,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #gaa ,,new ,,york1 ,,august #ag1 #ahhi ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xxviii41 ,no4 #gaa4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,i4 ,,agriculture4--,how to ,raise ,turkeys4--,a collection of hints and suggestions on the raising of the delicate fowls1 so often the cause of trouble to farmers4 #aacfd ,pear ,duchesse ,d',angouleme4--,the history of the famous pear tree1 with hints as to its culture and general treatment4 #aacfb ,,ii4 ,,biology4--,development of the ,embryo4--,a note of some interesting biological researches4--,by ,prof4 ,,preyer1 of ,berlin4 #aacfe ,the ,hatchery of the ,sun ,fish4--,a curious incident in the life history of the common sunfish4--#a illustration4 #aacfc ,,iii4 ,,chemistry4--,on ,allotropic ,forms of ,silver4--,by ,m4 ,,carey ,,lea4--,a continuation of this paper1 containing one of the most important researches in the history of silver1 with statement of interesting results attained4 #aacfa ,on the ,occurrence of ,paraffine in ,crude ,petroleum4--,a valuable contribution to the history of paraffine1 with reference to petroleum and ozokerite4 #aacfa ,turpentine and its ,products4--,by ,,edward ,,davies4--,a resume of the work done by chemists in the turpentine products4 --,the different compounds produced therefrom4 #aacfa ,,iv4 ,,electricity4--,electric ,lighting at the ,paris ,exhibition4 --,the ,oerlikon works4--,a very exhaustive exhibition of electric apparatus described and illustrated4--#ab illustrations4 #aacef ,magnetism in its ,relation to ,induced ,electromotive ,force and ,current4--,by ,,elihu ,,thomson4--,a most impressive paper1 bringing the obscure laws of magnetic induction within the understanding of all without the application of mathematics4--#ab illustrations4 #aaced ,the ,ader ,flourish of ,trumpets4--,one of the curiosities in telephony from the ,paris exhibition1 by which sounds are transmitted to a large audience4--#d illustrations4 #aaceh ,the ,electric ,motor ,tests on the ,new ,york ,elevated ,railroad4--,abstracts of tests which were recently made of the ,daft motor on the elevated railroad of this city4 #aacec ,v4 ,,ethnology4--,ancient ,lake ,dwellings4--,interesting abstract of what is known about lake dwellings1 the history of their construction1 and the finds made on the sites by archologists4 #aacfc ,,vi4 ,,forestry4--,succession of ,forest ,growths4--,a valuable paper on forestry1 treating of the evils done by man and a plea for the necessity of intelligent treatment of our woods4 #aacfb ,,vii4 ,,hygiene ,,and ,,medicine4--,acetic ,acid as a ,disinfectant4--,use of acetic acid in septic medical cases as a substitute for carbolic acid and bichloride of mercury4 #aacfe ,counter-,irritation in ,whooping ,cough4--,by ,g4,f4 ,,inglott1 ,m4,d4--,application of irritants to the skin for curing the paroxysms of whooping cough4 #aacfe ,on the ,health ,value to ,man of the ,so-called ,divinely ,beneficent ,gift1 ,tobacco4--,by ,j4,m4,w4 ,,kitchen1 ,m4,d4--,the evils to man and to the soil4--,a formidable series of accusations well expressed4 #aacfe ,water as a ,therapeutical ,agent4--,by ,f4,c4 ,,robinson1 ,m4,d4--,an interesting resume of different applications of water in therapeutics4--,suggestions of use for all households4 #aacfd ,,viii4 ,,military ,,engineering4--,gibraltar4--,a history of this important strategic position and of the different sieges the fortress has undergone4 #aaceb ,gibraltar and ,neighborhood4--,a consular report on the statistics of the famous military station4 #aaceb ,the ,defense of ,gibraltar--,experimental ,naval and ,military ,operations4--,interesting series of operations recently carried out under the shadow of the historic rock4--#a illustration4 #aaceb ,,ix4 ,,naval ,,engineering4--,clark's ,gyroscopic ,torpedoes4--,a recent torpedo1 in which all the possible parts are made to rotate4--#b illustrations4 #aacec ,the ,first ,steamboat on the ,seine4--,the ,marquis de ,jouffroy's steamer of #ahaf4--a illustration4 #aacec ,the ,franz ,josef ,i41 ,new ,war ,ship4--,details of the dimensions of the new ,austrian ship4--,her armament1 speed1 armor1 etc4 #aacec ,x4 ,,photography4--,orthochromatic ,photography4--,by ,,oscar ,o4 ,,litzkow4--,the last developments in this interesting branch of photographic art1 with formul4 #aacfj ,platinotype ,printing4--,a description of the most advanced method of conducting the platinum print process4 #aacfj ,,xi4 ,,physics4--,iridescent ,crystals4--,by ,,lord ,,rayleigh4--,an abstract of a lecture by the distinguished physicist1 detailing some interesting experiments applicable to the colored reflection observed in crystals of chloride of potash4--#a illustration4 #aacff ,transmission of ,pressure in ,fluids4--,by ,,albert ,b4 ,,porter4--,an apparatus for illustrating the laws of transmission of pressure in fluids1 suitable for lecture purposes4--#a illustration4 #aacfb ,,xii4 ,,technology4--,notes on ,dyewood ,extracts and ,similar ,preparations4--,by ,,louis ,,siebold4--,the recent development in the preparation of dyewood extracts1 with notes of their adulterations4 #aacei 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,defense ,,of ,,gibraltar3 ,,experimental ,,naval ,,and ,,military ,,operations4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,defense ,,of ,,gibraltar--,,experimental ,,naval ,,and ,,military ,,operations4 ,a novel and interesting series of operations was carried out at ,gibraltar a few weeks ago1 with a view to test the promptitude with which the garrison of the famous ,rock could turn out to resist a sudden attack by a powerful iron-clad fleet4 ,the supposed enemy was represented by the ,channel ,squadron1 under the command of ,vice-,admiral ,baird1 and consisting of ,h4,m4,s4 ,northumberland 7flag ship71 the ,agincourt1 ,monarch1 ,iron ,duke1 and ,curlew4 ,the general idea of the operations was that a hostile fleet was known to be cruising in the vicinity1 and that an attack on the ,rock might be made4 ,the squadron left ,gibraltar and proceeded to the westward1 returning to the eastward through the ,straits under cover of the night4 ,the ,governor of ,gibraltar1 ,general the ,hon4 ,sir ,arthur ,hardinge1 issued orders for the whole garrison to stand to their arms at dawn1 and subsequent days1 until the attack should be made2 but by his express command no batteries were to be manned1 or any troops moved from their alarm posts1 until the signal was given that an attack was imminent4 ,the alarm signal ordered was that of three guns fired in rapid succession from the ,upper ,signal ,station on the summit of the ,rock1 to be followed1 after a short pause1 by two more shots4 ,it was a matter of complete uncertainty as to the direction from which the attack would be made4 ,every detail was carefully carried out1 as if the impending attack was a real affair4 ,the telegraphic communication between the various parts of the ,rock was supplemented by signalers2 arrangements were made for the ready supply of reserve ammunition for all arms2 and the medical authorities established dressing stations1 at numerous points of the ,rock1 to render first aid to those who might chance to be numbered among the wounded4 ,day broke with a ,levanter1 and the heavy clouds hanging about rendered any distant view a matter of difficulty4 ,however1 before it had become actually daylight the alarm guns gave notice that the enemy had been sighted4 ,the troops turned out with great promptitude1 being all at their assigned stations in less than a quarter of an hour1 and were shortly ordered to various points commanding the east side of the ,rock4 ,as day broke1 the hostile ships were to be discerned steaming in single line ahead1 from the northeast1 along the back of the ,rock1 and about #e1jjj yards from it4 ,the flag ship1 followed by the ,monarch and the ,agincourt1 proceeded toward ,europa ,point1 while the ,iron ,duke and the ,curlew stood close in to the eastern beach1 so as to engage the northern defenses of the fortress4 ,the first shot was fired by the flag ship1 shortly before six o'clock in the morning1 at the southern defenses4 ,it was replied to1 in less than three minutes1 by the ,europa batteries1 and very shortly the engagement became general4 ,the plan of tactics employed by the squadron was that of steaming rapidly up and down1 and concentrating their fire in turn on the various shore batteries4 ,later on1 the whole squadron assembled off ,europa ,point1 and fired broadsides by electricity as they steamed past at speed4 ,the spectacle at this moment was a very fine one1 the roar of the heavy guns of the ships being supplemented by the sharp1 rapid report of the quick-firing guns1 which were supposed to be sending a storm of small shell among the defenders of the ,rock4 ,the incessant rattle of the ships' machine guns was also heard in the intervals between the thundering broadsides of heavy ordnance4 ,all the ships were1 of course1 cleared for action1 with topmasts and yards sent down1 and it is needless to say they looked exceedingly workmanlike and formidable4 ,the various batteries on the ,rock replied with great vivacity1 and the general effect produced as gun after gun was brought to bear on the ships1 and the white smoke wreathed itself round the many crags and precipices of the grim old ,rock1 was a sight long to be remembered4 ,the exercise afforded to both branches of the service was undoubtedly most instructive4 ,our illustration is a sketch by ,captain ,willoughby ,verner from one of the batteries above the ,europa ,flats1 at which point the governor took up his position to watch the operations4 --,illustrated ,london ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,gibraltar ,,and ,,neighborhood4 ,,report ,,by ,,consul ,,sprague4 ,notwithstanding that the political situation of ,europe seems to be less threatening among its leading powers1 still the uncertainty prevalent among those who are generally considered the arbiters of public affairs has had its influence in contracting the limits of speculative adventure1 thereby circumscribing the general course of trade throughout the ,mediterranean4 ,in renewing to the department my reports upon the navigation and general commerce of ,gibraltar1 ,i beg to state that there has been a tolerably fair current business prevailing in ,american produce during the past quarter1 consisting chiefly in flour1 tobacco1 and refined petroleum in cases1 imported direct from ,new ,york4 ,the steady demand for ,american petroleum confirms the fact that ,russian petroleum so far receives but little attention in this market from the regular traders and consumers1 so long as supplies from the ,united ,states can be regularly imported at reasonable prices4 ,it1 however1 remains an open question1 in the event of lower prices ruling in the ,russian petroleum regions1 whether ,american supplies may not later on experience some greater competitive foreign interference4 ,according to the statistical data1 steam vessels of all nationalities have continued to make ,gibraltar their port of call1 not only for orders1 but also for replenishing their stock of fuel and provisions1 and in larger numbers than ever before1 the number in #ahhh having reached #e1gab steam vessels1 measuring in all #e1ifi1efc tons1 while in #ahhg the number was only #e1ahg steam vessels1 with an aggregate tonnage of #e1cgb1ifb4 ,this increase cannot but result in considerable benefit to the coal and maritime traffic1 which now forms the most important portion of the general commerce of ,gibraltar1 in spite of the keen competition it experiences from other ,british and foreign coaling ports4 ,freights have also advanced in favor of steamship interests1 which1 with higher prices in ,england for coal1 have also caused an advance in the price of coal at this port1 to the benefit of the coal merchants and others interested in this important trade4 ,at present the ruling price for steam coal is #bds4 per ton1 deliverable from alongside of coal hulks moored in the bay4 ,as near as ,i have been able to ascertain1 the quantity of coal sold in this market during the past year for supplying merchant steam vessels has amounted to about #ejh1jjj tons1 which is an increase of about #bj1jjj tons over the year #ahhg4 ,notwithstanding that plans have already been submitted to the ,british government for the construction of a dry dock in ,gibraltar1 the matter remains somewhat in suspense1 since it meets with some opposition on the part of the ,british government1 which1 in face of the ,european fever for general arming1 seems more inclined to utilize in another form the expense which such a work would entail upon the imperial government1 by replacing the obsolete ordnance recently removed from this fortress and substituting new defenses and guns of the most approved patterns1 a matter which has evidently been receiving1 for some time past1 the special attention of the ,british military authorities1 not doubting that the recent visit to the fortress of the ,duke of ,cambridge has had some connection with it4 ,in fact1 it is reported that the duke has already expressed the opinion that this fortress requires a larger number of artillerymen than are quartered here at present to man its batteries1 and it would seem that this recommendation is likely to be carried out4 ,it is yet somewhat too early to venture an opinion regarding the growing crops of cereals in this ,spanish neighborhood1 but the agricultural and manufacturing interests in ,spain have suffered so much in the past years that the general feeling in ,spain continues to tend toward establishing increased restrictions against foreign competition in her home markets4 ,there is every probability that the provinces of ,malaga and ,granada may shortly be granted the privilege of cultivating the tobacco plant under government supervision1 as an essay4 ,if properly managed1 it may form an important and lucrative business for those interested in land and agricultural pursuits4 ,after many consecutive years of heavy outlays1 difficulties1 and constant disappointments1 a new ,english company has recently succeeded in commencing the construction of a railway from the neighboring ,spanish town of ,algeciras to join1 via ,ronda1 the railway station of ,bobadilla1 on the railroad line toward ,malaga4 ,it is presumed that when this railroad will be in running order it will greatly benefit this community1 especially if the ,spanish government should decide to establish custom houses at ,algeciras and the ,spanish lines outside the gates of this fortress1 similar to those existing on the frontiers of ,france and ,portugal4 ,that some idea may be formed of the constant important daily intercourse which exists between this fortress and ,spain1 ,i may state that late police statistics show that #a1hhg1fag passes were issued to visitors entering this fortress on daily permits during the year #ahhh1 #a1fjh1jjd entering by the land route and #bgi1fac by sea4 ,i must1 however1 observe that the larger portion of these visitors consists of laborers1 coal heavers1 market people1 and others engaged in general traffic4 ,a new industry in cork has lately sprung up1 in which leading ,spanish and native commercial firms in ,gibraltar are directly interested to a considerable extent4 ,extensive warehouses for the storing of cork wood and machinery for the manufacture of bottle corks have recently been established at the ,spanish lines1 about a mile distant from this fortress1 in ,spanish territory1 where large quantities of cork have already been stored4 ,the cork is obtained and collected from the valuable trees1 which are owned by the representatives of some of the oldest nobility of ,spain1 who have sold the products of their extensive woods to private individuals for periods reaching as far on as ten years1 for which concession large cash advances have already been made4 ,the woods commence at a distance of about twelve miles from ,gibraltar1 and are of considerable extent4 ,the railway now in course of construction passes through these woods1 which may ere long offer quite picturesque scenery for travelers1 especially when the cork trees are bearing acorns1 which form the principal food for the fattening of large herds of swine during certain seasons of the year1 in this way1 also1 contributing to the value of this tree1 which1 like the other kinds of oak trees1 is of long and tardy growth4 ,the tree from which the cork is obtained is somewhat abundant in the mountainous districts of ,andalusia4 ,it grows to a height of about #cj feet1 and resembles the ,quercus ilex1 or evergreen oak1 and attains to a great age4 ,after arriving at a certain state of maturity it periodically sheds its bark1 but this bark is found to be of better quality when artificially removed from the tree1 which may be effected without injury to the tree itself4 ,after the tree has attained twenty-five years it may be barked1 and the operation is afterward repeated once in every seven years4 ,the quality of the cork seems to improve with the increasing age of the tree1 which is said to live over one hundred and fifty years4 ,the bark is taken off during ,july and ,august4 ,cork dust is also obtained from this cork wood1 and is much used in the packing of grapes1 which fruit is largely shipped from the eastern coast of ,spain1 especially from ,almeria1 during the vintage seasons1 for the ,american and ,british markets4--,reports of ,u4,s4 ,consuls4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,gibraltar4 ,the point or rock known as ,gibraltar is a promontory two and one-half miles long and from a quarter to three-quarters of a mile wide4 ,it rises abruptly from the sandy shore to a height at its highest point of #a1djh ft4 ,it is composed of gray limestone1 honeycombed with caves and subterranean passages1 some of which contain most beautiful stalactites in the form of massive pillars4 ,gibraltar is emphatically a fortress1 and in some respects its fortifications are unique4 ,on the eastern side the rock needs no defense beyond its own precipitous cliffs1 and in all other directions it has been rendered practically impregnable4 ,besides a sea wall extending at intervals round the western base of the rock1 and strengthened by curtains and bastions and three formidable forts1 there are batteries in all available positions from the sea wall up to the summit1 #a1cej feet above the sea1 and a remarkable series of galleries has been hewn out of the solid face of the rock toward the north and northwest4 ,these galleries have an aggregate length of between two and three miles1 and their breadth is sufficient to let a carriage pass4 ,portholes are cut at intervals of twelve yards1 so contrived that the gunners are safe from the shot of any possible assailants4 ,at the end of one of the galleries hollowed out in a prominent part of the cliff is ,st4 ,george's ,hall1 #ej feet long by #he feet wide1 in which the governor was accustomed to give fetes4 ,alterations1 extensions1 and improvements are continually taking place in the defensive system1 and new guns of the most formidable sort are gradually displacing or supplementing the old fashioned ordnance4 ,the whole population of ,gibraltar1 whether civil or military1 is subjected to certain stringent rules4 ,for even a day's sojourn the alien must obtain a pass from the town major1 and if he wish to remain longer1 a consul or householder must become security for his good behavior4 ,licenses of residence are granted only for short periods--ten1 fifteen1 or twenty days--but they can be renewed if occasion require4 ,military officers may introduce a stranger for thirty days4 ,a special permit is necessary if the visitor wishes to sketch4 ,though the town of ,gibraltar may be said to date from the fourteenth century1 it has preserved very little architectural evidence of its antiquity4 ,rebuilt on an enlarged and improved plan after its almost complete destruction during the great siege1 it is still1 on the whole1 a mean-looking town1 with narrow streets and lanes and an incongruous mixture of houses after the ,english and the ,spanish types4 ,as a proprietor may at any moment be called upon to give up his house and ground at the demand of the military authorities1 he is naturally deterred from spending his money on substantial or sumptuous erections4 ,the area of the town is about one hundred acres4 ,gibraltar was known to the ,greek and ,roman geographers as ,calpe or ,alybe1 the two names being probably corruptions of the same local 7perhaps ,phenician7 word4 ,the eminence on the ,african coast near ,ceuta1 which bears the modern ,english name of ,apes' ,hill1 was then designated ,abyla2 and ,calpe and ,abyla1 at least according to an ancient and widely current interpretation1 formed the renowned pillars of ,hercules 7,herculis column71 which for centuries were the limits of enterprise to the seafaring peoples of the ,mediterranean world4 ,the strategic importance of the rock appears to have been first discovered by the ,moors1 who1 when they crossed over from ,africa in the eighth century1 selected it as the site of a fortress4 ,from their leader1 ,tarik ,ibn ,zeyad1 it was called ,gebel ,tarik or ,tarik's ,hill2 and1 though the name had a competitor in ,gebel af ,futah1 or ,hill of the ,entrance1 it gradually gained acceptance1 and still remains sufficiently recognizable in the corrupted form of the present day4 ,the first siege of the rock was in #acji1 when it was taken by ,alonzo ,perez de ,guzman for ,ferdinand ,,iv4 of ,spain1 who1 in order to attract inhabitants to the spot1 offered an asylum to swindlers1 thieves1 and murderers1 and promised to levy no taxes on the import or export of goods4 ,the attack of ,ismail ,ben ,ferez1 in #acae 7second siege71 was frustrated2 but in #accc ,vasco ,paez de ,meira1 having allowed the fortifications and garrison to decay1 was obliged to capitulate to ,mahomet ,,iv4 7third siege74 ,alphonso's attempts to recover possession 7fourth siege7 were futile1 though pertinacious and heroic1 and he was obliged to content himself with a tribute for the rock from ,abdul ,melek of ,granada2 but after his successful attack on ,algeciras in #acdd he was encouraged to try his fortune again at ,gibraltar4 ,in #acdi he invested the rock1 but the siege 7fifth siege7 was brought to an untimely close by his death from the plague in ,february1 #acej4 ,the next or sixth siege resulted simply in the transference of the coveted position from the hands of the ,king of ,morocco to those of ,yussef ,,iii4 of ,granada2 and the seventh1 undertaken by the ,spanish ,count of ,niebla1 ,enrico de ,guzman1 proved fatal to the besieger and his forces4 ,in #adfb1 however1 success attended the efforts of ,alphonso de ,arcos 7eighth siege71 and in ,august the rock passed once more under ,christian sway4 ,the ,duke of ,medina ,sidonia1 a powerful grandee who had assisted in its capture1 was anxious to get possession of the fortress1 and though ,henry ,,iv4 at first managed to maintain the claims of the crown1 the duke ultimately made good his ambition by force of arms 7ninth siege71 and in #adfi the king was constrained to declare his son and his heirs perpetual governors of ,gibraltar4 ,in #adgi ,ferdinand and ,isabella made the second duke ,marquis of ,gibraltar1 and in #adib the third duke1 ,don ,juan1 was reluctantly allowed to retain the fortress4 ,at length1 in #aeja1 ,garcilaso de la ,vega was ordered to take possession of the place in the king's name1 and it was formally incorporated with the domains of the crown4 ,after ,ferdinand and ,isabella were both dead the duke1 ,don ,juan1 tried in #aejf to recover possession1 and added a tenth to the list of sieges4 ,thirty-four years afterward the garrison had to defend itself against a much more formidable attack 7eleventh siege7--the pirates of ,algiers having determined to recover the rock for ,mahomet and themselves4 ,the conflict was severe1 but resulted in the repulse of the besiegers4 ,after this the ,spaniards made great efforts to strengthen the place1 and they succeeded so well that throughout ,europe ,gibraltar was regarded as impregnable4 ,in the course of the war of the ,spanish succession1 however1 it was taken by a combined ,english and ,dutch fleet under ,sir ,george ,rooke1 assisted by a body of troops under ,prince ,george of ,hesse-,darmstadt4 ,the captors had ostensibly fought in the interests of ,charles ,archduke of ,austria 7afterward ,charles ,,iii471 but1 though his sovereignty over the rock was proclaimed on ,july #bd1 #agjd1 ,sir ,george ,rooke on his own responsibility caused the ,english flag to be hoisted1 and took possession in name of ,queen ,anne4 ,it is hardly to the honor of ,england that it was both unprincipled enough to sanction and ratify the occupation and ungrateful enough to leave unrewarded the general to whose unscrupulous patriotism the acquisition was due4 ,the ,spaniards keenly felt the injustice done to them1 and the inhabitants of the town of ,gibraltar in great numbers abandoned their homes rather than recognize the authority of the invaders4 ,in ,october1 #agjd1 the rock was invested by sea and land2 but the ,spanish ships were dispersed by ,sir ,john ,leake1 and the ,marquis of ,villadarias fared so ill with his forces that he was replaced by ,marshal ,tesse1 who was at length compelled to raise the siege in ,april1 #agje4 ,during the next twenty years there were endless negotiations for the peaceful surrender of the fortress1 and in #agbf the ,spaniards again appealed to arms4 ,but the ,conde de la ,torres1 who had the chief command1 succeeded no better than his predecessors1 and the defense of the garrison under ,general ,clayton and the ,earl of ,portmore was so effectual that the armistice of ,june #bc practically put a close to the siege1 though two years elapsed before the general pacification ensued4 ,the most memorable siege of ,gibraltar1 indeed one of the most memorable of all sieges1 was that which it sustained from the combined land and sea forces of ,france and ,spain during the years #aggi-aghc4 ,the grand attack on the place was made on the #acth ,september1 #aghb1 and all the resources of power and science were exhausted by the assailants in the fruitless attempt4 ,on the side of the sea they brought to bear against the fortress forty-six sail of the line and a countless fleet of gun and mortar boats4 ,but their chief hope lay in the floating batteries planned by ,d',arcon1 an eminent ,french engineer1 and built at the cost of half a million sterling4 ,they were so constructed as to be impenetrable by the red hot shot which it was foreseen the garrison would employ2 and such hopes were entertained of their efficiency that they were styled invincible4 ,the ,count ,d',artois 7afterward ,charles ,x47 hastened from ,paris to witness the capture of the place4 ,he arrived in time to see the total destruction of the floating batteries and a considerable portion of the combined fleet by the ,english fire4 ,despite this disaster1 however1 the siege continued till brought to a close by the general pacification1 ,february #b1 #aghc4 ,the history of the four eventful years' siege is fully detailed in the work of ,drinkwater1 who himself took part in the defense1 and in the life of its gallant defender ,sir ,george ,augustus ,eliott1 afterward ,lord ,heathfield1 whose military skill and moral courage place him among the best soldiers and noblest men whom ,europe produced during the #ahth century4 ,since #aghc the history of ,gibraltar has been comparatively uneventful4 ,in the beginning of #ahja there were rumors of a ,spanish and ,french attack1 but the ,spanish ships were defeated off ,algeciras in ,june by ,admiral ,saumarez4 ,improvements in the fortifications1 maintenance of military discipline1 and legislation in regard to trade and smuggling are the principal matters of recent interest4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,franz ,,josef ,i41 ,,new ,,war ,,ship4 ,another addition was made to the ,austrian navy by the launching on ,may #ah of the ram cruiser ,franz ,josef ,i4 from the yards of ,s4 ,rocco in the ,stabilimento ,tecnico ,triestino4 ,her dimensions are3 ,length 7over all71 #ajc4g meters2 length 7between perpendiculars71 #ig4i meters2 greatest breadth 7outside71 #ad4h meters2 draught 7bow71 #e4bh meters2 draught 7stern71 #f4je meters2 displacement on the construction water line1 #d1jjj tons4 ,the armament consists of two #bd-;centimeter and six #ae-;centimeter ,krupp breech loaders of #ce caliber length1 two #g-;centimeter ,uchatius guns as an armament for the boats and for landing purposes1 eleven ,hotchkiss quick-firing guns1 and several torpedo-launching ports2 indicated horse power with natural draught #f1djj1 speed #ag4e knots2 with forced draught #i1hjj1 speed #ai knots4 ,the ship is built of steel1 and constructed according to the double bottom system along the engine1 boiler1 and ammunition rooms4 ,the vaulted armor deck1 extending #a4be meters below the water line and protecting the most vital parts of the ship1 is #j4jeg meter thick4 ,there are more than #ajj water tight compartments below and above the deck4 ,a protecting belt of cellulose is provided for the engines and boilers1 extending from the armor deck downward4 ,the two main guns1 placed on ,krupp's hydraulic carriages1 occupy positions in front and rear1 and are protected by stands #j4ji meter thick and #a4fj meters high4 ,they fire en barbette with a lateral range each of #bfj degrees at bow and stern--i4e41 #acj degrees on either of the broadsides4 ,the weight of the barrel of the gun is #be tons1 that of the steel shell #bae kilogrammes 7about #dcj lb471 that of the brown powder charge #ajj kilogrammes2 initial velocity of projectile1 #faj meters2 penetration1 #j4ebd meter iron2 longest range1 #ag kilometers 7about #aj ,english miles72 range at #ae deg4 elevation1 #aj kilometers4 ,the six #ae-;centimeter guns are placed in a kind of machicouli arrangement in two tiers on each of the broadsides1 so that always four guns can fire in the direction of the keel to the front and rear4 ,the weight of the barrel of the gun is each six tons1 that of the steel shells #ea kilogrammes1 that of the charge #bb kilogrammes2 initial velocity1 #faj meters4 ,the #aa quick-firing guns are partly placed along the broadsides1 partly in the masts1 of which there are two4 ,the triple expansion engines1 having each a bronze screw of #d4db meters diameter1 with three blades and a rise of #f4c meters1 make with natural draught #aje revolutions1 and with forced draught #abj4 ,the pumping apparatus are able to lift in one hour #djj tons of water4 ,the front boiler room contains a special cylindrical boiler for the working of the electrical apparatus1 for hydraulic pumps of the artillery service1 for anchor windlasses1 ventilators1 fire engines1 etc4 ,the whole engines weigh #hij tons4 ,the bunkers have a capacity for #ffj tons of coal1 which allows for a run of #d1ejj sea miles4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,clark',s ,,gyroscopic ,,torpedoes4 ,figs4 #a and #b represent1 upon a scale of about #a_/aj1 two types of torpedoes1 the greatest number possible of the parts of which are made revolvable1 so as to render the torpedoes as dirigible as the gyrating motion permits of4 ,fig4 #a represents an electric torpedo actuated by accumulators1 ,a ,a1 keyed upon the shaft1 and revolving along with the gearings4 ,at the beginning of the running1 the accumulators are not all coupled1 but under the action of a clockwork movement which is set in motion at the moment of starting1 metallic brushes descend one after another upon the collectors1 ,b1 and set in action new batteries for keeping constant or1 if need be1 accelerating the speed at the end of the travel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,,clark',s ,,gyroscopic ,,torpedoes4 ,fig4 #b represents an air torpedo proposed by the same inventor4 ,the air reservoir1 ,c1 revolves along with the gearings under the action of the pneumatic machine1 ,d4 ,the central shaft is hollow1 so as to serve as a conduit4 ,the admission of air into the slide valve of the machine is regulated by a clockwork which actuates a slide in an aperture whose form and dimensions are so calculated that the speed remains as constant as possible toward the end of the travel4 ,the trajectory of the two torpedoes is regulated by a cylindrical bellows1 ,f1 which gives entrance to the sea water4 ,the springs shown in the figure balance the hydraulic pressure4 ,the tension of these springs is regulated by the rod1 ,h1 according to the indications of the scale of depths1 ,i4 ,when the torpedo reaches too great a depth1 the action of the springs can no longer balance the increase of the hydraulic pressure1 and the accumulation of the charge in the rear causes the front to rise toward the surface4 ,when the torpedo reaches the surface1 a contrary action is produced4--,revue ,industrielle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,first ,,steamboat ,,on ,,the ,,seine4 ,illustration3 ,,first ,,steamboat ,,built ,,on ,,the ,,seine4 ,the accompanying engraving represents the remarkable steamboat that the unfortunate ,marquis de ,jouffroy constructed at ,paris in #ahaf1 after organizing a company for the carriage of passengers on the ,seine4 ,de ,jouffroy1 as well known1 made the first experiment in steam navigation at ,lyons in #aghc1 but the inventor's genius was not recognized1 and he met with nothing but deception and hostility4 ,with the obstinacy of men of conviction1 he did not cease to prosecute his task4 ,he assuredly had an inkling of the future in store for the invention that he was offering to humanity4 ,the paddle wheel boat that he constructed at ,paris in #ahaf did not succeed any better than its predecessors2 it was remarkable nevertheless in appearance and structure4 ,the engine was forward1 as shown in the engraving1 which is copied from a composition of ,dubucourt's4 ,the company organized by the marquis was ruined1 and1 as well known1 the unfortunate inventor himself died in poverty in #ahcb1 at the age of eighty-one years4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,electric ,,motor ,,tests ,,on ,,the ,,new ,,york ,,elevated ,,railroad4 ,the ,american ,institute of ,electrical ,engineers at its last meeting of the season1 held ,june #be1 again considered the subject of electrical traction1 the paper presented by ,mr4 ,leo ,daft being based upon some recent electrical work on the elevated railroads and its bearing on the rapid transit problem4 ,the ,railroad ,gazette gives the following abstract3 ,he introduced the subject with a tribute to the efficiency of the elevated railroad system as it is now operated by steam1 with special reference to that section of it known as the ,ninth ,avenue line1 upon which his experiments with the electric motor have been conducted1 over which passengers are now conveyed a distance of five miles in #bf minutes for five cents1 which he considered the best and cheapest municipal rapid transit in the world1 and which is operated with a higher degree of safety than any other railroad in the world making an equal number of stops per #ajj miles4 ,on a recent holiday1 ,april #cj last1 #hce1gbj passengers were carried upon the entire system without noticeable detention or accident4 ,the rapidly increasing traffic makes the demand for better facilities a pressing one1 and as the average half million now carried daily will soon become a million1 it appears doubtful if any method can be devised of providing for the growth by the use of steam motors on the present structures1 which are now taxed to their utmost4 ,to the mind of the mechanical engineer1 having in view the ordinary coefficients of tractive ability1 there is no remedy for this4 ,the speaker stated that these coefficients were not entirely trustworthy4 ,he reiterated his previously expressed opinion1 based on frequent experiments1 that there is a decided increase in traction gained by the passage of the electric current from the wheels to the rails1 giving the details of one test where a motor with a load making a total of #fjj lb4 climbed a gradient of #b1ijj ft4 per mile1 starting from a state of rest4 ,he stated that some of those people who had ridiculed his statements had finally admitted that they were true4 ,the motor ,ben ,franklin1 which had been used in making these tests on the elevated roads1 weighed #aj tons1 and performed service nearly equal to the steam motors weighing #ah tons4 ,the object of these tests was the determination of coal economy4 ,tests with a ,prony brake showed that the motor developed #abh ,h4,p4 ,the piece of track on which the experiments were conducted embraced #b1bjj ft4 of level track and #a-h_/aj miles of gradients1 varying from #aa-c_/aj to #ih-g_/aj ft4 per mile1 while at ,thirtieth street the station is at the foot of the steepest grade1 thus testing to the utmost the tractive capacity of the motor4 ,the experiments were begun in ,october1 #ahhh1 and carried on between the hours of #i ,p4,m4 and #d ,a4,m41 beginning with one or two cars1 the load being increased nightly until it was finally made up of eight coaches of #ab tons each1 which were hauled up the #ih ft4 grade at a speed of #g miles per hour1 the entire distance being covered at the rate of #ad-f_/aj miles per hour4 ,the maximum speed obtained on level with that train was #af4cf miles per hour4 ,seventy trips were subsequently made with a #gj ton train operated between the steam trains under #c minutes headway1 but the work was considered too critical on account of the absence of suitable brakes4 ,a number of experiments made about this time showed that the mean speed with a three-car train running express on the up-town track was about #bd miles per hour1 although the ability of the motor on a level with a similar train was nearly #bh miles per hour4 ,this1 however1 was not the maximum speed1 as the level track was not long enough to permit of its attaining the highest rate4 ,it was the opinion of the speaker1 however1 that the speed attained could not be exceeded with prudence on the elevated structure4 ,the measurements of speed were made by dividing the track into #ai sections of #ejj ft41 each section being provided with a circuit-closing plate connected with a chronograph which was carefully tested4 ,the indicator cards were taken at the central station by ,mr4 ,idell and his assistants1 and the dynamometer used was of the liquid type made by ,mr4 ,shaw1 of ,philadelphia4 ,the diagrams prepared from the data obtained were then explained by the speaker1 who stated that there was not a marked difference between the #aj ton motor and the #ah ton locomotive in the initial effort on the level1 as will be seen by comparing a run observed by a railroad officer on ,march #i with a steam motor and a load of about #eg tons4 ,the steam motor required #a min4 and #bi sec4 to make the distance from #adth to #bc;d streets1 while the electric motor with a train of #gj tons made the same trip in #a min4 and #ej sec42 the absence of power brakes compelled the current to be taken off at #aith street1 while it was probable that the throttle of the steam locomotive was not closed until it reached #bc;d street1 this being the usual practice4 ,the data obtained in these experiments shows that #bi1idj h4p4 is required to operate the ,ninth avenue railroad for the #af hours' service1 or an average of #a1hga h4p4 per hour1 or #b1aha h4p41 adding station friction4 ,the varying requirements of the traffic during the day shows that the service could be advantageously divided up between four stationary engines of #hjj h4p4 each1 there being but five hours of the day when all of them would be required4 ,the fuel consumption per day1 allowing #bb lb4 of coal per h4p4 per hour at #b4be per ton1 would make a total of #ib4be per diem for fuel1 the coal being a mixture deliverable at the dock for about #a4hj per ton4 ,the weight of coal used for the present locomotives is about the same1 viz41 #dj tons per day1 but practice has shown it to be most economical to use coal of the best quality1 costing #e per ton1 making the cost of fuel about double that required for the electric system4 ,without entering into other economies which the speaker claimed were in favor of electricity1 and ignoring the plan suggested by ,sir ,william ,siemens of braking the train by converting the motor into a dynamo and thus utilizing the energy of momentum1 he believed that the economy in fuel alone was sufficient to prove that the application of power by electricity was preferable to direct steam propulsion for the elevated railroad service4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,magnetism ,,in ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,induced ,,electromotive ,,force ,,and ,,current4#a ,footnote #a3 ,a paper read before the ,american ,institute of ,electrical ,engineers1 ,new ,york1 ,may #bb1 #ahhi4 ,by ,,elihu ,,thomson4 ,there is perhaps no subject which at the present time can have a greater interest to the physicist1 the electrician1 and the electrical engineer than the one which heads this paper4 ,the advances which have been made in the study from its purely theoretical or scientific side1 and the great technical progress in the utilization of the known facts and principles concerning magnetic inductions1 can but deepen and strengthen that interest4 ,on the side of pure theory we find the eager collection of experimental data to be submitted to the scrutiny of the ablest and brightest minds1 to be examined and reasoned upon with the hope of finding some clew to satisfying explanations1 and on the side of practice we find the search for new facts and relations no less diligent1 though often stimulated by practical problems presented for solution4 ,indeed1 the urgency for results is often the greater on the practical side1 for theory can wait1 practice cannot1 at least in the ,united ,states4 ,we must look for continued triumphs in both directions1 and the most welcome of all will be the framing of a theory or explanation which will enable us to interpret magnetic and electric phenomena4 ,the recent beautiful experiments of ,hertz on magnetic waves have opened a fertile region for investigation4 ,it would seem that the study of magnetism and electricity will give us the ability to investigate the ether of space1 which medium has been theorized upon at great length1 with the result of leaving it very much where it was before1 a mysterious necessity4 ,faraday says1 speaking of magnetism3 ,such an action may be a function of the ether1 for it is not at all unlikely that if there be an ether it should have other uses than simply the conveyance of radiations4 #c1jge4 ,vol4 ,,iii41 ,exp4 ,res4 ,it may be a vibration of the hypothetical ether1 or a state of tension of that ether equivalent to either a dynamic or a static condition1 etc4 #c1bfc4 ,vol4 ,,iii41 ,exp4 ,res4 ,faraday again says1 speaking of the magnetic power of a vacuum3 ,what that surrounding magnetic medium deprived of all material substance may be ,i cannot tell1 perhaps the ether4 #c1bgg4 ,vol4 ,,iii41 ,exp4 ,res4 ,modern views would seem to point that through a study of magnetic phenomena we may take a feeble hold upon the universal ether4 ,magnetism is an action or condition of that medium1 and it may be that electrical actions are the expression of molecular disturbances brought about by ether strains or interferences4 ,the close relations which are shown to exist between magnetism and light tend to strengthen such views4 ,indeed1 it would not be too much to expect that if the mechanics of the ether are ever worked out1 we should find the relation between sensible heat and electric currents to be as close as that of light to magnetism1 perhaps find ultimately the forms of matter1 the elements and compounds to be the more complex manifestations of the universal medium--aggregations in stable equilibrium4 ,it is a difficult conception1 ,i confess1 and a most shadowy and imperfect one1 yet facts and inferences which favor such views are not wanting4 ,our science of electricity seems almost to be in the same condition that chemistry was before the work of ,lavoisier had shed its light on chemical theory4 ,our store of facts is daily increasing1 and apparently disconnected phenomena are being brought into harmonious relation4 ,perhaps the edifice of complete theory will not be more than begun in our time1 perhaps the building process will be a very gradual one1 but ,i cannot refrain from the conviction that the intelligence of man will1 if it has time1 continue its advance until such a structure exists4 ,i have been led to make these general allusions to electrical theory in order to emphasize the fact that in the present paper no unraveling of the mystery is to be attempted1 but rather the presentation of some few considerations upon a subject of absorbing interest4 ,the conception of ,faraday in regard to the existence of lines of magnetic force representing directions of magnetic strain or tension in a medium has not only lost nothing of its usefulness up to the present time1 but has continually been of great service in the understanding of magnetic phenomena4 ,we need spend no time in showing1 as ,faraday and others have done1 that these lines are always closed circuits1 polarized so that the direction of the lines cannot be reversed without reversal of the actions4 ,nor need we take time to show that in any medium the lines are mutually repellent laterally if of the same direction of polarization4 ,opposing this tendency to separation or lateral diffusion of magnetic force is the strong apparent tendency of the lines to shorten themselves in any medium4 ,these actions are distributed by the presentation of a better medium1 as iron instead of space or air4 ,lines of force will move into the better medium1 having apparently the constant tendency to diminish the resistance in their paths4 ,the peculiar and mysterious nature of media1 such as iron1 is to permit an extraordinary crowding of lines on account of slight resistance to their passage through it4 ,we need not1 in addition1 do more than refer to the other well-known facts of an electric current developing magnetic lines encircling the conductor1 as being the general type1 which includes all forms of magnetic field or electro-magnets1 sustained by currents1 and the fact of a development when magnetic lines or circuits and material masses are in relative movement of electromotive forces transversely to the direction of the lines of magnetism1 and also transversely to the direction of relative movement1 as in the case of electric conductors traversing or cutting through a field1 or of a field traversing or being moved across a conductor4 ,we must not forget that even insulators1 as well as conductors1 cutting lines of force1 have the electromotive force developed in them4 ,the action simply develops potential difference1 and this generates the current where a circuit exists4 ,while we are in the habit of saying that a conductor moved across a field of lines1 or vice versa1 generates electric current1 ,i think the statement incomplete4 ,the movement only sets up a potential difference1 and the power expended in effecting the movement generates ,c ,e4 ,the current is energy less the potential1 or the energy expended gives the two effects of potential or pressure and current or rate of movement4 ,consequently an insulator1 or an open-circuited conductor1 traversing a field1 consumes no energy1 potential difference only being produced4 ,nevertheless1 as will be shown1 the magnetic circuits or lines themselves may furnish the energy for their own movement across a conductor1 and so develop current as well as potential4 ,this occurs in the effort of lines to shorten their paths1 to lessen their density1 to pass to better media4 ,indeed1 a close examination will show that wherever power is expended in developing current in a circuit1 cutting lines of force1 the energy expended is first employed in stretching the lines1 which thus receive the energy required to permit them1 in shortening1 to cut the conductor and set up currents in the electric circuit in accordance with the potential difference developed in that circuit and its resistance4 ,i think we may also say1 though ,i do not remember to have seen the statement so put1 that whenever electric potential is set up inductively1 as in self-induction1 mutual induction1 induction from one circuit to another1 and induction from magnets or magnetic field1 it is set up by the movement of lines of force laterally across the body1 mass or conductor in which the potential is developed1 and that whenever current is set up in a wire or an existing current prolonged1 or an existing current checked by induction1 self-induction1 or induction from magnets1 the action is a transfer of energy1 represented by strained lines of force shortening or lessening their resistance1 or lengthening and increasing the resistance in their paths4 ,the magnetic field is like an elastic spring--it can in one condition represent stored energy--it can be strained and will store energy--it can be made to relieve its strain and impart energy4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,let us examine some known phenomena in this light4 ,take the case of a simple wire1 conveying current1 say1 in a line away from observer1 ,fig4 #a4 ,there exists a free field of circular magnetism 7so called71 shading off away from the wire1 and which is represented by concentric circles of increased diameter4 ,the superior intensity or strength of the lines near the wire may also be represented by their thickness4 ,this is often shown also by crowding the lines near the wire1 though ,i am disposed to regard ,fig4 #a as more nearly expressing the condition1 unless we are to regard the lines as simply indicating a sort of atmosphere of magnetic effect whose density becomes less as we proceed outward from the wire1 in which case either form of symbol suffices4 ,the direction of polarization of the lines may be indicated by an arrow head pointing in a direction of right-handed rotation in the path of the lines4 ,this is the typical figure or expression for all forms of simple magnetic circuit--the form of the lines1 their length1 position1 density1 will depend on the shape of the conductor or conductors 7when more than one7 and the materials surrounding or in proximity to the wire or wires4 ,if the current traversing the conductor is constant1 the magnetic field around it is stable and static1 unless other influences come in to modify it4 ,the cutting off of the current is followed by instability of the field whereby it can and must produce dynamic effects4 ,i say must because the field represents stored energy1 and in disappearing must give out that energy4 ,to throw light on this part of the subject is one of the objects of the present paper4 ,cutting off the current supply in the case assumed leaves the developed magnetic lines or strains unsupported4 ,they at once shorten their paths or circuits1 collapsing upon the conductor as it were1 and continuing this action1 cut the section of the conductor1 and apparently disappear in magnetic closed circuits of infinitesimal diameter but of great strength of polarization4 ,it appears to me that we must either be prepared to give up the idea of lines of force or take the position that the magnetic circuits precipitate themselves in shortening their circuits and disappearing upon and cut the conductor4 ,it was ,hughes who put forward the idea that an iron bar in losing its apparent magnetism really short-circuits the lines in itself as innumerable strongly magnetized closed circuits among the molecules4 ,in becoming magnetic once more these short circuits are opened or extended into the air by some source of energy applied to strain the lines1 such as a current in a conductor around the bar4 ,may not this idea be extended1 then1 to include the magnetic medium1 the ether itself8 ,does it contain intensely polarized closed circuits of magnetism which are ready to be stretched or extended under certain conditions by the application of energy1 which energy is returned by the collapse of the extended circuits8 ,this is doubtless but a crude expression of the real condition of things1 for the lines are only symbols for a condition of strain in a medium which cannot be represented in thought1 as we know nothing of its real nature4 ,there is one point in this connection which ,i must emphasize4 ,the strained lines1 ,fig4 #a1 are indications of stored energy in the ether1 and the lines cannot disappear without giving out that energy4 ,ordinarily1 it makes its appearance as the extra current1 and adds itself so as to prolong the current which extended the lines when an attempt is made to cut off such current4 ,were it conceivable that the current could be cut off and the wire put on open circuit while the lines still remained open or strained1 the energy must still escape when the field disappears4 ,it would then produce such a high potential as to be able to discharge from the ends of the conductor1 and if the conductor were of some section1 part of the energy would be expended in setting up local currents in it4 ,the field could not disappear without an outlet for the energy it represents4 ,but we cannot cut off a current in a wire so as to leave the wire on open circuit with the lines of the magnetic circuit remaining around it without iron or steel or the like in the magnetic circuit4 ,we can approach that condition1 however1 by breaking the circuit very quickly with a condenser of limited capacity around the break4 ,this is done in the ,ruhmkorff coil primary2 the condenser forms a sort of blind alley for the extra current on its beginning to flow out of the primary coil4 ,but the condenser charges and backs up and stops the discharge from the primary1 even giving a reverse current4 ,the lines of magnetic force collapse1 however1 and have their effect in the enormous potential set up in the secondary coil4 ,take away the secondary coil so as to stop that outlet1 the energy expends itself on the iron core and the primary coil4 ,take away the iron core1 and the energy of magnetization of the air or ether core expends itself on the wire of the primary and1 possibly1 also on the dielectric of the condenser to some extent4 ,the extra current becomes in this instance an oscillatory discharge of very high period back and forth through the primary coil from the condenser1 until the energy is lost in the heat of ,c#b ,r4 ,this conversion is doubtless rendered all the more rapid by uneven distribution of current and eddy current set up in the wire of the coil4 ,the considerations just given concern the loss of field or the shortening and apparent disappearance of the magnetic lines or circuits1 as giving rise to the self-induction or increased potential on breaking4 ,where the energizing current is slowly cut off or diminished the energy is gradually transferred to the wire in producing elevation of potential during the decrease2 and the collapse and cutting of the wire by the collapsing circuits or lines is then only more gradual4 ,let the current be returned to the wire after disappearance of magnetism1 and the lines again seem to emanate from the wire and at the same time cut it and produce a counter potential in it1 which is the index of the abstraction of energy from the circuit1 and its storing up in the form of elastically strained lines of magnetism around the conductor4 ,the effect is that of self-induction on making or upon increase of current1 the measure of the amount being the energy stored in the magnetic circuits which have been extended or opened up by the current4 ,the greater the current and the shorter the path for the lines developed around the axis of the conductor1 the greater the energy stored up4 ,hence1 a circular section conductor has the highest self-induction1 a tube of same section less as its diameter increases1 a flat strip has less as its width increases and thickness diminishes1 a divided conductor much less than a single conductor of same shape and section4 ,separating the strands of a divided conductor increases the length of magnetic paths around it1 and so diminishes the self-induction4 ,a striking instance of this latter fact was developed in conveying very heavy alternating currents of a very low potential a distance of about three feet by copper conductors1 the current being used in electric welding operations4 ,the conductors were built up of flat thin strips of copper for flexibility4 ,when the strips were allowed to lie closely together1 the short conductor showed an enormous self-induction1 which cut down the effective potential at its ends near the work4 ,by spreading apart the strips so as to lengthen a line around the conductor1 the self-induction could be easily made less than #ce per cent4 of what it had been before4 ,the interweaving of the outgoing and return conductor strands as one compound conductor gets rid almost entirely of the self-inductive effects1 because neither conductor has any free space in which to develop strong magnetic forces1 but is opposed in effect everywhere by the opposite current in its neighbor4 ,where a number of conductors are parallel1 and have the same direction of current1 as in a coil or in a strand1 it is evident that statically the conductor may be considered as replaceable by a single conductor with the same external dimensions and same total current in the area occupied1 the magnetic forces or lines surrounding them being of same intensity4 ,but with changing current strength the distribution of current in the conductor has also a powerful effect on the energy absorbed or given out in accordance with the magnetism produced4 ,hence the self-induction of a strand1 coil or conductor of the same section varies with the rapidity of current changes1 owing to the conduction being uneven4 ,the uneven distribution of current1 or its tendency to flow on the outer parts of a conductor when the rate of variation or alternation is made great1 is in itself a consequence of the fact that less energy is transferred into magnetism in this case than when the current flows uniformly over the section1 or is concentrated at the center4 ,in other words1 when a uniform current traverses a conductor of the same section1 the circular magnetism1 or surrounding magnetic lines1 are to be found not only outside the conductor1 but also beneath its exterior4 ,since in forming these lines on passage of current the middle of section would be surrounded by more lines than any other part of the conductor1 the current tends to keep out of that part and move nearer the exterior in greater amount4 ,hence1 in rapidly alternating currents the conductor section is practically lessened1 being restricted largely to the outer metal of the conductor4 ,if the round conductor1 ,fig4 #b1 were made of iron1 the magnetism interior to it and set up by a current in it would be very much greater1 the section of the conductor being filled with magnetic circuits or lines around the center4 ,the total magnetism1 external and internal1 would be much greater in this case for a given current flow1 and the energy absorbed and given out in formation and loss of field or the self-induction would be much increased4 ,this could1 however1 be greatly diminished by slitting the conductor radially or making it of a number of separate wires out of lateral magnetic contact one with the other1 ,fig4 #c4 ,in these cases the resistance of the interior magnetic circuits would be increased1 as there would be several breaks in the continuity around the center of the conductor4 ,the total magnetism which could be set up by a current would be lessened1 and the self-induction1 therefore1 lessened4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,the moment we begin the bringing of iron into proximity with an electric conductor conveying current1 we provide a better medium for the flow or development of magnetic lines or circuits4 ,in other words1 the lines may then be longer1 yet equally intense1 or more lines may be crowded into a section of this metal than in air or space4 ,figs4 #d;a1 #d;b1 #d;c show the effect brought about by bringing iron of different forms near to the conductor4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d;a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d;b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d;c4 ,it shows1 in other words1 the development of the ordinary electro-magnet of the horseshoe form1 and the concentration of the lines in the better medium4 ,the lines also tend to shorten and diminish the resistance to their passage1 so that attraction of the iron to the conductor takes place1 and if there is more than one piece of iron1 they tend to string themselves around the conductor in magnetic contact with one another4 ,when copper bars of #a inch diameter are traversed by currents of #dj1jjj to #fj1jjj amperes1 as in welding them1 the magnetic forces just referred to become so enormous that very heavy masses of iron brought up to the bar are firmly held1 even though the current be of an alternating character1 changing direction many times a second4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f ,when a conductor is surrounded by a cast iron ring1 as in ,fig4 #e1 the current in such conductor has an excellent magnetic medium surrounding it4 ,a large amount of energy is then abstracted on the first impulse of current1 which goes to develop strong and dense magnetic lines through the iron ring and across the gap in it4 ,on taking off the current the energy is returned as extra current1 and its force is many times what would be found with air alone surrounding the conductor4 ,we have then greatly increased the self-induction1 the storing of energy and opposition to current flow at the beginning1 the giving back of energy and assistance to the current flow on attempting to remove or stop the current4 ,let us now complete the ring1 by making it of iron1 endless1 ,fig4 #f1 with the conductor in the middle4 ,we now find that on passing current through the conductor it meets with a very strong opposing effect or counter potential4 ,the evolution of magnetic lines1 or the opening out of magnetic circuits1 goes on at a very rapid rate4 ,each line or magnetic circuit evolved1 and cutting the conductor1 flies at once outward1 and locates itself in the iron ring4 ,this ring can carry innumerable lines1 and they do not crowd one another4 ,it permits the lines even to lengthen in reaching it1 and yet1 on account of its low resistance to their passage1 the lengthening is equivalent to their having shortened in other media4 ,we will suppose the current not sufficient to exhaust this peculiar capacity for lines which the iron has4 ,equilibrium is reached1 the conductor has opened up innumerable closed circuits1 and caused them to exist in the ring still closed2 but in iron1 not space or ether merely4 ,the current passing has continued its action and storage of energy until to emit another line in view of the resistance now found in the crowded iron ring is impossible4 ,now let us cut off the current4 ,we are surprised to find a very weak extra current1 a practical absence of self-induction on breaking1 or1 at least1 a giving out of energy in nowise comparable to that on making4 ,let us put on the current as it was before4 ,another curious result4 ,but little self-induction now on making energy not absorbed4 ,now cut off the current again4 ,same effect as before4 ,now let us put on the current reversed in direction4 ,at once we find a very strong counter potential or opposing self-induction developed4 ,the ring had been polarized1 or retained its magnetic energy1 and we are now taking out one set of lines and putting in reversely polarized lines of force4 ,this done1 we break the reversed current without much effect of self-induction4 ,the ring remains polarized and inert until an opposite flow of current be sent through4 ,iron is then a different medium from the ether4 ,the ring once magnetized must1 in losing its magnetism1 permit a closure of the lines by shortening4 ,this involves their passage from the iron across the space in the center of the ring1 notwithstanding its great resistance to the lines of force4 ,as passage from iron to air is equivalent to lengthening of the lines1 it is readily seen that such lengthening may oppose more effect than a slight shortening due to leaving iron1 for air or space may give in provoking a closure and disappearance of the lines4 ,looked at from another standpoint1 the lines on the iron may actually require a small amount of initial energy to dislodge them therefrom1 so that after being dislodged they may collapse and yield whatever energy they represent4 ,i must reserve for the future further consideration of the iron ring1 but in thinking upon this matter ,i am led to think that the production of a magnetic line in an iron ring around a conductor may represent a sort of wave of energy1 an absorption of energy on the evolution of the line from the conductor1 and a slight giving out of energy on the line reaching that position of proximity to the iron ring1 that its passage thereto may be said to be a shortening process or a lessening of its resistance4 ,the magnetism in air1 gases1 and non-magnetic bodies1 being assumed to be that of the ether1 this medium shows no such effects as those we get with the ring4 ,it does not become permanently polarized1 as does even soft iron under the condition of a closed ring4 ,the iron possesses coercive force1 or magnetic rigidity1 and a steel ring would show more of it4 ,the molecules of the iron or steel take a set4 ,if we were to cut the soft iron ring1 or separate it in any way1 this introduction of resistance of air for ether in the magnetic circuit would cause the lines to collapse and set up a current in the conductor4 ,the energy of the ring would have been restored to the latter4 ,the curious thing is that physically the polarized ring does not present any different appearance or ordinary properties different from those of a plain ring1 and will not deflect a compass needle4 ,its condition is discoverable1 however1 by the test of self-induction to currents of different direction4 ,as a practical consideration1 we may mention in this connection that a self-inductive coil for currents of one direction must be constructed differently from one to be used with alternating currents4 ,the former must have in its magnetic circuit a section of air or the like1 or be an imperfectly closed circuit1 as it were4 ,the latter should have as perfectly closed a magnetic circuit as can be made4 ,we see here also the futility of constructing a ,ruhmkorff core coil on the closed iron magnetic circuit plan1 because the currents in the primary are interrupted1 not reversed4 ,the considerations just put forward in relation to the closed iron ring1 and its passive character under the condition of becoming polarized1 are more important than at first appears4 ,it has been found that the secondary current wave of a closed iron circuit induction coil or transformer1 whose primary circuit receives alternating current1 is lagged from its theoretical position of #ij degrees behind the primary wave an additional #ij degrees1 so that the phases of the two currents are directly opposed2 or the secondary current working lamps only in its circuit is one half a wave length behind a primary1 instead of a quarter wave length1 as might have been expected4 ,but when it is understood that the iron core polarized in one direction by the primary impulse does not begin to lose its magnetism when that impulse simply weakens1 but waits until an actual reversal of current has taken place1 it will be seen that the secondary current1 which can only be produced when magnetic lines are leaving the core and cutting the secondary coil1 or when the lines are being evolved and passing into the core from the primary coil1 will have a beginning at the moment the primary reverses1 will continue during the flow of that impulse1 and will end at substantially the same time with the primary impulse1 provided the work of the secondary current is not expended in overcoming self-induction1 which would introduce a further lag4 ,moreover1 the direction of the secondary current will be opposite to that of the primary1 because the magnetic circuits which are opened up by the primary current in magnetizing the core1 or which are closed or collapsed by it in demagnetizing the core1 will always cut the secondary coil in the direction proper for this result4 ,transformers of the straight core type with very soft iron in the cores and not too high rates of alternation should approximate more nearly the theoretical relation of primary and secondary waves1 because the magnetic changes in the core are capable of taking place almost simultaneously with the changes of strength of the primary current4 ,this fact also has other important practical and theoretical bearings4 ,let us assume a plain iron core1 ,fig4 #g1 magnetized as indicated1 so that its poles1 ,n1 ,s1 complete their magnetic circuits by what is called free field or lines in space around it4 ,let a coil of wire be wound thereon as indicated4 ,now assume that the magnetism is to be lost or cease1 either suddenly or slowly4 ,an electric potential will be set up in the coil1 and if it has a circuit1 work or energy will be produced or given out in that circuit1 and in any other inductively related to it4 ,hence the magnetic field represents work or potential energy4 ,but to develop potential in the wire the lines must cut the wire4 ,this they can do by collapsing or closing on themselves4 ,the bar seems1 therefore1 to lose its magnetism by gaining it all1 and in doing so all the external lines of force moving inward cut the wire4 ,the magnetic circuits shorten and short-circuit themselves in the bar1 perhaps as innumerable molecular magnetic circuits interior to the iron medium4 ,to remagnetize the bar we may pass an electric current through the coil4 ,the small closed circuits are again distended1 the free field appears1 and the lines moving outward cut across the wire coil opposite to the former direction and produce a counter potential in the wire1 and consequent absorption of the energy represented in the free field produced4 ,as before studied1 the magnetism cannot disappear without giving out the energy it represents1 even though the wire coil be on open circuit1 and therefore unable to discharge that energy4 ,the coil open-circuited is static1 not dynamic4 ,in such assumed case the lines in closing cut the core and heat it4 ,let us1 however1 laminate the core or subdivide it as far as possible1 and we appear to have cut off this escape for the energy4 ,this is not really so1 however4 ,we have simply increased the possible rate of speed of closure1 or movement of the lines1 and so have increased for the divided core the intensity of the actions of magnetic friction and local currents in the core1 the latter still receiving the energy of the magnetic circuit4 ,this reasoning is based on the possibility in this case of cutting off the current in the magnetizing coil and retaining the magnetic field4 ,this is of itself probably impossible with soft iron4 ,that the core receives the energy when the coil cannot is shown in the well known fact that in some dynamos with armatures of bobbins on iron cores1 the running of the armature coils on open circuit gives rise to dangerous heating of the cores1 and that under normal work the heating is less4 ,in the former case the core accumulates the energy represented in the magnetic changes4 ,in the latter the external circuit of the machine and its wire coils take the larger part of the energy which is expended in doing the work in the circuit4 ,in this case1 also1 the current in the coils causes a retardation of the speed of change and extent of change of magnetism in the iron cores1 which keeps down the intensity of the magnetic reaction4 ,in fact1 this retardation or lag and reduction of range of magnetic change may in some machines be made so great by closing the circuit of the armature coils themselves or short-circuiting them that the total heat developed in the cores is much less than under normal load4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,i wish now1 in closing1 to refer briefly to phenomena of moving lines of force1 and to the effects of speed of movement4 ,in order to generate a given potential in a length of conductor we have choice of certain conditions4 ,we can vary the strength of field and we can vary the velocity4 ,we can use a strong field and slow movement of conductor1 or we can use a weak field and rapid movement of the conductor4 ,but we find also that where the conductor has large section it is liable to heat from eddy currents caused by one part of its section being in a stronger field than another at the same time4 ,one part cuts the lines where they are dense and the other where they are not dense1 with the result of difference of potential and local currents which waste energy in heat4 ,we cannot make the conductor move in a field of uniform density1 because it must pass into and out of the field4 ,the conditions just stated are present in dynamos for heavy current work1 where the speed of cutting of lines is low and the armature conductor large in section4 ,but we find that in a transformer secondary we can use very large section of conductor1 even 7as in welding machines7 #ab to #ae square inches solid copper1 without meeting appreciable difficulty from eddy currents in it4 ,the magnetic lines certainly cut the heavy conductor and generate the heavy current and potential needed4 ,what difference1 if any1 exists8 ,in the transformer the currents are generated by magnetic field of very low density1 in which the lines are moving across the conductor with extreme rapidity4 ,the velocity of emanation of lines around the primary coil is probably near that of light1 and each line passes across the section secondary conductor in a practically inappreciable time4 ,there is no cause then for differences of potential at different parts of the section heavy secondary4 ,then to avoid eddy currents in large conductors and generate useful currents in them1 we may cause the conductor to be either moved into and out of a low density field with very great speed1 or better1 we must cause the lines of a very low or diffused field to traverse or cut across the conductor with very high velocity4 ,it is a known fact that1 in dynamos with large section armature conductors1 there are less eddy currents produced in the conductors when they are provided with iron cores or wound upon iron cores than when the conductors are made into flat bobbins moved in front of field poles4 ,projections existing on the armature between which the conductors are placed have a like effect1 and enable us to employ heavy bars or bundles of wire without much difficulty from local currents4 ,the reason is simple4 ,in the armatures with coils without iron in them1 or without projections extending between the turns1 the conductor moves into and out of a very dense field at comparatively low velocity1 so that any differences of potential developed in the parts of the section of conductor have full effect and abundant time to act in setting up harmful local currents4 ,in the cases in which iron projects through the coil or conductor1 the real action is that the lines of the magnetic circuits move at high speeds across the conductor1 and the conductor is at all times in a field of very low density4 ,figs4 #h and #i will make this plain4 ,in ,fig4 #h we have shown a smooth armature surface1 having a heavy conductor laid thereon1 and which is at a just entering a dense field at the edge of the pole1 ,n1 and at b leaving such field4 ,it will be seen that when in such position the conductor1 if wide1 is subjected to varying field strength1 and moves at a low speed for the generation of the working potential as it passes through the field1 thus giving rise to eddy currents in the conductor4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,in ,fig4 #i the conductors are set down between projections1 in which case both armature and field poles are laminated or subdivided4 ,as each projection leaves the edge of field pole1 ,n1 the lines which it had concentrated on and through it snap backward at an enormous speed1 and cross the gap to the next succeeding projection on the armature1 cutting the whole section of the heavy armature conductor at practically the same instant4 ,this brisk transfer of lines goes on from each projection to the succeeding one in front of the field pole1 leaving a very low density of field at any time between the projections4 ,the best results would be obtained when the armature conductor does not project beyond or quite fill the depth of groove between the projections4 ,of course there are other remedies for the eddy current difficulty1 notably the stranding and twisting of the conductor on the armatures so as to average the position of the parts of the compound conductor4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,perhaps the most extreme case of what may be called dilution of field by projections and by closed magnetic circuits in transformers would be that of a block of iron1 ,b1 ,fig4 #aj1 moved between poles1 ,n and ,s1 and having a hole through it1 into and through which a conductor is carried4 ,the path through the iron is so good that we can scarcely consider that any lines cross the hole from ,n to ,s2 yet as ,b moves forward there is a continual snapping transfer of lines from the right forward side of the hole to the left or backward side1 cutting the conductor as they fly across1 and developing an electromotive force in it4 ,i have described this action more in detail because we have in it whatever distinction in the manner of cutting the lines of the field is to be found between wire on smooth armatures and on projection armatures and modifications thereof2 and also between flat1 open coils passing through a field and bobbins with cores of iron4 ,the considerations advanced also bring out the relation which exists between closed iron circuit transformers and closed iron circuit 7projection7 dynamos1 as we may call them4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,i had intended at the outset of this paper to deal to some extent with the propagation of lines of magnetism undergoing retardation in reference to alternating current motor devices1 transformers with limited secondary current1 or constant average current1 an alternating motor working with what ,i may term a translation lag1 etc42 but it was soon found that these matters must remain over for a continuation of this paper at some future time4 ,my endeavor has been in the present paper to deal with the lines of force theory as though it were a symbol of the reality1 but ,i confess that it is done with many misgivings that ,i may have carried it too far4 ,yet1 if we are to use the idea at all it has seemed but right to apply it wherever it may throw any light on the subject or assist in our understanding of phenomena4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,electric ,,lighting ,,at ,,the ,,paris ,,exhibition--,,the ,,oerlikon ,,works4 ,immediately on entering the ,machinery ,hall by the galerie leading from the central dome1 and occupying a prominent position at the commencement of the ,swiss section1 is a very important plant of dynamos1 motors1 and steam engines1 put down by the ,oerlikon ,works1 of ,zurich4 ,during the time the machinery is kept running in the hall1 power is supplied electrically to drive the whole of the main shafting in the ,swiss section and part of that in the ,belgian section1 amounting in all to some #bjj ft41 a large number of machines of various industries deriving their power from these lines of shafting1 while during the evening a portion of the upper and lower galleries adjoining this section is lit by some twenty-five arc lamps run from this exhibit4 ,steam is supplied from the ,roser boilers in the motive power court4 ,the whole of the generating plant is illustrated in one view1 and a separate view is given of the motor employed to drive the main shafting1 this latter view showing the details of connection to the same4 ,on the extreme right hand side of the first view is a direct coupled engine and dynamo of #bj horse power1 a separate cut of which is given in ,fig4 #c4 ,the engine is of the vertical single cylinder type1 standing #e ft4 high1 and fitted1 as are the other two engines exhibited1 with centrifugal governor gear on the fly wheel1 acting directly on the throw of the cutoff valve eccentric4 ,the two standards1 supporting the cylinder and forming the guide bars1 together with the entire field magnets and pole pieces of the dynamo1 and the bed plate common to both1 are cast in one piece4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c ,,engine ,,and ,,dynamo ,,for ,,steamships4 ,the machine is specially designed for ship lighting1 and with the view of preventing any magnetic effect upon the ship's compass1 the field is arranged so that the armature1 pole pieces1 and coils are entirely inclosed by iron4 ,any tendency to leakage of magnetic lines will therefore be within the machine1 the iron acting as a shield4 ,this build of field--shown in ,fig4 #c;,a--is also advantageous as a mechanical shield to the parts of the machine most likely to suffer from rough handling in transport1 and it will be seen that the field coils are easily slipped on before the armature is mounted in its bearings4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c;,a ,the winding is compound1 and in such a direction that the two opposite horizontal poles have the same polarity2 it follows from this that there will be two consequent poles in the iron1 these being opposite in name to the horizontal poles and at right angles to them1 viz41 above and below the armature4 ,opposite sections of the commutator are connected together internally as in most four-pole machines1 so that only two brushes are necessary1 at #ij deg4 apart4 ,the section of iron in the field is #fj square inches and rectangular in form1 and the whole machine measures #d ft4 #c in4 in length1 and #b ft4 in height1 without including the height of the bed plate4 ,the armature is #ag in4 in length and the same in diameter1 measured over the winding1 and develops at the machine terminals #gj volts and #bjj amperes at #dhj revolutions4 ,the moving parts of the engine are well balanced1 and run remarkably well and without noise at this high rate of speed4 ,this dynamo serves to develop power to run a motor in an adjoining inclosure1 containing some fine specimens of lathes and machine tools constructed by the ,oerlikon ,works4 ,these are driven by the motor through the medium of a countershaft1 and the power and speed are controlled from the switch board seen at the left of the exhibit1 and in ,fig4 #aa4 ,the resistance1 ,r#a1 serves to vary the intensity of the shunt field of the dynamo1 the volts being indicated by the voltmeter ,v#a1 and a resistance separate from the switch board is inserted in the main circuit of the two machines4 ,the ammeter1 ,a#b1 is directly connected to the dynamo1 and therefore indicates the current1 whatever circuit this machine is running4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #e-i1 #aa plus ,,the ,,paris ,,exhibition--,,stand ,,of ,,the ,,oerlikon ,,works4 ,a larger combined engine and dynamo1 seen in the center of the stand1 serves to run the lighting of the galleries4 ,the engine is a #fj horse power compound1 running at #cej revolutions1 and fitted with a governor on the fly wheel1 like that described above4 ,the dynamo is a two-pole machine1 the upper pole and yoke being cast in one1 and the lower pole1 yoke1 and combined bed plate forming a separate casting4 ,the two vertical cores1 over which the field bobbins are slipped1 are of wrought iron1 and are turned with a shoulder at either end1 the yokes being recessed to fit them exactly4 ,the cores are then bolted to the yokes vertically from the top and horizontally below4 ,the field of this machine is shunt-wound1 and in order to maintain the potential constant a hand-regulated resistance--,r#b on the switch board--is added in circuit with the shunt field4 ,the voltmeter1 ,v#b1 immediately above this resistance1 serves to indicate the difference of potential at the machine terminals4 ,both voltmeters are fitted with keys1 so that they are only put in circuit when the readings are taken4 ,the main terminals of this machine are fitted on substantial insulating bases1 fixed one at each end of the top yoke4 ,these connect to the external circuit by a heavy cable--the machine being capable of developing #ejj amperes--and to the shunt circuit1 and regulating resistance by small wires2 while the two connections to the brushes are by four covered wires in parallel on each side4 ,this mode of connection is more flexible than a short length of heavy cable1 and looks well1 the wires being held neatly together by vulcanized fiber bridges4 ,the dynamo is a low tension machine1 the field being regulated to give #fe volts when running the lamp circuits4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,the illustration1 ,fig4 #aj1 represents the automatic re-regulator--,c4,e4,l4 ,brown's patent4 ,motion is imparted to the cores of two electro-magnets at the ends by the pulleys1 ,w ,w#a4 ,the cores have a projection opposite to the spindle1 ab1 which latter is screw-threaded4 ,by a relay one or other electro-magnet is put in action1 and the rotating core1 which is magnetized1 causes rotation of the spindle by attraction1 resulting in the movement of the contact along the resistance stops4 ,the relay is acted upon directly by the potential of the dynamo1 and the variable resistance is included in the shunt field of the machine1 so that changes in the potential1 resulting from changes in load or speed1 are compensated for4 ,the arrangements of the lamp circuits and the lamp itself may now be described4 ,the lamps are all run in parallel circuit1 but are divided into groups of five1 each group being controlled by a separate switch on the board--,figs4 #aa and #aa;,a4 ,these switches are not in direct communication with the dynamo1 but make that connection through a large central switch1 ,s#b1 which therefore carries the whole current4 ,the returns from each group are brought to the connections seen between the two resistances1 where the circuits may be disconnected if desired1 and the main current then passes through the ammeter1 ,a#c1 to the other terminal of the machine4 ,one of the smaller switches at the top1 ,fig4 #aa;,a1 is directly connected with one terminal of the #bj horse power dynamo before mentioned1 and the other side of the switch to the motor in the machine tool exhibit4 ,also one of the switches in connection with the central switch1 ,s#b1 is connected to the same motor1 and therefore the latter may be run by either machine1 or1 in fact1 any combination of machines1 lamps1 and motor be made as required4 ,the form of switch made by the ,oerlikon ,works is illustrated in ,fig4 #g4 ,two thick semicircular bands of copper are screwed at one end to opposite sides of a square block which is turned round by the switch handle4 ,the block has a projection at each corner1 and two strong1 flat1 stationary springs are attached to the framework of the switch and press on opposite sides of the block4 ,the ends of the springs engage in the projections and prevent the switch being turned round the wrong way1 while the pressure of the springs on opposite sides forces the copper bands to take up a position exactly in line with the terminal contacts when the switch is closed1 or at right angles to them when it is opened4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d;,a ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #d1 #d;,b and #d;,c ,further1 each lamp has its own separate adjustable resistance1 fuse1 and switch4 ,these are of special construction1 combined in one1 and are illustrated in ,figs4 #d and #d;,a2 the other figures1 #d;,b and #d;,c1 showing some of the details of the same4 ,the wires1 ,w ,w1 lead from and to one lamp4 ,the current enters at one wire1 passes through the fuse1 f--,figs4 #d;,c and #d;,a--down the center of the cylinder to a divided contact1 into which a switch arm can be shot4 ,when this is so1 a connection is made to the upright brass rod1 ,t1 which serves to grip the band1 ,r1 passing round the body of the cylinder4 ,the current then passes through all the turns of wire above the band1 and out at the other terminal4 ,the resistance can be varied by raising or lowering the band4 ,fig4 #d;,b shows the manner of tightening the band against the wires on the cylinder4 ,the upright rod1 ,t1 is seen in section1 and is fixed in one position to the frame of the apparatus4 ,abutting against this1 and working in the block to which the two ends of the band are screwed1 is a thumb screw1 ,s1 by turning which the band may be loosened for adjusting1 and tightened when the right position is found4 ,the cylinder is covered with asbestos sheet1 and the wire1 which is of nickel1 and measures altogether from #c to #d ohms1 is wound helically round this4 ,the switch arm1 to which the handle is attached below1 does not itself make and break the circuit1 but carries a spring1 as shown1 which1 when the arm is at the end of its movement1 pulls over the contact lever with a rapid action1 shooting the same between the divided contact piece1 and making a perfect contact4 ,the switchboard forms one side of a closed wooden case or cupboard1 with sufficient room for a man to enter and adjust the resistances or switches for each lamp4 ,these are screwed to the inside of the case in rows1 to the number of twenty-five4 ,the greatest care has been taken in the fixing of the connections to the inside of this case1 and no leading wires of different potential are allowed to cross each other4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa;,a ,the ,oerlikon lamp1 which is designed to work with constant potential1 is shown partly in section in ,fig4 #h4 ,there is only one solenoid1 ,a1 through which all the current passes1 and whose action is to strike the arc and maintain the current constant4 ,the soft iron core1 ,c1 is suspended from the inside of the tube1 ,t1 in which it has an up and down movement checked by an air piston in the tube4 ,an end elevation of the brake wheels and solenoid is given in ,fig4 #i1 where it will be seen that the spindle carrying these wheels also carries between them a pinion engaging with the rack rod1 ,r4 ,the top carbon attached to the rack rod falls by its own weight1 and is therefore in contact with the lower carbon before the lamp is switched in circuit4 ,when this is done the core is instantly magnetized1 and attracted to the soft iron brake wheels1 which it holds firmly4 ,the air cushion in the tube prevents the core being drawn up until it has fairly gripped the sides of the wheels4 ,the subsequent raising of the core therefore turns the wheels1 raises the rack rod1 and strikes the arc4 ,the feed is operated by the weakening of the magnetic field of the coil1 which causes the core to lose its grip of the wheels1 and allows the top carbon to descend4 ,the catch1 ,l1 ,fig4 #h1 has a lateral play1 and serves to engage in the teeth of the rack rod1 so as to prevent its falling when being trimmed4 ,each carbon when in position is held against two rectangular guide bars by the pressure of a wire spring--see figure4 ,in this way the carbon is pressed against two parallel knife edges1 and is therefore always in true alignment4 ,the action of the lamp is very simple1 the working parts are few and solidly constructed1 and the regulation1 as exhibited by the lamps running in the galleries1 is exceptionally steady4 ,the transmission of power plant consists of two #bej horse power dynamos--,c4,e4,l4 ,brown's patent--the generator being driven by a vertical compound condensing engine of the same power1 running at #ahj revolutions4 ,the dynamo generator is a four-pole #fjj volt direct current machine1 series wound1 and may be distinguished in the engraving next to the switch board2 while the motor receiver connected to it1 and erected in another portion of the ,swiss section1 is of exactly the same size and type4 ,the field1 which is hexagonal in shape1 is cast in two pieces1 bolted together horizontally1 the cross-sectional area of iron being #agj square inches4 ,the armature is cylindrical1 and built up of flat rings stamped out of soft sheet iron1 eight notches in the same being provided to fit over the arms of the spider keyed to the shaft4 ,the spider is in halves1 which are bolted together longitudinally after the rings are in position4 ,it is ,gramme wound1 and measures over the winding #g in4 radial depth1 #cg in4 outside diameter1 and #bb in4 in length4 ,the current is collected by four brushes4 ,the fitting and mechanical build of the dynamos leaves nothing to be desired4 ,all the working parts of the dynamos and engines are turned up to gauge and template1 so as to be interchangeable4 ,as an instance of this1 the armature of the generator was built in the works1 while the field magnets were being erected in the exhibition1 and1 on arrival1 fitted in position perfectly1 and ran at once without trouble4 ,the energy taken off on the motor shaft is close on #bjj horse power1 but varies according to the machines at work2 the speed of the motor does not1 however1 vary more than #c per cent41 and the brushes need no adjustment4 ,about #f ft4 of shafting is coupled on in line with the motor shaft1 and an extra plummer block fixed at the end4 ,this shafting carries at its extremity an additional #b ft4 pulley1 the power being delivered by belting from these pulleys to two large pulleys on the main shaft4 ,the machines run by this transmission consist of the looms of ,rieter ,co41 of ,winterthur2 the large flour mill and lift of ,a4 ,millot ,co42 the flour milling machinery of ,frederick ,wegmann ,co41 of ,zurich2 the brick and tile making machines of the ,rorschach foundries2 and the looms of ,messrs4 ,houget ,teston1 of ,verviers1 in the ,belgian section4 ,a #ae horse power two-pole ,oerlikon dynamo is also run by a belt from the main shaft1 and generates power to drive a motor of similar type in the ,swiss section of the upper gallery4 ,this runs a length of countershafting supplying power to three silk-weaving machines constructed by ,benninger ,frres2 six weaving machines from the ,ruti works1 near ,zurich2 and one knitting machine exhibited by ,edward ,dubied ,co41 of ,couvet4 ,the dynamo and motor are connected to the main cable by switches of the type shown in ,fig4 #e4 ,these are specially designed to destroy the extra current on breaking circuit by the formation of an arc which gradually increases the resistance till the break occurs1 rendering it less sudden4 ,one wire passes through the handle and makes contact with the springs1 and the other is attached to the clamp in which the carbon rod is held4 ,the current is made to enter at the carbon rod1 so that the arcs formed cause consumption of the carbon4 ,a magnetic cut-out--,fig4 #f--;is also provided to each machine2 this consists of an electro-magnet1 through which the main current passes1 provided with side pole pieces4 ,a flat soft iron plate armature is hinged so as to come up against the pole pieces when attracted4 ,when the current is not sufficiently strong to cause the plate to be attracted1 a hole in the center of the latter engages over a small projection in the top of a weighted arm hinged in the center of the board1 and keeps it upright4 ,if now the current exceeds the limits of safety to the machine1 due to a too heavy load being thrown on1 the armature is attracted and releases the vertical arm1 which falls over and enters with considerable force between the two spring contacts below4 ,these contacts are connected to the field terminals1 which are1 therefore1 short-circuited1 and prevent the dynamo generating any current4 ,a retractile spring can be adjusted to cause cut-off at any required current4 ,these details are indicated in our illustrations mounted on their respective switch boards4 ,since the erection of plant by these works at ,solothurn for transmitting #ej horse power five miles distant1 which attracted so much interest some time ago1 several important works have been carried out4 ,among these we may mention a #bhj horse power transmission at #a kilom4 distance to a cotton mill at ,derendingen in ,switzerland1 a #bej horse power transmission at kilom4 distance1 carried out for ,gaetano ,rossi at ,piovene in ,italy1 and a #cjj horse transmission at #f kilom4 distance installed for ,giovanni ,rossi1 in which the power is given off at two different stations4--,the ,engineer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,ader ,,flourish ,,of ,,trumpets4 ,although telephonic novelties are not numerous at the ,universal ,exposition1 telephony--that quite young branch of electric science--is daily the object of curious and interesting experiments which we must make known to our readers1 a large number of whom were not yet born to scientific life when the experiments were made for the first time at ,paris in #ahha2 and it is proper to congratulate the ,socit ,gnrale des ,tlphones on having repeated them in #ahhi to the great satisfaction of the rising generation4 ,we allude to the ,ader system of telephonic transmissions of sounds in such a way that they can be heard by an audience4 ,the essential parts of this mode of transmission consist of two distinct systems--transmitters and receivers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,the ,,ader ,,flourish ,,of ,,trumpets ,the transmitters are four in number1 and are actuated by the same number of musicians1 each humming into them his part of the quartet 7,fig4 #a74 ,this transmitter1 represented apart in elevation and section in ,fig4 #b1 is identical with the one used in the curious experiment with the singing condenser4 ,at ,a is a mouthpiece before which the musician hums his part as upon a reed pipe4 ,he causes the plate1 ,b1 to vibrate in unison with the sound that he emits1 and this produces periodical interruptions of varying rapidity between the disk1 ,b1 and the point1 ,c4 ,the button1 ,d1 serves to regulate the distance in such a way that the breakings of the circuit shall be very complete and produce sounds in the receivers as pure as allowed by this special mode of transmission1 in which all the harmonics are systematically suppressed in order to re-enforce the fundamental4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,,details ,,of ,,the ,,transmitter4 ,this transmitter interrupter is interposed in the circuit of a battery of accumulators1 with the five receivers that it actuates1 in such a way that the four transmitters and five receivers form in reality four groups of distinct autonomous transmission1 the accordance of which is absolutely dependent upon that of the artists who make them vibrate4 ,the five receivers are arranged over the front door of the telephone pavilion1 near the ,eiffel tower 7,fig4 #c74 ,each consists of a horseshoe magnet provided1 between its branches1 with two small iron cores having a space of a few millimeters between them 7,fig4 #d74 ,each of these soft iron cores carries a copper wire bobbin1 ,n1 the number of spirals of which is properly calculated for the effect to be produced4 ,opposite the vacant space left by the two cores1 there is a small piece1 t1 of rectangular form1 and also of soft iron1 fixed to a vibrating strip of firwood1 ,l1 of about #d inches section4 ,the periodical breaking of the circuit produced by the transmitter causes a variation in the magnetization of the iron cores of the five receivers and makes the firwood strips vibrate energetically4 ,these vibrations are received and poured forth as it were in front of the telephone pavilion1 by large brass trumpets arranged in front of each receiver1 as shown in ,fig4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,,the ,,ader ,,flourish ,,of ,,trumpets ,it would be difficult for us to pass any judgment whatever upon the musical and artistic value of these transmissions of trumpet music to a distance2 we prefer to confess our incompetency in the matter4 ,but it is none the less certain that these experiments are having the same success that they had at their inception in #ahha at the ,universal ,exposition of ,electricity1 and they allow us to foresee that there is a time coming in which it will be possible to transmit speech to a distance with the same intensity that the present trumpet flourishes have4 ,although all the tentatives hitherto made in this direction have not given very brilliant results1 we must not despair of attaining the end some day or other4 ,less than fifteen years ago the telephone did not exist2 now it covers the world with its lines4--,la ,nature4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--;,,details ,,of ,,the ,,receiver4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,notes ,,on ,,dyewood ,,extracts ,,and ,,similar ,,preparations4 ,by ,,louis ,,siebold1 ,f4,i4,c41 ,f4,c4,s4 ,during the last ten years there has been an enormous increase in the production of these preparations1 and the time will come when their application in dyeing and calico printing will become so general as to completely supersede the employment of the raw materials4 ,the manufacture of these extracts1 to be thoroughly successful1 requires to be so conducted as to secure the perfect exhaustion of the dyewoods without the slightest destruction or deterioration of the coloring matters contained in them2 and though nothing like perfection has been reached in the attainment of these objects1 it is certain that the processes of extraction and evaporation now employed by the best makers are a very great improvement on the older methods4 ,indeed1 there is no difficulty nowadays in procuring dyewood extracts of high excellence if the consumer is willing to pay a price for them corresponding to their quality1 and knows how to avail himself of the aid of chemical skill to control his purchases4 ,unfortunately1 however1 there is so much hankering after cheap articles1 and so little care is taken to ascertain their real quality1 that every scope is afforded to the malpractices of the adulterer4 ,there are many dye and print works in which large quantities of these extracts are used without being subjected to trustworthy tests4 ,moreover1 much of the testing is done by fallacious methods and often by biased hands4 ,so fallacious1 indeed1 are some of these tests1 that grossly adulterated extracts are often declared superior to the purer ones1 the cause of this being the application of an insufficient proportion of mordant in the dyeing or printing trials1 and the consequent waste of the excess of coloring matter in the case of the purer preparation4 ,professional analytical chemists have hitherto given but little attention to these preparations1 and the employment of experienced chemists in works is as yet far from general4 ,the testing of dyewood extracts in such a manner as to throw full light on their purity1 the quality of raw material from which they are prepared1 their exact commercial value their suitability for special purposes1 and the proportion and nature of any adulterants they may contain1 is of course a difficult and tedious task1 and must be left to the expert who is in possession of authentic specimens prepared by himself of all the different extracts made from every variety and quality of raw materials1 and who combines a thorough knowledge of experimental dyeing and printing with a large experience in the chemical investigation of these preparations4 ,but when the object of the testing is merely careful comparison of the sample in question with an original sample or previous deliveries1 the case is much simplified1 and comes within the scope of the general chemist or the laboratory attached to works4 ,a few years ago ,i recommended carefully conducted dyeing trials on woolen cloth mordanted with bichromate of potash as the best and simplest mode adapted to such cases1 and my subsequent experience enables me to confirm that observation to the fullest extent4 ,most of these extracts contain the coloring matter in two states1 the developed and the undeveloped1 and an oxidizing mordant such as bichromate of potash causes the latter as well as the former to enter completely into combination with a metallic base2 whereas many of the other mordants1 such as alumina or tin compounds1 merely take up the developed portion of the coloring matter together with such small and variable proportions of the undeveloped as might undergo oxidation during the process of dyeing4 ,i would therefore suggest dyeing trials with alumina1 tin1 iron1 etc41 only as subsidiary tests indicating the suitability of an extract for certain special purposes1 while recommending the trial with bichromate of potash as the one giving the best information respecting the actual strength of the extract in relation to the raw material from which it was obtained1 and as giving a fair idea of the money value of the sample4 ,cotton dyeing does not1 as a general rule1 afford a good means of assaying extracts1 as it is generally done under conditions which do not admit of complete exhaustion of the dye bath1 but it might often with advantage be resorted to as an additional trial throwing further light on the degree of oxidation or development of the coloring matter4 ,printing trials are apt to give fallacious results unless the proportion of mordant is carefully adjusted to the amount of coloring matter present1 and several trials with different proportions would be necessary to prevent erroneous conclusions4 ,for the trials with bichromate of potash on wool ,i would recommend pieces of cloth weighing about #aej grains1 and the most suitable proportion of bichromate of potash is #c per cent4 of the weight of the cloth4 ,the requisite number of pieces 7equal to the number of samples to be tested7 should be thoroughly scoured and then heated in the bichromate solution at or near the boiling point for not less than #a hours1 after which they should be well washed and then dyed separately in the solutions of equal weights of the extracts at the same temperature and for the same length of time2 #ae grains of extract is a suitable quantity for a first trial under these conditions4 ,these trials can then be repeated with different relative proportions of extract in order to ascertain what weight of a sample would give the same depth of color as #ae grains of the standard example4 ,many precautions are required both in the mordanting and dyeing processes in order to obtain trustworthy results2 and though the trials with bichromate of potash give the most reliable information of any single test1 they should be supplemented by the subsidiary tests already alluded to1 and also by a chemical examination1 in order to obtain a knowledge1 not merely of the wood strength1 but also of the general nature of the extract4 ,an adulteration with molasses or glucose can be best determined by fermentation in comparison with a pure sample4 ,mineral adulterants may1 of course1 be detected by an estimation and analysis of the ash1 after making due allowances for variations due to differences in different kinds of the same dyewoods4 ,the estimation of the individual coloring matters in these extracts by means of a chemical analysis is under all circumstances a task requiring much experience1 especially as the coloring principles are associated in different qualities of each class of dyewood with different proportions of other constituents which often give much trouble to the unpracticed experimenter4 ,extracts made from logwood roots are now largely manufactured and often substituted or mixed with the extracts of real logwood1 and have in some instances been palmed of as logwood extracts of high quality4 ,the correct determination of such admixtures1 like the fixing of anything like the exact commercial value of dyewood extracts1 requires nothing less than a complete chemical investigation coupled with numerous dyeing trials in comparison with standard preparations1 and should be left to an expert4 ,the presence in dyewood extracts of coloring matters in various stages of development has hitherto militated against their use in place of the raw materials by many dyers and printers who are still employing inherited and antiquated processes in which the whole of the coloring matter is not rendered available4 ,it is often asserted by these that even the best of extracts fail to give anything like the results attained by the use of well-prepared woods1 and that1 indeed1 their application proves a complete failure4 ,such failure1 however1 is simply due to the want of chemical knowledge on the part of the dyers1 for there is no real difficulty in making any good and pure extract serve all the purposes for which the woods were used4 ,it is to be hoped that in this branch of industry1 as well as in many others1 the employment of chemists will become more general than at present1 and not be restricted1 as is often the case1 to young men without experience and without the trained intellect so essential to success in chemical investigations4 ,high class chemical skill is of course available to the manufacturer1 but the man of science who brings matured knowledge and valuable brain work into the business required social as well as pecuniary recognition1 and the sooner and more fuller this fact is appreciated the better it will be for the maintenance and progress of our industries4 ,with regard to the astringent extracts1 such as sumac1 myrabolam1 divi1 valonia1 quebracho1 oak1 etc41 it is the aim of the manufacturer1 whenever such extracts are intended for the purposes of dyeing and printing1 to obtain the tannin in a form in which it is best calculated to fix itself upon the fiber4 ,the case is somewhat different when the same extracts are required for tanning4 ,for this purpose it is necessary that the extract shall have considerable permeating power1 and that the tannin contained in it shall readily yield leather of the desired texture1 color1 and permanency4 ,extracts specially suited for this purpose are by no means always the most suitable for the dyer1 and vice versa4 ,a brief description of the processes by which the astringent extracts may be tested with particular reference to their fitness for definite purposes concluded the paper4 ,with regard to the question as to whether experimental dyeing with bichromate of potash should be employed as a test even in works where all the dyeing was done with other mordants1 he was decidedly of opinion that it should always be resorted to as one of the tests1 inasmuch as it was the only simple and expeditious method giving a fair idea of the actual wood strength and money value of the extract4 ,the test should1 in such cases1 be supplemented by dyeing trials with the mordants used at the works1 and1 if necessary1 also by a chemical analysis4 ,printing trials were not necessarily bad tests1 since oxidizing was usually added in these where it was necessary1 and any undeveloped coloring matter would thus be oxidized during the steaming process3 but1 as he had stated before1 it was essentially necessary in such cases to have a fair idea of the amount of actual coloring matter in the extract and to adjust the proportion of mordant accordingly4 ,such trials should therefore be preceded by carefully conducted dyeing trials with bichromate of potash4 ,mr4 ,thomson had raised the question whether it would not be well for the manufacturer to prepare these extracts in such a manner that they would contain all the coloring matter in one condition only1 in order to insure greater uniformity in their quality and mode of application4 ,this would1 no doubt1 be a desirable step to take if the owners of dye and print works were more in the habit of availing themselves of the service of competent chemists experienced in this branch1 for then they would be able to make any extract do its full work irrespective of the state of development of the coloring matter4 ,such1 however1 was not the case1 and it was a very common thing for the consumer of dyewood extracts to require the manufacturer to prepare them specially for him so as to suit his own dyeing recipes1 or in other words to give exactly the same shades1 weight for weight1 by his own method of dyeing as the article he was in the habit of using4 ,the manufacturer was thus often compelled to make many different qualities of the same extract to suit different customers4 ,for the same reason adulterated articles were often preferred to the pure ones4 ,there was1 perhaps1 no branch of industry in which chemical skill of a high order could be applied with greater advantage than in dyeing1 and nowhere was this fact less recognized4 ,some of the processes of dyeing were exceedingly wasteful and stood in much need of improvement4 ,he 7,mr4 ,siebold7 knew a large works in which a ton of logwood extract was used daily for black dyeing only1 and he might safely assert that of this enormous quantity only a very small proportion would be fixed on the fiber1 while by far the greater proportion was utterly wasted4 ,such a waste could only be prevented by a searching investigation of its causes by trained skill4 ,mr4 ,thomson had further alluded to the color obtained with logwood or logwood extract and wool mordanted with bichromate of potash1 and seemed to be under the impression that the color thus obtained was not black1 but blue4 ,this was undoubtedly the case in dyeing trials performed as tests1 as these were conducted purposely with a very small proportion of coloring matter in order to admit of a better comparison of the resulting depth of shades4 ,but with larger proportions of logwood the color obtained was a fine bluish-black1 and with the addition of a small proportion of fustic or quercitron bark to the logwood a jet black was readily produced4 ,with regard to ,mr4 ,watson ,smith's observation as to fractional dyeing1 he 7,mr4 ,siebold7 did not regard this method as a suitable trial for ascertaining the strength of an extract1 but he admitted it was occasionally very valuable for detecting an admixture of extracts of other dyewoods1 such as quercitron bark extract in logwood extract4 ,it was also a good method of ascertaining the speed of dyeing and hence the relative proportion of fully developed coloring matter of an extract4--,jour4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,industry4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,orthochromatic ,,photography4#a ,footnote #a3 ,read before the ,photographic ,association of ,brooklyn4 ,by ,,oscar ,o4 ,,litzkow4 ,what ,i want to show is the manner in which the process has been tested4 ,my employer1 ,mr4 ,bierstadt1 has given me permission to show you some samples1 and also his chart containing the spectrum colors3 violet1 indigo blue1 green1 yellow1 orange1 red1 and black4 ,this chart has been photographed in the orthochromatic and also in the ordinary way4 ,there are many ways of producing an orthochromatic effect2 one is the use of a glass tank placed behind or in front of the lens1 in which a coloring matter from either a vegetable or mineral product is placed2 this tank or cell is1 however1 only for use in the studio1 as for outdoor photography we have a colored glass screen1 so as not to be bothered with carrying colored solution4 ,the tank is constructed as follows3 ,procure two pieces of best white plate glass1 about #f inches square2 between these place a piece of rubber of the same size square1 and about #c_/h of an inch thick4 ,in the center of this rubber cut out a circle about #d inches diameter1 and from one of the corners to the center of the circle cut out a narrow strip inch wide2 this serves as the mouth of the tank4 ,the two pieces of glass and the rubber are cemented together with rubber cement2 then1 to hold it firmly together1 two brass flanges are used as a clamp1 with four screws at an equal distance apart2 a thin sheet of rubber is on the glass side of the flanges to prevent direct contact with the glass1 the center remaining clear for the rays of light to pass through solution and glass4 ,one of the best orthochromatic effects made through this tank is with a three-grains-to-the-ounce solution of bichromatic of ammonia or bichromate of potassium4 ,in this method there is no preparation used on the plate4 ,a common rapid dry plate is exposed through this solution2 the exposure1 however1 is about twenty times longer than it would be if you removed the tank with the yellow solution1 or1 in other words1 if a dry-plate is exposed one minute without the yellow solution it would have to be exposed twenty minutes through a three-grain solution of bichromate of potassium or ammonia4 ,it produces wonderful results on an oil painting or any highly colored object4 ,another method1 and the one best adapted for landscapes1 is to bathe the plate in erythrosine and then expose it through a yellow glass screen4 ,as an illustration1 suppose we have before us a beautiful landscape4 ,in the foreground beautiful foliage1 in the center a lake1 in the distance hills1 with a bluish haze appearing pleasing to the eye1 also a nice sky with light clouds4 ,now make a plain negative1 and see what has become of your clouds1 hills1 and the distance--not visible6 ,some photographers have been led to think that by underexposing they retain the distance1 but they sacrifice the foreground2 besides1 it does not produce an orthochromatic effect4 ,but it is a good idea to expose longer on the foreground than you do on the distance4 ,this can be done by raising the cap of the lens skyward and gradually shut off1 giving the foreground more exposure4 ,plates are prepared for orthochromatic work as follows3 ,take any ordinary rapid dry plate1 place it in a bath containing ,distilled water #bjj c4c4 ,strong liquid ammonia #b c4c4 ,rock it for two minutes1 work as dark as you possibly can4 ,now take it out1 and place it in the second bath for one and one-fourth minutes and keep it rocking4 ,have on hand for use a stock solution of ,distilled water #a1jjj parts4 ,erythrosine ,y brand #a part4 ,prepare second bath as follows3 ,erythrosine stock solution #be c4c4 ,distilled water #age c4c4 ,strong water ammonia #d c4c4 ,after removing the plate1 dip it again face down to rinse off any particles of scum1 etc41 that may get in the bath accidentally4 ,this bath may be used for one dozen #h by #aj1 when it should be thrown away and fresh bath used4 ,after the plates come out of the last bath1 they should be stood on clean blotting paper to absorb the excess of solution4 ,i would also advise to use clean fingers4 ,pyro4 or hypo4 on the fingers is a drawback to success4 ,after plates have been drained1 place them in a cleaned rack in an absolutely light-tight closet1 with air holes so constructed as to admit air but no light2 the plates will dry in from eight to twelve hours4 ,they are best prepared in the evening1 and1 if the closet is good1 will be dry in the morning4 ,after the plates are dry they may be packed face to face with nothing between them1 in a double-cover paper box1 and put in a dark closet free from sulphureted hydrogen gas1 until ready for use4 ,i have kept plates for three months in this way1 and they were in good condition4 ,great care should be used in developing these plates1 as they are sensitive to the red2 get used to developing in a dark part of the dark room2 occasionally you may look at the process of development in a little stronger light4 ,the exposure through the yellow screen with an erythrosine plate is about the same as if you had no orthochromatic plate--a plain plate instead--provided you are not using too dark a yellow on your screen4 ,this can only be determined by experience4 ,i will give to a common plate about four seconds1 an orthochromatic plate under the same conditions five seconds4 ,the yellow glass screen is prepared as follows3 ,take a piece of best plate glass--common cannot be used--clean it nicely2 take another large plate glass1 or anything that is level and true1 level it with a small spirit-level4 ,now take the cleaned piece of glass and coat it with ,,aurentia ,,collodion4 ,ether #e oz4 ,alcohol #e oz4 ,cotton #fj grs4 ,the aurentia to be added to suit your judgment2 it takes a very small quantity to make an intense yellowish-red collodion4 ,pour it on the center of the glass1 flow it to the edges1 and before it sets place it on the level glass and allow it to set2 when set put it in a rack to dry4 ,should it dry in ridges1 the collodion may be too thick1 and it must be thinned down with equal parts of alcohol and ether4 ,a single piece of plate glass1 about one-eighth inch thick1 coated with aurentia collodion1 is all that is required with an erythrosine plate4 ,or1 after a piece has been successfully coated1 another piece of the same plate glass1 and the same size1 may be cemented together with balsam1 having the coated aurentia side between the two glasses2 the edges may then be bound with paper4 ,in using different colored solutions1 collodion1 etc41 ,i have found that one will change the focus and the other not4 ,with some screens you must focus with them in their positions2 take away the screen1 and the picture appears out of focus4 ,i cannot fully explain why it is1 and for this reason will not make the attempt2 experience alone can teach it4 ,another thing that has been tried lately is to do away with the yellow screen by substituting a yellow coating direct on the plate4 ,no doubt the focus on an object that requires absolute sharpness is somewhat affected by the use of a glass4 ,we have been successful1 on a small scale1 to coat the plate with the following yellow solution3 ,place in a tray enough of a saturated solution of tropolin in wood alcohol to cover the plate2 allow it to remain ten seconds4 ,it is necessary that the plate should be bathed previously in erythrosine and dried4 ,before applying the tropolin1 which1 being in alcohol1 dries in a few minutes1 have some blotting paper on hand1 as the solution gathers in a pool and leaves bad marks on the end of the plate4 ,the plate can be developed in the usual way4 ,try it and see the results4--,reported in the ,beacon4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,platinotype ,,printing4#a ,footnote #a3 ,a communication to the ,north ,london ,photographic ,society4 ,platinotype1 which may be considered to be the most artistic of photographic printing processes1 may be separated into its three modifications--the hot bath and cold bath1 in which a faintly visible image is developed1 and the ,pizzighelli printing-out paper4 ,the hot bath process1 again1 may be divided into the black and white and sepia papers4 ,i intend to give you a rough outline of the preparation of the paper and working of these modifications1 concluding by demonstrating the hot bath method1 and handing around prints by it4 ,platinotype may almost be styled an iron printing process1 for1 while no trace of iron or its salts is found in the finished print1 certain salts of iron are mixed with the platinum salt1 which is platinum combined with two atoms of chlorine 7,pt,cl#b71 as a means for readily reducing it2 this1 however1 cannot be effected without the presence of neutral oxalate of potash1 hence the use of the oxalate bath4 ,there is no platinum in the paper for the cold bath process1 it being coated with ferric oxalate mixed with a very small quantity of chloride of mercury--somewhere about one grain to an ounce of ferric oxalate solution4 ,when dry it is ready for exposure1 which is about three times less than with silver printing4 ,it is absolutely necessary to store all papers for platinum printing in an air-tight tin containing chloride of calcium1 which must be dried by heating from time to time4 ,for the cold bath1 however1 it is important to have moisture present during printing1 or it may be after printing and before development4 ,if the paper is left in a dampish room for fifteen minutes1 it should be sufficient4 ,prints made by exposing damp paper1 or damping dry paper just before development1 must be developed within one hour if the maximum of vigor is desired2 by delaying the development some hours1 the prints in the meantime being stored in a drawer so that they may retain their moisture1 an increase of half tone and warmth of color will be obtained4 ,if it should be necessary to delay development for a day or two1 the prints must be dried before a fire soon after being removed from the frames1 and then stored in a calcium tube until wanted for development4 ,while printing1 the lemon color of the paper receives a grayish colored image1 which1 although faint1 can1 with practice1 be judged as easily as silver printing4 ,the developer consists of oxalate of potash and potassic chloro-platinite--about thirty grains of the platinum salt to half an ounce of oxalate forming about six ounces of solution2 a great many variations1 however1 may be made in the proportions of platinum salt and oxalate1 and different effects secured4 ,development is effected by sliding the print face downward on to the developer1 which must be rocked after the development of each print to avoid scum marks4 ,to clear the prints they are washed in three or four baths of a weak solution of hydrochloric acid after leaving the developer1 to remove all traces of the iron salts1 and finally washed for a quarter of an hour in three changes of water2 they are then finished1 and may be dried between clean blotting paper4 ,pizzighelli's process differs from the above in being one that prints fully out in the frame without development2 the paper contains the platinum and iron salts as well as the developer1 and so prints and develops at the same time4 ,although excellent prints can be produced with it1 for general work the results of the paper1 as at present made1 will not compare with the hot and cold bath processes4 ,it is1 however1 excellent for printing from very dense negatives1 and occasional negatives that seem extremely suitable for it4 ,the paper should be breathed on before printing1 as if it is quite dry the printing will be very slow and irregular4 ,the best conditions for the preparation of the paper have scarcely been decided upon yet1 and it is not quite fair to judge the process4 ,the prints are cleared in the acid baths and washed for about a quarter of an hour4 ,the sepia and black hot bath processes are much alike in the general treatment4 ,there are1 however1 some special precautions to be observed with the sepia paper1 the chief being to protect it from any but the faintest rays of light2 the prints1 unlike the black ones1 may be affected by light when in the acid bath4 ,a special solution must be added to the developer to keep the lights pure4 ,over-exposure cannot be corrected by using a cooler bath1 as is the case with the black prints1 and the paper does not remain good so long4 ,the paper for the black prints by the hot bath process is washed with a mixture of potassic platinous chloride and ferric oxalate1 the proportion being about sixty grains of the platinum salt to one ounce of the iron solution4 ,it will not keep good longer than twenty minutes or so1 and must be applied to the paper directly after mixing4 ,the ferric oxalate in the paper is reduced by the action of light to ferrous oxalate1 which forms the faint visible image2 this1 when the paper is floated on the oxalate of potash bath1 is capable of reducing the platinum salt in contact with it into metallic platinum2 but the ferric salt1 which remains unaltered1 has no action on the platinum salt1 leaving these parts1 which represent the high lights of the print1 untouched4 ,the ferric oxalate is removed by the acid baths which follow the development4 ,a good temperature for development is #aej ,fahr41 and when using this so much detail should not be apparent as when printing for the cold bath process1 in which all the detail desired should be very faintly visible4 ,there are1 however1 many methods of exposing the paper and developing it1 and no fixed rule can be made1 but the development must in every case be suited to the exposure or the result will be a failure4 ,for instance1 the paper may be printed until all detail is visible1 but a very much cooler development must be used1 say #hj or #ij2 on the other hand1 a slightly short exposure may be given1 and a temperature of #ahj to #bjj used4 #aej should be taken as the normal temperature1 and kept to until some experience has been gained1 as employing all temperatures will lead to confusion1 and nothing will be learned4 ,some negatives require a special treatment1 and both printing and development must be altered1 while for a very dense negative the paper may be left out in a dampish room for some time4 ,it will then print with less contrast and more half tone4 ,a thin negative is better printed by the cold bath process1 but negatives should be good and brilliant for platinotype printing4 ,any one taking up platinotype and getting only weak prints would do well to look to his negatives instead of blaming the paper1 as the high lights should be fairly dense1 and the deep shadows nearly clear glass4 ,time for complete development should always be allowed2 with a hot bath fifteen seconds will be sufficient1 but if a cooler development is used1 or the prints are solarized in the shadows1 more time should be allowed4 ,when the deep shadows are solarized1 or appear lighter than surrounding parts1 a hot and prolonged development is required to obtain sufficient blackness1 as they have a tendency to look like brown paper4 ,i have found breathing on solarized shadows useful1 as in the presence of slight moisture they begin to print out and become dark before development1 getting black almost directly the print is floated on the oxalate4 ,three or four acid baths of about ten minutes each are used1 and the prints are washed as before4 ,the process throughout takes much less time than silver printing1 and can be kept on all the winter1 when it is nearly impossible to print in silver4 ,prints can be developed in weak daylight or gaslight1 and prolonged washing is dispensed with4--,n4,p4 ,fox1 reported in ,br4 ,jour4 of ,photo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,continued from ,supplement1 ,no4 #gjf1 page #aabhc4 ,,on ,,allotropic ,,forms ,,of ,,silver4 ,by ,m4 ,,carey ,,lea4 ,in the first part of this paper were described certain forms of silver2 among them a lilac blue substance1 very soluble in water1 with a deep red color4 ,after undergoing purification1 it was shown to be nearly pure silver4 ,during the purification by washing it seemed to change somewhat1 and1 consequently1 some uncertainty existed as to whether or not the purified substance was essentially the same as the first product2 it seemed possible that the extreme solubility of the product in its first condition might be due to a combination in some way with citric acid1 the acid separating during the washing4 ,many attempts were made to get a decisive indication1 and two series of analyses1 one a long one1 to determine the ratio between the silver and the citric acid present1 without obtaining a wholly satisfactory result1 inasmuch as even these determinations of mere ratio involved a certain degree of previous purification which might have caused a separation4 ,this question has since been settled in an extremely simple way1 and the fact established that the soluble blue substance contains not a trace of combined citric acid4 ,the precipitated lilac blue substance 7obtained by reducing silver citrate by ferrous citrate7 was thrown on a filter and cleared of mother water as far as possible with a filter pump4 ,pure water was then poured on in successive portions until more than half the substance was dissolved4 ,the residue1 evidently quite unchanged1 was1 of course1 tolerably free from mother water4 ,it was found that by evaporating it to dryness over a water bath1 most of the silver separated out as bright white normal silver2 by adding water and evaporating a second time1 the separation was complete1 and water added dissolved no silver4 ,the solution thus obtained was neutral4 ,it must have been acid had any citric acid been combined originally with the silver4 ,this experiment1 repeated with every precaution1 seems conclusive4 ,the ferrous solution1 used for reducing the silver citrate1 had been brought to exact neutrality with sodium hydroxide4 ,after the reduction had been effected1 the mother water over the lilac blue precipitate was neutral or faintly acid4 ,a corroborating indication is the following3 ,the portions of the lilac blue substance which were dissolved on the filter 7see above7 were received into a dilute solution of magnesium sulphate1 which throws down insoluble allotropic silver of the form ,i have called ,b 7see previous paper74 ,this form has already been shown to be nearly pure silver4 ,the magnesia solution1 neutral before use1 was also neutral after it had effected the precipitation1 indicating that no citric acid had been set free in the precipitation of the silver4 ,it seems1 therefore1 clear that the lilac blue substance contains no combined citric acid4 ,had the solubility of the silver been due to combination with either acid or alkali1 the liquid from which it was separated by digestion at or below #ajj ,c4 must have been acid or alkaline2 it could not have been neutral4 ,we have1 therefore1 this alternative3 ,in the lilac blue substance we have either pure silver in a soluble form or else a compound of silver1 with a perfectly neutral substance generated from citric acid in the reaction which leads to the formation of the lilac blue substance4 ,if this last should prove the true explanation1 then we have to do with a combination of silver of a quite different nature from any silver compounds hitherto known4 ,a neutral substance generated from citric acid must have one or more atoms of hydrogen replaced by silver4 ,this possibility recalls the recent observations of ,ballo1 who1 by acting with a ferrous salt on tartaric acid1 obtained a neutral colloid substance having the constitution of arabin1 ,c#f ,h#aj ,o#f4 ,to appreciate the difficulty of arriving at a correct conclusion1 it must be remembered that the silver precipitate is obtained saturated with strong solutions of ferric and ferrous citrate1 sodium citrate1 sulphate1 etc4 ,these cannot be removed by washing with pure water1 in which the substance itself is very soluble1 but must be got rid of by washing with saline solutions1 under the influence of which the substance itself slowly but continually changes4 ,next1 the saline solution used for washing must be removed by alcohol4 ,during this treatment1 the substance1 at first very soluble1 gradually loses its solubility1 and1 when ready for analysis1 has become wholly insoluble4 ,it is impossible at present to say whether it may not have undergone other change2 this is a matter as to which ,i hope to speak more positively later4 ,it is to be remarked1 however1 that these allotropic forms of silver acquire and lose solubility from very slight causes1 as an instance of which may be mentioned the ease with which the insoluble form ,b recovers its solubility under the influence of sodium sulphate and borate1 and other salts1 as described in the previous part of this paper4 ,the two insoluble forms of allotropic silver which ,i have described as ,b and ,c--,b1 bluish green2 ,c1 rich golden color--show the following curious reaction4 ,a film of ,b1 spread on glass and heated in a water stove to #ajj ,c4 for a few minutes becomes superficially bright yellow4 ,a similar film of the gold colored substance1 ,c1 treated in the same way1 acquires a blue bloom4 ,in both cases it is the surface only that changes4 ,sensitiveness to ,light4--,all these forms of silver are acted upon by light4 ,a and ,b acquire a brownish tinge by some hours' exposure to sunlight4 ,with ,c the case is quite different1 the color changes from that of red gold to that of pure yellow gold4 ,the experiment is an interesting one4 ,the exposed portion retains its full metallic brilliancy1 giving an additional proof that the color depends upon molecular arrangement1 and this with the allotropic forms of silver is subject to change from almost any influence4 ,stability4--,these substances vary greatly in stability under influences difficult to appreciate4 ,i have two specimens of the gold yellow substance1 ,c1 both made in ,december1 #ahhf1 with the same proportions1 under the same conditions4 ,one has passed to dazzling white1 normal silver1 without falling to powder1 or undergoing disaggregation of any sort2 the fragments have retained their shape1 simply changing to a pure frosted white1 remaining apparently as solid as before2 the other is unchanged1 and still shows its deep yellow color and golden luster4 ,another specimen made within a few months and supposed to be permanent has changed to brown4 ,complete exclusion of air and light is certainly favorable to permanence4 ,physical ,condition4--,the brittleness of the substances ,b and ,c1 the facility with which they can be reduced to the finest powder1 makes a striking point of difference between allotropic and normal silver4 ,it is probable that normal silver1 precipitated in fine powder and set aside moist to dry gradually1 may cohere into brittle lumps1 but these would be mere aggregations of discontinuous material4 ,with allotropic silver the case is very different1 the particles dry in optical contact with each other1 the surfaces are brilliant1 and the material evidently continuous4 ,that this should be brittle indicates a totally different state of molecular constitution from that of normal silver4 ,specific ,gravities4--,the allotropic forms of silver show a lower specific gravity than that of normal silver4 ,in determining the specific gravities it was found essential to keep the sp4 gr4 bottle after placing the material in it for some hours under the bell of an air pump4 ,films of air attach themselves obstinately to the surfaces1 and escape but slowly even in vacuo4 ,taken with this precaution1 the blue substance1 ,b1 gave specific gravity #i4eh1 and the yellow substance1 ,c1 specific gravity #h4ea4 ,the specific gravity of normal silver1 after melting1 was found by ,g4 ,rose to be #aj4e4 ,that of finely divided silver obtained by precipitation is stated to be #aj4fb4a ,footnote #a3 ,watts' ,dict41 orig4 ed41 v4 #bgg4 ,i believe these determinations to be exact for the specimens employed4 ,but the condition of aggregation may not improbably vary somewhat in different specimens4 ,it seems1 however1 clear that these forms of silver have a lower specific gravity than the normal1 and this is what would be expected4 ,chestnut ,hill1 ,philadelphia1 ,may1 #ahhi4 --,amer4 ,jour4 of ,science4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,turpentine ,,and ,,its ,,products4#a ,footnote #a3 ,read at a meeting of the ,liverpool ,chemists' ,association4 ,by ,,edward ,,davies1 ,f4,c4,s41 ,f4,i4,c4 ,in treating this subject it is necessary to limit it within comparatively narrow bounds1 for bodies of the turpentine class are exceedingly numerous and not well understood4 ,in this definite class turpentine means the exudation from various trees of the natural order ,conifer1 consisting of a hydrocarbon1 ,c#aj ,h#af1 and a resin4 ,the constitution of the hydrocarbons in turpentine from different sources1 though identical chemically1 varies physically1 the boiling point ranging from #aef ,c4 to #afc ,c41 the density from #j4hee to #j4hhj1 and the action on polarized light from -#dj4c to #ba4e4 ,they are very unstable bodies in their molecular constitution1 heat1 sulphuric acid1 and other reagents modifying their properties4 ,the resins are also very variable bodies formed probably by oxidation of the hydrocarbons1 and as this oxidation is more or less complete1 mixtures are formed very difficult to separate and study4 ,turpentine as met with in commerce is mainly derived from ,pinus maritima1 yielding ,french turpentine1 and ,pinus australis1 furnishing most of the ,american turpentine4 ,the latter is obtained from ,north and ,south ,carolina1 ,georgia and ,alabama4 ,in ,hanbury and ,fluckiger's ,pharmacographia there is a full description of the manner in which the trees are wounded to obtain the turpentine4 ,besides these there are ,venice turpentine from the larch1 ,pinus ,larix1 ,strassburg turpentine from ,abies pectinata1 and ,canada balsam from ,pinus balsamea4 ,the crude ,american turpentine is a viscid liquid of about the consistence of honey1 but varying to a soft solid1 known as gum1 thus1 according to the amount of exposure which it has undergone1 it contains about #aj to #be per cent4 of spirits1 to which the name of turpentine is commonly given1 the rest being resin1 or as it is usually called1 rosin4 ,in ,liverpool almost all the spirits of turpentine comes from ,america1 so that it is almost impossible to get a sample of ,french4 ,the terpene from ,american turpentine is called austraterebenthene4 ,it possesses dextro-rotatory polarization of #ba4e4 ,its density is #j4hfd4 ,boiling point #aef ,c4 ,in taking the boiling point of a commercial sample of spirits it is necessary to wait until the thermometer becomes steady4 ,not more than #e per cent4 should pass over before this takes place1 and then there is not more than two or three degrees of rise until almost all is distilled over4 ,the liquids of lower boiling point do not appear to have been much studied4 ,in ,french spirits they seem to be of the same composition as the main product1 but with more action on polarized light4 ,french spirits of turpentine is mainly composed of terebenthene4 ,the boiling point and sp4 gr4 are the same as those of the austraterebenthene1 but the polarization is left handed and amounts to -#dj4e4 ,isomeric modifications4 ,heated to #cjj ,c4 in a sealed tube for two hours1 it becomes an isomeric compound1 boiling at #age ,c41 while the density is lowered1 being only #j4hehf at #j ,c4 ,the rotatory power is only -#i4 ,it oxidizes much more rapidly4 ,it is called isoterebenthene and has a smell of essential oil of lemons4 ,by the action of a small quantity of sulphuric acid1 among other products terebene is formed4 ,it has the same boiling point and sp4 gr4 as terebenthene1 but is without action on polarized light4 ,austraterebenthene forms similar if not identical bodies4 ,polymers4 ,one part of boron fluoride ,,bf#c instantly converts #afj parts of terebenthene into polymers boiling above #cjj ,c41 and optically inactive4 ,h#b ,,so#d does the same on heating and forms diterebene ,c#bj ,h#cb4 ,terchloride of antimony does the same1 and also produces tetraterebene ,c#dj;,h#fd1 a solid brittle compound formed by the union of four molecules of ,c#aj ,h#af4 ,it does not boil below #cej ,c4 and decomposes on heating4 ,compound with ,h#b,o4 ,terpin ,c#aj ,h#ah #b;,,ho is formed when #a volume of spirits of turpentine is mixed with #f of nitric acid and #a of alcohol1 and exposed to air for some weeks4 ,crystals are formed which are pressed1 decolorized by animal charcoal1 and recrystallized from boiling water4 ,compounds with ,h,cl4 ,when a slow current of ,h,cl is passed through cooled spirits of turpentine1 two isomeric compounds are formed1 one solid1 and one liquid4 ,the lower the temperature is kept1 the more of the solid body is produced4 ,to obtain the solid body pure it is pressed and recrystallized from ether or alcohol4 ,it is volatile and has the odor of camphor4 ,it is called artificial camphor1 and has the composition ,c#aj ,h#af ,h,cl4 ,there is also a compound with #b;,h,cl4 ,oxidation products4 ,by passing air into spirits of turpentine oxygen is absorbed4 ,it was thought at one time that ozone was produced1 but ,kingzett's view is that camphoric peroxide is formed ,c#aj ,h#ad ,o#d1 and that in presence of water it decomposes into camphoric acid and ,h#b ,o#b4 ,this liquid constitutes the disinfectant known as sanitas1 which possesses the advantages of a pleasant smell and non-poisonous properties4 ,c#aj ,h#ah ,o#b may be obtained by exposing spirits of turpentine in a flask full of oxygen with a little water4 ,camphor ,c#af ,h#af ,o has been made in small quantity by oxidizing spirits of turpentine4 ,terebenthene belongs to the benzene or aromatic series1 which can be shown from its connection with cymene4 ,cymene is methylpropyl-benzene1 and can be made from terpenes by removing two atoms of ,h4 ,it has not yet been converted again into terpene1 but the connection is sufficiently proved4 ,the presence of ,,ch#c in terpenes is shown by their yielding chloroform when distilled with bleaching powder and water4 ,the resin is imperfectly known4 ,it was supposed to consist of picric and sylvic acids4 ,it is also stated to contain abietic anhydride ,c#dd ,h#fb ,o#d1 but it is difficult to understand how a compound containing ,c#dd can be produced from ,c#aj ,h#af4 ,the most probable view is that it is the anhydride of sylvic acid1 which is probably ,c#bj ,h#cj ,o#b4 ,the dark colored resin which is obtained when the turpentine is distilled without water can be converted into a transparent slightly yellow body by distillation with superheated steam4 ,a small portion is decomposed1 but the greater part distills unchanged4 ,it is used in making soap which will lather with sea water4 ,when distilled alone1 various hydrocarbons1 resin oil and resin pitch1 are obtained4 ,i find that commercial spirits of turpentine varies in sp4 gr4 from #j4hfe to #j4hfi at #ae ,c4 ,the higher sp4 gr4 appears to be connected with the presence of resinous bodies1 the result of oxidation4 ,the boiling point is very uniform1 ranging from #aee ,c4 to #aeg ,c4 at #gfj mm4 ,taking these two points together1 it is hardly possible to adulterate spirits of turpentine without detection4 ,i give the figures for a few imitations or adulterations3 ,sp4 gr4 ,b4,p4 ,no4 #a #j4hba #acg ,c4 ,no4 #b #j4hhd #afe ,c4 ,no4 #c #j4hae #aej ,c4 ,no4 #d #j4hie #aef ,c4 ,there is a considerable difference in the flashing point1 no doubt due to the longer or shorter exposure of the crude turpentine1 by which more or less of the volatile portion escapes4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,the ,,occurrence ,,of ,,paraffine ,,in ,,crude ,,petroleum4#a ,footnote #a3 ,an abstract of thesis by ,e4,a4 ,partridge1 class of '#hi1 ,univ4 of ,pa4 ,read before the ,chemical ,section of the ,franklin ,institute by ,prof4 ,s4,p4 ,sadtler4 ,it is well known that the paraffine obtained by the distillation of petroleum residues is crystalline1 while that obtained directly 7as in the filtration of residuum7 is amorphous4 ,ozokerite or ceresine differs but slightly from paraffine1 the principal distinction being want of crystalline structure in it as found4 ,other characteristics1 such as the melting point1 specific gravity1 etc41 vary in both1 and so are not of importance in a comparison4 ,hence it has been asked1 ,is the paraffine occurring in petroleum and ozokerite identical with that which is produced by their distillation8 ,as crystalline paraffine could be obtained from ozokerite by distillation alone1 many persons have supposed that it was engendered in the process4 ,recently1 however1 crystalline paraffine has been obtained from ozokerite by dissolving the latter in warm amyl alcohol2 on cooling the greater part separates out in crystals having the luster of mother-of-pearl4 ,by repetition of this process1 a substance is obtained that is scarcely to be distinguished from the paraffine obtained by distillation4 ,apparently there exists then in ozokerite1 together with paraffine1 other substances not capable of crystallization which keep the paraffine from crystallizing4 ,these colloids appear to be separated by amyl alcohol in virtue of their greater solubility in that menstruum4 ,it is also reasonable to suppose that they undergo change or decomposition by distillation4 ,so as petroleum residues are amorphous1 and the crystalline paraffine is first produced by distillation1 it has been argued that the paraffine present in crude petroleum is approximately the same thing as ozokerite4 ,this1 however1 is not sufficient to establish the pyrogenic origin of all crystallized paraffine1 as crystals can be obtained from the amorphous residues by distillation at normal or reduced pressure or in a current of steam4 ,to explain these facts two assumptions are possible4 ,either the chemical and physical properties of all or some of the solid constituents are changed by the distillation1 and the paraffine is changed from the amorphous into the crystalline variety1 or the change produced by the distillation takes place in the medium 7i4e41 the mother liquid7 in which the paraffine exists4 ,the change effected in ozokerite and in petroleum residues when crystalline paraffine is obtained by distillation is to be regarded as a purification1 and can be effected partially by treatment with amyl alcohol4 ,in the same way1 by repeated treatment of petroleum residuum with amyl alcohol1 a substance of melting point #ei ,c4 can be obtained1 which cannot be distinguished from ordinary paraffine4 ,the treatment with amyl alcohol has therefore accomplished the same results as was obtained by distillation1 and the action is probably the same1 i4e41 a partial separation of colloid substance4 ,these facts point to the conclusion that crystallizable paraffine exists ready formed in both petroleum and in ozokerite1 but in both cases other colloidal substances prevent its crystallization4 ,by distillation1 these colloids appear to be destroyed or changed so as to allow the paraffine to crystallize4 ,it is a generally known fact that liquids always appear among the products of the distillation of paraffine1 no matter in what way the distillation be conducted4 ,this shows that some paraffine is decomposed in the operation4 ,the name proto-paraffine has been given to ozokerite and to the paraffine of petroleum in contradistinction to pyro-paraffine1 the name that has been applied to the paraffine obtained by distillation from any source4 ,according to ,reichenbach1 paraffine may crystallize in three forms3 needles1 angular grains1 and leaflets having the luster of mother-of-pearl4 ,hofstadter1 in an article on the identity of paraffine from different sources1 confirmed this statement1 and added further that at first needles1 then the angular forms1 and then the leaflets are formed4 ,fritsche found1 by means of the microscope1 in the ethereal solution of ozokerite1 very fine and thin crystal leaflets concentrically grouped1 and in the alcoholic solution fine irregular leaflets4 ,zaloziecki has recently developed these microscopic investigations to a much greater extent4 ,according to this observer1 the principal part of paraffine1 as seen under the microscope1 consists of shining stratified leaflets with a darker edge4 ,the most characteristic and well developed crystals are formed by dissolving paraffine in a mixture of ethyl and amyl alcohols and chilling4 ,the crystals are rhombic or hexagonal tablets or leaves1 and are quite regularly formed4 ,they are unequally developed in different varieties of paraffine4 ,the best developed are those obtained from ceresine4 ,their relative size and appearance give an indication as to the purity of the paraffine1 and1 as they are always present1 they are to be counted among the characteristic tests for paraffine4 ,reichenbach observed that mere traces of empyreumatic oil prevented their formation4 ,the old method of determining the amount of paraffine in petroleum was to carry out the refining process on a small scale2 that is1 to distill the residue from the kerosene oils to coking1 chill out the paraffine1 press it thoroughly between filter paper1 and weigh the residue4 ,the sources of error in this procedure are manifold2 the principal one is the solubility of paraffine in oils1 which depends upon the character of both the paraffine and the oil1 and also upon the temperature4 ,the next greatest source of error is variation in the process of distillation and the difference between working on the small scale and on the large scale4 ,in most cases1 where a paraffine determination is to be carried out1 one has to deal with a mixture of paraffine with liquid oils4 ,now1 paraffine is not a substance defined by characteristic physical properties which distinguish it from the liquid portions of petroleum4 ,it consists of a mixture of homologous hydrocarbons1 which form a solid under ordinary conditions4 ,the hydrocarbons of this mixture show a gradation in their properties1 and gradually approximate to those which are liquid at ordinary temperatures4 ,it is a well known fact that a separation of these homologues is entirely impossible by distillation4 ,it has also been ascertained that the liquid constituents of petroleum do not always possess boiling points that are lower than those of the solid constituents4 ,this shows that we have to deal not merely with hydrocarbons of one1 but of several series4 ,when determinations of the amount of paraffine are to be made1 then it becomes necessary to specify with exactness what is to be called paraffine4 ,the most definite property that can be made use of for this purpose is the melting point4 ,for several reasons it is convenient to include under this name hydrocarbons of melting point as low as #ce-dj ,c4 ,the method proposed by ,zaloziecki for the determination of paraffine is the following3 ,the most volatile portions of the petroleum are separated by distillation1 until the thermometer shows #bjj ,c4 ,these portions are separated1 as they exert great solvent action upon paraffine4 ,at the same time he finds that no pyro-paraffine is formed under this temperature4 ,a weighed portion of the residue is taken and mixed with ten parts by weight of amyl alcohol and ten parts of seventy-five per cent4 ethyl alcohol3 the mixture is then chilled for twelve hours to #j ,c4 ,it is then filtered cold1 washed first with a mixture of amyl and ethyl alcohols1 and then with ethyl alcohol alone4 ,the paraffine is transferred to a small porcelain evaporating dish and dried at #aaj ,c4 ,it is then heated with concentrated sulphuric acid to #aej-afj ,c4 for fifteen to thirty minutes with constant stirring4 ,the acid is then neutralized and the paraffine extracted by petroleum ether4 ,on evaporation of the solvent1 the paraffine is dried at #ajj ,c4 and weighed4 ,zaloziecki found1 according to this method1 in three samples of ,galician petroleums1 #d4f1 #e4h and #f4e per cent41 respectively1 of proto-paraffine4 ,the method was carried out as above with four samples of ,american petroleums1 ,colorado oil from ,florence1 ,col42 ,warren ,county oil from ,wing ,well1 ,warren1 ,pa42 ,washington oil from ,washington ,county1 ,pa42 ,middle ,district oil from ,butler ,county1 ,pa41 all furnished by ,professor ,sadtler4 ,they were very different in physical properties and in appearance1 the ,colorado oil being a much heavier oil than the others and the ,washington oil being an amber oil1 while the other two were of the ordinary dark green color and consistence4 ,the losses on distillation to #bjj ,c4 were very different1 being about one-tenth in the case of the ,colorado oil and nearly one-half in the case of the others4 ,the percentages of partially refined proto-paraffine in the four reduced oils 7all below #bjj ,c4 off7 were as follows3 for the ,colorado oil1 #bc4i per cent42 for the ,warren oil1 #bf4e per cent42 for the ,washington oil1 #bf4f per cent42 and for the ,middle ,district oil1 #bh4b per cent4 ,the question now arises1 ,what value has this determination of the proto-paraffine which may exist in an oil8 ,as before said1 a portion of the paraffine is always decomposed in distillation at temperatures sufficiently high to drive over the paraffine oils1 so the yield of pyro-paraffine is always less than the proto-paraffine shown to be present originally4 ,zaloziecki found this in the case of the several ,galician oils he examined4 ,corresponding to the #d4f1 #e4h and #f4e per cent4 of proto-paraffine in the several oils he obtained #b4ah1 #b4fe and #b4ce per cent41 respectively1 of pyro-paraffine4 ,for the present1 however1 the extraction of proto-paraffine on a large scale by means of such solvents as amyl and ethyl alcohols is out of the question on account of their cost4 ,a distillation1 under reduced pressure and with superheated steam1 would1 however1 prevent much of the decomposition of the original proto-paraffine and increase the yield of pyro-paraffine4 ,this study of ,zaloziecki's method and the examination of ,american oils was suggested by ,professor ,sadtler and carried out in his laboratory4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,transmission ,,of ,,pressure ,,in ,,fluids4 ,by ,,albert ,b4 ,,porter4 ,the young student of physics occasionally has difficulty in grasping the laws of pressure in fluids4 ,his every day experience has taught him that a push against a solid body causes it to push in the same direction1 and he often receives with some doubt the statement that pressure applied to a fluid is transmitted equally in every direction4 ,the experiments ordinarily shown in illustration of this principle prove that pressure is transmitted in all directions1 but do not prove the equality of transmission1 and in spite of all the text books may tell him1 the student is apt to cling to the idea that a downward pressure applied to a liquid is more apt to burst the bottom than the side of the containing vessel4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #a4 and #b4 ,the little piece of apparatus shown in ,fig4 #a was designed to furnish a clear demonstration of the principle under consideration4 ,it is essentially an arrangement by which a downward pressure is applied to a confined mass of air or water1 and the resultant pressures measured in the three directions1 down1 up1 and sideways4 ,by means of a broken rat tail file kept wet with turpentine three holes are bored through a bottle1 one through the bottom1 one through the side1 and one through the shoulder1 as near the neck as may be convenient4 ,the operation is quick and easy1 the only precaution to be observed being to work very slowly and use but a slight pressure when the glass is nearly perforated4 ,the holes may be enlarged to any size required by careful filing with the wet file4 ,from each of the holes a rubber tube leads to one of the glass manometer tubes at the right in the figure1 the joints being made air tight by slipping into each rubber tube a piece of glass tubing about half an inch long in order to swell it to the size of the hole it is to fit4 ,the ends of these glass tubes must be well rounded by partial fusion in a gas flame1 that there may be no sharp edges to cut the rubber4 ,the bottle rests in a depression in the turned wood base1 the lower rubber tube passing out through a hole in the wood4 ,fig4 #b shows the shape of the manometer tubes4 ,they are made of quarter inch glass tubing bent to shape in a flame and left open at both ends4 ,they are mounted on a scale board which has several equidistant horizontal lines running across it4 ,the two bent wires which support the scale board fit loosely in holes in it and in the base4 ,this method of mounting is very handy1 since it permits the scale board to be swung to right or left as may be convenient1 or turned round so as to show the fittings on its back1 without moving the bottle4 ,the three manometers are filled to the same level with mercury1 the quantity being adjusted by means of a pipette4 ,a perforated rubber stopper1 fitted with a glass tube on which is slipped a rubber syringe bulb1 completes the apparatus4 ,when the bulb is pinched between the fingers1 the mercury is forced up to the same height in each of the manometers1 thus proving that the pressure is exerted equally in the three directions1 up1 down1 and sideways4 ,with the bottle filled with water the same effect follows1 the law being the same for liquids and gases4 ,when using water in the apparatus it is essential that the rubber tubes1 as well as the bottle1 be filled1 and when used in the class room it is better to show the experiment with water first1 it being easier and quicker to empty the bottle and tubes than to fill them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,pear ,,duchesse ,d',,angouleme4 ,although well known to fruit growers and generally represented in all parts of ,britain1 this noble ,french pear has not become a universal favorite4 ,if the quality of the fruit1 independently of its fine1 handsome appearance1 was bad1 or even indifferent1 it might be exterminated from our lists1 but this we know is not the case1 as any one who has tasted good samples grown in ,france1 the ,channel ,islands1 and upon favorable soils in this country will bear out the statement that the flavor is superb4 ,some fruits1 we know1 are quite incapable of being good1 as they have no quality in them2 but here we have one of the hardiest of trees1 capable of giving us quantity as well as quality1 provided we cultivate properly4 ,pears1 no doubt1 are capricious1 like our seasons1 but given a good average year1 soils and stocks which suit them1 a light1 warm1 airy aspect1 and good culture1 a great number of varieties formerly only good enough for stewing are now elevated1 and most deservedly so1 to the dessert table4 ,but1 assuming that some sorts known to be good do not reach their highest standard of excellence every year1 they are infinitely superior to many of the old stewers1 as they carry their own sugar1 a quality which fits them for consumption by the most delicate invalids4 ,indeed1 so prominently have choice dessert pears1 and apples too for that matter1 come to the front for cooking purposes1 that a new demand is now established1 and although ,duchesse d',angoulme1 always juicy and sweet1 from bad situations does not always come up to the fine quality met within ,covent ,garden in ,november1 it is worthy of our skill1 as we know it has all the good points of a first rate pear when properly ripened4 ,the original tree of this pear was observed by ,m4 ,anne ,pierre ,andusson1 a nurseryman at ,angers1 growing in a farm garden near ,champigne1 in ,anjou1 and having procured grafts of it1 he sold the trees1 in #ahab1 under the name of ,poire des ,eparannais4 ,in #ahbj1 he sent a basket of the fruit to the ,duchesse d',angoulme1 with a request to be permitted to name the pear in honor of her4 ,the request was granted1 and the pear has since borne its present name4 ,that such a fine pear1 which does so well in ,france1 would soon find its way to ,england there exists little doubt1 as we find that within a few years it became established and well known throughout the ,united ,kingdom4 ,all the earliest trees would be worked upon the pear or free stock1 and as root pruning until recently was but little practiced1 we may reasonably suppose that the majority of them are deeply anchored in clay1 marl1 and other subsoils calculated to force a crude1 gross growth from which high flavored fruit could not be expected4 ,these defects under modern culture upon the quince and double grafting are giving way1 as we find1 on reference to the report of the committee of the pear conference1 held at ,chiswick in #ahhe1 that twenty counties in ,england1 also ,scotland1 ,ireland1 and ,wales1 contributed no less than #aba dishes to the tables1 and thirty-eight growers voted in favor of the ,duchesse being recognized as one of our standard dessert varieties4 ,this step looks like progress1 as it is a record of facts which cannot be gainsaid1 and it now remains to be seen whether the ,english grower1 whose indomitable will has brought him to the front in the subjugation of other fruits1 will be successful with the fine ,duchesse d',angoulme4 ,although this remarkable pear cannot easily be mistaken1 for the benefit of those who do not know it1 the following description may not be out of place4 ,fruit large1 often very large1 #c inches wide and #c inches to #d inches high1 roundish obovate1 uneven1 and bossed in its outline4 ,skin greenish yellow1 changing to pale dull yellow1 covered with veins and freckles of pale brown russet1 and when grown against a south wall it acquires a brown cheek4 ,eye open1 with erect dry segments1 set in a deep irregular basin4 ,stalk #a inch long1 inserted in a deep irregular cavity4 ,flesh white1 buttery1 and melting1 with a rich flavor when well ripened2 otherwise rather coarse grained and gritty4 ,as to culture1 experienced fruitists say the tree grows vigorously and well4 ,it bears abundantly1 and succeeds either on the pear or quince stock1 forming handsome pyramids1 but is better on the quince4 ,here1 then1 we have the key to the secret of success3 ,the cordon on the quince2 roots near the surface2 loam1 sound1 sandy1 and good2 and good feeding4 ,aspect1 a good wall facing south or west--the latter1 perhaps1 the best4 ,those who have not already done so1 should try trees on the quince as pyramids and bushes1 as this1 like some other capricious pears1 although the fruit be smaller1 may put in better flavor than is met with in fruit from hot walls4--,the ,garden4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,succession ,,of ,,forest ,,growths4 ,the following is from an address delivered by ,mr4 ,robert ,douglas before the ,association of ,american ,nurserymen at the meeting in ,chicago recently4 ,it is the prevailing and almost universal belief that when native forests are destroyed they will be replaced by other kinds1 for the simple reason that the soil has been impoverished of the constituents required for the growth of that particular tree or trees4 ,this ,i believe to be one of the fallacies handed down from past ages1 taken for granted1 and never questioned4 ,nowhere does the ,english oak grow better than where it grew when ,william the ,conqueror found it at the time he invaded ,britain4 ,where do you find white pines growing better than in parts of ,new ,england where this tree has grown from time immemorial8 ,where can you find young redwoods growing more thriftily than among their giant ancestors1 nearly or quite as old as the ,christian era8 ,the question why the original growth is not reproduced can best be answered by some illustrations4 ,when a pine forest is burned over1 both trees and seeds are destroyed1 and as the burned trees cannot sprout from the stump like oaks and many other trees1 the land is left in a condition well suited for the germination of tree seeds1 but there are no seeds to germinate4 ,it is an open field for pioneers to enter1 and the seeds which arrive there first have the right of possession4 ,the aspen poplar 7,populus tremuloides7 has the advantage over all other trees4 ,it is a native of all our northern forests1 from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific4 ,even fires cannot eradicate it1 as it grows in moist as well as dry places1 and sprouts from any part of the root4 ,it is a short-lived tree1 consequently it seeds when quite young and seeds abundantly2 the seeds are light1 almost infinitesimal1 and are carried on wings of down4 ,its seeds ripen in spring1 and are carried to great distances at the very time when the ground is in the best condition for them4 ,even on the dry mountain sides in ,colorado1 the snows are just melting and the ground is moist where they fall4 ,to grow this tree from seed would require the greatest skill of the nurseryman1 but the burnt land is its paradise4 ,wherever you see it on high1 dry land you may rest assured that a fire has been there4 ,on land slides you will not find its seeds germinating1 although they have been deposited there as abundantly as on the burned land4 ,next to the aspen and poplars comes the canoe birch1 and further north the yellow birch1 and such other trees as have provision for scattering their seeds4 ,i have seen acorns and nuts germinating in clusters on burned lands in a few instances4 ,they had evidently been buried there by animals and had escaped the fires4 ,i have seen the red cherry 7,prunus ,pennsylvanica7 coming up in great quantities where they might never have germinated had not the fires destroyed the debris which covered the seed too deeply4 ,a careful examination around the margin of a burned forest will show the trees of surrounding kinds working in again4 ,thus by the time the short-lived aspens 7and they are very short-lived on high land7 have made a covering on the burned land1 the surrounding kinds will be found re-established in the new forest1 the seeds of the conifers1 carried in by the winds1 the berries by the birds1 the nuts and acorns by the squirrels1 the mixture varying more or less from the kinds which grew there before the fire4 ,it is wonderful how far the seeds of berries are carried by birds4 ,the waxwings and cedar birds carry seeds of our tartarean honeysuckles1 purple barberries and many other kinds four miles distant1 where we see them spring up on the lake shore1 where these birds fly in flocks to feed on the juniper berries4 ,it seems to be the same everywhere4 ,i found ,european mountain ash trees last summer in a forest in ,new ,hampshire2 the seed must have been carried over two miles as the crow flies4 ,while this alternation is going on in the ,east1 and may have been going on for thousands of years1 the ,rocky ,mountain district is not so fortunate4 ,when a forest is burned down in that dry region1 it is doubtful if coniferous trees will ever grow again1 except in some localities specially favored4 ,i have seen localities where short-lived trees were dying out and no others taking their places4 ,such spots will hereafter take their places above the timber line1 which seems to me to be a line governed by circumstances more than by altitude or quality of soil4 ,there are a few exceptions where pines will succeed pines in a burned-down forest4 ,pinus ,murrayana grows up near the timber line in the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,this tree has persistent cones which adhere to the trees for many years4 ,i have counted the cones of sixteen years on one of these trees1 and examined burned forests of this species1 where many of the cones had apparently been bedded in the earth as the trees fell4 ,the heat had opened the cones and the seedlings were growing up in myriads2 but not a conifer of any other kind could be seen as far as the fire had reached4 ,in the ,michigan ,peninsula1 northern ,wisconsin and ,minnesota1 ,p4 ,banksiana1 a comparatively worthless tree1 is replacing the valuable red pine 7,p4 resinosa71 and in the ,sierras ,p4 ,murrayana and ,p4 tuberculata are replacing the more valuable species by the same process4 ,in this case1 also1 the worthless trees are the shortest lived4 ,so we see that nature is doing all that she can to remedy the evil4 ,man only is reckless1 and especially the ,american man4 ,the ,mexican will cut large limbs off his trees for fuel1 but will spare the tree4 ,even the poor ,indian1 when at the starvation point1 stripping the bark from the yellow pine 7,p4 ponderosa71 for the mucilaginous matter being formed into sap wood1 will never take a strip wider than one third the circumference of the tree1 so that its growth may not be injured4 ,we often read that oaks are springing up in destroyed forests where oaks had never grown before4 ,the writers are no doubt sincere1 but they are careless4 ,the only pine forests where oaks are not intermixed are either in land so sandy that oaks cannot be made to grow on them at all1 or so far north that they are beyond their northern limit4 ,in the ,green ,mountains and in the ,new ,england forests1 in the pine forests in ,pennsylvania1 in the ,adirondacks1 in ,wisconsin and ,michigan--except in sand--,i have found oaks mixed with the pines and spruces4 ,in northwestern ,minnesota and in northern ,dakota the oaks are near their northern limit1 but even there the burr oak drags on a bare existence among the pines and spruces4 ,in the ,black ,hills1 in ,dakota1 poor1 forlorn1 scrubby burr oaks are scattered through the hills among the yellow pines4 ,in ,colorado we find them as shrubs among the pines and ,douglas spruces4 ,in ,new ,mexico we find them scattered among the pions4 ,in ,arizona they grow like hazel bushes among the yellow pines4 ,on the ,sierra ,nevada the oak region crosses the pine region1 and scattering oaks reach far up into the mountains4 ,yet oaks will not flourish between the one hundredth meridian and the eastern base of the ,sierras1 owing to the aridity of the climate4 ,i recently found oaks scattered among the redwoods on both sides of the ,coast ,range ,mountains4 ,darwin has truly said1 ,the oaks are driving the pines to the sands4 ,wherever the oak is established--and we have seen that it is already established whereever it can endure the soil and climate--there it will remain and keep on advancing4 ,the oak produces comparatively few seeds4 ,where it produces a hundred1 the ash and maple will yield a thousand1 the elm ten thousand1 and many other trees a hundred thousand4 ,the acorn has no provision for protection and transportation like many tree seeds4 ,many kinds are furnished with wings to float them on the water and carry them in the air4 ,nearly every tree seed1 except the acorn1 has a case to protect it while growing1 either opening and casting the seeds off to a distance when ripe or falling with them to protect them till they begin to germinate4 ,even the equally large seeds of other kinds are protected in some way4 ,the hickory nut has a hard shell1 which shell itself is protected by a strong covering until ripe4 ,the black walnut has both a hard shell and a fleshy covering4 ,the acorn is the only seed ,i can think of which is left by nature to take care of itself4 ,it matures without protection1 falls heavily and helplessly to the ground1 to be eaten and trodden on by animals1 yet the few which escape and those which are trodden under are well able to compete in the race for life4 ,while the elm and maple seeds are drying up on the surface1 the hickories and the walnuts waiting to be cracked1 the acorn is at work with its coat off4 ,it drives its tap root into the earth in spite of grass1 and brush1 and litter4 ,no matter if it is shaded by forest trees so that the sun cannot penetrate1 it will manage to make a short stem and a few leaves the first season1 enough to keep life in the root1 which will drill in deeper and deeper4 ,when age or accident removes the tree which has overshadowed it1 then it will assert itself4 ,fires may run over the land1 destroying almost everything else1 the oak will be killed to the ground1 but it will throw up a new shoot the next spring1 the root will keep enlarging1 and when the opportunity arrives it will make a vigorous growth1 in proportion to the strength of the root1 and throw out strong side roots1 and after that care no more for its tap root1 which has been its only support1 than the frog cares for the tail of the tadpole after it has got on its own legs4 ,there is no mystery about the succession of forest growths1 nothing in nature is more plain and simple4 ,we cannot but admire her wisdom1 economy1 and justness1 compensating in another direction for any disadvantage a species may have to labor under4 ,every kind of tree has an interesting history in itself4 ,seeds with a hard shell1 or with a pulpy or resinous covering which retards their germination1 are often saved from becoming extinct by these means4 ,the red cedar 7,juniperus ,virginiana7 reaches from ,florida to and beyond ,cape ,cod2 it is among the hills of ,tennessee1 through the ,middle ,states and ,new ,england4 ,it is scattered through the ,western ,states and ,territories1 at long distances apart1 creeping up the ,platte ,river1 in ,nebraska4 7,i found only three in the ,black ,hills1 in ,dakota1 in an extended search for the different trees which grow there4 ,found only one in a long ramble in the hills at ,las ,vegas1 ,new ,mexico47 ,yet this tree has crept across the continent1 and is found here and there in a northwesterly direction between the ,platte and the ,pacific ,coast4 ,it is owing to the resinous coating which protects its seeds that this tree is found to-day scattered over that immense region4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,nature4 ,,the ,,hatchery ,,of ,,the ,,sun-,,fish4 ,i have thought that an example of the intelligence 7instinct87 of a class of fish which has come under my observation during my excursions into the ,adirondack region of ,new ,york ,state might possibly be of interest to your readers1 especially as ,i am not aware that any one except myself has noticed it1 or1 at least1 has given it publicity4 ,the female sun-fish 7called1 ,i believe1 in ,england1 the roach or bream7 makes a hatchery for her eggs in this wise4 ,selecting a spot near the banks of the numerous lakes in which this region abounds1 and where the water is about #d inches deep1 and still1 she builds1 with her tail and snout1 a circular embankment #c inches in height and #b thick4 ,the circle1 which is as perfect a one as could be formed with mathematical instruments1 is usually a foot and a half in diameter2 and at one side of this circular wall an opening is left by the fish of just sufficient width to admit her body1 thus3 ,illustration ,the mother sun-fish1 having now built or provided her hatchery1 deposits her spawn within the circular inclosure1 and mounts guard at the entrance until the fry are hatched out and are sufficiently large to take charge of themselves4 ,as the embankment1 moreover1 is built up to the surface of the water1 no enemy can very easily obtain an entrance within the inclosure from the top2 while there being only one entrance1 the fish is able1 with comparative ease1 to keep out all intruders4 ,i have1 as ,i say1 noticed this beautiful instinct of the sun-fish for the perpetuity of her species more particularly in the lakes of this region2 but doubtless the same habit is common to these fish in other waters4 ,william ,l4 ,stone4 ,jersey ,city ,heights1 ,n4,j4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ancient ,,lake ,,dwellings4 ,among the many traces which man has left of his existence in long past ages on the face of the earth1 says a correspondent of the ,scotsman1 none are more interesting and instructive than the lake dwellings of ,switzerland and other countries1 which have been discovered within the last fifty years or so4 ,although these relics of the past are far more modern than those which we referred to in a late article on ,primeval ,man1 and are probably included within the range of ,egyptian and other chronologies1 yet they stretch far beyond the historic period1 so far as ,europe is concerned1 and throw a flood of light on the habits of our ancestors1 or at any rate predecessors1 in these regions4 ,we are tolerably well acquainted with the history of the ,jews when ,david worked his way up from the shepherd's staff to the royal scepter1 or when ,joshua drove out the ,canaanites and took possession of their land1 but of what was going on in ,europe in these times we have hitherto had no knowledge whatever4 ,these lake dwellings1 however1 were in all probability inhabited by human beings somewhere about the time when the events we have referred to took place1 and may have been inhabited before the earlier of them4 ,the first hint we had of the existence of these remarkable dwellings was obtained in #ahbi1 when an excavation was being made on the shore of a ,swiss lake4 ,some wooden piles1 apparently very old1 and other antiquities were found by the workmen4 ,not much attention1 however1 was paid to this discovery till #ahed1 when a ,mr4 ,aeppli drew attention to some remains of human handiwork found near his house1 in part of the bed of a lake which had been left dry during a season of great drought4 ,the workmen employed in recovering some land from the lake found the heads of a great many wooden piles protruding through the mud1 and also a number of stags' horns1 and implements of various descriptions4 ,stimulated by this discovery1 search was made in various lakes1 and the result was truly astonishing4 ,in every direction remains of the habitations of prehistoric man were discovered1 and relics were found in such abundance that the history of this unknown past could be traced through long ages1 and the habits of the people ascertained with a very considerable amount of probability4 ,the details are so numerous that it would be impossible in the space at our disposal to go into them all4 ,of course1 during the long time that has elapsed since these structures were erected1 their remains have been reduced to mere ruins1 and it is only by comparing one with another that we are able to picture to ourselves what they were originally like and what sort of life was led by the men who inhabited them4 ,the oldest of these dwellings belong to the stone age1 when man had not acquired any knowledge of the use of metal2 when all his instruments were merely sharpened stones1 fixed in wooden handles1 or pieces of bone1 horn1 or other natural material4 ,they are therefore somewhat roughly finished1 but at the same time exhibit considerable ingenuity and skill4 ,the method of construction seems to have been somewhat as follows3 ,a suitable situation1 not far from the shore1 where the water was not very deep1 having been fixed upon1 these prehistoric builders drove into the muddy bottom of the lake a number of piles or long stakes1 arranged generally pretty close together1 and in some sort of regular order4 ,these piles were formed generally from stems of trees1 with the bark on1 but occasionally from split wood4 ,the ends were sharpened to a point by the aid of fire or by cutting with stone axes4 ,on a sufficient number being driven in1 and their upper ends brought to a level above the surface of the water1 platform beams were laid across1 fastened by wooden pegs1 or in some cases fixed into notches cut in the heads of the vertical piles4 ,the platform was generally very roughly made1 just a series of unbarked stems placed side by side and covered with layers of earth or clay1 with numerous openings through which refuse of all kinds fell into the water beneath4 ,in many cases connection with the shore was made by means of a narrow bridge or gangway1 constructed in the same manner4 ,on this rude platform huts were erected by driving small piles or stakes which projected above the floor1 and to these were fastened boards standing edgeways like the skirting of our ordinary rooms1 and marking out the size of each building4 ,the walls of the huts were formed of small branches of twigs interwoven and plastered over with clay4 ,the roof was made of straw or reeds like a thatched cottage4 ,in size these huts were probably eighteen to twenty feet long1 eight or ten feet broad1 and about six feet high4 ,they may have been divided into rooms1 but there is no evidence of this4 ,each was provided with a hearth formed of three or four slabs of stone4 ,the number of huts in each settlement must have been considerable1 in fact1 they must have formed villages of no mean extent1 for as many as forty1 fifty1 or even a hundred thousand piles have been found spread over a large extent of ground1 forming the foundation of one such settlement4 ,it is probable1 however1 that these were not so numerous when first erected1 but were gradually added to as the population increased4 ,this fact1 along with many others1 shows that these dwellings were inhabited for long periods of time1 during which the population pursued their ordinary life in comparative peace and quietness in their island homes4 ,such is1 in brief1 a general account of these remarkable structures4 ,of course there were several variations in the methods of fixing these piles1 one of which may be mentioned as showing the ingenuity of the builders4 ,where the piles did not get a firm hold of the lake bottom1 they carried out in boats or rafts loads of stones1 which they threw down between the piles1 thus firmly fixing them1 just as modern engineers sometimes do for a similar purpose4 ,as to the habits of the people who dwelt in these lake dwellings1 we get a considerable amount of information from the various implements1 refuse1 etc41 which fell through the imperfectly closed platforms into the lake1 and which have been preserved in the mud at the bottom4 ,they were fishers1 hunters1 shepherds1 and agriculturists4 ,skeletons of fish are found in large abundance1 and in some settlements even the fishing nets1 and hooks made of boar's tusks1 have been discovered4 ,then again there is an abundance of remains of the hunter's feast2 bones of the stag1 wild boar1 bear1 wolf1 otter1 squirrel1 and many other wild animals are found in rich profusion1 and often these are split and the marrow extracted4 ,these ancient men1 however1 did not entirely rely on such precarious provision for their wants1 but were so far advanced in civilization that they kept cattle and domestic animals of various kinds4 ,they possessed dogs in great numbers1 as well as cows1 sheep1 goats1 and pigs1 and in winter time had these housed on their settlements1 as among the remains found are litters of straw1 etc41 which had evidently served as bedding for these animals4 ,this1 of course1 necessitated the gathering of grass or other material for their food4 ,they also cultivated wheat1 barley1 flax1 and a number of other vegetable products4 ,their methods of cultivation were no doubt very rude1 consisting of a mere scratching of the ground with crooked branches of trees or with simple instruments made of stags' horn2 but1 nevertheless1 they succeeded in getting very good results4 ,among the relics which they have left are found stones for crushing corn1 the grain which they used1 and even the very cakes or bread which they made4 ,there are also fruits1 such as the apple1 pear1 nut1 etc42 so that the bill of fare of prehistoric man was by no means contemptible4 ,he had fish1 game1 beef1 mutton1 pork1 bread1 and fruit1 besides a plentiful supply of water from the lake at his door4 ,he was acquainted with the potter's art1 and manufactured earthen vessels of various kinds4 ,he seems to have produced two kinds--a coarser and a finer2 the former made from clay mixed with a quantity of grains of stone1 and the latter of washed loam4 ,these he ornamented in an elementary fashion with certain lines and marks4 ,some of the vessels he used have been found with a burnt crust of the porridge which he had been making adhering4 ,as to his clothes1 these were probably formed in great part from the skins of wild or domestic animals1 but he also used fabrics made from flax1 which he had learned to weave1 as remains of cloth1 twine1 rope1 etc41 are not infrequently found in his dwellings4 ,one prominent feature in the history of these lake dwellers is their gradual advance in the arts of civilization4 ,while the main features of their settlements remain very much the same during the whole period of their residence1 there is a gradual improvement in the details2 the settlements become larger1 and the implements1 etc41 better finished4 ,and this is especially observable in the change of material which the dweller uses4 ,in the earlier stages of his existence stone is the predominant feature1 all his knives1 saws1 chisels1 axes1 etc41 are made from this substance2 but as time rolls on1 one or two implements are found made of bronze1 which is a mixture of tin and copper1 and requires for its production a certain amount of knowledge and mechanical skill4 ,gradually the number of bronze implements increases until eventually stone is superseded altogether1 and improved forms of weapons of war make their appearance1 and his work has a more finished look1 arising from his improved implements4 ,whether the manufacture of bronze was an original discovery of his own1 or whether it was an importation from some more advanced race1 is not certainly known2 but as he undoubtedly had intercourse with the ,east1 it is probable that the first bronze was imported1 and that afterward he discovered the way to manufacture it himself4 ,however this may be1 it seems evident that the introduction of this material greatly aided his development4 ,as stone gave place to bronze1 so in the course of time this latter gave place to iron1 probably introduced in the same manner some considerable time before the dawn of history2 and this metal held its place until these habitations were finally abandoned4 ,with regard to the religion of these lake dwellers1 if they had any1 nothing is known4 ,from some curious objects formed somewhat like the crescent of the moon1 which are found in considerable numbers1 it has been supposed that they worshiped that body2 but there seems to be really no evidence for this supposition1 and these objects may only have been ornaments1 or perhaps charms1 fixed above the doors of their huts something after the manner of the horse shoe nailed over the door in modern times to keep away evil spirits4 ,so far as can be inferred from the remains that have been examined1 the same race seems to have inhabited these dwellings from their commencement to their end4 ,there is no appearance of invasion from without2 all seems continuous4 ,probably his race came in early time from the ,east1 and were a pastoral people1 with flocks1 herds1 and domestic animals1 and built their peculiar habitations to protect themselves from human enemies4 ,certainly the arrangements were well fitted for the purpose in those days1 when the club and the spear were almost the only weapons of offense4 ,dr4 ,keller1 who has investigated this subject with great care1 is of the opinion that these lake dwellers were a branch of the great ,celtic race4 99 99 99 99 99 ,new ,england ,farmer4 ,,how ,,to ,,raise ,,turkeys4 ,the best feed for young turkeys and ducks is yelks of hard-boiled eggs1 and after they are several days old the white may be added4 ,continue this for two or three weeks1 occasionally chopping onions fine and sometimes sprinkling the boiled eggs with black pepper2 then give rice1 a teacupful with enough milk to just cover it1 and boil slowly until the milk is evaporated4 ,put in enough more to cover the rice again1 so that when boiled down the second time it will be soft if pressed between the fingers4 ,milk must not be used too freely1 as it will get too soft and the grains will adhere together4 ,stir frequently when boiling4 ,do not use water with the rice1 as it forms a paste and the chicks cannot swallow it4 ,in cold1 damp weather1 a half teaspoonful of ,cayenne pepper in a pint of flour1 with lard enough to make it stick together1 will protect them from diarrhea4 ,this amount of food is sufficient for two meals for seventy-five chicks4 ,give all food in shallow tin pans4 ,water and boiled milk1 with a little lime water in each occasionally1 is the best drink until the chicks are two or three months old1 when loppered and buttermilk may take the place of the boiled milk4 ,turkeys like best to roost on trees1 and in their place artificial roots may be made by planting long forked locust poles and laying others across the forks4--,american ,agriculturist4 ,,how ,,to ,,raise ,,turkeys4 ,keep the turkey hens tame by feeding them close to the house4 ,have two or three barrels in sheltered corners containing plenty of straw or leaves for them to lay in4 ,gather the eggs every evening1 as turkey eggs are very easily chilled4 ,keep the eggs in a woolen cloth on end and turn them every three days4 ,set the first seven eggs under a chicken hen1 as they get too old before the turkey hen will go to sitting4 ,make a board pen ten or twelve feet square and twelve or fourteen inches high4 ,put a coop in it and put your hen and turkeys in it4 ,feed the hen with corn and the turkeys soaked wheat bread 7corn meal will kill them71 until they are a week old 7,i feed five or six times a day74 ,then feed wheat until they are big enough to eat corn4 ,give plenty of fresh water in a shallow vessel4 ,keep the mother in the pen until they are large enough to fly over the top of the boards4 ,let them out awhile about the middle of the day4 ,shut them in at night4 ,a turkey hen does not like to be shut up1 but have a good big coop for her and she will go in4 ,don't let the little turkeys get their backs wet until they are feathered4 ,the turkey hen will sit down when night comes just where she happens to be1 but if you drive her home a few times she will come herself after that4 ,always feed them when they come home1 no matter if they are full of hoppers4 ,have your ,no4 #b pen in the orchard under an apple tree where it is shady4 ,have the turkey hen's pen close to the chicken hen's pen1 so that when the chicken hen weans her turkeys1 they will soon learn to go with the turkey hen4 ,give them a dose of black pepper in their feed every cold rain4 ,and never1 no never1 get excited and in a hurry while working with turkeys if you don't want them to get wild and fly all over the plantation4 ,three or four weeks before selling1 feed all the corn they will eat4 ,,food ,,hints4 ,restrain your desire to count your young turkeys1 and let them alone for twenty-four hours after they get into this world4 ,remove them to a clean1 airy1 roomy coop1 and give them boiled eggs1 stale wheat bread crumbs just moistened with milk or water1 ,dutch cheese1 or a mixture of all these4 ,for the first two weeks feed entirely with the eggs1 bread1 curds1 cooked rice and cooked oatmeal4 ,about the third week commence feeding cooked cornmeal2 and from that on they may have any cooked food that would be suitable for chickens of the same age4 ,season all food slightly with salt and pepper1 and twice a week add a level tablespoonful of bone meal to a pint of feed4 ,never feed any sour food or sloppy food of any kind1 except sour milk1 and never feed any uncooked food of any kind until after they have thrown out the red on their heads4 ,feed often1 five or six times a day1 until after they are three months old2 then1 if insects are numerous1 you may gradually reduce the number of meals per day to three or even two4 ,after they are three months old they may be given wheat1 cracked corn1 etc41 but not whole corn until they are five months old4 ,keep the coops dry and clean1 and the turkeys out of the dew and rain until they are fully feathered1 and have thrown out the red4 ,dampness and filth will kill young turkeys as surely as a dose of poison4 ,for the first few days confine the poults to the limits of the coop and safety run2 then1 if all appear strong and well1 give the mother hen and her brood liberty on pleasant days after the dew is off4 ,if they get caught out in a shower1 get them to shelter as soon as possible2 and if they are chilled take them to the house and thoroughly dry and warm them4 ,see that the little turkeys come home every night4 ,the turkey mother must1 for the first few nights1 be hunted up and driven home4 ,after they are three months old1 turkeys are quite hardy1 and may be allowed range at all times4 ,if turkeys that are well cared for1 and have always seemed all right1 show signs of drooping when about six weeks or two months old1 give ,douglas mixture in the drink or food1 and add a little cooked meat to the food once a day4--,the ,practical ,farmer4 ,,about ,,sitting4 ,for an ordinary place1 select from a good breed 7,i prefer the bronze7 a large gobbler and two or three hens4 ,as soon as the warm weather comes1 place about the barn in sheltered places two or three barrels on their sides1 and in them make nice nests4 ,in these the hens will lay4 ,gather the eggs every day1 keeping them in a cool place4 ,when a box contains #bc eggs mark it ,no4 #a and begin to fill a second box1 and when it contains #bc eggs mark it ,no4 #b and so continue4 ,it is well to leave turkey hens on the nest two or three days1 for they often lay one or two eggs after they begin to show signs of sitting4 ,when you have decided to sit a hen1 give her a good nest and #ae eggs and at the same time give a common hen eight eggs4 ,these1 when hatched1 are all to be given to the turkey hen4 ,never try to raise turkeys with a domestic fowl4 ,if you have no place free of grass1 you can start turkeys with difficulty4 ,feeding is of the greatest importance4 ,for the first week ,i have found wheat bread moistened in water the most satisfactory4 ,if you can feed them by sunrise for the first three or four weeks1 you need lose hardly a bird4 ,each evening try and call them nearer and nearer home1 so that you will not be troubled with their wandering to the neighbors'4 ,as early as possible train them to roost high1 so as to be out of danger at night4 ,bird dogs are often very destructive to turkeys1 at times destroying a whole flock in a single night4 ,fatten with corn4 ,the turkey crop ought to be one of the most profitable on our farms4 ,dr4 ,g4,g4 ,,groff4 ,pennsylvania4 ,,graham4 ,turkeys want care1 especially for the first two or three weeks4 ,i feed graham and wheat bread1 made by scalding the flour1 making a very stiff dough1 and baking in a hot oven2 soak over night in cold water4 ,i also give them plenty of young onions1 cutting them up with scissors4 ,be careful not to let young turkeys out in the morning while the grass is wet4 ,after the birds are two weeks old ,i feed wheat1 but no corn until they are about a month old4 ,i like hen mothers best1 for turkey mothers are rangers1 and do not take kindly to being kept in a coop4 ,the bread will keep a week if made right1 but do not soak more than will be wanted in a day1 as it soon sours4 ,i feed scraps from the table1 such as potatoes and bits of meat cut very fine1 but not much of the latter to young birds4 ,i rarely lose a bird4--,mrs4 ,e4 ,reith1 in ,homestead4 ,,care ,,and ,,general ,,management4 ,in turkey raising the one who is the most careful and attentive to the small things is the most successful4 ,the first laying of eggs should be set under a chicken hen4 ,the turkey hen will1 after a few days' confinement1 lay another batch of eggs4 ,a good-sized hen will cover and care for ten eggs2 a turkey hen1 seventeen4 ,make a large1 roomy nest of soft1 fine hay--straw is too brittle and slippery4 ,if there is danger of lice in the nest-box1 sprinkle with water in which carbolic acid has been mixed in the proportion of eight drops to a half gallon of water4 ,don't wet the eggs with this4 ,after the eggs have been sat on one week1 sprinkle with warm water every other day1 until the last week2 then every day1 until they hatch4 ,have the water clear1 and use a flower or fine rose sprinkler4 ,let the water be of the same temperature as the eggs1 which can be ascertained by slipping a thermometer under the hen for a few minutes4 ,this softens the shells1 and as a little turkey is very weak1 it is helped out easily1 and is stronger than if working long to get out4 ,let the little turkeys get well dried and strong enough to climb around the edges of their nest before taking them off4 ,have a pen1 say six feet square1 built for them1 and made tight at the sides clear down to the ground1 to keep them from getting out and being chilled4 ,put sand and fine gravel over the ground1 and cover enough of it to afford shelter at night and when it rains4 ,they may be kept in this pen the first four or five days1 then let out after dew is off1 and shut up before night4 ,for the first few days' feed1 nothing is better than clabber cheese or curd made by scalding clabbered milk until the curd separates and is cooked1 then skimmed out and fed4 ,mix a little black pepper with this every other day4 ,meal must not be fed raw for several weeks1 and then should be mixed with sour milk instead of water4 ,bake the meal into bread by mixing it1 unsifted1 with sour milk1 and adding a little soda and pepper4 ,spinach1 lettuce1 onion tops and any other tender greens1 chopped fine1 are excellent food4 ,from the time a turkey is hatched until it is ready for market it should have plenty of milk4 ,give them clear water to drink1 for milk is a food4 ,see that the very young ones have milk and water in quite shallow dishes1 for they are in danger of getting wet if the dish is deep4 ,,gather ,,the ,,little ,,turkeys ,,in at the first signs of rain1 and they will soon learn to run and fly to their coop at the first drops4 ,always shut them up at night1 for they are early risers and will be out long before the dew is dried off4 ,don't pen them too near the house4 ,feed them at or near the same place all the time and they will learn to go there when hungry4 ,give them a good feed at night and they will remember to come home for it4 ,if the morning is dry1 feed lightly and let them hunt the rest in the orchard and fields4 ,keep the grass and weeds mowed around their pen and feeding places4 ,mix slaked lime in the dust for them to take their dust bath in1 and sprinkle the carbolic acid and water over and around their roosting pen4 ,keep pails and kettles covered1 for they will get drowned if they have half a chance1 as they begin to fly so young4 ,of course a turkey hen will take her young off1 and care for them after a fashion1 but the safest way to make them tame is to raise them where they may be cared for4 ,even if the turkey hen hatches her last batch of eggs1 it is a good plan to have a hen ready to take the little turkeys and slip them away at night4 ,if she still stays on her nest give her #bj or #be hen's eggs1 and if she hatches them let her run with the chickens4 ,they are not so tender or so easily led astray as turkeys are1 nor as valuable4--,mrs4 ,jas4 ,r4 ,hinds1 in ,orange ,judd ,farmer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,water ,,as ,a ,,therapeutical ,,agent4 ,by ,f4,c4 ,,robinson1 ,m4,d4 ,my experience in the use of water in almost every disease occurring in this climate has long since satisfied me that it is less objectionable and produces quicker and better results than any other treatment1 and can be used when all other medication is contra-indicated4 ,drinking water should be pure1 uncontaminated by animal or vegetable impurities1 and given ad libitum1 unless1 in rare instances1 it should cause vomiting or interfere with the capability of digesting food4 ,if children are comatose or delirious1 as they frequently are in typhoid fever1 give water to them regularly1 or force it upon them1 if they refuse to take it1 as ,i was obliged to do with a child of six years just recovering from that fever4 ,it is my custom to allow cold drinks of water in all cases of measles whenever patients desire it1 and ,i am satisfied that it aids the early appearance of the rash1 and certainly is cooling and grateful to the patient4 ,hot drinks or vile and nauseous teas are unnecessary in this disease1 and should be discarded as useless1 odious1 and disgusting4 ,if congestion of the lungs or any intercurrent inflammation occurs1 or the rash is much delayed1 a hot water bath or the old reliable corn sweat will break up the complication with amazing rapidity1 and if the head is kept cool1 will not generally be unacceptable to the patient4 ,hot baths reduce temperature by causing free perspiration afterward1 and cold packs reduce it by cooling the surface sufficiently long to reduce the heat of the blood1 and1 if used judiciously1 seldom fail of success4 ,i have reduced the temperature four degrees in two hours by wrapping around a child a sheet wet with tepid water1 and no other covering4 ,cold packs are sometimes objectionable1 because of their depressing effects1 and should only be used to reduce high temperature and when there is no congestion or inflammation of any of the vital organs of the body4 ,cold water poured in a small stream from a pitcher upon the head for five or ten minutes will often relieve headache1 and is a benefit in all inflammatory brain diseases1 if1 at the same time1 you can put the feet into hot water containing mustard or pepper4 ,large enemas of warm water will care for spasmodic colic1 and ,i have1 in one instance1 relieved strangulated hernia by the same method1 and at another time the same result was accomplished by a large injection of warm linseed oil4 ,i have often applied a cloth wet with cold water upon the throats of children suffering with spasmodic croup1 with satisfactory results4 ,i have seen infants suffering with diarrhea or summer complaint1 sleepless1 worrying1 fretting1 or crying from thirst1 begging for water1 and the mother or nurse afraid to give it more than a teaspoonful or two at a time1 saying that it vomited everything it drank as soon as taken4 ,i have often1 when visiting such cases1 called for a glass of cold water1 and1 to the surprise of the mother1 would allow it to take all it could drink1 which usually would be retained1 and the child would soon be wrapped in a refreshing sleep4 ,without medicine1 a proper regulation of the child's diet would soon restore it to health again4 ,the spasms of children1 from whatever causes1 or the eclampsia from urmic poisoning1 are often readily controlled when immersed in hot water or given a hot vapor bath or corn sweat4 ,if the convulsions of children are accompanied by a high temperature1 put them into water of #ajj and then gradually cool it down to #fh or #gj1 and then keep them in a room of the same temperature1 with little covering4 ,if the temperature rises1 repeat the treatment as frequently as necessary1 and ,i think you will not be disappointed in the results4 ,scarlet fever and diphtheria1 two of the most dreaded and formidable diseases of children1 are largely shorn of their terrors when1 in addition to an early and thorough medicinal treatment1 the little patients are bathed in as warm water as the surface will allow frequently1 or for thirty minutes wrapped in a warm1 wet blanket1 followed by warm1 dry coverings1 to maintain the perspiration that such treatment usually produces4 ,it has proved to me a valuable aid in eliminating from the blood the specific poison which causes these diseases1 and ,i can safely recommend it to your notice and trial4 ,there is no disease more favorably influenced by this treatment than pneumonia1 and in mild cases one daily warm bath or sweat1 without medicine1 will be sufficient to arrest this disease1 and it is among the first things ,i usually order4 ,if ,i find a child or infant with a temperature of #ajc to #aje1 short1 dry1 and painful cough1 dyspnoea1 rapid pulse1 great thirst1 or vomiting1 with dry crepitation in any part of the lung tissue1 ,i order it rolled up in a blanket or sheet coming out of hot water1 and in thirty minutes change it to warm1 dry blankets1 and soon the little fretful1 worrying sufferer would rest in a quiet1 peaceful sleep4--,peoria ,med4 ,mo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,the ,,health ,,value ,,to ,,man ,,of ,,the ,,so-,,called ,,divinely ,,beneficent ,,gift1 ,,tobacco4 ,by ,j4,m4,w4 ,,kitchen1 ,m4,d41 ,new ,york4 ,with perhaps the exception of heredity1 the question of stimulants and narcotics in their relation to the physical welfare of the race is second to none in importance4 ,with trifling exceptions1 the whole world is addicted to their use4 ,the universality of such use has led many to consider them a necessity to man1 and that they are ,god's gifts to him1 and1 if rightly used1 are of physical benefit4 ,it may not be a perversion of judgment to consider that their widespread popular use is greatly due to the efforts of the race to gain ansthesia for1 and distraction from1 those pains and punishments that are the inevitable sequence of departure from hygienic and social law on the part of the individual1 his ancestry1 and society in general4 ,the taste for these things is acquired1 not natural1 though the acquisition may be through hereditary influence4 ,an idea is held by a majority of even fairly intelligent individuals that there is a justifiable1 harmless1 and even beneficial use of these substances by the general public1 though acknowledging that beyond a certain indefinite line this use becomes an abuse4 ,i believe that there may occasionally be cases in which the physical benefits derived from their use outweigh the injury they inflict1 but ,i think this use is very much less than is generally supposed1 and if we can judge from the preponderance of evil effected by such use1 these substances ought to be considered as the materialized curses of ,god rather than as beneficent gifts4 ,the prevalent idea as to the beneficent nature of these substances ,i consider to be a delusion that can only be explained upon the hypothesis that there is a widespread lack of appreciation of the fact that1 though they may have an immediate pleasant and agreeable effect upon the body1 their injurious effects are cumulative1 and are usually ultimate1 and so distant as to be difficult of direct connection with their cause to ordinary observation4 ,the more moderate the use of these substances1 the more remotely is the effect removed from the cause and more difficult of detection4 ,that the ordinary habitual1 so-called moderate use of stimulants and narcotics1 such as tea1 coffee1 tobacco1 and alcohol1 is1 in the vast majority of cases1 really an abuse1 is a proposition that ,i think should be admitted by all who have given the subject an unbiased study4 ,the idea that the user of tobacco and other injurious substances will be cognizant of the injury inflicted by habitual use in moderate or even excessive amounts is an undoubted fallacy4 ,the daily1 weekly1 or monthly injurious effect may be entirely unobservable to even trained physicians1 and yet the ultimate cumulative effect may be fatal4 ,i can instance numerous cases of physicians directly fatally injured by the use of alcohol1 who have never had the slightest cognizance of the fact2 and ,i can also instance cases of grave disease from the use of tobacco where the patients never have believed that tobacco has been the cause of their troubles1 even after a unanimous opinion to that effect has been expressed by a number of competent medical advisers4 ,the habitual consumption of opium1 in doses of any amount1 is generally admitted by most people to be physically injurious outside of its strict medicinal application4 ,moderate indulgence in alcohol as a beverage is beginning to acquire a very widespread evil reputation4 ,but how about tobacco8 ,tea and coffee we can confidently leave to the consideration of a somewhat remote posterity of a considerably advanced intelligence and elevated hygienic ideals4 ,the relation of tobacco to the physical welfare of man can only be fairly estimated by viewing the subject in its broadest aspect2 by considering its effects upon the race as a whole rather than in individual cases2 by taking into consideration economical and other social conditions that at first sight might be considered as having little relevancy to the medical side of the subject4 ,but there can be no just consideration of the matter otherwise4 ,the direct deleterious effects of the immoderate use of tobacco are readily observable2 but the great bulk of the evil physical effects due to the moderate use of this plant are of an intermediate nature and not directly noticeable2 nevertheless1 they are real1 and worthy of medical attention4 ,the plainly marked results following the use of tobacco in relatively large amounts seem to be due to quick and extreme interference with nutrition1 and a diminution of function of all kinds1 which may be represented by anything from a slight decrease of appetite and digestive ability up to a complete loss of function of almost any important organ4 ,tobacco has stimulating as well narcotic properties1 but as ordinarily used its stimulating effect appears to be slight as compared with its narcotic influence4 ,in this respect it differs from alcohol1 the use of which1 owing to the usual method of introduction in large amounts through the stomach1 produces directly1 by stimulation1 readily noticeable structural changes4 ,but with tobacco the direct evil results are mostly of a functional character1 and are more generally diffused1 owing to the usual slow manner of introduction into the body4 ,these two properties have an effect upon the body in moderate use as well as in immoderate use1 the effect being simply in proportion to the quantity used1 though the effects of moderate use may not be measurable by ordinary means4 ,it is easy to see the effects of large amounts of tobacco in the stunted growth of adolescents2 in functional cardiac disorders2 in intellectual sluggishness1 loss of memory1 and color blindness2 in loss of appetite1 and other neuroses of motion1 and marked blunting of various functions of sensation1 and in degeneracy of descendants2 but that lesser evils are produced must be proved mostly by inference1 circumstantial collateral evidence1 and analogy4 ,the greater evils that are the outcome of a moderate use of tobacco are probably due to prolonged slight interference with nutrition1 and consequent general decrease of vitality1 which renders the individual more susceptible through indirect influence to the invasion of disease1 and which lessens the capacity for productive effort4 ,it is of course difficult1 and perhaps even impossible1 to accurately estimate the value of tobacco to the race2 but let us glance at the pros and cons1 and then each one can roughly estimate for himself4 ,tobacco may be used medicinally1 but it is a dangerous and uncertain remedy1 and it probably has not one medicinal use that cannot be more suitably met by other remedies4 ,one can readily imagine easier digestion as the result of the sedative influence of the after-dinner cigar upon a disquieted nervous system1 especially if the coincident irritation of alcohol and coffee have need of correction2 but it can also be imagined that in most of such cases the remedy has been the cause of and will further increase the disordered condition1 and that nutrition of deficiently nourished nerve tissue is rationally indicated rather than partial narcotization4 ,there then remains1 so far as ,i can see1 the solace of moderate ansthesia and1 occasionally1 of occupation for idlers1 as the only items that can be placed to the credit of tobacco4 ,there certainly are individual cases where such usage may be more provocative of physical benefit than evil1 but1 before judging for the race as a whole1 compute the other side of the question4 ,tobacco injures the general health of the public through the economic loss caused by its consumption4 ,the people of our country spend annually over seven hundred millions of dollars for tobacco--twenty per cent4 more than is spent for bread4 ,this sum represents only a minor part of the cost of the tobacco habit to the country4 ,the crop is immensely exhaustive to the soil4 ,its culture has blighted whole sections of fertile territory4 ,in the time consumed by the producer and the trader in its production1 manufacture1 and sale1 and by the consumer in its use1 and by the general interference with vital activity and consequent decreased productive capacity1 there is represented an almost unimaginable sum of money4 ,certainly the people at large are not so well fed both as to quantity and quality1 or so thoroughly clothed1 or so hygienically housed that they can afford this gigantic economic waste4 ,there can be little doubt that if the people had sufficient intelligence and moral strength to taboo tobacco1 this comparatively senseless outgo would be largely devoted to supplying these and other necessities of an exalted health status4 ,tobacco injures health through its moral effects4 ,the tobacco habit is certainly a dirty and frequently a disgusting habit1 and encourages other dirty practices4 ,its use tends to make men cowardly1 irritable in temper1 and low in spirits4 ,it blunts ideas of purity and courtesy1 leading to invasion of the rights of others4 ,it is presumed that few medical men would visit a delicate1 sensitive patient after saturation with the fragrant effluvia of onions1 but thousands whose systems are saturated with nicotine and who reek with nauseating odor do not hesitate to inflict their presence on sick or well4 ,the time will come when the tobacco user will not be allowed to poison the atmosphere that is the common property of the public--will not be allowed to force the inhalation of nicotine upon the general public1 to say nothing of being allowed to poison the infants and women in his own family4 ,what would be said of a man who introduced poison in any degree into the food or drink of his child8 ,is the poisoning of the household atmosphere by the ignorant1 thoughtless1 or selfish smoker morally more defensible8 ,tobacco injures health through hereditary influence4 ,the tobacco user begets1 more certainly than the non-user1 puny children with disordered nervous conditions4 ,luckily for our race1 the women1 who have the most important prenatal influence in guarding its physical well-being1 are practically non-users of the plant4 ,the general health status of the race is improving1 not because the use of tobacco or the indulgence in other questionable practices is harmless1 but because1 among other things1 of the great advance in general intelligence and knowledge of hygienic law4 ,a person1 or the public in general1 may practice an injurious habit1 and yet more than counteract its influence by opposing beneficial practices4 ,horace ,greeley said1 ,show me a drunkard who does not use tobacco1 and ,i will show you a white blackbird4 ,in this country1 where dietetic drinking habits are not common in the family1 the weakening of moral fiber by indulgence in tobacco is usually the introduction into the round of vicious indulgences1 and thus directly or indirectly affects health4 ,smoking induces dryness of the mucous membrane of the mouth and consequent thirst4 ,the partially paralyzed nerve terminals want something more stimulating than water to afford relief4 ,furthermore1 blunted appetite induces deficient nutrition1 and consequently there is a call for some pick-me-up2 hence we find that the use of tobacco tends to the habitual use of alcoholic beverages1 and there are very few habitual users of alcohol who escape without structural injuries to the body as well as perversion of its functions4 ,decrease of vital activity in all the tissues of the body marks the use of tobacco4 ,the tendency is toward functional paralysis1 though occasional signs of stimulative irritation are to be noticed1 especially in the respiratory passages4 ,the interference with intellectual activity is marked4 ,it is said that during a period of fifty years no tobacco user stood at the head of his class in ,harvard4 ,the accumulated testimony of investigating observers is conclusive that1 other things being equal1 users of tobacco1 in schools of all grades1 never do so well in their studies as non-users4 ,one head of a public school said he could always tell when a boy commenced to use tobacco by the record of his recitations4 ,professor ,oliver1 of the ,annapolis ,academy1 said he could indicate the boy who used tobacco by his absolute inability to draw a clean1 straight line4 ,the deleterious effects of tobacco have become so clearly apparent that we find its sale to minors is prohibited in ,france1 ,germany1 and various sections of this country4 ,it is somewhat a question if1 at the present time1 the race is not doing itself more injury by its use of tobacco than it is with alcohol1 because of its more universal use1 particularly by youth1 and because of the respectability of the habit1 which comes of its use by a certain intelligent part of the race1 including teachers of morals and physics1 and even temperance reformers4 ,there is a widespread sentiment in existence that it is not a respectable thing to be even partly paralyzed by alcohol1 but how few there are who consider narcosis as in any way connected with the use of tobacco4 ,its effect is more diffused and masked1 and is not so acutely serious in individual cases1 but through its interference with vital activity1 tobacco is probably more generally injurious to the race than alcohol4 ,the editorial fiat of too long prevents a full exposition of the subject1 but1 in closing1 let me say ,i hear millions of tobacco users ask1 ,why1 then1 was this plant given to man1 if its general effects are so decidedly evil8 ,the question presupposes design in creation4 ,without subscribing to this theory1 or pretending to have solved the mystery of the presence of evil in the world1 the answer may be suggested that the overcoming of many seductive evils becomes to man a means of his progressive higher development4 ,of one thing ,i am convinced1 that the physical development and welfare of man is interfered with in strict sequence to his consumption of substances that are unnecessary for his nutrition--stimulants and narcotics inclusive4--,medical ,record4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,acetic ,,acid ,,as ,a ,,disinfectant4 ,dr4 ,f4 ,engelmann1 in ,cent4 f4 ,gyn41 claims that acetic acid possesses equally as good antiseptic properties as carbolic acid2 in fact1 that it is to be preferred1 as it is completely harmless1 even if used in concentrated solutions1 and that it is a valuable hmostatic1 an advantageous addition particularly in obstetrics4 ,another important property is its ease of transition into the tissues1 which1 according to ,engelmann's experiments1 is by far greater than that of all the other antiseptics4 ,of bichloride it is well known that it forms an insoluble combination with albumen1 and can therefore act only on the surface1 while acetic acid extends into the deeper tissues with ease4 ,acetic acid also affects the metal of the instruments1 but not as severely as the bichloride2 the forceps1 for instance1 may be placed for a quarter of an hour in an irrigator filled with a three per cent4 solution of acetic acid without being injured4 ,a pleasant effect of acetic acid is that it softens and lubricates the skin4 ,the author generally used a three per cent4 solution2 at times he has made use of a five per cent4 solution1 which would easily cause a painful burning at sore places1 so that he only used the latter strength in septic cases1 as the three per cent4 solution proved to be a satisfactory antiseptic for general purposes4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,counter-,,irritation ,,in ,,whooping ,,cough4 ,by ,g4,f4 ,,inglott1 ,m4,d4 ,to combat this often distressing disease ,i have tried the administration of several medicines1 namely1 bromide of potassium1 asafoetida1 valerian1 morphine1 belladonna1 etc41 and ,i have very closely watched their effects1 but none of them proved of much use4 ,having observed1 however1 that during the late cholera epidemic some of the patients admitted into the hospital under my medical charge slept well1 had their anxiety improved1 and some of them ultimately recovered1 after the application of a strong counter-irritation of the pneumogastric nerves in the neck1 namely1 between the mastoid process and the angle of the lower jaw1 ,i tried the same treatment on whooping patients1 and ,i have no hesitation in stating that the result was very satisfactory4 ,i may quote one single case of the many ,i have had under treatment4 ,a boy1 aged twelve years1 of weak constitution1 was suffering from frequent and intense attacks of whooping cough4 ,at a time the fits were so vehement that blood came out of his eyes and mouth4 ,the case was a severe one1 and ,i thought it would very likely end fatally4 ,i prescribed several medicines1 and even subcutaneous injections of morphine1 but without any avail4 ,i then tried for the first time the counter-irritation on both sides of the neck1 and this means acted like magic4 ,in four or five days the patient recovered1 and was able to go to school4 ,since that time ,i have been applying the same treatment1 either on the right side only or on both1 with the greatest benefit4--,br4 ,med4 ,jour4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,embryo4 ,at a recent meeting of the ,physical ,society1 ,berlin1 ,prof4 ,preyer spoke on reflexes in the embryo4 ,his researches extended over many classes of animals4 ,as representing mammals1 guinea pigs were chiefly used2 and for reptiles1 snakes2 while in addition the embryos of fishes1 frogs1 mollusks1 and other lower animals were also employed4 ,but of all animals birds are most suitable for embryological observations1 inasmuch as with due precautions the development of one and the same individual can be followed for a considerable time4 ,birds' eggs can be incubated in a warm chamber1 and by removing a portion of the shell and replacing it by an unbroken piece from another egg1 it becomes possible to follow the daily development of the chick and to experiment upon it4 ,as early as the ninetieth hour of incubation1 spontaneous impulsive movements may be observed1 taking place apparently without any external stimulus as a cause1 and at a time when no muscles or nerves have as yet been developed4 ,after the occurrence of these spontaneous movements1 and at the earliest on the fifth day of incubation1 movements are observed to result from the application of mechanical1 chemical1 and electrical stimuli4 ,in order to observe these the eggs must be allowed to cool down until all spontaneous movements have ceased4 ,from the tenth to the thirteenth day more complicated and reflex actions occur on the application of stimuli1 as1 for instance1 movements of the eyelids1 beak1 and limbs2 and if the stimuli are strong1 reflex respiratory movements4 ,these reflexes make their appearance before any ganglia have become differentiated4 ,prof4 ,preyer considered himself justified in concluding from this that ganglia are not essential for the liberation of reflex actions4 ,he intends1 on some future occasion1 to give a more detailed account of these experiments1 and of the conclusions which may be drawn from them4 ,in the discussion which ensued the conclusions of the speaker were contested from many sides4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,iridescent ,,crystals4#a ,footnote #a3 ,abstract of the ,friday evening lecture delivered by ,lord ,rayleigh1 ,f4,r4,s41 at the ,royal ,institution1 on ,april #ab1 #ahhi4 ,by ,,lord ,,rayleigh4 ,the principal subject of the lecture is the peculiar colored reflection observed in certain specimens of chlorate of potash4 ,reflection implies a high degree of discontinuity4 ,in some cases1 as in decomposed glass1 and probably in opals1 the discontinuity is due to the interposition of layers of air2 but1 as was proved by ,stokes1 in the case of chlorate crystals the discontinuity is that known as twinning4 ,the seat of the color is a very thin layer in the interior of the crystal and parallel to its faces4 ,the following laws were discovered by ,stokes3 7#a7 ,if one of the crystalline plates be turned round in its own plane1 without alteration of the angle of incidence1 the peculiar reflection vanishes twice in a revolution1 viz41 when the plane of incidence coincides with the plane of symmetry of the crystal4 ,shown4 7#b7 ,as the angle of incidence is increased1 the reflected light becomes brighter and rises in refrangibility4 ,shown4 7#c7 ,the colors are not due to absorption1 the transmitted light being strictly complementary to the reflected4 7#d7 ,the colored light is not polarized4 ,it is produced indifferently1 whether the incident light be common light or light polarized in any plane1 and is seen whether the reflected light be viewed directly or through a ,nicol's prism turned in any way4 ,shown4 7#e7 ,the spectrum of the reflected light is frequently found to consist almost entirely of a comparatively narrow band4 ,when the angle of incidence is increased1 the band moves in the direction of increasing refrangibility1 and at the same time increases rapidly in width4 ,in many cases the reflection appears to be almost total4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a ,,general ,,scheme ,,fig4 #b ,,detail ,,of ,,lazy-,,tongs ,in order to project these phenomena a crystal is prepared by cementing a smooth face to a strip of glass whose sides are not quite parallel4 ,the white reflection from the anterior face of the glass can then be separated from the real subject of the experiment4 ,a very remarkable feature in the reflected light remains to be noticed4 ,if the angle of incidence be small1 and if the incident light be polarized in or perpendicularly to the plane of incidence1 the reflected light is polarized in the opposite manner4 ,shown4 ,similar phenomena1 except that the reflection is white1 are exhibited by crystals prepared in a manner described by ,madan4 ,if the crystal be heated beyond a certain point the peculiar reflection disappears1 but returns upon cooling4 ,shown4 ,in all these cases there can be little doubt that the reflection takes place at twin surfaces1 the theory of such reflection 7,phil4 ,mag41 ,sept41 #ahhh7 reproducing with remarkable exactness most of the features above described4 ,in order to explain the vigor and purity of the color reflected in certain crystals1 it is necessary to suppose that there are a considerable number of twin surfaces disposed at approximate equal intervals4 ,at each angle of incidence there would be a particular wave length for which the phases of the several reflections are in agreement4 ,the selection of light of a particular wave length would thus take place upon the same principle as in diffraction spectra1 and might reach a high degree of perfection4 ,in illustration of this explanation an acoustical analogue is exhibited4 ,the successive twin planes are imitated by parallel and equidistant disks of muslin 7,figs4 #a and #b7 stretched upon brass rings and mounted 7with the aid of three lazy-tongs arrangements7 so that there is but one degree of freedom to move1 and that of such a character as to vary the interval between the disks without disturbing their equidistance and parallelism4 ,the source of sound is a bird call1 giving a pure tone of high pitch 7inaudible71 and the percipient is a high-pressure flame issuing from a burner so oriented that the direct waves are without influence upon the flame 7see ,nature1 xxxviii41 #bjh2 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,inst41 ,january1 #ahhh74 ,but the waves reflected from the muslin arrive in the effective direction1 and if of sufficient intensity induce flaring4 ,the experiment consists in showing that the action depends upon the distance between the disks4 ,if the distance be such that the waves reflected from the several disks co-operate1#b the flame flares1 but for intermediate adjustments recovers its equilibrium4 ,for full success it is necessary that the reflective power of a single disk be neither too great nor too small4 ,a somewhat open fabric appears suitable4 ,footnote #b3 ,if the reflection were perpendicular1 the interval between successive disks would be equal to the half wave-length1 or to some multiple of this4 ,it was shown by ,brewster that certain natural specimens of ,iceland spar are traversed by thin twin strata4 ,a convergent beam1 reflected at a nearly grazing incidence from the twin planes1 depicts upon the screen an arc of light1 which is interrupted by a dark spot corresponding to the plane of symmetry4 ,shown4 ,a similar experiment may be made with small rhombs in which twin layers have been developed by mechanical force after the manner of ,reusch4 ,the light reflected from fiery opals has been shown by ,crookes to possess in many cases a high degree of purity1 rivaling in this respect the reflection from chlorate of potash4 ,the explanation is to be sought in a periodic stratified structure4 ,but the other features differ widely in the two cases4 ,there is here no semicircular evanescence1 as the specimen is rotated in azimuth4 ,on the contrary1 the colored light transmitted perpendicularly through a thin plate of opal undergoes no change when the gem is turned round in its own plane4 ,this appears to prove that the alternate states are not related to one another as twin crystals4 ,more probably the alternate strata are of air1 as in decomposed glass4 ,the brilliancy of opals is said to be readily affected by atmospheric conditions4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,new ,,catalogue ,,of ,,valuable ,,papers ,contained in ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement during the past ten years1 sent free of charge to any address4 ,,munn ,,co41 #cfa ,broadway1 ,new ,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,,architects ,,and ,,builders ,,edition4 #b4ej a ,year4 ,single ,copies1 #be cts4 ,this is a ,special ,edition of the ,,scientific ,,american1 issued monthly--on the first day of the month4 ,each number contains about forty large quarto pages1 equal to about two hundred ordinary book pages1 forming1 practically1 a large and splendid ,,magazine ,,of ,,architecture1 richly adorned with elegant plates in colors and with fine engravings1 illustrating the most interesting examples of modern ,architectural ,construction and allied subjects4 ,a special feature is the presentation in each number of a variety of the latest and best plans for private residences1 city and country1 including those of very moderate cost as well as the more expensive4 ,drawings in perspective and in color are given1 together with full ,plans1 ,specifications1 ,costs1 ,bills of ,estimate1 and ,sheets of ,details4 ,no other building paper contains so many plans1 details1 and specifications regularly presented as the ,,scientific ,,american4 ,hundreds of dwellings have already been erected on the various plans we have issued during the past year1 and many others are in process of construction4 ,architects1 ,builders1 and ,owners will find this work valuable in furnishing fresh and useful suggestions4 ,all who contemplate building or improving homes1 or erecting structures of any kind1 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