,a ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,sci5ce  ,,by ,,h5ry   
,,smi? ,,williams1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d4     
,,assi/$ ,,by ,,edw>d ,h4 ,,williams1   
,m4,d4  ,,9 ,,five ,,volumes   ,,volume 
,i4 ,,! ,,beg9n+s ,,( ,,sci5ce          
,,book ,i4     ,,cont5ts     ,,*apt] ,i4
 ,,prehi/oric ,,sci5ce     ,,*apt] ,,ii4
 ,,egyptian ,,sci5ce     ,,*apt] ,,iii4 
,,sci5ce ,,( ,,babylonia ,,& ,,assyria  
,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,! ,,developm5t ,,( ,,!  
,,alphabet     ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,! ,,beg9n+s
 ,,( ,,greek ,,sci5ce     ,,*apt] ,,vi4 
,,! ,,e>ly ,,greek ,,philosoph]s ,,9    
,,italy     ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,greek      
,,sci5ce ,,9 ,,! ,,e>ly ,,attic ,,p]iod 
,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,po/-,,socratic        
,,sci5ce ,,at ,,a!ns     ,,*apt] ,,ix4  
,,greek ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,! ,,alex&rian    
,,or ,,hell5i/ic ,,p]iod     ,,*apt] ,x4
 ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,! ,,roman ,,p]iod       
,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,a ,,retrospective        
,,glance ,,at ,,classical ,,sci5ce      
,,app5dix     ,a ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,sci5ce  
,,book ,i  ,%\ld ! /ory t is ab\t to be 
unfold$ be f\nd to lack int]e/1 ! writ]s

 mu/ /& convict$ ( unp>donable lack (   
art4 ,no?+ b dulness 9 ! tell+ c\ld m> !
 /ory1 = 9 itself x is ! record ( ! gr[?
 ( ^? ideas t h made our race & its     
civilization :at !y are2 ( ideas in/9ct 
) human int]e/1 vital ) mean+ = our     
race2 fundam5tal 9 _! influ5ce on human 
developm5t2 "p & p>cel ( ! me*anism (   
human ?\ght on ! "o h&1 & ( practical   
civilization on ! o!r4 ,su* a phrase z  
fundam5tal pr9ciples may seem at fir/   
?\ght a h>d say+1 b ! idea x implies is 
less repell5t ?an ! phrase itself1 = !  
fundam5tal pr9ciples 9 "q are s closely 
l9k$ ) ! pres5t int]e/s ( e "o ( u t !y 
lie )9 ! grasp ( e av]age man &         
woman--nay1 ( e well-develop$ boy &     
girl4 ,^! pr9ciples are n m]ely !       
/epp+-/ones to culture1 ! pr]equisites (
 k--!y are1 9 !mselves1 an ess5tial "p (
 ! k ( e cultivat$ p]son4  ,x is our    
task1 n m]ely to %[ :at ^! pr9ciples    
are1 b to po9t out h[ !y h be5 discov]$ 
by our pr$ecessors4 ,we %all trace !    
gr[? ( ^! ideas f _! fir/ vague beg9n+s4

 ,we %all see h[ vagu5ess ( ?\ght gave  
way to precision2 h[ a g5]al tru?1 once 
grasp$ & =mulat$1 0 f\nd to be a        
/epp+-/one to o!r tru?s4 ,we %all see t 
!re are no isolat$ facts1 no isolat$    
pr9ciples1 9 nature2 t ea* "p ( our /ory
 is l9k$ by indissoluble b&s ) t :i*    
goes be=e1 & ) t :i* comes aft]4 ,= !   
mo/ "p ! discov]y ( ?is pr9ciple or t 9 
a giv5 sequ5ce is no accid5t4 ,galileo &
 ,keppl] mu/ prec$e ,newton4 ,cuvi] &   
,lyall mu/ come be=e ,d>w92--,:i*1 aft] 
all1 is no m ?an say+ t 9 our ,temple ( 
,sci5ce1 z 9 any o!r piece (            
ar*itecture1 ! f\ndation mu/ prec$e !   
sup]/ructure4  ,we %all be/ und]/& our  
/ory ( ! gr[? ( sci5ce if we ?9k ( ea*  
new pr9ciple z a /epp+-/one :i* mu/ fit 
into its own p>ticul> ni*e2 & if we     
reflect t ! entire /ructure ( mod]n     
civilization w\ld be diff]5t f :at x is1
 & less p]fect ?an x is1 _h n t p>ticul>
 /epp+-/one be5 f\nd & %ap$ & plac$ 9   
position4 ,tak5 z a :ole1 our           
/epp+-/ones lead u up & up t[>ds !      

allur+ heights ( an acropolis ( k1 on   
:i* /&s ! ,temple ( ,mod]n ,sci5ce4 ,!  
/ory ( ! build+ ( ?is wond]ful /ructure 
is 9 itself fasc9at+ & beautiful4       
,i4 ,,prehi/oric ,,sci5ce  ,to speak ( a
 prehi/oric sci5ce may seem l a         
contradiction ( t]ms4 ,! ^w prehi/oric  
seems to imply b>b>ism1 :ile sci5ce1    
cle>ly en\gh1 seems ! outgr[? (         
civilization2 b rightly consid]$1 !re is
 no contradiction4 ,=1 on ! "o h&1 man  
_h ceas$ to be a b>b>ian long be=e !    
beg9n+ ( :at we call ! hi/orical p]iod2 
&1 on ! o!r h&1 sci5ce1 ( a k9d1 is no  
less a precursor & a cause (            
civilization ?an x is a consequ5t4 ,to  
get ?is cle>ly 9 m9d1 we mu/ ask        
ourselves3 ,:at1 !n1 is sci5ce8 ,! ^w   
runs glibly en\gh ^u ! tongue ( our     
e-day spee*1 b x is n (t51 p]haps1 t !y 
:o use x habitually ask !mselves j :at x
 means4 ,yet ! answ] is n difficult4 ,a 
little att5tion w %[ t sci5ce1 z ! ^w is
 commonly us$1 implies ^! ?+s3 fir/1 !  
ga!r+ ( k ?r\gh obs]vation2 second1 !   

classification ( su* k1 & ?r\gh ?is     
classification1 ! elaboration ( g5]al   
ideas or pr9ciples4 ,9 ! famili>        
def9ition ( ,h]b]t ,sp5c]1 sci5ce is    
organiz$ k4  ,n[ x is pat5t en\gh1 at   
fir/ glance1 t ! v]ie/ savage mu/ h be5 
an obs]v] ( ! ph5om5a ( nature4 ,b x may
 n be s obvi\s t he mu/ also h be5 a    
classifi] ( 8 obs]vations--an organiz] (
 k4 ,yet ! m we consid] ! case1 ! m cle>
 x w become t ! two me?ods are too      
closely l9k$ toge!r to be dissev]$4 ,to 
obs]ve outside ph5om5a is n m inh]5t 9 !
 nature ( ! m9d ?an to draw inf]5ces f  
^! ph5om5a4 ,a de] pass+ ?r\gh ! =e/    
sc5ts ! gr\nd & detects a c]ta9 odor4 ,a
 sequ5ce ( ideas is g5]at$ 9 ! m9d ( !  
de]4 ,no?+ 9 ! de]'s exp]i5ce c produce 
t odor b a wolf2 !re=e ! sci5tific      
inf]5ce is drawn t wolves h pass$ t way4
 ,b x is a "p ( ! de]'s sci5tific k1    
bas$ on previ\s exp]i5ce1 individual &  
racial2 t wolves are dang]\s bea/s1 & s1
 comb9+ direct obs]vation 9 ! pres5t ) !
 application ( a g5]al pr9ciple bas$ on 

pa/ exp]i5ce1 ! de] rea*es ! v logical  
conclusion t x may wisely turn ab\t &   
run 9 ano!r direction4 ,all ?is implies1
 ess5tially1 a compreh5sion & use (     
sci5tific pr9ciples2 &1 /range z x seems
 to speak ( a de] z possess+ sci5tific  
k1 yet !re is really no absurdity 9 !   
/atem5t4 ,! de] does possess sci5tific  
k2 k diff]+ 9 degree only1 n 9 k9d1 f ! 
k ( a ,newton4 ,nor is ! animal1 )9 !   
range ( its intellig5ce1 less logical1  
less sci5tific 9 ! application ( t k1   
?an is ! man4 ,! animal t c\ld n make   
accurate sci5tific obs]vations ( its    
surr\nd+s1 & d$uce accurate sci5tific   
conclusions f !m1 w\ld soon pay ! p5alty
 ( its lack ( logic4  ,:at is true (    
man's precursors 9 ! animal scale is1 ( 
c\rse1 true 9 a wid] & full] s5se ( man 
himself at ! v l[e/ /age ( 8 developm5t4
 ,ages be=e ! "t :i* ! limitations ( our
 k =ce u to speak ( z ! dawn ( hi/ory1  
man _h rea*$ a high /age ( developm5t4  
,z a social be+1 he _h develop$ all !   
elem5ts ( a primitive civilization4 ,if1

 = conv5i5ce ( classification1 we speak 
( 8 /ate z savage1 or b>b>ic1 we use    
t]ms :i*1 aft] all1 are relative1 & :i* 
d n %ut (f our primitive ance/ors f a   
tol]ably close association ) our own    
ideals4 ,we "k t1 ev5 9 ! ,/one ,age1   
man _h le>n$ h[ to dome/icate animals & 
make !m useful to him1 & t he _h also   
le>n$ to cultivate ! soil4 ,lat] on1    
d\btless by sl[ & pa9ful /ages1 he      
atta9$ ^? wond]ful elem5ts ( k t enabl$ 
him to smelt metals & to produce        
implem5ts ( bronze1 & !n ( iron4 ,ev5 9 
! ,/one ,age he 0 a me*anic ( m>vell\s  
skill1 z any "o ( to-day may satisfy    
himself by attempt+ to duplicate su* an 
implem5t z a *ipp$ arr[-head4 ,& a      
b>b>ian :o c\ld fa%ion an axe or a knife
 ( bronze _h c]ta9ly gone f> 9 8 k (    
sci5tific pr9ciples & _! practical      
application4 ,! practical application 01
 d\btless1 ! only ?\ght t our primitive 
ance/or _h 9 m9d2 q probably ! "q z to  
pr9ciples t might be involv$ tr\bl$ him 
n at all4 ,yet1 9 spite ( himself1 he   

knew c]ta9 rudim5t>y pr9ciples ( sci5ce1
 ev5 ?\gh he did n =mulate !m4  ,let u  
inquire :at "s ( ^! pr9ciples are4 ,su* 
an inquiry w1 z x 71 cle> ! gr\nd = our 
/ructure ( sci5ce4 ,x w %[ ! plane ( k  
on :i* hi/orical inve/igation beg9s4    
,incid5tally1 p]haps1 x w reveal to u   
unsuspect$ aff9ities betwe5 ourselves & 
our remote ance/or4 ,)\t attempt+ any?+ 
l a full analysis1 we may note 9 pass+1 
n m]ely :at primitive man knew1 b :at he
 did n "k2 t at lea/ a vague notion may 
be ga9$ ( ! field = sci5tific rese>* t  
lay op5 = hi/oric man to cultivate4   ,x
 mu/ be und]/ood t ! k ( primitive man1 
z we are ab\t to outl9e x1 is inf]5tial4
 ,we _c trace ! developm5t ( ^!         
pr9ciples1 mu* less c we say :o discov]$
 !m4 ,"s ( !m1 z already sugge/$1 are   
man's h]itage f non-human ance/ors4     
,o!rs c only h be5 grasp$ by him aft] he
 _h rea*$ a relatively high /age ( human
 developm5t4 ,b all ! pr9ciples "h li/$ 
mu/ surely h be5 p>ts ( our primitive   
ance/or's k be=e ^? e>lie/ days (       

,egyptian & ,babylonian civilization1 ! 
records ( :i* con/itute our fir/        
introduction to ! s-call$ hi/orical     
p]iod4 ,tak5 some:at 9 ! ord] ( _!      
probable discov]y1 ! sci5tific ideas (  
primitive man may be r\ghly li/$ z      
foll[s3  #a4 ,primitive man mu/ h       
conceiv$ t ! e>? is flat & ( limitless  
ext5t4 ,by ?is x is n meant to imply t  
he _h a di/9ct conception ( inf9ity1 b1 
= t matt]1 x _c be said t any "o to-day 
has a conception ( inf9ity t c\ld be    
call$ def9ite4 ,b1 reason+ f exp]i5ce & 
! reports ( travell]s1 !re 0 no?+ to    
sugge/ to e>ly man ! limit ( ! e>?4 ,he 
did1 inde$1 f9d 9 8 w&]+s1 t *ang$      
climatic conditions b>r$ him f f>!r     
progress2 b beyond ! f>!/ rea*es ( 8    
migrations1 ! seem+ly flat l&-surfaces &
 wat]-surfaces /ret*$ away unbrok5 &1 to
 all appe>ances1 )\t end4 ,x w\ld       
require a rea* ( ! philosophical        
imag9ation to conceive a limit to ! e>?1
 & :ile su* imag9+s may h be5 curr5t 9 !
 prehi/oric p]iod1 we c h no pro( ( !m1 

& we may well po/pone consid]ation (    
man's e>ly dream+s z to ! %ape ( ! e>?  
until we ent] ! hi/orical epo* :]e we /&
 on firm gr\nd4  #b4 ,primitive man mu/1
 f a v e>ly p]iod1 h obs]v$ t ! sun     
gives heat & light1 & t ! moon & />s    
seem to give light only & no heat4 ,x   
requir$ b a slight ext5sion ( ?is       
obs]vation to note t ! *ang+ phases ( ! 
seasons 7 associat$ ) ! seem+ approa* & 
recession ( ! sun4 ,?is obs]vation1     
h[ev]1 c\ld n h be5 made until man _h   
migrat$ f ! tropical regions1 & _h rea*$
 a /age ( me*anical developm5t enabl+   
him to live 9 subtropical or temp]ate   
zones4 ,ev5 !n x is conceivable t a long
 p]iod mu/ h elaps$ be=e a direct causal
 relation 0 felt to exi/ betwe5 ! %ift+ 
( ! sun & ! %ift+ ( ! seasons2 because1 
z e "o kn[s1 ! p]iods ( greate/ heat 9  
summ] & greate/ cold 9 w9t] usually come
 "s weeks aft] ! "t ( ! sol/ices4 ,yet1 
! fact t ^! extremes ( temp]ature are   
associat$ 9 "s way ) ! *ange ( ! sun's  
place 9 ! heav5s mu/1 9 "t1 h impress$  

itself ^u ev5 a rudim5t>y intellig5ce4  
,x is h>dly necess>y to add t ?is is n  
meant to imply any def9ite k ( ! real   
mean+ (1 ! seem+ oscillations ( ! sun4  
,we %all see t1 ev5 at a relatively late
 p]iod1 ! vague/ notions 7 /ill 9 vogue 
z to ! cause ( ! sun's *anges (         
position4  ,t ! sun1 moon1 & />s move   
across ! heav5s mu/ obvi\sly h be5 among
 ! e>lie/ sci5tific obs]vations4 ,x mu/ 
n be inf]r$1 h[ev]1 t ?is obs]vation    
impli$ a necess>y conception ( !        
complete revolution ( ^! bodies ab\t !  
e>?4 ,x is unnecess>y to speculate "h z 
to h[ ! primitive intellig5ce conceiv$ !
 transf] ( ! sun f ! we/]n to ! ea/]n   
horizon1 to be effect$ ea* night1 = we  
%all h occasion to exam9e "s hi/orical  
speculations reg>d+ ?is ph5om5on4 ,we   
may assume1 h[ev]1 t ! idea ( ! transf] 
( ! heav5ly bodies b5ea? ! e>? 7:atev] !
 conception z to ! =m ( t body7 mu/ e>ly
 h pres5t$ itself4  ,x requir$ a        
relatively high developm5t ( ! obs]v+   
faculties1 yet a developm5t :i* man mu/ 

h atta9$ ages be=e ! hi/orical p]iod1 to
 note t ! moon has a second>y motion1   
:i* leads x to %ift its relative        
position 9 ! heav5s1 z reg>ds ! />s2 t !
 />s !mselves1 on ! o!r h&1 keep a fix$ 
relation z reg>ds "o ano!r1 ) ! notable 
exception ( two or ?ree ( ! mo/         
brilliant memb]s ( ! galaxy1 ! latt] be+
 ! bodies :i* came to be kn[n f9ally z  
planets1 or w&]+ />s4 ,! w&]+           
prop5sities ( su* brilliant bodies z    
,jupit] & ,v5us _c well h escap$        
detection4 ,we may safely assume1 h[ev]1
 t ^! anomal\s motions ( ! moon &       
planets f\nd no explanation t c\ld be   
call$ sci5tific until a relatively late 
p]iod4  #c4 ,turn+ f ! heav5s to ! e>?1 
& ignor+ su* primitive obs]vations z t (
 ! di/9ction betwe5 l& & wat]1 we may   
note t !re 0 "o great sci5tific law :i* 
mu/ h =c$ itself ^u ! att5tion (        
primitive man4 ,?is is ! law ( univ]sal 
t]re/rial gravitation4 ,! ^w gravitation
 sugge/s ! "n ( ,newton1 & x may excite 
surprise to he> a k ( gravitation       

ascrib$ to m5 :o prec$$ t philosoph] by1
 say1 tw5ty-five or fifty ?\s& ye>s4    
,yet ! slighte/ consid]ation ( ! facts w
 make x cle> t ! great c5tral law t all 
heavy bodies fall directly t[>ds ! e>?1 
_c h escap$ ! att5tion ( ! mo/ primitive
 intellig5ce4 ,! arboreal habits ( our  
primitive ance/ors gave opportunities = 
con/ant obs]vation ( ! practicalities ( 
?is law4 ,&1 s soon z man _h develop$ ! 
m5tal capacity to =mulate ideas1 "o ( ! 
e>lie/ ideas mu/ h be5 ! conception1    
h[ev] vaguely phras$ 9 words1 t all     
unsupport$ bodies fall t[>ds ! e>?4 ,!  
same ph5om5on be+ obs]v$ to op]ate on   
wat]-surfaces1 & no alt]ation be+ obs]v$
 9 its op]ation 9 diff]5t portions (    
man's habitat1 ! mo/ primitive w&]] mu/ 
h come to h full fai? 9 ! univ]sal      
action ( ! obs]v$ law ( gravitation4    
,inde$1 x is inconceivable t he c h     
imag9$ a place on ! e>? :]e ?is law does
 n op]ate4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ( c\rse1 he    
nev] grasp$ ! conception ( ! op]ation ( 
?is law beyond ! close proximity ( !    

e>?4 ,to ext5d ! rea* ( gravitation out 
to ! moon & to ! />s1 includ+ )9 its    
compass e p>ticle ( matt] 9 ! univ]se1 0
 ! "w ( ,newton1 z we %all see 9 due    
c\rse4 ,meantime we %all bett] und]/& t 
"w if we recall t ! m]e local fact (    
t]re/rial gravitation has be5 ! famili> 
k ( all g5]ations ( m54 ,x may fur!r    
help to connect u 9 sympa?y ) our       
primeval ance/or if we recall t 9 !     
attempt to expla9 ?is fact ( t]re/rial  
gravitation ,newton made no advance1 &  
we ( to-day are sc>cely m enlight5$ ?an 
! man ( ! ,/one ,age4 ,l ! man ( ! ,/one
 ,age1 we "k t an arr[ %ot into ! sky   
falls back to ! e>?4 ,we c calculate1 z 
he c\ld n d1 ! arc x w describe & !     
exact spe$ ( its fall2 b z to :y x      
returns to e>? at all1 ! greate/        
philosoph] ( to-day is almo/ z mu* 9 !  
d>k z 0 ! fir/ primitive b[man t ev]    
made ! exp]im5t4  ,o!r physical facts   
go+ to make up an elem5t>y sci5ce (     
me*anics1 t 7 demon/ratively kn[n to    
prehi/oric man1 7 su* z ^!3 ! rigidity (

 solids & ! mobility ( liquids2 ! fact t
 *anges ( temp]ature trans=m solids to  
liquids & vice v]sa--t heat1 = example1 
melts copp] & ev5 iron1 & t cold        
congeals wat]2 & ! fact t friction1 z   
illu/rat$ 9 ! rubb+ toge!r ( two /icks1 
may produce heat en\gh to cause a fire4 
,! rationale ( ?is la/ exp]im5t did n   
receive an explanation until ab\t !     
beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury ( our own era4
 ,b ! exp]im5tal fact 0 s well kn[n to  
prehi/oric man t he employ$ ?is me?od1 z
 v>i\s savage tribes employ x to ?is    
day1 = ! altoge!r practical purpose (   
mak+ a fire2 j z he employ$ 8 practical 
k ( ! mutability ( solids & liquids 9   
smelt+ ores1 9 alloy+ copp] ) t9 to make
 bronze1 & 9 ca/+ ?is alloy 9 molds to  
make v>i\s implem5ts & weapons4 ,"h1 !n1
 7 ! g]ms ( an elem5t>y sci5ce (        
physics4 ,mean:ile su* obs]vations z t (
 ! solution ( salt 9 wat] may be        
consid]$ z giv+ a fir/ lesson 9 *emi/ry1
 b beyond su* altoge!r rudim5t>y        
conceptions *emical k c\ld n h          

gone--unless1 inde$1 ! practical        
obs]vation ( ! effects ( fire be        
includ$2 nor c ?is well be ov]look$1    
s9ce sc>cely ano!r s+le l9e ( practical 
obs]vation _h a m direct influ5ce 9     
promot+ ! progress ( man t[>ds ! heights
 ( civilization4  #d4 ,9 ! field ( :at  
we n[ speak ( z biological k1 primitive 
man _h obvi\sly ! wide/ opportunity =   
practical obs]vation4 ,we c h>dly d\bt t
 man atta9$1 at an e>ly day1 to t       
conception ( id5tity & ( diff]5ce :i*   
,plato places at ! head ( 8 metaphysical
 sy/em4 ,we %all urge pres5tly t x is   
precisely su* g5]al ideas z ^! t 7 man's
 e>lie/ inductions f obs]vation1 & h5ce 
t came to seem ! mo/ univ]sal & innate  
ideas ( 8 m5tality4 ,x is q             
inconceivable1 = example1 t ev5 ! mo/   
rudim5t>y intellig5ce t c\ld be call$   
human c\ld fail to discrim9ate betwe5   
liv+ ?+s &1 let u say1 ! rocks ( ! e>?4 
,! mo/ primitive intellig5ce1 !n1 mu/ h 
made a tacit classification ( ! natural 
objects ab\t x into ! gr& divisions (   

animate & inanimate nature4 ,d\btless ! 
nasc5t sci5ti/ may h imag9$ life animat+
 _m bodies t we %\ld call inanimate--su*
 z ! sun1 w&]+ planets1 ! w9ds1 &       
lightn+2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 he may q likely
 h relegat$ su* objects z trees to !    
ranks ( ! non-liv+2 b t he recogniz$ a  
fundam5tal di/9ction betwe51 let u say1 
a wolf & a granite b[ld] we _c well     
d\bt4 ,a /ep beyond ?is--a /ep1 h[ev]1 t
 may h requir$ c5turies or mill5niums 9 
! tak+--mu/ h c>ri$ man to a plane (    
intellig5ce f :i* a primitive ,ari/otle 
or ,l9naeus 0 enabl$ to note diff]5ces &
 resemblances connot+ su* gr\ps ( ?+s z 
fi%es1 birds1 & furry bea/s4 ,?is       
conception1 to be sure1 is an ab/raction
 ( a relatively high ord]4 ,we "k t !re 
are savage races to-day ^: language     
conta9s no ^w = su* an ab/raction z bird
 or tree4 ,we are b\nd to believe1 !n1 t
 !re 7 long ages ( human progress dur+  
:i* ! highe/ man _h atta9$ no su* /age (
 ab/raction2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 x is       
equally little 9 "q t ?is degree ( m5tal

 developm5t _h be5 atta9$ long be=e !   
op5+ ( our hi/orical p]iod4 ,! primeval 
man1 !n1 ^: sci5tific k we are attempt+ 
to pr$icate1 _h become1 ?r\gh 8         
conception ( fi%es1 birds1 & hairy      
animals z sep>ate classes1 a sci5tific  
zoologi/ ( relatively high atta9m5ts4   
,9 ! practical field ( m$ical k1 a c]ta9
 /age ( developm5t mu/ h be5 rea*$ at a 
v e>ly day4 ,ev5 animals pick & *oose   
among ! vegetables ab\t !m1 & at times  
seek out c]ta9 h]bs q diff]5t f _!      
ord9>y food1 practis+ a sort ( in/9ctive
 !rapeutics4 ,! cat's fondness = catnip 
is a case 9 po9t4 ,! mo/ primitive man1 
!n1 mu/ h inh]it$ a racial or in/9ctive 
k ( ! m$ic9al effects ( c]ta9 h]bs2 9   
p>ticul> he mu/ h _h su* elem5t>y k (   
toxicology z w\ld enable him to avoid   
eat+ c]ta9 poison\s b]ries4 ,p]haps1    
inde$1 we are plac+ ! effect be=e !     
cause to "s ext5t2 =1 aft] all1 ! animal
 sy/em possesses m>vell\s p[]s (        
adaption1 & !re is p]haps h>dly any     
poison\s vegetable :i* man might n h    

le>n$ to eat )\t delet]i\s effect1      
provid$ ! exp]im5t 7 made gradually4 ,to
 a c]ta9 ext5t1 !n1 ! obs]v$ poison\s   
effects ( num]\s plants ^u ! human sy/em
 are to be expla9$ by ! fact t our      
ance/ors h avoid$ ?is p>ticul>          
vegetable4 ,c]ta9 fruits & b]ries might 
h come to h be5 a "p ( man's diet1 _h !y
 gr[n 9 ! regions he inhabit$ at an e>ly
 day1 :i* n[ are poison\s to 8 sy/em4   
,?is ?\ght1 h[ev]1 c>ries u too f>      
afield4 ,= practical purposes1 x        
suffices t c]ta9 roots1 leaves1 & fruits
 possess pr9ciples t are poison\s to !  
human sy/em1 & t unless man _h le>n$ 9  
"s way to avoid ^!1 our race mu/ h come 
to disa/]4 ,9 po9t ( fact1 he did le>n  
to avoid !m2 & su* evid5ce impli$1 z has
 be5 said1 an elem5t>y k ( toxicology4  
,c\pl$ ) ?is k ( ?+s dang]\s to ! human 
sy/em1 !re mu/ h gr[n up1 at a v e>ly   
day1 a belief 9 ! rem$ial "* ( v>i\s    
vegetables z ag5ts to combat disease4   
,"h1 ( c\rse1 0 a rudim5t>y !rapeutics1 
a crude pr9ciple ( an empirical art (   

m$ic9e4 ,z j sugge/$1 ! l[] ord] (      
animals h an in/9ctive k t enables !m to
 seek out rem$ial h]bs 7?\gh we probably
 exagg]ate ! ext5t ( ?is in/9ctive k72 &
 if ?is be true1 man mu/ h inh]it$ f 8  
prehuman ance/ors ?is in/9ct along ) !  
o!rs4 ,t he ext5d$ ?is k ?r\gh          
obs]vation & practice1 & came e>ly to   
make ext5sive use ( drugs 9 ! treatm5t (
 disease1 is plac$ beyond cavil ?r\gh ! 
obs]vation ( ! v>i\s exi/+ b>b>ic       
tribes1 ne>ly all ( :om practice        
elaborate sy/ems ( !rapeutics4 ,we %all 
h occasion to see t ev5 )9 hi/oric times
 ! p>ticul> !rapeutic measures employ$ 7
 (t5 crude1 &1 z we are accu/om$ to say1
 unsci5tific2 b ev5 ! crude/ ( !m are   
really bas$ ^u sci5tific pr9ciples1     
inasmu* z _! application implies !      
d$uction ( pr9ciples ( action f previ\s 
obs]vations4 ,c]ta9 drugs are appli$ to 
appease c]ta9 symptoms ( disease because
 9 ! belief ( ! m$ic9e-man su* drugs h  
prov$ b5eficial 9 previ\s simil> cases4 
,all ?is1 h[ev]1 implies an appreciation

 ( ! fact t man is subject to natural   
diseases1 & t if ^! diseases are n      
combat$1 dea? may result4 ,b x %\ld be  
und]/ood t ! e>lie/ man probably _h no  
su* conception z ?is4 ,?r\gh\t all !    
ages ( e>ly developm5t1 :at we call     
natural disease & natural dea? meant !  
onslaught ( a tangible enemy4 ,a /udy ( 
?is "q leads u to "s v curi\s inf]5ces4 
,! m we look into ! matt] ! m ! ?\ght   
=ces itself home to u t ! idea ( natural
 dea?1 z we n[ conceive x1 came to      
primitive man z a relatively late       
sci5tific induction4 ,?is ?\ght seems   
almo/ />tl+1 s axiomatic has !          
conception man is mortal come to appe>4 
,yet a /udy ( ! ideas ( exi/+ savages1  
comb9$ ) our k ( ! po9t ( view f :i*    
hi/orical peoples reg>d disease1 make x 
m probable t ! primitive conception (   
human life did n include ! idea (       
necess>y dea?4 ,we are told t !         
,au/ralian savage :o falls f a tree &   
breaks 8 neck is n reg>d$ z hav+ met a  
natural dea?1 b z hav+ be5 ! victim ( ! 

magical practices ( ! m$ic9e-man ( "s   
neighbor+ tribe4 ,simil>ly1 we %all f9d 
t ! ,egyptian & ! ,babylonian ( ! e>ly  
hi/orical p]iod conceiv$ illness z be+  
almo/ inv>iably ! result ( ! ma*9ations 
( an enemy4 ,"o ne$ b recall !          
sup]/iti\s obs]vances ( ! ,middle ,ages1
 & ! yet m rec5t belief 9 wit*craft1 to 
realize h[ g5]ally disease has be5      
p]sonifi$ z a malici\s ag5t invok$ by an
 unfri5dly m9d4 ,inde$1 ! phraseology ( 
our pres5t-day spee* is /ill rem9isc5t (
 ?is2 z :51 = example1 we speak ( an    
attack ( fev]1 & ! l4  ,:51 foll[+ out  
?is idea1 we picture to ourselves !     
conditions "u :i* primitive man liv$1 x 
w be evid5t at once h[ relatively       
infrequ5t mu/ h be5 8 obs]vation ( :at  
we usually t]m natural dea?4 ,8 _w 0 a  
_w ( /rife2 he liv$ by ! *ase2 he saw   
animals kill "o ano!r2 he witness$ !    
dea? ( 8 own fell[s at ! h&s ( enemies4 
,naturally en\gh1 !n1 :5 a memb] ( 8    
family 0 /ruck d[n by invisible ag5ts1  
he ascrib$ ?is dea? also to viol5ce1 ev5

 ?\gh ! (f5sive ag5t 0 conceal$4        
,moreov]1 hav+ v little idea ( ! lapse (
 "t--be+ q unaccu/om$1 t is1 to reckon  
ev5ts f any fix$ era--primitive man _c h
 ga9$ at once a cle> conception ( age z 
appli$ to 8 fell[s4 ,until a relatively 
late /age ( developm5t made tribal life 
possible1 x _c h be5 usual = man to h k 
( 8 gr&p>5ts2 z a rule he did n "k 8 own
 p>5ts aft] he _h pass$ ! adolesc5t /age
 & _h be5 turn$ out ^u ! _w to c>e =    
himself4 ,if1 !n1 c]ta9 ( 8 fell[-be+s  
%[$ ^? evid5ces ( infirmity :i* we      
ascribe to age1 x did n necess>ily foll[
 t he saw any association betwe5 su*    
infirmities & ! l5g? ( "t :i* ^? p]sons 
_h liv$4 ,! v fact t "s b>b>ic nations  
reta9 ! cu/om ( kill+ ! ag$ & infirm1 9 
itself sugge/s ! possibility t ?is cu/om
 arose be=e a cle> conception _h be5    
atta9$ t su* drags ^u ! community w\ld  
be remov$ pres5tly 9 ! natural ord] (   
?+s4 ,to a p]son :o _h no cle>          
conception ( ! lapse ( "t & no          
preconception z to ! limit$ p]iod (     

man's life1 ! infirmities ( age might v 
naturally be ascrib$ to ! repeat$       
attacks ( ^? inimical p[]s :i* 7        
und]/ood soon] or lat] to c>ry (f mo/   
memb]s ( ! race4 ,& c\pl$ ) ?is ?\ght   
w\ld g ! conception t inasmu* z "s p    
?r\gh luck _h escap$ ! v5geance ( all _!
 enemies = long p]iods1 ^! same         
individuals might cont9ue to escape =   
indef9ite p]iods ( ! future4 ,!re 7 no  
writt5 records to tell primeval man (   
ev5ts ( long ago4 ,he liv$ 9 ! pres5t1 &
 8 sweep ( ideas sc>cely c>ri$ him back 
beyond ! limits ( 8 individual memory4  
,b memory is obs]v$ to be fallaci\s4 ,x 
mu/ e>ly h be5 not$ t "s p recall$ ev5ts
 :i* o!r p>ticipants 9 !m _h q =gott51 &
 x may readily en\gh h be5 inf]r$ t ^?  
memb]s ( ! tribe :o spoke ( ev5ts :i*   
o!rs c\ld n recall 7 m]ely ! ones :o 7  
gift$ ) ! be/ memories4 ,if ^! rea*$ a  
p]iod :5 _! memories became vague1 x did
 n foll[ t _! recollections _h c>ri$ !m 
back to ! beg9n+s ( _! lives4 ,inde$1 x 
is contr>y to all exp]i5ce to believe t 

any man rememb]s all ! ?+s he has once  
kn[n1 & ! obs]v$ fallaci\sness &        
evanesc5ce ( memory w\ld ?us t5d to     
sub/antiate r ?an to controv]t ! idea t 
v>i\s memb]s ( a tribe _h be5 alive = an
 indef9ite p]iod4  ,)\t fur!r elaborat+ 
! argum5t1 x seems a ju/ifiable inf]5ce 
t ! fir/ conception primitive man w\ld h
 ( 8 own life w\ld n include ! ?\ght (  
natural dea?1 b w\ld1 conv]sely1 connote
 ! vague conception ( endless life4 ,our
 own ance/ors1 a few g5]ations remov$1  
_h n got rid ( ?is conception1 z !      
p]petual que/ ( ! spr+ ( et]nal y\?     
amply te/ifies4 ,a naturali/ ( our own  
day has sugge/$ t p]haps birds nev] die 
except by viol5ce4 ,! ?\ght1 !n1 t man  
has a t]m ( ye>s beyond :i* 9 ! nature (
 ?+s1 z ! say+ goes1 he may n live1 w\ld
 h dawn$ b gradually ^u ! develop+      
intellig5ce ( successive g5]ations ( m52
 & we _c feel sure t he w\ld fully h    
grasp$ ! conception ( a natural         
t]m9ation ( human life until he _h %ak5 
himself free f ! idea t disease is      

always ! result ( ! magic practice ( an 
enemy4 ,our obs]vation ( hi/orical man 9
 antiquity makes x some:at d\btful :e!r 
?is conception _h be5 atta9$ be=e !     
close ( ! prehi/oric p]iod4 ,if x _h1   
?is conception ( ! mortality ( man 0 "o 
( ! mo/ /rik+ sci5tific inductions to   
:i* prehi/oric man atta9$4 ,incid5tally1
 x may be not$ t ! conception ( et]nal  
life = ! human body be+ a m primitive   
idea ?an ! conception ( natural dea?1 ! 
idea ( ! immortality ( ! _s w\ld be !   
mo/ natural ( conceptions4 ,! immortal  
_s1 inde$1 w\ld be b a correlative ( !  
immortal body1 & ! idea :i* we %all see 
preval5t among ! ,egyptians t ! s\l     
p]si/s only z long z ! body is intact--!
 idea ^u :i* ! practice ( mummify+ !    
dead dep5d$--f9ds a ready explanation4  
,b ?is phase ( ! subject c>ries u       
some:at afield4 ,= our pres5t purpose x 
suffices to h po9t$ out t ! conception (
 man's mortality--a conception :i* n[   
seems ( all o!rs ! mo/ natural &        
innate--0 9 all probability a relatively

 late sci5tific induction ( our         
primitive ance/ors4  #e4 ,turn+ f !     
consid]ation ( ! body to its m5tal      
complem5t1 we are =c$ to admit t "h1    
also1 our primitive man mu/ h made c]ta9
 elem5t>y obs]vations t und]lie su*     
sci5ces z psy*ology1 ma!matics1 &       
political economy4 ,! elem5t>y emotions 
associat$ ) hung] & ) satiety1 ) love & 
) hatr$1 mu/ h =c$ !mselves ^u ! e>lie/ 
intellig5ce t rea*$ ! plane ( consci\s  
self-obs]vation4 ,! capacity to c\nt1 at
 lea/ to ! numb] f\r or five1 is )9 !   
range ( ev5 animal intellig5ce4 ,c]ta9  
savages h gone sc>cely f>!r ?an ?is2 b  
our primeval ance/or1 :o 0 =g+ on t[>ds 
civilization1 _h le>n$ to c\nt 8 f+]s & 
toes1 & to numb] objects ab\t him by    
fives & t5s 9 consequ5ce1 be=e he pass$ 
beyond ! plane ( num]\s exi/+ b>b>ians4 
,h[ mu* beyond ?is he _h gone we ne$ n  
attempt to inquire2 b ! relatively high 
developm5t ( ma!matics 9 ! e>ly         
hi/orical p]iod sugge/s t primeval man  
_h atta9$ a n inconsid]able k ( numb]s4 

,! humdrum vocation ( look+ aft] a      
num]\s prog5y mu/ h taught ! "m !       
rudim5ts ( addition & subtraction2 & !  
elem5ts ( multiplication & division are 
impli$ 9 ! capacity to c>ry on ev5 !    
rude/ =m ( b>t]1 su* z ! v>i\s tribes   
mu/ h practis$ f an e>ly day4  ,z to    
political ideas1 ev5 ! crude/ tribal    
life 0 bas$ on c]ta9 conceptions (      
own]%ip1 at lea/ ( tribal own]%ip1 & !  
application ( ! pr9ciple ( lik5ess &    
diff]5ce to :i* we h already ref]r$4    
,ea* tribe1 ( c\rse1 diff]$ 9 "s reg>d f
 o!r tribes1 & ! recognition ( ^!       
diff]5ces impli$ 9 itself a political   
classification4 ,a c]ta9 tribe took     
possession ( a p>ticul> hunt+-gr\nd1 :i*
 became1 = ! "t be+1 its home1 & ov] :i*
 x came to ex]cise c]ta9 rights4 ,an    
invasion ( ?is t]ritory by ano!r tribe  
might lead to w>1 & ! b&+ toge!r ( !    
memb]s ( ! tribe to repel ! invad]      
impli$ bo? a recognition ( communal     
unity & a species ( prejudice 9 favor ( 
t community t con/itut$ a primitive     

patriotism4 ,b ?is unity ( action 9     
oppos+ ano!r tribe w\ld n prev5t a c]ta9
 rivalry ( int]e/ betwe5 ! memb]s ( !   
same tribe1 :i* w\ld %[ itself m & m    
prom95tly z ! tribe increas$ 9 size4 ,! 
association ( two or m p]sons implies1  
always1 ! asc5d5cy ( "s & ! subord9ation
 ( o!rs4 ,lead]%ip & subord9ation are   
necess>y correlatives ( diff]5ce (      
physical & m5tal end[m5t1 & rivalry     
betwe5 lead]s w\ld inevitably lead to ! 
=mation ( primitive political p>ties4 ,)
 ! ultimate success & asc5d5cy ( "o     
lead]1 :o secures ei!r absolute p[] or  
p[] modifi$ 9 accordance ) ! advice (   
subord9ate lead]s1 we h ! g]ms ( an     
elaborate political sy/em--an embryo    
sci5ce ( gov]nm5t4  ,mean:ile1 ! v      
exi/5ce ( su* a community implies !     
recognition on ! "p ( its memb]s ( c]ta9
 individual rights1 ! recognition ( :i* 
is ess5tial to communal h>mony4 ,! "r ( 
individual own]%ip ( ! v>i\s articles & 
implem5ts ( e-day life mu/ be recogniz$1
 or all h>mony w\ld be at an end4 ,c]ta9

 rules ( ju/ice--primitive laws--mu/1 by
 common cons5t1 give protection to !    
weake/ memb]s ( ! community4 ,"h are !  
rudim5ts ( a sy/em ( e?ics4 ,x may seem 
anomal\s to speak ( ?is primitive       
morality1 ?is e>ly recognition ( !      
pr9ciples ( "r & wrong1 z hav+ any      
relation to sci5ce4 ,yet1 rightly       
consid]$1 !re is no incongruity 9 su* a 
citation4 ,!re _c well be a d\bt t !    
adoption ( ^? broad pr9ciples ( "r &    
wrong :i* und]lie ! entire /ructure (   
mod]n civilization 0 due to sci5tific   
induction1--9 o!r words1 to ! belief1   
bas$ on obs]vation & exp]i5ce1 t !      
pr9ciples impli$ 7 ess5tial to communal 
progress4 ,he :o has scann$ ! pageant ( 
hi/ory kn[s h[ (t5 ^! pr9ciples seem to 
be abs5t 9 ! int]c\rse ( m5 & nations4  
,yet ! ideal is always !re z a /&>d by  
:i* all de$s are judg$4   ,x w\ld appe>1
 !n1 t ! entire sup]/ructure ( lat]     
sci5ce _h its f\ndation 9 ! k & practice
 ( prehi/oric man4 ,! civilization ( !  
hi/orical p]iod c\ld n h advanc$ z x has

 _h !re n be5 c\ntless g5]ations (      
culture back ( x4 ,! new pr9ciples (    
sci5ce c\ld n h be5 evolv$ _h !re n be5 
great basal pr9ciples :i* ages (        
unconsci\s exp]im5t _h impress$ ^u ! m9d
 ( our race4 ,due me$ ( praise mu/ be   
giv51 !n1 to our primitive ance/or = 8  
sci5tific accompli%m5ts2 b ju/ice dem&s 
t we %\ld look a little f>!r & consid] !
 rev]se side ( ! picture4 ,we h _h to d1
 ?us f>1 *iefly ) ! positive side (     
accompli%m5t4 ,we h po9t$ out :at our   
primitive ance/or knew1 intimat+1       
p]haps1 ! limitations ( 8 k2 b we h _h  
little to say ( "o all-important feature
 ( 8 sci5tific !oriz+4 ,! feature 9 "q  
is bas$ on ! highly sci5tific desire &  
prop5sity to f9d explanations = !       
ph5om5a ( nature4 ,)\t su* desire no    
progress c\ld be made4 ,x is1 z we h    
se51 ! g5]aliz+ f exp]i5ce t con/itutes 
real sci5tific progress2 & yet1 j z mo/ 
o!r good ?+s c be ov]done1 ?is sci5tific
 prop5sity may be c>ri$ to a disa/r\s   
excess4  ,primeval man did n escape ?is 

dang]4 ,he obs]v$1 he reason$1 he f\nd  
explanations2 b he did n always         
discrim9ate z to ! logicality ( 8       
reason+s4 ,he fail$ to recognize !      
limitations ( 8 k4 ,! obs]v$ uni=mity 9 
! sequ5ce ( c]ta9 ev5ts impress$ on 8   
m9d ! idea ( cause & effect4 ,proximate 
causes kn[n1 he s\ght remot] causes2    
*ildlike1 8 inquir+ m9d 0 always ask+1  
,:y8 &1 *ildlike1 he dem&$ an explicit  
answ]4 ,if ! =ces ( nature seem$ to     
combat him1 if w9d & ra9 oppos$ 8       
progress & ?und] & lightn+ seem$ to     
m5ace 8 exi/5ce1 he 0 l$ irrevocably to 
?9k ( ^? human foes :o w>r$ ) him1 & to 
see1 back ( ! w>f>e ( ! elem5ts1 an     
inscrutable malevol5t intellig5ce :i*   
took ?is me?od to express its           
displeasure4 ,b e o!r l9e ( sci5tific   
obs]vation leads equally1 foll[+ back a 
sequ5ce ( ev5ts1 to seem+ly causeless   
beg9n+s4 ,mod]n sci5ce c expla9 !       
lightn+1 z x c expla9 a great numb] ( ! 
my/]ies :i* ! primeval intellig5ce c\ld 
n p5etrate4 ,b ! primordial man c\ld n  

wait = ! revelations ( sci5tific        
inve/igation3 he mu/ vault at once to a 
f9al solution ( all sci5tific problems4 
,he f\nd 8 solution by peopl+ ! _w )    
invisible =ces1 an?ropomorphic 9 _!     
conception1 l himself 9 _! ?\ght &      
action1 diff]+ only 9 ! limitations ( _!
 p[]s4 ,8 own dream exi/5ce gave him    
seem+ pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( an alt] ego1 a 
spiritual portion ( himself t c\ld      
dissev] itself f 8 body & w&] at w2 8   
sci5tific inductions seem$ to tell him (
 a _w ( invisible be+s1 capable (       
influ5c+ him = good or ill4 ,f !        
sci5tific ex]cise ( 8 faculties he      
evolv$ ! all-encompass+ g5]alizations ( 
invisible & all-p[]ful causes back ( !  
ph5om5a ( nature4 ,^! g5]alizations1    
e>ly develop$ & seem+ly support$ by !   
obs]vations ( c\ntless g5]ations1 came  
to be among ! mo/ firmly e/abli%$       
sci5tific inductions ( our primeval     
ance/or4 ,!y obta9$ a hold ^u ! m5tality
 ( our race t l$ subsequ5t g5]ations to 
?9k ( !m1 sometimes to speak ( !m1 z    

innate ideas4 ,! obs]vations ^u :i* !y 7
 bas$ are n[1 = ! mo/ "p1 susceptible ( 
o!r int]pretations2 b ! old             
int]pretations h prec$5t & prejudice    
back ( !m1 & !y repres5t ideas t are m  
difficult ?an almo/ any o!rs to         
eradicate4 ,always1 & ev]y:]e1          
sup]/itions bas$ ^u unw>rant$ e>ly      
sci5tific d$uctions h be5 ! mo/         
implacable foes to ! progress ( sci5ce4 
,m5 h built sy/ems ( philosophy ar\nd _!
 conception ( an?ropomorphic deities2 !y
 h l9k$ to ^! sy/ems ( philosophy !     
alli$ conception ( ! immutability (     
man's _s1 & !y h ask$ t sci5tific       
progress %\ld /op %ort at ! br9k ( ^!   
sy/ems ( philosophy & accept _! dictates
 z f9al4 ,yet !re is n to-day 9 exi/5ce1
 & !re nev] has be51 "o jot ( sci5tific 
evid5ce = ! exi/5ce ( ^! intangible     
an?ropomorphic p[]s back ( nature t is n
 susceptible ( sci5tific *all5ge & ( m  
logical int]pretation4 ,9 despite ( :i* 
! sup]/iti\s beliefs are /ill z firmly  
fix$ 9 ! m9ds ( a l>ge majority ( our   

race z !y 7 9 ! m9d ( our prehi/oric    
ance/or4 ,! fact ( ?is baleful h]itage  
mu/ n be =gott5 9 e/imat+ ! debt (      
gratitude :i* hi/oric man owes to 8     
b>b>ic pr$ecessor4     ,,ii4 ,,egyptian 
,,sci5ce  ,9 ! previ\s *apt] we h       
purposely refra9$ f ref]r+ to any       
p>ticul> tribe or race ( hi/orical man4 
,n[1 h[ev]1 we are at ! beg9n+s (       
national exi/5ce1 & we h to consid] !   
accompli%m5ts ( an individual race2 or  
r1 p]haps1 ( two or m races t occupi$   
successively ! same geographical        
t]ritory4 ,b ev5 n[ our /udies mu/ = a  
"t rema9 v g5]al2 we %all see little or 
no?+ ( ! de$s ( individual sci5ti/s 9 ! 
c\rse ( our /udy ( ,egyptian culture4   
,we are /ill1 x mu/ be und]/ood1 at !   
beg9n+s ( hi/ory2 inde$1 we mu/ fir/    
bridge ov] ! gap f ! prehi/oric be=e we 
may f9d ourselves fairly on ! l9e ( m>* 
( hi/orical sci5ce4  ,at ! v outset we  
may well ask :at con/itutes ! di/9ction 
betwe5 prehi/oric & hi/oric epo*s--a    
di/9ction :i* has be5 con/antly impli$ 9

 mu* t we h said4 ,! reply savors       
some:at ( vagu5ess4 ,x is a di/9ction   
hav+ to d1 n s mu* ) facts ( human      
progress z ) our int]pretation ( ^!     
facts4 ,:5 we speak ( ! dawn ( hi/ory we
 mu/ n be und]/ood to imply t1 at !     
p]iod 9 "q1 !re 0 any sudd5 *ange 9 !   
intellectual /atus ( ! human race or 9 !
 /atus ( any individual tribe or nation 
( m54 ,:at we mean is t mod]n k has     
p5etrat$ ! mi/s ( ! pa/ = ! p]iod we t]m
 hi/orical ) some?+ m ( cle>ness &      
precision ?an x has be5 able to br+ to  
be> ^u yet e>li] p]iods4 ,new accessions
 ( k may ?us %ift f "t to "t ! b\nds ( !
 s-call$ hi/orical p]iod4 ,! cle>e/     
illu/ration ( ?is is furni%$ by our     
int]pretation ( ,egyptian hi/ory4 ,until
 rec5tly ! biblical records ( ! ,hebrew 
captivity or s]vice1 toge!r ) ! simil>  
acc\nt ( ,josephus1 furni%$ ab\t all t 0
 kn[n ( ,egyptian hi/ory ev5 ( s        
comp>atively rec5t a "t z t ( ,ramses   
,,ii4 7fifte5? c5tury ,b4,c471 & f t    
p]iod on !re 0 almo/ a complete gap     

until ! /ory 0 tak5 up by ! ,greek      
hi/orians ,h]odotus & ,diodorus4 ,x is  
true t ! k+-li/s ( ! ,alex&rian         
hi/orian1 ,mane?o1 7 all along          
accessible 9 some:at g>bl$ copies4 ,b at
 be/ !y seem$ to supply un9telligible   
li/s ( names & dates :i* no "o 0 dispos$
 to take s]i\sly4 ,t !y 71 broadly      
speak+1 true hi/orical records1 & mo/   
important hi/orical records at t1 0 n   
recogniz$ by mod]n s*ol>s until fre%    
light _h be5 ?r[n on ! subject f        
altoge!r new s\rces4  ,^! new s\rces ( k
 ( anci5t hi/ory dem& a mom5t's         
consid]ation4 ,!y are all-important     
because !y h be5 ! means ( ext5d+ !     
hi/orical p]iod ( ,egyptian hi/ory 7us+ 
! ^w hi/ory 9 ! way j expla9$7 by ?ree  
or f\r ?\s& ye>s4 ,z j sugge/$1 t       
hi/orical p]iod c>ri$ ! s*ol>%ip ( !    
e>ly n9ete5? c5tury sc>cely beyond !    
fifte5? c5tury ,b4,c41 b to-day's vision
 ext5ds ) tol]able cle>ness to ab\t !   
middle ( ! fif? mill5nium ,b4,c4 ,?is   
*ange has be5 br\ght ab\t *iefly ?r\gh  

/udy ( ! ,egyptian hi]oglyphics4 ,^!    
hi]oglyphics con/itute1 z we n[ "k1 a   
highly develop$ sy/em ( writ+2 a sy/em t
 0 practis$ = "s ?\s&s ( ye>s1 b :i*    
fell utt]ly into disuse 9 ! lat] ,roman 
p]iod1 & ! k ( :i* pass$ absolutely f ! 
m9d ( man4 ,= ab\t two ?\s& ye>s no "o 0
 able to read1 ) any degree (           
explicitness1 a s+le "* ( ?is /range    
script1 & ! idea became preval5t t x did
 n con/itute a real sy/em ( writ+1 b    
only a m or less b>b>ic sy/em ( religi\s
 symbolism4 ,! falsity ( ?is view 0 %[n 
e>ly 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury :5 ,dr4 ,?omas  
,"y 0 l$1 ?r\gh /udy ( ! fam\s tril+ual 
inscription ( ! ,rosetta /one1 to make !
 fir/ successful attempt at cle>+ up !  
my/]ies ( ! hi]oglyphics4  ,?is is n !  
place to tell ! /ory ( 8 fasc9at+       
discov]ies & ^? ( 8 successors4 ,t /ory 
belongs to n9ete5?-c5tury sci5ce1 n to !
 sci5ce ( ! ,egyptians4 ,suffice x "h t 
,"y ga9$ ! fir/ clew to a few ( !       
phonetic values ( ! ,egyptian symbols1 &
 t ! "w ( discov]y 0 c>ri$ on & va/ly   

ext5d$ by ! ,fr5*man ,*ampollion1 a     
little lat]1 ) ! result t ! firm        
f\ndations ( ! mod]n sci5ce (           
,egyptology 7 laid4 ,subsequ5tly su*    
/ud5ts z ,rosell9i ! ,italian1 ,lepsius 
! ,g]man1 & ,wilk9son ! ,engli%man1     
ent]$ ! field1 :i* 9 due c\rse 0        
cultivat$ by ,de ,r\ge 9 ,france & ,bir*
 9 ,engl&1 & by su* di/+ui%$ latt]-day  
work]s z ,*abas1 ,m>iette1 ,masp]o1     
,amel9eau1 & ,de ,morgan among !        
,fr5*m52 ,pr(essor ,petrie & ,dr4 ,budge
 9 ,engl&2 & ,brugs* ,pa%a & ,pr(essor  
,erman 9 ,g]many1 n to m5tion a l>ge    
cot]ie ( some:at less famili> names4 ,^!
 m5 work+1 "s ( !m 9 ! field ( practical
 exploration1 "s z /ud5ts ( ! ,egyptian 
language & writ+1 h re/or$ to u a       
tol]ably precise k ( ! hi/ory ( ,egypt f
 ! "t ( ! fir/ hi/orical k+1 ,m5a1 ^:   
date is plac$ at ab\t ! middle ( ! fif? 
c5tury ,b4,c4 ,we "k n m]ely ! names (  
mo/ ( ! subsequ5t rul]s1 b "s ?+ ( !    
de$s ( _m ( !m2 &1 :at is va/ly m       
important1 we "k1 ?anks to ! mod]n      

int]pretation ( ! old lit]ature1 _m ?+s 
conc]n+ ! life ( ! p1 & 9 p>ticul>      
conc]n+ _! highe/ culture1 _! me?ods (  
?\ght1 & _! sci5tific atta9m5ts1 :i*    
might well h be5 suppos$ to be pa/ f9d+ 
out4 ,nor has mod]n inve/igation halt$ )
 ! "t ( ! fir/ k+s2 ! rec5t explorations
 ( su* ar*aeologi/s z ,amel9eau1 ,de    
,morgan1 & ,petrie h br\ght to light    
num]\s rema9s ( :at is n[ spok5 ( z !   
pr$yna/ic p]iod--a p]iod :5 !           
inhabitants ( ! ,nile ,valley us$       
implem5ts ( *ipp$ /one1 :5 _! pott]y 0  
made )\t ! use ( ! pott]'s :eel1 & :5 !y
 buri$ _! dead 9 curi\sly cramp$        
attitudes )\t attempt at mummification4 
,^! aborig9al inhabitants ( ,egypt _c   
p]haps ) /rict propriety be spok5 ( z   
liv+ )9 ! hi/orical p]iod1 s9ce we _c   
date _! relics ) any accuracy4 ,b !y    
give u glimpses ( ! e>ly /ages (        
civilization ^u :i* ! ,egyptians ( !    
dyna/ic p]iod 7 to advance4  ,x is held 
t ! nasc5t civilization ( ^! ,egyptians 
( ! ,neoli?ic1 or late ,/one ,age1 0    

ov]?r[n by ! invad+ ho/s ( a m highly   
civiliz$ race :i* probably came f !     
,ea/1 & :i* may h be5 ( a ,semitic /ock4
 ,! presumption is t ?is invad+ p br\ght
 ) x a k ( ! arts ( w> & peace1 develop$
 or adopt$ 9 its old home4 ,!           
introduction ( ^! arts s]v$ to bridge   
some:at sudd5ly1 s f> z ,egypt is       
conc]n$1 t gap betwe5 ! prehi/oric & !  
hi/oric /age ( culture to :i* we h all  
along ref]r$4 ,! ess5tial /ructure ( t  
bridge1 let x n[ be cle>ly und]/ood1    
consi/$ ( a s+le elem5t4 ,t elem5t is ! 
capacity to make writt5 records3 a k ( !
 art ( writ+4 ,cle>ly und]/ood1 x is ?is
 elem5t ( k t =ms ! l9e b\nd+ !         
hi/orical p]iod4 ,numb]less mem5tos are 
9 exi/5ce t tell ( ! intellectual       
activities ( prehi/oric man2 su* mem5tos
 z fl9t implem5ts1 pieces ( pott]y1 &   
fragm5ts ( bone1 inscrib$ ) pictures t  
may fairly be spok5 ( z works ( art2 b s
 long z no writt5 ^w accompanies ^!     
records1 s long z no "n ( k+ or scribe  
comes d[n to u1 we feel t ^! records    

belong to ! doma9 ( ar*aeology r ?an to 
t ( hi/ory4 ,yet x mu/ be und]/ood all  
along t ^! two doma9s %ade "o into ! o!r
 &1 x has already be5 urg$1 t !         
di/9ction betwe5 !m is "o t p]ta9s r to 
mod]n s*ol>%ip ?an to ! developm5t (    
civilization itself4 ,be>+ ?is di/9ction
 /ill 9 m9d1 & recall+ t ! hi/orical    
p]iod1 :i* is to be ! field ( our       
obs]vation ?r\gh\t ! re/ ( our /udies1  
ext5ds = ,egypt well back into ! fif?   
mill5nium ,b4,c41 let u briefly review !
 practical phases ( t civilization to   
:i* ! ,egyptian _h atta9$ be=e ! beg9n+ 
( ! dyna/ic p]iod4 ,s9ce !oretical      
sci5ce is ev]y:]e l9k$ ) ! me*anical    
arts1 ?is survey w give u a cle>        
compreh5sion ( ! field t lies op5 = !   
progress ( sci5ce 9 ! long /ages (      
hi/orical "t ^u :i* we are j ent]+4  ,we
 may pass ov] su* rudim5t>y advances 9 !
 direction ( civilization z are impli$ 9
 ! use ( articulate language1 !         
application ( fire to ! uses ( man1 & ! 
sy/ematic mak+ ( dwell+s ( "o sort or   

ano!r1 s9ce all ( ^! are /ages (        
progress t 7 rea*$ v e>ly 9 ! prehi/oric
 p]iod4 ,:at m directly conc]ns u is to 
note t a really high /age ( me*anical   
developm5t _h be5 rea*$ be=e ! dawn+s ( 
,egyptian hi/ory prop]4 ,all mann] (    
h\sehold ut5sils 7 employ$2 ! pott]'s   
:eel aid$ 9 ! con/ruction ( a great     
v>iety ( e>!n vessels2 weav+ _h become a
 f9e art1 & weapons ( bronze1 includ+   
axes1 spe>s1 knives1 & arr[-heads1 7 9  
con/ant use4 ,animals _h long be5       
dome/icat$1 9 p>ticul> ! dog1 ! cat1 & !
 ox2 ! horse 0 introduc$ lat] f ! ,ea/4 
,! practical arts ( agriculture 7       
practis$ almo/ z !y are at ! pres5t day 
9 ,egypt1 !re be+1 ( c\rse1 ! same      
dep5d5ce !n z n[ ^u ! inundations ( !   
,nile4  ,z to gov]nm5t1 ! ,egyptian ( ! 
fir/ dyna/y reg>d$ 8 k+ z a demi-god to 
be actually deifi$ aft] 8 dea?1 & ?is   
po9t ( view 0 n *ang$ ?r\gh\t ! /ages ( 
lat] ,egyptian hi/ory4 ,9 po9t ( art1   
m>vell\s advances ^u ! skill ( !        
prehi/oric man _h be5 made1 probably 9  

"p "u ,asiatic influ5ces1 & t unique    
/yle ( /ilt$ yet expressive draw+ _h    
come into vogue1 :i* 0 to be rememb]$ 9 
aft] times z typically ,egyptian4 ,m    
important ?an all else1 our ,egyptian ( 
! e>lie/ hi/orical p]iod 0 9 possession 
( ! art ( writ+4 ,he _h begun to make ^?
 specific records :i* 7 impossible to ! 
man ( ! ,/one ,age1 & ?us he _h ent]$   
fully ^u ! way ( hi/orical progress :i*1
 z already po9t$ out1 has its v         
f\ndation 9 writt5 records4 ,f n[ on !  
de$s ( individual k+s c\ld f9d specific 
record4 ,x began to be possible to fix !
 *ronology ( remote ev5ts ) "s accuracy2
 & ) ?is same fix+ ( *ronologies came ! 
adv5t ( true hi/ory4 ,! p]iod :i*       
prec$es :at is usually spok5 ( z ! fir/ 
dyna/y 9 ,egypt is "o into :i* !        
pres5t-day se>*] is /ill able to see b  
d>kly4 ,! evid5ce seems to sugge/ ?an an
 invasion ( relatively cultur$ p f !    
,ea/ ov]?rew1 & 9 "t supplant$1 !       
,neoli?ic civilization ( ! ,nile        
,valley4 ,x is impossible to date ?is   

invasion accurately1 b x _c well h be5  
lat] ?an ! ye> #ejjj ,b4,c41 & x may h  
be5 a great _m c5turies e>li] ?an ?is4  
,be ! exact dates :at !y may1 we f9d !  
,egyptian ( ! fif? mill5nium ,b4,c4 9   
full possession ( a highly organiz$     
civilization4  ,all subsequ5t ages h    
m>vell$ at ! pyramids1 "s ( :i* date f  
ab\t ! ye> #djjj ,b4,c41 ?\gh we may    
note 9 pass+ t ^! dates mu/ n be tak5   
too lit]ally4 ,! *ronology ( anci5t     
,egypt _c z yet be fix$ ) exact         
accuracy1 b ! disagreem5ts betwe5 !     
v>i\s /ud5ts ( ! subject ne$ give u     
little conc]n4 ,= our pres5t purpose x  
does n 9 ! lea/ matt] :e!r ! pyramids 7 
built ?ree ?\s& or f\r ?\s& ye>s be=e ! 
beg9n+ ( our era4 ,x suffices t !y date 
back to a p]iod long antec$5t to !      
beg9n+s ( civilization 9 ,we/]n ,europe4
 ,!y prove t ! ,egyptian ( t e>ly day _h
 atta9$ a k ( practical me*anics :i*1   
ev5 f ! tw5tie?-c5tury po9t ( view1 is n
 to be spok5 ( lightly4 ,x has sometimes
 be5 sugge/$ t ^! mighty pyramids1 built

 z !y are ( great blocks ( /one1 speak =
 an almo/ miracul\s k on ! "p ( _!      
build]s2 b a san] view ( ! conditions   
gives no w>rant = ?is ?\ght4 ,diodoras1 
! ,sicilian1 9 8 fam\s ,_w's ,hi/ory1   
writt5 ab\t ! beg9n+ ( our era1 expla9s 
! build+ ( ! pyramids by sugge/+ t great
 quantities ( e>? 7 pil$ aga9/ ! side ( 
! ris+ /ructure to =m an incl9$ plane up
 :i* ! blocks ( /one 7 dragg$4 ,he gives
 u c]ta9 figures1 bas$1 d\btless1 on    
reports made to him by ,egyptian prie/s1
 :o 9 turn drew ^u ! traditions ( _!    
c\ntry1 p]haps ev5 ^u writt5 records no 
long] pres]v$4 ,he says t "o hundr$ &   
tw5ty ?\s& m5 7 employ$ 9 ! con/ruction 
( ! l>ge/ pyramid1 & t1 not)/&+ ! size (
 ?is ho/ ( work]s1 ! task occupi$ tw5ty 
ye>s4 ,we mu/ n place too mu* dep5d5ce  
^u su* figures z ^!1 = ! anci5t         
hi/orians are notori\sly giv5 to        
exagg]ation 9 record+ numb]s2 yet we ne$
 n d\bt t ! report giv5 by ,diodorus is 
sub/antially accurate 9 its ma9 outl9es 
z to ! me?od ?r\gh :i* ! pyramids 7     

con/ruct$4 ,a ho/ ( m5 putt+ _! add$    
weight & /r5g? to ! task1 ) ! aid (     
ropes1 pulleys1 roll]s1 & lev]s1 &      
utiliz+ ! pr9ciple ( ! incl9$ plane1    
c\ld und\bt$ly move & elevate & place 9 
position ! l>ge/ blocks t ent] into !   
pyramids or--:at seems ev5 m wond]ful--!
 mo/ gigantic obelisks1 )\t ! aid ( any 
o!r k9d ( me*anism or ( any m occult    
p[]4 ,! same h&s c\ld1 z ,diodorus      
sugge/s1 remove all trace ( ! debris (  
con/ruction & leave ! pyramids &        
obelisks /&+ 9 weird isolation1 z if    
sprung into be+ ?r\gh a miracle4        
,,a/ronomical ,,sci5ce  ,x has be5      
necess>y to be> 9 m9d ^! phases (       
practical civilization because mu* t we 
"k ( ! purely sci5tific atta9m5ts ( !   
,egyptians is bas$ ^u mod]n obs]vation (
 _! pyramids & temples4 ,x 0 e>ly       
obs]v$1 = example1 t ! pyramids are     
obvi\sly ori5t$ z reg>ds ! direction 9  
:i* !y face1 9 /rict accordance ) "s    
a/ronomical pr9ciple4 ,e>ly 9 ! n9ete5? 
c5tury ! ,fr5*man ,biot made int]e/+    

/udies 9 reg>d to ?is subject1 & a      
hundr$ ye>s lat]1 9 our own "t1 ,sir    
,joseph ,norman ,locky]1 foll[+ up ! "w 
( v>i\s int]m$i>y obs]v]s1 has giv5 !   
subject mu* att5tion1 mak+ x ! c5tral   
!me ( 8 "w on ,! ,dawn ( ,a/ronomy47#a7 
,locky]'s rese>*es make x cle> t 9 ! ma9
 ! temples ( ,egypt 7 ori5t$ ) ref]5ce  
to ! po9t at :i* ! sun rises on ! day ( 
! summ] sol/ice4 ,! "t ( ! sol/ice _h   
peculi> int]e/ = ! ,egyptians1 because x
 correspond$ r closely ) ! "t ( ! ris+ (
 ! ,nile4 ,! floods ( t riv] appe> ) v  
great regul>ity2 ! on-ru%+ tide rea*es !
 region ( ,heliopolis & ,memphis almo/  
precisely on ! day ( ! summ] sol/ice4 ,!
 "t v>ies at diff]5t /ages ( ! riv]'s   
c\rse1 b z ! civilization ( ! e>ly      
dyna/ies c5tr$ at ,memphis1 obs]vations 
made at ?is place _h wide/ vogue4       
,consid]+ ! all-ess5tial "* ( ! ,nile   
floods-)\t :i* civilization w\ld be     
impossible 9 ,egypt--x is n /range t !  
"t ( _! appe>ance %\ld be tak5 z m>k+ ! 
beg9n+ ( a new ye>4 ,! fact t _! com+   

co9cides ) ! sol/ice makes su* a        
division ( ! cal5d> p]fectly natural4 ,9
 po9t ( fact1 f ! e>lie/ p]iods ( :i*   
records h come d[n to u1 ! new ye> ( !  
,egyptians dates f ! summ] sol/ice4 ,x  
is c]ta9 t f ! e>lie/ hi/orical p]iods !
 ,egyptians 7 aw>e ( ! approximate l5g? 
( ! ye>4 ,x w\ld be /range 7 x o!rwise1 
consid]+ ! ease ) :i* a record ( days   
c\ld be kept f ,nile flood to ,nile     
flood1 or f sol/ice to sol/ice4 ,b ?is1 
( c\rse1 applies only to an approximate 
c\nt4 ,!re is "s reason to believe t 9 !
 e>lie/ p]iod ! ,egyptians made ?is c\nt
 only #cfj days4 ,! fact t _! ye> 0     
divid$ into twelve mon?s ( ?irty days   
ea* l5ds color to ?is belief2 b1 9 any  
ev5t1 ! mi/ake 0 discov]$ 9 due "t & a  
p>tial rem$y 0 appli$ ?r\gh !           
int]polation ( a little mon? ( five days
 betwe5 ! end ( ! twelf? mon? & ! new   
ye>4 ,?is ne>ly b n q rem$i$ ! matt]4   
,:at x obvi\sly fail$ to d 0 to take    
acc\nt ( t additional qu>t] ( a day :i* 
really r\nds out ! actual ye>4  ,x w\ld 

h be5 a va/ly conv5i5t ?+ = humanity _h 
x *anc$ t ! e>? _h s accommodat$ its    
rot>y motion ) its spe$ ( transit ab\t !
 sun z to make its annual flight 9      
precisely #cfj days4 ,twelve lun> mon?s 
( ?irty days ea* w\ld !n h co9cid$      
exactly ) ! sol> ye>1 & mo/ ( !         
complexities ( ! cal5d>1 :i* h s puzzl$ 
hi/orical /ud5ts1 w\ld h be5 avoid$2 b1 
on ! o!r h&1 p]haps ?is v simplicity    
w\ld h prov$ detrim5tal to a/ronomical  
sci5ce by prev5t+ m5 f se>*+ ! heav5s z 
c>efully z !y h done4 ,be t z x may1 !  
complexity exi/s4 ,! actual ye> ( ?ree  
hundr$ & sixty-five & 7ab\t7 "o-qu>t]   
days _c be divid$ ev5ly into mon?s1 & "s
 su* exp$i5t z ! int]calation ( days "h 
& !re is ess5tial1 else ! cal5d> w      
become absolutely out ( h>mony ) !      
seasons4  ,9 ! case ( ! ,egyptians1 !   
attempt at adju/m5t 0 made1 z j not$1 by
 ! introduction ( ! five days1 con/itut+
 :at ! ,egyptians !mselves t]m$ ! five  
days ov] & above ! ye>4 ,^! s-call$     
epagom5al days 7 und\bt$ly introduc$ at 

a v e>ly p]iod4 ,masp]o holds t !y 7 9  
use be=e ! fir/ ,?9ite dyna/y1 cit+ 9   
evid5ce ! fact t ! leg5d ( ,osiris      
expla9s ^! days z hav+ be5 creat$ by !  
god ,?ot 9 ord] to p]mit ,nuit to give  
bir? to all h] *ildr52 ?is exp$i5t be+  
necess>y to ov]come a ban :i* _h be5    
pron\nc$ aga9/ ,nuit1 accord+ to :i* %e 
c\ld n give bir? to *ildr5 on any day ( 
! ye>4 ,b1 ( c\rse1 ! five additional   
days d n suffice fully to rectify !     
cal5d>4 ,!re rema9s ! additional qu>t] (
 a day to be acc\nt$ =4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1  
am\nts to a full day e f\r? ye>4 ,we    
%all see t lat] ,alex&rian sci5ce hit ^u
 ! exp$i5t ( add+ a day to e f\r? ye>2  
an exp$i5t :i* ! ,julian cal5d> adopt$ &
 :i* /ill gives u our famili> leap-ye>4 
,b1 un=tunately1 ! anci5t ,egyptian     
fail$ to recognize ! ne$ ( ?is          
additional day1 or if he did recognize x
 he fail$ to act on 8 k1 & s x happ5$ t1
 />t+ some:]e back 9 ! remote pa/ ) a   
new ye>'s day t co9cid$ ) ! inundation (
 ! ,nile1 !re 0 a con/antly %ift+       

maladju/m5t ( cal5d> & seasons z "t w5t 
on4  ,! ,egyptian seasons1 x %\ld be    
expla9$1 7 ?ree 9 numb]3 ! season ( !   
inundation1 ! season ( ! se$-"t1 & !    
season ( ! h>ve/2 ea* season be+1 (     
c\rse1 f\r mon?s 9 ext5t4 ,orig9ally1 z 
j m5tion$1 ! season ( ! inundations     
began & co9cid$ ) ! actual "t (         
inundation4 ,! m precise fix+ ( new     
ye>'s day 0 accompli%$ ?r\gh obs]vation 
( ! "t ( ! s-call$ heliacal ris+ ( !    
dog-/>1 ,sirius1 :i* bore ! ,egyptian "n
 ,so?is4 ,x *ances t1 z view$ f ab\t !  
region ( ,heliopolis1 ! sun at ! "t ( ! 
summ] sol/ice occupies an app>5t        
position 9 ! heav5s close to ! dog-/>4  
,n[1 z is well kn[n1 ! ,egyptians1 see+ 
div9ity back ( almo/ e ph5om5on (       
nature1 v naturally paid p>ticul>       
rev]5ce to s obvi\sly influ5tial a      
p]sonage z ! sun-god4 ,9 p>ticul> !y    
?\ght x fitt+ to d homage to him j z he 
0 />t+ out on 8 t\r ( ,egypt 9 ! morn+2 
& t !y might "k ! precise mom5t ( 8     
com+1 ! ,egyptian a/ronom] prie/s1 p]*$ 

on ! hill-tops ne> _! temples1 7 wont to
 scan ! ea/]n horizon ) ref]5ce to "s />
 :i* _h be5 obs]v$ to prec$e ! sol>     
lum9>y4 ,( c\rse ! precession ( !       
equ9oxes1 due to t axial wobble 9 :i*   
our clumsy e>? indulges1 w\ld *ange !   
app>5t position ( ! fix$ />s 9 ref]5ce  
to ! sun1 s t ! same /> c\ld n d s]vice 
z heliacal mess5g] indef9itely2 b1 on ! 
o!r h&1 ^! *anges are s sl[ t           
obs]vations by _m g5]ations ( a/ronom]s 
w\ld be requir$ to detect ! %ift+4 ,x is
 believ$ by ,locky]1 ?\gh ! evid5ce is n
 q demon/rative1 t ! a/ronomical        
obs]vations ( ! ,egyptians date back to 
a p]iod :5 ,so?is1 ! dog-/>1 0 n 9 close
 association ) ! sun on ! morn+ ( !     
summ] sol/ice4 ,yet1 accord+ to !       
calculations ( ,biot1 ! heliacal ris+ ( 
,so?is at ! sol/ice 0 not$ z e>ly z !   
ye> #cbhe ,b4,c41 & x is c]ta9 t ?is /> 
cont9u$ ?r\gh\t subsequ5t c5turies to   
keep ?is position ( peculi> pre/ige4    
,h5ce x 0 t ,so?is came to be associat$ 
) ,isis1 "o ( ! mo/ important div9ities 

( ,egypt1 & t ! day 9 :i* ,so?is 0 fir/ 
visible 9 ! morn+ sky m>k$ ! beg9n+ ( ! 
new ye>2 t day co9cid+1 z already not$1 
) ! summ] sol/ice & ) ! beg9n+ ( ! ,nile
 fl[4  ,b n[ = ! difficulties introduc$ 
by t unreckon$ qu>t] ( a day4 ,obvi\sly 
) a cal5d> ( #cfe days only1 at ! end ( 
f\r ye>s1 ! cal5d> ye>1 or vague ye>1 z 
! ,egyptians came to call x1 _h ga9$ by 
"o full day ^u ! actual sol> ye>--t is  
to say1 ! heliacal ris+ ( ,so?is1 !     
dog-/>1 w\ld n occur on new ye>'s day ( 
! faulty cal5d>1 b a day lat]4 ,& ) ea* 
succe$+ p]iod ( f\r ye>s ! day (        
heliacal ris+1 :i* m>k$ ! true beg9n+ ( 
! ye>--& :i* /ill1 ( c\rse1 co9cid$ ) ! 
inundation--w\ld h fall5 ano!r day beh9d
 ! cal5d>4 ,9 ! c\rse ( #abj ye>s an    
entire mon? w\ld be lo/2 & 9 #dhj ye>s s
 great w\ld become ! %ift+ t ! seasons  
w\ld be altoge!r misplac$2 ! actual "t (
 inundations correspond+ ) :at ! cal5d> 
regi/]$ z ! se$-"t1 & ! actual se$-"t 9 
turn correspond+ ) ! h>ve/-"t ( !       
cal5d>4  ,at fir/ ?\ght ?is seems v     

awkw>d & confus+1 b 9 all probability ! 
effects 7 by no means s mu* s 9 actual  
practice4 ,we ne$ g no f>!r ?an to our  
own exp]i5ce to "k t ! names ( seasons1 
z ( mon?s & days1 come to h 9 ! m9ds (  
mo/ ( u a purely conv5tional            
significance4 ,few ( u /op to give a    
?\ght to ! mean+ ( ! words ,janu>y1     
,febru>y1 etc41 except z !y connote     
c]ta9 climatic conditions4 ,if1 !n1 our 
own cal5d> 7 s defective t 9 ! c\rse (  
#abj ye>s ! mon? ( ,febru>y _h %ift$    
back to occupy ! position ( ! orig9al   
,janu>y1 ! *ange w\ld h be5 s gradual1  
cov]+ ! p]iod ( two life-times or ( f\r 
or five av]age g5]ations1 t x might well
 escape g5]al obs]vation4  ,ea* succe$+ 
g5]ation ( ,egyptians1 !n1 may n        
improbably h associat$ ! names ( !      
seasons ) ! contempor>y climatic        
conditions1 tr\bl+ !mselves little ) !  
?\ght t 9 an e>li] age ! climatic       
conditions = ea* p]iod ( ! cal5d> 7 q   
diff]5t4 ,we _c well suppose1 h[ev]1 t !
 a/ronom] prie/s 7 oblivi\s to ! true   

/ate ( ?+s4 ,^u !m devolv$ ! duty (     
pr$ict+ ! "t ( ! ,nile flood2 a duty !y 
7 enabl$ to p]=m )\t difficulty ?r\gh   
obs]vation ( ! ris+ ( ! sol/itial sun & 
its ,so?ic mess5g]4 ,to ^! obs]v]s x mu/
 f9ally h be5 app>5t t ! %ift+ ( !      
seasons 0 at ! rate ( "o day 9 f\r ye>s2
 ?is kn[n1 x requir$ no great ma!matical
 skill to compute t ?is %ift+ w\ld      
f9ally effect a complete circuit ( !    
cal5d>1 s t aft] 7#d ,x #cfe 7 #adfj    
ye>s ! fir/ day ( ! cal5d> ye> w\ld aga9
 co9cide ) ! heliacal ris+ ( ,so?is & ) 
! com+ ( ! ,nile flood4 ,9 o!r words1   
#adfa vague ye>s or ,egyptian cal5d>    
ye>s ,( #cfe days ea* correspond to     
#adfj actual sol> ye>s ( #cfe #a_/d days
 ea*4 ,?is p]iod1 measur$ ?us by !      
heliacal ris+ ( ,so?is1 is spok5 ( z !  
,so?ic cycle4  ,to u :o are tra9$ f     
*ildhood to und]/& t ! ye> consi/s (    
7approximately7 #cfe #a_/d days1 & to "k
 t ! cal5d> may be regulat$             
approximately by ! introduction ( an    
extra day e f\r? ye>1 ?is recognition ( 

! ,so?ic cycle seems simple en\gh4 ,yet 
if ! av]age man ( u w reflect h[ little 
he kn[s1 ( 8 own k1 ( ! exact l5g? ( !  
ye>1 x w soon become evid5t t !         
appreciation ( ! faults ( ! cal5d> & ! k
 ( its p]iodical adju/m5t con/itut$ a   
relatively high developm5t ( sci5tific k
 on ! "p ( ! ,egyptian a/ronom]4 ,x may 
be add$ t v>i\s ef=ts to re=m ! cal5d> 7
 made by ! anci5t ,egyptians1 b t !y _c 
be cr$it$ ) a satisfactory solution ( ! 
problem2 =1 ( c\rse1 ! ,alex&rian       
sci5ti/s ( ! ,ptolemaic p]iod 7^: "w we 
%all h occasion to review pres5tly7 7 n 
,egyptians 9 any prop] s5se ( ! ^w1 b   
,greeks4  ,s9ce s mu* ( ! "t ( !        
a/ronom] prie/s 0 devot$ to obs]vation (
 ! heav5ly bodies1 x is n surpris+ t !y 
%\ld h mapp$ out ! app>5t c\rse ( ! moon
 & ! visible planets 9 _! nightly t\r ( 
! heav5s1 & t !y %\ld h divid$ ! />s ( !
 firmam5t into m or less arbitr>y gr\ps 
or con/ellations4 ,t !y did s is evid5c$
 by v>i\s sculptur$ repres5tations (    
con/ellations correspond+ to signs ( !  

zodiac :i* /ill ornam5t ! ceil+s ( v>i\s
 anci5t temples4 ,un=tunately !         
decorative s5se1 :i* 0 always pr$om9ant 
) ! ,egyptian sculptor1 l$ him to take  
v>i\s lib]ties ) ! di/ribution ( figures
 9 ^! repres5tations ( ! con/ellations1 
s t ! inf]5ces drawn f !m z to ! exact  
map ( ! heav5s z ! ,egyptians conceiv$ x
 _c be fully reli$ ^u4 ,x appe>s1 h[ev]1
 t ! ,egyptian a/ronom] divid$ ! zodiac 
into tw5ty-f\r decani1 or con/ellations4
 ,! arbitr>y gr\p+s ( figures1 ) ! aid (
 :i* ^! are del9eat$1 be> a close       
resemblance to ! equally arbitr>y       
outl9es :i* we are /ill accu/om$ to use 
= ! same purpose4   ,,ideas ,,(         
,,cosmology  ,9 view+ ?is a/ronomical   
sy/em ( ! ,egyptians "o _c avoid ! "q z 
to j :at int]pretation 0 plac$ ^u x z   
reg>ds ! actual me*anical /ructure ( !  
univ]se4 ,a proximal answ] to ! "q is   
suppli$ u ) a good deal ( cle>ness4 ,x  
appe>s t ! ,egyptian conceiv$ ! sky z a 
sort ( tangible or mat]ial ro( plac$    
above ! _w1 & support$ at ea* ( its f\r 

corn]s by a column or pill>1 :i* 0 lat] 
on conceiv$ z a great m\nta94 ,! e>?    
itself 0 conceiv$ to be a rectangul>    
box1 long] f nor? to s\? ?an f ea/ to   
we/2 ! upp] surface ( ?is box1 ^u :i*   
man liv$1 be+ slightly concave & hav+1 (
 c\rse1 ! valley ( ! ,nile z its c5tre4 
,! pill>s ( support 7 situat$ at ! po9ts
 ( ! compass2 ! nor!rn "o be+ locat$    
beyond ! ,m$it]ranean ,sea2 ! s\!rn "o  
away beyond ! habitable regions t[>ds ! 
s\rce ( ! ,nile1 & ! ea/]n & we/]n ones 
9 equally inaccessible regions4 ,circl+ 
ab\t ! s\!rn side ( ! _w 0 a great riv] 
susp5d$ 9 mid-air on some?+ comp>able to
 m\nta9 cliffs2 on :i* riv] ! sun-god   
made 8 daily c\rse 9 a boat1 fight+ day 
by day 8 ev]-recurr+ battle aga9/ ,set1 
! demon ( d>kness4 ,! wide *annel ( ?is 
riv] enabl$ ! sun-god to alt] 8 c\rse f 
"t to "t1 z he is obs]v$ to d2 9 w9t]   
direct+ 8 b>k t[>ds ! f>!r bank ( !     
*annel2 9 summ] glid+ close to ! ne>]   
bank4 ,z to ! />s1 !y 7 simil> lights1  
susp5d$ f ! vault ( ! heav52 b j h[ _!  

obs]v$ motion ( translation across !    
heav5s 0 expla9$ is n app>5t4 ,x is m   
?an probable t no "o explanation 01     
univ]sally accept$4  ,9 expla9+ ! orig9 
( ?is me*anism ( ! heav5s1 ! ,egyptian  
imag9ation ran riot4 ,ea* sep>ate "p (  
,egypt _h its own hi]>*y ( gods1 & m or 
less its own explanations ( cosmogony4  
,!re does n appe> to h be5 any "o c5tral
 /ory ( creation t f\nd univ]sal        
acceptance1 any m ?an !re 0 "o specific 
deity ev]y:]e recogniz$ z supreme among 
! gods4 ,p]haps ! mo/ int]e/+ ( !       
cosmogonic my?s 0 t :i* conceiv$ t      
,nuit1 ! goddess ( night1 _h be5 torn f 
! arms ( h] husb&1 ,sibu ! e>?-god1 &   
elevat$ to ! sky despite h] prote/s & h]
 husb&'s /ruggles1 !re to rema9 support$
 by h] f\r limbs1 :i* became            
metamorphos$ into ! pill>s1 or m\nta9s1 
already m5tion$4 ,! =cible elevation (  
,nuit _h be5 effect$ on ! day ( creation
 by a new god1 ,%u1 :o came =? f !      
primeval wat]s4 ,a pa9t+ on ! mummy case
 ( "o ,betuhamon1 n[ 9 ! ,tur9 ,museum1 

illu/rates1 9 ! graphic mann] s         
*>act]i/ic ( ! ,egyptians1 ?is act (    
creation4 ,z ,masp]o7#b7 po9ts out1 !   
/ruggle ( ,sibu result$ 9 contort$      
attitudes to :i* ! irregul>ities ( !    
e>?'s surface are to be ascrib$4  ,9    
contemplat+ su* a s*eme ( cele/ial      
me*anics z t j outl9$1 "o _c avoid rais+
 ! "q z to j ! degree ( lit]alness :i* !
 ,egyptians !mselves put ^u x4 ,we "k h[
 ess5tially eye-m9d$ ! ,egyptian 01 to  
use a mod]n psy*ological phrase--t is to
 say1 h[ ess5tial to him x seem$ t all 8
 conceptions %\ld be visualiz$4 ,!      
evid5ces ( ?is are ev]y:]e3 all 8 gods 7
 made tangible2 he believ$ 9 !          
immortality ( ! s\l1 yet he c\ld n      
conceive ( su* immortality except 9     
association ) an immortal body2 he mu/  
mummify ! body ( ! dead1 else1 z he     
firmly believ$1 ! dissolution ( ! _s    
w\ld take place along ) ! dissolution ( 
! body itself4 ,8 _w 0 peopl$ ev]y:]e ) 
spirits1 b !y 7 spirits associat$ always
 ) corporeal bodies2 8 gods f\nd lodgm5t

 9 sun & moon & />s2 9 e>? & wat]2 9 !  
bodies ( reptiles & birds & mammals4 ,he
 wor%ipp$ all ( ^! ?+s3 ! sun1 ! moon1  
wat]1 e>?1 ! _s ( ! ,nile1 ! ibis1 !    
cat1 ! ram1 & apis ! bull2 b1 s f> z we 
c judge1 8 imag9ation did n rea* to !   
idea ( an absolutely incorporeal deity4 
,simil>ly 8 conception ( ! me*anism ( ! 
heav5s mu/ be a tangibly me*anical "o4  
,he mu/ ?9k ( ! />ry firmam5t z a       
sub/antial entity :i* c\ld n defy ! law 
( gravitation1 & :i*1 !re=e1 mu/ h !    
same mann] ( support z is requir$ by !  
ro( ( a h\se or temple4 ,we "k t ?is    
idea ( ! mat]iality ( ! firmam5t f\nd   
elaborate expression 9 ^? lat]          
cosmological guesses :i* 7 to dom9ate ! 
?\ght ( ,europe until ! "t ( ,newton4   
,we ne$ n d\bt1 !re=e1 t = ! ,egyptian  
?is solid vault ( ! heav5s _h a v real  
exi/5ce4 ,if n[ & !n "s dream] conceiv$ 
! great bodies ( ! firmam5t z float+ 9 a
 less mat]ial pl5um--& su* iconocla/ic  
dream]s !re are 9 all ages--no record ( 
8 mus+s has come d[n to u1 & we mu/     

freely admit t if su* ?\ghts exi/$ !y 7 
ali5 to ! "* ( ! ,egyptian m9d z a :ole4
  ,:ile ! ,egyptians conceiv$ ! heav5ly 
bodies z ! abid+-place ( v>i\s ( _!     
deities1 x does n appe> t !y practis$   
a/rology 9 ! lat] acceptance ( t ^w4    
,?is is ! m rem>kable s9ce ! conception 
( lucky & unlucky days 0 c>ri$ by !     
,egyptians to ! extremes ( absurdity4   
,"o day 0 lucky or unlucky1 says        
,erman17#c7 accord+ z a good or bad     
my?ological incid5t took place on t day4
 ,= in/ance1 ! #a/ ( ,me*ir1 on :i* day 
! sky 0 rais$1 & ! #bg? ( ,a?yr1 :5     
,horus &1 ,set conclud$ peace toge!r &  
divid$ ! _w betwe5 !m1 7 lucky days2 on 
! o!r h&1 ! #ad? ( ,tybi1 on :i* ,isis &
 ,neph?ys m\rn$ = ,osiris1 0 an unlucky 
day4 ,) ! unlucky days1 :i*1 =tunately1 
7 less 9 numb] ?an ! lucky days1 !y     
di/+ui%$ diff]5t degrees ( ill-luck4 ,"s
 7 v unlucky1 o!rs only ?reat5$         
ill-luck1 & _m1 l ! #ag? & ! #bg?       
,*oiakh1 7 p>tly good & p>tly bad       
accord+ to ! "t ( day4 ,lucky days      

might1 z a rule1 be disreg>d$4 ,at mo/ x
 might be z well to visit "s specially  
r5[n$ temple1 or to 'celebrate a joyful 
day at home1' b no p>ticul> precautions 
7 really necess>y2 &1 above all1 x 0    
said1 ':at ?\ also see/ on ! day is     
lucky4' ,x 0 q o!rwise ) ! unlucky &    
dang]\s days1 :i* impos$ s _m & su*     
great limitations on p t ^? :o wi%$ to  
be prud5t 7 always oblig$ to be> !m 9   
m9d :5 det]m9+ on any c\rse ( action4   
,c]ta9 conditions 7 easy to c>ry out4   
,music & s++ 7 to be avoid$ on ! #ad?   
,tybi1 ! day ( ! m\rn+ ( ,osiris1 & no  
"o 0 all[$ to wa% on ! #af? ,tybi2 :il/ 
! "n ( ,set might n be pron\nc$ on !    
#bd? ( ,ph>mu?i4 ,fi% 0 =bidd5 on c]ta9 
days2 & :at 0 /ill m difficult 9 a      
c\ntry s ri* 9 mice1 on ! #ab? ( ,tybi  
no m\se might be se54 ,! mo/ tiresome   
prohibitions1 h[ev]1 7 ^? :i* occurr$ n 
infrequ5tly1 namely1 ^? conc]n+ "w & go+
 out3 = in/ance1 f\r times 9 ,paophi ! p
 _h to 'd no?+ at all1' & five times to 
sit ! :ole day or half ! day 9 ! h\se2 &

 ! same rule _h to be obs]v$ ea* mon?4  
,x 0 impossible to rejoice if a *ild 0  
born on ! #bc;d ( ,?o?2 ! p>5ts knew x  
c\ld n live4 ,^? born on ! #bj? (       
,*oiakh w\ld become bl9d1 & ^? born on !
 #c;d ( ,*oiakh1 deaf4   ,,*>ms ,,&     
,,incantations  ,:]e su* conceptions z  
^! p]ta9$1 x goes )\t say+ t *>ms &     
incantations int5d$ to break ! spell ( !
 unlucky om5s 7 equally preval5t4 ,su*  
incantations consi/$ usually ( !        
recitation ( c]ta9 phrases bas$         
orig9ally1 x w\ld appe>1 ^u incid5ts 9 !
 hi/ory ( ! gods4 ,! words :i* ! god _h 
spok5 9 connection ) "s lucky incid5t   
w\ld1 x 0 ?\ght1 prove effective n[ 9   
br++ good luck to ! human supplicant--t 
is to say1 ! magician hop$ ?r\gh repeat+
 ! words ( ! god to ex]cise ! magic p[] 
( ! god4 ,x 0 ev5 possible1 ) ! aid ( ! 
magical obs]vances1 p>tly to balk fate  
itself4 ,?us ! p]son pr$e/9$ ?r\gh bir? 
on an unlucky day to die ( a s]p5t bite 
might po/pone ! "t ( ?is fateful        
visitation to extreme old age4 ,! l     

unc]ta9ty atta*$ to ^? spells :i* "o    
p]son 0 suppos$ to be able to ex]cise   
ov] ano!r4 ,x 0 held1 = example1 t if   
some?+ belong+ to an individual1 su* z a
 lock ( hair or a p>+ ( ! nails1 c\ld be
 secur$ & incorporat$ 9 a wax5 figure1  
?is figure w\ld be intimately associat$ 
) ! p]sonality ( t individual4 ,an enemy
 might ?us secure occult p[] ov] "o2 any
 indignity practis$ ^u ! wax5 figure    
w\ld result 9 l injury to its human     
prototype4 ,if ! figure 7 bruis$ or     
beat51 "s accid5t w\ld ov]take its      
d\ble2 if ! image 7 plac$ ov] a fire1 ! 
human be+ w\ld fall into a fev]1 & s on4
 ,b1 ( c\rse1 su* my/]i\s evils z ^!    
w\ld be met & combat$ by equally my/]i\s
 processes2 & s x 0 t ! entire art (    
m$ic9e 0 closely l9k$ ) magical         
practices4 ,x 0 n1 inde$1 held1 accord+ 
to ,masp]o1 t ! magical spells ( enemies
 7 ! sole s\rces ( human ailm5ts1 b "o  
c\ld nev] be sure to :at ext5t su*      
spells ent]$ into ! affliction2 & s     
closely 7 ! human activities associat$ 9

 ! m9d ( ! ,egyptian ) "o =m or ano!r ( 
occult influ5ces t purely physical      
conditions 7 at a disc\nt4 ,9 ! lat]    
times1 at any rate1 ! physician 0       
usually a prie/1 & !re 0 a close        
association betwe5 ! mat]ial & spiritual
 phases ( !rapeutics4 ,erman7#d7 tells u
 t ! foll[+ =mula _h to be recit$ at !  
prep>ation ( all m$icam5ts3 ,t ,isis    
might make free1 make free4 ,t ,isis    
might make ,horus free f all evil t 8   
bro!r ,set _h done to him :5 he slew 8  
fa!r1 ,osiris4 ,o ,isis1 great          
en*antress1 free me1 release me f all   
evil r$ ?+s1 f ! fev] ( ! god1 & ! fev] 
( ! goddess1 f dea? & dea? f pa91 & !   
pa9 :i* comes ov] me2 z ?\ ha/ fre$1 z  
?\ ha/ releas$ ?y son ,horus1 :il/ ,i   
ent] into ! fire & come =? f ! wat]1    
etc4 ,aga91 :5 ! invalid took ! m$ic9e1 
an incantation _h to be said :i* began  
?us3 ,come rem$y1 come drive x out ( my 
he>t1 out ( ^! limbs /rong 9 magic p[] )
 ! rem$y4 ,he adds3 ,!re may h be5 a few
 rationali/s among/ ! ,egyptian doctors1

 = ! numb] ( magic =mulae v>ies mu* 9 ! 
diff]5t books4 ,! book t we h specially 
tak5 = a f\ndation = ?is acc\nt (       
,egyptian m$ic9e--! great papyrus ( !   
eighte5? dyna/y edit$ by                
,eb]s7#e7--;conta9s1 = in/ance1 f> few] 
exorcisms ?an "s lat] writ+s ) simil>   
cont5ts1 probably because ! doctor :o   
compil$ ?is book ( recipes f old] s\rces
 _h v little lik+ = magic4  ,x mu/ be   
und]/ood1 h[ev]--inde$1 :at has j be5   
said implies z mu*--t ! physician by no 
means reli$ ^u incantations alone2 on ! 
contr>y1 he equipp$ himself ) an a/oni%+
 v>iety ( m$icam5ts4 ,he _h a p>ticul>  
fondness = :at ! mod]n physician speaks 
( z a %ot-gun prescription--"o conta9+ a
 great v>iety ( +r$i5ts4 ,n only did    
h]bs ( _m k9ds ent] into ?is1 b su*     
sub/ances z liz>d's blood1 ! tee? (     
sw9e1 putrid meat1 ! moi/ure f pigs'    
e>s1 boil$ horn1 & num]\s o!r ev5 m     
repell5t +r$i5ts4 ,:oev] is famili> ) ! 
=mulae employ$ by ,european physicians  
ev5 s rec5tly z ! eighte5? c5tury w note

 a /rik+ simil>ity "h4 ,erman po9ts out 
t ! mod]n ,egyptian ev5 ( ?is day holds 
closely to _m ( ! practices ( 8 remote  
ance/or4 ,9 p>ticul>1 ! efficacy ( !    
beetle z a m$ic9al ag5t has /ood ! te/ (
 ages ( practice4 ,aga9/ all k9ds (     
wit*craft1 says an anci5t =mula1 a great
 sc>abaeus beetle2 cut (f 8 head & w+s1 
boil him2 put him 9 oil & lay him out2  
!n cook 8 head & w+s1 put !m 9 snake    
fat1 boil1 & let ! pati5t dr9k !        
mixture4 ,! mod]n ,egyptian1 says       
,erman1 uses almo/ precisely ! same     
recipe1 except t ! snake fat is replac$ 
by mod]n oil4  ,9 evid5ce ( ! importance
 :i* 0 atta*$ to practical m$ic9e 9 !   
,egypt ( an e>ly day1 ! names ( sev]al  
physicians h come d[n to u f an age :i* 
has pres]v$ v few names inde$1 save ^? (
 k+s4 ,9 ref]5ce to ?is ,erman says7#f73
 ,we /ill "k ! names ( "s ( ! e>ly body 
physicians ( ?is "t2 ,se*metna'eon*1    
'*ief physician ( ! ,ph>aoh1' & ,nesm5an
 8 *ief1 ! 'sup]9t5d5t ( ! physicians ( 
! ,ph>aoh4' ,! prie/s also ( !          

lioness-head$ goddess ,se*met seem to h 
be5 fam$ = _! m$ical wisdom1 :il/ ! son 
( ?is goddess1 ! demi-god ,imhotep1 0 9 
lat] times consid]$ to be ! creator (   
m$ical k4 ,^! anci5t doctors ( ! ,new   
,empire d n seem to h improv$ ^u ! old] 
conceptions ab\t ! con/ruction ( ! human
 body4  ,z to ! actual sci5tific        
atta9m5ts ( ! ,egyptian physician1 x is 
difficult to speak ) precision4 ,despite
 ! cumb]some =mulae & ! grotesque       
incantations1 we ne$ n d\bt t a c]ta9   
practical value att5d$ 8 !rapeutics4 ,he
 practis$ almo/ pure empiricism1 h[ev]1 
& c]ta9ly x mu/ h be5 almo/ impossible  
to det]m9e :i* ones1 if any1 ( ! num]\s 
+r$i5ts ( ! prescription _h real        
efficacy4  ,! practical anatomical k ( !
 physician1 !re is e reason to believe1 
0 extremely limit$4 ,at fir/ ?\ght x    
might seem t ! practice ( embalm+ w\ld h
 l$ to ! cu/om ( dissect+ human bodies1 
& t ! ,egyptians1 z a result ( ?is1 w\ld
 h excell$ 9 ! k ( anatomy4 ,b ! actual 
results 7 r ! rev]se ( ?is4 ,embalm+ !  

dead1 x mu/ be recall$1 0 a purely      
religi\s obs]vance4 ,x took place "u !  
sup]9t5d5ce ( ! prie/s1 b s great 0 !   
rev]5ce = ! human body t ! prie/s       
!mselves 7 n p]mitt$ to make ! abdom9al 
incision :i* 0 a necess>y prelim9>y ( ! 
process4 ,?is incision1 z we are in=m$  
by bo? ,h]odotus7#g7 & ,diodorus7#h71 0 
made by a special (fic]1 ^: /atus1 if we
 may believe ! explicit /atem5t (       
,diodorus1 0 q comp>able to t ( ! mod]n 
hangman4 ,! p>as*i/as1 z he 0 call$1    
hav+ p]=m$ 8 necess>y b obnoxi\s        
function1 ) ! aid ( a %>p ,e?iopian     
/one1 retir$ ha/ily1 leav+ ! rema9+     
processes to ! prie/s4 ,^!1 h[ev]1      
conf9$ _! obs]vations to ! abdom9al     
visc]a2 "u no consid]ation did !y make  
o!r incisions 9 ! body4 ,x foll[s1      
!re=e1 t _! opportunity = anatomical    
obs]vations 0 mo/ limit$4  ,s9ce ev5 !  
necess>y mutilation inflict$ on ! corpse
 0 reg>d$ ) su* horror1 x foll[s t any?+
 9 ! way ( dissection = a less sacr$    
purpose 0 absolutely prohibit$4         

,probably ! same prohibition ext5d$ to a
 l>ge numb] ( animals1 s9ce mo/ ( ^! 7  
held sacr$ 9 "o "p ( ,egypt or ano!r4   
,moreov]1 !re is no?+ 9 :at we "k ( !   
,egyptian m9d to sugge/ ! probability t 
any ,egyptian physician w\ld make       
ext5sive anatomical obs]vations = ! love
 ( pure k4 ,all ,egyptian sci5ce is     
em95tly practical4 ,if we ?9k ( !       
,egyptian z my/]i\s1 x is because ( !   
sup]/iti\s obs]vances t we ev]y:]e      
associate ) 8 daily acts2 b ^!1 z we h  
already tri$ to make cle>1 7 really bas$
 on sci5tific obs]vations ( a k9d1 & !  
attempt at true inf]5ces f ^!           
obs]vations4 ,b :e!r or n ! ,egyptian   
physician desir$ anatomical k1 ! results
 ( 8 inquiries 7 c]ta9ly mo/ meagre4 ,! 
ess5tials ( 8 sy/em _h to d ) a s]ies ( 
vessels1 alleg$ to be tw5ty-two or      
tw5ty-f\r 9 numb]1 :i* p5etrat$ ! head &
 7 di/ribut$ 9 pairs to ! v>i\s memb]s (
 ! body1 & :i* 7 vaguely ?\ght ( z      
c>ri]s ( wat]1 air1 excretory fluids1   
etc4 ,yet back ( ?is vagu5ess1 z mu/ n  

be ov]look$1 !re 0 an all-ess5tial      
recognition ( ! he>t z ! c5tral vascul> 
organ4 ,! he>t is call$ ! beg9n+ ( all !
 memb]s4 ,its vessels1 we are told1 lead
 to all ! memb]s2 :e!r ! doctor lays 8  
f+] on ! =ehead1 on ! back ( ! head1 on 
! h&s1 on ! place ( ! /oma* 7871 on !   
arms1 or on ! feet1 ev]y:]e he meets ) !
 he>t1 because its vessels lead to all !
 memb]s47#i7 ,?is recognition ( ! pulse 
mu/ be cr$it$ to ! ,egyptian physician z
 a piece ( practical k1 9 "s measure    
(f-sett+ ! vagu5ess ( 8 anatomical      
!ories4   ,,ab/ract ,,sci5ce  ,b1 inde$1
 practical k 01 z has be5 said ov] &    
ov]1 ! ess5tial *>act]i/ic ( ,egyptian  
sci5ce4 ,yet ano!r illu/ration ( ?is is 
furni%$ u if we turn to ! m ab/ract     
dep>tm5ts ( ?\ght & inquire :at 7 !     
,egyptian attempts 9 su* a field z      
ma!matics4 ,! answ] does n t5d greatly  
to increase our admiration = ! ,egyptian
 m9d4 ,we are l$ to see1 inde$1 t !     
,egyptian m]*ant 0 able to p]=m all !   
computations necess>y to 8 craft1 b we  

are =c$ to conclude t ! k ( numb]s      
sc>cely ext5d$ beyond ?is1 & t ev5 "h ! 
me?ods ( reckon+ 7 t$i\s & cumb]some4   
,our k ( ! subject re/s l>gely ^u !     
s-call$ papyrus ,rh9d17#aj7 :i* is a    
sort ( my?ological h&-book ( ! anci5t   
,egyptians4 ,analyz+ ?is docum5t1       
,pr(essor ,erman concludes t ! k ( !    
,egyptians 0 adequate to all practical  
requirem5ts4 ,_! ma!matics taught !m h[ 
9 ! ex*ange ( bread = be] ! respective  
value 0 to be det]m9$ :5 conv]t$ into a 
quantity ( corn2 h[ to reckon ! size ( a
 field2 h[ to det]m9e h[ a giv5 quantity
 ( corn w\ld g into a gran>y ( a c]ta9  
size1 & l e-day problems4 ,yet !y 7     
oblig$ to make "s ( _! simple           
computations 9 a v r\ndab\t way4 ,x w\ld
 appe>1 = example1 t _! m5tal ari?metic 
did n enable !m to multiply by a numb]  
l>g] ?an two1 & t !y did n rea* a cle>  
conception ( complex fractional numb]s4 
,!y did1 inde$1 recognize t ea* "p ( an 
object divid$ into #aj pieces became    
#a_/aj ( t object2 !y ev5 grasp$ ! idea 

( #b_/c ?is be+ a conception easily     
visualiz$2 b !y app>5tly did n visualize
 su* a conception z #c_/aj except 9 !   
crude =m ( #a_/aj plus #a_/aj plus      
#a_/aj4 ,_! entire idea ( division seems
 defective4 ,!y view$ ! subject f ! m   
elem5t>y /&-po9t ( multiplication4 ,?us1
 9 ord] to f9d out h[ _m times #g is    
conta9$ 9 #gg1 an exi/+ example %[s t ! 
numb]s repres5t+ #a times #g1 #b times  
#g1 #d times #g1 #h times #g 7 set d[n  
successively & v>i\s exp]im5tal         
additions made to f9d out :i* sets ( ^! 
numb]s aggregat$ #gg4    --#a #g   --#b 
#ad   --#d #bh   --#h #ef  ,a l9e be=e !
 fir/1 second1 & f\r? ( ^! numb]s       
indicat$ t x is necess>y to multiply #g 
by #a plus #b plus #h--t is1 by #aa1 9  
ord] to obta9 #gg2 t is to say1 #g goes 
#aa times 9 #gg4 ,all ?is seems v       
cumb]some inde$1 yet we mu/ n ov]look ! 
fact t ! process :i* goes on 9 our own  
m9ds 9 p]=m+ su* a problem z ?is is     
precisely simil>1 except t we h le>n$ to
 slur ov] c]ta9 ( ! int]m$iate /eps ) ! 

aid ( a memoriz$ multiplication table4  
,9 ! la/ analysis1 division is only !   
obv]se side ( multiplication1 & any "o  
:o has n le>n$ 8 multiplication table is
 r$uc$ to "s su* exp$i5t z t ( !        
,egyptian4 ,inde$1 :5ev] we pass beyond 
! range ( our memoriz$ multiplication   
table-:i* = mo/ ( u ends ) ! twelves--! 
exp]im5tal "* ( ! trial multiplication  
?r\gh :i* division is f9ally effect$    
does n s greatly diff] f ! exp]im5tal   
ef=ts :i* ! ,egyptian 0 oblig$ to apply 
to small] numb]s4  ,despite 8 defective 
compreh5sion ( fractions1 ! ,egyptian 0 
able to "w out problems ( relative      
complexity2 = example1 he c\ld det]m9e !
 answ] ( su* a problem z ?is3 a numb]   
toge!r ) its fif? "p makes #ba2 :at is !
 numb]8 ,! process by :i* ! ,egyptian   
solv$ ?is problem seems v cumb]some to  
any "o = :om a rudim5t>y k ( algebra    
makes x simple1 yet ! me?od :i* we      
employ diff]s only 9 t we are enabl$1   
?anks to our hypo!tical x1 to make a    
%ort cut1 & ! ess5tial fact mu/ n be    

ov]look$ t ! ,egyptian rea*$ a correct  
solution ( ! problem4 ,) all due desire 
to give cr$it1 h[ev]1 ! fact rema9s t ! 
,egyptian 0 b a crude ma!matician4 ,"h1 
z else:]e1 x is impossible to admire him
 = any high developm5t ( !oretical      
sci5ce4 ,fir/1 la/1 & all ! "t1 he 0    
practical1 & !re is no?+ to %[ t ! ?\ght
 ( sci5ce = its own sake1 = ! m]e love (
 kn[+1 ev] ent]$ 8 head4  ,9 g5]al1 !n1 
we mu/ admit t ! ,egyptian _h n         
progress$ f> 9 ! h>d way ( ab/ract ?9k+4
 ,he wor%ipp$ ev]y?+ ab\t him because he
 fe>$ ! result ( fail+ to d s4 ,he      
embalm$ ! dead le/ ! _s ( ! neglect$ "o 
might come to torm5t him4 ,eye-m9d$ z he
 01 he came to h an arti/ic s5se1 to    
love decorative effects4 ,b he let ^!   
always take prec$5ce ov] 8 s5se ( tru?2 
z1 = example1 :5 he modifi$ 8 li/s ( k+s
 at ,abydos to fit ! space :i* !        
ar*itect _h left to be fill$2 he _h no  
hi/orical s5se to %[ to him t tru? %\ld 
take prec$5ce ov] m]e decoration4 ,&    
ev]y:]e he liv$ 9 ! same happy-g-lucky  

way4 ,he lov$ p]sonal ease1 ! pleasures 
( ! table1 ! luxuries ( life1 games1    
recreations1 fe/ivals4 ,he took no he$ =
 ! morr[1 except z ! morr[ might m9i/]  
to 8 p]sonal ne$s4 ,ess5tially a s5sual 
be+1 he sc>cely conceiv$ ! mean+ ( !    
intellectual life 9 ! mod]n s5se ( !    
t]m4 ,he _h p]=ce le>n$ "s ?+s ab\t     
a/ronomy1 because ^! 7 necess>y to 8    
wor%ip ( ! gods2 ab\t practical m$ic9e1 
because ?is m9i/]$ to 8 mat]ial ne$s2   
ab\t practical ari?metic1 because ?is   
aid$ him 9 e-day affairs4 ,! b>e        
rudim5ts ( an hi/orical sci5ce may be   
said to be crudely outl9$ 9 8 defective 
li/s ( k+s4 ,b beyond ?is he did n g4   
,sci5ce z sci5ce1 & = its own sake1 0   
unkn[n to him4 ,he _h gods = all mat]ial
 functions1 & fe/ivals 9 honor ( e god2 
b !re 0 no goddess ( m]e wisdom 9 8     
pan!on4 ,! conception ( ,m9]va 0 res]v$ 
= ! creative g5ius ( ano!r p4     ,,iii4
 ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,babylonia ,,& ,,assyria 
,?r\gh\t classical antiquity ,egyptian  
sci5ce 0 fam\s4 ,we "k t ,plato sp5t "s 

ye>s 9 ,egypt 9 ! hope ( p5etrat+ !     
alleg$ my/]ies ( its fabl$ le>n+2 & !   
/ory ( ! ,egyptian prie/ :o patroniz+ly 
assur$ ,solon t ! ,greeks 7 b babes 0   
quot$ ev]y:]e )\t disapproval4 ,ev5 s   
late z ! "t ( ,augu/us1 we f9d          
,diodorus1 ! ,sicilian1 look+ back )    
v5]ation ^u ! ,ori5tal le>n+1 to :i*    
,pl9y also ref]s ) unb\nd$ respect4 ,f  
:at we h se5 ( ,egyptian sci5ce1 all ?is
 furni%es u ) a some:at /rik+ comm5t>y  
^u ! atta9m5ts ( ! ,greeks & ,romans    
!mselves4 ,to ref] at l5g? to ?is w\ld  
be to anticipate our purpose2 :at n[    
conc]ns u is to recall t all along !re 0
 ano!r nation1 or gr\p ( nations1 t     
disput$ ! palm = sci5tific atta9m5ts4   
,?is gr\p ( nations f\nd a home 9 !     
valley ( ! ,tigris & ,euphrates4 ,_! l& 
0 nam$ ,mesopotamia by ! ,greeks1       
because a l>ge "p ( x lay betwe5 ! two  
riv]s j m5tion$4 ,! peoples !mselves are
 famili> to e "o z ! ,babylonians & !   
,assyrians4 ,^! peoples 7 ( ,semitic    
/ock--alli$1 !re=e1 to ! anci5t ,hebrews

 & ,pho5icians & ( ! same racial /em ) !
 ,arameans & ,arabs4  ,! great capital (
 ! ,babylonians dur+ ! lat] p]iod ( _!  
hi/ory 0 ! fam$ city ( ,babylon itself2 
! mo/ fam\s capital ( ! ,assyrians 0    
,n9eveh1 t city to :i*1 z e ,bible-/ud5t
 w recall1 ! prophet ,jonah 0 j\rney+ :5
 he _h a mu*-exploit$ exp]i5ce1 ! record
 ( :i* =ms no "p ( sci5tific annals4 ,x 
0 ! k+s ( ,assyria1 issu+ f _! palaces 9
 ,n9eveh1 :o dom9at$ ! civilization (   
,we/]n ,asia dur+ ! heyday ( ,hebrew    
hi/ory1 & ^: de$s are s frequ5tly       
m5tion$ 9 ! ,hebrew *ronicles4 ,lat] on1
 9 ! ye> #fjf ,b4,c41 ,n9eveh 0 ov]?r[n 
by ! ,m$es7#a7 & ,babylonians4 ,! fam\s 
city 0 completely de/roy$1 nev] to be   
rebuilt4 ,babylon1 h[ev]1 ?\gh conqu]$  
subsequ5tly by ,cyrus & held 9          
subjection by ,d>ius17#b7 ! ,p]sian k+s1
 cont9u$ to hold sway z a great         
_w-capital = "s c5turies4 ,! la/ great  
hi/orical ev5t t occurr$ )9 its walls 0 
! dea? ( ,alex&] ! ,great1 :i* took     
place !re 9 ! ye> #cbb ,b4,c4  ,9 ! "t (

 ,h]odotus ! fame ( ,babylon 0 at its   
height1 & ! fa!r ( hi/ory has left u a  
mo/ ent]ta9+ acc\nt ( :at he saw :5 he  
visit$ ! wond]ful capital4 ,un=tunately1
 ,h]odotus 0 n a s*ol> 9 ! prop]        
acceptance ( ! t]m4 ,he probably _h no  
inkl+ ( ! ,babylonian language1 s !     
volum9\s records ( its lit]ature 7      
entirely %ut (f f 8 obs]vation4 ,he     
!re=e enlight5s u b little reg>d+ !     
sci5ce ( ! ,babylonians1 ?\gh 8         
obs]vations on _! practical civilization
 give u incid5tal ref]5ces ( no small   
importance4 ,some:at m detail$ ref]5ces 
to ! sci5tific atta9m5ts ( !            
,babylonians are f\nd 9 ! fragm5ts t h  
come d[n to u ( ! writ+s ( ! great      
,babylonian hi/orian1 ,b]osus17#c7 :o 0 
born 9 ,babylon ab\t #ccj ,b4,c41 & :o  
01 !re=e1 a contempor>y ( ,alex&] !     
,great4 ,b ! writ+s ( ,b]osus also1 or  
at lea/ su* p>ts ( !m z h come d[n to u1
 leave v mu* to be desir$ 9 po9t (      
explicitness4 ,!y give "s glimpses (    
,babylonian hi/ory1 & !y detail at "s   

l5g? ! /range my?ical tales ( creation t
 ent]$ into ! ,babylonian conception (  
cosmogony--details :i* f9d _! c\nt]p>t 9
 ! alli$ recitals ( ! ,hebrews4 ,b tak5 
all 9 all1 ! glimpses ( ! actual /ate ( 
,*aldean7#d7 le>n+1 z x 0 commonly      
call$1 am\nt$ to sc>cely m ?an vague    
wond]-tales4 ,no "o really knew j :at   
int]pretation to put ^u ^! tales until !
 explor]s ( ! n9ete5? c5tury _h excavat$
 ! ru9s ( ! ,babylonian & ,assyrian     
cities1 br++ to light ! relics ( _!     
wond]ful civilization4 ,b ^! relics     
=tunately includ$ va/ numb]s ( writt5   
docum5ts1 inscrib$ on tablets1 prisms1 &
 cyl9d]s ( t]ra-cotta4 ,:5              
n9ete5?-c5tury s*ol>%ip _h p5etrat$ !   
my/]ies ( ! /range script1 & f]ret$ out 
! secrets ( an unkn[n tongue1 ! _w at   
la/ 0 9 possession ( au!ntic records by 
:i* ! traditions reg>d+ ! ,babylonians &
 ,assyrians c\ld be te/$4 ,?anks to ^!  
mat]ials1 a new sci5ce commonly spok5 ( 
z ,assyriology came into be+1 & a mo/   
important *apt] ( human hi/ory 0 br\ght 

to light4 ,x became app>5t t ! ,greek   
ideas conc]n+ ,mesopotamia1 ?\gh vague 9
 ! extreme1 7 f\nd$ on fact4 ,no "o any 
long] que/ions t ! ,mesopotamian        
civilization 0 fully on a p> ) t (      
,egypt2 inde$1 x is r held t sup]iority 
lay ) ! ,asiatics4 ,c]ta9ly1 9 po9t (   
purely sci5tific atta9m5ts1 !           
,babylonians pass$ some:at beyond _!    
,egyptian competitors4 ,all ! evid5ce   
seems to sugge/ also t ! ,babylonian    
civilization 0 ev5 m anci5t ?an t (     
,egypt4 ,! precise dates are "h 9       
dispute2 nor = our pres5t purpose ne$ !y
 greatly conc]n u4 ,b !                 
,assyrio-,babylonian records h mu*      
great] hi/orical accuracy z reg>ds      
matt]s ( *ronology ?an h ! ,egyptian1 & 
x is believ$ t our k ( ! e>ly           
,babylonian hi/ory is c>ri$ back1 ) "s  
c]ta9ty1 to ,k+ ,s>gon ( ,agade17#e7 =  
:om ! date #chjj ,b4,c4 is g5]ally      
accept$2 :ile some:at vagu] records give
 u glimpses ( p]iods z remote z ! six?1 
p]haps ev5 ! sev5? or eigh? mill5niums  

be=e our era4  ,at a v e>ly p]iod       
,babylon itself 0 n a capital & ,n9eveh 
_h n come into exi/5ce4 ,! important    
cities1 su* z ,nippur & ,%irpurla1 7    
situat$ f>!r to ! s\?4 ,x is on ! site (
 ^! cities t ! rec5t excavations h be5  
made1 su* z ^? ( ! ,univ]sity (         
,p5nsylvania exp$itions at ,nippur17#f7 
:i* are giv+ u glimpses into remot]     
recesses ( ! hi/orical p]iod4  ,ev5 if  
we disreg>d ! m problematical e>ly      
dates1 we are /ill conc]n$ ) ! records (
 a civilization ext5d+ unbrok5 ?r\gh\t a
 p]iod ( ab\t f\r ?\s& ye>s2 ! actual   
p]iod is 9 all probability twice or     
?rice t4 ,naturally en\gh1 ! curr5t (   
hi/ory is n an unbrok5 /ream ?r\gh\t ?is
 long epo*4 ,x appe>s t at lea/ two     
utt]ly diff]5t e?nic elem5ts are        
involv$4 ,a prepond]ance ( evid5ce seems
 to %[ t ! e>lie/ civiliz$ inhabitants (
 ,mesopotamia 7 n ,semitic1 b an ali5   
race1 :i* is n[ commonly spok5 ( z      
,sum]ian4 ,?is p1 ( :om we cat* glimpses
 *iefly ?r\gh ! records ( its           

successors1 appe>s to h be5 subjugat$ or
 ov]?r[n by ,semitic invad]s1 :o1 com+  
p]haps f ,arabia 7_! orig9 is 9         
dispute71 took possession ( ! region ( !
 ,tigris & ,euphrates1 le>n$ f !        
,sum]ians _m ( ! useful arts1 &1 p>tly  
p]haps because ( _! mix$ l9eage1 7      
enabl$ to develop ! mo/ wond]ful        
civilization ( antiquity4 ,c\ld we      
analyze ! details ( ?is civilization f  
its e>lie/ to its late/ p]iod we %\ld ( 
c\rse f9d ! same *anges :i* always att5d
 racial progress & decay4 ,we %\ld !n be
 able1 no d\bt1 to speak ( c]ta9 gold5  
epo*s & _! p]iods ( decl9e4 ,to a c]ta9 
meagre ext5t we are able to d ?is n[4   
,we "k1 = example1 t ,k+ ,khammurabi1 :o
 liv$ ab\t #bbjj ,b4,c41 0 a great      
law-giv]1 ! anci5t prototype ( ,ju/9ian2
 & ! epo*s ( su* ,assyrian k+s z ,s>gon 
,,ii41 ,as%urnazirpal1 ,s5na*]ib1 &     
,as%urbanapal /& out ) mu* di/9ctness4  
,yet1 z a :ole1 ! record does n enable u
 to trace ) cle>ness ! progress (       
sci5tific ?\ght4 ,at be/ we c ga9 few]  

glimpses 9 ?is direction ?an 9 almo/ any
 o!r1 = x is ! record ( w> & conque/ r  
?an ( ! peaceful arts t comm&$ !        
att5tion ( ! anci5t scribe4 ,s 9 deal+ )
 ! sci5tific a*ievem5ts ( ^! peoples1 we
 %all p]=ce consid] _! v>i$             
civilizations z a unity1 & attempt1 z   
be/ we may1 to summ>ize _! a*ievem5ts z 
a :ole4 ,= ! mo/ "p1 we %all n attempt  
to discrim9ate z to :at %>e 9 ! f9al    
product 0 due to ,sum]ian1 :at to       
,babylonian1 & :at to ,assyrian4 ,we    
%all speak ( ,babylonian sci5ce z       
includ+ all ^! elem5ts2 & draw+ our     
in=mation *iefly f ! relatively late    
,assyrian & ,babylonian s\rces1 :i*1    
!re=e1 repres5t ! culm9at+ a*ievem5ts ( 
all ^! ages ( ef=t1 we %all attempt to  
discov] :at 0 ! actual /atus (          
,mesopotamian sci5ce at its climax4 ,9 s
 f> z we succe$1 we %all be able to     
judge :at sci5tific h]itage ,europe     
receiv$ f ! ,ori5t2 = 9 ! records (     
,babylonian sci5ce we h to d ) ! ,ea/]n 
m9d at its be/4 ,let u turn to !        

specific inquiry z to ! a*ievem5ts ( !  
,*aldean sci5ti/ ^: fame s dazzl$ ! eyes
 ( 8 contempor>ies ( ! classic _w4      
,,babylonian ,,a/ronomy  ,our fir/      
conc]n naturally is a/ronomy1 ?is be+   
"h1 z 9 ,egypt1 ! fir/-born & ! mo/     
important ( ! sci5ces4 ,! fame ( !      
,*aldean a/ronom] 0 inde$ :at *iefly    
comm&$ ! admiration ( ! ,greeks1 & x 0  
?r\gh ! results ( a/ronomical           
obs]vations t ,babylonia transmitt$ h]  
mo/ important influ5ces to ! ,we/]n _w4 
,our division ( "t is ( ,babylonian     
orig91 says ,hornmel27#g7 to ,babylonia 
we owe ! week ( sev5 days1 ) ! names ( !
 planets = ! days ( ! week1 & ! division
 into h\rs & mon?s4 ,h5ce ! almo/       
p]sonal int]e/ :i* we ( to-day mu/ ne$s 
feel 9 ! ef=ts ( ! ,babylonian />-gaz]4 
,x mu/ n be suppos$1 h[ev]1 t ! ,*aldean
 a/ronom] _h made any v extraord9>y     
advances ^u ! k ( ! ,egyptian wat*]s ( !
 night4 ,aft] all1 x requir$ pati5t     
obs]vation r ?an any peculi> g5ius 9 !  
obs]v] to note 9 ! c\rse ( "t su* broad 

a/ronomical conditions z ! regul>ity ( !
 moon's phases1 & ! relation ( ! lun>   
p]iods to ! long] p]iodical oscillations
 ( ! sun4 ,nor c\ld ! curi\s w&]+s ( !  
planets escape ! att5tion ( ev5 a       
mod]ately ke5 obs]v]4 ,! *ief di/9ction 
betwe5 ! ,*aldean & ,egyptian a/ronom]s 
appe>s to h consi/$ 9 ! relative        
importance !y atta*$ to v>i\s ( !       
ph5om5a :i* !y bo? obs]v$4 ,! ,egyptian1
 z we h se51 c5tr$ 8 att5tion ^u ! sun4 
,t lum9>y 0 ! abode ( "o ( 8 mo/        
important gods4 ,8 wor%ip 0 ess5tially  
sol>4 ,! ,babylonian1 on ! o!r h&1      
appe>s to h be5 peculi>ly impress$ ) !  
importance ( ! moon4 ,he c\ld n1 (      
c\rse1 ov]look ! att5tion-compell+ fact 
( ! sol> ye>2 b 8 unit ( "t 0 ! lun>    
p]iod ( ?irty days1 & 8 ye> consi/$ (   
twelve lun> p]iods1 or #cfj days4 ,he 0 
p]fectly aw>e1 h[ev]1 t ?is p]iod did n 
co9cide ) ! actual ye>2 b ! relative    
unimportance :i* he ascrib$ to ! sol>   
ye> is evid5c$ by ! fact t he int]polat$
 an add$ mon? to adju/ ! cal5d> only    

once 9 six ye>s4 ,inde$1 x w\ld appe> t 
! ,babylonians & ,assyrians did n adopt 
precisely ! same me?od ( adju/+ !       
cal5d>1 s9ce ! ,babylonians _h two      
int]cul> mon?s call$ ,elul & ,ad>1 :]eas
 ! ,assyrians _h only a s+le su* mon?1  
call$ ! second ,ad>47#h7 7,! ,ve',ad> ( 
! ,hebrews47 ,?is div]sity fur!r        
emphasizes ! fact t x 0 ! lun> p]iod :i*
 receiv$ *ief att5tion1 ! adju/m5t ( ?is
 p]iod ) ! sol> seasons be+ a necess>y  
exp$i5t ( second>y importance4 ,x is    
held t ^! lun> p]iods h (t5 be5 made to 
d s]vice = ye>s 9 ! ,babylonian         
computations & 9 ! alli$ computations ( 
! e>ly ,hebrews4 ,! lives ( ! ,hebrew   
patri>*s1 = example1 z record$ 9 !      
,bible1 are p]haps reckon$ 9 lun> ye>s4 
,divid$ by twelve1 ! ye>s ( ,me?uselah  
accord fairly ) ! usual exp]i5ce (      
mank9d4  ,yet1 on ! o!r h&1 ! conv5i5ce 
( ! sol> ye> 9 comput+ long p]iods ( "t 
0 n unrecogniz$1 s9ce ?is p]iod is      
utiliz$ 9 reckon+ ! reigns ( ! ,assyrian
 k+s4 ,x may be add$ t ! reign ( a k+ 0 

n reckon$ f ! day ( 8 accession1 b f !  
,assyrian new ye>'s day1 ei!r be=e or   
aft] ! day ( accession4 ,!re does n     
appe> to h be5 any fix$ rule z to :i*   
new ye>'s day %\ld be *os52 b f ! numb] 
( kn[n cases1 x appe>s to h be5 ! g5]al 
practice to c\nt ! reign+ ye>s f ! new  
ye>'s day ne>e/ ! accession1 & to call !
 p]iod betwe5 ! accession day & ! fir/  
new ye>'s day '! beg9n+ ( ! reign1' :5 !
 ye> f ! new ye>'s day 0 call$ ! fir/   
ye>1 & ! foll[+ ones 7 br\ght           
successively f x4 ,not)/&+1 9 ! dates ( 
sev]al ,assyrian & ,babylonian sov]eigns
 !re are cases ( ! ye> ( accession be+  
consid]$ z ! fir/ ye>1 ?us giv+ two     
reckon+s = ! reigns ( v>i\s mon>*s1     
among o!rs1 ,%almanes]1 ,s5na*]ib1      
,nebu*adrezz>47#i7 ,?is unc]ta9ty z to !
 ye>s ( reckon+ aga9 emphasizes ! fact t
 ! sol> ye> did n h = ! ,assyrian       
*ronology q ! same significance t x has 
= u4  ,! ,assyrian mon? comm5c$ on !    
ev5+ :5 ! new moon 0 fir/ obs]v$1 or1 9 
case ! moon 0 n visible1 ! new mon? />t$

 ?irty days aft] ! la/ mon?4 ,s9ce !    
actual lun> p]iod is ab\t tw5ty-n9e &   
"o-half days1 a practical adju/m5t 0    
requir$ betwe5 ! mon?s !mselves1 & ?is 0
 probably effect$ by c\nt+ alt]nate     
mon?s z ,only #bi days 9 l5g?4 ,mr4 ,r4 
,campbell ,?ompson7#aj7 is l$ by 8      
/udies ( ! a/rological tablets to       
emphasize ?is fact4 ,he believes t !    
object ( ! a/rological reports :i*      
relat$ to ! appe>ance ( ! moon & sun 0  
to help det]m9e & =etell ! l5g? ( ! lun>
 mon?4 ,mr4 ,?ompson believes also t !re
 is evid5ce to %[ t ! int]cul>y mon? 0  
add$ at a p]iod less ?an six ye>s4 ,9   
po9t ( fact1 x does n appe> to be q     
cle>ly e/abli%$ z to precisely h[ !     
adju/m5t ( days ) ! lun> mon?s1 & lun>  
mon?s ) ! sol> ye>1 0 effect$4 ,x is    
cle>1 h[ev]1 accord+ to ,smi?1 t ! fir/ 
#bh days ( e mon? 7 divid$ into f\r     
weeks ( sev5 days ea*2 ! sev5?1 f\rte5?1
 tw5ty-fir/1 tw5ty-eigh? days           
respectively be+ ,sabba?s1 & t !re 0 a  
g5]al prohibition ( "w on ^! days4 ,"h1 

( c\rse1 is ! f\ndation ( ! ,hebrew     
sy/em ( ,sabbatical days :i* we h       
inh]it$4 ,! sacr$ness ( ! numb] sev5    
itself--! belief 9 :i* has n be5 q %ak5 
(f ev5 to ?is day--0 d$uc$ by !         
,assyrian a/ronom] f 8 obs]vation ( !   
sev5 planet>y bodies--namely1 ,s9 7!    
moon71 ,samas 7! sun71 ,umunpawddu      
7,jupit]71 ,dilbat 7,v5us71 ,kaimanu    
7,saturn71 ,gudud 7,m]cury71            
,mu/ab>ru-mutanu 7,m>s747#aa7 ,twelve   
lun> p]iods1 mak+ up approximately !    
sol> ye>1 gave peculi> importance to !  
numb] twelve also4 ,?us ! zodiac 0      
divid$ into twelve signs :i* a/ronom]s (
 all subsequ5t times h cont9u$ to       
recognize2 & ! duodecimal sy/em ( c\nt+ 
took prec$5ce ) ! ,babylonian           
ma!maticians ov] ! m primitive &1 z x   
seems to u1 m satisfactory decimal      
sy/em4  ,ano!r discrepancy betwe5 !     
,babylonian & ,egyptian ye>s appe>s 9 ! 
fact t ! ,babylonian new ye> dates f    
ab\t ! p]iod ( ! v]nal equ9ox & n f !   
sol/ice4 ,locky] associates ?is ) ! fact

 t ! p]iodical inundation ( ! ,tigris & 
,euphrates occurs ab\t ! equ9octial     
p]iod1 :]eas1 z we h se51 ! ,nile flood 
comes at ! "t ( ! sol/ice4 ,x is b      
natural t s important a ph5om5on z !    
,nile flood %\ld make a /rong impression
 ^u ! m9ds ( a p liv+ 9 a valley4 ,!    
fact t occasional excessive inundations 
h l$ to mo/ disa/r\s results is evid5c$ 
9 ! incorporation ( /ories ( ! almo/    
total de/ruction ( mank9d by su* floods 
among ! my? tales ( all peoples :o      
reside 9 valley c\ntries4 ,! flood+ ( ! 
,tigris & ,euphrates _h n1 x is true1 q 
! same significance = ! ,mesopotamians t
 ! ,nile flood _h = ! ,egyptians4       
,nev]!less x 0 a mo/ important ph5om5on1
 & may v readily be imag9$ to h be5 !   
mo/ tangible index to ! seasons4 ,b 9   
recogniz+ ! "t ( ! inundations & ! v]nal
 equ9ox1 ! ,assyrians did n de?rone !   
moon f its accu/om$ prec$5ce1 = ! ye> 0 
reckon$ z comm5c+ n precisely at ! v]nal
 equ9ox1 b at ! new moon next be=e !    
equ9ox4   ,,a/rology  ,beyond m>k+ !    

seasons1 ! *ief int]e/s t actuat$ !     
,babylonian a/ronom] 9 8 obs]vations 7  
a/rological4 ,aft] quot+ ,diodorus to ! 
effect t ! ,babylonian prie/s obs]v$ !  
position ( c]ta9 />s 9 ord] to ca/      
horoscopes1 ,?ompson tells u t f a v    
e>ly day ! v "n ,*aldean became         
synonym\s ) magician4 ,he adds t f      
,mesopotamia1 by way ( ,greece & ,rome1 
a c]ta9 am\nt ( ,babylonian a/rology    
made its way among ! nations ( ! we/1 & 
x is q probable t _m sup]/itions :i* we 
commonly record z ! peculi> product (   
we/]n civilization took _! orig9 f ^? ( 
! e>ly dwell]s on ! alluvial l&s (      
,mesopotamia4 ,"o ,assurbanipal1 k+ (   
,assyria ,b4,c4 #ffh-fbf1 add$ to !     
royal libr>y at ,n9eveh 8 contribution (
 tablets1 :i* includ$ _m s]ies (        
docum5ts :i* relat$ exclusively to !    
a/rology ( ! anci5t ,babylonians1 :o 9  
turn _h borr[$ x ) modifications f !    
,sum]ian invad]s ( ! c\ntry4 ,among ^!  
mu/ be m5tion$ ! s]ies :i* 0 commonly   
call$ '! ,day ( ,bel1' & :i* 0 decre$ by

 ! le>n$ to h be5 writt5 9 ! "t ( !     
great ,s>gon ,i41 k+ ( ,agade1 #chjj    
,b4,c4 ,) su* anci5t works z ^! to guide
 !m1 ! pr(ession ( d$uc+ om5s f daily   
ev5ts rea*$ su* a pit* ( importance 9 ! 
la/ ,assyrian ,empire t a sy/em ( mak+  
p]iodical reports came into be+4 ,by ^! 
! k+ 0 in=m$ ( all ! occurr5ces 9 !     
heav5s & on e>?1 & ! results (          
a/rological /udies 9 respect to aft]    
ev5ts4 ,! heads ( ! a/rological         
pr(ession 7 m5 ( high rank & position1 &
 _! (fice 0 h]$it>y4 ,! v>iety (        
in=mation conta9$ 9 ^! reports is be/   
ga!r$ f ! fact t !y 7 s5t f cities z f> 
remov$ f ea* o!r z ,assur 9 ! nor? &    
,ere* 9 ! s\?1 & x c only be assum$ t !y
 7 despat*$ by runn]s1 or m5 m\nt$ on   
swift horses4 ,z reports also came f    
,dilbat1 ,kutba1 ,nippur1 & ,bursippa1  
all cities ( anci5t f\ndation1 ! k+ 0   
probably well acqua9t$ ) ! g5]al c\rse (
 ev5ts 9 8 empire47#ab7  ,f c]ta9       
passages 9 ! a/rological tablets1       
,?ompson draws ! int]e/+ conclusion t ! 

,*aldean a/ronom]s 7 acqua9t$ ) "s k9d (
 a ma*9e = reckon+ "t4 ,he f9ds 9 "o ( !
 tablets a phrase :i* he int]prets to   
mean measure-gov]nor1 & he inf]s f ?is !
 exi/5ce ( a k9d ( a calculator4 ,he    
calls att5tion also to ! fact t ,sextus 
,empiricus7#ac7 /ates t ! clepsydra 0   
kn[n to ! ,*aldeans1 & t ,h]odotus      
ass]ts t ! ,greeks borr[$ c]ta9 measures
 ( "t f ! ,babylonians4 ,he f9ds fur!r  
corroboration 9 ! fact t ! ,babylonians 
_h a "t-measure by :i* !y divid$ ! day &
 ! night2 a measure call$ kasbu1 :i*    
conta9$ two h\rs4 ,9 a report relat+ to 
! day ( ! v]nal equ9ox1 x is /at$ t !re 
are six kasbu ( ! day & six kasbu ( !   
night4  ,:ile ! a/rolog]s d$uc$ _! om5s 
f all ! cele/ial bodies kn[n to !m1 !y  
*iefly gave att5tion to ! moon1 not+ )  
great c>e ! %ape ( its horns1 & d$uc+   
su* a conclusion z t if ! horns are     
po9t$ ! k+ w ov]come :atev] he gore?1 & 
t :5 ! moon is l[ at its appe>ance1 !   
submission 7( ! p7 ( a f> c\ntry w      
come47#ad7 ,! relations ( ! moon & sun 7

 a s\rce ( con/ant obs]vation1 x be+    
not$ :e!r ! sun & moon 7 se5 toge!r     
above ! horizon2 :e!r "o set z ! o!r    
rose1 & ! l4 ,& :atev] ! ph5om5a1 !re 0 
always1 ( c\rse1 a direct association   
betwe5 su* ph5om5a & ! well-be+ ( human 
k9d--9 p>ticul> ! k+1 at ^: in/ance1 &  
d\btless at ^: exp5se1 ! obs]vations 7  
c>ri$ out4  ,f om5s associat$ ) !       
heav5ly bodies x is b a /ep to om5s bas$
 ^u o!r ph5om5a ( nature1 & we1 %all see
 9 a mom5t t ! ,babylonian prophets made
 free use ( _! opportunities 9 ?is      
direction also4 ,b be=e we turn f !     
field ( a/ronomy1 x w be well to in=m   
ourselves z to :at sy/em ! ,*aldean     
a/ronom] _h inv5t$ 9 explanation ( !    
me*anics ( ! univ]se4 ,our answ] to ?is 
inquiry is n q z def9ite z c\ld be      
desir$1 ! vagu5ess ( ! records1 no d\bt1
 co9cid+ ) ! l vagu5ess 9 ! m9ds ( !    
,*aldeans !mselves4 ,s f> z we c        
int]pret ! some:at my/ical ref]5ces t h 
come d[n to u1 h[ev]1 ! ,babylonian     
cosmology w\ld seem to h repres5t$ ! e>?

 z a circul> plane surr\nd$ by a great  
circul> riv]1 beyond :i* rose an        
impregnable b>ri] ( m\nta9s1 & re/+ ^u  
an inf9ite sea ( wat]s4 ,! mat]ial vault
 ( ! heav5s 0 suppos$ to f9d support ^u 
! outly+ circle ( m\nta9s4 ,b ! precise 
me*anism ?r\gh :i* ! obs]v$ revolution (
 ! heav5ly bodies 0 effect$ rema9s "h1 z
 ) ! ,egyptian cosmology1 some:at       
conjectural4 ,! simple fact w\ld appe>  
to be t1 = ! ,*aldeans z = ! ,egyptians1
 despite _! mo/ c>eful obs]vations ( !  
tangible ph5om5a ( ! heav5s1 no really  
satisfactory me*anical conception ( !   
cosmos 0 atta9able4 ,we %all see 9 due  
c\rse by :at falt]+ /eps ! ,european    
imag9ation advanc$ f ! crude ideas (    
,egypt & ,babylonia to ! relatively cle>
 vision ( ,newton & ,laplace4           
,,*aldean ,,magic  ,we turn n[ f ! field
 ( ! a/rolog] to ! closely alli$ prov9ce
 ( ,*aldean magic--a prov9ce :i*        
includes ! o!r2 :i*1 inde$1 is s        
all-encompass+ z sc>cely to leave any   
phase ( ,babylonian ?\ght outside its   

b\nds4  ,! tablets hav+ to d ) om5s1    
exorcisms1 & ! l magic practices make up
 an a/oni%+ly l>ge proportion ( !       
,babylonian records4 ,9 view+ !m x is   
h>d to avoid ! conclusion t !           
sup]/itions :i* !y evid5c$ absolutely   
dom9at$ ! life ( ! ,babylonians ( e     
degree4 ,yet x mu/ n be =gott5 t !      
greate/ inconsi/5cies ev]y:]e exi/      
betwe5 ! sup]/iti\s beliefs ( a p & !   
practical obs]vances ( t p4 ,no o!r     
problem is s difficult = ! hi/orian z t 
:i* confronts him :5 he endeavors to    
p5etrate ! my/]ies ( an ali5 religion2 &
 :51 z 9 ! pres5t case1 ! sup]/itions   
involv$ h be5 transmitt$ f g5]ation to  
g5]ation1 _! exact practical phases z   
int]pret$ by any p>ticul> g5]ation mu/  
be some:at problematical4 ,! tablets ^u 
:i* our k ( ^! om5s is bas$ are _m ( !m 
f ! libr>ies ( ! lat] k+s ( ,n9eveh2 b !
 om5s !mselves are1 9 su* cases1        
inscrib$ 9 ! orig9al ,accadian =m 9 :i* 
!y h come d[n f remote ages1 accompani$ 
by an ,assyrian translation4 ,?us !     

sup]/itions involv$ _h back ( !m hundr$s
 ( ye>s1 ev5 ?\s&s ( ye>s1 ( prec$5t2 & 
we ne$ n d\bt t ! ideas ) :i* !y are    
associat$ 7 int]wov5 ) almo/ e ?\ght &  
de$ ( ! life ( ! p4 ,pr(essor ,sayce    
assures u t ! ,assyrians & ,babylonians 
c\nt$ no few] ?an ?ree hundr$ spirits ( 
heav51 & six hundr$ spirits ( e>?4 ,l ! 
,jews ( ! ,talmud1 he says1 !y believ$ t
 ! _w 0 sw>m+ ) noxi\s spirits1 :o      
produc$ ! v>i\s diseases to :i* man is  
liable1 & might be swall[$ ) ! food &   
dr9k :i* support life4 ,fox ,talbot 0   
incl9$ to believe t exorcisms 7 !       
exclusive means us$ to drive away !     
torm5t+ spirits4 ,?is seems unlikely1   
consid]+ ! uni=m association ( drugs ) !
 magical practices among _! p4 ,yet !re 
is c]ta9ly a /range sil5ce ( ! tablets 9
 reg>d to m$ic9e4 ,talbot tells u t     
sometimes div9e images 7 br\ght into !  
sick-*amb]1 & writt5 texts tak5 f holy  
books 7 plac$ on ! walls & b\nd ar\nd ! 
sick man's memb]s4 ,if ^! fail$1 rec\rse
 0 _h to ! influ5ce ( ! mamit1 :i* !    

evil p[]s 7 unable to resi/4 ,on a      
tablet1 writt5 9 ! ,accadian language   
only1 ! ,assyrian v]sion be+ tak51      
h[ev]1 0 f\nd ! foll[+3    #a4 ,take a  
:ite clo?4 ,9 x place ! mamit1   #b4 9 !
 sick man's "r h&4   #c4 ,take a black  
clo?1   #d4 wrap x ar\nd 8 left h&4     
#e4 ,!n all ! evil spirits 7a long li/ (
 !m is giv57   #f4 & ! s9s :i* he has   
committ$   #g4 %all quit _! hold ( him  
#h4 & %all nev] return4   ,! symbolism (
 ! black clo? 9 ! left h& seems evid5t4 
,! dy+ man rep5ts ( 8 =m] evil de$s1 &  
he puts 8 tru/ 9 hol9ess1 symboliz$ by !
 :ite clo? 9 8 "r h&4 ,!n foll[ "s      
obscure l9es ab\t ! spirits3    #a4 ,_! 
heads %all remove f 8 head4   #b4 ,_!   
heads %all let g 8 h&s4   #c4 ,_! feet  
%all dep>t f 8 feet4  ,:i* p]haps may be
 expla9$ ?us3 we le>n f ano!r tablet t !
 v>i\s classes ( evil spirits tr\bl$    
diff]5t p>ts ( ! body2 "s injur$ ! head1
 "s ! h&s & ! feet1 etc41 !re=e !       
passage be=e may mean ! spirits ^: p[]  
is ov] ! h& %all loose _! h&s f 81 etc4 

,b1 concludes ,talbot1 ,i c (f] no      
decid$ op9ion ^u su* obscure po9ts ( _! 
sup]/ition47#ae7  ,9 reg>d to evil      
spirits1 z else:]e1 ! numb] sev5 _h a   
peculi> significance1 x be+ held t t    
numb] ( spirits might ent] into a man   
toge!r4 ,talbot has translat$7#af7 a    
wild *ant :i* he names ,! ,song ( !     
,sev5 ,spirits4    #a4 ,!re are sev56   
,!re are sev56   #b4 ,9 ! dep?s ( !     
ocean !re are sev56   #c4 ,9 ! heights (
 ! heav5 !re are sev56   #d4 ,9 ! ocean 
/ream 9 a palace !y 7 born4   #e4 ,male 
!y are n3 female !y are n6   #f4 ,wives 
!y h n6 ,*ildr5 are n born to !m6   #g4 
,rules !y h n6 ,gov]nm5t !y "k n6   #h4 
,pray]s !y he> n6   #i4 ,!re are sev56  
,!re are sev56 ,twice ov] !re are sev56 
,! tablets make frequ5t allusion to ^!  
sev5 spirits4 ,"o />ts ?us3    #a4 ,!   
god 7---7 %all /& by 8 b$side2   #b4 ,^!
 sev5 evil spirits he %all root out &   
%all expel !m f 8 body1  #c4 & ^! sev5  
%all nev] return to ! sick man          
aga947#ag7   ,altoge!r simil> are !     

exorcisms int5d$ to w>d (f disease4     
,pr(essor ,sayce has publi%$            
translations ( "s ( ^!47#ah7 ,ea* ( ^!  
ends ) ! same phrase1 & !y diff] only 9 
reg>d to ! p>ticul> maladies f :i*      
fre$om is desir$4 ,"o reads3  ,f wa/+1 f
 want ( heal?1 f ! evil _s ( ! ulc]1 f !
 spread+ qu9sy ( ! gullet1 f ! viol5t   
ulc]1 f ! noxi\s ulc]1 may ! k+ ( heav5 
pres]ve1 may ! k+ ( e>? pres]ve4  ,ano!r
 is phras$ ?us3  ,f ! cruel _s ( ! head1
 f ! /rong _s ( ! head1 f ! head _s t   
dep>ts n1 f ! head _s t comes n =?1 f ! 
head _s t w n g1 f ! noxi\s head _s1 may
 ! k+ ( heav5 pres]ve1 may ! k+ ( e>?   
pres]ve4  ,z to om5s hav+ to d ) !      
affairs ( ev]yday life ! numb] is       
legion4 ,= example1 ,mopp]t has publi%$1
 9 ! ,j\rnal ,asiatique17#ai7 !         
translation ( a tablet :i* conta9s on   
its two sides sev]al scores (           
bir?-port5ts1 a few ( :i* maybe quot$ at
 r&om3  ,:5 a woman be>s a *ild & x has 
! e>s ( a lion1 a /rong k+ is 9 !       
c\ntry4 ,:5 a woman be>s a *ild & x has 

a bird's beak1 t c\ntry is oppress$4 ,:5
 a woman be>s a *ild & its "r h& is     
want+1 t c\ntry goes to de/ruction4 ,:5 
a woman be>s a *ild & its feet are      
want+1 ! roads ( ! c\ntry are cut2 t    
h\se is de/roy$4 ,:5 a woman be>s a *ild
 & at ! "t ( its bir? its be>d is gr[n1 
floods are 9 ! c\ntry4 ,:5 a woman be>s 
a *ild & at ! "t ( its bir? its m\? is  
op5 & speaks1 !re is pe/il5ce 9 !       
c\ntry1 ! ,air-god inundates ! crops ( !
 c\ntry1 injury 9 ! c\ntry is caus$4    
,"s ( ^! port5ts1 x w be obs]v$1 are n 9
 mu* dang] ( realization1 & x is curi\s 
to surmise by :at /ret* ( ! imag9ation  
!y c h be5 inv5t$4 ,!re is1 = example1  
on ! same tablet j quot$1 "o ref]5ce :i*
 assures u t :5 a %eep be>s a lion !    
=ces m>* multitud9\sly2 ! k+ has n a    
rival4 ,!re are o!r om5s1 h[ev]1 t are s
 easy ( realization z to lead "o to     
suppose t any ,babylonian :o reg>d$ all 
! sup]/iti\s signs mu/ h be5 9 con/ant  
t]ror4 ,?us a tablet translat$ by       
,pr(essor ,sayce7#bj7 gives a long li/ (

 om5s furni%$ by dogs1 9 :i* we are     
assur$ t3    #a4 ,if a yell[ dog ent]s  
into ! palace1 exit f t      palace w be
 baleful4   #b4 ,if a dog to ! palace   
goes1 & on a ?rone lies d[n1 t          
palace is burn$4   #c4 ,if a black dog  
into a temple ent]s1 ! f\ndation ( t    
temple is n /able4   #d4 ,if female dogs
 "o litt] be>1 de/ruction to ! city4  ,x
 is ne$less to cont9ue ^! citations1    
s9ce !y b reit]ate endlessly ! same     
/ory4 ,x is int]e/+ to recall1 h[ev]1 t 
! obs]vations ( animate nature1 :i* 7   
d\btless sup]/iti\s 9 _! motive1 _h giv5
 ! ,babylonians "s inkl+s ( a k (       
classification4 ,?us1 accord+ to        
,m5ant17#ba7 "s ( ! tablets f ,n9eveh1  
:i* are writt51 z usual1 9 bo? !        
,sum]ian & ,assyrian languages1 & :i*1  
!re=e1 l practically all ,assyrian      
books1 draw ^u ! k ( old ,babylonia1    
give li/s ( animals1 mak+ an attempt at 
classification4 ,! dog1 lion1 & wolf are
 plac$ 9 "o category2 ! ox1 %eep1 & goat
 9 ano!r2 ! dog family itself is divid$ 

into v>i\s races1 z ! dome/ic dog1 !    
c\rs+ dog1 ! small dog1 ! dog ( ,elan1  
etc4 ,simil> attempts at classification 
( birds are f\nd4 ,?us1 birds ( rapid   
flight1 sea-birds1 & m>%-birds are      
diff]5tiat$4 ,insects are classifi$     
accord+ to habit2 ^? t attack plants1   
animals1 clo?+1 or wood4 ,vegetables    
seem to be classifi$ accord+ to _!      
usefulness4 ,"o tablet enum]ates ! uses 
( wood accord+ to its adaptability =    
timb]-"w ( palaces1 or con/ruction (    
vessels1 ! mak+ ( implem5ts ( husb&ry1  
or ev5 furniture4 ,m9]als occupy a long 
s]ies 9 ^! tablets4 ,!y are class$      
accord+ to _! qualities1 gold & silv]   
occupy+ a division ap>t2 preci\s /ones  
=m+ ano!r s]ies4 ,our ,babylonians1 !n1 
mu/ be cr$it$ ) ! developm5t ( a        
rudim5t>y sci5ce ( natural hi/ory4      
,,babylonian ,,m$ic9e  ,we h j se5 t    
m$ical practice 9 ! ,babylonian _w 0    
/rangely "u ! cl\d ( sup]/ition4 ,b x   
%\ld be und]/ood t our e/imate1 ?r\gh   
lack ( correct data1 probably does mu*  

less ?an ju/ice to ! atta9m5ts ( !      
physician ( ! "t4 ,z already not$1 !    
exi/+ tablets *ance n to ?r[ mu* light  
on ! subject4 ,x is kn[n1 h[ev]1 t !    
practition] ( m$ic9e occupi$ a position 
( "s1 au?ority & responsibility4 ,! pro(
 ( ?is is f\nd 9 ! clauses relat+ to !  
legal /atus ( ! physician :i* are       
conta9$ 9 ! n[ fam\s code7#bb7 ( !      
,babylonian ,k+ ,khamurabi1 :o reign$   
ab\t #bcjj ye>s be=e our era4 ,^!       
clauses1 ?\gh ?r[+ no light on !        
sci5tific atta9m5ts ( ! physician ( !   
p]iod1 are too curi\s to be omitt$4 ,!y 
are clauses #bae to #bbg ( ! celebrat$  
code1 & are z foll[s3  #bae4 ,if a      
doctor has treat$ a man = a sev]e w\nd )
 a lancet ( bronze & has cur$ ! man1 or 
has op5$ a tumor ) a bronze lancet & has
 cur$ ! man's eye1 he %all receive t5   
%ekels ( silv]4  #baf4 ,if x 0 a        
fre$man1 he %all receive five %ekels (  
silv]4  #bag4 ,if x 0 a man's slave1 !  
own] ( ! slave %all give ! doctor two   
%ekels ( silv]4  #bah4 ,if a physician  

has treat$ a free-born man = a sev]e    
w\nd ) a lancet ( bronze & has caus$ !  
man to die1 or has op5$ a tumor ( ! man 
) a lancet ( bronze & has de/roy$ 8 eye1
 8 h&s "o %all cut (f4  #bai4 ,if !     
doctor has treat$ ! slave ( a fre$man = 
a sev]e w\nd ) a bronze lancet & has    
caus$ him to die1 he %all give back     
slave = slave4  #bbj4 ,if he has op5$ 8 
tumor ) a bronze lancet & has ru9$ 8    
eye1 he %all pay ! half ( 8 price 9     
money4  #bba4 ,if a doctor has cur$ !   
brok5 limb ( a man1 or has heal$ 8 sick 
body1 ! pati5t %all pay ! doctor five   
%ekels ( silv]4  #bbb4 ,if x 0 a        
fre$man1 he %all give ?ree %ekels (     
silv]4  #bbc4 ,if x 0 a man's slave1 !  
own] ( ! slave %all give two %ekels (   
silv] to ! doctor4  #bbd4 ,if ! doctor (
 ox5 & asses has treat$ an ox or an ass 
= a grave w\nd & has cur$ x1 ! own] ( ! 
ox or ! ass %all give to ! doctor z 8   
pay "o-six? ( a %ekel ( silv]4  #bbe4   
,if he has treat$ an ox or an ass = a   
sev]e w\nd & has caus$ its dea?1 he %all

 pay "o-f\r? ( its price to ! own] ( !  
ox or ! ass4  #bbf4 ,if a b>b]-surgeon1 
)\t cons5t ( ! own] ( a slave1 has br&$ 
! slave ) an indelible m>k1 "o %all cut 
(f ! h&s ( t b>b]4  #bbg4 ,if any "o    
deceive ! surgeon-b>b] & make him br& a 
slave ) an indelible m>k1 "o %all kill t
 man & bury him 9 8 h\se4 ,! b>b] %all  
swe>1 ,i did n m>k him witt+ly1 & he    
%all be guiltless4   ,,e/imates ,,(     
,,babylonian ,,sci5ce  ,be=e turn+ f !  
,ori5tal _w x is p]haps wor? :ile to    
attempt to e/imate some:at specifically 
! _w-influ5ce ( ! "n1 ,babylonian       
sci5ce4 ,p]haps we _c bett] ga9 an idea 
z to ! e/imate put ^u t sci5ce by !     
classical _w ?an ?r\gh a some:at ext5d$ 
quotation f a classical au?or4 ,diodorus
 ,siculus1 :o1 z already not$1 liv$ at  
ab\t ! "t ( ,augu/us1 & :o1 !re=e1      
scann$ 9 p]spective ! entire sweep (    
classical ,greek hi/ory1 has left u a   
/rik+ summ>y :i* is d\bly valuable      
because ( its comp>isons ( ,babylonian )
 ,greek influ5ce4 ,hav+ view$ ! sci5ce (

 ,babylonia 9 ! light ( ! int]pretations
 made possible by ! rec5t /udy ( orig9al
 docum5ts1 we are prep>$ to draw our own
 conclusions f ! /atem5ts ( ! ,greek    
hi/orian4 ,"h is 8 e/imate 9 ! words ( !
 qua9t translation made by ,philemon    
,holl& 9 ! ye> #agjj37bc7   ,!y be+ !   
mo/ anci5t ,babylonians1 hold ! same    
/ation & dignity 9 ! ,common-weal? z !  
,egyptian ,prie/s d 9 ,egypt3 ,= be+    
deput$ to ,div9e ,(fices1 !y sp5d all _!
 ,"t 9 ! /udy ( ,philosophy1 & are      
especially fam\s = ! ,art ( ,a/rology4  
,!y are mightily giv5 to ,div9ation1 &  
=etel future ,ev5ts1 & imploy !mselves  
ei!r by ,purifications1 ,sacrifices1 or 
o!r ,in*antm5ts to av]t ,evils1 or      
procure good ,=tune & ,success4 ,!y are 
skilful likewise 9 ! ,art ( ,div9ation1 
by ! fly+ ( ,birds1 & int]pret+ (       
,dreams & ,prodigies3 ,& are reput$ z   
true ,oracles 79 decl>+ :at w come to   
pass7 by _! exact & dilig5t view+ !     
,intrals ( ! ,sacrifices4 ,b !y atta9 n 
to ?is ,k 9 ! same mann] z ! ,grecians  

d2 = ! ,*aldeans le>n x by ,tradition f 
_! ,ance/ors1 ! ,son f ! ,fa!r1 :o are  
all 9 ! mean "t free f all o!r publick  
,(fices & ,att5dances2 & because _!     
,p>5ts are _! ,tutors1 !y bo? le>n e ?+ 
)\t ,envy1 & rely ) m confid5ce ^u !    
tru? ( :at is taught !m2 & be+ tra9'd up
 9 ?is ,le>n+1 f _! v ,*ildhood1 !y     
become mo/ fam\s ,philosoph]s1 7t ,age  
be+ mo/ capable ( ,le>n+1 :]e9 !y sp5d  
mu* ( _! "t74 ,b ! ,grecians = ! mo/ "p 
come raw to ?is /udy1 unfitt$ &         
unprep>'d1 & are long be=e !y atta9 to !
 ,k ( ?is ,philosophy3 ,& aft] !y h sp5t
 "s small "t 9 ?is ,/udy1 !y are _m     
times call'd (f & =c'd to leave x1 9    
ord] to get a ,livelihood & ,subsi/5ce4 
,& al?\gh "s1 few d indu/ri\sly apply   
!mselves to ,philosophy1 yet = ! sake ( 
,ga91 ^! v ,m5 are op9ionative1 & ev] & 
anon />t+ new & high ,po9ts1 & nev] fix 
9 ! /eps ( _! ,ance/ors4 ,b ! ,b>b>ians 
keep+ con/antly close to ! same ?+1     
atta9 to a p]fect & di/9ct ,k 9 e       
p>ticul>4  ,b ! ,grecians1 cunn+ly cat*+

 at all ,opportunities ( ,ga91 make new 
,sects & ,p>ties1 & by _! contr>y       
,op9ions wrangl+ & qu>ell+ conc]n+ !    
*iefe/ ,po9ts1 lead _! ,s*ol>s into a   
,maze2 & be+ unc]ta9 & d\btful :at to   
pit* ^u = c]ta9 tru?1 _! ,m9ds are      
fluctuat+ & 9 susp5ce all ! days ( _!   
,lives1 & unable to give a c]ta9 ass5t  
unto any ?+4 ,= if any ,man w b exam9e !
 mo/ em95t ,sects ( ! ,philosoph]s1 he  
%all f9d !m mu* diff]+ among !mselves1 &
 ev5 oppos+ "o ano!r 9 ! mo/ weighty    
p>ts ( _! ,philosophy4 ,b to return to !
 ,*aldeans1 !y hold t ! ,_w is et]nal1  
:i* _h nei!r any c]ta9 ,beg9n+1 nor %all
 h any ,end2 b all agree1 t all ?+s are 
ord]'d1 & ?is beautiful ,fabrick is     
support$ by a ,div9e ,provid5ce1 & t !  
,motions ( ! ,heav5s are n p]=m'd by    
*ance & ( _! own accord1 b by a c]ta9 & 
det]m9ate ,w & ,appo9tm5t ( ! ,gods4    
,!re=e f a long obs]vation ( ! ,/>s1 &  
an exact ,k ( ! motions & influ5ces ( e 
"o ( !m1 :]e9 !y excel all o!rs1 !y =tel
 _m ?+s t are to come to pass4  ,!y say 

t ! ,five ,/>s :i* "s call ,planets1 b  
!y ,int]pret]s1 are mo/ wor?y (         
,consid]ation1 bo? = _! motions & _!    
rem>kable influ5ces1 especially t :i* ! 
,grecians call ,saturn4 ,! brighte/ ( !m
 all1 & :i* (t5 port5ds _m & great      
,ev5ts1 !y call ,sol1 ! o!r ,f\r !y "n  
,m>s1 ,v5us1 ,m]cury1 & ,jupit]1 ) our  
own ,c\ntry ,a/rolog]s4 ,!y give ! ,"n (
 ,int]pret]s to ^! ,/>s1 because ^! only
 by a peculi> ,motion d port5d ?+s to   
come1 & in/ead ( ,jupit]s1 d decl>e to  
,m5 be=e-h& ! good-w ( ! ,gods2 :]eas ! 
o!r ,/>s 7n be+ ( ! numb] ( ! ,planets7 
h a con/ant ord9>y motion4 ,future      
,ev5ts 7!y say7 are po9t$ at sometimes  
by _! ,ris+1 & sometimes by _! ,sett+1 &
 at o!r times by _! ,col\r1 z may be    
exp]i5c'd by ^? t w dilig5tly obs]ve x2 
sometimes =e%ew+ ,hurricanes1 at o!r    
times ,tempe/u\s ,ra9s1 & !n aga9 exce$+
 ,dr\ghts4 ,by ^!1 !y say1 are (t5      
port5d$ ! appe>ance ( ,comets1 ,eclipses
 ( ! ,sun & ,moon1 ,e>?quakes & all o!r 
! v>i\s ,*anges & rem>kable effects 9 ! 

,air1 bod+ good & bad1 n only to        
,nations 9 g5]al1 b to ,k+s & ,private  
,p]sons 9 p>ticul>4 ,"u ! c\rse ( ^!    
,planets1 !y say are ,?irty ,/>s1 :i* !y
 call ,c\nsell+ ,gods1 half ( :om obs]ve
 :at is done "u ! ,e>?1 & ! o!r half    
take notice ( ! actions ( ,m5 ^u ! ,e>?1
 & :at is transact$ 9 ! ,heav5s4 ,once e
 ,t5 ,days space 7!y say7 "o ( ! highe/ 
,ord] ( ^! ,/>s desc5ds to !m t are ( ! 
l[e/1 l a ,mess5g] s5t f !m above2 & !n 
aga9 ano!r asc5ds f ^? bel[ to !m above1
 & t ?is is _! con/ant natural motion to
 cont9ue = ev]4 ,! *ief ( ^! ,gods1 !y  
say1 are ,twelve 9 numb]1 to ea* ( :i*  
!y attribute a ,mon?1 & "o ,sign ( !    
,twelve 9 ! ,zodiack4  ,?r\gh ^! ,twelve
 ,signs ! ,sun1 ,moon1 & ! o!r ,five    
,planets run _! ,c\rse4 ,! ,sun 9 a     
,ye>s "t1 & ! ,moon 9 ! space ( a ,mon?4
 ,to e "o ( ! ,planets !y assign _! own 
prop] ,c\rses1 :i* are p]=m'd v>i\sly 9 
less] or %ort] "t accord+ z _! sev]al   
motions are quick] or sl[]4 ,^! ,/>s1 !y
 say1 h a great influ5ce bo? z to good &

 bad 9 ,m5s ,nativities2 & f !          
consid]ation ( _! sev]al ,natures1 may  
be =ekn[n :at w befal ,m5 aft]w>ds4 ,z  
!y =etold ?+s to come to o!r ,k+s =m]ly1
 s !y did to ,alex&] :o conqu]'d ,d>ius1
 & to 8 ,successors ,antigonus &        
,seleucus ,nicator2 & accord+ly ?+s fell
 out z !y decl>'d2 :i* we %all relate   
p>ticul>ly h]eaft] 9 a m conv5i5t "t4   
,!y tell likewise private ,m5 _! ,=tunes
 s c]ta9ly1 t ^? :o h f\nd ! ?+ true by 
,exp]i5ce1 h e/eem'd x a ,miracle1 &    
above ! rea* ( man to p]=m4 ,out ( !    
,circle ( ! ,zodiack !y describe ,f\r & 
,tw5ty ,/>s1 ,twelve t[>ds ! ,nor?      
,pole1 & z _m to ! ,s\?4  ,^? :i* we    
see1 !y assign to ! liv+2 & ! o!r t d n 
appe>1 !y conceive are ,con/ellations = 
! ,dead2 & !y t]m !m ,judges ( all ?+s4 
,! ,moon1 !y say1 is 9 ! l[e/ ,orb2 &   
be+ !re=e next to ! ,e>? 7because %e is 
s small71 %e f9i%es h] ,c\rse 9 a little
 "t1 n ?r\gh ! swiftness ( h] ,motion1 b
 ! %ortness ( h] ,sphe>4 ,9 t :i* !y    
affirm 7t %e has b a borr['d light1 & t 

:5 %e is eclips'd1 x's caus'd by !      
int]position ( ! %ad[ ( ! ,e>?7 !y agree
 ) ! ,grecians4  ,_! ,rules & ,notions  
conc]n+ ! ,eclipses ( ! ,sun are b weak 
& mean1 :i* !y d>e n positively =etel1  
nor fix a c]ta9 "t = !m4 ,!y h likewise 
,op9ions conc]n+ ! ,e>? peculi> to      
!mselves1 affirm+ x to resemble a ,boat1
 & to be holl[1 to prove :i*1 & o!r ?+s 
relat+ to ! frame ( ! ,_w1 !y ab\nd 9   
,argum5ts2 b to give a p>ticul> ,acc\nt 
( 'em1 we conceive w\ld be a ?+ =eign to
 our ,hi/ory4 ,b ?is any ,man may ju/ly 
& truly say1 ,t ! ,*aldeans f> exce$ all
 o!r ,m5 9 ! ,k ( ,a/rology1 & h /udy'd 
x mo/ ( any o!r ,art or ,sci5ce3 ,b !   
numb] ( ye>s dur+ :i* ! ,*aldeans say1  
^? ( _! ,pr(ession h giv5 !mselves to ! 
/udy ( ?is natural ,philosophy1 is      
incr$ible2 = :5 ,alex&] 0 9 ,asia1 !y   
reckon'd up ,f\r ,hundr$ & ,sev5ty ,?\s&
 ,ye>s s9ce !y fir/ began to obs]ve !   
,motions ( ! ,/>s4   ,let u n[ supplem5t
 ?is e/imate ( ,babylonian influ5ce )   
ano!r e/imate writt5 9 our own day1 &   

quot$ by "o ( ! mo/ rec5t hi/orians (   
,babylonia & ,assyria47#bd7 ,! e/imate 9
 "q is t ( ,canon ,rawl9son 9 8 ,great  
,ori5tal ,mon>*ies47#be7 ,( ,babylonia  
he says3  ,h]s 0 app>5tly ! g5ius :i*   
excogitat$ an alphabet2 work$ out !     
simpl] problems ( ari?metic2 inv5t$     
implem5ts = measur+ ! lapse ( "t2       
conceiv$ ! idea ( rais+ enorm\s         
/ructures ) ! poore/ ( all mat]ials1    
clay2 discov]$ ! art ( poli%+1 bor+1 &  
engrav+ gems2 reproduc$ ) tru?fulness ! 
outl9es ( human & animal =ms2 atta9$ to 
high p]fection 9 textile fabrics2 /udi$ 
) success ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies2 
conceiv$ ( gramm> z a sci5ce2 elaborat$ 
a sy/em ( law2 saw ! value ( an exact   
*ronology--9 almo/ e bran* ( sci5ce made
 a beg9n+1 ?us r5d]+ x comp>atively easy
 = o!r nations to proce$ ) !            
sup]/ructure4444 ,x 0 f ! ,ea/1 n f     
,egypt1 t ,greece d]iv$ h] ar*itecture1 
h] sculpture1 h] sci5ce1 h] philosophy1 
h] ma!matical k--9 a ^w1 h] intellectual
 life4 ,& ,babylon 0 ! s\rce to :i* !   

entire /ream ( ,ea/]n civilization may  
be trac$4 ,x is sc>cely too mu* to say  
t1 b = ,babylon1 real civilization might
 n yet h dawn$ ^u ! e>?4   ,consid]+ t a
 p]iod ( almo/ two ?\s& ye>s sep>ates ! 
times ( writ+ ( ^! two e/imates1 !      
e/imates !mselves are s+ul>ly 9 unison4 
,!y %[ t ! greate/ ( ,ori5tal nations   
has n suff]$ 9 reputation at ! h&s (    
po/]ity4 ,x is inde$ almo/ impossible to
 contemplate ! monum5ts ( ,babylonian & 
,assyrian civilization t are n[ pres]v$ 
9 ! ,european & ,am]ican museums )\t    
becom+ en?usia/ic4 ,t c]ta9ly 0 a       
wond]ful civilization :i* has left u !  
tablets on :i* are inscrib$ ! laws ( a  
,khamurabi on ! "o h&1 & ! art treasures
 ( ! palace ( an ,as%urbanipal on ! o!r4
 ,yet a c&id consid]ation ( ! sci5tific 
atta9m5ts ( ! ,babylonians & ,assyrians 
c sc>cely ar\se u to a l en?usiasm4 ,9  
consid]+ ! subject we h se5 t1 s f> z   
pure sci5ce is conc]n$1 ! ef=ts ( !     
,babylonians & ,assyrians *iefly c5tr$  
ab\t ! subjects ( a/rology & magic4 ,) !

 records ( _! gho/-haunt$ sci5ce fre% 9 
m9d1 "o might be =giv5 = a mom5t>y      
desire to take issue ) ,canon           
,rawl9son's words4 ,we are assur$ t !   
sci5tific atta9m5ts ( ,europe are almo/ 
solely to be cr$it$ to ,babylonia & n to
 ,egypt1 b we %\ld n =get t ,plato1 !   
greate/ ( ! ,greek ?9k]s1 w5t to ,egypt 
& n to ,babylonia to pursue 8 /udies :5 
he wi%$ to p5etrate ! secrets ( ,ori5tal
 sci5ce & philosophy4 ,cle>ly1 !n1      
classical ,greece did n consid]         
,babylonia z hav+ a monopoly ( sci5tific
 k1 & we ( to-day1 :5 we attempt to     
weigh ! new evid5ce t has come to u 9   
rec5t g5]ations ) ! ,babylonian records 
!mselves1 f9d t "s1 at lea/1 ( !        
h]itages = :i* ,babylonia has be5 prais$
 are ( m ?an d\btful value4 ,babylonia1 
= example1 gave u our sev5-day week &   
our sy/em ( comput+ by twelves4 ,b      
surely ! _w c\ld h got on z well )\t t  
magic numb] sev52 & aft] "s hundr$s (   
g5]ations we are com+ to feel t !       
decimal sy/em ( ! ,egyptians has        

advantages ov] ! duodecimal sy/em ( !   
,babylonians4 ,aga91 ! ,babylonians did 
n inv5t ! alphabet2 !y did n ev5 accept 
x :5 all ! re/ ( ! _w _h recogniz$ its  
value4 ,9 gramm> & ari?metic1 z )       
a/ronomy1 !y seem$ n to h advanc$       
greatly1 if at all1 ^u ! ,egyptians4 ,"o
 field 9 :i* !y /& out 9 />tl+          
pre-em95ce is ! field ( a/rology2 b ?is1
 9 ! e/imate ( mod]n ?\ght1 is ! v      
negation ( sci5ce4 ,babylonia impress$  
h] sup]/itions on ! ,we/]n _w1 & :5 we  
consid] ! baleful influ5ce ( ^!         
sup]/itions1 we may almo/ "q :e!r we    
might n rev]se ,canon ,rawl9son's       
e/imate & say t p]haps b = ,babylonia   
real civilization1 bas$ on ! application
 ( true sci5ce1 might h dawn$ ^u ! e>? a
 score ( c5turies be=e x did4 ,yet1 aft]
 all1 p]haps ?is e/imate is unju/4      
,society1 l an individual organism1 mu/ 
creep be=e x c walk1 & p]haps !         
,babylonian exp]im5ts 9 a/rology &      
magic1 :i* ,european civilization 0     
de/9$ to copy = "s ?ree or f\r ?\s&     

ye>s1 mu/ h be5 made a "p ( ! necess>y  
evolution ( our race 9 "o place or 9    
ano!r4 ,t ?\ght1 h[ev]1 ne$ n bl9d u to 
! ess5tial fact1 :i* ! hi/orian ( sci5ce
 mu/ ne$s admit1 t = ! ,babylonian1     
despite 8 boa/$ culture1 sci5ce spell$  
sup]/ition4     ,,iv4 ,,! ,,developm5t  
,,( ,,! ,,alphabet  ,be=e we turn       
specifically to ! new _w ( ! we/1 x     
rema9s to take note ( :at may p]haps be 
reg>d$ z ! v greate/ a*ievem5t ( anci5t 
sci5ce4 ,?is 0 ! analysis ( spee* s\nds1
 & ! result+ developm5t ( a sy/em (     
alphabetical writ+4 ,to compreh5d !     
s]ies ( sci5tific inductions :i* l$ to  
?is result1 we mu/ g back 9 imag9ation &
 trace briefly ! developm5t ( ! me?ods (
 record+ ?\ght by means ( graphic       
symbols4 ,9 o!r words1 we mu/ trace !   
evolution ( ! art ( writ+4 ,9 do+ s we  
_c hold to national l9es z we h done 9 !
 prec$+ two *apt]s1 ?\gh ! ef=ts ( ! two
 great sci5tific nations j consid]$ w   
ent] prom95tly into ! /ory4  ,! famili> 
,greek leg5d assures u t a ,pho5ician   

nam$ ,kadmus 0 ! fir/ to br+ a k (      
lett]s into ,europe4 ,an elaboration ( !
 /ory1 curr5t ?r\gh\t classical times1  
(f]$ ! fur!r explanation t ! ,pho5icians
 _h 9 turn acquir$ ! art ( writ+ f !    
,egyptians or ,babylonians4 ,k z to !   
true orig9 & developm5t ( ! art ( writ+ 
did n ext5d 9 antiquity beyond su*      
vag>ies z ^!4 ,n9ete5?-c5tury /udies    
gave ! fir/ real clews to an und]/&+ ( !
 subject4 ,^! /udies t5d$ to au!nticate 
! ess5tial fact on :i* ! leg5d ( ,kadmus
 0 f\nd$2 to ! ext5t1 at lea/1 ( mak+ x 
probable t ! lat] ,grecian alphabet 0   
introduc$ f ,pho5icia--?\gh n1 ( c\rse1 
by any individual nam$ ,kadmus1 ! latt] 
be+1 inde$1 a "n ( purely ,greek orig94 
,fur!r /udies ( ! pa/ g5]ation t5d$ to  
corroborate ! anci5t belief z to !      
orig9al s\rce ( ! ,pho5ician alphabet1 b
 divid$ s*ol>s betwe5 two op9ions3 ! "o 
cont5d+ t ! ,egyptian hi]oglyphics 7 !  
s\rce ^u :i* ! ,pho5icians drew2 & ! o!r
 cont5d+ ) equal f]vor t ! ,babylonian  
w$ge "* mu/ be conc$$ t honor4  ,b1 z   

has (t5 happ5$ 9 o!r fields aft] ye>s ( 
acrimoni\s controv]sy1 a new discov]y or
 two may suffice to %[ t nei!r conte/ant
 0 "r4 ,aft] ! ,egyptologi/s ( ! s*ool (
 ,de ,r\ge7#a7 ?\ght !y _h demon/rat$ t 
! famili> symbols ( ! ,pho5ician        
alphabet _h be5 copi$ f t modifi$ =m (  
,egyptian hi]oglyphics kn[n z ! hi]atic 
writ+1 ! ,assyriologi/s came =w>d to    
prove t c]ta9 *>act]s ( ! ,babylonian   
syllab>y also %[ a lik5ess to !         
alphabetical *>act]s t seem+ly c\ld n be
 due to *ance4 ,& !n1 :5 a settlem5t ( !
 dispute seem$ almo/ hopeless1 x 0 %[n  
?r\gh ! ,egyptian excavations t *>act]s 
ev5 m closely resembl+ ^? 9 dispute _h  
be5 9 use all ab\t ! %ores ( !          
,m$it]ranean1 q indep5d5tly ( ei!r      
,egyptian or ,assyrian writ+s1 f p]iods 
s anci5t z to be virtually prehi/oric4  
,c\pl$ ) ?is disconc]t+ discov]y are !  
revelations br\ght to light by !        
excavations at ! sites ( ,knossos & o!r 
long-buri$ cities ( ! isl& ( ,crete47#b7
 ,^! excavations1 :i* are /ill 9        

progress1 %[ t ! art ( writ+ 0 kn[n &   
practis$ indep5d5tly 9 ,crete be=e t    
cataclysmic ov]?r[ ( ! e>ly ,greek      
civilization :i* ar*aeologi/s are       
accu/om$ to ascribe to ! hypo!tical     
invasion ( ! ,dorians4 ,! significance (
 ?is is t ! art ( writ+ 0 kn[n 9 ,europe
 long be=e ! adv5t ( ! my?ical ,kadmus4 
,b s9ce ! e>ly ,cretan scripts are n to 
be id5tifi$ ) ! scripts us$ 9 ,greece 9 
hi/orical times1 :]eas ! latt] are      
und\bt$ly ( l9eal desc5t f ! ,pho5ician 
alphabet1 ! validity ( ! ,kadmus leg5d1 
9 a modifi$ =m1 mu/ /ill be admitt$4  ,z
 has j be5 sugge/$1 ! new k1 p>ticul>ly 
t :i* relat$ to ! great antiquity (     
*>act]s simil> to ! ,pho5ician          
alphabetical signs1 is some:at          
disconc]t+4 ,its g5]al tr5d1 h[ev]1 is q
 9 ! same direction ) mo/ ( ! new       
ar*aeological k ( rec5t decades---t is  
to say1 x t5ds to emphasize ! idea t    
human civilization 9 mo/ ( its important
 elaborations is va/ly old] ?an has     
hi!rto be5 suppos$4 ,x may be add$1     

h[ev]1 t no def9ite clews are z yet     
available t enable u to fix ev5 an      
approximate date = ! orig9 ( !          
,pho5ician alphabet4 ,! signs1 to :i*   
ref]5ce has be5 made1 may well h be5 9  
exi/5ce = ?\s&s ( ye>s1 utiliz$ m]ely z 
prop]ty m>ks1 symbols = c\nt+ & ! l1    
be=e ! idea ( sett+ !m aside z phonetic 
symbols 0 ev] conceiv$4 ,no?+ is m      
c]ta91 9 ! judgm5t ( ! pres5t-day       
inve/igator1 ?an t man le>n$ to write by
 sl[ & pa9ful /ages4 ,x is probable t ! 
conception ( su* an analysis ( spee*    
s\nds z w\ld make ! idea ( an alphabet  
possible came at a v late /age ( social 
evolution1 & z ! culm9at+ a*ievem5t ( a 
long s]ies ( improvem5ts 9 ! art (      
writ+4 ,! precise /eps t m>k$ ?is pa? ( 
intellectual developm5t c = ! mo/ "p be 
kn[n only by inf]5ce2 yet x is probable 
t ! ma9 *apt]s ( ! /ory may be reproduc$
 ) ess5tial accuracy4   ,,fir/ ,,/eps   
,= ! v fir/ *apt]s ( ! /ory we mu/ g    
back 9 imag9ation to ! prehi/oric p]iod4
 ,ev5 b>b>ic man feels ! ne$ (          

self-expression1 & /rives to make 8     
ideas manife/ to o!r m5 by pictorial    
signs4 ,! cave-dwell]s scrat*$ pictures 
( m5 & animals on ! surface ( a re9de]  
horn or mammo? tusk z mem5tos ( 8       
pr[ess4 ,! ,am]ican ,indian does        
ess5tially ! same ?+ to-day1 mak+       
pictures t crudely record 8 successes 9 
w> & ! *ase4 ,! ,nor!rn ,indian _h got  
no f>!r ?an ?is :5 ! :ite man discov]$  
,am]ica2 b ! ,aztecs ( ! ,s\?we/ & !    
,maya p ( ,yucatan _h c>ri$ _!          
picture-mak+ to a mu* high] /ate (      
elaboration47#c7 ,!y _h develop$ sy/ems 
( pictographs or hi]oglyphics t w\ld    
d\btless 9 ! c\rse ( g5]ations h be5    
elaborat$ into alphabetical sy/ems1 _h n
 ! ,europeans cut (f ! civilization (   
:i* !y 7 ! highe/ expon5ts4  ,:at !     
,aztec & ,maya 7 /riv+ t[>ds 9 ! sixte5?
 c5tury ,a4,d41 v>i\s ,ori5tal nations  
_h atta9$ at lea/ five or six ?\s& ye>s 
e>li]4 ,9 ,egypt at ! "t ( !            
pyramid-build]s1 & 9 ,babylonia at !    
same epo*1 ! p _h develop$ sy/ems (     

writ+ t enabl$ !m n m]ely to pres5t a   
limit$ range ( ideas pictorially1 b to  
express 9 full elaboration & ) f9] %ades
 ( mean+ all ! ideas t p]ta9 to highly  
cultur$ exi/5ce4 ,! man ( t "t made     
records ( milit>y a*ievem5ts1 record$ ! 
transactions ( e-day bus9ess life1 &    
gave expression to 8 moral & spiritual  
aspirations 9 a way /rangely comp>able  
to ! mann] ( our own "t4 ,he _h p]fect$ 
highly elaborate sy/ems ( writ+4        
,,egyptian ,,writ+  ,( ! two anci5t     
sy/ems ( writ+ j ref]r$ to z be+ 9 vogue
 at ! s-call$ dawn+s ( hi/ory1 ! m      
picturesque & sugge/ive 0 ! hi]oglyphic 
sy/em ( ! ,egyptians4 ,?is is a curi\sly
 conglom]ate sy/em ( writ+1 made up 9 "p
 ( symbols rem9isc5t ( ! crude/ /ages ( 
picture-writ+1 9 "p ( symbols hav+ !    
phonetic value ( syllables1 & 9 "p (    
true alphabetical lett]s4 ,9 a ^w1 !    
,egyptian writ+ repres5ts 9 itself !    
elem5ts ( ! v>i\s /ages ?r\gh :i* ! art 
( writ+ has develop$47#d7 ,we mu/       
conceive t new features 7 f "t to "t    

add$ to x1 :ile ! old features1 curi\sly
 en\gh1 7 n giv5 up4  ,"h1 = example1 9 
! mid/ ( un9telligible l9es & pot-hooks1
 are v>i\s pictures t are in/antly      
recognizable z repres5tations ( hawks1  
lions1 ibises1 & ! l4 ,x c h>dly be     
que/ion$ t :5 ^! pictures 7 fir/ us$    
calligraphically !y 7 meant to repres5t 
! idea ( a bird or animal4 ,9 o!r words1
 ! fir/ /age ( picture-writ+ did n g    
beyond ! m]e repres5tation ( an eagle by
 ! picture ( an eagle4 ,b ?is1 obvi\sly1
 w\ld conf9e ! pres5tation ( ideas )9 v 
n>r[ limits4 ,9 due c\rse "s inv5tive   
g5ius conceiv$ ! ?\ght ( symboliz+ a    
picture4 ,to him ! outl9e ( an eagle    
might repres5t n m]ely an actual bird1 b
 ! ?\ght ( /r5g?1 ( c\rage1 or ( swift  
progress4 ,su* a use ( symbols obvi\sly 
ext5ds ! range ( utility ( a nasc5t art 
( writ+4 ,!n 9 due c\rse "s wond]ful    
psy*ologi/--or p]haps ! jo9t ef=ts ( _m 
g5]ations ( psy*ologi/s--made ! a/\nd+  
discov]y t ! human voice1 :i* seems to  
fl[ on 9 an unbrok5 /ream ( endlessly   

v>i$ modulations & intonations1 may     
really be analyz$ into a comp>atively   
limit$ numb] ( compon5t s\nds--into a   
few hundr$s ( syllables4 ,t wond]ful    
idea conceiv$1 x 0 only a matt] ( "t    
until x w\ld occur to "s o!r ent]pris+  
g5ius t by select+ an arbitr>y symbol to
 repres5t ea* "o ( ^! elem5t>y s\nds x  
w\ld be possible to make a writt5 record
 ( ! words ( human spee* :i* c\ld be    
reproduc$--rephonat$--by "s "o :o _h    
nev] he>d ! words & did n "k 9 advance  
:at ?is writt5 record conta9$4 ,?is1 (  
c\rse1 is :at e *ild le>ns to d n[ 9 !  
prim] class1 b we may feel assur$ t su* 
an idea nev] occurr$ to any human be+   
until ! peculi> =ms ( pictographic writ+
 j ref]r$ to _h be5 practis$ = _m       
c5turies4 ,yet1 z we h said1 "s g5ius ( 
prehi/oric ,egypt conceiv$ ! idea & put 
x into practical execution1 & !         
hi]oglyphic writ+ ( :i* ! ,egyptians 7 9
 full possession at ! v beg9n+ ( :at we 
t]m ! hi/orical p]iod made use ( ?is    
phonetic sy/em along ) ! ideographic    

sy/em already describ$4  ,s fond 7 !    
,egyptians ( _! pictorial symbols us$   
ideographically t !y clung to !m        
p]si/5tly ?r\gh\t ! entire p]iod (      
,egyptian hi/ory4 ,!y us$ symbols z     
phonetic equival5ts v frequ5tly1 b !y   
nev] le>n$ to dep5d ^u !m exclusively4  
,! scribe always int]sp]s$ 8 phonetic   
signs ) "s o!r signs int5d$ z graphic   
aids4 ,aft] spell+ a ^w out 9 full1 he  
add$ a picture1 sometimes ev5 two or    
?ree pictures1 repres5tative ( !        
individual ?+1 or at lea/ ( ! type ( ?+ 
to :i* ! ^w belongs4 ,two or ?ree       
illu/rations w make ?is cle>4  ,?us     
qeft51 monkey1 is spell$ out 9 full1 b !
 picture ( a monkey is add$ z a         
det]m9ative2 second1 q5u1 cavalry1 aft] 
be+ spell$1 is made unequivocal by !    
introduction ( a picture ( a horse2     
?ird1 temati1 w+s1 ?\gh spell$          
elaborately1 has pictures ( w+s add$2 & 
f\r?1 tatu1 quadrup$s1 aft] be+ spell$1 
has a picture ( a quadrup$1 & !n !      
picture ( a hide1 :i* is ! usual        

det]m9ative ( a quadrup$1 foll[$ by ?ree
 da%es to indicate ! plural numb]4  ,x  
mu/ n be suppos$1 h[ev]1 t x 0 a m]e :im
 :i* l$ ! ,egyptians to ! use ( ?is     
sy/em ( det]m9atives4 ,!re 0 s\nd reason
 back ( x4 ,x am\nt$ to no m ?an !      
exp$i5t we adopt :5 we spell to1 two1 or
 too1 9 indication ( a s+le s\nd ) ?ree 
diff]5t mean+s4 ,! ,egyptian language   
ab\nds 9 words hav+ m ?an "o mean+1 & 9 
writ+ ^! x is obvi\s t "s means (       
di/9ction is desirable4 ,! same ?+      
occurs ev5 m frequ5tly 9 ! ,*9ese       
language1 :i* is monosyllabic4 ,! ,*9ese
 adopt a m clumsy exp$i5t1 supply+ a    
diff]5t symbol = ea* ( ! mean+s ( a     
syllable2 s t :ile ! actual ^w-s\nds (  
_! spee* are only a few hundr$s 9 numb]1
 ! *>act]s ( _! writt5 language m\nt    
high into ! ?\s&s4   ,,babylonian       
,,writ+  ,:ile ! civilization ( ! ,nile 
,valley 0 develop+ ?is extraord9>y sy/em
 ( hi]oglyphics1 ! inhabitants (        
,babylonia 7 practis+ ! art ( writ+     
along some:at diff]5t l9es4 ,x is c]ta9 

t !y began ) picture-mak+1 & t 9 due    
c\rse !y advanc$ to ! developm5t ( !    
syllab>y2 b1 unlike _! ,egyptian c\s9s1 
! m5 ( ,babylonia saw fit to disc>d !   
old sy/em :5 !y _h p]fect$ a bett]      
"o47#e7 ,s at a v e>ly day _! writ+--z  
reveal$ to u n[ ?r\gh ! rec5t           
excavations--_h ceas$ to h t pictorial  
aspect :i* di/+ui%es ! ,egyptian script4
 ,:at _h orig9ally be5 pictures (       
objects--fi%1 h\ses1 & ! l--_h come to  
be repres5t$ by m]e aggregations (      
w$ge-%ap$ m>ks4 ,z ! writ+ ( !          
,babvlonians 0 *iefly inscrib$ on s(t   
clay1 ! adaptation ( ?is w$ge-%ap$ m>k 9
 lieu ( an ord9>y l9e 0 probably a m]e  
matt] ( conv5i5ce1 s9ce ! %>p-corn]$    
implem5t us$ 9 mak+ ! inscription       
naturally made a w$ge-%ap$ impression 9 
! clay4 ,t1 h[ev]1 is a detail4 ,!      
ess5tial ?+ is t ! ,babylonian _h s     
fully analyz$ ! spee*-s\nds t he felt   
entire confid5ce 9 !m1 & hav+ select$ a 
suffici5t numb] ( conv5tional           
*>act]s--ea* made up ( w$ge-%ap$        

l9es--to repres5t all ! phonetic s\nds (
 8 language1 spell$ ! words out 9       
syllables & to "s ext5t disp5s$ ) !     
det]m9ative signs :i*1 z we h se51 play$
 s prom95t a "p 9 ! ,egyptian writ+4 ,8 
c\s9s ! ,assyrians us$ habitually a     
sy/em ( writ+ ! f\ndation ( :i* 0 an    
elaborate phonetic syllab>y2 a sy/em1   
!re=e1 f> remov$ f ! old crude          
pictograph1 & 9 "s respects mu* m       
develop$ ?an ! complicat$ ,egyptian     
me?od2 yet1 aft] all1 a sy/em t /opp$   
%ort ( p]fection by ! wide gap t        
sep>ates ! syllab>y f ! true alphabet4  
,a brief analysis ( spee* s\nds w aid u 
9 und]/&+ ! real nature ( ! syllab>y4   
,let u take = consid]ation ! consonantal
 s\nd repres5t$ by ! lett] b4 ,a mom5t's
 consid]ation w make x cle> t ?is s\nd  
ent]s into a l>ge numb] ( syllables4    
,!re are1 = example1 at lea/ tw5ty v[el 
s\nds 9 ! ,engli% language1 n to speak (
 c]ta9 digraphs2 t is to say1 ea* ( !   
important v[els has f two to six s\nds4 
,ea* ( ^! v[el s\nds may ent] into      

comb9ation ) ! b s\nd alone to =m ?ree  
syllables2 z ba1 ab1 bal1 be1 eb1 bel1  
etc4 ,?us !re are at lea/ sixty b-s\nd  
syllables4 ,b ?is is n ! end1 = o!r     
consonantal s\nds may be associat$ 9 !  
syllables 9 su* comb9ations z bad1 b$1  
b>1 b>k1 cab1 etc4 ,z ea* ( ! o!r tw5ty 
odd consonantal s\nds may ent] into     
simil> comb9ations1 x is obvi\s t !re   
are sev]al hundr$s ( fundam5tal         
syllables to be tak5 into acc\nt 9 any  
syllabic sy/em ( writ+4 ,= ea* ( ^!     
syllables a symbol mu/ be set aside &   
held 9 res]ve z ! repres5tative ( t     
p>ticul> s\nd4 ,a p]fect syllab>y1 !n1  
w\ld require "s hundr$ or m ( symbols to
 repres5t b s\nds alone2 & s9ce ! s\nds 
= c1 d1 f1 & ! re/ are equally v>i$1 !  
entire syllab>y w\ld run into ?\s&s (   
*>act]s1 almo/ rivall+ 9 complexity !   
,*9ese sy/em4 ,b 9 practice ! mo/ p]fect
 syllab>y1 ,su* z t ( ! ,babylonians1   
fell %ort ( ?is degree ( precision ?r\gh
 ignor+ ! m9or %ades ( s\nd2 j z our own
 alphabet is cont5t to repres5t "s ?irty

 v[el s\nds by five lett]s1 ignor+ !    
fact t a1 = example1 has really half a  
doz5 di/9ct phonetic values4 ,by su*    
slurr+ ( s\nds ! syllab>y is r$uc$ f>   
bel[ its ideal limits2 yet ev5 s x      
reta9s ?ree or f\r hundr$ *>act]s4  ,9  
po9t ( fact1 su* a "w z ,pr(essor       
,delitzs*'s ,assyrian ,gramm>7#f7       
pres5ts signs = ?ree hundr$ & ?irty-f\r 
syllables1 toge!r ) sundry alt]native   
signs & det]m9atives to tax ! memory ( !
 w\ld-be read] ( ,assyrian4 ,let u take 
= example a few ( ! b s\nds4 ,x has be5 
expla9$ t ! basis ( ! ,assyrian writt5  
"* is a simple w$ge-%ap$ or arr[-head   
m>k4 ,v>i\sly repeat$ & gr\p$1 ^! m>ks  
make up ! syllabic *>act]s4  ,to le>n "s
 f\r hundr$ su* signs z ^! 0 ! task set1
 z an equival5t ( le>n+ ! a b c's1 to   
any prim] class 9 old ,assyria 9 ! long 
g5]ations :5 t l& 0 ! culture ,c5tre ( !
 _w4 ,nor 0 ! task conf9$ to ! natives (
 ,babylonia & ,assyria alone4 ,ab\t !   
fifte5? c5tury ,b4,c41 & probably = a   
long "t be=e & aft] t p]iod1 ! exce$+ly 

complex syllab>y ( ! ,babylonians 0 !   
(ficial means ( communication ?r\gh\t   
we/]n ,asia & betwe5 ,asia & ,egypt1 z  
we "k f ! *ance discov]y ( a collection 
( lett]s belong+ to ! ,egyptian k+      
,khun-at51 pres]v$ at ,tel-el-,am>na4 ,9
 ! "t ( ,ramses ! ,great ! ,babylonian  
writ+ 0 9 all probability consid]$ by a 
majority ( ! mo/ highly civiliz$ p 9 !  
_w to be ! mo/ p]fect script            
practicable4 ,d\btless ! av]age scribe (
 ! "t did n 9 ! lea/ realize ! wa/e (   
en]gy involv$ 9 8 labors1 or ev] suspect
 t !re c\ld be any bett] way ( writ+4   
,yet ! analysis ( any "o ( ^! hundr$s ( 
syllables into its compon5t phonetic    
elem5ts--_h any "o be5 g5ius en\gh to   
make su* analysis--w\ld h giv5 ! key to 
simpl] & bett] ?+s4 ,b su* an analysis 0
 v h>d to make1 z ! sequel %[s4 ,nor is 
! utility ( su* an analysis self-evid5t1
 z ! exp]i5ce ( ! ,egyptians prov$4 ,!  
v[el s\nd is s intimately l9k$ ) !      
consonant--! con-sonant1 imply+ ?is     
intimate relation 9 its v "n--t x seem$ 

extremely difficult to give x individual
 recognition4 ,to set (f ! m]e labial   
beg9n+ ( ! s\nd by itself1 & to         
recognize x z an all-ess5tial elem5t (  
phonation1 0 ! feat at :i* human        
intellig5ce s long balk$4 ,! g]m ( great
 ?+s lay 9 t analysis4 ,x 0 a process ( 
simplification1 & all art developm5t is 
f ! complex to ! simple4 ,un=tunately1  
h[ev]1 x did n seem a simplification1 b 
r q ! rev]se4 ,we may well suppose t !  
idea ( wre/+ f ! syllab>y its secret (  
consonants & v[els1 & giv+ to ea*       
consonantal s\nd a di/9ct sign1 seem$ a 
mo/ cumb]some & emb>rass+ complication  
to ! anci5t s*ol>s--t is to say1 aft] ! 
"t arriv$ :5 any "o gave su* an idea    
expression4 ,we c imag9e !m say+3 ,y w  
oblige u to use f\r signs in/ead ( "o to
 write su* an elem5t>y syllable z 'b>d1'
 = example4 ,out ^u su* endless         
p]plexity6 ,nor is su* a sugge/ion      
purely gratuit\s1 = x is an hi/orical   
fact t ! old syllab>y cont9u$ to be us$ 
9 ,babylon hundr$s ( ye>s aft] !        

alphabetical sy/em _h be5 introduc$47#g7
 ,cu/om is ev]y?+ 9 e/abli%+ our        
prejudices4 ,! ,japanese to-day rebel   
aga9/ ! introduction ( an alphabet1 ?9k+
 x ambigu\s4  ,yet1 9 ! end1 cons]vatism
 always yields1 & s x 0 ) opposition to 
! alphabet4 ,once ! idea ( ! consonant  
_h be5 firmly grasp$1 ! old syllab>y 0  
doom$1 ?\gh g5]ations ( "t might be     
requir$ to complete !                   
obsequies--g5]ations ( "t & ! influ5ce (
 a new nation4 ,we h n[ to inquire h[ & 
by :om ?is advance 0 made4   ,,!        
,,alphabet ,,a*iev$  ,we _c believe t   
any nation c\ld h vault$ to ! f9al /age 
( ! simple alphabetical writ+ )\t trac+ 
! devi\s & difficult way ( ! pictograph 
& ! syllab>y4 ,x is possible1 h[ev]1 = a
 cultivat$ nation to build ^u ! %\ld]s (
 its neighbors1 &1 pr(it+ by ! exp]i5ce 
( o!rs1 to make sudd5 leaps upw>d &     
onw>d4 ,& ?is is seem+ly :at happ5$ 9 ! 
f9al developm5t ( ! art ( writ+4 ,= :ile
 ! ,babylonians & ,assyrians re/$ cont5t
 ) _! elaborate syllab>y1 a nation on   

ei!r side ( !m1 geographically speak+1  
solv$ ! problem1 :i* !y p]haps did n ev5
 recognize z a problem2 wre/$ f _!      
syllab>y its secret ( consonants &      
v[els1 & by adopt+ an arbitr>y sign =   
ea* consonantal s\nd1 produc$ t mo/     
wond]ful ( human inv5tions1 ! alphabet4 
,! two nations cr$it$ ) ?is wond]ful    
a*ievem5t are ! ,pho5icians & !         
,p]sians4 ,b x is n usually conc$$ t !  
two are entitl$ to any?+ l equal cr$it4 
,! ,p]sians1 probably 9 ! "t ( ,cyrus ! 
,great1 us$ c]ta9 *>act]s ( !           
,babylonian script = ! con/ruction ( an 
alphabet2 b at ?is "t ! ,pho5ician      
alphabet _h und\bt$ly be5 9 use = "s    
c5turies1 & x is m ?an probable t !     
,p]sian borr[$ 8 idea ( an alphabet f a 
,pho5ician s\rce4 ,& t1 ( c\rse1 makes  
all ! diff]5ce4 ,grant$ ! idea ( an     
alphabet1 x requires no great rea* (    
con/ructive g5ius to supply a set (     
alphabetical *>act]s2 ?\gh ev5 "h1 x may
 be add$ p>5!tically1 a /udy ( !        
developm5t ( alphabets w %[ t mank9d has

 all along _h a *>act]i/ic prop5sity to 
copy r ?an to inv5t4  ,reg>d+ ! ,p]sian 
alphabet-mak]1 !n1 z a copyi/ r ?an a   
true inv5tor1 x rema9s to turn att5tion 
to ! ,pho5ician s\rce :5ce1 z is        
commonly believ$1 ! orig9al alphabet :i*
 became ! "m ( all exi/+ alphabets came 
into be+4 ,x mu/ be admitt$ at ! outset 
t evid5ce = ! ,pho5ician orig9 ( ?is    
alphabet is traditional r ?an           
demon/rative4 ,! ,pho5icians 7 ! great  
trad]s ( antiquity2 und\bt$ly !y 7      
l>gely responsible = ! transmission ( ! 
alphabet f "o "p ( ! _w to ano!r1 once x
 _h be5 inv5t$4 ,too mu* cr$it _c be    
giv5 !m = ?is2 & z ! _w always honors   
him :o makes an idea f]tile r ?an !     
orig9ator ( ! idea1 !re c be little     
inju/ice 9 cont9u+ to speak ( !         
,pho5icians z ! inv5tors ( ! alphabet4  
,b ! actual facts ( ! case w probably   
nev] be kn[n4 ,= aught we "k1 x may h   
be5 "s dreamy-ey$ ,israelite1 "s        
,babylonian philosoph]1 "s ,egyptian    
my/ic1 p]haps ev5 "s obscure ,cretan1 :o

 gave to ! h>d-head$ ,pho5ician trad]   
?is conception ( a dismemb]$ syllable ) 
its all-ess5tial1 elem5tal1 wond]-work+ 
consonant4 ,b x is futile n[ to attempt 
ev5 to surmise on su* unfa?omable       
details z ^!4 ,suffice x t ! analysis 0 
made2 t "o sign & no m 0 adopt$ = ea*   
consonantal s\nd ( ! ,semitic tongue1 & 
t ! entire cumb]some me*anism ( !       
,egyptian & ,babylonian writ+ sy/ems 0  
r5d]$ obsolesc5t4 ,^! sy/ems did n yield
 at once1 to be sure2 all human exp]i5ce
 w\ld h be5 set at naught _h !y done s4 
,!y held _! own1 & mu* m ?an held _!    
own1 = _m c5turies4 ,aft] ! ,pho5icians 
z a nation _h ceas$ to h importance2    
aft] _! orig9al script _h be5 endlessly 
modifi$ by _m ali5 nations2 aft] !      
orig9al alphabet _h made ! conque/ ( all
 civiliz$ ,europe & ( f> outly+ portions
 ( ! ,ori5t--! ,egyptian & ,babylonian  
scribes cont9u$ to indite _! missives 9 
! same old pictographs & syllables4  ,! 
inv5tive ?9k] mu/ h be5 /ruck ) amazem5t
 :51 aft] mak+ ! fulle/ analysis (      

spee*-s\nds ( :i* he 0 capable1 he f\nd 
himself suppli$ ) only a score or s (   
symbols4 ,yet z reg>ds ! consonantal    
s\nds he _h exhau/$ ! res\rces ( !      
,semitic tongue4 ,z to v[els1 he sc>cely
 consid]$ !m at all4 ,x seem$ to him    
suffici5t to use "o symbol = ea*        
consonantal s\nd4 ,?is r$uc$ ! hi!rto   
complex me*anism ( writ+ to s simple a  
sy/em t ! inv5tor mu/ h reg>d$ x ) %e]  
delight4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! cons]vative    
s*ol> d\btless ?\ght x di/9ctly         
ambigu\s4 ,9 tru?1 x mu/ be admitt$ t ! 
sy/em 0 imp]fect4 ,x 0 a va/ improvem5t 
on ! old syllab>y1 b x _h its drawbacks4
 ,p]haps x _h be5 made a bit too simple2
 c]ta9ly x %\ld h _h symbols = ! v[el   
s\nds z well z = ! consonants4          
,nev]!less1 ! v[el-lack+ alphabet seems 
to h tak5 ! popul> fancy1 & to ?is day  
,semitic p h nev] suppli$ its           
defici5cies save ) c]ta9 dots & po9ts4  
,peoples us+ ! ,aryan spee* soon saw !  
defect1 & ! ,greeks suppli$ symbols =   
sev]al new s\nds at a v e>ly day47#h7 ,b

 !re ! matt] re/$1 & ! alphabet has     
rema9$ imp]fect4 ,= ! purposes ( !      
,engli% language !re %\ld c]ta9ly h be5 
add$ a doz5 or m new *>act]s4 ,x is     
cle>1 = example1 t1 9 ! int]e/ (        
explicitness1 we %\ld h a sep>ate symbol
 = ! v[el s\nd 9 ea* ( ! foll[+         
syllables3 b>1 bay1 bann1 ball1 to cite 
a s+le illu/ration4  ,!re is1 to be     
sure1 a seem+ly valid reason = n ext5d+ 
our alphabet1 9 ! fact t 9 multiply+    
syllables x w\ld be difficult to select 
*>act]s at once easy to make &          
unambigu\s4 ,moreov]1 ! cons]vatives    
might po9t out1 ) tell+ effect1 t !     
pres5t alphabet has prov$ admirably     
effective = ab\t ?ree ?\s& ye>s4 ,yet ! 
fact t our diction>ies supply           
diacritical m>ks = "s ?irty v[els s\nds 
to indicate ! pronunciation ( ! words ( 
our e-day spee*1 %[s h[ we let memory & 
guess+ d ! "w t might reasonably be     
dem&$ ( a really complete alphabet4 ,b1 
:atev] its defects1 ! exi/+ alphabet is 
a m>vell\s piece ( me*anism1 ! result ( 

?\s&s ( ye>s ( intellectual ef=t4 ,x is1
 p]haps )\t exception1 ! mo/ /up5d\s    
inv5tion ( ! human intellect )9         
hi/orical times--an a*ievem5t tak+ rank 
) su* great prehi/oric discov]ies z !   
use ( articulate spee*1 ! mak+ ( a fire1
 & ! inv5tion ( /one implem5ts1 ( ! :eel
 & axle1 & ( picture-writ+4 ,x made     
possible = ! fir/ "t t education ( !    
masses ^u :i* all lat] progress (       
civilization 0 s l>gely to dep5d4       
,v4 ,,! ,,beg9n+s ,,( ,,greek ,,sci5ce  
,h]odotus1 ! ,fa!r ( ,hi/ory1 tells u t 
once ^u a "t--:i* "t1 z ! mod]n         
computator %[s u1 0 ab\t ! ye> #eij     
,b4,c4--a w> _h ris5 betwe5 ! ,lydians &
 ! ,m$es & cont9u$ five ye>s4 ,9 ^! ye>s
 ! ,m$es (t5 discomfit$ ! ,lydians & !  
,lydians (t5 discomfit$ ! ,m$es 7& among
 o!r ?+s !y f\ght a battle by night72 & 
yet !y /ill c>ri$ on ! w> ) equally     
balanc$ =titude4 ,9 ! six? ye> a battle 
took place 9 :i* x happ5$1 :5 ! fight _h
 begun1 t sudd5ly ! day became night4 ,&
 ?is *ange ( ! day ,?ales1 ! ,milesian1 

_h =etold to ! ,ionians1 lay+ d[n z a   
limit ?is v ye> 9 :i* ! *ange took      
place4 ,! ,lydians1 h[ev]1 & ! ,m$es1 :5
 !y saw t x _h become night in/ead (    
day1 ceas$ f _! fight+ & 7 mu* m eag]1  
bo? ( !m1 t peace %\ld be made betwe5   
!m4  ,?is memorable incid5t occurr$ :ile
 ,alyattus1 fa!r ( ,croesus1 0 k+ ( !   
,lydians4 ,! mod]n a/ronom]1 reckon+    
backw>d1 e/imates ?is eclipse z occurr+ 
probably ,may #be?1 #ehe ,b4,c4 ,! date 
is important z fix+ a mile-/one 9 !     
*ronology ( anci5t hi/ory1 b x is d\bly 
memorable because x is ! fir/ record$   
in/ance ( a pr$ict$ eclipse4 ,h]odotus1 
:o tells ! /ory1 0 n born until ab\t "o 
hundr$ ye>s aft] ! incid5t occurr$1 b "t
 _h n dimm$ ! fame ( ! man :o _h p]=m$ !
 necromantic feat ( prophecy4 ,?ales1 ! 
,milesian1 ?anks 9 "p at lea/ to ?is    
accompli%m5t1 _h be5 kn[n 9 life z fir/ 
on ! li/ ( ! ,sev5 ,wise ,m5 ( ,greece1 
& _h pass$ into hi/ory z ! fa!r ( ,greek
 philosophy4 ,we may add t he _h ev5    
f\nd wid] popul> fame ?r\gh be+ nam$ by 

,hippolytus1 & !n by ,fa!r aesop1 z !   
philosoph] :o1 int5t on /udy+ ! heav5s1 
fell into a well2 :]eupon1 says         
,hippolytus1 a maid-s]vant nam$ ,?ratta 
laugh$ at him & said1 ',9 8 se>* = ?+s 9
 ! sky he does n see :at is at 8 feet4' 
,su* citations z ^! s]ve to br+ vividly 
to m9d ! fact t we are ent]+ a new epo* 
( ?\ght4 ,hi!rto our /udies h be5       
imp]sonal4 ,among ,egyptians &          
,babylonians alike we h _h to deal )    
classes ( sci5tific records1 b we h     
sc>cely come across a s+le "n4 ,n[1     
h[ev]1 we %all beg9 to f9d records ( !  
"w ( individual inve/igators4 ,9 g5]al1 
f n[ on1 we %all be able to trace ea*   
great idea1 if n to its orig9ator1 at   
lea/ to "s "o man ( g5ius :o 0 prom95t 9
 br++ x be=e ! _w4 ,! fir/ ( ^!         
vitaliz]s ( ?\ght1 :o /&s out at !      
beg9n+s ( ,greek hi/ory1 is ?is same    
,?ales1 ( ,miletus4 ,8 is n a v %>ply   
def9$ p]sonality z we look back ^u x1 & 
we c by no means be c]ta9 t all !       
discov]ies :i* are ascrib$ to him are   

specifically 84 ,( 8 individuality z a  
man we "k v little4 ,x is n ev5 q c]ta9 
z to :]e he 0 born2 ,miletus is usually 
accept$ z 8 bir?place1 b "o tradition   
makes him by bir? a ,ph5ician4 ,x is n  
at all 9 "q1 h[ev]1 t by blood he 0 at  
lea/ 9 "p an ,ionian ,greek4 ,x w be    
recall$ t 9 ! sev5? c5tury ,b4,c41 :5   
,?ales 0 born--& = a long "t !reaft]--! 
ea/]n %ores ( ! aegean ,sea 7 q z       
prom95tly ! c5tre ( ,greek influ5ce z 0 
! p59sula ( ,greece itself4 ,n m]ely    
,?ales1 b 8 foll[]s & disciples1        
,anaxim&] & ,anaxim5es1 7 born !re4 ,s  
also 0 ,h]odotas1 ! ,fa!r ( ,hi/ory1 n  
to ext5d ! li/4 ,!re is no?+ anomal\s1  
!n1 9 ! fact t ,?ales1 ! fa!r ( ,greek  
?\ght1 0 born & pass$ 8 life on soil t 0
 n geographically a "p ( ,greece2 b !   
fact has an important significance (    
ano!r k9d4 ,?anks to 8 environm5t1      
,?ales 0 necess>ily br\ght m or less 9  
contact ) ,ori5tal ideas4 ,!re 0 close  
comm]cial contact betwe5 ! l& ( 8       
nativity & ! great ,babylonian capital  

(f to ! ea/1 z also ) ,egypt4 ,d\btless 
?is association 0 ( influ5ce 9 %ap+ !   
developm5t ( ,?ales's m9d4 ,inde$1 x 0  
an accept$ tradition ?r\gh\t classical  
times t ! ,milesian philosoph] _h       
travell$ 9 ,egypt1 & _h !re ga9$ at lea/
 ! rudim5ts ( 8 k ( geometry4 ,9 !      
fulle/ s5se1 !n1 ,?ales may be reg>d$ z 
repres5t+ a l9k 9 ! *a9 ( ?\ght connect+
 ! le>n+ ( ! old ,ori5t ) ! nasc5t      
s*ol>%ip ( ! new ,occid5t4 ,occupy+ ?is 
position1 x is fitt+ t ! p]sonality (   
,?ales %\ld p>take some:at ( my/]y2 t ! 
sc5e may n be %ift$ too sudd5ly f !     
vague1 imp]sonal ,ea/ to ! individualism
 ( ,europe4  ,all ( ?is1 h[ev]1 mu/ n be
 tak5 z ca/+ any d\bt ^u ! exi/5ce (    
,?ales z a real p]son4 ,ev5 ! dates ( 8 
life--#fdj to #edf ,b4,c4--may be       
accept$ z at lea/ approximately         
tru/wor?y2 & ! specific discov]ies      
ascrib$ to him illu/rate equally well ! 
/age ( developm5t ( ,greek ?\ght1 :e!r  
,?ales himself or "o ( 8 imm$iate       
disciples 7 ! discov]]4 ,we h already   

m5tion$ ! feat :i* 0 said to h giv5     
,?ales 8 great reputation4 ,t ,?ales 0  
univ]sally cr$it$ ) hav+ pr$ict$ ! fam\s
 eclipse is beyond "q4 ,t he actually   
did pr$ict x 9 any precise s5se ( ! ^w  
is op5 to d\bt4 ,at all ev5ts1 8        
pr$iction 0 n bas$ ^u any su* precise k 
z t ( ! mod]n a/ronom]4 ,!re is1 inde$1 
only "o way 9 :i* he c\ld h =etold !    
eclipse1 & t is ?r\gh k ( ! regul>      
succession ( prec$+ eclipses4 ,b t k    
implies access on ! "p ( "s "o to long  
s]ies ( records ( practical obs]vations 
( ! heav5s4 ,su* records1 z we h se51   
exi/$ 9 ,egypt & ev5 m notably 9        
,babylonia4 ,t ^! records 7 ! s\rce ( ! 
in=mation :i* e/abli%$ ! reputation (   
,?ales is an unavoidable inf]5ce4 ,9 o!r
 words1 ! magical prevision ( ! fa!r (  
,greek ?\ght 0 b a reflex ( ,ori5tal    
wisdom4 ,nev]!less1 x suffic$ to e/abli%
 ,?ales z ! fa!r ( ,greek a/ronomy4 ,9  
po9t ( fact1 8 actual a/ronomical       
atta9m5ts w\ld appe> to h be5 meagre    
en\gh4 ,!re is no?+ to %[ t he ga9$ an  

inkl+ ( ! true "* ( ! sol> sy/em4 ,he   
did n ev5 recognize ! sph]icity ( ! e>?1
 b held1 /ill foll[+ ! ,ori5tal         
au?orities1 t ! _w is a flat disk4 ,ev5 
8 fam\s cosmogonic guess1 accord+ to :i*
 wat] is ! ess5ce ( all ?+s & !         
primordial elem5t out ( :i* ! e>? 0     
develop$1 is b an elaboration ( !       
,babylonian conception4  ,:5 we turn to 
! o!r field ( ?\ght ) :i* ! "n ( ,?ales 
is associat$--namely1 geometry--we aga9 
f9d evid5ce ( ! ,ori5tal influ5ce4 ,!   
sci5ce ( geometry1 ,h]odotus assures u1 
0 inv5t$ 9 ,egypt4 ,x 0 !re an em95tly  
practical sci5ce1 be+ appli$1 z ! "n    
lit]ally sugge/s1 to ! measurem5t ( !   
e>?'s surface4 ,h]odotus tells u t !    
,egyptians 7 oblig$ to cultivate !      
sci5ce because ! p]iodical inundations  
wa%$ away ! b\nd>y-l9es betwe5 _! f>ms4 
,! primitive geomet]1 !n1 0 a surveyor4 
,! ,egyptian records1 z n[ reveal$ to u1
 %[ t ! sci5ce _h n be5 c>ri$ f> 9 ! l& 
( its bir?4 ,! ,egyptian geomet] 0 able 
to measure irregul> pieces ( l& only    

approximately4 ,he nev] fully grasp$ !  
idea ( ! p]p5dicul> z ! true index (    
measurem5t = ! triangle1 b bas$ 8       
calculations ^u measurem5ts ( ! actual  
side ( t figure4 ,nev]!less1 he _h le>n$
 to squ>e ! circle ) a close            
approximation to ! tru?1 &1 9 g5]al1 8  
measurem5t suffic$ = all 8 practical    
ne$s4 ,j h[ mu* ( ! geometrical k :i*   
add$ to ! fame ( ,?ales 0 borr[$        
directly f ! ,egyptians1 & h[ mu* he    
actually creat$ we _c be sure4 ,nor is !
 "q rais$ 9 disp>agem5t ( 8 g5ius4      
,receptivity is ! fir/ pr]equisite to   
progressive ?9k+1 & t ,?ales rea*$ out  
aft] & imbib$ portions ( ,ori5tal wisdom
 argues 9 itself = ! creative "* ( 8    
g5ius4 ,:e!r borr[] ( orig9ator1 h[ev]1 
,?ales is cr$it$ ) ! expression ( !     
foll[+ geometrical tru?s3  #a4 ,t !     
circle is bisect$ by its diamet]4  #b4  
,t ! angles at ! base ( an isosceles    
triangle are equal4  #c4 ,t :5 two      
/raight l9es cut ea* o!r ! v]tical      
opposite angles are equal4  #d4 ,t !    

angle 9 a semicircle is a "r angle4  #e4
 ,t "o side & "o acute angle ( a        
"r-angle triangle det]m9e ! o!r sides ( 
! triangle4  ,x 0 by ! application ( !  
la/ ( ^! pr9ciples t ,?ales is said to h
 p]=m$ ! really notable feat ( measur+ !
 di/ance ( a %ip f ! %ore1 8 me?od be+  
precisely ! same 9 pr9ciple z t by :i* !
 guns are sight$ on a mod]n man-(-w>4   
,ano!r practical demon/ration :i* ,?ales
 0 cr$it$ ) mak+1 & to :i* also 8       
geometrical /udies l$ him1 0 !          
measurem5t ( any tall object1 su* z a   
pyramid or build+ or tree1 by means (   
its %ad[4 ,! me?od1 ?\gh simple en\gh1 0
 +5i\s4 ,x consi/$ m]ely 9 obs]v+ !     
mom5t ( ! day :5 a p]p5dicul> /ick ca/s 
a %ad[ equal to its own l5g?4 ,obvi\sly 
! tree or monum5t w\ld also ca/ a %ad[  
equal to its own height at ! same mom5t4
 ,x rema9s !n b to measure ! l5g? ( ?is 
%ad[ to det]m9e ! height ( ! object4    
,su* feats z ?is evid5ce ! practicality 
( ! g5ius ( ,?ales4 ,!y sugge/ t ,greek 
sci5ce1 guid$ by imag9ation1 0 />t+ on !

 high-road ( obs]vation4 ,we are told t 
,?ales conceiv$ = ! fir/ "t ! geometry (
 l9es1 & t ?is1 inde$1 con/itut$ 8 real 
advance ^u ! ,egyptians4 ,we are told   
also t he conceiv$ ! eclipse ( ! sun z a
 purely natural ph5om5on1 & t h]e9 lay 8
 advance ^u ! ,*aldean po9t ( view4 ,b  
if ?is be true ,?ales 0 greatly 9       
advance ( 8 "t1 = x w be recall$ t fully
 two hundr$ ye>s lat] ! ,greeks "u      
,nicias be=e ,syracuse 7 s disconc]t$ by
 ! appe>ance ( an eclipse1 :i* 0        
int]pret$ z a direct om5 & w>n+1 t      
,nicias ?rew away ! la/ opportunity to  
rescue 8 army4 ,?ucydides1 x is true1 9 
record+ ?is fact speaks disp>ag+ly ( !  
sup]/iti\s b5t ( ! m9d ( ,nicias1 b     
,?ucydides also 0 a man f> 9 advance ( 8
 "t4  ,all t we "k ( ! psy*ology (      
,?ales is summ$ up 9 ! fam\s maxim1 ,"k 
?yself1 a maxim :i*1 tak5 9 connection )
 ! prov5 receptivity ( ! philosoph]'s   
m9d1 sugge/s to u a m>vell\sly r\nd$    
p]sonality4  ,! disciples or successors 
( ,?ales1 ,anaxim&] & ,anaxim5es1 7     

cr$it$ ) advanc+ k ?r\gh ! inv5tion or  
introduction ( ! sundial4 ,we may be    
sure1 h[ev]1 t ! gnomon1 :i* is !       
rudim5t>y sundial1 _h be5 kn[n & us$ f  
remote p]iods 9 ! ,ori5t1 & ! mo/ t is  
probable is t ,anaxim&] may h elaborat$ 
"s special design1 possibly ! b[l-%ap$  
sundial1 ?r\gh :i* ! %ad[ ( ! gnomon    
w\ld indicate ! "t4 ,! same philosoph]  
is said to h made ! fir/ sket* ( a      
geographical map1 b ?is aga9 is a       
/atem5t :i* mod]n rese>*es h %[n to be  
fallaci\s1 s9ce a ,babylonian attempt at
 depict+ ! geography ( ! _w is /ill     
pres]v$ to u on a clay tablet4 ,anaxim&]
 may1 h[ev]1 h be5 ! fir/ ,greek to make
 an attempt ( ?is k9d4 ,"h aga9 !       
influ5ce ( ,babylonian sci5ce ^u !      
g]m9at+ ,we/]n ?\ght is sugge/$4  ,x is 
said t ,anaxim&] dep>t$ f ,?ales's      
conception ( ! e>?1 &1 x may be add$1 f 
! ,babylonian conception also1 9 t he   
conceiv$ x z a cyl9d]1 or r z a truncat$
 cone1 ! upp] end ( :i* is ! habitable  
portion4 ,?is conception is p]haps !    

fir/ ( ^! guesses ?r\gh :i* ! ,greek m9d
 attempt$ to expla9 ! app>5t fixity ( ! 
e>?4 ,to ask :at supports ! e>? 9 space 
is mo/ natural1 b ! answ] giv5 by       
,anaxim&]1 l t m famili> ,greek solution
 :i* trans=m$ ! cone1 or cyl9d]1 into ! 
giant ,atlas1 is b ano!r illu/ration ( t
 sub/itution ( unw>rant$ inf]5ce =      
sci5tific induction :i* we h already s  
(t5 po9t$ out z *>act]i/ic ( ! primitive
 /ages ( ?\ght4  ,anaxim&] held at lea/ 
"o !ory :i*1 z v\*$ = by v>i\s copyi/s &
 comm5tators1 entitles him to be        
consid]$ p]haps ! fir/ tea*] ( ! idea ( 
organic evolution4 ,accord+ to ?is idea1
 man develop$ f a fi%like ance/or1 gr[+ 
up z %>ks d until able to help himself &
 !n com+ =? on dry l&47#a7 ,! ?\ght "h  
express$ f9ds its g]m1 p]haps1 9 !      
,babylonian conception t ev]y?+ came =? 
f a *aos ( wat]s4 ,yet ! fact t ! ?\ght 
( ,anaxim&] has come d[n to po/]ity     
?r\gh su* v>i\s *annels sugge/s t !     
,greek ?9k] _h got f> en\gh away f !    
,ori5tal conception to make 8 view seem 

to 8 contempor>ies a novel & individual 
"o4 ,inde$1 no?+ we "k ( ! ,ori5tal l9e 
( ?\ght conveys any sugge/ion ( ! idea (
 trans=mation ( species1 :]eas t idea is
 di/9ctly =mulat$ 9 ! traditional views 
( ,anaxim&]4     ,,vi4 ,,! ,,e>ly       
,,greek ,,philosoph]s ,,9 ,,italy       
,diog5es ,la]tius tells a /ory ab\t a   
y\? :o1 clad 9 a purple toga1 ent]$ !   
ar5a at ! ,olympian games & ask$ to     
compete ) ! o!r y\?s 9 box+4 ,he 0      
d]isively d5i$ admission1 presumably    
because he 0 beyond ! legitimate age =  
juv5ile conte/ants4 ,no?+ daunt$1 ! y\? 
ent]$ ! li/s ( m51 & turn$ ! laugh on 8 
critics by com+ (f victor4 ,! y\? :o    
p]=m$ ?is feat 0 nam$ ,py?agoras4 ,he 0 
! same man1 if we may cr$it ! /ory1 :o  
aft]w>ds migrat$ to ,italy & became !   
f\nd] ( ! fam\s ,crotonian ,s*ool (     
,philosophy2 ! man :o develop$ !        
religion ( ! ,orphic my/]ies2 :o        
conceiv$ ! idea ( ! music ( ! sph]es2 :o
 promulgat$ ! doctr9e ( metempsy*osis2  
:o fir/1 p]haps1 ( all m5 cle>ly        

conceiv$ ! notion t ?is _w on :i* we    
live is a ball :i* moves 9 space & :i*  
may be habitable on e side4  ,a /range  
developm5t t = a /ripl+ pugili/4 ,b we  
mu/ n =get t 9 ! ,greek _w a?letics held
 a peculi> place4 ,! *ief w9n] (        
,olympian games gave 8 "n to an epo* 7! 
ensu+ ,olympiad ( f\r ye>s71 & 0 honor$ 
almo/ be=e all o!rs 9 ! l&4 ,a s\nd m9d 
9 a s\nd body 0 ! motto ( ! day4 ,to    
excel 9 feats ( /r5g? & dext]ity 0 an   
accompli%m5t t ev5 a philosoph] ne$ n   
scorn4 ,x w be recall$ t aes*ylus       
di/+ui%$ himself at ! battle ( ,m>a?on2 
t ,?ucydides1 ! greate/ ( ,greek        
hi/orians1 0 a g5]al 9 ! ,peloponnesian 
,w>2 t ,x5ophon1 ! pupil & biograph] (  
,socrates1 0 *iefly fam$ = hav+ l$ ! ,t5
 ,?\s& 9 ! memorable campaign ( ,cyrus !
 ,y\ng]2 t ,plato himself 0 cr$it$ )    
hav+ %[n great aptitude 9 e>ly life z a 
wre/l]4 ,if1 !n1 ,py?agoras ! philosoph]
 0 really ! ,py?agoras :o won ! box+    
conte/1 we may suppose t 9 look+ back ^u
 ?is a?letic feat f ! heights ( 8       

prie/hood--= he came to be almo/        
deifi$--he reg>d$ x n z an indiscretion 
( 8 y\?1 b z "o ( ! greate/ a*ievem5ts (
 8 life4 ,n unlikely he recall$ ) pride 
t he 0 cr$it$ ) be+ no less an innovator
 9 a?letics ?an 9 philosophy4 ,at all   
ev5ts1 tradition cr$its him ) ! inv5tion
 ( sci5tific box+4 ,0 x he1 p]haps1 :o  
taught ! ,greeks to /rike a ris+ & sw++ 
bl[ f ! hip1 z depict$ 9 ! fam\s metopes
 ( ! ,p>!non8 ,if s1 ! innovation (     
,py?agoras 0 z little he$$ 9 ?is reg>d 9
 a subsequ5t age z 0 8 !ory ( ! motion (
 ! e>?2 = to /rike a sw++ bl[ f ! hip1 r
 ?an f ! %\ld]1 is a trick :i* ! pugili/
 le>n$ anew 9 our own day4  ,b en\gh (  
pugilism & ( :at1 at be/1 is a d\btful  
tradition4 ,our conc]n is ) ano!r sci5ce
 ?an t ( ! ar5a4 ,we mu/ foll[ !        
purple-rob$ victor to ,italy--if1 inde$1
 we be n ov]-cr$ul\s 9 accept+ !        
tradition--& le>n ( triumphs ( a diff]5t
 k9d t h plac$ ! "n ( ,py?agoras high on
 ! li/ ( ! fa!rs ( ,grecian ?\ght4 ,to  
,italy8 ,yes1 to ! we/]n limits ( !     

,greek _w4 ,"h x 01 beyond ! conf9es (  
actual ,greek t]ritory1 t ,hell5ic ?\ght
 f\nd its second home1 its fir/ home    
be+1 z we h se51 9 ,asia ,m9or4         
,py?agoras1 inde$1 to :om we h j be5    
introduc$1 0 born on ! isl& ( ,samos1   
:i* lies ne> ! coa/ ( ,asia ,m9or1 b he 
probably migrat$ at an e>ly day to      
,crotona1 9 ,italy4 ,!re he liv$1       
taught1 & develop$ 8 philosophy until r 
late 9 life1 :51 hav+ incurr$ !         
displeasure ( 8 fell[-citiz5s1 he suff]$
 ! n unusual p5alty ( bani%m5t4  ,( !   
?ree o!r great ,italic lead]s ( ?\ght ( 
! e>ly p]iod1 ,x5ophanes came r late 9  
life to ,elea & f\nd$ ! fam\s ,eleatic  
,s*ool1 ( :i* ,p>m5ides became ! mo/    
di/+ui%$ ornam5t4 ,^! two 7 ,ionians1 & 
!y liv$ 9 ! six? c5tury be=e our era4   
,emp$ocles1 ! ,sicilian1 0 ( ,doric     
orig94 ,he liv$ ab\t ! middle ( ! fif?  
c5tury ,b4,c41 at a "t1 !re=e1 :5 ,a!ns 
_h atta9$ a position ( *ief glory among 
! ,greek /ates2 b !re is no evid5ce t   
,emp$ocles ev] visit$ t city1 ?\gh x 0  

rumor$ t he return$ to ! ,peloponnesus  
to die4 ,! o!r great ,italic philosoph]s
 j nam$1 liv+1 z we h se51 9 ! previ\s  
c5tury1 c sc>cely h ?\ght ( ,a!ns z a   
c5tre ( ,greek ?\ght4 ,inde$1 ! v fact t
 ^! m5 liv$ 9 ,italy made t p59sula1 r  
?an ! "m-l& ( ,greece1 ! c5tre (        
,hell5ic influ5ce4 ,b all ^! m51 x mu/  
con/antly be borne 9 m9d1 7 ,greeks by  
bir? & language1 fully recogniz$ z su* 9
 _! own "t & by po/]ity4 ,yet ! fact t  
!y liv$ 9 a l& :i* 0 at no "t a "p ( !  
geographical t]ritory ( ,greece mu/ n be
 =gott54 ,!y1 or _! ance/ors ( rec5t    
g5]ations1 _h be5 pione]s among ^?      
v5turesome coloni/s :o rea*$ out into   
di/ant portions ( ! _w1 & made homes =  
!mselves 9 mu* ! same _s 9 :i* coloni/s 
f ,europe began to populate ,am]ica "s  
two ?\s& ye>s lat]4 ,9 g5]al1 coloni/s f
 ! diff]5t p>ts ( ,greece localiz$      
!mselves some:at def9itely 9 _! new     
homes2 yet !re mu/ naturally h be5 a    
good deal ( comm+l+ among ! v>i\s       
families ( pione]s1 &1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1

 a m+l+ also ) ! e>li] inhabitants ( !  
c\ntry4 ,?is racial m+l+1 comb9$ ) !    
well-kn[n vitaliz+ influ5ce ( ! pione]  
life1 l$1 we may suppose1 to a m rapid &
 m v>i$ developm5t ?an occurr$ among !  
home-/ay+ ,greeks4 ,9 pro( ( ?is1       
witness ! rem>kable s*ools ( philosophy 
:i*1 z we h se51 7 ?us develop$ at !    
conf9es ( ! ,greek _w1 & :i* 7 pres5tly 
to invade &1 z x 71 take by /orm !      
"m-c\ntry itself4  ,z to ! p]sonality ( 
^! pione] philosoph]s ( ! ,we/1 our k is
 = ! mo/ "p m or less traditional4 ,:at 
has be5 said ( ,?ales may be repeat$1 9 
! ma91 reg>d+ ,py?agoras1 ,p>m5ides1 &  
,emp$ocles4 ,t !y 7 real p]sons is n at 
all 9 "q1 b mu* t is m]ely traditional  
has come to be associat$ ) _! names4    
,py?agoras 0 ! s5ior1 & d\btless 8 ideas
 may h influ5c$ ! o!rs m or less1 ?\gh  
ea* is usually spok5 ( z ! f\nd] ( an   
indep5d5t s*ool4 ,mu* confusion has all 
along exi/$1 h[ev]1 z to ! precise ideas
 :i* 7 to be ascrib$ to ea* ( ! lead]s4 
,numb]less comm5tators1 inde$1 h        

endeavor$ to pick out f among !         
traditions ( antiquity1 aid$ by su*     
fragm5ts1 ( ! writ+ ( ! philosoph]s z h 
come d[n to u1 ! p>ticul> ideas t       
*>act]iz$ ea* ?9k]1 & to weave ^! ideas 
into sy/ems4 ,b su* ef=ts1 not)/&+ !    
m5tal en]gy t has be5 exp5d$ ^u !m1 71 (
 necessity1 futile1 s9ce1 9 ! fir/      
place1 ! anci5t philosoph]s !mselves did
 n specialize & sy/ematize _! ideas     
accord+ to mod]n notions1 &1 9 ! second 
place1 ! records ( _! individual tea*+s 
h be5 too scantily pres]v$ to s]ve = !  
purpose ( classification4 ,x is freely  
admitt$ t fable has wov5 an imp5etrable 
me% ( contradictions ab\t ! p]sonalities
 ( ^! anci5t ?9k]s1 & x w\ld be folly to
 hope t ?is same artific] _h be5 less   
busy ) _! beliefs & !ories4 ,:5 "o reads
 t ,py?agoras advocat$ an exclusively   
vegetable diet1 yet t he 0 ! fir/ to    
tra9 a?letes on meat diet2 t he         
sacrific$ only inanimate ?+s1 yet t he  
(f]$ up a hundr$ ox5 9 honor ( 8 great  
discov]y reg>d+ ! sides ( a triangle1 & 

su* l inconsi/5cies 9 ! same biography1 
"o ga9s a realiz+ s5se ( ! ext5t to :i* 
div]se traditions ent] into ! /ory z x  
has come d[n to u4 ,& yet we mu/ reflect
 t mo/ m5 *ange _! op9ions 9 ! c\rse ( a
 long lifetime1 & t ! antagoni/ic       
reports may bo? be true4  ,true or      
false1 ^! fables h an abid+ int]e/1 s9ce
 !y prove ! unique & extraord9>y "* ( ! 
p]sonality ab\t :i* !y are wov54 ,!     
alleg$ witticisms ( a ,:i/l]1 9 our own 
day1 7 d\btless1 = ! mo/ "p1 q unkn[n to
 ,:i/l] himself1 yet !y nev] w\ld h be5 
ascrib$ to him 7 !y n ak9 to witticisms 
t he did orig9ate--7 !y n1 9 %ort1      
typical expressions ( 8 p]sonality4 ,& s
 ( ! h]oes ( ! pa/4 ,x is no ord9>y man1
 said ,george ,h5ry ,lewes1 speak+ (    
,py?agoras1 :om fable exalts into !     
poetic region4 ,:5ev] y f9d romantic or 
miracul\s de$s attribut$1 be c]ta9 t !  
h]o 0 great en\gh to ma9ta9 ! weight ( !
 cr[n ( ?is fabul\s glory47#a7 ,we may n
 d\bt1 !n1 t ,py?agoras1 ,p>m5ides1 &   
,emp$ocles1 ) ^: names fable 0 s busy   

?r\gh\t antiquity1 7 m5 ( extraord9>y   
p]sonality4 ,we are "h *iefly conc]n$1  
h[ev]1 nei!r ) ! p]sonality ( ! man nor 
yet ) ! precise doctr9es :i* ea* "o ( !m
 taught4 ,a k ( ! latt] w\ld be int]e/+ 
7 x atta9able1 b 9 ! confus$ /ate ( !   
reports t h come d[n to u we _c hope to 
be able to ascribe ea* idea ) precision 
to its prop] s\rce4 ,at be/ we c m]ely  
outl9e1 ev5 "h n too precisely1 !       
sci5tific doctr9es :i* ! ,italic        
philosoph]s z a :ole seem to h advocat$4
  ,fir/ & =emo/1 !re is ! doctr9e t !   
e>? is a sph]e4 ,py?agoras is said to h 
be5 ! fir/ advocate ( ?is !ory2 b1      
un=tunately1 x is report$ also t        
,p>m5ides 0 its au?or4 ,?is rival%ip = !
 discov]y ( an important tru? we %all   
see repeat$ ov] & ov] 9 m rec5t times4  
,c\ld we "k ! :ole tru?1 x w\ld p]haps  
appe> t ! idea ( ! sph]icity ( ! e>? 0  
orig9at$ long be=e ! "t ( ! ,greek      
philosoph]s4 ,b x mu/ be admitt$ t !re  
is no record ( any sort to give tangible
 support to su* an assumption4 ,s f> z  

we c asc]ta91 no ,egyptian or           
,babylonian a/ronom] ev] grasp$ !       
wond]ful conception t ! e>? is r\nd4 ,t 
! ,italic ,greeks %\ld h conceiv$ t idea
 0 p]haps n s mu* because !y 7 a/ronom]s
 z because !y 7 practical geograph]s &  
geomet]s4 ,py?agoras1 z we h not$1 0    
born at ,samos1 &1 !re=e1 made a        
relatively long sea voyage 9 pass+ to   
,italy4 ,n[1 z e "o kn[s1 ! mo/ simple &
 tangible demon/ration ( ! convexity ( !
 e>?'s surface is furni%$ by obs]vation 
( an approa*+ %ip at sea4 ,on a cle> day
 a ke5 eye may disc]n ! ma/ & sails ris+
 gradually above ! horizon1 to be foll[$
 9 due c\rse by ! hull4 ,simil>ly1 on   
approa*+ ! %ore1 high objects become    
visible be=e ^? t lie ne>] ! wat]4 ,x is
 at lea/ a plausible supposition t      
,py?agoras may h made su* obs]vations z 
^! dur+ ! voyage 9 "q1 & t !re9 may lie 
! g]m ( t wond]ful conception ( ! _w z a
 sph]e4  ,to :at ext5t fur!r pro(1 bas$ 
on ! fact t ! e>?'s %ad[ :5 ! moon is   
eclips$ is always convex1 may h be5 kn[n

 to ,py?agoras we _c say4 ,!re is no    
pro( t any ( ! ,italic philosoph]s made 
ext5sive records ( a/ronomical          
obs]vations z did ! ,egyptians &        
,babylonians2 b we mu/ con/antly recall 
t ! writ+s ( classical antiquity h be5  
almo/ altoge!r de/roy$4 ,! abs5ce (     
a/ronomical records is1 !re=e1 no pro( t
 su* records nev] exi/$4 ,py?agoras1 x  
%\ld be said1 is report$ to h travell$ 9
 ,egypt1 & he mu/ !re h ga9$ an inkl+ ( 
a/ronomical me?ods4 ,inde$1 he speaks ( 
himself specifically1 9 a lett] quot$ by
 ,diog5es1 z "o :o is accu/om$ to /udy  
a/ronomy4 ,yet a lat] s5t5ce ( ! lett]1 
:i* ass]ts t ! philosoph] is n always   
occupi$ ab\t speculations ( 8 own fancy1
 sugge/+1 z x does1 ! dream] r ?an !    
obs]v]1 gives u probably a tru] glimpse 
into ! philosoph]'s m9d4 ,!re is1 inde$1
 reason to suppose t ! doctr9e ( !      
sph]icity ( ! e>? appeal$ to ,py?agoras 
*iefly because x accord$ ) 8 conception 
t ! sph]e is ! mo/ p]fect solid1 j z !  
circle is ! mo/ p]fect plane surface4   

,be t z x may1 ! fact rema9s t we h "h1 
z f> z we c trace its orig91 ! fir/     
expression ( ! sci5tific !ory t ! e>? is
 r\nd4 ,_h ! ,italic philosoph]s        
accompli%$ no?+ m ?an ?is1 _!           
accompli%m5t w\ld none ! less m>k an    
epo* 9 ! progress ( ?\ght4  ,t          
,py?agoras 0 an obs]v] ( ! heav5s is    
fur!r evid5c$ by ! /atem5t made by      
,diog5es1 on ! au?ority ( ,p>m5ides1 t  
,py?agoras 0 ! fir/ p]son :o discov]$ or
 ass]t$ ! id5tity ( ,hesp]us &          
,lucif]--t is to say1 ( ! morn+ & ! ev5+
 />4 ,?is 0 really a rem>kable discov]y1
 & "o t 0 no d\bt in/rum5tal lat] on 9  
det]m9+ t !ory ( ! me*anics ( ! heav5s  
:i* we %all see elaborat$ pres5tly4 ,to 
h made su* a discov]y argues aga9 = !   
practicality ( ! m9d ( ,py?agoras4 ,81  
inde$1 w\ld seem to h be5 a m9d 9 :i*   
practical common-s5se 0 /rangely bl5d$ )
 ! capacity = wide & imag9ative         
g5]alization4 ,z fur!r evid5ce ( 8      
practicality1 x is ass]t$ t he 0 ! fir/ 
p]son :o introduc$ measures & weights   

among ! ,greeks1 ?is ass]tion be+ made  
on ! au?ority ( ,ari/ox5us4 ,x w be     
obs]v$ t he is said to h introduc$1 n to
 h inv5t$1 weights & measures1 a /atem5t
 :i* sugge/s a k on ! "p ( ! ,greeks t  
weights & measures 7 previ\sly employ$ 9
 ,egypt & ,babylonia4  ,! m9d t c\ld    
conceive ! _w z a sph]e & t int]e/$     
itself 9 weights & measures 01 obvi\sly1
 a m9d ( ! visualiz+ type4 ,x is        
*>act]i/ic ( ?is type ( m9d to be       
int]e/$ 9 ! tangibilities ( geometry1   
h5ce x is n surpris+ to be told t       
,py?agoras c>ri$ t sci5ce to p]fection4 
,! mo/ fam\s discov]y ( ,py?agoras 9 ?is
 field 0 t ! squ>e ( ! hypot5use ( a    
"r-angl$ triangle is equal to ! squ>es (
 ! o!r sides ( ! triangle4 ,we h already
 not$ ! fable t 8 en?usiasm ov] ?is     
discov]y l$ him to sacrifice a hecatomb4
 ,d\btless ! /ory is apocryphal1 b      
d\btless1 also1 x expresses ! tru? z to 
! f]vid joy ) :i* ! philosoph] mu/ h    
contemplat$ ! results ( 8 creative      
imag9ation4  ,no l9e alleg$ to h be5    

writt5 by ,py?agoras has come d[n to u4 
,we are told t he refra9$ f publi%+ 8   
doctr9es1 except by ^w ( m\?4 ,!        
,lucanians & ! ,peucetians1 & !         
,messapians & ! ,romans1 we are assur$1 
flock$ ar\nd him1 com+ ) eag]ness to he>
 8 disc\rses2 no few] ?an six hundr$    
came to him e night2 & if any "o ( !m _h
 ev] be5 p]mitt$ to see ! ma/]1 !y wrote
 ( x to _! fri5ds z if !y _h ga9$ "s    
great advantage4 ,nev]!less1 we are     
assur$ t until ! "t ( ,philolaus no     
doctr9es ( ,py?agoras 7 ev] publi%$1 to 
:i* /atem5t x is add$ t :5 ! ?ree       
celebrat$ books 7 publi%$1 ,plato wrote 
to h !m pur*as$ = him = a hundr$        
m9as47#b7 ,b if su* books exi/$1 !y are 
lo/ to ! mod]n _w1 & we are oblig$ to   
accept ! ass]tions ( relatively late    
writ]s z to ! !ories ( ! great          
,crotonian4  ,p]haps we _c d bett] ?an  
quote at l5g? f an important summ>y ( ! 
rema9+ doctr9es ( ,py?agoras1 :i*       
,diog5es himself quot$ f ! "w ( a       
pr$ecessor47#c7 ,despite its some:at    

in*oate "*1 ?is summ>y is a mo/         
rem>kable "o1 z a brief analysis ( its  
cont5ts w %[4 ,x %\ld be expla9$ t      
,alex&] 7^: "w is n[ lo/7 is said to h  
f\nd ^! dogmas set d[n 9 ! comm5t>ies ( 
,py?agoras4 ,if ?is ass]tion be accept$1
 we are br\ght "o /ep ne>] ! philosoph] 
himself4 ,! summ>y is z foll[s3   ,t !  
monad 0 ! beg9n+ ( ev]y?+4 ,f ! monad   
proce$s an indef9ite duad1 :i* is       
subord9ate to ! monad z to its cause4 ,t
 f ! monad & ! indef9ite duad proce$    
numb]s4 ,& f numb]s signs4 ,& f ^! la/1 
l9es ( :i* plane figures consi/4 ,& f   
plane figures are d]iv$ solid bodies4 ,&
 f solid bodies s5sible bodies1 ( :i*   
la/ !re are f\r elem5ts--fire1 wat]1    
e>?1 & air4 ,& t ! _w1 :i* is indu$ )   
life & intellect1 & :i* is ( a sph]ical 
figure1 hav+ ! e>?1 :i* is also         
sph]ical1 & inhabit$ all ov] 9 its      
c5tre17#d7 results f a comb9ation ( ^!  
elem5ts1 & d]ives its motion f !m2 &    
also t !re are antipodes1 & t :at is    
bel[1 z respects u1 is above 9 respect (

 !m4  ,he also taught t light & d>kness1
 & cold & heat1 & dryness & moi/ure1 7  
equally divid$ 9 ! _w2 & t :ile heat 0  
pr$om9ant x 0 summ]2 :ile cold _h !     
ma/]y1 x 0 w9t]2 :5 dryness prevail$1 x 
0 spr+2 & :5 moi/ure prepond]at$1 w9t]4 
,& :ile all ^! qualities 7 on a level1  
!n 0 ! lovelie/ season ( ! ye>2 ( :i* ! 
fl\ri%+ spr+ 0 ! :olesome p]iod1 & !    
season ( autumn ! mo/ p]nici\s "o4 ,( ! 
day1 he said t ! fl\ri%+ p]iod 0 !      
morn+1 & ! fad+ "o ! ev5+2 on :i* acc\nt
 t also 0 ! lea/ heal?y "t4  ,ano!r ( 8 
!ories 0 t ! air ar\nd ! e>? 0 immovable
 & pregnant ) disease1 & t ev]y?+ 9 x 0 
mortal2 b t ! upp] air 0 9 p]petual     
motion1 & pure & salubri\s1 & t ev]y?+ 9
 t 0 immortal1 & on t acc\nt div9e4 ,& t
 ! sun & ! moon & ! />s 7 all gods2 = 9 
!m ! w>m pr9ciple pr$om9ates :i* is !   
cause ( life4 ,& t ! moon d]ives its    
light f ! sun4 ,& t !re is a relation%ip
 betwe5 m5 & ! gods1 because m5 p>take (
 ! div9e pr9ciple2 on :i* acc\nt1 also1 
,god ex]cises 8 provid5ce = our         

advantage4 ,also1 t ,fate is ! cause ( !
 arrangem5t ( ! _w bo? g5]ally &        
p>ticul>ly4 ,moreov]1 t a ray f ! sun   
p5etrat$ bo? ! cold ae!r & ! d5se ae!r2 
& !y call ! air ! cold ae!r1 & ! sea &  
moi/ure !y call ! d5se ae!r4 ,& ?is ray 
desc5ds into ! dep?s1 & 9 ?is way       
vivifies ev]y?+4 ,& ev]y?+ :i* p>takes (
 ! pr9ciple ( heat lives1 on :i* acc\nt1
 also1 plants are animat$ be+s2 b t all 
liv+ ?+s h n necess>ily s\ls4 ,& t ! s\l
 is a some?+ tom (f f ! ae!r1 bo? w>m & 
cold1 f its p>tak+ ( ! cold ae!r4 ,& t !
 s\l is some?+ diff]5t f life4 ,also1 t 
x is immortal1 because t f :i* x has be5
 deta*$ is immortal4  ,also1 t animals  
are born f "o ano!r by se$s1 & t x is   
impossible = !re to be any spontane\s   
production by ! e>?4 ,& t se$ is a drop 
f ! bra9 :i* conta9s 9 itself a w>m     
vapor2 & t :5 ?is is appli$ to ! womb x 
transmits virtue & moi/ure & blood f !  
bra91 f :i* fle% & s9ews & bones & hair 
& ! :ole body are produc$4 ,& f ! vapor 
is produc$ ! s\l1 & also s5sation4 ,& t 

! infant fir/ becomes a solid body at ! 
end ( =ty days2 b1 accord+ to !         
pr9ciples ( h>mony1 x is n p]fect till  
sev51 or p]haps n9e1 or at mo/ t5 mon?s1
 & !n x is br\ght =?4 ,& t x conta9s 9  
itself all ! pr9ciples ( life1 :i* are  
all connect$ toge!r1 & by _! union &    
comb9ation =m a h>moni\s :ole1 ea* ( !m 
develop+ itself at ! appo9t$ "t4  ,!    
s5ses 9 g5]al1 & especially ! sight1 are
 a vapor ( excessive w>m?1 & on ?is     
acc\nt a man is said to see ?r\gh air & 
?r\gh wat]4 ,= ! hot pr9ciple is oppos$ 
by ! cold "o2 s9ce1 if ! vapor 9 ! eyes 
7 cold1 x w\ld h ! same temp]ature z !  
air1 & s w\ld be dissipat$4 ,z x is1 9  
"s passages he calls ! eyes ! gates ( ! 
sun2 & he speaks 9 a simil> mann] ( he>+
 & ( ! o!r s5ses4  ,he also says t ! s\l
 ( man is divid$ into ?ree p>ts3 into   
intuition & reason & m9d1 & t ! fir/ &  
la/ divisions are f\nd also 9 o!r       
animals1 b t ! middle "o1 reason1 is    
only f\nd 9 man4 ,& t ! *ief abode ( !  
s\l is 9 ^? p>ts ( ! body :i* are betwe5

 ! he>t & ! bra94 ,& t t portion ( x :i*
 is 9 ! he>t is ! m9d2 b t delib]ation &
 reason reside 9 ! bra94  ,moreov]1 t ! 
s5ses are drops f !m2 & t ! reason+ s5se
 is immortal1 b ! o!rs are mortal4 ,& t 
! s\l is n\ri%$ by ! blood2 & t reasons 
are ! w9ds ( ! s\l4 ,t x is invisible1 &
 s are its reasons1 s9ce ! ae!r itself  
is invisible4 ,t ! l9ks ( ! s\l are !   
ve9s & ! art]ies & ! n]ves4 ,b t :5 x is
 vigor\s1 & is by itself 9 a quiesc5t   
/ate1 !n its l9ks are words & actions4  
,t :5 x is ca/ =? ^u ! e>? x w&]s ab\t1 
resembl+ ! body4 ,moreov]1 t ,m]cury is 
! /ew>d ( ! s\ls1 & t on ?is acc\nt he  
has ! "n ( ,conductor1 & ,comm]cial1 &  
,inf]nal1 s9ce x is he :o conducts !    
s\ls f _! bodies1 & f e>? & sea2 & t he 
conducts ! pure s\ls to ! highe/ region1
 & t he does n all[ ! impure ones to    
approa* !m1 nor to come ne> "o ano!r1 b 
commits !m to be b\nd 9 indissoluble    
fett]s by ! ,furies4 ,! ,py?agoreans    
also ass]t t ! :ole air is full ( s\ls1 
& t ^! are ^? :i* are acc\nt$ daemons & 

h]oes4 ,also1 t x is by !m t dreams are 
s5t among m51 & also ! tok5s ( disease &
 heal?2 ^! la/1 too1 be+ s5t n only to  
m51 b to %eep also1 & o!r cattle4 ,also 
t x is !y :o are conc]n$ ) purifications
 & expiations & all k9ds ( div9ation &  
oracul> pr$ictions1 & ?+s ( t k9d47#e7  
,a brief consid]ation ( ?is summ>y ( !  
doctr9es ( ,py?agoras w %[ t x at lea/  
outl9es a mo/ extraord9>y v>iety (      
sci5tific ideas4 7#a7 ,!re is sugge/$ a 
!ory ( monads & ! conception ( !        
developm5t f simple to m complex bodies1
 pass+ ?r\gh ! /ages ( l9es1 pla9       
figures1 & solids to s5sible bodies4    
7#b7 ,! doctr9e ( ! f\r elem5ts--fire1  
wat]1 e>?1 & air--z ! basis ( all       
organisms is put =w>d4 7#c7 ,! idea1 n  
m]ely ( ! sph]icity ( ! e>?1 b an       
explicit conception ( ! antipodes1 is   
express$4 7#d7 ,a conception ( ! sanit>y
 influ5ce ( ! air is cle>ly express$4   
7#e7 ,an idea ( ! problems ( g5]ation & 
h]$ity is %[n1 toge!r ) a di/9ct        
disav[al ( ! doctr9e ( spontane\s       

g5]ation--a doctr9e :i*1 x may be add$1 
rema9$ 9 vogue1 nev]!less1 = "s         
tw5ty-f\r hundr$ ye>s aft] ! "t (       
,py?agoras4 7#f7 ,a rem>kable analysis (
 m9d is made1 & a di/9ction betwe5      
animal m9ds & ! human m9d is bas$ on ?is
 analysis4 ,! physiological doctr9e t ! 
he>t is ! organ ( "o dep>tm5t ( m9d is  
(fset by ! cle> /atem5t t ! rema9+      
factors ( m9d reside 9 ! bra94 ,?is e>ly
 recognition ( bra9 z ! organ ( m9d mu/ 
n be =gott5 9 our lat] /udies4 ,x %\ld  
be recall$1 h[ev]1 t a ,crotonian       
physician1 ,alemaean1 a y\ng]           
contempor>y ( ,py?agoras1 is also cr$it$
 ) ! same !ory4 7#g7 ,a k ( anatomy is  
at lea/ vaguely =e%ad[$ 9 ! ass]tion t  
ve9s1 art]ies1 & n]ves are ! l9ks ( !   
s\l4 ,9 ?is connection x %\ld be recall$
 t ,py?agoras 0 a practical physician4  
,z aga9/ ^! sci5tific doctr9es1 h[ev]1  
"s ( !m be+ at lea/ rem>kable guesses at
 ! tru?1 att5tion mu/ be call$ to !     
conclud+ p>agraph ( our quotation1 9 :i*
 ! old famili> daemonology is outl9$1 q 

aft] ! ,ori5tal fa%ion4 ,we %all h      
occasion to say m z to ?is phase ( !    
subject lat] on4 ,meantime1 be=e leav+  
,py?agoras1 let u note t 8 practical    
/udies ( humanity l$ him to ass]t !     
doctr9e t ! prop]ty ( fri5ds is common1 
& t fri5d%ip is equality4 ,8 disciples1 
we are told1 us$ to put all _!          
possessions toge!r 9 "o /ore & use !m 9 
common4 ,"h1 !n1 seem+ly1 is ! doctr9e (
 communism put to ! te/ ( exp]im5t at   
?is e>ly day4 ,if x seem t ref]5ce to   
?is c>ries u beyond ! b\nds ( sci5ce1 x 
may be repli$ t que/ions su* z ?is w n  
lie beyond ! b\nds ( ! sci5ce ( ! ne>   
future4   ,,x5ophanes ,,& ,,p>m5ides    
,!re is a :imsical tale ab\t ,py?agoras1
 accord+ to :i* ! philosoph] 0 wont to  
decl>e t 9 an e>li] /ate he _h visit$   
,hades1 & _h !re se5 ,hom] & ,hesiod    
tortur$ because ( ! absurd ?+s !y _h    
said ab\t ! gods4 ,apocrypbal or        
o!rwise1 ! tale sugge/s t ,py?agoras 0  
an agno/ic z reg>ds ! curr5t ,greek     
religion ( 8 "t4 ,! same ?+ is p]haps   

true ( mo/ ( ! great ?9k]s ( ?is e>lie/ 
p]iod4 ,b "o among !m 0 rememb]$ 9 lat] 
times z hav+ _h a peculi> av]sion to !  
an?ropomorphic conceptions ( 8 fell[s4  
,?is 0 ,x5ophanes1 :o 0 born at         
,colophon probably ab\t ! ye> #ehj      
,b4,c41 & :o1 aft] a life ( w&]+1 settl$
 f9ally 9 ,italy & became ! f\nd] ( !   
s-call$ ,eleatic ,s*ool4  ,a few        
fragm5ts ( ! philosophical poem 9 :i*   
,x5ophanes express$ 8 views h come d[n  
to u1 & ^! fragm5ts include a tol]ably  
def9ite av[al ( 8 fai?4 ,god is "o      
supreme among gods & m51 & n l mortals 9
 body or 9 m9d1 says ,x5ophanes4 ,aga9  
he ass]ts t mortals suppose t ! gods are
 born 7z !y !mselves are71 t !y we>     
man's clo?+ & h human voice & body2 b1  
he cont9ues1 if cattle or lions _h h&s s
 z to pa9t ) _! h&s & produce works (   
art z m5 d1 !y w\ld pa9t _! gods & give 
!m bodies 9 =m l _! own--horses l       
horses1 cattle l cattle4 ,else:]e he    
says1 ) great acum53 ,!re has n be5 a   
man1 nor w !re be1 :o kn[s di/9ctly :at 

,i say ab\t ! gods or 9 reg>d to all    
?+s4 ,= ev5 if "o *ance = ! mo/ "p to   
say :at is true1 /ill he w\ld n "k2 b e 
"o ?9ks t he kn[s47#f7  ,9 ! same _s    
,x5ophanes speaks ( ! battles ( ,titans1
 ( giants1 & ( c5taurs z fictions ( =m] 
ages4 ,all ?is tells ( ! que/ion+ _s :i*
 di/+ui%es ! sci5tific inve/igator4     
,precisely :i!r ?is _s l$ him we d n "k1
 b ! writ]s ( a lat] "t h pres]v$ a     
tradition reg>d+ a belief ( ,x5ophanes t
 p]haps entitles him to be consid]$ !   
fa!r ( geology4 ,?us ,hippolytus records
 t ,x5ophanes /udi$ ! fossils to be f\nd
 9 qu>ries1 & drew f _! obs]vation      
rem>kable conclusions4 ,8 words are z   
foll[s3 ,x5ophanes believes t once ! e>?
 0 m+l$ ) ! sea1 b 9 ! c\rse ( "t x     
became fre$ f moi/ure2 & 8 pro(s are su*
 z ^!3 t %ells are f\nd 9 ! mid/ ( ! l& 
& among ! m\nta9s1 t 9 ! qu>ries (      
,syracuse ! impr9ts ( a fi% & ( seals _h
 be5 f\nd1 & 9 ,p>os ! impr9t ( an      
an*ovy at "s dep? 9 ! /one1 & 9 ,melite 
%all[ impressions ( all sorts ( sea     

products4 ,he says t ^! impr9ts 7 made  
:5 ev]y?+ long ago 0 cov]$ ) mud1 & !n !
 impr9t dri$ 9 ! mud4 ,fur!r1 he says t 
all m5 w be de/roy$ :5 ! e>? s9ks into !
 sea & becomes mud1 & t ! race w beg9   
anew f ! beg9n+2 & ?is trans=mation     
takes place = all worlds47#g7 ,"h1 !n1  
we see ?is e>lie/ ( paleontologi/s /udy+
 ! fossil-be>+ /rata ( ! e>?1 & draw+ f 
8 obs]vations a m>vell\sly sci5tific    
induction4 ,almo/ two ?\s& ye>s lat]    
ano!r fam\s citiz5 ( ,italy1 ,leon>do da
 ,v9ci1 0 indep5d5tly to ?9k out simil> 
conclusions f l obs]vations4 ,b n until 
! n9ete5? c5tury ( our era1 "s tw5ty-f\r
 hundr$ ye>s aft] ! "t ( ,x5ophanes1 0 !
 old ,greek's doctr9e to be accept$ by !
 sci5tific _w4 ,! ideas ( ,x5ophanes 7  
kn[n to 8 contempor>ies &1 z we see1    
quot$ = a few c5turies by 8 successors1 
!n !y 7 ignor$ or q =gott52 & if any    
philosoph] ( an ensu+ age be=e ! "t (   
,leon>do *ampion$ a l rational          
explanation ( ! fossils1 we h no record 
( ! fact4 ,! geological doctr9e (       

,x5ophanes1 !n1 mu/ be li/$ among ^?    
rem>kable ,greek anticipations (        
n9ete5?-c5tury sci5ce :i* suff]$ almo/  
total eclipse 9 ! int]v5+ c5turies4     
,among ! pupils ( ,x5ophanes 0          
,p>m5ides1 ! ?9k] :o 0 de/9$ to c>ry on 
! "w ( 8 ma/] along ! same sci5tific    
l9es1 ?\gh at ! same "t m+l+ 8 sci5tific
 conceptions ) ! my/icism ( ! poet4 ,we 
h already _h occasion to m5tion t       
,p>m5ides *ampion$ ! idea t ! e>? is    
r\nd2 not+ also t d\bts exi/ z to :e!r  
he or ,py?agoras orig9at$ ?is doctr9e4  
,no explicit answ] to ?is "q c possibly 
be hop$ =4 ,x seems cle>1 h[ev]1 t = a  
long "t ! ,italic ,s*ool1 to :i* bo? ^! 
philosoph]s belong$1 _h a monopoly ( !  
belief 9 "q4 ,p>m5ides1 l ,py?agoras1 is
 cr$it$ ) hav+ believ$ 9 ! motion ( !   
e>?1 ?\gh ! evid5ce furni%$ by ! writ+s 
( ! philosoph] himself is n z           
demon/rative z "o c\ld wi%4             
,un=tunately1 ! copyi/s ( a lat] age 7 m
 conc]n$ ) metaphysical speculations ?an
 ) m tangible ?+s4 ,b z f> z ! fragm5t>y

 ref]5ces to ! ideas ( ,p>m5ides may be 
accept$1 !y d n support ! idea ( ! e>?'s
 motion4 ,inde$1 ,p>m5ides is made to   
say explicitly1 9 pres]v$ fragm5ts1 t ! 
_w is immovable1 limit$1 & sph]oidal 9  
=m47#h7  ,nev]!less1 "s mod]n int]pret]s
 h f\nd an opposite mean+ 9 ,p>m5ides4  
,?us ,ritt] int]prets him z suppos+ t ! 
e>? is 9 ! c5tre sph]ical1 & ma9ta9$ 9  
rot>y motion by its equipond]ance2 ar\nd
 x lie c]ta9 r+s1 ! highe/ compos$ ( !  
r>e elem5t fire1 ! next l[] a comp\nd ( 
light & d>kness1 & l[e/ ( all "o :olly (
 night1 :i* probably indicat$ to 8 m9d !
 surface ( ! e>?1 ! c5tre ( :i* aga9 he 
probably consid]$ to be fire47#i7 ,b    
?is1 l too _m int]pretations ( anci5t   
?\ght1 appe>s to read into ! fragm5ts   
ideas :i* ! words !mselves d n w>rant4  
,!re seems no reason to d\bt1 h[ev]1 t  
,p>m5ides actually held ! doctr9e ( !   
e>?'s sph]icity4 ,ano!r glimpse ( 8     
a/ronomical doctr9es is furni%$ u by a  
fragm5t :i* tells u t he conceiv$ !     
morn+ & ! ev5+ />s to be ! same1 a      

doctr9e :i*1 z we h se51 0 ascrib$ also 
to ,py?agoras4 ,inde$1 we may repeat t x
 is q impossible to di/+ui% betwe5 !    
a/ronomical doctr9es ( ^! two           
philosoph]s4  ,! poem ( ,p>m5ides 9 :i* 
! cosmogonic speculations occur treats  
also ( ! orig9 ( man4 ,! au?or seems to 
h _h a cle> conception t intellig5ce    
dep5ds on bodily organism1 & t ! m      
elaborately develop$ ! organism ! high] 
! intellig5ce4 ,b 9 ! int]pretation (   
?is ?\ght we are hamp]$ by ! *>act]i/ic 
vagu5ess ( expression1 :i* may be/ be   
evid5c$ by putt+ be=e ! read] two       
,engli% translations ( ! same /anza4 ,"h
 is ,ritt]'s r5d]+1 z made into ,engli% 
by 8 translator1 ,morrison3   ,= exactly
 z ea* has ! /ate ( 8 limbs _m-jo9t$1 ,s
 inv>iably /&s x ) m5 9 _! m9d & _!     
reason2 ,= ! sy/em ( limbs is t :i*     
?9ke? 9 mank9d ,alike 9 all & 9 ea*3 =  
?\ght is ! fulness47#aj7  ,! same /anza 
is giv5 ?us by ,george ,h5ry ,lewes3    
,su* z to ea* man is ! nature ( 8       
_m-jo9t$ limbs1 ,su* also is !          

intellig5ce ( ea* man2 = x is ,! nature 
( limbs 7organization7 :i* ?9ke? 9 m51  
,bo? 9 "o & 9 all2 = ! highe/ degree (  
organization gives ! highe/ degree (    
?\ght47#aa7   ,"h x w be obs]v$ t !re is
 virtual agreem5t betwe5 ! translators  
except z to ! la/ clause1 b t clause is 
mo/ ess5tial4 ,! ,greek phrase is 7gr to
 g> pleon e/i nohma74 ,ritt]1 x w be    
obs]v$1 r5d]s ?is1 = ?\ght is ! fulness4
 ,lewes p>aphrases x1 = ! highe/ degree 
( organization gives ! highe/ degree (  
?\ght4 ,! diff]5ce is int5tional1 s9ce  
,lewes himself criticises ! translation 
( ,ritt]4 ,ritt]'s translation is       
c]ta9ly ! m lit]al1 b ! fact t su*      
div]sity is possible sugge/s "o ( ! *ief
 elem5ts ( unc]ta9ty t hamp] our        
int]pretation ( ! ?\ght ( antiquity4    
,un=tunately1 ! m9d ( ! comm5tator has  
usually be5 direct$ t[>ds su*           
subtleties1 r ?an t[>ds ! expression (  
precise k4 ,h5ce x is t ! philosoph]s ( 
,greece are usually ?\ght ( z m]e       
dream]s1 & t _! true /atus z sci5tific  

discov]]s is s (t5 ov]look$4 ,) ^!      
intangibilities we h no pres5t conc]n   
beyond ?is b>e m5tion2 = u x suffices to
 ga9 z cle> an idea z we may ( ! really 
sci5tific conceptions ( ^! ?9k]s1 leav+ 
! subtleties ( _! d$uctive reason+ = !  
mo/ "p unt\*$4   ,,emp$ocles  ,! late/ (
 ! important pre-,socratic philosoph]s (
 ! ,italic s*ool 0 ,emp$ocles1 :o 0 born
 ab\t #did ,b4,c4 & liv$ to ! age (     
sixty4 ,^! dates make ,emp$ocles /rictly
 contempor>y ) ,anaxagoras1 a fact :i*  
we %all d well to be> 9 m9d :5 we come  
to consid] ! latt]'s philosophy 9 !     
succe$+ *apt]4 ,l ,py?agoras1 ,emp$ocles
 is an impos+ figure4 ,inde$1 !re is mu*
 ( simil>ity betwe5 ! p]sonalities1 z   
betwe5 ! doctr9es1 ( ! two m54          
,emp$ocles1 l ,py?agoras1 0 a physician2
 l him also he 0 ! f\nd] ( a cult4 ,z   
/atesman1 prophet1 physici/1 physician1 
re=m]1 & poet he %[$ a v]satility t1    
c\pl$ ) pr(undity1 m>ks ! highe/ g5ius4 
,9 po9t ( v]satility we %all p]haps     
h>dly f9d 8 equal at a lat] day--unless1

 inde$1 an exception be made (          
,erato/h5es4 ,! my?s t h gr[n ab\t ! "n 
( ,emp$ocles %[ t he 0 a rem>kable      
p]sonality4 ,he is said to h be5 an     
awe-inspir+ figure1 clo?+ himself 9     
,ori5tal spl5dor & mov+ among mank9d z a
 sup]ior be+4 ,tradition has x t he ?rew
 himself into ! crat] ( a volcano t 8   
o!rwise unexpla9$ disappe>ance might    
lead 8 disciples to believe t he _h be5 
miracul\sly translat$2 b tradition goes 
on to say t "o ( ! braz5 slipp]s ( !    
philosoph] 0 ?r[n up by ! volcano1 ?us  
reveal+ 8 subt]fuge4 ,ano!r tradition ( 
f> m cr$ible aspect ass]ts t ,emp$ocles 
retreat$ f ,italy1 return+ to ! home ( 8
 fa!rs 9 ,peloponnesus to die !re       
obscurely4 ,x seems odd t ! facts reg>d+
 ! dea? ( s great a man1 at s           
comp>atively late a p]iod1 %\ld be      
obscure2 b ?is1 p]haps1 is 9 keep+ ) !  
p]sonality ( ! man himself4 ,8 disciples
 w\ld hesitate to ascribe a m]ely       
natural dea? to s inspir$ a prophet4    
,emp$ocles appe>s to h be5 at once an   

obs]v] & a dream]4 ,he is cr$it$ ) not+ 
t ! pressure ( air w su/a9 ! weight (   
wat] 9 an inv]t$ tube2 ) div9+1 )\t !   
possibility ( pro(1 t light has actual  
motion 9 space2 & ) ass]t+ t c5trifugal 
motion mu/ keep ! heav5s f fall+4 ,he is
 cr$it$ ) a great sanit>y feat 9 ! dra9+
 ( a m>%1 & 8 k ( m$ic9e 0 held to be   
sup]natural4 ,=tunately1 "s fragm5ts ( !
 writ+s ( ,emp$ocles h come d[n to u1   
enabl+ u to judge at fir/ h& z to "p ( 8
 doctr9es2 :ile /ill m is kn[n ?r\gh !  
ref]5ces made to him by ,plato1         
,ari/otle1 & o!r comm5tators4 ,emp$ocles
 0 a poet ^: v]ses /ood ! te/ (         
criticism4 ,9 ?is reg>d he is 9 a l     
position ) ,p>m5ides2 b 9 nei!r case are
 ! pres]v$ fragm5ts suffici5t to enable 
u fully to e/imate _! au?or's sci5tific 
atta9m5ts4 ,philosophical writ+s are    
obscure en\gh at ! be/1 & !y p]=ce      
become d\bly s :5 express$ 9 v]se4 ,yet 
!re are c]ta9 passages ( ,emp$ocles t   
are unequivocal & full ( int]e/4 ,p]haps
 ! mo/ important conception :i* ! works 

( ,emp$ocles reveal to u is ! d5ial (   
an?ropomorphism z appli$ to deity4 ,we h
 se5 h[ e>ly ! an?ropomorphic conception
 0 develop$ & h[ closely x 0 all along  
clung to2 to %ake ! m9d free f x !n 0 a 
rem>kable feat1 9 accompli%+ :i*        
,emp$ocles took a long /ep 9 ! direction
 ( rationalism4 ,8 conception is        
p>allel$ by t ( ano!r physician1        
,alcmaeon1 ( ,proton1 :o cont5d$ t man's
 ideas ( ! gods am\nt$ to m]e           
suppositions at ! v mo/4 ,a rationali/ic
 or sceptical t5d5cy has be5 !          
accompanim5t ( m$ical tra9+ 9 all ages4 
,! words 9 :i* ,emp$ocles expresses 8   
conception ( deity h be5 pres]v$ & are  
well wor? quot+3 ,x is n impossible1 he 
says1 to draw ne> 7to god7 ev5 ) ! eyes 
or to take hold ( him ) our h&s1 :i* 9  
tru? is ! be/ highway ( p]suasion 9 !   
m9d ( man2 = he has no human head fitt$ 
to a body1 nor d two %oots bran* out f !
 trunk1 nor has he feet1 nor swift legs1
 nor hairy p>ts1 b he is sacr$ &        
ineffable m9d alone1 d>t+ ?r\gh ! :ole  

_w ) swift ?\ghts47#h7  ,h[ f>          
,emp$ocles c>ri$ 8 d5ial (              
an?ropomorphism is illu/rat$ by a       
ref]5ce ( ,ari/otle1 :o ass]ts t        
,emp$ocles reg>ds god z mo/ lack+ 9 !   
p[] ( p]ception2 = he alone does n "k "o
 ( ! elem5ts1 ,/rife 7h5ce71 ( p]i%able 
?+s4 ,x is difficult to avoid ! feel+ t 
,emp$ocles "h approa*es ! mod]n         
philosophical conception t ,god1 h[ev]  
po/ulat$ z immutable1 mu/ also be       
po/ulat$ z unconsci\s1 s9ce intellig5ce1
 z we "k x1 is dep5d5t ^u !             
transmutations ( matt]4 ,b to urge ?is  
?\ght w\ld be to yield to t philosophiz+
 t5d5cy :i* has be5 ! bane (            
int]pretation z appli$ to ! anci5t      
?9k]s4  ,consid]+ = a mom5t ! m tangible
 accompli%m5ts ( ,emp$ocles1 we f9d x   
alleg$ t "o ( 8 miracles consi/$ ( !    
pres]vation ( a dead body )\t           
putrefaction = "s weeks aft] dea?4 ,we  
may assume f ?is t he _h ga9$ 9 "s way a
 k ( embalm+4 ,z he 0 notori\sly fond ( 
exp]im5t1 & z ! body 9 "q 7assum+ = !   

mom5t ! au!nticity ( ! leg5d7 mu/ h be5 
pres]v$ )\t disfigurem5t1 x is          
conceivable ev5 t he _h hit ^u ! idea ( 
inject+ ! art]ies4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 is    
pure conjecture2 yet x f9ds a c]ta9     
w>rant1 bo? 9 ! fact t ! words (        
,py?agoras lead u to believe t ! art]ies
 7 kn[n & /udi$1 & 9 ! fact t           
,emp$ocles' own words reveal him also z 
a /ud5t ( ! vascul> sy/em4 ,?us ,plut>* 
cites ,emp$ocles z believ+ t ! rul+ "p  
is n 9 ! head or 9 ! brea/1 b 9 ! blood2
 :]e=e 9 :atev] "p ( ! body ! m ( ?is is
 spread 9 t "p m5 excel47#ac7 ,&        
,emp$ocles' own words1 z pres]v$ by     
,/obaeus1 ass]t 7! he>t7 lies 9 seas (  
blood :i* d>t 9 opposite directions1 &  
!re mo/ ( all intellig5ce c5tres = m52 =
 blood ab\t ! he>t is intellig5ce 9 !   
case ( man4 ,all ?is implies a really   
rem>kable appreciation ( ! dep5d5ce (   
vital activities ^u ! blood4  ,?is      
correct physiological conception1 h[ev]1
 0 by no means ! mo/ rem>kable ( ! ideas
 to :i* ,emp$oeles 0 l$ by 8 anatomical 

/udies4 ,8 greate/ accompli%m5t 0 to h  
conceiv$ & cle>ly express$ an idea :i* !
 mod]n evolutioni/ connotes :5 he speaks
 ( homolog\s p>ts--an idea :i* f\nd a   
fam\s mod]n expositor 9 ,goe!1 z we %all
 see :5 we come to deal )               
eighte5?-c5tury sci5ce4 ,emp$ocles      
expresses ! idea 9 ^! words3 ,hair1 &   
leaves1 & ?ick fea!rs ( birds1 are !    
same ?+ 9 orig91 & reptile scales too on
 /rong limbs4 ,b on h$gehogs %>p-po9t$  
hair bri/les on _! backs47#ad7 ,t ! idea
 ( transmutation ( p>ts1 z well z ( m]e 
homology1 0 9 m9d is evid5c$ by a v     
rem>kable s5t5ce 9 :i* ,ari/otle ass]ts1
 ,emp$ocles says t f+]nails rise f s9ew 
f h>d5+4 ,nor is ?is q all1 = surely we 
f9d ! g]m ( ! ,lam>ckian conception (   
evolution ?r\gh ! transmission ( acquir$
 *>act]s 9 ! ass]tion t _m *>act]i/ics  
appe> 9 animals because x happ5$ to be  
?us 9 _! bir?1 z t !y h su* a sp9e      
because !y happ5 to be desc5d$ f "o t   
b5t itself backw>d47#ae7 ,ari/otle1 9   
quot+ ?is rem>k1 ass]ts1 ) ! dogmatism  

:i* *>act]izes ! philosophical          
comm5tators ( e age1 t ,emp$ocles is    
wrong1 9 mak+ ?is ass]tion2 b ,lam>ck1  
:o liv$ tw5ty-?ree hundr$ ye>s aft]     
,emp$ocles1 is fam\s 9 ! hi/ory ( !     
doctr9e ( evolution = elaborat+ ?is v   
idea4  ,x is fair to add1 h[ev]1 t !    
dream+s ( ,emp$ocles reg>d+ ! orig9 (   
liv+ organisms l$ him to "s conceptions 
t 7 mu* less lum9\s4 ,on occasion1      
,emp$ocles ! poet got ! bett] (         
,emp$ocles ! sci5ti/1 & we are pres5t$ )
 a conception ( creation z grotesque z t
 :i* delight$ ! read]s ( ,p>adise ,lo/  
at a lat] day4 ,emp$ocles assures u t _m
 heads gr[ up )\t necks1 & arms 7 w&]+  
ab\t1 necks b]eft ( %\ld]s1 & eyes roam$
 ab\t alone ) no =eheads47#af7 ,?is     
*aotic condition1 s ! poet dream$1 l$ to
 ! union ( _m incongru\s p>ts1 produc+  
creatures ) d\ble faces1 (fspr+ ( ox5 ) 
human faces1 & *ildr5 ( m5 ) ox5 heads4 
,b out ( ?is *aos came1 f9ally1 we are  
l$ to inf]1 a h>moni\s aggregation (    
p>ts1 produc+ ultimately ! p]fect$      

organisms t we see4 ,un=tunately !      
pres]v$ portions ( ! writ+s ( ,emp$ocles
 d n enlight5 u z to ! precise way 9 :i*
 f9al evolution 0 suppos$ to be effect$2
 al?\gh ! idea ( endless exp]im5tation  
until natural selection result$ 9       
survival ( ! fitte/ seems n f> afield f 
c]ta9 ( ! poetical ass]tions4 ,?us3 ,z  
div9ity 0 m+l$ yet m ) div9ity1 ^! ?+s  
7! v>i\s memb]s7 kept com+ toge!r 9     
:atev] way ea* might *ance4 ,aga93 ,at  
"o "t all ! limbs :i* =m ! body unit$   
into "o by love grew vigor\sly 9 ! prime
 ( life2 b yet at ano!r "t1 sep>at$ by  
evil ,/rife1 !y w&] ea* 9 diff]5t       
directions along ! break]s ( ! sea (    
life4 ,j s is x ) plants1 & ) fi%es     
dwell+ 9 wat]y halls1 & bea/s ^: lair is
 9 ! m\nta9s1 & birds borne on w+s47#ag7
  ,all ?is is poetry r ?an sci5ce1 yet  
su* imag9+s c\ld come only to "o :o 0   
grop+ t[>ds :at we mod]ns %\ld t]m an   
evolution>y conception ( ! orig9s (     
organic life2 & h[ev] grotesque "s ( ^! 
expressions may appe>1 x mu/ be admitt$ 

t ! morphological ideas ( ,emp$ocles1 z 
above quot$1 give ! ,sicilian philosoph]
 a secure place among ! anticipators ( !
 mod]n evolutioni/4     ,,vii4 ,,greek  
,,sci5ce ,,9 ,,! ,,e>ly ,,attic ,,p]iod 
,we h travell$ r f> 9 our /udy ( ,greek 
sci5ce1 & yet we h n until n[ come to   
,greece itself4 ,& ev5 n[1 ! m5 ^: names
 we are to consid] 71 = ! mo/ "p1 born 9
 out-ly+ portions ( ! empire2 !y diff]$ 
f ! o!rs we h consid]$ only 9 ! fact t  
!y 7 drawn pres5tly to ! capital4 ,!    
*ange is due to a mo/ int]e/+ sequ5ce ( 
hi/orical ev5ts4 ,9 ! day :5 ,?ales & 8 
imm$iate successors taught 9 ,miletus1  
:5 ! great m5 ( ! ,italic s*ool 7 9 _!  
prime1 !re 0 no s+le undisput$ ,c5tre ( 
,greek influ5ce4 ,! ,greeks 7 a         
disorganiz$ company ( petty nations1    
weld$ toge!r *iefly by unity ( spee*2 b 
n[1 e>ly 9 ! fif? c5tury ,b4,c41 occurr$
 t fam\s attack ^u ! ,we/]n _w by !     
,p]sians "u ,d>ius & 8 son & successor  
,x]xes4 ,a few mon?s ( battl+ det]m9$ ! 
fate ( ! ,we/]n _w4 ,! ,ori5tals 7 hurl$

 back2 ! glori\s memories ( ,m>a?on1    
,salamis1 & ,plataea /imulat$ !         
patriotism & en?usiasm ( all *ildr5 ( ! 
,greek race4 ,! ,greeks1 = ! fir/ "t1   
occupi$ ! c5tre ( ! hi/orical /age2 = ! 
brief int]val ( ab\t half a c5tury !    
diff]5t ,grecian pr9cipalities liv$     
toge!r 9 relative h>mony4 ,"o city 0    
recogniz$ z ! metropolis ( ! loosely    
b\nd empire2 "o city became ! home (    
culture & ! ,mecca t[>ds :i* all eyes   
turn$2 t city1 ( c\rse1 0 ,a!ns4 ,= a   
brief "t all roads l$ to ,a!ns1 z1 at a 
lat] date1 !y all l$ to ,rome4 ,!       
wat]ways :i* alone b\nd ! widely scatt]$
 p>ts ( ,hellas into a unit$ :ole l$ out
 f ,a!ns & back to ,a!ns1 z ! spokes ( a
 :eel to its hub4 ,a!ns 0 ! comm]cial   
c5tre1 &1 l>gely = t reason1 x became ! 
c5tre ( culture & intellectual influ5ce 
also4 ,! wise m5 f ! colonies visit$ !  
metropolis1 & ! wise ,a!nians w5t out to
 ! colonies4 ,:oev] aspir$ to become a  
lead] 9 politics1 9 art1 9 lit]ature1 or
 9 philosophy1 made 8 way to ! capital1 

& s1 ) almo/ bewild]+ sudd5ness1 !re    
blossom$ ! civilization ( ! age (       
,p]icles2 ! civilization :i* produc$    
aes*ylus1 ,sophocles1 ,euripides1       
,h]odotus1 & ,?ucydides2 ! civilization 
:i* made possible ! build+ ( ! ,p>!non4 
,,anaxagoras  ,sometime dur+ ! e>ly "p (
 ?is gold5 age !re came to ,a!ns a      
middle-ag$ man f ,clazom5ae1 :o1 f our  
pres5t /&-po9t1 0 a m int]e/+ p]sonality
 ?an p]haps any o!r 9 ! great galaxy (  
rem>kable m5 assembl$ !re4 ,! "n ( ?is  
new-com] 0 ,anaxagoras4 ,x 0 said 9     
aft]-"t1 we "k n ) :at degree ( tru?1 t 
he _h be5 a pupil ( ,anaxim5es4 ,if s1  
he 0 a pupil :o dep>t$ f> f ! tea*+s ( 8
 ma/]4 ,:at we "k = c]ta9 is t          
,anaxagoras 0 a truly orig9al ?9k]1 & t 
he became a close fri5d--9 a s5se !     
tea*]--( ,p]icles & ( ,euripides4 ,j h[ 
long he rema9$ at ,a!ns is n c]ta92 b ! 
"t came :5 he _h made himself 9 "s way  
objectionable to ! ,a!nian populace     
?r\gh 8 tea*+s4 ,fill$ ) ! _s ( !       
inve/igator1 he c\ld n accept ! curr5t  

conceptions z to ! gods4 ,he 0 a        
sceptic1 an innovator4 ,su* m5 are nev] 
welcome2 !y are ! *ief factors 9 !      
progress ( ?\ght1 b !y mu/ look always  
to po/]ity = recognition ( _! wor?2 f _!
 contempor>ies !y receive1 n ?anks1 b   
p]secution4 ,sometimes ?is p]secution   
takes "o =m1 sometimes ano!r2 to ! cr$it
 ( ! ,greeks be x said1 t ) !m x usually
 l$ to no?+ m sev]e ?an bani%m5t4 ,9 !  
case ( ,anaxagoras1 x is alleg$ t !     
s5t5ce pron\nc$ 0 dea?2 b t1 ?anks to ! 
influ5ce ( ,p]icles1 ?is s5t5ce 0       
commut$ to bani%m5t4 ,9 any ev5t1 ! ag$ 
philosoph] 0 s5t away f ! city ( 8      
adoption4 ,he retir$ to ,lampsacus4 ,x  
is n ,i t h lo/ ! ,a!nians1 he said2 x  
is ! ,a!nians t h lo/ me4  ,! exact     
position :i* ,anaxagoras _h among 8     
contempor>ies1 & 8 exact place 9 !      
developm5t ( philosophy1 h always be5   
some:at 9 dispute4 ,x is n kn[n1 ( a    
c]ta9ty1 t he ev5 held an op5 s*ool at  
,a!ns4 ,ritt] ?9ks x d\btful t he did4  
,x 0 8 fate to be misund]/ood1 or       

und]e/imat$1 by ,ari/otle2 t 9 itself   
w\ld h suffic$ greatly to dim 8         
fame--might1 inde$1 h l$ to 8 almo/     
entire neglect _h he n be5 a truly      
rem>kable ?9k]4 ,) mo/ ( ! que/ions t h 
ex]cis$ ! comm5tators we h b scant      
conc]n4 ,foll[+ ,ari/otle1 mo/ hi/orians
 ( philosophy h be5 metaphysicians2 !y h
 conc]n$ !mselves f> less ) :at ! anci5t
 ?9k]s really knew ?an ) :at !y ?\ght4  
,a *ance us+ ( a v]bal quibble1 an      
esot]ic phrase1 ! expression ( a vague  
my/icism--^! w\ld suffice to call =?    
reams ( exposition4 ,x has be5 !        
favorite pa/ime ( hi/orians to weave _! 
own ana*roni/ic !ories ^u ! scanty wo( (
 ! half-rememb]$ ?\ghts ( ! anci5t      
philosoph]s4 ,to make su* clo? ( !      
imag9ation z ?is is an allur+ pa/ime1 b 
"o t mu/ n div]t u "h4 ,our po9t ( view 
rev]ses t ( ! philosoph]s4 ,we are      
*iefly conc]n$1 n ) "s vague say+ (     
,anaxagoras1 b ) :at he really knew     
reg>d+ ! ph5om5a ( nature2 ) :at he     
obs]v$1 & ) ! compreh5sible d$uctions t 

he d]iv$ f 8 obs]vations4 ,9 attempt+ to
 answ] ^! inquiries1 we are oblig$1 9   
"p1 to take our evid5ce at second-h&2 b1
 =tunately1 "s fragm5ts ( writ+s (      
,anaxagoras h come d[n to u4 ,we are    
told t he wrote only a s+le book4 ,x 0  
said ev5 7by ,diog5es7 t he 0 ! fir/ man
 t ev] wrote a "w 9 prose4 ,! latt]     
/atem5t w\ld n be> too close an         
exam9ation1 yet x is true t no ext5sive 
prose compositions ( an e>li] day ?an   
?is h be5 pres]v$1 ?\gh num]\s o!rs are 
kn[n by _! fragm5ts4 ,h]odotus1 ! fa!r (
 prose1 0 a slightly y\ng] contempor>y (
 ! ,clazom5aean philosoph]2 n unlikely !
 two m5 may h met at ,a!ns4  ,not)/&+ ! 
loss ( ! great] "p ( ! writ+s (         
,anaxagoras1 h[ev]1 a tol]ably precise  
acc\nt ( 8 sci5tific doctr9es is        
accessible4 ,diog5es ,la]tius expresses 
"s ( !m 9 v cle> & precise t]ms4 ,we h  
already po9t$ out ! unc]ta9ty t atta*es 
to su* evid5ce z ?is1 b x is z valid =  
,anaxagoras z = ano!r4 ,if we reject su*
 evid5ce1 we %all (t5 h almo/ no?+ left2

 9 accept+ x we may at lea/ feel c]ta9 t
 we are view+ ! ?9k] z 8 contempor>ies &
 imm$iate successors view$ him4 ,foll[+ 
,diog5es1 !n1 we %all f9d "s rem>kable  
sci5tific op9ions ascrib$ to            
,anaxagoras4 ,he ass]t$1 we are told1 t 
! sun 0 a mass ( burn+ iron1 great] ?an 
,peloponnesus1 & t ! moon conta9$ h\ses 
& also hills & rav9es4 ,9 corroboration 
( ?is1 ,plato repres5ts him z hav+      
conjectur$ ! "r explanation ( ! moon's  
light1 & ( ! sol> & lun> eclipses4 ,he  
_h o!r a/ronomical !ories t 7 m         
fanciful2 ?us he said t ! />s orig9ally 
mov$ ab\t 9 irregul> confusion1 s t at  
fir/ ! pole-/>1 :i* is cont9ually       
visible1 always appe>$ 9 ! z5i?1 b t    
aft]w>ds x acquir$ a c]ta9 decl9ation1 &
 t ! ,milky ,way 0 a reflection ( !     
light ( ! sun :5 ! />s did n appe>4 ,!  
comets he consid]$ to be a conc\rse (   
planets emitt+ rays1 & ! %oot+-/>s he   
?\ght 7 sp>ks1 z x 71 leap+ f !         
firmam5t4  ,mu* ( ?is is f> en\gh f !   
tru?1 z we n[ "k x1 yet all ( x %[s an  

e>ne/ endeavor to expla9 ! obs]v$       
ph5om5a ( ! heav5s on rational          
pr9ciples4 ,to h pr$icat$ ! sun z a     
great molt5 mass ( iron 0 inde$ a       
wond]ful anticipation ( ! results ( !   
mod]n spectroscope4 ,nor c x be said t  
?is hypo!sis ( ,anaxagoras 0 a purely   
vision>y guess4 ,x 0 9 all probability a
 sci5tific d$uction f ! obs]v$ "* (     
meteoric /ones4 ,ref]5ce has already be5
 made to ! alleg$ pr$iction ( ! fall ( !
 fam\s meteor at aegespotomi by         
,anaxagoras4 ,! ass]tion t he actually  
pr$ict$ ?is fall 9 any prop] s5se ( ! ^w
 w\ld be obvi\sly absurd4 ,yet ! fact t 
8 "n is associat$ ) x sugge/s t he _h   
/udi$ simil> meteorites1 or else t he   
/udi$ ?is p>ticul> "o1 s9ce x is n q    
cle> :e!r x 0 be=e or aft] ?is fall t he
 made ! fam\s ass]tion t space is full (
 fall+ /ones4 ,we %\ld /ret* !          
probabilities 7 we to ass]t t           
,anaxagoras knew t %oot+-/>s & meteors 7
 ! same1 yet !re is an int]e/+          
sugge/iv5ess 9 8 lik5+ ! %oot+-/>s to   

sp>ks leap+ f ! firmam5t1 tak5 9        
connection ) 8 obs]vation on meteorites4
 ,be ?is z x may1 ! fact t some?+ :i*   
falls f heav5 z a blaz+ light turns out 
to be an iron-l mass may v well h       
sugge/$ to ! mo/ rational ( ?9k]s t !   
great blaz+ light call$ ! sun has ! same
 composition4 ,?is idea grasp$1 x 0 a n 
unnatural ext5sion to conceive ! o!r    
heav5ly bodies z hav+ ! same            
composition4  ,?is l$ to a truly />tl+  
?\ght4 ,s9ce ! heav5ly bodies are ( !   
same composition z ! e>?1 & s9ce !y are 
obs]v$ to be :irl+ ab\t ! e>? 9 space1  
may we n suppose t !y 7 once a "p ( !   
e>? itself1 & t !y h be5 ?r[n (f by !   
=ce ( a :irl+ motion8 ,su* 0 !          
conclusion :i* ,anaxagoras rea*$2 su* 8 
explanation ( ! orig9 ( ! heav5ly       
bodies4 ,x 0 a m>vell\s guess4 ,d$uct f 
x all t rec5t sci5ce has %[n to be      
untrue2 be> 9 m9d t ! />s are suns1     
comp>$ ) :i* ! e>? is a m]e speck ( du/2
 recall t ! sun is p>5t1 n daught]1 ( ! 
e>?1 & despite all ^! d$uctions1 !      

cosmogonic guess ( ,anaxagoras rema9s1 z
 x seems to u1 "o ( ! mo/ m>vell\s feats
 ( human intellig5ce4 ,x 0 ! fir/       
explanation ( ! cosmic bodies t c\ld be 
call$1 9 any s5se1 an anticipation ( :at
 ! sci5ce ( our own day accepts z a true
 explanation ( cosmic orig9s4 ,moreov]1 
let u urge aga9 t ?is 0 no m]e accid5tal
 flight ( ! imag9ation2 x 0 a sci5tific 
induction bas$ on ! only data available2
 p]haps x is n too mu* to say t x 0 !   
only sci5tific induction :i* ^! data    
w\ld fairly su/a94 ,( c\rse x is n = a  
mom5t to be inf]r$ t ,anaxagoras        
und]/ood1 9 ! mod]n s5se1 ! "* ( t :irl+
 =ce :i* we call c5trifugal4 ,ab\t two  
?\s& ye>s 7 yet to elapse be=e t =ce 0  
expla9$ z elem5t>y in]tia2 & ev5 t      
explanation1 let u n =get1 m]ely suffic$
 to pu% back ! b>ri]s ( my/]y by "o o!r 
/age2 = ev5 9 our day in]tia is a       
/atem5t ( fact r ?an an explanation4  ,b
 h[ev] little ,anaxagoras c\ld expla9 ! 
c5trifugal =ce on me*anical pr9ciples1 !
 practical p[]s ( t =ce 7 suffici5tly   

op5 to 8 obs]vation4 ,! m]e exp]im5t (  
?r[+ a /one f a sl+ w\ld1 to an obs]v+  
m9d1 be full ( sugge/iv5ess4 ,x w\ld be 
obvi\s t by :irl+ ! sl+ ab\t1 ! /one :i*
 x held w\ld be su/a9$ 9 its circl+ pa? 
ab\t ! h& 9 seem+ defiance ( ! e>?'s    
pull1 & aft] ! /one _h left ! sl+1 x    
c\ld fly away f ! e>? to a di/ance :i* !
 mo/ casual obs]vation w\ld prove to be 
proportionate to ! spe$ ( its flight4   
,extremely rapid motion1 !n1 might      
project bodies f ! e>?'s surface (f into
 space2 a suffici5tly rapid :irl w\ld   
keep !m !re4 ,anaxagoras conceiv$ t ?is 
0 precisely :at _h occurr$4 ,8          
imag9ation ev5 c>ri$ him a /ep f>!r--to 
a conception ( a slack5+ ( spe$1 ?r\gh  
:i* ! heav5ly bodies w\ld lose _!       
c5trifugal =ce1 &1 respond+ to !        
p]petual pull ( gravitation1 w\ld fall  
back to ! e>?1 j z ! great /one at      
aegespotomi _h be5 obs]v$ to d4  ,"h we 
w\ld seem to h a cle> conception ( !    
idea ( univ]sal gravitation1 &          
,anaxagoras /&s be=e u z ! anticipator (

 ,newton4 ,7 x n = "o sci5tific maxim1  
we might exalt ! old ,greek above !     
greate/ ( mod]n natural philosoph]s2 b t
 maxim bids u pause4 ,x is phras$ ?us1  
,he discov]s :o proves4 ,anaxagoras c\ld
 n prove2 8 argum5t 0 at be/ sugge/ive1 
n demon/rative4 ,he did n ev5 "k ! laws 
:i* gov]n fall+ bodies2 mu* less c\ld he
 apply su* laws1 ev5 _h he kn[n !m1 to  
sid]eal bodies at ^: size & di/ance he  
c\ld only guess 9 ! vague/ t]ms4 ,/ill 8
 cosmogonic speculation rema9s z p]haps 
! mo/ rem>kable "o ( antiquity4 ,h[     
widely 8 speculation f\nd curr5cy among 
8 imm$iate successors is in/anc$ 9 a    
passage f ,plato1 :]e ,socrates is      
repres5t$ z scornfully answ]+ a         
calumniator 9 ^! t]ms3 ,he ass]ts t ,i  
say ! sun is a /one & ! moon an e>?4 ,d 
y ?9k ( accus+ ,anaxagoras1 ,miletas1 & 
h y s l[ an op9ion ( ^! m51 & ?9k !m s  
unskill$ 9 laws1 z n to "k t ! books (  
,anaxagoras ! ,clazom5aean are full ( ^!
 doctr9es4 ,& =soo? ! "y m5 are le>n+ ^!
 matt]s f me :i* sometimes !y c buy f ! 

or*e/ra = a dra*ma1 at ! mo/1 & laugh at
 ,socrates if he pret5ds !y are         
8-p>ticul>ly see+ !y are s /range4  ,!  
elem5t ( error conta9$ 9 ^! cosmogonic  
speculations ( ,anaxagoras has l$       
critics to d !m some?+ less ?an ju/ice4 
,b !re is "o o!r a/ronomical speculation
 = :i* ! ,clazom5aean philosoph] has    
receiv$ full cr$it4 ,x is g5]ally       
admitt$ t x 0 he :o fir/ f\nd out !     
explanation ( ! phases ( ! moon2 a k t t
 body %9es only by reflect$ light1 & t  
its visible =ms1 wax+ & wan+ mon? by    
mon? f cresc5t to disk & f disk to      
cresc5t1 m]ely repres5t our %ift+ view (
 its sun-illum9$ face4 ,x is difficult  
to put ourselves 9 ! place ( ! anci5t   
obs]v] & realize h[ little ! appe>ances 
sugge/ ! actual fact4 ,t a body ( ! same
 /ructure z ! e>? %\ld %9e ) ! radiance 
( ! moon m]ely because sunlight is      
reflect$ f x1 is 9 itself a supposition 
seem+ly contradict$ by ord9>y exp]i5ce4 
,x requir$ ! m9d ( a philosoph]1 su/a9$1
 p]haps1 by "s exp]im5tal obs]vations1  

to conceive ! idea t :at seems s        
obvi\sly bright may be 9 reality d>k4 ,!
 g]m ( ! conception ( :at ! philosoph]  
speaks ( z ! n\m5a1 or actualities1 back
 ( ph5om5a or appe>ances1 _h p]haps ?is 
crude beg9n+4 ,anaxagoras c\ld surely   
po9t to ! moon 9 support ( 8 seem+      
p>adox t sn[1 be+ really compos$ ( wat]1
 :i* is d>k1 is 9 reality black & n     
:ite--a cont5tion to :i* we %all ref] m 
at l5g? 9 a mom5t4  ,b !re is yet ano!r 
/rik+ ?\ght connect$ ) ?is new          
explanation ( ! phases ( ! moon4 ,!     
explanation implies n m]ely ! reflection
 ( light by a d>k body1 b by a d>k body 
( a p>ticul> =m4 ,grant$ t reflections  
are 9 "q1 no body b a sph]ical "o c\ld  
give an appe>ance :i* ! moon pres5ts4 ,!
 moon1 !n1 is n m]ely a mass ( e>?1 x is
 a sph]ical mass ( e>?4 ,"h !re 7 no    
flaws 9 ! reason+ ( ,anaxagoras4 ,by    
sci5tific induction he pass$ f          
obs]vation to explanation4 ,a new & mo/ 
important elem5t 0 add$ to ! sci5ce (   
a/ronomy4  ,look+ back f ! latt]-day    

/&-po9t1 x w\ld seem z if ! m9d ( !     
philosoph] mu/ h tak5 "o o!r /ep3 ! m9d 
t _h conceiv$ sun1 moon1 />s1 & e>? to  
be ( "o sub/ance might naturally1 we    
%\ld ?9k1 h rea*$ out to ! fur!r        
induction t1 s9ce ! moon is a sph]e1 !  
o!r cosmic bodies1 includ+ ! e>?1 mu/ be
 sph]es also4 ,b g5]aliz] z he 01       
,anaxagoras 0 too rigidly sci5tific a   
?9k] to make ?is assumption4 ,! data at 
8 comm& did n1 z he analyz$ !m1 seem to 
po9t to ?is conclusion4 ,we h se5 t     
,py?agoras probably1 & ,p>m5ides surely1
 out !re 9 ,italy _h conceiv$ ! idea ( !
 e>?'s rotundity1 b ! ,py?agorean       
doctr9es 7 n rapidly tak5 up 9 !        
"m-c\ntry1 & ,p>m5ides1 x mu/ be        
recall$1 0 a /rict contempor>y (        
,anaxagoras himself4 ,x is no reproa*1  
!re=e1 to ! ,clazom5aean philosoph] t he
 %\ld h held to ! old idea t ! e>? is   
flat1 or at mo/ a convex disk--! latt]  
be+ ! ,babylonian conception :i*        
probably dom9at$ t ,milesian s*ool to   
:i* ,anaxagoras h>k$ back4  ,anaxagoras 

may nev] h se5 an eclipse ( ! moon1 &   
ev5 if he _h he might h reflect$ t1 f   
c]ta9 directions1 a disk may ?r[        
precisely ! same %ad[ z a sph]e4        
,moreov]1 9 ref]5ce to ! %ad[ ca/ by !  
e>?1 !re 01 s ,anaxagoras believ$1 an   
obs]vation op5 to him nightly :i*1 we   
may well suppose1 0 n )\t influ5ce 9    
sugge/+ to 8 m9d ! probable %ape ( !    
e>?4 ,! ,milky ,way1 :i* d\btless _h    
puzzl$ a/ronom]s f ! beg9n+s ( hi/ory & 
:i* 0 to cont9ue to puzzle !m = _m      
c5turies aft] ! day ( ,anaxagoras1 0    
expla9$ by ! ,clazom5aean philosoph] on 
a !ory obvi\sly sugge/$ by ! !ory ( !   
moon's phases4 ,s9ce ! e>?-l moon %9es  
by reflect$ light at night1 & s9ce ! />s
 seem obvi\sly bright] on d>k nights1   
,anaxagoras 0 b foll[+ up a p]fectly    
logical induction :5 he prop\nd$ ! !ory 
t ! />s 9 ! ,milky ,way seem m num]\s & 
bright] ?an ^? ( any o!r "p ( ! heav5s1 
m]ely because ! ,milky ,way m>ks ! %ad[ 
( ! e>?4 ,( c\rse ! inf]5ce 0 wrong1 s  
f> z ! %ad[ ( ! e>? is conc]n$2 yet x   

conta9$ a "p tru?1 ! =ce ( :i* 0 nev]   
fully recogniz$ until ! "t ( ,galileo4  
,?is consi/s 9 ! ass]tion t ! brightness
 ( ! ,milky ,way is m]ely due to ! gl[ (
 _m />s4 ,! %ad[-!ory ( ,anaxagoras w\ld
 naturally cease to h validity s soon z 
! sph]icity ( ! e>? 0 prov$1 & ) x1     
seem+ly1 fell = ! "t ! companion !ory t 
! ,milky ,way is made up ( a multitude (
 />s4  ,x has be5 said by a mod]n       
critic7#a7 t ! %ad[-!ory 0 *ildi% 9 t x 
fail$ to note t ! ,milky ,way does n    
foll[ ! c\rse ( ! ecliptic4 ,b ?is      
criticism only holds good s long z we   
reflect on ! true "* ( ! e>? z a        
symmetrical body pois$ 9 space4 ,x is q 
possible to conceive a body occupy+ !   
position ( ! e>? ) ref]5ce to ! sun :i* 
w\ld ca/ a %ad[ hav+ su* a t5u\s =m z ! 
,milky ,way pres5ts4 ,su* a body        
obvi\sly w\ld n be a globe1 b a         
long-drawn-out1 att5uat$ figure4 ,!re   
is1 to be sure1 no direct evid5ce       
pres]v$ to %[ t ,anaxagoras conceiv$ !  
_w to pres5t su* a figure z ?is1 b :at  

we "k ( t philosoph]'s close-reason+1   
logical m9d gives "s w>rant to !        
assumption--gratuit\s ?\gh 9 a s5se x   
be--t ! au?or ( ! !ory ( ! moon's phases
 _h n fail$ to ask himself :at mu/ be ! 
=m ( t t]re/rial body :i* c\ld ca/ !    
t5u\s %ad[ ( ! ,milky ,way4 ,moreov]1 we
 mu/ recall t ! habitable e>?1 z kn[n to
 ! ,greeks ( t day1 0 a relatively n>r[ 
b& ( t]ritory1 /ret*+ f> to ! ea/ & to !
 we/4   ,anaxagoras z ,meteorologi/  ,! 
man :o _h /udi$ ! meteorite (           
aegospotami1 & be5 put by x on ! track (
 su* rem>kable inductions1 01 naturally1
 n oblivi\s to ! o!r ph5om5a ( !        
atmosph]e4 ,inde$1 su* a m9d z t (      
,anaxagoras 0 sure to inve/igate all    
mann] ( natural ph5om5a1 & almo/ equally
 sure to ?r[ new light on any subject t 
x inve/igat$4 ,h5ce x is n surpris+ to  
f9d ,anaxagoras cr$it$ ) expla9+ ! w9ds 
z due to ! r>efactions ( ! atmosph]e    
produc$ by ! sun4 ,?is explanation gives
 ,anaxagoras full "r to be call$ ! fa!r 
( meteorology1 a title :i*1 x may be1 no

 "o has ?\ght ( apply+ to him1 *iefly   
because ! sci5ce ( meteorology did n    
make its real beg9n+s until "s tw5ty-f\r
 hundr$ ye>s aft] ! dea? ( its fir/     
great vot>y4 ,n cont5t ) expla9+ ! w9ds1
 ?is prototype ( ,frankl9 turn$ 8       
att5tion ev5 to ! tipp] atmosph]e4      
,?und]1 he is reput$ to h said1 0       
produc$ by ! collision ( ! cl\ds1 &     
lightn+ by ! rubb+ toge!r ( ! cl\ds4 ,we
 d>e n g s f> z to sugge/ t ?is implies 
an association 9 ! m9d ( ,anaxagoras    
betwe5 ! friction ( ! cl\ds & ! obs]v$  
electrical effects g5]at$ by ! friction 
( su* a sub/ance z amb]4 ,to make su* a 
sugge/ion d\btless w\ld be to fall      
victim to ! old famili> prop5sity to    
read into ,hom] ?+s t ,hom] nev] knew4  
,yet ! significant fact rema9s t        
,anaxagoras ascrib$ to ?und] & to       
lightn+ _! true position z /rictly      
natural ph5om5a4 ,= him x 0 no god t    
m5ac$ humanity ) ?und]+ voice & ! fla% (
 8 div9e fires f ! cl\ds4 ,little wond] 
t ! ?9k] ^: sci5ce c>ri$ him to su*     

scepticism z ?is %\ld h felt ! wra? ( ! 
sup]/iti\s ,a!nians4   ,biological      
,speculations  ,pass+ f ! ph5om5a ( !   
air to ^? ( ! e>? itself1 we le>n t     
,anaxagoras expla9$ an e>?quake z be+   
produc$ by ! return+ ( air into ! e>?4  
,we _c be sure z to ! exact mean+ "h1   
?\gh ! idea t gases are imprison$ 9 !   
sub/ance ( ! e>? seems n f> afield4 ,b a
 f> m rem>kable insight ?an ?is w\ld    
imply 0 %[n by ,anaxagoras :5 he ass]t$ 
t a c]ta9 am\nt ( air is conta9$ 9 wat]1
 & t fi%es brea! ?is air4 ,! passage (  
,ari/otle 9 :i* ?is op9ion is ascrib$ to
 ,anaxagoras is ( suffici5t int]e/ to be
 quot$ at l5g?3  ,democritus1 ( ,abd]a1 
says ,ari/otle1 & "s o!rs1 t h spok5    
conc]n+ respiration1 h det]m9$ no?+     
conc]n+ o!r animals1 b seem to h suppos$
 t all animals respire4 ,b ,anaxagoras &
 ,diog5es 7,apolloniates71 :o say t all 
animals respire1 h also endeavor$ to    
expla9 h[ fi%es1 & all ^? animals t h a 
h>d1 r\gh %ell1 su* z oy/]s1 mussels1   
etc41 respire4 ,& ,anaxagoras1 inde$1   

says t fi%es1 :5 !y emit wat] ?r\gh _!  
gills1 attract air f ! m\? to ! vacuum 9
 ! visc]a f ! wat] :i* surr\nds ! m\?2 z
 if air 0 inh]5t 9 ! wat]47#b7  ,x %\ld 
be recall$ t ( ! ?ree philosoph]s ?us   
m5tion$ z cont5d+ t all animals respire1
 ,anaxagoras 0 ! eld]2 he1 !re=e1 0     
presumably ! orig9ator ( ! idea4 ,x w be
 obs]v$1 too1 t ,anaxagoras alone is    
held responsible = ! idea t fi%es       
respire air ?r\gh _! gills1 attract+ x f
 ! wat]4 ,?is c]ta9ly 0 "o ( ! %rewde/  
physiological guesses ( any age1 if x be
 reg>d$ z a m]e guess4 ,) great] ju/ice 
we might ref] to x z a pr(\nd d$uction f
 ! pr9ciple ( ! uni=mity ( nature4  ,9  
mak+ su* a d$uction1 ,anaxagoras 0 f> 9 
advance ( 8 "t z illu/rat$ by ! fact t  
,ari/otle makes ! citation we h j quot$ 
m]ely to add t su* ?+s are impossible1 &
 to refute ^! impossible ideas by means 
( metaphysical reason+s t seem$         
demon/rative n m]ely to himself1 b to _m
 g5]ations ( 8 foll[]s4  ,we are told t 
,anaxagoras alleg$ t all animals 7      

orig9ally g5]at$ out ( moi/ure1 heat1 & 
e>? p>ticles4 ,j :at op9ion he held     
conc]n+ man's developm5t we are n in=m$4
 ,yet !re is "o ( 8 phrases :i*         
sugge/s--)\t1 p]haps1 q prov+--t he 0 an
 evolutioni/4 ,?is phrase ass]ts1 )     
insight t is fairly />tl+1 t man is !   
mo/ intellig5t ( animals because he has 
h&s4 ,! man :o c\ld make t ass]tion mu/1
 x w\ld seem1 h _h 9 m9d ! idea ( !     
developm5t ( intellig5ce ?r\gh ! use (  
h&s--an idea ! full =ce ( :i* 0 n evid5t
 to subsequ5t g5]ations ( ?9k]s until ! 
"t ( ,d>w94   ,physical ,speculations   
,anaxagoras is cit$ by ,ari/otle z      
believ+ t plants are animals & feel     
pleasure & pa91 inf]r+ ?is because !y %$
 _! leaves & let !m gr[ aga94 ,! idea is
 fanciful1 yet x sugge/s aga9 a truly   
philosophical conception ( ! unity (    
nature4 ,! man :o c\ld conceive t idea 0
 b little hamp]$ by traditional         
conceptions4 ,he 0 ex]cis+ a r>e        
comb9ation ( ! rigidly sci5tific _s ) ! 
poetical imag9ation4 ,he :o possesses ^!

 gifts is sure n to /op 9 8 que/ion+s ( 
nature until he has f\nd "s ?9kable     
explanation ( ! "* ( matt] itself4      
,anaxagoras f\nd su* an explanation1 &1 
z good luck w\ld h x1 t explanation has 
be5 pres]v$4 ,let u exam9e 8 reason+ 9  
"s detail4 ,we h already ref]r$ to !    
claim alleg$ to h be5 made by           
,anaxagoras t sn[ is n really :ite1 b   
black4 ,! philosoph] expla9$ 8 p>adox1  
we are told1 by ass]t+ t sn[ is really  
wat]1 & t wat] is d>k1 :5 view$ "u prop]
 conditions--z at ! bottom ( a well4 ,t 
idea conta9s ! g]m ( ! ,clazom5aean     
philosoph]'s conception ( ! nature (    
matt]4 ,inde$1 x is n unlikely t ?is    
!ory ( matt] grew out ( 8 obs]vation ( !
 *ang+ =ms ( wat]4 ,he seems cle>ly to h
 grasp$ ! idea t sn[ on ! "o h&1 & vapor
 on ! o!r1 are ( ! same intimate        
sub/ance z ! wat] f :i* !y are d]iv$ &  
into :i* !y may be aga9 trans=m$4 ,!    
fact t /eam & sn[ c be *ang$ back into  
wat]1 & by simple manipulation _c be    
*ang$ into any o!r sub/ance1 f9ds1 z we 

n[ believe1 its true explanation 9 !    
fact t ! molecul> /ructure1 z we phrase 
x--t is to say1 ! ultimate p>ticle ( :i*
 wat] is compos$1 is n *ang$1 & ?is is  
precisely ! explanation :i* ,anaxagoras 
gave ( ! same ph5om5a4 ,= him ! unit    
p>ticle ( wat] con/itut$ an elem5t>y    
body1 uncreat$1 un*angeable1            
inde/ructible4 ,?is p>ticle1 9          
association ) l p>ticles1 con/itutes !  
sub/ance :i* we call wat]4 ,! same      
p>ticle 9 association ) p>ticles unlike 
itself1 might produce totally diff]5t   
sub/ances--z1 = example1 :5 wat] is tak5
 up by ! roots ( a plant & becomes1     
seem+ly1 a "p ( ! sub/ance ( ! plant4 ,b
 :atev] ! *ang$ association1 s          
,anaxagoras reason$1 ! ultimate p>ticle 
( wat] rema9s a p>ticle ( wat] /ill4 ,& 
:at 0 true ( wat] 0 true also1 s he     
conceiv$1 ( e o!r sub/ance4 ,gold1      
silv]1 iron1 e>?1 & ! v>i\s vegetables &
 animal tissues--9 %ort1 ea* & e "o (   
all ! diff]5t sub/ances ) :i* exp]i5ce  
makes u famili>1 is made up ( unit      

p>ticles :i* ma9ta9 _! integrity 9      
:atev] comb9ation !y may be associat$4  
,?is implies1 obvi\sly1 a multitude (   
primordial p>ticles1 ea* "o hav+ an     
individuality ( its own2 ea* "o1 l !    
p>ticle ( wat] already cit$1 uncreat$1  
un*angeable1 & inde/ructible4           
,=tunately1 we h ! philosoph]'s own     
words to guide u z to 8 speculations "h4
 ,! fragm5ts ( 8 writ+s t h come d[n to 
u 7*iefly ?r\gh ! quotations (          
,simplicius7 deal almo/ exclusively ) ^!
 ultimate conceptions ( 8 imag9ation4 ,9
 ascrib+ to him1 !n1 ?is conception (   
div]se1 uncreat$1 primordial elem5ts1   
:i* c nev] be *ang$1 b c only be mix$   
toge!r to =m sub/ances ( ! mat]ial _w1  
we are n read+ back po/-,daltonian k    
into ! sy/em ( ,anaxagoras4 ,"h are 8   
words3 ,! ,greeks d n rightly use ! t]ms
 'com+ into be+' & 'p]i%+4' ,= no?+     
comes into be+1 nor1 yet1 does any?+    
p]i%2 b !re is mixture & sep>ation ( ?+s
 t are4 ,s !y w\ld d "r 9 call+ 'com+   
into be+' 'mixture' & 'p]i%+'           

'sep>ation4' ,= h[ c\ld hair come f :at 
is n hair8 ,or fle% f :at is n fle%8    
,else:]e he tells u t 7at "o /age ( !   
_w's developm5t7 ! d5se1 ! moi/1 ! cold1
 ! d>k1 collect$ !re :]e n[ is e>?2 !   
r>e1 ! w>m1 ! dry1 ! bright1 dep>t$     
t[>ds ! fur!r "p ( ! ae!r4 ,! e>? is    
cond5s$ out ( ^! ?+s t are sep>at$1 =   
wat] is sep>at$ f ! cl\ds1 & e>? f !    
wat]2 & f ! e>? /ones are cond5s$ by !  
cold1 & ^! are sep>at$ f>!r f ! wat]4   
,"h aga9 ! influ5ce ( heat & cold 9     
det]m9+ physical qualities is kept      
pre-em95tly 9 m9d4 ,! d5se1 ! moi/1 !   
cold1 ! d>k are contra/$ ) ! r>e1 ! w>m1
 ! dry1 & bright2 & ! =mation ( /ones is
 spok5 ( z a specific cond5sation due to
 ! influ5ce ( cold4 ,"h1 !n1 we h ne>ly 
all ! elem5ts ( ! ,daltonian !ory (     
atoms on ! "o h&1 & ! nebul> hypo!sis ( 
,laplace on ! o!r4 ,b ?is is n q all4 ,9
 addition to su* div]se elem5t>y        
p>ticles z ^? ( gold1 wat]1 & ! re/1    
,anaxagoras conceiv$ a species (        
p>ticles diff]+ f all ! o!rs1 n m]ely z 

!y diff] f "o ano!r1 b con/itut+ a class
 by !mselves2 p>ticles inf9itely small] 
?an ! o!rs2 p>ticles t are describ$ z   
inf9ite1 self-p[]ful1 mix$ ) no?+1 b    
exi/+ alone4 ,t is to say 7int]pret+ !  
!ory 9 ! only way t seems plausible71 ^!
 mo/ m9ute p>ticles d n mix ) ! o!r     
primordial p>ticles to =m mat]ial       
sub/ances 9 ! same way 9 :i* ^! mix$ )  
"o ano!r4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 ^! inf9ite1  
self-p[]ful1 & unmix$ p>ticles comm+le  
ev]y:]e & 9 e sub/ance :atev] ) ! mix$  
p>ticles t g to make up ! sub/ances4    
,!re is a di/9ction "h1 x w be obs]v$1  
:i* at once sugge/s ! mod]n di/9ction   
betwe5 physical processes & *emical     
processes1 or1 putt+ x o!rwise1 betwe5  
molecul> processes & atomic processes2 b
 ! read] mu/ be gu>d$ aga9/ suppos+ t   
,anaxagoras _h any su* ?\ght z ?is 9    
m9d4 ,8 ultimate mixable p>ticles c be  
comp>$ only ) ! ,daltonian atom1 n ) !  
molecule ( ! mod]n physici/1 & 8        
inf9ite1 self-p[]ful1 & unmixable       
p>ticles are n comp>able ) any?+ b ! e!r

 ( ! mod]n physici/1 ) :i* hypo!tical   
sub/ance !y h _m po9ts ( resemblance4 ,b
 ! inf9ite1 self-p[]ful1 & unmix$       
p>ticles con/itut+ ?us an e!r-l pl5um   
:i* p]meates all mat]ial /ructures1 h   
also1 9 ! m9d ( ,anaxagoras1 a function 
:i* c>ries !m p]haps a /age beyond !    
prov9ce ( ! mod]n e!r4 ,= ^! inf9ite1   
self p[]ful1 & unmix$ p>ticles are imbu$
 )1 &1 inde$1 !mselves con/itute1 :at   
,anaxagoras t]ms n\s1 a ^w :i* ! mod]n  
translator has usually p>aphras$ z m9d4 
,nei!r t ^w nor any o!r available "o    
probably conveys an accurate idea ( :at 
,anaxagoras meant to imply by ! ^w n\s4 
,= him ! ^w meant n m]ely m9d 9 ! s5se (
 receptive & compreh5d+ intellig5ce1 b  
directive & creative intellig5ce z well4
 ,aga9 let ,anaxagoras speak = himself3 
,o!r ?+s include a portion ( ev]y?+1 b  
n\s is inf9ite1 & self-p[]ful1 & mix$ ) 
no?+1 b x exi/s alone1 itself by itself4
 ,= if x 7 n by itself1 b 7 mix$ ) any?+
 else1 x w\ld include p>ts ( all ?+s1 if
 x 7 mix$ ) any?+2 = a portion ( ev]y?+ 

exi/s 9 e ?+1 z has be5 said by me be=e1
 & ?+s m+l$ ) x w\ld prev5t x f hav+ p[]
 ov] any?+ 9 ! same way t x does n[ t x 
is alone by itself4 ,= x is ! mo/ r>efi$
 ( all ?+s & ! pure/1 & x has all k 9   
reg>d to ev]y?+ & ! greate/ p[]2 ov] all
 t has life1 bo? great] & less1 n\s     
rules4 ,& n\s rul$ ! rotation ( ! :ole1 
s t x set x 9 rotation 9 ! beg9n+4 ,fir/
 x began ! rotation f a small beg9n+1 !n
 m & m 0 includ$ 9 ! motion1 & yet m w  
be includ$4 ,bo? ! mix$ & ! sep>at$ &   
di/9ct1 all ?+s n\s recogniz$4 ,& :atev]
 ?+s 7 to be1 & :atev] ?+s 71 z _m z are
 n[1 & :atev] ?+s %all be1 all ^! n\s   
arrang$ 9 ord]2 & x arrang$ t rotation1 
accord+ to :i* n[ rotate />s & sun &    
moon & air & ae!r1 n[ t !y are sep>at$4 
,rotation itself caus$ ! sep>ation1 & ! 
d5se is sep>at$ f ! r>e1 ! w>m f ! cold1
 ! bright f ! d>k1 ! dry f ! moi/4 ,& :5
 n\s began to set ?+s 9 motion1 !re 0   
sep>ation f ev]y?+ t 0 9 motion1 all ?is
 0 made di/9ct4 ,! rotation ( ! ?+s t 7 
mov$ & made di/9ct caus$ !m to be yet m 

di/9ct47#c7  ,n\s1 !n1 z ,anaxagoras    
conceives x1 is ! mo/ r>efi$ ( all ?+s1 
& ! pure/1 & x has k 9 reg>d to ev]y?+ &
 ! greate/ p[]2 ov] all t has life1 bo? 
great] & less1 x rules4 ,b ^! are       
po/ulants ( omnipres5ce & omnisci5ce4 ,9
 o!r words1 n\s is no?+ less ?an !      
omnipot5t artific] ( ! mat]ial univ]se4 
,x lacks no?+ ( ! p[] ( deity1 save only
 t we are n assur$ t x creat$ !         
primordial p>ticles4 ,! creation ( ^!   
p>ticles 0 a conception t = ,anaxagoras1
 z = ! mod]n ,sp5c]1 lay beyond ! range 
( imag9ation4 ,n\s is ! artific]1 work+ 
) uncreat$ p>ticles4 ,back ( n\s & !    
p>ticles lies1 = an ,anaxagoras z = a   
,sp5c]1 ! ,unkn[able4 ,b n\s itself is !
 equival5t ( t univ]sal en]gy ( motion  
:i* sci5ce recognizes z op]at+ betwe5 ! 
p>ticles ( matt]1 & :i* ! !ologi/       
p]sonifies z ,deity4 ,x is ,pan!i/ic    
deity z ,anaxagoras conceives x2 8 may  
be call$ ! fir/ sci5tific conception ( a
 non-an?ropomorphic god4 ,9 elaborat+   
?is conception ,anaxagoras prov$ himself

 "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable sci5tific dream]s 
( antiquity4 ,to h sub/itut$ = ! ,greek 
,pan!on ( an?ropomorphic deities !      
conception ( a non-an?ropomorphic       
immat]ial & e!real entity1 ( all ?+s 9 !
 _w ! mo/ r>efi$ & ! pure/1 is to h     
p]=m$ a feat :i*1 consid]+ ! age & !    
environm5t 9 :i* x 0 accompli%$1 /agg]s 
! imag9ation4 ,z a /rictly sci5tific    
accompli%m5t ! great ?9k]'s conception (
 primordial elem5ts conta9$ a g]m ( !   
tru? :i* 0 to lie dormant = #bbjj ye>s1 
b :i* !n1 z modifi$ & vitaliz$ by !     
g5ius ( ,dalton1 0 to dom9ate ! new     
*emical sci5ce ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,if  
!re are intimations t ! primordial      
elem5t ( ,anaxagoras & ( ,dalton may    
turn out 9 ! ne> future to be itself a  
comp\nd1 !re w /ill rema9 ! yet f9]     
p>ticles ( ! n\s ( ,anaxagoras to baffle
 ! mo/ subtle analysis ( :i* to-day's   
sci5ce gives u any pre-vision4 ,all 9   
all1 !n1 ! "w ( ,anaxagoras mu/ /& z t (
 p]haps ! mo/ f>-see+ sci5tific         
imag9ation ( pre-,socratic antiquity4   

,,leucippus ,,& ,,democritus  ,b we mu/ 
n leave ?is allur+ field ( speculation z
 to ! nature ( matt] )\t ref]r+ to ano!r
 sci5tific guess1 :i* soon foll[$ t (   
,anaxagoras & 0 de/9$ to ga9 ev5 wid]   
fame1 & :i* 9 mod]n times has be5       
some:at unju/ly held to eclipse ! glory 
( ! o!r a*ievem5t4 ,we mean1 ( c\rse1 ! 
atomic !ory ( ,leucippus & ,democritus4 
,?is !ory r$uc$ all matt] to primordial 
elem5ts1 call$ atoms 7gr atoma7 because 
!y are by hypo!sis incapable ( fur!r    
division4 ,^! atoms1 mak+ up ! entire   
mat]ial univ]se1 are 9 ?is !ory conceiv$
 z qualitatively id5tical1 diff]+ f "o  
ano!r only 9 size & p]haps 9 %ape4 ,!   
union ( diff]5t-siz$ atoms 9 endless    
comb9ations produces ! div]se sub/ances 
) :i* our s5ses make u famili>4  ,be=e  
we pass to a consid]ation ( ?is allur+  
!ory1 & p>ticul>ly to a comp>ison ( x ) 
! !ory ( ,anaxagoras1 we mu/ cat* a     
glimpse ( ! p]sonality ( ! m5 to :om !  
!ory owes its orig94 ,"o ( ^!1          
,leucippus1 pres5ts s unc]ta9 a figure z

 to be almo/ my?ical4 ,inde$1 x 0 long  
que/ion$ :e!r su* a man _h actually     
liv$1 or :e!r he 7 n really an inv5tion 
( 8 alleg$ disciple1 ,democritus4       
,latt]day s*ol>%ip1 h[ev]1 accepts him z
 a real p]sonage1 ?\gh kn[+ sc>cely m ( 
him ?an t he 0 ! au?or ( ! fam\s !ory ) 
:i* 8 "n 0 associat$4 ,x is sugge/$ t he
 0 a w&]]1 l mo/ philosoph]s ( 8 "t1 & t
 lat] 9 life he came to ,abd]a1 9       
,?race1 & ?r\gh ?is circum/ance became !
 tea*] ( ,democritus4 ,?is fable answ]s 
z well z ano!r4 ,:at we really "k is t  
,democritus himself1 ?r\gh ^: writ+s &  
tea*+s ! atomic !ory ga9$ vogue1 0 born 
9 ,abd]a1 ab\t ! ye> #dfj ,b4,c4--t is  
to say1 j ab\t ! "t :5 8 great          
precursor1 ,anaxagoras1 0 migrat+ to    
,a!ns4 ,democritus1 l mo/ o!rs ( ! e>ly 
,greek ?9k]s1 lives 9 tradition z a     
picturesque figure4 ,x is vaguely       
report$ t he travell$ = a "t1 p]haps 9 !
 ,ea/ & 9 ,egypt1 & t !n he settl$ d[n  
to sp5d ! rema9d] ( 8 life 9 ,abd]a4    
,:e!r or n he visit$ ,a!ns 9 ! c\rse ( 8

 w&]+s we d n "k4 ,at ,abd]a he 0 rev]$ 
z a sage1 b 8 influ5ce ^u ! practical   
civilization ( ! "t 0 n m>k$4 ,he 0     
pre-em95tly a dream] & a writ]4 ,l 8    
confr]es ( ! epo*1 he ent]$ all fields (
 ?\ght4 ,he wrote volum9\sly1 b1        
un=tunately1 8 writ+s h1 = ! mo/ "p1    
p]i%$4 ,! fables & traditions ( a lat]  
day ass]t$ t ,democritus _h volunt>ily  
put out 8 own eyes t he might turn 8    
?\ghts inw>d ) m conc5tration4 ,d\btless
 ?is is fiction1 yet1 z usual ) su*     
fictions1 x conta9s a g]m ( tru?2 = we  
may well suppose t ! promulgator ( !    
atomic !ory 0 a man ^: m9d 0 attract$ by
 ! subtleties ( ?\ght r ?an by !        
tangibilities ( obs]vation4 ,yet ! t]m  
laugh+ philosoph]1 :i* seems to h be5   
univ]sally appli$ to ,democritus1       
sugge/s a m9d n altoge!r )drawn f ! _w (
 practicalities4  ,s mu* = ,democritus !
 man4 ,let u return n[ to 8 !ory (      
atoms4 ,?is !ory1 x mu/ be confess$1    
made no v great impression ^u 8         
contempor>ies4 ,x f\nd an expositor1 a  

little lat]1 9 ! philosoph] ,epicurus1 &
 lat] /ill ! poet ,lucretius gave x     
popul> expression4 ,b x seem$ sc>cely m 
?an ! dream ( a philosoph] or ! vag>y ( 
a poet until ! day :5 mod]n sci5ce began
 to p5etrate ! my/]ies ( matt]4 ,:51    
f9ally1 ! rese>*es ( ,dalton & 8 foll[]s
 _h plac$ ! atomic !ory on a sur] foot+ 
z ! f\ndation ( mod]n *emi/ry1 ! ideas (
 ! old laugh+ philosoph] ( ,abd]a1 :i*  
all along _h be5 half d]isively         
rememb]$1 7 recall$ ) a new int]e/4 ,n[ 
x appe>$ t ^! ideas _h curi\sly =e%ad[$ 
n9ete5?-c5tury k4 ,x appe>$ t away back 
9 ! fif? c5tury ,b4,c4 a man _h dream$  
out a conception ( ! ultimate nature (  
matt] :i* _h wait$ all ^! c5turies =    
corroboration4 ,& n[ ! hi/orians (      
philosophy became m ?an anxi\s to d     
ju/ice to ! memory ( ,democritus4  ,x is
 possible t ?is ef=t at poetical        
re/itution has c>ri$ ! en?usia/ too f>4 
,!re is1 inde$1 a curi\s sugge/iv5ess 9 
! !ory ( ,democritus2 !re is            
philosophical allurem5t 9 8 r$uction (  

all matt] to a s+le elem5t2 x conta9s1 x
 may be1 n m]ely a g]m ( ! sci5ce ( !   
n9ete5?-c5tury *emi/ry1 b p]haps ! g]ms 
also ( ! yet undevelop$ *emi/ry ( !     
tw5tie? c5tury4 ,yet we d>e sugge/ t 9  
_! en?usiasm = ! atomic !ory (          
,democritus ! hi/orians ( our g5]ation h
 done some?+ less ?an ju/ice to t       
philosoph]'s precursor1 ,anaxagoras4 ,& 
"o suspects t ! m]e accid5t ( a "n has  
be5 in/rum5tal 9 produc+ ?is result4    
,democritus call$ 8 primordial elem5t an
 atom2 ,anaxagoras1 too1 conceiv$ a     
primordial elem5t1 b he call$ x m]ely a 
se$ or ?+2 he fail$ to *ri/5 x          
di/9ctively4 ,mod]n sci5ce adopt$ ! ^w  
atom & gave x univ]sal vogue4 ,x ow$ a  
debt ( gratitude to ,democritus =       
supply+ x ! ^w1 b x some:at ov]paid !   
debt 9 too closely l9k+ ! new mean+ ( ! 
^w ) its old orig9al "o4 ,=1 let x be   
cle>ly und]/ood1 ! ,daltonian atom is n 
precisely comp>able ) ! atom (          
,democritus4 ,! atom1 z ,democritus     
conceiv$ x1 0 moni/ic2 all atoms1       

accord+ to ?is hypo!sis1 are ( ! same   
sub/ance2 "o atom diff]s f ano!r m]ely 9
 size & %ape1 b n at all 9 quality4 ,b !
 ,daltonian hypo!sis conceiv$1 & ne>ly  
all ! exp]im5tal ef=ts ( ! n9ete5?      
c5tury seem$ to prove1 t !re are num]\s 
classes ( atoms1 ea* diff]+ 9 its v     
ess5ce f ! o!rs4  ,z ! case /&s to-day !
 *emi/ deals ) sev5ty-odd sub/ances1 :i*
 he calls elem5ts4 ,ea* "o ( ^!         
sub/ances is1 z he conceives x1 made up 
( elem5t>y atoms hav+ a unique          
p]sonality1 ea* diff]+ 9 quality f all !
 o!rs4 ,z f> z exp]im5t has ?us f>      
safely c>ri$ u1 ! atom ( gold is a      
primordial elem5t :i* rema9s an atom (  
gold & no?+ else1 no matt] ) :at o!r    
atoms x is associat$4 ,s1 too1 ( ! atom 
( silv]1 or z9c1 or sodium--9 %ort1 (   
ea* & e "o ( ! sev5ty-odd elem5ts4 ,!re 
are1 inde$1 z we %all see1 exp]im5ts t  
sugge/ ! dissolution ( ! atom--t sugge/1
 9 %ort1 t ! ,daltonian atom is misnam$1
 be+ a /ructure t may1 "u c]ta9         
conditions1 be brok5 asund]4 ,b ^!      

exp]im5ts h1 z yet1 ! w>rant r (        
philosophy ?an ( pure sci5ce1 & to-day  
we dem& t ! philosophy ( sci5ce %all be 
! h&maid ( exp]im5t4  ,:5 exp]im5t %all 
h demon/rat$ t ! ,daltonian atom is a   
comp\nd1 & t 9 tru? !re is b a s+le true
 atom1 :i*1 comb9+ ) its fell[s p]haps 9
 v>y+ numb]s & 9 diff]5t special        
relations1 produces ! ,daltonian atoms1 
!n ! philosophical !ory ( monism w h !  
exp]im5tal w>rant :i* to-day x lacks2 !n
 we %all be a /ep ne>] to ! atom (      
,democritus 9 "o direction1 a /ep f>!r  
away 9 ! o!r4 ,we %all be ne>]1 9 t !   
conception ( ,democritus 01 9 a s5se1   
moni/ic2 f>!r away1 9 t all ! atoms (   
,democritus1 l>ge & small alike1 7      
consid]$ z p]man5tly fix$ 9 size4       
,democritus po/ulat$ all 8 atoms z ( !  
same sub/ance1 diff]+ n at all 9        
quality2 yet he 0 oblig$ to conceive t !
 v>y+ size ( ! atoms gave to !m v>y+    
functions :i* am\nt$ to qualitative     
diff]5ces4 ,he might claim = 8 l>ge/    
atom ! same quality ( sub/ance z = 8    

smalle/1 b s long z he conceiv$ t ! l>ge
 atoms1 :5 adju/$ toge!r to =m a        
tangible sub/ance1 =m$ a sub/ance       
diff]5t 9 quality f ! sub/ance :i* !    
small atoms w\ld make up :5 simil>ly    
gr\p$1 ?is concession am\nts to !       
pr$ication ( diff]5ce ( quality betwe5 !
 atoms !mselves4 ,! entire "q r$uces    
itself virtually to a quibble ov] ! ^w  
quality1 ,s long z "o atom conceiv$ to  
be primordial & indivisible is conc$$ to
 be ( su* a nature z necess>ily to      
produce a diff]5t impression on our     
s5ses1 :5 gr\p$ ) its fell[s1 f !       
impression produc$ by o!r atoms :5      
simil>ly gr\p$1 su* primordial atoms d  
diff] among !mselves 9 precisely ! same 
way = all practical purposes z d !      
primordial elem5ts ( ,anaxagoras4  ,!   
moni/ic conception t[>ds :i*            
tw5tie?-c5tury *emi/ry seems to be c>ry+
 u may p]haps %[ t all ! s-call$ atoms  
are comp\nd$ ( a s+le elem5t4 ,all !    
true atoms mak+ up t elem5t may !n      
prop]ly be said to h ! same quality1 b  

none ! less w x rema9 true t !          
comb9ations ( t elem5t t g to make up ! 
diff]5t ,daltonian atoms diff] f "o     
ano!r 9 quality 9 precisely ! same s5se 
9 :i* su* tangible sub/ances z gold1 &  
oxyg51 & m]cury1 & diamonds diff] f "o  
ano!r4 ,9 ! la/ analysis ( ! moni/ic    
philosophy1 !re is b "o sub/ance & "o   
quality 9 ! univ]se4 ,9 ! wide/ view ( t
 philosophy1 gold & oxyg5 & m]cury &    
diamonds are "o sub/ance1 &1 if y       
please1 "o quality4 ,b su* ref9em5ts (  
analysis z ?is are = ! transc5d5tal     
philosoph]1 & n = ! sci5ti/4 ,:atev] !  
allurem5t ( su* reason+1 we mu/ = !     
purpose ( sci5ce let words h a specific 
mean+1 nor mu/ we let a m]e ^w-juggl]y  
bl9d u to ! evid5ce ( facts4 ,t 0 ! rock
 on :i* ,greek sci5ce f\nd]$2 x is !    
rock :i* ! mod]n helmsman sometimes f9ds
 x difficult to avoid4 ,& if we mi/ake  
n1 ?is case ( ! atom ( ,democritus is   
precisely a case 9 po9t4 ,because       
,democritus said t 8 atoms did n diff] 9
 quality1 ! mod]n philosoph] has se5 9 8

 !ory ! ess5tials ( monism2 has discov]$
 9 x n m]ely a =eca/ ( ! *emi/ry ( !    
n9ete5? c5tury1 b a =eca/ ( ! hypo!tical
 *emi/ry ( ! future4 ,&1 on ! o!r h&1   
because ,anaxagoras pr$ict$ a diff]5t   
quality = 8 primordial elem5ts1 !       
philosoph] ( our day has discr$it$ !    
primordial elem5t ( ,anaxagoras4  ,yet  
if our analysis does n lead u a/ray1 !  
!ory ( ,democritus 0 n truly moni/ic2 8 
inde/ructible atoms1 diff]+ f "o ano!r 9
 size & %ape1 utt]ly incapable ( be+    
*ang$ f ! =m :i* !y _h ma9ta9$ f !      
beg9n+1 7 9 reality z truly &           
primordially diff]5t z are ! primordial 
elem5ts ( ,anaxagoras4 ,9 o!r words1 !  
atom ( ,democritus is no?+ less ?an !   
primordial se$ ( ,anaxagoras1 a little m
 tangibly visualiz$ & giv5 a di/9ctive  
"n4 ,anaxagoras explicitly conceiv$ 8   
elem5ts z invisibly small1 z inf9ite 9  
numb]1 & z made up ( an indef9ite numb] 
( k9ds--"o = ea* di/9ctive sub/ance 9 ! 
_w4 ,b precisely ! same po/ulates are   
made ( ! atom ( ,democritus4 ,^! also   

are invisibly small2 ^! also are inf9ite
 9 numb]2 ^! also are made up ( an      
indef9ite numb] ( k9ds1 correspond+ ) ! 
obs]v$ diff]5ce ( sub/ances 9 ! _w4     
,primitive se$s1 or atoms1 7 alike      
conceiv$ to be primordial1 un-*angeable1
 & inde/ructible4 ,:]e9 !n lies !       
diff]5ce8 ,we answ]1 *iefly 9 a "n2     
almo/ solely 9 ! fact t ,anaxagoras did 
n attempt to po/ulate ! physical        
prop]ties ( ! elem5ts beyond /at+ t ea* 
has a di/9ctive p]sonality1 :ile        
,democritus did attempt to po/ulate ^!  
prop]ties4 ,he1 too1 admitt$ t ea* k9d (
 elem5t has its di/9ctive p]sonality1 & 
he attempt$ to visualize & describe !   
*>act]i/ics ( ! p]sonality4  ,?us :ile  
,anaxagoras tells u no?+ ( 8 elem5ts    
except t !y diff] f "o ano!r1           
,democritus po/ulates a diff]5ce 9 size1
 imag9es "s elem5ts z heavi] & "s z     
light]1 & conceives ev5 t ! elem5ts may 
be provid$ ) project+ hooks1 ) ! aid (  
:i* !y l9k !mselves "o ) ano!r4 ,no "o  
to-day takes ^! crude visualiz+s s]i\sly

 z to _! details4 ,! sole elem5t ( tru? 
:i* ^! dream+s conta91 z di/+ui%+ !m f !
 dream+s ( ,anaxagoras1 is 9 !          
conception t ! v>i\s atoms diff] 9 size 
& weight4 ,"h1 inde$1 is a vague        
=e-%ad[+ ( t *emi/ry ( =m :i* began to  
come into prom95ce t[>ds ! close ( !    
n9ete5? c5tury4 ,to h =eca/ ev5 dimly   
?is newe/ phase ( *emical k1 across !   
abyss ( c5turies1 is inde$ a feat to put
 ,democritus 9 ! front rank ( ?9k]s4 ,b 
?is e/imate %\ld n bl9d u to ! fact t ! 
pre-vision ( ,democritus 0 b a slight   
elaboration ( a !ory :i* _h its orig9 ) 
ano!r ?9k]4 ,! association betwe5       
,anaxagoras & ,democritus _c be directly
 trac$1 b x is an association :i* !     
hi/orian ( ideas %\ld nev] = a mom5t    
=get4 ,if we are n to be misl$ by m]e   
^w-juggl]y1 we %all recognize ! f\nd] ( 
! atomic !ory ( matt] 9 ,anaxagoras2 its
 expositors along slightly diff]5t l9es 
9 ,leucippus & ,democritus2 its         
re-discov]] ( ! n9ete5? c5tury 9        
,dalton4 ,all 9 all1 !n1 j z ,anaxagoras

 prec$$ ,democritus 9 "t1 s mu/ he take 
prec$5ce ov] him also z an inductive    
?9k]1 :o c>ri$ ! use ( ! sci5tific      
imag9ation to its f>!/ rea*4  ,an       
analysis ( ! !ories ( ! two m5 leads to 
some:at ! same conclusion t might be    
rea*$ f a comp>ison ( _! lives4         
,anaxagoras 0 a sceptical1 exp]im5tal   
sci5ti/1 gift$ also ) ! prophetic       
imag9ation4 ,he reason$ always f !      
p>ticul> to ! g5]al1 aft] ! mann] ( true
 induction1 & he sc>cely took a /ep     
beyond ! conf9es ( secure induction4    
,true sci5ti/ t he 01 he c\ld cont5t    
himself ) po/ulat+ diff]5t qualities = 8
 elem5ts1 )\t pret5d+ to "k h[ ^!       
qualities c\ld be def9$4 ,8 elem5ts 7 by
 hypo!sis invisible1 h5ce he w\ld n     
attempt to visualize !m4 ,democritus1 on
 ! o!r h&1 refus$ to recognize ?is      
b>ri]4 ,:]e he c\ld n "k1 he /ill did n 
hesitate to guess4 ,j z he conceiv$ 8   
atom ( a def9ite =m ) a def9ite         
/ructure1 ev5 s he conceiv$ t !         
atmosph]e ab\t him 0 full ( invisible   

spirits2 he accept$ ! curr5t sup]/itions
 ( 8 "t4 ,l ! av]age ,greeks ( 8 day1 he
 ev5 believ$ 9 su* om5s z ^? furni%$ by 
inspect+ ! entrails ( a f[l4 ,^! *ance  
bits ( biography are wea!r-vanes ( ! m9d
 ( ,democritus4 ,!y t5d to sub/antiate  
our conviction t ,democritus mu/ rank   
bel[ ,anaxagoras z a devotee ( pure     
sci5ce4 ,b1 aft] all1 su* comp>isons &  
e/imates z ?is are utt]ly futile4 ,!    
ess5tial fact = u is t "h1 9 ! fif?     
c5tury be=e our era1 we f9d put =w>d !  
mo/ p5etrat+ guess z to ! con/itution ( 
matt] t ! hi/ory ( anci5t ?\ght has to  
pres5t to u4 ,9 "o direction1 ! av5ue ( 
progress is b>r$2 !re w be no f>!r /ep t
 way till we come d[n ! c5turies to ! "t
 ( ,dalton4   ,,hippocrates ,,& ,,greek 
,,m$ic9e  ,^! /udies ( ! con/itution (  
matt] h c>ri$ u to ! limits ( ! field ( 
sci5tific imag9ation 9 antiquity2 let u 
n[ turn %>ply & consid] a dep>tm5t (    
sci5ce 9 :i* !ory jo9s h&s )            
practicality4 ,let u witness ! beg9n+s (
 sci5tific !rapeutics4  ,m$ic9e among ! 

e>ly ,greeks1 be=e ! "t ( ,hippocrates1 
0 a crude mixture ( religion1           
necromancy1 & my/icism4 ,temples 7      
erect$ to ! god ( m$ic9e1 aesculapius1 &
 sick p]sons made _! way1 or 7 c>ri$1 to
 ^! temples1 :]e !y s\ght to ga9 ! favor
 ( ! god by suitable (f]+s1 & le>n ! way
 to rega9 _! heal? ?r\gh rem$ies or     
me?ods reveal$ to !m 9 dreams by ! god4 
,:5 ! pati5t _h be5 ?us cur$1 he plac$ a
 tablet 9 ! temple describ+ 8 sickness1 
& tell+ by :at me?od ! god _h cur$ him4 
,he aga9 made suitable (f]+s at !       
temple1 :i* 7 sometimes 9 ! =m ( gold or
 silv] repres5tations ( ! diseas$       
organ--a gold or silv] model ( a he>t1  
h&1 foot1 etc4  ,nev]!less1 despite ?is 
belief 9 ! sup]natural1 _m drugs & heal+
 lotions 7 employ$1 & ! ,greek          
physicians possess$ consid]able skill 9 
dress+ w\nds & b&ag+4 ,b !y did n dep5d 
^u ^! surgical dress+s alone1 us+ ) !m  
c]ta9 appropriate pray]s & incantations1
 recit$ ov] ! injur$ memb] at ! "t (    
apply+ ! dress+s4  ,ev5 ! v e>ly ,greeks

 _h le>n$ some?+ ( anatomy4 ,! daily    
contact ) w\nds & brok5 bones mu/ (     
necessity lead to a crude und]/&+ (     
anatomy 9 g5]al4 ,! fir/ ,greek         
anatomi/1 h[ev]1 :o is recogniz$ z su*1 
is said to h be5 ,alcmaeon4 ,he is said 
to h made ext5sive dissections ( ! l[]  
animals1 & to h describ$ _m hi!rto      
unkn[n /ructures1 su* z ! optic n]ve & !
 ,eu/a*ian canal--! small tube lead+    
into ! ?roat f ! e>4 ,he is cr$it$ ) _m 
unique explanations ( natural ph5om5a1  
su* z1 = example1 ! explanation t he>+  
is produc$ by ! holl[ bone beh9d ! e>2 =
 all holl[ ?+s are sonor\s4 ,he 0 a     
rationali/1 & he taught t ! bra9 is !   
organ ( m9d4 ,! s\rces ( our in=mation  
ab\t 8 "w1 h[ev]1 are unreliable4       
,democ$es1 :o liv$ 9 ! six? c5tury      
,b4,c41 is ! fir/ physician ( :om we h  
any tru/wor?y hi/ory4 ,we le>n f        
,h]odotus t he came f ,croton to aeg9a1 
:]e1 9 recognition ( 8 skill1 he 0      
appo9t$ m$ical (fic] ( ! city4 ,f aeg9a 
he 0 call$ to ,a!ns at an increas$      

sal>y1 & lat] 0 9 *>ge ( m$ical affairs 
9 sev]al o!r ,greek cities4 ,he 0 f9ally
 call$ to ,samos by ! tyrant            
,polycrates1 :o reign$ !re f ab\t #ecf  
to #ebb ,b4,c4 ,b on ! dea? (           
,polycrates1 :o 0 murd]$ by ! ,p]sians1 
,democ$es became a slave4 ,8 fame z a   
physician1 h[ev]1 _h rea*$ ! e>s ( !    
,p]sian mon>*1 & %ortly aft] 8 capture  
he 0 p]mitt$ to %[ 8 skill ^u ,k+ ,d>ius
 himself4 ,! ,p]sian mon>* 0 suff]+ f a 
spra9$ ankle1 :i* 8 ,egyptian surgeons  
_h be5 unable to cure4 ,democ$es n only 
cur$ ! injur$ memb] b us$ 8 influ5ce 9  
sav+ ! lives ( 8 ,egyptian rivals1 :o _h
 be5 condemn$ to dea? by ! k+4  ,at     
ano!r "t he %[$ 8 skill by cur+ ! que51 
:o 0 suff]+ f a *ronic abscess ( long   
/&+4 ,?is s pleas$ ! mon>* t he (f]$ him
 z a rew>d any?+ he might desire1 except
 8 lib]ty4 ,b ! co/ly gifts ( ,d>ius did
 n satisfy him s long z he rema9$ a     
slave2 & det]m9$ to secure 8 fre$om at  
any co/1 he volunte]$ to lead "s ,p]sian
 spies into 8 native c\ntry1 promis+ to 

use 8 influ5ce 9 conv]t+ "s ( ! lead+ m5
 ( 8 nation to ! ,p]sian cause4 ,lad5 ) 
! weal? t _h be5 heap$ ^u him by ,d>ius1
 he set =? ^u 8 mission1 b ^u rea*+ 8   
native city ( ,croton he ?rew (f 8 mask1
 r5\nc$ 8 ,p]sian mission1 & became once
 m a free ,greek4  ,:ile ! /ory (       
,democ$es ?r[s little light ^u ! m$ical 
practices ( ! "t1 x %[s t paid city     
m$ical (fic]s exi/$ 9 ,greece z e>ly z !
 fif? & six? c5turies ,b4,c4 ,ev5 !n !re
 7 diff]5t s*ools ( m$ic9e1 ^: disciples
 disagre$ radically 9 _! me?ods ( treat+
 diseases2 & !re 7 also speciali/s 9    
c]ta9 diseases1 quacks1 & *>latans4 ,"s 
physicians dep5d$ entirely ^u ext]nal   
lotions = heal+ all disord]s2 o!rs 7    
hydro!rapeuti/s or ba?-physicians2 :ile 
!re 7 a ho/ ( physicians :o adm9i/]$ a  
great v>iety ( h]bs & drugs4 ,!re 7 also
 magicians :o pret5d$ to heal by sorc]y1
 & great numb]s ( bone-sett]s1 oculi/s1 
& d5ti/s4  ,_m ( ! weal?y physicians _h 
hospitals1 or cl9ics1 :]e pati5ts 7     
op]at$ ^u & treat$4 ,!y 7 n hospitals 9 

our mod]n und]/&+ ( ! t]m1 b 7 m l      
disp5s>ies1 :]e pati5ts 7 treat$        
tempor>ily1 b 7 n all[$ to rema9 = any  
l5g? ( "t4 ,c]ta9 communities e/abli%$ &
 support$ ^! disp5s>ies = ! c>e ( !     
poor4  ,b any?+ approa*+ a rational     
sy/em ( m$ic9e 0 n e/abli%$1 until      
,hippocrates ( ,cos1 ! fa!r ( m$ic9e1   
came ^u ! sc5e4 ,9 an age t produc$     
,phidias1 ,lysias1 ,h]odotus1           
,sophocles1 & ,p]icles1 x seems b       
natural t ! m$ical art %\ld f9d an      
expon5t :o w\ld rise above sup]/iti\s   
dogmas & lay ! f\ndation = a m$ical     
sci5ce4 ,8 rejection ( ! sup]natural    
alone /amps ! greatness ( 8 g5ius4 ,b1  
besides ?is1 he introduc$ m detail$     
obs]vation ( diseases1 & demon/rat$ !   
importance t atta*es to prognosis4      
,hippocrates 0 born at ,cos1 ab\t #dfj  
,b4,c41 b sp5t mo/ ( 8 life at ,l>issa1 
9 ,!ssaly4 ,he 0 educat$ z a physician  
by 8 fa!r1 & travell$ ext5sively z an   
it9]ant practition] = sev]al ye>s4 ,8   
travels 9 diff]5t climates & among _m   

diff]5t p und\bt$ly t5d$ to %>p5 8 ke5  
s5se ( obs]vation4 ,he 0 a practical    
physician z well z a !ori/1 &1 )al1 a   
cle> & concise writ]4 ,life is %ort1 he 
says1 opportunity fleet+1 judgm5t       
difficult1 treatm5t easy1 b treatm5t    
aft] ?\ght is prop] & pr(itable4  ,8 k (
 anatomy 0 necess>ily v imp]fect1 & 0   
ga9$ l>gely f 8 pr$ecessors1 to :om he  
gave full cr$it4 ,dissections ( ! human 
body 7 =bidd5 him1 & he 0 oblig$ to     
conf9e 8 exp]im5tal rese>*es to         
op]ations on ! l[] animals4 ,8 k ( !    
/ructure & arrangem5t ( ! bones1 h[ev]1 
0 fairly accurate1 b ! anatomy ( ! s(t] 
tissues1 z he conceiv$ x1 0 a que]      
jumbl+ toge!r ( blood-vessels1 muscles1 
& t5dons4 ,he does ref] to n]ves1 to be 
sure1 b app>5tly ! /ructures ref]r$ to  
are ! t5dons & ligam5ts1 r ?an ! n]ves  
!mselves4 ,he 0 bett] acqua9t$ ) !      
pr9cipal organs 9 ! cavities ( ! body1 &
 knew1 = example1 t ! he>t is divid$    
into f\r cavities1 two ( :i* he suppos$ 
to conta9 blood1 & ! o!r two air4  ,8   

mo/ revolution>y /ep 0 8 divorc+ ( !    
sup]natural f ! natural1 & e/abli%+ !   
fact t disease is due to natural causes 
& %\ld be treat$ accord+ly4 ,! effect ( 
su* an attitude c h>dly be ov]-e/imat$4 
,! e/abli%m5t ( su* a !ory 0 naturally  
foll[$ by a close obs]vation z to !     
c\rse ( diseases & ! effects ( treatm5t4
 ,to facilitate ?is1 he introduc$ !     
cu/om ( writ+ d[n 8 obs]vations z he    
made !m--! cl9ical hi/ory ( ! case4 ,su*
 cl9ical records are 9 use all ov] ! _w 
to-day1 & _! importance is s obvi\s t x 
is almo/ incompreh5sible t !y %\ld h    
fall5 into disuse %ortly aft] ! "t (    
,hippocrates1 & n br\ght into g5]al use 
aga9 until almo/ two ?\s& ye>s lat]4  ,b
 sc>cely less important ?an 8           
recognition ( disease z a natural       
ph5om5on 0 ! importance he attribut$ to 
prognosis4 ,prognosis1 9 ! s5se (       
prophecy1 0 common be=e ! "t (          
,hippocrates4 ,b prognosis1 z he        
practis$ x & z we und]/& x to-day1 is   
prophecy bas$ on c>eful obs]vation ( !  

c\rse ( diseases--some?+ m ?an          
sup]/iti\s conjecture4  ,al?\gh         
,hippocratic m$ic9e re/$ on ! belief 9  
natural causes1 nev]!less1 dogma & !ory 
held an important place4 ,! humoral !ory
 ( disease 0 an all-important "o1 & s   
fully 0 ?is !ory accept$ t x influ5c$ ! 
sci5ce ( m$ic9e all ?r\gh succe$+       
c5turies4 ,accord+ to ?is celebrat$ !ory
 !re are f\r humors 9 ! body--blood1    
phlegm1 yell[ bile1 & black bile4 ,:5 ^!
 humors are mix$ 9 exact proportions !y 
con/itute heal?2 b any deviations f ^!  
proportions produce disease4 ,9 treat+  
diseases ! aim ( ! physician 0 to       
discov] :i* ( ^! humors 7 out (         
proportion & to re/ore !m to _! natural 
equilibrium4 ,x 0 9 ! me?ods employ$ 9  
?is re/itution1 r ?an a disagreem5t ab\t
 ! humors !mselves1 t result$ 9 ! v>i\s 
s*ools ( m$ic9e4  ,9 _m ways ! surg]y ( 
,hippocrates %[$ a bett] und]/&+ ( !    
/ructure ( ! organs ?an ( _! functions4 
,"s ( ! surgical proc$ures z describ$ by
 him are foll[$1 ) slight modifications1

 to-day4 ,_m ( 8 me?ods 7 entirely lo/  
sight ( until mod]n times1 & "o1 !      
treatm5t ( dislocation ( ! out] end ( ! 
coll>-bone1 0 n reviv$ until "s "t 9 !  
eighte5? c5tury4  ,hippocrates1 x seems1
 l mod]n physicians1 sometimes suff]$ f 
! +ratitude ( 8 pati5ts4 ,! physician   
visits a pati5t suff]+ f fev] or a w\nd1
 & prescribes = him1 he says2 on ! next 
day1 if ! pati5t feels worse ! blame is 
laid ^u ! physician2 if1 on ! o!r h&1 he
 feels bett]1 nature is extoll$1 & !    
physician reaps no praise4 ,! ess5ce (  
?is has be5 repeat$ 9 rhyme & prose by  
writ]s 9 e age & c\ntry1 b ! fa!r (     
m$ic9e cautions physicians aga9/ all[+ x
 to influ5ce _! attitude t[>ds _!       
pr(ession4     ,,viii4 ,,po/-,,socratic 
,,sci5ce ,,at ,,a!ns--,,plato1          
,,ari/otle1 ,,& ,,!ophra/us  ,d\btless x
 has be5 notic$ t our e>li] sci5ti/s 7 z
 f> remov$ z possible f ! limitations ( 
specialism4 ,9 po9t ( fact1 9 ?is e>ly  
day1 k _h n be5 classifi$ z x came to be
 lat] on4 ,! philosoph] 01 z 8 "n       

impli$1 a lov] ( k1 & he did n f9d x    
beyond ! rea* ( 8 capacity to apply     
himself to all dep>tm5ts ( ! field (    
human inve/igation4 ,x is no?+ /range to
 discov] t ,anaxim&] & ! ,py?agoreans & 
,anaxagoras h prop\nd$ !ories reg>d+ !  
/ructure ( ! cosmos1 ! orig9 &          
developm5t ( animals & man1 & ! nature (
 matt] itself4 ,n[adays1 s enorm\sly    
involv$ has become ! mass ( m]e facts   
reg>d+ ea* ( ^! dep>tm5ts ( k t no "o   
man has ! tem]ity to attempt to ma/] !m 
all4 ,b x 0 diff]5t 9 ^? days ( beg9n+s4
 ,!n ! me?ods ( obs]vation 7 /ill crude1
 & x 0 q ! cu/om = a ?9k] ( =ceful      
p]sonality to f9d an eag] foll[+ among  
disciples :o nev] ?\ght ( putt+ 8 !ories
 to ! te/ ( exp]im5t4 ,! great lesson t 
true sci5ce 9 ! la/ resort dep5ds ^u    
obs]vation & measurem5t1 ^u compass &   
balance1 _h n yet be5 le>n$1 ?\gh "h &  
!re a ?9k] l ,anaxagoras _h ga9$ an     
inkl+ ( x4  ,= ! mom5t1 inde$1 !re 9    
,attica1 :i* 0 n[1 ?anks to t outbur/ ( 
,p]iclean culture1 ! c5tre ( ! _w's     

civilization1 ! tr5d ( ?\ght 0 to take q
 ano!r direction4 ,! v ye> :i* saw !    
bir? ( ,democritus at ,abd]a1 & (       
,hippocrates1 m>k$ also ! bir?1 at      
,a!ns1 ( ano!r rem>kable man1 ^:        
influ5ce x w\ld sc>cely be possible to  
ov]-e/imate4 ,?is man 0 ,socrates4 ,!   
ma9 facts ( 8 hi/ory are famili> to e   
"o4 ,x w be recall$ t ,socrates sp5t 8  
entire life 9 ,a!ns1 m+l+ ev]y:]e ) !   
populace2 h>angu+1 s ! tradition goes1 e
 "o :o w\ld li/52 inculcat+ moral       
lessons1 & f9ally incurr+ !             
disapprobation ( at lea/ a vot+ majority
 ( 8 fell[-citiz5s4 ,he ga!r$ ab\t him a
 company ( rem>kable m5 ) ,plato at _!  
head1 b ?is c\ld n save him f !         
disapprobation ( ! multitudes1 at ^: h&s
 he suff]$ dea?1 legally adm9i/]$ aft] a
 public trial4 ,! facts at comm& z to   
c]ta9 cu/oms ( ! ,greeks at ?is p]iod   
make x possible to raise a "q z to :e!r 
! alleg$ corruption ( y\?1 ) :i*        
,socrates 0 *>g$1 may n h _h a diff]5t  
implication f :at po/]ity has pref]r$ to

 ascribe to x4 ,b ?is ?\ght1 almo/ %ock+
 to ! mod]n m9d & seem+ altoge!r        
sacrilegi\s to mo/ /ud5ts ( ,greek      
philosophy1 ne$ n "h deta9 u2 nei!r h we
 mu* conc]n 9 ! pres5t connection ) any 
"p ( ! tea*+ ( ! m>tyr$ philosoph]4 ,= !
 hi/orian ( metaphysics1 ,socrates m>ks 
an epo*1 b = ! hi/orian ( sci5ce he is a
 mu* less consequ5tial figure4          
,simil>ly reg>d+ ,plato1 ! ari/ocratic  
,a!nian :o sat at ! feet ( ,socrates1 & 
?r\gh ^: writ+s ! tea*+s ( ! ma/] f\nd  
wide/ curr5cy4 ,"s /ud5ts ( philosophy  
f9d 9 ,plato ! greate/ ?9k] & writ] (   
all "t47#a7 ,! /ud5t ( sci5ce mu/       
recognize 9 him a ?9k] ^: po9t ( view 0 
ess5tially non-sci5tific2 "o :o t5d$    
always to reason f ! g5]al to ! p>ticul>
 r ?an f ! p>ticul> to ! g5]al4 ,plato's
 writ+s cov]$ almo/ ! entire field (    
?\ght1 & 8 ideas 7 pres5t$ ) su* lit]>y 
*>m t successive g5]ations ( read]s     
turn$ to !m ) unflagg+ int]e/1 & gave !m
 wide curr5cy ?r\gh copies t f9ally     
pres]v$ !m to our own "t4 ,?us we are n 

oblig$ 9 8 case1 z we are 9 ! case ( e  
o!r ,greek philosoph]1 to e/imate 8     
tea*+s l>gely f he>say evid5ce4 ,plato  
himself speaks to u directly4 ,x is     
true1 ! lit]>y =m :i* he always adopt$1 
namely1 ! dialogue1 does n give q ! same
 c]ta9ty z to :5 he is express+ 8 own   
op9ions t a m direct n>rative w\ld h    
giv52 yet1 9 ! ma91 !re is little d\bt z
 to ! t5or ( 8 own op9ions--except1     
inde$1 su* d\bt z always atta*es to !   
philosophical reason+ ( ! ab/ract ?9k]4 
,:at is *iefly significant f our pres5t 
/&po9t is t ! great e?ical tea*] _h no  
significant message to give ! _w reg>d+ 
! physical sci5ces4 ,he app>5tly _h no  
%>ply def9$ op9ions z to ! me*anism ( ! 
univ]se2 no cle> conception z to ! orig9
 or developm5t ( organic be+s2 no       
tangible ideas z to ! problems (        
physics2 no favorite dreams z to !      
nature ( matt]4 ,virtually 8 back 0     
turn$ on ?is entire field ( ?\ght4 ,he 0
 "u ! sway ( ^? innate ideas :i*1 z we h
 urg$1 7 among ! e>lie/ inductions (    

sci5ce4 ,b he nev] = a mom5t suspect$   
su* an orig9 = ^! ideas4 ,he suppos$ 8  
conceptions ( be+1 8 /&>ds ( e?ics1 to  
lie back ( all exp]i5ce2 = him !y 7 !   
mo/ fundam5tal & mo/ dep5dable ( facts4 
,he criticis$ ,anaxagoras = hav+ t5d$ to
 d$uce g5]al laws f obs]vation4 ,z we   
mod]ns see x1 su* criticism is ! highe/ 
possible praise4 ,x is a criticism t    
m>ks ! di/9ction betwe5 ! sci5ti/ :o is 
also a philosoph] & ! philosoph] :o has 
b a vague notion ( physical sci5ce4     
,plato seem$1 inde$1 to realize ! value 
( sci5tific inve/igation2 he ref]r$ to !
 a/ronomical /udies ( ! ,egyptians &    
,*aldeans1 & spoke hopefully ( ! results
 t might accrue 7 su* /udies to be tak5 
up by t ,greek m9d :i*1 z he ju/ly      
conceiv$1 _h ! p[] to vitalize & enri*  
all t x t\*$4 ,b he told "h ( :at he    
w\ld h o!rs d1 n ( :at he himself ?\ght 
( do+4 ,8 voice 0 prophetic1 b x        
/imulat$ no work] ( 8 own "t4  ,plato   
himself _h travell$ widely4 ,x is a     
famili> leg5d t he liv$ = ye>s 9 ,egypt1

 endeavor+ !re to p5etrate ! my/]ies (  
,egyptian sci5ce4 ,x is said ev5 t !    
rudim5ts ( geometry :i* he acquir$ !re  
influ5c$ all 8 lat] tea*+s4 ,b be t z x 
may1 ! hi/orian ( sci5ce mu/ recognize 9
 ! f\nd] ( ! ,academy a moral tea*] &   
metaphysical dream] & sociologi/1 b n1 9
 ! mod]n acceptance ( ! t]m1 a sci5ti/4 
,^? wid] phases ( biological sci5ce :i* 
f9d _! expression 9 metaphysics1 9      
e?ics1 9 political economy1 lie )\t our 
pres5t scope2 & = ! developm5t ( ^?     
subjects ) :i* we are m directly        
conc]n$1 ,plato1 l 8 ma/]1 has a        
negative significance4   ,,ari/otle     
7#chd-cbb ,b4,c47  ,:5 we pass to t ?ird
 great ,a!nian tea*]1 ,ari/otle1 ! case 
is f> diff]5t4 ,"h 0 a man ^: "n 0 to be
 receiv$ z almo/ a synonym = ,greek     
sci5ce = m ?an a ?\s& ye>s aft] 8 dea?4 
,all ?r\gh ! ,middle ,ages 8 writ+s 7 to
 be accept$ z virtually ! la/ ^w reg>d+ 
! problems ( nature4 ,we %all see t 8   
foll[]s actually pref]r$ 8 m&ate to !   
te/imony ( _! own s5ses4 ,we %all see1  

fur!r1 t mod]n sci5ce progress$ some:at 
9 proportion z x ov]?rew ! ,ari/otelian 
dogmas4 ,b ! traditions ( sev5te5 or    
eighte5 c5turies are n easily set aside1
 & x is p]haps n too mu* to say t ! "n (
 ,ari/otle /&s1 ev5 9 our own "t1 z     
vaguely repres5tative 9 ! popul> m9d (  
all t 0 highe/ & be/ 9 ! sci5ce (       
antiquity4 ,yet1 p]haps1 x w\ld n be go+
 too f> to ass]t t some?+ l a rev]sal ( 
?is judgm5t w\ld be ne>] ! tru?4        
,ari/otle did1 inde$1 br+ toge!r a great
 mass ( facts reg>d+ animals 9 8 "w on  
natural hi/ory1 :i*1 be+ pres]v$1 has   
be5 deem$ to entitle its au?or to be    
call$ ! fa!r ( zoology4 ,b !re is no    
reason to suppose t any consid]able     
portion ( ?is "w conta9$ matt] t 0      
novel1 or record$ obs]vations t 7       
orig9al ) ,ari/otle2 & ! classifications
 !re outl9$ are at be/ b a vague =e%ad[+
 ( ! elaboration ( ! sci5ce4 ,su* z x   
is1 h[ev]1 ! natural hi/ory /&s to !    
cr$it ( ! ,/agirite4 ,he mu/ be cr$it$1 
too1 ) a cle> enunciation ( "o mo/      

important sci5tific doctr9e--namely1 !  
doctr9e ( ! sph]ical figure ( ! e>?4 ,we
 h already se5 t ?is !ory orig9at$ ) !  
,py?agorean philosoph]s out 9 ,italy4   
,we h se51 too1 t ! doctr9e _h n made   
its way 9 ,attica 9 ! "t ( ,anaxagoras4 
,b 9 ! int]v5+ c5tury x _h ga9$ wide    
curr5cy1 else s ess5tially cons]vative a
 ?9k] z ,ari/otle w\ld sc>cely h accept$
 x4 ,he did accept x1 h[ev]1 & gave !   
doctr9e cle>e/ & mo/ precise expression4
 ,"h are 8 words37#b7   ,z to ! figure (
 ! e>? x mu/ necess>ily be sph]ical4444 
,if x 7 n s1 ! eclipses ( ! moon w\ld n 
h su* sections z !y h4 ,= 9 !           
configurations 9 ! c\rse ( a mon? !     
defici5t "p takes all diff]5t %apes2 x  
is /raight1 & concave1 & convex2 b 9    
eclipses x always has ! l9e ( divisions 
convex2 :]e=e1 s9ce ! moon is eclips$ 9 
consequ5ce ( ! int]position ( ! e>?1 !  
p]iph]y ( ! e>? mu/ be ! cause ( ?is by 
hav+ a sph]ical =m4 ,& aga91 f !        
appe>ance ( ! />s x is cle>1 n only t ! 
e>? is r\nd1 b t its size is n v l>ge2 =

 :5 we make a small removal to ! s\? or 
! nor?1 ! circle ( ! horizon becomes    
palpably diff]5t1 s t ! />s ov]head     
und]go a great *ange1 & are n ! same to 
^? t travel 9 ! nor? & to ! s\?4 ,= "s  
/>s are se5 9 ,egypt or at ,cyprus1 b   
are n se5 9 ! c\ntries to ! nor? ( ^!2 &
 ! />s t 9 ! nor? are visible :ile !y   
make a complete circuit1 !re und]go a   
sett+4 ,s t f ?is x is manife/1 n only t
 ! =m ( ! e>? is r\nd1 b also t x is a  
"p ( a n v l>ge sph]e2 = o!rwise !      
diff]5ce w\ld n be s obvi\s to p]sons   
mak+ s small a *ange ( place4 ,:]e=e we 
may judge t ^? p]sons :o connect !      
region 9 ! neighborhood ( ! pill>s (    
,h]cules ) t t[>ds ,india1 & :o ass]t t 
9 ?is way ! sea is "o1 d n ass]t ?+s v  
improbable4 ,!y confirm ?is conjecture  
moreov] by ! elephants1 :i* are said to 
be ( ! same species t[>ds ea* extreme2 z
 if ?is circum/ance 0 a consequ5ce ( !  
conjunction ( ! extremes4 ,!            
ma!maticians :o try to calculate !      
measure ( ! circumf]5ce1 make x am\nt to

 f\r hundr$ ?\s& /adia2 :5ce we collect 
t ! e>? is n only sph]ical1 b is n l>ge 
comp>$ ) ! magnitude ( ! o!r />s4  ,b 9 
giv+ full me$ ( praise to ,ari/otle = ! 
promulgation ( ?is doctr9e ( ! sph]icity
 ( ! e>?1 x mu/ un=tunately be add$ t ! 
cons]vative philosoph] paus$ )\t tak+ "o
 o!r important /ep4 ,he c\ld n accept1  
b1 on ! contr>y1 he expressly repudiat$1
 ! doctr9e ( ! e>?'s motion4 ,we h se5 t
 ?is idea also 0 a "p ( ! ,py?agorean   
doctr9e1 & we %all h occasion to dwell m
 at l5g? on ?is po9t 9 a succe$+ *apt]4 
,x has ev5 be5 cont5d$ by "s critics t x
 0 ! adv]se conviction ( ! ,p]ipatetic  
philosoph] :i*1 m ?an any o!r s+le      
influ5ce1 t5d$ to ret>d ! progress ( !  
true doctr9e reg>d+ ! me*anism ( !      
heav5s4 ,ari/otle accept$ ! sph]icity ( 
! e>?1 & t doctr9e became a commonplace 
( sci5tific k1 & s cont9u$ ?r\gh\t      
classical antiquity4 ,b ,ari/otle       
reject$ ! doctr9e ( ! e>?'s motion1 & t 
doctr9e1 ?\gh promulgat$ actively by a  
few contempor>ies & imm$iate successors 

( ! ,/agirite1 0 !n doom$ to s9k out (  
view = m ?an a ?\s& ye>s4 ,if x be a    
correct assumption t ! influ5ce (       
,ari/otle 01 9 a l>ge measure1          
responsible = ?is result1 !n we %all    
p]haps n be f> a/ray 9 assum+ t ! great 
f\nd] ( ! ,p]ipatetic s*ool 01 on !     
:ole1 m in/rum5tal 9 ret>d+ ! progress (
 a/ronomical sci5ce t any o!r "o man t  
ev] liv$4  ,! field ( sci5ce 9 :i*      
,ari/otle 0 pre-em95tly a pa?f9d] is    
zoology4 ,8 writ+s on natural hi/ory h  
l>gely be5 pres]v$1 & !y con/itute by f>
 ! mo/ important contribution to !      
subject t has come d[n to u f antiquity4
 ,!y %[ u t ,ari/otle _h ga9$ possession
 ( ! wide/ range ( facts reg>d+ ! animal
 k+dom1 &1 :at is f> m important1 _h    
attempt$ to classify ^! facts4 ,9 s do+ 
he became ! f\nd] ( sy/ematic zoology4  
,ari/otle's classification ( ! animal   
k+dom 0 kn[n & /udi$ ?r\gh\t ! ,middle  
,ages1 &1 9 fact1 rema9$ 9 vogue until  
sup]s$$ by t ( ,cuvi] 9 ! n9ete5?       
c5tury4 ,x is n to be suppos$ t all !   

t]ms ( ,ari/otle's classification       
orig9at$ ) him4 ,"s ( ! divisions are   
too pat5t to h escap$ ! obs]vation ( 8  
pr$ecessors4 ,?us1 = example1 !         
di/9ction betwe5 birds & fi%es z sep>ate
 classes ( animals is s obvi\s t x mu/  
appeal to a *ild or to a savage4 ,b !   
ef=ts ( ,ari/otle ext5d$1 z we %all see1
 to less pat5t g5]alizations4 ,at ! v   
outset1 8 gr& division ( ! animal k+dom 
into blood-be>+ & bloodless animals     
implies a v broad & philosophical       
conception ( ! entire animal k+dom4 ,!  
mod]n physiologi/ does n accept !       
classification1 inasmu* z x is n[ kn[n t
 colorless fluids p]=m ! functions (    
blood = all ! l[] organisms4 ,b ! fact  
rema9s t ,ari/otle's gr& divisions      
correspond to ! gr& divisions ( !       
,lam>ckian sy/em--v]tebrates &          
inv]tebrates--:i* e "o n[ accepts4      
,ari/otle1 z we h said1 bas$ 8          
classification ^u obs]vation ( ! blood2 
,lam>ck 0 guid$ by a /udy ( ! skeleton4 
,! fact t su* div]se po9ts ( view c\ld  

direct ! obs]v] t[>ds ! same result     
gives1 inf]5tially1 a sugge/ive lesson 9
 :at ! mod]n physiologi/ calls !        
homologies ( p>ts ( ! organism4         
,ari/otle divides 8 s-call$ blood-be>+  
animals into five classes3 7#a7         
,f\r-foot$ animals t br+ =? _! "y alive2
 7#b7 birds2 7#c7 egg-lay+ f\r-foot$    
animals 7includ+ :at mod]n naturali/s   
call reptiles & amphibians72 7#d7 :ales 
& _! allies2 7#e7 fi%es4 ,?is           
classification1 z w be obs]v$1 is n s v 
f> afield f ! mod]n divisions into      
mammals1 birds1 reptiles1 amphibians1 & 
fi%es4 ,t ,ari/otle %\ld h recogniz$ !  
fundam5tal di/9ction betwe5 fi%es & !   
fi%-l :ales1 dolph9s1 & porpoises proves
 ! f> f sup]ficial "* ( 8 /udies4       
,ari/otle knew t ^! animals brea! by    
means ( lungs & t !y produce liv+ "y4   
,he recogniz$1 !re=e1 _! aff9ity ) 8    
fir/ class ( animals1 ev5 if he did n1 l
 ! mod]n naturali/1 consid] ^! aff9ities
 close en\gh to ju/ify br++ ! two types 
toge!r into a s+le class4  ,! bloodless 

animals 7 also divid$ by ,ari/otle into 
five classes--namely3 7#a7 ,cephalopoda 
7! octopus1 cuttle-fi%1 etc472 7#b7     
weak-%ell$ animals 7crabs1 etc472 7#c7  
insects & _! allies 7includ+ v>i\s =ms1 
su* z spid]s & c5tip$es1 :i* ! mod]n    
classifi] pref]s to place by !mselves72 
7#d7 h>d-%ell$ animals 7clams1 oy/]s1   
snails1 etc472 7#e7 a conglom]ate gr\p (
 m>9e =ms1 includ+ />-fi%1 sea-ur*9s1 & 
v>i\s anomal\s =ms t 7 reg>d$ z l9k+ !  
animal to ! vegetable worlds4 ,?is      
classification ( ! l[] =ms ( animal life
 cont9u$ 9 vogue until ,cuvi] sub/itut$ 
= x 8 fam\s gr\p+ into articulates1     
mollusks1 & radiates2 :i* gr\p+ 9 turn 0
 9 "p sup]s$$ lat] 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury4  
,:at ,ari/otle did = ! animal k+dom 8   
pupil1 ,!ophra/us1 did 9 "s measure = ! 
vegetable k+dom4 ,!ophra/us1 h[ev]1 0   
mu* less a classifi] ?an 8 ma/]1 & 8 "w 
on botany1 call$ ,! ,natural ,hi/ory (  
,developm5t1 pays comp>atively slight   
att5tion to !oretical que/ions4 ,x deals
 l>gely ) su* practicalities z ! mak+ ( 

*>coal1 ( pit*1 & ( res91 & ! effects ( 
v>i\s plants on ! animal organism :5    
tak5 z foods or z m$ic9es4 ,9 ?is reg>d 
! "w ( ,!ophra/us1 is m ne>ly ak9 to !  
natural hi/ory ( ! fam\s ,roman compil]1
 ,pl9y4 ,x rema9$1 h[ev]1 ?r\gh\t       
antiquity z ! mo/ important "w on its   
subject1 & x entitles ,!ophra/us to be  
call$ ! fa!r ( botany4 ,!ophra/us deals 
also ) ! m9]al k+dom aft] mu* ! same    
fa%ion1 & "h aga9 8 "w is ! mo/ notable 
t 0 produc$ 9 antiquity4     ,,ix4      
,,greek ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,! ,,alex&rian    
,,or ,,hell5i/ic ,,p]iod  ,we are ent]+ 
n[ ^u ! mo/ important sci5tific epo* (  
antiquity4 ,:5 ,ari/otle & ,!ophra/us   
pass$ f ! sc5e1 ,a!ns ceas$ to be 9 any 
s5se ! sci5tific c5tre ( ! _w4 ,t city  
/ill reta9$ its rem9isc5t glory1 & _c be
 ignor$ 9 ! hi/ory ( culture1 b no great
 sci5tific lead] 0 ev] aga9 to be born  
or to take up 8 p]man5t abode )9 !      
conf9es ( ,greece prop]4 ,) almo/       
cataclysmic sudd5ness1 a new            
intellectual c5tre appe>$ on ! s\? %ore 

( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,?is 0 ! city (       
,alex&ria1 a city :i* ,alex&] ! ,great  
_h f\nd$ dur+ 8 brief visit to ,egypt1 &
 :i* became ! capital ( ,ptolemy ,sot]  
:5 he *ose ,egypt z 8 portion ( !       
dismemb]$ empire ( ! great ,mac$onian4  
,ptolemy _h be5 ) 8 ma/] 9 ! ,ea/1 & 0 )
 him 9 ,babylonia :5 he di$4 ,he _h     
!re=e come p]sonally 9 contact )        
,babylonian civilization1 & we _c d\bt t
 ?is _h a mo/ important influ5ce ^u 8   
life1 & ?r\gh him ^u ! new civilization 
( ! ,we/4 ,9 po9t ( culture1 ,alex&ria  
mu/ be reg>d$ z ! successor ( ,babylon1 
sc>cely less directly ?an ( ,greece4    
,foll[+ ! ,babylonian model1 ,ptolemy   
erect$ a great museum & began collect+ a
 libr>y4 ,be=e 8 dea? x 0 said t he _h  
collect$ no few] ?an two hundr$ ?\s&    
manuscripts4 ,he _h ga!r$ also a company
 ( great tea*]s & f\nd$ a s*ool ( sci5ce
 :i*1 z has j be5 said1 made ,alex&ria !
 culture-c5tre ( ! _w4  ,a!ns 9 ! day ( 
h] prime _h kn[n no?+ q l ?is4 ,su*     
private citiz5s z ,ari/otle are kn[n to 

h _h libr>ies1 b !re 7 no great public  
collections ( books 9 ,a!ns1 or 9 any   
o!r "p ( ! ,greek doma91 until ,ptolemy 
f\nd$ 8 fam\s libr>y4 ,z is well kn[n1  
su* libr>ies _h exi/$ 9 ,babylonia =    
?\s&s ( ye>s4 ,! "* :i* ! ,ptolemaic    
epo* took on 0 no d\bt due to           
,babylonian influ5ce1 b q z mu* to !    
p]sonal exp]i5ce ( ,ptolemy himself z an
 explor] 9 ! ,f> ,ea/4 ,! m>vell\s      
conqu]+ j\rney ( ,alex&] _h enorm\sly   
wid5$ ! horizon ( ! ,greek geograph]1 & 
/imulat$ ! imag9ation ( all ranks ( ! p1
 ,x 0 b natural1 !n1 t geography & its  
p>5t sci5ce a/ronomy %\ld occupy !      
att5tion ( ! be/ m9ds 9 ?is succe$+     
epo*4 ,9 po9t ( fact1 su* a company (   
/>-gaz]s & e>?-measur]s came ^u ! sc5e 9
 ?is ?ird c5tury ,b4,c4 z _h nev] be=e  
exi/$ any:]e 9 ! _w4 ,! :ole tr5d ( ! "t
 0 t[>ds me*anics4 ,x 0 z if ! greate/  
?9k]s _h squ>ely fac$ ab\t f ! attitude 
( ! my/ical philosoph]s ( ! prec$+      
c5tury1 & _h set !mselves ! task ( solv+
 all ! me*anical riddles ( ! univ]se1   

,!y no long] tr\bl$ !mselves ab\t       
problems ( be+ & becom+2 !y gave b      
little he$ to metaphysical subtleties2  
!y dem&$ t _! ?\ghts %\ld be gaug$ by   
objective realities4 ,h5ce !re arose a  
succession ( great geomet]s1 & _!       
conceptions 7 appli$ to ! con/ruction ( 
new me*anical contrivances on ! "o h&1 &
 to ! elaboration ( !ories ( sid]eal    
me*anics on ! o!r4  ,! wond]ful company 
( m5 :o p]=m$ ! feats t are ab\t to be  
record$ did n all f9d _! home 9         
,alex&ria1 to be sure2 b !y all came m  
or less "u ! ,alex&rian influ5ce4 ,we   
%all see t !re are two o!r important    
c5tres2 "o out 9 ,sicily1 almo/ at !    
conf9es ( ! ,greek t]ritory 9 ! we/2 !  
o!r 9 ,asia ,m9or1 notably on ! isl& (  
,samos--! isl& :i*1 x w be recall$1 0 at
 an e>li] day ! bir?place ( ,py?agoras4 
,b :]eas 9 ! previ\s c5tury coloni/s f !
 conf9es ( ! civiliz$ _w came to ,a!ns1 
n[ all eyes turn$ t[>ds ,alex&ria1 & s  
improv$ 7 ! facilities = communication t
 no d\bt ! discov]ies ( "o cot]ie (     

work]s 7 kn[n to all ! o!rs mu* m       
quickly ?an _h ev] be5 possible be=e4   
,we le>n1 = example1 t ! /udies (       
,ari/>*us ( ,samos 7 def9itely kn[n to  
,ar*im$es ( ,syracuse1 out 9 ,sicily4   
,inde$1 z we %all see1 x is ?r\gh a     
*ance ref]5ce pres]v$ 9 "o ( ! writ+s ( 
,ar*im$es t "o ( ! mo/ important        
speculations ( ,ari/>*us is made kn[n to
 u4 ,?is illu/rates suffici5tly !       
int]communication ?r\gh :i* ! ?\ght ( ! 
,alex&rian epo* 0 br\ght into a s+le    
*annel4 ,we no long]1 z 9 ! day ( !     
e>li] s*ools ( ,greek philosophy1 h     
isolat$ gr\ps ( ?9k]s4 ,! sci5tific     
drama is n[ play$ out ^u a s+le /age2 & 
if we pass1 z we %all 9 ! pres5t *apt]1 
f ,alex&ria to ,syracuse & f ,syracuse  
to ,samos1 ! %ift ( sc5es does no       
viol5ce to ! dramatic unities4  ,not)/&+
 ! numb] ( great work]s :o 7 n prop]ly  
,alex&rians1 none ! less ! epo* is )    
propriety t]m$ ,alex&rian4 ,n m]ely 9 ! 
?ird c5tury ,b4,c41 b ?r\gh\t ! lapse ( 
at lea/ f\r succe$+ c5turies1 ! city (  

,alex&] & ! ,ptolemies cont9u$ to hold  
its place z ! undisput$ culture-c5tre ( 
! _w4 ,dur+ t p]iod ,rome rose to its   
p9nacle ( glory & began to decl9e1 )\t  
ev] *all5g+ ! intellectual supremacy ( !
 ,egyptian city4 ,we %all see1 9 a lat] 
*apt]1 t ! ,alex&rian influ5ces 7 pass$ 
on to ! ,mohamm$an conqu]ors1 & e "o is 
aw>e t :5 ,alex&ria 0 f9ally ov]?r[n its
 place 0 tak5 by ano!r ,greek city1     
,byzantium or ,con/ant9ople4 ,b t       
transf] did n occur until ,alex&ria _h  
enjoy$ a long] p]iod ( supremacy z an   
intellectual c5tre ?an _h p]haps ev]    
be=e be5 grant$ to any city1 ) !        
possible exception ( ,babylon4          
,,euclid 7,,ab\t #cjj ,b4,c47  ,our     
pres5t conc]n is ) t fir/ wond]ful      
developm5t ( sci5tific activity :i*     
began "u ! fir/ ,ptolemy1 & :i* pres5ts1
 9 ! c\rse ( ! fir/ c5tury ( ,alex&rian 
influ5ce1 ! mo/ rem>kable cot]ie (      
sci5tific work]s & ?9k]s t antiquity    
produc$4 ,! e>lie/ gr\p ( ^! new lead]s 
9 sci5ce _h at its head a man ^: "n has 

be5 a h\sehold ^w ev] s9ce4 ,?is 0      
,euclid1 ! fa!r ( sy/ematic geometry4   
,tradition has pres]v$ to u b little ( !
 p]sonality ( ?is rem>kable tea*]2 b1 on
 ! o!r h&1 8 mo/ important "w has come  
d[n to u 9 its entirety4 ,! ,elem5ts (  
,geometry1 ) :i* ! "n ( ,euclid is      
associat$ 9 ! m9d ( e s*ool-boy1 pres5t$
 ! *ief propositions ( its subject 9 s  
simple & logical a =m t ! "w rema9$ a   
textbook ev]y:]e = m ?an two ?\s& ye>s4 
,inde$ x is only n[ beg9n+ to be        
sup]s$$4 ,x is n tw5ty ye>s s9ce ,engli%
 ma!maticians c\ld deplore ! fact t1    
despite c]ta9 r obvi\s defects ( ! "w ( 
,euclid1 no bett] textbook ?an ?is 0    
available4 ,euclid's "w1 ( c\rse1 gives 
expression to mu* k t did n orig9ate )  
him4 ,we h already se5 t sev]al         
important propositions ( geometry _h be5
 develop$ by ,?ales1 & "o by ,py?agoras1
 & t ! rudim5ts ( ! subject 7 at lea/ z 
old z ,egyptian civilization4 ,precisely
 h[ mu* ,euclid add$ ?r\gh 8 own        
inve/igations _c be asc]ta9$4 ,x seems  

probable t he 0 a diffus] ( k r ?an an  
orig9ator1 b z a great tea*] 8 fame is  
secure4 ,he is cr$it$ ) an epigram :i* 9
 itself might insure him p]petuity (    
fame3 ,!re is no royal road to geometry1
 0 8 answ] to ,ptolemy :5 t rul] _h     
que/ion$ :e!r ! ,elem5ts might n be     
simplifi$4 ,d\btless ?is1 l mo/ simil>  
good say+s1 is apocryphal2 b :oev]      
inv5t$ x has made ! _w 8 debtor4        
,,h]ophilus ,,& ,,erasi/ratus  ,!       
ca?olicity ( ,ptolemy's ta/es l$ him1   
naturally en\gh1 to cultivate !         
biological no less ?an ! physical       
sci5ces4 ,9 p>ticul> 8 influ5ce p]mitt$ 
an epo*al advance 9 ! field ( m$ic9e4   
,two anatomi/s became fam\s ?r\gh !     
inve/igations !y 7 p]mitt$ to make "u ! 
patronage ( ! enlight5$ rul]4 ,^! e>lie/
 ( really sci5tific inve/igators ( !    
me*anism ( ! human body 7 nam$          
,h]ophilus & ,erasi/ratus4 ,^! two      
anatomi/s ga9$ _! k by ! dissection (   
human bodies 7!irs are ! fir/ records t 
we h ( su* practices71 & ,k+ ,ptolemy   

himself is said to h be5 pres5t at "s ( 
^! dissections4 ,!y 7 ! fir/ to discov] 
t ! n]ve-trunks h _! orig9 9 ! bra9 &   
sp9al cord1 & !y are cr$it$ also ) !    
discov]y t ^! n]ve-trunks are ( two     
diff]5t k9ds--"o to convey motor1 & !   
o!r s5sory impulses4 ,!y discov]$1      
describ$1 & nam$ ! cov]+s ( ! bra94 ,!  
"n ( ,h]ophilus is /ill appli$ by       
anatomi/s1 9 honor ( ! discov]]1 to "o (
 ! s9uses or l>ge canals t convey ! v5\s
 blood f ! head4 ,h]ophilus also notic$ 
& describ$ f\r cavities or v5tricles 9 !
 bra91 & rea*$ ! conclusion t "o ( ^!   
v5tricles 0 ! seat ( ! s\l--a belief %>$
 until comp>atively rec5t times by _m   
physiologi/s4 ,he made also a c>eful &  
fairly accurate /udy ( ! anatomy ( !    
eye1 a greatly improv$ ! old op]ation = 
cat>act4  ,) ! increas$ k ( anatomy came
 also correspond+ advances 9 surg]y1 &  
_m exp]im5tal op]ations are said to h   
be5 p]=m$ ^u condemn$ crim9als :o 7 h&$ 
ov] to ! surgeons by ! ,ptolemies4 ,:ile
 _m mod]n writ]s h attempt$ to discr$it 

^! ass]tions1 x is n improbable t su*   
op]ations 7 p]=m$4 ,9 an age :5 human   
life 0 held s *eap1 & among a p accu/om$
 to tortur+ condemn$ prison]s =         
comp>atively slight (f5ces1 x is n      
unlikely t ! surgeons 7 all[$ to inflict
 p]haps less pa9ful tortures 9 ! cause (
 sci5ce4 ,fur!rmore1 we "k t condemn$   
crim9als 7 sometimes h&$ ov] to ! m$ical
 pr(ession to be op]at$ ^u & kill$ 9    
:atev] way !y ?\ght be/ ev5 z late z !  
sixte5? c5tury4 ,t]tullian7#a7 probably 
exagg]ates1 h[ev]1 :5 he puts ! numb] ( 
su* victims 9 ,alex&ria at six hundr$4  
,_h ,h]ophilus & ,erasi/ratus be5 z     
happy 9 _! d$uctions z to ! functions ( 
! organs z !y 7 9 _! k ( anatomy1 !     
sci5ce ( m$ic9e w\ld h be5 plac$ ^u a v 
high plane ev5 9 _! "t4 ,un=tunately1   
h[ev]1 !y n only drew errone\s inf]5ces 
z to ! functions ( ! organs1 b also     
disagre$ radically z to :at functions   
c]ta9 organs p]=m$1 & h[ diseases %\ld  
be treat$1 ev5 :5 agree+ p]fectly on !  
subject ( anatomy itself4 ,_!           

contribution to ! k ( ! sci5tific       
treatm5t ( diseases holds no su* place1 
!re=e1 z _! anatomical inve/igations4   
,half a c5tury aft] ! "t ( ,h]ophilus   
!re appe>$ a ,greek physician1          
,h]aclides1 ^: reputation 9 ! use (     
drugs f> surpasses t ( ! anatomi/s ( !  
,alex&rian s*ool4 ,8 reputation has be5 
h&$ d[n ?r\gh ! c5turies z t ( a        
physician1 r ?an a surgeon1 al?\gh 9 8  
own "t he 0 consid]$ "o ( ! great       
surgeons ( ! p]iod4 ,h]aclides belong$  
to ! ,empiric s*ool1 :i* reject$ anatomy
 z useless1 dep5d+ entirely on ! use (  
drugs4 ,he is ?\ght to h be5 ! fir/     
physician to po9t out ! value ( opium 9 
c]ta9 pa9ful diseases4 ,8 prescription (
 ?is drug = c]ta9 cases ( sleeplessness1
 spasm1 *ol]a1 & colic1 %[s t 8 use ( x 
0 n unlike t ( ! mod]n physician 9 c]ta9
 cases2 & 8 treatm5t ( fev]s1 by keep+ !
 pati5t's head cool & facilitat+ !      
secretions ( ! body1 is /ill recogniz$ z
 good practice4 ,he advocat$ a free use 
( liquids 9 qu5*+ ! fev] pati5t's       

?ir/--a recogniz$ !rapeutic measure     
to-day1 b "o t 0 widely condemn$ a      
c5tury ago4   ,,ar*im$es ,,( ,,syracuse 
,,& ,,! ,,f\ndation ,,( ,,me*anics  ,we 
d n "k j :5 ,euclid di$1 b z he 0 at !  
height ( 8 fame 9 ! "t ( ,ptolemy ,i41  
^: reign end$ 9 ! ye> #bhe ,b4,c41 x is 
h>dly probable t he 0 /ill liv+ :5 a "y 
man nam$ ,ar*im$es came to ,alex&ria to 
/udy4 ,ar*im$es 0 born 9 ! ,greek colony
 ( ,syracuse1 on ! isl& ( ,sicily1 9 !  
ye> #bhg ,b4,c4 ,:5 he visit$ ,alex&ria 
he probably f\nd ,apollonius ( ,p]ga1 ! 
pupil ( ,euclid1 at ! head ( !          
ma!matical s*ool !re4 ,j h[ long        
,ar*im$es rema9$ at ,alex&ria is n kn[n4
 ,:5 he _h satisfi$ 8 curiosity or      
complet$ 8 /udies1 he return$ to        
,syracuse & sp5t 8 life !re1 *iefly "u !
 patronage ( ,k+ ,hi]o1 :o seems fully  
to h appreciat$ 8 abilities4  ,ar*im$es 
0 prim>ily a ma!matician4 ,left to 8 own
 devices1 he w\ld probably h devot$ 8   
entire "t to ! /udy ( geometrical       
problems4 ,b ,k+ ,hi]o _h discov]$ t 8  

protege _h wond]ful me*anical +5uity1 & 
he made good use ( ?is discov]y4 ,"u    
/ress ( ! k+'s urg+s1 ! philosoph] 0 l$ 
to inv5t a great v>iety ( me*anical     
contrivances1 "s ( !m mo/ curi\s ones4  
,antiquity cr$it$ him ) ! inv5tion ( m  
?an =ty ma*9es1 & x is ^!1 r ?an 8      
purely ma!matical discov]ies1 t gave 8  
"n popul> vogue bo? among 8             
contempor>ies & ) po/]ity4 ,e "o has    
he>d ( ! screw ( ,ar*im$es1 ?r\gh :i* ! 
p>adoxical effect 0 produc$ ( mak+ wat] 
seem to fl[ up hill4 ,! be/ idea ( ?is  
curi\s me*anism is obta9$ if "o w take 9
 h& an ord9>y corkscrew1 & imag9e ?is   
in/rum5t to be *ang$ into a holl[ tube1 
reta9+ precisely ! same %ape b increas$ 
to "s feet 9 l5g? & to a proportionate  
diamet]4 ,if "o w hold ! corkscrew 9 a  
slant+ direction & turn x sl[ly to ! "r1
 suppos+ t ! po9t dips up a portion (   
wat] ea* "t x revolves1 "o c 9          
imag9ation foll[ ! fl[ ( t portion (    
wat] f spiral to spiral1 ! wat] always  
runn+ d[nw>d1 ( c\rse1 yet p>adoxically 

be+ lift$ high] & high] t[>ds ! base ( !
 corkscrew1 until f9ally x p\rs out 79 !
 actual ,ar*im$es' tube7 at ! top4 ,!re 
is ano!r =m ( ! screw 9 :i* a revolv+   
spiral blade op]ates )9 a cyl9d]1 b !   
pr9ciple is precisely ! same4 ,) ei!r =m
 wat] may be lift$1 by ! m]e turn+ ( !  
screw1 to any desir$ height4 ,! +5i\s   
me*anism excit$ ! wond] ( !             
contempor>ies ( ,ar*im$es1 z well x     
might4 ,m effici5t devices h sup]s$$ x 9
 mod]n times1 b x /ill excites !        
admiration ( all :o exam9e x1 & its     
effects seem z p>adoxical z ev]4  ,"s   
o!r ( ! me*anisms ( ,ar*im$es h be5 made
 kn[n to successive g5]ations ( read]s  
?r\gh ! pages ( ,polybius & ,plut>*4 ,^!
 are ! devices ?r\gh :i* ,ar*im$es aid$ 
,k+ ,hi]o to w>d (f ! attacks ( ! ,roman
 g5]al ,m>cellus1 :o 9 ! c\rse ( !      
second ,punic w> laid siege to          
,syracuse4  ,plut>*1 9 8 life (         
,m>cellus1 describes ! ,roman's attack &
 ,ar*im$es' def5ce 9 mu* detail4        
,incid5tally he tells u also h[         

,ar*im$es came to make ! devices t r5d]$
 ! siege s fam\s3  ,m>cellus himself1 ) 
?reescore galleys ( five r[]s at e bank1
 well arm$ & full ( all sorts ( artill]y
 & fireworks1 did assault by sea1 & r[$ 
h>d to ! wall1 hav+ made a great eng9e &
 device ( batt]y1 ^u eight galleys *a9$ 
toge!r1 to batt] ! wall3 tru/+ 9 ! great
 multitude ( 8 eng9es ( batt]y1 & to all
 su* o!r necess>y provision z he _h =   
w>s1 z also 9 8 own reputation4 ,b      
,ar*im$es made light acc\nt ( all 8     
devices1 z inde$ !y 7 no?+ comp>able to 
! eng9es himself _h inv5t$4 ,?is        
inv5tive art to frame in/rum5ts & eng9es
 7:i* are call$ me*anical1 or organical1
 s highly comm5d$ & e/eem$ ( all sorts (
 p7 0 fir/ set =? by ,ar*itas1 & by     
,eudoxus3 p>tly to beautify a little !  
sci5ce ( geometry by ?is f95ess1 & p>tly
 to prove & confirm by mat]ial examples 
& s5sible in/rum5ts1 c]ta9 geometrical  
conclusions1 :]e ( a man _c f9d out !   
conceivable demon/rations by en=c$      
reasons & pro(s4 ,z t conclusion :i*    

in/ructe? "o to se>* out two l9es mean  
proportional1 :i* _c be prov$ by reason 
demon/rative1 & yet not)/&+ is a        
pr9ciple & an accept$ gr\nd = _m ?+s :i*
 are conta9$ 9 ! art ( portraiture4 ,bo?
 ( !m h fa%ion$ x to ! workman%ip (     
c]ta9 in/rum5ts1 call$ mesolabes or     
mesographs1 :i* s]ve to f9d ^! mean l9es
 proportional1 by draw+ c]ta9 curve     
l9es1 & ov]?w>t & oblique sections4 ,b  
aft] t ,plato 0 (f5d$ ) !m1 & ma9ta9$   
aga9/ !m1 t !y did utt]ly corrupt &     
disgrace1 ! wor?9ess & excell5ce (      
geometry1 mak+ x to desc5d f ?+s n      
compreh5sible & )\t body1 unto ?+s      
s5sible & mat]ial1 & to br+ x to a      
palpable sub/ance1 :]e ! vile & base    
h&iwork ( man is to be employ$3 s9ce t  
"t1 ,i say1 h&icraft1 or ! art ( eng9es1
 came to be sep>at$ f geometry1 & be+   
long "t despis$ by ! philosoph]s1 x came
 to be "o ( ! w>like arts4  ,b ,ar*im$es
 hav+ told ,k+ ,hi]o1 8 k9sman & fri5d1 
t x 0 possible to remove z great a      
weight z he w\ld1 ) z little /r5g? z he 

li/$ to put to x3 & boa/+ himself ?us 7z
 !y report ( him7 & tru/+ to ! =ce ( 8  
reasons1 :]e) he prov$ ?is conclusion1 t
 if !re 7 ano!r globe ( e>?1 he 0 able  
to remove ?is ( ours1 & pass x ov] to ! 
o!r3 ,k+ ,hi]o wond]+ to he> him1       
requir$ him to put 8 device 9 execution1
 & to make him see by exp]i5ce1 "s great
 or heavy weight remov$1 by little =ce4 
,s ,ar*im$es caught hold ) a book ( "o (
 ! greate/ c>ects1 or hulks ( ! k+ 7t to
 draw x to ! %ore out ( ! wat] requir$ a
 m>vell\s numb] ( p to g ab\t x1 & 0    
h>dly to be done s7 & put a great numb] 
( m5 m into h]1 ?an h] ord9>y burd53 &  
he himself sitt+ alone at 8 ease f> (f1 
)\t any /ra9+ at all1 draw+ ! end ( an  
eng9e ) _m :eels & pulleys1 fair & s(tly
 ) 8 h&1 made x come z g5tly & smoo?ly  
to him1 z x _h float$ 9 ! sea4 ,! k+    
wond]+ to see ! sight1 & kn[+ by pro( ! 
greatness ( 8 art2 be pray$ him to make 
him "s eng9es1 bo? to assault & def5d1 9
 all mann] ( sieges & assaults4 ,s      
,ar*im$es made him _m eng9es1 b ,k+     

,hi]o nev] occupi$ any ( !m1 because he 
reign$ ! mo/ "p ( 8 "t 9 peace )\t any  
w>s4 ,b ?is provision & munition (      
eng9es1 s]v$ ! ,syracusan's turn        
m>vell\sly at t "t3 & n only ! provision
 ( ! eng9es ready made1 b also ! eng9e] 
& "w-ma/] himself1 t _h inv5t$ !m4  ,n[ 
! ,syracusans1 see+ !mselves assault$ by
 ! ,romans1 bo? by sea & by l&1 7       
m>vell\sly p]plex$1 & c\ld n tell :at to
 say1 !y 7 s afraid3 imag9+ x 0         
impossible = !m to )/& s great an army4 
,b :5 ,ar*im$es fell to h&l+ 8 eng9es1 &
 to set !m at lib]ty1 !re flew 9 ! air  
inf9ite k9ds ( %ot1 & m>vell\s great    
/ones1 ) an incr$ible noise & =ce on !  
sudd51 ^u ! footm5 t came to assault !  
city by l&1 be>+ d[n1 & te>+ 9 pieces   
all ^? :i* came aga9/ !m1 or 9 :at place
 soev] !y light$1 no e>?ly body be+ able
 to resi/ ! viol5ce ( s heavy a weight3 
s t all _! ranks 7 m>vell\sly disord]$4 
,& z = ! galleys t gave assault by sea1 
"s 7 sunk ) long pieces ( timb] l unto !
 y>ds ( %ips1 :]eto !y fa/5 _! sails1   

:i* 7 sudd5ly bl[n ov] ! walls ) =ce (  
_! eng9es into _! galleys1 & s sunk !m  
by _! ov] great weight4   ,polybius     
describes :at 0 p]haps ! mo/ important (
 ^! contrivances1 :i* 01 he tells u1 a  
b& ( iron1 hang+ by a *a9 f ! beak ( a  
ma*9e1 :i* 0 us$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,!   
p]son :o1 l a pilot1 guid$ ! beak1 hav+ 
let fall ! h&1 & cat*$ hold ( ! pr[ (   
any vessel1 drew d[n ! opposite end ( ! 
ma*9e t 0 on ! inside ( ! walls4 ,& :5 !
 vessel 0 ?us rais$ erect ^u its /em1 ! 
ma*9e itself 0 held immovable2 b1 ! *a9 
be+ sudd5ly loos5$ f ! beak by ! means (
 pulleys1 "s ( ! vessels 7 ?r[n ^u _!   
sides1 o!rs turn$ ) ! bottom upw>ds2 & !
 greate/ "p1 z ! pr[s 7 plung$ f a      
consid]able height into ! sea1 7 fill$ )
 wat]1 & all t 7 on bo>d ?r[n into      
tumult & disord]4  ,m>cellus 0 9 no     
small degree emb>rass$1 ,polybius       
cont9ues1 :5 he f\nd himself enc\nt]$ 9 
e attempt by su* resi/ance4 ,he p]ceiv$ 
t all 8 ef=ts 7 defeat$ ) loss2 & 7 ev5 
d]id$ by ! enemy4 ,b1 amid/ all !       

anxiety t he suff]$1 he c\ld n help je/+
 ^u ! inv5tions ( ,ar*im$es4 ,?is man1  
said he1 employs our %ips z buckets to  
draw wat]3 & box+ ab\t our sackbuts1 z  
if !y 7 unwor?y to be associat$ ) him1  
drives !m f 8 company ) disgrace4 ,su* 0
 ! success ( ! siege on ! side ( ! sea4 
,subsequ5tly1 h[ev]1 ,m>cellus took !   
city by /rategy1 & ,ar*im$es 0 kill$1   
contr>y1 x is said1 to ! express ord]s (
 ,m>cellus4 ,syracuse be+ tak51 says    
,plut>*1 no?+ griev$ ,m>cellus m ?an !  
loss ( ,ar*im$es4 ,:o1 be+ 9 8 /udy :5 !
 city 0 tak51 busily seek+ out by       
himself ! demon/ration ( "s geometrical 
proposition :i* he _h drawn 9 figure1 & 
s e>ne/ly occupi$ !re91 z he nei!r saw  
nor he>d any noise ( enemies t ran up & 
d[n ! city1 & mu* less knew x 0 tak53 he
 wond]$ :5 he saw a soldi] by him1 t    
bade him g ) him to ,m>cellus4 ,not)/&+1
 he spake to ! soldi]1 & bade him t>ry  
until he _h done 8 conclusion1 & br\ght 
x to demon/ration3 b ! soldi] be+ angry 
) 8 answ]1 drew out 8 sword & kill$ him4

 ,o!rs say1 t ! ,roman soldi] :5 he     
came1 (f]$ ! sword's po9t to him1 to    
kill him3 & t ,ar*im$es :5 he saw him1  
pray$ him to hold 8 h& a little1 t he   
might n leave ! matt] he look$ =        
imp]fect1 )\t demon/ration4 ,b ! soldi] 
mak+ no reckon+ ( 8 speculation1 kill$  
him pres5tly4 ,x is report$ a ?ird way  
also1 say+ t c]ta9 soldi]s met him 9 !  
/reets go+ to ,m>cellus1 c>ry+ c]ta9    
ma!matical in/rum5ts 9 a little pretty  
c(f]1 z dials = ! sun1 sph]es1 & angles1
 :]e) !y measure ! greatness ( ! body ( 
! sun by view3 & !y suppos+ he _h c>ri$ 
"s gold or silv]1 or o!r preci\s jewels 
9 t little c(f]1 slew him = x4 ,b x is  
mo/ c]ta9 t ,m>cellus 0 m>vell\sly sorry
 = 8 dea?1 & ev] aft] hat$ ! villa9 t   
slew him1 z a curs$ & execrable p]son3 &
 h[ he _h made also m>vell\s mu*        
aft]w>ds ( ,ar*im$es' k9sm5 = 8 sake4   
,we are fur!r indebt$ to ,plut>* = a    
summ>y ( ! "* & influ5ce ( ,ar*im$es1 & 
= an int]e/+ sugge/ion z to ! e/imate   
:i* ! great philosoph] put ^u ! relative

 importance ( 8 own discov]ies4 ,not)/&+
 ,ar*im$es _h su* a great m9d1 & 0 s    
pr(\ndly le>n$1 hav+ hidd5 9 him ! only 
treasure & secrets ( geometrical        
inv5tions3 z he w\ld nev] set =? any    
book h[ to make all ^! w>like eng9es1   
:i* won him at t "t ! fame & glory1 n ( 
man's k1 b r ( div9e wisdom4 ,b he      
e/eem+ all k9d ( h&icraft & inv5tion to 
make eng9es1 & g5]ally all mann] (      
sci5ces br++ common commodity by ! use (
 !m1 to be b vile1 begg>ly1 & m]c5>y    
dross3 employ$ 8 wit & /udy only to     
write ?+s1 ! beauty & subtlety :]e( 7 n 
m+l$ any?+ at all ) necessity4 ,= all t 
he ha? writt51 are geometrical          
propositions1 :i* are )\t comp>ison (   
any o!r writ+s :atsoev]3 because !      
subject :]e ( !y treat1 do? appe> by    
demon/ration1 ! mak] gives !m ! grace & 
! greatness1 & ! demon/ration prov+ x s 
exquisitely1 ) wond]ful reason &        
facility1 z x is n repugnable4 ,= 9 all 
geometry are n to be f\nd m pr(\nd &    
difficult matt]s writt51 9 m pla9 &     

simple t]ms1 & by m easy pr9ciples1 ?an 
^? :i* he ha? inv5t$4 ,n[ "s d impute   
?is1 to ! %>pness ( 8 wit & und]/&+1 :i*
 0 a natural gift 9 him3 o!rs d ref] x  
to ! extreme pa9s he took1 :i* made ^!  
?+s come s easily f him1 t !y seem$ z if
 !y _h be5 no tr\ble to him at all4 ,=  
no man liv+ ( himself c devise !        
demon/ration ( 8 propositions1 :at pa9s 
soev] he take to seek x3 & yet /raight s
 soon z he come? to decl>e & op5 x1 e   
man !n imag9e? ) himself he c\ld h f\nd 
x out well en\gh1 he c !n s pla9ly make 
demon/ration ( ! ?+ he meane? to %[4 ,& 
!re=e t me?9ks is likely to be true1 :i*
 !y write ( him3 t he 0 s ravi%$ & drunk
 ) ! sweet enticem5ts ( ?is sir51 :i* z 
x 7 lay cont9ually ) him1 z he =got 8   
meat & dr9k1 & 0 c>eless o!rwise (      
himself1 t (t5times 8 s]vants got him   
aga9/ 8 w to ! ba?s to wa% & ano9t him3 
& yet be+ !re1 he w\ld ev] be draw+ out 
( ! geometrical figures1 ev5 9 ! v imb]s
 ( ! *imney4 ,& :ile !y 7 ano9t+ ( him )
 oils & sweet sav\rs1 ) 8 f+] he did    

draw l9es ^u 8 nak$ body3 s f> 0 he tak5
 f himself1 & br\ght into an ec/asy or  
trance1 ) ! delight he _h 9 ! /udy (    
geometry1 & truly ravi%$ ) ! love ( !   
,muses4 ,b among/ _m notable ?+s he     
devis$1 x appe>e?1 t he mo/ e/eem$ !    
demon/ration ( ! proportion betwe5 !    
cyl9d] 7to wit1 ! r\nd column7 & ! sph]e
 or globe conta9$ 9 ! same3 = he pray$ 8
 k9sm5 & fri5ds1 t aft] 8 dea? !y w\ld  
put a cyl9d] ^u 8 tomb1 conta9+ a massy 
sph]e1 ) an inscription ( ! proportion1 
:]e( ! cont95t exce$e? ! ?+ conta9$47#b7
  ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t nei!r ,polybius   
nor ,plut>* m5tions ! use (             
burn+-glasses 9 connection ) ! siege (  
,syracuse1 nor inde$ are ^! ref]r$ to by
 any o!r anci5t writ] ( au?ority4       
,nev]!less1 a /ory ga9$ cr$5ce d[n to a 
late day to ! effect t ,ar*im$es _h set 
fire to ! fleet ( ! enemy ) ! aid (     
concave mirrors4 ,an exp]im5t 0 made by 
,sir ,isaac ,newton to %[ ! possibility 
( a ph5om5on s well 9 accord ) ! g5ius (
 ,ar*im$es1 b ! sil5ce ( all ! e>ly     

au?orities makes x m ?an d\btful :e!r   
any su* exp$i5t 0 really adopt$4  ,x w  
be obs]v$ t ! *ief pr9ciple involv$ 9   
all ^! me*anisms 0 a capacity to        
transmit great p[] ?r\gh lev]s &        
pulleys1 & ?is br+s u to ! mo/ important
 field ( ! ,syracusan philosoph]'s      
activity4 ,x 0 z a /ud5t ( ! lev] & !   
pulley t ,ar*im$es 0 l$ to "s ( 8       
greate/ me*anical discov]ies4 ,he is ev5
 cr$it$ ) be+ ! discov]] ( ! comp\nd    
pulley4 ,m likely he 0 its develop]     
only1 s9ce ! pr9ciple ( ! pulley 0 kn[n 
to ! old ,babylonians1 z _! sculptures  
te/ify4 ,b !re is no reason to d\bt !   
g5]al outl9es ( ! /ory t ,ar*im$es      
a/\nd$ ,k+ ,hi]o by prov+ t1 ) ! aid (  
multiple pulleys1 ! /r5g? ( "o man c\ld 
suffice to drag ! l>ge/ %ip f its       
moor+s4  ,! prop]ty ( ! lev]1 f its     
fundam5tal pr9ciple1 0 /udi$ by him1    
beg9n+ ) ! self-evid5t fact t equal     
bodies at ! ends ( ! equal arms ( a rod1
 support$ on its middle po9t1 w balance 
ea* o!r2 or1 :at am\nts to ! same ?+    

/at$ 9 ano!r way1 a regul> cyl9d] (     
uni=m matt] w balance at its middle     
po9t4 ,f ?is />t+-po9t he elaborat$ !   
subject on su* cle> & satisfactory      
pr9ciples t !y /& to-day practically    
un*ang$ & ) few additions4 ,f all 8     
/udies & exp]im5ts he f9ally =mulat$ !  
pr9ciple t bodies w be 9 equilibrio :5  
_! di/ance f ! fulcrum or po9t ( support
 is inv]sely z _! weight4 ,he is cr$it$ 
) hav+ summ$ up 8 e/imate ( !           
capabilities ( ! lev] ) ! well-kn[n     
expression1 ,give me a fulcrum on :i* to
 re/ or a place on :i* to /&1 & ,i w    
move ! e>?4  ,b p]haps ! feat ( all o!rs
 t mo/ appeal$ to ! imag9ation ( 8      
contempor>ies1 & possibly also ! "o t _h
 ! greate/ be>+ ^u ! position (         
,ar*im$es z a sci5tific discov]]1 0 ! "o
 made famili> ?r\gh ! tale ( ! cr[n (   
,hi]o4 ,?is cr[n1 s ! /ory goes1 0      
suppos$ to be made ( solid gold1 b ,k+  
,hi]o = "s reason suspect$ ! hone/y ( ! 
jewell]1 & desir$ to "k if ,ar*im$es    
c\ld devise a way ( te/+ ! "q )\t injur+

 ! cr[n4 ,greek imag9ation seldom spoil$
 a /ory 9 ! tell+1 & 9 ?is case ! tale 0
 all[$ to take on ! mo/ picturesque (   
phases4 ,! philosoph]1 we are assur$1   
pond]$ ! problem = a long "t )\t        
succe$+1 b "o day z he /epp$ into a ba?1
 8 att5tion 0 attract$ by ! ov]fl[ (    
wat]4 ,a new tra9 ( ideas 0 />t$ 9 8    
ev]-receptive bra94 ,wild ) en?usiasm he
 sprang f ! ba?1 &1 =gett+ 8 robe1 da%$ 
along ! /reets ( ,syracuse1 %\t+3       
,eureka6 ,eureka6 7,i h f\nd x67 ,!     
?\ght t _h come into 8 m9d 0 ?is3 ,t any
 heavy sub/ance mu/ h a bulk            
proportionate to its weight2 t gold &   
silv] diff] 9 weight1 bulk = bulk1 & t !
 way to te/ ! bulk ( su* an irregul>    
object z a cr[n 0 to imm]se x 9 wat]4 ,!
 exp]im5t 0 made4 ,a lump ( pure gold ( 
! weight ( ! cr[n 0 imm]s$ 9 a c]ta9    
receptacle fill$ ) wat]1 & ! ov]fl[     
not$4 ,!n a lump ( pure silv] ( ! same  
weight 0 simil>ly imm]s$2 la/ly ! cr[n  
itself 0 imm]s$1 & ( c\rse--= ! /ory mu/
 n lack its dramatic sequel--0 f\nd     

bulki] ?an its weight ( pure gold4 ,?us 
! g5ius t c\ld balk w>riors & armies    
c\ld also foil ! wiles ( ! silv]smi?4   
,:atev] ! tru? ( ?is picturesque        
n>rative1 ! fact rema9s t "s1 su*       
exp]im5ts z ^! mu/ h pav$ ! way = p]haps
 ! greate/ ( all ! /udies (             
,ar*im$es--^? t relate to ! buoyancy (  
wat]4 ,leav+ ! field ( fable1 we mu/ n[ 
exam9e ^! ) "s precision4 ,=tunately1 ! 
writ+s ( ,ar*im$es himself are /ill     
extant1 9 :i* ! results ( 8 rem>kable   
exp]im5ts are relat$1 s we may pres5t ! 
results 9 ! words ( ! discov]]4  ,"h !y 
are3 ,fir/3 ,! surface ( e coh]5t liquid
 9 a /ate ( re/ is sph]ical1 & ! c5tre (
 ! sph]e co9cides ) ! c5tre ( ! e>?4    
,second3 ,a solid body :i*1 bulk = bulk1
 is ( ! same weight z a liquid1 if      
imm]s$ 9 ! liquid w s9k s t ! surface ( 
! body is ev5 ) ! surface ( ! liquid1 b 
w n s9k deep]4 ,?ird3 ,any solid body   
:i* is light]1 bulk = bulk1 ?an a       
liquid1 if plac$ 9 ! liquid w s9k s deep
 z to displace ! mass ( liquid equal 9  

weight to ano!r body4 ,f\r?3 ,if a body 
:i* is light] ?an a liquid is =cibly    
imm]s$ 9 ! liquid1 x w be press$ upw>d )
 a =ce correspond+ to ! weight ( a l    
volume ( wat]1 less ! weight ( ! body   
itself4 ,fif?3 ,solid bodies :i*1 bulk =
 bulk1 are heavi] ?an a liquid1 :5      
imm]s$ 9 ! liquid s9k to ! bottom1 b    
become 9 ! liquid z mu* light] z !      
weight ( ! displac$ wat] itself diff]s f
 ! weight ( ! solid4 ,^! propositions   
are n difficult to demon/rate1 once !y  
are conceiv$1 b _! discov]y1 comb9$ ) ! 
discov]y ( ! laws ( /atics already      
ref]r$ to1 may ju/ly be consid]$ z prov+
 ,ar*im$es ! mo/ inv5tive exp]im5t] (   
antiquity4  ,curi\sly en\gh1 ! discov]y 
:i* ,ar*im$es himself is said to h      
consid]$ ! mo/ important ( all 8        
innovations is "o t seems mu* less      
/rik+4 ,x is ! answ] to ! "q1 ,:at is ! 
relation 9 bulk betwe5 a sph]e & its    
circumscrib+ cyl9d]8 ,ar*im$es f9ds t ! 
ratio is simply two to ?ree4 ,we are n  
in=m$ z to h[ he rea*$ 8 conclusion1 b  

an obvi\s me?od w\ld be to imm]se a ball
 9 a cyl9drical cup4 ,! exp]im5t is "o  
:i* any "o c make = himself1 )          
approximate accuracy1 ) ! aid ( a tumbl]
 & a solid rubb] ball or a billi>d-ball 
( j ! "r size4 ,ano!r geometrical       
problem :i* ,ar*im$es solv$ 0 ! problem 
z to ! size ( a triangle :i* has equal  
area ) a circle2 ! answ] be+1 a triangle
 hav+ = its base ! circumf]5ce ( !      
circle & = its altitude ! radius4       
,ar*im$es solv$ also ! problem ( !      
relation ( ! diamet] ( ! circle to its  
circumf]5ce2 8 answ] be+ a close        
approximation to ! famili> #c4adaf1 :i* 
e tyro 9 geometry w recall z ! equival5t
 ( pi4  ,num]\s o!r ( ! /udies (        
,ar*im$es hav+ ref]5ce to conic         
sections1 prop]ties ( curves & spirals1 
& ! l1 are too te*nical to be detail$   
"h4 ,! ext5t ( 8 ma!matical k1 h[ev]1 is
 sugge/$ by ! fact t he comput$ 9 great 
detail ! numb] ( gra9s ( s& t w\ld be   
requir$ to cov] ! sph]e ( ! sun's orbit1
 mak+ c]ta9 hypo!tical assumptions z to 

! size ( ! e>? & ! di/ance ( ! sun = !  
purposes ( argum5t4 ,ma!maticians f9d 8 
computation peculi>ly int]e/+ because x 
evid5ces a crude conception ( ! idea (  
log>i?ms4 ,f our pres5t /&-po9t1 ! pap] 
9 :i* ?is calculation is conta9$ has    
consid]able int]e/ because ( its        
assumptions z to cele/ial me*anics4 ,?us
 ,ar*im$es />ts out ) ! prelim9>y       
assumption t ! circumf]5ce ( ! e>? is   
less ?an ?ree million /adia4 ,x mu/ be  
und]/ood t ?is assumption is purely = ! 
sake ( argum5t4 ,ar*im$es expressly     
/ates t he takes ?is numb] because x is 
t5 times z l>ge z ! e>? has be5 suppos$ 
to be by c]ta9 inve/igators4 ,"h1       
p]haps1 ! ref]5ce is to ,erato/h5es1 ^: 
measurem5t ( ! e>? we %all h occasion to
 rev]t to 9 a mom5t4 ,cont9u+1 ,ar*im$es
 ass]ts t ! sun is l>g] ?an ! e>?1 & !  
e>? l>g] ?an ! moon4 ,9 ?is assumption1 
he says1 he is foll[+ ! op9ion ( !      
majority ( a/ronom]s4 ,9 ! ?ird place1  
,ar*im$es assumes t ! diamet] ( ! sun is
 n m ?an ?irty times great] ?an t ( !   

moon4 ,"h he is probably bas+ 8 argum5t 
^u ano!r set ( measurem5ts ( ,ari/>*us1 
to :i*1 also1 we %all pres5tly ref] m at
 l5g?4 ,9 reality1 8 assumption is v f> 
f ! tru?1 s9ce ! actual diamet] ( ! sun1
 z we n[ "k1 is some?+ l f\r hundr$     
times t ( ! moon4 ,f\r?1 ! circumf]5ce (
 ! sun is great] ?an "o side ( !        
?\s&-fac$ figure inscrib$ 9 its orbit4  
,! measurem5t1 x is expressly /at$1 is  
bas$ on ! measurem5ts ( ,ari/>*us1 :o   
makes ! diamet] ( ! sun #a_/agj ( its   
orbit4 ,ar*im$es adds1 h[ev]1 t he      
himself has measur$ ! angle & t x appe>s
 to him to be less ?an #a_/afd1 & great]
 ?an #a_/bjj "p ( ! orbit4 ,t is to say1
 r$uc$ to mod]n t]m9ology1 he places !  
limit ( ! sun's app>5t size betwe5      
?irty-?ree m9utes & tw5ty-sev5 m9utes ( 
arc4 ,z ! real diamet] is ?irty-two     
m9utes1 ?is calculation is surpris+ly   
exact1 consid]+ ! implem5ts !n at comm&4
 ,b ! honor ( fir/ mak+ x mu/ be giv5 to
 ,ari/>*us & n to ,ar*im$es4  ,we ne$ n 
foll[ ,ar*im$es to ! limits ( 8         

incompreh5sible numb]s ( s&-gra9s4 ,!   
calculation is *iefly rem>kable because 
x 0 made be=e ! introduction ( ! s-call$
 ,arabic num]als _h simplifi$ ma!matical
 calculations4 ,x w be recall$ t !      
,greeks us$ lett]s = num]als1 &1 hav+ no
 ciph]1 !y soon f\nd !mselves 9         
difficulties :5 l>ge numb]s 7 involv$4  
,! ,roman sy/em ( num]als simplifi$ !   
matt] some:at1 b ! beautiful simplicity 
( ! decimal sy/em did n come into vogue 
until ! ,middle ,ages1 z we %all see4   
,not)/&+ ! difficulties1 h[ev]1         
,ar*im$es foll[$ out 8 calculations to !
 pil+ up ( bewild]+ numb]s1 :i* ! mod]n 
ma!matician f9ds to be ! consi/5t       
outcome ( ! problem he _h set himself4  
,b x rema9s to notice ! mo/ int]e/+     
feature ( ?is docum5t 9 :i* !           
calculation ( ! s&-gra9s is conta9$4 ,x 
0 kn[n to me1 says ,ar*im$es1 t mo/     
a/ronom]s und]/& by ! expression '_w'   
7univ]se7 a ball ( :i* ! c5tre is !     
middle po9t ( ! e>?1 & ( :i* ! radius is
 a /raight l9e betwe5 ! c5tre ( ! e>? & 

! sun4 ,ar*im$es himself appe>s to      
accept ?is op9ion ( ! majority1--x at   
lea/ s]ves z well z ! contr>y hypo!sis =
 ! purpose ( 8 calculation1--b he goes  
on to say3 ,ari/>*us ( ,samos1 9 8 writ+
 aga9/ ! a/ronom]s1 seeks to e/abli% !  
fact t ! _w is really v diff]5t f ?is4  
,he holds ! op9ion t ! fix$ />s & ! sun 
are immovable & t ! e>? revolves 9 a    
circul> l9e ab\t ! sun1 ! sun be+ at !  
c5tre ( ?is circle4 ,?is rem>kable bit (
 te/imony e/abli%es beyond "q ! position
 ( ,ari/>*us ( ,samos z ! ,cop]nicus (  
antiquity4 ,we mu/ make fur!r inquiry z 
to ! tea*+s ( ! man :o _h ga9$ su* a    
rem>kable insight into ! true sy/em ( ! 
heav5s4   ,,ari/>*us ,,( ,,samos1 ,,!   
,,cop]nicus ,,( ,,antiquity  ,x appe>s t
 ,ari/>*us 0 a contempor>y ( ,ar*im$es1 
b ! exact dates ( 8 life are n kn[n4 ,he
 0 actively engag$ 9 mak+ a/ronomical   
obs]vations 9 ,samos some:at be=e !     
middle ( ! ?ird c5tury ,b4,c42 9 o!r    
words1 j at ! "t :5 ! activities ( !    
,alex&rian s*ool 7 at _! height4        

,hipp>*us1 at a lat] day1 0 enabl$ to   
comp>e 8 own obs]vations ) ^? made by   
,ari/>*us1 &1 z we h j se51 8 "w 0 well 
kn[n to s di/ant a contempor>y z        
,ar*im$es4 ,yet ! facts ( 8 life are    
almo/ a blank = u1 & ( 8 writ+s only a  
s+le "o has be5 pres]v$4 ,t "o1 h[ev]1  
is a mo/ important & int]e/+ pap] on !  
measurem5ts ( ! sun & ! moon4           
,un=tunately1 ?is pap] gives u no direct
 clew z to ! op9ions ( ,ari/>*us conc]n+
 ! relative positions ( ! e>? & sun4 ,b 
! te/imony ( ,ar*im$es z to ?is is      
unequivocal1 & ?is te/imony is support$ 
by o!r rumors 9 !mselves less           
au?oritative4  ,9 contemplat+ ?is       
a/ronom] ( ,samos1 !n1 we are 9 !       
pres5ce ( a man :o _h solv$ 9 its       
ess5tials ! problem ( ! me*anism ( !    
sol> sy/em4 ,x appe>s f ! words (       
,ar*im$es t ,ari/>*us2 _h prop\nd$ 8    
!ory 9 explicit writ+s4 ,unque/ionably1 
!n1 he held to x z a positive doctr9e1 n
 z a m]e vague guess4 ,we %all %[1 9 a  
mom5t1 on :at gr\nds he bas$ 8 op9ion4  

,_h 8 tea*+ f\nd vogue1 ! /ory ( sci5ce 
w\ld be v diff]5t f :at x is4 ,we %\ld  
!n h no tale to tell ( a ,cop]nicus com+
 ^u ! sc5e fully sev5te5 hundr$ ye>s    
lat] ) ! revolution>y doctr9e t our _w  
is n ! c5tre ( ! univ]se4 ,we %\ld n h  
to tell ( ! p]secution ( a ,bruno or ( a
 ,galileo = tea*+ ?is doctr9e 9 !       
sev5te5? c5tury ( an era :i* did n beg9 
till two hundr$ ye>s aft] ! dea? (      
,ari/>*us4 ,b1 z we "k1 ! tea*+ ( !     
a/ronom] ( ,samos did n w9 its way4 ,!  
old cons]vative geoc5tric doctr9e1      
seem+ly s mu* m 9 accordance ) ! e-day  
obs]vations ( mank9d1 support$ by !     
majority ( a/ronom]s ) ! ,p]ipatetic    
philosoph]s at _! head1 held its place4 
,x f\nd fre% support]s pres5tly among ! 
lat] ,alex&rians1 & s fully eclips$ !   
helioc5tric view t we %\ld sc>cely "k t 
view _h ev5 f\nd an advocate 7 x n = "h 
& !re su* a *ance record z ! phrases we 
h j quot$ f ,ar*im$es4 ,yet1 z we n[    
see1 ! helioc5tric doctr9e1 :i* we "k to
 be true1 _h be5 ?\ght out & advocat$ z 

! correct !ory ( cele/ial me*anics by at
 lea/ "o work] ( ! ?ird c5tury ,b4,c4   
,su* an idea1 we may be sure1 did n spr+
 into ! m9d ( its orig9ator except z !  
culm9ation ( a long s]ies ( obs]vations 
& inf]5ces4 ,! precise "* ( ! evolution 
we p]haps _c trace1 b its broad] outl9es
 are op5 to our obs]vation1 & we may n  
leave s important a topic )\t at lea/   
briefly not+ !m4  ,fully to und]/& !    
!ory ( ,ari/>*us1 we mu/ g back a c5tury
 or two & recall t z long ago z ! "t ( t
 o!r great native ( ,samos1 ,py?agoras1 
! conception _h be5 rea*$ t ! e>? is 9  
motion4 ,we saw1 9 deal+ ) ,py?agoras1 t
 we c\ld n be sure z to precisely :at he
 himself taught1 b !re is no "q t ! idea
 ( ! _w's motion became f an e>ly day a 
s-call$ ,py?agorean doctr9e4 ,:ile all !
 o!r philosoph]s1 s f> z we "k1 /ill    
believ$ t ! _w 0 flat1 ! ,py?agoreans   
out 9 ,italy taught t ! _w is a sph]e & 
t ! app>5t motions ( ! heav5ly bodies   
are really due to ! actual motion ( !   
e>? itself4 ,!y did n1 h[ev]1 vault to !

 conclusion t ?is true motion ( ! e>?   
takes place 9 ! =m ( a circuit ab\t !   
sun4 ,in/ead ( t1 !y conceiv$ ! c5tral  
body ( ! univ]se to be a great fire1    
invisible f ! e>?1 because ! inhabit$   
side ( ! t]re/rial ball 0 turn$ away f  
x4 ,! sun1 x 0 held1 is b a great       
mirror1 :i* reflects ! light f ! c5tral 
fire4 ,sun & e>? alike revolve ab\t ?is 
great fire1 ea* 9 its own orbit4 ,betwe5
 ! e>? & ! c5tral fire !re 01 curi\sly  
en\gh1 suppos$ to be an invisible       
e>?like body :i* 0 giv5 ! "n (          
,antic?on1 or c\nt]-e>?4 ,?is body1     
itself revolv+ ab\t ! c5tral fire1 0    
suppos$ to %ut (f ! c5tral light n[ &   
aga9 f ! sun or f ! moon1 & ?us to      
acc\nt = c]ta9 eclipses = :i* ! %ad[ ( !
 e>? did n seem responsible4 ,x 01      
p]haps1 l>gely to acc\nt = su* eclipses 
t ! c\nt]-e>? 0 inv5t$4 ,b x is suppos$ 
t !re 0 ano!r reason4 ,! ,py?agoreans   
held t !re is a peculi> sacr$ness 9 !   
numb] t54 ,j z ! ,babylonians ( ! e>ly  
day & ! ,hegelian philosoph]s ( a m     

rec5t epo* saw a sacr$ connection betwe5
 ! numb] sev5 & ! numb] ( planet>y      
bodies1 s ! ,py?agoreans ?\ght t !      
univ]se mu/ be arrang$ 9 accordance ) ! 
numb] t54 ,_! c\nt ( ! heav5ly bodies1  
includ+ ! sph]e ( ! fix$ />s1 seem$ to  
%[ n9e1 & ! c\nt]-e>? suppli$ ! miss+   
body4  ,! precise g5esis & developm5t ( 
?is idea _c n[ be foll[$1 b t x 0       
preval5t ab\t ! fif? c5tury ,b4,c4 z a  
,py?agorean doctr9e _c be que/ion$4     
,anaxagoras also is said to h tak5      
acc\nt ( ! hypo!tical c\nt]-e>? 9 8     
explanation ( eclipses2 ?\gh1 z we h    
se51 he probably did n accept t "p ( !  
doctr9e :i* held ! e>? to be a sph]e4 ,!
 names ( ,philolaus & ,h]aclides h be5  
l9k$ ) c]ta9 ( ^! ,py?agorean doctr9es4 
,eudoxus1 too1 :o1 l ! o!rs1 liv$ 9     
,asia ,m9or 9 ! f\r? c5tury ,b4,c41 0   
held to h made special /udies ( !       
heav5ly sph]es & p]haps to h taught t ! 
e>? moves4 ,s1 too1 ,nicetas mu/ be nam$
 among ^? :om rumor cr$it$ ) hav+ taught
 t ! _w is 9 motion4 ,9 a ^w1 ! evid5ce1

 s f> z we c g>n] x f ! rema9+ fragm5ts1
 t5ds to %[ t all along1 f ! "t ( ! e>ly
 ,py?agoreans1 !re _h be5 an und]curr5t 
( op9ion 9 ! philosophical _w :i*       
que/ion$ ! fixity ( ! e>?2 & x w\ld seem
 t ! s*ool ( ?9k]s :o t5d$ to accept !  
revolution>y view c5tr$ 9 ,asia ,m9or1 n
 f> f ! e>ly home ( ! f\nd] ( !         
,py?agorean doctr9es4 ,x 0 n /range1 !n1
 t ! man :o 0 f9ally to c>ry ^! new     
op9ions to _! logical conclusion %\ld   
hail f ,samos4  ,b :at 0 ! support :i*  
obs]vation c\ld give to ?is new1 /range 
conception t ! heav5ly bodies d n 9     
reality move z !y seem to move1 b t _!  
app>5t motion is due to ! actual        
revolution ( ! e>?8 ,x is extremely     
difficult = any "o n[adays to put       
himself 9 a m5tal position to answ] ?is 
"q4 ,we are s accu/om$ to conceive !    
sol> sy/em z we "k x to be1 t we are    
wont to =get h[ v diff]5t x is f :at x  
seems4 ,yet "o ne$s b to glance up at ! 
sky1 & !n to glance ab\t "o at ! solid  
e>?1 to grant1 on a mom5t's reflection1 

t ! geoc5tric idea is ( all o!rs ! mo/  
natural2 & t to conceive ! sun z !      
actual ,c5tre ( ! sol> sy/em is an idea 
:i* mu/ look = support to "s o!r evid5ce
 ?an t :i* ord9>y obs]vation c give4    
,su* 0 ! view ( mo/ ( ! anci5t          
philosoph]s1 & su* cont9u$ to be !      
op9ion ( ! majority ( mank9d long aft] !
 "t ( ,cop]nicus4 ,we mu/ n =get t ev5 s
 great an obs]v+ a/ronom] z ,ty*o       
,brahe1 s late z ! sev5te5? c5tury1     
decl9$ to accept ! helioc5tric !ory1    
?\gh admitt+ t all ! planets except !   
e>? revolve ab\t ! sun4 ,we %all see t  
be=e ! ,alex&rian s*ool lo/ its influ5ce
 a geoc5tric s*eme _h be5 evolv$ :i*    
fully expla9$ all ! app>5t motions ( !  
heav5ly bodies4 ,all ?is1 !n1 makes u b 
wond] ! m t ! g5ius ( an ,ari/>*us c\ld 
give prec$5ce to sci5tific induction z  
aga9/ ! seem+ly cle> evid5ce ( ! s5ses4 
,:at1 !n1 0 ! l9e ( sci5tific induction 
t l$ ,ari/>*us to ?is wond]ful goal8    
,=tunately1 we are able to answ] t qu]y1
 at lea/ 9 "p4 ,ari/>*us ga9$ 8 evid5ce 

?r\gh "s wond]ful measurem5ts4 ,fir/1 he
 measur$ ! disks ( ! sun & ! moon4 ,?is1
 ( c\rse1 c\ld 9 itself give him no clew
 to ! di/ance ( ^! bodies1 & !re=e no   
clew z to _! relative size2 b 9 attempt+
 to obta9 su* a clew he hit ^u a        
wond]ful yet altoge!r simple exp]im5t4  
,x occurr$ to him t :5 ! moon is        
precisely di*otomiz$--t is to say1      
precisely at ! half-! l9e ( vision f !  
e>? to ! moon mu/ be precisely at "r    
angles ) ! l9e ( light pass+ f ! sun to 
! moon4 ,at ?is mom5t1 !n1 ! imag9>y    
l9es jo9+ ! sun1 ! moon1 & ! e>?1 make a
 "r angle triangle4 ,b ! prop]ties ( !  
"r-angle triangle _h long be5 /udi$ & 7 
well "u /ood4 ,"o acute angle ( su* a   
triangle det]m9es ! figure ( ! triangle 
itself4 ,we h already se5 t ,?ales1 ! v 
e>lie/ ( ! ,greek philosoph]s1 measur$ !
 di/ance ( a %ip at sea by ! application
 ( ?is pr9ciple4 ,n[ ,ari/>*us sights ! 
sun 9 place ( ,?ales' %ip1 &1 sight+ !  
moon at ! same "t1 measures ! angle &   
e/abli%es ! %ape ( 8 "r-angle triangle4 

,?is does n tell him ! di/ance ( ! sun1 
to be sure1 = he does n "k ! l5g? ( 8   
base-l9e--t is to say1 ( ! l9e betwe5 ! 
moon & ! e>?4 ,b x does e/abli% !       
relation ( t base-l9e to ! o!r l9es ( ! 
triangle2 9 o!r words1 x tells him !    
di/ance ( ! sun 9 t]ms ( ! moon's       
di/ance4 ,z ,ari/>*us /rikes ! angle1 x 
%[s t ! sun is eighte5 times z di/ant z 
! moon4 ,n[1 by comp>+ ! app>5t size ( !
 sun ) ! app>5t size ( ! moon--:i*1 z we
 h se51 ,ari/>*us has already           
measur$--he is able to tell u t1 ! sun  
is m ?an #ehcb times1 & less ?an #hjjj  
times l>g] ?an ! moon2 ?\gh 8           
measurem5ts1 tak5 by !mselves1 give no  
clew to ! actual bulk ( ei!r body4 ,^!  
conclusions1 be x und]/ood1 are         
absolutely valid inf]5ces--nay1         
demon/rations--f ! measurem5ts involv$1 
provid$ only t ^! measurem5ts h be5     
correct4 ,un=tunately1 ! angle ( !      
triangle we h j se5 measur$ is exce$+ly 
difficult to det]m9e ) accuracy1 :ile at
 ! same "t1 z a mom5t's reflection w %[1

 x is s l>ge an angle t a v slight      
deviation f ! tru? w greatly affect !   
di/ance at :i* its l9e jo9s ! o!r side (
 ! triangle4 ,!n aga91 x is virtually   
impossible to tell ! precise mom5t :5 ! 
moon is at half1 z ! l9e x gives is n s 
%>p t we c fix x ) absolute accuracy4   
,!re is1 moreov]1 ano!r elem5t ( error  
due to ! refraction ( light by ! e>?'s  
atmosph]e4 ,! exp]im5t 0 probably made  
:5 ! sun 0 ne> ! horizon1 at :i* "t1 z  
we n[ "k1 b z ,ari/>*us probably did n  
suspect1 ! app>5t displacem5t ( ! sun's 
position is consid]able2 & ?is          
displacem5t1 x w be obs]v$1 is 9 !      
direction to less5 ! angle 9 "q4  ,9    
po9t ( fact1 ,ari/>*us e/imat$ ! angle  
at eighty-sev5 degrees4 ,_h 8 in/rum5t  
be5 m precise1 & _h he be5 able to take 
acc\nt ( all ! elem5ts ( error1 he w\ld 
h f\nd x eighty-sev5 degrees & fifty-two
 m9utes4 ,! diff]5ce ( measurem5t seems 
slight2 b x suffic$ to make !           
computations diff] absurdly f ! tru?4 ,!
 sun is really n m]ely eighte5 times b m

 ?an two hundr$ times ! di/ance ( !     
moon1 z ,w5dele9 discov]$ on repeat+ !  
exp]im5t ( ,ari/>*us ab\t two ?\s& ye>s 
lat]4 ,yet ?is discrepancy does n 9 !   
lea/ take away f ! validity ( ! me?od   
:i* ,ari/>*us employ$4 ,moreov]1 8      
conclusion1 /at$ 9 g5]al t]ms1 0        
p]fectly correct3 ! sun is _m times m   
di/ant ?an ! moon & va/ly l>g] ?an t    
body4 ,grant$1 !n1 t ! moon is1 z       
,ari/>*us correctly believ$1 consid]ably
 less 9 size ?an ! e>?1 ! sun mu/ be    
enorm\sly l>g] ?an ! e>?2 & ?is is !    
vital inf]5ce :i*1 m ?an any o!r1 mu/ h 
seem$ to ,ari/>*us to confirm !         
suspicion t ! sun & n ! e>? is ! c5tre (
 ! planet>y sy/em4 ,x seem$ to him      
inh]5tly improbable t an enorm\sly l>ge 
body l ! sun %\ld revolve ab\t a small  
"o su* z ! e>?4 ,& aga91 x seem$        
inconceivable t a body s di/ant z ! sun 
%\ld :irl ?r\gh space s rapidly z to    
make ! circuit ( its orbit 9 tw5ty-f\r  
h\rs4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 t a small body l 
! e>? %\ld revolve ab\t ! gigantic sun  

seem$ inh]5tly probable4 ,?is           
proposition grant$1 ! rotation ( ! e>?  
on its axis foll[s z a necess>y         
consequ5ce 9 explanation ( ! seem+      
motion ( ! />s4 ,"h1 !n1 0 ! helioc5tric
 doctr9e r$uc$ to a virtual demon/ration
 by ,ari/>*us ( ,samos1 some:]e ab\t !  
middle ( ! ?ird c5tury ,b4,c4  ,x mu/ be
 und]/ood t 9 foll[+ out ! /eps (       
reason+ by :i* we suppose ,ari/>*us to h
 rea*$ s rem>kable a conclusion1 we h to
 "s ext5t guess$ at ! processes (       
?\ght-developm5t2 = no l9e ( explication
 writt5 by ! a/ronom] himself on ?is    
p>ticul> po9t has come d[n to u4 ,!re   
does exi/1 h[ev]1 z we h already /at$1 a
 v rem>kable treatise by ,ari/>*us on ! 
,size & ,di/ance ( ! ,sun & ! ,moon1 :i*
 s cle>ly sugge/s ! me?ods ( reason+ ( !
 great a/ronom]1 & s explicitly cites ! 
results ( 8 measurem5ts1 t we _c well   
pass x by )\t quot+ f x at "s l5g?4 ,x  
is c]ta9ly "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable         
sci5tific docum5ts ( antiquity4 ,z      
already not$1 ! helioc5tric doctr9e is n

 expressly /at$ "h4 ,x seems to be      
tacitly impli$ ?r\gh\t1 b x is n a      
necess>y consequ5ce ( any ( !           
propositions expressly /at$4 ,^!        
propositions h to d ) c]ta9 obs]vations 
& measurem5ts & :at ,ari/>*us believes  
to be inevitable d$uctions f !m1 & he   
p]haps did n wi% to h ^! d$uctions      
*all5g$ ?r\gh associat+ !m ) a !ory :i* 
8 contempor>ies did n accept4 ,9 a ^w1 !
 pap] ( ,ari/>*us is a rigidly sci5tific
 docum5t unvitiat$ by association ) any 
!oriz+s t are n directly g]mane to its  
c5tral !me4 ,! treatise op5s ) c]ta9    
hypo!ses z foll[s3  ,fir/4 ,! moon      
receives its light f ! sun4  ,second4 ,!
 e>? may be consid]$ z a po9t & z !     
c5tre ( ! orbit ( ! moon4  ,?ird4 ,:5 ! 
moon appe>s to u di*otomiz$ x (f]s to   
our view a great circle 7or actual      
m]idian7 ( its circumf]5ce :i* divides !
 illum9at$ "p f ! d>k "p4  ,f\r?4 ,:5 ! 
moon appe>s di*otomiz$ its di/ance f !  
sun is less ?an a qu>t] ( ! circumf]5ce 
7( its orbit7 by a ?irtie? "p ( t qu>t]4

  ,t is to say1 9 mod]n t]m9ology1 !    
moon at ?is "t lacks ?ree degrees 7"o   
?irtie? ( n9ety degrees7 ( be+ at "r    
angles ) ! l9e ( ! sun z view$ f ! e>?2 
or1 /at$ o!rwise1 ! angul> di/ance ( !  
moon f ! sun z view$ f ! e>? is at ?is  
"t eighty-sev5 degrees--?is be+1 z we h 
already obs]v$1 ! fundam5tal measurem5t 
^u :i* s mu* dep5ds4 ,we may fairly     
suppose t "s previ\s pap] ( ,ari/>*us's 
has detail$ ! measurem5t :i* "h is tak5 
= grant$1 yet :i* ( c\rse c\ld dep5d    
solely on obs]vation4  ,fif?4 ,! diamet]
 ( ! %ad[ 7ca/ by ! e>? at ! po9t :]e ! 
moon's orbit cuts t %ad[ :5 ! moon is   
eclips$7 is d\ble ! diamet] ( ! moon4   
,"h aga9 a k ( previ\sly e/abli%$       
measurem5ts is tak5 = grant$2 b1 inde$1 
?is is ! case ?r\gh\t ! treatise4       
,six?4 ,! arc subt5d$ 9 ! sky by ! moon 
is a fifte5? "p ( a sign ( ! zodiac2 t  
is to say1 s9ce !re are tw5ty-f\r1 signs
 9 ! zodiac1 "o-fifte5? ( "o tw5ty-f\r?1
 or 9 mod]n t]m9ology1 "o degree ( arc4 
,?is is ,ari/>*us's measurem5t ( ! moon 

to :i* we h already ref]r$ :5 speak+ ( !
 measurem5ts ( ,ar*im$es4  ,if we admit 
^! six hypo!ses1 ,ari/>*us cont9ues1 x  
foll[s t ! sun is m ?an eighte5 times m 
di/ant f ! e>? ?an is ! moon1 & t x is  
less ?an tw5ty times m di/ant1 & t !    
diamet] ( ! sun be>s a correspond+      
relation to ! diamet] ( ! moon2 :i* is  
prov$ by ! position ( ! moon :5         
di*otomiz$4 ,b ! ratio ( ! diamet] ( !  
sun to t ( ! e>? is great] ?an n9ete5 to
 ?ree & less ?an =ty-?ree to six4 ,?is  
is demon/rat$ by ! relation ( !         
di/ances1 by ! position 7( ! moon7 9    
relation to ! e>?'s %ad[1 & by ! fact t 
! arc subt5d$ by ! moon is a fifte5? "p 
( a sign4  ,ari/>*us foll[s ) n9ete5    
propositions int5d$ to elucidate 8      
hypo!ses & to demon/rate 8 v>i\s        
cont5tions4 ,^! %[ a s+ul>ly cle> grasp 
( geometrical problems & an altoge!r    
correct conception ( ! g5]al relations z
 to size & position ( ! e>?1 ! moon1 & !
 sun4 ,8 reason+ has to d l>gely ) !    
%ad[ ca/ by ! e>? & by ! moon1 & x      

presupposes a consid]able k ( ! ph5om5a 
( eclipses4 ,8 fir/ proposition is t two
 equal sph]es may always be circumscrib$
 9 a cyl9d]2 two unequal sph]es 9 a cone
 ( :i* ! apex is f\nd on ! side ( !     
small] sph]e2 & a /raight l9e jo9+ !    
c5tres ( ^! sph]es is p]p5dicul> to ea* 
( ! two circles made by ! contact ( !   
surface ( ! cyl9d] or ( ! cone ) !      
sph]es4  ,x w be obs]v$ t ,ari/>*us has 
9 m9d "h ! moon1 ! e>?1 & ! sun z sph]es
 to be circumscrib$ )9 a cone1 :i* cone 
is made tangible & measurable by ! %ad[s
 ca/ by ! non-lum9\s bodies2 s9ce1      
cont9u+1 he cle>ly /ates 9 proposition  
n9e1 t :5 ! sun is totally eclips$1 an  
obs]v] on ! e>?'s surface is at an apex 
( a cone compris+ ! moon & ! sun4 ,v>i\s
 propositions deal ) o!r relations ( !  
%ad[s :i* ne$ n deta9 u s9ce !y are n   
fundam5tally important1 & we may pass to
 ! f9al conclusions ( ,ari/>*us1 z rea*$
 9 8 propositions t5 to n9ete54  ,n[1   
s9ce 7proposition t57 ! diamet] ( ! sun 
is m ?an eighte5 times & less ?an tw5ty 

times great] ?an t ( ! moon1 x foll[s   
7proposition elev57 t ! bulk ( ! sun is 
to t ( ! moon 9 ratio1 great] ?an #ehcb 
to #a1 & less ?an #hjjj to #a4          
,proposition sixte54 ,! diamet] ( ! sun 
is to ! diamet] ( ! e>? 9 great]        
proportion ?an n9ete5 to ?ree1 & less   
?an =ty-?ree to six4  ,proposition      
sev5te54 ,! bulk ( ! sun is to t ( ! e>?
 9 great] proportion ?an #fhei to #bg1 &
 less ?an #gi1ejg to #baf4  ,proposition
 eighte54 ,! diamet] ( ! e>? is to !    
diamet] ( ! moon 9 great] proportion ?an
 #ajh to #dc & less ?an #fj to #ai4     
,proposition n9ete54 ,! bulk ( ! e>? is 
to t ( ! moon 9 great] proportion ?an   
#a1bei1gab to #gi1ejg & less ?an #bj1jjj
 to #fhei4  ,su* !n are ! m important   
conclusions ( ?is v rem>kable pap]--a   
pap] :i* seems to h int]e/ to !         
successors ( ,ari/>*us g5]ation aft]    
g5]ation1 s9ce ?is alone ( all ! writ+s 
( ! great a/ronom] has be5 pres]v$4 ,h[ 
widely ! exact results ( ! measurem5ts (
 ,ari/>*us1 diff] f ! tru?1 we h po9t$  

out z we progress$4 ,b let x be repeat$ 
t ?is detracts little f ! cr$it ( !     
a/ronom] :o _h su* cle> & correct       
conceptions ( ! relations ( ! heav5ly   
bodies & :o inv5t$ su* correct me?ods ( 
measurem5t4 ,let x be p>ticul>ly obs]v$1
 h[ev]1 t all ! conclusions ( ,ari/>*us 
are /at$ 9 relative t]ms4 ,he n[h]e     
attempts to e/imate ! precise size ( !  
e>?1 ( ! moon1 or ( ! sun1 or ! actual  
di/ance ( "o ( ^! bodies f ano!r4 ,!    
obvi\s reason = ?is is t no data 7 at h&
 f :i* to make su* precise measurem5ts4 
,_h ,ari/>*us kn[n ! size ( any "o ( !  
bodies 9 "q1 he might readily1 ( c\rse1 
h det]m9$ ! size ( ! o!rs by ! m]e      
application ( 8 relative scale2 b he _h 
no means ( det]m9+ ! size ( ! e>?1 & to 
?is ext5t 8 sy/em ( measurem5ts rema9$  
imp]fect4 ,:]e ,ari/>*us halt$1 h[ev]1  
ano!r work] ( ! same p]iod took ! task 9
 h& & by an altoge!r wond]ful measurem5t
 det]m9$ ! size ( ! e>?1 & ?us br\ght ! 
sci5tific !ories ( cosmology to _!      
climax4 ,?is wor?y supplem5tor ( ! "w ( 

,ari/>*us 0 ,erato/h5es ( ,alex&ria4    
,,erato/h5es1 ,,! ,,surveyor ,,( ,,!    
,,_w  ,an altoge!r rem>kable man 0 ?is  
native ( ,cyr5e1 :o came to ,alex&ria f 
,a!ns to be ! *ief libr>ian ( ,ptolemy  
,eu]getes4 ,he 0 n m]ely an a/ronom] & a
 geograph]1 b a poet & gramm>ian z well4
 ,8 contempor>ies je/+ly call$ him ,beta
 ! ,second1 because he 0 said ?r\gh !   
univ]sality ( 8 atta9m5ts to be a second
 ,plato 9 philosophy1 a second ,?ales 9 
a/ronomy1 & s on ?r\gh\t ! li/4 ,he 0   
also call$ ! surveyor ( ! _w1 9         
recognition ( 8 s]vices to geography4   
,hipp>*us said ( him1 p]haps half       
je/+ly1 t he _h /udi$ a/ronomy z a      
geograph] & geography z an a/ronom]4 ,x 
is n q cle> :e!r ! epigram 0 meant z    
complim5t or z criticism4 ,simil>       
phrases h be5 turn$ aga9/ m5 ( v]satile 
tal5t 9 e age4 ,be t z x may1           
,erato/h5es pass$ into hi/ory z ! fa!r (
 sci5tific geography & ( sci5tific      
*ronology2 z ! a/ronom] :o fir/ measur$ 
! obliquity ( ! ecliptic2 & z ! inv5tive

 g5ius :o p]=m$ ! a/\nd+ feat ( measur+ 
! size ( ! globe on :i* we live at a "t 
:5 only a relatively small portion ( t  
globe's surface 0 kn[n to civiliz$ man4 
,x is no discr$it to approa* a/ronomy z 
a geograph] & geography z an a/ronom] if
 ! results are su* z ^!4 ,:at           
,erato/h5es really did 0 to approa* bo? 
a/ronomy & geography f two seem+ly      
div]g5t po9ts ( attack--namely1 f !     
/&-po9t ( ! geomet] & also f t ( ! poet4
 ,p]haps no man 9 any age has br\ght a  
bett] comb9ation ( obs]v+ & imag9ative  
faculties to ! aid ( sci5ce4  ,ne>ly all
 ! discov]ies ( ,erato/h5es are         
associat$ ) obs]vations ( ! %ad[s ca/ by
 ! sun4 ,we h se5 t1 9 ! /udy ( !       
heav5ly bodies1 mu* dep5ds on !         
measurem5t ( angles4 ,n[ ! easie/ way 9 
:i* angles c be measur$1 :5 sol> angles 
are 9 "q1 is to pay att5tion1 n to ! sun
 itself1 b to ! %ad[ t x ca/s4 ,we saw t
 ,?ales made "s rem>kable measurem5ts ) 
! aid ( %ad[s1 & we h m ?an once ref]r$ 
to ! gnomon1 :i* is ! mo/ primitive1 b  

:i* long rema9$ ! mo/ important1 (      
a/ronomical in/rum5ts4 ,x is believ$ t  
,erato/h5es inv5t$ an important         
modification ( ! gnomon :i* 0 elaborat$ 
aft]w>ds by ,hipp>*us & call$ an        
armill>y sph]e4 ,?is consi/s ess5tially 
( a small gnomon1 or p]p5dicul> po/1    
atta*$ to a plane repres5t+ ! e>?'s     
equator & a hemisph]e 9 imitation ( !   
e>?'s surface4 ,) ! aid ( ?is1 ! %ad[   
ca/ by ! sun c\ld be v accurately       
measur$4 ,x involves no new pr9ciple4 ,e
 p]p5dicul> po/ or object ( any k9d     
plac$ 9 ! sunlight ca/s a %ad[ f :i* !  
angles n[ 9 "q c\ld be r\ghly measur$4  
,! prov9ce ( ! armill>y sph]e 0 to make 
^! measurem5ts extremely accurate4  ,) !
 aid ( ?is implem5t1 ,erato/h5es        
c>efully not$ ! longe/ & ! %orte/ %ad[s 
ca/ by ! gnomon--t is to say1 ! %ad[s   
ca/ on ! days ( ! sol/ices4 ,he f\nd t !
 di/ance betwe5 ! tropics ?us measur$   
repres5t$ #dg degrees #db' #ci ( arc4   
,"o-half ( ?is1 or #bc degrees #e1'     
#ai4e1 repres5t$ ! obliquity ( !        

ecliptic--t is to say1 ! angle by :i* ! 
e>?'s axis dipp$ f ! p]p5dicul> )       
ref]5ce to its orbit4 ,?is 0 a mo/      
important obs]vation1 & because ( its   
accuracy x has s]v$ mod]n a/ronom]s well
 = comp>ison 9 measur+ ! trifl+ *ange   
due to our e>?'s sl[1 sw++ wobble4 ,= ! 
e>?1 be x und]/ood1 l a great top sp9n+ 
?r\gh space1 holds its position )       
relative b n q absolute fixity4 ,x mu/ n
 be suppos$1 h[ev]1 t ! exp]im5t 9 "q 0 
q new ) ,erato/h5es4 ,8 m]it consi/s r 9
 ! accuracy ) :i* he made 8 obs]vation  
?an 9 ! novelty ( ! conception2 = x is  
record$ t ,eudoxus1 a full c5tury e>li]1
 _h rem>k$ ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic4 ,t 
obs]v] _h said t ! obliquity correspond$
 to ! side ( a p5tadecagon1 or          
fifte5-sid$ figure1 :i* is equival5t 9  
mod]n phraseology to tw5ty-f\r degrees (
 arc4 ,b s little is kn[n reg>d+ ! way 9
 :i* ,eudoxus rea*$ 8 e/imate t !       
measurem5t ( ,erato/h5es is usually     
spok5 ( z if x 7 ! fir/ ef=t ( ! k9d4   
,mu* m /rik+1 at lea/ 9 its appeal to ! 

popul> imag9ation1 0 t o!r great feat   
:i* ,erato/h5es p]=m$ ) ! aid ( 8       
p]fect$ gnomon--! measurem5t ( ! e>?    
itself4 ,:5 we reflect t at ?is p]iod ! 
portion ( ! e>? op5 to obs]vation ext5d$
 only f ! ,/raits ( ,gibralt> on ! we/  
to ,india on ! ea/1 & f ! ,nor? ,sea to 
,upp] ,egypt1 x c]ta9ly seems           
enigmatical--at fir/ ?\ght almo/        
miracul\s--t an obs]v] %\ld h be5 able  
to measure ! entire globe4 ,t he %\ld h 
accompli%$ ?is ?r\gh obs]vation ( no?+ m
 ?an a t9y bit ( ,egyptian t]ritory & a 
glimpse ( ! sun's %ad[ makes x seem b ! 
m wond]ful4 ,yet ! me?od ( ,erato/h5es1 
l _m ano!r enigma1 seems simple en\gh   
once x is expla9$4 ,x requir$ b !       
application ( a v elem5t>y k ( !        
geometry ( circles1 comb9$ ) ! use ( a  
fact or two f local geography--:i*      
detracts no?+ f ! g5ius ( ! man :o c\ld 
reason f su* simple premises to s       
wond]ful a conclusion4  ,/at$ 9 a few   
words1 ! exp]im5t ( ,erato/h5es 0 ?is4  
,8 geographical /udies _h taught him t !

 t[n ( ,sy5e lay directly s\? (         
,alex&ria1 or1 z we %\ld say1 on ! same 
m]idian ( latitude4 ,he _h le>n$1 fur!r1
 t ,sy5e lay directly "u ! tropic1 s9ce 
x 0 report$ t at noon on ! day ( ! summ]
 sol/ice ! gnomon !re ca/ no %ad[1 :ile 
a deep well 0 illum9$ to ! bottom by !  
sun4 ,a ?ird item ( k1 suppli$ by !     
surveyors ( ,ptolemy1 made ! di/ance    
betwe5 ,sy5e & ,alex&ria five ?\s&      
/adia4 ,^!1 !n1 7 ! prelim9>y data      
requir$ by ,erato/h5es4 ,_! significance
 consi/s 9 ! fact t "h is a measur$ bit 
( ! e>?'s arc five ?\s& /adia 9 l5g?4   
,if we c\ld f9d out :at angle t bit (   
arc subt5ds1 a m]e matt] (              
multiplication w\ld give u ! size ( !   
e>?4 ,b h[ det]m9e ?is all-important    
numb]8 ,! answ] came ?r\gh reflection on
 ! relations ( conc5tric circles4 ,if y 
draw any numb] ( circles1 ( :atev] size1
 ab\t a giv5 c5tre1 a pair ( radii drawn
 f t c5tre w cut arcs ( ! same relative 
size f all ! circles4 ,"o circle may be 
s small t ! actual arc subt5d$ by !     

radii 9 a giv5 case may be b an in* 9   
l5g?1 :ile ano!r circle is s l>ge t its 
correspond+ are is measur$ 9 millions ( 
miles2 b 9 ea* case ! same numb] (      
s-call$ degrees w repres5t ! relation ( 
ea* arc to its circumf]5ce4 ,n[1        
,erato/h5es knew1 z j /at$1 t ! sun1 :5 
on ! m]idian on ! day ( ! summ] sol/ice1
 0 directly ov] ! t[n ( ,sy5e4 ,?is     
meant t at t mom5t a radius ( ! e>?     
project$ f ,sy5e w\ld po9t directly     
t[>ds ! sun4 ,mean:ile1 ( c\rse1 ! z5i? 
w\ld repres5t ! projection ( ! radius ( 
! e>? pass+ ?r\gh ,alex&ria4 ,all t 0   
requir$1 !n1 0 to measure1 at ,alex&ria1
 ! angul> di/ance ( ! sun f ! z5i? at   
noon on ! day ( ! sol/ice to secure an  
approximate measurem5t ( ! arc ( ! sun's
 circumf]5ce1 correspond+ to ! arc ( !  
e>?'s surface repres5t$ by ! measur$    
di/ance betwe5 ,alex&ria & ,sy5e4  ,!   
read] w obs]ve t ! measurem5t c\ld n be 
absolutely accurate1 because x is made f
 ! surface ( ! e>?1 & n f ! e>?'s c5tre1
 b ! size ( ! e>? is s insignificant 9  

comp>ison ) ! di/ance ( ! sun t ?is     
slight discrepancy c\ld be disreg>d$4   
,! way 9 :i* ,erato/h5es measur$ ?is    
angle 0 v simple4 ,he m]ely measur$ !   
angle ( ! %ad[ :i* 8 p]p5dicul> gnomon  
at ,alex&ria ca/ at mid-day on ! day ( !
 sol/ice1 :51 z already not$1 ! sun 0   
directly p]p5dicul> at ,sy5e4 ,n[ a     
glance at ! diagram w make x cle> t !   
measurem5t ( ?is angle ( ! %ad[ is m]ely
 a conv5i5t means ( det]m9+ ! precisely 
equal opposite angle subt5d+ an arc ( an
 imag9>y circle pass+ ?r\gh ! sun2 ! are
 :i*1 z already expla9$1 corresponds ) !
 arc ( ! e>?'s surface repres5t$ by !   
di/ance betwe5 ,alex&ria & ,sy5e4 ,he   
f\nd ?is angle to repres5t #g degrees   
#ab'1 or "o-fiftie? ( ! circle4 ,five   
?\s& /adia1 !n1 repres5t "o-fiftie? ( ! 
e>?'s circumf]5ce2 ! entire circumf]5ce 
be+1 !re=e1 #bej1jjj /adia4             
,un=tunately1 we d n "k :i* "o ( ! v>i\s
 measurem5ts us$ 9 antiquity is         
repres5t$ by ! /adia ( ,erato/h5es4     
,accord+ to ! rese>*es ( ,lepsius1      

h[ev]1 ! /adium 9 "q repres5t$ #ahj     
met]s1 & ?is w\ld make ! e>?1 accord+ to
 ! measurem5t ( ,erato/h5es1 ab\t       
tw5ty-eight ?\s& miles 9 circumf]5ce1 an
 answ] suffici5tly exact to ju/ify !    
wond] :i* ! exp]im5t excit$ 9 antiquity1
 & ! admiration ) :i* x has ev] s9ce be5
 reg>d$4  illu/ration caption  ,,diagram
 ,,to ,,illu/rate ,,erato/h5es'         
,,measurem5t ,,( ,,! ,,globe  ,,fig4 #a4
 ,,af is a gnomon at ,alex&ria2 ,,sb a  
gnomon at ,sv5e2 ,,is & ,,jk repres5t ! 
sun's rays4 ,! angle actually measur$ by
 ,erato/h5es is ,,kfa1 z det]m9$ by !   
%ad[ ca/ by ! gnomon ,,af4 ,?is angle is
 equal to ! opposite angle ,,jfl1 :i*   
measures ! sun's di/ance f ! z5i?2 & :i*
 is also equal to ! angle ,,aes--to     
det]m9e ! ,size ( :i* is ! real object (
 ! entire measurem5t4  ,,fig4 #b %[s !  
=m ( ! gnomon actually employ$ 9        
antiquity4 ,! hemisph]e ,,ka be+ m>k$ ) 
a scale1 x is obvi\s t 9 actual practice
 ,erato/h5es requir$ only to set 8      
gnomon 9 ! sunlight at ! prop] mom5t1 & 

read (f ! answ] to 8 problem at a       
glance4 ,! simplicity ( ! me?od makes ! 
result seem all ! m wond]ful4  ,( c\rse 
x is ! me?od1 & n its details or its    
exact results1 t excites our int]e/4 ,& 
beyond "q ! me?od 0 an admirable "o4    
,its result1 h[ev]1 c\ld n h be5        
absolutely accurate1 because1 :ile      
correct 9 pr9ciple1 its data 7          
defective4 ,9 po9t ( fact ,sy5e did n   
lie precisely on ! same m]idian z       
,alex&ria1 nei!r did x lie exactly on ! 
tropic4 ,"h1 !n1 are two elem5ts (      
inaccuracy4 ,moreov]1 x is d\btful :e!r 
,erato/h5es made all[ance1 z he %\ld h  
done1 = ! semi-diamet] ( ! sun 9 measur+
 ! angle ( ! %ad[4 ,b ^! are m]e        
details1 sc>cely wor?y ( m5tion f our   
pres5t /&-po9t4 ,:at p]haps is des]v+ ( 
m att5tion is ! fact t ?is epo*-mak+    
measurem5t ( ,erato/h5es may n h be5 !  
fir/ "o to be made4 ,a passage (        
,ari/otle records t ! size ( ! e>? 0    
said to be #djj1jjj /adia4 ,"s          
comm5tators h ?\ght t ,ari/otle m]ely   

ref]r$ to ! area ( ! inhabit$ portion ( 
! e>? & n to ! circumf]5ce ( ! e>?      
itself1 b 8 words seem d\btfully        
susceptible ( ?is int]pretation2 & if he
 meant1 z 8 words seem to imply1 t      
philosoph]s ( 8 day _h a tol]ably       
precise idea ( ! globe1 we mu/ assume t 
?is idea 0 bas$ ^u "s sort ( measurem5t4
 ,! record$ size1 #djj1jjj /adia1 is a  
suffici5t approximation to ! tru? to    
sugge/ some?+ m ?an a m]e unsupport$    
guess4 ,n[1 s9ce ,ari/otle di$ m ?an    
fifty ye>s be=e ,erato/h5es 0 born1 8   
report z to ! alleg$ size ( ! e>?       
c]ta9ly has a sugge/iv5ess t _c be      
ov]look$2 b x ar\ses speculations )\t   
giv+ an inkl+ z to _! solution4 ,if     
,erato/h5es _h a precursor z an         
e>?-measur]1 no h9t or rumor has come   
d[n to u t w\ld enable u to guess :o t  
precursor may h be54 ,8 p]sonality is z 
deeply envelop$ 9 ! mi/s ( ! pa/ z are !
 p]sonalities ( ! great prehi/oric      
discov]]s4 ,= ! purpose ( ! hi/orian1   
,erato/h5es mu/ /& z ! inv5tor ( ! me?od

 ) :i* 8 "n is associat$1 & z ! fir/ man
 ( :om we c say ) c]ta9ty t he measur$ !
 size ( ! e>?4 ,"r wor?ily1 !n1 _h !    
,alex&rian philosoph] won 8 pr\d title (
 surveyor ( ! _w4   ,,hipp>*us1 ,,!     
,,lov] ,,( ,,tru?  ,erato/h5es outliv$  
mo/ ( 8 great contempor>ies4 ,he saw !  
turn+ ( t fir/ & greate/ c5tury (       
,alex&rian sci5ce1 ! ?ird c5tury be=e   
our era4 ,he di$ 9 ! ye> #aif ,b4,c41   
hav+1 x is said1 />v$ himself to dea? to
 escape ! mis]ies ( bl9dness2--to !     
measur] ( %ad[s1 life )\t light seem$ n 
wor? ! liv+4 ,erato/h5es left no        
imm$iate successor4 ,a g5]ation lat]1   
h[ev]1 ano!r great figure appe>$ 9 !    
a/ronomical _w 9 ! p]son ( ,hipp>*us1 a 
man :o1 z a te*nical obs]v]1 _h p]haps  
no pe] 9 ! anci5t _w3 "o :o set s high a
 value ^u accuracy ( obs]vation z to e>n
 ! title ( ! lov] ( tru?4 ,hipp>*us 0   
born at ,nicaea1 9 ,bi?ynia1 9 ! ye>    
#afj ,b4,c4 ,8 life1 all too %ort = !   
int]e/s ( sci5ce1 end$ 9 ! ye> #abe     
,b4,c4 ,! obs]vations ( ! great a/ronom]

 7 made *iefly1 p]haps entirely1 at     
,rhodes4 ,a mis9t]pretation ( ,ptolemy's
 writ+s l$ to ! idea t ,hipp>*us1 p]=m$ 
8 *ief labors 9 ,alex&ria1 b x is n[    
admitt$ t !re is no evid5ce = ?is4      
,delambre d\bt$1 & mo/ subsequ5t writ]s 
foll[ him "h1 :e!r ,hipp>*us ev] s mu* z
 visit$ ,alex&ria4 ,9 any ev5t !re seems
 to be no "q t ,rhodes may claim ! honor
 ( be+ ! *ief site ( 8 activities4  ,x 0
 ,hipp>*us ^: some:at equivocal comm5t  
on ! "w ( ,erato/h5es we h already not$4
 ,no c\nt]-*>ge 9 k9d c\ld be made aga9/
 ! critic himself2 he 0 an a/ronom] pure
 & simple4 ,8 gift 0 ! gift ( accurate  
obs]vation r ?an ! gift ( imag9ation4   
,no sci5tific progress is possible )\t  
sci5tific guess+1 b ,hipp>*us belong$ to
 t class ( obs]v]s ) :om hypo!sis is    
held rigidly subs]vi5t to fact4 ,x 0 n  
to be expect$ t 8 m9d w\ld be attract$  
by ! helioc5tric !ory ( ,ari/>*us4 ,he  
us$ ! facts & obs]vations ga!r$ by 8    
great pr$ecessor ( ,samos1 b he decl9$  
to accept 8 !ories4 ,= him ! _w 0       

c5tral2 8 problem 0 to expla91 if he    
c\ld1 ! irregul>ities ( motion :i* sun1 
moon1 & planets %[$ 9 _! seem+ circuits 
ab\t ! e>?4 ,hipp>*us _h ! gnomon (     
,erato/h5es--d\btless 9 a p]fect$ =m--to
 aid him1 & he soon prov$ himself a ma/]
 9 its use4 ,= him1 z we h said1        
accuracy 0 ev]y?+2 ?is 0 ! "o elem5t t  
l$ to all 8 great successes4  ,p]haps 8 
greate/ feat 0 to demon/rate !          
ecc5tricity ( ! sun's seem+ orbit4 ,we (
 to-day1 ?anks to ,keppl] & 8 foll[]s1  
"k t ! e>? & ! o!r planet>y bodies 9 _! 
circuit ab\t ! sun describe an ellipse &
 n a circle4 ,b 9 ! day ( ,hipp>*us1    
?\gh ! ellipse 0 recogniz$ z a          
geometrical figure 7x _h be5 describ$ & 
nam$ along ) ! p>abola & hyp]bola by    
,apollonius ( ,p]ga1 ! pupil ( ,euclid71
 yet x w\ld h be5 ! ranke/ h]esy to     
sugge/ an elliptical c\rse = any heav5ly
 body4 ,a metaphysical !ory1 z prop\nd$ 
p]haps by ! ,py?agoreans b ard5tly      
support$ by ,ari/otle1 decl>$ t ! circle
 is ! p]fect figure1 & pron\nc$ x       

inconceivable t ! motions ( ! sph]es    
%\ld be o!r ?an circul>4 ,?is ?\ght     
dom9at$ ! m9d ( ,hipp>*us1 & s :5 8     
c>eful measurem5ts l$ him to ! discov]y 
t ! nor?w>d & s\?w>d j\rney+s ( ! sun   
did n divide ! ye> into f\r equal p>ts1 
!re 0 no?+ op5 to him b to ei!r assume t
 ! e>? does n lie precisely at ! c5tre (
 ! sun's circul> orbit or to f9d "s     
alt]native hypo!sis4  ,9 po9t ( fact1 ! 
sun 7rev]s+ ! po9t ( view 9 accordance )
 mod]n discov]ies7 does lie at "o focus 
( ! e>?'s elliptical orbit1 & !re=e away
 f ! physical c5tre ( t orbit2 9 o!r    
words1 ! obs]vations ( ,hipp>*us 7      
absolutely accurate4 ,he 0 q correct 9  
f9d+ t ! sun sp5ds m "t on "o side ( !  
equator ?an on ! o!r4 ,:51 !re=e1 he    
e/imat$ ! relative di/ance ( ! e>? f !  
geometrical c5tre ( ! sun's suppos$     
circul> orbit1 & spoke ( ?is z ! measure
 ( ! sun's ecc5tricity1 he prop\nd$ a   
!ory 9 :i* true data ( obs]vation 7     
curi\sly m+l$ ) a positively inv]t$     
!ory4 ,t ! !ory ( ,hipp>*us 0 absolutely

 consi/5t ) all ! facts ( ?is p>ticul>  
obs]vation is ! be/ evid5ce t c\ld be   
giv5 ( ! difficulties t /ood 9 ! way ( a
 true explanation ( ! me*anism ( !      
heav5s4  ,b x is n m]ely ! sun :i* 0    
obs]v$ to v>y 9 ! spe$ ( its orbital    
progress2 ! moon & ! planets also %[    
curi\s accel]ations & ret>dations (     
motion4 ,! moon 9 p>ticul> receiv$ mo/  
c>eful att5tion f ,hipp>*us4 ,dom9at$ by
 8 conception ( ! p]fect sph]es1 he c\ld
 f9d b "o explanation ( ! anomal\s      
motions :i* he obs]v$1 & ?is 0 to assume
 t ! v>i\s heav5ly bodies d n fly on 9  
an unv>y+ arc 9 _! circuit ab\t ! e>?1 b
 describe m9or circles z !y g :i* c be  
lik5$ to no?+ s tangibly z to a light   
atta*$ to ! rim ( a wagon-:eel 9 motion4
 ,if su* an invisible :eel be imag9$ z  
c>ry+ ! sun1 = example1 on its rim1 :ile
 its invisible hub foll[s unsw]v+ly !   
circle ( ! sun's mean orbit 7?is :eel1  
be x und]/ood1 ly+ 9 ! plane ( ! orbit1 
n at "r-angles to x71 !n x mu/ be obvi\s
 t :ile ! hub rema9s always at ! same   

di/ance f ! e>?1 ! circl+ rim w c>ry !  
sun ne>] ! e>?1 !n f>!r away1 & t :ile x
 is trav]s+ t portion ( ! are :i* br+s x
 t[>ds ! e>?1 ! actual =w>d progress ( !
 sun w be ret>d$ not)/&+ ! uni=m motion 
( ! hub1 j z x w be accel]at$ 9 !       
opposite arc4 ,n[1 if we suppose our    
sun-be>+ :eel to turn s sl[ly t ! sun   
revolves b once ab\t its imag9>y hub    
:ile ! :eel itself is mak+ ! entire     
circuit ( ! orbit1 we %all h acc\nt$ = !
 obs]v$ fact t ! sun passes m quickly   
?r\gh "o-half ( ! orbit ?an ?r\gh ! o!r4
 ,moreov]1 if we c visualize ! process &
 imag9e ! sun to h left a visible l9e ( 
fire beh9d him ?r\gh\t ! c\rse1 we %all 
see t 9 reality ! two circul> motions   
involv$ h really result$ 9 produc+ an   
elliptical orbit4  ,! idea is p]haps    
made cle>] if we picture ! actual       
progress ( ! lant]n atta*$ to ! rim ( an
 ord9>y c>t-:eel4 ,:5 ! c>t is drawn    
=w>d ! lant]n is made to revolve 9 a    
circle z reg>ds ! hub ( ! :eel1 b s9ce t
 hub is con/antly go+ =w>d1 ! actual pa?

 describ$ by ! lant]n is n a circle at  
all b a wav+ l9e4 ,x is precisely ! same
 ) ! imag9$ c\rse ( ! sun 9 its orbit1  
only t we view ^! l9es j z we %\ld view 
! lant]n on ! :eel if we look$ at x f   
directly above & n f ! side4 ,! pro( t !
 sun is describ+ ?is wav+ l9e1 & !re=e  
mu/ be consid]$ z atta*$ to an imag9>y  
:eel1 is furni%$1 z x seem$ to          
,hipp>*us1 by ! obs]v$ fact ( ! sun's   
v>y+ spe$4  ,t is "o way ( look+ at !   
matt]4 ,x is an hypo!sis t expla9s !    
obs]v$ facts--aft] a fa%ion1 & inde$ a v
 rem>kable fa%ion4 ,! idea ( su* an     
explanation did n orig9ate ) ,hipp>*us4 
,! g]ms ( ! ?\ght 7 z old z !           
,py?agorean doctr9e t ! e>? revolves    
ab\t a c5tre t we _c see4 ,eudoxus gave 
! conception great] tangibility1 & may  
be consid]$ z ! fa!r ( ?is doctr9e (    
:eels--epicycles1 z !y came to be call$4
 ,two c5turies be=e ! "t ( ,hipp>*us he 
conceiv$ a doctr9e ( sph]es :i*         
,ari/otle f\nd mo/ int]e/+1 & :i* s]v$  
to expla91 along ! l9es we h j foll[$1 !

 obs]v$ motions ( ! heav5ly bodies4     
,calippus1 ! re=m] ( ! cal5d>1 is said  
to h c>ri$ an acc\nt ( ?is !ory to      
,ari/otle4 ,z new irregul>ities ( motion
 ( ! sun1 moon1 & planet>y bodies 7     
po9t$ out1 new epicycles 7 inv5t$4 ,!re 
is no limit to ! numb] ( imag9>y circles
 t may be inscrib$ ab\t an imag9>y      
c5tre1 & if we conceive ea* "o ( ^!     
circles to h a prop] motion ( its own1 &
 ea* "o to c>ry ! sun 9 ! l9e ( t       
motion1 except z x is div]t$ by ! o!r   
motions--if we c visualize ?is complex  
m+l+ ( :eels--we %all c]ta9ly be able to
 imag9e ! heav5ly body :i* lies at !    
juncture ( all ! rims1 z be+ c>ri$ =w>d 
9 z erratic & wobbly a mann] z c\ld be  
desir$4 ,9 o!r words1 ! !ory ( epicycles
 w acc\nt = all ! facts ( ! obs]v$      
motions ( all ! heav5ly bodies1 b 9 s   
do+ x fills ! univ]se ) a mo/ bewild]+  
network ( int]sect+ circles4 ,ev5 9 ! "t
 ( ,calippus fifty-five ( ^! sph]es 7   
comput$4  ,we may well believe t !      
cle>-see+ ,ari/>*us w\ld look askance at

 su* a complex sy/em ( imag9>y ma*9]y4  
,b ,hipp>*us1 pre-em95tly an obs]v] r   
?an a !oriz]1 seems to h be5 cont5t to  
accept ! !ory ( epicycles z he f\nd x1  
?\gh 8 /udies add$ to its complexities2 
& ,hipp>*us 0 ! dom9ant sci5tific       
p]sonality ( 8 c5tury4 ,:at he believ$  
became z a law to 8 imm$iate successors4
 ,8 t5ets 7 accept$ z f9al by _! great  
popul>iz]1 ,ptolemy1 ?ree c5turies lat]2
 & s ! helioc5tric !ory ( ,ari/>*us     
pass$ "u a cl\d almo/ at ! h\r ( its    
dawn+1 !re to rema9 obscur$ & =gott5 = !
 long lapse ( c5turies4 ,a ?\s& pities t
 ! greate/ obs]v+ a/ronom] ( antiquity  
c\ld n1 l "o ( 8 great precursors1 h    
approa*$ a/ronomy f ! /&-po9t (         
geography & poetry4 ,_h he done s1      
p]haps he might h reflect$1 l ,ari/>*us 
be=e him1 t x seems absurd = our e>? to 
hold ! giant sun 9 ?raldom2 !n p]haps 8 
imag9ation w\ld h rea*$ out to !        
helioc5tric doctr9e1 & ! cobweb hypo!sis
 ( epicycles1 ) t yet m intangible      
figm5t ( ! p]fect circle1 might h be5   

wip$ away4  ,b x 0 n to be4 ,) ,ari/>*us
 ! sci5tific imag9ation _h rea*$ its    
highe/ flight2 b ) ,hipp>*us x 0 beg9n+ 
to settle back into regions ( foggi]    
atmosph]e & n>r[] horizons4 ,= :at1 aft]
 all1 does x matt] t ,hipp>*us %\ld g on
 to measure ! precise l5g? ( ! ye> & !  
app>5t size ( ! moon's disk2 t he %\ld  
make a *>t ( ! heav5s %[+ ! place (     
#ajhj />s2 ev5 t he %\ld discov] !      
precession ( ! equ9ox2--:at1 aft] all1  
is ! significance ( ^! details z aga9/ !
 all-ess5tial fact t ! greate/ sci5tific
 au?ority ( 8 c5tury--! "o truly h]oic  
sci5tific figure ( 8 epo*--%\ld h l5t   
all ! =ces ( 8 comm&+ influ5ce to ! old1
 false !ory ( cosmology1 :5 ! true !ory 
_h be5 prop\nd$ & :5 he1 p]haps1 0 !    
only man 9 ! _w :o might h sub/antiat$ &
 vitaliz$ t !ory8 ,x is easy to         
ov]e/imate ! influ5ce ( any s+le man1 &1
 contr>iwise1 to und]e/imate ! p[] ( !  
,zeitgei/4 ,b :5 we reflect t ! doctr9es
 ( ,hipp>*us1 z promulgat$ by ,ptolemy1 
became1 z x 71 ! la/ ^w ( a/ronomical   

sci5ce = bo? ! ,ea/]n & ,we/]n worlds1 &
 s cont9u$ aft] a ?\s& ye>s1 x is p]haps
 n too mu* to say t ,hipp>*us1 ! lov] ( 
tru?1 miss$ "o ( ! greate/ opportunities
 = ! promulgation ( tru? ev] v\*saf$ to 
a devotee ( pure sci5ce4  ,b all ?is1 ( 
c\rse1 detracts no?+ f ! m]its (        
,hipp>*us z an obs]v+ a/ronom]4 ,a few  
words m mu/ be said z to 8 specific     
discov]ies 9 ?is field4 ,accord+ to 8   
measurem5t1 ! tropic ye> consi/s ( #cfe 
days1 #e h\rs1 & #di m9utes1 v>y+ ?us   
only #ab seconds f ! true ye>1 z ! mod]n
 a/ronom] e/imates x4 ,yet m rem>kable1 
because ( ! great] difficulties involv$1
 0 ,hipp>*us's attempt to measure !     
actual di/ance ( ! moon4 ,ari/>*us _h   
made a simil> attempt be=e him4         
,hipp>*us bas$ 8 computations on /udies 
( ! moon 9 eclipse1 & he rea*$ !        
conclusion t ! di/ance ( ! moon is equal
 to #ei radii ( ! e>? 79 reality x is   
#fj4bg radii74 ,"h1 !n1 0 ! measure ( ! 
base-l9e ( t fam\s triangle ) :i*       
,ari/>*us _h measur$ ! di/ance ( ! sun4 

,hipp>*us mu/ h kn[n ( t measurem5t1    
s9ce he quotes ! "w ( ,ari/>*us 9 o!r   
fields4 ,_h he n[ b repeat$ ! exp]im5t (
 ,ari/>*us1 ) 8 p]fect$ in/rum5ts & 8   
p]haps great] obs]vational skill1 he 0 9
 position to compute ! actual di/ance ( 
! sun 9 t]ms n m]ely ( ! moon's di/ance 
b ( ! e>?'s radius4 ,& n[ !re 0 !       
exp]im5t ( ,erato/h5es to give ! l5g? ( 
t radius 9 precise t]ms4 ,9 o!r words1  
,hipp>*us might h measur$ ! di/ance ( ! 
sun 9 /adia4 ,b if he _h made !         
attempt--&1 inde$1 x is m ?an likely t  
he did s--! elem5ts ( error 9 8         
measurem5ts w\ld /ill h kept him wide ( 
! true figures4  ,! *ief /udies (       
,hipp>*us 7 direct$1 z we h se51 t[>ds !
 sun & ! moon1 b a ph5om5on t occurr$ 9 
! ye> #acd ,b4,c4 l$ him = a "t to give 
m p>ticul> att5tion to ! fix$ />s4 ,!   
ph5om5on 9 "q 0 ! sudd5 outbur/ ( a new 
/>2 a ph5om5on :i* has be5 repeat$ n[ & 
aga91 b :i* is suffici5tly r>e &        
suffici5tly my/]i\s to h excit$ !       
unusual att5tion ( a/ronom]s 9 all      

g5]ations4 ,mod]n sci5ce (f]s an        
explanation ( ! ph5om5on1 z we %all see 
9 due c\rse4 ,we d n "k t ,hipp>*us     
attempt$ to expla9 x1 b he 0 l$ to make 
a *>t ( ! heav5s1 probably ) ! idea (   
guid+ future obs]v]s 9 ! obs]vation (   
new />s4 ,"h aga9 ,hipp>*us 0 n altoge!r
 an innovator1 s9ce a *>t %[+ ! brighte/
 />s _h be5 made by ,erato/h5es2 b ! new
 *>ts 7 mu* elaborat$4  ,! /udies (     
,hipp>*us l$ him to obs]ve ! />s *iefly 
) ref]5ce to ! m]idian r ?an ) ref]5ce  
to _! ris+1 z _h hi!rto be5 ! cu/om4 ,9 
mak+ ^! /udies ( ! relative position ( !
 />s1 ,hipp>*us 0 l$ to comp>e 8        
obs]vations ) ^? ( ! ,babylonians1 :i*1 
x 0 said1 ,alex&] _h caus$ to be        
transmitt$ to ,greece4 ,he made use also
 ( ! obs]vations ( ,ari/>*us & o!rs ( 8 
,greek precursors4 ,! result ( 8        
comp>isons prov$ t ! sph]e ( ! fix$ />s 
_h app>5tly %ift$ its position 9 ref]5ce
 to ! plane ( ! sun's orbit--t is to    
say1 ! plane ( ! ecliptic no long] seem$
 to cut ! sph]e ( ! fix$ />s at         

precisely ! po9t :]e ! two co9cid$ 9 =m]
 c5turies4 ,! plane ( ! ecliptic mu/    
!re=e be conceiv$ z sl[ly revolv+ 9 su* 
a way z gradually to circumnavigate !   
heav5s4 ,?is important ph5om5on is      
describ$ z ! precession ( ! equ9oxes4   
,x is mu* 9 "q :e!r ?is ph5om5on 0 n    
kn[n to ! anci5t ,egyptian a/ronom]s2 b 
9 any ev5t1 ,hipp>*us is to be cr$it$ ) 
demon/rat+ ! fact & mak+ x kn[n to !    
,we/]n _w4 ,a fur!r s]vice 0 r5d]$      
!oretical a/ronomy by ,hipp>*us ?r\gh 8 
inv5tion ( ! planosph]e1 an in/rum5t = !
 repres5tation ( ! me*anism ( ! heav5s4 
,8 computations ( ! prop]ties ( ! sph]es
 l$ him also to :at 0 virtually a       
discov]y ( ! me?od ( trigonometry1 giv+ 
him1 !re=e1 a high position 9 ! field ( 
ma!matics4 ,all 9 all1 !n1 ,hipp>*us is 
a mo/ h]oic figure4 ,he may well be     
consid]$ ! greate/ />-gaz] ( antiquity1 
?\gh he _c1 )\t inju/ice to 8 great     
precursors1 be all[$ ! title :i* is     
sometimes giv5 him ( fa!r ( sy/ematic   
a/ronomy4   ,,ctesibius ,,& ,,h]o3      

,,magicians ,,( ,,alex&ria  ,j ab\t ! "t
 :5 ,hipp>*us 0 work+ out at ,rhodes 8  
puzzles ( cele/ial me*anics1 !re 0 a man
 9 ,alex&ria :o 0 ex]cis+ a /rangely    
inv5tive g5ius ov] me*anical problems ( 
ano!r sort2 a man :o1 foll[+ ! example  
set by ,ar*im$es a c5tury be=e1 0 /udy+ 
! problems ( matt] & putt+ 8 /udies to  
practical application ?r\gh ! inv5tion (
 weird devices4 ,! man's "n 0           
,ctesibius4 ,we "k sc>cely m ( him ?an t
 he liv$ 9 ,alex&ria1 probably 9 ! fir/ 
half ( ! second c5tury ,b4,c4 ,8        
antec$5ts1 ! place & exact "t ( 8 bir? &
 dea?1 are q unkn[n4 ,nei!r are we q    
c]ta9 z to ! precise range ( 8 /udies or
 ! exact numb] ( 8 discov]ies4 ,x appe>s
 t he _h a pupil nam$ ,h]o1 ^:          
p]sonality1 un=tunately1 is sc>cely less
 obscure ?an t ( 8 ma/]1 b :o wrote a   
book ?r\gh :i* ! record ( ! ma/]'s      
inv5tions 0 pres]v$ to po/]ity4 ,h]o1   
inde$1 wrote sev]al books1 ?\gh only "o 
( !m has be5 pres]v$4 ,! ones t are lo/ 
be> ! foll[+ sugge/ive titles3 ,on !    

,con/ruction ( ,sl+s2 ,on ! ,con/ruction
 ( ,missiles2 ,on ! ,automaton2 ,on !   
,me?od ( ,lift+ ,heavy ,bodies2 ,on !   
,dioptric or ,spy+-tube4 ,! "w t rema9s 
is call$ ,pneumatics1 & s int]e/+ a "w x
 is z to make u d\bly regret ! loss (   
its companion volumes4 ,_h ^! o!r books 
be5 pres]v$ we %\ld d\btless h a cle>]  
insight ?an is n[ possible into "s at   
lea/ ( ! me*anical problems t ex]cis$ ! 
m9ds ( ! anci5t philosoph]s4 ,! book t  
rema9s is *iefly conc]n$1 z its "n      
implies1 ) ! /udy ( gases1 or1 r1 ) !   
/udy ( a s+le gas1 ?is be+1 ( c\rse1 !  
air4 ,b x tells u also ( c]ta9 /udies 9 
! dynamics ( wat] t are mo/ int]e/+1 & =
 ! hi/orian ( sci5ce mo/ important4     
,un=tunately1 ! pupil ( ,ctesibius1     
:atev] 8 +5uity1 0 a man ) a defici5t   
s5se ( ! e?ics ( sci5ce4 ,he tells u 9 8
 preface t ! object ( 8 book is to      
record "s +5i\s discov]ies ( o!rs1      
toge!r ) additional discov]ies ( 8 own1 
b n[h]e 9 ! book itself does he give u  
!1 slighte/ clew z to :]e ! l9e is drawn

 betwe5 ! old & ! new4 ,once1 9 discuss+
 ! weight ( wat]1 he m5tions ! law (    
,ar*im$es reg>d+ a float+ body1 b ?is is
 ! only case 9 :i* a sci5tific pr9ciple 
is trac$ to its s\rce or 9 :i* cr$it is 
giv5 to any "o = a discov]y4 ,?is is ! m
 to be regrett$ because ,h]o has        
discuss$ at "s l5g? ! !ories involv$ 9 !
 treatm5t ( 8 subject4 ,?is retic5ce on 
! "p ( ,h]o1 comb9$ ) ! fact t su*      
some:at lat] writ]s z ,pl9y & ,vitruvius
 d n m5tion ,h]o's "n1 :ile !y frequ5tly
 m5tion ! "n ( 8 ma/]1 ,ctesibius1 has  
l$ mod]n critics to a some:at sceptical 
attitude reg>d+ ! position ( ,h]o z an  
actual discov]]4  ,! man :o w\ld coolly 
appropriate "s discov]ies ( o!rs "u     
cloak ( a m]e prefatorial ref]5ce 0     
p]haps an exp\nd] r ?an an innovator1 & 
_h1 x is %rewdly suspect$1 n mu* ( 8 own
 to (f]4 ,mean:ile1 x is tol]ably c]ta9 
t ,ctesibius 0 ! discov]] ( ! pr9ciple (
 ! siphon1 ( ! =c+-pump1 & ( a pneumatic
 organ4 ,an exam9ation ( ,h]o's book w  
%[ t ^! are really ! *ief pr9ciples     

involv$ 9 mo/ ( ! v>i\s int]e/+         
me*anisms :i* he describes4 ,we are     
con/ra9$1 !n1 to believe t ! inv5tive   
g5ius :o 0 really responsible = !       
me*anisms we are ab\t to describe 0     
,ctesibius1 ! ma/]4 ,yet we owe a debt (
 gratitude to ,h]o1 ! pupil1 = hav+ giv5
 wid] vogue to ^! discov]ies1 & 9       
p>ticul> = ! discussion ( ! pr9ciples ( 
hydro/atics & pneumatics conta9$ 9 !    
introduction to 8 book4 ,?is discussion 
furni%es u almo/ our only k z to !      
progress ( ,greek philosoph]s 9 ! field 
( me*anics s9ce ! "t ( ,ar*im$es4  ,!   
ma9 purpose ( ,h]o 9 8 prelim9>y !sis   
has to d ) ! nature ( matt]1 & recalls1 
!re=e1 ! /udies ( ,anaxagoras &         
,democritus4 ,h]o1 h[ev]1 approa*es 8   
subject f a purely mat]ial or practical 
/&-po9t4 ,he is an explicit *ampion (   
:at we n[adays call ! molecul> !ory (   
matt]4 ,e body1 he tells u1 is compos$ (
 m9ute p>ticles1 betwe5 :i* are empty   
spaces less ?an ^! p>ticles ( ! body4 ,x
 is1 !re=e1 errone\s to say t !re is no 

vacuum except by ! application ( =ce1 & 
t e space is full ei!r ( air or wat] or 
"s o!r sub/ance4 ,b 9 proportion z any  
"o ( ^! p>ticles rec$es1 "s o!r foll[s x
 & fills ! vacant space2 !re=e !re is no
 cont9u\s vacuum1 except by !           
application ( "s =ce 7l suction7--t is  
to say1 an absolute vacuum is nev] f\nd1
 except z x is produc$ artificially4    
,h]o br+s =w>d "s ?or\ghly conv9c+ pro(s
 ( ! !sis he is ma9ta9+4 ,if !re 7 no   
void places betwe5 ! p>ticles ( wat]1 he
 says1 ! rays ( light c\ld n p5etrate ! 
wat]2 moreov]1 ano!r liquid1 su* z w9e1 
c\ld n spread itself ?r\gh ! wat]1 z x  
is obs]v$ to d1 7 ! p>ticles ( wat]     
absolutely cont9u\s4 ,! latt]           
illu/ration is "o ! validity ( :i*      
appeals z =cibly to ! physici/s ( to-day
 z x did to ,h]o4 ,! same is true ( !   
argum5t drawn f ! compressibility (     
gases4 ,h]o has evid5tly made a c>eful  
/udy ( ?is subject4 ,he kn[s t an inv]t$
 tube full ( air may be imm]s$ 9 wat]   
)\t becom+ wet on ! inside1 prov+ t air 

is a physical sub/ance2 b he kn[s also t
 ?is same air may be caus$ to exp& to a 
mu* great] bulk by ! application ( heat1
 or may1 on ! o!r h&1 be cond5s$ by     
pressure1 9 :i* case1 z he is well aw>e1
 ! air ex]ts =ce 9 ! attempt to rega9   
its normal bulk4 ,b1 he argues1 surely  
we are n to believe t ! p>ticles ( air  
exp& to fill all ! space :5 ! bulk ( air
 z a :ole exp&s "u ! influ5ce ( heat2   
nor c we conceive t ! p>ticles ( normal 
air are 9 actual contact1 else we %\ld n
 be able to compress ! air4 ,h5ce 8     
conclusion1 :i*1 z we h se51 he makes   
g5]al 9 its application to all matt]1 t 
!re are spaces1 or1 z he calls !m1      
vacua1 betwe5 ! p>ticles t g to make up 
all sub/ances1 :e!r liquid1 solid1 or   
gase\s4  ,"h1 cle>ly en\gh1 0 ! idea ( !
 atomic nature ( matt] accept$ z a      
fundam5tal notion4 ,! argum5tative      
attitude assum$ by ,h]o %[s t ! doctr9e 
c\ld n be expect$ to g un*all5g$4 ,b1 on
 ! o!r h&1 !re is no?+ 9 8 phras+ to    
sugge/ an int5tion to claim orig9ality =

 any phase ( ! doctr9e4 ,we may inf] t 9
 ! ?ree hundr$ ye>s t _h elaps$ s9ce !  
"t ( ,anaxagoras1 t philosoph]'s idea ( 
! molecul> nature ( matt] _h ga9$ fairly
 wide curr5cy4 ,z to ! expansive p[] (  
gas1 :i* ,h]o describes at "s l5g? )\t  
giv+ u a clew to 8 au?orities1 we may   
assume t ,ctesibius 0 an orig9al work]1 
yet ! g5]al facts involv$ 7 d\btless mu*
 old] ?an 8 day4 ,h]o1 = example1 tells 
u ( ! cupp+-glass us$ by physicians1 :i*
 he says is made into a vacuum by burn+ 
up ! air 9 x2 b ?is app>atus _h probably
 be5 long 9 use1 & ,h]o m5tions x n 9   
ord] to describe ! ord9>y cupp+-glass   
:i* is ref]r$ to1 b a modification ( x4 
,he ref]s to ! old =m z if x 7 some?+   
famili> to all4  ,aga91 we "k t         
,emp$ocles /udi$ ! pressure ( ! air 9 ! 
fif? c5tury ,b4,c41 & discov]$ t x w\ld 
support a column ( wat] 9 a clos$ tube1 
s ?is phase ( ! subject is n new4 ,b !re
 is no h9t any:]e be=e ?is "w ( ,h]o ( a
 cle> und]/&+ t ! expansive prop]ties ( 
! air :5 compress$1 or :5 heat$1 may be 

made available z a motor p[]4 ,h]o1     
h[ev]1 has ! cle>e/ notions on ! subject
 & puts !m to ! practical te/ (         
exp]im5t4 ,?us he con/ructs num]\s      
me*anisms 9 :i* ! expansive p[] ( air "u
 pressure is made to d "w1 & o!rs 9 :i* 
! same end is accompli%$ ?r\gh !        
expansive p[] ( heat$ air4 ,= example1 !
 doors ( a temple are made to sw+ op5   
automatically :5 a fire is light$ on a  
di/ant alt>1 clos+ aga9 :5 ! fire dies  
out--effects :i* mu/ h fill$ ! m9ds ( ! 
pi\s obs]v]s ) bewild]m5t & wond]1 s]v+ 
a mo/ useful purpose = ! prie/s1 :o     
alone1 we may assume1 7 9 ! secret4 ,!re
 7 two me?ods by :i* ?is app>atus 0     
work$4 ,9 "o ! heat$ air press$ on !    
wat] 9 a close retort connect$ ) ! alt>1
 =c+ wat] out ( ! retort into a bucket1 
:i* by its weight appli$ a =ce ?r\gh    
pulleys & ropes t turn$ ! /&>ds on :i* !
 temple doors revolv$4 ,:5 ! fire di$   
d[n ! air contract$1 ! wat] 0 siphon$   
back f ! bucket1 :i*1 be+ ?us light5$1  
let ! doors close aga9 ?r\gh ! action ( 

an ord9>y weight4 ,! o!r me?od 0 a      
slight modification1 9 :i* ! retort (   
wat] 0 disp5s$ ) & a lea!r sack l a l>ge
 football sub/itu$4 ,! ropes & pulleys 7
 connect$ ) ?is sack1 :i* ex]t$ a pull  
:5 ! hot air exp&$1 & :i* collaps$ & ?us
 relax$ its /ra9 :5 ! air cool$4 ,a     
glance at ! illu/rations tak5 f ,h]o's  
book w make ! details cle>4  ,o!r       
me*anisms utiliz$ a some:at diff]5t     
comb9ation ( weights1 pulleys1 &        
siphons1 op]at$ by ! expansive p[] (    
air1 unheat$ b "u pressure1 su* pressure
 be+ appli$ ) a =ce-pump1 or by ! weight
 ( wat] runn+ into a clos$ receptacle4  
,"o su* me*anism gives u a con/ant jet (
 wat] or p]petual f\nta94 ,ano!r curi\s 
application ( ! pr9ciple furni%es u ) an
 elaborate toy1 consi/+ ( a gr\p ( birds
 :i* alt]nately :i/le or are sil5t1 :ile
 an owl seat$ on a neighbor+ p]* turns  
t[>ds ! birds :5 _! song beg9s & away f 
!m :5 x ends4 ,! s++ ( ! birds1 x mu/ be
 expla9$1 is produc$ by ! expulsion (   
air ?r\gh t9y tubes pass+ up ?r\gh _!   

?roats f a tank bel[4 ,! owl is made to 
turn by a me*anism simil> to t :i*      
manipulates ! temple doors4 ,! pressure 
is suppli$ m]ely by a /ream ( runn+     
wat]1 & ! p]iodical sil5ce ( ! birds is 
due to ! fact t ?is pressure is reliev$ 
?r\gh ! automatic siphon+ (f ( ! wat] :5
 x rea*es a c]ta9 height4 ,! action ( ! 
siphon1 x may be add$1 is correctly     
expla9$ by ,h]o z due to ! great] weight
 ( ! wat] 9 ! long] arm ( ! b5t tube4 ,z
 be=e m5tion$1 ! siphon is repeat$ly us$
 9 ^! me*anisms ( ,h]o4 ,! diagram w    
make cle> ! exact application ( x 9 !   
pres5t mo/ +5i\s me*anism4 ,we may add t
 ! pr9ciple ( ! :i/le 0 a favorite "o ( 
,h]o4 ,by ! aid ( a simil> me*anism he  
br\ght ab\t ! bl[+ ( trumpets :5 !      
temple doors 7 op5$1 a ph5om5on :i* mu/ 
greatly h enhanc$ ! my/ification4 ,x is 
possible t ?is pr9ciple 0 utiliz$ also 9
 connection ) /atues to produce seem+ly 
sup]natural effects4 ,?is may be !      
explanation ( ! tradition ( ! speak+    
/atue 9 ! temple ( ,ammon at ,!bes4     

illu/ration caption  ,,device ,,=       
,,caus+ ,,! ,,doors ,,( ,,! ,,temple    
,,to ,,op5 ,,:5 ,,! ,,fire ,,on ,,!     
,,alt> ,,is ,,light$ 7,air heat$ 9 !    
alt> ,f drives wat] f ! clos$ receptacle
 ,h ?r\gh ! tube ,,kl into ! bucket ,m1 
:i* desc5ds ?r\gh gravity1 ?us op5+ !   
doors4 ,:5 ! alt> cools1 ! air          
contracts1 ! wat] is suck$ f ! bucket1 &
 ! weight & pulley close ! doors47      
illu/ration caption  ,,! ,,/eam-,,eng9e 
,,( ,,h]o 7,! /eam g5]at$ 9 ! receptacle
 ,,ab passes ?r\gh ! tube ,,ef into !   
globe1 & escapes ?r\gh ! b5t tubes ,h & 
,k1 caus+ ! globe to rotate on ! axis   
,,lg47   ,! utilization ( ! prop]ties ( 
compress$ air 0 n conf9$1 h[ev]1        
exclusively to m]e toys1 or to produce  
miracul\s effects4 ,! same pr9ciple 0   
appli$ to a practical fire-eng9e1 work$ 
by lev]s & =ce-pumps2 an app>atus1 9    
%ort1 altoge!r simil> to t /ill 9 use 9 
rural di/ricts4 ,a slightly diff]5t     
application ( ! motive p[] ( exp&+ air  
is furni%$ 9 a v curi\s toy call$ !     

danc+ figures4 ,9 ?is1 air heat$ 9 a    
retort l a m9iature alt> is all[$ to    
escape ?r\gh ! sides ( two pairs (      
revolv+ arms precisely l ^? ( ! ord9>y  
revolv+ f\nta9 ) :i* we are accu/om$ to 
wat] our lawns1 ! revolv+ arms be+      
atta*$ to a plane on :i* sev]al pairs ( 
/atuettes repres5t+ danc]s are plac$1   
,an ev5 m int]e/+ application ( ?is     
pr9ciple ( sett+ a :eel 9 motion is     
furni%$ 9 a me*anism :i* mu/ be consid]$
 ! e>lie/ ( /eam-eng9es4 ,"h1 z ! "n    
implies1 ! gas supply+ ! motive p[] is  
actually /eam4 ,! app>atus made to      
revolve is a globe connect$ ) !         
/eam-retort by a tube :i* s]ves z "o (  
its axes1 ! /eam escap+ f ! globe ?r\gh 
two b5t tubes plac$ at ei!r end ( an    
equatorial diamet]4 ,x does n appe> t   
,h]o _h any ?\ght ( mak+ practical use (
 ?is /eam-eng9e4 ,x 0 m]ely a curi\s    
toy--no?+ m4 ,yet _h n ! age t succe$$ t
 ( ,h]o be5 "o 9 :i* inv5tive g5ius 0   
dormant1 "s "o mu/ soon h hit ^u ! idea 
t ?is /eam-eng9e might be improv$ & made

 to s]ve a useful purpose4 ,z ! case    
/&s1 h[ev]1 !re 0 no advance made ^u !  
/eam motor ( ,h]o = almo/ two ?\s& ye>s4
 ,&1 inde$1 :5 ! practical application (
 /eam 0 made1 t[>ds ! close ( ! eighte5?
 c5tury1 x 0 made probably q )\t ref]5ce
 to ! exp]im5t ( ,h]o1 ?\gh k ( 8 toy   
may p]haps h giv5 a clew to ,watt or 8  
pr$ecessors4   illu/ration caption  ,,! 
,,slot-,,ma*9e ,,( ,,h]o 7,! co9        
introduc$ at ,a falls on ! lev] ,r1 & by
 its weight op5s ! valve ,s1 p]mitt+ !  
liquid to escape ?r\gh ! invisible tube 
,,lm4 ,z ! lev] tips1 ! co9 slides (f & 
! valve closes4 ,! liquid 9 tank mu/ (  
c\rse be kept above ,f47  ,9 rec5t times
 !re has be5 a t5d5cy to give to ?is    
/eam-eng9e ( ,h]o some?+ m ?an full me$ 
( appreciation4 ,to be sure1 x m>k$ a   
mo/ important pr9ciple 9 ! conception t 
/eam might be us$ z a motive p[]1 b1    
except 9 ! demon/ration ( ?is pr9ciple1 
! me*anism ( ,h]o 0 mu* too primitive to
 be ( any importance4 ,b !re is "o      
me*anism describ$ by ,h]o :i* 0 a mo/   

explicit anticipation ( a device1 :i*   
presumably soon w5t out ( use1 & :i* 0 n
 re9v5t$ until t[>ds ! close ( ! n9ete5?
 c5tury4 ,?is 0 a device :i* has become 
famili> 9 rec5t times z ! p5ny-9-!-slot 
ma*9e4 ,:5 t[>ds ! close ( ! n9ete5?    
c5tury "s inv5tive craftsman hit ^u !   
idea ( an automatic ma*9e to supply c&y1
 a box ( cig>ettes1 or a :iff ( p]fum]y1
 he may or may n h borr[$ 8 idea f !    
slot-ma*9e ( ,h]o2 b 9 any ev5t1 in/ead 
( be+ an innovator he 0 really two ?\s& 
ye>s beh9d ! times1 = ! slot-ma*9e (    
,h]o is ! precise prototype ( ^! mod]n  
ones4  ,! p>ticul> function :i* !       
me*anism ( ,h]o 0 de/9$ to fulfil 0 !   
di/ribution ( a jet ( wat]1 presumably  
us$ = sacram5tal purposes1 :i* 0 giv5   
out automatically :5 a five-dra*ma co9 0
 dropp$ into ! slot at ! top ( ! ma*9e4 
,! int]nal me*anism ( ! ma*9e 0 simple  
en\gh1 consi/+ m]ely ( a lev] op]at+ a  
valve :i* 0 op5$ by ! weight ( ! co9    
dropp+ on ! little %elf at ! end ( !    
lev]1 & :i* clos$ aga9 :5 ! co9 slid (f 

! %elf4 ,! illu/ration w %[ h[ simple   
?is me*anism 04 ,yet to ! wor%ipp]s1 :o 
probably _h ent]$ ! temple ?r\gh doors  
miracul\sly op5$1 & :o n[ witness$ ?is  
seem+ly intellig5t response ( a ma*9e1 !
 result mu/ h seem$ my/ify+ en\gh2 &1   
inde$1 = u also1 :5 we consid] h[       
relatively crude 0 ! me*anical k ( ! "t1
 ?is mu/ seem no?+ less ?an m>vell\s4 ,z
 9 imag9ation we walk up to ! sacr$     
tank1 drop our dra*ma 9 ! slot1 & hold  
our h& = ! spurt ( holy-wat]1 c we      
realize t ?is is ! l& ( ! ,ph>aohs1 n   
,engl& or ,am]ica2 t ! k+dom ( !        
,ptolemies is /ill at its height2 t !   
republic ( ,rome is mi/ress ( ! _w2 t   
all ,europe nor? ( ! ,alps is inhabit$  
solely by b>b>ians2 t ,cleopatra &      
,julius ,caes> are yet unborn2 t !      
,*ri/ian era has n yet begun8 ,truly1 x 
seems z if !re c\ld be no new ?+ "u !   
sun4     ,x4 ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,! ,,roman   
,,p]iod  ,we h se5 t ! ?ird c5tury      
,b4,c4 0 a "t :5 ,alex&rian sci5ce 0 at 
its height1 b t ! second c5tury produc$ 

also 9 ,hipp>*us at lea/ "o inve/igator 
( ! v fir/ rank2 ?\gh1 to be sure1      
,hipp>*us c be call$ an ,alex&rian only 
by c\rtesy4 ,9 ! ensu+ g5]ations !      
,greek capital at ! m\? ( ! ,nile       
cont9u$ to hold its place z ! c5tre (   
sci5tific & philosophical ?\ght4 ,!     
k+dom ( ! ,ptolemies /ill fl\ri%$ ) at  
lea/ ! outw>d appe>ances ( its old-"t   
glory1 & a company ( gramm>ians &       
comm5tators ( no small m]it c\ld always 
be f\nd 9 ! s]vice ( ! fam\s museum &   
libr>y2 b ! :ole aspect ( _w-hi/ory 0   
rapidly *ang+4 ,greece1 aft] h] brief   
day ( political supremacy1 0 s9k+       
rapidly into desuetude1 & ! h>d-head$   
,roman 9 ! ,we/ 0 mak+ himself ma/]     
ev]y:]e4 ,:ile ,hipp>*us ( ,rhodes 0 9 8
 prime1 ,cor9?1 ! la/ /ronghold ( !     
ma9-l& ( ,greece1 _h fall5 be=e ! pr[ess
 ( ! ,roman1 & ! k+dom ( ! ,ptolemies1  
?\gh /ill nom9ally free1 _h begun to    
come )9 ! sph]e ( ,roman influ5ce4  ,j  
:at %>e ^! political *anges _h 9 *ang+ !
 aspect ( ,greek ?\ght is a "q reg>d+   

:i* diff]5ce ( op9ion might easily      
prevail2 b !re c be no "q t1 = "o reason
 or ano!r1 ! ,alex&rian s*ool z a       
creative c5tre w5t into a rapid decl9e  
at ab\t ! "t ( ! ,roman rise to _w-p[]4 
,!re are "s di/+ui%$ names1 b1 z a g5]al
 rule1 ! _s ( ! times is rem9isc5t r ?an
 creative2 ! work]s t5d to collate !    
rese>*es ( _! pr$ecessors r ?an to make 
new & orig9al rese>*es = !mselves4      
,erato/h5es1 ! inv5tive _w-measur]1 0   
succe$$ by ,/rabo1 ! indu/ri\s collator 
( facts2 ,ari/>*us & ,hipp>*us1 !       
orig9ators ( new a/ronomical me?ods1 7  
succe$$ by ,ptolemy1 ! p]fect] ( _!     
me?ods & ! sy/ematiz] ( _! k4 ,mean:ile1
 9 ! ,we/1 ,rome nev] became a true     
culture-c5tre4 ,! great g5ius ( ! ,roman
 0 political2 ! ,augu/an ,age produc$ a 
few great hi/orians & poets1 b n a s+le 
great philosoph] or creative devotee (  
sci5ce4 ,cic]o1 ,lucian1 ,s5eca1 ,m>cus 
,aurelius1 give u at be/ a reflection ( 
,greek philosophy4 ,pl9y1 ! "o _w-fam\s 
"n 9 ! sci5tific annals ( ,rome1 c lay  

claim to no high] cr$it ?an t ( a       
m>vell\sly indu/ri\s collector (        
facts--! compil] ( an encyclopa$ia :i*  
conta9s n "o creative t\*4  ,all 9 all1 
!n1 ?is epo* ( ,roman dom9ation is "o t 
ne$ deta9 ! hi/orian ( sci5ce b a brief 
mom5t4 ,) ! culm9ation ( ,greek ef=t 9 !
 s-call$ ,hell5i/ic p]iod we h se5      
anci5t sci5ce at its climax4 ,! ,roman  
p]iod is b a "t ( transition1 m>k+1 z x 
71 a plateau on ! slope betwe5 ^? e>li] 
heights & ! deep1 d>k valleys ( !       
,middle ,ages4 ,yet we _c q disreg>d !  
ef=ts ( su* work]s z ^? we h j nam$4    
,let u take a m specific glance at _!   
accompli%m5ts4   ,,/rabo ,,! ,,geograph]
  ,! e>lie/ ( ^! work]s 9 po9t ( "t is  
,/rabo4 ,?is mo/ fam\s ( anci5t         
geograph]s 0 born 9 ,amasia1 ,pontus1   
ab\t #fc ,b4,c41 & liv$ to ! ye> #bd    
,a4,d41 liv+1 !re=e1 9 ! age ( ,caes> & 
,augu/us1 dur+ :i* ! f9al trans=mation 9
 ! political position ( ! k+dom ( ,egypt
 0 effect$4 ,! "n ( ,/rabo 9 a modifi$  
=m has become popul>iz$ ?r\gh a curi\s  

circum/ance4 ,! geograph]1 x appe>s1 0  
afflict$ ) a peculi> squ9t ( ! eyes1    
h5ce ! "n /rabismus1 :i* ! mod]n oculi/ 
applies to t p>ticul> infirmity4        
,=tunately1 ! great geograph] has n be5 
=c$ to dep5d ^u he>say evid5ce =        
recognition4 ,8 compreh5sive "w on      
geography has be5 pres]v$ 9 its         
entirety1 be+ "o ( ! few expansive      
classical writ+s ( :i* ?is is true4 ,!  
o!r writ+s ( ,/rabo1 h[ev]1 includ+     
c]ta9 hi/ories ( :i* reports h come d[n 
to u1 are entirely lo/4 ,! geography is 
9 _m ways a rem>kable book4 ,x is n1    
h[ev]1 a "w 9 :i* any important new     
pr9ciples are involv$4 ,r is x typical (
 its age 9 t x is an elaborate          
compilation & a critical review ( !     
labors ( ,/rabo's pr$ecessors4 ,d\btless
 x conta9s a va/ deal ( new in=mation z 
to ! details ( geography--precise areas 
& di/ance1 que/ions ( geographical      
locations z to latitude & zones1 & ! l4 
,b h[ev] important ^! details may h be5 
f a contempor>y /&-po9t1 !y1 ( c\rse1 c 

h no?+ m ?an hi/orical int]e/ to        
po/]ity4 ,! value ( ! "w f our pres5t   
/&-po9t is *iefly due to ! criticisms   
:i* ,/rabo passes ^u 8 =]unn]s1 & to !  
incid5tal hi/orical & sci5tific ref]5ces
 ) :i* 8 "w ab\nds4 ,be+ writt5 9 ?is   
clos+ p]iod ( anci5t progress1 &        
summ>iz+1 z x does1 9 full detail !     
geographical k ( ! "t1 x s]ves z an     
important guide-m>k = ! /ud5t ( !       
progress ( sci5tific ?\ght4 ,we _c d    
bett] ?an briefly to foll[ ,/rabo 9 8   
e/imates & criticisms ( ! "w ( 8        
pr$ecessors1 tak+ note ?us ( ! po9t (   
view f :i* he himself look$ out ^u ! _w4
 ,we %all ?us ga9 a cle> idea z to !    
/ate ( sci5tific geography t[>ds ! close
 ( ! classical epo*4  ,if ! sci5tific   
inve/igation ( any subject be ! prop]   
avocation ( ! philosoph]1 says ,/rabo1  
geography1 ! sci5ce ( :i* we propose to 
treat1 is c]ta9ly entitl$ to a high     
place2 & ?is is evid5t f _m             
consid]ations4 ,!y :o fir/ und]took to  
h&le ! matt] 7 di/+ui%$ m54 ,hom]1      

,anaxim&] ! ,milesian1 & ,hecaeus 78    
fell[-citiz5 accord+ to ,erato/h5es71   
,democritus1 ,eudoxus1 ,dicae>*us1 &    
,ephorus1 ) _m o!rs1 & aft] ^!1         
,erato/h5es1 ,polybius1 & ,posidonius1  
all ( !m philosoph]s4 ,nor is ! great   
le>n+ ?r\gh :i* alone ?is subject c be  
approa*$ possess$ by any b a p]son      
acqua9t$ ) bo? human & div9e ?+s1 & ^!  
atta9m5ts con/itute :at is call$        
philosophy4 ,9 addition to its va/      
importance 9 reg>d to social life & !   
art ( gov]nm5t1 geography unfolds to u a
 cele/ial ph5om5a1 acqua9ts u ) !       
occupants ( ! l& & ocean1 & !           
vegetation1 fruits1 & peculi>ities ( !  
v>i\s qu>t]s ( ! e>?1 a k ( :i* m>ks him
 :o cultivates x z a man e>ne/ 9 ! great
 problem ( life & happ9ess4  ,/rabo goes
 on to say t 9 common ) o!r critics1    
includ+ ,hipp>*us1 he reg>ds ,hom] z !  
fir/ great geograph]4 ,he has mu* to say
 on ! geographical k ( ! b>d1 b ?is ne$ 
n deta9 u4 ,we are *iefly conc]n$ ) 8   
comm5t ^u 8 m rec5t pr$ecessors1 beg9n+ 

) ,erato/h5es4 ,! con/ant ref]5ce to ?is
 work] %[s ! important position :i* he  
held4 ,/rabo appe>s nei!r z detractor   
nor z p>tisan1 b z "o :o e>ne/ly desires
 ! tru?4 ,sometimes he seems capti\s 9 8
 criticisms reg>d+ "s detail1 nor is he 
always correct 9 8 em5dations ( ! labors
 ( o!rs2 b1 on ! :ole1 8 "w is m>k$ by  
an evid5t attempt at fairness4 ,9 read+ 
8 book1 h[ev]1 "o is =c$ to ! conclusion
 t ,/rabo is an inve/igator ( details1 n
 an orig9al ?9k]4 ,he seems m conc]n$ ) 
precise measurem5ts ?an ) que/ion+s z to
 ! op5 problems ( 8 sci5ce4 ,:atev] he  
accepts1 !n1 may be tak5 z virtually !  
/ock doctr9e ( ! p]iod4  ,z ! size ( !  
e>?1 he says1 has be5 demon/rat$ by o!r 
writ]s1 we %all "h take = grant$ &      
receive z accurate :at !y h advanc$4 ,we
 %all also assume t ! e>? is sph]oidal1 
t its surface is likewise sph]oidal &1  
above all1 t bodies h a t5d5cy t[>ds its
 c5tre1 :i* latt] po9t is cle> to !     
p]ception ( ! mo/ av]age und]/&+4       
,h[ev]1 we may %[ summ>ily t ! e>? is   

sph]oidal1 f ! consid]ation t all ?+s1  
h[ev] di/ant1 t5d to its c5tre1 & t e   
body is attract$ t[>ds its c5tre by     
gravity4 ,?is is m di/9ctly prov$ f     
obs]vations ( ! sea & sky1 = "h !       
evid5ce ( ! s5ses & common obs]vation is
 alone requisite4 ,! convexity ( ! sea  
is a fur!r pro( ( ?is to ^? :o h sail$1 
= !y _c p]ceive lights at a di/ance :5  
plac$ at ! same level z _! eyes1 & if   
rais$ on high !y at once become         
p]ceptible to vision ?\gh at ! same "t  
f>!r remov$4 ,s :5 ! eye is rais$ x sees
 :at be=e 0 utt]ly imp]ceptible4 ,hom]  
speaks ( ?is :5 he says3        ',lift$ 
up on ! va/ wave he quickly beheld af>4'
  ,sailors z !y approa* _! de/9ation    
behold ! %ore cont9ually rais+ itself to
 _! view1 & objects :i* _h at fir/ seem$
 l[ beg9 to lift !mselves4 ,our gnomons1
 also1 are1 among o!r ?+s1 evid5ce ( !  
revolution ( ! heav5ly bodies1 &        
common-s5se at once %[s u t if ! dep? ( 
! e>? 7 inf9ite su* a revolution c\ld n 
take place47#a7  ,else:]e ,/rabo        

criticises ,erato/h5es = hav+ ent]$ into
 a long discussion z to ! =m ( ! e>?4   
,?is matt]1 ,/rabo ?9ks1 %\ld h be5     
dispos$ ( 9 ! compass ( a few words4    
,obvi\sly ?is doctr9e ( ! globe's       
sph]icity _h1 9 ! c\rse ( #fjj ye>s1    
become s firmly e/abli%$ among ! ,greek 
?9k]s z to seem almo/ axiomatic4 ,we    
%all see lat] on h[ ! ,we/]n _w made a  
curi\s recession f ?is seem+ly secure   
position "u /imulus ( an ,ori5tal       
misconception4 ,z to ! size ( ! globe1  
,/rabo is dispos$ to accept )\t p>ticul>
 comm5t ! measurem5ts ( ,erato/h5es4 ,he
 speaks1 h[ev]1 ( m rec5t measurem5ts1  
ref]r+ 9 p>ticul> to t adopt$ by        
,posidonius1 accord+ to :i* !           
circumf]5ce is only ab\t "o hundr$ &    
eighty ?\s& /adia4 ,posidonius1 we may  
note 9 pass+1 0 a contempor>y & fri5d ( 
,cic]o1 & h5ce liv$ %ortly be=e ! "t (  
,/rabo4 ,8 measurem5t ( ! e>? 0 bas$ on 
obs]vations ( a /> :i* b>ely rose above 
! s\!rn horizon at ,rhodes z comp>$ ) ! 
height ( ! same /> :5 obs]v$ at         

,alex&ria4 ,?is measurem5t (            
,posidonius1 toge!r ) ! ev5 m fam\s     
measurem5t ( ,erato/h5es1 appe>s to h   
be5 practically ! sole guide z to ! size
 ( ! e>? ?r\gh\t ! lat] p]iods (        
antiquity1 &1 inde$1 until ! lat]       
,middle ,ages4  ,z becomes a writ] :o is
 prim>ily geograph] & hi/orian r ?an    
a/ronom]1 ,/rabo %[s a mu* ke5] int]e/ 9
 ! habitable portions ( ! globe ?an 9 ! 
globe z a :ole4 ,he assures u t ?is     
habitable portion ( ! e>? is a great    
isl&1 s9ce :]ev] m5 h approa*$ !        
t]m9ation ( ! l&1 ! sea1 :i* we         
designate ocean1 has be5 met )1 & reason
 assures u ( ! simil>ity ( ?is place :i*
 our s5ses h n be5 tempt$ to survey4 ,he
 po9ts out t :]eas sailors h n          
circumnavigat$ ! globe1 t !y _h n be5   
prev5t$ f do+ s by any cont95t1 & x     
seems to him altoge!r unlikely t !      
,atlantic ,ocean is divid$ into two seas
 by n>r[ i/hmuses s plac$ z to prev5t   
circumnavigation4 ,h[ mu* m probable t x
 is conflu5t & un9t]rupt$4 ,?is !ory1 he

 adds1 goes bett] ) ! ebb & fl[ ( !     
ocean4 ,moreov] 7& "h 8 reason+ becomes 
m fanciful71 ! great] ! am\nt ( moi/ure 
surr\nd+ ! e>?1 ! easi] w\ld ! heav5ly  
bodies be suppli$ ) vapor f !nce4 ,yet  
he is dispos$ to believe1 foll[+ ,plato1
 t ! tradition conc]n+ ! isl& (         
,atlantos might be receiv$ z some?+ m   
?an idle fiction1 x hav+ be5 relat$ by  
,solon1 on ! au?ority ( ! ,egyptian     
prie/s1 t ?is isl&1 almo/ z l>ge z a    
cont95t1 0 =m]ly 9 exi/5ce al?\gh n[ x  
_h disappe>$47#b7  ,9 a ^w1 !n1 ,/rabo  
ent]ta9s no d\bt :atev] t x w\ld be     
possible to sail ar\nd ! globe f ,spa9  
to ,india4 ,inde$1 s matt]-(-fact an    
inf]5ce 0 ?is t ! feat ( ,columbus w\ld 
h seem$ less surpris+ 9 ! fir/ c5tury ( 
our era ?an x did :5 actually p]=m$ 9 ! 
fifte5? c5tury4 ,! t]rors ( ! great     
ocean held ! m>9] back1 r ?an any d\bt z
 to :]e he w\ld arrive at ! end ( !     
voyage4  ,c\pl$ ) ! idea t ! habitable  
portion ( ! e>? is an isl&1 !re 0 l9k$ a
 tol]ably def9ite notion z to ! %ape (  

?is isl&4 ,?is %ape ,/rabo lik5s to a   
milit>y cloak4 ,! comp>ison does n seem 
peculi>ly apt :5 we are told pres5tly t 
! l5g? ( ! habitable e>? is m ?an twice 
its bread?4 ,?is idea1 ,/rabo assures u1
 accords ) ! mo/ accurate obs]vations   
bo? anci5t & mod]n4 ,^! obs]vations     
seem$ to %[ t x is n possible to live 9 
! region close to ! equator1 & t1 on !  
o!r h&1 ! cold temp]ature %>ply limits !
 habitability ( ! globe t[>ds ! nor?4   
,all ! civilization ( antiquity clu/]$  
ab\t ! ,m$it]ranean1 or ext5d$ (f t[>ds 
! ea/ at ab\t ! same latitude4 ,h5ce    
geograph]s came to ?9k ( ! habitable    
globe z hav+ ! some:at l5ticul> %ape :i*
 a crude map ( ^! regions sugge/s4 ,we h
 already _h occasion to see t at an     
e>li] day ,anaxagoras 0 p]haps influ5c$ 
9 8 conception ( ! %ape ( ! e>? by ?is  
idea1 & ! con/ant ref]5ces ( ,/rabo     
impress ^u u ! ?\ght t ?is long1        
relatively n>r[ area ( ! e>?'s surface  
is ! only "o :i* c be conceiv$ ( z      
habitable4  ,/rabo _h mu* to tell u     

conc]n+ zones1 :i*1 foll[+ ,posidonius1 
he believes to h be5 fir/ describ$ by   
,p>m5ides4 ,we may note1 h[ev]1 t o!r   
traditions ass]t t bo? ,?ales &         
,py?agoras _h divid$ ! e>? into zones4  
,! numb] ( zones accept$ by ,/rabo is   
five1 & he criticises ,polybius = mak+ !
 numb] six4 ,! five zones accept$ by    
,/rabo are z foll[s3 ! un9habitable     
torrid zone ly+ 9 ! region ( ! equator2 
a zone on ei!r side ( ?is ext5d+ to !   
tropic2 & !n ! temp]ate zones ext5d+ 9  
ei!r direction f ! tropic to ! arctic   
regions4 ,!re seems to h be5 a good deal
 ( dispute among ! s*ol>s ( ! "t z to ! 
exact arrangem5t ( ^! zones1 b ! g5]al  
idea t ! nor?-temp]ate zone is ! "p ( ! 
e>? ) :i* ! geograph] deals seem$ cle>ly
 e/abli%$4 ,t ! s\?-temp]ate zone w\ld  
also pres5t a habitable area is an idea 
t is sometimes sugge/$1 ?\gh seldom or  
nev] di/9ctly express$4 ,x is probable t
 diff]5t op9ions 7 held z to ?is1 & no  
direct evid5ce be+ available1 a         
cauti\sly sci5tific geograph] l ,/rabo  

w\ld naturally avoid ! expression ( an  
op9ion reg>d+ x4 ,inde$1 8 own words    
leave u some:at 9 d\bt z to ! precise "*
 ( 8 notion reg>d+ ! zones4 ,p]haps we  
%all d be/ to quote !m3  ,let ! e>? be  
suppos$ to consi/ ( five zones4 7#a7 ,! 
equatorial circle describ$ ar\nd x4 7#b7
 ,ano!r p>allel to ?is1 & def9+ ! frigid
 zone ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 7#c7 ,a     
circle pass+ ?r\gh ! poles & cutt+ ! two
 prec$+ circles at "r-angles4 ,! nor!rn 
hemisph]e conta9s two qu>t]s ( ! e>?1   
:i* are b\nd$ by ! equator & circle     
pass+ ?r\gh ! poles4 ,ea* ( ^! qu>t]s   
%\ld be suppos$ to conta9 a f\r-sid$    
di/rict1 its nor!rn side be+ ( "o-half (
 ! p>allel next ! pole1 its s\!rn by !  
half ( ! equator1 & its rema9+ sides by 
two segm5ts ( ! circle drawn ?r\gh !    
poles1 opposite to ea* o!r1 & equal 9   
l5g?4 ,9 "o ( ^! 7:i* ( !m is ( no      
consequ5ce7 ! e>? :i* we inhabit is     
situat$1 surr\nd$ by a sea & simil> to  
an isl&4 ,?is1 z we said be=e1 is evid5t
 bo? to our s5ses & to our reason4 ,b   

let any "o d\bt ?is1 x makes no diff]5ce
 s f> z geography is conc]n$ :e!r y     
believe ! portion ( ! e>? :i* we inhabit
 to be an isl& or only admit :at we "k f
 exp]i5ce--namely1 t :e!r y />t f ! ea/ 
or ! we/ y may sail all ar\nd x4 ,c]ta9 
int]m$iate spaces may h be5 left        
7unexplor$71 b ^! are z likely to be    
occupi$ by sea z un9habit$ l&4 ,! object
 ( ! geograph] is to describe kn[n      
c\ntries4 ,^? :i* are unkn[n he passes  
ov] equally ) ^? beyond ! limits ( !    
inhabit$ e>?4 ,x w1 !re=e1 be suffici5t 
= describ+ ! cont\r ( ! isl& we h be5   
speak+ (1 if we jo9 by a "r l9e ! outmo/
 po9ts :i*1 up to ?is "t1 h be5 explor$ 
by voyag]s along ! coa/ on ei!r         
side47#c7  ,we may pass ov] ! specific  
criticisms ( ,/rabo ^u v>i\s            
explorations t seem to h be5 ( great    
int]e/ to 8 contempor>ies1 includ+ an   
alleg$ trip ( "o ,eudoxus out into !    
,atlantic1 & ! j\rney+s ( ,py!as 9 ! f> 
nor?4 ,x is ,py!as1 we may add1 :o 0    
cit$ by ,hipp>*us z hav+ made ! mi/ak5  

obs]vation t ! l5g? ( ! %ad[ ( ! gnomon 
is ! same at ,m>seilles & ,byzantium1   
h5ce t ^! two places are on ! same      
p>allel4 ,mod]n comm5tators h def5d$    
,py!as z reg>ds ?is obs]vation1 claim+ t
 x 0 ,hipp>*us & n ,py!as :o made !     
second obs]vation f :i* ! faulty        
induction 0 drawn4 ,! po9t is ( no great
 significance1 h[ev]1 except z %[+ t a  
correct me?od ( det]m9+ ! problems (    
latitude _h ?us e>ly be5 sugge/$4 ,t    
faulty obs]vations & faulty application 
( ! correct pr9ciple %\ld h be5 made is 
n surpris+4 ,nei!r ne$ we conc]n        
ourselves ) ! details z to !            
geographical di/ances1 :i* ,/rabo f\nd s
 wor?y ( criticism & controv]sy4 ,b 9   
leav+ ! great geograph] we may emphasize
 8 po9t ( view & t ( 8 contempor>ies by 
quot+ ?ree fundam5tal pr9ciples :i* he  
reit]ates z be+ among ! facts e/abli%$  
by natural philosoph]s4 ,he tells u t   
7#a7 ,! e>? & heav5s are sph]oidal4 7#b7
 ,! t5d5cy ( all bodies hav+ weight is  
t[>ds a c5tre4 7#c7 ,fur!r1 ! e>? be+   

sph]oidal & hav+ ! same c5tre z !       
heav5s1 is motionless1 z well z ! axis t
 passes ?r\gh bo? x & ! heav5s4 ,!      
heav5s turn r\nd bo? ! e>? & its axis1 f
 ea/ to we/4 ,! fix$ />s turn r\nd ) x  
at ! same rate z ! :ole4 ,^! fix$ />s   
foll[ 9 _! c\rse p>allel circles1 !     
pr9cipal ( :i* are ! equator1 two       
tropics1 & ! arctic circles2 :ile !     
planets1 ! sun1 & ! moon describe c]ta9 
circles compreh5d$ )9 ! zodiac47#d7     
,"h1 !n1 is a curi\s m+l+ ( tru? &      
error4 ,! ,py?agorean doctr9e t ! e>? is
 r\nd _h become a commonplace1 b x w\ld 
appe> t ! !ory ( ,ari/>*us1 accord+ to  
:i* ! e>? is 9 motion1 has be5 almo/    
absolutely =gott54 ,/rabo does n s mu* z
 ref] to x2 nei!r1 z we %all see1 is x  
treat$ ) great] respect by ! o!r writ]s 
( ! p]iod4   ,,two ,,fam\s              
,,expositors--,,pl9y ,,& ,,ptolemy      
,:ile ,/rabo 0 pursu+ 8 geographical    
/udies at ,alex&ria1 a "y man came to   
,rome :o 0 de/9$ to make 8 "n m widely  
kn[n 9 sci5tific annals ?an t ( any o!r 

,lat9 writ] ( antiquity4 ,?is man 0     
,pl9ius ,secundus1 :o1 to di/+ui% him f 
8 nephew1 a fam\s writ] 9 ano!r field1  
is usually spok5 ( z ,pl9y ! ,eld]4 ,!re
 is a fam\s /ory to ! effect t ! great  
,roman hi/orian ,livy on "o occasion    
address$ a casual associate 9 !         
amphi!atre at ,rome1 & on le>n+ t !     
/rang] hail$ f ! outly+ ,spani% prov9ce 
( ! empire1 rem>k$ to him1 ,yet y h     
d\btless he>d ( my writ+s ev5 !re4 ,!n1 
repli$ ! /rang]1 y mu/ be ei!r ,livy or 
,pl9y4  ,! anecdote illu/rates ! wide   
fame :i* ! ,roman naturali/ a*iev$ 9 8  
own day4 ,& ! records ( ! ,middle ,ages 
%[ t ?is popul>ity did n abate 9 succe$+
 times4 ,inde$1 ! ,natural ,hi/ory (    
,pl9y is "o ( ! comp>atively few bulky  
writ+s ( antiquity t ! ef=ts ( copyi/s h
 pres]v$ to u almo/ entire4 ,x is1      
inde$1 a rem>kable "w & em95tly typical 
( its "t2 b its au?or 0 an indu/ri\s    
compil]1 n a creative g5ius4 ,z a       
monum5t ( indu/ry x has seldom be5      
equall$1 & 9 ?is reg>d x seems ! m      

rem>kable inasmu* z ,pl9y 0 a practical 
man ( affairs :o occupi$ mo/ ( 8 life z 
a soldi] fight+ ! battles ( ! empire4   
,he compil$ 8 book 9 ! leisure h\rs /ol5
 f sleep1 (t5 writ+ by ! light ( !      
camp-fire4 ,yet he cites or quotes f    
ab\t f\r ?\s& works1 mo/ ( :i* are kn[n 
to u only by 8 ref]5ces4 ,d\btless ,pl9y
 add$ mu* ?r\gh 8 own obs]vations4 ,we  
"k h[ ke5 0 8 desire to inve/igate1 s9ce
 he lo/ 8 life ?r\gh attempt+ to approa*
 ! crat] ( ,vesuvius on ! occasion ( t  
memorable eruption :i* buri$ ! cities ( 
,h]culaneum & ,pompeii4  ,d\btless !    
w&]+ life ( ! soldi] _h giv5 ,pl9y      
abundant opportunity = p]sonal          
obs]vation 9 8 favorite fields ( botany 
& zoology4 ,b ! records ( 8 own         
obs]vations are s int]m+l$ ) k drawn f  
books t x is difficult to di/+ui% ! "o f
 ! o!r4 ,nor does ?is greatly matt]1 =  
:e!r z closet-/ud5t or field-naturali/1 
,pl9y's trait ( m9d is ess5tially t ( ! 
compil]4 ,he 0 no philosophical ?9k]1 no
 g5]aliz]1 no pa?-mak] 9 sci5ce4 ,he    

liv$ at ! close ( a great progressive   
epo* ( ?\ght2 9 "o ( ^? /atic p]iods :5 
numb]less obs]v]s pil$ up an imm5se mass
 ( details :i* might advantage\sly be   
sort$ into a k9d ( encyclopa$ia4 ,su* an
 encyclopa$ia is ! s-call$ ,natural     
,hi/ory ( ,pl9y4 ,x is a va/ jumble ( m 
or less uncritical /atem5ts reg>d+ almo/
 e field ( contempor>y k4 ,!            
descriptions ( animals & plants         
pr$om9ate1 b ! "w z a :ole w\ld h be5   
imm5sely improv$ _h ! compil] %[n a m   
critical _s4 ,z x is1 he seems r dispos$
 to quote any int]e/+ citation t he     
comes across 9 8 omnivor\s read+s1      
%ield+ himself beh9d an equivocal x is  
said1 or s & s alleges4 ,a s+le         
illu/ration w suffice to %[ :at mann] ( 
?+ is ?\ght wor?y ( repetition4  ,x is  
ass]t$1 he says1 t if ! fi% call$ a     
sea-/> is sme>$ ) ! fox's blood & !n    
nail$ to ! upp] l9tel ( ! door1 or to ! 
door itself1 ) a copp] nail1 no noxi\s  
spell w be able to obta9 admittance1 or1
 at all ev5ts1 be productive ( any ill  

effects4  ,x is easily compreh5sible t a
 "w =tifi$ ) su* practical details z ?is
 %\ld h ga9$ wide popul>ity4 ,d\btless !
 natural hi/ories ( our own day w\ld f9d
 readi] sale 7 !y to p&] to v>i\s       
sup]/itions n altoge!r diff]5t f t "h   
sugge/$4 ,! man1 = example1 :o believes 
t to h a black cat cross 8 pa? is a     
lucky om5 w\ld naturally f9d himself    
attract$ by a book :i* took acc\nt ( ?is
 & simil> important details ( natural   
hi/ory4 ,p]haps1 !re=e1 x 0 its         
inclusion ( absurdities1 q z mu* z its  
legitimate value1 t gave vogue to !     
celebrat$ "w ( ,pl9y4 ,b be t z x may1 !
 mo/ fam\s sci5ti/ ( ,rome mu/ be       
rememb]$ z a popul> writ] r ?an z an    
exp]im5tal work]4 ,9 ! hi/ory ( !       
promulgation ( sci5tific k 8 "w is      
important2 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5tific       
pr9ciples x may virtually be disreg>d$4 
,,ptolemy1 ,,! ,,la/ ,,great ,,a/ronom] 
,,( ,,antiquity  ,almo/ ! same ?+ may be
 said ( ,ptolemy1 an ev5 m celebrat$    
writ]1 :o 0 born n v long aft] ! dea? ( 

,pl9y4 ,! exact dates ( ,ptolemy's life 
are n kn[n1 b 8 record$ obs]vations     
ext5d to ! ye> #aea ,a4,d4 ,he 0 a work+
 a/ronom]1 & he made at lea/ "o orig9al 
discov]y ( "s significance--namely1 !   
obs]vation ( a hi!rto unrecord$         
irregul>ity ( ! moon's motion1 :i* came 
to be spok5 ( z ! moon's evection4 ,?is 
consi/s ( p]iodical ab]rations f !      
moon's regul> motion 9 its orbit1 :i*1 z
 we n[ "k1 are due to ! gravitation pull
 ( ! sun1 b :i* rema9$ unexpla9$ until !
 "t ( ,newton4 ,ptolemy also made       
orig9al obs]vations z to ! motions ( !  
planets4 ,he is1 !re=e1 entitl$ to a    
respectable place z an obs]v+ a/ronom]2 
b 8 *ief fame re/s on 8 writ+s4  ,8     
great works h to d ) geography &        
a/ronomy4 ,9 ! =m] field he makes an    
advance ^u ,/rabo1 cit+ ! latitude ( no 
few] ?an five ?\s& places4 ,9 ! field ( 
a/ronomy1 8 great s]vice 0 to h made    
kn[n to ! _w ! labors ( ,hipp>*us4      
,ptolemy has be5 accus$ ( tak+ ! />-*>t 
( 8 great pr$ecessor )\t due cr$it1 &   

inde$ x seems difficult to cle> him (   
?is *>ge4 ,yet x is at lea/ op5 to d\bt 
:e!r he int5d$ any impropriety1 inasmu* 
z he all along is s$ul\s 9 8 ref]5ces to
 8 pr$ecessor4 ,inde$1 8 "w might almo/ 
be call$ an exposition ( ! a/ronomical  
doctr9es ( ,hipp>*us4 ,no "o pret5ds t  
,ptolemy is to be comp>$ ) ! ,rhodesian 
obs]v] z an orig9al inve/igator1 b z a  
popul> exp\nd] 8 sup]iority is evid5c$ 9
 ! fact t ! writ+s ( ,ptolemy became    
practically ! sole a/ronomical text-book
 ( ! ,middle ,ages bo? 9 ! ,ea/ & 9 !   
,we/1 :ile ! writ+s ( ,hipp>*us 7 all[$ 
to p]i%4  ,! mo/ not$ ( all ! writ+s (  
,ptolemy is ! "w :i* became fam\s "u !  
,arabic "n ( ,almage/4 ,?is ^w is       
curi\sly d]iv$ f ! ,greek title 7gr h   
megi/h suntazis71 ! greate/ con/ruction1
 a "n giv5 ! book to di/+ui% x f a "w on
 a/rology 9 f\r books by ! same au?or4  
,= conv5i5ce ( ref]5ce x came to be     
spok5 ( m]ely z 7gr h megi/h71 f :i* !  
,arabs =m ! title ,tabair al ,magi/hi1  
"u :i* title ! book 0 publi%$ 9 ! ye>   

#hbg4 ,f ?is x d]iv$ ! ^w ,almage/1 by  
:i* ,ptolemy's "w cont9u$ to be kn[n    
among ! ,arabs1 & subsequ5tly among     
,europeans :5 ! book aga9 became kn[n 9 
! ,we/4 ,ptolemy's book1 z has be5 said1
 is virtually an elaboration ( !        
doctr9es ( ,hipp>*us4 ,x assumes t ! e>?
 is ! fix$ c5tre ( ! sol> sy/em1 & t !  
/>s & planets revolve ab\t x 9 tw5ty-f\r
 h\rs1 ! e>? be+1 ( c\rse1 sph]ical4 ,x 
0 n to be expect$ t ,ptolemy %\ld h     
adopt$ ! helioc5tric idea ( ,ari/>*us4  
,yet x is mu* to be regrett$ t he fail$ 
to d s1 s9ce ! def]5ce :i* 0 accord$ 8  
au?ority ?r\gh\t ! ,middle ,ages w\ld   
d\btless h be5 ext5d$ 9 "s measure at   
lea/ to ?is !ory z well1 _h he *ampion$ 
x4 ,contr>iwise1 8 unqualifi$ acceptance
 ( ! geoc5tric doctr9e suffic$ to place 
t doctr9e beyond ! range ( *all5ge4  ,! 
,almage/ treats ( all mann] (           
a/ronomical problems1 b ! feature ( x   
:i* ga9$ x wide/ celebrity 0 p]haps t   
:i* has to d ) ecc5trics & epicycles4   
,?is !ory 01 ( c\rse1 b an elaboration (

 ! ideas ( ,hipp>*us2 b1 ow+ to !       
celebrity ( ! expositor1 x has come to  
be spok5 ( z ! !ory ( ,ptolemy4 ,we h   
suffici5tly detail$ ! !ory 9 speak+ (   
,hipp>*us4 ,x %\ld be expla9$1 h[ev]1 t1
 ) bo? ,hipp>*us & ,ptolemy1 ! !ory (   
epicycles w\ld appe> to h be5 held r z a
 work+ hypo!sis ?an z a c]ta9ty1 s f> z 
! actuality ( ! m9or sph]es or epicycles
 is conc]n$4 ,t is to say1 ^! a/ronom]s 
probably did n conceive ei!r ! epicycles
 or ! great] sph]es z con/itut+ actual  
solid sub/ances4 ,subsequ5t g5]ations1  
h[ev]1 put ?is int]pretation ^u ! !ory1 
conceiv+ ! v>i\s sph]es z actual        
cry/all9e bodies4 ,x is difficult to    
imag9e j h[ ! v>i\s epicycles 7 suppos$ 
to revolve )\t int]f]+ ) ! major sph]es1
 b p]haps ?is is no great] difficulty   
?an is pres5t$ by ! alleg$ prop]ties ( !
 e!r1 :i* physici/s ( to-day accept z at
 lea/ a work+ hypo!sis4 ,we %all see    
lat] on h[ firmly ! conception (        
conc5tric cry/all9e sph]es 0 held to1 & 
t no real *all5ge 0 ev] giv5 t !ory     

until ! discov]y 0 made t comets h an   
orbit t mu/ necess>ily int]sect ! sph]es
 ( ! v>i\s planets4  ,ptolemy's sy/em ( 
geography 9 eight books1 f\nd$ on t (   
,m>9us ( ,tyre1 0 sc>cely less celebrat$
 ?r\gh\t ! ,middle ,ages ?an ! ,almage/4
 ,x conta9$ little1 h[ev]1 t ne$ conc]n 
u "h1 be+ r an elaboration ( ! doctr9es 
to :i* we h already suffici5tly ref]r$4 
,none ( ,ptolemy's orig9al manuscripts  
has come d[n to u1 b !re is an alleg$   
fif?-c5tury manuscript attribut$ to     
,aga?adamon ( ,alex&ria :i* has peculi> 
int]e/ because x conta9s a s]ies (      
tw5ty-sev5 elaborately color$ maps t are
 suppos$ to be d]iv$ f maps drawn up by 
,ptolemy himself4 ,9 ^! maps ! sea is   
color$ gre51 ! m\nta9s r$ or d>k yell[1 
& ! l& :ite4 ,ptolemy assum$ t a degree 
at ! equator 0 #ejj /adia in/ead ( #fjd 
/adia 9 l5g?4 ,we are n in=m$ z to !    
gr\nds on :i* ?is assumption 0 made1 b x
 has be5 sugge/$ t ! error 0 at lea/    
p>tially in/rum5tal 9 lead+ to "o v     
curi\s result4 ,tak+ ! p>allel (        

,rhodes1 says ,donaldson17#e7 he        
calculat$ ! longitudes f ! ,=tunate     
,isl&s to ,cattig>a or ! we/ coa/ (     
,borneo at #ahj degrees1 conceiv+ ?is to
 be "o-half ! circumf]5ce ( ! globe4 ,! 
real di/ance is only #abe degrees or    
#abg degrees1 s t 8 measurem5t is wrong 
by "o ?ird ( ! :ole1 "o-six? = ! error 9
 ! measurem5t ( a degree & "o-six? = !  
errors 9 measur+ ! di/ance              
geometrically4 ,^! errors1 ow+ to !     
au?ority attribut$ to ! geography (     
,ptolemy 9 ! ,middle ,ages1 produc$ a   
consequ5ce ( ! greate/ importance4 ,!y  
really l$ to ! discov]y ( ,am]ica4 ,= ! 
design ( ,columbus to sail f ! we/ (    
,europe to ! ea/ ( ,asia 0 f\nd$ on !   
supposition t ! di/ance 0 less by "o    
?ird ?an x really 04 ,?is view is p]haps
 a trifle fanciful1 s9ce !re is no?+ to 
sugge/ t ! c\rage ( ,columbus w\ld h    
balk$ at ! great] di/ance1 & s9ce !     
prote/s ( ! sailors1 :i* ne>ly ?w>t$ 8  
ef=ts1 7 made long be=e ! di/ance z     
e/imat$ by ,ptolemy _h be5 cov]$2       

nev]!less x is int]e/+ to recall t !    
great geographical doctr9es1 ^u :i*     
,columbus mu/ *iefly h bas$ 8 argum5ts1 
_h be5 be=e ! _w 9 an au?oritative =m   
practically unhe$$ = m ?an twelve hundr$
 ye>s1 await+ a *ampion ) c\rage en\gh  
to put !m to ! te/4   ,,gal5--,,! ,,la/ 
,,great ,,alex&rian  ,!re is "o o!r     
field ( sci5tific inve/igation to :i* we
 mu/ give brief att5tion be=e leav+ !   
antique _w4 ,?is is ! field ( physiology
 & m$ic9e4 ,9 consid]+ x we %all h to d 
) ! v la/ great sci5ti/ ( ! ,alex&rian  
s*ool4 ,?is 0 ,claudius ,gal5us1        
commonly kn[n z ,gal51 a man ^: fame 0  
de/9$ to eclipse t ( all o!r physicians 
( antiquity except ,hippocrates1 & ^:   
doctr9es 7 to h ! same =ce 9 _! field   
?r\gh\t ! ,middle ,ages t ! doctr9es (  
,ari/otle _h = physical sci5ce4 ,b be=e 
we take up ,gal5's specific labors1 x w 
be well to inquire briefly z to ! /ate (
 m$ical art & sci5ce 9 ! ,roman _w at ! 
"t :5 ! la/ great physician ( antiquity 
came ^u ! sc5e4  ,! ,romans1 x w\ld     

appe>1 _h done little 9 ! way (         
sci5tific discov]ies 9 ! field ( m$ic9e1
 b1 nev]!less1 ) _! practicality ( m9d1 
!y _h turn$ to bett] acc\nt _m m ( !    
sci5tific discov]ies ( ! ,greeks ?an did
 ! discov]]s !mselves4 ,! practis+      
physicians 9 e>ly ,rome 7 mo/ly m5 (    
,greek orig91 :o came to ! capital aft] 
! ov]?r[ ( ! ,greeks by ! ,romans4 ,_m (
 !m 7 slaves1 z e>n+ money by ei!r      
bodily or m5tal labor 0 consid]$ b5ea? !
 dignity ( a ,roman citiz54 ,! weal?y   
,romans1 :o own$ l>ge e/ates & num]\s   
slaves1 7 9 ! habit ( pur*as+ "s ( ^!   
slave doctors1 & ?us sav+ m$ical fees by
 hav+ !m att5d to ! heal? ( _! families4
  ,by ! beg9n+ ( ! ,*ri/ian era m$ic9e z
 a pr(ession _h sadly deg5]at$1 & 9     
place ( a class ( physicians :o practis$
 m$ic9e along rational or legitimate    
l9es1 9 ! foot/eps ( ! great            
,hippocrates1 !re appe>$ great numb]s ( 
speciali/s1 mo/ ( !m *>latans1 :o       
pret5d$ to possess sup]natural insight 9
 ! me?ods ( treat+ c]ta9 =ms ( disease4 

,^! physicians rightly e>n$ ! contempt (
 ! bett] class ( ,romans1 & 7 made !    
object ( _m attacks by ! satiri/s ( !   
"t4 ,su* speciali/s travell$ ab\t f     
place to place 9 mu* ! same mann] z !   
it9]ant ,indian doctors & lightn+       
too?-extractors d to-day4 ,eye-doctors  
seem to h be5 p>ticul>ly num]\s1 & ^! 7 
divid$ into two classes1 eye-surgeons & 
eye-doctors prop]4 ,! eye-surgeon p]=m$ 
su* op]ations z caut]iz+ = +r[+ eyela%es
 & op]at+ ^u gr[?s ab\t ! eyes2 :ile !  
eye-doctors dep5d$ entirely ^u salves & 
lotions4 ,^! eye-salves 7 frequ5tly     
/amp$ ) ! seal ( ! physician :o comp\nd$
 !m1 some?+ l two hundr$ ( ^! seals be+ 
/ill 9 exi/5ce4 ,!re 7 besides ^!       
quacks1 h[ev]1 reputable eye-doctors :o 
mu/ h possess$ consid]able skill 9 !    
treatm5t ( c]ta9 oph?almias4 ,among "s  
,roman surgical in/rum5ts discov]$ at   
,rheims 7 f\nd also "s drugs employ$ by 
oph?almic surgeons1 & an analysis ( ^!  
%[ t !y conta9$1 among o!r +r$i5ts1 "s t
 are /ill employ$ 9 ! treatm5t ( c]ta9  

affections ( ! eye4  ,"o ( ! fir/ /eps  
tak5 9 recognition ( ! s]vices (        
physicians 0 by ,julius ,caes>1 :o      
grant$ citiz5%ip to all physicians      
practis+ 9 ,rome4 ,?is 0 ab\t fifty ye>s
 be=e ! ,*ri/ian era1 & f t "t on !re 0 
a gradual improvem5t 9 ! attitude ( !   
,romans t[>ds ! memb]s ( ! m$ical       
pr(ession4 ,z ! ,romans deg5]at$ f a    
race ( /urdy w>riors & became m & m     
deprav$ physically1 ! necessity =       
physicians made itself m evid5t4 ,c\rt  
physicians1 & physicians-9-ord9>y1 7    
creat$ by ! emp]ors1 z 7 also city &    
di/rict physicians4 ,9 ! ye> #acc ,a4,d4
 ,hadrian grant$ immunity f taxes &     
milit>y s]vice to physicians 9          
recognition ( _! public s]vices4  ,!    
city & di/rict physicians1 kn[n z !     
ar*iatri populaires1 treat$ & c>$ = !   
poor )\t remun]ation1 hav+ a position & 
sal>y fix$ by law & paid !m             
semi-annually4 ,^! 7 honorable          
positions1 & ! ar*iatri 7 oblig$ to give
 in/ruction 9 m$ic9e1 )\t pay1 to ! poor

 /ud5ts4 ,!y 7 all[$ to receive fees &  
donations f _! pati5ts1 b n1 h[ev]1     
until ! dang] f ! malady 0 pa/4 ,special
 laws 7 enact$ to protect !m1 & any     
p]son subject+ !m to an insult 0 liable 
to a f9e n exce$+ "o ?\s& p\nds4  ,an   
example ( ,roman practicality is %[n 9 !
 me?od ( treat+ hemorrhage1 z describ$  
by ,aulus ,cornelius ,celsus 7#ec ,b4,c4
 to #g ,a4,d474 ,hippocrates &          
,hippocratic writ]s treat$ hemorrhage by
 application ( cold1 pressure1 /yptics1 
& sometimes by actual caut]iz+2 b !y    
knew no?+ ( ! simple me?od ( /opp+ a    
hemorrhage by a ligature ti$ ar\nd !    
ble$+ vessel4 ,celsus n only recomm5d$  
ty+ ! end ( ! injur$ vessel1 b describes
 ! me?od ( apply+ two ligatures be=e !  
art]y is divid$ by ! surgeon--a common  
practice among surgeons at ! pres5t "t4 
,! cut is made betwe5 ^! two1 & ?us     
hemorrhage is avoid$ f ei!r end ( !     
divid$ vessel4  ,ano!r ,roman surgeon1  
,heliodorus1 n only describes ! use ( ! 
ligature 9 /opp+ hemorrhage1 b also !   

practice ( torsion--twi/+ small]        
vessels1 :i* causes _! l9+ membrane to  
contract 9 a mann] t produces           
coagulation & /ops hemorrhage4 ,x is    
rem>kable t s simple & practical a me?od
 z ! use ( ! ligature 9 /opp+ hemorrhage
 c\ld h gone out ( use1 once x _h be5   
discov]$2 b dur+ ! ,middle ,ages x 0    
almo/ entirely lo/ sight (1 & 0 n       
re9troduc$ until ! "t ( ,ambroise ,p>e1 
9 ! sixte5? c5tury4  ,ev5 at a v e>ly   
p]iod ! ,romans recogniz$ ! advantage ( 
surgical me?ods on ! field ( battle4    
,ea* soldi] 0 suppli$ ) b&ages1 & 0     
probably in/ruct$ 9 apply+ !m1 some?+ 9 
! same mann] z is done n[ 9 all mod]n   
armies4 ,! ,romans also made use (      
milit>y hospitals & _h e/abli%$ a rude b
 v practical field-ambulance s]vice4 ,9 
e troop or b&on ( two or f\r hundr$ m51 
eight or t5 /\t fell[s 7 deput$ to ride 
imm$iately beh9d ! fight+-l9e to pick up
 & rescue ! w\nd$1 = :i* purpose _!     
saddles _h two /irrups on ! left side1  
:ile !y !mselves 7 provid$ )            

wat]-flasks1 & p]haps appli$ tempor>y   
b&ages4 ,!y 7 enc\rag$ by a rew>d ( a   
piece ( gold = ea* man !y rescu$4       
',noscomi' 7 male nurses atta*$ to !    
milit>y hospitals1 b n inscrib$ 'on     
/r5g?' ( ! legions1 & 7 probably = ! mo/
 "p ( ! s]vile class47#f7  ,f ! "t ( !  
e>ly ,alex&rians1 ,h]ophilus &          
,erasi/ratus1 ^: "w we h already exam9$1
 !re _h be5 v>i\s anatomi/s ( "s        
importance 9 ! ,alex&rian s*ool1 ?\gh   
none q equal to ^! e>li] work]s4 ,!     
be/-kn[n names are ^? ( ,celsus 7( :om  
we h already spok571 :o cont9u$ ! "w (  
anatomical inve/igation1 & ,m>9us1 :o   
liv$ dur+ ! reign ( ,n]o1 & ,rufus (    
,ephesus4 ,probably all ( ^! w\ld h be5 
bett] rememb]$ by succe$+ g5]ations _h  
_! ef=ts n be5 eclips$ by ^? ( ,gal54   
,?is greate/ ( anci5t anatomi/s 0 born  
at ,p]gamus ( ,greek p>5ts4 ,8 fa!r1    
,nicon1 0 an ar*itect & a man (         
consid]able ability4 ,until 8 fifte5?   
ye> ! y\?ful ,gal5 0 in/ruct$ at home1  
*iefly by 8 fa!r2 b aft] t "t he 0 plac$

 "u suitable tea*]s = in/ruction 9 !    
philosophical sy/ems 9 vogue at t p]iod4
 ,%ortly aft] ?is1 h[ev]1 ! sup]/iti\s  
,nicon1 foll[+ ! int]pretations ( a     
dream1 decid$ t 8 son %\ld take up !    
/udy ( m$ic9e1 & plac$ him "u !         
in/ruction ( sev]al le>n$ physicians4   
,gal5 0 a tireless work]1 mak+ long t\rs
 into ,asia ,m9or & ,pale/9e to improve 
himself 9 ph>macology1 & /udy+ anatomy =
 "s "t at ,alex&ria4 ,he appe>s to h be5
 full ( ! sup]/itions ( ! age1 h[ev]1 & 
e>ly 9 8 c>e] made an ext5d$ t\r into   
we/]n ,asia 9 se>* ( ! *im]ical         
jet-/one--a /one possess+ ! peculi>     
qualities ( burn+ ) a bitum9\s odor &   
suppos$ to possess great pot5cy 9 cur+  
su* diseases z epilepsy1 hy/]ia1 & g\t4 
,by ! "t he _h rea*$ 8 tw5ty-eigh? ye>  
he _h p]fect$ 8 education 9 m$ic9e &    
return$ to 8 home 9 ,p]gamus4 ,ev5 at t 
"t he _h acquir$ consid]able fame z a   
surgeon1 & 8 fell[-citiz5s %[$ _!       
confid5ce 9 8 ability by *oos+ him z    
surgeon to ! w\nd$ gladiators %ortly    

aft] 8 return to 8 native city4 ,9 ^!   
duties 8 k ( anatomy aid$ him greatly1 &
 he is said to h heal$ c]ta9 k9ds (     
w\nds t _h previ\sly baffl$ ! surgeons4 
,9 ! "t ( ,gal5 dissections ( ! human   
body 7 =bidd5 by law1 & he 0 oblig$ to  
conf9e himself to dissections ( ! l[]   
animals4 ,he _h ! advantage1 h[ev]1 ( ! 
anatomical works ( ,h]ophilus &         
,erasi/ratus1 & he mu/ h dep5d$ ^u !m 9 
p]fect+ 8 comp>ison betwe5 ! anatomy (  
m5 & ! l[] animals4 ,x is possible t he 
did make human dissections              
surreptiti\sly1 b ( ?is we h no pro(4   
,he 0 famili> ) ! complicat$ /ructure ( 
! bones ( ! cranium4 ,he describ$ !     
v]tebrae cle>ly1 divid$ !m into gr\ps1 &
 nam$ !m aft] ! mann] ( anatomi/s (     
to-day4 ,he 0 less accurate 9 8         
description ( ! muscles1 al?\gh a l>ge  
numb] ( ^! 7 describ$ by him4 ,l all    
anatomi/s be=e ! "t ( ,h>vey1 he _h a v 
errone\s conception ( ! circulation1    
al?\gh he und]/ood t ! he>t 0 an organ =
 ! propulsion ( blood1 & he %[$ t !     

art]ies ( ! liv+ animals did n conta9   
air alone1 z 0 taught by _m anatomi/s4  
,he knew1 also1 t ! he>t 0 made up (    
lay]s ( fibres t ran 9 c]ta9 fix$       
directions--t is1 longitud9al1          
transv]se1 & oblique2 b he did n        
recognize ! he>t z a muscul> organ4 ,9  
pro( ( ?is he po9t$ out t all muscles   
require re/1 & z ! he>t did n re/ x c\ld
 n be compos$ ( muscul> tissue4  ,_m ( 8
 physiological exp]im5ts 7 conduct$ ^u  
sci5tific pr9ciples4 ,?us he prov$ t    
c]ta9 muscles 7 "u ! control ( def9ite  
sets ( n]ves by cutt+ ^! n]ves 9 liv+   
animals1 & obs]v+ t ! muscles suppli$ by
 !m 7 r5d]$ useless4 ,he po9t$ out also 
t n]ves h no p[] 9 !mselves1 b m]ely    
conduct impulses to & f ! bra9 &        
sp9al-cord4 ,he turn$ ?is peculi> k to  
acc\nt 9 ! case ( a celebrat$ sophi/1   
,pausanias1 :o _h be5 "u ! treatm5t (   
v>i\s physicians = a numbness 9 ! f\r? &
 fif? f+]s ( 8 left h&4 ,^! physicians  
_h be5 treat+ ?is condition by          
applications ( p\ltices to ! h& itself4 

,gal51 be+ call$ 9 consultation1 po9t$  
out t ! injury 0 probably n 9 ! h&      
itself1 b 9 ! uln] n]ve1 :i* controls   
s5sation 9 ! f\r? & fif? f+]s4 ,surmis+ 
t ! n]ve mu/ h be5 injur$ 9 "s way1 he  
made c>eful inquiries ( ! pati5t1 :o    
recall$ t he _h be5 ?r[n f 8 *>iot "s "t
 be=e1 /rik+ & injur+ 8 back4 ,act+ ^u  
?is in=mation1 ,gal5 appli$ /imulat+    
rem$ies to ! s\rce ( ! n]ve itself--t   
is1 to ! bundle ( n]ve-trunks kn[n z !  
bra*ial plexus1 9 ! %\ld]4 ,to !        
surprise & confusion ( 8                
fell[-physicians1 ?is me?od ( treatm5t  
prov$ effective & ! pati5t recov]$      
completely 9 a %ort "t4  ,al?\gh !      
functions ( ! organs 9 ! *e/ 7 n well   
und]/ood by ,gal51 he 0 well acqua9t$ ) 
_! anatomy4 ,he knew t ! lungs 7 cov]$  
by ?9 membrane1 & t ! he>t 0 surr\nd$ by
 a sac ( v simil> tissue4 ,he made      
con/ant comp>isons also betwe5 ^! organs
 9 diff]5t animals1 z 8 dissections 7   
p]=m$ ^u bea/s rang+ 9 size f a m\se to 
an elephant4 ,! m9ut5ess ( 8 obs]vations

 is %[n by ! fact t he _h not$ &        
describ$ ! r+ ( bone f\nd 9 ! he>ts (   
c]ta9 animals1 su* z ! horse1 al?\gh n  
f\nd 9 ! human he>t or 9 mo/ animals4   
,8 description ( ! abdom9al organs 0 9  
g5]al accurate4 ,he _h not$ t ! abdom9al
 cavity 0 l9$ ) a peculi> saclike       
membrane1 ! p]itoneum1 :i* also surr\nd$
 mo/ ( ! organs conta9$ 9 ! cavity1 & he
 made special note t ?is membrane also  
envelop$ ! liv] 9 a peculi> mann]4 ,!   
exactness ( ! la/ obs]vation seems ! m  
wond]ful :5 we reflect t ev5 to-day !   
m$ical1 /ud5t f9ds a correct und]/&+ ( !
 position ( ! folds ( ! p]itoneum "o ( !
 mo/ difficult subjects 9 anatomy4  ,z a
 practical physician he 0 held 9 !      
highe/ e/eem by ! ,romans4 ,! ,emp]or   
,m>cus ,aurelius call$ him to ,rome &   
appo9t$ him physician-inord9>y to 8 son 
,commodus1 & on special occasions ,m>cus
 ,aurelius himself call$ 9 ,gal5 z 8    
m$ical advis]4 ,on "o occasion1 ! ?ree  
army surgeons 9 att5dance ^u ! emp]or   
decl>$ t he 0 ab\t to be attack$ by a   

fev]4 ,gal5 relates h[ on special comm& 
,i felt 8 pulse1 & f9d+ x q normal1     
consid]+ 8 age & ! "t ( day1 ,i decl>$ x
 0 no fev] b a dige/ive disord]1 due to 
! food he _h eat51 :i* mu/ be conv]t$   
into phlegm be=e be+ excret$4 ,!n !     
emp]or repeat$ ?ree times1 ',t's ! v    
?+1' & ask$ :at 0 to be done4 ,i answ]$ 
t ,i usually gave a glass ( w9e ) pepp] 
spr9kl$ on x1 b = y k+s we only use !   
safe/ rem$ies1 & x w suffice to apply   
wool soak$ 9 hot n>d o9tm5t locally4 ,! 
emp]or ord]$ ! wool1 w9e1 etc41 to be   
br\ght1 & ,i left ! room4 ,8 feet 7 w>m$
 by rubb+ ) hot h&s1 & aft] dr9k+ !     
pepp]$ w9e1 he said to ,pi?olaus 78     
son's tutor71 ',we h only "o doctor1 & t
 an hone/ "o1' & w5t on to describe me z
 ! fir/ ( physicians & ! only           
philosoph]1 = he _h tri$ _m be=e :o 7 n 
only lov]s ( money1 b also cont5ti\s1   
ambiti\s1 envi\s1 & malignant47#g7  ,x w
 be se5 f ?is t ,gal5 _h a full         
appreciation ( 8 own abilities z a      
physician1 b inasmu* z succe$+ g5]ations

 = a ?\s& ye>s concurr$ 9 ! alleg$      
/atem5t made by ,m>cus ,aurelius z to 8 
ability1 he is p]haps excusable = 8 op5 
av[al ( 8 belief 9 8 p[]s4 ,8 fai? 9 8  
accuracy 9 diagnosis & prognosis 0 %[n  
:5 a colleague once said to him1 ,i h   
us$ ! progno/ics ( ,hippocrates z well z
 y4 ,:y c ,i n progno/icate z well z y8 
,to ?is ,gal5 repli$1 ,by ,god's help ,i
 h nev] be5 deceiv$ 9 my prognosis47#h7 
,x is probable t ?is /atem5t 0 made 9 ! 
heat ( argum5t1 & x is h>dly to be      
suppos$ t he meant x lit]ally4  ,8      
sy/ems ( treatm5t 7 f> 9 advance ( 8    
!ories reg>d+ ! functions ( organs1     
causes ( disease1 etc41 & "s ( !m are   
/ill fir/ pr9ciples ) physicians4 ,l    
,hippocrates1 he laid great /ress on    
correct diet1 ex]cise1 & reliance ^u    
nature4 ,nature is ! ov]se] by :om heal?
 is suppli$ to ! sick1 he says4 ,nature 
l5ds h] aid on all sides1 %e decides &  
cures diseases4 ,no "o c be sav$ unless 
nature conqu]s ! disease1 & no "o dies  
unless nature succumbs4  ,f ! picture   

?us drawn ( ,gal5 z an anatomi/ &       
physician1 "o might inf] t he %\ld rank 
v high z a sci5tific expon5t ( m$ic9e1  
ev5 9 comp>ison ) mod]n physicians4 ,!re
 is1 h[ev]1 ano!r side to ! picture4 ,8 
k ( anatomy 0 c]ta9ly v consid]able1 b  
_m ( 8 d$uctions & !ories z to !        
functions ( organs1 ! cause ( diseases1 
& 8 me?ods ( treat+ !m1 w\ld be         
recogniz$ z absurd by a mod]n s*ool-boy 
( av]age intellig5ce4 ,8 greatness mu/  
be judg$ 9 comp>ison ) anci5t1 n )      
mod]n1 sci5ti/s4 ,he ma9ta9$1 = example1
 t respiration & ! pulse-beat 7 = "o & !
 same purpose--t ( ! reception ( air    
into ! art]ies ( ! body4 ,to him ! act (
 brea?+ 0 = ! purpose ( admitt+ air into
 ! lungs1 :5ce x f\nd its way into !    
he>t1 & f !re 0 di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! body
 by means ( ! art]ies4 ,! sk9 also play$
 an important "p 9 supply+ ! body ) air1
 ! pores absorb+ ! air & di/ribut+ x    
?r\gh ! art]ies4 ,b1 z we "k t he 0 aw>e
 ( ! fact t ! art]ies also conta9$      
blood1 he mu/ h believ$ t ^! vessels    

conta9$ a mixture ( ! two4  ,mod]n      
anatomi/s "k t ! he>t is divid$ into two
 approximately equal p>ts by an         
imp]meable septum ( t\gh fibres4 ,yet1  
,gal51 :o dissect$ ! he>ts ( a va/ numb]
 ( ! l[] animals accord+ to 8 own       
acc\nt1 ma9ta9$ t ?is septum 0 p]meable1
 & t ! air1 ent]+ "o side ( ! he>t f !  
lungs1 pass$ ?r\gh x into ! opposite    
side & 0 !n transf]r$ to ! art]ies4  ,he
 0 equally at fault1 al?\gh p]haps m    
excusably s1 9 8 explanation ( ! action 
( ! n]ves4 ,he _h rightly po9t$ out t   
n]ves 7 m]ely connections betwe5 ! bra9 
& sp9al-cord & di/ant muscles & organs1 
& _h recogniz$ t !re 7 two k9ds ( n]ves1
 b 8 explanation ( ! action ( ^! n]ves 0
 t n]v\s spirits 7 c>ri$ to ! cavities (
 ! bra9 by blood-vessels1 & f !re       
transmitt$ ?r\gh ! body along !         
n]ve-trunks4  ,9 ! human skull1 ov]ly+ !
 nasal cavity1 !re are two ?9 plates (  
bone p]=at$ ) num]\s small ap]tures4 ,^!
 ap]tures all[ ! passage ( num]\s       
n]ve-filam5ts :i* ext5d f a gr\p ( cells

 9 ! bra9 to ! delicate membranes 9 !   
nasal cavity4 ,^! p]=ations 9 ! bone1   
!re=e1 are simply to all[ ! passage ( ! 
n]ves4 ,b ,gal5 gave a v diff]5t        
explanation4 ,he believ$ t impure animal
 spirits 7 c>ri$ to ! cavities ( ! bra9 
by ! art]ies 9 ! neck & f !re 7 sift$   
out ?r\gh ^! p]=at$ bones1 & s expell$ f
 ! body4  ,he _h obs]v$ t ! sk9 play$ an
 important "p 9 cool+ ! body1 b he seems
 to h believ$ t ! he>t 0 equally active 
9 ov]heat+ x4 ,! sk91 !re=e1 absorb$ air
 = ! purpose ( cool+ ! he>t1 & ?is cool+
 process 0 aid$ by ! bra91 ^: secretions
 aid$ also 9 ! cool+ process4 ,! he>t   
itself 0 ! seat ( c\rage2 ! bra9 ! seat 
( ! rational s\l2 & ! liv] ! seat (     
love4  ,! greatness ( ,gal5's tea*+s lay
 9 8 k ( anatomy ( ! organs2 8 weakness 
0 9 8 int]pretations ( _! functions4    
,un=tunately1 succe$+ g5]ations (       
physicians = some?+ l a ?\s& ye>s       
reject$ ! =m] b clung to ! latt]1 s t ! 
advances he _h made 7 completely        
ov]%ad[$ by ! mi/akes ( 8 tea*+s4       

,,xi4 ,a ,,retrospective ,,glance ,,at  
,,classical ,,sci5ce  ,x is a favorite  
t5et ( ! mod]n hi/orian t hi/ory is a   
cont9u\s /ream4 ,! cont5tion has fulle/ 
w>rant4 ,%>p l9es ( dem>cation are an   
evid5ce ( man's analytical prop5sity r  
?an ! "w ( nature4 ,nev]!less x w\ld be 
absurd to d5y t ! /ream ( hi/ory pres5ts
 an ev]-v>y+ curr5t4 ,!re are times :5 x
 seems to ru% rapidly on2 times :5 x    
spreads out into a broad--seem+ly       
/atic--curr5t2 times :5 its cata/rophic 
*anges rem9d u ( no?+ b a gigantic      
cat>act4 ,rapids & :irlpools1 broad     
e/u>ies & tumultu\s cat>acts are inde$  
"p ( ! same /ream1 b !y are p>ts t v>y  
"o f ano!r 9 _! sali5t features 9 su* a 
way z to =ce ! m9d to classify !m z ?+s 
ap>t & give !m individual names4  ,s x  
is ) ! /ream ( hi/ory2 h[ev] /rongly we 
insi/ on its cont9uity we are none !    
less =c$ to recognize its p]iodicity4 ,x
 may n be desirable to fix on specific  
dates z turn+-po9ts to ! ext5t t our    
pr$ecessors 7 wont to d4 ,we may n1 =   

example1 be dispos$ to admit t ! ,roman 
,empire came to any su* cataclysmic f9i%
 z ! ye> #dgf ,a4,d41 :5 cit$ 9         
connection ) ! ov]?r[ ( ! la/ ,roman    
,empire ( ! ,we/1 might seem to         
indicate4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 no /ud5t ( ! 
p]iod c fail to realize t a great *ange 
came ov] ! aspect ( ! hi/orical /ream   
t[>ds ! close ( ! ,roman epo*4  ,! span 
f ,?ales to ,gal5 has compass$ ab\t     
eight hundr$ ye>s--let u say ?irty      
g5]ations4 ,?r\gh\t ?is p]iod !re is    
sc>cely a g5]ation t has n produc$ great
 sci5tific ?9k]s--m5 :o h put _! m>k ^u 
! progress ( civilization2 b we %all    
see1 z we look =w>d = a correspond+     
p]iod1 t ! ensu+ ?irty g5]ations produc$
 sc>cely a s+le sci5tific ?9k] ( ! fir/ 
rank4 ,eight hundr$ ye>s ( intellectual 
activity--?irty g5]ations ( greatness2  
!n eight hundr$ ye>s ( /asis--?irty     
g5]ations ( m$iocrity2 su* seems to be !
 record z view$ 9 p]spective4 ,d\btless 
x seem$ f> diff]5t to ! contempor>y     
obs]v]2 x is only 9 reasonable          

p]spective t any sc5e c be view$ fairly4
 ,b = u1 look+ back )\t prejudice across
 ! /age ( ye>s1 x seems indisputable t a
 great epo* came to a close at ab\t ! "t
 :5 ! b>b>ian nations ( ,europe began to
 sweep d[n into ,greece & ,italy4 ,we   
are =c$ to feel t we h rea*$ ! limits ( 
progress ( :at hi/orians are pleas$ to  
call ! anci5t _w4 ,= ab\t eight hundr$  
ye>s ,greek ?\ght has be5 dom9ant1 b 9 !
 ensu+ p]iod x is to play a q subord9ate
 "p1 except 9 s f> z x influ5ces ! ?\ght
 ( an ali5 race4 ,z we leave ?is        
classical epo*1 !n1 we may well         
recapitulate 9 brief its triumphs4 ,a   
few words w suffice to summ>ize a /ory !
 details ( :i* h made up our rec5t      
*apt]s4  ,9 ! field ( cosmology1 ,greek 
g5ius has demon/rat$ t ! e>? is         
sph]oidal1 t ! moon is e>?like 9        
/ructure & mu* small] ?an our globe1 & t
 ! sun is va/ly l>g] & _m times m di/ant
 ?an ! moon4 ,! actual size ( ! e>? & ! 
angle ( its axis ) ! ecliptic h be5     
measur$ ) approximate accuracy4 ,x has  

be5 %[n t ! sun & moon pres5t           
inequalities ( motion :i* may be        
!oretically expla9$ by suppos+ t ! e>?  
is n situat$ precisely at ! c5tre ( _!  
orbits4 ,a sy/em ( ecc5trics & epicycles
 has be5 elaborat$ :i* s]ves to expla9 !
 app>5t motions ( ! heav5ly bodies 9 a  
mann] t may be call$ sci5tific ev5 ?\gh 
x is bas$1 z we n[ "k1 ^u a false       
hypo!sis4 ,! true hypo!sis1 :i* places !
 sun at ! c5tre ( ! planet>y sy/em &    
po/ulates ! orbital & axial motions (   
our e>? 9 explanation ( ! motions ( !   
heav5ly bodies1 has be5 put =w>d &      
ard5tly *ampion$1 b1 un=tunately1 is n  
accept$ by ! dom9ant ?9k]s at ! close ( 
our epo*4 ,9 ?is reg>d1 !re=e1 a va/    
revolution>y "w rema9s = ! ?9k]s ( a    
lat] p]iod4 ,moreov]1 su* obs]vations z 
! precession ( ! equ9oxes & ! moon's    
evection are z yet unexpla9$1 &         
measurem5ts ( ! e>?'s size1 & ( ! sun's 
size & di/ance1 are s crude & imp]fect z
 to be 9 "o case only an approximation1 
& 9 ! o!r an absurdly inadequate        

sugge/ion4 ,b ) all ^! defects1 ! total 
a*ievem5t ( ! ,greek a/ronom]s is       
/up5d\s4 ,to h cle>ly grasp$ ! idea t ! 
e>? is r\nd is 9 itself an a*ievem5t t  
m>ks (f ! classical f ! ,ori5tal p]iod z
 by a great gulf4  ,9 ! physical sci5ces
 we h se5 at lea/ ! beg9n+s ( great ?+s4
 ,dynamics & hydro/atics may n[1 = !    
fir/ "t1 claim a place among ! sci5ces4 
,geometry has be5 p]fect$ & trigonometry
 has made a sure beg9n+4 ,! conception t
 !re are f\r elem5t>y sub/ances1 e>?1   
wat]1 air1 & fire1 may n appe> a secure 
f\ndation = *emi/ry1 yet x m>ks at lea/ 
an attempt 9 ! "r direction4 ,simil>ly1 
! conception t all matt] is made up (   
indivisible p>ticles & t ^! h adju/$    
!mselves & are p]haps held 9 place by a 
:irl+ motion1 :ile x is sc>cely m ?an a 
sci5tific dream1 is1 aft] all1 a dream (
 m>vell\s insight4  ,9 ! field (        
biological sci5ce progress has n be5 s  
m>k$1 yet ! elaborate g>n]+ ( facts     
reg>d+ anatomy1 physiology1 & !         
zoological sci5ces is at lea/ a valuable

 prep>ation = ! g5]alizations ( a lat]  
"t4  ,if ) a map be=e u we glance at !  
portion ( ! globe :i* 0 kn[n to ! work]s
 ( ! p]iod n[ 9 "q1 be>+ 9 m9d at ! same
 "t :at we h le>n$ z to ! seat ( labors 
( ! v>i\s great sci5tific ?9k]s f ,?ales
 to ,gal51 we _c fail to be /ruck ) a r 
/>tl+ fact1 intimations ( :i* h be5 giv5
 f "t to "t--! fact1 namely1 t mo/ ( !  
great ,greek ?9k]s did n live 9 ,greece 
itself4 ,z our eye falls ^u ,asia ,m9or 
& its outly+ isl&s1 we reflect t "h 7   
born su* m5 z ,?ales1 ,anaxim&]1        
,anaxim5es1 ,h]aclitus1 ,py?agoras1     
,anaxagoras1 ,socrates1 ,ari/>*us1      
,hipp>*us1 ,eudoxus1 ,philolaus1 &      
,gal54 ,f ! nor!rn %ores ( ! aegean came
 ,lucippus1 ,democritus1 & ,ari/otle4   
,italy1 (f to ! we/1 is ! home (        
,py?agoras & ,x5ophanes 9 _! lat] ye>s1 
& ( ,p>m5ides & ,emp$ocles1 ,z5o1 &     
,ar*im$es4 ,nor!rn ,africa c claim1 by  
bir? or by adoption1 su* names z        
,euclid1 ,apollonius ( ,p]ga1           
,h]ophilus1 ,erasi/ratus1 ,ari/ippus1   

,erato/h5es1 ,ctesibius1 ,h]o1 ,/rabo1 &
 ,ptolemy4 ,?is is b runn+ ov] ! li/ (  
great m5 ^: discov]ies h claim$ our     
att5tion4 ,7 we to ext5d ! li/ to       
include a ho/ ( work]s ( ! second rank1 
we %\ld b emphasize ! same fact4  ,all  
along we are speak+ ( ,greeks1 or1 z !y 
call !mselves1 ,hell5es1 & we mean by ^!
 words ! p ^: home 0 a small jagg$      
p59sula jutt+ into ! ,m$it]ranean at !  
s\!a/]n extremity ( ,europe4 ,we ?9k (  
?is p59sula z ! home ( ,greek culture1  
yet ( all ! great ?9k]s we h j nam$1 n  
"o 0 born on ?is p59sula1 & p]haps n "o 
9 five ev] set foot ^u x4 ,9 po9t (     
fact1 "o ,greek ?9k] ( ! v fir/ rank1 & 
"o only1 0 born 9 ,greece prop]2 t "o1  
h[ev]1 0 ,plato1 p]haps ! greate/ ( !m  
all4 ,) ?is "o brilliant exception 7&   
ev5 he 0 born ( p>5ts :o came f !       
prov9ces71 all ! great ?9k]s ( ,greece  
_h _! orig9 at ! circumf]5ce r ?an !    
c5tre ( ! empire4 ,& if we reflect t ?is
 circumf]5ce ( ! ,greek _w 0 9 ! nature 
( ! case ! widely circl+ region 9 :i* ! 

,greek came 9 contact ) o!r nations1 we 
%all see at once t !re c\ld be no m     
/rik+ illu/ration 9 all hi/ory ?an t    
furni%$ u "h ( ! value ( racial m+l+ z a
 /imulus to intellectual progress4  ,b  
!re is "o o!r feature ( ! matt] t mu/ n 
be ov]look$4 ,racial m+l+ gives         
vitality1 b to produce ! be/ effect !   
m+l+ mu/ be t ( races all ( :i* are at a
 relatively high plane ( civilization4  
,9 ,asia ,m9or ! ,greek m+l$ ) !        
,semite1 :o _h ! h]itage ( c5turies (   
culture2 & 9 ,italy ) ! ,umbrians1      
,oscans1 & ,etruscans1 :o1 little z we  
"k ( _! antec$5ts1 h left u monum5ts to 
te/ify to _! high developm5t4 ,! *ief   
reason :y ! racial m+l+ ( a lat] day did
 n avail at once to give new life to    
,roman ?\ght 0 t ! races :i* swept d[n f
 ! nor? 7 b>b>ians4 ,x 0 no m possible t
 !y %\ld spr+ to ! heights ( classical  
culture ?an x w\ld1 = example1 be       
possible 9 two or ?ree g5]ations to     
produce a rac] f a /ock ( draught       
horses4 ,evolution does n proce$ by su* 

vaults z ?is w\ld imply4 ,celt1 ,go?1   
,hun1 & ,slav mu/ und]go progressive    
developm5t = _m g5]ations be=e !        
population ( nor!rn ,europe c cat* /ep )
 ! classical ,greek & prep>e to m>*     
=w>d4 ,t1 p]haps1 is "o reason :y we    
come to a p]iod ( /asis or retrogression
 :5 ! "t ( classical activity is ov]4   
,b1 at be/1 x is only "o reason (       
sev]al4  ,! influ5ce ( ! b>b>ian nations
 w claim fur!r att5tion z we proce$4 ,b 
n[1 = ! mom5t1 we mu/ turn our eyes 9 ! 
o!r direction & give att5tion to c]ta9  
phases ( ,greek & ( ,ori5tal ?\ght :i* 7
 de/9$ to play a mo/ important "p 9 !   
developm5t ( ! ,we/]n m9d--a m important
 "p1 inde$1 9 ! e>ly m$iaeval p]iod ?an 
t play$ by ^? important inductions (    
sci5ce :i* h *iefly claim$ our att5tion 
9 rec5t *apt]s4 ,! subject 9 "q is ! old
 famili> "o ( false inductions or       
pseudosci5ce4 ,9 deal+ ) ! e>ly         
developm5t ( ?\ght & ) ,ori5tal sci5ce1 
we _h occasion to emphasize ! fact t su*
 false inductions l$ ev]y:]e to !       

preval5ce ( sup]/ition4 ,9 deal+ )      
,greek sci5ce1 we h l>gely ignor$ ?is   
subject1 conf9+ att5tion *iefly to !    
progressive phases ( ?\ght2 b x mu/ n be
 inf]r$ f ?is t ,greek sci5ce1 ) all its
 secure inductions1 0 entirely free f   
sup]/ition4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! mo/ casual 
acqua9tance ) ,greek lit]ature w\ld     
suffice to %[ ! incorrectness ( su* a   
supposition4 ,true1 ! great ?9k]s (     
,greece 7 probably fre] f ?is ?raldom ( 
false inductions ?an any ( _!           
pr$ecessors4 ,ev5 at a v e>ly day su* m5
 z ,x5ophanes1 ,emp$ocles1 ,anaxagoras1 
& ,plato atta9$ to a s+ul>ly            
rationali/ic conception ( ! univ]se4    
,we saw t ! fa!r ( m$ic9e1 ,hippocrates1
 bani%$ demonology & conceiv$ disease z 
due to natural causes4 ,at a slightly   
lat] day ! sophi/s *all5g$ all k1 &     
,pyrrhonism became a synonym =          
scepticism 9 recognition ( ! lead]%ip ( 
a ma/] d\bt]4 ,! entire s*ool (         
,alex&rians mu/ h be5 relatively free f 
sup]/ition1 else !y c\ld n h reason$ )  

su* effective logicality f _!           
obs]vations ( nature4 ,x is almo/       
inconceivable t m5 l ,euclid &          
,ar*im$es1 & ,ari/>*us & ,erato/h5es1 & 
,hipp>*us & ,h]o1 c\ld h be5 ! victims (
 su* illusions reg>d+ occult =ces (     
nature z 7 con/antly po/ulat$ by        
,ori5tal sci5ce4 ,h]ophilus &           
,erasi/ratus & ,gal5 w\ld h>dly h pursu$
 _! anatomical /udies ) equanimity _h !y
 believ$ t gho/ly app>itions wat*$ ov]  
liv+ & dead alike1 & ex]cis$ at w a     
malign influ5ce4  ,d\btless ! ,egyptian 
( ! p]iod consid]$ ! "w1 ( ! ,ptolemaic 
anatomi/s an unspeakable pr(anation1 &1 
inde$1 x 0 no?+ less ?an revolution>y--s
 revolution>y t x c\ld n be su/a9$ 9    
subsequ5t g5]ations4 ,we h se5 t ! great
 ,gal51 at ,rome1 five c5turies aft] !  
"t ( ,h]ophilus1 0 prohibit$ f dissect+ 
! human subject4 ,! fact speaks volumes 
= ! attitude ( ! ,roman m9d t[>ds       
sci5ce4 ,va/ audi5ces made up ( e /ratum
 ( society ?rong$ ! amphi!atre1 & wat*$ 
exult+ly :ile man slew 8 fell[-man 9    

s+le or 9 multiple combat4 ,%\ts (      
fr5zi$ joy bur/ f a hundr$ ?\s& ?roats  
:5 ! dea?-/roke 0 giv5 to a new victim4 
,! bodies ( ! sla91 by scores1 ev5 by   
hundr$s1 7 dragg$ ru?lessly f ! ar5a &  
hurl$ into a dit* z contemptu\sly z if  
pity 7 yet unborn & human life ! m]e/   
bauble4 ,yet ! same eyes t witness$ ^!  
sc5es ) ec/atic approval w\ld h be5     
av]t$ 9 pi\s horror _h an anatomi/ d>$  
to approa* "o ( ! mutilat$ bodies ) !   
scalpel ( sci5ce4 ,x 0 sport to see !   
blade ( ! gladiator ent] ! quiv]+1 liv+ 
fle% ( 8 fell[-gladiator2 x 0 joy to see
 ! w>m blood spurt =? f ! wri?+ victim  
:ile he /ill liv$2 b x 7 sacrilegi\s to 
approa* t body ) ! knife ( ! anatomi/1  
once x _h ceas$ to pulsate ) life4 ,life
 itself 0 held utt]ly 9 contempt1 b ab\t
 ! realm ( dea? hov]$ ! ?reat5+ gho/s ( 
sup]/ition4 ,& su*1 be x und]/ood1 0 !  
attitude ( ! ,roman populace 9 ! e>ly & 
! mo/ brilliant epo* ( ! empire1 be=e ! 
,we/]n _w came "u ! influ5ce ( t        
,ori5tal philosophy :i* 0 pres5tly to   

encompass x4  ,9 ?is reg>d ! ,alex&rian 
_w 01 z j intimat$1 f> m advanc$ ?an !  
,roman1 yet ev5 !re we mu/ suppose t !  
lead]s ( ?\ght 7 widely at v>iance ) !  
popul> conceptions4 ,a few illu/rations1
 drawn f ,greek lit]ature at v>i\s ages1
 w sugge/ ! popul> attitude4 ,9 ! fir/  
in/ance1 consid] ! poems ( ,hom] & (    
,hesiod4 ,= ^! writ]s1 & d\btless = !   
va/ majority ( _! read]s1 n m]ely ( _!  
own b ( _m subsequ5t g5]ations1 ! _w is 
peopl$ ) a multitude ( invisible        
app>itions1 :i*1 "u title ( gods1 are   
held to dom9ate ! affairs ( man4 ,x is  
sometimes difficult to discrim9ate z to 
:]e ! ,greek imag9ation drew ! l9e      
betwe5 fact & allegory2 nor ne$ we      
attempt to analyse ! e>ly poetic        
n>ratives to ?is end4 ,x w bett] s]ve   
our pres5t purpose to cite ?ree or f\r  
in/ances :i* illu/rate ! tangibility (  
beliefs bas$ ^u pseudo-sci5tific        
inductions4  ,let u cite1 = example1 !  
acc\nt :i* ,h]odotus gives u ( ! actions
 ( ! ,greeks at ,plataea1 :5 _! army    

confront$ ! remnant ( ! army ( ,x]xes1 9
 ! ye> #dgi ,b4,c4 ,"h we see ea* side  
hesitat+ to attack ! o!r1 m]ely because 
! oracle _h decl>$ t :i*ev] side /ruck !
 fir/ bl[ w\ld lose ! conflict4 ,ev5    
aft] ! ,p]sian soldi]s1 :o seem+ly 7 a  
jot less sup]/iti\s or a %ade m impati5t
 ?an _! oppon5ts1 _h begun ! attack1 we 
are told t ! ,greeks d>$ n respond at   
fir/1 ?\gh !y 7 fall+ be=e ! javel9s ( !
 enemy1 because1 =soo?1 ! entrails ( a  
f[l did n pres5t an auspici\s appe>ance4
 ,& ^! 7 ,greeks ( ! same g5]ation )    
,emp$ocles & ,anaxagoras & aes*ylus2 ( !
 same epo* ) ,p]icles & ,sophocles &    
,euripides & ,phidias4 ,su* 0 !         
sci5tific /atus ( ! av]age m9d--nay1 ( !
 be/ m9ds--) "h & !re a r>e exception1 9
 ! gold5 age ( ,grecian culture4  ,7 we 
to foll[ d[n ! pages ( ,greek hi/ory1 we
 %\ld b repeat ! same /ory ov] & ov]4   
,we %\ld1 = example1 see ,alex&] !      
,great balk$ at ! banks ( ! ,hyphasis1 &
 =c$ to turn back because ( inauspici\s 
auguries bas$ z be=e ^u ! dissection ( a

 f[l4 ,alex&] himself1 to be sure1 w\ld 
h scorn$ ! augury2 _h he be5 ! prey (   
su* petty sup]/itions he w\ld nev] h    
conqu]$ ,asia4 ,we "k h[ he compell$ !  
oracle at ,delphi to yield to 8 wi%es2  
h[ he cut ! ,gordian knot2 h[ he made 8 
dom9at+ p]sonality felt at ! temple (   
,ammon 9 ,egypt4 ,we "k1 9 a ^w1 t he   
yield$ to sup]/itions only 9 s f> z !y  
s]v$ 8 purpose4 ,left to 8 own devices1 
he w\ld n h consult$ an oracle at !     
banks ( ! ,hyphasis2 or1 consult+1 w\ld 
h =c$ f ! oracle a favorable answ]4 ,b 8
 subord9ates 7 mut9\s & he _h no *oice4 
,suffice x = our pres5t purpose t !     
oracle 0 consult$1 & t its answ] turn$ !
 conqu]or back4  ,"o or two in/ances f  
,roman hi/ory may complete ! picture4   
,pass+ ov] all ^? my?ical n>ratives :i* 
virtually con/itute ! e>ly hi/ory (     
,rome1 z pres]v$ to u by su* hi/orians z
 ,livy & ,dionysius1 we f9d s logical an
 hi/orian z ,tacitus record+ a miracul\s
 a*ievem5t ( ,vespasian )\t adv]se      
comm5t4 ,dur+ ! mon?s :5 ,vespasian 0   

wait+ at ,alex&ria = ! p]iodical season 
( ! summ] w9ds1 & a safe navigation1 _m 
miracles occurr$ by :i* ! favor ( ,heav5
 & a sort ( bias 9 ! p[]s above t[>ds   
,vespasian 7 manife/$4 ,tacitus !n      
describes 9 detail ! cure ( v>i\s       
maladies by ! emp]or1 & relates t !     
emp]or on visit+ a temple 0 met !re1 9 !
 _s1 by a prom95t ,egyptian :o 0 prov$  
to be at ! same "t "s eighty miles      
di/ant f ,alex&ria4  ,x mu/ be admitt$ t
 ,tacitus1 9 relat+ t ,vespasian caus$ !
 bl9d to see & ! lame to walk1 qualifies
 8 n>rative by ass]t+ t p]sons :o are   
pres5t atte/ ! tru? ( ! transaction :5  
!re is no?+ to be ga9$ by falsehood4    
,nor mu/ we ov]look ! fact t a simil>   
belief 9 ! p[] ( royalty has p]si/$     
almo/ to our own day4 ,b no su* savor ( 
scepticism atta*es to a n>rative :i*    
,dion ,cassius gives u ( an incid5t 9 ! 
life ( ,m>cus ,aurelius--an incid5t t   
has become fam\s z ! episode ( ,!       
,?und]+ ,legion4 ,xiphil9us has pres]v$ 
! acc\nt ( ,dion1 add+ c]ta9 picturesque

 int]pretations ( 8 own4 ,! orig9al     
n>rative1 z cit$1 ass]ts t dur+ "o ( !  
nor!rn campaigns ( ,m>cus ,aurelius1 !  
emp]or & 8 army 7 surr\nd$ by ! ho/ile  
,quadi1 :o _h e advantage ( position &  
:o pres5tly ceas$ ho/ilities 9 ! hope t 
heat & ?ir/ w\ld deliv] _! adv]s>ies    
into _! h&s )\t ! tr\ble ( fur!r fight+4
 ,n[1 says ,dion1 :ile ! ,romans1 unable
 ei!r to combat or to retreat1 & r$uc$  
to ! la/ extremity by w\nds1 fatigue1   
heat1 & ?ir/1 7 /&+ helplessly at _!    
po/s1 cl\ds sudd5ly ga!r$ 9 great numb] 
& ra9 desc5d$ 9 floods--c]ta9ly n )\t   
div9e int]v5tion1 s9ce ! ,egyptian      
,maege ,arnulphis1 :o 0 ) ,m>cus        
,anton9us1 is said to h invok$ sev]al   
g5ii by ! a]ial m]cury by en*antm5t1 &  
?us ?r\gh !m _h br\ght d[n ra94  ,"h1 x 
w be obs]v$1 a sup]natural explanation  
is giv5 ( a natural ph5om5on4 ,b !      
n>rator does n /op ) ?is4 ,if we are to 
accept ! acc\nt ( ,xiphil9us1 ,dion br+s
 =w>d "s /rik+ pro(s ( div9e int]f]5ce4 
,xiphil9us gives ^! pro(s 9 ! foll[+    

rem>kable p>agraph3  ,dion adds t :5 !  
ra9 began to fall e soldi] lift$ 8 head 
t[>ds heav5 to receive ! wat] 9 8 m\?2 b
 aft]w>ds o!rs hold out _! %ields or _! 
helmets to cat* ! wat] = !mselves & = _!
 horses4 ,be+ set ^u by ! b>b>ians444   
:ile occupi$ 9 dr9k+1 !y w\ld h be5     
s]i\sly incommod$ _h n heavy hail &     
num]\s ?und]bolts ?r[n con/]nation into 
! ranks ( ! enemy4 ,fire & wat] 7 se5 to
 m+le z !y left ! heav5s4 ,! fire1      
h[ev]1 did n rea* ! ,romans1 b if x did 
by *ance t\* "o ( !m x 0 imm$iately     
ext+ui%$1 :ile at ! same "t ! ra91      
in/ead ( com=t+ ! b>b>ians1 seem$ m]ely 
to excite l oil ! fire ) :i* !y 7 be+   
consum$4 ,"s b>b>ians inflict$ w\nds ^u 
!mselves z ?\gh _! blood _h p[] to      
ext+ui% flames1 :ile _m ru%$ ov] to !   
side ( ! ,romans1 hop+ t !re wat] might 
save !m4  ,we _c bett] complete ^!      
illu/rations ( pagan cr$ulity ?an by    
add+ ! comm5t ( ,xiphil9us himself4 ,t  
writ] 0 a ,*ri/ian1 liv+ "s g5]ations   
lat] ?an ,dion4 ,he nev] ?\ght (        

que/ion+ ! facts1 b he felt t ,dion's   
int]pretation ( ^! facts mu/ n g        
un*all5g$4 ,z he int]prets ! matt]1 x 0 
no pagan magician t wr\ght ! miracle4   
,he ev5 incl9es to ! belief t ,dion     
himself 0 aw>e t ,*ri/ian int]f]5ce1 & n
 t ( an ,egyptian1 sav$ ! day4 ,dion    
knew1 he decl>es1 t !re exi/$ a legion  
call$ ,! ,?und]+ ,legion1 :i* "n 0 giv5 
x = no o!r reason ?an = :at came to pass
 9 ?is w>1 & t ?is legion 0 compos$ (   
soldi]s f ,milit5e :o 7 all pr(ess$     
,*ri/ians4 ,dur+ ! battle1 cont9ues     
,xiphil9us1 ! *ief ( ! ,pretonians1 _h  
set at ,m>cus ,anton9us1 :o 0 9 great   
p]plexity at ! turn ev5ts 7 tak+1       
repres5t+ to him t !re 0 no?+ ! p call$ 
,*ri/ians c\ld n obta9 by _! pray]s1 & t
 among 8 =ces 0 a troop compos$ :olly ( 
foll[]s ( t religion4 ,rejoic$ at ?is   
news1 ,m>cus ,anton9us dem&$ ( ^!       
soldi]s t !y %\ld pray to _! god1 :o    
grant$ _! petition on ! in/ant1 s5t     
lightn+ among ! enemy & consol$ !       
,romans ) ra94 ,/ruck by ?is wond]ful   

success1 ! emp]or honor$ ! ,*ri/ians 9  
an edict & nam$ _! legion ,! ,?und]+4 ,x
 is ev5 ass]t$ t a lett] exi/$ by ,m>cus
 ,anton9us on ?is subject4 ,! pagans    
well knew t ! company 0 call$ ,!        
,?und]]s1 hav+ atte/$ ! fact !mselves1 b
 !y reveal$ no?+ ( ! occasion on :i* !  
lead] receiv$ ! "n47#a7  ,peculi> int]e/
 atta*es to ?is n>rative z illu/rat+ bo?
 cr$ul\sness z to matt]s ( fact &       
pseudo-sci5tific explanation ( alleg$   
facts4 ,! mod]n int]pret] may suppose t 
a viol5t ?und]/orm came up dur+ ! c\rse 
( a battle betwe5 ! ,romans & ! s-call$ 
b>b>ians1 & t ow+ to ! local "* ( !     
/orm1 or a *ance dis*>ge ( lightn+1 !   
b>b>ians suff]$ m ?an _! oppon5ts4 ,we  
may well "q :e!r ! philosophical emp]or 
himself put any o!r int]pretation ?an   
?is ^u ! incid5t4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 we   
ne$ n d\bt t ! major "p ( 8 soldi]s w\ld
 v readily accept su* an explanation z t
 giv5 by ,dion ,cassius1 j z mo/ read]s 
( a few c5turies lat] w\ld accept !     
explanation ( ,xiphil9us4 ,x is well to 

be> ?is ?\ght 9 m9d 9 consid]+ ! /atic  
p]iod ( sci5ce ^u :i* we are ent]+4 ,we 
%all p]haps be/ und]/& ?is p]iod1 & its 
seem+ retrogressions1 if we suppose t ! 
av]age man ( ! ,middle ,ages 0 no m     
cr$ul\s1 no m sup]/iti\s1 ?an ! av]age  
,roman ( an e>li] p]iod or ?an ! av]age 
,greek2 ?\gh ! precise complexion ( 8   
cr$ulity _h *ang$ "u ! influ5ce (       
,ori5tal ideas1 z we h j se5 illu/rat$  
by ! n>rative ( ,xiphil9us4             
,,app5dix  ,,ref]5ce ,,li/1 ,,notes1 ,,&
 ,,bibliographies    ,,*apt] ,i4        
,,prehi/oric ,,sci5ce  ,l5g? ( !        
,prehi/oric ,p]iod4--,x is ( c\rse q    
impossible to r$uce ! prehi/oric p]iod  
to any def9ite numb] ( ye>s4 ,!re are1  
h[ev]1 num]\s bits ( evid5ce t enable an
 an?ropologi/ to make r\gh e/imates z to
 ! relative l5g?s ( ! diff]5t p]iods    
into :i* prehi/oric "t is divid$4       
,gabriel de ,mortillet1 "o ( ! mo/      
indu/ri\s /ud5ts ( prehi/oric           
ar*aeology1 v5tur$ to give a t5tative   
e/imate z to ! numb]s ( ye>s involv$ 9  

ea* p]iod4 ,he ( c\rse claim$ = ?is no?+
 m ?an ! value ( a sci5tific guess4 ,x  
is1 h[ev]1 a guess bas$ on a v c>eful   
/udy ( all data at pres5t available4    
,mortillet divides ! prehi/oric p]iod1 z
 a :ole1 into f\r epo*s4 ,! fir/ ( ^! is
 ! preglacial1 :i* he e/imates z        
compris+ sev5ty-eight ?\s& ye>s2 !      
second is ! glacial1 cov]+ "o hundr$    
?\s& ye>s2 !n foll[s :at he t]ms !      
,solutre51 :i* numb]s elev5 ?\s& ye>s2  
&1 f9ally1 ! ,magdal5i51 compris+       
?irty-?ree ?\s& ye>s4 ,?is gives1 = !   
prehi/oric p]iod prop]1 a t]m ( ab\t two
 hundr$ & tw5ty-two ?\s& ye>s4 ,add to  
?is p]haps twelve ?\s& ye>s u%]+ 9 !    
civilization ( ,egypt1 & ! six ?\s& ye>s
 ( /able1 sure *ronology ( ! hi/orical  
p]iod1 & we h some?+ l two hundr$ &     
?irty ?\s& or two hundr$ & =ty ?\s& ye>s
 z ! age ( man4  ,^! figures1 says      
,mortillet1 are c]ta9ly n exagg]at$4 ,x 
is ev5 probable t !y are bel[ ! tru?4   
,con/antly new discov]ies are be+ made t
 t5d to remove f>!r back ! date ( man's 

appe>ance4 ,we see1 !n1 accord+ to ?is  
e/imate1 t ab\t a qu>t] ( a million ye>s
 h elaps$ s9ce man evolv$ to a /ate t   
c\ld prop]ly be call$ human4 ,?is guess 
is z good z ano!r1 & x may advantage\sly
 be kept 9 m9d1 z x w enable u all along
 to und]/& bett] ?an we might o!rwise be
 able to d ! trem5d\s =ce ( c]ta9       
prejudices & preconceptions :i* rec5t   
man inh]it$ f 8 prehi/oric ance/or4     
,ideas :i* _h pass$ curr5t z unque/ion$ 
tru?s = "o hundr$ ?\s& ye>s or s are n  
easily ca/ aside4  ,9 go+ back1 9       
imag9ation1 to ! beg9n+ ( ! prehi/oric  
p]iod1 we mu/ ( c\rse reflect1 9        
accordance ) mod]n ideas on ! subject1 t
 !re 0 no ye>1 no mill5nium ev51 :5 x   
c\ld be said expressly3 ,?is be+ 0      
hi!rto a primate1 he is n[ a man4 ,!    
transition p]iod mu/ h be5 enorm\sly    
long1 & ! *anges f g5]ation to g5]ation1
 ev5 f c5tury to c5tury1 mu/ h be5 v    
slight4 ,9 speak+ ( ! ext5t ( ! age (   
man ?is mu/ be borne 9 m9d3 x mu/ be    
recall$ t1 ev5 if ! p]iod 7 n vague =   

o!r reasons1 ! vagu5ess ( its beg9n+ mu/
 make x indet]m9ate4  ,bibliographical  
,notes4--,a great mass ( lit]ature has  
be5 produc$ 9 rec5t ye>s deal+ ) v>i\s  
phases ( ! hi/ory ( prehi/oric man4 ,no 
s+le "w kn[n to ! writ] deals           
compreh5sively ) ! sci5tific atta9m5ts (
 e>ly man2 inde$1 ! subject is usually  
ignor$1 except :]e practical phases ( ! 
me*anical arts are 9 "q4 ,b ( c\rse any 
attempt to consid] ! condition (        
primitive man talies into acc\nt1 by    
inf]5ce at lea/1 8 k & atta9m5ts4       
,!re=e1 mo/ works on an?ropology1       
e?nology1 & primitive culture may be    
expect$ to ?r[ "s light on our pres5t   
subject4 ,works deal+ ) ! social & m5tal
 conditions ( exi/+ savages are also (  
importance1 s9ce x is n[ an accept$     
belief t ! ance/ors ( civiliz$ races    
evolv$ along simil> l9es & pass$ ?r\gh  
correspond+ /ages ( nasc5t culture4     
,h]b]t ,sp5c]'s ,descriptive ,sociology 
pres5ts an unequall$ mass ( facts reg>d+
 exi/+ primitive races1 b1 un=tunately1 

its in>ti/ic me?od ( arrangem5t makes x 
repell5t to ! g5]al read]4 ,e4 ,b4      
,tyl]'s ,primitive ,culture &           
,an?ropology2 ,"l ,avebury's ,prehi/oric
 ,times1 ,! ,orig9 ( ,civilization1 & ,!
 ,primitive ,condition ( ,man2 ,w4 ,boyd
 ,dawk9's ,cave-,hunt+ & ,e>ly ,man 9   
,brita92 & ,edw>d ,clodd's ,*ildhood ( !
 ,_w & ,/ory ( ,primitive ,man are      
des]v$ly popul>4 ,paul ,top9>d's        
,elem5ts d',an?ropologie ,g5]ale is "o (
 ! be/-kn[n & mo/ compreh5sive ,fr5*    
works on ! te*nical phases (            
an?ropology2 b ,mortillet's ,le         
,prehi/orique has a m popul> int]e/1 ow+
 to its *apt]s on primitive indu/ries1  
?\gh ?is "w also conta9s mu* t is r     
te*nical4 ,among p]iodicals1 ! ,revue de
 l',ecole d',an?ropologie de ,p>is1     
publi%$ by ! pr(essors1 treats ( all    
phases ( an?ropology1 & ! ,am]ican      
,an?ropologi/1 edit$ by ,f4 ,w4 ,hodge =
 ! ,am]ican ,an?ropological             
,association1 & int5d$ z a m$ium (      
communication betwe5 /ud5ts ( all       

bran*es ( an?ropology1 conta9s mu* t is 
( int]e/ f ! pres5t /&-po9t4 ,! la/-nam$
 j\rnal devotes a good deal ( space to  
,indian languages4   ,,*apt] ,,ii4      
,,egyptian ,,sci5ce  #a 7p4 #cd74 ,sir  
,j4 ,norman ,locky]1 ,! ,dawn (         
,a/ronomy2 a /udy ( ! temple wor%ip &   
my?ology ( ! anci5t ,egyptians1 ,london1
 #ahid4  #b 7p4 #dc74 ,g4 ,masp]o1      
,hi/oire ,ancie-nne des ,peuples de     
l',ori5t ,classique1 ,p>is1 #ahie4      
,translat$ z 7#a7 ,! ,dawn (            
,civilization1 7#b7 ,! ,/ruggle ( !     
,nations1 7#c7 ,! ,pass+ ( ! ,empires1  
#c vols41 ,london & ,new ,york1         
#ahid-aijj4 ,pr(essor ,masp]o is "o ( ! 
mo/ fam\s ( liv+ ,ori5tali/s4 ,8 mo/    
important special /udies h to d )       
,egyptology1 b 8 writ+s cov] ! entire   
field ( ,ori5tal antiquity4 ,he is a    
notable /yli/1 & 8 works are at once    
readable & au?oritative4  #c 7p4 #dd74  
,adolf ,erman1 ,life 9 ,anci5t ,egypt1  
,london1 #ahid1 p4 #ceb4 7,translat$ f !
 orig9al ,g]man "w entitl$ ,aegypt5 und 

aegyptis*es ,leb5 9 ,alt]?um1 ,tilbig51 
#ahhg47 ,an altoge!r admirable "w1 full 
( int]e/ = ! g5]al read]1 ?\gh bas$ on !
 mo/ erudite /udies4  #d 7p4 #dg74      
,erman1 op4 cit41 pp4 #cef1 #ceg4  #e   
7p4 #dh74 ,erman1 op4 cit41 p4 #ceg4 ,! 
"w on ,egyptian m$ic9e "h ref]r$ to is  
,georg ,eb]s' edition ( an ,egyptian    
docum5t discov]$ by ! explor] ^: "n x   
be>s4 ,x rema9s ! mo/ important s\rce ( 
our k ( ,egyptian m$ic9e4 ,z m5tion$ 9 !
 text1 ?is docum5t dates f ! eighte5?   
dyna/y--t is to say1 f ab\t ! fifte5? or
 sixte5? c5tury1 ,b4,c41 a relatively   
late p]iod ( ,egyptian hi/ory4  #f 7p4  
#di74 ,erman1 op4 cit41 p4 #ceg4  #g 7p4
 #ej74 ,! ,hi/ory ( ,h]odotus1 pp4      
#he-ij4 ,!re are num]\s translations ( !
 fam\s "w ( ! fa!r ( hi/ory1 "o ( ! mo/ 
rec5t & au?oritative be+ t ( ,g4 ,c4    
,macaulay1 ,m4,a41 9 two volumes1       
,macmillan  ,co41 ,london & ,new ,york1 
#ahij4  #h 7p4 #ej74 ,! ,hi/orical      
,libr>y ( ,diodorus ! ,sicilian1        
,london1 #agjj4 ,?is mo/ fam\s ( anci5t 

_w hi/ories is difficult to obta9 9 an  
,engli% v]sion4 ,! mo/ rec5tly publi%$  
translation kn[n to ! writ] is t ( ,g4  
,boo?1 ,london1 #ahad4  #i 7p4 #ea74    
,erman1 op4 cit41 p4 #ceg4  #aj 7p4     
#eb74 ,! ,papyrus ,rh9d is a sort (     
ma!matical h&-book ( ! anci5t           
,egyptians2 x 0 made 9 ! "t ( ! ,hyksos 
,k+s 7ab\t #bjjj ,b4,c471 b is a copy ( 
an old] book4 ,x is n[ pres]v$ 9 !      
,briti% ,museum4  ,! mo/ accessible     
rec5t s\rces ( in=mation z to ! social  
conditions ( ! anci5t ,egyptians are !  
works ( ,masp]o & ,erman1 above m5tion$2
 & ! v>i\s publications ( ,w4 ,m4       
,fl9d]s ,petrie1 ,! ,pyramids & ,temples
 ( ,gizeh1 ,london1 #ahhc2 ,tanis ,i41  
,london1 #ahhe2 ,tanis ,h41 ,nebe%eh1 & 
,defe-nnel1 ,london1 #ahhg2 ,t5 ,ye>s'  
,digg+s1 ,london1 #ahib2 ,syria & ,egypt
 f ! ,tel-el-,am>-na ,lett]s1 ,london1  
#ahih1 etc4 ,! v>i\s works ( ,pr(essor  
,petrie1 record+ 8 explorations f ye> to
 ye>1 give ! fulle/ available insight   
into ,egyptian ar*aeology4  ,,*apt]     

,,iii4 ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,babylonia ,,&     
,,assyria  #a 7p4 #eg74 ,! ,m$es4 ,"s   
diff]5ce ( op9ion exi/s among hi/orians 
z to ! exact e?nic relations ( !        
conqu]ors2 ! precise date ( ! fall (    
,n9eveh is also 9 d\bt4  #b 7p4 #eg74   
,d>ius4 ,! famili> ,hebrew n>rative     
ascribes ! fir/ ,p]sian conque/ (       
,babylon to ,d>ius1 b inscriptions (    
,cyrus & ( ,nabonidus1 ! ,babylonian k+1
 make x c]ta9 t ,cyrus 0 ! real         
conqu]or4 ,^! inscriptions are pres]v$  
on cyl9d]s ( bak$ clay1 ( ! type made   
famili> by ! excavation ( ! pa/ fifty   
ye>s1 & !y are invaluable hi/orical     
docum5ts4  #c 7p4 #eh74 ,b]osus4 ,!     
fragm5ts ( ,b]osus h be5 translat$ by   
,l4 ,p4 ,cory1 & includ$ 9 8 ,anci5t    
,fragm5ts ( ,ph5ician1 ,*aldean1        
,egyptian1 & ,o!r ,writ]s1 ,london1     
#ahbf1 second edition1 #ahcb4  #d 7p4   
#eh74 ,*aldean le>n+4 ,rec5t writ]s     
res]ve ! "n ,*aldean = ! lat] p]iod (   
,babylonian hi/ory--! "t :5 ! ,greeks   
came 9 contact ) ! ,mesopotamians--9    

contradi/9ction to ! e>li] p]iods :i*   
are reveal$ to u by ! ar*aeological     
records4  #e 7p4 #ei7 ,k+ ,s>gon (      
,agade4 ,! date giv5 = ?is e>ly k+ mu/ n
 be accept$ z absolute2 b x is probably 
approximately correct4  #f 7p4 #ei74    
,nippur4 ,see ! acc\nt ( ! e>ly         
exp$itions z record$ by ! director1 ,dr4
 ,john ,p4 ,pet]s1 ,nippur1 or          
explorations & adv5tures1 etc41 ,new    
,york & ,london1 #ahig4  #g 7p4 #fb74   
,fritz ,hommel1 ,ges*i*te ,babyloni5s   
und ,assyri5s1 ,b]l91 #ahhe4  #h 7p4    
#fc74 ,r4 ,campbell ,?ompson1 ,reports (
 ! ,magicians & ,a/rolog]s ( ,n9eveh &  
,babylon1 ,london1 #aijj1 p4 xix4  #i   
7p4 #fd74 ,george ,smi?1 ,! ,assyrian   
,canon1 p4 #ba4  #aj 7p4 #fd74 ,?ompson1
 op4 cit41 p4 xix4  #aa 7p4 #fe74       
,?ompson1 op4 cit41 p4 #b4  #ab 7p4     
#fg74 ,?ompson1 op4 cit41 p4 xvi4  #ac  
7p4 #fh74 ,sextus ,empiricus1 au?or (   
,adv]sus ,ma!maticos1 liv$ ab\t #bjj    
,a4,d4  #ad 7p4 #fh74 ,r4 ,campbell     
,?ompson1 op4 cit41 p4 xxiv4  #ae 7p4   

#gb74 ,records ( ! ,pa/ 7editor1 ,samuel
 ,bir*71 ,vol4 ,,iii41 p4 #aci4  #af 7p4
 #gb74 ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,v41 p4 #af4  #ag  
7p4 #gb74 ,quot$ 9 ,records ( ! ,pa/1   
,vol4 ,,iii41 p4 #adc1 f ! ,translations
 ( ! ,society ( ,biblical ,ar*eology1   
vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #eh4  #ah 7p4 #gc74      
,records ( ! ,pa/1 vol4 ,l1 p4 #aca4    
#ai 7p4 #gc74 ,ibid41 vol4 ,v41 p4 #aga4
  #bj 7p4 #gd74 ,ibid41 vol4 ,v41 p4    
#afi4  #ba 7p4 #gd74 ,joa*im ,m5ant1 ,la
 ,biblio!que du ,palais de ,n9ive1      
,p>is1 #ahhj4  #bb 7p4 #gf74 ,code (    
,khamurabi4 ,?is fam\s inscription is on
 a block ( black diorite ne>ly eight    
feet 9 height4 ,x 0 discov]$ at ,susa by
 ! ,fr5* exp$ition "u ,m4 de ,morgan1 9 
,decemb]1 #aijb4 ,we quote ! translation
 giv5 9 ,! ,hi/orians' ,hi/ory ( ! ,_w1 
edit$ by ,h5ry ,smi? ,williams1 ,london 
& ,new ,york1 #aijd1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #eaj4 
#bc 7p4 #gg74 ,! ,hi/orical ,libr>y (   
,diodorus ,siculus1 p4 #eai4  #bd 7p4   
#hb74 ,george ,s4 ,goodspe$1 ,ph4,d41   
,hi/ory ( ! ,babylonians & ,assyrians1  

,new ,york1 #aijb4  #be 7p4 #hb74       
,george ,rawl9son1 ,great ,ori5tal      
,mon>*ies1 7second edition1 ,london1    
#ahga71 ,vol4 ,,iii41 pp4 #ge ff4  ,( ! 
books m5tion$ above1 t ( ,hommel is     
p>ticul>ly full 9 ref]5ce to culture    
developm5t2 ,goodspe$'s small volume    
gives an excell5t cond5s$ acc\nt2 !     
orig9al docum5ts z translat$ 9 ! v>i\s  
volumes ( ,records ( ! ,pa/ are full (  
int]e/2 & ,m5ant's little book is       
altoge!r admirable4 ,! "w ( excavation  
is /ill go+ on 9 old ,babylonia1 & newly
 discov]$ texts add f "t to "t to our k1
 b ,a4 ,h4 ,lay>d's ,n9eveh & its       
,rema9s 7,london1 #ahdi7 /ill has       
importance z a record ( ! mo/ important 
e>ly discov]ies4 ,! g5]al hi/ories (    
,antiquity ( ,dunck]1 ,l5ormant1        
,masp]o1 & ,mey] give full treatm5t (   
,babylonian & ,assyrian developm5t4     
,special hi/ories ( ,babylonia &        
,assyria1 9 addition to ^! nam$ above1  
are ,tiele's ,babylonis*-,assyris*e     
,ges*i*te 7,zwei ,tiele1 ,go?a1         

#ahhf-ahhh72 ,w9ckl]'s ,ges*i*te        
,babyloni5s und ,assyri5s 7,b]l91       
#ahhe-ahhh71 & ,rog]s' ,hi/ory (        
,babylonia & ,assyria1 ,new ,york &     
,london1 #aijj1 ! la/ ( :i*1 h[ev]1     
deals almo/ exclusively ) political     
hi/ory4 ,c]ta9 phases ( sci5ce1         
p>ticul>ly ) ref]5ce to *ronology &     
cosmology1 are treat$ by ,edw>d ,mey]   
7,ges*i*te des ,alt]?um1 ,vol4 ,i41     
,/uttg>t1 #ahhd71 & by ,p4 ,j5s5 7,die  
,kosmologie d] ,babyloni]1 ,/rassburg1  
#ahij71 b no compreh5sive specific      
treatm5t ( ! subject 9 its entirety has 
yet be5 attempt$4  ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,!    
,,developm5t ,,( ,,! ,,alphabet  #a 7p4 
#hg74 ,vicomte ,e4 de ,r\ge1 ,memoire   
sur l',orig9e ,egypti5ne de l',alphabet 
,ph9ici51 ,p>is1 #ahgd4  #b 7p4 #hh74   
,see ! v>i\s publications ( ,mr4 ,ar?ur 
,evans4  #c 7p4 #hj74 ,aztec & ,maya    
writ+4 ,^! pictographs are /ill 9 ! ma9 
undeciph]able1 & op9ions diff] z to !   
exact /age ( developm5t :i* !y repres5t4
  #d 7p4 #ij74 ,e4 ,a4 ,wallace ,budge's

 ,fir/ ,/eps 9 ,egyptian1 ,london1      
#ahie1 is an excell5t elem5t>y "w on !  
,egyptian writ+4 ,pr(essor ,erman's     
,egyptian ,gramm>1 ,london1 #ahid1 is ! 
"w ( p]haps ! =emo/ liv+ ,egyptologi/4  
#e 7,p4 #ic74 ,extant examples (        
,babylonian & ,assyrian writ+ give      
opportunity to comp>e e>li] & lat]      
sy/ems1 s ! fact ( evolution f !        
pictorial to ! phonetic sy/em re/s on   
some?+ m ?an m]e !ory4  #f 7p4 #if74    
,fri$ri* ,delitzs*1 ,assyris*c          
,lese/ucke mit grammatis*5 ,tabell5 und 
voll/dndigem ,gloss> e9fiihrung 9 die   
assyris*e und babylonis*e               
,keils*rift-litt]atur bis h9auf zu      
,hammurabi1 ,leipzig1 #aijj4  #g 7p4    
#ig74 ,x does n appe> t ! ,babylonians  
?cmselves ev] gave up ! old sy/em (     
writ+1 s long z !y reta9$ political     
autonomy4  #h 7p4 #aja74 ,see ,isaac    
,taylor's ,hi/ory ( ! ,alphabet2 an     
,acc\nt ( ! orig9 & ,developm5t (       
,lett]s1 new edition1 #b vols41 ,london1
 #ahii4  ,= facsimiles ( ! v>i\s        

scripts1 see ,h5ry ,smi? ,williams'     
,hi/ory ( ! ,art ,( ,writ+1 #d vols1    
,new ,york & ,london1 #aijb-aijc4       
,,*apt] ,v4 ,,! ,,beg9n+s ,,( ,,greek   
,,sci5ce  #a 7p4 ,,iii74 ,anaxim&]1 z   
record$ by ,plut>*1 vol4 ,,viii-4 ,see  
,ar?ur ,fairbanks',fir/ ,philosoph]s (  
,greece3 an ,edition & ,translation ( ! 
,rema9+ ,fragm5ts ( ! ,pre-,socratic    
,philosoph]s1 toge!r ) a ,translation ( 
! m ,important ,acc\nts ( _! ,op9ions   
,conta9$ 9 ! ,e>ly ,epitomcs ( _!       
,works1 ,london1 #ahih4 ,?is highly     
s*ol>ly & extremely useful book conta9s 
! ,greek text z well z translations4    
,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,! ,,e>ly ,,greek        
,,philosoph]s ,,9 ,,italy  #a 7p4 #aag74
 ,george ,h5ry ,lewes1 ,a ,biographical 
,hi/ory ( ,philosophy f its ,orig9 9    
,greece d[n to ! ,pres5t ,day1 enl>g$   
edition1 ,new ,york1 #ahhh1 p4 #ag4  #b 
7p4 #aba74 ,diog5es ,la]tius1 ,! ,lives 
& ,op9ions ( ,em95t ,philosoph]s1 ,c4   
,d4 ,yonge's translation1 ,london1      
#ahec1 ,,viii41 p4 #aec4  #c 7p4 #aba74 

,alex&]1 ,successions ( ,philosoph]s4   
#d 7p4 #abb74 ,all ov] its c5tre4       
,presumably ?is is int5d$ to ref] to !  
entire equatorial region4  #e 7p4 #abe74
 ,la]tius1 op4 cit41 pp4 #cdh-cea4  #f  
7p4 #abh74 ,ar?ur ,fairbanks1 ,! ,fir/  
,philosoph]s ( ,greece ,london1 #ahih1  
pp4 #fg-gag4  #g 7p4 #abi74 ,ibid41 p4  
#hch4  #h 7p4 #acj74 ,ibid41 p4 #aji4   
#i 7p4 #acj74 ,he9ri* ,ritt]1 ,! ,hi/ory
 ( ,anci5t ,philosophy1 translat$ f !   
,g]man by ,a4 ,j4 ,w4 ,morrison1 #d     
vols41 ,london1 #ahch1 vol1 ,i41 p4     
#dfc4  #aj 7p4 #aca74 ,ibid41 p4 #dfe4  
#aa 7p4 #acb74 ,george ,h5ry ,lewes1 op4
 cit41 p4 #ha4  #ab 7p4 #ace74          
,fairbanks1 op4 cit41 p4 #bja4  #ac 7p4 
#acf74 ,ibid41 ,p4 #bcd4  #ad 7p4 #acg74
 ,ibid41 p4 #ahi4  #ae 7p4 #acg74       
,ibid41 ,p4 #bbj4  #af 7p4 #ach74       
,ibid41 p4 #ahi4  #ag 7p4 #ach74 ,ibid41
 p4 #aia4  ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,greek       
,,sci5ce ,,9 ,,! ,,e>ly ,,attic ,,p]iod 
#a 7p4 #aej74 ,!odor ,gomp]z1 ,greek    
,?9k]s3 a ,hi/ory ( ,anci5t ,philosophy 

7translat$ f ! ,g]man by ,laurie        
,magnes71 ,new ,york1 #aij #a1 pp4 #bbj1
 #bba4  #b 7p4 #aec74 ,ari/otle's       
,treatise on ,respiration1 *4 ii4  #c   
7p4 #aei74 ,fairbanks' translation ( !  
fragm5ts ( ,anaxagoras1 9 ,! ,fir/      
,philosoph]s ( ,greece1 pp4 #bci-bdc4   
,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,po/-,,socratic        
,,sci5ce ,,at ,,a!ns  #a 7p4 #ahj74     
,alfr$ ,william ,b]n1 ,! ,philosophy (  
,greece ,consid]$ 9 ,relation to ! ,"* &
 ,hi/ory ( its ,p1 ,london1 #ahih1 p4   
#ahf4  #b 7p4 #ahc74 ,ari/otle1 quot$ 9 
,william ,:ewell's ,hi/ory ( !          
,inductive ,sci5ces 7second edition1    
,london1 #ahdg71 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #afa4  
,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,greek ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,!  
,,alex&rian ,,or ,,hell5i/ic ,,p]iod  #a
 7p4 #aie74 ,t]tullian's ,apologeticus4 
#b 7p4 #bje74 ,we quote ! qua9t old     
translation ( ,nor?1 pr9t$ 9 #afeg4     
,,*apt] ,x4 ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,! ,,roman    
,,p]iod  #a 7p4 #beh74 ,! ,geography (  
,/rabo1 translat$ by ,h4 ,c4 ,hamilton &
 ,w4 ,falcon]1 #c vols41 ,london1 #aheg1

 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ai1 #bj4  #b 7p4 #bfj74 
,ibid41 p4 #aed4  #c 7p4 #bfc74 ,ibid41 
pp4 #afi1 #agj4  #d 7p4 #bfd7 ,ibid41   
pp4 #aff1 #afg4  #e 7p4 #bga74 ,k4 #j4  
,mill] & ,john ,w4 ,donaldson1 ,!       
,hi/ory ( ! ,lit]ature ( ,greece1 #c    
vols41 ,london1 ,vol4 ,,iii41 p4 #bfh4  
#f 7p4 #bgf74 ,e4 ,t4 ,)+ton1 ,m$ical   
,hi/ory fron41 ! ,e>lie/ ,times1        
,london1 #ahid1 p4 #aah4  #g 7p4 #bha74 
,ibid4  #h 7p4 #bha74 ,johann ,h]mann   
,bass1 ,hi/ory ( ,m$ic9e1 ,new ,york1   
#ahhi4  ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,a ,,retrospective
 ,,glance ,,at ,,classical ,,sci5ce  7p4
 #bih74 ,dion ,cassius1 z pres]v$ by    
,xiphil9us4 ,our extract is quot$ f !   
translation giv5 9 ,! ,hi/orians'       
,hi/ory ( ! ,_w 7edit$ by ,h5ry ,smi?   
,williams71 #be vols41 ,london & ,new   
,york1 #aijd1 ,vol4 ,,vi41 p4 #big ff4  
7,= fur!r bibliographical notes1 ! read]
 is ref]r$ to ! ,app5dix ( volume ,v47