,a ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,sci5ce  ,,by ,,h5ry   
,,smi? ,,williams1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d4     
,,assi/$ ,,by ,,edw>d ,h4 ,,williams1   
,m4,d4  ,,9 ,,five ,,volumes  ,,volume  
,,ii4    ,,cont5ts     ,,book ,,ii      
,,*apt] ,i4 ,,sci5ce ,,9 ,,! ,,d>k ,,age
     ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,m$iaeval ,,sci5ce  
,,among ,,! ,,arabians     ,,*apt]      
,,iii4 ,,m$iaeval ,,sci5ce ,,9 ,,! ,,we/
     ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,! ,,new            
,,cosmology--,,cop]nicus ,,to ,,kepl]   
,,& ,,galileo     ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,galileo 
,,& ,,! ,,new ,,physics     ,,*apt]     
,,vi4 ,,two ,,pseudo-,,sci5ces--,,al*emy
 ,,& ,,a/rology     ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,f  
,,p>acelsus ,,to ,,h>vey     ,,*apt]    
,,viii4 ,,m$ic9e ,,9 ,,! ,,sixte5? ,,&  
,,sev5te5? ,,c5turies     ,,*apt] ,,ix4 
,,philosoph]-,,sci5ti/s ,,& ,,new       
,,in/itutions ,,(    ,,le>n+     ,,*apt]
 ,x4 ,,! ,,successors ,,( ,,galileo ,,9 
,,physical ,,sci5ce     ,,*apt] ,,xi4   
,,newton ,,& ,,! ,,composition ,,(      
,,light     ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,newton ,,& 
,,! ,,law ,,( ,,gravitation     ,,*apt] 

,,xiii4 ,,in/rum5ts ,,( ,,precision ,,9 
,,! ,,age ,,( ,,newton     ,,*apt]      
,,xiv4 ,,progress ,,9 ,,electricity ,,f 
,,gilb]t ,,& ,,von    ,,gu]icke ,,to    
,,frankl9     ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,natural   
,,hi/ory ,,to ,,! ,,"t ,,( ,,l9naeus    
,,app5dix     ,a ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,sci5ce  
,,book ,,ii4 ,,! ,,beg9n+s ,,( ,,mod]n  
,,sci5ce  ,! /udies ( ! pres5t book cov]
 ! progress ( sci5ce f ! close ( !      
,roman p]iod 9 ! fif? c5tury ,a4,d4 to  
ab\t ! middle ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,9   
trac+ ! c\rse ( ev5ts ?r\gh s long a    
p]iod1 a difficulty becomes prom95t :i* 
ev]y:]e besets ! hi/orian 9 less        
degree--a difficulty due to ! conflict  
betwe5 ! /rictly *ronological & !       
topical me?od ( treatm5t4 ,we mu/ hold z
 closely z possible to ! actual sequ5ce 
( ev5ts1 s9ce1 z already po9t$ out1 "o  
discov]y leads on to ano!r4 ,b1 on ! o!r
 h&1 progressive /eps are tak5          
contemporane\sly 9 ! v>i\s fields (     
sci5ce1 & if we 7 to attempt to         
introduce ^! 9 /rict *ronological ord]  

we %\ld lose all s5se ( topical         
cont9uity4  ,our me?od has be5 to adopt 
a compromise1 foll[+ ! c\rse ( a s+le   
sci5ce 9 ea* great epo* to a conv5i5t   
/opp+-po9t1 & !n turn+ back to br+ =w>d 
! /ory ( ano!r sci5ce4 ,?us1 = example1 
we tell ! /ory ( ,cop]nicus & ,galileo1 
br++ ! record ( cosmical & me*anical    
progress d[n to ab\t ! middle ( !       
sev5te5? c5tury1 be=e turn+ back to take
 up ! physiological progress ( ! fifte5?
 & sixte5? c5turies4 ,once ! latt] /ream
 is ent]$1 h[ev]1 we foll[ x )\t        
int]ruption to ! "t ( ,h>vey & 8        
contempor>ies 9 ! middle ( ! sev5te5?   
c5tury1 :]e we leave x to return to !   
field ( me*anics z exploit$ by !        
successors ( ,galileo1 :o 7 also !      
pr$ecessors & contempor>ies ( ,newton4  
,9 g5]al1 x w aid ! read] to recall t1 s
 f> z possible1 we hold always to ! same
 sequ5ces ( topical treatm5t (          
contempor>y ev5ts2 z a rule we treat    
fir/ ! cosmical1 !n ! physical1 !n !    
biological sci5ces4 ,! same ord] (      

treatm5t w be held to 9 succe$+ volumes4
  ,sev]al ( ! v greate/ ( sci5tific     
g5]alizations are develop$ 9 ! p]iod    
cov]$ by ! pres5t book3 = example1 !    
,cop]nican !ory ( ! sol> sy/em1 ! true  
doctr9e ( planet>y motions1 ! laws (    
motion1 ! !ory ( ! circulation ( !      
blood1 & ! ,newtonian !ory (            
gravitation4 ,! labors ( ! inve/igators 
( ! e>ly decades ( ! eighte5? c5tury1   
t]m9at+ ) ,frankl9's discov]y ( ! nature
 ( lightn+ & ) ! ,l9naean classification
 ( plants & animals1 br+ u to ! close ( 
our second great epo*2 or1 to put x     
o!rwise1 to ! ?re%old ( ! mod]n p]iod4  
,i4 ,,sci5ce ,,9 ,,! ,,d>k ,,age  ,an   
obvi\s di/9ction betwe5 ! classical &   
m$iaeval epo*s may be f\nd 9 ! fact t ! 
=m] produc$1 :]eas ! latt] fail$ to     
produce1 a few great ?9k]s 9 ea*        
g5]ation :o 7 imbu$ ) t scepticism :i*  
is ! f\ndation ( ! inve/igat+ _s2 :o    
?\ght = !mselves & suppli$ m or less    
rational explanations ( obs]v$ ph5om5a4 
,c\ld we elim9ate ! "w ( "s score or s (

 classical obs]v]s & ?9k]s1 ! classical 
epo* w\ld seem z mu* a d>k age z does ! 
epo* t succe$$ x4  ,b imm$iately we are 
met ) ! "q3 ,:y d no great orig9al      
inve/igators appe> dur+ all ^! lat]     
c5turies8 ,we h already (f]$ a "p       
explanation 9 ! fact t ! bord]s (       
civilization1 :]e racial m+l+ naturally 
took place1 7 peopl$ ) semi-b>b>ians4 ,b
 we mu/ n =get t 9 ! c5tres (           
civilization all along !re 7 _m m5 (    
p[]ful intellect4 ,inde$1 x w\ld violate
 ! pr9ciple ( hi/orical cont9uity to    
suppose t !re 0 any sudd5 *ange 9 !     
level ( m5tality ( ! ,roman _w at !     
close ( ! classical p]iod4 ,we mu/      
assume1 !n1 t ! direction 9 :i* ! great 
m9ds turn$ 0 = "s reason *ang$4 ,newton 
is said to h alleg$ t he made 8         
discov]ies by int5d+ 8 m9d 9 a c]ta9    
direction cont9u\sly4 ,x is probable t !
 same explanation may be giv5 ( almo/ e 
great sci5tific discov]y4 ,anaxagoras   
c\ld n h ?\ght out ! !ory ( ! moon's    
phases2 ,ari/>*us c\ld n h f\nd out !   

true me*anism ( ! sol> sy/em2           
,erato/h5es c\ld n h develop$ 8 plan =  
measur+ ! e>?1 _h n ea* ( ^!            
inve/igators int5d$ 8 m9d p]si/5tly     
t[>ds ! problems 9 "q4  ,nor c we d\bt t
 m5 liv$ 9 e g5]ation ( ! d>k age :o 7  
capable ( creative ?\ght 9 ! field (    
sci5ce1 bad !y *os5 simil>ly to int5d _!
 m9ds 9 ! "r direction4 ,! difficulty 0 
t !y did n s *oose4 ,_! m9ds _h a q     
diff]5t b5t4 ,!y 7 "u ! spell ( diff]5t 
ideals2 all _! m5tal ef=ts 7 direct$    
into diff]5t *annels4 ,:at ^! diff]5t   
*annels 7 _c be 9 d\bt--!y 7 ! *annels (
 ori5tal ecclesia/icism4 ,"o            
all-significant fact speaks volumes "h4 
,x is ! fact t1 z ,pr(essor ,rob9son7#a7
 po9ts out1 f ! "t ( ,boe?ius 7di$ #ebd 
or #ebe ,a4,d47 to t ( ,dante           
7#abfe-acba ,a4,d47 !re 0 n a s+le writ]
 ( r5[n 9 we/]n ,europe :o 0 n a        
pr(essional *ur*man4 ,all ! le>n+ ( !   
"t1 !n1 c5tr$ 9 ! prie/hood4 ,we "k t ! 
same condition ( ?+s p]ta9$ 9 ,egypt1 :5
 sci5ce became /atic !re4 ,b1           

contr>iwise1 we h se5 t 9 ,greece & e>ly
 ,rome ! sci5tific work]s 7 l>gely      
physicians or pr(essional tea*]s2 !re 0 
sc>cely a pr(essional !ologian among !m4
  ,simil>ly1 z we %all see 9 ! ,arabic  
_w1 :]e alone !re 0 progress 9 !        
m$iaeval epo*1 ! le>n$ m5 71 = ! mo/ "p1
 physicians4 ,n[ ! mean+ ( ?is mu/ be   
self-evid5t4 ,! physician naturally     
int5ds 8 m9d t[>ds ! practicalities4 ,8 
pr(essional /udies t5d to make him an   
inve/igator ( ! op]ations ( nature4 ,he 
is usually a sceptic1 ) a spontane\s    
int]e/ 9 practical sci5ce4 ,b ! !ologian
 int5ds 8 m9d away f practicalities &   
t[>ds my/icism4 ,he is a pr(essional    
believ] 9 ! sup]natural2 he disc\nts !  
value ( m]ely natural ph5om5a4 ,8 :ole  
attitude ( m9d is unsci5tific2 !        
fundam5tal t5ets ( 8 fai? are bas$ on   
alleg$ occurr5ces :i* inductive sci5ce  
_c admit--namely1 miracles4 ,& s ! m9ds 
int5d$ t[>ds ! sup]natural a*iev$ only !
 hazy my/icism ( m$iaeval ?\ght4 ,in/ead
 ( inve/igat+ natural laws1 !y paid he$ 

7z1 = example1 ,?omas ,aqu9as does 9 8  
,summa ,!ologia7 to ! acts ( angels1 !  
speak+ ( angels1 ! subord9ation (       
angels1 ! de$s ( gu>dian angels1 & ! l4 
,!y disput$ su* important que/ions z1   
,h[ _m angels c /& ^u ! po9t ( a ne$le8 
,!y argu$ pro & con z to :e!r ,*ri/ 7   
coeval ) ,god1 or :e!r he _h be5 m]ely  
creat$ 9 ! beg9n+1 p]haps ages be=e !   
creation ( ! _w4 ,h[ c\ld x be expect$ t
 sci5ce %\ld fl\ri% :5 ! greate/ m9ds ( 
! age c\ld conc]n !mselves ) problems   
su* z ^!8  ,despite our preconceptions  
or prejudices1 !re c be b "o answ] to t 
"q4 ,ori5tal sup]/ition ca/ its blight  
^u ! fair field ( sci5ce1 :atev]        
comp5sation x may or may n h br\ght 9   
o!r fields4 ,b we mu/ be on our gu>d le/
 we ov]e/imate or incorrectly e/imate   
?is influ5ce4 ,po/]ity1 9 glanc+        
backw>d1 is always prone to /amp any    
giv5 age ( ! pa/ ) "o idea1 & to desire 
to *>act]ize x ) a s+le phrase2 :]eas 9 
reality all ages are div]sifi$1 & any   
g5]alization reg>d+ an epo* is sure to d

 t epo* some?+ less or some?+ m ?an     
ju/ice4 ,we may be sure1 !n1 t ! ideal (
 ecclesia/icism is n solely responsible 
= ! sci5tific /asis ( ! d>k age4 ,inde$1
 !re 0 ano!r influ5ce ( a totally       
diff]5t "* t is too pat5t to be         
ov]look$--! influ5ce1 namely1 ( !       
economic condition ( we/]n ,europe dur+ 
?is p]iod4 ,z ,i h else:]e po9t$        
out17#b7 ,italy1 ! c5tre ( we/]n        
civilization1 0 at ?is "t impov]i%$1 &  
h5ce c\ld n provide ! monet>y /imulus s 
ess5tial to arti/ic & sci5tific no less 
?an to mat]ial progress4 ,!re 7 no      
patrons ( sci5ce & lit]ature su* z !    
,ptolemies ( t eld] ,alex&rian day4 ,!re
 7 no great libr>ies2 no colleges to    
supply opportunities & af=d /imuli to ! 
ris+ g5]ation4 ,wor/ ( all1 x became    
increas+ly difficult to secure books4   
,?is phase ( ! subject is (t5 ov]look$4 
,yet a mom5t's consid]ation w %[ its    
importance4 ,h[ %\ld we f>e to-day if no
 new sci5tific books 7 be+ produc$1 & if
 ! records ( =m] g5]ations 7 de/roy$8 ,t

 is :at actually happ5$ 9 ,europe dur+ !
 ,middle ,ages4 ,at an e>li] day books 7
 made & di/ribut$ mu* m abundantly ?an  
is sometimes suppos$4 ,bookmak+ _h1     
inde$1 be5 an important pr(ession 9     
,rome1 ! actual mak]s ( books be+ slaves
 :o work$ "u ! direction ( a publi%]4 ,x
 0 ?r\gh ! ef=ts ( ^! work]s t !        
classical works 9 ,greek & ,lat9 7      
multipli$ & dissem9at$4 ,un=tunately !  
climate ( ,europe does n conduce to !   
indef9ite pres]vation ( a book2 h5ce v  
few remnants ( classical works h come   
d[n to u 9 ! orig9al f a remote p]iod4  
,! r>e exceptions are c]ta9 papyrus     
fragm5ts1 f\nd 9 ,egypt1 "s ( :i* are   
,greek manuscripts dat+ f ! ?ird c5tury 
,b4,c4 ,ev5 f ^! s\rces ! output is     
meagre2 & ! only o!r repository (       
classical books is a s+le room 9 ! buri$
 city ( ,h]culaneum1 :i* conta9$ sev]al 
hundr$ manuscripts1 mo/ly 9 a *>r$      
condition1 a consid]able numb] ( :i*1   
h[ev]1 h be5 unroll$ & f\nd m or less   
legible4 ,?is libr>y 9 ! buri$ city 0   

*iefly made up ( philosophical works1 "s
 ( :i* 7 q unkn[n to ! mod]n _w until   
discov]$ !re4  ,b ?is f9d1 int]e/+ z x 0
 f an ar*aeological /&-po9t1 _h no v    
important be>+ on our k ( ! lit]ature ( 
antiquity4 ,our *ief dep5d5ce = our k ( 
t lit]ature mu/ /ill be plac$ 9 su*     
copies ( books z 7 made 9 ! successive  
g5]ations4 ,comp>atively few ( ! extant 
manuscripts are old] ?an ! t5? c5tury ( 
our era4 ,x requires b a mom5t>y        
consid]ation ( ! conditions "u :i*      
anci5t books 7 produc$ to realize h[ sl[
 & difficult ! process 0 be=e ! inv5tion
 ( pr9t+4 ,! ta/e ( ! book-buy+ public  
dem&$ a cle>ly writt5 text1 & 9 !       
,middle ,ages x became cu/om>y to       
produce a ri*ly ornam5t$ text z well4 ,!
 script employ$ be+ ! prototype ( !     
mod]n pr9t$ text1 x w be obvi\s t a     
scribe c\ld produce b a few pages at be/
 9 a day4 ,a l>ge "w w\ld !re=e require 
! labor ( a scribe = _m mon?s or ev5 =  
sev]al ye>s4 ,we may assume1 !n1 t x    
w\ld be a v fl\ri%+ publi%] :o c\ld     

produce a hundr$ volumes all told p]    
annum2 & probably !re 7 n _m publi%]s at
 any giv5 "t1 ev5 9 ! p]iod ( ,rome's   
greate/ glory1 :o _h any?+ l ?is output4
  ,z !re 0 a l>ge numb] ( au?ors 9 e    
g5]ation ( ! classical p]iod1 x foll[s t
 mo/ ( ^! au?ors mu/ h be5 oblig$ to    
cont5t !mselves ) editions numb]+ v few 
copies2 & x goes )\t say+ t ! great]    
numb] ( books 7 nev] reproduc$ 9 :at    
might be call$ a second edition4 ,ev5   
books t reta9$ _! popul>ity = sev]al    
g5]ations w\ld pres5tly fail to ar\se   
suffici5t int]e/ to be copi$2 & 9 due   
c\rse su* works w\ld pass out ( exi/5ce 
altoge!r4 ,d\btless _m hundr$s ( books 7
 ?us lo/ be=e ! close ( ! classical     
p]iod1 ! names ( _! au?ors be+ q =gott51
 or pres]v$ only ?r\gh a *ance ref]5ce2 
& ( c\rse ! "w ( elim9ation w5t on mu* m
 rapidly dur+ ! ,middle ,ages1 :5 !     
int]e/ 9 classical lit]ature sank to s  
l[ an ebb 9 ! ,we/4 ,su* collections (  
ref]5ces & quotations z ! ,greek        
,an?ology & ! fam\s an?ologies (        

,/obaeus & ,a?anasius & ,eusebius give u
 glimpses ( a ho/ ( writ]s--m ?an sev5  
hundr$ are quot$ by ,/obaeus--a v l>ge  
proportion ( :om are q unkn[n except    
?r\gh ^! brief exc]pts f _! lo/ works4  
,q naturally ! sci5tific works suff]$ at
 lea/ z l>gely z any o!rs 9 an age giv5 
ov] to ecclesia/ical dream+s4 ,yet 9 "s 
reg>ds !re is matt] = surprise z to !   
works pres]v$4 ,?us1 z we h se51 ! v    
ext5sive works ( ,ari/otle on natural   
hi/ory1 & ! equally ext5sive natural    
hi/ory ( ,pl9y1 :i* 7 pres]v$ ?r\gh\t   
?is p]iod1 & are /ill extant1 make up   
relatively bulky volumes4 ,^! works seem
 to h int]e/$ ! monks ( ! ,middle ,ages1
 :ile _m mu* m important sci5tific books
 7 all[$ to p]i%4 ,a consid]able bulk ( 
sci5tific lit]ature 0 also pres]v$ ?r\gh
 ! curi\s *annels ( ,arabic & ,arm5ian  
translations4 ,ref]5ce has already be5  
made to ! ,almage/ ( ,ptolemy1 :i*1 z we
 h se51 0 translat$ into ,arabic1 & :i* 
0 at a lat] day br\ght by ! ,arabs into 
we/]n ,europe & 7at ! in/ance ( ,fr$]ick

 ,,ii ( ,sicily7 translat$ out ( _!     
language into m$iaeval ,lat94  ,x rema9s
 to inquire1 h[ev]1 ?r\gh :at *annels ! 
,greek works rea*$ ! ,arabs !mselves4   
,to ga9 an answ] to ?is "q we mu/ foll[ 
! /ream ( hi/ory f its ,roman c\rse     
ea/w>d to ! new seat ( ! ,roman empire 9
 ,byzantium4 ,"h civilization c5tr$ f   
ab\t ! fif? c5tury ,a4,d41 & "h !       
,european came 9 contact ) !            
civilization ( ! ,syrians1 ! ,p]sians1 !
 ,arm5ians1 & f9ally ( ! ,arabs4 ,!     
,byzant9es !mselves1 unlike !           
inhabitants ( we/]n ,europe1 did n      
ignore ! lit]ature ( old ,greece2 !     
,greek language became ! regul> spee* ( 
! ,byzant9e p1 & _! writ]s made a /r5u\s
 ef=t to p]petuate ! idiom & /yle ( !   
classical p]iod4 ,naturally !y also made
 transcriptions ( ! classical au?ors1 & 
?us a great mass ( lit]ature 0 pres]v$1 
:ile ! correspond+ works 7 q =gott5 9   
we/]n ,europe4  ,meantime _m ( ^! works 
7 translat$ into ,syriac1 ,arm5ian1 &   
,p]sian1 & :5 lat] on ! ,byzant9e       

civilization deg5]at$1 _m works t 7 no  
long] to be _h 9 ! ,greek orig9als      
cont9u$ to be widely circulat$ 9        
,syriac1 ,p]sian1 ,arm5ian1 &1          
ultimately1 9 ,arabic translations4 ,:5 
! ,arabs />t$ out 9 _! conque/s1 :i*    
c>ri$ !m ?r\gh ,egypt & along ! s\!rn   
coa/ ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 until !y f9ally  
invad$ ,europe f ! we/ by way (         
,gibralt>1 !y c>ri$ ) !m _! translations
 ( _m a ,greek classical au?or1 :o 0    
introduc$ anew to ! we/]n _w ?r\gh ?is  
/range *annel4  ,we are told1 = example1
 t ,av]rhoes1 ! fam\s comm5tator (      
,ari/otle1 :o liv$ 9 ,spa9 9 ! twelf?   
c5tury1 did n "k a ^w ( ,greek & 0      
oblig$ to ga9 8 k ( ! ma/] ?r\gh a      
,syriac translation2 or1 z o!rs alleg$  
7d5y+ t he knew ev5 ,syriac71 ?r\gh an  
,arabic v]sion translat$ f ! ,syriac4   
,we "k1 too1 t ! fam\s *ronology (      
,eusebius 0 pres]v$ ?r\gh an ,arm5ian   
translation2 & ref]5ce has m ?an once   
be5 made to ! ,arabic translation (     
,ptolemy's great "w1 to :i* we /ill     

apply its ,arabic title ( ,almage/4  ,! 
famili> /ory t :5 ! ,arabs invad$ ,egypt
 !y burn$ ! ,alex&rian libr>y is n[     
reg>d$ z an inv5tion ( lat] times4 ,x   
seems mu* m probable t ! libr>y bad be5 
l>gely scatt]$ be=e ! com+ ( ! ,moslems4
 ,inde$1 x has ev5 be5 sugge/$ t !      
,*ri/ians ( an e>li] day remov$ !       
records ( pagan ?\ght4 ,be t z x may1 ! 
fam\s ,alex&rian libr>y _h disappe>$    
long be=e ! revival ( int]e/ 9 classical
 le>n+4 ,mean:ile1 z we h said1 !       
,arabs1 f> f de/roy+ ! we/]n lit]ature1 
7 its *ief pres]v]s4 ,p>tly at lea/     
because ( _! reg>d = ! records ( !      
creative "w ( e>li] g5]ations ( ali5    
peoples1 ! ,arabs 7 enabl$ to out/rip _!
 contempor>ies4 ,= x _c be 9 d\bt t1    
dur+ t long /ret* ( "t :5 ! we/]n _w 0  
ignor+ sci5ce altoge!r or at mo/ cont5t+
 itself ) ! casual read+ ( ,ari/otle &  
,pl9y1 ! ,arabs _h ! unique di/9ction ( 
attempt+ orig9al inve/igations 9 sci5ce4
 ,to !m 7 due all important progressive 
/eps :i* 7 made 9 any sci5tific field   

:atev] = ab\t a ?\s& ye>s aft] ! "t (   
,ptolemy & ,gal54 ,! progress made ev5  
by ! ,arabs dur+ ?is long p]iod seems   
meagre en\gh1 yet x has "s significant  
features4 ,^! w n[ dem& our att5tion4   
,,ii4 ,,m$iaeval ,,sci5ce ,,among ,,!   
,,arabians  ,! successors ( ,mohamm$ %[$
 !mselves curi\sly receptive ( ! ideas (
 ! we/]n p :om !y conqu]$4 ,!y came 9   
contact ) ! ,greeks 9 we/]n ,asia & 9   
,egypt1 &1 z has be5 said1 became _!    
virtual successors 9 c>ry+ =w>d ! tor* (
 le>n+4 ,x mu/ n be inf]r$1 h[ev]1 t !  
,arabian s*ol>s1 z a class1 7 comp>able 
to _! pr$ecessors 9 creative g5ius4 ,on 
! contr>y1 !y reta9$ mu* ( ! cons]vative
 ori5tal _s4 ,!y 7 "u ! spell (         
tradition1 &1 9 ! ma91 :at !y accept$ f 
! ,greeks !y reg>d$ z almo/ f9al 9 its  
tea*+4 ,!re 71 h[ev]1 a few notable     
exceptions among _! m5 ( sci5ce1 & to ^!
 mu/ be ascrib$ sev]al discov]ies ( "s  
importance4  ,! *ief subjects t excit$ !
 int]e/ & ex]cis$ ! +5uity ( ! ,arabian 
s*ol>s 7 a/ronomy1 ma!matics1 & m$ic9e4 

,! practical phases ( all ^! subjects 7 
giv5 p>ticul> att5tion4 ,?us x is well  
kn[n t our s-call$ ,arabian num]als date
 f ?is p]iod4 ,! revolution>y effect (  
^! *>act]s1 z appli$ to practical       
ma!matics1 c h>dly be ov]e/imat$2 b x is
 g5]ally consid]$1 & 9 fact 0 admitt$ by
 ! ,arabs !mselves1 t ^! num]als 7      
really borr[$ f ! ,h9doos1 ) :om !      
,arabs came 9 contact on ! ea/4 ,c]ta9 (
 ! ,h9doo alphabets1 notably t ( !      
,battaks ( ,sumatra1 give u clews to !  
orig9als ( ! num]als4 ,x does n seem    
c]ta91 h[ev]1 t ! ,h9doos employ$ ^!    
*>act]s accord+ to ! decimal sy/em1 :i* 
is ! prime elem5t ( _! importance4 ,k is
 n =?com+ z to j :5 or by :om su*       
application 0 made4 ,if ?is 0 an ,arabic
 innovation1 x 0 p]haps ! mo/ important 
"o ) :i* t nation is to be cr$it$4      
,ano!r ma!matical improvem5t 0 !        
introduction into trigonometry ( !      
s9e--! half-*ord ( ! d\ble arc--in/ead (
 ! *ord ( ! arc itself :i* ! ,greek     
a/ronom]s _h employ$4 ,?is improvem5t 0 

due to ! fam\s ,albategnius1 ^: "w 9 o!r
 fields we %all exam9e 9 a mom5t4       
,ano!r evid5ce ( practicality 0 %[n 9 ! 
,arabian me?od ( attempt+ to advance ^u 
,erato/h5es' measurem5t ( ! e>?4 ,in/ead
 ( tru/+ to ! measurem5t ( angles1 !    
,arabs decid$ to measure directly a     
degree ( ! e>?'s surface--or r two      
degrees4 ,select+ a level pla9 9        
,mesopotamia = ! exp]im5t1 "o p>ty ( !  
surveyors progress$ nor?w>d1 ano!r p>ty 
s\?w>d1 f a giv5 po9t to ! di/ance ( "o 
degree ( arc1 z det]m9$ by a/ronomical  
obs]vations4 ,! result f\nd 0 fifty-six 
miles = ! nor!rn degree1 & fifty-six &  
two-?ird miles = ! s\!rn4 ,un=tunately1 
we d n "k ! precise l5g? ( ! mile 9 "q1 
& !re=e _c be assur$ z to ! accuracy ( !
 measurem5t4 ,x is int]e/+ to note1     
h[ev]1 t ! two degrees 7 f\nd ( unequal 
l5g?s1 sugge/+ t ! e>? is n a p]fect    
sph]e--a sugge/ion ! validity ( :i* 0 n 
to be put to ! te/ ( conclusive         
measurem5ts until ab\t ! close ( !      
eighte5? c5tury4 ,! ,arab measurem5t 0  

made 9 ! "t ( ,caliph ,abdallah         
al-,mamun1 ! son ( ! fam\s              
,h>un-al-,ra%id4 ,bo? fa!r & son 7 fam\s
 = _! int]e/ 9 sci5ce4 ,h>un-al-,ra%id  
01 x w be recall$1 ! fri5d ( ,*>lemagne4
 ,x is said t he s5t t rul]1 z a tok5 ( 
fri5d%ip1 a m>vell\s clock :i* let fall 
a metal ball to m>k ! h\rs4 ,?is        
me*anism1 :i* is alleg$ to h excit$     
great wond] 9 ! ,we/1 furni%es yet ano!r
 in/ance ( ,arabian practicality4       
,p]haps ! greate/ ( ! ,arabian a/ronom]s
 0 ,mohamm$ b5 ,jabir ,albategnius1 or  
,el-batani1 :o 0 born at ,batan1 9      
,mesopotamia1 ab\t ! ye> #hej ,a4,d41 & 
di$ 9 #ibi4 ,albategnius 0 a /ud5t ( !  
,ptolemaic a/ronomy1 b he 0 also a      
practical obs]v]4 ,he made ! important  
discov]y ( ! motion ( ! sol> apogee4 ,t 
is to say1 he f\nd t ! position ( ! sun 
among ! />s1 at ! "t ( its greate/      
di/ance f ! e>?1 0 n :at x _h be5 9 ! "t
 ( ,ptolemy4 ,! ,greek a/ronom] plac$ ! 
sun 9 longitude #fe degrees1 b          
,albategnius f\nd x 9 longitude #hb     

degrees1 a di/ance too great to be      
acc\nt$ = by inaccuracy ( measurem5t4 ,!
 mod]n inf]5ce f ?is obs]vation is t !  
sol> sy/em is mov+ ?r\gh space2 b (     
c\rse ?is inf]5ce c\ld n well be drawn  
:ile ! e>? 0 reg>d$ z ! fix$ c5tre ( !  
univ]se4  ,9 ! elev5? c5tury ano!r      
,arabian discov]]1 ,arza*el1 obs]v+ !   
sun to be less advanc$ ?an ,albategnius 
_h f\nd x1 inf]r$ incorrectly t ! sun _h
 rec$$ 9 ! mean "t4 ,! mod]n explanation
 ( ?is obs]vation is t ! measurem5t (   
,albategnius 0 some:at 9 error1 s9ce we 
"k t ! sun's motion is /eadily          
progressive4 ,arza*el1 h[ev]1 accept+ ! 
measurem5t ( 8 pr$ecessor1 drew ! false 
inf]5ce ( an oscillatory motion ( ! />s1
 ! idea ( ! motion ( ! sol> sy/em n be+ 
p]missible4 ,?is assum$ ph5om5on1 :i*   
really has no exi/5ce 9 po9t ( fact1 0  
nam$ ! trepidation ( ! fix$ />s1 & 0 =  
c5turies accept$ z an actual ph5om5on4  
,arza*el expla9$ ?is suppos$ ph5om5on by
 assum+ t ! equ9octial po9ts1 or ! po9ts
 ( int]section ( ! equator & ! ecliptic1

 revolve 9 circles ( eight degrees'     
radius4 ,! fir/ po9ts ( ,aries & ,libra 
7 suppos$ to describe ! circumf]5ce ( ^!
 circles 9 ab\t eight hundr$ ye>s4 ,all 
( :i* illu/rates h[ a difficult & false 
explanation may take ! place ( a simple 
& correct "o4 ,! obs]vations ( lat]     
g5]ations h %[n conclusively t ! sun's  
%ift ( position is regul>ly progressive1
 h5ce t !re is no trepidation ( ! />s & 
no revolution ( ! equ9octial po9ts4  ,if
 ! ,arabs 7 wrong z reg>ds ?is suppos$  
motion ( ! fix$ />s1 !y made at lea/ "o 
correct obs]vation z to ! inequality (  
motion ( ! moon4 ,two inequalities ( !  
motion ( ?is body 7 already kn[n4 ,a    
?ird1 call$ ! moon's v>iation1 0        
discov]$ by an ,arabian a/ronom] :o liv$
 at ,cairo & obs]v$ at ,bagdad 9 #ige1 &
 :o bore ! =midable "n ( ,mohamm$ ,ab\l 
,wefaal-,b\zdjani4 ,! inequality (      
motion 9 "q1 9 virtue ( :i* ! moon moves
 quicke/ :5 %e is at new or full1 &     
sl[e/ at ! fir/ & ?ird qu>t]1 0         
r$iscov]$ by ,ty*o ,brahe six c5turies  

lat]2 a fact :i* 9 itself evid5ces !    
neglect ( ! ,arabian a/ronom]'s discov]y
 by 8 imm$iate successors4  ,9 ! n9? &  
t5? c5turies ! ,arabian city ( ,cordova1
 9 ,spa91 0 ano!r important c5tre (     
sci5tific influ5ce4 ,!re 0 a libr>y (   
sev]al hundr$ ?\s& volumes "h1 & a      
college :]e ma!matics & a/ronomy 7      
taught4 ,granada1 ,tol$o1 & ,salamanca 7
 also important c5tres1 to :i* /ud5ts   
flock$ f we/]n ,europe4 ,x 0 ! proximity
 ( ^! ,arabian c5tres t /imulat$ !      
sci5tific int]e/s ( ,alfonso ,x4 (      
,ca/ile1 at ^: in/ance ! celebrat$      
,alfons9e tables 7 con/ruct$4 ,a famili>
 /ory records t ,alfonso1 pond]+ !      
complications ( ! ,ptolemaic cycles &   
epicycles1 0 l$ to rem>k t1 _h he be5   
consult$ at ! "t ( creation1 he c\ld h  
sugge/$ a mu* bett] & simpl] plan = !   
univ]se4 ,"s c5turies 7 to elapse be=e  
,cop]nicus 0 to %[ t x 0 n ! plan ( !   
univ]se1 b man's int]pretation ( x1 t 0 
at fault4  ,ano!r royal p]sonage :o came
 "u ,arabian influ5ce 0 ,fr$]ick ,,ii4 (

 ,sicily--! ,wond] ( ! ,_w1 z he 0 call$
 by 8 contempor>ies4 ,! ,almage/ (      
,ptolemy 0 translat$ into ,lat9 at 8    
in/ance1 be+ introduc$ to ! ,we/]n _w   
?r\gh ?is curi\s *annel4 ,at ?is "t x   
became q usual = ! ,italian & ,spani%   
s*ol>s to und]/& ,arabic al?\gh !y 7    
totally ignorant ( ,greek4  ,9 ! field (
 physical sci5ce "o ( ! mo/ important ( 
! ,arabian sci5ti/s 0 ,alhaz54 ,8 "w1   
publi%$ ab\t ! ye> #aajj ,a4,d41 _h     
great celebrity ?r\gh\t ! m$iaeval      
p]iod4 ,! orig9al inve/igations (       
,alhaz5 _h to d l>gely ) optics4 ,he    
made p>ticul> /udies ( ! eye itself1 & !
 names giv5 by him to v>i\s p>ts ( !    
eye1 z ! vitre\s humor1 ! cornea1 & !   
ret9a1 are /ill reta9$ by anatomi/s4 ,x 
is kn[n t ,ptolemy _h /udi$ ! refraction
 ( light1 & t he1 9 common ) 8 imm$iate 
pr$ecessors1 0 aw>e t atmosph]ic        
refraction affects ! app>5t position (  
/>s ne> ! horizon4 ,alhaz5 c>ri$ =w>d ^!
 /udies1 & 0 l$ ?r\gh !m to make ! fir/ 
record$ sci5tific e/imate ( ! ph5om5a ( 

twilight & ( ! height ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! 
p]si/5ce ( a gl[ 9 ! atmosph]e aft] !   
sun has disappe>$ b5ea? ! horizon is s  
famili> a ph5om5on t ! anci5t           
philosoph]s seem n to h ?\ght ( x z     
requir+ an explanation4 ,yet a mom5t's  
consid]ation makes x cle> t1 if light   
travels 9 /raight l9es & ! rays ( ! sun 
7 9 no wise deflect$1 ! complete d>kness
 ( night %\ld in/antly succe$ to day :5 
! sun passes bel[ ! horizon4 ,t ?is     
sudd5 *ange does n occur1 ,alhaz5       
expla9$ z due to ! reflection ( light by
 ! e>?'s atmosph]e4  ,alhaz5 appe>s to h
 conceiv$ ! atmosph]e z a %>ply def9$   
lay]1 &1 assum+ t twilight cont9ues only
 s long z rays ( ! sun reflect$ f ! out]
 surface ( ?is lay] c rea* ! spectator  
at any giv5 po9t1 he hit ^u a means (   
measurem5t t seem$ to solve ! hi!rto    
inscrutable problem z to ! atmosph]ic   
dep?4 ,l ! measurem5ts ( ,ari/>*us &    
,erato/h5es1 ?is calculation ( ,alhaz5  
is simple en\gh 9 !ory4 ,its defect     
consi/s l>gely 9 ! difficulty ( fix+ its

 t]ms ) precision1 comb9$ ) ! fur!r fact
 t ! rays ( ! sun1 9 tak+ ! slant+ c\rse
 ?r\gh ! e>?'s atmosph]e1 are really    
deflect$ f a /raight l9e 9 virtue ( !   
con/antly increas+ d5sity ( ! air ne> ! 
e>?'s surface4 ,alhaz5 mu/ h be5 aw>e ( 
?is latt] fact1 s9ce x 0 kn[n to ! lat] 
,alex&rian a/ronom]s1 b he takes no     
acc\nt ( x 9 ! pres5t measurem5t4 ,!    
diagram w make ! me?od ( ,alhaz5 cle>4  
,8 important premises are two3 fir/1 !  
well-recogniz$ fact t1 :5 light is      
reflect$ f any surface1 ! angle (       
incid5ce is equal to ! angle (          
reflection2 &1 second1 ! mu* m d\btful  
obs]vation t twilight cont9ues until su*
 "t z ! sun1 accord+ to a simple        
calculation1 is n9ete5 degrees bel[ !   
horizon4 ,ref]r+ to ! diagram1 let !    
inn] circle repres5t ! e>?'s surface1 ! 
out] circle ! limits ( ! atmosph]e1 ,c  
be+ ! e>?'s c5tre1 & ,,rr radii ( ! e>?4
 ,!n ! obs]v] at ! po9t ,a w cont9ue to 
receive ! reflect$ rays ( ! sun until t 
body rea*es ! po9t ,s1 :i* is1 accord+  

to ! hypo!sis1 n9ete5 degrees bel[ !    
horizon l9e ( ! obs]v] at ,a4 ,?is      
horizon l9e1 be+ repres5t$ by ,,ah1 & ! 
sun's ray by ,,sm1 ! angle ,,hms is an  
angle ( n9ete5 degrees4 ,! complem5t>y  
angle ,,sma is1 obvi\sly1 an angle (    
7#ahj-ai7 "o hundr$ & sixty-"o degrees4 
,b s9ce ,m is ! reflect+ surface & !    
angle ( incid5ce equals ! angle (       
reflection1 ! angle ,,amc is an angle ( 
"o-half ( "o hundr$ & sixty-"o degrees1 
or eighty degrees & ?irty m9utes4 ,n[   
?is angle ,,amc1 be+ kn[n1 ! "r-angl$   
triangle ,,mac is easily resolv$1 s9ce !
 side ,,ac ( t triangle1 be+ ! radius ( 
! e>?1 is a kn[n dim5sion4 ,resolution (
 ?is triangle gives u ! l5g? ( !        
hypot5use ,,mc1 & ! diff]5ce betwe5 ?is 
& ! radius 7,,ac71 or ,,cd1 is obvi\sly 
! height ( ! atmosph]e 7h71 :i* 0 !     
measurem5t desir$4 ,accord+ to !        
calculation ( ,alhaz51 ?is h1 or !      
height ( ! atmosph]e1 repres5ts f tw5ty 
to ?irty miles4 ,! mod]n computation    
ext5ds ?is to ab\t fifty miles4 ,b1     

consid]+ ! v>i\s ambiguities t          
necess>ily att5d$ ! exp]im5t1 ! result 0
 a rem>kably close approximation to !   
tru?4  ,turn+ f physics to *emi/ry1 we  
f9d z p]haps ! greate/ ,arabian "n t (  
,geb]1 :o taught 9 ! ,college ( ,seville
 9 ! fir/ half ( ! eigh? c5tury4 ,! mo/ 
important rese>*es ( ?is really         
rem>kable exp]im5t] _h to d ) ! acids4  
,! anci5t _w _h _h no k ( any acid m    
p[]ful ?an acetic4 ,geb]1 h[ev]1 va/ly  
increas$ ! possibilities ( *emical      
exp]im5t by ! discov]y ( sulphuric1     
nitric1 & nitromuriatic acids4 ,he made 
use also ( ! processes ( sublimation &  
filtration1 & 8 works describe ! wat]   
ba? & ! *emical ov54 ,among ! important 
*emicals :i* he fir/ diff]5tiat$ is     
oxide ( m]cury1 & 8 /udies ( sulphur 9  
its v>i\s comp\nds h peculi> int]e/4 ,9 
p>ticul> is ?is true ( 8 obs]vation t1  
t9d] c]ta9 conditions ( oxidation1 !    
weight ( a metal 0 less5$4  ,f ! record 
( ^! /udies 9 ! fields ( a/ronomy1      
physics1 & *emi/ry1 we turn to a some:at

 ext5d$ survey ( ! ,arabian advances 9 !
 field ( m$ic9e4   ,,arabian ,,m$ic9e   
,! influ5ce ( ,arabian physicians re/$  
*iefly ^u _! use ( drugs r ?an ^u       
anatomical k4 ,l ! m$iaeval ,*ri/ians1  
!y look$ ) horror on dissection ( !     
human body2 yet !re 7 always among !m   
inve/igators :o turn$ con/antly to      
nature h]self = hidd5 tru?s1 & 7 ready  
to uphold ! sup]iority ( actual         
obs]vation to m]e read+4 ,?us !         
physician ,abd el-,letif1 :ile 9 ,egypt1
 made c>eful /udies ( a m\nd ( bones    
conta9+ m ?an tw5ty ?\s& skeletons4     
,:ile exam9+ ^! bones he discov]$ t !   
l[] jaw consi/s ( a s+le bone1 n ( two1 
z _h be5 taught by ,gal54 ,he also      
discov]$ sev]al o!r important mi/akes 9 
,gal5ic anatomy1 & 0 s impress$ ) 8     
discov]ies t he contemplat$ writ+ a "w  
on anatomy :i* %\ld correct ! great     
classical au?ority's mi/akes4  ,x 0 !   
,arabs :o inv5t$ ! apo!c>y1 & _!        
ph>macopoeia1 issu$ f ! hospital at     
,gondisapor1 & elaborat$ f "t to "t1 =m$

 ! basis = ,we/]n ph>macopoeias4 ,j h[  
_m drugs orig9at$ ) !m1 & h[ _m 7 borr[$
 f ! ,h9doos1 ,jews1 ,syrians1 &        
,p]sians1 _c be det]m9$4 ,x is c]ta91   
h[ev]1 t ?r\gh !m v>i\s new & useful    
drugs1 su* z s5na1 aconite1 rhub>b1     
camphor1 & m]cury1 7 h&$ d[n ?r\gh !    
,middle ,ages1 & t !y are responsible = 
! introduction ( alcohol 9 ! field (    
!rapeutics4  ,9 m$iaeval ,europe1       
,arabian sci5ce came to be reg>d$ )     
sup]/iti\s awe1 & ! works ( c]ta9       
,arabian physicians 7 exalt$ to a       
position above all ! anci5t writ]s4 ,9  
mod]n times1 h[ev]1 !re has be5 a       
reaction & a t5d5cy to depreciation ( _!
 "w4 ,by "s !y are held to be m]e       
copyi/s or translators ( ,greek books1 &
 9 no s5se orig9al inve/igators 9       
m$ic9e4 ,yet !re c be little d\bt t :ile
 ! ,arabians did copy & translate       
freely1 !y also orig9at$ & add$         
consid]ably to m$ical k4 ,x is c]ta9 t 9
 ! "t :5 ,*ri/ian mon>*s 9 we/]n ,europe
 7 pay+ little att5tion to sci5ce or    

education1 ! caliphs & vizirs 7 enc\rag+
 physicians & philosoph]s1 build+       
s*ools1 & erect+ libr>ies & hospitals4  
,!y made at lea/ a cr$itable ef=t to    
uphold & advance ^u ! sci5tific /&>ds ( 
an e>li] age4  ,! fir/ di/+ui%$ ,arabian
 physician 0 ,h>ets b5 ,kaladah1 :o     
receiv$ 8 education 9 ! ,ne/onian s*ool 
at ,gondisapor1 ab\t ! beg9n+ ( ! sev5? 
c5tury4 ,not)/&+ ! fact t ,h>ets 0 a    
,*ri/ian1 he 0 *os5 by ,mohamm$ z 8 *ief
 m$ical advis]1 & recomm5d$ z su* to 8  
successor1 ! ,caliph ,abu ,bekr4 ,?us1  
at ! v outset1 ! sci5ce ( m$ic9e 0      
divorc$ f religion among ! ,arabians2 = 
if ! prophet himself c\ld employ !      
s]vices ( an unbeliev]1 surely o!rs     
might foll[ 8 example4 ,& t ?is example 
0 foll[$ is %[n 9 ! fact t _m ,*ri/ian  
physicians 7 rais$ to honorable         
positions by succe$+ g5]ations (        
,arabian mon>*s4 ,?is broad-m9d$ view ( 
m$ic9e tak5 by ! ,arabs und\bt$ly assi/$
 z mu* z any "o s+le factor 9 upbuild+ !
 sci5ce1 j z ! n>r[ & sup]/iti\s view   

tak5 by ,we/]n nations help$ to de/roy  
x4  ,! education ( ! ,arabians made x   
natural = !m to associate m$ic9e ) !    
natural sci5ces1 r ?an ) religion4 ,an  
,arabian savant 0 suppos$ to be equally 
well educat$ 9 philosophy1 jurisprud5ce1
 !ology1 ma!matics1 & m$ic9e1 & to      
practise law1 !ology1 & m$ic9e ) equal  
skill ^u occasion4 ,x is easy to und]/&1
 !re=e1 :y ^! religi\s fanatics 7 will+ 
to employ unbeliev+ physicians1 & _!    
physicians !mselves to turn to !        
sci5tific works ( ,hippocrates & ,gal5 =
 m$ical in/ruction1 r ?an to religi\s   
works4 ,ev5 ,mohamm$ himself pr(ess$ "s 
k ( m$ic9e1 & (t5 reli$ ^u ?is k 9      
treat+ ailm5ts r ?an ^u pray]s or       
incantations4 ,he is said1 = example1 to
 h recomm5d$ & appli$ ! caut]y 9 ! case 
( a fri5d :o1 :5 suff]+ f ang9a1 _h     
s\ght 8 aid4  ,! li/ ( em95t ,arabian   
physicians is too long to be giv5 "h1 b 
"s ( !m are ( su* importance 9 _!       
influ5ce ^u lat] m$ic9e t !y _c be      
entirely ignor$4 ,"o ( ! fir/ ( ^! 0    

,hona9 b5 ,isaac 7#hji-hgc ,a4,d471 a   
,*ri/ian ,arab ( ,bagdad4 ,he made      
translations ( ! works ( ,hippocrates1 &
 practis$ ! art along ! l9es indicat$ by
 8 tea*+s & ^? ( ,gal54 ,he is consid]$ 
! greate/ translator ( ! n9? c5tury & "o
 ( ! greate/ philosoph]s ( t p]iod4     
,ano!r great ,arabian physician1 ^: "w 0
 j beg9n+ z ,hona9's 0 draw+ to a close1
 0 ,rhazes 7#hej-ibc ,a4,d471 :o dur+ 8 
life 0 no less not$ z a philosoph] &    
musician ?an z a physician4 ,he cont9u$ 
! "w ( ,hona91 & advanc$ !rapeutics by  
introduc+ m ext5sive use ( *emical      
rem$ies1 su* z m]curial o9tm5ts1        
sulphuric acid1 & aqua vitae4 ,he is    
also cr$it$ ) be+ ! fir/ physician to   
describe small-pox & measles accurately4
  ,:ile ,rhazes 0 /ill alive ano!r      
,arabian1 ,haly ,abbas 7di$ ab\t #iid71 
0 writ+ 8 fam\s encyclopa$ia ( m$ic9e1  
call$ ,! ,royal ,book4 ,b ! names ( all 
^! great physicians h be5 consid]ably   
obscur$ by ! reputation ( ,avic5na      
7#ihj-ajcg71 ! ,arabian ,pr9ce (        

,physicians1 ! greate/ "n 9 ,arabic     
m$ic9e1 & "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable m5 9     
hi/ory4 ,lecl]c says t he 0 p]haps nev] 
surpass$ by any man 9 brilliancy (      
intellect & indefatigable activity4 ,8  
c>e] 0 a mo/ v>i$ "o4 ,he 0 at all times
 a boi/]\s revell]1 b :e!r flaunt+ gayly
 among ! gue/s ( an emir or bid+ 9 "s   
obscure apo!c>y cell>1 8 "w (           
philosophical writ+ 0 c>ri$ on /eadily4 
,:5 a fri5dly emir 0 9 p[]1 he taught & 
wrote & c>\s$ at c\rt2 b betwe5 times1  
:5 "s unfri5dly rul] 0 supreme1 he 0    
hid+ away obscurely1 /ill p\r+ out 8    
great mass ( manuscripts4 ,9 ?is way 8  
entire life 0 sp5t4  ,by 8 ext5sive     
writ+s he reviv$ & kept alive ! be/ ( ! 
tea*+s ( ! ,greek physicians1 add+ to !m
 su* obs]vations z he _h made 9 anatomy1
 physiology1 & mat]ia m$ica4 ,among 8   
discov]ies is t ( ! contagi\sness (     
pulmon>y tub]culosis4 ,8 works = sev]al 
c5turies cont9u$ to be look$ ^u z !     
highe/ /&>d by physicians1 & he %\ld    
und\bt$ly be cr$it$ ) hav+ at lea/      

ret>d$ ! decl9e ( m$iaeval m$ic9e4  ,b x
 0 n ! ,ea/]n ,arabs alone :o 7 active 9
 ! field ( m$ic9e4 ,cordova1 ! capital (
 ! we/]n caliphate1 became also a great 
c5tre ( le>n+ & produc$ sev]al great    
physicians4 ,"o ( ^!1 ,albucasis 7di$ 9 
#ajac ,a4,d471 is cr$it$ ) hav+ publi%$ 
! fir/ illu/rat$ "w on surg]y1 ?is book 
be+ rem>kable 9 /ill ano!r way1 9 t x 0 
also ! fir/ book1 s9ce classical times1 
writt5 f ! practical exp]i5ce ( !       
physician1 & n a m]e compilation (      
anci5t au?ors4 ,a c5tury aft] ,albucasis
 came ! great physician ,av5zo>         
7#aaac-aaif71 ) :om he divides ab\t     
equally ! m$ical honors ( ! we/]n       
caliphate4 ,among ,av5zo>'s discov]ies 0
 t ( ! cause ( it*--a little p>asite1 s 
small t he is h>dly visible4 ,! discov]y
 ( ! cause ( ?is common disease seems ( 
m9or importance n[1 b x is ( int]e/ 9   
m$ical hi/ory because1 _h ,av5zo>'s     
discov]y be5 rememb]$ a hundr$ ye>s ago1
 it* /ruck 9 c\ld h>dly h be5 consid]$ !
 cause ( ?ree-f\r?s ( all diseases1 z x 

0 by ! fam\s ,hahnemann4  ,! illu/ri\s  
pupil ( ,av5zo>1 ,av]rhoes1 :o di$ 9    
#aaih ,a4,d41 0 ! la/ ( ! great ,arabian
 physicians :o1 by rational conception (
 m$ic9e1 attempt$ to /em ! flood (      
sup]/ition t 0 ov]:elm+ m$ic9e4 ,= a "t 
he succe$$2 b at la/ ! ,moslem !ologians
 prevail$1 & he 0 degrad$ & bani%$ to a 
t[n inhabit$ only by ! despis$ ,jews4   
,,arabian ,,hospitals  ,to e>ly         
,*ri/ians belong ! cr$it ( hav+ e/abli%$
 ! fir/ *>itable in/itutions = c>+ = !  
sick2 b _! ef=ts 7 soon eclips$ by bo?  
,ea/]n & ,we/]n ,mohamm$ans4 ,z e>ly z !
 eigh? c5tury ! ,arabs _h begun build+  
hospitals1 b ! fl\ri%+ "t ( hospital    
build+ seems to h begun e>ly 9 ! t5?    
c5tury4 ,lady ,seidel1 9 #iah ,a4,d41   
op5$ a hospital at ,bagdad1 end[$ ) an  
am\nt correspond+ to ab\t ?ree hundr$   
p\nds /]l+ a mon?4 ,o!r simil> hospitals
 7 erect$ 9 ! ye>s imm$iately foll[+1 & 
9 #igg ! ,emir ,adad-adaula e/abli%$ an 
enorm\s in/itution ) a /aff ( tw5ty-f\r 
m$ical (fic]s4 ,! great physician       

,rhazes is said to h select$ ! site = "o
 ( ^! hospitals by hang+ pieces ( meat 9
 v>i\s places ab\t ! city1 select+ !    
site ne> ! place at :i* putrefaction 0  
sl[e/ 9 mak+ its appe>ance4 ,by ! middle
 ( ! twelf? c5tury !re 7 some?+ l sixty 
m$ical in/itutions 9 ,bagdad alone1 & ^!
 in/itutions 7 free to all pati5ts &    
support$ by (ficial *>ity4  ,! ,emir    
,nur$d91 ab\t ! ye> #aafj1 f\nd$ a great
 hospital at ,damascus1 z a ?ank-(f]+ = 
8 victories ov] ! ,crusad]s4 ,?is great 
in/itution completely ov]%ad[$ all !    
e>li] ,moslem hospitals 9 size & 9 !    
complet5ess ( its equipm5t4 ,x 0 furni%$
 ) facilities = tea*+1 & 0 conduct$ =   
sev]al c5turies 9 a lavi% mann]1        
reg>dless ( exp5se4 ,b little ov] a     
c5tury aft] its f\ndation ! fame ( its  
me?ods ( treatm5t l$ to ! e/abli%m5t ( a
 l>g] & /ill m luxuri\s in/itution--!   
,mansuri hospital at ,cairo4 ,x seems t 
a c]ta9 sultan1 hav+ be5 cur$ by m$ic9es
 f ! ,damasc5e hospital1 det]m9$ to     
build "o ( 8 own at ,cairo :i* %\ld     

eclipse ev5 ! great ,damasc5e           
in/itution4  ,9 a s+le ye> 7#abhc-abhd7 
?is hospital 0 begun & complet$4 ,no    
ef=ts 7 sp>$ 9 hurry+ on ! good "w1 & no
 "o 0 exempt f p]=m+ labor on ! build+  
if he *anc$ to pass "o ( ! adjo9+       
/reets4 ,x 0 ! ord] ( ! sultan t any    
p]son pass+ ne> c\ld be impress$ into ! 
"w1 & ?is ord] 0 c>ri$ out to ! lett]1  
noblem5 & begg>s alike be+ =c$ to l5d a 
h&4 ,v naturally1 ! adjac5t ?or\ghf>es  
became unpopul> & practically des]t$1 b 
/ill ! holy "w progress$ rapidly & 0    
%ortly complet$4  ,?is imm5se /ructure  
is said to h conta9$ f\r c\rts1 ea* hav+
 a f\nta9 9 ! c5tre2 lecture-halls1 w>ds
 = isolat+ c]ta9 diseases1 & a dep>tm5t 
t correspond$ to ! mod]n hospital's     
out-pati5t dep>tm5t4 ,! ye>ly end[m5t   
am\nt$ to some?+ l ! equival5t ( "o     
hundr$ & tw5ty-five ?\s& doll>s4 ,a     
novel feature 0 a hall :]e musicians    
play$ day & night1 & ano!r :]e          
/ory-tell]s 7 employ$1 s t p]sons tr\bl$
 ) insomnia 7 amus$ & melan*oliacs *e]$4

 ,^? ( a religi\s turn ( m9d c\ld li/5  
to read+s ( ! ,koran1 conduct$          
cont9u\sly by a /aff ( "s fifty *apla9s4
 ,ea* pati5t on leav+ ! hospital receiv$
 "s gold pieces1 t he ne$ n be oblig$ to
 attempt h>d labor at once4  ,9 consid]+
 ! a/oni%+ tales ( ^! sumptu\s ,arabian 
in/itutions1 x %\ld be borne 9 m9d t our
 acc\nts ( !m are1 = ! mo/ "p1 f        
,mohamm$an s\rces4 ,nev]!less1 !re c be 
little "q t !y 7 enorm\s in/itutions1 f>
 surpass+ any simil> in/itutions 9 we/]n
 ,europe4 ,! s-call$ hospitals 9 ! ,we/ 
71 at ?is "t1 bran*es ( mona/]ies "u    
sup]vision ( ! monks1 & did n comp>e    
favorably ) ! ,arabian hospitals4  ,b   
:ile ! m$ical sci5ce ( ! ,mohamm$ans    
greatly ov]%ad[$ t ( ! ,*ri/ians dur+   
?is p]iod1 x did n completely oblit]ate 
x4 ,ab\t ! ye> #ajjj ,a4,d4 came into   
prom95ce ! ,*ri/ian m$ical s*ool at     
,sal]no1 situat$ on ! ,italian coa/1 "s 
?irty miles s\!a/ ( ,naples4 ,j h[ long 
?is s*ool _h be5 9 exi/5ce1 or by :om x 
0 f\nd$1 _c be det]m9$1 b its p]iod (   

greate/ influ5ce 0 ! elev5?1 twelf?1 &  
?irte5? c5turies4 ,! memb]s ( ?is s*ool 
gradually adopt$ ,arabic m$ic9e1 mak+   
use ( _m drugs f ! ,arabic ph>macopoeia1
 & ?is =m$ "o ( ! /epp+-/ones to !      
introduction ( ,arabian m$ic9e all ?r\gh
 we/]n ,europe4  ,x 0 n ! adoption (    
,arabian m$ic9es1 h[ev]1 t has made !   
s*ool at ,sal]no fam\s bo? 9 rhyme &    
prose1 b r ! fact t wom5 !re practis$ ! 
heal+ art4 ,greate/ among !m 0 ,trotula1
 :o liv$ 9 ! elev5? c5tury1 & ^: le>n+  
is reput$ to h equall$ t ( ! greate/    
physicians ( ! day4 ,%e is accr$it$ ) a 
"w on ,diseases ( ,wom51 /ill extant1 & 
_m ( h] writ+s on g5]al m$ical subjects 
7 quot$ ?r\gh two succe$+ c5turies4 ,if 
we may judge f ^! writ+s1 %e seem$ to h 
_h _m excell5t ideas z to ! prop] me?ods
 ( treat+ diseases1 b x is difficult to 
det]m9e j :i* ( ! writ+s cr$it$ to h]   
are 9 reality h]s4 ,inde$1 ! unc]ta9ty  
is ev5 great] ?an ?is implies1 =1       
accord+ to "s writ]s1 ,trotula is m]ely 
! title ( a book4 ,su* an au?ority z    

,malgaigne1 h[ev]1 believ$ t su* a woman
 exi/$1 & t ! works accr$it$ to h] are  
au!ntic4 ,! tru? ( ! matt] may p]haps   
nev] be fully e/abli%$1 b ?is at lea/ is
 c]ta9--! tradition 9 reg>d to ,trotula 
c\ld nev] h aris5 _h n wom5 held a f>   
diff]5t position among ! ,arabians ( ?is
 p]iod f t accord$ !m 9 contempor>y     
,*ri/5dom4     ,,iii4 ,,m$iaeval        
,,sci5ce ,,9 ,,! ,,we/  ,we h previ\sly 
ref]r$ to ! influ5ce ( ! ,byzant9e      
civilization 9 transmitt+ ! le>n+ (     
antiquity across ! abysm ( ! d>k age4 ,x
 mu/ be admitt$1 h[ev]1 t ! importance (
 t civilization did n ext5d mu* beyond !
 task ( ! common c>ri]4 ,!re 7 no great 
creative sci5ti/s 9 ! lat] ,roman empire
 ( ! ,ea/ any m ?an 9 ! correspond+     
empire ( ! ,we/4 ,!re 01 h[ev]1 "o field
 9 :i* ! ,byzant9e made respectable     
progress & reg>d+ :i* _! ef=ts require a
 few words ( special comm5t4 ,?is 0 !   
field ( m$ic9e4  ,! ,byzant9es ( ?is "t 
c\ld boa/ ( two great m$ical m51 ,aetius
 ( ,amida 7ab\t #ejb-ege ,a4,d47 & ,paul

 ( ,aeg9a 7ab\t #fbj-fij74 ,! works (   
,aetius 7 ( value l>gely because !y     
record$ ! tea*+s ( _m ( 8 em95t         
pr$ecessors1 b he 0 n entirely lack+ 9  
orig9ality1 & 0 p]haps ! fir/ physician 
to m5tion diph!ria1 ) an allusion to "s 
obs]vations ( ! p>alysis ( ! palate :i* 
sometimes foll[s ?is disease4  ,paul (  
,aeg9a1 :o came f ! ,alex&rian s*ool    
ab\t a c5tury lat]1 0 "o ( ^? rem>kable 
m5 ^: ideas are c5turies ahead ( _! "t4 
,?is 0 p>ticul>ly true ( ,paul 9 reg>d  
to surg]y1 & 8 attitude t[>ds !         
sup]natural 9 ! causation & treatm5t (  
diseases4 ,he 0 ess5tially a surgeon1   
be+ p>ticul>ly famili> ) milit>y surg]y1
 & "s ( 8 descriptions ( complicat$ &   
difficult op]ations h be5 little improv$
 ^u ev5 9 mod]n times4 ,9 8 books he    
describes su* op]ations z ! removal (   
=eign bodies f ! nose1 e>1 & esophagus2 
& he recognizes =eign gr[?s su* z polypi
 9 ! air-passages1 & gives ! me?od ( _! 
removal4 ,su* op]ations z tra*eotomy1   
tonsillotomy1 bron*otomy1 /aphylotomy1  

etc41 7 p]=m$ by him1 & he ev5 advocat$ 
& describ$ puncture ( ! abdom9al cavity1
 giv+ c>eful directions z to ! location 
9 :i* su* punctures %\ld be made4 ,he   
advocat$ amputation ( ! brea/ = ! cure (
 canc]1 & describ$ extirpation ( !      
ut]us4 ,j h[ successful ?is la/ op]ation
 may h be5 z p]=m$ by him does n appe>2 
b he w\ld h>dly h recomm5d$ x if x _h n 
be5 sometimes1 at lea/1 successful4 ,t  
he m5tions x at all1 h[ev]1 is          
significant1 z ?is difficult op]ation is
 consid]$ "o ( ! great triumphs ( mod]n 
surg]y4  ,b ,paul ( ,aeg9a is a /rik+   
exception to ! rule among ,byzant9e     
surgeons1 & z he 0 _! greate/1 s he 0   
also _! la/ important surgeon4 ,!       
en]gies ( all ,byzantium 7 s exp5d$ 9   
religi\s controv]sies t m$ic9e1 l ! o!r 
sci5ces1 0 soon relegat$ to a place     
among ! o!r sup]/itions1 & ! influ5ce ( 
! ,byzant9e s*ool 0 pres5tly replac$ by 
t ( ! conqu]+ ,arabians4                
,,?irte5?-,,c5tury ,,m$ic9e  ,! ?irte5? 
c5tury m>ks ! beg9n+ ( a gradual *ange 9

 m$ic9e1 & a t5d5cy to leave ! "t-worn  
rut ( sup]/iti\s dogmas t s long ret>d$ 
! progress ( sci5ce4 ,x is ?\ght t !    
great epidemics :i* rag$ dur+ ! ,middle 
,ages act$ p[]fully 9 div]t+ ! m$ical   
?\ght ( ! times into new & entirely     
diff]5t *annels4 ,x w be rememb]$ t !   
tea*+s ( ,gal5 7 h&$ ?r\gh m$iaeval     
times z ! highe/ & be/ au?ority on !    
subject ( all diseases4 ,:51 h[ev]1 !   
great epidemics made _! appe>ance1 !    
m$ical m5 appeal$ to ! works ( ,gal5 9  
va9 = enlight5m5t1 z ^! works1 hav+ be5 
writt5 sev]al c5turies be=e ! "t ( !    
plagues1 naturally conta9$ no in=mation 
conc]n+ !m4 ,x 0 evid5t1 !re=e1 t on ?is
 subject1 at lea/1 ,gal5 0 n infallible2
 & x w\ld naturally foll[ t1 "o fallible
 po9t hav+ be5 reveal$1 o!rs w\ld be    
s\ght =4 ,9 o!r words1 scepticism 9     
reg>d to accept$ me?ods w\ld be ar\s$1 &
 w\ld lead naturally1 z su* scepticism  
usually does1 to progress4 ,! deva/at+  
effects ( ^! plagues1 despite pray]s &  
incantations1 w\ld ar\se d\bt 9 ! m9ds (

 _m z to ! efficacy ( sup]/iti\s rites &
 c]emonies 9 cur+ diseases4 ,!y _h se5  
?\s&s & t5s ( ?\s&s ( _! fell[-be+s     
swept away by ^! awful sc\rges4 ,!y _h  
se5 ! ravages ( ^! epidemics cont9ue =  
mon?s or ev5 ye>s1 not)/&+ ! fact t     
multitudes ( ,god-fe>+ p pray$ h\rly t  
su* ravages might be *eck$4 ,& !y mu/ h 
obs]v$ also t :5 ev5 v simple rules (   
cleanl9ess & hygi5e 7 foll[$ !re 0 a    
dim9ution 9 ! ravages ( ! plague1 ev5   
)\t ! aid ( incantations4 ,su*          
obs]vations z ^! w\ld h a t5d5cy to     
awak5 a suspicion 9 ! m9ds ( _m ( !     
physicians t disease 0 n a manife/ation 
( ! sup]natural1 b a natural ph5om5on1  
to be treat$ by natural me?ods4  ,b1 be 
! causes :at !y may1 x is a fact t !    
?irte5? c5tury m>ks a turn+-po9t1 or !  
beg9n+ ( an attitude ( m9d :i* result$ 9
 br++ m$ic9e to a mu* m rational        
position4 ,among ! ?irte5?-c5tury       
physicians1 two m5 are des]v+ ( special 
m5tion4 ,^! are ,arnald ( ,villanova    
7#abce-acab7 & ,pet] ( ,abano           

7#abej-acae74 ,bo? ^! m5 suff]$         
p]secution = express+ _! belief 9       
natural1 z aga9/ ! sup]natural1 causes (
 disease1 & at "o "t ,arnald 0 oblig$ to
 flee f ,b>celona = decl>+ t ! bulls (  
popes 7 human works1 & t acts ( *>ity 7 
de>] to ,god ?an hecatombs4 ,he 0 also  
accus$ ( al*emy4 ,flee+ f p]secution1 he
 f9ally p]i%$ by %ipwreck4  ,arnald 0 ! 
fir/ great repres5tative ( ! s*ool (    
,montpelli]4 ,he devot$ mu* "t to ! /udy
 ( *emicals1 & 0 active 9 attempt+ to   
re-e/abli% ! tea*+s ( ,hippocrates &    
,gal54 ,he 0 "o ( ! fir/ ( a long l9e ( 
al*emi/s :o1 = sev]al succe$+ c5turies1 
exp5d$ s mu* "t & en]gy 9 attempt+ to   
f9d ! elixir ( life4 ,! ,arab discov]y (
 alcohol fir/ delud$ him into ! belief t
 ! elixir _h at la/ be5 f\nd2 b lat] he 
disc>d$ x & made ext5sive exp]im5ts )   
br&y1 employ+ x 9 ! treatm5t ( c]ta9    
diseases--! fir/ record ( ! adm9i/ration
 ( ?is liquor z a m$ic9e4 ,arnald also  
reviv$ ! se>* = "s anae/hetic t w\ld    
produce ins5sibility to pa9 9 surgical  

op]ations4 ,?is idea 0 n orig9al ) him1 
= s9ce v e>ly times physicians _h       
attempt$ to discov] su* an anae/hetic1 &
 ev5 s e>ly a writ] z ,h]odotus tells h[
 ! ,scy?ians1 by inhalation ( ! vapors (
 "s k9d ( hemp1 produc$ complete        
ins5sibility4 ,x may h be5 ^! writ+s t  
/imulat$ ,arnald to se>* = su* an       
anae/hetic4 ,9 a book usually cr$it$ to 
him1 m$ic9es are nam$ & me?ods (        
adm9i/ration describ$ :i* w make !      
pati5t ins5sible to pa91 s t he may be  
cut & feel no?+1 z ?\gh he 7 dead4 ,=   
?is purpose a mixture ( opium1 m&ragora1
 & h5bane is to be us$4 ,?is mixture 0  
held at ! pati5t's no/rils mu* z e!r &  
*lor(orm are adm9i/]$ by ! mod]n        
surgeon4 ,! me?od 0 modifi$ by ,hugo (  
,lucca 7di$ 9 #abeb or #abfh71 :o add$  
c]ta9 o!r n>cotics1 su* z hemlock1 to ! 
mixture1 & boil$ a new sponge 9 ?is     
decoction4 ,aft] boil+ = a c]ta9 "t1 ?is
 sponge 0 dri$1 & :5 want$ = use 0 dipp$
 9 hot wat] & appli$ to ! no/rils4  ,j  
h[ frequ5tly pati5ts recov]$ f !        

adm9i/ration ( su* a comb9ation ( p[]ful
 poisons does n appe>1 b ! p]c5tage (   
dea?s mu/ h be5 v high1 z ! practice 0  
g5]ally condemn$4 ,ins5sibility c\ld h  
be5 produc$ only by swall[+ l>ge        
quantities ( ! liquid1 :i* dripp$ into !
 nose & m\? :5 ! sponge 0 appli$1 & a   
le?al quantity might ?us be swall[$4 ,! 
me?od 0 reviv$1 ) v>i\s modifications1 f
 "t to "t1 b z (t5 fell into disuse4 ,z 
late z #aghb x 0 sometimes attempt$1 & 9
 t ye> ! ,k+ ( ,pol& is said to h be5   
completely anae/hetiz$ & to h recov]$1  
aft] a pa9less amputation _h be5 p]=m$  
by ! surgeons4  ,pet] ( ,abano 0 "o ( ! 
fir/ great m5 produc$ by ! ,univ]sity ( 
,padua4 ,8 fate w\ld h be5 ev5 m tragic 
?an t ( ! %ipwreck$ ,arnald _h he n     
*eat$ ! purify+ fagots ( ! *ur* by dy+  
opportunely on ! eve ( 8 execution =    
h]esy4 ,b if 8 _s _h *eat$ ! fanatics1 8
 body c\ld n1 & 8 bones 7 burn$ = 8     
h]esy4 ,he _h d>$ to d5y ! exi/5ce ( a  
devil1 & _h sugge/$ t ! case ( a pati5t 
:o lay 9 a trance = ?ree days might help

 to expla9 "s miracles1 l ! rais+ (     
,laz>us4  ,8 great "w 0 ,conciliator    
,diff]5ti>um1 an attempt to reconcile   
physicians & philosoph]s4 ,b 8 rese>*es 
7 n conf9$ to m$ic9e1 = he seems to h _h
 an inkl+ ( ! hi!rto unkn[n fact t air  
possesses weight1 & 8 calculation ( !   
l5g? ( ! ye> at ?ree hundr$ & sixty-five
 days1 six h\rs1 & f\r m9utes1 is       
exceptionally accurate = ! age 9 :i* he 
liv$4 ,he 0 probably ! fir/ ( ! ,we/]n  
writ]s to tea* t ! bra9 is ! s\rce ( !  
n]ves1 & ! he>t ! s\rce ( ! vessels4 ,f 
?is x is se5 t he 0 grop+ 9 ! direction 
( an explanation ( ! circulation ( !    
blood1 z demon/rat$ by ,h>vey ?ree      
c5turies lat]4  ,! "w ( ,arnald & ,pet] 
( ,abano 9 reviv+ m$ic9e 0 cont9u$      
actively by ,mond9o 7#abgf-acbf7 (      
,bologna1 ! re/or] ( anatomy1 & by ,guy 
( ,*auliac3 7born ab\t #acjj71 ! re/or] 
( surg]y4 ,all ?r\gh ! e>ly ,middle     
,ages dissections ( human bodies _h be5 
=bidd51 & ev5 dissection ( ! l[] animals
 gradually fell into disrepute because  

physicians detect$ 9 su* practices 7    
sometimes accus$ ( sorc]y4 ,be=e ! close
 ( ! ?irte5? c5tury1 h[ev]1 a reaction  
_h begun1 physicians 7 protect$1 &      
dissections 7 occasionally sanction$ by 
! rul+ mon>*4 ,?us ,emp]or ,fr$]ick ,h4 
7#aaid-abej ,a4,d47--^: s]vices to      
sci5ce we h already _h occasion to      
m5tion--ord]$ t at lea/ "o human body   
%\ld be dissect$ by physicians 9 8 k+dom
 e five ye>s4 ,by ! "t ( ,mond9o        
dissections 7 becom+ m frequ5t1 & he    
himself is kn[n to h dissect$ &         
demon/rat$ sev]al bodies4 ,8 writ+s on  
anatomy h be5 call$ m]ely plagi>isms (  
,gal51 b 9 all probability be made _m   
discov]ies indep5d5tly1 & on ! :ole1 8  
"w may be tak5 z m advanc$ ?an ,gal5's4 
,8 description ( ! he>t is p>ticul>ly   
accurate1 & he seems to h come ne>] to  
det]m9+ ! c\rse ( ! blood 9 its         
circulation ?an any ( 8 pr$ecessors4 ,9 
?is que/ he 0 greatly h&icapp$ by !     
prevail+ belief 9 ! idea t blood-vessels
 mu/ conta9 air z well z blood1 & ?is l$

 him to assume t "o ( ! cavities ( !    
he>t conta9$ spirits1 or air4 ,x is     
probable1 h[ev]1 t 8 accurate           
obs]vations1 s f> z !y w5t1 7 helpful   
/epp+-/ones to ,h>vey 9 8 discov]y ( !  
circulation4  ,guy ( ,*auliac1 ^:       
innovations 9 surg]y ree/abli%$ t sci5ce
 on a firm basis1 0 n only "o ( ! mo/   
cultur$1 b also ! mo/ practical surgeon 
( 8 "t4 ,he _h great rev]5ce = ! works (
 ,gal51 ,albucasis1 & o!rs ( 8 not$     
pr$ecessors2 b ?is rev]5ce did n bl9d   
him to _! mi/akes nor prev5t him f us+  
rational me?ods ( treatm5t f> 9 advance 
( !irs4 ,8 practicality is %[n 9 "s ( 8 
simple b useful inv5tions = ! sick-room1
 su* z ! device ( a rope1 susp5d$ f !   
ceil+ ov] ! b$1 by :i* a pati5t may move
 himself ab\t m easily2 & 9 "s ( 8      
improvem5ts 9 surgical dress+s1 su* z   
/iff5+ b&ages by dipp+ !m 9 ! :ite ( an 
egg s t !y are held firmly4 ,he treat$  
brok5 limbs 9 ! susp5d$ cradle /ill 9   
use1 & introduc$ ! me?od ( mak+ traction
 on a brok5 limb by means ( a weight &  

pulley1 to prev5t de=mity ?r\gh %ort5+ (
 ! memb]4 ,he 0 "o ( ! fir/ physicians  
to recognize ! utility ( spectacles1 &  
recomm5d$ !m 9 cases n am5able to       
treatm5t ) lotions & eye-wat]s4 ,9 "s ( 
8 surgical op]ations1 su* z treph9+ =   
fracture ( ! skull1 8 te*nique has be5  
little improv$ ^u ev5 9 mod]n times4 ,9 
"o ( ^! op]ations he successfully remov$
 a portion ( a man's bra94   ,surg]y 0  
und\bt$ly /imulat$ greatly at ?is p]iod 
by ! con/ant w>s4 ,lay physicians1 z a  
class1 _h be5 look$ d[n ^u dur+ ! ,d>k  
,ages2 b ) ! beg9n+ ( ! return to       
rationalism1 ! s]vices ( surgeons on !  
battle-field1 to remove missiles f      
w\nds1 & to c>e = w\nds & apply dress+s1
 came to be m fully appreciat$4 ,9      
return = 8 labors ! surgeon 0 ?us af=d$ 
bett] opportunities = obs]v+ w\nds &    
diseases1 :i* l$ naturally to a gradual 
improvem5t 9 surgical me?ods4           
,,fifte5?-,,c5tury ,,m$ic9e  ,! ?irte5? 
& f\rte5? c5turies _h se5 "s slight     
advancem5t 9 ! sci5ce ( m$ic9e2 at lea/1

 c]ta9 surgeons & physicians1 if n !    
g5]ality1 _h made advances2 b x 0 n     
until ! fifte5? c5tury t ! g5]al revival
 ( m$ical le>n+ became assur$4 ,9 ?is   
movem5t1 naturally1 ! pr9t+-press play$ 
an all-important "p4 ,m$ical books1     
hi!rto practically inaccessible to !    
great mass ( physicians1 n[ became      
common1 & ?is output ( repr9ts ( ,greek 
& ,arabic treatises reveal$ ! fact t _m 
( ! suppos$ true copies 7 spuri\s4 ,^!  
discov]ies v naturally ar\s$ all mann] (
 d\bt & criticism1 :i* 9 turn help$ 9 ! 
developm5t ( indep5d5t ?\ght4  ,a c]ta9 
manuscript ( ! great ,cornelius ,celsus1
 ! ,de ,m$ic9e1 :i* _h be5 lo/ = _m     
c5turies1 0 f\nd 9 ! *ur* ( ,/4         
,ambrose1 at ,milan1 9 #addc1 & 0 at    
once put into pr9t4 ,! effect ( !       
publication ( ?is book1 :i* _h la9 9    
hid+ = s _m c5turies1 0 a revelation1   
%[+ ! m$ical pr(ession h[ f> mo/ ( _!   
suppos$ true copies ( ,celsus _h drift$ 
away f ! orig9al4 ,! indisputable       
au!nticity ( ?is manuscript1 discov]$ & 

v\*$ = by ! man :o %ortly aft] became   
,pope ,ni*olas ,v41 made its publication
 ! m impressive4 ,! output 9 book =m (  
o!r au?orities foll[$ rapidly1 & !      
manife/ discrepancies betwe5 su* tea*]s 
z ,celsus1 ,hippocrates1 ,gal51 & ,pl9y 
height5$ /ill m ! gr[+ _s ( criticism4  
,^! d\bts result$ 9 great controv]sies z
 to ! prop] treatm5t ( c]ta9 diseases1  
"s physicians foll[+ ,hippocrates1 o!rs 
,gal5 or ,celsus1 /ill o!rs ! ,arabian  
ma/]s4 ,"o ( ! mo/ bitt] ( ^! conte/s 0 
ov] ! "q ( revulsion1 & d]ivation--t is1
 :e!r 9 cases ( pleurisy treat$ by      
ble$+1 ! v5esection %\ld be made at a   
po9t di/ant f ! seat ( ! disease1 z held
 by ! revulsioni/s1 or at a po9t ne>] & 
on ! same side ( ! body1 z practis$ by !
 d]ivationi/s4 ,t any great po9t =      
discussion c\ld be rais$ 9 ! fifte5? or 
sixte5? c5turies on s simple a matt] z x
 seems to-day %[s h[ necess>y to !      
progress ( m$ic9e 0 ! discov]y ( !      
circulation ( ! blood made by ,h>vey two
 c5turies lat]4 ,aft] ,h>vey's discov]y 

no su* discussion c\ld h be5 possible1  
because ?is discov]y made x evid5t t z  
f> z ! g5]al effect ^u ! circulation is 
conc]n$1 x made little diff]5ce :e!r !  
ble$+ 0 done ne> a diseas$ "p or remote 
f x4 ,b 9 ! sixte5? c5tury ?is "q 0 !   
all-absorb+ "o among ! doctors4 ,at "o  
"t ! faculty ( ,p>is condemn$ d]ivation2
 b ! support]s ( ?is me?od c>ri$ ! w>   
/ill high]1 & ,emp]or ,*>les ,v4 himself
 0 appeal$ to4 ,he rev]s$ ! decision ( !
 ,p>is faculty1 & decid$ 9 favor (      
d]ivation4 ,8 decision 0 fur!r support$ 
by ,pope ,clem5t ,,vii41 al?\gh !       
discussion dragg$ on until cut %ort by  
,h>vey's discov]y4  ,b a new =m ( injury
 n[ claim$ ! att5tion ( ! surgeons1     
some?+ t c\ld be decid$ by nei!r ,greek 
nor ,arabian au?ors1 z ! treatm5t (     
gun-%ot w\nds 01 = obvi\s reasons1 n    
giv5 9 _! writ+s4 ,ab\t ?is "t1 also1   
came ! great epidemics1 ! sweat+        
sickness & scurvy2 & ^u ^! subjects1    
also1 ! ,greeks & ,arabians 7 sil5t4    
,john ( ,vigo1 9 8 book1 ! ,practica    

,copiosa1 publi%$ 9 #aead1 & repeat$ 9  
_m editions1 became ! /&>d au?ority on  
all ^! subjects1 & ?us supplant$ ! works
 ( ! anci5t writ]s4  ,accord+ to ,vigo1 
gun-%ot w\nds diff]$ f ! w\nds made by  
ord9>y weapons--t is1 spe>1 arr[1 sword1
 or axe--9 t ! bullet1 be+ r\nd1 bruis$ 
r ?an cut its way ?r\gh ! tissues2 x    
burn$ ! fle%2 &1 wor/ ( all1 x poison$  
x4 ,vigo laid especial /ress ^u treat+  
?is la/ condition1 recomm5d+ ! use ( !  
caut]y or ! oil ( eld]1 boil+ hot4 ,x is
 little wond] t gun-%ot w\nds 7 s likely
 to prove fatal4 ,yet1 aft] all1 "h 0 ! 
g]m ( ! idea ( antisepsis4   ,,new      
,,beg9n+s ,,9 ,,g5]al ,,sci5ce  ,we h   
dwelt ?us at l5g? on ! subject ( m$ical 
sci5ce1 because x 0 *iefly 9 ?is field t
 progress 0 made 9 ! ,we/]n _w dur+ !   
m$iaeval p]iod1 & because ^! /udies     
furni%$ ! po9t ( dep>ture = ! revival   
all along ! l9e4 ,x w be und]/ood1      
h[ev]1 f :at 0 /at$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 t 
! ,arabian influ5ces 9 p>ticul> 7 to "s 
ext5t mak+ !mselves felt along o!r l9es4

 ,! opportunity af=d$ a portion ( !     
,we/]n _w--notably ,spa9 & ,sicily--to  
ga9 access to ! sci5tific ideas (       
antiquity ?r\gh ,arabic translations    
c\ld n fail ( influ5ce4 ,( l "*1 &      
p]haps ev5 m pron\nc$ 9 degree1 0 !     
influ5ce wr\ght by ! ,byzant9e refugees1
 :o1 :5 ,con/ant9ople began to be       
?reat5$ by ! ,turks1 migrat$ to ! ,we/ 9
 consid]able numb]s1 br++ ) !m a k (    
,greek lit]ature & a l>ge numb] (       
preci\s works :i* = c5turies _h be5 q   
=gott5 or absolutely ignor$ 9 ,italy4   
,n[ ,we/]n s*ol>s began to take an      
int]e/ 9 ! ,greek language1 :i* _h be5  
utt]ly neglect$ s9ce ! beg9n+ ( !       
,middle ,ages4 ,int]e/+ /ories are told 
( ! ef=ts made by su* m5 z ,cosmo de'   
,m$ici to ga9 possession ( classical    
manuscripts4 ,! revival ( le>n+ ?us     
br\ght ab\t _h its fir/ p]man5t influ5ce
 9 ! fields ( lit]ature & art1 b its    
effect on sci5ce c\ld n be long delay$4 
,q indep5d5tly ( ! ,byzant9e influ5ce1  
h[ev]1 ! /riv+ = bett] intellectual ?+s 

_h manife/$ itself 9 _m ways be=e !     
close ( ! ?irte5? c5tury4 ,an           
illu/ration ( ?is is f\nd 9 ! almo/     
simultane\s developm5t ( c5tres ( tea*+1
 :i* develop$ into ! univ]sities (      
,italy1 ,france1 ,engl&1 &1 a little    
lat]1 ( ,g]many4  ,! regul> li/ ( /udies
 t came to be adopt$ ev]y:]e compris$   
sev5 nom9al bran*es1 divid$ into two    
gr\ps--! s-call$ quadrivium1 compris+   
music1 ari?metic1 geometry1 & a/ronomy2 
& ! trivium compris+ gramm>1 rhetoric1 &
 logic4 ,! vagu5ess ( implication ( "s (
 ^! bran*es gave opportunity to ! tea*] 
= ! promulgation ( almo/ any k ( :i* he 
might be possess$1 b !re c be no d\bt t1
 9 g5]al1 sci5ce _h b meagre %>e 9 !    
curriculum4 ,9 s f> z x 0 giv5          
repres5tation1 its *ief field mu/ h be5 
,ptolemaic a/ronomy4 ,! utt] lack (     
sci5tific ?\ght & sci5tific me?od is    
illu/rat$ mo/ vividly 9 ! works ( !     
greate/ m5 ( t p]iod--su* m5 z ,alb]tus 
,magnus1 ,?omas ,aqu9as1 ,bonav5tura1 & 
! ho/s ( o!r s*ola/ics ( less] rank4    

,yet ! m5tal awak5+ impli$ 9 _! ef=ts 0 
sure to ext5d to o!r fields1 & 9 po9t ( 
fact !re 0 at lea/ "o contempor>y ( ^!  
great s*ola/ics ^: m9d 0 int5d$ t[>ds   
sci5tific subjects1 & :o produc$ writ+s 
/rangely at v>iance 9 tone & 9 cont5t ) 
! o!rs4 ,?is ana*roni/ic ?9k] 0 !       
,engli% monk1 ,rog] ,bacon4   ,,rog]    
,,bacon  ,bacon 0 born 9 #abad & di$ 9  
#abib4 ,by "s x is held t he 0 n        
appreciat$ 9 8 own "t because he 0      
really a mod]n sci5ti/ liv+ 9 an age two
 c5turies be=e mod]n sci5ce or me?ods ( 
mod]n sci5tific ?9k+ 7 kn[n4 ,su* an    
e/imate1 h[ev]1 is a manife/ exagg]ation
 ( ! facts1 al?\gh !re is probably a    
gra9 ( tru? 9 x )al4 ,8 le>n+ c]ta9ly   
br\ght him into contact ) ! great ?9k]s 
( ! "t1 & 8 writ+s caus$ him to be      
imprison$ by 8 fell[-*ur*m5 at diff]5t  
times1 f :i* circum/ances we may ga!r t 
he 0 advanc$ ?9k]1 ev5 if n a mod]n     
sci5ti/4  ,al?\gh ,bacon 0 at v>i\s     
times 9 durance1 or "u surveillance1 &  
=bidd5 to write1 he 0 nev]!less a       

m>vell\sly prolific writ]1 z is %[n by !
 num]\s books & unpubli%$ manuscripts ( 
8 /ill extant4 ,8 ma/]-production 0 !   
,opus ,majus4 ,9 ,"p ,,iv4 ( ?is "w he  
attempts to %[ t all sci5ces re/        
ultimately on ma!matics2 b ,"p ,v41 :i* 
treats ( p]spective1 is ( p>ticul>      
int]e/ to mod]n sci5ti/s1 because 9 ?is 
he discusses reflection & refraction1 & 
! prop]ties ( mirrors & l5ses4 ,9 ?is   
"p1 also1 x is evid5t t he is mak+ use (
 su* ,arabian writ]s z ,alk9di &        
,alhaz51 & ?is is ( especial int]e/1    
s9ce x has be5 us$ by 8 detractors1 :o  
accuse him ( lack ( orig9ality1 to prove
 t 8 seem+ inv5tions & discov]ies 7 9   
reality adaptations ( ! ,arab sci5ti/s4 
,x is difficult to det]m9e j h[ fully   
su* criticisms are ju/ifi$4 ,x is c]ta91
 h[ev]1 t 9 ?is "p he describes !       
anatomy ( ! eye ) great accuracy1 &     
discusses mirrors & l5ses4  ,! magnify+ 
p[] ( ! segm5t ( a glass sph]e _h be5   
not$ by ,alhaz51 :o _h obs]v$ also t !  
magnification 0 increas$ by increas+ !  

size ( ! segm5t us$4 ,bacon took up !   
discussion ( ! comp>ative advantages (  
segm5ts1 & 9 ?is discussion seems to %[ 
t he und]/ood h[ to trace ! progress ( !
 rays ( light ?r\gh a sph]ical transp>5t
 body1 & h[ to det]m9e ! place ( !      
image4 ,he also describ$ a me?od (      
con/ruct+ a telescope1 b x is by no     
means cle> t he _h ev] actually         
con/ruct$ su* an in/rum5t4 ,x is also a 
moot$ "q z to :e!r 8 in/ructions z to ! 
con/ruction ( su* an in/rum5t w\ld h    
enabl$ any "o to con/ruct "o4 ,! vag>ies
 ( ! names ( t]ms z he uses !m all[ su* 
latitude 9 int]pretation t mod]n        
sci5ti/s are n agre$ z to !             
practicability ( ,bacon's sugge/ions4 ,=
 example1 he con/antly ref]s to =ce "u  
su* names z virtus1 species1 imago1     
ag5tis1 & a score ( o!r names1 & ?is    
naturally gives rise to ! great         
diff]5ces 9 ! int]pretations ( 8 writ+s1
 ) correspond+ diff]5ces 9 e/imates (   
!m4  ,! claim t ,bacon orig9at$ ! use ( 
l5ses1 9 ! =m ( spectacles1 _c be prov54

 ,smi? has det]m9$ t z e>ly z ! op5+    
ye>s ( ! f\rte5? c5tury su* l5ses 7 9   
use1 b ?is proves no?+ z reg>ds ,bacon's
 connection ) _! inv5tion4 ,! k ( l5ses 
seems to be v anci5t1 if we may judge f 
! convex l5s ( rock cry/al f\nd by      
,lay>d 9 8 excavations at ,nimrud4 ,!re 
is no?+ to %[1 h[ev]1 t ! anci5ts ev]   
?\ght ( us+ !m to correct defects (     
vision4 ,nei!r1 app>5tly1 is x feasible 
to det]m9e :e!r ! idea ( su* an         
application orig9at$ ) ,bacon4  ,ano!r  
me*anical discov]y ab\t :i* !re has be5 
a great deal ( discussion is ,bacon's   
suppos$ inv5tion ( gunp[d]4 ,x appe>s t 
9 a c]ta9 passage ( 8 "w he describes ! 
process ( mak+ a sub/ance t is1 9       
effect1 ord9>y gunp[d]2 b x is m ?an    
d\btful :e!r he und]/ood ! prop]ties ( !
 sub/ance he describes4 ,x is fairly    
well e/abli%$1 h[ev]1 t 9 ,bacon's "t   
gunp[d] 0 kn[n to ! ,arabs1 s t x %\ld n
 be surpris+ to f9d ref]5ces made to x 9
 ,bacon's "w1 s9ce !re is reason to     
believe t he con/antly consult$ ,arabian

 writ+s4  ,! great m]it ( ,bacon's "w1  
h[ev]1 dep5ds on ! pr9ciples taught z   
reg>ds exp]im5t & ! obs]vation ( nature1
 r ?an on any s+le inv5tion4 ,he _h !   
all-important idea ( break+ ) tradition4
 ,he *ampion$ unfett]$ inquiry 9 e field
 ( ?\ght4 ,he _h ! in/9ct ( a sci5tific 
work]--a r>e in/9ct inde$ 9 t age4 ,nor 
ne$ we d\bt t to ! be/ ( 8 opportunities
 he 0 himself an orig9al inve/igator4   
,,leon>do ,,da ,,v9ci  ,! relative      
inf]tility ( ,bacon's ?\ght is %[n by ! 
fact t he f\nd$ no s*ool & left no trace
 ( disciple%ip4 ,! entire c5tury aft] 8 
dea? %[s no s+le ,european "n t ne$     
claim ! att5tion ( ! hi/orian ( sci5ce4 
,9 ! latt] "p ( ! fifte5? c5tury1 h[ev]1
 !re is evid5ce ( a r5aissance ( sci5ce 
no less ?an ( art4 ,! ,g]man ,mull]     
became fam\s "u ! lat9iz$ nam$ ( ,regio 
,montanus 7#adcg-adgb71 al?\gh 8 actual 
sci5tific atta9m5ts w\ld appe> to h be5 
important only 9 comp>ison ) ! utt]     
ignorance ( 8 contempor>ies4 ,! mo/     
di/+ui%$ work] ( ! new era 0 ! fam\s    

,italian ,leon>do da ,v9ci--a man :o has
 be5 call$ by ,ham]ton ! mo/ univ]sal   
g5ius t ev] liv$4 ,leon>do's position 9 
! hi/ory ( art is kn[n to e "o4 ,) t1 ( 
c\rse1 we h no pres5t conc]n2 b x is    
wor? our :ile to inquire at "s l5g? z to
 ! fam\s pa9t]'s accompli%m5ts z a      
sci5ti/4  ,f a passage 9 ! works (      
,leon>do1 fir/ br\ght to light by       
,v5turi17#a7 x w\ld seem t ! great pa9t]
 anticipat$ ,cop]nicus 9 det]m9+ !      
movem5t ( ! e>?4 ,he made ma!matical    
calculations to prove ?is1 & appe>s to h
 rea*$ ! def9ite conclusion t ! e>? does
 move--or :at am\nts to ! same ?+1 t !  
sun does n move4 ,muntz is au?ority = ! 
/atem5t t 9 "o ( 8 writ+s he decl>es1   
,il sole non si m\ve--! sun does n      
move47#b7  ,among 8 inv5tions is a      
dynamomet] = det]m9+ ! traction p[] (   
ma*9es & animals1 & 8 exp]im5ts ) /eam h
 l$ "s ( 8 en?usia/ic p>tisans to claim 
= him priority to ,watt 9 ! inv5tion ( !
 /eam-eng9e4 ,9 ^! exp]im5ts1 h[ev]1    
,leon>do seems to h advanc$ little      

beyond ,h]o ( ,alex&ria & 8 /eam toy4   
,h]o's /eam-eng9e did no?+ b rotate     
itself by virtue ( escap+ jets ( /eam   
=c$ f ! b5t tubes1 :ile ,leon>do's      
/eam-eng9e drove a ball weigh+ "o tal5t 
ov] a di/ance ( six /adia4 ,9 a         
manuscript n[ 9 ! libr>y ( ! ,in/itut de
 ,france1 ,da ,v9ci describes ?is eng9e 
m9utely4 ,! action ( ?is ma*9e 0 due to 
! sudd5 conv]sion ( small quantities (  
wat] into /eam 7smoke1 z he call$ x7 by 
com+ sudd5ly 9 contact ) a heat$ surface
 9 a prop] receptacle1 ! rapidly =m$    
/eam act+ z a propulsive =ce aft] !     
mann] ( an explosive4 ,x is really a    
/eam-gun1 r ?an a /eam-eng9e1 & x is n  
unlikely t ! /udy ( ! action ( gunp[d]  
may h sugge/$ x to ,leon>do4  ,x is     
believ$ t ,leon>do is ! true discov]] ( 
! cam]a-obscura1 al?\gh ! ,neapolitan   
philosoph]1 ,giambatti/a ,porta1 :o 0 n 
born until "s tw5ty ye>s aft] ! dea? (  
,leon>do1 is usually cr$it$ ) fir/      
describ+ ?is device4 ,!re is little     
d\bt1 h[ev]1 t ,da ,v9ci und]/ood !     

pr9ciple ( ?is me*anism1 = he describes 
h[ su* a cam]a c be made by cutt+ a     
small1 r\nd hole ?r\gh ! %utt] ( a d>k5$
 room1 ! rev]s$ image ( objects outside 
be+ %[n on ! opposite wall4  ,l o!r     
philosoph]s 9 all ages1 he _h obs]v$ a  
great numb] ( facts :i* he 0 unable to  
expla9 correctly4 ,b su* accumulations (
 sci5tific obs]vations are always       
int]e/+1 z %[+ h[ _m c5turies (         
obs]vation frequ5tly prec$e correct     
explanation4 ,he obs]v$ _m facts ab\t   
s\nds1 among o!rs t bl[s /ruck ^u a bell
 produc$ sympa!tic s\nds 9 a bell ( !   
same k9d2 & t /rik+ ! /r+ ( a lute      
produc$ vibration 9 correspond+ /r+s (  
lutes /rung to ! same pit*4 ,he knew1   
also1 t s\nds c\ld be he>d at a di/ance 
at sea by li/5+ at "o end ( a tube1 !   
o!r end ( :i* 0 plac$ 9 ! wat]2 & t !   
same exp$i5t work$ successfully on l&1 !
 end ( ! tube be+ plac$ aga9/ ! gr\nd4  
,! k ( ?is great numb] ( unexpla9$ facts
 is (t5 int]pret$ by ! admir]s ( ,da    
,v9ci1 z %[+ an almo/ occult insight    

into sci5ce _m c5turies 9 advance ( 8   
"t4 ,su* int]pretations1 h[ev]1 are     
illusive4 ,! obs]vation1 = example1 t a 
tube plac$ aga9/ ! gr\nd enables "o to  
he> movem5ts on ! e>? at a di/ance1 is n
 9 itself evid5ce ( any?+ m ?an acute   
sci5tific obs]vation1 z a simil> me?od  
is 9 use among almo/ e race ( savages1  
notably ! ,am]ican ,indians4 ,on ! o!r  
h&1 "o is incl9$ to give cr$5ce to almo/
 any /ory ( ! bread? ( k ( ! man :o came
 s ne> anticipat+ ,hutton1 ,lyell1 &    
,d>w9 9 8 int]pretation ( ! geological  
records z he f\nd !m writt5 on ! rocks4 
,x is 9 ?is field ( geology t ,leon>do  
is entitl$ to ! greate/ admiration by   
mod]n sci5ti/s4 ,he _h obs]v$ ! deposit 
( fossil %ells 9 v>i\s /rata ( rocks1   
ev5 on ! tops ( m\nta9s1 & he reject$   
once = all ! !ory t !y _h be5 deposit$  
!re by ! ,deluge4 ,he rightly int]pret$ 
_! pres5ce z evid5ce t !y _h once be5   
deposit$ at ! bottom ( ! sea4 ,?is      
process he assum$ bad tak5 hundr$s &    
?\s&s ( c5turies1 ?us tacitly reject+ ! 

biblical tradition z to ! date ( !      
creation4  ,not)/&+ ! obvi\s int]e/ t   
atta*es to ! inve/igations ( ,leon>do1 x
 mu/ be admitt$ t 8 "w 9 sci5ce rema9$  
almo/ z inf]tile z t ( 8 great          
precursor1 ,bacon4 ,! really /imulative 
"w ( ?is g5]ation 0 done by a man (     
affairs1 :o knew little ( !oretical     
sci5ce except 9 "o l9e1 b :o pursu$ t "o
 practical l9e until he a*iev$ a        
wond]ful result4 ,?is man 0 ,*ri/oph]   
,columbus4 ,x is n necess>y "h to tell !
 trite /ory ( 8 accompli%m5t4 ,suffice x
 t 8 practical demon/ration ( !         
rotundity ( ! e>? is reg>d$ by mo/ mod]n
 writ]s z m>k+ an epo* 9 hi/ory4 ,) !   
ye> ( 8 voyage ! epo* ( ! ,middle ,ages 
is usually reg>d$ z com+ to an end4 ,x  
mu/ n be suppos$ t any v sudd5 *ange    
came ov] ! aspect ( s*ol>%ip ( ! "t1 b !
 prelim9>ies ( great ?+s _h be5 a*iev$1 
& :5 ,columbus made 8 fam\s voyage 9    
#adib1 ! man 0 already alive :o 0 to br+
 =w>d ! fir/ great vitaliz+ ?\ght 9 !   
field ( pure sci5ce t ! ,we/]n _w _h    

orig9at$ = m ?an a ?\s& ye>s4 ,?is man  
bore ! "n ( ,kop]nik1 or 9 its famili>  
,angliciz$ =m1 ,cop]nicus4 ,8 life "w & 
t ( 8 disciples w claim our att5tion 9 !
 succe$+ *apt]4     ,,iv4 ,,! ,,new     
,,cosmology--,,cop]nicus ,,to ,,kepl]   
,,& ,,galileo  ,we h se5 t ! ,ptolemaic 
a/ronomy1 :i* 0 ! accept$ doctr9e       
?r\gh\t ! ,middle ,ages1 taught t ! e>? 
is r\nd4 ,d\btless !re 0 a popul> op9ion
 curr5t :i* reg>d$ ! e>? z flat1 b x mu/
 be und]/ood t ?is op9ion _h no *ampions
 among m5 ( sci5ce dur+ ! ,middle ,ages4
 ,:51 9 ! ye> #adib1 ,columbus sail$ out
 to ! we/ on 8 memorable voyage1 8      
expectation ( rea*+ ,india _h full      
sci5tific w>rant1 h[ev] mu* x may h be5 
sc\t$ by c]ta9 ecclesia/ics & by !      
av]age man ( ! p]iod4 ,nev]!less1 we may
 well suppose t ! successful voyage (   
,columbus1 & ! /ill m demon/rative "o   
made ab\t ?irty ye>s lat] by ,magellan1 
gave ! !ory ( ! e>?'s rotundity a       
c]ta9ty x c\ld nev] previ\sly h _h4     
,alex&rian geograph]s _h measur$ ! size 

( ! e>?1 & _h n hesitat$ to ass]t t by  
sail+ we/w>d "o might rea* ,india4 ,b   
!re is a wide gap betwe5 !ory &         
practice1 & x requir$ ! voyages (       
,columbus & 8 successors to bridge t    
gap4  ,aft] ! companions ( ,magellan    
complet$ ! circumnavigation ( ! globe1 !
 g5]al %ape ( our e>? w\ld1 obvi\sly1   
nev] aga9 be call$ 9 "q4 ,b demon/ration
 ( ! sph]icity ( ! e>? _h1 ( c\rse1 no  
direct be>+ ^u ! "q ( ! e>?'s position 9
 ! univ]se4 ,!re=e ! voyage ( ,magellan 
s]v$ to =tify1 r ?an to dispute1 !      
,ptolemaic !ory4 ,accord+ to t !ory1 z  
we h se51 ! e>? 0 suppos$ to lie        
immovable at ! c5tre ( ! univ]se2 !     
v>i\s heav5ly bodies1 includ+ ! sun1    
revolv+ ab\t x 9 ecc5tric circles4 ,we h
 se5 t sev]al ( ! anci5t ,greeks1       
notably ,ari/>*us1 disput$ ?is          
conception1 decl>+ = ! c5tral position (
 ! sun 9 ! univ]se1 & ! motion ( ! e>? &
 o!r planets ab\t t body4 ,b ?is        
revolution>y !ory seem$ s oppos$ to !   
ord9>y obs]vation t1 hav+ be5           

disc\nt5anc$ by ,hipp>*us & ,ptolemy1 x 
did n f9d a s+le important *ampion = m  
?an a ?\s& ye>s aft] ! "t ( ! la/ great 
,alex&rian a/ronom]4  ,! fir/ man1      
seem+ly1 to h>k back to ! ,ari/>*ian    
conception 9 ! new sci5tific era t 0 n[ 
dawn+ 0 ! not$ c>d9al1 ,nikolaus (      
,cusa1 :o liv$ 9 ! fir/ half ( ! fifte5?
 c5tury1 & 0 di/+ui%$ z a philosophical 
writ] & ma!matician4 ,8 ,de ,docta      
,ignorantia expressly prop\nds ! doctr9e
 ( ! e>?'s motion4 ,no "o1 h[ev]1 paid !
 slighte/ att5tion to 8 sugge/ion1 :i*1 
!re=e1 m]ely s]ves to furni% u ) ano!r  
int]e/+ illu/ration ( ! futility (      
prop\nd+ ev5 a correct hypo!sis be=e !  
"t is ripe to receive x--p>ticul>ly if !
 hypo!sis is n fully =tifi$ by reason+  
bas$ on exp]im5t or obs]vation4  ,! man 
:o 0 de/9$ to put =w>d ! !ory ( ! e>?'s 
motion 9 a way to comm& att5tion 0 born 
9 #adgc1 at ! village ( ,?orn1 9 ea/]n  
,prussia4 ,8 "n 0 ,ni*olas ,cop]nicus4  
,!re is no m fam\s "n 9 ! entire annals 
( sci5ce ?an ?is1 yet po/]ity has nev]  

be5 able fully to e/abli% ! l9eage ( !  
fam\s expositor ( ! true doctr9e ( !    
sol> sy/em4 ,! city ( ,?orn lies 9 a    
prov9ce ( t bord] t]ritory :i* 0 !n "u  
control ( ,pol&1 b :i* subsequ5tly      
became a "p ( ,prussia4 ,x is claim$ t !
 aspects ( ! city 7 ess5tially ,g]man1 &
 x is admitt$ t ! "m ( ,cop]nicus       
belong$ to t race4 ,! nationality ( !   
fa!r is m 9 d\bt1 b x is urg$ t         
,cop]nicus us$ ,g]man z 8 "m-tongue4 ,8 
great "w 01 ( c\rse1 writt5 9 ,lat91    
accord+ to ! cu/om ( ! "t2 b x is said  
t1 :5 n employ+ t language1 he always   
wrote 9 ,g]man4 ,! disput$ nationality (
 ,cop]nicus /rongly sugge/s t he came ( 
a mix$ racial l9eage1 & we are rem9d$   
aga9 ( ! influ5ces ( ^? e?nical m+l+s to
 :i* we h previ\sly m ?an once ref]r$4  
,! ackn[l$g$ c5tres ( civilization t[>ds
 ! close ( ! fifte5? c5tury 7 ,italy &  
,spa94 ,!re=e1 ! bir?place ( ,cop]nicus 
lay almo/ at ! conf9es ( civilization1  
rem9d+ u ( t e>li] p]iod :5 ,greece 0 ! 
c5tre ( culture1 b :5 ! great ,greek    

?9k]s 7 born 9 ,asia ,m9or & 9 ,italy4  
,z a "y man1 ,cop]nicus made 8 way to   
,vi5na to /udy m$ic9e1 & subsequ5tly he 
j\rney$ into ,italy & rema9$ !re _m     
ye>s1 ,ab\t ! ye> #aejj he held ! *air (
 ma!matics 9 a college at ,rome4        
,subsequ5tly he return$ to 8 native l& &
 pass$ 8 rema9+ ye>s !re1 dy+ at        
,domk]r1 9 ,frau5burg1 ,ea/ ,prussia1 9 
! ye> #aedc4  ,x w\ld appe> t ,cop]nicus
 conceiv$ ! idea ( ! helioc5tric sy/em (
 ! univ]se :ile he 0 a comp>atively "y  
man1 s9ce 9 ! introduction to 8 great   
"w1 :i* he address$ to ,pope ,paul      
,,iii41 he /ates t he has pond]$ 8 sy/em
 n m]ely n9e ye>s1 9 accordance ) !     
maxim ( ,horace1 b well into ! f\r?     
p]iod ( n9e ye>s4 ,?r\gh\t a consid]able
 portion ( ?is p]iod ! great "w (       
,cop]nicus 0 9 manuscript1 b x 0 n      
publi%$ until ! ye> ( 8 dea?4 ,! reasons
 = ! delay are n v fully e/abli%$4      
,cop]nicus und\bt$ly taught 8 sy/em     
?r\gh\t ! lat] decades ( 8 life4 ,he    
himself tells u t he _h ev5 que/ion$    

:e!r x 7 n bett] = him to conf9e himself
 to su* v]bal tea*+1 foll[+ ?us !       
example ( ,py?agoras4 ,j z 8 life 0     
draw+ to a close1 he decid$ to pursue ! 
opposite c\rse1 & ! fir/ copy ( 8 "w is 
said to h be5 plac$ 9 8 h&s z he lay on 
8 dea?b$4  ,! viol5t opposition :i* !   
new sy/em met f ecclesia/ical s\rces l$ 
subsequ5t comm5tators to suppose t      
,cop]nicus _h delay$ publication ( 8 "w 
?r\gh fe> ( ! *ur* au?orities4 ,!re     
seems1 h[ev]1 to be no direct evid5ce = 
?is op9ion4 ,x has be5 ?\ght significant
 t ,cop]nicus address$ 8 "w to ! pope4  
,x is1 ( c\rse1 q conceivable t ! ag$   
a/ronom] might wi% by ?is means to      
demon/rate t he wrote 9 no _s ( ho/ility
 to ! *ur*4 ,8 address to ! pope might h
 be5 consid]$ z a desirable %ield       
precisely because ! au?or recogniz$ t 8 
"w mu/ ne$s meet ) ecclesia/ical        
criticism4 ,be t z x may1 ,cop]nicus 0  
remov$ by dea? f ! dang] ( attack1 & x  
rema9$ = 8 disciples ( a lat] g5]ation  
to run ! gauntlet ( criticism & suff] ! 

*>ges ( h]esy4  ,! "w ( ,cop]nicus1     
publi%$ ?us 9 ! ye> #aedc at ,nuremb]g1 
be>s ! title ,de ,orbium ,coele/ium     
,revolutionibus4  ,x is n necess>y to g 
into details z to ! cosmological sy/em  
:i* ,cop]nicus advocat$1 s9ce x is      
famili> to e "o4 ,9 a ^w1 he suppos$ !  
sun to be ! c5tre ( all ! planet>y      
motions1 ! e>? tak+ its place among !   
o!r planets1 ! li/ ( :i*1 z kn[n at t   
"t1 compris$ ,m]cury1 ,v5us1 ! ,e>?1    
,m>s1 ,jupit]1 & ,saturn4 ,! fix$ />s 7 
alleg$ to be /ation>y1 & x 0 necess>y to
 suppose t !y are almo/ inf9itely       
di/ant1 inasmu* z !y %[$ to ! obs]v]s ( 
t "t no p>allax2 t is to say1 !y pres]v$
 ! same app>5t position :5 view$ f !    
opposite po9ts ( ! e>?'s orbit4  ,b let 
u all[ ,cop]nicus to speak = himself    
reg>d+ 8 sy/em1 ,8 exposition is full ( 
int]e/4 ,we quote fir/ ! introduction j 
ref]r$ to1 9 :i* appeal is made directly
 to ! pope4  ,i c well believe1 mo/ holy
 fa!r1 t c]ta9 p1 :5 !y he> ( my        
attribut+ motion to ! e>? 9 ^! books (  

m9e1 w at once decl>e t su* an op9ion   
ought to be reject$4 ,n[1 my own !ories 
d n please me s mu* z n to consid] :at  
o!rs may judge ( !m4 ,accord+ly1 :5 ,i  
began to reflect ^u :at ^? p]sons :o    
accept ! /ability ( ! e>?1 z confirm$ by
 ! op9ion ( _m c5turies1 w\ld say :5 ,i 
claim$ t ! e>? moves1 ,i hesitat$ = a   
long "t z to :e!r ,i %\ld publi% t :i*  
,i h writt5 to demon/rate its motion1 or
 :e!r x w\ld n be bett] to foll[ !      
example ( ! ,py?agoreans1 :o us$ to h&  
d[n ! secrets ( philosophy to _!        
relatives & fri5ds only 9 oral =m4 ,z ,i
 well consid]$ all ?is1 ,i 0 almo/      
impell$ to put ! f9i%$ "w :olly aside1  
?r\gh ! scorn ,i _h reason to anticipate
 on acc\nt ( ! newness & app>5t         
contr>9ess to reason ( my !ory4  ,my    
fri5ds1 h[ev]1 dissuad$ me f su* a c\rse
 & admoni%$ me t ,i ought to publi% my  
book1 :i* _h la9 conceal$ 9 my          
possession n only n9e ye>s1 b already   
into f\r times ! n9? ye>4 ,n a few o!r  
di/+ui%$ & v le>n$ m5 ask$ me to d !    

same ?+1 & told me t ,i ought n1 on     
acc\nt ( my anxiety1 to delay any long] 
9 consecrat+ my "w to ! g5]al s]vice (  
ma!maticians4  ,b y\r hol9ess w p]haps n
 s mu* wond] t ,i h d>$ to br+ ! results
 ( my night labors to ! light ( day1    
aft] hav+ tak5 s mu* c>e 9 elaborat+ !m1
 b is wait+ in/ead to he> h[ x ent]$ my 
m9d to imag9e t ! e>? mov$1 contr>y to !
 accept$ op9ion ( ma!maticians--nay1    
almo/ contr>y to ord9>y human und]/&+4  
,!re=e ,i w n conceal f y\r hol9ess t   
:at mov$ me to consid] ano!r way (      
reckon+ ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies 0  
no?+ else ?an ! fact t ! ma!maticians d 
n agree ) "o ano!r 9 _! inve/igations4  
,9 ! fir/ place1 !y are s unc]ta9 ab\t !
 motions ( ! sun & moon t !y _c f9d out 
! l5g? ( a full ye>4 ,9 ! second place1 
!y apply nei!r ! same laws ( cause &    
effect1 9 det]m9+ ! motions ( ! sun &   
moon & ( ! five planets1 nor ! same     
pro(s4 ,"s employ only conc5tric        
circles1 o!rs use ecc5tric & epicyclic  
ones1 ) :i*1 h[ev]1 !y d n fully atta9 !

 desir$ end4 ,!y c\ld n ev5 discov] nor 
compute ! ma9 ?+--namely1 ! =m ( !      
univ]se & ! symmetry ( its p>ts4 ,x 0 ) 
!m z if "s %\ld1 f diff]5t places1 take 
h&s1 feet1 head1 & o!r p>ts ( ! body1   
:i*1 al?\gh v beautiful1 7 n drawn 9 _! 
prop] relations1 &1 )\t mak+ !m 9 any   
way correspond1 %\ld con/ruct a mon/]   
in/ead ( a human be+4  ,accord+ly1 :5 ,i
 _h long reflect$ on ?is unc]ta9ty (    
ma!matical tradition1 ,i took ! tr\ble  
to read aga9 ! books ( all ! philosoph]s
 ,i c\ld get hold (1 to see if "s "o (  
!m _h n once believ$ t !re 7 o!r motions
 ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,fir/ ,i f\nd 9    
,cic]o t ,niceties _h believ$ 9 ! motion
 ( ! e>?4 ,aft]w>ds ,i f\nd 9 ,plut>*1  
likewise1 t "s o!rs _h held ! same      
op9ion4 ,?is induc$ me also to beg9 to  
consid] ! movability ( ! e>?1 &1 al?\gh 
! !ory appe>$ contr>y to reason1 ,i did 
s because ,i knew t o!rs be=e me _h be5 
all[$ to assume rot>y movem5ts at w1 9  
ord] to expla9 ! ph5om5a ( ^! cele/ial  
bodies4 ,i 0 ( ! op9ion t ,i1 too1 might

 be p]mitt$ to see :e!r1 by presuppos+  
motion 9 ! e>?1 m reliable conclusions  
?an hi!rto rea*$ c\ld n be discov]$ = ! 
rot>y motions ( ! sph]es4 ,& ?us1 act+  
on ! hypo!sis ( ! motion :i*1 9 ! foll[+
 book1 ,i ascribe to ! e>?1 & by long & 
cont9u$ obs]vations1 ,i h f9ally        
discov]$ t if ! motion ( ! o!r planets  
be c>ri$ ov] to ! relation ( ! e>? & ?is
 is made ! basis = ! rotation ( e />1 n 
only w ! ph5om5a ( ! planets be expla9$ 
!reby1 b also ! laws & ! size ( ! />s2  
all _! sph]es & ! heav5s !mselves w     
appe> s h>moni\sly connect$ t no?+ c\ld 
be *ang$ 9 any "p ( !m )\t confusion 9 !
 rema9+ p>ts & 9 ! :ole univ]se4 ,i d n 
d\bt t clev] & le>n$ m5 w agree ) me if 
!y are will+ fully to compreh5d & to    
consid] ! pro(s :i* ,i advance 9 ! book 
be=e u4 ,9 ord]1 h[ev]1 t bo? ! le>n$ & 
! unle>n$ may see t ,i fe> no man's     
judgm5t1 ,i want$ to d$icate ^!1 my     
night labors1 to y\r hol9ess1 r ?an to  
any "o else1 because y1 ev5 9 ?is remote
 corn] ( ! e>? :]e ,i live1 are held to 

be ! greate/ 9 dignity ( /ation & 9 love
 = all sci5ces & = ma!matics1 s t y1    
?r\gh y\r position & judgm5t1 c easily  
suppress ! bites ( sl&]]s1 al?\gh !     
prov]b says t !re is no rem$y aga9/ !   
bite ( calumny4   ,9 *apt] ,x4 ( book   
,i41 ,on ! ,ord] ( ! ,sph]es1 occurs a m
 detail$ pres5tation ( ! sy/em1 z       
foll[s3  ,t :i* ,m>tianus ,capella1 & a 
few o!r ,lat9s1 v well knew1 appe>s to  
me extremely notewor?y4 ,he believ$ t   
,v5us & ,m]cury revolve ab\t ! sun z _! 
c5tre & t !y _c g f>!r away f x ?an !   
circles ( _! orbits p]mit1 s9ce !y d n  
revolve ab\t ! e>? l ! o!r planets4     
,accord+ to ?is !ory1 !n1 ,m]cury's     
orbit w\ld be includ$ )9 t ( ,v5us1 :i* 
is m ?an twice z great1 & w\ld f9d room 
en\gh )9 x = its revolution4  ,if1 act+ 
^u ?is supposition1 we connect ,saturn1 
,jupit]1 & ,m>s ) ! same c5tre1 keep+ 9 
m9d ! great] ext5t ( _! orbits1 :i*     
include ! e>?'s sph]e besides ^? (      
,m]cury & ,v5us1 we _c fail to see !    
explanation ( ! regul> ord] ( _!        

motions4 ,he is c]ta9 t ,saturn1        
,jupit]1 & ,m>s are always ne>e/ ! e>?  
:5 !y rise 9 ! ev5+--t is1 :5 !y appe>  
ov] aga9/ ! sun1 or ! e>? /&s betwe5 !m 
& ! sun--b t !y are f>!/ f ! e>? :5 !y  
set 9 ! ev5+--t is1 :5 we h ! sun betwe5
 !m & ! e>?4 ,?is proves suffici5tly t  
_! c5tre belongs to ! sun & is ! same   
ab\t :i* ! orbits ( ,v5us & ,m]cury     
circle4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 all h "o c5tre1 x 
is necess>y = ! space int]v5+ betwe5 !  
orbits ( ,v5us & ,m>s to include ! e>? )
 h] accompany+ moon & all t is b5ea? !  
moon2 = ! moon1 :i* /&s unque/ionably   
ne>e/ ! e>?1 c 9 no way be sep>at$ f h]1
 especially z !re is suffici5t room = ! 
moon 9 ! a=esaid space4 ,h5ce we d n    
hesitate to claim t ! :ole sy/em1 :i*   
includes ! moon ) ! e>? = its c5tre1    
makes ! r\nd ( t great circle betwe5 !  
planets1 9 ye>ly motion ab\t ! sun1 &   
revolves ab\t ! c5tre ( ! univ]se1 9 :i*
 ! sun re/s motionless1 & t all :i*     
looks l motion 9 ! sun is expla9$ by !  
motion ( ! e>?4 ,! ext5t ( ! univ]se1   

h[ev]1 is s great t1 :]eas ! di/ance ( !
 e>? f ! sun is consid]able 9 comp>ison 
) ! size ( ! o!r planet>y orbits1 x     
disappe>s :5 comp>$ ) ! sph]e ( ! fix$  
/>s4 ,i hold ?is to be m easily         
compreh5sible ?an :5 ! m9d is confus$ by
 an almo/ endless numb] ( circles1 :i*  
is necess>ily ! case ) ^? :o keep ! e>? 
9 ! middle ( ! univ]se4 ,al?\gh ?is may 
appe> incompreh5sible & contr>y to !    
op9ion ( _m1 ,i %all1 if ,god wills1    
make x cle>] ?an ! sun1 at lea/ to ^? :o
 are n ignorant ( ma!matics4  ,! ord] ( 
! sph]es is z foll[s3 ,! fir/ & lighte/ 
( all ! sph]es is t ( ! fix$ />s1 :i*   
includes itself & all o!rs1 & h5ce is   
motionless z ! place 9 ! univ]se to :i* 
! motion & position ( all o!r />s is    
ref]r$4  ,!n foll[s ! out]mo/ planet1   
,saturn1 :i* completes its revolution   
ar\nd ! sun 9 ?irty ye>s2 next comes    
,jupit] ) a twelve ye>s' revolution2 !n 
,m>s1 :i* completes its c\rse 9 two     
ye>s4 ,! f\r? "o 9 ord] is ! ye>ly      
revolution :i* includes ! e>? ) ! moon's

 orbit z an epicycle4 ,9 ! fif? place is
 ,v5us ) a revolution ( n9e mon?s4 ,!   
six? place is tak5 by ,m]cury1 :i*      
completes its c\rse 9 eighty days4 ,9 ! 
middle ( all /&s ! sun1 & :o c\ld wi% to
 place ! lamp ( ?is mo/ beautiful temple
 9 ano!r or bett] place4 ,?us1 9 fact1 !
 sun1 seat$ ^u ! royal ?rone1 controls !
 family ( ! />s :i* circle ar\nd him4   
,we f9d 9 _! ord] a h>moni\s connection 
:i* _c be f\nd else:]e4 ,"h ! att5tive  
obs]v] c see :y ! wax+ & wan+ ( ,jupit] 
seems great] ?an ) ,saturn & small] ?an 
) ,m>s1 & aga9 great] ) ,v5us ?an )     
,m]cury4 ,also1 :y ,saturn1 ,jupit]1 &  
,m>s are ne>] to ! e>? :5 !y rise 9 !   
ev5+ ?an :5 !y disappe> 9 ! rays ( !    
sun4 ,m prom95tly1 h[ev]1 is x se5 9 !  
case ( ,m>s1 :i* :5 x appe>s 9 ! heav5s 
at night1 seems to equal ,jupit] 9 size1
 b soon aft]w>ds is f\nd among ! />s (  
second magnitude4 ,all ( ?is results f !
 same cause--namely1 f ! e>?'s motion4  
,! fact t no?+ ( ?is is to be se5 9 !   
case ( ! fix$ />s is a pro( ( _!        

immeasurable di/ance1 :i* makes ev5 !   
orbit ( ye>ly motion or its c\nt]p>t    
invisible to u47#a7   ,! fact t ! />s %[
 no p>allax _h be5 reg>d$ z an important
 argum5t aga9/ ! motion ( ! e>?1 & x 0  
/ill s consid]$ by ! oppon5ts ( ! sy/em 
( ,cop]nicus4 ,x _h1 inde$1 be5 necess>y
 = ,ari/>*us to expla9 ! fact z due to !
 extreme di/ance ( ! />s2 a p]fectly    
correct explanation1 b "o t implies     
di/ances t are altoge!r inconceivable4  
,x rema9$ = n9ete5?-c5tury a/ronom]s to 
%[1 ) ! aid ( in/rum5ts ( great]        
precision1 t c]ta9 ( ! />s h a p>allax4 
,b long be=e ?is demon/ration _h be5    
br\ght =w>d1 ! sy/em ( ,cop]nicus _h be5
 accept$ z a "p ( common k4  ,:ile      
,cop]nicus po/ulat$ a cosmical s*eme t 0
 correct z to its ma9 features1 he did n
 altoge!r break away f c]ta9 defects ( !
 ,ptolemaic hypo!sis4 ,inde$1 he seems  
to h reta9$ z mu* ( ?is z practicable1 9
 def]5ce to ! prejudice ( 8 "t4 ,?us he 
records ! planet>y orbits z circul>1 &  
expla9s _! ecc5tricities by resort+ to !

 !ory ( epicycles1 q aft] ! ,ptolemaic  
me?od4 ,b n[1 ( c\rse1 a mu* m simple   
me*anism suffic$ to expla9 ! planet>y   
motions1 s9ce ! orbits 7 correctly      
ref]r$ to ! c5tral sun & n to ! e>?4    
,ne$less to say1 ! revolution>y         
conception ( ,cop]nicus did n meet )    
imm$iate acceptance4 ,a numb] ( prom95t 
a/ronom]s1 h[ev]1 took x up almo/ at    
once1 among ^! be+ ,rhaeticus1 :o wrote 
a comm5t>y on ! evolutions2 ,erasmus    
,re9hold1 ! au?or ( ! ,prut5ic tables2  
,ro?mann1 a/ronom] to ! ,l&grave (      
,hesse1 & ,mae/l91 ! in/ructor ( ,kepl]4
 ,! ,prut5ic tables1 j ref]r$ to1 s     
call$ because ( _! ,prussian orig91 7   
consid]$ an improvem5t on ! tables (    
,cop]nicus1 & 7 highly e/eem$ by !      
a/ronom]s ( ! "t4 ,! comm5t>y (         
,rhaeticus gives u ! int]e/+ in=mation t
 x 0 ! obs]vation ( ! orbit ( ,m>s & ( !
 v great diff]5ce betwe5 8 app>5t       
diamet]s at diff]5t times :i* fir/ l$   
,cop]nicus to conceive ! helioc5tric    
idea4 ,( ,re9hold x is record$ t he     

consid]$ ! orbit ( ,m]cury elliptical1 &
 t he advocat$ a !ory ( ! moon1 accord+ 
to :i* h] epicycle revolv$ on an        
elliptical orbit1 ?us 9 a measure       
anticipat+ "o ( ! great discov]ies (    
,kepl] to :i* we %all ref] pres5tly4 ,! 
,l&grave ( ,hesse 0 a practical         
a/ronom]1 :o produc$ a catalogue ( fix$ 
/>s :i* has be5 comp>$ ) t ( ,ty*o      
,brahe4 ,he 0 assi/$ by ,ro?mann & by   
,ju/us ,byrgius4 ,mae/l91 ! preceptor ( 
,kepl]1 is reput$ to h be5 ! fir/ mod]n 
obs]v] to give a correct explanation ( !
 light se5 on portions ( ! moon n       
directly illum9$ by ! sun4 ,he expla9$  
?is z n due to any prop] light ( ! moon 
itself1 b z light reflect$ f ! e>?4     
,c]ta9 ( ! ,greek philosoph]s1 h[ev]1   
are said to h giv5 ! same explanation1 &
 x is alleg$ also t ,leon>do da ,v9ci   
anticipat$ ,mae/l9 9 ?is reg>d47#b7     
,:ile1 v>i\s a/ronom]s ( "s em95ce ?us  
gave support to ! ,cop]nican sy/em1     
almo/ f ! beg9n+1 x un=tunately *anc$ t 
by f> ! mo/ fam\s ( ! imm$iate          

successors ( ,cop]nicus decl9$ to accept
 ! !ory ( ! e>?'s motion4 ,?is 0 ,ty*o  
,brahe1 "o ( ! greate/ obs]v+ a/ronom]s 
( any age4 ,ty*o ,brahe 0 a ,dane1 born 
at ,knud/rup 9 ! ye> #aedf4 ,he di$ 9   
#afja at ,prague1 9 ,bohemia4 ,dur+ a   
consid]able portion ( 8 life he f\nd a  
patron 9 ,fr$]ick1 ,k+ ( ,d5m>k1 :o     
assi/$ him to build a spl5did obs]vatory
 on ! ,isl& ( ,hu5e4 ,on ! dea? ( 8     
patron ,ty*o mov$ to ,g]many1 :]e1 z    
good luck w\ld h x1 he came 9 contact ) 
! y\?ful ,kepl]1 & ?us1 no d\bt1 0      
in/rum5tal 9 /imulat+ ! ambitions ( "o  
:o 9 lat] ye>s 0 to be kn[n z a f>      
great] !ori/ ?an himself4 ,z has be5    
said1 ,ty*o reject$ ! ,cop]nican !ory ( 
! e>?'s motion4 ,x %\ld be add$1 h[ev]1 
t he accept$ t "p ( ! ,cop]nican !ory   
:i* makes ! sun ! c5tre ( all ! planet>y
 motions1 ! e>? be+ except$4 ,he ?us    
develop$ a sy/em ( 8 own1 :i* 0 9 "s    
sort a compromise betwe5 ! ,ptolemaic & 
! ,cop]nican sy/ems4 ,z ,ty*o conceiv$  
x1 ! sun revolves ab\t ! e>?1 c>ry+ ) x 

! planets-,m]cury1 ,v5us1 ,m>s1 ,jupit]1
 & ,saturn1 :i* planets h ! sun & n !   
e>? z ! c5tre ( _! orbits4 ,?is cosmical
 s*eme1 x %\ld be add$1 may be made to  
expla9 ! obs]v$ motions ( ! heav5ly     
bodies1 b x involves a mu* m complex    
me*anism ?an is po/ulat$ by ! ,cop]nican
 !ory4  ,v>i\s explanations h be5 (f]$ (
 ! cons]vatism :i* held ! great ,dani%  
a/ronom] back f full acceptance ( !     
relatively simple &1 z we n[ "k1 correct
 ,cop]nican doctr9e4 ,f our latt]-day   
po9t ( view1 x seems s mu* m natural to 
accept ?an to reject ! ,cop]nican sy/em1
 t we f9d x difficult to put ourselves 9
 ! place ( a sixte5?-c5tury obs]v]4 ,yet
 if we recall t ! traditional view1 hav+
 w>rant ( acceptance by ne>ly all ?9k]s 
( e age1 record$ ! e>? z a fix$1        
immovable body1 we %all see t our       
surprise %\ld be excit$ r by ! ?9k] :o c
 break away f ?is view ?an by ! "o :o   
/ill t5ds to cl+ to x4  ,moreov]1 x is  
useless to attempt to disguise ! fact t 
some?+ m ?an a m]e vague tradition 0    

suppos$ to support ! idea ( ! e>?'s     
ov]%ad[+ importance 9 ! cosmical s*eme4 
,! sixte5?-c5tury m9d 0 ov]ma/]$ by !   
t5ets ( ecclesia/icism1 & x 0 a dang]\s 
h]esy to d\bt t ! ,hebrew writ+s1 ^u :i*
 ecclesia/icism bas$ its claim1 conta9$ 
! la/ ^w reg>d+ matt]s ( sci5ce4 ,b !   
writ]s ( ! ,hebrew text _h be5 "u !     
influ5ce ( t ,babylonian conception ( ! 
univ]se :i* accept$ ! e>? z unqualifi$ly
 c5tral--:i*1 inde$1 _h nev] s mu* z    
conceiv$ a contradictory hypo!sis2 & s !
 ,we/]n _w1 :i* _h come to accept ^!    
writ+s z actually sup]natural 9 orig91  
lay "u ! spell ( ,ori5tal ideas ( a     
pre-sci5tific era4 ,9 our own day1 no "o
 speak+ ) au?ority ?9ks ( ^! ,hebrew    
writ+s z hav+ any sci5tific weight      
:atev]4 ,_! int]e/ 9 ?is reg>d is purely
 antiqu>ian2 h5ce f our *ang$ po9t (    
view x seems sc>cely cr$ible t ,ty*o    
,brahe c h be5 9 e>ne/ :5 he quotes !   
,hebrew traditions z pro( t ! sun       
revolves ab\t ! e>?4 ,yet we %all see t 
= almo/ ?ree c5turies aft] ! "t ( ,ty*o1

 ^! same dream+s cont9u$ to be cit$ 9   
opposition to ^? sci5tific advances :i* 
new obs]vations made necess>y2 & ?is    
not)/&+ ! fact t ! ,ori5tal phras+ is1 =
 ! mo/ "p1 poetically ambigu\s &        
susceptible ( %ift+ int]pretations1 z ! 
criticism ( successive g5]ations has    
amply te/ifi$4  ,z we h said1 ,ty*o     
,brahe1 great obs]v] z he 01 c\ld n %ake
 himself free f ! ,ori5tal incubus4 ,he 
began 8 objections1 !n1 to ! ,cop]nican 
sy/em by quot+ ! adv]se te/imony ( a    
,hebrew prophet :o liv$ m ?an a ?\s&    
ye>s ,b4,c4 ,all ( ?is %[s suffici5tly t
 ,ty*o ,brahe 0 n a great !ori/4 ,he 0  
ess5tially an obs]v]1 b 9 ?is reg>d he  
won a secure place 9 ! v fir/ rank4     
,inde$1 he 0 easily ! greate/ obs]v+    
a/ronom] s9ce ,hipp>*us1 betwe5 :om &   
himself !re 7 _m po9ts ( resemblance4   
,hipp>*us1 x w be recall$1 reject$ !    
,ari/>*ian conception ( ! univ]se j z   
,ty*o reject$ ! conception ( ,cop]nicus4
  ,b if ,ty*o prop\nd$ no great         
g5]alizations1 ! li/ ( specific advances

 due to him is a long "o1 & "s ( ^! 7 to
 prove important aids 9 ! h&s ( lat]    
work]s to ! secure demon/ration ( !     
,cop]nican idea4 ,"o ( 8 mo/ important  
s]ies ( /udies _h to d ) comets4 ,reg>d+
 ^! bodies !re _h be5 ! greate/         
unc]ta9ty 9 ! m9ds ( a/ronom]s4 ,!      
greate/ v>iety ( op9ions reg>d+ !m      
prevail$2 !y 7 ?\ght on ! "o h& to be   
div9e mess5g]s1 & on ! o!r to be m]ely  
igne\s ph5om5a ( ! e>?'s atmosph]e4     
,ty*o ,brahe decl>$ t a comet :i* he    
obs]v$ 9 ! ye> #aegg _h no p>allax1     
prov+ its extreme di/ance4 ,! obs]v$    
c\rse ( ! comet int]sect$ ! planet>y    
orbits1 :i* fact gave a quietus to !    
long-moot$ "q z to :e!r ! ,ptolemaic    
sph]es 7 transp>5t solids or m]ely      
imag9>y2 s9ce ! comet 0 se5 to int]sect 
^! alleg$ sph]es1 x 0 obvi\s t !y c\ld n
 be ! solid sub/ance t !y 7 commonly    
imag9$ to be1 & ?is fact 9 itself w5t f>
 t[>ds discr$it+ ! ,ptolemaic sy/em4 ,x 
%\ld be recall$1 h[ev]1 t ?is           
supposition ( tangible sph]es = ! v>i\s 

planet>y & /ell> orbits 0 a m$iaeval    
int]pretation ( ,ptolemy's !ory r ?an an
 int]pretation ( ,ptolemy himself1 !re  
be+ no?+ to %[ t ! ,alex&rian a/ronom]  
reg>d$ 8 cycles & epicycles z o!r ?an   
!oretical4  ,an int]e/+ practical       
discov]y made by ,ty*o 0 8 me?od (      
det]m9+ ! latitude ( a place by means ( 
two obs]vations made at an int]val (    
twelve h\rs4 ,hi!rto x _h be5 necess>y  
to obs]ve ! sun's angle on ! equ9octial 
days1 a p]iod ( six mon?s be+ !re=e     
requir$4 ,ty*o measur$ ! angle (        
elevation ( "s /> situat$ ne> ! pole1 :5
 on ! m]idian1 & !n1 twelve h\rs lat]1  
measur$ ! angle ( elevation ( ! same /> 
:5 x aga9 came to ! m]idian at !        
opposite po9t ( its app>5t circle ab\t !
 pole/>4 ,half ! sum ( ^! angles gives !
 latitude ( ! place ( obs]vation4  ,z   
illu/rat+ ! accuracy ( ,ty*o's          
obs]vations1 x may be not$ t he         
r$iscov]$ a ?ird inequality ( ! moon's  
motion at its v>iation1 he1 9 common )  
o!r ,european a/ronom]s1 be+ !n q unaw>e

 t ?is inequality _h be5 obs]v$ by an   
,arabian a/ronom]4 ,ty*o prov$ also t ! 
angle ( incl9ation ( ! moon's orbit to !
 ecliptic is subject to slight v>iation4
  ,! v brilliant new /> :i* %one =?     
sudd5ly 9 ! con/ellation ( ,cassiopeia 9
 ! ye> #aegb1 0 made ! object ( special 
/udies by ,ty*o1 :o prov$ t ! /> _h no  
s5sible p>allax & consequ5tly 0 f>      
beyond ! planet>y regions4 ,! appe>ance 
( a new /> 0 a ph5om5on n unkn[n to !   
anci5ts1 s9ce ,pl9y records t ,hipp>*us 
0 l$ by su* an appe>ance to make 8      
catalogue ( ! fix$ />s4 ,b ! ph5om5on is
 suffici5tly uncommon to attract unusual
 att5tion4 ,a simil> ph5om5on occurr$ 9 
! ye> #afjd1 :5 ! new />--9 ?is case    
appe>+ 9 ! con/ellation ( ,s]p5t>ius--0 
expla9$ by ,kepl] z probably proce$+ f a
 va/ combu/ion4 ,?is explanation--9 :i* 
,kepl] is said to h foll[$4 ,ty*o--is   
fully 9 accord ) ! mo/ rec5t !ories on !
 subject1 z we %all see 9 due c\rse4 ,x 
is surpris+ to he> ,ty*o cr$it$ ) s     
/>tl+ a !ory1 b1 on ! o!r h&1 su* an    

explanation is precisely :at %\ld be    
expect$ f ! o!r a/ronom] nam$4 ,=       
,johann ,kepl]1 or1 z he 0 orig9ally    
nam$1 ,johann von ,kappel1 0 "o ( ! mo/ 
speculative a/ronom]s ( any age4 ,he 0  
=ev] !oriz+1 b su* 0 ! peculi> quality (
 8 m9d t 8 !ories nev] satisfi$ him =   
long unless he c\ld put !m to ! te/ (   
obs]vation4 ,?anks to ?is happy         
comb9ation ( qualities1 ,kepl] became ! 
discov]] ( ?ree fam\s laws ( planet>y   
motion :i* lie at ! v f\ndation ( mod]n 
a/ronomy1 & :i* 7 to be l>gely          
in/rum5tal 9 guid+ ,newton to 8 /ill    
great] g5]alization4 ,^! laws ( planet>y
 motion 7 va/ly important z corroborat+ 
! ,cop]nican !ory ( ! univ]se1 ?\gh _!  
position 9 ?is reg>d 0 n imm$iately     
recogniz$ by contempor>y ?9k]s4 ,let u  
exam9e ) "s detail into _! discov]y1    
meantime cat*+ a glimpse ( ! life hi/ory
 ( ! rem>kable man ^: "n !y be>4        
,,johann ,,kepl] ,,& ,,! ,,laws ,,(     
,,planet>y ,,motion  ,johann ,kepl] 0   
born ! #bg? ( ,decemb]1 #aega1 9 !      

little t[n ( ,weil1 9 ,wurtemburg4 ,he 0
 a weak1 sickly *ild1 fur!r enfeebl$ by 
a sev]e attack ( small-pox4 ,x w\ld seem
 p>adoxical to ass]t t ! p>5ts ( su* a  
g5ius 7 mismat$1 b _! home 0 n a happy  
"o1 ! "m be+ ( a n]v\s temp]am5t1 :i*   
p]haps 9 "s measure acc\nt$ = ! g5ius ( 
! *ild4 ,! fa!r l$ ! life ( a soldi]1 & 
f9ally p]i%$ 9 ! campaign aga9/ !       
,turks4 ,"y ,kepl]'s /udies 7 direct$ ) 
an eye to ! m9i/ry4 ,aft] a prelim9>y   
tra9+ he att5d$ ! univ]sity at ,tub+51  
:]e he came "u ! influ5ce ( ! celebrat$ 
,mae/l9 & became 8 life-long fri5d4     
,curi\sly en\gh1 x is record$ t at fir/ 
,kepl] _h no ta/e = a/ronomy or =       
ma!matics4 ,b ! doors ( ! m9i/ry be+    
pres5tly b>r$ to him1 he turn$ )        
en?usiasm to ! /udy ( a/ronomy1 be+ f ! 
fir/ an ard5t advocate ( ! ,cop]nican   
sy/em4 ,8 tea*]1 ,mae/l91 accept$ ! same
 doctr9e1 ?\gh he 0 oblig$1 = !ological 
reasons1 to tea* ! ,ptolemaic sy/em1 z  
also to oppose ! ,gregorian re=m ( !    
cal5d>4  ,! ,gregorian cal5d>1 x %\ld be

 expla9$1 is s call$ because x 0        
in/itut$ by ,pope ,gregory ,,xiii41 :o  
put x into effect 9 ! ye> #aehb1 up to  
:i* "t ! s-call$ ,julian cal5d>1 z      
introduc$ by ,julius ,caes>1 _h be5     
ev]y:]e accept$ 9 ,*ri/5dom4 ,?is       
,julian cal5d>1 z we h se51 0 a great   
improvem5t on prec$+ ones1 b /ill lack$ 
some?+ ( p]fection inasmu* z its        
!oretical day diff]$ appreciably f !    
actual day4 ,9 ! c\rse ( fifte5 hundr$  
ye>s1 s9ce ! "t ( ,caes>1 ?is defect    
am\nt$ to a discrepancy ( ab\t elev5    
days4 ,pope ,gregory propos$ to correct 
?is by omitt+ t5 days f ! cal5d>1 :i* 0 
done 9 ,septemb]1 #aehb4 ,to prev5t     
simil> inaccuracies 9 ! future1 !       
,gregorian cal5d> provid$ t once 9 f\r  
c5turies ! additional day to make a     
leap-ye> %\ld be omitt$1 ! date select$ 
= su* omission be+ ! la/ ye> ( e f\r?   
c5tury4 ,?us ! ye>s #aejj1 #aijj1 &     
#bcjj1 ,a4,d41 w\ld n be leap-ye>s4 ,by 
?is arrangem5t an approximate           
rectification ( ! cal5d> 0 effect$1 ?\gh

 ev5 ?is does n make x absolutely exact4
  ,su* a rectification z ?is 0 obvi\sly 
desirable1 b !re 0 really no necessity =
 ! omission ( ! t5 days f ! cal5d>4 ,!  
equ9octial day _h %ift$ s t 9 ! ye>     
#aehb x fell on ! #aj? ( ,m>* &         
,septemb]4 ,!re 0 no reason :y x %\ld n 
h rema9$ !re4 ,x w\ld greatly h         
simplifi$ ! task ( future hi/orians _h  
,gregory cont5t$ himself ) provid+ = !  
future /ability ( ! cal5d> )\t mak+ !   
ne$less %ift 9 "q4 ,we are s accu/om$ to
 ?9k ( ! #ba/ ( ,m>* & #ba/ ( ,septemb] 
z ! natural p]iods ( ! equ9ox1 t we are 
likely to =get t ^! are purely arbitr>y 
dates = :i* ! #aj? might h be5 sub/itut$
 )\t any inconv5i5ce or inconsi/5cy4  ,b
 ! opposition to ! new cal5d>1 to :i*   
ref]5ce has be5 made1 0 n bas$ on any   
su* consid]ations z ^!4 ,x 0 due1 l>gely
 at any rate1 to ! fact t ,g]many at ?is
 "t 0 "u sway ( ! ,lu!ran revolt aga9/ !
 papacy4 ,s effective 0 ! opposition t !
 ,gregorian cal5d> did n come into vogue
 9 ,g]many until ! ye> #afii4 ,x may be 

add$ t ,engl&1 "u /ress ( ! same mann] (
 prejudice1 held out aga9/ ! new reckon+
 until ! ye> #agea1 :ile ,russia does n 
accept x ev5 n[4  ,z ! ,prote/ant lead]s
 ?us oppos$ ! papal attitude 9 a matt] (
 s practical a "* z ! cal5d>1 x might   
p]haps h be5 expect$ t ! ,lu!rans w\ld h
 _h a lean+ t[>ds ! ,cop]nican !ory ( ! 
univ]se1 s9ce ?is !ory 0 oppos$ by !    
papacy4 ,su*1 h[ev]1 0 n ! case4 ,lu!r  
himself po9t$ out ) great /r5u\sness1 z 
a f9al & demon/rative argum5t1 ! fact t 
,jo%ua comm&$ ! sun & n ! e>? to /&     
/ill2 & 8 foll[]s 7 q z intol]ant t[>ds 
! new tea*+ z 7 _! ultramontane         
oppon5ts4 ,kepl] himself 01 at v>i\s    
times1 to feel ! re/ra9t ( ecclesia/ical
 opposition1 ?\gh he 0 nev] subject$ to 
direct p]secution1 z 0 8 fri5d &        
contempor>y1 ,galileo4 ,at ! v outset ( 
,kepl]'s c>e] !re 01 inde$1 "q z to !   
publication ( a "w he _h writt51 because
 t "w took = grant$ ! tru? ( !          
,cop]nican doctr9e4 ,?is "w appe>$1     
h[ev]1 9 ! ye> #aeif4 ,x bore ! title   

,my/]ium ,cosmographium1 & x attempt$ to
 expla9 ! positions ( ! v>i\s planet>y  
bodies4 ,cop]nicus _h devot$ mu* "t to  
obs]vation ( ! planets ) ref]5ce to     
measur+ _! di/ance1 & 8 ef=ts _h be5    
att5d$ ) consid]able success4 ,he did n1
 inde$1 "k ! actual di/ance ( ! sun1 &1 
!re=e1 0 q unable to fix ! di/ance ( any
 planet2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 he det]m9$ !   
relative di/ance ( all ! planets !n     
kn[n1 z measur$ 9 t]ms ( ! sun's        
di/ance1 ) rem>kable accuracy4  ,) ^!   
measurem5ts z a guide1 ,kepl] 0 l$ to a 
v fanciful !ory1 accord+ to :i* ! orbits
 ( ! five pr9cipal planets su/a9 a      
peculi> relation to ! five regul> solids
 ( geometry4 ,8 !ory 0 ?is3 ,ar\nd !    
orbit ( ! e>? describe a dodecah$ron--! 
circle compris+ x w be t ( ,m>s2 ar\nd  
,m>s describe a tetrah$ron--! circle    
compris+ x w be t ( ,jupit]2 ar\nd      
,jupit] describe a cube--! circle       
compris+ x w be t ( ,saturn2 n[ )9 !    
e>?'s orbit inscribe an icosah$ron--!   
inscrib$ circle w be t ( ,v5us2 9 !     

orbit ( ,v5us inscribe an octah$ron--!  
circle inscrib$ w be t ( ,m]cury47#c7   
,?\gh ?is arrangem5t 0 a fanciful "o1   
:i* no "o w\ld n[ recall _h n ! !oriz]  
obta9$ subsequ5t fame on m sub/antial   
gr\nds1 yet x evid5c$ a philosophical _s
 on ! "p ( ! a/ronom] :i*1 misdirect$ z 
x 0 9 ?is in/ance1 promis$ well = !     
future4 ,ty*o ,brahe1 to :om a copy ( ! 
"w 0 s5t1 _h ! acum5 to recognize x z a 
"w ( g5ius4 ,he summon$ ! "y a/ronom] to
 be 8 assi/ant at ,prague1 & no d\bt !  
association ?us begun 0 in/rum5tal 9    
det]m9+ ! "* ( ,kepl]'s future "w4 ,x 0 
precisely ! tra9+ 9 m9ute obs]vation t  
c\ld avail mo/ = a m9d :i*1 l ,kepl]'s1 
t5d$ in/9ctively to ! =mulation (       
!ories4 ,:5 ,ty*o ,brahe di$1 9 #afja1  
,kepl] became 8 successor4 ,9 due "t he 
secur$ access to all ! unpubli%$        
obs]vations ( 8 great pr$ecessor1 & ^! 7
 ( ine/imable value to him 9 ! progress 
( 8 own /udies4  ,kepl] 0 n only an     
ard5t work] & an en?usia/ic !oriz]1 b he
 0 an indefatigable writ]1 & x pleas$   

him to take ! public fully into 8       
confid5ce1 n m]ely z to 8 successes1 b z
 to 8 failures4 ,?us 8 works elaborate  
false !ories z well z correct ones1 &   
detail ! obs]vations ?r\gh :i* !        
incorrect guesses 7 refut$ by _!        
orig9ator4 ,"s ( ^! acc\nts are highly  
int]e/+1 b !y mu/ n deta9 u "h4 ,= our  
pres5t purpose x mu/ suffice to po9t out
 ! ?ree important !ories1 :i*1 z cull$ f
 among a score or s ( incorrect ones1   
,kepl] 0 able to demon/rate to 8 own    
satisfaction & to t ( subsequ5t obs]v]s4
 ,/at$ 9 a few words1 ^! !ories1 :i* h  
come to be> ! "n ( ,kepl]'s ,laws1 are !
 foll[+3  #a4 ,t ! planet>y orbits are n
 circul>1 b elliptical1 ! sun occupy+ "o
 focus ( ! ellipses4  #b4 ,t ! spe$ (   
planet>y motion v>ies 9 diff]5t p>ts ( !
 orbit 9 su* a way t an imag9>y l9e     
drawn f ! sun to ! planet--t is to say1 
! radius vector ( ! planet's            
orbit--always sweeps ! same area 9 a    
giv5 "t4   ,^! two laws ,kepl] publi%$ z
 e>ly z #afji4 ,_m ye>s m ( pati5t      

inve/igation 7 requir$ be=e he f\nd out 
! secret ( ! relation betwe5 planet>y   
di/ances & times ( revolution :i* 8 ?ird
 law expresses4 ,9 #afah1 h[ev]1 he 0   
able to =mulate ?is relation also1 z    
foll[s3  #c4 ,! squ>es ( ! di/ance ( !  
v>i\s planets f ! sun are proportional  
to ! cubes ( _! p]iods ( revolution ab\t
 ! sun4   ,all ^! laws1 x w be obs]v$1  
take = grant$ ! fact t ! sun is ! c5tre 
( ! planet>y orbits4 ,x mu/ be und]/ood1
 too1 t ! e>? is con/antly reg>d$1 9    
accordance ) ! ,cop]nican sy/em1 z be+  
itself a memb] ( ! planet>y sy/em1      
subject to precisely ! same laws z ! o!r
 planets4 ,long famili>ity has made ^!  
wond]ful laws ( ,kepl] seem su* a matt] 
( c\rse t x is difficult n[ to          
appreciate !m at _! full value4 ,yet1 z 
has be5 already po9t$ out1 x 0 ! k ( ^! 
m>vell\sly simple relations betwe5 !    
planet>y orbits t laid ! f\ndation = !  
,newtonian law ( univ]sal gravitation4  
,contempor>y judgm5t c\ld n1 ( c\rse1   
anticipate ?is culm9ation ( a lat]      

g5]ation4 ,:at x c\ld und]/& 0 t ! fir/ 
law ( ,kepl] attack$ "o ( ! mo/         
"t-honor$ ( metaphysical                
conceptions--namely1 ! ,ari/otelian idea
 t ! circle is ! p]fect figure1 & h5ce t
 ! planet>y orbits mu/ be circul>4 ,n   
ev5 ,cop]nicus _h d\bt$ ! validity ( ?is
 assumption4 ,t ,kepl] d>$ dispute s    
firmly fix$ a belief1 & "o t seem+ly _h 
s s\nd a philosophical basis1 evid5c$ ! 
iconocla/ic nature ( 8 g5ius4 ,t he did 
n re/ cont5t until he _h demon/rat$ !   
validity ( 8 revolution>y assumption %[s
 h[ truly ?is great !oriz] made 8       
hypo!ses subs]vi5t to ! mo/ rigid       
inductions4   ,,galileo ,,galilei  ,:ile
 ,kepl] 0 solv+ ^! riddles ( planet>y   
motion1 !re 0 an ev5 m fam\s man 9      
,italy ^: *ampion%ip ( ! ,cop]nican     
doctr9e 0 de/9$ to give ! greate/       
possible publicity to ! new ideas4 ,?is 
0 ,galileo ,galilei1 "o ( ! mo/         
extraord9>y sci5tific obs]v]s ( any age4
 ,galileo 0 born at ,pisa1 on ! #ah? (  
,febru>y 7old /yle71 #aefd4 ,! day ( 8  

bir? is d\bly memorable1 s9ce on ! same 
day ! greate/ ,italian ( ! prec$+ epo*1 
,mi*ael ,angelo1 brea!d 8 la/4 ,p]sons  
fond ( symbolism h f\nd 9 ! co9cid5ce a 
=eca/ ( ! transit f ! arti/ic to !      
sci5tific epo* ( ! lat] ,r5aissance4    
,galileo came ( an impov]i%$ noble      
family4 ,he 0 educat$ = ! pr(ession (   
m$ic9e1 b did n progress f> be=e 8      
natural proclivities direct$ him t[>ds !
 physical sci5ces4 ,meet+ ) opposition 9
 ,pisa1 he e>ly accept$ a call to ! *air
 ( natural philosophy 9 ! ,univ]sity (  
,padua1 & lat] 9 life he made 8 home at 
,flor5ce4 ,! me*anical & physical       
discov]ies ( ,galileo w claim our       
att5tion 9 ano!r *apt]4 ,our pres5t     
conc]n is ) 8 contribution to !         
,cop]nican !ory4  ,galileo himself      
records 9 a lett] to ,kepl] t he became 
a conv]t to ?is !ory at an e>ly day4 ,he
 0 n enabl$1 h[ev]1 to make any m>k$    
contribution to ! subject1 beyond !     
influ5ce ( 8 g5]al tea*+s1 until ab\t ! 
ye> #afaj4 ,! brilliant contributions   

:i* he made 7 due l>gely to a s+le      
discov]y--namely1 t ( ! telescope4      
,hi!rto ! a/ronomical obs]vations _h be5
 made ) ! unaid$ eye4 ,glass l5ses _h   
be5 kn[n s9ce ! ?irte5? c5tury1 b1 until
 n[1 no "o _h ?\ght ( _! possible use z 
aids to di/ant vision4 ,! "q ( priority 
( discov]y has nev] be5 settl$4 ,x is   
admitt$1 h[ev]1 t ! *ief honors belong  
to ! opticians ( ! ,ne!rl&s4  ,z e>ly z 
! ye> #aeij ! ,dut* optician ,za*>ias   
,j5s5 plac$ a concave & a convex l5s    
respectively at ! ends ( a tube ab\t    
eighte5 in*es long1 & us$ ?is in/rum5t =
 ! purpose ( magnify+ small             
objects--produc+1 9 %ort1 a crude       
microscope4 ,"s ye>s lat]1 ,johannes    
,lipp]%ey1 ( :om n mu* is kn[n except t 
he di$ 9 #afai1 exp]im5t$ ) a some:at   
simil> comb9ation ( l5ses1 & made !     
/>tl+ obs]vation t ! wea!r-vane on a    
di/ant *ur*-/eeple seem$ to be br\ght   
mu* ne>] :5 view$ ?r\gh ! l5s4 ,!       
comb9ation ( l5ses he employ$ is t /ill 
us$ 9 ! con/ruction ( op]a-glasses2 !   

,g]mans /ill call su* a comb9ation a    
,dut* telescope4  ,d\btless a l>ge numb]
 ( exp]im5t]s took ! matt] up & ! fame (
 ! new in/rum5t spread rapidly abroad4  
,galileo1 d[n 9 ,italy1 he>d rumors (   
?is rem>kable contrivance1 ?r\gh ! use (
 :i* x 0 said di/ant objects might be   
se5 z cle>ly z ^? ne> at h&4 ,he at once
 set to "w to con/ruct = himself a      
simil> in/rum5t1 & 8 ef=ts 7 s f>       
successful t at fir/ he saw objects ?ree
 times z ne> & n9e times enl>g$4        
,cont9u+ 8 ef=ts1 he pres5tly s improv$ 
8 glass t objects 7 enl>g$ almo/ a ?\s& 
times & made to appe> ?irty times ne>]  
?an :5 se5 ) ! nak$ eye4 ,naturally     
en\gh1 ,galileo turn$ ?is fasc9at+      
in/rum5t t[>ds ! skies1 & he 0 almo/    
imm$iately rew>d$ by sev]al />tl+       
discov]ies4 ,at ! v outset1 8           
magnify+-glass br\ght to view a va/     
numb] ( />s t are invisible to ! nak$   
eye1 & enabl$ ! obs]v] to rea* !        
conclusion t ! hazy light ( ! ,milky    
,way is m]ely due to ! aggregation ( a  

va/ numb] ( t9y />s4  ,turn+ 8 telescope
 t[>ds ! moon1 ,galileo f\nd t body r\gh
 & e>?-l 9 cont\r1 its surface cov]$ )  
m\nta9s1 ^: height c\ld be approximately
 measur$ ?r\gh /udy ( _! %ad[s4 ,?is 0  
disquiet+1 because ! curr5t ,ari/otelian
 doctr9e suppos$ ! moon1 9 common ) !   
planets1 to be a p]fectly sph]ical1     
smoo? body4 ,! metaphysical idea ( a    
p]fect univ]se 0 sure to be di/urb$ by  
?is seem+ly r\gh workman%ip ( ! moon4   
,?us f>1 h[ev]1 !re 0 no?+ 9 !          
obs]vations ( ,galileo to be> directly  
^u ! ,cop]nican !ory2 b :5 an inspection
 0 made ( ! planets ! case 0 q diff]5t4 
,) ! aid ( 8 telescope1 ,galileo saw t  
,v5us1 = example1 passes ?r\gh phases   
precisely simil> to ^? ( ! moon1 due1 ( 
c\rse1 to ! same cause4 ,"h1 !n1 0      
demon/rative evid5ce t ! planets are d>k
 bodies reflect+ ! light ( ! sun1 & an  
explanation 0 giv5 ( ! fact1 hi!rto urg$
 9 opposition to ! ,cop]nican !ory1 t ! 
inf]ior planets d n seem _m times       
bright] :5 ne>] ! e>? ?an :5 9 ! mo/    

di/ant p>ts ( _! orbits2 ! explanation  
be+1 ( c\rse1 t :5 ! planets are betwe5 
! e>? & ! sun only a small portion ( _! 
illum9$ surfaces is visible f ! e>?4    
,on inspect+ ! planet ,jupit]1 a /ill m 
/rik+ revelation 0 made1 z f\r t9y />s 7
 obs]v$ to occupy an equatorial position
 ne> t planet1 & 7 se51 :5 wat*$ night  
aft] night1 to be circl+ ab\t ! planet1 
precisely z ! moon circles ab\t ! e>?4  
,"h1 obvi\sly1 0 a m9iature sol>        
sy/em--a tangible object-lesson 9 !     
,cop]nican !ory4 ,9 honor ( ! rul+      
,flor5t9e h\se ( ! p]iod1 ,galileo nam$ 
^! moons ( ,jupit]1 ,m$icean />s4       
,turn+ att5tion to ! sun itself1        
,galileo obs]v$ on ! surface ( t lum9>y 
a spot or blemi% :i* gradually *ang$ its
 %ape1 sugge/+ t *anges 7 tak+ place 9 !
 sub/ance ( ! sun--*anges obvi\sly      
incompatible ) ! p]fect condition dem&$ 
by ! metaphysical !ori/s4 ,b h[ev]      
disquiet+ = ! cons]vative1 ! sun's spots
 s]v$ a mo/ useful purpose 9 enabl+     
,galileo to demon/rate t ! sun itself   

revolves on its axis1 s9ce a giv5 spot 0
 se5 to pass across ! disk & aft]       
disappe>+ to reappe> 9 due c\rse4 ,!    
p]iod ( rotation 0 f\nd to be ab\t      
tw5ty-f\r days4  ,x mu/ be add$ t v>i\s 
obs]v]s disput$ priority ( discov]y ( ! 
sun's spots ) ,galileo4 ,unque/ionably a
 sun-spot _h be5 se5 by e>li] obs]v]s1 &
 by !m mi/ak5 = ! transit ( an inf]ior  
planet4 ,kepl] himself _h made ?is      
mi/ake4 ,be=e ! day ( ! telescope1 he _h
 view$ ! image ( ! sun z ?r[n on a scre5
 9 a cam]a-obscura1 & _h obs]v$ a spot  
on ! disk :i* be int]pret$ z repres5t+ !
 planet ,m]cury1 b :i*1 z is n[ kn[n1   
mu/ h be5 a sun-spot1 s9ce ! planet>y   
disk is too small to h be5 reveal$ by   
?is me?od4 ,su* obs]vations z ^!1 h[ev] 
int]e/+1 _c be claim$ z discov]ies ( !  
sun-spots4 ,x is probable1 h[ev]1 t     
sev]al discov]]s 7notably ,johann       
,fabricius7 made ! telescopic obs]vation
 ( ! spots1 & recogniz$ !m z hav+ to d )
 ! sun's surface1 almo/ simultane\sly ) 
,galileo4 ,"o ( ^! claimants 0 a ,jesuit

 nam$ ,s*e9]1 & ! jeal\sy ( ?is man is  
said to h _h a %>e 9 br++ ab\t t        
p]secution to :i* we mu/ n[ ref]4  ,!re 
is no m fam\s incid5t 9 ! hi/ory (      
sci5ce ?an ! h]esy trial ?r\gh :i*      
,galileo 0 l$ to ! nom9al r5unciation ( 
8 *]i%$ doctr9es4 ,!re is sc>cely ano!r 
incid5t t has be5 comm5t$ ^u s v>i\sly4 
,ea* succe$+ g5]ation has put its own   
int]pretation on x4 ,! facts1 h[ev]1 h  
be5 b little que/ion$4 ,x appe>s t 9 !  
ye> #afaf ! *ur* became at la/ ar\s$ to 
! implications ( ! helioc5tric doctr9e (
 ! univ]se4 ,app>5tly x seem$ cle> to ! 
*ur* au?orities t ! au?ors ( ! ,bible   
believ$ ! _w to be immovably fix$ at !  
c5tre ( ! univ]se4 ,su*1 inde$1 w\ld    
seem to be ! natural inf]5ce f v>i\s    
famili> phrases ( ! ,hebrew text1 & :at 
we n[ "k ( ! /atus ( ,ori5tal sci5ce 9  
antiquity gives full w>rant to ?is      
int]pretation4 ,!re is no reason to     
suppose t ! conception ( ! subord9ate   
place ( ! _w 9 ! sol> sy/em _h ev] s mu*
 z occurr$1 ev5 z a vague speculation1  

to ! au?ors ( ,g5esis4 ,9 common ) _!   
contempor>ies1 !y believ$ ! e>? to be ! 
all-important body 9 ! univ]se1 & ! sun 
a lum9>y plac$ 9 ! sky = ! sole purpose 
( giv+ light to ! e>?4 ,!re is no?+     
/range1 no?+ anomal\s1 9 ?is view2 x    
m]ely reflects ! curr5t notions (       
,ori5tal peoples 9 antiquity4 ,:at is   
/range & anomal\s is ! fact t ! ,ori5tal
 dream+s ?us express$ c\ld h be5 suppos$
 to repres5t ! acme ( sci5tific k4 ,yet 
su* a hold _h ^! writ+s tak5 ^u ! ,we/]n
 _w t n ev5 a ,galileo d>$ contradict !m
 op5ly2 & :5 ! *ur* fa!rs gravely decl>$
 ! helioc5tric !ory necess>ily false1   
because contradictory to ,scripture1 !re
 7 probably few p 9 ,*ri/5dom ^: m5tal  
attitude w\ld p]mit !m ju/ly to         
appreciate ! humor ( su* a pron\ncem5t4 
,&1 inde$1 if "h & !re a man might h    
ris5 to su* an appreciation1 !re 7      
abundant reasons = ! repression ( !     
impulse1 = !re 0 no?+ humor\s ab\t !    
response ) :i* ! au?orities ( ! "t 7    
wont to meet ! expression ( iconocla/ic 

op9ions4 ,! burn+ at ! /ake ( ,giordano 
,bruno1 9 ! ye> #afjj1 01 = example1 an 
object-lesson well calculat$ to re/ra9 !
 en?usiasm ( o!r simil>ly m9d$ tea*]s4  
,d\btless x 0 su* consid]ations t       
expla9$ ! relative sil5ce ( ! *ampions (
 ! ,cop]nican !ory1 acc\nt+ = ! o!rwise 
inexplicable fact t ab\t eighty ye>s    
elaps$ aft] ! dea? ( ,cop]nicus himself 
be=e a s+le text-book exp\nd$ 8 !ory4 ,!
 text-book :i* !n appe>$1 "u date (     
#afbb1 0 writt5 by ! fam\s ,kepl]1 :o   
p]haps 0 %ield$ 9 a measure f ! papal   
consequ5ces ( su* h>dihood by ! fact (  
resid5ce 9 a ,prote/ant c\ntry4 ,n t !  
,prote/ants ( ! "t favor$ ! helioc5tric 
doctr9e--we h already quot$ ,lu!r 9 an  
adv]se s5se--b ( c\rse x 0 *>act]i/ic ( 
! ,re=mation temp] to oppose any papal  
pron\ncem5t1 h5ce ! ultramontane        
decl>ation ( #afaf may indirectly h aid$
 ! doctr9e :i* x attack$1 by mak+ t     
doctr9e less obnoxi\s to ,lu!ran eyes4  
,be t z x may1 ! "w ( ,kepl] br\ght its 
au?or into no direct conflict ) !       

au?orities4 ,b ! result 0 q diff]5t :51 
9 #afcb1 ,galileo at la/ broke sil5ce & 
gave ! _w1 "u cov] ( ! =m ( dialogue1 an
 elaborate exposition ( ! ,cop]nican    
!ory4 ,galileo1 x mu/ be expla9$1 _h    
previ\sly be5 w>n$ to keep sil5t on !   
subject1 h5ce 8 publication d\bly (f5d$ 
! au?orities4 ,to be sure1 he c\ld reply
 t 8 dialogue introduc$ a *ampion ( !   
,ptolemaic sy/em to dispute ) ! uphold] 
( ! opposite view1 & t1 bo? views be+   
pres5t$ ) full array ( argum5t1 ! read] 
0 left to rea* a v]dict = himself1 !    
au?or hav+ n[h]e po9t$ly express$ an    
op9ion4 ,b su* an argum5t1 ( c\rse1 0   
speci\s1 = no "o :o read ! dialogue c\ld
 be 9 d\bt z to ! op9ion ( ! au?or4     
,moreov]1 x 0 h9t$ t ,simplicio1 ! "* :o
 upheld ! ,ptolemaic doctr9e & :o 0     
ev]y:]e wor/$ 9 ! argum5t1 0 int5d$ to  
repres5t ! pope himself--a sugge/ion :i*
 probably did no good to ,galileo's     
cause4  ,! "* ( ,galileo's arti/ic      
pres5tation may be/ be judg$ f an       
example1 illu/rat+ ! vigor\s assault (  

,salviati1 ! *ampion ( ! new !ory1 & !  
feeble retorts ( 8 cons]vative          
antagoni/3  ,salviati4 ,let u !n beg9   
our discussion ) ! consid]ation t1      
:atev] motion may be attribut$ to ! e>?1
 yet we1 z dwell]s ^u x1 & h5ce z       
p>ticipators 9 its motion1 _c possibly  
p]ceive any?+ ( x1 presuppos+ t we are  
to consid] only e>?ly ?+s4 ,on ! o!r h&1
 x is j z necess>y t ?is same motion    
belong app>5tly to all o!r bodies &     
visible objects1 :i*1 be+ sep>at$ f !   
e>?1 d n take "p 9 its motion4 ,!       
correct me?od to discov] :e!r "o c      
ascribe motion to ! e>?1 & :at k9d (    
motion1 is1 !re=e1 to inve/igate &      
obs]ve :e!r 9 bodies outside ! e>? a    
p]ceptible motion may be discov]$ :i*   
belongs to all alike4 ,because a movem5t
 :i* is p]ceptible only 9 ! moon1 =     
in/ance1 & has no?+ to d ) ,v5us or     
,jupit] or o!r />s1 _c possibly be      
peculi> to ! e>?1 nor c its seat be     
any:]e else ?an 9 ! moon4 ,n[ !re is "o 
su* univ]sal movem5t :i* controls all   

o!rs--namely1 t :i* ! sun1 moon1 ! o!r  
planets1 ! fix$ />s--9 %ort1 ! :ole     
univ]se1 ) ! s+le exception ( !         
e>?--appe>s to execute f ea/ to we/ 9 ! 
space ( tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,?is n[1 z x    
appe>s at ! fir/ glance anyway1 might j 
z well be a motion ( ! e>? alone z ( all
 ! re/ ( ! univ]se ) ! exception ( !    
e>?1 = ! same ph5om5a w\ld result f ei!r
 hypo!sis4 ,beg9n+ ) ! mo/ g5]al1 ,i w  
enum]ate ! reasons :i* seem to speak 9  
favor ( ! e>?'s motion4 ,:5 we m]ely    
consid] ! imm5sity ( ! />ry sph]e 9     
comp>ison ) ! smallness ( ! t]re/rial   
ball1 :i* is conta9$ _m million times 9 
! =m]1 & !n ?9k ( ! rapidity ( ! motion 
:i* completes a :ole rotation 9 "o day &
 night1 ,i _c p]suade myself h[ any "o c
 hold x to be m reasonable & cr$ible t x
 is ! heav5ly sph]e :i* rotates1 :ile ! 
e>? /&s /ill4  ,simplicio4 ,i d n well  
und]/& h[ t p[]ful motion may be said to
 z good z n exi/ = ! sun1 ! moon1 ! o!r 
planets1 & ! innum]able ho/ ( fix$ />s4 
,d y call t no?+ :5 ! sun goes f "o     

m]idian to ano!r1 rises up ov] ?is      
horizon & s9ks beh9d t "o1 br+s n[ day1 
& n[ night2 :5 ! moon goes ?r\gh simil> 
*anges1 & ! o!r planets & fix$ />s 9 !  
same way8  ,salviati4 ,all ! *anges y   
m5tion are su* only 9 respect to ! e>?4 
,to conv9ce y\rself ( x1 only imag9e !  
e>? out ( exi/5ce4 ,!re w\ld !n be no   
ris+ & sett+ ( ! sun or ( ! moon1 no    
horizon1 no m]idian1 no day1 no night--9
 %ort1 ! said motion causes no *ange (  
any sort 9 ! relation ( ! sun to ! moon 
or to any ( ! o!r heav5ly bodies1 be !y 
planets or fix$ />s4 ,all *anges are r 9
 respect to ! e>?2 !y may all be r$uc$  
to ! simple fact t ! sun is fir/ visible
 9 ,*9a1 !n 9 ,p]sia1 aft]w>ds 9 ,egypt1
 ,greece1 ,france1 ,spa91 ,am]ica1 etc41
 & t ! same ?+ happ5s ) ! moon & ! o!r  
heav5ly bodies4 ,exactly ! same ?+      
happ5s & 9 exactly ! same way if1 in/ead
 ( di/urb+ s l>ge a "p ( ! univ]se1 y   
let ! e>? revolve ab\t itself4 ,!       
difficulty is1 h[ev]1 d\bl$1 inasmu* z a
 second v important problem pres5ts     

itself4 ,if1 namely1 t p[]ful motion is 
ascrib$ to ! heav5s1 x is absolutely    
necess>y to reg>d x z oppos$ to !       
individual motion ( all ! planets1 e "o 
( :i* indubitably has its own v         
leisurely & mod]ate movem5t f we/ to    
ea/4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 y let ! e>? move 
ab\t itself1 ?is opposition ( motion    
disappe>s4  ,! improbability is tripl$  
by ! complete ov]?r[ ( t ord] :i* rules 
all ! heav5ly bodies 9 :i* ! revolv+    
motion is def9itely e/abli%$4 ,! great] 
! sph]e is 9 su* a case1 s mu* long] is 
! "t requir$ = its revolution2 ! small] 
! sph]e ! %ort] ! "t4 ,saturn1 ^: orbit 
surpasses ^? ( all ! planets 9 size1    
trav]ses x 9 ?irty ye>s4 ,jupit]7#d7    
completes its small] c\rse 9 twelve     
ye>s1 ,m>s 9 two2 ! moon p]=ms its mu*  
small] revolution )9 a mon?4 ,j z cle>ly
 9 ! ,m$icean />s1 we see t ! "o ne>e/  
,jupit] completes its revolution 9 a v  
%ort "t--ab\t =ty-two h\rs2 ! next 9    
ab\t ?ree & "o-half days1 ! ?ird 9 sev51
 & ! mo/ di/ant "o 9 sixte5 days4 ,?is  

rule1 :i* is foll[$ ?r\gh\t1 w /ill     
rema9 if we ascribe ! tw5ty-f\r-h\rly   
motion to a rotation ( ! e>?4 ,if1      
h[ev]1 ! e>? is left motionless1 we mu/ 
g fir/ f ! v %ort rule ( ! moon to ev]  
great] ones--to ! two-ye>ly rule ( ,m>s1
 f t to ! twelve-ye>ly "o ( ,jupit]1 f  
"h to ! ?irty-ye>ly "o ( ,saturn1 & !n  
sudd5ly to an incomp>ably great] sph]e1 
to :i* also we mu/ ascribe a complete   
rotation 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,if1 h[ev]1  
we assume a motion ( ! e>?1 ! rapidity (
 ! p]iods is v well pres]v$2 f ! sl[e/  
sph]e ( ,saturn we come to ! :olly      
motionless fix$ />s4 ,we also escape    
!reby a f\r? difficulty1 :i* arises z   
soon z we assume t !re is motion 9 !    
sph]e ( ! />s4 ,i mean ! great unev5ness
 9 ! movem5t ( ^! v />s1 "s ( :i* w\ld h
 to revolve ) extraord9>y rapidity 9    
imm5se circles1 :ile o!rs mov$ v sl[ly 9
 small circles1 s9ce "s ( !m are at a   
great]1 o!rs at a less1 di/ance f !     
pole4 ,t is likewise an inconv5i5ce1 =1 
on ! "o h&1 we see all ^? />s1 ! motion 

( :i* is indubitable1 revolve 9 great   
circles1 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 !re seems to
 be little object 9 plac+ bodies1 :i*   
are to move 9 circles1 at an enorm\s    
di/ance f ! c5tre & !n let !m move 9 v  
small circles4 ,& n only are ! size ( ! 
diff]5t circles & !re) ! rapidity ( !   
movem5t v diff]5t 9 ! diff]5t fix$ />s1 
b ! same />s also *ange _! orbits & _!  
rapidity ( motion4 ,!re9 consi/s ! fif? 
inconv5i5ce4 ,^? />s1 namely1 :i* 7 at !
 equator two ?\s& ye>s ago1 & h5ce      
describ$ great circles 9 _! revolutions1
 mu/ to-day move m sl[ly & 9 small]     
circles1 because !y are _m degrees      
remov$ f x4 ,x w ev5 happ51 aft] n s v  
long a "t1 t "o ( ^? :i* h hi!rto be5   
cont9ually 9 motion w f9ally co9cide ) !
 pole & /& /ill1 b aft] a p]iod ( repose
 w aga9 beg9 to move4 ,! o!r />s 9 !    
mean :ile1 :i* unque/ionably move1 all  
h1 z 0 said1 a great circle = an orbit &
 keep ?is un*angeably4  ,! improbability
 is fur!r increas$--?is may be consid]$ 
! six? inconv5i5ce--by ! fact t x is    

impossible to conceive :at degree (     
solidity ^? imm5se sph]es mu/ h1 9 !    
dep?s ( :i* s _m />s are fix$ s endur+ly
 t !y are kept revolv+ ev5ly 9 spite (  
su* diff]5ce ( motion )\t *ang+ _!      
respective positions4 ,or if1 accord+ to
 ! mu* m probable !ory1 ! heav5s are    
fluid1 & e /> describes an orbit ( its  
own1 accord+ to :at law !n1 or = :at    
reason1 are _! orbits s arrang$ t1 :5   
look$ at f ! e>?1 !y appe> to be conta9$
 9 "o s+le sph]e8 ,to atta9 ?is x seems 
to me mu* easi] & m conv5i5t to make !m 
motionless in/ead ( mov+1 j z !         
pav+-/ones on ! m>ket-place1 = in/ance1 
rema9 9 ord] m easily ?an ! sw>ms (     
*ildr5 runn+ ab\t on !m4  ,f9ally1 !    
sev5? difficulty3 ,if we attribute !    
daily rotation to ! high] region ( !    
heav5s1 we %\ld h to end[ x ) =ce & p[] 
suffici5t to c>ry ) x ! innum]able ho/ (
 ! fix$ />s--e "o a body ( v great      
compass & mu* l>g] ?an ! e>?--& all !   
planets1 al?\gh ! latt]1 l ! e>?1 move  
naturally 9 an opposite direction4 ,9 ! 

mid/ ( all ?is ! little e>?1 s+le &     
alone1 w\ld ob/9ately & wilfully )/& su*
 =ce--a supposition :i*1 x appe>s to me1
 has mu* aga9/ x4 ,i c\ld also n expla9 
:y ! e>?1 a freely pois$ body1 balanc+  
itself ab\t its c5tre1 & surr\nd$ on all
 sides by a fluid m$ium1 %\ld n be      
affect$ by ! univ]sal rotation4 ,su*    
difficulties1 h[ev]1 d n confront u if  
we attribute motion to ! e>?--su* a     
small1 insignificant body 9 comp>ison ) 
! :ole univ]se1 & :i* = t v reason _c   
ex]cise any p[] ov] ! latt]4            
,simplicio4 ,y support y\r argum5ts     
?r\gh\t1 x seems to me1 on ! great] ease
 & simplicity ) :i* ! said effects are  
produc$4 ,y mean t z a cause ! motion ( 
! e>? alone is j z satisfactory z !     
motion ( all ! re/ ( ! univ]se ) !      
exception ( ! e>?2 y hold ! actual ev5t 
to be mu* easi] 9 ! =m] case ?an 9 !    
latt]4 ,= ! rul] ( ! univ]se1 h[ev]1 ^: 
might is inf9ite1 x is no less easy to  
move ! univ]se ?an ! e>? or a /raw balm4
 ,b if 8 p[] is inf9ite1 :y %\ld n a    

great]1 r ?an a v small1 "p ( x be      
reveal$ to me8  ,salviati4 ,if ,i _h    
said t ! univ]se does n move on acc\nt (
 ! impot5ce ( its rul]1 ,i %\ld h be5   
wrong & y\r rebuke w\ld h be5 9 ord]4 ,i
 admit t x is j z easy = an inf9ite p[] 
to move a hundr$ ?\s& z to move "o4 ,:at
 ,i said1 h[ev]1 does n ref] to him :o  
causes ! motion1 b to t :i* is mov$4 ,9 
answ] to y\r rem>k t x is m fitt+ = an  
inf9ite p[] to reveal a l>ge "p ( itself
 r ?an a little1 ,i answ] t1 9 relation 
to ! inf9ite1 "o "p is n great] ?an     
ano!r1 if bo? are f9ite4 ,h5ce x is     
unall[able to say t a hundr$ ?\s& is a  
l>g] "p ( an inf9ite numb] ?an two1     
al?\gh ! =m] is fifty ?\s& times great] 
?an ! latt]4 ,if1 !re=e1 we consid] !   
mov+ bodies1 we mu/ unque/ionably reg>d 
! motion ( ! e>? z a mu* simpl] process 
?an t ( ! univ]se2 if1 fur!rmore1 we    
direct our att5tion to s _m o!r         
simplifications :i* may be rea*$ only by
 ?is !ory1 ! daily movem5t ( ! e>? mu/  
appe> mu* m probable ?an ! motion ( !   

univ]se )\t ! e>?1 =1 accord+ to        
,ari/otle's j axiom1 ',fru/ra fit p]    
plura1 quod pote/ fi]i p] p auciora' 7,x
 is va9 to exp5d _m means :]e a few are 
suffici5t747#b7   ,! "w 0 widely        
circulat$1 & x 0 receiv$ ) an int]e/ :i*
 bespeaks a wide-spread und]curr5t (    
belief 9 ! ,cop]nican doctr9e4          
,naturally en\gh1 x attract$ imm$iate   
att5tion f ! *ur* au?orities4 ,galileo 0
 summon$ to appe> at ,rome to def5d 8   
conduct4 ,! philosoph]1 :o 0 n[ 9 8     
sev5tie? ye>1 plead$ age & infirmity4   
,he _h no desire = p]sonal exp]i5ce ( ! 
tribunal ( ! ,inquisition2 b ! m&ate 0  
repeat$1 & ,galileo w5t to ,rome4 ,!re1 
z e "o kn[s1 he disav[$ any int5tion to 
oppose ! tea*+s ( ,scripture1 & =mally  
r5\nc$ ! h]etical doctr9e ( ! e>?'s     
motion4 ,accord+ to a tale :i* s long   
pass$ curr5t t e hi/orian mu/ /ill      
repeat x ?\gh no "o n[ believes x       
au!ntic1 ,galileo qualifi$ 8 r5unciation
 by mutt]+ to himself1 ,e pur si muove  
7,x does move1 none ! less71 z he rose  

to 8 feet & retir$ f ! pres5ce ( 8      
p]secutors4 ,! tale is "o ( ^? fictions 
:i* ! dramatic s5se ( humanity is wont  
to impose ^u hi/ory1 b1 l mo/ su*       
fictions1 x expresses ! _s if n ! lett] 
( tru?2 = j z no "o believes t          
,galileo's lips utt]$ ! phrase1 s no "o 
d\bts t ! rebelli\s words 7 9 8 m9d4    
,aft] 8 =mal r5unciation1 ,galileo 0    
all[$ to dep>t1 b ) ! injunction t he   
ab/a9 9 future f h]etical tea*+4 ,!     
rema9+ t5 ye>s ( 8 life 7 devot$ *iefly 
to me*anics1 :]e 8 exp]im5ts =tunately  
oppos$ ! ,ari/otelian r ?an ! ,hebrew   
tea*+s4 ,galileo's dea? occurr$ 9 #afdb1
 a hundr$ ye>s aft] ! dea? ( ,cop]nicus4
 ,kepl] _h di$ ?irte5 ye>s be=e1 & !re  
rema9$ no a/ronom] 9 ! field :o is      
conspicu\s 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce z a      
*ampion ( ! ,cop]nican doctr9e4 ,b 9    
tru? x might be said t ! !ory no long]  
ne$$ a *ampion4 ,! rese>*es ( ,kepl] &  
,galileo _h produc$ a mass ( evid5ce = !
 ,cop]nican !ory :i* am\nt$ to          
demon/ration4 ,a g5]ation or two might  

be requir$ = ?is evid5ce to make itself 
ev]y:]e kn[n among m5 ( sci5ce1 & (     
c\rse ! ecclesia/ical au?orities mu/ be 
expect$ to /& by _! guns = a some:at    
long] p]iod4 ,9 po9t ( fact1 !          
ecclesia/ical ban 0 n te*nically remov$ 
by ! /rik+ ( ! ,cop]nican books f ! li/ 
( ! ,index ,expurgatorius until ! ye>   
#ahbb1 almo/ two hundr$ ye>s aft] ! date
 ( ,galileo's dialogue4 ,b ?is1 ( c\rse1
 is 9 no s5se a guide to ! /ate ( g5]al 
op9ion reg>d+ ! !ory4 ,we %all ga9 a    
true gauge z to ?is if we assume t !    
great] numb] ( important ?9k]s _h       
accept$ ! helioc5tric doctr9e be=e !    
middle ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 & t be=e !  
close ( t c5tury ! old ,ptolemaic idea  
_h be5 q ab&on$4 ,a wond]ful revolution 
9 man's e/imate ( ! univ]se _h ?us be5  
effect$ )9 ab\t two c5turies aft] ! bir?
 ( ,cop]nicus4     ,v4 ,,galileo ,,& ,,!
 ,,new ,,physics  ,aft] ,galileo _h felt
 ! /rong h& ( ! ,inquisition1 9 #afcb1  
he 0 c>eful to conf9e 8 rese>*es1 or at 
lea/ 8 publications1 to topics t seem$  

free f !ological implications4 ,9 do+ s 
he rev]t$ to ! field ( 8 e>lie/         
/udies--namely1 ! field ( me*anics2 & ! 
,dialoghi delle ,nuove ,sci5ze1 :i* he  
f9i%$ 9 #afcf1 & :i* 0 pr9t$ two ye>s   
lat]1 atta9$ a celebrity no less ?an t (
 ! h]etical dialogue t _h prec$$ x4 ,!  
lat] "w 0 free f all app>5t h]esies1 yet
 p]haps x did m t[>ds ! e/abli%m5t ( !  
,cop]nican doctr9e1 ?r\gh ! tea*+ (     
correct me*anical pr9ciples1 ?an ! o!r  
"w _h accompli%$ by a m direct me?od4   
,galileo's a/ronomical discov]ies 71 z  
we h se51 9 a s5se accid5tal2 at lea/1  
!y receiv$ _! inception ?r\gh ! inv5tive
 g5ius ( ano!r4 ,8 me*anical discov]ies1
 on ! o!r h&1 7 ! natural output ( 8 own
 creative g5ius4 ,at ! v beg9n+ ( 8     
c>e]1 :ile yet a v "y man1 ?\gh a       
pr(essor ( ma!matics at ,pisa1 he _h    
begun t onslaught ^u ! old ,ari/otelian 
ideas :i* he 0 to cont9ue ?r\gh\t 8     
life4 ,at ! fam\s lean+ t[] 9 ,pisa1 !  
"y iconocla/ p]=m$1 9 ! ye> #aeij1 "o ( 
! mo/ !atrical demon/rations 9 ! hi/ory 

( sci5ce4 ,assembl+ a multitude (       
*ampions ( ! old ideas1 he propos$ to   
demon/rate ! falsity ( ! ,ari/otelian   
doctr9e t ! velocity ( fall+ bodies is  
proportionate to _! weight4 ,!re is     
p]haps no fact m /rongly illu/rative ( !
 temp] ( ! ,middle ,ages ?an ! fact t   
?is doctr9e1 z taught by ! ,ari/otelian 
philosoph]1 %\ld s long h gone          
un*all5g$4 ,n[1 h[ev]1 x 0 put to ! te/2
 ,galileo releas$ a half-p\nd weight & a
 hundr$-p\nd cannon-ball f ne> ! top ( !
 t[]1 &1 ne$less to say1 !y rea*$ !     
gr\nd toge!r4 ,( c\rse1 ! spectators 7 b
 little pleas$ ) :at !y saw4 ,!y c\ld n 
d\bt ! evid5ce ( _! own s5ses z to !    
p>ticul> exp]im5t 9 "q2 !y c\ld sugge/1 
h[ev]1 t ! exp]im5t involv$ a violation 
( ! laws ( nature ?r\gh ! practice (    
magic4 ,to controv]t s firmly e/abli%$  
an idea savor$ ( h]esy4 ,! "y man guilty
 ( su* iconoclasm 0 naturally look$ at  
askance by ! s*ol>%ip ( 8 "t4 ,in/ead ( 
be+ applaud$1 he 0 hiss$1 & he f\nd x   
exp$i5t pres5tly to retire f ,pisa4     

,=tunately1 h[ev]1 ! new _s ( progress  
_h made itself felt m effectively 9 "s  
o!r portions ( ,italy1 & s ,galileo f\nd
 a refuge & a foll[+ 9 ,padua1 &        
aft]w>ds 9 ,flor5ce2 & :ile1 z we h se51
 he 0 oblig$ to curb 8 en?usiasm reg>d+ 
! subject t 0 p]haps ne>e/ 8 he>t--!    
promulgation ( ! ,cop]nican !ory--yet he
 0 p]mitt$ 9 ! ma9 to c>ry on 8         
exp]im5tal obs]vations unre/ra9$4 ,^!   
exp]im5ts gave him a place ( unque/ion$ 
au?ority among 8 contempor>ies1 & !y h  
transmitt$ 8 "n to po/]ity z t ( "o ( ! 
greate/ ( exp]im5t]s & ! virtual f\nd] (
 mod]n me*anical sci5ce4 ,! exp]im5ts 9 
"q range ov] a wide field2 b = ! mo/ "p 
!y h to d ) mov+ bodies & ) que/ions (  
=ce1 or1 z we %\ld n[ say1 ( en]gy4 ,!  
exp]im5t at ! lean+ t[] %[$ t ! velocity
 ( fall+ bodies is indep5d5t ( ! weight 
( ! bodies1 provid$ ! weight is         
suffici5t to ov]come ! resi/ance ( !    
atmosph]e4 ,lat] exp]im5ts ) fall+      
bodies l$ to ! discov]y ( laws reg>d+ ! 
accel]at$ velocity ( fall4 ,su*         

velocities 7 f\nd to be> a simple       
relation to ! p]iod ( "t f ! beg9n+ ( ! 
fall4 ,o!r exp]im5ts1 9 :i* balls 7     
all[$ to roll d[n incl9$ planes1        
corroborat$ ! obs]vation t ! pull (     
gravitation gave a velocity             
proportionate to ! l5g? ( fall1 :e!r su*
 fall 7 direct or 9 a slant+ direction4 
,^! /udies 7 associat$ ) obs]vations on 
projectiles1 reg>d+ :i* ,galileo 0 !    
fir/ to ent]ta9 correct notions4        
,accord+ to ! curr5t idea1 a projectile 
fir$1 = example1 f a cannon1 mov$ 9 a   
/raight horizontal l9e until !          
propulsive =ce 0 exhau/$1 & !n fell to !
 gr\nd 9 a p]p5dicul> l9e4 ,galileo     
taught t ! projectile beg9s to fall at  
once on leav+ ! m\? ( ! cannon &        
trav]ses a p>abolic c\rse4 ,accord+ to 8
 idea1 :i* is n[ famili> to e "o1 a     
cannon-ball dropp$ f ! level ( !        
cannon's muzzle w /rike ! gr\nd         
simultane\sly ) a ball fir$ horizontally
 f ! cannon4 ,z to ! p>aboloid c\rse    
pursu$ by ! projectile1 ! resi/ance ( ! 

air is a factor :i* ,galileo c\ld n     
accurately compute1 & :i* int]f]es ) !  
practical realization ( 8 !ory4 ,b ?is  
is a m9or consid]ation4 ,! great        
importance ( 8 idea consi/s 9 !         
recognition t su* a =ce z t (           
gravitation acts 9 precisely ! same way 
^u all unsupport$ bodies1 :e!r or n su* 
bodies be at ! same "t act$ ^u by a =ce 
( translation4  ,out ( ^! /udies ( mov+ 
bodies 0 gradually develop$ a correct   
notion ( sev]al important g5]al laws (  
me*anics--laws a k ( :i* 0 absolutely   
ess5tial to ! progress ( physical       
sci5ce4 ,! belief 9 ! rotation ( ! e>?  
made necess>y a cle> conception t all   
bodies at ! surface ( ! e>? p>take ( t  
motion q indep5d5tly ( _! v>i\s obs]v$  
motions 9 relation to "o ano!r4 ,?is    
idea 0 h>d to grasp1 z an (t-repeat$    
argum5t %[s4 ,x 0 ass]t$ aga9 & aga9 t1 
if ! e>? rotates1 a /one dropp$ f ! top 
( a t[] c\ld n fall at ! foot ( ! t[]1  
s9ce ! e>?'s motion w\ld sweep ! t[] f> 
away f its orig9al position :ile ! /one 

is 9 transit4  ,?is 0 "o ( ! /ock       
argum5ts aga9/ ! e>?'s motion1 yet x 0  
"o t c\ld be refut$ ) ! greate/ ease by 
reason+ f /rictly analog\s exp]im5ts4 ,x
 might readily be obs]v$1 = example1 t a
 /one dropp$ f a mov+ c>t does n /rike !
 gr\nd directly bel[ ! po9t f :i* x is  
dropp$1 b p>takes ( ! =w>d motion ( !   
c>t4 ,if any "o d\bt ?is he has b to    
jump f a mov+ c>t to be giv5 a practical
 demon/ration ( ! fact t 8 entire body 0
 9 "s way influ5c$ by ! motion (        
translation4 ,simil>ly1 ! simple        
exp]im5t ( toss+ a ball f ! deck ( a    
mov+ %ip w conv9ce any "o t ! ball      
p>takes ( ! motion ( ! %ip1 s t x c be  
manipulat$ precisely z if ! manipulator 
7 /&+ on ! e>?4 ,9 %ort1 e-day exp]i5ce 
gives u illu/rations ( :at might be     
call$ comp\nd motion1 :i* makes x seem  
altoge!r plausible t1 if ! e>? is 9     
motion1 objects at its surface w p>take 
( t motion 9 a way t does n int]f]e )   
any o!r movem5ts to :i* !y may be       
subject$4 ,z ! ,cop]nican doctr9e made  

its way1 ?is idea ( comp\nd motion      
naturally receiv$ m & m att5tion1 & su* 
exp]im5ts z ^? ( ,galileo prep>$ ! way =
 a new int]pretation ( ! me*anical      
pr9ciples involv$4  ,! great difficulty 
0 t ! subject ( mov+ bodies _h all along
 be5 contemplat$ f a wrong po9t ( view4 
,s9ce =ce mu/ be appli$ to an object to 
put x 9 motion1 x 0 p]haps n unnaturally
 assum$ t simil> =ce mu/ cont9ue to be  
appli$ to keep ! object 9 motion4 ,:51 =
 example1 a /one is ?r[n f ! h&1 !      
direct =ce appli$ necess>ily ceases z   
soon z ! projectile leaves ! h&4 ,!     
/one1 nev]!less1 flies on = a c]ta9     
di/ance & !n falls to ! gr\nd4 ,h[ is   
?is flight ( ! /one to be expla9$8 ,!   
anci5t philosoph]s puzzl$ m ?an a little
 ov] ?is problem1 & ! ,ari/otelians     
rea*$ ! conclusion t ! motion ( ! h& _h 
imp>t$ a propulsive motion to ! air1 & t
 ?is propulsive motion 0 transmitt$ to !
 /one1 pu%+ x on4 ,j h[ ! air took on   
?is propulsive prop]ty 0 n expla9$1 & ! 
vagu5ess ( ?\ght t *>act]iz$ ! "t did n 

dem& an explanation4 ,possibly ! dy+    
away ( ripples 9 wat] may h furni%$1 by 
analogy1 an explanation ( ! gradual dy+ 
out ( ! impulse :i* propels ! /one4     
,all ( ?is 01 ( c\rse1 an un=tunate     
maladju/m5t ( ! po9t ( view4 ,z e "o    
n[adays kn[s1 ! air ret>ds ! progress ( 
! /one1 enabl+ ! pull ( gravitation to  
drag x to ! e>? e>li] ?an x o!rwise     
c\ld4 ,7 ! resi/ance ( ! air & ! pull ( 
gravitation remov$1 ! /one z project$ f 
! h& w\ld fly on 9 a /raight l9e1 at an 
un*ang$ velocity1 =ev]4 ,b ?is fact1 :i*
 is express$ 9 :at we n[ t]m ! fir/ law 
( motion1 0 extremely difficult to      
grasp4 ,! fir/ important /ep t[>ds x 0  
p]haps impli$ 9 ,galileo's /udy ( fall+ 
bodies4 ,^! /udies1 z we h se51         
demon/rat$ t a half-p\nd weight & a     
hundr$-p\nd weight fall ) ! same        
velocity4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 matt] ( common  
exp]i5ce t c]ta9 bodies1 z1 = example1  
fea!rs1 d n fall at ! same rate ( spe$ )
 ^! heavi] bodies4 ,?is anomaly dem&s an
 explanation1 & ! explanation is f\nd 9 

! resi/ance (f]$ ! relatively light     
object by ! air4 ,once ! idea t ! air   
may ?us act z an imp$+ =ce 0 grasp$1 !  
inve/igator ( me*anical pr9ciples _h    
ent]$ on a new & promis+ c\rse4         
,galileo c\ld n demon/rate ! ret>d+     
influ5ce ( air 9 ! way :i* became       
famili> a g5]ation or two lat]2 he c\ld 
n put a fea!r & a co9 9 a vacuum tube & 
prove t ! two w\ld !re fall ) equal     
velocity1 because1 9 8 day1 ! air-pump  
_h n yet be5 inv5t$4 ,! exp]im5t 0 made 
only a g5]ation aft] ! "t ( ,galileo1 z 
we %all see2 b1 meantime1 ! great       
,italian _h fully grasp$ ! idea t       
atmosph]ic resi/ance plays a mo/        
important "p 9 reg>d to ! motion ( fall+
 & project$ bodies4 ,?anks l>gely to 8  
own exp]im5ts1 b p>tly also to ! ef=ts (
 o!rs1 he _h come1 be=e ! end ( 8 life1 
pretty def9itely to realize t ! motion (
 a projectile1 = example1 mu/ be ?\ght (
 z inh]5t 9 ! projectile itself1 & t !  
ret>dation or ultimate cessation ( t    
motion is due to ! action ( antagoni/ic 

=ces4 ,9 o!r words1 he _h come to grasp 
! mean+ ( ! fir/ law ( motion4 ,x       
rema9$1 h[ev]1 = ! great ,fr5*man       
,desc>tes to give precise expression to 
?is law two ye>s aft] ,galileo's dea?4  
,z ,desc>tes express$ x 9 8 ,pr9cipia   
,philosophiae1 publi%$ 9 #afdd1 any body
 once 9 motion t5ds to g on 9 a /raight 
l9e1 at a uni=m rate ( spe$1 =ev]4      
,contr>iwise1 a /ation>y body w rema9   
=ev] at re/ unless act$ on by "s di/urb+
 =ce4  ,?is all-important law1 :i* lies 
at ! v f\ndation ( all true conceptions 
( me*anics1 0 ?us work$ out dur+ ! fir/ 
half ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 z ! outcome ( 
numb]less exp]im5ts = :i* ,galileo's    
exp]im5ts ) fail+ bodies furni%$ !      
f\ndation4 ,s num]\s & s gradual 7 !    
/eps by :i* ! rev]sal ( view reg>d+ mov+
 bodies 0 effect$ t x is impossible to  
trace !m 9 detail4 ,we mu/ be cont5t to 
reflect t at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,galilean epo*
 utt]ly false notions reg>d+ ! subject 7
 ent]ta9$ by ! v greate/ philosoph]s--by
 ,galileo himself1 = example1 & by      

,kepl]--:]eas at ! close ( t epo* !     
correct & highly illum9ative view _h be5
 atta9$4  ,we mu/ n[ consid] "s o!r     
exp]im5ts ( ,galileo :i* l$ to sc>cely  
less-important results4 ,! exp]im5ts 9  
"q _h to d ) ! movem5ts ( bodies pass+  
d[n an incl9$ plane1 & ) ! alli$ subject
 ( ! motion ( a p5dulum4 ,! elaborate   
exp]im5ts ( ,galileo reg>d+ ! =m]       
subject 7 made by measur+ ! velocity ( a
 ball roll+ d[n a plane incl9$ at v>i\s 
angles4 ,he f\nd t ! velocity acquir$ by
 a ball 0 proportional to ! height f :i*
 ! ball desc5d$ reg>dless ( ! /eepness (
 ! incl9e4 ,exp]im5ts 7 made also ) a   
ball roll+ d[n a curv$ gutt]1 ! curve   
repres5t+ ! are ( a circle4 ,^!         
exp]im5ts l$ to ! /udy ( ! curvil9e>    
motions ( a weight susp5d$ by a cord2 9 
o!r words1 ( ! p5dulum4  ,reg>d+ !      
motion ( ! p5dulum1 "s v curi\s facts 7 
soon asc]ta9$4 ,galileo f\nd1 = example1
 t a p5dulum ( a giv5 l5g? p]=ms its    
oscillations ) ! same frequ5cy ?\gh !   
arc describ$ by ! p5dulum be v>i$       

greatly47#a7 ,he f\nd1 also1 t ! rate ( 
oscillation = p5dulums ( diff]5t l5g?s  
v>ies accord+ to a simple law4 ,9 ord] t
 "o p5dulum %all oscillate "o-half z fa/
 z ano!r1 ! l5g? ( ! p5dulums mu/ be z  
f\r to "o4 ,simil>ly1 by l5g!n+ !       
p5dulums n9e times1 ! oscillation is    
r$uc$ to "o-?ird1 ,9 o!r words1 ! rate (
 oscillation ( p5dulums v>ies inv]sely z
 ! squ>e ( _! l5g?4 ,"h1 !n1 is a simple
 relation betwe5 ! motions ( sw++ bodies
 :i* sugge/s ! relation :i* ,kepl] bad  
discov]$ betwe5 ! relative motions ( !  
planets4 ,e su* discov]y com+ 9 ?is age 
( ! rejuv5ation ( exp]im5tal sci5ce _h a
 peculi> =ce 9 tea*+ m5 ! all-important 
lesson t simple laws lie back ( mo/ ( ! 
div]se ph5om5a ( nature1 if only ^! laws
 c be discov]$4  ,galileo fur!r obs]v$ t
 8 p5dulum might be con/ruct$ ( any     
weight suffici5tly heavy readily to     
ov]come ! atmosph]ic resi/ance1 & t1 )  
?is qualification1 nei!r ! weight nor ! 
mat]ial _h any influ5ce ^u ! "t (       
oscillation1 ?is be+ solely det]m9$ by !

 l5g? ( ! cord4 ,naturally1 ! practical 
utility ( ^! discov]ies 0 n ov]look$ by 
,galileo4 ,s9ce a p5dulum ( a giv5 l5g? 
oscillates ) unv>y+ rapidity1 "h is an  
obvi\s means ( measur+ "t4 ,galileo1    
h[ev]1 appe>s n to h met ) any great    
measure ( success 9 putt+ ?is idea into 
practice4 ,x rema9$ = ! me*anical +5uity
 ( ,huygh5s to con/ruct a satisfactory  
p5dulum clock4  ,z a !oretical result ( 
! /udies ( roll+ & oscillat+ bodies1 !re
 0 develop$ :at is usually spok5 ( z !  
?ird law ( motion--namely1 ! law t a    
giv5 =ce op]ates ^u a mov+ body ) an    
effect proportionate to its effect ^u ! 
same body :5 at re/4 ,or1 z ,:ewell     
/ates ! law3 ,! dynamical effect ( =ce  
is z ! /atical effect2 t is1 ! velocity 
:i* any =ce g5]ates 9 a giv5 "t1 :5 x   
puts ! body 9 motion1 is proportional to
 ! pressure :i* ?is same =ce produces 9 
a body at re/47#b7 ,accord+ to ! second 
law ( motion1 ea* "o ( ! diff]5t =ces1  
op]at+ at ! same "t ^u a mov+ body1     
produces ! same effect z if x op]at$ ^u 

! body :ile at re/4   ,,/ev9us ,,& ,,!  
,,law ,,( ,,equilibrium  ,x appe>s1 !n1 
t ! me*anical /udies ( ,galileo1 tak5 z 
a :ole1 7 no?+ less ?an revolution>y4   
,!y con/itut$ ! fir/ great advance ^u ! 
dynamic /udies ( ,ar*im$es1 & !n l$ to !
 secure f\ndation = "o ( ! mo/ important
 ( mod]n sci5ces4 ,we %all see t an     
important company ( /ud5ts ent]$ ! field
 imm$iately aft] ! "t ( ,galileo1 &     
c>ri$ =w>d ! "w he _h s well begun4 ,b  
be=e pass+ on to ! consid]ation ( _!    
labors1 we mu/ consid] "w 9 alli$ fields
 ( two m5 :o 7 contempor>ies ( ,galileo 
& ^: orig9al labors 7 9 "s respects     
sc>cely less important ?an 8 own4 ,^! m5
 are ! ,dut*man ,/ev9us1 :o mu/ always  
be rememb]$ z a co-labor] ) ,galileo 9 !
 f\ndation ( ! sci5ce ( dynamics1 & !   
,engli%man ,gilb]t1 to :om is due !     
unqualifi$ praise ( fir/ subject+ !     
ph5om5on ( magnetism to a /rictly       
sci5tific inve/igation4  ,/ev9us 0 born 
9 ! ye> #aedh1 & di$ 9 #afbj4 ,he 0 a   
man ( a practical g5ius1 & he attract$ !

 att5tion ( 8 non-sci5tific             
contempor>ies1 among o!r ways1 by !     
con/ruction ( a curi\s l&-craft1 :i*1   
m\nt$ on :eels1 0 to be propell$ by     
sails l a boat4 ,n only did he write a  
book on ?is curi\s horseless c>riage1 b 
he put 8 idea into practical            
application1 produc+ a vehicle :i*      
actually trav]s$ ! di/ance betwe5       
,s*ev5+5 & ,petton1 ) no few] ?an       
tw5ty-sev5 pass5g]s1 "o ( !m be+ ,pr9ce 
,maurice ( ,orange4 ,?is demon/ration 0 
made ab\t ! ye> #afjj4 ,x does n appe>1 
h[ev]1 t any important use 0 made ( !   
/range vehicle2 b ! man :o inv5t$ x put 
8 me*anical +5uity to o!r use ) bett]   
effect4 ,x 0 he :o solv$ ! problem (    
oblique =ces1 & :o discov]$ ! important 
hydro/atic pr9ciple t ! pressure (      
fluids is proportionate to _! dep?1 )\t 
reg>d to ! %ape ( ! includ+ vessel4  ,! 
/udy ( oblique =ces 0 made by ,/ev9us ) 
! aid ( incl9$ planes4 ,8 mo/           
demon/rative exp]im5t 0 a v simple "o1 9
 :i* a *a9 ( balls ( equal weight 0 hung

 f a triangle2 ! triangle be+ s         
con/ruct$ z to re/ on a horizontal base1
 ! oblique sides be>+ ! relation to ea* 
o!r ( two to "o4 ,/ev9us f\nd t 8 *a9 ( 
balls j balanc$ :5 f\r balls 7 on !     
long] side & two on ! %ort] & /eep]     
side4 ,! balanc+ ( =ce ?us br\ght ab\t  
con/itut$ a /able equilibrium1 ,/ev9us  
be+ ! fir/ to discrim9ate betwe5 su* a  
condition & ! unbalanc$ condition call$ 
un/able equilibrium4 ,by ?is simple     
exp]im5t 0 laid ! f\ndation ( ! sci5ce (
 /atics4 ,/ev9us _h a full grasp ( !    
pr9ciple :i* 8 exp]im5t involv$1 & he   
appli$ x to ! solution ( oblique =ces 9 
all directions4 ,e>li] inve/igations (  
,/ev9us 7 publi%$ 9 #afjh4 ,8 collect$  
works 7 publi%$ at ,leyd5 9 #afcd4  ,?is
 /udy ( ! equilibrium ( pressure (      
bodies at re/ l$ ,/ev9us1 n unnaturally1
 to consid] ! alli$ subject ( ! pressure
 ( liquids4 ,he is to be cr$it$ ) !     
explanation ( ! s-call$ hydro/atic      
p>adox4 ,! famili> mod]n exp]im5t :i*   
illu/rates ?is p>adox is made by ins]t+ 

a long p]p5dicul> tube ( small calib]   
into ! top ( a tight b>rel4 ,on fill+ ! 
b>rel & tube ) wat]1 x is possible to   
produce a pressure :i* w bur/ ! b>rel1  
?\gh x be a /rong "o1 & ?\gh ! actual   
weight ( wat] 9 ! tube is comp>atively  
insignificant4 ,?is illu/rates ! fact t 
! pressure at ! bottom ( a column (     
liquid is proportionate to ! height ( ! 
column1 & n to its bulk1 ?is be+ !      
hydro/atic p>adox 9 "q4 ,! explanation  
is t an enclos$ fluid "u pressure ex]ts 
an equal =ce ^u all p>ts ( !            
circumscrib+ wall2 ! aggregate pressure 
may1 !re=e1 be increas$ indef9itely by  
increas+ ! surface4 ,x is ?is pr9ciple1 
( c\rse1 :i* is utiliz$ 9 ! famili>     
hydro/atic press4 ,!oretical            
explanations ( ! pressure ( liquids 7   
suppli$ a g5]ation or two lat] by num]\s
 inve/igators1 includ+ ,newton1 b !     
practical ref\ndation ( ! sci5ce (      
hydro/atics 9 mod]n times dates f !     
exp]im5ts ( ,/ev9us4   ,,galileo ,,& ,,!
 ,,equilibrium ,,( ,,fluids  ,exp]im5ts 

( an alli$ "*1 hav+ to d ) ! equilibrium
 ( fluids1 ex]cis$ ! +5uity ( ,galileo4 
,"s ( 8 mo/ int]e/+ exp]im5ts h to d ) !
 subject ( float+ bodies4 ,x w be       
recall$ t ,ar*im$es1 away back 9 !      
,alex&rian epo*1 _h solv$ ! mo/         
important problems ( hydro/atic         
equilibrium4 ,n[1 h[ev]1 8 exp]im5ts 7  
ov]look$ or =gott51 & ,galileo 0 oblig$ 
to make exp]im5ts anew1 & to combat     
fallaci\s views t ought long s9ce to h  
be5 ab&on$4 ,p]haps ! mo/ illum9ative   
view ( ! _s ( ! times c be ga9$ by quot+
 at l5g? a pap] ( ,galileo's1 9 :i* he  
details 8 own exp]im5ts ) float+ bodies 
& controv]ts ! views ( 8 oppon5ts4 ,!   
pap] has fur!r value z illu/rat+        
,galileo's me?ods bo? z exp]im5t] & z   
speculative reason]4  ,! curr5t view1   
:i* ,galileo "h und]takes to refute1    
ass]ts t wat] (f]s resi/ance to         
p5etration1 & t ?is resi/ance is        
in/rum5tal 9 det]m9+ :e!r a body plac$ 9
 wat] w float or s9k4 ,galileo cont5ds t
 wat] is non-resi/ant1 & t bodies float 

or s9k 9 virtue ( _! respective weights4
 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 is m]ely a re/atem5t ( !
 law ( ,ar*im$es4 ,b x rema9s to expla9 
! fact t bodies ( a c]ta9 %ape w float1 
:ile bodies ( ! same mat]ial & weight1 b
 ( a diff]5t %ape1 w s9k4 ,we %all see  
:at explanation ,galileo f9ds ( ?is     
anomaly z we proce$4  ,9 ! fir/ place1  
,galileo makes a cone ( wood or ( wax1 &
 %[s t :5 x floats ) ei!r its po9t or   
its base 9 ! wat]1 x displaces exactly !
 same am\nt ( fluid1 al?\gh ! apex is by
 its %ape bett] adapt$ to ov]come !     
resi/ance ( ! wat]1 if t 7 ! cause (    
buoyancy4 ,aga91 ! exp]im5t may be v>i$ 
by temp]+ ! wax ) fil+s ( lead till x   
s9ks 9 ! wat]1 :5 x w be f\nd t 9 any   
figure ! same quantity ( cork mu/ be    
add$ to x to raise ! surface4  ,b1 says 
,galileo1 ?is sil5ces n my antagoni/s2  
!y say t all ! disc\rse hi!rto made by  
me imports little to !m1 & t x s]ves _! 
turn2 t !y h demon/rat$ 9 "o in/ance1 & 
9 su* mann] & figure z pleases !m       
be/--namely1 9 a bo>d & 9 a ball (      

ebony--t "o :5 put into ! wat] s9ks to !
 bottom1 & t ! o!r /ays to swim on !    
top2 & ! matt] be+ ! same1 & ! two      
bodies diff]+ 9 no?+ b 9 figure1 !y     
affirm t ) all p]spicuity !y h          
demon/rat$ & s5sibly manife/$ :at !y    
und]took4 ,nev]!less1 ,i believe1 & ?9k 
,i c prove1 t ?is v exp]im5t proves no?+
 aga9/ my !ory4 ,& fir/1 x is false t ! 
ball s9ks & ! bo>d n2 = ! bo>d w s9k1   
too1 if y d to bo? ! figures z ! words (
 our "q require2 t is1 if y put !m bo? 9
 ! wat]2 = to be 9 ! wat] implies to be 
plac$ 9 ! wat]1 & by ,ari/otle's own    
def9ition ( place1 to be plac$ imports  
to be environ$ by ! surface ( ! ambi5t  
body2 b :5 my antagoni/s %[ ! float+    
bo>d ( ebony1 !y put x n into ! wat]1 b 
^u ! wat]2 :]e1 be+ deta9$ by a c]ta9   
imp$im5t 7( :i* m anon71 x is surr\nd$1 
p>tly ) wat]1 p>tly ) air1 :i* is       
contr>y to our agreem5t1 = t 0 t bodies 
%\ld be 9 ! wat]1 & n "p 9 ! wat]1 "p 9 
! air4  ,i w n omit ano!r reason1 f\nd$ 
also ^u exp]i5ce1 &1 if ,i deceive n    

myself1 conclusive aga9/ ! notion t     
figure1 & ! resi/ance ( ! wat] to       
p5etration1 h any?+ to d ) ! buoyancy ( 
bodies4 ,*oose a piece ( wood or o!r    
matt]1 z1 = in/ance1 walnut-wood1 ( :i* 
a ball rises f ! bottom ( ! wat] to !   
surface m sl[ly ?an a ball ( ebony ( !  
same size s9ks1 s t1 cle>ly1 ! ball (   
ebony divides ! wat] m readily 9 s9k+   
?an ! ball ( wood does 9 ris+4 ,!n take 
a bo>d ( walnut-tree equal to & l !     
float+ "o ( my antagoni/s2 & if x be    
true t ?is latt] floats by reason ( !   
figure be+ unable to p5etrate ! wat]1 ! 
o!r ( walnut-tree1 )\t a "q1 if ?ru/ to 
! bottom1 ought to /ay !re1 z hav+ !    
same imp$+ figure1 & be+ less apt to    
ov]come ! said resi/ance ( ! wat]4 ,b if
 we f9d by exp]i5ce t n only ! ?9 bo>d1 
b e o!r figure ( ! same walnut-tree1 w  
return to float1 z unque/ionably we     
%all1 !n ,i mu/ desire my oppon5ts to   
=be> to attribute ! float+ ( ! ebony to 
! figure ( ! bo>d1 s9ce ! resi/ance ( ! 
wat] is ! same 9 ris+ z 9 s9k+1 & ! =ce 

( asc5sion ( ! walnut-tree is less ?an !
 ebony's =ce = go+ to ! bottom4  ,n[ let
 u return to ! ?9 plate ( gold or silv]1
 or ! ?9 bo>d ( ebony1 & let u lay x    
lightly ^u ! wat]1 s t x may /ay !re )\t
 s9k+1 & c>efully obs]ve ! effect4 ,x w 
appe> cle>ly t ! plates are a           
consid]able matt] l[] ?an ! surface ( ! 
wat]1 :i* rises up & makes a k9d (      
ramp>t r\nd !m on e side4 ,b if x has   
already p5etrat$ & ov]come ! cont9uity (
 ! wat]1 & is ( its own nature heavi]   
?an ! wat]1 :y does x n cont9ue to s9k1 
b /op & susp5d itself 9 t little dimple 
t its weight has made 9 ! wat]8 ,my     
answ] is1 because 9 s9k+ till its       
surface is bel[ ! wat]1 :i* rises up 9 a
 bank r\nd x1 x draws aft] & c>ries     
along ) x ! air above x1 s t t :i*1 9   
?is case1 desc5ds 9 ! wat] is n only !  
bo>d ( ebony or ! plate ( iron1 b a     
comp\nd ( ebony & air1 f :i* composition
 results a solid no long] specifically  
heavi] ?an ! wat]1 z 0 ! ebony or gold  
alone4 ,b1 g5tlem51 we want ! same      

matt]2 y are to alt] no?+ b ! %ape1 &1  
!re=e1 h ! goodness to remove ?is air1  
:i* may be done simply by wa%+ ! surface
 ( ! bo>d1 = ! wat] hav+ once got betwe5
 ! bo>d & ! air w run toge!r1 & ! ebony 
w g to ! bottom2 & if x does n1 y h won 
! day4  ,b me?9ks ,i he> "s ( my        
antagoni/s cunn+ly oppos+ ?is1 & tell+  
me t !y w n on any acc\nt all[ _! bo>ds 
to be wett$1 because ! weight ( ! wat] s
 add$1 by mak+ x heavi] ?an x 0 be=e1   
draws x to ! bottom1 & t ! addition (   
new weight is contr>y to our agreem5t1  
:i* 0 t ! matt] %\ld be ! same4  ,to ?is
 ,i answ]1 fir/1 t nobody c suppose     
bodies to be put into ! wat] )\t _! be+ 
wet1 nor d ,i wi% to d m to ! bo>d ?an y
 may d to ! ball4 ,moreov]1 x is n true 
t ! bo>d s9ks on acc\nt ( ! weight ( !  
wat] add$ 9 ! wa%+2 = ,i w put t5 or    
tw5ty drops on ! float+ bo>d1 & s long z
 !y /& sep>ate x %all n s9k2 b if ! bo>d
 be tak5 out & all t wat] wip$ (f1 & !  
:ole surface ba!d ) "o s+le drop1 & put 
x aga9 ^u ! wat]1 !re is no "q b x w    

s9k1 ! o!r wat] runn+ to cov] x1 be+ no 
long] h9d]$ by ! air4 ,9 ! next place1 x
 is altoge!r false t wat] c 9 any way   
increase ! weight ( bodies imm]s$ 9 x1 =
 wat] has no weight 9 wat]1 s9ce x does 
n s9k4 ,n[ j z he :o %\ld say t brass by
 its own nature s9ks1 b t :5 =m$ into ! 
%ape ( a kettle x acquires f t figure ! 
virtue ( ly+ 9 wat] )\t s9k+1 w\ld say  
:at is false1 because t is n purely     
brass :i* !n is put into ! wat]1 b a    
comp\nd ( brass & air2 s is x nei!r m   
nor less false t a ?9 plate ( brass or  
ebony swims by virtue ( its dilat$ &    
broad figure4 ,also1 ,i _c omit to tell 
my oppon5ts t ?is conceit ( refus+ to   
ba! ! surface ( ! bo>d might beget an   
op9ion 9 a ?ird p]son ( a pov]ty (      
argum5t on _! side1 especially z !      
conv]sation began ab\t flakes ( ice1 9  
:i* x w\ld be simple to require t !     
surfaces %\ld be kept dry2 n to m5tion t
 su* pieces ( ice1 :e!r wet or dry1     
always float1 & s my antagoni/s say1    
because ( _! %ape4  ,"s may wond] t ,i  

affirm ?is p[] to be 9 ! air ( keep+    
plate ( brass or silv] above wat]1 z if 
9 a c]ta9 s5se ,i w\ld attribute to !   
air a k9d ( magnetic virtue = su/a9+    
heavy bodies ) :i* x is 9 contact4 ,to  
satisfy all ^! d\bts ,i h contriv$ !    
foll[+ exp]im5t to demon/rate h[ truly !
 air does support ^! bodies2 = ,i h     
f\nd1 :5 "o ( ^! bodies :i* floats :5   
plac$ lightly on ! wat] is ?or\ghly ba!d
 & sunk to ! bottom1 t by c>ry+ d[n to x
 a little air )\t o!rwise t\*+ x 9 !    
lea/1 ,i am able to raise & c>ry x back 
to ! top1 :]e x floats z be=e4 ,to ?is  
effect1 ,i take a ball ( wax1 & ) a     
little lead make x j heavy en\gh to s9k 
v sl[ly to ! bottom1 tak+ c>e t its     
surface be q smoo? & ev54 ,?is1 if put  
g5tly into ! wat]1 subm]ges almo/       
entirely1 !re rema9+ visible only a     
little ( ! v top1 :i*1 s long z x is    
jo9$ to ! air1 keeps ! ball afloat2 b if
 we take away ! contact ( ! air by wett+
 ?is top1 ! ball s9ks to ! bottom &     
rema9s !re4 ,n[ to make x return to !   

surface by virtue ( ! air :i* be=e      
su/a9$ x1 ?ru/ into ! wat] a glass ) !  
m\? d[nw>d1 :i* w c>ry ) x ! air x      
conta9s1 & move ?is d[n t[>ds ! ball    
until y see1 by ! transp>5cy ( ! glass1 
t ! air has rea*$ ! top ( x2 !n g5tly   
draw ! glass upw>d1 & y w see ! ball    
rise1 & aft]w>ds /ay on ! top ( ! wat]1 
if y c>efully "p ! glass & wat] )\t too 
mu* di/urb+ x47#c7  ,x w be se5 t       
,galileo1 :ile hold+ 9 ! ma9 to a       
correct !sis1 yet m+les ) x "s false    
ideas4 ,at ! v outset1 ( c\rse1 x is n  
true t wat] has no resi/ance to         
p5etration2 x is true1 h[ev]1 9 ! s5se 9
 :i* ,galileo uses ! t]m--t is to say1 !
 resi/ance ( ! wat] to p5etration is n !
 det]m9+ factor ord9>ily 9 decid+ :e!r a
 body s9ks or floats4 ,yet 9 ! case ( ! 
flat body x is n altoge!r inappropriate 
to say t ! wat] resi/s p5etration & ?us 
supports ! body4 ,! mod]n physici/      
expla9s ! ph5om5on z due to             
surface-t5sion ( ! fluid4 ,( c\rse1     
,galileo's disquisition on ! mix+ ( air 

) ! float+ body is utt]ly fanciful4 ,8  
exp]im5ts 7 beautifully exact2 8 !oriz+ 
f !m 01 9 ?is in/ance1 altoge!r         
fallaci\s4 ,?us1 z already intimat$1 8  
pap] is admirably adapt$ to convey a    
d\ble lesson to ! /ud5t ( sci5ce4       
,,william ,,gilb]t ,,& ,,! ,,/udy ,,(   
,,magnetism  ,x w be obs]v$ t ! /udies (
 ,galileo & ,/ev9us 7 *iefly conc]n$ ) !
 =ce ( gravitation4 ,mean:ile1 !re 0 an 
,engli% philosoph] ( correspond+ g5ius1 
^: att5tion 0 direct$ t[>ds inve/igation
 ( ! equally my/]i\s =ce ( t]re/rial    
magnetism4 ,) ! d\btful exception (     
,bacon1 ,gilb]t 0 ! mo/ di/+ui%$ man (  
sci5ce 9 ,engl& dur+ ! reign ( ,que5    
,elizabe?4 ,he 0 = _m ye>s c\rt         
physician1 & ,que5 ,elizabe? ultimately 
settl$ ^u him a p5sion t enabl$ him to  
cont9ue 8 rese>*es 9 pure sci5ce4  ,8   
inve/igations 9 *emi/ry1 al?\gh suppos$ 
to be ( great importance1 are mo/ly lo/2
 b 8 great "w1 ,de ,magnete1 on :i* he  
labor$ = upw>ds ( eighte5 ye>s1 is a "w 
( suffici5t importance1 z ,hallam says1 

to raise a la/+ reputation = its au?or4 
,f its fir/ appe>ance x creat$ a pr(\nd 
impression ^u ! le>n$ m5 ( ! cont95t1   
al?\gh 9 ,engl& ,gilb]t's !ories seem to
 h be5 some:at less favorably receiv$4  
,galileo freely express$ 8 admiration = 
! "w & its au?or2 ,bacon1 :o admir$ !   
au?or1 did n express ! same admiration =
 8 !ories2 b ,dr4 ,prie/ley1 lat]1      
decl>$ him to be ! fa!r ( mod]n         
electricity4  ,/rangely en\gh1 ,gilb]t's
 book _h nev] be5 translat$ into        
,engli%1 or app>5tly into any o!r       
language1 until rec5t ye>s1 al?\gh at ! 
"t ( its publication c]ta9 le>n$ m51    
unable to read ! book 9 ! orig9al1 _h   
ask$ t x %\ld be4 ,by ?is neglect1 or   
ov]sight1 a great numb] ( g5]al read]s z
 well z _m sci5ti/s1 ?r\gh succe$+      
c5turies1 h be5 depriv$ ( ! b5efit (    
writ+s t conta9$ a good %>e ( !         
fundam5tal facts ab\t magnetism z kn[n  
to-day4  ,gilb]t 0 ! fir/ to discov] t !
 e>? is a great magnet1 & he n only gave
 ! "n ( pole to ! extremities ( !       

magnetic ne$le1 b also spoke ( ^! poles 
z nor? & s\? pole1 al?\gh he us$ ^!     
names 9 ! opposite s5se f t 9 :i* we n[ 
use !m1 8 s\? pole be+ ! extremity :i*  
po9t$ t[>ds ! nor?1 & vice v]sa4 ,he 0  
also fir/ to make use ( ! t]ms electric 
=ce1 electric emanations1 & electric    
attractions4  ,x is h>dly necess>y to   
say t "s ( ! views tak5 by ,gilb]t1 _m (
 8 !ories1 & ! accuracy ( "s ( 8        
exp]im5ts h 9 rec5t times be5 f\nd to be
 errone\s4 ,z a pione] 9 an unexplor$   
field ( sci5ce1 h[ev]1 8 "w is rem>kably
 accurate4 ,on ! :ole1 says ,dr4 ,john  
,rob9son1 ?is p]=mance conta9s m real   
in=mation ?an any writ+ ( ! age 9 :i* he
 liv$1 & is sc>cely exce$$ by any t has 
appe>$ s9ce47#d7  ,9 ! preface to 8 "w  
,gilb]t says3 ,s9ce 9 ! discov]y (      
secret ?+s1 & 9 ! inve/igation ( hidd5  
causes1 /rong] reasons are obta9$ f sure
 exp]im5ts & demon/rat$ argum5ts ?an f  
probable conjectures & ! op9ions (      
philosophical speculators ( ! common    
sort1 !re=e1 to ! end ( t noble sub/ance

 ( t great load/one1 our common "m 7!   
e>?71 /ill q unkn[n1 & also t ! =ces    
extraord9>y & exalt$ ( ?is globe may !  
bett] be und]/ood1 we h decid$1 fir/1 to
 beg9 ) ! common /ony & f]rug9\s matt]1 
& magnetic bodies1 & ! "p ( ! e>? t we  
may h&le & may p]ceive ) s5ses1 & !n to 
proce$ ) pla9 magnetic exp]im5ts1 & to  
p5etrate to ! inn] p>ts ( ! e>?47#e7    
,be=e tak+ up ! demon/ration t ! e>? is 
simply a giant load/one1 ,gilb]t        
demon/rat$ 9 an +5i\s way t e load/one1 
( :atev] size1 has def9ite & fix$ poles4
 ,he did ?is by plac+ ! /one 9 a metal  
la! & conv]t+ x into a sph]e1 & ^u ?is  
sph]e demon/rat$ h[ ! poles c be f\nd4  
,to ?is r\nd load/one he gave ! "n (    
t]rella--t is1 little e>?4  ,to f9d1 !n1
 poles answ]+ to ! e>?1 he says1 take 9 
y\r h& ! r\nd /one1 & lay on x a ne$le  
or a piece ( iron wire3 ! ends ( ! wire 
move r\nd _! middle po9t1 & sudd5ly come
 to a /&/ill4 ,n[1 ) o*re or ) *alk1 m>k
 :]e ! wire lies /ill & /icks4 ,!n move 
! middle or c5tre ( ! wire to ano!r     

spot1 & s to a ?ird & f\r?1 always m>k+ 
! /one along ! l5g? ( ! wire :]e x /&s  
/ill2 ! l9es s m>k$ w exhibit m]idian   
circles1 or circles l m]idians1 on !    
/one or t]rella2 & manife/ly !y w all   
come toge!r at ! poles ( ! /one4 ,!     
circle be+ cont9u$ 9 ?is way1 ! poles   
appe>1 bo? ! nor? & ! s\?1 & betwixt ^!1
 midway1 we may draw a l>ge circle = an 
equator1 z is done by ! a/ronom] 9 !    
heav5s & on 8 sph]es1 & by ! geograph]  
on ! t]re/rial globe47#f7  ,gilb]t _h   
tri$ ! famili> exp]im5t ( plac+ !       
load/one on a float 9 wat]1 & obs]v$ t !
 poles always revolv$ until !y po9t$    
nor? & s\?1 :i* he expla9$ z due to !   
e>?'s magnetic attraction4 ,9 ?is same  
connection he notic$ t a piece ( wr\ght 
iron m\nt$ on a cork float 0 attract$ by
 o!r metals to a slight degree1 & he    
obs]v$ also t an ord9>y iron b>1 if     
susp5d$ horizontally by a ?read1 assumes
 inv>iably a nor? & s\? direction4 ,^!1 
) _m o!r exp]im5ts ( a simil> nature1   
conv9c$ him t ! e>? is a magnet & a     

load/one1 :i* he says is a new & till n[
 unhe>d-( view ( ! e>?4  ,fully to      
appreciate ,gilb]t's revolution>y views 
conc]n+ ! e>? z a magnet1 x %\ld be     
rememb]$ t numb]less !ories to expla9 ! 
action ( ! electric ne$le _h be5        
advanc$4 ,columbus & ,p>acelsus1 =      
example1 believ$ t ! magnet 0 attract$  
by "s po9t 9 ! heav5s1 su* z a magnetic 
/>4 ,gilb]t himself tells ( "s ( !      
beliefs t _h be5 held by 8 pr$ecessors1 
_m ( :om he decl>es wilfully falsify4   
,"o ( 8 fir/ /eps 0 to refute by        
exp]im5t su* ass]tions z t ( ,c>dan1 t a
 w\nd by a magnetiz$ ne$le 0 pa9less2 & 
also ! ass]tion ( ,fraca/oni t load/one 
attracts silv]2 or t ( ,scal+]1 t !     
diamond w attract iron2 & ! /atem5t (   
,mat?iolus t iron rubb$ ) g>lic is no   
long] attract$ to ! load/one4  ,gilb]t  
made ext5sive exp]im5ts to expla9 !     
dipp+ ( ! ne$le1 :i* _h be5 fir/ notic$ 
by ,william ,norman4 ,8 d$uction z to   
?is ph5om5on l$ him to believe t ?is 0  
also expla9$ by ! magnetic attraction ( 

! e>?1 & to pr$ict :]e ! v]tical dip    
w\ld be f\nd4 ,^! d$uctions seem ! m    
wond]ful because at ! "t he made !m !   
dip _h j be5 discov]$1 & _h n be5 /udi$ 
except at ,london4 ,8 !ory ( ! dip 01   
!re=e1 a sci5tific pr$iction1 bas$ on a 
preconceiv$ hypo!sis4 ,gilb]t f\nd ! dip
 to be #gb degrees at ,london2 eight    
ye>s lat] ,hudson f\nd ! dip at #ge     
degrees #bb' nor? latitude to be #hi    
degrees #cj'2 b x 0 n until ov] two     
hundr$ ye>s lat]1 9 #ahca1 t ! v]tical  
dip 0 fir/ obs]v$ by ,sir ,james ,ross  
at ab\t #gj degrees #e' nor? latitude1 &
 #if degrees #dc' we/ longitude4 ,?is 0 
n ! exact po9t assum$ by ,gilb]t1 & 8   
sci5tific pr$ictions1 !re=e1 7 n q      
correct2 b su* comp>atively slight &    
excusable errors m> b little ! excell5ce
 ( 8 "w z a :ole4  ,a brief epitome ( "s
 ( 8 o!r important discov]ies suffices  
to %[ t ! exalt$ position 9 sci5ce      
accord$ him by contempor>ies1 z well z  
succe$+ g5]ations ( sci5ti/s1 0 well    
m]it$4 ,he 0 fir/ to di/+ui% betwe5     

magnetism & electricity1 giv+ ! latt]   
its "n4 ,he discov]$ also ! electrical  
*>ge1 & po9t$ ! way to ! discov]y (     
insulation by %[+ t ! *>ge c\ld be      
reta9$ "s "t 9 ! excit$ body by cov]+ x 
) "s non-conduct+ sub/ance1 su* z silk2 
al?\gh1 ( c\rse1 electrical conduction c
 h>dly be said to h be5 m ?an vaguely   
surmis$1 if und]/ood at all by him4 ,!  
fir/ electrical in/rum5t ev] made1 &    
kn[n z su*1 0 inv5t$ by him1 z 0 also ! 
fir/ magnetomet]1 & ! fir/ electrical   
indicat+ device4 ,al?\gh ?ree c5turies h
 elaps$ s9ce 8 dea?1 ! me?od ( magnetiz+
 iron fir/ introduc$ by him is 9 common 
use to-day4  ,he made exhau/ive         
exp]im5ts ) a ne$le balanc$ on a pivot  
to see h[ _m sub/ances he c\ld f9d :i*1 
l amb]1 on be+ rubb$ affect$ ! ne$le4 ,9
 ?is way he discov]$ t light sub/ances 7
 attract$ by alum1 mica1 ars5ic1        
seal+-wax1 lac sulphur1 slags1 b]yl1    
ame?y/1 rock-cry/al1 sapphire1 jet1     
c>buncle1 diamond1 opal1 ,bri/ol /one1  
glass1 glass ( antimony1 gum-ma/ic1 h>d 

res91 rock-salt1 &1 ( c\rse1 amb]4 ,he  
discov]$ also t atmosph]ic conditions   
affect$ ! production ( electricity1     
dryness be+ unfavorable & moi/ure       
favorable4  ,galileo's e/imate ( ?is    
fir/ electrician is ! v]dict ( succe$+  
g5]ations4 ,i extremely admire & envy   
?is au?or1 he said4 ,i ?9k him wor?y ( !
 greate/ praise = ! _m new & true       
obs]vations :i* he has made1 to !       
disgrace ( s _m va9 & fabl+ au?ors4     
,,/udies ,,( ,,light1 ,,heat1 ,,&       
,,atmosph]ic ,,pressure  ,we h se5 t    
,gilb]t 0 by no means lack+ 9           
v]satility1 yet ! inve/igations ^u :i* 8
 fame is f\nd$ 7 all pursu$ along "o    
l9e1 s t ! fa!r ( magnetism may be      
consid]$ "o ( ! e>lie/ ( speciali/s 9   
physical sci5ce4 ,mo/ work]s ( ! "t1 on 
! o!r b&1 ext5d$ _! inve/igations 9 _m  
directions4 ,! sum total ( sci5tific k (
 t day _h n bulk$ s l>ge z to exclude ! 
possibility t "o man might ma/] x all4  
,s we f9d a ,galileo1 = example1 mak+   
revolution>y discov]ies 9 a/ronomy1 &   

p]=m+ fundam5tal exp]im5ts 9 v>i\s      
fields ( physics4 ,galileo's great      
contempor>y1 ,kepl]1 0 almo/ equally    
v]satile1 ?\gh 8 a/ronomical /udies 7 ( 
su* pre-em95t importance t 8 o!r        
inve/igations s9k into relative         
insignificance4 ,yet he p]=m$ "s notable
 exp]im5ts 9 at lea/ "o dep>tm5t (      
physics4 ,^! exp]im5ts _h to d ) !      
refraction ( light1 a subject :i* ,kepl]
 0 l$ to inve/igate1 9 "p at lea/1 ?r\gh
 8 int]e/ 9 ! telescope4  ,we h se5 t   
,ptolemy 9 ! ,alex&rian "t1 & ,alhaz51 !
 ,arab1 made /udies ( refraction4 ,kepl]
 repeat$ _! exp]im5ts1 &1 /riv+ z always
 to g5]alize 8 obs]vations1 he attempt$ 
to f9d ! law t gov]n$ ! obs]v$ *ange (  
direction :i* a ray ( light assumes 9   
pass+ f "o m$ium to ano!r4 ,kepl]       
measur$ ! angle ( refraction by means ( 
a simple yet +5i\s tr\gh-l app>atus :i* 
enabl$ him to comp>e readily ! direct & 
refract$ rays4 ,he discov]$ t :5 a ray (
 light passes ?r\gh a glass plate1 if x 
/rikes ! f>!r surface ( ! glass at an   

angle great] ?an #de degrees x w be     
totally refract$ in/ead ( pass+ ?r\gh   
into ! air4 ,he c\ld n well fail to "k t
 diff]5t m$iums refract light diff]5tly1
 & t = ! same m$ium ! am\nt ( light     
valies ) ! *ange 9 ! angle ( incid5ce4  
,he 0 n able1 h[ev]1 to g5]alize 8      
obs]vations z he desir$1 & to ! la/ !   
law t gov]ns refraction escap$ him4 ,x  
rema9$ = ,willebrord ,snell1 a ,dut*man1
 ab\t ! ye> #afba1 to discov] ! law 9   
"q1 & = ,desc>tes1 a little lat]1 to    
=mulate x4 ,desc>tes1 inde$1 has        
sometimes be5 suppos$ to be ! discov]] (
 ! law4 ,!re is reason to believe t he  
bas$ 8 g5]alizations on ! exp]im5t (    
,snell1 ?\gh he did n op5ly ackn[l$ge 8 
indebt$ness4 ,! law1 z ,desc>tes        
express$ x1 /ates t ! s9e ( ! angle (   
incid5ce be>s a fix$ ratio to ! s9e ( ! 
angle ( refraction = any giv5 m$ium4    
,"h1 !n1 0 ano!r illu/ration ( ! fact t 
almo/ inf9itely v>i$ ph5om5a may be     
br\ght )9 ! scope ( a simple law4 ,once 
! law _h be5 express$1 x c\ld be te/$ & 

v]ifi$ ) ! greate/ ease2 &1 z usual1 !  
discov]y be+ made1 x seems surpris+ t   
e>li] inve/igators--9 p>ticul> s        
sagaci\s a guess] z ,kepl]--%\ld h miss$
 x4  ,galileo himself mu/ h be5 to "s   
ext5t a /ud5t ( light1 s9ce1 z we h se51
 he made su* notable contributions to   
practical optics ?r\gh p]fect+ !        
telescope2 b he seems n to h add$ any?+ 
to ! !ory ( light4 ,! subject ( heat1   
h[ev]1 attract$ 8 att5tion 9 a some:at  
diff]5t way1 & he 0 l$ to ! inv5tion ( !
 fir/ contrivance = measur+ temp]atures4
 ,8 !rmomet] 0 bas$ on ! aft]w>ds       
famili> pr9ciple ( ! expansion ( a      
liquid "u ! influ5ce ( heat2 b z a      
practical means ( measur+ temp]ature x 0
 a v crude affair1 because ! tube t     
conta9$ ! measur+ liquid 0 expos$ to !  
air1 h5ce b>ometric *anges ( pressure   
vitiat$ ! exp]im5t4 ,x rema9$ =         
,galileo's ,italian successors ( !      
,accademia del ,cim5to ( ,flor5ce to    
improve ^u ! app>atus1 aft] ! exp]im5ts 
( ,torricelli--to :i* we %all ref] 9 a  

mom5t--_h ?r[n new light on ! "q (      
atmosph]ic pressure4 ,/ill lat] !       
celebrat$ ,huyg5s hit ^u ! idea ( us+ ! 
melt+ & ! boil+ po9t ( wat] z fix$ po9ts
 9 a scale ( measurem5ts1 :i* fir/ gave 
def9it5ess to !rmometric te/s4          
,,torricelli  ,9 ! clos+ ye>s ( 8 life  
,galileo took into 8 family1 z 8 adopt$ 
disciple 9 sci5ce1 a "y man1 ,evangeli/a
 ,torricelli 7#afjh-afdg71 :o prov$     
himself1 dur+ 8 %ort lifetime1 to be a  
wor?y foll[] ( 8 great ma/]4 ,n only    
wor?y on acc\nt ( 8 great sci5tific     
discov]ies1 b grateful z well1 = :5 he  
_h made ! great discov]y t ! suction    
made by a vacuum 0 really no?+ b air    
pressure1 & n suction at all1 he        
regrett$ t s important a /ep 9 sci5ce   
might n h be5 made by 8 great tea*]1    
,galileo1 in/ead ( by himself4 ,?is     
g5]osity ( ,torricelli1 says ,playfair1 
01 p]haps1 r>] ?an 8 g5ius3 !re are m :o
 might h discov]$ ! susp5sion ( m]cury 9
 ! b>omet] ?an :o w\ld h be5 will+ to "p
 ) ! honor ( ! discov]y to a ma/] or a  

fri5d4  ,torricelli's discov]y 0 made 9 
#afdc1 less ?an two ye>s aft] ! dea? ( 8
 ma/]4 ,galileo _h obs]v$ t wat] w n    
rise 9 an exhau/$ tube1 su* z a pump1 to
 a height great] ?an ?irty-?ree feet1 b 
he 0 nev] able to (f] a satisfactory    
explanation ( ! pr9ciple4 ,torricelli 0 
able to demon/rate t ! height at :i* !  
wat] /ood dep5d$ ^u no?+ b its weight z 
comp>$ ) ! weight ( air4 ,if ?is be     
true1 x is evid5t t any fluid w be      
support$ at a def9ite height1 accord+ to
 its relative weight z comp>$ ) air4    
,?us m]cury1 :i* is ab\t ?irte5 times m 
d5se ?an wat]1 %\ld only rise to        
"o-?irte5? ! height ( a column ( wat]--t
 is1 ab\t ?irty in*es4 ,reason+ 9 ?is   
way1 ,torricelli proce$$ to prove t 8   
!ory 0 correct4 ,fill+ a long tube1     
clos$ at "o end1 ) m]cury1 he inv]t$ !  
tube ) its op5 orifice 9 a vessel (     
m]cury4 ,! column ( m]cury fell at once1
 b at a height ( ab\t ?irty in*es x     
/opp$ & rema9$ /ation>y1 ! pressure ( ! 
air on ! m]cury 9 ! vessel ma9ta9+ x at 

t height4 ,?is discov]y 0 a %att]+ bl[  
to ! old !ory t _h dom9at$ t field (    
physics = s _m c5turies4 ,x 0 completely
 revolution>y to prove t1 in/ead ( a    
my/]i\s some?+ )9 ! tube be+ responsible
 = ! susp5sion ( liquids at c]ta9       
heights1 x 0 simply ! ord9>y atmosph]ic 
pressure my/]i\s en\gh1 x is true--pu%+ 
^u !m f )\t4 ,! pressure ex]t$ by !     
atmosph]e 0 b little und]/ood at t "t1 b
 ,torricelli's discov]y aid$ mat]ially 9
 solv+ ! my/]y4 ,! :ole class ( simil>  
ph5om5a ( air pressure1 :i* _h be5 held 
9 ! trammel ( long-e/abli%$ b false     
doctr9es1 0 n[ r$uc$ to "o simple law1 &
 ! door to a solution ( a ho/ ( unsolv$ 
problems ?r[n op54  ,x _h long be5      
suspect$ & believ$ t ! d5sity ( !       
atmosph]e v>ies at c]ta9 times4 ,t ! air
 is sometimes heavy & at o!r times light
 is app>5t to ! s5ses )\t sci5tific     
app>atus = demon/ration4 ,x is evid5t1  
!n1 t ,torricelli's column ( m]cury %\ld
 rise & fall j 9 proportion to !        
lightness or heav9ess ( ! air4 ,a %ort  

s]ies ( obs]vations prov$ t x did s1 & )
 ^? obs]vations w5t naturally !         
obs]vations z to *anges 9 ! wea!r4 ,x 0 
only necess>y1 !re=e1 to scrat* a scale 
on ! glass tube1 indicat+ relative      
atmosph]ic pressures1 & ! ,torricellian 
b>omet] 0 complete4  ,su* a revolution>y
 !ory & su* an important discov]y 71 (  
c\rse1 n to be accept$ )\t controv]sy1 b
 ! feeble argum5ts ( ! oppon5ts %[$ h[  
unt5able ! old !ory _h become4 ,9 #afdh 
,pascal sugge/$ t if ! !ory ( ! pressure
 ( air ^u ! m]cury 0 correct1 x c\ld be 
demon/rat$ by asc5d+ a m\nta9 ) ! m]cury
 tube4 ,z ! air 0 kn[n to get           
progressively light] f base to summit1 !
 height ( ! column %\ld be progressively
 less5$ z ! asc5t 0 made1 & increase    
aga9 on ! desc5t into ! d5s] air4 ,!    
exp]im5t 0 made on ! m\nta9 call$ !     
,puy-de-,dome1 9 ,auv]gne1 & ! column ( 
m]cury fell & rose progressively ?r\gh a
 space ( ab\t ?ree in*es z ! asc5t &    
desc5t 7 made4  ,?is exp]im5t           
practically seal$ ! v]dict on ! new     

!ory1 b x also sugge/$ some?+ m4 ,if !  
m]cury desc5d$ to a c]ta9 m>k on ! scale
 on a m\nta9-top ^: height 0 kn[n1 :y 0 
n ?is a means ( measur+ ! heights ( all 
o!r elevations8 ,& s ! beg9n+ 0 made    
:i*1 ) c]ta9 modifications & corrections
 9 details1 is n[ ! basis ( b>ometrical 
measurem5ts ( heights4  ,9 hydraulics1  
also1 ,torricelli seems to h tak5 "o ( !
 fir/ /eps4 ,he did ?is by %[+ t ! wat] 
:i* issues f a hole 9 ! side or bottom (
 a vessel does s at ! same velocity z t 
:i* a body w\ld acquire by fall+ f !    
level ( ! surface ( ! wat] to t ( !     
orifice4 ,?is discov]y 0 ( ! greate/    
importance to a correct und]/&+ ( !     
sci5ce ( ! motions ( fluids4 ,he also   
discov]$ ! valuable me*anical pr9ciple t
 if any numb] ( bodies be connect$ s t  
by _! motion !re is nei!r asc5t nor     
desc5t ( _! c5tre ( gravity1 ^! bodies  
are 9 equilibrium4  ,besides mak+ ^!    
discov]ies1 he greatly improv$ !        
microscope & ! telescope1 & inv5t$ a    
simple microscope made ( a globule (    

glass4 ,9 #afdd he publi%$ a tract on ! 
prop]ties ( ! cycloid 9 :i* he sugge/$ a
 solution ( ! problem ( its quadrature4 
,z soon z ?is pamphlet appe>$ its au?or 
0 accus$ by ,gilles ,rob]val            
7#afjb-afge7 ( hav+ appropriat$ a       
solution already (f]$ by him4 ,?is l$ to
 a long debate1 dur+ :i* ,torricelli 0  
seiz$ ) a fev]1 f ! effects ( :i* he    
di$1 9 ,flor5ce1 ,octob] #be1 #afdg4    
,!re is reason to believe1 h[ev]1 t :ile
 ,rob]val's discov]y 0 made be=e        
,torricelli's1 ! latt] rea*$ 8          
conclusions indep5d5tly4     ,,vi4 ,,two
 ,,pseudo-,,sci5ces--,,al*emy ,,&       
,,a/rology  ,9 rec5t *apt]s we h se5    
sci5ce come =w>d ) trem5d\s /rides4 ,a  
new era is obvi\sly at h&4 ,b we %all   
misconceive ! _s ( ! times if we fail to
 und]/& t 9 ! mid/ ( all ?is progress   
!re 0 /ill room = m$iaeval sup]/ition & 
= ! pursuit ( fallaci\s ideals4 ,two =ms
 ( pseudo-sci5ce 7 peculi>ly            
preval5t--al*emy & a/rology4 ,nei!r ( ^!
 c ) full propriety be call$ a sci5ce1  

yet bo? 7 pursu$ by _m ( ! greate/      
sci5tific work]s ( ! p]iod4 ,moreov]1 ! 
/udies ( ! al*emi/ may ) "s propriety be
 said to h laid ! f\ndation = !         
latt]-day sci5ce ( *emi/ry2 :ile        
a/rology 0 closely alli$ to a/ronomy1   
?\gh its relations to t sci5ce are n z  
intimate z has sometimes be5 suppos$4   
,j :5 ! /udy ( al*emy began is          
undet]m9$4 ,x 0 c]ta9ly ( v anci5t      
orig91 p]haps ,egyptian1 b its mo/      
fl\ri%+ "t 0 f ab\t ! eigh? c5tury      
,a4,d4 to ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,! /ories (
 ! ,old ,te/am5t =m$ a basis = "s ( !   
/range beliefs reg>d+ ! prop]ties ( !   
magic elixir1 or philosoph]'s /one4     
,al*emi/s believ$ t mo/ ( !             
ant$iluvians1 p]haps all ( !m1 possess$ 
a k ( ?is /one4 ,h[1 o!rwise1 c\ld !y h 
prolong$ _! lives to n9e & a half       
c5turies8 ,& ,moses 0 surely a fir/-rate
 al*emi/1 z is prov$ by ! /ory ( !      
,gold5 ,calf47#a7 ,aft] ,a>on _h made ! 
calf ( gold1 ,moses p]=m$ ! mu* m       
difficult task ( gr9d+ x to p[d] & /rew+

 x ^u ! wat]s1 ?us %[+ t he _h transmut$
 x into "s light] sub/ance4  ,b         
ant$iluvians & ,biblical *>act]s 7 n !  
only p]sons :o 7 ?\ght to h discov]$ !  
covet$ elixir4 ,hundr$s ( ag$ m$iaeval  
*emi/s 7 cr$it$ ) hav+ made ! discov]y1 
& 7 ?\ght to be liv+ on ?r\gh ! c5turies
 by its means4 ,alaies de ,lisle1 =     
example1 :o di$ 9 #abih1 at ! age (     
#aaj1 0 alleg$ to h be5 at ! po9t ( dea?
 at ! age ( fifty1 b j at ?is "t he made
 ! =tunate discov]y ( ! magic /one1 & s 
cont9u$ to live 9 heal? & afflu5ce =    
sixty ye>s m4 ,& ,de ,lisle 0 b "o case 
among hundr$s4  ,an ag$ & weal?y al*emi/
 c\ld claim ) seem+ plausibility t he 0 
prolong+ 8 life by 8 magic2 :]eas a     
y\ng] man might ass]t t1 kn[+ ! great   
secret1 he 0 keep+ himself "y ?r\gh !   
c5turies4 ,9 ei!r case su* a /atem5t1 or
 rumor1 ab\t a le>n$ & weal?y al*emi/ 0 
likely to be believ$1 p>ticul>ly among  
/rang]s2 & z su* a man w\ld1 ( c\rse1 be
 ! object ( mu* att5tion1 ! claim 0     
frequ5tly made by p]sons seek+          

notoriety4 ,"o ( ! mo/ celebrat$ ( ^!   
impo/ors 0 a c]ta9 ,c\nt de             
,sa9t-,g]ma91 :o 0 connect$ ) ! c\rt (  
,l\is ,,xv4 ,8 /atem5ts c>ri$ ! m weight
 because1 hav+ app>5tly no means (      
ma9t5ance1 he cont9u$ to live 9 afflu5ce
 ye> aft] ye>--= two ?\s& ye>s1 z he    
himself admitt$--by means ( ! magic     
/one4 ,if at any "t 8 /atem5ts 7 d\bt$1 
he 0 9 ! habit ( ref]r+ to 8 valet =    
confirmation1 ?is valet be+ also "u !   
influ5ce ( ! elixir ( life4  ,^u "o     
occasion 8 ma/] 0 tell+ a p>ty ( ladies 
& g5tlem51 at d9n]1 "s conv]sation he _h
 _h 9 ,pale/9e1 ) ,k+ ,ri*>d ,i41 (     
,engl&1 :om he describ$ z a v p>ticul>  
fri5d ( 84 ,signs ( a/oni%m5t &         
incr$ulity 7 visible on ! faces ( !     
company1 ^u :i* ,sa9t-,g]ma9 v coolly   
turn$ to 8 s]vant1 :o /ood beh9d 8 *air1
 & ask$ him if he _h n spok5 ! tru?4 ',i
 really _c say1' repli$ ! man1 )\t mov+ 
a muscle2 'y =get1 sir1 ,i h be5 only   
five hundr$ ye>s 9 y\r s]vice4' ',ah1   
true1' said 8 ma/]1 ',i rememb] n[2 x 0 

a little be=e y\r "t6'7#b7  ,9 ! "t (   
,sa9t-,g]ma91 only a little ov] a c5tury
 ago1 belief 9 al*emy _h almo/          
disappe>$1 & 8 extraord9>y tales 7      
probably reg>d$ 9 ! light ( amus+       
/ories4 ,/ill !re 0 und\bt$ly a l+]+    
suspicion 9 ! m9ds ( _m t ?is man       
possess$ "s peculi> secret4 ,a few      
c5turies e>li] 8 tales w\ld h>dly h be5 
que/ion$1 = at t "t ! belief 9 ! exi/5ce
 ( ?is magic some?+ 0 s /rong t ! se>* =
 x became almo/ a =m ( mania2 & once a  
man 0 seiz$ ) x1 lie gambl$ away heal?1 
position1 & life itself 9 pursu+ !      
covet$ /ake4 ,an example ( ?is is se5 9 
,alb]tus ,magnus1 "o ( ! mo/ le>n$ m5 ( 
8 "t1 :o x is said resign$ 8 position z 
bi%op ( ,ratisbon 9 ord] t he might     
pursue 8 rese>*es 9 al*emy4  ,if        
self-sacrifice 0 n suffici5t to secure !
 prize1 crime w\ld naturally foll[1 =   
!re c\ld be no limit to ! price ( !     
/akes 9 ?is game4 ,! notori\s ,m>e*al de
 ,reys1 fail+ to f9d ! covet$ /one by   
ord9>y me?ods ( laboratory rese>*1 0    

p]suad$ by an impo/or t if he w\ld      
propitiate ! fri5d%ip ( ! devil ! secret
 w\ld be reveal$4 ,to ?is end ,de ,reys 
began secretly captur+ "y *ildr5 z !y   
pass$ 8 ca/le & murd]+ !m4 ,:5 he 0 at  
la/ br\ght to ju/ice x 0 prov$ t he _h  
murd]$ some?+ l a hundr$ *ildr5 )9 a    
p]iod ( ?ree ye>s4 ,s1 at lea/1 runs "o 
v]sion ( ! /ory ( ?is p]v]t$ be+4       
,naturally mon>*s1 con/antly 9 ne$ (    
funds1 7 int]e/$ 9 ^! al*emi/s4 ,ev5    
sob] ,engl& did n escape1 & ,raymond    
,lully1 "o ( ! mo/ fam\s ( ! ?irte5? &  
f\rte5? c5tury al*emi/s1 is said to h   
be5 secretly invit$ by ,k+ ,edw>d ,i4   
7or ,,ii47 to leave ,milan & settle 9   
,engl&4 ,accord+ to "s acc\nts1 ap>tm5ts
 7 assign$ to 8 use 9 ! ,t[] ( ,london1 
:]e he is alleg$ to h made "s six       
million p\nds /]l+ = ! mon>*1 out (     
iron1 m]cury1 lead1 & pewt]4  ,pope     
,john ,,xxii41 a fri5d & pupil ( !      
al*emi/ ,arnold de ,vill5euve1 is       
report$ to h le>n$ ! secrets ( al*emy f 
8 ma/]4 ,lat] he issu$ two bulls aga9/  

pret5d]s 9 ! art1 :i*1 f> f %[+ 8       
disbelief1 7 cit$ by al*emi/s z prov+ t 
he recogniz$ pret5d]s z di/9ct f true   
ma/]s ( magic4  ,to mod]ns ! attitude ( 
m9d ( ! al*emi/ is difficult to         
compreh5d4 ,x is1 p]haps1 possible to   
conceive ( animals or plants possess+   
s\ls1 b ! e>ly al*emi/ attribut$ ! same 
?+--or some?+ k9 to x--to metals also4  
,fur!rmore1 j z plants g]m9at$ f se$s1 s
 metals 7 suppos$ to g]m9ate also1 &    
h5ce a con/ant gr[? ( metals 9 ! gr\nd4 
,to prove ?is ! al*emi/ cit$ cases :]e  
previ\sly exhau/$ gold-m9es 7 f\nd1 aft]
 a lapse ( "t1 to conta9 fre% quantities
 ( gold4 ,! se$ ( ! rema9+ p>ticles (   
gold _h multipli$ & increas$4 ,b ?is    
g]m9at+ process c\ld only take place "u 
favorable conditions1 j z ! se$ ( a     
plant mu/ h its prop] surr\nd+s be=e    
g]m9at+2 & x 0 believ$ t ! action ( !   
philosoph]'s /one 0 to ha/5 ?is process1
 z man may ha/5 ! gr[? ( plants by      
artificial means4 ,gold 0 look$ ^u z !  
mo/ p]fect metal1 & all o!r metals      

imp]fect1 because n yet purifi$4 ,by "s 
al*emi/s !y 7 reg>d$ z lep]s1 :o1 :5    
cur$ ( _! leprosy1 w\ld become gold4 ,& 
s9ce nature int5d$ t all ?+s %\ld be    
p]fect1 x 0 ! aim ( ! al*emi/ to assi/  
h] 9 ?is purify+ process1 & incid5tally 
to ga9 weal? & prolong 8 life4  ,by o!r 
al*emi/s ! process ( transition f bas]  
metals into gold 0 conceiv$ to be l a   
process ( rip5+ fruit4 ,! rip5$ product 
0 gold1 :ile ! gre5 fruit1 9 v>i\s /ages
 ( maturity1 0 repres5t$ by ! base      
metals4 ,silv]1 = example1 0 m ne>ly    
ripe ?an lead2 b ! diff]5ce 0 only "o ( 
dige/ion1 & x 0 ?\ght t by fur!r        
dige/ion lead might fir/ become silv] & 
ev5tually gold4 ,9 o!r words1 ,nature _h
 n complet$ h] "w1 & 0 w(ully sl[ at x  
at be/2 b man1 ) 8 sup]ior faculties1 0 
to ha/5 ! process 9 8 laboratories--if  
he c\ld b hit ^u ! "r me?od ( do+ s4  ,x
 %\ld n be inf]r$ t ! al*emi/ set ab\t 8
 task ( assi/+ nature 9 a haphaz>d way1 
& )\t tra9+ 9 ! v>i\s al*emic laboratory
 me?ods4 ,on ! contr>y1 he usually s]v$ 

a long appr5tice%ip 9 ! rudim5ts ( 8    
call+4 ,he 0 oblig$ to le>n1 9 a g5]al  
way1 _m ( ! same ?+s t mu/ be und]/ood 9
 ei!r *emical or al*emical laboratories4
 ,! g5]al k t c]ta9 liquids vaporize at 
l[] temp]atures ?an o!rs1 & t !         
melt+-po9ts ( metals diff] greatly1 =   
example1 0 j z necess>y to al*emy z to  
*emi/ry4 ,! k ( ! gross /ructure1 or    
nature1 ( mat]ials 0 mu* ! same to !    
al*emi/ z to ! *emi/1 &1 = t matt]1 _m (
 ! exp]im5ts 9 calc9+1 di/ill+1 etc41 7 
practically id5tical4  ,to ! al*emi/ !re
 7 ?ree pr9ciples--salt1 sulphur1 &     
m]cury--& ! s\rces ( ^! pr9ciples 7 !   
f\r elem5ts--e>?1 wat]1 fire1 & air4 ,^!
 f\r elem5ts 7 acc\ntable = e sub/ance 9
 nature4 ,"s ( ! exp]im5ts to prove ?is 
7 s illusive1 & yet app>5tly s simple1 t
 "o is n surpris$ t x took c5turies to  
disprove !m4 ,t wat] 0 compos$ ( e>? &  
air seem$ easily prov5 by ! simple      
process ( boil+ x 9 a tea-kettle1 = !   
residue left 0 obvi\sly an e>?y         
sub/ance1 :]eas ! /eam driv5 (f 0       

suppos$ to be air4 ,! fact t pure wat]  
leaves no residue 0 n demon/rat$ until  
aft] al*emy _h practically ceas$ to     
exi/4 ,x 0 possible also to demon/rate t
 wat] c\ld be turn$ into fire by ?ru/+ a
 r$-hot pok] "u a bellglass conta9+ a   
di% ( wat]4 ,n only did ! quantity (    
wat] dim9i%1 b1 if a light$ c&le 0 ?ru/ 
"u ! glass1 ! cont5ts ignit$ & burn$1   
prov+1 app>5tly1 t wat] _h be5 conv]t$  
into fire4 ,^!1 & scores ( o!r simil>   
exp]im5ts1 seem$ s easily expla9$1 & to 
accord s well ) ! f\r elem5ts !ory1 t !y
 7 seldom que/ion$ until a lat] age (   
inductive sci5ce4  ,b !re 0 "o exp]im5t 
to :i* ! al*emi/ p9n$ 8 fai? 9 %[+ t    
metals c\ld be kill$ & reviv$1 :5 prop] 
means 7 employ$4 ,x _h be5 kn[n = _m    
c5turies t if any metal1 o!r ?an gold or
 silv]1 7 calc9$ 9 an op5 crucible1 x   
turn$1 aft] a "t1 into a peculi> k9d (  
a%4 ,?is a% 0 ?\ght by ! al*emi/ to     
repres5t ! dea? ( ! metal4 ,b if to ?is 
same a% a few gra9s ( :eat 7 add$ & heat
 aga9 appli$ to ! crucible1 ! metal 0   

se5 to rise f its a%es & resume its     
orig9al =m--a well-kn[n ph5om5on ( r$uc+
 metals f oxides by ! use ( c>bon1 9 !  
=m ( :eat1 or1 = t matt]1 any o!r       
c>bonace\s sub/ance4 ,:eat 01 !re=e1    
made ! symbol ( ! resurrection ( ! life 
et]nal4 ,oats1 corn1 or a piece ( *>coal
 w\ld h reviv$ ! metals f ! a%es equally
 well1 b ! m$iaeval al*emi/ seems n to h
 kn[n ?is4 ,h[ev]1 9 ?is exp]im5t !     
metal seem$ actually to be de/roy$ &    
revivifi$1 &1 z sci5ce _h n z yet       
expla9$ ?is /rik+ ph5om5on1 x is little 
wond] t x deceiv$ ! al*emi/4  ,s9ce !   
al*emi/s pursu$ _! se>* ( ! magic /one 9
 su* a me?odical way1 x w\ld seem t !y  
mu/ h "s idea ( ! appe>ance ( ! sub/ance
 !y s\ght4 ,probably !y did1 ea* accord+
 to 8 own m5tal bias2 b1 if s1 !y seldom
 committ$ !mselves to writ+1 conf9+ _!  
disc\rses l>gely to speculations z to ! 
prop]ties ( ?is illusive sub/ance4      
,fur!rmore1 ! desire = secrecy w\ld     
prev5t !m f express+ s important a piece
 ( in=mation4 ,b on ! subject ( !       

prop]ties1 if n on ! appe>ance ( !      
ess5ce1 !y 7 volum9\s writ]s4 ,x 0      
suppos$ to be ! only p]fect sub/ance 9  
exi/5ce1 & to be conf9$ 9 v>i\s         
sub/ances1 9 quantities proportionate to
 ! /ate ( p]fection ( ! sub/ance4 ,?us1 
gold be+ mo/ ne>ly p]fect w\ld conta9 m1
 silv] less1 lead /ill less1 & s on4 ,! 
ess5ce conta9$ 9 ! m ne>ly p]fect metals
 0 ?\ght to be m pot5t1 a v small       
quantity ( x be+ capable ( creat+ l>ge  
quantities ( gold & ( prolong+ life     
indef9itely4  ,x w\ld appe> f _m ( !    
writ+s ( ! al*emi/s t _! conception (   
nature & ! sup]natural 0 s confus$ &    
entangl$ 9 an inexplicable philosophy t 
!y !mselves did n really und]/& ! mean+ 
( :at !y 7 attempt+ to convey4 ,b x %\ld
 n be =gott5 t al*emy 0 kept z mu* z    
possible f ! ignorant g5]al public1 & ! 
al*emi/s !mselves _h k ( secret words & 
expressions :i* convey$ a def9ite mean+ 
to "o ( _! numb]1 b :i* w\ld appe> a    
mean+less jumble to an outsid]4 ,"s ( ^!
 writ]s decl>$ op5ly t _! writ+s 7      

int5d$ to convey an entirely errone\s   
impression1 & 7 s5t out only = t        
purpose4  ,h[ev]1 :ile x may h be5 true 
t ! vag>ies ( _! writ+s 7 made          
purposely1 ! case is probably m         
correctly expla9$ by say+ t ! v nature (
 ! art made def9ite /atem5ts impossible4
 ,!y 7 deal+ ) some?+ t did n exi/--c\ld
 n exi/4 ,_! attempt$ descriptions      
became1 !re=e1 ! language ( romance r   
?an ! language ( sci5ce4  ,b if !       
al*emi/s !mselves 7 usually sil5t z to !
 appe>ance ( ! actual sub/ance ( !      
philosoph]'s /one1 !re 7 numb]less o!r  
writ]s :o 7 less retic5t4 ,by "s x 0    
suppos$ to be a /one1 by o!rs a liquid  
or elixir1 b m commonly x 0 describ$ z a
 black p[d]4 ,x also possess$ diff]5t   
degrees ( effici5cy accord+ to its      
degrees ( purity1 c]ta9 =ms only        
possess+ ! p[] ( turn+ base metals into 
gold1 :ile o!rs gave et]nal y\? & life  
or diff]5t degrees ( heal?4 ,?us an     
al*emi/1 :o _h made a p>tial discov]y ( 
?is sub/ance1 c\ld prolong life a c]ta9 

numb] ( ye>s only1 or1 possess+ only a  
small & inadequate am\nt ( ! magic p[d]1
 he 0 oblig$ to give up ! gho/ :5 !     
effect ( ?is small quantity _h pass$    
away4  ,?is belief 9 ! sup]natural p[] (
 ! philosoph]'s /one to prolong life &  
heal diseases 0 probably a lat] phase ( 
al*emy1 possibly develop$ by attempts to
 connect ! p[] ( ! my/]i\s ess5ce )     
,biblical tea*+s4 ,! e>ly ,roman        
al*emi/s1 :o claim$ to be able to       
transmute metals1 seem n to h made o!r  
claims = _! magic /one4  ,by ! fifte5?  
c5tury ! belief 9 ! philosoph]'s /one _h
 become s fix$ t gov]nm5ts began to be  
al>m$ le/ "s lucky possessor ( ! secret 
%\ld flood ! c\ntry ) gold1 ?us r5d]+ ! 
exi/+ co9 ( little value4 ,"s little    
consolation 0 f\nd 9 ! ?\ght t 9 case   
all ! bas] metals 7 conv]t$ into gold   
iron w\ld !n become ! preci\s metal1 &  
w\ld rema9 s until "s new philosoph]'s  
/one 0 f\nd to conv]t gold back into    
iron--a mu* m difficult feat1 x 0 ?\ght4
 ,h[ev]1 to be on ! safe side1 ! ,engli%

 ,p>liam5t1 9 #adjd1 saw fit to pass an 
act decl>+ ! mak+ ( gold & silv] to be a
 felony4 ,nev]!less1 9 #adee1 ,k+ ,h5ry 
,,vi4 grant$ p]mission to sev]al        
knights1 citiz5s ( ,london1 *emi/s1 &   
monks to f9d ! philosoph]'s /one1 or    
elixir1 t ! cr[n might ?us be enabl$ to 
pay (f its debts4 ,! monks &            
ecclesia/ics 7 suppos$ to be mo/ likely 
to discov] ! secret process1 s9ce !y 7  
su* good arti/s 9 transub/antiat+ bread 
& w9e4  ,9 ,g]many ! emp]ors ,maximilian
 ,i41 ,rudolf ,,ii41 & ,fr$]ick ,,ii4   
gave consid]able att5tion to ! se>*1 & !
 example !y set 0 foll[$ by ?\s&s ( _!  
subjects4 ,x is said t "s noblem5       
develop$ ! unpleasant cu/om ( invit+ to 
_! c\rts m5 :o 7 reput$ to h f\nd !     
/one1 & !n imprison+ ! poor al*emi/s    
until !y _h made a c]ta9 quantity (     
gold1 /imulat+ _! activity ) tortures ( 
! mo/ atroci\s k9ds4 ,?us ?is dang] (   
be+ imprison$ & held = ransom until "s  
fabul\s am\nt ( gold %\ld be made became
 ! con/ant m5ace ( ! al*emi/4 ,x 0      

useless = an al*emi/ to plead pov]ty    
once x 0 nois$ ab\t t he _h le>n$ !     
secret4 ,= h[ c\ld su* a man be poor :51
 ) a piece ( metal & a few gra9s ( magic
 p[d]1 he 0 able to provide himself )   
gold8 ,x 01 !re=e1 a reckless al*emi/   
inde$ :o d>$ boa/ t he _h made ! covet$ 
discov]y4  ,! fate ( a c]ta9 indiscreet 
al*emi/1 suppos$ by _m to h be5 ,seton1 
a ,scot*man1 0 n an uncommon "o4 ,^w    
hav+ be5 br\ght to ! elector ( ,saxony t
 ?is al*emi/ 0 9 ,dresd5 & boa/+ ( 8    
p[]s1 ! elector caus$ him to be arre/$ &
 imprison$4 ,=ty gu>ds 7 /ation$ to see 
t he did n escape & t no "o visit$ him  
save ! elector himself4 ,= "s "t !      
elector tri$ by argum5t & p]suasion to  
p5etrate 8 secret or to induce him to   
make a c]ta9 quantity ( gold2 b z ,seton
 /eadily refus$1 ! rack 0 tri$1 & =     
sev]al mon?s he suff]$ torture1 until   
f9ally1 r$uc$ to a m]e skeleton1 he 0   
rescu$ by a rival c&idate ( ! elector1 a
 ,pole nam$ ,mi*ael ,s5divog9s1 :o      
drugg$ ! gu>ds4 ,h[ev]1 be=e ,seton c\ld

 be p]suad$ by 8 new captor1 he di$ ( 8 
injuries4  ,b ,s5divog9s 0 also ambiti\s
 9 al*emy1 &1 s9ce ,seton 0 beyond 8    
rea*1 he took ! next be/ /ep & m>ri$ 8  
wid[4 ,f h]1 z ! /ory goes1 he receiv$  
an ounce ( black p[d]--! v]itable       
philosoph]'s /one4 ,) ?is he manufactur$
 great quantities ( gold1 ev5 invit+    
,emp]or ,rudolf ,,ii4 to see him "w !   
miracle4 ,t mon>* 0 s impress$ t he     
caus$ a tablet to be ins]t$ 9 ! wall ( !
 room 9 :i* he _h se5 ! gold made4      
,s5divog9s _h le>n$ discretion f !      
mis=tune ( ,seton1 s t he took !        
precaution ( conceal+ mo/ ( ! preci\s   
p[d] 9 a secret *amb] ( 8 c>riage :5 he 
travell$1 hav+ only a small quantity    
c>ri$ by 8 /ew>d 9 a gold box4 ,9       
p>ticul>ly dang]\s places1 he is said to
 h ex*ang$ clo!s ) 8 coa*man1 mak+ !    
s]vant take 8 place 9 ! c>riage :ile he 
m\nt$ ! box4   ,ab\t ! middle ( !       
sev5te5? c5tury al*emy took su* firm    
root 9 ! religi\s field t x became !    
basis ( ! sect kn[n z ! ,rosicrucians4  

,! "n 0 d]iv$ f ! tea*+ ( a ,g]man      
philosoph]1 ,ros5kreutz1 :o1 hav+ be5   
heal$ ( a dang]\s illness by an ,arabian
 suppos$ to possess ! philosoph]'s /one1
 return$ home & ga!r$ ab\t him a *os5 b&
 ( fri5ds1 to :om he imp>t$ ! secret4   
,?is sect came rapidly into prom95ce1 & 
= a %ort "t at lea/ creat$ a s5sation 9 
,europe1 & at ! "t 7 cr$it$ ) hav+ ref9$
 & spiritualiz$ al*emy4 ,b by ! end ( ! 
sev5te5? c5tury _! numb] _h dw9dl$ to a 
m]e h&ful1 & h5ce=? !y ex]t$ little     
influ5ce4  ,ano!r & e>li] religi\s sect 
0 ! ,aureacrucians1 f\nd$ by ,jacob     
,bohme1 a %oemak]1 born 9 ,prussia 9    
#aege4 ,accord+ to 8 tea*+s !           
philosoph]'s /one c\ld be discov]$ by a 
dilig5t se>* ( ! ,old & ! ,new          
,te/am5ts1 & m p>ticul>ly ! ,apocalypse1
 :i* conta9$ all ! secrets ( al*emy4    
,?is sect f\nd q a numb] ( foll[]s dur+ 
! life ( ,bohme1 b gradually di$ out    
aft] 8 dea?2 n1 h[ev]1 until _m ( its   
memb]s _h be5 tortur$ = h]esy1 & "o at  
lea/1 ,kuhlmann1 ( ,mosc[1 burn$ z a    

sorc]]4  ,! names ( ! diff]5t sub/ances 
t at v>i\s times 7 ?\ght to conta9 !    
l>ge quantities ( ! ess5ce dur+ ! _m    
c5turies ( se>*+ = x1 =m a li/ (        
practically all sub/ances t 7 kn[n1     
discov]$1 or inv5t$ dur+ ! p]iod4 ,"s   
believ$ t acids conta9$ ! sub/ance2 o!rs
 s\ght x 9 m9]als or 9 animal or        
vegetable products2 :ile /ill o!rs look$
 to f9d x among ! di/ill$ spirits--!    
alcoholic liquors & di/ill$ products4   
,on ! introduction ( alcohol by ! ,arabs
 t sub/ance became ( all-absorb+ int]e/1
 & = a long "t allur$ ! al*emi/ into    
believ+ t ?r\gh x !y 7 soon to be       
rew>d$4 ,!y rectifi$ & ref9$ x until    
sometimes x 0 s /rong t x broke !       
vessels conta9+ x1 b /ill x fail$ 9 its 
magic p[]4 ,lat]1 br&y 0 sub/itut$ = x1 
& ?is 9 turn disc>d$ = m rec5t          
discov]ies4  ,!re 7 always1 ( c\rse1 two
 classes ( al*emi/s3 s]i\s inve/igators 
^: hone/y c\ld n be que/ion$1 & clev]   
impo/ors ^: leg]dema9 0 probably l>gely 
responsible = ! ext5d$ belief 9 !       

exi/5ce ( ! philosoph]'s /one4          
,sometimes an al*emi/ practis$ bo?1 us+ 
! pr(its ( 8 sleight-(-h& to procure !  
means ( c>ry+ on 8 s]i\s al*emical      
rese>*es4 ,! impo/ures ( "s ( ^! juggl]s
 deceiv$ ev5 ! mo/ intellig5t & le>n$ m5
 ( ! "t1 & s kept ! flame ( hope        
con/antly burn+4 ,! age ( cold          
inve/igation _h n arriv$1 & x is easy to
 und]/& h[ an unscrupul\s m$iaeval      
,h]mann or ,kell> might completely      
deceive ev5 ! mo/ intellig5t & ?\ghtful 
s*ol>s4 ,9 sc(f+ at ! cr$ulity ( su* an 
age1 x %\ld n be =gott5 t ! ,keely motor
 0 a late n9ete5?-c5tury illusion4  ,b  
long be=e ! belief 9 ! philosoph]'s /one
 _h di$ out1 ! me?ods ( ! leg]dema9     
al*emi/ _h be5 inve/igat$ & report$ ^u  
(ficially by bodies ( m5 appo9t$ to make
 su* inve/igations1 al?\gh x took sev]al
 g5]ations completely to ov]?r[ a       
sup]/ition t _h be5 h&$ d[n ?r\gh sev]al
 ?\s& ye>s4 ,9 ,april ( #aggb ,monsieur 
,ge(froy made a report to ! ,royal      
,academy ( ,sci5ces1 at ,p>is1 on !     

al*emic *eats pr9cipally ( ! sixte5? &  
sev5te5? c5turies4 ,9 ?is report he     
expla9s _m ( ! seem+ly m>vell\s feats ( 
! unscrupul\s al*emi/s4 ,a v common =m (
 deception 0 ! use ( a d\ble-bottom$    
crucible4 ,a copp] or brass crucible 0  
cov]$ on ! inside ) a lay] ( wax1       
clev]ly pa9t$ s z to resemble ! ord9>y  
metal4 ,betwe5 ?is lay] ( wax & ! bottom
 ( ! crucible1 h[ev]1 0 a lay] ( gold   
du/ or silv]4 ,:5 ! al*emi/ wi%$ to     
demon/rate 8 p[]1 he _h b to place "s   
m]cury or :atev] sub/ance he *ose 9 !   
crucible1 heat x1 ?r[ 9 a gra9 or two ( 
"s my/]i\s p[d]1 pron\nce a few equally 
my/]i\s phrases to impress 8 audi5ce1 &1
 behold1 a lump ( preci\s metal w\ld be 
f\nd 9 ! bottom ( 8 pot4 ,?is 0 !       
favorite me?od ( m$iocre p]=m]s1 b 01 ( 
c\rse1 easily detect$4  ,an equally     
successful b m difficult way 0 to ins]t 
surreptiti\sly a lump ( metal into !    
mixture1 us+ an ord9>y crucible4 ,?is   
requir$ great dext]ity1 b 0 facilitat$  
by ! use ( _m my/]i\s c]emonies on ! "p 

( ! op]ator :ile p]=m+1 j z ! mod]n     
vaudeville p]=m] div]ts ! att5tion ( !  
audi5ce to 8 "r h& :ile 8 left is engag$
 9 ! trick4 ,su* c]emonies 7 n que/ion$1
 = x 0 ! common belief t ! :ole process 
lay 9 ! _s z mu* z 9 ! sub/ance1 _m1 z  
we h se51 reg>d+ ! :ole process z a     
div9e manife/ation4  ,sometimes a holl[ 
rod 0 us$ = /irr+ ! mixture 9 !         
crucible1 ?is rod conta9+ gold du/1 &   
hav+ ! end plugg$ ei!r ) wax or s(t     
metal t 0 easily melt$4 ,aga91 pieces ( 
lead 7 us$ :i* _h be5 plugg$ ) lumps (  
gold c>efully cov]$ ov]2 & a v simple & 
impressive demon/ration 0 mak+ use ( a  
nugget ( gold t _h be5 coat$ ov] )      
quicksilv] & t>ni%$ s z to resemble lead
 or "s base metal4 ,:5 ?is 0 ?r[n into  
acid ! coat+ 0 remov$ by *emical action1
 leav+ ! %9+ metal 9 ! bottom ( !       
vessel4 ,9 ord] to p]=m "s ( ^! tricks1 
x is obvi\s t ! al*emi/ mu/ h be5 well  
suppli$ ) gold1 z "s ( !m1 :5 p]=m+ be=e
 a royal audi5ce1 gave ! products to _! 
visitors4 ,b x 0 always a pay+ inve/m5t1

 = once 8 reputation 0 e/abli%$ !       
gold-mak] f\nd an endless v>iety ( ways 
( turn+ 8 alleg$ k to acc\nt1 frequ5tly 
amass+ great weal?4  ,"s ( ! clev]e/ ( !
 *>latans (t5 invit$ royal or o!r       
di/+ui%$ gue/s to br+ ) !m iron nails to
 be turn$ into gold ones4 ,!y 7         
transmut$ 9 ! al*emi/'s crucible be=e ! 
eyes ( ! visitors1 ! juggl] adroitly    
extract+ ! iron nail & ins]t+ a gold "o 
)\t detection4 ,x matt]$ little if !    
conv]t$ gold nail diff]$ 9 size & %ape f
 ! orig9al1 = ?is *ange 9 %ape c\ld be  
laid to ! process ( transmutation2 & ev5
 ! v critical 7 h>dly likely to f9d     
fault ) ! ex*ange ?us made4 ,fur!rmore1 
x 0 believ$ t gold possess$ ! prop]ty ( 
*ang+ its bulk "u c]ta9 conditions1 "s (
 ! m cons]vative al*emi/s ma9ta9+ t gold
 0 only increas$ 9 bulk1 n necess>ily   
creat$1 by c]ta9 =ms ( ! magic /one4    
,?us a v pr(ici5t op]ator 0 ?\ght to be 
able to increase a gra9 ( gold into a   
p\nd ( pure metal1 :ile "o less exp]t   
c\ld only d\ble1 or possibly treble1 its

 orig9al weight4  ,! actual numb] (     
useful discov]ies result+ f ! ef=ts ( ! 
al*emi/s is consid]able1 "s ( !m (      
incalculable value4 ,rog] ,bacon1 :o    
liv$ 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury1 :ile devot+ mu*
 ( 8 "t to al*emy1 made su* valuable    
discov]ies z ! !ory1 at lea/1 ( !       
telescope1 & probably gunp[d]4 ,( ?is   
latt] we _c be sure t ! discov]y 0 8 own
 & t he _h n le>n$ ( x ?r\gh ! s\rce (  
old manuscripts4 ,b x is n impossible   
nor improbable t he may h hit ^u !      
mixture t makes ! explosives :ile se>*+ 
= ! philosoph]'s /one 9 8 laboratory4   
,von ,helmont1 9 ! same pursuit1        
discov]$ ! prop]ties ( gas1 says        
,mackay2 ,geb] made discov]ies 9        
*emi/ry1 :i* 7 equally important2 &     
,p>acelsus1 amid 8 p]petual visions ( ! 
transmutation ( metals1 f\nd t m]cury 0 
a rem$y = "o ( ! mo/ odi\s & excruciat+ 
( all ! diseases t afflict humanity4' ,z
 we %all see a little f>!r on1 al*emy   
f9ally evolv$ into mod]n *emi/ry1 b n   
until x _h pass$ ?r\gh sev]al important 

transitional /ages4   ,,a/rology  ,9 a  
g5]al way mod]n a/ronomy may be consid]$
 z ! outgr[? ( a/rology1 j z mod]n      
*emi/ry is ! result ( al*emy4 ,x is q   
possible1 h[ev]1 t a/ronomy is ! old] ( 
! two2 b a/rology mu/ h develop$ v      
%ortly aft]4 ,! primitive a/ronom]1 hav+
 acquir$ en\gh k f 8 obs]vations ( !    
heav5ly bodies to make correct          
pr$ictions1 su* z ! "t ( ! com+ ( ! new 
moon1 w\ld be l$1 naturally1 to believe 
t c]ta9 pr$ictions o!r ?an purely       
a/ronomical ones c\ld be made by /udy+ !
 heav5s4 ,ev5 if ! a/ronom] himself did 
n believe ?is1 "s ( 8 sup]/iti\s admir]s
 w\ld2 = to ! unsci5tific m9d pr$ictions
 ( e>?ly ev5ts w\ld surely seem no m    
miracul\s ?an correct pr$ictions z to ! 
future movem5ts ( ! sun1 moon1 & />s4   
,:5 a/ronomy _h rea*$ a /age (          
developm5t s t su* ?+s z eclipses c\ld  
be pr$ict$ ) any?+ l accuracy1 ! occult 
k ( ! a/ronom] w\ld be unque/ion$4      
,turn+ ?is app>5tly occult k to acc\nt 9
 a m]c5>y way w\ld !n be ! inevitable   

result1 al?\gh x _c be d\bt$ t _m ( !   
a/rolog]s1 9 all ages1 7 s9c]e 9 _!     
beliefs4  ,lat]1 z ! bus9ess ( a/rology 
became a pr(itable "o1 s9c]e a/ronom]s  
w\ld f9d x exp$i5t to practise a/rology 
z a means ( ga9+ a livelihood4 ,su* a   
philosoph] z ,kepl] freely admitt$ t he 
practis$ a/rology to keep f />v+1 al?\gh
 he confess$ no fai? 9 su* pr$ictions4  
,ye o!rwise philosoph]s1 he said1 ye    
c5sure ?is daught] ( a/ronomy beyond h] 
des]ts2 "k ye n t %e mu/ support h] "m  
by h] *>ms4  ,once a/rology _h become an
 e/abli%$ practice1 any consid]able k ( 
a/ronomy 0 unnecess>y1 = z x 0 at be/ b 
a sy/em ( good guess+ z to future ev5ts1
 clev] impo/ors c\ld ?rive equally well 
)\t tr\bl+ to /udy a/ronomy4 ,!         
celebrat$ a/rolog]s1 h[ev]1 7 usually   
a/ronom]s z well1 & und\bt$ly bas$ _m ( 
_! pr$ictions on ! position & movem5ts (
 ! heav5ly bodies4 ,?us1 ! ca/+ ( a     
horoscope t is1 ! me?ods by :i* !       
a/rolog]s asc]ta9$ ! relative position (
 ! heav5ly bodies at ! "t ( a bir?--0 a 

simple b fairly exact proc$ure4 ,its    
basis 0 ! zodiac1 or ! pa? trac$ by !   
sun 9 8 ye>ly c\rse ?r\gh c]ta9         
con/ellations4 ,at ! mom5t ( ! bir? ( a 
*ild1 ! fir/ c>e ( ! a/rolog] 0 to note 
! p>ticul> "p ( ! zodiac t appe>$ on !  
horizon4 ,! zodiac 0 !n divid$ into     
h\ses--t is1 into twelve spaces--on a   
*>t4 ,9 ^! h\ses 7 ins]t$ ! places ( !  
planets1 sun1 & moon1 ) ref]5ce to !    
zodiac4 ,:5 ?is *>t 0 complet$ x made a 
fairly correct diagram ( ! heav5s & !   
position ( ! heav5ly bodies z !y w\ld   
appe> to a p]son /&+ at ! place ( bir?  
at a c]ta9 "t4  ,up to ?is po9t !       
process 0 a simple "o ( a/ronomy4 ,b !  
next /ep--! really important "o--t (    
int]pret+ ?is *>t1 0 ! "o :i* call$ =? !
 skill & imag9ation ( ! a/rolog]4 ,9 ?is
 int]pretation1 n 9 8 m]e obs]vations1  
lay ! secret ( 8 success4 ,nor did 8    
task cease ) simply =etell+ future ev5ts
 t 7 to happ5 9 ! life ( ! newly born   
infant4 ,he mu/ n only po9t out !       
dang]s1 b %[ ! means :]eby !y c\ld be   

av]t$1 & 8 prophylactic measures1 l 8   
pr$ictions1 7 alleg$ to be bas$ on 8    
read+ ( ! />s4  ,b ca/+ a horoscope at !
 "t ( bir?s 01 ( c\rse1 only a small "p 
( ! a/rolog]'s duty4 ,8 (fices 7 s\ght  
by p]sons ( all ages = pr$ictions z to  
_! futures1 ! movem5ts ( an enemy1 :]e  
to f9d /ol5 goods1 & a ho/ ( ev]yday    
occurr5ces4 ,9 su* cases x is m ?an     
probable t ! a/rolog]s did v little     
consult+ ( ! />s 9 mak+ _! pr$ictions4  
,!y became exp]t physiognomi/s &        
excell5t judges ( human nature1 & 7 ?us 
able to =etell futures ) ! same         
%rewdness & by ! same me?ods z ! mod]n  
m$iums1 palmi/s1 & =tune-tell]s4 ,to    
/r5g!n belief 9 _! p[]s1 x became a     
common ?+ = "s suppos$ly lo/ docum5t ( !
 a/rolog] to be my/]i\sly discov]$ aft] 
an important ev5t1 ?is docum5t purport+ 
to =etell ?is v ev5t4 ,x 0 also a common
 practice ) a/rolog]s to reta91 or h    
access to1 _! orig9al *>ts1 clev]ly     
alt]+ !m f "t to "t to fit conditions4  
,! dang]s att5dant ^u a/rology 7 ( su* a

 nature t ! lot ( ! a/rolog] 0 likely to
 prove any?+ b an enviable "o4 ,z 9 !   
case ( ! al*emi/1 ! great] ! reputation 
( an a/rolog] ! great] dang]s he 0      
likely to fall into4 ,if he became s    
fam\s t he 0 employ$ by k+s or noblem51 
8 too true or too false prophecies 7    
likely to br+ him into disrepute--ev5 to
 endang] 8 life4  ,?r\gh\t ! d>k age !  
a/rolog]s fl\ri%$1 b ! sixte5? &        
sev5te5? c5turies 7 ! gold5 age ( ^!    
impo/ors4 ,a skilful a/rolog] 0 z mu* an
 ess5tial to ! gov]nm5t z ! highe/      
(ficial1 & x w\ld h be5 a bold mon>*1   
inde$1 :o w\ld und]take any exp$ition ( 
importance unless sanction$ by ! gov]n+ 
/>s z int]pret$ by ^! (ficials4  ,x %\ld
 n be und]/ood1 h[ev]1 t belief 9       
a/rology di$ ) ! adv5t ( ! ,cop]nican   
doctr9e4 ,x did become sep>at$ f        
a/ronomy v %ortly aft]1 to be sure1 &   
und\bt$ly among ! sci5ti/s x lo/ mu* (  
its pre/ige4 ,b x _c be consid]$ z      
entirely pass$ away1 ev5 to-day1 & ev5  
if we leave out ( consid]ation          

/reet-corn] a/rolog]s & =tune-tell]s1 ^:
 signs may be se5 9 e l>ge city1 !re    
/ill rema9s q a l>ge class ( relatively 
intellig5t p :o believe 9 :at !y call ! 
sci5ce ( a/rology4 ,ne$less to say1 su* 
p are n f\nd among ! sci5tific ?9k]s2 b 
x is significant t sc>cely a ye> passes 
t "s book or pamphlet is n publi%$ by "s
 ard5t believ] 9 a/rology1 attempt+ to  
prove by ! illogical dogmas *>act]i/ic (
 unsci5tific ?9k]s t a/rology is a      
sci5ce4 ,! argum5ts conta9$ 9 ^!        
pamphlets are v mu* ! same z ^? ( !     
a/rolog]s ?ree hundr$ ye>s ago1 except t
 !y lack ! qua9t =m ( word+ :i* is "o ( 
! features t l5ds int]e/ to ! old]      
docum5ts4 ,^! pamphlets ne$ n be tak5   
s]i\sly1 b !y are int]e/+ z exemplify+  
h[ difficult x is1 ev5 9 an age (       
sci5ce1 to entirely /amp out firmly     
e/abli%$ sup]/itions4 ,"h are "s ( !    
argum5ts advanc$ 9 def5ce ( a/rology1   
tak5 f a little bro*ure entitl$         
,a/rology ,v9dicat$1 publi%$ 9 #ahih3 ,x
 w be f\nd t a p]son born :5 ! ,sun is 9

 tw5ty degrees ,scorpio has ! left e> z 
8 exceptional feature & ! nose          
7,sagitt>ius7 b5t t[>ds ! left e>4 ,a   
p]son born :5 ! ,sun is 9 any ( ! latt] 
degrees ( ,taurus1 say ! tw5ty-fif?     
degree1 w h a small1 %>p1 weak *91 curv$
 up t[>ds ,gem9i1 ! two v]tical l9es on 
! upp] lip47#d7 ,! "t 0 :5 sci5ce w5t   
out ( its way to prove t su* /atem5ts 7 
untrue2 b t "t is pa/1 & su* writ]s are 
usually class$ among ^? en]getic b      
misguid$ p]sons :o are unable to di/+ui%
 betwe5 logic & sophi/ry4   ,9 ,engl&1 f
 ! "t ( ,elizabe? to ! reign ( ,william 
& ,m>y1 judicial a/rology 0 at its      
height4 ,aft] ! great ,london fire1 9   
#afff1 a committee ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons 
publicly summon$ ! fam\s a/rolog]1      
,lilly1 to come be=e ,p>liam5t & report 
to !m on 8 alleg$ pr$iction ( ! calamity
 t _h befall5 ! city4 ,lilly1 = "s      
reason be/ kn[n to himself1 d5i$ hav+   
made su* a pr$iction1 be+1 z he expla9$1
 m int]e/$ 9 det]m9+ affairs ( mu* m    
importance to ! future welf>e ( !       

c\ntry4 ,"s ( ! explanations ( 8        
int]pretations w suffice to %[ _!       
absurdities1 :i*1 h[ev]1 7 by no means  
reg>d$ z absurdities at t "t1 = ,lilly 0
 "o ( ! greate/ a/rolog]s ( 8 day4 ,he  
said t 9 #aehh a prophecy _h be5 pr9t$ 9
 ,greek *>act]s :i* =etold exactly !    
tr\bles ( ,engl& betwe5 ! ye>s #afda4 & 
#affj4 ,& aft] him %all come a dreadful 
dead man1 ran ! prophecy1 & ) him a     
royal ,g ( ! be/ blood 9 ! _w1 & he %all
 h ! cr[n & %all set ,engl& on ! "r way 
& put out all h]esies4 ,8 int]pretation 
( ?is 0 t1 ,monk]y be+ ext+ui%$ above   
eighty or n9ety ye>s1 & ! ,"l ,g5]al's  
"n be+ ,monk1 is ! dead man4 ,! royal ,g
 or ,c 7x is gamma 9 ! ,greek1 int5d+ ,c
 9 ! ,lat91 be+ ! ?ird lett] 9 !        
alphabet7 is ,*>les ,,ii41 :o1 = 8      
extraction1 may be said to be ( ! be/   
blood ( ! _w47#e7  ,?is may be tak5 z a 
fair sample ( ,lilly's int]pretations ( 
a/rological prophesies1 b _m ( 8 own    
writ+s1 :ile some:at m def9ite & direct1
 are /ill left suffici5tly vague to all[

 8 skilful int]pretations to set "r an  
app>5t mi/ake4 ,"o ( 8 fam\s docum5ts 0 
,! ,/>ry ,mess5g]1 a little pamphlet    
purport+ to expla9 ! ph5om5on ( a /range
 app>ition ( ?ree suns t 7 se5 9 ,london
 on ,novemb] #ai1 #afdd---! anniv]s>y ( 
! bir? ( ,*>les ,i41 !n ! reign+ mon>*4 
,?is ph5om5on caus$ a great /ir among ! 
,engli% a/rolog]s1 com+1 z x did1 at a  
"t ( great political di/urbance4        
,prophecies 7 num]\s1 & ,lilly's bro*ure
 is only "o ( _m t appe>$ at t "t1 mo/ (
 :i*1 h[ev]1 h be5 lo/4 ,lilly1 9 8     
preface1 says3 ,if !re be any ( s       
prev>icate a judgm5t z to ?9k t !       
app>ition ( ^! ?ree ,suns do? intimate  
no ,novelle ?+ to happ5 9 our own       
,climate1 :]e !y 7 manife/ly visible1 ,i
 %all lam5t _! indisposition1 & conceive
 _! bra9s to be %all[1 & voyde ( und]/&+
 humanity1 or notice ( common ,hi/ory4  
,hav+ ?us =giv5 8 few d\bt+ read]s1 :o 7
 by no means 9 ! majority 9 8 day1 he   
takes up 9 review ! records ( ! v>i\s   
appe>ances ( ?ree suns z !y h occurr$   

dur+ ! ,*ri/ian era1 %[+ h[ su* ph5om5a 
h gov]n$ c]ta9 human ev5ts 9 a v def9ite
 mann]4 ,"s ( ^! are wor? record+4      
,anno #ff4 ,a comet 0 se51 & also ?ree  
,suns3 ,9 :i* ye]1 ,florus ,presid5t ( !
 ,jews 0 by !m sla94 ,paul writes to    
,timo?y4 ,! ,*ri/ians are w>n$ by a     
div9e ,oracle1 & dep>t out ( ,j]usalem4 
,boadice a ,briti% ,que51 kille? sev5ty 
?\s& ,romans4 ,! ,naz>5i1 a scurvie     
,sect1 begun1 t boa/$ mu* ( ,revelations
 & ,visions4 ,ab\t a ye> aft] ,n]o 0    
proclaim$ enemy to ! ,/ate ( ,rome4     
,aga91 ,anno #aaeg1 9 ,septemb]1 !re 7  
se5 ?ree ,suns toge!r1 9 z cle> wea!r z 
c\ld be3 ,& a few days aft]1 9 ! same   
mon?1 ?ree ,moons1 &1 9 ! ,moon t /ood 9
 ! middle1 a :ite ,crosse4 ,su5o1 ,k+ ( 
,d5m>k1 at a great ,fea/1 kille?        
,canutus3 ,su5o is himself sla91 9      
pursuit ( ,waldem>4 ,! ,ord] (          
,eremites1 accord+ to ! rule ( ,sa9t    
,augu/9e1 begun ?is ye>2 & 9 ! next1 !  
,pope submits to ! ,emp]\r3 70 n ?is    
miracul\s87 ,lomb>dy 0 also adjudg$ to !

 ,emp]\r4  ,cont9u+ ?is li/ ( peculi>   
ph5om5a he comes d[n to )9 a few ye>s ( 
8 own "t4  ,anno #afbb1 ?ree ,suns      
appe>$ at ,heidelb]g4 ,! w(ul           
,calamities t h ev] s9ce fall5 ^u !     
,palat9ate1 we are all s5sible (1 & ( ! 
loss ( x1 = any ?+ ,i see1 = ev]1 f ! "r
 ,heir4 ,osman ! great ,turk is /rangl$ 
t ye>2 & ,sp9ola besiege? ,b]g5 up      
,zoom1 etc4  ,=tifi$ by ! enum]ation (  
^! pa/ ev5ts1 he !n proce$s to make 8   
d$uctions4 ,only ?is ,i mu/ tell !e1 he 
writes1 t ! int]pretation ,i write is1  
,i conceive1 gr\nd$ ^u probable         
f\ndations2 & :o lives to see a few ye>s
 ov] 8 head1 w easily p]ceive ,i h      
unfold$ z mu* z 0 fit to discov]1 & t my
 judgm5t 0 n a mile & a half f tru?4    
,!re is a great significance 9 ?is z mu*
 z 0 fit to discov]--a my/]i\s some?+ t 
,lilly ?9ks x exp$i5t n to divulge4 ,b1 
nev]!less1 "o w\ld imag9e t he 0 ab\t to
 make "s def9ite pr$iction ab\t ,*>les  
,i41 s9ce ^! ?ree suns appe>$ ^u 8      
bir?day & surely mu/ port5d some?+      

conc]n+ him4 ,b aft] rambl+ on ?r\gh _m 
pages ( diss]tations ^u planets &       
prophecies1 he f9ally makes 8 own       
indef9ite pr$iction4  ,o all y ,emp]ors1
 ,k+s1 ,pr9ces1 ,rul]s & ,magi/rates (  
,europe1 ?is unaccu/om$ ,app>ition is l 
! ,h&writ+ 9 ,daniel to "s ( y2 x       
premoni%e? y1 above all o!r p1 to make  
y\r peace ) ,god 9 "t4 ,y %all e "o ( y 
sm>t1 & e "o ( y ta/e 7none except$7 !  
heavie h& ( ,god1 :o w /r5g!n y\r       
subjects ) inv9cible c\rage to suppress 
y\r misgov]nm5ts & ,oppressions 9 ,*ur* 
or ,common-weal?2444 ,^? words are      
g5]al3 a ^w = my own c\ntry ( ,engl&4444
 ,look to y\rselves2 "h's "s mon/r\s    
dea? t[>ds y4 ,b to :om8 wilt ?\ say4   
,h]e9 we consid] ! ,signe1 ,"l !re(1 & !
 ,h\se2 ,! ,sun signifies 9 t ,royal    
,signe1 great ones2 ! ,h\se signifies   
captivity1 poison1 ,trea*]y3 ,f :i* is  
d]iv$ ?us mu*1 ,t "s v great man1 :at   
,k+1 ,pr9ce1 ,duke1 or ! l1 ,i really   
affirm ,i p]fectly "k n1 %all1 ,i say1  
come to "s su* untimely end47#f7  ,"h is

 %[n a typical example ( a/rological    
prophecy1 :i* seems to tell some?+ or   
no?+1 accord+ to ! po9t ( view ( !      
read]4 ,accord+ to a believ] 9 a/rology1
 aft] ! execution ( ,*>les ,i41 five    
ye>s lat]1 ?is c\ld be made to seem a   
direct & exact prophecy4 ,= example1 he 
says3 ,y ,k+s1 ,pr9ces1 etc41444 x      
premoni%e? y444 to make y\r peace )     
,god4444 ,look to y\rselves2 "h's "s    
mon/r\s dea? t[>ds y4444 ,t "s v great  
man1 :at ,k+1 ,pr9ce14 %all1 ,i say1    
come to su* untimely end4  ,b by ! d\bt]
 ! complete prophecy c\ld be %[n to be  
absolutely indef9ite1 & applicable z mu*
 to ! k+ ( ,france or ,spa9 z to ,*>les 
,i41 or to any k+ 9 ! future1 s9ce no   
def9ite "t is /at$4 ,fur!rmore1 ,lilly  
di/9ctly /ates1 ,:at ,k+1 ,pr9ce1 ,duke1
 or ! l1 ,i really affirm ,i p]fectly "k
 n--:i* la/1 at lea/1 0 a mo/ tru?ful   
/atem5t4 ,! same +5uity t made ,g54     
,monk ! dreadful dead man1 c\ld easily  
make su* a pr$iction apply to !         
execution ( ,*>les ,i4 ,su* a def9ite   

/atem5t t1 on su* & su* a day a c]ta9   
numb] ( ye>s 9 ! future1 ! mon>* (      
,engl& w\ld be behead$--su* an exact    
/atem5t c sc>cely be f\nd 9 any ( !     
works on a/rology4 ,x %\ld be borne 9   
m9d1 also1 t ,lilly 0 ( ! ,cromwell p>ty
 & oppos$ to ! k+4  ,aft] ! dea? (      
,*>les ,i41 ,lilly admitt$ t ! mon>* _h 
giv5 him a ?\s& p\nds to ca/ 8          
horoscope4 ,i advis$ him1 says ,lilly1  
to proce$ ea/w>ds2 he w5t we/1 & all !  
_w kn[s ! result4 ,x is an un=tunate ?+ 
= ! cause ( a/rology t ,lilly fail$ to  
m5tion ?is until aft] ! d[nfall ( !     
mon>*4 ,9 fact1 ! sudd5 dea?1 or decl9e 
9 p[]1 ( any mon>*1 ev5 to-day1 br+s out
 ! p]5nial po/-mortem pr$ictions (      
a/rolog]s4  ,we see h[ ,lilly1 an       
oppon5t ( ! k+1 made 8 s-call$ prophecy 
( ! disa/] ( ! k+ & 8 army4 ,at ! same  
"t ano!r celebrat$ a/rolog] & rival (   
,lilly1 ,george ,:>ton1 also made "s    
pr$ictions ab\t ! outcome ( ! ev5tful   
m>* f ,ox=d4 ,:>ton1 unlike ,lilly1 0 a 
foll[] ( ! k+'s p>ty1 b t1 ( c\rse1 %\ld

 h _h no influ5ce 9 8 sci5tific read+ ( 
! />s4 ,:>ton's pr$ictions are mu* less 
v]bose ?an ,lilly's1 mu* m explicit1 &1 
incid5tally1 mu* m incorrect 9 ?is      
p>ticul> in/ance4 ,! ,moon ,lady ( !    
#ab1 he wrote1 & mov+ betwixt ! #h      
degree1 #cd m941 & #ba degree1 #bf m94 (
 ,aqu>ius1 gives u to und]/& t ,8       
,maje/y %all receive mu* cont5tm5t by   
c]ta9 ,messages br\ght him f =eign p>ts2
 & t he %all receive "s sudd5 &         
unexpect$ supply (444 by ! means ( "s t 
assimilate ! condition ( 8 ,enemies3 ,& 
)al ?is com=t2 t ,8 ,maje/y %all be     
exce$+ successful 9 ,besieg+ ,t[ns1     
,ca/les1 or ,=ts1 & 9 p]su+ ! enemy4    
,m>s 8 ,sextile to ! ,sun1 ,"l ( !      
,asc5dant 7:i* happ5e? ! #ah day ( ,may7
 w enc\rage our ,soldi]s to advance )   
mu* alacrity & *e]fulness ( _s2 to %[   
!mselves gallant 9 ! mo/ dang]\s        
attempt4444 ,& n[ to sum up all3 ,x is  
mo/ app>5t to e imp>tial & +5u\s        
judgm5t2 ,t al?\gh ,8 ,maje/y _c expect 
to be secur$ f e trivial disa/] t may   

befall 8 army1 ei!r by ! too mu*        
,presumption1 ,ignorance1 or ,neglig5ce 
( "s p>ticul> ,p]sons 7:i* is frequ5tly 
incid5t & unavoidable 9 ! be/ (         
,armies71 yet ! sev]al positions ( !    
,heav5s duly consid]$ & comp>$ among    
!mselves1 z well 9 ! prefix$ ,s*eme z at
 ! ,qu>t]ly ,+resses1 d g5]ally r5d] ,8 
,maje/y & 8 :ole ,army unexpect$ly      
victori\s & successful 9 all 8 designs2 
,believe x 7,london71 ?y ,mis]ies       
approa*1 !y are l to be _m1 great1 &    
griev\s1 & n to be div]t$1 unless ?\    
seasonably crave ,p>don ( ,god = be+    
,nurse to ?is pres5t ,rebellion1 &      
spe$ily submit to ?y ,pr9ce's ,m]cy2    
,:i* %all be ! daily ,pray] ( ,geo4     
,:>ton47#g7  ,9 ! light ( aft] ev5ts1 x 
is probable t ,:>ton's /ock z an        
a/rolog] 0 n greatly enhanc$ by ?is     
docum5t1 at lea/ among memb]s ( ! ,royal
 family4 ,lilly's book1 on ! o!r h&1    
became a favorite ) ! ,p>liam5t>y army4 
,aft] ! d[nfall & dea? ( ,napoleon !re 7
 une>!d _m alleg$ au!ntic a/rological   

docum5ts =etell+ 8 ru94 ,& on ! dea? (  
,george ,,iv41 9 #ahcj1 !re appe>$ a    
docum5t 7unkn[n1 z usual1 until t "t7   
purport+ to =etell ! dea? ( ! mon>* to !
 day1 & ?is )\t ! a/rolog] kn[+ t 8     
horoscope 0 be+ ca/ = a mon>*4 ,a full  
acc\nt ( ?is prophecy is told1 ) full   
belief1 by ,roback1 a n9ete5?-c5tury    
a/rolog]4 ,he says3  ,9 ! ye> #ahbh1 a  
/rang] ( noble mi51 advanc$ 9 life1 b   
possess+ ! mo/ bl& mann]s1 arriv$ at !  
abode ( a celebrat$ a/rolog] 9 ,london1 
ask+ t ! le>n$ man =etell 8 future4 ,!  
a/rolog] compli$ ) ! reque/ ( ! my/]i\s 
visitor1 drew =? 8 tables1 consult$ 8   
ephem]is1 & ca/ ! horoscope or cele/ial 
map = ! h\r & ! mom5t ( ! inquiry1      
accord+ to ! e/abli%$ rules ( 8 art4  ,!
 elem5ts ( 8 calculation 7 adv]se1 & a  
feel+ ( gloom ca/ a %ade ( s]i\s ?\ght1 
if n dejection1 ov] 8 c\nt5ance4  ',y   
are ( high rank1' said ! a/rolog]1 z he 
calculat$ & look$ on ! /rang]1 '& (     
illu/ri\s title4' ,! /rang] made a      
graceful incl9ation ( ! head 9 tok5 (   

ackn[l$gm5t ( ! complim5t>y rem>ks1 & ! 
a/rolog] proce$$ ) 8 mission4  ,!       
cele/ial signs 7 om9\s ( calamity to !  
/rang]1 :o1 probably obs]v+ a sudd5     
*ange 9 ! c\nt5ance ( ! a/rolog]1 eag]ly
 inquir$ :at evil or good =tune _h be5  
assign$ him by ! cele/ial orbs4  ',to ! 
fir/ "p ( y\r inquiry1' said ! a/rolog]1
 ',i c readily reply4 ,y h be5 a        
favorite ( =tune2 h] smiles on y h be5  
abundant1 h] fr[ns b few2 y h _h1 p]haps
 n[ possess1 weal? & p[]2 !             
impossibility ( _! accompli%m5t is !    
only limit to ! fulfilm5t ( y\r         
desires4'  ',y h spok5 truly ( ! pa/1'  
said ! /rang]4 ',i h full fai? 9 y\r    
revelations ( ! future3 :at say y ( my  
pilgrimage 9 ?is life--is x %ort or     
long8'  ',i regret1' repli$ ! a/rolog]1 
9 answ] to ?is inquiry1 'to be ! h]ald (
 ill1 ?\gh ,,true1 =tune2 y\r soj\rn on 
e>? w be %ort4'  ',h[ %ort8' eag]ly     
inquir$ ! excit$ & anxi\s /rang]4       
',give me a mom5t>y truce1' said !      
a/rolog]2 ',i w consult ! horoscope1 &  

may possibly f9d "s mitigat+            
circum/ances4'  ,hav+ ca/ 8 eyes ov] !  
cele/ial map1 & paus$ = "s mom5ts1 he   
survey$ ! c\nt5ance ( ! /rang] ) great  
sympa?y1 & said1 ',i am sorry t ,i c f9d
 no planet>y influ5ces t oppose y\r     
de/9y--y\r dea? w take place 9 two      
ye>s4'  ,! ev5t ju/ifi$ ! a/rologic     
pr$iction3 ,george ,,iv4 di$ on ,may    
#ah1 #ahcj1 exactly two ye>s f ! day on 
:i* he _h visit$ ! a/rolog]47#h7  ,?is  
makes a v pretty /ory1 b x h>dly seems l
 occult insight t an a/rolog] %\ld h be5
 able to pr$ict an e>ly dea? ( a man    
ne>ly sev5ty ye>s old1 or to h guess$ t 
8 well-groom$ visitor _h1 p]haps n[     
possesses1 weal? & p[]4 ,"h aga91 h[ev]1
 ! po9t ( view ( ea* individual plays ! 
gov]n+ "p 9 det]m9+ ! importance ( su* a
 docum5t4 ,to ! sci5ti/ x proves no?+2  
to ! believ] 9 a/rology1 ev]y?+4 ,!     
significant ?+ is t x appe>$ %ortly     
,,aft] ! dea? ( ! mon>*4   ,on !        
,cont95t a/rolog]s 7 ev5 m 9 favor ?an 9
 ,engl&4 ,*>lemagne1 & "s ( 8 imm$iate  

successors1 to be sure1 attempt$ to     
ext]m9ate !m1 b su* rul]s z ,l\is ,,xi4 
& ,ca!r9e de' ,m$ici patroniz$ &        
enc\rag$ !m1 & x 0 _m ye>s aft] ! "t (  
,cop]nicus be=e _! influ5ce 0 entirely  
/amp$ out ev5 9 (ficial life4 ,!re c be 
no "q t :at gave ! color ( tru? to _m ( 
! pr$ictions 0 ! fact t s _m ( !        
prophecies ( sudd5 dea?s & great        
conflagrations 7 kn[n to h come true--9 
_m in/ances 7 made to come true by !    
a/rolog] himself4 ,& s x happ5$ t :5 !  
pr$iction ( a great conflagration at a  
c]ta9 "t culm9at$ 9 su* a conflagration1
 _m times a second b less-important     
burn+ took place1 9 :i* ! ambiti\s      
a/rolog]1 or 8 foll[]s1 took a c5tral "p
 ab\t a /ake1 be+ convict$ ( inc5di>ism1
 :i* !y _h committ$ 9 ord] t _!         
prophecies might be fulfill$4  ,b1 on ! 
o!r h&1 ^! pr$ictions 7 sometimes turn$ 
to acc\nt by int]e/$ fri5ds to w>n c]ta9
 p]sons ( approa*+ dang]s4  ,= example1 
a c]ta9 a/rolog] =etold ! dea? ( ,pr9ce 
,alex&] de' ,m$ici4 ,he n only =etold ! 

dea?1 b describ$ s m9utely !            
circum/ances t w\ld att5d x1 & gave su* 
a correct description ( ! assass9 :o    
%\ld murd] ! pr9ce1 t he 0 at once      
suspect$ ( hav+ a h& 9 ! assass9ation4  
,x develop$ lat]1 h[ev]1 t su* 0        
probably n ! case2 b t "s fri5d ( ,pr9ce
 ,alex&]1 kn[+ ( ! plot to take 8 life1 
_h induc$ ! a/rolog] to =etell ! ev5t 9 
ord] t ! pr9ce might h timely w>n+ & s  
elude ! conspirators4  ,! cause ( !     
decl9e ( a/rology 0 ! gr[+ preval5ce ( !
 new _s ( exp]im5tal sci5ce4 ,d\btless !
 mo/ direct bl[ 0 dealt by ! ,cop]nican 
!ory4 ,s soon z ?is 0 e/abli%$1 !       
recognition ( ! e>?'s subord9ate place 9
 ! univ]se mu/ h made x difficult =     
a/ronom]s to be long] deceiv$ by su*    
co9cid5ces z _h suffic$ to conv9ce !    
obs]v]s ( a m cr$ul\s g5]ation4 ,ty*o   
,brahe 01 p]haps1 ! la/ a/ronom] (      
prom95ce :o 0 a consci5ti\s practis] ( !
 art ( ! a/rolog]4     ,,vii4 ,,f       
,,p>acelsus ,,to ,,h>vey  ,,p>acelsus   
,9 ! ye> #aebf !re appe>$ a new lectur] 

on ! plat=m at ! ,univ]sity at ,basel--a
 small1 be>dless1 effem9ate-look+       
p]son--:o _h already inflam$ all        
,*ri/5dom ) 8 peculi> philosophy1 8     
revolution>y me?ods ( treat+ diseases1 &
 8 unp>allel$ success 9 cur+ !m4 ,a man 
:o 0 to be rememb]$ 9 aft]-"t by "s z ! 
fa!r ( mod]n *emi/ry & ! f\nd] ( mod]n  
m$ic9e2 by o!rs z madman1 *>latan1      
impo/or2 & by /ill o!rs z a comb9ation (
 all ^!4 ,?is s(t-*eek$1 effem9ate1     
woman-hat+ man1 ^: v sex has be5        
que/ion$1 0 ,!ophra/us von ,hoh5heim1   
bett] kn[n z ,p>acelsus 7#adic-aeda74   
,to appreciate 8 "w1 some?+ mu/ be kn[n 
( ! life ( ! man4 ,he 0 born ne>        
,m>ia-,e9si$eln1 9 ,switz]l&1 ! son ( a 
poor physician ( ! place4 ,he began !   
/udy ( m$ic9e "u ! in/ruction ( 8 fa!r1 
& lat] on came "u ! in/ruction ( sev]al 
le>n$ *ur*m54 ,at ! age ( sixte5 he     
ent]$ ! ,univ]sity ( ,basel1 b1 soon    
becom+ disgu/$ ) ! philosophical tea*+s 
( ! "t1 he quitt$ ! s*ol>ly _w ( dogmas 
& !ories & w5t to live among ! m9]s 9 ! 

,tyrol1 9 ord] t he might /udy nature & 
m5 at fir/ h&4 ,ord9>y me?ods ( /udy 7  
?r[n aside1 & he devot$ 8 "t to p]sonal 
obs]vation--! only true means ( ga9+    
useful k1 z he prea*$ & practis$ ev]    
aft]4 ,"h he became famili> ) ! art (   
m9+1 le>n$ ! physical prop]ties (       
m9]als1 ores1 & metals1 & acquir$ "s k (
 m9]al wat]s4 ,m important /ill1 he came
 9 contact ) su* diseases1 w\nds1 &     
injuries z m9]s are subject to1 & he    
tri$ 8 h& at ! practical treatm5t ( ^!  
conditions1 untrammell$ by ! traditions 
( a pr(ession 9 :i* 8 tra9+ _h be5 s    
scant4  ,hav+ acquir$ "s empirical skill
 9 treat+ diseases1 ,p>acelsus set out  
w&]+ f place to place all ov] ,europe1  
ga!r+ practical in=mation z he w5t1 &   
le>n+ m & m ( ! m$ic9al virtues ( plants
 & m9]als4 ,8 w&]+s cov]$ a p]iod ( ab\t
 t5 ye>s1 at ! end ( :i* "t he return$  
to ,basel1 :]e he 0 soon invit$ to give 
a c\rse ( lectures 9 ! univ]sity4  ,^!  
lectures 7 revolution>y 9 two           
respects--!y 7 giv5 9 ,g]man in/ead (   

"t-honor$ ,lat91 & !y 7 bas$ ^u p]sonal 
exp]i5ce r ?an ^u ! works ( su* writ]s z
 ,gal5 & ,avic5na4 ,inde$1 ! iconocla/ic
 tea*] spoke ) op5 disp>agem5t ( ^!     
rev]$ ma/]s1 & op5ly upbraid$ 8         
fell[-practition]s = foll[+ _! t5ets4   
,naturally su* tea*+ rais$ a /orm (     
opposition among ! old] physicians1 b = 
a "t ! unp>allel$ success ( ,p>acelsus 9
 cur+ diseases m ?an (fset 8            
unpopul>ity4 ,gradually1 h[ev]1 8 bitt] 
tongue & 8 co>se p]sonality r5d]$ him s 
unpopul>1 ev5 among 8 pati5ts1 t1       
f9ally1 8 lib]ty & life be+ jeop>diz$1  
he 0 oblig$ to flee f ,basel1 & became a
 w&]]4 ,he liv$ = brief p]iods 9 ,colm>1
 ,nuremb]g1 ,app5zell1 ,zuri*1 ,pfeff]s1
 ,augsburg1 & sev]al o!r cities1 until  
f9ally at ,salzburg 8 ev5tful life came 
to a close 9 #aeda4 ,8 enemies said t he
 _h di$ 9 a tav]n f ! effects ( a       
protract$ debau*2 8 support]s ma9ta9$ t 
he _h be5 murd]$ at ! in/igation ( rival
 physicians & apo!c>ies4  ,b ! effects (
 8 tea*+s _h tak5 firm root1 & cont9u$  

to spread aft] 8 dea?4 ,he _h %[n !     
fallibility ( _m ( ! tea*+s ( ! hi!rto  
/&>d me?ods ( treat+ diseases1 & _h     
demon/rat$ ! advantages ( indep5d5t     
reason+ bas$ on obs]vation4 ,9 8        
,magicum he gives 8 reasons = break+ )  
tradition4 ,i did1 he says1 embrace at !
 beg9n+ ^! doctr9es1 z my adv]s>ies     
7foll[]s ( ,gal57 h done1 b s9ce ,i saw 
t f _! proc$ures no?+ result$ b dea?1   
murd]1 /rangl+s1 an*ylos$ limbs1        
p>alysis1 & s =?1 t !y held mo/ diseases
 incurable4444 !re=e h ,i quitt$ ?is    
wret*$ art1 & s\ght = tru? 9 any o!r    
direction4 ,i ask$ myself if !re 7 no   
su* ?+ z a tea*] 9 m$ic9e1 :]e c\ld ,i  
le>n ?is art be/8 ,n[h]e bett] ?an ! op5
 book ( nature1 writt5 ) ,god's own f+]4
 ,we %all see1 h[ev]1 t ?is book (      
nature taught ,p>acelsus "s v /range    
lessons4 ,mode/y 0 n "o ( ^!4 ,n[ at ?is
 "t1 he decl>es1 ,i1 ,!ophra/us         
,p>acelsus1 ,bomba/1 ,mon>* ( ! ,arcana1
 0 end[$ by ,god ) special gifts = ?is  
end1 t e se>*] aft] ?is supreme         

philosoph]'s "w may be =c$ to imitate & 
to foll[ me1 be he ,italian1 ,pole1     
,gaul1 ,g]man1 or :atsoev] or :osoev] he
 be4 ,come hi!r aft] me1 all ye         
philosoph]s1 a/ronom]s1 & spagiri/s4444 
,i w %[ & op5 to y444 ?is corporeal     
reg5]ation47#a7  ,p>acelsus bas$ 8      
m$ical tea*+s on f\r pill>s--philosophy1
 a/ronomy1 al*emy1 & virtue ( !         
physician--a /range-en\gh equipm5t      
surely1 & yet1 prop]ly int]pret$1 n q s 
anomal\s z x seems at fir/ blu%4        
,philosophy 0 ! gate ( m$ic9e1 :]eby !  
physician ent]$ rightly ^u ! true c\rse 
( le>n+2 a/ronomy1 ! /udy ( ! />s1 0    
all-important because !y 7! />s7 caus$  
disease by _! exhalations1 z1 = in/ance1
 ! sun by excessive heat2 al*emy1 z he  
int]pret$ x1 meant ! improvem5t (       
natural sub/ances = man's b5efit2 :ile  
virtue 9 ! physician 0 necess>y s9ce    
only ! virtu\s are p]mitt$ to p5etrate  
into ! inn]mo/ nature ( man & ! univ]se4
  ,all 8 writ+s aim to promote progress 
9 m$ic9e1 & to hold be=e ! physician a  

gr& ideal ( 8 pr(ession4 ,9 ?is 8 views 
are wide & f>-rea*+1 bas$ on !          
relation%ip :i* man be>s to nature z a  
:ole2 b 9 8 sweep+ condemnations he n   
only reject$ ,gal5ic !rapeutics &       
,gal5ic anatomy1 b condemn$ dissections 
( any k9d4 ,he laid ! cause ( all       
diseases at ! door ( ! ?ree my/ic       
elem5ts--salt1 sulphur1 & m]cury4 ,9    
heal? he suppos$ ^! to be m+l$ 9 ! body 
s z to be indi/+ui%able2 a slight       
sep>ation ( !m produc$ disease2 & dea?  
he suppos$ to be ! result ( _! complete 
sep>ation4 ,! spiritual ag5cies (       
diseases1 he said1 _h no?+ to d ) ei!r  
angels or devils1 b 7 ! spirits ( human 
be+s4  ,he believ$ t all food conta9$   
poisons1 & t ! function ( dige/ion 0 to 
sep>ate ! poison\s f ! nutriti\s4 ,9 !  
/oma* 0 an ar*aeus1 or al*emi/1 ^: duty 
0 to make ?is sep>ation4 ,9 dige/ive    
disord]s ! ar*aeus fail$ to d ?is1 & !  
poisons ?us ga9+ access to ! sy/em 7    
coagulat$ & deposit$ 9 ! jo9ts & v>i\s  
o!r p>ts ( ! body4 ,?us ! deposits 9 !  

kidneys & t>t> on ! tee? 7 =m$2 & ! /ony
 deposits ( g\t 7 p>ticul>ly famili>    
examples ( ?is4 ,all ?is is vision>y    
en\gh1 yet x %[s at lea/ a grop+ aft]   
rational explanations ( vital ph5om5a4  
,l mo/ o!rs ( 8 "t1 ,p>acelsus believ$  
firmly 9 ! doctr9e ( signatures--a      
belief t e organ & "p ( ! body _h a     
correspond+ =m 9 nature1 ^: function 0  
to heal diseases ( ! organ x resembl$4  
,! vag>ies ( ?is peculi> doctr9e are too
 num]\s & complicat$ = l5g?y discussion1
 & v>i$ greatly f g5]ation to g5]ation4 
,9 g5]al1 h[ev]1 ! !ory may be summ$ up 
9 ! words ( ,p>acelsus3 ,z a woman is   
kn[n by h] %ape1 s are ! m$ic9es4 ,h5ce 
! physicians 7 con/antly se>*+ = "s     
object ( correspond+ %ape to an organ ( 
! body4 ,! mo/ natural application ( ?is
 doctr9e w\ld be ! use ( ! organs ( !   
l[] animals = ! treatm5t ( ! correspond+
 diseas$ organs 9 man4 ,?us diseases ( !
 he>t 7 to be treat$ ) ! he>ts (        
animals1 liv] disord]s ) liv]s1 & s on4 
,b ?is app>5tly simple =m ( treatm5t _h 

endless modifications & re/rictions1 = n
 all animals 7 useful4 ,= example1 x 0  
useless to give ! /oma* ( an ox 9 ga/ric
 diseases :5 ! indication 9 su* cases 0 
really = ! /oma* ( a rat4 ,nor 7 !      
organs ( animals ! only signatures 9    
nature4 ,plants also play$ a v important
 role1 & ! h]b-doctors devot$ endless   
labor to se>*+ = su* plants4 ,?us !     
blood-root1 ) its r$ juice1 0 suppos$ to
 be useful 9 blood diseases1 9 /opp+    
hemorrhage1 or 9 subdu+ ! r$ness ( an   
inflammation4  ,p>acelsus's sy/em (     
signatures1 h[ev]1 0 s complicat$ by 8  
!ories ( a/ronomy & al*emy t x is       
practically beyond compreh5sion4 ,x is  
possible t he himself may h und]/ood x1 
b x is improbable t any "o else did--z  
%[n by ! endless discussions t h tak5   
place ab\t x4 ,b ) all ! vag>ies ( 8    
!ories he 0 /ill rational 9 8           
applications1 & he attack$ to good      
purpose ! complicat$ %ot-gun            
prescriptions ( 8 contempor>ies1        
advocat+ m simple me?ods ( treatm5t4  ,!

 ev]-fasc9at+ subject ( electricity1 or1
 m specifically1 magnetism1 f\nd great  
favor ) him1 & ) prop]ly adju/$ magnets 
he claim$ to be able to cure _m         
diseases4 ,9 epilepsy & lockjaw1 =      
example1 "o _h b to fa/5 magnets to !   
f\r extremities ( ! body1 & !n1 :5 !    
prop] m$ic9es 7 giv51 ! cure w\ld be    
effect$4 ,! easy loop-hole = excus+     
failure on ! gr\nd ( improp] m$ic9es is 
obvi\s1 b ,p>acelsus decl>es t ?is "o   
prescription is ( m value ?an all !     
humorali/s h ev] writt5 or taught4      
,s9ce ,p>acelsus condemn$ ! /udy (      
anatomy z useless1 he q naturally reg>d$
 surg]y 9 ! same light4 ,9 ?is he w\ld h
 done f> bett] to h /udi$ "s ( 8        
pr$ecessors1 su* z ,gal51 ,paul (       
,aeg9a1 & ,avic5na4 ,b in/ead ( cutt+ m5
 to pieces1 he taught t surgeons w\ld   
ga9 m by devot+ _! "t to se>*+ = !      
univ]sal panacea :i* w\ld cure all      
diseases1 surgical z well z m$ical4 ,9  
?is we detect a ta9t ( ! popul> belief 9
 ! philosoph]'s /one & ! magic elixir ( 

life1 8 belief 9 :i* h be5 /\tly d5i$ by
 "s ( 8 foll[]s4 ,he did admit1 h[ev]1 t
 "o op]ation alone 0 p]haps             
p]missible--li?otomy1 or ! cutt+ = /one4
  ,8 influ5ce ^u m$ic9e re/s und\bt$ly  
^u 8 revolution>y attitude1 r ?an on any
 great or new discov]ies made by him4 ,x
 is claim$ by _m t he br\ght prom95tly  
into use opium & m]cury1 & if ?is 7     
indisputably prov5 8 s]vices to m$ic9e  
c\ld h>dly be ov]e/imat$4 ,un=tunately1 
h[ev]1 !re are good gr\nds = d\bt+ t he 
0 p>ticul>ly influ5tial 9 re9troduc+ ^! 
m$ic9es4 ,8 *ief influ5ce may p]haps be 
summ$ up 9 a s+le phrase--he ov]?rew old
 traditions4  ,to ,p>acelsus's          
endeavors1 h[ev]1 if n to ! actual      
products ( 8 "w1 is due ! cr$it ( sett+ 
9 motion ! *a9 ( ?\ght t develop$ f9ally
 into sci5tific *emi/ry4 ,nor c !       
ultimate aim ( ! mod]n *emi/ seek a     
high] object ?an t ( ?is sixte5?-c5tury 
al*emi/1 :o taught t true al*emy has b  
"o aim & object1 to extract ! qu9tess5ce
 ( ?+s1 & to prep>e arcana1 t9ctures1 & 

elixirs :i* may re/ore to man ! heal? & 
s\ndness he has lo/4   ,,! ,,great      
,,anatomi/s  ,ab\t ! beg9n+ ( ! sixte5? 
c5tury1 :ile ,p>acelsus 0 sc(f+ at !    
/udy ( anatomy z useless1 & us+ 8       
influ5ce aga9/ x1 !re _h already come ^u
 ! sc5e ! fir/ ( ! great anatomi/s ^: "w
 0 to make ! c5tury conspicu\s 9 t bran*
 ( m$ic9e4  ,! "y anatomi/ ,*>les eti5ne
 7#aejc-aefd7 made "o ( ! fir/ notewor?y
 discov]ies1 po9t+ out = ! fir/ "t t !  
sp9al cord conta9s a canal1 cont9u\s    
?r\gh\t its l5g?4 ,he also made o!r m9or
 discov]ies ( "s importance1 b 8        
rese>*es 7 completely ov]%ad[$ & obscur$
 by ! "w ( a "y ,flem+ :o came ^u ! sc5e
 a few ye>s lat]1 & :o %one ) su*       
brilliancy 9 ! m$ical _w t he obscur$   
completely ! "w ( 8 contempor>y until _m
 ye>s lat]4 ,?is "y physician1 :o 0     
de/9$ to lead su* an ev5tful c>e] & meet
 su* an untimely end z a m>tyr to       
sci5ce1 0 ,&rew ,vesalius 7#aead-aefd71 
:o is call$ ! greate/ ( anatomi/s4 ,at !
 "t he came into ! field m$ic9e 0       

/ruggl+ aga9/ ! dom9at+ ,gal5ic tea*+s &
 ! !ories ( ,p>acelsus1 b p]haps mo/ (  
all aga9/ ! sup]/itions ( ! "t4 ,9      
,france human dissections 7 att5d$ ) su*
 dang]s t ! "y ,vesalius transf]r$ 8    
field ( labors to ,italy1 :]e su*       
inve/igations 7 cov]tly p]mitt$1 if n   
op5ly c\nt5anc$4  ,f ! v />t ! "y ,flem+
 look$ askance at ! accept$ tea*+s ( !  
day1 & began a s]ies ( indep5d5t        
inve/igations bas$ ^u 8 own obs]vations4
 ,! results ( ^! inve/igations he gave 9
 a treatise on ! subject :i* is reg>d$ z
 ! fir/ compreh5sive & sy/ematic "w on  
human anatomy4 ,?is rem>kable "w 0      
publi%$ 9 ! au?or's tw5ty-eigh? or      
tw5ty-n9? ye>4 ,soon aft] ?is ,vesalius 
0 invit$ z imp]ial physician to ! c\rt (
 ,emp]or ,*>les ,v4 ,he cont9u$ to act 9
 ! same capacity at ! c\rt ( ,philip    
,,ii41 aft] ! abdication ( 8 patron4 ,b 
9 spite ( ?is royal favor !re 0 at "w a 
factor m p[]ful ?an ! influ5ce ( ! mon>*
 himself--an in/rum5t t did s mu* to    
ret>d sci5tific progress1 & by :i* s _m 

lives 7 br\ght to a premature close4    
,vesalius _h receiv$ p]mission f ! k9sm5
 ( a c]ta9 gr&ee to p]=m an autopsy4    
,:ile mak+ 8 obs]vations ! he>t ( !     
outrag$ body 0 se5 to palpitate--s at   
lea/ x 0 report$4 ,?is 0 br\ght         
imm$iately to ! att5tion ( !            
,inquisition1 & x 0 only by ! int]v5tion
 ( ! k+ himself t ! anatomi/ escap$ !   
usual fate ( ^? accus$ by t tribunal4 ,z
 x 01 he 0 oblig$ to p]=m a pilgrimage  
to ! ,holy ,l&4 ,:ile return+ f ?is he 0
 %ipwreck$1 & p]i%$ f hung] & exposure  
on ! isl& ( ,zante4  ,at ! v "t :5 !    
anatomical writ+s ( ,vesalius 7 />tl+ ! 
m$ical _w1 !re 0 liv+ & work+           
contemporane\sly ano!r great anatomi/1  
,eu/a*ius 7di$ #aegd71 ^: records ( 8   
anatomical inve/igations 7 ready =      
publication only n9e ye>s aft] !        
publication ( ! "w ( ,vesalius4 ,ow+ to 
! un=tunate circum/ances ( ! anatomi/1  
h[ev]1 !y 7 nev] publi%$ dur+ 8         
lifetime--n1 9 fact1 until #agad4 ,:5 at
 la/ !y 7 giv5 to ! _w z ,anatomical    

,engrav+s1 !y %[$ conclusively t        
,eu/a*ius 0 equal1 if n sup]ior to      
,vesalius 9 8 k ( anatomy4 ,x has be5   
said ( ?is rem>kable collection (       
engrav+s t if !y _h be5 publi%$ :5 !y 7 
made 9 ! sixte5? c5tury1 anatomy w\ld h 
be5 advanc$ by at lea/ two c5turies4 ,b 
be ?is z x may1 !y c]ta9ly %[ t _! au?or
 0 a mo/ c>eful dissector & obs]v]4     
,eu/a*ius describ$ accurately = ! fir/  
"t c]ta9 /ructures ( ! middle e>1 &     
r$iscov]$ ! tube lead+ f ! e> to ! ?roat
 t be>s 8 "n4 ,he also made c>eful      
/udies ( ! tee? & ! ph5om5a ( fir/ &    
second d5tition4 ,he 0 n baffl$ by !    
m9ut5ess ( /ructures & :]e he 0 unable  
to /udy !m ) ! nak$ eye he us$ glasses =
 ! purpose1 & resort$ to mac]ations &   
injections = ! /udy ( c]ta9 complicat$  
/ructures4 ,b :ile ! fruit ( 8 p5 &     
p5cil 7 lo/ = m ?an a c5tury aft] 8     
dea?1 ! effects ( 8 tea*+s 7 n2 & 8 two 
pupils1 ,fallopius & ,columbus1 are     
almo/ z well kn[n to-day z _! illu/ri\s 
tea*]4 ,columbus 7#adij-aeei7 did mu* 9 

correct+ ! mi/akes made 9 ! anatomy ( ! 
bones z describ$ by ,vesalius4 ,he also 
add$ mu* to ! sci5ce by giv+ correct    
acc\nts ( ! %ape & cavities ( ! he>t1 & 
made _m o!r discov]ies ( m9or           
importance4 ,fallopius 7#aebc-aefb7 add$
 consid]ably to ! g5]al k ( anatomy1    
made sev]al discov]ies 9 ! anatomy ( !  
e>1 & also sev]al organs 9 ! abdom9al   
cavity4  ,at ?is "t a mo/ vitally       
important controv]sy 0 9 progress z to  
:e!r or n ! ve9s ( ! bodies 7 suppli$ ) 
valves1 _m anatomi/s be+ unable to f9d  
!m4 ,eti5ne _h fir/ describ$ ^!         
/ructures1 & ,vesalius _h confirm$ 8    
obs]vations4 ,x w\ld seem z if !re c\ld 
be no difficulty 9 settl+ ! "q z to !   
fact ( su* valves be+ pres5t 9 !        
vessels1 = ! demon/ration is s simple t 
x is n[ made daily by m$ical /ud5ts 9   
all physiological laboratories &        
dissect+-rooms4 ,b _m ( ! great         
anatomi/s ( ! sixte5? c5tury 7 unable to
 make ?is demon/ration1 ev5 :5 x _h be5 
br\ght to _! att5tion by su* an au?ority

 z ,vesalius4 ,fallopius1 writ+ to      
,vesalius on ! subject 9 #aefb1 decl>$ t
 he 0 unable to f9d su* valves4 ,o!rs1  
h[ev]1 su* z ,eu/a*ius & ,fabricius     
7#aecg-afai71 7 m successful1 & f\nd &  
describ$ ^! /ructures4 ,b ! purpose s]v$
 by ^! valves 0 entirely mis9t]pret$4 ,t
 !y act 9 prev5t+ ! backw>d fl[ ( !     
blood 9 ! ve9s on its way to ! he>t1 j z
 ! valves ( ! he>t itself prev5t        
regurgitation1 has be5 kn[n s9ce ! "t ( 
,h>vey2 b ! be/ int]pretation t c\ld be 
giv5 at t "t1 ev5 by su* a man z        
,fabricius1 0 t !y act$ 9 ret>d+ ! fl[ (
 ! blood z x comes f ! he>t1 & ?us      
prev5t its too rapid di/ribution ?r\gh\t
 ! body4 ,! fact t ! blood might h be5  
go+ t[>ds ! he>t1 in/ead ( com+ f x1    
seems nev] to h be5 consid]$ s]i\sly    
until demon/rat$ s conclusively by      
,h>vey4  ,( ?is important & rem>kable   
controv]sy ov] ! valves 9 ve9s1 ,)+ton  
has ?is to say3 ,?is is truly a m>vell\s
 /ory4 ,a great ,gal5ic anatomi/ is fir/
 to give a full & correct description ( 

! valves & _! function1 b fails to see t
 any modification ( ! old view z to !   
motion ( ! blood is requir$4 ,two able  
dissectors c>efully te/ _! action by    
exp]im5t1 & come to a result1 ! exact   
rev]se ( ! tru?4 ,urg$ by !m1 ! two     
=emo/ anatomi/s ( ! age make a special  
se>* = valves & fail to f9d !m4 ,f9ally1
 pass+ ov] less] peculi>ities1 an ag$ & 
honorable pr(essor1 :o has liv$ ?r\gh   
all ?is1 calmly ass]ts t no anatomi/1   
anci5t or mod]n1 has ev] m5tion$ valves 
9 ve9s till he discov]$ !m 9 #aegd67b7  
,among ! anatomi/s :o probably discov]$ 
^! valves 0 ,mi*ael ,s]vetus            
7#aeaa-aeec72 b if ?is is some:at 9     
d\bt1 x is c]ta9 t he discov]$ &        
describ$ ! pulmon>y circulation1 & _h a 
v cle> idea ( ! process ( respiration z 
c>ri$ on 9 ! lungs4 ,! description 0    
conta9$ 9 a fam\s docum5t s5t to ,calv9 
9 #aede--;a docum5t :i* ! re=m] c>efully
 kept = sev5 ye>s 9 ord] t he might make
 use ( "s ( ! h]etical /atem5ts x       
conta9$ to accompli% 8 desire ( br++ its

 writ] to ! /ake4 ,! awful fate (       
,s]vetus1 ! int]e/+ "* ( ! man1 & ! fact
 t he came s ne> to anticipat+ !        
discov]ies ( ,h>vey make him "o ( ! mo/ 
int]e/+ figures 9 m$ical hi/ory4  ,9 ?is
 docum5t :i* 0 s5t to ,calv91 ,s]vetus  
reject$ ! doctr9e ( natural1 vital1 &   
animal spirits1 z conta9$ 9 ! ve9s1     
art]ies1 & n]ves respectively1 & made ! 
all-important /atem5t t ! fluids conta9$
 9 ve9s & art]ies are ! same4 ,he %[$   
also t ! blood is purg$ f fume & purifi$
 by respiration 9 ! lungs1 & decl>$ t   
!re is a new vessel 9 ! lungs1 =m$ out (
 ve9 & art]y4 ,ev5 at ! pres5t day !re  
is little to add to or *ange 9 ?is      
description ( ,s]vetus's4  ,by keep+ ?is
 docum5t1 pregnant ) advanc$ sci5tific  
views1 f ! _w1 & 9 ! end only us+ x z a 
means ( de/roy+ its au?or1 ! great re=m]
 %[$ ! same jeal\sy 9 ret>d+ sci5tific  
progress z _h 8 ar*-enemies ( !         
,inquisition1 at ^: dictates ,vesalius  
became a m>tyr to sci5ce1 & 9 ^:        
dungeons eti5ne p]i%$4   ,,! ,,com+ ,,( 

,,h>vey  ,! "t 0 ripe = ! culm9at+      
discov]y ( ! circulation ( ! blood2 b z 
yet no "o _h det]m9$ ! all-important    
fact t !re are two curr5ts ( blood 9 !  
body1 "o go+ to ! he>t1 "o com+ f x4 ,! 
valves 9 ! ve9s w\ld seem to %[         
conclusively t ! v5\s curr5t did n come 
f ! he>t1 & surgeons mu/ h obs]v$ ?\s&s 
( times ! e-day ph5om5on ( conge/$ ve9s 
at ! di/al extremity ( a limb ar\nd :i* 
a ligature or con/riction ( any k9d _h  
be5 plac$1 & ! simultane\s depletion ( !
 vessels at ! proximal po9ts above !    
ligature4 ,b x %\ld be rememb]$ t       
inductive sci5ce 0 9 its infancy4 ,?is 0
 ! sixte5?1 n ! n9ete5? c5tury1 & few m5
 _h le>n$ to put implicit confid5ce 9 _!
 obs]vations & convictions :5 oppos$ to 
exi/+ doctr9es4 ,! "t 0 at h&1 h[ev]1 :5
 su* a man 0 to make 8 appe>ance1 &1 z 9
 ! case ( s _m revolution>y doctr9es 9  
sci5ce1 ?is man 0 an ,engli%man4 ,x     
rema9$ = ,william ,h>vey 7#aegh-afeg7 to
 solve ! great my/]y :i* _h puzzl$ !    
m$ical _w s9ce ! beg9n+ ( hi/ory2 n only

 to solve x1 b to prove 8 case s        
conclusively & s simply t = all "t 8    
little booklet mu/ he h&$ d[n z "o ( !  
great ma/]pieces ( lucid & almo/        
faultless demon/ration4  ,h>vey1 ! son (
 a prosp]\s ,k5ti% yeoman1 0 born at    
,folke/one4 ,8 education 0 begun at !   
gramm>-s*ool ( ,cant]bury1 & lat] he    
became a p5sion] ( ,caius ,college1     
,cambridge4 ,soon aft] tak+ 8 degree (  
,b4,a41 at ! age ( n9ete51 he decid$ ^u 
! pr(ession ( m$ic9e1 & w5t to ,padua z 
a pupil ( ,fabricius & ,cass]ius4       
,return+ to ,engl& at ! age ( tw5ty-f\r1
 he soon aft] 7#afji7 obta9$ ! rev]sion 
( ! po/ ( physician to ,/4 ,b>?olomew's 
,hospital1 8 application be+ support$ by
 ,james ,i4 himself4 ,ev5 at ?is "t he 0
 a popul> physician1 c\nt+ among 8      
pati5ts su* m5 z ,francis ,bacon4 ,9    
#afah he 0 appo9t$ physician extraord9>y
 to ! k+1 &1 a little lat]1 physician 9 
ord9>y4 ,he 0 9 att5dance ^u ,*>les ,i4 
at ! battle ( ,edgehill1 9 #afdb1 :]e1 )
 ! "y ,pr9ce ( ,wales & ! ,duke ( ,york1

 aft] seek+ %elt] "u a h$ge1 he drew a  
book out ( 8 pocket &1 =getful ( !      
battle1 became absorb$ 9 /udy1 until    
f9ally ! cannon-balls f ! enemy's       
artill]y made him seek a m %elt]$       
position4  ,on ! fall ( ,*>les ,i4 he   
retir$ f practice1 & liv$ 9 retirem5t ) 
8 bro!r4 ,he 0 !n well along 9 ye>s1 b  
/ill pursu$ 8 sci5tific rese>*es ) !    
same vigor z be=e1 direct+ 8 att5tion   
*iefly to ! /udy ( embryology4 ,on ,june
 #c1 #afeg1 he 0 attack$ by p>alysis &  
di$1 9 8 eightie? ye>4 ,he _h liv$ to   
see 8 !ory ( ! circulation accept$1     
sev]al ye>s be=e1 by all ! em95t        
anatomi/s ( ! civiliz$ _w4  ,a ke5ness 9
 ! obs]vation ( facts1 *>act]i/ic ( !   
m9d ( ! man1 _h l$ ,h>vey to d\bt ! tru?
 ( exi/+ doctr9es z to ! ph5om5a ( !    
circulation4 ,gal5 _h taught t ! art]ies
 are fill$1 l bell[s1 because !y are    
exp&$1 b ,h>vey ?\ght t ! action (      
spurt+ blood f a sev]$ vessel disprov$  
?is4 ,= ! spurt+ 0 remittant1 n[ )      
great]1 n[ ) less impetus1 & its great] 

=ce always correspond$ to ! expansion   
7dia/ole71 n ! contraction 7sy/ole7 ( ! 
vessel4 ,fur!rmore1 x 0 evid5t t        
contraction ( ! he>t & ! art]ies 0 n    
simultane\s1 z 0 commonly taught1       
because 9 t case !re w\ld be no m>k$    
propulsion ( ! blood 9 any direction2 & 
!re 0 no ga9say+ ! fact t ! blood 0     
=cibly propell$ 9 a def9ite direction1 &
 t direction away f ! he>t4  ,h>vey's   
inve/igations l$ him to d\bt also !     
accept$ !ory t !re 0 a porosity 9 !     
septum ( tissue t divides ! two         
v5tricles ( ! he>t4 ,x seem$            
unreasonable to suppose t a ?ick fluid l
 ! blood c\ld f9d its way ?r\gh pores s 
small t !y c\ld n be demon/rat$ by any  
means devis$ by man4 ,9 evid5ce t !re   
c\ld be no su* op5+s he po9t$ out t1    
s9ce ! two v5tricles contract at ! same 
"t1 ?is process w\ld imp$e r ?an        
facilitate su* an intra-v5tricul>       
passage ( blood4 ,b :at seem$ ! mo/     
conclusive pro( ( all 0 ! fact t 9 !    
foetus !re exi/$ a demon/rable op5+     

betwe5 ! two v5tricles1 & yet ?is is    
clos$ 9 ! fully develop$ he>t4 ,:y %\ld 
,nature1 if %e int5d$ t blood %\ld pass 
betwe5 ! two cavities1 *oose to close   
?is op5+ & sub/itute microscopic op5+s 9
 place ( x8 ,x w\ld surely seem m       
reasonable to h ! small p]=ations 9 !   
?91 easily p]meable membrane ( ! foetus1
 & ! op5+ 9 ! adult he>t1 r ?an !       
rev]se4 ,f all ?is ,h>vey drew 8 correct
 conclusions1 decl>+ e>ne/ly1 ,by       
,h]cules1 !re ,,are no su* porosities1 &
 !y _c be demon/rat$4  ,hav+ conv9c$    
himself t no intra-v5tricul> op5+ exi/$1
 he proce$$ to /udy ! action ( ! he>t   
itself1 untrammell$ by too mu* fai? 9   
e/abli%$ !ories1 &1 z yet1 ) no !ory ( 8
 own4 ,he soon discov]$ t ! commonly    
accept$ !ory ( ! he>t /rik+ aga9/ !     
*e/-wall dur+ ! p]iod ( relaxation 0    
entirely wrong1 & t its action 0 exactly
 ! rev]se ( ?is1 ! he>t /rik+ ! *e/-wall
 dur+ contraction4 ,hav+ ?us disprov$ ! 
accept$ !ory conc]n+ ! he>t's action1 he
 took up ! subject ( ! action ( art]ies1

 & soon 0 able to demon/rate by         
vivisection t ! contraction ( ! art]ies 
0 n simultane\s ) contractions ( ! he>t4
 ,8 exp]im5ts demon/rat$ t ^! vessels 7 
simply ela/ic tubes ^: pulsations 7 no?+
 else ?an ! impulse ( ! blood )9 !m4 ,! 
reason t ! art]ial pulsation 0 n        
simultane\s ) ! he>t-beat he f\nd to be 
because ( ! "t requir$ to c>ry ! impulse
 along ! tube4  ,by a s]ies ( fur!r     
c>eful exam9ations & exp]im5ts1 :i* are 
too ext5d$ to be giv5 "h1 he 0 soon able
 fur!r to demon/rate ! action & c\rse ( 
! blood dur+ ! contractions ( ! he>t4 ,8
 explanations 7 practically ! same z ^? 
giv5 to-day--fir/ ! contraction ( !     
auricle1 s5d+ blood into ! v5tricle2 !n 
v5tricul> contraction1 mak+ ! pulse1 &  
s5d+ ! blood into ! art]ies4 ,he _h ?us 
demon/rat$ :at _h n be5 g5]ally accept$ 
be=e1 t ! he>t 0 an organ = ! propulsion
 ( blood4 ,to make su* a /atem5t to-day 
seems n unlike ! sob] ann\ncem5t t ! e>?
 is r\nd or t ! sun does n revolve ab\t 
x4 ,be=e ,h>vey's "t1 h[ev]1 x 0        

consid]$ z an organ t 0 9 "s my/]i\s way
 ! s\rce ( vitality & w>m?1 z an animat$
 crucible = ! concoction ( blood & !    
g5]ation ( vital spirits47#c7  ,9 wat*+ 
! rapid & ceaseless contractions ( !    
he>t1 ,h>vey 0 impress$ ) ! fact t1 ev5 
if a v small am\nt ( blood 0 s5t out at 
ea* pulsation1 an enorm\s quantity mu/  
pass ?r\gh ! organ 9 a day1 or ev5 9 an 
h\r4 ,e/imat+ ! size ( ! cavities ( !   
he>t1 & not+ t at lea/ a dra*m mu/ be   
s5t out ) ea* pulsation1 x 0 evid5t t ! 
two ?\s& beats giv5 by a v sl[ human    
he>t 9 an h\r mu/ s5d out "s =ty p\nds (
 blood--m ?an twice ! am\nt 9 ! entire  
body4 ,! "q 01 :at became ( x all8 ,= x 
%\ld be rememb]$ t ! return ( ! blood by
 ! ve9s 0 unkn[n1 & no?+ l a circulation
 m ?an vaguely conceiv$ ev5 by ,h>vey   
himself4 ,once x c\ld be %[n t ! ve9s 7 
con/antly return+ blood to ! he>t1 !    
discov]y t ! blood 9 "s way passes f !  
art]ies to ! ve9s 0 only a %ort /ep4    
,h>vey1 by resort+ to vivisections ( l[]
 animals & reptiles1 soon demon/rat$    

beyond "q ! fact t ! ve9s d c>ry !      
return blood4 ,b ?is1 9 p>ticul>1 c be  
%[n cle>] ?an daylight1 says ,h>vey4 ,! 
v5a cava ent]s ! he>t at an inf]ior     
portion1 :ile ! art]y passes out above4 
,n[ if ! v5a cava be tak5 up ) =ceps or 
! ?umb & f+]1 & ! c\rse ( ! blood       
int]cept$ = "s di/ance bel[ ! he>t1 y w 
at once see x almo/ empti$ betwe5 ! f+]s
 & ! he>t1 ! blood be+ exhau/$ by !     
he>t's pulsation1 ! he>t at ! same "t   
becom+ mu* pal] ev5 9 its dilatation1   
small] 9 size1 ow+ to ! defici5cy (     
blood1 & at l5g? languid 9 pulsation1 z 
if ab\t to die4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 y      
release ! ve9 ! he>t imm$iately rega9s  
its color & dim5sions4 ,aft] t1 if y    
leave ! ve9 free & tie & compress !     
art]ies at "s di/ance f ! he>t1 y w see1
 on ! contr>y1 _! includ$ portion gr[   
excessively turgid1 ! he>t becom+ s     
beyond measure1 assum+ a d>k-r$ color1  
ev5 to lividity1 & at l5g? s ov]load$ ) 
blood z to seem 9 dang] ( suffocation2 b
 :5 ! ob/ruction is remov$ x returns to 

its normal condition1 9 size1 color1 &  
movem5t47#d7  ,?is conclusive           
demon/ration t ! ve9s return ! blood to 
! he>t mu/ h be5 mo/ impressive to      
,h>vey1 :o _h be5 taught to believe t ! 
blood curr5t 9 ! ve9s pursu$ an opposite
 c\rse1 & mu/ h t5d$ to %ake 8 fai? 9   
all exi/+ doctr9es ( ! day4  ,8 next /ep
 0 ! natural "o ( demon/rat+ t ! blood  
passes f ! art]ies to ! ve9s4 ,he       
demon/rat$ conclusively t ?is did occur1
 b = once 8 rejection ( ! anci5t writ]s 
& "o mod]n "o 0 a mi/ake4 ,= ,gal5 _h   
taught1 & _h attempt$ to demon/rate1 t  
!re are sets ( m9ute vessels connect+ ! 
art]ies & ! ve9s2 & ,s]vetus _h %[n t   
!re mu/ be su* vessels1 at lea/ 9 !     
lungs4  ,h[ev]1 ! little flaw 9 !       
o!rwise complete demon/ration ( ,h>vey  
detracts no?+ f ! ma9 issue at /ake4 ,x 
0 = o!rs :o foll[$ to %[ j h[ ^! small  
vessels act$ 9 effect+ ! transf] ( !    
blood f art]y to ve91 & ! gr& g5]al     
/atem5t t su* a transf] does take place 
01 aft] all1 ! all-important "o1 & !    

exact me?od ( h[ x takes place a detail4
 ,h>vey's exp]im5ts to demon/rate t !   
blood passes f ! art]ies to ! ve9s are s
 simply & concisely /at$ t !y may be/ be
 giv5 9 8 own words4  ,i h "h to cite   
c]ta9 exp]im5ts1 he wrote1 f :i* x seems
 obvi\s t ! blood ent]s a limb by !     
art]ies1 & returns f x by ! ve9s2 t !   
art]ies are ! vessels c>ry+ ! blood f ! 
he>t1 & ! ve9s ! return+ *annels ( !    
blood to ! he>t2 t 9 ! limbs & extreme  
p>ts ( ! body ! blood passes ei!r by    
ana/omosis f ! art]ies into ! ve9s1 or  
imm$iately by ! pores ( ! fle%1 or 9 bo?
 ways1 z has already be5 said 9 speak+ (
 ! passage ( ! blood ?r\gh ! lungs2 :5ce
 x appe>s manife/ t 9 ! circuit ! blood 
moves f !nce hi!r1 & h5ce ?i!r2 f !     
c5tre to ! extremities1 to wit1 & f !   
extreme p>ts back aga9 to ! c5tre4      
,f9ally1 ^u gr\nds ( circulation1 ) !   
same elem5ts z be=e1 x w be obvi\s t !  
quantity c nei!r be acc\nt$ = by ! +e/a1
 nor yet be held necess>y to nutrition4 
,n[ let any "o make an exp]im5t on ! arm

 ( a man1 ei!r us+ su* a fillet z is    
employ$ 9 blood-lett+ or grasp+ ! limb  
tightly ) 8 h&1 ! be/ subject = x be+ "o
 :o is lean1 & :o has l>ge ve9s1 & ! be/
 "t aft] ex]cise1 :5 ! body is w>m1 !   
pulse is full1 & ! blood c>ri$ 9 l>ge   
quantities to ! extremities1 = all !n is
 m conspicu\s2 "u su* circum/ances let a
 ligature be ?r[n ab\t ! extremity &    
drawn z tightly z c be borne3 x w fir/  
be p]ceiv$ t beyond ! ligature nei!r 9 !
 wri/ nor any:]e else d ! art]ies       
pulsate1 t at ! same "t imm$iately above
 ! ligature ! art]y beg9s to rise high] 
at ea* dia/ole1 to ?rob m viol5tly1 & to
 swell 9 its vic9ity ) a k9d ( tide1 z  
if x /rove to break ?r\gh & ov]come !   
ob/acle to its curr5t2 ! art]y "h1 9    
%ort1 appe>s z if x 7 p]man5tly full4 ,!
 h& "u su* circum/ances reta9s its      
natural color & appe>ances2 9 ! c\rse ( 
"t x beg9s to fall some:at 9 temp]ature1
 inde$1 b no?+ is ,,drawn into x4  ,aft]
 ! b&age has be5 kept on "s %ort "t 9   
?is way1 let x be slack5$ a little1     

br\ght to ! /ate or t]m ( middl+        
tightness :i* is us$ 9 ble$+1 & x w be  
se5 t ! :ole h& & arm w in/antly become 
deeply suffus$ & di/5d$1 inject$1 gorg$ 
) blood1 ,,drawn1 z x is said1 by ?is   
middl+ ligature1 )\t pa91 or heat1 or   
any horror ( a vacuum1 or any o!r cause 
yet indicat$4  ,z we h not$1 9          
connection ) ! tight ligature1 t ! art]y
 above ! b&age 0 di/5d$ & pulsat$1 n    
bel[ x1 s1 9 ! case ( ! mod]ately tight 
b&age1 on ! contr>y1 d we f9d t ! ve9s  
bel[1 nev] above1 ! fillet swell &      
become dilat$1 :ile ! art]ies %r9k2 &   
su* is ! degree ( di/5tion ( ! ve9s "h t
 x is only v /rong pressure t w =ce !   
blood beyond ! fillet & cause any ( !   
ve9s 9 ! upp] "p ( ! arm to rise4  ,f ^!
 facts x is easy = any c>eful obs]v] to 
le>n t ! blood ent]s an extremity by !  
art]ies2 = :5 !y are effectively        
compress$ no?+ is ,,drawn to ! memb]2 ! 
h& pres]ves its color2 no?+ fl[s into x1
 nei!r is x di/5d$2 b :5 ! pressure is  
dim9i%$1 z x is ) ! ble$+ fillet1 x is  

manife/ t ! blood is in/antly ?r[n 9 )  
=ce1 = !n ! h& beg9s to swell2 :i* is z 
mu* z to say t :5 ! art]ies pulsate !   
blood is fl[+ ?r\gh !m1 z x is :5 !     
mod]ately tight ligature is appli$2 b :5
 !y d n pulsate1 or :5 a tight ligature 
is us$1 !y cease f transmitt+ any?+2 !y 
are only di/5d$ above ! "p :]e !        
ligature is appli$4 ,! ve9s aga9 be+    
compress$1 no?+ c fl[ ?r\gh !m2 ! c]ta9 
indication ( :i* is t bel[ ! ligature !y
 are mu* m tumid ?an above x1 & ?an !y  
usually appe> :5 !re is no b&age ^u !   
arm4  ,x !re=e pla9ly appe>s t !        
ligature prev5ts ! return ( ! blood     
?r\gh ! ve9s to ! p>ts above x1 &       
ma9ta9s ^? b5ea? x 9 a /ate ( p]man5t   
di/5tion4 ,b ! art]ies1 9 spite ( !     
pressure1 & "u ! =ce & impulse ( ! he>t1
 s5d on ! blood f ! int]nal p>ts ( !    
body to ! p>ts beyond ! b&age47#e7      
,?is use ( ligatures is v significant1  
because1 z %[n1 a v tight ligature /ops 
circulation 9 bo? art]ies & ve9s1 :ile a
 loose "o1 :ile *eck+ ! circulation 9 ! 

ve9s1 :i* lie ne>] ! surface & are n s  
directly influ5c$ by ! =ce ( ! he>t1    
does n /op ! passage ( blood 9 !        
art]ies1 :i* are usually deeply imb$d$ 9
 ! tissues1 & n s easily influ5c$ by    
pressure f )\t4  ,! la/ /ep ( ,h>vey's  
demon/ration 0 to prove t ! blood does  
fl[ along ! ve9s to ! he>t1 aid$ by !   
valves t _h be5 ! cause ( s mu*         
discussion & dispute betwe5 ! great     
sixte5?-c5tury anatomi/s4 ,h>vey n only 
demon/rat$ ! pres5ce ( ^! valves1 b %[$ 
conclusively1 by simple exp]im5ts1 :at  
_! function 01 ?us complet+ 8           
demon/ration ( ! ph5om5a ( !            
circulation4  ,! f9al ocul> demon/ration
 ( ! passage ( ! blood f ! art]ies to ! 
ve9s 0 n to be made until f\r ye>s aft] 
,h>vey's dea?4 ,?is process1 :i* c be   
obs]v$ easily 9 ! web ( a frog's foot by
 ! aid ( a l[-p[] l5s1 0 fir/ demon/rat$
 by ,m>cello ,malpighi 7#afbh-afid7 9   
#affa4 ,by ! aid ( a l5s he fir/ saw !  
small capill>y vessels connect+ ! ve9s &
 art]ies 9 a piece ( dri$ lung4 ,tak+ 8 

cue f ?is1 he exam9$ ! lung ( a turtle1 
& 0 able to see 9 x ! passage ( !       
corpuscles ?r\gh ^! m9ute vessels1 mak+ 
_! way along ^! previ\sly unkn[n *annels
 f ! art]ies into ! ve9s on _! j\rney   
back to ! he>t4 ,?us ! "w ( ,h>vey1 all 
b complete1 0 made absolutely entire by 
! great ,italian4 ,& all ?is 9 a s+le   
g5]ation4   ,,leeuw5hoek ,,discov]s     
,,bact]ia  ,! sev5te5? c5tury 0 n to    
close1 h[ev]1 )\t ano!r discov]y 9      
sci5ce1 :i*1 :5 appli$ to ! causation ( 
disease almo/ two c5turies lat]1        
revolutioniz$ !rapeutics m completely   
?an any "o discov]y4 ,?is 0 ! discov]y (
 microbes1 by ,antonius von ,leeuw5hoek 
7#afcb-agbc71 9 #afhc4 ,von ,leeuw5hoek 
discov]$ t 9 ! :ite matt] betwe5 8 tee? 
!re 7 millions ( microscopic animals--m1
 9 fact1 ?an !re 7 human be+s 9 ! unit$ 
,ne!rl&s1 & all mov+ 9 ! mo/ delightful 
mann]4 ,!re c be no "q t he saw !m1 = we
 c recognize 9 8 descriptions ( ^! v>i\s
 =ms ( little animals ! f\r pr9cipal =ms
 ( microbes--! long & %ort rods (       

bacilli & bact]ia1 ! sph]es (           
micrococci1 & ! corkscrew spirillum4  ,!
 pres5ce ( ^! microbes 9 8 m\? greatly  
annoy$ ,antonius1 & he tri$ v>i\s me?ods
 ( gett+ rid ( !m1 su* z us+ v9eg> & hot
 c(fee4 ,9 do+ ?is he little suspect$ t 
he 0 anticipat+ mod]n antiseptic surg]y 
by a c5tury & ?ree-qu>t]s1 & to be      
attempt+ :at antiseptic surg]y is n[    
able to accompli%4 ,= ! fundam5tal      
pr9ciple ( antisepsis is ! use ( m$ic9es
 = ridd+ w\nds ( simil> microscopic     
organisms4 ,von ,le5w5hoek 0 only       
tempor>ily successful 9 8 attempts1     
h[ev]1 & took occasion to communicate 8 
discov]y to ! ,royal ,society ( ,engl&1 
hop+ t !y w\ld be int]e/$ 9 ?is novelty4
 ,probably !y 71 b n suffici5tly s = any
 memb] to pursue any protract$          
inve/igations or rea* any satisfactory  
conclusions1 & ! :ole matt] 0           
practically =gott5 until ! middle ( !   
n9ete5? c5tury4     ,,viii4 ,,m$ic9e ,,9
 ,,! ,,sixte5? ,,& ,,sev5te5? ,,c5turies
  ,( ! half-doz5 surgeons :o 7 prom95t 9

 ! sixte5? c5tury1 ,ambroise ,p>e       
7#aeag-aeij71 call$ ! fa!r ( ,fr5*      
surg]y1 is p]haps ! mo/ widely kn[n4 ,he
 rose f ! position ( a common b>b] to t 
( surgeon to ?ree ,fr5* mon>*s1 ,h5ry   
,,ii41 ,francis ,,ii41 & ,*>les ,,ix4   
,"s ( 8 mottoes are /ill fir/ pr9ciples 
( ! m$ical man4 ,among o!rs are3 ,he :o 
becomes a surgeon = ! sake ( money1 & n 
= ! sake ( k1 w accompli% no?+2 & ,a    
tri$ rem$y is bett] ?an a newly inv5t$4 
,on 8 /atue is 8 mode/ e/imate ( 8 "w 9 
c>+ = ! w\nd$1 ,je le pansay1 ,dieu le  
gu>it--,i dress$ him1 ,god cur$ him4  ,x
 0 9 ?is dress+ ( w\nds on ! battlefield
 t he accid5tally discov]$ h[ useless & 
h>mful 0 ! t]ribly pa9ful treatm5t (    
apply+ boil+ oil to gun%ot w\nds z      
advocat$ by ,john ( ,vigo4 ,x happ5$ t  
aft] a c]ta9 battle1 :]e !re 0 an       
unusually l>ge numb] ( casualties1 ,p>e 
f\nd1 to 8 horror1 t no m boil+ oil 0   
available = ! surgeons1 & t he %\ld be  
oblig$ to dress ! w\nd$ by o!r simpl]   
me?ods4 ,to 8 amazem5t ! results prov$  

entirely satisfactory1 & f t day he     
disc>d$ ! hot-oil treatm5t4  ,z ,p>e did
 n und]/& ,lat9 he wrote 8 treatises 9  
,fr5*1 ?us inaugurat+ a cu/om 9 ,france 
t 0 begun by ,p>acelsus 9 ,g]many half a
 c5tury be=e4 ,he re9troduc$ ! use ( !  
ligature 9 controll+ hemorrhage1        
introduc$ ! figure ( eight suture 9 !   
op]ation = h>e-lip1 improv$ _m ( !      
m$ico-legal doctr9es1 & advanc$ !       
practice ( surg]y g5]ally4 ,he is cr$it$
 ) hav+ successfully p]=m$ ! op]ation = 
/rangulat$ h]nia1 b he probably borr[$ x
 f ,pet] ,franco 7#aeje-aegj71 :o       
publi%$ an acc\nt ( ?is op]ation 9      
#aeef4 ,z ?is op]ation is consid]$ by "s
 ! mo/ important op]ation 9 surg]y1 its 
discov]] is entitl$ to m ?an pass+      
notice1 al?\gh he 0 despis$ & ignor$ by 
! surgeons ( 8 "t4  ,franco 0 an        
illit]ate travell+ li?otomi/--a class ( 
it9]ant physicians :o 7 v g5]ally fr[n$ 
d[n by ! regul> practition]s ( m$ic9e4  
,b ,franco possess$ su* skill z an      
op]ator1 & appe>s to h be5 s e>ne/ 9 !  

pursuit ( :at he consid]$ a legitimate  
call+1 t he f9ally ov]came ! popul>     
prejudice & became "o ( ! sal>i$        
surgeons ( ! republic ( ,b]n4 ,he 0 !   
fir/ surgeon to p]=m ! suprapubic       
li?otomy op]ation--! removal ( /one     
?r\gh ! abdom5 in/ead ( ?r\gh ! p]9eum4 
,8 works1 :ile writt5 9 an illit]ate    
/yle1 give ! cle>e/ descriptions ( any (
 ! e>ly mod]n writ]s4  ,z ! fame (      
,franco re/s ^u 8 op]ation = prolong+   
human life1 s ! fame ( 8 ,italian       
contempor>y1 ,gasp> ,tagliacozzi        
7#aede-aeii71 re/s ^u 8 op]ation =      
increas+ human com=t & happ9ess by      
re/or+ amputat$ noses4 ,at ! "t 9 :i* he
 liv$ amputation ( ! nose 0 v common1   
p>tly f disease1 b also because a c]ta9 
pope _h fix$ ! amputation ( t memb] z ! 
p5alty = l>c5y4 ,tagliacozzi probably   
borr[$ 8 op]ation f ! ,ea/2 b he 0 !    
fir/ ,we/]n surgeon to p]=m x & describe
 x4 ,s great 0 ! fame ( 8 op]ations t   
pati5ts flock$ to him f all ov] ,europe1
 & ea* w5t away ) z _m noses z he lik$4 

,naturally1 ! man :o direct$ 8 ef=ts to 
re/or+ /ructures t bad be5 remov$ by    
ord] ( ! ,*ur* 0 reg>d$ 9 ! light ( a   
h]etic by _m !ologians2 & ?\gh he       
succe$$ 9 *eat+ ! /ake or dungeon1 & di$
 a natural dea?1 8 body 0 f9ally ca/ out
 ( ! *ur* 9 :i* x _h be5 buri$4  ,9 !   
sixte5? c5tury ,g]many produc$ a        
surgeon1 ,fabricius ,hildanes           
7#aefj-afci71 ^: "w comp>es favorably ) 
t ( ,p>e1 & ^: "n w\ld und\bt$ly h be5  
mu* bett] kn[n _h n ! circum/ances ( !  
"t 9 :i* he liv$ t5d$ to obscure 8      
m]its4 ,! bl9d foll[]s ( ,p>acelsus c\ld
 see no?+ outside ! pale ( _! ma/]'s    
tea*+s1 & ! disa/r\s ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w>  
t5d$ to obscure & ret>d all sci5tific   
advances 9 ,g]many4 ,unlike _m ( 8      
fell[-surgeons1 ,hildanes 0 well v]s$ 9 
,lat9 & ,greek2 &1 contr>y to ! tea*+s (
 ,p>acelsus1 he laid p>ticul> /ress ^u !
 necessity ( ! surgeon hav+ a ?or\gh k (
 anatomy4 ,he _h a helpmate 9 8 wife1 :o
 0 also some?+ ( a surgeon1 & %e is     
cr$it$ ) hav+ fir/ made use ( ! magnet 9

 remov+ p>ticles ( metal f ! eye4       
,hildanes tells ( a c]ta9 man :o _h be5 
injur$ by a small piece ( /eel 9 !      
cornea1 :i* resi/$ all 8 ef=ts to remove
 x4 ,aft] obs]v+ ,hildanes' fruitless   
ef=ts = a "t1 x sudd5ly occurr$ to 8    
wife to attempt to make ! extraction ) a
 piece ( load/one4 ,:ile ! physician    
held op5 ! two lids1 8 wife attempt$ to 
)draw ! /eel ) ! magnet held close to ! 
cornea1 & aft] sev]al ef=ts %e 0        
successful--:i* ,hildanes enum]ates z "o
 ( ! advantages ( be+ a m>ri$ man4      
,hildanes 0 p>ticul>ly happy 9 8        
inv5tions ( surgical in/rum5ts1 _m ( :i*
 7 design$ = locat+ & remov+ ! v>i\s    
missiles rec5tly introduc$ 9 w>f>e4   ,!
 sev5te5? c5tury1 :i* 0 su* a fl\ri%+ "o
 = anatomy & physiology1 0 n z          
productive ( great surgeons or advances 
9 surg]y z ! sixte5? _h be5 or !        
eighte5? 0 to be4 ,!re 0 a gradual      
improvem5t all along ! l9e1 h[ev]1 & mu*
 ( ! "w begun by su* surgeons z ,p>e &  
,hildanes 0 p]fect$ or improv$4 ,p]haps 

! mo/ progressive surgeon ( ! c5tury 0  
an ,engli%man1 ,ri*>d ,wiseman          
7#afbe-afhf71 :o1 l ,h>vey1 enjoy$ royal
 favor1 be+ 9 ! s]vice ( all ! ,/u>t    
k+s4 ,he 0 ! fir/ surgeon to advocate   
prim>y amputation1 9 gun%ot w\nds1 ( !  
limbs1 & also to introduce ! treatm5t ( 
aneurisms by compression2 b he is       
g5]ally rat$ z a cons]vative op]ator1 :o
 favor$ m$ication r ?an radical         
op]ations1 :]e possible4  ,9 ,italy1    
,m>cus ,aurelius ,sev]9us 7#aehj-afef7 &
 ,pet] ,m>*ettis 7#aehi-afge7 7 ! lead+ 
surgeons ( _! nation4 ,l _m ( 8         
pr$ecessors 9 ,europe1 ,sev]9us ran     
amuck ) ! ,holy ,inquisition & fl$ f    
,naples4 ,b ! wan+ ( ! p[]ful arm ( !   
,*ur* is %[n by ! fact t he 0 br\ght    
back by ! unanim\s voice ( ! grateful   
citiz5s1 & liv$ 9 safety despite ! fr[ns
 ( ! !ologians4   ,! sixte5? c5tury _c  
be said to h add$ mu* ( importance 9 !  
field ( practical m$ic9e1 &1 z 9 !      
prec$+ & succe$+ c5turies1 0 at be/ only
 /ruggl+ along 9 ! wake ( anatomy1      

physiology1 & surg]y4 ,9 ! sev5te5?     
c5tury1 h[ev]1 at lea/ "o discov]y 9    
!rapeutics 0 made t has be5 an          
ine/imable boon to humanity ev] s9ce4   
,?is 0 ! introduction ( c9*ona b>k 7f   
:i* qu99e is obta9$7 9 #afdj4 ,b ?is    
c5tury 0 productive ( _m m$ical         
,,sy/ems1 & c\ld boa/ ( _m great names  
among ! m$ical pr(ession1 &1 on ! :ole1 
made consid]ably m progress ?an ! prec$+
 c5tury4  ,( ! f\nd]s ( m$ical sy/ems1  
"o ( ! mo/ widely kn[n is ,jan ,bapti/a 
van ,helmont 7#aegh-afdd71 an ecc5tric  
g5ius :o con/ruct$ a sy/em ( m$ic9e ( 8 
own & = a "t ex]t$ consid]able influ5ce4
 ,b 9 ! end 8 sy/em 0 de/9$ to pass out 
( exi/5ce1 n v long aft] ! dea? ( its   
au?or4 ,van ,helmont 0 n only a         
physician1 b 0 ma/] ( all ! o!r bran*es 
( le>n+ ( ! "t1 tak+ up ! /udy ( m$ic9e 
& *emi/ry z an aft]-?\ght1 b devot+     
himself to !m ) ! greate/ en?usiasm once
 he _h begun 8 inve/igations4 ,8        
attitude t[>ds exi/+ doctr9es 0 z       
revolution>y z t ( ,p>acelsus1 & he     

reject$ ! tea*+s ( ,gal5 & all ! anci5t 
writ]s1 al?\gh reta9+ "s ( ! views (    
,p>acelsus4 ,he modifi$ ! ar*aeus (     
,p>acelsus1 & add$ _m complications to  
x4 ,he believ$ ! :ole body to be        
controll$ by an ar*aeus influus1 ! s\l  
by ! ar*aei insiti1 & ^! 9 turn         
controll$ by ! c5tral ar*eus4 ,8 sy/em  
is too elaborate & complicat$ = full    
explanation1 b its *ief s]vice to m$ic9e
 0 9 introduc+ new *emical me?ods 9 !   
prep>ation ( drugs4 ,9 ?is way he 0     
indirectly connect$ ) ! e/abli%m5t ( !  
,iatro*emical s*ool4 ,x 0 he :o fir/ us$
 ! ^w gas--a ^w co9$ by him1 along ) _m 
o!rs t soon fell into disuse4  ,!       
pr9ciples ( ! ,iatro*emical s*ool 7 !   
use ( *emical m$ic9es1 & a !ory (       
pa?ology diff]5t f ! prevail+ humoral   
pa?ology4 ,! f\nd] ( ?is s*ool 0        
,sylvius 7,franz de le ,boe1            
#afad-afgb71 pr(essor ( m$ic9e at       
,leyd54 ,he attempt$ to e/abli% a       
p]man5t sy/em ( m$ic9e bas$ on ! newly  
discov]$ !ory ( ! circulation & ! new   

*emi/ry1 b 8 "n is rememb]$ by m$ical m5
 because ( ! fissure 9 ! bra9 7fissure (
 ,sylvius7 t be>s x4 ,he laid great     
/ress on ! cause ( fev]s & o!r diseases 
z orig9at+ 9 ! di/urbances ( ! process (
 f]m5tation 9 ! /oma*4 ,! doctr9es (    
,sylvius spread widely ov] ! cont95t1 b 
7 n g5]ally accept$ 9 ,engl& until      
modifi$ by ,?omas ,willis 7#afbb-afge71 
^: "n1 l t ( ,sylvius1 is p]petuat$ by a
 /ructure 9 ! bra9 nam$ aft] him1 !     
circle ( ,willis4 ,willis's descriptions
 ( c]ta9 n]v\s diseases1 & an acc\nt (  
diabetes1 are ! fir/ record$1 & add$    
mat]ially to sci5tific m$ic9e4 ,^!      
s*ools ( m$ic9e la/$ until ! end ( !    
sev5te5? c5tury1 :5 !y 7 f9ally ov]?r[n 
by ,syd5ham4  ,! ,iatrophysical s*ool   
7also call$ iatroma!matical1            
iatrome*anical1 or physiatric7 0 f\nd$  
on !ories ( physiology1 probably by     
,borelli1 ( ,naples 7#afjh-afgi71 al?\gh
 ,sanctorius2 ,sanctorius1 a pr(essor at
 ,padua1 0 a precursor1 if n directly   
int]e/$ 9 e/abli%+ x4 ,sanctorius       

discov]$ ! fact t an ins5sible          
p]spiration is be+ giv5 (f by ! body    
cont9ually1 & 0 amaz$ to f9d t loss (   
weight 9 ?is way f> exce$$ ! loss (     
weight by all o!r excretions ( ! body   
comb9$4 ,he made ?is discov]y by means (
 a peculi> weigh+-ma*9e to :i* a *air 0 
atta*$1 & 9 :i* he sp5t mo/ ( 8 "t4 ,v  
naturally he ov]e/imat$ ! importance (  
?is discov]y1 b x 01 nev]!less1 ( great 
value 9 po9t+ out ! hygi5ic importance (
 ! c>e ( ! sk94 ,he also introduc$ a    
!rmomet] :i* he advocat$ z valuable 9   
cases ( fev]1 b ! in/rum5t 0 probably n 
8 own inv5tion1 b borr[$ f 8 fri5d      
,galileo4  ,h>vey's discov]y ( !        
circulation ( ! blood laid ! f\ndation (
 ! ,iatrophysical s*ool by %[+ t ?is    
vital process 0 comp>able to a hydraulic
 sy/em4 ,9 8 ,on ! ,motive ( ,animals1  
,borelli fir/ attempt$ to acc\nt = !    
ph5om5a ( life & diseases on ^!         
pr9ciples4 ,! iatrome*anics held t !    
great cause ( disease is due to diff]5t 
/ates ( ela/icity ( ! solids ( ! body   

int]f]+ ) ! movem5ts ( ! fluids1 :i* are
 !mselves subject to *anges 9 d5sity1 "o
 or bo? ( ^! conditions cont9u+ to cause
 /agnation or conge/ion4 ,! s*ool ?us   
f\nd$ by ,borelli 0 ! outcome ( !       
unb\nd$ en?usiasm1 ) its accompany+     
exagg]ation ( c]ta9 ph5om5a ) !         
correspond+ belittl+ ( o!rs t naturally 
foll[s su* a revolution>y discov]y z t (
 ,h>vey4 ,hav+ su* a f\nd] z ! brilliant
 ,italian ,borelli1 x 0 giv5 a suffici5t
 impetus by 8 writ+s to c>ry x "s       
di/ance be=e x f9ally collaps$4 ,"s ( ! 
exagg]at$ ma!matical calculations (     
,borelli himself are wor? not+4 ,ea*    
he>t-beat1 z he calculat$ x1 ov]comes a 
resi/ance equal to "o hundr$ & eighty   
?\s& p\nds2--! mod]n physiologi/        
e/imates its =ce at f five to n9e       
ounces6   ,,?omas ,,syd5ham  ,b :ile !  
,cont95t 0 /ruggl+ ) ^! illusive sy/ems1
 & dabbl+ 9 my/ic !ories t 7 to sc>cely 
outlive ! m5 :o conceiv$ !m1 !re appe>$ 
9 ,engl&--! l& ( common-s5se1 z a ,g]man
 sci5ti/ has call$ x--a cool1 cle>1 &   

unprejudic$ _s1 :o 9 ! gold5 age (      
sy/ems decl9$ to be l ! man :o builds ! 
*amb]s ( ! upp] /ory ( 8 h\se be=e he _h
 laid securely ! f\ndation walls47#a7   
,?is man 0 ,?omas ,syd5ham 7#afbd-afhi71
 :o1 :ile ! great ,h>vey 0 s]v+ ! k+ z  
surgeon1 0 fight+ z a capta9 9 !        
p>liam5t>y army4 ,syd5ham took = 8 guide
 ! tea*+s ( ,hippocrates1 modifi$ to    
suit ! advances t _h be5 made 9         
sci5tific k s9ce ! days ( ! great       
,greek1 & e/abli%$1 z a /&>d1 obs]vation
 & exp]i5ce4 ,he c>$ little = !ory      
unless confirm$ by practice1 b took !   
,hippocratic view t nature cur$         
diseases1 assi/$ by ! physician4 ,he    
gave due cr$it1 h[ev]1 to ! importance (
 ! "p play$ by ! assi/ant4 ,z he saw x1 
m$ic9e c\ld be advanc$ 9 ?ree ways3 7#a7
 ,by accurate descriptions or natural   
hi/ories ( diseases2 7#b7 by e/abli%+ a 
fix$ pr9ciple or me?od ( treatm5t1 f\nd$
 ^u exp]i5ce2 7#c7 by se>*+ = specific  
rem$ies1 :i* he believes mu/ exi/ 9     
consid]able numb]s1 ?\gh he admits t !  

only "o yet discov]$ is ,p]uvian        
b>k47#b7 ,z x happ5$1 ano!r equally     
specific rem$y1 m]cury1 :5 us$ 9 c]ta9  
diseases1 0 already kn[n to him1 b he   
evid5tly did n recognize x z su*4  ,!   
influ5ce on future m$ic9e ( ,syd5ham's  
tea*+s 0 mo/ pron\nc$1 due mo/ly to 8   
tea*+ ( c>eful obs]vation4 ,to mo/      
physicians1 h[ev]1 he is n[ rememb]$    
*iefly = 8 introduction ( ! use (       
laudanum1 /ill consid]$ "o ( ! mo/      
valuable rem$ies ( mod]n ph>macopoeias4 
,! ,g]man gives ! honor ( introduc+ ?is 
prep>ation to ,p>acelsus1 b !           
,engli%-speak+ _w w always believe t !  
cr$it %\ld be giv5 to ,syd5ham4         
,,ix4 ,,philosoph]-,,sci5ti/s ,,& ,,new 
,,in/itutions ,,( ,,le>n+  ,we saw t 9 !
 old ,greek days !re 0 no %>p l9e (     
dem>cation betwe5 ! field ( ! philosoph]
 & t ( ! sci5ti/4 ,9 ! ,hell5i/ic epo*1 
h[ev]1 k became m specializ$1 & our     
rec5t *apt]s h %[n u sci5tific          
inve/igators ^: ef=ts 7 f> en\gh remov$ 
f ! intangibilities ( ! philosoph]4 ,x  

mu/ n be ov]look$1 h[ev]1 t ev5 9 !     
pres5t epo* !re 7 m5 ^: intellectual    
ef=ts 7 prim>ily direct$ t[>ds !        
subtleties ( philosophy1 yet :o _h also 
a p5*ant = /rictly sci5tific imag9+s1 if
 n inde$ = practical sci5tific          
exp]im5ts4 ,at lea/ ?ree ( ^! m5 7 (    
suffici5t importance 9 ! hi/ory ( !     
developm5t ( sci5ce to dem& m ?an pass+ 
notice4 ,^! ?ree are ! ,engli%man       
,francis ,bacon 7#aefa-afbf71 ! ,fr5*man
 ,r5e ,desc>tes 7#aeif-afej72 & ! ,g]man
 ,gottfri$ ,leibnitz 7#afdf-agaf74      
,bacon1 z ! e>lie/ pa?-break]1 %[$ !    
way1 !oretically at lea/1 9 :i* !       
sci5ces %\ld be /udi$2 ,desc>tes1 pursu+
 ! me?ods po9t$ out by ,bacon1 c>ri$ !  
same l9e ( ab/ract reason into practice 
z well2 :ile ,leibnitz1 com+ "s ye>s    
lat]1 & hav+ ! advantage ( ! wisdom ( 8 
two great pr$ecessors1 0 naturally      
influ5c$ by bo? 9 8 views ( ab/ract     
sci5tific pr9ciples4  ,bacon's c>e] z a 
/atesman & 8 faults & mis=tunes z a man 
d n conc]n u "h4 ,our int]e/ 9 him beg9s

 ) 8 entrance into ,tr9ity ,college1    
,cambridge1 :]e he took up ! /udy ( all 
! sci5ces taught !re at t "t4 ,dur+ !   
?ree ye>s he became m & m conv9c$ t     
sci5ce 0 n be+ /udi$ 9 a pr(itable      
mann]1 until at la/1 at ! end ( 8       
college c\rse1 he made ready to r5\nce !
 old ,ari/otelian me?ods ( /udy &       
advance 8 !ory ( inductive /udy4 ,=     
al?\gh he 0 a great admir] ( ,ari/otle's
 "w1 he became conv9c$ t 8 me?ods (     
approa*+ /udy 7 entirely wrong4  ,!     
op9ion ( ,ari/otle1 he says1 9 8 ,de    
,argum5tum ,sci5ti>um1 seeme? to me a   
neglig5t op9ion1 t ( ^? ?+s :i* exi/ by 
nature no?+ c be *ang$ by cu/om2 us+ =  
example1 t if a /one be ?r[n t5 ?\s&    
times up x w n le>n to asc5d2 & t by (t5
 see+ or he>+ we d n le>n to see or he> 
bett]4 ,= ?\gh ?is pr9ciple be true 9   
?+s :]e9 nature is p]emptory 7! reason  
:]e( we _c n[ /& to discuss71 yet x is  
o!rwise 9 ?+s :]e9 nature admitte? a    
latitude4 ,= he might see t a /raight   
glove w come m easily on ) use2 & t a w&

 w by use b5d o!rwise ?an x grew2 & t by
 use ( ! voice we speak l\d] & /rong]2 &
 t by use ( endur+ heat or cold we      
endure x ! bett]1 & ! l2 :i* latt] sort 
h a ne>] resemblance unto t subject (   
mann]s he h&le? ?an ^? in/ances :i* he  
allege?47#a7  ,^! 7 8 op9ions1 =m$ :ile 
a "y man 9 college1 repeat$ at int]vals 
?r\gh 8 matur] ye>s1 & reit]at$ &       
emphasiz$ 9 8 old age4 ,masses ( facts 7
 to be obta9$ by obs]v+ nature at fir/  
h&1 & f su* accumulations ( facts       
d$uctions 7 to be made4 ,9 %ort1 reason+
 0 to be f ! specific to ! g5]al1 & n   
vice v]sa4  ,x 0 by 8 tea*+s alone t    
,bacon ?us contribut$ to ! f\ndation (  
mod]n sci5ce2 &1 :ile he 0 con/antly    
?9k+ & writ+ on sci5tific subjects1 he  
contribut$ little 9 ! way ( actual      
discov]ies4 ,i only s\nd ! cl>ion1 he   
said1 b ,i ent] n ! battle4  ,! case (  
,desc>tes1 h[ev]1 is diff]5t4 ,he bo?   
s\nd$ ! cl>ion & ent]$ into ! fight4 ,he
 himself freely ackn[l$ges 8 debt to    
,bacon = 8 tea*+s ( inductive me?ods (  

/udy1 b mod]n criticism places 8 "w on !
 same plane z t ( ! great ,engli%man4   
,if y lay hold ( any *>act]i/ic product 
( mod]n ways ( ?9k+1 says ,huxley1 ei!r 
9 ! region ( philosophy or 9 t ( sci5ce1
 y f9d ! _s ( t ?\ght1 if n its =m1 has 
be5 pres5t 9 ! m9d ( ! great            
,fr5*man47#b7  ,desc>tes1 ! son ( a     
noble family ( ,france1 0 educat$ by    
,jesuit tea*]s4 ,l ,bacon1 he v e>ly    
conceiv$ ! idea t ! me?ods ( tea*+ &    
/udy+ sci5ce 7 wrong1 b be pond]$ !     
matt] well into middle life be=e putt+  
into writ+ 8 ideas ( philosophy &       
sci5ce4 ,!n1 9 8 ,disc\rse ,t\*+ !      
,me?od ( ,us+ ,"o's ,reason ,rightly & (
 ,seek+ ,sci5tific ,tru?1 he po9t$ out !
 way ( seek+ aft] tru?4 ,8 c5tral idea 9
 ?is 0 to emphasize ! importance (      
,,d\bt1 & avoidance ( accept+ z tru?    
any?+ t does n admit ( absolute &       
unqualifi$ pro(4 ,9 rea*+ ^! conclusions
 he _h be=e him ! /rik+ examples (      
sci5tific d$uctions by ,galileo1 & m    
rec5tly ! discov]y ( ! circulation ( !  

blood by ,h>vey4 ,?is la/ came z a      
revelation to sci5ti/s1 r$uc+ ?is       
seem+ly occult process1 z x did1 to !   
field ( me*anical ph5om5a4 ,! same      
me*anical laws t gov]n$ ! heav5ly       
bodies1 z %[n by ,galileo1 gov]n$ !     
action ( ! human he>t1 &1 = aught any "o
 knew1 e "p ( ! body1 & ev5 ! m9d       
itself4  ,hav+ once conceiv$ ?is idea1  
,desc>tes began a s]ies ( dissections & 
exp]im5ts ^u ! l[] animals1 to f9d1 if  
possible1 fur!r pro( ( ?is g5]al law4   
,to him ! human body 0 simply a ma*9e1 a
 complicat$ me*anism1 ^: functions 7    
controll$ j z any o!r piece ( ma*9]y4   
,he comp>$ ! human body to complicat$   
ma*9]y run by wat]-falls & complicat$   
pipes4 ,! n]ves ( ! ma*9e :i* ,i am     
describ+1 he says1 may v well be comp>$ 
to ! pipes ( ^! wat]works2 its muscles &
 its t5dons to ! o!r v>i\s eng9es &     
spr+s :i* seem to move !m2 its animal   
spirits to ! wat] :i* impels !m1 ( :i* !
 he>t is ! f\nta92 :ile ! cavities ( !  
bra9 are ! c5tral (fice4 ,moreov]1      

respiration & o!r su* actions z are     
natural & usual 9 ! body1 & :i* dep5d on
 ! c\rse ( ! spirits1 are l ! movem5ts (
 a clock1 or a mill1 :i* may be kept up 
by ! ord9>y fl[ ( wat]47#c7  ,9 su*     
passages z ^! ,desc>tes anticipates !   
ideas ( physiology ( ! pres5t "t4 ,he   
believ$ t ! functions are p]=m$ by !    
v>i\s organs ( ! bodies ( animals & m5 z
 a me*anism1 to :i* 9 man 0 add$ ! s\l4 
,?is s\l he locat$ 9 ! p9eal gl&1 a     
deg5]ate & presumably functionless      
little organ 9 ! bra94 ,= ye>s          
,desc>tes's idea ( ! function ( ?is gl& 
0 held by _m physiologi/s1 & x 0 only ! 
introduction ( mod]n high-p[] microscopy
 t r$uc$ ?is also to a m]e me*anism1 &  
%[$ t x is app>5tly ! rema9s ( a        
,cyclopean eye once common to man's     
remote ance/ors4  ,desc>tes 0 !         
orig9ator ( a !ory ( ! movem5ts ( !     
univ]se by a me*anical process--!       
,c>tesian !ory ( vortices--:i* = sev]al 
decades aft] its promulgation reign$    
supreme 9 sci5ce4 ,x is ! +5uity ( ?is  

!ory1 n ! tru? ( its ass]tions1 t /ill  
excites admiration1 = x has long s9ce   
be5 supplant$4 ,x 0 c]ta9ly ! be/ hi!rto
 advanc$--! be/ t ! obs]vations ( ! age 
admitt$1 accord+ to ,d',alemb]t4        
,accord+ to ?is !ory ! inf9ite univ]se  
is full ( matt]1 !re be+ no su* ?+ z a  
vacuum4 ,matt]1 z ,desc>tes believ$1 is 
uni=m 9 "* ?r\gh\t ! entire univ]se1 &  
s9ce motion _c take place 9 any "p ( a  
space completely fill$1 )\t simultane\s 
movem5t 9 all o!r p>ts1 !re are con/ant 
m or less circul> movem5ts1 vortices1 or
 :irlpools ( p>ticles1 v>y+1 ( c\rse1 9 
size & velocity4 ,z a result ( ?is      
circul> movem5t ! p>ticles ( matt] t5d  
to become globul> f contact ) "o ano!r4 
,two species ( matt] are ?us =m$1 "o    
l>g] & globul>1 :i* cont9ue _! circul>  
motion ) a con/ant t5d5cy to fly f !    
c5tre ( ! axis ( rotation1 ! o!r compos$
 ( ! clipp+s result+ f ! gr9d+ process4 
,^! small] fil+s f ! ma9 bodies1 becom+ 
small] & small]1 gradually lose _!      
velocity & accumulate 9 ! c5tre ( !     

vortex4 ,?is collection ( ! small] matt]
 9 ! c5tre ( ! vortex con/itutes ! sun  
or />1 :ile ! sph]ical p>ticles propell$
 9 /raight l9es f ! c5tre t[>ds !       
circumf]5ce ( ! vortex produce !        
ph5om5on ( light radiat+ f ! c5tral />4 
,?us ?is matt] becomes ! atmosph]e      
revolv+ ar\nd ! accumulation at ! c5tre4
 ,b ! small p>ticles be+ con/antly worn 
away f ! revolv+ sph]ical p>ticles 9 !  
vortex1 become entangl$ 9 _! passage1 & 
:5 !y rea* ! edge ( ! inn] /rata ( sol> 
du/ !y settle ^u x & =m :at we call     
sun-spots4 ,^! are con/antly dissolv$ & 
re=m$1 until sometimes !y =m a cru/ r\nd
 ! c5tral nucleus4  ,z ! expansive =ce (
 ! /> dim9i%es 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 x is     
encroa*$ ^u by neighbor+ vortices4 ,if !
 "p ( ! encroa*+ /> be ( a less velocity
 ?an ! /> :i* x has swept up1 x w       
pres5tly lose its hold1 & ! small] />   
pass out ( range1 becom+ a comet4 ,b if 
! velocity ( ! vortex into :i* ! incru/$
 /> settles be equival5t to t ( !       
surr\nd$ vortex1 x w hold x z a captive1

 /ill revolv+ & wrapt 9 its own         
firmam5t4 ,?us ! sev]al planets ( our   
sol> sy/em h be5 captur$ & held by !    
sun-vortex1 z h ! moon & o!r satellites4
  ,b al?\gh ^! new !ories at fir/ creat$
 great en?usiasm among all classes (    
philosoph]s & sci5ti/s1 !y soon came "u 
! ban ( ! ,*ur*4 ,:ile no actual h>m    
came to ,desc>tes himself1 8 writ+s 7   
condemn$ by ! ,ca?olic & ,prote/ant     
*ur*es alike4 ,! _s ( philosophical     
inquiry he _h eng5d]$1 h[ev]1 liv$ on1 &
 is l>gely responsible = mod]n          
philosophy4  ,9 _m ways ! life & works (
 ,leibnitz rem9d u ( ,bacon r ?an       
,desc>tes4 ,8 life 0 sp5t 9 fill+ high  
political positions1 & 8 philosophical &
 sci5tific writ+s 7 by-pa?s ( 8 f]tile  
m9d4 ,he 0 a !oretical r ?an a practical
 sci5ti/1 8 contributions to sci5ce be+ 
9 ! nature ( philosophical reason+s r   
?an practical demon/rations4 ,_h he be5 
able to )draw f public life & devote    
himself to sci5ce alone1 z ,desc>tes    
did1 he w\ld und\bt$ly h prov$ himself  

equally great z a practical work]4 ,b   
dur+ ! "t ( 8 greate/ activity 9        
philosophical fields1 betwe5 ! ye>s     
#afij & #agaf1 he 0 all ! "t p]=m+      
extraord9>y active duties 9 entirely    
=eign fields4 ,8 "w may be reg>d$1      
p]haps1 z do+ = ,g]many 9 p>ticul> :at  
,bacon's did = ,engl& & ! re/ ( ! _w 9  
g5]al4  ,only a comp>atively small "p ( 
8 philosophical writ+s conc]n u "h4     
,accord+ to 8 !ory ( ! ultimate elem5ts 
( ! univ]se1 ! entire univ]se is compos$
 ( individual c5tres1 or monads4 ,to ^! 
monads he ascrib$ numb]less qualities by
 :i* e phase ( nature may be acc\nt$4   
,!y 7 suppos$ by him to be p]cipi5t1    
self-act+ be+s1 n "u arbitr>y control ( 
! deity1 & yet ,god himself 0 ! orig9al 
monad f :i* all ! re/ are g5]at$4 ,) ?is
 conception z a basis1 ,leibnitz d$uc$ 8
 doctr9e ( pre-e/abli%$ h>mony1 :]eby ! 
num]\s indep5d5t sub/ances compos+ ! _w 
are made to =m "o univ]se4 ,he believ$ t
 by virtue ( an inw>d en]gy monads      
develop !mselves spontane\sly1 ea* be+  

indep5d5t ( e o!r4 ,9 %ort1 ea* monad is
 a k9d ( deity 9 itself--a microcosm    
repres5t+ all ! great features ( !      
macrocosm4  ,x w\ld be impossible cle>ly
 to e/imate ! precise value ( !         
/imulative influ5ce ( ^! philosoph]s ^u 
! sci5tific ?\ght ( _! "t4 ,!re 0 "o    
way1 h[ev]1 9 :i* _! influ5ce 0 made v  
tangible--namely1 9 ! inc5tive !y gave  
to ! f\ndation ( sci5tific societies4   
,,sci5tific ,,societies  ,at ! pres5t   
"t1 :5 ! elem5ts ( "t & di/ance are     
practically elim9at$ 9 ! propagation (  
news1 & :5 *eap pr9t+ has m9imiz$ !     
difficulties ( publi%+ sci5tific        
discov]ies1 x is difficult to und]/& !  
isolat$ position ( ! sci5tific          
inve/igation ( ! ages t prec$$ /eam &   
electricity4 ,%ut (f f ! _w & completely
 out ( t\* ) fell[-labor]s p]haps only a
 few miles away1 ! inve/igators 7       
naturally s]i\sly h&icapp$2 & inv5tions 
& discov]ies 7 n made ) ! same rapidity 
t !y w\ld und\bt$ly h be5 _h ! same m5  
be5 receiv+ daily1 weekly1 or mon?ly    

communications f fell[-labor]s all ov] !
 _w1 z !y d to-day4 ,nei!r did !y h !   
advantage ( public or semi-public       
laboratories1 :]e !y 7 br\ght into      
contact ) o!r m51 f :om to ga!r fre%    
tra9s ( ?\ght & receive ! /imulus ( _!  
successes or failures4 ,9 ! natural     
c\rse ( ev5ts1 h[ev]1 neighbors :o 7    
int]e/$ 9 some:at simil> pursuits1 n ( !
 "* ( ! rivalry ( trade or comm]ce1 w\ld
 meet m or less frequ5tly & discuss _!  
progress4 ,! mutual advantages ( su*    
int]c\rse w\ld be at once appreciat$2 & 
x w\ld be b a %ort /ep f ! casual meet+ 
( two neighborly sci5ti/s to !          
e/abli%m5t ( societies1 meet+ at fix$   
times1 & compos$ ( memb]s liv+ )9       
reasonable travell+ di/ance4 ,!re w\ld1 
p]haps1 be ! weekly or mon?ly meet+s (  
m5 9 a limit$ area2 & z ! natural       
outgr[? ( ^! little local societies1 )  
frequ5t meet+s1 w\ld come ! =mation (   
l>g] societies1 meet+ less (t51 :]e     
memb]s travell$ a consid]able di/ance to
 att5d4 ,&1 f9ally1 ) increas$          

facilities = communication & travel1 !  
great int]national societies ( to-day   
w\ld be produc$--! natural outcome ( !  
neighborly meet+s ( ! primitive m$iaeval
 inve/igators4  ,9 ,italy1 at ab\t ! "t 
( ,galileo1 sev]al small societies 7    
=m$4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important ( ^! 0 !     
,lyncean ,society1 f\nd$ ab\t ! ye>     
#afaa1 ,galileo himself be+ a memb]4    
,?is society 0 succe$$ by ! ,accademia  
del ,cim5to1 at ,flor5ce1 9 #afeg1 :i* =
 a "t fl\ri%$1 ) su* a fam\s sci5ti/ z  
,torricelli z "o ( its memb]s4  ,9      
,engl& an impetus seems to h be5 giv5 by
 ,sir ,francis ,bacon's writ+s 9        
criticism & c5sure ( ! sy/em ( tea*+ 9  
colleges4 ,x is suppos$ t 8 sugge/ions z
 to :at %\ld be ! aims ( a sci5tific    
society l$ ev5tually to ! e/abli%m5t ( !
 ,royal ,society4 ,he po9t$ out h[      
little _h really be5 accompli%$ by !    
exi/+ in/itutions ( le>n+ 9 advanc+     
sci5ce1 & ass]t$ t little good c\ld ev] 
come f !m :ile _! me?ods ( tea*+ rema9$ 
un*ang$4 ,he cont5d$ t ! sy/em :i* made 

! lectures & ex]cises ( su* a nature t  
no deviation f ! e/abli%$ r\t9e c\ld be 
?\ght ( 0 p]nici\s4 ,b he %[$ t if any  
tea*] _h ! tem]ity to turn f !          
traditional pa?s1 ! d>+ pione] 0 likely 
to f9d insurm\ntable ob/acles plac$ 9 ! 
way ( 8 advancem5t4 ,! /udies 7         
imprison$ )9 ! limits ( a c]ta9 set (   
au?ors1 & orig9ality 9 ?\ght or tea*+ 0 
to be nei!r contemplat$ nor tol]at$4  ,!
 words ( ,bacon1 giv5 9 /rong & unsp>+  
t]ms ( c5sure & condemnation1 b         
nev]!less ) p]fect ju/ification1 soon   
bore fruit4 ,z e>ly z ! ye> #afde a     
small company ( sci5ti/s _h be5 9 !     
habit ( meet+ at "s place 9 ,london to  
discuss philosophical & sci5tific       
subjects = m5tal advancem5t4 ,9 #afdh1  
ow+ to ! political di/urbances ( ! "t1  
"s ( ! memb]s ( ^! meet+s remov$ to     
,ox=d1 among !m ,boyle1 ,wallis1 & ,wr51
 :]e ! meet+s 7 cont9u$1 z 7 also !     
meet+s ( ^? left 9 ,london4 ,9 #affb1   
h[ev]1 :5 ! political situation bad     
become m settl$1 ^! two bodies ( m5 7   

unit$ "u a *>t] f ,*>les ,,ii41 &       
,bacon's ideas 7 practically express$ 9 
t le>n$ body1 ! ,royal ,society (       
,london4 ,& x matt]s little t 9 "s      
respects ,bacon's views 7 n foll[$ 9 !  
practical work+s ( ! society1 or t !    
division ( labor 9 ! e>ly /ages 0       
some:at diff]5t ?an at pres5t4 ,! aim ( 
! society has always be5 "o = !         
advancem5t ( le>n+2 & if ,bacon himself 
c\ld look ov] its records1 he w\ld      
surely h little fault to f9d ) ! aid x  
has giv5 9 c>ry+ out 8 ideas = !        
promulgation ( useful k4  ,t5 ye>s aft] 
! *>t] 0 grant$ to ! ,royal ,society (  
,london1 ,"l ,bacon's words took        
practical effect 9 ,g]many1 ) ! result t
 ! ,academia ,naturae ,curiosorum 0     
f\nd$1 "u ! lead]%ip ( ,pr(essor ,j4 ,c4
 ,/urm4 ,! e>ly labors ( ?is society 7  
devot$ to a repetition ( ! mo/ notable  
exp]im5ts ( ! "t1 & ! "w ( ! embryo     
society 0 publi%$ 9 two volumes1 9 #afgb
 & #afhe respectively1 :i* 7 practically
 text-books ( ! physics ( ! p]iod4 ,x 0 

n until #agjj t ,fr$]ick ,i4 f\nd$ !    
,royal ,academy ( ,sci5ces at ,b]l91    
aft] ! elaborate plan ( ,leibnitz1 :o 0 
himself ! fir/ presid5t4  ,p]haps !     
ne>e/ realization ( ,bacon's ideal1     
h[ev]1 is 9 ! ,royal ,academy ( ,sci5ces
 at ,p>is1 :i* 0 f\nd$ 9 #afff "u !     
adm9i/ration ( ,colb]t1 dur+ ! reign (  
,l\is ,,xiv4 ,?is in/itution n only     
recogniz$ indep5d5t memb]s1 b _h besides
 tw5ty p5sionnaires :o receiv$ sal>ies f
 ! gov]nm5t4 ,9 ?is way a select body ( 
sci5ti/s 7 enabl$ to pursue _!          
inve/igations )\t be+ oblig$ to give    
?\ght to ! morr[ = _! su/5ance4 ,9      
return !y 7 to furni% ! meet+s )        
sci5tific memoirs1 & once a ye> give an 
acc\nt ( ! "w !y 7 engag$ ^u4 ,?us a    
c]ta9 numb] ( ! brighte/ m9ds 7 enc\rag$
 to devote _! entire "t to sci5tific    
rese>*1 deliv]$ alike f ! temptations ( 
weal? or ! emb>rassm5ts ( pov]ty4 ,t su*
 a plan works well is amply atte/$ by ! 
results emanat+ f ! ,fr5* academy4      
,p5sionnaires 9 v>i\s bran*es ( sci5ce1 

h[ev]1 ei!r paid by ! /ate or by le>n$  
societies1 are no long] conf9$ to       
,france4  ,among ! o!r e>ly sci5tific   
societies 0 ! ,imp]ial ,academy (       
,sci5ces at ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 project$ by 
,pet] ! ,great1 & e/abli%$ by 8 wid[1   
,ca?>9e ,i41 9 #agbe2 & also ! ,royal   
,sw$i% ,academy1 incorporat$ 9 #agha1 & 
c\nt+ among its e>ly memb]s su* m5 z !  
celebrat$ ,l9naeus4 ,b aft] ! fir/      
impulse _h result$ 9 a few le>n$        
societies1 _! manife/ advantage 0 s     
evid5t t additional numb]s increas$     
rapidly1 until at pres5t almo/ e bran* (
 e sci5ce is repres5t$ by m or less     
important bodies2 & ^! are1 individually
 & collectively1 add+ to k & /imulat+   
int]e/ 9 ! _m fields ( sci5ce1 ?us      
v9dicat+ ,"l ,bacon's assev]ations t k  
c\ld be satisfactorily promulgat$ 9 ?is 
mann]4     ,x4 ,,! ,,successors ,,(     
,,galileo ,,9 ,,physical ,,sci5ce  ,we h
 n[ to witness ! div]sifi$ ef=ts ( a    
company ( m5 :o1 work+ = ! mo/ "p       
indep5d5tly1 greatly add$ to ! data ( ! 

physical sci5ces--su* m5 z ,boyle1      
,huyg5s1 ,von ,g]icke1 & ,hooke4 ,x w be
 f\nd t ! /udies ( ^! m5 cov]$ ! :ole   
field ( physical sci5ces z !n           
und]/ood--! field ( s-call$ natural     
philosophy4 ,we %all be/ treat ^!       
successors ( ,galileo & precursors (    
,newton some:at biographically1 po9t+   
out ! correspond5ces & diff]5ces betwe5 
_! v>i\s accompli%m5ts z we proce$4 ,x w
 be not$ 9 due c\rse t ! "w ( "s ( !m 0 
anticipatory ( great a*ievem5ts ( a lat]
 c5tury4   ,,rob]t ,,boyle 7#afbg-afia7 
,"s ( ,rob]t ,boyle's views z to !      
possible /ructure ( atmosph]ic air w be 
consid]$ a little f>!r on 9 ?is *apt]1 b
 = ! mom5t we w take up ! consid]ation (
 "s ( 8 exp]im5ts ^u t z well z o!r     
gases4 ,boyle 0 always mu* int]e/$ 9    
al*emy1 & c>ri$ on ext5sive exp]im5ts 9 
attempt+ to accompli% ! transmutation ( 
metals2 b he did n conf9e himself to ^! 
exp]im5ts1 devot+ himself to rese>*es 9 
all ! fields ( natural philosophy4 ,he 0
 associat$ at ,ox=d ) a company (       

sci5ti/s1 includ+ ,wallis & ,wr51 :o    
held meet+s & made exp]im5ts toge!r1 ^! 
ga!r+s be+ ! beg9n+1 z m5tion$ a mom5t  
ago1 ( :at f9ally became ! ,royal       
,society4 ,x 0 dur+ ?is resid5ce at     
,ox=d t _m ( 8 valuable rese>*es ^u air 
7 made1 & dur+ ?is "t be inv5t$ 8       
air-pump1 n[ exhibit$ 9 ! ,royal        
,society rooms at ,burl+ton ,h\se47#a7  
,8 exp]im5ts to prove ! atmosph]ic      
pressure are mo/ int]e/+ & conclusive4  
,hav+ ?ree small1 r\nd glass bubbles1   
bl[n at ! flame ( a lamp1 ab\t ! size ( 
hazel-nuts1 he says1 ea* ( !m ) a %ort1 
sl5d] /em1 by means :]e( !y 7 s exactly 
pois$ 9 wat] t a v small *ange ( weight 
w\ld make !m ei!r em]ge or s9k2 at a "t 
:5 ! atmosph]e 0 ( conv5i5t weight1 ,i  
put !m into a wide-m\!d glass ( common  
wat]1 & leav+ !m 9 a quiet place1 :]e !y
 7 frequ5tly 9 my eye1 ,i obs]v$ t      
sometimes !y w\ld be at ! top ( ! wat]1 
& rema9 !re = sev]al days1 or p]haps    
weeks1 toge!r1 & sometimes fall to !    
bottom1 & aft] hav+ cont9u$ !re = "s "t 

rise aga94 ,& sometimes !y w\ld rise or 
fall z ! air 0 hot or cold47#b7  ,x 0 9 
! c\rse ( ^! exp]im5ts t ! obs]vations  
made by ,boyle l$ to ! inv5tion ( 8     
/atical b>omet]1 ! m]curial b>omet] hav+
 be5 inv5t$1 z we h se51 by ,torricelli1
 9 #afdc4 ,9 describ+ ?is inv5tion he   
says3 ,mak+ *oice ( a l>ge1 ?91 & light 
glass bubble1 bl[n at ! flame ( a lamp1 
,i c\nt]pois$ x ) a metallic weight1 9 a
 pair ( scales t 7 susp5d$ 9 a frame1 t 
w\ld turn ) ! ?irtie? "p ( a gra94 ,bo? 
! frame & ! balance 7 !n plac$ ne> a    
good b>omet]1 :5ce ,i might le>n !      
pres5t weight ( ! atmosph]e2 :51 ?\gh ! 
scales 7 unable to %[ all ! v>iations t 
appe>$ 9 ! m]curial b>omet]1 yet !y gave
 notice ( ^? t alt]$ ! height ( ! m]cury
 half a qu>t] ( an in*47#c7 ,a fairly   
s5sitive b>omet]1 aft] all4 ,?is /atical
 b>omet] sugge/$ sev]al useful          
applications to ! f]tile imag9ation (   
its inv5tor1 among o!rs ! measur+ (     
m\nta9-peaks1 z ) ! m]curial b>omet]1 ! 
r>efication ( ! air at ! top giv+ a     

def9ite ratio to ! m cond5s$ air 9 !    
valley4  ,ano!r ( 8 exp]im5ts 0 made to 
discov] ! atmosph]ic pressure to ! squ>e
 in*4 ,aft] consid]able difficulty he   
det]m9$ t ! relative weight ( a cubic   
in* ( wat] & m]cury 0 ab\t "o to f\rte51
 & comput+ f o!r kn[n weights he det]m9$
 t :5 a column ( quicksilv] ?irty in*es 
high is su/a9$ 9 ! b>omet]1 z x         
frequ5tly happ5s1 a column ( air t      
presses ^u an in* squ>e ne> ! surface ( 
! e>? mu/ weigh ab\t fifte5 avoirdupois 
p\nds47#d7 ,z ! pressure ( air at !     
sea-level is n[ e/imat$ at #ad4gcjd     
p\nds to ! squ>e in*1 x w be se5 t      
,boyle's calculation 0 n f> wrong4  ,f 8
 num]\s exp]im5ts ^u ! air1 ,boyle 0 l$ 
to believe t !re 7 _m lat5t qualities   
due to sub/ances conta9$ 9 x t sci5ce _h
 z yet be5 unable to fa?om1 believ+ t   
!re is n a m het]og5e\s body 9 ! _w4 ,he
 believ$ t contagi\s diseases 7 c>ri$ by
 ! air1 & sugge/$ t eruptions ( ! e>?1  
su* z ^? made by e>?quakes1 might s5d up
 v5om\s exhalations t produc$ diseases4 

,he sugge/$ also t ! air might play an  
important "p 9 "s processes (           
calc9ation1 :i*1 z we %all see1 0 prov$ 
to be true by ,lavoisi] late 9 !        
eighte5? c5tury4 ,boyle's notions ( !   
exact *emical action 9 ^! ph5om5a 7 (   
c\rse vague & indef9ite1 b he _h obs]v$ 
t "s "p 0 play$ by ! air1 & he 0 "r 9   
suppos+ t ! air may h a great %>e 9 v>y+
 ! salts obta9able f calc9$ vitriol47#e7
  ,al?\gh he 0 himself su* a pa9/ak+    
obs]v] ( facts1 he _h ! fault ( 8 age ( 
plac+ too mu* fai? 9 he>-say evid5ce (  
untra9$ obs]v]s4 ,?us1 f ! num]\s /ories
 he he>d conc]n+ ! gr[? ( metals 9      
previ\sly exhau/$ m9es1 he believ$ t !  
air 0 responsible = produc+ ?is gr[?--9 
:i* he und\bt$ly believ$4 ,! /ory ( a   
t9-m9] t1 9 8 own "t1 aft] a lapse (    
only tw5ty-five ye>s1 a heap1 ( e>?     
previ\sly exhau/$ ( its ore became aga9 
ev5 m ri*ly impregnat$ ?an be=e by ly+  
expos$ to ! air1 seems to h be5 believ$ 
by ! philosoph]4  ,z ,boyle 0 an        
al*emi/1 & und\bt$ly believ$ 9 ! al*emic

 !ory t metals h spirits & v>i\s o!r    
qualities t d n exi/1 x is n surpris+ t 
he 0 cr$ul\s 9 ! matt] ( beliefs conc]n+
 peculi> ph5om5a exhibit$ by !m4        
,fur!rmore1 he und\bt$ly fell into !    
error common to speciali/s1 or p]sons   
work+ = long p]iods ( "t on "o          
subject--! error ( ov]-en?usiasm 9 8    
subject4 ,he _h discov]$ s _m rem>kable 
qualities 9 ! air t x is n surpris+ to  
f9d t he attribut$ to x _m m t he c\ld n
 demon/rate4  ,boyle's "w ^u colors1    
al?\gh probably ( less importance ?an 8 
exp]im5ts & d$uctions ^u air1 %[ t he 0 
9 ! van z f> z ! sci5ce ( 8 day 0       
conc]n$4 ,z he po9ts out1 ! s*ools ( 8  
"t g5]ally taught t color is a p5etrat+ 
quality1 rea*+ to ! inn]mo/ "p ( !      
sub/ance1 &1 z an example ( ?is1        
seal+-wax 0 cit$1 :i* c\ld be brok5 into
 m9ute bits1 ea* p>ticle reta9+ ! same  
color z its fell[s or ! orig9al mass4   
,to refute ?is !ory1 & to %[ in/ances to
 ! contr>y1 ,boyle1 among o!r ?+s1 %[s t
 v>i\s colors--blue1 r$1 yell[--may be  

produc$ ^u temp]$ /eel1 & yet ! metal )9
 a hair's-bread? ( its surface h none ( 
^! colors4 ,!re=e1 he 0 l$ to believe t 
color1 9 opaque bodies at lea/1 is      
sup]ficial4  ,b be=e we desc5d to a m   
p>ticul> consid]ation ( our subject1 he 
says1 'tis prop] to obs]ve t colors may 
be reg>d$ ei!r z a quality resid+ 9     
bodies to modify light aft] a p>ticul>  
mann]1 or else z light itself s modifi$ 
z to /rike ^u ! organs ( sight1 & cause 
! s5sation we call color2 & t ?is latt] 
is ! m prop] acceptation ( ! ^w color w 
appe> h]eaft]4 ,& inde$ x is ! light    
itself1 :i* aft] a c]ta9 mann]1 ei!r    
mix$ ) %ades or o!r-wise1 /rikes our    
eyes & imm$iately produces t motion 9 ! 
organ :i* gives u ! color ( an          
object47#f7  ,9 exam9+ smoo? & r\gh     
surfaces to det]m9e ! cause ( _! color1 
he made use ( ! microscope1 & po9t$ out 
! v obvi\s example ( ! diff]5ce 9 color 
( a r\gh & a poli%$ piece ( ! same block
 ( /one4 ,he us$ "s /rik+ illu/rations (
 ! effect ( light & ! position ( ! eye  

^u colors4 ,?us ! color ( plu% or velvet
 w appe> v>i\s if y /roke "p ( x "o way 
& "p ano!r1 ! po/ure ( ! p>ticul> ?reads
 9 reg>d to ! light1 or ! eye1 be+ !reby
 v>i$4 ,& 'tis obs]vable t 9 a field (  
ripe corn1 bl[n ^u by ! w9d1 !re w appe>
 waves ( a color diff]5t f t ( ! re/ ( !
 corn1 because ! w9d1 by depress+ "s ( !
 e>s m ?an o!rs1 causes "o to reflect m 
light f ! lat]al & /rawy p>ts ?an       
ano!r47#g7 ,8 "w ^u color1 h[ev]1 z ^u  
light1 0 entirely ov]%ad[$ by ! "w ( 8  
great fell[-c\ntryman ,newton4  ,boyle's
 "w on electricity 0 a cont9uation (    
,gilb]t's1 to :i* he add$ sev]al new    
facts4 ,he add$ sev]al sub/ances to     
,gilb]t's li/ ( electrics1 exp]im5t$ on 
smoo? & r\gh surfaces 9 excit+ (        
electricity1 & made ! important discov]y
 t amb] reta9$ its attractive virtue    
aft] ! friction t excit$ x bad ceas$4 ,=
 ! attrition hav+ caus$ an inte/9e      
motion 9 its p>ts1 he says1 ! heat !reby
 excit$ ought n to cease z soon z ev] ! 
rubb+ is ov]1 b to cont9ue capable (    

emitt+ effluvia = "s "t aft]w>ds1 long] 
or %ort] accord+ to ! goodness ( !      
electric & ! degree ( ! commotion made2 
all :i*1 jo9$ toge!r1 may sometimes make
 ! effect consid]able2 & by ?is means1  
on a w>m day1 ,i1 ) a c]ta9 body n bigg]
 ?an a pea1 b v vigor\sly attractive1   
mov$ a /eel ne$le1 freely pois$1 ab\t   
?ree m9utes aft] ,i _h left (f rubb+    
x47#h7   ,,m>iotte ,,& ,,von ,,gu]icke  
,work+ contemporane\sly ) ,boyle1 & a   
man ^: "n is usually associat$ ) 8 z !  
prop\nd] ( ! law ( d5sity ( gases1 0    
,edme ,m>iotte 7di$ #afhd71 a native (  
,burgundy4 ,m>iotte demon/rat$ t b = !  
resi/ance ( ! atmosph]e1 all bodies1    
:e!r light or heavy1 d5se or ?91 w\ld   
fall ) equal rapidity1 & he prov$ ?is by
 ! well-kn[n gu9ea-&-fea!r exp]im5t4    
,hav+ exhau/$ ! air f a long glass tube 
9 :i* a gu9ea piece & a fea!r _h be5    
plac$1 he %[$ t 9 ! vacuum ?us =m$ !y   
fell ) equal rapidity z (t5 z ! tube 0  
rev]s$4 ,f 8 v>i\s exp]im5ts z to !     
pressure ( ! atmosph]e he d$uc$ ! law t 

! d5sity & ela/icity ( ! atmosph]e are  
precisely proportional to ! compress+   
=ce 7! law ( ,boyle & ,m>iotte74 ,he    
also asc]ta9$ t air exi/$ 9 a /ate (    
me*anical mixture ) liquids1 exi/+      
betwe5 _! p>ticles 9 a /ate (           
cond5sation4 ,he made _m o!r exp]im5ts1 
especially on ! collision ( bodies1 b 8 
mo/ important "w 0 ^u ! atmosph]e4  ,b  
mean:ile ano!r contempor>y ( ,boyle &   
,m>iotte 0 int]e/+ himself 9 ! /udy ( ! 
atmosph]e1 & _h made a wond]ful inv5tion
 & a mo/ /rik+ demon/ration4 ,?is 0     
,otto von ,gu]icke 7#afjb-afhf71        
,burgoma/] ( ,magdeburg1 & c\ncillor to 
8 mo/ s]5e & pot5t ,highness ! elector (
 t place4 ,:5 n engross$ ) ! duties (   
public (fice1 he devot$ 8 "t to ! /udy (
 ! sci5ces1 p>ticul>ly pneumatics &     
electricity1 bo? !n 9 _! infancy4 ,!    
discov]ies ( ,galileo1 ,pascal1 &       
,torricelli incit$ him to solve !       
problem ( ! creation ( a vacuum--a      
desid]atum s9ce be=e ! days ( ,ari/otle4
 ,8 fir/ exp]im5ts 7 ) a wood5 pump & a 

b>rel ( wat]1 b he soon f\nd t ) su*    
por\s mat]ial z wood a vacuum c\ld n be 
creat$ or ma9ta9$4 ,he !re=e made use ( 
a globe ( copp]1 ) pump & /op-cock2 & ) 
?is he 0 able to pump out air almo/ z   
easily z wat]4 ,?us1 9 #afej1 ! air-pump
 0 inv5t$4 ,cont9u+ 8 exp]im5ts ^u      
vacuums & atmosph]ic pressure ) 8 newly 
discov]$ pump1 he made "s />tl+         
discov]ies z to ! enorm\s pressure ex]t$
 by ! air4  ,x 0 n 8 int5tion1 h[ev]1 to
 demon/rate 8 newly acquir$ k by words  
or !ories alone1 nor by m]e laboratory  
exp]im5ts2 b he *ose in/ead an op5      
field1 to :i* 7 invit$ ,emp]or ,f]d9&   
,,iii41 & all ! pr9ces ( ! ,diet at     
,ratisbon4 ,:5 !y 7 assembl$ he produc$ 
two holl[ brass hemisph]es ab\t two feet
 9 diamet]1 & plac+ _! exactly fitt+    
surfaces toge!r1 proce$$ to pump out !  
air f _! holl[ int]ior1 ?us caus+ !m to 
/ick toge!r firmly 9 a mo/ rem>kable    
way1 app>5tly )\t any?+ hold+ !m4 ,?is (
 itself 0 /range en\gh2 b n[ ! wor?y    
burgoma/] produc$ teams ( horses1 &     

h>ness+ !m to ei!r side ( ! hemisph]es1 
attempt$ to pull ! adh]+ brasses ap>t4  
,five1 t51 fifte5 teams--?irty horses1 9
 all--7 atta*$2 b pull & tug z !y w\ld  
!y c\ld n sep>ate ! firmly clasp$       
hemisph]es4 ,! enorm\s pressure ( !     
atmosph]e _h be5 mo/ /rik+ly demon/rat$4
  ,b x is "o ?+ to demon/rate1 ano!r to 
conv9ce2 & _m ( ! good p ( ,magdeburg   
%ook _! heads ov] ?is devil's           
contrivance1 & pr$ict$ t ,heav5 w\ld    
puni% ! ,h]r ,burgoma/]1 z inde$ x _h   
once by /rik+ 8 h\se ) lightn+ & injur+ 
"s ( 8 inf]nal contrivances4 ,!y pr$ict$
 8 future puni%m5t1 b !y did n mole/    
him1 = to 8 fell[-citiz5s1 :o talk$ &   
laugh$1 drank & smok$ ) him1 & knew him 
= ! hone/ citiz5 t he 01 he did n seem  
bewit*$ at all4 ,& s he liv$ & work$ &  
add$ o!r facts to sci5ce1 & 8 brass     
hemisph]es 7 n de/roy$ by fanatical     
,inquisitors1 b are /ill pres]v$ 9 !    
royal libr>y at ,b]l94  ,9 8 exp]im5ts )
 8 air-pump he discov]$ _m ?+s reg>d+ ! 
action ( gases1 among o!rs1 t animals _c

 live 9 a vacuum4 ,he inv5t$ !          
anemoscope & ! air-balance1 & be+ ?us   
enabl$ to weight ! air & note ! *anges t
 prec$$ /orms & calms1 he 0 able /ill   
fur!r to dumf\nd 8 wond]+               
fell[-,magde-burg]s by m or less        
accurate pr$ictions ab\t ! wea!r4  ,von 
,gu]icke did n accept ,gilb]t's !ory t !
 e>? 0 a great magnet1 b 9 8 exp]im5ts  
along l9es simil> to ^? pursu$ by       
,gilb]t1 he n only inv5t$ ! fir/        
electrical ma*9e1 b discov]$ electrical 
attraction & repulsion4 ,! electrical   
ma*9e :i* he inv5t$ consi/$ ( a sph]e ( 
sulphur m\nt$ on an iron axis to imitate
 ! rotation ( ! e>?1 & :i*1 :5 rubb$1   
manife/$ electrical reactions4 ,:5 ?is  
globe 0 revolv$ & /rok$ ) ! dry h& x 0  
f\nd t x atta*$ to x all sorts ( little 
fragm5ts1 l leaves ( gold1 silv]1 pap]1 
etc4 ,?us ?is globe1 he says1 :5 br\ght 
r ne> drops ( wat] causes !m to swell & 
puff up4 ,x likewise attracts air1      
smoke1 etc47#i7 ,be=e ! "t ( ,gu]icke's 
demon/rations1 ,cabaeus _h not$ t *aff  

leap$ back f an electric1 b he did n    
int]pret ! ph5om5on z electrical        
repulsion4 ,von ,gu]icke1 h[ev]1        
recogniz$ x z su*1 & ref]s to x z :at he
 calls expulsive virtue4 ,ev5 expulsive 
virtue is se5 9 ?is globe1 he says1 = x 
n only attracts1 b also ,,repels aga9 f 
itself little bodies ( ?is sort1 nor    
does x receive !m until !y h t\*$ some?+
 else4 ,x w be obs]v$ f ?is t he 0 v    
close to discov]+ ! dis*>ge ( !         
electrification ( attract$ bodies by    
contact ) "s o!r object1 aft] :i* !y are
 reattract$ by ! electric4  ,he p]=m$ a 
mo/ int]e/+ exp]im5t ) 8 sulphur globe &
 a fea!r1 & 9 do+ s came ne> anticipat+ 
,b5jam9 ,frankl9 9 8 discov]y ( !       
effects ( po9t$ conductors 9 draw+ (f ! 
dis*>ge4 ,hav+ revolv$ & /rok$ 8 globe  
until x repell$ a bit ( d[n1 he remov$ !
 globe f its rack & advanc+ x t[>ds ! n[
 repell5t d[n1 drove x be=e him ab\t !  
room4 ,9 ?is *ase he obs]v$ t ! d[n     
pref]r$ to alight aga9/ ! po9ts ( any   
object :atsoev]4 ,he notic$ t %\ld ! d[n

 *ance to be driv5 )9 a few in*es ( a   
light$ c&le1 its attitude t[>ds ! globe 
sudd5ly *ang$1 & in/ead ( runn+ away f  
x1 x n[ flew to x = protection--! *>ge  
on ! d[n hav+ be5 dissipat$ by ! hot    
air4 ,he also not$ t if "o face ( a     
fea!r _h be5 fir/ attract$ & !n repell$ 
by ! sulphur ball1 t ! surface s affect$
 0 always turn$ t[>ds ! globe2 s t if ! 
positions ( ! two 7 rev]s$1 ! sides ( ! 
fea!r rev]s$ also4  ,/ill ano!r         
important discov]y1 t ( electrical      
conduction1 0 made by ,von ,gu]icke4    
,until 8 discov]y no "o _h obs]v$ !     
transf]5ce ( electricity f "o body to   
ano!r1 al?\gh ,gilb]t _h "s "t be=e not$
 t a rod r5d]$ magnetic at "o end became
 s at ! o!r4 ,von ,gu]icke's exp]im5ts 7
 made ^u a l95 ?read ) 8 sulphur globe1 
:i*1 he says1 hav+ be5 previ\sly excit$ 
by rubb+1 c ex]cise likewise its virtue 
?r\gh a l95 ?read an ell or m long1 &   
!re attract some?+4 ,b ?is discov]y1 & 8
 equally important "o t ! sulphur ball  
becomes lum9\s :5 rubb$1 7 practically  

=gott5 until aga9 br\ght to notice by ! 
discov]ies ( ,francis ,hauksbee & ,/eph5
 ,gray e>ly 9 ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,f ?is 
we may ga!r t ,von ,gu]icke himself did 
n realize ! import ( 8 discov]ies1 =    
o!rwise he w\ld c]ta9ly h c>ri$ 8       
inve/igations /ill fur!r4 ,b z x 0 he   
turn$ 8 att5tion to o!r fields ( rese>*4
   ,,rob]t ,,hooke  ,a sl5d]1 crook$1   
%rivell$-limb$1 cantank]\s little man1 )
 di%evell$ hair & hagg>d c\nt5ance1     
bad-temp]$ & irritable1 p5uri\s &       
di%one/1 at lea/ 9 8 claims = priority 9
 discov]ies--?is is ! picture usually   
drawn1 alike by fri5ds & enemies1 (     
,rob]t ,hooke 7#afce-agjc71 a man ) an  
almo/ unp>allel$ g5ius = sci5tific      
discov]ies 9 almo/ all bran*es ( sci5ce4
 ,hi/ory gives few examples s /rik+ ( a 
man ^: really great a*ievem5ts 9 sci5ce 
w\ld alone h made 8 "n immortal1 & yet  
:o _h ! pusillanim\s _s ( a *>latan--an 
almo/ insane mania1 z x seems--= claim+ 
! cr$it ( discov]ies made by o!rs4 ,?is 
attitude ( m9d c h>dly be expla9$ except

 z a mania3 x is c]ta9ly m *>itable s to
 reg>d x4 ,= 8 own discov]ies &         
inv5tions 7 s num]\s t a few m or less  
w\ld h>dly h add$ to 8 fame1 z 8        
reputation z a philosoph] 0 well        
e/abli%$4 ,admiration = 8 ability & 8   
philosophical k mu/ always be m>r$ by ! 
recollection ( 8 arrogant claims to !   
discov]ies ( o!r philosoph]s4  ,x seems 
pretty def9itely det]m9$ t ,hooke %\ld  
be cr$it$ ) ! inv5tion ( ! balance-spr+ 
= regulat+ wat*es2 b = a long "t a heat$
 controv]sy 0 wag$ betwe5 ,hooke &      
,huyg5s z to :o 0 ! real inv5tor4 ,x    
appe>s t ,hooke conceiv$ ! idea ( !     
balance-spr+1 :ile to ,huyg5s belongs ! 
cr$it ( hav+ adapt$ ! ,,coil$ spr+ 9 a  
work+ model4 ,he ?us made practical     
,hooke's conception1 :i* is )\t value   
except z appli$ by ! coil$ spr+2 b1     
nev]!less1 ! inv5tor1 z well z !        
p]fector1 %\ld receive cr$it4 ,9 ?is    
controv]sy1 unlike _m o!rs1 ! blame _c  
be laid at ,hooke's door4  ,hooke 0 !   
fir/ curator ( ! ,royal ,society1 & :5  

any?+ 0 to be inve/igat$1 usually inv5t$
 ! me*anical devices = do+ s4           
,a/ronomical app>atus1 in/rum5ts =      
measur+ specific weights1 clocks &      
*ronomet]s1 me?ods ( measur+ ! velocity 
( fall+ bodies1 freez+ & boil+ po9ts1   
/r5g? ( gunp[d]1 magnetic in/rum5ts--9  
%ort1 all k9ds ( +5i\s me*anical devices
 9 all bran*es ( sci5ce & me*anics4 ,x 0
 he :o made ! fam\s air-pump ( ,rob]t   
,boyle1 bas$ on ,boyle's plans4         
,incid5tally1 ,hooke claim$ to be !     
inv5tor ( ! fir/ air-pump himself1      
al?\gh ?is claim is n[ entirely         
discr$it$4  ,)9 a p]iod ( two ye>s he   
devis$ no less ?an ?irty diff]5t me?ods 
( fly+1 all ( :i*1 ( c\rse1 came to     
no?+1 b g to %[ ! f]tile imag9ation ( ! 
man1 & 8 tireless en]gy4 ,he exp]im5t$ )
 electricity & made "s novel sugge/ions 
^u ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! electric sp>k & !
 gl[1 al?\gh on ! :ole 8 contributions 9
 ?is field are unimportant4 ,he also    
fir/ po9t$ out t ! motions ( ! heav5ly  
bodies mu/ be look$ ^u z a me*anical    

problem1 & 0 almo/ )9 grasp+ di/ance ( !
 exact !ory ( gravitation1 himself      
orig9at+ ! idea ( mak+ use ( ! p5dulum 9
 measur+ gravity4 ,likewise1 he fir/    
propos$ ! wave !ory ( light2 al?\gh x 0 
,huyg5s :o e/abli%$ x on its pres5t     
f\ndation4  ,hooke publi%$1 among o!r   
?+s1 a book ( plates & descriptions ( 8 
,microscopical ,obs]vations1 :i* gives  
an idea ( ! advance t _h already be5    
made 9 microscopy 9 8 "t4 ,two ( ^!     
plates are giv5 "h1 :i*1 ev5 9 ?is age (
 microscopy1 are bo? int]e/+ &          
in/ructive4 ,^! plates are made f pr9ts 
( ,hooke's orig9al copp] plates1 & %[ t 
excell5t l5ses 7 made ev5 at t "t4 ,!y  
illu/rate1 also1 h[ mu* might h be5     
accompli%$ 9 ! field ( m$ic9e if m      
att5tion _h be5 giv5 to microscopy by   
physicians4 ,ev5 a c5tury lat]1 _h      
physicians made bett] use ( _!          
microscopes1 !y c\ld h>dly h ov]look$   
su* an easily f\nd p>asite z ! it* mite1
 :i* is q z easily detect$ z ! *eese    
mite1 pictur$ 9 ,hooke's book4  ,9      

ju/ice to ,hooke1 & 9 ext5uation ( 8    
o!rwise inexcusable peculi>ities ( m9d1 
x %\ld be rememb]$ t = _m ye>s he suff]$
 f a pa9ful & wa/+ disease4 ,?is may h  
affect$ 8 m5tal equilibrium1 )\t        
appreciably affect+ 8 +5uity4 ,9 8 own  
"t ?is condition w\ld h>dly h be5       
consid]$ a disease2 b to-day1 ) our     
advanc$ ideas z to m5tal diseases1 we   
%\ld be m incl9$ to ascribe 8 un=tunate 
attitude ( m9d to a pa?ological         
condition1 r ?an to any manife/ation (  
normal m5tality4 ,f ?is po9t ( view 8   
m5tal de=mity seems n unlike t (        
,cav5di%'s1 lat]1 except t 9 ! case (   
,cav5di% x manife/$ itself z an abnormal
 s5sitiv5ess in/ead ( an abnormal       
irritability4   ,,*ri/ian ,,huyg5s  ,if 
= no?+ else1 ! _w is indebt$ to ! man :o
 inv5t$ ! p5dulum clock1 ,*ri/ian       
,huyg5s 7#afbi-afie71 ( ! ,hague1       
inv5tor1 ma!matician1 me*anician1       
a/ronom]1 & physici/4 ,huyg5s 0 !       
desc5dant ( a noble & di/+ui%$ family1 8
 fa!r1 ,sir ,con/ant9e ,huyg5s1 be+ a   

well-kn[n poet & diplomati/4 ,e>ly 9    
life "y ,huyg5s began 8 c>e] 9 ! legal  
pr(ession1 complet+ 8 education 9 !     
juridical s*ool at ,br$a2 b 8 ta/e =    
ma!matics soon l$ him to neglect 8 legal
 /udies1 & 8 aptitude = sci5tific       
rese>*es 0 s m>k$ t ,desc>tes pr$ict$   
great ?+s ( him ev5 :ile he 0 a m]e tyro
 9 ! field ( sci5tific inve/igation4    
,"o ( 8 fir/ endeavors 9 sci5ce 0 to    
attempt an improvem5t ( ! telescope4    
,reflect+ ^u ! process ( mak+ l5ses !n 9
 vogue1 "y ,huyg5s & 8 bro!r ,con/ant9e 
attempt$ a new me?od ( gr9d+ & poli%+1  
:]eby !y ov]came a great deal ( !       
sph]ical & *romatic ab]ration4 ,) ?is   
new telescope a mu* cle>] field ( vision
 0 obta9$1 s mu* s t ,huyg5s 0 able to  
detect1 among o!r ?+s1 a hi!rto unkn[n  
satellite ( ,saturn4 ,x 0 ^! a/ronomical
 rese>*es t l$ him to apply ! p5dulum to
 regulate ! movem5ts ( clocks4 ,! ne$ = 
"s m exact me?od ( measur+ "t 9 8       
obs]vations ( ! />s 0 ke5ly felt by ! "y
 a/ronom]1 & aft] sev]al exp]im5ts along

 diff]5t l9es1 ,huyg5s hit ^u ! use ( a 
sw++ weight2 & 9 #afef made 8 inv5tion (
 ! p5dulum clock4 ,! ye> foll[+1 8 clock
 0 pres5t$ to ! /ates-g5]al4 ,accuracy z
 to "t is absolutely ess5tial 9         
a/ronomy1 b until ! inv5tion ( ,huyg5s's
 clock !re 0 no precise1 nor ev5        
approximately precise1 means ( measur+  
%ort int]vals4  ,huyg5s 0 "o ( ! fir/ to
 adapt ! micromet] to ! telescope--a    
me*anical device on :i* all ! nice      
det]m9ation ( m9ute di/ances dep5ds4 ,he
 also took up ! controv]sy aga9/ ,hooke 
z to ! sup]iority ( telescopic ov] pla9 
sights to quadrants1 ,hooke cont5d+ 9   
favor ( ! pla94 ,9 ?is controv]sy1 !    
subject ( :i* attract$ wide att5tion1   
,huyg5s 0 completely victori\s2 &       
,hooke1 be+ unable to refute ,huyg5s's  
argum5ts1 exhibit$ su* irritability t he
 increas$ 8 already g5]al unpopul>ity4  
,all ( ! argum5ts = & aga9/ ! telescope 
sight are too num]\s to be giv5 "h4 ,9  
cont5d+ 9 its favor ,huyg5s po9t$ out t 
! unaid$ eye is unable to appreciate an 

angul> space 9 ! sky less ?an ab\t ?irty
 seconds4 ,ev5 9 ! be/ quadrant ) a pla9
 sight1 !re=e1 ! altitude mu/ be unc]ta9
 by t quantity4 ,if 9 place ( ! pla9    
sight a telescope is sub/itut$1 ev5 if x
 magnify only ?irty times1 x w enable ! 
obs]v] to fix ! position to "o second1 )
 progressively increas$ accuracy z !    
magnify+ p[] ( ! telescope is increas$4 
,?is 0 only "o ( ! _m tell+ argum5ts    
advanc$ by ,huyg5s4  ,9 ! field (       
optics1 also1 ,huyg5s has add$          
consid]ably to sci5ce1 & 8 "w1          
,dioptrics1 is said to h be5 a favorite 
book ) ,newton4 ,dur+ ! lat] "p ( 8     
life1 h[ev]1 ,huyg5s aga9 devot$ himself
 to inv5t+ & con/ruct+ telescopes1 gr9d+
 ! l5ses1 & devis+1 if n actually mak+1 
! frame = hold+ !m4 ,^! telescopes 7 (  
enorm\s l5g?s1 ?ree ( 8 object-glasses1 
n[ 9 possession ( ! ,royal ,society1 be+
 ( #abc1 #ahj1 & #baj feet focal l5g?   
respectively4 ,su* in/rum5ts1 if        
con/ruct$ 9 ! ord9>y =m ( ! long tube1 7
 v unmanageable1 & to obviate ?is       

,huyg5s adopt$ ! plan ( disp5s+ ) ! tube
 altoge!r1 m\nt+ 8 l5ses on long poles  
manipulat$ by ma*9]y4 ,ev5 ^! 7 unwieldy
 en\gh1 b ! difficulties ( manipulation 
7 fully comp5sat$ by ! results obta9$4  
,x _h be5 discov]$1 among o!r ?+s1 t 9  
oblique refraction light is sep>at$ into
 colors4 ,!re=e1 any small portion ( !  
convex l5s ( ! telescope1 be+ a prism1 !
 rays proce$ to ! focus1 sep>at$ into   
prismatic colors1 :i* make ! image ?us  
=m$ edg$ ) a fr+e ( color & indi/9ct4   
,b1 =tunately = ! e>ly telescope mak]s1 
! degree ( ?is ab]ration is indep5d5t ( 
! focal l5g? ( ! l5s2 s t1 by increas+  
?is focal l5g? & us+ ! appropriate      
eye-piece1 ! image c be greatly         
magnifi$1 :ile ! fr+e ( colors rema9s   
ab\t ! same z :5 a less p[]ful l5s is   
us$4 ,h5ce ! advantage ( ,huyg5s's long 
telescope4 ,he did n conf9e 8 ef=ts to  
simply l5g!n+ ! focal l5g? ( 8          
telescopes1 h[ev]1 b also add$ to _!    
effici5cy by inv5t+ an almo/ p]fect     
a*romatic eye-piece4  ,9 #affc he 0     

elect$ a fell[ ( ! ,royal ,society (    
,london1 & 9 #affi he gave to t body a  
concise /atem5t ( ! laws gov]n+ !       
collision ( ela/ic bodies4 ,al?\gh !    
same views _h be5 giv5 by ,wallis & ,wr5
 a few weeks e>li]1 !re is no d\bt t    
,huyg5s's views 7 rea*$ indep5d5tly2 & x
 is probable t he _h arriv$ at 8        
conclusions sev]al ye>s be=e4 ,9 !      
,philosophical ,transactions = #affi x  
is record$ t ! society1 be+ int]e/$ 9 ! 
laws ( ! pr9ciples ( motion1 a reque/ 0 
made t ,m4 ,huyg5s1 ,dr4 ,wallis1 & ,sir
 ,*ri/oph] ,wr5 submit _! views on !    
subject4 ,wallis submitt$ 8 pap] fir/1  
,novemb] #ae1 #affh4 ,a mon? lat]1      
,decemb] #ag?1 ,wr5 imp>t$ to ! society 
8 laws z to ! nature ( ! collision (    
bodies4 ,& a few days lat]1 ,janu>y #e1 
#affi1 ,huyg5s s5t 9 8 ,rules ,conc]n+ !
 ,motion ( ,bodies aft] ,mutual         
,impulse4 ,al?\gh ,huyg5s's report 0    
receiv$ la/1 he 0 anticipat$ by su* a   
brief space ( "t1 & 8 views are s cle>ly
 /at$--on ! :ole r m s ?an ^? ( ! o!r   

two--t we give !m 9 "p "h3   #a4 ,if a  
h>d body %\ld /rike aga9/ a body equally
 h>d at re/1 aft] contact ! =m] w re/ & 
! latt] acquire a velocity equal to t ( 
! mov+ body4  #b4 ,b if t o!r equal body
 be likewise 9 motion1 & mov+ 9 ! same  
direction1 aft] contact !y w move )     
reciprocal velocities4  #c4 ,a body1    
h[ev] great1 is mov$ by a body h[ev]    
small impell$ ) any velocity :atsoev]4  
#e4 ,! quantity ( motion ( two bodies   
may be ei!r increas$ or dim9i%$ by _!   
%ock2 b ! same quantity t[>ds ! same "p 
rema9s1 aft] subtract+ ! quantity ( !   
contr>y motion4  #f4 ,! sum ( ! products
 aris+ f multiply+ ! mass ( any h>d body
 into ! squ>es ( its velocity is ! same 
bo? be=e & aft] ! /roke4  #g4 ,a h>d    
body at re/ w receive a great] quantity 
( motion f ano!r h>d body1 ei!r great]  
or less ?an itself1 by ! int]position ( 
any ?ird body ( a mean quantity1 ?an if 
x 0 imm$iately /ruck by ! body itself2 &
 if ! int]pos+ body be a mean           
proportional betwe5 ! o!r two1 its      

action ^u ! quiesc5t body w be ! greate/
 ( all47#aj7   ,?is 0 only "o ( sev]al  
int]e/+ & important communications s5t  
to ! ,royal ,society dur+ 8 lifetime4   
,"o ( ^! 0 a report on :at he calls     
,pneumatical ,exp]im5ts4 ,^u includ+ 9 a
 vacuum an insect resembl+ a beetle1 b  
some:at l>g]1 he says1 :5 x seem$ to be 
dead1 ! air 0 readmitt$1 & soon aft] x  
reviv$2 putt+ x aga9 9 ! vacuum1 & leav+
 x = an h\r1 aft] :i* ! air 0 readmitt$1
 x 0 obs]v$ t ! insect requir$ a long]  
"t to recov]2 includ+ x ! ?ird "t = two 
days1 aft] :i* ! air 0 admitt$1 x 0 t5  
h\rs be=e x began to /ir2 b1 putt+ x 9 a
 f\r? "t1 = eight days1 x nev] aft]w>ds 
recov]$4444 ,sev]al birds1 rats1 mice1  
rabbits1 & cats 7 kill$ 9 a vacuum1 b if
 ! air 0 admitt$ be=e ! eng9e 0 q       
exhau/$ "s ( !m w\ld recov]2 yet none   
reviv$ t _h be5 9 a p]fect vacuum4444   
,^u putt+ ! weight ( eighte5 gra9s (    
p[d] ) a gauge into a receiv] t held    
sev]al p\nds ( wat]1 & fir+ ! p[d]1 x   
rais$ ! m]cury an in* & a half2 f :i* x 

appe>s t !re is "o-fif? ( air 9 gunp[d]1
 ^u ! supposition t air is ab\t "o ?\s& 
times light] ?an wat]2 = 9 ?is exp]im5t 
! m]cury rose to ! eighte5? "p ( !      
height at :i* ! air commonly su/a9s x1 &
 consequ5tly ! weight ( eighte5 gra9s ( 
p[d] yield$ air en\gh to fill ! eighte5?
 "p ( a receiv] t conta9$ sev5 p\nds (  
wat]2 n[ ?is eighte5? "p conta9s =ty-n9e
 dra*ms ( wat]2 :]e=e ! air1 t takes up 
an equal space1 be+ a ?\s& times light]1
 weighs "o-?\s&? "p ( =ty-n9e dra*ms1   
:i* is m ?an ?ree gra9s & a half2 x     
foll[s1 !re=e1 t ! weight ( eighte5     
gra9s ( p[d] conta9s m ?an ?ree & a half
 ( air1 :i* is ab\t "o-fif? ( eighte5   
gra9s4444  ,f #affe to #afha1 accept+ ! 
tempt+ (f] made him ?r\gh ,colb]t1 by   
,l\is ,,xiv41 ,huyg5s pursu$ 8 /udies at
 ! ,biblio!que du ,roi z a resid5t (    
,france4 ,"h he publi%$ 8 ,horologium   
,oscillatorium1 d$icat$ to ! k+1        
conta9+1 among o!r ?+s1 8 solution ( !  
problem ( ! c5tre ( oscillation4 ,?is 9 
itself 0 an important /ep 9 ! hi/ory (  

me*anics4 ,assum+ z true t ! c5tre (    
gravity ( any numb] ( int]dep5d5t bodies
 _c rise high] ?an ! po9t f :i* x falls1
 he rea*$ correct conclusions z to !    
g5]al pr9ciple ( ! cons]vation ( vis    
viva1 al?\gh he did n actually prove 8  
conclusions4 ,?is 0 ! fir/ attempt to   
deal ) ! dynamics ( a sy/em4 ,9 ?is "w1 
also1 0 ! true det]m9ation ( ! relation 
betwe5 ! l5g? ( a p5dulum & ! "t ( its  
oscillation4  ,9 #afha he return$ to    
,holl&1 influ5c$1 x is believ$1 by !    
attitude t 0 be+ tak5 9 ,france aga9/ 8 
religion4 ,"h he cont9u$ 8              
inve/igations1 built 8 imm5se           
telescopes1 &1 among o!r ?+s1 discov]$  
pol>ization1 :i* is record$ 9 ,traite de
 la ,lumi]e1 publi%$ at ,leyd5 9 #afij4 
,five ye>s lat] he di$1 bequea?+ 8      
manuscripts to ! ,univ]sity ( ,leyd54 ,x
 is int]e/+ to note t he nev] accept$   
,newton's !ory ( gravitation z a        
univ]sal prop]ty ( matt]4     ,,xi4     
,,newton ,,& ,,! ,,composition ,,(      
,,light  ,galileo1 t giant 9 physical   

sci5ce ( ! e>ly sev5te5? c5tury1 di$ 9  
#afdb4 ,on ,*ri/mas day ( ! same ye> !re
 0 born 9 ,engl& ano!r intellectual     
giant :o 0 de/9$ to c>ry =w>d ! "w (    
,cop]nicus1 ,kepl]1 & ,galileo to a     
m>vell\s consummation ?r\gh ! discov]y (
 ! great unify+ law 9 accordance ) :i* !
 planet>y motions are p]=m$4 ,we ref]1 (
 c\rse1 to ! greate/ ( ,engli% physical 
sci5ti/s1 ,isaac ,newton1 ! ,%akespe>e (
 ! sci5tific _w4 ,born ?us be=e ! middle
 ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 ,newton liv$      
beyond ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! eighte5?        
7#agbg74 ,= ! la/ =ty ye>s ( t p]iod 8 0
 ! dom9at+ sci5tific p]sonality ( ! _w4 
,) full propriety t "t has be5 spok5 ( z
 ! ,age ( ,newton4  ,yet ! man :o 0 to  
a*ieve su* di/9ction gave no e>ly       
premonition ( future greatness4 ,he 0 a 
sickly *ild f bir?1 & a boy ( little    
seem+ promise4 ,he 0 an indiff]5t /ud5t1
 yet1 on ! o!r h&1 he c>$ little = !    
common amusem5ts ( boyhood4 ,he e>ly    
exhibit$1 h[ev]1 a ta/e = me*anical     
contrivances1 & sp5t mu* "t 9 devis+    

w9dmills1 wat]-clocks1 sun-dials1 &     
kites4 ,:ile o!r boys 7 int]e/$ only 9  
hav+ kites t w\ld fly1 ,newton--at lea/ 
s ! /ories ( a lat] "t w\ld h u         
und]/&--c>$ m = ! inve/igation ( ! seem+
 pr9ciples involv$1 or = te/+ ! be/     
me?ods ( atta*+ ! /r+s1 or ! be/        
mat]ials to be us$ 9 con/ruction4       
,mean:ile ! future philosoph] 0 acquir+ 
a ta/e = read+ & /udy1 delv+ into old   
volumes :5ev] he f\nd an opportunity4   
,^! habits conv9c$ 8 relatives t x 0    
useless to attempt to make a f>m] ( !   
y\?1 z _h be5 _! int5tion4 ,he 0 !re=e  
s5t back to s*ool1 & 9 ! summ] ( #affa  
he matriculat$ at ,tr9ity ,college1     
,cambridge4 ,ev5 at college ,newton     
seems to h %[n no unusual m5tal         
capacity1 & 9 #affd1 :5 exam9$ = a      
s*ol>%ip by ,dr4 ,b>r[1 t g5tleman is   
said to h =m$ a poor op9ion ( !         
applicant4 ,x is said t ! k ( ! e/imate 
plac$ ^u 8 abilities by 8 in/ructor     
piqu$ ,newton1 & l$ him to take up 9    
e>ne/ ! ma!matical /udies 9 :i* he      

aft]w>ds atta9$ su* di/9ction4 ,! /udy (
 ,euclid & ,desc>tes's ,geometry r\s$ 9 
him a lat5t int]e/ 9 ma!matics1 & f t "t
 =w>d 8 inve/igations 7 c>ri$ on )      
en?usiasm4 ,9 #affg he 0 elect$ ,fell[ (
 ,tr9ity ,college1 tak+ ! degree (      
,m4,a4 ! foll[+ spr+4  ,x w ?us appe> t 
,newton's boyhood & e>ly manhood 7 pass$
 dur+ t tr\bl\s "t 9 ,briti% political  
annals :i* saw ! ov]?r[ ( ,*>les ,i41 ! 
autocracy ( ,cromwell1 & ! ev5tual      
re/oration ( ! ,/u>ts4 ,8 matur] ye>s   
witness$ ! ov]?r[ ( ! la/ ,/u>t & !     
reign ( ! ,dut*man1 ,william ( ,orange4 
,9 8 old age he saw ! fir/ ( !          
,hanov]ians m\nt ! ?rone ( ,engl&4 ,)9 a
 decade ( 8 dea? su* sci5tific pa?-f9d]s
 z ,cav5di%1 ,black1 & ,prie/ley 7      
born--m5 :o liv$ on to ! close ( !      
eighte5? c5tury4 ,9 a full s5se1 !n1 !  
age ( ,newton bridges ! gap f t e>ly "t 
( sci5tific awak5+ "u ,kepl] & ,galileo 
to ! "t :i* we ( ! tw5tie? c5tury ?9k ( 
z ess5tially mod]n4   ,,! ,,composition 
,,( ,,:ite ,,light  ,9 ,decemb]1 #afgb1 

,newton 0 elect$ a ,fell[ ( ! ,royal    
,society1 & at ?is meet+ a pap] describ+
 8 inv5tion ( ! refract+ telescope 0    
read4 ,a few days lat] he wrote to !    
secret>y1 mak+ "s inquiries z to !      
weekly meet+s ( ! society1 & intimat+ t 
he _h an acc\nt ( an int]e/+ discov]y t 
he wi%$ to lay be=e ! society4 ,:5 ?is  
communication 0 made public1 x prov$ to 
be an explanation ( ! discov]y ( !      
composition ( :ite light4 ,we h se5 t ! 
"q z to ! nature ( color _h comm&$ !    
att5tion ( su* inve/igators z ,huyg5s1 b
 t no v satisfactory solution ( ! "q _h 
be5 atta9$4 ,newton prov$ by            
demon/rative exp]im5ts t :ite light is  
compos$ ( ! bl5d+ ( ! rays ( div]se     
colors1 & t ! color t we ascribe to any 
object is m]ely due to ! fact t ! object
 9 "q reflects rays ( t color1 absorb+ !
 re/4 ,t :ite light is really made up ( 
_m colors bl5d$ w\ld seem incr$ible _h n
 ! exp]im5ts by :i* ?is composition is  
demon/rat$ become famili> to e "o4 ,!   
exp]im5ts 7 absolutely novel :5 ,newton 

br\ght !m =w>d1 & 8 demon/ration ( !    
composition ( light 0 "o ( ! mo/ /rik+  
expositions ev] br\ght to ! att5tion ( !
 ,royal ,society4 ,x is h>dly necess>y  
to add t1 not)/&+ ! conclusive "* (     
,newton's "w1 8 explanations did n = a  
long "t meet ) g5]al acceptance4        
,newton 0 l$ to 8 discov]y by "s        
exp]im5ts made ) an ord9>y glass prism  
appli$ to a hole 9 ! %utt] ( a d>k5$    
room1 ! refract$ rays ( ! sunlight be+  
receiv$ ^u ! opposite wall & =m+ !re !  
famili> spectrum4 ,x 0 a v pleas+       
div]sion1 he wrote1 to view ! vivid &   
int5se colors produc$ !reby2 & aft] a   
"t1 apply+ myself to consid] !m v       
circumspectly1 ,i became surpris$ to see
 !m 9 v>y+ =m1 :i*1 accord+ to ! receiv$
 laws ( refraction1 ,i expect$ %\ld h   
be5 circul>4 ,!y 7 t]m9at$ at ! sides ) 
/raight l9es1 b at ! ends ! decay (     
light 0 s gradual t x 0 difficult to    
det]m9e ju/ly :at 0 _! figure1 yet !y   
seem$ semicircul>4  ,comp>+ ! l5g? ( ?is
 color$ spectrum ) its bread?1 ,i f\nd x

 almo/ five times great]2 a             
disproportion s extravagant t x excit$  
me to a m ?an ord9>y curiosity ( exam9+ 
f :5ce x might proce$4 ,i c\ld sc>ce ?9k
 t ! v>i\s ?icknesses ( ! glass1 or !   
t]m9ation ) %ad[ or d>kness1 c\ld h any 
influ5ce on light to produce su* an     
effect2 yet ,i ?\ght x n amiss1 fir/1 to
 exam9e ^? circum/ances1 & s tri$ :at   
w\ld happ5 by transmitt+ light ?r\gh    
p>ts ( ! glass ( div]s ?ickness1 or     
?r\gh holes 9 ! w9d[ ( div]s bigness1 or
 by sett+ ! prism )\t s t ! light might 
pass ?r\gh x & be refract$ be=e x 0     
transmitt$ ?r\gh ! hole2 b ,i f\nd none 
( ^? circum/ances mat]ial4 ,! fa%ion ( !
 colors 0 9 all ^! cases ! same4  ,!n ,i
 suspect$ :e!r by any unev5ness ( !     
glass or o!r cont+5t irregul>ity ^!     
colors might be ?us dilat$4 ,& to try   
?is ,i took ano!r prism l ! =m]1 & s    
plac$ x t ! light1 pass+ ?r\gh !m bo?1  
might be refract$ contr>y ways1 & s by !
 latt] return$ into t c\rse f :i* ! =m] 
div]t$ x4 ,=1 by ?is means1 ,i ?\ght1 ! 

regul> effects ( ! fir/ prism w\ld be   
de/roy$ by ! second prism1 b ! irregul> 
ones m augm5t$ by ! multiplicity (      
refractions4 ,! ev5t 0 t ! light1 :i* by
 ! fir/ prism 0 diffus$ into an oblong  
=m1 0 by ! second r$uc$ into an orbicul>
 "o ) z mu* regul>ity z :5 x did n all  
pass ?r\gh !m4 ,s t1 :atev] 0 ! cause ( 
t l5g?1 'twas n any cont+5t irregul>ity4
  ,i !n proce$$ to exam9e m critically  
:at might be effect$ by ! diff]5ce ( !  
incid5ce ( rays com+ f div]s p>ts ( !   
sun2 & to t end measur$ ! sev]al l9es & 
angles belong+ to ! image4 ,its di/ance 
f ! hole or prism 0 #bb feet2 its utmo/ 
l5g? #ac #a_/d in*es2 its bread? #b     
#e_/h2 ! diamet] ( ! hole #a_/d ( an    
in*2 ! angle :i* ! rays1 t5d+ t[>ds !   
middle ( ! image1 made ) ^? l9es1 9 :i* 
!y w\ld h proce$$ )\t refraction1 0 #dd 
degrees #ef'2 & ! v]tical angle ( !     
prism1 #fc degrees #ab'4 ,also !        
refractions on bo? sides ( ! prism--t   
is1 ( ! incid5t & em]g5t rays--71 z ne> 
z ,i c\ld make !m1 equal1 & consequ5tly 

ab\t #ed degrees #d'2 & ! rays fell     
p]p5dicul>ly ^u ! wall4 ,n[1 subduct+ ! 
diamet] ( ! hole f ! l5g? & bread? ( !  
image1 !re rema9s #ac in*es ! l5g?1 & #b
 #c_/h ! bread?1 compreh5d$ by ^? rays1 
:i*1 pass+ ?r\gh ! c5tre ( ! said hole1 
:i* t bread? subt5d$1 0 ab\t #ca'1      
answ]able to ! sun's diamet]2 b ! angle 
:i* its l5g? subt5d$ 0 m ?an five su*   
diamet]s1 namely #b degrees #di'4  ,hav+
 made ^! obs]vations1 ,i fir/ comput$ f 
!m ! refractive p[] ( ! glass1 & f\nd x 
measur$ by ! ratio ( ! s9es #bj to #ca4 
,& !n1 by t ratio1 ,i comput$ !         
refractions ( two rays fl[+ f opposite  
p>ts ( ! sun's discus1 s z to diff] #ca'
 9 _! obliquity ( incid5ce1 & f\nd t !  
em]g5t rays %\ld h compreh5d$ an angle (
 #ca'1 z !y did1 be=e !y 7 incid5t4  ,b 
because ?is computation 0 f\nd$ on !    
hypo!sis ( ! proportionality ( ! s9es ( 
incid5ce & refraction1 :i* ?\gh by my   
own exp]i5ce ,i c\ld n imag9e to be s   
errone\s z to make t angle b #ca'1 :i* 9
 reality 0 #b degrees #di'1 yet my      

curiosity caus$ me aga9 to make my      
prism4 ,& hav+ plac$ x at my w9d[1 z    
be=e1 ,i obs]v$ t by turn+ x a little   
ab\t its axis to & fro1 s z to v>y its  
obliquity to ! light m ?an an angle ( #d
 degrees or #e degrees1 ! colors 7 n    
!reby s5sibly translat$ f _! place on ! 
wall1 & consequ5tly by t v>iation (     
incid5ce ! quantity ( refraction 0 n    
s5sibly v>i$4 ,by ?is exp]im5t1 !re=e1 z
 well z by ! =m] computation1 x 0 evid5t
 t ! diff]5ce ( ! incid5ce ( rays fl[+ f
 div]s p>ts ( ! sun c\ld n make !m aft] 
decussation div]ge at a s5sibly great]  
angle ?an t at :i* !y be=e conv]g$2 :i* 
be+1 at mo/1 b ab\t #ca' or #cb'1 !re   
/ill rema9$ "s o!r cause to be f\nd out1
 f :5ce x c\ld be #b degrees #di'4  ,all
 ?is caus$ ,newton to suspect t ! rays1 
aft] _! trajection ?r\gh ! prism1 mov$ 9
 curv$ r ?an 9 /raight l9es1 ?us t5d+ to
 be ca/ ^u ! wall at diff]5t places     
accord+ to ! am\nt ( ?is curve4 ,8      
suspicions 7 increas$1 also1 by happ5+  
to recall t a t5nis-ball sometimes      

describes su* a curve :5 cut by a       
t5nis-racket /rik+ ! ball obliquely4  ,=
 a circul> z well z a progressive motion
 be+ communicat$ to x by ! /roke1 he    
says1 its p>ts on t side :]e ! motions  
conspire mu/ press & beat ! contigu\s   
air m viol5tly ?an on ! o!r1 & !re      
excite a reluctancy & reaction ( ! air  
proportionately great]4 ,& = ! same     
reason1 if ! rays ( light %\ld possibly 
be globul> bodies1 & by _! oblique      
passage out ( "o m$ium into ano!r       
acquire a circulat+ motion1 !y ought to 
feel ! great] resi/ance f ! ambi5t e!r  
on t side :]e ! motions conspire1 & !nce
 be cont9ually b[$ to ! o!r4 ,b not)/&+ 
?is plausible gr\nd ( suspicion1 :5 ,i  
came to exam9e x ,i c\ld obs]ve no su*  
curvity 9 !m4 ,&1 besides 7:i* 0 en\gh =
 my purpose71 ,i obs]v$ t ! diff]5ce    
'twixt ! l5g? ( ! image & diamet] ( !   
hole ?r\gh :i* ! light 0 transmitt$ 0   
proportionable to _! di/ance4  ,!       
gradual removal ( ^! suspicions at l5g? 
l$ me to ! exp]im5tum crucis1 :i* 0 ?is3

 ,i took two bo>ds1 &1 plac+ "o ( !m    
close beh9d ! prism at ! w9d[1 s t !    
light mu/ pass ?r\gh a small hole1 made 
9 x = ! purpose1 & fall on ! o!r bo>d1  
:i* ,i plac$ at ab\t twelve feet        
di/ance1 hav+ fir/ made a small hole 9 x
 also1 = "s ( ! incid5t light to pass   
?r\gh4 ,!n ,i plac$ ano!r prism beh9d   
?is second bo>d1 s t ! light traject$   
?r\gh bo? ! bo>ds might pass ?r\gh t    
also1 & be aga9 refract$ be=e x arriv$  
at ! wall4 ,?is done1 ,i took ! fir/    
prism 9 my h&s & turn$ x to & fro sl[ly 
ab\t its axis1 s mu* z to make ! sev]al 
p>ts ( ! image1 ca/ on ! second bo>d1   
successively pass ?r\gh ! hole 9 x1 t ,i
 might obs]ve to :at places on ! wall ! 
second prism w\ld refract !m4 ,& ,i saw 
by ! v>iation ( ^! places t ! light1    
t5d+ to t end ( ! image t[>ds :i* !     
refraction ( ! fir/ prism 0 made1 did 9 
! second prism suff] a refraction       
consid]ably great] ?an ! light t5d+ to !
 o!r end4 ,& s ! true cause ( ! l5g? ( t
 image 0 detect$ to be no o!r ?an t     

,,light consi/s ( ,,rays ,,diff]5tly    
,,refrangible1 :i*1 )\t any respect to a
 diff]5ce 9 _! incid5ce1 71 accord+ to  
_! degrees ( refrangibility1 transmitt$ 
t[>ds div]s p>ts ( ! wall47#a7   ,,!    
,,nature ,,( ,,color  ,hav+ ?us prov$ ! 
composition ( light1 ,newton took up an 
exhau/ive discussion z to colors1 :i* _c
 be ent]$ into at l5g? "h4 ,"s ( 8      
rem>ks on ! subject ( comp\nd colors1   
h[ev]1 may be /at$ 9 "p4 ,newton's views
 are ( p>ticul> int]e/ 9 ?is connection1
 s9ce1 z we h already po9t$ out1 ! "q z 
to :at con/itut$ color c\ld n be agre$  
^u by ! philosoph]s4 ,"s held t color 0 
an integral "p ( ! sub/ance2 o!rs       
ma9ta9$ t x 0 simply a reflection f !   
surface2 & no sci5tific explanation _h  
be5 g5]ally accept$4 ,newton concludes 8
 pap] z foll[s3  ,i might add m in/ances
 ( ?is nature1 b ,i %all conclude ) !   
g5]al "o t ! colors ( all natural bodies
 h no o!r orig9 ?an ?is1 t !y are       
v>i\sly qualifi$ to reflect "o sort (   
light 9 great] pl5ty ?an ano!r4 ,& ?is  

,i h exp]im5t$ 9 a d>k room by illum9at+
 ^? bodies ) uncomp\nd$ light ( div]s   
colors4 ,= by t means any body may be   
made to appe> ( any color4 ,!y h !re no 
appropriate color1 b ev] appe> ( ! color
 ( ! light ca/ ^u !m1 b yet ) ?is       
diff]5ce1 t !y are mo/ brisk & vivid 9 !
 light ( _! own daylight color4 ,m9ium  
appe>e? !re ( any color indiff]5tly )   
:i* 'tis illu/rat$1 b yet mo/ lum9\s 9  
r$2 & s ,bise appe>e? indiff]5tly ( any 
color ) :i* 'tis illu/rat$1 b yet mo/   
lum9\s 9 blue4 ,& !re=e ,m9ium reflecte?
 rays ( any color1 b mo/ copi\sly ^?    
indu$ ) r$2 & consequ5tly1 :5 illu/rat$ 
) daylight--t is1 ) all sorts ( rays    
promiscu\sly bl5d$--^? qualifi$ ) r$    
%all ab\nd mo/ 9 ! reflect$ light1 & by 
_! preval5ce cause x to appe> ( t color4
 ,& = ! same reason1 ,bise1 reflect+    
blue mo/ copi\sly1 %all appe> blue by ! 
excess ( ^? rays 9 its reflect$ light2 &
 ! l ( o!r bodies4 ,& t ?is is ! entire 
& adequate cause ( _! colors is manife/1
 because !y h no p[] to *ange or alt] ! 

colors ( any sort ( rays incid5t ap>t1 b
 put on all colors indiff]5tly ) :i* !y 
are enlight5$47#b7  ,?is epo*-mak+ pap] 
ar\s$ a /orm ( opposition4 ,"s (        
,newton's oppon5ts criticis$ 8 me?ods1  
o!rs ev5 d\bt$ ! tru? ( 8 exp]im5ts4    
,!re 0 "o slight mi/ake 9 ,newton's     
belief t all prisms w\ld give a spectrum
 ( exactly ! same l5g?1 & x 0 "s "t be=e
 he correct$ ?is error4 ,mean:ile he    
pati5tly met & answ]$ ! argum5ts ( 8    
oppon5ts until he began to feel t       
pati5ce 0 no long] a virtue4 ,at "o "t  
he ev5 w5t s f> z to decl>e t1 once he 0
 free ( ?is bus9ess1 he w\ld r5\nce     
sci5tific rese>* =ev]1 at lea/ 9 a      
public way4 ,=tunately = ! _w1 h[ev]1 he
 did n adh]e to ?is det]m9ation1 b w5t  
on to ev5 great] discov]ies--:i*1 x may 
be add$1 involv$ /ill great]            
controv]sies4  ,9 comm5t+ on ,newton's  
discov]y ( ! composition ( light1       
,voltaire said3 ,sir ,isaac ,newton has 
demon/rat$ to ! eye1 by ! b>e assi/ance 
( a prism1 t light is a composition (   

color$ rays1 :i*1 be+ unit$1 =m :ite    
color4 ,a s+le ray is by him divid$ into
 sev51 :i* all fall ^u a piece ( l95 or 
a %eet ( :ite pap]1 9 _! ord] "o above !
 o!r1 & at equal di/ances4 ,! fir/ is   
r$1 ! second orange1 ! ?ird yell[1 !    
f\r? gre51 ! fif? blue1 ! six? indigo1 !
 sev5? a violet purple4 ,ea* ( ^! rays  
transmitt$ aft]w>ds by a hundr$ o!r     
prisms w nev] *ange ! color x be>s2 9 l 
mann] z gold1 :5 completely purg$ f its 
dross1 w nev] *ange aft]w>ds 9 !        
crucible47#c7     ,,xii4 ,,newton ,,&   
,,! ,,law ,,( ,,gravitation  ,we come n[
 to ! /ory ( :at is by common cons5t !  
greate/ ( sci5tific a*ievem5ts4 ,! law (
 univ]sal gravitation is ! mo/ f>-rea*+ 
pr9ciple z yet discov]$4 ,x has         
application equally to ! m9ute/ p>ticle 
( matt] & to ! mo/ di/ant suns 9 !      
univ]se1 yet x is amaz+ 9 its v         
simplicity4 ,z usually phras$1 ! law is 
?is3 ,t e p>ticle ( matt] 9 ! univ]se   
attracts e o!r p>ticle ) a =ce t v>ies  
directly ) ! mass ( ! p>ticles &        

inv]sely z ! squ>es ( _! mutual di/ance4
 ,newton did n vault at once to ! full  
expression ( ?is law1 ?\gh he _h =mulat$
 x fully be=e he gave ! results ( 8     
inve/igations to ! _w4 ,we h n[ to foll[
 ! /eps by :i* he rea*$ ?is culm9at+    
a*ievem5t4  ,at ! v beg9n+ we mu/ und]/&
 t ! idea ( univ]sal gravitation 0 n    
absolutely orig9al ) ,newton4 ,away back
 9 ! old ,greek days1 z we h se51       
,anaxagoras conceiv$ & cle>ly express$ !
 idea t ! =ce :i* holds ! heav5ly bodies
 9 _! orbits may be ! same t op]ates ^u 
sub/ances at ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,)      
,anaxagoras ?is 0 sc>cely m ?an a guess4
 ,aft] 8 day ! idea seems n to h be5    
express$ by any "o until ! sev5te5?     
c5tury's awak5+ ( sci5ce4 ,!n !         
consid]ation ( ,kepl]'s ,?ird ,law (    
planet>y motion sugge/$ to _m m9ds      
p]haps indep5d5tly ! probability t ! =ce
 hi!rto m5tion$ m]ely z c5tripetal1     
?r\gh ! op]ation ( :i* ! planets are    
held 9 _! orbits is a =ce v>y+ inv]sely 
z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance f ! sun4 ,?is idea

 _h come to ,rob]t ,hooke1 to ,wr51 &   
p]haps to ,halley1 z well z to ,newton2 
b z yet no "o _h conceiv$ a me?od by :i*
 ! validity ( ! sugge/ion might be te/$4
 ,x 0 claim$ lat] on by ,hooke t he _h  
discov]$ a me?od demon/rat+ ! tru? ( !  
!ory ( inv]se squ>es1 & aft] ! full     
ann\ncem5t ( ,newton's discov]y a heat$ 
controv]sy 0 precipitat$ 9 :i* ,hooke   
put =w>d 8 claims ) accu/om$ acrimony4  
,hooke1 h[ev]1 nev] produc$ 8           
demon/ration1 & x may well be d\bt$ :e!r
 he _h f\nd a me?od :i* did m ?an       
vaguely sugge/ ! law :i* ! obs]vations (
 ,kepl] _h p>tially reveal$4 ,newton's  
great m]it lay n s mu* 9 conceiv+ ! law 
( inv]se squ>es z 9 ! demon/ration ( !  
law4 ,he 0 l$ to ?is demon/ration ?r\gh 
consid]+ ! orbital motion ( ! moon4     
,accord+ to ! famili> /ory1 :i* has     
become "o ( ! classic my?s ( sci5ce1    
,newton 0 l$ to take up ! problem ?r\gh 
obs]v+ ! fall ( an apple4 ,voltaire is  
responsible = ! /ory1 :i* s]ves z well z
 ano!r2 its tru? or falsity ne$ n 9 !   

lea/ conc]n u4 ,suffice x t ?r\gh pond]+
 on ! famili> fact ( t]re/rial          
gravitation1 ,newton 0 l$ to "q :e!r ?is
 =ce :i* op]ates s tangibly "h at !     
e>?'s surface may n ext5d its influ5ce  
out into ! dep?s ( space1 s z to        
include1 = example1 ! moon4 ,obvi\sly "s
 =ce pulls ! moon con/antly t[>ds ! e>?2
 o!rwise t body w\ld fly (f at a tang5t 
& nev] return4 ,may n ?is s-call$       
c5tripetal =ce be id5tical ) t]re/rial  
gravitation8 ,su* 0 ,newton's qu]y4     
,probably _m ano!r man s9ce ,anaxagoras 
_h ask$ ! same "q1 b assur$ly ,newton 0 
! fir/ man to f9d an answ]4  ,! ?\ght t 
sugge/$ itself to ,newton's m9d 0 ?is3  
,if we make a diagram illu/rat+ !       
orbital c\rse ( ! moon = any giv5 p]iod1
 say "o m9ute1 we %all f9d t ! c\rse ( !
 moon dep>ts f a /raight l9e dur+ t     
p]iod by a measurable di/ance--t3 is to 
say1 ! moon has be5 virtually pull$     
t[>ds ! e>? by an am\nt t is repres5t$  
by ! diff]5ce betwe5 its actual position
 at ! end ( ! m9ute "u obs]vation & !   

position x w\ld occupy _h its c\rse be5 
tang5tial1 z1 accord+ to ! fir/ law (   
motion1 x mu/ h be5 _h n "s =ce deflect$
 x t[>ds ! e>?4 ,measur+ ! deflection 9 
"q--:i* is equival5t to ! s-call$ v]s$  
s9e ( ! arc trav]s$--we h a basis =     
det]m9+ ! /r5g? ( ! deflect+ =ce4       
,newton con/ruct$ su* a diagram1 &1     
measur+ ! am\nt ( ! moon's dep>ture f a 
tang5tial rectil9e> c\rse 9 "o m9ute1   
det]m9$ ?is to be1 by 8 calculation1    
?irte5 feet4 ,obvi\sly1 !n1 ! =ce act+  
^u ! moon is "o t w\ld cause t body to  
fall t[>ds ! e>? to ! di/ance ( ?irte5  
feet 9 ! fir/ m9ute ( its fall4 ,w\ld   
su* be ! =ce ( gravitation act+ at !    
di/ance ( ! moon if ! p[] ( gravitation 
v>ies inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance8 ,t
 0 ! tangible =m 9 :i* ! problem pres5t$
 itself to ,newton4 ,! ma!matical       
solution ( ! problem 0 simple en\gh4 ,x 
is bas$ on a comp>ison ( ! moon's       
di/ance ) ! l5g? ( ! e>?'s radius4 ,on  
mak+ ?is calculation1 ,newton f\nd t !  
pull ( gravitation--if t 7 really ! =ce 

t controls ! moon--gives t body a fall (
 slightly ov] fifte5 feet 9 ! fir/      
m9ute1 in/ead ( ?irte5 feet4 ,"h 0      
surely a sugge/ive approximation1 yet1  
on ! o!r b&1 ! discrepancy seem$ to be  
too great to w>rant him 9 ! supposition 
t he _h f\nd ! true solution4 ,he !re=e 
dismiss$ ! matt] f 8 m9d = ! "t be+1 nor
 did he return to x def9itely = "s ye>s4
  illu/ration caption  ,,diagram ,,to   
,,illu/rate ,,newton',s ,,law ,,(       
,,gravitation 7,e repres5ts ! e>? & ,a !
 moon4 ,7 ! e>?'s pull on ! moon to     
cease1 ! moon's in]tia w\ld cause x to  
take ! tang5tial c\rse1 ,,ab4 ,on ! o!r 
h&1 7 ! moon's motion to be /opp$ = an  
in/ant1 ! moon w\ld fall directly t[>ds 
! e>?1 along ! l9e ,,ad4 ,! moon's      
actual orbit1 result+ f ^! compon5t     
=ces1 is ,,ac4 ,let ,,ac repres5t !     
actual flight ( ! moon 9 "o m9ute4 ,!n  
,,bc1 :i* is obvi\sly equal to ,,ad1    
repres5ts ! di/ance :i* ! moon virtually
 falls t[>ds ! e>? 9 "o m9ute4 ,actual  
computation1 bas$ on measurem5ts ( !    

moon's orbit1 %[$ ?is di/ance to be ab\t
 fifte5 feet4 ,ano!r computation %[$ t  
?is is ! di/ance t ! moon w\ld fall     
t[>ds ! e>? "u ! influ5ce ( gravity1 on 
! supposition t ! =ce ( gravity         
decreases inv]sely ) ! squ>e ( !        
di/ance2 ! basis ( comp>ison be+ furni%$
 by fall+ bodies at ! surface ( ! e>?4  
,!ory & obs]vations ?us co9cid+1 ,newton
 0 ju/ifi$ 9 decl>+ t ! =ce t pulls !   
moon t[>ds ! e>? & keeps x 9 its orbit1 
is ! famili> =ce ( gravity1 & t ?is     
v>ies inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance47  
,x 0 to appe> 9 due "t t ,newton's      
hypo!sis 0 p]fectly valid & t 8 me?od ( 
attempt$ demon/ration 0 equally s4 ,!   
difficulty 0 t ! e>?'s prop] dim5sions 7
 n at t "t kn[n4 ,a wrong e/imate ( !   
e>?'s size vitiat$ all ! o!r            
calculations involv$1 s9ce ! measurem5t 
( ! moon's di/ance dep5ds ^u !          
obs]vation ( ! p>allax1 :i* _c lead to a
 correct computation unless ! l5g? ( !  
e>?'s radius is accurately kn[n4        
,newton's fir/ calculation 0 made z e>ly

 z #afff1 & x 0 n until #afhb t 8       
att5tion 0 call$ to a new & app>5tly    
accurate measurem5t ( a degree ( ! e>?'s
 m]idian made by ! ,fr5* a/ronom]       
,pic>d4 ,! new measurem5t made a degree 
( ! e>?'s surface #fi4aj miles1 in/ead (
 sixty miles4  ,le>n+ ( ?is mat]ially   
alt]$ calculation z to ! e>?'s size1    
,newton 0 l$ to take up aga9 8 problem (
 ! fall+ moon4 ,z he proce$$ ) 8        
computation1 x became m & m c]ta9 t ?is 
"t ! result 0 to h>monize ) ! obs]v$    
facts4 ,z ! /ory goes1 he 0 s completely
 ov]:elm$ ) emotion t he 0 =c$ to ask a 
fri5d to complete ! simple calculation4 
,t /ory may well be true1 =1 simple ?\gh
 ! computation 01 its result 0 p]haps ! 
mo/ wond]ful demon/ration hi!rto a*iev$ 
9 ! entire field ( sci5ce4 ,n[ at la/ x 
0 kn[n t ! =ce ( gravitation op]ates at 
! di/ance ( ! moon1 & holds t body 9 its
 elliptical orbit1 & x requir$ b a      
slight ef=t ( ! imag9ation to assume t !
 =ce :i* op]ates ?r\gh su* a rea* (     
space ext5ds its influ5ce yet m widely4 

,t su* is really ! case 0 demon/rat$    
pres5tly ?r\gh calculations z to ! moons
 ( ,jupit] & by simil> computations     
reg>d+ ! orbital motions ( ! v>i\s      
planets4 ,all results h>moniz+1 ,newton 
0 ju/ifi$ 9 rea*+ ! conclusion t        
gravitation is a univ]sal prop]ty (     
matt]4 ,x rema9$1 z we %all see1 =      
n9ete5?-c5tury sci5ti/s to prove t !    
same =ce actually op]ates ^u ! />s1 ?\gh
 x %\ld be add$ t ?is demon/ration m]ely
 =tifi$ a belief t _h already f\nd full 
acceptance4  ,hav+ ?us epitomiz$        
,newton's discov]y1 we mu/ n[ take up ! 
/eps ( 8 progress some:at 9 detail1 &   
/ate 8 !ories & _! demon/ration 9 8 own 
words4 ,proposition ,,iv41 !orem #d1 ( 8
 ,pr9cipia is z foll[s3  ,t ! moon      
gravitates t[>ds ! e>? & by ! =ce (     
gravity is cont9ually drawn (f f a      
rectil9e> motion & reta9$ 9 its orbit4  
,! mean di/ance ( ! moon f ! e>?1 9 !   
syzygies 9 semi-diamet]s ( ! e>?1 is1   
accord+ to ,ptolemy & mo/ a/ronom]s1    
#ei2 accord+ to ,v5del9 & ,huyg5s1 #fj2 

to ,cop]nicus1 #fj #a_/c2 to ,/reet1 #fj
 #b_/c2 & to ,ty*o1 #ef #a_/b4 ,b ,ty*o1
 & all t foll[ 8 tables ( refractions1  
mak+ ! refractions ( ! sun & moon       
7altoge!r aga9/ ! nature ( light7 to    
exce$ ! refractions ( ! fix$ />s1 & t by
 f\r or five m9utes ,,ne> ,,! ,,horizon1
 did !reby increase ! moon's            
,,horizontal p>allax by a l numb] (     
m9utes1 t is1 by a twelf? or fifte5? "p 
( ! :ole p>allax4 ,correct ?is error & !
 di/ance w become ab\t #fj #a_/b        
semi-diamet]s ( ! e>?1 ne> to :at o!rs h
 assign$4 ,let u assume ! mean di/ance (
 #fj diamet]s 9 ! syzygies2 & suppose "o
 revolution ( ! moon1 9 respect to !    
fix$ />s1 to be complet$ 9 #bg;d4 #g;h4 
#dc'1 z a/ronom]s h det]m9$2 & !        
circumf]5ce ( ! e>? to am\nt to         
#abc1bdi1fjj ,p>is feet1 z ! ,fr5* h    
f\nd by m5suration4 ,& n[1 if we imag9e 
! moon1 depriv$ ( all motion1 to be let 
g1 s z to desc5d t[>ds ! e>? ) ! impulse
 ( all t =ce by :i* 7by ,cor4 ,prop4    
iii47 x is reta9$ 9 its orb1 x w 9 !    

space ( "o m9ute ( "t describe 9 its    
fall #ae #a_/ab ,p>is feet4 ,= ! v]s$   
s9e ( t arc :i* ! moon1 9 ! space ( "o  
m9ute ( "t1 w\ld by its mean motion     
describe at ! di/ance ( sixty           
semi-diamet]s ( ! e>?1 is ne>ly #ae     
#a_/ab ,p>is feet1 or m accurately #ae  
feet1 #a in*1 #a l9e #d_/i4 ,:]e=e1 s9ce
 t =ce1 9 approa*+ ! e>?1 increases 9 ! 
reciprocal-duplicate proportion ( !     
di/ance1 & ^u t acc\nt1 at ! surface ( !
 e>?1 is #fj x #fj times great] ?an at !
 moon1 a body 9 our regions1 fall+ ) t  
=ce1 ought 9 ! space ( "o m9ute ( "t to 
describe #fj x #fj x #ae #a_/ab ,p>is   
feet2 & 9 ! space ( "o second ( "t1 to  
describe #ae #a_/ab ( ^? feet1 or m     
accurately1 #ae feet1 #a in*1 #a l9e    
#d_/i4 ,& ) ?is v =ce we actually f9d t 
bodies "h ^u e>? d really desc5d2 = a   
p5dulum oscillat+ seconds 9 ! latitude (
 ,p>is w be #c ,p>is feet1 & #h l9es    
#a_/b 9 l5g?1 z ,mr4 ,huyg5s has obs]v$4
 ,& ! space :i* a heavy body describes  
by fall+ 9 "o second ( "t is to half !  

l5g? ( ! p5dulum 9 ! duplicate ratio ( !
 circumf]5ce ( a circle to its diamet]  
7z ,mr4 ,huyg5s has also %[n71 & is     
!re=e #ae ,p>is feet1 #a in*1 #a l9e    
#d_/i4 ,& !re=e ! =ce by :i* ! moon is  
reta9$ 9 its orbit is t v same =ce :i*  
we commonly call gravity2 =1 7 gravity  
ano!r =ce diff]5t f t1 !n bodies desc5d+
 to ! e>? ) ! jo9t impulse ( bo? =ces   
w\ld fall ) a d\ble velocity1 & 9 !     
space ( "o second ( "t w\ld describe #cj
 #a_/f ,p>is feet2 altoge!r aga9/       
exp]i5ce47#a7  ,all ?is is beautifully  
cle>1 & its validity has nev] 9 rec5t   
g5]ations be5 call$ 9 "q2 yet x %\ld be 
expla9$ t ! argum5t does n am\nt to an  
actually indisputable demon/ration4 ,x  
is at lea/ possible t ! co9cid5ce betwe5
 ! obs]v$ & comput$ motion ( ! moon may 
be a m]e co9cid5ce & no?+ m4 ,?is       
probability1 h[ev]1 is s remote t       
,newton is fully ju/ifi$ 9 disreg>d+ x1 
&1 z has be5 said1 all subsequ5t        
g5]ations h accept$ ! computation z     
demon/rative4  ,let u produce n[        

,newton's fur!r computations z to ! o!r 
planet>y bodies1 pass+ on to 8 f9al     
conclusion t gravity is a univ]sal =ce4 
,,proposition ,v41 ,,!orem ,v4  ,t !    
circumjovial planets gravitate t[>ds    
,jupit]2 ! circumsaturnal t[>ds ,saturn2
 ! circumsol> t[>ds ! sun2 & by ! =ces (
 _! gravity are drawn (f f rectil9e>    
motions1 & reta9$ 9 curvil9e> orbits4   
,= ! revolutions ( ! circumjovial       
planets ab\t ,jupit]1 ( ! circumsaturnal
 ab\t ,saturn1 & ( ,m]cury & ,v5us & !  
o!r circumsol> planets ab\t ! sun1 are  
appe>ances ( ! same sort ) ! revolution 
( ! moon ab\t ! e>?2 & !re=e1 by ,rule  
ii41 mu/ be ow+ to ! same sort ( causes2
 especially s9ce x has be5 demon/rat$ t 
! =ces ^u :i* ^? revolutions dep5d t5d  
to ! c5tres ( ,jupit]1 ( ,saturn1 & ( ! 
sun2 & t ^? =ces1 9 rec$+ f ,jupit]1 f  
,saturn1 & f ! sun1 decrease 9 ! same   
proportion1 & accord+ to ! same law1 z !
 =ce ( gravity does 9 rec$+ f ! e>?4    
,,cor4 #a4--,!re is1 !re=e1 a p[] (     
gravity t5d+ to all ! planets2 =        

d\btless ,v5us1 ,m]cury1 & ! re/ are    
bodies ( ! same sort ) ,jupit] &        
,saturn4 ,& s9ce all attraction 7by ,law
 iii47 is mutual1 ,jupit] w !re=e       
gravitate t[>ds all 8 own satellites1   
,saturn t[>ds 81 ! e>? t[>ds ! moon1 & !
 sun t[>ds all ! prim>y planets4  ,,cor4
 #b4--,! =ce ( gravity :i* t5ds to any  
"o planet is reciprocally z ! squ>e ( ! 
di/ance ( places f ! planet's c5tre4    
,,cor4 #c4--;,all ! planets d mutually  
gravitate t[>ds "o ano!r1 by ,cor4 #a & 
#b1 & h5ce x is t ,jupit] & ,saturn1 :5 
ne> _! conjunction1 by _! mutual        
attractions s5sibly di/urb ea* o!r's    
motions4 ,s ! sun di/urbs ! motions ( ! 
moon2 & bo? sun & moon di/urb our sea1 z
 we %all h]eaft] expla94                
,,s*olium  ,! =ce :i* reta9s ! cele/ial 
bodies 9 _! orbits has be5 hi!rto call$ 
c5tripetal =ce2 b x be+ n[ made pla9 t x
 c be no o!r ?an a gravitat+ =ce1 we    
%all h]eaft] call x gravity4 ,= ! cause 
( ! c5tripetal =ce :i* reta9s ! moon 9  
its orbit w ext5d itself to all !       

planets by ,rules i41 ii41 & iii4       
,,proposition ,,vi41 ,,!orem ,,vi4  ,t  
all bodies gravitate t[>ds e planet2 & t
 ! weights ( ! bodies t[>ds any ! same  
planet1 at equal di/ances f ! c5tre ( ! 
planet1 are proportional to ! quantities
 ( matt] :i* !y sev]ally conta94  ,x has
 be5 n[ a long "t obs]v$ by o!rs t all  
sorts ( heavy bodies 7all[ance be+ made 
= ! inability ( ret>dation :i* !y suff] 
f a small p[] ( resi/ance 9 ! air7      
desc5d to ! e>? ,,f ,,equal ,,heights 9 
equal times2 & t equality ( times we may
 di/+ui% to a great accuracy by help (  
p5dulums4 ,i tri$ ! ?+ 9 gold1 silv]1   
lead1 glass1 s&1 common salt1 wood1     
wat]1 & :eat4 ,i provid$ two wood5      
boxes1 r\nd & equal3 ,i fill$ ! "o )    
wood1 & susp5d$ an equal weight ( gold  
7z exactly z ,i c\ld7 9 ! c5tre (       
oscillation ( ! o!r4 ,! boxes hang+ by  
elev5 feet1 made a c\ple ( p5dulums     
exactly equal 9 weight & figure1 &      
equally receiv+ ! resi/ance ( ! air4 ,&1
 plac+ ! "o by ! o!r1 ,i obs]v$ !m to   

play toge!r =w>d & backw>d1 = a long "t1
 ) equal vibrations4 ,& !re=e ! quantity
 ( matt] 9 gold 0 to ! quantity ( matt] 
9 ! wood z ! action ( ! motive =ce 7or  
vis motrix7 ^u all ! gold to ! action ( 
! same ^u all ! wood--t is1 z ! weight (
 ! "o to ! weight ( ! o!r3 & ! l happ5$ 
9 ! o!r bodies4 ,by ^! exp]im5ts1 9     
bodies ( ! same weight1 ,i c\ld         
manife/ly h discov]$ a diff]5ce ( matt] 
less ?an ! ?\s&? "p ( ! :ole1 _h any su*
 be54 ,b1 )\t all d\bt1 ! nature (      
gravity t[>ds ! planets is ! same z     
t[>ds ! e>?4 ,=1 %\ld we imag9e our     
t]re/rial bodies remov$ to ! orb ( !    
moon1 & !re1 toge!r ) ! moon1 depriv$ ( 
all motion1 to be let g1 s z to fall    
toge!r t[>ds ! e>?1 x is c]ta91 f :at we
 h demon/rat$ be=e1 t1 9 equal times1 !y
 w\ld describe equal spaces ) ! moon1 & 
( consequ5ce are to ! moon1 9 quantity &
 matt]1 z _! weights to its weight4     
,moreov]1 s9ce ! satellites ( ,jupit]   
p]=m _! revolutions 9 times :i* obs]ve !
 sesquiplicate proportion ( _! di/ances 

f ,jupit]'s c5tre1 _! accel]ative       
gravities t[>ds ,jupit] w be            
reciprocally z ! squ>e ( _! di/ances f  
,jupit]'s c5tre--t is1 equal1 at equal  
di/ances4 ,&1 !re=e1 ^! satellites1 if  
suppos$ to fall ,,t[>ds ,,jupit] f equal
 heights1 w\ld describe equal spaces 9  
equal times1 9 l mann] z heavy bodies d 
on our e>?4 ,&1 by ! same argum5t1 if ! 
circumsol> planets 7 suppos$ to be let  
fall at equal di/ances f ! sun1 !y w\ld1
 9 _! desc5t t[>ds ! sun1 describe equal
 spaces 9 equal times4 ,b =ces :i*      
equally accel]ate unequal bodies mu/ be 
z ^? bodies--t is to say1 ! weights ( ! 
planets 7,,t[>ds ,,! ,,sun7 mu/ be z _! 
quantities ( matt]4 ,fur!r1 t ! weights 
( ,jupit] & 8 satellites t[>ds ! sun are
 proportional to ! sev]al quantities (  
_! matt]1 appe>s f ! exce$+ly regul>    
motions ( ! satellites4 ,= if "s ( ^!   
bodies 7 m /rongly attract$ to ! sun 9  
proportion to _! quantity ( matt] ?an   
o!rs1 ! motions ( ! satellites w\ld be  
di/urb$ by t inequality ( attraction4   

,if at equal di/ances f ! sun any       
satellite1 9 proportion to ! quantity ( 
its matt]1 did gravitate t[>ds ! sun ) a
 =ce great] ?an ,jupit] 9 proportion to 
81 accord+ to any giv5 proportion1      
suppose d to e2 !n ! di/ance betwe5 !   
c5tres ( ! sun & ( ! satellite's orbit  
w\ld be always great] ?an ! di/ance     
betwe5 ! c5tres ( ! sun & ( ,jupit]     
ne>ly 9 ! subduplicate ( t proportion3 z
 by "s computations ,i h f\nd4 ,& if !  
satellite did gravitate t[>ds ! sun ) a 
=ce1 less] 9 ! proportion ( e to d1 !   
di/ance ( ! c5tre ( ! satellite's orb f 
! sun w\ld be less ?an ! di/ance ( !    
c5tre ( ,jupit] f ! sun 9 ! subduplicate
 ( ! same proportion4 ,!re=e1 if at     
equal di/ances f ! sun1 ! accel]ative   
gravity ( any satellite t[>ds ! sun 7   
great] or less ?an ! accel]ative gravity
 ( ,jupit] t[>ds ! sun by "o-"o-?\s&? "p
 ( ! :ole gravity1 ! di/ance ( ! c5tre (
 ! satellite's orbit f ! sun w\ld be    
great] or less ?an ! di/ance ( ,jupit] f
 ! sun by "o "o-two-?\s&? "p ( ! :ole   

di/ance--t is1 by a fif? "p ( ! di/ance 
( ! utmo/ satellite f ! c5tre ( ,jupit]2
 an ecc5tricity ( ! orbit :i* w\ld be v 
s5sible4 ,b ! orbits ( ! satellites are 
conc5tric to ,jupit]1 & !re=e !         
accel]ative gravities ( ,jupit] & ( all 
its satellites t[>ds ! sun1 at equal    
di/ances f ! sun1 are z _! sev]al       
quantities ( matt]2 & ! weights ( ! moon
 & ( ! e>? t[>ds ! sun are ei!r none1 or
 accurately proportional to ! masses (  
matt] :i* !y conta94  ,,cor4 #e4--,! p[]
 ( gravity is ( a diff]5t nature f ! p[]
 ( magnetism2 = ! magnetic attraction is
 n z ! matt] attract$4 ,"s bodies are   
attract$ m by ! magnet2 o!rs less2 mo/  
bodies n at all4 ,! p[] ( magnetism 9 "o
 & ! same body may be increas$ &        
dim9i%$2 & is sometimes f> /rong]1 = !  
quantity ( matt]1 ?an ! p[] ( gravity2 &
 9 rec$+ f ! magnet decreases n 9 !     
duplicate1 b almo/ 9 ! triplicate       
proportion ( ! di/ance1 z ne>ly z ,i    
c\ld judge f "s rude obs]vations4       
,,proposition ,,vii41 ,,!orem ,,vii4  ,t

 !re is a p[] ( gravity t5d+ to all     
bodies1 proportional to ! sev]al        
quantities ( matt] :i* !y conta94  ,t   
all ! planets mutually gravitate "o     
t[>ds ano!r we h prov$ be=e2 z well z t 
! =ce ( gravity t[>ds e "o ( !m consid]$
 ap>t1 is reciprocally z ! squ>e ( !    
di/ance ( places f ! c5tre ( ! planet4  
,& !nce x foll[s1 t ! gravity t5d+ t[>ds
 all ! planets is proportional to !     
matt] :i* !y conta94  ,moreov]1 s9ce all
 ! p>ts ( any planet ,a gravitates t[>ds
 any o!r planet ,b2 & ! gravity ( e "p  
is to ! gravity ( ! :ole z ! matt] ( !  
"p is to ! matt] ( ! :ole2 & to e action
 corresponds a reaction2 !re=e ! planet 
,b w1 on ! o!r h&1 gravitate t[>ds all !
 p>ts ( planet ,a1 & its gravity t[>ds  
any "o "p w be to ! gravity t[>ds ! :ole
 z ! matt] ( ! "p to ! matt] ( ! :ole4  
,q4,e4,d4   ,,h5ce ,,x ,,w\ld ,,appe>   
,,t ! =ce ( ! :ole mu/ arise f ! =ce ( !
 compon5t p>ts4   ,newton closes ?is    
rem>kable ,book iii4 ) ! foll[+ words3  
,hi!rto we h expla9$ ! ph5om5a ( !      

heav5s & ( our sea by ! p[] ( gravity1 b
 h n yet assign$ ! cause ( ?is p[]4 ,?is
 is c]ta91 t x mu/ proce$ f a cause t   
p5etrates to ! v c5tre ( ! sun &        
planets1 )\t suff]+ ! lea/ dim9ution (  
its =ce2 t op]ates n accord+ to !       
quantity ( ! surfaces ( ! p>ticles ^u   
:i* x acts 7z me*anical causes us$ to   
d71 b accord+ to ! quantity ( solid     
matt] :i* !y conta91 & propagates its   
virtue on all sides to imm5se di/ances1 
decreas+ always 9 ! duplicate           
proportions ( ! di/ances4 ,gravitation  
t[>ds ! sun is made up out ( !          
gravitations t[>ds ! sev]al p>ticles (  
:i* ! body ( ! sun is compos$2 & 9 rec$+
 f ! sun decreases accurately 9 !       
duplicate proportion ( ! di/ances z f> z
 ! orb ( ,saturn1 z evid5tly appe>s f ! 
quiesc5ce ( ! aphelions ( ! planets2    
nay1 & ev5 to ! remote/ aphelions ( !   
comets1 if ^? aphelions are also        
quiesc5t4 ,b hi!rto ,i h n be5 able to  
discov] ! cause ( ^? prop]ties ( gravity
 f ph5om5a1 & ,i frame no hypo!sis2 =   

:atev] is n d$uc$ f ! ph5om5a is to be  
call$ an hypo!sis2 & hypo!ses1 :e!r     
metaphysical or physical1 :e!r ( occult 
qualities or me*anical1 h no place 9    
exp]im5tal philosophy4444 ,& to u x is  
en\gh t gravity does really exi/1 & act 
accord+ to ! laws :i* we h expla9$1 &   
abundantly s]ves to acc\nt = all !      
motions ( ! cele/ial bodies & ( our     
sea47#b7   ,! v magnitude ( ! importance
 ( ! !ory ( univ]sal gravitation made   
its g5]al acceptance a matt] (          
consid]able "t aft] ! actual discov]y4  
,?is opposition _h ( c\rse be5 =ese5 by 
,newton1 &1 mu* z he dread$ controv]sy1 
he 0 prep>$ to face x & combat x to !   
bitt] end4 ,he knew t 8 !ory 0 "r2 x    
rema9$ = him to conv9ce ! _w ( its tru?4
 ,he knew t "s ( 8 contempor>y          
philosoph]s w\ld accept x at once2 o!rs 
w\ld at fir/ d\bt1 "q1 & dispute1 b     
f9ally accept2 :ile /ill o!rs w\ld d\bt 
& dispute until ! end ( _! days4 ,?is _h
 be5 ! hi/ory ( o!r great discov]ies2 & 
?is w probably be ! hi/ory ( mo/ great  

discov]ies = all "t4 ,b 9 ?is case !    
discov]] liv$ to see 8 !ory accept$ by  
practically all ! great m9ds ( 8 "t4    
,delambre is au?ority = ! foll[+ e/imate
 ( ,newton by ,lagrange4 ,! celebrat$   
,lagrange1 he says1 :o frequ5tly ass]t$ 
t ,newton 0 ! greate/ g5ius t ev] exi/$1
 us$ to add--'& ! mo/ =tunate1 = we _c  
f9d ,,m ,,?an ,,once a sy/em ( ! _w to  
e/abli%4' ,) p>donable exagg]ation !    
admir+ foll[]s ( ! great g5]aliz]       
pron\nc$ ?is epitaph3   ,nature &       
,nature's laws lay hid 9 night2   ,god  
said ',let ,newton be6' & all 0 light4  
,,xiii4 ,,in/rum5ts ,,( ,,precision ,,9 
,,! ,,age ,,( ,,newton  ,dur+ !         
,newtonian epo* !re 7 num]\s important  
inv5tions ( sci5tific in/rum5ts1 z well 
z _m improvem5ts made ^u ! old] ones4   
,"s ( ^! discov]ies h be5 ref]r$ to     
briefly 9 o!r places1 b _! importance 9 
promot+ sci5tific inve/igation w>rants a
 full] treatm5t ( "s ( ! m significant4 
,_m ( ! errors t _h aris5 9 v>i\s       
sci5tific calculations be=e ! sev5te5?  

c5tury may be ascrib$ to ! crud5ess &   
inaccuracy 9 ! con/ruction ( mo/        
sci5tific in/rum5ts4 ,sci5ti/s _h n z   
yet le>n$ t an approa* to absolute      
accuracy 0 necess>y 9 e inve/igation 9 !
 field ( sci5ce1 & t su* accuracy mu/ be
 ext5d$ to ! con/ruction ( ! in/rum5ts  
us$ 9 ^! inve/igations & obs]vations4 ,9
 a/ronomy x is obvi\s t in/rum5ts (     
delicate exactness are mo/ ess5tial2 yet
 ,ty*o ,brahe1 :o liv$ 9 ! sixte5?      
c5tury1 is cr$it$ ) be+ ! fir/ a/ronom] 
^: in/rum5ts %[ extreme c>e 9           
con/ruction4  ,x seems practically      
settl$ t ! fir/ telescope 0 inv5t$ 9    
,holl& 9 #afjh2 b ?ree m51 ,hans        
,lipp]%ey1 ,james ,metius1 & ,za*>ias   
,jans51 h be5 giv5 ! cr$it ( ! inv5tion 
at diff]5t times4 ,x w\ld seem f c]ta9  
pap]s1 n[ 9 ! libr>y ( ! ,univ]sity (   
,leyd51 & includ$ 9 ,huyg5s's pap]s1 t  
,lipp]%ey 0 probably ! fir/ to inv5t a  
telescope & to describe 8 inv5tion4 ,!  
/ory is told t ,lipp]%ey1 :o 0 a        
spectacle-mak]1 /umbl$ by accid5t ^u !  

discov]y t :5 two l5ses are held at a   
c]ta9 di/ance ap>t1 objects at a di/ance
 appe> ne>] & l>g]4 ,hav+ made ?is      
discov]y1 he fitt$ two l5ses ) a tube s 
z to ma9ta9 !m at ! prop] di/ance1 & ?us
 con/ruct$ ! fir/ telescope4  ,x 0      
,galileo1 h[ev]1 z ref]r$ to 9 a prec$+ 
*apt]1 :o fir/ con/ruct$ a telescope    
bas$ on 8 k ( ! laws ( refraction4 ,9   
#afji1 hav+ he>d t an in/rum5t _h be5   
inv5t$1 consi/+ ( two l5ses fix$ 9 a    
tube1 :]eby objects 7 made to appe> l>g]
 & ne>]1 he set ab\t con/ruct+ su* an   
in/rum5t t %\ld foll[ out ! kn[n effects
 ( refraction4 ,8 fir/ telescope1 made (
 two l5ses fix$ 9 a lead pipe1 0 soon   
foll[$ by o!rs ( improv$ types1 ,galileo
 devot+ mu* "t & labor to p]fect+ l5ses 
& correct+ errors4 ,9 fact1 8 "w 9      
develop+ ! in/rum5t 0 s important t !   
telescope came gradually to be kn[n z ! 
,galilean telescope4  ,9 ! con/ruction (
 8 telescope ,galileo made use ( a      
convex & a concave l5s2 b %ortly aft]   
?is ,kepl] inv5t$ an in/rum5t 9 :i* bo? 

! l5ses us$ 7 convex4 ,?is telescope    
gave a mu* l>g] field ( view ?an !      
,galilean telescope1 b did n give z cle>
 an image1 & 9 consequ5ce did n come    
into g5]al use until ! middle ( !       
sev5te5? c5tury4 ,! fir/ p[]ful         
telescope ( ?is type 0 made by ,huyg5s &
 8 bro!r4 ,x 0 ( twelve feet focal l5g?1
 & enabl$ ,huyg5s to discov] a new      
satellite ( ,saturn1 & to det]m9e also !
 true explanation ( ,saturn's r+4  ,x 0 
,huyg5s1 toge!r ) ,malvasia & ,auz\t1 :o
 fir/ appli$ ! micromet] to ! telescope1
 al?\gh ! inv5tor ( ! fir/ micromet] 0  
,william ,gascoigne1 ( ,york%ire1 ab\t  
#afcf4 ,! micromet] z us$ 9 telescopes  
enables ! obs]v] to measure accurately  
small angul> di/ances4 ,be=e ! inv5tion 
( ! telescope su* measurem5ts 7 limit$  
to ! angle t c\ld be di/+ui%$ by ! nak$ 
eye1 & 71 ( c\rse1 only approximately   
accurate4 ,ev5 v c>eful obs]v]s1 su* z  
,ty*o ,brahe1 7 able to obta9 only      
fairly accurate results4 ,b by apply+   
,gascoigne's inv5tion to ! telescope    

almo/ absolute accuracy became at once  
possible4 ,! pr9ciple ( ,gascoigne's    
micromet] 0 t ( two po9t]s ly+ p>allel1 
& 9 ?is position po9t+ to z]o4 ,^! 7    
arrang$ s t ! turn+ ( a s+le screw      
sep>at$ or approximat$ !m at w1 & !     
angle ?us =m$ c\ld be det]m9$ ) absolute
 accuracy4  ,huyg5s's micromet] 0 a slip
 ( metal ( v>iable bread? ins]t$ at !   
focus ( ! telescope4 ,by obs]v+ at :at  
po9t ?is exactly cov]$ an object "u     
exam9ation1 & kn[+ ! focal l5g? ( !     
telescope & ! wid? ( ! metal1 he c\ld !n
 d$uce ! app>5t angul> bread? ( !       
object4 ,huyg5s discov]$ also t an      
object plac$ 9 ! common focus ( ! two   
l5ses ( a ,kepl] telescope appe>s di/9ct
 & cle>ly def9$4 ,! micromet]s (        
,malvasia1 & lat] ( ,auz\t & ,pic>d1 are
 ! developm5t ( ?is discov]y4           
,malvasia's micromet]1 :i* he describ$ 9
 #affb1 consi/$ ( f9e silv] wires plac$ 
at "r-angles at ! focus ( 8 telescope4  
,z telescopes increas$ 9 p[]1 h[ev]1 x 0
 f\nd t ev5 ! f9e/ wire1 or silk        

filam5ts1 7 mu* too ?ick = a/ronomical  
obs]vations1 z !y oblit]at$ ! image1 &  
s1 f9ally1 ! spid]-web came into use &  
is /ill us$ 9 micromet]s & o!r simil>   
in/rum5ts4 ,be=e t "t1 h[ev]1 ! f9e     
cross$ wires _h revolutioniz$           
a/ronomical obs]vations4 ,we may judge  
h[ great 0 ! improvem5t :i* ^!          
contrivances introduc$ into ! art (     
obs]v+1 says ,:ewell1 by f9d+ t         
,hevelius refus$ to adopt !m because !y 
w\ld make all ! old obs]vations ( no    
value4 ,he _h sp5t a labori\s & active  
life 9 ! ex]cise ( ! old me?ods1 & c\ld 
n be> to ?9k t all ! treasures :i* he _h
 accumulat$ _h lo/ _! wor? by ! discov]y
 ( a new m9e ( ri*] ones47#a7  ,until ! 
"t ( ,newton1 all ! telescopes 9 use 7  
ei!r ( ! ,galilean or ,kepl]ian type1 t 
is1 refractors4 ,b ab\t ! ye> #afgj     
,newton con/ruct$ 8 fir/ reflect+       
telescope1 :i* 0 greatly sup]ior to1    
al?\gh mu* small] ?an1 ! telescopes !n 9
 use4 ,he 0 l$ to ?is inv5tion by 8     
exp]im5ts ) light & colors4 ,9 #afga he 

pres5t$ to ! ,royal ,society a second & 
some:at l>g] telescope1 :i* he _h made2 
& ?is type ( in/rum5t 0 little improv$  
^u until ! introduction ( ! a*romatic   
telescope1 inv5t$ by ,*e/] ,moor ,hall 9
 #agcc4  ,z is g5]ally kn[n1 ! elem5t ( 
accurate measurem5ts ( "t plays an      
important "p 9 ! measurem5ts ( !        
movem5ts ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,9 fact1 "o
 0 sc>cely possible )\t ! o!r1 & z x    
happ5$ x 0 ! same man1 ,huyg5s1 :o      
p]fect$ ,kepl]'s telescope & inv5t$ !   
p5dulum clock4 ,! g5]al idea _h be5     
sugge/$ by ,galileo2 or1 bett] p]haps1 !
 equal "t occupi$ by ! successive       
oscillations ( ! p5dulum _h be5 not$ by 
him4 ,he _h n be5 able1 h[ev]1 to put   
?is discov]y to practical acc\nt4 ,b 9  
#afef ,huyg5s inv5t$ ! necess>y ma*9]y =
 ma9ta9+ ! motion ( ! p5dulum & p]fect$ 
sev]al accurate clocks4 ,^! clocks 7 (  
invaluable assi/ance to ! a/ronom]s1    
af=d+ z !y did a means ( keep+ "t m     
accurate ?an ! sun itself4 ,:5 ,pic>d _h
 correct$ ! v>iation caus$ by heat &    

cold act+ ^u ! p5dulum rod by comb9+    
metals ( diff]5t degrees (              
expansibility1 a high degree ( accuracy 
0 possible4  ,b :ile ! p5dulum clock 0  
an unequall$ /ation>y "t-piece1 x 0     
useless 9 su* un/able situations z1 =   
example1 on %ipbo>d4 ,b "h aga9 ,huyg5s 
play$ a prom95t "p by fir/ apply+ !     
coil$ balance-spr+ = regulat+ wat*es &  
m>9e clocks4 ,! idea ( apply+ a spr+ to 
! balance-:eel 0 n orig9al ) ,huyg5s1   
h[ev]1 z x _h be5 fir/ conceiv$ by      
,rob]t ,hooke2 b ,huyg5s's application  
made practical ,hooke's idea4 ,9 ,engl& 
! importance ( secur+ accurate wat*es or
 m>9e clocks 0 s fully appreciat$ t a   
rew>d ( ,l#bj1jjj /]l+ 0 (f]$ by        
,p>liam5t z a /imulus to ! inv5tor ( su*
 a "t-piece4 ,! imm$iate inc5tive = ?is 
(f] 0 ! obvi\s fact t ) su* an in/rum5t 
! det]m9ation ( ! longitude ( places    
w\ld be mu* simplifi$4 ,enc\rag$ by ^!  
(f]s1 a c]ta9 c>p5t] nam$ ,h>rison turn$
 8 att5tion to ! subject ( wat*-mak+1 &1
 aft] _m ye>s ( labor1 9 #ageh produc$ a

 spr+ "t-keep] :i*1 dur+ a sea-voyage   
occupy+ "o hundr$ & sixty-"o days1 v>i$ 
only "o m9ute & five seconds4 ,?is ga9$ 
= ,h>rison a rew>d ,( ,l#ejjj /]l+ at   
once1 & a little lat] ,l#aj1jjj m1 f    
,p>liam5t4  ,:ile inv5tors 7 busy ) !   
problem ( accurate *ronomet]s1 h[ev]1   
ano!r in/rum5t = tak+ longitude at sea  
_h be5 inv5t$4 ,?is 0 ! reflect+        
quadrant1 or sextant1 z ! improv$       
in/rum5t is n[ call$1 inv5t$ by ,john   
,hadley 9 #agca1 & indep5d5tly by ,?omas
 ,godfrey1 a poor glazi] (              
,philadelphia1 9 #agcj4 ,godfrey's      
inv5tion1 :i* 0 con/ruct$ on ! same     
pr9ciple z t ( ! ,hadley in/rum5t1 0 n  
g5]ally recogniz$ until two ye>s aft]   
,hadley's discov]y1 al?\gh ! in/rum5t 0 
f9i%$ & actually 9 use on a sea-voyage  
"s mon?s be=e ,hadley report$ 8         
inv5tion4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! sextant1      
h[ev]1 seems to h be5 kn[n to ,newton1  
:o con/ruct$ an in/rum5t n v unlike t ( 
,hadley2 b ?is inv5tion 0 lo/ sight (   
until sev]al ye>s aft] ! philosoph]'s   

dea? & "s "t aft] ,hadley's inv5tion4   
,! introduction ( ! sextant greatly     
simplifi$ tak+ reckon+s at sea z well z 
facilitat+ tak+ ! correct longitude (   
di/ant places4 ,be=e t "t ! m>9] 0      
oblig$ to dep5d ^u 8 compass1 a         
cross-/aff1 or an a/rolabe1 a table ( ! 
sun's decl9ation & a correction = !     
altitude ( ! pole/>1 & v inadequate &   
incorrect *>ts4 ,su* 7 ! in/rum5ts us$  
by ,columbus & ,vasco da ,gama & _!     
imm$iate successors4  ,dur+ ! ,newtonian
 p]iod ! microscopes g5]ally 9 use 7 ^? 
con/ruct$ ( simple l5ses1 = al?\gh      
comp\nd microscopes 7 kn[n1 !           
difficulties ( correct+ ab]ration _h n  
be5 surm\nt$1 & a mu* cle>] field 0 giv5
 by ! simple in/rum5t4 ,! results obta9$
 by ! use ( su* in/rum5ts1 h[ev]1 7 v   
satisfactory 9 _m ways4 ,by ref]r+ to   
c]ta9 plates 9 ?is volume1 :i* reproduce
 illu/rations f ,rob]t ,hooke's "w on ! 
microscope1 x w be se5 t q a high degree
 ( effectiv5ess _h be5 atta9$4 ,& x %\ld
 be recall$ t ,antony von ,leeuw5hoek1  

^: dea? took place %ortly be=e          
,newton's1 _h discov]$ su*              
micro-organisms z bact]ia1 _h se5 !     
blood corpuscles 9 circulation1 & exam9$
 & describ$ o!r microscopic /ructures ( 
! body4     ,,xiv4 ,,progress ,,9       
,,electricity ,,f ,,gilb]t ,,& ,,von    
,,gu]icke ,,to ,,frankl9  ,we h se5 h[  
,gilb]t1 by 8 exp]im5ts ) magnets1 gave 
an impetus to ! /udy ( magnetism &      
electricity4 ,gilb]t himself demon/rat$ 
"s facts & advanc$ "s !ories1 b ! sy/em 
( g5]al laws 0 to come lat]4 ,to ?is end
 ! discov]y ( electrical repulsion1 z   
well z attraction1 by ,von ,gu]icke1 ) 8
 sulphur ball1 0 a /ep =w>d2 b some?+ l 
a c5tury pass$ aft] ,gilb]t's beg9n+    
be=e any?+ ( mu* importance 0 done 9 !  
field ( electricity4  ,9 #agje1 h[ev]1  
,francis ,hauksbee began a s]ies (      
exp]im5ts t result$ 9 "s />tl+          
demon/rations4 ,= _m ye>s x _h be5      
obs]v$ t a peculi> light 0 se5 sometimes
 9 ! m]curial b>omet]1 b ,hauksbee & !  
o!r sci5tific inve/igators suppos$ !    

radiance to be due to ! m]cury 9 a      
vacuum1 br\ght ab\t1 p]haps1 by "s      
agitation4 ,t ?is light might h any     
connection ) electricity did n1 at fir/1
 occur to ,hauksbee any m ?an x _h to 8 
pr$ecessors4 ,! problem t int]e/$ him 0 
:e!r ! vacuum 9 ! tube ( ! b>omet] 0    
ess5tial to ! light2 & 9 exp]im5t+ to   
det]m9e ?is1 he inv5t$ 8 m]curial       
f\nta94 ,hav+ exhau/$ ! air 9 a receiv] 
conta9+ "s m]cury1 he f\nd t by all[+   
air to ru% ?r\gh ! m]cury ! metal became
 a jet ?r[n 9 all directions aga9/ !    
sides ( ! vessel1 mak+ a great1 flam+   
%[]1 l fla%es ( lightn+1 z he said4 ,b x
 seem$ to him t !re 0 a diff]5ce betwe5 
?is light & ! gl[ not$ 9 ! b>omet]4 ,?is
 0 a bright light1 :]eas ! b>omet] light
 0 only a gl[4 ,pond]+ ov] ?is1         
,hauksbee tri$ v>i\s exp]im5ts1 revolv+ 
pieces ( amb]1 fl9t1 /eel1 & o!r        
sub/ances 9 8 exhau/$ air-pump receiv]1 
) negative1 or unsatisfactory1 results4 
,f9ally1 x occurr$ to him to revolve an 
exhau/$ glass tube itself4 ,m\nt+ su* a 

globe ( glass on an axis s t x c\ld be  
revolv$ rapidly by a belt runn+ on a    
l>ge :eel1 he f\nd t by hold+ 8 f+]s    
aga9/ ! :irl+ globe a purpli% gl[       
appe>$1 giv+ suffici5t light s t co>se  
pr9t c\ld be read1 & ! walls ( a d>k    
room s5sibly light5$ sev]al feet away4  
,z air 0 admitt$ to ! globe ! light     
gradually dim9i%$1 & x seem$ to him t   
?is dim9i%$ gl[ 0 v simil> 9 appe>ance  
to ! pale light se5 9 ! m]curial        
b>omet]4 ,c\ld x be t x 0 ! glass1 & n !
 m]cury1 t caus$ x8 ,go+ to a b>omet] he
 proce$$ to rub ! glass above ! column (
 m]cury ov] ! vacuum1 )\t di/urb+ !     
m]cury1 :51 to 8 a/oni%m5t1 ! same fa9t 
light1 to all appe>ances id5tical ) !   
gl[ se5 9 ! :irl+ globe1 0 produc$4     
,turn+ ^! demon/rations ov] 9 8 m9d1 he 
recall$ ! well-kn[n fact t rubb$ glass  
attract$ bits ( pap]1 leaf-brass1 & o!r 
light sub/ances1 & t ?is ph5om5on 0     
suppos$ to be electrical4 ,?is l$ him   
f9ally to det]m9e ! hi!rto unsuspect$   
fact1 t ! gl[ 9 ! b>omet] 0 electrical z

 0 also ! gl[ se5 9 8 :irl+ globe4      
,cont9u+ 8 inve/igations1 he soon       
discov]$ t solid glass rods :5 rubb$    
produc$ ! same effects z ! tube4 ,by m]e
 *ance1 happ5+ to hold a rubb$ tube to 8
 *eek1 he felt ! effect ( electricity ^u
 ! sk9 l a numb] ( f9e1 limb] hairs1 &  
?is sugge/$ to him t1 s9ce ! my/]i\s    
manife/ation 0 s pla91 x c\ld be made to
 %[ its effects ^u v>i\s sub/ances4     
,susp5d+ "s wooll5 ?reads ov] ! :irl+   
glass cyl9d]1 he f\nd t z soon z he t\*$
 ! glass ) 8 h&s ! ?reads1 :i* 7 wav$   
ab\t by ! w9d ( ! revolution1 sudd5ly   
/raight5$ !mselves 9 a peculi> mann]1 & 
/ood 9 a radical position1 po9t+ to !   
axis ( ! cyl9d]4  ,enc\rag$ by ^!       
successes1 he cont9u$ 8 exp]im5ts )     
brea?less expectancy1 & soon made ano!r 
important discov]y1 t ( induction1      
al?\gh ! real significance ( ?is        
discov]y 0 n appreciat$ by him or1 = t  
matt]1 by any "o else = sev]al g5]ations
 foll[+4 ,?is discov]y 0 made by plac+  
two revolv+ cyl9d]s )9 an in* ( ea* o!r1

 "o ) ! air exhau/$ & ! o!r unexhau/$4  
,plac+ 8 h& on ! unexhau/$ tube caus$ ! 
light to appe> n only ^u x1 b on ! o!r  
tube z well4 ,a little lat] he discov]$ 
t x is n necess>y to :irl ! exhau/$ tube
 to produce ?is effect1 b simply to     
place x 9 close proximity to ! o!r :irl+
 cyl9d]4  ,^! demon/rations ( ,hauksbee 
attract$ wide att5tion & gave an impetus
 to inve/igators 9 ! field (            
electricity2 b /ill no great advance 0  
made = some?+ l a qu>t] ( a c5tury4     
,possibly ! en]gies ( ! sci5ti/s 7      
exhau/$ = ! mom5t 9 explor+ ! new fields
 ?r[n op5 to inve/igation by ! colossal 
"w ( ,newton4   ,,! ,,exp]im5ts ,,(     
,,/eph5 ,,gray  ,9 #agbi ,/eph5 ,gray   
7di$ 9 #agcf71 an ecc5tric & irascible  
old p5sion] ( ! ,*>t] ,h\se 9 ,london1  
und]took "s inve/igations along l9es    
simil> to ^? ( ,hauksbee4 ,:ile         
exp]im5t+ ) a glass tube = produc+      
electricity1 z ,hauksbee _h done1 he    
notic$ t ! corks ) :i* he _h /opp$ !    
ends ( ! tube to exclude ! du/1 seem$ to

 attract bits ( pap] & leaf-brass z well
 z ! glass itself4 ,he surmis$ at once t
 ?is my/]i\s electricity1 or virtue1 z x
 0 call$1 might be transmitt$ ?r\gh o!r 
sub/ances z x seem$ to be ?r\gh glass4  
,hav+ by me an ivory ball ( ab\t "o &   
?ree-t5?s ( an in* 9 diamet]1 he writes1
 ) a hole ?r\gh x1 ?is ,i fix$ ^u a     
fir-/ick ab\t f\r in*es long1 ?ru/+ !   
o!r end into ! cork1 & ^u rubb+ ! tube  
f\nd t ! ball attract$ & repell$ ! fea!r
 ) m vigor ?an ! cork _h done1 repeat+  
its attractions & repulsions = _m times 
toge!r4 ,i !n fix$ ! ball on long]      
/icks1 fir/ ^u "o ( eight in*es1 &      
aft]w>ds ^u "o ( tw5ty-f\r in*es long1 &
 f\nd ! effect ! same4 ,!n ,i made use (
 iron1 & !n brass wire1 to fix ! ball   
on1 ins]t+ ! o!r end ( ! wire 9 ! cork1 
z be=e1 & f\nd t ! attraction 0 ! same z
 :5 ! fir-/icks 7 made use (1 & t :5 !  
fea!r 0 held ov] aga9/ any "p ( ! wire x
 0 attract$ by x2 b ?\gh x 0 !n ne>] !  
tube1 yet its attraction 0 n s /rong z t
 ( ! ball4 ,:5 ! wire ( two or ?ree feet

 long 0 us$1 its vibrations1 caus$ by ! 
rubb+ ( ! tube1 made x some:at          
tr\blesome to be manag$4 ,?is put me to 
?9k+ :e!r1 if ! ball 0 hung by a        
pack-?read & susp5d$ by a loop on !     
tube1 ! electricity w\ld n be c>ri$ d[n 
! l9e to ! ball2 ,i f\nd x to succe$    
accord+ly2 = ^u susp5d+ ! ball on ! tube
 by a pack-?read ab\t ?ree feet long1 :5
 ! tube _h be5 excit$ by rubb+1 ! ivory 
ball attract$ & repell$ ! leaf-brass ov]
 :i* x 0 held z freely z x _h done :5 x 
0 susp5d$ on /icks or wire1 z did also a
 ball ( cork1 & ano!r ( lead t weigh$ "o
 p\nd & a qu>t]4  ,gray next attempt$ to
 det]m9e :at o!r bodies w\ld attract !  
bits ( pap]1 & = ?is purpose he tri$    
co9s1 pieces ( metal1 & ev5 a           
tea-kettle1 bo? empty & fill$ ) hot or  
cold wat]2 b he f\nd t ! attractive p[] 
appe>$ to be ! same reg>dless ( !       
sub/ance us$4  ,i next proce$$1 he      
cont9ues1 to try at :at great] di/ances 
! electric virtues might be c>ri$1 &    
hav+ by me a holl[ walk+-cane1 :i* ,i   

suppose 0 "p ( a fi%+-rod1 two feet sev5
 in*es long1 ,i cut ! great end ( x to  
fit into ! bore ( ! tube1 into :i* x w5t
 ab\t five in*es2 !n :5 ! cane 0 put    
into ! end ( ! tube1 & ?is excit$1 !    
cane drew ! leaf-brass to ! height ( m  
?an two in*es1 z did also ! ivory ball1 
:5 by a cork & /ick x _h be5 fix$ to !  
end ( ! cane4444 ,) sev]al pieces (     
,spani% cane & fir-/icks ,i aft]w>ds    
made a rod1 :i*1 toge!r ) ! tube1 0     
some:at m ?an eighte5 feet long1 :i* 0 !
 greate/ l5g? ,i c\ld conv5i5tly use 9  
my *amb]1 & f\nd ! attraction v ne>ly1  
if n altoge!r1 z /rong z :5 ! ball 0    
plac$ on ! %ort] rods4  ,?is exp]im5t   
exhau/$ ! capacity ( 8 small room1 b on 
go+ to ! c\ntry a little lat] he 0 able 
to cont9ue 8 exp]im5ts4 ,to a pole (    
eighte5 feet !re 0 ti$ a l9e ( ?irty-f\r
 feet 9 l5g?1 s t ! pole & l9e toge!r 7 
fifty-two feet4 ,) ! pole & tube ,i /ood
 9 ! balcony1 ! assi/ant bel[ 9 ! c\rt1 
:]e he held ! bo>d ) ! leaf-brass on x4 
,!n ! tube be+ excit$1 z usual1 !       

electric virtue pass$ f ! tube up ! pole
 & d[n ! l9e to ! ivory ball1 :i*       
attract$ ! leaf-brass1 & z ! ball pass$ 
ov] x 9 its vibrations ! leaf-brass w\ld
 foll[ x till x 0 c>ri$ (f ! bo>d4      
,gray next attempt$ to s5d ! electricity
 ov] a l9e susp5d$ horizontally4 ,to d  
?is he susp5d$ ! pack-?read by pieces ( 
/r+ loop$ ov] nails driv5 into beams = t
 purpose4 ,b :5 ?us susp5d$ he f\nd t ! 
ivory ball no long] excit$ ! leaf-brass1
 & he guess$ correctly t ! explanation (
 ?is lay 9 ! fact t :5 ! electric virtue
 came to ! loop t 0 susp5d$ on ! beam x 
w5t up ! same to ! beam1 none ( x rea*+ 
! ball4 ,z we %all see f :at foll[s1    
h[ev]1 ,gray _h n z yet det]m9$ t c]ta9 
sub/ances w conduct electricity :ile    
o!rs w n4 ,b by a lucky accid5t he made 
! discov]y t silk1 = example1 0 a poor  
conductor1 & c\ld be turn$ to acc\nt 9  
insulat+ ! conduct+-cord4  ,a c]ta9 ,mr4
 ,:el] _h become mu* int]e/$ 9 ! old    
p5sion] & 8 "w1 &1 z a gue/ at ! ,:el]  
h\se1 ,gray _h be5 repeat+ "s ( 8 =m]   

exp]im5ts ) ! fi%+-rod1 l9e1 & ivory    
ball4 ,he _h f9ally exhau/$ ! heights f 
:i* ^! exp]im5ts c\ld be made by climb+ 
to ! clock-t[] & excit+ bits (          
leaf-brass on ! gr\nd bel[4  ,z we _h no
 great] heights "h1 he says1 ,mr4 ,:el] 
0 desir\s to try :e!r we c\ld n c>ry !  
electric virtue horizontally4 ,i !n told
 him ( ! attempt ,i _h made ) t design1 
b )\t success1 tell+ him ! me?od &      
mat]ials made use (1 z m5tion$ above4   
,he !n propos$ a silk l9e to support !  
l9e by :i* ! electric virtue 0 to pass4 
,i told him x might d bett] ^u acc\nt ( 
its smallness2 s t !re w\ld be less     
virtue c>ri$ f ! l9e ( communication4   
,! fir/ exp]im5t 0 made 9 ! matt$       
gall]y1 ,july #b1 #agbi1 ab\t t5 9 !    
morn+4 ,ab\t f\r feet f ! end ( ! gall]y
 !re 0 a cross l9e t 0 fix$ by its ends 
to ea* side ( ! gall]y by two nails2 !  
middle "p ( ! l9e 0 silk1 ! re/ at ea*  
end pack-?read2 !n ! l9e to :i* ! ivory 
ball 0 hung & by :i* ! electric virtue 0
 to be convey$ to x f ! tube1 be+ eighty

 & "o-half feet 9 l5g?1 0 laid on !     
cross silk l9e1 s t ! ball hung ab\t n9e
 feet bel[ x4 ,!n ! o!r end ( ! l9e 0 by
 a loop susp5d$ on ! glass cane1 & !    
leaf-brass held "u ! ball on a piece (  
:ite pap]2 :51 ! tube be+ rubb$1 ! ball 
attract$ ! leaf-brass1 & kept x susp5d$ 
on x = "s "t4  ,?is exp]im5t succe$$ s  
well t ! /r+ 0 l5g!n$ until x 0 "s two  
hundr$ & n9ety-?ree feet long2 & /ill ! 
attractive =ce cont9u$1 app>5tly z /rong
 z ev]4 ,on l5g!n+ ! /r+ /ill m1 h[ev]1 
! extra weight prov$ too mu* = ! /r5g? (
 ! silk susp5d+-?read4 ,^u ?is1 says    
,gray1 hav+ br\ght ) me bo? brass & iron
 wire1 in/ead ( ! silk we put up small  
iron wire2 b ?is 0 too weak to be> !    
weight ( ! l9e4 ,we !n took brass wire (
 a some:at l>g] size ?an t ( iron4 ,?is 
support$ our l9e ( communication2 b ?\gh
 ! tube 0 well rubb$1 yet !re 0 n ! lea/
 motion or attraction giv5 by ! ball1   
nei!r ) ! great tube1 :i* we made use ( 
:5 we f\nd ! small solid cane to be     
ineffectual2 by :i* we 7 n[ conv9c$ t ! 

success we _h be=e dep5d$ ^u ! l9es t   
support$ ! l9e ( communication be+ silk1
 & n ^u _! be+ small1 z be=e trial ,i _h
 imag9$ x might be2 ! same effect happ5+
 "h z x did :5 ! l9e t is to convey !   
electric virtue is support$ by          
pack-?read4  ,soon aft] ?is ,gray & 8   
ho/ susp5d$ a pack-?read six hundr$ &   
sixty-six feet long on poles across a   
field1 ^! poles be+ slightly incl9$ s t 
! ?read c\ld be susp5d$ f ! top by small
 silk cords1 ?us secur+ ! necess>y      
insulation4 ,?is pack-?read l9e1 susp5d$
 ^u poles along :i* ,gray 0 able to     
transmit ! electricity1 is v sugge/ive (
 ! mod]n telegraph1 b ! idea ( signall+ 
or mak+ use ( x = communicat+ 9 any way 
seems n to h occurr$ to any "o at t "t4 
,ev5 ! successors ( ,gray :o con/ruct$  
l9es "s ?\s&s ( feet long made no       
attempt to use !m = any?+ b exp]im5tal  
purposes--simply to te/ ! di/ances t !  
curr5t c\ld be s5t4 ,nev]!less1 ,gray   
%\ld probably be cr$it$ ) ! discov]y (  
two ( ! mo/ important prop]ties (       

electricity--t x c be conduct$ &        
insulat$1 al?\gh1 z we h se51 ,gilb]t & 
,von ,gu]icke _h an inkl+ ( bo? ^!      
prop]ties4   ,,exp]im5ts ,,( ,,ci/]nay  
,,dufay  ,s f> ,engl& _h produc$ ! two  
=emo/ work]s 9 electricity4 ,x 0 n[     
,france's turn to take a h&1 &1 ?r\gh ! 
ef=ts ( ,*>les ,francois de ,ci/]nay    
,dufay1 to advance ! sci5ce (           
electricity v mat]ially4 ,dufay 0 a     
highly educat$ savant1 :o _h be5 soldi] 
& diplomat betimes1 b ^: v]satility &   
ability z a sci5ti/ is %[n by ! fact t  
he 0 ! only man :o _h ev] contribut$ to 
! annals ( ! academy inve/igations 9 e  
"o ( ! six subjects admitt$ by t        
in/itution z wor?y ( recognition4 ,dufay
 upheld 8 reputation 9 ?is new field (  
sci5ce1 mak+ _m discov]ies & correct+ _m
 mi/akes ( =m] obs]v]s4 ,9 ?is "w also  
he prov$ himself a great diplomat by    
rema9+ on t]ms ( intimate fri5d%ip )    
,dr4 ,gray--a ?+ t few p 7 able to d4   
,almo/ 8 fir/ /ep 0 to ov]?r[ ! belief t
 c]ta9 bodies are electrics & o!rs      

non-electrics--t is1 t "s sub/ances :5  
rubb$ %[ c]ta9 peculi>ities 9 attract+  
pieces ( pap] & foil :i* o!rs d n4      
,dufay prov$ t all bodies possess ?is   
quality 9 a c]ta9 degree4  ,i h f\nd t  
all bodies 7metallic1 s(t1 or fluid ones
 except$71 he says1 may be made electric
 by fir/ heat+ !m m or less & !n rubb+  
!m on any sort ( clo?4 ,s t all k9ds (  
/ones1 z well preci\s z common1 all k9ds
 ( wood1 &1 9 g5]al1 ev]y?+ t ,i h made 
trial (1 became electric by beat+ &     
rubb+1 except su* bodies z gr[ s(t by   
beat1 z ! gums1 :i* dissolve 9 wat]1    
glue1 & su* l sub/ances4 ',tis also to  
be rem>k$ t ! h>de/ /ones or m>bles     
require m *af+ or heat+ ?an o!rs1 & t ! 
same rule obta9s ) reg>d to ! woods2 s t
 box1 lignum vitae1 & su* o!rs mu/ be   
*af$ almo/ to ! degree ( br[n+1 :]eas   
fir1 lime-tree1 & cork require b a      
mod]ate heat4  ,hav+ read 9 "o ( ,mr4   
,gray's lett]s t wat] may be made       
electrical by hold+ ! excit$ glass tube 
ne> x 7a di% ( wat] be+ fix$ to a /& & t

 set on a plate ( glass1 or on ! brim ( 
a dr9k+-glass1 previ\sly *af$1 or       
o!rwise w>m$71 ,i h f\nd1 ^u trial1 t ! 
same ?+ happ5$ to all bodies )\t        
exception1 :e!r solid or fluid1 & t = t 
purpose 'twas suffici5t to set !m on a  
glass /& slightly w>m$1 or only dri$1 & 
!n by br++ ! tube ne> !m !y imm$iately  
became electrical4 ,i made ?is exp]im5t 
) ice1 ) a light$ wood-coal1 & ) ev]y?+ 
t came into my m9d2 & ,i con/antly      
rem>k$ t su* bodies ( !mselves z 7 lea/ 
electrical _h ! greate/ degree (        
electricity communicat$ to !m at !      
approval ( ! glass tube4  ,8 next       
important discov]y 0 t colors _h no?+ to
 d ) ! conduction ( electricity4 ,mr4   
,gray says1 t[>ds ! end ( "o ( 8 lett]s1
 he writes1 t bodies attract m or less  
accord+ to _! colors4 ,?is l$ me to make
 sev]al v s+ul> exp]im5ts4 ,i took n9e  
silk ribbons ( equal size1 "o :ite1 "o  
black1 & ! o!r sev5 ( ! sev5 primitive  
colors1 & hav+ hung !m all 9 ord] 9 !   
same l9e1 & !n br++ ! tube ne> !m1 !    

black "o 0 fir/ attract$1 ! :ite "o     
next1 & o!rs 9 ord] successively to ! r$
 "o1 :i* 0 attract$ lea/1 & ! la/ ( !m  
all4 ,i aft]w>ds cut out n9e squ>e      
pieces ( gauze ( ! same colors ) !      
ribbons1 & hav+ put !m "o aft] ano!r on 
a hoop ( wood1 ) leaf-gold "u !m1 !     
leaf-gold 0 attract$ ?r\gh all ! color$ 
pieces ( gauze1 b n ?r\gh ! :ite or     
black4 ,?is incl9$ me fir/ to ?9k t     
colors contribute mu* to electricity1 b 
?ree exp]im5ts conv9c$ me to ! contr>y4 
,! fir/1 t by w>m+ ! pieces ( gauze     
nei!r ! black nor :ite pieces ob/ruct$ !
 action ( ! electrical tube m ?an ^? ( !
 o!r colors4 ,9 l mann]1 ! ribbons be+  
w>m$1 ! black & :ite are n m /rongly    
attract$ ?an ! re/4 ,! second is1 !     
gauzes & ribbons be+ wett$1 ! ribbons   
are all attract$ equally1 & all ! pieces
 ( gauze equally int]cept ! action (    
electric bodies4 ,! ?ird is1 t ! colors 
( a prism be+ ?r[n on a :ite gauze1 !re 
appe> no diff]5ces ( attraction4 ,:5ce x
 proce$s t ?is diff]5ce proce$s1 n f !  

color1 z a color1 b f ! sub/ances t are 
employ$ 9 ! dye+4 ,= :5 ,i color$       
ribbons by rubb+ !m ) *>coal1 c>m9e1 &  
su* o!r sub/ances1 ! diff]5ces no long] 
prov$ ! same4  ,9 connection ) 8        
exp]im5ts ) 8 ?read susp5d$ on glass    
poles1 ,dufay not$ t a c]ta9 am\nt ( !  
curr5t is lo/1 be+ giv5 (f to ! surr\nd+
 air4 ,he recomm5d$1 !re=e1 t ! cords   
exp]im5t$ ) be wrapp$ ) "s              
non-conductor--t x %\ld be insulat$     
7isolee71 z he said1 fir/ mak+ use ( ?is
 t]m4   ,,dufay ,,discov]s ,,vitre\s ,,&
 ,,res9\s ,,electricity  ,x has be5 %[n 
9 an e>li] *apt] h[ ,von ,gu]icke       
discov]$ t light sub/ances l fea!rs1    
aft] be+ attract$ to ! sulphur-ball     
electric-ma*9e1 7 repell$ by x until !y 
t\*$ "s object4 ,von ,gu]icke not$ ?is1 
b fail$ to expla9 x satisfactorily4     
,dufay1 repeat+ ,von ,gu]icke's         
exp]im5ts1 f\nd t if1 :ile ! excit$ tube
 or sulphur ball is driv+ ! repell$     
fea!r be=e x1 ! ball be t\*$ or rubb$   
anew1 ! fea!r comes to x aga91 & is     

repell$ alt]nately1 z1 ! h& t\*es !     
ball1 or is )drawn4 ,f ?is he conclud$ t
 electrifi$ bodies fir/ attract bodies n
 electrifi$1 *>ge !m ) electricity1 & !n
 repel !m1 ! body s *>g$ n be+ attract$ 
aga9 until x has dis*>g$ its electricity
 by t\*+ some?+4  ,on mak+ ! exp]im5t   
relat$ by ,otto von ,gu]icke1 he says1  
:i* consi/s 9 mak+ a ball ( sulphur     
r5d]$ electrical to repel a d[n fea!r1  
,i p]ceiv$ t ! same effects 7 produc$ n 
only by ! tube1 b by all electric bodies
 :atsoev]1 & ,i discov]$ t :i* acc\nts =
 a great "p ( ! irregul>ities &1 if ,i  
may use ! t]m1 ( ! caprices t seem to   
accompany mo/ ( ! exp]im5ts on          
electricity4 ,?is pr9ciple is t electric
 bodies attract all t are n s1 & repel  
!m z soon z !y are become electric by ! 
vic9ity or contact ( ! electric body4   
,?us gold-leaf is fir/ attract$ by !    
tube1 & acquires an electricity by      
approa*+ x1 & ( consequ5ce is imm$iately
 repell$ by x4 ,nor is x reattract$ :ile
 x reta9s its electric quality4 ,b if   

:ile x is ?us su/a9$ 9 ! air x *ance to 
light on "s o!r body1 x /raightway loses
 its electricity1 & 9 consequ5ce is     
reattract$ by ! tube1 :i*1 aft] hav+    
giv5 x a new electricity1 repels x a    
second "t1 :i* cont9ues z long z ! tube 
keeps its electricity4 ,^u apply+ ?is   
pr9ciple to ! v>i\s exp]im5ts (         
electricity1 "o w be surpris$ at ! numb]
 ( obscure & puzzl+ facts t x cle>s up4 
,= ,mr4 ,hauksbee's fam\s exp]im5t ( !  
glass globe1 9 :i* silk ?reads are put1 
is a necess>y consequ5ce ( x4 ,:5 ^!    
?reads are arrang$ 9 ! =m ( rays by !   
electricity ( ! sides ( ! globe1 if !   
f+] be put ne> ! outside ( ! globe !    
silk ?reads )9 fly f x1 z is well kn[n1 
:i* happ5s only because ! f+] or any o!r
 body appli$ ne> ! glass globe is !reby 
r5d]$ electrical1 & consequ5tly repels !
 silk ?reads :i* are end[$ ) ! same     
quality4 ,) a little reflection we may 9
 ! same mann] acc\nt = mo/ ( ! o!r      
ph5om5a1 & :i* seem inexplicable )\t    
att5d+ to ?is pr9ciple4  ,*ance has ?r[n

 9 my way ano!r pr9ciple1 m univ]sal &  
rem>kable ?an ! prec$+ "o1 & :i* ?r[s a 
new light on ! subject ( electricity4   
,?is pr9ciple is t !re are two di/9ct   
electricities1 v diff]5t f ea* o!r1 "o (
 :i* ,i call vitre\s electricity & ! o!r
 res9\s electricity4 ,! fir/ is t (     
glass1 rock-cry/al1 preci\s /ones1 hair 
( animals1 wool1 & _m o!r bodies4 ,!    
second is t ( amb]1 copal1 gumsack1 silk
 ?read1 pap]1 & a numb] ( o!r sub/ances4
 ,! *>act]i/ic ( ^! two electricities is
 t a body ( ! vitre\s electricity1 =    
example1 repels all su* z are ( ! same  
electricity1 & on ! contr>y attracts all
 ^? ( ! res9\s electricity2 s t ! tube1 
made electrical1 w repel glass1 cry/al1 
hair ( animals1 etc41 :5 r5d]$ electric1
 & w attract silk ?read1 pap]1 etc41    
?\gh r5d]$ electrical likewise4 ,amb]1  
on ! contr>y1 w attract electric glass &
 o!r sub/ances ( ! same class1 & w repel
 gum-sack1 copal1 silk ?read1 etc4 ,two 
silk ribbons r5d]$ electrical w repel   
ea* o!r2 two wooll5 ?reads w d ! l2 b a 

wooll5 ?read & a silk5 ?read w mutually 
attract ea* o!r4 ,?is pr9ciple v        
naturally expla9s :y ! ends ( ?reads (  
silk or wool rec$e f ea* o!r1 9 ! =m (  
p5cil or broom1 :5 !y h acquir$ an      
electric quality4 ,f ?is pr9ciple "o may
 ) ! same ease d$uce ! explanation ( a  
great numb] ( o!r ph5om5a2 & x is       
probable t ?is tru? w lead u to ! fur!r 
discov]y ( _m o!r ?+s4  ,9 ord] to "k   
imm$iately to :i* ( ! two classes (     
electrics belongs any body :atsoev]1 "o 
ne$ only r5d] electric a silk ?read1 :i*
 is kn[n to be ( ! res9u\s electricity1 
& see :e!r t body1 r5d]$ electrical1    
attracts or repels x4 ,if x attracts x1 
x is c]ta9ly ( ! k9d ( electricity :i*  
,i call ,,vitre\s2 if1 on ! contr>y1 x  
repels x1 x is ( ! same k9d (           
electricity ) ! silk--t is1 ( !         
,,res9\s4 ,i h likewise obs]v$ t        
communicat$ electricity reta9s ! same   
prop]ties2 = if a ball ( ivory or wood  
be set on a glass /&1 & ?is ball be     
r5d]$ electric by ! tube1 x w repel su* 

sub/ances z ! tube repels2 b if x be    
r5d]$ electric by apply+ a cyl9d] (     
gum-sack ne> x1 x w produce q contr>y   
effects--namely1 precisely ! same z     
gum-sack w\ld produce4 ,9 ord] to succe$
 9 ^! exp]im5ts1 x is requisite t ! two 
bodies :i* are put ne> ea* o!r1 to f9d  
out ! nature ( _! electricity1 be r5d]$ 
z electrical z possible1 = if "o ( !m 0 
n at all or b weakly electrical1 x w\ld 
be attract$ by ! o!r1 ?\gh x be ( t sort
 t %\ld naturally be repell$ by x4 ,b ! 
exp]im5t w always succe$ p]fectly well  
if bo? bodies are suffici5tly           
electrical47#a7  ,z we n[ "k1 ,dufay 0  
wrong 9 suppos+ t !re 7 two diff]5t k9ds
 ( electricity1 vitre\s & res9\s4 ,a    
little lat] ! matt] 0 expla9$ by call+  
"o positive electricity & ! o!r         
negative1 & x 0 believ$ t c]ta9         
sub/ances produc$ only ! "o k9d peculi> 
to t p>ticul> sub/ance4 ,we %all see    
pres5tly1 h[ev]1 t "s tw5ty ye>s lat] an
 ,engli% sci5ti/ dispell$ ?is illusion  
by produc+ bo? positive 7or vitre\s7 &  

negative 7or res9\s7 electricity on !   
same tube ( glass at ! same "t4  ,aft] !
 dea? ( ,dufay 8 "w 0 cont9u$ by 8      
fell[-c\ntryman ,dr4 ,joseph            
,desaguli]s1 :o 0 ! fir/ exp]im5t] to   
electrify runn+ wat]1 & :o 0 probably ! 
fir/ to sugge/ t cl\ds might be         
electrifi$ bodies4 ,b ab\t1 ?is "t--t   
is1 j be=e ! middle ( ! eighte5?        
c5tury--! field ( greate/ exp]im5tal    
activity 0 transf]r$ to ,g]many1 al?\gh 
bo? ,engl& & ,france 7 /ill active4 ,!  
two ,g]man philosoph]s :o accompli%$ mo/
 at ?is "t 7 ,*ri/ian ,augu/ ,hans5 &   
,george ,mat?ias ,bose1 bo? pr(essors 9 
,leipsic4 ,bo? seem to h conceiv$ !     
idea1 simultane\sly & indep5d5tly1 (    
g5]at+ electricity by revolv+ globes run
 by belt & :eel 9 mu* ! same mann] z !  
app>atus ( ,hauksbee4  ,) su* ma*9es x 0
 possible to g5]ate a mu* great] am\nt (
 electricity ?an ,dufay _h be5 able to d
 ) ! rubb$ tube1 & s equipp$1 ! two     
,g]man pr(essors 7 able to g5]ate       
electric sp>ks & jets ( fire 9 a mo/    

/>tl+ mann]4 ,bose 9 p>ticul> _h a love 
= ! spectacul>1 :i* he turn$ to acc\nt )
 8 new electrical ma*9e ^u _m occasions4
 ,on "o ( ^! occasions he prep>$ an     
elaborate d9n]1 to :i* a l>ge numb] (   
di/+ui%$ gue/s 7 invit$4 ,be=e ! arrival
 ( ! company1 h[ev]1 ,bose insulat$ !   
great banquet-table on cakes ( pit*1 &  
!n connect$ x ) a huge electrical ma*9e 
conceal$ 9 ano!r room4 ,all be+ ready1 &
 ! gue/s 9 _! places ab\t to be seat$1  
,bose gave a secret signal = />t+ ?is   
ma*9e1 :51 to ! a/oni%m5t ( ! p>ty1     
flames ( fire %ot f fl[]s1 di%es1 &     
vi&s1 giv+ a mo/ />tl+ b beautiful      
display4  ,to add /ill fur!r to !       
a/oni%m5t ( 8 gue/s1 ,bose !n pres5t$ a 
beautiful "y lady1 to :om ea* ( ! "y m5 
( ! p>ty 0 introduc$4 ,9 "s my/]i\s     
mann] %e 0 insulat$ & connect$ ) !      
conceal$ electrical ma*9e1 s t z ea*    
gallant t\*$ h] f+]tips he receiv$ an   
electric %ock t made him reel4 ,n cont5t
 ) ?is1 ! ho/ invit$ ! "y m5 to kiss !  
beautiful maid4 ,b ^? :o 7 bold en\gh to

 attempt x receiv$ an electric %ock t   
ne>ly knock$ _! tee? out1 z ! pr(essor  
tells x4   ,,ludolff',s ,,exp]im5t ,,)  
,,! ,,electric ,,sp>k  ,b ,bose 0 only  
"o ( sev]al ,g]man sci5ti/s :o 7 mak+   
elaborate exp]im5ts4 ,:ile ,bose 0      
con/ruct+ & exp]im5t+ ) 8 huge ma*9e1   
ano!r ,g]man1 ,*ri/ian ,fri$ri*         
,ludolff1 demon/rat$ t electric sp>ks   
are actual fire--a fact long suspect$ b 
hi!rto unprov$4 ,ludolff's discov]y1 z x
 *anc$1 0 made 9 ! lecture-hall ( !     
reorganiz$ ,academy ( ,sci5ces at ,b]l91
 be=e an audi5ce ( sci5ti/s & great     
p]sonages1 at ! op5+ lecture 9 #agdd4   
,9 ! c\rse ( ?is lecture on electricity1
 dur+ :i* "s ( ! well-kn[n manife/ations
 ( electricity 7 be+ %[n1 x occurr$ to  
,ludolff to attempt to ignite "s        
inflammable fluid by project+ an        
electric sp>k ^u its surface ) a glass  
rod4 ,?is idea 0 sugge/$ to him :ile    
p]=m+ ! famili> exp]im5t ( produc+ a    
sp>k on ! surface ( a b[l ( wat] by t\*+
 x ) a *>g$ glass rod4 ,he ann\nc$ to 8 

audi5ce ! exp]im5t he 0 ab\t to attempt1
 & hav+ w>m$ a spoonful ( sulphuric e!r1
 he t\*$ its surface ) ! glass rod1     
caus+ x to bur/ into flame4 ,?is        
exp]im5t left no room = d\bt t !        
electric sp>k 0 actual fire4  ,z soon z 
?is exp]im5t ( ,ludolff's 0 made kn[n to
 ,bose1 he imm$iately claim$ t he _h    
previ\sly made simil> demon/rations on  
v>i\s inflammable sub/ances1 bo? liquid 
& solid2 & x seems highly probable t he 
_h done s1 z he 0 con/antly exp]im5t+ ) 
! sp>ks1 & mu/ almo/ c]ta9ly h set c]ta9
 sub/ances ablaze by accid5t1 if n by   
int5t4 ,at all ev5ts1 he c>ri$ on a     
s]ies ( exp]im5ts along ?is l9e to good 
purpose1 f9ally succe$+ 9 explod+       
gun-p[d]1 & s mak+ ! fir/ =]unn] ( !    
electric fuses n[ s univ]sally us$ 9    
bla/+1 fir+ cannon1 & o!r simil>        
purposes4 ,x 0 ,bose also :o1 obs]v+ "s 
( ! peculi> manife/ations 9 electrifi$  
tubes1 & notic+ _! resemblance to nor!rn
 lights1 0 "o ( ! fir/1 if n ! fir/1 to 
sugge/ t ! aurora borealis is ( electric

 orig94  ,^! spectacul> demon/rations _h
 ! effect ( call+ public att5tion to !  
fact t electricity is a mo/ wond]ful &  
my/]i\s ?+1 to say ! lea/1 & kept bo?   
sci5ti/s & laym5 agog ) expectancy4     
,bose himself 0 aflame ) excitem5t1 & s 
det]m9$ 9 8 ef=ts to produce /ill /rong]
 electric curr5ts1 t he sacrific$ ! tube
 ( 8 tw5ty-foot telescope = !           
con/ruction ( a mammo? electrical ma*9e4
 ,) ?is great ma*9e a dis*>ge (         
electricity 0 g5]at$ p[]ful en\gh to    
w\nd ! sk9 :5 x happ5$ to /rike x4      
,until ?is "t electricity _h be5 little 
m ?an a play?+ ( ! sci5ti/s--or1 at     
lea/1 no practical use _h be5 made ( x4 
,z x 0 a practis+ physician1 ,gilb]t1 :o
 fir/ laid ! f\ndation = exp]im5t+ ) !  
new sub/ance1 s aga9 x 0 a m$ical man :o
 fir/ attempt$ to put x to practical    
use1 & t 9 ! field ( 8 pr(ession4       
,gottlieb ,krug]1 a pr(essor ( m$ic9e at
 ,halle 9 #agdc1 sugge/$ t electricity  
might be ( use 9 "s bran*es ( m$ic9e2 & 
! ye> foll[+ ,*ri/ian ,gottlieb         

,kratz5/e9 made a fir/ exp]im5t to      
det]m9e ! effects ( electricity ^u !    
body4 ,he f\nd t ! action ( ! he>t 0    
accel]at$1 ! circulation increas$1 & t  
muscles 7 made to contract by ! dis*>ge3
 & he began at once adm9i/]+ electricity
 9 ! treatm5t ( c]ta9 diseases4 ,he f\nd
 t x act$ b5eficially 9 rheumatic       
affections1 & t x 0 p>ticul>ly useful 9 
c]ta9 n]v\s diseases1 su* z palsies4    
,?is 0 ov] a c5tury ago1 & to-day ab\t !
 mo/ important use made ( ! p>ticul> k9d
 ( electricity ) :i* he exp]im5t$ 7!    
/atic1 or frictional7 is = ! treatm5t ( 
diseases affect+ ! n]v\s sy/em4  ,by !  
middle ( ! c5tury a p]fect mania = mak+ 
electrical ma*9es _h spread ov] ,europe1
 & ! :irl+1 h&-rubb$ globes 7 gradually 
replac$ by great cyl9d]s rubb$ by wooll5
 clo?s or pads1 & g5]at+ an enorm\s p[] 
( electricity4 ,^! cyl9d]s 7 run by     
belts & foot-treadles1 & gave a m       
p[]ful1 con/ant1 & satisfactory curr5t  
?an kn[n h]et(ore4 ,:ile mak+ exp]im5ts 
) "o ( ^! ma*9es1 ,johann ,he9ri*s      

,w9kl] attempt$ to measure ! spe$ at :i*
 electricity travels4 ,to d ?is he      
ext5d$ a cord susp5d$ on silk ?reads1 ) 
! end atta*$ to ! ma*9e & ! end :i* 0 to
 attract ! bits ( gold-leaf ne> en\gh   
toge!r s t ! op]ator c\ld wat* & measure
 ! int]val ( "t t elaps$ betwe5 ! />t+ (
 ! curr5t along ! cord & its attract+ ! 
gold-leaf4 ,! l5g? ( ! cord us$ 9 ?is   
exp]im5t 0 only a little ov] a hundr$   
feet1 & ?is 01 ( c\rse1 entirely        
inadequate1 ! curr5t travell+ t space   
app>5tly in/antane\sly4  ,! improv$     
me?od ( g5]at+ electricity t _h come    
into g5]al use made sev]al ( ! sci5ti/s 
aga9 turn _! att5tion m p>ticul>ly to   
attempt putt+ x to "s practical acc\nt4 
,!y 7 /imulat$ to ^! ef=ts by ! con/ant 
reproa*es t 7 beg9n+ to be he>d on all  
sides t electricity 0 m]ely a           
philosoph]'s play?+4 ,"o ( ! fir/ to    
succe$ 9 inv5t+ some?+ t approa*$ a     
practical me*anical contrivance 0 ,&rew 
,gordon1 a ,scot* ,b5$ict9e monk4 ,he   
inv5t$ an electric bell :i* w\ld r+     

automatically1 & a little motor1 if x   
may be s call$4 ,& :ile nei!r ( ^!      
inv5tions 7 ( any practical importance 9
 !mselves1 !y 7 attempts 9 ! "r         
direction1 & 7 ! fir/ ance/ors ( mod]n  
electric bells & motors1 al?\gh !       
pr9ciple ^u :i* !y work$ 0 entirely     
diff]5t f mod]n electrical ma*9es4 ,!   
motor 0 simply a :eel ) sev]al protrud+ 
metal po9ts ar\nd its rim4 ,^! po9ts 7  
arrang$ to receive an electrical dis*>ge
 f a frictional ma*9e1 ! dis*>ge caus+ !
 :eel to rotate4 ,!re 0 v little =ce    
giv5 to ?is rotation1 h[ev]1 n en\gh1 9 
fact1 to make x possible to m ?an b>ely 
turn ! :eel itself4 ,two m great        
discov]ies1 galvanism & electro-magnetic
 induction1 7 necess>y be=e ! practical 
motor became possible4  ,! sob] ,gordon 
_h a ta/e = ! spectacul> almo/ equal to 
t ( ,bose4 ,x 0 he :o ignit$ a b[l (    
alcohol by turn+ a /ream ( electrifi$   
wat] ^u x1 ?us pres5t+ ! seem+ p>adox ( 
fire produc$ by a /ream ( wat]4 ,gordon 
also demon/rat$ ! p[] ( ! electrical    

dis*>ge by kill+ small birds & animals  
at a di/ance ( two hundr$ ells1 !       
electricity be+ convey$ t di/ance ?r\gh 
small wires4   ,,! ,,leyd5 ,,j>         
,,discov]$  ,z yet no "o _h discov]$ t  
electricity c\ld be /or$1 or g5]at$ 9   
any way o!r ?an by "s friction device4  
,b v soon two exp]im5t]s1 ,dean von     
,klei/1 ( ,cam91 ,pom]ania1 & ,piet] van
 ,muss*5broek1 ! fam\s tea*] ( ,leyd51  
app>5tly indep5d5tly1 made ! discov]y ( 
:at has be5 kn[n ev] s9ce z ! ,leyd5 j>4
 ,& al?\gh ,muss*5broek is sometimes    
cr$it$ ) be+ ! discov]]1 !re c be no    
d\bt t ,von ,klei/'s discov]y ant$at$ 8 
by a few mon?s at lea/4  ,von ,klei/    
f\nd t by a device made ( a n>r[-neck$  
bottle conta9+ alcohol or m]cury1 into  
:i* an iron nail 0 ins]t$1 he 0 able to 
reta9 ! *>ge ( electricity1 aft]        
electrify+ ?is app>atus ) ! frictional  
ma*9e4 ,he made also a simil> device1 m 
closely resembl+ ! mod]n ,leyd5 j>1 f a 
!rmomet] tube p>tly fill$ ) wat] & a    
wire tipp$ ) a ball ( lead4 ,) ^!       

devices he f\nd t he c\ld reta9 ! *>ge (
 electricity = sev]al h\rs1 & c\ld      
produce ! usual electrical              
manife/ations1 ev5 to ignit+ spirits1 q 
z well z ) ! frictional ma*9e4 ,^!      
exp]im5ts 7 fir/ made 9 ,octob]1 #agde1 
& aft] a mon? ( fur!r exp]im5t+1 ,von   
,klei/ s5t ! foll[+ acc\nt ( !m to      
sev]al ( ! lead+ sci5ti/s1 among o!rs1  
,dr4 ,lieb]kuhn1 9 ,b]l91 & ,dr4 ,krug]1
 ( ,halle4  ,:5 a nail1 or a piece (    
?ick brass wire1 is put into a small    
apo!c>y's phial & electrifi$1 rem>kable 
effects foll[2 b ! phial mu/ be v dry1  
or w>m4 ,i commonly rub x ov] be=eh& ) a
 f+] on :i* ,i put "s p\nd$ *alk4 ,if a 
little m]cury or a few drops ( _s ( w9e 
be put into x1 ! exp]im5t succe$s bett]4
 ,z soon z ?is phial & nail are remov$ f
 ! electrify+-glass1 or ! prime         
conductor1 to :i* x has be5 expos$1 is  
tak5 away1 x ?r[s out a p5cil ( flame s 
long t1 ) ?is burn+ ma*9e 9 my h&1 ,i h 
tak5 above sixty /eps 9 walk+ ab\t my   
room4 ,:5 x is electrifi$ /rongly1 ,i c 

take x into ano!r room & !re fire       
spirits ( w9e ) x4 ,if :ile x is        
electrify+ ,i put my f+]1 or a piece (  
gold :i* ,i hold 9 my h&1 to ! nail1 ,i 
receive a %ock :i* /uns my arms &       
%\ld]s4  ,a t9 tube1 or a man1 plac$ ^u 
electrics1 is electrifi$ mu* /rong] by  
?is means ?an 9 ! common way4 ,:5 ,i    
pres5t ?is phial & nail to a t9 tube1   
:i* ,i h1 fifte5 feet long1 no?+ b      
exp]i5ce c make a p]son believe h[      
/rongly x is electrifi$4 ,i am p]suad$1 
he adds1 t 9 ?is mann] ,mr4 ,bose w\ld n
 h tak5 a second electrical kiss4 ,two  
?9 glasses h be5 brok5 by ! %ock ( x4 ,x
 appe>s to me v extraord9>y1 t :5 ?is   
phial & nail are 9 contact ) ei!r       
conduct+ or non-conduct+ matt]1 ! /rong 
%ock does n foll[4 ,i h cem5t$ x to     
wood1 metal1 glass1 seal+-wax1 etc41 :5 
,i h electrifi$ )\t any great effect4 ,!
 human body1 !re=e1 mu/ contribute      
some?+ to x4 ,?is op9ion is confirm$ by 
my obs]v+ t unless ,i hold ! phial 9 my 
h& ,i _c fire spirits ( w9e ) x47#b7  ,b

 x seems t none ( ! m5 :o saw ?is acc\nt
 7 able to repeat ! exp]im5t & produce !
 effects claim$ by ,von ,klei/1 &       
probably = ?is reason ! discov]y ( !    
obscure ,pom]anian 0 = a "t lo/ sight (4
  ,muss*5broek's discov]y 0 made )9 a   
%ort "t aft] ,von ,klei/'s--9 fact1 only
 a matt] ( ab\t two mon?s lat]4 ,b !    
diff]5ce 9 ! reputations ( ! two        
discov]]s insur$ a v diff]5t reception =
 _! discov]ies4 ,muss*5broek 0 "o ( !   
=emo/ tea*]s ( ,europe1 & s widely kn[n 
t ! great univ]sities vi$ ) ea* o!r1 &  
k+s 7 bidd+1 = 8 s]vices4 ,naturally1   
any discov]y made by su* a fam\s p]son  
w\ld soon be h]ald$ f "o end ( ,europe  
to ! o!r4 ,& s :5 ?is pr(essor ( ,leyd5 
made 8 discov]y1 ! app>atus came to be  
call$ ! ,leyd5 j>1 = want ( a bett] "n4 
,!re c be little d\bt t ,muss*5broek    
made 8 discov]y entirely indep5d5tly (  
any k ( ,von ,klei/'s1 or1 = t matt]1   
)\t ev] hav+ he>d ( ! ,pom]anian1 & 8   
actions 9 ! matt] are entirely          
honorable4  ,8 discov]y 0 ! result ( an 

accid5t4 ,:ile exp]im5t+ to det]m9e !   
/r5g? ( electricity he susp5d$ a        
gun-b>rel1 :i* he *>g$ ) electricity f a
 revolv+ glass globe4 ,f ! end ( !      
gun-b>rel opposite ! globe 0 a brass    
wire1 :i* ext5d$ into a glass j> p>tly  
fill$ ) wat]4 ,muss*5broek held 9 "o h& 
?is j>1 :ile ) ! o!r he attempt$ to draw
 sp>ks f ! b>rel4 ,sudd5ly he receiv$ a 
%ock 9 ! h& hold+ ! j>1 t %ook him l a  
/roke ( lightn+1 & = a mom5t made him   
believe t he 0 done =4 ,cont9u+ 8       
exp]im5ts1 nev]!less1 he f\nd t if ! j> 
7 plac$ on a piece ( metal on ! table1 a
 %ock w\ld be receiv$ by t\*+ ?is piece 
( metal ) "o h& & t\*+ ! wire ) ! o!r--t
 is1 a pa? 0 made = ! electrical dis*>ge
 ?r\gh ! body4 ,?is 0 practically ! same
 exp]im5t z made by ,von ,klei/ ) 8     
bottle & nail1 b c>ri$ "o /ep f>!r1 z x 
%[$ t ! j> ne$ n necess>ily be held 9 ! 
h&1 z believ$ by ,von ,klei/4 ,fur!r    
exp]im5ts1 cont9u$ by _m philosoph]s at 
! "t1 reveal$ :at ,von ,klei/ _h already
 po9t$ out1 t ! electrifi$ j> rema9$    

*>g$ = "s "t4  ,soon aft] ?is ,daniel   
,grala?1 wi%+ to obta9 /rong] dis*>ges  
?an c\ld be _h f a s+le ,leyd5 j>1      
conceiv$ ! idea ( comb9+ sev]al j>s1 ?us
 = ! fir/ "t gr\p+ ! g5]ators 9 a batt]y
 :i* produc$ a dis*>ge /rong en\gh to   
kill birds & small animals4 ,he also    
attempt$ to measure ! /r5g? ( !         
dis*>ges1 b soon gave x up 9 despair1 & 
! solution ( ?is problem 0 left = late  
n9ete5?-c5tury sci5ti/s4  ,! adv5t ( !  
,leyd5 j>1 :i* made x possible to       
produce /rong electrical dis*>ges f a   
small & comp>atively simple device1 0   
foll[$ by m spectacul> demon/rations (  
v>i\s k9ds all ov] ,europe4 ,^!         
exhibitions ar\s$ ! int]e/ ( ! k+s &    
noblem51 s t electricity no long] rema9$
 a play?+ ( ! philosoph]s alone1 b ( k+s
 z well4 ,a favorite demon/ration 0 t ( 
s5d+ ! electrical dis*>ge ?r\gh long    
l9es ( soldi]s l9k$ toge!r by pieces (  
wire1 ! dis*>ge caus+ !m to spr+ into ! 
air simultane\sly 9 a mo/ a/oni%+ mann]4
 ,a c]ta9 monk 9 ,p>is prep>$ a mo/     

elaborate s]ies ( demon/rations = !     
amusem5t ( ! k+1 among o!r ?+s l9k+     
toge!r an entire regim5t ( n9e hundr$   
m51 caus+ !m to p]=m simultane\s spr+s &
 contortions 9 a mann] mo/ amus+ to !   
royal gue/s4 ,b n all ! exp]im5ts be+   
made 7 ( a purely spectacul> "*1 al?\gh 
mo/ ( !m accompli%$ little except 9 a   
negative way4 ,! fam\s ,abbe ,nollet1 = 
example1 comb9$ useful exp]im5ts )      
spectacul> demon/rations1 ?us keep+ up  
popul> int]e/ :ile aid+ ! cause (       
sci5tific electricity4   ,,william      
,,watson  ,naturally1 ! new discov]ies  
made necess>y a new nom5clature1 new    
words & electrical t]ms be+ con/antly   
employ$ by ! v>i\s writ]s ( t day4      
,among ^! writ]s 0 ! ,engli% sci5ti/    
,william ,watson1 :o 0 n only a mo/     
prolific writ] b a tireless inve/igator4
 ,_m ( ! words co9$ by him are n[       
obsolete1 b "o at lea/1 circuit1 /ill   
rema9s 9 use4  ,9 #agdf1 a ,fr5*        
sci5ti/1 ,l\is ,guillaume le ,monni]1   
bad made a circuit includ+ metal & wat] 

by lay+ a *a9 half-way ar\nd ! edge ( a 
pond1 a man at ei!r end hold+ x4 ,"o (  
^! m5 dipp$ 8 free h& 9 ! wat]1 ! o!r   
pres5t+ a ,leyd5 j> to a rod susp5d$ on 
a cork float on ! wat]1 bo? m5 receiv+ a
 %ock simultane\sly4 ,watson1 a ye>     
lat]1 attempt$ ! same exp]im5t on a l>g]
 scale4 ,he laid a wire ab\t twelve     
hundr$ feet long across ,we/m9/] ,bridge
 ov] ! ,?ames1 br++ ! ends to ! wat]'s  
edge on ! opposite banks1 a man at "o   
end hold+ ! wire & t\*+ ! wat]4 ,a      
second man on ! opposite side held !    
wire & a ,leyd5 j>2 & a ?ird t\*$ ! j> )
 "o h&1 :ile ) ! o!r he grasp$ a wire t 
ext5d$ into ! riv]4 ,9 ?is way !y n only
 receiv$ ! %ock1 b fir$ alcohol z       
readily across ! /ream z c\ld be done 9 
! laboratory4 ,9 ?is exp]im5t ,watson   
discov]$ ! sup]iority ( wire ov] *a9 z a
 conductor1 rightly ascrib+ ?is         
sup]iority to ! cont9uity ( ! metal4    
,watson cont9u$ mak+ simil> exp]im5ts   
ov] long] wat]c\rses1 "s ( !m z long z  
eight ?\s& feet1 & :ile engag$ 9 mak+ "o

 ( ^! he made ! discov]y s ess5tial to  
lat] inv5tions1 t ! e>? c\ld be us$ z "p
 ( ! circuit 9 ! same mann] z bodies (  
wat]4 ,l5g!n+ 8 wires he cont9u$ 8      
exp]im5ts until a circuit ( f\r miles 0 
made1 & /ill ! electricity seem$ to     
trav]se ! c\rse in/antane\sly1 & )      
app>5tly undim9i%$ =ce1 if ! insulation 
0 p]fect4   ,,b5jam9 ,,frankl9          
,watson's writ+s n[ c>ri$ ! field (     
active discov]y across ! ,atlantic1 & = 
! fir/ "t an ,am]ican sci5ti/ appe>$--a 
sci5ti/ :o n only rivall$1 b excell$1 8 
,european contempor>ies4 ,b5jam9        
,frankl91 ( ,philadelphia1 com+ into    
possession ( "s ( ,watson's books1      
became s int]e/$ 9 ! exp]im5ts describ$ 
9 !m t he began at once exp]im5t+ )     
electricity4 ,9 ,watson's book 7 giv5   
directions = mak+ v>i\s exp]im5ts1 & ^! 
assi/$ ,frankl9 9 repeat+ ! old         
exp]im5ts1 & ev5tually add+ new ones4   
,associat$ ) ,frankl91 & equally int]e/$
 & en?usia/ic1 if n equally successful 9
 mak+ discov]ies1 7 ?ree o!r m51 ,?omas 

,hopk9son1 ,philip ,s+1 & ,eb5ez]       
,k9n]sley4 ,^! m5 work$ toge!r          
con/antly1 al?\gh x appe>s to h be5     
,frankl9 :o made indep5d5tly ! important
 discov]ies1 & =mulat$ ! fam\s          
,frankl9ian !ory4  ,work+ /eadily1 &    
keep+ con/antly 9 t\* ) ! progress ( !  
,european inve/igators1 ,frankl9 soon   
made "s exp]im5ts :i* he ?\ght          
demon/rat$ "s hi!rto unkn[n phases (    
electrical manife/ation4 ,?is 0 ! effect
 ( po9t$ bodies 9 ,,draw+ ,,(f & ,,?r[+ 
,,(f ! electrical fire4 ,9 8 description
 ( ?is ph5om5on1 ,frankl9 writes3       
,place an iron %ot ( ?ree or f\r in*es  
diamet] on ! m\? ( a clean1 dry1 glass  
bottle4 ,by a f9e silk5 ?read f ! ceil+ 
"r ov] ! m\? ( ! bottle1 susp5d a small 
cork ball1 ab\t ! bigness ( a m>ble2 !  
?read ( su* a l5g? t ! cork ball may re/
 aga9/ ! side ( ! %ot4 ,electrify ! %ot1
 & ! ball w be repell$ to ! di/ance (   
f\r or five in*es1 m or less1 accord+ to
 ! quantity ( electricity4 ,:5 9 ?is    
/ate1 if y pres5t to ! %ot ! po9t ( a   

long1 sl5d] %aft-bodk91 at six or eight 
in*es di/ance1 ! repell5cy is in/antly  
de/roy$1 & ! cork flies to ! %ot4 ,a    
blunt body mu/ be br\ght )9 an in*1 &   
draw a sp>k1 to produce ! same effect4  
,to prove t ! electrical fire is ,,drawn
 ,,(f by ! po9t1 if y take ! blade ( !  
bodk9 out ( ! wood5 h&le & fix x 9 a    
/ick ( seal+-wax1 & !n pres5t x at !    
di/ance a=esaid1 or if y br+ x v ne>1 no
 su* effect foll[s2 b slid+ "o f+] along
 ! wax till y t\* ! blade1 & ! ball     
flies to ! %ot imm$iately4 ,if y pres5t 
! po9t 9 ! d>k y w see1 sometimes at a  
foot di/ance1 & m1 a light ga!r ^u x l t
 ( a fire-fly or gl[-worm2 ! less %>p ! 
po9t1 ! ne>] y mu/ br+ x to obs]ve !    
light2 & at :atev] di/ance y see !      
light1 y may draw (f ! electrical fire &
 de/roy ! repell5cy4 ,if a cork ball s  
susp5d$ be repell$ by ! tube1 & a po9t  
be pres5t$ quick to x1 ?\gh at a        
consid]able di/ance1 'tis surpris+ to   
see h[ sudd5ly x flies back to ! tube4  
,po9ts ( wood w d z well z ^? ( iron1   

provid$ ! wood is n dry2 = p]fectly dry 
wood w no m conduct electricity ?an     
seal+-wax4  ,to %[ t po9ts w ,,?r[ ,,(f 
z well z ,,draw ,,(f ! electrical fire1 
lay a long1 %>p ne$le ^u ! %ot1 & y _c  
electrify ! %ot s z to make x repel !   
cork ball4 ,or fix a ne$le to ! end ( a 
susp5d$ gun-b>rel or iron rod1 s z to   
po9t beyond x l a little bayonet1 & :ile
 x rema9s !re1 ! gun-b>rel or rod _c1 by
 apply+ ! tube to ! o!r end1 be         
electrifi$ s z to give a sp>k1 ! fire   
cont9ually runn+ out sil5tly at ! po9t4 
,9 ! d>k y may see x make ! same        
appe>ance z x does 9 ! case be=e        
m5tion$47#c7  ,von ,gu]icke1 ,hauksbee1 
& ,gray _h notic$ t po9t$ bodies        
attract$ electricity 9 a peculi> mann]1 
b ?is demon/ration ( ! draw+ (f (       
electrical fire 0 orig9al ) ,frankl94   
,orig9al also 0 ! !ory t he n[ sugge/$1 
:i* _h at lea/ ! m]it ( be+ ?9kable ev5 
by non-philosophical m9ds4 ,x assumes t 
electricity is l a fluid1 t w fl[ along 
conductors & accumulate 9 prop]         

receptacles1 v mu* z ord9>y fluids d4   
,?is conception is probably entirely    
incorrect1 b nev]!less x is likely to   
rema9 a popul> "o1 at lea/ outside (    
sci5tific circles1 or until some?+      
equally tangible is sub/itut$4          
,,frankl9',s ,,!ory ,,( ,,electricity   
,accord+ to ,frankl9's !ory1 electricity
 exi/s 9 all bodies z a common /ock1 &  
t5ds to seek & rema9 9 a /ate (         
equilibrium1 j z fluids naturally t5d to
 seek a level4 ,b x may1 nev]!less1 be  
rais$ or l[]$1 & ?is equilibrium be ?us 
di/urb$4 ,if a body has m electricity   
?an its normal am\nt x is said to be    
,,positively electrifi$2 b if x has     
less1 x is ,,negatively electrifi$4 ,an 
ov]-electrifi$ or plus body t5ds to give
 its surplus /ock to a body conta9+ !   
normal am\nt2 :ile ! m9us or            
"u-electrifi$ body w draw electricity f 
"o conta9+ ! normal am\nt4  ,work+ along
 l9es sugge/$ by ?is !ory1 ,frankl9     
attempt$ to %[ t electricity is n creat$
 by friction1 b simply collect$ f its   

div]sifi$ /ate1 ! rubb$ glass globe     
attract+ a c]ta9 quantity ( electrical  
fire1 b ev] ready to give x up to any   
body t has less4 ,he expla9$ ! *>g$     
,leyd5 j> by %[+ t ! inn] coat+ (       
t9-foil receiv$ m ?an ! ord9>y quantity 
( electricity1 & 9 consequ5ce is        
,,positively electrifi$1 :ile ! out]    
coat+1 hav+ ! ord9>y quantity (         
electricity dim9i%$1 is electrifi$      
,,negatively4  ,^! /udies ( ! ,leyd5 j>1
 & ! /udies ( pieces ( glass coat$ )    
%eet metal1 l$ ,frankl9 to inv5t 8      
batt]y1 con/ruct$ ( elev5 l>ge glass    
plates coat$ ) %eets ( lead4 ,) ?is     
ma*9e1 aft] ov]com+ "s defects1 he 0    
able to produce electrical manife/ations
 ( great =ce--a =ce t knew no b\nds1 z  
he decl>$ 7except 9 ! matt] ( exp5se & (
 labor71 & :i* c\ld be made to exce$ !  
greate/ "k effects ( common lightn+4    
,?is ref]5ce to lightn+ w\ld seem to %[ 
,frankl9's belief1 ev5 at t "t1 t       
lightn+ is electricity4 ,_m em95t       
obs]v]s1 su* z ,hauksbee1 ,wall1 ,gray1 

& ,nollet1 _h notic$ ! resemblance      
betwe5 electric sp>ks & lightn+1 b none 
( ^! _h m ?an surmis$ t ! two might be  
id5tical4 ,9 #agdf1 ! surgeon1 ,john    
,freke1 also ass]t$ 8 belief 9 ?is      
id5tity4 ,w9kl]1 %ortly aft] ?is "t1    
express$ ! same belief1 &1 assum+ t !y 7
 ! same1 decl>$ t !re is no pro( t !y   
are ( diff]5t natures2 & /ill he did n  
prove t !y 7 ! same nature4   ,,frankl9 
,,inv5ts ,,! ,,lightn+-,,rod  ,ev5 be=e 
,frankl9 prov$ conclusively ! nature (  
lightn+1 8 exp]im5ts 9 draw+ (f !       
electric *>ge ) po9ts l$ to "s practical
 sugge/ions :i* result$ 9 ! inv5tion ( !
 lightn+-rod4 ,9 ! lett] ( ,july1 #agej1
 :i* he wrote on ! subject1 he gave     
c>eful in/ructions z to ! way 9 :i* ^!  
rods might be con/ruct$4 ,9 "p ,frankl9 
wrote3 ,may n ! k ( ?is p[] ( po9ts be (
 use to mank9d 9 pres]v+ h\ses1 *ur*es1 
%ips1 etc41 f ! /roke ( lightn+ by      
direct+ u to fix on ! highe/ p>ts ( !   
edifices upright rods ( iron made %>p z 
a ne$le1 & gilt to prev5t ru/+1 & f !   

foot ( ^! rods a wire d[n ! outside ( ! 
build+ into ! gr\nds1 or d[n r\nd "o ( !
 %r\ds ( a %ip & d[n h] side till x     
rea*es ! wat]8 ,w\ld n ^! po9t$ rods    
probably draw ! electrical fire sil5tly 
out ( a cl\d be=e x came nigh en\gh to  
/rike1 & !reby secure u f t mo/ sudd5 & 
t]rible mis*ief8  ,to det]m9e ?is "q1   
:e!r ! cl\ds t conta9 ! lightn+ are     
electrifi$ or n1 ,i propose an exp]im5t 
to be tri$ :]e x may be done conv5i5tly4
 ,on ! top ( "s high t[] or /eeple1     
place a k9d ( s5try-box1 big en\gh to   
conta9 a man & an electrical /&4 ,f !   
middle ( ! /& let an iron rod rise &    
pass1 b5d+ out ( ! door1 & !n upright   
tw5ty or ?irty feet1 po9t$ v %>p at !   
end4 ,if ! electrical /& be kept clean &
 dry1 a man /&+ on x :5 su* cl\ds are   
pass+ l[ might be electrifi$ & af=d     
sp>ks1 ! rod draw+ fire to him f a cl\d4
 ,if any dang] to ! man be appreh5d$    
7?\gh ,i ?9k !re w\ld be none71 let him 
/& on ! floor ( 8 box & n[ & !n br+ ne> 
to ! rod ! loop ( a wire t has "o end   

fa/5$ to ! leads1 he hold+ x by a wax   
h&le2 s ! sp>ks1 if ! rod is electrifi$1
 w /rike f ! rod to ! wire & n effect   
him47#d7  ,n satisfi$ ) all ! evid5ce t 
he _h collect$ po9t+ to ! id5tity (     
lightn+ & electricity1 he adds "o m     
/rik+ & v sugge/ive piece ( evid5ce4    
,lightn+ 0 kn[n sometimes to /rike      
p]sons bl9d )\t kill+ !m4 ,9 exp]im5t+  
on pigeons & pullets ) 8 electrical     
ma*9e1 ,frankl9 f\nd t a f[l1 :5 n kill$
 outright1 0 sometimes r5d]$ bl9d4 ,!   
report ( ^! exp]im5ts 7 incorporat$ 9   
?is fam\s lett] ( ! ,philadelphia       
philosoph]4  ,! attitude ( ! ,royal     
,society t[>ds ?is cle>ly /at$ lett]1 ) 
its useful sugge/ions1 mu/ always rema9 
z a blot on ! record ( ?is usually v    
receptive & lib]al-m9d$ body4 ,f> f     
publi%+ x or receiv+ x at all1 !y d]id$ 
! :ole matt] z too vision>y = discussion
 by ! society4 ,h[ 0 x possible t any   
great sci5tific discov]y c\ld be made by
 a self-educat$ colonial newspap]       
editor1 :o knew no?+ ( ,european sci5ce 

except by he>say1 :5 all ! great        
sci5tific m9ds ( ,europe _h fail$ to    
make ! discov]y8 ,h[ inde$6 ,& yet x    
w\ld seem t if any ( ! influ5tial memb]s
 ( ! le>n$ society _h tak5 ! tr\ble to  
read ov] ,frankl9's cle>ly /at$ lett]1  
!y c\ld h>dly h fail$ to see t 8        
sugge/ions 7 wor?y ( consid]ation4 ,b at
 all ev5ts1 :e!r !y did or did n matt]s 
little4 ,! fact rema9s t !y refus$ to   
consid] ! pap] s]i\sly at ! "t2 & lat]  
on1 :5 its true value became kn[n1 7    
oblig$ to ackn[l$ge _! error by a t>dy  
report on ! already well-kn[n docum5t4  
,b if ,engli% sci5ti/s 7 cold 9 _!      
reception ( ,frankl9's !ory &           
sugge/ions1 ! ,fr5* sci5ti/s 7 n4       
,buffon1 p]ceiv+ at once ! importance ( 
"s ( ,frankl9's exp]im5ts1 took /eps to 
h ! fam\s lett] translat$ into ,fr5*1 & 
soon n only ! savants1 b memb]s ( ! c\rt
 & ! k+ himself 7 int5sely int]e/$4 ,two
 sci5ti/s1 ,de ,lor & ,d',alib>d1       
und]took to te/ ! tru? ( ,frankl9's     
sugge/ions z to po9t$ rods draw+ (f     

lightn+4 ,9 a g>d5 ne> ,p>is1 ! latt]   
erect$ a po9t$ iron rod fifty feet high 
& an in* 9 diamet]4 ,z no ?und]-cl\ds   
appe>$ = sev]al days1 a gu>d 0 /ation$1 
arm$ ) an insulat$ brass wire1 :o 0     
direct$ to te/ ! iron rods ) x 9 case a 
/orm came on dur+ ,d',alib>d's abs5ce4  
,! /orm did come on1 & ! gu>d1 n wait+ =
 8 employ]'s arrival1 seiz$ ! wire &    
t\*$ ! rod4 ,in/antly !re 0 a report4   
,sp>ks flew & ! gu>d receiv$ su* a %ock 
t he ?\ght 8 "t _h come4 ,believ+ f 8   
outcry t he 0 mortally hurt1 8 fri5ds   
ru%$ = a spiritual advis]1 :o came runn+
 ?r\gh ra9 & hail to adm9i/] ! la/      
rites2 b :5 he f\nd ! gu>d /ill alive & 
un9jur$1 he turn$ 8 visit to acc\nt by  
te/+ ! rod himself sev]al times1 & lat] 
writ+ a report ( 8 exp]im5ts to ,m4     
d',alib>d4 ,?is sci5ti/ at once report$ 
! affair to ! ,fr5* ,academy1 rem>k+ t  
,frankl9's idea 0 no long] a conjecture1
 b a reality4   ,,frankl9 ,,proves ,,t  
,,lightn+ ,,is ,,electricity  ,europe1  
hi!rto some:at sceptical ( ,frankl9's   

views1 0 by ?is "t conv9c$ ( ! id5tity (
 lightn+ & electricity4 ,x 0 n[         
,frankl9's turn to be sceptical4 ,to him
 ! fact t a rod1 "o hundr$ feet high1   
became electrifi$ dur+ a /orm did n     
necess>ily prove t ! /orm-cl\ds 7       
electrifi$4 ,a rod ( t l5g? 0 n really  
project$ into ! cl\d1 = ev5 a v l[      
?und]-cl\d 0 m ?an a hundr$ feet above !
 gr\nd4 ,irrefutable pro( c\ld only be  
_h1 z he saw x1 by extract+ ! lightn+ ) 
some?+ actually s5t up into ! /orm-cl\d2
 & to accompli% ?is ,frankl9 made 8 silk
 kite1 ) :i* he f9ally demon/rat$ to 8  
own & ! _w's satisfaction t 8 !ory 0    
correct4  ,tak+ 8 kite out into an op5  
common on ! approa* ( a ?und]-/orm1 he  
flew x well up into ! ?reat5+ cl\ds1 &  
!n1 t\*+1 ! susp5d$ key ) 8 knuckle1    
receiv$ ! electric sp>k2 & a little lat]
 he *>g$ a ,leyd5 j> f ! electricity    
drawn f ! cl\ds ) 8 kite4  ,9 a brief b 
direct lett]1 he s5t an acc\nt ( 8 kite 
& 8 exp]im5t to ,engl&3  ,make a small  
cross ( two light /rips ( c$>1 he wrote1

 ! arms s long z to rea* to ! f\r corn]s
 ( a l>ge1 ?91 silk h&k]*ief :5 ext5d$2 
tie ! corn]s ( ! h&k]*ief to !          
extremities ( ! cross s y h ! body ( a  
kite2 :i* be+ prop]ly accommodat$ ) a   
tail1 loop1 & /r+1 w rise 9 ! air l ^?  
made ( pap]2 b ?is be+ ( silk is fitt]  
to be> ! w9d & wet ( a ?und]-gu/ )\t    
te>+4 ,to ! top ( ! upright /ick ( !    
cross is to be fix$ a v %>p-po9t$ wire1 
ris+ a foot or m above ! wood4 ,to ! end
 ( ! tw9e1 next ! h&1 is to be ti$ a    
silk ribbon2 :]e ! silk & tw9e jo9 a key
 may be fa/5$4 ,?is kite is to be rais$ 
:5 a ?und]-gu/ appe>s to be com+ on1 & !
 p]son :o holds ! /r+ mu/ /& )9 a door  
or w9d[ or "u "s cov]1 s t ! silk ribbon
 may n be wet2 & c>e mu/ be tak5 t !    
tw9e does n t\* ! frame ( ! door or     
w9d[4 ,z soon z any ( ! ?und]-cl\ds come
 ov] ! kite1 ! po9t$ wire w draw !      
electric fire f !m1 & ! kite1 ) all !   
tw9e1 w be electrifi$ & ! loose filam5ts
 w /& out ev]y:]e & be attract$ by !    
approa*+ f+]1 & :5 ! ra9 has wet ! kite 

& tw9e s t x c conduct ! electric fire  
freely1 y w f9d x /ream out pl5tifully f
 ! key on ! approa* ( y\r knuckle1 & )  
?is key ! phial may be *>g$2 & f        
electric fire ?us obta9$ spirits may be 
k9dl$ & all o!r electric exp]im5ts p]=m$
 :i* are usually done by ! help ( a     
rubb$ glass globe or tube1 & !reby !    
sam5ess ( ! electric matt] ) t ( lightn+
 completely demon/rat$47#e7  ,9         
exp]im5t+ ) lightn+ & ,frankl9's po9t$  
rods 9 ,europe1 sev]al sci5ti/s receiv$ 
sev]e %ocks1 9 "o case ) a fatal result4
 ,pr(essor ,ri*man1 ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg1   
:ile exp]im5t+ dur+ a ?und]-/orm1 ) an  
iron rod :i* he _h erect$ on 8 h\se1    
receiv$ a %ock t kill$ him in/antly4    
,ab\t #agcc1 z we h se51 ,dufay _h      
demon/rat$ t !re 7 two app>5tly diff]5t 
k9ds ( electricity2 "o call$ ,,vitre\s  
because produc$ by rubb+ glass1 & ! o!r 
,,res9\s because produc$ by rubb$ res9\s
 bodies4 ,dufay suppos$ t ^! two        
app>5tly diff]5t electricities c\ld only
 be produc$ by _! respective sub/ances2 

b tw5ty ye>s lat]1 ,john ,canton        
7#agae-aggb71 an ,engli%man1 demon/rat$ 
t "u c]ta9 conditions bo? might be      
produc$ by rubb+ ! same sub/ance4       
,canton's exp]im5t1 made ^u a glass tube
 ) a r\gh5$ surface1 prov$ t if !       
surface ( ! tube 7 rubb$ ) oil$ silk1   
vitre\s or positive electricity 0       
produc$1 b if rubb$ ) flannel1 res9\s   
electricity 0 produc$4 ,he discov]$ /ill
 fur!r t bo? k9ds c\ld be excit$ on !   
same tube simultane\sly ) a s+le rubb]4 
,to demon/rate ?is he us$ a tube1       
"o-half ( :i* _h a r\gh5$ ! o!r a glaz$ 
surface4 ,) a s+le /roke ( ! rubb] he 0 
able to excite bo? k9ds ( electricity on
 ?is tube4 ,he f\nd also t c]ta9        
sub/ances1 su* z glass & amb]1 7        
electrifi$ positively :5 tak5 out (     
m]cury1 & ?is l$ to 8 important discov]y
 t an amalgam ( m]cury & t91 :5 us$ on !
 surface ( ! rubb]1 0 v effective 9     
excit+ glass4     ,,xv4 ,,natural       
,,hi/ory ,,to ,,! ,,"t ,,( ,,l9naeus    
,mod]n sy/ematic botany & zoology are   

usually held to h _! beg9n+s ) ,l9naeus4
 ,b !re 7 c]ta9 precursors ( ! fam\s    
,sw$i% naturali/1 "s ( !m ant$at+ him by
 m ?an a c5tury1 ^: "w mu/ n be altoge!r
 ignor$--su* m5 z ,konrad ,gesn]        
7#aeaf-aefe71 ,&reas ,caesalp9us        
7#aegi-afjc71 ,francisco ,r$i           
7#afah-afgf71 ,giovanni ,alfonso        
,borelli 7#afjh-afgi71 ,john ,ray       
7#afbh-agje71 ,rob]t ,hooke             
7#afce-agjc71 ,john ,swamm]dam          
7#afcg-afhj71 ,m>cello ,malpighi        
7#afbh-afid71 ,nehemiah ,grew           
7#afbh-agaa71 ,joseph ,t\rne=t          
7#afef-agjh71 ,rudolf ,jacob ,cam]>ius  
7#affe-agba71 & ,/eph5 ,hales           
7#afgg-agfa74 ,! la/ nam$ ( ^! 01 to be 
sure1 a contempor>y ( ,l9naeus himself1 
b ,gesn] & ,caesalp9us belong1 x w be   
obs]v$1 to s remote an epo* z t (       
,cop]nicus4  ,ref]5ce has be5 made 9 an 
e>li] *apt] to ! microscopic            
inve/igations ( ,m>cello ,malpighi1 :o1 
z !re relat$1 0 ! fir/ obs]v] :o        
actually saw blood corpuscles pass ?r\gh

 ! capill>ies4 ,ano!r feat ( ?is e>lie/ 
( great microscopi/s 0 to dissect       
muscul> tissue1 & ?us become ! fa!r (   
microscopic anatomy4 ,b ,malpighi did n 
conf9e 8 obs]vations to animal tissues4 
,he dissect$ plants z well1 & he is     
almo/ z fully entitl$ to be call$ ! fa!r
 ( vegetable anatomy1 ?\gh "h 8 honors  
are %>$ by ! ,engli%man ,grew4 ,9 #afha1
 :ile ,malpighi's "w1 ,anatomia         
plant>um1 0 on its way to ! ,royal      
,society = publication1 ,grew's ,anatomy
 ( ,vegetables 0 9 ! h&s ( ! publi%]s1  
mak+ its appe>ance a few mon?s e>li] ?an
 ! "w ( ! great ,italian4 ,grew's book 0
 epo*-m>k+ 9 po9t+ out ! sex-diff]5ces 9
 plants4  ,rob]t ,hooke develop$ !      
microscope1 & took ! fir/ /eps t[>ds    
/udy+ vegetable anatomy1 publi%+ 9      
#affg1 among o!r results1 ! discov]y ( !
 cellul> /ructure ( cork4 ,hooke appli$ 
! "n cell = ! fir/ "t 9 ?is connection4 
,^! discov]ies ( ,hooke1 ,malpighi1 &   
,grew1 & ! discov]y ( ! circulation ( ! 
blood by ,william ,h>vey %ortly be=e1 _h

 call$ att5tion to ! simil>ity ( animal 
& vegetable /ructures4 ,hales made a    
s]ies ( inve/igations ^u animals to     
det]m9e ! =ce ( ! blood pressure2 &     
simil>ly he made num]\s /atical         
exp]im5ts to det]m9e ! pressure ( ! fl[ 
( sap 9 vegetables4 ,8 ,vegetable       
,/atics1 publi%$ 9 #agbg1 0 ! fir/      
important "w on ! subject ( vegetable   
physiology1 & = ?is reason ,hales has   
be5 call$ ! fa!r ( ?is bran* ( sci5ce4  
,9 botany1 z well z 9 zoology1 !        
classifications ( ,l9naeus ( c\rse      
supplant$ all prec$+ classifications1 = 
! obvi\s reason t !y 7 mu* m            
satisfactory2 b 8 "w 0 a culm9ation ( _m
 simil> & m or less satisfactory        
attempts ( 8 pr$ecessors4 ,ab\t ! ye>   
#afgj ,dr4 ,rob]t ,morison 7#afbj-afhc71
 ( ,ab]de51 publi%$ a classification (  
plants1 8 sy/em tak+ into acc\nt ! woody
 or h]bace\s /ructure1 z well z ! fl[]s 
& fruit4 ,?is classification 0 supplant$
 twelve ye>s lat] by ! classification ( 
,ray1 :o arrang$ all kn[n vegetables    

into ?irty-?ree classes1 ! basis ( ?is  
classification be+ ! fruit4 ,a few ye>s 
lat] ,riv9us1 a pr(essor ( botany 9 !   
,univ]sity ( ,leipzig1 made /ill ano!r  
classification1 det]m9+ ! di/+ui%+ "*   
*iefly f ! fl[]1 & ,cam]>ius & ,t\rne=t 
also made elaborate classifications4 ,on
 ! ,cont95t ,t\rne=t's classification 0 
! mo/ popul> until ! "t ( ,l9naeus1 8   
sy/ematic arrangem5t includ+ ab\t eight 
?\s& species ( plants1 arrang$ *iefly   
accord+ to ! =m ( ! corolla4  ,mo/ ( ^! 
e>ly work]s gave att5tion to bo?        
vegetable & animal k+doms4 ,!y 7 call$  
naturali/s1 & ! field ( _! inve/igations
 0 spok5 ( z natural hi/ory4 ,!         
specialization ( k _h n rea*$ t lat]    
/age 9 :i* botani/1 zoologi/1 &         
physiologi/ felt _! labors to be %>ply  
divid$4 ,su* a division 0 becom+ m & m  
necess>y z ! field ( k ext5d$2 b x did n
 become imp]ative until long aft] ! "t (
 ,l9naeus4 ,t naturali/ himself1 z we   
%all see1 0 equally di/+ui%$ z botani/ &
 z zoologi/4 ,8 great task ( organiz+ k 

0 appli$ to ! entire range ( liv+ ?+s4  
,c>olus ,l9naeus 0 born 9 ! t[n (       
,ra%ult1 9 ,sw$51 on ,may #ac1 #agjg4 ,z
 a *ild he %[$ great aptitude 9 le>n+   
botanical names1 & rememb]+ facts ab\t  
v>i\s plants z told him by 8 fa!r4 ,8   
eag]ness = k did n ext5d to ! ord9>y    
prim>y /udies1 h[ev]1 &1 aside f ! s+le 
exception ( ! /udy ( physiology1 he     
prov$ himself an indiff]5t pupil4 ,8    
backw>dness 0 a sore trial to 8 fa!r1 :o
 0 desir\s t 8 son %\ld ent] ! m9i/ry2 b
 z ! "y ,l9naeus %[$ no lik+ = t call+1 
& z he _h acquitt$ himself well 9 8 /udy
 ( physiology1 8 fa!r at la/ decid$ to  
all[ him to take up ! /udy ( m$ic9e4 ,"h
 at la/ 0 a field m to ! lik+ ( ! boy1  
:o soon vi$ ) ! be/ ( 8 fell[-/ud5ts =  
fir/ honors4 ,mean:ile he kept /eadily  
at "w 9 8 /udy ( natural hi/ory1 acquir+
 consid]able k ( orni?ology1 entomology1
 & botany1 & add+ cont9ually to 8       
collection ( botanical specim5s4 ,9     
#agbi 8 botanical k 0 br\ght to !       
att5tion ( ,olaf ,rudbeck1 pr(essor (   

botany 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,upsala1 by a   
%ort pap] on ! sexes ( plants :i*       
,l9naeus _h prep>$4 ,rudbeck 0 s        
impress$ by "s ( ! ideas express$ 9 ?is 
pap] t he appo9t$ ! au?or z 8 assi/ant !
 foll[+ ye>4  ,?is 0 ! beg9n+ (         
,l9naes's c>e] z a botani/4 ,! academic 
g>d5s 7 ?us ?r[n op5 to him1 & he f\nd  
"t at 8 disposal = pursu+ 8 /udies      
betwe5 lecture h\rs & 9 ! ev5+s4 ,x 0 at
 ?is "t t he began ! prep>ation ( 8 "w !
 ,sy/ema naturae1 ! fir/ ( 8 great      
works1 conta9+ a compreh5sive sket* ( ! 
:ole field ( natural hi/ory4 ,:5 ?is "w 
0 publi%$1 ! cle>ness ( ! views express$
 & ! sy/ematic arrangem5t ( ! v>i\s     
classifications excit$ great a/oni%m5t &
 admiration1 & plac$ ,l9aeus at once 9 !
 =emo/ rank ( naturali/s4 ,?is "w 0     
foll[$ %ortly by o!r publications1 mo/ly
 on botanical subjects1 9 :i*1 among o!r
 ?+s1 he work$ out 9 detail 8 fam\s     
sy/em4  ,?is sy/em is f\nd$ on ! sexes (
 plants1 & is usually ref]r$ to z an    
artificial me?od ( classification       

because x takes into acc\nt only a few  
m>k$ *>act]s ( plants1 )\t unit+ !m by m
 g5]al natural aff9ities4 ,at ! pres5t  
"t x is consid]$ only z a /epp+-/one to 
! natural sy/em2 b at ! "t ( its        
promulgation x 0 epo*-m>k+ 9 its        
directness & simplicity1 & !re=e        
sup]iority1 ov] any exi/+ sy/ems4  ,"o (
 ! great re=ms effect$ by ,l9naeus 0 9 !
 matt] ( sci5tific t]m9ology4 ,te*nical 
t]ms are absolutely necess>y to         
sci5tific progress1 & p>ticul>ly s 9    
botany1 :]e obscurity1 ambiguity1 or    
prolixity 9 descriptions are fatally    
mislead+4 ,l9naeus's "w conta9s some?+ l
 a ?\s& t]ms1 ^: mean+s & uses are      
c>efully expla9$4 ,su* an array seems at
 fir/ glance arbitr>y & unnecess>y1 b ! 
fact t x has rema9$ 9 use = some?+ l two
 c5turies is indisputable evid5ce ( its 
practicality4 ,! descriptive language ( 
botany1 z employ$ by ,l9naeus1 /ill /&s 
z a model = all o!r subjects4  ,closely 
alli$ to botanical t]m9ology is !       
subject ( botanical nom5clature4 ,! old 

me?od ( us+ a numb] ( ,lat9 words to    
describe ea* diff]5t plant is obvi\sly  
too cumb]some1 & sev]al attempts _h be5 
made prior to ! "t ( ,l9naeus to        
sub/itute simpl] me?ods4 ,l9naeus       
himself made sev]al unsatisfactory      
attempts be=e he f9ally hit ^u 8 sy/em (
 trivial names1 :i* 0 develop$ 9 8      
,species plant>um1 & :i*1 ) "s1 m9or    
alt]ations1 rema9s 9 use to ?is day4 ,! 
ess5ce ( ! sy/em is ! introduction (    
b9omial nom5clature--t is to say1 ! use 
( two names & no m to designate any s+le
 species ( animal or plant4 ,! pr9ciple 
is q ! same z t accord+ to :i* 9 mod]n  
society a man has two names1 let u say1 
,john ,doe1 ! "o designat+ 8 family1 !  
o!r be+ individual4 ,simil>ly ea*       
species ( animal or plant1 accord+ to ! 
,l9naeean sy/em1 receiv$ a specific or  
trivial "n2 :ile v>i\s species1         
associat$ accord+ to _! seem+ natural   
aff9ities into gr\ps call$ g5]a1 7 giv5 
! same g5]ic "n4 ,?us ! g5]ic "n giv5   
all memb]s ( ! cat tribe be+ ,felis1 !  

"n ,felis leo designates ! lion2 ,felis 
p>dus1 ! leop>d2 ,felis dome/ica1 ! h\se
 cat1 & s on4 ,?is seems p]fectly simple
 & natural n[1 b to und]/& h[ great a   
re=m ! b9omial nom5clature introduc$ we 
h b to consult ! "w ( ,l9naeus's        
pr$ecessors4 ,a s+le illu/ration w      
suffice4 ,!re is1 = example1 a k9d (    
grass1 9 ref]r+ to :i* ! naturali/      
ant]ior to ,l9naeus1 if he w\ld be      
absolutely unambigu\s1 0 oblig$ to use !
 foll[+ descriptive =mula3 ,gram5       
,x]ampel9o1 ,miliacea1 praet5uis        
ramosaque sp>sa panicula1 sive          
,x]ampel9o cong5]1 arv5se1 ae/ivum2     
gram5 m9utissimo sem9e4 ,l9naeus gave to
 ?is plant ! "n ,poa bulbosa--a "n t    
suffic$1 accord+ to ! new sy/em1 to     
di/+ui% ?is f e o!r species ( vegetable4
 ,x does n require any special k to     
appreciate ! advantage ( su* a          
simplification4  ,:ile visit+ ,p>is 9   
#agch ,l9naeus met & botaniz$ ) ! two   
botani/s ^: natural me?od (             
classification 0 lat] to supplant 8 own 

artificial sy/em4 ,^! 7 ,b]n>d & ,anto9e
 ,laur5t de ,jussieu4 ,! ef=ts ( ^! two 
sci5ti/s 7 direct$ t[>ds obta9+ a sy/em 
:i* %\ld aim at cle>ness1 simplicity1 & 
precision1 & at ! same "t be gov]n$ by !
 natural aff9ities ( plants4 ,! natural 
sy/em1 z f9ally prop\nd$ by !m1 is bas$ 
on ! numb] ( cotyl$ons1 ! /ructure ( !  
se$1 & ! ins]tion ( ! /am5s4 ,succe$+   
writ]s on botany h made v>i\s           
modifications ( ?is sy/em1 b nev]!less x
 /&s z ! f\ndation-/one ( mod]n         
botanical classification4     ,,app5dix 
,,ref]5ce ,,li/  ,,*apt] ,i  ,,sci5ce   
,,9 ,,! ,,d>k ,,age  7#a7 7p4 #d74      
,james ,h>vey ,rob9son1 ,an             
,introduction to ! ,hi/ory ( ,we/]n     
,europe1 ,new ,york1 #ahih1 p4 #ccj4    
7#b7 7p4 #f74 ,h5ry ,smi? ,williams1 ,a 
,prefatory ,*>act]ization ( ,! ,hi/ory (
 ,italy1 9 vol4 ,,ix4 ( ,! ,hi/orians'  
,hi/ory ( ! ,_w1 #be vols41 ,london &   
,new ,york1 #aijd4   ,,*apt] ,,iii      
,,m$iaeval ,,sci5ce ,,9 ,,! ,,we/  7#a7 
7p4 #dg74 ,etig5e ,muntz1 ,leon>do d    

,v9ci1 ,arti/1 ,?9k]1 & ,man ( ,sci5ce1 
#b vols41 ,new ,york1 #ahib4 ,vol4      
,,ii41 p4 #gc4   ,,*apt] ,,iv  ,,! ,,new
 ,,cosmology--,,cop]nicus ,,to ,,kepl]  
,,& ,,galileo  7#a7 7p4 #fb74           
,cop]nicus1 ub] die ,kreisbewegung5 d]  
,welfkorp]1 trans4 f ,dannemann's       
,ges*i*le du ,naturwiss5s*aft51 #b      
vols41 ,leipzig1 #ahif4  7#b7 7p4 #ij74 
,galileo1 ,dialogo dei due ,massimi     
,sy/emi del ,mondo1 trans4 f ,dannemann1
 op4 cit4  ,,*apt] ,v  ,,galileo ,,& ,,!
 ,,new ,,physics 7#a7 7p4 #aja74        
,ro?mann1 ,hi/ory ( ,a/ronomy 79 !      
,libr>y ( ,useful ,k71 ,london1 #ahcd4  
7#b7 7p4 #ajb74 ,william ,:ewell1       
,hi/ory ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 #c     
,vols1 ,london1 #ahdg-,vol4 ,,ii41 p4   
#dh4  7#c7 7p4 #aaa74 ,! ,lives ( ,em95t
 ,p]sons1 by ,biot1 ,j>d9e1 ,be?une1    
etc41 ,london1 #ahcc4  7#d7 7p4 #aac74  
,william ,gilb]t1 ,de ,magnete1         
translat$ by ,p4 ,fleury ,motteley1     
,london1 #ahic4 ,9 ! biographical       
memoir1 p4 xvi4  7#e7 7p4 #aad74        

,gilb]t1 op4 cit41 p4 x#avii4  7#f7 7p4 
#aad74 ,gilb]t1 op4 cit41 p4 #bd4       
,,*apt] ,,vi  ,,two                     
,,pseudo-,,sci5ces--,,al*emy ,,&        
,,a/rology  7#a7 7p4 #abe74 ,exodus     
xxxii1 #bj4  7#b7 7p4 #abf74 ,*>les     
,mackay1 ,popul> ,delusions1 #c vols41  
,london1 #ahej4 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #bhj4   
7#c7 7p4 #adj74 ,mackay1 op4 cit41 ,vol4
 #aa41 p4 #bhi4  7#d7 7,p4 #ade74 ,john 
,b4 ,s*malz1 ,a/rology ,v9dicat$1 ,new  
,york1 #ahih4  7#e7 7p4 #adf74 ,william 
,lilly1 ,! ,/>ry ,mess5g]1 ,london1     
#afde1 p4 #fc4  7#f7 7p4 #adi74 ,lilly1 
op4 cit41 p4 #gj4  7#g7 7p4 #aeb74      
,george ,:>ton1 ,an ,a/rological        
judgem5t ^u ,8 ,maje/y's ,pres5t ,m>*   
begun f ,ox=d1 ,may #g1 #afde1 pp4      
#g-aj4  7#h7 7p4 #aed74 ,c4 ,w4 ,roback1
 ,! ,my/]ies ( ,a/rology1 ,bo/on1 #ahed1
 p4 #bi4   ,,*apt] ,,vii  ,,f           
,,p>acelsus ,,to ,,h>vey  7#a7 7p4      
#aei74 ,a4 ,e4 ,waite1 ,! ,h]metic &    
,al*emical ,writ+s ( ,p>acelsus1 #b     
vols41 ,london1 #ahid4 ,vol4 ,i41 p4    

#ba4  7#b7 7p4 #afg74 ,e4 ,t4 ,)+ton1   
,m$ical ,hi/ory f ! ,e>lie/ ,times1     
,london1 #ahid1 p4 #bgh4  7#c7 7p4      
#agc74 ,john ,dalton1 ,doctr9es ( !     
,circulation1 ,philadelphia1 #ahhd1 p4  
#agi4  7#d7 7p4 #agd74 ,william ,h>vey1 
,de ,motu ,cordis et ,sangu9is1 ,london1
 #ahjc1 *ap4 ,x4  7#e7 7p4 #agh74 ,!    
,works ( ,william ,h>vey1 translat$ by  
,rob]t ,willis1 ,london1 #ahdg1 p4 #ef4 
,,*apt] ,,viii  ,,m$ic9e ,,9 ,,!        
,,sixte5? ,,& ,,sev5te5? ,,c5turies     
7#a7 7p4 #ahi74 ,h]mann ,baas1 ,hi/ory (
 ,m$ic9e1 translat$ by ,h4 ,e4 ,h5d]son1
 ,new ,york1 #ahid1 p4 #ejd4  7#b7 7p4  
#ahi74 ,e4 ,t4 ,)+ton1 ,m$ical ,hi/ory f
 ! ,e>lie/ ,times1 ,london1 #ahid1 p4   
#cbj4   ,,*apt] ,,ix                    
,,philosoph]-,,sci5ti/s ,,& ,,new       
,,in/itutions ,,( ,,le>n+  7#a7 7p4     
#aic74 ,george ,l4 ,craik1 ,bacon & ,8  
,writ+s & ,philosophy1 #b vols41        
,london1 #ahdf4 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #aba4   
7#b7 7p4 #aic74 ,f ,huxley's address ,on
 ,desc>tes's ,disc\rse ,t\*+ ! ,me?od ( 

,us+ ,"o's ,reason ,rightly & ( ,seek+  
,sci5tific ,tru?4  7#c7 7p4 #aie74 ,r5e 
,desc>tes1 ,traite de l',homme 7,c\s9s's
 edition4 9 ii vols471 ,p>is1 #ahbd4    
,vol1 ,,vi41 p4 #cdg4   ,,*apt] ,x  ,,! 
,,successors ,,( ,,galileo ,,9          
,,physical ,,sci5ce  7#a7 7p4 #bje74    
,see ,! ,phlogi/on ,!ory1 ,vol1 ,,iv4   
7#b7 7p4 #bje74 ,rob]t ,boyle1          
,philosophical ,works1 #c vols41        
,london1 #agch4 ,vol4 ,,iii41 p4 #da4   
7#c7 7p4 #bjf74 ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,,iii41 p4
 #dg4  7#d7 7p4 #bjf74 ,ibid41 ,vol4    
,,ii41 p4 #ib4  7#e7 7p4 #bjg74 ,ibid41 
,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #b4  7#f7 7p4 #bji74    
,ibid41 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #h4  7#g7 7p4     
#bji74 ,ibid41 vol4 ,,iii41 p4 #ejh4    
7#h7 7p4 #baj74 ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,,iii41 p4
 #cfa4  7#i7 7p4 #bac74 ,otto von       
,gu]icke1 9 ! ,philosophical            
,transactions ( ! ,royal ,society (     
,london1 ,no4 #hh1 = #afgb1 p4 #eajc4   
7#aj7 7p4 #bbb74 ,von ,gu]icke1 ,phil4  
,trans4 = #affi1 ,vol ,i41 pp4 #agc1    
#agd4  ,,*apt] ,,xi  ,,newton ,,& ,,!   

,,composition ,,( ,,light  7#a7 7p4     
#bcc74 ,phil4 ,trans4 ( ,royal ,soc4 (  
,london1 ,no4 #hj1 #afgb1 pp4           
#cjgf-cjgi4 7#b7 7p #bcd74 ,ibid41 pp4  
#cjhd1 #cjhe4  7#c7 7p4 #bce74          
,voltaire1 ,lett]s ,conc]n+ ! ,engli%   
,nation1 ,london1 #ahaa4  ,,*apt] ,,xii 
,,newton ,,& ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,gravitation
  7#a7 7p4 #bdb74 ,sir ,isaac ,newton1  
,pr9cipia1 translat$ by ,&rew ,motte1   
,new ,york1 #ahdh1 pp4 #cia1 #cib4  7#b7
 7p4 #bej74 ,newton op4 cit41 pp4 #ejf1 
#ejg4  ,,*apt] ,,xiv  ,,progress ,,9    
,,electricity ,,f ,,gilb]t ,,& ,,von    
,,gu]icke ,,to ,,frankl9  7#a7 7p4      
#bgd74 ,a lett] f ,m4 ,dufay1 ,f4,r4,s4 
& ( ! ,royal ,academy ( ,sci5ces at     
,p>is1 etc41 9 ! ,phil4 ,trans4 ( !     
,royal ,soc41 vol4 ,,xxxviii41 pp4      
#beh-bfe4  7#b7 7p4 #bhb74 ,dean von    
,klei/1 9 ! ,danzick ,memoirs1 ,vol4    
,i41 p4 #djg4 ,f ,joseph ,prie/ley's    
,hi/ory ( ,electricity1 ,london1 #agge1 
pp4 #hc1 #hd4  7#c7 7p4 #bhh74 ,b5jam9  
,frankl91 ,new ,exp]im5ts & ,obs]vations

 on ,electricity1 ,london1 #agfj1 pp4   
#ajg1 #ajh4  7#d7 7p4 #bia74 ,frankl91  
op4 cit41 pp4 #fb1 #fc4  7#e7 7p4 #bie74
 ,frankl91 op4 cit41 pp4 #ajg1 #ajh4    
7,= notes & bibliography to vol4 ,,ii4  
see vol4 ,v47