,transcriber's ,note3 ,the footnotes marked with lower-case letters were originally sidenotes which referred to sentences within the paragraph4 ,i placed them at the end of chapters to avoid confusion with the footnotes marked with numbers1 which were footnotes in the original and are at the end of the text4 ,,two ,,old ,,faiths ,,essays ,,on ,,the ,,religions ,,of ,,the ,,hindus ,,and ,,the ,,mohammedans ,,by ,j4 ,,murray ,,mitchell1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d4 ,,and ,,sir ,,william ,,muir1 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,c4,l4 ,,new ,,york ,,chautauqua ,,press ,c4,l4,s4,c4 ,department1 #aej ,fifth ,avenue #ahia ,the required books of the ,c4,l4,s4,c4 are recommended by a ,council of ,six4 ,it must1 however1 be understood that recommendation does not involve an approval by the ,council1 or by any member of it1 of every principle or doctrine contained in the book recommended4 99 99 99 99 99 ,these essays have been selected from the admirable series of ,present ,day ,tracts1 published by the ,religious ,tract ,society1 ,london1 and are reprinted with permission4 ,,contents4 ,,the ,,hindu ,,religion4 ,,page ,outline of the ,essay #g ,introduction #i ,the ,vedas #ab ,philosophy1 and ,ritualism #ca ,reconstruction--,modern ,hinduism #dc ,contrast with ,christianity #eh ,hinduism in ,contact with ,christianity #fh ,,the ,,rise ,,and ,,decline ,,of ,,islam4 ,outline of the ,essay #hc ,introduction #he ,the ,rapid ,spread of ,islam #hg ,why the ,spread of ,islam was ,stayed #abe ,low ,position of ,islam in the ,scale of ,civilization #abi ,,the ,,hindu ,,religion4 ,,outline ,,of ,,the ,,essay4 ,the place of ,hinduism--which is professed by about a hundred and ninety millions in ,india--among the religions of the world1 and its great antiquity1 are pointed out4 ,the comparative simplicity of the system contained in the ,vedas1 the oldest sacred books of the ,hindus1 its almost entire freedom from the use of images1 its gradual deterioration in the later hymns1 its gradual multiplication of gods1 the advance of sacerdotalism1 and the increasing complexity of its religious rites are set forth4 ,the philosophical speculation that was carried on1 the different philosophical schools1 the ,buddhist reaction1 its conflict with ,brahmanism1 its final defeat1 and its influence on the victorious system are discussed4 ,the religious reconstruction represented by the ,puranas1 their theological character1 the modern ritual1 the introduction and rise of caste1 and the treatment of women are then considered4 ,a contrast is drawn between the leading characteristics of ,hinduism and those of ,christianity1 and the effect of ,christian ideas on modern ,hinduism is exhibited4 ,the history of the ,brahmo ,somaj under ,keshub ,chunder ,sen is given at some length4 ,,the ,,hindu ,,religion4 ,,introduction4 ,sidenote3 ,hinduism deserving of study4 ,its antiquity4 ,the system of religious belief which is generally called ,hinduism is1 on many accounts1 eminently deserving of study4 ,if we desire to trace the history of the ancient religions of the widely extended ,aryan or ,indo-,european race1 to which we ourselves belong1 we shall find in the earlier writings of the ,hindus an exhibition of it decidedly more archaic even than that which is presented in the ,homeric poems4 ,then1 the growth--the historical development--of ,hinduism is not less worthy of attention than its earlier phases4 ,it has endured for upward of three thousand years1 no doubt undergoing very important changes1 yet in many things retaining its original spirit4 ,the progress of the system has not been lawless2 and it is exceedingly instructive to note the development1 and1 if possible1 explain it4 ,we are1 then1 to endeavor to study ,hinduism chronologically4 ,unless he does so almost every man who tries to comprehend it is1 at first1 overwhelmed with a feeling of utter confusion and bewilderment4 ,hinduism spreads out before him as a vast river1 or even what seems at first a dark ,illimitable ocean1 without bound1 ,without dimension1 where length1 breadth1 and height1 ,and time1 and place are lost4 ,sidenote3 ,the discussion chronological4 ,but matters begin to clear up when he begins at the beginning1 and notes how one thing succeeded another4 ,it may not be possible as yet to trace all the windings of the stream or to show at what precise points in its long course it was joined by such and such a tributary2 yet much is known regarding the mighty river which every intelligent man will find it profitable to note and understand4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,christian's duty in relation to the subject4 ,the ,christian ought not to rest satisfied with the vague general idea that ,hinduism is a form of heathenism with which he has nothing to do1 save to help in destroying it4 ,let him try to realize the ideas of the ,hindu regarding ,god1 and the soul1 and sin1 and salvation1 and heaven1 and hell1 and the many sore trials of this mortal life4 ,he will then certainly have a much more vivid perception of the divine origin and transcendent importance of his own religion4 ,farther1 he will then extend a helping hand to his ,eastern brother with far more of sensibility and tenderness2 and in proportion to the measure of his loving sympathy will doubtless be the measure of his success4 ,a yearning heart will accomplish more than the most cogent argument4 ,sidenote3 ,the purpose of the ,tract4 ,in this ,tract we confine ourselves to the laying down of great leading facts and principles2 but these will be dwelt upon at sufficient length to give the reader1 we trust1 an accurate conception of the general character and history of ,hinduism4 ,we shall also briefly contrast the system with ,christianity4 ,the history of ,hinduism may be divided into three great periods1 each embracing1 in round numbers1 about a thousand years4 ,i4 ,,the ,,vedas4 ,sidenote3 ,the most ancient writings of ,india4 ,regarding the earliest form of ,hinduism we must draw our conceptions from the ,veda1 or1 to speak more accurately1 the four ,vedas4 ,the most important of these is the ,rig ,veda2 and internal evidence proves it to be the most ancient4 ,it contains above a thousand hymns2 the earliest of which may date from about the year #aejj ,b4,c4 ,the ,hindus1 or1 as they call themselves1 the ,aryas1 had by that time entered ,india1 and were dwelling in the north-western portion1 the ,panjab4 ,the hymns1 we may say1 are racy of the soil4 ,there is no reference to the life led by the people before they crossed the ,himalaya ,mountains or entered by some of the passes of ,afghanistan4 ,it would be very interesting if we could discover the pre-,vedic form of the religion4 ,inferentially this may1 to some extent1 be done by comparing the teachings of the ,vedas with those contained in the books of other branches of the great ,aryan family--such as the ,greeks1 the ,romans1 and1 above all1 the ,iranians 7ancient ,persians74 ,the ancient ,hindus were a highly gifted1 energetic race2 civilized to a considerable extent2 not nomadic2 chiefly shepherds and herdsmen1 but also acquainted with agriculture4 ,commerce was not unknown2 the river ,indus formed a highway to the ,indian ,ocean1 and at least the ,phenicians availed themselves of it from perhaps the seventeenth century ,b4,c41 or even earlier4 ,sidenote3 ,the hymns are strongly religious4 ,they are a selection4 ,pre-eminently sacerdotal4 ,present the religious thought of the ancient ,hindus4 ,as soon as we begin to study the hymns of the ,veda we are struck by their strongly religious character4 ,tacitly assuming that the book contains the whole of the early literature of ,india1 many writers have expressed themselves in strong terms regarding the primitive ,hindus as religious above all other races4 ,but as we read on we become convinced that these poems are a selection1 rather than a collection1 of the literature2 and the conviction grows that the selection has been made by priestly hands for priestly purposes4 ,an acute critic has affirmed that the ,vedic poems are pre-eminently sacerdotal1 and in no sense popular4#a ,we can thus explain a pervading characteristic of the book which has taken most readers by surprise4 ,there is a want of simplicity in the ,veda4 ,it is often most elaborate1 artificial1 overrefined--one might even say1 affected4 ,how could these be the thoughts1 or those the expressions1 of the imperfectly civilized shepherds of the ,panjab8 ,but if it be only a hymn-book1 with its materials arranged for liturgical purposes1 the difficulty vanishes4#b ,we shall accordingly take it for granted that the ,veda presents only the religious thought of the ancient ,hindus--and not the whole of the religious thought1 but only that of a very influential portion of the race4 ,with all the qualifications now stated1 the ,veda must retain a position of high importance for all who study ,indian thought and life4 ,the religious stamp which the compilers of the ,veda impressed so widely and so deeply has not been obliterated in the course of thirty centuries4 ,sidenote3 ,their religion is ,nature-worship4 ,the prevailing aspect of the religion presented in the ,vedic hymns may be broadly designated as ,nature-worship4 ,sidenote3 ,physical phenomena in ,india4 ,their effect on the religion4 ,all physical phenomena in ,india are invested with a grandeur which they do not possess in northern or even southern ,europe4 ,sunlight1 moonlight1 starlight1 the clouds purpled with the beam of morning or flaming in the west like fiery chariots of heaven2 to behold these things in their full magnificence one ought to see them in the ,east4 ,even so the sterner phenomena of nature--whirlwind and tempest1 lightning and thunder1 flood and storm-wave1 plague1 pestilence1 and famine2 all of these oftentimes assume in the ,east a character of awful majesty before which man cowers in helplessness and despair4 ,the conceptions and feelings hence arising have from the beginning powerfully affected the religion of the ,hindus4 ,every-where we can trace the impress of the grander manifestations of nature--the impress of their beneficence1 their beauty1 their might1 their mystery1 or their terribleness4 ,sidenote3 ,the deities are the bright ones1 according to the language of the sacred books of ,india4 ,the ,sanskrit word for god is deva1 which means bright1 shining4 ,of physical phenomena it was especially those connected with light that enkindled feelings of reverence4 ,the black thunder-cloud that enshrouded nature1 in which the demon had bound the life-giving waters1 passed away2 for the glittering thunder-bolt was launched1 and the streams rushed down1 exulting in their freedom2 and then the heaven shone out again1 pure and peaceful as before4 ,but such a wonder as the dawn--with far-streaming radiance1 returning from the land of mystery1 fresh in eternal youth1 and scattering the terrors of the night before her--who could sufficiently admire8 ,and let it be remembered that in the ,hindu mind the interval between admiration and adoration is exceedingly small4 ,yet1 while it is the dawn which has evoked the truest poetry1 she has not retained the highest place in worship4 ,sidenote3 ,fire much worshiped4 ,no divinity has fuller worship paid him than ,agni1 the ,fire 7,ignis74 ,more hymns are dedicated to him than to any other being4 ,astonishment at the properties of fire2 a sense of his condescension in that he1 a mighty god1 resides in their dwellings2 his importance as the messenger between heaven and earth1 bearing the offerings aloft2 his kindness at night in repelling the darkness and the demons which it hides--all these things raised ,agni to an exalted place4 ,he is fed with pure clarified butter1 and so rises heavenward in his brightness4 ,the physical conception of fire1 however1 adheres to him1 and he never quite ceases to be the earthly flame2 yet mystical conceptions thickly gather round this root-idea2 he is fire pervading all nature2 and he often becomes supreme1 a god of gods4 ,sidenote3 ,soma highly exalted4 ,soma becomes a very mighty god4 ,all this seems natural enough2 but one is hardly prepared for the high exaltation to which ,soma is raised4 ,soma is properly the juice of a milky plant 7asclepias acida1 or sarcostemma viminale71 which1 when fermented1 is intoxicating4 ,the simple-minded ,aryas were both astonished and delighted at its effects2 they liked it themselves2 and they knew nothing more precious to present to their gods4 ,accordingly1 all of these rejoice in it4 ,indra in particular quaffs it like a thirsty stag2 and under its exhilarating effects he strides victoriously to battle4 ,soma itself becomes a god1 and a very mighty one2 he is even the creator and father of the gods2#c the king of gods and men2#d all creatures are in his hand4 ,it is surely extraordinary that the ,aryas could apply such hyperbolical laudations to the liquor which they had made to trickle into the vat1 and which they knew to be the juice of a plant they had cut down on the mountains and pounded in a mortar2 and that intoxication should be confounded with inspiration4 ,yet of such aberrations we know the human mind is perfectly capable4 ,sidenote3 ,connection with ,persian1 ,greek1 and ,roman systems4 ,varuna1 the god of heaven4 ,the sublimity of the ,vedic description of him4 ,we have first referred to ,agni and ,soma1 as being the only divinities of highest rank which still retain their physical character4 ,the worship paid to them was of great antiquity2 for it is also prescribed in the ,persian ,avesta1 and must have been common to the ,indo-,iranian branch of the ,aryan race before the ,hindus entered ,india4 ,but we can inferentially go still further back and speak of a deity common to the ,greeks1 ,romans1 ,persians1 and ,hindus4 ,this deity is ,varuna1 the most remarkable personality in the ,veda4 ,the name1 which is etymologically connected with ,greek3 ,ouranos1 signifies the encompasser1 and is applied to heaven--especially the all-encompassing1 extreme vault of heaven--not the nearer sky1 which is the region of cloud and storm4 ,it is in describing ,varuna that the ,veda rises to the greatest sublimity which it ever reaches4 ,a mysterious presence1 a mysterious power1 a mysterious knowledge amounting almost to omniscience1 are ascribed to ,varuna4 ,the winkings of men's eyes are numbered by him4 ,he upholds order1 both physical and moral1 throughout the universe4 ,sidenote3 ,contrast with the laudations of ,agni and ,soma4 ,the loftier conceptions of divinity the earlier4 ,the winds are his breath1 the sun his eye1 the sky his garment4 ,he rewards the good and punishes the wicked4 ,yet to the truly penitent he is merciful4 ,it is absolutely confounding to pass from a hymn that celebrates the serene majesty and awful purity of ,varuna to one filled with measureless laudations of ,soma or ,agni4 ,could conceptions of divinity so incongruous co-exist8 ,that they could not spring up in the same mind1 or even in the same age1 is abundantly manifest4 ,and1 as we have mentioned1 the loftier conceptions of divinity are unquestionably the earlier4 ,it is vain to speak1 as certain writers do1 of religion gradually refining itself1 as a muddy stream can run itself pure2 ,hinduism resembles the ,ganges1 which1 when it breaks forth from its mountain cradle at ,hardwar1 is comparatively pellucid1 but1 as it rolls on1 becomes more and more muddy1 discolored1 and unclean4#e ,sidenote3 ,indra4 ,his achievements4 ,various scholars affirm that ,varuna1 in more ancient pre-,vedic times1 held a position still higher than the very high one which he still retains4 ,this is probable2 indeed1 it is certain that1 before later divinities had intruded1 he held a place of unrivaled majesty4 ,but1 in the ,vedas1 ,indra is a more conspicuous figure4 ,he corresponds to the ,jupiter ,pluvius of the ,romans4 ,in north-western ,india1 after the burning heat1 the annual return of the rains was hailed with unspeakable joy2 it was like life succeeding death4 ,the clouds that floated up from the ocean were at first thin and light2 ah6 a hostile demon was in them1 carrying off the healing waters and not permitting them to fall2 but the thunder-bolt of ,indra flashed2 the demon was driven away howling1 and the emancipated streams refreshed the thirsty earth4 ,varuna was not indeed dethroned1 but he was obscured1 by the achievements of the warlike ,indra2 and the supersensuous1 moral conceptions that were connected with the former gradually faded from the minds of the people1 and ,varuna erelong became quite a subordinate figure in the ,pantheon4 ,sidenote3 ,number and relations of deities uncertain4 ,the deities are generally said in the ,veda to be thrice eleven in number4 ,we also hear of three thousand three hundred and thirty-nine4 ,there is no system1 no fixed order in the hierarchy2 a deity who in one hymn is quite subordinate becomes in another supreme2 almost every god becomes supreme in turn2 in one hymn he is the son of some deity and in another that deity's father1 and so 7if logic ruled7 his own grandfather4 ,every poet exalts his favorite god1 till the mind becomes utterly bewildered in tracing the relationships4 ,we have already spoken of ,agni1 ,varuna1 and ,indra1 as well as ,soma4 ,next to these in importance may come the deities of light1 namely1 the sun1 the dawn1 and the two ,asvina or beams that accompany the dawn4 ,the winds come next4 ,the earth is a goddess4 ,the waters are goddesses4 ,it is remarkable that the stars are very little mentioned2 and the moon holds no distinguished place4 ,sidenote3 ,hardly any fetichism in the ,rig ,veda4 ,in the religion of the ,rig ,veda we hardly see fetichism--if by fetichism we mean the worship of small physical objects1 such as stones1 shells1 plants1 etc41 which are believed to be charged 7so to speak7 with divinity1 though this appears in the fourth ,veda--the ,atharva4 ,but even in the ,rig ,veda almost any object that is grand1 beneficent1 or terrible may be adored2 and implements associated with worship are themselves worshiped4 ,thus1 the war-chariot1 the plow1 the furrow1 etc41 are prayed to4 ,sidenote3 ,early tendency toward pantheism4 ,a pantheistic conception of nature was also present in the ,indian mind from very early times1 although its development was later4 ,even in the earliest hymns any portion of nature with which man is brought into close relation may be adored4#f ,sidenote3 ,reverence of the dead4 ,we must on no account overlook the reverence paid to the dead4 ,the pitris 7patres7 or fathers are frequently referred to in the ,veda4 ,they are clearly distinguished from the devas or gods4 ,in later writings they are also distinguished from men1 as having been created separately from them2 but this idea does not appear in the ,veda4 ,yama1 the first mortal1 traveled the road by which none returns1 and now drinks the ,soma in the innermost of heaven1 surrounded by the other fathers4 ,these come also1 along with the gods1 to the banquets prepared for them on earth1 and1 sitting on the sacred grass1 rejoice in the exhilarating draught4 ,sidenote3 ,the subjects of the hymns of the ,rig ,veda4 ,the hymns of the ,rig ,veda celebrate the power1 exploits1 or generosity of the deity invoked1 and sometimes his personal beauty4 ,the praises lavished on the god not only secured his favor but increased his power to help the worshiper4 ,sidenote3 ,the holiest prayer4 ,there is one prayer 7so called7 which is esteemed pre-eminently holy2 generally called--from the meter in which it is composed--the ,gayatri4#g ,it may be rendered thus3 ,let us meditate on that excellent glory of the ,divine ,son 7or ,vivifier72 may he enlighten our understandings6 ,it has always been frequently repeated in important rites4 ,sidenote3 ,atharva ,veda4 ,inferior morally and spiritually to the ,rig ,veda4 ,explanation of deterioration4 ,so far we have referred almost exclusively to the ,rig ,veda4 ,the next in importance is the ,atharva1 sometimes termed the ,brahma ,veda2 which we may render the ,veda of incantations4 ,it contains six hundred and seventy hymns4 ,of these a few are equal to those in the ,rig ,veda2 but1 as a whole1 the ,atharva is far inferior to the other in a moral and spiritual point of view4 ,it abounds in imprecations1 charms for the destruction of enemies1 and so forth4 ,talismans1 plants1 or gems are invoked1 as possessed of irresistible might to kill or heal4 ,the deities are often different from those of the ,rig ,veda4 ,the ,atharva manifests a great dread of malignant beings1 whose wrath it deprecates4 ,we have thus simple demon-worship4 ,how is this great falling-off to be explained8 ,in one of two ways4 ,either a considerable time intervened between the composition of the two books1 during which the original faith had rapidly degenerated1 probably through contact with aboriginal races who worshiped dark and sanguinary deities2 or else there had existed from the beginning two forms of the religion--the higher of which is embodied in the hymns of the ,rig ,veda1 and the lower in the ,atharva4 ,we believe the latter explanation to be correct1 although doubtless the superstitions of the aborigines must all along have exerted an influence on the faith of the invaders4 ,sidenote3 ,the offerings4 ,the offerings presented to the gods consisted chiefly of clarified butter1 curdled milk1 rice-cakes1 and fermented ,soma juice1 which was generally mixed with water or milk4 ,all was thrown into the fire1 which bore them or their essences to the gods4 ,the ,soma was also sprinkled on the sacred grass1 which was strewn on the floor1 and on which the gods and fathers were invited to come and seat themselves that they might enjoy the cheering beverage4 ,the remainder was drunk by the officiating priests4 ,the offerings were understood to nourish and gratify the gods as corporeal beings4 ,sidenote3 ,animal victims4 ,animal victims are also offered up4 ,we hear of sheep1 goats1 bulls1 cows1 and buffaloes being sacrificed1 and sometimes in large numbers4 ,but the great offering was the ,asvamedha1 or sacrifice of the horse4 ,the body of the horse was hacked to pieces2 the fragments were dressed--part was boiled1 part roasted2 some of the flesh was then eaten by the persons present1 and the rest was offered to the gods4 ,tremendous was the potency--at least as stated in later times--of a hundred such sacrifices2 it rendered the offerer equal or superior to the gods2 even the mighty ,indra trembled for his sovereignty and strove to hinder the consummation of the awful rite4 ,sidenote3 ,human sacrifice4 ,human sacrifice was not unknown1 though there are very few allusions to it in the earlier hymns4 ,sidenote3 ,sacrifice deemed of very high importance4 ,even from the first1 however1 the rite of sacrifice occupies a very high place1 and allusions to it are exceedingly frequent4 ,the observances connected with it are said to be the first religious rites4 ,sacrifice was early believed to be expiatory2 it removed sin4 ,it was substitutionary2 the victim stood in place of the offerer4 ,all order in the universe depends upon it2 it is the nave of the world-wheel4 ,sometimes ,vishnu is said to be the sacrifice2 sometimes even the ,supreme ,being himself is so4 ,elaborated ideas and a complex ritual1 which we could have expected to grow up only in the course of ages1 appear from very early times4 ,we seem compelled to draw the inference that sacrifice formed an essential and very important part of the pre-,vedic faith4#h ,in the ,veda worship is a kind of barter4 ,in exchange for praises and offerings the deity is asked to bestow favors4 ,temporal blessings are implored1 such as food1 wealth1 life1 children1 cows1 horses1 success in battle1 the destruction of enemies1 and so forth4 ,not much is said regarding sin and the need of forgiveness4 ,a distinguished scholar#i has said that the religious notion of sin is wanting altogether2 but this affirmation is decidedly too sweeping4 ,sidenote3 ,no image-worship4 ,no public worship4 ,the worship exemplified in the ,veda is not image-worship4 ,images of the fire1 or the winds1 or the waters could hardly be required1 and while the original nature-worship lasted1 idols must have been nearly unknown4 ,yet the description of various deities is so precise and full that it seems to be probably drawn from visible representations of them4 ,worship was personal and domestic1 not in any way public4 ,indeed1 two men praying at the same time had to pray quite apart1 so that neither might disturb the other4 ,each dealt with heaven1 so to speak1 solely on his own behalf4 ,sidenote3 ,no temples4 ,we hear of no places set apart as temples in ,vedic times4 ,sidenote3 ,the treatises on ritual4 ,a ,veda consists of two parts called ,mantra or ,sanhita1 and ,brahmana4 ,the first is composed of hymns4 ,the second is a statement of ritual1 and is generally in prose4 ,the existing ,brahmanas are several centuries later than the great body of the hymns1 and were probably composed when the ,hindus had crossed the ,indus1 and were advancing along the ,gangetic valley4 ,the oldest may be about the date of #hjj or #gjj ,b4,c4 ,sidenote3 ,growth of priestly power4 ,schools for the study of sacred books1 rites1 and traditions4 ,the ,brahmanas are very poor1 both in thought and expression4 ,they have hardly their match in any literature for pedantry and downright absurdity4#aj ,poetical feeling and even religious feeling seem gone2 all is dead and dry as dust4 ,by this time the ,sanskrit language had ceased to be generally understood4 ,the original texts could hardly receive accessions2 the most learned man could do little more than interpret1 or perhaps misinterpret1 them4 ,the worshiper looked on2 he worshiped now by proxy4 ,thus the priest had risen greatly in importance4 ,he alone knew the sacred verses and the sacred rites4 ,an error in the pronunciation of the mystic text might bring destruction on the worshiper2 what could he do but lean upon the priest8 ,the latter could say the prayers if he could not pray4 ,all this worked powerfully for the elevation of the ,brahmans1 the men of prayer2 they steadily grew into a class1 a caste2 and into this no one could enter who was not of priestly descent4 ,schools were now found necessary for the study of the sacred books1 rites1 and traditions4 ,the importance which these attach to theology--doctrine--is very small2 the externals of religion are all in all4 ,the rites1 in fact1 now threw the very gods into the shade2 every thing depended on their due performance4 ,and thus the ,hindu ritual gradually grew up into a stupendous system1 the most elaborate1 complex1 and burdensome which the earth has seen4 ,sidenote3 ,moral character of the ,veda4 ,it is time1 however1 to give a brief estimate of the moral character of the ,veda4 ,the first thing that strikes us is its inconsistency4 ,some hymns--especially those addressed to ,varuna--rise as high as ,gentile conceptions regarding deity ever rose2 others--even in the ,rig ,veda--sink miserably low2 and in the ,atharva we find1 even in the lowest depth1 a lower still4 ,sidenote3 ,indra supersedes ,varuna4 ,the character of ,indra--who has displaced or overshadowed ,varuna#aa--;has no high attributes4 ,he is voracious2 his inebriety is most intense2 he dances with delight in battle4 ,his worshipers supply him abundantly with the drink he loves2 and he supports them against their foes1 ninety and more of whose cities he has destroyed4 ,we do not know that these foes1 the ,dasyus1 were morally worse than the intrusive ,aryas1 but the feelings of the latter toward the former were of unexampled ferocity4 ,here is one passage out of multitudes similar3 ,hurl thy hottest thunder-bolt upon them6 ,uproot them6 ,cleave them asunder6 ,o1 ,indra1 overpower1 subdue1 slay the demon6 ,pluck him up6 ,cut him through the middle6 ,crush his head6 ,sidenote3 ,deterioration begins early4 ,indra1 if provided with ,soma1 is always indulgent to his votaries2 he supports them per fas et nefas4 ,varuna1 on the other hand1 is grave1 just1 and to wicked men severe4#ab ,the supersession of ,varuna by ,indra1 then1 is easily understood4 ,we see the principle on which it rests stated in the ,old ,testament4 ,ye cannot serve the ,lord1 said ,joshua to the elders of ,israel2 for he is a holy ,god4 ,even so ,jeremiah points sorrowfully to the fact that the pagan nations clung to their false gods1 while ,israel was faithless to the true4 ,as ,st4 ,paul expresses it1 they did not like to retain ,god in their knowledge4 ,unless this principle is fully taken into account we cannot understand the historical development of ,hinduism4 ,sidenote3 ,varuna the only divinity possessed of pure and elevated attributes4 ,the ,veda frequently ascribes to the gods1 to use the language of ,max ,mller1 sentiments and passions unworthy of deity4 ,in truth1 except in the case of ,varuna1 there is not one divinity that is possessed of pure and elevated attributes4 ,,ii4 ,,philosophy1 ,,and ,,ritualism4 ,sidenote3 ,speculation begins4 ,rise of asceticism4 ,upanishads4 ,they are pantheistic4 ,during the ,vedic period--certainly toward its conclusion--a tendency to speculation had begun to appear4 ,probably it had all along existed in the ,hindu mind1 but had remained latent during the stirring period when the people were engaged in incessant wars4 ,climate1 also1 must have affected the temperament of the race2 and1 as the ,hindus steadily pressed down the valley of the ,ganges into warmer regions1 their love of repose and contemplative quietism would continually deepen4 ,and when the ,brahmans became a fully developed hierarchy1 lavishly endowed1 with no employment except the performance of religious ceremonies1 their minds could avoid stagnation only by having recourse to speculative thought4 ,again1 asceticism has a deep root in human nature2 earnest souls1 conscious of their own weakness1 will fly from the temptations of the world4 ,various causes thus led numbers of men to seek a life of seclusion2 they dwelt chiefly in forests1 and there they revolved the everlasting problems of existence1 creation1 the soul1 and ,god4 ,the lively ,greeks1 for whom1 with all their high intellectual endowments1 a happy sensuous existence was nearly all in all1 were amazed at the numbers in northern ,india who appeared weary of the world and indifferent to life itself4 ,by and for these recluses were gradually composed the ,aranyakas1 or forest treatises2 and out of these grew a series of more regular works1 called ,upanishads4#ac ,at least two hundred and fifty of these are known to exist4 ,they have been called guesses at truth2 they are more so than formal solutions of great questions4 ,many of them are unintelligible rhapsodies2 others rise almost to sublimity4 ,they frequently contradict each other2 the same writer sometimes contradicts himself4 ,one prevailing characteristic is all-important2 their doctrine is pantheism4 ,the pantheism is sometimes not so much a coldly reasoned system as an aspiration1 a yearning1 a deep-felt need of something better than the mob of gods who came in the train of ,indra1 and the darker deities who were still crowding in4 ,even in spite of the counteracting power of the ,gospel mysticism has run easily into pantheism in ,europe1 and orthodox ,christians sometimes slide unconsciously into it1 or at least into its language4#ad ,but1 as has been already noted1 a strain of pantheism existed in the ,hindu mind from early times4 ,accordingly1 these hermit sages1 these mystic dreamers1 soon came to identify the human soul with ,god4 ,and the chief end of man was to seek that the stream derived from ,god should return to its source1 and1 ceasing to wander through the wilderness of this world1 should find repose in the bosom of the illimitable deep1 the ,one1 the ,all4 ,the ,brahmans attached the ,upanishads to the ,veda proper1 and they soon came to be regarded as its most sacred part4 ,in this way the influence these treatises have exercised has been immense2 more than any other portion of the earlier ,hindu writings they have molded the thoughts of succeeding generations4 ,philosophy had thus begun4 ,sidenote3 ,six philosophic schools4 ,the speculations of which we see the commencement and progress in the ,upanishads were finally developed and classified in a series of writings called the six ,sastras or darsanas4 ,these constitute the regular official philosophy of ,india4 ,they are without much difficulty reducible to three leading schools of thought--the ,nyaya1 the ,sankhya1 and the ,vedanta4 ,roundly1 and speaking generally1 we may characterize these systems as theistic1 atheistic1 and pantheistic respectively4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,nyaya4 ,it is doubtful1 however1 whether the earlier form of the ,nyaya was theistic or not4 ,the later form is so1 but it says nothing of the moral attributes of ,god1 nor of his government4 ,the chief end of man1 according to the ,nyaya1 is deliverance from pain2 and this is to be attained by cessation from all action1 whether good or bad4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,sankhya4 ,the ,sankhya declares matter to be self-existent and eternal4 ,soul is distinct from matter1 and also eternal4 ,when it attains true knowledge it is liberated from matter and from pain4 ,the ,sankhya holds the existence of ,god to be without proof4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,vedanta4 ,but the leading philosophy of ,india is unquestionably the ,vedanta4 ,the name means the end or scope of the ,veda2 and if the ,upanishads were the ,veda1 instead of treatises tacked on to it1 the name would be correct2 for the ,vedanta1 like the ,upanishads1 inculcates pantheism4 ,the form which this philosophy ultimately assumed is well represented in the treatise called the ,vedanta ,sara1 or essence of the ,vedanta4 ,a few extracts will suffice to exhibit its character4 ,the unity of the soul and ,god--this is the scope of all ,vedanta treatises4 ,we have frequent references made to the great saying1 ,tat twam--that is1 ,that art thou1 or ,thou art ,god2 and ,aham ,brahma1 that is1 ,i am ,god4 ,again it is said1 ,the whole universe is ,god4 ,god is existence 7or more exactly an existent thing#ae71 knowledge1 and joy4 ,knowledge1 not a knower2 joy1 not one who rejoices4 ,sidenote3 ,it teaches absolute idealism4 ,every thing else has only a seeming existence1 which is in consequence of ignorance 7or illusion74 ,ignorance makes the soul think itself different from ,god2 and it also projects the appearance of an external world4 ,he who knows ,god becomes ,god4 ,when ,he1 the first and last1 is discerned1 one's own acts are annihilated4 ,meditation1 without distinction of subject and object1 is the highest form of thought4 ,it is a high attainment to say1 ,i am ,god2 but the consummation is when thought exists without an object4 ,there are four states of the soul--waking1 dreaming1 dreamless sleep1 and the fourth state1 or pure intelligence4 ,the working-man is in dense ignorance2 in sleep he is freed from part of this ignorance2 in dreamless sleep he is freed from still more2 but the consummation is when he attains something beyond this1 which it seems cannot be explained1 and is therefore called the fourth state4 ,sidenote3 ,doctrine of the ,self4 ,inconsistent statements4 ,the name1 which in later writings is most frequently given to the one without a second1#af is ,atman1 which properly means self4 ,much is said of the way in which the self in each man is to recover1 or discover1 its unity with the supreme or real self4 ,for as the one sun shining in the heavens is reflected1 often in distorted images1 in multitudes of vessels filled with water1 so the one self is present in all human minds4#ag ,there is not--perhaps there could not be--consistency in the statements of the relation of the seeming to the real4 ,in most of the older books a practical or conventional existence is admitted of the self in each man1 but not a real existence4 ,but when the conception is fully formulated the finite world is not admitted to exist save as a mere illusion4 ,all phenomena are a play--a play without plot or purpose1 which the absolute plays with itself4#ah ,this is surely transcendent transcendentalism4 ,one regrets that speculation did not take one step more1 and declare that the illusion was itself illusory4 ,then we should have gone round the circle1 and returned to sensus communis4 ,we must be pardoned if we seem to speak disrespectfully of such fantastic speculations2 we desire rather to speak regretfully of the many generations of men which successively occupied themselves with such unprofitable dreams2 for this kind of thought is traceable even from ,vedic days4 ,it is more fully developed in the ,upanishads4 ,in them occurs the classical sentence so frequently quoted in later literature1 which declares that the absolute being is the one thing without a second4#ai ,sidenote3 ,the ,gita4 ,the book which perhaps above all others has molded the mind of ,india in more recent days is the ,bhagavad ,gita1 or ,song of the ,holy ,one4 ,it is written in stately and harmonious verse1 and has achieved the same task for ,indian philosophy as ,lucretius did for ancient ,epicureanism4#bj ,it is eclectic1 and succeeds1 in a sort of way1 in forcing the leading systems of ,indian thought into seeming harmony4 ,sidenote3 ,intellectual pride4 ,some have thought they could discern in these daring speculations indications of souls groping after ,god1 and saddened because of the difficulty of finding him4 ,were it so1 all our sympathies would at once be called forth4 ,but no2 we see in these writings far more of intellectual pride than of spiritual sadness4 ,those ancient dreamers never learned their own ignorance4 ,they scarcely recognized the limitations of the human mind4 ,and when reason could take them no farther they supplemented it by dreams and ecstasy until1 in the ,yoga philosophy1 they rushed into systematized mysticisms and magic far more extravagant than the wildest theurgy of the degraded ,neoplatonism of the ,roman ,empire4 ,a learned writer thus expresses himself3 ,the only one of the six schools that seem to recognize the doctrine of divine providence is the ,yoga4 ,it thus seems that the consistent followers of these systems can have1 in their perfected state1 no religion1 no action1 and no moral character4#ba ,sidenote3 ,indian philosophy a sad failure4 ,and now to take a brief review of the whole subject4 ,the ,hindu sages were men of acute and patient thought2 but their attempt to solve the problem of the divine and human natures1 of human destiny and duty1 has ended in total failure4 ,each system baseless1 and all mutually conflicting2 systems cold and cheerless1 that frown on love and virtuous exertion1 and speak of annihilation or its equivalent1 absorption1 as our highest hope3 such is the poor result of infinite speculation4 ,the world by wisdom knew not ,god4 ,o1 that ,india would learn the much-needed lesson of humility which the experience of ages ought to teach her6 ,sidenote3 ,sacerdotalism4 ,the tyranny of sacerdotalism4 ,while speculation was thus busy ,sacerdotalism was also continually extending its influence4 ,the ,brahman1 the man of prayer1 had made himself indispensable in all sacred rites4 ,he alone--as we have seen--knew the holy text2 he alone could rightly pronounce the words of awful mystery and power on which depended all weal or woe4 ,on all religions occasions the priest must be called in1 and1 on all occasions1 implicitly obeyed4 ,for a considerable time the princes straggled against the encroachments of the priests2 but in the end they were completely vanquished4 ,never was sacerdotal tyranny more absolute2 the proudest pope in medival times never lorded it over ,western ,christendom with such unrelenting rigor as the ,brahmans exercised over both princes and people4 ,the feeling of the priests is expressed in a well-known stanza3 ,all the world is subject to the gods2 the gods are subject to the holy texts2 the holy texts are subject to the ,brahman2 therefore the ,brahman is my god4 ,yes1 the sacred man could breathe the spell which made earth and hell and heaven itself to tremble4 ,he therefore logically called himself an earthly god4 ,indeed1 the ,brahman is always logical4 ,he draws conclusions from premises with iron rigor of reasoning2 and with side-issues he has nothing to do4 ,he stands upon his rights4 ,woe to the being--god or man--who comes in conflict with him6 ,sidenote3 ,ritual becomes extravagant4 ,the priests naturally multiplied religious ceremonies1 and made ritual the soul of worship4 ,sacrifice especially assumed still more and more exaggerated forms--becoming more protracted1 more expensive1 more bloody4 ,a hecatomb of victims was but a small offering4 ,more and more awful powers were ascribed to the rite4 ,sidenote3 ,reaction4 ,but the tension was too great1 and the bow snapped4 ,buddhism arose4 ,we may call this remarkable system the product of the age--an inevitable rebellion against intolerable sacerdotalism2 and yet we must not overlook the importance of the very distinct and lofty personality of ,buddha 7,sakya ,muni7 as a power molding it into shape4 ,sidenote3 ,buddhism4 ,moral elements of this system4 ,conflict with ,brahmanism4 ,victory of ,brahmanism4 ,wherever it extended it effected a vast revolution in ,indian thought4 ,thus in regard to the institution of caste1 ,buddha did not attack it2 he did not1 it would appear1 even formally renounce it2 as a mere social institution he seems to have acknowledged it2 but then he held that all the religious were freed from its restrictions4 ,my law1 said he1 is a law of mercy for all2 and forthwith he proceeded to admit men of every caste into the closest fellowship with himself and his followers4 ,then1 he preached--he1 though not a ,brahman--in the vernacular languages--an immense innovation1 which made his teachings popular4 ,he put in the forefront of his system certain great fundamental principles of morality4 ,he made religion consist in duty1 not rites4 ,he reduced duty mainly to mercy or kindness toward all living beings--a marvelous generalization4 ,this set aside all slaughter of animals4 ,the mind of the princes and people was weary of priestcraft and ritualism2 and the teaching of the great reformer was most timely4 ,accordingly his doctrine spread with great rapidity1 and for a long time it seemed likely to prevail over ,brahmanism4 ,but various causes gradually combined against it4 ,partly1 it was overwhelmed by its own luxuriance of growth2 partly1 ,brahmanism1 which had all along maintained an intellectual superiority1 adopted1 either from conviction or policy1 most of the principles of ,buddhism1 and skillfully supplied some of its main deficiencies4 ,thus the ,brahmans retained their position2 and1 at least nominally1 their religion won the day4 ,,iii4 ,,reconstruction--,,modern ,,hinduism4 ,sidenote3 ,revival1 in an altered form1 of ,hinduism4 ,only the position of the ,brahman and the restrictions of caste retained4 ,but the ,hinduism that grew up1 as ,buddhism faded from ,indian soil1 was widely different from the system with which early ,buddhism had contended4 ,hinduism1 as it has been developed during the last thousand or twelve hundred years1 resembles a stupendous far-extended building1 or series of buildings1 which is still receiving additions1 while portions have crumbled and are crumbling into ruin4 ,every conceivable style of architecture1 from that of the stately palace to the meanest hut1 is comprehended in it4 ,on a portion of the structure here or there the eye may rest with pleasure2 but as a whole it is an unsightly1 almost monstrous1 pile4 ,or1 dismissing figures1 we must describe it as the most extraordinary creation which the world has seen4 ,a jumble of all things2 polytheistic pantheism2 much of ,buddhism2 something apparently of ,christianity1 but terribly disfigured2 a science wholly outrageous2 shreds of history twisted into wild mythology2 the bold poetry of the older books understood as literal prose2 any local deity1 any demon of the aborigines1 however hideous1 identified with some accredited ,hindu divinity2 any custom1 however repugnant to common sense or common decency1 accepted and explained--in a word1 later ,hinduism has been omnivorous2 it has partially absorbed and assimilated every system of belief1 every form of worship1 with which it has come in contact4 ,only to one or two things has it remained inflexibly true4 ,it has steadily upheld the proudest pretensions of the ,brahman2 and it has never relaxed the sternest restrictions of caste4 ,we cannot wonder at the severe judgment pronounced on ,hinduism by nearly every ,western author4 ,according to ,macaulay1 all is hideous and grotesque and ignoble2 and the calmer ,de ,tocqueville maintains that ,hinduism is perhaps the only system of belief that is worse than having no religion at all4#bb ,when a modern ,hindu is asked what are the sacred books of his religion he generally answers3 ,the ,vedas1 the ,sastras 7that is1 philosophical systems71 and the ,puranas4 ,some authorities add the ,tantras4 ,the modern form of ,hinduism is exhibited chiefly in the eighteen ,puranas1 and an equal number of ,upapuranas 7minor ,puranas74#bc ,sidenote3 ,the ,puranas4 ,when we compare the religion embodied in the ,puranas with that of ,vedic times we are startled at the magnitude of the change4 ,the ,pantheon is largely new2 old deities have been superseded2 other deities have taken their place4 ,there has been both accretion from without and evolution from within4 ,the thirty-three gods of the ,vedas have been fantastically raised to three hundred and thirty millions4 ,siva1 ,durga1 ,rama1 ,krishna1 ,kali--unknown in ancient days--are now mighty divinities2 ,indra is almost entirely overlooked1 and ,varuna has been degraded from his lofty throne and turned into a regent of the waters4 ,sidenote3 ,new deities1 rites1 and customs4 ,the worship of the ,linga 7phallus7 has been introduced4 ,so has the great dogma of ,transmigration1 which has stamped a deeper impress on later ,hindu mind than almost any other doctrine4 ,caste is fully established1 though in ,vedic days scarcely1 if at all1 recognized4 ,the dreadful practice of widow-burning has been brought in1 and this by a most daring perversion of the ,vedic texts4 ,woman1 in fact1 has fallen far below the position assigned her in early days4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,trimurtti1 a triad of gods4 ,one of the notable things in connection with the reconstruction of ,hinduism is the position it gives to the ,trimurtti1 or triad of gods--,brahma1 ,vishnu1 and ,siva4 ,something like an anticipation of this has been presented in the later ,vedic times3 fire1 air1 and the sun 7,agni1 ,vayu1 and ,surya7 being regarded by the commentator#bd as summing up the divine energies4 ,but in the ,vedas the deities often go in pairs2 and little stress should be laid on the idea of a ,vedic triad4 ,that idea1 however1 came prominently forward in later days4 ,the worship both of ,vishnu and ,siva may have existed1 from ancient times1 as popular rites not acknowledged by the ,brahmans2 but both of these deities were now fully recognized4 ,the god ,brahma was an invention of the ,brahmans2 he was no real divinity of the people1 and had hardly ever been actually worshiped4 ,it is visual to designate ,brahma1 ,vishnu1 and ,siva as ,creator1 ,preserver1 and ,destroyer respectively2 but the generalization is by no means well maintained in the ,hindu books4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,avatara4 ,the ,puranas are in general violently sectarian2 some being ,vishnuite1 others ,sivite4 ,it is in connection with ,vishnu1 especially1 that the idea of incarnation becomes prominent4 ,the ,hindu term is ,avatara1 literally1 descent2 the deity is represented as descending from heaven to earth1 for vindication of the truth and righteousness1 or1 to use the words ascribed to ,krishna1 ,for the preservation of the good1 and the destruction of the wicked1 ,for the establishment of religion1 ,i am born from age to age4 ,sidenote3 ,the descents of ,vishnu4 ,the descents of ,vishnu are usually reckoned ten4 ,of these by far the most celebrated are those of ,rama and ,krishna4 ,the great importance attached to these two deities has been traced to the influence of ,buddhism4 ,that system had exerted immense power in consequence of the gentle and attractive character ascribed to ,buddha4 ,the older gods were dim1 distant1 and often stern2 some near1 intelligible1 and loving divinity was longed for4 ,buddha was a brother-man1 and yet a quasi-deity2 and hearts longing for sympathy and succor were strongly attracted by such a personality4 ,sidenote3 ,the god ,rama4 ,the character of ,rama--or ,ramachandra--is possessed of some high qualities4 ,the great poem in which it is described at fullest length--the ,ramayana of ,valmiki--seems to have been an alteration1 made in the interests of ,hinduism1 of early ,buddhist legends2 and the ,buddhist quality of gentleness has not disappeared in the history4#be ,rama1 however1 is far from a perfect character4 ,his wife ,sita is possessed of much womanly grace and every wifely virtue2 and the sorrowful story of the warrior-god and his faithful spouse has appealed to deep sympathies in the human breast4 ,the worship of ,rama has seldom1 if ever1 degenerated into lasciviousness4 ,in spite1 however1 of the charm thrown around the life of ,rama and ,sita by the genius of ,valmiki and ,tulsida1#bf it is ,krishna1 not ,rama1 that has attained the greatest popularity among the descents of ,vishnu4 ,sidenote3 ,krishna4 ,his early life a travesty of the life of ,christ1 according to the ,gospel of the ,infancy4 ,very different morally from that of ,rama is the character of ,krishna4 ,while ,rama is but a partial manifestation of divinity ,krishna is a full manifestation2 yet what a manifestation6 ,he is represented as full of naughty tricks in his youth1 although exercising the highest powers of deity2 and1 when he grows up1 his conduct is grossly immoral and disgusting4 ,it is most startling to think that this being is by grave writers--like the authors of the ,bhagavad ,gita and the ,bhagavata ,purana--made the highest of the gods1 or1 indeed1 the only real ,god4 ,stranger still1 if possible1 is the probability that the early life of ,krishna--in part1 at least--is a dreadful travesty of the early life of ,christ1 as given in the apocryphal gospels1 especially the ,gospel of the ,infancy4 ,the falling off in the apocryphal gospels1 when compared with the canonical1 is truly sad2 but the falling off even from the apocryphal ones1 in the ,hindu books1 is altogether sickening4#bg ,a very striking characteristic of modern ,hinduism is what is termed bhakti1 or devotion4 ,there are three great ways of attaining to salvation3 karma marga1 or the way of ceremonial works2 jnana marga1 or the way of knowledge1 and bhakti marga1 or the way of devotion4 ,sidenote3 ,doctrine of bhakti introduced4 ,influence of the system4 ,mixed with ,buddhist elements4 ,exaltation of the guru4 ,the notion of trust in the gods was familiar to the mind of ,india from ,vedic days1 but the deity was indistinct and unsympathetic1 and there could hardly be love and attachment to him4 ,but there now arose the doctrine of bhakti 7devotion71 which resolved religion into emotion4 ,it came into the ,hindu system rather abruptly2 and many learned men have traced its origin to the influence of ,christianity4 ,this is quite possible2 but perhaps the fact is hardly proved4 ,contact with ,christianity1 however1 probably accelerated a process which had previously begun4 ,at all events1 the system of bhakti has had1 and still has1 great sway in ,india1 particularly in ,bengal1 among the followers of ,chaitanya1 and the large body of people in western ,india who style themselves ,vaishnavas or ,bhaktas 7devotees74 ,the popular poetry of ,maharashtra1 as exemplified in such poets as ,tukarama1 is an impassioned inculcation of devotion to ,vithoba of ,pandharpur1 who is a manifestation of ,krishna4 ,into the bhakti system of western ,india ,buddhist elements have entered2 and the school of devotees is often denominated ,bauddha-,vaishnava4 ,along with extravagant idolatry it inculcates generally1 at least in the ,maratha country1 a pure morality2 and the latter it apparently owes to ,buddhism4 ,yet there are many sad lapses from purity4 ,almost of necessity the worship of ,krishna led to corruption4 ,the hymns became erotic2 and movements hopeful at their commencement--like that of ,chaitanya of ,bengal1 in the sixteenth century--soon grievously fell off in character4 ,the attempt to make religion consist of emotion without thought1 of bhakti without jnana1 had disastrous issues4 ,coincident with the development of bhakti was the exaltation of the guru1 or religious teacher1 which soon amounted to deification--a change traceable from about the twelfth century ,a4,d4 ,sidenote3 ,explanations of ,krishna's evil deeds4 ,when pressed on the subject of ,krishna's evil deeds many are anxious to explain them as allegorical representations of the union between the divinity and true worshipers2 but some interpret them in the most literal way possible4 ,this is done especially by the followers of ,vallabha ,acharya4#bh ,these men attained a most unenviable notoriety about twenty years ago1 when a case was tried in the ,supreme ,court of ,bombay1 which revealed the practice of the most shameful licentiousness by the religious teachers and their female followers1 and this as a part of worship6 ,the disgust excited was so great and general that it was believed the influence of the sect was at an end2 but this hope unhappily has not been realized4 ,sidenote3 ,reforms attempted4 ,kabir4 ,nanak4 ,failure of all reforms4 ,reformers have arisen from time to time in ,india2 men who saw the deplorable corruption of religion1 and strove to restore it to what they considered purity4 ,next to ,buddha we may mention ,kabir1 to whom are ascribed many verses still popular4 ,probably the doctrine of the unity of ,god1 as maintained by the ,mohammedans1 had impressed him4 ,he opposed idolatry1 caste1 and ,brahmanical assumption4 ,yet his monotheism was a kind of pantheism4 ,his date may be the beginning of the fifteenth century4 ,nanak followed and founded the religion of the ,sikhs4 ,his sacred book1 the ,granth1 is mainly pantheistic2 it dwells earnestly on devotion1 especially devotion to the guru4 ,the ,sikhs now seem slowly relapsing into idolatry4 ,in truth1 the history of all attempts at reformation in ,india has been most discouraging4 ,sect after sect has successively risen to some elevation above the prevalent idolatry2 and then gradually1 as by some irresistible gravitation1 it has sunk back into the mare magnum of ,hinduism4 ,if we regard experience1 purification from within is hopeless2 the struggle for it is only a repetition of the toil of ,sisyphus1 and always with the same sad issue4 ,deliverance must come from without--from the ,gospel of ,jesus ,christ4 ,sidenote3 ,influence of the ,tantras4 ,worship of the ,sakti4 ,we mentioned the ,tantras as exerting great influence in later days4#bi ,in these the worship of ,siva1 and1 still more1 that of his wife1 is predominant4 ,the deity is now supposed to possess a double nature--one quiescent1 one active2 the latter being regarded as the ,sakti or energy of the god1 otherwise called his wife4 ,the origin of the system is not fully explained2 nor is the date of its rise ascertained4 ,the worship assumes wild1 extravagant forms1 generally obscene1 sometimes bloody4 ,it is divided into two schools--that of the right hand and that of the left4 ,the former runs into mysticism and magic in complicated observances1 and the latter into the most appalling licentiousness4 ,the worship of the ,sakti1 or female principle1 has become a most elaborate system4 ,the beings adored are the most outrageous divinities which man has ever conceived4#cj ,sorcery began early in ,india2 but it is in connection with this system that it attains to full development4 ,human sacrifices are a normal part of the worship when fully performed4 ,we cannot go farther into detail4 ,it is profoundly saddening to think that such abominations are committed2 it is still more saddening to think that they are performed as a part of divine worship4 ,conscience1 however1 is so far alive that these detestable rites are practiced only in secret1 and few1 if any1 are willing to confess that they have been initiated as worshipers4 ,sidenote3 ,modern ritual4 ,we have not yet said much about the ritual of modern days4 ,it is exceedingly complicated4 ,in the case of the god ,siva the rites are as follows1 when performed by a priest in the temple3 ,sidenote3 ,worship of ,siva4 ,the ,brahman first bathes1 then enters the temple and bows to the god4 ,he anoints the image with clarified butter or boiled oil2 pours pure water over it2 and then wipes it dry4 ,he grinds some white powder1 mixing it with water2 dips the ends of his three forefingers in it and draws them across the image4 ,he sits down2 meditates2 places rice and durwa grass on the image--places a flower on his own head1 and then on the top of the image2 then another flower on the image1 and another1 and another--accompanying each act with the recitation of sacred spells2 places white powder1 flowers1 bilva-leaves1 incense1 meat-offerings1 rice1 plantains1 and a lamp before the image2 repeats the name of ,siva1 with praises1 then prostrates himself before the image4 ,in the evening he returns1 washes his feet1 prostrates himself before the door1 opens the door1 places a lamp within1 offers milk1 sweet-meats1 and fruits to the image1 prostrates himself before it1 locks the door1 and departs4 ,very similar is the worship paid to ,vishnu3 ,sidenote3 ,worship of ,vishnu4 ,the priest bathes1 and then awakes the sleeping god by blowing a shell and ringing a bell4 ,more abundant offerings are made than to ,siva4 ,about noon1 fruits1 roots1 soaked peas1 sweet-meats1 etc41 are presented4 ,then1 later1 boiled rice1 fried herbs1 and spices2 but no flesh1 fish1 nor fowl4 ,after dinner1 betel-nut4 ,the god is then left to sleep1 and the temple is shut up for some hours4 ,toward evening curds1 butter1 sweet-meats1 fruits1 are presented4 ,at sunset a lamp is brought1 and fresh offerings made4 ,lights are waved before the image2 a small bell is rung2 water is presented for washing the mouth1 face1 and feet1 with a towel to dry them4 ,in a few minutes the offerings and the lamp are removed2 and the god is left to sleep in the dark4 ,the prescribed worship is not always fully performed4 ,still1 sixteen things are essential1 of which the following are the most important3 ,preparing a seat for the god2 invoking his presence2 bathing the image2 clothing it2 putting the string round it2 offering perfumes2 flowers2 incense2 lamps2 offerings of fruits and prepared eatables2 betel-nut2 prayers2 circumambulation4 ,an ordinary worshiper presents some of the offerings1 mutters a short prayer or two1 when circumambulating the image1 the rest being done by the priest4#ca ,we give one additional specimen of the ritual3 ,as an atonement for unwarily eating or drinking what is forbidden eight hundred repetitions of the ,gayatri prayer should be preceded by three suppressions of the breath1 water being touched during the recital of the following text3 ',the bull roars2 he has four horns1 three feet1 two heads1 seven hands1 and is bound by a three-fold cord2 he is the mighty1 resplendent being1 and pervades mortal men4'#cb ,the bull is understood to be justice personified4 ,all ,brahmanical ceremonies exhibit1 we may say1 ritualism and symbolism run mad4 ,sidenote3 ,caste4 ,the most prominent and characteristic institution of ,hinduism is caste4 ,the power of caste is as irrational as it is unbounded2 and it works almost unmixed evil4 ,the touch--even the shadow--of a low caste man pollutes4 ,the scriptural precept1 ,honor all men1 appears to a true ,hindu infinitely absurd4 ,he honors and worships a cow2 but he shrinks with horror from the touch of a ,mhar or ,mang4 ,even ,brahmans1 if they come from different provinces1 will not eat together4 ,thus ,hinduism separates man from man2 it goes on dividing and still dividing2 and new fences to guard imaginary purity are continually added4 ,sidenote3 ,treatment of women4 ,widows4 ,the whole treatment of women has gradually become most tyrannical and unjust4 ,in very ancient days they were held in considerable respect2 but1 for ages past1 the idea of woman has been steadily sinking lower and lower1 and her rights have been more and more assailed4 ,the burning of widows has been prohibited by enactment2 but the awful rite would in many places be restored were it not for the strong hand of the ,british government4 ,the practice of marrying women in childhood is still generally--all but universally--prevalent2 and when1 owing to the zeal of reformers1 a case of widow-marriage occurs1 its rarity makes it be hailed as a signal triumph4 ,multitudes of the so-called widows were never really wives1 their husbands 7so-called7 having died in childhood4 ,widows are subjected to treatment which they deem worse than death2 and yet their number1 it is calculated1 amounts to about twenty-one millions6 ,more cruel and demoralizing customs than exist in ,india in regard to women can hardly be found among the lowest barbarians4 ,we are glad to escape from dwelling on points so exceedingly painful4 ,,iv4 ,,contrast ,,with ,,christianity4 ,the immense difference between the ,hindu and ,christian religions has doubtless already frequently suggested itself to the reader4 ,it will not be necessary1 therefore1 to dwell on this topic at very great length4 ,the contrast forces itself upon us at every point4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,aryas and ,israelites--their probable future1 about #aejj ,b4,c4 ,contrast of their after-history4 ,when1 about fifteen centuries ,b4,c41 the ,aryas were victoriously occupying the ,panjab1 and the ,israelites were escaping from the iron furnace of ,egypt1 if one had been asked which of the two races would probably rise to the highest conception of the divine1 and contribute most largely to the well-being of mankind1 the answer1 quite possibly1 might have been1 the ,aryas4 ,egypt1 with its brutish idolatries1 had corrupted the faith of the ,israelites1 and slavery had crushed all manliness out of them4 ,yet how wonderful has been their after-history6 ,among ancient religions that of the ,old ,testament stands absolutely unique1 and in the fullness of time it blossomed into ,christianity4 ,how is the marvel to be explained8 ,we cannot account for it except by ascribing it to a divine election of the ,israelites and a providential training intended to fit them to become the teachers of the world4 ,salvation is of the ,jews4 ,the contrast between the teachings of the ,bible and those of the ,hindu books is simply infinite4 ,sidenote3 ,hindu theology compared with ,christian4 ,the conception of a purely immaterial ,being1 infinite1 eternal1 and unchangeable1 which is that of the ,bible regarding ,god1 is entirely foreign to the ,hindu books4 ,their doctrine is various1 but1 in every case1 erroneous4 ,it is absolute pantheism1 or polytheism1 or an inconsistent blending of polytheism and pantheism1 or atheism4 ,equally striking is the contrast between ,christianity and ,hinduism as to the attributes of ,god4 ,according to the former1 he is omnipresent2 omnipotent2 possessed of every excellence--holiness1 justice1 goodness1 truth4 ,according to the chief ,hindu philosophy1 the ,supreme is devoid of attributes--devoid of consciousness4 ,according to the popular conception1 when the ,supreme becomes conscious he is developed into three gods1 who possess respectively the qualities of truth1 passion1 and darkness4 ,sidenote3 ,conception of ,god4 ,god is a ,spirit4 ,god is light4 ,god is love4 ,these sublime declarations have no counterparts in ,hindustan4 ,he is the ,father of spirits1 according to the ,bible4 ,according to ,hinduism1 the individual spirit is a portion of the divine4 ,even the common people firmly believe this4 ,every thing is referred by ,hinduism to ,god as its immediate cause4 ,a ,christian is continually shocked by the ,hindus ascribing all sin to ,god as its source4 ,sidenote3 ,the object of worship4 ,the adoration of ,god as a ,being possessed of every glorious excellence is earnestly commanded in the ,bible4 ,thou shalt worship the ,lord thy ,god2 and him only shalt thou serve4 ,in ,india the ,supreme is never worshiped2 but any one of the multitudinous gods may be so2 and1 in fact1 every thing can be worshiped except ,god4 ,a maxim in the mouth of every ,hindu is the following3 ,where there is faith1 there is ,god4 ,believe the stone a god and it is so4 ,sidenote3 ,the sense of sin4 ,every sin being traced to ,god as its ultimate source1 the sense of personal guilt is very slight among ,hindus4 ,where it exists it is generally connected with ceremonial defilement or the breach of some one of the innumerable and meaningless rites of the religion4 ,how unlike in all this is the ,gospel6 ,the ,bible dwells with all possible earnestness on the evil of sin1 not of ceremonial but moral defilement--the transgression of the divine law1 the eternal law of right4 ,sidenote3 ,atonement4 ,how important a place in the ,christian system is held by atonement1 the great atonement made by ,christ1 it is unnecessary to say4 ,nor need we enlarge on the extraordinary power it exercises over the human heart1 at once filling it with contrition1 hatred of sin1 and overflowing joy4 ,we turn to ,hinduism4 ,alas6 we find that the earnest questionings and higher views of the ancient thinkers have in a great degree been ignored in later times4 ,sacrifice in its original form has passed away4 ,atonement is often spoken of2 but it is only some paltry device or other1 such as eating the five products of the cow1 going on pilgrimage to some sacred shrine1 paying money to the priests1 or1 it may be1 some form of bodily penance4 ,such expedients leave no impression on the heart as to the true nature and essential evil of sin4 ,sidenote3 ,salvation4 ,sanctification4 ,salvation1 in the ,christian system1 denotes deliverance1 not only from the punishment of sin1 but from its power1 implying a renovation of the moral nature4 ,the entire man is to be rectified in heart1 speech1 and behavior4 ,the perfection of the individual1 and1 through that1 the perfection of society1 are the objects aimed at2 and the consummation desired is the doing of the will of ,god on earth as it is done in heaven4 ,now1 of all this1 surely a magnificent ideal1 we find in ,hinduism no trace whatever4 ,sidenote3 ,views of life4 ,the great tenet of ,hinduism4 ,christianity is emphatically a religion of hope2 ,hinduism may be designated a religion of despair4 ,the trials of life are many and great4 ,christianity bids us regard them as discipline from a ,father's hand1 and tells us that affliction rightly borne yields the peaceable fruits of righteousness4 ,to death the ,christian looks forward without fear2 to him it is a quiet sleep1 and the resurrection draws nigh4 ,then comes the beatific vision of ,god4 ,glorified in soul and body1 the companion of angels and saints1 strong in immortal youth1 he will serve without let or hinderance the ,god and ,saviour whom he loves4 ,to the ,hindu the trials of life are penal1 not remedial4 ,at death his soul passes into another body4 ,rightly1 every human soul animates in succession eighty-four lacs 7#h1djj1jjj7 of bodies--the body of a human being1 or a beast1 or a bird1 or a fish1 or a plant1 or a stone1 according to desert4 ,this weary1 all but endless1 round of births fills the mind of a ,hindu with the greatest horror4 ,at last the soul is lost in ,god as a drop mingles with the ocean4 ,individual existence and consciousness then cease4 ,the thought is profoundly sorrowful that this is the cheerless faith of countless multitudes4 ,no wonder1 though1 the great tenet of ,hinduism is this--,existence is misery4 ,sidenote3 ,the future of the race4 ,the struggle between good and evil4 ,so much for the future of the individual4 ,regarding the future of the race ,hinduism speaks in equally cheerless terms4 ,its golden age lies in the immeasurably distant past2 and the further we recede from it the deeper must we plunge into sin and wretchedness4 ,true1 ages and ages hence the age of truth returns1 but it returns only to pass away again and torment us with the memory of lost purity and joy4 ,the experience of the universe is thus an eternal renovation of hope and disappointment4 ,in the struggle between good and evil there is no final triumph for the good4 ,we tread a fated1 eternal round from which there is no escape2 and alike the hero fights and the martyr dies in vain4 ,it is remarkable that acute intellectual men1 as many of the ,hindu poets were1 should never have grappled with the problem of the divine government of the world4 ,sidenote3 ,the future of the ,aryan race4 ,equally notable is the unconcern of the ,veda as to the welfare and the future of even the ,aryan race4 ,but how sublime is the promise given to ,abraham that in him and his seed all nations of the earth should be blessed6 ,renan has pointed with admiration to the confidence entertained at all times by the ,jew in a brilliant and happy future for mankind4 ,the ancient ,hindu cared not about the future of his neighbors1 and doubtless even the expression human race would have been unintelligible to him4 ,nor is there any pathos in the ,veda4 ,there is no deep sense of the sorrows of life4 ,max ,mller has affixed the epithet transcendent to the ,hindu mind4 ,its bent was much more toward the metaphysical1 the mystical1 the incomprehensible than toward the moral and the practical4 ,hence endless subtleties1 more meaningless and unprofitable than ever occupied the mind of ,talmudist or schoolman of the ,middle ,ages4 ,sidenote3 ,the words of ,st4 ,paul illustrated by ,hinduism4 ,but finally1 on this part of the subject1 the development of ,indian religion supplies a striking comment on the words of ,st4 ,paul3 ,the invisible things of ,god are clearly seen1 being understood from the things that are made4 ,but when they knew ,god they glorified him not as ,god1 neither were thankful1 but became vain in their imaginations1 and their foolish heart was darkened4 ,sidenote3 ,moral power4 ,hinduism is deplorably deficient in power to raise and purify the human soul1 from having no high example of moral excellence4 ,its renowned sages were noted for irritability and selfishness--great men at cursing2 and the gods for the most part were worse4 ,need we say how gloriously rich the ,gospel is in having in the character of ,christ the realized ideal of every possible excellence8 ,sidenote3 ,ethical effect of ,hinduism4 ,the people better than their religion4 ,summa religionis est imitari quem colis3 ,it is the sum of religion to imitate the being worshiped2#cc or1 as the ,hindus express it3 ,as is the deity such is the devotee4 ,worship the ,god revealed in the ,bible1 and you become god-like4 ,the soul strives1 with divine aid1 to purify itself even as ,god is pure4 ,but apply the principle to ,hinduism4 ,alas6 the ,pantheon is almost a pandemonium4 ,krishna1 who in these days is the chief deity to at least a hundred millions of people1 does not possess one elevated attribute4 ,if1 in the circumstances1 society does not become a moral pesthouse it is only because the people continue better than their religion4 ,the human heart1 though fallen1 is not fiendish4 ,it has still its purer instincts2 and1 when the legends about abominable gods and goddesses are falling like mildew1 these are still to some extent kept alive by the sweet influences of earth and sky and by the charities of family life4 ,when the heart of woman is about to be swept into the abyss her infant's smile restores her to her better self4 ,thus family life does not go to ruin2 and so long as that anchor holds society will not drift on the rocks that stand so perilously near4 ,still1 the state of things is deplorably distressing4 ,sidenote3 ,the doctrine of incarnation4 ,the doctrine of the incarnation is of fundamental importance in ,christianity4 ,it seems almost profanation to compare it with the ,hindu teaching regarding the ,avataras1 or descents of ,vishnu4 ,it is difficult to extract any meaning out of the three first manifestations1 when the god became in succession a fish1 a boar1 and a tortoise4 ,of the great descents in ,rama and ,krishna we have already spoken4 ,the ninth ,avatara was that of ,buddha1 in which the deity descended for the purpose of deceiving men1 making them deny the gods1 and leading them to destruction4 ,so blasphemous an idea may seem hardly possible1 even for the bewildered mind of ,india2 but this is doubtless the ,brahmanical explanation of the rise and progress of ,buddhism4 ,it was fatal error1 but inculcated by a divine being4 ,even the sickening tales of ,krishna and his amours are less shocking than this4 ,when we turn from such representations of divinity to the ,word made flesh we seem to have escaped from the pestilential air of a charnel-house to the sweet1 pure breath of heaven4 ,v4 ,,hinduism ,,in ,,contact ,,with ,,christianity4 ,sidenote3 ,attempted reforms4 ,we have used the word reformer in this ,tract4 ,we formerly noted that1 in ,india1 there have arisen from time to time men who saw and sorrowed over the erroneous doctrines and degrading rites of the popular system4 ,in quite recent times they have had successors4 ,some account of their work may form a fitting conclusion to our discussion4 ,sidenote3 ,advance of ,christianity in ,india4 ,with the large influx into ,india of ,christian ideas it was to be expected that some impression would be made on ,hinduism4 ,we do not refer to conversion--the full acceptance of the ,christian faith4 ,christianity has advanced and is advancing in ,india more rapidly than is generally supposed2 but far beyond the circle of those who come out and are separate its mighty power is telling on ,hinduism4 ,the great fundamental truths of the ,gospel1 when once uttered and understood1 can hardly be forgotten4 ,disliked and denied they may be2 but forgotten8 ,no4 ,thus they gradually win their way1 and multitudes who have no thought of becoming ,christians are ready to admit that they are beautiful and true2 for belief and practice are often widely separated in ,hindu minds4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,brahma ,samaj4 ,but it was to be expected that the new ideas pouring into ,india--and among these we include not only distinctively ,christian ideas1 but ,western thought generally--would manifest their presence and activity in concrete forms1 in attempted reconstructions of religion4 ,the most remarkable example of such a reconstruction is exhibited in the ,brahmo ,somaj 7more correctly ,brahma ,samaj7--which may be rendered the ,church of ,god4 ,sidenote3 ,rammohun ,roy4 ,effect of ,christianity upon him4 ,it is traceable to the efforts of a truly distinguished man1 ,rammohun ,roy4 ,he was a person of studious habits1 intelligent1 acute1 and deeply in earnest on the subject of religion4 ,he studied not only ,hinduism in its various forms1 but ,buddhism1 ,mohammedanism1 and ,christianity4 ,he was naturally an eclectic1 gathering truth from all quarters where he thought he could find it4 ,a specially deep impression was made on his mind by ,christianity2 and in #ahbj he published a book with the remarkable title1 ,the ,precepts of ,jesus the ,guide to ,peace and ,happiness4 ,very frequently he gave expression to the sentiment that the teachings of ,christ were the truest and deepest that he knew4 ,still1 he did not believe in ,christ's divinity4 ,sidenote3 ,debendernath ,tagore4 ,keshub ,chunder ,sen4 ,formation of a new ,samaj4 ,in ,january1 #ahcj1 a place of worship was opened by ,rammohun ,roy and his friends4 ,it was intended for the worship of one ,god1 without idolatrous rites of any kind4 ,this was undoubtedly a very important event1 and great was the interest aroused in connection with it4 ,rammohun ,roy1 however1 visited ,britain in #ahca1 and died at ,bristol in #ahcc2 and the cause for which he had so earnestly labored in ,india languished for a time4 ,but in the year #ahda ,debendernath ,tagore1 a man of character and wealth1 joined the ,brahmo ,somaj1 and gave a kind of constitution to it4 ,it was fully organized by #ahdd4 ,no definite declaration1 however1 had been made as to the authority of the ,vedas2 but1 after a lengthened period of inquiry and discussion1 a majority of the ,somaj rejected the doctrine of their infallibility by #ahej4 ,the rock of intuition now began to be spoken of2 man's reason was his sufficient guide4 ,still1 great respect was cherished for the ancient belief and customs of the land4 ,but in #aheh a new champion appeared on the scene1 in the well-known ,keshub ,chunder ,sen4 ,ardent1 impetuous1 ambitions--full of ideas derived from ,christian sources#cd--;he could not brook the slow movements of the ,somaj in the path of reform4 ,important changes1 both religious and social1 were pressed by him2 and the more conservative ,debendernath somewhat reluctantly consented to their introduction4 ,matters were1 however1 brought to a crisis by the marriage of two persons of different castes in #ahfd4 ,in ,february1 #ahfe1 the progressive party formally severed their connection with the original ,somaj2 and in ,august1 #ahfi1 they opened a new place of worship of their own4 ,since this time the original or ,adi ,somaj has been little heard of1 and its movement--if it has moved at all--has been retrogressive4 ,the new ,somaj--the ,brahmo ,somaj of ,india1 as it called itself--under the guidance of ,mr4 ,sen became very active4 ,a missionary institute was set up1 and preachers were sent over a great part of ,india4 ,much was accomplished on behalf of women2 and in #ahgb a ,marriage ,act for members of the ,somaj was passed by the ,indian legislature1 which legalized union between people of different castes1 and fixed on fourteen as the lowest age for the marriage of females4 ,these were important reforms4 ,mr4 ,sen's influence was naturally and necessarily great2 but in opposing the venerable leader of the original ,somaj he had set an example which others were quite willing to copy4 ,sidenote3 ,discontent growing4 ,several of his followers began to demand more radical reforms than he was willing to grant4 ,the autocracy exercised by ,mr4 ,sen was strongly objected to1 and a constitution of the ,somaj was demanded4 ,mr4 ,sen openly maintained that heaven from time to time raises up men endowed with special powers1 and commissioned to introduce new forms or dispensations of religion2 and his conduct fully proved that he regarded himself as far above his followers4 ,complaints became louder2 and although the eloquence and genius of ,keshub were able to keep the rebellious elements from exploding it was evident1 as early as #ahgc1 that a crisis was approaching4 ,this came in #ahgh1 when ,mr4 ,sen's daughter was married to the ,maharaja of ,kuch ,behar4 ,the bride was not fourteen1 and the bridegroom was sixteen4 ,now1 ,mr4 ,sen had been earnest and successful in getting the ,brahmo ,marriage ,act passed1 which ruled that the lowest marriageable age for a woman was fourteen1 and for a man eighteen4 ,here was gross inconsistency4 ,what could explain it8 ,ambition1 exclaimed great numbers2 the wish to exalt himself and his daughter by alliance with a prince4 ,but ,mr4 ,sen declared that he had consented to the marriage in consequence of an express intimation that such was the will of heaven4 ,mr4 ,sen denied miracles1 but believed in inspiration2 and of his own inspiration he seems to have entertained no doubt4 ,we thus obtain a glimpse into the peculiar working of his mind4 ,every full conviction1 every strong wish of his own he ascribed to divine suggestion4 ,this put him in a position of extreme peril4 ,it was clear that an enthusiastic1 imaginative1 self-reliant nature like his might thus be borne on to any extent of fanaticism4 ,sidenote3 ,revolt2 a third ,samaj4 ,new ,dispensation4 ,a great revolt from ,mr4 ,sen's authority now took place1 and the ,sadharan ,samaj was organized in ,may1 #ahgh4 ,an appeal had been made to the members generally1 and no fewer than twenty-one provincial ,samajes1 with more than four hundred members1 male and female1 joined the new society4 ,this number amounted to about two thirds of the whole body4 ,keshub and his friends denounced the rebels in very bitter language2 and yet1 in one point of view1 their secession was a relief4 ,men of abilities equal1 and education superior1 to his own had hitherto acted as a drag on his movements2 he was now delivered from their interference and could deal with the admiring and submissive remnant as he pleased4 ,ideas that had been working in his mind now attained rapid development4 ,within two years the flag of the ,new ,dispensation was raised2 and of that dispensation ,mr4 ,sen was the undoubted head4 ,very daring was the language ,mr4 ,sen used in a public lecture regarding this new creation4 ,he claimed equality for it with the ,jewish and ,christian dispensations1 and for himself singular authority and a divine commission4 ,sidenote3 ,its creed4 ,in the ,creed of the ,new ,dispensation the name of ,christ does not occur4 ,the articles were as follows3 a4 ,one ,god1 one ,scripture1 one ,church4 b4 ,eternal progress of the soul4 c4 ,communion of prophets and saints4 d4 ,fatherhood and motherhood of ,god4 e4 ,brotherhood of man and sisterhood of woman4 f4 ,harmony of knowledge and holiness1 love and work1 yoga and asceticism in their highest development4 g4 ,loyalty to sovereign4 ,sidenote3 ,omission of ,christ's name4 ,the omission of ,christ's name is the more remarkable because ,mr4 ,sen spoke much of him in his public lectures4 ,he had said in ,may1 #ahgi1 ,none but ,jesus1 none but ,jesus1 none but ,jesus ever deserved this precious diadem1 ,india2 and ,jesus shall have it4 ,but he clearly indicated that the ,christ he sought was an ,indian ,christ2 one who was a ,hindu in faith1 and who would help the ,hindus to realize their national idea of a yogi 7ascetic74 ,sidenote3 ,motherhood of ,god4 ,let it be noted that1 from the beginning of his career1 ,mr4 ,sen had spoken earnestly of the fatherhood of ,god and the brotherhood of man--though1 these great conceptions are not of ,hindu origin4 ,it is difficult to see why1 in later days1 he insisted so much on the motherhood of ,god4 ,perhaps it was a repetition--he probably would have called it an exaltation--of the old ,hindu idea1 prevalent especially among the worshipers of ,siva1 that there is a female counterpart--a ,sakti--of every divinity4 ,or1 possibly1 it may have been to conciliate the worshipers of ,durga and ,kali1 those great goddesses of ,bengal4 ,sidenote3 ,public proclamation said to be from ,god4 ,a public proclamation was soon issued1 purporting to be from ,god himself1 as ,india's mother4 ,the whole thing was very startling2 many1 even of ,keshub's friends1 declared it blasphemous4 ,next1 in the ,flag ,ceremony1 the flag or banner of the ,new ,dispensation received a homage scarcely distinguishable from worship4 ,then--as if in strict imitation of the ancient adoration of ,agni1 or ,fire--a pile of wood was lighted1 clarified butter poured on it1 and prayers addressed to it1 ending thus--,o1 brilliant ,fire6 in thee we behold our resplendent ,lord4 ,this was1 at least1 symbolism run wild2 and every one1 except those who were prepared to follow their leader to all lengths1 saw that in a land like ,india1 wedded to idolatry1 it was fearfully perilous4 ,sidenote3 ,apostolic ,durbar4 ,in ,march1 #ahha1 ,mr4 ,sen and his friends introduced celebrations which1 to ,christian minds1 seemed a distressing caricature of the ,christian sacraments4 ,other institutions followed2 an ,apostolic ,durbar 7,court of ,apostles71 for instance1 was established4 ,there was no end to ,mr4 ,sen's inventiveness4 ,in a public lecture delivered in ,january1 #ahhc1 on ,asia's message to ,europe1 he elaborately expounded the idea that all the great religions are of ,asiatic origin1 and that all of them are true1 and that the one thing required to constitute the faith of the future--the religion of humanity--is the blending of all these varied ,oriental systems into one4 ,sidenote3 ,inconsistencies between ,mr4 ,sen's public and private utterances4 ,mr4 ,sen's policy of reserve4 ,it was not easy to reconcile ,mr4 ,sen's public utterances with his private ones--though far be it from us to tax him with insincerity4 ,thus1 in an interview extending over two hours1 which the writer and two missionary friends had with him a week or so before the lecture now referred to1 he said he accepted as true and vital all the leading doctrines of the ,christian faith1 with the exception of the resurrection of ,christ4 ,but another fundamental difference remained--he avowedly dissented from the orthodox creed in rejecting the miraculous element in ,scripture4 ,at an interview ,i had with him some time before he earnestly disclaimed all intention to put ,christ on a level with ,buddha or ,mohammed4 ,i am educating my friends1 he said1 to understand and approve of ,christianity2 ,i have not yet said my last word about ,christ4 ,it is a solemn question1 ,had he said it when his career was ended8 ,if so1 it was far from a satisfactory word4 ,his policy of reserve and adaptation had probably kept him from uttering all that was in his heart2 but it was a sorely mistaken policy4 ,had he temporized less he would have accomplished more4 ,since the death of ,mr4 ,sen there has been a violent dispute between his family and the ,apostolic ,durbar1 on one side1 and one of his ablest followers1 on the other2 and the ,new ,dispensation will probably split in two1 if it does not perish altogether4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,sadharan ,samaj4 ,in the meantime1 the ,sadharan ,samaj1 which broke off from ,keshub's party in #ahgh1 has been going on with no small vigor4 ,vagaries1 either in doctrine or rites1 have been carefully shunned2 its partisans profess a pure ,theistic creed and labor diligently in the cause of social reform4 ,their position is nearly that of ,unitarian ,christianity1 and we fear they are not at present approximating to the full belief of the ,church ,catholic4 ,sidenote3 ,movements in western ,india4 ,tenets of the ,prarthana ,sabha4 ,very similar in character to the ,brahmo ,somaj is the ,prarthana ,somaj in western ,india4 ,as far back as #ahej1 or a little earlier1 there was formed a society called the ,prarthana ,sabha 7,prayer-meeting74 ,its leading tenets were as follows3 #a4 ,i believe in one ,god4 #b4 ,i renounce idol-worship4 #c4 ,i will do my best to lead a moral life4 #d4 ,if ,i commit any sin through the weakness of my moral nature ,i will repent of it and ask the pardon of ,god4 ,the society1 after some time1 began to languish2 but in #ahfg it was revived under the name of ,prarthana ,somaj4 ,its chief branches are in ,bombay1 ,poona1 ,ahmedabad1 and ,surat4 ,sidenote3 ,arya ,samaj4 ,an interesting movement called the ,arya ,samaj was commenced a few years ago by a ,pandit--,dayanand ,sarasvati4 ,he received the ,vedas as fully inspired1 but maintained that they taught monotheism--,agni1 ,indra1 and all the rest being merely different names of ,god4 ,it was a desperate effort to save the reputation of the ancient books2 but1 as all ,sanskrit scholars saw at a glance1 the whole idea was a delusion4 ,the ,pandit is now dead2 and the ,arya ,samaj may not long survive him4 ,at the time we write we hear of an attempt to defend idolatry and caste made by men of considerable education4 ,sidenote3 ,theosophists4 ,the so-called ,theosophists have1 for several years1 been active in ,india4 ,of existing religions1 ,buddhism is their natural ally4 ,they are atheists4 ,a combination which they formed with the ,arya ,samaj speedily came to an end4 ,lastly1 the followers of ,mr4 ,bradlaugh are diligent in supplying their books to ,indian students4 ,poor ,india6 ,no wonder if her mind is bewildered as she listens to such a ,babel of voices4 ,the state of things in ,india now strikingly resembles that which existed in the ,roman ,empire at the rise of ,christianity2 when ,east and ,west were brought into the closest contact1 and a great conflict of systems of thought took place in consequence4 ,but even as one hostile form of gnostic belief rose after another1 and rose only to fall--and as the greatest and best-disciplined foe of early ,christianity--the later ,platonism--gave way before the steady1 irresistible march of gospel truth1 so--we have every reason to hope--it will be yet again4 ,the ,christian feels his heart swell in his breast as he thinks what1 in all human probability1 ,india will be a century1 or even half a century1 hence4 ,o what a new life to that fairest of ,eastern lands when she casts herself in sorrow and supplication at the feet of the living ,god1 and then rises to proclaim to a listening world ,her deep repentance and her new-found joy6 ,may ,god hasten the advent of that happy day6 ,,the ,,rise ,,and ,,decline ,,of ,,islam4 ,,outline ,,of ,,the ,,essay4 ,the progress of ,islam was slow until ,mohammed cast aside the precepts of toleration and adopted an aggressive1 militant policy4 ,then it became rapid4 ,the motives which animated the armies of ,islam were mixed--material and spiritual4 ,without the truths contained in the system success would have been impossible1 but neither without the sword would the religion have been planted in ,arabia1 nor beyond4 ,the alternatives offered to conquered peoples were ,islam1 the sword1 or tribute4 ,the drawbacks and attractions of the system are examined4 ,the former were not such as to deter men of the world from embracing the faith4 ,the sexual indulgences sanctioned by it are such as to make ,islam the ,easy way4 ,the spread of ,islam was stayed whenever military success was checked4 ,the ,faith was meant for ,arabia and not for the world1 hence it is constitutionally incapable of change or development4 ,the degradation of woman hinders the growth of freedom and civilization under it4 ,christianity is contrasted in the means used for its propagation1 the methods it employed in grappling with and overcoming the evils that it found existing in the world1 in the relations it established between the sexes1 in its teaching with regard to the respective duties of the civil and spiritual powers1 and1 above all1 in its redeeming character1 and then the conclusion come to that ,christianity is divine in its origin4 ,,the ,,rise ,,and ,,decline ,,of ,,islam4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,introduction4 ,sidenote3 ,islam pre-eminent in its rapid spread4 ,among the religions of the earth ,islam must take the precedence in the rapidity and force with which it spread4 ,within a very short time from its planting in ,arabia the new faith had subdued great and populous provinces4 ,in half a dozen years1 counting from the death of the founder1 the religion prevailed throughout ,arabia1 ,syria1 ,persia1 and ,egypt1 and before the close of the century it ruled supreme over the greater part of the vast populations from ,gibraltar to the ,oxus1 from the ,black ,sea to the river ,indus4 ,sidenote3 ,propagation far quicker than of ,christianity4 ,in comparison with this grand outburst the first efforts of ,christianity were1 to the outward eye1 faint and feeble1 and its extension so gradual that what the ,mohammedan religion achieved in ten or twenty years it took the faith of ,jesus long centuries to accomplish4 ,sidenote3 ,object of the ,tract4 ,the object of these few pages is1 first1 to inquire briefly into the causes which led to the marvelous rapidity of the first movement of ,islam3 secondly1 to consider the reasons which eventually stayed its advance2 and1 lastly1 to ascertain why ,mohammedan countries have kept so far in the rear of other lands in respect of intellectual and social progress4 ,in short1 the question is how it was that1 ,pallas-like1 the faith sprang ready-armed from the ground1 conquering and to conquer1 and why1 the weapons dropping from its grasp1 ,islam began to lose its pristine vigor1 and finally relapsed into inactivity4 ,i4 ,,the ,,rapid ,,spread ,,of ,,islam4 ,sidenote3 ,two periods in the mission of ,mohammed4 ,the personal ministry of ,mohammed divides itself into two distinct periods3 first1 his life at ,mecca as a preacher and a prophet2 second1 his life at ,medina as a prophet and a king4 ,sidenote3 ,i4 ,ministry at ,mecca1 ,a4,d4 #fji-fbb4 ,success at ,mecca limited4 ,it is only in the first of these periods that ,islam at all runs parallel with ,christianity4 ,the great body of his fellow-citizens rejected the ministry of ,mohammed and bitterly opposed his claims4 ,his efforts at ,mecca were1 therefore1 confined to teaching and preaching and to the publishing of the earlier ,suras1 or chapters of his ,revelation4 ,after some thirteen years spent thus his converts1 to the number of about a hundred and fifty men and women1 were forced by the persecution of the ,coreish 7the ruling tribe at ,mecca1 from which ,mohammed was descended7 to quit their native city and emigrate to ,medina4#ce ,a hundred more had previously fled from ,mecca for the same cause1 and found refuge at the court of the ,negus1 or king of ,abyssinia2 and there was already a small company of followers among the citizens of ,medina4 ,at the utmost1 therefore1 the number of disciples gained over by the simple resort to teaching and preaching did not1 during the first twelve years of ,mohammed's ministry1 exceed a few hundreds4 ,it is true that the soil of ,mecca was stubborn and 7unlike that of ,judea7 wholly unprepared4 ,the cause also1 at times1 became the object of sustained and violent opposition4 ,even so much of success was consequently1 under the peculiar circumstances1 remarkable4 ,but it was by no means singular4 ,the progress fell far short of that made by ,christianity during the corresponding period of its existence1#cf and indeed by many reformers who have been the preachers of a new faith4 ,it gave no promise whatever of the marvelous spectacle that was about to follow4 ,sidenote3 ,,ii4 ,change of policy at ,medina1 ,a4,d4 #fbb-fcb4 ,arabia converted from ,medina at the point of the sword4 ,having escaped from ,mecca and found a new and congenial home in ,medina1 ,mohammed was not long in changing his front4 ,at ,mecca1 surrounded by enemies1 he taught toleration4 ,he was simply the preacher commissioned to deliver a message1 and bidden to leave the responsibility with his ,master and his hearers4 ,he might argue with the disputants1 but it must be in a way most mild and gracious2 for in religion 7such was his teaching before he reached ,medina7 there should be neither violence nor constraint4#cg ,at ,medina the precepts of toleration were quickly cast aside and his whole policy reversed4 ,no sooner did ,mohammed begin to be recognized and obeyed as the chief of ,medina than he proceeded to attack the ,jewish tribes settled in the neighborhood because they refused to acknowledge his claims and believe in him as a prophet foretold in their ,scriptures2 two of these tribes were exiled1 and the third exterminated in cold blood4 ,in the second year after the ,hegiraa1 or flight from ,mecca 7the period from which the ,mohammedan era dates71 he began to plunder the caravans of the ,coreish1 which passed near to ,medina on their mercantile journeys between ,arabia and ,syria4 ,so popular did the cause of the now militant and marauding prophet speedily become among the citizens of ,medina and the tribes around that1 after many battles fought with varying success1 he was able1 in the eighth year of the ,hegirab to re-enter his native city at the head of ten thousand armed followers4 ,thenceforward success was assured4 ,none dared to oppose his pretensions4 ,and before his death1 in the eleventh year of the ,hegirac1 all ,arabia1 from ,bab-el-,mandeb and ,oman to the confines of the ,syrian desert1 was forced to submit to the supreme authority of the now kingly prophet and to recognize the faith and obligations of ,islam4#ch ,sidenote3 ,religion of ,mohammed described4 ,this ,islam1 so called from its demanding the entire surrender of the believer to the will and service of ,god1 is based on the recognition of ,mohammed as a prophet foretold in the ,jewish and ,christian ,scriptures--the last and greatest of the prophets4 ,on him descended the ,koran from time to time1 an immediate revelation from the ,almighty4 ,idolatry and polytheism are with iconoclastic zeal denounced as sins of the deepest dye2 while the unity of the ,deity is proclaimed as the grand and cardinal doctrine of the faith4 ,divine providence pervades the minutest concerns of life1 and predestination is taught in its most naked form4 ,yet prayer is enjoined as both meritorious and effective2 and at five stated times every day must it be specially performed4 ,the duties generally of the moral law are enforced1 though an evil laxity is given in the matter of polygamy and divorce4 ,tithes are demanded as alms for the poor4 ,a fast during the month of ,ramzan must be kept throughout the whole of every day2 and the yearly pilgrimage to ,mecca--an ancient institution1 the rites of which were now divested of their heathenish accompaniments--maintained4 ,the existence of angels and devils is taught1 and heaven and hell are depicted in material colors--the one of sensuous pleasure1 the other of bodily torment4 ,finally1 the resurrection1 judgment1 and retribution of good and evil are set forth in great detail4 ,such was the creed--,there is no god but the ,lord1 and ,mohammed is his prophet--to which ,arabia now became obedient4 ,sidenote3 ,arabia apostatizes2 but is speedily reconquered and reclaimed1 ,a4,d4 #fcc4 ,but immediately on the death of ,mohammed the entire peninsula relapsed into apostasy4 ,medina and ,mecca remained faithful2 but every-where else the land seethed with rebellion4 ,some tribes joined the false prophets1 of whom four had arisen in different parts of ,arabia2 some relapsed into their ancient heathenism2 while others proposed a compromise--they would observe the stated times of prayer1 but would be excused the tithe4 ,every-where was rampant anarchy4 ,the apostate tribes attacked ,medina1 but were repulsed by the brave old ,caliph ,abu ,bekr1 who refused to abate one jot or tittle1 as the successor of ,mohammed1 of the obligations of ,islam4 ,eleven columns were sent forth under as many leaders1 trained in the warlike school of ,mohammed4 ,these fought their way1 step by step1 successfully2 and thus1 mainly through the wisdom and firmness of ,abu ,bekr and the valor and genius of ,khalid1 the ,sword of ,god1 the ,arab tribes1 one by one1 were overcome and forced back into their allegiance and the profession of ,islam4 ,the reconquest of ,arabia and re-imposition of ,mohammedanism as the national faith1 which it took a whole year to accomplish1 is thus described by an ,arabian author1 who wrote at the close of the second century of the ,mohammedan era3 ,after his decease there remained not one of the followers of the prophet that did not apostatize1 saving only a small company of his ,companions and kinsfolk1 who hoped thus to secure the government to themselves4 ,hereupon ,abu ,bekr displayed marvelous skill1 energy1 and address1 so that the power passed into his hands4444 ,and thus he persevered until the apostate tribes were all brought back to their allegiance1 some by kindly treatment1 persuasion1 and craft2 some through terror and fear of the sword2 and others by the prospect of power and wealth as well as by the lusts and pleasures of this life4 ,and so it came to pass that all the ,bedouin tribes were in the end converted outwardly1 but not from inward conviction4#ci ,sidenote3 ,the ,arabs thus reclaimed were1 at the first1 sullen4 ,the temper of the tribes thus reclaimed by force of arms was at the first strained and sullen4 ,but the scene soon changed4 ,suddenly the whole peninsula was shaken1 and the people1 seized with a burning zeal1 issued forth to plant the new faith in other lands4 ,it happened on this wise3 ,sidenote3 ,roused by war-cry1 they issue from the peninsula1 ,a4,d4 #fcd1 et4 seq4 ,the opposing forces4 ,arab enthusiasm4 ,the columns sent from ,medina to reduce the rebellious tribes to the north-west on the ,gulf of ,ayla1 and to the north-east on the ,persian ,gulf1 came at once into collision with the ,christian ,bedouins of ,syria on the one hand and with those of ,mesopotamia on the other4 ,these again were immediately supported by the neighboring forces of the ,roman and ,persian empires1 whose vassals respectively they were4 ,and so1 before many months1 ,abu ,bekr found his generals opposed by great and imposing armies on either side4 ,he was1 in fact1 waging mortal combat at one and the same moment with the ,kaiser and the ,chosroes1 the ,byzantine emperor and the great king of ,persia4 ,the risk was imminent1 and an appeal went forth for help to meet the danger4 ,the battle-cry resounded from one end of ,arabia to the other1 and electrified the land4 ,levy after levy1 en masse1 started up at the call from every quarter of the peninsula1 and the ,bedouin tribes1 as bees from their hive1 streamed forth in swarms1 animated by the prospect of conquest1 plunder1 and captive damsels1 or1 if slain in battle1 by the still more coveted prize of the martyr in the material paradise of ,mohammed4 ,with a military ardor and new-born zeal in which carnal and spiritual aspirations were strangely blended1 the ,arabs rushed forth to the field1 like the war-horse of ,job1 that smelleth the battle afar off1 the thunder of the captains and the shouting4 ,sullen constraint was in a moment transformed into an absolute devotion and fiery resolve to spread the faith4 ,the ,arab warrior became the missionary of ,islam4 ,sidenote3 ,arabs1 a military body1 subsidized and mobilized by ,omar4 ,it was now the care of ,omar1 the second caliph or ruler of the new-born empire1 to establish a system whereby the spirit militant1 called into existence with such force and fervor1 might be rendered permanent4 ,the entire ,arabian people was subsidized4 ,the surplus revenues which in rapidly increasing volume began to flow from the conquered lands into the ,moslem treasuries were to the last farthing distributed among the soldiers of ,arabian descent4 ,the whole nation was enrolled1 and the name of every warrior entered upon the roster of ,islam4 ,forbidden to settle anywhere1 and relieved from all other work1 the ,arab hordes became1 in fact1 a standing army threatening the world4 ,great bodies of armed men were kept thus ever mobilized1 separate and in readiness for new enterprise4 ,sidenote3 ,mission of ,islam described by ,fairbairn4 ,the change which came over the policy of the ,founder of the ,faith at ,medina1 and paved the way for this marvelous system of world-wide rapine and conversion to ,islam1 is thus described by a thoughtful and sagacious writer3 ,medina was fatal to the higher capabilities of ,islam4 ,mohammed became then a king2 his religion was incorporated in a ,state that had to struggle for its life in the fashion familiar to the rough-handed sons of the desert4 ,the prophet was turned into the legislator and commander2 his revelations were now laws1 and now military orders and manifestoes4 ,the mission of ,islam became one that only the sword could accomplish1 robbery of the infidel became meritorious1 and conquest the supreme duty it owed to the world4444 ,the religion which lived an unprospering and precarious life1 so long as it depended on the prophetic word alone1 became an aggressive and victorious power so soon as it was embodied in a ,state4#dj ,sidenote3 ,and by von ,kremer4 ,another learned and impartial authority tells us3 ,the ,mussulman power under the first four caliphs was nothing but a grand religio-political association of ,arab tribes for universal plunder and conquest under the holy banner of ,islam1 and the watch-word1 ,there is no god but the ,lord1 and ,mohammed is his apostle4 ,on pretext of spreading the only true religion the ,arabs swallowed up fair provinces lying all around1 and1 driving a profitable business1 enriched themselves simultaneously in a worldly sense4#da ,sidenote3 ,religious merit of fighting in the ways of the ,lord4 ,the motives which nerved the armies of ,islam were a strange combination of the lower instincts of nature with the higher aspirations of the spirit4 ,to engage in the ,holy ,war was the rarest and most blessed of all religious virtues1 and conferred on the combatant a special merit2 and side by side with it lay the bright prospect of spoil and female slaves1 conquest and glory4 ,mount thy horse1 said ,osama ibn ,zeid to ,abu ,bekr as he accompanied the ,syrian army a little way on its march1 out of ,medina4 ,nay1 replied the caliph1 ,i will not ride1 but ,i will walk and soil my feet a little space in the ways of the ,lord4 ,verily1 every footstep in the ways of the ,lord is equal in merit to manifold good works1 and wipeth away a multitude of sins4#db ,and of the martyrs1 those who fell in these crusading campaigns1 ,mohammed thus described the blessed state3 ,think not1 in any wise1 of those killed in the ways of the ,lord1 as if they were dead4 ,yea1 they are alive1 and are nourished with their ,lord1 exulting in that which ,god hath given them of his favor1 and rejoicing in behalf of those who have not yet joined them1 but are following after4 ,no terror afflicteth them1 neither are they grieved4--,sura iii4 ,sidenote3 ,material fruits of ,moslem crusade4 ,the material fruits of their victories raised the ,arabs at once from being the needy inhabitants of a stony1 sterile soil1 where1 with difficulty1 they eked out a hardy subsistence1 to be the masters of rich and luxuriant lands flowing with milk and honey4 ,after one of his great victories on the plains of ,chaldea1 ,khalid called together his troops1 flushed with conquest1 and lost in wonder at the exuberance around them1 and thus addressed them3 ,ye see the riches of the land4 ,its paths drop fatness and plenty1 so that the fruits of the earth are scattered abroad even as stones are in ,arabia4 ,if but as a provision for this present life1 it were worth our while to fight for these fair fields and banish care and penury forever from us4 ,such were the aspirations dear to the heart of every ,arab warrior4 ,again1 after the battle of ,jalola1 a few years later1 the treasure and spoil of the ,persian monarch1 captured by the victors1 was valued at thirty million of dirhems 7about a million sterling74 ,the royal fifth 7the crown share of the booty7 was sent as usual to ,medina under charge of ,ziad1 who1 in the presence of the ,caliph ,omar1 harangued the citizens in a glowing description of what had been won in ,persia1 fertile lands1 rich cities1 and endless spoil1 besides captive maids and princesses4 ,sidenote3 ,rich booty taken in the capital of ,persia1 ,a4,d4 #fcg4 ,in relating the capture of ,medain 7the ancient ,ctesiphon7 tradition revels in the untold wealth which fell into the hands of ,sad1 the conqueror1 and his followers4 ,besides millions of treasure1 there was endless store of gold and silver vessels1 rich vestments1 and rare and precious things4 ,the ,arabs gazed bewildered at the tiara1 brocaded vestments1 jeweled armor1 and splendid surroundings of the throne4 ,they tell of a camel of silver1 life-size1 with a rider of gold1 and of a golden horse with emeralds for teeth1 the neck set with rubies1 the trappings of gold4 ,and we may read in ,gibbon of the marvelous banqueting carpet1 representing a garden1 the ground of wrought gold1 the walks of silver1 the meadows of emeralds1 rivulets of pearls1 and flowers and fruits of diamonds1 rubies1 and rare gems4 ,the precious metals lost their conventional value1 gold was parted with for its weight in silver2 and so on4#dc ,sidenote3 ,success in battle ascribed to divine aid4 ,it is the virtue of ,islam that it recognizes a special providence1 seeing the hand of ,god1 as in every thing1 so pre-eminently also in victory4 ,when ,sad1 therefore1 had established himself in the palace of the ,chosroes he was not forgetful to render thanks in a service of praise4 ,one of the princely mansions was turned for the moment into a temple1 and there1 followed by his troops1 he ascribed the victory to the ,lord of ,hosts4 ,the lesson accompanying the prayers was taken from a ,sura 7or chapter of the ,koran7 which speaks of ,pharaoh and his riders being overwhelmed in the ,red ,sea1 and contains this passage1 held to be peculiarly appropriate to the occasion3 ,how many gardens and fountains did they leave behind1 ,and fields of corn1 and fair dwelling-places1 ,and pleasant things which they enjoyed6 ,even thus have ,we made another people to inherit the same4#dd ,sidenote3 ,martyrdom in the field coveted by ,moslem crusaders4 ,the ,moslem crown of martyrdom4 ,such as fell in the conflict were called martyrs2 a halo of glory surrounded them1 and special joys awaited them even on the battlefield4 ,and so it came to pass that the warriors of ,islam had an unearthly longing for the crown of martyrdom4 ,the ,caliph ,omar was inconsolable at the loss of his brother1 ,zeid1 who fell in the fatal ,garden of ,death1 at the battle of ,yemama3 ,thou art returned home1 he said to his son1 ,abdallah1 safe and sound1 and ,zeid is dead4 ,wherefore wast not thou slain before him8 ,i wish not to see thy face4 ,father1 answered ,abdallah1 he asked for the crown of martyrdom1 and the ,lord granted it4 ,i strove after the same1 but it was not given unto me4#de ,it was the proud boast of the ,saracens in their summons to the craven ,greeks and ,persians that they loved death more than their foes loved life4 ,familiar with the pictures drawn in the ,koran of the beautiful houries of ,paradise1#df the ,saracens believed that immediate fruition on the field of battle was the martyr's special prize4 ,we are told of a ,moslem soldier1 four-score years of age1 who1 seeing a comrade fall by his side1 cried out1 ,o ,paradise6 how close art thou beneath the arrow's point and the falchion's flash6 ,o ,hashim6 even now ,i see heaven opened1 and black-eyed maidens all bridally attired1 clasping thee in their fond embrace4 ,and shouting thus the aged warrior1 fired again with the ardor of youth1 rushed upon the enemy and met the envied fate4 ,for those who survived there was the less ethereal but closer prospect of ,persian1 ,greek1 or ,coptic women1 both maids and matrons1 who1 on being taken captive by their right hand1 were forthwith1 according to the ,koran1 without stint of number1 at the conqueror's will and pleasure4 ,these1 immediately they were made prisoners1 might 7according to the example of ,mohammed himself at ,kheibar7 be carried off without further ceremony to the victor's tent2 and in this respect the ,saracens certainly were nothing loath to execute upon the heathen the judgment written in their law4 ,so strangely was religious fanaticism fed and fostered in the ,moslem camp by incentives irresistible to the ,arab--fight and foray1 the spoil of war and captive charms4 ,sidenote3 ,martial passages from ,koran recited on field of battle4 ,the courage of the troops was stimulated by the divine promises of victory1 which were read 7and on like occasions still are read7 at the head of each column drawn up for battle4 ,thus1 on the field of ,cadesiyad1 which decided the fate of ,persia1 the ,sura ,jehad1 with the stirring tale of the thousand angels that fought on the ,prophet's side at ,bedr was recited1 and such texts as these3 ,stir up the faithful unto battle4 ,if there be twenty steadfast among you they shall put two hundred to flight of the unbelievers1 and a hundred shall put to flight a thousand4 ,victory is from the ,lord4 ,he is mighty and wise4 ,i the ,lord will cast terror into the hearts of the infidels4 ,strike off their heads and their fingers' ends4 ,beware lest ye turn your back in battle4 ,verily1 he that turneth his back shall draw down upon himself the wrath of ,god4 ,his abode shall be hell fire2 an evil journey thither4 ,and we are told that on the recital of these verses the heart of the people was refreshed and their eyes lightened1 and they felt the tranquillity that ensueth thereupon4 ,three days they fought1 and on the morning of the fourth1 returning with unabated vigor to the charge1 they scattered to the winds the vast host of ,persia4#dg ,sidenote3 ,defeat of ,byzantine army on the ,yermuk1 ,a4,d4 #fcd4 ,nor was it otherwise in the great battle of the ,yermuk1 which laid ,syria at the feet of the ,arabs4 ,the virgin vigor of the ,saracens was fired by a wild fanatical zeal to fight in the ways of the ,lord1 obtaining thus heavenly merit and a worldly prize--the spoil of ,syria and its fair maidens ravished from their homes2 or should they fall by the sword1 the black-eyed houries waiting for them on the field of battle4 ,of warriors nerved by this strange combination of earth and heaven1 of the flesh and of the spirit1 of the incentives at once of faith and rapine1 of fanatical devotion to the prophet and deathless passion for the sex1 ten might chase a hundred half-hearted ,romans4 ,the forty thousand ,moslems were stronger far than the two hundred and forty thousand of the enemy4 ,the combat lasted for weeks2 but at the last the ,byzantine force was utterly routed1 and thousands hurled in wild confusion over the beetling cliffs of the ,yermuk into the yawning chasm of ,wacusa4#dh ,sidenote3 ,islam planted by aid of material force4 ,such1 then1 was the nature of the ,moslem propaganda1 such the agency by which the faith was spread1 and such the motives at once material and spiritual by which its martial missionaries were inspired4 ,no wonder that the effete empires of ,rome and ,persia recoiled and quivered at the shock1 and that province after province quickly fell under the sway of ,islam4 ,it is far from my intention to imply that the truths set forth by the new faith had nothing to do with its success4 ,on the contrary1 it may well be admitted that but for those truths success might have been impossible4 ,the grand enunciation of the ,divine ,unity1 and the duty of an absolute submission to the same2 the recognition of a special providence reaching to the minutest details of life2 the inculcation of prayer and other religious duties2 the establishment of a code in which the leading principles of morality are enforced1 and the acknowledgment of previous revelations in the ,jewish and ,christian ,scriptures1 told not only on the idolaters of ,arabia and the fire-worshipers of ,persia1 but on ,jews and ,samaritans and the followers of a debased and priest-ridden ,christianity4 ,all this is true2 but it is still not the less true that without the sword ,islam would never have been planted even in ,arabia1 much less ever have spread to the countries beyond4 ,the weapons of its warfare were carnal1 material1 and earthly2 and by them it conquered4 ,sidenote3 ,alternatives offered to the conquered nations3 ,islam1 the ,sword1 or ,tribute4 ,the pressure brought to bear on the inhabitants of the countries overrun by ,saracen arms was of the most stringent character4 ,they were offered the triple alternative--,islam1 the ,sword1 or ,tribute4 ,the first brought immediate relief4 ,acceptance of the faith not only stayed the enemy's hand1 and conferred immunity from the perils of war1 but associated the convert with his conquerors in the common brotherhood and in all the privileges of ,islam4 ,sidenote3 ,acceptance of ,islam1 immediate relief from the sword4 ,reading the story of the spread of ,islam1 we are constantly told of this and that enemy1 that being beaten1 he believed and embraced the faith4 ,take as an example of an every-day occurrence the story of ,hormuzan4 ,a ,persian prince of high rank long maintained a border warfare against the ,moslems4 ,at last he was taken prisoner and sent in chains to ,medina4 ,as he was conducted into the ,great ,mosque1 ,omar exclaimed1 ,blessed be the ,lord1 that hath humbled this man and the like of him6 ,he bade them disrobe the prisoner and clothe him in sackcloth4 ,then1 whip in hand1 he upbraided him for his oft-repeated attacks and treachery4 ,hormuzan made as if fain to reply2 then gasping1 like one faint from thirst1 he begged for water to drink4 ,give it him1 said the caliph1 and let him drink in peace4 ,nay1 cried the wretched captive1 trembling1 ,i fear to drink1 lest some one slay me unawares4 ,thy life is safe1 said ,omar1 until thou hast drunk the water up4 ,the words were no sooner said than ,hormuzan emptied the vessel on the ground4 ,i wanted not the water1 he said1 but quarter1 and thou hast given it me4 ,liar6 cried ,omar1 angrily1 thy life is forfeit4 ,but not1 interposed the by-standers1 until he drink the water up4 ,strange1 said ,omar1 the fellow hath deceived me2 and yet ,i cannot spare the life of one who hath slain so many noble ,moslems4 ,i swear that thou shalt not gain by thy deceit unless thou wilt forthwith embrace ,islam4 ,upon that1 believing1 he made profession of the true faith upon the spot2 and thenceforth1 residing at ,medina1 he received a pension of the highest grade4#di ,sidenote3 ,tribute and humiliation4 ,disabilities imposed on ,jews and ,christians4 ,on the other hand1 for those who held to their ancestral faith there was no escape from the second or the third alternative4 ,if they would avoid the sword1 or1 having wielded it1 were beaten1 they must become tributary4 ,moreover1 the payment of tribute is not the only condition enjoined by the ,koran4 ,fight against them 7the ,jews and ,christians7 until they pay tribute with the hand1 and are humbled4#ej ,the command fell on willing ears4 ,an ample interpretation was given to it4 ,and so it came to pass that1 though ,jews and ,christians were1 on the payment of tribute1 tolerated in the profession of their ancestral faith1 they were yet subjected 7and still are subjected7 to severe humiliation4 ,the nature and extent of the degradation to which they were brought down1 and the strength of the inducement to purchase exemption and the equality of civil rights1 by surrendering their religion1 may be learned from the provisions which were embodied in the code named ,the ,ordinance of ,omar1 which has been more or less enforced from the earliest times4 ,besides the tribute and various other imposts levied from the ,people of the ,book1#ea and the duty of receiving ,moslem travelers quartered upon them1 the dress of both sexes must be distinguished by broad stripes of yellow4 ,they are forbidden to appear on horseback1 and if mounted on a mule or ass their stirrups must be of wood1 and their saddles known by knobs of the same material4 ,their graves must not rise above the level of the soil1 and the devil's mark is placed upon the lintel of their doors4 ,their children must be taught by ,moslem masters1 and the race1 however able or well qualified1 proscribed from any office of high emolument or trust4 ,besides the churches spared at the time of conquest no new buildings can be erected for the purposes of worship2 nor can free entrance into their holy places at pleasure be refused to the ,moslem4 ,no cross must remain in view outside1 nor any church-bells be rung4 ,they must refrain from processions in the street at ,easter1 and other solemnities2 and from any thing1 in short1 whether by outward symbol1 word1 or deed1 which could be construed into rivalry1 or competition with the ruling faith4 ,such was the so-called ,code of ,omar4 ,enforced with less or greater stringency1 according to the intolerance and caprice of the day1 by different dynasties1 it was1 and 7however much relaxed in certain countries7 it still remains1 the law of ,islam4 ,one must admire the rare tenacity of the ,christian faith1 which1 with but scanty light and hope1 held its ground through weary ages of insult and depression1 and still survives to see the dawning of a brighter day4#eb ,sidenote3 ,continuing inducements in times of peace4 ,such1 then1 was the hostile attitude of ,islam militant in its early days2 such the pressure brought to bear on conquered lands for its acceptance2 and such the disabilities imposed upon recusant ,jews and ,christians4 ,on the one hand1 rapine1 plunder1 slavery1 tribute1 civil disability2 on the other1 security1 peace1 and honor4 ,we need not be surprised that1 under such constraint1 conquered peoples succumbed before ,islam4 ,nor were the temporal inducements to conversion confined to the period during which the ,saracens were engaged in spreading ,islam by force of arms4 ,let us come down a couple of centuries from the time of ,mohammed1 and take the reign of the tolerant and liberal-minded sovereign1 ,al ,mamun4 ,sidenote3 ,evidence of ,al ,kindy in second century of ,hegira1 ,a4,d4 #hcj4 ,speech of ,al ,mamun4 ,among the philosophers of all creeds whom that great caliph gathered around him at ,bagdad was a noble ,arab of the ,nestorian faith1 descended from the kingly tribe of the ,beni ,kinda1 and hence called ,al ,kindy4 ,a friend of this ,eastern ,christian1 himself a member of the royal family1 invited ,al ,kindy to embrace ,islam in an epistle enlarging on the distinguished rank which1 in virtue of his descent1 he would 7if a true believer7 occupy at court1 and the other privileges1 spiritual and material1 social and conjugal1 which he would enjoy4 ,in reply the ,christian wrote an apology of singular eloquence and power1 throwing a flood of light on the worldly inducements which1 even at that comparatively late period1 abounded in a ,moslem state to promote conversion to ,islam4 ,thus ,al ,mamun himself1 in a speech delivered before his council1 characterizes certain of his courtiers accused as secret adherents of the ,zoroastrian faith3 ,though professing ,islam1 they are free from the same4 ,this they do to be seen of me1 while their convictions1 ,i am well aware1 are just the opposite of that which they profess4 ,they belong to a class which embrace ,islam1 not from any love of this our faith1 but thinking thereby to gain access to our court1 and share in the honor1 wealth1 and power of the realm4 ,they have no inward persuasion of that which they outwardly profess4#ec ,sidenote3 ,converts from sordid motives4 ,again1 speaking of the various classes brought over to ,islam by sordid and unworthy motives1 ,al ,kindy says3 ,moreover1 there are the idolatrous races--,magians and ,jews--low people aspiring by the profession of ,islam to raise themselves to riches and power and to form alliances with the families of the learned and honorable4 ,there are1 besides1 hypocritical men of the world1 who in this way obtain indulgences in the matter of marriage and concubinage which are forbidden to them by the ,christian faith4 ,then we have the dissolute class given over wholly to the lusts of the flesh4 ,and lastly there are those who by this means obtain a more secure and easy livelihood4#ed ,sidenote3 ,al ,kindy contrasts the ,christian confessor with the ,moslem martyr4 ,the ,christian confessor and the ,moslem martyr4 ,before leaving this part of our subject it may be opportune to quote a few more passages from ,al ,kindy1 in which he contrasts the inducements that1 under the military and political predominance of ,islam1 promoted its rapid spread1 and the opposite conditions under which ,christianity made progress1 slow1 indeed1 comparatively1 but sure and steady4 ,first1 he compares the ,christian confessor with the ,moslem martyr3 ,i marvel much1 he says1 that ye call those martyrs that fall in war4 ,thou hast read1 no doubt1 in history of the followers of ,christ put to death in the persecutions of the kings of ,persia and elsewhere4 ,say1 now1 which are the more worthy to be called martyrs1 these1 or thy fellows that fall fighting for the world and the power thereof8 ,how diverse were the barbarities and kinds of death inflicted on the ,christian confessors6 ,the more they were slain the more rapidly spread the faith2 in place of one sprang up a hundred4 ,on a certain occasion1 when a great multitude had been put to death1 one at court said to the king1 ,the number of them increaseth instead of1 as thou thinkest1 diminishing4 ,how can that be8 exclaimed the king4 ,but yesterday1 replied the courtier1 thou didst put such and such a one to death1 and lo1 there were converted double that number2 and the people say that a man appeared to the confessors from heaven strengthening them in their last moments4 ,whereupon the king himself was converted4 ,in those days men thought not their lives dear unto them4 ,some were transfixed while yet alive2 others had their limbs cut off one after another2 some were cast to the wild beasts and others burned in the fire4 ,such continued long to be the fate of the ,christian confessors4 ,no parallel is found thereto in any other religion2 and all was endured with constancy and even with joy4 ,one smiled in the midst of his great suffering4 ,was it cold water1 they asked1 that was brought unto thee8 ,no1 answered the sufferer1 it was one like a youth that stood by me and anointed my wounds2 and that made me smile1 for the pain forthwith departed4 ,now tell me seriously1 my friend1 which of the two hath the best claim to be called a martyr1 slain in the ways of the ,lord3 he who surrendereth his life rather than renounce his faith2 who1 when it is said1 ,fall down and worship the sun and moon1 or the idols of silver and gold1 work of men's hands1 instead of the true ,god1 refuseth1 choosing rather to give up life1 abandon wealth1 and forego even wife and family2 or he that goeth forth1 ravaging and laying waste1 plundering and spoiling1 slaying the men1 carrying away their children into captivity1 and ravishing their wives and maidens in his unlawful embrace1 and then shall call it ,jehad in the ways of the ,lord6 444 ,and not content therewith1 instead of humbling thyself before the ,lord1 and seeking pardon for the crime1 thou sayest of such a one slain in the war that he hath earned paradise1 and thou namest him a martyr in the ways of the ,lord6#ee ,and again1 contrasting the spread of ,islam1 its rattling quiver and its glittering sword1 with the silent progress of ,christianity1 our apologist1 after dwelling on the teaching and the miracles of the apostles1 writes3 ,they published their message by means of these miracles2 and thus great and powerful kings and philosophers and learned men and judges of the earth hearkened unto them1 without lash or rod1 with neither sword nor spear1 nor the advantages of birth or ,helpers2#ef with no wisdom of this world1 or eloquence or power of language1 or subtlety of reason2 with no worldly inducement1 nor yet again with any relaxation of the moral law1 but simply at the voice of truth enforced by miracles beyond the power of man to show4 ,and so there came over to them the kings and great ones of the earth4 ,and the philosophers abandoned their systems1 with all their wisdom and learning1 and betook them to a saintly life1 giving up the delights of this world together with their old-established usages1 and became followers of a company of poor men1 fishers and publicans1 who had neither name nor rank nor any claim other than that they were obedient to the command of the ,messiah--he that gave them power to do such wonderful works4#eg ,sidenote3 ,the apostles compared with the chiefs of ,islam4 ,and yet once more1 comparing the apostles with the military chiefs of ,islam1 ,al ,kindy proceeds3 ,after the descent of the ,holy ,ghost and the gift of tongues the apostles separated each to the country to which he was called4 ,they wrote out in every tongue the holy ,gospel1 and the story and teaching of ,christ1 at the dictation of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,so the nations drew near unto them1 believing their testimony2 and1 giving up the world and their false beliefs1 they embraced the ,christian faith as soon as ever the dawn of truth and the light of the good tidings broke in upon them4 ,distinguishing the true from the false1 and error from the right direction1 they embraced the ,gospel and held it fast without doubt or wavering1 when they saw the wonderful works and signs of the apostles1 and their lives and conversation set after the holy and beautiful example of our ,saviour1 the traces whereof remain even unto the present day4444 ,how different this from the life of thy ,master 7,mohammed7 and his companions1 who ceased not to go forth in battle and rapine1 to smite with the sword1 to seize the little ones1 and ravish the wives and maidens1 plundering and laying waste1 and carrying the people into captivity4 ,and thus they continue unto this present day1 inciting men to these evil deeds1 even as it is told of ,omar the ,caliph4 ,if one among you1 said he1 hath a heathen neighbor and is in need1 let him seize and sell him4 ,and many such things they say and teach4 ,look now at the lives of ,simon and ,paul1 who went about healing the sick and raising the dead1 by the name of ,christ our ,lord2 and mark the contrast4#eh ,sidenote3 ,such are the conclusions of a native of ,chaldea4 ,such are the reflections of one who lived at a ,mohammedan court1 and who1 moreover1 flourishing as he did a thousand years ago1 was sufficiently near the early spread of ,islam to be able to contrast what he saw and heard and read of the causes of its success with those of the ,gospel1 and had the courage to confess the same4 ,sidenote3 ,hinderances or inducements inherent in the faith itself4 ,apart1 now1 from the outward and extraneous aids given to ,islam by the sword and by the civil arm ,i will inquire for a moment what natural effect the teaching of ,islam itself had in attracting or repelling mankind4 ,i do not now speak of any power contained in the truths it inculcated to convert to ,islam by the rousing and quickening of spiritual impulses2 for that lies beyond my present purpose1 which is to inquire whether there is not in material causes and secular motives enough in themselves to account for success4 ,i speak rather of the effect of the indulgences granted by ,islam1 on the one hand1 as calculated to attract2 and of the restraints imposed and sacrifices required1 on the other1 as calculated to repel4 ,how far1 in fact1 did there exist inducements or hinderances to its adoption inherent in the religion itself8 ,sidenote3 ,requirements of ,islam3 prayer4 ,prohibition of wine1 games of chance1 and usury4 ,fast of ,ramzan4 ,what may be regarded as the most constant and irksome of the obligations of ,islam is the duty of prayer1 which must be observed at stated intervals1 five times every day1 with the contingent ceremony of lustration4 ,the rite consists of certain forms and passages to be repeated with prescribed series of prostrations and genuflexions4 ,these must be repeated at the right times--but anywhere1 in the house or by the wayside1 as well as in the mosque2 and the ordinance is obligatory in whatever state of mind the worshiper may be1 or however occupied4 ,as the appointed hour comes round the ,moslem is bound to turn aside to pray--so much so that in ,central ,asia we read of the police driving the backward worshiper by the lash to discharge the duty4 ,thus1 with the mass of ,mussulmans1 the obligation becomes a mere formal ceremony1 and one sees it performed anywhere and every-where by the whole people1 like any social custom1 as a matter of course4 ,no doubt there are exceptions2 but with the multitude it does not involve the irksomeness of a spiritual service1 and so it sits lightly on high and low4 ,the ,friday prayers should as a rule be attended in the mosque2 but neither need there be much devotion there2 and1 once performed1 the rest of the day is free for pleasure or for business4#ei ,the prohibition of wine is a restriction which was severely felt in the early days of the faith2 but it was not long before the universal sentiment 7though eluded in some quarters7 supported it4 ,the embargo upon games of chance was certainly unpopular2 and the prohibition of the receipt of interest was also an important limitation1 tending as it did to shackle the freedom of mercantile speculation2 but they have been partially evaded on various pretexts4 ,the fast throughout the month of ,ramzan was a severer test2 but even this lasts only during the day2 and at night1 from sunset till dawn1 all restrictions are withdrawn1 not only in respect of food1 but of all otherwise lawful gratifications4#fj ,sidenote3 ,little that is unpopular in these ordinances4 ,there is nothing1 therefore1 in the requirements and ordinances of ,islam1 excepting the fast1 that is very irksome to humanity1 or which1 as involving any material sacrifice1 or the renunciation of the pleasures or indulgences of life1 should lead a man of the world to hesitate in embracing the new faith4 ,sidenote3 ,indulgences allowed in the matter of wives and concubines4 ,on the other hand1 the license allowed by the ,koran between the sexes--at least in favor of the male sex--is so wide that for such as have the means and the desire to take advantage of it there need be no limit whatever to sexual indulgence4 ,it is true that adultery is punishable by death and fornication with stripes4 ,but then the ,koran gives the believer permission to have four wives at a time4 ,and he may exchange them--that is1 he may divorce them at pleasure1 taking others in their stead4#fa ,and1 as if this were not license enough1 the divine law permits the believer to consort with all female slaves whom he may be the master of--such1 namely1 as have been taken in war1 or have been acquired by gift or purchase4 ,these he may receive into his harem instead of wives1 or in addition to them2 and without any limit of number or restraint whatever he is at liberty to cohabit with them4 ,sidenote3 ,polygamy1 concubinage1 and divorce4 ,practice at the rise of ,islam4 ,a few instances taken at random will enable the reader to judge how the indulgences thus allowed by the religion were taken advantage of in the early days of ,islam4 ,in the great plague which devastated ,syria seven years after the prophet's death ,khalid1 the ,sword of ,god1 lost forty sons4 ,abdal ,rahman1 one of the companions of ,mohammed1 had issue by sixteen wives1 not counting slave-girls4#fb ,moghira ibn ,shoba1 another companion1 and governor of ,kufa and ,bussorah1 had in his harem eighty consorts1 free and servile4 ,coming closer to the ,prophet's household1 we find that ,mohammed himself at one period had in his harem no fewer than nine wives and two slave-girls4 ,of his grandson ,hasan we read that his vagrant passion gained for him the unenviable sobriquet of ,the ,divorcer2 for it was only by continually divorcing his consorts that he could harmonize his craving for fresh nuptials with the requirements of the divine law1 which limited the number of his free wives to four4 ,we are told that1 as a matter of simple caprice1 he exercised the power of divorce seventy 7according to other traditions ninety7 times4 ,when the leading men complained to ,aly of the licentious practice of his son his only reply was that the remedy lay in their own hands1 of refusing ,hasan their daughters altogether4#fc ,such are the material inducements1 the works of the flesh1 which ,islam makes lawful to its votaries1 and which promoted thus its early spread4 ,sidenote3 ,practice in modern times4 ,the ,malays of ,penang4 ,lane's testimony concerning ,egypt4 ,the princess of ,bhopal's account of ,mecca4 ,descending now to modern times1 we still find that this sexual license is taken advantage of more or less in different countries and conditions of society4 ,the following examples are simply meant as showing to what excess it is possible for the believer to carry these indulgences1 under the sanction of his religion4 ,of the ,malays in ,penang it was written not very long ago3 ,young men of thirty to thirty-five years of age may be met with who have had from fifteen to twenty wives1 and children by several of them4 ,these women have been divorced1 married others1 and had children by them4 ,regarding ,egypt1 ,lane tells us3 ,i have heard of men who have been in the habit of marrying a new wife almost every month4#fd ,burkhardt speaks of an ,arab forty-five years old who had had fifty wives1 so that he must have divorced two wives and married two fresh ones on the average every year4 ,and not to go further than the sacred city of ,mecca1 the late reigning princess of ,bhopal1 in central ,india1 herself an orthodox follower of the ,prophet1 after making the pilgrimage of the holy places1 writes thus3 ,women frequently contract as many as ten marriages1 and those who have only been married twice are few in number4 ,if a woman sees her husband growing old1 or if she happen to admire any one else1 she goes to the ,shereef 7the spiritual and civil head of the holy city71 and after having settled the matter with him she puts away her husband and takes to herself another1 who is1 perhaps1 good-looking and rich4 ,in this way a marriage seldom lasts more than a year or two4 ,and of slave-girls the same high and impartial authority1 still writing of the holy city and of her fellow-,moslems1 tells us3 ,some of the women 7,african and ,georgian girls7 are taken in marriage2 and after that1 on being sold again1 they receive from their masters a divorce1 and are sold in their houses--that is to say1 they are sent to the purchaser from their master's house on receipt of payment1 and are not exposed for sale in the slave-market4 ,they are only married when purchased for the first time4444 ,when the poorer people buy 7female7 slaves they keep them for themselves1 and change them every year as one would replace old things by new2 but the women who have children are not sold4#fe ,sidenote3 ,islam sanctions a license between the sexes which ,christianity forbids4 ,the laws of ,christianity deter men from carnal indulgences4 ,islam the ,easy ,way4 ,what ,i desire to make clear is the fact that such things may be practiced with the sanction of the ,scripture which the ,moslem holds to be divine1 and that these same indulgences have from the first existed as inducements which helped materially to forward the spread of the faith4 ,i am very far1 indeed1 from implying that excessive indulgence in polygamy is the universal state of ,moslem society4 ,happily this is not the case4 ,there are not only individuals1 but tribes and districts1 which1 either from custom or preference1 voluntarily restrict the license given them in the ,koran2 while the natural influence of the family1 even in ,moslem countries1 has an antiseptic tendency that often itself tends greatly to neutralize the evil4#ff ,nor am ,i seeking to institute any contrast between the morals at large of ,moslem countries and the rest of the world4 ,if ,christian nations are 7as with shame it must be confessed7 in some strata of society immoral1 it is in the teeth of their divine law4 ,and the restrictions of that law are calculated1 and in the early days of ,christianity did tend1 in point of fact1 to deter men devoted to the indulgences of the flesh from embracing the faith4#fg ,the religion of ,mohammed1 on the other hand1 gives direct sanction to the sexual indulgences we have been speaking of4 ,thus it panders to the lower instincts of humanity and makes its spread the easier4 ,in direct opposition to the precepts of ,christianity it makes provision for the flesh to fulfill the lusts thereof4 ,hence ,islam has been well called by its own votaries the ,easy ,way4 ,once more1 to quote ,al ,kindy3 ,thou invitest me 7says our apologist to his friend7 into the ,easy way of faith and practice4 ,alas1 alas6 for our ,saviour in the ,gospel telleth us1 ,when ye have done all that ye are commanded1 say1 ,we are unprofitable servants2 we have but done that which was commanded us4 ,where then is our merit8 ,the same ,lord ,jesus saith1 ,how strait is the road which leadeth unto life1 and how few they be that walk therein6 ,how wide the gate that leadeth to destruction1 and how many there be that go in thereat6 ,different this1 my friend1 from the comforts of thy wide and easy gate1 and the facilities for enjoying1 as thou wouldst have me1 the pleasures offered by thy faith in wives and damsels6#fh ,,footnotes3 a ,a4,d4 #fbc4 b ,a4,d4 #fcj4 c ,a4,d4 #fcb4 d ,a4,d4 #fce4 ,,ii4 ,,why ,,the ,,spread ,,of ,,islam ,,was ,,stayed4 ,sidenote3 ,islam stationary in area1 and in civilization retrograde4 ,having thus traced the rapid early spread of ,islam to its proper source1 ,i proceed to the remaining topics1 namely1 the causes which have checked its further extension1 and those likewise which have depressed the followers of this religion in the scale of civilization4 ,i shall take the former first--just remarking here1 in respect of the latter1 that the depression of ,islam is itself one of the causes which retard the expansion of the faith4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,arabs ceased1 in second century1 to be a crusading force4 ,as the first spread of ,islam was due to the sword1 so when the sword was sheathed ,islam ceased to spread4 ,the apostles and missionaries of ,islam were1 as we have seen1 the martial tribes of ,arabia--that is to say1 the grand military force organized by ,omar1 and by him launched upon the surrounding nations4 ,gorged with the plunder of the world1 these began1 after a time1 to settle on their lees and to mingle with the ordinary population4 ,so soon as this came to pass they lost the fiery zeal which at the first had made them irresistible4 ,by the second and third centuries the ,arabs had disappeared as the standing army of the caliphate1 or1 in other words1 as a body set apart for the dissemination of the faith4 ,the crusading spirit1 indeed1 ever and anon burst forth--and it still bursts forth1 as opportunity offers--simply for the reason that this spirit pervades the ,koran1 and is ingrained in the creed4 ,but with the special agency created and maintained during the first ages for the spread of ,islam the incentive of crusade ceased as a distinctive missionary spring of action1 and degenerated into the common lust of conquest which we meet with in the world at large4 ,sidenote3 ,with cessation of conquest1 ,islam ceased to spread4 ,the extension of ,islam1 depending upon military success1 stopped wherever that was checked4 ,the religion advanced or retired1 speaking broadly1 as the armed predominance made head or retroceded4 ,thus the tide of ,moslem victory1 rushing along the coast of ,africa1 extinguished the seats of ,european civilization on the ,mediterranean1 overwhelmed ,spain1 and was rapidly advancing north1 when the onward wave was stemmed at ,tours2 and as with the arms1 the faith also of ,islam was driven back into ,spain and bounded by the ,pyrenees4 ,so1 likewise1 the hold which the religion seized both of ,spain and ,sicily came to an end with ,mussulman defeat4 ,it is true that when once long and firmly rooted1 as in ,india and ,china1 ,islam may survive the loss of military power1 and even flourish4 ,but it is equally true that in no single country has ,islam been planted1 nor has it anywhere materially spread1 saving under the banner of the ,crescent or the political ascendency of some neighboring ,state4 ,accordingly1 we find that1 excepting some barbarous zones in ,africa which have been raised thereby a step above the groveling level of fetichism1 the faith has in modern times made no advance worth mentioning4#fi ,from the ,jewish and ,christian religions there has 7again speaking broadly7 been no secession whatever to ,islam since the wave of ,saracen victory was stayed1 excepting by the force of arms4 ,even in the palmy days of the ,abbasside caliphs1 our apologist could challenge his adversary to produce a single conversion otherwise than by reason of some powerful material inducement4 ,here is his testimony3 ,sidenote3 ,al ,kindy's challenge to produce a ,christian convert to ,islam apart from material inducements4 ,now tell me1 hast thou ever seen1 my ,friend1 7the ,lord be gracious unto thee67 or ever heard of a single person of sound mind--any one of learning and experience1 and acquainted with the ,scriptures1 renouncing ,christianity otherwise than for some worldly object to be reached only through thy religion1 or for some gratification withheld by the faith of ,jesus8 ,thou wilt find none4 ,for1 excepting the tempted ones1 all continue steadfast in their faith1 secure under our most gracious sovereign1 in the profession of their own religion4#gj ,,iii4 ,,low ,,position ,,of ,,islam ,,in ,,the ,,scale ,,of ,,civilization4 ,sidenote3 ,social and intellectual depression4 ,i pass on to consider why ,mohammedan nations occupy so low a position1 halting as almost every-where they do1 in the march of social and intellectual development4 ,sidenote3 ,islam intended for the ,arabs4 ,wants the faculty of adaptation4 ,the reason is not far to find4 ,islam was meant for ,arabia1 not for the world2 for the ,arabs of the seventh century1 not for the ,arabs of all time2 and being such1 and nothing more1 its claim of divine origin renders change or development impossible4 ,it has within itself neither the germ of natural growth nor the lively spring of adaptation4 ,mohammed declared himself a prophet to the ,arabs2#ga and however much in his later days he may have contemplated the reformation of other religions beyond the ,peninsula1 or the further spread of his own 7which is doubtful71 still the rites and ceremonies1 the customs and the laws enjoined upon his people1 were suitable 7if suitable at all7 for the ,arabs of that day1 and in many respects for them alone4 ,again1 the code containing these injunctions1 social and ceremonial1 as well as doctrinal and didactic1 is embodied with every particularity of detail1 as part of the divine law1 in the ,koran2 and so defying1 as sacrilege1 all human touch1 it stands unalterable forever4 ,from the stiff and rigid shroud in which it is thus swathed the religion of ,mohammed cannot emerge4 ,it has no plastic power beyond that exercised in its earliest days4 ,hardened now and inelastic1 it can neither adapt itself nor yet shape its votaries1 nor even suffer them to shape themselves to the varying circumstances1 the wants and developments1 of mankind4 ,sidenote3 ,local ceremonies3 pilgrimage4 ,fast of ,ramzan4 ,we may judge of the local and inflexible character of the faith from one or two of its ceremonies4 ,to perform the pilgrimage to ,mecca and ,mount ,arafat1 with the slaying of victims at ,mina1 and the worship of the ,kaaba1 is an ordinance obligatory 7with the condition only that they have the means7 on all believers1 who are bound to make the journey even from the furthest ends of the earth--an ordinance intelligible enough in a local worship1 but unmeaning and impracticable when required of a world-wide religion4 ,the same may be said of the fast of ,ramzan4 ,it is prescribed in the ,koran to be observed by all with undeviating strictness during the whole day1 from earliest dawn till sunset throughout the month1 with specified exemptions for the sick and penalties for every occasion on which it is broken4 ,the command1 imposed thus with an iron rule on male and female1 young and old1 operates with excessive inequality in different seasons1 lands1 and climates4 ,however suitable to countries near the equator1 where the variations of day and night are immaterial1 the fast becomes intolerable to those who are far removed either toward the north or the south2 and still closer to the poles1 where night merges into day and day into night1 impracticable4 ,again1 with the lunar year 7itself an institution divinely imposed71 the month of ,ramzan travels in the third of a century from month to month over the whole cycle of a year4 ,the fast was established at a time when ,ramzan fell in winter1 and the change of season was probably not foreseen by the ,prophet4 ,but the result is one which1 under some conditions of time and place1 involves the greatest hardship4 ,for when the fast comes round to summer the trial in a sultry climate1 like that of the burning ,indian plains1 of passing the whole day without a morsel of bread or a drop of water becomes to many the occasion of intense suffering4 ,such is the effect of the ,arabian legislator's attempt at circumstantial legislation in matters of religious ceremonial4 ,sidenote3 ,political and social depression owing to relations between the sexes4 ,nearly the same is the case with all the religions obligations of ,islam1 prayer1 lustration1 etc4 ,but although the minuteness of detail with which these are enjoined tends toward that jejune and formal worship which we witness every-where in ,moslem lands1 still there is nothing in these observances themselves which 7religion apart7 should lower the social condition of ,mohammedan populations and prevent their emerging from that normal state of semi-barbarism and uncivilized depression in which we find all ,moslem peoples4 ,for the cause of this we must look elsewhere2 and it may be recognized1 without doubt1 in the relations established by the ,koran between the sexes4 ,polygamy1 divorce1 servile concubinage1 and the veil are at the root of ,moslem decadence4 ,sidenote3 ,depression of the female sex4 ,divorce4 ,in respect of married life the condition allotted by the ,koran to woman is that of an inferior dependent creature1 destined only for the service of her master1 liable to be cast adrift without the assignment of a single reason or the notice of a single hour4 ,while the husband possesses the power of a divorce--absolute1 immediate1 unquestioned--no privilege of a corresponding nature has been reserved for the wife4 ,she hangs on1 however unwilling1 neglected1 or superseded1 the perpetual slave of her lord1 if such be his will4 ,when actually divorced she can1 indeed1 claim her dower--her hire1 as it is called in the too plain language of the ,koran2 but the knowledge that the wife can make this claim is at the best a miserable security against capricious taste2 and in the case of bondmaids even that imperfect check is wanting4 ,the power of divorce is not the only power that may be exercised by the tyrannical husband4 ,authority to confine and to beat his wives is distinctly vested in his discretion4#gb ,thus restrained1 secluded1 degraded1 the mere minister of enjoyment1 liable at the caprice or passion of the moment to be turned adrift1 it would be hard to say that the position of a wife was improved by the code of ,mohammed4#gc ,even if the privilege of divorce and marital tyranny be not exercised1 the knowledge of its existence as a potential right must tend to abate the self-respect1 and in like degree to weaken the influence of the sex1 impairing thus the ameliorating and civilizing power which she was meant to exercise upon mankind4 ,and the evil has been stereotyped by the ,koran for all time4 ,sidenote3 ,principal ,fairbairn on home-life under ,islam4 ,i must quote one more passage from ,principal ,fairbairn on the lowering influence of ,moslem domestic life3 ,the ,god of ,mohammed 444 spares the sins the ,arab loves4 ,a religion that does not purify the home cannot regenerate the race2 one that depraves the home is certain to deprave humanity4 ,motherhood is to be sacred if manhood is to be honorable4 ,spoil the wife of sanctity and for the man the sanctities of life have perished4 ,and so it has been with ,islam4 ,it has reformed and lifted savage tribes2 it has depraved and barbarized civilized nations4 ,at the root of its fairest culture a worm has ever lived that has caused its blossoms soon to wither and die4 ,were ,mohammed the hope of man1 then his state were hopeless2 before him could only be retrogression1 tyranny1 and despair4#gd ,sidenote3 ,demoralizing influence of servile concubinage4 ,still worse is the influence of servile concubinage4 ,the following is the evidence of a shrewd and able observer in the ,east3 ,all zenana life must be bad for men at all stages of their existence4444 ,in youth it must be ruin to be petted and spoiled by a company of submissive slave-girls4 ,in manhood it is no less an evil that when a man enters into private life his affections should be put up to auction among foolish1 fond competitors full of mutual jealousies and slanders4 ,we are not left entirely to conjecture as to the effect of female influence on home-life when it is exerted under these unenlightened and demoralizing conditions4 ,that is plainly an element lying at the root of all the most important features that differentiate progress from stagnation4#ge ,sidenote3 ,deteriorating influence of relations established between the sexes4 ,such are the institutions which gnaw at the root of ,islam and prevent the growth of freedom and civilization4 ,by these the unity of the household is fatally broken and the purity and virtue of the family tie weakened2 the vigor of the dominant classes is sapped2 the body politic becomes weak and languid1 excepting for intrigues1 and the throne itself liable to fall a prey to a doubtful or contested succession#gf--;contested by the progeny of the various rivals crowded into the royal harem4 ,from the palace downward polygamy and servile concubinage lower the moral tone1 loosen the ties of domestic life1 and hopelessly depress the people4 ,sidenote3 ,the veil4 ,nor is the veil1 albeit under the circumstances a necessary precaution1 less detrimental1 though in a different way1 to the interests of ,moslem society4 ,this strange custom owes its origin to the ,prophet's jealous temperament4 ,it is forbidden in the ,koran for women to appear unveiled before any member of the other sex with the exception of certain near relatives of specified propinquity4#gg ,and this law1 coupled with other restrictions of the kind1 has led to the imposition of the boorka or purdah 7the dress which conceals the person and the veil7 and to the greater or less seclusion of the harem and zenana4 ,sidenote3 ,society vitiated by the withdrawal of the female sex4 ,mohammedan society1 thus truncated1 incapable of progress4 ,the defects of ,mohammedan society4 ,this ordinance and the practices flowing from it must survive1 more or less1 so long as the ,koran remains the rule of faith4 ,it may appear at first sight a mere negative evil1 a social custom comparatively harmless2 but in truth it has a more debilitating effect upon the ,moslem race perhaps than any thing else1 for by it woman is totally withdrawn from her proper place in the social circle4 ,she may1 indeed1 in the comparatively laxer license of some lands be seen flitting along the streets or driving in her carriage2 but even so it is like one belonging to another world1 veiled1 shrouded1 and cut off from intercourse with those around her4 ,free only in the retirement of her own secluded apartments1 she is altogether shut out from her legitimate sphere in the duties and enjoyments of life4 ,but the blight on the sex itself from this unnatural regulation1 sad as it is1 must be regarded as a minor evil4 ,the mischief extends beyond her4 ,the tone and framework of society as it came from the ,maker's hands are altered1 damaged1 and deteriorated4 ,from the veil there flows this double injury4 ,the bright1 refining1 softening influence of woman is withdrawn from the outer world1 and social life1 wanting the gracious influences of the female sex1 becomes1 as we see throughout ,moslem lands1 forced1 hard1 unnatural1 and morose4 ,moreover1 the ,mohammedan nations1 for all purposes of common elevation and for all efforts of philanthropy and liberty1 are 7as they live in public and beyond the inner recesses of their homes7 but a truncated and imperfect exhibition of humanity4 ,they are wanting in one of its constituent parts1 the better half1 the humanizing and the softening element4 ,and it would be against the nature of things to suppose that the body1 thus shorn and mutilated1 can possess in itself the virtue and power of progress1 reform1 and elevation4 ,the link connecting the family with social and public life is detached1 and so neither is en rapport1 as it should be1 with the other4 ,reforms fail to find entrance into the family or to penetrate the domestic soil where alone they could take root1 grow into the national mind1 live1 and be perpetuated4 ,under such conditions the seeds of civilization refuse to germinate4 ,no real growth is possible in free and useful institutions1 nor any permanent and healthy force in those great movements which elsewhere tend to uplift the masses and elevate mankind4 ,there may1 it is true1 be some advance1 from time to time1 in science and in material prosperity2 but the social groundwork for the same is wanting1 and the people surely relapse into the semi-barbarism forced upon them by an ordinance which is opposed to the best instincts of humanity4 ,sustained progress becomes impossible4 ,such is the outcome of an attempt to improve upon nature and banish woman1 the help-meet of man1 from the position assigned by ,god to her in the world4 ,sidenote3 ,yet the veil necessary under existing circumstances4 ,at the same time ,i am not prepared to say that in view of the laxity of the conjugal relations inherent in the institutions of ,islam some such social check as that of the veil 7apart from the power to confine and castigate7 is not needed for the repression of license and the maintenance of outward decency4 ,there is too much reason to apprehend that free social intercourse might otherwise be dangerous to morality under the code of ,mohammed1 and with the example before men and women of the early worthies of ,islam4 ,so long as the sentiments and habits of the ,moslem world remain as they are some remedial or preventive measure of the kind seems indispensable4 ,but the peculiarity of the ,mussulman polity1 as we have seen1 is such that the sexual laws and institutions which call for restrictions of the kind as founded on the ,koran are incapable of change2 they must co-exist with the faith itself1 and last while it lasts4 ,so long1 then1 as this polity prevails the depression of woman1 as well as her exclusion from the social circle1 must injure the health and vitality of the body politic1 impair its purity and grace1 paralyze vigor1 retard progress in the direction of freedom1 philanthropy1 and moral elevation1 and generally perpetuate the normal state of ,mohammedan peoples1 as one of semi-barbarism4 ,to recapitulate1 we have seen3 ,sidenote3 ,recapitulation4 ,first4 ,that ,islam was propagated mainly by the sword4 ,with the tide of conquest the religion went forward2 where conquest was arrested made no advance beyond2 and at the withdrawal of the ,moslem arms the faith also commonly retired4 ,second4 ,the inducements1 whether material or spiritual1 to embrace ,islam have proved insufficient of themselves 7speaking broadly7 to spread the faith1 in the absence of the sword1 and without the influence of the political or secular arm4 ,third4 ,the ordinances of ,islam1 those especially having respect to the female sex1 have induced an inherent weakness1 which depresses the social system and retards its progress4 ,sidenote3 ,contrast with ,christianity4 ,if the reader should have followed me in the argument by which these conclusions have been reached the contrast with the ,christian faith has no doubt been suggesting itself at each successive step4 ,sidenote3 ,christianity not propagated by force4 ,christianity1 as ,al ,kindy has so forcibly put it1 gained a firm footing in the world without the sword1 and without any aid whatever from the secular arm4 ,so far from having the countenance of the ,state it triumphed in spite of opposition1 persecution1 and discouragement4 ,my kingdom1 said ,jesus1 is not of this world4 ,if my kingdom were of this world1 then would my servants fight that ,i should not be delivered to the ,jews2 but now is my kingdom not from hence4444 ,for this end came ,i into the world1 that ,i should bear witness to the truth4 ,every one that is of the truth1 heareth my voice4#gh ,sidenote3 ,nor by worldly inducements4 ,the religion itself1 in its early days1 offered no worldly attractions or indulgences4 ,it was not1 like ,islam1 an easy way4 ,whether in withdrawal from social observances deeply tainted with idolatry1 the refusal to participate in sacrificial ceremonies insisted on by the rulers1 or in the renunciation of indulgences inconsistent with a saintly life1 the ,christian profession required self-denial at every step4 ,sidenote3 ,adaptive principles and plastic faculty of ,christianity4 ,but otherwise the teaching of ,christianity nowhere interfered with the civil institutions of the countries into which it penetrated or with any social customs or practices that were not in themselves immoral or idolatrous4 ,it did not1 indeed1 neglect to guide the ,christian life4 ,but it did so by the enunciation of principles and rules of wide and far-reaching application4 ,these1 no less than the injunctions of the ,koran1 served amply for the exigencies of the day4 ,but they have done a vast deal more4 ,they have proved themselves capable of adaptation to the most advanced stages of social development and intellectual elevation4 ,and1 what is infinitely more1 it may be claimed for the lessons embodied in the ,gospel that they have been themselves promotive1 if indeed they have not been the immediate cause1 of all the most important reforms and philanthropies that now prevail in ,christendom4 ,the principles thus laid down contained germs endowed with the power of life and growth which1 expanding and flourishing1 slowly it may be1 but surely1 have at the last borne the fruits we see4 ,sidenote3 ,examples3 slavery4 ,relations between the sexes4 ,take1 for example1 the institution of slavery4 ,it prevailed in the ,roman ,empire at the introduction of ,christianity1 as it did in ,arabia at the rise of ,islam4 ,in the ,moslem code1 as we have seen1 the practice has been perpetuated4 ,slavery must be held permissible so long as the ,koran is taken to be the rule of faith4 ,the divine sanction thus impressed upon the institution1 and the closeness with which by law and custom it intermingles with social and domestic life1 make it impossible for any ,mohammedan people to impugn slavery as contrary to sound morality or for any body of loyal believers to advocate its abolition upon the ground of principle4 ,there are1 moreover1 so many privileges and gratifications accruing to the higher classes from its maintenance that 7excepting under the strong pressure of ,european diplomacy7 no sincere and hearty effort can be expected from the ,moslem race in the suppression of the inhuman traffic1 the horrors of which1 as pursued by ,moslem slave-traders1 their ,prophet would have been the first to denounce4 ,look now at the wisdom with which the ,gospel treats the institution4 ,it is nowhere in so many words proscribed1 for that would1 under the circumstances1 have led to the abnegation of relative duties and the disruption of society4 ,it is accepted as a prevailing institution recognized by the civil powers4 ,however desirable freedom might be1 slavery was not inconsistent with the ,christian profession3 ,art thou called being a servant8 care not for it3 but if thou mayest be made free1 use it rather4e ,the duty of obedience to his master is enjoined upon the slave1 and the duty of mildness and urbanity toward his slave is enjoined upon the master4 ,but with all this was laid the seed which grew into emancipation4 ,our ,father1 gave the key-note of freedom4 ,ye are all the children of ,god by faith in ,christ ,jesus4 ,there is neither bond nor free1 444 for ye are all one in ,christ ,jesus4f ,he that is called in the ,lord1 being a servant1 is the ,lord's freeman4g ,the converted slave is to be received not now as a servant1 but above a servant1 a brother beloved4h ,the seed has borne its proper harvest4 ,late in time1 no doubt1 but by a sure and certain development1 the grand truth of the equality of the human race1 and the right of every man and woman to freedom of thought and 7within reasonable limit of law7 to freedom of action1 has triumphed2 and it has triumphed through the ,spirit and the precepts inculcated by the ,gospel eighteen hundred years ago4 ,nor is it otherwise with the relations established between the sexes4 ,polygamy1 divorce1 and concubinage with bondmaid's have been perpetuated1 as we have seen1 by ,islam for all time2 and the ordinances connected therewith have given rise1 in the laborious task of defining the conditions and limits of what is lawful1 to a mass of prurient casuistry defiling the books of ,mohammedan law4 ,contrast with this our ,saviour's words1 ,he which made them at the beginning made them male and female4444 ,what therefore ,god hath joined together let not man put asunder4i ,from which simple utterance have resulted monogamy and 7in the absence of adultery7 the indissolubility of the marriage bond4 ,while in respect of conjugal duties we have such large1 but sufficiently intelligible1 commands as to render due benevolence1j whereby1 while the obligations of the marriage state are maintained1 ,christianity is saved from the impurities which1 in expounding the ordinances of ,mohammed1 surround the sexual ethics of ,islam1 and cast so foul a stain upon its literature4 ,sidenote3 ,elevation of woman4 ,take1 again1 the place of woman in the world4 ,we need no injunction of the veil or the harem4 ,as the temples of the ,holy ,ghost1 the body is to be kept undefiled1 and every one is to possess his vessel in sanctification and honor4k ,men are to treat the elder women as mothers2 the younger as sisters1 with all purity4l ,women are to adorn themselves in modest apparel1 with shamefacedness and sobriety4m ,these1 and such like maxims embrace the whole moral fitness of the several relations and duties which they define4 ,they are adapted for all ages of time and for all conditions of men4 ,they are capable of being taken by every individual for personal guidance1 according to his own sense of propriety1 and they can be accommodated by society at large with a due reference to the habits and customs of the day4 ,the attempt of ,mohammed to lay down1 with circumstantial minuteness1 the position of the female sex1 the veiling of her person1 and her withdrawal from the gaze of man1 has resulted in seclusion and degradation2 while the spirit of the ,gospel1 and injunctions like that of giving honor to the wife as to the weaker vessel1n have borne the fruit of woman's elevation1 and have raised her to the position of influence1 honor1 and equality which 7notwithstanding the marital superiority of the husband in the ideal of a ,christian family7 she now occupies in the social scale4 ,sidenote3 ,relations with the ,state4 ,christianity leaves humanity free to expand4 ,in the type of ,mussulman government which 7though not laid down in the ,koran7 is founded upon the spirit of the faith and the precedent of the ,prophet the civil is indissolubly blended with the spiritual authority1 to the detriment of religious liberty and political progress4 ,the ,ameer1 or commander of the faithful1 should1 as in the early times1 so also in all ages1 be the ,imam1 or religious chief2 and as such he should preside at the weekly cathedral service4 ,it is not a case of the ,church being subject to the ,state1 or the ,state being subject to the ,church4 ,here 7as we used to see in the papal domains7 the ,church is the ,state1 and the ,state the ,church4 ,they both are one4 ,and in this we have another cause of the backwardness and depression of ,mohammedan society4 ,since the abolition of the temporal power in ,italy we have nowhere in ,christian lands any such theocratic union of ,csar and the ,church1 so that secular and religious advance is left more or less unhampered2 whereas in ,islam the hierarchico-political constitution has hopelessly welded the secular arm with the spiritual in one common scepter1 to the furthering of despotism1 and elimination of the popular voice from its proper place in the concerns of ,state4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,koran checks progress4 ,and so1 throughout the whole range of political1 religious1 social1 and domestic relations1 the attempt made by the founder of ,islam to provide for all contingencies1 and to fix every thing aforehand by rigid rule and scale1 has availed to cramp and benumb the free activities of life and to paralyze the natural efforts of society at healthy growth1 expansion1 and reform4 ,as an author already quoted has so well put it1 ,the ,koran has frozen ,mohammedan thought2 to obey it is to abandon progress4#gi ,sidenote3 ,is ,islam suitable for any nation8 ,writers have indeed been found who1 dwelling upon the benefits conferred by ,islam on idolatrous and savage nations1 have gone so far as to hold that the religion of ,mohammed may in consequence be suited to certain portions of mankind--as if the faith of ,jesus might peaceably divide with it the world4 ,but surely to acquiesce in a system which reduces the people to a dead level of social depression1 despotism1 and semi-barbarism would be abhorrent from the first principles of philanthropy4 ,with the believer1 who holds the ,gospel to be good tidings of great joy1 which shall be to all people1o such a notion is on higher grounds untenable2 but even in view of purely secular considerations it is not only untenable1 but altogether unintelligible4 ,as ,i have said elsewhere3 ,the eclipse in the ,east1 which still sheds its blight on the ancient seats of ,jerome and ,chrysostom1 and shrouds in darkness the once bright and famous sees of ,cyprian and ,augustine1 has been disastrous every-where to liberty and progress1 equally as it has been to ,christianity4 ,and it is only as that eclipse shall pass away and the ,sun of righteousness again shine forth that we can look to the nations now dominated by ,islam sharing with us those secondary but precious fruits of divine teaching4 ,then with the higher and enduring blessings which our faith bestows1 but not till then1 we may hope that there will follow likewise in their wake freedom and progress1 and all that tends to elevate the human race4#hj ,sidenote3 ,no sacrifice for sin or redemptive grace4 ,although with the view of placing the argument on independent ground ,i have refrained from touching the peculiar doctrines of ,christianity1 and the inestimable benefits which flow to mankind therefrom1 ,i may be excused1 before ,i conclude1 if ,i add a word regarding them4 ,the followers of ,mohammed have no knowledge of ,god as a ,father2 still less have they knowledge of him as ,our ,father--the ,god and ,father of the ,lord ,jesus ,christ4 ,they acknowledge1 indeed1 that ,jesus was a true prophet sent of ,god2 but they deny his crucifixion and death1 and they know nothing of the power of his resurrection4 ,to those who have found redemption and peace in these the grand and distinctive truths of the ,christian faith1 it may be allowed to mourn over the lands in which the light of the ,gospel has been quenched1 and these blessings blotted out1 by the material forces of ,islam2 where1 together with civilization and liberty1 ,christianity has given place to gross darkness1 and it is as if now there were no more sacrifice for sins4 ,we may1 and we do1 look forward with earnest expectation to the day when knowledge of salvation shall be given to these nations by the remission of their sins1 through the tender mercy of our ,god1 whereby the ,dayspring from on high hath visited us1 to give light to them that sit in darkness and in the shadow of death1 to guide our feet into the way of peace4p ,sidenote3 ,contrast between divine and human work4 ,but even apart from these1 the special blessings of ,christianity1 ,i ask1 which now of the two faiths bears1 in its birth and growth1 the mark of a divine hand and which the human stamp8 ,which looks likest the handiwork of the ,god of nature1 who hath laid the measures of the earth1 and hath stretched the line upon it1q but not the less with an ever-varying adaptation to time and place8 and which the artificial imitation8 ,sidenote3 ,islam4 ,as a reformer1 ,mohammed did indeed advance his people to a certain point1 but as a prophet he left them fixed immovably at that point for all time to come4 ,as there can be no return1 so neither can there be any progress4 ,the tree is of artificial planting4 ,instead of containing within itself the germ of growth and adaptation to the various requirements of time1 and clime1 and circumstance1 expanding with the genial sunshine and the rain from heaven1 it remains the same forced and stunted thing as when first planted twelve centuries ago4#ha ,sidenote3 ,christianity compared by ,christ to the works of nature4 ,such is ,islam4 ,now what is ,christianity8 ,listen to the prophetic words of the ,founder himself1 who compares it to the works of nature3 ,so is the kingdom of ,god1 as if a man should cast seed into the ground2 ,and should sleep1 and rise night and day1 and the seed should spring and grow up1 he knoweth not how4 ,for the earth bringeth forth fruit of herself3 first the blade1 then the ear1 after that the full corn in the ear4r ,and again3 ,whereunto shall we liken the kingdom of ,god1 or with what comparison shall we compare it8 ,it is like a grain of mustard-seed1 which1 when it is sown in the earth1 is less than all seeds that be in the earth2 ,but when it is sown1 it groweth up and becometh greater than all herbs1 and shooteth out great branches1 so that the fowls of the air may lodge under the shadow of it4s ,sidenote3 ,islam the work of man2 ,christianity the work of ,god4 ,which is nature1 and which is art1 let the reader judge4 ,which bears the impress of man's hand1 and which that of ,him who is wonderful in counsel1 and excellent in working8 ,in fine1 of the ,arabian it may be said3 ,hitherto shalt thou come1 but no further1 and here shall thy proud waves be stayed4 ,but of ,christ3 ,his name shall endure forever3 his name shall be continued as long as the sun3 and men shall be blessed in him3 all nations shall call him blessed4 ,he shall have dominion also from sea to sea1 and from the river unto the ends of the earth4 ,blessed be the ,lord ,god1 the ,god of ,israel1 who only doeth wondrous things4 ,and blessed be his glorious name forever3 and let the whole earth be filled with his glory4 ,amen1 and ,amen4t ,,footnotes3 e #a ,cor4 vii1 #ba4 f ,gal4 iii1 #bf1 #bh4 g #a ,cor4 vii1 #bb4 h ,philemon #af4 i ,matt4 xix1 #d4 j #a ,cor4 vii1 #c4 k #a ,thess4 iv1 #d4 l #a ,tim4 v1 #b4 m #a ,tim4 ii1 #i4 n #a ,pet4 iii1 #g4 o ,luke ii1 #aj4 p ,luke i1 #gg-gi4 q ,job xxxviii1 #e4 r ,mark iv1 #bf-bh4 s ,mark iv1 #cj-cb4 t ,psa4 lxxii1 #ag1 #h1 #ah1 #ai4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,barth4 #b ,bergaigne1 in his able treatise1 ,la ,religion ,vdique1 insists earnestly on what he calls the liturgical contamination of the myths4 ,see vol4 iii1 p4 #cbj4 #c ,r4,v41 ix1 #db1 #d4 #d ,r4,v41 ix1 #ig1 #bd4 #e ,the religion of the ,indo-,european race1 while still united1 recognized a supreme ,god2 an organizing ,god2 almighty1 omniscient1 moral4444 ,this conception was a heritage of the past4444 ,the supreme ,god was originally the ,god of heaven4 ,so ,darmesteter1 ,contemporary ,review1 ,october1 #ahgi4 ,roth had previously written with much learning and acuteness to the same effect4 #f ,muir's ,sanskrit ,texts1 v1 #dab4 #g ,r4,v41 iii1 #fb1 #aj4 #h ,the rites1 says ,haug1 must have existed from times immemorial4--,aitareya ,brhmana1 pp4 #g1 #i4 #i ,weber1 ,history of ,indian ,literature1 p4 #ch4 #aj ,max ,mller1 ,ancient ,sanskrit ,literature1 p4 #chi4 #aa ,the haughty ,indra takes precedence of all gods4 ,r4,v41 #a1 #ee4 #ab ,these two personages ,indra and ,varuna sum up the two conceptions of divinity1 between which the religious consciousness of the ,vedic ,aryans seems to oscillate4--,bergaigne1 ,la ,religion ,vdique1 vol4 iii1 p4 #adi4 #ac ,the meaning of the term is not quite certain4 ,sessions1 or ,instructions1 may perhaps be the rendering4 ,so ,monier ,williams4 #ad ,for example1 ,wordsworth3 ,thou1 ,thou alone ,art everlasting1 and the blessed ,spirits ,which ,thou includest1 as the sea her waves4 --,excursion1 book iv4 #ae ,or1 the thing that really is--the ,greek3 onts on4 #af ,ekamadvitiyam4 #ag ,this illustration is in the mouth of every ,hindu disputant at the present day4 #ah ,barth1 p4 #ge4 #ai ,ekamadvitiyam4 #bj ,volui tibi suaviloquenti ,carmine ,pierio rationem exponere nostram ,et quasi ,muso dulci contingere melle4 #ba ,dr4 ,j4 ,muir1 in ,north ,british ,review1 ,no4 xlix1 p4 #bbd4 #bb ,miscellaneous ,writings 7,macmillan1 #ahfa71 vol4 i1 p4 #gg4 #bc ,but the truth is that every man is accounted a good ,hindu who keeps the rules of caste and pays due respect to the ,brahmans4 ,what he believes1 or disbelieves1 is of little or no consequence4 #bd ,yaska1 probably in the fifth century ,b4,c4 #be ,weber thinks that ,christian elements may have been introduced1 in course of time1 into the representation4 #bf ,his ,ramayana was written in ,hindi verse in the sixteenth century4 #bg ,when ,jhansi was captured in the times of the great mutiny ,english officers were disgusted to see the walls of the queen's palace covered with what they described as grossly obscene pictures4 ,there is little or no doubt that these were simply representations of the acts of ,krishna4 ,therefore to the ,hindu queen they were religious pictures4 ,when questioned about such things the ,brahmans reply that deeds which would be wicked in men were quite right in ,krishna1 who1 being ,god1 could do whatever he pleased4 #bh ,born probably in #afdi4 #bi ,raja ,narayan ,basu 7,bose71 in enumerating the sacred books of ,hinduism1 excluded the philosophical systems and included the ,tantras4 ,he was and1 we believe1 is a leading man in the ,adi ,brahma ,somaj4 #cj ,barth1 as above1 p4 #bjb4 #ca ,so writes ,vans ,kennedy1 a good authority4 ,the rites1 however1 vary with varying places4 #cb ,asiatic ,researches1 v1 p4 #cef4 #cc ,cicero4 #cd ,we learned from his own lips that among the books which most deeply impressed him were the ,bible and the writings of ,dr4 ,chalmers4 #ce ,see ,life of ,mohammed1 p4 #ach4 ,smith ,elder4 #cf ,life of ,mohammed1 p4 #agb1 where the results are compared4 #cg ,life of ,mohammed1 p4 #cda2 ,sura ii1 #beg2 xxix1 #df4 #ch ,the only exceptions were the ,jews of ,kheibar and the ,christians of ,najran1 who were permitted to continue in the profession of their faith4 ,they were1 however1 forced by ,omar to quit the peninsula1 which thenceforward remained exclusively ,mohammedan4 ,islam is a synonym for the ,mussulman faith4 ,its original meaning is surrender of one's self to ,god4 #ci ,apology of ,al ,kindy1 the ,christian1 p4 #ah4 ,smith ,elder1 #ahhb4 ,this remarkable apologist will be noticed further below4 #dj ,principal ,fairbairn3 ,the ,primitive ,polity of ,islam1 ,contemporary ,review1 ,december1 #ahhb1 pp4 #hff1 #hfg4 #da ,herr von ,kremer1 ,culturgeschichte des ,orients1 unter den ,chalifen1 vol4 i1 p4 #chc4 #db ,annals of the ,early ,caliphate1 p4 #i4 ,smith ,elder1 #ahhc4 #dc ,gibbon's ,decline and ,fall1 chapter li1 and ,annals of the ,early ,caliphate1 p4 #ahd4 #dd ,ibid42 and ,sura xliv1 v4 #be4 ,we--that is1 the ,lord4 #de ,annals of the ,early ,caliphate1 p4 #df4 #df ,see1 for example1 ,sura lxxviii3 ,verily for the pious there is a blissful abode3 gardens and vineyards2 and damsels with swelling bosoms1 of a fitting age2 and a full cup4 ,lovely large-eyed girls1 like pearls hidden in their shells1 a reward for that which the faithful shall have wrought4 ,verily ,we have created them of a rare creation1 virgins1 young and fascinating4444 ,modest damsels averting their eyes1 whom no man shall have known before1 nor any ,jinn1 etc4 ,the reader will not fail to be struck by the materialistic character of ,mohammed's paradise4 #dg ,see ,sura ,jehad2 also ,annals of the ,early ,caliphate1 p4 #afg1 et4 seq4 #dh ,annals of the ,early ,caliphate1 p4 #aje1 et4 seq4 #di ,see ,annals1 etc41 p4 #bec4 #ej ,sura ix1 v4 #cj4 #ea ,so ,jews and ,christians as possessing the ,bible are named in the ,koran4 #eb ,see ,annals1 etc41 p4 #bac4 #ec ,the ,apology of ,al ,kindy1 written at the court of ,al ,mamun ,a4,h4 #bae 7,a4,d4 #hcj71 with an essay on its age and authorship1 p4 #ab4 ,smith ,elder1 #ahhb4 #ed ,ibid41 p4 #cd4 #ee ,apology1 p4 #dg1 et4 seq4 #ef ,alluding to the ,ansar1 or mortal ,helpers of ,mohammed at ,medina4 ,throughout1 the apologist1 it will be observed1 is drawing a contrast with the means used for the spread of ,islam4 #eg ,apology1 p4 #af4 #eh ,apology1 p4 #eg4 #ei ,i am not here comparing the value of these observances with those of other religions4 ,i am inquiring only how far the obligations of ,islam may be held to involve hardship or sacrifice such as might have retarded the progress of ,islam by rendering it on its first introduction unpopular4 #fj ,see ,sura ii1 v4 #hh4 #fa ,sura iv1 #ah4 ,exchange is the word used in the ,koran4 #fb ,each of his widows had #ajj1jjj golden pieces left her4 ,life of ,mohammed1 p4 #aga4 #fc ,these divorced wives were irrespective of his concubines or slave-girls1 upon the number and variety of whom there was no limit or check whatever4--,annals1 p4 #dah4 #fd ,lane adds3 ,there are many men in this country who1 in the course of ten years1 have married as many as twenty1 thirty1 or more wives2 and women not far advanced in age have been wives to a dozen or more husbands successively4 ,note that all this is entirely within the religious sanction4 #fe ,pilgrimage to ,mecca1 by her highness the reigning ,begum of ,bhopal1 translated by ,mrs4 ,w4 ,osborne 7#ahgj71 pp4 #hb1 #hh4 ,slave-girls cannot be married until freed by their masters4 ,what her highness tells of women divorcing their husbands is of course entirely ultra vires1 and shows how the laxity of conjugal relations allowed to the male sex has extended itself to the female also1 and that in a city where1 if anywhere1 we should have expected to find the law observed4 #ff ,in ,india1 for example1 there are ,mohammedan races among whom monogamy1 as a rule1 prevails by custom1 and individuals exercising their right of polygamy are looked upon with disfavor4 ,on the other hand1 we meet occasionally with men who aver that rather against their will 7as they will sometimes rather amusingly say7 they have been forced by custom or family influence to add by polygamy to their domestic burdens4 ,in ,mohammedan countries1 however1 when we hear of a man confining himself to one wife1 it does not necessarily follow that he has no slaves to consort with in his harem4 ,i may remark that slave-girls have by ,mohammedan laws no conjugal rights whatever1 but are like playthings1 at the absolute discretion of their master4 #fg ,the case of the ,corinthian offender is much in point1 as showing how the strict discipline of the ,church must have availed to make ,christianity unpopular with the mere worldling4 #fh ,sidenote3 ,laxity among nominal ,christians4 ,apology1 p4 #ea4 ,i repeat1 that in the remarks ,i have made under this head1 no comparison is sought to be drawn betwixt the morality of nominally ,christian and ,moslem peoples4 ,on this subject ,i may be allowed to quote from what ,i have said elsewhere3 ,the ,moslem advocate will urge 444 the social evil as the necessary result of inexorable monogamy4 ,the ,koran not only denounces any illicit laxity between the sexes in the severest terms1 but exposes the transgressor to condign punishment4 ,for this reason1 and because the conditions of what is licit are so accommodating and wide1 a certain negative virtue 7it can hardly be called continence or chastity7 pervades ,mohammedan society1 in contrast with which the gross and systematic immorality in certain parts of every ,european community may be regarded by the ,christian with shame and confusion4 ,in a purely ,mohammedan land1 however low may be the general level of moral feeling1 the still lower depths of fallen humanity are unknown4 ,the 'social evil' and intemperance1 prevalent in ,christian lands1 are the strongest weapons in the armory of ,islam4 ,we point1 and justly1 to the higher morality and civilization of those who do observe the precepts of the ,gospel1 to the stricter unity and virtue which cement the family1 and to the elevation of the sex2 but in vain1 while the example of our great cities1 and too often of our representatives abroad1 belies the argument4 ,and yet the argument is sound4 ,for1 in proportion as ,christianity exercises her legitimate influence1 vice and intemperance will wane and vanish1 and the higher morality pervade the whole body2 whereas in ,islam the deteriorating influences of polygamy1 divorce1 and concubinage have been stereotyped for all time4--,the ,koran3 its ,composition and ,teaching1 and the ,testimony it bears to the ,holy ,scriptures1 p4 #fj4 #fi ,sidenote3 ,alleged progress of ,islam in ,africa4 ,much loose assertion has been made regarding the progress of ,islam in ,africa2 but ,i have found no proof of it apart from armed1 political1 or trading influence1 dogged too often by the slave-trade2 to a great extent a social rather than a religious movement1 and raising the fetich tribes 7haply without intemperance7 into a somewhat higher stage of semi-barbarism4 ,i have met nothing which would touch the argument in the text4 ,the following is the testimony of ,dr4 ,koelle1 the best possible witness on the subject3 ,it is true the ,mohammedan nations in the interior of ,africa1 namely1 the ,bornuese1 ,mandengas1 ,pulas1 etc41 invited by the weak and defenseless condition of the surrounding negro tribes1 still occasionally make conquests1 and after subduing a tribe of pagans1 by almost exterminating its male population and committing the most horrible atrocities1 impose upon those that remain the creed of ,islam2 but keeping in view the whole of the ,mohammedan world this fitful activity reminds one only of these green branches sometimes seen on trees1 already1 and for long1 decayed at the core from age4--,food for ,reflection1 p4 #cg4 #gj ,apology1 p4 #cd4 #ga ,annals1 pp4 #fa1 #bbd4 #gb ,sura iv1 v4 #cc4 #gc ,life of ,mohammed1 p4 #cdh4 #gd ,the ,city of ,god1 p1 #ia4 ,hodder ,stoughton1 #ahhc4 #ge ,the ,turks in ,india1 by ,h4,g4 ,keene1 ,c4,s4,i4 ,allen ,co41 #ahgi4 #gf ,annals1 etc41 p4 #deg4 #gg ,see ,sura xxxiv1 v4 #cb4 ,the excepted relations are3 ,husbands1 fathers1 husbands' fathers1 sons1 husbands' sons1 brothers1 brothers' sons1 sisters' sons1 the captives which their right hands possess1 such men as attend them and have no need of women1 or children below the age of puberty4 #gh ,john xviii1 #cf1 #cg4 #gi ,dr4 ,fairbairn1 ,contemporary ,review1 p4 #hfe4 #hj ,the ,early ,caliphate and ,rise of ,islam1 being the ,rede ,lecture for #ahha1 delivered before the ,university of ,cambridge1 p4 #bh4 #ha ,the ,koran1 etc41 p4 #fe4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,the following section was originally at the beginning of the text4 ,the ,chautauqua ,literary and ,scientific ,circle4 ,,studies ,,for #ahia-ib4 ,leading ,facts of ,american ,history4 ,montgomery1 #a #jj ,social ,institutions of the ,united ,states4 ,bryce1 #a #jj ,initial ,studies in ,american ,letters4 ,beers1 #a #jj ,story of the ,constitution of the ,united ,states4 ,thorpe1 #fj ,classic ,german ,course in ,english4 ,wilkinson1 #a #jj ,two ,old ,faiths4 ,mitchell and ,muir1 #dj