ly at a loss to acc\nt = x47#d7 ,! new air 01 ( c\rse1 oxyg54 ,prie/ley at once proce$$ to exam9e x by a long s]ies ( c>eful exp]im5ts1 9 :i*1 z w be se51 he discov]$ mo/ ( ! rem>kable qualities ( ?is gas4 ,cont9u+ 8 description ( ^! exp]im5ts1 he says3 ,! flame ( ! c&le1 besides be+ l>g]1 burn$ ) m spl5dor & heat ?an 9 t species ( nitr\s air2 & a piece ( r$-hot wood sp>kl$ 9 x1 exactly l pap] dipp$ 9 a solution ( nitre1 & x consum$ v fa/2 an exp]im5t t ,i _h nev] ?\ght ( try+ ) dephlogi/icat$ nitr\s air4 444 ,i _h s little suspicion ( ! air f ! m]curius calc9atus1 etc41 be+ :olesome1 t ,i _h n ev5 ?\ght ( apply+ x to ! te/ ( nitr\s air2 b ?9k+ 7z my read] mu/ imag9e ,i frequ5tly mu/ h done7 on ! c&le burn+ 9 x aft] long agitation 9 wat]1 x occurr$ to me at la/ to make ! exp]im5t2 &1 putt+ "o measure ( nitr\s air to two measures ( ?is air1 ,i f\nd n only t x 0 dim9i%$1 b t x 0 dim9i%$ q z mu* z common air1 & t ! r$ness ( ! mixture 0 likewise equal to a simil> mixture ( nitr\s & common air4444 ,! next day ,i 0 m surpris$ ?an ev] ,i _h be5 be=e ) f9d+ t1 aft] ! above-m5tion$ mixture ( nitr\s air & ! air f m]curius calc9atus _h /ood all night1444 a c&le burn$ 9 x1 ev5 bett] ?an 9 common air4 ,a little lat] ,prie/ley discov]$ t dephlogi/icat$ air444 is a pr9cipal elem5t 9 ! composition ( acids1 & may be extract$ by means ( heat f _m sub/ances :i* conta9 !m4444 ,x is likewise produc$ by ! action ( light ^u gre5 vegetables2 & ?is seems to be ! *ief means employ$ to pres]ve ! purity ( ! atmosph]e4 ,?is recognition ( ! important "p play$ by oxyg5 9 ! atmosph]e l$ ,prie/ley to make "s exp]im5ts ^u mice & insects1 & f9ally ^u himself1 by inhalations ( ! pure gas4 ,! feel+ 9 my lungs1 he said1 0 n s5sibly diff]5t f t ( common air1 b ,i fanci$ t my brea?+ felt peculi>ly light & easy = "s "t aft]w>ds4 ,:o c tell b t 9 "t ?is pure air may become a fa%ionable article 9 luxury8444 ,p]haps we may f ^! exp]im5ts see t ?\gh pure dephlogi/icat$ air might be useful z a m$ic9e1 x might n be s prop] = u 9 ! usual heal?y /ate ( ! body4 ,?is sugge/ion z to ! possible usefulness ( oxyg5 z a m$ic9e 0 prophetic4 ,a c5tury lat] ! use ( oxyg5 _h become a matt] ( r\t9e practice ) _m physicians4 ,ev5 9 ,prie/ley's own "t su* m5 z ,dr4 ,john ,hunt] express$ _! belief 9 its efficacy 9 c]ta9 conditions1 z we %all see1 b its value 9 m$ic9e 0 n fully appreciat$ until sev]al g5]ations lat]4 ,sev]al ye>s aft] discov]+ oxyg5 ,prie/ley ?us summ>iz$ its prop]ties3 ,x is ?is +r$i5t 9 ! atmosph]ic air t enables x to support combu/ion & animal life4 ,by means ( x mo/ int5se heat may be produc$1 & 9 ! pure/ ( x animals w live ne>ly five times z long z 9 an equal quantity ( atmosph]ic air4 ,9 respiration1 "p ( ?is air1 pass+ ! membranes ( ! lungs1 unites ) ! blood & imp>ts to x its florid color1 :ile ! rema9d]1 unit+ ) phlogi/on exhal$ f v5\s blood1 =ms mix$ air4 ,x is dephlogi/icat$ air comb9$ ) wat] t enables fi%es to live 9 x47#e7 ,,k>l ,,wilhelm ,,s*eele ,! discov]y ( oxyg5 0 ! la/ b mo/ important bl[ to ! tott]+ phlogi/on !ory1 ?\gh ,prie/ley himself w\ld n admit x4 ,b be=e consid]+ ! f9al /eps 9 ! ov]?r[ ( ,/ahl's fam\s !ory & ! e/abli%m5t ( mod]n *emi/ry1 we mu/ review ! "w ( ano!r great *emi/1 ,k>l ,wilhelm ,s*eele 7#agdb-aghf71 ( ,sw$51 :o discov]$ oxyg5 q indep5d5tly1 al?\gh lat] ?an ,prie/ley4 ,9 ! matt] ( brilliant discov]ies 9 a brief space ( "t ,s*eele probably eclips$ all 8 great contempor>ies4 ,he _h a v]itable g5ius = int]pret+ *emical reactions & discov]+ new sub/ances1 9 ?is respect rivall+ ,prie/ley himself4 ,unlike ,prie/ley1 h[ev]1 he plann$ all 8 exp]im5ts along ! l9es ( def9ite !ories f ! beg9n+1 ! results obta9$ be+ ! logical outcome ( a pr$et]m9$ plan4 ,s*eele 0 ! son ( a m]*ant ( ,/ralsund1 ,pom]ania1 :i* !n belong$ to ,sw$54 ,z a boy 9 s*ool he %[$ s little aptitude = ! /udy ( languages t he 0 appr5tic$ to an apo!c>y at ! age ( f\rte54 ,9 ?is "w he became at once greatly int]e/$1 &1 :5 n att5d+ to 8 duties 9 ! disp5s>y1 he 0 busy day & night mak+ exp]im5ts or /udy+ books on *emi/ry4 ,9 #agge1 /ill employ$ z an apo!c>y1 he mov$ to ,/ockholm1 & soon aft] he s5t to ,b]gman1 ! lead+ *emi/ ( ,sw$51 8 fir/ discov]y--t ( t>t>ic acid1 :i* he _h isolat$ f cream ( t>t>4 ,?is 0 ! beg9n+ ( 8 c>e] ( discov]y1 & f t "t on until 8 dea? he s5t =? acc\nts ( new discov]ies almo/ un9t]rupt$ly4 ,mean:ile he 0 p]=m+ ! duties ( an ord9>y apo!c>y1 & /ruggl+ aga9/ pov]ty4 ,8 treatise ^u ,air & ,fire appe>$ 9 #aggg4 ,9 ?is rem>kable book he tells ( 8 discov]y ( oxyg5--empyreal or fire-air1 z he calls x--:i* he seems to h made indep5d5tly & )\t ev] hav+ he>d ( ! previ\s discov]y by ,prie/ley4 ,9 ?is book1 also1 he %[s t air is compos$ *iefly ( oxyg5 & nitrog5 gas4 ,e>ly 9 8 exp]im5tal c>e] ,s*eele und]took ! solution ( ! composition ( black oxide ( manganese1 a sub/ance t _h long puzzl$ ! *emi/s4 ,he n only succe$$ 9 ?is1 b incid5tally 9 ! c\rse ( ?is s]ies ( exp]im5ts he discov]$ oxyg51 b>yta1 & *lor9e1 ! la/ ( f> great] importance1 at lea/ comm]cially1 ?an ! real object ( 8 se>*4 ,9 speak+ ( ! exp]im5t 9 :i* ! discov]y 0 made he says3 ,:5 m>9e 7hydro*loric7 acid /ood ov] manganese 9 ! cold x acquir$ a d>k r$di%-br[n color4 ,z manganese does n give any colorless solution )\t unit+ ) phlogi/on 7probably mean+ hydrog571 x foll[s t m>9e acid c dissolve x )\t ?is pr9ciple4 ,b su* a solution has a blue or r$ color4 ,! color is "h m br[n ?an r$1 ! reason be+ t ! v f9e/ portions ( ! manganese1 :i* d n s9k s easily1 swim 9 ! r$ solution2 = )\t ^! f9e p>ticles ! solution is r$1 & r$ mix$ ) black is br[n4 ,! manganese has "h atta*$ itself s loosely to acidum salis t ! wat] c precipitate x1 & ?is precipitate behaves l ord9>y manganese4 ,:51 n[1 ! mixture ( manganese & spiritus salis 0 set to dige/1 !re arose an eff]vesc5ce & smell ( aqua regis47#f7 ,! eff]vesc5ce he ref]s to 0 *lor9e1 :i* he proce$$ to conf9e 9 a suitable vessel & exam9e m fully4 ,he describ$ x z hav+ a q *>act]i/ically suffocat+ smell1 :i* 0 v (f5sive4 ,he v soon not$ ! decoloriz+ or blea*+ effects ( ?is n[ product1 f9d+ t x decoloriz$ fl[]s1 vegetables1 & _m o!r sub/ances4 ,comm]cially ?is discov]y ( *lor9e 0 ( enorm\s importance & ! practical application ( ?is new *emical 9 blea*+ clo? soon supplant$ ! old process ( cr(t+--t is1 blea*+ by spread+ ! clo? ^u ! grass4 ,b al?\gh ,s*eele fir/ po9t$ out ! blea*+ quality ( 8 newly discov]$ gas1 x 0 ! ,fr5* savant1 ,b]?ollet1 :o1 act+ ^u ,s*eele's discov]y t ! new gas w\ld decolorize vegetables & fl[]s1 0 l$ to suspect t ?is prop]ty might be turn$ to acc\nt 9 de/roy+ ! color ( clo?4 ,9 #aghe he read a pap] be=e ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces ( ,p>is1 9 :i* he %[$ t blea*+ by *lor9e 0 entirely satisfactory1 ! color b n ! sub/ance ( ! clo? be+ affect$4 ,he _h exp]im5t$ previ\sly & f\nd t ! *lor9e gas 0 soluble 9 wat] & c\ld ?us be made practically available = blea*+ purposes4 ,9 #aghf ,james ,watt exam9$ specim5s ( ! blea*$ clo? made by ,b]?ollet1 & ^u 8 return to ,engl& fir/ in/itut$ ! process ( practical blea*+4 ,8 process1 h[ev]1 0 n entirely satisfactory1 &1 aft] und]go+ v>i\s modifications & improvem5ts1 x 0 f9ally made ?or\ghly practicable by ,mr4 ,t5nant1 :o hit ^u a comp\nd ( *lor9e & lime--! *loride ( lime--:i* 0 a comp>atively *eap *emical product1 & answ]$ ! purpose bett] ev5 ?an *lor9e itself4 ,to appreciate h[ mom5t\s ?is discov]y 0 to clo? manufactur]s1 x %\ld be rememb]$ t ! old process ( blea*+ consum$ an entire summ] = ! :it5+ ( a s+le piece ( l952 ! new process r$uc$ ! p]iod to a few h\rs4 ,to be sure1 lime _h be5 us$ ) fair success previ\s to ,t5nant's discov]y1 b successful & practical blea*+ by a solution ( *loride ( lime 0 fir/ made possible by him & ?r\gh ,s*eele's discov]y ( *lor9e4 ,until ! "t ( ,s*eele ! great subject ( organic *emi/ry _h rema9$ practically unexplor$1 b "u ! t\* ( 8 m>vell\s inv5tive g5ius new me?ods ( isolat+ & /udy+ animal & vegetable products 7 introduc$1 & a l>ge numb] ( acids & o!r organic comp\nds prep>$ t _h be5 hi!rto unkn[n4 ,8 explanations ( *emical ph5om5a 7 bas$ on ! phlogi/on !ory1 9 :i*1 l ,prie/ley1 he always1 believ$4 ,al?\gh 9 error 9 ?is respect1 he 01 nev]!less1 able to make 8 discov]ies ) extremely accurate int]pretations4 ,a brief epitome ( ! li/ ( "s ( 8 m important discov]ies conveys "s idea1 ( 8 f]tility ( m9d z well z 8 indu/ry4 ,9 #aghj he discov]$ lactic acid17#g7 & %[$ t x 0 ! sub/ance t caus$ ! acidity ( s\r milk2 & 9 ! same ye> he discov]$ mucic acid4 ,next foll[$ ! discov]y ( tung/ic acid1 & 9 #aghc he add$ to 8 li/ ( useful discov]ies t ( glyc]9e4 ,!n 9 rapid succession came 8 ann\ncem5ts ( ! new vegetable products citric1 malic1 oxalic1 & gallic acids4 ,s*eele n only made ! discov]ies1 b told ! _w h[ he _h made !m--h[ any *emi/ might h made !m if he *ose--= he nev] consid]$ t he _h really discov]$ any sub/ance until he _h made x1 decompos$ x1 & made x aga94 ,8 exp]im5ts on ,prussian blue are mo/ int]e/+1 n only because ( ! enorm\s am\nt ( "w involv$ & ! skill he display$ 9 8 exp]im5ts1 b because all ! "t ! *emi/ 0 h&l+1 smell+1 & ev5 ta/+ a comp\nd ( "o ( ! mo/ deadly poisons1 ignorant ( ! fact t ! sub/ance 0 a dang]\s "o to h&le4 ,8 escape f injury seems almo/ miracul\s2 = 8 exp]im5ts1 :i* 7 mo/ elaborate1 ext5d$ ov] a consid]able p]iod ( "t1 dur+ :i* he seems to h h&l$ ?is *emical ) impunity4 ,:ile only =ty ye>s ( age & j at ! z5i? ( 8 fame1 ,s*eele 0 /rick5 by a fatal illness1 probably induc$ by 8 ceaseless labor & exposure4 ,x is gratify+ to "k1 h[ev]1 t dur+ ! la/ eight or n9e ye>s ( 8 life he _h be5 less b\nd d[n by pecuni>y difficulties ?an be=e1 z ,b]gman _h obta9$ = him an annual grant f ! ,academy4 ,b x 0 *>act]i/ic ( ! man t1 :ile devot+ "o-six? ( ! am\nt ( ?is grant to 8 p]sonal wants1 ! rema9+ five-six?s 0 devot$ to ! exp5se ( 8 exp]im5ts4 ,,lavoisi] ,,& ,,! ,,f\ndation ,,( ,,mod]n ,,*emi/ry ,! "t 0 ripe = =mulat+ ! correct !ory ( *emical composition3 x ne$$ b ! ma/] h& to m\ld ! mat]ials into ! prop] %ape4 ,! discov]ies 9 *emi/ry dur+ ! eighte5? c5tury _h be5 f>-rea*+ & revolution>y 9 "*4 ,a brief review ( ^! discov]ies %[s h[ completely !y _h subv]t$ ! old ideas ( *emical elem5ts & *emical comp\nds4 ,( ! f\r sub/ances e>?1 air1 fire1 & wat]1 = _m c5turies believ$ to be elem5t>y bodies1 n "o has /ood ! te/ ( ! eighte5?-c5tury *emi/s4 ,e>? _h long s9ce ceas$ to be reg>d$ z an elem5t1 & wat] & air _h suff]$ ! same fate 9 ?is c5tury4 ,& n[ at la/ fire itself1 ! la/ ( ! f\r elem5ts & ! key/one to ! phlogi/on ar*1 0 %[n to be no?+ m ?an "o ( ! manife/ations ( ! new elem5t1 oxyg51 & n phlogi/on or any o!r intangible sub/ance4 ,9 ?is epo* ( *emical discov]ies ,engl& _h produc$ su* m5tal giants & pione]s 9 sci5ce z ,black1 ,prie/ley1 & ,cav5di%2 ,sw$5 _h giv5 ! _w ,s*eele & ,b]gman1 ^: "w1 add$ to t ( _! ,engli% confr]es1 _h laid ! broad base ( *emi/ry z a sci5ce2 b x 0 = ,france to produce a man :o gave ! f9al t\*es to ! broad b r\gh workman%ip ( its f\ndation1 & e/abli% x z ! sci5ce ( mod]n *emi/ry4 ,x 0 = ,anto9e ,laur5t ,lavoisi] 7#agdc-agid7 to ga!r toge!r1 int]pret correctly1 r5ame1 & classify ! weal? ( facts t 8 imm$iate pr$ecessors & contempor>ies _h giv5 to ! _w4 ,! attitude ( ! "m-c\ntries t[>ds ^! illu/ri\s sons is an int]e/+ piece ( hi/ory4 ,sw$5 honor$ & rew>d$ ,s*eele & ,b]gman = _! ef=ts2 ,engl& receiv$ ! intellectuality ( ,cav5di% ) less appreciation ?an ! ,cont95t1 & a fanatical mob drove ,prie/ley out ( ! c\ntry2 :ile ,france1 by s5d+ ,lavoisi] to ! guillot9e1 demon/rat$ h[ dang]\s x 01 at t "t at lea/1 = an intellig5t ,fr5*man to s]ve 8 fell[man & 8 c\ntry well4 ,! revolution br\ght ab\t by ,lavoisi] 9 sci5ce1 says ,hoef]1 co9cides by a s+ul> act ( de/9y ) ano!r revolution1 mu* great] inde$1 go+ on !n 9 ! political & social _w4 ,bo? happ5$ on ! same soil1 at ! same epo*1 among ! same p2 & bo? m>k$ ! comm5cem5t ( a new era 9 _! respective sph]es47#h7 ,lavoisi] 0 born 9 ,p>is1 & be+ ! son ( an opul5t family1 0 educat$ "u ! in/ruction ( ! be/ tea*]s ( ! day4 ,) ,lacaille he /udi$ ma!matics & a/ronomy2 ) ,jussieu1 botany2 &1 f9ally1 *emi/ry "u ,r\elle4 ,8 fir/ "w ( importance 0 a pap] on ! practical illum9ation ( ! /reets ( ,p>is1 = :i* a prize _h be5 (f]$ by ,m4 de ,s>t9e1 ! *ief ( police4 ,?is prize 0 n aw>d$ to ,lavoisi]1 b 8 sugge/ions 7 ( su* importance t ! k+ direct$ t a gold m$al be be/[$ ^u ! "y au?or at ! public sitt+ ( ! ,academy 9 ,april1 #aggf4 ,two ye>s lat]1 at ! age ( ?irty-five1 ,lavoisi] 0 admitt$ a memb] ( ! ,academy4 ,9 ?is same ye> he began to devote himself almo/ exclusively to *emical inquiries1 & e/abli%$ a laboratory 9 8 home1 fitt$ ) all mann] ( co/ly app>atus & *emicals4 ,"h he 0 9 con/ant communication ) ! great m5 ( sci5ce ( ,p>is1 to all ( :om 8 doors 7 ?r[n op54 ,"o ( 8 fir/ und]tak+s 9 ?is laboratory 0 to demon/rate t wat] c\ld n be conv]t$ into e>? by repeat$ di/illations1 z 0 g5]ally advocat$2 & to %[ also t !re 0 no f\ndation to ! exi/+ belief t x 0 possible to conv]t wat] into a gas s ela/ic z to pass ?r\gh ! pores ( a vessel4 ,he demon/rat$ ! fallaci\sness ( bo? ^! !ories 9 #agfh-agfi by elaborate exp]im5ts1 a s+le inve/igation ( ?is s]ies occupy+ "o hundr$ & "o days4 ,9 #agga he gave ! fir/ bl[ to ! phlogi/on !ory by 8 exp]im5ts on ! calc9ation ( metals4 ,x w be recall$ t "o basis = ! belief 9 phlogi/on 0 ! fact t :5 a metal 0 calc9$ x 0 conv]t$ into an a%1 giv+ up its phlogi/on 9 ! process4 ,to re/ore ! metal1 x 0 necess>y to add "s sub/ance su* z :eat or *>coal to ! a%4 ,lavoisi]1 9 exam9+ ?is process ( re/oration1 f\nd t !re 0 always evolv$ a great quantity ( air1 :i* he suppos$ to be fix$ air or c>bonic acid--! same t escapes 9 eff]vesc5ce ( alkalies & calc>e\s e>?s1 & 9 ! f]m5tation ( liquors4 ,he !n exam9$ ! process ( calc9ation1 :]eby ! phlogi/on ( ! metal 0 suppos$ to h be5 drawn (f4 ,b f> f f9d+ t phlogi/on or any o!r sub/ance _h be5 driv5 (f1 he f\nd t some?+ _h be5 tak5 on3 t ! metal absorb$ air1 & t ! increas$ weight ( ! metal correspond$ to ! am\nt ( air absorb$4 ,mean:ile he 0 )9 grasp ( two great discov]ies1 t ( oxyg5 & ( ! composition ( ! air1 :i* ,prie/ley made "s two ye>s lat]4 ,! next important inquiry ( ?is great ,fr5*man 0 z to ! composition ( diamonds4 ,) ! great l5s ( ,ts*irnhaus5 belong+ to ! ,academy he succe$$ 9 burn+ up sev]al diamonds1 reg>dless ( exp5se1 :i*1 ?anks to 8 inh]itance1 he c\ld ignore4 ,9 ?is process he f\nd t a gas 0 giv5 (f :i* precipitat$ lime f wat]1 & prov$ to be c>bonic acid4 ,obs]v+ ?is1 & exp]im5t+ ) o!r sub/ances kn[n to give (f c>bonic acid 9 ! same mann]1 he 0 evid5tly impress$ ) ! n[ well-kn[n fact t diamond & *>coal are *emically ! same4 ,b if he did really believe x1 he 0 cauti\s 9 express+ 8 belief fully4 ,we %\ld nev] h expect$1 he says1 to f9d any relation betwe5 *>coal & diamond1 & x w\ld be unreasonable to pu% ?is analogy too f>2 x only exi/s because bo? sub/ances seem to be prop]ly rang$ 9 ! class ( combu/ible bodies1 & because !y are ( all ^! bodies ! mo/ fix$ :5 kept f contact ) air4 ,z we h se51 ,prie/ley1 9 #aggd1 _h discov]$ oxyg51 or dephlogi/icat$ air4 ,f\r ye>s lat] ,lavoisi] fir/ advanc$ 8 !ory t ?is elem5t discov]$ by ,prie/ley 0 ! univ]sal acidify+ or oxyg5at+ pr9ciple1 :i*1 :5 comb9$ ) *>coal or c>bon1 =m$ c>bonic acid2 :5 comb9$ ) sulphur1 =m$ sulphuric 7or vitriolic7 acid2 ) nitrog51 =m$ nitric acid1 etc41 & :5 comb9$ ) ! metals =m$ oxides1 or calcides4 ,fur!rmore1 he po/ulat$ ! !ory t combu/ion 0 n due to any su* illusive ?+ z phlogi/on1 s9ce ?is did n exi/1 & x seem$ to him t ! ph5om5a ( combu/ion h]et(ore attribut$ to phlogi/on c\ld be expla9$ by ! action ( ! new elem5t oxyg5 & heat4 ,?is 0 ! f9al bl[ to ! phlogi/on !ory1 :i*1 al?\gh x _h be5 tott]+ = "s "t1 _h n be5 completely ov]?r[n4 ,9 #aghg ,lavoisi]1 9 conjunction ) ,guyon de ,morveau1 ,b]?ollet1 & ,f\rcroy1 introduc$ ! re=m 9 *emical nom5clature :i* until !n _h rema9$ practically un*ang$ s9ce al*emical days4 ,su* expressions z dephlogi/icat$ & phlogi/icat$ w\ld obvi\sly h little mean+ to a g5]ation :o 7 no long] to believe 9 ! exi/5ce ( phlogi/on4 ,x 0 appropriate t a revolution 9 *emical ?\ght %\ld be accompani$ by a correspond+ revolution 9 *emical names1 & to ,lavoisi] belongs *iefly ! cr$it ( br++ ab\t ?is revolution4 ,9 8 ,elem5ts ( ,*emi/ry he made use ( ?is new nom5clature1 & x seem$ s cle>ly an improvem5t ov] ! old t ! sci5tific _w ha/5$ to adopt x4 ,9 ?is connection ,lavoisi] says3 ,we h1 !re=e1 laid aside ! expression metallic calx altoge!r1 & h sub/itut$ 9 its place ! ^w oxide4 ,by ?is x may be se5 t ! language we h adopt$ is bo? copi\s & expressive4 ,! fir/ or l[e/ degree ( oxyg5ation 9 bodies conv]ts !m into oxides2 a second degree ( additional oxyg5ation con/itutes ! class ( acids ( :i* ! specific names drawn f _! p>ticul> bases t]m9ate 9 ous1 z 9 ! nitr\s & ! sulphur\s acids4 ,! ?ird degree ( oxyg5ation *anges ^! into ! species ( acids di/+ui%$ by ! t]m9ation 9 ic1 z ! nitric & sulphuric acids2 &1 la/ly1 we c express a f\r? or high] degree ( oxyg5ation by add+ ! ^w oxyg5at$ to ! "n ( ! acid1 z has already be5 done ) oxyg5at$ muriatic acid47#i7 ,?is new "w :5 giv5 to ! _w 0 n m]ely an epo*-mak+ book2 x 0 revolution>y4 ,x n only disc>d$ phlogi/on altoge!r1 b set =? t metals are simple elem5ts1 n comp\nds ( e>? & phlogi/on4 ,x upheld ,cav5di%'s demon/ration t wat] itself1 l air1 is a comp\nd ( oxyg5 ) ano!r elem5t4 ,9 %ort1 x 0 sci5tific *emi/ry1 9 ! mod]n acceptance ( ! t]m4 ,lavoisi]'s obs]vations on combu/ion are at once important & int]e/+3 ,combu/ion1 he says1 444 is ! decomposition ( oxyg5 produc$ by a combu/ible body4 ,! oxyg5 :i* =ms ! base ( ?is gas is absorb$ by & ent]s into comb9ation ) ! burn+ body1 :ile ! caloric & light are set free4 ,e combu/ion necess>ily supposes oxyg5ation2 :]eas1 on ! contr>y1 e oxyg5ation does n necess>ily imply concomitant combu/ion2 because combu/ion prop]ly s call$ _c take place )\t dis5gagem5t ( caloric & light4 ,be=e combu/ion c take place1 x is necess>y t ! base ( oxyg5 gas %\ld h great] aff9ity to ! combu/ible body ?an x has to caloric2 & ?is elective attraction1 to use ,b]gman's expression1 c only take place at a c]ta9 degree ( temp]ature :i* is diff]5t = ea* combu/ible sub/ance2 h5ce ! necessity ( giv+ ! fir/ motion or beg9n+ to e combu/ion by ! approa* ( a heat$ body4 ,?is necessity ( heat+ any body we mean to burn dep5ds ^u c]ta9 consid]ations :i* h n hi!rto be5 att5d$ to by any natural philosoph]1 = :i* reason ,i %all enl>ge a little ^u ! subject 9 ?is place3 ,nature is at pres5t 9 a /ate ( equilibrium1 :i* _c h be5 atta9$ until all ! spontane\s combu/ions or oxyg5ations possible 9 an ord9>y degree ( temp]ature _h tak5 place4444 ,to illu/rate ?is ab/ract view ( ! matt] by example3 ,let u suppose ! usual temp]ature ( ! e>? a little *ang$1 & x is rais$ only to ! degree ( boil+ wat]2 x is evid5t t 9 ?is case phosphorus1 :i* is combu/ible 9 a consid]ably l[] degree ( temp]ature1 w\ld no long] exi/ 9 nature 9 its pure & simple /ate1 b w\ld always be procur$ 9 its acid or oxyg5at$ /ate1 & its radical w\ld become "o ( ! sub/ances unkn[n to *emi/ry4 ,by gradually increas+ ! temp]ature ( ! e>?1 ! same circum/ance w\ld successively happ5 to all ! bodies capable ( combu/ion2 &1 at ! la/1 e possible combu/ion hav+ tak5 place1 !re w\ld no long] exi/ any combu/ible body :atev]1 & e sub/ance susceptible ( ! op]ation w\ld be oxyg5at$ & consequ5tly incombu/ible4 ,!re _c1 !re=e1 exi/1 z f> z relates to u1 any combu/ible body b su* z are non-combu/ible at ! ord9>y temp]ature ( ! e>?1 or1 :at is ! same ?+ 9 o!r words1 t x is ess5tial to ! nature ( e combu/ible body n to possess ! prop]ty ( combu/ion unless heat$1 or rais$ to a degree ( temp]ature at :i* its combu/ion naturally takes place4 ,:5 ?is degree is once produc$1 combu/ion comm5ces1 & ! caloric :i* is dis5gag$ by ! decomposition ( ! oxyg5 gas keeps up ! temp]ature :i* is necess>y = cont9u+ combu/ion4 ,:5 ?is is n ! case--t is1 :5 ! dis5gag$ caloric is n suffici5t = keep+ up ! necess>y temp]ature--! combu/ion ceases4 ,?is circum/ance is express$ 9 ! common language by say+ t a body burns ill or ) difficulty47#aj7 ,x ne$$ ! g5ius ( su* a man z ,lavoisi] to complete ! refutation ( ! false b firmly gr\nd$ phlogi/on !ory1 & aga9/ su* a book z 8 ,elem5ts ( ,*emi/ry ! feeble weapons ( ! support]s ( ! phlogi/on !ory 7 hurl$ 9 va94 ,b :ile *emi/s1 z a class1 _h become conv]ts to ! new *emi/ry be=e ! end ( ! c5tury1 "o man1 ,dr4 ,prie/ley1 ^: "w _h done s mu* to f\nd x1 rema9$ unconv]t$4 ,9 ?is1 z 9 all 8 life-"w1 he %[$ himself to be a mo/ rem>kable man4 ,davy said ( him1 a g5]ation lat]1 t no o!r p]son ev] discov]$ s _m new & curi\s sub/ances z he2 yet to ! la/ he 0 only an amateur 9 sci5ce1 8 pr(ession1 z we "k1 be+ ! m9i/ry4 ,!re is h>dly ano!r case 9 hi/ory ( a man n a speciali/ 9 sci5ce accompli%+ s mu* 9 orig9al rese>* z did ?is *emi/1 physiologi/1 electrician2 ! ma!matician1 logician1 & morali/2 ! !ologian1 m5tal philosoph]1 & political economi/4 ,he took all k = 8 field2 b h[ he f\nd "t = 8 numb]less rese>*es & multif>i\s writ+s1 along ) 8 e-day duties1 mu/ ev] rema9 a my/]y to ord9>y mortals4 ,t ?is m>vell\sly receptive1 flexible m9d %\ld h refus$ acceptance to ! cle>ly logical doctr9es ( ! new *emi/ry seems equally inexplicable4 ,b s x 04 ,to ! v la/1 aft] all 8 fri5ds _h capitulat$1 ,prie/ley kept up ! fight4 ,f ,am]ica he s5t out 8 la/ defy to ! enemy1 9 #ahjj1 9 a bro*ure entitl$ ,! ,doctr9e ( ,phlogi/on ,upheld1 etc4 ,9 ! m9d ( its au?or x 0 little less ?an a paean ( victory2 b all ! _w beside knew t x 0 ! swan-song ( ! doctr9e ( phlogi/on4 ,despite ! defiance ( ?is s+le w>rior ! battle 0 really lo/ & won1 & z ! c5tury clos$ antiphlogi/ic *emi/ry _h practical possession ( ! field4 ,,iii4 ,,*emi/ry ,,s9ce ,,! ,,"t ,,( ,,dalton ,,john ,,dalton ,,& ,,! ,,atomic ,,!ory ,small beg9n+s z h great end+s--sometimes4 ,z a case 9 po9t1 note :at came ( ! small1 orig9al ef=t ( a self-tra9$ back-c\ntry ,quak] y\? nam$ ,john ,dalton1 :o along t[>ds ! close ( ! eighte5? c5tury became int]e/$ 9 ! wea!r1 & 0 l$ to con/ruct & use a crude wat]-gauge to te/ ! am\nt ( ! ra9fall4 ,! simple exp]im5ts ?us inaugurat$ l$ to no few] ?an two hundr$ ?\s& record$ obs]vations reg>d+ ! wea!r1 :i* =m$ ! basis = "s ( ! mo/ epo*al discov]ies 9 meteorology1 z we h se54 ,b ?is 0 only a beg9n+4 ,! simple ra9-gauge po9t$ ! way to ! mo/ important g5]alization ( ! n9ete5? c5tury 9 a field ( sci5ce ) :i*1 to ! casual obs]v]1 x might seem to h no alliance :atev]4 ,! wond]ful !ory ( atoms1 on :i* ! :ole gigantic /ructure ( mod]n *emi/ry is f\nd$1 0 ! logical outgr[?1 9 ! m9d ( ,john ,dalton1 ( ^? e>ly /udies 9 meteorology4 ,! way x happ5$ 0 ?is3 ,f /udy+ ! ra9fall1 ,dalton turn$ naturally to ! complem5t>y process ( evaporation4 ,he 0 soon l$ to believe t vapor exi/s1 9 ! atmosph]e z an indep5d5t gas4 ,b s9ce two bodies _c occupy ! same space at ! same "t1 ?is implies t ! v>i\s atmosph]ic gases are really compos$ ( discrete p>ticles4 ,^! ultimate p>ticles are s small t we _c see !m--_c1 inde$1 m ?an vaguely imag9e !m--yet ea* p>ticle ( vapor1 = example1 is j z mu* a portion ( wat] z if x 7 a drop out ( ! ocean1 or1 = t matt]1 ! ocean itself4 ,b1 aga91 wat] is a comp\nd sub/ance1 = x may be sep>at$1 z ,cav5di% has %[n1 into ! two elem5t>y sub/ances hydrog5 & oxyg54 ,h5ce ! atom ( wat] mu/ be compos$ ( two less] atoms jo9$ toge!r4 ,imag9e an atom ( hydrog5 & "o ( oxyg54 ,unite !m1 & we h an atom ( wat]2 sev] !m1 & ! wat] no long] exi/s2 b :e!r unit$ or sep>ate ! atoms ( hydrog5 & ( oxyg5 rema9 hydrog5 & oxyg5 & no?+ else4 ,diff]5tly mix$ toge!r or unit$1 atoms produce diff]5t gross sub/ances2 b ! elem5t>y atoms nev] *ange _! *emical nature--_! di/9ct p]sonality4 ,x 0 ab\t ! ye> #ahjc t ,dalton fir/ ga9$ a full grasp ( ! conception ( ! *emical atom4 ,at once he saw t ! hypo!sis1 if true1 furni%$ a m>vell\s key to secrets ( matt] hi!rto insoluble--que/ions relat+ to ! relative proportions ( ! atoms !mselves4 ,x is kn[n1 = example1 t a c]ta9 bulk ( hydrog5 gas unites ) a c]ta9 bulk ( oxyg5 gas to =m wat]4 ,if x be true t ?is comb9ation consi/s ess5tially ( ! union ( atoms "o ) ano!r 7ea* s+le atom ( hydrog5 unit$ to a s+le atom ( oxyg571 !n ! relative weights ( ! orig9al masses ( hydrog5 & ( oxyg5 mu/ be also ! relative weights ( ea* ( _! respective atoms4 ,if "o p\nd ( hydrog5 unites ) five & "o-half p\nds ( oxyg5 7z1 accord+ to ,dalton's exp]im5ts1 x did71 !n ! weight ( ! oxyg5 atom mu/ be five & "o-half times t ( ! hydrog5 atom4 ,o!r comp\nds may pla9ly be te/$ 9 ! same way4 ,dalton made num]\s te/s be=e he publi%$ 8 !ory4 ,he f\nd t hydrog5 ent]s into comp\nds 9 small] proportions ?an any o!r elem5t kn[n to him1 & s1 = conv5i5ce1 det]m9$ to take ! weight ( ! hydrog5 atom z unity4 ,! atomic weight ( oxyg5 !n becomes 7z giv5 9 ,dalton's fir/ table ( #ahjc7 #e4e2 t ( wat] 7hydrog5 plus oxyg57 be+ ( c\rse #f4e4 ,! atomic weights ( ab\t a score ( sub/ances are giv5 9 ,dalton's fir/ pap]1 :i* 0 read be=e ! ,lit]>y & ,philosophical ,society ( ,man*e/]1 ,octob] #ba1 #ahjc4 ,i wond] if ,dalton himself1 great & acute intellect ?\gh he _h1 suspect$1 :5 he read t pap]1 t he 0 inaugurat+ "o ( ! mo/ f]tile movem5ts ev] ent]$ on 9 ! :ole hi/ory ( sci5ce8 ,be t z x may1 x is c]ta9 en\gh t ,dalton's contempor>ies 7 at fir/ little impress$ ) ! novel atomic !ory4 ,j at ?is "t1 z x *anc$1 a dispute 0 wag+ 9 ! field ( *emi/ry reg>d+ a matt] ( empirical fact :i* mu/ necess>ily be settl$ be=e su* a !ory z t ( ,dalton c\ld ev5 hope = a be>+4 ,?is 0 ! "q :e!r or n *emical elem5ts unite ) "o ano!r always 9 def9ite proportions4 ,b]?ollet1 ! great co-work] ) ,lavoisi]1 & n[ ! mo/ au?oritative ( liv+ *emi/s1 cont5d$ t sub/ances comb9e 9 almo/ indef9itely grad$ proportions betwe5 fix$ extremes4 ,he held t solution is really a =m ( *emical comb9ation--a position :i*1 if accept$1 left no room = argum5t4 ,b ?is cont5tion ( ! ma/] 0 mo/ actively disput$1 9 p>ticul> by ,l\is ,joseph ,pr\/1 & all *emi/s ( repute 7 oblig$ to take sides ) "o or ! o!r4 ,= a "t ! au?ority ( ,b]?ollet held out aga9/ ! facts1 b at la/ accumulat$ evid5ce told = ,pr\/ & 8 foll[]s1 & t[>ds ! close ( ! fir/ decade ( our c5tury x came to be g5]ally conc$$ t *emical elem5ts comb9e ) "o ano!r 9 fix$ & def9ite proportions4 ,m ?an t4 ,z ! analy/s 7 l$ to weigh c>efully ! quantities ( comb9+ elem5ts1 x 0 obs]v$ t ! proportions are n only def9ite1 b t !y be> a v curi\s relation to "o ano!r4 ,if elem5t ,a comb9es ) two diff]5t proportions ( elem5t ,b to =m two comp\nds1 x appe>s t ! weight ( ! l>g] quantity ( ,b is an exact multiple ( t ( ! small] quantity4 ,?is curi\s relation 0 notic$ by ,dr4 ,wolla/on1 "o ( ! mo/ accurate ( obs]v]s1 & a little lat] x 0 confirm$ by ,johan ,jakob ,b]zelius1 ! great ,sw$i% *emi/1 :o 0 to be a dom9at+ influ5ce 9 ! *emical _w = a g5]ation to come4 ,b ?is comb9ation ( elem5ts 9 num]ical proportions 0 exactly :at ,dalton _h notic$ z e>ly z #ahjb1 & :at bad l$ him directly to ! atomic weights4 ,s ! confirmation ( ?is ess5tial po9t by *emi/s ( su* au?ority gave ! /ronge/ confirmation to ! atomic !ory4 ,dur+ ^! same ye>s ! ris+ au?ority ( ! ,fr5* *emical _w1 ,joseph ,l\is ,gay-,lussac1 0 conduct+ exp]im5ts ) gases1 :i* he _h und]tak5 at fir/ 9 conjunction ) ,humboldt1 b :i* lat] on 7 conduct$ indep5d5tly4 ,9 #ahji1 ! next ye> aft] ! publication ( ! fir/ volume ( ,dalton's ,new ,sy/em ( ,*emical ,philosophy1 ,gay-,lussac publi%$ ! results ( 8 obs]vations1 & among o!r ?+s br\ght out ! rem>kable fact t gases1 "u ! same conditions z to temp]ature & pressure1 comb9e always 9 def9ite num]ical proportions z to volume4 ,exactly two volumes ( hydrog51 = example1 comb9e ) "o volume ( oxyg5 to =m wat]4 ,moreov]1 ! result+ comp\nd gas always be>s a simple relation to ! comb9+ volumes4 ,9 ! case j cit$1 ! union ( two volumes ( hydrog5 & "o ( oxyg5 results 9 precisely two volumes ( wat] vapor4 ,naturally en\gh1 ! *ampions ( ! atomic !ory seiz$ ^u ^! obs]vations ( ,gay-,lussac z l5d+ /rong support to _! hypo!sis--all ( !m1 t is1 b ! curi\sly self-reliant & self-suffici5t au?or ( ! atomic !ory himself1 :o decl9$ to accept ! obs]vations ( ! ,fr5* *emi/ z valid4 ,yet ! obs]vations ( ,gay-,lussac 7 correct1 z c\ntless *emi/s s9ce !n h demon/rat$ anew1 & 8 !ory ( comb9ation by volumes became "o ( ! f\ndation-/ones ( ! atomic !ory1 despite ! opposition ( ! au?or ( t !ory4 ,! true explanation ( ,gay-,lussac's law ( comb9ation by volumes 0 ?\ght out almo/ imm$iately by an ,italian savant1 ,amadeo1 ,avogadro1 & express$ 9 t]ms ( ! atomic !ory4 ,! fact mu/ be1 said ,avogadro1 t "u simil> physical conditions e =m ( gas conta9s exactly ! same numb] ( ultimate p>ticles 9 a giv5 volume4 ,ea* ( ^! ultimate physical p>ticles may be compos$ ( two or m atoms 7z 9 ! case ( wat] vapor71 b su* a comp\nd atom conducts itself z if x 7 a simple & indivisible atom1 z reg>ds ! am\nt ( space t sep>ates x f its fell[s "u giv5 conditions ( pressure & temp]ature4 ,! comp\nd atom1 compos$ ( two or m elem5t>y atoms1 ,avogadro propos$ to di/+ui%1 = purposes ( conv5i5ce1 by ! "n molecule4 ,x is to ! molecule1 consid]$ z ! unit ( physical /ructure1 t ,avogadro's law applies4 ,?is va/ly important di/9ction betwe5 atoms & molecules1 impli$ 9 ! law j express$1 0 publi%$ 9 #ahaa4 ,f\r ye>s lat]1 ! fam\s ,fr5* physici/ ,amp]e outl9$ a simil> !ory1 & utiliz$ ! law 9 8 ma!matical calculations4 ,& ) t ! law ( ,avogadro dropp$ out ( sight = a full g5]ation4 ,little suspect+ t x 0 ! v key to ! inn] my/]ies ( ! atoms = :i* !y 7 seek+1 ! *emi/s ( ! "t ca/ x aside1 & let x fade f ! memory ( _! sci5ce4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 0 n /range1 = ( c\rse ! law ( ,avogadro is bas$ on ! atomic !ory1 & 9 #ahaa ! atomic !ory 0 itself /ill be+ weigh$ 9 ! balance4 ,! law ( multiple proportions f\nd g5]al acceptance z an empirical fact2 b _m ( ! lead+ lights ( *emi/ry /ill look$ askance at ,dalton's explanation ( ?is law4 ,?us ,wolla/on1 ?\gh f ! fir/ he incl9$ to acceptance ( ! ,daltonian view1 cauti\sly sugge/$ t x w\ld be well to use ! non-committal ^w equival5t in/ead ( atom2 & ,davy1 = a simil> reason1 9 8 book ( #ahab1 speaks only ( proportions1 b9d+ himself to no !ory z to :at might be ! nature ( ^! proportions4 ,at lea/ two great *emi/s ( ! "t1 h[ev]1 adopt$ ! atomic view ) less res]vation4 ,"o ( ^! 0 ,?omas ,?omson1 pr(essor at ,ed9burgh1 :o1 9 #ahjg1 _h giv5 an outl9e ( ,dalton's !ory 9 a widely circulat$ book1 :i* fir/ br\ght ! !ory to ! g5]al att5tion ( ! *emical _w4 ,! o!r & ev5 m not$ advocate ( ! atomic !ory 0 ,johan ,jakob ,b]zelius4 ,?is great ,sw$i% *emi/ at once set to "w to put ! atomic !ory to su* te/s z might be appli$ 9 ! laboratory4 ,he 0 an analy/ ( ! utmo/ skill1 & = ye>s he devot$ himself to ! det]m9ation ( ! comb9+ weights1 equival5ts or proportions1 ( ! diff]5t elem5ts4 ,^! det]m9ations1 9 s f> z !y 7 accurately made1 7 simple expressions ( empirical facts1 indep5d5t ( any !ory2 b gradually x became m & m pla9 t ^! facts all h>monize ) ! atomic !ory ( ,dalton4 ,s by common cons5t ! proportionate comb9+ weights ( ! elem5ts came to be kn[n z atomic weights--! "n ,dalton _h giv5 !m f ! fir/--& ! tangible conception ( ! *emical atom z a body ( def9ite con/itution & weight ga9$ /eadily 9 favor4 ,f ! outset ! idea _h _h ! utmo/ tangibility 9 ! m9d ( ,dalton4 ,he _h all along repres5t$ ! diff]5t atoms by geometrical symbols--z a circle = oxyg51 a circle enclos+ a dot = hydrog51 & ! l--& _h repres5t$ comp\nds by plac+ ^! symbols ( ! elem5ts 9 juxtaposition4 ,b]zelius propos$ to improve ^u ?is me?od by sub/itut+ = ! geometrical symbol ! initial ( ! ,lat9 "n ( ! elem5t repres5t$--,o = oxyg51 ,h = hydrog51 & s on--a num]ical coeffici5t to foll[ ! lett] z an indication ( ! numb] ( atoms pres5t 9 any giv5 comp\nd4 ,?is simple sy/em soon ga9$ g5]al acceptance1 & ) slight modifications x is /ill univ]sally employ$4 ,e s*ool-boy n[ is aw>e t ,h#b,o is ! *emical way ( express+ ! union ( two atoms ( hydrog5 ) "o ( oxyg5 to =m a molecule ( wat]4 ,b su* a =mula w\ld h _h no mean+ = ! wise/ *emi/ be=e ! day ( ,b]zelius4 ,! univ]sal fame ( ! great ,sw$i% au?ority s]v$ to give g5]al curr5cy to 8 symbols & atomic weights1 & ! new po9t ( view ?us develop$ l$ pres5tly to two important discov]ies :i* remov$ ! la/ l+]+ d\bts z to ! validity ( ! atomic !ory4 ,9 #ahai two ,fr5* physici/s1 ,dulong & ,petit1 :ile exp]im5t+ ) heat1 discov]$ t ! specific heats ( solids 7t is to say1 ! am\nt ( heat requir$ to raise ! temp]ature ( a giv5 mass to a giv5 degree7 v>y inv]sely z _! atomic weights4 ,9 ! same ye> ,eilh>d ,mits*]li*1 a ,g]man inve/igator1 obs]v$ t comp\nds hav+ ! same numb] ( atoms to ! molecule are dispos$ to =m ! same angles ( cry/allization--a prop]ty :i* he call$ isomorphism4 ,"h1 !n1 7 two utt]ly novel & indep5d5t sets ( empirical facts :i* h>monize /rangely ) ! supposition t sub/ances are compos$ ( *emical atoms ( a det]m9ate weight4 ,?is surely c\ld n be co9cid5ce--x tells ( law4 ,& s z soon z ! claims ( ,dulong & ,petit & ( ,mits*]li* _h be5 sub/antiat$ by o!r obs]v]s1 ! laws ( ! specific heat ( atoms1 & ( isomorphism1 took _! place z new lev]s ( *emical sci5ce4 ,) ! aid ( ^! new tools an impregnable brea/work ( facts 0 soon pil$ ab\t ! atomic !ory4 ,& ,john ,dalton1 ! au?or ( t !ory1 pla91 prov9cial ,quak]1 work+ on to ! end 9 semi-retirem5t1 became kn[n to all ! _w & = all "t z a ma/] ( ma/]s4 ,,humphry ,,davy ,,& ,,electro-,,*emi/ry ,dur+ ^? e>ly ye>s ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 :5 ,dalton 0 gr9d+ away at *emical fact & !ory 9 8 obscure ,man*e/] laboratory1 ano!r ,engli%man held ! att5tion ( ! *emical _w ) a s]ies ( ! mo/ brilliant & widely h]ald$ rese>*es4 ,?is 0 ,humphry ,davy1 a "y man :o _h conic to ,london 9 #ahja1 at ! in/ance ( ,c\nt ,rum=d1 to assume ! *air ( *emical philosophy 9 ! ,royal ,in/itution1 :i* ! fam\s ,am]ican _h j f\nd$4 ,"h1 "u ,davy's direction1 ! l>ge/ voltaic batt]y yet con/ruct$ _h be5 put 9 op]ation1 & ) its aid ! brilliant "y exp]im5t] 0 expect$ almo/ to p]=m miracles4 ,& inde$ he sc>cely disappo9t$ ! expectation1 = ) ! aid ( 8 batt]y he trans=m$ s famili> a sub/ance z common pota% into a metal :i* 0 n only s light t x float$ on wat]1 b possess$ ! seem+ly miracul\s prop]ty ( bur/+ into flames z soon z x came 9 contact ) t fire-qu5*+ liquid4 ,if ?is 7 n a miracle1 x _h = ! popul> eye all ! appe>ance ( ! miracul\s4 ,:at ,davy really _h done 0 to decompose ! pota%1 :i* hi!rto _h be5 suppos$ to be elem5t>y1 lib]at+ its oxyg51 & ?us isolat+ its metallic base1 :i* he nam$ potassium4 ,! same ?+ 0 done ) soda1 & ! closely simil> metal sodium 0 discov]$--metals ( a unique type1 possess$ ( a /range avidity = oxyg51 & capable ( seiz+ on x ev5 :5 x is b\nd up 9 ! molecules ( wat]4 ,consid]$ z m]e curiosities1 ^! discov]ies 7 int]e/+1 b aside f t !y 7 ( great !oretical importance1 because !y %[$ ! comp\nd nature ( "s famili> *emicals t _h be5 reg>d$ z elem5ts4 ,sev]al o!r elem5t>y e>?s met ! same fate :5 subject$ to ! electrical influ5ce2 ! metals b>ium1 calcium1 & /rontium be+ ?us discov]$4 ,!reaft] ,davy always ref]r$ to ! suppos$ elem5t>y sub/ances 7includ+ oxyg51 hydrog51 & ! re/7 z unde-comp\nd$ bodies4 ,^! resi/ all pres5t ef=ts to decompose !m1 b h[ c "o "k :at might n happ5 7 !y subject$ to an influ5ce1 p]haps "s day to be discov]$1 :i* exce$s ! batt]y 9 p[] z ! batt]y exce$s ! bl[pipe8 ,ano!r & ev5 m important !oretical result t fl[$ f ,davy's exp]im5ts dur+ ?is fir/ decade ( ! c5tury 0 ! pro( t no elem5t>y sub/ances o!r ?an hydrog5 & oxyg5 are produc$ :5 pure wat] is decompos$ by ! electric curr5t4 ,x 0 e>ly notic$ by ,davy & o!rs t :5 a /rong curr5t is pass$ ?r\gh wat]1 alkalies appe> at "o pole ( ! batt]y & acids at ! o!r1 & ?is ?\gh ! wat] us$ 7 absolutely pure4 ,?is seem+ly told ( ! creation ( elem5ts--a transmutation b "o /ep remov$ f ! creation ( matt] itself--"u ! influ5ce ( ! new =ce4 ,x 0 "o ( ,davy's greate/ triumphs to prove1 9 ! s]ies ( exp]im5ts record$ 9 8 fam\s ,bak]ian lecture ( #ahjf1 t ! alleg$ creation ( elem5ts did n take place1 ! sub/ances f\nd at ! poles ( ! batt]y hav+ be5 dissolv$ f ! walls ( ! vessels 9 :i* ! wat] exp]im5t$ ^u _h be5 plac$4 ,?us ! same implem5t :i* _h s]v$ to give a c]ta9 philosophical w>rant to ! fad+ dreams ( al*emy bani%$ ^? dreams p]emptorily f ! doma9 ( pres5t sci5ce4 ,z e>ly z #ahjj1 writes ,davy1 ,i _h f\nd t :5 sep>ate portions ( di/ill$ wat]1 fill+ two glass tubes1 connect$ by moi/ bladd]s1 or any moi/ animal or vegetable sub/ances1 7 submitt$ to ! electrical action ( ! pile ( ,volta by means ( gold wires1 a nitro-muriatic solution ( gold appe>$ 9 ! tube conta9+ ! positive wire1 or ! wire transmitt+ ! electricity1 & a solution ( soda 9 ! opposite tube2 b ,i soon asc]ta9$ t ! muriatic acid ow$ its exi/5ce to ! animal or vegetable matt]s employ$2 = :5 ! same fibres ( cotton 7 made use ( 9 successive exp]im5ts1 & wa%$ aft] e process 9 a weak solution ( nitric acid1 ! wat] 9 ! app>atus conta9+ !m1 ?\gh act$ on = a great l5g? ( "t ) a v /rong p[]1 at la/ produc$ no effects ^u nitrate ( silv]4 ,9 cases :5 ,i _h procur$ mu* soda1 ! glass at its po9t ( contact ) ! wire seem$ consid]ably corrod$2 & ,i 0 confirm$ 9 my idea ( ref]r+ ! production ( ! alkali pr9cipally to ?is s\rce1 by f9d+ t no fix$ sal9e matt] c\ld be obta9$ by electrify+ di/ill$ wat] 9 a s+le agate cup f two po9ts ( plat9a ) ! ,voltaic batt]y4 ,mr4 ,sylve/]1 h[ev]1 9 a pap] publi%$ 9 ,mr4 ,ni*olson's j\rnal = la/ ,augu/1 /ates t ?\gh no fix$ alkali or muriatic acid appe>s :5 a s+le vessel is employ$1 yet t !y are bo? =m$ :5 two vessels are us$4 ,& to d away ) all objections ) reg>d to vegetable sub/ances or glass1 he conduct$ 8 process 9 a vessel made ( bak$ tobacco-pipe clay ins]t$ 9 a crucible ( plat9a4 ,i h no d\bt ( ! correctness ( 8 results2 b ! conclusion appe>s objectionable4 ,he conceives1 t he obta9$ fix$ alkali1 because ! fluid aft] be+ heat$ & evaporat$ left a matt] t t+$ turm]ic br[n1 :i* w\ld h happ5$ _h x be5 lime1 a sub/ance t exi/s 9 consid]able quantities 9 all pipe-clay2 & ev5 all[+ ! pres5ce ( fix$ alkali1 ! mat]ials employ$ = ! manufacture ( tobacco-pipes are n at all su* z to exclude ! comb9ations ( ?is sub/ance4 ,i resum$ ! inquiry2 ,i procur$ small cyl9drical cups ( agate ( ! capacity ( ab\t "o-qu>t] ( a cubic in* ea*4 ,!y 7 boil$ = "s h\rs 9 di/ill$ wat]1 & a piece ( v :ite & transp>5t amian?us t _h be5 treat$ 9 ! same way 0 made !n to connect toge!r2 !y 7 fill$ ) di/ill$ wat] & expos$ by means ( two plat9a wires to a curr5t ( electricity1 f "o hundr$ & fifty pairs ( plates ( copp] & z9c f\r in*es squ>e1 made active by means ( solution ( alum4 ,aft] =ty-eight h\rs ! process 0 exam9$3 ,pap] t+$ ) litmus plung$ into ! tube conta9+ ! transmitt+ or positive wire 0 imm$iately /rongly r$d5$4 ,pap] color$ by turm]ic introduc$ into ! o!r tube _h its color mu* deep5$2 ! acid matt] gave a v slight degree ( turgidness to solution ( nitrate ( soda4 ,! fluid t affect$ turm]ic reta9$ ?is prop]ty aft] be+ /rongly boil$2 & x appe>$ m vivid z ! quantity became r$uc$ by evaporation2 c>bonate ( ammonia 0 mix$ ) x1 & ! :ole dri$ & expos$ to a /rong heat2 a m9ute quantity ( :ite matt] rema9$1 :i*1 z f> z my exam9ations c\ld g1 _h ! prop]ties ( c>bonate ( soda4 ,i comp>$ x ) simil> m9ute portions ( ! pure c>bonates ( pota%1 & simil> m9ute portions ( ! pure c>bonates ( pota% & soda4 ,x 0 n s deliquesc5t z ! =m] ( ^! bodies1 & x =m$ a salt ) nitric acid1 :i*1 l nitrate ( soda1 soon attract$ moi/ure f a damp atmosph]e & became fluid4 ,?is result 0 unexpect$1 b x 0 f> f conv9c+ me t ! sub/ances :i* 7 obta9$ 7 g5]at$4 ,9 a simil> process ) glass tubes1 c>ri$ on "u exactly ! same circum/ances & = ! same "t1 ,i obta9$ a quantity ( alkali :i* mu/ h be5 m ?an tw5ty times great]1 b no traces ( muriatic acid4 ,!re 0 mu* probability t ! agate conta9$ "s m9ute portion ( sal9e matt]1 n easily detect$ by *emical analysis1 ei!r 9 comb9ation or intimate cohesion 9 its pores4 ,to det]m9e ?is1 ,i repeat$ ?is a second1 a ?ird1 & a f\r? "t4 ,9 ! second exp]im5t turbidness 0 /ill produc$ by a solution ( nitrate ( silv] 9 ! tube conta9+ ! acid1 b x 0 less di/9ct2 9 ! ?ird process x 0 b>ely p]ceptible2 & 9 ! f\r? process ! two fluids rema9$ p]fectly cle> aft] ! mixture4 ,! quantity ( alkal9e matt] dim9i%$ 9 e op]ation2 & 9 ! la/ process1 ?\gh ! batt]y _h be5 kept 9 great activity = ?ree days1 ! fluid possess$1 9 a v slight degree1 only ! p[] ( act+ on pap] t+$ ) turm]ic2 b its alkal9e prop]ty 0 v s5sible to litmus pap] slightly r$d5$1 :i* is a mu* m delicate te/2 & aft] evaporation & ! process by c>bonate ( ammonia1 a b>ely p]ceptible quantity ( fix$ alkali 0 /ill left4 ,! acid matt] 9 ! o!r tube 0 abundant2 its ta/e 0 s\r2 x smell$ l wat] ov] :i* l>ge quantities ( nitr\s gas h be5 long kept2 x did n effect solution ( muriate ( b>ytes2 & a drop ( x plac$ ^u a poli%$ plate ( silv] left1 aft] evaporation1 a black /a91 precisely simil> to t produc$ by extremely dilut$ nitr\s acid4 ,aft] ^! results ,i c\ld no long] d\bt t "s sal9e matt] exi/+ 9 ! agate tubes _h be5 ! s\rce ( ! acid matt] capable ( precipitat+ nitrate ( silv] & mu* ( ! alkali4 ,f\r additional repetitions ( ! process1 h[ev]1 conv9c$ me t !re 0 likewise "s o!r cause = ! pres5ce ( ?is la/ sub/ance2 = x cont9u$ to appe> to ! la/ 9 quantities suffici5tly di/+ui%able1 & app>5tly equal 9 e case4 ,i _h us$ e precaution1 ,i _h includ$ ! tube 9 glass vessels out ( ! rea* ( ! circulat+ air2 all ! act+ mat]ials _h be5 repeat$ly wa%$ ) di/ill$ wat]2 & no "p ( !m 9 contact ) ! fluid _h be5 t\*$ by ! f+]s4 ,! only sub/ance t ,i c\ld n[ conceive z furni%+ ! fix$ alkali 0 ! wat] itself4 ,?is wat] appe>$ pure by ! te/s ( nitrate ( silv] & muriate ( b>ytes2 b pota% ( soda1 z is well kn[n1 rises 9 small quantities 9 rapid di/illation2 & ! ,new ,riv] wat] :i* ,i made use ( conta9s animal & vegetable impurities1 :i* x 0 easy to conceive might furni% neutral salts capable ( be+ c>ri$ ov] 9 vivid ebullition47#a7 ,fur!r exp]im5t prov$ ! correctness ( ?is inf]5ce1 & ! la/ d\bt z to ! orig9 ( ! puzzl+ *emical 0 dispell$4 ,?\gh ! pres5ce ( ! alkalies & acids 9 ! wat] 0 expla9$1 h[ev]1 _! respective migrations to ! negative & positive poles ( ! batt]y rema9$ to be acc\nt$ =4 ,davy's classical explanation assum$ t diff]5t elem5ts diff] among !mselves z to _! electrical prop]ties1 "s be+ positively1 o!rs negatively1 electrifi$4 ,electricity & *emical aff9ity1 he said1 app>5tly are manife/ations ( ! same =ce1 act+ 9 ! "o case on masses1 9 ! o!r on p>ticles4 ,electro-positive p>ticles unite ) electro-negative p>ticles to =m *emical comp\nds1 9 virtue ( ! famili> pr9ciple t opposite electricities attract "o ano!r4 ,:5 comp\nds are decompos$ by ! batt]y1 ?is mutual attraction is ov]come by ! /rong] attraction ( ! poles ( ! batt]y itself4 ,?is !ory ( b9>y composition ( all *emical comp\nds1 ?r\gh ! union ( electro-positive & electro-negative atoms or molecules1 0 ext5d$ by ,b]zelius1 & made ! basis ( 8 fam\s sy/em ( !oretical *emi/ry4 ,?is !ory held t all inorganic comp\nds1 h[ev] complex _! composition1 are ess5tially compos$ ( su* b9>y comb9ations4 ,= _m ye>s ?is view enjoy$ almo/ undisput$ sway4 ,x receiv$ :at seem$ /rong confirmation :5 ,f>aday %[$ ! def9ite connection betwe5 ! am\nt ( electricity employ$ & ! am\nt ( decomposition produc$ 9 ! s-call$ electrolyte4 ,b its claims 7 really mu* too compreh5sive1 z subsequ5t discov]ies prov$4 ,,organic ,,*emi/ry ,,& ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,! ,,molecule ,:5 ,b]zelius fir/ promulgat$ 8 b9>y !ory he 0 c>eful to re/rict its unmodifi$ application to ! comp\nds ( ! inorganic _w4 ,at t "t1 & = a long "t !reaft]1 x 0 suppos$ t sub/ances ( organic nature _h "s prop]ties t kept !m alo( f ! doma9 ( inorganic *emi/ry4 ,x 0 little d\bt$ t a s-call$ vital =ce op]at$ "h1 replac+ or modify+ ! action ( ord9>y *emical aff9ity4 ,x 01 inde$1 admitt$ t organic comp\nds are compos$ ( famili> elem5ts--*iefly c>bon1 oxyg51 hydrog51 & nitrog52 b ^! elem5ts 7 suppos$ to be unit$ 9 ways t c\ld n be imitat$ 9 ! doma9 ( ! non-liv+4 ,x 0 reg>d$ almo/ z an axiom ( *emi/ry t no organic comp\nd :atev] c\ld be put toge!r f its elem5ts--syn!siz$--9 ! laboratory4 ,to effect ! syn!sis ( ev5 ! simple/ organic comp\nd1 x 0 ?\ght t ! vital =ce mu/ be 9 op]ation4 ,!re=e a v]itable s5sation 0 creat$ 9 ! *emical _w :51 9 ! ye> #ahbh1 x 0 ann\nc$ t ! "y ,g]man *emi/1 ,fri$ri* ,wohl]1 =m]ly pupil ( ,b]zelius1 & already kn[n z a com+ ma/]1 _h actually syn!siz$ ! well-kn[n organic product urea 9 8 laboratory at ,sacr[4 ,! exception :i* proves ! rule is some?+ nev] he>d ( 9 ! doma9 ( logical sci5ce4 ,natural law kn[s no exceptions4 ,s ! syn!sis ( a s+le organic comp\nd suffic$ at a bl[ to break d[n ! *emical b>ri] :i* ! imag9ation ( ! fa!rs ( ! sci5ce _h erect$ betwe5 animate & inanimate nature4 ,!nce=? ! philosophical *emi/ w\ld reg>d ! plant & animal organisms z *emical laboratories 9 :i* conditions are peculi>ly favorable = build+ up complex comp\nds ( a few famili> elem5ts1 "u ! op]ation ( univ]sal *emical laws4 ,! *im]a vital =ce c\ld no long] ga9 recognition 9 ! doma9 ( *emi/ry4 ,n[ a wave ( int]e/ 9 organic *emi/ry swept ov] ! *emical _w1 & soon ! /udy ( c>bon comp\nds became z mu* ! fa%ion z electro*emi/ry _h be5 9 !1 prec$+ g5]ation4 ,=emo/ among ! work]s :o r5d]$ ?is epo* ( organic *emi/ry memorable 7 ,ju/us ,liebig 9 ,g]many & ,jean ,bapti/e ,&re ,dumas 9 ,france1 & _! respective pupils1 ,*>les ,fr$]ic ,g]h>dt & ,augu/us ,laur5t4 ,wohl]1 too1 mu/ be nam$ 9 ! same brea?1 z also mu/ ,l\is ,pa/eur1 :o1 ?\gh some:at y\ng] ?an ! o!rs1 came ^u ! sc5e 9 "t to take *ief "p 9 ! mo/ important ( ! controv]sies t grew out ( _! labors4 ,sev]al ye>s e>li] ?an ?is ! way _h be5 pav$ = ! /udy ( organic sub/ances by ,gay-,lussac's discov]y1 made 9 #ahae1 t a c]ta9 comp\nd ( c>bon & nitrog51 :i* he nam$ cyanog51 has a peculi> degree ( /ability :i* enables x to reta9 its id5tity & ent] into *emical relations aft] ! mann] ( a simple body4 ,a ye> lat] ,amp]e discov]$ t nitrog5 & hydrog51 :5 comb9$ 9 c]ta9 proportions to =m :at he call$ ammonium1 h ! same prop]ty4 ,b]zelius _h seiz$ ^u ?is discov]y ( ! comp\nd radical1 z x 0 call$1 because x seem$ to l5d aid to 8 duali/ic !ory4 ,he conceiv$ ! idea t all organic comp\nds are b9>y unions ( v>i\s comp\nd radicals ) an atom ( oxyg51 ann\nc+ ?is !ory 9 #ahah4 ,t5 ye>s lat]1 ,liebig & ,wohl] und]took a jo9t inve/igation :i* result$ 9 prov+ t comp\nd radicals are inde$ v abundant among organic sub/ances4 ,?us ! !ory ( ,b]zelius seem$ to be sub/antiat$1 & organic *emi/ry came to be def9$ z ! *emi/ry ( comp\nd radicals4 ,b ev5 9 ! day ( its seem+ triumph ! duali/ic !ory 0 de/9$ to receive a rude %ock4 ,?is came ab\t ?r\gh ! inve/igations ( ,dumas1 :o prov$ t 9 a c]ta9 organic sub/ance an atom ( hydrog5 may be remov$ & an atom ( *lor9e sub/itut$ 9 its place )\t de/roy+ ! integrity ( ! orig9al comp\nd--mu* z a *ild might sub/itute "o block = ano!r 9 its play-h\se4 ,su* a sub/itution w\ld be q consi/5t ) ! duali/ic !ory1 7 x n = ! v ess5tial fact t hydrog5 is a p[]fully electro-positive elem5t1 :ile *lor9e is z /rongly electro-negative4 ,h5ce ! comp\nd radical :i* unit$ successively ) ^! two elem5ts mu/ itself be at "o "t electro-positive1 at ano!r electro-negative--a seem+ inconsi/5cy :i* ?rew ! entire ,b]zelian !ory into disfavor4 ,9 its place !re 0 elaborat$1 *iefly ?r\gh ! ef=ts ( ,laur5t & ,g]h>dt1 a conception ( ! molecule z a unit>y /ructure1 built up ?r\gh ! aggregation ( v>i\s atoms1 9 accordance ) elective aff9ities ^: nature is n yet und]/ood ,a doctr9e ( nuclei & a doctr9e ( types ( molecul> /ructure 7 mu* exploit$1 &1 l ! doctr9e ( comp\nd radicals1 became useful z aids to memory & guides = ! analy/1 indicat+ "s ( ! plans ( molecul> con/ruction1 ?\gh by no means p5etrat+ ! my/]ies ( *emical aff9ity4 ,!y are classifications r ?an explanations ( *emical unions4 ,b at lea/ !y s]v$ an important purpose 9 giv+ def9it5ess to ! idea ( a molecul> /ructure built ( atoms z ! basis ( all sub/ances4 ,n[ at la/ ! ^w molecule came to h a di/9ct mean+1 z di/9ct f atom1 9 ! m9ds ( ! g5]ality ( *emi/s1 z x _h _h = ,avogadro a ?ird ( a c5tury be=e4 ,avogadro's hypo!sis t !re are equal numb]s ( ^! molecules 9 equal volumes ( gases1 "u fix$ conditions1 0 reviv$ by ,g]h>dt1 & a little lat]1 "u ! *ampion%ip ( ,cannizz>o1 0 exalt$ to ! plane ( a fix$ law4 ,!nce=? ! conception ( ! molecule 0 to be z dom9ant a ?\ght 9 *emi/ry z ! idea ( ! atom _h become 9 a previ\s epo*4 ,,*emical ,,aff9ity ,( c\rse ! atom itself 0 9 no s5se displac$1 b ,avogadro's law soon made x pla9 t ! atom _h (t5 usurp$ t]ritory t did n really belong to x4 ,9 _m cases ! *emi/s _h suppos$ !mselves deal+ ) atoms z units :]e ! true unit 0 ! molecule4 ,9 ! case ( elem5t>y gases1 su* z hydrog5 & oxyg51 = example1 ! law ( equal numb]s ( molecules 9 equal spaces made x cle> t ! atoms d n exi/ isolat$1 z _h be5 suppos$4 ,s9ce two volumes ( hydrog5 unite ) "o volume ( oxyg5 to =m two volumes ( wat] vapor1 ! simple/ ma!matics %[1 9 ! light ( ,avogadro's law1 n only t ea* molecule ( wat] mu/ conta9 two hydrog5 atoms 7a po9t previ\sly 9 dispute71 b t ! orig9al molecules ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 mu/ h be5 compos$ 9 ea* case ( two atoms---else h[ c\ld "o volume ( oxyg5 supply an atom = e molecule ( two volumes ( wat]8 ,:at1 !n1 does ?is imply8 ,:y1 t ! elem5t>y atom has an avidity = o!r atoms1 a long+ = companion%ip1 an aff9ity--call x :at y w--:i* is b\nd to be satisfi$ if o!r atoms are 9 ! neighborhood4 ,plac$ solely among atoms ( its own k9d1 ! oxyg5 atom seizes on a fell[ oxyg5 atom1 & 9 all _! mad danc+s ^! two mates cl+ toge!r--possibly revolv+ ab\t ea* o!r 9 m9iature planet>y orbits4 ,precisely ! same ?+ occurs among ! hydrog5 atoms4 ,b n[ suppose ! v>i\s pairs ( oxyg5 atoms come ne> o!r pairs ( hydrog5 atoms 7"u prop] conditions :i* ne$ n deta9 u "h71 !n ea* oxyg5 atom loses its atta*m5t = its fell[1 & fl+s itself madly into ! circuit ( "o ( ! hydrog5 c\plets1 &--pre/o6--!re are only two molecules = e ?ree !re 7 be=e1 & free oxyg5 & hydrog5 h become wat]4 ,! :ole process1 /at$ 9 *emical phraseology1 is summ$ up 9 ! /atem5t t "u ! giv5 conditions ! oxyg5 atoms _h a great] aff9ity = ! hydrog5 atoms ?an = "o ano!r4 ,z *emi/s /udi$ ! actions ( v>i\s k9ds ( atoms1 9 reg>d to _! unions ) "o ano!r to =m molecules1 x gradually dawn$ ^u !m t n all elem5ts are satisfi$ ) ! same numb] ( companions4 ,"s elem5ts ask only "o1 & refuse to take m2 :ile o!rs l9k !mselves1 :5 occasion (f]s1 ) two1 ?ree1 f\r1 or m4 ,?us we saw t oxyg5 =sook a s+le atom ( its own k9d & l9k$ itself ) two atoms ( hydrog54 ,cle>ly1 !n1 ! oxyg5 atom1 l a creature ) two h&s1 is able to clut* two o!r atoms4 ,b we h no pro( t "u any circum/ances x c\ld hold m ?an two4 ,its aff9ities seem satisfi$ :5 x has two bonds4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 ! atom ( nitrog5 is able to hold ?ree atoms ( hydrog51 & does s 9 ! molecule ( ammonium 7,,nh#c72 :ile ! c>bon atom c hold f\r atoms ( hydrog5 or two atoms ( oxyg54 ,evid5tly1 !n1 "o atom is n always equival5t to ano!r atom ( a diff]5t k9d 9 comb9+ p[]s4 ,a recognition ( ?is fact by ,frankl& ab\t #aheb1 & its fur!r inve/igation by o!rs 7notably ,a4 ,kekule & ,a4 ,s4 ,c\p]71 l$ to ! introduction ( ! ^w equival5t into *emical t]m9ology 9 a new s5se1 & 9 p>ticul> to an und]/&+ ( ! aff9ities or val5cy ( diff]5t elem5ts1 :i* prov$ ( ! mo/ fundam5tal importance4 ,?us x 0 %[n t1 ( ! f\r elem5ts t ent] mo/ prom95tly into organic comp\nds1 hydrog5 c l9k itself ) only a s+le bond to any o!r elem5t--x has1 s to speak1 b a s+le h& ) :i* to grasp--:ile oxyg5 has capacity = two bonds1 nitrog5 = ?ree 7possibly = five71 & c>bon = f\r4 ,! words monoval5t1 dival5t1 trival5t1 tretrava-l5t1 etc41 7 co9$ to express ?is mo/ important fact1 & ! v>i\s elem5ts came to be kn[n z monads1 diads1 triads1 etc4 ,j :y diff]5t elem5ts %\ld diff] ?us 9 val5cy no "o z yet kn[s2 x is an empirical fact t !y d4 ,& once ! nature ( any elem5t has be5 det]m9$ z reg>ds its val5cy1 a mo/ important insight into ! possible behavior ( t elem5t has be5 secur$4 ,?us a consid]ation ( ! fact t hydrog5 is monoval5t1 :ile oxyg5 is dival5t1 makes x pla9 t we mu/ expect to f9d no m ?an ?ree comp\nds ( ^! two elem5ts--namely1 ,h--,o--7writt5 ,,ho by ! *emi/1 & call$ hydroxyl72 ,h--,o--,h 7,h#b,o1 or wat]71 & ,h--,o--,o--,h 7,h#b,o#b1 or hydrog5 p]oxide74 ,x w be obs]v$ t 9 ! fir/ ( ^! comp\nds ! atom ( oxyg5 /&s1 s to speak1 ) "o ( its h&s free1 eag]ly rea*+ out1 !re=e1 = ano!r companion1 & h5ce1 9 ! language ( *emi/ry1 =m+ an un/able comp\nd4 ,aga91 9 ! ?ird comp\nd1 ?\gh all h&s are clasp$1 yet "o pair l9ks oxyg5 ) oxyg52 & ?is also mu/ be an un/able union1 s9ce ! avidity ( an atom = its own k9d is relatively weak4 ,?us ! well-kn[n prop]ties ( hydrog5 p]oxide are expla9$1 its easy decomposition1 & ! eag]ness ) :i* x seizes ^u ! elem5ts ( o!r comp\nds4 ,b ! molecule ( wat]1 on ! o!r h&1 has its atoms arrang$ 9 a /ate ( /able equilibrium1 all _! aff9ities be+ satisfi$4 ,ea* hydrog5 atom has satisfi$ its own aff9ity by clut*+ ! oxyg5 atom2 & ! oxyg5 atom has bo? its bonds satisfi$ by clut*+ back at ! two hydrog5 atoms4 ,!re=e ! trio1 l9k$ 9 ?is close bond1 h no t5d5cy to rea* out = any o!r companion1 nor1 inde$1 any p[] to hold ano!r %\ld x ?ru/ itself ^u !m4 ,!y =m a /able comp\nd1 :i* "u all ord9>y circum/ances w reta9 its id5tity z a molecule ( wat]1 ev5 ?\gh ! physical mass ( :i* x is a "p *anges its condition f a solid to a gas f ice to vapor4 ,b a consid]ation ( ?is condition ( /able equilibrium 9 ! molecule at once sugge/s a new "q3 ,h[ c an aggregation ( atoms1 hav+ all _! aff9ities satisfi$1 take any fur!r "p 9 *emical reactions8 ,seem+ly su* a molecule1 :atev] its physical prop]ties1 mu/ be *emically in]t1 incapable ( any atomic readju/m5ts4 ,& s 9 po9t ( fact x is1 s long z its compon5t atoms cl+ to "o ano!r unremitt+ly4 ,b ?is1 x appe>s1 is precisely :at ! atoms are little prone to d4 ,x seems t !y are fickle to ! la/ degree 9 _! individual atta*m5ts1 & are z prone to break away f bondage z !y are to ent] into x4 ,?us ! oxyg5 atom :i* has j flung itself into ! circuit ( two hydrog5 atoms1 ! next mom5t fl+s itself free aga9 & seeks new companions4 ,x is = all ! _w l ! incessant *ange ( p>tn]s 9 a rollick+ dance4 ,?is incessant dissolution & re=mation ( molecules 9 a sub/ance :i* z a :ole rema9s app>5tly un*ang$ 0 fir/ fully appreciat$ by ,/e4-,claire ,deville1 & by him nam$ dissociation4 ,x is a process :i* goes on mu* m actively 9 "s comp\nds ?an 9 o!rs1 & v mu* m actively "u "s physical conditions 7su* z increase ( temp]ature7 ?an "u o!rs4 ,b app>5tly no sub/ances at ord9>y temp]atures1 & no temp]ature above ! absolute z]o1 are absolutely free f its di/urb+ influ5ce4 ,h5ce x is t molecules hav+ all ! val5cy ( _! atoms fully satisfi$ d n lose _! *emical activity--s9ce ea* atom is mom5t>ily free 9 ! ex*ange ( p>tn]s1 & may seize ^u diff]5t atoms f its =m] p>tn]s1 if ^? x pref]s are at h&4 ,:ile1 h[ev]1 an appreciation ( ?is ceaseless activity ( ! atom is ess5tial to a prop] und]/&+ ( its *emical effici5cy1 yet f ano!r po9t ( view ! saturat$ molecule--t is1 ! molecule ^: atoms h _! val5cy all satisfi$--may be ?\ght ( z a relatively fix$ or /able organism4 ,ev5 ?\gh x may pres5tly be torn d[n1 x is = ! "t be+ a complet$ /ructure2 & a consid]ation ( ! val5cy ( its atoms gives ! be/ clew t has hi!rto be5 obta9able z to ! "* ( its ar*itecture4 ,h[ important ?is matt] ( ar*itecture ( ! molecule--( space relations ( ! atoms--may be--0 demon/rat$ z long ago z #ahbc1 :5 ,liebig & ,wohl] prov$1 to ! utt] bewild]m5t ( ! *emical _w1 t two sub/ances may h precisely ! same *emical con/itution--! same numb] & k9d ( atoms--& yet diff] utt]ly 9 physical prop]ties4 ,! ^w isom]ism 0 co9$ by ,b]zelius to express ?is anomal\s condition ( ?+s1 :i* seem$ to negative ! mo/ fundam5tal tru?s ( *emi/ry4 ,nam+ ! condition by no means expla9$ x1 b ! fact 0 made cle> t some?+ besides ! m]e numb] & k9d ( atoms is important 9 ! ar*itecture ( a molecule4 ,x became c]ta9 t atoms are n ?r[n toge!r haphaz>d to build a molecule1 any m ?an bricks are ?r[n toge!r at r&om to =m a h\se4 ,h[ delicate may be ! gradations ( ar*itectural design 9 build+ a molecule 0 well illu/rat$ ab\t #ahej1 :5 ,pa/eur discov]$ t "s c>bon comp\nds--z c]ta9 sug>s--c only be di/+ui%$ f "o ano!r1 :5 9 solution1 by ! fact ( _! twi/+ or pol>iz+ a ray ( light to ! left or to ! "r1 respectively4 ,b no inkl+ ( an explanation ( ^! /range v>iations ( molecul> /ructure came until ! discov]y ( ! law ( val5cy4 ,!n mu* ( ! my/]y 0 cle>$ away2 = x 0 pla9 t s9ce ea* atom 9 a molecule c hold to itself only a fix$ numb] ( o!r atoms1 complex molecules mu/ h _! atoms l9k$ 9 def9ite *a9s or gr\ps4 ,& x is equally pla9 t :]e ! atoms are num]\s1 ! exact plan ( gr\p+ may sometimes be susceptible ( *ange )\t do+ viol5ce to ! law ( val5cy4 ,x is 9 su* cases t isom]ism is obs]v$ to occur4 ,by pay+ con/ant he$ to ?is matt] ( ! aff9ities1 *emi/s are able to make diagrammatic pictures ( ! plan ( ar*itecture ( any molecule ^: composition is kn[n4 ,9 ! simple molecule ( wat] 7,h#b,o71 = example1 ! two hydrog5 atoms mu/ h releas$ ea* o!r be=e !y c\ld jo9 ! oxyg51 & ! mann] ( l9k+ mu/ app>5tly be t repres5t$ 9 ! graphic =mula ,h--,o--,h4 ,) molecules compos$ ( a l>ge numb] ( atoms1 su* graphic repres5tation ( ! s*eme ( l9k+ is ( c\rse increas+ly difficult1 yet1 ) ! aff9ities = a guide1 x is always possible4 ,( c\rse no "o supposes t su* a =mula1 writt5 9 a s+le plane1 c possibly repres5t ! true ar*itecture ( ! molecule3 x is at be/ sugge/ive or diagrammatic r ?an pictorial4 ,nev]!less1 x af=ds h9ts z to ! /ructure ( ! molecule su* z ! fa!rs ( *emi/ry w\ld n h ?\ght x possible ev] to atta94 ,,p]iodicity ,,( ,,atomic ,,weights ,^! utt]ly novel /udies ( molecul> ar*itecture may seem at fir/ sight to take f ! atom mu* ( its =m] pre/ige z ! all-important p]sonage ( ! *emical _w4 ,s9ce s mu* dep5ds ^u ! m]e position ( ! atoms1 x may appe> t comp>atively little dep5ds ^u ! nature ( ! atoms !mselves4 ,b su* a view is incorrect1 = on clos] consid]ation x w appe> t at no "t has ! atom be5 se5 to r5\nce its peculi> p]sonality4 ,)9 c]ta9 limits ! "* ( a molecule may be alt]$ by *ang+ ! positions ( its atoms 7j z diff]5t build+s may be con/ruct$ ( ! same bricks71 b ^! limits are %>ply def9$1 & x w\ld be z impossible to exce$ !m z x w\ld be to build a /one build+ ) bricks4 ,f fir/ to la/ ! brick rema9s a brick1 :atev] ! /yle ( ar*itecture x helps to con/ruct2 x nev] becomes a /one4 ,& j z closely does ea* atom reta9 its own peculi> prop]ties1 reg>dless ( its surr\nd+s4 ,?us1 = example1 ! c>bon atom may take "p 9 ! =mation at "o "t ( a diamond1 aga9 ( a piece ( coal1 & yet aga9 ( a p>ticle ( sug>1 ( wood fibre1 ( animal tissue1 or ( a gas 9 ! atmosph]e2 b f fir/ to la/--f glass-cutt+ gem to intangible gas--!re is no demon/rable *ange :atev] 9 any s+le prop]ty ( ! atom itself4 ,s f> z we "k1 its size1 its weight1 its capacity = vibration or rotation1 & its inh]5t aff9ities1 rema9 absolutely un*ang$ ?r\gh\t all ^! v>y+ =tunes ( position & association4 ,& ! same ?+ is true ( e atom ( all ( ! sev5ty-odd elem5t>y sub/ances ) :i* ! mod]n *emi/ is acqua9t$4 ,e "o appe>s always to ma9ta9 its unique integrity1 ga9+ no?+ & los+ no?+4 ,all ?is be+ true1 x w\ld seem z if ! position ( ! ,daltonian atom z a primordial bit ( matt]1 inde/ructible & non-transmutable1 _h be5 put to ! te/ by ! *emi/ry ( our c5tury1 & n f\nd want+4 ,s9ce ^? e>ly days ( ! c5tury :5 ! electric batt]y p]=m$ its miracles & seem+ly rea*$ its limitations 9 ! h&s ( ,davy1 _m new elem5t>y sub/ances h be5 discov]$1 b no s+le elem5t has be5 displac$ f its position z an undecomposable body4 ,r h ! analyses ( ! *emi/ seem$ to make x m & m c]ta9 t all elem5t>y atoms are 9 tru? :at ,john ,h]s*el call$ !m1 manufactur$ articles--primordial1 *angeless1 inde/ructible4 ,& yet1 oddly en\gh1 x has *anc$ t h& 9 h& ) ! exp]im5ts lead+ to su* a goal h gone o!r exp]im5ts arid speculations ( exactly ! opposite t5or4 ,9 ea* g5]ation !re h be5 *emi/s among ! lead]s ( _! sci5ce :o h refus$ to admit t ! s-call$ elem5ts are really elem5ts at all 9 any f9al s5se1 & :o h s\ght eag]ly = pro( :i* might w>rant _! scepticism4 ,! fir/ bit ( evid5ce t5d+ to support ?is view 0 furni%$ by an ,engli% physician1 ,dr4 ,william ,pr\t1 :o 9 #ahae call$ att5tion to a curi\s relation to be obs]v$ betwe5 ! atomic weight ( ! v>i\s elem5ts4 ,accept+ ! figures giv5 by ! au?orities ( ! "t 7notably ,?omson & ,b]zelius71 x appe>$ t a /rik+ly l>ge proportion ( ! atomic weights 7 exact multiples ( ! weight ( hydrog51 & t o!rs diff]$ s slightly t errors ( obs]vation might expla9 ! discrepancy4 ,pr\t felt t x c\ld n be accid5tal1 & he c\ld ?9k ( no t5able explanation1 unless x be t ! atoms ( ! v>i\s alleg$ elem5ts are made up ( diff]5t fix$ numb]s ( hydrog5 atoms4 ,c\ld x be t ! "o true elem5t--! "o primal matt]--is hydrog51 & t all o!r =ms ( matt] are b comp\nds ( ?is orig9al sub/ance8 ,pr\t advanc$ ?is />tl+ idea at fir/ t5tatively1 9 an anonym\s publication2 b aft]w>ds he esp\s$ x op5ly & urg$ its t5ability4 ,com+ j aft] ,davy's dissociation ( "s suppos$ elem5ts1 ! idea prov$ allur+1 & = a "t ga9$ su* popul>ity t *emi/s 7 dispos$ to r\nd out ! obs]v$ atomic weights ( all elem5ts into :ole numb]s4 ,b pres5tly r5ew$ det]m9ations ( ! atomic weights seem$ to disc\nt5ance ?is practice1 & ,pr\t's alleg$ law fell into disrepute4 ,x 0 reviv$1 h[ev]1 ab\t #ahdj1 by ,dumas1 ^: great au?ority secur$ x a respectful he>+1 & ^: c>eful r$et]m9ation ( ! weight ( c>bon1 mak+ x exactly twelve times t ( hydrog51 aid$ ! cause4 ,subsequ5tly ,/as1 ! pupil ( ,dumas1 und]took a long s]ies ( det]m9ations ( atomic weights1 ) ! expectation ( confirm+ ! ,pr\tian hypo!sis4 ,b 8 results seem$ to disprove ! hypo!sis1 = ! atomic weights ( _m elem5ts diff]$ f :ole numb]s by m1 x 0 ?\ght1 ?an ! limits ( error ( ! exp]im5ts4 ,x 0 notewor?y1 h[ev]1 t ! confid5ce ( ,dumas 0 n %ak51 ?\gh he 0 l$ to modify ! hypo!sis1 &1 9 accordance ) previ\s sugge/ions ( ,cl>k & ( ,m>ignac1 to recognize z ! primordial elem5t1 n hydrog5 itself1 b an atom half ! weight1 or ev5 "o-f\r? ! weight1 ( t ( hydrog51 ( :i* primordial atom ! hydrog5 atom itself is comp\nd$4 ,b ev5 9 ?is modifi$ =m ! hypo!sis f\nd great opposition f exp]im5tal obs]v]s4 ,9 #ahfd1 h[ev]1 a novel relation betwe5 ! weights ( ! elem5ts & _! o!r *>act]i/ics 0 call$ to ! att5tion ( *emi/s by ,pr(essor ,john ,a4 ,r4 ,newl&s1 ( ,london1 :o _h notic$ t if ! elem5ts are arrang$ s]ially 9 ! num]ical ord] ( _! atomic weights1 !re is a curi\s recurr5ce ( simil> prop]ties at int]vals ( eight elem5ts ,?is s-call$ law ( octaves attract$ little imm$iate att5tion1 b ! facts x connotes soon came "u ! obs]vation ( o!r *emi/s1 notably ( ,pr(essors ,gu/av ,h9ri*s 9 ,am]ica1 ,dmitri ,m5deleeff 9 ,russia1 & ,lo?> ,mey] 9 ,g]many4 ,m5deleeff gave ! discov]y fulle/ expression1 explicat+ x 9 #ahfi1 "u ! title ( ! p]iodic law4 ,?\gh ?is e>ly exposition ( :at has s9ce be5 admitt$ to be a mo/ important discov]y 0 v fully outl9$1 ! g5]ality ( *emi/s gave x little he$ till a decade or s lat]1 :5 ?ree new elem5ts1 gallium1 sc&ium1 & g]manium1 7 discov]$1 :i*1 on be+ analyz$1 7 q unexpect$ly f\nd to fit into ?ree gaps :i* ,m5deleeff _h left 9 8 p]iodic scale4 ,9 effect ! p]iodic law _h enabl$ ,m5deleeff to pr$icate ! exi/5ce ( ! new elem5ts ye>s be=e !y 7 discov]$4 ,surely a sy/em t leads to su* results is no m]e vag>y4 ,s v soon ! p]iodic law took its place z "o ( ! mo/ important g5]alizations ( *emical sci5ce4 ,?is law ( p]iodicity 0 put =w>d z an expression ( obs]v$ relations indep5d5t ( hypo!sis2 b ( c\rse ! !oretical be>+s ( ^! facts c\ld n be ov]look$4 ,z ,pr(essor ,j4 ,h4 ,glad/one has said1 x =ces ^u u ! conviction t ! elem5ts are n sep>ate bodies creat$ )\t ref]5ce to "o ano!r1 b t !y h be5 orig9ally fa%ion$1 or h be5 built up1 f "o ano!r1 accord+ to "s g5]al plan4 ,x is b a %ort /ep f t proposition to ! ,pr\tian hypo!sis4 ,,new ,,weapons--,,spectroscope ,,& ,,cam]a ,b ! atomic weights are n alone 9 sugge/+ ! comp\nd nature ( ! alleg$ elem5ts4 ,evid5ce ( a totally diff]5t k9d has contribut$ to ! same end1 f a s\rce t c\ld h>dly h be5 imag9$ :5 ! ,pr\tian hypo!sis1 0 =mulat$1 ?r\gh ! tradition ( a novel weapon to ! armam5t>ium ( ! *emi/--! spectroscope4 ,! p]fection ( ?is in/rum5t1 9 ! h&s ( two ,g]man sci5ti/s1 ,gu/av ,rob]t ,kir*h(f & ,rob]t ,wilhelm ,buns51 came ab\t ?r\gh ! inve/igation1 t[>ds ! middle ( ! c5tury1 ( ! mean+ ( ! d>k l9es :i* _h be5 obs]v$ 9 ! sol> spectrum by ,fraunh(] z e>ly z #ahae1 & by ,wolla/on a decade e>li]4 ,x 0 suspect$ by ,/okes & by ,fox ,talbot 9 ,engl&1 b fir/ br\ght to demon/ration by ,kir*h(f & ,buns51 t ^! l9es1 :i* 7 kn[n to occupy def9ite positions 9 ! spectrum1 are really indicative ( p>ticul> elem5t>y sub/ances4 ,by means ( ! spectroscope1 :i* is ess5tially a magnify+ l5s atta*$ to a prism ( glass1 x is possible to locate ! l9es ) great accuracy1 & x 0 soon %[n t "h 0 a new means ( *emical analysis ( ! mo/ exquisite delicacy4 ,x 0 f\nd1 = example1 t ! spectroscope c\ld detect ! pres5ce ( a quantity ( sodium s inf9itesimal z ! "o two-hundr$-?\s&? ( a gra94 ,b :at 0 ev5 m important1 ! spectroscope put no limit ^u ! di/ance ( location ( ! sub/ance x te/$1 provid$ only t suffici5t light came f x4 ,! exp]im5ts x record$ might be p]=m$ 9 ! sun1 or 9 ! mo/ di/ant />s or nebulae2 inde$1 "o ( ! e>lie/ feats ( ! in/rum5t 0 to wr5* f ! sun ! secret ( 8 *emical con/itution4 ,to r5d] ! utility ( ! spectroscope complete1 h[ev]1 x 0 necess>y to l9k ) x ano!r new *emical ag5cy--namely1 photography4 ,?is n[ famili> process is bas$ on ! prop]ty ( light to decompose c]ta9 un/able comp\nds ( silv]1 & ?us alt] _! *emical composition4 ,davy & ,w$gwood b>ely escap$ ! discov]y ( ! value ( ! photographic me?od e>ly 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,_! successors q ov]look$ x until ab\t #ahbf1 :5 ,l\is ,j4 ,m4 ,dagu]re1 ! ,fr5* *emi/1 took ! matt] 9 h&1 & aft] _m ye>s ( exp]im5tation br\ght x to relative p]fection 9 #ahci1 9 :i* ye> ! fam\s dagu]reotype fir/ br\ght ! matt] to popul> att5tion4 ,9 ! same ye> ,mr4 ,fox ,talbot read a pap] on ! subject be=e ! ,royal ,society1 & soon aft]w>ds ! ef=ts ( ,h]s*el & num]\s o!r natural philosoph]s contribut$ to ! advancem5t ( ! new me?od4 ,9 #ahdc ,dr4 ,john ,w4 ,drap]1 ! fam\s ,engli%-,am]ican *emi/ & physiologi/1 %[$ t by photography ! ,fraunh(] l9es 9 ! sol> spectrum might be mapp$ ) absolute accuracy2 also prov+ t ! silv]$ film reveal$ _m l9es invisible to ! unaid$ eye4 ,! value ( ?is me?od ( obs]vation 0 recogniz$ at once1 &1 z soon z ! spectroscope 0 p]fect$1 ! photographic me?od1 9 conjunction ) its use1 became invaluable to ! *emi/4 ,by ?is means comp>isons ( spectra may be made ) a degree ( accuracy n o!rwise obta9able2 &1 9 case ( ! />s1 :ole clu/]s ( spectra may be plac$ on record at a s+le obs]vation4 ,z ! exam9ation ( ! sun & />s proce$$1 *emi/s 7 amaz$ or delight$1 accord+ to _! v>i\s preconceptions1 to witness ! pro( t _m famili> t]re/rial elem5ts are to be f\nd 9 ! cele/ial bodies4 ,b :at p]haps surpris$ !m mo/ 0 to obs]ve ! enorm\s prepond]ance 9 ! sid]eal bodies ( ! elem5t hydrog54 ,n only are !re va/ quantities ( ?is elem5t 9 ! sun's atmosph]e1 b "s o!r suns appe>$ to %[ hydrog5 l9es almo/ exclusively 9 _! spectra4 ,pres5tly x appe>$ t ! />s ( :i* ?is is true are ^? :ite />s1 su* z ,sirius1 :i* _h be5 conjectur$ to be ! hotte/2 :]eas />s t are only r$-hot1 l our sun1 %[ also ! vapors ( _m o!r elem5ts1 includ+ iron & o!r metals4 ,9 #ahgh ,pr(essor ,j4 ,norman ,locky]1 9 a pap] be=e ! ,royal ,society1 call$ att5tion to ! possible significance ( ?is s]ies ( obs]vations4 ,he urg$ t ! fact ( ! sun %[+ few] elem5ts ?an are obs]v$ "h on ! cool e>?1 :ile />s mu* hott] ?an ! sun %[ *iefly "o elem5t1 & t "o hydrog51 ! lighte/ ( kn[n elem5ts1 seem$ to give color to ! possibility t our alleg$ elem5ts are really comp\nds1 :i* at ! temp]ature ( ! hotte/ />s may be decompos$ into hydrog51 ! latt] elem5t itself be+ also d\btless a comp\nd1 :i* might be resolv$ "u yet m try+ conditions4 ,"h1 !n1 0 :at might be t]m$ direct exp]im5tal evid5ce = ! hypo!sis ( ,pr\t4 ,un=tunately1 h[ev]1 x is evid5ce ( a k9d :i* only a few exp]ts are compet5t to discuss--s v delicate a matt] is ! spectral analysis ( ! />s4 ,:at is /ill m un=tunate1 ! exp]ts d n agree among !mselves z to ! validity ( ,pr(essor ,locky]'s conclusions4 ,"s1 l ,pr(essor ,crookes1 h accept$ !m ) acclaim1 hail+ ,locky] z ! ,d>w9 ( ! inorganic _w1 :ile o!rs h s\ght a diff]5t explanation ( ! facts he br+s =w>d4 ,z yet x _c be said t ! controv]sy has be5 br\ght to f9al settlem5t4 ,/ill1 x is h>dly to be d\bt$ t n[1 s9ce ! p]iodic law has seem$ to jo9 h&s ) ! spectroscope1 a belief 9 ! comp\nd nature ( ! s-call$ elem5ts is rapidly ga9+ gr\nd among *emi/s4 ,m & m g5]al becomes ! belief t ! ,daltonian atom is really a comp\nd radical1 & t back ( ! seem+ div]sity ( ! alleg$ elem5ts is a s+le =m ( primordial matt]4 ,inde$1 9 v rec5t mon?s1 direct exp]im5tal evid5ce = ?is view has at la/ come to h&1 ?r\gh ! /udy ( radio-active sub/ances4 ,9 a lat] *apt] we %all h occasion to inquire h[ ?is came ab\t4 ,,iv4 ,,anatomy ,,& ,,physiology ,,9 ,,! ,,eighte5? ,,c5tury ,,albre*t ,,von ,,hall] ,an epo* 9 physiology 0 made 9 ! eighte5? c5tury by ! g5ius & ef=ts ( ,albre*t von ,hall] 7#agjh-aggg71 ( ,b]ne1 :o is p]haps z wor?y ( ! title ,! ,great z any philosoph] :o has be5 s *ri/5$ by 8 contempor>ies s9ce ! "t ( ,hippocrates4 ,celebrat$ z a physician1 he 0 pr(ici5t 9 v>i\s fields1 be+ equally fam$ 9 8 own "t z poet1 botani/1 & /atesman1 & divid+ 8 att5tion betwe5 art & sci5ce4 ,z a *ild ,hall] 0 s sickly t he 0 unable to amuse himself ) ! sports & games common to boys ( 8 age1 & s pass$ mo/ ( 8 "t por+ ov] books4 ,:5 t5 ye>s ( age he began writ+ poems 9 ,lat9 & ,g]man1 & at fifte5 ent]$ ! ,univ]sity ( ,tub+54 ,at sev5te5 he wrote le>n$ articles 9 opposition to c]ta9 accept$ doctr9es1 & at n9ete5 he receiv$ 8 degree ( doctor4 ,soon aft] ?is he visit$ ,engl&1 :]e 8 zeal 9 dissect+ br\ght him "u suspicion ( grave-robb]y1 :i* suspicion made x exp$i5t = him to return to ! ,cont95t4 ,aft] /udy+ botany 9 ,basel = "s "t he made an ext5d$ botanical j\rney ?r\gh ,switz]l&1 f9ally settl+ 9 8 native city1 ,b]ne1 z a practis+ physician4 ,dur+ ?is "t he did n neglect ei!r poetry or botany1 publi%+ anonym\sly a collection ( poems4 ,9 #agcf he 0 call$ to ,gott+5 z pr(essor ( anatomy1 surg]y1 *emi/ry1 & botany4 ,dur+ 8 labors 9 ! univ]sity he nev] neglect$ 8 lit]>y "w1 sometimes liv+ & sleep+ = days & nights toge!r 9 8 libr>y1 eat+ 8 meals :ile delv+ 9 8 books1 & sleep+ only :5 actually compell$ to d s by fatigue4 ,dur+ all ?is "t he 0 9 correspond5ce ) savants f all ov] ! _w1 & x is said ( him t he nev] left a lett] ( any k9d unansw]$4 ,hall]'s greate/ contribution to m$ical sci5ce 0 8 fam\s doctr9e ( irritability1 :i* has giv5 him ! "n ( fa!r ( mod]n n]v\s physiology1 j z ,h>vey is call$ ! fa!r ( ! mod]n physiology ( ! blood4 ,x has be5 said ( ?is fam\s doctr9e ( irritability t x mov$ all ! m9ds ( ! c5tury--& n 9 ! dep>tm5ts ( m$ic9e alone--9 a way ( :i* we ( ! pres5t day h no satisfactory conception1 unless we comp>e x ) our mod]n ,d>w9ism47#a7 ,! pr9ciple ( g5]al irritability _h be5 laid d[n by ,francis ,glisson 7#aeig-afgg7 f d$uctive /udies1 b ,hall] prov$ by exp]im5ts along ! l9e ( inductive me?ods t ?is irritability 0 n common to all fibre z well z to ! fluids ( ! body1 b some?+ entirely special1 & peculi> only to muscul> sub/ance4 ,he di/+ui%$ betwe5 irritability ( muscles & s5sibility ( n]ves4 ,9 #agdg he gave z ! ?ree =ces t produce muscul> movem5ts3 ela/icity1 or dead n]v\s =ce2 irritability1 or innate n]v\s =ce2 & n]v\s =ce 9 itself4 ,& 9 #ageb he describ$ "o hundr$ & n9ety exp]im5ts = det]m9+ :at p>ts ( ! body possess irritability--t is1 ! prop]ty ( contract+ :5 /imulat$4 ,8 conclusion t ?is irritability exi/s 9 muscul> sub/ance alone & is q indep5d5t ( ! n]ves proce$+ to x ar\s$ a controv]sy t 0 nev] def9itely settl$ until late 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury1 :5 ,hall]'s !ory 0 f\nd to be entirely correct4 ,x 0 9 pursuit ( exp]im5ts to e/abli% 8 !ory ( irritability t ,hall] made 8 *ief discov]ies 9 embryology & developm5t4 ,he prov$ t 9 ! process ( incubation ( ! egg ! fir/ trace ( ! he>t ( ! *ick %[s itself 9 ! ?irty-eigh? h\r1 & t ! fir/ trace ( r$ blood %[$ 9 ! =ty-fir/ h\r4 ,by 8 inve/igations ^u ! l[] animals he attempt$ to confirm ! !ory t s9ce ! creation ( g5us e individual is d]iv$ f a prec$+ individual--! exi/+ !ory ( pre=mation1 9 :i* he believ$1 & :i* taught t e individual is fully & completely pre=m$ 9 ! g]m1 simply gr[+ f microscopic to visible proportions1 )\t develop+ any new p>ts4 ,9 physiology1 besides 8 /udies ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 ,hall] /udi$ ! me*anism ( respiration1 refut+ ! tea*+s ( ,hamb]g] 7#afig-agee71 :o ma9ta9$ t ! lungs contract indep5d5tly4 ,hall]1 h[ev]1 9 common ) 8 contempor>ies1 fail$ utt]ly to und]/& ! true function ( ! lungs4 ,! great physiologi/'s influ5ce ^u practical m$ic9e1 :ile mo/ pr(\nd1 0 l>gely indirect4 ,he 0 a !oretical r ?an a practical physician1 yet he is cr$it$ ) be+ ! fir/ physician to use ! wat* 9 c\nt+ ! pulse4 ,,batti/a ,,morgagni ,,& ,,morbid ,,anatomy ,a great contempor>y ( ,hall] 0 ,giovanni ,batti/a ,morgagni 7#afhb-agga71 :o pursu$ :at ,syd5ham _h neglect$1 ! inve/igation 9 anatomy1 ?us supply+ a necess>y c\nt]p>t to ! great ,engli%man's "w4 ,morgagni's inve/igations 7 direct$ *iefly to ! /udy ( morbid anatomy--! /udy ( ! /ructure ( diseas$ tissue1 bo? dur+ life & po/ mortem1 9 contra/ to ! normal anatomical /ructures4 ,?is "w _c be said to h orig9at$ ) him2 = z e>ly z #afgi ,bonnet _h made simil>1 al?\gh less ext5sive1 /udies2 & lat] _m inve/igators1 su* z ,lancisi & ,hall]1 _h made po/-mortem /udies4 ,b ,morgagni's ,de s$ibus et causis morborum p] anatom5 indagatis 0 ! l>ge/1 mo/ accurate1 & be/-illu/rat$ collection ( cases t _h ev] be5 br\ght toge!r1 & m>ks an epo* 9 m$ical sci5ce4 ,f ! "t ( ! publication ( ,morgagni's rese>*es1 morbid anatomy became a recogniz$ bran* ( ! m$ical sci5ce1 & ! effect ( ! impetus ?us giv5 x has be5 /eadily increas+ s9ce t "t4 ,,william ,,hunt] ,william ,hunt] 7#agah-aghc7 mu/ always be rememb]$ z "o ( ! greate/ physicians & anatomi/s ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 & p>ticul>ly z ! fir/ great tea*] ( anatomy 9 ,engl&2 b 8 fame has be5 some:at ov]%ad[$ by t ( 8 y\ng] bro!r ,john4 ,hunt] _h be5 int5d$ & educat$ = ! ,*ur*1 b on ! advice ( ! surgeon ,william ,cull5 he turn$ 8 att5tion to ! /udy ( m$ic9e4 ,8 fir/ attempt at tea*+ 0 9 #agdf1 :5 he deliv]$ a s]ies ( lectures on surg]y = ! ,society ( ,naval ,practition]s4 ,^! lectures prov$ s int]e/+ & in/ructive t he 0 at once invit$ to give o!rs1 & 8 reputation z a lectur] 0 soon e/abli%$4 ,he 0 a natural orator & /ory-tell]1 & he comb9$ ) ^! attractive qualities t ( ?or\ghness & cle>ness 9 demon/rations1 & al?\gh 8 lectures 7 two h\rs long he made !m s full ( int]e/ t 8 pupils seldom tir$ ( li/5+4 ,he believ$ t he c\ld d great] good to ! _w by publicly tea*+ 8 art ?an by practis+ x1 & ev5 dur+ ! la/ few days ( 8 life1 :5 he 0 s weak t 8 fri5ds remon/rat$ aga9/ x1 he cont9u$ 8 tea*+1 fa9t+ f exhau/ion at ! end ( 8 la/ lecture1 :i* prec$$ 8 dea? by only a few days4 ,= _m ye>s x 0 ,hunt]'s ambition to e/abli% a museum :]e ! /udy ( anatomy1 surg]y1 & m$ic9e might be advanc$1 & 9 #agfe he ask$ = a grant ( a plot ( gr\nd = ?is purpose1 (f]+ to sp5d sev5 ?\s& p\nds on its erection besides end[+ x ) a pr(essor%ip ( anatomy4 ,n be+ able to obta9 ?is grant1 h[ev]1 he built a h\se1 9 :i* 7 lecture & dissect+ rooms1 & 8 museum4 ,9 ?is museum 7 anatomical prep>ations1 co9s1 m9]als1 & natural-hi/ory specim5s4 ,hunt]'s weakness 0 8 love ( controv]sy & 8 res5tm5t ( contradiction4 ,?is br\ght him into /ra9$ relations ) _m ( ! lead+ physicians ( 8 "t1 notably 8 own bro!r ,john1 :o himself 0 probably n entirely free f blame 9 ! matt]4 ,hunt] is said to h excus$ 8 own irritability on ! gr\nds t be+ an anatomi/1 & accu/om$ to ! passive submission ( dead bodies1 contradictions became ! m unbe>able4 ,_m ( ! physiological rese>*es begun by him 7 c>ri$ on & p]fect$ by 8 m fam\s bro!r1 p>ticul>ly 8 inve/igations ( ! capill>ies1 b he add$ mu* to ! anatomical k ( sev]al /ructures ( ! body1 notably z to ! /ructure ( c>tilages & jo9ts4 ,,john ,,hunt] ,9 ,abbot ,islip's *apel 9 ,we/m9/] ,abbey1 close to ! re/+-place ( ,b5 ,jonson1 re/ ! rema9s ( ,john ,hunt] 7#agbh-agic71 fam\s 9 ! annals ( m$ic9e z among ! greate/ physiologi/s & surgeons t ! _w has ev] produc$3 a man ^: discov]ies & inv5tions are c\nt$ by scores1 & ^: field ( rese>* 0 only limit$ by ! out]mo/ b\nd>ies ( eighte5?-c5tury sci5ce1 al?\gh 8 ef=ts 7 direct$ *iefly along ! l9es ( 8 pr(ession4 ,until ab\t tw5ty ye>s ( age "y ,hunt] _h %[n little aptitude = /udy1 be+ unusually fond ( out-door sports & amusem5ts2 b ab\t t "t1 realiz+ t "s occupation mu/ be select$1 he ask$ p]mission ( 8 bro!r ,william to attempt "s dissections 9 8 anatomical s*ool 9 ,london4 ,to ! surprise ( 8 bro!r he made ?is dissection unusually well2 & be+ giv5 a second1 he acquitt$ himself ) su* skill t 8 bro!r at once pr$ict$ t he w\ld become a great anatomi/4 ,up to ?is "t he _h _h no tra9+ ( any k9d to prep>e him = 8 pr(essional c>e]1 & knew little ( ,greek or ,lat9--languages entirely unnecess>y = him1 z he prov$ 9 all ( 8 life "w4 ,ottley tells ! /ory t1 :5 twitt$ ) ?is lack ( k ( ! dead languages 9 aft] life1 he said ( 8 oppon5t1 ,i c\ld tea* him t on ! dead body :i* he nev] knew 9 any language1 dead or liv+4 ,by 8 second ye> 9 dissection he _h become s skilful t he 0 giv5 *>ge ( "s ( ! classes 9 8 bro!r's s*ool2 9 #aged he became a surgeon's pupil 9 ,/4 ,george's ,hospital1 & two ye>s lat] h\se-surgeon4 ,hav+ by ov]work br\ght on symptoms t seem$ to ?reat5 consumption1 he accept$ ! position ( /aff-surgeon to an exp$ition to ,belleisle 9 #agfj1 & two ye>s lat] 0 s]v+ ) ! ,engli% army at ,portugal4 ,dur+ all ?is "t he 0 con/antly engag$ 9 sci5tific rese>*es1 _m ( :i*1 su* z 8 obs]vations ( gun-%ot w\nds1 he put to excell5t use 9 lat] life4 ,on return+ to ,engl& mu* improv$ 9 heal? 9 #agfc1 he ent]$ at once ^u 8 c>e] z a ,london surgeon1 & f t "t =w>d 8 progress 0 a practically un9t]rupt$ s]ies ( successes 9 8 pr(ession4 ,hunt]'s "w on ! /udy ( ! lymphatics 0 ( great s]vice to ! m$ical pr(ession4 ,?is important net-"w ( m9ute vessels di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! body _h rec5tly be5 made ! object ( mu* /udy1 & v>i\s /ud5ts1 includ+ ,hall]1 _h made ext5sive inve/igations s9ce _! discov]y by ,asellius4 ,b ,hunt]1 9 #ageh1 0 ! fir/ to discov] ! lymphatics 9 ! neck ( birds1 al?\gh x 0 8 bro!r ,william :o advanc$ ! !ory t ! function ( ^! vessels 0 t ( absorb5ts4 ,"o ( ,john ,hunt]'s pupils1 ,william ,hewson 7#agci-aggd71 fir/ gave an acc\nt1 9 #agfh1 ( ! lymphatics 9 reptiles & fi%es1 & add$ to 8 tea*]'s inve/igations ( ! lymphatics 9 birds4 ,^! /udies ( ! lymphatics h be5 reg>d$1 p]haps ) ju/ice1 z ,hunt]'s mo/ valuable contributions to practical m$ic9e4 ,9 #agfg he met ) an accid5t by :i* he suff]$ a rupture ( ! t5do ,a*illis--! l>ge t5don t =ms ! atta*m5t ( ! muscles ( ! calf to ! heel4 ,f obs]vations ( ?is accid5t1 & subsequ5t exp]im5ts ^u dogs1 he laid ! f\ndation = ! n[ simple & effective op]ation = ! cure ( club feet & o!r de=mities involv+ ! t5dons4 ,9 #aggb he mov$ into 8 resid5ce at ,e>lsc\rt1 ,brompton1 :]e he ga!r$ ab\t him a great m5ag]ie ( animals1 birds1 reptiles1 insects1 & fi%es1 :i* he us$ 9 8 physiological & surgical exp]im5ts4 ,"h he p]=m$ a c\ntless numb] ( exp]im5ts--m1 probably1 ?an any man engag$ 9 pr(essional practice has ev] conduct$4 ,^! exp]im5ts v>i$ 9 nature f obs]vations ( ! habits ( bees & wasps to major surgical op]ations p]=m$ ^u h$gehogs1 dogs1 leop>ds1 etc4 ,x is said t = fifte5 ye>s he kept a flock ( geese = ! sole purpose ( /udy+ ! process ( developm5t 9 eggs4 ,hunt] began 8 fir/ c\rse ( lectures 9 #aggb1 be+ =c$ to d ?is because he _h be5 s repeat$ly misquot$1 & because he felt t he c\ld bett] gauge 8 own k 9 ?is way4 ,lectur+ 0 a sore trial to him1 z he 0 extremely diffid5t1 & )\t writ+ out 8 lectures 9 advance he 0 sc>cely able to speak at all4 ,9 ?is he pres5t$ a m>k$ contra/ to 8 bro!r ,william1 :o 0 a flu5t & brilliant speak]4 ,hunt]'s lectures 7 at be/ simple read+s ( ! facts z he _h writt5 !m1 ! diffid5t tea*] seldom rais+ 8 eyes f 8 manuscript & r>ely /opp+ until 8 complete lecture _h be5 read ?r\gh4 ,8 lectures 71 !re=e1 in/ructive r ?an int]e/+1 z he us$ inf9ite c>e 9 prep>+ !m2 b appe>+ be=e 8 classes 0 s dread$ by him t he is said to h be5 9 ! habit ( tak+ a half-dra*m ( laudanum be=e ea* lecture to n]ve him = ! ordeal4 ,"o is l$ to wond] by :at "n he %all designate t quality ( m9d t r5d]s a bold & fe>less surgeon l ,hunt]1 :o is undaunt$ 9 ! face ( haz>d\s & dang]\s op]ations1 a /umbl+1 halt+1 & fright5$ speak] be=e a little b& (1 at mo/1 ?irty "y m$ical /ud5ts4 ,& yet ?is same ?+ is n unfrequ5tly se5 among ! bolde/ surgeons4 ,hunt]'s ,op]ation = ! ,cure ( ,aneurisms ,x %\ld be an object-lesson to ^? :o1 ignorantly or o!rwise1 prea* aga9/ ! pa9less vivisection z practis$ to-day1 t by ! sacrifice ( a s+le de] 9 ! cause ( sci5ce ,hunt] discov]$ a fact 9 physiology t has be5 ! means ( sav+ ?\s&s ( human lives & ?\s&s ( human bodies f ne$less mutilation4 ,we ref] to ! discov]y ( ! collat]al circulation ( ! blood1 :i* l$1 among o!r ?+s1 to ,hunt]'s successful op]ation ^u aneurisms4 ,simply /at$1 e organ or muscle ( ! body is suppli$ by "o l>ge art]y1 ^: ma9 trunk di/ributes ! blood into its less] bran*es1 & !nce ?r\gh ! capill>ies4 ,cutt+ (f ?is ma9 art]y1 x w\ld seem1 %\ld cut (f entirely ! blood-supply to ! p>ticul> organ :i* is suppli$ by ?is vessel2 & until ! "t ( ,hunt]'s demon/ration ?is belief 0 held by mo/ physiologi/s4 ,b nature has made a provision = ?is possible /oppage ( blood-supply f a s+le s\rce1 & has s arrang$ t "s ( ! small art]ial bran*es com+ f ! ma9 supply-trunk are connect$ ) o!r art]ial bran*es com+ f "s o!r supply-trunk4 ,"u normal conditions ! ma9 art]ial trunks supply _! respective organs1 ! little connect+ art]ioles play+ an insignificant "p4 ,b let ! ma9 supply-trunk be cut (f or /opp$ = :atev] reason1 & a rem>kable ?+ takes place4 ,! little connect+ bran*es beg9 at once to enl>ge & draw blood f ! neighbor+ un9jur$ supply-trunk1 ,?is enl>gem5t cont9ues until at la/ a new r\te = ! circulation has be5 e/abli%$1 ! organ no long] dep5d+ on ! n[ defunct orig9al art]ial trunk1 b gett+ on z well z be=e by ?is collat]al circulation t has be5 e/abli%$4 ,! ?or\gh und]/&+ ( ?is collat]al circulation is "o ( ! mo/ important /eps 9 surg]y1 = until x 0 discov]$ amputations 7 ?\ght necess>y 9 su* cases z ^? involv+ ! art]y supply+ a leg or arm1 s9ce x 0 suppos$ t1 ! art]y be+ /opp$1 dea? ( ! limb & ! subsequ5t necessity = amputation 7 sure to foll[4 ,hunt] solv$ ?is problem by a s+le op]ation ^u a de]1 & 8 practicality z a surgeon l$ him soon aft] to apply ?is k to a c]ta9 class ( surgical cases 9 a mo/ revolution>y & satisfactory mann]4 ,:at l$ to ,hunt]'s f>-rea*+ discov]y 0 8 inve/igation z to ! cause ( ! gr[? ( ! antl]s ( ! de]4 ,wi%+ to asc]ta9 j :at "p ! blood-supply on ! opposite sides ( ! neck play$ 9 ! process ( developm5t1 or1 p]haps m correctly1 to see :at effect cutt+ (f ! ma9 blood-supply w\ld h1 ,hunt] _h "o ( ! de] ( ,ri*mond ,p>k caught & ti$1 :ile he plac$ a ligature ar\nd "o ( ! c>otid art]ies--"o ( ! two pr9cipal art]ies t supply ! head ) blood4 ,he obs]v$ t %ortly aft] ?is ! antl] 7:i* 0 only half gr[n & consequ5tly v vascul>7 on ! side ( ! oblit]at$ art]y became cold to ! t\*--f ! lack ( w>m?-giv+ blood4 ,!re 0 no?+ unexpect$ 9 ?is1 & ,hunt] ?\ght no?+ ( x until a few days lat]1 :5 he f\nd1 to 8 surprise1 t ! antl] _h become z w>m z its fell[1 & 0 app>5tly increas+ 9 size4 ,puzzl$ z to h[ ?is c\ld be1 & suspect+ t 9 "s way 8 ligature ar\nd ! art]y _h n be5 effective1 he ord]$ ! de] kill$1 & on exam9ation 0 a/oni%$ to f9d t :ile 8 ligature _h completely %ut (f ! blood-supply f ! s\rce ( t c>otid art]y1 ! small] art]ies _h become enl>g$ s z to supply ! antl] ) blood z well z ev]1 only by a diff]5t r\te4 ,hunt] soon _h a *ance to make a practical application ( ! k ?us acquir$4 ,?is 0 a case ( popliteal aneurism1 op]ations = :i* _h h]et(ore prov$ pretty uni=mly fatal4 ,an aneurism1 z is g5]ally und]/ood1 is an enl>gem5t ( a c]ta9 "p ( an art]y1 ?is enl>gem5t sometimes becom+ ( enorm\s size1 full ( palpitat+ blood1 & likely to rupture ) fatal results at any "t4 ,if by any means ! blood c be all[$ to rema9 quiet = ev5 a few h\rs 9 ?is aneurism x w =m a clot1 contract1 & f9ally be absorb$ & disappe> )\t any evil results4 ,! problem ( keep+ ! blood quiet1 ) ! he>t cont9ually driv+ x ?r\gh ! vessel1 is n a simple "o1 & 9 ,hunt]'s "t 0 consid]$ s insurm\ntable t "s surgeons advocat$ amputation ( any memb] hav+ an aneurism1 :ile o!rs cut d[n ^u ! tumor itself & attempt$ to tie (f ! art]y above & bel[4 ,! fir/ ( ^! op]ations maim$ ! pati5t = life1 :ile ! second 0 likely to prove fatal4 ,9 pond]+ ov] :at he _h le>n$ ab\t collat]al circulation & ! "t requir$ = x to become fully e/abli%$1 ,hunt] conceiv$ ! idea t if ! blood-supply 0 cut (f f above ! aneurism1 ?us tempor>ily prev5t+ ! ceaseless pulsations f ! he>t1 ?is blood w\ld coagulate & =m a clot be=e ! collat]al circulation c\ld become e/abli%$ or c\ld affect x4 ,! pati5t ^u :om he p]=m$ 8 n[ celebrat$ op]ation 0 afflict$ ) a popliteal aneurism--t is1 ! aneurism 0 locat$ on ! l>ge popliteal art]y j beh9d ! knee-jo9t4 ,hunt]1 !re=e1 ti$ (f ! femoral1 or ma9 supply+ art]y 9 ! ?igh1 a little di/ance above ! aneurism4 ,! op]ation 0 entirely successful1 & 9 six weeks' "t ! pati5t 0 able to leave ! hospital1 & ) two s\nd limbs4 ,naturally ! simplicity & success ( ?is op]ation ar\s$ ! att5tion ( ,europe1 &1 alone1 w\ld h made ! "n ( ,hunt] immortal 9 ! annals ( surg]y4 ,! op]ation has ev] s9ce be5 call$ ! ,hunt]ian op]ation = aneurism1 b !re is reason to believe t ,dom9ique ,anel 7born ab\t #afgi7 p]=m$ a some:at simil> op]ation sev]al ye>s e>li]4 ,x is probable1 h[ev]1 t ,hunt] _h nev] he>d ( ?is "w ( ,anel1 & t 8 op]ation 0 ! outcome ( 8 own indep5d5t reason+ f ! facts he _h le>n$ ab\t collat]al circulation4 ,fur!rmore1 ,hunt]'s mode ( op]ation 0 a mu* bett] "o ?an ,anel's1 &1 :ile ,anel's mu/ claim priority1 ! cr$it ( mak+ x widely kn[n w always be ,hunt]'s4 ,! great s]vices ( ,hunt] 7 recogniz$ bo? at home & abroad1 & honors & positions ( honor & responsibility 7 giv5 him4 ,9 #aggf he 0 appo9t$ surgeon-extraord9>y to ! k+2 9 #aghc he 0 elect$ a memb] ( ! ,royal ,society ( ,m$ic9e & ( ! ,royal ,academy ( ,surg]y at ,p>is2 9 #aghf he became deputy surgeon-g5]al ( ! army2 & 9 #agij he 0 appo9t$ surgeon-g5]al & inspector-g5]al ( hospitals4 ,all ^! positions he fill$ ) cr$it1 & he 0 actively engag$ 9 8 tireless pursuit ( k & 9 dis*>g+ 8 _m duties :5 9 ,octob]1 #agic1 he 0 /rick5 :ile address+ "s colleagues1 & fell dead 9 ! arms ( a fell[-physician4 ,,lazz>o ,,spallanzani ,hunt]'s great rival among contempor>y physiologi/s 0 ! ,italian ,lazz>o ,spallanzani 7#agbi-agii71 "o ( ! mo/ picturesque figures 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce4 ,he 0 n educat$ ei!r z a sci5ti/ or physician1 devot+1 himself at fir/ to philosophy & ! languages1 aft]w>ds /udy+ law1 & lat] tak+ ord]s4 ,b he 0 a ke5 obs]v] ( nature & ( a que/ion+ & inve/igat+ m9d1 s t he is rememb]$ n[ *iefly = 8 discov]ies & inve/igations 9 ! biological sci5ces4 ,"o important demon/ration 0 8 controv]sion ( ! !ory ( abiog5esis1 or spontane\s g5]ation1 z prop\nd$ by ,ne$ham & ,buffon4 ,at ! "t ( ,ne$ham's exp]im5ts x _h long be5 obs]v$ t :5 animal or vegetable matt] _h la9 9 wat] = a little "t--long en\gh = x to beg9 to und]go decomposition--! wat] became fill$ ) microscopic creatures1 ! infusoria animalculis4 ,?is w\ld t5d to %[1 ei!r t ! wat] or ! animal or vegetable sub/ance conta9$ ! g]ms ( ^! m9ute organisms1 or else t !y 7 g5]at$ spontane\sly4 ,x 0 kn[n t boil+ kill$ ^! animalcules1 & ,ne$ham agre$1 !re=e1 t if he fir/ heat$ ! meat or vegetables1 & also ! wat] conta9+ !m1 & !n plac$ !m 9 h]metically scal$ j>s--if he did ?is1 & /ill ! animalcules made _! appe>ance1 x w\ld be pro(-positive t !y _h be5 g5]at$ spontane\sly4 ,accord+ly he made num]\s exp]im5ts1 always ) ! same results--t aft] a few days ! wat] 0 f\nd to sw>m ) ! microscopic creatures4 ,! ?+ seem$ prov5 beyond "q--provid+1 ( c\rse1 t !re _h be5 no slips 9 ! exp]im5ts4 ,b ,abbe ,spallanzani ?\ght t he detect$ su* slips 9 ,ne$ham's exp]im5t4 ,! possibility ( su* slips might come 9 sev]al ways3 ! cont5ts ( ! j> might n h be5 boil$ = a suffici5t l5g? ( "t to kill all ! g]ms1 or ! air might n h be5 exclud$ completely by ! seal+ process4 ,to cov] bo? ^! cont+5cies1 ,spallanzani fir/ h]metically seal$ ! glass vessels & !n boil$ !m = ?ree-qu>t]s ( an h\r4 ,"u ^! circum/ances no animalcules ev] made _! appe>ance--a conclusive demon/ration t r5d]$ ,ne$ham's gr\nds = 8 !ory at once unt5able47#b7 ,alli$ to ^! /udies ( spontane\s g5]ation 7 ,spallanzani's exp]im5ts & obs]vations on ! physiological processes ( g5]ation among high] animals4 ,he exp]im5t$ ) frogs1 tortoises1 & dogs2 & settl$ beyond "q ! function ( ! ovum & sp]matozoon4 ,un=tunately he mis9t]pret$ ! "p play$ by ! sp]matozoa 9 believ+ t _! surr\nd+ fluid 0 equally active 9 ! f]tiliz+ process1 & x 0 n until "s =ty ye>s lat] 7#ahbd7 t ,dumas correct$ ?is error4 ,,! ,,*emical ,,!ory ,,( ,,dige/ion ,among ! mo/ int]e/+ rese>*es ( ,spallanzani 7 8 exp]im5ts to prove t dige/ion1 z c>ri$ on 9 ! /oma*1 is a *emical process4 ,9 ?is he demon/rat$1 z ,r5e ,reaumur _h attempt$ to demon/rate1 t dige/ion c\ld be c>ri$ on outside ! walls ( ! /oma* z an ord9>y *emical reaction1 us+ ! ga/ric juice z ! reag5t = p]=m+ ! exp]im5t4 ,! "q z to :e!r ! /oma* act$ z a gr9d+ or triturat+ organ1 r ?an z a receptacle = *emical action1 _h be5 settl$ by ,reaumur & 0 no long] a "q ( g5]al dispute4 ,reaumur _h demon/rat$ conclusively t dige/ion w\ld take place 9 ! /oma* 9 ! same mann] & ! same "t if ! sub/ance to be dige/$ 0 protect$ f ! p]i/alic movem5ts ( ! /oma* & subject$ to ! action ( ! ga/ric juice only4 ,he did ?is by introduc+ ! sub/ances to be dige/$ into ! /oma* 9 tubes1 & ?us protect$ s t :ile ! juices ( ! /oma* c\ld act ^u !m freely !y w\ld n be affect$ by any movem5ts ( ! organ4 ,foll[+ up ^! exp]im5ts1 he attempt$ to %[ t dige/ion c\ld take place outside ! body z well z 9 x1 z x c]ta9ly %\ld if x 7 a purely *emical process4 ,he collect$ quantities ( ga/ric juice1 & plac+ x 9 suitable vessels conta9+ cru%$ gra9 or fle%1 kept ! mixture at ab\t ! temp]ature ( ! body = sev]al h\rs4 ,aft] repeat$ exp]im5ts ( ?is k9d1 app>5tly conduct$ ) great c>e1 ,reaumur rea*$ ! conclusion t ! ga/ric juice has no m effect out ( ! liv+ body 9 dissolv+ or dige/+ ! food ?an wat]1 mucilage1 milk1 or any o!r bl& fluid47#c7 ,j :y all ( ^! exp]im5ts fail$ to demon/rate a fact s simple does n appe>2 b to ,spallanzani1 at lea/1 !y 7 by no means conclusive1 & he proce$$ to elaborate ^u ! exp]im5ts ( ,reaumur4 ,he made 8 exp]im5ts 9 scal$ tubes expos$ to a c]ta9 degree ( heat1 & %[$ conclusively t ! *emical process does g on1 ev5 :5 ! food & ga/ric juice are remov$ f _! natural environm5t 9 ! /oma*4 ,9 ?is he 0 oppos$ by _m physiologi/s1 among !m ,john ,hunt]1 b ! tru? ( 8 demon/rations c\ld n be %ak51 & 9 lat] ye>s we f9d ,hunt] himself complet+ ,spallanzani's exp]im5ts by 8 /udies ( ! po/-mortem action ( ! ga/ric juice ^u ! /oma* walls4 ,t ,spallanzani's & ,hunt]'s !ories ( ! action ( ! ga/ric juice 7 n at once univ]sally accept$ is %[n by an essay writt5 by a le>n$ physician 9 #ahcd4 ,9 speak+ ( "s ( ,spallanzani's demon/rations1 he writes3 ,9 "s ( ! exp]im5ts1 9 ord] to give ! fle% or gra9s /eep$ 9 ! ga/ric juice ! same temp]ature ) ! body1 ! phials 7 introduc$ "u ! armpits4 ,b ?is is n a fair mode ( asc]ta9+ ! effects ( ! ga/ric juice out ( ! body2 = ! influ5ce :i* life may be suppos$ to h on ! solution ( ! food w\ld be secur$ 9 ?is case4 ,! aff9ities connect$ ) life w\ld ext5d to sub/ances 9 contact ) any "p ( ! sy/em3 sub/ances plac$ "u ! armpits are n plac$ at lea/ 9 ! same circum/ances ) ^? unconnect$ ) a liv+ animal4 ,b j h[ ?is writ] rea*es ! conclusion t ! exp]im5ts ( ,reaumur & ,spallanzani give no evid5ce t ! ga/ric juice has any peculi> influ5ce m ?an wat] or any o!r bl& fluid 9 dige/+ ! food7#d7 is difficult to und]/&4 ,! conclud+ t\*es 7 giv5 to ! new !ory ( dige/ion by ,john ,hunt]1 :o1 z we h se51 at fir/ oppos$ ,spallanzani1 b :o f9ally became an ard5t *ampion ( ! *emical !ory4 ,hunt] n[ c>ri$ ,spallanzani's exp]im5ts fur!r & prov$ ! action ( ! dige/ive fluids aft] dea?4 ,= _m ye>s anatomi/s _h be5 puzzl$ by pa?ological lesion ( ! /oma*1 f\nd po/ mortem1 :5 no symptoms ( any disord] ( ! /oma* _h be5 ev9c$ dur+ life4 ,hunt] rightly conceiv$ t ^! lesions 7 caus$ by ! action ( ! ga/ric juice1 :i*1 :ile unable to act ^u ! liv+ tissue1 cont9u$ its action *emically aft] dea?1 ?us dige/+ ! walls ( ! /oma* 9 :i* x _h be5 =m$4 ,&1 z usual ) 8 obs]vations1 he turn$ ?is discov]y to practical use 9 acc\nt+ = c]ta9 ph5om5a ( dige/ion4 ,! foll[+ acc\nt ( ! /oma* be+ dige/$ aft] dea? 0 writt5 by ,hunt] at ! desire ( ,sir ,john ,pr+le1 :5 he 0 presid5t ( ! ,royal ,society1 & ! circum/ance :i* l$ to ?is is z foll[s3 ,i 0 op5+1 9 8 pres5ce1 ! body ( a pati5t ( 8 own1 :]e ! /oma* 0 9 "p dissolv$1 :i* appe>$ to him v unacc\ntable1 z !re _h be5 no previ\s symptom t c\ld h l$ him to suspect any disease 9 ! /oma*4 ,i took t opportunity ( giv+ him my ideas respect+ x1 & told him t ,i _h long be5 mak+ exp]im5ts on dige/ion1 & consid]$ ?is z "o ( ! facts :i* prov$ a conv]t+ p[] 9 ! ga/ric juice4444 ,!re are a great _m p[]s 9 nature :i* ! liv+ pr9ciple does n enable ! animal matt]1 ) :i* x is comb9$1 to resi/--viz41 ! me*anical & mo/ ( ! /ronge/ *emical solv5ts4 ,x r5d]s x1 h[ev]1 capable ( resi/+ ! p[]s ( f]m5tation1 dige/ion1 & p]haps sev]al o!rs1 :i* are well kn[n to act on ! same matt] :5 depriv$ ( ! liv+ pr9ciple & entirely to decompose x4 ,hunt] concludes 8 pap] ) ! foll[+ p>agraph3 ,^! appe>ances ?r[ consid]able light on ! pr9ciple ( dige/ion1 & %[ t x is nei!r a me*anical p[]1 nor contractions ( ! /oma*1 nor heat1 b some?+ secret$ 9 ! coats ( ! /oma*1 & ?r[n into its cavity1 :i* !re animalizes ! food or assimilates x to ! nature ( ! blood4 ,! p[] ( ?is juice is conf9$ or limit$ to c]ta9 sub/ances1 especially ( ! vegetable & animal k+doms2 & al?\gh ?is m5/ruum is capable ( act+ indep5d5tly ( ! /oma*1 yet x is indebt$ to t viscus = its cont9uance47#e7 ,,! ,,function ,,( ,,respiration ,x is a curi\s comm5t>y on ! crude notions ( me*anics ( previ\s g5]ations t x %\ld h be5 necess>y to prove by exp]im5t t ! ?91 almo/ membran\s /oma* ( a mammal has n ! p[] to pulv]ize1 by m]e attrition1 ! foods t are tak5 into x4 ,h[ev]1 ! pro( 0 n[ = ! fir/ "t =?com+1 & ! "q ( ! g5]al "* ( ! function ( dige/ion 0 =ev] set at re/4 ,almo/ simultane\sly ) ?is great advance1 correspond+ progress 0 made 9 an alli$ field3 ! my/]ies ( respiration 7 at la/ cle>$ up1 ?anks to ! new k ( *emi/ry4 ,! solution ( ! problem foll[$ almo/ z a matt] ( c\rse ^u ! advances ( t sci5ce 9 ! latt] "p ( ! c5tury4 ,hi!rto no "o s9ce ,may[1 ( ! previ\s c5tury1 ^: fla% ( insight _h be5 /rangely ov]look$ & =gott51 _h ev5 vaguely surmis$ ! true function ( ! lungs4 ,! great ,bo]haave _h suppos$ t respiration is *iefly important z an aid to ! circulation ( ! blood2 8 great pupil1 ,hall]1 _h believ$ to ! day ( 8 dea? 9 #aggg t ! ma9 purpose ( ! function is to =m ! voice4 ,no g5ius c\ld hope to fa?om ! my/]y ( ! lungs s long z air 0 suppos$ to be a simple elem5t1 s]v+ a m]e me*anical purpose 9 ! economy ( ! e>?4 ,b ! discov]y ( oxyg5 gave ! clew1 & v soon all ! *emi/s 7 te/+ ! air t came f ! lungs--,dr4 ,prie/ley1 z usual1 be+ 9 ! van4 ,8 initial exp]im5ts 7 made 9 #aggg1 & f ! outset ! problem 0 z good z solv$4 ,o!r exp]im5t]s confirm$ 8 results 9 all _! ess5tials--notably ,s*eele & ,lavoisi] & ,spallanzani & ,davy4 ,x 0 cle>ly e/abli%$ t !re is *emical action 9 ! contact ( ! air ) ! tissue ( ! lungs2 t "s ( ! oxyg5 ( ! air disappe>s1 & t c>bonic-acid gas is add$ to ! inspir$ air4 ,x 0 %[n1 too1 t ! blood1 hav+ come 9 contact ) ! air1 is *ang$ f black to r$ 9 color4 ,^! ess5tials 7 n 9 dispute f ! fir/4 ,b z to j :at *emical *anges caus$ ^! results 0 ! subject ( controv]sy4 ,:e!r1 = example1 oxyg5 is actually absorb$ into ! blood1 or :e!r x m]ely unites ) c>bon giv5 (f f ! blood1 0 long 9 dispute4 ,ea* ( ! ma9 disputants 0 bias$ by 8 own p>ticul> views z to ! moot po9ts ( *emi/ry4 ,lavoisi]1 = example1 believ$ oxyg5 gas to be compos$ ( a metal oxyg5 comb9$ ) ! alleg$ elem5t heat2 ,dr4 ,prie/ley ?\ght x a comp\nd ( positive electricity & phlogi/on2 & ,humphry ,davy1 :5 he ent]$ ! li/s a little lat]1 suppos$ x to be a comp\nd ( oxyg5 & light4 ,su* mi/ak5 notions naturally complicat$ matt]s & delay$ a complete und]/&+ ( ! *emical processes ( respiration4 ,x 0 "s "t1 too1 be=e ! idea ga9$ acceptance t ! mo/ important *emical *anges d n occur 9 ! lungs !mselves1 b 9 ! ultimate tissues4 ,inde$1 ! matt] 0 n cle>ly settl$ at ! close ( ! c5tury4 ,nev]!less1 ! problem ( respiration _h be5 solv$ 9 its ess5tials4 ,moreov]1 ! va/ly important fact _h be5 e/abli%$ t a process ess5tially id5tical ) respiration is necess>y to ! exi/5ce n only ( all creatures suppli$ ) lungs1 b to fi%es1 insects1 & ev5 vegetables--9 %ort1 to e k9d ( liv+ organism4 ,,erasmus ,,d>w9 ,,& ,,vegetable ,,physiology ,"s int]e/+ exp]im5ts reg>d+ vegetable respiration 7 made j at ! close ( ! c5tury by ,erasmus ,d>w91 & record$ 9 8 ,botanic ,g>d5 z a foot-note to ! v]se3 ,:ile spread 9 air ! leaves respir+ play4 ,^! notes are wor? quot+ at "s l5g?1 z !y give a cle> idea ( ! physiological doctr9es ( ! "t 7#agii71 :ile tak+ advance gr\nd z to ! specific matt] 9 "q3 ,!re h be5 v>i\s op9ions1 ,d>w9 says1 conc]n+ ! use ( ! leaves ( plants 9 ! vegetable economy4 ,"s h cont5d$ t !y are p]spiratory organs4 ,?is does n seem probable f an exp]im5t ( ,dr4 ,hales1 ,vegetable ,/atics1 p4 #cj4 ,he1 f\nd1 by cutt+ (f bran*es ( trees ) apples on !m & tak+ (f ! leaves1 t an apple exhal$ ab\t z mu* z two leaves ! surfaces ( :i* 7 ne>ly equal to ! apple2 :5ce x w\ld appe> t apples h z good a claim to be t]m$ p]spiratory organs z leaves4 ,o!rs h believ$ !m excretory organs ( excrem5titi\s juices1 b z ! vapor exhal$ f vegetables has no ta/e1 ?is idea is no m probable ?an ! o!r2 add to ?is t 9 mo/ wea!rs !y d n appe> to p]spire or exhale at all4 ,! int]nal surface ( ! lungs or air-vessels 9 m5 is said to be equal to ! ext]nal surface ( ! :ole body1 or almo/ fifte5 squ>e feet2 on ?is surface ! blood is expos$ to ! influ5ce ( ! respir$ air ?r\gh ! m$ium1 h[ev]1 ( a ?9 pellicle2 by ?is exposure to ! air x has its color *ang$ f deep r$ to bright sc>let1 & acquires some?+ s necess>y to ! exi/5ce ( life t we c live sc>cely a m9ute )\t ?is wond]ful process4 ,! analogy betwe5 ! leaves ( plants & ! lungs or gills ( animals seems to embrace s _m circum/ances t we c sc>cely )hold our cons5t to _! p]=m+ simil> (fices4 #a4 ,! great surface ( leaves comp>$ to t ( ! trunk & bran*es ( trees is su* t x w\ld seem to be an organ well adapt$ = ! purpose ( expos+ ! vegetable juices to ! influ5ce ( ! air2 ?is1 h[ev]1 we %all see aft]w>ds is probably p]=m$ only by _! upp] surfaces1 yet ev5 9 ?is case ! surface ( ! leaves 9 g5]al be> a great] proportion to ! surface ( ! tree ?an ! lungs ( animals to _! ext]nal surfaces4 #b4 ,9 ! lung ( animals ! blood1 aft] hav+ be5 expos$ to ! air 9 ! extremities ( ! pulmon>y art]y1 is *ang$ 9 color f deep r$ to bright sc>let1 & c]ta9ly 9 "s ( its ess5tial prop]ties x is !n collect$ by ! pulmon>y ve9 & return$ to ! he>t4 ,to %[ a simil>ity ( circum/ances 9 ! leaves ( plants1 ! foll[+ exp]im5t 0 made1 ,june #bd1 #agha4 ,a /alk ) leaves & se$-vessels ( l>ge spurge 7,euphorbia helioscopia7 _h be5 sev]al days plac$ 9 a decoction ( madd] 7,rubia t9ctorum7 s t ! l[] "p ( ! /em & two ( ! und]mo/ leaves 7 imm]s$ 9 x4 ,aft] hav+ wa%$ ! imm]s$ leaves 9 cle> wat] ,i c\ld readily discov] ! color ( ! madd] pass+ along ! middle rib ( ea* leaf4 ,! r$ art]y 0 beautifully visible on ! "u & on ! upp] surface ( ! leaf2 b on ! upp] side _m r$ bran*es 7 se5 go+ f x to ! extremities ( ! leaf1 :i* on ! o!r side 7 n visible except by look+ ?r\gh x aga9/ ! light4 ,on ?is "u side a sy/em ( bran*+ vessels c>ry+ a pale milky fluid 7 se5 com+ f ! extremities ( ! leaf1 & cov]+ ! :ole "u side ( x1 & jo9+ two l>ge ve9s1 "o on ea* side ( ! r$ art]y 9 ! middle rib ( ! leaf1 & along ) x desc5d+ to ! foot-/alk or petiole4 ,on slitt+ "o ( ^! leaves ) scissors1 & hav+ a magnify+-glass ready1 ! milky blood 0 se5 ooz+ out ( ! return+ ve9s on ea* side ( ! r$ art]y 9 ! middle rib1 b none ( ! r$ fluid f ! art]y4 ,all ^! appe>ances 7 m easily se5 9 a leaf ( ,picris treat$ 9 ! same mann]2 = 9 ?is milky plant ! /ems & middle rib ( ! leaves are sometimes naturally color$ r$di%1 & h5ce ! color ( ! madd] seem$ to pass f>!r into ! ramifications ( _! leaf-art]ies1 & 0 !re beautifully visible ) ! return+ bran*es ( milky ve9s on ea* side4 ,d>w9 n[ goes on to draw an incorrect inf]5ce f 8 obs]vations3 #c4 ,f ^! exp]im5ts1 he says1 ! upp] surface ( ! leaf appe>$ to be ! imm$iate organ ( respiration1 because ! color$ fluid 0 c>ri$ to ! extremities ( ! leaf by vessels mo/ conspicu\s on ! upp] surface1 & !re *ang$ into a milky fluid1 :i* is ! blood ( ! plant1 & !n return$ by concomitant ve9s on ! "u surface1 :i* 7 se5 to ooze :5 divid$ ) scissors1 & :i*1 9 ,picris1 p>ticul>ly1 r5d] ! "u surface ( ! leaves greatly :it] ?an ! upp] "o4 ,b 9 po9t ( fact1 z /udies ( a lat] g5]ation 7 to %[1 x is ! "u surface ( ! leaf t is mo/ abundantly provid$ ) /omata1 or brea?+-pores4 ,f ! /&-po9t ( ?is lat] k1 x is ( int]e/ to foll[ our au?or a little f>!r1 to illu/rate yet m fully ! possibility ( comb9+ correct obs]vations ) a faulty inf]5ce4 #d4 ,z ! upp] surface ( leaves con/itutes ! organ ( respiration1 on :i* ! sap is expos$ 9 ! t]m9ation ( art]ies b5ea? a ?9 pellicle to ! action ( ! atmosph]e1 ^! surfaces 9 _m plants /rongly repel moi/ure1 z cabbage leaves1 :5ce ! p>ticles ( ra9 ly+ ov] _! surfaces )\t t\*+ !m1 z obs]v$ by ,mr4 ,melville 7,essays ,lit]>y & ,philosophical3 ,ed9burgh71 h ! appe>ance ( globules ( quicksilv]4 ,& h5ce leaves ) ! upp] surfaces on wat] )] z soon z 9 ! dry air1 b cont9ue gre5 = _m days if plac$ ) ! "u surface on wat]1 z appe>s 9 ! exp]im5ts ( ,monsieur ,bonnet 7,usage des ,feuilles74 ,h5ce "s aquatic plants1 z ! wat]-lily 7,nymphoea71 h ! l[] sides float+ on ! wat]1 :ile ! upp] surfaces rema9 dry 9 ! air4 #e4 ,z ^? insects :i* h _m spiracula1 or brea?+ ap]tures1 z wasps & flies1 are imm$iately suffocat$ by p\r+ oil ^u !m1 ,i c>efully cov]$ ) oil ! surfaces ( sev]al leaves ( phlomis1 ( ,portugal laurel1 & balsams1 & ?\gh x w\ld n regul>ly adh]e1 ,i f\nd !m all die 9 a day or two4 ,x mu/ be add$ t _m leaves are furni%$ ) muscles ab\t _! foot-/alks1 to turn _! surfaces to ! air or light1 z mimosa or ,h$ys>um gyrans4 ,f all ^! analogies ,i ?9k !re c be no d\bt b t leaves ( trees are _! lungs1 giv+ out a phlogi/ic mat]ial to ! atmosph]e1 & absorb+ oxyg51 or vital air4 #f4 ,! great use ( light to vegetation w\ld appe> f ?is !ory to be by dis5gag+ vital air f ! wat] :i* !y p]spire1 & !nce to facilitate its union ) _! blood expos$ b5ea? ! ?9 surface ( _! leaves2 s9ce :5 pure air is ?us appli$ x is probable t x c be m readily absorb$4 ,h5ce1 9 ! curi\s exp]im5ts ( ,dr4 ,prie/ley & ,mr4 ,+5h\z1 "s plants purifi$ less air ?an o!rs--t is1 !y p]spir$ less 9 ! sun%9e2 & ,mr4 ,s*eele f\nd t by putt+ peas into wat] :i* ab\t half cov]$ !m !y conv]t$ ! vital air into fix$ air1 or c>bonic-acid gas1 9 ! same mann] z 9 animal respiration4 #g4 ,! circulation 9 ! lungs or leaves ( plants is v simil> to t ( fi%4 ,9 fi% ! blood1 aft] hav+ pass$ ?r\gh _! gills1 does n return to ! he>t z f ! lungs ( air-brea?+ animals1 b ! pulmon>y ve9 tak+ ! /ructure ( an art]y aft] hav+ receiv$ ! blood f ! gills1 :i* !re ga9s a m florid color1 di/ributes x to ! o!r p>ts ( _! bodies4 ,! same /ructure occurs 9 ! liv]s ( fi%1 :5ce we see 9 ^? animals two circulations indep5d5t ( ! p[] ( ! he>t--viz41 t beg9n+ at ! t]m9ation ( ! ve9s ( ! gills & bran*+ ?r\gh ! muscles1 & t :i* passes ?r\gh ! liv]2 bo? :i* are c>ri$ on by ! action ( ^? respective art]ies & ve9s47#f7 ,d>w9 is "h a trifle fanciful 9 =c+ ! analogy betwe5 plants & animals4 ,! circulatory sy/em ( plants is really n q s elaborately comp>able to t ( fi%es z he suppos$4 ,b ! all-important idea ( ! uni=mity und]ly+ ! seem+ div]sity ( ,nature is "h exemplifi$1 z else:]e 9 ! writ+s ( ,erasmus ,d>w92 &1 m specifically1 a cle> grasp ( ! ess5tials ( ! function ( respiration is fully demon/rat$4 ,,zoology ,,at ,,! ,,close ,,( ,,! ,,eighte5? ,,c5tury ,sev]al causes conspir$ to make exploration all ! fa%ion dur+ ! clos+ epo* ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,new aid to ! navigator _h be5 furni%$ by ! p]fect$ compass & quadrant1 & by ! inv5tion ( ! *ronomet]2 m$ical sci5ce _h bani%$ scurvy1 :i* hi!rto _h be5 a p]petual m5ace to ! voyag]2 &1 above all1 ! re/less _s ( ! age impell$ ! v5turesome to seek novelty 9 fields altoge!r new4 ,"s />t$ = ! pole1 o!rs tri$ = a nor!a/ or nor?we/ passage to ,india1 yet o!rs s\ght ! great fictiti\s ant>ctic cont95t told ( by tradition4 ,all ^! ( c\rse fail$ ( _! imm$iate purpose1 b !y add$ mu* to ! _w's /ore ( k & its fund ( travell]s' tales4 ,among all ^! tales none 0 m rem>kable ?an ^? :i* told ( /range liv+ creatures f\nd 9 antipodal l&s4 ,& "h1 z did n happ5 9 e field1 ! n>ratives 7 (t5 sub/antiat$ by ! exhibition ( specim5s t admitt$ no "q4 ,_m a company ( explor]s return$ m or less lad5 ) su* trophies f ! animal & vegetable k+doms1 to ! m+l$ a/oni%m5t1 delight1 & bewild]m5t ( ! closet naturali/s4 ,! foll[]s ( ,l9naeus 9 ! gold5 age ( natural hi/ory1 a few decades be=e1 _h increas$ ! numb] ( kn[n species ( fi%es to ab\t f\r hundr$1 ( birds to "o ?\s&1 ( insects to ?ree ?\s&1 & ( plants to t5 ?\s&4 ,b n[ ^! sudd5 accessions f new t]ritories d\bl$ ! figure = plants1 tripl$ x = fi% & birds1 & br\ght ! numb] ( describ$ insects above tw5ty ?\s&4 ,naturally en\gh1 ?is weal? ( new mat]ial 0 sorely puzzl+ to ! classifi]s4 ,! m disc]n+ began to see t ! artificial sy/em ( ,l9naeus1 wond]ful & useful z x _h be51 mu/ be advanc$ ^u be=e ! new mat]ial c\ld be satisfactorily dispos$ (4 ,! way to a m natural sy/em1 bas$ on less arbitr>y signs1 _h be5 po9t$ out by ,jussieu 9 botany1 b ! zoologi/s 7 n prep>$ to make headway t[>ds su* a sy/em until !y %\ld ga9 a wid] und]/&+ ( ! organisms ) :i* !y _h to deal ?r\gh compreh5sive /udies ( anatomy4 ,su* /udies ( individual =ms 9 _! relations to ! entire scale ( organic be+s 7 pursu$ 9 ^! la/ decades ( ! c5tury1 b ?\gh two or ?ree mo/ important g5]alizations 7 a*iev$ 7notably ,kasp> ,wolff's conception ( ! cell z ! basis ( organic life1 & ,goe!'s all-important doctr9e ( metamorphosis ( p>ts71 yet1 z a :ole1 ! "w ( ! anatomi/s ( ! p]iod 0 g]m9ative r ?an fruit-be>+4 ,bi*at's volumes1 tell+ ( ! recognition ( ! fundam5tal tissues ( ! body1 did n beg9 to appe> till ! la/ ye> ( ! c5tury4 ,! ann\ncem5t by ,cuvi] ( ! doctr9e ( correlation ( p>ts be>s ! same date1 b 9 g5]al ! /udies ( ?is great naturali/1 :i* 9 due "t 7 to /amp him z ! successor ( ,l9naeus1 7 z yet only fairly begun4 ,v4 ,,anatomy ,,& ,,physiology ,,9 ,,! ,,n9ete5? ,,c5tury ,,cuvi] ,,& ,,! ,,correlation ,,( ,,p>ts ,we h se5 t ! focal po9ts ( ! physiological _w t[>ds ! close ( ! eighte5? c5tury 7 ,italy & ,engl&1 b :5 ,spallanzani & ,hunt] pass$ away ! sc5e %ift$ to ,france4 ,! "t 0 peculi>ly propiti\s1 z ! rec5t advances 9 _m l9es ( sci5ce _h br\ght fre% data = ! /ud5t ( animal life :i* 7 9 ne$ ( classification1 &1 z sev]al m9ds capable ( su* a task 7 9 ! field1 x 0 natural t great g5]alizations %\ld h come to be q ! fa%ion4 ,?us x 0 t ,cuvi] came =w>d ) a br&-new classification ( ! animal k+dom1 e/abli%+ f\r great types ( be+1 :i* he call$ v]tebrates1 mollusks1 articulates1 & radiates4 ,lam>ck _h %ortly be=e e/abli%$ ! broad di/9ction betwe5 animals ) & ^? )\t a backbone2 ,cuvi]'s ,classification divid$ ! latt]--! inv]tebrates--into ?ree m9or gr\ps4 ,& ?is division1 famili> ev] s9ce to all /ud5ts ( zoology1 has only 9 v rec5t ye>s be5 supplant$1 & !n n by revolution1 b by a fur!r division1 :i* ! elaborate rec5t /udies ( l[] =ms ( life seem$ to make desirable4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ^? /udies ( comp>ative anatomy :i* l$ to 8 new classification1 ,cuvi]'s att5tion 0 call$ con/antly to ! peculi> co-ord9ation ( p>ts 9 ea* individual organism4 ,?us an animal ) %>p talons = cat*+ liv+ prey--z a memb] ( ! cat tribe--has also %>p tee?1 adapt$ = te>+ up ! fle% ( its victim1 & a p>ticul> type ( /oma*1 q diff]5t f t ( h]bivor\s creatures4 ,?is adaptation ( all ! p>ts ( ! animal to "o ano!r ext5ds to ! mo/ div]se p>ts ( ! organism1 & enables ! skill$ anatomi/1 f ! obs]vation ( a s+le typical "p1 to draw inf]5ces z to ! /ructure ( ! entire animal--a fact :i* 0 ( va/ aid to ,cuvi] 9 8 /udies ( paleontology4 ,x did n enable ,cuvi]1 nor does x enable any "o else1 to recon/ruct fully ! ext9ct animal f obs]vation ( a s+le bone1 z has sometimes be5 ass]t$1 b :at x really does e/abli%1 9 ! h&s ( an exp]t1 is suffici5tly a/oni%+4 ,:ile ! /udy ( ! fossil rema9s ( ! great] quadrup$s is m satisfactory1 he writes1 by ! cle> results :i* x af=ds1 ?an t ( ! rema9s ( o!r animals f\nd 9 a fossil /ate1 x is also complicat$ ) great] & m num]\s difficulties4 ,fossil %ells are usually f\nd q entire1 & reta9+ all ! *>act]s requisite = comp>+ !m ) ! specim5s conta9$ 9 collections ( natural hi/ory1 or repres5t$ 9 ! works ( naturali/s4 ,ev5 ! skeletons ( fi%es are f\nd m or less entire1 s t ! g5]al =ms ( _! bodies c1 = ! mo/ "p1 be asc]ta9$1 & usually1 at lea/1 _! g5]ic & specific *>act]s are det]m9able1 z ^! are mo/ly drawn f _! solid p>ts4 ,9 quadrup$s1 on ! contr>y1 ev5 :5 _! entire skeletons are f\nd1 !re is great difficulty 9 discov]+ _! di/+ui%+ *>act]s1 z ^! are *iefly f\nd$ ^u _! hairs & colors & o!r m>ks :i* h disappe>$ previ\s to _! incru/ation4 ,x is also v r>e to f9d any fossil skeletons ( quadrup$s 9 any degree approa*+ to a complete /ate1 z ! /rata = ! mo/ "p only conta9 sep>ate bones1 scatt]$ confus$ly & almo/ always brok5 & r$uc$ to fragm5ts1 :i* are ! only means left to naturali/s = asc]ta9+ ! species or g5]a to :i* !y h belong$4 ,=tunately comp>ative anatomy1 :5 ?or\ghly und]/ood1 enables u to surm\nt all ^! difficulties1 z a c>eful application ( its pr9ciples in/ructs u 9 ! correspond5ces & dissimil>ities ( ! =ms ( organiz$ bodies ( diff]5t k9ds1 by :i* ea* may be rigor\sly asc]ta9$ f almo/ e fragm5t ( its v>i\s p>ts & organs4 ,e organiz$ individual =ms an entire sy/em ( its own1 all ! p>ts ( :i* naturally correspond1 & concur to produce a c]ta9 def9ite purpose1 by reciprocal reaction1 or by comb9+ t[>ds ! same end4 ,h5ce none ( ^! sep>ate p>ts c *ange _! =ms )\t a correspond+ *ange 9 ! o!r p>ts ( ! same animal1 & consequ5tly ea* ( ^! p>ts1 tak5 sep>ately1 indicates all ! o!r p>ts to :i* x has belong$4 ,?us1 z ,i h else:]e %[n1 if ! visc]a ( an animal are s organiz$ z only to be fitt$ = ! dige/ion ( rec5t fle%1 x is also requisite t ! jaws %\ld be s con/ruct$ z to fit !m = dev\r+ prey2 ! claws mu/ be con/ruct$ = seiz+ & te>+ x to pieces2 ! tee? = cutt+ & divid+ its fle%2 ! entire sy/em ( ! limbs1 or organs ( motion1 = pursu+ & ov]tak+ x2 & ! organs ( s5se = discov]+ x at a di/ance4 ,nature mu/ also h end[$ ! bra9 ( ! animal ) in/9cts suffici5t = conceal+ itself & = lay+ plans to cat* its necess>y victims4444 ,to enable ! animal to c>ry (f its prey :5 seiz$1 a correspond+ =ce is requisite 9 ! muscles :i* elevate ! head1 & ?is necess>ily gives rise to a det]m9ate =m ( ! v]tebrae to :i* ^! muscles are atta*$ & ( ! occiput into :i* !y are ins]t$4 ,9 ord] t ! tee? ( a c>nivor\s animal may be able to cut ! fle%1 !y require to be %>p1 m or less s 9 proportion to ! great] or less quantity ( fle% t !y h to cut4 ,x is requisite t _! roots %\ld be solid & /rong1 9 proportion to ! quantity & size ( ! bones :i* !y h to break to pieces4 ,! :ole ( ^! circum/ances mu/ necess>ily influ5ce ! developm5t & =m ( all ! p>ts :i* contribute to move ! jaws4444 ,aft] ^! obs]vations1 x w be easily se5 t simil> conclusions may be drawn ) respect to ! limbs ( c>nivor\s animals1 :i* require p>ticul> con=mations to fit !m = rapidity ( motion 9 g5]al2 & t simil> consid]ations mu/ influ5ce ! =ms & connections ( ! v]tebrae & o!r bones con/itut+ ! trunk ( ! body1 to fit !m = flexibility & read9ess ( motion 9 all directions4 ,! bones also ( ! nose1 ( ! orbit1 & ( ! e>s require c]ta9 =ms & /ructures to fit !m = giv+ p]fection to ! s5ses ( smell1 sight1 & he>+1 s necess>y to animals ( prey4 ,9 %ort1 ! %ape & /ructure ( ! tee? regulate ! =ms ( ! condyle1 ( ! %\ld]-blade1 & ( ! claws1 9 ! same mann] z ! equation ( a curve regulates all its o!r prop]ties2 & z 9 reg>d to any p>ticul> curve all its prop]ties may be asc]ta9$ by assum+ ea* sep>ate prop]ty z ! f\ndation ( a p>ticul> equation1 9 ! same mann] a claw1 a %\ld]-blade1 a condyle1 a leg or arm bone1 or any o!r bone sep>ately consid]$1 enables u to discov] ! description ( tee? to :i* !y h belong$2 & s also reciprocally we may det]m9e ! =ms ( ! o!r bones f ! tee?4 ,?us comm5c+ our inve/igations by a c>eful survey ( any "o bone by itself1 a p]son :o is suffici5tly ma/] ( ! laws ( organic /ructure may1 z x 71 recon/ruct ! :ole animal to :i* t bone belong$47#a7 ,we h already po9t$ out t no "o is q able to p]=m ! necromantic feat sugge/$ 9 ! la/ s5t5ce2 b ! exagg]ation is p>donable 9 ! en?usia/ to :om ! pr9ciple meant s mu* & 9 ^: h&s x ext5d$ s f>4 ,( c\rse ?is entire pr9ciple1 9 its broad outl9es1 is some?+ ) :i* e /ud5t ( anatomy _h be5 famili> f ! "t :5 anatomy 0 fir/ /udi$1 b ! full expression ( ! law ( co-ord9ation1 z ,cuvi] call$ x1 _h nev] be5 explicitly made be=e2 &1 not)/&+ its seem+ obvi\sness1 ! exposition :i* ,cuvi] made ( x 9 ! introduction to 8 classical "w on comp>ative anatomy1 :i* 0 publi%$ dur+ ! fir/ decade ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 ranks z a great discov]y4 ,x is "o ( ^? g5]alizations :i* s]ve z guidepo/s to o!r discov]ies4 ,,bi*at ,,& ,,! ,,bodily ,,tissues ,mu* ! same ?+ may be said ( ano!r g5]alization reg>d+ ! animal body1 :i* ! brilliant "y ,fr5* physician ,m>ie ,francois ,bi*at made 9 call+ att5tion to ! fact t ea* v]tebrate organism1 includ+ man1 has really two q diff]5t sets ( organs--"o set "u volitional control1 & s]v+ ! end ( locomotion1 ! o!r remov$ f volitional control1 & s]v+ ! ends ( ! vital processes ( dige/ion1 assimilation1 & ! l4 ,he call$ ^! sets ( organs ! animal sy/em & ! organic sy/em1 respectively4 ,! division ?us po9t$ out 0 n q new1 = ,grimaud1 pr(essor ( physiology 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,montpelli]1 _h e>li] made :at 0 sub/antially ! same classification ( ! functions into int]nal or dige/ive & ext]nal or locomotive2 b x 0 ,bi*at's exposition t gave curr5cy to ! idea4 ,f> m important1 h[ev]1 0 ano!r classification :i* ,bi*at put =w>d 9 8 "w on anatomy1 publi%$ j at ! beg9n+ ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,?is 0 ! division ( all animal /ructures into :at ,bi*at call$ tissues1 & ! po9t+ out t !re are really only a few k9ds ( ^! 9 ! body1 mak+ up all ! div]se organs4 ,?us muscul> organs =m "o sy/em2 membran\s organs ano!r2 gl&ul> organs a ?ird2 ! vascul> me*anism a f\r?1 & s on4 ,! di/9ction is s obvi\s t x seems r difficult to conceive t x c\ld h be5 ov]look$ by ! e>lie/ anatomi/s2 b1 9 po9t ( fact1 x is only obvi\s because n[ x has be5 famili>ly taught = almo/ a c5tury4 ,x _h nev] be5 giv5 explicit expression be=e ! "t ( ,bi*at1 ?\gh x is said t ,bi*at himself 0 some:at indebt$ = x to 8 ma/]1 ,desault1 & to ! fam\s ali5i/ ,p9el4 ,h[ev] t may be1 x is c]ta9 t all subsequ5t anatomi/s h f\nd ,bi*at's classification ( ! tissues ( ! utmo/ value 9 _! /udies ( ! animal functions4 ,subsequ5t advances 7 to %[ t ! di/9ction betwe5 ! v>i\s tissues is n really s fundam5tal z ,bi*at suppos$1 b t takes no?+ f ! practical value ( ! fam\s classification4 ,x 0 b a /ep f ?is sci5tific classification ( tissues to a simil> classification ( ! diseases affect+ !m1 & ?is 0 "o ( ! greate/ /eps t[>ds plac+ m$ic9e on ! plane ( an exact sci5ce4 ,?is subject ( ^! bran*es completely fasc9at$ ,bi*at1 & he exclaim$1 en?usia/ically3 ,take away "s fev]s & n]v\s tr\ble1 & all else belongs to ! k+dom ( pa?ological anatomy4 ,b out ( ?is en?usiasm came great results4 ,bi*at practis$ z he prea*$1 &1 believ+ t x 0 only possible to und]/& disease by obs]v+ ! symptoms c>efully at ! b$side1 &1 if ! disease t]m9at$ fatally1 by po/-mortem exam9ation1 he 0 s ardu\s 9 8 pursuit ( k t )9 a p]iod ( less ?an six mon?s he _h made ov] six hundr$ autopsies--a record t has seldom1 if ev]1 be5 equall$4 ,nor 7 8 ef=ts fruitless1 z a s+le example w suffice to %[4 ,by 8 exam9ations he 0 able to prove t diseases ( ! *e/1 :i* _h =m]ly be5 class$ "u ! indef9ite "n p]ipneumonia1 might involve ?ree diff]5t /ructures1 ! pleural sac cov]+ ! lungs1 ! lung itself1 & ! bron*ial tubes1 ! diseases affect+ ^! organs be+ kn[n respectively z pleuritis1 pneumonia1 & bron*itis1 ea* "o diff]+ f ! o!rs z to prognosis & treatm5t4 ,! advantage ( su* an exact classification ne$s no demon/ration4 ,,li/] ,,& ,,! ,,p]fect$ ,,microscope ,at ! same "t :5 ^! broad macroscopical di/9ctions 7 be+ drawn !re 7 o!r work]s :o 7 /riv+ to g ev5 deep] into ! intricacies ( ! animal me*anism ) ! aid ( ! microscope4 ,?is und]tak+1 h[ev]1 0 beset ) v great optical difficulties1 & = a long "t little advance 0 made ^u ! "w ( prec$+ g5]ations4 ,two great optical b>ri]s1 kn[n te*nically z sph]ical & *romatic ab]ration--! "o due to a failure ( ! rays ( light to fall all 9 "o plane :5 focaliz$ ?r\gh a l5s1 ! o!r due to ! disp]sive action ( ! l5s 9 break+ ! :ite light into prismatic colors--confront$ ! mak]s ( microscopic l5ses1 & seem$ all b insup]able4 ,! mak+ ( a*romatic l5ses = telescopes _h be5 accompli%$1 x is true1 by ,doll& 9 ! previ\s c5tury1 by ! union ( l5ses ( cr[n glass ) ^? ( fl9t glass1 ^! two mat]ials hav+ diff]5t indices ( refraction & disp]sion4 ,b1 aside f ! me*anical difficulties :i* arise :5 ! l5s is ( ! m9ute dim5sions requir$ = use ) ! microscope1 o!r p]plexities are introduc$ by ! fact t ! use ( a wide p5cil ( light is a desid]atum1 9 ord] to ga9 suffici5t illum9ation :5 l>ge magnification is to be secur$4 ,9 ! attempt to ov]come ^? difficulties1 ! =emo/ physical philosoph]s ( ! "t came to ! aid ( ! be/ opticians4 ,v e>ly 9 ! c5tury1 ,dr4 7aft]w>ds ,sir ,david7 ,brew/]1 ! r5[n$ ,scot* physici/1 sugge/$ t c]ta9 advantages might accrue f ! use ( su* gems z h high refractive & l[ disp]sive indices1 9 place ( l5ses made ( glass4 ,accord+ly l5ses 7 made ( diamond1 ( sapphire1 & s on1 & ) "s measure ( success4 ,b 9 #ahab a mu* m important innovation 0 introduc$ by ,dr4 ,william ,hyde ,wolla/on1 "o ( ! greate/ & mo/ v]satile1 &1 s9ce ! dea? ( ,cav5di%1 by f> ! mo/ ecc5tric ( ,engli% natural philosoph]s4 ,?is 0 ! sugge/ion to use two plano-convex l5ses1 plac$ at a prescrib$ di/ance ap>t1 9 lieu ( ! s+le d\ble-convex l5s g5]ally us$4 ,?is comb9ation l>gely ov]came ! sph]ical ab]ration1 & x ga9$ imm$iate fame z ! ,wolla/on d\blet4 ,to obviate loss ( light 9 su* a d\blet f increase ( reflect+ surfaces1 ,dr4 ,brew/] sugge/$ fill+ ! int]space betwe5 ! two l5ses ) a cem5t hav+ ! same index ( refraction z ! l5ses !mselves--an improvem5t ( manife/ advantage4 ,an improvem5t yet m important 0 made by ,dr4 ,wolla/on himself 9 ! introduction ( ! diaphragm to limit ! field ( vision betwe5 ! l5ses1 in/ead ( 9 front ( ! ant]ior l5s4 ,a pair ( l5ses ?us equipp$ ,dr4 ,wolla/on call$ ! p]iscopic microscope4 ,dr4 ,brew/] sugge/$ t 9 su* a l5s ! same object might be atta9$ ) great] ease by gr9d+ an equatorial groove ab\t a ?ick or globul> l5s & fill+ ! groove ) an opaque cem5t4 ,?is arrangem5t f\nd mu* favor1 & came subsequ5tly to be kn[n z a ,codd+ton l5s1 ?\gh ,mr4 ,codd+ton laid no claim to be+ its inv5tor4 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 ano!r ( ! v great physici/s ( ! "t1 also gave att5tion to ! problem ( improv+ ! microscope1 & 9 #ahba he introduc$ :at 0 call$ an aplanatic comb9ation ( l5ses1 9 :i*1 z ! "n implies1 ! sph]ical ab]ration 0 l>gely done away )4 ,x 0 ?\ght t ! use ( ?is ,h]s*el aplanatic comb9ation z an eyepiece1 comb9$ ) ! ,wolla/on d\blet = ! objective1 came z ne> p]fection z ! comp\nd microscope 0 likely soon to come4 ,b 9 reality ! in/rum5t ?us con/ruct$1 ?\gh d\btless sup]ior to any pr$ecessor1 0 s defective t = practical purposes ! simple microscope1 su* z ! d\blet or ! ,codd+ton1 0 pref]able to ! m complicat$ "o4 ,_m opticians1 inde$1 q despair$ ( ev] be+ able to make a satisfactory refract+ comp\nd microscope1 & "s ( !m _h tak5 up anew ,sir ,isaac ,newton's sugge/ion 9 ref]5ce to a reflect+ microscope4 ,9 p>ticul>1 ,pr(essor ,giovanni ,batti/a ,amici1 a v fam\s ma!matician & practical optician ( ,mod5a1 succe$$ 9 con/ruct+ a reflect+ microscope :i* 0 said to be sup]ior to any comp\nd microscope ( ! "t1 ?\gh ! ev5ts ( ! ensu+ ye>s 7 de/9$ to rob x ( all b hi/orical value4 ,= !re 7 o!rs1 =tunately1 :o did n despair ( ! possibilities ( ! refract+ microscope1 & _! ef=ts 7 de/9$ be=e long to be cr[n$ ) a degree ( success n ev5 dream$ ( by any prec$+ g5]ation4 ,! man to :om *ief cr$it is due = direct+ ^? f9al /eps t made ! comp\nd microscope a practical implem5t in/ead ( a sci5tific toy 0 ! ,engli% amateur optician ,joseph ,jackson ,li/]4 ,comb9+ ma!matical k ) me*anical +5uity1 & hav+ ! practical aid ( ! celebrat$ optician ,tulley1 he devis$ =mulae = ! comb9ation ( l5ses ( cr[n glass ) o!rs ( fl9t glass1 s adju/$ t ! refractive errors ( "o 7 correct$ or comp5sat$ by ! o!r1 ) ! result ( produc+ l5ses ( hi!rto unequall$ p[]s ( def9ition2 l5ses capable ( %[+ an image highly magnifi$1 yet relatively free f ^? di/ortions & fr+es ( color t _h h]et(ore be5 s disa/r\s to true int]pretation ( magnifi$ /ructures4 ,li/] _h begun 8 /udies ( ! l5s 9 #ahbd1 b x 0 n until #ahcj t he contribut$ to ! ,royal ,society ! fam\s pap] detail+ 8 !ories & exp]im5ts4 ,soon aft] ?is v>i\s cont95tal opticians :o _h long be5 work+ along simil> l9es took ! matt] up1 & _! expositions1 9 p>ticul> t ( ,amici1 introduc$ ! improv$ comp\nd microscope to ! att5tion ( microscopi/s ev]y:]e4 ,& x requir$ b ! mo/ casual trial to conv9ce ! exp]i5c$ obs]v]s t a new implem5t ( sci5tific rese>* _h be5 plac$ 9 _! h&s :i* c>ri$ !m a long /ep ne>] ! obs]vation ( ! intimate physical processes :i* lie at ! f\ndation ( vital ph5om5a4 ,= ! physiologi/ ?is p]fection ( ! comp\nd microscope _h ! same significance t !1 discov]y ( ,am]ica _h = ! fifte5?-c5tury geograph]s--x promis$ a v]itable _w ( utt]ly novel revelations4 ,nor 0 ! fulfilm5t ( t promise long delay$4 ,inde$1 s num]\s & s important 7 ! discov]ies n[ made 9 ! realm ( m9ute anatomy t ! rise ( hi/ology to ! rank ( an indep5d5t sci5ce may be said to date f ?is p]iod4 ,hi!rto1 ev] s9ce ! discov]y ( magnify+-glasses1 !re _h be5 "h & !re a man1 su* z ,leuw5hoek or ,malpighi1 gift$ ) exceptional vision1 & p]haps unusually happy 9 8 conjectures1 :o made important contributions to ! k ( ! m9ute /ructure ( organic tissues2 b n[ ( a sudd5 x became possible = ! v]ie/ tyro to confirm or refute ! labori\s obs]vations ( ^! pione]s1 :ile ! skill$ obs]v] c\ld /ep easily beyond ! b>ri]s ( vision t hi!rto 7 q impassable4 ,& s1 naturally en\gh1 ! physiologi/s ( ! f\r? decade ( ! n9ete5? c5tury ru%$ z eag]ly into ! new realm ( ! microscope z1 = example1 _! successors ( to-day are explor+ ! realm ( ! ,x-ray4 ,li/] himself1 :o _h become an eag] int]rogator ( ! in/rum5t he _h p]fect$1 made _m important discov]ies1 ! mo/ notable be+ 8 f9al settlem5t ( ! long-moot$ "q z to ! true =m ( ! r$ corpuscles ( ! human blood4 ,9 reality1 z ev]ybody kn[s n[adays1 ^! are biconcave disks1 b ow+ to _! peculi> figure x is easily possible to mis9t]pret ! appe>ances !y pres5t :5 se5 ?r\gh a poor l5s1 & ?\gh ,dr4 ,?omas ,"y & v>i\s o!r obs]v]s _h come v ne> ! tru? reg>d+ !m1 unanimity ( op9ion 0 possible only aft] ! v]dict ( ! p]fect$ microscope 0 giv54 ,^! blood corpuscles are s inf9itesimal 9 size t some?+ l five millions ( !m are f\nd 9 ea* cubic millimetre ( ! blood1 yet !y are isolat$ p>ticles1 ea* hav+1 s to speak1 its own p]sonality4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 _h be5 kn[n to microscopi/s s9ce ! days ( ! e>lie/ l5ses4 ,x _h be5 notic$1 too1 by "h & !re an obs]v]1 t c]ta9 ( ! solid tissues seem$ to pres5t some?+ ( a granul> texture1 z if !y1 too1 9 _! ultimate con/itution1 7 made up ( p>ticles4 ,& n[1 z bett] & bett] l5ses 7 con/ruct$1 ?is idea ga9$ gr\nd con/antly1 ?\gh = a "t no "o saw its full significance4 ,9 ! case ( vegetable tissues1 inde$1 ! fact t little p>ticles encas$ a membran\s cov]+1 & call$ cells1 are ! ultimate visible units ( /ructure _h long be5 kn[n4 ,b x 0 suppos$ t animal tissues diff]$ radically f ?is con/ruction4 ,! elem5t>y p>ticles ( vegetables 7 reg>d$ to a c]ta9 ext5t z individuals :i* compos$ ! entire plant1 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 no su* view 0 tak5 ( ! elem5t>y p>ts ( animals4 ,,rob]t ,,br[n ,,& ,,! ,,cell ,,nucleus ,9 ! ye> #ahcc a fur!r insight into ! nature ( ! ultimate p>ticles ( plants 0 ga9$ ?r\gh ! obs]vation ( ! ,engli% microscopi/ ,rob]t ,br[n1 :o1 9 ! c\rse ( 8 microscopic /udies ( ! epid]mis ( or*ids1 discov]$ 9 ! cells an opaque spot1 :i* he nam$ ! nucleus4 ,d\btless ! same spot _h be5 se5 (t5 en\gh be=e by o!r obs]v]s1 b ,br[n 0 ! fir/ to recognize x z a compon5t "p ( ! vegetable cell & to give x a "n4 ,i %all conclude my obs]vations on ,or*ideae1 said ,br[n1 ) a notice ( "s po9ts ( _! g5]al /ructure1 :i* *iefly relate to ! cellul> tissue4 ,9 ea* cell ( ! epid]mis ( a great "p ( ?is family1 especially ( ^? ) membran\s leaves1 a s+le circul> areola1 g5]ally some:at m opaque ?an1 ! membrane ( ! cell1 is obs]vable4 ,?is areola1 :i* is m or less di/9ctly granul>1 is slightly convex1 & al?\gh x seems to be on ! surface is 9 reality cov]$ by ! out] lam9a ( ! cell4 ,!re is no regul>ity z to its place 9 ! cell2 x is n unfrequ5tly1 h[ev]1 c5tral or ne>ly s4 ,z only "o areola belongs to ea* cell1 & z 9 _m cases :]e x exi/s 9 ! common cells ( ! epid]mis1 x is also visible 9 ! cutane\s gl&s or /omata1 & 9 ^! is always d\ble--"o be+ on ea* side ( ! limb--x is highly probable t ! cutane\s gl& is 9 all cases compos$ ( two cells ( peculi> =m1 ! l9e ( union be+ ! longitud9al axis ( ! disk or pore4 ,?is areola1 or nucleus ( ! cell z p]haps x might be t]m$1 is n conf9$ to ! epid]mis1 be+ also f\nd1 n only 9 ! pubesc5ce ( ! surface1 p>ticul>ly :5 jo9t$1 z 9 cyprip$ium1 b 9 _m cases 9 ! p>5*yma or int]nal cells ( ! tissue1 especially :5 ^! are free f ! deposition ( granul> matt]4 ,9 ! compress$ cells ( ! epid]mis ! nucleus is 9 a correspond+ degree flatt5$2 b 9 ! int]nal tissue x is (t5 ne>ly sph]ical1 m or less firmly adh]+ to "o ( ! walls1 & project+ into ! cavity ( ! cell4 ,9 ?is /ate x may n unfrequ5tly be f\nd 9 ! sub/ance ( ! column & 9 t ( ! p]ian?ium4 ,! nucleus is manife/ also 9 ! tissue ( ! /igma1 :]e 9 accordance ) ! compression ( ! utriculi1 x has an int]m$iate =m1 be+ nei!r s mu* flatt5$ z 9 ! epid]mis nor s convex z x is 9 ! int]nal tissue ( ! column4 ,i may "h rem>k t ,i am acqua9t$ ) "o case ( app>5t exception to ! nucleus be+ solit>y 9 ea* utriculus or cell--namely1 9 ,bletia ,tank]villiae4 ,9 ! utriculi ( ! /igma ( ?is plant1 ,i h g5]ally1 ?\gh n always1 f\nd a second areola app>5tly on ! surface1 & compos$ ( mu* l>g] granules ?an ! ord9>y nucleus1 :i* is =m$ ( v m9ute granul> matt]1 & seems to be deep seat$4 ,mr4 ,bau] has repres5t$ ! tissue ( ! /igma1 9 ! species ( ,bletia1 bo? be=e &1 z he believes1 aft] impregnation2 & 9 ! latt] /ate ! utriculi are m>k$ ) f "o to ?ree areolae ( simil> appe>ance4 ,! nucleus may ev5 be suppos$ to exi/ 9 ! poll5 ( ?is family4 ,9 ! e>ly /ages ( its =mation1 at lea/ a m9ute areola is ( t5 visible 9 ! simple gra91 & 9 ea* ( ! con/itu5t p>ts ( cells ( ! comp\nd gra94 ,b ^! areolae may p]haps r be consid]$ z m]ely ! po9ts ( production ( ! tubes4 ,?is nucleus ( ! cell is n conf9$ to or*ideae1 b is equally manife/ 9 _m o!r monocotyl$on\s families2 & ,i h ev5 f\nd x1 hi!rto h[ev] 9 v few cases1 9 ! epid]mis ( dicotyl$on\s plants2 ?\gh 9 ?is prim>y division x may p]haps be said to exi/ 9 ! e>ly /ages ( developm5t ( ! poll54 ,among monocotyl$ons1 ! ord]s 9 :i* x is mo/ rem>kable are ,liliaceae1 ,hem]ocallideae1 ,asphodeleae1 ,irideae1 & ,commel9eae4 ,9 "s plants belong+ to ?is la/-m5tion$ family1 especially 9 ,tradascantia virg9ica1 & sev]al ne>ly relat$ species1 x is uncommonly di/9ct1 n 9 ! epid]mis & 9 ! jo9t$ hairs ( ! filam5ts1 b 9 ! tissue ( ! /igma1 9 ! cells ( ! ovulum ev5 be=e impregnation1 & 9 all ! /ages ( =mation ( ! gra9s ( poll51 ! evolution ( :i* is s rem>kable 9 tradascantia4 ,! few indications ( ! pres5ce ( ?is nucleus1 or areola1 t ,i h hi!rto met ) 9 ! publications ( botani/s are *iefly 9 "s figures ( epid]mis1 9 ! rec5t works ( ,mey5 & ,purk9je1 & 9 "o case1 9 ,m4 ,adolphe ,broigni>t's memoir on ! /ructure ( leaves4 ,b s little importance seems to be atta*$ to x t ! appe>ance is n always ref]r$ to 9 ! explanations ( ! figures 9 :i* x is repres5t$4 ,mr4 ,bau]1 h[ev]1 :o has also figur$ x 9 ! utriculi ( ! /igma ( ,bletia ,tank]villiae has m p>ticul>ly notic$ x1 & seems to consid] x z only visible aft] impregnation47#b7 ,,s*leid5 ,,& ,,s*wann ,,& ,,! ,,cell ,,!ory ,t ?is newly recogniz$ /ructure mu/ be important 9 ! economy ( ! cell 0 recogniz$ by ,br[n himself1 & by ! celebrat$ ,g]man ,mey51 :o dealt ) x 9 8 "w on vegetable physiology1 publi%$ n long aft]w>ds2 b x rema9$ = ano!r ,g]man1 ! pr(essor ( botany 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,j5a1 ,dr4 ,m4 ,j4 ,s*leid51 to br+ ! nucleus to popul> att5tion1 & to ass]t its all-importance 9 ! economy ( ! cell4 ,s*leid5 freely ackn[l$g$ 8 indebt$ness to ,br[n = fir/ k ( ! nucleus1 b he soon c>ri$ 8 /udies ( t /ructure f> beyond ^? ( its discov]]4 ,he came to believe t ! nucleus is really ! mo/ important portion ( ! cell1 9 t x is ! orig9al /ructure f :i* ! rema9d] ( ! cell is develop$4 ,h5ce he nam$ x ! cytobla/4 ,he outl9$ 8 views 9 an epo*al pap] publi%$ 9 ,mull]'s ,ar*ives 9 #ahch1 "u title ( ,beitrage zur ,phytog5esis4 ,?is pap] is 9 itself ( value1 yet ! mo/ important outgr[? ( ,s*leid5's obs]vations ( ! nucleus did n spr+ f 8 own labors1 b f ^? ( a fri5d to :om he m5tion$ 8 discov]ies ! ye> previ\s to _! publication4 ,?is fri5d 0 ,dr4 ,!odor ,s*wann1 pr(essor ( physiology 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,l\va94 ,at ! mom5t :5 ^! obs]vations 7 communicat$ to him ,s*wann 0 puzzl+ ov] c]ta9 details ( animal hi/ology :i* he c\ld n cle>ly expla94 ,8 great tea*]1 ,johannes ,mull]1 _h call$ att5tion to ! /range resemblance to vegetable cells %[n by c]ta9 cells ( ! *orda dorsalis 7! embryonic cord f :i* ! sp9al column is develop$71 & ,s*wann himself _h discov]$ a correspond+ simil>ity 9 ! bran*ial c>tilage ( a tadpole4 ,!n1 too1 ! rese>*es ( ,fri$ri* ,h5le _h %[n t ! p>ticles t make up ! epid]mis ( animals are v cell-l 9 appe>ance4 ,inde$1 ! cell-l "* ( c]ta9 animal tissues _h come to be matt] ( common note among /ud5ts ( m9ute anatomy4 ,s*wann felt t ?is simil>ity c\ld n be m]e co9cid5ce1 b he _h ga9$ no clew to fur!r insight until ,s*leid5 call$ 8 att5tion to ! nucleus4 ,!n at once he reason$ t if !re really is ! correspond5ce betwe5 vegetable & animal tissues t he suspect$1 & if ! nucleus is s important 9 ! vegetable cell z ,s*leid5 believ$1 ! nucleus %\ld also be f\nd 9 ! ultimate p>ticles ( animal tissues4 ,s*wann's rese>*es soon %[$ ! entire correctness ( ?is assumption4 ,a clos] /udy ( animal tissues "u ! microscope %[$1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! case ( embryonic tissues1 t opaque spots su* z ,s*leid5 describ$ are really to be f\nd !re 9 abundance--=m+1 inde$1 a mo/ *>act]i/ic phase ( ! /ructure4 ,! location ( ^! nuclei at comp>atively regul> int]vals sugge/$ t !y are f\nd 9 def9ite comp>tm5ts ( ! tissue1 z ,s*leid5 _h %[n to be ! case ) vegetables2 inde$1 ! walls t sep>at$ su* cell-l comp>tm5ts "o f ano!r 7 9 "s cases visible4 ,p>ticul>ly 0 ?is f\nd to be ! case ) embryonic tissues1 & ! /udy ( ^! soon conv9c$ ,s*wann t 8 orig9al surmise _h be5 correct1 & t all animal tissues are 9 _! incipi5cy compos$ ( p>ticles n unlike ! ultimate p>ticles ( vegetables 9 %ort1 ( :at ! botani/s t]m$ cells4 ,adopt+ ?is "n1 ,s*wann prop\nd$ :at soon became fam\s z 8 cell !ory1 "u title ( ,mikroskopis*e ,unt]su*ung5 ub] die ,ub]e9/immung 9 d] ,/ructur und d5t ,wa*/hum d] ,?i]e und ,pflanz54 ,s exp$iti\s _h be5 8 "w t ?is book 0 publi%$ e>ly 9 #ahci1 only a few mon?s aft] ! appe>ance ( ,s*leid5's pap]4 ,z ! title sugge/s1 ! ma9 idea t actuat$ ,s*wann 0 to unify vegetable & animal tissues4 ,accept+ cell-/ructure z ! basis ( all vegetable tissues1 he s\ght to %[ t ! same is true ( animal tissues1 all ! seem+ div]sities ( fibre be+ b ! alt]ation & developm5t ( :at 7 orig9ally simple cells4 ,& by cell ,s*wann meant1 z did ,s*leid5 also1 :at ! ^w ord9>ily implies--a cavity wall$ 9 on all sides4 ,he conceiv$ t ! ultimate con/itu5ts ( all tissues 7 really su* m9ute cavities1 ! mo/ important "p ( :i* 0 ! cell wall1 ) its associat$ nucleus4 ,he knew1 inde$1 t ! cell might be fill$ ) fluid cont5ts1 b he reg>d$ ^! z relatively subord9ate 9 importance to ! wall itself4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 did n apply to ! nucleus1 :i* 0 suppos$ to lie aga9/ ! cell wall & 9 ! beg9n+ to g5]ate x4 ,subsequ5tly ! wall might gr[ s rapidly z to dissociate itself f its cont5ts1 ?us becom+ a holl[ bubble or true cell2 b ! nucleus1 z long z x la/$1 0 suppos$ to cont9ue 9 contact ) ! cell wall4 ,s*leid5 _h ev5 suppos$ ! nucleus to be a con/itu5t "p ( ! wall1 sometimes ly+ enclos$ betwe5 two lay]s ( its sub/ance1 & ,s*wann quot$ ?is view ) seem+ approval4 ,s*wann believ$1 h[ev]1 t 9 ! mature cell ! nucleus ceas$ to be functional & disappe>$4 ,! ma9 !sis z to ! simil>ity ( developm5t ( vegetable & animal tissues & ! cellul> nature ( ! ultimate con/itution ( bo? 0 support$ by a mass ( c>efully ga!r$ evid5ce :i* a multitude ( microscopi/s at once confirm$1 s ,s*wann's "w became a classic almo/ f ! mom5t ( its publication4 ,( c\rse v>i\s o!r work]s at once disput$ ,s*wann's claim to priority ( discov]y1 9 p>ticul> ! ,engli% microscopi/ ,val5t91 :o ass]t$1 n )\t "s %[ ( ju/ice1 t he 0 work+ closely along ! same l9es4 ,put s1 = t matt]1 7 num]\s o!rs1 z ,h5le1 ,turp91 ,du-morti]1 ,purk9je1 & ,mull]1 all ( :om ,s*wann himself _h quot$4 ,moreov]1 !re 7 v>i\s physiologi/s :o e>li] ?an any ( ^! _h =e%ad[$ ! cell !ory--notably ,kasp> ,fri$ri* ,wolff1 t[>ds ! close ( ! previ\s c5tury1 & ,treviranus ab\t #ahjg1 ,b1 z we h se5 9 s _m o!r dep>tm5ts ( sci5ce1 x is "o ?+ to =e%ad[ a discov]y1 x is q ano!r to give x full expression & make x g]m9al ( o!r discov]ies4 ,& :5 ,s*wann put =w>d ! explicit claim t !re is "o univ]sal pr9ciple ( developm5t = ! elem5t>y p>ts1 ( organisms1 h[ev] diff]5t1 & ?is pr9ciple is ! =mation ( cells1 he enunciat$ a doctr9e :i* 0 = all practical purposes absolutely new & op5$ up a novel field = ! microscopi/ to ent]4 ,a mo/ important era 9 physiology dates f ! publication ( 8 book 9 #ahci4 ,,! ,,cell ,,!ory ,,elaborat$ ,t ,s*wann %\ld h gone to embryonic tissues = ! e/abli%m5t ( 8 ideas 0 no d\bt due v l>gely to ! influ5ce ( ! great ,russian ,k>l ,ern/ von ,ba]1 :o ab\t t5 ye>s e>li] _h publi%$ ! fir/ "p ( 8 celebrat$ "w on embryology1 & ^: ideas 7 rapidly ga9+ gr\nd1 ?anks l>gely to ! advocacy ( a few m51 notably ,johannes ,mull]1 9 ,g]many1 & ,william ,b4 ,c>p5t]1 9 ,engl&1 & to ! fact t ! improv$ microscope _h made m9ute anatomy popul>4 ,s*wann's rese>*es made x pla9 t ! be/ field = ! /udy ( ! animal cell is "h1 & a ho/ ( explor]s ent]$ ! field4 ,! result ( _! obs]vations 01 9 ! ma91 to confirm ! claims ( ,s*wann z to ! univ]sal preval5ce ( ! cell4 ,! long-curr5t idea t animal tissues gr[ only z a sort ( deposit f ! blood-vessels 0 n[ disc>d$1 & ! fact ( s-call$ plantlike gr[? ( animal cells1 = :i* ,s*wann cont5d$1 0 univ]sally accept$4 ,yet ! full measure ( ! aff9ity betwe5 ! two classes ( cells 0 n = "s "t g5]ally appreh5d$4 ,inde$1 s9ce ! sub/ance t composes ! cell walls ( plants is manife/ly v diff]5t f ! limit+ membrane ( ! animal cell1 x 0 natural1 s long z ! wall 0 consid]$ ! mo/ ess5tial "p ( ! /ructure1 t ! div]g5ce betwe5 ! two classes ( cells %\ld seem v pron\nc$4 ,& = a "t ?is 0 ! conception ( ! matt] t 0 uni=mly accept$4 ,b z "t w5t on _m obs]v]s _h _! att5tion call$ to ! peculi> *>act]i/ics ( ! cont5ts ( ! cell1 & 7 l$ to ask !mselves :e!r ^! might n be m important ?an _h be5 suppos$4 ,9 p>ticul>1 ,dr4 ,hugo von ,mohl1 pr(essor ( botany 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,tub+51 9 ! c\rse ( 8 exhau/ive /udies ( ! vegetable cell1 0 impress$ ) ! peculi> & *>act]i/ic appe>ance ( ! cell cont5ts4 ,he obs]v$ univ]sally )9 ! cell an opaque1 viscid fluid1 hav+ granules int]m+l$ 9 x1 :i* made up ! ma9 sub/ance ( ! cell1 & :i* p>ticul>ly impress$ him because "u c]ta9 conditions x c\ld be se5 to be actively 9 motion1 its p>ts sep>at$ into filam5t\s /reams4 ,von ,mohl call$ att5tion to ! fact t ?is motion ( ! cell cont5ts _h be5 obs]v$ z long ago z #aggd by ,bonav5tura ,corti1 & r$iscov]$ 9 #ahjg by ,treviranus1 & t ^! obs]v]s _h describ$ ! ph5om5on "u ! mo/ unsuitable "n ( 'rotation ( ! cell sap4' ,von ,mohl recogniz$ t ! /ream+ sub/ance 0 some?+ q diff]5t f sap4 ,he ass]t$ t ! nucleus ( ! cell lies )9 ?is sub/ance & n atta*$ to ! cell wall z ,s*leid5 _h cont5d$4 ,he saw1 too1 t ! *lorophyl granules1 & all o!r ( ! cell cont5ts1 are incorporat$ ) ! opaque1 viscid fluid1 & 9 #ahdf he _h become s impress$ ) ! importance ( ?is univ]sal cell sub/ance t he gave x ! "n ( protoplasm4 ,yet 9 s do+ he _h no int5tion ( subord9at+ ! cell wall4 ,! fact t ,pay51 9 #ahdd1 _h demon/rat$ t ! cell walls ( all vegetables1 high or l[1 are compos$ l>gely ( "o sub/ance1 cellulose1 t5d$ to /r5g!n ! position ( ! cell wall z ! really ess5tial /ructure1 ( :i* ! protoplasmic cont5ts 7 only subsidi>y products4 ,meantime1 h[ev]1 ! /ud5ts ( animal hi/ology 7 m & m impress$ ) ! seem+ prepond]ance ( cell cont5ts ov] cell walls 9 ! tissues !y /udi$4 ,!y1 too1 f\nd ! cell to be fill$ ) a viscid1 slimy fluid capable ( motion4 ,to ?is ,duj>d9 gave ! "n ( s>code4 ,pres5tly x came to be kn[n1 ?r\gh ! labors ( ,kollik]1 ,nageli1 ,bis*(f1 & v>i\s o!rs1 t !re are num]\s l[] =ms ( animal life :i* seem to be compos$ ( ?is s>code1 )\t any cell wall :atev]4 ,! same ?+ seem$ to be true ( c]ta9 cells ( high] organisms1 z ! blood corpuscles4 ,p>ticul>ly 9 ! case ( cells t *ange _! %ape m>k$ly1 mov+ ab\t 9 consequ5ce ( ! /ream+ ( _! s>code1 did x seem c]ta9 t no cell wall is pres5t1 or t1 if pres5t1 its role mu/ be insignificant4 ,& s hi/ologi/s came to "q :e!r1 aft] all1 ! cell cont5ts r ?an ! enclos+ wall mu/ n be ! really ess5tial /ructure1 & ! weight ( increas+ obs]vations f9ally left no escape f ! conclusion t su* is really ! case4 ,b att5tion be+ ?us focaliz$ on ! cell cont5ts1 x 0 at once app>5t t !re is a f> clos] simil>ity betwe5 ! ultimate p>ticles ( vegetables & ^? ( animals ?an _h be5 suppos$4 ,cellulose & animal membrane be+ n[ reg>d$ z m by-products1 ! way 0 cle> = ! recognition ( ! fact t vegetable protoplasm & animal s>code are m>vell\sly simil> 9 appe>ance & g5]al prop]ties4 ,! clos] ! obs]vation ! m /rik+ seem$ ?is simil>ity2 & f9ally1 ab\t #ahfj1 x 0 demon/rat$ by ,he9ri* de ,b>y & by ,max ,s*ultze t ! two are to all int5ts & purposes id5tical4 ,ev5 e>li] ,remak _h rea*$ a simil> conclusion1 & appli$ ,von ,mohl's ^w protoplasm to animal cell cont5ts1 & n[ ?is application soon became univ]sal4 ,!nce=? ?is protoplasm 0 to assume ! utmo/ importance 9 ! physiological _w1 be+ recogniz$ z ! univ]sal physical basis ( life1 vegetable & animal alike4 ,?is am\nt$ to ! logical ext5sion & culm9ation ( ,s*wann's doctr9e z to ! simil>ity ( developm5t ( ! two animate k+doms4 ,yet at ! same "t x 0 9 effect ! bani%m5t ( ! cell t ,s*wann _h def9$4 ,! ^w cell 0 reta9$1 x is true1 b x no long] signifi$ a m9ute cavity4 ,x n[ impli$1 z ,s*ultze def9$ x1 a small mass ( protoplasm end[$ ) ! attributes ( life4 ,?is def9ition 0 de/9$ pres5tly to meet ) yet ano!r modification1 z we %all see2 b ! conception ( ! protoplasmic mass z ! ess5tial ultimate /ructure1 :i* might or might n surr\nd itself ) a protective cov]+1 0 a p]man5t addition to physiological k4 ,! e>li] idea _h1 9 effect1 decl>$ ! %ell ! mo/ important "p ( ! egg2 ?is develop$ view assign$ to ! yolk its true position4 ,9 "o o!r important reg>d ! !ory ( ,s*leid5 & ,s*wann n[ became modifi$4 ,?is ref]r$ to ! orig9 ( ! cell4 ,s*wann _h reg>d$ cell gr[? z a k9d ( cry/allization1 beg9n+ ) ! deposit ( a nucleus ab\t a granule 9 ! int]cellul> sub/ance--! cytobla/ema1 z ,s*leid5 call$ x4 ,b ,von ,mohl1 z e>ly z #ahce1 _h call$ att5tion to ! =mation ( new vegetable cells ?r\gh ! division ( a pre-exi/+ cell4 ,ehr5b]g1 ano!r high au?ority ( ! "t1 cont5d$ t no su* division occurs1 & ! matt] 0 /ill 9 dispute :5 ,s*leid5 came =w>d ) 8 discov]y ( s-call$ free cell-=mation )9 ! p>5t cell1 & ?is = a long "t div]t$ att5tion f ! process ( division :i* ,von ,mohl _h describ$4 ,all mann] ( s*emes ( cell-=mation 7 put =w>d dur+ ! ensu+ ye>s by a multitude ( obs]v]s1 & ga9$ curr5cy not)/&+ ,von ,mohl's reit]at$ cont5tion t !re are really b two ways 9 :i* ! =mation ( new cells takes place--namely1 fir/1 ?r\gh division ( old] cells2 secondly1 ?r\gh ! =mation ( second>y cells ly+ free 9 ! cavity ( a cell4 ,b gradually ! rese>*es ( su* accurate obs]v]s z ,ung]1 ,nageli1 ,kollik]1 ,rei*>t1 & ,remak t5d$ to confirm ! op9ion ( ,von ,mohl t cells spr+ only f cells1 & f9ally ,rudolf ,vir*[ br\ght ! matt] to demon/ration ab\t #ahfj4 ,8 ,omnis cellula e cellula became f t "t "o ( ! accept$ data ( physiology4 ,?is 0 supplem5t$ a little lat] by ,flem+'s ,omnis nucleus e nucleo1 :5 /ill m ref9$ me?ods ( obs]vation _h %[n t ! "p ( ! cell :i* always fir/ und]goes *ange prep>atory to new cell-=mation is ! all-ess5tial nucleus4 ,?us ! nucleus 0 re/or$ to ! important position :i* ,s*wann & ,s*leid5 _h giv5 x1 b ) greatly alt]$ significance4 ,in/ead ( be+ a /ructure g5]at$ de novo f non-cellul> sub/ance1 & disappe>+ z soon z its function ( cell-=mation 0 accompli%$1 ! nucleus 0 n[ kn[n z ! c5tral & p]man5t feature ( e cell1 inde/ructible :ile ! cell lives1 itself ! division-product ( a pre-exi/+ nucleus1 & ! p>5t1 by division ( its sub/ance1 ( o!r g5]ations ( nuclei4 ,! ^w cell receiv$ a f9al def9ition z a small mass ( protoplasm suppli$ ) a nucleus4 ,9 ?is wid5$ & culm9at+ g5]al view ( ! cell !ory x became cle> t e animate organism1 animal or vegetable1 is b a clu/] ( nucleat$ cells1 all ( :i*1 9 ea* individual case1 are ! direct desc5dants ( a s+le primordial cell ( ! ovum4 ,9 ! develop$ individuals ( high] organisms ! successive g5]ations ( cells become m>vell\sly div]sifi$ 9 =m & 9 specific functions2 !re is a wond]ful division ( labor1 special functions be+ *iefly relegat$ to def9ite gr\ps ( cells2 b f fir/ to la/ !re is no function develop$ t is n pres5t1 9 a primitive way1 9 e cell1 h[ev] isolat$2 nor does ! develop$ cell1 h[ev] specializ$1 ev] =get altoge!r any "o ( its primordial functions or capacities4 ,all physiology1 !n1 prop]ly int]pret$1 becomes m]ely a /udy ( cellul> activities2 & ! developm5t ( ! cell !ory takes its place z ! great c5tral g5]alization 9 physiology ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,some?+ ( ! lat] developm5ts ( ?is !ory we %all see 9 ano!r connection4 ,,animal ,,*emi/ry ,j at ! "t :5 ! microscope 0 op5+ up ! pa?s t 7 to lead to ! wond]ful cell !ory1 ano!r novel l9e ( int]rogation ( ! liv+ organism 0 be+ put =w>d by a diff]5t set ( obs]v]s4 ,two great s*ools ( physiological *emi/ry _h aris5--"o "u guidance ( ,liebig & ,wohl]1 9 ,g]many1 ! o!r dom9at$ by ! great ,fr5* ma/] ,jean ,bapti/e ,dumas4 ,liebig _h at "o "t contemplat$ ! /udy ( m$ic9e1 & ,dumas _h a*iev$ di/9ction 9 connection ) ,prevo/1 at ,g5eva1 9 ! field ( pure physiology be=e he turn$ 8 att5tion especially to *emi/ry4 ,bo? ^! ma/]s1 !re=e1 & ,wohl] z well1 f\nd absorb+ int]e/ 9 ^? phases ( *emi/ry t h to d ) ! functions ( liv+ tissues2 & x 0 l>gely ?r\gh _! ef=ts & ! labors ( _! foll[]s t ! preval5t idea t vital processes are dom9at$ by unique laws 0 disc>d$ & physiology 0 br\ght )9 ! recogniz$ prov9ce ( ! *emi/4 ,s at ab\t ! "t :5 ! microscope _h taught t ! cell is ! really ess5tial /ructure ( ! liv+ organism1 ! *emi/s _h come to und]/& t e function ( ! organism is really ! expression ( a *emical *ange--t ea* cell is1 9 %ort1 a m9iature *emical laboratory4 ,& x 0 ?is comb9$ po9t ( view ( anatomi/ & *emi/1 ?is union ( hi!rto dissociat$ =ces1 t made possible ! inroads into ! unexplor$ fields ( physiology t 7 effect$ t[>ds ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,"o ( ! fir/ subjects re9ve/igat$ & br\ght to proximal solution 0 ! long-moot$ "q ( ! dige/ion ( foods4 ,spallanzani & ,hunt] _h %[n 9 ! previ\s c5tury t dige/ion is 9 "s sort a solution ( foods2 b little advance 0 made ^u _! "w until #ahbd1 :5 ,pr\t detect$ ! pres5ce ( hydro*loric acid 9 ! ga/ric juice4 ,a decade lat] ,sprott & ,boyd detect$ ! exi/5ce ( peculi> gl&s 9 ! ga/ric muc\s membrane2 & ,cagni>d la ,t\r & ,s*wann indep5d5tly discov]$ t ! really active pr9ciple ( ! ga/ric juice is a sub/ance :i* 0 nam$ peps91 & :i* 0 %[n by ,s*wann to be active 9 ! pres5ce ( hydro*loric acid4 ,almo/ co9cid5tly1 9 #ahcf1 x 0 discov]$ by ,purk9je & ,papp5heim t ano!r organ ?an ! /oma*--namely1 ! pancreas--has a %>e 9 dige/ion1 & 9 ! c\rse ( ! ensu+ decade x came to be kn[n1 ?r\gh ! ef=ts ( ,eb]le1 ,val5t91 & ,claude ,b]n>d1 t ?is organ is all-important 9 ! dige/ion ( />*y & fatty foods4 ,x 0 f\nd1 too1 t ! liv] & ! inte/9al gl&s h ea* an important %>e 9 ! "w ( prep>+ foods = absorption1 z also has ! saliva--t1 9 %ort1 a coalition ( =ces is necess>y = ! dige/ion ( all ord9>y foods tak5 into ! /oma*4 ,& ! *emi/s soon discov]$ t 9 ea* "o ( ! ess5tial dige/ive juices !re is at lea/ "o sub/ance hav+ c]ta9 resemblances to peps91 ?\gh act+ on diff]5t k9ds ( food4 ,! po9t ( resemblance betwe5 all ^! ess5tial dige/ive ag5ts is t ea* has ! rem>kable prop]ty ( act+ on relatively enorm\s quantities ( ! sub/ance :i* x c dige/ )\t itself be+ de/roy$ or app>5tly ev5 alt]$4 ,9 virtue ( ?is /range prop]ty1 peps9 & ! alli$ sub/ances 7 spok5 ( z f]m5ts1 b m rec5tly x is cu/om>y to di/+ui% !m f su* organiz$ f]m5ts z yea/ by designat+ !m enzymes4 ,! isolation ( ^! enzymes1 & an appreciation ( _! mode ( action1 m>k a long /ep t[>ds ! solution ( ! riddle ( dige/ion1 b x mu/ be add$ t we are /ill q 9 ! d>k z to ! real ultimate nature ( _! /range activity4 ,9 a compreh5sive view1 ! dige/ive organs1 tak5 z a :ole1 are a gateway betwe5 ! outside _w & ! m intimate cells ( ! organism4 ,ano!r equally important gateway is furni%$ by ! lungs1 & "h also !re 0 mu* obscurity ab\t ! exact me?od ( function+ at ! "t ( ! revival ( physiological *emi/ry4 ,t oxyg5 is consum$ & c>bonic acid giv5 (f dur+ respiration ! *emi/s ( ! age ( ,prie/ley & ,lavoisi] _h inde$ made cle>1 b ! mi/ak5 notion prevail$ t x 0 9 ! lungs !mselves t ! important burn+ ( fuel occurs1 ( :i* c>bonic acid is a *ief product4 ,b n[ t att5tion _h be5 call$ to ! importance ( ! ultimate cell1 ?is misconception c\ld n long hold its gr\nd1 & z e>ly z #ahdb ,liebig1 9 ! c\rse ( 8 /udies ( animal heat1 became conv9c$ t x is n 9 ! lungs1 b 9 ! ultimate tissues to :i* !y are tribut>y1 t ! true consumption ( fuel takes place4 ,reviv+ ,lavoisi]'s idea1 ) modifications & additions1 ,liebig cont5d$1 & 9 ! face ( opposition f9ally demon/rat$1 t ! s\rce ( animal heat is really ! consumption ( ! fuel tak5 9 ?r\gh ! /oma* & ! lungs4 ,he %[$ t all ! activities ( life are really ! product ( en]gy lib]at$ solely ?r\gh de/ructive processes1 am\nt+1 broadly speak+1 to combu/ion occurr+ 9 ! ultimate cells ( ! organism4 ,"h is 8 argum5t3 ,,liebig ,,on ,,animal ,,heat ,! oxyg5 tak5 into ! sy/em is tak5 out aga9 9 ! same =ms1 :e!r 9 summ] or 9 w9t]2 h5ce we expire m c>bon 9 cold wea!r1 & :5 ! b>omet] is high1 ?an we d 9 w>m wea!r2 & we mu/ consume m or less c>bon 9 our food 9 ! same proportion2 9 ,sw$5 m ?an 9 ,sicily2 & 9 our m temp]ate climate a full eigh? m 9 w9t] ?an 9 summ]4 ,ev5 :5 we consume equal weights ( food 9 cold & w>m c\ntries1 inf9ite wisdom has s arrang$ t ! articles ( food 9 diff]5t climates are mo/ unequal 9 ! proportion ( c>bon !y conta94 ,! fruits on :i* ! natives ( ! ,s\? pref] to fe$ d n 9 ! fre% /ate conta9 m ?an twelve p] c5t4 ( c>bon1 :ile ! blubb] & tra9-oil us$ by ! inhabitants ( ! arctic regions conta9 f sixty-six to eighty p] c5t4 ( c>bon4 ,x is no difficult matt]1 9 w>m climates1 to /udy mod]ation 9 eat+1 & m5 c be> hung] = a long "t "u ! equator2 b cold & hung] unit$ v soon exhau/ ! body4 ,! mutual action betwe5 ! elem5ts ( ! food & ! oxyg5 convey$ by ! circulation ( ! blood to e "p ( ! body is ! s\rce ( animal heat4 ,all liv+ creatures ^: exi/5ce dep5ds on ! absorption ( oxyg5 possess )9 !mselves a s\rce ( heat indep5d5t ( surr\nd+ objects4 ,?is tru? applies to all animals1 & ext5ds besides to ! g]m9ation ( se$s1 to ! fl[]+ ( plants1 & to ! maturation ( fruits4 ,x is only 9 ^? p>ts ( ! body to :i* art]ial blood1 & ) x ! oxyg5 absorb$ 9 respiration1 is convey$ t heat is produc$4 ,hair1 wool1 or fea!rs d n possess an elevat$ temp]ature4 ,?is high temp]ature ( ! animal body1 or1 z x may be call$1 dis5gagem5t ( heat1 is uni=mly & "u all circum/ances ! result ( ! comb9ation ( combu/ible sub/ance ) oxyg54 ,9 :atev] way c>bon may comb9e ) oxyg51 ! act ( comb9ation _c take place )\t ! dis5gagem5t ( heat4 ,x is a matt] ( indiff]5ce :e!r ! comb9ation takes place rapidly or sl[ly1 at a high or at a l[ temp]ature2 ! am\nt ( heat lib]at$ is a con/ant quantity4 ,! c>bon ( ! food1 :i* is conv]t$ into c>bonic acid )9 ! body1 mu/ give out exactly z mu* heat z if x _h be5 directly burn$ 9 ! air or 9 oxyg5 gas2 ! only diff]5ce is t ! am\nt ( heat produc$ is diffus$ ov] unequal times4 ,9 oxyg5 ! combu/ion is m rapid & ! heat m int5se2 9 air x is sl[]1 ! temp]ature is n s high1 b x cont9ues long]4 ,x is obvi\s t ! am\nt ( heat lib]at$ mu/ increase or dim9i% ) ! am\nt ( oxyg5 introduc$ 9 equal times by respiration4 ,^? animals :i* respire frequ5tly1 & consequ5tly consume mu* oxyg51 possess a high] temp]ature ?an o!rs :i*1 ) a body ( equal size to be heat$1 take into ! sy/em less oxyg54 ,! temp]ature ( a *ild 7#ajb degrees7 is high] ?an t ( an adult 7#ii4e degrees74 ,t ( birds 7#ajd to #aje4d degrees7 is high] ?an t ( quadrup$s 7#ih4e to #ajj4d degrees71 or ?an t ( fi%es or amphibia1 ^: prop] temp]ature is f #c4g to #b4f degrees high] ?an t ( ! m$ium 9 :i* !y live4 ,all animals1 /rictly speak+1 are w>m-blood$2 b 9 ^? only :i* possess lungs is ! temp]ature ( ! body indep5d5t ( ! surr\nd+ m$ium4 ,! mo/ tru/wor?y obs]vations prove t 9 all climates1 9 ! temp]ate zones z well z at ! equator or ! poles1 ! temp]ature ( ! body 9 man1 & ( :at are commonly call$ w>m-blood$ animals1 is inv>iably ! same2 yet h[ diff]5t are ! circum/ances 9 :i* !y live4 ,! animal body is a heat$ mass1 :i* be>s ! same relation to surr\nd+ objects z any o!r heat$ mass4 ,x receives heat :5 ! surr\nd+ objects are hott]1 x loses heat :5 !y are cold] ?an itself4 ,we "k t ! rapidity ( cool+ increases ) ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! heat$ body & t ( ! surr\nd+ m$ium--t is1 ! cold] ! surr\nd+ m$ium ! %ort] ! "t requir$ = ! cool+ ( ! heat$ body4 ,h[ unequal1 !n1 mu/ be ! loss ( heat ( a man at ,pal]mo1 :]e ! actual temp]ature is ne>ly equal to t ( ! body1 & 9 ! pol> regions1 :]e ! ext]nal temp]ature is f #gj to #ij degrees l[]4 ,yet not)/&+ ?is extremely unequal loss ( heat1 exp]i5ce has %[n t ! blood ( an inhabitant ( ! arctic circle has a temp]ature z high z t ( ! native ( ! ,s\?1 :o lives 9 s diff]5t a m$ium4 ,?is fact1 :5 its true significance is p]ceiv$1 proves t ! heat giv5 (f to ! surr\nd+ m$ium is re/or$ )9 ! body ) great rapidity4 ,?is comp5sation takes place m rapidly 9 w9t] ?an 9 summ]1 at ! pole ?an at ! equator4 ,n[ 9 diff]5t climates ! quantity ( oxyg5 introduc$ into ! sy/em ( respiration1 z has be5 already %[n1 v>ies accord+ to ! temp]ature ( ! ext]nal air2 ! quantity ( inspir$ oxyg5 increases ) ! loss ( heat by ext]nal cool+1 & ! quantity ( c>bon or hydrog5 necess>y to comb9e ) ?is oxyg5 mu/ be increas$ 9 l ratio4 ,x is evid5t t ! supply ( heat lo/ by cool+ is effect$ by ! mutual action ( ! elem5ts ( ! food & ! inspir$ oxyg51 :i* comb9e toge!r4 ,to make use ( a famili>1 b n on t acc\nt a less j illu/ration1 ! animal body acts1 9 ?is respect1 z a furnace1 :i* we supply ) fuel4 ,x signifies no?+ :at int]m$iate =ms food may assume1 :at *anges x may und]go 9 ! body1 ! la/ *ange is uni=mly ! conv]sion ( c>bon into c>bonic acid & ( its hydrog5 into wat]2 ! unassimilat$ nitrog5 ( ! food1 along ) ! unburn$ or unoxidiz$ c>bon1 is expell$ 9 ! excretions4 ,9 ord] to keep up 9 a furnace a con/ant temp]ature1 we mu/ v>y ! supply ( fuel accord+ to ! ext]nal temp]ature--t is1 accord+ to ! supply ( oxyg54 ,9 ! animal body ! food is ! fuel2 ) a prop] supply ( oxyg5 we obta9 ! heat giv5 out dur+ its oxidation or combu/ion47#c7 ,,blood ,,corpuscles1 ,,muscles1 ,,& ,,gl&s ,fur!r rese>*es %[$ t ! c>ri]s ( oxyg51 f ! "t ( its absorption 9 ! lungs till its lib]ation 9 ! ultimate tissues1 are ! r$ corpuscles1 ^: function _h be5 suppos$ to be ! me*anical "o ( mix+ ( ! blood4 ,x transpir$ t ! r$ corpuscles are compos$ *iefly ( a sub/ance :i* ,kuhne fir/ isolat$ 9 cry/all9e =m 9 #ahfe1 & :i* 0 nam$ haemoglob9--a sub/ance :i* has a m>vell\s aff9ity = oxyg51 seiz+ on x eag]ly at ! lungs vet giv+ x up ) equal read9ess :5 c\rs+ among ! remote cells ( ! body4 ,:5 freight$ ) oxyg5 x becomes oxyhaemoglob9 & is r$ 9 color2 :5 fre$ f its oxyg5 x takes a purple hue2 h5ce ! widely diff]5t appe>ance ( art]ial & v5\s blood1 :i* s puzzl$ ! e>ly physiologi/s4 ,?is pro( ( ! vitally important role play$ by ! r$-blood corpuscles l$1 naturally1 to r5ew$ /udies ( ^! inf9itesimal bodies4 ,x 0 f\nd t !y may v>y greatly 9 numb] at diff]5t p]iods 9 ! life ( ! same individual1 prov+ t !y may be bo? develop$ & de/roy$ 9 ! adult organism4 ,inde$1 ext5d$ obs]vations left no reason to d\bt t ! process ( corpuscle =mation & de/ruction may be a p]fectly normal "o--t1 9 %ort1 e r$-blood corpuscle runs its c\rse & dies l any m elaborate organism4 ,!y are =m$ con/antly 9 ! r$ m>r[ ( bones1 & are de/roy$ 9 ! liv]1 :]e !y contribute to ! =mation ( ! color+ matt] ( ! bile4 ,:e!r !re are o!r seats ( su* manufacture & de/ruction ( ! corpuscles is n yet fully det]m9$4 ,nor are hi/ologi/s agre$ z to :e!r ! r$-blood corpuscles !mselves are to be reg>d$ z true cells1 or m]ely z fragm5ts ( cells budd$ out f a true cell = a special purpose2 b 9 ei!r case !re is n ! slighte/ d\bt t ! *ief function ( ! r$ corpuscle is to c>ry oxyg54 ,if ! oxyg5 is tak5 to ! ultimate cells be=e comb9+ ) ! combu/ibles x is to consume1 x goes )\t say+ t ^! combu/ibles !mselves mu/ be c>ri$ !re also4 ,nor c\ld x be 9 d\bt t ! *iefe/ ( ^! ultimate tissues1 z reg>ds1 quantity ( fuel requir$1 are ! muscles4 ,a g5]al & compreh5sive view ( ! organism includes1 !n1 dige/ive app>atus & lungs z ! *annels ( fuel-supply2 blood & lymph *annels z ! transportation sy/em2 & muscle cells1 unit$ into muscle fibres1 z ! consumption furnaces1 :]e fuel is burn$ & en]gy trans=m$ & r5d]$ available = ! purposes ( ! organism1 supplem5t$ by a set ( excretory organs1 ?r\gh :i* ! wa/e products--! a%es--are elim9at$ f ! sy/em4 ,b !re rema91 broadly speak+1 two o!r sets ( organs ^: size demon/rates _! importance 9 ! economy ( ! organism1 yet ^: functions are n acc\nt$ = 9 ?is synopsis4 ,^! are ^? gl&like organs1 su* z ! sple51 :i* h no ducts & produce no visible secretions1 & ! n]v\s me*anism1 ^: c5tral organs are ! bra9 & sp9al cord4 ,:at (fices d ^! sets ( organs p]=m 9 ! great labor-specializ+ aggregation ( cells :i* we call a liv+ organism8 ,z reg>ds ! ductless gl&s1 ! fir/ clew to _! function 0 giv5 :5 ! great ,fr5*man ,claude ,b]n>d 7! man ( :om 8 admir]s lov$ to say1 ,he is n a physiologi/ m]ely2 he is physiology itself7 discov]$ :at is spok5 ( z ! glycog5ic function ( ! liv]4 ,! liv] itself1 inde$1 is n a ductless organ1 b ! quantity ( its bili>y output seems utt]ly disproportionate to its enorm\s size1 p>ticul>ly :5 x is consid]$ t 9 ! case ( ! human species ! liv] conta9s normally ab\t "o-fif? ( all ! blood 9 ! entire body4 ,b]n>d discov]$ t ! blood und]goes a *ange ( composition 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! liv]4 ,! liv] cells 7! peculi> =ms ( :i* _h be5 describ$ by ,purk9je1 ,h5le1 & ,dutro*et ab\t #ahch7 h ! p[] to conv]t c]ta9 ( ! sub/ances t come to !m into a />*like comp\nd call$ glycog51 & to /ore ?is sub/ance away till x is ne$$ by ! organism4 ,?is capacity ( ! liv] cells is q indep5d5t ( ! bile-mak+ p[] ( ! same cells2 h5ce ! discov]y ( ?is glycog5ic function %[$ t an organ may h m ?an "o pron\nc$ & important specific function4 ,b its *ief importance 0 9 giv+ a clew to ^? int]m$iate processes betwe5 dige/ion & f9al assimilation t are n[ kn[n to be ( su* vital significance 9 ! economy ( ! organism4 ,9 ! =ty odd ye>s t h elaps$ s9ce ?is pione] obs]vation ( ,b]n>d1 num]\s facts h come to light %[+ ! extreme importance ( su* int]m$iate alt]ations ( food-supplies 9 ! blood z t p]=m$ by ! liv]4 ,x has be5 %[n t ! pancreas1 ! sple51 ! ?yroid gl&1 ! supr>5al capsules are absolutely ess5tial1 ea* 9 its own way1 to ! heal? ( ! organism1 ?r\gh metabolic *anges :i* !y alone seem capable ( p]=m+2 & x is suspect$ t v>i\s o!r tissues1 includ+ ev5 ! muscles !mselves1 h some:at simil> metabolic capacities 9 addition to _! recogniz$ functions4 ,b s extremely intricate is ! *emi/ry ( ! sub/ances involv$ t 9 no s+le case has ! exact nature ( ! metabolisms wr\ght by ^! organs be5 fully made out4 ,ea* is 9 its way a *emical laboratory indisp5sable to ! "r conduct ( ! organism1 b ! precise nature ( its op]ations rema9s inscrutable4 ,! va/ importance ( ! op]ations ( ^! int]m$iate organs is unque/ion$4 ,a consid]ation ( ! functions ( t o!r set ( organs kn[n collectively z ! n]v\s sy/em is res]v$ = a lat] *apt]4 ,,vi4 ,,!ories ,,( ,,organic ,,evolution ,,goe! ,,& ,,! ,,metamorphosis ,,( ,,p>ts ,:5 ,col]idge said ( ,humphry ,davy t he might h be5 ! greate/ poet ( 8 "t _h he n *os5 r to be ! greate/ *emi/1 x is possible t ! en?usiasm ( ! fri5d outweigh$ ! caution ( ! critic4 ,b h[ev] t may be1 x is beyond dispute t ! man :o actually 0 ! greate/ poet ( t "t might easily h tak5 ! v highe/ rank z a sci5ti/ _h n ! muse di/ract$ 8 att5tion4 ,inde$1 despite ^! di/ractions1 ,johann ,wolfgang von ,goe! a*iev$ successes 9 ! field ( pure sci5ce t w\ld insure p]man5t recognition = 8 "n _h he nev] writt5 a /anza ( poetry4 ,su* is ! v]satility t m>ks ! highe/ g5ius4 ,x 0 9 #agij t ,goe! publi%$ ! "w t laid ! f\ndations ( 8 sci5tific reputation--! "w on ! ,metamorphoses ( ,plants1 9 :i* he advanc$ ! novel doctr9e t all p>ts ( ! fl[] are modifi$ or metamorphos$ leaves4 ,e "o :o obs]ves ! gr[? ( plants1 ev5 sup]ficially1 wrote ,goe!1 w notice t c]ta9 ext]nal p>ts ( !m become trans=m$ at times & g ov] into ! =ms ( ! contigu\s p>ts1 n[ completely1 n[ to a great] or less degree4 ,?us1 = example1 ! s+le fl[] is trans=m$ into a d\ble "o :51 in/ead ( /am5s1 petals are develop$1 :i* are ei!r exactly l ! o!r petals ( ! corolla 9 =m1 & color or else /ill be> visible signs ( _! orig94 ,:5 we obs]ve t x is possible = a plant 9 ?is way to take a /ep backw>d1 we %all give s mu* ! m he$ to ! regul> c\rse ( nature & le>n ! laws ( trans=mation accord+ to :i* %e produces "o "p ?r\gh ano!r1 & displays ! mo/ v>y+ =ms ?r\gh ! modification ( "o s+le organ4 ,let u fir/ direct our att5tion to ! plant at ! mom5t :5 x develops out ( ! se$-k]nel4 ,! fir/ organs ( its upw>d gr[? are kn[n by ! "n ( cotyl$ons2 !y h also be5 call$ se$-leaves4 ,!y (t5 appe> %apeless1 fill$ ) new matt]1 & are j z ?ick z !y are broad4 ,_! vessels are unrecognizable & are h>dly to be di/+ui%$ f ! mass ( ! :ole2 !y be> almo/ no resemblance to a leaf1 & we c\ld easily be misl$ into reg>d+ !m z special organs4 ,occasionally1 h[ev]1 !y appe> z real leaves1 _! vessels are capable ( ! mo/ m9ute developm5t1 _! simil>ity to ! foll[+ leaves does n p]mit u to take !m = special organs1 b we recognize !m in/ead to be ! fir/ leaves ( ! /alk4 ,! cotyl$ons are mo/ly d\ble1 & !re is an obs]vation to be made "h :i* w appe> /ill m important z we proce$--t is1 t ! leaves ( ! fir/ node are (t5 pair$1 ev5 :5 ! foll[+ leaves ( ! /alk /& alt]nately ^u x4 ,"h we see an approximation & a jo9+ ( p>ts :i* nature aft]w>ds sep>ates & places at a di/ance f "o ano!r4 ,x is /ill m rem>kable :5 ! cotyl$ons take ! =m ( _m little leaves ga!r$ ab\t an axis1 & ! /alk :i* gr[s gradually f _! mid/ produces ! foll[+ leaves arrang$ ar\nd x s+ly 9 a :orl4 ,?is may be obs]v$ v exactly 9 ! gr[? ( ! p9us species4 ,"h a corolla ( ne$les =ms at ! same "t a calyx1 & we %all h occasion to rememb] ! pres5t case 9 connection ) simil> ph5om5a lat]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we obs]ve t ev5 ! cotyl$ons :i* are mo/ l a leaf :5 comp>$ ) ! foll[+ leaves ( ! /alk are always m undevelop$ or less develop$4 ,?is is *iefly noticeable 9 _! m>g9 :i* is extremely simple & %[s few traces ( ind5tation4 ,a few or _m ( ! next foll[+ leaves are (t5 already pres5t 9 ! se$1 & lie enclos$ betwe5 ! cotyl$ons2 9 _! fold$ /ate !y are kn[n by ! "n ( plumules4 ,_! =m1 z comp>$ ) ! cotyl$ons & ! foll[+ leaves1 v>ies 9 diff]5t plants4 ,_! *ief po9t ( v>iance1 h[ev]1 f ! cotyl$ons is t !y are flat1 delicate1 & =m$ l real leaves g5]ally4 ,!y are :olly gre51 re/ on a visible node1 & c no long] d5y _! relation%ip to ! foll[+ leaves ( ! /alk1 to :i*1 h[ev]1 !y are usually /ill inf]ior1 9 s f> z t _! m>g9 is n completely develop$4 ,! fur!r developm5t1 h[ev]1 goes on ceaselessly 9 ! leaf1 f node to node2 its midrib is elongat$1 & m or less additional ribs /ret* out f ?is t[>ds ! sides4 ,! leaves n[ appe> not*$1 deeply ind5t$1 or compos$ ( sev]al small leaves1 9 :i* la/ case !y seem to =m complete little bran*es4 ,! date-palm furni%es a /rik+ example ( su* a successive trans=mation ( ! simple/ leaf =m4 ,a midrib is elongat$ ?r\gh a succession ( sev]al leaves1 ! s+le fan-%ap$ leaf becomes torn & div]t$1 & a v complicat$ leaf is develop$1 :i* rivals a bran* 9 =m4 ,! transition to infloresc5ce takes place m or less rapidly4 ,9 ! latt] case we usually obs]ve t ! leaves ( ! /alk loose _! diff]5t ext]nal divisions1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 spread out m or less 9 _! l[] p>ts :]e !y are atta*$ to ! /alk4 ,if ! transition takes place rapidly1 ! /alk1 sudd5ly become ?9n] & m elongat$ s9ce ! node ( ! la/-develop$ leaf1 %oots up & collects sev]al leaves ar\nd an axis at its end4 ,t ! petals ( ! calyx are precisely ! same organs :i* h hi!rto appe>$ z leaves on ! /alk1 b n[ /& gr\p$ ab\t a common c5tre 9 an (t5 v diff]5t =m1 c1 z x seems to me1 be mo/ cle>ly demon/rat$4 ,already 9 connection ) ! cotyl$ons above1 we notic$ a simil> work+ ( nature4 ,! fir/ species1 :ile !y are develop+ out ( ! se$-k]nel1 display a radiate cr[n ( unmi/akable ne$les2 & 9 ! fir/ *ildhood ( ^! plants we see already indicat$ t =ce ( nature :]eby :5 !y are old] _! fl[]+ & fruit-giv+ /ate w be produc$4 ,we see ?is =ce ( nature1 :i* collects sev]al leaves ar\nd an axis1 produce a /ill clos] union & make ^! approximat$1 modifi$ leaves /ill m unrecognizable by jo9+ !m toge!r ei!r :olly or p>tially4 ,! bell-%ap$ or s-call$ "o-petall$ calices repres5t ^! cl\dy connect$ leaves1 :i*1 be+ m or less ind5t$ f above1 or divid$1 pla9ly %[ _! orig94 ,we c obs]ve ! transition f ! calyx to ! corolla 9 m ?an "o in/ance1 =1 al?\gh ! color ( ! calyx is /ill usually gre51 & l ! color ( ! leaves ( ! /alk1 x nev]!less (t5 v>ies 9 "o or ano!r ( its p>ts--at ! tips1 ! m>g9s1 ! back1 or ev51 ! inw>d side--:ile ! out] /ill rema9s on gre54 ,! relation%ip ( ! corolla to ! leaves ( ! /alk is %[n 9 m ?an "o way1 s9ce on ! /alks ( "s plants appe> leaves :i* are already m or less color$ long be=e !y approa* infloresc5ce2 o!rs are fully color$ :5 ne> infloresc5ce4 ,nature also goes ov] at once to ! corolla1 sometimes by skipp+ ov] ! organs ( ! calyx1 & 9 su* a case we likewise h an opportunity to obs]ve t leaves ( ! /alk become trans=m$ into petals4 ,?us on ! /alk ( tulips1 = in/ance1 !re sometimes appe>s an almo/ completely develop$ & color$ petal4 ,ev5 m rem>kable is ! case :5 su* a leaf1 half gre5 & half ( x belong+ to ! /alk1 rema9s atta*$ to ! latt]1 :ile ano!r color$ "p is rais$ ) ! corolla1 & ! leaf is ?us torn 9 two4 ,! relation%ip betwe5 ! petals & /am5s is v close4 ,9 "s in/ances nature makes ! transition regul>--e4g41 among ! ,canna & sev]al plants ( ! same family4 ,a true1 little-modifi$ petal is drawn toge!r on its upp] m>g91 & produces a poll5 sac1 :ile ! re/ ( ! petal takes ! place ( ! /am54 ,9 d\ble fl[]s we c obs]ve ?is transition 9 all its /ages4 ,9 sev]al k9ds ( roses1 )9 ! fully develop$ & color$ petals !re appe> o!r ones :i* are drawn toge!r 9 ! middle or on ! side4 ,?is draw+ toge!r is produc$ by a small weal1 :i* appe>s z a m or less complete poll5 sac1 & 9 ! same proportion ! leaf approa*es ! simple =m ( a /am54 ,! pi/il 9 _m cases looks almo/ l a /am5 )\t an!rs1 & ! relation%ip betwe5 ! =mation ( ! two is mu* clos] ?an betwe5 ! o!r p>ts4 ,9 retrograde fa%ion nature (t5 produces cases :]e ! /yle & /igma 7,n>b57 become retrans=m$ into petals--t is1 ! ,ranunculus ,asiaticus becomes d\ble by trans=m+ ! /igma & /yle ( ! fruit-receptacle into real petals1 :ile ! /am5s are (t5 f\nd un*ang$ imm$iately beh9d ! corolla4 ,9 ! se$ receptacles1 9 spite ( _! =mation1 ( _! special object1 & ( _! me?od ( be+ jo9$ toge!r1 we _c fail to recognize ! leaf =m4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 ! pod w\ld be a simple leaf fold$ & gr[n toge!r on its m>g92 ! siliqua w\ld consi/ ( m leaves fold$ ov] ano!r2 ! comp\nd receptacles w\ld be expla9$ z be+ sev]al leaves :i*1 be+ unit$ above "o c5tre1 keep _! inw>d p>ts sep>ate & are jo9$ on _! m>g9s4 ,we c conv9ce ourselves ( ?is by actual sight :5 su* composite capsules fall ap>t aft] becom+ ripe1 because !n e "p displays an op5$ pod47#a7 ,! !ory ?us elaborat$ ( ! metamorphosis ( p>ts 0 pres5tly giv5 great] g5]ality ?r\gh ext5sion to ! animal k+dom1 9 ! doctr9e :i* ,goe! & ,ok5 advanc$ indep5d5tly1 t ! v]tebrate skull is ess5tially a modifi$ & develop$ v]tebra4 ,^! 7 conceptions wor?y ( a poet--impossible1 inde$1 = any m9d t _h n ! poetic faculty ( correlation4 ,b 9 ?is case ! poet's vision 0 prophetic ( a future view ( ! mo/ prosaic sci5ce4 ,! doctr9e ( metamorphosis ( p>ts soon came to be reg>d$ z ( fundam5tal importance4 ,b ! doctr9e _h implications t few ( its e>ly advocates realiz$4 ,if all ! p>ts ( a fl[]--sepal1 petal1 /am51 pi/il1 ) _! c\ntless deviations ( cont\r & color--are b modifications ( ! leaf1 su* modification implies a m>vell\s diff]5tiation & developm5t4 ,to ass]t t a /am5 is a metamorphos$ leaf means1 if x means any?+1 t 9 ! long sweep ( "t ! leaf has by sl[ or sudd5 gradations *ang$ its "* ?r\gh successive g5]ations1 until ! (fspr+1 s to speak1 ( a true leaf has become a /am54 ,b if su* a metamorphosis z ?is is possible--if ! seem+ly wide gap betwe5 leaf & /am5 may be spann$ by ! modification ( a l9e ( organisms--:]e does ! possibility ( modification ( organic type f9d its b\nds8 ,:y may n ! modification ( p>ts g on along devi\s l9es until ! remote desc5dants ( an organism are utt]ly unlike t organism8 ,:y may we n ?us acc\nt = ! developm5t ( v>i\s species ( be+s all sprung f "o p>5t /ock8 ,t1 too1 is a poet's dream2 b is x only a dream8 ,goe! ?\ght n4 ,out ( 8 /udies ( metamorphosis ( p>ts !re grew 9 8 m9d ! belief t ! multitud9\s species ( plants & animals ab\t u h be5 evolv$ f few] & few] e>li] p>5t types1 l twigs ( a giant tree draw+ _! nurture f ! same primal root4 ,x 0 a bold & revolution>y ?\ght1 & ! _w reg>d$ x z b ! vag>y ( a poet4 ,,erasmus ,,d>w9 ,j at ! "t :5 ?is ?\ght 0 tak+ =m 9 ,goe!'s bra91 ! same idea 0 g]m9at+ 9 ! m9d ( ano!r philosoph]1 an ,engli%man ( int]national fame1 ,dr4 ,erasmus ,d>w91 :o1 :ile he liv$1 enjoy$ ! wide/ popul>ity z a poet1 ! rhym$ c\plets ( 8 ,botanic ,g>d5 be+ quot$ ev]y:]e ) admiration4 ,& po/]ity repudiat+ ! v]se :i* makes ! body ( ! book1 yet grants p]man5t value to ! book itself1 because1 =soo?1 its copi\s explanatory foot-notes furni% an outl9e ( ! /atus ( almo/ e dep>tm5t ( sci5ce ( ! "t4 ,b ev5 ?\gh he lack$ ! highe/ art ( ! v]sifi]1 ,d>w9 _h1 beyond p]adv5ture1 ! imag9ation ( a poet c\pl$ ) pr(\nd sci5tific k2 & x 0 8 poetic insight1 correlat+ organisms seem+ly div]se 9 /ructure & imbu+ ! l[lie/ fl[] ) a vital p]sonality1 :i* l$ him to suspect t !re are no l9es ( dem>cation 9 nature4 ,c x be1 he qu]ies1 t "o =m ( organism has develop$ f ano!r2 t diff]5t species are really b modifi$ desc5dants ( "o p>5t /ock8 ,! allur+ ?\ght ne/l$ 9 8 m9d & 0 nurtur$ !re1 & grew 9 a fix$ belief1 :i* 0 giv5 full] expression 9 8 ,zoonomia & 9 ! po/hum\s ,temple ( ,nature4 ,"h is 8 r5d]+ ( ! idea z v]sifi$ 9 ! ,temple ( ,nature3 ,organic life b5ea? ! %oreless waves ,0 born1 & nurs$ 9 ,ocean's pe>ly caves2 ,fir/ =ms m9ute1 unse5 by sph]ic glass1 ,move on ! mud1 or pi]ce ! wat]y mass2 ,^!1 z successive g5]ations bloom1 ,new p[]s acquire & l>g] limbs assume2 ,:5ce c\ntless gr\ps ( vegetation spr+1 ,& brea?+ realms ( f91 & feet1 & w+4 ,?us ! tall ,oak1 ! giant ( ! wood1 ,:i* be>s ,britannia's ?und]s on ! flood2 ,! ,:ale1 unmeasur$ mon/] ( ! ma92 ,! lordly lion1 mon>* ( ! pla92 ,! eagle1 so>+ 9 ! realms ( air1 ,^: eye1 undazzl$1 dr9ks ! sol> gl>e2 ,imp]i\s man1 :o rules ! be/ial cr[d1 ,( language1 reason1 & reflection pr\d1 ,) br[ erect1 :o scorns ?is e>?y sod1 ,& /yles himself ! image ( 8 ,god-- ,arose f rudim5ts ( =m & s5se1 ,an embryon po9t or microscopic ens67#b7 ,"h1 cle>ly en\gh1 is ! idea ( evolution4 ,b 9 t day !re 0 little pro( =?com+ ( its validity t c\ld satisfy any "o b a poet1 & :5 ,erasmus ,d>w9 di$1 9 #ahjb1 ! idea ( transmutation ( species 0 /ill b an unsub/antiat$ dream4 ,x 0 a dream1 h[ev]1 :i* 0 n conf9$ to ,goe! & ,d>w94 ,ev5 e>li] ! idea _h come m or less vaguely to ano!r great dream]--& work]--( ,g]many1 ,immanuel ,kant1 & to sev]al great ,fr5*m51 includ+ ,de ,maillet1 ,maup]tuis1 ,rob9et1 & ! fam\s naturali/ ,buffon--a man :o _h ! imag9ation ( a poet1 ?\gh 8 message 0 c\*$ 9 mo/ arti/ic prose4 ,n long aft] ! middle ( ! eighte5? c5tury ,buffon _h put =w>d ! idea ( transmutation ( species1 & he reit]at$ x f "t to "t f !n on till 8 dea? 9 #aghh4 ,b ! "t 0 n yet ripe = ! idea ( transmutation ( species to bur/ its bonds4 ,& yet ?is idea1 9 a modifi$ or undevelop$ =m1 _h tak5 /range hold ^u ! g5]ation t 0 ^u ! sc5e at ! close ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,va/ numb]s ( hi!rto unkn[n species ( animals _h be5 rec5tly discov]$ 9 previ\sly unexplor$ regions ( ! globe1 & ! wise m5 7 sorely puzzl$ to acc\nt = ! disposal ( all ( ^! at ! "t ( ! deluge4 ,x simplifi$ matt]s greatly to suppose t _m exi/+ species _h be5 develop$ s9ce ! episode ( ! ark by modification ( ! orig9al pairs4 ,! remot] be>+s ( su* a !ory 7 ov]look$ = ! "t1 & ! idea t ,am]ican animals & birds1 = example1 7 modifi$ desc5dants ( ,old-,_w =ms--! jagu> ( ! leop>d1 ! puma ( ! lion1 & s on--became a curr5t belief ) t class ( humanity :o accept almo/ any /atem5t z true t h>monizes ) _! prejudices )\t realiz+ its implications4 ,?us x is record$ ) eclat t ! discov]y ( ! close proximity ( ,am]ica at ! nor?we/ ) ,asia removes all difficulties z to ! orig9 ( ! ,occid5tal faunas & floras1 s9ce ,ori5tal species might easily h f\nd _! way to ,am]ica on ! ice1 & h be5 modifi$ z we f9d !m by ! well-kn[n influ5ce ( climate4 ,& ! p]sons :o gave expression to ?is idea nev] dream$ ( its real significance4 ,9 tru?1 "h 0 ! doctr9e ( evolution 9 a nut%ell1 &1 because its ultimate be>+s 7 n cle>1 x seem$ ! mo/ natural ( doctr9es4 ,b mo/ ( ! p]sons :o advanc$ x w\ld h turn$ f x agha/ c\ld !y h realiz$ its import4 ,z x 01 h[ev]1 only "h & !re a man l ,buffon reason$ f> en\gh to inquire :at might be ! limits ( su* assum$ transmutation2 & only "h & !re a ,d>w9 or a ,goe! rea*$ ! conviction t !re are no limits4 ,,lam>ck ,,v]sus ,,cuvi] ,& ev5 ,goe! & ,d>w9 _h sc>cely pass$ beyond t t5tative /age ( conviction 9 :i* !y held ! ?\ght ( transmutation ( species z an ancill>y belief n ready = full exposition4 ,!re 0 "o ( _! contempor>ies1 h[ev]1 :o1 hold+ ! same conception1 0 mov$ to give x full explication4 ,?is 0 ! fri5d & disciple ( ,buffon1 ,jean ,bapti/e de ,lam>ck4 ,possess$ ( ! _s ( a poet & philosoph]1 ?is great ,fr5*man _h also ! wide/ range ( te*nical k1 cov]+ ! entire field ( animate nature4 ,! fir/ half ( 8 long life 0 devot$ *iefly to botany1 9 :i* he atta9$ high di/9ction4 ,!n1 j at ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 he turn$ to zoology1 9 p>ticul> to ! l[] =ms ( animal life4 ,/udy+ ^! l[ly organisms1 exi/+ & fossil1 he 0 m & m impress$ ) ! gradations ( =m ev]y:]e to be se52 ! l9k+ ( div]se families ?r\gh int]m$iate ones2 & 9 p>ticul> ) ! pr$om9ance ( l[ types ( life 9 ! e>li] geological /rata4 ,call$ ^u con/antly to classify ! v>i\s =ms ( life 9 ! c\rse ( 8 sy/ematic writ+s1 he f\nd x m & m difficult to draw %>p l9es ( dem>cation1 & at la/ ! suspicion long h>bor$ grew into a settl$ conviction t !re is really no su* ?+ z a species ( organism 9 nature2 t species is a figm5t ( ! human imag9ation1 :]eas 9 nature !re are only individuals4 ,t c]ta9 sets ( individuals are m l "o ano!r ?an l o!r sets is ( c\rse pat5t1 b ?is only means1 said ,lam>ck1 t ^! simil> gr\ps h _h comp>atively rec5t common ance/ors1 :ile dissimil> sets ( be+s are m remotely relat$ 9 consangu9ity4 ,b trace back ! l9es ( desc5t f> en\gh1 & all w culm9ate 9 "o orig9al /ock4 ,all =ms ( life :atsoev] are modifi$ desc5dants ( an orig9al organism4 ,f l[e/ to highe/1 !n1 !re is b "o race1 "o species1 j z all ! multitud9\s bran*es & twigs f "o root are b "o tree4 ,= purposes ( conv5i5ce ( description1 we may divide organisms into ord]s1 families1 g5]a1 species1 j z we divide a tree into root1 trunk1 bran*es1 twigs1 leaves2 b 9 ! "o case1 z 9 ! o!r1 ! division is arbitr>y & artificial4 ,9 ,philosophie ,zoologique 7#ahji71 ,lam>ck fir/ explicitly =mulat$ 8 ideas z to ! transmutation ( species1 ?\gh he _h outl9$ !m z e>ly z #ahja4 ,9 ?is memorable publication n only did he /ate 8 belief m explicitly & 9 full] detail ?an ! idea _h be5 express$ by any pr$ecessor1 b he took ano!r long =w>d /ep1 c>ry+ him f> beyond all 8 =]unn]s except ,d>w91 9 t he made an attempt to expla9 ! way 9 :i* ! transmutation ( species _h be5 br\ght ab\t4 ,! *anges h be5 wr\ght1 he said1 ?r\gh ! unceas+ ef=ts ( ea* organism to meet ! ne$s impos$ ^u x by its environm5t4 ,con/ant /riv+ means ! con/ant use ( c]ta9 organs4 ,?us a bird runn+ by ! sea%ore is con/antly tempt$ to wade deep] & deep] 9 pursuit ( food2 its incessant ef=ts t5d to develop its legs1 9 accordance ) ! obs]v$ pr9ciple t ! use ( any organ t5ds to /r5g!n & develop x4 ,b su* slightly increas$ developm5t ( ! legs is transmitt$ to ! (f spr+ ( ! bird1 :i* 9 turn develops its already improv$ legs by its individual ef=ts1 & transmits ! improv$ t5d5cy4 ,g5]ation aft] g5]ation ?is is repeat$1 until ! sum ( ! inf9itesimal v>iations1 all 9 ! same direction1 results 9 ! production ( ! long-legg$ wad+-bird4 ,9 a simil> way1 ?r\gh individual ef=t & transmitt$ t5d5cy1 all ! div]sifi$ organs ( all creatures h be5 develop$--! f9 ( ! fi%1 ! w+ ( ! bird1 ! h& ( man2 nay1 m1 ! fi% itself1 ! bird1 ! man1 ev54 ,collectively ! organs make up ! entire organism2 & :at is true ( ! individual organs mu/ be true also ( _! ensemble1 ! liv+ be+4 ,:atev] might be ?\ght ( ,lam>ck's explanation ( ! cause ( transmutation--:i* really 0 t already sugge/$ by ,erasmus ,d>w9--! idea ( ! evolution = :i* he cont5d$ 0 b ! logical ext5sion ( ! conception t ,am]ican animals are ! modifi$ & deg5]at$ desc5dants ( ,european animals4 ,b p z a rule are little prone to foll[ ideas to _! logical conclusions1 & 9 ?is case ! conclusions 7 s utt]ly oppos$ to ! proximal be>+s ( ! idea t ! :ole ?9k+ _w repudiat$ !m ) acclaim4 ,! v p]sons :o _h mo/ eag]ly accept$ ! idea ( transmutation ( ,european species into ,am]ican species1 & simil> limit$ v>iations ?r\gh *ang$ environm5t1 because ( ! relief ?us giv5 ! o!rwise ov]cr[d$ ark1 7 n[ =emo/ 9 d5\nc+ su* an ext5sion ( ! doctr9e ( transmutation z ,lam>ck propos$4 ,&1 = t matt]1 ! lead]s ( ! sci5tific _w 7 equally antagoni/ic to ! ,lam>ckian hypo!sis4 ,cuvi] 9 p>ticul>1 once ! pupil ( ,lam>ck1 b n[ 8 colleague1 & 9 au?ority m ?an 8 pe]1 /ood out aga9/ ! transmutation doctr9e ) all 8 =ce4 ,he argu$ = ! absolute fixity ( species1 br++ to be> ! res\rces ( a m9d :i*1 z a m]e repository ( facts1 p]haps nev] 0 excell$4 ,z a f9al & tangible pro( ( 8 position1 he br\ght =w>d ! bodies ( ibises t _h be5 embalm$ by ! anci5t ,egyptians1 & %[$ by comp>ison t ^! d n diff] 9 ! slighte/ p>ticul> f ! ibises t visit ! ,nile to-day4 ,cuvi]'s reason+ has su* great hi/orical int]e/--be+ ! argum5t ( ! greate/ oppon5t ( evolution ( t day--t we quote x at "s l5g?4 ,! foll[+ objections1 he says1 h already be5 />t$ aga9/ my conclusions4 ,:y may n ! pres5tly exi/+ races ( mammif]\s l& quadrup$s be m]e modifications or v>ieties ( ^? anci5t races :i* we n[ f9d 9 ! fossil /ate1 :i* modifications may h be5 produc$ by *ange ( climate & o!r local circum/ances1 & s9ce rais$ to ! pres5t excessive diff]5ce by ! op]ations ( simil> causes dur+ a long p]iod ( ages8 ,?is objection may appe> /rong to ^? :o believe 9 ! indef9ite possibility ( *ange ( =m 9 organiz$ bodies1 & ?9k t1 dur+ a succession ( ages & by alt]ations ( habitudes1 all ! species may *ange into "o ano!r1 or "o ( !m give bir? to all ! re/4 ,yet to ^! p]sons ! foll[+ answ] may be giv5 f _! own sy/em3 ,if ! species h *ang$ by degrees1 z !y assume1 we ought to f9d traces ( ?is gradual modification4 ,?us1 betwe5 ! palaeo!rium & ! species ( our own day1 we %\ld be able to discov] "s int]m$iate =ms2 & yet no su* discov]y has ev] be5 made4 ,s9ce ! b[els ( ! e>? h n pres]v$ monum5ts ( ?is /range g5ealogy1 we h no "r to conclude t ! anci5t & n[ ext9ct species 7 z p]man5t 9 _! =ms & *>act]s z ^? :i* exi/ at pres5t2 or1 at lea/1 t ! cata/rophe :i* de/roy$ !m did n leave suffici5t "t = ! productions ( ! *anges t are alleg$ to h tak5 place4 ,9 ord] to reply to ^? naturali/s :o ackn[l$ge t ! v>ieties ( animals are re/ra9$ by nature )9 c]ta9 limits1 x w\ld be necess>y to exam9e h[ f> ^! limits ext5d4 ,?is is a v curi\s inquiry1 & 9 itself exce$+ly int]e/+ "u a v>iety ( relations1 b has be5 hi!rto v little att5d$ to4444 ,wild animals :i* subsi/ ^u h]bage feel ! influ5ce ( climate a little m ext5sively1 because !re is add$ to x ! influ5ce ( food1 bo? 9 reg>d to its abundance & its quality4 ,?us ! elephants ( "o =e/ are l>g] ?an ^? ( ano!r2 _! tusks also gr[ some:at long] 9 places :]e _! food may happ5 to be m favorable = ! production ( ! sub/ance ( ivory4 ,! same may take place 9 reg>d to ! horns ( /ags & re9de]4 ,b let u exam9e two elephants1 ! mo/ dissimil> t c be conceiv$1 we %all n discov] ! smalle/ diff]5ce 9 ! numb] & articulations ( ! bones1 ! /ructure ( ! tee?1 etc444444444 ,nature appe>s also to h gu>d$ aga9/ ! alt]ations ( species :i* might proce$ f mixture ( bre$s by influ5c+ ! v>i\s species ( animals ) mutual av]sion f "o ano!r4 ,h5ce all ! cunn+ & all ! =ce t man is able to ex]t is necess>y to accompli% su* unions1 ev5 betwe5 species t h ! ne>e/ resemblances4 ,& :5 ! mule bre$s t are ?us produc$ by ^! =c$ conjunctions happ5 to be fruitful1 :i* is seldom ! case1 ?is fecundity nev] cont9ues beyond a few g5]ations1 & w\ld n probably proce$ s f> )\t a cont9uance ( ! same c>es :i* excit$ x at fir/4 ,?us we nev] see 9 a wild /ate int]m$iate productions betwe5 ! h>e & ! rabbit1 betwe5 ! /ag & ! doe1 or betwe5 ! m>t5 & ! weasel4 ,b ! p[] ( man *anges ?is e/abli%$ ord]1 & cont9ues to produce all ^! int]mixtures ( :i* ! v>i\s species are susceptible1 b :i* !y w\ld nev] produce if left to !mselves4 ,! degrees ( ^! v>iations are proportional to ! int5sity ( ! causes t produc$ !m--namely1 ! slav]y or subjection "u :i* ^? animals are to man4 ,!y d n proce$ f> 9 half-dome/icat$ species4 ,9 ! cat1 = example1 a s(t] or h>%] fur1 m brilliant or m v>i$ colors1 great] or less size--^! =m ! :ole ext5t ( v>iety 9 ! species2 ! skeleton ( ! cat ( ,angora diff]s 9 no regul> & con/ant circum/ances f ! wild-cat ( ,europe4444 ,! mo/ rem>kable effects ( ! influ5ce ( man are produc$ ^u t animal :i* he has r$uc$ mo/ completely "u subjection4 ,dogs h be5 transport$ by mank9d into e "p ( ! _w & h submitt$ _! action to 8 entire direction4 ,regulat$ 9 _! unions by ! pleasure or caprice ( _! ma/]s1 ! almo/ endless v>ieties ( dogs diff] f "o ano!r 9 color1 9 l5g?1 & abundance ( hair1 :i* is sometimes entirely want+2 9 _! natural in/9cts2 9 size1 :i* v>ies 9 measure z "o to five1 m\nt+ 9 "s in/ances to m ?an a hundr$fold 9 bulk2 9 ! =m ( _! e>s1 noses1 & tails2 9 ! relative l5g? ( _! legs2 9 ! progressive developm5t ( ! bra91 9 sev]al ( ! dome/icat$ v>ieties occasion+ alt]ations ev5 9 ! =m ( ! head1 "s ( !m hav+ long1 sl5d] muzzles ) a flat =ehead1 o!rs hav+ %ort muzzles ) a =ehead convex1 etc41 insomu* t ! app>5t diff]5ce betwe5 a ma/iff & a wat]-spaniel & betwe5 a greyh\nd & a pugdog are ev5 m /rik+ ?an betwe5 almo/ any ( ! wild species ( a g5us44444444 ,x foll[s f ^! obs]vations t animals h c]ta9 fix$ & natural *>act]s :i* resi/ ! effects ( e k9d ( influ5ce1 :e!r proce$+ f natural causes or human int]f]5ce2 & we h n ! smalle/ reason to suspect t "t has any m effect on !m ?an climate4 ,i am aw>e t "s naturali/s lay prodigi\s /ress ^u ! ?\s&s :i* !y c call into action by a da% ( _! p5s4 ,9 su* matt]s1 h[ev]1 our only way ( judg+ z to ! effects :i* may be produc$ by a long p]iod ( "t is by multiply+1 z x 71 su* z are produc$ by a %ort] "t4 ,) ?is view ,i h endeavor$ to collect all ! anci5t docum5ts respect+ ! =ms ( animals2 & !re are none equal to ^? furni%$ by ! ,egyptians1 bo? 9 reg>d to _! antiquity & abundance4 ,!y h n only left u repres5tatives ( animals1 b ev5 _! id5tical bodies embalm$ & pres]v$ 9 ! catacombs4 ,i h exam9$1 ) ! greate/ att5tion1 ! engrav$ figures ( quadrup$s & birds br\ght f ,egypt to anci5t ,rome1 & all ^! figures1 "o ) ano!r1 h a p]fect resemblance to _! int5d$ objects1 su* z !y /ill are to-day4 ,f all ^! e/abli%$ facts1 !re does n seem to be ! smalle/ f\ndation = suppos+ t ! new g5]a :i* ,i h discov]$ or e/abli%$ among extrane\s fossils1 su* z ! paleoe!rium1 anoplo!rium1 megalonyx1 ma/odon1 pt]odactylis1 etc41 h ev] be5 ! s\rces ( any ( our pres5t animals1 :i* only diff] s f> z !y are influ5c$ by "t or climate4 ,ev5 if x %\ld prove true1 :i* ,i am f> f believ+ to be ! case1 t ! fossil elephants1 rh9oc]oses1 elks1 & be>s d n diff] fur!r f ! exi/+ species ( ! same g5]a ?an ! pres5t races ( dogs diff] among !mselves1 ?is w\ld by no means be a suffici5t reason to conclude t !y 7 ( ! same species2 s9ce ! races or v>ieties ( dogs h be5 influ5c$ by ! trammels ( dome/icity1 :i* ^? o!r animals nev] did1 & inde$ nev] c\ld1 exp]i5ce47#c7 ,to ,cuvi]'s argum5t f ! fixity ( ,egyptian mummifi$ birds & animals1 z above /at$1 ,lam>ck repli$ t ?is prov$ no?+ except t ! ibis _h become p]fectly adapt$ to its ,egyptian surr\nd+s 9 an e>ly day1 hi/orically speak+1 & t ! climatic & o!r conditions ( ! ,nile ,valley _h n s9ce !n *ang$4 ,8 !ory1 he alleg$1 provid$ = ! /ability ( species "u fix$ conditions q z well z = transmutation "u v>y+ conditions4 ,b1 ne$less to say1 ! popul> v]dict lay ) ,cuvi]2 tal5t won = ! "t aga9/ g5ius1 & ,lam>ck 0 look$ ^u z an impi\s vision>y4 ,8 fai? nev] wav]$1 h[ev]4 ,he believ$ t he _h ga9$ a true insight into ! processes ( animate nature1 & he reit]at$ 8 hypo!ses ov] & ov]1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! introduction to 8 ,hi/oire ,naturelle des ,animaux sans ,v]tebres1 9 #ahae1 & 9 8 ,sy/eme des ,connaissances ,positives de l',homme1 9 #ahbj4 ,he liv$ on till #ahbi1 respect$ z a naturali/1 b almo/ unrecogniz$ z a prophet4 ,,t5tative ,,advances ,:ile ! names ( ,d>w9 & ,goe!1 & 9 p>ticul> t ( ,lam>ck1 mu/ always /& out 9 high relief 9 ?is g5]ation z ! expon5ts ( ! idea ( transmutation ( species1 !re are a few o!rs :i* mu/ n be altoge!r ov]look$ 9 ?is connection4 ,( ^! ! mo/ conspicu\s is t ( ,gottfri$ ,re9hold ,treviranus1 a ,g]man naturali/ physician1 pr(essor ( ma!matics 9 ! lyceum at ,brem54 ,x 0 an int]e/+ co9cid5ce t ,treviranus %\ld h publi%$ ! fir/ volume ( 8 ,biologie1 od] ,philosophie d] leb5d5 ,natur1 9 :i* 8 views on ! transmutation ( species 7 exp\nd$1 9 #ahjb1 ! same twelvemon? 9 :i* ,lam>ck's fir/ exposition ( ! same doctr9e appe>$ 9 8 ,re*]*es sur l',organisation des ,corps ,vivants4 ,x is s+ul>1 too1 t ,lam>ck1 9 8 ,hydrogelogie ( ! same date1 %\ld indep5d5tly h sugge/$ biology z an appropriate ^w to express ! g5]al sci5ce ( liv+ ?+s4 ,x is significant ( ! t5d5cy ( ?\ght ( ! "t t ! ne$ ( su* a unify+ ^w %\ld h pres5t$ itself simultane\sly to indep5d5t ?9k]s 9 diff]5t c\ntries4 ,t same memorable ye>1 ,lor5z ,ok51 ano!r philosophical naturali/1 pr(essor 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,zuri*1 publi%$ ! prelim9>y outl9es ( 8 ,philosophie d] ,natur1 :i*1 z develop$ ?r\gh lat] publications1 outl9$ a !ory ( spontane\s g5]ation & ( evolution ( species4 ,?us x appe>s t ?is idea 0 g]m9at+ 9 ! m9ds ( sev]al ( ! able/ m5 ( ! "t dur+ ! fir/ decade ( our c5tury4 ,b ! s+ul> result ( _! v>i\s explications 0 to give sudd5 *eck to t und]curr5t ( ?\ght :i* = "s "t _h be5 sett+ t[>ds ?is conception4 ,z soon z x 0 made cle> :i!r ! concession t animals may be *ang$ by _! environm5t mu/ logically tr5d1 ! recoil f ! idea 0 in/antane\s & f]vid4 ,!n = a g5]ation ,cuvi] 0 almo/ absolutely dom9ant1 & 8 v]dict 0 g5]ally consid]$ f9al4 ,!re 01 inde$1 "o naturali/ ( au?ority 9 ,france :o _h ! h>dihood to /& out aga9/ ,cuvi] & 8 s*ool1 & :o 0 9 a position to ga9 a he>+1 ?\gh by no means to divide ! foll[+4 ,?is 0 ,eti5ne ,ge(froy ,sa9t-,hilaire1 ! fam\s au?or ( ! ,philosophie ,anatomique1 & = _m ye>s ! colleague ( ,lam>ck at ! ,j>d9 des ,plantes4 ,l ,goe!1 ,ge(froy 0 pre-em95tly an anatomi/1 &1 l ! great ,g]man1 he _h e>ly be5 impress$ ) ! resemblances betwe5 ! analog\s organs ( diff]5t classes ( be+s4 ,he conceiv$ ! idea t an absolute unity ( type prevails ?r\gh\t organic nature z reg>ds ea* set ( organs4 ,out ( ?is idea grew 8 gradually =m$ belief t simil>ity ( /ructure might imply id5tity ( orig9--t1 9 %ort1 "o species ( animal might h develop$ f ano!r4 ,ge(froy's grasp ( ?is idea ( transmutation 0 by no means s complete z t ( ,lam>ck1 & he seems nev] to h fully det]m9$ 9 8 own m9d j :at might be ! limits ( su* developm5t ( species4 ,c]ta9ly he n[h]e includes all organic creatures 9 "o l9e ( desc5t1 z ,lam>ck _h done2 nev]!less1 he held t5aci\sly to ! tru? z he saw x1 9 op5 opposition to ,cuvi]1 ) :om he held a memorable debate at ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces 9 #ahcj--! debate :i* s ar\s$ ! int]e/ & en?usiasm ( ,goe!1 b :i*1 9 ! op9ion ( ne>ly e "o else1 result$ 9 cru%+ defeat = ,ge(frey1 & brilliant1 seem+ly f9al1 victory = ! advocate ( special creation & ! fixity ( species4 ,) t all ard5t controv]sy ov] ! subject seem$ to end1 & = j a qu>t] ( a c5tury to come !re 0 publi%$ b a s+le argum5t = transmutation ( species :i* attract$ any g5]al att5tion :atev]4 ,?is oasis 9 a des]t g5]ation 0 a little book call$ ,ve/iges ( ! ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,creation1 :i* appe>$ anonym\sly 9 ,engl& 9 #ahdd1 & :i* pass$ ?r\gh num]\s editions1 & 0 ! subject ( no end ( abusive & d]isive comm5t4 ,?is book1 ! au?or%ip ( :i* rema9$ = =ty ye>s a secret1 is n[ conc$$ to h be5 ! "w ( ,rob]t ,*amb]s1 ! well-kn[n ,engli% au?or & publi%]4 ,! book itself is rem>kable z be+ an av[$ & unequivocal exposition ( a g5]al doctr9e ( evolution1 its view be+ z radical & compreh5sive z t ( ,lam>ck himself4 ,b x 0 a resume ( e>li] ef=ts r ?an a new dep>ture1 to say no?+ ( its te*nical %ortcom+s1 :i* may be/ be illu/rat$ by a quotation4 ,! :ole "q1 says ,*amb]s1 /&s ?us3 ,= ! !ory ( univ]sal ord]--t is1 ord] z presid+ 9 bo? ! orig9 & adm9i/ration ( ! _w--we h ! te/imony ( a va/ numb] ( facts 9 nature1 & ?is "o 9 addition--t :atev] is left f ! doma9 ( ignorance1 & made und\bt$ matt] ( sci5ce1 =ms a new support to ! same doctr9e4 ,! opposite view1 once pr$om9ant1 has be5 %r9k+ = ages into less] space1 & n[ ma9ta9s a foot+ only 9 a few dep>tm5ts ( nature :i* happ5 to be less liable ?an o!rs to a cle> inve/igation4 ,! *ief ( ^!1 if n almo/ ! only "o1 is ! orig9 ( ! organic k+doms4 ,s long z ?is rema9s obscure1 ! sup]natural w h a c]ta9 hold ^u enlight5$ p]sons4 ,%\ld x ev] be cle>$ up 9 a way t leaves no d\bt ( a natural orig9 ( plants & animals1 !re mu/ be a complete revolution 9 ! view :i* is g5]ally tak5 ( ! relation ( ! ,fa!r ( our be+4 ,?is prep>es ! way = a few rem>ks on ! pres5t /ate ( op9ion ) reg>d to ! orig9 ( organic nature4 ,! great difficulty "h is ! app>5t det]m9at5ess ( species4 ,^! =ms ( life be+ app>5tly un*angeable1 or at lea/ always %[+ a t5d5cy to return to ! "* f :i* !y h div]g$1 ! idea arises t !re c h be5 no progression f "o to ano!r2 ea* mu/ h tak5 its special =m1 indep5d5tly ( o!r =ms1 directly f ! appo9tm5t ( ! ,creator4 ,! ,ed9burgh ,review writ] says1 '!y 7 creat$ by ! h& ( ,god & adapt$ to ! conditions ( ! p]iod4' ,n[ x is1 9 ! fir/ place1 n c]ta9 t species con/antly ma9ta9 a fix$ "*1 = we h se5 t :at 7 long consid]$ z det]m9ate species h be5 transmut$ into o!rs4 ,pass+1 h[ev]1 f ?is fact1 z x is n g5]ally receiv$ among m5 ( sci5ce1 !re rema9 "s great difficulties 9 connection ) ! idea ( special creation4 ,fir/ we %\ld h to suppose1 z po9t$ out 9 my =m] volume1 a mo/ />tl+ div]sity ( plan 9 ! div9e work+s1 a great g5]al plan or sy/em ( law 9 ! lead+ ev5ts ( _w-mak+1 & a plan ( m9ute1 nice op]ation1 & special att5tion 9 "s ( ! m]e details ( ! process4 ,! discrepancy betwe5 ! two conceptions is surely ov]p[]+1 :5 we all[ ourselves to see ! :ole matt] 9 a /eady & rational light4 ,!re is1 also1 ! /rik+ fact ( an asc]ta9$ hi/orical progress ( plants & animals 9 ! ord] ( _! organization2 m>9e & cellul> plants & inv]tebrat$ animals fir/1 aft]w>ds high] examples ( bo?4 ,9 an arbitr>y sy/em we _h surely no reason to expect mammals aft] reptiles2 yet 9 ?is ord] !y came4 ,! writ] 9 ! ,ed9burgh ,review speaks ( animals z com+ 9 adaptation to conditions1 b ?is is only true 9 a limit$ s5se4 ,! groves :i* =m$ ! coal-b$s might h be5 a fitt+ habitation = reptiles1 birds1 & mammals1 z su* groves are at ! pres5t day2 yet we see none ( ! la/ ( ^! classes & h>dly any traces ( ! two fir/ at t p]iod ( ! e>?4 ,:]e ! iguanodon liv$ ! elephant might h liv$1 b !re 0 no elephant at t "t4 ,! sea ( ! ,l[] ,silurian era 0 capable ( support+ fi%1 b no fi% exi/$4 ,x h5ce =cibly appe>s t !atres ( life mu/ h rema9$ uns]viceable1 or 9 ! possession ( a t5antry inf]ior to :at might h enjoy$ !m1 = _m ages3 !re surely w\ld h be5 no su* wa/e all[$ 9 a sy/em :]e ,omnipot5ce 0 work+ ^u ! plan ( m9ute att5tion to specialities4 ,! fact seems to d5ote t ! actual proc$ure ( ! peopl+ ( ! e>? 0 "o ( a natural k9d1 requir+ a long space ( "t = its evolution4 ,9 ?is supposition ! long exi/5ce ( l& )\t l& animals1 & m p>ticul>ly )\t ! noble/ classes & ord]s1 is only analog\s to ! fact1 n ne>ly en\gh pres5t to ! m9ds ( a civiliz$ p1 t to ?is day ! bulk ( ! e>? is a wa/e z f> z man is conc]n$4 ,ano!r />tl+ objection is 9 ! inf9ite local v>iation ( organic =ms4 ,did ! vegetable & animal k+doms consi/ ( a def9ite numb] ( species adapt$ to peculi>ities ( soil & climate1 & univ]sally di/ribut$1 ! fact w\ld be 9 h>mony ) ! idea ( special ex]tion4 ,b ! tru? is t v>i\s regions exhibit v>iations altoge!r )\t app>5t end or purpose4 ,pr(essor ,h5sl[ enum]ates =ty-five di/9ct fl[]s or sets ( plants ^u ! surface ( ! e>?1 not)/&+ t _m ( ^! w\ld be equally suitable else:]e4 ,! animals ( diff]5t cont95ts are equally v>i\s1 few species be+ ! same 9 any two1 ?\gh ! g5]al "* may con=m4 ,! inf]5ce at pres5t drawn f ?is fact is t !re mu/ h be51 to use ! language ( ! ,rev4 ,dr4 ,pye ,smi?1 'sep>ate & orig9al creations1 p]haps at diff]5t & respectively di/9ct epo*s4' ,x seems h>dly conceivable t rational m5 %\ld give an adh]5ce to su* a doctr9e :5 we ?9k ( :at x involves4 ,9 ! s+le fact t x necessitates a special fiat ( ! inconceivable ,au?or ( ?is s&-cl\d ( worlds to produce ! flora ( ,/4 ,hel5a1 we read its m ?an suffici5t condemnation4 ,x surely h>monizes f> bett] ) our g5]al ideas ( nature to suppose t1 j z all else 9 ?is f>-spread sci5ce 0 =m$ on ! laws impress$ ^u x at fir/ by its ,au?or1 s also 0 ?is4 ,an exception pres5t$ to u 9 su* a light appe>s admissible only :5 we succe$ 9 =bidd+ our m9ds to foll[ out ^? reason+ processes to :i*1 by ano!r law ( ! ,almighty1 !y t5d1 & = :i* !y are adapt$47#d7 ,su* reason+ z ?is naturally ar\s$ bitt] animadv]sions1 & _c h be5 )\t effect 9 creat+ an und]curr5t ( ?\ght 9 opposition to ! ma9 tr5d ( op9ion ( ! "t4 ,b ! book c h>dly be said to h done m ?an t4 ,inde$1 "s critics h d5i$ x ev5 ?is m]it4 ,aft] its publication1 z be=e1 ! conception ( transmutation ( species rema9$ 9 ! popul> e/imation1 bo? lay & sci5tific1 an almo/ =gott5 h]esy4 ,x is true t "h & !re a sci5ti/ ( great] or less repute--z ,von ,bu*1 ,meckel1 & ,von ,ba] 9 ,g]many1 ,bory ,sa9t-,v9c5t 9 ,france1 ,wells1 ,grant1 & ,mat!w 9 ,engl&1 & ,leidy 9 ,am]ica--_h express$ m or less t5tative diss5t f ! doctr9e ( special creation & immutability ( species1 b _! unaggressive sugge/ions1 usually put =w>d 9 obscure publications1 & incid5tally1 7 utt]ly ov]look$ & ignor$4 ,& s1 despite ! sci5tific advances along _m l9es at ! middle ( ! c5tury1 ! idea ( ! transmutability ( organic races _h no su* prom95ce1 ei!r 9 sci5tific or unsci5tific circles1 z x _h acquir$ fifty ye>s be=e4 ,special creation held ! day1 seem+ly unoppos$4 ,,d>w9 ,,& ,,! ,,orig9 ,,( ,,species ,b ev5 at ?is "t ! fanci$ security ( ! special-creation hypo!sis 0 by no means real4 ,?\gh x seem$ s inv9cible1 its real position 0 t ( an app>5tly impregnable =tress b5ea? :i*1 all unbekn[n to ! g>rison1 a p[d]-m9e has be5 dug & lies ready = explosion4 ,= already !re exi/$ 9 ! seclud$ "w-room ( an ,engli% naturali/1 a manuscript volume & a portfolio ( notes :i* might h suffic$1 if giv5 publicity1 to %att] ! entire /ructure ( ! special-creation hypo!sis4 ,! naturali/ :o1 by d9t ( long & pati5t ef=t1 _h con/ruct$ ?is p[d]-m9e ( facts 0 ,*>les ,rob]t ,d>w91 gr&son ( ! au?or ( ,zoonomia4 ,z long ago z ,july #a1 #ahcg1 "y ,d>w91 !n tw5ty-eight ye>s ( age1 _h op5$ a private j\rnal1 9 :i* he purpos$ to record all facts t came to him :i* seem$ to h any be>+ on ! moot po9t ( ! doctr9e ( transmutation ( species4 ,f\r or five ye>s e>li]1 dur+ ! c\rse ( t fam\s trip ar\nd ! _w ) ,admiral ,fitzroy1 z naturali/ to ! ,beagle1 ,d>w9 _h made ! p]sonal obs]vations :i* fir/ t5d$ to %ake 8 belief ( ! fixity ( species4 ,9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 9 ! ,pampean =mation1 he _h discov]$ great fossil animals cov]$ ) armor l t on ! exi/+ armadillos1 & _h be5 /ruck ) ?is simil>ity ( type betwe5 anci5t & exi/+ faunas ( ! same region4 ,he 0 also greatly impress$ by ! mann] 9 :i* closely relat$ species ( animals 7 obs]v$ to replace "o ano!r z he proce$$ s\?w>d ov] ! cont95t2 & by ! ,s\?-,am]ican "* ( mo/ ( ! productions ( ! ,galapagos ,ar*ipelago1 & m especially by ! mann] 9 :i* !y diff] slightly on ea* isl& ( ! gr\p1 none ( ! isl&s appe>+ to be v anci5t 9 a geological s5se4 ,at fir/ ! full =ce ( ^! obs]vations did n /rike him2 =1 "u sway ( ,lyell's geological conceptions1 he t5tatively expla9$ ! relative abs5ce ( life on "o ( ! ,galapagos ,isl&s by sugge/+ t p]haps no species _h be5 creat$ s9ce t isl& arose4 ,b gradually x dawn$ ^u him t su* facts z he _h obs]v$ c\ld only be expla9$ on ! supposition t species gradually become modifi$4 ,f !n on1 z he aft]w>ds ass]t$1 ! subject haunt$ him2 h5ce ! j\rnal ( #ahcg4 ,x w ?us be se5 t ! idea ( ! v>iability ( species came to ,*>les ,d>w9 z an inf]5ce f p]sonal obs]vations 9 ! field1 n z a ?\ght borr[$ f books4 ,he _h1 ( c\rse1 read ! works ( 8 gr&fa!r mu* e>li] 9 life1 b ! argum5ts ( ,zoonomia & ,! ,temple ( ,nature _h n s]v$ 9 ! lea/ to weak5 8 acceptance ( ! curr5t belief 9 fixity ( species4 ,nor _h he be5 m impress$ ) ! doctr9e ( ,lam>ck1 s closely simil> to t ( 8 gr&fa!r4 ,inde$1 ev5 aft] 8 ,s\?-,am]ican exp]i5ce _h ar\s$ him to a new po9t ( view he 0 /ill unable to see any?+ ( value 9 ^! e>li] attempts at an explanation ( ! v>iation ( species4 ,9 op5+ 8 j\rnal1 !re=e1 he _h no preconceiv$ notion ( uphold+ ! views ( ^! or any o!r mak]s ( hypo!ses1 nor at ! "t _h he =mulat$ any hypo!sis ( 8 own4 ,8 m9d 0 op5 & receptive2 he 0 eag] only = facts :i* might lead him to an und]/&+ ( a problem :i* seem$ utt]ly obscure4 ,x 0 some?+ to feel sure t species h v>i$2 b h[ h su* v>iations be5 br\ght ab\t8 ,x 0 n long be=e ,d>w9 f\nd a clew :i* he ?\ght might lead to ! answ] he s\ght4 ,9 ca/+ ab\t = facts he _h soon discov]$ t ! mo/ available field = obs]vation lay among dome/icat$ animals1 ^: num]\s v>iations )9 specific l9es are famili> to e "o4 ,?us "u dome/ication creatures s tangibly diff]5t z a ma/iff & a t]ri] h sprung f a common /ock4 ,s h ! ,%etl& pony1 ! ?or\ghbr$1 & ! draught-horse4 ,9 %ort1 !re is no dome/icat$ animal t has n develop$ v>ieties deviat+ m or less widely f ! p>5t /ock4 ,n[1 h[ has ?is be5 accompli%$8 ,:y1 cle>ly1 by ! pres]vation1 ?r\gh selective bre$+1 ( seem+ly accid5tal v>iations4 ,?us "o horseman1 by con/antly select+ animals t *ance to h ! "r build & /am9a1 f9ally develops a race ( runn+-horses2 :ile ano!r horseman1 by select+ a diff]5t s]ies ( prog5itors1 has develop$ a race ( sl[1 heavy draught animals4 ,s f>1 s good2 ! pres]vation ( accid5tal v>iations ?r\gh selective bre$+ is pla9ly a means by :i* races may be develop$ t are v diff]5t f _! orig9al p>5t =m4 ,b ?is is "u man's sup]vision & direction4 ,by :at process c\ld su* selection be br\ght ab\t among creatures 9 a /ate ( nature8 ,"h surely 0 a puzzle1 & "o t mu/ be solv$ be=e ano!r /ep c\ld be tak5 9 ?is direction4 ,! key to ! solution ( ?is puzzle came into ,d>w9's m9d ?r\gh a *ance read+ ( ! fam\s essay on ,population :i* ,?omas ,rob]t ,mal?us _h publi%$ almo/ half a c5tury be=e4 ,?is essay1 exposit+ ideas by no means exclusively orig9al ) ,mal?us1 emphasizes ! fact t organisms t5d to increase at a geometrical ratio ?r\gh successive g5]ations1 & h5ce w\ld ov]populate ! e>? if n someh[ kept 9 *eck4 ,cogitat+ ?is ?\ght1 ,d>w9 ga9$ a new insight into ! processes ( nature4 ,he saw t 9 virtue ( ?is t5d5cy ( ea* race ( be+s to ov]populate ! e>?1 ! entire organic _w1 animal & vegetable1 mu/ be 9 a /ate ( p]petual c>nage & /rife1 individual aga9/ individual1 fight+ = su/5ance & life4 ,t idea fully imag9$1 x becomes pla9 t a selective influ5ce is all ! "t at "w 9 nature1 s9ce only a few individuals1 relatively1 ( ea* g5]ation c come to maturity1 & ^! few mu/1 naturally1 be ^? be/ fitt$ to battle ) ! p>ticul> circum/ances 9 ! mid/ ( :i* !y are plac$4 ,9 o!r words1 ! individuals be/ adapt$ to _! surr\nd+s w1 on ! av]age1 be ^? t gr[ to maturity & produce (fspr+4 ,to ^! (fspr+ w be transmitt$ ! favorable peculi>ities4 ,?us ^! peculi>ities w become p]man5t1 & nature w h accompli%$ precisely :at ! human bre$] is se5 to accompli%4 ,grant t organisms 9 a /ate ( nature v>y1 h[ev] slightly1 "o f ano!r 7:i* is indubitable71 & t su* v>iations w be transmitt$ by a p>5t to its (fspr+ 7:i* no "o !n d\bt$72 grant1 fur!r1 t !re is incessant /rife among ! v>i\s organisms1 s t only a small proportion c come to maturity--grant ^! ?+s1 said ,d>w91 & we h an explanation ( ! pres]vation ( v>iations :i* leads on to ! transmutation ( species !mselves4 ,?is wond]ful coign ( vantage ,d>w9 _h rea*$ by #ahci4 ,"h 0 ! full outl9e ( 8 !ory2 "h 7 ! ideas :i* aft]w>ds came to be embalm$ 9 famili> spee* 9 ! phrases spontane\s v>iation1 & ! survival ( ! fitte/1 ?r\gh natural selection4 ,aft] su* a discov]y any ord9>y man w\ld at once h run ?r\gh ! /reets ( sci5ce1 s to speak1 scream+ ,eureka6 ,n s ,d>w94 ,he plac$ ! manuscript outl9e ( 8 !ory 9 8 portfolio1 & w5t on ga!r+ facts be>+ on 8 discov]y4 ,9 #ahdd he made an ab/ract 9 a manuscript book ( ! mass ( facts by t "t accumulat$4 ,he %[$ x to 8 fri5d ,hook]1 made c>eful provision = its publication 9 ! ev5t ( 8 sudd5 dea?1 !n /or$ x away 9 8 desk & w5t ahead ) ! ga!r+ ( m data4 ,?is 0 ! unexplod$ p[d]-m9e to :i* ,i h j ref]r$4 ,twelve ye>s m elaps$--ye>s dur+ :i* ! sil5t work] ga!r$ a prodigi\s mass ( facts1 answ]$ a multitude ( objections t arose 9 8 own m9d1 va/ly =tifi$ 8 !ory4 ,all ?is "t ! toil] 0 an invalid1 nev] kn[+ a day free f illness & discom=t1 oblig$ to husb& 8 /r5g?1 nev] able to "w m ?an an h\r & a half at a /ret*2 yet he accompli%$ :at w\ld h be5 va/ a*ievem5ts = half a doz5 m5 ( robu/ heal?4 ,two fri5ds among ! em95t sci5ti/s ( ! day knew ( 8 labors--,sir ,joseph ,hook]1 ! botani/1 & ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 ! geologi/4 ,gradually ,hook] _h come to be m ?an half a conv]t to ,d>w9's views4 ,lyell 0 /ill sceptical1 yet he urg$ ,d>w9 to publi% 8 !ory )\t fur!r delay le/ he be =e/all$4 ,at la/ ! pati5t work] decid$ to comply ) ?is advice1 & 9 #ahef he set to "w to make ano!r & full] ab/ract ( ! mass ( data he _h ga!r$4 ,& !n a /range ?+ happ5$4 ,aft] ,d>w9 _h be5 at "w on 8 ab/ract ab\t two ye>s1 b be=e he _h publi%$ a l9e ( x1 !re came to him "o day a pap] 9 manuscript1 s5t = 8 approval by a naturali/ fri5d nam$ ,alfr$ ,russel ,wallace1 :o _h be5 = "s "t at "w 9 ! ,ea/ ,india ,ar*ipelago4 ,he read ! pap]1 &1 to 8 amazem5t1 f\nd t x conta9$ an outl9e ( ! same !ory ( natural selection :i* he himself _h orig9at$ & = tw5ty ye>s _h work$ ^u4 ,work+ indep5d5tly1 on opposite sides ( ! globe1 ,d>w9 & ,wallace _h hit ^u ! same explanation ( ! cause ( transmutation ( species4 ,7 ,wallace's pap] an ab/ract ( my unpubli%$ manuscript ( #ahdd1 said ,d>w91 x c\ld n bett] express my ideas4 ,"h 0 a dilemma4 ,to publi% ?is pap] ) no ^w f ,d>w9 w\ld give ,wallace priority1 & wre/ f ,d>w9 ! cr$it ( a discov]y :i* he _h made ye>s be=e 8 codiscov]] ent]$ ! field4 ,yet1 on ! o!r h&1 c\ld ,d>w9 honorably d o!rwise ?an publi% 8 fri5d's pap] & himself rema9 sil5t8 ,x 0 a complication well calculat$ to try a man's s\l4 ,d>w9's 0 equal to ! te/4 ,ke5ly alive to ! delicacy ( ! position1 he plac$ ! :ole matt] be=e 8 fri5ds ,hook] & ,lyell1 & left ! decision z to a c\rse ( action absolutely to !m4 ,ne$less to say1 ^! great m5 did ! "o ?+ :i* insur$ full ju/ice to all conc]n$4 ,!y c\nsell$ a jo9t publication1 to include on ! "o h& ,wallace's pap]1 & on ! o!r an ab/ract ( ,d>w9's ideas1 9 ! exact =m 9 :i* x _h be5 outl9$ by ! au?or 9 a lett] to ,asa ,gray 9 ! previ\s ye>--an ab/ract :i* 0 9 ,gray's h&s be=e ,wallace's pap] 0 9 exi/5ce4 ,?is jo9t production1 toge!r ) a full /atem5t ( ! facts ( ! case1 0 pres5t$ to ! ,l9naean ,society ( ,london by ,hook] & ,lyell on ! ev5+ ( ,july #a1 #aheh1 ?is be+1 by an odd co9cid5ce1 ! tw5ty-fir/ anniv]s>y ( ! day on :i* ,d>w9 _h op5$ 8 j\rnal to collect facts be>+ on ! species "q4 ,n (t5 be=e 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce has x happ5$ t a great !ory has be5 nurtur$ 9 its au?or's bra9 ?r\gh infancy & adolesc5ce to its full legal majority be=e be+ s5t out into ! _w4 ,?us ! fuse t l$ to ! great p[d]-m9e _h be5 light$4 ,! explosion itself came m ?an a ye> lat]1 9 ,novemb]1 #ahei1 :5 ,d>w91 aft] ?irte5 mon?s ( fur!r ef=t1 complet$ ! outl9e ( 8 !ory1 :i* 0 at fir/ begun z an ab/ract = ! ,l9naean ,society1 b :i* grew to ! size ( an indep5d5t volume despite 8 ef=ts at cond5sation1 & :i* 0 giv5 t ev]-to-be-fam\s title1 ,! ,orig9 ( ,species by ,means ( ,natural ,selection1 or ! ,pres]vation ( ,favor$ ,races 9 ! ,/ruggle = ,life4 ,& :at an explosion x 06 ,! jo9t pap] ( #aheh _h made a mom5t>y fl>e1 caus+ ! he>]s1 z ,hook] said1 to speak ( x ) bat$ brea?1 b beyond t x made no s5sation4 ,:at ! result 0 :5 ! ,orig9 itself appe>$ no "o ( our g5]ation ne$ be told4 ,! rumble & ro> t x made 9 ! intellectual _w h n yet altoge!r ceas$ to e*o aft] m ?an =ty ye>s ( rev]b]ation4 ,,new ,,*ampions ,to ! ,orig9 ( ,species1 !n1 & to its au?or1 ,*>les ,d>w91 mu/ always be ascrib$ *ief cr$it = t va/ revolution 9 ! fundam5tal beliefs ( our race :i* has come ab\t s9ce #ahei1 & :i* made ! second half ( ! c5tury memorable4 ,b x mu/ n be ov]look$ t no su* sudd5 metamorphosis c\ld h be5 effect$ _h x n be5 = ! aid ( a few notable lieut5ants1 :o ralli$ to ! /&>ds ( ! lead] imm$iately aft] ! publication ( ! ,orig94 ,d>w9 _h all along felt ! utmo/ confid5ce 9 ! ultimate triumph ( 8 ideas4 ,our po/]ity1 he decl>$1 9 a lett] to ,hook]1 w m>vel z mu* ab\t ! curr5t belief 79 special creation7 z we d ab\t fossil %ells hav+ be5 ?\ght to be creat$ z we n[ see !m4 ,b he fully realiz$ t = ! pres5t success ( 8 !ory ( transmutation ! *ampion%ip ( a few lead]s ( sci5ce 0 all-ess5tial4 ,he felt t if he c\ld make conv]ts ( ,hook] & ,lyell & ( ,?omas ,h5ry ,huxley at once1 all w\ld be well4 ,8 success 9 ?is reg>d1 z 9 o!rs1 exce$$ 8 expectations4 ,hook] 0 an ard5t disciple f read+ ! pro(-%eets be=e ! book 0 publi%$2 ,lyell r5\nc$ 8 =m] beliefs & fell into l9e a few mon?s lat]2 :ile ,huxley1 s soon z he _h ma/]$ ! c5tral idea ( natural selection1 m>vell$ t s simple yet all-pot5t a ?\ght _h escap$ him s long1 & !n ru%$ eag]ly into ! fray1 wield+ ! ke5e/ dialectic blade t 0 drawn dur+ ! entire controv]sy4 ,!n1 too1 unexpect$ recruits 7 f\nd 9 ,sir ,john ,lubbock & ,john ,tyndall1 :o c>ri$ ! w> eag]ly into _! respective t]ritories2 :ile ,h]b]t ,sp5c]1 :o _h advocat$ a doctr9e ( transmutation on philosophic gr\nds "s ye>s be=e ,d>w9 publi%$ ! key to ! my/]y--& :o himself _h b>ely escap$ indep5d5t discov]y ( t key--l5t 8 ma/]ful influ5ce to ! cause4 ,9 ,am]ica ! fam\s botani/ ,asa ,gray1 :o _h long be5 a correspond5t ( ,d>w9's b ^: advocacy ( ! new !ory _h n be5 anticipat$1 became an ard5t propag&i/2 :ile 9 ,g]many ,ern/ ,he9ri* ,haeckel1 ! y\?ful b already not$ zoologi/1 took up ! fight ) equal en?usiasm4 ,aga9/ ^! few d\ghty *ampions--) "h & !re ano!r ( less g5]al r5[n--0 array$1 at ! outset1 practically all ,*ri/5dom4 ,! int]e/ ( ! "q came home to e p]son ( intellig5ce1 :atev] 8 call+1 & ! m deeply z x became m & m cle> h[ f>-rea*+ are ! real be>+s ( ! doctr9e ( natural selection4 ,soon x 0 se5 t %\ld ! doctr9e ( ! survival ( ! favor$ races ?r\gh ! /ruggle = exi/5ce w91 !re mu/ come ) x z radical a *ange 9 man's e/imate ( 8 own position z _h come 9 ! day :51 ?r\gh ! ef=ts ( ,cop]nicus & ,galileo1 ! _w 0 de?ron$ f its suppos$ c5tral position 9 ! univ]se4 ,! :ole cons]vative majority ( mank9d recoil$ f ?is necessity ) horror4 ,& ?is cons]vative majority includ$ n laym5 m]ely1 b a va/ prepond]ance ( ! lead]s ( sci5ce also4 ,) ! op5-m9d$ m9ority1 on ! o!r h&1 ! !ory ( natural selection made its way by leaps & b\nds4 ,its delightful simplicity--:i* at fir/ sight made x seem nei!r new nor important--c\pl$ ) ! m>vell\s compreh5siv5ess ( its implications1 gave x a hold on ! imag9ation1 & secur$ x a he>+ :]e o!r !ories ( transmutation ( species _h be5 utt]ly scorn$4 ,m5 :o _h f\nd ,lam>ck's conception ( *ange ?r\gh volunt>y ef=t ridicul\s1 & ! vapor+s ( ! ,ve/iges altoge!r despicable1 m5 ^: sci5tific cautions held !m back f ,sp5c]'s d$uctive argum5t1 took eag] hold ( t tangible1 ev]-pres5t pr9ciple ( natural selection1 & 7 l$ on & on to its goal4 ,h\r by h\r ! attitude ( ! ?9k+ _w t[>ds ?is new pr9ciple *ang$2 nev] be=e 0 s great a revolution wr\ght s sudd5ly4 ,nor 0 ?is m]ely because ! times 7 ripe or m5's m9ds prep>$ = evolution4 ,d>w9 himself be>s witness t ?is 0 n altoge!r s4 ,all ?r\gh ! ye>s 9 :i* he brood$ ?is !ory he s\nd$ 8 sci5tific fri5ds1 & c\ld f9d among !m n "o :o ackn[l$g$ a doctr9e ( transmutation4 ,! reaction f ! /&-po9t ( ,lam>ck & ,erasmus ,d>w9 & ,goe! _h be5 complete1 & :5 ,*>les ,d>w9 av[$ 8 own conviction he expect$ always to h x met ) ridicule or contempt4 ,9 #aheg !re 0 b "o man speak+ ) any l>ge degree ( au?ority 9 ! _w :o op5ly av[$ a belief 9 transmutation ( species--t man be+ ,h]b]t ,sp5c]4 ,b ! ,orig9 ( ,species came1 z ,huxley has said1 l a fla% 9 ! d>kness1 enabl+ ! b5ight$ voyag] to see ! way4 ,! score ( ye>s dur+ :i* its au?or _h wait$ & work$ _h be5 ye>s well sp5t4 ,d>w9 _h become1 z he himself says1 a v]itable ,croesus1 ov]:elm$ ) 8 ri*es 9 facts--facts ( zoology1 ( selective artificial bre$+1 ( geographical di/ribution ( animals1 ( embryology1 ( paleontology4 ,he _h mass$ 8 facts ab\t 8 !ory1 cond5s$ !m & recond5s$1 until 8 volume ( five hundr$ pages 0 an encyclopa$ia 9 scope4 ,dur+ ^? long ye>s ( mus+ he _h ?\ght out almo/ e conceivable objection to 8 !ory1 & 9 8 book e su* objection 0 /at$ ) fulle/ =ce & c&or1 toge!r ) su* reply z ! facts at comm& might dictate4 ,x 0 ! =ce ( ^? tw5ty ye>s ( ef=t ( a ma/]-m9d t made ! sudd5 brea* 9 ! breaswtorksic ( curr5t ?\ght4 ,once ?is brea* 0 effect$ ! "w ( conque/ w5t rapidly on4 ,day by day squads ( ! enemy capitulat$ & /ruck _! arms4 ,by ! "t ano!r score ( ye>s _h pass$ ! doctr9e ( evolution _h become ! work+ hypo!sis ( ! sci5tific _w4 ,! revolution _h be5 effect$4 ,& f amid ! wreckage ( op9ion & belief /&s =? ! figure ( ,*>les ,d>w91 calm1 imp]turbable1 s]5e2 sca!less to ridicule1 contumely1 abuse2 unspoil$ by ultimate success2 unsulli$ alike by ! /rife & ! victory--take him = all 9 all1 = "*1 = intellect1 = :at he 0 & :at he did1 p]haps ! mo/ ,socratic figure ( ! c5tury4 ,:51 9 #ahhb1 he di$1 fri5d & foe alike conc$$ t "o ( ! greate/ sons ( m5 _h re/$ f 8 labors1 & all ! _w felt x fitt+ t ! rema9s ( ,*>les ,d>w9 %\ld be entomb$ 9 ,we/m9/] ,abbey close beside ! honor$ grave ( ,isaac ,newton4 ,nor 7 !re _m :o w\ld dispute ! ju/ice ( ,huxley's e/imate ( 8 accompli%m5t3 ,he f\nd a great tru? trodd5 "u foot4 ,revil$ by bigots1 & ridicul$ by all ! _w1 he liv$ long en\gh to see x1 *iefly by 8 own ef=ts1 irrefragably e/abli%$ 9 sci5ce1 insep>ably incorporat$ ) ! common ?\ghts ( m51 & only hat$ & fe>$ by ^? :o w\ld revile b d>e n4 ,,! ,,orig9 ,,( ,,! ,,fitte/ ,wide z are ! implications ( ! great tru? :i* ,d>w9 & 8 co-work]s e/abli%$1 h[ev]1 x leaves q unt\*$ ! problem ( ! orig9 ( ^? favor$ v>iations ^u :i* x op]ates4 ,t su* v>iations are due to fix$ & det]m9ate causes no "o und]/ood bett] ?an ,d>w92 b 9 8 orig9al exposition ( 8 doctr9e he made no assumption z to :at ^! causes are4 ,he accept$ ! obs]v$ fact ( v>iation--z con/antly witness$1 = example1 9 ! diff]5ces betwe5 p>5ts & (fspr+--& w5t ahead f ?is assumption4 ,b z soon z ! validity ( ! pr9ciple ( natural selection came to be ackn[l$g$ speculators began to se>* = ! explanation ( ^? v>iations :i*1 = purposes ( argum5t1 _h be5 provisionally call$ spontane\s4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c] _h all along dwelt on ?is phase ( ! subject1 exp\nd+ ! ,lam>ckian conceptions ( ! direct influ5ce ( ! environm5t 7an idea :i* _h especially appeal$ to ,buffon & to ,ge(froy ,sa9t-,hilaire71 & ( ef=t 9 response to environm5t & /imulus z modify+ ! individual organism1 & ?us supply+ ! basis = ! op]ation ( natural selection4 ,haeckel also became an advocate ( ?is idea1 & pres5tly !re arose a s-call$ s*ool ( neo-,lam>ckians1 :i* develop$ p>ticul> /r5g? & prom95ce 9 ,am]ica "u ! lead]%ip ( ,pr(essors ,a4 ,hyatt & ,e4 ,d4 ,cope4 ,b j z ! tide ( op9ion 0 turn+ /rongly 9 ?is direction1 an utt]ly unexpect$ ob/acle appe>$ 9 ! =m ( ! !ory ( ,pr(essor ,augu/ ,weismann1 put =w>d 9 #ahhc1 :i* antagoniz$ ! ,lam>ckian conception 7?\gh n t\*+ ! ,d>w9ian1 ( :i* ,weismann is a firm uphold]7 by d5y+ t individual v>iations1 h[ev] acquir$ by ! mature organism1 are transmissible4 ,! flurry :i* ?is d5ial creat$ has n yet altoge!r subsid$1 b subsequ5t obs]vations seem to %[ t x 0 q disproportionate to ! real m]its ( ! case4 ,not)/&+ ,pr(essor ,weismann's objections1 ! balance ( evid5ce appe>s to favor ! view t ! ,lam>ckian factor ( acquir$ v>iations /&s z ! complem5t ( ! ,d>w9ian factor ( natural selection 9 effect+ ! transmutation ( species4 ,ev5 ?\gh ?is p>tial explanation ( :at ,pr(essor ,cope calls ! orig9 ( ! fitte/ be accept$1 !re /ill rema9s "o great life problem :i* ! doctr9e ( evolution does n t\*4 ,! orig9 ( species1 g5]a1 ord]s1 & classes ( be+s ?r\gh endless transmutations is 9 a s5se expla9$2 b :at ( ! fir/ t]m ( ?is long s]ies8 ,:5ce came t primordial organism ^: transmut$ desc5dants make up ! exi/+ faunas & floras ( ! globe8 ,!re 0 a "t1 soon aft] ! doctr9e ( evolution ga9$ a he>+1 :5 ! answ] to t "q seem$ to "s sci5ti/s ( au?ority to h be5 giv5 by exp]im5t4 ,recurr+ to a =m] belief1 & repeat+ "s e>li] exp]im5ts1 ! director ( ! ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory at ,r\51 ,m4 ,f4 ,a4 ,p\*et1 rea*$ ! conclusion t organic be+s are spontane\sly g5]at$ ab\t u con/antly1 9 ! famili> processes ( putrefaction1 :i* 7 kn[n to be due to ! ag5cy ( microscopic bact]ia4 ,b 9 #ahfb ,l\is ,pa/eur prov$ t ?is seem+ spontane\s g5]ation is 9 reality due to ! exi/5ce ( g]ms 9 ! air4 ,not)/&+ ! conclusiv5ess ( ^! exp]im5ts1 ! claims ( ,p\*et 7 reviv$ 9 ,engl& t5 ye>s lat] by ,pr(essor ,ba/ian2 b !n ! exp]im5ts ( ,john ,tyndall1 fully corroborat+ ! results ( ,pa/eur1 gave a f9al quietus to ! claim ( spontane\s g5]ation z hi!rto =mulat$4 ,!re = ! mom5t ! matt] re/s4 ,b ! end is n yet4 ,fauna & flora are "h1 &1 ?anks to ,lam>ck & ,wallace & ,d>w91 _! developm5t1 ?r\gh ! op]ation ( ^? second>y causes :i* we call laws ( nature1 has be5 proximally expla9$4 ,! l[e/ =ms ( life h be5 l9k$ ) ! highe/ 9 unbrok5 *a9s ( desc5t4 ,meantime1 ?r\gh ! ef=ts ( *emi/s & biologi/s1 ! gap betwe5 ! inorganic & ! organic worlds1 :i* once seem$ almo/ inf9ite1 has be5 con/antly n>r[$4 ,already philosophy c ?r[ a bridge across t gap4 ,b inductive sci5ce1 :i* builds its own bridges1 has n yet spann$ ! *asm1 small ?\gh x appe>4 ,until x %all h done s1 ! bridge ( organic evolution is n q complete2 yet ev5 z x /&s to-day x is p]haps ! mo/ /up5d\s sci5tific /ructure ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,,vii4 ,,eighte5?-,,c5tury ,,m$ic9e ,,! ,,sy/em ,,( ,,bo]haave ,at lea/ two pupils ( ,william ,h>vey di/+ui%$ !mselves 9 m$ic9e1 ,giorgio ,baglivi 7#affi-agjg71 :o has be5 call$ ! ,italian ,syd5ham1 & ,h]mann ,bo]haave 7#affh-agch74 ,! "w ( ,baglivi 0 h>dly begun be=e 8 e>ly dea? remov$ "o ( ! mo/ promis+ ( ! e>ly eighte5?-c5tury physicians4 ,l ,bo]haave1 he repres5ts a type ( skill$1 practical cl9itian r ?an ! ab/ract sci5ti/4 ,"o ( 8 contributions to m$ical lit]ature is ! fir/ accurate description ( typhoid1 or1 z he calls x1 mes5t]ic fev]4 ,if = no?+ else1 ,bo]haave mu/ always be rememb]$ z ! tea*] ( ,von ,hall]1 b 9 8 own day he 0 ! wide/ kn[n & ! mo/ popul> tea*] 9 ! m$ical _w4 ,he 0 ! idol ( 8 pupils at ,leyd51 :o flock$ to 8 lectures 9 su* numb]s t x became necess>y to te> d[n ! walls ( ,leyd5 to accommodate !m4 ,8 fame ext5d$ n only all ov] ,europe b to ,asia1 ,nor? ,am]ica1 & ev5 into ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,a lett] s5t him f ,*9a 0 address$ to ,bo]haave 9 ,europe4 ,8 tea*+s repres5t ! be/ m$ical k ( 8 day1 a high /&>d ( morality1 & a ke5 appreciation ( ! value ( obs]vation2 & x 0 ?r\gh su* tea*+s imp>t$ to 8 pupils & advanc$ by !m1 r ?an to any new discov]ies1 t 8 "n is important 9 m$ical hi/ory4 ,8 arrangem5t & classification ( ! diff]5t bran*es ( m$ic9e are int]e/+ z repres5t+ ! attitude ( ! m$ical pr(ession t[>ds ^! v>i\s bran*es at t "t4 ,9 ! fir/ place we consid] ,life2 !n ,heal?1 aft]w>ds ,diseases2 & la/ly _! sev]al ,rem$ies4 ,heal? ! fir/ g5]al bran* ( ,physic 9 our ,in/itutions is t]m$ ,physiology1 or ! ,animal ,oeconomy2 demon/rat+ ! sev]al ,p>ts ( ! human ,body1 ) _! ,me*anism & ,actions4 ,! second bran* ( ,physic is call$ ,pa?ology1 treat+ ( ,diseases1 _! ,diff]5ces1 ,causes & ,effects1 or ,symptoms2 by :i* ! human ,body is kn[n to v>y f its heal?y /ate4 ,! ?ird "p ( ,physic is t]m$ ,semiotica1 :i* %[s ! ,signs di/+ui%+ betwe5 sickness & ,heal?1 ,diseases & _! ,causes 9 ! human ,body2 x also imports ! ,/ate & ,degrees ( ,heal? & ,diseases1 & presages _! future ,ev5ts4 ,! f\r? g5]al bran* ( ,physic is t]m$ ,hygi5e1 or ,prophylaxis4 ,! fif? & la/ "p ( ,physic is call$ ,!rapeutica2 :i* in/ructs u 9 ! ,nature1 ,prep>ation & uses ( ! ,mat]ia ,m$ica2 & ! me?ods ( apply+ ! same1 9 ord] to cure ,diseases & re/ore lo/ ,heal?47#a7 ,f ?is we may ga!r t 8 g5]al view ( m$ic9e 0 n unlike t tak5 at ! pres5t "t4 ,bo]haave's doctr9es 7 arrang$ into a sy/em by ,fri$ri* ,h(fmann1 ( ,halle 7#affj-agdb71 ?is sy/em hav+ ! m]it ( be+ simple & m easily compreh5d$ ?an _m o!rs4 ,9 ?is sy/em =ces 7 consid]$ inh]5t 9 matt]1 be+ express$ z me*anical movem5ts1 & det]m9$ by mass1 numb]1 & weight4 ,simil>ly1 =ces express !mselves 9 ! body by movem5t1 contraction1 & relaxation1 etc41 & life itself is movem5t1 p>ticul>ly movem5t ( ! he>t4 ,life & dea? are1 !re=e1 me*anical ph5om5a1 heal? is det]m9$ by regul>ly recurr+ movem5ts1 & disease by irregul>ity ( !m4 ,! body is simply a l>ge hydraulic ma*9e1 controll$ by ! ae!r or s5sitive s\l1 & ! *ief c5tre ( ?is s\l lies 9 ! m$ulla4 ,9 ! practical application ( m$ic9es to diseases ,h(fman us$ simple rem$ies1 frequ5tly ) happy results1 = :atev] ! m$ical man's !ory may be he seldom has ! tem]ity to foll[ x out logically1 & use ! rem$ies indicat$ by 8 !ory to ! exclusion ( long-e/abli%$1 al?\gh p]haps purely empirical1 rem$ies4 ,consequ5tly1 _m vague !ori/s h be5 excell5t practition]s1 & ,h(fman 0 "o ( ^!4 ,"s ( ! rem$ies he introduc$ are /ill 9 use1 notably ! spirits ( e!r1 or ,h(fman's anodyne4 ,,animi/s1 ,,vitali/s1 ,,& ,,organici/s ,besides ,h(fman's sy/em ( m$ic9e1 !re 7 num]\s o!rs dur+ ! eighte5? c5tury1 mo/ ( :i* are ( no importance :atev]2 b ?ree1 at lea/1 t came into exi/5ce & disappe>$ dur+ ! c5tury are wor?y ( full] notice4 ,"o ( ^!1 ! ,animi/s1 _h = its *ief expon5t ,georg ,ern/ ,/ahl ( phlogi/on fame2 ano!r1 ! ,vitali/s1 0 *ampion$ by ,paul ,joseph ,b>!z 7#agcd-ahjf72 & ! ?ird 0 ! ,organici/s4 ,?is la/1 :ile agree+ ) ! o!r two t vital activity _c be expla9$ by ! laws ( physics & *emi/ry1 diff]$ 9 n believ+ t life 0 due to "s spiritual entity1 b r to ! /ructure ( ! body itself4 ,! ,animi/s taught t ! s\l p]=m$ functions ( ord9>y life 9 man1 :ile ! life ( l[] animals 0 controll$ by ord9>y me*anical pr9ciples4 ,/ahl support$ ?is !ory ard5tly1 sometimes viol5tly1 at times decl>+ t !re 7 no long] any doctors1 only me*anics & *emi/s4 ,he d5i$ t *emi/ry _h any?+ to d ) m$ic9e1 &1 9 ! ma91 disc>d$ anatomy z useless to ! m$ical man4 ,! s\l1 he ?\ght1 0 ! s\rce ( all vital movem5t2 & ! imm$iate cause ( dea? 0 n disease b ! direct action ( ! s\l4 ,:5 ?r\gh "s lesion1 or because ! ma*9]y ( ! body has become unworkable1 z 9 old age1 ! s\l leaves ! body & dea? is produc$4 ,! s\l ord9>ily selects ! *annels ( ! circulation1 & ! contractile p>ts1 z ! r\te = influ5c+ ! body4 ,h5ce 9 fev] ! pulse is quick5$1 due to ! increas$ activity ( ! s\l1 & convulsions & spasmodic movem5ts 9 disease are due1 to !1 same cause4 ,/agnation ( ! blood 0 suppos$ to be a f]tile cause ( diseases1 & su* diseases 7 suppos$ to arise mo/ly f ple?ora--an all-important elem5t 9 ,/ahl's !rapeutics4 ,by _m ?is !ory is reg>d$ z an attempt on ! "p ( ! pi\s ,/ahl to reconcile m$ic9e & !ology 9 a way satisfactory to bo? physicians & !ologians1 b1 l _m conciliatory attempts1 x 0 viol5tly oppos$ by bo? doctors & m9i/]s4 ,a belief 9 su* a !ory w\ld lead naturally to simplicity 9 !rapeutics1 & 9 ?is respect at lea/ ,/ahl 0 consi/5t4 ,s9ce ! s\l knew m ab\t ! body ?an any physician c\ld "k1 ,/ahl conceiv$ t x w\ld be a h9d]ance r ?an a help = ! physician to int]f]e ) complicat$ doses ( m$ic9e4 ,z he advanc$ 9 age ?is view ( ! adm9i/ration ( drugs grew ^u him1 until aft] reject+ qu99e1 & f9ally opium1 he at la/ us$ only salt & wat] 9 treat+ 8 pati5ts4 ,f ?is la/ we may judge t 8 sy/em1 if n do+ mu* good1 0 at lea/ do+ little h>m4 ,! !ory ( ! ,vitali/s 0 closely alli$ to t ( ! ,animi/s1 & its mo/ important repres5tative1 ,paul ,joseph ,b>!z1 0 a cultur$ & eag] sci5ti/4 ,aft] an ev5tful & v>i$ c>e] z physician1 soldi]1 editor1 lawy]1 & philosoph] 9 turn1 he f9ally return$ to ! field ( m$ic9e1 0 made consult+ physician by ,napoleon 9 #ahjb1 & di$ 9 ,p>is f\r ye>s lat]4 ,! !ory t he *ampion$ 0 bas$ on ! assumption t !re 0 a vital pr9ciple1 ! nature ( :i* 0 unkn[n1 b :i* diff]$ f ! ?9k+ m9d1 & 0 ! cause ( ! ph5om5a ( life4 ,?is vital pr9ciple diff]$ f ! s\l1 & 0 n exhibit$ 9 human be+s alone1 b ev5 9 animals & plants4 ,?is =ce1 or :atev] x might be call$1 0 suppos$ to be pres5t ev]y:]e 9 ! body1 & all diseases 7 ! results ( x4 ,! !ory ( ! ,organici/s1 l t ( ! ,animi/s & ,vitali/s1 agre$ ) ! o!r two t vital activity c\ld n be expla9$ by ! laws ( physics & *emi/ry1 b1 unlike !m1 x held t x 0 a "p ( ! /ructure ( ! body itself4 ,naturally ! practical physicians 7 m attract$ by ?is tangible doctr9e ?an by vague !ories :i* conv]t$ diseases into unkn[n d]angem5ts ( "s equally unkn[n 'pr9ciple4' ,x is p]haps /ra9+ a po9t to include ?is brief description ( ^! ?ree s*ools ( m$ic9e 9 ! hi/ory ( ! progress ( ! sci5ce4 ,b1 on ! :ole1 !y 7 negatively at lea/ prom95t factors 9 direct+ true progress along its prop] *annel1 %[+ :at c\rses 7 n to be pursu$4 ,"s "o has said t sci5ce usually /umbles into ! "r c\rse only aft] /umbl+ into all ! wrong ones2 & if ?is be only p>tially true1 ! wrong ones /ill play a prom95t if n a v cr$itable "p4 ,?us ! m$ical sy/ems ( ,william ,cull5 7#agaj-agij71 & ,john ,br[n 7#agce-aghh71 :ile do+ little t[>ds ! actual advancem5t ( sci5tific m$ic9e1 play$ s conspicu\s a "p 9 s wide a field t ! ,brunonian sy/em at lea/ mu/ be giv5 "s little att5tion4 ,accord+ to ,br[n's !ory1 life1 diseases1 & me?ods ( cure are expla9$ by ! prop]ty ( excitability4 ,all excit+ p[]s 7 suppos$ to be /imulat+1 ! app>5t debilitat+ effects ( "s be+ due to a defici5cy 9 ! am\nt ( /imulus4 ,?us ! :ole ph5om5a ( life1 heal?1 z well z disease1 7 suppos$ to consi/ ( /imulus & no?+ else4 ,?is !ory creat$ a great /ir 9 ! m$ical _w1 & p>tisans & oppon5ts sprang up ev]y:]e4 ,9 ,italy x 0 en?usia/ically support$2 9 ,engl& x 0 /rongly oppos$2 :ile 9 ,scotl& riots took place betwe5 ! oppos+ factions4 ,j :y ?is sy/em %\ld h creat$ any /ir1 ei!r = or aga9/ x1 is n n[ app>5t4 ,l s _m ( ! o!r !ori/s ( 8 c5tury1 ,br[n's practical conclusions d$uc$ f 8 !ory 7or p]haps 9 spite ( x7 7 g5]ally b5eficial to m$ic9e1 & "s ( !m extremely valuable 9 ! treatm5t ( diseases4 ,he fir/ advocat$ ! mod]n /imulant1 or fe$+ treatm5t ( fev]s1 & fir/ recogniz$ ! usefulness ( animal s\ps & beef-tea 9 c]ta9 diseases4 ,,! ,,sy/em ,,( ,,hahnemann ,j at ! close ( ! c5tury !re came into prom95ce ! s*ool ( homoeopa?y1 :i* 0 de/9$ to influ5ce ! practice ( m$ic9e v mat]ially & to outlive all ! o!r eighte5?-c5tury s*ools4 ,x 0 f\nd$ by ,*ri/ian ,samuel ,fri$ri* ,hahnemann 7#agee-ahdc71 a mo/ rem>kable man1 :o1 aft] prop\nd+ a !ory 9 8 y\ng] days :i* 0 at lea/ z reasonable z mo/ ( ! exi/+ !ories1 _h ! mis=tune to outlive 8 usefulness & lay 8 doctr9e op5 to ridicule by ! unreasonable tea*+s ( 8 dotage4 ,hahnemann reject$ all ! tea*+s ( morbid anatomy & pa?ology z useless 9 practice1 & prop\nd$ 8 fam\s similia similibus curantur--t all diseases 7 to be cur$ by m$ic9e :i* 9 heal? produc$ symptoms dynamically simil> to ! disease "u treatm5t4 ,if a c]ta9 m$ic9e produc$ a heada*e :5 giv5 to a heal?y p]son1 !n ?is m$ic9e 0 indicat$ 9 case ( heada*es1 etc4 ,at ! pres5t "t su* a !ory seems crude en\gh1 b 9 ! latt] "p ( ! eighte5? c5tury almo/ any !ory 0 z good z ! ones prop\nd$ by ,animi/s1 ,vitali/s1 & o!r su* s*ools4 ,x c]ta9ly _h ! v comm5dable feature ( introduc+ simplicity 9 ! use ( drugs 9 place ( ! complicat$ prescriptions !n 9 vogue4 ,_h ,hahnemann /opp$ at ?is po9t he c\ld n h be5 held up to ! indef5sible ridicule t 0 br\ght ^u him1 ) consid]able ju/ice1 by 8 lat] !ories4 ,b he liv$ onto prop\nd 8 extraord9>y !ory ( pot5tiality--t m$ic9es ga9$ /r5g? by be+ dilut$--& 8 ev5 m extraord9>y !ory t all *ronic diseases are caus$ ei!r by ! it*1 syphilis1 or fig-w>t disease1 or are br\ght on by m$ic9es4 ,at ! "t t 8 !ory ( pot5tialities 0 promulgat$1 ! m$ical _w _h gone mad 9 its adm9i/ration ( huge doses ( comp\nd mixtures ( drugs1 & any reaction aga9/ ?is 0 surely an improvem5t4 ,9 %ort1 no m$ic9e at all 0 mu* bett] ?an ! heap+ doses us$ 9 common practice2 & h5ce "o advantage1 at lea/1 ( ,hahnemann's me?ods4 ,/at$ briefly1 8 !ory 0 t if a t9cture be r$uc$ to "o-fiftie? 9 /r5g?1 & ?is aga9 r$uc$ to "o-fiftie?1 & ?is process repeat$ up to ?irty su* dilutions1 ! pot5cy ( su* a m$ic9e w be increas$ by ea* dilution1 ,hahnemann himself pref]r+ ! weake/1 or1 z he w\ld call x1 ! /ronge/ dilution4 ,! absurdity ( su* a !ory is app>5t :5 x is und]/ood t long be=e any drug has be5 rais$ to its ?irtie? dilution x has be5 s r$uc$ 9 quantity t x _c be weigh$1 measur$1 or recogniz$ z be+ pres5t 9 ! solution at all by any means kn[n to *emi/s4 ,x is b j to mod]n foll[]s ( homoeopa?y to say t :ile mo/ ( !m advocate small dosage1 !y d n necess>ily foll[ ! tea*+s ( ,hahnemann 9 ?is respect1 believ+ t ! !ory ( ! dose has no?+ m to d ) ! orig9al law ( cure ?an ! psora 7it*7 !ory has2 & t x 0 "o ( ! lat] creations ( ,hahnemann's m9d4 ,hahnemann's !ory t all *ronic diseases are d]iv$ f ei!r it*1 syphilis1 or fig-w>t disease is no long] advocat$ by 8 foll[]s1 because x is s easily disprov$1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! case ( it*4 ,hahnemann taught t fully ?ree-qu>t]s ( all diseases 7 caus$ by it* /ruck 91 & yet x _h be5 demon/rat$ long be=e 8 day1 & c be demon/rat$ any "t1 t it* is simply a local sk9 disease caus$ by a small p>asite4 ,,j5n] ,,& ,,vacc9ation ,all advances 9 sci5ce h a be>+1 ne> or remote1 on ! welf>e ( our race2 b x rema9s to cr$it to ! clos+ decade ( ! eighte5? c5tury a discov]y :i*1 9 its p[] ( direct & imm$iate b5efit to humanity1 surpasses any o!r discov]y ( ?is or any previ\s epo*4 ,ne$less to say1 ,i ref] to ,j5n]'s discov]y ( ! me?od ( prev5t+ smallpox by inoculation ) ! virus ( c[-pox4 ,x detracts no?+ f ! m]it ( ?is discov]y to say t ! prev5tive p[] ( accid5tal inoculation _h long be5 rumor$ among ! peasantry ( ,engl&4 ,su* vague1 unavail+ half-k is (t5 ! =]unn] ( fruitful discov]y4 ,to all int5ts & purposes ,j5n]'s discov]y 0 orig9al & unique4 ,nor1 consid]$ z a p]fect me?od1 0 x 9 any s5se an accid5t4 ,x 0 a triumph ( exp]im5tal sci5ce4 ,! discov]] 0 no novice 9 sci5tific inve/igation1 b a tra9$ obs]v]1 :o _h s]v$ a long appr5tice%ip 9 sci5tific obs]vation "u no less a sci5ti/ ?an ! celebrat$ ,john ,hunt]4 ,at ! age ( tw5ty-"o ,j5n] _h gone to ,london to pursue 8 m$ical /udies1 & soon aft] he prov$ himself s wor?y a pupil t = two ye>s he rema9$ a memb] ( ,hunt]'s h\sehold z 8 favorite pupil4 ,8 ta/e = sci5ce & natural hi/ory soon attract$ ! att5tion ( ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 :o intru/$ him ) ! prep>ation ( ! zoological specim5s br\ght back by ,capta9 ,cook's exp$ition 9 #agga4 ,he p]=m$ ?is task s well t he 0 (f]$ ! position ( naturali/ to ! second exp$ition1 b decl9$ x1 pref]r+ to take up ! practice ( 8 pr(ession 9 8 native t[n ( ,b]keley4 ,8 _m accompli%m5ts & g5ial p]sonality soon made him a favorite bo? z a physician & 9 society4 ,he 0 a good s+]1 a fair viol9i/ & flute-play]1 & a v successful writ] ( prose & v]se4 ,b ) all 8 pr(essional & social duties he /ill kept up 8 sci5tific inve/igations1 among o!r ?+s mak+ "s c>eful obs]vations on ! hib]nation ( h$gehogs at ! in/igation ( ,hunt]1 ! results ( :i* 7 laid be=e ! ,royal ,society4 ,he also made q ext5sive inve/igations z to ! geological =mations & fossils f\nd 9 8 neighborhood4 ,ev5 dur+ 8 /ud5t days ) ,hunt] he _h be5 mu* int]e/$ 9 ! belief1 curr5t 9 ! rural di/ricts ( ,gl\ce/]%ire1 ( ! antagonism betwe5 c[-pox & small-pox1 a p]son hav+ suff]$ f c[-pox be+ immun$ to small-pox4 ,at v>i\s times ,j5n] _h m5tion$ ! subject to ,hunt]1 & he 0 con/antly mak+ inquiries ( 8 fell[-practition]s z to _! obs]vations & op9ions on ! subject4 ,hunt] 0 too fully engross$ 9 o!r pursuits to give ! matt] mu* s]i\s att5tion1 h[ev]1 & ,j5n]'s bro!rs ( ! pr(ession gave scant cr$5ce to ! rumors1 al?\gh su* rumors 7 common en\gh4 ,at ?is "t ! practice ( inoculation = prev5t+ small-pox1 or r av]t+ ! sev]] =ms ( ! disease1 0 widely practis$4 ,x 0 cu/om>y1 :5 !re 0 a mild case ( ! disease1 to take "s ( ! virus f ! pati5t & inoculate p]sons :o _h nev] _h ! disease1 produc+ a simil> attack 9 !m4 ,un=tunately !re 7 _m objections to ?is practice4 ,! inoculat$ pati5t frequ5tly develop$ a virul5t =m ( ! disease & di$2 or if he recov]$1 ev5 aft] a mild attack1 he 0 likely to be pitt$ & disfigur$4 ,b1 p]haps wor/ ( all1 a pati5t s inoculat$ became ! s\rce ( infection to o!rs1 & x sometimes happ5$ t disa/r\s epidemics 7 ?us br\ght ab\t4 ,! case 0 a mo/ p]plex+ "o1 = ! awful sc\rge ( small-pox hung p]petually ov] ! head ( e p]son :o _h n already suff]$ & recov]$ f x4 ,! practice ( inoculation 0 introduc$ into ,engl& by ,lady ,m>y ,wortley ,montague 7#afij-agfb71 :o _h se5 x practis$ 9 ! ,ea/1 & :o ann\nc$ h] int5tion ( introduc+ x into ,engl& 9 spite ( ! doctors4 ,f ! fact t c]ta9 p]sons1 usually milkmaids1 :o _h suff]$ f c[-pox seem$ to be immun$ to small-pox1 x w\ld seem a v simple process ( d$uction to discov] t c[-pox inoculation 0 ! solution ( ! problem ( prev5t+ ! disease4 ,b !re 0 ano!r =m ( disease :i*1 :ile closely resembl+ c[-pox & q g5]ally conf\nd$ ) x1 did n produce immunity4 ,! confusion ( ^! two =ms ( ! disease _h con/antly misl$ inve/igations z to ! possibility ( ei!r ( !m immuniz+ aga9/ smallpox1 & ! confusion ( ^! two diseases = a "t l$ ,j5n] to "q ! possibility ( do+ s4 ,aft] c>eful inve/igations1 h[ev]1 he rea*$ ! conclusion t !re 0 a diff]5ce 9 ! effects ( ! two diseases1 only "o ( :i* produc$ immunity f small-pox4 ,!re is a disease to :i* ! horse1 f 8 /ate ( dome/ication1 is frequ5tly subject1 wrote ,j5n]1 9 8 fam\s pap] on vacc9ation4 ,! f>ri]s call x ! grease4 ,x is an inflammation & swell+ 9 ! heel1 accompani$ at its comm5cem5t ) small cracks or fissures1 f :i* issues a limpid fluid possess+ prop]ties ( a v peculi> k9d4 ,?is fluid seems capable ( g5]at+ a disease 9 ! human body 7aft] x has und]gone ! modification ,i %all pres5tly speak (7 :i* be>s s /rong a resemblance to small-pox t ,i ?9k x highly probable x may be ! s\rce ( t disease4 ,9 ?is dairy c\ntry a great numb] ( c[s are kept1 & ! (fice ( milk+ is p]=m$ indiscrim9ately by m5 & maid s]vants4 ,"o ( ! =m] hav+ be5 appo9t$ to apply dress+s to ! heels ( a horse affect$ ) ! malady ,i h m5tion$1 & n pay+ due att5tion to cleanl9ess1 incauti\sly be>s 8 "p 9 milk+ ! c[s ) "s p>ticles ( ! infecti\s matt] adh]+ to 8 f+]s4 ,:5 ?is is ! case x frequ5tly happ5s t a disease is communicat$ to ! c[s1 & f ! c[s to ! dairy-maids1 :i* spreads ?r\gh ! f>m until mo/ ( ! cattle & dome/ics feel its unpleasant consequ5ces4 ,?is disease has obta9$ ! "n ( ,c[-,pox4 ,x appe>s on ! nipples ( ! c[s 9 ! =m ( irregul> pu/ules4 ,at _! fir/ appe>ance !y are commonly ( a pali% blue1 or r ( a color some:at approa*+ to livid1 & are surr\nd$ by an inflammation4 ,^! pu/ules1 unless a timely rem$y be appli$1 frequ5tly deg5]ate into phag$5ic ulc]s1 :i* prove extremely tr\blesome4 ,! animals become indispos$1 & ! secretion ( milk is mu* less5$4 ,inflam$ spots n[ beg9 to appe> on diff]5t p>ts ( ! h&s ( ! dome/ics employ$ 9 milk+1 & sometimes on ! wri/s1 :i* run on to suppuration1 fir/ assum+ ! appe>ance ( ! small vesications produc$ by a burn4 ,mo/ commonly !y appe> ab\t ! jo9ts ( ! f+]s & at _! extremities2 b :atev] p>ts are affect$1 if ! situation w admit ! sup]ficial suppurations put on a circul> =m ) _! edges m elevat$ ?an _! c5tre & ( a color di/9ctly approa*+ to blue4 ,absorption takes place1 & tumors appe> 9 ea* axilla4 ,! sy/em becomes affect$1 ! pulse is quick5$2 %iv]+s1 succe$$ by heat1 g5]al lassitude1 & pa9s ab\t ! lo9s & limbs1 ) vomit+1 come on4 ,! head is pa9ful1 & ! pati5t is n[ & !n ev5 affect$ ) delirium4 ,^! symptoms1 v>y+ 9 _! degrees ( viol5ce1 g5]ally cont9ue f "o day to ?ree or f\r1 leav+ ulc]at$ sores ab\t ! h&s :i*1 f ! s5sibility ( ! p>ts1 are v tr\blesome & commonly heal sl[ly1 frequ5tly becom+ phag$5ic1 l ^? f :i* !y sprang4 ,dur+ ! progress ( ! disease ! lips1 no/rils1 eyelids1 & o!r p>ts ( ! body are sometimes affect$ ) sores2 b ^! evid5tly arise f _! be+ he$lessly rubb$ or scrat*$ by ! pati5t's infect$ f+]s4 ,no eruptions on ! sk9 h foll[$ ! decl9e ( ! fev]i% symptoms 9 any in/ance t has come "u my inspection1 "o only except$1 & 9 ?is case a v few appe>$ on ! arms3 !y 7 v m9ute1 ( a vivid r$ color1 & soon di$ away )\t advanc+ to maturation1 s t ,i _c det]m9e :e!r !y _h any connection ) ! prec$+ symptoms4 ,?us ! disease makes its progress f ! horse 7z ,i conceive7 to ! nipple ( ! c[1 & f ! c[ to ! human subject4 ,morbid matt] ( v>i\s k9ds1 :5 absorb$ into ! sy/em1 may produce effects 9 "s degree simil>2 b :at r5d]s ! c[-pox virus s extremely s+ul> is t ! p]son t has be5 ?us affect$ is =ev] aft] secure f ! infection ( small-pox1 nei!r exposure to ! v>iol\s effluvia nor ! ins]tion ( ! matt] into ! sk9 produc+ ?is di/emp]47#b7 ,9 #agif ,j5n] made 8 fir/ inoculation ) c[pox matt]1 & two mon?s lat] ! same subject 0 inoculat$ ) small-pox matt]4 ,b1 z ,j5n] _h pr$ict$1 no attack ( small-pox foll[$4 ,al?\gh fully conv9c$ by ?is exp]im5t t ! case 0 conclusively prov51 he cont9u$ 8 inve/igations1 wait+ two ye>s be=e publi%+ 8 discov]y4 ,!n1 =tifi$ by indisputable pro(s1 he gave x to ! _w4 ,! imm$iate effects ( 8 ann\ncem5t h probably nev] be5 equall$ 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5tific discov]y1 unless1 p]haps1 9 ! s+le in/ance ( ! discov]y ( anae/hesia4 ,9 ,g5eva & ,holl& cl]gym5 advocat$ ! practice ( vacc9ation f _! pulpits2 9 "s ( ! ,lat9 c\ntries religi\s processions 7 =m$ = receiv+ vacc9ation2 ,j5n]'s bir?day 0 celebrat$ z a fea/ 9 ,g]many2 & ! fir/ *ild vacc9at$ 9 ,russia 0 nam$ ,vacc9ov & educat$ at public exp5se4 ,9 six ye>s ! discov]y _h p5etrat$ to ! mo/ remote corn]s ( civilization2 x _h ev5 rea*$ "s savage nations4 ,& 9 a few ye>s small-pox _h fall5 f ! position ( ! mo/ dread$ ( all diseases to t ( be+ practically ! only disease = :i* a sure & easy prev5tive 0 kn[n4 ,honors 7 %[]$ ^u ,j5n] f ! ,old & ! ,new ,_w1 & ev5 ,napoleon1 ! bitt] hat] ( ! ,engli%1 0 among ! o!rs :o honor$ 8 "n4 ,on "o occasion ,j5n] appli$ to ! ,emp]or = ! release ( c]ta9 ,engli%m5 deta9$ 9 ,france4 ,! petition 0 ab\t to be reject$ :5 ! "n ( ! petition] 0 m5tion$4 ,ah1 said ,napoleon1 we c refuse no?+ to t "n6 ,x is difficult = u ( to-day cle>ly to conceive ! greatness ( ,j5n]'s triumph1 = we c only vaguely realize :at a ru?less & ev]-pres5t sc\rge smallpox _h be5 to all previ\s g5]ations ( m5 s9ce hi/ory began4 ,despite all ef=ts to *eck x by m$ication & by direct inoculation1 x swept n[ & !n ov] ! e>? z an all-deva/at+ pe/il5ce1 & ye> by ye> x claim$ "o-t5? ( all ! be+s 9 ,*ri/5dom by dea? z its av]age quota ( victims4 ,f small-pox & love b few rema9 free1 ran ! old saw4 ,a pitt$ face 0 almo/ z mu* a matt] ( c\rse a hundr$ ye>s ago z a smoo? "o is to-day4 ,little wond]1 !n1 t ! _w gave eag] acceptance to ,j5n]'s discov]y4 ,no urg+ 0 ne$$ to induce ! majority to give x trial2 pass5g]s on a burn+ %ip d n hold alo( f ! life-boats4 ,ri* & poor1 high & l[1 s\ght succor 9 vacc9ation & bless$ ! "n ( _! deliv]]4 ,( all ! great names t 7 be=e ! _w 9 ! clos+ days ( ! c5tury1 !re 0 p]haps no o!r "o at once s widely kn[n & s uni=mly rev]5c$ z t ( ! great ,engli% physician ,edw>d ,j5n]4 ,surely !re 0 no o!r "o t %\ld be recall$ ) great] gratitude by po/]ity4 ,,viii4 ,,n9ete5?-,,c5tury ,,m$ic9e ,,physical ,,diagnosis ,al?\gh ,napoleon ,bonap>te1 ,fir/ ,consul1 0 n lack+ 9 self-appreciation1 he probably did n realize t 9 select+ a physician = 8 own ne$s he 0 m>k$ly influ5c+ ! progress ( m$ical sci5ce z a :ole4 ,yet s /rangely are cause & effect adju/$ 9 human affairs t ?is simple act ( ! ,fir/ ,consul _h t v unexpect$ effect4 ,= ! man *os5 0 ! envoy ( a new me?od 9 m$ical practice1 & ! fame :i* came to him ?r\gh be+ physician to ! ,fir/ ,consul1 & subsequ5tly to ! ,emp]or1 enabl$ him to promulgate ! me?od 9 a way o!rwise impracticable4 ,h5ce ! indirect b tell+ value to m$ical sci5ce ( ,napoleon's selection4 ,! physician 9 "q 0 ,jean ,nicolas de ,corvis>t4 ,8 novel me?od 0 no?+ m />tl+ ?an ! n[-famili> proc$ure ( tapp+ ! *e/ ( a pati5t to elicit s\nds indicative ( diseas$ tissues )94 ,e "o has se5 ?is done commonly en\gh 9 our day1 b at ! beg9n+ ( ! c5tury ,corvis>t1 & p]haps "s ( 8 pupils1 7 probably ! only physicians 9 ! _w :o resort$ to ?is simple & useful proc$ure4 ,h5ce ,napoleon's surprise :51 on call+ 9 ,corvis>t1 aft] becom+ some:at dissatisfi$ ) 8 o!r physicians ,p9el & ,portal1 8 physical condition 0 int]rogat$ 9 ?is /range mann]4 ,) *>act]i/ic %rewdness ,bonap>te saw ! utility ( ! me?od1 & ! physician :o ?us attempt$ to sub/itute sci5tific me?od = guess-"w 9 ! diagnosis ( disease at once f\nd favor 9 8 eyes & 0 in/all$ z 8 regul> m$ical advis]4 ,= fifte5 ye>s be=e ?is ,corvis>t _h practis$ p]cussion1 z ! *e/-tapp+ me?od is call$1 )\t succe$+ 9 conv9c+ ! pr(ession ( its value4 ,! me?od itself1 x %\ld be add$1 _h n orig9at$ ) ,corvis>t1 nor did ! ,fr5* physician = a mom5t claim x z 8 own4 ,! true orig9ator ( ! practice 0 ! ,g]man physician ,av5brugg]1 :o publi%$ a book ab\t x z e>ly z #agfa4 ,?is book _h ev5 be5 translat$ into ,fr5*1 !n ! language ( int]national communication ev]y:]e1 by ,rozi]e de la ,*assagne1 ( ,montpelli]1 9 #aggj2 b no "o o!r ?an ,corvis>t appe>s to h paid any att5tion to ei!r orig9al or translation4 ,x 0 f> o!rwise1 h[ev]1 :5 ,corvis>t translat$ ,av5brugg]'s "w anew1 ) important additions ( 8 own1 9 #ahjh4 ,i "k v well h[ little reputation is allott$ to translator & comm5tators1 writes ,corvis>t1 & ,i might easily h elevat$ myself to ! rank ( an au?or if ,i _h elaborat$ anew ! doctr9e ( ,av5brugg] & publi%$ an indep5d5t "w on p]cussion4 ,9 ?is way1 h[ev]1 ,i %\ld h sacrific$ ! "n ( ,av5brugg] to my own vanity1 a ?+ :i* ,i am unwill+ to d4 ,x is he1 & ! beautiful inv5tion :i* ( "r belongs to him1 t ,i desire to recall to life47#a7 ,by ?is "t a reaction _h set 9 aga9/ ! metaphysical me?ods 9 m$ic9e t _h previ\sly be5 s allur+2 ! sci5tific _s ( ! "t 0 mak+ itself felt 9 m$ical practice2 & ?is1 comb9$ ) ,corvis>t's fame1 br\ght ! me?od ( p]cussion into imm$iate & well-des]v$ popul>ity4 ,?us 0 laid ! f\ndation = ! me?od ( s-call$ physical diagnosis1 :i* is "o ( ! corn]-/ones ( mod]n m$ic9e4 ,! me?od ( physical diagnosis z practis$ 9 our day 0 by no means complet$1 h[ev]1 ) ! "w ( ,corvis>t4 ,p]cussion alone tells mu* less ?an half ! /ory t may be elicit$ f ! organs ( ! *e/ by prop] int]rogation4 ,! rema9d] ( ! /ory c only be le>n$ by apply+ ! e> itself to ! *e/1 directly or indirectly4 ,simple z ?is seems1 no "o ?\ght ( practis+ x = "s ye>s aft] ,corvis>t _h %[n ! value ( p]cussion4 ,!n1 9 #ahae1 ano!r ,p>is physician1 ,r5e ,!ophile ,hyac9! ,la5nec1 discov]$1 almo/ by accid5t1 t ! s\nd ( ! he>t-beat c\ld be he>d surpris+ly ?r\gh a cyl9d] ( pap] held to ! e> & aga9/ ! pati5t's *e/4 ,act+ on ! h9t ?us receiv$1 ,la5nec sub/itut$ a holl[ cyl9d] ( wood = ! pap]1 & f\nd himself provid$ ) an in/rum5t ?r\gh :i* n m]ely he>t s\nds b murmurs ( ! lungs 9 respiration c\ld be he>d ) almo/ />tl+ di/9ctness4 ,! possibility ( associat+ ! v>y+ *e/ s\nds ) diseas$ conditions ( ! organs )9 appeal$ to ! f]tile m9d ( ,la5nec z op5+ new vi/as 9 !rapeutics1 :i* he det]m9$ to ent] to ! fulle/ ext5t practicable4 ,8 connection ) ! hospitals ( ,p>is gave him full opportunity 9 ?is direction1 & 8 labors ( ! next few ye>s s]v$ n m]ely to e/abli% ! value ( ! new me?od z an aid to diagnosis1 b laid ! f\ndation also = ! sci5ce ( morbid anatomy4 ,9 #ahai ,la5nec publi%$ ! results ( 8 labors 9 a "w call$ ,traite d',auscultation ,m$iate17#b7 a "w :i* =ms "o ( ! l&m>ks ( sci5tific m$ic9e4 ,by m$iate auscultation is meant1 ( c\rse1 ! int]rogation ( ! *e/ ) ! aid ( ! little in/rum5t already ref]r$ to1 an in/rum5t :i* its orig9ator ?\ght h>dly wor? nam+ until v>i\s b>b>\s appellations 7 appli$ to x by o!rs1 aft] :i* ,la5nec decid$ to call x ! /e?oscope1 a "n :i* x has ev] s9ce reta9$4 ,9 subsequ5t ye>s ! =m ( ! /e?oscope1 z usually employ$1 0 modifi$ & its value augm5t$ by a b9auricul> atta*m5t1 & 9 v rec5t ye>s a fur!r improvem5t has be5 made ?r\gh application ( ! pr9ciple ( ! telephone2 b ! ess5tials ( auscultation ) ! /e?oscope 7 e/abli%$ 9 mu* detail by ,la5nec1 & ! honor mu/ always be 8 ( ?us tak+ "o ( ! longe/ s+le /eps by :i* practical m$ic9e has 9 our c5tury acquir$ ! "r to be consid]$ a rational sci5ce4 ,la5nec's ef=ts co/ him 8 life1 = he di$ 9 #ahbf ( a lung disease acquir$ 9 ! c\rse ( 8 hospital practice2 b ev5 be=e ?is 8 fame 0 univ]sal1 & ! value ( 8 me?od _h be5 recogniz$ all ov] ! _w4 ,n long aft]1 9 #ahbh1 yet ano!r ,fr5* physician1 ,piorry1 p]fect$ ! me?od ( p]cussion by introduc+ ! cu/om ( tapp+1 n ! *e/ directly1 b ! f+] or a small metal or h>d-rubb] plate held aga9/ ! *e/-m$iate p]cussion1 9 %ort4 ,?is p]fect$ ! me?ods ( physical diagnosis ( diseases ( ! *e/ 9 all ess5tials2 & f t day till ?is p]cussion & auscultation h held an unque/ion$ place 9 ! regul> armam5t>ium ( ! physician4 ,c\pl$ ) ! new me?od ( physical diagnosis 9 ! ef=t to sub/itute k = guess-"w came ! /udies ( ! exp]im5tal physiologi/s--9 p>ticul>1 ,m>%all ,hall 9 ,engl& & ,francois ,mag5die 9 ,france2 & ! jo9t ef=ts ( ^! v>i\s work]s l$ pres5tly to ! ab&onm5t ( ^? sev]e & (t5 irrational depletive me?ods--blood-lett+ & ! l--t _h previ\sly dom9at$ m$ical practice4 ,to ?is end also ! /ati/ical me?od1 introduc$ by ,l\is & 8 foll[]s1 l>gely contribut$2 & by ! close ( ! fir/ ?ird ( our c5tury ! idea 0 ga9+ gr\nd t ! prov9ce ( !rapeutics is to aid nature 9 combat+ disease1 & t ?is may (t5 be accompli%$ bett] by simple means ?an by ! h]oic measures hi!rto ?\ght necess>y4 ,9 a ^w1 sci5tific empiricism 0 beg9n+ to ga9 a he>+ 9 m$ic9e z aga9/ ! metaphysical preconceptions ( ! e>li] g5]ations4 ,,p>asitic ,,diseases ,i h j adv]t$ to ! fact t ,napoleon ,bonap>te1 z ,fir/ ,consul & z ,emp]or1 0 ! victim ( a malady :i* caus$ him to seek ! advice ( ! mo/ di/+ui%$ physicians ( ,p>is4 ,x is a little %ock+ to mod]n s5sibilities to read t ^! physicians1 except ,corvis>t1 diagnos$ ! di/+ui%$ pati5t's malady z gale rep]cutee--t is to say1 9 idiomatic ,engli%1 ! it* /ruck 94 ,x is h>dly necess>y to say t no physician ( today w\ld make s inconsid]ate a diagnosis 9 ! case ( a royal pati5t4 ,if by any *ance a di/+ui%$ pati5t 7 afflict$ ) ! it*1 ! sagaci\s physician w\ld c>efully hide ! fact beh9d circumlocutions & proce$ to eradicate ! disease ) all despat*4 ,t ! physicians ( ,napoleon did o!rwise is evid5ce t at ! beg9n+ ( ! c5tury ! disease 9 "q enjoy$ a v diff]5t /atus4 ,at t "t it*1 in/ead ( be+ a mo/ plebeian malady1 01 s to say1 a c\rt disease4 ,x enjoy$ a circulation1 9 high circles & 9 l[1 t mod]n !rapeutics has q d5i$ x2 & ! physicians ( ! "t gave x a fictiti\s add$ importance by ascrib+ to its influ5ce ! exi/5ce ( almo/ any obscure malady t came "u _! obs]vation4 ,long aft] ,napoleon's "t gale cont9u$ to hold ?is pr\d di/9ction4 ,= example1 ! imag9ative ,dr4 ,hahnemann did n hesitate to affirm1 z a positive maxim1 t ?ree-f\r?s ( all ! ills t fle% is heir to 7 9 reality no?+ b v>i\s =ms ( gale rep]cutee4 ,all ( :i* goes to %[ h[ easy x may be = a mask$ pret5d] to impose on cr$ul\s humanity1 = no?+ is m cle>ly e/abli%$ 9 mod]n k ?an ! fact t gale rep]cutee 0 simply a "n to hide a pr(\nd ignorance2 no su* disease exi/s or ev] did exi/4 ,gale itself is a suffici5tly tangible reality1 to be sure1 b x is a purely local disease ( ! sk91 due to a p]fectly def9ite cause1 & ! dire int]nal conditions =m]ly ascrib$ to x h really no causal connection ) x :atev]4 ,?is def9ite cause1 z e "o n[adays kn[s1 is no?+ m or less ?an a microscopic insect :i* has f\nd lodgm5t on ! sk91 & has burr[$ & made itself at home !re4 ,kill t insect & ! disease is no m2 h5ce x has come to be an axiom ) ! mod]n physician t ! it* is "o ( ! ?ree or f\r diseases t he positively is able to cure1 & t v spe$ily4 ,b x 0 f> o!rwise ) ! physicians ( ! fir/ ?ird ( our c5tury1 because to !m ! cause ( ! disease 0 an absolute my/]y4 ,x is true t "h & !re a physician _h claim$ to f9d an insect lodg$ 9 ! sk9 ( a suff]] f it*1 & two or ?ree times ! claim _h be5 made t ?is 0 ! cause ( ! malady1 b su* views 7 q ignor$ by ! g5]al pr(ession1 & 9 #ahcc x 0 /at$ 9 an au?oritative m$ical treatise t ! cause ( gale is absolutely unkn[n4 ,b ev5 at ?is "t1 z x curi\sly happ5$1 !re 7 c]ta9 ignorant laym5 :o _h atta9$ to a bit ( m$ical k t 0 )held f ! inn] circles ( ! pr(ession4 ,z ! peasantry ( ,engl& be=e ,j5n] _h kn[n ( ! curative value ( c[-pox ov] small-pox1 s ! peasant wom5 ( ,pol& _h le>n$ t ! annoy+ sk9 disease f :i* !y suff]$ 0 caus$ by an almo/ invisible insect1 &1 fur!rmore1 _h acquir$ ! trick ( dislodg+ ! pe/if]\s little creature ) ! po9t ( a ne$le4 ,f !m a y\? ( ! c\ntry1 ,f4 ,r5ucci by "n1 le>n$ ! op5 secret4 ,he convey$ x to ,p>is :5 he w5t !re to /udy m$ic9e1 & 9 #ahcd demon/rat$ x to 8 ma/] ,alib]t4 ,?is physician1 at fir/ sceptical1 soon 0 conv9c$1 & gave out ! discov]y to ! m$ical _w ) an au?ority t l$ to e>ly acceptance4 ,n[ ! importance ( all ?is1 9 ! pres5t connection1 is n at all t x gave ! clew to ! me?od ( cure ( a s+le disease4 ,:at makes ! discov]y epo*al is ! fact t x dropp$ a br&-new idea into ! m$ical ranks--an idea de/9$1 9 ! long-run1 to prove itself a v]itable bomb--! idea1 namely1 t a m9ute & q unsuspect$ animal p>asite may be ! cause ( a well-kn[n1 widely preval5t1 & important human disease4 ,( c\rse ! full =ce ( ?is idea c\ld only be appreciat$ 9 ! light ( lat] k2 b ev5 at ! "t ( its com+ x suffic$ to give a great impetus to t new m$ical k1 bas$ on microscopical /udies1 :i* _h b rec5tly be5 made accessible by ! inv5tions ( ! l5s-mak]s4 ,! new k cl>ifi$ "o v turbid m$ical pool & po9t$ ! way to ! cl>ification ( _m o!rs4 ,almo/ at ! same "t t ! ,poli% m$ical /ud5t 0 demon/rat+ ! it* mite 9 ,p>is1 x *anc$1 curi\sly en\gh1 t ano!r m$ical /ud5t1 ?is "t an ,engli%man1 made an analog\s discov]y ( p]haps ev5 great] importance4 ,inde$1 ?is ,engli% discov]y 9 its initial /ages slightly ant$at$ ! o!r1 = x 0 9 #ahcc t ! /ud5t 9 "q1 ,james ,paget1 int]ne 9 ,/4 ,b>?olomew's ,hospital1 ,london1 :ile dissect+ ! muscul> tissues ( a human subject1 f\nd little specks ( extrane\s matt]1 :i*1 :5 tak5 to ! pr(essor ( comp>ative anatomy1 ,ri*>d ,ow51 7 asc]ta9$1 ) ! aid ( ! microscope1 to be ! cocoon ( a m9ute & hi!rto unkn[n insect4 ,ow5 nam$ ! insect ,tri*9a spiralis4 ,aft] ! discov]y 0 publi%$ x transpir$ t simil> specks _h be5 obs]v$ by sev]al e>li] inve/igators1 b no "o _h previ\sly suspect$ or1 at any rate1 demon/rat$ _! nature4 ,nor 0 ! full /ory ( ! tri*9a made out = a long "t aft] ,ow5's discov]y4 ,x 0 n till #ahdg t ! ,am]ican anatomi/ ,dr4 ,joseph ,leidy f\nd ! cy/s ( tri*9a 9 ! tissues ( pork2 & ano!r decade or s elaps$ aft] t be=e ,g]man work]s1 *ief among :om 7 ,leuck>t1 ,vir*[1 & ,z5k]1 prov$ t ! p>asite gets into ! human sy/em ?r\gh +e/ion ( infect$ pork1 & t x causes a def9ite set ( symptoms ( disease :i* hi!rto _h be5 mi/ak5 = rheumatism1 typhoid fev]1 & o!r maladies4 ,!n ! m$ical _w 0 agog = a "t ov] ! subject ( tri*9osis2 gov]nm5t inspection ( pork 0 e/abli%$ 9 "s p>ts ( ,g]many2 ,am]ican pork 0 exclud$ altoge!r f ,france2 & ! :ole subject ?us came prom95tly to public att5tion4 ,b important z ! tri*9a p>asite prov$ on its own acc\nt 9 ! end1 its greate/ importance1 aft] all1 0 9 ! %>e x play$ 9 direct+ att5tion at ! "t ( its discov]y 9 #ahcc to ! subject ( microscopic p>asites 9 g5]al4 ,! decade t foll[$ t discov]y 0 a "t ( great activity 9 ! /udy ( microscopic organisms & microscopic tissues1 & su* m5 z ,ehr5b]g & ,h5le & ,bory ,sa9t-,v9c5t & ,kollik] & ,rokitansky & ,remak & ,duj>d9 7 wid5+ ! b\nds ( k ( ?is new subject ) details t _c be m ?an ref]r$ to "h4 ,b ! cr[n+ a*ievem5t ( ! p]iod 9 ?is direction 0 ! discov]y made by ! ,g]man1 ,j4 ,l4 ,s*o5le91 9 #ahci1 t a v common & mo/ di/ress+ disease ( ! scalp1 kn[n z favus1 is really due to ! pres5ce & gr[? on ! scalp ( a vegetable organism ( microscopic size4 ,?us x 0 made cle> t n m]ely animal b also vegetable organisms ( obscure1 microscopic species h causal relations to ! diseases ) :i* mank9d is afflict$4 ,?is k ( ! p>asites 0 ano!r long /ep 9 ! direction ( sci5tific m$ical k2 b ! heights to :i* ?is k l$ 7 n to be scal$1 or ev5 recogniz$1 until ano!r g5]ation ( work]s _h ent]$ ! field4 ,,pa9less ,,surg]y ,meantime1 9 q ano!r field ( m$ic9e1 ev5ts 7 develop+ :i* l$ pres5tly to a revelation ( great] imm$iate importance to humanity ?an any o!r discov]y t _h come 9 ! c5tury1 p]haps 9 any field ( sci5ce :atev]4 ,?is 0 ! discov]y ( ! pa9-dispell+ p[] ( ! vapor ( sulphuric e!r inhal$ by a pati5t und]go+ a surgical op]ation4 ,?is discov]y came solely out ( ,am]ica1 & x /&s curi\sly isolat$1 s9ce app>5tly no m9ds 9 any o!r c\ntry 7 tr5d+ t[>ds x ev5 vaguely4 ,davy1 9 ,engl&1 _h inde$ orig9at$ ! me?od ( m$ication by inhalation1 & e>n$ out "s mo/ int]e/+ exp]im5ts fifty ye>s e>li]1 & x 0 d\btless 8 exp]im5ts ) nitr\s oxide gas t gave ! clew to "o ( ! ,am]ican inve/igators2 b ?is 0 ! sole contribution ( prec$+ g5]ations to ! subject1 & s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! c5tury1 :5 ,davy turn$ 8 att5tion to o!r matt]s1 no "o _h made ! slighte/ advance along ! same l9e until an ,am]ican d5ti/ r5ew$ ! inve/igation4 ,9 view ( ! sequel1 ,davy's exp]im5ts m]it full att5tion4 ,"h is 8 own acc\nt ( !m1 z writt5 9 #agii3 ,imm$iately aft] a j\rney ( "o hundr$ & tw5ty-six miles1 9 :i* ,i _h no sleep ! prec$+ night1 be+ mu* exhau/$1 ,i respir$ sev5 qu>ts ( nitr\s oxide gas = ne> ?ree m9utes4 ,x produc$ ! usual pleasurable effects & slight muscul> motion4 ,i cont9u$ exhil>at$ = "s m9utes aft]w>ds1 b 9 half an h\r f\nd myself nei!r m nor less exhau/$ ?an be=e ! exp]im5t4 ,i _h a great prop5sity to sleep4 ,to asc]ta9 ) c]ta9ty :e!r ! m ext5sive action ( nitr\s oxide compatible ) life 0 capable ( produc+ debility1 ,i resolv$ to brea! ! gas = su* a "t1 & 9 su* quantities1 z to produce excitem5t equal 9 duration & sup]ior 9 int5sity to t occasion$ by high intoxication f opium or alcohol4 ,to habituate myself to ! excitem5t1 & to c>ry x on gradually1 on ,decemb] #bf? ,i 0 enclos$ 9 an air-tight brea?+-box1 ( ! capacity ( ab\t n9e & "o-half cubic feet1 9 ! pres5ce ( ,dr4 ,k+lake4 ,aft] ,i _h tak5 a situation 9 :i* ,i c\ld by means ( a curv$ !rmomet] ins]t$ "u ! arm1 & a /op-wat*1 asc]ta9 ! alt]ations 9 my pulse & animal heat1 tw5ty qu>ts ( nitr\s oxide 7 ?r[n into ! box4 ,= ?ree m9utes ,i exp]i5c$ no alt]ation 9 my s5sations1 ?\gh imm$iately aft] ! introduction ( ! nitr\s oxide ! smell & ta/e ( x 7 v evid5t4 ,9 f\r m9utes ,i began to feel a slight gl[ 9 ! *eeks & a g5]ally diffus$ w>m? ov] ! *e/1 ?\gh ! temp]ature ( ! box 0 n q #ej degrees4444 ,9 tw5ty-five m9utes ! animal heat 0 #ajj degrees1 pulse #abd4 ,9 ?irty m9utes tw5ty qu>ts m ( gas 7 introduc$4 ,my s5sations 7 n[ pleasant2 ,i _h a g5]ally diffus$ w>m? )\t ! slighte/ moi/ure ( ! sk91 a s5se ( exhil>ation simil> to t produc$ by a small dose ( w9e1 & a disposition to muscul> motion & to m]rim5t4 ,9 ?ree-qu>t]s ( an h\r ! pulse 0 #ajd & ! animal heat n #ii4e degrees1 ! temp]ature ( ! *amb] #fd degrees4 ,! pleasurable feel+s cont9u$ to increase1 ! pulse became full] & sl[]1 till 9 ab\t an h\r x 0 #hh1 :5 ! animal heat 0 #ii degrees4 ,tw5ty qu>ts m ( air 7 admitt$4 ,i _h n[ a great disposition to laugh1 lum9\s po9ts seem$ frequ5tly to pass be=e my eyes1 my he>+ 0 c]ta9ly m acute1 & ,i felt a pleasant lightness & p[] ( ex]tion 9 my muscles4 ,9 a %ort "t ! symptoms became /ation>y2 brea?+ 0 r oppress$1 & on acc\nt ( ! great desire = action re/ 0 pa9ful4 ,i n[ came out ( ! box1 hav+ be5 9 precisely an h\r & a qu>t]4 ,! mom5t aft] ,i began to respire tw5ty qu>ts ( unm+l$ nitr\s oxide4 ,a ?rill+ ext5d+ f ! *e/ to ! extremities 0 almo/ imm$iately produc$4 ,i felt a s5se ( tangible ext5sion highly pleasurable 9 e limb2 my visible impressions 7 dazzl+ & app>5tly magnifi$1 ,i he>d di/9ctly e s\nd 9 ! room1 & 0 p]fectly aw>e ( my situation4 ,by degrees1 z ! pleasurable s5sations increas$1 ,i lo/ all connection ) ext]nal ?+s2 tra9s ( vivid visible images rapidly pass$ ?r\gh my m9d & 7 connect$ ) words 9 su* a mann] z to produce p]ceptions p]fectly novel4 ,i exi/$ 9 a _w ( newly connect$ & newly modifi$ ideas4 ,i !oriz$2 ,i imag9$ t ,i made discov]ies4 ,:5 ,i 0 awak5$ f ?is semi-deliri\s trance by ,dr4 ,k+lake1 :o took ! bag f my m\?1 indignation & pride 7 ! fir/ feel+s produc$ by ! sight ( p]sons ab\t me4 ,my emotions 7 en?usia/ic & sublime2 & = a m9ute ,i walk$ ab\t ! room p]fectly reg>dless ( :at 0 said to me4 ,z ,i recov]$ my =m] /ate ( m9d1 ,i felt an incl9ation to communicate ! discov]ies ,i _h made dur+ ! exp]im5t4 ,i endeavor$ to recall ! ideas--!y 7 feeble & indi/9ct2 "o collection ( t]ms1 h[ev]1 pres5t$ itself1 &1 ) mo/ int5se belief & prophetic mann]1 ,i exclaim$ to ,dr4 ,k+lake1 ',no?+ exi/s b ?\ghts6--! univ]se is compos$ ( impressions1 ideas1 pleasures1 & pa9s4' 7#c7 ,f ?is acc\nt we see t ,davy has anae/hetiz$ himself to a po9t :]e consci\sness ( surr\nd+s 0 lo/1 b n pa/ ! /age ( exhil>ation4 ,_h ,dr4 ,k+lake all[$ ! inhal+-bag to rema9 9 ,davy's m\? = a few mom5ts long] complete ins5sibility w\ld h foll[$4 ,z x 01 ,davy appe>s to h realiz$ t s5sibility 0 dull$1 = he adds ?is illum9ative sugge/ion3 ,z nitr\s oxide 9 its ext5sive op]ation appe>s capable ( de/roy+ physical pa91 x may probably be us$ ) advantage dur+ surgical op]ations 9 :i* no great effusion ( blood takes place47#d7 ,un=tunately no "o took advantage ( ?is sugge/ion at ! "t1 & ,davy himself became int]e/$ 9 o!r fields ( sci5ce & nev] return$ to 8 physiological /udies1 ?us b>ely miss+ "o ( ! greate/ discov]ies 9 ! entire field ( sci5ce4 ,9 ! g5]ation t foll[$ no "o seems to h ?\ght ( putt+ ,davy's sugge/ion to ! te/1 & ! surgeons ( ,europe _h ackn[l$g$ ) "o accord t all hope ( f9d+ a means to r5d] op]ations pa9less mu/ be utt]ly ab&on$--t ! surgeon's knife mu/ ev] rema9 a synonym = sl[ & indescribable torture4 ,by an odd co9cid5ce x *anc$ t ,sir ,b5jam9 ,brodie1 ! ackn[l$g$ lead] ( ,engli% surgeons1 _h publicly express$ ?is z 8 delib]ate ?\gh regrett$ op9ion at a "t :5 ! que/ :i* he consid]$ futile _h already l$ to ! mo/ brilliant success 9 ,am]ica1 & :ile ! ann\ncem5t ( ! discov]y1 :i* !n _h no transatlantic cable to convey x1 0 actually on its way to ! ,old ,_w4 ,! ,am]ican d5ti/ j ref]r$ to1 :o 01 ) "o exception to be not$ pres5tly1 ! fir/ man 9 ! _w to conceive t ! adm9i/ration ( a def9ite drug might r5d] a surgical op]ation pa9less & to give ! belief application 0 ,dr4 ,horace ,wells1 ( ,h>t=d1 ,connecticut4 ,! drug ) :i* he exp]im5t$ 0 nitr\s oxide--! same t ,davy _h us$2 ! op]ation t he r5d]$ pa9less 0 no m important ?an ! extraction ( a too?--yet x suffic$ to m>k a pr9ciple2 ! ye> ( ! exp]im5t 0 #ahdd4 ,! exp]im5ts ( ,dr4 ,wells1 h[ev]1 ?\gh important1 7 n suffici5tly demon/rative to br+ ! matt] prom95tly to ! att5tion ( ! m$ical _w4 ,! drug ) :i* he exp]im5t$ prov$ n always reliable1 & he himself seems ultimately to h giv5 ! matt] up1 or at lea/ to h relax$ 8 ef=ts4 ,b meantime a fri5d1 to :om he _h communicat$ 8 belief & expectations1 took ! matt] up1 & ) unremitt+ zeal c>ri$ =w>d exp]im5ts t 7 de/9$ to lead to m tangible results4 ,?is fri5d 0 ano!r d5ti/1 ,dr4 ,w4 ,t4 ,g4 ,morton1 ( ,bo/on1 !n a "y man full ( y\?ful en]gy & en?usiasm4 ,he seems to h felt t ! drug ) :i* ,wells _h exp]im5t$ 0 n ! mo/ practicable "o = ! purpose1 & s = sev]al mon?s he exp]im5t$ ) o!r alli$ drugs1 until f9ally he hit ^u sulphuric e!r1 & ) ?is 0 able to make exp]im5ts ^u animals1 & !n ^u pati5ts 9 ! d5tal *air1 t seem$ to him absolutely demon/rative4 ,full ( eag] en?usiasm1 & absolutely confid5t ( 8 results1 he at once w5t to ,dr4 ,j4 ,c4 ,w>r51 "o ( ! =emo/ surgeons ( ,bo/on1 & ask$ p]mission to te/ 8 discov]y decisively on "o ( ! pati5ts at ! ,bo/on ,hospital dur+ a sev]e op]ation4 ,! reque/ 0 grant$2 ! te/ 0 made on ,octob] #af1 #ahdf1 9 ! pres5ce ( sev]al ( ! =emo/ surgeons ( ! city & ( a body ( m$ical /ud5ts4 ,! pati5t slept quietly :ile ! surgeon's knife 0 pli$1 & awoke to a/oni%$ compreh5sion t ! ordeal 0 ov]4 ,! impossible1 ! miracul\s1 _h be5 accompli%$47#e7 ,swiftly z /eam c\ld c>ry x--sl[ly en\gh we %\ld ?9k x to-day--! news 0 h]ald$ to all ! _w4 ,x 0 receiv$ 9 ,europe ) incr$ulity1 :i* vani%$ be=e repeat$ exp]im5ts4 ,surgeons 7 loa? to believe t e!r1 a drug t _h long held a place 9 ! subord9ate armam5t>ium ( ! physician1 c\ld accompli% su* a miracle4 ,b scepticism vani%$ be=e ! te/s :i* any surgeon might make1 & :i* surgeons all ov] ! _w did make )9 ! next few weeks4 ,!n !re came a l+]+ outcry f a few surgeons1 notably "s ( ! ,p>isians1 t ! %ock ( pa9 0 b5eficial to ! pati5t1 h5ce t anae/hesia--z ,dr4 ,oliv] ,w5dell ,holmes _h *ri/5$ ! new me?od--0 a proc$ure n to be advis$4 ,!n1 too1 !re came a hue-&-cry f _m a pulpit t pa9 0 ,god-giv51 & h5ce1 on moral gr\nds1 to be clung to r ?an r5\nc$4 ,b ! outcry ( ! ant$iluvians ( bo? hospital & pulpit quickly receiv$ its quietus2 = soon x 0 cle> t ! pati5t :o did n suff] ! %ock ( pa9 dur+ an op]ation ralli$ bett] ?an ! "o :o did s suff]1 :ile all humanity outside ! pulpit cri$ %ame to ! _s t w\ld doom mank9d to suff] ne$less agony4 ,& s )9 a few mon?s aft] t initial op]ation at ! ,bo/on ,hospital 9 #ahdf1 e!r _h made good its conque/ ( pa9 ?r\gh\t ! civiliz$ _w4 ,only by ! mo/ active use ( ! imag9ation c we ( ?is pres5t day realize ! full mean+ ( t victory4 ,x rema9s to be add$ t 9 ! subsequ5t bick]+s ov] ! discov]y--su* bick]+s z foll[ e great advance--two o!r names came into prom95t notice z %>]s 9 ! glory ( ! new me?od4 ,bo? ^! 7 ,am]icans--! "o1 ,dr4 ,*>les ,t4 ,jackson1 ( ,bo/on2 ! o!r1 ,dr4 ,craw=d ,w4 ,long1 ( ,alabama4 ,z to ,dr4 ,jackson1 x is suffici5t to say t he seems to h _h "s vague inkl+ ( ! peculi> prop]ties ( e!r be=e ,morton's discov]y4 ,he ev5 sugge/$ ! use ( ?is drug to ,morton1 n kn[+ t ,morton _h already tri$ x2 b ?is is ! full measure ( 8 association ) ! discov]y4 ,h5ce x is cle> t ,jackson's claim to equal %>e ) ,morton 9 ! discov]y 0 unw>rant$1 n to say absurd4 ,dr4 ,long's association ) ! matt] 0 f> diff]5t & altoge!r honorable4 ,by "o ( ^? co9cid5ces s common 9 ! hi/ory ( discov]y1 he 0 exp]im5t+ ) e!r z a pa9-de/roy] simultane\sly ) ,morton1 ?\gh nei!r s mu* z knew ( ! exi/5ce ( ! o!r4 ,:ile a m$ical /ud5t he _h once inhal$ e!r = ! intoxicant effects1 z o!r m$ical /ud5ts 7 wont to d1 & :5 p>tially "u influ5ce ( ! drug he _h notic$ t a *ance bl[ to 8 %9s 0 pa9less4 ,?is gave him ! idea t e!r might be us$ 9 surgical op]ations2 & 9 subsequ5t ye>s1 9 ! c\rse ( 8 practice 9 a small ,georgia t[n1 he put ! idea into successful execution4 ,!re appe>s to be no d\bt :atev] t he p]=m$ successful m9or op]ations "u e!r "s two or ?ree ye>s be=e ,morton's f9al demon/ration2 h5ce t ! m]it ( fir/ us+ ! drug1 or inde$ any drug1 9 ?is way belongs to him4 ,b1 un=tunately1 ,dr4 ,long did n q tru/ ! evid5ce ( 8 own exp]im5ts4 ,j at t "t ! m$ical j\rnals 7 full ( acc\nts ( exp]im5ts 9 :i* pa9less op]ations 7 said to be p]=m$ ?r\gh practice ( hypnotism1 & ,dr4 ,long fe>$ t 8 own success might be due to an incid5tal hypnotic influ5ce r ?an to ! drug4 ,h5ce he delay$ ann\nc+ 8 app>5t discov]y until he %\ld h opportunity = fur!r te/s--& opportunities did n come e day to ! c\ntry practition]4 ,& :ile he wait$1 ,morton anticipat$ him1 & ! discov]y 0 made kn[n to ! _w )\t 8 aid4 ,x 0 a true sci5tific caution t actuat$ ,dr4 ,long to ?is delay1 b ! caution co/ him ! cr$it1 :i* might o!rwise h be5 81 ( giv+ to ! _w "o ( ! greate/ bless+s--d>e we n1 p]haps1 say ! v greate/8--t sci5ce has ev] conf]r$ ^u humanity4 ,a few mon?s aft] ! use ( e!r became g5]al1 ! ,scot* surgeon ,sir ,j4 ,y4 ,simpson7#f7 discov]$ t ano!r drug1 *lor(orm1 c\ld be adm9i/]$ ) simil> effects2 t x w\ld1 inde$1 9 _m cases produce anae/hesia m advantage\sly ev5 ?an e!r4 ,f t day till ?is surgeons h be5 m or less divid$ 9 op9ion z to ! relative m]its ( ! two drugs2 b ?is fact1 ( c\rse1 has no be>+ :atev] ^u ! m]it ( ! fir/ discov]y ( ! me?od ( anae/hesia4 ,ev5 _h "s o!r drug subsequ5tly q bani%$ e!r1 ! honor ( ! discov]y ( ! b5efic5t me?od ( anae/hesia w\ld h be5 9 no wise invalidat$4 ,& despite all cavill+s1 x is unequivocally e/abli%$ t ! man :o gave t me?od to ! _w 0 ,william ,t4 ,g4 ,morton4 ,,pa/eur ,,& ,,! ,,g]m ,,!ory ,,( ,,disease ,! discov]y ( ! anae/hetic p[] ( drugs 0 de/9$ pres5tly1 9 addition to its direct b5efic5ces1 to aid greatly 9 ! progress ( sci5tific m$ic9e1 by facilitat+ ^? exp]im5tal /udies ( animals f :i*1 be=e ! day ( anae/hesia1 _m humane physicians 7 )held1 & :i* 9 rec5t ye>s h l$ to discov]ies ( su* ine/imable value to humanity4 ,b = ! mom5t ?is possibility 0 q ov]%ad[$ by ! direct b5efits ( anae/hesia1 & ! long /rides t 7 tak5 9 sci5tific m$ic9e dur+ ! fir/ fifte5 ye>s aft] ,morton's discov]y 7 ma9ly indep5d5t ( su* aid4 ,^! /eps 7 tak51 inde$1 9 a field t at fir/ glance might seem to h a v slight connection ) m$ic9e4 ,moreov]1 ! *ief work] 9 ! field 0 n himself a physician4 ,he 0 a *emi/1 & ! "w 9 :i* he 0 n[ engag$ 0 ! /udy ( alcoholic f]m5tation 9 v9\s liquors4 ,yet ^! /udies pav$ ! way = ! mo/ important advances t m$ic9e has made 9 any c5tury t[>ds ! plane ( true sci5ce2 & to ?is man m ?an to any o!r s+le individual--x might almo/ be said m ?an to all o!r individuals--0 due ?is wond]ful advance4 ,x is almo/ sup]flu\s to add t ! "n ( ?is m>vell\s *emi/ 0 ,l\is ,pa/eur4 ,! /udies ( f]m5tation :i* ,pa/eur ent]$ ^u 9 #ahed 7 aim$ at ! solution ( a controv]sy t _h be5 wag+ 9 ! sci5tific _w ) v>y+ degrees ( activity = a qu>t] ( a c5tury4 ,back 9 ! ?irties1 9 ! day ( ! e>ly en?usiasm ov] ! p]fect$ microscope1 !re _h aris5 a new int]e/ 9 ! m9ute =ms ( life :i* ,leeuw5hoek & "s ( ! o!r e>ly work]s ) ! l5s _h fir/ describ$1 & :i* n[ 7 %[n to be ( almo/ univ]sal preval5ce4 ,^! m9ute organisms _h be5 /udi$ m or less by a ho/ ( obs]v]s1 b 9 p>ticul> by ! ,fr5*man ,cagni>d ,lat\r & ! ,g]man ( cell-!ory fame1 ,!odor ,s*wann4 ,^! m51 work+ indep5d5tly1 _h rea*$ ! conclusion1 ab\t #ahcg1 t ! micro-organisms play a va/ly m important role 9 ! economy ( nature ?an any "o previ\sly _h suppos$4 ,!y held1 = example1 t ! m9ute specks :i* l>gely make up ! sub/ance ( yea/ are liv+ vegetable organisms1 & t ! gr[? ( ^! organisms is ! cause ( ! important & famili> process ( f]m5tation4 ,!y ev5 came to hold1 at lea/ t5tatively1 ! op9ion t ! some:at simil> micro-organisms to be f\nd 9 all putrefy+ matt]1 animal or vegetable1 _h a causal relation to ! process ( putrefaction4 ,?is view1 p>ticul>ly z to ! nature ( putrefaction1 0 express$ ev5 m outspok5ly a little lat] by ! ,fr5* botani/ ,turp94 ,views s support$ naturally ga9$ a foll[+2 x 0 equally natural t s radical an innovation %\ld be antagoniz$4 ,9 ?is case x *anc$ t "o ( ! mo/ dom9at+ sci5tific m9ds ( ! "t1 t ( ,liebig1 took a firm & aggressive /& aga9/ ! new doctr9e4 ,9 #ahci he promulgat$ 8 fam\s doctr9e ( f]m5tation1 9 :i* he /ood out firmly aga9/ any vitali/ic explanation ( ! ph5om5a1 alleg+ t ! pres5ce ( micro-organisms 9 f]m5t+ & putrefy+ sub/ances 0 m]ely incid5tal1 & 9 no s5se causal4 ,?is op9ion ( ! great ,g]man *emi/ 0 9 a measure sub/antiat$ by exp]im5ts ( 8 compatriot ,helmholtz1 ^: e>li] exp]im5ts confirm$1 b lat] ones contradict$1 ! obs]vations ( ,s*wann1 & ?is comb9$ au?ority gave ! vitali/ic conception a bl[ f :i* x _h n ralli$ at ! "t :5 ,pa/eur ent]$ ! field4 ,inde$1 x 0 curr5tly reg>d$ z settl$ t ! e>ly /ud5ts ( ! subject _h va/ly ov]-e/imat$ ! importance ( micro-organisms4 ,& s x came z a new revelation to ! g5]ality ( sci5ti/s ( ! "t1 :51 9 #aheg & ! succe$+ half-decade1 ,pa/eur publi%$ ! results ( 8 rese>*es1 9 :i* ! "q _h be5 put to a s]ies ( altoge!r new te/s1 & br\ght to unequivocal demon/ration4 ,he prov$ t ! micro-organisms d all t 8 mo/ imag9ative pr$ecessors _h suspect$1 & m4 ,)\t !m1 he prov$1 !re w\ld be no f]m5tation1 no putrefaction--no decay ( any tissues1 except by ! sl[ process ( oxidation4 ,x is ! microscopic yea/-plant :i*1 by seiz+ on c]ta9 atoms ( ! molecule1 lib]ates ! rema9+ atoms 9 ! =m ( c>bonic-acid & alcohol1 ?us effect+ f]m5tation2 x is ano!r microscopic plant--a bact]ium1 z ,deva9e _h *ri/5$ x--:i* 9 a simil> way effects ! de/ruction ( organic molecules1 produc+ ! condition :i* we call putrefaction4 ,pa/eur %[$1 to ! amazem5t ( biologi/s1 t !re are c]ta9 =ms ( ^! bact]ia :i* secure ! oxyg5 :i* all organic life requires1 n f ! air1 b by break+ up un/able molecules 9 :i* oxyg5 is comb9$2 t putrefaction1 9 %ort1 has its f\ndation 9 ! activities ( ^! s-call$ ana]obic bact]ia4 ,9 a ^w1 ,pa/eur %[$ t all ! _m famili> processes ( ! decay ( organic tissues are1 9 effect1 =ms ( f]m5tation1 & w\ld n take place at all except = ! pres5ce ( ! liv+ micro-organisms4 ,a piece ( meat1 = example1 susp5d$ 9 an atmosph]e free f g]ms1 w dry up gradually1 )\t ! slighte/ sign ( putrefaction1 reg>dless ( ! temp]ature or o!r conditions to :i* x may h be5 subject$4 ,let u witness "o or two s]ies ( ^! exp]im5ts z pres5t$ by ,pa/eur himself 9 "o ( 8 num]\s pap]s be=e ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces4 ,,exp]im5ts ,,) ,,grape ,,sug> ,9 ! c\rse ( ! discussion :i* took place be=e ! ,academy ^u ! subject ( ! g5]ation ( f]m5ts prop]ly s-call$1 !re 0 a good deal said ab\t t ( w9e1 ! olde/ f]m5tation kn[n4 ,on ?is acc\nt ,i decid$ to disprove ! !ory ( ,m4 ,fremy by a decisive exp]im5t be>+ solely ^u ! juice ( grapes4 ,i prep>$ =ty flasks ( a capacity ( f two hundr$ & fifty to ?ree hundr$ cubic c5timetres & fill$ !m half full ) filt]$ grape-mu/1 p]fectly cle>1 & :i*1 z is ! case ( all acidulat$ liquids t h be5 boil$ = a few seconds1 rema9s uncontam9at$ al?\gh ! curv$ neck ( ! flask conta9+ !m rema9 con/antly op5 dur+ sev]al mon?s or ye>s4 ,9 a small quantity ( wat] ,i wa%$ a "p ( a bun* ( grapes1 ! grapes & ! /alks toge!r1 & ! /alks sep>ately4 ,?is wa%+ 0 easily done by means ( a small badg]'s-hair bru%4 ,! wa%+-wat] collect$ ! du/ ^u ! surface ( ! grapes & ! /alks1 & x 0 easily %[n "u ! microscope t ?is wat] held 9 susp5sion a multitude ( m9ute organisms closely resembl+ ei!r fungoid spores1 or ^? ( alcoholic ,yea/1 or ^? ( ,mycod]ma v9i1 etc4 ,?is be+ done1 t5 ( ! =ty flasks 7 pres]v$ = ref]5ce2 9 t5 ( ! rema9d]1 ?r\gh ! /raight tube atta*$ to ea*1 "s drops ( ! wa%+-wat] 7 introduc$2 9 a ?ird s]ies ( t5 flasks a few drops ( ! same liquid 7 plac$ aft] x _h be5 boil$2 &1 f9ally1 9 ! t5 rema9+ flasks 7 plac$ "s drops ( grape-juice tak5 f ! inside ( a p]fect fruit4 ,9 ord] to c>ry out ?is exp]im5t1 ! /raight tube ( ea* flask 0 drawn out into a f9e & firm po9t 9 ! lamp1 & !n curv$4 ,?is f9e & clos$ po9t 0 fil$ r\nd ne> ! end & ins]t$ into ! grape :ile re/+ ^u "s h>d sub/ance4 ,:5 ! po9t 0 felt to t\* ! support ( ! grape x 0 by a slight pressure brok5 (f at ! po9t file m>k4 ,!n1 if c>e _h be5 tak5 to create a slight vacuum 9 ! flask1 a drop ( ! juice ( ! grape got into x1 ! fil$ po9t 0 )drawn1 & ! ap]ture imm$iately clos$ 9 ! alcohol lamp4 ,?is decreas$ pressure ( ! atmosph]e 9 ! flask 0 obta9$ by ! foll[+ means3 ,aft] w>m+ ! sides ( ! flask ei!r 9 ! h&s or 9 ! lamp-flame1 ?us caus+ a small quantity ( air to be driv5 out ( ! end ( ! curv$ neck1 ?is end 0 clos$ 9 ! lamp4 ,aft] ! flask 0 cool$1 !re 0 a t5d5cy to suck 9 ! drop ( grape-juice 9 ! mann] j describ$4 ,! drop ( grape-juice :i* ent]s into ! flask by ?is suction ord9>ily rema9s 9 ! curv$ "p ( ! tube1 s t to mix x ) ! mu/ x 0 necess>y to incl9e ! flask s z to br+ ! mu/ into contact ) ! juice & !n replace ! flask 9 its normal position4 ,! f\r s]ies ( comp>ative exp]im5ts produc$ ! foll[+ results3 ,! fir/ t5 flasks conta9+ ! grape-mu/ boil$ 9 pure air did n %[ ! production ( any organism4 ,! grape-mu/ c\ld possibly rema9 9 !m = an indef9ite numb] ( ye>s4 ,^? 9 ! second s]ies1 conta9+ ! wat] 9 :i* ! grapes _h be5 wa%$ sep>ately & toge!r1 %[$ )\t exception an alcoholic f]m5tation :i* 9 sev]al cases began to appe> at ! end ( =ty-eight h\rs :5 ! exp]im5t took place at ord9>y summ] temp]ature4 ,at ! same "t t ! yea/ appe>$1 9 ! =m ( :ite traces1 :i* little by little unit$ !mselves 9 ! =m ( a deposit on ! sides ( all ! flasks1 !re 7 se5 to =m little flakes ( ,mycellium1 (t5 z a s+le fungoid gr[? or 9 comb9ation1 ^! fungoid gr[?s be+ q indep5d5t ( ! mu/ or ( any alcoholic yea/4 ,(t51 also1 ! ,mycod]ma v9i appe>$ aft] "s days ^u ! surface ( ! liquid4 ,! ,vibria & ! lactic f]m5ts prop]ly s call$ did n appe> on acc\nt ( ! nature ( ! liquid4 ,! ?ird s]ies ( flasks1 ! wa%+-wat] 9 :i* _h be5 previ\sly boil$1 rema9$ un*ang$1 z 9 ! fir/ s]ies4 ,^? ( ! f\r? s]ies1 9 :i* 0 ! juice ( ! int]ior ( ! grapes1 rema9$ equally free f *ange1 al?\gh ,i 0 n always able1 on acc\nt ( ! delicacy ( ! exp]im5t1 to elim9ate e *ance ( error4 ,^! exp]im5ts _c leave ! lea/ d\bt 9 ! m9d z to ! foll[+ facts3 ,grape-mu/1 aft] heat+1 nev] f]m5ts on contact ) ! air1 :5 ! air has be5 depriv$ ( ! g]ms :i* x ord9>ily holds 9 a /ate ( susp5sion4 ,! boil$ grape-mu/ f]m5ts :5 !re is introduc$ into x a v small quantity ( wat] 9 :i* ! surface ( ! grapes or _! /alks h be5 wa%$4 ,! grape-mu/ does n f]m5t :5 ?is wa%+-wat] has be5 boil$ & aft]w>ds cool$4 ,! grape-mu/ does n f]m5t :5 !re is add$ to x a small quantity ( ! juice ( ! inside ( ! grape4 ,! yea/1 !re=e1 :i* causes ! f]m5tation ( ! grapes 9 ! v9tage-tub comes f ! outside & n f ! inside ( ! grapes4 ,?us is de/roy$ ! hypo!sis ( ,,mm4 ,trecol & ,fremy1 :o surmis$ t ! album9\s matt] trans=m$ itself into yea/ on acc\nt ( ! vital g]ms :i* 7 natural to x4 ,) great] reason1 !re=e1 !re is no long] any "q ( ! !ory ( ,liebig ( ! trans=mation ( album9oid matt] into f]m5ts on acc\nt ( ! oxidation4 ,,=eign ,,organisms ,,& ,,! ,,wort ,,( ,,be] ,! me?od :i* ,i h j foll[$1 ,pa/eur cont9ues1 9 ord] to %[ t !re exi/s a correlation betwe5 ! diseases ( be] & c]ta9 microscopic organisms leaves no room = d\bt1 x seems to me1 9 reg>d to ! pr9ciples ,i am exp\nd+4 ,e "t t ! microscope reveals 9 ! leav51 & especially 9 ! active yea/1 ! production ( organisms =eign to ! alcoholic yea/ prop]ly s call$1 ! flavor ( ! be] leaves some?+ to be desir$1 mu* or little1 accord+ to ! abundance & ! "* ( ^! little g]ms4 ,moreov]1 :5 a f9i%$ be] ( good quality loses aft] a "t its agreeable flavor & becomes s\r1 x c be easily %[n t ! alcoholic yea/ deposit$ 9 ! bottles or ! casks1 al?\gh orig9ally pure1 at lea/ 9 appe>ance1 is f\nd to be contam9at$ gradually ) ^! fili=m or o!r f]m5ts4 ,all ?is c be d$uc$ f ! facts already giv51 b "s critics may p]haps decl>e t ^! =eign f]m5ts are ! consequ5ces ( ! diseas$ condition1 itself produc$ by unkn[n causes4 ,al?\gh ?is gratuit\s hypo!sis may be difficult to uphold1 ,i w endeavor to corroborate ! prec$+ obs]vations by a cle>] me?od ( inve/igation4 ,?is consi/s 9 %[+ t ! be] nev] has any unpleasant ta/e 9 all cases :5 ! alcoholic f]m5t prop]ly s call$ is n mix$ ) =eign f]m5ts2 t x is ! same 9 ! case ( wort1 & t wort1 liable to *anges z x is1 c be pres]v$ unalt]$ if x is kept f ^? microscopic p>asites :i* f9d 9 x a suitable n\ri%m5t & a field = gr[?4 ,! employm5t ( ?is second me?od has1 moreov]1 ! advantage ( prov+ ) c]ta9ty ! proposition t ,i advanc$ at fir/--namely1 t ! g]ms ( ^! organisms are d]iv$ f ! du/ ( ! atmosph]e1 c>ri$ ab\t & deposit$ ^u all objects1 or scatt]$ ov] ! ut5sils & ! mat]ials us$ 9 a brew]y-mat]ials naturally *>g$ ) microscopic g]ms1 & :i* ! v>i\s op]ations 9 ! /ore-rooms & ! malt-h\se may multiply indef9itely4 ,let u take a glass flask ) a long neck ( f two hundr$ & fifty to ?ree hundr$ cubic c5timetres capacity1 & place 9 x "s wort1 ) or )\t hops1 & !n 9 ! flame ( a lamp draw out ! neck ( ! flask to a f9e po9t1 aft]w>ds heat+ ! liquid until ! /eam comes out ( ! end ( ! neck4 ,x c !n be all[$ to cool )\t any o!r precautions2 b = additional safety !re c be introduc$ into ! little po9t a small wad ( asbe/os at ! mom5t t ! flame is )drawn f b5ea? ! flask4 ,be=e ?us plac+ ! asbe/os x also c be pass$ ?r\gh ! flame1 z well z aft] x has be5 put into ! end ( ! tube4 ,! air :i* !n fir/ re-ent]s ! flask w ?us come into contact ) ! heat$ glass & ! heat$ liquid1 s z to de/roy ! vitality ( any du/ g]ms t may exi/ 9 ! air4 ,! air itself w re-ent] v gradually1 & sl[ly en\gh to enable any du/ to be tak5 up by ! drop ( wat] :i* ! air =ces up ! curvature ( ! tube4 ,ultimately ! tube w be dry1 b ! re-ent]+ ( ! air w be s sl[ t ! p>ticles ( du/ w fall ^u ! sides ( ! tube4 ,! exp]im5ts %[ t ) ?is k9d ( vessel1 all[+ free communication ) ! air1 & ! du/ n be+ all[$ to ent]1 ! du/ w n ent] at all ev5ts = a p]iod ( t5 or twelve ye>s1 :i* has be5 ! longe/ p]iod devot$ to ^! trials2 & ! liquid1 if x 7 naturally limpid1 w n be 9 ! lea/ pollut$ nei!r on its surface nor 9 its mass1 al?\gh ! outside ( ! flask may become ?ickly coat$ ) du/4 ,?is is a mo/ irrefutable pro( ( ! impossibility ( du/ gett+ inside ! flask4 ,! wort ?us prep>$ rema9s uncontam9at$ indef9itely1 9 spite ( its susceptibility to *ange :5 expos$ to ! air "u conditions :i* all[ x to ga!r ! du/y p>ticles :i* float 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,x is ! same 9 ! case ( ur9e1 beef-tea1 & grape-mu/1 & g5]ally ) all ^? putrefactable & f]m5table liquids :i* h ! prop]ty :5 heat$ to boil+-po9t ( de/roy+ ! vitality ( du/ g]ms47#g7 ,!re 0 no?+ 9 ^! /udies be>+ directly ^u ! "q ( animal diseases1 yet be=e !y 7 f9i%$ !y _h /imulat$ progress 9 m ?an "o field ( pa?ology4 ,at ! v outset !y suffic$ to />t afre% ! inquiry z to ! role play$ by micro-organisms 9 disease4 ,9 p>ticul> !y l$ ! ,fr5* physician ,deva9e to return to "s int]rupt$ /udies :i* he _h made t5 ye>s be=e 9 ref]5ce to ! animal disease call$ an?rax1 or spl5ic fev]1 a disease t co/ ! f>m]s ( ,europe millions ( francs annually ?r\gh loss ( %eep & cattle4 ,9 #ahej ,deva9e _h se5 multitudes ( bact]ia 9 ! blood ( animals :o _h di$ ( an?rax1 b he did n at t "t ?9k ( !m z hav+ a causal relation to ! disease4 ,n[1 h[ev]1 9 #ahfc1 /imulat$ by ,pa/eur's new revelations reg>d+ ! p[] ( bact]ia1 he return$ to ! subject1 & soon became conv9c$1 ?r\gh exp]im5ts by means ( inoculation1 t ! microscopic organisms he _h discov]$ 7 ! v]itable & ! sole cause ( ! infecti\s disease an?rax4 ,! publication ( ?is belief 9 #ahfc ar\s$ a furor ( controv]sy4 ,t a microscopic vegetable c\ld cause a virul5t sy/emic disease 0 an idea altoge!r too />tl+ to be accept$ 9 a day1 & ! g5]ality ( biologi/s & physicians dem&$ m conv9c+ pro(s ?an ,deva9e z yet 0 able to (f]4 ,naturally a ho/ ( o!r inve/igators all ov] ! _w ent]$ ! field4 ,=emo/ among ^! 0 ! ,g]man ,dr4 ,rob]t ,ko*1 :o soon corroborat$ all t ,deva9e _h obs]v$1 & c>ri$ ! exp]im5ts fur!r 9 ! direction ( ! cultivation ( successive g5]ations ( ! bact]ia 9 artificial m$ia1 inoculations be+ made f su* pure cultures ( ! eigh? g5]ation1 ) ! a/oni%+ result t animals ?us inoculat$ succumb$ to ! disease4 ,su* exp]im5ts seem demon/rative1 yet ! _w 0 unconv9c$1 & 9 #ahgf1 :ile ! controv]sy 0 /ill at its height1 ,pa/eur 0 prevail$ ^u to take ! matt] 9 h&4 ,! great *emi/ 0 becom+ m & m exclusively a biologi/ z ! ye>s pass$1 & 9 rec5t ye>s 8 fam\s /udies ( ! silk-worm diseases1 :i* he prov$ due to bact]ial infection1 & ( ! "q ( spontane\s g5]ation1 _h giv5 him unequall$ res\rces 9 microscopical te*nique4 ,& s :51 ) ! aid ( 8 laboratory associates ,duclaux & ,*amb]l& & ,r\x1 he took up ! moot$ an?rax "q ! sci5tific _w await$ ! issue ) bat$ brea?4 ,& :51 9 #ahgg1 ,pa/eur 0 ready to report on 8 /udies ( an?rax1 he came =w>d ) su* a weal? ( demon/rative exp]im5ts--exp]im5ts ! rigid accuracy ( :i* no "o w\ld = a mom5t ?9k ( que/ion+--go+ to prove ! bact]ial orig9 ( an?rax1 t scepticism 0 at la/ quiet$ = all "t to come4 ,h5ce=? no "o c\ld d\bt t ! contagi\s disease an?rax is due exclusively to ! introduction into an animal's sy/em ( a specific g]m--a microscopic plant--:i* develops !re4 ,& no logical m9d c\ld h a reasonable d\bt t :at is prov$ true ( "o infecti\s disease w\ld "s day be prov$ true also ( o!r1 p]haps ( all1 =ms ( infecti\s maladies4 ,hi!rto ! cause ( contagion1 by :i* c]ta9 maladies spread f individual to individual1 _h be5 a total my/]y1 q unillum9$ by ! vague t]ms miasm1 humor1 virus1 & ! l cloaks ( ignorance4 ,"h & !re a prophet ( sci5ce1 z ,s*wann & ,h5le1 _h guess$ ! secret2 b guess+1 9 sci5ce1 is f> en\gh f kn[+4 ,n[1 = ! fir/ "t1 ! _w ,,knew1 & m$ic9e _h tak5 ano!r gigantic /ride t[>ds ! heights ( exact sci5ce4 ,,li/] ,,& ,,antiseptic ,,surg]y ,meantime1 9 a diff]5t ?\gh alli$ field ( m$ic9e !re _h be5 a complem5t>y gr[? t l$ to imm$iate results ( ev5 m practical importance4 ,i mean ! !ory & practice ( antisepsis 9 surg]y4 ,?is advance1 l ! o!r1 came z a direct outgr[? ( ,pa/eur's f]m5tation /udies ( alcoholic bev]ages1 ?\gh n at ! h&s ( ,pa/eur himself4 ,/ruck by ! b\ndless implications ( ,pa/eur's revelations reg>d+ ! bact]ia1 ,dr4 ,joseph ,li/] 7! pres5t ,"l ,li/]71 !n ( ,glasg[1 set ab\t z e>ly z #ahfj to make a wond]ful application ( ^! ideas4 ,if putrefaction is always due to bact]ial developm5t1 he argu$1 ?is mu/ apply z well to liv+ z to dead tissues2 h5ce ! putrefactive *anges :i* occur 9 w\nds & aft] op]ations on ! human subject1 f :i* blood-poison+ s (t5 foll[s1 might be absolutely prev5t$ if ! injur$ surfaces c\ld be kept free f access ( ! g]ms ( decay4 ,9 ! hope ( accompli%+ ?is result1 ,li/] began exp]im5t+ ) drugs t might kill ! bact]ia )\t injury to ! pati5t1 & ) means to prev5t fur!r access ( g]ms once a w\nd 0 fre$ f !m4 ,h[ well he succe$$ all ! _w kn[s2 h[ bitt]ly he 0 antagoniz$ = ab\t a score ( ye>s1 mo/ ( ! _w has already =gott54 ,z e>ly z #ahfg ,li/] 0 able to publi% results po9t+ t[>ds success 9 8 great project2 yet s incr$ul\s 7 surgeons 9 g5]al t ev5 "s ye>s lat] ! lead+ surgeons on ! ,cont95t _h n s mu* z he>d ( 8 ef=ts4 ,9 #ahgj ! soldi]s ( ,p>is di$1 z ( old1 ( hospital gangr5e2 & :51 9 #ahga1 ! ,fr5* surgeon ,alphonse ,gu]91 /imulat$ by ,pa/eur's /udies1 conceiv$ ! idea ( dress+ w\nds ) cotton 9 ! hope ( keep+ g]ms f ent]+ !m1 he 0 q unaw>e t a ,briti% contempor>y _h prec$$ him by a full decade 9 ?is ef=t at prev5tion & _h made long /rides t[>ds complete success4 ,li/]'s priority1 h[ev]1 & ! sup]iority ( 8 me?od1 7 freely admitt$ by ! ,fr5* ,academy ( ,sci5ces1 :i* 9 #ahha (ficially cr[n$ 8 a*ievem5t1 z ! ,royal ,society ( ,london _h done ! ye> be=e4 ,by ?is "t1 to be sure1 z ev]ybody kn[s1 ,li/]'s new me?ods _h made _! way ev]y:]e1 revolutioniz+ ! practice ( surg]y & practically bani%+ f ! e>? maladies t hi!rto _h be5 ! t]ror ( ! surgeon & ! opprobrium ( 8 art4 ,& ^! b$side /udies1 conduct$ 9 ! end by ?\s&s ( m5 :o _h no k ( microscopy1 _h a l>ge %>e 9 e/abli%+ ! g5]al belief 9 ! causal relation t micro-organisms be> to disease1 :i* by ab\t ! ye> #ahhj _h tak5 possession ( ! m$ical _w4 ,b !y did m2 !y br\ght into equal prom95ce ! idea t1 ! cause ( a diseas$ condition be+ kn[n1 x maybe possible z nev] be=e to grapple ) & eradicate t condition4 ,,prev5tive ,,inoculation ,! controv]sy ov] spontane\s g5]ation1 :i*1 ?anks to ,pa/eur & ,tyndall1 _h j be5 br\ght to a t]m9ation1 made x cle> t no bact]ium ne$ be fe>$ :]e an antec$5t bact]ium _h n f\nd lodgm5t2 ,li/]ism 9 surg]y _h n[ %[n h[ mu* might be accompli%$ t[>ds prev5t+ ! access ( g]ms to abrad$ surfaces ( ! body & de/roy+ ^? t already _h f\nd lodgm5t !re4 ,z yet1 h[ev]1 !re 0 no inkl+ ( a way 9 :i* a correspond+ onslaught might be made ^u ^? o!r g]ms :i* f9d _! way into ! animal organism by way ( ! m\? & ! no/rils1 & :i*1 z 0 n[ cle>1 are ! cause ( ^? contagi\s diseases :i*1 fir/ & la/1 claim s l>ge a proportion ( mank9d = _! victims4 ,h[ su* means might be f\nd n[ became ! anxi\s ?\ght ( e imag9ative physician1 ( e work+ microbiologi/4 ,z x happ5$1 ! _w 0 n kept long 9 susp5se4 ,almo/ be=e ! proposition _h tak5 %ape 9 ! m9ds ( ! o!r lead]s1 ,pa/eur _h f\nd a solution4 ,guid$ by ! empirical success ( ,j5n]1 he1 l _m o!rs1 _h long practis$ inoculation exp]im5ts1 & on ,febru>y #i1 #ahhj1 he ann\nc$ to ! ,fr5* ,academy ( ,sci5ces t he _h f\nd a me?od ( s r$uc+ ! virul5ce ( a disease g]m t :5 introduc$ into ! sy/em ( a susceptible animal x produc$ only a mild =m ( ! disease1 :i*1 h[ev]1 suffic$ to protect aga9/ ! usual virul5t =m exactly z vacc9ia protects aga9/ small-pox4 ,! p>ticul> disease exp]im5t$ ) 0 t infecti\s malady ( p\ltry kn[n famili>ly z *ick5 *ol]a4 ,9 ,octob] ( ! same ye> ,pa/eur ann\nc$ ! me?od by :i* ?is att5uation ( ! virus1 z he t]m$ x1 _h be5 br\ght ab\t--by cultivation ( ! disease g]ms 9 artificial m$ia1 expos$ to ! air1 & he did n hesitate to ass]t 8 belief t ! me?od w\ld prove susceptible ( g5]alization--t is to say1 ( application to o!r diseases ?an ! p>ticul> "o 9 "q4 ,)9 a few mon?s he made good ?is prophecy1 = 9 ,febru>y1 #ahha1 he ann\nc$ to ! ,academy t ) ! aid1 z be=e1 ( 8 associates ,,mm4 ,*amb]l& & ,r\x1 he _h produc$ an att5uat$ virus ( ! an?rax microbe by ! use ( :i*1 z he affirm$ ) great confid5ce1 he c\ld protect %eep1 & presumably cattle1 aga9/ t fatal malady4 ,9 "s rec5t publications1 said ,pa/eur1 ,i ann\nc$ ! fir/ case ( ! att5uation ( a virus by exp]im5tal me?ods only4 ,=m$ ( a special microbe ( an extreme m9ut5ess1 ?is virus may be multipli$ by artificial culture outside ! animal body4 ,^! cultures1 left alone )\t any possible ext]nal contam9ation1 und]go1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 modifications ( _! virul5cy to a great] or less ext5t4 ,! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e is said to be ! *ief cause ( ^! att5uations--t is1 ?is less5+ ( ! facilities ( multiplication ( ! microbe2 = x is evid5t t ! diff]5ce ( virul5ce is 9 "s way associat$ ) diff]5ces ( developm5t 9 ! p>asitic economy4 ,!re is no ne$ to insi/ ^u ! int]e/+ "* ( ^! results & ! d$uctions to be made !refrom4 ,to seek to less5 ! virul5ce by rational means w\ld be to e/abli%1 ^u an exp]im5tal basis1 ! hope ( prep>+ f an active virus1 easily cultivat$ ei!r 9 ! human or animal body1 a vacc9e-virus ( re/ra9$ developm5t capable ( prev5t+ ! fatal effects ( ! =m]4 ,!re=e1 we h appli$ all our en]gies to inve/igate ! possible g5]aliz+ action ( atmosph]ic oxyg5 9 ! att5uation ( virus4 ,! an?rax virus1 be+ "o t has be5 mo/ c>efully /udi$1 seem$ to be ! fir/ t %\ld attract our att5tion4 ,e "t1 h[ev]1 we enc\nt]$ a difficulty4 ,betwe5 ! microbe ( *ick5 *ol]a & ! microbe ( an?rax !re exi/s an ess5tial diff]5ce :i* does n all[ ! new exp]im5t to be v]ifi$ by ! old4 ,! microbes ( *ick5 *ol]a d n1 9 effect1 seem to resolve !mselves1 9 _! culture1 into v]itable g]ms4 ,! latt] are m]ely cells1 or articulations always ready to multiply by division1 except :5 ! p>ticul> conditions 9 :i* !y become true g]ms are kn[n4 ,! yea/ ( be] is a /rik+ example ( ^! cellul> productions1 be+ able to multiply !mselves indef9itely )\t ! app>ition ( _! orig9al spores4 ,!re exi/ _m muc$9es 7,muc$9ae87 ( tubul> mu%rooms1 :i* 9 c]ta9 conditions ( culture produce a *a9 ( m or less sph]ical cells call$ ,conidae4 ,! latt]1 deta*$ f _! bran*es1 are able to reproduce !mselves 9 ! =m ( cells1 )\t ! appe>ance1 at lea/ ) a *ange 9 ! conditions ( culture1 ( ! spores ( _! respective muc$9es4 ,^! vegetable organisms c be comp>$ to plants :i* are cultivat$ by slipp+1 & to produce :i* x is n necess>y to h ! fruits or ! se$s ( ! "m plant4 ,! an?rax bact]ium1 9 its artificial cultivation1 behaves v diff]5tly4 ,its mycelian filam5ts1 if "o may s describe !m1 h be5 produc$ sc>cely = tw5ty-f\r or =ty-eight h\rs :5 !y are se5 to trans=m !mselves1 ^? especially :i* are 9 free contact ) ! air1 into v refr+5t corpuscles1 capable ( gradually isolat+ !mselves into true g]ms ( slight organization4 ,moreov]1 obs]vation %[s t ^! g]ms1 =m$ s quickly 9 ! culture1 d n und]go1 aft] exposure = a "t to atmosph]ic air1 any *ange ei!r 9 _! vitality or _! virul5ce4 ,i 0 able to pres5t to ! ,academy a tube conta9+ "s spores ( an?rax bact]ia produc$ f\r ye>s ago1 on ,m>* #ba1 #ahhg4 ,ea* ye> ! g]m9ation ( ^! little corpuscles has be5 tri$1 & ea* ye> ! g]m9ation has be5 accompli%$ ) ! same facility & ! same rapidity z at fir/4 ,ea* ye> also ! virul5ce ( ! new cultures has be5 te/$1 & !y h n %[n any visible fall+ (f4 ,!re=e1 h[ c we exp]im5t ) ! action ( ! air ^u ! an?rax virus ) any expectation ( mak+ x less virul5t8 ,! crucial difficulty lies p]haps entirely 9 ?is rapid reproduction ( ! bact]ia g]ms :i* we h j relat$4 ,9 its =m ( a filam5t1 & 9 its multiplication by division1 is n ?is organism at all po9ts comp>able ) ! microbe ( ! *ick5 *ol]a8 ,t a g]m1 prop]ly s call$1 t a se$1 does n suff] any modification on acc\nt ( ! air is easily conceiv$2 b x is conceivable n less easily t if !re %\ld be any *ange x w\ld occur by pref]5ce 9 ! case ( a mycelian fragm5t4 ,x is ?us t a slip :i* may h be5 ab&on$ 9 ! soil 9 contact ) ! air does n take long to lose all vitality1 :ile "u simil> conditions a se$ is pres]v$ 9 read9ess to reproduce ! plant4 ,if ^! views h any f\ndation1 we are l$ to ?9k t 9 ord] to prove ! action ( ! air ^u ! an?rax bact]ia x w be indisp5sable to submit to ?is action ! mycelian developm5t ( ! m9ute organism "u conditions :]e !re _c be ! lea/ admixture ( corpuscul> g]ms4 ,h5ce ! problem ( submitt+ ! bact]ia to ! action ( oxyg5 comes back to ! "q ( pres5t+ entirely ! =mation ( spores4 ,! "q be+ put 9 ?is way1 we are beg9n+ to recognize t x is capable ( be+ solv$4 ,we c1 9 fact1 prev5t ! appe>ance ( spores 9 ! artificial cultures ( ! an?rax p>asite by v>i\s artifices4 ,at ! l[e/ temp]ature at :i* ?is p>asite c be cultivat$--t is to say1 ab\t #af degrees ,c5tigrade--! bact]ium does n produce g]ms--at any rate1 = a v long "t4 ,! %apes ( ! m9ute microbe at ?is l[e/ limit ( its developm5t are irregul>1 9 ! =m ( balls & pe>s--9 a ^w1 !y are mon/rosities--b !y are )\t spores4 ,9 ! la/ reg>d also x is ! same at ! highe/ temp]atures at :i* ! p>asite c be cultivat$1 temp]atures :i* v>y slightly accord+ to ! means employ$4 ,9 neutral *ick5 b\illon ! bact]ia _c be cultivat$ above #de degrees4 ,culture1 h[ev]1 is easy & abundant at #db to #dc degrees1 b equally )\t any =mation ( spores4 ,consequ5tly a culture ( mycelian bact]ia c be kept entirely free f g]ms :ile 9 contact ) ! op5 air at a temp]ature ( f #db to #dc degrees ,c5tigrade4 ,n[ appe> ! ?ree rem>kable results4 ,aft] ab\t "o mon? ( wait+ ! culture dies--t is to say1 if put into a fre% b\illon x becomes absolutely /]ile4 ,s mu* = ! life & nutrition ( ?is organism4 ,9 respect to its virul5ce1 x is an extraord9>y fact t x disappe>s entirely aft] eight days' culture at #db to #dc degrees ,c5tigrade1 or1 at any rate1 ! cultures are innocu\s = ! gu9ea-pig1 ! rabbit1 & ! %eep1 ! ?ree k9ds ( animals mo/ apt to contract an?rax4 ,we are ?us able to obta91 n only ! att5uation ( ! virul5ce1 b also its complete suppression by a simple me?od ( cultivation4 ,moreov]1 we see also ! possibility ( pres]v+ & cultivat+ ! t]rible microbe 9 an in(f5sive /ate4 ,:at is x t happ5s 9 ^! eight days at #dc degrees t suffices to take away ! virul5ce ( ! bact]ia8 ,let u rememb] t ! microbe ( *ick5 *ol]a dies 9 contact ) ! air1 9 a p]iod some:at protract$1 x is true1 b aft] successive att5uations4 ,are we ju/ifi$ 9 ?9k+ t x ought to be ! same 9 reg>d to ! microbe ( an?rax8 ,?is hypo!sis is confirm$ by exp]im5t4 ,be=e ! disappe>ance ( its virul5ce ! an?rax microbe passes ?r\gh v>i\s degrees ( att5uation1 &1 moreov]1 z is also ! case ) ! microbe ( *ick5 *ol]a1 ea* ( ^! att5uat$ /ates ( virul5ce c be obta9$ by cultivation4 ,moreov]1 s9ce1 accord+ to "o ( our rec5t ,communications1 an?rax is n recurr5t1 ea* ( our att5uat$ an?rax microbes is1 = ! bett]-develop$ microbe1 a vacc9e--t is to say1 a virus produc+ a less-malignant malady4 ,:at1 !re=e1 is easi] ?an to f9d 9 ^! a virus t w infect ) an?rax %eep1 c[s1 & horses1 )\t kill+ !m1 & ultimately capable ( w>d+ (f ! mortal malady8 ,we h practis$ ?is exp]im5t ) great success ^u %eep1 & :5 ! season comes = ! assembl+ ( ! flocks at ,beauce we %all try ! exp]im5t on a l>g] scale4 ,already ,m4 ,t\ssa9t has ann\nc$ t %eep c be sav$ by prev5tive inoculations2 b :5 ?is able obs]v] %all h publi%$ 8 results2 on ! subject ( :i* we h made su* exhau/ive /udies1 z yet unpubli%$1 we %all be able to see ! :ole diff]5ce :i* exi/s betwe5 ! two me?ods--! unc]ta9ty ( ! "o & ! c]ta9ty ( ! o!r4 ,t :i* we ann\nce has1 moreov]1 ! v great advantage ( re/+ ^u ! exi/5ce ( a poison vacc9e cultivable at w1 & :i* c be increas$ indef9itely 9 ! space ( a few h\rs )\t hav+ rec\rse to infect$ blood47#h7 ,?is ann\ncem5t 0 imm$iately *all5g$ 9 a way t br\ght x to ! att5tion ( ! entire _w4 ,! presid5t ( an agricultural society1 realiz+ ! enorm\s importance ( ! subject1 propos$ to ,pa/eur t 8 alleg$ discov]y %\ld be submitt$ to a decisive public te/4 ,he propos$ to furni% a drove ( fifty %eep half ( :i* 7 to be inoculat$ ) ! att5uat$ virus ( ,pa/eur4 ,subsequ5tly all ! %eep 7 to be inoculat$ ) virul5t virus1 all be+ kept toge!r 9 "o p5 "u precisely ! same conditions4 ,! protect$ %eep 7 to rema9 heal?y2 ! unprotect$ ones to die ( an?rax2 s read ! t]ms ( ! proposition4 ,pa/eur accept$ ! *all5ge2 he ev5 p]mitt$ a *ange 9 ! programme by :i* two goats 7 sub/itut$ = two ( ! %eep1 & t5 cattle add$1 /ipulat+1 h[ev]1 t s9ce 8 exp]im5ts _h n yet be5 ext5d$ to cattle ^! %\ld n be reg>d$ z fall+ rigidly )9 ! t]ms ( ! te/4 ,x 0 a te/ to try ! s\l ( any man1 = all ! _w look$ on askance1 prep>$ to d]ide ! mak] ( s prepo/]\s a claim z soon z 8 claim %\ld be prov$ baseless4 ,n ev5 ! fame ( ,pa/eur c\ld make ! public at l>ge1 lay or sci5tific1 believe 9 ! possibility ( :at he propos$ to accompli%4 ,!re 0 "t = all ! _w to be in=m$ ( ! proc$ure1 = ! fir/ prev5tive inoculation--or vacc9ation1 z ,pa/eur t]m$ x--0 made on ,may #e?1 ! second on ,may #ag?1 & ano!r int]val ( two weeks mu/ elapse be=e ! f9al inoculations ) ! unatt5uat$ virus4 ,tw5ty-f\r %eep1 "o goat1 & five cattle 7 submitt$ to ! prelim9>y vacc9ations4 ,!n1 on ,may #ca /1 all sixty ( ! animals 7 inoculat$1 a protect$ & unprotect$ "o alt]nately1 ) an extremely virul5t culture ( an?rax microbes t _h be5 9 ,pa/eur's laboratory s9ce #ahgg4 ,?is accompli%$1 ! animals 7 left toge!r 9 "o enclosure to await ! issue4 ,two days lat]1 ,june #b;d1 at ! appo9t$ h\r ( r5dezv\s1 a va/ cr[d1 compos$ ( vet]9>y surgeons1 newspap] correspond5ts1 & f>m]s f f> & ne>1 ga!r$ to witness ! clos+ sc5es ( ?is sci5tific t\rney4 ,:at !y saw 0 "o ( ! mo/ dramatic sc5es 9 ! hi/ory ( peaceful sci5ce--a sc5e :i*1 z ,pa/eur decl>$ aft]w>ds1 amaz$ ! assembly4 ,scatt]$ ab\t ! enclosure1 dead1 dy+1 or manife/ly sick unto dea?1 lay ! unprotect$ animals1 "o & all1 :ile ea* & e protect$ animal /alk$ unconc]n$ly ab\t ) e appe>ance ( p]fect heal?4 ,tw5ty ( ! %eep & ! "o goat 7 already dead2 two o!r %eep expir$ "u ! eyes ( ! spectators2 ! rema9+ victims l+]$ b a few h\rs long]4 ,?us 9 a mann] !atrical en\gh1 n to say tragic1 0 proclaim$ ! unequivocal victory ( sci5ce4 ,naturally en\gh1 ! unbeliev]s /ruck _! colors & surr5d]$ )\t t]ms2 ! pr9ciple ( protective vacc9ation1 ) a virus exp]im5tally prep>$ 9 ! laboratory1 0 e/abli%$ beyond ! rea* ( controv]sy4 ,t memorable sci5tific battle m>k$ ! beg9n+ ( a new era 9 m$ic9e4 ,x 0 a =egone conclusion t ! pr9ciple ?us e/abli%$ w\ld be /ill fur!r g5]aliz$2 t x w\ld be appli$ to human maladies2 t 9 all probability x w\ld grapple successfully1 soon] or lat]1 ) _m infecti\s diseases4 ,t expectation has advanc$ rapidly t[>ds realization4 ,pa/eur himself made ! application to ! human subject 9 ! disease hydrophobia 9 #ahhe1 s9ce :i* "t t hi!rto mo/ fatal ( maladies has l>gely lo/ its t]rors4 ,?\s&s ( p]sons bitt5 by mad dogs h be5 snat*$ f ! fatal consequ5ces ( t mi%ap by ?is me?od at ! ,pa/eur ,in/itute 9 ,p>is1 & at ! simil> in/itutes1 built on ! model ( ?is p>5t "o1 t h be5 e/abli%$ all ov] ! _w 9 regions z widely sep>at$ z ,new ,york & ,nha-,trang4 ,,s]um-,,!rapy ,9 ! production ( ! rabies vacc9e ,pa/eur & 8 associates develop$ a me?od ( att5uation ( a virus q diff]5t f t :i* _h be5 employ$ 9 ! case ( ! vacc9es ( *ick5 *ol]a & ( an?rax4 ,! rabies virus 0 inoculat$ into ! sy/em ( gu9ea-pigs or rabbits &1 9 effect1 cultivat$ 9 ! sy/ems ( ^! animals4 ,! sp9al cord ( ^! infect$ animals 0 f\nd to be ri* 9 ! virus1 :i* rapidly became att5uat$ :5 ! cord 0 dri$ 9 ! air4 ,! prev5tive virus1 ( v>y+ /r5g?s1 0 made by mac]ation ( ^! cords at v>y+ /ages ( desiccation4 ,?is cultivation ( a virus )9 ! animal organism sugge/$1 no d\bt1 by ! famili> ,j5n]ian me?od ( secur+ small-pox vacc9e1 0 at ! same "t a /ep 9 ! direction ( a new !rapeutic proc$ure :i* 0 de/9$ pres5tly to become ( all-absorb+ importance--! me?od1 namely1 ( s-call$ s]um-!rapy1 or ! treatm5t ( a disease ) ! blood s]um ( an animal t has be5 subject$ to protective inoculation aga9/ t disease4 ,! possibility ( su* a me?od 0 sugge/$ by ! famili> obs]vation1 made by ,pa/eur & num]\s o!r work]s1 t animals ( diff]5t species diff] widely 9 _! susceptibility to v>i\s maladies1 & t ! virus ( a giv5 disease may become m & m virul5t :5 pass$ ?r\gh ! sy/ems ( successive individuals ( "o species1 &1 contr>iwise1 less & less virul5t :5 pass$ ?r\gh ! sy/ems ( successive individuals ( ano!r species4 ,^! facts sugge/$ ! !ory t ! blood ( resi/ant animals might conta9 some?+ directly antagoni/ic to ! virus1 & ! hope t ?is some?+ might be transf]r$ ) curative effect to ! blood ( an infect$ susceptible animal4 ,num]\s exp]im5t]s all ov] ! _w made inve/igations along ! l9e ( ?is allur+ possibility1 ! lead]s p]haps be+ ,drs4 ,behr+ & ,kitasato1 closely foll[$ by ,dr4 ,r\x & 8 associates ( ! ,pa/eur ,in/itute ( ,p>is4 ,def9ite results 7 ann\nc$ by ,behr+ 9 #ahib reg>d+ two important diseases--tetanus & diph!ria--b ! me?od did n come into g5]al notice until #ahid1 :5 ,dr4 ,r\x read an epo*-mak+ pap] on ! subject at ! ,congress ( ,hygi5e at ,buda-,pe/h4 ,9 ?is pap] ,dr4 ,r\x1 aft] adv]t+ to ! labors ( ,behr+1 ,ehrli*1 ,bo]1 ,kossel1 & ,wass]man1 describ$ 9 detail ! me?ods t _h be5 develop$ at ! ,pa/eur ,in/itute = ! developm5t ( ! curative s]um1 to :i* ,behr+ _h giv5 ! s9ce-famili> "n antitox9e4 ,! me?od consi/s1 fir/1 ( ! cultivation1 = "s mon?s1 ( ! diph!ria bacillus 7call$ ! ,klebs-,loeffl] bacillus1 9 honor ( its discov]]s7 9 an artificial b\illon1 = ! developm5t ( a p[]ful tox9e capable ( giv+ ! disease 9 a virul5t =m4 ,?is tox9e1 aft] c]ta9 details ( me*anical treatm5t1 is inject$ 9 small b increas+ doses into ! sy/em ( an animal1 c>e be+ tak5 to graduate ! am\nt s t ! animal does n succumb to ! disease4 ,aft] a c]ta9 c\rse ( ?is treatm5t x is f\nd t a portion ( blood s]um ( ! animal s treat$ w act 9 a curative way if inject$ into ! blood ( ano!r animal1 or a human pati5t1 suff]+ ) diph!ria4 ,9 o!r words1 accord+ to !ory1 an antitox9e has be5 develop$ 9 ! sy/em ( ! animal subject$ to ! progressive inoculations ( ! diph!ria tox9e4 ,9 ,dr4 ,r\x's exp]i5ce ! animal be/ suit$ = ! purpose is ! horse1 ?\gh almo/ any ( ! dome/icat$ animals w s]ve ! purpose4 ,b ,dr4 ,r\x's pap] did n /op ) ! description ( laboratory me?ods4 ,x told also ( ! practical application ( ! s]um to ! treatm5t ( num]\s cases ( diph!ria 9 ! hospitals ( ,p>is--applications t _h met ) a gratify+ measure ( success4 ,he made x cle> t a means _h be5 f\nd ( cop+ successfully ) :at _h be5 "o ( ! mo/ virul5t & intractable ( ! diseases ( *ildhood4 ,h5ce x 0 n /range t 8 pap] made a s5sation 9 all circles1 m$ical & lay alike4 ,physicians f all ov] ! _w flock$ to ,p>is to le>n ! details ( ! op5 secret1 & )9 a few mon?s ! new s]um-!rapy _h an ackn[l$g$ /&+ ) ! m$ical pr(ession ev]y:]e4 ,:at x _h accompli%$ 0 reg>d$ z b an e>ne/ ( :at ! new me?od might accompli% pres5tly :5 appli$ to ! o!r infecti\s diseases4 ,ef=ts at su* applications 7 imm$iately begun 9 numb]less directions--_h1 inde$1 be5 "u way 9 _m a laboratory = "s ye>s be=e4 ,x is too e>ly yet to speak ( ! results 9 detail4 ,b en\gh has be5 done to %[ t ?is me?od also is susceptible ( ! wide/ g5]alization4 ,x is n easy at ! pres5t /age to sift t :i* is t5tative f t :i* w be p]man5t2 b s great an au?ority z ,behr+ does n hesitate to affirm t today we possess1 9 addition to ! diph!ria antitox9e1 equally specific antitox9es ( tetanus1 *ol]a1 typhus fev]1 pneumonia1 & tub]culosis--a set ( diseases :i* 9 ! aggregate acc\nt = a />tl+ proportion ( ! g5]al dea?-rate4 ,!n x is kn[n t ,dr4 ,y]s91 ) ! collaboration ( 8 =m] colleagues ( ! ,pa/eur ,in/itute1 has develop$1 & has us$ ) success1 an antitox9e f ! microbe ( ! plague :i* rec5tly ravag$ ,*9a4 ,dr4 ,calmette1 ano!r graduate ( ! ,pa/eur ,in/itute1 has ext5d$ ! range ( ! s]um-!rapy to include ! prev5tion & treatm5t ( poison+ by v5oms1 & has develop$ an antitox9e t has already giv5 immunity f ! le?al effects ( snake bites to ?\s&s ( p]sons 9 ,india & ,au/ralia4 ,j h[ mu* ( pres5t promise is t5tative1 j :at are ! limits ( ! me?ods--^! are que/ions = ! future to decide4 ,b1 9 any ev5t1 !re seems little "q t ! s]um treatm5t w /& z ! culm9at+ a*ievem5t 9 !rapeutics ( our c5tury4 ,x is ! logical outgr[? ( ^? exp]im5tal /udies ) ! microscope begun by our pr$ecessors ( ! ?irties1 & x repres5ts ! pres5t culm9ation ( ! rigidly exp]im5tal me?od :i* has br\ght m$ic9e f a level ( fanciful empiricism to ! plane ( a rational exp]im5tal sci5ce4 ,,ix4 ,,! ,,new ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,exp]im5tal ,,psy*ology ,,bra9 ,,& ,,m9d ,a little ov] a hundr$ ye>s ago a re=m movem5t 0 afoot 9 ! _w 9 ! int]e/s ( ! insane4 ,z 0 fitt+1 ! movem5t %[$ itself fir/ 9 ,am]ica1 :]e ^! un=tunates 7 humanely c>$ = at a "t :5 _! treatm5t else:]e 0 worse ?an brutal2 b ,engl& & ,france quickly fell into l9e4 ,! lead] on ?is side ( ! wat] 0 ! fam\s ,philadelphian1 ,dr4 ,b5jam9 ,ru%1 ! ,syd5ham ( ,am]ica2 9 ,engl&1 ,dr4 ,william ,tuke inaugurat$ ! movem5t2 & 9 ,france1 ,dr4 ,philippe ,p9el1 s+le-h&$1 l$ ! way4 ,mov$ by a common _s1 ?\gh act+ q indep5d5tly1 ^! m5 rais$ a revolt aga9/ ! traditional cu/om :i*1 spurn+ ! insane z demon-haunt$ outca/s1 _h condemn$ ^! un=tunates to dungeons1 *a9s1 & ! la%4 ,hi!rto few p _h ?\ght x o!r ?an ! natural c\rse ( ev5ts t ! maniac %\ld be ?ru/ into a dungeon1 & p]haps *a9$ to ! wall ) ! aid ( an iron b& rivet$ p]man5tly ab\t 8 neck or wai/4 ,_m an un=tunate1 ?us manacl$1 0 held to ! n>r[ limits ( 8 *a9 = ye>s toge!r 9 a cell to :i* full daylight nev] p5etrat$2 sometimes--iron be+ exp5sive--! *a9 0 s %ort t ! wret*$ victim c\ld n rise to ! upright po/ure or ev5 %ift 8 position ^u 8 squalid pallet ( /raw4 ,9 ,am]ica1 inde$1 !re be+ no ,middle ,age prec$5ts to cry/allize into e/abli%$ cu/oms1 ! treatm5t accord$ ! insane _h seldom or nev] sunk to ?is level4 ,p>tly = ?is reason1 p]haps1 ! "w ( ,dr4 ,ru% at ! ,philadelphia ,hospital1 9 #aghd1 by means ( :i* ! insane came to be humanely treat$1 ev5 to ! ext5t ( bani%+ ! la%1 has be5 b little not$1 :ile ! "w ( ! ,european lead]s1 ?\gh belong+ to lat] decades1 has be5 made fam\s4 ,& p]haps ?is is n z unju/ z x seems1 = ! /ep :i* ,ru% took1 f relatively bad to good1 0 a f> easi] "o to take ?an ! leap f atrocities to good treatm5t :i* ! ,european re=m]s 7 oblig$ to compass4 ,9 ,p>is1 = example1 ,p9el 0 oblig$ to ask p]mission ( ! au?orities ev5 to make ! attempt at lib]at+ ! insane f _! *a9s1 &1 not)/&+ 8 recogniz$ position z a lead] ( sci5ce1 he ga9$ b grudg+ ass5t1 & 0 reg>d$ z be+ himself little bett] ?an a lunatic = mak+ s manife/ly unwise & hopeless an attempt4 ,once ! attempt _h be5 made1 h[ev]1 & c>ri$ to a successful issue1 ! amelioration wr\ght 9 ! condition ( ! insane 0 s pat5t t ! fame ( ,p9el's "w at ! ,bicetre & ! ,salpetri]e w5t abroad apace4 ,x requir$1 inde$1 _m ye>s to complete x 9 ,p>is1 & a lifetime ( ef=t on ! "p ( ,p9el's pupil ,esquirol & o!rs to ext5d ! re=m to ! prov9ces2 b ! epo*al turn+-po9t _h be5 rea*$ ) ,p9el's labors ( ! clos+ ye>s ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,! significance ( ?is wise & humane re=m1 9 ! pres5t connection1 is ! fact t ^! /udies ( ! insane gave emphasis to ! novel idea1 :i* by-&-by became accept$ z beyond "q1 t demoniacal possession is 9 reality no m ?an ! outw>d expression ( a diseas$ condition ( ! bra94 ,?is realization made x cle>1 z nev] be=e1 h[ intimately ! m9d & ! body are l9k$ "o to ! o!r4 ,& s x *anc$ t1 9 /rik+ ! %ackles f ! insane1 ,p9el & 8 confr]es /ruck a bl[ also1 unwitt+ly1 at "t-honor$ philosophical traditions4 ,! lib]ation ( ! insane f _! dungeons 0 an augury ( ! lib]ation ( psy*ology f ! mu/y recesses ( metaphysics4 ,hi!rto psy*ology1 9 s f> z x exi/$ at all1 0 b ! subjective /udy ( individual m9ds2 9 future x mu/ become objective z well1 tak+ into acc\nt also ! relations :i* ! m9d be>s to ! body1 & 9 p>ticul> to ! bra9 & n]v\s sy/em4 ,! necessity = ?is collocation 0 advocat$ q z e>ne/ly1 & ev5 m directly1 by ano!r work] ( ?is p]iod1 ^: /udies 7 alli$ to ^? ( ali5i/s1 & :o1 ev5 m actively ?an !y1 focaliz$ 8 att5tion ^u ! bra9 & its functions4 ,?is e>lie/ ( speciali/s 9 bra9 /udies 0 a ,g]man by bir? b ,p>isian by adoption1 ,dr4 ,franz ,joseph ,gall1 orig9ator ( ! s9ce-notori\s sy/em ( phr5ology4 ,! m]it$ disrepute into :i* ?is sy/em has fall5 ?r\gh ! exposition ( p]ipatetic *>latans %\ld n make u =get t ,dr4 ,gall himself 0 app>5tly a highly educat$ physician1 a c>eful /ud5t ( ! bra9 & m9d accord+ to ! be/ light ( 8 "t1 &1 )al1 an e>ne/ & hone/ believ] 9 ! validity ( ! sy/em he _h orig9at$4 ,! sy/em itself1 tak5 z a :ole1 0 hopelessly faulty1 yet x 0 n )\t its lat5t g]m ( tru?1 z lat] /udies 7 to %[4 ,h[ firmly its au?or himself believ$ 9 x is evid5c$ by ! pap] :i* he contribut$ to ! ,fr5* ,academy ( ,sci5ces 9 #ahjh4 ,! pap] itself 0 ref]r$ to a committee ( :i* ,p9el & ,cuvi] 7 memb]s4 ,! v]dict ( ?is committee 0 adv]se1 & ju/ly s2 yet ! sy/em condemn$ _h at lea/ "o m]it :i* its detractors fail$ to realize4 ,x popul>iz$ ! conception t ! bra9 is ! organ ( m9d4 ,moreov]1 by its insi/5ce x ralli$ ab\t x a b& ( sci5tific support]s1 *ief ( :om 0 ,dr4 ,kasp> ,spurzlieim1 a man ( no mean abilities1 :o became ! propag&i/ ( phr5ology 9 ,engl& & 9 ,am]ica4 ,( c\rse su* advocacy & popul>ity /imulat$ opposition z well1 & out ( ! disputations ?us aris+ !re grew pres5tly a g5]al int]e/ 9 ! bra9 z ! organ ( m9d1 q aside f any preconceptions :atev] z to ! doctr9es ( ,gall & ,spurzheim4 ,prom95t among ! unprejudic$ class ( work]s :o n[ appe>$ 0 ! brilliant "y ,fr5*man ,l\is ,anto9e ,desm\l9s1 :o /udi$ fir/ "u ! tutorage ( ! fam\s ,mag5die1 & publi%$ jo9tly ) him a classical "w on ! n]v\s sy/em ( v]tebrates 9 #ahbe4 ,desm\l9s made at lea/ "o discov]y ( epo*al importance4 ,he obs]v$ t ! bra9s ( p]sons dy+ 9 old age 7 light] ?an ! av]age & gave visible evid5ce ( atrophy1 & he reason$ t su* decay is a normal accompanim5t ( s5ility4 ,no "o n[adays w\ld "q ! accuracy ( ?is obs]vation1 b ! sci5tific _w 0 n q ready = x 9 #ahbe2 = :5 ,desm\l9s ann\nc$ 8 discov]y to ! ,fr5* ,academy1 t augu/ & some:at patri>*al body 0 mov$ to q unsci5tific wra?1 & =bade ! "y iconocla/ ! privilege ( fur!r he>+s4 ,f :i* x is evid5t t ! p>tially lib]at$ _s ( ! new psy*ology _h by no means fre$ itself altoge!r1 at ! close ( ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 f ! metaphysical cobwebs ( its long inc>c]ation4 ,,functions ,,( ,,! ,,n]ves ,:ile /udies ( ! bra9 7 ?us be+ inaugurat$1 ! n]v\s sy/em1 :i* is ! *annel ( communication betwe5 ! bra9 & ! outside _w1 0 be+ int]rogat$ ) ev5 m tangible results4 ,! inaugural discov]y 0 made 9 #ahaa by ,dr4 7aft]w>ds ,sir ,*>les7 ,bell17#a7 ! fam\s ,engli% surgeon & exp]im5tal physiologi/4 ,x consi/$ ( ! obs]vation t ! ant]ior roots ( ! sp9al n]ves are giv5 ov] to ! function ( convey+ motor impulses f ! bra9 outw>d1 :]eas ! po/]ior roots convey solely s5sory impulses to ! bra9 f )\t4 ,hi!rto x _h be5 suppos$ t all n]ves h a simil> function1 & ! peculi> di/ribution ( ! sp9al n]ves _h be5 an unsolv$ puzzle4 ,bell's discov]y 0 epo*al2 b its full significance 0 n appreciat$ = a decade1 nor1 inde$1 0 its validity at fir/ admitt$4 ,9 ,p>is1 9 p>ticul>1 !n ! c\rt ( f9al appeal 9 all matt]s sci5tific1 ! alleg$ discov]y 0 look$ at askance1 or q ignor$4 ,b 9 #ahbc ! subject 0 tak5 up by ! recogniz$ lead] ( ,fr5* physiology--,francois ,mag5die--9 ! c\rse ( 8 compreh5sive exp]im5tal /udies ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 & ,bell's conclusions 7 subject$ to ! mo/ rigid exp]im5tal te/s & f\nd altoge!r valid4 ,bell himself1 mean:ile1 _h turn$ 8 att5tion to ! cranial n]ves1 & _h prov$ t ^! also are divisible into two sets--s5sory & motor4 ,sometimes1 inde$1 ! two sets ( filam5ts are comb9$ into "o n]ve cord1 b if trac$ to _! orig9 ^! are f\nd to arise f diff]5t bra9 c5tres4 ,?us x 0 cle> t a hi!rto unrecogniz$ duality ( function p]ta9s to ! entire extra-cranial n]v\s sy/em4 ,any impulse s5t f ! p]iph]y to ! bra9 mu/ be convey$ along a p]fectly def9ite *annel2 ! response f ! bra91 s5t out to ! p]iph]al muscles1 mu/ trav]se an equally def9ite & altoge!r diff]5t c\rse4 ,if ei!r *annel is int]rupt$--z by ! section ( its p>ticul> n]ve tract--! correspond+ message is d5i$ transmission z effectually z an electric curr5t is /opp$ by ! section ( ! transmitt+ wire4 ,exp]im5t]s ev]y:]e soon confirm$ ! obs]vations ( ,bell & ,mag5die1 &1 z always happ5s aft] a great discov]y1 a fre% impulse 0 giv5 to inve/igations 9 alli$ fields4 ,nev]!less1 a full decade elaps$ be=e ano!r discov]y ( comp>able importance 0 made4 ,!n ,m>%all ,hall1 ! mo/ fam\s ( ,engli% physicians ( 8 day1 made 8 classical obs]vations on ! ph5om5a t h5ce=? 7 to be kn[n z reflex action4 ,9 #ahcb1 :ile exp]im5t+ "o day ) a decapitat$ newt1 he obs]v$ t ! headless creature's limbs w\ld contract 9 direct response to c]ta9 /imuli4 ,su* a response c\ld no long] be secur$ if ! sp9al n]ves supply+ a "p 7 sev]$4 ,h5ce x 0 cle> t responsive c5tres exi/ 9 ! sp9al cord capable ( receiv+ a s5sory message & ( transmitt+ a motor impulse 9 reply--a function hi!rto suppos$ to be res]v$ = ! bra94 ,fur!r /udies w5t to %[ t su* ph5om5a ( reflex action on ! "p ( c5tres ly+ outside ! range ( consci\sness1 bo? 9 ! sp9al cord & 9 ! bra9 itself1 are extremely common2 t1 9 %ort1 !y ent] con/antly into ! activities ( e liv+ organism & h a mo/ important %>e 9 ! sum total ( vital movem5ts4 ,h5ce1 ,hall's discov]y mu/ always /& z "o ( ! great mile-/ones ( ! advance ( neurological sci5ce4 ,hall gave an admirably cle> & int]e/+ acc\nt ( 8 exp]im5ts & conclusions 9 a pap] be=e ! ,royal ,society1 ,on ! ,reflex ,functions ( ! ,m$ulla ,oblongata & ! ,m$ulla ,sp9alis1 f :i*1 z publi%$ 9 ! ,transactions ( ! society = #ahcc1 we may quote at "s l5g?3 ,9 ! entire animal1 s5sation & volunt>y motion1 functions ( ! c]ebrum1 comb9e ) ! functions ( ! m$ulla oblongata & m$ulla sp9alis1 & may !re=e r5d] x difficult or impossible to det]m9e ^? :i* are peculi> to ea*2 if1 9 an animal depriv$ ( ! bra91 ! sp9al m>r[ or ! n]ves supply+ ! muscles be /imulat$1 ^? muscles1 :e!r volunt>y or respiratory1 are equally ?r[n into contraction1 &1 x may be add$1 equally 9 ! complete & 9 ! mutilat$ animal2 &1 9 ! case ( ! n]ves1 equally 9 limbs connect$ ) & deta*$ f ! sp9al m>r[4 ,! op]ation ( all ^! v>i\s causes may be designat$ c5tric1 z tak+ place ,,at1 or at lea/ 9 a direction ,,f1 c5tral p>ts ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,b !re is ano!r function ! ph5om5a ( :i* are ( a totally diff]5t ord] & obey totally diff]5t laws1 be+ excit$ by causes 9 a situation :i* is ,,exc5tric 9 ! n]v\s sy/em--t is1 di/ant f ! n]v\s c5tres4 ,?is mode ( action has n1 ,i ?9k1 be5 hi!rto di/9ctly und]/ood by physiologi/s4 ,_m ( ! ph5om5a ( ?is pr9ciple ( action1 z !y occur 9 ! limbs1 h c]ta9ly be5 obs]v$4 ,b1 9 ! fir/ place1 ?is function is by no means conf9$ to ! limbs2 =1 :ile x imp>ts to ea* muscle its appropriate tone1 & to ea* sy/em ( muscles its appropriate equilibrium or balance1 x p]=ms ! /ill m important (fice ( presid+ ov] ! orifices & t]m9ations ( ea* ( ! int]nal canals 9 ! animal economy1 giv+ !m _! due =m & action2 &1 9 ! second place1 9 ! in/ances 9 :i* ! ph5om5a ( ?is function h be5 notic$1 !y h be5 conf\nd$1 z ,i h /at$1 ) ^? ( s5sation & volition2 or1 if !y h be5 di/+ui%$ f ^!1 !y h be5 too indef9itely d5om9at$ in/9ctive1 or automatic4 ,i h be5 compell$1 !re=e1 to adopt "s new designation = !m1 & ,i %all n[ give ! reasons = my *oice ( t :i* is giv5 9 ! title ( ?is pap]--',reflex ,functions4' ,?is prop]ty is *>act]iz$ by be+ ,,excit$ 9 its action & ,,reflex 9 its c\rse3 9 e in/ance 9 :i* x is ex]t$ an impression made ^u ! extremities ( c]ta9 n]ves is convey$ to ! m$ulla oblongata or ! m$ulla sp9alis1 & is reflect$ along ! n]ves to p>ts adjac5t to1 or remote f1 t :i* has receiv$ ! impression4 ,x is by ?is reflex "* t ! function to :i* ,i h allud$ is to be di/+ui%$ f e o!r4 ,!re are1 9 ! animal economy1 f\r modes ( muscul> action1 ( muscul> contraction4 ,! fir/ is t designat$ ,,volunt>y3 volition1 orig9at$ 9 ! c]ebrum & spontane\s 9 its acts1 ext5ds its influ5ce along ! sp9al m>r[ & ! motor n]ves 9 a ,,direct ,,l9e to ! volunt>y muscles4 ,! ,,second is t ( ,,respiration3 l volition1 ! motive influ5ce 9 respiration passes 9 a ,,direct ,,l9e f "o po9t ( ! n]v\s sy/em to c]ta9 muscles2 b z volunt>y motion seems to orig9ate 9 ! c]ebrum1 s ! respiratory motions orig9ate 9 ! m$ulla oblongata3 l ! volunt>y motions1 ! motions ( respirations are spontane\s2 !y cont9ue1 at lea/1 aft] ! eigh? pair ( n]ves h be5 divid$4 ,! ,,?ird k9d ( muscul> action 9 ! animal economy is t t]m$ involunt>y3 x dep5ds ^u ! pr9ciple ( irritability & requires ! ,,imm$iate application ( a /imulus to ! n]vo-muscul> fibre itself4 ,^! ?ree k9ds ( muscul> motion are well kn[n to physiologi/s2 & ,i believe !y are all :i* h be5 hi!rto po9t$ out4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a ,,f\r?1 :i* subsi/s1 9 "p1 aft] ! volunt>y & respiratory motions h ceas$1 by ! removal ( ! c]ebrum & m$ulla oblongata1 & :i* is atta*$ to ! m$ulla sp9alis1 ceas+ itself :5 ?is is remov$1 & leav+ ! irritability undim9i%$4 ,9 ?is k9d ( muscul> motion ! motive influ5ce does n orig9ate 9 any c5tral "p ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 b f a di/ance f t c5tre2 x is nei!r spontane\s 9 its action nor direct 9 its c\rse2 x is1 on ! contr>y1 ,,excit$ by ! application ( appropriate /imuli1 :i* are n1 h[ev]1 appli$ imm$iately to ! muscul> or n]vo-muscul> fibre1 b to c]ta9 membrane\s p>ts1 :5ce ! impression is c>ri$ ?r\gh ! m$ulla1 ,,reflect$ & reconduct$ to ! "p impress$1 or conduct$ to a "p remote f x 9 :i* muscul> contraction is effect$4 ,! fir/ ?ree modes ( muscul> action are kn[n only by actual movem5ts ( muscul> contractions4 ,b ! reflex function exi/s z a cont9u\s muscul> action1 z a p[] presid+ ov] organs n actually 9 a /ate ( motion1 pres]v+ 9 "s1 z ! glottis1 an op51 9 o!rs1 z ! sph9ct]s1 a clos$ =m1 & 9 ! limbs a due degree ( equilibrium or balanc$ muscul> action--a function n1 ,i ?9k1 hi!rto recogniz$ by physiologi/s4 ,! ?ree k9ds ( muscul> motion hi!rto kn[n may be di/+ui%$ 9 ano!r way4 ,! muscles ( volunt>y motion & ( respiration may be excit$ by /imulat+ ! n]ves :i* supply !m1 9 any "p ( _! c\rse1 :e!r at _! s\rce z a "p ( ! m$ulla oblongata or ! m$ulla sp9alis or ext]ior to ! sp9al canal3 ! muscles ( involunt>y motion are *iefly excit$ by ! actual contact ( /imuli4 ,9 ! case ( ! reflex function alone ! muscles are excit$ by a /imulus act+ m$iately & indirectly 9 a curv$ & reflex c\rse1 along sup]ficial subcutane\s or submuc\s n]ves proce$+ f ! m$ulla4 ,! fir/ ?ree ( ^! causes ( muscul> motion may act on deta*$ limbs or muscles4 ,! la/ requires ! connection ) ! m$ulla to be pres]v$ entire4 ,all ! k9ds ( muscul> motion may be unduly excit$1 b ! reflex function is peculi> 9 be+ excitable 9 two modes ( action1 n previ\sly subsi/+ 9 ! animal economy1 z 9 ! case ( sneez+1 c\gh+1 vomit+1 etc4 ,! reflex function also admits ( be+ p]man5tly dim9i%$ or augm5t$ & ( tak+ on "s o!r morbid =ms1 ( :i* ,i %all treat h]eaft]4 ,be=e ,i proce$ to ! details ( ! exp]im5ts ^u :i* ?is disposition re/s1 x may be well to po9t out sev]al in/ances 9 illu/ration ( ! v>i\s s\rces ( & ! modes ( muscul> action :i* h be5 enum]at$4 ,none c be m famili> ?an ! act ( swall[+4 ,yet h[ complicat$ is ! act6 ,! appreh5sion ( ! food by ! tee? & tongue1 etc41 is volunt>y1 & _c1 !re=e1 take place 9 an animal f :i* ! c]ebrum is remov$4 ,! transition ( food ov] ! glottis & along ! middle & l[] "p ( ! ph>ynx dep5ds ^u ! reflex action3 x c take place 9 animals f :i* ! c]ebrum has be5 remov$ or ! n9? pair ( n]ves divid$2 b x requires ! connection ) ! m$ulla oblongata to be pres]v$ entirely2 & ! actual contact ( "s sub/ance :i* may act z a /imulus3 x is att5d$ by ! accurate closure ( ! glottis & by ! contraction ( ! ph>ynx4 ,! completion ( ! act ( deglutition is dep5d5t ^u ! /imulus imm$iately impress$ ^u ! muscul> fibre ( ! oesophagus1 & is ! result ( excit$ irritability4 ,h[ev] pla9 ^! obs]vations may h made ! fact t !re is a function ( ! n]v\s muscul> sy/em di/9ct f s5sation1 f ! volunt>y & respiratory motions1 & f irritability1 x is "r1 9 e su* inquiry z ! pres5t1 t ! /atem5ts & reason+s %\ld be made ) ! exp]im5t1 z x 71 actually be=e u4 ,x has already be5 rem>k$ t ! volunt>y & respiratory motions are spontane\s1 n necess>ily requir+ ! ag5cy ( a /imulus4 ,if1 !n1 an animal c be plac$ 9 su* circum/ances t su* motions w c]ta9ly n take place1 ! p[] ( mov+ rema9+1 x may be conclud$ t volition & ! motive influ5ce ( respiration are annihilat$4 ,n[ ?is is effect$ by remov+ ! c]ebrum & ! m$ulla oblongata4 ,^! facts are fully prov$ by ! exp]im5ts ( ,legallois & ,m4 ,fl\r5s1 & by sev]al :i* ,i proce$ to detail1 = ! sake ( ! opportunity af=d$ by do+ s ( /at+ ! argum5ts mo/ cle>ly4 ,i divid$ ! sp9al m>r[ ( a v lively snake betwe5 ! second & ?ird v]tebrae4 ,! movem5ts ( ! animal 7 imm$iately be=e extremely vigor\s & un9t]mitt$4 ,f ! mom5t ( ! division ( ! sp9al m>r[ x lay p]fectly tranquil & motionless1 ) ! exception ( occasional gasp+s & slight movem5ts ( ! head4 ,x became q evid5t t ?is /ate ( quiesc5ce w\ld cont9ue indef9itely 7 ! animal secur$ f all ext]nal impressions4 ,be+ n[ /imulat$1 ! body began to move ) great activity1 & cont9u$ to d s = a consid]able "t1 ea* *ange ( position or situation br++ "s fre% "p ( ! surface ( ! animal into contact ) ! table or o!r objects & r5ew+ ! application ( /imulants4 ,at l5g? ! animal became aga9 quiesc5t2 & be+ c>efully protect$ f all ext]nal impressions x mov$ no m1 b di$ 9 ! precise position & =m :i* x _h la/ assum$4 ,x requires a little manoeuvre to p]=m ?is exp]im5t successfully3 ! motions ( ! animal mu/ be wat*$ & sl[ly & cauti\sly arre/$ by oppos+ "s s(t sub/ance1 z a glove or cotton wool2 !y are by ?is means gradually lull$ into quiesc5ce4 ,! slighte/ t\* ) a h>d sub/ance1 ! slighte/ /imulus1 w1 on ! o!r h&1 r5ew ! movem5ts on ! animal 9 an active =m4 ,b t ?is ph5om5on does n dep5d ^u s5sation is fur!r fully prov$ by ! facts t ! position la/ assum$1 & ! /imuli1 may be su* z w\ld be att5d$ by extreme or cont9u$ pa91 if ! s5sibility 7 unde/roy$3 9 "o case ! animal rema9$ p>tially susp5d$ ov] ! acute edge ( ! table2 9 o!rs ! infliction ( punctures & ! application ( a light$ tap] did n prev5t ! animal1 /ill possess$ ( active p[]s ( motion1 f pass+ into a /ate ( complete & p]man5t quiesc5ce4 ,9 summ+ up ?is long pap] ,hall concludes ) ?is s5t5ce3 ,! reflex function appe>s 9 a ^w to be ! ,,complem5t ( ! functions ( ! n]v\s sy/em hi!rto kn[n47#b7 ,all ^! consid]ations z to n]ve curr5ts & n]ve tracts becom+ /ock k ( sci5ce1 x 0 natural t int]e/ %\ld become /imulat$ z to ! exact "* ( ^! n]ve tracts 9 !mselves1 & all ! m natural 9 t ! p]fect$ microscope 0 j n[ claim+ all fields = its own4 ,a troop ( obs]v]s soon ent]$ ^u ! /udy ( ! n]ves1 & ! lead] "h1 z 9 s _m o!r l9es ( microscopical rese>*1 0 no o!r ?an ,!odor ,s*wann4 ,?r\gh 8 ef=ts1 & ) ! invaluable aid ( su* o!r work]s z ,remak1 ,purk9je1 ,h5le1 ,mull]1 & ! re/1 all ! my/]y z to ! g5]al *>act]i/ics ( n]ve tracts 0 cle>$ away4 ,x came to be kn[n t 9 its ess5tials a n]ve tract is a t5u\s fibre or ?read ( protoplasm /ret*+ betwe5 two t]m9al po9ts 9 ! organism1 "o ( su* t]m9i be+ usually a cell ( ! bra9 or sp9al cord1 ! o!r a di/ribution-po9t at or ne> ! p]iph]y--= example1 9 a muscle or 9 ! sk94 ,su* a fibril may h ab\t x a protective cov]+1 :i* is kn[n z ! %ea? ( ,s*wann2 b ! fibril itself is ! ess5tial n]ve tract2 & 9 _m cases1 z ,remak pres5tly discov]$1 ! %ea? is disp5s$ )1 p>ticul>ly 9 case ( ! n]ves ( ! s-call$ sympa!tic sy/em4 ,?is sympa!tic sy/em ( ganglia & n]ves1 by-!-bye1 _h long be5 a puzzle to ! physiologi/s4 ,its ganglia1 ! seem+ c5tre ( ! sy/em1 usually m9ute 9 size & nev] v l>ge1 are f\nd ev]y:]e ?r\gh ! organism1 b 9 p>ticul> are ga!r$ into a long d\ble *a9 :i* lies )9 ! body cavity1 outside ! sp9al column1 & repres5ts ! sole n]v\s sy/em ( ! non-v]tebrat$ organisms4 ,fibrils f ^! ganglia 7 se5 to jo9 ! cranial & sp9al n]ve fibrils & to accompany !m ev]y:]e1 b :at special function !y subs]v$ 0 long a m]e matt] ( conjecture & l$ to _m absurd speculations4 ,fact 0 n sub/itut$ = conjecture until ab\t ! ye> #ahea1 :5 ! great ,fr5*man ,claude ,b]n>d conclusively prov$ t at lea/ "o *ief function ( ! sympa!tic fibrils is to cause contraction ( ! walls ( ! art]ioles ( ! sy/em1 ?us regulat+ ! blood-supply ( any giv5 "p4 ,t5 ye>s e>li] ,h5le _h demon/rat$ ! exi/5ce ( annul> b&s ( muscle fibres 9 ! art]ioles1 hi!rto a mu*-moot$ "q1 & sev]al t5tative explanations ( ! action ( ^! fibres _h be5 made1 p>ticul>ly by ! bro!rs ,web]1 by ,/ill+1 :o1 z e>ly z #ahdj1 _h v5tur$ to speak ( vaso-motor n]ves1 & by ,s*iff1 :o 0 h>d ^u ! same track at ! "t ( ,b]n>d's discov]y4 ,b a cle> light 0 n ?r[n on ! subject until ,b]n>d's exp]im5ts 7 made 9 #ahea4 ,! exp]im5ts 7 soon aft] confirm$ & ext5d$ by ,br[n-,sequ>d1 ,wall]1 ,budge1 & num]\s o!rs1 & h5ce=? physiologi/s felt t !y und]/ood h[ ! blood-supply ( any giv5 "p is regulat$ by ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,9 reality1 h[ev]1 !y _h le>n$ only half ! /ory1 z ,b]n>d himself prov$ only a few ye>s lat] by op5+ up a new & q unsuspect$ *apt]4 ,:ile exp]im5t+ 9 #aheh he discov]$ t !re are c]ta9 n]ves supply+ ! he>t :i*1 if /imulat$1 cause t organ to relax & cease beat+4 ,z ! he>t is ess5tially no?+ m ?an an aggregation ( muscles1 ?is ph5om5on 0 utt]ly puzzl+ & )\t prec$5t 9 ! exp]i5ce ( physiologi/s4 ,an impulse travell+ along a motor n]ve _h be5 suppos$ to be able to cause a muscul> contraction & to d no?+ else2 yet "h su* an impulse _h exactly ! opposite effect4 ,! only t5able explanation seem$ to be t ?is p>ticul> impulse mu/ arre/ or inhibit ! action ( ! impulses t ord9>ily cause ! he>t muscles to contract4 ,b ! idea ( su* inhibition ( "o impulse by ano!r 0 utt]ly novel & at fir/ difficult to compreh5d4 ,gradually1 h[ev]1 ! idea took its place 9 ! curr5t k ( n]ve physiology1 & 9 "t x came to be und]/ood t :at happ5s 9 ! case ( ! he>t n]ve-supply is only a p>ticul> case "u a v g5]al1 inde$ univ]sal1 =m ( n]v\s action4 ,gr[+ out ( ,b]n>d's initial discov]y came ! f9al und]/&+ t ! entire n]v\s sy/em is a me*anism ( c5tres subord9ate & c5tres sup]ior1 ! action ( ! "o ( :i* may be c\nt]act$ & annull$ 9 effect by ! action ( ! o!r4 ,?is applies n m]ely to su* physical processes z he>t-beats & art]ial contraction & relax+1 b to ! mo/ intricate function+s :i* h _! c\nt]p>t 9 psy*ical processes z well4 ,?us ! obs]vation ( ! inhibition ( ! he>t's action by a n]v\s impulse furni%$ ! po9t ( dep>ture = /udies t l$ to a bett] und]/&+ ( ! modus op]&i ( ! m9d's activities ?an _h ev] previ\sly be5 atta9$ by ! mo/ subtle ( psy*ologi/s4 ,,psy*o-,,physics ,! "w ( ! n]ve physiologi/s _h ?us an important be>+ on que/ions ( ! m9d4 ,b !re 0 ano!r company ( work]s ( ?is p]iod :o made an ev5 m direct assault ^u ! citadel ( ?\ght4 ,a rem>kable s*ool ( work]s _h be5 develop$ 9 ,g]many1 ! lead]s be+ m5 :o1 hav+ m or less ( innate metaphysical bias z a national bir?right1 _h also ! in/9cts ( ! empirical sci5ti/1 & ^: educational equipm5t includ$ a pr(\nd k n alone ( physiology & psy*ology1 b ( physics & ma!matics z well4 ,^! m5 und]took ! novel task ( int]rogat+ ! relations ( body & m9d f ! /&po9t ( physics4 ,!y s\ght to apply ! v]ni] & ! balance1 z f> z might be1 to ! intangible processes ( m9d4 ,! movem5t _h its precursory /ages 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! c5tury1 notably 9 ! ma!matical psy*ology ( ,h]b>t1 b its fir/ def9ite output to attract g5]al att5tion came f ! ma/]-h& ( ,h]mann ,helmholtz 9 #ahea4 ,x consi/$ ( ! accurate measurem5t ( ! spe$ ( transit ( a n]v\s impulse along a n]ve tract4 ,to make su* measurem5t _h be5 reg>d$ z impossible1 x be+ suppos$ t ! flight ( ! n]v\s impulse 0 practically in/antane\s4 ,b ,helmholtz readily demon/rat$ ! contr>y1 %[+ t ! n]ve cord is a relatively sluggi% message-be>]4 ,accord+ to 8 exp]im5ts1 fir/ p]=m$ ^u ! frog1 ! n]v\s curr5t travels less ?an "o hundr$ feet p] second4 ,o!r exp]im5ts p]=m$ soon aft]w>ds by ,helmholtz himself1 & by v>i\s foll[]s1 *ief among :om 0 ,du ,bois-,reymond1 modifi$ some:at ! exact figures at fir/ obta9$1 b did n *ange ! g5]al be>+s ( ! e>ly results4 ,?us ! n]v\s impulse 0 %[n to be some?+ f> diff]5t1 z reg>ds spe$ ( transit1 at any rate1 f ! electric curr5t to :i* x _h be5 s (t5 lik5$4 ,an electric curr5t w\ld fla% halfway r\nd ! globe :ile a n]v\s impulse c\ld travel ! l5g? ( ! human body--f a man's foot to 8 bra94 ,! t5d5cy to bridge ! gulf t hi!rto _h sep>at$ ! physical f ! psy*ical _w 0 fur!r evid5c$ 9 ! foll[+ decade by ,helmholtz's rem>kable b highly te*nical /udy ( ! s5sations ( s\nd & ( color 9 connection ) _! physical causes1 9 ! c\rse ( :i* he reviv$ ! doctr9e ( color vision :i* t o!r great physiologi/ & physici/1 ,?omas ,"y1 _h advanc$ half a c5tury be=e4 ,! same t5d5cy 0 fur!r evid5c$ by ! appe>ance1 9 #aheb1 ( ,dr4 ,h]mann ,lotze's fam\s ,m$iz9is*e ,psy*ologie1 od] ,physiologie d] ,seele1 ) its *all5ge ( ! old my? ( a vital =ce4 ,b ! mo/ def9ite expression ( ! new movem5t 0 signaliz$ 9 #ahfj1 :5 ,gu/av ,fe*n] publi%$ 8 classical "w call$ ,psy*ophysik4 ,t title introduc$ a new ^w into ! vocabul>y ( sci5ce4 ,fe*n] expla9$ x by say+1 ,i mean by psy*ophysics an exact !ory ( ! relation betwe5 _s & body1 &1 9 a g5]al way1 betwe5 ! physical & ! psy*ic worlds4 ,! title became fam\s & ! brunt ( _m a controv]sy4 ,s also did ano!r phrase :i* ,fe*n] introduc$ 9 ! c\rse ( 8 book--! phrase physiological psy*ology4 ,9 mak+ t happy collocation ( words ,fe*n] virtually *ri/5$ a new sci5ce4 ,,fe*n] ,,exp\nds ,,web]',s ,,law ,! *ief purport ( ?is classical book ( ! ,g]man psy*o-physiologi/ 0 ! elaboration & explication ( exp]im5ts bas$ on a me?od introduc$ m ?an tw5ty ye>s e>li] by 8 c\ntryman ,e4 ,h4 ,web]1 b :i* hi!rto _h fail$ to attract ! att5tion x des]v$4 ,! me?od consi/$ ( ! measurem5t & analysis ( ! def9ite relation exi/+ betwe5 ext]nal /imuli ( v>y+ degrees ( int5sity 7v>i\s s\nds1 = example7 & ! m5tal /ates !y induce4 ,web]'s exp]im5ts grew out ( ! famili> obs]vation t ! nicety ( our discrim9ations ( v>i\s s\nds1 weights1 or visual images dep5ds ^u ! magnitude ( ea* p>ticul> cause ( a s5sation 9 its relation ) o!r simil> causes4 ,?us1 = example1 we _c see ! />s 9 ! daytime1 ?\gh !y %9e z brightly !n z at night4 ,aga91 we seldom notice ! tick+ ( a clock 9 ! daytime1 ?\gh x may become almo/ pa9fully audible 9 ! sil5ce ( ! night4 ,yet aga91 ! diff]5ce betwe5 an ounce weight & a two-ounce weight is cle>ly en\gh appreciable :5 we lift ! two1 b "o _c discrim9ate 9 ! same way betwe5 a five-p\nd weight & a weight ( "o ounce ov] five p\nds4 ,?is la/ example1 & simil> ones = ! o!r s5ses1 gave ,web] ! clew to 8 novel exp]im5ts4 ,reflection ^u e-day exp]i5ces made x cle> to him t :5ev] we consid] two visual s5sations1 or two auditory s5sations1 or two s5sations ( weight1 9 comp>ison "o ) ano!r1 !re is always a limit to ! ke5ness ( our discrim9ation1 & t ?is degree ( ke5ness v>ies1 z 9 ! case ( ! weights j cit$1 ) ! magnitude ( ! excit+ cause4 ,web] det]m9$ to see :e!r ^! common exp]i5ces c\ld be br\ght )9 ! pale ( a g5]al law4 ,8 me?od consi/$ ( mak+ long s]ies ( exp]im5ts aim$ at ! det]m9ation1 9 ea* case1 ( :at came to be spok5 ( z ! lea/ obs]vable diff]5ce betwe5 ! /imuli4 ,?us if "o holds an ounce weight 9 ea* h&1 & has t9y weights add$ to "o ( !m1 gra9 by gra91 "o does n at fir/ p]ceive a diff]5ce2 b pres5tly1 on ! addition ( a c]ta9 gra91 he does become aw>e ( ! diff]5ce4 ,not+ n[ h[ _m gra9s h be5 add$ to produce ?is effect1 we h ! weight :i* repres5ts ! lea/ appreciable diff]5ce :5 ! /&>d is "o ounce4 ,n[ repeat ! exp]im5t1 b let ! weights be ea* ( five p\nds4 ,cle>ly 9 ?is case we %all be oblig$ to add n gra9s1 b dra*ms1 be=e a diff]5ce betwe5 ! two heavy weights is p]ceiv$4 ,b :atev] ! exact am\nt add$1 t am\nt repres5ts ! /imulus produc+ a j-p]ceivable s5sation ( diff]5ce :5 ! /&>d is five p\nds4 ,& s on = indef9ite s]ies ( weights ( v>y+ magnitudes4 ,n[ came ,web]'s curi\s discov]y4 ,n only did he f9d t 9 repeat$ exp]im5ts ) ! same pair ( weights ! measure ( j-perceivable diff]5ce rema9$ approximately fix$1 b he f\nd1 fur!r1 t a rem>kable fix$ relation exi/s betwe5 ! /imuli ( diff]5t magnitude4 ,if1 = example1 he _h f\nd x necess>y1 9 ! case ( ! ounce weights1 to add "o-fiftie? ( an ounce to ! "o be=e a diff]5ce 0 detect$1 he f\nd also1 9 ! case ( ! five-p\nd weights1 t "o-fiftie? ( five p\nds mu/ be add$ be=e produc+ ! same result4 ,& s ( all o!r weights2 ! am\nt add$ to produce ! /imulus ( lea/-appreciable diff]5ce always bore ! same ma!matical relation to ! magnitude ( ! weight us$1 be t magnitude great or small4 ,web] f\nd t ! same ?+ holds good = ! /imuli ( ! s5sations ( sight & ( he>+1 ! diff]5tial /imulus be>+ always a fix$ ratio to ! total magnitude ( ! /imuli4 ,"h1 !n1 0 ! law he _h s\ght4 ,web]'s results 7 def9ite en\gh & /rik+ en\gh1 yet !y fail$ to attract any consid]able measure ( att5tion until !y 7 reviv$ & ext5d$ by ,fe*n] & br\ght be=e ! _w 9 ! fam\s "w on psy*o-physics4 ,!n !y precipitat$ a v]itable melee4 ,fe*n] _h n alone v]ifi$ ! e>li] results 7) c]ta9 limitations n ess5tial to ! pres5t consid]ation71 b _h inv5t$ new me?ods ( mak+ simil> te/s1 & _h r$uc$ ! :ole "q to ma!matical treatm5t4 ,he pron\nc$ ,web]'s discov]y ! fundam5tal law ( psy*o-physics4 ,9 honor ( ! discov]]1 he *ri/5$ x ,web]'s ,law4 ,he clo!d ! law 9 words & 9 ma!matical =mulae1 &1 s to say1 laun*$ x full tilt at ! heads ( ! psy*ological _w4 ,x made a f9e commotion1 be assur$1 = x 0 ! fir/ widely h]ald$ bullet9 ( ! new psy*ology 9 its m>* ^u ! /rongholds ( ! "t-honor$ metaphysics4 ,! accompli%m5ts ( ! microscopi/s & ! n]ve physiologi/s _h be5 b prelim9>y--m]e bord] skirmi%es ( unc]ta9 import4 ,b "h 0 pro( t ! iconocla/ic movem5t meant to invade ! v he>t ( ! sacr$ t]ritory ( m9d--a t]ritory f :i* tangible objective fact _h be5 suppos$ to be =ev] b>r$4 ,,physiological ,,psy*ology ,h>dly _h ! al>m be5 s\nd$1 h[ev]1 be=e a new movem5t 0 made4 ,:ile ,fe*n]'s book 0 fre% f ! press1 /eps 7 be+ tak5 to ext5d ! me?ods ( ! physici/ 9 yet ano!r way to ! intimate processes ( ! m9d4 ,z ,helmholtz _h %[n ! rate ( n]v\s impulsion along ! n]ve tract to be measurable1 x 0 n[ s\ght to measure also ! "t requir$ = ! c5tral n]v\s me*anism to p]=m its "w ( receiv+ a message & s5d+ out a response4 ,?is 0 com+ d[n to ! v ?re%old ( m9d4 ,! attempt 0 fir/ made by ,pr(essor ,dond]s 9 #ahfa1 b def9itive results 7 only obta9$ aft] _m ye>s ( exp]im5t on ! "p ( a ho/ ( obs]v]s4 ,! *ief ( ^!1 & ! man :o has /ood 9 ! =efront ( ! new movem5t & has be5 its recogniz$ lead] ?r\gh\t ! rema9d] ( ! c5tury1 is ,dr4 ,wilhelm ,wundt1 ( ,leipzig4 ,! task 0 n easy1 b1 9 ! long run1 x 0 accompli%$4 ,n alone 0 x %[n t ! n]ve c5tre requires a measurable "t = its op]ations1 b mu* 0 le>n$ z to conditions t modify ?is "t4 ,?us x 0 f\nd t diff]5t p]sons v>y 9 ! rate ( _! c5tral n]v\s activity--:i* expla9$ ! p]sonal equation t ! a/ronom] ,bessel _h not$ a half-c5tury be=e4 ,x 0 f\nd1 too1 t ! rate ( activity v>ies also = ! same p]son "u diff]5t conditions1 becom+ ret>d$1 = example1 "u influ5ce ( fatigue1 or 9 case ( c]ta9 diseases ( ! bra94 ,all details aside1 ! ess5tial fact em]ges1 z an exp]im5tal demon/ration1 t ! intellectual processes--s5sation1 app]ception1 volition--are l9k$ irrevocably ) ! activities ( ! c5tral n]v\s tissues1 & t ^! activities1 l all o!r physical processes1 h a "t elem5t4 ,to t old s*ool ( psy*ologi/s1 :o sc>cely c>$ m = ! human head ?an = ! heels--be+ int]e/$ only 9 ! m9d--su* a l9k+ ( m9d & body z 0 ?us demon/rat$ 0 naturally disquiet+4 ,b :atev] ! inf]5ces1 !re 0 no escap+ ! facts4 ,( c\rse ?is new movem5t has n be5 conf9$ to ,g]many4 ,inde$1 x _h long _h expon5ts else:]e4 ,?us 9 ,engl&1 a full c5tury e>li]1 ,dr4 ,h>tley _h *ampion$ ! !ory ( ! close & indissoluble dep5d5ce ( ! m9d ^u ! bra91 & =mulat$ a fam\s vibration !ory ( association t /ill m]its c>eful consid]ation4 ,!n1 too1 9 ,france1 at ! beg9n+ ( ! c5tury1 !re 0 ,dr4 ,cabanis ) 8 tangible1 if crudely phras$1 doctr9e t ! bra9 dige/s impressions & secretes ?\ght z ! /oma* dige/s food & ! liv] secretes bile4 ,moreov]1 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]'s ,pr9ciples ( ,psy*ology1 ) its av[$ co-ord9ation ( m9d & body & its vitaliz+ !ory ( evolution1 appe>$ 9 #ahee1 half a decade be=e ! "w ( ,fe*n]4 ,b ^! influ5ces1 ?\gh ( va/ educational value1 7 !oretical r ?an demon/rative1 & ! fact rema9s t ! exp]im5tal "w :i* fir/ attempt$ to gauge m5tal op]ations by physical pr9ciples 0 ma9ly done 9 ,g]many4 ,wundt's ,physiological ,psy*ology1 ) its full prelim9>y descriptions ( ! anatomy ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 gave tangible expression to ! gr[? ( ! new movem5t 9 #ahgd2 & f\r ye>s lat]1 ) ! op5+ ( 8 laboratory ( physiological psy*ology at ! ,univ]sity ( ,leipzig1 ! new psy*ology may be said to h ga9$ a p]man5t foo?old & to h =c$ itself into (ficial recognition4 ,f !n on its conque/ ( ! _w 0 b a matt] ( "t4 ,x %\ld be not$1 h[ev]1 t !re is "o o!r me?od ( /rictly exp]im5tal exam9ation ( ! m5tal field1 latt]ly mu* 9 vogue1 :i* _h a diff]5t orig94 ,?is is ! sci5tific inve/igation ( ! ph5om5a ( hypnotism4 ,?is subject 0 rescu$ f ! h&s ( *>latans1 re*ri/5$1 & subject$ to accurate inve/igation by ,dr4 ,james ,braid1 ( ,man*e/]1 z e>ly z #ahda4 ,b 8 results1 aft] attract+ mom5t>y att5tion1 fell f view1 &1 despite desultory ef=ts1 ! subject 0 n aga9 accord$ a g5]al he>+ f ! sci5tific _w until #ahgh1 :5 ,dr4 ,*>cot took x up at ! ,salpetri]e1 9 ,p>is1 foll[$ soon aft]w>ds by ,dr4 ,rudolf ,heid5ha91 ( ,breslau1 & a ho/ ( o!r exp]im5t]s4 ,! value ( ! me?od 9 ! /udy ( m5tal /ates 0 soon app>5t4 ,mo/ ( ,braid's exp]im5ts 7 repeat$1 & 9 ! ma9 8 results 7 confirm$4 ,8 explanation ( hypnotism1 or artificial somnambulism1 z a self-induc$ /ate1 indep5d5t ( any occult or sup]s5sible influ5ce1 soon ga9$ g5]al cr$5ce4 ,8 belief t ! initial /ages are due to fatigue ( n]v\s c5tres1 usually f excessive /imulation1 has n be5 supplant$1 ?\gh supplem5t$ by notions gr[+ out ( ! new k z to subconsci\s m5tality 9 g5]al1 & ! inhibitory influ5ce ( "o c5tre ov] ano!r 9 ! c5tral n]v\s me*anism4 ,,! ,,bra9 ,,z ,,! ,,organ ,,( ,,m9d ,^! /udies ( ! psy*ologi/s & pa?ologi/s br+ ! relations ( m9d & body into %>p relief4 ,b ev5 m def9ite 9 ?is reg>d 0 ! "w ( ! bra9 physiologi/s4 ,*ief ( ^!1 dur+ ! middle p]iod ( ! c5tury1 0 ! man :o is sometimes spok5 ( z ! fa!r ( bra9 physiology1 ,m>ie ,jean ,pi]re ,fl\r5s1 ( ! ,j>d9 des ,plantes ( ,p>is1 ! pupil & wor?y successor ( ,mag5die4 ,8 exp]im5ts 9 n]ve physiology 7 begun 9 ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! c5tury1 b 8 local exp]im5ts ^u ! bra9 itself 7 n culm9at$ until ab\t #ahdb4 ,at ?is "t ! old dispute ov] phr5ology _h brok5 out afre%1 & ! /udies ( ,fl\r5s 7 aim$1 9 "p at lea/1 at ! /rictly sci5tific inve/igation ( ?is tr\blesome topic4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ^! /udies ,fl\r5s discov]$ t 9 ! m$ulla oblongata1 ! "p ( ! bra9 :i* connects t organ ) ! sp9al cord1 !re is a c5tre ( m9ute size :i* _c be injur$ 9 ! lea/ )\t caus+ ! in/ant dea? ( ! animal op]at$ ^u4 ,x may be add$ t x is ?is spot :i* is rea*$ by ! ne$le ( ! g>rot] 9 ,spani% executions1 & t ! same c5tre also is de/roy$ :5 a crim9al is successfully hang$1 ?is "t by ! =c$ intrusion ( a process ( ! second c]vical v]tebra4 ,fl\r5s nam$ ?is spot ! vital knot4 ,its extreme importance1 z is n[ und]/ood1 is due to ! fact t x is ! c5tre ( n]ves t supply ! he>t2 b ?is simple explanation1 annull+ ! conception ( a specific life c5tre1 0 n at once app>5t4 ,o!r exp]im5ts ( ,fl\r5s seem$ to %[ t ! c]ebellum is ! seat ( ! c5tres t co-ord9ate muscul> activities1 & t ! high] intellectual faculties are relegat$ to ! c]ebrum4 ,b beyond ?is1 z reg>ds localization1 exp]im5t falt]$4 ,negative results1 z reg>ds specific faculties1 7 obta9$ f all localiz$ irritations ( ! c]ebrum1 & ,fl\r5s 0 =c$ to conclude t ! c]ebral lobe1 :ile be+ und\bt$ly ! seat ( high] intellection1 p]=ms its functions ) its entire /ructure4 ,?is conclusion1 :i* incid5tally gave a quietus to phr5ology1 0 accept$ g5]ally1 & became ! /ock doctr9e ( c]ebral physiology = a g5]ation4 ,x w be se51 h[ev]1 t ^! /udies ( ,fl\r5s _h a d\ble be>+4 ,!y d5i$ localization ( c]ebral functions1 b !y demon/rat$ ! localization ( c]ta9 n]v\s processes 9 o!r portions ( ! bra94 ,on ! :ole1 !n1 !y spoke positively = ! pr9ciple ( localization ( function 9 ! bra91 = :i* a c]ta9 numb] ( /ud5ts cont5d$2 :ile _! evid5ce aga9/ c]ebral localization 0 only negative4 ,!re 0 "h & !re an obs]v] :o felt t ?is negative te/imony 0 n conclusive4 ,9 p>ticul>1 ! ,g]man anatomi/ ,meyn]t1 :o _h /udi$ ! disposition ( n]ve tracts 9 ! c]ebrum1 0 l$ to believe t ! ant]ior portions ( ! c]ebrum mu/ h motor functions 9 prepond]ance2 ! po/]ior positions1 s5sory functions4 ,some:at simil> conclusions 7 rea*$ also by ,dr4 ,hughl+s-,jackson1 9 ,engl&1 f 8 /udies ( epilepsy4 ,b no positive evid5ce 0 =?com+ until #ahfa1 :5 ,dr4 ,paul ,broca br\ght be=e ! ,academy ( ,m$ic9e 9 ,p>is a case ( bra9 lesion :i* he reg>d$ z hav+ mo/ important be>+s on ! "q ( c]ebral localization4 ,! case 0 t ( a pati5t at ! ,bicetre1 :o = tw5ty ye>s _h be5 depriv$ ( ! p[] ( spee*1 seem+ly ?r\gh loss ( memory ( words4 ,9 #ahfa ?is pati5t di$1 & an autopsy reveal$ t a c]ta9 convolution ( ! left frontal lobe ( 8 c]ebrum _h be5 totally de/roy$ by disease1 ! rema9d] ( 8 bra9 be+ intact4 ,broca felt t ?is obs]vation po9t$ /rongly to a localization ( ! memory ( words 9 a def9ite area ( ! bra94 ,moreov]1 x transpir$ t ! case 0 n )\t prec$5t4 ,z long ago z #ahbe ,dr4 ,boill>d _h be5 l$1 ?r\gh pa?ological /udies1 to locate def9itely a c5tre = ! articulation ( words 9 ! frontal lobe1 & "h & !re o!r obs]v]s _h made t5tatives 9 ! same direction4 ,boill>d _h ev5 foll[$ ! matt] up ) p]t9acity1 b ! _w 0 n ready to li/5 to him4 ,n[1 h[ev]1 9 ! half-decade t foll[$ ,broca's ann\ncem5ts1 int]e/ rose to fev]-beat1 & ?r\gh ! ef=ts ( ,broca1 ,boill>d1 & num]\s o!rs x 0 prov$ t a v]itable c5tre hav+ a /range dom9ation ov] ! memory ( articulate words has its seat 9 ! ?ird convolution ( ! frontal lobe ( ! c]ebrum1 usually 9 ! left hemisph]e4 ,t "p ( ! bra9 has s9ce be5 kn[n to ! ,engli%-speak+ _w z ! convolution ( ,broca1 a "n :i*1 /rangely en\gh1 ! discov]]'s compatriots h be5 sl[ to accept4 ,?is discov]y v naturally reop5$ ! entire subject ( bra9 localization4 ,x 0 b a %ort /ep to ! inf]5ce t !re mu/ be o!r def9ite c5tres wor? ! seek+1 & v>i\s obs]v]s set ab\t se>*+ = !m4 ,9 #ahfg a clew 0 ga9$ by ,eckh>d1 :o1 repeat+ a =gott5 exp]im5t by ,hall] & ,z9n ( ! previ\s c5tury1 remov$ portions ( ! bra9 cortex ( animals1 ) ! result ( produc+ convulsions4 ,b ! really vital dep>ture 0 made 9 #ahgj by ! ,g]man inve/igators ,frits* & ,hitzig1 :o1 by /imulat+ def9ite areas ( ! cortex ( animals ) a galvanic curr5t1 produc$ contraction ( def9ite sets ( muscles ( ! opposite side ( ! body4 ,^! mo/ important exp]im5ts1 receiv$ at fir/ ) incr$ulity1 7 repeat$ & ext5d$ 9 #ahgc by ,dr4 ,david ,f]ri]1 ( ,london1 & soon aft]w>ds by a small army ( indep5d5t work]s ev]y:]e1 prom95t among :om 7 ,franck & ,pitres 9 ,france1 ,munck & ,goltz 9 ,g]many1 & ,horsley & ,s*af] 9 ,engl&4 ,! detail$ results1 naturally en\gh1 7 n at fir/ all 9 h>mony4 ,"s obs]v]s1 z ,goltz1 ev5 d5i$ ! validity ( ! conclusions 9 toto4 ,b a cons5sus ( op9ion1 bas$ on multitudes ( exp]im5ts1 soon plac$ ! broad g5]al facts = :i* ,frits* & ,hitzig cont5d$ beyond controv]sy4 ,x 0 f\nd1 inde$1 t ! c]ebral c5tres ( motor activities h n q ! f9ality at fir/ ascrib$ to !m by "s obs]v]s1 s9ce x may (t5 happ5 t aft] ! de/ruction ( a c5tre1 ) att5d+ loss ( function1 !re may be a gradual re/oration ( ! lo/ function1 prov+ t o!r c5tres h acquir$ ! capacity to take ! place ( ! "o de/roy$4 ,!re are limits to ?is capacity = sub/itution1 h[ev]1 & ) ?is qualification ! def9it5ess ( ! localization ( motor functions 9 ! c]ebral cortex has become an accept$ "p ( bra9 physiology4 ,nor is su* localization conf9$ to motor c5tres4 ,lat] exp]im5ts1 p>ticul>ly ( ,f]ri] & ( ,munck1 prov$ t ! c5tres ( vision are equally re/rict$ 9 _! location1 ?is "t 9 ! po/]ior lobes ( ! bra91 & t he>+ has likewise its local habitation4 ,inde$1 !re is e reason to believe t ea* =m ( prim>y s5sation is bas$ on impressions :i* ma9ly come to a def9itely localiz$ goal 9 ! bra94 ,b all ?is1 be x und]/ood1 has no ref]5ce to ! high] =ms ( intellection4 ,all exp]im5t has prov$ futile to localize ^! functions1 except inde$ to ! ext5t ( corroborat+ ! famili> fact ( _! dep5d5ce ^u ! bra91 &1 some:at problematically1 ^u ! ant]ior lobes ( ! c]ebrum 9 p>ticul>4 ,b ?is is precisely :at %\ld be expect$1 = ! cle>] insight into ! nature ( m5tal processes makes x pla9 t 9 ! ma9 ^! alleg$ faculties are n 9 !mselves localiz$4 ,?us1 = example1 ! faculty ( language is associat$ irrevocably ) c5tres ( vision1 ( he>+1 & ( muscul> activity1 to g no fur!r1 & only becomes possible ?r\gh ! association ( ^! widely sep>at$ c5tres4 ,! de/ruction ( ,broca's c5tre1 z 0 e>ly discov]$1 does n altoge!r deprive a pati5t ( 8 k ( language4 ,he may be totally unable to speak 7?\gh z to ?is !re are all degrees ( v>iation71 & yet may compreh5d :at is said to him1 & be able to read1 ?9k1 & ev5 write correctly4 ,?us x appe>s t ,broca's c5tre is peculi>ly b\nd up ) ! capacity = articulate spee*1 b is f> en\gh f be+ ! seat ( ! faculty ( language 9 its entirety4 ,9 a simil> way1 mo/ ( ! suppos$ isolat$ faculties ( high] intellection appe>1 ^u cle>] analysis1 z complex aggregations ( prim>y s5sations1 & h5ce necess>ily dep5d5t ^u num]\s & scatt]$ c5tres4 ,"s faculties1 z memory & volition1 may be said 9 a s5se to be primordial end[m5ts ( e n]ve cell--ev5 ( e body cell4 ,inde$1 an ultimate analysis relegates all intellection1 9 its primordial adumbrations1 to e p>ticle ( liv+ matt]4 ,b su* ref9em5ts ( analysis1 aft] all1 _c hide ! fact t c]ta9 =ms ( high] intellection involve a pretty def9ite collocation & elaboration ( special s5sations4 ,su* specialization1 inde$1 seems a necess>y accompanim5t ( m5tal evolution4 ,t e su* specializ$ function has its localiz$ c5tres ( co-ord9ation1 ( "s su* significance z ! demon/rat$ c5tres ( articulate spee*1 c h>dly be 9 d\bt--?\gh ?is1 be x und]/ood1 is an induction1 n z yet a demon/ration4 ,9 o!r words1 !re is e reason to believe t num]\s c5tres1 9 ?is re/rict$ s5se1 exi/ 9 ! bra9 t h z yet elud$ ! inve/igator4 ,inde$1 ! curr5t conception reg>ds ! entire c]ebral cortex z *iefly compos$ ( c5tres ( ultimate co-ord9ation ( impressions1 :i* 9 _! crud] =m are receiv$ by m primitive n]v\s tissues--! basal ganglia1 ! c]ebellum & m$ulla1 & ! sp9al cord4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 is equival5t to po/ulat+ ! c]ebral cortex z ! exclusive seat ( high] intellection4 ,?is proposition1 h[ev]1 to :i* a safe induction seems to lead1 is f> afield f ! sub/antiation ( ! old conception ( bra9 localization1 :i* 0 bas$ on faulty psy*ology & equally faulty inductions f few premises4 ,! details ( ,gall's sy/em1 z prop\nd$ by g5]ations ( 8 mo/ly unwor?y foll[]s1 lie q beyond ! pale ( sci5tific discussion4 ,yet1 z ,i h said1 a g]m ( tru? 0 !re--! idea ( specialization ( c]ebral functions--& mod]n inve/igators h rescu$ t c5tral conception f ! phr5ological rubbi% heap 9 :i* its discov]] un=tunately left x buri$4 ,,! ,,m9ute ,,/ructure ,,( ,,! ,,bra9 ,! common gr\nd ( all ^! v>i\s l9es ( inve/igations ( pa?ologi/1 anatomi/1 physiologi/1 physici/1 & psy*ologi/ is1 cle>ly1 ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em--! sp9al cord & ! bra94 ,! importance ( ^! /ructures z ! foci ( n]v\s & m5tal activities has be5 recogniz$ m & m ) ea* new accretion ( k1 & ! ef=ts to fa?om ! secrets ( _! intimate /ructure has be5 unceas+4 ,= ! e>li] /ud5ts1 only ! crude me?ods ( gross dissections & microscopical inspection 7 available4 ,^! c\ld reveal some?+1 b ( c\rse ! inn] secrets 7 = ! ke5] insight ( ! microscopi/ alone4 ,& ev5 = him ! task ( inve/igation 0 f> f facile1 = ! c5tral n]v\s tissues are ! mo/ delicate & fragile1 & on _m acc\nts ! mo/ difficult ( manipulation ( any 9 ! body4 ,special me?ods1 !re=e1 7 ne$$ = ?is essay1 & bra9 hi/ology has progress$ by fitful impulses1 ea* =w>d jet m>k+ ! introduction ( "s +5i\s improvem5t ( me*anical te*nique1 :i* plac$ a new weapon 9 ! h&s ( ! inve/igators4 ,! v beg9n+ 0 made 9 #ahbd by ,rol&o1 :o fir/ ?\ght ( cutt+ *emically h>d5$ pieces ( bra9 tissues into ?9 sections = microscopical exam9ation--! basal /ructure ^u :i* almo/ all ! lat] advances h be5 conduct$4 ,mull] pres5tly discov]$ t bi*romate ( potassium 9 solution makes ! be/ ( fluids = ! prelim9>y pres]vation & h>d5+ ( ! tissues4 ,/ill+1 9 #ahdb1 p]fect$ ! me?od by introduc+ ! cu/om ( cutt+ a s]ies ( consecutive sections ( ! same tissue1 9 ord] to trace n]ve tracts & e/abli% spacial relations4 ,!n f "t to "t me*anical +5uity add$ fre% details ( improvem5t4 ,x 0 f\nd t pieces ( h>d5$ tissue ( extreme delicacy c be made bett] subject to manipulation by be+ impregnat$ ) collodion or celloid9e & emb$d$ 9 p>aff9e4 ,latt]ly x has become usual to cut sections also f fre% tissues1 un*ang$ by *emicals1 by freez+ !m sudd5ly ) vaporiz$ e!r or1 bett]1 c>bonic acid4 ,by ^! me?ods1 & ) ! aid ( p]fect$ microtomes1 ! work] ( rec5t p]iods avails himself ( sections ( bra9 tissues ( a t5u\sness :i* ! e>ly inve/igators c\ld n approa*4 ,b m important ev5 ?an ! cutt+ ( ?9 sections is ! process ( mak+ ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! section visible1 "o tissue diff]5tiat$ f ano!r4 ,! ?9 section1 z ! e>ly work]s exam9$ x1 0 practically colorless1 & ev5 ! crude/ details ( its /ructure 7 made out ) extreme difficulty4 ,remak did1 inde$1 manage to discov] t ! bra9 tissue is cellul>1 z e>ly z #ahcc1 & ,ehr5b]g 9 ! same ye> saw t x is also fibrill>1 b beyond ?is no great advance 0 made until #aheh1 :5 a sudd5 impulse 0 receiv$ f a new process introduc$ by ,g]la*4 ,! process itself 0 mo/ simple1 consi/+ ess5tially ( no?+ m ?an ! treatm5t ( a microscopical section ) a solution ( c>m9e4 ,b ! result 0 wond]ful1 = :5 su* a section 0 plac$ "u ! l5s x no long] appe>$ homog5e\s4 ,spr9kl$ ?r\gh its sub/ance 7 se5 irregul> bodies t _h tak5 on a beautiful color1 :ile ! matrix 9 :i* !y 7 emb$d$ rema9$ un/a9$4 ,9 a ^w1 ! c5tral n]ve cell _h sprung sudd5ly into cle> view4 ,a mo/ int]e/+ body x prov$1 ?is n]ve cell1 or ganglion cell1 z x came to be call$4 ,x 0 se5 to be exce$+ly m9ute 9 size1 requir+ high p[]s ( ! microscope to make x visible4 ,x exi/s 9 almo/ inf9ite numb]s1 n1 h[ev]1 scatt]$ at r&om ?r\gh ! bra9 & sp9al cord4 ,on ! contr>y1 x is conf9$ to ^? portions ( ! c5tral n]v\s masses :i* to ! nak$ eye appe> gray 9 color1 be+ altoge!r want+ 9 ! :ite sub/ance :i* makes up ! *ief mass ( ! bra94 ,ev5 9 ! gray matt]1 ?\gh sometimes ?ickly di/ribut$1 ! ganglion cells are nev] 9 actual contact "o ) ano!r2 !y always lie emb$d$ 9 int]cellul> tissues1 :i* came to be kn[n1 foll[+ ,vir*[1 z ! neuroglia4 ,ea* ganglion cell 0 se5 to be irregul> 9 cont\r1 & to h jutt+ out f x two sets ( m9ute fibres1 "o set relatively %ort1 indef9itely num]\s1 & bran*+ 9 e direction2 ! o!r set limit$ 9 numb]1 sometimes ev5 s+le1 & />t+ out directly f ! cell z if b5t on a long] j\rney4 ,! num]\s filam5ts came to be kn[n z protoplasmic processes2 ! o!r fibre 0 nam$1 aft] its discov]]1 ! axis cyl9d] ( ,deit]s4 ,x 0 a natural inf]5ce1 ?\gh n cle>ly demon/rable 9 ! sections1 t ^! filam5t\s processes are ! connect+ l9ks betwe5 ! diff]5t n]ve cells & also ! *annels ( communication betwe5 n]ve cells & ! p]iph]y ( ! body4 ,! :ite sub/ance ( bra9 & cord1 app>5tly1 is made up ( su* connect+ fibres1 ?us br++ ! diff]5t ganglion cells ev]y:]e into communication "o ) ano!r4 ,9 ! attempt to trace ! connect+ n]ve tracts ?r\gh ?is :ite sub/ance by ei!r macroscopical or microscopical me?ods1 mo/ important aid is giv5 by a me?od orig9at$ by ,wall] 9 #aheb4 ,e>li] ?an t1 9 #ahci1 ,nasse _h discov]$ t a sev]$ n]ve cord deg5]ates 9 its p]iph]al portions4 ,wall] discov]$ t e n]ve fibre1 s5sory or motor1 has a n]ve cell to or f :i* x leads1 :i* dom9ates its nutrition1 s t x c only reta9 its vitality :ile its connection ) t cell is intact4 ,su* cells he nam$ trophic c5tres4 ,c]ta9 cells ( ! ant]ior "p ( ! sp9al cord1 = example1 are ! trophic c5tres ( ! sp9al motor n]ves4 ,o!r trophic c5tres1 gov]n+ n]ve tracts 9 ! sp9al cord itself1 are 9 ! v>i\s regions ( ! bra94 ,x occurr$ to ,wall] t by de/roy+ su* c5tres1 or by sev]+ ! connection at v>i\s regions betwe5 a n]v\s tract & its trophic c5tre1 %>ply def9$ tracts c\ld be made to deg5]ate1 & _! location c\ld subsequ5tly be accurately def9$1 z ! deg5]at$ tissues take on a *ang$ aspect1 bo? to macroscopical & microscopical obs]vation4 ,recognition ( ?is pr9ciple ?us gave ! exp]im5t] a new weapon ( great effici5cy 9 trac+ n]v\s connections4 ,moreov]1 ! same pr9ciple has wide application 9 case ( ! human subject 9 disease1 su* z ! lesion ( n]ve tracts or ! de/ruction ( c5tres by localiz$ tumors1 by embolisms1 or by traumatisms4 ,all ^! v>i\s me?ods ( anatomical exam9ation comb9e to make ! conclusion almo/ unavoidable t ! c5tral ganglion cells are ! v]itable c5tres ( n]v\s activity to :i* s _m o!r l9es ( rese>* h po9t$4 ,! conclusion 0 /r5g!n$ by exp]im5ts ( ! /ud5ts ( motor localization1 :i* %[$ t ! v]itable c5tres ( _! discov]y lie1 demon/rably1 9 ! gray cortex ( ! bra91 n 9 ! :ite matt]4 ,b ! full pro( came f pa?ology4 ,at ! h&s ( a multitude ( obs]v]s x 0 %[n t 9 c]ta9 well-kn[n diseases ( ! sp9al cord1 ) result+ p>alysis1 x is ! ganglion cells !mselves t are f\nd to be de/roy$4 ,simil>ly1 9 ! case ( suff]]s f *ronic insanities1 ) m>k$ dem5tia1 ! ganglion cells ( ! cortex ( ! bra9 are f\nd to h und]gone deg5]ation4 ,! bra9s ( p>etics 9 p>ticul> %[ su* deg5]ation1 9 /rik+ correspond5ce ) _! m5tal decad5ce4 ,! position ( ! ganglion cell z ! ultimate c5tre ( n]v\s activities 0 ?us plac$ beyond dispute4 ,meantime1 g5]al acceptance be+ giv5 ! hi/ological s*eme ( ,g]la*1 accord+ to :i* ! mass ( ! :ite sub/ance ( ! bra9 is a me%-"w ( int]cellul> fibrils1 a proximal idea seem$ atta9able ( ! way 9 :i* ! ganglionic activities are correlat$1 &1 ?r\gh association1 built up1 s to speak1 into ! high] m5tal processes4 ,su* a conception accord$ beautifully ) ! ideas ( ! associationi/s1 :o _h n[ become dom9ant 9 psy*ology4 ,b "o /&+ puzzle att5d$ ?is o!rwise satisfactory correlation ( anatomical obs]vations & psy*ic analyses4 ,x 0 ?is3 ,s9ce1 accord+ to ! hi/ologi/1 ! int]cellul> fibres1 along :i* impulses are convey$1 connect ea* bra9 cell1 directly or indirectly1 ) e o!r bra9 cell 9 an endless me%-"w1 h[ is x possible t v>i\s sets ( cells may at times be %ut (f f "o ano!r8 ,su* isolation mu/ take place1 = all normal ideation dep5ds = its integrity q z mu* ^u ! %utt+-out ( ! great mass ( associations z ^u ! inclusion ( c]ta9 o!r associations4 ,= example1 a /ud5t 9 solv+ a ma!matical problem mu/ = ! mom5t become q oblivi\s to ! special associations t h to d ) geography1 natural hi/ory1 & ! l4 ,b does hi/ology give any clew to ! way 9 :i* su* isolation may be effect$8 ,attempts 7 made to f9d an answ] ?r\gh consid]ation ( ! v peculi> "* ( ! blood-supply 9 ! bra94 ,"h1 z n[h]e else1 ! t]m9al twigs ( ! art]ies are arrang$ 9 clos$ sy/ems1 n ana/omos+ freely ) neighbor+ sy/ems4 ,cle>ly1 !n1 a re/rict$ area ( ! bra9 may1 ?r\gh ! controll+ influ5ce ( ! vasomotor n]ves1 be flu%$ ) art]ial blood :ile neighbor+ p>ts rema9 relatively anaemic4 ,& s9ce vital activities unque/ionably dep5d 9 "p ^u ! supply ( art]ial blood1 ?is peculi> arrangem5t ( ! vascul> me*anism may v prop]ly be suppos$ to aid 9 ! localiz$ activities ( ! c5tral n]v\s ganglia4 ,b ?is explanation left mu* to be desir$--9 p>ticul> :5 x is recall$ t all high] intellection mu/ 9 all probability involve multitudes ( widely scatt]$ c5tres4 ,no bett] explanation 0 =?com+1 h[ev]1 until ! ye> #ahhi1 :5 ( a sudd5 ! my/]y 0 cle>$ away by a fre% discov]y4 ,n long be=e ?is ! ,italian hi/ologi/ ,dr4 ,camille ,golgi _h discov]$ a me?od ( impregnat+ h>d5$ bra9 tissues ) a solution ( nitrate ( silv]1 ) ! result ( /a9+ ! n]ve cells & _! processes almo/ inf9itely bett] ?an 0 possible by ! me?ods ( ,g]la*1 or by any ( ! multi=m me?ods t o!r work]s _h introduc$4 ,n[ = ! fir/ "t x became possible to trace ! cellul> prolongations def9itely to _! t]m9i1 = ! f9] fibrils _h n be5 r5d]$ visible by any previ\s me?od ( treatm5t4 ,golgi himself prov$ t ! set ( fibrils kn[n z protoplasmic prolongations t]m9ate by free extremities1 & h no direct connection ) any cell save ! "o f :i* !y spr+4 ,he %[$ also t ! axis cyl9d]s give (f multitudes ( lat]al bran*es n hi!rto suspect$4 ,b "h he paus$1 miss+ ! real import ( ! discov]y ( :i* he 0 h>d on ! track4 ,x rema9$ = ! ,spani% hi/ologi/ ,dr4 ,s4 ,ramon y ,cajal to foll[ up ! inve/igation by means ( an improv$ application ( ,golgi's me?od ( /a9+1 & to demon/rate t ! axis cyl9d]s1 toge!r ) all _! collat]al bran*es1 ?\gh sometimes ext5d+ to a great di/ance1 yet f9ally t]m9ate1 l ! o!r cell prolongations1 9 arboresc5t fibrils hav+ free extremities4 ,9 a ^w1 x 0 %[n t ea* c5tral n]ve cell1 ) its fibrill> (f%oots1 is an isolat$ entity4 ,in/ead ( be+ 9 physical connection ) a multitude ( o!r n]ve cells1 x has no direct physical connection ) any o!r n]ve cell :atev]4 ,:5 ,dr4 ,cajal ann\nc$ 8 discov]y1 9 #ahhi1 8 revolution>y claims n unnaturally amaz$ ! mass ( hi/ologi/s4 ,!re 7 "s few ( !m1 h[ev]1 :o 7 n q unprep>$ = ! revelation2 9 p>ticul> ,81 :o _h half suspect$ ! indep5d5ce ( ! cells1 because !y seem$ to develop f dissociat$ c5tres2 & ,=el1 :o bas$ a simil> suspicion on ! fact t he _h nev] be5 able actually to trace a fibre f "o cell to ano!r4 ,^! obs]v]s !n came readily to repeat ,cajal's exp]im5ts4 ,s also did ! vet]an hi/ologi/ ,kollik]1 & soon aft]w>ds all ! lead]s ev]y:]e4 ,! result 0 a practically unanim\s confirmation ( ! ,spani% hi/ologi/'s claims1 & )9 a few mon?s aft] 8 ann\ncem5ts ! old !ory ( union ( n]ve cells into an endless me%-"w 0 completely disc>d$1 & ! !ory ( isolat$ n]ve elem5ts--! !ory ( neurons1 z x came to be call$--0 fully e/abli%$ 9 its place4 ,z to h[ ^! isolat$ n]ve cells functionate1 ,dr4 ,cajal gave ! clew f ! v fir/1 & 8 explanation has met ) univ]sal approval4 ,9 ! modifi$ view1 ! n]ve cell reta9s its old position z ! /oreh\se ( n]v\s en]gy4 ,ea* ( ! filam5ts jutt+ out f ! cell is held1 z be=e1 to be inde$ a transmitt] ( impulses1 b a transmitt] t op]ates int]mitt5tly1 l a telephone wire t is n always connect$1 &1 l t wire1 ! n]ve fibril op]ates by contact & n by cont9uity4 ,"u prop] /imulation ! ends ( ! fibrils rea* out1 come 9 contact ) o!r end fibrils ( o!r cells1 & conduct _! de/9$ impulse4 ,aga9 !y retract1 & communication ceases = ! "t betwe5 ^? p>ticul> cells4 ,meantime1 by a diff]5t arrangem5t ( ! v>i\s conductors1 diff]5t sets ( cells are plac$ 9 communication1 diff]5t associations ( n]v\s impulses induc$1 diff]5t tra9s ( ?\ght eng5d]$4 ,ea* fibril :5 retract$ becomes a non-conductor1 b :5 ext5d$ & 9 contact ) ano!r fibril1 or ) ! body ( ano!r cell1 x conducts its message z readily z a cont9u\s filam5t c\ld d--precisely z 9 ! case ( an electric wire4 ,?is conception1 f\nd$ on a mo/ tangible anatomical basis1 enables u to answ] ! "q z to h[ ideas are isolat$1 & also1 z ,dr4 ,cajal po9ts out1 ?r[s new light on _m o!r m5tal processes4 ,"o c imag9e1 = example1 by keep+ 9 m9d ! flexible n]ve prolongations1 h[ new tra9s ( ?\ght may be eng5d]$ ?r\gh novel associations ( cells2 h[ facility ( ?\ght or ( action 9 c]ta9 directions is acquir$ ?r\gh ! habitual mak+ ( c]ta9 n]ve-cell connections2 h[ c]ta9 bits ( k may escape our memory & refuse to be f\nd = a "t because ( a tempor>y incapacity ( ! n]ve cells to make ! prop] connections1 & s on indef9itely4 ,if "o lik5s ea* n]ve cell to a c5tral telephone (fice1 ea* ( its filam5t\s prolongations to a telephone wire1 "o c imag9e a /rik+ analogy betwe5 ! modus op]&i ( n]v\s processes & ( ! telephone sy/em4 ,! utility ( new connections at ! c5tral (fice1 ! uselessness ( ! me*anism :5 ! connections _c be made1 ! wires 9 use t ret>d y\r message1 p]haps ev5 ! cross+ ( wires1 br++ y a jangle ( s\nds f> diff]5t f :at y desire--all ^! & a multiplicity ( o!r ?+s t w sugge/ !mselves to e us] ( ! telephone may be imag9$ z be+ almo/ ludicr\sly p>allel$ 9 ! op]ations ( ! n]v\s me*anism4 ,& t p>allel1 />tl+ z x may seem1 is n a m]e futile imag9+4 ,x is su/a9$ & r5d]$ plausible by a s\nd sub/ratum ( k ( ! anatomical conditions "u :i* ! c5tral n]v\s me*anism exi/s1 & 9 default ( :i*1 z pa?ology demon/rates ) no less c]titude1 its function+s are futile to produce ! normal manife/ations ( high] intellection4 ,x4 ,,! ,,new ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,ori5tal ,,ar*aeology ,,h[ ,,! ,,riddle ,,( ,,! ,,sph9x ,,0 ,,read ,conspicu\sly plac$ 9 ! great hall ( ,egyptian antiquities 9 ! ,briti% ,museum is a wond]ful piece ( sculpture kn[n z ! ,rosetta ,/one4 ,i d\bt if any o!r piece 9 ! entire exhibit attracts s mu* att5tion f ! casual visitor z ?is slab ( black basalt on its telescope-l p$e/al4 ,! hall itself1 despite its pr(usion ( /rangely sculptur$ treasures1 is nev] cr[d$1 b be=e ?is /one y may almo/ always f9d "s "o /&+1 gaz+ ) m or less ( disc]nm5t at ! /range *>act]s t are grav5 neatly across its upturn$1 glass-protect$ face4 ,a glance at ?is grav5 surface suffices to %[ t ?ree sets ( inscriptions are record$ !re4 ,! upp] "o1 occupy+ ab\t "o-f\r? ( ! surface1 is a pictur$ scroll1 made up ( *a9s ( ^? /range outl9es ( s]p5ts1 hawks1 lions1 & s on1 :i* are recogniz$1 ev5 by ! lea/ initiat$1 z hi]oglyphics4 ,! middle inscription1 made up ( l9es1 angles1 & half-pictures1 "o might surmise to be a sort ( abbreviat$ or %ort-h& hi]oglyphic4 ,! ?ird or l[] inscription is ,greek--obvi\sly a ?+ ( words4 ,if ! scre$s above be also made ( words1 only ! elect h any way ( prov+ ! fact4 ,=tunately1 h[ev]1 ev5 ! lea/ s*ol>ly obs]v] is left 9 no d\bt z to ! real import ( ! ?+ he sees1 = an oblig+ ,engli% label tells u t ^! ?ree inscriptions are r5d]+s ( ! same message1 & t ?is message is a decree ( ! prie/s ( ,memphis conf]r+ div9e honors on ,ptolemy ,v4 7,epiph5es71 ,k+ ( ,egypt1 ,b4,c4 #aie4 ,! label goes on to /ate t ! upp] inscription 7( :i*1 un=tunately1 only "p ( ! la/ doz5 l9es or s rema9s1 ! slab be+ brok57 is 9 ! ,egyptian language1 9 hi]oglyphics1 or writ+ ( ! prie/s2 ! second inscription 9 ! same language is 9 ,demotic1 or ! writ+ ( ! p2 & ! ?ird ! ,greek language & "*4 ,foll[+ ?is is a brief biography ( ! ,rosetta ,/one itself1 z foll[s3 ,! /one 0 f\nd by ! ,fr5* 9 #agih among ! ru9s ( ,=t ,sa9t ,juli51 ne> ! ,rosetta m\? ( ! ,nile4 ,x pass$ into ! h&s ( ! ,briti% by ! treaty ( ,alex&ria1 & 0 deposit$ 9 ! ,briti% ,museum 9 ! ye> #ahja4 ,!re is a :ole volume ( hi/ory 9 t brief inscription--& a bitt] /+ ?r[n 91 if ! read] *ance to be a ,fr5*man4 ,yet ! facts involv$ c\ld sc>cely be sugge/$ m mode/ly4 ,!y are record$ mu* m bluntly 9 a grav5 inscription on ! side ( ! /one1 :i* reads3 ,captur$ 9 ,egypt by ! ,briti% ,army1 #ahja4 ,no ,fr5*man c\ld read ^? words )\t a v]itable s9k+ ( ! he>t4 ,! value ( ! ,rosetta ,/one dep5d$ on ! fact t x gave promise1 ev5 :5 casually inspect$1 ( furni%+ a key to ! c5turies-old my/]y ( ! hi]oglyphics4 ,= two ?\s& ye>s ! secret ( ^! /range m>k+s _h be5 =gott54 ,n[h]e 9 ! _w--q z little 9 ,egypt z else:]e--_h any man ! slighte/ clew to _! mean+2 !re 7 ^? :o ev5 d\bt$ :e!r ^! droll pictur+s really _h any specific mean+1 que/ion+ :e!r !y 7 n r vague symbols ( esot]ic religi\s import & no?+ m4 ,& x 0 ! ,rosetta ,/one t gave ! answ] to ^! d\bt]s & re/or$ to ! _w a lo/ language & a =gott5 lit]ature4 ,! tru/ees ( ! museum recogniz$ at once t ! problem ( ! ,rosetta ,/one 0 "o on :i* ! sci5ti/s ( ! _w might well exhau/ _! +5uity1 & promptly publi%$ to ! _w a c>efully li?ograph$ copy ( ! entire inscription1 s t =eign s*ol>%ip _h equal opportunity ) ! ,briti% to try at ! riddle4 ,x 0 an ,engli%man1 h[ev]1 :o fir/ ga9$ a clew to ! solution4 ,?is 0 none o!r ?an ! extraord9>y ,dr4 ,?omas ,"y1 ! demon/rator ( ! vibratory nature ( light4 ,"y's specific discov]ies 7 ^!3 7#a7 ,t _m ( ! pictures ( ! hi]oglyphics /& = ! names ( ! objects actually del9eat$2 7#b7 t o!r pictures are sometimes only symbolic2 7#c7 t plural numb]s are repres5t$ by repetition2 7#d7 t num]als are repres5t$ by da%es2 7#e7 t hi]oglyphics may read ei!r f ! "r or f ! left1 b always f ! direction 9 :i* ! animal & human figures face2 7#f7 t prop] names are surr\nd$ by a grav5 oval r+1 mak+ :at he call$ a c>t\*e2 7#g7 t ! c>t\*es ( ! pres]v$ portion ( ! ,rosetta ,/one /& = ! "n ( ,ptolemy alone2 7#h7 t ! pres5ce ( a female figure aft] su* c>t\*es 9 o!r inscriptions always d5otes ! female sex2 7#i7 t )9 ! c>t\*es ! hi]oglyphic symbols h a positively phonetic value1 ei!r alphabetic or syllabic2 & 7#aj7 t sev]al diff]5t *>act]s may h ! same phonetic value4 ,j :at ^! phonetic values are ,"y po9t$ out 9 ! case ( f\rte5 *>act]s repres5t+ n9e s\nds1 six ( :i* are accept$ to-day z correctly repres5t+ ! lett]s to :i* he ascrib$ !m1 & ! ?ree o!rs z be+ correct reg>d+ _! ess5tial or consonant elem5t4 ,x is cle>1 !re=e1 t he 0 on ! "r track ?us f>1 & on ! v v]ge ( complete discov]y4 ,b1 un=tunately1 he fail$ to take ! next /ep1 :i* w\ld h be5 to realize t ! same phonetic values :i* 7 giv5 to ! alphabetic *>act]s )9 ! c>t\*es 7 (t5 ascrib$ to !m also :5 us$ 9 ! g5]al text ( an inscription2 9 o!r words1 t ! use ( an alphabet 0 n conf9$ to prop] names4 ,?is 0 ! great secret :i* ,"y miss$ & :i* 8 ,fr5* successor1 ,jean ,francois ,*ampollion1 work+ on ! f\ndation t ,"y _h laid1 0 enabl$ to f]ret out4 ,"y's initial /udies ( ! ,rosetta ,/one 7 made 9 #ahad2 8 lat] publication bore date ( #ahai4 ,*ampollion's fir/ ann\ncem5t ( results came 9 #ahbb2 8 second & m important "o 9 #ahbd4 ,by ?is "t1 ?r\gh /udy ( ! c>t\*es ( o!r inscriptions1 ,*ampollion _h made out almo/ ! complete alphabet1 & ! riddle ( ! ,sph9x 0 practically solv$4 ,he prov$ t ! ,egyptians _h develop$ a relatively complete alphabet 7mo/ly neglect+ ! v[els1 z e>ly ,semitic alphabets did also7 c5turies be=e ! ,pho5icians 7 he>d ( 9 hi/ory4 ,:at relation ?is alphabet bore to ! ,pho5ician we %all h occasion to ask 9 ano!r connection2 = ! mom5t x suffices to "k t ^? /range pictures ( ! ,egyptian scroll are really lett]s4 ,ev5 ?is /atem5t1 h[ev]1 mu/ be 9 a measure modifi$4 ,^! pictures are lett]s & some?+ m4 ,"s ( !m are purely alphabetical 9 "* & "s are symbolic 9 ano!r way4 ,"s *>act]s repres5t syllables4 ,o!rs /& sometimes z m]e repres5tatives ( s\nds1 & aga91 9 a m ext5d$ s5se1 z repres5tations ( ?+s1 su* z all hi]oglyphics d\btless 7 9 ! beg9n+4 ,9 a ^w1 ?is is an alphabet1 b n a p]fect$ alphabet1 su* z mod]n nations are accu/om$ to2 h5ce ! enorm\s complications & difficulties x pres5t$ to ! e>ly inve/igators4 ,*ampollion did n live to cle> up all ^! my/]ies4 ,8 "w 0 tak5 up & ext5d$ by 8 pupil ,rossell9i1 & 9 p>ticul> by ,dr4 ,ri*>d ,lepsius 9 ,g]many1 foll[$ by ,m4 ,b]n\f1 & by ,samuel ,bir* ( ! ,briti% ,museum1 & m rec5tly by su* well-kn[n ,egyptologi/s z ,,mm4 ,masp]o & ,m>iette & ,*abas1 9 ,france1 ,dr4 ,brugs*1 9 ,g]many1 & ,dr4 ,e4 ,wallis ,budge1 ! pres5t head ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,ori5tal ,antiquities at ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,b ! task ( lat] inve/igators has be5 l>gely "o ( exhumation & translation ( records r ?an ( f9d+ me?ods4 ,,treasures ,,f ,,n9eveh ,! mo/ casual w&]] 9 ! ,briti% ,museum c h>dly fail to notice two pairs ( massive sculptures1 9 ! "o case w+$ bulls1 9 ! o!r w+$ lions1 bo? human-head$1 :i* gu>d ! entrance to ! ,egyptian hall1 close to ! ,rosetta ,/one4 ,ea* pair ( ^! weird creatures once gu>d$ an entrance to ! palace ( a k+ 9 ! fam\s city ( ,n9eveh4 ,z "o /&s be=e !m 8 m9d is c>ri$ back ov] "s tw5ty-sev5 int]v5+ c5turies1 to ! days :5 ! ,c$> ( ,lebanon 0 fair 9 8 greatness & ! sc\rge ( ,israel4 ,! v ,sculptures be=e u1 = example1 7 p]haps se5 by ,jonah :5 he made t fam\s voyage to ,n9eveh "s sev5 or eight hundr$ ye>s ,b4,c4 ,a little lat] ! ,babylonian & ! ,m$e revolt$ aga9/ ,assyrian tyranny & desc5d$ ^u ! fair city ( ,n9eveh1 & almo/ lit]ally levell$ x to ! gr\nd4 ,b ^! great sculptures1 among o!r ?+s1 escap$ de/ruction1 & at once hidd5 & pres]v$ by ! accumulat+ debris ( ! c5turies1 !y /ood !re age aft] age1 _! v exi/5ce q =gott54 ,:5 ,x5ophon m>*$ pa/ _! site ) ! ill-/>r$ exp$ition ( ! t5 ?\s&1 9 ! ye> #djj ,b4,c41 he saw only a m\nd :i* seem$ to m>k ! site ( "s anci5t ru92 b ! ,greek did n suspect t he look$ ^u ! site ( t city :i* only two c5turies be=e _h be5 ! mi/ress ( ! _w4 ,s ephem]al is fame6 ,& yet ! moral sc>cely holds 9 ! sequel2 = we ( to-day1 9 ?is new1 undream$-( ,we/]n _w1 behold ^! mem5tos ( ,assyrian greatness fre% f _! tw5ty-five hundr$ ye>s ( entombm5t1 & ) !m records :i* re/ore to u ! hi/ory ( t long-=gott5 p 9 su* detail z x 0 n kn[n to any previ\s g5]ation s9ce ! fall ( ,n9eveh4 ,= two ?\s& five hundr$ ye>s no "o saw ^! treasures or knew t !y exi/$4 ,"o hundr$ g5]ations ( m5 came & w5t )\t once pron\nc+ ! "n ( k+s ,%almanes] or ,asumazirpal or ,asurbanipal4 ,& to-day1 aft] ^! c5turies ( oblivion1 ^! names are re/or$ to hi/ory1 &1 ?anks to ! "* ( _! monum5ts1 are assur$ a p]man5cy ( fame t c almo/ defy "t itself4 ,x w\ld be no?+ /range1 b r 9 keep+ ) _! previ\s mutations ( =tune1 if ! names ( ,asurnazirpal & ,asurbanipal %\ld be famili> z h\sehold words to future g5]ations t h =gott5 ! exi/5ce ( an ,alex&]1 a ,caes>1 & a ,napoleon4 ,= :5 ,macaulay's prospective ,new ,zeal&] explores ! ru9s ( ! ,briti% ,museum ! records ( ! anci5t ,assyrians w presumably /ill be !re unsca!d1 to tell _! /ory z !y h told x to our g5]ation1 ?\gh e manuscript & pr9t$ book may h gone ! way ( fragile textures4 ,b ! pa/ ( ! ,assyrian sculptures is q necromantic en\gh )\t conjur+ = !m a necromantic future4 ,! /ory ( _! re/oration is l a brilliant romance ( hi/ory4 ,prior to ! middle ( ?is c5tury ! inquir+ /ud5t c\ld le>n 9 an h\r or s all t 0 kn[n 9 fact & 9 fable ( ! r5[n$ city ( ,n9eveh4 ,he _h b to read a few *apt]s ( ! ,bible & a few pages ( ,diodorus to exhau/ ! important lit]ature on ! subject4 ,if he turn$ also to ! pages ( ,h]odotus & ,x5ophon1 ( ,ju/9 & ,aelian1 ^! s]v$ *iefly to confirm ! suspicion t ! ,greeks !mselves knew almo/ no?+ m ( ! hi/ory ( _! fam$ ,ori5tal =]unn]s4 ,! curr5t fables told ( a fir/ ,k+ ,n9us & 8 wond]ful que5 ,semiramis2 ( ,s5na*]ib ! conqu]or2 ( ! effem9ate ,s>danapalus1 :o neglect$ ! w>like ways ( 8 ance/ors b p]i%$ glori\sly at ! la/1 ) ,n9eveh itself1 9 a self-impos$ holocau/4 ,& t 0 all4 ,h[ mu* ( ?is 0 hi/ory1 h[ mu* my?1 no man c\ld say2 & = all any "o suspect$ to ! contr>y1 no man c\ld ev] "k4 ,& to-day ! contempor>y records ( ! city are be=e u 9 su* pr(usion z no o!r nation ( antiquity1 save ,egypt alone1 c at all rival4 ,:ole libr>ies ( ,assyrian books are at h& t 7 writt5 9 ! sev5? c5tury be=e our era4 ,^!1 be x und]/ood1 are ! orig9al books !mselves1 n copies4 ,! au?or ( t remote "t appeals to u directly1 h& to eye1 )\t int]m$i>y transcrib]4 ,& !re is n a l9e ( any ,hebrew or ,greek manuscript ( a l age t has be5 pres]v$ to u2 !re is little en\gh t c mat* ^! anci5t books by a ?\s& ye>s4 ,:5 "o reads ,moses or ,isaiah1 ,hom]1 ,hesiod1 or ,h]odotus1 he is b foll[+ ! transcription--(t5 unque/ionably faulty & probably nev] 9 all p>ts p]fect--( successive copyi/s ( lat] g5]ations4 ,! olde/ kn[n copy ( ! ,bible1 = example1 dates probably f ! f\r? c5tury ,a4,d41 a ?\s& ye>s or m aft] ! la/ ,assyrian records 7 made & read & buri$ & =gott54 ,!re 0 at lea/ "o k+ ( ,assyria--namely1 ,asurbanipal1 ^: palace boa/$ a libr>y ( "s t5 ?\s& volumes--a libr>y1 if y please1 9 :i* ! books 7 numb]$ & %elv$ sy/ematically1 & classifi$ & c>$ = by an (ficial libr>ian4 ,if y w\ld see "s ( ! docum5ts ( ?is m>vell\s libr>y y h b to /ep pa/ ! w+$ lions ( ,asurnazirpal & ent] ! ,assyrian hall j ar\nd ! corn] f ! ,rosetta ,/one4 ,inde$1 ! great slabs ( /one f :i* ! lions !mselves are c>v$ are 9 a s5se books1 inasmu* z !re are writt5 records inscrib$ on _! surface4 ,a glance reveals ! /range *>act]s 9 :i* ^! records are writt51 grav5 neatly 9 /raight l9es across ! /one1 & look+ to casual inspection l no?+ s mu* z r&om flights ( arr[-heads4 ,! resemblance is s /rik+ t ?is is sometimes call$ ! arr[-head "*1 ?\gh x is m g5]ally kn[n z ! w$ge or cunei=m "*4 ,! inscriptions on ! flanks ( ! lions are1 h[ev]1 only make%ift books4 ,b ! v]itable books are no f>!r away ?an ! next room beyond ! hall ( ,asurnazirpal4 ,!y occupy "p ( a s]ies ( cases plac$ d[n ! c5tre ( ?is room4 ,p]haps x is n too mu* to speak ( ?is collection z ! mo/ extraord9>y set ( docum5ts ( all ! r>e treasures ( ! ,briti% ,museum1 = x includes n books alone1 b public & private lett]s1 bus9ess ann\ncem5ts1 m>riage contracts--9 a ^w1 all ! species ( writt5 records t ent] into ! e-day life ( an intellig5t & cultur$ community4 ,b by :at miracle h su* docum5ts be5 pres]v$ ?r\gh all ^! c5turies8 ,a glance makes ! secret evid5t4 ,x is simply a case ( "t-defy+ mat]ials4 ,ea* "o ( ^! ,assyrian docum5ts appe>s to be1 & 9 reality is1 no?+ m or less ?an an inscrib$ fragm5t ( brick1 hav+ mu* ! color & texture ( a wea!r$ t]ra-cotta tile ( mod]n manufacture4 ,^! slabs are usually oval or oblong 9 %ape1 & f two or ?ree to six or eight in*es 9 l5g? & an in* or s 9 ?ickness4 ,ea* ( !m 0 orig9ally a portion ( brick-clay1 on :i* ! scribe ind5t$ ! flights ( arr[heads ) "s %>p-corn]$ in/rum5t1 aft] :i* ! docum5t 0 made p]man5t by bak+4 ,!y are some:at fragile1 ( c\rse1 z all bricks are1 & _m ( !m h be5 m or less crumbl$ 9 ! de/ruction ( ! palace at ,n9eveh2 b to ! ravages ( m]e "t !y are z ne>ly invuln]able z almo/ any?+ 9 nature4 ,h5ce x is t ^! records ( a remote civilization h be5 pres]v$ to u1 :ile ! simil> records ( su* lat] civilizations z ! ,grecian h utt]ly p]i%$1 mu* z ! fl9t implem5ts ( ! cave-dwell] come to u un*ang$1 :ile ! iron implem5ts ( a f> m rec5t age h crumbl$ away4 ,,h[ ,,! ,,records ,,7 ,,read ,aft] all1 !n1 grant$ ! *oice ( mat]ials1 !re is no?+ s v extraord9>y 9 ! m]e fact ( pres]vation ( ^! anci5t records4 ,to be sure1 x is va/ly to ! cr$it ( n9ete5?-c5tury ent]prise to h se>*$ !m out & br\ght !m back to light4 ,b ! real m>vel 9 connection ) !m is ! fact t n9ete5?-c5tury s*ol>%ip %\ld h giv5 u1 n ! mat]ial docum5ts !mselves1 b a k ( _! actual cont5ts4 ,! flight ( arr[-heads on wall or slab or t9y brick h surely a mean+2 b h[ %all we guess t mean+8 ,^! mu/ be words2 b :at words8 ,! hi]oglyphics ( ! ,egyptians 7 my/]i\s en\gh 9 all consci5ce2 yet1 aft] all1 _! symbols h a c]ta9 sugge/iv5ess1 :]eas !re is no?+ t seems to promise a m5tal lev]age 9 ! unbrok5 succession ( ^! cunei=m da%es4 ,yet ! ,assyrian s*ol> ( to-day c int]pret ^! /range records almo/ z readily & z surely z ! classical s*ol> int]prets a ,greek manuscript4 ,& ?is evid5ces "o ( ! greate/ triumphs ( n9ete5?-c5tury s*ol>%ip1 = )9 almo/ two ?\s& ye>s no man has liv$1 prior to our c5tury1 to :om ^! /range inscriptions w\ld n h be5 z mean+less z !y are to ! mo/ casual /roll] :o looks on !m ) vague wond]m5t "h 9 ! museum to-day4 ,= ! ,assyrian language1 l ! ,egyptian1 0 v]itably a dead language2 n1 l ,greek & ,lat91 m]ely pass$ f practical e-day use to ! closet ( ! s*ol>1 b utt]ly & absolutely =gott5 by all ! _w4 ,su* be+ ! case1 x is no?+ less ?an m>vell\s t x %\ld h be5 re/or$4 ,x is b fair to add t ?is re/oration probably nev] w\ld h be5 effect$1 ) ,assyrian or ) ,egyptian1 _h ! language 9 dy+ left no cognate successor2 = ! p[]s ( mod]n l+ui/ry1 ?\gh great1 are n actually miracul\s4 ,b1 =tunately1 a language once develop$ is n blott$ out 9 toto2 x m]ely outlives its usefulness & is gradually supplant$1 its successor reta9+ _m traces ( its orig94 ,s1 j z ,lat91 = example1 has its liv+ repres5tatives 9 ,italian & ! o!r ,romance tongues1 ! language ( ,assyria is repres5t$ by cognate ,semitic languages4 ,z x *ances1 h[ev]1 ^! h be5 ( aid r 9 ! lat] /ages ( ,assyrian /udy ?an at ! v outset2 & ! fir/ clew to ! message ( ! cunei=m writ+ came ?r\gh a slightly diff]5t *annel4 ,curi\sly en\gh1 x 0 a tril+ual inscription t gave ! clew1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,rosetta ,/one1 ?\gh ) v /rik+ diff]5ce )al4 ,! tril+ual inscription n[ 9 "q1 in/ead ( be+ a small1 portable monum5t1 cov]s ! surface ( a massive bluff at ,behi/un 9 we/]n ,p]sia4 ,moreov]1 all ?ree ( its inscriptions are 9 cunei=m *>act]s1 & all ?ree are 9 languages t at ! beg9n+ ( our c5tury 7 absolutely unkn[n4 ,?is inscription itself1 z a /rik+ monum5t ( unkn[n import1 _h be5 se5 by successive g5]ations4 ,tradition ascrib$ x1 z we le>n f ,ctesias1 ?r\gh ,diodorus1 to ! fabl$ ,assyrian que5 ,semiramis4 ,tradition 0 q at fault 9 ?is2 b x is only rec5tly t k has avail$ to set x "r4 ,! inscription1 z is n[ kn[n1 0 really writt5 ab\t ! ye> #eae ,b4,c41 at ! in/ance ( ,d>ius ,i41 ,k+ ( ,p]sia1 "s ( ^: de$s x rec\nts 9 ! ?ree *ief languages ( 8 widely scatt]$ subjects4 ,! man :o at actual risk ( life & limb copi$ ?is wond]ful inscription1 & ?r\gh int]pret+ x became ! v]itable fa!r ( ,assyriology1 0 ! ,engli% g5]al ,sir ,h5ry ,rawl9son4 ,8 feat 0 ano!r ,briti% triumph ov] ! same rivals :o _h compet$ = ! ,rosetta ,/one2 = "s ,fr5* explor]s _h be5 s5t by _! gov]nm5t1 "s ye>s e>li]1 expressly to copy ?is /range record1 & _h report$ t x 0 impossible to rea* ! inscription4 ,b ,briti% c\rage did n f9d x s1 & 9 #ahce ,rawl9son scal$ ! dang]\s height & made a pap] ca/ ( ab\t half ! inscription4 ,diplomatic duties call$ him away f ! task = "s ye>s1 b 9 #ahdh he return$ to x & complet$ ! copy ( all p>ts ( ! inscription t h escap$ ! ravages ( "t4 ,& n[ ! mat]ial 0 9 h& = a new sci5ce1 :i* ,g5]al ,rawl9son himself soon1 assi/$ by a ho/ ( o!rs1 proce$$ to elaborate4 ,! key to ! value ( ?is unique inscription lies 9 ! fact t its ?ird language is anci5t ,p]sian4 ,x appe>s t ! anci5t ,p]sians _h adopt$ ! cunei=m "* f _! we/]n neighbors1 ! ,assyrians1 b 9 s do+ _h made "o ( ^? ess5tial modifications & improvem5ts :i* are sc>cely possible to accompli% except 9 ! transition f "o race to ano!r4 ,in/ead ( build+ ) ! arr[-head a multitude ( syllabic *>act]s1 includ+ _m homophones1 z _h be5 & cont9u$ to be ! cu/om ) ! ,assyrians1 ! ,p]sians select$ a few ( ^! *>act]s & ascrib$ to !m phonetic values t 7 almo/ purely alphabetic4 ,9 a ^w1 :ile reta9+ ! w$ge z ! basal /roke ( _! script1 !y develop$ an alphabet1 mak+ ! la/ wond]ful analysis ( phonetic s\nds :i* ev5 to ?is day has escap$ ! ,*9ese1 :i* ! ,egyptians _h only p>tially effect$1 & :i* ! ,pho5icians 7 accr$it$ by ! ,greeks ) hav+ introduc$ to ! ,we/]n _w4 ,9 addition to ?is all-ess5tial /ep1 ! ,p]sians _h introduc$ ! m9or b highly conv5i5t cu/om ( sep>at+ ! words ( a s5t5ce f "o ano!r by a p>ticul> m>k1 diff]+ 9 ?is reg>d n only f ! ,assyrians & ,egyptians1 b f ! e>ly ,greek scribes z well4 ,?anks to ^! simplifications1 ! old ,p]sian language _h be5 practically re/or$ ab\t ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 ?r\gh ! ef=ts ( ! ,g]man ,grotef5d1 & fur!r advances 9 x 7 made j at ?is "t by ,r5\f1 9 ,france1 & by ,lass51 9 ,g]many1 z well z by ,rawl9son himself1 :o l>gely solv$ ! problem ( ! ,p]sian alphabet indep5d5tly4 ,s ! ,p]sian portion ( ! ,behi/un inscription c\ld be at lea/ p>tially deciph]$4 ,?is 9 itself1 h[ev]1 w\ld h be5 no v great aid t[>ds ! re/oration ( ! languages ( ! o!r portions _h x n *anc$1 =tunately1 t ! inscription is spr9kl$ ) prop] names4 ,n[ prop] names1 g5]ally speak+1 are n translat$ f "o language to ano!r1 b translit]at$ z ne>ly z ! g5ius ( ! language w p]mit4 ,x 0 ! fact t ! ,greek ^w ,ptolemaics 0 translit]at$ on ! ,rosetta ,/one t gave ! fir/ clew to ! s\nds ( ! ,egyptian *>act]s4 ,_h ! upp] "p ( ! ,rosetta ,/one be5 pres]v$1 on :i*1 orig9ally1 !re 7 sev]al o!r names1 ,"y w\ld n h halt$ :]e he did 9 8 deciph]m5t4 ,b =tune1 :i* _h be5 at once s k9d & s tantaliz+ 9 ! case ( ! ,rosetta ,/one1 _h dealt m g5tly ) ! ,behi/un inscriptions2 = no few] ?an n9ety prop] names 7 pres]v$ 9 ! ,p]sian portion & duplicat$1 9 ano!r "*1 9 ! ,assyrian inscription4 ,a /udy ( ^! gave a clew to ! s\nds ( ! ,assyrian *>act]s4 ,! deciph]m5t ( ?is "*1 h[ev]1 ev5 ) ?is aid1 prov$ enorm\sly difficult1 = x 0 soon evid5t t "h x 0 no long] a "q ( a ne>ly p]fect alphabet ( a few *>act]s1 b ( a syllab>y ( sev]al hundr$ *>act]s1 includ+ _m homophones1 or diff]5t =ms = repres5t+ ! same s\nd4 ,b ) ! ,p]sian translation = a guide on ! "o h&1 & ! ,semitic languages1 to :i* family ! ,assyrian belong$1 on ! o!r1 ! appall+ task 0 gradually accompli%$1 ! lead+ inve/igators be+ ,g5]al ,rawl9son1 ,pr(essor ,h9cks1 & ,mr4 ,fox-,talbot1 9 ,engl&1 ,pr(essor ,jules ,opp]t1 9 ,p>is1 & ,pr(essor ,julian ,s*rad]1 9 ,g]many1 ?\gh a ho/ ( o!r s*ol>s soon ent]$ ! field4 ,?is great l+ui/ic feat 0 accompli%$ ab\t ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,b s great a feat 0 x t _m s*ol>s ( ! highe/ /&+1 includ+ ,joseph ,erne/e ,r5an1 9 ,france1 & ,sir ,g4 ,cornewall ,lewis1 9 ,engl&1 decl9$ at fir/ to accept ! results1 cont5d+ t ! ,assyriologi/s _h m]ely deceiv$ !mselves by creat+ an arbitr>y language4 ,! matt] 0 put to a te/ 9 #ahee at ! sugge/ion ( ,mr4 ,fox-,talbot1 :5 f\r s*ol>s1 "o be+ ,mr4 ,talbot himself & ! o!rs ,g5]al ,rawl9son1 ,pr(essor ,h9cks1 & ,pr(essor ,opp]t1 laid be=e ! ,royal ,asiatic ,society _! indep5d5t int]pretations ( a hi!rto untranslat$ ,assyrian text4 ,a committee ( ! society1 includ+ ,engl&'s greate/ hi/orian ( ! c5tury1 ,george ,grote1 broke ! seals ( ! f\r translations1 & report$ t !y f\nd !m unequivocally 9 accord z reg>ds _! ma9 purport1 & ev5 surpris+ly uni=m z reg>ds ! phraseology ( c]ta9 passages--9 %ort1 z closely simil> z translations f ! obscure texts ( any difficult language ev] are4 ,?is decision gave ! "w ( ! ,assyriologi/s (ficial /atus1 & ! reliability ( _! me?od has nev] s9ce be5 9 "q4 ,h5ce=? ,assyriology 0 an e/abli%$ sci5ce4 ,,app5dix ,,ref]5ce-,,li/ ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,mod]n ,,developm5t ,,( ,,! ,,physical ,,sci5ces 7#a7 ,rob]t ,boyle1 ,philosophical ,works 7#c vols474 ,london1 #agch4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,beg9n+s ,,( ,,mod]n ,,*emi/ry 7#a7 ,= a complete acc\nt ( ! controv]sy call$ ! ,wat] ,controv]sy1 see ,! ,life ( ! ,hon4 ,h5ry ,cav5di%1 by ,george ,wilson1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4,e4 ,london1 #ahej4 7#b7 ,h5ry ,cav5di%1 9 ,phil4 ,trans4 = #aghd1 ,p4 #aai4 7#c7 ,lives ( ! ,philosoph]s ( ! ,"t ( ,george ,,iii41 by ,h5ry1 ,"l ,br\gham1 ,f4,r4,s41 p4 #ajf4 ,london1 #ahee4 7#d7 ,exp]im5ts & ,obs]vations on ,diff]5t ,k9ds ( ,air1 by ,joseph ,prie/ley 7#c vols474 ,birm+ham1 #gij1 vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #ajc-ajg4 7#e7 ,lectures on ,exp]im5tal ,philosophy1 by ,joseph ,prie/ley1 lecture ,,iv41 pp4 #ah1 ig4 ,j4 ,johnson1 ,london1 #agid4 7#f7 ,translat$ f ,s*eele's ,om ,brun/51 ell] ,magnesia1 o* dess ,eg5akap]4 ,/ockholm1 #aggd1 & publi%$ z ,alembic ,club ,repr9ts1 ,no4 #ac1 #ahig1 p4 #f4 7#g7 ,accord+ to "s writ]s ?is 0 discov]$ by ,b]zelius4 7#h7 ,hi/oire de la ,*imie1 p> ,f]d9& ,hoef]4 ,p>is1 #ahfi1 ,vol4 ,,cl1 p4 #bhi4 7#i7 ,elem5ts ( ,*emi/ry1 by ,anton ,laur5t ,lavoisi]1 translat$ by ,rob]t ,k]r1 p4 #h4 ,london & ,ed9burgh1 #agij4 7#aj7 ,ibid41 pp4 #dad-daf4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,*emi/ry ,,s9ce ,,! ,,"t ,,( ,,dalton 7#a7 ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 9 ,phil4 ,trans41 ,vol4 ,,viii4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,anatomy ,,& ,,physiology ,,9 ,,! ,,eighte5? ,,c5tury 7#a7 ,baas1 ,hi/ory ( ,m$ic9e1 p4 #fib4 7#b7 ,bas$ on ,?omas ,h4 ,huxley's ,presid5tial ,address to ! ,briti% ,association = ! ,advancem5t ( ,sci5ce1 #ahgj4 7#c7 ,essays on ,dige/ion1 by ,james ,c>son4 ,london1 #ahcd1 p4 #f4 7#d7 ,ibid41 p4 #g4 7#e7 ,john ,hunt]1 ,on ! ,dige/ion ( ! ,/oma* aft] ,dea?1 fir/ edition1 pp4 #ahc-ahh4 7#f7 ,erasmus ,d>w91 ,! ,botanic ,g>d51 pp4 #ddh-dec4 ,london1 #agii4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,anatomy ,,& ,,physiology ,,9 ,,! ,,n9ete5? ,,c5tury 7#a7 ,b>on de ,cuvi]'s ,!ory ( ! ,e>?4 ,new ,york1 #ahah1 p4 #abc4 7#b7 ,on ! ,organs & ,mode ( ,fecundation ( ,or*idex & ,asclepiadea1 by ,rob]t ,br[n1 ,esq41 9 ,miscellane\s ,botanical ,works4 ,london1 #ahff1 ,vol4 ,i41 pp4 #eaa-ead4 7#c7 ,ju/9 ,liebig1 ,animal ,*emi/ry4 ,london1 #ahdc1 p4 #ag;f4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,!ories ,,( ,,organic ,,evolution 7#a7 ,essay on ! ,metamorphoses ( ,plants1 by ,goe!1 translat$ = ! pres5t "w f ,grundriss e9] ,ges*i*te d] ,naturwiss5s*aft51 by ,fri$]i* ,dannemann 7#b vols474 ,leipzig1 #ahif1 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #aid4 7#b7 ,! ,temple ( ,nature1 or ,! ,orig9 ( ,society1 by ,erasmus ,d>w91 edition publi%$ 9 #ahjg1 p4 #ce4 7#c7 ,b>on de ,cuvi]1 ,!ory ( ! ,e>?4 ,new ,york1 #ahah1 p4#gd4 7,?is 0 ! introduction to ,cuvi]'s great "w47 7#d7 ,rob]t ,*amb]s1 ,explanations3 a sequel to ,ve/iges ( ,creation4 ,london1 ,*ur*ill1 #ahde1 pp4 #adh-aec4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,eighte5?-,,c5tury ,,m$ic9e 7#a7 ,cond5s$ f ,dr4 ,bo]haave's ,academical ,lectures on ! ,!ory ( ,physic4 ,london1 #agea1 pp4 #gg1 #gh4 ,bo]haave's lectures 7 publi%$ z ,aphorismi de cognosc5dis et cur&is ,morbis1 ,leyd51 #agji4 ,on ?is book ,van ,swiet5 wrote comm5t>ies fill+ five volumes4 ,ano!r v celebrat$ "w ( ,bo]haave is 8 ,in/itutiones et ,exp]im5ta ,*emic1 ,p>is1 #agbd1 ! g]ms ( ?is be+ giv5 z a lecture on 8 appo9tm5t to ! *air ( *emi/ry 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,leyd5 9 #agah4 7#b7 ,an ,inquiry into ! ,causes & ,effects ( ! ,v>iola ,vacc9e1 etc41 by ,edw>d ,j5n]1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 etc4 ,london1 #agii1 pp4 #b-g4 ,he wrote sev]al o!r pap]s1 mo/ ( :i* 7 communications to ! ,royal ,society4 ,8 la/ publication 01 ,on ! ,influ5ce ( ,artificial ,eruptions 9 ,c]ta9 ,diseases 7,london1 #ahbb71 a subject to :i* he _h giv5 mu* "t & /udy4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,n9ete5?-,,c5tury ,,m$ic9e 7#a7 ,9 ! introduction to ,corvis>t's translation ( ,av5brugg]'s "w4 ,p>is1 #ahjh4 7#b7 ,la5nec1 ,traite d',auscultation ,m$iate4 ,p>is1 #ahai4 ,?is 0 ,la5nec's *ief "w1 & 0 soon translat$ into sev]al diff]5t languages4 ,be=e publi%+ ?is he _h writt5 also1 ,propositions sur la doctr9e midicale d',hippocrate1 ,p>is1 #ahjd1 & ,memoires sur les v]s visiculaires1 9 ! same ye>4 7#c7 ,rese>*es1 ,*emical & ,philosophical1 *iefly conc]n+ ,nitr\s ,oxide or ,dephlogi/icat$ ,nitr\s ,air & its ,respiration1 by ,humphry ,davy4 ,london1 #ahjj1 pp4 #dgi-eef4 7#d7 ,ibid4 7#e7 ,= acc\nts ( ! discov]y ( anae/hesia1 see ,report ( ! ,bo>d ( ,tru/ees ( ! ,massa*usetts ,g5]al ,hospital1 ,bo/on1 #ahhh4 ,also1 ,! ,e!r ,controv]sy3 ,v9dication ( ! ,hospital ,reports ( #ahdh1 by ,n4 ,l ,b[dit*1 ,bo/on1 #ahdh4 ,an excell5t acc\nt is giv5 9 ,littell's ,liv+ ,age1 = ,m>*1 #ahdh1 writt5 by ,r4 ,h4 ,dana1 ,jr4 ,!re are also two ,congressional ,reports on ! "q ( ! discov]y ( e!rization1 "o = #ahdh1 ! o!r = #aaheb4 7#f7 ,simpson made public ?is discov]y ( ! anae/hetic prop]ties ( *lor(orm 9 a pap] read be=e ! ,m$ico-,*irurgical ,society ( ,ed9burgh1 9 ,m>*1 #ahdg1 ab\t ?ree mon?s aft] he _h fir/ se5 a surgical op]ation p]=m$ ^u a pati5t to :om e!r _h be5 adm9i/]$4 7#g7 ,l\is ,pa/eur1 ,/udies on ,f]m5tation4 ,london1 #ahgj4 7#h7 ,l\is ,pa/eur1 9 ,comptes ,r5dus des ,sci5ces de ,l',academie des ,sci5ces1 vol4 ,,xcii41 #ahha1 pp4 #dbi-dce4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,! ,,new ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,exp]im5tal ,,psy*ology 7#a7 ,bell's communications 7 made to ! ,royal ,society1 b 8 /udies & 8 discov]ies 9 ! field ( anatomy ( ! n]v\s sy/em 7 collect$ & publi%$1 9 #ahbd1 z ,an ,exposition ( ! ,natural ,sy/em ( ,n]ves ( ! ,human ,body3 be+ a ,republication ( ! ,pap]s deliv]$ to ! ,royal ,society on ! ,subject ( ! ,n]ves4 7#b7 ,m>%all ,hall1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4,l41 ,on ! ,reflex ,functions ( ! ,m$ulla ,oblongata & ! ,m$ulla ,sp9alis1 9 ,phil4 ,trans4 ( ,royal ,soc41 vol4 ,,xxxiii41 #ahcc4