,a ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,sci5ce ,,mod]n ,,developm5t ,,( ,,! ,,physical ,,sci5ces ,by ,h5ry ,smi? ,williams1 ,m4,d41 ,ll4,d4 ,assi/$ ,by ,edw>d ,h4 ,williams1 ,m4,d4 ,9 ,five ,volumes ,volume ,,iii4 ,,cont5ts ,,book ,,iii ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,successors ,,( ,,newton ,,9 ,,a/ronomy ,! "w ( ,johannes ,hevelius--,halley & ,hevelius--,halley's obs]vation ( ! transit ( ,m]cury1 & 8 me?od ( det]m9+ ! p>allax ( ! planets--,halley's obs]vation ( meteors--,8 inability to expla9 ^! bodies--,! important "w ( ,james ,bradley--,lacaille's measurem5t ( ! arc ( ! m]idian--,! det]m9ation ( ! "q z to ! exact %ape ( ! e>?--,d',alemb]t & 8 influ5ce ^u sci5ce--,delambre's ,hi/ory ( ,a/ronomy--,! a/ronomical "w ( ,eul]4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,progress ,,( ,,mod]n ,,a/ronomy ,! "w ( ,william ,h]s*el--,8 discov]y ( ,uranus--,8 discov]y t ! />s are suns--,8 conception ( ! univ]se--,8 d$uction t gravitation has caus$ ! gr\p+ ( ! heav5ly bodies--,! nebula1 hypo!sis1--,immanuel ,kant's conception ( ! =mation ( ! _w--,defects 9 ,kant's conception--,laplace's f9al solution ( ! problem--,8 explanation 9 detail--,*ange 9 ! m5tal attitude ( ! _w s9ce ,bruno--,a/]oids & satellites--,discov]ies ( ,olb]sl--,! ma!matical calculations ( ,adams & ,lev]ri]--,! discov]y ( ! inn] r+ ( ,saturn--,cl]k ,maxwell's pap] on ! /ability ( ,saturn's r+s--,helmholtz's conception ( ! action ( tidal friction--,pr(essor ,g4 ,h4 ,d>w9's e/imate ( ! consequ5ces ( tidal action--,comets & meteors--,br$i*9's comet>y !ory--,! f9al solution ( ! /ructure ( comets--,newcomb's e/imate ( ! am\nt ( comet>y du/ swept up daily by ! e>?--,! fix$ />s--,john ,h]s*el's /udies ( d\ble />s--,fraunh(]'s p]fection ( ! refract+ telescope--,bessel's measurem5t ( ! p>allax ( a />1--,h5d]son's measurem5ts--,kir*h(f & ,buns5's p]fection ( ! spectroscope--,wond]ful revelations ( ! spectroscope--,"l ,kelv9's e/imate ( ! "t t w be requir$ = ! e>? to become completely cool$--,alvan ,cl>k's discov]y ( ! companion /> ( ,sirius--,! adv5t ( ! photographic film 9 a/ronomy--,dr4 ,hugg9s's /udies ( nebulae--,sir ,norman ,locky]'s cosmogonic guess1--,croll's pre-nebul> !ory4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,new ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,paleontology ,william ,smi? & fossil %ells--,8 discov]y t fossil rocks are arrang$ 9 regul> sy/ems--,smi?'s inquiries tak5 up by ,cuvi]--,8 ,ossem5ts ,fossiles conta9+ ! fir/ description ( hairy elephant--,8 cont5tion t fossils repres5t ext9ct species only--,dr4 ,buckl&'s /udies ( ,engli% fossil-b$s--,*>les ,lyell combats cata/rophism1--,elaboration ( 8 ideas ) ref]5ce to ! rotation ( species--,! e/abli%m5t ( ! doctr9e ( uni=mit>ianism1--,d>w9's ,orig9 ( ,species--,fossil man--,dr4 ,falcon]'s visit to ! fossil-b$s 9 ! valley ( ! ,somme--,inve/igations ( ,pre/wi* & ,sir ,john ,evans--,discov]y ( ! ,ne&]?al skull1--,cuvi]'s rejection ( human fossils--,! f9d+ ( prehi/oric c>v+ on ivory--,! fossil-b$s ( ,am]ica--,pr(essor ,m>%'s pap] on ! fossil horses 9 ,am]ica--,! ,w>r5 ma/odon1--,! ,java fossil1 ,pi!can?ropus ,erectus4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,! ,,orig9 ,,& ,,developm5t ,,( ,,mod]n ,,geology ,james ,hutton & ! /udy ( ! rocks--,8 !ory ( ! e>?--,8 belief 9 volcanic cataclysms 9 rais+ & =m+ ! cont95ts--,8 fam\s pap] be=e ! ,royal ,society ( ,ed9burgh1 #agha---;,8 conclusions t all /rata ( ! e>? h _! orig9 at ! bottom ( ! sea---,8 d$uction t heat$ & exp&$ matt] caus$ ! elevation ( l& above ! sea-level--,indiff]5ce at fir/ %[n ?is rem>kable pap]--,neptuni/s v]sus ,plutoni/s--,scrope's classical "w on volcanoes--,f9al acceptance ( ,hutton's explanation ( ! orig9 ( granites--,lyell & uni=mit>ianism--,obs]vations on ! gradual elevation ( ! coa/-l9es ( ,sw$5 & ,patagonia--,obs]vations on ! enorm\s am\nt ( l& erosion con/antly tak+ place1--,agassiz & ! glacial !ory--,p]raud9 ! *amois-hunt]1 & 8 explanation ( p]*$ b[ld]s--,de ,*>p5ti]'s acceptance ( ,p]raud9's explanation--,agassiz's pap] on 8 ,alp9e /udies--,8 conclusion t ! ,alps 7 once cov]$ ) an ice-%eet--,f9al acceptance ( ! glacial !ory--,! geological ages--,! "w ( ,mur*ison & ,s$gwick--,=mation ( ! ,am]ican cont95ts--,pa/1 pres5t1 & future4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,! ,,new ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,meteorology ,biot's inve/igations ( meteors--,! obs]vations ( ,br&es & ,b5z5b]g on ! velocity ( fall+ />s--,pr(essor ,olm/ead's obs]vations on ! meteoric %[] ( #ahcc--;,confirmation ( ,*ladni's hypo!sis ( #agid--,! aurora borealis--,frankl9's sugge/ion t x is ( electrical orig9--,its close association ) t]re/rial magnetism--,evaporation1 cl\d-=mation1 & dew--,dalton's demon/ration t wat] exi/s 9 ! air z an indep5d5t gas--,hutton's !ory ( ra9--,luke ,h[>d's pap] on cl\ds--,obs]vations on dew1 by ,pr(essor ,wilson & ,mr4 ,six--,dr4 ,wells's essay on dew--,8 obs]vations on sev]al appe>ances connect$ ) dew--,iso!rms & ocean curr5ts--,humboldt & !-sci5ce ( comp>ative climatology--,8 /udies ( ocean curr5ts--,maury's !ory t gravity is ! cause ( ocean curr5ts--,dr4 ,croll on ,climate & ,"t--,cyclones & anti-cyclones1--,dove's /udies 9 climatology--,pr(essor ,f]rel's ma!matical law ( ! deflection ( w9ds--,tyndall's e/imate ( ! am\nt ( heat giv5 (f by ! lib]ation ( a p\nd ( vapor--,meteorological obs]vations & wea!r pr$ictions4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,mod]n ,,!ories ,,( ,,heat ,,& ,,light ,josiah ,w$gwood & ! clay pyromet]--,c\nt ,rum=d & ! vibratory !ory ( heat--,8 exp]im5ts ) bor+ cannon to det]m9e ! nature ( heat--,caus+ wat] to boil by ! friction ( ! bor]--,8 f9al det]m9ation t heat is a =m ( motion--,?omas ,"y & ! wave !ory ( light--,8 pap] on ! !ory ( light & colors--,8 exposition ( ! colors ( ?9 plates--,( ! colors ( ?ick plates1 & ( /riat$ surfaces1--,arago & ,fresnel *ampion ! wave !ory--opposition to ! !ory by ,biot--,! ,fr5* ,academy's tacit acceptance ( ! correctness ( ! !ory by its admission ( ,fresnel z a memb]4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,! ,,mod]n ,,developm5t ,,( ,,electricity ,,& ,,magnetism ,galvani & ! beg9n+ ( mod]n electricity--,! con/ruction ( ! voltaic pile--,ni*olson's & ,c>lisle's discov]y t ! galvanic curr5t decomposes wat]--,decomposition ( v>i\s sub/ances by ,sir ,humphry ,davy--,8 con/ruction ( an arc-light--,! deflection ( ! magnetic ne$le by electricity demon/rat$ by ,o]/$--,effect ( ?is important discov]y--,amp]e creates ! sci5ce ( electro-dynamics--,joseph ,h5ry's /udies ( electromagnets--,mi*ael ,f>aday beg9s 8 /udies ( electromagnetic induction--,8 fam\s pap] be=e ! ,royal ,society1 9 #ahca1 9 :i* he demon/rates electro-magnetic induction--,8 explanation ( ,arago's rotat+ disk--,! se>* = a satisfactory me?od ( /or+ electricity--,ro5tg5 rays1 or ,x-rays4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,! ,,cons]vation ,,( ,,en]gy ,f>aday n>r[ly misses ! discov]y ( ! doctr9e ( cons]vation--,c>not's belief t a def9ite quantity ( "w c be trans=m$ into a def9ite quantity ( heat--,! "w ( ,james ,prescott ,j\le--,inve/igations begun by ,dr4 ,may]--,may]'s pap] ( #ahdb--;,8 /atem5t ( ! law ( ! cons]vation ( en]gy--,may] & ,helmholtz--,j\le's pap] ( #ahdc--;,j\le or ,may]--,"l ,kelv9 & ! dissipation ( en]gy-,! f9al unification4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,! ,,e!r ,,& ,,pond]able ,,matt] ,james ,cl]k-,maxwell's conception ( e!r--,?omas ,"y & ,lum9if]\s e!r1--,"y's & ,fresnel's conception ( transv]se lum9if]\s undulations--,f>aday's exp]im5ts po9t+ to ! exi/5ce ( e!r--,pr(essor ,lodge's sugge/ion ( two e!rs--,"l ,kelv9's calculation ( ! probable d5sity ( e!r--,! vortex !ory ( atoms--,helmholtz's calculations 9 vortex motions--,pr(essor ,tait's app>atus = creat+ vortex r+s 9 ! air---,! ultimate con/itution ( matt] z conceiv$ by ,boscovi*--,davy's speculations z to ! *anges t occur 9 ! sub/ance ( matt] at diff]5t temp]atures--,clausius's & ,maxwell's inve/igations ( ! k9etic !ory ( gases--,"l ,kelv9's e/imate ( ! size ( ! molecule--,/udies ( ! pot5tial en]gy ( molecules--,action ( gases at l[ temp]atures4 ,,app5dix ,a ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,sci5ce ,,book ,,iii4 ,,mod]n ,,developm5t ,,( ,,! ,,physical ,,sci5ces ,) ! pres5t book we ent] ! field ( ! di/9ctively mod]n4 ,!re is no precise date at :i* we take up ea* ( ! successive /ories1 b ! ma9 sweep ( developm5t has to d 9 ea* case ) ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,we %all see at once t ?is is a "t bo? ( rapid progress & ( great diff]5tiation4 ,we h he>d almo/ no?+ hi!rto ( su* sci5ces z paleontology1 geology1 & meteorology1 ea* ( :i* n[ dem&s full att5tion4 ,meantime1 a/ronomy & :at ! work]s ( ! eld] day call$ natural philosophy become wond]fully div]sifi$ & pres5t num]\s phases t w\ld h be5 />tl+ en\gh to ! />-gaz]s & philosoph]s ( ! e>li] epo*4 ,?us1 = example1 9 ! field ( a/ronomy1 ,h]s*el is able1 ?anks to 8 p]fect$ telescope1 to discov] a new planet & !n to rea* out into ! dep?s ( space & ga9 su* k ( />s & nebulae z hi!rto no "o _h m ?an dream$ (4 ,!n1 9 rapid sequ5ce1 a :ole cot]ie ( hi!rto unsuspect$ m9or planets is discov]$1 /ell> di/ances are measur$1 "s memb]s ( ! />ry galaxy are tim$ 9 _! flight1 ! direction ( movem5t ( ! sol> sy/em itself is inve/igat$1 ! spectroscope reveals ! *emical composition ev5 ( suns t are un?9kably di/ant1 & a tangible !ory is grasp$ ( ! univ]sal cycle :i* includes ! bir? & dea? ( worlds4 ,simil>ly ! new /udies ( ! e>?'s surface reveal secrets ( planet>y =mation hi!rto q inscrutable4 ,x becomes kn[n t ! /rata ( ! e>?'s surface h be5 =m+ ?r\gh\t untold ages1 & t successive populations diff]+ utt]ly f "o ano!r h peopl$ ! e>? 9 diff]5t geological epo*s4 ,! entire po9t ( view ( ?\ghtful m5 becomes *ang$ 9 contemplat+ ! hi/ory ( ! _w 9 :i* we live--albeit ! newe/ ?\ght h>ks back to "s ext5t to ^? days :5 ! inspir$ ?9k]s ( e>ly ,greece dream$ out ! wond]ful !ories ) :i* our e>li] *apt]s h made our read]s famili>4 ,9 ! region ( natural philosophy progress is no less pron\nc$ & no less /rik+4 ,x suffices "h1 h[ev]1 by way ( anticipation1 simply to "n ! greate/ g5]alization ( ! c5tury 9 physical sci5ce--! doctr9e ( ! cons]vation ( en]gy4 ,i4 ,,! ,,successors ,,( ,,newton ,,9 ,,a/ronomy ,,hevelius ,,& ,,halley ,,/rangely en\gh1 ! decade imm$iately foll[+ ,newton 0 "o ( comp>ative b>r5ness 9 sci5tific progress1 ! e>ly ye>s ( ! eighte5? c5tury n be+ z productive ( great a/ronom]s z ! lat] ye>s ( ! sev5te5?1 or1 = t matt]1 z ! lat] ye>s ( ! eighte5? c5tury itself4 ,sev]al ( ! prom95t a/ronom]s ( ! lat] sev5te5? c5tury liv$ on into ! op5+ ye>s ( ! foll[+ c5tury1 h[ev]1 & ! y\ng] g5]ation soon develop$ a cot]ie ( a/ronom]s1 among :om ,eul]1 ,lagrange1 ,laplace1 & ,h]s*el1 z we %all see1 7 to accompli% great ?+s 9 ?is field be=e ! c5tury clos$4 ,"o ( ! great sev5te5?-c5tury a/ronom]s1 :o di$ j be=e ! close ( ! c5tury1 0 ,johannes ,hevelius 7#afaa-afhg71 ( ,dantzig1 :o advanc$ a/ronomy by 8 accurate description ( ! face & ! spots ( ! moon4 ,b he is rememb]$ also = hav+ ret>d$ progress by 8 influ5ce 9 refus+ to use telescopic sights 9 8 obs]vations1 pref]r+ until 8 dea? ! pla9 sights long be=e disc>d$ by mo/ o!r a/ronom]s4 ,! advantages ( ^! telescope sights h be5 discuss$ "u ! article treat+ ( ,rob]t ,hooke1 b no su* advantages 7 ev] recogniz$ by ,hevelius4 ,s great 0 ,hevelius's reputation z an a/ronom] t 8 refusal to recognize ! advantage ( ! telescope sights caus$ _m a/ronom]s to hesitate be=e accept+ !m z sup]ior to ! pla92 & ev5 ! fam\s ,halley1 ( :om we %all speak fur!r 9 a mom5t1 0 suffici5tly 9 d\bt ov] ! matt] to pay ! ag$ a/ronom] a visit to te/ 8 skill 9 us+ ! old-/yle sights4 ,side by side1 ,hevelius & ,halley made _! obs]vations1 ,hevelius ) 8 old in/rum5t & ,halley ) ! new4 ,! results %[$ slightly 9 ! y\ng] man's favor1 b n en\gh to make x an entirely conv9c+ demon/ration4 ,! explanation ( ?is1 h[ev]1 did n lie 9 ! lack ( sup]iority ( ! telescopic in/rum5t1 b r 9 ! m>vell\s skill ( ! ag$ ,hevelius1 ^: dext]ity almo/ comp5sat$ = ! defect ( 8 in/rum5t4 ,:at he might h accompli%$ c\ld he h be5 induc$ to adopt ! telescope c only be surmis$4 ,halley himself 0 by no means a tyro 9 matt]s a/ronomical at t "t4 ,z ! only son ( a weal?y soap-boil] liv+ ne> ,london1 he _h be5 giv5 a lib]al education1 & ev5 be=e leav+ college made su* novel sci5tific obs]vations z t ( ! *ange 9 ! v>iation ( ! compass4 ,at n9ete5 ye>s ( age he discov]$ a new me?od ( det]m9+ ! elem5ts ( ! planet>y orbits :i* 0 a di/9ct improvem5t ov] ! old4 ,! ye> foll[+ he sail$ = ! ,isl& ( ,/1 ,hel5a to make obs]vations ( ! heav5s 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,x 0 :ile 9 ,/4 ,hel5a t ,halley made 8 fam\s obs]vation ( ! transit ( ,m]cury ov] ! sun's disk1 ?is obs]vation be+ connect$1 indirectly at lea/1 ) 8 discov]y ( a me?od ( det]m9+ ! p>allax ( ! planets4 ,by p>allax is meant ! app>5t *ange 9 ! position ( an object1 due really to a *ange 9 ! position ( ! obs]v]4 ,?us1 if we imag9e two a/ronom]s mak+ obs]vations ( ! sun f opposite sides ( ! e>? at ! same "t1 x is obvi\s t to ^! obs]v]s ! sun w appe> to be at two diff]5t po9ts 9 ! sky4 ,half ! angle measur+ ?is diff]5ce w\ld be kn[n z ! sun's p>allax4 ,?is w\ld dep5d1 !n1 ^u ! di/ance ( ! e>? f ! sun & ! l5g? ( ! e>?'s radius4 ,s9ce ! actual l5g? ( ?is radius has be5 det]m9$1 ! p>allax ( any heav5ly body enables ! a/ronom] to det]m9e its exact di/ance4 ,! p>allaxes c be det]m9$ equally well1 h[ev]1 if two obs]v]s are sep>at$ by exactly kn[n di/ances1 sev]al hundr$s or ?\s&s ( miles ap>t4 ,9 ! case ( a transit ( ,v5us across ! sun's disk1 = example1 an obs]v] at ,new ,york notes ! image ( ! planet mov+ across ! sun's disk1 & notes also ! exact "t ( ?is obs]vation4 ,9 ! same mann] an obs]v] at ,london makes simil> obs]vations4 ,kn[+ ! di/ance betwe5 ,new ,york & ,london1 & ! diff]5t "t ( ! passage1 x is ?us possible to calculate ! diff]5ce ( ! p>allaxes ( ! sun & a planet cross+ its disk4 ,! idea ( ?us det]m9+ ! p>allax ( ! planets orig9at$1 or at lea/ 0 develop$1 by ,halley1 & f ?is ph5om5on he ?\ght x possible to conclude ! dim5sions ( all ! planet>y orbits4 ,z we %all see fur!r on1 8 views 7 f\nd to be correct by lat] a/ronom]s4 ,9 #agba ,halley succe$$ ,flam/e$ z a/ronom] royal at ! ,gre5wi* ,obs]vatory4 ,al?\gh sixty-f\r ye>s ( age at t "t 8 activity 9 a/ronomy cont9u$ unabat$ = ano!r score ( ye>s4 ,at ,gre5wi* he und]took "s t$i\s obs]vations ( ! moon1 & dur+ ^? obs]vations 0 fir/ to detect ! accel]ation ( mean motion4 ,he 0 unable to expla9 ?is1 h[ev]1 & x rema9$ = ,laplace 9 ! clos+ ye>s ( ! c5tury to d s1 z we %all see lat]4 ,halley's book1 ! ,synopsis ,a/ronomiae ,cometicae1 is "o ( ! mo/ valuable additions to a/ronomical lit]ature s9ce ! "t ( ,kepl]4 ,he 0 fir/ to attempt ! calculation ( ! orbit ( a comet1 hav+ reviv$ ! anci5t op9ion t comets belong to ! sol> sy/em1 mov+ 9 ecc5tric orbits r\nd ! sun1 & 8 calculation ( ! orbit ( ! comet ( #afhb l$ him to pr$ict correctly ! return ( t comet 9 #ageh4 ,halley's ,/udy ( ,meteors4 ,l o!r a/ronom]s ( 8 "t he 0 greatly puzzl$ ov] ! well-kn[n ph5om5a ( %oot+-/>s1 or meteors1 mak+ _m obs]vations himself1 & exam9+ c>efully ! obs]vations ( o!r a/ronom]s4 ,9 #agad he gave 8 views z to ! orig9 & composition ( ^! my/]i\s visitors 9 ! e>?'s atmosph]e4 ,z ?is subject w be aga9 ref]r$ to 9 a lat] *apt]1 ,halley's views1 repres5t+ ! mo/ advanc$ views ( 8 age1 are ( int]e/4 ,! !ory ( ! air seeme? at pres5t1 he says1 to be p]fectly well und]/ood1 & ! diff]+ d5sities !re( at all altitudes2 = suppos+ ! same air to occupy spaces reciprocally proportional to ! quantity ( ! sup]ior or incumb5t air1 ,i h else:]e prov$ t at =ty miles high ! air is r>] ?an at ! surface ( ! e>? at ?ree ?\s& times2 & t ! utmo/ height ( ! atmosph]e1 :i* reflects light 9 ! ,crepusculum1 is n fully =ty-five miles1 not)/&+ :i* 'tis /ill manife/ t "s sort ( vapors1 & ^? 9 no small quantity1 arise ne>ly to t height4 ,an in/ance ( ?is may be giv5 9 ! great light ! society _h an acc\nt ( 7vide ,transact4 ,sep41 #afgf7 f ,dr4 ,wallis1 :i* 0 se5 9 v di/ant c\nties almo/ ov] all ! s\? "p ( ,engl&4 ,( :i* ?\gh ! doctor c\ld n get s p>ticul> a relation z 0 requisite to det]m9e ! height !re(1 yet f ! di/ant places x 0 se5 91 x c\ld n b be v _m miles high4 ,s likewise t meteor :i* 0 se5 9 #agjh1 on ! #ca/ ( ,july1 betwe5 n9e & t5 o'clock at night1 0 evid5tly betwe5 =ty & fifty miles p]p5dicul>ly high1 & z ne> z ,i c ga!r1 ov] ,%]5ess & ! buoy on ! ,nore4 ,= x 0 se5 at ,london mov+ horizontally f ea/ by nor? to ea/ by s\? at lea/ fifty degrees high1 & at ,r$grove1 9 ,suffolk1 on ! ,y>m\? road1 ab\t tw5ty miles f ! ea/ coa/ ( ,engl&1 & at lea/ =ty miles to ! ea/w>d ( ,london1 x appe>$ a little to ! we/w>d ( ! s\?1 suppose s\? by we/1 & 0 se5 ab\t ?irty degrees high1 slid+ obliquely d[nw>d4 ,i 0 %[n 9 bo? places ! situation !re(1 :i* 0 z describ$1 b c\ld wi% "s p]son skill$ 9 a/ronomical matt]s bad se5 x1 t we might pron\nce conc]n+ its height ) m c]ta9ty4 ,yet1 z x is1 we may securely conclude t x 0 n _m m miles we/]ly ?an ,r$grove1 :i*1 z ,i said be=e1 is ab\t =ty miles m ea/]ly ?an ,london4 ,suppose x1 !re=e1 :]e p]p5dicul>1 to h be5 ?irty-five miles ea/ f ,london1 & by ! altitude x appe>$ at 9 ,london--viz41 fifty degrees1 its tang5t w be =ty-two miles1 = ! height ( ! meteor above ! surface ( ! e>?2 :i* also is r ( ! lea/1 because ! altitude ( ! place %[n me is r m ?an less ?an fifty degrees2 & ! l may be conclud$ f ! altitude x appe>$ 9 at ,r$grove1 ne> sev5ty miles di/ant4 ,?\gh at ?is v great di/ance1 x appe>$ to move ) an incr$ible velocity1 d>t+1 9 a v few seconds ( "t1 = ab\t twelve degrees ( a great circle f nor? to s\?1 be+ v bright at its fir/ appe>ance2 & x di$ away at ! ea/ ( its c\rse1 leav+ = "s "t a pale :it5ess 9 ! place1 ) "s rema9s ( x 9 ! track :]e x _h gone2 b no hiss+ s\nd z x pass$1 or b\nce ( an explosion 7 he>d4 ,x may des]ve ! honorable society's ?\ghts1 h[ s great a quantity ( vapor %\ld be rais$ to ! top ( ! atmosph]e1 & !re collect$1 s z ^u its asc5sion or o!rwise illum9ation1 to give a light to a circle ( above "o hundr$ miles diamet]1 n mu* inf]ior to ! light ( ! moon2 s z "o might see to take a p9 f ! gr\nd 9 ! o!rwise d>k night4 ',tis h>d to conceive :at sort ( exhalations %\ld rise f ! e>?1 ei!r by ! action ( ! sun or subt]ranean heat1 s z to surm\nt ! extreme cold & r>5ess ( ! air 9 ^? upp] regions3 b ! fact is indisputable1 & !re=e requires a solution4 ,f ?is mu* ( ! pap] x appe>s t !re 0 a g5]al belief t ?is burn+ mass 0 heat$ vapor ?r[n (f f ! e>? 9 "s my/]i\s mann]1 yet ?is is unsatisfactory to ,halley1 = aft] cit+ v>i\s o!r meteors t h appe>$ )9 8 k1 he goes on to say3 ,:at sort ( sub/ance x mu/ be1 t c\ld be s impell$ & ignit$ at ! same "t2 !re be+ no ,vulcano or o!r ,spiraculum ( subt]rane\s fire 9 ! nor!a/ p>ts ( ! _w1 t we ev] yet he>d (1 f :5ce x might be project$4 ,i h mu* consid]$ ?is appe>ance1 & ?9k x "o ( ! h>de/ ?+s to acc\nt = t ,i h yet met ) 9 ! ph5om5a ( meteors1 & ,i am induc$ to ?9k t x mu/ be "s collection ( matt] =m$ 9 ! ae!r1 z x 71 by "s =tuit\s conc\rse ( atoms1 & t ! e>? met ) x z x pass$ along 9 its orb1 !n b newly =m$1 & be=e x _h conceiv$ any great impetus ( desc5t t[>ds ! sun4 ,= ! direction ( x 0 exactly opposite to t ( ! e>?1 :i* made an angle ) ! m]idian at t "t ( sixty-sev5 gr41 t is1 its c\rse 0 f we/ s\?we/ to ea/ nor!a/1 :]e=e ! meteor seem$ to move ! contr>y way4 ,& besides fall+ into ! p[] ( ! e>?'s gravity1 & los+ its motion f ! opposition ( ! m$ium1 x seems t x desc5d$ t[>ds ! e>?1 & 0 ext+ui%$ 9 ! ,tyrrh5e ,sea1 to ! we/ s\?we/ ( ,leghorn4 ,! great bl[ be+ he>d ^u its fir/ imm]sion into ! wat]1 & ! rattl+ l ! driv+ ( a c>t ov] /ones be+ :at succe$$ ^u its qu5*+2 some?+ l ?is is always he>d ^u qu5*+ a v hot iron 9 wat]4 ,^! facts be+ pa/ dispute1 ,i w\ld be glad to h ! op9ion ( ! le>n$ !reon1 & :at objection c be reasonably made aga9/ ! above hypo!sis1 :i* ,i humbly submit to _! c5sure47#a7 ,^! few p>agraphs1 com+ z !y d f a lead+ eighte5?-c5tury a/ronom]1 convey m cle>ly ?an any comm5t ! actual /ate ( ! meteorological le>n+ at t "t4 ,t ?is ball ( fire1 ru%+ at a great] velocity ?an ! swifte/ cannon-ball1 0 simply a mass ( heat$ rock pass+ ?r\gh our atmosph]e1 did n occur to him1 or at lea/ 0 n cr$it$4 ,nor is ?is surpris+ :5 we reflect t at t "t univ]sal gravitation _h be5 b rec5tly discov]$2 heat _h n z yet be5 recogniz$ z simply a =m ( motion2 & ?und] & lightn+ 7 unexpla9$ my/]ies1 n to be expla9$ = ano!r ?ree-qu>t]s ( a c5tury4 ,9 ! *apt] on meteorology we %all see h[ ! solution ( ?is my/]y t puzzl$ ,halley & 8 associates all _! lives 0 f9ally atta9$4 ,,bradley ,,& ,,! ,,ab]ration ,,( ,,light ,halley 0 succe$$ z a/ronom] royal by a man ^: useful additions to ! sci5ce 7 n to be recogniz$ or appreciat$ fully until br\ght to light by ! ,prussian a/ronom] ,bessel e>ly 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,?is 0 ,dr4 ,james ,bradley1 an ecclesia/ic1 :o ranks z "o ( ! mo/ em95t a/ronom]s ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,8 mo/ rem>kable discov]y 0 ! explanation ( a peculi> motion ( ! pole-/>1 fir/ obs]v$1 b n expla9$1 by ,pic>d a c5tury be=e4 ,= _m ye>s a satisfactory explanation 0 s\ght unsuccessfully by ,bradley & 8 fell[-a/ronom]s1 b at la/ he 0 able to demon/rate t ! />y ,draconis1 on :i* he 0 mak+ 8 obs]vations1 describ$1 or appe>$ to describe1 a small ellipse4 ,if ?is obs]vation 0 correct1 x af=d$ a means ( comput+ ! ab]ration ( any /> at all times4 ,! explanation ( ! physical cause ( ?is ab]ration1 z ,bradley ?\ght1 & aft]w>ds demon/rat$1 0 ! result ( ! comb9ation ( ! motion ( light ) ! annual motion ( ! e>?4 ,bradley fir/ =mulat$ ?is !ory 9 #agbh1 b x 0 n until #agdh--tw5ty ye>s ( cont9u\s /ruggle & obs]vation by him--t he 0 prep>$ to communicate ! results ( 8 ef=ts to ! ,royal ,society4 ,?is rem>kable pap] is ?\ght by ! ,fr5*man1 ,delambre1 to entitle its au?or to a place 9 sci5ce beside su* a/ronom]s z ,hipp>cbus & ,kepl]4 ,bradley's /udies l$ him to discov] also ! libratory motion ( ! e>?'s axis4 ,z ?is appe>ance ( ,draconis indicat$ a dim9ution ( ! incl9ation ( ! e>?'s axis to ! plane ( ! ecliptic1 he says2 & z sev]al a/ronom]s h suppos$ ,,t incl9ation to dim9i% regul>ly2 if ?is ph5om5on dep5d$ ^u su* a cause1 & am\nt$ to #ah 9 n9e ye>s1 ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic w\ld1 at t rate1 alt] a :ole m9ute 9 ?irty ye>s2 :i* is mu* fa/] ?an any obs]vations1 be=e made1 w\ld all[4 ,i _h reason1 !re=e1 to ?9k t "s "p ( ?is motion at ! lea/1 if n ! :ole1 0 ow+ to ! moon's action ^u ! equatorial p>ts ( ! e>?2 :i*1 ,i conceiv$1 might cause a libratory motion ( ! e>?'s axis4 ,b z ,i 0 unable to judge1 f only n9e ye>s obs]vations1 :e!r ! axis w\ld entirely recov] ! same position t x _h 9 ! ye> #agbg1 ,i f\nd x necess>y to cont9ue my obs]vations ?r\gh a :ole p]iod ( ! moon's nodes2 at ! end ( :i* ,i _h ! satisfaction to see1 t ! />s1 return$ into ! same position aga92 z if !re _h be5 no alt]ation at all 9 ! incl9ation ( ! e>?'s axis2 :i* fully conv9c$ me t ,i _h guess$ rightly z to ! cause ( ! ph5om5a4 ,?is circum/ance proves likewise1 t if !re be a gradual dim9ution ( ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic1 x does n arise only f an alt]ation 9 ! position ( ! e>?'s axis1 b r f "s *ange 9 ! plane ( ! ecliptic itself2 because ! />s1 at ! end ( ! p]iod ( ! moon's nodes1 appe>$ 9 ! same places1 ) respect to ! equator1 z !y ought to h done1 if ! e>?'s axis _h reta9$ ! same incl9ation to an inv>iable plane47#b7 ,,fr5* ,,a/ronom]s ,mean:ile1 a/ronom]s across ! *annel 7 by no means idle4 ,9 ,france sev]al successful obs]v]s 7 mak+ _m additions to ! already long li/ ( obs]vations ( ! fir/ a/ronom] ( ! ,royal ,obs]vatory ( ,p>is1 ,dom9ic ,cass9i 7#afbe-agab71 ^: reputation among 8 contempor>ies 0 mu* great] ?an among succe$+ g5]ations ( a/ronom]s4 ,p]haps ! mo/ des]v+ ( ^! successors 0 ,nicolas ,l\is de ,lacaille 7#agac-agfb71 a !ologian :o _h be5 educat$ at ! exp5se ( ! ,duke ( ,b\rbon1 & :o1 soon aft] complet+ 8 cl]ical /udies1 came "u ! patronage ( ,cass9i1 ^: att5tion _h be5 call$ to ! "y man's int]e/ 9 ! sci5ces4 ,"o ( ,lacaille's fir/ "u-tak+s 0 ! remeasur+ ( ! ,fr5* are ( ! m]idian1 :i* _h be5 incorrectly measur$ by 8 patron 9 #afhd4 ,?is 0 begun 9 #agci1 & occupi$ him = two ye>s be=e successfully complet$4 ,z a rew>d1 h[ev]1 he 0 admitt$ to ! academy & appo9t$ ma!matical pr(essor 9 ,maz>9 ,college4 ,9 #agea he w5t to ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope = ! purpose ( det]m9+ ! sun's p>allax by obs]vations ( ! p>allaxes ( ,m>s & ,v5us1 & incid5tally to make obs]vations on ! o!r s\!rn hemisph]e />s4 ,! results ( ?is und]tak+ 7 mo/ successful1 & 7 giv5 9 8 ,coelum au/rale /ellig]um1 etc41 publi%$ 9 #agfc4 ,9 ?is he %[s t 9 ! c\rse ( a s+le ye> he _h obs]v$ "s t5 ?\s& />s1 & comput$ ! places ( "o ?\s& n9e hundr$ & =ty-two ( !m1 measur$ a degree ( ! m]idian1 & made _m obs]vations ( ! moon--productive indu/ry seldom equall$ 9 a s+le ye> 9 any field4 ,^! obs]vations 7 ( great s]vice to ! a/ronom]s1 z !y af=d$ ! opportunity ( comp>+ ! />s ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e ) ^? ( ! nor!rn1 :i* 7 be+ obs]v$ simultane\sly by ,lel&e at ,b]l94 ,lacaille's obs]vations foll[$ closely ^u ! det]m9ation ( an absorb+ "q :i* occupi$ ! att5tion ( ! a/ronom]s 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! c5tury4 ,?is "q 0 z to ! %ape ( ! e>?--:e!r x 0 actually flatt5$ at ! poles4 ,to settle ?is "q once = all ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces decid$ to make ! actual measurem5t ( ! l5g? ( two degrees1 "o z ne> ! pole z possible1 ! o!r at ! equator4 ,accord+ly1 ?ree a/ronom]s1 ,god91 ,b\gu]1 & ,la ,condam9e1 made ! j\rney to a spot on ! equator 9 ,p]u1 :ile f\r a/ronom]s1 ,camus1 ,clairaut1 ,maup]tuis1 & ,lemonni]1 made a voyage to a place select$ 9 ,lapl&4 ,! result ( ^! exp$itions 0 ! det]m9ation t ! globe is oblately sph]oidal4 ,a great contempor>y & fell[-c\ntryman ( ,lacaille 0 ,jean ,le ,rond d',alemb]t 7#agag-aghc71 :o1 al?\gh n prim>ily an a/ronom]1 did s mu* ) 8 ma!matical calculations to aid t sci5ce t 8 "n is closely connect$ ) its progress dur+ ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,d',alemb]t1 :o became "o ( ! be/-kn[n m5 ( sci5ce ( 8 day1 & ^: s]vices 7 eag]ly s\ght by ! rul]s ( ,europe1 began life z a f\ndl+1 hav+ be5 expos$ 9 "o ( ! m>kets ( ,p>is4 ,! sickly infant 0 adopt$ & c>$ = 9 ! family ( a poor glazi]1 & treat$ z a memb] ( ! family4 ,9 lat] ye>s1 h[ev]1 aft] ! f\ndl+ _h become fam\s ?r\gh\t ,europe1 8 "m1 ,madame ,t5c91 s5t = him1 & ackn[l$g$ h] relation%ip4 ,x is m ?an likely t ! great philosoph] believ$ h] /ory1 b if s he did n all[ h] ! satisfaction ( kn[+ 8 belief1 decl>+ always t ,madame ,t5c9 c\ld n be ne>] ?an a /ep-"m to him1 s9ce 8 "m 0 ! wife ( ! glazi]4 ,d',alemb]t did mu* = ! cause ( sci5ce by 8 example z well z by 8 discov]ies4 ,by liv+ a pla9 b hone/ life1 decl9+ magnific5t (f]s ( positions f royal patrons1 at ! same "t refus+ to grovel be=e nobility1 he set a wor?y example to o!r philosoph]s ^: cr++ & pusillanim\s attitude t[>ds p]sons ( weal? or position _h hi!rto e>n$ !m ! contempt ( ! upp] classes4 ,8 direct additions to a/ronomy are sev]al1 among o!rs ! det]m9ation ( ! mutation ( ! axis ( ! e>?4 ,he also det]m9$ ! ratio ( ! attractive =ces ( ! sun & moon1 :i* he f\nd to be ab\t z sev5 to ?ree4 ,f ?is he rea*$ ! conclusion t ! e>? mu/ be sev5ty times great] ?an ! moon4 ,! fir/ two volumes ( 8 ,rese>*es on ! ,sy/ems ( ! ,_w1 publi%$ 9 #aged1 are l>gely devot$ to ma!matical & a/ronomical problems1 _m ( !m ( little importance n[1 b ( great int]e/ to a/ronom]s at t "t4 ,ano!r great contempor>y ( ,d',alemb]t1 ^: "n is closely associat$ & frequ5tly conf\nd$ ) 81 0 ,jean ,bapti/e ,joseph ,delambre 7#agdi-ahbb74 ,m =tunate 9 bir? z also 9 8 educational advantages1 ,delambre z a y\? began 8 /udies "u ! celebrat$ poet ,delille4 ,lat] he 0 oblig$ to /ruggle aga9/ pov]ty1 support+ himself = a "t by mak+ translations f ,lat91 ,greek1 ,italian1 & ,engli%1 & act+ z tutor 9 private families4 ,! turn+-po9t ( 8 =tune came :5 ! att5tion ( ,lal&e 0 call$ to ! "y man by 8 rem>kable memory1 & ,lal&e soon %[$ 8 admiration by giv+ ,delambre c]ta9 difficult a/ronomical problems to solve4 ,by p]=m+ ^! tasks successfully 8 future z an a/ronom] became assur$4 ,at t "t ! planet ,uranus _h j be5 discov]$ by ,h]s*el1 & ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces (f]$ z ! subject = "o ( its prizes ! det]m9ation ( ! planet's orbit4 ,delambre made ?is det]m9ation & won ! prize--a feat t br\ght him at once into prom95ce4 ,by 8 writ+s he probably did z mu* t[>ds p]fect+ mod]n a/ronomy z any "o man4 ,8 ,hi/ory ( ,a/ronomy is n m]ely a n>rative ( progress ( a/ronomy b a complete ab/ract ( all ! celebrat$ works writt5 on ! subject4 ,?us he became fam\s z an hi/orian z well z an a/ronom]4 ,,leon>d ,,eul] ,/ill ano!r contempor>y ( ,d',alemb]t & ,delambre1 & some:at old] ?an ei!r ( !m1 0 ,leon>d ,eul] 7#agjg-aghc71 ( ,basel1 ^: fame z a philosoph] equals t ( ei!r ( ! great ,fr5*m54 ,he is ( p>ticul> int]e/ "h 9 8 capacity ( a/ronom]1 b a/ronomy 0 only "o ( ! _m fields ( sci5ce 9 :i* he %one4 ,surely some?+ out ( ! ord9>y 0 to be expect$ ( ! man :o c\ld repeat ! ,a,eneid ( ,virgil f ! beg9n+ to ! end )\t hesitation1 & indicate ! fir/ & la/ l9e ( e page ( ! edition :i* he us$4 ,some?+ 0 expect$1 & he fulfill$ ^! expectations4 ,9 e>ly life he devot$ himself to ! /udy ( !ology & ! ,ori5tal languages1 at ! reque/ ( 8 fa!r1 b 8 love ( ma!matics prov$ too /rong1 &1 ) 8 fa!r's cons5t1 he f9ally gave up 8 classical /udies & turn$ to 8 favorite /udy1 geometry4 ,9 #agbg he 0 invit$ by ,ca?>9e ,i4 to reside 9 ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 & on accept+ ?is invitation he 0 made an associate ( ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces4 ,a little lat] he 0 made pr(essor ( physics1 & 9 #agcc pr(essor ( ma!matics4 ,9 #agce he solv$ a problem 9 ?ree days :i* "s ( ! em95t ma!maticians w\ld n und]take "u sev]al mon?s4 ,9 #agda ,fr$]ick ! ,great invit$ him to ,b]l91 :]e he soon became a memb] ( ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces & pr(essor ( ma!matics2 b 9 #agff he return$ to ,/4 ,pet]sburg4 ,t[>ds ! close ( 8 life he became virtually bl9d1 be+ oblig$ to dictate 8 ?\ghts1 sometimes to p]sons entirely ignorant ( ! subject 9 h&4 ,nev]!less1 8 rem>kable memory1 /ill fur!r height5$ by 8 bl9dness1 enabl$ him to c>ry out ! elaborate computations frequ5tly involv$4 ,eul]'s fir/ memoir1 transmitt$ to ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces ( ,p>is 9 #agdg1 0 on ! planet>y p]turbations4 ,?is memoir c>ri$ (f ! prize t _h be5 (f]$ = ! analytical !ory ( ! motions ( ,jupit] & ,saturn4 ,o!r memoirs foll[$1 "o 9 #agdi & ano!r 9 #agej1 ) fur!r expansions ( ! same subject4 ,z "s slight errors 7 f\nd 9 ^!1 su* z a mi/ake 9 "s ( ! =mulae express+ ! secul> & p]iodic inequalities1 ! academy propos$ ! same subject = ! prize ( #ageb4 ,eul] aga9 compet$1 & won ?is prize also4 ,! cont5ts ( ?is memoir laid ! f\ndation = ! subsequ5t demon/ration ( ! p]man5t /ability ( ! planet>y sy/em by ,laplace & ,lagrange4 ,x 0 ,eul] also :o demon/rat$ t )9 c]ta9 fix$ limits ! ecc5tricities & places ( ! aphelia ( ,saturn & ,jupit] are subject to con/ant v>iation1 & he calculat$ t aft] a lapse ( ab\t ?irty ?\s& ye>s ! elem5ts ( ! orbits ( ^! two planets recov] _! orig9al values4 ,,ii4 ,,! ,,progress ,,( ,,mod]n ,,a/ronomy ,a ,,new epo* 9 a/ronomy beg9s ) ! "w ( ,william ,h]s*el1 ! ,hanov]ian1 :om ,engl& made h]s by adoption4 ,he 0 a man ) a positive g5ius = sid]eal discov]y4 ,at fir/ a m]e amateur 9 a/ronomy1 he snat*$ "t f 8 duties z music-tea*] to gr9d him a telescopic mirror1 & began gaz+ at ! />s4 ,n cont5t ) 8 fir/ telescope1 he made ano!r & ano!r1 & he _h su* g5ius = ! "w t he soon possess$ a bett] in/rum5t ?an 0 ev] made be=e4 ,8 pati5ce 9 gr9d+ ! curv$ reflective surface 0 monum5tal4 ,sometimes = sixte5 h\rs toge!r he mu/ walk /eadily ab\t ! mirror1 poli%+ x1 )\t once remov+ 8 h&s4 ,meantime 8 si/]1 always 8 *ief lieut5ant1 *e]$ him ) h] pres5ce1 & f "t to "t put food into 8 m\?4 ,! telescope complet$1 ! a/ronom] turn$ night into day1 & f sunset to sunrise1 ye> 9 & ye> out1 swept ! heav5s unceas+ly1 unless prev5t$ by cl\ds or ! brightness ( ! moon4 ,8 si/] sat always at 8 side1 record+ 8 obs]vations4 ,!y 7 9 ! op5 air1 p]*$ high at ! m\? ( ! reflector1 & sometimes x 0 s cold t ! ink froze 9 ! bottle 9 ,c>ol9e ,h]s*el's h&2 b ! two en?usia/s h>dly notic$ a ?+ s common-place z t]re/rial wea!r4 ,!y 7 liv+ 9 di/ant worlds4 ,! results8 ,:at c\ld !y be8 ,su* en?usiasm w\ld move m\nta9s4 ,b1 aft] all1 ! mov+ ( m\nta9s seems a liliputian task comp>$ ) :at ,h]s*el really did ) ^? wond]ful telescopes4 ,he mov$ worlds1 />s1 a univ]se--ev51 if y please1 a galaxy ( univ]ses2 at lea/ he prov$ t !y move1 :i* seems sc>cely less wond]ful2 & he exp&$ ! cosmos1 z man conceives x1 to ?\s&s ( times ! dim5sions x _h be=e4 ,z a m]e beg9n+1 he d\bl$ ! diamet] ( ! sol> sy/em by obs]v+ ! great outly+ planet :i* we n[ call ,uranus1 b :i* he *ri/5$ ,georgium ,sidus1 9 honor ( 8 sov]eign1 & :i* 8 ,fr5* contempor>ies1 n reli%+ t "n1 pref]r$ to call ,h]s*el4 ,?is discov]y 0 b a trifle comp>$ ) :at ,h]s*el did lat] on1 b x gave him _w-wide reputation none ! less4 ,comets & moons aside1 ?is 0 ! fir/ addition to ! sol> sy/em t _h be5 made )9 hi/oric times1 & x creat$ a v]itable furor ( popul> int]e/ & en?usiasm4 ,incid5tally ,k+ ,george 0 flatt]$ at hav+ a _w nam$ aft] him1 & he smil$ on ! a/ronom]1 & came ) 8 c\rt to h a look at 8 namesake4 ,! inspection 0 highly satisfactory2 & pres5tly ! royal favor enabl$ ! a/ronom] to escape ! ?raldom ( tea*+ music & to devote 8 entire "t to ! m cong5ial task ( />-gaz+4 ,?us reliev$ f ! burd5 ( mundane emb>rassm5ts1 he turn$ ) fre% en?usiasm to ! skies1 & 8 discov]ies foll[$ "o ano!r 9 bewild]+ pr(usion4 ,he f\nd v>i\s hi!rto unse5 moons ( our si/] planets2 he made special /udies ( ,saturn1 & prov$ t ?is planet1 ) its r+s1 revolves on its axis2 he scann$ ! spots on ! sun1 & sugge/$ t !y influ5ce ! wea!r ( our e>?2 9 %ort1 he ext5d$ ! entire field ( sol> a/ronomy4 ,b v soon ?is field became too small = him1 & 8 mo/ important rese>*es c>ri$ him out into ! regions ( space comp>$ ) :i* ! span ( our sol> sy/em is a m]e po9t4 ,) 8 p]fect$ telescopes he ent]$ abysmal vi/as :i* no human eve ev] p5etrat$ be=e1 :i* no human m9d _h hi!rto m ?an vaguely imag9$4 ,he tells u t 8 =ty-foot reflector w br+ him light f a di/ance ( at lea/ elev5 & ?ree-f\r?s millions ( millions ( millions ( miles--light :i* left its s\rce two million ye>s ago4 ,! smalle/ />s visible to ! unaid$ eye are ^? ( ! six? magnitude2 ?is telescope1 he ?9ks1 has p[] to reveal />s ( ! #acdb;d magnitude4 ,b :at did ,h]s*el le>n reg>d+ ^! awful dep?s ( space & ! />s t p !m8 ,t 0 :at ! _w wi%$ to "k4 ,cop]nicus1 ,galileo1 ,kepl]1 _h giv5 u a sol> sy/em1 b ! />s _h be5 a my/]y4 ,:at says ! great reflector--are ! />s po9ts ( light1 z ! anci5ts taught1 & z m ?an "o philosoph] ( ! eighte5? c5tury has /ill cont5d$1 or are !y suns1 z o!rs hold8 ,h]s*el answ]s1 !y are suns1 ea* & e "o ( all ! millions--suns1 _m ( !m1 l>g] ?an ! "o t is ! c5tre ( our t9y sy/em4 ,n only s1 b !y are mov+ suns4 ,in/ead ( be+ fix$ 9 space1 z has be5 ?\ght1 !y are :irl+ 9 gigantic orbits ab\t "s common c5tre4 ,is our sun t c5tre8 ,f> f x4 ,our sun is only a /> l all ! re/1 circl+ on ) its att5dant satellites--our giant sun a />1 no diff]5t f myriad o!r />s1 n ev5 s l>ge z "s2 a m]e insignificant sp>k ( matt] 9 an inf9ite %[] ( sp>ks4 ,nor is ?is all4 ,look+ beyond ! few ?\s& />s t are visible to ! nak$ eye1 ,h]s*el sees s]ies aft] s]ies ( m di/ant />s1 m>%all$ 9 galaxies ( millions2 b at la/ he rea*es a di/ance beyond :i* ! galaxies no long] increase4 ,& yet--s he ?9ks--he has n rea*$ ! limits ( 8 vision4 ,:at !n8 ,he has come to ! b\nds ( ! sid]eal sy/em--se5 to ! conf9es ( ! univ]se4 ,he believes t he c outl9e ?is sy/em1 ?is univ]se1 & prove t x has ! %ape ( an irregul> globe1 oblately flatt5$ to almo/ disklike proportions1 & divid$ at "o edge--a bifurcation t is reveal$ ev5 to ! nak$ eye 9 ! =k+ ( ! ,milky ,way4 ,?is1 !n1 is our univ]se z ,h]s*el conceives x--a va/ galaxy ( suns1 held to "o c5tre1 revolv+1 pois$ 9 space4 ,b ev5 "h ^? m>vell\s telescopes d n pause4 ,f>1 f> out beyond ! conf9es ( our univ]se1 s f> t ! awful span ( our own sy/em might s]ve z a unit ( measure1 are reveal$ o!r sy/ems1 o!r univ]ses1 l our own1 ea* compos$1 z he ?9ks1 ( myriads ( suns1 clu/]$ l our galaxy into an isolat$ sy/em--m]e isl&s ( matt] 9 an inf9ite ocean ( space4 ,s di/ant f our univ]se are ^! n[ univ]ses ( ,h]s*el's discov]y t _! light rea*es u only z a dim1 nebul\s gl[1 9 mo/ cases invisible to ! unaid$ eye4 ,ab\t a hundr$ ( ^! nebulae 7 kn[n :5 ,h]s*el began 8 /udies4 ,be=e ! close ( ! c5tury he _h discov]$ ab\t two ?\s& m ( !m1 & _m ( ^! _h be5 resolv$ by 8 l>ge/ telescopes into clu/]s ( />s4 ,he believ$ t ! f>!/ ( ^! nebulae t he c\ld see 0 at lea/ ?ree hundr$ ?\s& times z di/ant f u z ! ne>e/ fix$ />4 ,yet t ne>e/ />--s m rec5t /udies prove--is s remote t its light1 travell+ "o hundr$ & eighty ?\s& miles a second1 requires ?ree & "o-half ye>s to rea* our planet4 ,z if to give ! f9i%+ t\*es to ?is novel s*eme ( cosmology1 ,h]s*el1 ?\gh 9 ! ma9 v little giv5 to unsu/a9$ !oriz+1 all[s himself ! privilege ( "o belief t he _c call ^u 8 telescope to sub/antiate4 ,he ?9ks t all ! myriad suns ( 8 numb]less sy/ems are in/9ct ) life 9 ! human s5se4 ,giordano ,bruno & a long l9e ( 8 foll[]s _h held t "s ( our si/] planets may be inhabit$1 b ,h]s*el ext5ds ! ?\ght to include ! moon1 ! sun1 ! />s--all ! heav5ly bodies4 ,he believes t he c demon/rate ! habitability ( our own sun1 &1 reason+ f analogy1 he is firmly conv9c$ t all ! suns ( all ! sy/ems are well suppli$ ) inhabitants4 ,9 ?is1 z 9 "s o!r inf]5ces1 ,h]s*el is misl$ by ! faulty physics ( 8 "t4 ,future g5]ations1 work+ ) p]fect$ in/rum5ts1 may n su/a9 him all along ! l9e ( 8 obs]vations1 ev51 let alone 8 inf]5ces4 ,b h[ "o's egotism %rivels & %r9ks z "o grasps ! import ( 8 sweep+ ?\ghts6 ,cont9u+ 8 obs]vations ( ! innum]able nebulae1 ,h]s*el is l$ pres5tly to ano!r curi\s speculative inf]5ce4 ,he notes t "s /> gr\ps are mu* m ?ickly clu/]$ ?an o!rs1 & he is l$ to inf] t su* v>i$ clu/]+ tells ( v>y+ ages ( ! diff]5t nebulae4 ,he ?9ks t at fir/ all space may h be5 ev5ly spr9kl$ ) ! />s & t ! gr\p+ has result$ f ! action ( gravitation4 ,t ! ,milky ,way is a mo/ ext5sive /ratum ( />s ( v>i\s sizes admits no long] ( la/+ d\bt1 he decl>es1 & t our sun is actually "o ( ! heav5ly bodies belong+ to x is z evid5t4 ,i h n[ view$ & gaug$ ?is %9+ zone 9 almo/ e direction & f9d x compos$ ( />s ^: numb]444 con/antly increases & decreases 9 proportion to its app>5t brightness to ! nak$ eye4 ,let u suppose numb]less />s ( v>i\s sizes1 scatt]$ ov] an indef9ite portion ( space 9 su* a mann] z to be almo/ equally di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! :ole4 ,! laws ( attraction :i* no d\bt ext5d to ! remote/ regions ( ! fix$ />s w op]ate 9 su* a mann] z mo/ probably to produce ! foll[+ effects3 ,9 ! fir/ case1 s9ce we h suppos$ ! />s to be ( v>i\s sizes1 x w happ5 t a />1 be+ consid]ably l>g] ?an its neighbor+ ones1 w attract !m m ?an !y w be attract$ by o!rs t are imm$iately ar\nd !m2 by :i* means !y w be1 9 "t1 z x 71 cond5s$ ab\t a c5tre1 or1 9 o!r words1 =m !mselves into a clu/] ( />s ( almo/ a globul> figure1 m or less regul> accord+ to ! size & di/ance ( ! surr\nd+ />s4444 ,! next case1 :i* w also happ5 almo/ z frequ5tly z ! =m]1 is :]e a few />s1 ?\gh n sup]ior 9 size to ! re/1 may *ance to be r ne>] "o ano!r ?an ! surr\nd+ ones1444 & ?is con/ruction admits ( ! utmo/ v>iety ( %apes4444 ,f ! composition & repeat$ conjunction ( bo? ! =ego+ =mations1 a ?ird may be d]iv$ :5 _m l>ge />s1 or comb9$ small ones1 are spread 9 long1 ext5d$1 regul>1 or crook$ r[s1 /reaks1 or bran*es2 = !y w also draw ! surr\nd+ />s1 s z to produce figures ( cond5s$ />s curi\sly simil> to ! =m] :i* gave rise to ^! cond5sations4 ,we may likewise admit /ill m ext5sive comb9ations2 :51 at ! same "t t a clu/] ( />s is =m+ at ! "o "p ( space1 !re may be ano!r collection 9 a diff]5t b p]haps n f>-di/ant qu>t]1 :i* may occasion a mutual approa* t[>ds _! own c5tre ( gravity4 ,9 ! la/ place1 z a natural conclusion ( ! =m] cases1 !re w be =m$ great cavities or vacancies by ! retreat+ ( ! />s t[>ds ! v>i\s c5tres :i* attract !m47#a7 ,look+ =w>d1 x appe>s t ! "t mu/ come :5 all ! suns ( a sy/em w be drawn toge!r & de/roy$ by impact at a common c5tre4 ,already1 x seems to ,h]s*el1 ! ?icke/ clu/]s h outliv$ _! usefulness & are v]g+ t[>ds _! doom4 ,b aga91 o!r nebulae pres5t an appe>ance sugge/ive ( an opposite condition4 ,!y are n resolvable into />s1 b pres5t an almo/ uni=m appe>ance ?r\gh\t1 & are h5ce believ$ to be compos$ ( a %9+ fluid1 :i* 9 "s in/ances is se5 to be cond5s$ at ! c5tre into a gl[+ mass4 ,9 su* a nebula ,h]s*el ?9ks he sees a sun 9 process ( =mation4 ,,! ,,nebul> ,,hypo!sis ,,( ,,kant ,tak5 toge!r1 ^! two conceptions outl9e a maje/ic cycle ( _w =mation & _w de/ruction--a broad s*eme ( cosmogony1 su* z _h be5 vaguely adumbrat$ two c5turies be=e by ,kepl] & 9 m rec5t times by ,wright & ,sw$5borg4 ,?is s-call$ nebul> hypo!sis assumes t 9 ! beg9n+ all space 0 uni=mly fill$ ) cosmic matt] 9 a /ate ( nebul> or fire-mi/ diffusion1 =mless & void4 ,x pictures ! cond5sation--coagulation1 if y w--( portions ( ?is mass to =m segregat$ masses1 & ! ultimate developm5t out ( ^! masses ( ! sid]eal bodies t we see4 ,p]haps ! fir/ elaborate exposition ( ?is idea 0 t giv5 by ! great ,g]man philosoph] ,immanuel ,kant 7born at ,konigsb]g 9 #agbd1 di$ 9 #ahjd71 kn[n to e "o z ! au?or ( ! ,critique ( ,pure ,reason4 ,let u le>n f 8 own words h[ ! imag9ative philosoph] conceiv$ ! _w to h come into exi/5ce4 ,i assume1 says ,kant1 t all ! mat]ial ( :i* ! globes belong+ to our sol> sy/em--all ! planets & comets--consi/1 at ! beg9n+ ( all ?+s 0 decompos$ into its prim>y elem5ts1 & fill$ ! :ole space ( ! univ]se 9 :i* ! bodies =m$ out ( x n[ revolve4 ,?is /ate ( nature1 :5 view$ 9 & by itself )\t any ref]5ce to a sy/em1 seems to be ! v simple/ t c foll[ ^u no?+4 ,at t "t no?+ has yet be5 =m$4 ,! con/ruction ( heav5ly bodies at a di/ance f "o ano!r1 _! di/ances regulat$ by _! attraction1 _! =m aris+ out ( ! equilibrium ( _! collect$ matt]1 exhibit a lat] /ate4444 ,9 a region ( space fill$ 9 ?is mann]1 a univ]sal repose c\ld la/ only a mom5t4 ,! elem5ts h ess5tial =ces ) :i* to put ea* o!r 9 motion1 & ?us are !mselves a s\rce ( life4 ,matt] imm$iately beg9s to /rive to fa%ion itself4 ,! scatt]$ elem5ts ( a d5s] k9d1 by means ( _! attraction1 ga!r f a sph]e ar\nd !m all ! matt] ( less specific gravity2 aga91 ^! elem5ts !mselves1 toge!r ) ! mat]ial :i* !y h unit$ ) !m1 collect 9 ^? po9ts :]e ! p>ticles ( a /ill d5s] k9d are f\nd2 ^! 9 l mann] jo9 /ill d5s] p>ticles1 & s on4 ,if we foll[ 9 imag9ation ?is process by :i* nature fa%ions itself into =m ?r\gh ! :ole ext5t ( *aos1 we easily p]ceive t all ! results ( ! process w\ld consi/ 9 ! =mation ( div]s masses :i*1 :5 _! =mation 0 complete1 w\ld by ! equality ( _! attraction be at re/ & be =ev] unmov$4 ,b nature has o!r =ces 9 /ore :i* are specially ex]t$ :5 matt] is decompos$ into f9e p>ticles4 ,!y are ^? =ces by :i* ^! p>ticles repel "o ano!r1 & :i*1 by _! conflict ) attractions1 br+ =? t movem5t :i* is1 z x 71 ! la/+ life ( nature4 ,?is =ce ( repulsion is manife/$ 9 ! ela/icity ( vapors1 ! efflu5ces ( /rong-smell+ bodies1 & ! diffusion ( all spiritu\s matt]s4 ,?is =ce is an unconte/able ph5om5on ( matt]4 ,x is by x t ! elem5ts1 :i* may be fall+ to ! po9t attract+ !m1 are turn$ sideways promiscu\sly f _! movem5t 9 a /raight l9e2 & _! p]p5dicul> fall !reby issues 9 circul> movem5ts1 :i* encompass ! c5tre t[>ds :i* !y 7 fall+4 ,9 ord] to make ! =mation ( ! _w m di/9ctly conceivable1 we w limit our view by )draw+ x f ! inf9ite univ]se ( nature & direct+ x to a p>ticul> sy/em1 z ! "o :i* belongs to our sun4 ,hav+ consid]$ ! g5]ation ( ?is sy/em1 we %all be able to advance to a simil> consid]ation ( ! orig9 ( ! great _w-sy/ems1 & ?us to embrace ! inf9itude ( ! :ole creation 9 "o conception4 ,f :at has be5 said1 x w appe> t if a po9t is situat$ 9 a v l>ge space :]e ! attraction ( ! elem5ts !re situat$ acts m /rongly ?an else:]e1 !n ! matt] ( ! elem5t>y p>ticles scatt]$ ?r\gh\t ! :ole region w fall to t po9t4 ,! fir/ effect ( ?is g5]al fall is ! =mation ( a body at ?is c5tre ( attraction1 :i*1 s to speak1 gr[s f an inf9itely small nucleus by rapid /rides2 & 9 ! proportion 9 :i* ?is mass increases1 x also draws ) great] =ce ! surr\nd+ p>ticles to unite ) x4 ,:5 ! mass ( ?is c5tral body has gr[n s great t ! velocity ) :i* x draws ! p>ticles to itself ) great di/ances is b5t sideways by ! feeble degree ( repulsion ) :i* !y imp$e "o ano!r1 & :5 x issues 9 lat]al movem5ts :i* are capable by means ( ! c5trifugal =ce ( encompass+ ! c5tral body 9 an orbit1 !n !re are produc$ :irls or vortices ( p>ticles1 ea* ( :i* by itself describes a curv$ l9e by ! composition ( ! attract+ =ce & ! =ce ( revolution t _h be5 b5t sideways4 ,^! k9ds ( orbits all int]sect "o ano!r1 = :i* _! great disp]sion 9 ?is space gives place4 ,yet ^! movem5ts are 9 _m ways 9 conflict ) "o ano!r1 & !y naturally t5d to br+ "o ano!r to a uni=mity--t is1 into a /ate 9 :i* "o movem5t is z little ob/ructive to ! o!r z possible4 ,?is happ5s 9 two ways3 fir/ by ! p>ticles limit+ "o ano!r's movem5t till !y all advance 9 "o direction2 &1 secondly1 9 ?is way1 t ! p>ticles limit _! v]tical movem5ts 9 virtue ( :i* !y are approa*+ ! c5tre ( attraction1 till !y all move horizontally--i4 e41 9 p>allel circles r\nd ! sun z _! c5tre1 no long] int]cept "o ano!r1 & by ! c5trifugal =ce becom+ equal ) ! fall+ =ce !y keep !mselves con/antly 9 free circul> orbits at ! di/ance at :i* !y move4 ,! result1 f9ally1 is t only ^? p>ticles cont9ue to move 9 ?is region ( space :i* h acquir$ by _! fall a velocity1 & ?r\gh ! resi/ance ( ! o!r p>ticles a direction1 by :i* !y c cont9ue to ma9ta9 a ,,free ,,circul> ,,movem5t4444 ,! view ( ! =mation ( ! planets 9 ?is sy/em has ! advantage ov] e o!r possible !ory 9 hold+ t ! orig9 ( ! movem5ts1 & ! position ( ! orbits 9 aris+ at t same po9t ( "t--nay1 m1 9 %[+ t ev5 ! deviations f ! greate/ possible exactness 9 _! det]m9ations1 z well z ! accordances !mselves1 become cle> at a glance4 ,! planets are =m$ out ( p>ticles :i*1 at ! di/ance at :i* !y move1 h exact movem5ts 9 circul> orbits2 & !re=e ! masses compos$ out ( !m w cont9ue ! same movem5ts & at ! same rate & 9 ! same direction47#b7 ,x mu/ be admitt$ t ?is explanation leaves a good deal to be desir$4 ,x is ! explanation ( a metaphysician r ?an t ( an exp]im5tal sci5ti/4 ,su* phrases z matt] imm$iately beg9s to /rive to fa%ion itself1 = example1 h no place 9 ! reason+ ( inductive sci5ce4 ,nev]!less1 ! hypo!sis ( ,kant is a rem>kable conception2 x attempts to expla9 along rational l9es some?+ :i* hi!rto _h = ! mo/ "p be5 consid]$ altoge!r inexplicable4 ,b !re are v>i\s que/ions t at once sugge/ !mselves :i* ! ,kantian !ory leaves unansw]$4 ,h[ happ5s x1 = example1 t ! cosmic mass :i* gave bir? to our sol> sy/em 0 divid$ into sev]al planet>y bodies in/ead ( rema9+ a s+le mass8 ,7 ! planets /ruck f ! sun by ! *ance impact ( comets1 z ,buffon has sugge/$8 or ?r[n out by explosive volcanic action1 9 accordance ) ! !ory ( ,dr4 ,d>w98 or d !y owe _! orig9 to "s unkn[n law8 ,9 any ev5t1 h[ *anc$ x t all 7 project$ 9 ne>ly ! same plane z we n[ f9d !m8 ,,laplace ,,& ,,! ,,nebul> ,,hypo!sis ,x rema9$ = a ma!matical a/ronom] to solve ^! puzzles4 ,! man ( all o!rs compet5t to take ! subject 9 h& 0 ! ,fr5* a/ronom] ,laplace4 ,= a qu>t] ( a c5tury he _h devot$ 8 transc5d5t ma!matical abilities to ! solution ( problems ( motion ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,work+ 9 fri5dly rivalry ) 8 c\ntryman ,lagrange1 8 only pe] among ! ma!maticians ( ! age1 he _h tak5 up & solv$ "o by "o ! problems t ,newton left obscure4 ,l>gely ?r\gh ! ef=ts ( ^! two m5 ! la/ l+]+ d\bts z to ! solid>ity ( ! ,newtonian hypo!sis ( univ]sal gravitation _h be5 remov$4 ,! %>e ( ,lagrange 0 h>dly less ?an t ( 8 co-work]2 b ,laplace w long] be rememb]$1 because he ultimately br\ght 8 complet$ labors into a sy/em1 &1 incorporat+ ) !m ! labors ( 8 contempor>ies1 produc$ 9 ! ,mecanique ,cele/e ! undisput$ ma!matical monum5t ( ! c5tury1 a fitt+ complem5t to ! ,pr9cipia ( ,newton1 :i* x supplem5ts & 9 a s5se completes4 ,9 ! clos+ ye>s ( ! eighte5? c5tury ,laplace took up ! nebul> hypo!sis ( cosmogony1 to :i* we h j ref]r$1 & gave x def9ite proportions2 9 fact1 made x s ?or\ghly 8 own t po/]ity w always l9k x ) 8 "n4 ,disc>d+ ! crude notions ( comet>y impact & volcanic eruption1 ,laplace fill$ up ! gaps 9 ! hypo!sis ) ! aid ( well-kn[n laws ( gravitation & motion4 ,he assum$ t ! primitive mass ( cosmic matt] :i* 0 de/9$ to =m our sol> sy/em 0 revolv+ on its axis ev5 at a "t :5 x 0 /ill nebul> 9 "*1 & fill$ all space to a di/ance f> beyond ! pres5t limits ( ! sy/em4 ,z ?is vapor\s mass contract$ ?r\gh loss ( heat1 x revolv$ m & m swiftly1 & f "t to "t1 ?r\gh balance ( =ces at its p]iph]y1 r+s ( its sub/ance 7 :irl$ (f & left revolv+ !re1 subsequ5tly to become cond5s$ into planets1 & 9 _! turn :irl (f m9or r+s t became moons4 ,! ma9 body ( ! orig9al mass rema9s 9 ! pres5t z ! /ill contract+ & rotat+ body :i* we call ! sun4 ,let u all[ ,laplace to expla9 all ?is 9 detail3 ,9 ord] to expla9 ! prime movem5ts ( ! planet>y sy/em1 he says1 !re are ! five foll[+ ph5om5a3 ,! movem5t ( ! planets 9 ! same direction & v ne>ly 9 ! same plane2 ! movem5t ( ! satellites 9 ! same direction z t ( ! planets2 ! rotation ( ^! diff]5t bodies & ! sun 9 ! same direction z _! revolution1 & 9 ne>ly ! same plane2 ! slight ecc5tricity ( ! orbits ( ! planets & ( ! satellites2 &1 f9ally1 ! great ecc5tricity ( ! orbits ( ! comets1 z if _! incl9ations _h be5 left to *ance4 ,buffon is ! only man ,i "k :o1 s9ce ! discov]y ( ! true sy/em ( ! _w1 has endeavor$ to %[ ! orig9 ( ! planets & _! satellites4 ,he supposes t a comet1 9 fall+ into ! sun1 drove f x a mass ( matt] :i* 0 reassembl$ at a di/ance 9 ! =m ( v>i\s globes m or less l>ge1 & m or less remov$ f ! sun1 & t ^! globes1 becom+ opaque & solid1 are n[ ! planets & _! satellites4 ,?is hypo!sis satisfies ! fir/ ( ! five prec$+ ph5om5a2 = x is cle> t all ! bodies ?us =m$ w\ld move v ne>ly 9 ! plane :i* pass$ ?r\gh ! c5tre ( ! sun1 & 9 ! direction ( ! torr5t ( matt] :i* 0 produc$2 b ! f\r o!r ph5om5a appe> to be inexplicable to me by ?is means4 ,inde$1 ! absolute movem5t ( ! molecules ( a planet ought !n to be 9 ! direction ( ! movem5t ( its c5tre ( gravity2 b x does n at all foll[ t ! motion ( ! rotation ( ! planets %\ld be 9 ! same direction4 ,?us ! e>? %\ld rotate f ea/ to we/1 b nev]!less ! absolute movem5t ( its molecules %\ld be f ea/ to we/2 & ?is ought also to apply to ! movem5t ( ! revolution ( ! satellites1 9 :i* ! direction1 accord+ to ! hypo!sis :i* he (f]s1 is n necess>ily ! same z t ( ! progressive movem5t ( ! planets4 ,a ph5om5on n only v difficult to expla9 "u ?is hypo!sis1 b "o :i* is ev5 contr>y to x1 is ! slight ecc5tricity ( ! planet>y orbits4 ,we "k1 by ! !ory ( c5tral =ces1 t if a body moves 9 a clos$ orbit ar\nd ! sun & t\*es x1 x also always comes back to t po9t at e revolution2 :5ce x foll[s t if ! planets 7 orig9ally deta*$ f ! sun1 !y w\ld t\* x at ea* return t[>ds x1 & _! orbits1 f> f be+ circul>1 w\ld be v ecc5tric4 ,x is true t a mass ( matt] driv5 f ! sun _c be exactly comp>$ to a globe :i* t\*es its surface1 = ! impulse :i* ! p>ticles ( ?is mass receive f "o ano!r & ! reciprocal attractions :i* !y ex]t among !mselves1 c\ld1 9 *ang+ ! direction ( _! movem5ts1 remove _! p]ihelions f ! sun2 b _! orbits w\ld be always mo/ ecc5tric1 or at lea/ !y w\ld n h slight ecc5tricities except by ! mo/ extraord9>y *ance4 ,?us we _c see1 accord+ to ! hypo!sis ( ,buffon1 :y ! orbits ( m ?an a hundr$ comets already obs]v$ are s elliptical4 ,?is hypo!sis is !re=e v f> f satisfy+ ! prec$+ ph5om5a4 ,let u see if x is possible to trace !m back to _! true cause4 ,:atev] may be its ultimate nature1 see+ t x has caus$ or modifi$ ! movem5ts ( ! planets1 x is necess>y t ?is cause %\ld embrace e body1 &1 9 view ( ! enorm\s di/ances :i* sep>ate !m1 x c\ld only h be5 a fluid ( imm5se ext5t4 ,9 ord] to h giv5 !m an almo/ circul> movem5t 9 ! same direction ar\nd ! sun1 x is necess>y t ?is fluid %\ld h envelop$ ! sun z 9 an atmosph]e4 ,! consid]ation ( ! planet>y movem5ts leads u !n to ?9k t1 on acc\nt ( excessive heat1 ! atmosph]e ( ! sun orig9ally ext5d$ beyond ! orbits ( all ! planets1 & t x 0 successively contract$ to its pres5t limits4 ,9 ! primitive condition 9 :i* we suppose ! sun to h be51 x resembl$ a nebula su* z ! telescope %[s is compos$ ( a nucleus m or less brilliant1 surr\nd$ by a nebulosity :i*1 on cond5s+ itself t[>ds ! c5tre1 =ms a />4 ,if x is conceiv$ by analogy t all ! />s 7 =m$ 9 ?is mann]1 x is possible to imag9e _! previ\s condition ( nebulosity1 itself prec$$ by o!r /ates 9 :i* ! nebul\s matt] 0 /ill m diffus$1 ! nucleus be+ less & less lum9\s4 ,by go+ back z f> z possible1 we ?us arrive at a nebulosity s diffus$ t its exi/5ce c\ld h>dly be suspect$4 ,= a long "t ! peculi> disposition ( c]ta9 />s1 visible to ! unaid$ eye1 has /ruck philosophical obs]v]s4 ,mit*ell has already rem>k$ h[ little probable x is t ! />s 9 ! ,pleiades1 = example1 c\ld h be5 contract$ into ! small space :i* encloses !m by ! =tuity ( *ance alone1 & he has conclud$ t ?is gr\p ( />s1 & simil> gr\ps :i* ! skies pres5t to u1 are ! necess>y result ( ! cond5sation ( a nebula1 ) sev]al nuclei1 & x is evid5t t a nebula1 by cont9ually contract+1 t[>ds ^! v>i\s nuclei1 at l5g? w\ld =m a gr\p ( />s simil> to ! ,pleiades4 ,! cond5sation ( a nebula ) two nuclei w\ld =m a sy/em ( />s close toge!r1 turn+ "o ^u ! o!r1 su* z ^? d\ble />s ( :i* we already "k ! respective movem5ts4 ,b h[ did ! sol> atmosph]e det]m9e ! movem5ts ( ! rotation & revolution ( ! planets & satellites8 ,if ^! bodies _h p5etrat$ v deeply into ?is atmosph]e1 its resi/ance w\ld h caus$ !m to fall into ! sun4 ,we c !re=e conjecture t ! planets 7 =m$ at _! successive limits by ! cond5sation ( a zone ( vapors :i* ! sun1 on cool+1 left beh9d1 9 ! plane ( 8 equator4 ,let u recall ! results :i* we h giv5 9 a prec$+ *apt]4 ,! atmosph]e ( ! sun c\ld n h ext5d$ indef9itely4 ,its limit 0 ! po9t :]e ! c5trifugal =ce due to its movem5t ( rotation balanc$ its weight4 ,b 9 proportion z ! cool+ contract$ ! atmosph]e1 & ^? molecules :i* 7 ne> to !m cond5s$ ^u ! surface ( ! body1 ! movem5t ( ! rotation increas$2 =1 on acc\nt ( ! ,law ( ,areas1 ! sum ( ! areas describ$ by ! vector ( ea* molecule ( ! sun & its atmosph]e & project$ 9 ! plane ( ! equator be+ always ! same1 ! rotation %\ld increase :5 ^! molecules approa* ! c5tre ( ! sun4 ,! c5trifugal =ce due to ?is movem5t becom+ ?us l>g]1 ! po9t :]e ! weight is equal to x is ne>] ! sun4 ,suppos+1 !n1 z x is natural to admit1 t ! atmosph]e ext5d$ at "s p]iod to its v limits1 x %\ld1 on cool+1 leave molecules beh9d at ?is limit & at limits successively occasion$ by ! increas$ rotation ( ! sun4 ,! ab&on$ molecules w\ld cont9ue to revolve ar\nd ?is body1 s9ce _! c5trifugal =ce 0 balanc$ by _! weight4 ,b ?is equilibrium n aris+ 9 reg>d to ! atmosph]ic molecules p>allel to ! sol> equator1 ! latt]1 on acc\nt ( _! weight1 approa*$ ! atmosph]e z !y cond5s$1 & did n cease to belong to x until by ?is motion !y came ^u ! equator4 ,let u consid] n[ ! zones ( vapor successively left beh9d4 ,^! zones ought1 accord+ to appe>ance1 by ! cond5sation & mutual attraction ( _! molecules1 to =m v>i\s conc5tric r+s ( vapor revolv+ ar\nd ! sun4 ,! mutual gravitational friction ( ea* r+ w\ld accel]ate "s & ret>d o!rs1 until !y _h all acquir$ ! same angul> velocity4 ,?us ! actual velocity ( ! molecules mo/ remov$ f ! sun w\ld be ! greate/4 ,! foll[+ cause w\ld also op]ate to br+ ab\t ?is diff]5ce ( spe$4 ,! molecules f>!/ f ! sun1 & :i* by ! effects ( cool+ & cond5sation approa*$ "o ano!r to =m ! out] "p ( ! r+1 w\ld h always describ$ areas proportional to ! "t s9ce ! c5tral =ce by :i* !y 7 controll$ has be5 con/antly direct$ t[>ds ?is body4 ,b ?is con/ancy ( areas necessitates an increase ( velocity proportional to ! di/ance4 ,x is ?us se5 t ! same cause w\ld dim9i% ! velocity ( ! molecules :i* =m ! inn] "p ( ! r+4 ,if all ! molecules ( ! r+ ( vapor cont9u$ to cond5se )\t disunit+1 !y w\ld at l5g? =m a r+ ei!r solid or fluid4 ,b ?is =mation w\ld necessitate su* a regul>ity 9 e "p ( ! r+1 & 9 its cool+1 t ?is ph5om5on is extremely r>e2 & ! sol> sy/em af=ds u1 inde$1 b "o example--namely1 9 ! r+ ( ,saturn4 ,9 ne>ly e case ! r+ ( vapor 0 brok5 into sev]al masses1 ea* mov+ at simil> velocities1 & cont9u+ to rotate at ! same di/ance ar\nd ! sun4 ,^! masses w\ld take a sph]oid =m ) a rotatory movem5t 9 ! direction ( ! revolution1 because _! inn] molecules _h less velocity ?an ! out]4 ,?us 7 =m$ s _m planets 9 a condition ( vapor4 ,b if "o ( !m 7 p[]ful en\gh to reunite successively by its attraction all ! o!rs ar\nd its c5tre ( gravity1 ! r+ ( vapor w\ld be ?us trans=m$ into a s+le sph]oidical mass ( vapor revolv+ ar\nd ! sun ) a rotation 9 ! direction ( its revolution4 ,! latt] case has be5 t :i* is ! mo/ common1 b nev]!less ! sol> sy/em af=ds u an in/ance ( ! fir/ case 9 ! f\r small planets :i* move betwe5 ,jupit] & ,m>s2 at lea/1 if we d n suppose1 z does ,m4 ,olb]s1 t !y orig9ally =m$ a s+le planet :i* a mighty explosion broke up into sev]al portions ea* mov+ at diff]5t velocities4 ,accord+ to our hypo!sis1 ! comets are /rang]s to our planet>y sy/em4 ,9 consid]+ !m1 z we h done1 z m9ute nebulosities1 w&]+ f sol> sy/em to sol> sy/em1 & =m$ by ! cond5sation ( ! nebul\s matt] ev]y:]e exi/5t 9 pr(usion 9 ! univ]se1 we see t :5 !y come into t "p ( ! heav5s :]e ! sun is all-p[]ful1 he =ces !m to describe orbits ei!r elliptical or hyp]bolic1 _! pa?s be+ equally possible 9 all directions1 & at all incl9ations ( ! ecliptic1 con=mably to :at has be5 obs]v$4 ,?us ! cond5sation ( nebul\s matt]1 by :i* we h at fir/ expla9$ ! motions ( ! rotation & revolution ( ! planets & _! satellites 9 ! same direction1 & 9 ne>ly approximate planes1 expla9s also :y ! movem5ts ( ! comets escape ?is g5]al law47#c7 ,! nebul> hypo!sis ?us giv5 detail$ completion by ,laplace is a wor?y complem5t ( ! gr& cosmologic s*eme ( ,h]s*el4 ,:e!r true or false1 ! two conceptions /& z ! f9al contributions ( ! eighte5? c5tury to ! hi/ory ( man's ceaseless ef=ts to solve ! my/]ies ( cosmic orig9 & cosmic /ructure4 ,! _w li/5$ eag]ly & )\t prejudice to ! new doctr9es2 & t attitude tells ( a m>vell\s intellectual gr[? ( our race4 ,m>k ! transition4 ,9 ! ye> #afjj1 ,bruno 0 burn$ at ! /ake = tea*+ t our e>? is n ! c5tre ( ! univ]se4 ,9 #agjj1 ,newton 0 pron\nc$ impi\s & h]etical by a l>ge s*ool ( philosoph]s = decl>+ t ! =ce :i* holds ! planets 9 _! orbits is univ]sal gravitation4 ,9 #ahjj1 ,laplace & ,h]s*el are honor$ = tea*+ t gravitation built up ! sy/em :i* x /ill controls2 t our univ]se is b a m9or nebula1 our sun b a m9or />1 our e>? a m]e atom ( matt]1 our race only "o ( myriad races peopl+ an inf9ity ( worlds4 ,doctr9es :i* b ! span ( two human lives be=e w\ld h br\ght _! enunciators to ! /ake 7 n[ pron\nc$ n impi\s1 b sublime4 ,,a/]oids ,,& ,,satellites ,! fir/ day ( ! n9ete5? c5tury 0 fitt+ly signaliz$ by ! discov]y ( a new _w4 ,on ! ev5+ ( ,janu>y #a1 #ahja1 an ,italian a/ronom]1 ,piazzi1 obs]v$ an app>5t /> ( ab\t ! eigh? magnitude 7h5ce1 ( c\rse1 q invisible to ! unaid$ eye71 :i* lat] on 0 se5 to h mov$1 & 0 ?us %[n to be va/ly ne>] ! e>? ?an any true />4 ,he at fir/ suppos$1 z ,h]s*el _h done :5 he fir/ saw ,uranus1 t ! unfamili> body 0 a comet2 b lat] obs]vation prov$ x a t9y planet1 occupy+ a position 9 space betwe5 ,m>s & ,jupit]4 ,x 0 *ri/5$ ,c]es1 aft] ! tutel>y goddess ( ,sicily4 ,?\gh unprem$itat$1 ?is discov]y 0 n unexpect$1 = a/ronom]s _h long surmis$ ! exi/5ce ( a planet 9 ! wide gap betwe5 ,m>s & ,jupit]4 ,inde$1 !y 7 ev5 prep>+ to make conc]t$ se>* = x1 despite ! prote/s ( philosoph]s1 :o argu$ t ! planets c\ld n possibly exce$ ! magic numb] sev51 :5 ,piazzi =e/all$ _! ef=ts4 ,b a surprise came ) ! sequel2 = ! v next ye> ,dr4 ,olb]s1 ! wond]ful physician-a/ronom] ( ,brem51 :ile foll[+ up ! c\rse ( ,c]es1 happ5$ on ano!r t9y mov+ />1 simil>ly locat$1 :i* soon reveal$ itself z planet>y4 ,?us two planets 7 f\nd :]e only "o 0 expect$4 ,! exi/5ce ( ! sup]num]>y 0 a puzzle1 b ,olb]s solv$ x = ! mom5t by sugge/+ t ,c]es & ,pallas1 z he call$ 8 captive1 might be fragm5ts ( a quondam planet1 %att]$ by int]nal explosion or by ! impact ( a comet4 ,o!r simil> fragm5ts1 he v5tur$ to pr$ict1 w\ld be f\nd :5 se>*$ =4 ,william ,h]s*el sanction$ ?is !ory1 & sugge/$ ! "n a/]oids = ! t9y planets4 ,! explosion !ory 0 support$ by ! discov]y ( ano!r a/]oid1 by ,h>d+1 ( ,lili5?al1 9 #ahjd1 & x seem$ cl9*$ :5 ,olb]s himself f\nd a f\r? 9 #ahjg4 ,! new-com]s 7 nam$ ,juno & ,ve/a respectively4 ,!re ! case re/$ till #ahde1 :5 a ,prussian amateur a/ronom] nam$ ,h5cke f\nd ano!r a/]oid1 aft] long se>*+1 & op5$ a new epo* ( discov]y4 ,f !n on ! f9d+ ( a/]oids became a commonplace4 ,latt]ly1 ) ! aid ( photography1 ! li/ has be5 ext5d$ to above f\r hundr$1 & z yet !re seems no de>? 9 ! supply1 ?\gh d\btless all ! l>g] memb]s h be5 reveal$4 ,ev5 ^! are b a few hundr$s ( miles 9 diamet]1 :ile ! small] ones are too t9y = measurem5t4 ,! comb9$ bulk ( ^! m9or planets is believ$ to be b a fraction ( t ( ! e>?4 ,olb]s's explosion !ory1 long accept$ by a/ronom]s1 has be5 prov5 op5 to fatal objections4 ,! m9or planets are n[ believ$ to repres5t a r+ ( cosmical matt]1 ca/ (f f ! sol> nebula l ! r+s t w5t to =m ! major planets1 b prev5t$ f becom+ aggregat$ into a s+le body by ! p]turb+ mass ( ,jupit]4 ,! ,discov]y ( ,neptune ,z we h se51 ! discov]y ( ! fir/ a/]oid confirm$ a conjecture2 ! o!r important planet>y discov]y ( ! n9ete5? c5tury fulfill$ a pr$iction4 ,neptune 0 f\nd ?r\gh sci5tific prophecy4 ,no "o suspect$ ! exi/5ce ( a trans-,uranian planet till ,uranus itself1 by hair-bread? dep>tures f its pr$ict$ orbit1 gave out ! secret4 ,no "o saw ! di/urb+ planet till ! p5cil ( ! ma!matician1 ) almo/ occult div9ation1 _h po9t$ out its place 9 ! heav5s4 ,! g5]al pr$ication ( a trans-,uranian planet 0 made by ,bessel1 ! great ,konigsb]g a/ronom]1 9 #ahdj2 ! analysis t reveal$ its exact location 0 und]tak51 half a decade lat]1 by two indep5d5t work]s--,john ,c\* ,adams1 j graduat$ s5ior wrangl] at ,cambridge1 ,engl&1 & ,u4 ,j4 ,j4 ,lev]ri]1 ! lead+ ,fr5* ma!matician ( 8 g5]ation4 ,adams's calculation 0 fir/ begun & fir/ complet$4 ,b x _h "o radical defect--x 0 ! "w ( a "y & untri$ man4 ,s x f\nd lodgm5t 9 a pigeon-hole ( ! desk ( ,engl&'s ,a/ronom] ,royal1 & an opportunity 0 lo/ :i* ,engli% a/ronom]s h nev] ceas$ to m\rn4 ,_h ! se>* be5 made1 an actual planet w\ld h be5 se5 %9+ !re1 close to ! spot :]e ! p5cil ( ! ma!matician _h plac$ its hypo!tical c\nt]p>t4 ,b ! se>* 0 n made1 & :ile ! prophecy ( ,adams ga!r$ du/ 9 t regrettable pigeon-hole1 ,lev]ri]'s calculation 0 com+ on1 8 t5tative results meet+ full enc\ragem5t f ,arago & o!r ,fr5* savants4 ,at la/ ! labori\s calculations prov$ satisfactory1 &1 confid5t ( ! result1 ,lev]ri] s5t to ! ,b]l9 obs]vatory1 reque/+ t se>* be made = ! di/urb] ( ,uranus 9 a p>ticul> spot ( ! heav5s4 ,dr4 ,galle receiv$ ! reque/ ,septemb] #bc1 #ahdf4 ,t v night he turn$ 8 telescope to ! indicat$ region1 & !re1 )9 a s+le degree ( ! sugge/$ spot1 he saw a seem+ />1 invisible to ! unaid$ eye1 :i* prov$ to be ! long-s\ght planet1 h5ce=? to be kn[n z ,neptune4 ,to ! av]age m9d1 :i* f9ds some?+ altoge!r my/ify+ ab\t ab/ract ma!matics1 ?is 0 a feat savor+ ( ! miracul\s4 ,/imulat$ by ?is success1 ,lev]ri] calculat$ an orbit = an int]ior planet f p]turbations ( ,m]cury1 b ?\gh prematurely *ri/5$ ,vulcan1 ?is hypo!tical nursl+ ( ! sun /ill haunts ! realm ( ! undiscov]$1 along ) c]ta9 equally hypo!tical trans-,neptunian planets ^: exi/5ce has be5 sugge/$ by residual p]turbations ( ,uranus1 & by ! movem5ts ( comets4 ,no o!r v]itable additions ( ! sun's planet>y family h be5 made 9 our c5tury1 beyond ! f9d+ ( sev5 small moons1 :i* *iefly atte/ ! advance 9 telescopic p[]s4 ,( ^!1 ! t9y att5dants ( our ,m>tian neighbor1 discov]$ by ,pr(essor ,hall ) ! great ,wa%+ton refractor1 are ( greate/ int]e/1 because ( _! small size & extremely rapid flight4 ,"o ( !m is pois$ only six ?\s& miles f ,m>s1 & :irls ab\t him almo/ f\r times z fa/ z he revolves1 seem+ ?us1 z view$ by ! ,m>tian1 to rise 9 ! we/ & set 9 ! ea/1 & mak+ ! mon? only "o-f\r? z long z ! day4 ,! ,r+s ( ,saturn ,! discov]y ( ! inn] or crape r+ ( ,saturn1 made simultane\sly 9 #ahej by ,william ,c4 ,bond1 at ! ,h>v>d obs]vatory1 9 ,am]ica1 & ! ,rev4 ,w4 ,r4 ,dawes 9 ,engl&1 0 ano!r int]e/+ optical a*ievem5t2 b our mo/ important advances 9 k ( ,saturn's unique sy/em are due to ! ma!matician4 ,laplace1 l 8 pr$ecessors1 suppos$ ^! r+s to be solid1 & expla9$ _! /ability z due to c]ta9 irregul>ities ( cont\r :i* ,h]s*el bad po9t$ out4 ,b ab\t #ahea ,pr(essor ,peirce1 ( ,h>v>d1 %[$ ! unt5ability ( ?is conclusion1 prov+ t 7 ! r+s su* z ,laplace ?\ght !m !y mu/ fall ( _! own weight4 ,!n ,pr(essor ,j4 ,cl]k-,maxwell1 ( ,cambridge1 took ! matt] 9 h&1 & 8 analysis r$uc$ ! puzzl+ r+s to a cl\d ( meteoric p>ticles--a %[] ( brickbats--ea* fragm5t ( :i* circulates exactly z if x 7 an indep5d5t planet1 ?\gh ( c\rse p]turb$ & jo/l$ m or less by its fell[s4 ,mutual p]turbations1 & ! di/urb+ pulls ( ,saturn's or?odox satellites1 z inve/igat$ by ,maxwell1 expla9 ne>ly all ! ph5om5a ( ! r+s 9 a mann] highly satisfactory4 ,aft] elaborate ma!matical calculations cov]+ _m pages ( 8 pap] entitl$ ,on ! ,/ability ( ,saturn's ,r+s1 he summ>izes 8 d$uctions z foll[s3 ,let u n[ ga!r toge!r ! conclusions we h be5 able to draw f ! ma!matical !ory ( v>i\s k9ds ( conceivable r+s4 ,we f\nd t ! /ability ( ! motion ( a solid r+ dep5d$ on s delicate an adju/m5t1 & at ! same "t s unsymmetrical a di/ribution ( mass1 t ev5 if ! exact conditions 7 fulfill$1 x c\ld sc>cely la/ long1 &1 if x did1 ! imm5se prepond]ance ( "o side ( ! r+ w\ld be easily obs]v$1 contr>y to exp]i5ce4 ,^! consid]ations1 ) o!rs d]iv$ f ! me*anical /ructure ( s va/ a body1 compel u to ab&on any !ory ( solid r+s4 ,we next exam9$ ! motion ( a r+ ( equal satellites1 & f\nd t if ! mass ( ! planet is suffici5t1 any di/urbances produc$ 9 ! arrangem5t ( ! r+ w be propagat$ ar\nd x 9 ! =m ( waves1 & w n introduce dang]\s confusion4 ,if ! satellites are unequal1 ! propagations ( ! waves w no long] be regul>1 b di/urbances ( ! r+ w 9 ?is1 z 9 ! =m] case1 produce only waves1 & n gr[+ confusion4 ,suppos+ ! r+ to consi/1 n ( a s+le r[ ( l>ge satellites1 b a cl\d ( ev5ly di/ribut$ unconnect$ p>ticles1 we f\nd t su* a cl\d mu/ h a v small d5sity 9 ord] to be p]man5t1 & t ?is is inconsi/5t ) its out] & inn] p>ts mov+ ) ! same angul> velocity4 ,suppos+ ! r+ to be fluid & cont9u\s1 we f\nd t x w be necess>ily brok5 up into small portions4 ,we conclude1 !re=e1 t ! r+s mu/ consi/ ( disconnect$ p>ticles2 ^! mu/ be ei!r solid or liquid1 b !y mu/ be indep5d5t4 ,! entire sy/em ( r+s mu/1 !re=e1 consi/ ei!r ( a s]ies ( _m conc5tric r+s ea* mov+ ) its own velocity & hav+ its own sy/em ( waves1 or else ( a confus$ multitude ( revolv+ p>ticles n arrang$ 9 r+s & cont9ually com+ into collision ) "o ano!r4 ,tak+ ! fir/ case1 we f\nd t 9 an indef9ite numb] ( possible cases ! mutual p]turbations ( two r+s1 /able 9 !mselves1 might m\nt up 9 "t to a de/ructive magnitude1 & t su* cases mu/ cont9ually occur 9 an ext5sive sy/em l t ( ,saturn1 ! only ret>d+ cause be+ ! irregul>ity ( ! r+s4 ,! result ( long-cont9u$ di/urbance 0 f\nd to be ! spread+-out ( ! r+s 9 bread?1 ! out] r+s press+ outw>d1 :ile ! inn] r+s press inw>d4 ,! f9al result1 !re=e1 ( ! me*anical !ory is t ! only sy/em ( r+s :i* c exi/ is "o compos$ ( an indef9ite numb] ( unconnect$ p>ticles1 revolv+ ar\nd ! planet ) diff]5t velocities1 accord+ to _! respective di/ances4 ,^! p>ticles may be arrang$ 9 s]ies ( n>r[ r+s1 or !y may move ?r\gh "o ano!r irregul>ly4 ,9 ! fir/ case ! de/ruction ( ! sy/em w be v sl[1 9 ! second case x w be m rapid1 b !re may be a t5d5cy t[>ds arrangem5t 9 n>r[ r+s :i* may ret>d ! process4 ,we are n able to asc]ta9 by obs]vation ! con/itution ( ! two out] divisions ( ! sy/em ( r+s1 b ! inn] r+ is c]ta9ly transp>5t1 = ! limb ( ,saturn has be5 obs]v$ ?r\gh x4 ,x is also c]ta9 t ?\gh ! space occupi$ by ! r+ is transp>5t1 x is n ?r\gh ! mat]ial p>ts ( x t ! limb ( ,saturn is se51 = 8 limb 0 obs]v$ )\t di/ortion2 :i* %[s t !re 0 no refraction1 &1 !re=e1 t ! rays did n pass ?r\gh a m$ium at all1 b betwe5 ! sol> or liquid p>ticles ( :i* ! r+ is compos$4 ,"h1 !n1 we h an optical argum5t 9 favor ( ! !ory ( indep5d5t p>ticles z ! mat]ial ( ! r+s4 ,! two out] r+s may be ( ! same nature1 b n s exce$+ly r>e t a ray ( light c pass ?r\gh _! :ole ?ickness )\t enc\nt]+ "o ( ! p>ticles4 ,f9ally1 ! two out] r+s h be5 obs]v$ = two hundr$ ye>s1 & x appe>s1 f ! c>eful analysis ( all ! obs]vations ( ,m4 ,/ruve1 t ! second r+ is broad] ?an :5 fir/ obs]v$1 & t its inn] edge is ne>] ! planet ?an =m]ly4 ,! inn] r+ also is suspect$ to be approa*+ ! planet ev] s9ce its discov]y 9 #ahej4 ,^! appe>ances seem to indicate ! same sl[ progress ( ! r+s t[>ds sep>ation :i* we f\nd to be ! result ( !ory1 & ! rem>k t ! inn] edge ( ! inn] r+ is m di/9ct seems to indicate t ! approa* t[>ds ! planet is less rapid ne> ! edge1 z we _h reason to conjecture4 ,z to ! app>5t un*angeabl5ess ( ! ext]ior diamet] ( ! out] r+1 we mu/ rememb] t ! out] r+s are c]ta9ly f> m d5se ?an ! inn] "o1 & t a small *ange 9 ! out] r+s mu/ balance a great *ange 9 ! inn] "o4 ,x is possible1 h[ev]1 t "s ( ! obs]v$ *anges may be due to ! exi/5ce ( a resi/+ m$ium4 ,if ! *anges already suspect$ %\ld be confirm$ by repeat$ obs]vations ) ! same in/rum5ts1 x w be wor? :ile to inve/igate m c>efully :e!r ,saturn's r+s are p]man5t or transitory elem5ts ( ! sol> sy/em1 & :e!r 9 t "p ( ! heav5s we see cele/ial immutability or t]re/rial corruption & g5]ation1 & ! old ord] giv+ place to ! new be=e our eyes47#d7 ,/udies ( ! ,moon ,b p]haps ! mo/ int]e/+ accompli%m5ts ( ma!matical a/ronomy--f a mundane /&po9t1 at any rate--are ^? t ref] to ! e>?'s own satellite4 ,t seem+ly /aid body 0 long ago discov]$ to h a prop5sity to ga9 a little on ! e>?1 appe>+ at eclipses an inf9itesimal mom5t ahead ( "t4 ,a/ronom]s 7 sorely puzzl$ by ?is act ( insubord9ation2 b at la/ ,laplace & ,lagrange expla9$ x z due to an oscillatory *ange 9 ! e>?'s orbit1 ?us fully exon]at+ ! moon1 & seem+ to demon/rate ! absolute /ability ( our planet>y sy/em1 :i* ! moon's misbehavior _h appe>$ to ?reat54 ,?is highly satisfactory conclusion 0 an or?odox belief ( cele/ial me*anics until #ahec1 :5 ,pr(essor ,adams ( ,neptunian fame1 ) :om complex analyses 7 a pa/ime1 review$ ,laplace's calculation1 & discov]$ an error :i*1 :5 correct$1 left ab\t half ! moon's accel]ation unacc\nt$ =4 ,?is 0 a mom5t\s discrepancy1 :i* at fir/ no "o c\ld expla94 ,b pres5tly ,pr(essor ,helmholtz1 ! great ,g]man physici/1 sugge/$ t a key might be f\nd 9 tidal friction1 :i*1 act+ z a p]petual brake on ! e>?'s rotation1 & affect+ n m]ely ! wat]s b ! entire sub/ance ( our planet1 mu/ 9 ! long sweep ( "t h *ang$ its rate ( rotation4 ,?us ! seem+ accel]ation ( ! moon might be acc\nt$ = z actual ret>dation ( ! e>?'s rotation--a l5g!n+ ( ! day in/ead ( a %ort5+ ( ! mon?4 ,aga9 ! e>? 0 %[n to be at fault1 b ?is "t ! moon c\ld n be exon]at$1 :ile ! e/imat$ /ability ( our sy/em1 in/ead ( be+ re-e/abli%$1 0 q upset4 ,= ! tidal ret>dation is n an oscillatory *ange :i* w pres5tly correct itself1 l ! orbital wobble1 b a p]petual *ange1 act+ always 9 "o direction4 ,unless fully c\nt]act$ by "s oppos+ reaction1 !re=e 7z x seems n to be71 ! effect mu/ be cumulative1 ! ultimate consequ5ces disa/r\s4 ,! exact "* ( ^! consequ5ces 0 fir/ e/imat$ by ,pr(essor ,g4 ,h4 ,d>w9 9 #ahgi4 ,he %[$ t tidal friction1 9 ret>d+ ! e>?1 mu/ also pu% ! moon out f ! p>5t planet on a spiral orbit4 ,pla9ly1 !n1 ! moon mu/ =m]ly h be5 ne>] ! e>? ?an at pres5t4 ,at "s v remote p]iod x mu/ h actually t\*$ ! e>?2 mu/1 9 o!r words1 h be5 ?r[n (f f ! !n pla/ic mass ( ! e>?1 z a polyp buds out f its p>5t polyp4 ,at t "t ! e>? 0 sp9n+ ab\t 9 a day ( f two to f\r h\rs4 ,n[ ! day has be5 l5g!n$ to tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 & ! moon has be5 ?ru/ out to a di/ance ( a qu>t]-million miles2 b ! end is n yet4 ,! same progress ( ev5ts mu/ cont9ue1 till1 at "s remote p]iod 9 ! future1 ! day has come to equal ! mon?1 lun> tidal action has ceas$1 & "o face ( ! e>? looks out always at ! moon ) t same fix$ />e :i* ev5 n[ ! moon has be5 br\ght to assume t[>ds h] p>5t orb4 ,%\ld we *oose to take ev5 great] lib]ties ) ! future1 x may be made to appe> 7?\gh "s a/ronom]s diss5t f ?is pr$iction7 t1 z sol> tidal action /ill cont9ues1 ! day mu/ f9ally exce$ ! mon?1 & l5g!n out little by little t[>ds co9cid5ce ) ! ye>2 & t ! moon meantime mu/ pause 9 its outw>d flight1 & come sw++ back on a desc5d+ spiral1 until f9ally1 aft] ! lapse ( untold aeons1 x pl\ghs & rico*ets along ! surface ( ! e>?1 & plunges to cata/rophic de/ruction4 ,b ev5 ?\gh imag9ation pause f> %ort ( ?is direful culm9ation1 x /ill is cle> t mod]n calculations1 bas$ on inexorable tidal friction1 suffice to revolutionize ! views =m]ly curr5t z to ! /ability ( ! planet>y sy/em4 ,! eighte5?-c5tury ma!matician look$ ^u ?is sy/em z a va/ cele/ial ma*9e :i* _h be5 9 exi/5ce ab\t six ?\s& ye>s1 & :i* 0 de/9$ to run on =ev]4 ,! analy/ ( to-day computes bo? ! pa/ & ! future ( ?is sy/em 9 millions in/ead ( ?\s&s ( ye>s1 yet feels well assur$ t ! sol> sy/em (f]s no contradiction to ^? laws ( gr[? & decay :i* seem ev]y:]e to repres5t ! immutable ord] ( nature4 ,,comets ,,& ,,meteors ,until ! ma!matician f]ret$ out ! secret1 x surely nev] c\ld h be5 suspect$ by any "o t ! e>?'s s]5e att5dant1 ,t orb$ maid51 ) :ite fire lad51 ,:om mortals call ! moon1 c\ld be plott+ injury to h] p>5t orb4 ,b !re is ano!r inhabitant ( ! skies ^: purposes h n be5 simil>ly free f popul> suspicion4 ,ne$less to say ,i ref] to ! black %eep ( ! sid]eal family1 t cele/ial vagabond ! comet4 ,"t out ( m9d ^! w&]]s h be5 suppos$ to presage w>1 fam9e1 pe/il5ce1 p]haps ! de/ruction ( ! _w4 ,& little wond]4 ,"h is a body :i* comes fla%+ out ( b\ndless space into our sy/em1 %oot+ out a pyrote*nic tail "s hundr$s ( millions ( miles 9 l5g?2 :irl+1 p]haps1 ?r\gh ! v atmosph]e ( ! sun at a spe$ ( ?ree or f\r hundr$ miles a second2 !n d>t+ (f on a hyp]bolic orbit t =bids x ev] to return1 or an elliptical "o t _c be clos$ = hundr$s or ?\s&s ( ye>s2 ! tail meantime po9t+ always away f ! sun1 & fad+ to no?+ness z ! weird voyag] rec$es into ! spatial void :5ce x came4 ,n _m times ne$ ! adv5t ( su* an app>ition co9cide ) ! outbreak ( a pe/il5ce or ! dea? ( a ,caes> to /amp ! race ( comets z an om9\s clan 9 ! m9ds ( all sup]/iti\s g5]ations4 ,x is true1 a h>d bl[ 0 /ruck at ! pre/ige ( ^! alleg$ sup]natural ag5ts :5 ,newton prov$ t ! great comet ( #afhj obey$ ,kepl]'s laws 9 its flight ab\t ! sun2 & an ev5 h>d] "o :5 ! same visitant came back 9 #ageh1 ob$i5t to ,halley's pr$iction1 aft] its ?ree-qu>t]s ( a c5tury ( voyag+ b 9 ! abyss ( space4 ,prov$ ?us to b[ to natural law1 ! cele/ial mess5g] c\ld no long] fully1 su/a9 its role4 ,b long-/&+ notoriety _c be liv$ d[n 9 a day1 & ! comet1 ?\gh prov$ a natural object1 0 /ill reg>d$ z a v m5ac+ "o = ano!r hundr$ ye>s or s4 ,x rema9$ = ! n9ete5? c5tury to completely unmask ! pret5d] & %[ h[ egregi\sly our =ebe>s _h be5 deceiv$4 ,! unmask+ began e>ly 9 ! c5tury1 :5 ,dr4 ,olb]s1 !n ! highe/ au?ority on ! subject1 express$ ! op9ion t ! spectacul> tail1 :i* _h all along be5 ! comet's *ief /ock-9-trade z an e>?-?reat5]1 is 9 reality compos$ ( ! mo/ filmy vapors1 repell$ f ! comet>y body by ! sun1 presumably ?r\gh electrical action1 ) a velocity comp>able to t ( light4 ,?is lum9\s sugge/ion 0 held m or less 9 abeyance = half a c5tury4 ,!n x 0 elaborat$ by ,zolln]1 & p>ticul>ly by ,br$i*91 ( ! ,mosc[ obs]vatory1 into :at has s9ce be5 reg>d$ z ! mo/ plausible ( comet>y !ories4 ,x is held t comets & ! sun are simil>ly electrifi$1 & h5ce mutually repulsive4 ,gravitation va/ly outmat*es ?is repulsion 9 ! body ( ! comet1 b yields to x 9 ! case ( gases1 because electrical =ce v>ies ) ! surface1 :ile gravitation v>ies only ) ! mass4 ,f /udy ( atomic weights & e/imates ( ! velocity ( ?ru/ ( comet>y tails1 ,br$i*9 conclud$ t ! *ief compon5ts ( ! v>i\s k9ds ( tails are hydrog51 hydroc>bons1 & ! vapor ( iron2 & spectroscopic analysis goes f> t[>ds su/a9+ ^! assumptions4 ,b1 !ories aside1 ! unsub/antialness ( ! comet's tail has be5 put to a conclusive te/4 ,twice dur+ ! n9ete5? c5tury ! e>? has actually plung$ directly ?r\gh "o ( ^! ?reat5+ app5dages--9 #ahai1 & aga9 9 #ahfa1 once be+ imm]s$ to a dep? ( "s ?ree hundr$ ?\s& miles 9 its sub/ance4 ,yet no?+ dreadful happ5$ to u4 ,!re 0 a peculi> gl[ 9 ! atmosph]e1 s ! m imag9ative obs]v]s ?\ght1 & t 0 all4 ,aft] su* fiascos ! comet>y tra9 c\ld nev] aga9 pose z a _w-de/roy]4 ,b ! full measure ( ! comet's humiliation is n yet told4 ,! pyrote*nic tail1 compos$ z x is ( portions ( ! comet's actual sub/ance1 is tribute paid ! sun1 & c nev] be recov]$4 ,%\ld ! obeisance to ! sun be _m times repeat$1 ! tra9-=m+ mat]ial w be exhau/$1 & ! comet's *iefe/ glory w h dep>t$4 ,su* a fate has actually befall5 a multitude ( comets :i* ,jupit] & ! o!r outly+ planets h dragg$ into our sy/em & help$ ! sun to hold captive "h4 ,_m ( ^! tailless comets 7 kn[n to ! eighte5?-c5tury a/ronom]s1 b no "o at t "t suspect$ ! true mean+ ( _! condition4 ,x 0 n ev5 kn[n h[ closely "s ( !m are en*a9$ until ! ,g]man a/ronom] ,encke1 9 #ahbb1 %[$ t "o :i* he _h r$iscov]$1 & :i* has s9ce borne 8 "n1 0 mov+ 9 an orbit s contract$ t x mu/ complete its circuit 9 ab\t ?ree & a half ye>s4 ,%ortly aft]w>ds ano!r comet1 revolv+ 9 a p]iod ( ab\t six ye>s1 0 discov]$ by ,biela1 & giv5 8 "n4 ,only two m ( ^! %ort-p]iod comets 7 discov]$ dur+ ! fir/ half ( la/ c5tury1 b latt]ly !y h be5 %[n to be a num]\s family4 ,ne>ly tw5ty are kn[n :i* ! giant ,jupit] holds s close t ! utmo/ rea* ( _! elliptical te!r does n let !m g beyond ! orbit ( ,saturn4 ,^! a=etime w&]]s h adapt$ !mselves wond]fully to planet>y cu/oms1 = all ( !m revolve 9 ! same direction ) ! planets1 & 9 planes n wide ( ! ecliptic4 ,*eck$ 9 _! pr\d hyp]bolic sweep1 made captive 9 a planet>y net1 depriv$ ( _! tra9s1 ^! quondam free-lances ( ! heav5s are n[ m]e %ad[s ( _! =m] selves4 ,consid]$ z to m]e bulk1 !y are v sub/antial %ad[s1 _! ext5t be+ measur$ 9 hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( miles2 b _! actual mass is s slight t !y are q at ! m]cy ( ! gravitation pulls ( _! captors4 ,& worse is 9 /ore = !m4 ,s p]si/5tly d sun & planets tug at !m t !y are doom$ pres5tly to be torn into %r$s4 ,su* a fate has already ov]tak5 "o ( !m1 "u ! v eyes ( ! a/ronom]s1 )9 ! relatively %ort p]iod dur+ :i* ^! ill-fat$ comets h be5 obs]v$4 ,9 #ahcb ,biela's comet pass$ q ne> ! e>?1 z a/ronom]s measure di/ance1 & 9 do+ s creat$ a panic on our planet4 ,x did no great] h>m ?an t1 ( c\rse1 & pass$ on its way z usual4 ,! v next "t x came )9 telescopic hail x 0 se5 to h brok5 into two fragm5ts4 ,six ye>s lat] ^! fragm5ts 7 sep>at$ by _m millions ( miles2 & 9 #aheb1 :5 ! comet 0 due aga91 a/ronom]s look$ = x 9 va94 ,x _h be5 completely %att]$4 ,:at _h become ( ! fragm5ts8 ,at t "t no "o positively knew4 ,b ! "q 0 to be answ]$ pres5tly4 ,x *anc$ t j at ?is p]iod a/ronom]s 7 pay+ mu* att5tion to a class ( bodies :i* !y _h hi!rto some:at neglect$1 ! famili> %oot+-/>s1 or meteors4 ,! /udies ( ,pr(essor ,newton1 ( ,yale1 & ,pr(essor ,adams1 ( ,cambridge1 ) p>ticul> ref]5ce to ! great meteor-%[] ( ,novemb]1 #ahff1 :i* ,pr(essor ,newton _h pr$ict$ & %[n to be recurr5t at int]vals ( ?irty-?ree ye>s1 %[$ t meteors are n m]e sporadic sw>ms ( matt] fly+ at r&om1 b exi/ 9 isolat$ sw>ms1 & sweep ab\t ! sun 9 regul> elliptical orbits4 ,pres5tly x 0 %[n by ! ,italian a/ronom] ,s*iap>elli t "o ( ^! meteor sw>ms moves 9 ! orbit ( a previ\sly obs]v$ comet1 & o!r co9cid5ces ( ! k9d 7 soon =?com+4 ,! conviction grew t meteor sw>ms are really ! debris ( comets2 & ?is conviction became a practical c]ta9ty :51 9 ,novemb]1 #ahgb1 ! e>? cross$ ! orbit ( ! ill-/>r$ ,biela1 & a %[] ( meteors came :izz+ into our atmosph]e 9 lieu ( ! lo/ comet4 ,& s at la/ ! full secret 0 out4 ,! awe-inspir+ comet1 in/ead ( be+ ! planet>y body x _h all along be5 reg>d$1 is really no?+ m nor less ?an a great aggregation ( meteoric p>ticles1 :i* h become clu/]$ toge!r out 9 space some:]e1 & :i* by jo/l+ "o ano!r or ?r\gh electrical action become lum9\s4 ,s widely are ! individual p>ticles sep>at$ t ! comet>y body z a :ole has be5 e/imat$ to be ?\s&s ( times less d5se ?an ! e>?'s atmosph]e at sea-level4 ,h5ce ! ease ) :i* ! comet may be dismemb]$ & its p>ticles /rung out into /ream+ sw>ms4 ,s ?ickly is ! space we trav]se /rewn ) ?is comet>y du/ t ! e>? sweeps up1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,newcomb's e/imate1 a million tons ( x ea* day4 ,ea* individual p>ticle1 p]haps no l>g] ?an a millet se$1 becomes a %oot+-/>1 or meteor1 z x burns to vapor 9 ! e>?'s upp] atmosph]e4 ,& if "o t9y planet sweeps up su* masses ( ?is cosmic matt]1 ! am\nt ( x 9 ! entire /ret* ( our sy/em mu/ be beyond all e/imate4 ,:at a /ory x tells ( ! myriads ( comet>y victims t h fall5 prey to ! sun s9ce fir/ he /ret*$ 8 planet>y net across ! heav5s6 ,,! ,,fix$ ,,/>s ,:5 ,biela's comet gave ! inhabitants ( ! e>? su* a fright 9 #ahcb1 x really did n come )9 fifty millions ( miles ( u4 ,ev5 ! great comet ?r\gh ^: filmy tail ! e>? pass$ 9 #ahfa 0 itself f\rte5 millions ( miles away4 ,! ord9>y m9d1 s*ool$ to measure space by ! t9y /ret*es ( a pygmy planet1 _c grasp ! import ( su* di/ances2 yet ^! are m]e units ( measure comp>$ ) ! va/ /ret*es ( sid]eal space4 ,7 ! comet :i* hurtles pa/ u at a spe$ (1 say1 a hundr$ miles a second to cont9ue its mad flight un*eck$ /raight into ! void ( space1 x mu/ fly on its frigid way eight ?\s& ye>s be=e x c\ld rea* ! v ne>e/ ( our neighbor />s2 & ev5 !n x w\ld h p5etrat$ b a m]e arm's-l5g? into ! vi/as :]e lie ! doz5 or s ( sid]eal resid5ts t are next beyond4 ,ev5 to ! tra9$ m9d su* di/ances are only vaguely imag9able4 ,yet ! a/ronom] ( our c5tury has rea*$ out across ?is un?9kable void & br\ght back _m a secret :i* our pr$ecessors ?\ght =ev] beyond human grasp4 ,a t5tative assault ^u ?is /ronghold ( ! />s 0 be+ made by ,h]s*el at ! beg9n+ ( ! c5tury4 ,9 #ahjb t greate/ ( obs]v+ a/ronom]s ann\nc$ to ! ,royal ,society 8 discov]y t c]ta9 d\ble />s _h *ang$ _! relative positions t[>ds "o ano!r s9ce he fir/ c>efully *>t$ !m tw5ty ye>s be=e4 ,hi!rto x _h be5 suppos$ t d\ble />s 7 m]e optical effects4 ,n[ x became cle> t "s ( !m1 at any rate1 are true b9>y sy/ems1 l9k$ toge!r presumably by gravitation & revolv+ ab\t "o ano!r4 ,halley _h %[n1 ?ree-qu>t]s ( a c5tury be=e1 t ! />s h an actual or prop] motion 9 space2 ,h]s*el himself _h prov$ t ! sun %>es ?is motion ) ! o!r />s4 ,"h 0 ano!r %ift ( place1 hi!rto q unsuspect$1 to be reckon$ ) by ! a/ronom] 9 fa?om+ sid]eal secrets4 ,d\ble ,/>s ,:5 ,john ,h]s*el1 ! only son & ! wor?y successor ( ! great a/ronom]1 began />-gaz+ 9 e>ne/1 aft] graduat+ s5ior wrangl] at ,cambridge1 & mak+ two or ?ree t5tative pr(essional />ts 9 o!r directions to :i* 8 v]satile g5ius impell$ him1 8 fir/ ext5d$ "w 0 ! obs]vation ( 8 fa!r's d\ble />s4 ,8 /udies1 9 :i* at fir/ he _h ! collaboration ( ,mr4 ,james ,s\?1 br\ght to light scores ( hi!rto unrecogniz$ pairs1 & gave fre% data = ! calculation ( ! orbits ( ^? long] kn[n4 ,s also did ! indep5d5t rese>*es ( ,f4 ,g4 ,w4 ,/ruve1 ! en?usia/ic obs]v] ( ! fam\s ,russian obs]vatory at ! univ]sity ( ,dorpat1 & subsequ5tly at ,pulk[a4 ,utiliz+ data ga!r$ by ^! obs]v]s1 ,m4 ,sav>y1 ( ,p>is1 %[$1 9 #ahbg1 t ! obs]v$ elliptical orbits ( ! d\ble />s are explicable by ! ord9>y laws ( gravitation1 ?us confirm+ ! assumption t ,newton's laws apply to ^! sid]eal bodies4 ,h5ce=? !re c\ld be no reason to d\bt t ! same =ce :i* holds t]re/rial objects on our globe pulls at ea* & e p>ticle ( matt] ?r\gh\t ! visible univ]se4 ,! pione] explor]s ( ! d\ble />s e>ly f\nd t ! sy/ems into :i* ! />s are l9k$ are by no means conf9$ to s+le pairs4 ,(t5 ?ree or f\r />s are f\nd ?us closely connect$ into gravitation sy/ems2 inde$1 !re are all gradations betwe5 b9>y sy/ems & great clu/]s conta9+ hundr$s or ev5 ?\s&s ( memb]s4 ,x is kn[n1 = example1 t ! famili> clu/] ( ! ,pleiades is n m]ely an optical gr\p+1 z 0 =m]ly suppos$1 b an actual f$]ation ( associat$ />s1 "s two ?\s& five hundr$ 9 numb]1 only a few ( :i* are visible to ! unaid$ eve4 ,& ! m c>efully ! motions ( ! />s are /udi$1 ! m evid5t x becomes t widely sep>at$ />s are l9k$ toge!r into inf9itely complex sy/ems1 z yet b little und]/ood4 ,at ! same "t1 all in/rum5tal advances t5d to resolve m & m seem+ly s+le />s into close pairs & m9or clu/]s4 ,! two ,h]s*els betwe5 !m discov]$ "s ?\s&s ( ^! close multiple sy/ems2 ,/ruve & o!rs increas$ ! li/ to above t5 ?\s&2 & ,mr4 ,s4 ,w4 ,burnham1 ( late ye>s ! mo/ en?usia/ic & successful ( d\ble-/> pursu]s1 add$ a ?\s& new discov]ies :ile he 0 /ill an amateur 9 a/ronomy1 & by pr(ession ! /5ograph] ( a ,*icago c\rt4 ,cle>ly ! actual numb] ( multiple />s is beyond all pres5t e/imate4 ,! eld] ,h]s*el's e>ly /udies ( d\ble />s 7 und]tak5 9 ! hope t ^! objects might aid him 9 asc]ta9+ ! actual di/ance ( a />1 ?r\gh measurem5t ( its annual p>allax--t is to say1 ( ! angle :i* ! diamet] ( ! e>?'s orbit w\ld subt5d z se5 f ! />4 ,! expectation 0 n fulfill$4 ,! app>5t %ift ( position ( a /> z view$ f opposite sides ( ! e>?'s orbit1 f :i* ! p>allax might be e/imat$1 is s extremely m9ute t x prov$ utt]ly inappreciable1 ev5 to ! almo/ pret]naturally acute vision ( ,h]s*el1 ) ! aid ( any in/rum5tal means !n at comm&4 ,s ! problem ( /> di/ance allur$ & elud$ him to ! end1 & he di$ 9 #ahbb )\t see+ x ev5 9 prospect ( solution4 ,8 e/imate ( ! m9imum di/ance ( ! ne>e/ />1 bas$ ?\gh x 0 on ! fallaci\s te/ ( app>5t brilliancy1 0 a s+ul>ly sagaci\s "o1 b x 0 at be/ a sci5tific guess1 n a sci5tific measurem5t4 ,! ,di/ance ( ! ,/>s ,j ab\t ?is "t1 h[ev]1 a great optician came to ! aid ( ! a/ronom]s4 ,joseph ,fraunh(] p]fect$ ! refract+ telescope1 z ,h]s*el _h p]fect$ ! reflector1 & inv5t$ a wond]fully accurate heliomet]1 or sun-measur]4 ,) ! aid ( ^! in/rum5ts ! old & almo/ inf9itely difficult problem ( /> di/ance 0 solv$4 ,9 #ahch ,bessel ann\nc$ f ! ,konigsb]g obs]vatory t he _h succe$$1 aft] mon?s ( ef=t1 9 detect+ & measur+ ! p>allax ( a />4 ,simil> claims _h be5 made (t5 en\gh be=e1 always to prove fallaci\s :5 put to fur!r te/2 b ?is "t ! ann\ncem5t c>ri$ ! au?ority ( "o ( ! greate/ a/ronom]s ( ! age1 & scepticism 0 sil5c$4 ,nor did ,bessel's a*ievem5t long await corroboration4 ,inde$1 z s (t5 happ5s 9 fields ( discov]y1 two o!r work]s _h almo/ simultane\sly solv$ ! same problem--,/ruve at ,pulk[a1 :]e ! great ,russian obs]vatory1 :i* s long held ! palm ov] all o!rs1 _h n[ be5 e/abli%$2 & ,?omas ,h5d]son1 !n work+ at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 b aft]w>ds ! ,a/ronom] ,royal ( ,scotl&4 ,h5d]son's obs]vations _h actual prec$5ce 9 po9t ( "t1 b ,bessel's measurem5ts 7 s mu* m num]\s & au?oritative t he has be5 uni=mly consid]$ z des]v+ ! *ief cr$it ( ! discov]y1 :i* priority ( publication secur$ him4 ,by an odd *ance1 ! /> on :i* ,h5d]son's obs]vations 7 made1 & consequ5tly ! fir/ /> ! p>allax ( :i* 0 ev] measur$1 is our ne>e/ neighbor 9 sid]eal space1 be+1 inde$1 "s t5 billions ( miles ne>] ?an ! "o next beyond4 ,yet ev5 ?is ne>e/ /> is m ?an two hundr$ ?\s& times z remote f u z ! sun4 ,! sun's light fla%es to ! e>? 9 eight m9utes1 & to ,neptune 9 ab\t ?ree & a half h\rs1 b x requires ?ree & a half ye>s to signal ,alpha ,c5tauri4 ,& z = ! great majority ( ! />s1 _h !y be5 blott$ out ( exi/5ce be=e ! ,*ri/ian era1 we ( to-day %\ld /ill receive _! light & seem to see !m j z we d4 ,:5 we look up to ! sky1 we /udy anci5t hi/ory2 we d n see ! />s z !y ,,are1 b z !y ,,7 ye>s1 c5turies1 ev5 mill5nia ago4 ,! in=mation d]iv$ f ! p>allax ( a /> by no means halts ) ! disclosure ( ! di/ance ( t body4 ,di/ance kn[n1 ! prop] motion ( ! />1 hi!rto only to be reckon$ z s _m seconds ( arc1 may readily be translat$ into actual spe$ ( progress2 relative brightness becomes absolute lu/re1 z comp>$ ) ! sun2 & 9 ! case ( ! d\ble />s ! absolute mass ( ! compon5ts may be comput$ f ! laws ( gravitation4 ,x is f\nd t />s diff] enorm\sly among !mselves 9 all ^! reg>ds4 ,z to spe$1 "s1 l our sun1 b>ely creep ?r\gh space--compass+ t5 or tw5ty miles a second1 x is true1 yet ev5 at t rate only pass+ ?r\gh ! equival5t ( _! own diamet] 9 a day4 ,at ! o!r extreme1 among measur$ />s1 is "o t moves two hundr$ miles a second2 yet ev5 ?is fly+ />1 z se5 f ! e>?1 seems to *ange its place by only ab\t ?ree & a half lun> diamet]s 9 a ?\s& ye>s4 ,9 brightness1 "s />s yield to ! sun1 :ile o!rs surpass him z ! arc-light surpasses a c&le4 ,arcturus1 ! brighte/ measur$ />1 %9es l two hundr$ suns2 & ev5 ?is giant orb is dim beside ^? o!r />s :i* are s di/ant t _! p>allax _c be measur$1 yet :i* greet our eyes at fir/ magnitude4 ,z to actual bulk1 ( :i* app>5t lu/re furni%es no adequate te/1 "s />s are small] ?an ! sun1 :ile o!rs exce$ him hundr$s or p]haps ?\s&s ( times4 ,yet "o & all1 s di/ant are !y1 rema9 m]e disklike po9ts ( light be=e ! utmo/ p[]s ( ! mod]n telescope4 ,revelations ( ! ,spectroscope ,all ?is seems wond]ful en\gh1 b ev5 great] ?+s 7 9 /ore4 ,9 #ahei ! spectroscope came ^u ! sc5e1 p]fect$ by ,kir*h(f & ,buns51 along l9es po9t$ out by ,fraunh(] almo/ half a c5tury be=e4 ,t m>vell\s in/rum5t1 by reveal+ ! telltale l9es spr9kl$ across a prismatic spectrum1 discloses ! *emical nature & physical condition ( any sub/ance ^: light is submitt$ to x1 tell+ its /ory equally well1 provid$ ! light be /rong en\gh1 :e!r ! lum9\s sub/ance be ne> or f>--9 ! same room or at ! conf9es ( space4 ,cle>ly su* an in/rum5t mu/ prove a v]itable magic w& 9 ! h&s ( ! a/ronom]4 ,v soon eag] a/ronom]s all ov] ! _w 7 putt+ ! spectroscope to ! te/4 ,kir*h(f himself l$ ! way1 & ,donati & ,fa!r ,sec*i 9 ,italy1 ,hugg9s & ,mill] 9 ,engl&1 & ,ru!rfurd 9 ,am]ica1 7 ! *ief ( 8 imm$iate foll[]s4 ,! results exce$$ ! dreams ( ! mo/ vision>y4 ,at ! v outset1 9 #ahfj1 x 0 %[n t su* common t]re/rial sub/ances z sodium1 iron1 calcium1 magnesium1 nickel1 b>ium1 copp]1 & z9c exi/ 9 ! =m ( gl[+ vapors 9 ! sun1 & v soon ! />s gave up a correspond+ secret4 ,s9ce !n ! "w ( sol> & sid]eal analysis has gone on /eadily 9 ! h&s ( a multitude ( work]s 7prom95t among :om1 9 ?is c\ntry1 are ,pr(essor ,"y ( ,pr9ceton1 ,pr(essor ,langley ( ,wa%+ton1 & ,pr(essor ,pick]+ ( ,h>v>d71 & m ?an half ! kn[n t]re/rial elem5ts h be5 def9itely locat$ 9 ! sun1 :ile fre% discov]ies are 9 prospect4 ,x is true ! sun also conta9s "s seem+ elem5ts t are unkn[n on ! e>?1 b ?is is no matt] = surprise4 ,! mod]n *emi/ makes no claim = 8 elem5ts except t !y h ?us f> resi/$ all human ef=ts to dissociate !m2 x w\ld be no?+ /range if "s ( !m1 :5 subject$ to ! crucible ( ! sun1 :i* is se5 to vaporize iron1 nickel1 silicon1 %\ld fail to )/& ! te/4 ,b aga91 *emi/ry has by no means exhau/$ ! res\rces ( ! e>?'s supply ( raw mat]ial1 & ! sub/ance :i* s5ds its message f a /> may exi/ undiscov]$ 9 ! du/ we tread or 9 ! air we brea!4 ,9 ! ye> #ahie two new t]re/rial elem5ts 7 discov]$2 b "o ( ^! _h = ye>s be5 kn[n to ! a/ronom] z a sol> & suspect$ z a /ell> elem5t1 & nam$ helium because ( its abundance 9 ! sun4 ,! spectroscope _h rea*$ out millions ( miles into space & br\ght back ?is new elem5t1 & x took ! *emi/ a score ( ye>s to discov] t he _h all along _h samples ( ! same sub/ance unrecogniz$ 9 8 sublun>y laboratory4 ,!re is h>dly a m picturesque fact ?an t 9 ! entire hi/ory ( sci5ce4 ,b ! id5tity 9 sub/ance ( e>? & sun & />s 0 n m cle>ly %[n ?an ! div]sity ( _! exi/+ physical conditions4 ,x 0 se5 t sun & />s1 f> f be+ ! cool1 e>?like1 habitable bodies t ,h]s*el ?\ght !m 7surr\nd$ by gl[+ cl\ds1 & protect$ f undue heat by o!r cl\ds71 are 9 tru? see?+ caldrons ( fi]y liquid1 or gas made viscid by cond5sation1 ) lurid envelopes ( bel*+ flames4 ,x 0 soon made cle>1 also1 p>ticul>ly by ! /udies ( ,ru!rfurd & ( ,sec*i1 t />s diff] among !mselves 9 exact con/itution or condition4 ,!re are :ite or ,sirian />s1 ^: spectrum revels 9 ! l9es ( hydrog52 yell[ or sol> />s 7our sun be+ ! type71 %[+ v>i\s metallic vapors2 & sundry r$ />s1 ) b&$ spectra indicative ( c>bon comp\nds2 besides ! purely gase\s />s ( m rec5t discov]y1 :i* ,pr(essor ,pick]+ _h specially /udi$4 ,zolln]'s fam\s int]pretation ( ^! div]sities1 z indicative ( v>y+ /ages ( cool+1 has be5 call$ 9 "q z to ! exact sequ5ce x po/ulates1 b ! g5]al proposition t />s exi/ "u widely v>y+ conditions ( temp]ature is h>dly 9 dispute4 ,! assumption t diff]5t /> types m>k v>y+ /ages ( cool+ has ! fur!r support ( mod]n physics1 :i* has be5 unable to demon/rate any way 9 :i* ! sun's radiat$ en]gy may be re/or$1 or o!rwise made p]petual1 s9ce meteoric impact has be5 %[n to be--"u exi/+ conditions1 at any rate--inadequate4 ,9 accordance ) ! !ory ( ,helmholtz1 ! *ief supply ( sol> en]gy is held to be contraction ( ! sol> mass itself2 & pla9ly ?is mu/ h its limits4 ,!re=e1 unless "s means z yet unrecogniz$ is re/or+ ! lo/ en]gy to ! /ell> bodies1 ea* ( !m mu/ gradually lose its lu/re1 & come to a condition ( solidification1 seem+ /]ility1 & frigid d>kness4 ,9 ! case ( our own p>ticul> />1 accord+ to ! e/imate ( ,"l ,kelv91 su* a culm9ation appe>s likely to occur )9 a p]iod ( five or six million ye>s4 ,! ,a/ronomy ( ! ,invisible ,b by f> ! /ronge/ support ( su* a =eca/ z ?is is furni%$ by ^? /ell> bodies :i* ev5 n[ appe> to h cool$ to ! f9al /age ( /> developm5t & ceas$ to %9e4 ,( ?is class examples 9 m9iature are furni%$ by ! e>? & ! small] ( its companion planets4 ,b !re are l>g] bodies ( ! same type out 9 /ell> space--v]itable d>k />s--invisible1 ( c\rse1 yet n[adays cle>ly recogniz$4 ,! op5+ up ( ?is a/ronomy ( ! invisible is ano!r ( ! great a*ievem5ts ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 & aga9 x is ,bessel to :om ! honor ( discov]y is due4 ,:ile te/+ 8 />s = p>allax2 t a/ute obs]v] 0 l$ to inf]1 f c]ta9 unexpla9$ ab]rations ( motion1 t v>i\s />s1 ,sirius himself among ! numb]1 are accompani$ by invisible companions1 & 9 #ahdj he def9itely pr$icat$ ! exi/5ce ( su* d>k />s4 ,! correctness ( ! inf]5ce 0 %[n tw5ty ye>s lat]1 :5 ,alvan ,cl>k1 ,jr41 ! ,am]ican optician1 :ile te/+ a new l5s1 discov]$ ! companion ( ,sirius1 :i* prov$ ?us to be fa9tly lum9\s4 ,s9ce !n ! exi/5ce ( o!r & q invisible /> companions has be5 prov$ inconte/ably1 n m]ely by r5ew$ telescopic obs]vations1 b by ! curi\s te/imony ( ! ubiquit\s spectroscope4 ,"o ( ! mo/ surpris+ accompli%m5ts ( t in/rum5t is ! p[] to record ! flight ( a lum9\s object directly 9 ! l9e ( vision4 ,if ! lum9\s body approa*es swiftly1 its ,fraunh(] l9es are %ift$ f _! normal position t[>ds ! violet end ( ! spectrum2 if x rec$es1 ! l9es %ift 9 ! opposite direction4 ,! actual motion ( />s ^: di/ance is unkn[n may be measur$ 9 ?is way4 ,b 9 c]ta9 cases ! light l9es are se5 to oscillate on ! spectrum at regul> int]vals4 ,obvi\sly ! /> s5d+ su* light is alt]nately approa*+ & rec$+1 & ! inf]5ce t x is revolv+ ab\t a companion is unavoidable4 ,f ?is extraord9>y te/ ! orbital di/ance1 relative mass1 & actual spe$ ( revolution ( ! absolutely invisible body may be det]m9$4 ,?us ! spectroscope1 :i* deals only ) light1 makes p>adoxical excursions into ! realm ( ! invisible4 ,:at secrets may ! />s hope to conceal :5 que/ion$ by an in/rum5t ( su* necromantic p[]8 ,b ! spectroscope is n alone 9 ?is audaci\s assault ^u ! /rongholds ( nature4 ,x has a wor?y companion & assi/ant 9 ! photographic film1 ^: effici5t aid has be5 invok$ by ! a/ronom] ev5 m rec5tly4 ,pione] "w 9 cele/ial photography 01 inde$1 done by ,arago 9 ,france & by ! eld] ,drap] 9 ,am]ica 9 #ahci1 b ! results !n a*iev$ 7 only t5tative1 & x 0 n till =ty ye>s lat] t ! me?od assum$ really important proportions4 ,9 #ahhj1 ,dr4 ,h5ry ,drap]1 at ,ha/+s-on-!-,hudson1 made ! fir/ successful photograph ( a nebula4 ,soon aft]1 ,dr4 ,david ,gill1 at ! ,cape obs]vatory1 made f9e photographs ( a comet1 & ! flecks ( />light on 8 plates fir/ sugge/$ ! possibilities ( ?is me?od 9 *>t+ ! heav5s4 ,s9ce !n />-*>t+ ) ! film has come virtually to sup]s$e ! old me?od4 ,a conc]t$ ef=t is be+ made by a/ronom]s 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w to make a complete *>t ( ! heav5s1 & be=e ! close ( our c5tury ?is "w w be accompli%$1 "s fifty or sixty millions ( visible />s be+ plac$ on record ) a degree ( accuracy hi!rto unapproa*able4 ,moreov]1 o!r millions ( />s are br\ght to light by ! negative1 :i* are too di/ant or dim to be visible ) any telescopic p[]s yet atta9$--a fact :i* :olly discr$its all previ\s inf]5ces z to ! limits ( our sid]eal sy/em4 ,h5ce1 not)/&+ ! wond]ful in/rum5tal advances ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 k ( ! exact =m & ext5t ( our univ]se seems m unatta9able ?an x seem$ a c5tury ago4 ,! ,/ructure ( ,nebulae ,yet ! new in/rum5ts1 :ile leav+ s mu* untold1 h reveal$ "s va/ly important secrets ( cosmic /ructure4 ,9 p>ticul>1 !y h set at re/ ! long-/&+ d\bts z to ! real /ructure & position ( ! my/]i\s nebulae--^? lazy masses1 only two or ?ree ( !m visible to ! unaid$ eye1 :i* ! telescope reveals 9 almo/ limitless abundance1 scatt]$ ev]y:]e among ! />s1 b gr\p$ 9 p>ticul> ab\t ! poles ( ! /ell> /ream or disk :i* we call ! ,milky ,way4 ,h]s*el's lat] view1 :i* held t "s at lea/ ( ! nebulae are compos$ ( a %9+ fluid1 9 process ( cond5sation to =m />s1 0 g5]ally accept$ = almo/ half a c5tury4 ,b 9 #ahdd1 :5 ,"l ,rosse's great six-foot reflector--! l>ge/ telescope ev] yet con/ruct$--0 turn$ on ! nebulae1 x made ?is hypo!sis seem v d\btful4 ,j z ,galileo's fir/ l5s _h resolv$ ! ,milky ,way into />s1 j z ,h]s*el _h resolv$ nebulae t resi/$ all in/rum5ts b 8 own1 s ,"l ,rosse's ev5 great] reflector resolv$ o!rs t w\ld n yield to ,h]s*el's l>ge/ mirror4 ,x seem$ a fair inf]5ce t ) suffici5t p[]1 p]haps "s day to be atta9$1 all nebulae w\ld yield1 h5ce t all are 9 reality :at ,h]s*el _h at fir/ ?\ght !m--va/ly di/ant isl& univ]ses1 compos$ ( aggregations ( />s1 comp>able to our own galactic sy/em4 ,b ! inf]5ce 0 wrong2 = :5 ! spectroscope 0 fir/ appli$ to a nebula 9 #ahfd1 by ,dr4 ,hugg9s1 x cle>ly %[$ ! spectrum n ( discrete />s1 b ( a great mass ( gl[+ gases1 hydrog5 among o!rs4 ,m ext5d$ /udies %[$1 x is true1 t "s nebulae give ! cont9u\s spectrum ( solids or liquids1 b ! diff]5t types int]m+le & grade into "o ano!r4 ,also1 ! close/ aff9ity is %[n betwe5 nebulae & />s4 ,"s nebulae are f\nd to conta9 />s1 s+ly or 9 gr\ps1 9 _! actual mid/2 c]ta9 cond5s$ planet>y nebulae are sc>cely to be di/+ui%$ f />s ( ! gase\s type2 & rec5tly ! photographic film has %[n ! pres5ce ( nebul\s matt] ab\t />s t to telescopic vision diff] 9 no respect f ! g5]ality ( _! fell[s 9 ! galaxy4 ,! famili> />s ( ! ,pleiades clu/]1 = example1 appe> on ! negative imm]s$ 9 a hazy blur ( light4 ,all 9 all1 ! accumulat$ impressions ( ! photographic film reveal a prodigality ( nebul\s matt] 9 ! /ell> sy/em n hi!rto ev5 conjectur$4 ,& s1 ( c\rse1 all "q ( isl& univ]ses vani%es1 & ! nebulae are relegat$ to _! true position z compon5t p>ts ( ! "o /ell> sy/em--! "o univ]se--t is op5 to pres5t human inspection4 ,& ^! va/ cl\ds ( _w-/uff h be5 f\nd by ,pr(essor ,keel]1 ( ! ,lick obs]vatory1 to be float+ ?r\gh space at ! />like spe$ ( f t5 to ?irty-eight miles p] second4 ,! l9k+ ( nebulae ) />s1 s cle>ly evid5c$ by all ^! mod]n obs]vations1 is1 aft] all1 only ! sci5tific corroboration ( :at ! eld] ,h]s*el's lat] !ories affirm$4 ,b ! nebulae h o!r aff9ities n until rec5tly suspect$2 = ! spectra ( "s ( !m are practically id5tical ) ! spectra ( c]ta9 comets4 ,! conclusion seems w>rant$ t comets are 9 po9t ( fact m9or nebulae t are drawn into our sy/em2 or1 putt+ x o!rwise1 t ! telescopic nebulae are simply gigantic di/ant comets4 ,locky]'s ,meteoric ,hypo!sis ,foll[+ up ! surpris+ clews ?us sugge/$1 ,sir ,norman ,locky]1 ( ,london1 has 9 rec5t ye>s elaborat$ :at is p]haps ! mo/ compreh5sive cosmogonic guess t has ev] be5 attempt$4 ,8 !ory1 kn[n z ! meteoric hypo!sis1 probably be>s ! same relation to ! speculative ?\ght ( our "t t ! nebul> hypo!sis ( ,laplace bore to t ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,outl9$ 9 a few words1 x is an attempt to expla9 all ! major ph5om5a ( ! univ]se z due1 directly or indirectly1 to ! gravitational impact ( su* meteoric p>ticles1 or specks ( cosmic du/1 z comets are compos$ (4 ,nebulae are va/ comet>y cl\ds1 ) p>ticles m or less widely sep>at$1 giv+ (f gases ?r\gh meteoric collisions1 int]nal or ext]nal1 & p]haps gl[+ also ) electrical or phosphoresc5t light4 ,gravity ev5tually br+s ! nebul> p>ticles into clos] aggregations1 & increas$ collisions f9ally vaporize ! entire mass1 =m+ planet>y nebulae & gase\s />s4 ,cont9u$ cond5sation may make ! /ell> mass hott] & m lum9\s = a "t1 b ev5tually leads to its liquefaction1 & ultimate consolidation--! a=etime nebulae becom+ 9 ! end a d>k or planet>y />4 ,! exact correlation :i* ,locky] attempts to po9t out betwe5 successive /ages ( meteoric cond5sation & ! v>i\s types ( obs]v$ /ell> bodies does n meet ) unanim\s acceptance4 ,mr4 ,rany>d1 = example1 sugge/s t ! visible nebulae may n be nasc5t />s1 b emanations f />s1 & t ! true pre-/ell> nebulae are invisible until cond5s$ to /ell> proportions4 ,b su* details aside1 ! broad g5]al hypo!sis t all ! bodies ( ! univ]se are1 s to speak1 ( a s+le species--t nebulae 7includ+ comets71 />s ( all types1 & planets1 are b v>y+ /ages 9 ! life hi/ory ( a s+le race or type ( cosmic organisms--is accept$ by ! dom9ant ?\ght ( our "t z hav+ ! highe/ w>rant ( sci5tific probability4 ,all ?is1 cle>ly1 is b an amplification ( t nebul> hypo!sis :i*1 long be=e ! spectroscope gave u w>rant to accurately judge our sid]eal neighbors1 _h boldly imag9$ ! developm5t ( />s out ( nebulae & ( planets out ( />s4 ,b ,locky]'s hypo!sis does n /op ) ?is4 ,hav+ trac$ ! developm5tal process f ! nebul> to ! d>k />1 x sees no cause to ab&on ?is d>k /> to its fate by assum+1 z ! orig9al speculation assum$1 t ?is is a culm9at+ & f9al /age ( cosmic exi/5ce4 ,= ! d>k />1 ?\gh its molecul> activities h come to relative /ability & impot5ce1 /ill reta9s ! enorm\s pot5tialities ( mol> motion2 & cle>ly1 :]e motion is1 /asis is n4 ,soon] or lat]1 9 its ceaseless flight ?r\gh space1 ! d>k /> mu/ collide ) "s o!r /ell> body1 z ,dr4 ,croll imag9es ( ! d>k bodies :i* 8 pre-nebul> !ory po/ulates4 ,su* collision may be long delay$2 ! d>k /> may be drawn 9 comet-l circuit ab\t ?\s&s ( o!r /ell> masses1 & be hurtl$ on ?\s&s ( div]se p>abolic or elliptical orbits1 be=e x *ances to collide--b t matt]s n3 billions are ! units 9 ! ari?metic ( et]nity1 & soon] or lat]1 we c h>dly d\bt1 a collision mu/ occur4 ,!n )\t "q ! mutual impact mu/ %att] bo? collid+ bodies into vapor1 or vapor comb9$ ) meteoric fragm5ts2 9 %ort1 into a v]itable nebula1 ! matrix ( future worlds4 ,?us ! d>k />1 :i* is ! la/ t]m ( "o s]ies ( cosmic *anges1 becomes ! fir/ t]m ( ano!r s]ies--at once a po/-nebul> & a pre-nebul> condition2 & ! nebul> hypo!sis1 ?us amplifi$1 ceases to be a m]e l9e> scale1 & is r\nd$ out to connote an un5d+ s]ies ( cosmic cycles1 m ne>ly satisfy+ ! imag9ation4 ,9 ?is ext5d$ view1 nebulae & lum9\s />s are b ! infantile & adolesc5t /ages ( ! life hi/ory ( ! cosmic individual2 ! d>k />1 its adult /age1 or "t ( true virility4 ,or we may ?9k ( ! %runk5 d>k /> z ! g]m-cell1 ! poll5-gra91 ( ! cosmic organism4 ,r$uc$ 9 size1 z becomes a g]m-cell1 to a m]e fraction ( ! nebul> body f :i* x sprang1 x yet reta9s )9 its seem+ly non-vital body all ! pot5tialities ( ! orig9al organism1 & requires only to bl5d ) a fell[-cell to br+ a new g5]ation into be+4 ,?us may ! cosmic race1 ^: aggregate c5sus makes up ! /ell> univ]se1 be p]petuat$--individual sol> sy/ems1 su* z ours1 be+ born1 & gr[+ old1 & dy+ to live aga9 9 _! desc5dants1 :ile ! univ]se z a :ole ma9ta9s its unifi$ integrity ?r\gh\t all ^! int]nal mutations--pass+ on1 x may be1 by inf9itesimal /ages1 to a culm9ation hopelessly beyond human compreh5sion4 ,,iii4 ,,! ,,new ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,paleontology ,,william ,,smi? ,,& ,,fossil ,,%ells ,ev] s9ce ,leon>do da ,v9ci fir/ recogniz$ ! true "* ( fossils1 !re _h be5 "h & !re a man :o realiz$ t ! e>?'s rocky cru/ is "o gigantic mausoleum4 ,"h & !re a dilettante _h fill$ 8 cab9ets ) relics f ?is mon/] crypt2 "h & !re a philosoph] _h pond]$ ov] !m--que/ion+ :e!r p]*ance !y _h once be5 alive1 or :e!r !y 7 n m]e abortive s\v5irs ( t "t :5 ! f]tile matrix ( ! e>? 0 suppos$ to h teem$ at a bir? ,innum]\s liv+ creatures1 p]fect =ms1 ,limb$ & full gr[n4 ,"s few ( ^! philosoph]s--z ,rob]t ,hooke & ,/5o 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury1 & ,moro1 ,leibnitz1 ,buffon1 ,:itehur/1 ,w]n]1 ,hutton1 & o!rs 9 ! eighte5?--_h vaguely conceiv$ ! importance ( fossils z records ( ! e>?'s anci5t hi/ory1 b ! wise/ ( !m no m suspect$ ! full import ( ! /ory writt5 9 ! rocks ?an ! av]age /roll] 9 a mod]n museum suspects ! mean+ ( ! hi]oglyphs on ! case ( a mummy4 ,x 0 n t ! rudim5ts ( ?is /ory are s v h>d to deciph]--?\gh 9 tru? !y are h>d en\gh--b r t ! m5 :o made ! attempt _h all along view$ ! subject ?r\gh an atmosph]e ( preconception1 :i* gave a di/ort$ image4 ,be=e ?is image c\ld be correct$ x 0 necess>y t a man %\ld appe> :o c\ld see )\t prejudice1 & apply s\nd common-s5se to :at he saw4 ,& su* a man did appe> t[>ds ! close ( ! c5tury1 9 ! p]son ( ,william ,smi?1 ! ,engli% surveyor4 ,he 0 a self-taught man1 & p]haps ! m indep5d5t = t1 & he _h ! gift1 besides 8 %>p eyes & receptive m9d1 ( a mo/ t5aci\s memory4 ,by ex]cis+ ^! faculties1 r>e z !y are homely1 he l$ ! way to a sci5ce :i* 0 de/9$1 9 its lat] developm5ts1 to %ake ! /ructure ( e/abli%$ ?\ght to its f\ndations4 ,little en\gh did ,william ,smi? suspect1 h[ev]1 t any su* dire consequ5ces 7 to come ( 8 act :5 he fir/ began notic+ ! fossil %ells t "h & !re are to be f\nd 9 ! /ratifi$ rocks & soils ( ! regions ov] :i* 8 surveyor's duties l$ him4 ,nor1 inde$1 0 !re any?+ ( su* app>5t revolution>y "* 9 ! facts :i* he une>!d2 yet 9 _! implications ^! facts 7 ! mo/ disconc]t+ ( any t _h be5 reveal$ s9ce ! days ( ,cop]nicus & ,galileo4 ,9 its bald ess5ce1 ,smi?'s discov]y 0 simply ?is3 t ! fossils 9 ! rocks1 in/ead ( be+ scatt]$ haphaz>d1 are arrang$ 9 regul> sy/ems1 s t any giv5 /ratum ( rock is labell$ by its fossil population2 & t ! ord] ( succession ( su* gr\ps ( fossils is always ! same 9 any v]tical s]ies ( /rata 9 :i* !y occur4 ,t is to say1 if fossil ,a und]lies fossil ,b 9 any giv5 region1 x nev] ov]lies x 9 any o!r s]ies2 ?\gh a k9d ( fossils f\nd 9 "o set ( /rata may be q omitt$ 9 ano!r4 ,moreov]1 a fossil once hav+ disappe>$ nev] reappe>s 9 any lat] /ratum4 ,f ^! novel facts ,smi? drew ! commons5se inf]5ce t ! e>? _h _h successive populations ( creatures1 ea* ( :i* 9 its turn _h become ext9ct4 ,he p>tially v]ifi$ ?is inf]5ce by comp>+ ! fossil %ells ) exi/+ species ( simil> ord]s1 & f\nd t su* z occur 9 old] /rata ( ! rocks _h no c\nt]p>ts among liv+ species4 ,b1 on ! :ole1 be+ em95tly a practical man1 ,smi? tr\bl$ himself b little ab\t ! inf]5ces t might be drawn f 8 facts4 ,he 0 *iefly conc]n$ 9 us+ ! key he _h discov]$ z an aid to ! con/ruction ( ! fir/ geological map ( ,engl& ev] attempt$1 & he left to o!rs ! untangl+ ( any sn>ls ( ?\ght t might seem to arise f 8 discov]y ( ! succession ( v>y+ =ms ( life on ! globe4 ,he dissem9at$ 8 views f> & wide1 h[ev]1 9 ! c\rse ( 8 j\rney+s--q disreg>d+ ! fact t p]ipatetics w5t out ( fa%ion :5 ! pr9t+-press came 9--& by ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury he _h begun to h a foll[+ among ! geologi/s ( ,engl&4 ,x mu/ n = a mom5t be suppos$1 h[ev]1 t 8 cont5tion reg>d+ ! succession ( /rata met ) imm$iate or g5]al acceptance4 ,on ! contr>y1 x 0 mo/ bitt]ly antagoniz$4 ,= a long g5]ation aft] ! discov]y 0 made1 ! g5]ality ( m51 prone z always to /ra9 at gnats & swall[ camels1 pref]r$ to believe t ! fossils1 in/ead ( be+ deposit$ 9 successive ages1 _h be5 swept all at once into _! pres5t positions by ! curr5t ( a mighty flood--& t flood1 ne$less to say1 ! ,noa*ian deluge4 ,j h[ ! numb]less successive /rata c\ld h be5 laid d[n 9 ord]ly sequ5ce to ! dep? ( sev]al miles 9 "o su* fell cataclysm 0 inde$ puzzl+1 especially aft] x came to be admitt$ t ! heavie/ fossils 7 n f\nd always at ! bottom2 b to d\bt t ?is _h be5 done 9 "s way 0 rank h]esy 9 ! e>ly days ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,,cuvi] ,,& ,,fossil ,,v]tebrates ,b once discov]$1 ,william ,smi?'s unique facts z to ! succession ( =ms 9 ! rocks w\ld n d[n4 ,!re 0 "o mo/ vital po9t1 h[ev]1 reg>d+ :i* ! inf]5ces t seem to foll[ f ^! facts ne$$ v]ification--! "q1 namely1 :e!r ! disappe>ance ( a fauna f ! regi/] 9 ! rocks really implies ! ext9ction ( t fauna4 ,ev]y?+ really dep5d$ ^u ! answ] to t "q1 & none b an accompli%$ naturali/ c\ld answ] x ) au?ority4 ,=tunately1 ! mo/ au?oritative naturali/ ( ! "t1 ,george ,cuvi]1 took ! "q 9 h&--n1 inde$1 ) ! idea ( v]ify+ any sugge/ion ( ,smi?'s1 b 9 ! c\rse ( 8 own orig9al /udies--at ! v beg9n+ ( ! c5tury1 :5 ,smi?'s views 7 attract+ g5]al att5tion4 ,cuvi] & ,smi? 7 exact contempor>ies1 bo? m5 hav+ be5 born 9 #agfi1 t f]tile ye> :i* gave ! _w also ,*ateaubri&1 ,von ,humboldt1 ,well+ton1 & ,napoleon4 ,b ! ,fr5* naturali/ 0 ( v diff]5t antec$5ts f ! ,engli% surveyor4 ,he 0 brilliantly educat$1 _h e>ly ga9$ recognition z a sci5ti/1 & :ile yet a "y man _h come to be kn[n z ! =emo/ comp>ative anatomi/ ( 8 "t4 ,x 0 ! anatomical /udies t l$ him into ! realm ( fossils4 ,"s bones dug out ( ! rocks by workm5 9 a qu>ry 7 br\ght to 8 notice1 & at once 8 tra9$ eye told him t !y 7 diff]5t f any?+ he _h se5 be=e4 ,hi!rto su* bones1 :5 n entirely ignor$1 _h be5 = ! mo/ "p ascrib$ to giants ( =m] days1 or ev5 to fall5 angels4 ,cuvi] soon %[$ t nei!r giants nor angels 7 9 "q1 b elephants ( an unrecogniz$ species4 ,cont9u+ 8 /udies1 p>ticul>ly ) mat]ial ga!r$ f gypsum b$s ne> ,p>is1 he _h accumulat$1 by ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 bones ( ab\t tw5ty-five species ( animals t he believ$ to be diff]5t f any n[ liv+ on ! globe4 ,! fame ( ^! /udies w5t abroad1 & pres5tly fossil bones p\r$ 9 f all sides1 & ,cuvi]'s conviction t ext9ct =ms ( animals are repres5t$ among ! fossils 0 su/a9$ by ! evid5ce ( _m /range & anomal\s =ms1 "s ( !m ( gigantic size4 ,9 #ahaf ! fam\s ,ossem5ts ,fossiles1 describ+ ^! novel objects1 0 publi%$1 & v]tebrate paleontology became a sci5ce4 ,among o!r ?+s ( great popul> int]e/ ! book conta9$ ! fir/ au?oritative description ( ! hairy elephant1 nam$ by ,cuvi] ! mammo?1 ! rema9s ( :i* bad be5 f\nd emb$d$ 9 a mass ( ice 9 ,sib]ia 9 #ahjb1 s wond]fully pres]v$ t ! dogs ( ! ,tungusian fi%]m5 actually ate its fle%4 ,bones ( ! same species _h be5 f\nd 9 ,sib]ia sev]al ye>s be=e by ! naturali/ ,pallas1 :o _h also f\nd ! c>cass ( a rh9oc]os !re1 froz5 9 a mud-bank2 b no "o !n suspect$ t ^! 7 memb]s ( an ext9ct population--!y 7 suppos$ to be m]ely transport$ relics ( ! flood4 ,cuvi]1 on ! o!r h&1 ass]t$ t ^! & ! o!r creatures he describ$ _h liv$ & di$ 9 ! region :]e _! rema9s 7 f\nd1 & t mo/ ( !m h no liv+ repres5tatives ^u ! globe4 ,?is1 to be sure1 0 no?+ m ?an ,william ,smi? _h tri$ all along to e/abli% reg>d+ l[] =ms ( life2 b fle% & blood mon/]s appeal to ! imag9ation 9 a way q beyond ! p[] ( m]e %ells2 s ! ann\ncem5t ( ,cuvi]'s discov]ies ar\s$ ! int]e/ ( ! entire _w1 & ! ,ossem5ts ,fossiles 0 accord$ a popul> reception seldom giv5 a "w ( te*nical sci5ce--a reception 9 :i* ! en?usia/ic approval ( progressive geologi/s 0 m+l$ ) ! bitt] prote/s ( ! cons]vatives4 ,naturali/s c]ta9ly h nei!r explor$ all ! cont95ts1 said ,cuvi]1 nor d !y z yet ev5 "k all ! quadrup$s ( ^? p>ts :i* h be5 explor$4 ,new species ( ?is class are discov]$ f "t to "t2 & ^? :o h n exam9$ ) att5tion all ! circum/ances belong+ to ^! discov]ies may allege also t ! unkn[n quadrup$s1 ^: fossil bones h be5 f\nd 9 ! /rata ( ! e>?1 h hi!rto rema9$ conceal$ 9 "s isl&s n yet discov]$ by navigators1 or 9 "s ( ! va/ des]ts :i* occupy ! middle ( ,africa1 ,asia1 ! two ,am]icas1 & ,new ,holl&4 ,b if we c>efully att5d to ! k9d ( quadrup$s t h be5 rec5tly discov]$1 & to ! circum/ances ( _! discov]y1 we %all easily p]ceive t !re is v little *ance inde$ ( our ev] f9d+ alive ^? :i* h only be5 se5 9 a fossil /ate4 ,isl&s ( mod]ate size1 & at a consid]able di/ance f ! l>ge cont95ts1 h v few quadrup$s4 ,^! mu/ h be5 c>ri$ to !m f o!r c\ntries4 ,cook & ,b\ga9ville f\nd no o!r quadrup$s besides hogs & dogs 9 ! ,s\? ,sea ,isl&s2 & ! l>ge/ quadrup$ ( ! ,we/ ,india ,isl&s1 :5 fir/ discov]$1 0 ! ag\ti1 a species ( ! cavy1 an animal app>5tly betwe5 ! rat & ! rabbit4 ,x is true t ! great cont95ts1 z ,asia1 ,africa1 ! two ,am]icas1 & ,new ,holl&1 h l>ge quadrup$s1 &1 g5]ally speak+1 conta9 species common to ea*2 insomu*1 t ^u discov]+ c\ntries :i* are isolat$ f ! re/ ( ! _w1 ! animals !y conta9 ( ! class ( quadrup$ 7 f\nd entirely diff]5t f ^? :i* exi/$ 9 o!r c\ntries4 ,?us1 :5 ! ,spani>ds fir/ p5etrat$ into ,s\? ,am]ica1 !y did n f9d x to conta9 a s+le quadrup$ exactly ! same ) ^? ( ,europe1 ,asia1 & ,africa4 ,! puma1 ! jagu>1 ! tapir1 ! capyb>a1 ! llama1 or glama1 & vicuna1 & ! :ole tribe ( sapaj\s1 7 to !m entirely new animals1 ( :i* !y _h n ! smalle/ idea4444 ,if !re /ill rema9$ any great cont95t to be discov]$1 we might p]haps expect to be made acqua9t$ ) new species ( l>ge quadrup$s1 among :i* "s might be f\nd m or less simil> to ^? ( :i* we f9d ! exuviae 9 ! b[els ( ! e>?4 ,b x is m]ely suffici5t to glance ! eye ov] ! maps ( ! _w & obs]ve ! innum]able directions 9 :i* navigators h trav]s$ ! ocean1 9 ord] to be satisfi$ t !re does n rema9 any l>ge l& to be discov]$1 unless x may be situat$ t[>ds ! ,ant>ctic ,pole1 :]e et]nal ice necess>ily =bids ! exi/5ce ( animal life47#a7 ,cuvi] !n po9ts out t ! anci5ts 7 well acqua9t$ ) practically all ! animals on ! cont95ts ( ,europe1 ,asia1 & ,africa n[ kn[n to sci5ti/s4 ,he f9ds little gr\nds1 !re=e1 = belief 9 ! !ory t at "o "t !re 7 mon/r\s animals on ! e>? :i* x 0 necess>y to de/roy 9 ord] t ! pres5t fauna & m5 might fl\ri%4 ,aft] review+ ^! !ories & beliefs 9 detail1 he takes up 8 ,inquiry ,respect+ ! ,fabul\s ,animals ( ! ,anci5ts4 ,x is easy1 he says1 to reply to ! =ego+ objections1 by exam9+ ! descriptions t are left u by ! anci5ts ( ^? unkn[n animals1 & by inquir+ into _! orig9s4 ,n[ t ! great] numb] ( ^! animals h an orig91 ! descriptions giv5 ( !m be> ! mo/ unequivocal m>ks2 z 9 almo/ all ( !m we see m]ely ! diff]5t p>ts ( kn[n animals unit$ by an unbridl$ imag9ation1 & 9 contradiction to e e/abli%$ law ( nature47#b7 ,hav+ %[n h[ ! fabul\s mon/]s ( anci5t times & ( =eign nations1 su* z ! ,*9ese1 7 simply products ( ! imag9ation1 hav+ no prototypes 9 nature1 ,cuvi] takes up ! consid]ation ( ! difficulty ( di/+ui%+ ! fossil bones ( quadrup$s4 ,we %all h occasion to rev]t to ?is "p ( ,cuvi]'s pap] 9 ano!r connection4 ,"h x suffices to pass at once to ! f9al conclusion t ! fossil bones 9 "q are ! rema9s ( an ext9ct fauna1 ! l ( :i* has no pres5t-day repres5tation on ! e>?4 ,:atev] its implications1 ?is conclusion n[ seem$ to ,cuvi] to be fully e/abli%$4 ,9 ,engl& ! int]e/ ?us ar\s$ 0 s5t to fev]-heat 9 #ahba by ! discov]y ( abundant b$s ( fossil bones 9 ! /alagmite-cov]$ floor ( a cave at ,kirkdale1 ,york%ire :i* w5t to %[ t ,engl&1 too1 _h once _h h] %>e ( gigantic bea/s4 ,dr4 ,buckl&1 ! incumb5t ( ! *air ( geology at ,ox=d1 & ! mo/ au?oritative ,engli% geologi/ ( 8 day1 took ^! f9ds 9 h& & %[$ t ! bones belong$ to a numb] ( species1 includ+ su* ali5 =ms z elephants1 rh9oc]oses1 hippopotami1 & hy5as4 ,he ma9ta9$ t all ( ^! creatures _h actually liv$ 9 ,brita91 & t ! caves 9 :i* _! bones 7 f\nd _h be5 ! d5s ( hy5as4 ,! claim 0 hotly disput$1 z a matt] ( c\rse4 ,z late z #ahbg books 7 publi%$ d5\nc+ ,buckl&1 doctor ( div9ity ?\gh he 01 z "o :o _h jo9$ 9 an unhall[$ cause1 & reit]at+ ! old cry t ! fossils 7 only rema9s ( tropical species wa%$ ?i!r by ! deluge4 ,t !y 7 f\nd 9 solid rocks or 9 caves (f]$ no difficulty1 at lea/ n to ! f]tile imag9ation ( ,granville ,p5n1 ! lead] ( ! cons]vatives1 :o clung to ! old idea ( ,woodw>d & ,cattcut t ! deluge _h dissolv$ ! entire cru/ ( ! e>? to a pa/e1 into :i* ! relics n[ call$ fossils _h settl$4 ,! caves1 said ,mr4 ,p5n1 are m]ely ! result ( gases giv5 (f by ! c>casses dur+ decomposition--great air-bubbles1 s to speak1 9 ! pa/y mass1 becom+ cav]ns :5 ! wat]s rec$$ & ! pa/e h>d5$ to rocky consi/5cy4 ,b ^! & su*-l fanciful views 7 doom$ ev5 9 ! day ( _! utt]ance4 ,already 9 #ahbc o!r gigantic creatures1 *ri/5$ i*?yosaurus & plesiosaurus by ,conybe>e1 _h be5 f\nd 9 deep] /rata ( ,briti% rocks2 & ^!1 z well z o!r mon/]s ^: rema9s 7 une>!d 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w1 bore su* /range =ms t ev5 ! mo/ sceptical c\ld sc>cely hope to f9d _! c\nt]p>ts among liv+ creatures4 ,cuvi]'s cont5tion t all ! l>g] v]tebrates ( ! exi/+ age are kn[n to naturali/s 0 borne out by rec5t explorations1 & !re seem$ no refuge f ! conclusion t ! fossil records tell ( populations actually ext9ct4 ,b if ?is 7 admitt$1 !n ,smi?'s view t !re h be5 successive rotations ( population c\ld no long] be d5i$4 ,nor c\ld x be 9 d\bt t ! successive faunas1 ^: individual rema9s h be5 pres]v$ 9 myriads1 repres5t+ ext9ct species by ?\s&s & t5s ( ?\s&s1 mu/ h requir$ va/ p]iods ( "t = ! production & gr[? ( _! c\ntless g5]ations4 ,z ^! facts came to be g5]ally kn[n1 & z x came to be und]/ood 9 addition t ! v matrix ( ! rock 9 :i* fossils are imb$d$ is 9 _m cases "o gigantic fossil1 compos$ ( ! rema9s ( microscopic =ms ( life1 common-s5se1 :i*1 aft] all1 is ! f9al tribunal1 came to ! aid ( belabor$ sci5ce4 ,x 0 conc$$ t ! only t5able int]pretation ( ! record 9 ! rocks is t num]\s populations ( creatures1 di/9ct f "o ano!r & f pres5t =ms1 h ris5 & pass$ away2 & t ! geologic ages 9 :i* ^! creatures liv$ 7 ( inconceivable l5g?4 ,! rank & file came ?us1 ) ! aid ( fossil records1 to realize ! import ( an idea :i* ,james ,hutton1 & "h & !re ano!r ?9k]1 _h conceiv$ ) ! swift intuition ( g5ius long be=e ! sci5ce ( paleontology came into exi/5ce4 ,! ,huttonian proposition t "t is long _h be5 abundantly e/abli%$1 & by ab\t ! close ( ! fir/ ?ird ( ! la/ c5tury geologi/s _h begun to speak ( ages & untold aeons ( "t ) a famili>ity :i* _! pr$ecessors _h res]v$ = days & decades4 ,,*>les ,,lyell ,,combats ,,cata/rophism ,& n[ a new "q press$ = solution4 ,if ! e>? has be5 inhabit$ by successive populations ( be+s n[ ext9ct1 h[ h all ^! creatures be5 de/roy$8 ,t "q1 h[ev]1 seem$ to pres5t no difficulties4 ,x 0 answ]$ out ( h& by ! application ( an old idea4 ,all d[n ! c5turies1 :atev] _! v>y+ phases ( cosmogonic ?\ght1 !re _h be5 ev] pres5t ! idea t pa/ times 7 n z rec5t times2 t 9 remote epo*s ! e>? _h be5 ! sc5e ( awful cata/rophes t h no p>allel 9 ^! deg5]ate days4 ,naturally en\gh1 ?is ?\ght1 embalm$ 9 e cosmogonic speculation ( :atev] orig91 0 appeal$ to 9 explanation ( ! de/ruction ( ^! hi!rto unimag9$ ho/s1 :i* n[1 ?anks to sci5ce1 rose f _! abysmal slumb] z inconte/able1 b also z sil5t & z ?\ght-provocative1 z ,sph9x or pyramid4 ,^! anci5t ho/s1 x 0 said1 h be5 ext]m9at$ at int]vals ( odd millions ( ye>s by ! recurr5ce ( cata/rophes ( :i* ! ,mosaic deluge is ! late/1 b p]haps n ! la/4 ,?is explanation _h fulle/ w>rant ( sci5tific au?ority4 ,cuvi] _h prefac$ 8 classical "w ) a speculative disquisition ^: v title 7,disc\rs sur les ,revolutions du ,globe7 is om9\s ( cata/rophism1 & ^: text fully su/a9s ! augury4 ,& ,buckl&1 ,cuvi]'s =emo/ foll[] across ! ,*annel1 _h gone ev5 beyond ! ma/]1 nam+ ! "w 9 :i* he describ$ ! ,kirkdale fossils1 ,reliquiae ,diluvianae1 or ,pro(s ( a ,univ]sal ,deluge4 ,bo? ^! au?orities suppos$ ! creatures ^: rema9s !y /udi$ to h p]i%$ sudd5ly 9 ! mighty flood ^: awful curr5t1 z !y suppos$1 g\g$ out ! mod]n valleys & hurl$ great blocks ( granite broadca/ ov] ! l&4 ,& !y invok$ simil> floods = ! ext]m9ation ( previ\s populations4 ,x is true ^! sci5tific citations _h met ) only qualifi$ approval at ! "t ( _! utt]ance1 because !n ! cons]vative majority ( mank9d did n conc$e t !re _h be5 a plurality ( populations or revolutions2 b n[ t ! belief 9 pa/ geologic ages _h ceas$ to be a h]esy1 ! recurr+ cata/rophes ( ! great paleontologi/s 7 accept$ ) acclaim4 ,= ! mom5t sci5ce & tradition 7 at "o1 & !re 0 a truce to controv]sy1 except inde$ 9 ^? outly+ skirmi%-l9es ( ?\ght :i!r news f headqu>t]s does n p]meate till x has become anci5t hi/ory at its s\rce4 ,! truce1 h[ev]1 0 n = long4 ,h>dly _h contempor>y ?\ght begun to adju/ itself to ! conception ( pa/ ages ( incompreh5sible ext5t1 ea* t]m9at$ by a cata/rophe ( ! ,noa*ian type1 :5 a man appe>$ :o made ! utt]ly bewild]+ ass]tion t ! geological record1 in/ead ( prov+ num]\s cata/rophic revolutions 9 ! e>?'s pa/ hi/ory1 gives no w>rant to ! pret5sions ( any univ]sal cata/rophe :atev]1 ne> or remote4 ,?is iconocla/ 0 ,*>les ,lyell1 ! ,scot*man1 :o 0 soon to be fam\s z ! greate/ geologi/ ( 8 "t4 ,z a "y man he _h become imbu$ ) ! =ce ( ! ,huttonian proposition1 t pres5t causes are "o ) ^? t produc$ ! pa/ *anges ( ! globe1 & he c>ri$ t idea to :at he conceiv$ to be its logical conclusion4 ,to 8 m9d ?is exclud$ ! ?\ght ( cata/rophic *anges 9 ei!r inorganic or organic worlds4 ,b to d5y cata/rophism 0 to sugge/ a revolution 9 curr5t ?\ght4 ,ne$less to say1 su* revolution c\ld n be effect$ )\t a long conte/4 ,= a score ( ye>s ! matt] 0 argu$ pro & con41 (t5 ) mo/ unsci5tific ardor4 ,a m]e outl9e ( ! controv]sy w\ld fill a volume2 yet ! ess5tial facts ) :i* ,lyell at la/ e/abli%$ 8 proposition1 9 its be>+s on ! organic _w1 may be epitomiz$ 9 a few words4 ,! evid5ce :i* seems to tell ( pa/ revolutions is ! app>5tly sudd5 *ange ( fossils f "o /ratum to ano!r ( ! rocks4 ,b ,lyell %[$ t ?is *ange is n always complete4 ,"s species live on f "o alleg$ epo* into ! next4 ,by no means all ! contempor>ies ( ! mammo? are ext9ct1 & num]\s m>9e =ms va/ly m anci5t /ill h liv+ repres5tatives4 ,moreov]1 ! blanks betwe5 /rata 9 any p>ticul> v]tical s]ies are amply fill$ 9 ) records 9 ! =m ( ?ick /rata 9 "s geographically di/ant s]ies4 ,= example1 9 "s regions ,silurian rocks are directly ov]laid by ! coal measures2 b else:]e ?is sudd5 break is fill$ 9 ) ! ,devonian rocks t tell ( a great age ( fi%es4 ,s commonly are breaks 9 ! /rata 9 "o region fill$ up 9 ano!r t we are =c$ to conclude t ! record %[n by any s+le v]tical s]ies is ( b local significance--tell+1 p]haps1 ( a "t :5 t p>ticul> sea-b$ oscillat$ above ! wat]-l9e1 & s ceas$ to receive s$im5t until "s future age :5 x _h oscillat$ back aga94 ,b if ?is be ! real significance ( ! seem+ly sudd5 *ange f /ratum to /ratum1 !n ! :ole case = cata/rophism is hopelessly lo/2 = su* breaks 9 ! /rata furni% ! only sugge/ion geology c (f] ( sudd5 & cata/rophic *anges ( wide ext5t4 ,let u see h[ ,lyell elaborates ^! ideas1 p>ticul>ly ) ref]5ce to ! rotation ( species47#b7 ,i h d$uc$ z a coroll>y1 he says1 t ! species exi/+ at any p>ticul> p]iod mu/1 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 become ext9ct1 "o aft] ! o!r4 ',!y mu/ die out1' to borr[ an emphatic expression f ,buffon1 'because ,"t fights aga9/ !m4' ,if ! views :i* ,i h tak5 are j1 !re w be no difficulty 9 expla9+ :y ! habitations ( s _m species are n[ re/ra9$ )9 exce$+ n>r[ limits4 ,e local revolution t5ds to circumscribe ! range ( "s species1 :ile x enl>ges t ( o!rs2 & if we are l$ to inf] t new species orig9ate 9 "o spot only1 ea* mu/ require "t to diffuse itself ov] a wide area4 ,x w foll[1 !re=e1 f ! adoption ( our hypo!sis t ! rec5t orig9 ( "s species & ! high antiquity ( o!rs are equally consi/5t ) ! g5]al fact ( _! limit$ di/ribution1 "s be+ local because !y h n exi/$ long en\gh to admit ( _! wide dissem9ation2 o!rs1 because circum/ances 9 ! animate or inanimate _w h occurr$ to re/rict ! range )9 :i* !y may once h obta9$4444 ,if ! read] %\ld inf]1 f ! facts laid be=e him1 t ! successive ext9ction ( animals & plants may be "p ( ! con/ant & regul> c\rse ( nature1 he w naturally inquire :e!r !re are any means provid$ = ! repair ( ^! losses8 ,is x possible z a "p ( ! economy ( our sy/em t ! habitable globe %\ld to a c]ta9 ext5t become depopulat$1 bo? 9 ! ocean & on ! l&1 or t ! v>iety ( species %\ld dim9i% until "s new era arrives :5 a new & extraord9>y ef=t ( creative en]gy is to be display$8 ,or is x possible t new species c be call$ into be+ f "t to "t1 & yet t s a/oni%+ a ph5om5on c escape ! naturali/8 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is obvi\sly m easy to prove t a species once num]\sly repres5t$ 9 a giv5 di/rict has ceas$ to be ?an t "s o!r :i* did n pre-exi/ _h made its appe>ance--assum+ always1 = reasons be=e /at$1 t s+le /ocks only ( ea* animal & plant are orig9ally creat$1 & t individuals ( new species did n sudd5ly />t up 9 _m diff]5t places at once4 ,s imp]fect has ! sci5ce ( natural hi/ory rema9$ d[n to our own times t1 )9 ! memory ( p]sons n[ liv+1 ! numb]s ( kn[n animals & plants h d\bl$1 or ev5 quadrupl$1 9 _m classes4 ,new & (t5 conspicu\s species are annually discov]$ 9 p>ts ( ! old cont95t long inhabit$ by ! mo/ civiliz$ nations4 ,consci\s1 !re=e1 ( ! limit$ ext5t ( our in=mation1 we always inf]1 :5 su* discov]ies are made1 t ! be+s 9 "q bad previ\sly elud$ our rese>*1 or _h at lea/ exi/$ else:]e1 & only migrat$ at a rec5t p]iod into ! t]ritories :]e we n[ f9d !m4 ,:at k9d ( pro(s1 !re=e1 c\ld we reasonably expect to f9d ( ! orig9 at a p>ticul> p]iod ( a new species8 ,p]haps1 x may be said 9 reply1 t )9 ! la/ two or ?ree c5turies "s =e/ tree or new quadrup$ might h be5 obs]v$ to appe> sudd5ly 9 ^? p>ts ( ,engl& or ,france :i* _h be5 mo/ ?or\ghly inve/igat$--t naturali/s might h be5 able to %[ t no su* be+ inhabit$ any o!r region ( ! globe1 & t !re 0 no tradition ( any?+ simil> hav+ be5 obs]v$ 9 ! di/rict :]e x _h made its appe>ance4 ,n[1 al?\gh ?is objection may seem plausible1 yet its =ce w be f\nd to dep5d entirely on ! rate ( fluctuation :i* we suppose to prevail 9 ! animal _w1 & on ! proportions :i* su* conspicu\s subjects ( ! animal & vegetable k+doms be> to ^? :i* are less kn[n & escape our obs]vation4 ,!re are p]haps m ?an a million species ( plants & animals1 exclusive ( ! microscopic & infusory animalcules1 n[ inhabit+ ! t]raque\s globe1 s t if only "o ( ^! 7 to become ext9ct annually1 & "o new "o 7 to be e ye> call$ into be+1 mu* m ?an a million ( ye>s might be requir$ to br+ ab\t a complete revolution ( organic life4 ,i am n haz>d+ at pres5t any hypo!sis z to ! probable rate ( *ange1 b none w d5y t :5 ! annual bir? & ! annual dea? ( "o species on ! globe is propos$ z a m]e speculation1 ?is1 at lea/1 is to imag9e no slight degree ( in/ability 9 ! animate creation4 ,if we divide ! surface ( ! e>? into tw5ty regions ( equal area1 "o ( ^! might compreh5d a space ( l& & wat] ab\t equal 9 dim5sions to ,europe1 & might conta9 a tw5tie? "p ( ! million ( species :i* may be assum$ to exi/ 9 ! animal k+dom4 ,9 ?is region "o species only c\ld1 accord+ to ! rate ( mortality be=e assum$1 p]i% 9 tw5ty ye>s1 or only five out ( fifty ?\s& 9 ! c\rse ( a c5tury4 ,b z a consid]able portion ( ! :ole _w belongs to ! aquatic classes1 ) :i* we h a v imp]fect acqua9tance1 we mu/ exclude !m f our consid]ation1 &1 if !y con/itute half ( ! entire numb]1 !n "o species only might be lo/ 9 =ty ye>s among ! t]re/rial tribes4 ,n[ ! mammalia1 :e!r t]re/rial or aquatic1 be> s small a proportion to o!r classes ( animals1 =m+ less1 p]haps1 ?an a ?\s&? "p ( a :ole1 t1 if ! longevity ( species 9 ! diff]5t ord]s 7 equal1 a va/ p]iod mu/ elapse be=e x w\ld come to ! turn ( ?is conspicu\s class to lose "o ( _! numb]4 ,if "o species only ( ! :ole animal k+dom di$ out 9 =ty ye>s1 no m ?an "o mammif] might disappe> 9 =ty ?\s& ye>s1 9 a region ( ! dim5sions ( ,europe4 ,x is easy1 !re=e1 to see t 9 a small portion ( su* an area1 9 c\ntries1 = example1 ( ! size ( ,engl& & ,france1 p]iods ( mu* great] duration mu/ elapse be=e x w\ld be possible to au!nticate ! fir/ appe>ance ( "o ( ! l>g] plants or animals1 assum+ ! annual bir? & dea? ( "o species to be ! rate ( vicissitude 9 ! animal creation ?r\gh\t ! _w47#c7 ,9 a ^w1 !n1 said ,lyell1 x becomes cle> t ! numb]less species t h be5 ext]m9at$ 9 ! pa/ h di$ out "o by "o1 j z individuals ( a species die1 n 9 va/ %oals2 if :ole populations h pass$ away1 x has be5 n by in/antane\s ext]m9ation1 b by ! elim9ation ( a species n[ "h1 n[ !re1 mu* z "o g5]ation succe$s ano!r 9 ! life hi/ory ( any s+le species4 ,! causes :i* h br\ght ab\t su* gradual ext]m9ations1 & 9 ! long lapse ( ages h result$ 9 rotations ( population1 are ! same natural causes t are /ill 9 op]ation4 ,species h di$ out 9 ! pa/ z !y are dy+ out 9 ! pres5t1 "u influ5ce ( *ang$ surr\nd+s1 su* z alt]$ climate1 or ! migration into _! t]ritory ( m ma/]ful species4 ,pa/ & pres5t causes are "o--natural law is *angeless & et]nal4 ,su* 0 ! ess5ce ( ! ,huttonian doctr9e1 :i* ,lyell adopt$ & ext5d$1 & ) :i* 8 "n w always be associat$4 ,l>gely ?r\gh 8 ef=ts1 ?\gh ( c\rse n )\t ! aid ( _m o!r work]s aft] a "t1 ?is idea--! doctr9e ( uni=mit>ianism1 x came to be call$--became ! accept$ dogma ( ! geologic _w n long aft] ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,! cata/rophi/s1 aft] cl++ madly to _! phantom = a g5]ation1 at la/ capitulat$ )\t t]ms3 ! old h]esy became ! new or?odoxy1 & ! way 0 pav$ = a fre% controv]sy4 ,,! ,,orig9 ,,( ,,species ,! fre% controv]sy foll[$ q z a matt] ( c\rse4 ,= ! idea ( cata/rophism _h n conc]n$ ! de/ruction ( species m]ely1 b _! introduction z well4 ,if :ole faunas _h be5 extirpat$ sudd5ly1 new faunas _h presumably be5 introduc$ ) equal sudd5ness by special creation2 b if species die out gradually1 ! introduction ( new species may be presum$ to be correspond+ly gradual4 ,!n may n ! new species ( a lat] geological epo* be ! modifi$ l9eal desc5dants ( ! ext9ct population ( an e>li] epo*8 ,! idea t su* might be ! case 0 n new4 ,x _h be5 sugge/$ :5 fossils fir/ began to attract conspicu\s att5tion2 & su* sagaci\s ?9k]s z ,buffon & ,kant & ,goe! & ,erasmus ,d>w9 _h be5 dispos$ to accept x 9 ! clos+ days ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,!n1 9 #ahji1 x _h be5 cont5d$ = by "o ( ! e>ly work]s 9 sy/ematic paleontology--,jean ,bapti/e ,lam>ck1 :o _h /udi$ ! fossil %ells ab\t ,p>is :ile ,cuvi] /udi$ ! v]tebrates1 & :o _h be5 l$ by ^! /udies to conclude t !re _h be5 n m]ely a rotation b a progression ( life on ! globe4 ,he f\nd ! fossil %ells--! fossils ( inv]tebrates1 z he himself _h *ri/5$ !m--9 deep] /rata ?an ,cuvi]'s v]tebrates2 & he believ$ t !re _h be5 long ages :5 no high] =ms ?an ^! 7 9 exi/5ce1 & t 9 successive ages fi%es1 & !n reptiles1 _h be5 ! highe/ ( animate creatures1 be=e mammals1 includ+ man1 appe>$4 ,look+ beyond ! pale ( 8 b>e facts1 z g5ius sometimes w1 he _h insi/$ t ^! progressive populations _h develop$ "o f ano!r1 "u influ5ce ( *ang$ surr\nd+s1 9 unbrok5 s]ies4 ,( c\rse su* a ?\ght z ?is 0 hopelessly misplac$ 9 a g5]ation t d\bt$ ! exi/5ce ( ext9ct species1 & h>dly less s 9 ! g5]ation t accept$ cata/rophism2 b x _h be5 kept alive by "h & !re an advocate l ,ge(frey ,sa9t-,hilaire1 & n[ ! bani%m5t ( cata/rophism op5$ ! way = its m respectful consid]ation4 ,respectful consid]ation 0 giv5 x by ,lyell 9 ea* recurr+ edition ( 8 ,pr9ciples1 b su* consid]ation l$ to its unqualifi$ rejection4 ,9 its place ,lyell put =w>d a modifi$ hypo!sis ( special creation4 ,he assum$ t f "t to "t1 z ! extirpation ( a species _h left room1 s to speak1 = a new species1 su* new species _h be5 creat$ de novo2 & he suppos$ t su* int]mitt5t1 spasmodic impulses ( creation manife/ !mselves n[adays q z frequ5tly z at any "t 9 ! pa/4 ,he did n say 9 s _m words t no "o ne$ be surpris$ to-day 7 he to see a new species ( de]1 = example1 come up out ( ! gr\nd be=e him1 paw+ to get free1 l ,milton's lion1 b 8 !ory impli$ z mu*4 ,& t !ory1 let x be not$1 0 n ! !ory ( ,lyell alone1 b ( ne>ly all 8 associates 9 ! geologic _w4 ,!re is p]haps no o!r fact t w br+ home to "o s vividly ! advance 9 ?\ght ( our own g5]ation z ! recollection t s crude1 s almo/ un?9kable a conception c\ld h be5 ! curr5t doctr9e ( sci5ce less ?an half a c5tury ago4 ,?is !ory ( special creation1 moreov]1 exclud$ ! curr5t doctr9e ( uni=mit>ianism z night excludes day1 ?\gh mo/ ?9k]s ( ! "t did n seem to be aw>e ( ! incompatibility ( ! two ideas4 ,x may be d\bt$ :e!r ev5 ,lyell himself fully realiz$ x4 ,if he did1 he saw no escape f ! dilemma1 = x seem$ to him t ! record 9 ! rocks cle>ly disprov$ ! alt]native ,lam>ckian hypo!sis4 ,& almo/ ) "o accord ! paleontologi/s ( ! "t su/a9$ ! v]dict4 ,ow51 ,agassiz1 ,falcon]1 ,b>r&e1 ,pictet1 ,=bes1 repudiat$ ! idea z unqualifi$ly z _! great pr$ecessor ,cuvi] _h done 9 ! e>li] g5]ation4 ,"s ( !m did1 inde$1 come to believe t !re is evid5ce ( a progressive developm5t ( life 9 ! successive ages1 b no su* grad$ s]ies ( fossils _h be5 discov]$ z w\ld give c\nt5ance to ! idea t "o species _h ev] be5 trans=m$ into ano!r4 ,& to ne>ly e "o ?is objection seem$ insup]able4 ,b 9 #ahei appe>$ a book :i*1 ?\gh n deal+ prim>ily ) paleontology1 yet conta9$ a *apt] t reveal$ ! geological record 9 an altoge!r new light4 ,! book 0 ,*>les ,d>w9's ,orig9 ( ,species1 ! *apt] t wond]ful citation ( ! ,imp]fections ( ! ,geological ,record4 ,9 ?is epo*-mak+ *apt] ,d>w9 %[s :at conditions mu/ prevail 9 any giv5 place 9 ord] t fossils %all be =m$1 h[ unusual su* conditions are1 & h[ probable x is t fossils once imb$d$ 9 s$im5t ( a sea-b$ w be de/roy$ by metamorphosis ( ! rocks1 or by d5udation :5 ! /rata are rais$ above ! wat]-level4 ,add to ?is ! fact t only small t]ritories ( ! e>? h be5 explor$ geologically1 he says1 & x becomes cle> t ! paleontological record z we n[ possess x %[s b a m]e fragm5t ( ! pa/ hi/ory ( organisms on ! e>?4 ,x is a hi/ory imp]fectly kept & writt5 9 a *ang+ dialect4 ,( ?is hi/ory we possess ! la/ volume alone1 relat+ only to two or ?ree c\ntries4 ,( ?is volume only "h & !re a %ort *apt] has be5 pres]v$1 & ( ea* page only "h & !re a few l9es4 ,= a paleontologi/ to dogmatize f su* a record w\ld be z ra%1 he ?9ks1 z = a naturali/ to l& = five m9utes on a b>r5 po9t ( ,au/ralia & !n discuss ! numb] & range ( its productions4 ,?is citation ( obs]vations1 :i* :5 once po9t$ out seem$ almo/ self-evid5t1 came z a revelation to ! geological _w4 ,9 ! cl>ifi$ view n[ possible old facts took on a new mean+4 ,x 0 recall$ t ,cuvi] _h be5 oblig$ to e/abli% a new ord] = "s ( ! fir/ fossil creatures he exam9$1 & t ,buckl& _h not$ t ! nondescript =ms 7 int]m$iate 9 /ructure betwe5 alli$ exi/+ ord]s4 ,m rec5tly su* int]m$iate =ms _h be5 discov]$ ov] & ov]2 s t1 to "n b "o example1 ,ow5 _h be5 able1 ) ! aid ( ext9ct species1 to dissolve by gradations ! app>5tly wide int]val betwe5 ! pig & ! camel4 ,ow51 moreov]1 _h be5 l$ to speak repeat$ly ( ! g5]aliz$ =ms ( ext9ct animals1 & ,agassiz _h call$ !m syn!tic or prophetic types1 ^! t]ms cle>ly imply+ t su* =ms are 9 fact int]m$iate or connect+ l9ks4 ,d>w9 himself _h %[n "s ye>s be=e t ! fossil animals ( any cont95t are closely relat$ to ! exi/+ animals ( t cont95t--ed5tates pr$om9at+1 = example1 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 & m>supials 9 ,au/ralia4 ,_m obs]v]s _h not$ t rec5t /rata ev]y:]e %[ a fossil fauna m ne>ly l ! exi/+ "o ?an d m anci5t /rata2 & t fossils f any two consecutive /rata are f> m closely relat$ to ea* o!r ?an are ! fossils ( two remote =mations1 ! fauna ( ea* geological =mation be+1 inde$1 9 a wide view1 int]m$iate betwe5 prec$+ & succe$+ faunas4 ,s sugge/ive 7 all ^! obs]vations t ,lyell1 ! admitt$ lead] ( ! geological _w1 aft] read+ ,d>w9's citations1 felt able to drop 8 own crass explanation ( ! introduction ( species & adopt ! transmutation hypo!sis1 ?us r\nd+ out ! doctr9e ( uni=mit>ianism to ! full proportions 9 :i* ,lam>ck _h conceiv$ x half a c5tury be=e4 ,n all paleontologi/s c\ld foll[ him at once1 ( c\rse2 ! pro( 0 n yet suffici5tly demon/rative = t2 b all 7 %ak5 9 ! seem+ security ( _! =m] position1 :i* is always a necess>y /age 9 ! progress ( ?\ght4 ,& popul> int]e/ 9 ! matt] 0 rais$ to :ite heat 9 a tw9kl+4 ,s1 = ! ?ird "t 9 ?is fir/ c5tury ( its exi/5ce1 paleontology 0 call$ ^u to play a lead+ role 9 a controv]sy ^: int]e/ ext5d$ f> beyond ! b\nds ( /aid tru?-seek+ sci5ce4 ,& ! controv]sy wag$ ov] ! age ( ! e>? _h n be5 m bitt]1 t ov] cata/rophism n m acrimoni\s1 ?an t :i* n[ rag$ ov] ! "q ( ! transmutation ( species4 ,! "q _h implications f> beyond ! b\nds ( paleontology1 ( c\rse4 ,! ma9 evid5ce yet pres5t$ _h be5 drawn f q o!r fields1 b by common cons5t ! record 9 ! rocks might furni% a crucial te/ ( ! tru? or falsity ( ! hypo!sis4 ,he :o rejects ?is view ( ! imp]fections ( ! geological record1 said ,d>w91 w rightly reject ! :ole !ory4 ,) some?+ m ?an m]e sci5tific zeal1 !re=e1 paleontologi/s turn$ anew to ! records 9 ! rocks1 to inquire :at evid5ce 9 pro( or refutation might be f\nd 9 unread pages ( ! great /one book4 ,&1 z might h be5 expect$1 _m m9ds be+ ?us prep>$ to receive new evid5ce1 su* evid5ce 0 n long )held4 ,,fossil ,,man ,inde$1 at ! mom5t ( ,d>w9's writ+ a new & v in/ructive *apt] ( ! geologic record 0 be+ pres5t$ to ! public--a *apt] :i* = ! fir/ "t br\ght man into ! /ory4 ,9 #ahei ,dr4 ,falcon]1 ! di/+ui%$ ,briti% paleontologi/1 made a visit to ,abbeville1 9 ! valley ( ! ,somme1 incit$ by reports t = a decade be=e bad be5 s5t out f !re by ,m4 ,b\*] de ,p]!s4 ,^! reports _h to d ) ! alleg$ f9d+ ( fl9t implem5ts1 cle>ly ! "w ( man1 9 undi/urb$ gravel-b$s1 9 ! mid/ ( fossil rema9s ( ! mammo? & o!r ext9ct animals4 ,:at ,falcon] saw !re & :at came ( 8 visit may be/ be told 9 8 own words3 ,9 ,septemb] ( #ahef ,i made ! acqua9tance ( my di/+ui%$ fri5d ,m4 ,b\*] de ,p]!s1 wrote ,dr4 ,falcon]1 on ! introduction ( ,m4 ,desnoy]s at ,p>is1 :5 he pres5t$ to me ! e>li] volume ( 8 ,antiquites celtiques1 etc41 ) :i* ,i ?us became acqua9t$ = ! fir/ "t4 ,i 0 !n fre% f ! exam9ation ( ! ,indian fossil rema9s ( ! valley ( ! ,jumna2 & ! antiquity ( ! human race be+ a subject ( int]e/ to bo?1 we conv]s$ freely ab\t x1 ea* f a diff]5t po9t ( view4 ,m4 de ,p]!s invit$ me to visit ,abbeville1 9 ord] to exam9e 8 ant$iluvian collection1 fossil & geological1 glean$ f ! valley ( ! ,somme4 ,?is ,i 0 unable to accompli% !n1 b ,i res]v$ x = a future occasion4 ,9 ,octob]1 #ahef1 hav+ det]m9$ to proce$ to ,sicily1 ,i arrang$ by correspond5ce ) ,m4 ,b\*] de ,p]!s to visit ,abbeville on my j\rney ?r\gh ,france4 ,i 0 at ! "t 9 con/ant communication ) ,mr4 ,pre/wi* ab\t ! pro(s ( ! antiquity ( ! human race yield$ by ! ,broxham ,cave1 9 :i* he took a lively int]e/2 & ,i engag$ to communicate to him ! op9ions at :i* ,i %\ld arrive1 aft] my exam9ation ( ! ,abbeville collection4 ,m4 de ,p]!s gave me ! free/ access to 8 mat]ials1 ) unres]v$ explanations ( all ! facts ( ! case t _h come "u 8 obs]vation2 & hav+ consid]$ 8 ,m5*ec\rt ,section1 tak5 ) su* scrupul\s c>e1 & id5tifi$ ! mol>s ( elephas primig5ius1 :i* he _h exhum$ ) 8 own h&s deep 9 t section1 along ) fl9t weapons1 pres5t+ ! same "* z "s ( ^? f\nd 9 ! ,broxham ,cave1 ,i arriv$ at ! conviction t !y 7 ( contemporane\s age1 al?\gh ,i 0 n prep>$ to g along ) ,m4 de ,p]!s 9 all 8 inf]5ces reg>d+ ! hi]oglyphics & 9 an indu/rial int]pretation ( ! v>i\s o!r objects :i* he _h met )47#d7 ,t ,dr4 ,falcon] 0 mu* impress$ by ! collection ( ,m4 de ,p]!s is %[n 9 a communication :i* he s5t at once to 8 fri5d ,pre/wi*3 ,i h be5 ri*ly rew>d$1 he exclaims4 ,8 collection ( wr\ght fl9t implem5ts1 & ( ! objects ( e description associat$ ) !m1 f> exce$s ev]y?+ ,i expect$ to h se51 especially f a s+le locality4 ,he has made great additions1 s9ce ! publication ( 8 fir/ volume1 9 ! second1 :i* ,i n[ h by me4 ,he %[$ me fl9t hat*ets :i* ,,he ,,_h ,,dug ,,up ) 8 own h&s1 mix$ ,,indiscrim9ately ) mol>s ( elephas primig5ius4 ,i exam9$ & id5tifi$ plates ( ! mol>s & ! fl9t objects :i* 7 got along ) !m4 ,abbeville is an out-(-!-way place1 v little visit$2 & ! ,fr5* savants :o meet him 9 ,p>is laugh at ,monsieur de ,p]!s & 8 rese>*es4 ,b aft] devot+ ! great] "p ( a day to 8 va/ collection1 ,i am p]fectly satisfi$ t !re is a great deal ( fair presumptive evid5ce 9 favor ( _m ( 8 speculations reg>d+ ! remote antiquity ( ^! indu/rial objects & _! association ) animals n[ ext9ct4 ,m4 ,b\*]'s hotel is1 f ! gr\nd floor to g>ret1 a cont9u$ museum1 fill$ ) pictures1 m$iaeval art1 & ,gauli% antiquities1 includ+ ant$iluvian fl9t-knives1 fossil-bones1 etc4 ,if1 dur+ next summ]1 y %\ld happ5 to be pay+ a visit to ,france1 let me /rongly recomm5d y to come to ,abbeville4 ,i am sure y w\ld be ri*ly rew>d$47#e7 ,?is lett] ar\s$ ! int]e/ ( ! ,engli% geologi/s1 & 9 ! spr+ ( #ahei ,pre/wi* & ,mr4 7aft]w>ds ,sir ,john7 ,evans made a visit to ,abbeville to see ! specim5s & exam9e at fir/ h& ! evid5ces z po9t$ out by ,dr4 ,falcon]4 ,! evid5ce yield$ by ! valley ( ! ,somme1 cont9ues ,falcon]1 9 speak+ ( ?is visit1 0 gone into ) ! scrupul\s c>e & sev]e & exhau/ive analysis :i* are *>act]i/ic ( ,mr4 ,pre/wi*'s rese>*es4 ,! conclusions to :i* he 0 conduct$ 7 communicat$ to ! ,royal ,society on ,may #ab1 #ahei1 9 8 celebrat$ memoir1 read on ,may #bf? & publi%$ 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions ( #ahfj1 :i*1 9 addition to rese>*es made 9 ! valley ( ! ,somme1 conta9$ an acc\nt ( simil> ph5om5a pres5t$ by ! valley ( ! ,wav5ey1 ne> ,hoxne1 9 ,suffolk4 ,mr4 ,evans communicat$ to ! ,society ( ,antiqu>ies a memoir on ! "* & geological position ( ! ',fl9t ,implem5ts 9 ! ,drift1' :i* appe>$ 9 ! ,ar*aeologia = #ahfj4 ,! results arriv$ at by ,mr4 ,pre/wi* 7 express$ z foll[s3 ,fir/4 ,t ! fl9t implem5ts are ! result ( design & ! "w ( man4 ,second4 ,t !y are f\nd 9 b$s ( gravel1 s&1 & clay1 :i* h nev] be5 artificially di/urb$4 ,?ird4 ,t !y occur associat$ ) ! rema9s ( l&1 fre%-wat]1 & m>9e te/acea1 ( species n[ liv+1 & mo/ ( !m /ill common 9 ! same neighborhood1 & also ) ! rema9s ( v>i\s mammalia--a few species n[ liv+1 b m ( ext9ct =ms4 ,f\r?4 ,t ! p]iod at :i* _! entombm5t took place 0 subsequ5t to ! b[ld]-clay p]iod1 & to t ext5t po/-glacial2 & also t x 0 among ! late/ 9 geological "t--"o app>5tly ant]ior to ! surface assum+ its pres5t =m1 s f> z x reg>ds "s ( ! m9or features47#f7 ,^! reports br\ght ! subject ( ! v significant human fossils at ,abbeville prom95tly be=e ! public2 :]eas ! publications ( ! orig9al discov]]1 ,b\*] de ,p]!s1 be>+ date ( #ahdg1 _h be5 altoge!r ignor$4 ,a new aspect 0 ?us giv5 to ! curr5t controv]sy4 ,z ,dr4 ,falcon] rem>k$1 geology 0 n[ pass+ ?r\gh ! same ordeal t a/ronomy pass$ 9 ! age ( ,galileo4 ,b ! times 7 *ang$ s9ce ! day :5 ! au?or ( ! ,dialogues 0 humbl$ be=e ! ,congregation ( ! ,index1 & n[ no ,index ,librorum ,prohibitorum c\ld avail to hide f eag] human eyes su* pages ( ! geologic /ory z ,nature h]self _h sp>$4 ,eag] se>*]s 7 turn+ ! leaves ) r5ew$ zeal ev]y:]e1 & ) no small measure ( success4 ,9 p>ticul>1 int]e/ atta*$ j at ?is "t to a human skull :i* ,dr4 ,fuhlrott _h discov]$ 9 a cave at ,ne&]?al two or ?ree ye>s be=e--a cranium :i* has ev] s9ce be5 fam\s z ! ,ne&]?al skull1 ! type specim5 ( :at mod]n zoologi/s are dispos$ to reg>d z a di/9ct species ( man1 ,homo ne&]?al5sis4 ,l o!rs ( ! same type s9ce discov]$ at ,spy1 x is s+ul>ly simian 9 "*--l[-ar*$1 ) rec$+ =ehead & enorm\s1 protub]ant eyebr[s4 ,:5 x 0 fir/ exhibit$ to ! sci5ti/s at ,b]l9 by ,dr4 ,fuhlrott1 9 #aheg1 its human "* 0 d\bt$ by "s ( ! witnesses2 ( t1 h[ev]1 !re is no pres5t "q4 ,?is int]e/+ f9d s]v$ to recall ) fre% significance "s obs]vations t _h be5 made 9 ,france & ,belgium a long g5]ation e>li]1 b ^: be>+s _h hi!rto be5 ignor$4 ,9 #ahbf ,,mm4 ,t\rnal & ,*ri/ol _h made indep5d5t discov]ies ( :at !y believ$ to be human fossils 9 ! caves ( ! s\? ( ,france2 & 9 #ahbg ,dr4 ,s*m]l+ _h f\nd 9 ! cave ( ,engis1 9 ,we/phalia1 fossil bones ( ev5 great] significance4 ,s*m]l+'s explorations _h be5 made ) ! utmo/ c>e1 & pati5ce4 ,at ,engis he _h f\nd human bones1 includ+ skulls1 int]m+l$ ) ^? ( ext9ct mammals ( ! mammo? p]iod 9 a way t left no d\bt 9 8 m9d t all dat$ f ! same geological epo*4 ,he bad publi%$ a full acc\nt ( 8 discov]ies 9 an elaborate monograph issu$ 9 #ahcc4 ,b at t "t1 z x *anc$1 human fossils 7 "u a ban z effectual z any ev] pron\nc$ by canonical index1 ?\gh ( f> diff]5t orig94 ,! oracul> voice ( ,cuvi] _h decl>$ aga9/ ! au!nticity ( all human fossils4 ,"s ( ! bones br\ght him = exam9ation ! great anatomi/ _h petti%ly pit*$ out ( ! w9d[1 decl>+ !m fit only = a cemet]y1 & t _h settl$ ! matt] = a g5]ation3 ! evid5ce ga!r$ by less] work]s c\ld avail no?+ aga9/ ! decision r5d]$ at ! ,delphi ( ,sci5ce4 ,b no ban1 sci5tific or canonical1 c long] resi/ ! g]m9ative p[] ( a fact1 & s n[1 aft] ?ree decades ( suppression1 ! tru? :i* ,cuvi] _h buri$ b5ea? ! weight ( 8 ridicule bur/ its bonds1 & fossil man /ood reveal$1 if n z a fle%-&-blood1 at lea/ z a skeletal entity4 ,! reception n[ accord$ our prehi/oric ance/or by ! progressive portion ( ! sci5tific _w am\nt$ to an ovation2 b ! unsci5tific masses1 on ! o!r h&1 not)/&+ _! usual fondness = trac+ remote g5ealogies1 /ill gave ! m5 ( ,engis & ,ne&]?al ! cold %\ld]4 ,nor 7 all ( ! geologi/s q agre$ t ! contemporaneity ( ^! human fossils ) ! animals ^: rema9s _h be5 m+l$ ) !m _h be5 fully e/abli%$4 ,! b>e possibility t ! bones ( man & ( animals t long prec$$ him _h be5 swept toge!r into ! eaves 9 successive ages1 & 9 "s my/]i\s way int]m+l$ !re1 0 clung to by ! cons]vatives z a la/ refuge4 ,b ev5 ?is small measure ( security 0 soon to be d5i$ !m1 = 9 #ahfe two associat$ work]s1 ,m4 ,ed\>d ,l>tet & ,mr4 ,h5ry ,*ri/y1 9 explor+ ! caves ( ,dordogne1 une>!d a bit ( evid5ce aga9/ :i* no su* objection c\ld be urg$4 ,?is mom5t\s exhibit 0 a bit ( ivory1 a fragm5t ( ! tusk ( a mammo?1 on :i* 0 scrat*$ a rude b unmi/akable outl9e portrait ( ! mammo? itself4 ,if all ! evid5ce z to man's antiquity be=e pres5t$ 0 sugge/ive m]ely1 "h at la/ 0 demon/ration2 = ! cave-dwell+ man c\ld n well h drawn ! picture ( ! mammo? unless he _h se5 t animal1 & to admit t man & ! mammo? _h be5 contempor>ies 0 to conc$e ! entire case4 ,s soon1 !re=e1 z ! full import ( ?is mo/ in/ructive "w ( art came to be realiz$1 scepticism z to man's antiquity 0 sil5c$ = all "t to come4 ,9 ! g5]ation t has elaps$ s9ce ! fir/ draw+ ( ! cave-dwell] arti/ 0 discov]$1 evid5ces ( ! wide-spread exi/5ce ( man 9 an e>ly epo* h multipli$ indef9itely1 & to-day ! paleontologi/ traces ! hi/ory ( our race back beyond ! iron & bronze ages1 ?r\gh a neoli?ic or poli%$-/one age1 to a paleoli?ic or r\gh-/one age1 ) confid5ce born ( unequivocal k4 ,& he looks confid5tly to ! future explor] ( ! e>?'s fossil records to ext5d ! hi/ory back into va/ly m remote epo*s1 = x is little d\bt$ t paleoli?ic man1 ! mo/ anci5t ( our recogniz$ prog5itors1 is a mod]n comp>$ to ^? g5]ations t repres5t$ ! real *ildhood ( our race4 ,,! ,,fossil-,,b$s ,,( ,,am]ica ,co9cid5tly ) ! discov]y ( ^! highly sugge/ive pages ( ! geologic /ory1 o!r /ill m in/ructive *apt]s 7 be+ br\ght to light 9 ,am]ica4 ,x 0 f\nd t 9 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9 region1 9 /rata f\nd 9 anci5t lake b$s1 records ( ! t]ti>y p]iod1 or age ( mammals1 _h be5 made & pres]v$ ) fulness n approa*$ 9 any o!r region hi!rto geologically explor$4 ,^! records 7 made kn[n ma9ly by ,pr(essors ,joseph ,leidy1 ,o4 ,c4 ,m>%1 & ,e4 ,d4 ,cope1 work+ indep5d5tly1 & m rec5tly by num]\s y\ng] paleontologi/s4 ,! pr(usion ( v]tebrate rema9s ?us br\ght to light q begg>s all previ\s exhibits 9 po9t ( m]e numb]s4 ,pr(essor ,m>%1 = example1 :o 0 fir/ 9 ! field1 f\nd ?ree hundr$ new t]ti>y species betwe5 ! ye>s #ahgj & #ahgf4 ,mean:ile1 9 cretace\s /rata1 he une>!d rema9s ( ab\t two hundr$ birds ) tee?1 six hundr$ pt]odactyls1 or fly+ dragons1 "s ) a spread ( w+s ( tw5ty-five feet1 & "o ?\s& five hundr$ mosasaurs ( ! sea-s]p5t type1 "s ( !m sixty feet or m 9 l5g?4 ,9 a s+le b$ ( ,jurassic rock1 n l>g] ?an a good-siz$ lecture-room1 he f\nd ! rema9s ( "o hundr$ & sixty individuals ( mammals1 repres5t+ tw5ty species & n9e g5]a2 :ile b$s ( ! same age h yield$ ?ree hundr$ reptiles1 v>y+ f ! size ( a rabbit to sixty or eighty feet 9 l5g?4 ,b ! *ief int]e/ ( ^! fossils f ! ,we/ is n _! numb] b _! nature2 = among !m are num]\s illu/rations ( j su* int]m$iate types ( organisms z mu/ h exi/$ 9 ! pa/ if ! succession ( life on ! globe has be5 an unbrok5 l9eal succession4 ,"h are reptiles ) bat-l w+s1 & o!rs ) bird-l pelves & legs adapt$ = bip$al locomotion4 ,"h are birds ) tee?1 & o!r reptilian *>act]s4 ,9 %ort1 :at ) reptilian birds & birdlike reptiles1 ! gap betwe5 mod]n reptiles & birds is q bridg$ ov]4 ,9 a simil> way1 v>i\s div]se mammalian =ms1 z ! tapir1 ! rh9oc]os1 & ! horse1 are l9k$ toge!r by fossil prog5itors4 ,&1 mo/ important ( all1 ,pr(essor ,m>% has discov]$ a s]ies ( mammalian rema9s1 occurr+ 9 successive geological epo*s1 :i* are held to repres5t beyond cavil ! actual l9e ( desc5t ( ! mod]n horse2 trac+ ! l9eage ( our "o-to$ species back ?r\gh two & ?ree to$ =ms1 to an ance/or 9 ! eoc5e or e>ly t]ti>y t _h f\r functional toes & ! rudim5t ( a fif?4 ,?is discov]y is too int]e/+ & too important n to be detail$ at l5g? 9 ! words ( ! discov]]4 ,m>% ,describes ! ,fossil ,horse ,x is a well-kn[n fact1 says ,pr(essor ,m>%1 t ! ,spani% discov]]s ( ,am]ica discov]$ no horses on ?is cont95t1 & t ! mod]n horse 7,equus caballus1 ,l9n47 0 subsequ5tly introduc$ f ! ,old ,_w4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 n s g5]ally kn[n t ^! animals _h =m]ly be5 abundant "h1 & t long be=e1 9 t]ti>y "t1 ne> relatives ( ! horse1 & probably 8 ance/ors1 exi/$ 9 ! f> ,we/ 9 c\ntless numb]s & 9 a m>vell\s v>iety ( =ms4 ,! rema9s ( equ9e mammals1 n[ kn[n f ! t]ti>y & quat]n>y deposits ( ?is c\ntry1 already repres5t m ?an d\ble ! numb] ( g5]a & species hi!rto f\nd 9 ! /rata ( ! ea/]n hemisph]e1 & h5ce af=d mo/ important aid 9 trac+ out ! g5ealogy ( ! horses /ill exi/+4 ,! animals ( ?is gr\p :i* liv$ 9 ,am]ica dur+ ! ?ree div]sions ( ! t]ti>y p]iod 7 especially num]\s 9 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9 regions1 & _! rema9s are well pres]v$ 9 ! old lake bas9s :i* !n cov]$ s mu* ( t c\ntry4 ,! mo/ anci5t ( ^! lakes--:i* ext5d$ ov] a consid]able "p ( ! pres5t t]ritories ( ,wyom+ & ,utah--rema9$ s long 9 eoc5e times t ! mud & s&1 sl[ly deposit$ 9 x1 accumulat$ to m ?an a mile 9 v]tical ?ickness4 ,9 ^! deposits va/ numb]s ( tropical animals 7 entomb$1 & "h ! olde/ equ9e rema9s occur1 f\r species ( :i* h be5 describ$4 ,^! belong to ! g5us ,orohippus 7,m>%71 & are all ( a dim9utive size1 h>dly bigg] ?an a fox4 ,! skeletons ( ^! animals resemble t ( ! horse 9 _m respects1 mu* m inde$ ?an any o!r exi/+ species1 b1 in/ead ( ! s+le toe on ea* foot1 s *>act]i/ic ( all mod]n equ9es1 ! v>i\s species ( ,orohippus _h f\r toes be=e & ?ree beh9d1 all ( :i* rea*$ ! gr\nd4 ,! skull1 too1 0 proportionately %ort]1 & ! orbit 0 n enclos$ beh9d by a bridge ( bone4 ,!re 7 fifty f\r tee? 9 all1 & ! premol>s 7 l>g] ?an ! mol>s4 ,! cr[ns ( ^! tee? 7 v %ort4 ,! can9e tee? 7 develop$ 9 bo? sexes1 & ! incisors did n h ! m>k :i* indicates ! age ( ! mod]n horse4 ,! radius & ulna 7 sep>ate1 & ! latt] 0 entire ?r\gh ! :ole l5g?4 ,! tibia & fibula 7 di/9ct4 ,9 ! =efoot all ! digits except ! pollex1 or fir/1 7 well develop$4 ,! ?ird digit is ! l>ge/1 & its close resemblance to t ( ! horse is cle>ly m>k$4 ,! t]m9al phalanx1 or c(f9-bone1 has a %all[ m$ian bone 9 front1 z 9 _m species ( ?is gr\p 9 ! lat] t]ti>y4 ,! f\r? digit exce$s ! second 9 size1 & ! second is mu* ! %orte/ ( all4 ,its metac>pal bone is consid]ably curv$ outw>d4 ,9 ! h9d-foot ( ?is g5us !re are b ?ree digits4 ,! f\r? metat>sal is mu* l>g] ?an ! second4 ,! l>g] numb] ( equ9e mammals n[ kn[n f ! t]ti>y deposits ( ?is c\ntry1 & _! regul> di/ributions ?r\gh ! subdivisions ( ?is =mation1 af=d a good opportunity to asc]ta9 ! probable desc5t ( ! mod]n horse4 ,! ,am]ican repres5tative ( ! latt] is ! ext9ct ,equus frat]nus 7,leidy71 a species almo/1 if n :olly1 id5tical ) ! ,old ,_w ,equus caballus 7,l9naeus71 to :i* our rec5t horse belongs4 ,huxley has trac$ successfully ! lat] g5ealogy ( ! horse ?r\gh ,european ext9ct =ms1 b ! l9e 9 ,am]ica 0 probably a m direct "o1 & ! record is m complete4 ,tak+1 !n1 z ! extreme ( a s]ies1 ,orohippus agilis 7,m>%71 f ! eoc5e1 & ,equus frat]nus 7,leidy71 f ! quat]n>y1 int]m$iate =ms may be int]calat$ ) consid]able c]ta9ty f ?irty or m well-m>k$ species t liv$ 9 ! int]v5+ p]iods4 ,! natural l9e ( desc5t w\ld seem to be ?r\gh ! foll[+ g5]a3 ,orohippus1 ( ! eoc5e2 ,miohippus & ,an*i!rium1 ( ! mioc5e2 ,an*ippus1 ,hipp>ion1 ,protohippus1 ,phohippus1 ( ! plioc5e2 & ,equus1 quat]n>y & rec5t4 ,! mo/ m>k$ *anges und]gone by ! successive equ9e g5]a are z foll[s3 ,fir/1 increase 9 size2 second1 increase 9 spe$1 ?r\gh conc5tration ( limb bones2 ?ird1 elongation ( head & neck1 & modifications ( skull4 ,! eoc5e ,orohippus 0 ! size ( a fox4 ,miohippus & ,an*i!rium1 f ! mioc5e1 7 ab\t z l>ge z a %eep4 ,hipp>ion & ,pliohippus1 ( ! plioc5e1 equall$ ! ass 9 height2 :ile ! size ( ! quat]n>y ,equus 0 fully up to t ( a mod]n horse4 ,! increase ( spe$ 0 equally well m>k$1 & 0 a direct result ( ! gradual =mation ( ! limbs4 ,! latt] 7 sl[ly conc5trat$ by ! r$uction ( _! lat]al elem5ts & enl>gem5t ( ! axial bone1 until ! =ce ex]t$ by ea* limb came to act directly ?r\gh its axis 9 ! l9e ( motion4 ,?is conc5tration is well se5--e4g41 9 ! =e-limb4 ,!re 01 fir/1 a *ange 9 ! scapula & hum]us1 especially 9 ! latt]1 :i* facilitat$ motion 9 "o l9e only2 second1 an expansion ( ! radius & r$uction ( ! ulna1 until ! =m] alone rema9$ entire & effective2 ?ird1 a %ort5+ ( all ! c>pal bones & enl>gem5t ( ! m$ian ones1 insur+ a firm] wri/2 f\r?1 an increase ( size ( ! ?ird digit1 at ! exp5se ( ^? ( ea* side1 until ! =m] alone support$ ! limb4 ,su* is1 9 brief1 a g5]al outl9e ( ! m m>k$ *anges t seem$ to h produc$ 9 ,am]ica ! highly specializ$ mod]n ,equus f 8 dim9utive f\r-to$ pr$ecessor1 ! eoc5e ,orohippus4 ,! l9e ( desc5t appe>s to h be5 direct1 & ! rema9s n[ kn[n supply e important int]m$iate =m4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 impossible to say ) c]ta9ty ?r\gh :i* ( ! ?ree-to$ g5]a ( ! plioc5e t liv$ toge!r ! succession came4 ,x is n impossible t ! latt] species1 :i* appe> g5]ically id5tical1 are ! desc5dants ( m di/9ct plioc5e types1 z ! p]si/5t t5d5cy 9 all ! e>li] =ms 0 9 ! same direction4 ,consid]+ ! rem>kable developm5t ( ! gr\p ?r\gh ! t]ti>y p]iod1 & its exi/5ce ev5 lat]1 x seems v /range t none ( ! species %\ld h surviv$1 & t we are indebt$ = our pres5t horse to ! ,old ,_w47#g7 ,,paleontology ,,( ,,evolution ,^! & su*-l revelations h come to light 9 our own "t--are1 inde$1 /ill be+ disclos$4 ,ne$less to say1 no index ( any sort n[ attempts to conceal !m2 yet some?+ has be5 accompli%$ t[>ds ! same end by ! publication ( ! discov]ies 9 ,smi?sonian bullet9s & 9 te*nical memoirs ( gov]nm5t surveys4 ,=tunately1 h[ev]1 ! results h be5 rescu$ f t p>tial oblivion by su* int]pret]s z ,pr(essors ,huxley & ,cope1 s ! unsci5tific public has be5 all[$ to ga9 at lea/ an inkl+ ( ! wond]ful progress ( paleontology 9 our g5]ation4 ,! writ+s ( ,huxley 9 p>ticul> epitomize ! record4 ,9 #ahfb he admitt$ c&idly t ! paleontological record z !n kn[n1 s f> z x be>s on ! doctr9e ( progressive developm5t1 negatives t doctr9e4 ,9 #ahgj he 0 able to s(t5 some:at ! ,brutus-l sev]ity ( 8 =m] v]dict1 & to ass]t t ! results ( rec5t rese>*es seem to leave a cle> balance 9 favor ( ! doctr9e ( ! evolution ( liv+ =ms "o f ano!r4 ,six ye>s lat]1 :5 review+ ! "w ( ,m>% 9 ,am]ica & ( ,gaudry 9 ,pik]mi1 he decl>$ t1 on ! evid5ce ( paleontology1 ! evolution ( _m exi/+ =ms ( animal life f _! pr$ecessors is no long] an hypo!sis1 b an hi/orical fact4 ,9 #ahha he ass]t$ t ! evid5ce ga!r$ 9 ! previ\s decade _h be5 s unequivocal t1 _h ! transmutation hypo!sis n exi/$1 ! paleontologi/ w\ld h _h to inv5t x4 ,s9ce !n ! delv]s aft] fossils h pil$ pro( on pro( 9 bewild]+ pr(usion4 ,! fossil-b$s 9 ! bad l&s ( we/]n ,am]ica seem inexhau/ible4 ,& 9 ! ,connecticut ,riv] ,valley ne> relatives ( ! great reptiles :i* ,pr(essor ,m>% & o!rs h f\nd 9 su* pr(usion 9 ! ,we/ left _! tracks on ! mud-flats--s9ce turn$ to s&/one2 & a few skeletons also h be5 f\nd4 ,! bodies ( a race ( great reptiles t 7 ! lords ( creation ( _! day h be5 dissipat$ to _! elem5ts1 :ile ! *ance ind5tations ( _! feet z !y rac$ along ! %ores1 m]e footpr9ts on ! s&s1 h be5 pres]v$ among ! mo/ imp]i%able ( ! memory-tablets ( ! _w4 ,( ! o!r v]tebrate fossils t h be5 f\nd 9 ! ea/]n portions ( ,am]ica1 among ! mo/ abundant & int]e/+ are ! skeletons ( ma/odons4 ,( ^! "o ( ! l>ge/ & mo/ complete is t :i* 0 une>!d 9 ! b$ ( a dra9$ lake ne> ,newburg1 ,new ,york1 9 #ahde4 ,?is specim5 0 l>g] ?an ! exi/+ elephants1 & _h tusks elev5 feet 9 l5g?4 ,x 0 m\nt$ & describ$ by ,dr4 ,john ,c4 ,w>r51 ( ,bo/on1 & has be5 fam\s = half a c5tury z ! ,w>r5 ma/odon4 ,b to ! /ud5t ( racial developm5t z record$ by ! fossils all ^! sporadic f9ds h b incid5tal int]e/ z comp>$ ) ! ri* ,we/]n fossil-b$s to :i* we h already ref]r$4 ,f records "h une>!d1 ! racial evolution ( _m mammals has 9 ! pa/ few ye>s be5 made out 9 great] or less detail4 ,pr(essor ,cope has trac$ ! ance/ry ( ! camels 7:i*1 l ! rh9oc]oses1 hippopotami1 & sundry o!r =ms n[ spok5 ( z ,old ,_w1 seem to h _h _! orig9 "h7 ) mu* complet5ess4 ,a lemuroid =m ( mammal1 believ$ to be ( ! type f :i* man has desc5d$1 has also be5 f\nd 9 ^! b$s4 ,x is ?\ght t ! desc5dants ( ?is creature1 & ( ! o!r ,old-,_w =ms above ref]r$ to1 f\nd _! way to ,asia1 probably1 z sugge/$ by ,pr(essor ,m>%1 across a bridge at ,b]+ ,/rait1 to cont9ue _! evolution on ! o!r hemisph]e1 becom+ ext9ct 9 ! l& ( _! nativity4 ,! ape-man fossil f\nd 9 ! t]ti>y /rata ( ! isl& ( ,java 9 #ahia by ! ,dut* surgeon ,dr4 ,eug5e ,dubois1 & nam$ ,pi!can?ropus erectus1 may h be5 a direct desc5dant ( ! ,am]ican tribe ( primitive lemurs1 ?\gh ?is is only a conjecture4 ,n all ! /range bea/s :i* h left _! rema9s 9 our bad l&s are repres5t$ by liv+ desc5dants4 ,! titano!res1 or bronto!ridae1 = example1 a gigantic tribe1 (f%oots ( ! same /ock :i* produc$ ! horse & rh9oc]os1 repres5t$ ! culm9ation ( a l9e ( desc5t4 ,!y develop$ rapidly 9 a geological s5se1 & fl\ri%$ ab\t ! middle ( ! t]ti>y p]iod2 !n1 to use ,agassiz's phrase1 "t f\ght aga9/ !m4 ,! /ory ( _! evolution has be5 work$ out by ,pr(essors ,leidy1 ,m>%1 ,cope1 & ,h4 ,f4 ,osborne4 ,a rec5t bit ( paleontological evid5ce be>+ on ! "q ( ! introduction ( species is t pres5t$ by ,dr4 ,j4 ,l4 ,wortman 9 connection ) ! fossil l9eage ( ! ed5tates4 ,x 0 sugge/$ by ,m>%1 9 #ahgg1 t ^! creatures1 ^: mod]n repres5tatives are all ,s\? ,am]ican1 orig9at$ 9 ,nor? ,am]ica long be=e ! two cont95ts _h any l& connection4 ,! /ages ( deg5]ation by :i* ^! animals gradually lo/ ! enamel f _! tee?1 com+ f9ally to ! unique condition ( _! mod]n desc5dants ( ! slo? tribe1 are illu/rat$ by /rik+ly grad$ specim5s n[ pres]v$ 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory1 z %[n by ,dr4 ,wortman4 ,all ^! & a multitude ( o!r rec5t obs]vations t _c be ev5 outl9$ "h tell ! same /ory4 ,) "o accord paleontologi/s ( our "t reg>d ! "q ( ! introduction ( new species z solv$4 ,z ,pr(essor ,m>% has said1 to d\bt evolution today is to d\bt sci5ce2 & sci5ce is only ano!r "n = tru?4 ,?us ! ?ird great battle ov] ! mean+ ( ! fossil records has come to a conclusion4 ,aga9 !re is a truce to controv]sy1 & x may seem to ! casual obs]v] t ! pres5t /& ( ! sci5ce ( fossils is f9al & impregnable4 ,b does ?is really mean t a full synopsis ( ! /ory ( paleontology has be5 told8 ,or d we only await ! com+ ( ! tw5tie?-c5tury ,lam>ck or ,d>w91 :o %all attack ! =tifi$ k ( to-day ) ! batt]ies ( a new g5]alization8 ,,iv4 ,,! ,,orig9 ,,& ,,developm5t ,,( ,,mod]n ,,geology ,,james ,,hutton ,"o might naturally suppose t ! sci5ce ( ! e>? :i* lies at man's feet w\ld at lea/ h kept pace ) ! sci5ce ( ! di/ant />s4 ,b p]haps ! v obvi\sness ( ! ph5om5a delay$ ! /udy ( ! cru/ ( ! e>?4 ,x is ! unatta9able t allures & my/ifies & en*ants ! develop+ m9d4 ,! prov]bial *ild spurns its toys & cries = ! moon4 ,s 9 ^? clos+ days ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 :5 a/ronom]s _h gone s f> t[>ds expla9+ ! my/]ies ( ! di/ant portions ( ! univ]se1 we f9d a *aos ( op9ion reg>d+ ! /ructure & =mation ( ! e>?4 ,guesses 7 n want+ to expla9 ! =mation ( ! _w1 x is true1 b1 ) "o or two exceptions1 ^! are biz>re inde$4 ,"o !ory suppos$ ! e>? to h be5 at fir/ a solid mass ( ice1 :i* became animat$ only aft] a comet _h da%$ aga9/ x4 ,o!r !ories conceiv$ ! orig9al globe z a mass ( wat]1 ov] :i* float$ vapors conta9+ ! solid elem5ts1 :i* 9 due "t 7 precipitat$ z a cru/ ^u ! wat]s4 ,9 a ^w1 ! v>i\s s*emes suppos$ ! orig9al mass to h be5 ice1 or wat]1 or a conglom]ate ( wat] & solids1 accord+ to ! r&om fancies ( ! !ori/s2 & ! f9al sep>ation into l& & wat] 0 conceiv$ to h tak5 place 9 all ! ways :i* fancy1 q un*eck$ by any t5able data1 c\ld inv5t4 ,:atev] important *anges 9 ! g5]al "* ( ! surface ( ! globe 7 conceiv$ to h tak5 place s9ce its creation 7 g5]ally associat$ ) ! ,mosaic3 deluge1 & ! !ories :i* attempt$ to expla9 ?is cata/rophe 7 q on a p> ) ^? :i* dealt ) a remot] p]iod ( ! e>?'s hi/ory4 ,"s speculators1 hold+ t ! int]ior ( ! globe is a great abyss ( wat]s1 conceiv$ t ! cru/ _h dropp$ into ?is *asm & _h ?us be5 inundat$4 ,o!rs held t ! e>? _h orig9ally revolv$ on a v]tical axis1 & t ! sudd5 *ange to its pres5t position bad caus$ ! cata/rophic %ift+ ( its oceans4 ,b p]haps ! favorite !ory 0 t :i* suppos$ a comet to h w&]$ ne> ! e>?1 & 9 :irl+ ab\t x to h c>ri$ ! wat]s1 ?r\gh gravitation1 9 a va/ tide ov] ! cont95ts4 ,?us bl9dly grop$ ! majority ( eighte5?-c5tury philosoph]s 9 _! attempts to /udy :at we n[ t]m geology4 ,delud$ by ! old d$uctive me?ods1 !y f\nd$ n a sci5ce1 b ! gho/ ( a sci5ce1 z immat]ial & z unlike any?+ 9 nature z any o!r phantom t c\ld be conjur$ f ! dep?s ( ! speculative imag9ation4 ,& all ! :ile ! beckon+ e>? lay b5ea? ! feet ( ^! vision>ies2 b _! eyes 7 fix$ 9 air4 ,at la/1 h[ev]1 !re came a man :o _h ! p5etration to see t ! phantom sci5ce ( geology ne$$ be=e all else a body corporeal1 & :o took to himself ! task ( supply+ x4 ,?is 0 ,dr4 ,james ,hutton1 ( ,ed9burgh1 physician1 f>m]1 & manufactur+ *emi/--pati5t1 en?usia/ic1 level-head$ devotee ( sci5ce4 ,inspir$ by 8 love ( *emi/ry to /udy ! "* ( rocks & soils1 ,hutton _h n gone f> be=e ! e>? /ood reveal$ to him 9 a new light4 ,he saw1 :at g5]ations ( pr$ecessors _h bl9dly refus$ to see1 t ! face ( nature ev]y:]e1 in/ead ( be+ rigid & immutable1 is p]5nially pla/ic1 & ye> by ye> is und]go+ metamorphic *anges4 ,! solide/ rocks are day by day dis9tegrat$ sl[ly1 b none ! less surely1 by w9d & ra9 & fro/1 by me*anical attrition & *emical decomposition1 to =m ! pulv]iz$ e>? & clay4 ,?is soil is be+ swept away by p]5nial %[]s1 & c>ri$ (f to ! oceans4 ,! oceans !mselves beat on _! %ores1 & eat insidi\sly into ! /ructure ( s&s & rocks4 ,ev]y:]e1 sl[ly b surely1 ! surface ( ! l& is be+ worn away2 its sub/ance is be+ c>ri$ to burial 9 ! seas4 ,%\ld ?is d5udation cont9ue long en\gh1 ?9ks ,hutton1 ! entire surface ( ! cont95ts mu/ be worn away4 ,%\ld x be cont9u$ ,,long ,,en\gh6 ,& ) t ?\ght !re fla%es on 8 m9d an inspir+ conception--! idea t sol> "t is long1 indef9itely long4 ,t seems a simple en\gh ?\ght--almo/ a truism--to ! tw5tie?-c5tury m9d2 b x requir$ g5ius to conceive x 9 ! eighte5?4 ,hutton pond]$ x1 grasp$ its full import1 & made x ! basis ( 8 hypo!sis1 8 !ory ( ! e>?4 ,,mod]n ,,geology ,! hypo!sis is ?is--t ! obs]v$ *anges ( ! surface ( ! e>?1 cont9u$ ?r\gh indef9ite lapses ( "t1 mu/ result 9 convey+ all ! l& at la/ to ! sea2 9 we>+ cont95ts away till ! oceans ov]fl[ !m4 ,:at !n8 ,:y1 z ! cont95ts we> d[n1 ! oceans are fill+ up4 ,along _! bottoms ! detritus ( wa/$ cont95ts is deposit$ 9 /rata1 toge!r ) ! bodies ( m>9e animals & vegetables4 ,:y might n ?is debris solidify to =m lay]s ( rocks--! basis ( new cont95ts8 ,:y n1 inde$8 ,b h we any pro( t su* =mation ( rocks 9 an ocean-b$ has1 9 fact1 occurr$8 ,to be sure we h4 ,x is furni%$ by e b$ ( lime/one1 e outcropp+ fragm5t ( fossil-be>+ rock1 e /ratifi$ cliff4 ,h[ else ?an ?r\gh su* =mation 9 an ocean-b$ came ^! rocks to be /ratifi$8 ,h[ else came !y to conta9 ! %ells ( once liv+ organisms imb$d$ 9 _! dep?s8 ,! anci5ts1 f9d+ fossil %ells imb$d$ 9 ! rocks1 expla9$ !m z m]e freaks ( nature & ! />s4 ,less sup]/iti\s g5]ations _h repudiat$ ?is explanation1 b _h fail$ to give a t5able solution ( ! my/]y4 ,to ,hutton x is a my/]y no long]4 ,to him x seems cle> t ! basis ( ! pres5t cont95ts 0 laid 9 anci5t sea-b$s1 =m$ ( ! detritus ( cont95ts yet m anci5t4 ,b two l9ks are /ill want+ to complete ! *a9 ( ,hutton's hypo!sis4 ,?r\gh :at ag5cy has ! ooze ( ! ocean-b$ be5 trans=m$ into solid rock8 & ?r\gh :at ag5cy has ?is rock be5 lift$ above ! surface ( ! wat] to =m new cont95ts8 ,hutton looks ab\t him = a clew1 & soon he f9ds x4 ,ev]y:]e ab\t u !re are outcropp+ rocks t are n /ratifi$1 b :i* give evid5ce to ! obs]vant eye ( hav+ once be5 9 a molt5 /ate4 ,diff]5t m9]als are mix$ toge!r2 pebbles are scatt]$ ?r\gh masses ( rock l plums 9 a pudd+2 irregul> crevices 9 o!rwise solid masses ( rock--s-call$ ve9+s--are se5 to be fill$ ) equally solid granite ( a diff]5t v>iety1 :i* c h gott5 !re 9 no conceivable way1 s ,hutton ?9ks1 b by runn+ 9 :ile molt51 z liquid metal is run into ! m\lds ( ! f\nd]4 ,ev5 ! /ratifi$ rocks1 ?\gh !y seem+ly h n be5 melt$1 give evid5ce 9 "s in/ances ( hav+ be5 subject$ to ! action ( heat4 ,m>ble1 = example1 is cle>ly no?+ b calc9$ lime/one4 ,) su* evid5ce be=e him1 ,hutton is at no loss to complete 8 hypo!sis4 ,! ag5cy :i* has solidifi$ ! ocean-b$s1 he says1 is subt]ranean heat4 ,! same ag5cy1 act+ excessively1 has produc$ volcanic cataclysms1 upheav+ ocean-b$s to =m cont95ts4 ,! rugg$ & unev5 surfaces ( m\nta9s1 ! tilt$ & brok5 "* ( /ratifi$ rocks ev]y:]e1 are ! /&+ witnesses ( ^! gigantic upheavals4 ,& ) ?is ! imag9$ cycle is complete4 ,! cont95ts1 worn away & c>ri$ to ! sea by ! action ( ! elem5ts1 h be5 made ov] into rocks aga9 9 ! ocean-b$s1 & !n rais$ once m into cont95ts4 ,& ?is massive cycle1 ,9 ,hutton's s*eme1 is suppos$ to h occurr$ n once only1 b ov] & ov] aga91 times )\t numb]4 ,9 ?is unique view ours is inde$ a _w )\t beg9n+ & )\t end2 its cont95ts h be5 mak+ & unmak+ 9 endless s]ies s9ce "t began4 ,hutton =mulat$ 8 hypo!sis :ile yet a "y man1 n long aft] ! middle ( ! c5tury4 ,he fir/ gave x publicity 9 #agha1 9 a pap] be=e ! ,royal ,society ( ,ed9burgh3 ,a solid body ( l& c\ld n h answ]$ ! purpose ( a habitable _w1 said ,hutton1 = a soil is necess>y to ! gr[? ( plants1 & a soil is no?+ b ! mat]ial collect$ f ! de/ruction ( ! solid l&4 ,!re=e ! surface ( ?is l& inhabit$ by man1 & cov]$ by plants & animals1 is made by nature to decay1 9 dissolv+ f t h>d & compact /ate 9 :i* x is f\nd2 & ?is soil is necess>ily wa%$ away by ! cont9ual circulation ( ! wat] runn+ f ! summits ( ! m\nta9s t[>ds ! g5]al receptacle ( t fluid4 ,! heights ( our l& are ?us levell$ ) our %ores1 our f]tile pla9s are =m$ f ! ru9s ( ! m\nta9s2 & ^? travell+ mat]ials are /ill pursu$ by ! mov+ wat]1 & propell$ along ! incl9$ surface ( ! e>?4 ,^! movable mat]ials1 deliv]$ into ! sea1 _c1 = a long cont9uance1 re/ ^u ! %ore1 = by ! agitation ( ! w9ds1 ! tides1 & ! curr5ts e movable ?+ is c>ri$ f>!r & f>!r along ! %elv+ bottom ( ! sea1 t[>ds ! unfa?omable regions ( ! ocean4 ,if ! vegetable soil is ?us con/antly remov$ f ! surface ( ! l&1 & if its place is !n to be suppli$ f ! dissolution ( ! solid e>? z "h repres5t$1 we may p]ceive an end to ?is beautiful ma*9e2 an end aris+ f no error 9 its con/itution z a _w1 b f t de/ructibility ( its l& :i* is s necess>y 9 ! sy/em ( ! globe1 9 ! economy ( life & vegetation4 ,! imm5se "t necess>ily requir$ = ! total de/ruction ( ! l& mu/ n be oppos$ to t view ( future ev5ts :i* is indicat$ by ! sure/ facts & mo/ approv$ pr9ciples4 ,"t1 :i* measures ev]y?+ 9 our idea1 & is (t5 defici5t to our s*emes1 is to nature endless & z no?+2 x _c limit t by :i* alone x has exi/5ce2 & z ! natural c\rse ( "t1 :i* to u seems inf9ite1 _c be b\nd$ by any op]ation t may h an end1 ! progress ( ?+s ^u ?is globe t 9 ! c\rse ( nature _c be limit$ by "t mu/ proce$ 9 a cont9ual succession4 ,we are1 !re=e1 to consid] z inevitable ! de/ruction ( our l&1 s f> z effect$ by ^? op]ations :i* are necess>y 9 ! purpose ( ! globe1 consid]$ z a habitable _w1 & s f> z we h n exam9$ any o!r "p ( ! economy ( nature1 9 :i* o!r op]ations & a diff]5t int5tion might appe>4 ,we h n[ consid]$ ! globe ( ?is e>? z a ma*9e1 con/ruct$ ^u *emical z well z me*anical pr9ciples1 by :i* its diff]5t p>ts are all adapt$1 9 =m1 9 quality1 & quantity1 to a c]ta9 end--an end atta9$ ) c]ta9ty ( success1 & an end f :i* we may p]ceive wisdom 9 contemplat+ ! means employ$4 ,b is ?is _w to be consid]$ ?us m]ely z a ma*9e1 to la/ no long] ?an its p>ts reta9 _! pres5t position1 _! prop] =ms & qualities8 ,or may x n be also consid]$ z an organiz$ body su* z has a con/itution1 9 :i* ! necess>y decay ( ! ma*9e is naturally repair$ 9 ! ex]tion ( ^? productive p[]s by :i* x has be5 =m$8 ,?is is ! view 9 :i* we are n[ to exam9e ! globe2 to see if !re be1 9 ! con/itution ( ! _w1 a reproductive op]ation by :i* a ru9$ con/itution may be aga9 repair$ & a duration ( /ability ?us procur$ to ! ma*9e consid]$ z a _w conta9+ plants & animals4 ,if no su* reproductive p[]1 or re=m+ op]ation1 aft] due inquiry1 is to be f\nd 9 ! con/itution ( ?is _w1 we %\ld h reason to conclude t ! sy/em ( ?is e>? has ei!r be5 int5tionally made imp]fect or has n be5 ! "w ( inf9ite p[] & wisdom47#a7 ,?is1 !n1 0 ! important "q to be answ]$--! "q ( ! con/itution ( ! globe4 ,to accompli% ?is1 x 0 necess>y1 fir/ ( all1 to exam9e )\t prejudice ! mat]ial already 9 h&1 add+ su* new discov]ies f "t to "t z might be made1 b always apply+ to ! :ole unv>y+ sci5tific pr9ciples & inductive me?ods ( reason+4 ,if we are to take ! writt5 hi/ory ( man = ! rule by :i* we %\ld judge ( ! "t :5 ! species fir/ began1 said ,hutton1 t p]iod w\ld be b little remov$ f ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s4 ,! ,mosaic hi/ory places ?is beg9n+ ( man at no great di/ance2 & !re has n be5 f\nd1 9 natural hi/ory1 any docum5t by :i* high antiquity might be attribut$ to ! human race4 ,b ?is is n ! case ) reg>d to ! inf]ior species ( animals1 p>ticul>ly ^? :i* inhabit ! ocean & its %ores4 ,we f9d 9 natural hi/ory monum5ts :i* prove t ^? animals _h long exi/$2 & we ?us procure a measure = ! computation ( a p]iod ( "t extremely remote1 ?\gh f> f be+ precisely asc]ta9$4 ,9 exam9+ ?+s pres5t1 we h data f :i* to reason ) reg>d to :at has be52 & f :at actually has be5 we h data = conclud+ ) reg>d to t :i* is to happ5 h]eaft]4 ,!re=e1 ^u ! supposition t ! op]ations ( nature are equable & /eady1 we f9d1 9 natural appe>ances1 means = conclud+ a c]ta9 portion ( "t to h necess>ily elaps$ 9 ! production ( ^? ev5ts ( :i* we see ! effects4 ,x is ?us t1 9 f9d+ ! relics ( sea animals ( e k9d 9 ! solid body ( our e>?1 a natural hi/ory ( ^? animals is =m$1 :i* includes a c]ta9 portion ( "t2 & = ! asc]ta9+ ?is portion ( "t we mu/ aga9 h rec\rse to ! regul> op]ations ( ?is _w4 ,we %all ?us arrive at facts :i* indicate a p]iod to :i* no o!r species ( *ronology is able to rem\nt4 ,we f9d ! m>ks ( m>9e animals 9 ! mo/ solid p>ts ( ! e>?1 consequ5tly ^? solid p>ts h be5 =m$ aft] ! ocean 0 inhabit$ by ^? animals :i* are prop] to t fluid m$ium4 ,if1 !re=e1 we knew ! natural hi/ory ( ^! solid p>ts1 & c\ld trace ! op]ations ( ! globe by :i* !y h be5 =m$1 we w\ld h "s means = comput+ ! "t ?r\gh :i* ^? species ( animals h cont9u$ to live4 ,b h[ %all we describe a process :i* nobody has se5 p]=m$ & ( :i* no writt5 hi/ory gives any acc\nt8 ,?is is only to be inve/igat$1 fir/1 9 exam9+ ! nature ( ^? solid bodies ! hi/ory ( :i* we want to "k2 &1 secondly1 9 exam9+ ! natural op]ations ( ! globe1 9 ord] to see if !re n[ exi/ su* op]ations z1 f ! nature ( ! solid bodies1 appe> to h be5 necess>y = _! =mation4 ,!re are few b$s ( m>ble or lime/one 9 :i* may n be f\nd "s ( ^? objects :i* indicate ! m>9e object ( ! mass4 ,if1 = example1 9 a mass ( m>ble tak5 f a qu>ry ^u ! top ( ! ,alps or ,&es !re %all be f\nd "o cockle-%ell or piece ( coral1 x mu/ be conclud$ t ?is b$ ( /one has be5 orig9ally =m$ at ! bottom ( ! sea1 z mu* z ano!r b$ :i* is evid5tly compos$ almo/ altoge!r ( cockle-%ells & coral4 ,if "o b$ ( lime/one is ?us f\nd to h be5 ( m>9e orig91 e concomitant b$ ( ! same k9d mu/ be also conclud$ to h be5 =m$ 9 ! same mann]4 ,9 ^? calc>e\s /rata1 :i* are evid5tly ( m>9e orig91 !re are _m p>ts :i* are ( sp>ry /ructure--t is to say1 ! orig9al texture ( ^? b$s 9 su* places has be5 dissolv$1 & a new /ructure has be5 assum$ :i* is peculi> to a c]ta9 /ate ( ! calc>e\s e>?4 ,?is *ange is produc$ by cry/allization1 9 consequ5ce ( a previ\s /ate ( fluidity1 :i* has s dispos$ ! conc]t+ p>ts z to all[ !m to assume a regul> %ape & /ructure prop] to t sub/ance4 ,a body ^: ext]nal =m has be5 modifi$ by ?is process is call$ a ,,cry/al2 "o ^: int]nal arrangem5t ( p>ts is det]m9$ by x is said to be ( a ,,sp>ry ,,/ructure1 & ?is is kn[n f its fracture4 ,!re are1 9 all ! regions ( ! e>?1 huge masses ( calc>e\s matt] 9 t cry/all9e =m or sp>ry /ate 9 :i*1 p]haps1 no ve/ige c be f\nd ( any organiz$ body1 nor any indication t su* calc>e\s matt] has belong$ to animals2 b z 9 o!r masses ?is sp>ry /ructure or cry/all9e /ate is evid5tly assum$ by ! m>9e calc>e\s sub/ances 9 op]ations :i* are natural to ! globe1 & :i* are necess>y to ! consolidation ( ! /rata1 x does n appe> t ! sp>ry masses 9 :i* no figur$ body is =m$ h be5 orig9ally diff]5t f o!r masses1 :i*1 be+ only cry/alliz$ 9 "p1 & 9 "p /ill reta9+ _! orig9al =m1 h ample evid5ce ( _! m>9e orig94 ,we are l$1 9 ?is mann]1 to conclude t all ! /rata ( ! e>?1 n only ^? consi/+ ( su* calc>e\s masses1 b o!rs sup]9cumb5t ^u ^!1 h _h _! orig9 at ! bottom ( ! sea4 ,! g5]al am\nt ( our reason+ is ?is1 t n9e-t5?s1 p]haps1 or n9ety-n9e-hundr$?s1 ( ?is e>?1 s f> z we see1 h be5 =m$ by natural op]ations ( ! globe 9 collect+ loose mat]ials & deposit+ !m at ! bottom ( ! sea2 consolidat+ ^? collections 9 v>i\s degrees1 & ei!r elevat+ ^? consolidat$ masses above ! level on :i* !y 7 =m$ or l[]+ ! level ( t sea4 ,let u n[ consid] h[ f> ! o!r proposition ( /rata be+ elevat$ by ! p[] ( heat above ! level ( ! sea may be confirm$ f ! exam9ation ( natural appe>ances4 ,! /rata =m$ at ! bottom ( ! ocean are necess>ily horizontal 9 _! position1 or ne>ly s1 & cont9u\s 9 _! horizontal direction or ext5t4 ,!y may be *ang$ & gradually assume ! nature ( ea* o!r1 s f> z conc]ns ! mat]ials ( :i* !y are =m$1 b !re _c be any sudd5 *ange1 fracture1 or displacem5t naturally 9 ! body ( a /ratum4 ,b if ! /rata are cem5t$ by ! heat ( fusion1 & erect$ ) an expansive p[] act+ bel[1 we may expect to f9d e species ( fracture1 dislocation1 & contortion 9 ^? bodies & e degree ( dep>ture f a horizontal t[>ds a v]tical position4 ,! /rata ( ! globe are actually f\nd 9 e possible position3 = f horizontal !y are frequ5tly f\nd v]tical2 f cont9u\s !y are brok5 & sep>at$ 9 e possible direction2 & f a plane !y are b5t & d\bl$4 ,x is impossible t !y c\ld h orig9ally be5 =m$1 by ! kn[n laws ( nature1 9 _! pres5t /ate & position2 & ! p[] t has be5 necess>ily requir$ = _! *ange has n be5 inf]ior to t :i* might h be5 requir$ = _! elevation f ! place 9 :i* !y h be5 =m$47#b7 ,f all ?is1 !re=e1 ,hutton rea*$ ! conclusion t ! elevation ( ! bodies ( l& above ! wat] on ! e>?'s surface _h be5 effect$ by ! same =ce :i* _h act$ 9 consolidat+ ! /rata & giv+ !m /ability4 ,?is =ce he conceiv$ to be ex]t$ by ! expansion ( heat$ matt]4 ,we h1 he said1 be5 n[ suppos+ t ! beg9n+ ( our pres5t e>? _h be5 laid 9 ! bottom ( ! ocean1 at ! completion ( ! =m] l&1 b ?is 0 only = ! sake ( di/9ctness4 ,! j view is ?is1 t :5 ! =m] l& ( ! globe _h be5 complete1 s z to beg9 to wa/e & be impair$ by ! encroa*m5t ( ! sea1 ! pres5t l& began to appe> above ! surface ( ! ocean4 ,9 ?is mann] we suppose a due proportion to be always pres]v$ ( l& & wat] ^u ! surface ( ! globe1 = ! purpose ( a habitable _w su* z ?is :i* we possess4 ,we ?us also all[ "t & opportunity = ! translation ( animals & plants to occupy ! e>?4 ,b if ! e>? on :i* we live began to appe> 9 ! ocean at ! "t :5 ! ,,la/ began to be resolv$1 x c\ld n be f ! mat]ials ( ! cont95t imm$iately prec$+ ?is :i* we exam9e t ! pres5t e>? has be5 con/ruct$2 = ! bottom ( ! ocean mu/ h be5 fill$ ) mat]ials be=e l& c\ld be made to appe> above its surface4 ,let u suppose t ! cont95t :i* is to succe$ our l& is at pres5t beg9n+ to appe> above ! wat] 9 ! middle ( ! ,pacific ,ocean2 x mu/ be evid5t t ! mat]ials ( ?is great body1 :i* is =m$ & ready to be br\ght =?1 mu/ h be5 collect$ f ! de/ruction ( an e>? :i* does n n[ appe>4 ,consequ5tly1 9 ?is true /atem5t ( ! case !re is necess>ily requir$ ! de/ruction ( an animal & vegetable e>? prior to ! =m] l&2 & ! mat]ials ( t e>? :i* is fir/ 9 our acc\nt mu/ h be5 collect$ at ! bottom ( ! ocean1 & begun to be concoct$ = ! production ( ! pres5t e>?1 :5 ! l& imm$iately prec$+ ! pres5t _h arriv$ at its full ext5t4 ,we h n[ got to ! end ( our reason+2 we h no data fur!r to conclude imm$iately f t :i* actually is2 b we h got en\gh2 we h ! satisfaction to f9d t 9 nature !re are wisdom1 sy/em1 & consi/5cy4 ,= hav+ 9 ! natural hi/ory ( ! e>? se5 a succession ( worlds1 we may f ?is conclude t !re is a sy/em 9 nature2 9 l mann] z1 f see+ revolutions ( ! planets1 x is conclud$ t !re is a sy/em by :i* !y are int5d$ to cont9ue ^? revolutions4 ,b if ! succession ( worlds is e/abli%$ 9 ! sy/em ( nature1 x is 9 va9 to look = any?+ high] 9 ! orig9 ( ! e>?4 ,! result1 !re=e1 ( our pres5t inquiry is t we f9d no ve/ige ( a beg9n+--no prospect ( an end4 ,altoge!r rem>kable z ?is pap] seems 9 ! light ( lat] k1 nei!r fri5d nor foe deign$ to notice x at ! mom5t4 ,x 0 n publi%$ 9 book =m until ! la/ decade ( ! c5tury1 :5 ,hutton _h liv$ ) & work$ ov] 8 !ory = almo/ fifty ye>s4 ,!n x caught ! eye ( ! _w4 ,a s*ool ( foll[]s exp\nd$ ! ,huttonian doctr9es2 a rival s*ool "u ,w]n] 9 ,g]many oppos$ "s details ( ! hypo!sis1 & ! educat$ _w z a :ole view$ ! disputants askance4 ,! v novelty ( ! new views =bade _! imm$iate acceptance4 ,bitt] attacks 7 made ^u ! h]esies1 & t 0 meant to be a sob]ly temp]$ judgm5t :i* 9 #ahjj pron\nc$ ,hutton's !ories n only ho/ile to sacr$ hi/ory1 b equally ho/ile to ! pr9ciples ( probability1 to ! results ( ! able/ obs]vations on ! m9]al k+dom1 & to ! dictates ( rational philosophy4 ,& all ?is because ,hutton's !ory presuppos$ ! e>? to h be5 9 exi/5ce m ?an six ?\s& ye>s4 ,?us x appe>s t ?\gh ! ?\ghts ( m5 _h wid5$1 9 ^? clos+ days ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 to include ! />s1 !y _h n z yet exp&$ to receive ! mo/ pat5t records t are writt5 ev]y:]e on ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,be=e ,hutton's views c\ld be accept$1 8 pivotal conception t "t is long mu/ be e/abli%$ by conv9c+ pro(s4 ,! evid5ce 0 be+ ga!r$ by ,william ,smi?1 ,cuvi]1 & o!r devotees ( ! budd+ sci5ce ( paleontology 9 ! la/ days ( ! c5tury1 b _! labors 7 n br\ght to completion till a subsequ5t epo*4 ,,neptuni/s ,,v]sus ,,plutoni/s ,9 ! mean "t1 ,james ,hutton's !ory t cont95ts we> away & are replac$ by volcanic upheaval ga9$ comp>atively few adh]5ts4 ,ev5 ! lucid ,illu/rations ( ! ,huttonian ,!ory1 :i* ,playfair1 ! pupil & fri5d ( ! great ,scot*man1 publi%$ 9 #ahjb1 did n at once prove conv9c+4 ,! _w _h become enam\r$ ( ! rival !ory ( ,hutton's fam\s contempor>y1 ,w]n] ( ,saxony--! !ory :i* taught t 9 ! beg9n+ all ! solids ( ! e>?'s pres5t cru/ 7 dissolv$ 9 ! heat$ wat]s ( a univ]sal sea4 ,w]n] affirm$ t all rocks1 ( :atev] "*1 _h be5 =m$ by precipitation f ?is sea z ! wat]s cool$2 t ev5 ve9s h orig9at$ 9 ?is way2 & t m\nta9s are gigantic cry/als1 n upheav$ masses4 ,9 a ^w1 he practically ignor$ volcanic action1 & d5i$ 9 toto ! !ory ( metamorphosis ( rocks ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( heat4 ,! foll[]s ( ,w]n] came to be kn[n z ,neptuni/s2 ! ,huttonians z ,plutoni/s4 ,! hi/ory ( geology dur+ ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! n9ete5? c5tury is ma9ly a recital ( ! intemp]ate controv]sy betwe5 ^! oppos+ s*ools2 ?\gh x %\ld n be =gott5 t1 meantime1 ! memb]s ( ! ,geological ,society ( ,london 7 mak+ an ef=t to hunt = facts & avoid compromis+ !ories4 ,fact & !ory1 h[ev]1 7 too closely l9k$ to be ?us divorc$4 ,! brunt ( ! controv]sy settl$ ab\t ! un/ratifi$ rocks--granites & _! allies--:i* ! ,plutoni/s claim$ z ( igne\s orig94 ,?is cont5tion _h ! !oretical support ( ! nebul> hypo!sis1 !n ga9+ gr\nd1 :i* suppos$ ! e>? to be a cool+ globe4 ,! ,plutoni/s laid great /ress1 too1 on ! obs]v$ fact t ! temp]ature ( ! e>? increases at a pretty con/ant ratio z desc5t t[>ds its c5tre is made 9 m9es4 ,b 9 p>ticul> !y appeal$ to ! ph5om5a ( volcanoes4 ,! evid5ce f ?is s\rce 0 ga!r$ & elaborat$ by ,mr4 ,g4 ,p\lett ,scrope1 secret>y ( ! ,geological ,society ( ,engl&1 :o1 9 #ahbc1 publi%$ a classical "w on volcanoes 9 :i* he claim$ t volcanic m\nta9s1 includ+ "s ( ! highe/-kn[n peaks1 are m]ely accumulat$ masses ( lava bel*$ =? f a crevice 9 ! e>?'s cru/4 ,suppos+ ! globe to h _h any irregul> %ape :5 deta*$ f ! sun1 said ,scrope1 ! vaporization ( its surface1 &1 ( c\rse1 ( its project+ angles1 toge!r ) its rotatory motion on its axis & ! liquefaction ( its out] envelope1 w\ld necess>ily occasion its actual figure ( an oblate sph]oid4 ,z ! process ( expansion proce$$ 9 dep?1 ! orig9al granitic b$s 7 fir/ p>tially disaggregat$1 next dis9tegrat$1 & m or less liquefi$1 ! cry/als be+ m]g$ 9 ! ela/ic vehicle produc$ by ! vaporization ( ! wat] conta9$ betwe5 ! lam9ae4 ,:]e ?is fluid 0 produc$ 9 abundance by great dilatation--t is1 9 ! out] & highly dis9tegrat$ /rata1 ! sup]ior specific gravity ( ! cry/als =c$ x to ooze upw>d1 & ?us a great quantity ( aque\s vapor 0 produc$ on ! surface ( ! globe4 ,z ?is ela/ic fluid rose into out] space1 its cont9ually increas+ expansion mu/ h proportionately l[]$ its temp]ature2 &1 9 consequ5ce1 a "p 0 recond5s$ into wat] & sank back t[>ds ! m solid surface ( ! globe4 ,& 9 ?is mann]1 = a c]ta9 "t1 a viol5t reciprocation ( atmosph]ic ph5om5a mu/ h cont9u$--torr5ts ( vapor ris+ outw>dly1 :ile equally trem5d\s torr5ts ( cond5s$ vapor1 or ra91 fell t[>ds ! e>?4 ,! accumulation ( ! latt] on ! yet un/able & unconsolidat$ surface ( ! globe con/itut$ ! primeval ocean4 ,! surface ( ?is ocean 0 expos$ to cont9u$ vaporization ow+ to int5se heat2 b ?is process1 ab/ract+ caloric f ! /ratum ( ! wat] bel[1 by p>tially cool+ x1 t5d$ to pres]ve ! rema9d] 9 a liquid =m4 ,! ocean w h conta9$1 bo? 9 solution & susp5sion1 _m ( ! matt]s c>ri$ upw>d f ! granitic b$ 9 :i* ! vapors f ^: cond5sation x proce$$ 7 produc$1 & :i* !y _h trav]s$ 9 _! rise4 ,! dissolv$ matt]s w h be5 silex1 c>bonates1 & sulphates ( lime1 & ^? o!r m9]al sub/ances :i* wat] at an int5se temp]ature & "u su* circum/ances 0 enabl$ to hold 9 solution4 ,! susp5d$ sub/ances w h be5 all ! light] & f9] p>ticles ( ! upp] b$s :]e ! dis9tegration _h be5 extreme2 & p>ticul>ly _! mica1 :i*1 ow+ to ! t5uity ( its plate-%ap$ cry/als1 w\ld be mo/ readily c>ri$ up by ! asc5d+ fluid1 & w h rema9$ longe/ 9 susp5sion4 ,b z ! torr5ts ( vapor1 hold+ ^! v>i\s matt]s 9 solution & susp5sion1 7 =c$ upw>d1 ! great] "p ( ! dis9tegrat$ cry/als by degrees subsid$2 ^? ( felsp> & qu>tz fir/1 ! mica be+1 z obs]v$ above1 f ! =m ( its plates1 ( peculi> buoyancy1 & !re=e held longe/ 9 susp5sion4 ,! cry/als ( felsp> & qu>tz z !y subsid$1 toge!r ) a small proportion ( mica1 w\ld naturally arrange !mselves s z to h _! longe/ dim5sions m or less p>allel to ! surface on :i* !y re/2 & ?is p>allelism w\ld be subsequ5tly increas$1 z we %all see h]eaft]1 by ! pressure ( ^! b$s su/a9$ betwe5 ! weight ( ! support$ column ( matt] & ! expansive =ce b5ea? !m4 ,^! b$s ,i conceive1 :5 consolidat$1 to con/itute ! gneiss =mation4 ,! f>!r ! process ( expansion proce$$ 9 dep?1 ! m 0 ! column ( liquid matt] l5g!n$1 :i*1 gravitat+ t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! globe1 t5d$ to *eck any fur!r expansion4 ,x is1 !re=e1 obvi\s t aft] ! globe settl$ into its actual orbit1 & !nce=w>d lo/ little ( its envelop+ matt]1 ! :ole ( :i* began f t mom5t to gravitate t[>ds its c5tre1 ! progress ( expansion inw>dly w\ld cont9ually increase 9 rapidity2 & a mom5t mu/ h at l5g? arriv$ h5 ! =ces ( expansion & repression _h rea*$ an equilibrium & ! process 0 /opp$ f progress+ f>!r inw>dly by ! great pressure ( ! gravitat+ column ( liquid4 ,?is column may be consid]$ z consi/+ ( diff]5t /rata1 ?\gh ! passage f "o extremity ( complete solidity to ! o!r ( complete expansion1 9 reality1 mu/ h be5 p]fectly gradual4 ,! l[e/ /ratum1 imm$iately above ! extreme limit ( expansion1 w h be5 granite b>ely ,,disaggregat$1 & r5d]$ imp]fectly liquid by ! p>tial vaporization ( its conta9$ wat]4 ,! second /ratum 0 granite ,,dis9tegrat$2 aque\s vapor1 hav+ be5 produc$ 9 su* abundance z to be enabl$ to rise upw>d1 p>tially dis9tegrat+ ! cry/als ( felsp> & mica1 & sup]ficially dissolv+ ^? ( qu>tz4 ,?is mass w\ld reconsolidate into granite1 ?\gh ( a small] gra9 ?an ! prec$+ rock4 ,! ?ird /ratum 0 s dis9tegrat$ t a great] "p ( ! mica _h be5 c>ri$ up by ! escap+ vapor ,,9 ,,susp5sion1 & t ( qu>tz 9 solution2 ! felsp> cry/als1 ) ! rema9+ qu>tz & mica1 ,,subsid+ by _! specific gravity & arrang+ !mselves 9 horizontal planes4 ,! consolidation ( ?is /ratum produc$ ! gneiss =mation4 ,! f\r? zone w h be5 compos$ ( ! ocean ( turbid & heat$ wat]1 hold+ mica1 etc41 9 susp5sion1 & qu>tz1 c>bonate ( lime1 etc41 9 solution1 & cont9ually trav]s$ by reciprocat+ bodies ( heat$ wat] ris+ f bel[1 & ( cold fluid s9k+ f ! surface1 by reason ( _! specific gravities4 ,! di/urbance ?us occasion$ w h long ret>d$ ! deposition ( ! susp5d$ p>ticles4 ,b ?is mu/ by degrees h tak5 place1 ! qu>tz gra9s & ! l>g] & co>s] plates ( mica subsid+ fir/ & ! f9e/ la/4 ,b ! fragm5ts ( qu>tz & mica 7 n deposit$ alone2 a great proportion ( ! qu>tz held 9 ,,solution mu/ h be5 precipitat$ at ! same "t z ! wat] cool$1 & !re=e by degrees lo/ its faculty ( s mu* 9 solution4 ,?us 0 gradually produc$ ! =mation ( mica-s*i/1 ! mica imp]fectly recry/alliz+ or be+ m]ely aggregat$ toge!r 9 horizontal plates1 betwe5 :i* ! qu>tz ei!r spread itself g5]ally 9 m9ute gra9s or unifi$ into cry/all9e nuclei4 ,on o!r spots1 in/ead ( silex1 c>bonate ( lime 0 precipitat$1 toge!r ) m or less ( ! nucace\s s$im5t1 & gave rise to sac*>oidal lime/ones4 ,at a lat] p]iod1 :5 ! ocean 0 yet fur!r cool$ d[n1 rock-salt & sulphate ( lime 7 locally precipitat$ 9 a simil> mode4 ,! fif? /ratum 0 a]i=m1 & consi/$ 9 great "p ( aque\s vapors2 ! rema9d] be+ a comp\nd ( o!r ela/ic fluids 7p]man5t gases7 :i* _h be5 =m$ probably f ! volatilization ( "s ( ! sub/ances conta9$ 9 ! primitive granite & c>ri$ upw>d ) ! aque\s vapor f bel[4 ,^! gases w h be5 ei!r mix$ toge!r or o!rwise dispos$1 accord+ to _! diff]5t specific gravities or *emical aff9ities1 & ?is /ratum con/itut$ ! atmosph]e or a]ial envelope ( ! globe4 ,:51 9 ?is mann]1 ! g5]al & positive expansion ( ! globe1 occasion$ by ! sudd5 r$uction ( outw>d pressure1 _h ceas$ 79 consequ5ce ( ! ,,repressive ,,=ce1 consi/+ ( ! weight ( its fluid envelope1 hav+ rea*$ an equilibrium ) ! ,,expansive ,,=ce1 consi/+ ( ! caloric ( ! heat$ nucleus71 ! rapid sup]ficial evaporation ( ! ocean cont9u$2 &1 by gradually r$uc+ its temp]ature1 occasion$ ! precipitation ( a proportionate quantity ( ! m9]als x held 9 solution1 p>ticul>ly its silex4 ,^! sub/ances fall+ to ! bottom1 accompani$ by a l>ge proportion ( ! matt]s held 9 solution1 p>ticul>ly ! mica1 9 consequ5ce ( ! great] comp>ative tranquillity ( ! ocean1 agglom]at$ ^! into m or less compact b$s ( rock 7! mica-s*i/ =mation71 produc+ ! fir/ cru/ or solid envelope ( ! globe4 ,^u ?is1 o!r /ratifi$ rocks1 compos$ sometimes ( a mixture1 sometimes ( an alt]nation ( precipitations1 s$im5ts1 & occasionally ( conglom]ates1 7 by degrees deposit$1 giv+ rise to ! ,,transition =mations4 ,b5ea? ?is cru/ a new process n[ comm5c$4 ,! out] zones ( cry/all9e matt] hav+ be5 sudd5ly refrig]at$ by ! rapid vaporization & p>tial escape ( ! wat] !y conta9$1 ab/ract$ caloric f ! int5sely heat$ nucleus ( ! globe4 ,^! cry/all9e zones 7 ( unequal d5sity1 ! expansion !y _h suff]$ dim9i%+ f above d[nw>d4 ,_! expansive =ce 01 h[ev]1 equal at all po9ts1 _! temp]ature ev]y:]e be>+ an inv]se ratio to _! d5sity4 ,b :5 by ! accession ( caloric f ! inn] & unliquefi$ nucleus ! temp]ature1 & consequ5tly ! expansive =ce ( ! l[] /rata ( dilat$ cry/all9e matt]1 0 augm5t$1 x act$ ^u ! upp] & m liquefi$ /rata4 ,^! be+ prev5t$ f yield+ ,,outw>dly by ! t5acity & weight ( ! solid involucrum ( precipitat$ & s$im5tal deposits :i* ov]spread !m1 su/a9$ a pressure out ( proportion to _! expansive =ce1 & 7 9 consequ5ce proportionately cond5s$1 & by ! cont9uance ( ! process1 :]e ! ov]ly+ /rata 7 suffici5tly resi/ant1 f9ally consolidat$4 ,?is process ( consolidation mu/ h progress$ f above d[nw>d1 ) ! increase ( ! expansive =ce 9 ! l[] /rata1 comm5c+ f ! upp] surface1 :i*1 its temp]ature be+ l[e/1 (f]$ ! lea/ resi/ance to ! =ce ( compression4 ,by ?is process ! upp] zone ( cry/all9e matt]1 :i* _h intumesc$ s f> z to all[ ( ! escape ( its aque\s vapor & ( mu* ( its mica & qu>tz1 0 resolidifi$1 ! compon5t cry/als arrang+ !mselves 9 planes p]p5dicul> to ! direction ( ! pressure by :i* ! mass 0 consolidat$--t is1 to ! radius ( ! globe4 ,! gneiss =mation1 z already obs]v$1 0 ! result4 ,! inf]ior zone ( b>ely dis9tegrat$ granite1 f :i* only a "p ( ! /eam & qu>tz & none ( ! mica _h escap$1 reconsolidat$ 9 a confus$ or granitoidal mann]2 b exhibits m>ks ( ! process x _h und]gone 9 its brok5 cry/als ( felsp> & mica1 its r\nd$ & sup]ficially dissolv$ gra9s ( qu>tz1 its imb$d$ fragm5ts 7brok5 f ! m solid p>ts ( ! mass1 z x rose1 & envelop$ by ! s(t] p>ts71 its concretion>y nodules & new m9]als1 etc4 ,b5ea? ?is1 ! granite :i* _h be5 simply dis9tegrat$ 0 aga9 solidifi$1 & return$ 9 all respects to its =m] condition4 ,! temp]ature1 h[ev]1 & ) x ! expansive =ce ( ! inf]ior zone1 0 cont9ually on ! increase1 ! caloric ( ! int]ior ( ! globe /ill endeavor+ to put itself 9 equilibrio by pass+ (f t[>ds ! less-int5sely heat$ cru/4 ,?is cont9ually increas+ expansive =ce mu/ at l5g? h ov]come ! resi/ance oppos$ by ! t5acity & weight ( ! ov]ly+ consolidat$ /rata4 ,x is reasonable to suppose t ?is result took place contemporane\sly1 or ne>ly s1 on _m spots1 :]ev] accid5tal circum/ances 9 ! texture or composition ( ! oceanic deposits l$ !m to yield m readily2 & 9 ?is mann] 7 produc$ ^? orig9al fissures 9 ! primeval cru/ ( ! e>? ?r\gh "s ( :i* 7fissures ( elevation7 7 intrud$ portions ( int]ior cry/all9e zones 9 a solid or ne>ly solid /ate1 toge!r ) m or less ( ! intumesc5t granite1 9 ! mann] above describ$2 :ile o!rs 7fissures ( eruption7 gave rise to extravasations ( ! heat$ cry/all9e matt]1 9 ! =m ( lavas--t is1 /ill fur!r liquefi$ by ! great] comp>ative r$uction ( ! pressure !y endur$47#c7 ,! ,neptuni/s /\tly cont5d$ = ! aque\s orig9 ( volcanic z ( o!r m\nta9s4 ,b ! facts 7 ) ,scrope1 & z "t w5t on x came to be admitt$ t n m]ely volcanoes1 b _m trap =mations n tak+ ! =m ( crat]s1 _h be5 made by ! obtrusion ( molt5 rock ?r\gh fissures 9 ov]ly+ /rata4 ,su*1 = example1 to cite famili> illu/rations1 are ,m\nt ,holyoke1 9 ,massa*usetts1 & ! well-kn[n =mation ( ! ,palisades along ! ,hudson4 ,b to admit ! ,plutonic orig9 ( su* widespread =mations 0 practically to ab&on ! ,neptunian hypo!sis4 ,s gradually ! ,huttonian explanation ( ! orig9 ( granites & o!r igne\s rocks1 :e!r mass$ or 9 ve9s1 came to be accept$4 ,mo/ geologi/s !n came to ?9k ( ! e>? z a molt5 mass1 on :i* ! cru/ re/s z a m]e film4 ,"s1 inde$1 ) ,lyell1 pref]r$ to believe t ! molt5 areas exi/ only z lakes 9 a solid cru/1 heat$ to melt+1 p]haps1 by electrical or *emical action1 z ,davy sugge/$4 ,m rec5tly a popul> !ory attempts to reconcile geological facts ) ! claim ( ! physici/s1 t ! e>?'s entire mass is at lea/ z rigid z /eel1 by suppos+ t a molt5 film re/s betwe5 ! obs]v$ solid cru/ & ! alleg$ solid nucleus4 ,b be t z x may1 ! !ory t subt]ranean heat has be5 in/rum5tal 9 det]m9+ ! condition ( prim>y rocks1 & 9 produc+ _m o!r ph5om5a ( ! e>?'s cru/1 has nev] be5 9 dispute s9ce ! long controv]sy betwe5 ! ,neptuni/s & ! ,plutoni/s l$ to its e/abli%m5t4 ,,lyell ,,& ,,uni=mit>ianism ,if molt5 matt] exi/s b5ea? ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 x mu/ contract 9 cool+1 & 9 s do+ x mu/ di/urb ! level ( ! portion ( ! cru/ already solidifi$4 ,s a plausible explanation ( ! upheaval ( cont95ts & m\nta9s 0 suppli$ by ! ,plutonian !ory1 z ,hutton _h f ! fir/ alleg$4 ,b n[ an important diff]5ce ( op9ion arose z to ! exact rationale ( su* upheavals4 ,hutton himself1 & practically e "o else :o accept$ 8 !ory1 _h suppos$ t !re are long p]iods ( relative repose1 dur+ :i* ! level ( ! cru/ is undi/urb$1 foll[$ by %ort p]iods ( active /ress1 :5 cont95ts are ?r[n up ) volcanic sudd5ness1 z by ! ?roes ( a gigantic e>?quake4 ,b n[ came ,*>les ,lyell ) 8 fam\s ext5sion ( ! uni=mit>ian doctr9e1 claim+ t pa/ *anges ( ! e>?'s surface h be5 l pres5t *anges 9 degree z well z 9 k9d4 ,! mak+ ( cont95ts & m\nta9s1 he said1 is go+ on z rapidly to-day z at any "t 9 ! pa/4 ,!re h be5 no gigantic cataclysmic upheavals at any "t1 b all *anges 9 level ( ! /rata z a :ole h be5 gradual1 by sl[ oscillation1 or at mo/ by repeat$ e>?quake %ocks su* z are /ill (t5 exp]i5c$4 ,9 support ( ?is v />tl+ cont5tion ,lyell ga!r$ a mass ( evid5ce ( ! rec5t *anges 9 level ( cont95tal areas4 ,he corroborat$ by p]sonal inspection ! claim :i* _h be5 made by ,playfair 9 #ahjb1 & by ,von ,bu* 9 #ahjg1 t ! coa/-l9e ( ,sw$5 is ris+ at ! rate ( f a few in*es to sev]al feet 9 a c5tury4 ,he cit$ ,d>w9's obs]vations go+ to prove t ,patagonia is simil>ly ris+1 & ,p+el's claim t ,gre5l& is sl[ly s9k+4 ,pro( z to sudd5 *anges ( level ( sev]al feet1 ov] l>ge areas1 due to e>?quakes1 0 br\ght =w>d 9 abundance4 ,cumulative evid5ce left x no long] op5 to "q t su* oscillatory *anges ( level1 ei!r upw>d or d[nw>d1 are q ! rule1 & x c\ld n be d5i$ t ^! obs]v$ *anges1 if cont9u$ long en\gh 9 "o direction1 w\ld produce ! highe/ elevations4 ,! possibility t ! mak+ ( ev5 ! highe/ ranges ( m\nta9s _h be5 accompli%$ )\t exagg]at$ cata/rophic action came to be freely admitt$4 ,x became cle> t ! suppos$ly /able-l& surfaces are 9 reality mu* m v>iable ?an ! surface ( ! %ift+ sea2 t cont95tal masses1 seem+ly s fix$1 are really ris+ & fall+ 9 bill[s ?\s&s ( feet 9 height1 ages in/ead ( mom5ts be+ consum$ 9 ! sweep betwe5 cre/ & holl[4 ,^! sl[ oscillations ( l& surfaces be+ und]/ood1 _m geological enigmas 7 made cle>--su* z ! alt]nation ( m>9e & fre%-wat] =mations 9 a v]tical s]ies1 :i* ,cuvi] & ,brongni>t _h obs]v$ ne> ,p>is2 or ! s&wi*+ ( lay]s ( coal1 ( suba]ial =mation1 betwe5 lay]s ( subaque\s clay or s&/one1 :i* may be obs]v$ ev]y:]e 9 ! coal measures4 ,9 p>ticul>1 ! extreme ?ickness ( ! s$im5t>y /rata z a :ole1 _m times exce$+ ! dep? ( ! deepe/ kn[n sea1 0 = ! fir/ "t explicable :5 x 0 und]/ood t su* /rata _h =m$ 9 sl[ly s9k+ ocean-b$s4 ,all d\bt z to ! mode ( orig9 ( /ratifi$ rocks be+ ?us remov$1 ! way 0 op5$ = a m favorable consid]ation ( t o!r ,huttonian doctr9e ( ! extremely sl[ d5udation ( l& surfaces4 ,! enorm\s am\nt ( l& erosion w be pat5t to any "o :o uses 8 eyes intellig5tly 9 a m\nta9 di/rict4 ,x w be evid5t 9 any region :]e ! /rata are tilt$--z1 = example1 ! ,alleghanies--t great folds ( /rata :i* mu/ once h ris5 miles 9 height h 9 _m cases be5 worn entirely away1 s t n[ a valley m>ks ! location ( ! =m] em95ce4 ,:]e ! /rata are level1 z 9 ! case ( ! m\nta9s ( ,sicily1 ! ,scot* ,highl&s1 & ! famili> ,catskills1 ! evid5ce ( d5udation is1 if possible1 ev5 m m>k$2 = "h x is cle> t elevation & valley h be5 c>v$ by ! elem5ts out ( l& t rose f ! sea z level plateaus4 ,b t ?is h]culean labor ( l&-sculptur+ c\ld h be5 accompli%$ by ! sl[ action ( w9d & fro/ & %[] 0 an idea few m5 c\ld grasp )9 ! fir/ half-c5tury aft] ,hutton prop\nd$ x2 nor did x beg9 to ga9 g5]al curr5cy until ,lyell's crusade aga9/ cata/rophism1 begun ab\t #ahcj1 _h = a qu>t] ( a c5tury accu/om$ geologi/s to ! ?\ght ( sl[1 cont9u\s *anges produc+ f9al results ( colossal proportions4 ,& ev5 long aft] t x 0 combat$ by su* m5 z ,mur*ison1 ,director-,g5]al ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ,great ,brita91 !n acc\nt$ ! =emo/ field-geologi/ ( 8 "t1 :o cont9u$ to believe t ! exi/+ valleys owe _! ma9 features to subt]ranean =ces ( upheaval4 ,ev5 ,mur*ison1 h[ev]1 made "s recession f ! belief ( ! ,cont95tal au?orities1 ,elie de ,beaumont & ,leopold von ,bu*1 :o cont5d$ t ! m\nta9s _h sprung up l v]itable jacks-9-!-box4 ,von ,bu*1 :om 8 fri5d & fell[-pupil ,von ,humboldt consid]$ ! =emo/ geologi/ ( ! "t1 di$ 9 #ahec1 /ill firm 9 8 e>ly fai? t ! erratic b[ld]s f\nd high on ! ,jura _h be5 hurl$ !re1 l cannon-balls1 across ! valley ( ,g5eva by ! sudd5 upheaval ( a neighbor+ m\nta9-range4 ,,agassiz ,,& ,,! ,,glacial ,,!ory ,! b[ld]s ^: pres5ce on ! crags ( ! ,jura ! old ,g]9an acc\nt$ = 9 a mann] s !atrical _h long be5 a s\rce ( cont5tion among geologi/s4 ,!y are f\nd n m]ely on ! ,jura1 b on numb]less o!r m\nta9s 9 all nor?-temp]ate latitudes1 & (t5 f> out 9 ! op5 c\ntry1 z _m a f>m] :o has brok5 8 pl\gh aga9/ !m might te/ify4 ,! e>ly geologi/s acc\nt$ = !m1 z = ne>ly ev]y?+ else1 ) _! supposititi\s ,deluge4 ,brongni>t & ,cuvi] & ,buckl& & _! contempor>ies appe>$ to h no difficulty 9 conceiv+ t masses ( granite weigh+ hundr$s ( tons _h be5 swept by ?is curr5t scores or hundr$s ( miles f _! s\rce4 ,b1 ( c\rse1 ! uni=mit>ian fai? p]mitt$ no su* explanation1 nor c\ld x c\nt5ance ! projection idea2 s ,lyell 0 b\nd to f9d "s o!r means ( transportation = ! puzzl+ erratics4 ,! only available m$ium 0 ice1 b1 =tunately1 ?is "o seem$ q suffici5t4 ,iceb]gs1 said ,lyell1 are obs]v$ to c>ry all mann] ( debris1 & deposit x 9 ! sea-bottoms4 ,pres5t l& surfaces h (t5 be5 subm]g$ b5ea? ! sea4 ,dur+ ! late/ ( ^! subm]g5ces iceb]gs deposit$ ! b[ld]s n[ scatt]$ "h & !re ov] ! l&4 ,no?+ c\ld be simpl] or m cle>ly uni=mit>ian4 ,& ev5 ! cata/rophi/s1 ?\gh !y met ,lyell amicably on almo/ no o!r !oretical gr\nd1 7 incl9$ to admit ! plausibility ( 8 !ory ( erratics4 ,inde$1 ( all ,lyell's noncon=mi/ doctr9es1 ?is seem$ ! "o mo/ likely to meet ) g5]al acceptance4 ,yet1 ev5 z ?is iceb]g !ory loom$ l>ge & l>g] be=e ! geological _w1 obs]vations 7 mak+ 9 a diff]5t field t 7 de/9$ to %[ its fallacy4 ,z e>ly z #ahae a %>p-ey$ *amois-hunt] ( ! ,alps1 ,p]raud9 by "n1 _h not$ ! exi/5ce ( ! erratics1 &1 unlike mo/ ( 8 companion hunt]s1 _h puzzl$ 8 head z to h[ ! b[ld]s got :]e he saw !m4 ,he knew no?+ ( subm]g$ cont95ts or ( iceb]gs1 /ill less ( upheav+ m\nta9s2 & ?\gh he d\btless _h he>d ( ! ,flood1 he _h no exp]i5ce ( heavy rocks float+ l corks 9 wat]4 ,moreov]1 he _h nev] obs]v$ /ones roll+ uphill & p]*+ !mselves on m\nta9-tops1 & he 0 a good en\gh uni=mit>ian 7?\gh he w\ld h be5 puzzl$ inde$ _h any "o told him s7 to disbelieve t /ones 9 pa/ times _h disport$ !mselves diff]5tly 9 ?is reg>d f /ones ( ! pres5t4 ,yet !re ! /ones are4 ,h[ did !y get !re8 ,! m\nta9e] ?\ght t he c\ld answ] t "q4 ,he saw ab\t him ^? gigantic s]p5t-l /reams ( ice call$ glaci]s1 f _! f> f\nta9s sl[ roll+ on1 c>ry+ ) !m blocks ( granite & o!r debris to =m mora9e deposits4 ,if ^! glaci]s _h once be5 mu* m ext5sive ?an !y n[ are1 !y might h c>ri$ ! b[ld]s & left !m :]e we f9d !m4 ,on ! o!r h&1 no o!r natural ag5cy )9 ! sph]e ( ! *amois-hunt]'s k c\ld h accompli%$ ?is1 ergo ! glaci]s mu/ once h be5 m ext5sive4 ,p]raud9 w\ld probably h said t common-s5se drove him to ?is conclusion2 b be t z x may1 he _h conceiv$ "o ( ! few truly orig9al & novel ideas ( :i* ! n9ete5? c5tury c boa/4 ,p]raud9 ann\nc$ 8 idea to ! greate/ sci5ti/ 9 8 little _w--,jean de ,*>p5ti]1 director ( ! m9es at ,bex1 a skill$ geologi/ :o _h be5 a fell[-pupil ( ,von ,bu* & ,von ,humboldt "u ,w]n] at ! ,freib]g ,s*ool ( ,m9es4 ,*>p5ti] laugh$ at ! m\nta9e]'s grotesque idea1 & ?\ght no m ab\t x4 ,& t5 ye>s elaps$ be=e ,p]raud9 c\ld f9d any "o :o treat$ 8 notion ) great] respect4 ,!n he f\nd a li/5] 9 ,m4 ,v5etz1 a civil eng9e]1 :o read a pap] on ! novel glacial !ory be=e a local society 9 #ahbc4 ,?is br\ght ! matt] once m to ! att5tion ( ,de ,*>p5ti]1 :o n[ felt t !re might be some?+ 9 x wor? inve/igation4 ,a survey ( ! field 9 ! light ( ! new !ory soon conv9c$ ,*>p5ti] t ! *amois-hunt] _h all along be5 "r4 ,he became an en?usia/ic support] ( ! idea t ! ,alps _h once be5 imb$d$ 9 a mass ( ice1 & 9 #ahcf he br\ght ! notion to ! att5tion ( ,l\is ,agassiz1 :o 0 sp5d+ ! summ] 9 ! ,alps4 ,agassiz 0 sceptical at fir/1 b soon became a conv]t4 ,9 #ahdj ,agassiz publi%$ a pap] 9 :i* ! results ( 8 ,alp9e /udies 7 elaborat$4 ,let u consid]1 he says1 ^? m consid]able *anges to :i* glaci]s are subject1 or r1 ! imm5se ext5t :i* !y _h 9 ! prehi/oric p]iod4 ,?is =m] imm5se ext5sion1 great] ?an any t tradition has pres]v$1 is prov$1 9 ! case ( ne>ly e valley 9 ! ,alps1 by facts :i* are bo? _m & well e/abli%$4 ,! /udy ( ^! facts is ev5 easy if ! /ud5t is look+ out = !m1 & if he w seize ! lea/ indication ( _! pres5ce2 &1 if x 7 a long "t be=e !y 7 obs]v$ & connect$ ) glacial action1 x is because ! evid5ces are (t5 isolat$ & occur at places m or less remov$ f ! glaci] :i* orig9at$ !m4 ,if x be true t x is ! pr]ogative ( ! sci5tific obs]v] to gr\p 9 ! field ( 8 m5tal vision ^? facts :i* appe> to be )\t connection to ! vulg> h]d1 x is1 above all1 9 su* a case z ?is t he is call$ ^u to d s4 ,i h (t5 comp>$ ^! feeble effects1 produc$ by ! glacial action ( =m] ages1 ) ! appe>ance ( ! m>k+s ^u a li?ographic /one1 prep>$ = ! purpose ( pres]vation1 & ^u :i* "o _c see ! l9es ( ! draughtsman's "w unless x is kn[n be=eh& :]e & h[ to se>* = !m4 ,! fact ( ! =m] exi/5ce ( glaci]s :i* h n[ disappe>$ is prov$ by ! survival ( ! v>i\s ph5om5a :i* always accompany !m1 & :i* cont9ue to exi/ ev5 aft] ! ice has melt$4 ,^! ph5om5a are z foll[s3 #a4 ,mora9es4--,! disposition & composition ( mora9es enable !m to be always recogniz$1 ev5 :5 !y are no long] adjac5t to a glaci] nor imm$iately surr\nd its l[] extremities4 ,i may rem>k t lat]al & t]m9al mora9es alone enable u to recognize ) c]ta9ty ! limits ( glacial ext5sion1 because !y c be easily di/+ui%$ f ! dikes & irregul>ly di/ribut$ /ones c>ri$ d[n by ! ,alp9e torr5ts1 ,! lat]al mora9es deposit$ ^u ! sides ( valleys are r>ely affect$ by ! l>g] torr5ts1 b !y are1 h[ev]1 (t5 cut by ! small /reams :i* fall d[n ! side ( a m\nta91 & :i*1 by int]f]+ ) _! cont9uity1 make !m s mu* m difficult to recognize4 #b4 ,! ,p]*$ ,b[ld]s4--,x (t5 happ5s t glaci]s enc\nt] project+ po9ts ( rock1 ! sides ( :i* become r\nd$1 & ar\nd :i* funnel-l cavities are =m$ ) m or less pr(undity4 ,:5 glaci]s dim9i% & retire1 ! blocks :i* h fall5 into ^! funnels (t5 rema9 p]*$ ^u ! top ( ! project+ rocky po9t )9 x1 9 su* a /ate ( equilibrium t any idea ( a curr5t ( wat] z ! cause ( _! transportation is completely inadmissible on acc\nt ( _! position4 ,:5 su* po9ts ( rock project above ! surface ( ! glaci] or appe> z a m consid]able islet 9 ! mid/ ( its mass 7su* z is ! case 9 ! ,j>d9 ( ! ,m] de ,glace1 above ,montav]t71 su* projections become surr\nd$ on all sides by /ones :i* ultimately =m a sort ( cr[n ar\nd ! summit :5ev] ! glaci]s decrease or retire completely4 ,wat] curr5ts nev] produce any?+ l ?is2 b1 on ! contr>y1 :5ev] a /ream breaks itself aga9/ a project+ rock1 ! /ones :i* x c>ries d[n are turn$ aside & =m a m or less regul> trail4 ,nev]1 "u su* circum/ances1 c ! /ones rema9 ei!r at ! top or at ! sides ( ! rock1 =1 if su* a ?+ 7 possible1 ! rapidity ( ! curr5t w\ld be accel]at$ by ! increas$ resi/ance1 & ! mov+ b[ld]s w\ld be c>ri$ beyond ! ob/ruction be=e !y 7 f9ally deposit$4 #c4 ,! poli%$ & /riat$ rocks1 su* z h be5 describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xiv41 af=d yet fur!r evid5ce ( ! pres5ce ( a glaci]2 =1 z has be5 said already1 nei!r a curr5t nor ! action ( waves ^u an ext5sive bea* produces su* effects4 ,! g5]al direction ( ! *annels & furr[s indicates ! direction ( ! g5]al movem5t ( ! glaci]1 & ! /reaks :i* v>y m or less f ?is direction are produc$ by ! local effects ( oscillation & retreat1 z we %all pres5tly see4 #d4 ,! ,lapiaz1 or ,lapiz1 :i* ! inhabitants ( ,g]man ,switz]l& call ,k>r5feld]1 _c always be di/+ui%$ f erosions1 because1 bo? produc$ z !y are by wat]1 !y d n diff] 9 _! ext]ior *>act]i/ics1 b only 9 _! positions4 ,erosions due to torr5ts are always f\nd 9 places m or less depress$1 & nev] occur ^u l>ge incl9$ surfaces4 ,! ,lapiaz1 on ! contr>y1 are frequ5tly f\nd ^u ! project+ p>ts ( ! sides ( valleys 9 places :]e x is n possible to suppose t wat] has ev] =m$ a curr5t4 ,"s geologi/s1 9 _! emb>rassm5t to expla9 ^! ph5om5a1 h suppos$ t !y 7 due to ! infiltration ( acidulat$ wat]1 b ?is hypo!sis is purely gratuit\s4 ,we w n[ describe ! rema9s ( ^! v>i\s ph5om5a z !y are f\nd 9 ! ,alps outside ! actual glacial limits1 9 ord] to prove t at a c]ta9 epo* glaci]s 7 mu* l>g] ?an !y are to-day4 ,! anci5t mora9es1 situat$ z !y are at a great di/ance f ^? ( ! pres5t day1 are n[h]e s di/9ct or s frequ5t z 9 ,valais1 :]e ,,mm4 ,v5etz & ,j4 de ,*>p5ti] notic$ !m = ! fir/ "t2 b z _! obs]vations are z yet unpubli%$1 & !y !mselves gave me ! in=mation1 x w\ld be an appropriation ( _! discov]y if ,i 7 to describe !m "h 9 detail4 ,i w limit myself to say t !re c be f\nd traces1 m or less di/9ct1 ( anci5t t]m9al mora9es 9 ! =m ( vault$ dikes at ! foot ( e glaci]1 at a di/ance ( a few m9utes' walk1 a qu>t] ( an h\r1 a half-h\r1 an h\r1 & ev5 ( sev]al leagues f _! pres5t extremities4 ,^! traces become less di/9ct 9 proportion to _! di/ance f ! glaci]1 &1 s9ce !y are also (t5 trav]s$ by torr5ts1 !y are n z cont9u\s z ! mora9es :i* are ne>] to ! glaci]s4 ,! f>!r ^! anci5t mora9es are remov$ f ! t]m9ation ( a glaci]1 ! high] up !y rea* ^u ! sides ( ! valley1 :i* proves to u t ! ?ickness ( ! glaci] mu/ h be5 great] :5 its size 0 l>g]4 ,at ! same "t1 _! numb] indicates s _m /opp+-places 9 ! retreat ( ! glaci]1 or s _m extreme limits ( its ext5sion--limits :i* 7 nev] rea*$ aga9 aft] x _h retir$4 ,i insi/ ^u ?is po9t1 because if x is true t all ^! mora9es demon/rate a l>g] ext5t ( ! glaci]1 !y also prove t _! retreat into _! pres5t b\nd>ies1 f> f hav+ be5 cata/rophic1 0 m>k$ on ! contr>y by p]iods ( repose m or less frequ5t1 :i* caus$ ! =mation ( a s]ies ( conc5tric mora9es :i* ev5 n[ indicate _! retrogression4 ,! rema9s ( longitud9al mora9es are less frequ5t1 less di/9ct1 & m difficult to inve/igate1 because1 indicat+ z !y d ! levels to :i* ! edges ( ! glaci] rea*$ at diff]5t epo*s1 x is g5]ally necess>y to look = !m above ! l9e ( ! pa?s along ! esc>pm5ts ( ! valleys1 & h5ce x is n always possible to foll[ !m along a valley4 ,(t51 also1 ! sides ( a valley :i* enclos$ a glaci] are s /eep t x is only "h & !re t ! /ones h rema9$ 9 place4 ,!y are1 nev]!less1 v di/9ct 9 ! l[] "p ( ! valley ( ! ,rhone1 betwe5 ,m>tigny & ! ,lake ( ,g5eva1 :]e sev]al p>allel ridges c be obs]v$1 "o above ! o!r1 at a height ( "o ?\s&1 "o ?\s& two hundr$1 & ev5 "o ?\s& five hundr$ feet above ! ,rhone4 ,x is betwe5 ,/4 ,maurice & ! cascade ( ,pisseva*e1 close to ! hamlet ( ,*aux-,fleurie1 t !y are mo/ accessible1 = at ?is place ! sides ( ! valley at diff]5t levels asc5d 9 little t]races1 ^u :i* ! mora9es h be5 pres]v$4 ,!y are also v di/9ct above ! ,ba9s de ,lavey1 & above ! village ( ,mon!y at ! entrance ( ! ,val d',illi]s1 :]e ! sides ( ! valley are less incl9$ ?an 9 _m o!r places4 ,! p]*$ b[ld]s :i* are f\nd 9 ! ,alp9e valleys1 at consid]able di/ances f ! glaci]s1 occupy at times positions s extraord9>y t !y excite 9 a high degree ! curiosity ( ^? :o see !m4 ,= in/ance1 :5 "o sees an angul> /one p]*$ ^u ! top ( an isolat$ pyramid1 or re/+ 9 "s way 9 a v /eep locality1 ! fir/ inquiry ( ! m9d is1 ,:5 & h[ h ^! /ones be5 plac$ 9 su* positions1 :]e ! lea/ %ock w\ld seem to turn !m ov]8 ,b ?is ph5om5on is n 9 ! lea/ a/oni%+ :5 x is se5 to occur also )9 ! limits ( actual glaci]s1 & x is recall$ by :at circum/ances x is occasion$4 ,! mo/ curi\s examples ( p]*$ /ones :i* c be cit$ are ^? :i* comm& ! nor!rn "p ( ! cascade ( ,pisseva*e1 close to ,*aux-,fleurie1 & ^? above ! ,ba9s de ,lavey1 close to ! village ( ,morcles2 & ^?1 ev5 m curi\s1 :i* ,i h se5 9 ! valley ( ,/4 ,nicolas & ,ob]hasli4 ,at ,kir*et1 ne> ,meir+51 c be se5 "s v rem>kable cr[ns ( b[ld]s ar\nd sev]al domes ( rock :i* appe> to h be5 project$ above ! surface ( ! glaci] :i* surr\nd$ !m4 ,some?+ v simil> c be se5 ar\nd ! top ( ! rock ( ,/4 ,triphon4 ,! extraord9>y ph5om5on ( p]*$ /ones c\ld n escape ! obs]v+ eye ( ,de ,saussure1 :o notic$ sev]al at ,saleve1 ( :i* he describ$ ! positions 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ',"o sees1' said he1 '^u ! slope ( an incl9$ mead[1 two ( ^! great b[ld]s ( granite1 elevat$ "o ^u ! o!r1 above ! grass at a height ( two or ?ree feet1 ^u a base ( lime/one rock on :i* bo? re/4 ,?is base is a cont9uation ( ! horizontal /rata ( ! m\nta91 & is ev5 unit$ ) x visibly on its l[] face1 be+ cut p]p5dicul>ly ^u ! o!r sides1 & is n l>g] ?an ! /one :i* x supports4' ,b see+ t ! entire m\nta9 is compos$ ( ! same lime/one1 ,de ,saussure naturally conclud$ t x w\ld be absurd to ?9k t x 0 elevat$ precisely & only b5ea? ! blocks ( granite4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 s9ce he did n "k ! mann] 9 :i* ^! p]*$ /ones are deposit$ 9 our days by glacial action1 he _h rec\rse to ano!r explanation3 ,he supposes t ! rock 0 worn away ar\nd its base by ! cont9ual erosion ( wat] & air1 :ile ! portion ( ! rock :i* s]v$ z ! base = ! granite _h be5 protect$ by x4 ,?is explanation1 al?\gh v +5i\s1 c\ld no long] be admitt$ aft] ! rese>*es ( ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont _h prov$ t ! action ( atmosph]ic ag5cies 0 n by a good deal s de/ructive z 0 !ret(ore suppos$4 ,de ,saussure speaks also ( a deta*$ b[ld]1 situat$ ^u ! opposite side ( ! ,tete-,noire1 ':i* is1' he says1 '( s great a size t "o is tempt$ to believe t x 0 =m$ 9 ! place x occupies2 & x is call$ ,b>me russe1 because x is worn away b5ea? 9 ! =m ( a cave :i* c af=d accommodation = m ?an ?irty p]sons at a "t47#d7 ,b ! implications ( ! !ory ( glaci]s ext5d1 s ,agassiz has come to believe1 f> beyond ! ,alps4 ,if ! ,alps _h be5 cov]$ ) an ice %eet1 s _h _m o!r regions ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,ca/+ abroad = evid5ces ( glacial action1 ,agassiz f\nd !m ev]y:]e 9 ! =m ( transport$ erratics1 scrat*$ & poli%$ outcropp+ rocks1 & mora9e-l deposits4 ,f9ally1 he became conv9c$ t ! ice %eet t cov]$ ! ,alps _h spread ov] ! :ole ( ! high] latitudes ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 =m+ an ice cap ov] ! globe4 ,?us ! common-s5se induction ( ! *amois-hunt] blossom$ 9 ! m9d ( ,agassiz into ! conception ( a univ]sal ice age4 ,9 #ahcg ,agassiz _h introduc$ 8 !ory to ! _w1 9 a pap] read at ,neu*atel1 & ?ree ye>s lat] he publi%$ 8 fam\s ,etudes sur les ,glaci]s1 f :i* we h j quot$4 ,nev] did idea make a m pr(\nd di/urbance 9 ! sci5tific _w4 ,von ,bu* treat$ x ) alt]nate ridicule1 contempt1 & rage2 ,mur*ison oppos$ x ) cu/om>y vigor2 ev5 ,lyell1 ^: mo/ rem>kable m5tal end[m5t 0 an unfail+ receptiv5ess to new tru?s1 c\ld n at once disc>d 8 iceb]g !ory 9 favor ( ! new claimant4 ,dr4 ,buckl&1 h[ev]1 aft] ,agassiz _h %[n him evid5ce ( =m] glacial action 9 8 own ,scotl&1 became a conv]t--! m readily1 p]haps1 z x seem$ to him to oppose ! uni=mit>ian idea4 ,gradually o!rs fell 9 l9e1 & aft] ! usual imbitt]$ controv]sy & ! inevitable full g5]ation ( probation1 ! idea ( an ice age took its place among ! accept$ t5ets ( geology4 ,all mann] ( moot po9ts /ill dem&$ att5tion--! cause ( ! ice age1 ! exact ext5t ( ! ice %eet1 ! precise mann] 9 :i* x produc$ its effects1 & ! exact nature ( ^! effects2 & n all ( ^! h ev5 yet be5 det]m9$4 ,b1 details aside1 ! ice age n[ has full recognition f geologi/s z an hi/orical p]iod4 ,!re may h be5 _m ice ages1 z ,dr4 ,croll cont5ds2 !re 0 surely "o2 & ! conception ( su* a p]iod is "o ( ! v few ideas ( our c5tury t no previ\s c5tury _h ev5 s mu* z fa9tly adumbrat$4 ,,! ,,geological ,,ages ,b1 = t matt]1 ! entire subject ( hi/orical geology is "o t _h b ! b>e/ beg9n+ be=e our c5tury4 ,until ! paleontologi/ f\nd out ! key to ! e>?'s *ronology1 no "o--n ev5 ,hutton--c\ld h any def9ite idea z to ! true /ory ( ! e>?'s pa/4 ,! only conspicu\s attempt to classify ! /rata 0 t made by ,w]n]1 :o divid$ ! rocks into ?ree sy/ems1 bas$ on _! suppos$ ord] ( deposition1 & call$ prim>y1 transition1 & second>y4 ,?\gh ,w]n]'s obs]vations 7 conf9$ to ! small prov9ce ( ,saxony1 he did n hesitate to affirm t all ov] ! _w ! succession ( /rata w\ld be f\nd ! same z !re1 ! conc5tric lay]s1 accord+ to ?is conception1 be+ arrang$ ab\t ! e>? ) ! regul>ity ( lay]s on an onion4 ,b 9 ?is ,w]n] 0 z mi/ak5 z 9 8 !oretical explanation ( ! orig9 ( ! prim>y rocks4 ,x requir$ b little obs]vation to %[ t ! exact succession ( /rata is nev] precisely ! same 9 any widely sep>at$ regions4 ,nev]!less1 !re 0 a g]m ( tru? 9 ,w]n]'s sy/em4 ,x conta9$ ! idea1 h[ev] faultily int]pret$1 ( a *ronological succession ( /rata2 & x furni%$ a work+ outl9e = ! obs]v]s :o 7 to make out ! true /ory ( geological developm5t4 ,b ! correct int]pretation ( ! obs]v$ facts c\ld only be made aft] ! ,huttonian view z to ! orig9 ( /rata _h ga9$ complete acceptance4 ,:5 ,william ,smi?1 hav+ f\nd ! true key to ?is /ory1 attempt$ to apply x1 ! t]ritory ) :i* he _h to deal *anc$ to be "o :]e ! surface rocks are ( t lat] s]ies :i* ,w]n] t]m$ second>y4 ,he made num]\s subdivisions )9 ?is sy/em1 bas$ ma9ly on ! fossils4 ,meantime x 0 f\nd t1 judg$ by ! fossils1 ! /rata t ,brongni>t & ,cuvi] /udi$ ne> ,p>is 7 ( a /ill m rec5t p]iod 7presum$ at fir/ to be due to ! late/ deluge71 :i* came to be spok5 ( z t]ti>y4 ,x 0 9 ^! b$s1 "s ( :i* seem$ to h be5 =m$ 9 fre%-wat] lakes1 t _m ( ! /range mammals :i* ,cuvi] fir/ describ$ 7 f\nd4 ,b ! transition rocks1 und]ly+ ! second>y sy/em t ,smi? /udi$1 7 /ill practically unexplor$ :51 along 9 ! ?irties1 !y 7 tak5 9 h& by ,rod]ick ,impey ,mur*ison1 ! re=m$ fox-hunt] & ex-capta91 :o _h turn$ geologi/ to su* notable advantage1 & ,adam ,s$gwick1 ! brilliant ,woodw>dian pr(essor at ,cambridge4 ,work+ toge!r1 ^! two fri5ds classifi$ ! transition rocks into *ronological gr\ps1 s9ce famili> to e "o 9 ! l>g] outl9es z ! ,silurian sy/em 7age ( inv]tebrates7 & ! ,devonian sy/em 7age ( fi%es7--names d]iv$ respectively f ! c\ntry ( ! anci5t ,silures1 9 ,wales & ,devon%ire1 ,engl&4 ,x 0 subsequ5tly discov]$ t ^! sy/ems ( /rata1 :i* crop out f b5ea? new] rocks 9 re/rict$ areas 9 ,brita91 are spread out into broad1 undi/urb$ %eets ov] ?\s&s ( miles 9 cont95tal ,europe & 9 ,am]ica4 ,lat] on ,mur*ison /udi$ !m 9 ,russia1 & describ$ !m1 conjo9tly ) ,v]neuil & ,von ,k]s]l+1 9 a pond]\s & classical "w4 ,9 ,am]ica !y 7 /udi$ by ,hall1 ,newb]ry1 ,:itney1 ,dana1 ,:itfield1 & o!r pione] geologi/s1 :o all b anticipat$ _! ,engli% contempor>ies4 ,! rocks t are ( /ill old] =mation ?an ^? /udi$ by ,mur*ison & ,s$gwick 7correspond+ 9 location to ! prim>y rocks ( ,w]n]'s conception7 are ! surface feature ( va/ areas 9 ,canada1 & 7 fir/ prom95tly /udi$ !re by ,william ,i4 ,logan1 ( ! ,canadian ,gov]nm5t ,survey1 z e>ly z #ahdf1 & lat] on by ,sir ,william ,dawson4 ,^! rocks--compris+ ! ,laur5tian sy/em--7 =m]ly suppos$ to repres5t p>ts ( ! orig9al cru/ ( ! e>?1 =m$ on fir/ cool+ f a molt5 /ate2 b !y are n[ m g5]ally reg>d$ z once-/ratifi$ deposits metamorphos$ by ! action ( heat4 ,:e!r primitive or metamorphic1 h[ev]1 ^! ,canadian rocks1 & analog\s ones b5ea? ! fossilif]\s /rata ( o!r c\ntries1 are ! olde/ portions ( ! e>?'s cru/ ( :i* geology has any pres5t k4 ,m\nta9s ( ?is =mation1 z ! ,adirondacks & ! ,/orm ,k+ range1 ov]look+ ! ,hudson ne> ,we/ ,po9t1 are ! patri>*s ( _! k9d1 beside :i* ,alleghanies & ,si]ra ,nevadas are rec5t up/>ts1 & ,rockies1 ,alps1 & ,&es are m]e p>v5us ( ye/]day4 ,! ,laur5tian rocks 7 at fir/ spok5 ( z repres5t+ ,azoic "t2 b 9 #ahdf ,dawson f\nd a =mation deep 9 _! mid/ :i* 0 believ$ to b e ! fossil relic ( a v l[ =m ( life1 & aft] t x became cu/om>y to speak ( ! sy/em z ,eozoic4 ,/ill m rec5tly ! title ( ,dawson's suppos$ fossil to rank z su* has be5 que/ion$1 & ,dana's sugge/ion t ! e>ly rocks be t]m$ m]ely ,ar*man has met ) g5]al favor4 ,mur*ison & ,s$gwick's ,silurian1 ,devonian1 & ,c>bonif]\s gr\ps 7! ages ( inv]tebrates1 ( fi%es1 & ( coal plants1 respectively7 are toge!r spok5 ( z repres5t+ ,paleozoic "t4 ,william ,smi?'s sy/em ( /rata1 next above ^!1 once call$ second>y1 repres5ts ,mesozoic "t1 or ! age ( reptiles4 ,/ill high]1 or m rec5t1 are ,cuvi] & ,brongni>t's t]ti>y rocks1 repres5t+ ! age ( mammals4 ,la/ly1 ! mo/ rec5t =mations1 dat+ back1 h[ev]1 to a p]iod f> en\gh f rec5t 9 any b a geological s5se1 are class$ z quat]n>y1 repres5t+ ! age ( man4 ,x mu/ n be suppos$1 h[ev]1 t ! successive ages ( ! geologi/ are %ut (f f "o ano!r 9 any su* arbitr>y way z ?is v]bal classification might seem to sugge/4 ,9 po9t ( fact1 ^! ages h no bett] w>rant = exi/5ce ?an h ! c5turies & ! weeks ( e-day computation4 ,!y are conv5i5t1 & !y may ev5 /& = local divisions 9 ! /rata1 b !y are b\nd$ by no actual gaps 9 ! sweep ( t]re/rial ev5ts4 ,moreov]1 x mu/ be und]/ood t ! ages ( diff]5t cont95ts1 ?\gh describ$ "u ! same "n1 are n necess>ily ( exact contemporaneity4 ,!re is no sure te/ available by :i* x c\ld be %[n t ! ,devonian age1 = in/ance1 z outl9$ 9 ! /rata ( ,europe1 did n beg9 millions ( ye>s e>li] or lat] ?an ! p]iod ^: records are said to repres5t ! ,devonian age 9 ,am]ica4 ,9 attempt+ to decide su* details z ?is1 m9]alogical data fail u utt]ly4 ,ev5 9 rocks ( adjo9+ regions id5tity ( /ructure is no pro( ( contemporane\s orig92 = ! v]itable sub/ance ( ! rock ( "o age is gr\nd up to build ! rocks ( subsequ5t ages4 ,fur!rmore1 9 seas :]e conditions *ange b little ! same =m ( rock may be made age aft] age4 ,x is believ$ t *alk-b$s /ill =m+ 9 "s ( our pres5t seas may =m "o cont9u\s mass dat+ back to e>lie/ geologic ages4 ,on ! o!r h&1 rocks diff]5t 9 "* maybe =m$ at ! same "t 9 regions n f> ap>t--say a s&/one along %ore1 a coral lime/one f>!r seaw>d1 & a *alk-b$ beyond4 ,?is cont9u\s /ratum1 brok5 9 ! process ( upheaval1 might seem ! record ( ?ree diff]5t epo*s4 ,paleontology1 ( c\rse1 supplies f> bett] *ronological te/s1 b ev5 ^! h _! limitations4 ,!re has be5 no "t s9ce rocks n[ 9 exi/5ce 7 =m$1 if ev]1 :5 ! e>? _h a uni=m climate & a s+le undiv]sifi$ fauna ov] its entire l& surface1 z ! e>ly paleontologi/s suppos$4 ,speak+ broadly1 ! same g5]al /ages h att5d$ ! evolution ( organic =ms ev]y:]e1 b !re is no?+ to %[ t equal p]iods ( "t witness$ correspond+ *anges 9 div]se regions1 b q ! contr>y4 ,to cite b a s+le illu/ration1 ! m>supial ord]1 :i* is ! dom9ant mammalian type ( ! liv+ fauna ( ,au/ralia to-day1 exi/$ 9 ,europe & di$ out !re 9 ! t]ti>y age4 ,h5ce a future geologi/ might ?9k ! ,au/ralia ( to-day contemporane\s ) a p]iod 9 ,europe :i* 9 reality ant$at$ x by p]haps millions ( ye>s4 ,all ^! puzzl+ features unite to r5d] ! subject ( hi/orical geology any?+ b ! simple matt] ! fa!rs ( ! sci5ce e/eem$ x4 ,no "o w\ld n[ attempt to trace ! exact sequ5ce ( =mation ( all ! m\nta9s ( ! globe1 z ,elie de ,beaumont did a half-c5tury ago4 ,ev5 )9 ! limits ( a s+le cont95t1 ! geologi/ mu/ proce$ ) mu* caution 9 attempt+ to *ronicle ! ord] 9 :i* its v>i\s p>ts rose f ! matrix ( ! sea4 ,! key to ?is /ory is f\nd 9 ! id5tification ( ! /rata t are ! surface feature 9 ea* t]ritory4 ,if ,devonian rocks are at ! surface 9 any giv5 region1 = example1 x w\ld appe> t ?is region became a l& surface 9 ! ,devonian age1 or j aft]w>ds4 ,b a mom5t's consid]ation %[s t !re is an elem5t ( unc]ta9ty ab\t ?is1 due to ! /eady d5udation t all l& surfaces und]go4 ,! ,devonian rocks may lie at ! surface simply because ! ?\s&s ( feet ( c>bonif]\s /rata t once lay above !m h be5 worn away4 ,all t ! cauti\s geologi/ d>e ass]t1 !re=e1 is t ! region 9 "q did n become p]man5t l& surface e>li] ?an ! ,devonian age4 ,b to "k ev5 ?is is mu*--suffici5t1 inde$1 to e/abli% ! *ronological ord] ( elevation1 if n its exact p]iod1 = all p>ts ( any cont95t t h be5 geologically explor$--und]/&+ always t !re mu/ be no scrupl+ ab\t a latitude ( a few millions or p]haps t5s ( millions ( ye>s "h & !re4 ,reg>d+ our own cont95t1 = example1 we le>n ?r\gh ! rese>*es ( a multitude ( work]s t 9 ! e>ly day x 0 a m]e ar*ipelago4 ,its *ief isl&--! backbone ( ! future cont95t--0 a great ,v-%ap$ area surr\nd+ :at is n[ ,hudson ,bay1 an area built tip1 p]haps1 ?r\gh d5udation ( a yet m anci5t pol> cont95t1 ^: exi/5ce is only conjectur$4 ,to ! s\!a/ an isl& t is n[ ! ,adirondack ,m\nta9s1 & ano!r t is n[ ! ,j]sey ,highl&s rose above ! wa/e ( wat]s1 & f> to ! s\? /ret*$ probably a l9e ( isl&s n[ repres5t$ by ! ,blue ,ridge ,m\nta9s4 ,f> (f to ! we/w>d ano!r l9e ( isl&s =e%ad[$ our pres5t ,pacific bord]4 ,a few m9or isl&s 9 ! int]ior complet$ ! ar*ipelago4 ,f ?is b>e skeleton ! cont95t grew1 p>tly by ! deposit ( s$im5t f ! d5udation ( ! orig9al isl&s 7:i* once t[]$ miles1 p]haps1 :]e n[ !y rise ?\s&s ( feet71 b l>gely also by ! deposit ( organic rema9s1 especially 9 ! int]ior sea1 :i* teem$ ) life4 ,9 ! ,silurian ages1 inv]tebrates--bra*iopods & cr9oids & cephalopods--7 ! dom9ant types4 ,b v e>ly--no "o kn[s j :5--!re came fi%es ( _m /range =ms1 "s ( ! e>ly ones enclos$ 9 turtle-l %ells4 ,lat] yet1 l>ge spaces )9 ! int]ior sea hav+ ris5 to ! surface1 great m>%es or =e/s ( /range types ( vegetation grew & deposit$ _! rema9s to =m coal-b$s4 ,_m times ov] su* =e/s 7 =m$1 only to be de/roy$ by ! oscillations ( ! l& surface4 ,all told1 ! /rata ( ?is ,paleozoic p]iod aggregate sev]al miles 9 ?ickness1 & ! "t consum$ 9 _! =mation /&s to all lat] "t up to ! pres5t1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,dana's e/imate1 z ?ree to "o4 ,t[>ds ! close ( ?is ,paleozoic era ! ,appala*ian ,m\nta9s 7 sl[ly upheav$ 9 great convolut$ folds1 "s ( !m probably rea*+ ?ree or f\r miles above ! sea-level1 ?\gh ! too? ( "t has s9ce gnaw$ !m d[n to comp>atively puny limits4 ,! cont95tal areas ?us enl>g$ 7 peopl$ dur+ ! ensu+ ,mesozoic "t ) multitudes ( /range reptiles1 _m ( !m gigantic 9 size4 ,! wat]s1 too1 /ill teem+ ) inv]tebrates & fi%es1 _h _! quota ( reptilian mon/]s2 & 9 ! air 7 fly+ reptiles1 "s ( :i* measur$ tw5ty-five feet f tip to tip ( _! batlike w+s4 ,dur+ ?is era ! ,si]ra ,nevada ,m\nta9s rose4 ,ne> ! ea/]n bord] ( ! =m+ cont95t ! /rata 7 p]haps n[ too ?ick & /iff to b5d into m\nta9 folds1 = !y 7 r5t into great fissures1 lett+ out floods ( molt5 lava1 remnants ( :i* are /ill 9 evid5ce aft] ages ( d5udation1 z ! ,palisades along ! ,hudson1 & su* elevations z ,m\nt ,holyoke 9 we/]n ,massa*usetts4 ,/ill !re rema9$ a va/ int]ior sea1 :i* lat] on1 9 ! t]ti>y age1 0 to be divid$ by ! sl[ upris+ ( ! l&1 :i* only ye/]day--t is to say1 a million1 or ?ree or five or t5 million1 ye>s ago--became ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s4 ,high & erect ^! "y m\nta9s /& to ?is day1 _! %>p angles & rocky cont\rs v\*+ = _! y\?1 9 /range contra/ ) ! %runk5 =ms ( ! old ,adirondacks1 ,gre5 ,m\nta9s1 & ,appala*ians1 ^: l[]$ heads & r\nd$ %\ld]s atte/ ! weight ( ages4 ,9 ! va/ lakes :i* /ill rema9$ on ei!r side ( ! ,rocky range1 t]ti>y /rata 7 sl[ly =m$ to ! ultimate dep? ( two or ?ree miles1 enclos+ "h & !re ^? v]tebrate rema9s :i* 7 to be expos$ aga9 to view by d5udation :5 ! l& rose /ill high]1 & !n1 9 our own "t1 to tell s wond]ful a /ory to ! paleontologi/4 ,f9ally1 ! int]ior seas 7 fill$1 & ! %ore l9es ( ! cont95t assum$ ne>ly _! pres5t outl9e4 ,!n came ! long w9t] ( ! glacial epo*--p]haps ( a succession ( glacial epo*s4 ,! ice %eet ext5d$ s\?w>d to ab\t ! =tie? p>allel1 driv+ "s animals be=e x1 & de/roy+ ^? t 7 unable to migrate4 ,at its fulness1 ! great ice mass lay almo/ a mile 9 dep? ov] ,new ,engl&1 z atte/$ by ! scrat*$ & poli%$ rock surfaces & deposit$ erratics 9 ! ,:ite ,m\nta9s4 ,su* a mass presses d[n ) a weight ( ab\t "o hundr$ & tw5ty-five tons to ! squ>e foot1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,croll's e/imate4 ,x cru%$ & gr\nd ev]y?+ b5ea? x m or less1 & 9 "s regions plan$ (f hilly surfaces into prairies4 ,creep+ sl[ly =w>d1 x c>ri$ all mann] ( debris ) x4 ,:5 x melt$ away its t]m9al mora9e built up ! nucleus ( ! l& masses n[ kn[n z ,long ,isl& & ,/at5 ,isl&2 o!r ( its deposits =m$ ! druml9s ab\t ,bo/on fam\s z ,bunk] & ,bre$'s hills2 & x left a long1 irregul> l9e ( ridges ( till or b[ld] clay & scatt]$ erratics cle> across ! c\ntry at ab\t ! latitude ( ,new ,york city4 ,z ! ice %eet sl[ly rec$$ x left m9or mora9es all along its c\rse4 ,sometimes its deposits damm$ up riv] c\rses or inequalities 9 ! surface1 to =m ! lakes :i* ev]y:]e ab\nd ov] ,nor!rn t]ritories4 ,"s glaciali/s ev5 hold ! view fir/ sugge/$ by ,ramsey1 ( ! ,briti% ,geological ,survey1 t ! great glacial %eets scoop$ out ! bas9s ( _m lakes1 includ+ ! sy/em t fe$s ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce4 ,at all ev5ts1 x left traces ( its pres5ce all along ! l9e ( its retreat1 & its remnants exi/ to ?is day z m\nta9 glaci]s & ! pol> ice cap4 ,inde$1 we live on ! bord] ( ! la/ glacial epo*1 = ) ! clos+ ( ?is p]iod ! long geologic pa/ m]ges into ! pres5t4 ,,pa/1 ,,pres5t1 ,,& ,,future ,& ! pres5t1 no less ?an ! pa/1 is a "t ( *ange4 ,?is is ! ?\ght :i* ,james ,hutton conceiv$ m ?an a c5tury ago1 b :i* 8 contempor>ies & successors 7 s v sl[ to appreciate4 ,n[1 h[ev]1 x has become axiomatic--"o c h>dly realize t x 0 ev] d\bt$4 ,e new sci5tific tru?1 says ,agassiz1 mu/ pass ?r\gh ?ree /ages--fir/1 m5 say x is n true2 !n !y decl>e x ho/ile to religion2 f9ally1 !y ass]t t e "o has kn[n x always4 ,hutton's tru? t natural law is *angeless & et]nal has rea*$ ?is f9al /age4 ,n[h]e n[ c\ld y f9d a sci5ti/ :o w\ld dispute ! tru? ( t text :i* ,lyell1 quot+ f ,playfair's ,illu/rations ( ! ,huttonian ,!ory1 pr9t$ on ! title-page ( 8 ,pr9ciples3 ,amid all ! revolutions ( ! globe ! economy ( ,nature has be5 uni=m1 & h] laws are ! only ?+s t h resi/$ ! g5]al movem5t4 ,! riv]s & ! rocks1 ! seas & ! cont95ts1 h be5 *ang$ 9 all _! p>ts2 b ! laws :i* direct ^? *anges1 & ! rules to :i* !y are subject1 h rema9$ inv>iably ! same4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 ,hutton & ,playfair1 & 9 p>ticul> ,lyell1 drew inf]5ces f ?is pr9ciple :i* ! mod]n physici/ c by no means admit4 ,to !m x impli$ t ! *anges on ! surface ( ! e>? h always be5 ! same 9 degree z well z 9 k9d1 & mu/ s cont9ue :ile pres5t =ces hold _! sway4 ,9 o!r words1 !y ?\ght ( ! _w z a great p]petual-motion ma*9e4 ,b ! mod]n physici/1 giv5 tru] me*anical insight by ! doctr9es ( ! cons]vation & ! dissipation ( en]gy1 w h none ( t4 ,"l ,kelv91 9 p>ticul>1 has urg$ t 9 ! p]iods ( our e>?'s 9 fancy & adolesc5ce its developm5tal *anges mu/ h be51 l ^? ( any o!r infant organism1 va/ly m rapid & pron\nc$ ?an ^? ( a lat] day2 & to e cle> ?9k] ?is tru? also mu/ n[ seem axiomatic4 ,:oev] ?9ks ( ! e>? z a cool+ globe c h>dly d\bt t its cru/1 :5 ?9n]1 may h heav$ "u /ra9 ( ! moon's tidal pull--:e!r or n t body 0 ne>]--into great bill[s1 daily ris+ & fall+1 l waves ( ! pres5t seas va/ly magnifi$4 ,"u /ress ( t same lat]al pressure f contraction :i* n[ produces ! sl[ depression ( ! ,j]sey coa/1 ! sl[ rise ( ,sw$51 ! occasional bel*+ ( an insignificant volcano1 ! jett+ ( a geys]1 or ! trembl+ ( an e>?quake1 once l>ge areas 7 r5t 9 twa91 & va/ floods ( lava fl[$ ov] ?\s&s ( squ>e miles ( ! e>?'s surface1 p]haps1 at a s+le jet2 &1 = aught we "k to ! contr>y1 gigantic m\nta9s may h heap$ up _! contort$ heads 9 cataclysms z spasmodic z ev5 ! mo/ ard5t cata/rophi/ ( ! eld] day ( geology c\ld h imag9$4 ,! atmosph]e ( t e>ly day1 fill$ ) va/ volumes ( c>bon1 oxyg51 & o!r *emicals t h s9ce be5 /or$ 9 b$s ( coal1 lime/one1 & granites1 may h worn d[n ! rocks on ! "o h& & built up organic =ms on ! o!r1 ) a rapidity t w\ld n[ seem h>dly conceivable4 ,& yet :ile all ^! anomal\s ?+s w5t on1 ! same laws held sway t n[ are op]ative2 & a true doctr9e ( uni=mit>ianism w\ld make no unwont$ concession 9 conc$+ !m all--?\gh mo/ ( ! imbitt]$ geological controv]sies ( ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury 7 due to ! failure ( bo? p>ties to realize t simple fact4 ,& z ( ! pa/ & pres5t1 s ( ! future4 ,! same =ces w cont9ue to op]ate2 & "u op]ation ( ^! un*ang+ =ces ea* day w diff] f e "o t has prec$$ x4 ,if x be true1 z e physici/ believes1 t ! e>? is a cool+ globe1 !n1 :atev] its pres5t /age ( refrig]ation1 ! "t mu/ come :5 its surface cont\r w assume a rigidity ( level n yet atta9$4 ,!n1 j z surely1 ! sl[ action ( ! elem5ts w cont9ue to we> away ! l& surfaces1 p>ticle by p>ticle1 & transport !m to ! ocean1 z x does to-day1 until1 comp5sation no long] be+ af=d$ by ! upheaval ( ! cont95ts1 ! la/ foot ( dry l& w s9k = ! la/ "t b5ea? ! wat]1 ! la/ m\nta9-peak melt+ away1 & our globe1 laps+ l any o!r organism into its second *ildhood1 w be on ! surface--z presumably x 0 be=e ! fir/ cont95t rose--"o va/ wa/e ( wat]s4 ,z puny man conceives "t & ?+s1 an awful cycle w h laps$2 9 ! sweep ( ! cosmic life1 a pulse-beat w h ?robb$4 ,v4 ,,! ,,new ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,meteorology ,,meteorites ,an a/oni%+ miracle has j occurr$ 9 our di/rict1 wrote ,m4 ,m>ais1 a wor?y if undi/+ui%$ citiz5 ( ,france1 f 8 home at ,l',aigle1 "u date ( ! #ac? ,floreal1 ye> #aa--;a date :i* outside ( ,france w\ld be int]pret$ z mean+ ,may #c1 #ahjc4 ,?is miracle 0 ! appe>ance ( a fireball 9 broad daylight--p]haps x 0 wildfire1 says ! naive *ronicle--:i* hung ov] ! mead[1 be+ se5 by _m p1 & !n explod$ ) a l\d s\nd1 scatt]+ ?\s&s ( /ony fragm5ts ov] ! surface ( a t]ritory "s miles 9 ext5t4 ,su* a miracle c\ld n h be5 ann\nc$ at a m opportune "t4 ,= "s ye>s ! sci5tific _w _h be5 agog ov] ! "q :e!r su* a =m ( lightn+ z t report$--appe>+ 9 a cle> sky1 & hurl+ lit]al ?und]bolts--_h real exi/5ce4 ,su* cases _h be5 report$ (t5 en\gh1 x is true4 ,! ?und]bolts !mselves 7 exhibit$ z sacr$ relics be=e _m an alt>1 & ^? :o d\bt$ _! au!nticity _h be5 *id$ z hav+ an evil he>t ( unbelief4 ,b sci5tific scepticism _h que/ion$ ! evid5ce1 & late 9 ! eighte5? c5tury a cons5sus ( op9ion 9 ! ,fr5* ,academy _h decl9$ to admit t su* /ones _h be5 convey$ to ! e>? by lightn+1 let alone any m miracul\s ag5cy4 ,9 #ahjb1 h[ev]1 ,edw>d ,h[>d _h read a pap] be=e ! ,royal ,society 9 :i*1 aft] review+ ! evid5ce rec5tly put =w>d1 he _h rea*$ ! conclusion t ! fall ( /ones f ! sky1 sometimes or always accompani$ by lightn+1 mu/ be admitt$ z an actual ph5om5on1 h[ev] inexplicable4 ,s n[1 :5 ! great /one-fall at ,l',aigle 0 ann\nc$1 ! ,fr5* ,academy made ha/e to s5d ! brilliant "y physici/ ,jean ,bapti/e ,biot to inve/igate x1 t ! matt] might1 if possible1 be set f9ally at re/4 ,! inve/igation 0 9 all respects successful1 & ,biot's report transf]r$ ! /ony or metallic lightn+-bolt--! a]olite or meteorite--f ! realm ( tradition & conjecture to t ( accept$ sci5ce4 ,b h[ expla9 ?is /range ph5om5on8 ,at once speculation 0 rife4 ,"o !ory cont5d$ t ! /ony masses _h n actually fall51 b _h be5 =m$ f ! e>? by ! action ( ! lightn+2 b ?is cont5tion 0 e>ly ab&on$4 ,! *emi/s 7 dispos$ to believe t ! a]olites _h be5 =m$ by ! comb9ation ( elem5ts float+ 9 ! upp] atmosph]e4 ,geologi/s1 on ! o!r h&1 ?\ght !m ( t]re/rial orig91 urg+ t !y might h be5 ?r[n up by volcanoes4 ,! a/ronom]s1 z repres5t$ by ,olb]s & ,laplace1 modifi$ ?is !ory by sugge/+ t ! /ones might1 inde$1 h be5 ca/ out by volcanoes1 b by volcanoes situat$ n on ! e>?1 b on ! moon4 ,& "o speculator ( ! "t took a /ep ev5 m d>+1 urg+ t ! a]olites 7 nei!r ( telluric nor sel5itic orig91 nor yet *ildr5 ( ! sun1 z ! old ,greeks _h1 _m ( !m1 cont5d$1 b t !y are visitants f ! dep?s ( cosmic space4 ,?is bold speculator 0 ! di/+ui%$ ,g]man physici/ ,ern/ ,f4 ,f4 ,*ladni1 a man ( no small repute 9 8 day4 ,z e>ly z #agid he urg$ 8 cosmical !ory ( meteorites1 :5 ! v exi/5ce ( meteorites 0 d5i$ by mo/ sci5ti/s4 ,& he did m3 he decl>$ 8 belief t ^! fall+ /ones 7 really "o 9 orig9 & k9d ) ^? fla%+ meteors ( ! upp] atmosph]e :i* are famili> ev]y:]e z %oot+-/>s4 ,ea* ( ^! coruscat+ meteors1 he affirm$1 mu/ tell ( ! ignition ( a bit ( cosmic matt] ent]+ ! e>?'s atmosph]e4 ,su* w&]+ bits ( matt] might be ! fragm5ts ( %att]$ worlds1 or1 z ,*ladni ?\ght m probable1 m]ely aggregations ( _w /uff nev] hi!rto connect$ ) any l>ge planet>y mass4 ,naturally en\gh1 s unique a view met ) v scant favor4 ,a/ronom]s at t "t saw little to ju/ify x2 & ! non-sci5tific _w reject$ x ) f]vor z be+ a!i/ic & h]etical1 because its acceptance w\ld seem to imply t ! univ]se is n a p]fect me*anism4 ,"s light 0 ?r[n on ! moot po9t pres5tly by ! obs]vations ( ,br&es & ,b5z5b]g1 :i* t5d$ to %[ t fall+-/>s travel at an actual spe$ ( f fifte5 to n9ety miles a second4 ,?is obs]vation t5d$ to discr$it ! sel5itic !ory1 s9ce an object1 9 ord] to acquire su* spe$ 9 fall+ m]ely f ! moon1 mu/ h be5 project$ ) an initial velocity n conceivably to be giv5 by any lun> volcanic impulse4 ,moreov]1 !re 0 a gr[+ conviction t !re are no active volcanoes on ! moon1 & o!r consid]ations ( ! same t5or l$ to ! complete ab&onm5t ( ! sel5itic !ory4 ,b ! !ory ( telluric orig9 ( a]olites 0 by no means s easily dispos$ (4 ,?is 0 an epo* :5 electrical ph5om5a 7 excit+ unb\nd$ & univ]sal int]e/1 & !re 0 a n unnatural t5d5cy to appeal to electricity 9 explanation ( e obscure ph5om5on2 & 9 ?is case ! seem+ simil>ity betwe5 a lightn+ fla% & ! fla% ( an a]olite l5t color to ! explanation4 ,s we f9d ,?omas ,=/]1 a meteorologi/ ( repute1 /ill adh]+ to ! atmosph]ic !ory ( =mation ( a]olites 9 8 book publi%$ 9 #ahbc2 &1 inde$1 ! prevail+ op9ion ( ! "t seem$ divid$ betwe5 v>i\s telluric !ories1 to ! neglect ( any cosmical !ory :atev]4 ,b 9 #ahcc occurr$ a ph5om5on :i* set ! matt] f9ally at re/4 ,a great meteoric %[] occurr$ 9 ,novemb] ( t ye>1 & 9 obs]v+ x ,pr(essor ,d5ison ,olm/ead1 ( ,yale1 not$ t all ! />s ( ! %[] appe>$ to come f a s+le c5tre or vani%+-po9t 9 ! heav5s1 & t ?is c5tre %ift$ its position ) ! />s1 & h5ce 0 n telluric4 ,! full significance ( ?is obs]vation 0 at once recogniz$ by a/ronom]s2 x demon/rat$ beyond all cavil ! cosmical orig9 ( ! %oot+-/>s4 ,"s cons]vative meteorologi/s kept up ! argum5t = ! telluric orig9 = "s decades to come1 z a matt] ( c\rse--su* a b& trails always 9 ! re> ( progress4 ,b ev5 ^! d\bt]s 7 sil5c$ :5 ! great %[] ( %oot+-/>s appe>$ aga9 9 #ahff1 z pr$ict$ by ,olb]s & ,newton1 radiat+ f ! same po9t ( ! heav5s z be=e4 ,s9ce !n ! spectroscope has add$ its confirmatory evid5ce z to ! id5tity ( meteorite & %oot+-/>1 &1 moreov]1 has l9k$ ^! atmosph]ic meteors ) su* di/ant cosmic resid5ts z comets & nebulae4 ,?us x appe>s t ,*ladni's d>+ hypo!sis ( #agid has be5 m ?an v]ifi$1 & t ! fragm5ts ( matt] dissociat$ f planet>y connection--:i* be po/ulat$ & 0 decl>$ a!i/ic = po/ulat+--h be5 %[n to be billions ( times m num]\s ?an any l>g] cosmic bodies ( :i* we h cognizance--s widely does ! exi/+ univ]se diff] f man's preconceiv$ notions z to :at x %\ld be4 ,?us also ! miracle ( ! fall+ /one1 aga9/ :i* ! sci5tific scepticism ( ye/]day pres5t$ an evil he>t ( unbelief1 turns out to be ! mo/ natural ph5om5a1 inasmu* z x is repeat$ 9 our atmosph]e "s millions ( times ea* day4 ,,! ,,aurora ,,borealis ,if fire-balls 7 ?\ght miracul\s & port5t\s 9 days ( yore1 :at int]pretation mu/ ne$s h be5 put ^u t va/ly m picturesque ph5om5on1 ! aurora8 ,?r\gh all ! city1 says ! ,book ( ,maccabees1 = ! space ( almo/ =ty days1 !re 7 se5 horsem5 runn+ 9 ! air1 9 clo? ( gold1 arm$ ) lances1 l a b& ( soldi]s3 & troops ( horsem5 9 array enc\nt]+ & runn+ "o aga9/ ano!r1 ) %ak+ ( %ields & multitude ( pikes1 & draw+ ( swords1 & ca/+ ( d>ts1 & glitt]+ ( gold5 ornam5ts & h>ness4 ,dire om5s ^!2 & h>dly less om9\s ! aurora seem$ to all succe$+ g5]ations t obs]v$ x d[n well into ! eighte5? c5tury--z witness ! popul> excitem5t 9 ,engl& 9 #agaf ov] ! brilliant aurora ( t ye>1 :i* became fam\s ?r\gh ,halley's description4 ,b aft] #ageb1 :5 ,frankl9 de?ron$ ! lightn+1 all spectacul> meteors came to be reg>d$ z natural ph5om5a1 ! aurora among ! re/4 ,frankl9 expla9$ ! aurora--:i* 0 se5 commonly en\gh 9 ! eighte5? c5tury1 ?\gh only record$ once 9 ! sev5te5?--z due to ! accumulation ( electricity on ! surface ( pol> sn[s1 & its dis*>ge to ! equator ?r\gh ! upp] atmosph]e4 ,erasmus ,d>w9 sugge/$ t ! lum9osity might be due to ! ignition ( hydrog51 :i* 0 suppos$ by _m philosoph]s to =m ! upp] atmosph]e4 ,dalton1 :o fir/ measur$ ! height ( ! aurora1 e/imat+ x at ab\t "o hundr$ miles1 ?\ght ! ph5om5on due to magnetism act+ on f]rug9\s p>ticles 9 ! air1 & 8 explanation 0 p]haps ! mo/ popul> "o at ! beg9n+ ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,s9ce !n a multitude ( obs]v]s h /udi$ ! aurora1 b ! sci5tific grasp has f\nd x z elusive 9 fact z x seems to casual obs]vation1 & its exact nature is z undet]m9$ to-day z x 0 a hundr$ ye>s ago4 ,!re has be5 no de>? ( !ories conc]n+ x1 h[ev]4 ,blot1 :o /udi$ x 9 ! ,%etl& ,isl&s 9 #ahag1 ?\ght x due to electrifi$ f]rug9\s du/1 ! orig9 ( :i* he ascrib$ to ,icel&ic volcanoes4 ,mu* m rec5tly ! idea ( f]rug9\s p>ticles has be5 reviv$1 _! pres5ce be+ ascrib$ n to volcanoes1 b to ! meteorites con/antly be+ dissipat$ 9 ! upp] atmosph]e4 ,f]rug9\s du/1 presumably ( su* orig91 has be5 f\nd on ! pol> sn[s1 z well z on ! sn[s ( m\nta9-tops1 b :e!r x c\ld produce ! ph5om5a ( auroras is at lea/ an op5 "q4 ,o!r !ori/s h expla9$ ! aurora z due to ! accumulation ( electricity on cl\ds or on spicules ( ice 9 ! upp] air4 ,yet o!rs ?9k x due m]ely to ! passage ( electricity ?r\gh r>efi$ air itself4 ,humboldt consid]$ ! matt] settl$ 9 yet ano!r way :5 ,f>aday %[$1 9 #ahca1 t magnetism may produce lum9\s effects4 ,b p]haps ! prevail+ !ory ( to-day assumes t ! aurora is due to a curr5t ( electricity g5]at$ at ! equator & pass+ ?r\gh upp] regions ( space1 to ent] ! e>? at ! magnetic poles--simply rev]s+ ! c\rse :i* ,frankl9 assum$4 ,! simil>ity ( ! auroral light to t g5]at$ 9 a vacuum bulb by ! passage ( electricity l5ds support to ! long-/&+ supposition t ! aurora is ( electrical orig91 b ! subject /ill awaits complete elucidation4 ,= once ev5 t my/]y-solv] ! spectroscope has be5 baffl$1 = ! l9e x sifts f ! aurora is n mat*$ by t ( any recogniz$ sub/ance4 ,a l l9e is f\nd 9 ! zodiacal light1 x is true1 b ?is is ( little aid1 = ! zodiacal light1 ?\gh ?\ght by "s a/ronom]s to be due to meteor sw>ms ab\t ! sun1 is held to be1 on ! :ole1 z my/]i\s z ! aurora itself4 ,:atev] ! exact nature ( ! aurora1 x has long be5 kn[n to be intimately associat$ ) ! ph5om5a ( t]re/rial magnetism4 ,:5ev] a brilliant aurora is visible1 ! _w is sure to be visit$ ) :at ,humboldt call$ a magnetic /orm--a /orm :i* manife/s itself to human s5ses 9 no way :atsoev] except by deflect+ ! magnetic ne$le & conjur+ ) ! electric wire4 ,su* magnetic /orms are curi\sly associat$ also ) spots on ! sun--j h[ no "o has expla9$1 ?\gh ! fact itself is unque/ion$4 ,sun-spots1 too1 seem directly l9k$ ) auroras1 ea* ( ^! ph5om5a pass+ ?r\gh p]iods ( greate/ & lea/ frequ5cy 9 correspond+ cycles ( ab\t elev5 ye>s' duration4 ,x 0 suspect$ a full c5tury ago by ,h]s*el t ! v>iations 9 ! numb] ( sun-spots _h a direct effect ^u t]re/rial wea!r1 & he attempt$ to demon/rate x by us+ ! price ( :eat z a crit]ion ( climatic conditions1 meantime mak+ c>eful obs]vation ( ! sun-spots4 ,no?+ v def9ite came ( 8 ef=ts 9 ?is direction1 ! subject be+ f> too complex to be det]m9$ )\t long p]iods ( obs]vation4 ,latt]ly1 h[ev]1 meteorologi/s1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! tropics1 are dispos$ to ?9k !y f9d evid5ce ( "s su* connection betwe5 sun-spots & ! wea!r z ,h]s*el suspect$4 ,inde$1 ,mr4 ,meldrum decl>es t !re is a positive co9cid5ce betwe5 p]iods ( num]\s sun-spots & seasons ( excessive ra9 9 ,india4 ,t "s su* connection does exi/ seems intr9sically probable4 ,b ! mod]n meteorologi/1 le>n+ wisdom ( ! pa/1 is extremely cauti\s ab\t ascrib+ casual effects to a/ronomical ph5om5a4 ,he f9ds x h>d to =get t until rec5tly all mann] ( climatic conditions 7 associat$ ) phases ( ! moon2 t n s v long ago %[]s ( fall+-/>s 7 consid]$ progno/ic ( c]ta9 k9ds ( wea!r2 & t ! equ9octial /orm _h be5 accept$ z a v]ity by e "o1 until ! unfeel+ h& ( /ati/ics bani%$ x f ! e>?4 ,yet1 on ! o!r h&1 x is easily )9 ! possibilities t ! sci5ce ( ! future may reveal associations betwe5 ! wea!r & sun-spots1 auroras1 & t]re/rial magnetism t z yet are h>dly dream$ (4 ,until su* "t1 h[ev]1 ^! ph5om5a mu/ feel !mselves v grudg+ly admitt$ to ! inn] circle ( meteorology4 ,m & m ?is sci5ce conc]ns itself1 9 our age ( conc5tration & specialization1 ) wea!r & climate4 ,its vot>ies no long] conc]n !mselves ) />s or planets or comets or %oot+-/>s--once ?\ght ! v ess5ce ( guides to wea!r wisdom2 & !y are ev5 look+ askance at ! moon1 & ask+ h] to %[ cause :y %e also %\ld n be exclud$ f _! doma94 ,equally little d !y c>e = ! int]ior ( ! e>?1 s9ce !y h le>n$ t ! c5tral emanations ( heat :i* ,mairan imag9$ z a ma9 s\rce ( a]ial w>m? c claim no su* di/9ction4 ,ev5 su* problems z :y ! magnetic pole does n co9cide ) ! geographical1 & :y ! =ce ( t]re/rial magnetism decreases f ! magnetic poles to ! magnetic equator1 z ,humboldt fir/ discov]$ t x does1 excite !m only to lukew>m int]e/2 = magnetism1 !y say1 is n kn[n to h any connection :atev] ) climate or wea!r4 ,,evaporation1 ,,cl\d ,,=mation1 ,,& ,,dew ,!re is at lea/ "o =m ( meteor1 h[ev]1 ( ^? t int]e/$ our =ebe>s ^: meteorological importance !y did n ov]e/imate4 ,?is is ! vapor ( wat]4 ,h[ great 0 ! int]e/ 9 ?is famili> meteor at ! beg9n+ ( ! c5tury is atte/$ by ! numb] ( !ories !n extant reg>d+ x2 & ^! conflict+ !ories be> witness also to ! difficulty ) :i* ! famili> ph5om5on ( ! evaporation ( wat] 0 expla9$4 ,frankl9 _h sugge/$ t air dissolves wat] mu* z wat] dissolves salt1 & ?is !ory 0 /ill popul>1 ?\gh ,deluc _h disprov$ x by %[+ t wat] evaporates ev5 m rapidly 9 a vacuum ?an 9 air4 ,deluc's own !ory1 borr[$ f e>li] *emi/s1 0 t evaporation is ! *emical union ( p>ticles ( wat] ) p>ticles ( ! supposititi\s elem5t heat4 ,erasmus ,d>w9 comb9$ ! two !ories1 sugge/+ t ! air might hold a v>iable quantity ( vapor 9 m]e solution1 & 9 addition a p]man5t moiety 9 *emical comb9ation ) caloric4 ,undi/urb$ by ^! conflict+ views1 t /rangely orig9al g5ius1 ,john ,dalton1 aft]w>ds to be kn[n z p]haps ! greate/ ( !oretical *emi/s1 took ! "q 9 h&1 & solv$ x by %[+ t wat] exi/s 9 ! air z an utt]ly indep5d5t gas4 ,he rea*$ a p>tial insight into ! matt] 9 #agic1 :5 8 fir/ volume ( meteorological essays 0 publi%$2 b ! full elucidation ( ! problem came to him 9 #ahja4 ,! m]it ( 8 /udies 0 at once recogniz$1 b ! t5ability ( 8 hypo!sis 0 long & ard5tly disput$4 ,:ile ! nature ( evaporation 0 9 dispute1 z a matt] ( c\rse ! "q ( precipitation mu/ be equally undet]m9$4 ,! mo/ fam\s !ory ( ! p]iod 0 t =mulat$ by ,dr4 ,hutton 9 a pap] read be=e ! ,royal ,society ( ,ed9burgh1 & publi%$ 9 ! volume ( transactions :i* conta9$ also ! same au?or's epo*-mak+ pap] on geology4 ,?is !ory ( ra9 expla9$ precipitation z due to ! cool+ ( a curr5t ( saturat$ air by contact ) a cold] curr5t1 ! assumption be+ t ! surplusage ( moi/ure 0 precipitat$ 9 a *emical s5se1 j z ! excess ( salt dissolv$ 9 hot wat] is precipitat$ :5 ! wat] cools4 ,! idea t ! cool+ ( ! saturat$ air causes ! precipitation ( its moi/ure is ! g]m ( tru? t r5d]s ?is pap] ( ,hutton's important4 ,all correct lat] !ories build on ?is f\ndation4 ,let u suppose ! surface ( ?is e>? :olly cov]$ ) wat]1 said ,hutton1 & t ! sun 7 /ation>y1 be+ always v]tical 9 "o place2 !n1 f ! laws ( heat & r>efaction1 !re w\ld be =m$ a circulation 9 ! atmosph]e1 fl[+ f ! d>k & cold hemisph]e to ! heat$ & illum9at$ place1 9 all directions1 t[>ds ! place ( ! greate/ cold4 ,z !re is = ! atmosph]e ( ?is e>? a con/ant cool+ cause1 ?is fluid body c\ld only arrive at a c]ta9 degree ( heat2 & ?is w\ld be regul>ly decreas+ f ! c5tre ( illum9ation to ! opposite po9t ( ! globe1 mo/ di/ant f ! light & heat4 ,betwe5 ^! two regions ( extreme heat & cold !re w\ld1 9 e place1 be f\nd two /reams ( air foll[+ 9 opposite directions4 ,if ^? /reams ( air1 !re=e1 %all be suppos$ z bo? suffici5tly saturat$ ) humidity1 !n1 z !y are ( diff]5t temp]atures1 !re w\ld be =m$ a cont9ual cond5sation ( aque\s vapor1 9 "s middle region ( ! atmosph]e1 by ! commixtion ( "p ( ^? two opposite /reams4 ,h5ce !re is reason to believe t 9 ?is suppos$ case !re w\ld be =m$ ^u ! surface ( ! globe ?ree diff]5t regions--! torrid region1 ! temp]ate1 & ! frigid4 ,^! ?ree regions w\ld cont9ue /ation>y2 & ! op]ations ( ea* w\ld be cont9ual4 ,9 ! torrid region1 no?+ b evaporation & heat w\ld take place2 no cl\d c\ld be =m$1 because 9 *ang+ ! transp>5cy ( ! atmosph]e to opacity x w\ld be heat$ imm$iately by ! op]ation ( light1 & ?us ! cond5s$ wat] w\ld be aga9 evaporat$4 ,b ?is p[] ( ! sun w\ld h a t]m9ation2 & x is ^! t w\ld beg9 ! region ( temp]ate heat & ( cont9ual ra94 ,x is n probable t ! region ( temp]ance w\ld rea* f> beyond ! region ( light2 & 9 ! hemisph]e ( d>kness !re w\ld be f\nd a region ( extreme cold & p]fect dryness4 ,let u n[ suppose ! e>? z turn+ on its axis 9 ! equ9octial situation4 ,! torrid region w\ld ?us be *ang$ into a zone1 9 :i* !re w\ld be night & day2 consequ5tly1 "h w\ld be mu* temp]ance1 comp>$ ) ! torrid region n[ consid]$2 & "h p]haps !re w\ld be =m$ p]iodical cond5sation & evaporation ( humidity1 correspond+ to ! seasons ( night & day4 ,z temp]ance w\ld ?us be introduc$ into ! region ( torrid extremity1 s w\ld ! effect ( ?is *ange be felt ov] all ! globe1 e "p ( :i* w\ld n[ be illum9at$1 consequ5tly heat$ 9 "s degree4 ,?us we w\ld h a l9e ( great heat & evaporation1 graduat+ ea* way into a po9t ( great cold & congelation4 ,betwe5 ^! two extremes ( heat & cold !re w\ld be f\nd 9 ea* hemisph]e a region ( mu* temp]ance1 9 relation to heat1 b ( mu* humidity 9 ! atmosph]e1 p]haps ( cont9ual ra9 & cond5sation4 ,! supposition n[ =m$ mu/ appe> extremely unfit = mak+ ?is globe a habitable _w 9 e "p2 b hav+ ?us se5 ! effect ( night & day 9 temp]at+ ! effects ( heat & cold 9 e place1 we are n[ prep>$ to contemplate ! effects ( suppos+ ?is globe to revolve ar\nd ! sun ) a c]ta9 incl9ation ( its axis4 ,by ?is beautiful contrivance1 t comp>atively un9habit$ globe is n[ divid$ into two hemisph]es1 ea* ( :i* is ?us provid$ ) a summ] & a w9t] season4 ,b our pres5t view is limit$ to ! evaporation & cond5sation ( humidity2 &1 9 ?is contrivance ( ! seasons1 !re mu/ appe> an ample provision = ^? alt]nate op]ations 9 e "p2 = z ! place ( ! v]tical sun is mov$ alt]nately f "o tropic to ! o!r1 heat & cold1 ! orig9al causes ( evaporation & cond5sation1 mu/ be c>ri$ ov] all ! globe1 produc+ ei!r annual seasons ( ra9 or diurnal seasons ( cond5sation & evaporation1 or bo? ^! seasons1 m or less--t is1 9 "s degree4 ,! orig9al cause ( motion 9 ! atmosph]e is ! influ5ce ( ! sun heat+ ! surface ( ! e>? expos$ to t lum9>y4 ,we h n suppos$ t surface to h be5 ( "o uni=m %ape & simil> sub/ance2 f :5ce x has foll[$ t ! annual prop]s ( ! sun1 p]haps also ! diurnal prop]s1 w\ld produce a regul> cond5sation ( ra9 9 c]ta9 regions1 & ! evaporation ( humidity 9 o!rs2 & ?is w\ld h a regul> progress 9 c]ta9 det]m9$ seasons1 & w\ld n v>y4 ,b no?+ c be m di/ant f ?is supposition1 t is ! natural con/itution ( ! e>?2 = ! globe is compos$ ( sea & l&1 9 no regul> %ape or mixture1 :ile ! surface ( ! l& is also irregul> ) respect to its elevations & depressions1 & v>i\s ) reg>d to ! humidity & dryness ( t "p :i* is expos$ to heat z ! cause ( evaporation4 ,h5ce a s\rce ( ! mo/ valuable motions 9 ! fluid atmosph]e ) aque\s vapor1 m or less1 s f> z o!r natural op]ations w admit2 & h5ce a s\rce ( ! mo/ irregul> commixture ( ! sev]al p>ts ( ?is ela/ic fluid1 :e!r saturat$ or n ) aque\s vapor4 ,accord+ to ! !ory1 no?+ is requir$ = ! production ( ra9 besides ! mixture ( portions ( ! atmosph]e ) humidity1 & ( mix+ ! p>ts t are 9 diff]5t degrees ( heat4 ,b we h se5 ! causes ( saturat+ e portion ( ! atmosph]e ) humidity & ( mix+ ! p>ts :i* are 9 diff]5t degrees ( heat4 ,consequ5tly1 ov] all ! surface ( ! globe !re %\ld happ5 occasionally ra9 & evaporation1 m or less2 & also1 9 e place1 ^? vicissitudes %\ld be obs]v$ to take place ) "s t5d5cy to regul>ity1 :i*1 h[ev]1 may be s di/urb$ z to be h>dly di/+ui%able ^u _m occasions4 ,v>iable w9ds & v>iable ra9s %\ld be f\nd 9 proportion z ea* place is situat$ 9 an irregul> mixture ( l& & wat]2 :]eas regul> w9ds %\ld be f\nd 9 proportion to ! uni=mity ( ! surface2 & regul> ra9s 9 proportion to ! regul> *anges ( ^? w9ds by :i* ! mixture ( ! atmosph]e necess>y to ! ra9 may be produc$4 ,b z x w be ackn[l$g$ t ?is is ! case 9 almo/ all ?is e>? :]e ra9 appe>s accord+ to ! conditions "h specifi$1 ! !ory is f\nd to be ?us 9 con=mity ) nature1 & natural appe>ances are ?us expla9$ by ! !ory47#a7 ,! next ambiti\s attempt to expla9 ! ph5om5a ( aque\s meteors 0 made by ,luke ,h[>d1 9 8 rem>kable pap] on cl\ds1 publi%$ 9 ! ,philosophical ,magaz9e 9 #ahjc--! pap] 9 :i* ! names cirrus1 cumulus1 /ratus1 etc41 aft]w>ds s univ]sally adopt$1 7 fir/ propos$4 ,9 ?is pap] ,h[>d ackn[l$ges 8 indebt$ness to ,dalton = ! !ory ( evaporation2 yet he /ill cl+s to ! idea t ! vapor1 ?\gh indep5d5t ( ! air1 is comb9$ ) p>ticles ( caloric4 ,he holds t cl\ds are compos$ ( vapor t has previ\sly ris5 f ! e>?1 combat+ ! op9ions ( ^? :o believe t !y are =m$ by ! union ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 exi/+ indep5d5tly 9 ! air2 ?\gh he agrees ) ^! !ori/s t electricity has ent]$ l>gely into ! modus op]&i ( cl\d =mation4 ,he opposes ! op9ion ( ,deluc & ,de ,saussure t cl\ds are compos$ ( p>ticles ( wat] 9 ! =m ( holl[ vesicles 7m9iature balloons1 9 %ort1 p]haps fill$ ) hydrog571 :i* unt5able op9ion 0 a revival ( ! !ory z to ! =mation ( all vapor :i* ,dr4 ,halley _h advocat$ e>ly 9 ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,( p>ticul> int]e/ are ,h[>d's views z to ! =mation ( dew1 :i* he expla9s z caus$ by ! p>ticles ( caloric =sak+ ! vapor to ent] ! cool body1 leav+ ! wat] on ! surface4 ,?is comes z ne> ! tru?1 p]haps1 z c\ld be expect$ :ile ! old idea z to ! mat]iality ( heat held sway4 ,h[>d believ$1 h[ev]1 t dew is usually =m$ 9 ! air at "s height1 & t x settles to ! surface1 oppos+ ! op9ion1 :i* _h ga9$ vogue 9 ,france & 9 ,am]ica 7:]e ,noah ,web/] prom95tly advocat$ x71 t dew asc5ds f ! e>?4 ,! complete solution ( ! problem ( dew =mation--:i* really involv$ also ! entire "q ( precipitation ( wat]y vapor 9 any =m--0 made by ,dr4 ,w4 ,c4 ,wells1 a man ( ,am]ican bir?1 ^: life1 h[ev]1 aft] boyhood1 0 sp5t 9 ,scotl& 7:]e z a "y man he enjoy$ ! fri5d%ip ( ,david ,hume7 & 9 ,london4 ,inspir$1 no d\bt1 by ! rese>*es ( ,mack1 ,hutton1 & _! confr]es ( t ,ed9burgh s*ool1 ,wells made obs]vations on evaporation & precipitation z e>ly z #aghd1 b o!r ?+s claim$ 8 att5tion2 & ?\gh he ass]ts t ! subject 0 (t5 9 8 m9d1 he did n take x up aga9 9 e>ne/ until ab\t #ahab4 ,meantime ! obs]vations on heat ( ,rum=d & ,davy & ,leslie _h cle>$ ! way = a prop] int]pretation ( ! facts--ab\t ! facts !mselves !re _h long be5 practical unanimity ( op9ion4 ,dr4 ,black1 ) 8 lat5t-heat obs]vations1 _h really giv5 ! clew to all subsequ5t discussions ( ! subject ( precipitation ( vapor2 & f ?is "t on x _h be5 kn[n t heat is tak5 up :5 wat] evaporates1 & giv5 out aga9 :5 x cond5ses4 ,dr4 ,d>w9 _h %[n 9 #aghh1 9 a pap] be=e ! ,royal ,society1 t air gives (f heat on contract+ & takes x up on exp&+2 & ,dalton1 9 8 essay ( #agic1 _h expla9$ ?is ph5om5on z due to ! cond5sation & vaporization ( ! wat] conta9$ 9 ! air4 ,b "s curi\s & puzzl+ obs]vations :i* ,pr(essor ,patrick ,wilson1 pr(essor ( a/ronomy 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,glasg[1 _h communicat$ to ! ,royal ,society ( ,ed9burgh 9 #aghd1 & "s simil> ones made by ,mr4 ,six1 ( ,cant]bury1 a few ye>s lat]1 _h rema9$ unexpla9$4 ,bo? ^! g5tlem5 obs]v$ t ! air is cool] :]e dew is =m+ ?an ! air a few feet high]1 & !y inf]r$ t ! dew 9 =m+ _h tak5 up heat1 9 app>5t violation ( e/abli%$ physical pr9ciples4 ,x rema9$ = ,wells1 9 8 memorable pap] ( #ahaf1 to %[ t ^! obs]v]s _h simply plac$ ! c>t be=e ! horse4 ,he made x cle> t ! air is n cool] because ! dew is =m$1 b t ! dew is =m$ because ! air is cool]--hav+ become s ?r\gh radiation ( heat f ! solids on :i* ! dew =ms4 ,! dew itself1 9 =m+1 gives out its lat5t heat1 & s t5ds to equalize ! temp]ature4 ,wells's pap] is s admirable an illu/ration ( ! lucid pres5tation ( cle>ly conceiv$ exp]im5ts & logical conclusions t we %\ld d x inju/ice n to pres5t x entire4 ,! au?or's m5tion ( ! obs]vations ( ,six & ,wilson gives add$ value to 8 own pres5tation4 ,dr4 ,wells's ,essay on ,dew ,i 0 l$ 9 ! autumn ( #aghd1 by ! ev5t ( a rude exp]im5t1 to ?9k x probable t ! =mation ( dew is att5d$ ) ! production ( cold4 ,9 #aghh1 a pap] on ho>-fro/1 by ,mr4 ,patrick ,wilson1 ( ,glasg[1 0 publi%$ 9 ! fir/ volume ( ! ,transactions ( ! ,royal ,society ( ,ed9burgh1 by :i* x appe>$ t ?is op9ion bad be5 ent]ta9$ by t g5tleman be=e x _h occurr$ to myself4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ! same ye>1 ,mr4 ,six1 ( ,cant]bury1 m5tion$ 9 a pap] communicat$ to ! ,royal ,society t on cle> & dewy nights he always f\nd ! m]cury l[] 9 a !rmomet] laid ^u ! gr\nd 9 a mead[ 9 8 neighborhood ?an x 0 9 a simil> !rmomet] susp5d$ 9 ! air six feet above ! =m]2 & t ^u "o night ! diff]5ce am\nt$ to five degrees ( ,fahr5heit's scale4 ,mr4 ,six1 h[ev]1 did n suppose1 agreeably to ! op9ion ( ,mr4 ,wilson & myself1 t ! cold 0 occasion$ by ! =mation ( dew1 b imag9$ t x proce$$ p>tly f ! l[ temp]ature ( ! air1 ?r\gh :i* ! dew1 already =m$ 9 ! atmosph]e1 _h desc5d$1 & p>tly f ! evaporation ( moi/ure f ! gr\nd1 on :i* 8 !rmomet] _h be5 plac$4 ,! conjecture ( ,mr4 ,wilson & ! obs]vations ( ,mr4 ,six1 toge!r ) _m facts :i* ,i aft]w>ds le>n$ 9 ! c\rse ( read+1 /r5g!n$ my op9ion2 b ,i made no attempt1 be=e ! autumn ( #ahaa1 to asc]ta9 by exp]im5t if x 7 j1 ?\gh x _h 9 ! mean "t almo/ daily occurr$ to my ?\ghts4 ,happ5+1 9 t season1 to be 9 t c\ntry 9 a cle> & calm night1 ,i laid a !rmomet] ^u grass wet ) dew1 & susp5d$ a second 9 ! air1 two feet above ! o!r4 ,an h\r aft]w>ds ! !rmomet] on ! grass 0 f\nd to be eight degrees l[]1 by ,fahr5heit's division1 ?an ! "o 9 ! air4 ,simil> results hav+ be5 obta9$ f sev]al simil> exp]im5ts1 made dur+ ! same autumn1 ,i det]m9$ 9 ! next spr+ to prosecute ! subject ) "s degree ( /ead9ess1 & ) t view w5t frequ5tly to ! h\se ( "o ( my fri5ds :o lives 9 ,surrey4 ,at ! end ( two mon?s ,i fanci$ t ,i _h collect$ in=mation wor?y ( be+ publi%$2 b1 =tunately1 :ile prep>+ an acc\nt ( x ,i met by accid5t ) a small po/hum\s "w by ,mr4 ,six1 pr9t$ at ,cant]bury 9 #agid1 9 :i* are relat$ diff]5ces obs]v$ on dewy nights betwe5 !rmomet]s plac$ ^u grass & o!rs 9 ! air t are mu* great] ?an ^? m5tion$ 9 ! pap] pres5t$ by him to ! ,royal ,society 9 #aghh4 ,9 ?is "w1 too1 ! cold ( ! grass is attribut$1 9 agreem5t ) ! op9ion ( ,mr4 ,wilson1 altoge!r to ! dew deposit$ ^u x4 ,! value ( my own obs]vations appe>+ to me n[ mu* dim9i%$1 ?\gh !y embrac$ _m po9ts left unt\*$ by ,mr4 ,six1 ,i gave up my int5tions ( mak+ !m kn[n4 ,%ortly aft]1 h[ev]1 ^u consid]+ ! subject m closely1 ,i began to suspect t ,mr4 ,wilson1 ,mr4 ,six1 & myself _h all committ$ an error reg>d+ ! cold :i* accompanies dew z an effect ( ! =mation ( t fluid4 ,i !re=e resum$ my exp]im5ts1 & hav+ by means ( !m1 ,i ?9k1 n only e/abli%$ ! ju/ness ( my suspicions1 b asc]ta9$ ! real cause bo? ( dew & ( sev]al o!r natural appe>ances :i* h hi!rto receiv$ no suffici5t explanation1 ,i v5ture n[ to submit to ! consid]ation ( ! le>n$ an acc\nt ( "s ( my labors1 )\t reg>d to ! ord] ( "t 9 :i* !y 7 p]=m$1 & ( v>i\s conclusions :i* may be drawn f !m1 mix$ ) facts & op9ions already publi%$ by o!rs3 ,!re are v>i\s occurr5ces 9 nature :i* seem to me /rictly alli$ to dew1 ?\gh _! relation to x be n always at fir/ sight p]ceivable4 ,! /atem5t & explanation ( sev]al ( ^! w =m ! conclud+ "p ( ! pres5t essay4 #a4 ,i obs]v$ "o morn+1 9 w9t]1 t ! insides ( ! panes ( glass 9 ! w9d[s ( my b$*amb] 7 all ( !m moi/1 b t ^? :i* _h be5 cov]$ by an inside %utt] dur+ ! night 7 mu* m s ?an ! o!rs :i* _h be5 uncov]$4 ,suppos+ t ?is div]sity ( appe>ance dep5d$ ^u a diff]5ce ( temp]ature1 ,i appli$ ! nak$ bulbs ( two delicate !rmomet]s to a cov]$ & uncov]$ pane2 on :i* ,i f\nd t ! =m] 0 ?ree degrees cold] ?an ! latt]4 ,! air ( ! *amb]1 ?\gh no fire 0 kept 9 x1 0 at ?is "t elev5 & "o-half degrees w>m] ?an t )\t4 ,simil> exp]im5ts 7 made on _m o!r morn+s1 ! results ( :i* 7 t ! w>m? ( ! int]nal air exce$$ t ( ! ext]nal f eight to eighte5 degrees1 ! temp]ature ( ! cov]$ panes w\ld be f "o to five degrees less ?an ! uncov]$2 t ! cov]$ 7 sometimes dew$1 :ile ! uncov]$ 7 dry2 t at o!r times bo? 7 free f moi/ure2 t ! outsides ( ! cov]$ & uncov]$ panes _h simil> diff]5ces ) respect to heat1 ?\gh n s great z ^? ( ! inn] surfaces2 & t no v>iation 9 ! quantity ( ^! diff]5ces 0 occasion$ by ! wea!r's be+ cl\dy or fair1 provid$ ! heat ( ! int]nal air exce$$ t ( ! ext]nal equally 9 bo? ( ^? /ates ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! remote reason ( ^! diff]5ces did n imm$iately pres5t itself4 ,i soon1 h[ev]1 saw t ! clos$ %utt] %ield$ ! glass :i* x cov]$ f ! heat t 0 radiat$ to ! w9d[s by ! walls & furniture ( ! room1 & ?us kept x ne>] to ! temp]ature ( ! ext]nal air ?an ^? p>ts c\ld be :i*1 f be+ uncov]$1 receiv$ ! heat emitt$ to !m by ! bodies j m5tion$4 ,9 mak+ ^! exp]im5ts1 ,i seldom obs]v$ ! inside ( any pane to be m ?an a little damp$1 ?\gh x might be f eight to twelve degrees cold] ?an ! g5]al mass ( ! air 9 ! room2 :ile1 9 ! op5 air1 ,i _h (t5 f\nd a great dew to =m on sub/ances only ?ree or f\r degrees cold] ?an ! atmosph]e4 ,?is at fir/ surpris$ me2 b ! cause n[ seems pla94 ,! air ( ! *amb] _h once be5 a portion ( ! ext]nal atmosph]e1 & _h aft]w>ds be5 heat$1 :5 x c\ld receive little accessories to its orig9al moi/ure4 ,x con/antly requir$ be+ cool$ consid]ably be=e x 0 ev5 br\ght back to its =m] ne>ness to repletion ) wat]2 :]eas ! :ole ext]nal air is commonly1 at night1 ne>ly replete ) moi/ure1 & !re=e readily precipitates dew on bodies only a little cold] ?an itself4 ,:5 ! air ( a room is w>m] ?an ! ext]nal atmosph]e1 ! effect ( an outside %utt] on ! temp]ature ( ! glass ( ! w9d[ w be directly opposite to :at has j be5 /at$2 s9ce x mu/ prev5t ! radiation1 into ! atmosph]e1 ( ! heat ( ! *amb] transmitt$ ?r\gh ! glass4 #b4 ,c\nt ,rum=d appe>s to h rightly conjectur$ t ! inhabitants ( c]ta9 hot c\ntries1 :o sleep at nights on ! tops ( _! h\ses1 are cool$ dur+ ?is exposure by ! radiation ( _! heat to ! sky2 or1 accord+ to 8 mann] ( expression1 by receiv+ frigorific rays f ! heav5s4 ,ano!r fact ( ?is k9d seems to be ! great] *ill :i* we (t5 exp]i5ce ^u pass+ at night f ! cov] ( a h\se into ! air ?an might h be5 expect$ f ! cold ( ! ext]nal atmosph]e4 ,! cause1 inde$1 is said to be ! quickness ( transition f "o situation to ano!r4 ,b if ?is 7 ! :ole reason1 an equal *ill w\ld be felt 9 ! day1 :5 ! diff]5ce1 9 po9t ( heat1 betwe5 ! int]nal & ext]nal air 0 ! same z at night1 :i* is n ! case4 ,besides1 if ,i c tru/ my own obs]vation1 ! feel+ ( cold f ?is cause is m rem>kable 9 a cle> ?an 9 a cl\dy night1 & 9 ! c\ntry ?an 9 t[ns4 ,! foll[+ appe>s to be ! mann] 9 :i* ^! ?+s are *iefly to be expla9$3 ,dur+ ! day our bodies :ile 9 ! op5 air1 al?\gh n imm$iately expos$ to ! sun's rays1 are yet con/antly d]iv+ heat f !m by means ( ! reflection ( ! atmosph]e4 ,?is heat1 ?\gh x produces little *ange on ! temp]ature ( ! air :i* x trav]ses1 af=ds u "s comp5sation = ! heat :i* we radiate to ! heav5s4 ,at night1 also1 if ! sky be ov]ca/1 "s comp5sation w be made to u1 bo? 9 ! t[n & 9 ! c\ntry1 ?\gh 9 a less degree ?an dur+ ! day1 z ! cl\ds w remit t[>ds ! e>? no inconsid]able quantity ( heat4 ,b on a cle> night1 9 an op5 "p ( ! c\ntry1 no?+ almo/ c be return$ to u f above 9 place ( ! heat :i* we radiate upw>d4 ,9 t[ns1 h[ev]1 "s comp5sation w be af=d$ ev5 on ! cle>e/ nights = ! heat :i* we lose 9 ! op5 air by t :i* is radiat$ to u f ! sun r\nd build+s4 ,to our loss ( heat by radiation at times t we d]ive little comp5sation f ! radiation ( o!r bodies is probably to be attribut$ a great "p ( ! hurtful effects ( ! night air4 ,desc>tes says t ^! are n ow+ to dew1 z 0 ! common op9ion ( 8 contempor>ies1 b to ! desc5t ( c]ta9 noxi\s vapors :i* h be5 exhal$ f ! e>? dur+ ! heat ( ! day1 & are aft]w>ds cond5s$ by ! cold ( a s]5e night4 ,! effects 9 "q c]ta9ly _c be occasion$ by dew1 s9ce t fluid does n =m ^u a heal?y human body 9 temp]ate climates2 b !y may1 not)/&+1 arise f ! same cause t produces dew on ^? sub/ances :i* d n1 l ! human body1 possess ! p[] ( g5]at+ heat = ! supply ( :at !y lose by radiation or any o!r means47#b7 ,?is explanation made x pla9 :y dew =ms on a cle> night1 :5 !re are no cl\ds to reflect ! radiant heat4 ,comb9$ ) ,dalton's !ory t vapor is an indep5d5t gas1 limit$ 9 quantity 9 any giv5 space by ! temp]ature ( t space1 x solv$ ! problem ( ! =mation ( cl\ds1 ra91 sn[1 & ho>-fro/4 ,?us ?is pap] ( ,wells's clos$ ! epo* ( speculation reg>d+ ?is field ( meteorology1 z ,hutton's pap] ( #aghd _h op5$ x4 ,! fact t ! volume conta9+ ,hutton's pap] conta9$ also 8 epo*-mak+ pap] on geology f9ds curi\sly a duplication 9 ! fact t ,wells's volume conta9$ also 8 essay on ,alb9ism1 9 :i* ! doctr9e ( natural selection 0 = ! fir/ "t =mulat$1 z ,*>les ,d>w9 freely admitt$ aft] 8 own ef=ts _h made ! doctr9e fam\s4 ,,iso!rms ,,& ,,ocean ,,curr5ts ,! v next ye> aft] ,dr4 ,wells's pap] 0 publi%$ !re appe>$ 9 ,france ! ?ird volume ( ! ,memoires de ,physique et de ,*imie de la ,societe d',arcueil1 & a new epo* 9 meteorology 0 inaugurat$4 ,! society 9 "q 0 num]ically an inconsequ5tial b&1 li/+ only a doz5 memb]s2 b e "n 0 a fam\s "o3 ,arago1 ,b]>d1 ,b]?ollet1 ,biot1 ,*aptal1 ,de ,c&olle1 ,dulong1 ,gay-,lussac1 ,humboldt1 ,laplace1 ,poisson1 & ,!n>d--r>e spirits e "o4 ,little dang] t ! memoirs ( su* a b& w\ld be relegat$ to ! du/y %elves :]e mo/ proce$+s ( societies belong--no milk-=-babes f>e w\ld be s]v$ to su* a company4 ,! p>ticul> pap] :i* "h int]e/s u closes ?is ?ird & la/ volume ( memoirs4 ,x is entitl$ ,des ,lignes ,iso!rmes et de la ,di/ribution de la ,*aleursurle ,globe4 ,! au?or is ,alex&] ,humboldt4 ,ne$less to say1 ! topic is h&l$ 9 a ma/]ly mann]4 ,! di/ribution ( heat on ! surface ( ! globe1 on ! m\nta9-sides1 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>?2 ! causes t regulate su* di/ribution2 ! climatic results--^! are ! topics discuss$4 ,b :at gives epo*al "* to ! pap] is ! introduction ( ^? iso!rmal l9es circl+ ! e>? 9 irregul> c\rse1 jo9+ toge!r places hav+ ! same mean annual temp]ature1 & ?us lay+ ! f\ndation = a sci5ce ( comp>ative climatology4 ,x is true ! attempt to /udy climates comp>atively 0 n new4 ,mairan _h attempt$ x 9 ^? pap]s 9 :i* he develop$ 8 biz>re ideas z to c5tral emanations ( heat4 ,eul] _h br\ght 8 pr(\nd ma!matical g5ius to be> on ! topic1 evolv+ ! extraord9>y conclusion t "u ! equator at midnight ! cold ought to be m rigor\s ?an at ! poles 9 w9t]4 ,& 9 p>ticul> ,ri*>d ,kirwan1 ! ,engli% *emi/1 _h comb9$ ! ma!matical & ! empirical me?ods & calculat$ temp]atures = all latitudes4 ,b ,humboldt diff]s f all ^! pr$ecessors 9 t he grasps ! idea t ! basis ( all su* computations %\ld be n !ory1 b fact4 ,he drew 8 iso!rmal l9es n :]e "s occult calculation w\ld locate !m on an ideal globe1 b :]e practical te/s ) ! !rmomet] locate !m on our globe z x is4 ,london1 = example1 lies 9 ! same latitude z ! s\!rn extremity ( ,hudson ,bay2 b ! iso!rm ( ,london1 z ,humboldt outl9es x1 passes ?r\gh ,c9c9nati4 ,( c\rse su* deviations ( climatic conditions betwe5 places 9 ! same latitude _h long be5 kn[n4 ,z ,humboldt himself obs]ves1 ! e>lie/ settl]s ( ,am]ica 7 a/oni%$ to f9d !mselves subject$ to rigors ( climate = :i* _! ,european exp]i5ce _h n at all prep>$ !m4 ,moreov]1 sagaci\s travell]s1 9 p>ticul> ,cook's companion on 8 second voyage1 "y ,george ,=/]1 _h not$ z a g5]al pr9ciple t ! we/]n bord]s ( cont95ts 9 temp]ate regions are always w>m] ?an correspond+ latitudes ( _! ea/]n bord]s2 & ( c\rse ! g5]al tru? ( temp]atures be+ mild] 9 ! vic9ity ( ! sea ?an 9 ! int]ior ( cont95ts _h long be5 famili>4 ,b ,humboldt's iso!rmal l9es = ! fir/ "t gave tangibility to ^! ideas1 & made practicable a truly sci5tific /udy ( comp>ative climatology4 ,9 /udy+ ^! l9es1 p>ticul>ly z elaborat$ by fur!r obs]vations1 x became cle> t !y are by no means haphaz>d 9 arrangem5t1 b are dep5d5t ^u geographical conditions :i* 9 mo/ cases are n difficult to det]m9e4 ,humboldt himself po9t$ out v cle>ly ! ma9 causes t t5d to produce deviations f ! av]age--or1 z ,dove lat] on call$ x1 ! normal--temp]ature ( any giv5 latitude4 ,= example1 ! mean annual temp]ature ( a region 7ref]r+ ma9ly to ! nor!rn hemisph]e7 is rais$ by ! proximity ( a we/]n coa/2 by a divid$ configuration ( ! cont95t into p59sulas2 by ! exi/5ce ( op5 seas to ! nor? or ( radiat+ cont95tal surfaces to ! s\?2 by m\nta9 ranges to %ield f cold w9ds2 by ! infrequ5cy ( swamps to become congeal$2 by ! abs5ce ( woods 9 a dry1 s&y soil2 & by ! s]5ity ( sky 9 ! summ] mon?s & ! vic9ity ( an ocean curr5t br++ wat] :i* is ( a high] temp]ature ?an t ( ! surr\nd+ sea4 ,conditions opposite to ^! t5d1 ( c\rse1 correspond+ly to l[] ! temp]ature4 ,9 a ^w1 ,humboldt says ! climatic di/ribution ( heat dep5ds on ! relative di/ribution ( l& & sea1 & on ! hypsometrical configuration ( ! cont95ts2 & he urges t great meteorological ph5om5a _c be compreh5d$ :5 consid]$ indep5d5tly ( geogno/ic relations--a tru? :i*1 l mo/ o!r g5]al pr9ciples1 seems simple en\gh once x is po9t$ out4 ,) t broad sweep ( imag9ation :i* *>act]iz$ him1 ,humboldt speaks ( ! atmosph]e z ! a]ial ocean1 9 ! l[] /rata & on ! %oals ( :i* we live1 & he /udies ! atmosph]ic ph5om5a always 9 relation to ^? ( t o!r ocean ( wat]4 ,9 ea* ( ^! oceans !re are va/ p]man5t curr5ts1 fl[+ always 9 det]m9ate directions1 :i* enorm\sly modify ! climatic conditions ( e zone4 ,! ocean ( air is a va/ mael/rom1 boil+ up always "u ! influ5ce ( ! sun's heat at ! equator1 & fl[+ z an upp] curr5t t[>ds ei!r pole1 :ile an und]curr5t f ! poles1 :i* becomes ! trade-w9ds1 fl[s t[>ds ! equator to supply its place4 ,b ! sup]heat$ equatorial air1 becom+ *ill$1 desc5ds to ! surface 9 temp]ate latitudes1 & cont9ues its polew>d j\rney z ! anti-trade-w9ds4 ,! trade-w9ds are deflect$ t[>ds ! we/1 because 9 approa*+ ! equator !y con/antly pass ov] surfaces ( ! e>? hav+ a great] & great] velocity ( rotation1 & s1 z x 71 t5d to lag beh9d--an explanation :i* ,hadley po9t$ out 9 #agce1 b :i* 0 n accept$ until ,dalton indep5d5tly work$ x out & promulgat$ x 9 #agic4 ,= ! opposite reason1 ! anti-trades are deflect$ t[>ds ! ea/2 h5ce x is t ! we/]n1 bord]s ( cont95ts 9 temp]ate zones are ba!d 9 moi/ sea-breezes1 :ile _! ea/]n bord]s lack ?is cold-dispell+ influ5ce4 ,9 ! ocean ( wat] ! ma9 curr5ts run z m %>ply circumscrib$ /reams--v]itable riv]s 9 ! sea4 ,( ^! ! be/ kn[n & mo/ %>ply circumscrib$ is ! famili> ,gulf ,/ream1 :i* has its orig9 9 an equatorial curr5t1 impell$ we/w>d by trade-w9ds1 :i* is deflect$ nor?w>d 9 ! ma9 at ,cape ,/4 ,roque1 ent]+ ! ,c>ibbean ,sea & ,gulf ( ,mexico1 to em]ge f9ally ?r\gh ! ,/rait ( ,florida1 & j\rney (f across ! ,atlantic to w>m ! %ores ( ,europe4 ,su*1 at lea/1 is ! ,gulf ,/ream z ,humboldt und]/ood x4 ,s9ce 8 "t1 h[ev]1 ocean curr5ts 9 g5]al1 & ?is "o 9 p>ticul>1 h be5 ! subject ( no end ( controv]sy1 x be+ hotly disput$ :e!r ei!r causes or effects ( ! ,gulf ,/ream are j :at ,humboldt1 9 common ) o!rs ( 8 "t1 conceiv$ !m to be4 ,ab\t ! middle ( ! c5tury ,lieut5ant ,m4 ,f4 ,maury1 ! di/+ui%$ ,am]ican hydrograph] & meteorologi/1 advocat$ a !ory ( gravitation z ! *ief cause ( ! curr5ts1 claim+ t diff]5ce 9 d5sity1 due to diff]5ce 9 temp]ature & saltness1 w\ld suffici5tly acc\nt = ! oceanic circulation4 ,?is !ory ga9$ great popul>ity ?r\gh ! wide circulation ( ,maury's ,physical ,geography ( ! ,sea1 :i* is said to h pass$ ?r\gh m editions ?an any o!r sci5tific book ( ! p]iod2 b x 0 ably & vigor\sly combat$ by ,dr4 ,james ,croll1 ! ,scotti% geologi/1 9 8 ,climate & ,"t1 & latt]ly ! old !ory t ocean curr5ts are due to ! trade-w9ds has aga9 come into favor4 ,inde$1 v rec5tly a model has be5 con/ruct$1 ) ! aid ( :i* x is said to h be5 demon/rat$ t prevail+ w9ds 9 ! direction ( ! actual trade-w9ds w\ld produce su* a curr5t z ! ,gulf ,/ream4 ,meantime1 h[ev]1 x is by no means sure t gravitation does n ent] into ! case to ! ext5t ( produc+ an ins5sible g5]al oceanic circulation1 indep5d5t ( ! ,gulf ,/ream & simil> m>k$ curr5ts1 & simil> 9 its l>g] outl9es to ! pol>-equatorial circulation ( ! air4 ,! idea ( su* oceanic circulation 0 fir/ sugge/$ 9 detail by ,pr(essor ,l5z1 ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 9 #ahde1 b x 0 n g5]ally recogniz$ until ,dr4 ,c>p5t] indep5d5tly hit ^u ! idea m ?an tw5ty ye>s lat]4 ,! plausibility ( ! conception is obvi\s2 yet ! alleg$ fact ( su* circulation has be5 hotly disput$1 & ! "q is /ill sub judice4 ,b :e!r or n su* g5]al circulation ( ocean wat] takes place1 x is beyond dispute t ! recogniz$ curr5ts c>ry an enorm\s quantity ( heat f ! tropics t[>ds ! poles4 ,dr4 ,croll1 :o has p]haps giv5 m att5tion to ! physics ( ! subject ?an almo/ any o!r p]son1 computes t ! ,gulf ,/ream conveys to ! ,nor? ,atlantic "o-f\r? z mu* heat z t body receives directly f ! sun1 & he argues t 7 x n = ! transportation ( heat by ?is & simil> ,pacific curr5ts1 only a n>r[ tropical region ( ! globe w\ld be w>m en\gh = habitation by ! exi/+ faunas4 ,dr4 ,croll argues t a slight *ange 9 ! relative values ( nor!rn & s\!rn trade-w9ds 7su* z he believes has tak5 place at v>i\s p]iods 9 ! pa/7 w\ld suffice to s alt] ! equatorial curr5t :i* n[ fe$s ! ,gulf ,/ream t its ma9 bulk w\ld be deflect$ s\?w>d in/ead ( nor?w>d1 by ! angle ( ,cape ,/4 ,roque4 ,?us ! ,gulf ,/ream w\ld be nipp$ 9 ! bud1 &1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,croll's e/imates1 ! results w\ld be disa/r\s = ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,! anti-trades1 :i* n[ are w>m$ by ! ,gulf ,/ream1 w\ld !n bl[ z cold w9ds across ! %ores ( we/]n ,europe1 & 9 all probability a glacial epo* w\ld sup]v5e ?r\gh\t ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,! same consequ5ces1 s f> z ,europe is conc]n$ at lea/1 w\ld app>5tly ensue 7 ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama to settle into ! sea1 all[+ ! ,c>ibbean curr5t to pass into ! ,pacific4 ,b ! geologi/ tells u t ?is i/hmus rose at a comp>atively rec5t geological p]iod1 ?\gh x is h9t$ t !re _h be5 "s "t previ\sly a tempor>y l& connection betwe5 ! two cont95ts4 ,are we to inf]1 !n1 t ! two ,am]icas 9 _! unions & disunions h juggl$ ) ! climate ( ! o!r hemisph]e8 ,app>5tly s1 if ! e/imates made ( ! influ5ce ( ! ,gulf ,/ream be t5able4 ,x is a f> cry f ,panama to ,russia4 ,yet x seems )9 ! possibilities t ! meteorologi/ may le>n f ! geologi/ ( ,c5tral ,am]ica some?+ t w enable him to expla9 to ! paleontologi/ ( ,europe h[ x *anc$ t at "o "t ! mammo? & rh9oc]os roam$ across nor!rn ,sib]ia1 :ile at ano!r "t ! re9de] & musk-ox br[s$ along ! %ores ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,possibilities1 ,i said1 n probabilities4 ,yet ev5 ! fa9t glimm] ( s allur+ a possibility br+s home to "o ) vividness ! tru? ( ,humboldt's p]spicu\s obs]vation t meteorology c be prop]ly compreh5d$ only :5 /udi$ 9 connection ) ! companion sci5ces4 ,!re are no isolat$ ph5om5a 9 nature4 ,,cyclones ,,& ,,anti-,,cyclones ,yet1 aft] all1 x is n to be d5i$ t ! *ief conc]n ( ! meteorologi/ mu/ be ) t o!r m$ium1 ! ocean ( air1 on ! %oals ( :i* we live4 ,= :atev] may be accompli%$ by wat] curr5ts 9 ! way ( convey+ heat1 x is ! w9d curr5ts t effect ! f9al di/ribution ( t heat4 ,z ,dr4 ,croll has urg$1 ! wat]s ( ! ,gulf ,/ream d n w>m ! %ores ( ,europe by direct contact1 b by w>m+ ! anti-trade-w9ds1 :i* subsequ5tly bl[ across ! cont95t4 ,& ev]y:]e ! heat accumulat$ by wat] becomes effectual 9 modify+ climate1 n s mu* by direct radiation z by diffusion ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! air4 ,?is v obvi\s importance ( a]ial curr5ts l$ to _! practical /udy long be=e meteorology _h any title to ! rank ( sci5ce1 & ,dalton's explanation ( ! trade-w9ds _h laid ! f\ndation = a sci5ce ( w9d dynamics be=e ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,b no sub/antial fur!r advance 9 ?is direction 0 effect$ until ab\t #ahbg1 :5 ,he9ri* ,w4 ,dove1 ( ,konigsb]g1 aft]w>ds to be kn[n z p]haps ! =emo/ meteorologi/ ( 8 g5]ation1 includ$ ! w9ds among ! subjects ( 8 elaborate /ati/ical /udies 9 climatology4 ,dove classifi$ ! w9ds z p]man5t1 p]iodical1 & v>iable4 ,8 great discov]y 0 t all w9ds1 ( :atev] "*1 & n m]ely ! p]man5t w9ds1 come "u ! influ5ce ( ! e>?'s rotation 9 su* a way z to be deflect$ f _! c\rse1 & h5ce to take on a gyratory motion--t1 9 %ort1 all local w9ds are m9or eddies 9 ! great pol>-equatorial :irl1 & t5d to reproduce 9 m9iature ! "* ( t va/ mael/rom4 ,= ! fir/ "t1 !n1 tempor>y or v>iable w9ds 7 se5 to lie )9 ! prov9ce ( law4 ,a g5]ation lat]1 ,pr(essor ,william ,f]rel1 ! ,am]ican meteorologi/1 :o _h be5 l$ to take up ! subject by a p]usal ( ,maury's disc\rse on ocean w9ds1 =mulat$ a g5]al ma!matical law1 to ! effect t any body mov+ 9 a "r l9e along ! surface ( ! e>? 9 any direction t5ds to h its c\rse deflect$1 ow+ to ! e>?'s rotation1 to ! "r h& 9 ! nor!rn & to ! left h& 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,?is law _h inde$ be5 /at$ z e>ly z #ahce by ! ,fr5* physici/ ,poisson1 b no "o !n ?\ght ( x z o!r ?an a ma!matical curiosity2 its true significance 0 only und]/ood aft] ,pr(essor ,f]rel _h indep5d5tly r$iscov]$ x 7j z ,dalton r$iscov]$ ,hadley's =gott5 law ( ! trade-w9ds7 & appli$ x to ! motion ( w9d curr5ts4 ,!n x became cle> t "h is a key to ! ph5om5a ( atmosph]ic circulation1 f ! great pol>-equatorial mael/rom :i* manife/s itself 9 ! trade-w9ds to ! mo/ circumscrib$ riffle :i* is ann\nc$ z a local /orm4 ,& ! m ! ph5om5a 7 /udi$1 ! m /rik+ seem$ ! p>allel betwe5 ! great] mael/rom & ^! less] eddies4 ,j z ! entire atmosph]ic mass ( ea* hemisph]e is se51 :5 view$ z a :ole1 to be c>ri$ 9 a great :irl ab\t ! pole ( t hemisph]e1 s ! local di/urbances )9 ?is great tide are f\nd always to take ! =m ( :irls ab\t a local /orm-c5tre--:i* /orm-c5tre1 meantime1 is c>ri$ along 9 ! major curr5t1 z "o (t5 sees a little :irlpool 9 ! wat] swept along ) ! ma9 curr5t ( ! /ream4 ,sometimes1 inde$1 ! local eddy1 caught z x 7 9 an ancill>y curr5t ( ! great pol> /ream1 is deflect$ f its normal c\rse & may seem to travel aga9/ ! /ream2 b su* deviations are dep>tures f ! rule4 ,9 ! great majority ( cases1 = example1 9 ! nor? temp]ate zone1 a /orm-c5tre 7) its att5dant local :irl7 travels to ! nor!a/1 along ! ma9 curr5t ( ! anti-trade-w9d1 ( :i* x is a "p2 & ?\gh exceptionally its c\rse may be to ! s\!a/ in/ead1 x almo/ nev] dep>ts s widely f ! ma9 *annel z to progress to ! we/w>d4 ,?us x is t /orms sweep+ ov] ! ,unit$ ,/ates c be ann\nc$1 z a rule1 at ! seabo>d 9 advance ( _! com+ by telegraphic communication f ! int]ior1 :ile simil> /orms come to ,europe (f ! ocean unann\nc$4 ,h5ce ! m practical availability ( ! =eca/s ( wea!r bureaus 9 ! =m] c\ntry4 ,b ^! local :irls1 x mu/ be und]/ood1 are local only 9 a v g5]al s5se ( ! ^w1 inasmu* z a s+le "o may be m ?an a ?\s& miles 9 diamet]1 & a small "o is two or ?ree hundr$ miles across4 ,b q )\t reg>d to ! size ( ! :irl1 ! air compos+ x conducts itself always 9 "o ( two ways4 ,x nev] :irls 9 conc5tric circles2 x always ei!r ru%es 9 t[>ds ! c5tre 9 a desc5d+ spiral1 9 :i* case x is call$ a cyclone1 or x spreads out f ! c5tre 9 a wid5+ spiral1 9 :i* case x is call$ an anti-cyclone4 ,! ^w cyclone is associat$ 9 popul> phraseology ) a t]rific /orm1 b x has no su* re/riction 9 te*nical usage4 ,a g5tle zephyr fl[+ t[>ds a /orm-c5tre is j z mu* a cyclone to ! meteorologi/ z is ! :irl con/itut+ a ,we/-,indian hurricane4 ,inde$1 x is n prop]ly ! w9d itself t is call$ ! cyclone 9 ei!r case1 b ! entire sy/em ( :irls--includ+ ! /orm-c5tre itself1 :]e !re may be no w9d at all4 ,:at1 !n1 is ?is /orm-c5tre8 ,m]ely an area ( l[ b>ometric pressure--an area :]e ! air has become light] ?an ! air ( surr\nd+ regions4 ,"u influ5ce ( gravitation ! air seeks its level j z wat] does2 s ! heavy air comes fl[+ 9 f all sides t[>ds ! l[-pressure area1 :i* ?us becomes a /orm-c5tre4 ,b ! inru%+ curr5ts nev] come /raight to _! m>k4 ,9 accordance ) ,f]rel's law1 !y are deflect$ to ! "r1 & ! result1 z w readily be se51 mu/ be a vortex curr5t1 :i* :irls always 9 "o direction--namely1 f left to "r1 or 9 ! direction opposite to t ( ! h&s ( a wat* held ) its face upw>d4 ,! velocity ( ! cyclonic curr5ts w dep5d l>gely ^u ! diff]5ce 9 b>ometric pressure betwe5 ! /orm-c5tre & ! conf9es ( ! cyclone sy/em4 ,& ! velocity ( ! curr5ts w det]m9e to "s ext5t ! degree ( deflection1 & h5ce ! exact pa? ( ! desc5d+ spiral 9 :i* ! w9d approa*es ! c5tre4 ,b 9 e case & 9 e "p ( ! cyclone sy/em x is true1 z ,buys ,ballot's fam\s rule fir/ po9t$ out1 t a p]son /&+ ) 8 back to ! w9d has ! /orm-c5tre at 8 left4 ,! prim>y cause ( ! l[ b>ometric pressure :i* m>ks ! /orm-c5tre & e/abli%es ! cyclone is expansion ( ! air ?r\gh excess ( temp]ature4 ,! heat$ air1 ris+ into cold upp] regions1 has a portion ( its vapor cond5s$ into cl\ds1 & n[ a new dynamic factor is add$1 = ea* p>ticle ( vapor1 9 cond5s+1 gives up its modicum ( lat5t heat4 ,ea* p\nd ( vapor ?us lib]ates1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,tyndall's e/imate1 en\gh heat to melt five p\nds ( ca/ iron2 s ! am\nt giv5 out :]e l>ge masses ( cl\d are =m+ mu/ enorm\sly add to ! convection curr5ts ( ! air1 & h5ce to ! /orm-develop+ p[] ( ! =m+ cyclone4 ,inde$1 "o s*ool ( meteorologi/s1 ( :om ,pr(essor ,espy 0 ! lead]1 has held t1 )\t su* add$ increm5t ( en]gy con/antly augm5t+ ! dynamic effects1 no /orm c\ld long cont9ue 9 viol5t action4 ,& x is d\bt$ :e!r any /orm c\ld ev] atta91 mu* less cont9ue1 ! t]rific =ce ( t mo/ dread$ ( w9ds ( temp]ate zones1 ! tornado--a /orm :i* obeys all ! laws ( cyclones1 b diff]s f ord9>y cyclones 9 hav+ a vortex core only a few feet or y>ds 9 diamet]--)\t ! aid ( ^? great masses ( cond5s+ vapor :i* always accompany x 9 ! =m ( /orm-cl\ds4 ,! anti-cyclone simply rev]ses ! conditions ( ! cyclone4 ,its c5tre is an area ( high pressure1 & ! air ru%es out f x 9 all directions t[>ds surr\nd+ regions ( l[ pressure4 ,z be=e1 all p>ts ( ! curr5t w be deflect$ t[>ds ! "r1 & ! result1 cle>ly1 is a :irl opposite 9 direction to t ( ! cyclone4 ,b "h !re is a t5d5cy to dissipation r ?an to conc5tration ( en]gy1 h5ce1 consid]$ z a /orm-g5]ator1 ! anti-cyclone is ( relative insignificance4 ,9 p>ticul> ! pr(essional meteorologi/ :o conducts a wea!r bureau--z1 = example1 ! *ief ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates signal-s]vice /ation 9 ,new ,york--is s preoccupi$ ) ! obs]vation ( ?is ph5om5on t cyclone-hunt+ might be said to be 8 *ief pursuit4 ,x is = ?is purpose1 9 ! ma91 t gov]nm5t wea!r bureaus or signal-s]vice dep>tm5ts h be5 e/abli%$ all ov] ! _w4 ,_! *ief "w is to foll[ up cyclones1 ) ! aid ( telegraphic reports1 mapp+ _! c\rse & record+ ! att5dant meteorological conditions4 ,_! s-call$ pr$ictions or =eca/s are ess5tially pr$ications1 ga9+ locally ! effect ( pr$ictions because ! telegraph out/rips ! w9d4 ,at only "o place on ! globe has x be5 possible z yet = ! meteorologi/ to make long-"t =eca/s m]it+ ! title ( pr$ictions4 ,?is is 9 ! middle ,ganges ,valley ( nor!rn ,india4 ,9 ?is c\ntry ! climatic conditions are l>gely dep5d5t ^u ! p]iodical w9ds call$ monsoons1 :i* bl[ /eadily l&w>d f ,april to ,octob]1 & seaw>d f ,octob] to ,april4 ,! summ] monsoons br+ ! all-ess5tial ra9s2 if !y are delay$ or re/rict$ 9 ext5t1 !re w be dr\ght & consequ5t fam9e4 ,& su* re/riction ( ! monsoon is likely to result :5 !re has be5 an unusually deep or v late sn[fall on ! ,himalayas1 because ( ! l[]+ ( spr+ temp]ature by ! melt+ sn[4 ,?us "h x is possible1 by obs]v+ ! sn[fall 9 ! m\nta9s1 to pr$ict ) "s measure ( success ! av]age ra9fall ( ! foll[+ summ]4 ,! dr\ght ( #ahif1 ) ! consequ5t fam9e & plague t deva/at$ ,india ! foll[+ w9t]1 0 ?us pr$ict$ "s mon?s 9 advance4 ,?is is ! greate/ pres5t triumph ( practical meteorology4 ,no?+ l x is yet possible any:]e 9 temp]ate zones4 ,b no "o c say :at may n be possible 9 times to come1 :5 ! data n[ be+ ga!r$ all ov] ! _w %all at la/ be co-ord9at$1 classifi$1 & made ! basis ( broad inductions4 ,meteorology is pre-em95tly a sci5ce ( ! future4 ,,vi4 ,,mod]n ,,!ories ,,( ,,heat ,,& ,,light ,,! eighte5?-c5tury philosoph] made great /rides 9 8 /udies ( ! physical prop]ties ( matt] & ! application ( ^! prop]ties 9 me*anics1 z ! /eam-eng9e1 ! balloon1 ! optic telegraph1 ! sp9n+-j5ny1 ! cotton-g91 ! *ronomet]1 ! p]fect$ compass1 ! ,leyd5 j>1 ! lightn+-rod1 & a ho/ ( m9or inv5tions te/ify4 ,9 a speculative way he _h ?\ght out m or less t5able conceptions z to ! ultimate nature ( matt]1 z witness ! !ories ( ,leibnitz & ,boscovi* & ,davy1 to :i* we may recur4 ,b he _h n z yet conceiv$ ! notion ( a di/9ction betwe5 matt] & en]gy1 :i* is s fundam5tal to ! physics ( a lat] epo*4 ,he did n speak ( heat1 light1 electricity1 z =ms ( en]gy or =ce2 he conceiv$ !m z subtile =ms ( matt]--z highly att5uat$ yet tangible fluids1 subject to gravitation & *emical attraction2 ?\gh he _h le>n$ to measure none ( !m b heat ) accuracy1 & ?is "o he c\ld te/ only )9 n>r[ limits until late 9 ! c5tury1 :5 ,josiah ,w$gwood1 ! fam\s pott]1 taught him to gauge ! highe/ temp]atures ) ! clay pyromet]4 ,he spoke ( ! matt] ( heat z be+ ! mo/ univ]sally di/ribut$ fluid 9 nature2 z ent]+ 9 "s degree into ! composition ( ne>ly all o!r sub/ances2 z be+ sometimes liquid1 sometimes cond5s$ or solid1 & z hav+ weight t c\ld be detect$ ) ! balance4 ,foll[+ ,newton1 he spoke ( light z a corpuscul> emanation or fluid1 compos$ ( %9+ p>ticles :i* possibly are transmutable into p>ticles ( heat1 & :i* ent] into *emical comb9ation ) ! p>ticles ( o!r =ms ( matt]4 ,electricity he consid]$ a /ill m subtile k9d ( matt]-p]haps an att5uat$ =m ( light4 ,magnetism1 vital fluid1 & by "s ev5 a gravic fluid1 & a fluid ( s\nd 7 plac$ 9 ! same scale2 &1 tak5 toge!r1 all ^! suppos$ subtile =ms ( matt] 7 class$ z impond]ables4 ,?is view ( ! nature ( ! impond]ables 0 9 "s measure a retrogression1 = _m sev5te5?-c5tury philosoph]s1 notably ,hooke & ,huyg5s & ,boyle1 _h held m correct views2 b ! mat]iali/ic conception accord$ s well ) ! eighte5?-c5tury t5d5cies ( ?\ght t only "h & !re a philosoph] l ,eul] call$ x 9 "q1 until well on t[>ds ! close ( ! c5tury4 ,curr5t spee* ref]r$ to ! mat]iality ( ! impond]ables unque/ion+ly4 ,/ud5ts ( meteorology--a sci5ce t 0 j dawn+--expla9$ atmosph]ic ph5om5a on ! supposition t heat1 ! heavie/ impond]able1 pr$om9at$ 9 ! l[] atmosph]e1 & t light1 electricity1 & magnetism prevail$ 9 successively high] /rata4 ,& ,lavoisi]1 ! mo/ philosophical *emi/ ( ! c5tury1 reta9$ heat & light on a p> ) oxyg51 hydrog51 iron1 & ! re/1 9 8 li/ ( elem5t>y sub/ances4 ,,c\nt ,,rum=d ,,& ,,! ,,vibratory ,,!ory ,,( ,,heat ,b j at ! close ( ! c5tury ! confid5ce 9 ! /atus ( ! impond]ables 0 rudely %ak5 9 ! m9ds ( philosoph]s by ! revival ( ! old idea ( ,fra ,paolo & ,bacon & ,boyle1 t heat1 at any rate1 is n a mat]ial fluid1 b m]ely a mode ( motion or vibration among ! p>ticles ( pond]able matt]4 ,! new *ampion ( ! old doctr9e z to ! nature ( heat 0 a v di/+ui%$ philosoph] & diplomati/ ( ! "t1 :o1 x may be wor? recall+1 0 an ,am]ican4 ,he 0 a sadly expatriat$ ,am]ican1 x is true1 z 8 "n1 giv5 all ! (ficial app5dages1 w amply te/ify2 b he _h be5 born & re>$ 9 a ,massa*usetts village none ! less1 & he seems always to h reta9$ a k9dly int]e/ 9 ! l& ( 8 nativity1 ev5 ?\gh he liv$ abroad 9 ! s]vice ( o!r p[]s dur+ all ! lat] ye>s ( 8 life1 & 0 knight$ by ,engl&1 ennobl$ by ,bav>ia1 & honor$ by ! mo/ di/+ui%$ sci5tific bodies ( ,europe4 ,! ,am]ican1 !n1 :o *ampion$ ! vibratory !ory ( heat1 9 opposition to all curr5t op9ion1 9 ?is clos+ era ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 0 ,lieut5ant-,g5]al ,sir ,b5jam9 ,?ompson1 ,c\nt ,rum=d1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,rum=d %[$ t heat may be produc$ 9 indef9ite quantities by friction ( bodies t d n !mselves lose any appreciable matt] 9 ! process1 & claim$ t ?is proves ! immat]iality ( heat4 ,lat] on he add$ =ce to ! argum5t by prov+1 9 refutation ( ! exp]im5ts ( ,b[dit*1 t no body ei!r ga9s or loses weight 9 virtue ( be+ heat$ or cool$4 ,he ?\ght he _h prov$ t heat is only a =m ( motion4 ,8 exp]im5t = produc+ indef9ite quantities ( heat by friction is record$ by him 9 8 pap] entitl$1 ,inquiry ,conc]n+ ! ,s\rce ( ,heat ,excit$ by ,friction4 ,be+ engag$1 lately1 9 sup]9t5d+ ! bor+ ( cannon 9 ! work%ops ( ! milit>y ars5al at ,muni*1 he says1 ,i 0 /ruck ) ! v consid]able degree ( heat :i* a brass gun acquires 9 a %ort "t 9 be+ bor$2 & ) ! /ill m int5se heat 7mu* great] ?an t ( boil+ wat]1 z ,i f\nd by exp]im5t7 ( ! metallic *ips sep>at$ f x by ! bor]4 ,tak+ a cannon 7a brass six-p\nd]71 ca/ solid1 & r\gh1 z x came f ! f\ndry1 & fix+ x horizontally 9 a ma*9e us$ = bor+1 & at ! same "t f9i%+ ! outside ( ! cannon by turn+1 ,i caus$ its extremity to be cut (f2 & by turn+ d[n ! metal 9 t "p1 a solid cyl9d] 0 =m$1 #g #c_/d in*es 9 diamet] & #i #h_/aj in*es long2 :i*1 :5 f9i%$1 rema9$ jo9$ to ! re/ ( ! metal 7t :i*1 prop]ly speak+1 con/itut$ ! cannon7 by a small cyl9drical neck1 only #b #a_/e in*es 9 diamet] & #c #h_/aj in*es long4 ,?is %ort cyl9d]1 :i* 0 support$ 9 its horizontal position1 & turn$ r\nd its axis by means ( ! neck by :i* x rema9$ unit$ to ! cannon1 0 n[ bor$ ) ! horizontal bor] us$ 9 bor+ cannon4 ,?is cyl9d] be+ design$ = ! express purpose ( g5]at+ heat by friction1 by hav+ a blunt bor] =c$ aga9/ its solid bottom at ! same "t t x %\ld be turn$ r\nd its axis by ! =ce ( horses1 9 ord] t ! heat accumulat$ 9 ! cyl9d] might f "t to "t be measur$1 a small1 r\nd hole #j4cg ( an in* only 9 diamet] & #d4b in*es 9 dep?1 = ! purpose ( introduc+ a small cyl9drical m]curial !rmomet]1 0 made 9 x1 on "o side1 9 a direction p]p5dicul> to ! axis ( ! cyl9d]1 & end+ 9 ! middle ( ! solid "p ( ! metal :i* =m$ ! bottom ( ! bore4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! exp]im5t1 ! temp]ature ( ! air 9 ! %ade1 z also 9 ! cyl9d]1 0 j sixty degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,at ! end ( ?irty m9utes1 :5 ! cyl9d] _h made #ifj revolutions ab\t its axis1 ! horses be+ /opp$1 a cyl9drical m]cury !rmomet]1 ^: bulb 0 #cb_/ajj ( an in* 9 diamet] & #c #a_/d in*es 9 l5g?1 0 introduc$ into ! hole made to receive x 9 ! side ( ! cyl9d]1 :5 ! m]cury rose almo/ in/antly to "o hundr$ & ?irty degrees4 ,9 ord]1 by "o decisive exp]im5t1 to det]m9e :e!r ! air ( ! atmosph]e _h any "p or n 9 ! g5]ation ( ! heat1 ,i contriv$ to repeat ! exp]im5t "u circum/ances 9 :i* x 0 evid5tly impossible = x to produce any effect :atev]4 ,by means ( a pi/on exactly fitt$ to ! m\? ( ! bore ( ! cyl9d]1 ?r\gh ! middle ( :i* pi/on ! squ>e iron b>1 to ! end ( :i* ! blunt /eel bor] 0 fix$1 pass$ 9 a squ>e hole made p]fectly air-tight1 ! excess ( ! ext]nal air1 to ! inside ( ! bore ( ! cyl9d]1 0 effectually prev5t$4 ,i did n f9d1 h[ev]1 by ?is exp]im5t t ! exclusion ( ! air dim9i%$ 9 ! smalle/ degree ! quantity ( heat excit$ by ! friction4 ,!re /ill rema9$ "o d\bt1 :i*1 ?\gh x appe>$ to me to be s slight z h>dly to des]ve any att5tion1 ,i 01 h[ev]1 desir\s to remove4 ,! pi/on :i* *ok$ ! m\? ( ! bore ( ! cyl9d]1 9 ord] t x might be air-tight1 0 fitt$ into x ) s mu* nicety1 by means ( its coll>s ( lea!r1 & press$ aga9/ x ) s mu* =ce1 t1 not)/&+ its be+ oil$1 x occasion$ a consid]able degree ( friction :5 ! holl[ cyl9d] 0 turn$ r\nd its axis4 ,0 n ! heat produc$1 or at lea/ "s "p ( x1 occasion$ by ?is friction ( ! pi/on8 &1 z ! ext]nal air _h free access to ! extremity ( ! bore1 :]e x came into contact ) ! pi/on1 is x n possible t ?is air may h _h "s %>e 9 ! g5]ation ( ! heat produc$8 ,a quadrangul> oblong deal box1 wat]-tight1 be+ provid$ ) holes or slits 9 ! middle ( ea* ( its ends1 j l>ge en\gh to receive1 ! "o ! squ>e iron rod to ! end ( :i* ! blunt /eel bor] 0 fa/5$1 ! o!r ! small cyl9drical neck :i* jo9$ ! holl[ cyl9d] to ! cannon2 :5 ?is box 7:i* 0 occasionally clos$ above by a wood5 cov] or lid mov+ on h+es7 0 put into its place--t is to say1 :51 by means ( ! two v]tical op5+ or slits 9 its two ends1 ! box 0 fix$ to ! ma*9]y 9 su* a mann] t its bottom be+ 9 ! plane ( ! horizon1 its axis co9cid$ ) ! axis ( ! holl[ metallic cyl9d]1 x is evid5t1 f ! description1 t ! holl[1 metallic cyl9d] w\ld occupy ! middle ( ! box1 )\t t\*+ x on ei!r side2 & t1 on p\r+ wat] into ! box & fill+ x to ! brim1 ! cyl9d] w\ld be completely cov]$ & surr\nd$ on e side by t fluid4 ,&1 fur!r1 z ! box 0 held fa/ by ! /rong1 squ>e iron rod :i* pass$ 9 a squ>e hole 9 ! c5tre ( "o ( its ends1 :ile ! r\nd or cyl9drical neck :i* jo9$ ! holl[ cyl9d] to ! end ( ! cannon c\ld turn r\nd freely on its axis 9 ! r\nd hole 9 ! c5tre ( ! o!r end ( x1 x is evid5t t ! ma*9]y c\ld be put 9 motion )\t ! lea/ dang] ( =c+ ! box out ( its place1 ?r[+ ! wat] out ( x1 or d]ang+ any "p ( ! app>atus4 ,ev]y?+ be+ ?us ready1 ! box 0 fill$ ) cold wat]1 hav+ be5 made wat]-tight by means ( lea!r coll>s1 & ! ma*9]y put 9 motion4 ,! result ( ?is beautiful exp]im5t1 says ,rum=d1 0 v /rik+1 & ! pleasure x af=d$ me amply repaid me = all ! tr\ble ,i _h _h 9 contriv+ & arrang+ ! complicat$ ma*9]y us$ 9 mak+ x4 ,! cyl9d]1 revolv+ at ! rate ( ?irty-two times 9 a m9ute1 _h be5 9 motion b a %ort "t :5 ,i p]ceiv$1 by putt+ my h& into ! wat] & t\*+ ! outside ( ! cyl9d]1 t heat 0 g5]at$1 & x 0 n long be=e ! wat] :i* surr\nd$ ! cyl9d] began to be s5sibly w>m4 ,at ! end ( "o h\r ,i f\nd1 by plung+ a !rmomet] into ! box1444 t its temp]ature _h be5 rais$ no less ?an =ty-sev5 degrees ,fahr5heit1 be+ n[ "o hundr$ & sev5 degrees ,fahr5heit4 444 ,"o h\r & ?irty m9utes aft] ! ma*9]y _h be5 put 9 motion ! heat ( ! wat] 9 ! box 0 "o hundr$ & =ty-two degrees4 ,at ! end ( two h\rs444 x 0 rais$ to "o hundr$ & sev5ty-eight degrees2 & at two h\rs & ?irty m9utes x ,,actually ,,boil$6 ,x w\ld be difficult to describe ! surprise & a/oni%m5t express$ 9 ! c\nt5ances ( ! by/&]s on see+ s l>ge a quantity ( cold wat] heat$1 & actually made to boil1 )\t any fire4 ,?\gh !re 01 9 fact1 no?+ t c\ld ju/ly be consid]$ z a surprise 9 ?is ev5t1 yet ,i ackn[l$ge fairly t x af=d$ me a degree ( *ildi% pleasure :i*1 7 ,i ambiti\s ( ! reputation ( a ,,grave ,,philosoph]1 ,i ought mo/ c]ta9ly r to hide ?an to discov]4444 ,hav+ ?us dwelt 9 detail on ^! exp]im5ts1 ,rum=d comes n[ to ! all-important discussion z to ! significance ( !m--! subject t _h be5 ! s\rce ( s mu* speculation among ! philosoph]s--! "q z to :at heat really is1 & if !re really is any su* ?+ 7z _m believ$7 z an igne\s fluid1 or a some?+ call$ caloric4 ,f :5ce came ?is heat :i* 0 cont9ually giv5 (f 9 ?is mann]1 9 ! =ego+ exp]im5ts8 asks ,rum=d4 ,0 x furni%$ by ! small p>ticles ( metal deta*$ f ! l>g] solid masses on _! be+ rubb$ toge!r8 ,?is1 z we h already se51 c\ld n possibly h be5 ! case4 ,0 x furni%$ by ! air8 ,?is c\ld n h be5 ! case2 =1 9 ?ree ( ! exp]im5ts1 ! ma*9]y be+ kept imm]s$ 9 wat]1 ! access ( ! air ( ! atmosph]e 0 completely prev5t$4 ,0 x furni%$ by ! wat] :i* surr\nd$ ! ma*9]y8 ,t ?is c\ld n h be5 ! case is evid5t3 fir/1 because ?is wat] 0 cont9ually ,,receiv+ heat f ! ma*9]y1 & c\ld n1 at ! same "t1 be ,,giv+ ,,to & ,,receiv+ ,,heat ,,f ! same body2 &1 secondly1 because !re 0 no *emical decomposition ( any "p ( ?is wat]4 ,_h any su* decomposition tak5 place 7:i*1 inde$1 c\ld n reasonably h be5 expect$71 "o ( its compon5t ela/ic fluids 7mo/ probably hydrog57 mu/1 at ! same "t1 h be5 set at lib]ty1 &1 9 mak+ its escape into ! atmosph]e1 w\ld h be5 detect$2 b1 ?\gh ,i frequ5tly exam9$ ! wat] to see if any air-bubbles rose up ?r\gh x1 & _h ev5 made prep>ations = cat*+ !m if !y %\ld appe>1 ,i c\ld p]ceive none2 nor 0 !re any sign ( decomposition ( any k9d :atev]1 or o!r *emical process1 go+ on 9 ! wat]4 ,is x possible t ! heat c\ld h be5 suppli$ by means ( ! iron b> to ! end ( :i* ! blunt /eel bor] 0 fix$8 ,or by ! small neck ( gun-metal by :i* ! holl[ cyl9d] 0 unit$ to ! cannon8 ,^! suppositions seem m improbable ev5 ?an ei!r ( ! be=e-m5tion$2 = heat 0 cont9ually go+ (f1 or ,,out ,,( ,,! ,,ma*9]y1 by bo? ^! passages dur+ ! :ole "t ! exp]im5t la/$4 ,& 9 reason+ on ?is subject we mu/ n =get to consid] t mo/ rem>kable circum/ance1 t ! s\rce ( ! heat g5]at$ by friction 9 ^! exp]im5ts appe>$ evid5tly to be ,,inexhau/ible4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to add t any?+ :i* any ,,insulat$ body1 or sy/em ( bodies1 c cont9ue to furni% ,,)\t ,,limitation _c possibly be a ,,mat]ial sub/ance2 & x appe>s to me to be extremely difficult1 if n q impossible1 to =m any di/9ct idea ( any?+ capable ( be+ excit$ & communicat$1 9 ! mann] ! heat 0 excit$ & communicat$ 9 ^! exp]im5ts1 except 9 ,,motion47#a7 ,,?omas ,,"y ,,& ,,! ,,wave ,,!ory ,,( ,,light ,b contempor>y judgm5t1 :ile x li/5$ respectfully to ,rum=d1 0 little m9d$ to accept 8 v]dict4 ,! *]i%$ beliefs ( a g5]ation are n to be put d[n ) a s+le bl[4 ,:]e _m m9ds h a simil> drift1 h[ev]1 ! fir/ bl[ may precipitate a g5]al conflict2 & s x 0 "h4 ,"y ,humphry ,davy _h duplicat$ ,rum=d's exp]im5ts1 & rea*$ simil> conclusions2 & soon o!rs fell into l9e4 ,!n1 9 #ahjj1 ,dr4 ,?omas ,"y--,ph5om5on ,"y !y call$ him at ,cambridge1 because he 0 reput$ to "k ev]y?+--took up ! cudgels = ! vibratory !ory ( light1 & x began to be cle> t ! two impond]ables1 heat & light1 mu/ /& or fall toge!r2 b no "o z yet made a claim aga9/ ! fluidity ( electricity4 ,be=e we take up ! details ( ! assault made by ,"y ^u ! old doctr9e ( ! mat]iality ( light1 we mu/ pause to consid] ! p]sonality ( ,"y himself4 ,= x *anc$ t ?is ,quak] physician 0 "o ( ^? prodigies :o come b few times 9 a c5tury1 & ! full li/ ( :om 9 ! records ( hi/ory c\ld be told on "o's ?umbs & f+]s4 ,8 biograph]s tell u ?+s ab\t him t read l ! mo/ pat5t fairy-tales4 ,z a m]e infant 9 arms he _h be5 able to read flu5tly4 ,be=e 8 f\r? bir?day came he _h read ! ,bible twice ?r\gh1 z well z ,watts's ,hymns--poor *ild6--& :5 sev5 or eight he _h %[n a prop5sity to absorb languages mu* z o!r *ildr5 absorb nurs]y tattle & ,"m ,goose rhymes4 ,:5 he 0 f\rte51 a "y lady visit+ ! h\sehold ( 8 tutor patroniz$ ! pretty boy by ask+ to see a specim5 ( 8 p5man%ip4 ,! pretty boy compli$ readily en\gh1 & mildly rebuk$ 8 int]rogator by rapidly writ+ "s s5t5ces = h] 9 f\rte5 languages1 includ+ su* z1 ,arabian1 ,p]sian1 & ,e?iopic4 ,meantime languages _h be5 b an incid5t 9 ! education ( ! lad4 ,he seems to h ent]$ e available field ( ?\ght--ma!matics1 physics1 botany1 lit]ature1 music1 pa9t+1 languages1 philosophy1 ar*aeology1 & s on to tiresome l5g?s--& once he _h ent]$ any field he seldom turn$ aside until he _h rea*$ ! conf9es ( ! subject z !n kn[n & add$ some?+ new f ! recesses ( 8 own g5ius4 ,he 0 z v]satile z ,prie/ley1 z pr(\nd z ,newton himself4 ,he _h ! range ( a m]e dilettante1 b ev]y:]e ! full grasp ( ! ma/]4 ,he took e>ly = 8 motto ! say+ t :at "o man has done1 ano!r man may d4 ,grant+ t ! o!r man has ! bra9 ( a ,?omas ,"y1 x is a true motto4 ,su*1 !n1 0 ! "y ,quak] :o came to ,london to foll[ out ! humdrum life ( a practition] ( m$ic9e 9 ! ye> #ahja4 ,b incid5tally ! "y physician 0 prevail$ ^u to occupy ! int]ims ( e>ly practice by fulfill+ ! duties ( ! *air ( ,natural ,philosophy at ! ,royal ,in/itution1 :i* ,c\nt ,rum=d _h f\nd$1 & ( :i* ,davy 0 !n ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry--! in/itution ^: glories h be5 p]petuat$ by su* names z ,f>aday & ,tyndall1 & :i* ! ,briton ( to-day speaks ( z ! ,pan!on ( ,sci5ce4 ,"h x 0 t ,?omas ,"y made ^? /udies :i* h insur$ him a ni*e 9 ! temple ( fame n f> remov$ f t ( ,isaac ,newton4 ,z e>ly z #agic1 :5 he 0 only tw5ty1 ,"y _h begun to ,communicate pap]s to ! ,royal ,society ( ,london1 :i* 7 adjudg$ wor?y to be pr9t$ 9 full 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions2 s x is n /range t he %\ld h be5 ask$ to deliv] ! ,bak]ian lecture be=e t le>n$ body ! v fir/ ye> aft] he came to ,london4 ,! lecture 0 deliv]$ ,novemb] #ab1 #ahja4 ,its subject 0 ,! ,!ory ( ,light & ,colors1 & its read+ m>ks an epo* 9 physical sci5ce2 = "h 0 br\ght =w>d = ! fir/ "t conv9c+ pro( ( t undulatory !ory ( light ) :i* e /ud5t ( mod]n physics is famili>--! !ory :i* holds t light is n a corporeal entity1 b a m]e pulsation 9 ! sub/ance ( an all-p]vad+ e!r1 j z s\nd is a pulsation 9 ! air1 or 9 liquids or solids4 ,"y _h1 inde$1 advocat$ ?is !ory at an e>li] date1 b x 0 n until #ahja t he hit ^u ! idea :i* enabl$ him to br+ x to any?+ approa*+ a demon/ration4 ,x 0 :ile pond]+ ov] ! famili> b puzzl+ ph5om5a ( color$ r+s into :i* :ite light is brok5 :5 reflect$ f ?9 films--,newton's r+s1 s call$--t an explanation occurr$ to him :i* at once put ! entire undulatory !ory on a new foot+4 ,) t sagacity ( insight :i* we call g5ius1 he saw ( a sudd5 t ! ph5om5a c\ld be expla9$ by suppos+ t :5 rays ( light fall on a ?9 glass1 "p ( ! rays be+ reflect$ f ! upp] surface1 o!r rays1 reflect$ f ! l[] surface1 might be s ret>d$ 9 _! c\rse ?r\gh ! glass t ! two sets w\ld int]f]e ) "o ano!r1 ! =w>d pulsation ( "o ray correspond+ to ! backw>d pulsation ( ano!r1 ?us q neutraliz+ ! effect4 ,"s ( ! compon5t pulsations ( ! light be+ ?us effac$ by mutual int]f]5ce1 ! rema9+ rays w\ld no long] give ! optical effect ( :ite light2 h5ce ! puzzl+ colors4 ,"h is ,"y's exposition ( ! subject3 ,( ! ,colors ( ,?9 ,plates ,:5 a beam ( light falls ^u two refract+ surfaces1 ! p>tial reflections co9cide p]fectly 9 direction2 & 9 ?is case ! int]val ( ret>dation tak5 betwe5 ! surfaces is to _! radius z twice ! cos9e ( ! angle ( refraction to ! radius4 ,let ! m$ium betwe5 ! surfaces be r>] ?an ! surr\nd+ m$iums2 !n ! impulse reflect$ at ! second surface1 meet+ a subsequ5t undulation at ! fir/1 w r5d] ! p>ticles ( ! r>] m$ium capable ( :olly /opp+ ! motion ( ! d5s] & de/roy+ ! reflection1 :ile !y !mselves w be m /rongly propell$ ?an if !y _h be5 at re/1 & ! transmitt$ light w be increas$4 ,s t ! colors by reflection w be de/roy$1 & ^? by transmission r5d]$ m vivid1 :5 ! d\ble ?ickness or int]vals ( ret>dation are any multiples ( ! :ole bread? ( ! undulations2 & at int]m$iate ?icknesses ! effects w be rev]s$ accord+ to ! ,newtonian obs]vation4 ,if ! same proportions be f\nd to hold good ) respect to ?9 plates ( a d5s] m$ium1 :i* is1 inde$1 n improbable1 x w be necess>y to adopt ! connect$ demon/rations ( ,prop4 ,,iv41 b1 at any rate1 if a ?9 plate be int]pos$ betwe5 a r>] & a d5s] m$ium1 ! colors by reflection & transmission may be expect$ to *ange places4 ,,( ,,! ,,colors ,,( ,,?ick ,,plates ,:5 a beam ( light passes ?r\gh a refract+ surface1 especially if imp]fectly poli%$1 a portion ( x is irregul>ly scatt]$1 & makes ! surface visible 9 all directions1 b mo/ conspicu\sly 9 directions n f> di/ant f t ( ! light itself2 & if a reflect+ surface be plac$ p>allel to ! refract+ surface1 ?is scatt]$ light1 z well z ! pr9cipal beam1 w be reflect$1 & !re w be also a new dissipation ( light1 at ! return ( ! beam ?r\gh ! refract+ surface4 ,^! two portions ( scatt]$ light w co9cide 9 direction2 & if ! surfaces be ( su* a =m z to collect ! simil> effects1 w exhibit r+s ( colors4 ,! int]val ( ret>dation is "h ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! pa?s ( ! pr9cipal beam & ( ! scatt]$ light betwe5 ! two surfaces2 ( c\rse1 :]ev] ! incl9ation ( ! scatt]$ light is equal to t ( ! beam1 al?\gh 9 diff]5t planes1 ! int]val w vani% & all ! undulations w conspire4 ,at o!r incl9ations1 ! int]val w be ! diff]5ce ( ! secants f ! secant ( ! incl9ation1 or angle ( refraction ( ! pr9cipal beam4 ,f ^! causes1 all ! colors ( concave mirrors obs]v$ by ,newton & o!rs are necess>y consequ5ces2 & x appe>s t _! production1 ?\gh some:at simil>1 is by no means z ,newton imag9$1 id5tical ) ! production ( ?9 plates47#b7 ,by foll[+ up ?is clew ) ma!matical precision1 measur+ ! exact ?ickness ( ! plate & ! space betwe5 ! diff]5t r+s ( color1 ,"y 0 able to %[ ma!matically :at mu/ be ! l5g? ( pulsation = ea* ( ! diff]5t colors ( ! spectrum4 ,he e/imat$ t ! undulations ( r$ light1 at ! extreme l[] end ( ! visible spectrum1 mu/ numb] ab\t ?irty-sev5 ?\s& six hundr$ & =ty to ! in*1 & pass any giv5 spot at a rate ( f\r hundr$ & sixty-?ree millions ( millions ( undulations 9 a second1 :ile ! extreme violet numb]s fifty-n9e ?\s& sev5 hundr$ & fifty undulations to ! in*1 or sev5 hundr$ & ?irty-five millions ( millions to ! second4 ,! ,colors ( ,/riat$ ,surfaces ,"y simil>ly exam9$ ! colors t are produc$ by scrat*es on a smoo? surface1 9 p>ticul> te/+ ! light f ,mr4 ,cov5try's exquisite micromet]s1 :i* consi/ ( l9es scrat*$ on glass at measur$ int]vals4 ,^! microscopic te/s br\ght ! same results z ! o!r exp]im5ts4 ,! colors 7 produc$ at c]ta9 def9ite & measurable angles1 & ! !ory ( int]f]5ce ( undulations expla9$ !m p]fectly1 :ile1 z ,"y affirm$ ) confid5ce1 no o!r hypo!sis hi!rto advanc$ w\ld expla9 !m at all4 ,"h are 8 words3 ,let !re be 9 a giv5 plane two reflect+ po9ts v ne> ea* o!r1 & let ! plane be s situat$ t ! reflect$ image ( a lum9\s object se5 9 x may appe> to co9cide ) ! po9ts2 !n x is obvi\s t ! l5g? ( ! incid5t & reflect$ ray1 tak5 toge!r1 is equal ) respect to bo? po9ts1 consid]+ !m z capable ( reflect+ 9 all directions4 ,let "o ( ! po9ts be n[ depress$ bel[ ! giv5 plane2 !n ! :ole pa? ( ! light reflect$ f x w be l5g!n$ by a l9e :i* is to ! depression ( ! po9t z twice ! cos9e ( incid5ce to ! radius4 ,if1 !re=e1 equal undulations ( giv5 dim5sions be reflect$ f two po9ts1 situat$ ne> en\gh to appe> to ! eye b z "o1 :5ev] ?is l9e is equal to half ! bread? ( a :ole undulation ! reflection f ! depress$ po9t w s int]f]e ) ! reflection f ! fix$ po9t t ! progressive motion ( ! "o w co9cide ) ! retrograde motion ( ! o!r1 & !y w bo? be de/roy$2 b :5 ?is l9e is equal to ! :ole bread? ( an undulation1 ! effect w be d\bl$1 & :5 to a bread? & a half1 aga9 de/roy$2 & ?us = a consid]able numb] ( alt]nations1 & if ! reflect$ undulations be ( a diff]5t k9d1 !y w be v>i\sly affect$1 accord+ to _! proportions to ! v>i\s l5g? ( ! l9e :i* is ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! l5g?s ( _! two pa?s1 & :i* may be d5om9at$ ! int]val ( a ret>dation4 ,9 ord] t ! effect may be ! m p]ceptible1 a numb] ( pairs ( po9ts mu/ be unit$ into two p>allel l9es2 & if sev]al su* pairs ( l9es be plac$ ne> ea* o!r1 !y w facilitate ! obs]vation4 ,if "o ( ! l9es be made to revolve r\nd ! o!r z an axis1 ! depression bel[ ! giv5 plane w be z ! s9e ( ! incl9ation2 & :ile ! eye & ! lum9\s object rema9 fix$ ! diff]5ce ( ! l5g? ( ! pa?s w v>y z ?is s9e4 ,! be/ subjects = ! exp]im5t are ,mr4 ,cov5try's exquisite micromet]s2 su* ( !m z consi/ ( p>allel l9es drawn on glass1 at a di/ance ( "o-five-hundr$? ( an in*1 are ! mo/ conv5i5t4 ,ea* ( ^! l9es appe>s "u a microscope to consi/ ( two or m f9] l9es1 exactly p>allel1 & at a di/ance ( some:at m ?an a tw5tie? m ?an ! adjac5t l9es4 ,i plac$ "o ( ^! s z to reflect ! sun's light at an angle ( =ty-five degrees1 & fix$ x 9 su* a mann] t :ile x revolv$ r\nd "o ( ! l9es z an axis1 ,i c\ld measure its angul> motion2 ,i f\nd t ! longe/ r$ color occurr$ at ! incl9ation #aj #a_/d degrees1 #bj #c_/d degrees1 #cb degrees1 & #de degrees2 ( :i* ! s9es are z ! numb]s #a1 #b1 #c1 & #d4 ,at all o!r angles also1 :5 ! sun's light 0 reflect$ f ! surface1 ! color vani%$ ) ! incl9ation1 & 0 equal at equal incl9ations on ei!r side4 ,?is exp]im5t af=ds a v /rong confirmation ( ! !ory4 ,x is impossible to d$uce any explanation ( x f any hypo!sis hi!rto advanc$2 & ,i believe x w\ld be difficult to inv5t any o!r t w\ld acc\nt = x4 ,!re is a /rik+ analogy betwe5 ?is sep>ation ( colors & ! production ( a musical note by successive e*oes f equidi/ant iron palisades1 :i* ,i h f\nd to correspond pretty accurately ) ! kn[n velocity ( s\nd & ! di/ances ( ! surfaces4 ,x is n improbable t ! colors ( ! integum5ts ( "s insects1 & ( "s o!r natural bodies1 exhibit+ 9 diff]5t lights ! mo/ beautiful v]satility1 may be f\nd to be ( ?is description1 & n to be d]iv$ f ?9 plates4 ,9 "s cases a s+le scrat* or furr[ may produce simil> effects1 by ! reflection ( its opposite edges47#c7 ,?is doctr9e ( int]f]5ce ( undulations 0 ! absolutely novel "p ( ,"y's !ory4 ,! all-compass+ g5ius ( ,rob]t ,hooke _h1 inde$1 v ne>ly appreh5d$ x m ?an a c5tury be=e1 z ,"y himself po9ts out1 b no "o else bad s mu* z vaguely conceiv$ x2 & ev5 ) ! sagaci\s ,hooke x 0 only a happy guess1 nev] di/9ctly outl9$ 9 8 own m9d1 & utt]ly ignor$ by all o!rs4 ,"y did n "k ( ,hooke's guess until he himself _h fully =mulat$ ! !ory1 b he ha/5$ !n to give 8 pr$ecessor all ! cr$it t c\ld possibly be adjudg$ 8 due by ! mo/ dis9t]e/$ obs]v]4 ,to ,hooke's contempor>y1 ,huyg5s1 :o 0 ! orig9ator ( ! g5]al doctr9e ( undulation z ! explanation ( light1 ,"y r5d]s full ju/ice also4 ,= himself he claims only ! m]it ( hav+ demon/rat$ ! !ory :i* ^! & a few o!rs ( 8 pr$ecessors _h advocat$ )\t full pro(4 ,! foll[+ ye> ,dr4 ,"y detail$ be=e ! ,royal ,society o!r exp]im5ts1 :i* ?rew additional light on ! doctr9e ( int]f]5ce2 & 9 #ahjc he cit$ /ill o!rs1 :i*1 he affirm$1 br\ght ! doctr9e to complete demon/ration4 ,9 apply+ ?is demon/ration to ! g5]al !ory ( light1 he made ! /rik+ sugge/ion t ! lum9if]\s e!r p]vades ! sub/ance ( all mat]ial bodies ) little or no resi/ance1 z freely1 p]haps1 z ! w9d passes ?r\gh a grove ( trees4 ,he ass]t$ 8 belief also t ! *emical rays :i* ,ritt] _h discov]$ beyond ! violet end ( ! visible spectrum are b /ill m rapid undulations ( ! same "* z ^? :i* produce light4 ,9 8 e>li] lecture he _h affirm$ a l aff9ity betwe5 ! light rays & ! rays ( radiant heat :i* ,h]s*el detect$ bel[ ! r$ end ( ! spectrum1 sugge/+ t light diff]s f heat only 9 ! frequ5cy ( its undulations or vibrations--^? undulations :i* are )9 c]ta9 limits ) respect to frequ5cy affect+ ! optic n]ve & con/itut+ light1 & ^? :i* are sl[] & probably /rong] con/itut+ heat only4 ,f ! v outset he _h recogniz$ ! aff9ity betwe5 s\nd & light2 inde$1 x _h be5 ?is aff9ity t l$ him on to an appreciation ( ! undulatory !ory ( light4 ,b :ile all ^! aff9ities seem$ s cle> to ! great co-ord9at+ bra9 ( ,"y1 !y made no su* impression on ! m9ds ( 8 contempor>ies4 ,! immat]iality ( light _h be5 sub/antially demon/rat$1 b practically no "o save its au?or accept$ ! demon/ration4 ,newton's doctr9e ( ! emission ( corpuscles 0 too firmly root$ to be readily dislodg$1 & ,dr4 ,"y _h too _m o!r int]e/s to cont9ue ! assault unceas+ly4 ,he occasionally wrote some?+ t\*+ on 8 !ory1 mo/ly pap]s contribut$ to ! ,qu>t]ly ,review & simil> p]iodicals1 anonym\sly or "u pseudonym1 = he _h conceiv$ ! notion t too great conspicu\sness 9 fields outside ( m$ic9e w\ld injure 8 practice z a physician4 ,8 views reg>d+ light 7includ+ ! orig9al pap]s f ! ,philosophical ,transactions ( ! ,royal ,society7 7 aga9 giv5 publicity 9 full 9 8 celebrat$ volume on natural philosophy1 consi/+ 9 "p ( 8 lectures be=e ! ,royal ,in/itution1 publi%$ 9 #ahjg2 b ev5 !n !y fail$ to br+ conviction to ! philosophic _w4 ,inde$1 !y did n ev5 ar\se a controv]sial _s1 z 8 fir/ pap]s _h done4 ,,arago ,,& ,,fresnel ,,*ampion ,,! ,,wave ,,!ory ,s x *anc$ t :51 9 #ahae1 a "y ,fr5* milit>y eng9e]1 nam$ ,augu/9 ,jean ,fresnel1 return+ f ! ,napoleonic w>s1 became int]e/$ 9 ! ph5om5a ( light1 & made "s exp]im5ts conc]n+ diffraction :i* seem$ to him to controv]t ! accept$ notions ( ! mat]iality ( light1 he 0 q unaw>e t 8 exp]im5ts _h be5 anticipat$ by a philosoph] across ! ,*annel4 ,he communicat$ 8 exp]im5ts & results to ! ,fr5* ,in/itute1 suppos+ !m to be absolutely novel4 ,t body ref]r$ !m to a committee1 ( :i*1 z good =tune w\ld h x1 ! dom9at+ memb] 0 ,dom9ique ,francois ,arago1 a man z v]satile z ,"y himself1 & h>dly less pr(\nd1 if p]haps n q s orig9al4 ,arago at once recogniz$ ! m]it ( ,fresnel's "w1 & soon became a conv]t to ! !ory4 ,he told ,fresnel t ,"y _h anticipat$ him z reg>ds ! g5]al !ory1 b t mu* rema9$ to be done1 & he (f]$ to associate himself ) ,fresnel 9 prosecut+ ! inve/igation4 ,fresnel 0 n a little da%$ to le>n t 8 orig9al ideas _h be5 work$ out by ano!r :ile he 0 a lad1 b he b[$ gracefully to ! situation & w5t ahead ) unabat$ zeal4 ,! *ampion%ip ( ,arago insur$ ! undulatory !ory a he>+ be=e ! ,fr5* ,in/itute1 b by no means suffic$ to br+ ab\t its g5]al acceptance4 ,on ! contr>y1 a bitt] feud ensu$1 9 :i* ,arago 0 oppos$ by ! ,jupit] ,olympus ( ! ,academy1 ,laplace1 by ! only less fam\s ,poisson1 & by ! y\ng] b h>dly less able ,biot4 ,s bitt]ly rag$ ! feud t a life-long fri5d%ip betwe5 ,arago & ,biot 0 ruptur$ =ev]4 ,! opposition manag$ to delay ! publication ( ,fresnel's pap]s1 b ,arago cont9u$ to fight ) 8 cu/om>y en?usiasm & p]t9acity1 & at la/1 9 #ahbc1 ! ,academy yield$1 & vot$ ,fresnel into its ranks1 ?us implicitly admitt+ ! value ( 8 "w4 ,x is a humiliat+ ?\ght t su* controv]sies z ?is mu/ m> ! progress ( sci5tific tru?2 b =tunately ! /ory ( ! introduction ( ! undulatory !ory has a m pleasant side4 ,?ree m51 great bo? 9 "* & 9 intellect1 7 conc]n$ 9 press+ its claims--,"y1 ,fresnel1 & ,arago--& ! relations ( ^! m5 =m a picture unm>r$ by any ( ^? petty jeal\sies t s (t5 dim ! lu/re ( great names4 ,fresnel freely ackn[l$g$ ,"y's priority s soon z 8 att5tion 0 call$ to x2 & ,"y applaud$ ! "w ( ! ,fr5*man1 & aid$ ) 8 c\nsel 9 ! application ( ! undulatory !ory to ! problems ( pol>ization ( light1 :i* /ill dem&$ explanation1 & :i* ,fresnel's f]tility ( exp]im5tal res\rce & pr(undity ( ma!matical insight suffic$ 9 ! end to conqu]4 ,aft] ,fresnel's admission to ! ,in/itute 9 #ahbc ! opposition weak5$1 & gradually ! philosoph]s came to realize ! m]its ( a !ory :i* ,"y _h va9ly call$ to _! att5tion a full qu>t]-c5tury be=e4 ,n[1 ?anks l>gely to ,arago1 bo? ,"y & ,fresnel receiv$ _! full me$ ( appreciation4 ,fresnel 0 giv5 ! ,rum=d m$al ( ! ,royal ,society ( ,engl& 9 #ahbe1 & *os5 "o ( ! =eign memb]s ( ! society two ye>s lat]1 :ile ,"y 9 turn 0 elect$ "o ( ! eight =eign memb]s ( ! ,fr5* ,academy4 ,z a fitt+ culm9ation ( ! *apt] ( felicities betwe5 ! ?ree fri5ds1 x fell to ! lot ( ,"y1 z ,=eign ,secret>y ( ! ,royal ,society1 to notify ,fresnel ( ! honors %[n him by ,engl&'s repres5tative body ( sci5ti/s2 :ile ,arago1 z ,p]petual ,secret>y ( ! ,fr5* ,in/itute1 convey$ to ,"y 9 ! same ye> ! notification t he _h be5 simil>ly honor$ by ! savants ( ,france4 ,a few mon?s lat] ,fresnel 0 dead1 & ,"y surviv$ him only two ye>s4 ,bo? di$ prematurely1 b _! great "w 0 done1 & ! _w w rememb] always & l9k toge!r ^! two names 9 connection ) a !ory :i* 9 its implications & importance ranks little bel[ ! !ory ( univ]sal gravitation4 ,,vii4 ,,! ,,mod]n ,,developm5t ,,( ,,electricity ,,& ,,magnetism ,,galvani ,,& ,,volta ,! full importance ( ,"y's /udies ( light might p]haps h ga9$ e>li] recognition _h x n *anc$ t1 at ! "t :5 !y 7 made1 ! att5tion ( ! philosophic _w 0 turn$ ) ! fixity & fasc9ation ( a hypnotic />e ^u ano!r field1 :i* = a "t brook$ no rival4 ,h[ c\ld ! old1 famili> ph5om5on1 light1 int]e/ any "o :5 ! new ag5t1 galvanism1 0 9 view8 ,z well ask "o to fix att5tion on a /> :ile a meteorite blazes across ! sky4 ,galvanism 0 s call$ precisely z ! ,ro5tg5 ray 0 *ri/5$ at a lat] day--z a safe means ( begg+ ! "q z to ! nature ( ! ph5om5a involv$4 ,! initial fact 9 galvanism 0 ! discov]y ( ,luigi ,galvani 7#agcg-agih71 a physician ( ,bologna1 9 #agia1 t by br++ metals 9 contact ) ! n]ves ( a frog's leg viol5t muscul> contractions are produc$4 ,z ?is simple little exp]im5t l$ ev5tually to ! discov]y ( galvanic electricity & ! inv5tion ( ! galvanic batt]y1 x may be reg>d$ z ! beg9n+ ( mod]n electricity4 ,! /ory is told t ,galvani 0 l$ to 8 discov]y :ile prep>+ frogs' legs to make a bro? = 8 invalid wife4 ,z ! /ory runs1 he _h remov$ ! sk9s f sev]al frogs' legs1 :51 happ5+ to t\* ! expos$ muscles ) a scalpel :i* _h la9 9 close proximity to an electrical ma*9e1 viol5t muscul> action 0 produc$4 ,impress$ ) ?is ph5om5on1 he began a s]ies ( exp]im5ts :i* f9ally result$ 9 8 great discov]y4 ,b be ?is /ory au!ntic or n1 x is c]ta9 t ,galvani exp]im5t$ = sev]al ye>s ^u frogs' legs susp5d$ ^u wires & hooks1 until he f9ally con/ruct$ 8 arc ( two diff]5t metals1 :i*1 :5 arrang$ s t "o 0 plac$ 9 contact ) a n]ve & ! o!r ) a muscle1 produc$ viol5t contractions4 ,^! two pieces ( metal =m ! basic pr9ciple ( ! mod]n galvanic batt]y1 & l$ directly to ,aless&ro ,volta's inv5tion ( 8 voltaic pile1 ! imm$iate ance/or ( ! mod]n galvanic batt]y4 ,volta's exp]im5ts 7 c>ri$ on at ! same "t z ^? ( ,galvani1 & 8 inv5tion ( 8 pile foll[$ close ^u ,galvani's discov]y ( ! new =m ( electricity4 ,f ^! facts ! new =m ( electricity 0 sometimes call$ galvanic & sometimes voltaic electricity1 b 9 rec5t ye>s ! t]m galvanism & galvanic curr5t h almo/ entirely supplant$ ! use ( ! t]m voltaic4 ,x 0 ,volta :o made ! report ( ,galvani's wond]ful discov]y to ! ,royal ,society ( ,london1 read on ,janu>y #ca1 #agic4 ,9 ?is lett] he describes ,galvani's exp]im5ts 9 detail & ref]s to !m 9 gl[+ t]ms ( praise4 ,he calls x "o ( ! mo/ beautiful & important discov]ies1 & reg>d$ x z ! g]m or f\ndation ^u :i* o!r discov]ies 7 to be made4 ,! pr$iction prov$ entirely correct1 ,volta himself be+ ! *ief discov]]4 ,work+ along l9es sugge/$ by ,galvani's discov]y1 ,volta con/ruct$ an app>atus made up ( a numb] ( disks ( two diff]5t k9ds ( metal1 su* z t9 & silv]1 arrang$ alt]nately1 a piece ( "s moi/1 por\s sub/ance1 l pap] or felt1 be+ int]pos$ betwe5 ea* pair ( disks4 ,) ?is pile1 z x 0 call$1 electricity 0 g5]at$1 & by l9k+ toge!r sev]al su* piles an electric batt]y c\ld be =m$4 ,?is inv5tion took ! _w by /orm4 ,no?+ l ! en?usiasm x creat$ 9 ! philosophic _w _h be5 kn[n s9ce ! inv5tion ( ! ,leyd5 j>1 m ?an half a c5tury be=e4 ,)9 a few weeks aft] ,volta's ann\ncem5t1 batt]ies made accord+ to 8 plan 7 be+ exp]im5t$ ) 9 e important laboratory 9 ,europe4 ,z ! c5tury clos$1 half ! philosophic _w 0 speculat+ z to :e!r galvanic influ5ce 7 a new impond]able1 or only a =m ( electricity2 & ! o!r half 0 eag]ly seek+ to discov] :at new m>vels ! batt]y might reveal4 ,! lea/ imag9ative man c\ld see t "h 0 an inv5tion t w\ld be epo*-mak+1 b ! mo/ vision>y dream] c\ld n ev5 vaguely adumbrate ! real measure ( its importance4 ,x 0 evid5t at once t almo/ any =m ( galvanic batt]y1 despite imp]fections1 0 a m satisfactory in/rum5t = g5]at+ electricity ?an ! frictional ma*9e hi!rto 9 use1 ! advantage ly+ 9 ! fact t ! curr5t f ! galvanic batt]y c\ld be controll$ practically at w1 & t ! app>atus itself 0 inexp5sive & requir$ comp>atively little att5tion4 ,^! advantages 7 soon made app>5t by ! practical application ( ! electric curr5t 9 sev]al fields4 ,x w be recall$ t despite ! en]getic endeavors ( su* philosoph]s z ,watson1 ,frankl91 ,galvani1 & _m o!rs1 ! field ( practical application ( electricity 0 v limit$ at ! close ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,! lightn+-rod _h come into g5]al use1 to be sure1 & its value z an inv5tion c h>dly be ov]e/imat$4 ,b :ile x 0 ! result ( ext5sive electrical discov]ies1 & is a mo/ practical in/rum5t1 x c h>dly be call$ "o t puts electricity to practical use1 b simply acts z a means ( w>d+ (f ! evil effects ( a natural manife/ation ( electricity4 ,! inv5tion1 h[ev]1 _h all ! effects ( a me*anism :i* turn$ electricity to practical acc\nt4 ,b ) ! adv5t ( ! new k9d ( electricity ! age ( practical application began4 ,,davy ,,& ,,electric ,,light ,volta's ann\ncem5t ( 8 pile 0 sc>cely two mon?s old :5 two ,engli%m51 ,messrs4 ,ni*olson & ,c>lisle1 made ! discov]y t ! curr5t f ! galvanic batt]y _h a decid$ effect ^u c]ta9 *emicals1 among o!r ?+s decompos+ wat] into its elem5ts1 hydrog5 & oxyg54 ,on ,may #g1 #ahjj1 ^! inve/igators arrang$ ! ends ( two brass wires connect$ ) ! poles ( a voltaic pile1 compos$ ( alt]nate silv] & z9c plates1 s t ! curr5t com+ f ! pile 0 dis*>g$ ?r\gh a small quantity ( ,new ,riv] wat]4 ,a f9e /ream ( m9ute bubbles imm$iately began to fl[ f ! po9t ( ! l[] wire 9 ! tube :i* communicat$ ) ! silv]1 wrote ,ni*olson1 & ! opposite po9t ( ! upp] wire became t>ni%$1 fir/ deep orange & !n black4444 ,! product ( gas dur+ two h\rs & a half 0 two-?irtie?s ( a cubic in*4 ,x 0 !n mix$ ) an equal quantity ( common air1 cont9ues ,ni*olson1 & explod$ by ! application ( a light$ wax5 ?read4 ,?is demon/ration 0 ! beg9n+ ( ! v important sci5ce ( electro-*emi/ry4 ,! importance ( ?is discov]y 0 at once recogniz$ by ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 :o began exp]im5t+ imm$iately 9 ?is new field4 ,he con/ruct$ a s]ies ( batt]ies 9 v>i\s comb9ations1 ) :i* he attack$ ! fix$ alkalies1 ! composition ( :i* 0 !n unkn[n4 ,v %ortly he 0 able to decompose pota% into bright metallic globules1 resembl+ quicksilv]4 ,?is new sub/ance he nam$ potassium4 ,!n 9 rapid succession ! elem5t>y sub/ances sodium1 calcium1 /rontium1 & magnesium 7 isolat$4 ,x 0 soon discov]$1 also1 t ! new electricity1 l ! old1 possess$ heat+ p[] "u c]ta9 conditions1 ev5 to ! fus+ ( pieces ( wire4 ,?is obs]vation 0 probably fir/ made by ,frommsdorff1 b x 0 elaborat$ by ,davy1 :o con/ruct$ a batt]y ( two ?\s& cells ) :i* he produc$ a bright light f po9ts ( c>bon--! prototype ( ! mod]n arc lamp4 ,he made ?is demon/ration be=e ! memb]s ( ! ,royal ,in/itution 9 #ahaj4 ,b ! practical utility ( su* a light = illum9at+ purposes 0 /ill a ?+ ( ! future4 ,! exp5se ( con/ruct+ & ma9ta9+ su* an elaborate batt]y1 & ! rapid int]nal de/ruction ( its plates1 toge!r ) ! con/ant pol>ization1 r5d]$ its use 9 practical illum9ation out ( ! "q4 ,x 0 n until ano!r me?od ( g5]at+ electricity 0 discov]$ t ,davy's demon/ration c\ld be turn$ to practical acc\nt4 ,9 ,davy's own acc\nt ( 8 exp]im5t he says3 ,:5 pieces ( *>coal ab\t an in* long & "o-six? ( an in* 9 diamet] 7 br\ght ne> ea* o!r 7)9 ! ?irtie? or =tie? ( an in*71 a bright sp>k 0 produc$1 & m ?an half ! volume ( ! *>coal became ignit$ to :it5ess2 &1 by )draw+ ! po9ts f ea* o!r1 a con/ant dis*>ge took place ?r\gh ! heat$ air1 9 a space equal to at lea/ f\r in*es1 produc+ a mo/ brilliant asc5d+ ar* ( light1 broad & conical 9 =m 9 ! middle4 ,:5 any sub/ance 0 introduc$ into ?is ar*1 x in/antly became ignit$2 plat9a melt$ z readily 9 x z wax 9 a common c&le2 qu>tz1 ! sapphire1 magnesia1 lime1 all ent]$ into fusion2 fragm5ts ( diamond & po9ts ( *>coal & plumbago seem$ to evaporate 9 x1 ev5 :5 ! connection 0 made 9 ! receiv] ( an air-pump2 b !re 0 no evid5ce ( _! hav+ previ\sly und]gone fusion4 ,:5 ! communication betwe5 ! po9ts positively & negatively electrifi$ 0 made 9 ! air r>efi$ 9 ! receiv] ( ! air-pump1 ! di/ance at :i* ! dis*>ge took place increas$ z ! exhau/ion 0 made2 & :5 ! atmosph]e 9 ! vessel support$ only "o-f\r? ( an in* ( m]cury 9 ! b>ometrical gauge1 ! sp>ks pass$ ?r\gh a space ( ne>ly half an in*2 &1 by )draw+ ! po9ts f ea* o!r1 ! dis*>ge 0 made ?r\gh six or sev5 in*es1 produc+ a mo/ brilliant coruscation ( purple light2 ! *>coal became int5sely ignit$1 & "s plat9a wire atta*$ to x fus$ ) brilliant sc9tillations & fell 9 l>ge globules ^u ! plate ( ! pump4 ,all ! ph5om5a ( *emical decomposition 7 produc$ ) int5se rapidity by ?is comb9ation47#a7 ,b ?is exp]im5t demon/rat$ ano!r ?+ besides ! possibility ( produc+ electric light & *emical decomposition1 ?is be+ ! heat+ p[] capable ( be+ produc$ by ! electric curr5t4 ,?us ,davy's exp]im5t ( fus+ sub/ances laid ! f\ndation ( ! mod]n electric furnaces1 :i* are ( p>am\nt importance 9 sev]al great comm]cial indu/ries4 ,:ile "s ( ! results obta9$ ) ,davy's batt]ies 7 practically z satisfactory z c\ld be obta9$ ) mod]n cell batt]ies1 ! batt]ies !mselves 7 any?+ b satisfactory4 ,!y 7 exp5sive1 requir$ con/ant c>e & att5tion1 &1 :at 0 m important f an exp]im5tal /&po9t at lea/1 7 n con/ant 9 _! action except = a v limit$ p]iod ( "t1 ! curr5t soon runn+ d[n4 ,num]\s exp]im5t]s1 !re=e1 set ab\t devis+ a satisfactory batt]y1 & :51 9 #ahcf1 ,john ,fr$]ick ,daniell produc$ ! cell t be>s 8 "n1 8 inv5tion 0 epo*-mak+ 9 ! hi/ory ( electrical progress4 ,! ,royal ,society consid]$ x ( suffici5t importance to be/[ ! ,copley m$al ^u ! inv5tor1 ^: device is ! direct p>5t ( all mod]n galvanic cells4 ,f ! "t ( ! adv5t ( ! ,daniell cell exp]im5ts 9 electricity 7 r5d]$ comp>atively easy4 ,9 ! mean :ile1 h[ev]1 ano!r great discov]y 0 made4 ,,electricity ,,& ,,magnetism ,= _m ye>s !re _h be5 a gr[+ suspicion1 am\nt+ 9 _m in/ances to belief 9 ! close relation%ip exi/+ betwe5 electricity & magnetism4 ,be=e ! w9t] ( #ahae1 h[ev]1 x 0 a belief t 0 surmis$ b n demon/rat$4 ,b 9 t ye> x occurr$ to ,jean ,*ri/ian ,o]/$1 ( ,d5m>k1 to pass a curr5t ( electricity ?r\gh a wire held p>allel )1 b n q t\*+1 a susp5d$ magnetic ne$le4 ,! ne$le 0 in/antly deflect$ & swung out ( its position4 ,! fir/ exp]im5ts 9 connection ) ! subject :i* ,i am und]tak+ to expla91 wrote ,o]/$1 7 made dur+ ! c\rse ( lectures :i* ,i held la/ w9t] on electricity & magnetism4 ,f ^? exp]im5ts x appe>$ t ! magnetic ne$le c\ld be mov$ f its position by means ( a galvanic batt]y--"o ) a clos$ galvanic circuit4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 ^? exp]im5ts 7 made ) an app>atus ( small p[]1 ,i und]took to repeat & increase !m ) a l>ge galvanic batt]y4 ,let u suppose t ! two opposite ends ( ! galvanic app>atus are jo9$ by a metal wire4 ,?is ,i %all always call ! conductor = ! sake ( brevity4 ,place a rectil9e> piece ( ?is conductor 9 a horizontal position ov] an ord9>y magnetic ne$le s t x is p>allel to x4 ,! magnetic ne$le w be set 9 motion & w deviate t[>ds ! we/ "u t "p ( ! conductor :i* comes f ! negative pole ( ! galvanic batt]y4 ,if ! wire is n m ?an f\r-fif?s ( an in* di/ant f ! middle ( ?is ne$le1 ?is deviation w be ab\t =ty-five degrees4 ,at a great] di/ance ! angle ( deviation becomes less4 ,moreov]1 ! deviation v>ies accord+ to ! /r5g? ( ! batt]y4 ,! conductor c be mov$ t[>ds ! ea/ or we/1 s long z x rema9s p>allel to ! ne$le1 )\t produc+ any o!r result ?an to make ! deviation small]4 ,! conductor c consi/ ( sev]al comb9$ wires or metal coils4 ,! nature ( ! metal does n alt] ! result except1 p]haps1 to make x great] or less4 ,we h us$ wires ( plat9um1 gold1 silv]1 brass1 & iron1 & coils ( lead1 t91 & quicksilv] ) ! same result4 ,if ! conductor is int]rupt$ by wat]1 all effect is n cut (f1 unless ! /ret* ( wat] is sev]al in*es long4 ,! conductor works on ! magnetic ne$le ?r\gh glass1 metals1 wood1 wat]1 & res91 ?r\gh clay vessels & ?r\gh /one1 = :5 we plac$ a glass plate1 a metal plate1 or a bo>d betwe5 ! conductor & ! ne$le ! effect 0 n cut (f2 ev5 ! ?ree toge!r seem$ h>dly to weak5 ! effect1 & ! same 0 ! case ) an e>!n vessel1 ev5 :5 x 0 full ( wat]4 ,our exp]im5ts also demon/rat$ t ! said effects 7 n alt]$ :5 we us$ a magnetic ne$le :i* 0 9 a brass case full ( wat]4 ,:5 ! conductor is plac$ 9 a horizontal plane "u ! magnetic ne$le all ! effects we h describ$ take place 9 precisely ! same way1 b 9 ! opposite direction to :at took place :5 ! conductor 0 9 a horizontal plane above ! ne$le4 ,if ! conductor is mov$ 9 a horizontal plane s t x gradually makes ev]-increas+ angles ) ! magnetic m]idian1 ! deviation ( ! magnetic ne$le f ! magnetic m]idian is increas$ :5 ! wire is turn$ t[>ds ! place ( ! ne$le2 x decreases1 on ! o!r h&1 :5 x is turn$ away f t place4 ,a ne$le ( brass :i* is hung 9 ! same way z ! magnetic ne$le is n set 9 motion by ! influ5ce ( ! conductor4 ,a ne$le ( glass or rubb] likewise rema9s /atic "u simil> exp]im5ts4 ,h5ce ! electrical conductor affects only ! magnetic p>ts ( a sub/ance4 ,t ! electrical curr5t is n conf9$ to ! conduct+ wire1 b is comp>atively widely diffus$ 9 ! surr\nd+ space1 is suffici5tly demon/rat$ f ! =ego+ obs]vations47#b7 ,! effect ( ,o]/$'s demon/ration is almo/ incompreh5sible4 ,by x 0 %[n ! close relation%ip betwe5 magnetism & electricity4 ,x %[$ ! way to ! e/abli%m5t ( ! sci5ce ( electrodynamics2 al?\gh x 0 by ! ,fr5* savant ,&re ,m>ie ,amp]e 7#agge-ahcf7 t ! sci5ce 0 actually creat$1 & ?is )9 ! space ( "o week aft] he>+ ( ,o]/$'s exp]im5t 9 deflect+ ! ne$le4 ,amp]e fir/ receiv$ ! news ( ,o]/$'s exp]im5t on ,septemb] #aa1 #ahbj1 & on ! #ah? ( ! same mon? he ann\nc$ to ! ,academy ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( ! sci5ce ( electro-dynamics--sev5 days ( rapid progress p]haps unequall$ 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce4 ,amp]e's di/+ui%$ c\ntryman1 ,arago1 a few mon?s lat]1 gave ! f9i%+ t\*es to ,o]/$'s & ,amp]e's discov]ies1 by demon/rat+ conclusively t electricity n only influ5c$ a magnet1 b actually produc$ magnetism "u prop] circum/ances--a complem5tal fact mo/ ess5tial 9 practical me*anics4 ,"s f\r ye>s aft] ,arago's discov]y1 ,/urgeon made ! fir/ electro-magnet by w9d+ a s(t iron core ) wire ?r\gh :i* a curr5t ( electricity 0 pass$4 ,?is /udy ( electro-magnets 0 tak5 up by ,pr(essor ,joseph ,h5ry1 ( ,albany1 ,new ,york1 :o succe$$ 9 mak+ magnets ( enorm\s lift+ p[] by w9d+ ! iron core ) sev]al coils ( wire4 ,"o ( ^! magnets1 excit$ by a s+le galvanic cell ( less ?an half a squ>e foot ( surface1 & conta9+ only half a p9t ( dilute acids1 su/a9$ a weight ( six hundr$ & fifty p\nds4 ,?us by ,o]/$'s great discov]y ( ! intimate relation%ip ( magnetism & electricity1 ) fur!r elaborations & discov]ies by ,amp]e1 ,volta1 & ,h5ry1 & ) ! inv5tion ( ,daniell's cell1 ! way 0 laid = putt+ electricity to practical use4 ,soon foll[$ ! inv5tion & p]fection ( ! electro-magnetic telegraph & a ho/ ( o!r b little less important devices4 ,,f>aday ,,& ,,electro-,,magnetic ,,induction ,) ^! great discov]ies & inv5tions at h&1 electricity became no long] a toy or a play?+ = philosoph]s1 b ( enorm\s & gr[+ importance comm]cially4 ,/ill1 electricity g5]at$ by *emical action1 ev5 9 a v p]fect cell1 0 bo? feeble & exp5sive1 &1 )al1 only applicable 9 a comp>atively limit$ field4 ,ano!r important sci5tific discov]y 0 necess>y be=e su* ?+s z electric traction & electric light+ on a l>ge scale 7 to become possible2 b t discov]y 0 soon made by ,sir ,mi*ael ,f>aday4 ,f>aday1 ! son ( a blacksmi? & a bookb9d] by trade1 _h int]e/$ ,sir ,humphry ,davy by 8 admirable notes on f\r ( ,davy's lectures1 :i* he _h be5 able to att5d4 ,al?\gh advis$ by ! great sci5ti/ to /ick to 8 bookb9d+ r ?an ent] ! field ( sci5ce1 ,f>aday became1 at tw5ty-two ye>s ( age1 ,davy's assi/ant 9 ! ,royal ,in/itution4 ,!re1 = sev]al ye>s1 he devot$ all 8 sp>e h\rs to sci5tific inve/igations & exp]im5ts1 p]fect+ himself 9 sci5tific te*nique4 ,a few ye>s lat] he became int]e/$1 l all ! sci5ti/s ( ! "t1 9 ,arago's exp]im5t ( rotat+ a copp] disk und]nea? a susp5d$ compass-ne$le4 ,:5 ?is disk 0 rotat$ rapidly1 ! ne$le 0 deflect$1 or ev5 rotat$ ab\t its axis1 9 a mann] q inexplicable4 ,f>aday at once conceiv$ ! idea t ! cause ( ?is rotation 0 due to electricity1 induc$ 9 ! revolv+ disk--n only conceiv$ x1 b put 8 belief 9 writ+4 ,= sev]al ye>s1 h[ev]1 he 0 unable to demon/rate ! tru? ( 8 assumption1 al?\gh he made repeat$ exp]im5ts to prove x4 ,b 9 #ahca he began a s]ies ( exp]im5ts t e/abli%$ =ev] ! fact ( electro-magnetic induction4 ,9 8 fam\s pap]1 read be=e ! ,royal ,society 9 #ahca1 ,f>aday describes ! me?od by :i* he fir/ demon/rat$ electro-magnetic induction1 & !n expla9$ ! ph5om5on ( ,arago's revolv+ disk4 ,ab\t tw5ty-six feet ( copp] wire1 "o-tw5tie? ( an in* 9 diamet]1 7 w\nd r\nd a cyl9d] ( wood z a helix1 he said1 ! diff]5t spires ( :i* 7 prev5t$ f t\*+ by a ?9 int]pos$ tw9e4 ,?is helix 0 cov]$ ) calico1 & !n a second wire appli$ 9 ! same mann]4 ,9 ?is way twelve helices 7 sup]pos$1 ea* conta9+ an av]age l5g? ( wire ( tw5ty-sev5 feet1 & all 9 ! same direction4 ,! fir/1 ?ird1 fif?1 sev5?1 n9?1 & elev5? ( ^! helices 7 connect$ at _! extremities end to end s z to =m "o helix2 ! o!rs 7 connect$ 9 a simil> mann]2 & ?us two pr9cipal helices 7 produc$1 closely int]pos$1 hav+ ! same direction1 n t\*+ any:]e1 & ea* conta9+ "o hundr$ & fifty-five feet 9 l5g? ( wire4 ,"o ( ^! helices 0 connect$ ) a galvanomet]1 ! o!r ) a voltaic batt]y ( t5 pairs ( plates f\r in*es squ>e1 ) d\ble copp]s & well *>g$2 yet n ! slighte/ s5sible deflection ( ! galvanomet] ne$le c\ld be obs]v$4 ,a simil> comp\nd helix1 consi/+ ( six l5g?s ( copp] & six ( s(t iron wire1 0 con/ruct$4 ,! result+ iron helix conta9$ two hundr$ & eight feet2 b :e!r ! curr5t f ! tr\gh 0 pass$ ?r\gh ! copp] or ! iron helix1 no effect ^u ! o!r c\ld be p]ceiv$ at ! galvanomet]4 ,9 ^! & _m simil> exp]im5ts no diff]5ce 9 action ( any k9d appe>$ betwe5 iron & o!r metals4 ,two hundr$ & ?ree feet ( copp] wire 9 "o l5g? 7 pass$ r\nd a l>ge block ( wood2 o!r two hundr$ & ?ree feet ( simil> wire 7 int]pos$ z a spiral betwe5 ! turns ( ! fir/1 & metallic contact ev]y:]e prev5t$ by tw9e4 ,"o ( ^! helices 0 connect$ ) a galvanomet] & ! o!r ) a batt]y ( a hundr$ pairs ( plates f\r in*es squ>e1 ) d\ble copp]s & well *>g$4 ,:5 ! contact 0 made1 !re 0 a sudd5 & v slight effect at ! galvanomet]1 & !re 0 also a simil> slight effect :5 ! contact ) ! batt]y 0 brok54 ,b :il/ ! voltaic curr5t 0 cont9u+ to pass ?r\gh ! "o helix1 no galvanometrical appe>ances ( any effect l induction ^u ! o!r helix c\ld be p]ceiv$1 al?\gh ! active p[] ( ! batt]y 0 prov$ to be great by its heat+ ! :ole ( its own helix1 & by ! brilliancy ( ! dis*>ge :5 made ?r\gh *>coal4 ,repetition ( ! exp]im5ts ) a batt]y ( "o hundr$ & tw5ty pairs ( plates produc$ no o!r effects2 b x 0 asc]ta9$1 bo? at ?is & at ! =m] "t1 t ! slight deflection ( ! ne$le occurr+ at ! mom5t ( complet+ ! connection 0 always 9 "o direction1 & t ! equally slight deflection produc$ :5 ! contact 0 brok5 0 9 ! o!r direction2 &1 also1 t ^! effects occurr$ :5 ! fir/ helices 7 us$4 ,! results :i* ,i _h by ?is "t obta9$ ) magnets l$ me to believe t ! batt]y curr5t ?r\gh "o wire did1 9 reality1 induce a simil> curr5t ?r\gh ! o!r wire1 b t x cont9u$ = an in/ant only1 & p>took m ( ! nature ( ! electrical wave pass$ ?r\gh f ! %ock ( a common ,leyd5 j> ?an ( t f a voltaic batt]y1 &1 !re=e1 might magnetize a /eel ne$le al?\gh x sc>cely affect$ ! galvanomet]4 ,?is expectation 0 confirm$2 = on sub/itut+ a small holl[ helix1 =m$ r\nd a glass tube1 = ! galvanomet]1 introduc+ a /eel ne$le1 mak+ contact z be=e betwe5 ! batt]y & ! induc+ wire1 & !n remov+ ! ne$le be=e ! batt]y contact 0 brok51 x 0 f\nd magnetiz$4 ,:5 ! batt]y contact 0 fir/ made1 !n an unmagnetiz$ ne$le introduc$1 & la/ly ! batt]y contact brok51 ! ne$le 0 f\nd magnetiz$ to an equal degree app>5tly ) ! fir/2 b ! poles 7 ( ! contr>y k9ds47#c7 ,to ,f>aday ^! exp]im5ts expla9$ ! ph5om5on ( ,arago's rotat+ disk1 ! disk induc+ ! curr5t f ! magnet1 &1 9 react+1 deflect+ ! ne$le4 ,to prove ?is1 he con/ruct$ a disk t revolv$ betwe5 ! poles ( an electro-magnet1 connect+ ! axis & ! edge ( ! disk ) a galvanomet]4 444 ,a disk ( copp]1 twelve in*es 9 diamet]1 fix$ ^u a brass axis1 he says1 0 m\nt$ 9 frames s z to be revolv$ ei!r v]tically or horizontally1 its edge be+ at ! same "t introduc$ m or less betwe5 ! magnetic poles4 ,! edge ( ! plate 0 well amalgamat$ = ! purpose ( obta9+ good b movable contact2 a "p r\nd ! axis 0 also prep>$ 9 a simil> mann]4 ,conductors or collectors ( copp] & lead 7 con/ruct$ s z to come 9 contact ) ! edge ( ! copp] disk1 or ) o!r =ms ( plates h]eaft] to be describ$4 ,^! conductors we're ab\t f\r in*es long1 "o-?ird ( an in* wide1 & "o-fif? ( an in* ?ick2 "o end ( ea* 0 slightly groov$1 to all[ ( m exact adaptation to ! some:at convex edge ( ! plates1 & !n amalgamat$4 ,copp] wires1 "o-sixte5? ( an in* 9 ?ickness1 atta*$ 9 ! ord9>y mann] by convolutions to ! o!r ends ( ^! conductors1 pass$ away to ! galvanomet]4 ,all ^! arrangem5ts be+ made1 ! copp] disk 0 adju/$1 ! small magnetic poles be+ ab\t "o-half an in* ap>t1 & ! edge ( ! plate ins]t$ ab\t half _! wid? betwe5 !m4 ,"o ( ! galvanomet] wires 0 pass$ twice or ?rice loosely r\nd ! brass axis ( ! plate1 & ! o!r atta*$ to a conductor1 :i* itself 0 reta9$ by ! h& 9 contact ) ! amalgamat$ edge ( ! disk at ! "p imm$iately betwe5 ! magnetic poles4 ,"u ^! circum/ances all 0 quiesc5t1 & ! galvanomet] exhibit$ no effect4 ,b ! in/ant ! plate mov$ ! galvanomet] 0 influ5c$1 & by revolv+ ! plate quickly ! ne$le c\ld be deflect$ n9ety degrees or m47#d7 ,?is rotat+ disk 0 really a dynamo electric ma*9e 9 m9iature1 ! fir/ ev] con/ruct$1 b ^: direct desc5dants are ! ord9>y dynamos4 ,mod]n dynamos range 9 p[] f little ma*9es op]at+ ma*9]y requir+ only fractions ( a horsep[] to great dynamos op]at+ /reet-c> l9es & light+ cities2 b all are built on ! same pr9ciple z ,f>aday's rotat+ disk4 ,by ?is discov]y ! use ( electricity z a practical & economical motive p[] became possible4 ,,/orage ,,batt]ies ,:5 ! discov]ies ( ,f>aday ( electro-magnetic induction _h made possible ! means ( easily g5]at+ electricity1 ! next natural /ep 0 to f9d a means ( /or+ x or accumulat+ x4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 prov$ no easy matt]1 & z yet a practical /orage or second>y batt]y t is nei!r too cumb]some1 too fragile1 nor too weak 9 its action has n be5 inv5t$4 ,if a satisfactory /orage batt]y c\ld be made1 x is obvi\s t its revolution>y effects c\ld sc>cely be ov]e/imat$4 ,9 ! s+le field ( a]onautics1 x w\ld probably solve ! "q ( a]ial navigation4 ,little wond]1 !n1 t inv5tors h s\ght s eag]ly = ! inv5tion ( satisfactory /orage batt]ies4 ,z e>ly z #ahjc ,ritt] _h attempt$ to make su* a second>y batt]y4 ,9 #ahdc ,grove also attempt$ x4 ,b x 0 n until #ahei1 :5 ,ga/on ,plan*e produc$ 8 inv5tion1 t any?+ l a reasonably satisfactory /orage batt]y 0 made4 ,plan*e discov]$ t %eets ( lead imm]s$ 9 dilute sulphuric acid 7 v satisfactory = ! production ( pol>ization effects4 ,he con/ruct$ a batt]y ( %eets ( lead imm]s$ 9 sulphuric acid1 &1 aft] *>g+ ^! = sev]al h\rs f ! cells ( an ord9>y ,buns5 batt]y1 0 able to get curr5ts ( great /r5g? & consid]able duration4 ,?is batt]y1 h[ev]1 f its con/ruction ( lead1 0 necess>ily heavy & cumb]some4 ,faure improv$ x some:at by coat+ ! lead plates ) r$-lead1 ?us increas+ ! capacity ( ! cell4 ,faure's inv5tion gave a fre% impetus to inv5tors1 & %ortly aft] ! m>ket 0 fill$ ) /orage batt]ies ( v>i\s k9ds1 mo/ ( !m modifications ( ,plan*e's or ,faure's4 ,! ardor ( en?usia/ic inv5tors soon flagg$1 h[ev]1 = all ^! /orage batt]ies prov$ ( little practical acc\nt 9 ! end1 z comp>$ ) o!r kn[n me?ods ( g5]at+ p[]4 ,?ree me?ods ( g5]at+ electricity are 9 g5]al use3 /atic or frictional electricity is g5]at$ by plate or /atic ma*9es2 galvanic1 g5]at$ by batt]ies bas$ on ,volta's discov]y2 & induc$1 or f>adic1 g5]at$ ei!r by *emical or me*anical action4 ,!re is /ill ano!r k9d1 !rmo-electricity1 t may be g5]at$ 9 a mo/ simple mann]4 ,9 #ahba ,seebecle1 ( ,b]l91 discov]$ t :5 a circuit 0 =m$ ( two wires ( diff]5t metals1 if !re be a diff]5ce 9 temp]ature at ! juncture ( ^! two metals an electrical curr5t w be e/abli%$4 ,9 ?is way heat may be transmitt$ directly into ! en]gy ( ! curr5t )\t ! int]position ( ! /eam-eng9e4 ,batt]ies con/ruct$ 9 ?is way are ( l[ resi/ance1 h[ev]1 al?\gh by arrang+ sev]al ( !m 9 s]ies1 curr5ts ( consid]able /r5g? c be g5]at$4 ,z yet1 h[ev]1 !y are ( little practical importance4 ,ab\t ! middle ( ! c5tury ,cl]k-,maxwell advanc$ ! idea t light waves 7 really electro-magnetic waves4 ,if ?is 7 true & light prov$ to be simply "o =m ( electrical en]gy1 !n ! same w\ld be true ( radiant heat4 ,maxwell advanc$ ?is !ory1 b fail$ to sub/antiate x by exp]im5tal confirmation4 ,b ,dr4 ,he9ri* ,h]tz1 a few ye>s lat]1 by a s]ies ( exp]im5ts1 demon/rat$ ! correctness ( ,maxwell's surmises4 ,:at are n[ call$ ,h]tzian waves are waves app>5tly id5tical ) light waves1 b ( mu* l[] pit* or p]iod4 ,9 8 exp]im5ts ,h]tz %[$ t1 "u prop] conditions1 electric sp>ks betwe5 poli%$ balls 7 att5d$ by e!r waves ( ! same nature z ^? ( light1 b ( a pit* ( sev]al millions ( vibrations p] second4 ,^! waves c\ld be dealt ) z if !y 7 light waves--reflect$1 refract$1 & pol>iz$4 ,^! are ! waves t are utiliz$ 9 wireless telegraphy4 ,,ro5tg5 ,,rays1 ,,or ,x-,,rays ,9 ,decemb] ( #ahie ^w came out ( ,g]many ( a sci5tific discov]y t />tl$ ! _w4 ,x came fir/ z a rumor1 little cr$it$2 !n z a pron\nc$ report2 at la/ z a demon/ration4 ,x told ( a new manife/ation ( en]gy1 9 virtue ( :i* ! int]ior ( opaque objects is made visible to human eyes4 ,"o _h only to look into a tube conta9+ a scre5 ( a c]ta9 composition1 & direct$ t[>ds a peculi> electrical app>atus1 to acquire clairvoyant vision m wond]ful ?an ! discr$it$ second-sight ( ! m$ium4 ,co9s )9 a purse1 nails driv5 into wood1 spectacles )9 a lea!r case1 became cle>ly visible :5 subject$ to ! influ5ce ( ?is magic tube2 & :5 a human h& 0 held be=e ! tube1 its bones /ood reveal$ 9 weird simplicity1 z if ! liv+1 palpitat+ fle% ab\t !m 7 b ! %ad[y sub/ance ( a gho/4 ,n only c\ld ! human eye see ^! a/\nd+ revelations1 b ! imp>tial evid5ce ( inanimate *emicals c\ld be br\ght =w>d to prove t ! m9d h>bor$ no illusion4 ,! photographic film record$ ! ?+s t ! eye might see1 & gho/ly pictures galore soon gave a quietus to ! d\bts ( ! mo/ sceptical4 ,)9 a mon? ( ! ann\ncem5t ( ,pr(essor ,ro5tg5's exp]im5ts comm5t ^u ! ,x-ray & ! new photography _h become a "p ( ! curr5t gossip ( all ,*ri/5dom4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to say t su* a revolution>y ?+ z ! discov]y ( a process :]eby opaque objects became transp>5t1 or transluc5t1 0 n a*iev$ at a s+le b\nd ) no int]m$iate discov]ies4 ,9 #ahei ! ,g]man physici/ ,julius ,pluck] 7#ahja-ahfh7 notic$ t :5 !re 0 an electrical dis*>ge ?r\gh an exhau/$ tube at a l[ pressure1 on ! surr\nd+ walls ( ! tube ne> ! negative pole1 or ca?ode1 appe>$ a gre5i% phosphoresc5ce4 ,?is discov]y 0 soon be+ inve/igat$ by a numb] ( o!r sci5ti/s1 among o!rs ,hittorf1 ,gold/e91 & ,pr(essor 7n[ ,sir ,william7 ,crookes4 ,! explanations giv5 ( ?is ph5om5on by ,pr(essor ,crookes conc]n u "h m p>ticul>ly1 inasmu* z 8 views did n accord exactly ) ^? held by ! o!r two sci5ti/s1 & z 8 rese>*es 7 m directly conc]n$ 9 ! discov]y ( ! ,ro5tg5 rays4 ,he held t ! heat & phosphoresc5ce produc$ 9 a l[-pressure tube 7 caus$ by /reams ( p>ticles1 project$ f ! ca?ode ) great velocity1 /rik+ ! sides ( ! glass tube4 ,! composition ( ! glass seem$ to ent] into ?is phosphoresc5ce also1 = :ile lead glass produc$ blue phosphoresc5ce1 soda glass produc$ a yell[i% gre54 ,! composition ( ! glass seem$ to be *ang$ by a long-cont9u$ pelt+ ( ^! p>ticles1 ! phosphoresc5ce aft] a "t los+ its initial brilliancy1 caus$ by ! glass becom+ tir$1 z ,pr(essor ,crookes said4 ,?us :5 "s opaque sub/ance1 su* z iron1 is plac$ betwe5 ! ca?ode & ! sides ( ! glass tube s t x ca/s a %ad[ 9 a c]ta9 spot on ! glass = "s little "t1 x is f\nd on remov+ ! opaque sub/ance or *ang+ its position t ! area ( glass at fir/ cov]$ by ! %ad[ n[ respond$ to ! rays 9 a diff]5t mann] f ! surr\nd+ glass4 ,! peculi> ray's1 n[ kn[n z ! ca?ode rays1 n only ca/ a %ad[1 b are deflect$ by a magnet1 s t ! position ( ! phosphoresc5ce on ! sides ( ! tube may be alt]$ by ! proximity ( a p[]ful magnet4 ,f ?is x w\ld seem t ! rays are compos$ ( p>ticles *>g$ ) negative electricity1 & ,pr(essor ,j4 ,j4 ,?omson has modifi$ ! exp]im5t ( ,p]r9 to %[ t negative electricity is actually associat$ ) ! rays4 ,!re is reason = believ+1 !re=e1 t ! ca?ode rays are rapidly mov+ *>ges ( negative electricity4 ,x is possible1 also1 to det]m9e ! velocity at :i* ^! p>ticles are mov+ by measur+ ! deflection produc$ by ! magnetic field4 ,f ! fact t opaque sub/ances ca/ a %ad[ 9 ^! rays x 0 ?\ght at fir/ t all solids 7 absolutely opaque to !m4 ,h]tz1 h[ev]1 discov]$ t a small am\nt ( phosphoresc5ce occurr$ on ! glass ev5 :5 su* opaque sub/ances z gold-leaf or alum9ium foil 7 int]pos$ betwe5 ! ca?ode & ! sides ( ! tube4 ,%ortly aft]w>ds ,l5>d discov]$ t ! ca?ode rays c be made to pass f ! inside ( a dis*>ge tube to ! outside air4 ,= conv5i5ce ^! rays outside ! tube h s9ce be5 kn[n z ,l5>d rays4 ,9 ! clos+ days ( ,decemb]1 #ahie1 ,pr(essor ,wilhelm ,konrad ,ro5tg51 ( ,wurzburg1 ann\nc$ t he _h made ! discov]y ( ! rem>kable effect aris+ f ! ca?ode rays to :i* ref]5ce 0 made above4 ,he f\nd t if a plate cov]$ ) a phosphoresc5t sub/ance is plac$ ne> a dis*>ge tube exhau/$ s highly t ! ca?ode rays produc$ a gre5 phosphoresc5ce1 ?is plate is made to gl[ 9 a peculi> mann]4 ,! rays produc+ ?is gl[ 7 n ! ca?ode rays1 al?\gh app>5tly aris+ f !m1 & are :at h s9ce be5 call$ ! ,ro5tg5 rays1 or ,x-rays4 ,ro5tg5 f\nd t a %ad[ is ?r[n ^u ! scre5 by sub/ances held betwe5 x & ! exhau/$ tube1 ! "* ( ! %ad[ dep5d+ ^u ! d5sity ( ! sub/ance4 ,?us metals are almo/ completely opaque to ! rays2 su* sub/ances z bone mu* less s1 & ord9>y fle% h>dly s at all4 ,if a co9 7 held 9 ! h& t _h be5 int]pos$ betwe5 ! tube & ! scre5 ! picture =m$ %[$ ! co9 z a black %ad[2 & ! bones ( ! h&1 :ile ca/+ a di/9ct %ad[1 %[$ di/9ctly light]2 :ile ! s(t tissues produc$ sc>cely any %ad[ at all4 ,! value ( su* a discov]y 0 obvi\s f ! fir/2 & 0 /ill fur!r enhanc$ by ! discov]y made %ortly t1 photographic plates are affect$ by ! rays1 ?us mak+ x possible to make p]man5t photographic records ( pictures ?r\gh :at we "k z opaque sub/ances4 ,:at adds mat]ially to ! practical value ( ,ro5tg5's discov]y is ! fact t ! app>atus = produc+ ! ,x-rays is n[ s simple & relatively inexp5sive t x is )9 ! rea* ev5 ( amateur sci5ti/s4 ,x consi/s ess5tially ( an induction coil atta*$ ei!r to cells or a /reet-curr5t plug = g5]at+ ! electricity1 a focus tube1 & a phosphoresc5ce scre54 ,^! focus tubes are made 9 v>i\s %apes1 b p]haps ! mo/ popul> are 9 ! =m ( a glass globe1 n unlike an ord9>y small-siz$ wat]-bottle1 ?is tube be+ clos$ & exhau/$1 & hav+ ! two poles 7anode & ca?ode7 seal$ into ! glass walls1 b protrud+ at ei!r end = atta*m5t to ! conduct+ wires f ! induction coil4 ,?is tube may be m\nt$ on a /& at a height conv5i5t = manipulation4 ,! phosphoresc5ce scre5 is usually a plate cov]$ ) "s plat9o-cyanide & m\nt$ 9 ! end ( a box ( conv5i5t size1 ! opposite end ( :i* is s %ap$ t x fits ! cont\r ( ! face1 %utt+ out ! light & all[+ ! eyes ( ! obs]v] to focalize on ! scre5 at ! end4 ,= mak+ obs]vations ! op]ator has simply to turn on ! curr5t ( electricity & apply ! scre5 to 8 eyes1 po9t+ x t[>ds ! gl[+ tube1 :5 ! %ad[ ( any sub/ance int]pos$ betwe5 ! tube & ! scre5 w appe> ^u ! phosphoresc5ce plate4 ,! wond]ful %ad[ pictures produc$ on ! phosphoresc5ce scre51 or ! photographic plate1 w\ld seem to come f "s peculi> =m ( light1 b ! exact nature ( ^! rays is /ill an op5 "q4 ,:e!r ! ,ro5tg5 rays are really a =m ( light--t is1 a =m ( electro-magnetic di/urbance propagat$ ?r\gh e!r1 is n fully det]m9$4 ,num]\s exp]im5ts h be5 und]tak5 to det]m9e ?is1 b z yet no pro( has be5 f\nd t ! rays are a =m ( light1 al?\gh !re appe>s to be no?+ 9 _! prop]ties inconsi/5t ) _! be+ s4 ,= ! mom5t mo/ inve/igators are cont5t to admit t ! t]m ,x-ray virtually begs ! "q z to ! intimate nature ( ! =m ( en]gy involv$4 ,,viii4 ,,! ,,cons]vation ,,( ,,en]gy ,z we h se51 x 0 9 #ahca t ,f>aday op5$ up ! field ( magneto-electricity4 ,rev]s+ ! exp]im5ts ( 8 pr$ecessors1 :o _h f\nd t electric curr5ts may g5]ate magnetism1 he %[$ t magnets h p[] "u c]ta9 circum/ances to g5]ate electricity2 he prov$1 inde$1 ! int]conv]tibility ( electricity & magnetism4 ,!n he %[$ t all bodies are m or less subject to ! influ5ce ( magnetism1 & t ev5 light may be affect$ by magnetism z to its ph5om5a ( pol>ization4 ,he satisfi$ himself completely ( ! true id5tity ( all ! v>i\s =ms ( electricity1 & ( ! conv]tibility ( electricity & *emical action4 ,?us he l9k$ toge!r light1 *emical aff9ity1 magnetism1 & electricity4 ,&1 moreov]1 he knew full well t no "o ( ^! c be produc$ 9 indef9ite supply f ano!r4 ,n[h]e1 he says1 is !re a pure creation or production ( p[] )\t a correspond+ exhau/ion ( some?+ to supply x4 ,:5 ,f>aday wrote ^? words 9 #ahdj he 0 tread+ on ! v heels ( a great] g5]alization ?an any :i* he actually =mulat$2 nay1 he _h x fairly )9 8 rea*4 ,he saw a great tru? )\t fully realiz+ its import2 x 0 left = o!rs1 approa*+ ! same tru? along ano!r pa?1 to po9t out its full significance4 ,! great g5]alization :i* ,f>aday s n>r[ly miss$ is ! tru? :i* s9ce !n has become famili> z ! doctr9e ( ! cons]vation ( en]gy--! law t 9 trans=m+ en]gy f "o condition to ano!r we c nev] secure m ?an an equival5t quantity2 t1 9 %ort1 to create or annihilate en]gy is z impossible z to create or annihilate matt]2 & t all ! ph5om5a ( ! mat]ial univ]se consi/ 9 trans=mations ( en]gy alone4 ,"s philosoph]s ?9k ?is ! greate/ g5]alization ev] conceiv$ by ! m9d ( man4 ,be t z x may1 x is surely "o ( ! great intellectual l&m>ks ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,x /&s ap>t1 s /up5d\s & s f>-rea*+ 9 its implications t ! g5]ation :i* fir/ saw ! law develop$ c\ld little appreciate x2 only n[1 ?r\gh ! vi/a ( half a c5tury1 d we beg9 to see x 9 its true proportions4 ,a va/ g5]alization su* z ?is is nev] a mu%room gr[?1 nor does x usually spr+ full gr[n f ! m9d ( any s+le man4 ,always a numb] ( m9ds are v ne> a tru? be=e any "o m9d fully grasps x4 ,pre-em95tly true is ?is ( ! doctr9e ( ! cons]vation ( en]gy4 ,n ,f>aday alone1 b half a doz5 diff]5t m5 _h an inkl+ ( x be=e x ga9$ full expression2 inde$1 e man :o advocat$ ! undulatory !ory ( light & heat 0 v]g+ t[>ds ! goal4 ,! doctr9e ( ,"y & ,fresnel 0 z a highway lead+ surely on to ! wide pla9 ( cons]vation4 ,! ph5om5a ( electro-magnetism furni%$ ano!r su* highway4 ,b !re 0 yet ano!r road :i* l$ j z surely & ev5 m readily to ! same goal4 ,?is 0 ! road furni%$ by ! ph5om5a ( heat1 & ! m5 :o travell$ x 7 de/9$ to out/rip _! fell[-work]s2 ?\gh1 z we h se51 wayf>]s on o!r roads 7 )9 hail+ di/ance :5 ! lead]s pass$ ! m>k4 ,9 ord] to d ev5 approximate ju/ice to ! m5 :o ent]$ into ! great a*ievem5t1 we mu/ recall t j at ! close ( ! eighte5? c5tury ,c\nt ,rum=d & ,humphry ,davy indep5d5tly %[$ t labor may be trans=m$ into heat2 & correctly int]pret$ ?is fact z mean+ ! trans=mation ( mol> into molecul> motion4 ,we c h>dly d\bt t ea* ( ^! m5 ( g5ius realiz$--vaguely1 at any rate--t !re mu/ be a close correspond5ce betwe5 ! am\nt ( ! mol> & ! molecul> motions2 h5ce t ea* ( !m 0 9 sight ( ! law ( ! me*anical equival5t ( heat4 ,b nei!r ( !m q grasp$ or explicitly /at$ :at ea* mu/ vaguely h se52 & = j a qu>t] ( a c5tury no "o else ev5 came abrea/ _! l9e ( ?\ght1 let alone pass+ x4 ,b !n1 9 #ahbd1 a ,fr5* philosoph]1 ,sadi ,c>not1 caught /ep ) ! great ,engli%m51 & took a long leap ahead by explicitly /at+ 8 belief t a def9ite quantity ( "w c\ld be trans=m$ into a def9ite quantity ( heat1 no m1 no less4 ,c>not did n1 inde$1 rea* ! cle> view ( 8 pr$ecessors z to ! nature ( heat1 = he /ill ?\ght x a =m ( impond]able fluid2 b he reason$ none ! less cle>ly z to its mutual conv]tibility ) me*anical "w4 ,b important z 8 conclusions seem n[ t we look back ^u !m ) cle>] vision1 !y made no impression :atev] ^u 8 contempor>ies4 ,c>not's "w 9 ?is l9e 0 an isolat$ ph5om5on ( hi/orical int]e/1 b x did n ent] into ! s*eme ( ! complet$ n>rative 9 any su* way z did ! "w ( ,rum=d & ,davy4 ,! man :o really took up ! brok5 ?read :]e ,rum=d & ,davy _h dropp$ x1 & wove x into a complet$ texture1 came ^u ! sc5e 9 #ahdj4 ,8 home 0 9 ,man*e/]1 ,engl&2 8 occupation t ( a manufactur]4 ,he 0 a fri5d & pupil ( ! great ,dr4 ,dalton4 ,8 "n 0 ,james ,prescott ,j\le4 ,:5 po/]ity has done its f9al juggl+ ) ! names ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 x is n unlikely t ! "n ( ?is ,man*e/] philosoph] w be a h\sehold ^w1 l ! names ( ,ari/otle1 ,cop]nicus1 & ,newton4 ,= ,j\le's "w x 01 done 9 ! fif? decade ( ! c5tury1 :i* demon/rat$ beyond all cavil t !re is a precise & absolute equival5ce betwe5 me*anical "w & heat2 t :atev] ! =m ( manife/ation ( mol> motion1 x c g5]ate a def9ite & measurable am\nt ( heat1 & no m4 ,j\le f\nd1 = example1 t at ! sea-level 9 ,man*e/] a p\nd weight fall+ ?r\gh sev5 hundr$ & sev5ty-two feet c\ld g5]ate en\gh heat to raise ! temp]ature ( a p\nd ( wat] "o degree ,fahr5heit4 ,!re 0 no?+ haphaz>d1 no?+ accid5tal1 ab\t ?is2 x bore ! /amp ( unalt]able law4 ,& ,j\le himself saw1 :at o!rs 9 "t 7 made to see1 t ?is tru? is m]ely a p>ticul> case )9 a m g5]al law4 ,if heat _c be 9 any s5se creat$1 b only made manife/ z a trans=mation ( ano!r k9d ( motion1 !n mu/ n ! same ?+ be true ( all ^? o!r =ms ( =ce--light1 electricity1 magnetism--:i* _h be5 %[n to be s closely associat$1 s mutually conv]tible1 ) heat8 ,all analogy seem$ to urge ! tru? ( ?is inf]5ce2 all exp]im5t t5d$ to confirm x4 ,! law ( ! me*anical equival5t ( heat !n became ! ma9 corn]-/one ( ! great] law ( ! cons]vation ( en]gy4 ,b :ile ?is citation is fre% 9 m9d1 we mu/ turn our att5tion ) all ha/e to a c\ntry across ! ,*annel--to ,d5m>k1 9 %ort--& le>n t ev5 z ,j\le exp]im5t$ ) ! trans=mation ( heat1 a philosoph] ( ,cop5hag51 ,cold+ by "n1 _h hit ^u ! same idea1 & c>ri$ x f> t[>ds a demon/ration4 ,& !n1 )\t paus+1 we mu/ %ift yet aga91 ?is "t to ,g]many1 & consid] ! "w ( ?ree o!r m51 :o indep5d5tly 7 on ! track ( ! same tru?1 & two ( :om1 x mu/ be admitt$1 rea*$ x e>li] ?an ei!r ,j\le or ,cold+1 if nei!r br\ght x to q s cle> a demon/ration4 ,! names ( ^! ?ree ,g]mans are ,mohr1 ,may]1 & ,helmholtz4 ,_! %>e 9 e/abli%+ ! great doctr9e ( cons]vation mu/ n[ claim our att5tion4 ,z to ,k>l ,fri$ri* ,mohr1 x may be said t 8 /atem5t ( ! doctr9e prec$$ t ( any ( 8 fell[s1 yet t o!rwise x 0 p]haps lea/ important4 ,9 #ahcg ?is ?\ghtful ,g]man _h grasp$ ! ma9 tru?1 & giv5 x expression 9 an article publi%$ 9 ! ,zeits*rift fur ,physik1 etc4 ,b ! article attract$ no att5tion :atev]1 ev5 f ,mohr's own c\ntrym54 ,/ill1 ,mohr's title to rank z "o :o indep5d5tly conceiv$ ! great tru?1 & p]haps conceiv$ x be=e any o!r man 9 ! _w saw x z cle>ly1 ev5 ?\gh he did n demon/rate its validity1 is n to be disput$4 ,x 0 j five ye>s lat]1 9 #ahdb1 t ,dr4 ,julius ,rob]t ,may]1 practis+ physician 9 ! little ,g]man t[n ( ,heilbronn1 publi%$ a pap] 9 ,liebig's ,annal5 on ,! ,=ces ( ,inorganic ,nature1 9 :i* n m]ely ! me*anical !ory ( heat1 b ! entire doctr9e ( ! cons]vation ( en]gy1 is explicitly if briefly /at$4 ,two ye>s e>li] ,dr4 ,may]1 :ile surgeon to a ,dut* ,india vessel cruis+ 9 ! tropics1 _h obs]v$ t ! v5\s blood ( a pati5t seem$ r$d] ?an v5\s blood usually is obs]v$ to be 9 temp]ate climates4 ,he pond]$ ov] ?is seem+ly insignificant fact1 & at la/ rea*$ ! conclusion t ! cause mu/ be ! less] am\nt ( oxidation requir$ to keep up ! body temp]ature 9 ! tropics4 ,l$ by ?is reflection to consid] ! body z a ma*9e dep5d5t on outside =ces = its capacity to act1 he pass$ on into a novel realm ( ?\ght1 :i* br\ght him at la/ to indep5d5t discov]y ( ! me*anical !ory ( heat1 & to ! fir/ full & compreh5sive appreciation ( ! great law ( cons]vation4 ,blood-lett+1 ! mod]n physician holds1 0 a practice ( v d\btful b5efit1 z a rule1 to ! subject2 b once1 at lea/1 x l$ to m>vell\s results4 ,no /raw is g small t x may n po9t ! receptive m9d ( g5ius to new & wond]ful tru?s4 ,,may]',s ,,pap] ,,( #ahdb ,! pap] 9 :i* ,may] fir/ gave expression to 8 revolution>y ideas bore ! title ( ,! ,=ces ( ,inorganic ,nature1 & 0 publi%$ 9 #ahdb4 ,x is "o ( ! gems ( sci5tific lit]ature1 & =tunately x is n too long to be quot$ 9 its entirety4 ,seldom if ev] 0 a great revolution>y doctr9e exp\nd$ 9 brief] compass3 ,:at are we to und]/& by '=ces'8 & h[ are diff]5t =ces relat$ to ea* o!r8 ,! t]m =ce conveys = ! mo/ "p ! idea ( some?+ unkn[n1 unse>*able1 & hypo!tical2 :ile ! t]m matt]1 on ! o!r h&1 implies ! possession1 by ! object 9 "q1 ( su* def9ite prop]ties z weight & ext5sion4 ,an attempt1 !re=e1 to r5d] ! idea ( =ce equally exact ) t ( matt] is "o :i* %\ld be welcom$ by all ^? :o desire to h _! views ( nature cle> & un5cumb]$ by hypo!sis4 ,=ces are causes2 & accord+ly we may make full application 9 relation to !m ( ! pr9ciple causa aequat effectum4 ,if ! cause c has ! effect e1 !n c e2 if1 9 its turn1 e is ! cause ( a second effect ( f1 we h e f1 & s on3 c e f444 c4 ,9 a s]ies ( causes & effects1 a t]m or a "p ( a t]m c nev]1 z is app>5t f ! nature ( an equation1 become equal to no?+4 ,?is fir/ prop]ty ( all causes we call _! inde/ructibility4 ,if ! giv5 cause c has produc$ an effect e equal to itself1 x has 9 t v act ceas$ to be--c has become e4 ,if1 aft] ! production ( e1 c /ill rema9$ 9 ! :ole or 9 "p1 !re mu/ be /ill fur!r effects correspond+ to ?is rema9+ cause3 ! total effect ( c w\ld ?us be e1 :i* w\ld be contr>y to ! supposition c e4 ,accord+ly1 s9ce c becomes e1 & e becomes f1 etc41 we mu/ reg>d ^! v>i\s magnitudes z diff]5t =ms "u :i* "o & ! same object makes its appe>ance4 ,?is capability ( assum+ v>i\s =ms is ! second ess5tial prop]ty ( all causes4 ,tak+ bo? prop]ties toge!r1 we may say1 causes an ,,inde/ructible quantitatively1 & quantitatively ,,conv]tible objects4 ,!re occur 9 nature two causes :i* app>5tly nev] pass "o into ! o!r1 said ,may]4 ,! fir/ class consi/s ( su* causes z possess ! prop]ties ( weight & imp5etrability4 ,^! are k9ds ( matt]4 ,! o!r class is compos$ ( causes :i* are want+ 9 ! prop]ties j m5tion$--namely1 =ces1 call$ also impond]ables1 f ! negative prop]ty t has be5 indicat$4 ,=ces are !re=e ,,inde/ructible1 ,,conv]tible1 ,,impond]able ,,objects4 ,z an example ( causes & effects1 take matt]3 explosive gas1 ,h ,o1 & wat]1 ,,ho1 are relat$ to ea* o!r z cause & effect2 !re=e ,h ,o ,,ho4 ,b if ,h ,o becomes ,,ho1 heat1 cal41 makes its appe>ance z well z wat]2 ?is heat mu/ likewise h a cause1 x1 & we h !re=e ,h ,o ,x ,,ho cal4 ,x might be ask$1 h[ev]1 :e!r ,h ,o is really ,,ho1 & x cal41 & n p]haps ,h ,o cal41 & x ,,ho1 :5ce ! above equation c\ld equally be d$uc$2 & s 9 _m o!r cases4 ,! phlogi/ic *emi/s recogniz$ ! equation betwe5 cal4 & x1 or phlogi/on z !y call$ x1 & 9 s do+ made a great /ep 9 advance2 b !y involv$ !mselves aga9 9 a sy/em ( mi/akes by putt+ x 9 place ( ,o4 ,9 ?is way !y obta9$ ,h ,,ho x4 ,*emi/ry tea*es u t matt]1 z a cause1 has matt] = its effect2 b we may say ) equal ju/ification t to =ce z a cause corresponds =ce z effect4 ,s9ce c e1 & e c1 x is natural to call "o t]m ( an equation a =ce1 & ! o!r an effect ( =ce1 or ph5om5on1 & to atta* diff]5t notions to ! expression =ce & ph5om5on4 ,9 brief1 !n1 if ! cause is matt]1 ! effect is matt]2 if ! cause is a =ce1 ! effect is also a =ce4 ,! cause t br+s ab\t ! rais+ ( a weight is a =ce4 ,! effect ( ! rais$ weight is1 !re=e1 also a =ce2 or1 express$ 9 a m g5]al =m1 ,,sep>ation ,,9 ,,space ,,( ,,pond]able ,,objects ,,is ,a ,,=ce2 & s9ce ?is =ce causes ! fall ( bodies1 we call x ,,fall+ ,,=ce4 ,fall+ =ce & fall1 or1 /ill m g5]ally1 fall+ =ce & motion1 are =ces relat$ to ea* o!r z cause & effect--=ces conv]tible into ea* o!r--two diff]5t =ms ( "o & ! same object4 ,= example1 a weight re/+ on ! gr\nd is n a =ce3 x is nei!r ! cause ( motion nor ( ! lift+ ( ano!r weight4 ,x becomes s1 h[ev]1 9 proportion z x is rais$ above ! gr\nd4 ,! cause--t is1 ! di/ance betwe5 a weight & ! e>?1 & ! effect1 or ! quantity ( motion produc$1 be> to ea* o!r1 z %[n by me*anics1 a con/ant relation4 ,gravity be+ reg>d$ z ! cause ( ! fall+ ( bodies1 a gravitat+ =ce is spok5 (2 & ?us ! ideas ( ,,prop]ty & ( ,,=ce are conf\nd$ ) ea* o!r4 ,precisely t :i* is ! ess5tial attribute ( e =ce--t is1 ! ,,union ( inde/ructibility ) conv]tibility--is want+ 9 e prop]ty3 betwe5 a prop]ty & a =ce1 betwe5 gravity & motion1 x is !re=e impossible to e/abli% ! equation requir$ = a rightly conceiv$ causal relation4 ,if gravity be call$ a =ce1 a cause is suppos$ :i* produces effects )\t itself dim9i%+1 & incorrect conceptions ( ! causal connections ( ?+s are !reby fo/]$4 ,9 ord] t a body may fall1 x is j z necess>y t x be lift$ up z t x %\ld be heavy or possess gravity4 ,! fall ( bodies1 !re=e1 ought n to be ascrib$ to _! gravity alone4 ,! problem ( me*anics is to develop ! equations :i* subsi/ betwe5 fall+ =ce & motion1 motion & fall+ =ce1 & betwe5 diff]5t motions4 ,"h is a case 9 po9t3 ,! magnitude ( ! fall+ =ce v is directly proportional 7! e>?'s radius be+ assum$--oo7 to ! magnitude ( ! mass m1 & ! height d1 to :i* x is rais$--t is1 v md4 ,if ! height d l1 to :i* ! mass m is rais$1 is trans=m$ into ! f9al velocity c l ( ?is mass1 we h also v mc2 b f ! kn[n relations exi/+ betwe5 d & c1 x results t1 = o!r values ( d or ( c1 ! measure ( ! =ce v is mc squ>$2 accord+ly v md mcsqu>$4 ,! law ( ! cons]vation ( vis viva is ?us f\nd to be bas$ on ! g5]al law ( ! inde/ructibility ( causes4 ,9 _m cases we see motion cease )\t hav+ caus$ ano!r motion or ! lift+ ( a weight4 ,b a =ce once 9 exi/5ce _c be annihilat$--x c only *ange its =m4 ,& ! "q !re=e arises1 :at o!r =ms is =ce1 :i* we h become acqua9t$ ) z fall+ =ce & motion1 capable ( assum+8 ,exp]i5ce alone c lead u to a conclusion on ?is po9t4 ,t we may exp]im5t to advantage1 we mu/ select implem5ts :i*1 besides caus+ a real cessation ( motion1 are z little z possible alt]$ by ! objects to be exam9$4 ,= example1 if we rub toge!r two metal plates1 we see motion disappe>1 & heat1 on ! o!r h&1 make its appe>ance1 & !re rema9s to be det]m9$ only :e!r ,,motion is ! cause ( heat4 ,9 ord] to rea* a decision on ?is po9t1 we mu/ discuss ! "q :e!r1 9 ! numb]less cases 9 :i* ! exp5diture ( motion is accompani$ by ! appe>ance ( heat1 ! motion has n "s o!r effect ?an ! production ( heat1 & ! heat "s o!r cause ?an ! motion4 ,a s]i\s attempt to asc]ta9 ! effects ( ceas+ motion has nev] be5 made4 ,)\t wi%+ to exclude a priori ! hypo!sis :i* x may be possible to e/abli%1 !re=e1 we obs]ve only t1 z a rule1 ?is effect _c be suppos$ to be an alt]ation 9 ! /ate ( aggregation ( ! mov$ 7t is1 rubb+1 etc47 bodies4 ,if we assume t a c]ta9 quantity ( motion v is exp5d$ 9 ! conv]sion ( a rubb+ sub/ance m into n1 we mu/ !n h m v - n1 & n m v2 & :5 n is reconv]t$ into m1 v mu/ appe> aga9 9 "s =m or o!r4 ,by ! friction ( two metallic plates cont9u$ = a v long "t1 we c gradually cause ! cessation ( an imm5se quantity ( movem5t2 b w\ld x ev] occur to u to look = ev5 ! smalle/ trace ( ! =ce :i* has disappe>$ 9 ! metallic du/ t we c\ld collect1 & to try to rega9 x !nce8 ,we repeat1 ! motion _c h be5 annihilat$2 & contr>y1 or positive & negative1 motions _c be reg>d$ z o any m ?an contr>y motions c come out ( no?+1 or a weight c raise itself4 ,)\t ! recognition ( a causal relation betwe5 motion & heat1 x is j z difficult to expla9 ! production ( heat z x is to give any acc\nt ( ! motion t disappe>s4 ,! heat _c be d]iv$ f ! dim9ution ( ! volume ( ! rubb+ sub/ances4 ,x is well kn[n t two pieces ( ice may be melt$ by rubb+ !m toge!r 9 vacuo2 b let any "o try to conv]t ice into wat] by pressure1 h[ev] enorm\s4 ,! au?or has f\nd t wat] und]goes a rise ( temp]ature :5 %ak5 viol5tly4 ,! wat] s heat$ 7f twelve to ?irte5 degrees c5tigrade7 has a great] bulk aft] be+ %ak5 ?an x _h be=e4 ,:5ce n[ comes ?is quantity ( heat1 :i* by repeat$ %ak+ may be call$ into exi/5ce 9 ! same app>atus z (t5 z we please8 ,! vibratory hypo!sis ( heat is an approa* t[>ds ! doctr9e ( heat be+ ! effect ( motion1 b x does n favor ! admission ( ?is causal relation 9 its full g5]ality4 ,x r lays ! *ief /ress on re/less oscillations4 ,if x be consid]$ z n[ e/abli%$ t 9 _m cases no o!r effect ( motion c be trac$ except heat1 & t no o!r cause ?an motion c be f\nd = ! heat t is produc$1 we pref] ! assumption t heat proce$s f motion to ! assumption ( a cause )\t effect & ( an effect )\t a cause4 ,j z ! *emi/1 in/ead ( all[+ oxyg5 & hydrog5 to disappe> )\t fur!r inve/igation1 & wat] to be produc$ 9 "s inexplicable mann]1 e/abli%es a connection betwe5 oxyg5 & hydrog5 on ! "o h&1 & wat] on ! o!r4 ,we may conceive ! natural connection exi/+ betwe5 fall+ =ce1 motion1 & heat z foll[s3 ,we "k t heat makes its appe>ance :5 ! sep>ate p>ticles ( a body approa* ne>] to ea* o!r2 cond5sation produces heat4 ,& :at applies to ! smalle/ p>ticles ( matt]1 & ! smalle/ int]vals betwe5 !m1 mu/ also apply to l>ge masses & to measurable di/ances4 ,! fall+ ( a weight is a dim9ution ( ! bulk ( ! e>?1 & mu/ !re=e )\t d\bt be relat$ to ! quantity ( heat !reby develop$2 ?is quantity ( heat mu/ be proportional to ! greatness ( ! weight & its di/ance f ! gr\nd4 ,f ?is po9t ( view we are easily l$ to ! equations betwe5 fall+ =ce1 motion1 & heat t h already be5 discuss$4 ,b j z little z ! connection betwe5 fall+ =ce & motion au?orizes ! conclusion t ! ess5ce ( fall+ =ce is motion1 c su* a conclusion be adopt$ 9 ! case ( heat4 ,we are1 on ! contr>y1 r incl9$ to inf] t1 be=e x c become heat1 motion mu/ cease to exi/ z motion1 :e!r simple1 or vibratory1 z 9 ! case ( light & radiant heat1 etc4 ,if fall+ =ce & motion are equival5t to heat1 heat mu/ also naturally be equival5t to motion & fall+ =ce4 ,j z heat appe>s z an ,,effect ( ! dim9ution ( bulk & ( ! cessation ( motion1 s also does heat disappe> z a ,,cause :5 its effects are produc$ 9 ! %ape ( motion1 expansion1 or rais+ ( weight4 ,9 wat]-mills ! cont9ual dim9ution 9 bulk :i* ! e>? und]goes1 ow+ to ! fall ( ! wat]1 gives rise to motion1 :i* aft]w>ds disappe>s aga91 call+ =? unceas+ly a great quantity ( heat2 &1 inv]sely1 ! /eam-eng9e s]ves to decompose heat aga9 into motion or ! rais+ ( weights4 ,a locomotive ) its tra9 may be comp>$ to a di/ill+ app>atus2 ! heat appli$ "u ! boil] passes (f z motion1 & ?is is deposit$ aga9 z heat at ! axles ( ! :eels4 ,may] !n closes 8 pap] ) ! foll[+ d$uction3 ,! solution ( ! equations subsi/+ betwe5 fall+ =ce & motion requires t ! space fall5 ?r\gh 9 a giv5 "t--e4 g41 ! fir/ second--%\ld be exp]im5tally det]m9$4 ,9 l mann]1 ! solution ( ! equations subsi/+ betwe5 fall+ =ce & motion on ! "o h& & heat on ! o!r requires an answ] to ! "q1 ,h[ great is ! quantity ( heat :i* corresponds to a giv5 quantity ( motion or fall+ =ce8 ,= in/ance1 we mu/ asc]ta9 h[ high a giv5 weight requires to be rais$ above ! gr\nd 9 ord] t its fall+ =ce maybe equival5t to ! rais+ ( ! temp]ature ( an equal weight ( wat] f #j degrees to #a degrees c5tigrade4 ,! attempt to %[ t su* an equation is ! expression ( a physical tru? may be reg>d$ z ! sub/ance ( ! =ego+ rem>ks4 ,by apply+ ! pr9ciples t h be5 set =? to ! relations subsi/+ betwe5 ! temp]ature & ! volume ( gases1 we f9d t ! s9k+ ( a m]cury column by :i* a gas is compress$ is equival5t to ! quantity ( heat set free by ! compression2 & h5ce x foll[s1 ! ratio betwe5 ! capacity = heat ( air "u con/ant pressure & its capacity "u con/ant volume be+ tak5 z #a4dba1 t ! w>m+ ( a giv5 weight ( wat] f #j degrees to equal weight f ! height ( ab\t ?ree hundr$ & sixty-five metres4 ,if we comp>e ) ?is result ! work+ ( our be/ /eam-eng9es1 we see h[ small a "p only ( ! heat appli$ "u ! boil] is really trans=m$ into motion or ! rais+ ( weights2 & ?is may s]ve z ju/ification = ! attempts at ! pr(itable production ( motion by "s o!r me?od ?an ! exp5diture ( ! *emical diff]5ce betwe5 c>bon & oxyg5--m p>ticul>ly by ! trans=mation into motion ( electricity obta9$ by *emical means47#a7 ,,may] ,,& ,,helmholtz ,"h1 !n1 0 ?is obscure ,g]man physician1 lead+ ! humdrum life ( a village practition]1 yet see+ su* visions z no human be+ 9 ! _w _h ev] se5 be=e4 ,! great pr9ciple he _h discov]$ became ! dom9at+ ?\ght ( 8 life1 & fill$ all 8 leisure h\rs4 ,he appli$ x f> & wide1 amid all ! ph5om5a ( ! inorganic & organic worlds4 ,x taught him t bo? vegetables & animals are ma*9es1 b\nd by ! same laws t hold sway ov] inorganic matt]1 trans=m+ en]gy1 b creat+ no?+4 ,!n 8 m9d rea*$ out into space & met a univ]se made up ( que/ions4 ,ea* /> t bl9k$ d[n at him z he rode 9 answ] to a night-call seem$ an int]rogation-po9t ask+1 ,h[ d ,i exi/8 ,:y h ,i n long s9ce burn$ out if y\r !ory ( cons]vation be true8 ,no "o _h hi!rto ev5 tri$ to answ] t "q2 few _h s mu* z realiz$ t x dem&$ an answ]4 ,b ! ,heilbronn physician und]/ood ! "q & f\nd an answ]4 ,8 meteoric hypo!sis1 publi%$ 9 #ahdh1 gave = ! fir/ "t a t5able explanation ( ! p]si/5t light & heat ( our sun & ! myriad o!r suns--an explanation to :i* we %all recur 9 ano!r connection4 ,all ?is "t our isolat$ philosoph]1 8 bra9 aflame ) ! gl[ ( creative ?\ght1 0 q unaw>e t any "o else 9 ! _w 0 work+ along ! same l9es4 ,& ! outside _w 0 equally he$less ( ! "w ( ! ,heilbronn physician4 ,!re 0 no fri5d to inspire en?usiasm & give c\rage1 no k9dr$ _s to react on ?is ma/]ful b lonely m9d4 ,& ?is is ! m rem>kable because !re are few o!r cases :]e a ma/]-orig9ator 9 sci5ce has come ^u ! sc5e except z ! pupil or fri5d ( "s o!r ma/]-orig9ator4 ,( ! m5 we h notic$ 9 ! pres5t connection1 ,"y 0 ! fri5d & confr]e ( ,davy2 ,davy1 ! protege ( ,rum=d2 ,f>aday1 ! pupil ( ,davy2 ,fresnel1 ! co-work] ) ,arago2 ,cold+1 ! confr]e ( ,o]/$2 ,j\le1 ! pupil ( ,dalton4 ,b ,may] is an isolat$ ph5om5on--"o ( ! lone m\nta9-peak intellects ( ! c5tury4 ,t e/imate may be exagg]at$ :i* has call$ him ! ,galileo ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 b surely no lukew>m praise c d him ju/ice4 ,yet = a long "t 8 "w attract$ no att5tion :atev]4 ,9 #ahdg1 :5 ano!r ,g]man physician1 ,h]mann von ,helmholtz1 "o ( ! mo/ massive & t[]+ intellects ( any age1 _h be5 indep5d5tly l$ to compreh5sion ( ! doctr9e ( ! cons]vation ( en]gy & publi%$ 8 treatise on ! subject1 he _h h>dly he>d ( 8 c\ntryman ,may]4 ,:5 he did he> ( him1 h[ev]1 he ha/5$ to r5\nce all claim to ! doctr9e ( cons]vation1 ?\gh ! _w at l>ge gives him cr$it ( indep5d5t ev5 ?\gh subsequ5t discov]y4 ,,j\le',s ,,pap] ,,( #ahdc ,meantime1 9 ,engl&1 ,j\le 0 go+ on f "o exp]im5tal demon/ration to ano!r1 oblivi\s ( 8 ,g]man competitors & almo/ z little notic$ by 8 own c\ntrym54 ,he read 8 fir/ pap] be=e ! *emical section ( ! ,briti% ,association = ! ,advancem5t ( ,sci5ce 9 #ahdc1 & no "o he$$ x 9 ! lea/4 ,x is well wor? our :ile1 h[ev]1 to consid] x at l5g?4 ,x be>s ! title1 ,on ! ,calorific ,effects ( ,magneto-,electricity1 & ! ,me*anical ,value ( ,heat4 ,! full text1 z publi%$ 9 ! ,report ( ! ,briti% ,association1 is z foll[s3 ,al?\gh x has be5 long kn[n t f9e plat9um wire c be ignit$ by magneto-electricity1 x /ill rema9$ a matt] ( d\bt :e!r heat 0 evolv$ by ! ,,coils 9 :i* ! magneto-electricity 0 g5]at$2 & x seem$ inde$ n unreasonable to suppose t ,,cold 0 produc$ !re 9 ord] to make up = ! heat evolv$ by ! o!r "p ( ! circuit4 ,! au?or !re=e has endeavor$ to cle> up ?is unc]ta9ty by exp]im5t4 ,8 app>atus consi/$ ( a small comp\nd electro-magnet1 imm]s$ 9 wat]1 revolv+ betwe5 ! poles ( a p[]ful /ation>y magnet4 ,! magneto-electricity develop$ 9 ! coils ( ! revolv+ electro-magnet 0 measur$ by an accurate galvanomet]2 & ! temp]ature ( ! wat] 0 tak5 be=e & aft] ea* exp]im5t by a v delicate !rmomet]4 ,! influ5ce ( ! temp]ature ( ! surr\nd+ atmosph]ic air 0 gu>d$ aga9/ by cov]+ ! revolv+ tube ) flannel1 etc41 & by ! adoption ( a sy/em ( int]polation4 ,by an ext5sive s]ies ( exp]im5ts ) ! above app>atus ! au?or succe$$ 9 prov+ t heat is evolv$ by ! coils ( ! magneto-electrical ma*9e1 z well z by any o!r "p ( ! circuit1 9 proportion to ! resi/ance to conduction ( ! wire & ! squ>e ( ! curr5t2 ! magneto hav+1 "u comp>able circum/ances1 ! same calorific p[] z ! voltaic electricity4 ,pr(essor ,jacobi1 ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 bad %[n t ! motion ( an electro-magnetic ma*9e g5]ates magneto-electricity 9 opposition to ! voltaic curr5t ( ! batt]y4 ,! au?or _h obs]v$ ! same ph5om5on on arrang+ 8 app>atus z an electro-magnetic ma*9e2 b _h f\nd t no additional heat 0 evolv$ on acc\nt ( ! conflict ( =ces 9 ! coil ( ! electro-magnet1 & t ! heat evolv$ by ! coil rema9$1 z be=e1 proportional to ! squ>e ( ! curr5t4 ,aga91 by turn+ ! ma*9e contr>y to ! direction ( ! attractive =ces1 s z to increase ! int5sity ( ! voltaic curr5t by ! assi/ance ( ! magneto-electricity1 he f\nd t ! evolution ( heat 0 /ill proportional to ! squ>e ( ! curr5t4 ,! au?or discov]$1 !re=e1 t ! heat evolv$ by ! voltaic curr5t is inv>iably proportional to ! squ>e ( ! curr5t1 h[ev] ! int5sity ( ! curr5t may be v>i$ by magnetic induction4 ,b ,dr4 ,f>aday has %[n t ! *emical effects ( ! curr5t are simply z its quantity4 ,!re=e he conclud$ t 9 ! electro-magnetic eng9e a "p ( ! heat due to ! *emical actions ( ! batt]y is lo/ by ! circuit1 & conv]t$ into me*anical p[]2 & t :5 ! electro-magnetic eng9e is turn$ ,,contr>y to ! direction ( ! attractive =ces1 a great] quantity ( heat is evolv$ by ! circuit ?an is due to ! *emical reactions ( ! batt]y1 ! ov]-plus quantity be+ produc$ by ! conv]sion ( ! me*anical =ce ex]t$ 9 turn+ ! ma*9e4 ,by a dynamometrical app>atus atta*$ to 8 ma*9e1 ! au?or has asc]ta9$ t1 9 all ! above cases1 a quantity ( heat1 capable ( increas+ ! temp]ature ( a p\nd ( wat] by "o degree ( ,fahr5heit's scale1 is equal to ! me*anical =ce capable ( rais+ a weight ( ab\t eight hundr$ & ?irty p\nds to ! height ( "o foot47#b7 ,,j\le ,,or ,,may]8 ,two ye>s lat] ,j\le wi%$ to read ano!r pap]1 b ! *airman h9t$ t "t 0 limit$1 & ask$ him to conf9e himself to a brief v]bal synopsis ( ! results ( 8 exp]im5ts4 ,_h ! *airman b kn[n x1 he 0 curtail+ a pap] va/ly m important ?an all ! o!r pap]s ( ! meet+ put toge!r4 ,h[ev]1 ! synopsis 0 giv51 & "o man 0 !re to he> x :o _h ! g5ius to appreciate its importance4 ,?is 0 ,william ,?omson1 ! pres5t ,"l ,kelv91 n[ kn[n to all ! _w z among ! greate/ ( natural philosoph]s1 b !n only a novitiate 9 sci5ce4 ,he came to ,j\le's aid1 />t$ roll+ ! ball ( controv]sy1 & subsequ5tly associat$ himself ) ! ,man*e/] exp]im5t] 9 pursu+ 8 inve/igations4 ,b meantime ! ackn[l$g$ lead]s ( ,briti% sci5ce view$ ! new doctr9e askance4 ,f>aday1 ,brew/]1 ,h]s*el--^? 7 ! great names 9 physics at t day1 & no "o ( !m c\ld q accept ! new views reg>d+ en]gy4 ,= sev]al ye>s no old] physici/1 speak+ ) recogniz$ au?ority1 came =w>d 9 support ( ! doctr9e ( cons]vation4 ,?is culm9at+ ?\ght ( ! fir/ half ( ! n9ete5? c5tury came sil5tly into ! _w1 unh]ald$ & unoppos$4 ,! fif? decade ( ! c5tury _h se5 x elaborat$ & sub/antially demon/rat$ 9 at lea/ ?ree diff]5t c\ntries1 yet ev5 ! lead]s ( ?\ght did n s mu* z "k ( its exi/5ce4 ,9 #ahec ,:ewell1 ! hi/orian ( ! inductive sci5ces1 publi%$ a second edition ( 8 hi/ory1 &1 z ,huxley has po9t$ out1 he did n s mu* z ref] to ! revolutioniz+ ?\ght :i* ev5 !n 0 a full decade old4 ,by ?is "t1 h[ev]1 ! battle 0 brew+4 ,! ris+ g5]ation saw ! importance ( a law :i* _! eld]s c\ld n appreciate1 & soon x 0 nois$ abroad t !re 7 m ?an "o claimant to ! honor ( discov]y4 ,*iefly ?r\gh ! ef=ts ( ,pr(essor ,tyndall1 ! "w ( ,may] became kn[n to ! ,briti% public1 & a mo/ regrettable controv]sy ensu$ betwe5 ! p>tisans ( ,may] & ^? ( ,j\le--a bitt] controv]sy1 9 :i* ,davy's cont5tion t sci5ce kn[s no c\ntry 0 n always reg>d$1 & :i* left its sc>s ^u ! he>ts & m9ds ( ! great m5 ^: p]sonal int]e/s 7 involv$4 ,& s to ?is day ! "q :o is ! *ief discov]] ( ! law ( ! cons]vation ( en]gy is n susceptible ( a categorical answ] t w\ld satisfy all philosoph]s4 ,x is g5]ally held t ! fir/ *oice lies betwe5 ,j\le & ,may]4 ,pr(essor ,tyndall has express$ ! belief t 9 future ea* ( ^! m5 w be equally rememb]$ 9 connection ) ?is "w4 ,b hi/ory gives u no w>rant = su* a hope4 ,po/]ity 9 ! long run dem&s always t its h]oes %all /& alone4 ,:o rememb]s n[ t ,rob]t ,hooke conte/$ ) ,newton ! discov]y ( ! doctr9e ( univ]sal gravitation8 ,! judgm5t ( po/]ity is unju/1 b x is inexorable4 ,& s we c little d\bt t a c5tury f n[ "o "n w be m5tion$ z t ( ! orig9ator ( ! great doctr9e ( ! cons]vation ( en]gy4 ,! man ^: "n is ?us rememb]$ w p]haps be spok5 ( z ! ,galileo1 ! ,newton1 ( ! n9ete5? c5tury2 b :e!r ! "n ?us dignifi$ by ! f9al v]dict ( hi/ory w be t ( ,cold+1 ,mohr1 ,may]1 ,helmholtz1 or ,j\le1 is n z1 yet decid$4 ,,"l ,,kelv9 ,,& ,,! ,,dissipation ,,( ,,en]gy ,! gradual p]meation ( ! field by ! great doctr9e ( cons]vation simply repeat$ ! hi/ory ( ! introduction ( e novel & revolution>y ?\ght4 ,necess>ily ! eld] g5]ation1 to :om all =ms ( en]gy 7 impond]able fluids1 mu/ pass away be=e ! new conception c\ld claim ! field4 ,ev5 ! ^w en]gy1 ?\gh ,"y _h introduc$ x 9 #ahjg1 did n come into g5]al use till "s "t aft] ! middle ( ! c5tury4 ,to ! g5]ality ( philosoph]s 7! ^w physici/ 0 ev5 less 9 favor at ?is "t7 ! v>i\s =ms ( en]gy 7 /ill subtile fluids1 & nev] 0 idea rel9qui%$ ) great] unwill+ness ?an ?is4 ,! exp]im5ts ( ,"y & ,fresnel _h conv9c$ a l>ge numb] ( philosoph]s t light is a vibration & n a sub/ance2 b s great an au?ority z ,biot clung to ! old emission idea to ! end ( 8 life1 9 #ahfb1 & held a foll[+4 ,meantime1 h[ev]1 ! company ( brilliant "y m5 :o _h j s]v$ _! appr5tice%ip :5 ! doctr9e ( cons]vation came ^u ! sc5e _h gr[n into au?oritative positions1 & 7 battl+ actively = ! new ideas4 ,confirmatory evid5ce t en]gy is a molecul> motion & n an impond]able =m ( matt] accumulat$ day by day4 ,! exp]im5ts ( two ,fr5*m51 ,hippolyte ,l4 ,fizeau & ,leon ,f\cault1 s]v$ f9ally to conv9ce ! la/ l+]+ sceptics t light is an undulation2 & by implication br\ght heat into ! same category1 s9ce ,james ,david ,=bes1 ! ,scot* physici/1 _h %[n 9 #ahcg t radiant heat con=ms to ! same laws ( pol>ization & d\ble refraction t gov]n light4 ,b1 = t matt]1 ! exp]im5ts t _h e/abli%$ ! me*anical equival5t ( heat h>dly left room = d\bt z to ! immat]iality ( ?is impond]able4 ,d\bt]s _h inde$1 express$ scepticism z to ! validity ( ,j\le's exp]im5ts1 b ! fur!r rese>*es1 exp]im5tal & ma!matical1 ( su* work]s z ,?omson 7,"l ,kelv971 ,rank9e1 & ,tyndall 9 ,great ,brita91 ( ,helmholtz & ,clausius 9 ,g]many1 & ( ,regnault 9 ,france1 deal+ ) v>i\s manife/ations ( heat1 plac$ ! evid5ce beyond ! rea* ( criticism4 ,out ( ^! /udies1 j at ! middle ( ! c5tury1 to :i* ! exp]im5ts ( ,may] & ,j\le _h l$1 grew ! new sci5ce ( !rmo-dynamics4 ,out ( !m also grew 9 ! m9d ( "o ( ! inve/igators a new g5]alization1 only second 9 importance to ! doctr9e ( cons]vation itself4 ,pr(essor ,william ,?omson 7,"l ,kelv97 9 8 /udies 9 !rmodynamics 0 e>ly impress$ ) ! fact t :]eas all ! mol> motion develop$ ?r\gh labor or gravity c\ld be conv]t$ into heat1 ! process is n fully rev]sible4 ,heat c1 inde$1 be conv]t$ into mol> motion or "w1 b 9 ! process a c]ta9 am\nt ( ! heat is radiat$ into space & lo/4 ,! same ?+ happ5s :5ev] any o!r =m ( en]gy is conv]t$ into mol> motion4 ,inde$1 e transmutation ( en]gy1 ( :atev] "*1 seems complicat$ by a t5d5cy to develop heat1 "p ( :i* is lo/4 ,?is obs]vation l$ ,pr(essor ,?omson to 8 doctr9e ( ! dissipation ( en]gy1 :i* he =mulat$ be=e ! ,royal ,society ( ,ed9burgh 9 #aheb1 & publi%$ also 9 ! ,philosophical ,magaz9e ! same ye>1 ! title borne be+1 ,on a ,univ]sal ,t5d5cy 9 ,nature to ! ,dissipation ( ,me*anical ,en]gy4 ,f ! pr9ciple "h express$ ,pr(essor ,?omson drew ! />tl+ conclusion t1 s9ce any re/oration ( ?is me*anical en]gy )\t m ?an an equival5t dissipation is impossible1 ! univ]se1 z kn[n to u1 mu/ be 9 ! condition ( a ma*9e gradually runn+ d[n2 & 9 p>ticul> t ! _w we live on has be5 )9 a f9ite "t unfit = human habitation1 & mu/ aga9 become s )9 a f9ite future4 ,?is ?\ght seems su* a commonplace to-day t x is difficult to realize h[ />tl+ x appe>$ half a c5tury ago4 ,a g5]ation tra9$1 z ours has be51 9 ! doctr9es ( ! cons]vation & dissipation ( en]gy z ! v alphabet ( physical sci5ce c b ill appreciate ! m5tal attitude ( a g5]ation :i* = ! mo/ "p _h n ev5 ?\ght x problematical :e!r ! sun c\ld cont9ue to give out heat & light =ev]4 ,b ^? advance ?9k]s :o _h grasp$ ! import ( ! doctr9e ( cons]vation c\ld at once appreciate ! =ce ( ,?omson's doctr9e ( dissipation1 & realize ! complem5t>y "* ( ! two conceptions4 ,"h & !re a ?9k] l ,rank9e did1 inde$1 attempt to fancy conditions "u :i* ! en]gy lo/ ?r\gh dissipation might be re/or$ to availability1 b no su* ef=t has met ) success1 & 9 "t ,pr(essor ,?omson's g5]alization & 8 conclusions z to ! consequ5ces ( ! law involv$ came to be univ]sally accept$4 ,! introduction ( ! new views reg>d+ ! nature ( en]gy foll[$1 z ,i h said1 ! c\rse ( e o!r gr[? ( new ideas4 ,"y & imag9ative m5 c\ld accept ! new po9t ( view2 old] philosoph]s1 _! m9ds *annell$ by preconceptions1 c\ld n get into ! new groove4 ,s /rik+ly true is ?is 9 ! p>ticul> case n[ be=e u t x is wor? :ile to note ! ages at ! "t ( ! revolution>y exp]im5ts ( ! m5 ^: "w has be5 m5tion$ z ent]+ into ! s*eme ( evolution ( ! idea t en]gy is m]ely a manife/ation ( matt] 9 motion4 ,su* a li/ w tell ! /ory bett] ?an a volume ( comm5t>y4 ,obs]ve1 !n1 t ,davy made 8 epo*al exp]im5t ( melt+ ice by friction :5 he 0 a y\? ( tw5ty4 ,"y 0 no old] :5 he made 8 fir/ communication to ! ,royal ,society1 & 0 9 8 tw5ty-sev5? ye> :5 he fir/ actively esp\s$ ! undulatory !ory4 ,fresnel 0 tw5ty-six :5 he made 8 fir/ important discov]ies 9 ! same field2 & ,arago1 :o at once became 8 *ampion1 0 !n b two ye>s 8 s5ior1 ?\gh = a decade he _h be5 s fam\s t "o involunt>ily ?9ks ( him z belong+ to an eld] g5]ation4 ,=bes 0 "u ?irty :5 he discov]$ ! pol>ization ( heat1 :i* po9t$ ! way to ,mohr1 !n ?irty-"o1 to ! me*anical equival5t4 ,j\le 0 tw5ty-two 9 #ahdj1 :5 8 great "w 0 begun2 & ,may]1 ^: discov]ies date f ! same ye>1 0 !n tw5ty-six1 :i* 0 also ! age ( ,helmholtz :5 he publi%$ 8 indep5d5t discov]y ( ! same law4 ,william ,?omson 0 a y\? j pa/ 8 majority :5 he came to ! aid ( ,j\le be=e ! ,briti% ,society1 & b sev5 ye>s old] :5 he =mulat$ 8 own doctr9e ( ! dissipation ( en]gy4 ,& ,clausius & ,rank9e1 :o are usually m5tion$ ) ,?omson z ! great develop]s ( !rmo-dynamics1 7 bo? f> advanc$ ) _! novel /udies be=e !y 7 ?irty4 ,) su* a li/ 9 m9d1 we may well agree ) ! fa!r ( inductive sci5ce t ! man :o is "y 9 ye>s may be old 9 h\rs4 ,yet we mu/ n =get t ! %ield has a rev]se side4 ,= 0 n ! greate/ ( obs]v+ a/ronom]s1 ,h]s*el1 pa/ ?irty-five be=e he ev] saw a telescope1 & pa/ fifty be=e he discov]$ ! heat rays ( ! spectrum8 ,& _h n ,f>aday rea*$ middle life be=e he turn$ 8 att5tion especially to electricity8 ,cle>ly1 !n1 to make ?is phrase complete1 ,bacon %\ld h add$ t ! man :o is old 9 ye>s may be "y 9 imag9ation4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 ev5 m appropriate ?an 9 ! o!r case--m's ! pity--w\ld h be5 ! application ( 8 qualify+ clause3 b t happ5e? r>ely4 ,,! ,,f9al ,,unification ,!re are only a few great g5]alizations z yet ?\ght out 9 any s+le field ( sci5ce4 ,naturally1 !n1 aft] a great g5]alization has f\nd def9itive expression1 !re is a p]iod ( lull be=e ano!r =w>d move4 ,9 ! case ( ! doctr9es ( en]gy1 ! lull has la/$ half a c5tury4 ,?r\gh\t ?is p]iod1 x is true1 a multitude ( work]s h be5 delv+ 9 ! field1 & to ! casual obs]v] x might seem z if _! activity _h be5 b\ndless1 :ile ! practical applications ( _! ideas--z exemplifi$1 = example1 9 ! telephone1 phonograph1 electric light1 & s on--h be5 little less ?an revolution>y4 ,yet ! mo/ compet5t ( liv+ au?orities1 ,"l ,kelv91 c\ld ass]t 9 #ahie t 9 fifty ye>s he _h le>n$ no?+ new reg>d+ ! nature ( en]gy4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 mu/ n be int]pret$ z mean+ t ! _w has /ood /ill dur+ ^! two g5]ations4 ,x means r t ! rank & file h be5 mov+ =w>d along ! road ! lead]s _h already travell$4 ,only a few m5 9 ! _w _h ! range ( ?\ght reg>d+ ! new doctr9e ( en]gy t ,"l ,kelv9 _h at ! middle ( ! c5tury4 ,! few lead]s !n saw cle>ly en\gh t if "o =m ( en]gy is 9 reality m]ely an undulation or vibration among ! p>ticles ( pond]able matt] or ( e!r1 all o!r manife/ations ( en]gy mu/ be ( ! same nature4 ,b ! rank & file 7 n ev5 )9 sight ( ?is tru? = a long "t aft] !y _h p>tly grasp$ ! mean+ ( ! doctr9e ( cons]vation4 ,:51 late 9 ! fifties1 t m>vell\s "y ,scot*man1 ,james ,cl]k-,maxwell1 =mulat+ 9 o!r words an idea ( ,f>aday's1 express$ 8 belief t electricity & magnetism are b manife/ations ( v>i\s conditions ( /ress & motion 9 ! e!real m$ium 7electricity a displacem5t ( /ra91 magnetism a :irl 9 ! e!r71 ! idea met ) no imm$iate popul>ity4 ,& ev5 less cordial 0 ! reception giv5 ! same ?9k]'s !ory1 put =w>d 9 #ahfc1 t ! e!real undulations produc+ ! ph5om5on we call light diff] 9 no respect except 9 _! wave-l5g? f ! pulsations ( electro-magnetism4 ,at ab\t ! same "t ,helmholtz =mulat$ a some:at simil> electro-magnetic !ory ( light2 b ev5 ! weight ( ?is comb9$ au?ority c\ld n give ! doctr9e vogue until v rec5tly1 :5 ! exp]im5ts ( ,he9ri* ,h]tz1 ! pupil ( ,helmholtz1 h %[n t a condition ( electrical /ra9 may be develop$ into a wave sy/em by recurr5t int]ruptions ( ! electric /ate 9 ! g5]ator1 & t su* waves travel ?r\gh ! e!r ) ! rapidity ( light4 ,s9ce !n ! electro-magnetic !ory ( light has be5 en?usia/ically ref]r$ to z ! greate/ g5]alization ( ! c5tury2 b ! sob] ?9k] mu/ see t x is really only :at ,h]tz himself call$ x--"o pi] b5ea? ! great ar* ( cons]vation4 ,x is an int]e/+ detail ( ! ar*itecture1 b ! "p _c equal ! size ( ! :ole4 ,m ?an t1 ?is p>ticul> pi] is z yet by no means a v firm "o4 ,x has1 inde$1 be5 demon/rat$ t waves ( electro-magnetism pass ?r\gh space ) ! spe$ ( light1 b z yet no "o has develop$ electric waves ev5 remotely approximat+ ! %ortness ( ! visual rays4 ,! mo/ t c positively be ass]t$1 !re=e1 is t all ! kn[n =ms ( radiant en]gy-heat1 light1 electro-magnetism--travel ?r\gh space at ! same rate ( spe$1 & consi/ ( trav]se vibrations--lat]al quiv]s1 z ,fresnel said ( light--kn[n to diff] 9 l5g?1 & n positively kn[n to diff] o!rwise4 ,x has1 inde$1 be5 sugge/$ t ! newe/ =m ( radiant en]gy1 ! fam\s ,x-ray ( ,pr(essor ,ro5tg5's discov]y1 is a longitud9al vibration1 b ?is is a m]e surmise4 ,be t z x may1 !re is no "o n[ to "q t all =ms ( radiant en]gy1 :atev] _! exact aff9ities1 consi/ ess5tially ( undulatory motions ( "o uni=m m$ium4 ,a full c5tury ( exp]im5t1 calculation1 & controv]sy has ?us suffic$ to correlate ! impond]able fluids ( our =ebe>s1 & r$uce !m all to manife/ations ( motion among p>ticles ( matt]4 ,at fir/ glimpse t seems an enorm\s *ange ( view4 ,& yet1 :5 closely consid]$1 t *ange 9 ?\ght is n s radical z ! *ange 9 phrase might seem to imply4 ,= ! n9ete5?-c5tury physici/1 9 displac+ ! impond]able fluids ( _m k9ds--"o ea* = light1 heat1 electricity1 magnetism--has be5 oblig$ to sub/itute = !m "o all-p]vad+ fluid1 ^: v>i\s quiv]s1 waves1 ripples1 :irls or /ra9s produce ! manife/ations :i* 9 popul> p>lance are t]m$ =ms ( =ce4 ,?is all-p]vad+ fluid ! physici/ t]ms ! e!r1 & he ?9ks ( x z hav+ no weight4 ,9 effect1 !n1 ! physici/ has dispossess$ ! _m impond]ables 9 favor ( a s+le impond]able--?\gh ! ^w impond]able has be5 bani%$ f 8 vocabul>y4 ,9 ?is view ! e!r--:i*1 consid]$ z a recogniz$ sci5tific v]ity1 is ess5tially a n9ete5?-c5tury discov]y--is ab\t ! mo/ int]e/+ ?+ 9 ! univ]se4 ,some?+ m z to its prop]ties1 real or assum$1 we %all h occasion to exam9e z we turn to ! obv]se side ( physics1 :i* dem&s our att5tion 9 ! next *apt]4 ,,ix4 ,,! ,,e!r ,,& ,,pond]able ,,matt] ,:atev] difficulties we may h 9 =m+ a consi/5t idea ( ! con/itution ( ! e!r1 !re c be no d\bt t ! int]planet>y & int]/ell> spaces are n empty1 b are occupi$ by a mat]ial sub/ance or body :i* is c]ta9ly ! l>ge/ & probably ! mo/ uni=m body ( :i* we h any k4 ,su* 0 ! v]dict pron\nc$ "s ?irty ye>s ago by ,james ,cl]k-,maxwell1 "o ( ! v greate/ ( n9ete5?-c5tury physici/s1 reg>d+ ! exi/5ce ( an all-p]vad+ pl5um 9 ! univ]se1 9 :i* e p>ticle ( tangible matt] is imm]s$4 ,& ?is v]dict may be said to express ! attitude ( ! entire philosophical _w ( our day4 ,)\t exception1 ! au?oritative physici/s ( our "t accept ?is pl5um z a v]ity1 & reason ab\t x ) some?+ ( ! same confid5ce !y manife/ 9 speak+ ( pond]able matt] or (1 en]gy4 ,x is true !re are ^? among !m :o are dispos$ to d5y t ?is all-p]vad+ pl5um m]its ! "n ( matt]4 ,b t x is a some?+1 & a va/ly important some?+ at t1 all are agre$4 ,)\t x1 !y allege1 we %\ld "k no?+ ( light1 ( radiant heat1 ( electricity or magnetism2 )\t x !re w\ld probably be no su* ?+ z gravitation2 nay1 !y ev5 h9t t )\t ?is /range some?+1 e!r1 !re w\ld be no su* ?+ z matt] 9 ! univ]se4 ,if ^! cont5tions ( ! mod]n physici/ are ju/ifi$1 !n ?is intangible e!r is incomp>ably ! mo/ important z well z ! l>ge/ & mo/ uni=m sub/ance or body 9 ! univ]se4 ,its discov]y may well be look$ ^u z "o ( ! mo/ important feats ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,= a discov]y ( t c5tury x surely is1 9 ! s5se t all ! kn[n evid5ces ( its exi/5ce 7 ga!r$ 9 t epo*4 ,true dream]s ( all ages h1 = metaphysical reasons1 imag9$ ! exi/5ce ( intangible fluids 9 space--!y _h1 inde$1 peopl$ space sev]al times ov] ) diff]5t k9ds ( e!rs1 z ,maxwell rem>ks--b su* vague dream+s no m con/itut$ ! discov]y ( ! mod]n e!r ?an ! dream ( "s pre-,columbian vision>y t l& might lie beyond ! unkn[n wat]s con/itut$ ! discov]y ( ,am]ica4 ,9 ju/ice x mu/ be admitt$ t ,huygh5s1 ! sev5te5?-c5tury orig9ator ( ! undulatory !ory ( light1 caught a glimpse ( ! true e!r2 b 8 contempor>ies & "s eight g5]ations ( 8 successors 7 utt]ly deaf to 8 claims2 s he be>s practically ! same relation to ! n9ete5?-c5tury discov]]s ( e!r t ! ,norseman be>s to ,columbus4 ,! true ,columbus ( ! e!r 0 ,?omas ,"y4 ,8 discov]y 0 consummat$ 9 ! e>ly days ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 :5 he br\ght =w>d ! fir/1 conclusive pro(s ( ! undulatory !ory ( light4 ,to say t light consi/s ( undulations is to po/ulate some?+ t undulates2 & ?is some?+ c\ld n be air1 = air exi/s only 9 inf9itesimal quantity1 if at all1 9 ! int]/ell> spaces1 ?r\gh :i* light freely p5etrates4 ,b if n air1 :at !n8 ,:y1 cle>ly1 some?+ m intangible ?an air2 some?+ sup]s5sible1 evad+ all direct ef=ts to detect x1 yet exi/+ ev]y:]e 9 seem+ly vacant space1 & also int]p5etrat+ ! sub/ance ( all transp>5t liquids & solids1 if n1 inde$1 ( all tangible sub/ances4 ,?is intangible some?+ ,"y re*ri/5$ ! ,lum9if]\s ,e!r4 ,9 ! e>ly days ( 8 discov]y ,"y ?\ght ( ! undulations :i* produce light & radiant heat z be+ longitud9al--a =w>d & backw>d pulsation1 correspond+ to ! pulsations ( s\nd--& z su* pulsations c be transmitt$ by a fluid m$ium ) ! prop]ties ( ord9>y fluids1 he 0 ju/ifi$ 9 ?9k+ ( ! e!r z be+ l a fluid 9 its prop]ties1 except = its extreme intangibility4 ,b ab\t #ahah ! exp]im5ts ( ,fresnel & ,arago ) pol>ization ( light made x seem v d\btful :e!r ! !ory ( longitud9al vibrations is suffici5t1 & x 0 sugge/$ by ,"y1 & indep5d5tly conceiv$ & demon/rat$ by ,fresnel1 t ! lum9if]\s undulations are n longitud9al1 b transv]se2 & all ! m rec5t exp]im5ts h t5d$ to confirm ?is view4 ,b x happ5s t ord9>y fluids--gases & liquids--_c transmit lat]al vibrations2 only rigid bodies are capable ( su* a vibration4 ,s x became necess>y to assume t ! lum9if]\s e!r is a body possess+ ela/ic rigidity--a famili> prop]ty ( tangible solids1 b "o q unkn[n among fluids4 ,! idea ( transv]se vibrations c>ri$ ) x ano!r puzzle4 ,:y does n ! e!r1 :5 set aquiv] ) ! vibration :i* gives u ! s5sation we call light1 h produc$ 9 its sub/ance subord9ate quiv]s1 sett+ out at "r angles f ! pa? ( ! orig9al quiv]8 ,su* p]p5dicul> vibrations seem n to exi/1 else we might see ar\nd a corn]2 h[ expla9 _! abs5ce8 ,! physici/ c\ld ?9k ( b "o way3 !y mu/ assume t ! e!r is incompressible4 ,x mu/ fill all space--at any rate1 all space ) :i* human k deals--p]fectly full4 ,^! prop]ties ( ! e!r1 incompressibility & ela/ic rigidity1 are q conceivable by !mselves2 b difficulties ( ?\ght appe> :5 we reflect ^u ano!r quality :i* ! e!r cle>ly mu/ possess--namely1 frictionlessness4 ,by hypo!sis ?is rigid1 incompressible body p]vades all space1 imb$d+ e p>ticle ( tangible matt]2 yet x seems n to ret>d ! movem5ts ( ?is matt] 9 ! slighte/ degree4 ,?is is und\bt$ly ! mo/ difficult to compreh5d ( ! alleg$ prop]ties ( ! e!r4 ,! physici/ expla9s x z due to ! p]fect ela/icity ( ! e!r1 9 virtue ( :i* x closes 9 beh9d a mov+ p>ticle ) a pu% exactly c\nt]balanc+ ! /ress requir$ to p5etrate x 9 front4 ,to a p]son unaccu/om$ to ?9k ( seem+ly solid matt] z really compos$ ( p>ticles relatively wide ap>t1 x is h>d to und]/& ! claim t e!r p5etrates ! sub/ance ( solids--( glass1 = example--&1 to use ,"y's expression1 :i* we h previ\sly quot$1 moves among !m z freely z ! w9d moves ?r\gh a grove ( trees4 ,?is ?\ght1 h[ev]1 pres5ts few difficulties to ! m9d accu/om$ to philosophical speculation4 ,b ! "q e>ly arose 9 ! m9d ( ,fresnel :e!r ! e!r is n consid]ably affect$ by contact ) ! p>ticles ( solids4 ,"s ( 8 exp]im5ts l$ him to believe t a portion ( ! e!r :i* p5etrates among ! molecules ( tangible matt] is held captive1 s to speak1 & made to move along ) ^! p>ticles4 ,he spoke ( su* portions ( ! e!r z b\nd e!r1 9 contradi/9ction to ! great mass ( free e!r4 ,half a c5tury aft] ,fresnel's dea?1 :5 ! e!r hypo!sis _h become an accept$ t5et ( sci5ce1 exp]im5ts 7 und]tak5 by ,fizeau 9 ,france1 & by ,cl]k-,maxwell 9 ,engl&1 to asc]ta9 :e!r any portion ( e!r is really ?us b\nd to p>ticles ( matt]2 b ! results ( ! exp]im5ts 7 negative1 & ! "q is /ill undet]m9$4 ,:ile ! undulatory !ory ( light 0 /ill fight+ its way1 ano!r k9d ( evid5ce favor+ ! exi/5ce ( an e!r 0 put =w>d by ,mi*ael ,f>aday1 :o1 9 ! c\rse ( 8 exp]im5ts 9 electrical & magnetic induction1 0 l$ m & m to p]ceive def9ite l9es or *annels ( =ce 9 ! m$ium subject to electro-magnetic influ5ce4 ,f>aday's m9d1 l t ( ,newton & _m o!r philosoph]s1 reject$ ! idea ( action at a di/ance1 & he felt conv9c$ t ! ph5om5a ( magnetism & ( electric induction told /rongly = ! exi/5ce ( an invisible pl5um ev]y:]e 9 space1 :i* might v probably be ! same pl5um t c>ries ! undulations ( light & radiant heat4 ,!n1 ab\t ! middle ( ! c5tury1 came t f9al revolution ( ?\ght reg>d+ ! nature ( en]gy :i* we h already outl9$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 & ) t ! case = e!r 0 consid]$ to be fully e/abli%$4 ,! idea t en]gy is m]ely a mode ( motion 7to adopt ,tyndall's famili> phrase71 comb9$ ) ! univ]sal rejection ( ! notion ( action at a di/ance1 made ! acceptance ( a pl5um ?r\gh\t space a necessity ( ?\ght--s1 at any rate1 x has seem$ to mo/ physici/s ( rec5t decades4 ,! pro( t all kn[n =ms ( radiant en]gy move ?r\gh space at ! same rate ( spe$ is reg>d$ z practically a demon/ration t b "o pl5um--"o e!r--is conc]n$ 9 _! transmission4 ,x has1 inde$1 be5 t5tatively sugge/$1 by ,pr(essor ,j4 ,oliv] ,lodge1 t !re may be two e!rs1 repres5t+ ! two opposite k9ds ( electricity1 b ev5 ! au?or ( ?is hypo!sis w\ld h>dly claim = x a high degree ( probability4 ,! mo/ rec5t speculations reg>d+ ! prop]ties ( ! e!r h dep>t$ b little f ! e>ly ideas ( ,"y & ,fresnel4 ,x is assum$ on all sides t ! e!r is a cont9u\s1 incompressible body1 possess+ rigidity & ela/icity4 ,"l ,kelv9 has ev5 calculat$ ! probable d5sity ( ?is e!r1 & its coeffici5t ( rigidity4 ,z might be suppos$1 x is all b inf9itely t5u\s z comp>$ ) any tangible solid1 & its rigidity is b inf9itesimal z comp>$ ) t ( /eel4 ,9 a ^w1 x comb9es prop]ties ( tangible matt] 9 a way n kn[n 9 any tangible sub/ance4 ,!re=e we _c possibly conceive its true condition correctly4 ,! ne>e/ approximation1 accord+ to ,"l ,kelv91 is furni%$ by a m\ld ( transp>5t jelly4 ,x is a crude1 inaccurate analogy1 ( c\rse1 ! d5sity & resi/ance ( jelly 9 p>ticul> be+ utt]ly diff]5t f ^? ( ! e!r2 b ! quiv]s t run ?r\gh ! jelly :5 x is %ak51 & ! ela/ic t5sion "u :i* x is plac$ :5 its mass is twi/$ ab\t1 furni% "s analogy to ! quiv]s & /ra9s 9 ! e!r1 :i* are held to con/itute radiant en]gy1 magnetism1 & electricity4 ,! great physici/s ( ! day be+ at "o reg>d+ ! exi/5ce ( ?is all-p]vad+ e!r1 x w\ld be a manife/ presumption = any "o /&+ )\t ! pale to *all5ge s firmly root$ a belief4 ,&1 inde$1 9 any ev5t1 !re seems little gr\nd on :i* to base su* a *all5ge4 ,yet x may n be altoge!r amiss to reflect t ! physici/ ( to-day is no m c]ta9 ( 8 e!r ?an 0 8 pr$ecessor ( ! eighte5? c5tury ( ! exi/5ce ( c]ta9 alleg$ sub/ances :i* he call$ phlogi/on1 caloric1 corpuscles ( light1 & magnetic & electric fluids4 ,x w\ld be b ! repetition ( hi/ory %\ld x *ance t be=e ! close ( ano!r c5tury ! e!r %\ld h tak5 its place along ) ^! disc>d$ creations ( ! sci5tific imag9ation ( e>li] g5]ations4 ,! philosoph] ( to-day feels v sure t an e!r exi/s2 b :5 he says !re is no d\bt ( its exi/5ce he speaks incauti\sly1 & /eps beyond ! b\nds ( demon/ration4 ,he does n ,,"k t action _c take place at a di/ance2 he does n ,,"k t empty space itself may n p]=m ! functions :i* he ascribes to 8 space-fill+ e!r4 ,meantime1 h[ev]1 ! e!r1 be x sub/ance or be x only dream-/uff1 is s]v+ an admirable purpose 9 furni%+ a fulcrum = mod]n physics4 ,n alone to ! /ud5t ( en]gy has x prov$ invaluable1 b to ! /ud5t ( matt] itself z well4 ,out ( its hypo!tical mi/9ess has be5 re>$ ! mo/ t5able !ory ( ! con/itution ( pond]able matt] :i* has yet be5 sugge/$--or1 at any rate1 ! "o t w /& z ! def9itive n9ete5?-c5tury guess at ?is riddle ( ! ages4 ,i mean1 ( c\rse1 ! vortex !ory ( atoms--t pr(\nd & fasc9at+ doctr9e :i* sugge/s t matt]1 9 all its multi=m phases1 is nei!r m nor less ?an e!r 9 motion4 ,! au?or ( ?is wond]ful conception is ,"l ,kelv94 ,! idea 0 born 9 8 m9d ( a happy union ( ma!matical calculations ) concrete exp]im5ts4 ,! ma!matical calculations 7 l>gely ! "w ( ,h]mann von ,helmholtz1 :o1 ab\t ! ye> #aheh1 _h und]tak5 to solve "s unique problems 9 vortex motions4 ,helmholtz f\nd t a vortex :irl1 once e/abli%$ 9 a frictionless m$ium1 mu/ g on1 !oretically1 un*ang$ =ev]4 ,9 a limit$ m$ium su* a :irl may be ,v-%ap$1 ) its ends at ! surface ( ! m$ium4 ,we may imitate su* a vortex by draw+ ! b[l ( a spoon quickly ?r\gh a cup ( wat]4 ,b 9 a limitless m$ium ! vortex :irl mu/ always be a clos$ r+1 :i* may take ! simple =m ( a hoop or circle1 or :i* may be indef9itely contort$1 loop$1 or1 s to speak1 knott$4 ,:e!r simple or contort$1 ?is endless *a9 ( :irl+ matt] 7! p>ticles revolv+ ab\t ! axis ( ! loop z ! p>ticles ( a /r+ revolve :5 ! /r+ is roll$ betwe5 ! f+]s7 mu/1 9 a frictionless m$ium1 reta9 its =m & :irl on ) undim9i%$ spe$ =ev]4 ,:ile ^! !oretical calculations ( ,helmholtz 7 fre% 9 8 m9d1 ,"l ,kelv9 7!n ,sir ,william ,?omson7 0 %[n by ,pr(essor ,p4 ,g4 ,tait1 ( ,ed9burgh1 an app>atus con/ruct$ = ! purpose ( creat+ vortex r+s 9 air4 ,! app>atus1 :i* any "o may duplicate1 consi/$ simply ( a box ) a hole bor$ 9 "o side1 & a piece ( canvas /ret*$ across ! opposite side 9 lieu ( bo>ds4 ,fumes ( *loride ( ammonia are g5]at$ )9 ! box1 m]ely to r5d] ! air visible4 ,by tapp+ ) ! b& on ! canvas side ( ! box1 vortex r+s ( ! cl\d$ air are driv5 out1 precisely simil> 9 appe>ance to ^? smoke-r+s :i* "s exp]t tobacco-smok]s c produce by tapp+ on _! *eeks1 or to ^? l>g] ones :i* we sometimes see bl[n out f ! funnel ( a locomotive4 ,! advantage ( ,pr(essor ,tait's app>atus is its manageabl5ess & ! c]ta9ty ) :i* ! desir$ result c be produc$4 ,be=e ,"l ,kelv9's int]e/$ obs]vation x ?rew out r+s ( v>i\s sizes1 :i* mov$ /raight across ! room at v>y+ rates ( spe$1 accord+ to ! initial impulse1 & :i* behav$ v /rangely :5 com+ 9 contact ) "o ano!r4 ,if1 = example1 a rapidly mov+ r+ ov]took ano!r mov+ 9 ! same pa?1 ! "o 9 advance seem$ to pause1 & to spread out its p]iph]y l an ela/ic b&1 :ile ! pursu] seem$ to contract1 till x actually slid ?r\gh ! orifice ( ! o!r1 aft] :i* ea* r+ resum$ its orig9al size1 & cont9u$ its c\rse z if no?+ _h happ5$4 ,:51 on ! o!r h&1 two r+s mov+ 9 slightly diff]5t directions came ne> ea* o!r1 !y seem$ to h an attraction = ea* o!r2 yet if !y imp+$1 !y b\nd$ away1 quiv]+ l ela/ic solids4 ,if an ef=t 7 made to grasp or to cut "o ( ^! r+s1 ! subtle ?+ %rank f ! contact1 & slipp$ away z if x 7 alive4 ,& all ! :ile ! body :i* ?us conduct$ itself consi/$ simply ( a :irl 9 ! air1 made visible1 b n o!rwise influ5c$1 by smoky fumes4 ,pres5tly ! friction ( ! surr\nd+ air wore ! r+ away1 & x fad$ into ! g5]al atmosph]e--(t51 h[ev]1 n until x _h p]si/$ = _m seconds1 & pass$ cle> across a l>ge room4 ,cle>ly1 if !re 7 no friction1 ! r+'s in]tia mu/ make x a p]man5t /ructure4 ,only ! frictionless m$ium 0 lack+ to fulfil all ! conditions ( ,helmholtz's inde/ructible vortices4 ,& at once ,"l ,kelv9 be?\ght him ( ! frictionless m$ium :i* physici/s _h n[ begun to accept--! all-p]vad+ e!r4 ,:at if vortex r+s 7 />t$ 9 ?is e!r1 mu/ !y n h ! prop]ties :i* ! vortex r+s 9 air _h exhibit$--in]tia1 attraction1 ela/icity8 ,& are n ^! ! prop]ties ( ord9>y tangible matt]8 ,is x n probable1 !n1 t :at we call matt] consi/s m]ely ( aggregations ( inf9itesimal vortex r+s 9 ! e!r8 ,?us ! vortex !ory ( atoms took =m 9 ,"l ,kelv9's m9d1 & its expression gave ! _w :at _m philosoph]s ( our "t reg>d z ! mo/ plausible conception ( ! con/itution ( matt] hi!rto =mulat$4 ,x is only a !ory1 to be sure2 its au?or w\ld be ! la/ p]son to claim f9ality = x4 ,x is only a dream1 ,"l ,kelv9 said to me1 9 ref]r+ to x n long ago4 ,b x has a basis 9 ma!matical calculation & 9 analogical exp]im5t su* z no o!r !ory ( matt] c lay claim to1 & x has a unify+ or moni/ic t5d5cy t makes x1 = ! philosophical m9d1 little less ?an fasc9at+4 ,true or false1 x is ! def9itive !ory ( matt] ( ! tw5tie? c5tury4 ,q aside f ! "q ( ! exact con/itution ( ! ultimate p>ticles ( matt]1 que/ions z to ! di/ribution ( su* p>ticles1 _! mutual relations1 prop]ties1 & actions1 came 9 = a full %>e ( att5tion dur+ ! n9ete5? c5tury1 ?\gh ! f\ndations = ! mod]n speculations 7 furni%$ 9 a previ\s epo*4 ,! mo/ popul> eighte5?-c5tury speculation z to ! ultimate con/itution ( matt] 0 t ( ! le>n$ ,italian prie/1 ,rog] ,joseph ,boscovi*1 publi%$ 9 #ageh1 9 8 ,!oria ,philosophiae ,naturalis4 ,9 ?is !ory1 accord+ to an e>ly comm5tator1 ! :ole mass ( :i* ! bodies ( ! univ]se are compos$ is suppos$ to consi/ ( an exce$+ly great yet f9ite numb] ( simple1 indivisible1 inext5d$ atoms4 ,^! atoms are endu$ by ! ,creator ) ,,repulsive & ,,attractive =ces1 :i* v>y accord+ to ! di/ance4 ,at v small di/ances ! p>ticles ( matt] repel ea* o!r2 & ?is repulsive =ce increases beyond all limits z ! di/ances are dim9i%$1 & w consequ5tly =ev] prev5t actual contact4 ,:5 ! p>ticles ( matt] are remov$ to s5sible di/ances1 ! repulsive is ex*ang$ = an attractive =ce1 :i* decreases 9 inv]se ratio ) ! squ>es ( ! di/ances1 & ext5ds beyond ! sph]es ( ! mo/ remote comets4 ,?is conception ( ! atom z a m]e c5tre ( =ce 0 h>dly su* z c\ld satisfy any m9d o!r ?an ! metaphysical4 ,no "o made a conspicu\s attempt to improve ^u ! idea1 h[ev]1 till j at ! close ( ! c5tury1 :5 ,humphry ,davy 0 l$1 9 ! c\rse ( 8 /udies ( heat1 to speculate z to ! *anges t occur 9 ! intimate sub/ance ( matt] "u alt]$ conditions ( temp]ature4 ,davy1 z we h se51 reg>d$ heat z a manife/ation ( motion among ! p>ticles ( matt]4 ,z all bodies ) :i* we come 9 contact h "s temp]ature1 ,davy inf]r$ t ! intimate p>ticles ( e sub/ance mu/ be p]petually 9 a /ate ( vibration4 ,su* vibrations1 he believ$1 produc$ ! repulsive =ce :i* 79 common ) ,boscovi*7 he admitt$ z hold+ ! p>ticles ( matt] at a di/ance f "o ano!r4 ,to heat a sub/ance means m]ely to increase ! rate ( vibration ( its p>ticles2 ?us also1 pla9ly1 increas+ ! repulsive =ces & exp&+ ! bulk ( ! mass z a :ole4 ,if ! degree ( heat appli$ be suffici5t1 ! repulsive =ce may become /rong en\gh q to ov]come ! attractive =ce1 & ! p>ticles w sep>ate & t5d to fly away f "o ano!r1 ! solid !n becom+ a gas4 ,n mu* att5tion 0 paid to ^! v sugge/ive ideas ( ,davy1 because !y 7 f\nd$ on ! idea t heat is m]ely a motion1 :i* ! sci5tific _w !n repudiat$2 b half a c5tury lat]1 :5 ! new !ories ( en]gy _h made _! way1 !re came a revival ( practically ! same ideas ( ! p>ticles ( matt] 7molecules !y 7 n[ call$7 :i* ,davy _h advocat$4 ,!n x 0 t ,clausius 9 ,g]many & ,cl]k-,maxwell 9 ,engl& took up ! inve/igation ( :at came to be kn[n z ! k9etic !ory ( gases--! n[ famili> conception t all ! ph5om5a ( gases are due to ! helt]-skelt] flight ( ! %[]s ( widely sep>at$ molecules ( :i* !y are compos$4 ,! specific idea t ! pressure or spr+ ( gases is due to su* molecul> impacts 0 due to ,daniel ,b\rnelli1 :o advanc$ x e>ly 9 ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,! idea1 !n little notic$1 _h be5 reviv$ ab\t a c5tury lat] by ,william ,h]apa?1 & aga9 ) "s success by ,j4 ,j4 ,wat]/on1 ( ,bombay1 ab\t #ahdf2 b x ga9$ no di/9ct foot+ until tak5 9 h& by ,clausius 9 #aheg & by ,cl]k-,maxwell 9 #ahei4 ,! consid]ations t l$ ,cl]k-,maxwell to take up ! computations may be /at$ 9 8 own words1 z =mulat$ 9 a pap] ,on ! ,motions & ,collisions ( ,p]fectly ,ela/ic ,sph]es4 ,s _m ( ! prop]ties ( matt]1 especially :5 9 ! gase\s =m1 he says1 c be d$uc$ f ! hypo!sis t _! m9ute p>ts are 9 rapid motion1 ! velocity increas+ ) ! temp]ature1 t ! precise nature ( ?is motion becomes a subject ( rational curiosity4 ,daniel ,b\rnelli1 ,h]apa?1 ,j\le1 ,kronig1 ,clausius1 etc41 h %[n t ! relations betwe5 pressure1 temp]ature1 & d5sity 9 a p]fect gas c be expla9$ by suppos+ ! p>ticles to move ) uni=m velocities 9 /raight l9es1 /rik+ aga9/ ! sides ( ! conta9+ vessel & ?us produc+ pressure4 ,x is n necess>y to suppose ea* p>ticle to travel to any great di/ance 9 ! same /raight l9e2 = ! effect 9 produc+ pressure w be ! same if ! p>ticles /rike aga9/ ea* o!r2 s t ! /raight l9e describ$ may be v %ort4 ,m4 ,clausius has det]m9$ ! mean l5g? ( pa? 9 t]ms ( ! av]age ( ! p>ticles1 & ! di/ance betwe5 ! c5tres ( two p>ticles :5 ! collision takes place4 ,we h at pres5t no means ( asc]ta9+ ei!r ( ^! di/ances2 b c]ta9 ph5om5a1 su* z ! int]nal friction ( gases1 ! conduction ( heat ?r\gh a gas1 & ! diffusion ( "o gas ?r\gh ano!r1 seem to indicate ! possibility ( det]m9+ accurately ! mean l5g? ( pa? :i* a p>ticle describes betwe5 two successive collisions4 ,9 ord] to lay ! f\ndation ( su* inve/igations on /rict me*anical pr9ciples1 ,i %all demon/rate ! laws ( motion ( an indef9ite numb] ( small1 h>d1 & p]fectly ela/ic sph]es act+ on "o ano!r only dur+ impact4 ,if ! prop]ties ( su* a sy/em ( bodies are f\nd to correspond to ^? ( gases1 an important physical analogy w be e/abli%$1 :i* may lead to m accurate k ( ! prop]ties ( matt]4 ,if exp]im5ts on gases are inconsi/5t ) ! hypo!sis ( ^! propositions1 !n our !ory1 ?\gh consi/5t ) itself1 is prov$ to be incapable ( expla9+ ! ph5om5a ( gases4 ,9 ei!r case x is necess>y to foll[ out ^! consequ5ces ( ! hypo!sis4 ,in/ead ( say+ t ! p>ticles are h>d1 sph]ical1 & ela/ic1 we may1 if we please1 say ! p>ticles are c5tres ( =ce1 ( :i* ! action is ins5sible except at a c]ta9 v small di/ance1 :5 x sudd5ly appe>s z a repulsive =ce ( v great int5sity4 ,x is evid5t t ei!r assumption w lead to ! same results4 ,= ! sake ( avoid+ ! repetition ( a long phrase ab\t ^! repulsive bodies1 ,i %all proce$ ^u ! assumption ( p]fectly ela/ic sph]ical bodies4 ,if we suppose ^? aggregate molecules :i* move toge!r to h a b\nd+ surface :i* is n sph]ical1 !n ! rotatory motion ( ! sy/em w close up a c]ta9 proportion ( ! :ole vis viva1 z has be5 %[n by ,clausius1 & 9 ?is way we may acc\nt = ! value ( ! specific heat be+ great] ?an on ! m simple hypo!sis47#a7 ,! elaborate inve/igations ( ,cl]k-,maxwell s]v$ n m]ely to sub/antiate ! doctr9e1 b ?rew a flood ( light ^u ! entire subject ( molecul> dynamics4 ,soon ! physici/s came to feel z c]ta9 ( ! exi/5ce ( ^! %[]s ( fly+ molecules mak+ up a gas z if !y c\ld actually see & wat* _! individual actions4 ,?r\gh /udy ( ! viscosity ( gases--t is to say1 ( ! degree ( frictional opposition !y %[ to an object mov+ ?r\gh !m or to ano!r curr5t ( gas--an idea 0 ga9$1 ) ! aid ( ma!matics1 ( ! rate ( spe$ at :i* ! p>ticles ( ! gas are mov+1 & ! numb] ( collisions :i* ea* p>ticle mu/ exp]i5ce 9 a giv5 "t1 & ( ! l5g? ( ! av]age free pa? trav]s$ by ! molecule betwe5 collisions1 ,^! measurem5ts 7 confirm$ by /udy ( ! rate ( diffusion at :i* diff]5t gases mix toge!r1 & also by ! rate ( diffusion ( heat ?r\gh a gas1 bo? ^! ph5om5a be+ *iefly due to ! helt]-skelt] flight ( ! molecules4 ,x is suffici5tly a/oni%+ to be told t su* measurem5ts z ^! h be5 made at all1 b ! a/oni%m5t gr[s :5 "o he>s ! results4 ,x appe>s f ,cl]k-,maxwell's calculations t ! mean free pa?1 or di/ance trav]s$ by ! molecules betwe5 collisions 9 ord9>y air1 is ab\t "o-half-million? ( an in*2 :ile ! spe$ ( ! molecules is su* t ea* "o exp]i5ces ab\t eight billions ( collisions p] second6 ,x w\ld be h>d1 p]haps1 to cite an illu/ration %[+ ! ref9em5ts ( mod]n physics bett] ?an ?is2 unless1 inde$1 "o o!r result t foll[$ directly f ^! calculations be consid]$ su*--! feat1 namely1 ( measur+ ! size ( ! molecules !mselves4 ,clausius 0 ! fir/ to po9t out h[ ?is might be done f a k ( ! l5g? ( free pa?2 & ! calculations 7 made by ,los*midt 9 ,g]many & by ,"l ,kelv9 9 ,engl&1 indep5d5tly4 ,! "w is purely ma!matical1 ( c\rse1 b ! results are reg>d$ z unassailable2 inde$1 ,"l ,kelv9 speaks ( !m z be+ absolutely demon/rative )9 c]ta9 limits ( accuracy4 ,?is does n mean1 h[ev]1 t !y %[ ! exact dim5sions ( ! molecule2 x means an e/imate ( ! limits ( size )9 :i* ! actual size ( ! molecule may lie4 ,^! limits1 ,"l ,kelv9 e/imates1 are ab\t ! "o-t5-million? ( a c5timetre = ! maximum1 & ! "o-"o-hundr$-million? ( a c5timetre = ! m9imum4 ,su* figures convey no p>ticul> mean+ to our blunt s5ses1 b ,"l ,kelv9 has giv5 a tangible illu/ration t aids ! imag9ation to at lea/ a vague compreh5sion ( ! un?9kable smallness ( ! molecule4 ,he e/imates t if a ball1 say ( wat] or glass1 ab\t z l>ge z a football1 7 to be magnifi$ up to ! size ( ! e>?1 ea* con/itu5t molecule be+ magnifi$ 9 ! same proportion1 ! magnifi$ /ructure w\ld be m co>se-gra9$ ?an a heap ( %ot1 b probably less co>se-gra9$ ?an a heap ( footballs4 ,sev]al o!r me?ods h be5 employ$ to e/imate ! size ( molecules4 ,"o ( ^! is bas$ ^u ! ph5om5a ( contact electricity2 ano!r ^u ! wave-!ory ( light2 & ano!r ^u capill>y attraction1 z %[n 9 ! t5se film ( a soap-bubble6 ,no "o ( ^! me?ods gives results m def9ite ?an t due to ! k9etic !ory ( gases1 j outl9$2 b ! important ?+ is t ! results obta9$ by ^! diff]5t me?ods 7all ( !m due to ,"l ,kelv97 agree ) "o ano!r 9 fix+ ! dim5sions ( ! molecule at some:]e ab\t ! limits already m5tion$4 ,we may feel v sure inde$1 !re=e1 t ! molecules ( matt] are n ! unext5d$1 =mless po9ts :i* ,boscovi* & 8 foll[]s ( ! eighte5? c5tury ?\ght !m4 ,b all ?is1 x mu/ be borne 9 m9d1 ref]s to ! molecule1 n to ! ultimate p>ticle ( matt]1 ab\t :i* we %all h m to say 9 ano!r connection4 ,curi\sly en\gh1 we %all f9d t ! late/ !ories z to ! f9al t]m ( ! s]ies are n s v f> afield f ! dream+s ( ! eighte5?-c5tury philosoph]s2 ! electron ( ,j4 ,j4 ,?ompson %[s _m po9ts ( resemblance to ! =mless c5tre ( ,boscovi*4 ,:atev] ! exact =m ( ! molecule1 its outl9e is subject to incessant v>iation2 = no?+ 9 molecul> sci5ce is reg>d$ z m firmly e/abli%$ ?an t ! molecule1 "u all ord9>y circum/ances1 is 9 a /ate ( int5se b v>iable vibration4 ,! entire en]gy ( a molecule ( gas1 = example1 is n measur$ by its mom5tum1 b by ?is plus its en]gy ( vibration & rotation1 due to ! collisions already ref]r$ to4 ,clausius has ev5 e/imat$ ! relative importance ( ^! two quantities1 %[+ t ! translational motion ( a molecule ( gas acc\nts = only ?ree-fif?s ( its k9etic en]gy4 ,! total en]gy ( ! molecule 7:i* we call heat7 includes also ano!r factor--namely1 pot5tial en]gy1 or en]gy ( position1 due to ! "w t has be5 done on exp&+1 9 ov]com+ ext]nal pressure1 & int]nal attraction betwe5 ! molecules !mselves4 ,?is pot5tial en]gy 7:i* w be recov]$ :5 ! gas contracts7 is ! lat5t heat ( ,black1 :i* s long puzzl$ ! philosoph]s4 ,x is lat5t 9 ! same s5se t ! en]gy ( a ball ?r[n into ! air is lat5t at ! mom5t :5 ! ball poises at its greate/ height be=e beg9n+ to fall4 ,x ?us appe>s t a v>iety ( motions1 real & pot5tial1 ent] into ! production ( ! condition we t]m heat4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 *iefly ! translational motion :i* is measurable z temp]ature2 & ?is1 too1 :i* mo/ obvi\sly det]m9es ! physical /ate ( ! sub/ance t ! molecules collectively compose--:e!r1 t is to say1 x %all appe> to our blunt p]ceptions z a gas1 a liquid1 or a solid4 ,9 ! gase\s /ate1 z we h se51 ! translational motion ( ! molecules is relatively enorm\s1 ! molecules be+ widely sep>at$4 ,x does n foll[1 z we =m]ly suppos$1 t ?is is evid5ce ( a repulsive p[] act+ betwe5 ! molecules4 ,! physici/s ( to-day1 head$ by ,"l ,kelv91 decl9e to recognize any su* p[]4 ,!y hold t ! molecules ( a gas fly 9 /raight l9es by virtue ( _! in]tia1 q indep5d5tly ( "o ano!r1 except at times ( collision1 f :i* !y reb\nd by virtue ( _! ela/icity2 or on an approa* to collision1 9 :i* latt] case1 com+ )9 ! range ( mutual attraction1 two molecules may circle ab\t ea* o!r1 z a comet circles ab\t ! sun1 !n ru% ap>t aga91 z ! comet ru%es f ! sun4 ,x is obvi\s t ! l5g? ( ! mean free pa? ( ! molecules ( a gas may be increas$ indef9itely by decreas+ ! numb] ( ! molecules !mselves 9 a circumscrib$ space4 ,x has be5 %[n by ,pr(essors ,tait & ,dew> t a vacuum may be produc$ artificially ( su* a degree ( r>efaction t ! mean free pa? ( ! rema9+ molecules is measurable 9 in*es4 ,! calculation is bas$ on exp]im5ts made ) ! radiomet] ( ,pr(essor ,crookes1 an in/rum5t :i* 9 itself is held to demon/rate ! tru? ( ! k9etic !ory ( gases4 ,su* an att5uat$ gas z ?is is consid]$ by ,pr(essor ,crookes z con/itut+ a f\r? /ate ( matt]1 :i* he t]ms ultra-gase\s4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 a gas is subject$ to pressure1 its molecules are cr[d$ clos] toge!r1 & ! l5g? ( _! mean free pa? is ?us less5$4 ,ultimately1 ! pressure be+ suffici5t1 ! molecules are practically 9 cont9u\s contact4 ,meantime ! enorm\sly increas$ numb] ( collisions has set ! molecules m & m actively vibrat+1 & ! temp]ature ( ! gas has increas$1 z1 inde$1 necess>ily results 9 accordance ) ! law ( ! cons]vation ( en]gy4 ,no am\nt ( pressure1 !re=e1 c suffice by itself to r$uce ! gas to a liquid /ate4 ,x is believ$ t ev5 at ! c5tre ( ! sun1 :]e ! pressure is almo/ inconceivably great1 all matt] is to be reg>d$ z really gase\s1 ?\gh ! molecules mu/ be s pack$ toge!r t ! consi/5cy is probably m l t ( a solid4 ,if1 h[ev]1 co9cid5tly ) ! application ( pressure1 opportunity be giv5 = ! excess ( heat to be dissipat$ to a cold] surr\nd+ m$ium1 ! molecules1 giv+ (f _! excess ( en]gy1 become relatively quiesc5t1 & at a c]ta9 /age ! gas becomes a liquid4 ,! exact po9t at :i* ?is trans=mation occurs1 h[ev]1 diff]s enorm\sly = diff]5t sub/ances4 ,9 ! case ( wat]1 = example1 x is a temp]ature m ?an f\r hundr$ degrees above z]o1 c5tigrade2 :ile = atmosph]ic air x is "o hundr$ & n9ety-f\r degrees c5tigrade bel[ z]o1 or m ?an a hundr$ & fifty degrees bel[ ! po9t at :i* m]cury freezes4 ,be x high or l[1 ! temp]ature above :i* any sub/ance is always a gas1 reg>dless ( pressure1 is call$ ! critical temp]ature1 or absolute boil+-po9t1 ( t sub/ance4 ,x does n foll[1 h[ev]1 t bel[ ?is po9t ! sub/ance is necess>ily a liquid4 ,?is is a matt] t w be det]m9$ by ext]nal conditions ( pressure4 ,ev5 f> bel[ ! critical temp]ature ! molecules h an enorm\s degree ( activity1 & t5d to fly asund]1 ma9ta9+ :at appe>s to be a gase\s1 b :at te*nically is call$ a vapor\s1 condition--! di/9ction be+ t pressure alone suffices to r$uce ! vapor to ! liquid /ate4 ,?us wat] may *ange f ! gase\s to ! liquid /ate at f\r hundr$ degrees above z]o1 b "u conditions ( ord9>y atmosph]ic pressure x does n d s until ! temp]ature is l[]$ ?ree hundr$ degrees fur!r4 ,bel[ f\r hundr$ degrees1 h[ev]1 x is te*nically a vapor1 n a gas2 b ! sole diff]5ce1 x w be und]/ood1 is 9 ! degree ( molecul> activity4 ,x ?us appe>$ t ! preval5ce ( wat] 9 a vapor\s & liquid r ?an 9 a p]man5tly gase\s condition "h on ! globe is a m]e incid5t ( telluric evolution4 ,equally incid5tal is ! fact t ! air we brea! is p]man5tly gase\s & n liquid or solid1 z x might be 7 ! e>?'s surface temp]ature to be l[]$ to a degree :i*1 9 ! l>g] view1 may be reg>d$ z trifl+4 ,betwe5 ! atmosph]ic temp]ature 9 tropical & 9 arctic regions !re is (t5 a v>iation ( m ?an "o hundr$ degrees2 7 ! temp]ature r$uc$ ano!r hundr$1 ! po9t w\ld be rea*$ at :i* oxyg5 gas becomes a vapor1 & "u increas$ pressure w\ld be a liquid4 ,?irty-sev5 degrees m w\ld br+ u to ! critical temp]ature ( nitrog54 ,nor is ?is a m]e !oretical assumption2 x is a det]m9ation ( exp]im5tal sci5ce1 q indep5d5t ( !ory4 ,! physici/ 9 ! laboratory has produc$ artificial conditions ( temp]ature enabl+ him to *ange ! /ate ( ! mo/ p]si/5t gases4 ,"s fifty ye>s s9ce1 :5 ! k9etic !ory 0 9 its infancy1 ,f>aday liquefi$ c>bonic-acid gas1 among o!rs1 & ! exp]im5ts ?us inaugurat$ h be5 ext5d$ by num]\s m rec5t inve/igators1 notably by ,cailletet 9 ,switz]l&1 by ,pictet 9 ,france1 & by ,dr4 ,?omas4 ,&rews & ,pr(essor ,james ,dew> 9 ,engl&4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ^! exp]im5ts n only has air be5 liquefi$1 b hydrog5 also1 ! mo/ subtle ( gases2 & x has be5 made m & m app>5t t gas & liquid are1 z ,&rews long ago ass]t$1 only di/ant /ages ( a long s]ies ( cont9u\s physical *anges4 ,( c\rse1 if ! temp]ature be l[]$ /ill fur!r1 ! liquid becomes a solid2 & ?is *ange also has be5 effect$ 9 ! case ( "s ( ! mo/ p]man5t gases1 includ+ air4 ,! degree ( cold--t is1 ( abs5ce ( heat--?us produc$ is enorm\s1 relatively to any?+ ( :i* we h exp]i5ce 9 nature "h at ! e>? n[1 yet ! molecules ( solidifi$ air1 = example1 are n absolutely quiesc5t4 ,9 o!r words1 !y /ill h a temp]ature1 ?\gh s v l[4 ,b x is cle>ly conceivable t a /age might be rea*$ at :i* ! molecules became absolutely quiesc5t1 z reg>ds ei!r translational or vibratory motion4 ,su* a heatless condition has be5 approa*$1 b z yet n q atta9$1 9 laboratory exp]im5ts4 ,x is call$ ! absolute z]o ( temp]ature1 & is e/imat$ to be equival5t to two hundr$ & sev5ty-?ree degrees ,c5tigrade bel[ ! freez+-po9t ( wat]1 or ord9>y z]o4 ,a temp]ature 7or abs5ce ( temp]ature7 closely approximat+ ?is is believ$ to obta9 9 ! e!real ocean ( int]planet>y & int]/ell> space1 :i* transmits1 b is ?\ght n to absorb1 radiant en]gy4 ,we "h on ! e>?'s surface are protect$ f exposure to ?is cold1 :i* w\ld deprive e organic ?+ ( life almo/ in/antane\sly1 solely by ! ?9 blanket ( atmosph]e ) :i* ! globe is coat$4 ,x w\ld seem z if ?is atmosph]e1 expos$ to su* a temp]ature at its surface1 mu/ !re be incessantly liquefi$1 & ?us fall back l ra9 to be dissolv$ into gas aga9 :ile x /ill is _m miles above ! e>?'s surface4 ,?is may be ! reason :y its scurry+ molecules h n long ago w&]$ (f into space & left ! _w )\t protection4 ,b :e!r or n su* liquefaction ( ! air n[ occurs 9 our out] atmosph]e1 !re c be no "q z to :at mu/ occur 9 its entire dep? 7 we p]man5tly %ut (f f ! heat+ influ5ce ( ! sun1 z ! a/ronom]s ?reat5 t we may be 9 a future age4 ,ea* molecule1 n alone ( ! atmosph]e1 b ( ! entire e>?'s sub/ance1 is kept aquiv] by ! en]gy :i* x receives1 or has receiv$1 directly or indirectly1 f ! sun4 ,left to itself1 ea* molecule w\ld we> out its en]gy & fritt] x (f into ! space ab\t x1 ultimately runn+ completely d[n1 z surely z any human-made ma*9e ^: p[] is n f "t to "t re/or$4 ,if1 !n1 x %all come to pass 9 "s future age t ! sun's rays fail u1 ! temp]ature ( ! globe mu/ gradually s9k t[>ds ! absolute z]o4 ,t is to say1 ! molecules ( gas :i* n[ fly ab\t at su* inconceivable spe$ mu/ drop helpless to ! e>?2 liquids mu/ 9 turn become solids2 & solids !mselves1 _! molecul> quiv]s utt]ly /ill$1 may p]haps take on prop]ties ! nature ( :i* we _c surmise4 ,yet ev5 !n1 accord+ to ! curr5t hypo!sis1 ! heatless molecule w /ill be a ?+ in/9ct ) life4 ,its vortex :irl w /ill g on1 un9flu5c$ by ! dy+-out ( ^? subord9ate quiv]s t produc$ ! transitory effect :i* we call temp]ature4 ,= ^? transitory ?rills1 ?\gh det]m9+ ! physical /ate ( matt] z measur$ by our crude organs ( s5se1 7 no m ?an non-ess5tial incid5ts2 b ! vortex :irl is ! ess5ce ( matt] itself4 ,"s e/imates z to ! exact "* ( ?is intramolecul> motion1 toge!r ) rec5t !ories z to ! actual /ructure ( ! molecule1 w claim our att5tion 9 a lat] volume4 ,we %all also h occasion 9 ano!r connection to make full] inquiry z to ! ph5om5a ( l[ temp]ature4 ,,app5dix ,,ref]5ce-,,li/ ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,successors ,,( ,,newton ,,9 ,,a/ronomy 7#a7 7p4 #aj74 ,an ,acc\nt ( ,sev]al ,extraord9>y ,meteors or ,lights 9 ! ,sky1 by ,dr4 ,edmund ,halley4 ,phil4 ,trans4 ( ,royal ,society ( ,london1 vol4 ,,xxix1 pp4 #aei-afb4 ,read be=e ! ,royal ,society 9 ! autumn ( #agad4 7#b7 7p4 #ac74 ,phil4 ,trans4 ( ,royal ,society ( ,london = #agdh1 vol4 ,,xlv41 pp4 #h1 #i4 ,f ,a ,lett] to ! ,"r ,honorable ,george1 ,e>l ( ,macclesfield1 conc]n+ an ,app>5t ,motion obs]v$ 9 "s ( ! ,fix$ ,/>s1 by ,james ,bradley1 ,d4,d41 ,a/ronom] ,royal & ,f4,r4,s4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,progress ,,( ,,mod]n ,,a/ronomy 7#a7 7p4 #be74 ,william ,h]s*el1 ,phil4 ,trans4 = #aghc1 vol4 ,,lxxiii4 7#b7 7p4 #cj74 ,kant's ,cosmogony1 ed4 & trans4 by ,w4 ,h>tie1 ,d4,d41 ,glasg[1 #ijj1 pp4 #gd-ha4 7#c7 7p4 #ci74 ,exposition du sy/eme du monde 7includ$ 9 oeuvres ,completes71 by ,m4 le ,m>quis de ,laplace1 vol4 ,,vi41 p4 #dih4 7#d7 7p4 #dh74 ,f ,! ,sci5tific ,pap]s ( ,j4 ,cl]k-,maxwell1 edit$ by ,w4 ,d4 ,nev91 ,m4,a4 7#b vols471 vol4 ,i41 pp4 #cgb-cgd4 ,?is is a repr9t ( ,cl]k-,maxwell's prize pap] ( #ahei4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,new ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,paleontology 7#a7 7p4 #ha74 ,b>on de ,cuvi]1 ,!ory ( ! ,e>?1 ,new ,york1 #ahah1 p4 #ih4 7#b7 7p4 #hh74 ,*>les ,lyell1 ,pr9ciples ( ,geology 7#d vols471 ,london1 #ahcd4 7p4 #ib74 ,ibid41 vol4 ,,iii41 pp4 #eif-eih4 7#d7 7p4 #ajj74 ,hugh ,falcon]1 9 ,paleontological ,memoirs1 vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #eif4 7#e7 7p4 #aja74 ,ibid41 p4 #eih4 7#f7 7p4 #ajb74 ,ibid41 p4 #eii4 7#g7 7p4 #aaa74 ,fossil ,horses 9 ,am]ica 7repr9t$ f ,am]ican ,naturali/1 vol4 ,,viii41 ,may1 #ahgd71 by ,o4 ,c4 ,m>%1 pp4 #bhh1 #bhi4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,orig9 ,,& ,,developm5t ,,( ,,mod]n ,,geology 7#a7 7p4 #abc74 ,james ,hutton1 f ,transactions ( ! ,royal ,society ( ,ed9burgh1 #aghh1 vol4 ,i41 p4 #bad4 ,a pap] on ! ,!ory ( ! ,e>?1 read be=e ! ,society 9 #agha4 7#b7 7p4 #abh74 ,ibid41 p4 #baf4 7#c7 7p4 #aci74 ,consid]ation on ,volcanoes1 by ,g4 ,p\lett ,scrope1 ,esq41 pp4 #bbh-bcd4 7#d7 7p4 #aec74 ,l4 ,agassiz1 ,etudes sur les glaci]s1 ,neuf*atel1 #ahdj1 p4 #bdj4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,new ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,meteorology 7#a7 7p4 #ahb74 ,!ory ( ,ra91 by ,james ,hutton1 9 ,transactions ( ! ,royal ,society ( ,ed9burgh1 #aghh1 vol4 #a1 pp4 #ec-ef4 7#b7 7p4 #aia74 ,essay on ,dew1 by ,w4 ,c4 ,wells1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,london1 #ahah1 pp4 #abd f4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,mod]n ,,!ories ,,( ,,heat ,,& ,,light 7#a7 7p4 #bae74 ,essays ,political1 ,economical1 & ,philosophical1 by ,b5jam9 ,?ompson1 ,c\nt ( ,rum=d 7#b vols471 ,vol4 ,,ii41 pp4 #dgj-dic1 ,london2 ,t4 ,cadell1 ,jr41 & ,w4 ,davies1 #agig4 7#b7 7p4 #bbj74 ,?omas ,"y1 ,phil4 ,trans41 #ahjb1 p4 #ce4 7#c7 7p4 #bbc74 ,ibid41 p4 #cf4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,! ,,mod]n ,,developm5t ,,( ,,electricity ,,& ,,magnetism 7#a7 7p4 #bce74 ,davy's pap] be=e ,royal ,in/itution1 #ahaj4 7#b7 7p4 #bch74 ,hans ,*ri/ian ,o]/$1 ,exp]im5ts ) ! ,effects ( ! ,electric ,curr5t on ! ,magnetic ,ne$le1 #ahae4 7#c7 7p4 #bdc74 ,on ! ,induction ( ,electric ,curr5ts1 by ,mi*ael ,f>aday1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,phil4 ,trans4 ( ,royal ,society ( ,london = #ahcb1 pp4 #abf-abh4 7#d7 7p4 #bde74 ,explication ( ,arago's ,magnetic ,ph5om5a1 by ,mi*ael ,f>aday1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,phil4 ,trans4 ,royal ,society ( ,london = #ahcb1 pp4 #adf-adi4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,! ,,cons]vation ,,( ,,en]gy 7#a7 7p4 #bfg74 ,! ,=ces ( ,inorganic ,nature1 a pap] by ,dr4 ,julius ,rob]t ,may]1 ,liebig's ,annal51 #ahdb4 7#b7 7p4 #bgb74 ,on ! ,calorific ,effects ( ,magneto-,electricity & ! ,me*anical ,value ( ,heat1 by ,j4 ,p4 ,j\le1 9 ,report ( ! ,briti% ,association = ! ,advancem5t ( ,sci5ce1 vol4 ,,xii41 p4 #cc4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,! ,,e!r ,,& ,,pond]able ,,matt] 7#a7 7p4 #big74 ,james ,cl]k-,maxwell1 ,philosophical ,magaz9e = ,janu>y & ,july1 #ahfj4 ,,end ,,( ,,vol4 ,,iii