---------------------------------------- -------- ,transcriber's ,note3 ,some very obvious typos were corrected in this text4 ,for a list please see the bottom of the document4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,,wage ,,earning ,,and ,,education ,,the ,,survey ,,committee ,,of ,,the ,,cleveland ,,foundation ,charles ,e4 ,adams1 ,chairman ,thomas ,g4 ,fitzsimons ,myrta ,l4 ,jones ,bascom ,little ,victor ,w4 ,sincere ,arthur ,d4 ,baldwin1 ,secretary ,james ,r4 ,garfield1 ,counsel ,allen ,t4 ,burns1 ,director ,,the ,,education ,,survey ,leonard ,p4 ,ayres1 ,director ,,cleveland ,,education ,,survey ,,wage ,,earning ,,and ,,education ,,by ,r4,r4 ,,lutz ,,the ,,survey ,,committee ,,of ,,the ,,cleveland ,,foundation ,,cleveland 4 ,,ohio #aiaf ,,copyright1 #aiaf1 ,,by ,,the ,,survey ,,committee ,,of ,,the ,,cleveland ,,foundation ,,wm4 ,f4 ,,fell ,,co4 ,,printers ,,philadelphia ,,foreword ,this summary volume1 entitled ,wage ,earning and ,education1 is one of the #be sections of the report of the ,education ,survey of ,cleveland conducted by the ,survey ,committee of the ,cleveland ,foundation in #aiae and #aiaf4 ,copies of all the publications may be obtained from the ,cleveland ,foundation4 ,they may also be obtained from the ,division of ,education of the ,russell ,sage ,foundation1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,a complete list will be found in the back of this volume1 together with prices4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,,page ,foreword #e ,list of ,tables #aj ,list of ,diagrams #ab ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,industrial ,,education ,,survey #ac ,types of occupations studied #ac ,the ,survey staff and methods of work #ad ,,ii4 ,,forecasting ,,future ,,probabilities #ah ,the popular concept of industrial education #ai ,the importance of relative numbers #bj ,a constructive program must fit the facts #bc ,an actuarial basis for industrial education #bd ,,iii4 ,,the ,,wage ,,earners ,,of ,,cleveland #be ,,iv4 ,,the ,,future ,,wage ,,earners ,,of ,,cleveland #bi ,the public schools #bi ,ages of pupils #cb ,education at the time of leaving school #cd ,v4 ,,industrial ,,training ,,for ,,boys ,,in ,,elementary ,,schools #ch ,what the boys in school will do #dj ,organization and costs #dd ,what the elementary schools can do #de ,,vi4 ,,the ,,junior ,,high ,,school #dg ,specialized training not practicable #dh ,a general industrial course #di ,industrial mathematics #eb ,mechanical ,drawing #ed ,industrial science #ee ,shop work #ef ,vocational information #eh ,,vii4 ,,trade ,,training ,,during ,,the ,,last ,,years ,,in ,,school #fj ,the technical high schools #fb ,a two-year trade course #ff ,,viii4 ,,trade-,,preparatory ,,and ,,trade-,,extension ,,training ,,for ,,boys ,,and ,,men ,,at ,,work #fi ,continuation training from #ae to #ah #gd ,the technical night schools #gf ,a combined program of continuation and trade-extension training #hj ,,ix4 ,,vocational ,,training ,,for ,,girls #hc ,differentiation in the junior high school #hf ,specialized training for the sewing trades #hh ,other occupations #ij ,x4 ,,vocational ,,guidance #ib ,the work of the vocational counselor #ib ,the ,girls' ,vocation ,bureau #id ,,xi4 ,,conclusions ,,and ,,recommendations #ig ,,summaries ,,of ,,special ,,reports ,,xii4 ,,boys ,,and ,,girls ,,in ,,commercial ,,work #aja ,a general view of commercial work #ajf ,bookkeeping #ajh ,stenography #ajh ,clerks' positions #aji ,wages and regularity of employment #aaj ,the problem of training #aaa ,,xiii4 ,,department ,,store ,,occupations #aae ,department stores #aae ,neighborhood stores #aaf ,five and ten cent stores #aag ,wages #aah ,regularity of employment #abb ,opportunities for advancement #abc ,the problem of training #abd ,character of the instruction #abi ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,garment ,,trades #aca ,characteristics of the working force #acb ,earnings #ace ,regularity of employment #aci ,training and promotion #adj ,educational needs #adc ,sewing courses in the public schools #ade ,elective sewing courses in the junior high school #adg ,a one year trade course for girls #adh ,trade extension training #adi ,,xv4 ,,dressmaking ,,and ,,millinery #aea ,dressmaking #aea ,millinery #aec ,the problem of training #aef ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,metal ,,trades #aeh ,foundry and machine shop products #aei ,automobile manufacturing #afi ,steel works1 rolling mills1 and related industries #agj ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,building ,,trades #agc ,sources of labor supply #agc ,apprenticeship #agd ,union organization #agf ,earnings #agf ,hours #agh ,regularity of employment #agi ,health conditions #agi ,opportunities for advancement #ahj ,the problem of training #aha ,,xviii4 ,,railroad ,,and ,,street ,,transportation #ahg ,railroad transportation #ahg ,motor and wagon transportation #aib ,street railroad transportation #aic ,,xix4 ,,the ,,printing ,,trades #aie ,the composing room #aih ,the pressroom #bja ,the bindery #bjc ,other occupations #bjd ,the problem of training #bjf ,,list ,,of ,,tables ,,table ,,page #a4 ,occupational distribution of the working population of ,cleveland #bf #b4 ,nativity of the working population in ,cleveland #bg #c4 ,pupils enrolled in the different grades of the public day schools in ,june1 #aiae #cj #d4 ,enrollment of high school pupils1 second semester1 #aiad-ae #ca #e4 ,ages of pupils enrolled in public elementary1 high1 and normal schools in ,june1 #aiae #cc #f4 ,educational equipment of the children who drop out of the public schools each year1 as indicated by the grades from which they leave #ce #g4 ,per cent of total male working population engaged in specified occupations1 #aijj and #aiaj #dj #h4 ,distribution of native born men between the ages of #ba and #de in the principal occupational groups #da #i4 ,distribution of third and fourth year students in trade courses in the ,cleveland technical high schools1 first semester1 #aiae-af #fc #aj4 ,distribution by occupations of ,cleveland's technical school graduates #fd #aa4 ,time allotment in the apprentice course given by the ,warner and ,swasey ,company1 ,cleveland #gj #ab4 ,course and number enrolled in the technical night schools1 ,january1 #aiae #gg #ac4 ,per cent of total population engaged in gainful occupations during three different age periods #hd #ad4 ,number employed in the principal wage earning occupations among each #a1jjj women from #af to #ba years of age #he #ae4 ,per cent of women employees over #ah years of age earning #ab a week and over #abj #af4 ,wages for full-time working week1 women's clothing1 ,cleveland1 #aiae #aci #ag4 ,average wages for full-time working week for similar workers1 in men's and women's clothing1 ,cleveland1 #aiae #aci #ah4 ,proportions and estimated numbers employed in machine tool occupations1 #aiae #afa #ai4 ,average1 highest1 and lowest earnings1 in cents per hour1 and per cent employed on piece work and day work1 #aiae #afb #bj4 ,estimated time required to learn machine tool work #afd #ba4 ,average earnings per hour in pattern making1 molding1 core making1 blacksmithing1 and boiler making #aff #bb4 ,estimated number of men engaged in building trades1 #aiae #agd #bc4 ,union regulations as to entering age of apprentice #age #bd4 ,union regulations as to length of apprenticeship period #age #be4 ,union scale of wages in cents per hour1 ,may #a1 #aiae #agg #bf4 ,usual weekly wages of apprentices in three building trades #agh #bg4 ,average daily earnings of job and newspaper composing room workers1 #aiae #aii #bh4 ,average daily earnings of pressroom workers1 #aiae #bjb #bi4 ,average daily earnings of bindery workers1 #aiae #bjc #cj4 ,average daily earnings in photoengraving1 stereotyping1 electrotyping1 and lithographing occupations1 #aiae #bje ,,list ,,of ,,diagrams ,,diagram ,,page #a4 ,boys and girls under #ah years of age in office work #ajc #b4 ,men and women #ah years of age and over in clerical and administrative work in offices #ajd #c4 ,per cent of women earning each class of weekly wages in each of six occupations #aai #d4 ,per cent of salesmen and of men clerical workers in stores1 receiving each class of weekly wage #aba #e4 ,per cent of male workers in non-clerical positions in six industries earning #ah per week and over #abb #f4 ,per cent that the average number of women employed during the year is of the highest number employed in each of six industries #abc #g4 ,distribution of #h1ccg clothing workers by sex in the principal occupations in the garment industry #acd #h4 ,percentage of women in men's and women's clothing and seven other important women employing industries receiving under #h1 #h to #ab1 and #ab and over per week #acf #i4 ,percentage of men in men's and women's clothing and seven other manufacturing industries receiving under #ah1 #ah to #be1 and #be and over per week #ach #aj4 ,average number of unemployed among each #ajj workers1 men's clothing1 women's clothing1 and fifteen other specified industries #ada #aa4 ,percentages of unemployment in each of nine building industries #ahj #ab4 ,number of men in each #ajj in printing and five other industries earning each class of weekly wage #aif #ac4 ,number of women in each #ajj in printing and six other industries earning each class of weekly wage #aih ,,wage ,,earning ,,and ,,education ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,industrial ,,education ,,survey ,the education survey of ,cleveland was undertaken in ,april1 #aiae1 at the invitation of the ,cleveland ,board of ,education and the ,survey ,committee of the ,cleveland ,foundation1 and continued until ,june1 #aiaf4 ,as a part of the work detailed studies were made of the leading industries of the city for the purpose of determining what measures should be taken by the public school system to prepare young people for wage-earning occupations and to provide supplementary trade instruction for those already in employment4 ,the studies also dealt with all forms of vocational education conducted at that time under public school auspices4 ,,types ,,of ,,occupations ,,studied ,separate studies were made of the metal industry1 building and construction1 printing and publishing1 railroad and street transportation1 clothing manufacture1 department store work1 and clerical occupations4 ,the wage-earners in these fields of employment constitute nearly #fj per cent of the total number of persons engaged in gainful occupations and include #ie per cent of the skilled workmen in the city4 ,the survey also gave considerable attention to the various types of semi-skilled work found in the principal industries4 ,each separate study was assigned to a particular member of the ,survey ,staff who personally carried on the field investigations and later submitted a report to the director of the survey4 ,each report was also subjected to careful analysis and criticism from other members of the ,survey ,staff before it was finally passed upon by the ,survey ,committee4 ,mimeographed copies were sent to representatives of the industry and to the superintendent of schools and members of the school board and their criticisms and suggestions were given careful consideration before the ,committee and the director of the survey gave their final approval to the publication of the report4 ,the value of the work was greatly enhanced through the ample discussion of the different studies from widely diverse points of view secured in this way4 ,the industrial studies were carried through under the direction of the author of this summary volume4 ,,the ,,survey ,,staff ,,and ,,methods ,,of ,,work ,the reports of the studies relating to vocational education were published in a series of eight separate monograph volumes4 ,the names of the reports and the previous experience in educational and investigational work of each member of the ,survey ,staff are as follows3 ,boys and ,girls in ,commercial ,work--,bertha ,m4 ,stevens2 teacher in elementary and secondary schools2 agent of ,associated ,charities2 secretary of ,consumers' ,league of ,ohio2 director of ,girls' ,bureau of ,cleveland2 author of ,women's ,work in ,cleveland2 co-author of ,commercial ,work and ,training for ,girls4 ,department ,store ,occupations--,iris ,p4 ,o',leary2 head of manual training department1 ,first ,pennsylvania ,normal ,school2 head of vocational work for girls and women1 ,new ,bedford ,industrial ,school2 head of girls' department1 ,boardman ,apprentice ,shops1 ,new ,haven1 ,conn42 special investigator of department stores for ,new ,york ,state ,factory ,investigating ,commission2 three years' trade experience as employer and employee2 author of books on household arts and department stores2 ,special ,assistant for ,vocational ,education1 ,state ,department of ,public ,instruction1 ,new ,jersey4 ,the ,garment ,trades and ,dressmaking and ,millinery--,edna ,bryner2 teacher in grades1 high school1 and state normal college2 eugenic research worker ,new ,jersey ,state ,hospital2 statistical expert in ,united ,states ,bureau of ,labor ,investigation of women and child labor2 statistical agent ,united ,states ,post ,office ,department2 ,special ,agent ,russell ,sage ,foundation4 ,the ,building ,trades1 and ,the ,printing ,trades--,frank ,l4 ,shaw2 teacher in grades and high school2 principal of high school2 assistant superintendent of schools2 superintendent of schools2 special agent ,united ,states ,immigration ,commission2 special agent ,united ,states ,census2 industrial secretary ,north ,american ,civic ,league for ,immigrants2 author of reports on immigration legislation4 ,the ,metal ,trades--,r4,r4 ,lutz2 teacher in rural and graded schools2 superintendent of schools2 secretary of ,department of ,education of ,porto ,rico2 took part in school surveys of ,greenwich1 ,conn41 ,bridgeport1 ,conn41 ,springfield1 ,ill41 ,richmond1 ,va42 ,special ,agent ,division of ,education1 ,russell ,sage ,foundation4 ,railroad and ,street ,transportation--,ralph ,d4 ,fleming2 special agent and investigator for ,united ,states ,immigration ,commission1 the ,federal ,census of ,manufacturers1 the ,united ,states ,tariff ,board1 the ,minimum ,wage ,commission of ,massachusetts1 the ,national ,civic ,federation1 and the ,united ,states ,commission on ,industrial ,relations4 ,the work began in ,april1 #aiae1 and ended in the same month of the following year4 ,two members of the staff1 with one stenographer and a clerk1 were employed during the entire period4 ,one member of the staff was employed #aa months1 one nine months1 one approximately five months1 and one two months4 ,the field investigations consisted largely of visits to industrial establishments for the purpose of securing first-hand information as to industrial conditions and the nature and educational content of particular occupations4 ,over #djj visits of this kind were made by members of the ,survey ,staff4 ,many conferences were held with employers and employees with the object of securing their views as to the needs and possibilities of industrial training4 ,the task of tabulating and classifying the data obtained by the individual investigators in their visits to the local industrial establishments involved much time and labor4 ,although it was not found practicable to maintain complete uniformity in the different inquiries1 the members of the staff kept in close touch with each other1 so that with respect to the points of principal importance1 the results of their investigations are comparable4 ,practically every recommendation made in the reports was discussed in conferences with school principals and with other members of the teaching force engaged in the teaching of vocational subjects4 ,throughout the survey the objective held constantly in mind was the formulation of a constructive program of vocational training in the public schools4 ,in outlining the field of inquiry a clear distinction was drawn between those kinds of general education which have a more or less indirect vocational significance1 and vocational training for specific occupations in which the controlling purpose is direct preparation for wage-earning4 ,the studies were purposely limited to this latter type of vocational training4 ,the survey did not concern itself with manual training conducted for general educational ends1 with the art work of the schools1 or with courses in domestic science and household arts4 ,these subjects in the curriculum were dealt with in different sections of the education survey1 but were considered as being outside the legitimate field of the vocational survey4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,forecasting ,,future ,,probabilities ,the industrial education survey of ,cleveland differs from other studies conducted elsewhere in that it bases its educational program on a careful study of the probable future occupational distribution of the young people now in school4 ,it does not claim to foretell the specific positions that individual boys and girls will hold when they are adults but it does claim very definitely that our safest guide in foretelling their future vocational distribution is to be found in the official figures of the present occupational census of the city4 ,one of the most familiar and time-worn platitudes of educational speakers and writers is that ,the children of today are the citizens of tomorrow4 ,in the field of industrial education it is quite as true that the school children of today are the workers of tomorrow4 ,moreover1 since occupational distributions change but slowly even in these modern times1 it is unquestionably true that the boys and girls now studying in the public schools will soon be scattered among the different gainful occupations of ,cleveland's industrial1 commercial1 and professional life in just about the same proportions as their fathers and mothers and brothers and sisters are now distributed4 ,the plan of the survey in advocating types of present preparation based on studies of future prospects seems at first sight so obvious a mode of procedure as hardly to warrant extended explanation4 ,this is far from being the case4 ,the reader who proposes to follow the working-out of the principle and to scrutinize the evidence underlying it must be prepared to scan many a detailed table of statistics and to arrive at most unforeseen conclusions4 ,,the ,,popular ,,concept ,,of ,,industrial ,,education ,for many years past the public has given respectful attention to the arguments of the champions of industrial education4 ,there has been general assent to the proposition that the schools should train for and not away from the industrial age in which we live4 ,we have come to think of the carpenter shop1 the machine shop1 the forge shop1 and the cooking room as necessary and desirable adjuncts of the modern school and to our minds these shops have typified industrial education4 ,all of these have come to be almost synonymous with progressive thought and action in public education4 ,very generally it has been felt that the problems of industrial education were to be solved through the wider extension of these shop facilities in our public schools4 ,when these familiar generalizations are submitted to careful analysis their whole structure begins to totter4 ,in ,cleveland about #c1gjj boys leave school each year and go to work4 ,they represent various stages of advancement from the #dth grade of the elementary school to the #dth year of the high school4 ,they are scattered through more than #ajj school buildings4 ,the problem of industrial education is to give these boys with their differing ages1 their widely varied school preparation1 and their scattered geographical distribution1 the best possible preparation for taking their places in the work-a-day world4 ,they represent every grade of intelligence1 every stratum of social and economic life1 and it is extremely difficult to bring them together for instructional purposes4 ,they are scattered in little groups through more than a thousand classrooms4 ,,the ,,importance ,,of ,,relative ,,numbers ,now it is possible to foretell with some certainty what these young people will be doing a few years from now4 ,almost all of them are of ,american birth and it is certain that in a few years they will be engaged in doing just about the same sorts of work as are now done in the city of ,cleveland by adults of ,american birth4 ,the data of the ,united ,states ,census of ,occupations show us that among every #ajj ,american born men in ,cleveland there are eight who are clerks1 seven who are machinists1 four who are salesmen1 and so on through the list of hundreds of occupations4 ,the number of ,american born men in each #ajj engaged in each of the #aj leading sorts of occupations is approximately as follows3 ,clerks #h ,machinists #g ,salesmen #d ,laborers and porters #d ,retail dealers #d ,draymen1 teamsters1 etc4 #d ,bookkeepers #c ,carpenters #c ,commercial travelers #b ,manufacturers #b ---- #da ,this simple list at once calls into question all the standard assumptions about the extension of industrial education depending on greatly increasing the number of carpenter shops and machine shops in the public schools4 ,the figures show that among each #ajj ,american born men in ,cleveland only seven are machinists and only three are carpenters4 ,clearly we should not be justified in training all the boys in our public schools to enter the machinist's trade or the carpenter's trade when nine out of each #aj will in all probability engage in entirely different sorts of future work4 ,the more the figures of the little table given above are studied1 the clearer it appears that our conventional ideas about industrial education need critical scrutiny and careful challenge4 ,these #aj leading occupations include only #da out of each #ajj ,american born men4 ,moreover1 more than half of these #da are engaged in mental work rather than in manual work4 ,from these considerations one definite conclusion inevitably emerges4 ,it is that the safest guide for thinking and planning for industrial education is to be found in a study of the occupational distribution of the present adults4 ,from the very outset such a study indicates that the most difficult and important problems which must be met and coped with are not those relating to methods of instruction but rather those of organization and administration4 ,the future carpenters and machinists cannot be taught until we can get them together in fair sized classes4 ,they represent the most numerous of the industrial groups and yet their numbers are relatively so few that the average ,cleveland school sends out into the world each year only two or three future machinists and perhaps one future carpenter4 ,the trouble with present thinking about this matter has been that we have noted the very large numbers of machinists and carpenters in the population and have failed to realize that while these groups are numerous in the aggregate they are after all quite small when relatively considered and compared with the total number of workers4 ,another important fact that has been almost invariably overlooked is that many of the present carpenters and machinists are foreigners by birth and that there is every prospect that this same condition will maintain in the future4 ,hence these trades and most other industrial occupations are not recruited from our public schools to anything like the degree that has been assumed4 ,a ,,constructive ,,program ,,must ,,fit ,,the ,,facts ,the simple principle which underlies the method employed by the survey is the same on which all large business undertakings are conducted4 ,the results of its application in the field of industrial education are1 however1 fundamentally different from those commonly arrived at on the assumption that nine-tenths of the rising generation will earn their living in industrial pursuits4 ,the fact is that no such proportion of the children in school will become industrial workers4 ,all the native born labor now employed in manufacturing and mechanical industries constitutes only #dd per cent of the total number of native born workers in the city4 ,moreover1 nearly half of the industrial workers are employed in unskilled and semi-skilled occupations for which no training is required beyond a few days' or weeks' practice on the job4 ,such training calls for a mechanical equipment far more extensive than the resources of the school system can provide1 and can be given by the factory more effectively and much more cheaply than by the schools4 ,in the final analysis1 the problem of industrial training narrows down to the skilled industrial trades4 ,approximately #bb per cent of the total number of ,american workers in the city are employed in skilled manual occupations4 ,this does not mean that a constructive program of industrial education would affect #bb per cent of the present school enrollment4 ,all the weight of educational opinion and experience is on the side of excluding the children of the lower and middle age groups as too young to profit by any sort of industrial training1 while the evidence collected by the survey goes to show that of the remainder less than one-fifth of the girls and one-fourth of the boys are likely to become skilled industrial workers4 ,,an ,,actuarial ,,basis ,,for ,,industrial ,,education ,considerations like the foregoing have determined the fundamental method of the ,cleveland ,industrial ,survey4 ,plans for the present generation have been formulated on the basis of future prospects as foretold by state and federal census data4 ,the methods used were characterized by a member of the ,cleveland ,foundation ,survey ,committee as the actuarial basis of vocational education4 ,this is accurately descriptive1 because the method of forecasting the number of men the community will need for each wage-earning occupation closely resembles that employed by life insurance actuaries in foretelling how long men of different ages are likely to live4 ,such methods are similar to those commonly used in commerce and industry4 ,they deal with mass data rather than with individual figures1 and with relative values rather than with absolute ones4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,wage ,,earners ,,of ,,cleveland ,in #aiaj ,cleveland ranked sixth among the cities of the ,united ,states as to number of inhabitants1 with a population of approximately #efa1jjj4 ,the city is growing rapidly4 ,from #aijj to #aiaj the increase in the total number of inhabitants was over #df per cent4 ,the ,census ,bureau estimate of the population in #aiad is approximately #fci1jjj4 ,of the #aj largest cities in the country only one--,detroit--had in #aiaj a greater proportion of its wage earners engaged in industrial employment than ,cleveland4 ,relatively ,cleveland has one and one-fourth times as many industrial workers as ,new ,york1 ,chicago1 ,st4 ,louis1 or ,baltimore1 and one and two-fifths times as many as ,boston4 ,on the other hand a smaller proportion of the adult workers of the city earn their living in professional1 clerical1 and commercial work1 or in domestic and personal service employments than in most large cities4 ,table #a shows by large occupational groups the distribution in #aiaj of the working population in ,cleveland4 ,the classification is that adopted by the federal census4 ,more than #ef per cent of the male workers of the city and about #cc per cent of the women workers were engaged in manufacturing and mechanical occupations4 ,the trade group ranks next1 about #ad per cent of the men and approximately #aa per cent of the women being engaged in commercial occupations4 ,of each #ajj women in employment #cj are servants1 laundresses1 housekeepers1 or are engaged in some other form of personal service1 while only five men of each #ajj earn their living in this kind of work4 ,railroad and street transportation1 with the telegraph and telephone and mail systems of communication1 requires the services of #aa per cent of the male working population1 but uses very few women4 ,about seven per cent of the men and #ae per cent of the women are employed in clerical work4 ,a slightly larger ratio of women to men is found in the professional occupations1 due mainly to the large number of women in the teaching profession4 ,the whole professional group constitutes less than five per cent of the total working population4 ,,table #a4--,,occupational ,,distribution ,,of ,,the ,,working ,,population ,,of ,,cleveland1 ,,census ,,of ,,occupations1 #aiaj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,occupational group ,men ,women ,total ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,manufacturing and mechanical industries #aji1fdd #ah1bja #abg1hde ,trade #bg1bbi #e1idb #cc1aga ,domestic and personal service #i1edf #af1dfg #bf1jfc ,transportation #ba1ecj #a1aaj #bb1fdj ,clerical occupations #ad1jdg #h1ajj #bb1adg ,professional service #g1bjd #d1hfi #ab1jgc ,public service #c1dfa #ci #c1ejj ,agricultural and extraction of minerals #a1cfg #hj #a1ddg ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,total #aid1jgh #ed1hjh #bdh1hhf ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,from the standpoint of vocational training one of the most striking facts about ,cleveland wage-earners is that a large majority of them are not ,clevelanders4 ,almost exactly half of the men in gainful employment were born outside the ,united ,states and1 due to the rapid growth of the city1 there has been a considerable influx of workers from the surrounding country in recent years1 so that a large proportion even of the ,american working population was born1 brought up1 and educated in some other place4 ,the number and per cent of foreign born1 of foreign or mixed parentage but born in this country1 and of native parentage is shown in ,table #b4 ,,table #b4--,,nativity ,,of ,,the ,,working ,,population ,,in ,,cleveland4 ,u4,s4 ,,census1 #aiaj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,men ,women ---------------------------------- ,nativity ,number ,per cent ,number ,per cent ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,foreign born #if1bia #ej #af1fgc #ca ,foreign or mixed parentage #ee1jgd #bh #bd1bge #dd ,native parentage #db1gac #bb #ac1hfj #be ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,total #aid1jgh #ajj #ed1hjh #ajj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,more than three-fourths are foreign or of foreign or mixed parentage4 ,the proportion of those born in this country of ,american parentage is approximately the same for both sexes1 but the number of women workers of mixed parentage is relatively much larger than among the men4 ,roughly1 of each #aj men employed in gainful occupations1 five1 and of each #aj working women1 three1 were born abroad4 ,the large proportion of foreigners in the trades has an important bearing on the problem of vocational training4 ,some of the skilled occupations are monopolized by foreign labor to such an extent that they offer a very limited field of employment for native workmen4 ,cabinet making1 tailoring1 molding1 blacksmithing1 baking1 and shoe making1 are examples4 ,some of these trades have practically ceased to recruit from ,american labor4 ,this condition has to be constantly borne in mind in planning training courses to prepare boys for the skilled trades1 because of the marked disparity which often exists between the size of a trade and the field of opportunity it presents for boys of native birth4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,future ,,wage-,,earners ,,of ,,cleveland ,in #aiae there were in ,cleveland approximately #ej1jjj boys between the ages of six and #ae1 and #ef1jjj girls between the ages of six and #af1 the age period during which school attendance is required by law4 ,of these #ajf1jjj children approximately #cg1jjj boys and #ch1jjj girls were enrolled in the public schools4 ,exact data as to those attending private and parochial schools are not available4 ,the total enrollment in such schools has been variously estimated as between #be1jjj and #cj1jjj4 ,,the ,,public ,,schools ,the public school system in #aiae enrolled approximately #hb1jjj children of all ages1 of whom about half were boys and half girls4 ,they are taught in #ih elementary schools and #aj high schools4 ,the elementary course comprises eight grades4 ,at the beginning of the school year #aiae-af two junior high schools were opened for pupils of the seventh and eighth grades4 ,it is to be expected that this plan will soon be extended throughout the city1 so that the enrollment in elementary schools will be made up of pupils of the first six grades only4 ,the distribution by grade is given in ,table #c4 ,the kindergarten grades and the special ungraded classes are omitted4 ,,table #c4--,,pupils ,,enrolled ,,in ,,the ,,different ,,grades ,,of ,,the ,,public ,,day ,,schools ,,in ,,june1 #aiae --------------------------------------- ,grade ,pupils --------------------------------------- #a #ac1ajh #b #aj1heg #c #aj1efb #d #i1cbc #e #h1ijb #f #g1bei #g #f1dbi #h #d1ijc ,i #c1abb ,,ii #b1ajj ,,iii #a1ecd ,,iv #a1cii --------------------------------------- ,about #gg per cent of the children are enrolled in the grades below the seventh1 about #ac per cent in the seventh and eighth grades1 a little over six per cent in the first two years of the high school1 and less than three and one-half per cent in the third and fourth4 ,there are eight academic high schools1 two technical high schools1 and two commercial high schools4 ,the technical high schools are steadily growing in favor4 ,the registration of boys in these schools increased about #cc per cent from #aiac to #aiae1 and of girls about #gg per cent4 ,during the same period the registration of boys in the academic high schools decreased slightly1 while the increase of girl students was only eight per cent2 in the commercial high schools the number of girl students increased #bj per cent1 while the enrollment of boys fell off more than #aj per cent4 ,the enrollment by individual schools is shown in ,table #d4 ,,table #d4--;,,enrollment ,,of ,,high ,,school ,,pupils1 ,,second ,,semester1 #aiad-aiae ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,enrollment ,schools --------------------------- ,boys ,girls ,total ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,academic high schools ,central #hjd #gaa #a1eae ,east #fjg #fhh #a1bie ,glenville #dje #faa #a1jaf ,west #bdf #cgg #fbc ,lincoln #bgg #cbi #fjf ,south #bac #bch #dea ,total #b1eeb #b1ied #e1ejf ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,technical high schools ,east ,technical #a1afa #edh #a1gji ,west ,technical #eae #bdb #geg ,total #a1fgf #gij #b1dff ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,commercial high schools ,west ,commercial #bdi #ebh #ggg ,east ,commercial #di #if #ade ,total #bih #fbd #ibb ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,all high schools #d1ebf #d1cfh #h1hid ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,about three-eighths of the high school pupils of the city are in the technical and commercial schools4 ,of the boys #ef per cent are enrolled in the academic high schools1 #cg per cent in the technical schools1 and seven per cent in the commercial schools4 ,of the girls #fh per cent attend the academic high schools1 #ah per cent the technical schools1 and #ad per cent the commercial schools4 ,in the commercial high school approximately two-thirds of the enrollment is made up of girls4 ,in the technical high schools the opposite condition prevails1 the girls constituting less than one-third of the total enrollment1 while in the academic high schools the girls outnumber the boys by nearly one-sixth4 ,,ages ,,of ,,pupils ,the distribution as to ages is shown in ,table #e4 ,the largest group is made up of children seven years old4 ,between #ad and #ae over #cj per cent leave school4 ,the loss from #af to #ag is approximately #dc per cent1 from #ag to #ah about #dd per cent1 and from #ah to #ai nearly #fb per cent4 ,the compulsory attendance law requires boys to attend school until they are #ae and girls until they are #af4 ,that the law is not adequately enforced is demonstrated by the heavy loss between the ages of #ad and #ae1 and the fact that the loss between #ae and #af is approximately the same for both boys and girls1 although girls are required to attend one year longer than boys4 ,additional evidence as to the laxity in the enforcement of the compulsory law is found in the results of an inquiry conducted by the ,consumers' ,league of ,cleveland in the spring of #aiaf1 in cooperation with the survey4 ,,table #e4--;,,ages ,,of ,,pupils ,,enrolled ,,in ,,public ,,elementary1 ,,high1 ,,and ,,normal ,,schools ,,in ,,june1 #aiae ---------------------------------------- --------- ,age ,boys ,girls ,total ---------------------------------------- ------ #f #d1bee #d1ahj #h1dce #g #e1jab #d1hae #i1hbg #h #d1dif #d1djg #h1ijc #i #d1bfh #d1ajc #h1cga #aj #d1jic #c1iea #h1jdd #aa #c1gdg #c1eic #g1cdj #ab #c1gjj #c1fdf #g1cdf #ac #c1fgf #c1fca #g1cjg #ad #c1dde #c1bga #f1gaf #ae #b1ceh #b1bia #d1fdi #af #a1aij #a1afc #b1cec #ag #fgb #fhj #a1ceb #ah #djc #ceh #gfa #ai #ace #aef #bia #bj #da #eb #ic ,over #bj 444 #bb #bb ---------------------------------------- ------ ,total #da1dia #dj1cai #ha1haj ---------------------------------------- --------- ,an attempt was made to follow up the cases of all the children who had left one public elementary school during the period of one year preceding the study4 ,the work was done by the case method and the homes of the children were visited4 ,the total number of cases studied was #aag1 of whom #hi were girls4 ,it was found that one-third of these children had graduated and gone on to high school4 ,another third had gone to work1 and of these1 #dj per cent had done so without graduating4 ,the children constituting the remaining third were staying at home1 and among these a majority had dropped out without graduating4 ,of the eighth grade graduates one-half were found to be illegally employed1 as they were less than #af years of age4 ,among those who dropped out and went to work before completing the course #hj per cent were illegally employed4 ,the fact that many girls drop out without graduating and before the end of the legal attendance period and remain at home indicates that most of them do not leave on account of financial necessity4 ,this conclusion is substantiated by the testimony of the girls and their parents1 many of whom say that the girls left simply because they grew tired of attending and did not see the value of remaining4 ,these facts point to the necessity for much more effective work in enforcing the compulsory attendance laws1 for far better inspection of shops and factories to detect violations of the child labor laws1 and above all to such a reform of the schooling opportunities provided for older girls as will make them and their parents see the value of securing the advantages of the training provided4 ,,education ,,at ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,leaving ,,school ,about #c1gjj boys and an approximately equal number of girls drop out of the public schools each year4 ,most of the boys and a considerable number of the girls enter wage-earning at once4 ,their educational equipment at the time of leaving school is indicated in ,table #f4 ,,table #f4--;,,educational ,,equipment ,,of ,,the ,,children ,,who ,,drop ,,out ,,of ,,the ,,public ,,schools ,,each ,,year1 ,,as ,,indicated ,,by ,,the ,,grades ,,from ,,which ,,they ,,leave ----------------------------------- ,grade ,number leaving ----------------------------------- #d #gj #e #ddj #f #ifj #g #abfj #h #afcj ,i #hij ,,ii #eij ,,iii #aej ,,iv #adaj ----------------------------------- ,total #gdjj ----------------------------------- ,slightly less than one-fifth finish the high school course4 ,nearly three-fifths drop out before entering the high school1 and approximately three-eighths before reaching the eighth grade4 ,under the present compulsory attendance law a boy who enters school at the age of six and afterwards advances at the rate of one grade per year until the end of the compulsory attendance period should cover nine grades--eight in the elementary school and one in high school--by the time he is #ae years old4 ,in actual fact1 however1 only about two-fifths get any high school training4 ,nearly all of the rest take the eight to nine years' attendance required by law to complete eight1 seven1 six1 or even a smaller number of grades4 ,it is from this body of pupils that most of the wage-earners are recruited4 ,in the course of the survey several investigations were made for the purpose of finding out what educational preparation workers in various industries had received4 ,one of the most extensive of these was conducted in connection with the study of the printing industry4 ,educationally the printing trades rank higher than most other factory occupations1 yet the average journeyman printer possesses less than a complete elementary education4 ,composing-room employees1 such as compositors1 linotypers1 stonemen1 proof-readers1 etc41 undoubtedly stand at the head of the skilled trades as to educational training1 but it was found that only eight per cent were high school graduates4 ,six per cent had left school before reaching the seventh grade1 and #af per cent before reaching the eighth grade4 ,the other departments of the printing industry made a much less favorable showing4 ,an investigation conducted by the ,survey in the spring of #aiae1 covering #e1jjj young people at work under #ba years of age1 indicated that only about #ac per cent of these young workers had received any high school training and that less than four per cent had completed a high school course4 ,over one-fifth reported the sixth grade as the last completed before leaving school1 and nearly half had dropped out before completing the elementary course4 ,less than seven per cent of the boys engaged in industrial pursuits had received any high school training and only #db per cent had got beyond the seventh grade4 ,the educational preparation of the boys engaged in commercial and clerical occupations was somewhat better1 nearly #bb per cent having attended high school one year or more2 about one-half had left school after completing the eighth grade and nearly one-third had not completed the elementary course4 ,these facts have a vital relation to the problem of vocational training4 ,if the great majority of the children who will later enter wage-earning occupations do not remain in school beyond the end of the compulsory attendance period1 and in addition over half fail to complete even the elementary course1 vocational training1 to reach them at all1 must begin not later than the seventh grade1 and if possible1 before the pupils reach the age of #ad4 ,,chapter ,v ,,industrial ,,training ,,for ,,boys ,,in ,,elementary ,,schools ,in ,chapter ,,iii the distribution of the wage-earners of the city was outlined1 mainly for the purpose of establishing a basis on which to make a forecast of the future occupations of the children in the public schools4 ,such a forecast is essential as the preliminary step in any plan of vocational training to be carried out during the school period1 for the reason that without it a clear understanding of the principal factors of the problem is impossible4 ,the kinds of vocational training needed by children in school1 and how and where such training should be given1 must always depend in the first instance on what they are going to do when they grow up4 ,the average elementary school in ,cleveland enrolls between #cej and #djj boys4 ,when they leave school these boys will scatter into many different kinds of work4 ,with respect to the future vocations of the pupils1 the average school represents in a sense a cross section of the occupational activities of the city4 ,it contains a certain number of recruits for each of the principal types of wage-earning pursuits4 ,a few of the boys will later enter professional life2 many will take up some sort of clerical work2 a still larger number will be employed in commercial occupations2 and the largest group of all will become wage-earners in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits4 ,the future occupation cannot be foretold accurately with respect to any particular boy1 but we do know that1 whatever their individual tastes and abilities1 the boys must finally engage in activities similar to those in which the adult born native male population is engaged1 and in approximately the same proportions4 ,we do not know1 for example1 whether ,johnny ,jones will become a doctor or a carpenter1 but we do know that of each #a1jjj boys in the public schools about seven will become doctors and about #be will become carpenters1 because for many years about those proportions of the boys of native birth in ,cleveland have become doctors and carpenters4 ,one of the most impressive facts which comes to light in the study of occupational statistics is the constancy in these proportions4 ,the business of any community requires certain kinds of work to be performed and the relative amount of work required and consequently the relative number of workers vary but slightly over a long period of time4 ,this principle is illustrated in a striking way by the list of occupations selected at random presented in ,table #g1 showing the number of persons engaged in the occupations specified among each #ajj male workers at two successive census years4 ,,table #g--,,per ,,cent ,,of ,,total ,,male ,,working ,,population ,,engaged ,,in ,,specified ,,occupations1 #aijj ,,and #aiaj ---------------------------------------- --------- ,per cent of total ,occupation working population -------------------- #aijj #aiaj ---------------------------------------- -------- ,machinists #d4g #e4h ,saloon keepers #a4a 4#g ,tailors #b4a #a4g ,commercial travelers 4#h #a4a ,lawyers 4#e 4#d ,barbers 4#h 4#g ,bakers 4#f 4#e ,physicians 4#f 4#e ,carpenters #c4d #c4c ,cabinet makers 4#e 4#d ,plumbers 4#i 4#i ,stenographers and typists 4#c 4#c ---------------------------------------- -------- ,with the exception of plumbers and stenographers there was either an increase or a decrease from #aijj to #aiaj in the relative number employed in each of these occupations4 ,in only one occupation1 however1 that of machinist1 did the change amount to as much as one per cent4 ,in all the others the shift during the decade was less than one-half of one per cent1 and in more than three-fifths of them it did not exceed one-tenth of one per cent of the total number of male workers4 ,,what ,,the ,,boys ,,in ,,school ,,will ,,do ,the figures in this table1 presented for illustrative purposes1 do not accurately represent the proportions of boys now attending the public schools who are likely to enter the occupations named1 because they do not take into account the fact that a considerable number of the workers in ,cleveland came to this country after they reached adult manhood and that a disproportionate number of these foreign born workers enter the industrial occupations4 ,for this reason the total adult working population is not strictly comparable with the school enrollment1 which is approximately nine-tenths native born4 ,when the boys in the public schools grow up they will be distributed among the different trades1 professions1 and industries in about the same proportions as are the ,american born men in the city at the present time4 ,this distribution is shown for the different occupational groups in ,table #h4 ,,table #h4--;,,distribution ,,of ,,native ,,born ,,men ,,between ,,the ,,ages ,,of #ba ,,and #de ,,in ,,the ,,principal ,,occupational ,,groups ,approximate ,occupational group per cent ,manufacturing and mechanical occupations #dd ,commercial occupations #bj ,clerical occupations #af ,transportation occupations #aa ,domestic and personal service occupations #e ,professional occupations #c ,public service occupations #a ---- ,total #ajj ,the figures in the column at the right of the table represent the number of native born men between the ages of #ba and #de among each hundred native born male inhabitants engaged in the occupations comprehended in the various groups4 ,in the case of the industrial group the figure is too high1 as the census data relative to the distribution of foreign and native born include all ages1 and there is a smaller proportion of ,american born adult men employed in industry than is found in the lower age groups4 ,extensive computations have shown1 however1 that the inaccuracies due to this cause are not serious enough to affect the use of the figures for our purpose4 ,let us now consider what these proportions mean in establishing vocational courses to prepare boys for wage-earning pursuits4 ,the future expectations of the boys in a large elementary school enrolling say #a1jjj pupils of both sexes would be about as follows3 ,number of boys who will enter ,manufacturing and mechanical occupations #bbj ,commercial occupations #ajj ,clerical occupations #hj ,transportation occupations #ee ,domestic and personal service occupations #be ,professional occupations #ae ,public service occupations #e ---- ,total #ejj ,this distribution includes all pupils1 from the beginners in the first grade to the older boys in the seventh and eighth grades4 ,it is certain1 however1 that differentiated instruction for vocational purposes is not possible or advisable for the younger children4 ,according to the commonly accepted view among educators1 vocational training should not be undertaken before the age of #ab years1 and many believe that this is too early4 ,in an elementary school of #a1jjj pupils there would be about #hj boys #ab years old and over4 ,applying to this number the ratios given in the previous table we obtain the following3 ,number of boys who will enter ,manufacturing and mechanical occupations #ce ,commercial occupations #af ,clerical occupations #ac ,transportation occupations #i ,domestic and personal service occupations #d ,professional occupations #b ,public service occupations #a --- ,total #hj ,the industrial group includes all of the skilled trades and most of the semi-skilled and unskilled manual occupations4 ,the skilled trades are usually grouped in four main classifications3 metal trades1 building trades1 printing trades1 and other trades1 these last comprising a number of small trades in each of which relatively few men are employed4 ,with respect to their future occupations the #ce boys in the industrial group are likely to be distributed about as follows3 ,number of boys who will enter ,metal trades #h ,building trades #g ,printing trades #a ,other trades #b ,semi-skilled and unskilled industrial occupations #ag --- #ce ,the analysis can be carried still further1 for these trade groups are by no means homogeneous4 ,the building trades1 for example1 include over #bj distinct trades1 a number of which have little in common with the others as to methods of work and technical content4 ,,organization ,,and ,,costs ,at this point it becomes necessary to take cognizance of certain administrative factors which have a marked bearing on the problem4 ,they relate to the organization of classes in elementary schools and the cost of teaching4 ,in a school of #a1jjj pupils there would be at least five separate classes for the seventh and eighth grades4 ,the #ce boys who need industrial training are not all found in a single class1 but are distributed more or less evenly throughout the five classrooms1 that is1 there are approximately seven in each class4 ,a differentiated course under these conditions is difficult if not impossible4 ,in a few of the ,cleveland elementary schools the departmental system of teaching is in use4 ,under this plan something might be done1 were it not that the total number of pupils requiring instruction relating specifically to the industrial trades is too small to justify the expense necessary for equipment1 material1 and special instruction required for such training4 ,this is true as regards even an industrial course of the most general kind1 while provision for particular trades is entirely out of the question4 ,the machinist's trade employs more men than any other occupation in the city1 yet the number of seventh and eighth grade boys in the average elementary school who will probably become machinists does not exceed five or six4 ,not over two boys are likely to enter employment in the printing industry4 ,the smaller trades1 such as pattern making1 cabinet making1 molding1 and blacksmithing are represented by not more than one boy each4 ,a possible alternative is the plan now followed in the teaching of manual training whereby the boys of the upper grades in various elementary schools are sent to one centrally located for a short period of instruction each week4 ,the principal objection to this plan is that the amount of time now given is insufficient to accomplish much in an industrial course1 nor can it be materially increased without seriously interfering with the work in other subjects4 ,the first condition for successful industrial training is the concentration of a large number of pupils old enough to benefit by such training in a single school plant4 ,only in this way is it possible to bring the cost of teaching1 equipment1 and material within reasonable limits and provide facilities for differentiating the work on the basis of the vocational needs of the pupils4 ,the fact that this condition cannot be met in elementary schools is one of the strongest arguments in favor of conducting the seventh and eighth grade work under the junior high school form of organization4 ,,what ,,the ,,elementary ,,schools ,,can ,,do ,the most important contribution to vocational education the elementary school can make consists in getting the children through the lower grades fast enough so that they will reach the junior high school by the time they are #ac years old1 in order that before the end of the compulsory attendance period they may spend at least two years in a school where some kind of industrial training is possible4 ,that this is not being done at the present time the data presented in ,chapter ,,iv amply demonstrate4 ,in recent years there has been a tendency to regard vocational training as a remedy for retardation4 ,the fact is that the cure of retardation is not a subsequent but a preliminary condition to successful training for wage-earning4 ,vocational training is not a means for the prevention of retardation1 but retardation is a most effective means for the prevention of vocational training4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,junior ,,high ,,school ,in #aiae the ,board of ,education authorized the establishment of a system of junior high schools in the city1 and at the beginning of the school year of #aiae-af the new plan was inaugurated in two schools4 ,the ,empire ,junior ,high ,school1 situated in the eastern part of the city1 had an enrollment of about #gjj children made up of seventh and eighth grade pupils formerly accommodated in the elementary schools of that section4 ,the ,detroit ,junior ,high ,school on the west side had an enrollment of about #djj pupils4 ,no decision has yet been reached as to whether the course shall include only two years' work1 or three years1 as in other cities of the country where the junior high school plan has been adopted4 ,a comparison of the course with that for corresponding grades of the elementary schools shows some marked differences4 ,less time is devoted to ,english in the junior high school and considerably more to arithmetic1 geography1 and history4 ,mechanical drawing1 not taught in the elementary schools except incidentally in the manual training classes1 is given an hour each week4 ,all boys receive one hour of manual training a week against slightly less than one and one-half hours in the seventh and eighth elementary grades1 but they may elect an additional two and one-half hours a week in this subject1 together with applied arithmetic during the first year1 or with bookkeeping during the second4 ,girls may elect an additional two and one-half hours a week of domestic science1 with bookkeeping4 ,the manual training for boys comprises woodwork and bookbinding4 ,,specialized ,,training ,,not ,,practicable ,in the junior high school1 as in the elementary school1 the greatest difficulty in the way of trade training for specific occupations lies in the small number of pupils who can be expected1 within the bounds of reasonable probability1 to enter a single trade4 ,hand and machine composition1 the largest of the printing trades1 will serve as an example4 ,in a junior high school of #a1jjj pupils1 boys and girls1 the number of boys who are likely to become compositors is about five4 ,but to teach this trade printing equipment occupying considerable space is necessary1 together with a teacher who has had some experience or training as a printer4 ,the expense per pupil for equipment1 for the space it occupies1 and for instruction renders special training for such small classes impracticable4 ,all of the skilled occupations1 with the exception perhaps of the machinist's trade1 are in the same case4 ,an attempt to form separate classes for each of the eight largest trades in the city would result in two classes of not over five pupils1 three classes of not over #aj pupils1 and only one of over #ac pupils4 ,the following table shows the number of boys1 in a school of this size1 who are likely to enter each of these trades4 ,number of boys who will probably become3 ,machinists #cf ,carpenters #ac ,steam engineers #aa ,painters #aj ,electricians #i ,plumbers #g ,compositors #e ,molders #e ,a ,,general ,,industrial ,,course ,the members of the ,survey ,staff were1 however1 of the opinion that through the system of electives in the junior high school1 industrial training of a more general type1 made up chiefly of instruction in the applications of mathematics1 drawing1 physics1 and chemistry to the commoner industrial processes1 would be of considerable benefit to those boys who1 on the basis of their own selection or that of their parents1 are likely to enter industrial pursuits4 ,a course of this kind is outlined in following sections of this chapter4 ,the objections which may be brought against this plan are frankly recognized4 ,it takes into account only the interests of the industrial group1 comprising less than one-half of the boys in the school4 ,unquestionably it would tend to vitalize the teaching of mathematics1 drawing1 and science for the boys who enroll in the industrial course1 but it leaves unsolved the question of method and content of instruction in these subjects for the boys in the non-industrial or so-called academic course4 ,very possibly future experience may demonstrate that the plan recommended for the general industrial course affords the best medium for teaching science and mathematics at this period to all pupils1 in which case a differentiated course would be unnecessary4 ,the organization of vocational training in junior high school grades presents many difficulties which cannot be solved by a more or less abstract study of educational and industrial needs4 ,experimentation on an extensive scale1 covering a considerable period of time1 is necessary before definite conclusions can be drawn as to the limitations and possibilities of such work4 ,it is with a full appreciation of this fact that the following suggestive outline is presented4 ,the purpose of the general industrial course is to afford to boys who wish to enter industrial occupations the opportunity to secure knowledge and training that will be of direct or indirect value to them in industrial employment4 ,it is not expected that by this means they can be given much practical training in hand work for any particular trade4 ,the most the school can do for the boy at this period is to bridge over for him the gap that exists between the knowledge he obtains from books and the role which this knowledge plays in the working world4 ,it must not be assumed that the transition can be effected merely by the introduction of shop work1 even if it were possible to provide the wide variety of manual training necessary to make up a fair representation of the principal occupations into which the boys will enter when they leave school4 ,it is doubtful whether1 so far as its vocational value is concerned1 shop work isolated from other subjects of the curriculum is worth any more per unit of time devoted to it than several of the so-called academic subjects4 ,this is particularly true of the two most common types of manual training--cabinet making and forge work4 ,both represent dying trades4 ,during the decade #aijj-aiaj the increase in the number of cabinet makers in ,cleveland fell far below the general increase in population4 ,the blacksmiths made a still poorer showing4 ,both trades are recruited mainly from abroad and the relative number of ,americans employed in them is steadily declining4 ,in the opinion of the ,survey ,staff a general industrial course should cover instruction in at least the following five subjects3 ,industrial mathematics1 mechanical drawing1 industrial science1 shop work1 and the study of economic and working conditions in wage earning pursuits4 ,these may be offered as independent electives or they may be required of all pupils who elect the industrial course4 ,the details of organization must1 of course1 be worked out by trial and experiment4 ,they will probably vary in different schools and from year to year4 ,,industrial ,,mathematics ,of the hundreds of employers who were interviewed by members of the ,survey ,staff as to the technical equipment needed by beginners in the various trades1 nearly all emphasized the ability to apply the principles of simple arithmetic quickly1 correctly1 and accurately to industrial problems4 ,many employers criticized the present methods of teaching this subject in the public schools4 ,in the main their criticisms were to the effect that the teaching was not practical4 ,the boys ,i get may know arithmetic1 said one1 but they haven't any mathematical sense4 ,another cited his experience with an apprentice who was told to cut a bar eight and one-half feet long into five pieces of equal length4 ,he was not told the length of the bar1 but was given the direct order3 ,cut that bar into five pieces all of the same size4 ,the boy was unable to lay out the work1 although when asked by the foreman1 ,don't you know how to divide #ha_/b by #e81 he performed the arithmetical operation without difficulty4 ,the employer gave this instance as an illustration of what to his mind constituted one of the principal defects of public school teaching4 ,mere knowledge of mathematical principles and the ability to solve abstract problems is not enough1 he said4 ,what the boys get in the schools is mathematical skill1 but what they need in their work is mathematical intelligence4 ,the first does not necessarily imply the second4 ,this mathematical intelligence can be developed only through practice in the solution of practical problems1 that is1 problems which are stated in the every day terms of the working world and which require the student to go through the successive mental steps in the same way that he would if he were working in a shop4 ,the problem referred to above is one of division of fractions4 ,if we state it thus3 #ha_/b_/e1 the pupil takes pencil and paper1 performs the operation and announces the result4 ,if we say1 ,a bar #ha_/b feet long is to be cut into five pieces of equal length2 how long should each piece be81 the problem calls for the exercise of greater intelligence1 as the pupil must determine which process to use in order to obtain the correct result4 ,it becomes still more difficult if we merely show him the bar and say3 ,this bar must be cut into five pieces of equal length2 how long will each piece be8 ,several additional preliminary steps are required1 none of which was involved in the problem in its original form4 ,before the length of the pieces can be computed he must find out the length of the bar4 ,he must know what to measure it with1 and in what terms1 whether feet or inches1 the problem should be stated4 ,again1 if we say3 ,lay this bar out to be cut in five equal lengths1 another step--the measurement and marking for each cut--is added4 ,many variations might be introduced1 each involving additional opportunities for the exercise of thought4 ,it is through practice in solving problems of this kind that the pupil acquires what the employer called mathematical intelligence4 ,it consists in the ability to note what elements are involved in the problems and to decide which process of arithmetic should be used in dealing with them4 ,once these decisions are made the succeeding arithmetical calculations are simple and easy4 ,in technical terms the ability that is needed is the ability to generalize one's experiences4 ,in every-day terms it is the ability to use what one knows4 ,the work in applied mathematics should cover a wide range of problems worded in the language of the trades and constantly varied in order to establish as many points of contact as possible between the pupil's knowledge of mathematics and the use of mathematics in industrial life4 ,practical shop work is one of the best means to this end4 ,the trouble with much of the shop work given in the schools is that it runs to hand craftmanship in which the object is to make something by methods long ago discarded in the industrial world1 rather than to give the pupil exercise in the sort of thinking he will need to do after he goes to work4 ,successful teaching does not depend so much on the use of tools and materials as on the teacher's knowledge of the conditions surrounding industrial work and his ability to originate methods for vitalizing the instruction in its relation to industrial needs4 ,,mechanical ,,drawing ,at the present time the junior high school course provides for one hour a week of mechanical drawing4 ,all the boys who may be expected to elect the industrial course can well afford to devote more time to drawing4 ,for such boys no other subject in the curriculum1 except perhaps applied mathematics1 is of greater importance4 ,in many of the trades the ability to work from drawings is indispensable and the man who does not possess it is not likely to rise above purely routine work4 ,in a drawing course for future industrial workers the emphasis should be placed on giving the pupil an understanding of the uses of drawing for industrial purposes1 rather than on fine workmanship in making drawings4 ,seventh grade boys can't be made into draftsmen in three years and if they leave school at #ae they are not likely to become draftsmen4 ,the ordinary skilled workman seldom has any need to make drawings or designs1 beyond an occasional rough sketch1 but he often has to work from drawings4 ,to put it in another way1 drawing to the average workman is like an additional language of which he needs a reading but not a writing knowledge4 ,no doubt it would be well to teach him to write and read with equal skill1 but in the two or three years most of these boys will remain in school there is not time enough to do both4 ,,industrial ,,science ,in many of the trades an introductory knowledge of physics and chemistry is of considerable advantage4 ,boys in the junior high school cannot be expected to take formal courses in these subjects1 but they should not leave school without some acquaintance with them and a knowledge of their relations to industrial processes4 ,a fair equipment should be provided for demonstrational and illustrative purposes4 ,the subject matter should be correlated as closely as possible with the shop work1 and the principal mechanical and chemical laws explained as the shop problems furnish examples of their application4 ,in addition the boys should be taught the common technical terms used in trade hand books4 ,the man who expects to advance in his trade will have to keep on learning after he leaves school4 ,there are many avenues of information open to him1 and the school can perform no more valuable service than to point the way to the sources of knowledge represented by reference books1 trade journals1 and other technical literature4 ,some of the popular magazines1 such as ,the ,scientific ,american1 ,the ,illustrated ,world1 and ,popular ,mechanics can be used most effectively to bring home to the pupils the close connection existing between the class work and the outside world of science and invention4 ,,shop ,,work ,it is difficult to determine the exact function of the manual training shop work in cabinet making and bookbinding which figures in the curriculum at present4 ,that the work was not planned with vocational training in mind seems clear from the action of the school board in adding bookbinding to the course about the middle of the year4 ,the bookbinding trade is one of the smallest in the city1 and there is little probability that more than one boy among the total number enrolled in both junior high schools will enter it after leaving school4 ,fully three-fourths of the industrial group will later be employed in occupations where most of the work is done with machines or machine tools4 ,even in the hand tool trades1 such as carpentry1 sheet metal work1 cabinet making1 and blacksmithing1 the use of machines is constantly increasing4 ,it would seem1 therefore1 that some acquaintance with different types of machines would be of considerable value to the pupils who may later enter industrial employment4 ,the number of boys who are likely to become machinists is large enough to warrant the installation of a small machine shop4 ,repairing1 assembling1 and taking apart machines should occupy an important place in the shop course4 ,most boys are intensely interested in getting at the insides of a machine1 and the processes of assembling1 with their attendant problems of adjustment and co-ordination of mechanical movements1 afford opportunities for the best kind of practical instruction4 ,one of the great advantages of this type of shop work lies in the fact that it consumes little or no material and is therefore inexpensive2 another is that a fairly extensive equipment can be easily obtained1 as any machine1 old or new1 will serve the purpose and may be used over and over again4 ,the extent and variety of shop equipment will depend largely on the resources of the school system4 ,the more the better1 so long as the money is expended on the principle of the greatest good to the greatest number1 which means that the kinds of tools and equipment used in the large trades should be preferred to those used only in the smaller trades4 ,in order that the time devoted to shop work may yield its greatest results1 it is necessary that every lesson center around knowledge and ability that will be of real subsequent use to the pupils4 ,it must not run to art and it must not be mere tinkering4 ,its principal value as vocational training1 in the last analysis1 lies in its use as an objective medium for the teaching of industrial mathematics and science4 ,,vocational ,,information ,during the second and third years all the boys who elect the industrial course or who expect to leave school at the end of the compulsory attendance period should be required to devote some time each week to the study of economic and working conditions in wage earning industrial and commercial occupations4 ,a clear understanding of the comparative advantages of different kinds of employment is of the highest importance at this period of the boy's life4 ,it seems to be generally assumed that an adequate basis of knowledge for the selection of an industrial vocation is an acquaintance with materials and processes4 ,such knowledge is valuable1 but making a living is mainly an economic problem4 ,what an occupation means in terms of income is more significant than what it means in terms of materials4 ,the most important facts about the cabinet making trade1 for example1 are that it offers very few opportunities for employment to public school boys1 and that it is one of the lowest paid skilled trades4 ,the primary considerations in the intelligent selection of a vocation relate to wages1 steadiness of employment1 health risks1 opportunities for advancement1 apprenticeship conditions1 union regulations1 and the number of chances there are for getting into it4 ,these things are fundamental1 and any one of them may well take precedence over the matter of whether the tastes of the future wage-earner run to wood1 brick1 stone1 or steel4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,trade ,,training ,,during ,,the ,,last ,,years ,,in ,,school ,between the end of the compulsory attendance period and the entering age in most of the trades there exists a gap of from one to two years which is not adequately covered by any of the present educational agencies of the school system4 ,two years ago the ,ohio ,state legislature extended the compulsory attendance period from #ad to #ae for boys and from #ad to #af for girls4 ,the result has been to force into the first years of the high school course a considerable number of pupils who have no intention of taking the complete four year course1 and who will leave as soon as they reach the end of the compulsory period4 ,that these pupils are probably not getting all that they might out of the time they attend high school is no argument against the present compulsory attendance age limit1 which should be raised rather than lowered4 ,the study of industrial conditions conducted during the survey left every member of the ,survey ,staff firmly convinced that the industries of ,cleveland have little or nothing worth while to offer to boys under #af4 ,very few of the skilled trades will accept an apprentice below this age4 ,the general opinion among manufacturers was unfavorable to the employment of boys under #af4 ,they are more of a nuisance than a help1 said one2 they are not old enough to understand the responsibilities of work4 ,they break more machinery and spoil more material than they are worth1 said another4 ,in several of the building trades apprentices must be #ag years old1 as the law forbids boys under this age to work on scaffoldings4 ,the new workmen's compensation law exerts a strong influence in favor of a higher working age limit1 owing to the greater risk of accident among young workers4 ,the fact is that the law is still about one year behind the requirements of industrial life4 ,if a vote were taken among employers who can offer boys the opportunity to learn a trade it would be found that a large majority favor raising the working age to #af4 ,employment before this time usually leads nowhere1 and the pittance the boy earns cannot be compared with the economic advantage he could derive from an additional year in a good vocational school4 ,the average boy who leaves school at #ae spends a year or two loafing or working at odd jobs before he can obtain employment that offers any promise of future advancement4 ,these years are often more than wasted1 as he not only learns nothing of value from such casual jobs1 but misses the healthy discipline of steady1 orderly work1 which is of so great importance during these formative years of his life4 ,,the ,,technical ,,high ,,schools ,the two technical high schools1 the ,east ,technical and ,west ,technical1 occupy an important place among the secondary schools of the city4 ,at the present time the two schools enroll nearly two-fifths of the boys attending high school4 ,the course comprises four years' work4 ,in the ,east ,technical the shopwork includes joinery and wood-turning during the first year1 and pattern making and foundry work during the second year4 ,in the ,west ,technical the first year course includes pattern making and either forging or sheet metal work2 and that of the second year1 forging1 pipe-fitting1 brazing1 riveting1 and cabinet making4 ,during the remaining two years of the course the student may elect a particular trade1 devoting about #aj hours a week to practice in the shop during the last half of the third year1 and from #aa to #ae hours during the fourth year4 ,the proportion of pupils who graduate is small and the mortality during the first two years is very heavy4 ,this is due in part to the fact that the type of pupil who leaves school early is more likely to elect a technical course than an academic course4 ,about #be per cent of each entering class drops out after attending one year1 and #be per cent of the remainder by the end of the second year4 ,by the time the third year is reached the classes are greatly depleted and the survivors as a rule are of the more intelligent and prosperous type4 ,only a small proportion of them expect to enter skilled manual occupations4 ,table #i shows the distribution of the third and fourth year students among the different trade courses during the first semester of #aiae-af4 ,,table #i4--;,,distribution ,,of ,,third ,,and ,,fourth ,,year ,,students ,,in ,,trade ,,courses ,,in ,,the ,,cleveland ,,technical ,,high ,,schools1 ,,first ,,semester1 #aiae-aiaf ,trade courses ,students ,electrical construction #fh ,machine work #eb ,printing #bh ,cabinet making #bb ,pattern making #ab ,foundry work #a ---- ,total #ahc ,that relatively few of these students will ultimately become journeymen workmen is shown by the records of the boys graduated in the past4 ,the principal of the ,east ,technical ,high ,school recently sent a questionnaire to all the students graduated up to #aiae1 asking for information as to their present occupations and their earnings during the first four years after graduation4 ,of those who replied1 over #fj per cent either were attending college1 or employed as draftsmen or chemists4 ,about #bh per cent were employed in the skilled trades4 ,the distribution in detail is shown in ,table #aj4 ,the data furnished by graduates as to their earnings during successive years after leaving school supply still more convincing evidence to the effect that the technical school graduate seldom remains in manual work more than two or three years4 ,the complete course gives them an equipment of practical and theoretical knowledge that speedily takes them out of the handwork class4 ,the technical high schools are primarily training schools for future civil1 electrical1 and mechanical engineers4 ,to the student who cannot afford a college course they offer excellent preparation for rapid advancement to supervisory and executive industrial positions1 and for drafting and office work in manufacturing plants4 ,,table #aj4--;,,distribution ,,by ,,occupation ,,of ,,cleveland ,,technical ,,high ,,school ,,graduates ,occupation ,number ,attending college #aaa ,draftsmen #ea ,electricians #cc ,machinists #cb ,chemists #h ,pattern makers #g ,cabinet makers #f ,printers #c ,foundrymen #a ,unclassified #cb ---- ,total #bhd ,the output of the schools falls into two main divisions3 those who leave at the end of the second year or earlier1 and those who graduate4 ,the records show that most of the pupils who reach the third year complete the course1 but nearly half drop out during the first and second years4 ,the benefit they obtain from these two years' attendance is problematical4 ,the course was designed on the basis of four years' attendance1 and the work of the first two years is to a considerable degree a preparation for that of the last two4 ,the principals of both schools are fully alive to the disadvantages of the course for the large number of pupils who drop out within a year or two1 and admit that such students would derive greater benefit from more practical instruction aimed directly toward preparation for the industrial trades4 ,both believe that the only practicable solution is a two-year trade course in a separate school1 covering a much wider range of shop activities than the present high school course4 ,to the only alternative--the institution of a short course within the technical schools to be conducted either as a part of or simultaneously with the four year course--they present objections of considerable weight4 ,they point out that a preparatory course for the trades and a preparatory course with college as the goal differ not only in length but in kind4 ,the work in mathematics for the future civil engineer1 for example1 must conform to college entrance standards and involves an amount of study that is quite unnecessary for the boy whose aim is to become a carpenter or machinist4 ,the first needs a thorough course in algebra1 geometry1 and trigonometry2 the second needs industrial arithmetic1 with only such applications of higher mathematics as may be of use to him in his trade4 ,the same principle holds with respect to other subjects4 ,what boys who expect to enter industrial occupations most need at this period is instruction that will be of practical value to them for future wage earning4 ,it is doubtful whether high school courses which have been formulated in the first instance to prepare pupils for a college course can furnish such instruction and it is still more doubtful whether the trade training required by the future mechanic and the broader preparation required for the professions can be given effectively in the same school4 ,a ,,two-,,year ,,trade ,,course ,it is the opinion of the ,survey ,staff that a separate school in which direct training for the industrial trades is emphasized would result in more profitable use of the pupils' time and probably induce many of them to remain in school up to the apprentice entering age4 ,such a school1 with a curriculum embracing vocational training for all the principal trades1 would easily command an enrollment sufficient to justify the installation of a good shop equipment and the employment of a corps of teachers qualified by special training and experience for this kind of work4 ,even if only one-half the number who enter the skilled trades each year attended the school1 the enrollment would reach at least #hjj boys4 ,a trade school of this kind would relieve the first and second year classes of many pupils that the technical high schools do not want and cannot adequately provide for4 ,the minimum entering age should be not less than #ad1 and no requirement other than age should be imposed4 ,this would draw part of the over-age pupils from the grades and take from the junior high school a certain number of boys who could profit by the greater amount of time given to shop work in the trade school4 ,a good many will stay only one year1 and every effort should be made at the time of entrance to learn the intentions of the pupil4 ,if it seems fairly certain that he will not remain longer than a year he may well omit such studies as have no direct bearing on the trade he wishes to learn4 ,the courses should follow the lines laid down in the general industrial course recommended for the junior high school1 but with a greater proportion of the time devoted to practical shopwork4 ,as the number of pupils for each trade class would be relatively large1 a closer correlation could be effected between the academic subjects and the work in the shops than is possible in the junior high school4 ,both general and special courses should be provided4 ,many of the pupils will wish to specialize on a particular trade4 ,others who have not yet reached a decision need a general course that will give them a wide range of experience with materials and processes4 ,the organization of classes should be planned so as to permit transfers1 whenever desirable1 from the general to the special courses1 or vice-versa4 ,by the time the pupil has reached the second year he usually will settle down to steady work on the trade he selects1 although here again the organization should be sufficiently elastic to allow transfers when there seems to be good reason for making them4 ,it is to be expected1 however1 that nearly all the pupils will devote their time during the second year to practice and study limited to single trades4 ,the success of the school in holding boys to the age of #af or #ag will depend on its ability to convince them that the extra time in school is a paying investment1 and this cannot be done unless they stick to one line of work4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,trade-,,preparatory ,,and ,,trade-,,extension ,,training ,,for ,,boys ,,and ,,men ,,at ,,work ,several forms of trade-preparatory and trade-extension training for apprentices and journeymen workmen are carried on in the city4 ,probably the most effective work done in the teaching of boys after they have entered employment is found in manufacturing establishments which maintain apprentice schools in connection with their shops4 ,there are two excellent examples of this type of instruction in ,cleveland--the apprentice schools conducted by the ,new ,york ,central ,railroad and by the ,warner and ,swasey ,company1 manufacturers of astronomical instruments and machine tools4 ,the ,warner and ,swasey ,company school was established in #aiaa4 ,the course covers a total of #efj hours1 extending over a period of four years4 ,the apprentices attend the school four hours a week for #ce weeks each year4 ,the time allotment for the various subjects included in the course is shown in ,table #aa4 ,in #aiae there were #fe apprentices enrolled in the school1 most of them from the machinist's trade4 ,the sessions are held during working hours in a room in the factory fitted up with drawing tables and blackboards4 ,no shop equipment is used4 ,the purpose of the course is to develop a body of trained workmen competent to take positions in the factory as foremen or heads of departments4 ,less than one-tenth of the total time of the course is devoted to the study of shop practice4 ,standard textbooks are used in the teaching of mathematics4 ,,table #aa4--,,time ,,allotment ,,in ,,the ,,apprentice ,,course ,,given ,,by ,,the ,,warner ,,and ,,swasey ,,company1 ,,cleveland ,subject ,hours ,arithmetic #ce ,english #fe ,mechanical drawing #gj ,shop practice #dj ,algebra #gj ,geometry #dj ,trigonometry #cj ,physics #gj ,materials #ce ,industrial history #ce ,mechanics1 strength of materials1 and mechanical design #gj --- ,total #efj ,the enrollment in the school conducted by the ,new ,york ,central ,railroad is about #adj boys1 nearly all of whom are machinists' apprentices4 ,they are divided into three classes1 the members of each class attending the school four hours a week4 ,about two-thirds of the time is devoted to mechanical drawing and one-third to mathematics and shop practice4 ,the instruction in these two latter subjects is based on a series of graded mimeographed or blue print lesson sheets1 containing a wide variety of shop problems1 with a condensed and simplified explanation of the mathematical principles involved4 ,in the main the work is limited to the application of simple arithmetic to problems of shop practice4 ,no textbooks are used1 but the booklets on machine shop practice published by the ,international ,correspondence ,schools are studied in connection with the course4 ,in addition to the required classroom work in mechanical drawing1 each apprentice serves four or five months of his term in the regular drafting rooms of the company4 ,the classroom is equipped with models of railway appliances and machinery1 together with laboratory apparatus for teaching the laws of mechanics4 ,no machine tools or other shop equipment are used in the classes4 ,the course covers about #gjj hours of instruction exclusive of the time spent in regular drafting room work4 ,about #bj apprentices finished the course in #aiae4 ,several of the building and printing trades' labor unions take an active interest in the training of apprentices1 and in at least two instances the unions maintain evening classes for teaching trade theory4 ,the ,electrical ,workers' ,union1 made up principally of inside wiremen1 conducts apprentice classes taught by journeymen4 ,the ,international ,typographical ,union course for compositors and compositors' apprentices is undoubtedly the best yet devised for giving supplementary training in hand composition4 ,it is taught by journeymen in evening classes1 under the supervision of the central office of the ,typographical ,union ,commission1 to which all the work must be submitted4 ,in ,february1 #aiaf1 about #ajj students were enrolled1 of whom approximately one-third were apprentices and two-thirds journeymen4 ,the course consists of #df lessons in ,english1 lettering1 design1 color harmony1 job composition1 and imposition for machine and hand folding4 ,the classes are held at the headquarters of the union4 ,as the students' daily practice in the shop provides plenty of opportunity for the acquisition of manual skill1 no apparatus or shop equipment is used in connection with the course4 ,the apprentice school conducted by the ,y4,m4,c4,a4 represents another type of apprentice training4 ,the instruction is given during the day4 ,the apprentices are sent to the school by various firms in the city under an arrangement whereby the boys attend four and one-half hours each week during regular shop time4 ,in ,february1 #aiaf1 the enrollment consisted of #df apprentices1 practically all from the metal trades4 ,the employers pay the tuition fee1 which amounts to #bj a year4 ,the course requires four years' work of #dj weeks each1 a total of #gbj hours4 ,it comprises instruction in shop mathematics1 drawing1 ,english1 physics1 and industrial hygiene4 ,no shop equipment is used4 ,fifteen boys were graduated from the course this year4 ,the factory apprentice school of the ,warner and ,swasey ,company and ,new ,york ,central ,railroad type possesses many advantages over any kind of continuation instruction carried on outside of the plants where the boys are employed4 ,a better correlation between the class and shop work is possible together with a more personal relation between teacher and pupils than is usually found when the pupils are drawn from a number of different establishments4 ,it must be admitted1 however1 that this method of training apprentices is not feasible except in very large plants1 as in small classes the teaching cost becomes prohibitive4 ,there is little probability that it will ever be adopted by enough employers to take care of more than an insignificant proportion of the boys who enter the skilled trades4 ,the results obtained1 here and in other cities1 through cooeperative schemes1 such as the ,y4,m4,c4,a4 continuation school1 are in the main disappointing4 ,their failure to reach more than a few of the boys who need trade-extension training is due partly to the fact that they operate under a condition that is fundamentally unjust4 ,one employer interviewed during the survey stated the case very clearly3 ,i can see no good reason why ,i should make pecuniary sacrifices for the benefit of my competitors4 ,very few of my apprentices remain until the end of their term1 because by the time they have completed their second year other firms which make no effort to train their quota of skilled workmen for the trade steal them away from me4 ,any plan for the training of apprentices which does not apportion the burden among the different establishments in direct proportion to the number of men they have1 simply penalizes those public-spirited employers who participate in it4 ,,continuation ,,training ,,from #ae ,,to #ah ,the years between #ae and #ah are among the most important in the life of the young worker4 ,if left to his own devices during this period1 he is very likely to lose much of vocational value of his earlier education1 because he does not grasp the relation which the knowledge he acquired in school bears to his daily work4 ,as a result the problem of supplementary instruction at a later age1 when he wakes up to his need for it1 becomes much more difficult than if trade-extension training had been taken up at once when he entered employment4 ,the vocational interests of young workers and the social interests of the community are both opposed to the current practice of graduating boys from the public schools at the ages of #ae or #af and then losing sight of them4 ,the fact that the large number who go into industrial occupations will not or cannot remain in school beyond these ages does not absolve the school system from further responsibility for their educational future4 ,there should not be a complete severance between the boy and the school until he has reached a relatively mature age4 ,in other words1 the school system should maintain1 as long as possible1 such a relation with him as will help to round out his education and lead him to continue it after reaching manhood4 ,it is the opinion of the ,survey ,staff that the only practicable solution of this problem lies in the day continuation school1 backed by a compulsory law which will bring every boy and girl at work under the age of #ah into school for a certain number of hours per week4 ,only through a comprehensive plan that will reach large numbers of young workers can the difficulties inherent in the administration of small classes be overcome4 ,the night schools have never been successful in holding boys long enough to make more than a beginning in trade-extension training4 ,it is certain that growing boys should not be expected to add two hours of study to their nine or #aj hours of unaccustomed labor in the shop4 ,both individual and community interests demand that this problem be taken up in such a way as to obviate the sharp cleavage between the boy's school life and his working life4 ,from every point of view it is unwise to permit him to lose all contact with the educational agencies of the city during his first years at work4 ,the compulsory continuation school avoids the difficulties which are responsible for the common failure of those schemes which depend for their success on the initiative of individuals or the voluntary cooeperation of employers and trade unions4 ,one of its great advantages is that the principle on which it is based makes for equal justice to all4 ,there can be no doubt that the decline of apprentice training in the shops is due partly to the fact that employers find that much of the time and money it costs goes toward providing a skilled labor force for competitors who make no effort to train young workers4 ,the cooperation of employers on a comprehensive scale will be secured only when the burden is equally shared4 ,,the ,,technical ,,night ,,schools ,night classes are conducted in both of the technical high schools for two terms a year of #aj weeks each1 the pupils attending four hours a week4 ,a tuition fee of #e a term is collected1 of which #c4ej is refunded to those who maintain an average attendance of #ge per cent4 ,no special provision is made for apprentices as distinct from journeymen1 and the trade classes are attended by a considerable number of wage-earners employed in occupations unrelated to industrial work4 ,the list of courses offered during the past year1 with the number enrolled in each course at the beginning of the second term1 is shown in ,table #ab4 ,a glance at the list of courses shows at once that while the vocational motive is given first importance1 the schools also aim to provide instruction in cultural subjects which have only an indirect vocational application4 ,less than one-third of the students are pursuing courses which are directly related to their daily work4 ,the remainder are enrolled in courses which have little or no connection with their daily occupations4 ,in but four of the courses--machine shop1 architectural drawing1 printing1 and sheet metal work--are more than half of the students employed in directly related occupations4 ,,table #ab4--;,,courses ,,and ,,number ,,enrolled ,,in ,,the ,,technical ,,night ,,schools1 ,,january1 #aiae ,number ,course enrolled ,mechanical drawing #cbh ,machine shop #bbb ,electrical construction #aei ,sewing #ajc ,mathematics #hi ,architectural drawing #hc ,pattern making #gc ,woodworking #fg ,chemistry #ei ,sheet metal drawing #eb ,cooking #df ,foundry work #cf ,agriculture #ca ,printing #bg ,sheet metal shop #bc ,business ,english #bj ,electric motors #ai ,arts and crafts #ah ,millinery #ah ,electricity and magnetism #af ------ ,total #a1dhi ,the policy of the schools is to form a class in any subject for which a sufficient number of students make application4 ,only a small proportion of the pupils attend more than one year1 and the mortality from term to term is very high1 although the tuition fee plan insures fairly good attendance during the term4 ,the data collected by the survey indicate that the average length of attendance is approximately two terms--the equivalent in student hours of less than three weeks in the ordinary day school4 ,most of the men who enroll in night school classes need a course of at least two or three years4 ,all but a few1 however1 insist on having their supplementary training in small doses4 ,frequently they want only specific instruction about a specific thing1 such as how to lay out a certain piece of work or how to set up a particular machine tool4 ,they want to secure this knowledge in the shortest possible time1 and very few want the same thing4 ,a course of two or three years does not appeal to them4 ,another difficulty is that their previous educational equipment varies widely1 and some are not capable of assimilating even the specialized bit of trade knowledge they need without a preliminary course in arithmetic4 ,as the personnel of the classes changes to a marked degree from term to term1 the courses undergo frequent modifications4 ,apparently the teachers and principals have made a sincere effort to adapt the instruction to the demands of the men who attend the schools1 but the fact is that the difficulties inherent in such work make it impossible to organize the classes on any basis except that of subject matter1 which means fitting students into courses1 rather than adapting courses to the needs of particular groups of workers4 ,the enrollment is far below what should be expected in a city of nearly three-quarters of a million inhabitants4 ,the total number of journeymen1 apprentices1 and helpers from the skilled manual occupations1 receiving trade instruction in the night schools1 is considerably less than one per cent of the total number in the city4 ,a large enrollment is necessary for efficient administration4 ,success in specializing courses in night schools1 as in day schools1 requires a large administrative unit4 ,the possible variety of courses is in direct ratio to the number enrolled4 ,in a class of #bjj carpenters there would probably be1 for example1 #aj or #ae men who need specialized instruction in stair-building4 ,on the basis of the present enrollment of #dj or #ej carpenters the class would dwindle to three or four1 with the result that the per capita teaching cost becomes prohibitive4 ,the relatively small result now obtained is not the fault of the schools1 but is due principally to the fact that the great field of evening vocational instruction is treated by the school system as a mere side line of the technical high schools4 ,the evening classes are taught by teachers who have already given their best in the day classes4 ,the enrollment cannot be greatly increased so long as this type of education is handled as one of the marginal activities of the school system1 manned by tired teachers and directed by tired principals4 ,it is a totally different kind of job from regular day instruction and requires a different administrative organization1 with a responsible head vested with sufficient authority to meet quickly and effectively the widely varying demands of its students4 ,this will require the speeding-up of administrative methods in the establishment of courses and the employment of teachers1 a freer hand for the principals as regards both expenditures and policy1 and most important of all1 the organization of all forms of continuation and night school instruction under a separate department4 ,a ,,combined ,,program ,,of ,,continuation ,,and ,,trade-,,extension ,,training ,in considering the general conclusions of the survey as to what should be done in the matter of trade preparatory and trade-extension training in both day and night schools1 it must be borne in mind that these two types of vocational training are still in the experimental stage4 ,their future development will probably involve a wide departure from conventional school methods and the evolution of a special technique through trial and experiment4 ,at the present time we can only formulate certain of the main conditions to which future advance in these fields must conform4 ,first of all1 it must be recognized that such work is a big job in itself and cannot be successfully conducted as an appendix of the day school4 ,it is worth doing well1 or it is not worth doing4 ,it needs an organization sufficiently elastic and adaptable to quickly make adjustments to unusual and unexpected conditions4 ,it needs the supervision of a competent director who can devote to it all his time and energy1 and a corps of teachers who not only know how and what to teach1 but who possess a firm conviction of the value and utility of this kind of instruction4 ,in the hands of teachers who bring to it only the margin of interest and energy remaining after a hard day's work in the high school1 or who are unable to comprehend the radical difference between teaching a boy in the day school #ce hours a week and teaching a boy four hours a week in the continuation school or evening class1 the full measure of success cannot be expected4 ,the employment of day teachers for night school work has never been other than a makeshift1 and the insignificant results attained in night schools throughout the country have been due in great measure to this cause4 ,apart from the fact that the interests of adolescent workers imperatively demand the establishment of day continuation schools1 an additional argument in favor of such schools is that they would provide a means for making the night trade-extension work effective1 through the use of continuation day school teachers for night school work4 ,such a plan would mean that teachers employed on this basis would have charge of a day continuation class during one session of four hours1 and a night class of two hours1 making a total of six hours' work per day4 ,a plan of this kind would make possible the establishment of the fundamental conditions for successful trade--preparatory and trade-extension training in the night schools4 ,the present system is unjust to both teachers and students2--to the students because the man or boy who sacrifices his recreation time to attend night school has a right to the best the schools can give2 to the teachers because no teacher can work a two-hour night shift in addition to seven or eight hours in the technical high school without seriously impairing his efficiency4 ,the development of this plan would necessitate the establishment of two centers1 one located in the eastern and one in the western section of the city4 ,in these centers should be housed the day vocational school1 the day continuation classes1 and the night vocational classes4 ,this would relieve the technical high schools of a task which does not belong to them1 and which by overloading the teachers seriously interferes with the work they were originally employed to do4 ,at present a considerable number of the technical high school teachers are devoting from one-fifth to one-fourth of their total working day to elementary teaching1 as most of the work in the night schools is below high school grade4 ,by bringing together all the trade preparatory and trade-extension work under one roof1 it is possible to secure the highest efficiency in the use of equipment4 ,expensive shops can be justified only on the basis of constant use4 ,if the suggestion for the establishment of a vocational school is acted upon1 such future contingencies as the continuation school should be borne in mind in planning the buildings and equipment1 so as to permit of extensions as they may be required4 ,it is practically certain that universal continuation training for young workers up to the age of #ag or #ah will be made compulsory in all the progressive states of the country within the next decade4 ,the ,ohio school authorities should get ready to handle the continuation school problem before the example of other states and the overwhelming pressure of public opinion forces it upon them4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,vocational ,,training ,,for ,,girls ,the discussions in the preceding chapters have been limited intentionally to a consideration of the needs and possibilities of training for wage-earning pursuits in which men predominate4 ,the conditions which surround vocational training for girls are so fundamentally unlike those encountered in the vocational training of boys that a combined treatment leads to needless complexity and confusion4 ,cleveland uses a relatively smaller amount of woman labor than most other large cities4 ,in only one of the #aj largest cities in the country--,pittsburgh--is the proportion of women and girls at work smaller as compared with the total number of persons in gainful occupations than in ,cleveland4 ,in #aijj1 #bj4d per cent of the workers in the city were women2 by #aiaj the proportion of women workers had increased to #bb per cent1 a shift of less than two per cent for the decade4 ,a consideration of the occupational future of boys and girls shows at once how widely their problems differ4 ,the typical boy in ,cleveland attends school until he reaches the age of #ae or #af4 ,about this period he becomes a wage-earner and for the next #cj or #dj years devotes most of his time and energy to making a living4 ,the typical girl leaves school about the same time1 becomes a wage-earner for a few years1 then marries and spends the rest of her life keeping house and rearing children4 ,to the man wage-earning is the real business of life4 ,to the woman it is a means for filling in the gap between school and marriage1 a little journey into the world previous to settling down to her main job4 ,the most radical and important difference between the two sexes with respect to wage-earning is found in the length of the working life4 ,the transitory character of the wage-earning phase in the life of most women is clearly seen in the contrasted age distribution shown in ,table #ac4 ,,table #ac4--,,per ,,cent ,,of ,,total ,,population ,,engaged ,,in ,,gainful ,,occupations ,,during ,,three ,,different ,,age ,,periods ---------------------------------------- ------- ,age period ,women ,men ---------------------------------------- ------- #af to #ba #fj #he #ba to #de #bf #ih #de and over #ab #he ---------------------------------------- ------- ,approximately #he per cent of the boys and slightly less than #fj per cent of the girls between the ages of #af and #ba are at work4 ,in the next age group--#ba to #de--;given by the census1 #ih per cent of the men are at work1 but the proportion of women employed in gainful occupations drops to #bf per cent1 or about one in four2 in the next age group--#de and over--it falls to about #ab per cent1 as compared with #he per cent of the men4 ,of the women still at work in the older age group1 over one-half are engaged in domestic and personal service as servants1 laundresses1 housekeepers1 etc4 ,,table #ad4--,,number ,,employed ,,in ,,the ,,principal ,,wage-,,earning ,,occupations ,,among ,,each #a1jjj ,,women ,,from #af ,,to #ba ,,years ,,of ,,age ,manufacturing and mechanical industries3 ,apprentices to dressmakers and milliners #d ,dressmakers and seamstresses 7not in factory7 #bj ,milliners and millinery dealers #ag ,semi-skilled operatives3 ,candy factories #f ,cigar and tobacco factories #ae ,electrical supply factories #aj ,knitting mills #aa ,printing and publishing #h ,woolen and worsted mills3 ,weavers #e ,other occupations #g ,sewers and sewing machine operators 7factory7 #ec ,tailoresses #be ,transportation3 ,telephone operators #ai ,trade3 ,clerks in stores #bh ,saleswomen 7stores7 #ce ,professional service3 ,musicians and teachers of music #f ,teachers 7school7 #d ,domestic and personal service3 ,charwomen and cleaners #e ,laundry operatives #ac ,servants #ha ,waitresses #i ,clerical occupations3 ,bookkeepers1 cashiers1 and accountants #bf ,clerks 7except clerks in stores7 #bj ,stenographers and typewriters #fb ,the occupations in which the girls now in the public schools will later engage can be determined with a relative degree of accuracy by employing a method in general similar to that utilized in forecasting the occupations of boys4 ,it must be taken into account1 however1 that the wage-earning period for women1 except in the professional occupations1 usually begins before the age of #ba4 ,for this reason the #af to #ba age group probably offers the best basis for determining the future occupational distribution of girls in school4 ,if all women at work up to the age of #be were included the figures would be more nearly exact1 but unfortunately data for the period between #ba and #be are not available4 ,the figures at the right of ,table #ad show the number engaged in each specified occupation among each thousand women in the city between the ages of #af and #ba4 ,the proportions given for the professional occupations1 particularly teaching1 are too small1 because of the fact that few women enter the professions before the age of #ba4 ,applying these proportions to the average elementary school unit1 it will be seen at once that the number of girls old enough to profit by special training is too small in any single occupation to form a class of workable size4 ,in such a school there would be about #hj girls #ab years old and over4 ,of the skilled occupations listed in the table stenography and typewriting offers the largest field of employment1 yet the number who are likely to take up this kind of work does not exceed five or six4 ,,differentiation ,,in ,,the ,,junior ,,high ,,school ,the organization of the junior high school1 where the enrollment is made up entirely of older pupils1 obviates this difficulty to some extent4 ,instead of #hj girls there are from #cjj to #ejj1 with a corresponding increase in the number who will enter any given wage-earning occupation4 ,not less than one-eighth and probably not more than one-fifth of these girls will become needleworkers of some kind4 ,they will need a more practical and intensive training in the fundamentals of sewing than is now provided by the household arts course4 ,the skill required in trade work cannot be obtained in the amount of time now devoted to this subject4 ,it should be made possible for a girl who expects to make a living with her needle to elect a thoroughly practical course in sewing in which the aim is to prepare for wage earning rather than merely to teach the girl how to make and mend her own garments4 ,as proficiency in trade sewing requires first of all ample opportunity for practice1 provision should be made for extending the time now given to sewing for those girls who wish to become needle workers4 ,this can easily be done through the system of electives now in use4 ,the establishment of classes in power machine operating during the junior high school period appears to be impracticable1 due to the immaturity of the girls and the small number who could profit by such instruction4 ,a discussion of the present sewing courses in the public schools will be found in ,chapters ,,xiv and ,,xv1 which summarize the special reports on the ,garment ,trades and ,dressmaking and ,millinery4 ,in the present chapter the consideration of these occupations is limited to an examination of the administrative questions connected with training for the sewing trades4 ,,specialized ,,training ,,for ,,the ,,sewing ,,trades ,the compulsory attendance law requires all girls to attend school until they are #af years old4 ,this forces a considerable number into the high schools for one or two years before they go to work4 ,as a rule the type of girl who is likely to enter the needle trades selects the technical high school course1 not because she has any idea of finishing it1 but because she believes it offers a less tiresome way of getting through her last one or two years in school than the academic course4 ,the technical course requires three and three-quarter hours a week of sewing during the first two years4 ,the student may elect trade dressmaking and millinery during the third and fourth years4 ,very few girls who can afford to spend four years in high school ever become dressmakers or factory operatives4 ,if the school system is to do anything of direct vocational value for them it will have to begin further down4 ,most of them leave school before the age of #ag and the years between #ad and #af represent the last chance the school will have to give them any direct aid towards preparation for immediate wage-earning4 ,for successful work in machine operating the class must be large enough to warrant the purchase and operation of sufficient equipment to give the pupils an opportunity for intensive practice4 ,the only way this condition can be secured is by concentrating in large groups the girls who need such training4 ,little will be accomplished in training for the sewing trades without specialization1 and specialization in small administrative units is impossible4 ,the teaching and operating cost in a school enrolling1 say #bjj girls1 who want the same kind of work1 can be brought within reasonable bounds4 ,in a school where the total number who need specialized training does not exceed #aj or #ae the cost is prohibitive4 ,in the opinion of the ,survey ,staff a one or two year vocational course in the sewing trades should be established4 ,the entrance age should not be less than #ae4 ,courses should be provided for intensive work in trade dressmaking1 power machine operating1 and trade millinery4 ,a conservative estimate of the number of girls who could be expected to enroll for courses in these subjects is #ejj4 ,a trade school might be established where only this type of vocational training would be carried on1 or it might be conducted in the same building with the trade courses for boys recommended in a previous chapter4 ,in either case the number of pupils would be sufficient to warrant up-to-date equipment and a corps of specially trained teachers4 ,training for the sewing trades consumes more material than any other kind of vocational training4 ,for this reason economical administration requires some arrangement for marketing the product4 ,during the latter part of the course the school should be able to turn out first-class work4 ,the familiarity with trade standards the pupils obtain through practice on garments which must meet the exacting demands of the buying public has a distinct educational value4 ,the ,manhattan ,trade ,school for ,girls in ,new ,york ,city and other successful schools in the country operate on this basis4 ,there is reason to believe that there would be little difficulty in making arrangements with the clothing manufacturers in ,cleveland to furnish a good trade school as much contract work as the classes could handle4 ,,other ,,occupations ,from one-fourth to one-fifth of the girls in the school will later enter employment in commercial and clerical occupations1 as stenographers1 typists1 clerks1 cashiers1 bookkeepers1 saleswomen1 and so on4 ,their needs will be considered in ,chapters ,,xii and ,,xiii1 in which the findings of the special reports on ,boys and ,girls in ,commercial ,work and ,department ,store ,occupations are summarized4 ,a relatively small number will become semi-skilled operatives in industrial establishments1 such as job printing houses1 knitting mills1 and factories making electrical supplies1 metal products1 and so on4 ,as a rule such work requires only a small amount of manual skill or deftness4 ,not much training is needed and it can be given quickly and effectively in the factories4 ,about one-ninth of the girls in the school will enter paid domestic or personal service of some kind4 ,the household arts courses probably meet the needs of girls who may be employed in such occupations as far as they can be met under present conditions4 ,the woman domestic servant occupies about the same social level as the male common laborer1 and a course which openly sets out to train girls to be servants is not likely to prosper4 ,the load of social stigma such work carries is too heavy4 ,at some time in the future it may be possible to ignore the traditional and universal attitude of our public toward the so-called menial occupations sufficiently to consider training servants4 ,at present such a possibility seems remote4 ,,chapter ,x ,,vocational ,,guidance ,very few of the army of young people who become wage earners each year take up the occupations in which they engage as the result of any conscious selection of their own or of their parents4 ,they drift into some job aimlessly and ignorantly1 following the line of least resistance1 driven or led by the accidents and exigencies of gaining a livelihood4 ,they possess no accurate or comprehensive knowledge of the advantages and disadvantages of different types of wage earning occupations1 and frequently take up work for which they are entirely unfitted or which holds little future beyond a bare livelihood4 ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,the ,,vocational ,,counselor ,the plan now followed in the technical high schools of the city1 by which one teacher in the school specially qualified for such work is charged with the duty of advising pupils who leave school and aiding them in securing desirable employment1 could be adapted to the junior high school1 where the need for service of this kind is even greater than in the technical high schools4 ,such work requires men who have had some contact with industrial conditions1 and who possess sound judgment1 common sense1 and a fairly comprehensive knowledge of the local industries4 ,if the curriculum embraces the course in ,industrial ,information suggested in a previous chapter1 the teacher of this subject might well be designated as vocational counselor for the boys in the school4 ,a course similar in nature should be provided for the girls and a woman teacher selected to advise them when they leave school4 ,considerable difficulty probably will be experienced in securing women teachers competent to assume this task1 but any wide-awake teacher who will devote some attention to published studies of industrial conditions and get in touch with the local organizations engaged in the investigation of wage earning employments1 such as the ,consumers' ,league and the ,girls' ,vocation ,bureau1 can soon acquire a fund of information that will enable her to offer valuable suggestions and advice to girls who expect to become wage earners4 ,the vocational counselor must guard against conventional thinking and the mass of inspirational nonsense which forms the main contribution to the vocational guidance of youth provided in the average schoolroom4 ,the ideals of success usually held up before school children seem to have been drawn from a mixture of ,sunday school literature and the prospectuses of efficiency bureaus4 ,boiled down the rules prescribed for their attainment are two3 first1 ,be good2 and second1 ,get ahead4 ,the pupils are told about well-known men who became famous or rich1 usually rich1 by practicing these rules4 ,occasionally there is some prattle about the dignity of labor1 as a rule meaningless in the light of our current ideas of success4 ,we do not think of a well-paid artisan as successful4 ,his success begins when he is promoted to office work1 or becomes a foreman4 ,the inherent difficulty with ideals of success which demand that the worker become a boss of somebody else is that the world of industry needs only a relatively small number of bosses4 ,theoretically it is possible for any individual to reach the eminence of boss-ship4 ,in real life less than one-tenth of the boys who enter industrial employment can rise above the level of the journeyman artisan1 at least before later middle age1 because only about that proportion of bosses are needed4 ,the task of the vocational counselor will consist in putting the pupil's feet on the first steps of the ladder rather than showing him rosy pictures of the top of it4 ,for the great majority the top means no more than decent wages4 ,this1 after all1 is a worthy ambition1 frequently requiring the worker's best efforts for its realization4 ,,the ,,girls' ,,vocation ,,bureau ,the ,girls' ,vocation ,bureau1 for the placement of girls and women in wage-earning employment1 has been in operation about six years4 ,at present it is under the general charge of the state and municipal employment bureau1 although part of the funds for the support of the bureau is raised through private subscription4 ,from ,july1 #aiad1 to ,july1 #aiae1 the ,bureau secured positions for nearly #aa1jjj girls and women4 ,of these approximately #ab per cent were girls under #ba4 ,in many instances only temporary employment is secured1 although efforts are made to place the girls in permanent positions4 ,more girls are placed in office positions than in any other line of work1 but a considerable proportion take employment in factories1 domestic service1 restaurants1 and stores4 ,a careful record is kept of each applicant's qualifications1 home conditions1 the names of employers1 etc4 ,the ,bureau endeavors to keep in touch with the girls after they are placed through follow-up reports and visits by members of the office staff or by volunteer investigators4 ,this spring every school in the city was visited by representatives of the ,bureau in the endeavor to interest principals in the work of placement1 and arrangements were made for sending to the ,bureau lists of the girls who were expected to leave school permanently4 ,this effort met with slight success1 as only about #ajj girls were reported from all the schools in the city1 although the number of girls leaving school each year from the elementary grades alone is over #b1jjj4 ,in all cases the girls were visited by a representative of the ,bureau and urged to return to school1 or if they were determined to seek employment the advantages of registering in the ,bureau were brought to their attention4 ,it is to be hoped that more effective cooeperation between the ,bureau and the schools can be established and that plans for a placement bureau for boys similar in method and aim to the ,girls' ,bureau may be realized4 ,the matter of placement is the most difficult part of the vocational counselor's duties1 and an arrangement whereby the vocational guidance departments of the various schools might serve as feeders to a central placement bureau would probably in the long run give the best results4 ,both guidance and placement are new things in the public schools and efficient methods of administration can be worked out only through trial and experiment4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,conclusions ,,and ,,recommendations #a4 ,the future occupations of the children in school will correspond very closely to those of the native-born adult population4 ,the occupational distribution of the city's working population therefore constitutes the best guide as to the kinds of industrial training which can be undertaken profitably by the school system4 #b4 ,industrial training in school has to do chiefly with preparation for work in the skilled trades4 ,training for semi-skilled occupations can be given more effectively and cheaply in the factories than in the schools4 #c4 ,as a rule1 industrial training is not practicable in elementary schools1 for the reason that the number of boys in the average elementary school who are likely to enter the skilled trades and who are also old enough to profit by industrial training is too small to permit the organization of classes4 #d4 ,the most important contribution to vocational education the elementary schools can make consists in getting the children through the course fast enough so that two or three years before the end of the compulsory attendance period they will enter an intermediate or vocational school where some kind of industrial training is possible4 #e4 ,the survey recommends the establishment of a general industrial course in the junior high school1 made up chiefly of instruction in the applications of mathematics1 drawing1 physics1 and chemistry to the commoner industrial processes4 ,the course should also include the study of economic and working conditions in the principal industrial occupations4 #f4 ,one or two vocational schools equipped to offer specialized trade training for boys and girls between the ages of #ad and #ag are needed4 ,at present a gap of from one to two years exists between the end of the compulsory attendance period and the entrance age in practically all the skilled trades1 which could well be employed in direct preparation for trade work4 ,such schools would relieve the first and second year classes of the technical high schools of many pupils these schools do not want and cannot adequately provide for4 ,general as well as special courses should be offered1 although pupils should be encouraged to select a particular occupation and devote at least one year to intensive preparation for it4 #g4 ,the survey favors the extension of the compulsory attendance period for boys to the age of #af4 ,the industries of ,cleveland have little or nothing worth while to offer boys below this age4 #h4 ,the best form of trade-extension training is that provided in a few establishments which maintain apprentice schools in their plants4 ,this plan is feasible only in large establishments4 ,it will never take care of more than a small proportion of the young workers who need supplementary technical training4 #i4 ,plans for trade-extension training of apprentices depending on the cooeperation of employers have met with slight success4 ,the principle difficulty is that the sacrifices they involve are borne by a relatively small number of employers while the benefits are reaped by the industry in general4 ,either the industry as a whole or the community should bear the cost of such training4 #aj4 ,the vocational interests of young workers and the social interests of the community demand the establishment of a system of continuation training for all young people in employment1 up to the age of #ah years4 ,the classes should be held during working hours and attendance should be compulsory4 #aa4 ,the enrollment in the trade classes of the night schools is far below what it should be in a city as large as ,cleveland4 ,the relatively small result now obtained is not the fault of the schools1 but is due mainly to the fact that the field of vocational evening instruction is treated by the school system as a mere side line of the technical high schools4 #ab4 ,the survey recommends the organization of all forms of continuation1 night vocational1 and day vocational training under centralized full-time leadership4 ,only in this way can there be secured a type of organization and administration sufficiently elastic and adaptable to meet the widely varying needs of the working classes4 #ac4 ,industrial training for girls will consist in the main of preparation for the sewing trades4 ,practically no other industrial occupations in which large numbers of women are employed possess sufficient technical content to warrant the establishment of training courses in the schools4 ,the survey recommends a practical course of needle instruction in the junior high school and the introduction in the vocational schools of specialized courses in dressmaking1 power machine operating1 and trade millinery for the older girls who wish to enter these trades4 #ad4 ,the present experiment in vocational guidance and placement should be extended as rapidly as possible4 ,courses in vocational information should be offered in the junior high school and vocational counsellors appointed to advise pupils in the selection of their future vocations and aid them in securing desirable employment when they leave school4 ,the full measure of success in this work demands better cooeperation with outside agencies on the part of teachers and principals than has been secured up to the present time4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,summary ,,of ,,report ,,on ,,boys ,,and ,,girls ,,in ,,commercial ,,work ,particular attention is given throughout this report to the differences which exist between boys and girls in commercial employment with respect to the conditions which govern success and advancement4 ,the majority of boys begin as messengers or office boys and subsequently become clerks or do bookkeeping work4 ,as men they remain in these latter positions or1 in at least an equal number of cases1 pass on into the productive or administrative end of business4 ,the majority of girls are stenographers1 or to a less extent1 assistants in bookkeeping or clerical work4 ,boys' work may be expected to take on the characteristics of the business that employs them2 girls' work remains in essentials unchanged even in totally changed surroundings4 ,boys' work within limits is progressive2 girls' work in its general type--with individual exceptions--is static4 ,boys as a rule cannot stay at the same kind of work and advance2 girls as a rule stay at the same kind of work whether or not they advance4 ,boys in any position are expected to be qualifying themselves for the job ahead1 but for girls that is not the case4 ,boys may expect to make a readjustment with every step in advancement4 ,each new position brings them to a new situation and into a new relation to the business4 ,girls receive salary advancement for increasingly responsible work1 but any change in work is likely to be so gradual as to be almost imperceptible if they remain in the same place of employment4 ,if they change to another place1 those who are stenographers have a slight readjustment to make in getting accustomed to new terms and to the peculiarities of the new persons who dictate to them4 ,bookkeeping assistants may encounter different systems1 but their part of the work will be so directed and planned that it cannot be said to necessitate difficult adaptation on their part4 ,the work of clerical assistants is so simple and so nearly mechanical that the question of adjustment does not enter4 ,these girl workers do not find that the change of position or firm brings them necessarily into a new relation to the business4 ,even moderate success is denied to a boy if he has not adaptability and the capacity to grasp business ideas and methods2 but a comparatively high degree of success could be attained by a girl who possessed neither of these qualifications4 ,a boy1 however1 who has no specific training which he can apply directly and definitely at work would be far more likely to obtain a good opening and promotion than a girl without it would be4 ,the range of a boy's possible future occupations is as wide as the field of business4 ,he cannot at first be trained specifically as a girl can be because he does not know what business will do with him or what he wants to do with business4 ,the girl's choice is limited by custom4 ,she can prepare herself definitely for stenography1 bookkeeping1 and machine operating and be sure that she is preparing for just the opportunity--and the whole opportunity--that business offers to her4 ,her very limitation of opportunity makes preliminary choice and training a definitely possible thing4 ,illustration3 ,diagram #a4--;,boys and girls under #ah years of age in office work in ,cleveland4 ,data from report of ,ohio ,industrial ,commission1 #aiae ,the difference between boys and girls begins at the beginning4 ,boys are given a larger share of the positions which the youngest worker can fill4 ,diagram #a illustrates this and the figures of the ,united ,states ,census for #aiaj clearly corroborate it4 ,boys are taken for such work and taken younger than girls1 not merely because the law permits them to go to work at an earlier age1 but also because business itself intends to round their training4 ,girls1 on the contrary1 are expected to enter completely trained for definite positions4 ,this fact alone would in most cases compel them to be older4 ,furthermore1 because boys in first positions are looked upon as potential clerks1 miscellaneous jobs about the office have for them a two-fold value4 ,they give the employer a chance to weed out unpromising material2 and they give boys an opportunity to find themselves and to gather ideas about the business and methods which they may be able to make use of in later adjustments4 ,illustration3 ,diagram #b4--,men and women #ah years of age and over in clerical and administrative work in offices in ,cleveland4 ,u4,s4 ,census1 #aiaj ,diagram #b shows that girls' training1 if it is to meet the present situation1 must prepare for a future in specialized clerical work2 boys' future must apparently be thought of as in mostly the clerical and administrative fields4 ,the term clerical as here used1 covers bookkeepers1 cashiers and accountants1 stenographers and typists1 clerks and a miscellaneous group of younger workers such as messengers1 office boys1 etc4 ,administrative covers proprietors1 officials1 managers1 supervisors1 and agents1 but it does not include salespeople4 ,the usual commercial course gives impartially to boys and girls two traditional subjects which they are to apply in wage earning whatever part of the wage earning field they may enter4 ,these are stenography and bookkeeping4 ,the evidence collected during the survey shows that these are rarely found in combination except in small offices4 ,of the men employed who are stenographers1 the majority are of two kinds3 7#a7 those who use stenography incidentally with their other and more important work as clerks1 and 7#b7 those for whom stenography is but a stepping-stone to another kind of position4 ,the only firms which make a practice of offering ordinary stenographic positions for boys are those which restrict themselves to male employees for every kind of work4 ,independent stenographic work of various kinds is of course open to the sexes alike4 ,in ,cleveland there are a few women in court stenography4 ,the #aj public stenographers' offices were found upon inquiry to include two men and #aj women4 ,no figures regarding convention reporters were obtainable4 ,in the positions of the bookkeeping group also there was some sex difference4 ,the accountants1 bookkeepers1 cashiers1 pay-masters and other persons of responsibility are1 in large offices where both sexes work together1 much more likely to be men than women2 the assistants who work with these may be of either sex1 but girls and women are likely to make up the greater portion4 ,of the small office this is less generally true4 ,boys who do machine operating are usually clerks whose machine work1 as in the case of stenography1 is merely an adjunct to other work2 with girls machine operating is either the whole of the position or the most important part of it4 ,the essential difference between the clerkship which boys for the most part hold and the general clerical work which girls do is that the boys' work is unified and is a definite1 separate responsible part of the business1 usually in line for promotion to some other clerkship2 the girls' is a miscellany of more or less unrelated jobs and is not a preparation for specific promotion4 ,a ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,commercial ,,work ,all commercial occupations may be roughly divided into two classes3 those which have to do with administrative1 merchandising1 or productive work1 and those which carry on the clerical routine which the others necessitate4 ,the first class of occupations may be designated by the term administrative work and the second by clerical work4 ,a varying relation exists between the two which depends chiefly upon the kind of business represented4 ,in some kinds clerical work is the stepping stone by which administrative work is reached2 in others employment in clerical work side-tracks away from the administrative work4 ,there is1 of course1 a future of promotion within the limits of clerical work without reference to its relation to administrative work4 ,the practical aspect of it is1 in most kinds of business1 that the subordinate clerical positions far outnumber the chief ones4 ,promotion of any sort depends largely upon individual capacity2 but this general distinction may be made between promotion in clerical work and in administrative work2 in the clerical field it tends to be automatic but limited2 in administrative work it comes more often through a worker's initiative or individuality than through automatic progression and it has no arbitrary limits4 ,obviously one kind of person will be adapted to an administrative career2 another to a clerical one4 ,even a beginner in wage earning might be able to classify himself on a basis like this2 yet it is not essential1 for in many cases it is possible that his first positions recognize this choice4 ,he needs fundamental experience in business methods whatever he is going to do2 and for most administrative positions he needs maturity4 ,he can achieve both by serving an apprenticeship in some form of clerical work4 ,the important things for him in the early part of his career are to understand the distinction between the two classes of occupations2 to sense the relation he holds to the business as a whole2 and to act intelligently in the matter of making a change4 ,,bookkeeping ,the bookkeeping which modern business1 except in the small establishment1 demands of young workers is certainly not the journal and ledger bookkeeping of the commercial schools4 ,a modern office organization may have in its bookkeeping department of #bj persons only one bookkeeper4 ,this person is responsible for the system and he supervises the keeping of records and the preparation of statements4 ,a minority of his assistants will need to be able to distinguish debits from credits2 the rest will be occupied in making simple entries or in posting1 in verifying and checking1 or in finding totals with the aid of machines4 ,the bookkeeping systems employed show wide variation1 not only in different kinds of business1 but in different establishments in the same kinds of business4 ,many firms are using a loose-leaf system2 some use ledgers2 and others have a system of record keeping which calls for neither of these devices4 ,bookkeeping work1 especially in the positions held by girls1 is frequently combined with comptometer or adding machine work1 with typing1 billing1 filing1 or statistical work2 but rarely1 except in the small office1 are bookkeeping and stenography--the ,siamese ,twins of traditional and commercial training--found linked together4 ,,stenography ,stenography is used throughout business chiefly in correspondence2 to a less extent for report and statement work1 for legal work1 and for printer's copy4 ,the stenographer in any business office1 more than other clerical workers1 is supposed to look after a variety of unorganized details including the use of office appliances1 the filing of letters1 and sometimes dealing with patrons or visitors in the absence of the employer4 ,she is more important to the employer in his personal business relations than any other employee1 except in the case of those few employers who have private secretaries4 ,,clerks' ,,positions ,in the case of large corporations1 which are by far the largest employers of clerks1 this work has been standardized to a marked degree4 ,the organization of the office work of the telegraph1 telephone1 and express companies1 the railroads1 and the occasional large wholesale company in ,cleveland is a nearly exact duplication of that of other district or division offices controlled by these companies in other cities4 ,the same is true of the ,civil ,service4 ,whatever effects standardization may have upon opportunity1 it obviously makes for definiteness in regard to training requirements4 ,all the positions are graded on the basis of experience and responsibility and a logical line of promotion from one to another has been worked out4 ,the report contains detailed studies of different kinds of clerical work in the offices of transportation and public utility corporations1 retail and wholesale stores1 manufacturing establishments1 banks1 the civil service1 and small offices employing relatively few people4 ,in each of these such matters as character of the work1 opportunities for advancement1 kind of training needed and special qualifications are taken up4 ,,wages ,,and ,,regularity ,,of ,,employment ,stated briefly the conclusions of the report with respect to wages and regularity of employment in office positions are as follows3 ,the wage opportunities for clerical workers1 especially men1 lie in business positions outside the limits of clerical work4 ,men clerical workers average about the same pay as salesmen and more pay than industrial workers4 ,women clerical workers receive more than either saleswomen or industrial workers4 ,employment is much more regular in clerical work than it is in salesmanship or industrial work4 ,for men clerical workers the wage opportunity is better in manufacturing and trade than in some kinds of transportation business4 ,for women it is better in manufacturing and transportation than it is in trade4 ,men's wages tend to be higher than women's in all branches of clerical work4 ,among the clerical positions1 bookkeeping shows the highest wage average for men2 clerks' positions show the lowest4 ,stenography shows the highest for women2 machine work the lowest4 ,men bookkeepers show their best wage average in the wholesale business1 clerks in transportation1 and stenographers in manufacturing4 ,the small office gives better wage opportunity to women bookkeepers and men stenographers2 the large office favors women stenographers and men clerks4 ,for boys1 there is some indication that advanced education and commercial training1 in their present status1 are less closely related to high wages than are personal qualities and experience4 ,for girls1 the combination of high school education and business training is the best preparation for wage advancement4 ,a general high school education and usually1 business training1 are essential to the assurance of even a living wage4 ,business training based upon less than high school education is almost futile4 ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,training ,six chapters of the report are devoted to a consideration of the needs and possibilities of training4 ,the work now being done in the public schools of the city is discussed in detail1 with suggestions for a better adaptation of the courses of study and methods and content of instruction to the needs of boys and girls who wish to prepare themselves to enter clerical occupations4 ,the observations on training for such work may be summarized as follows3 ,commercial training should be open to all students whom commercial subjects and methods can serve best2 but graduation should depend upon a high standard of efficiency4 ,statistics show that commercial training is not to be looked upon1 in a wholesale way1 as a successful means of taking care of backward academic students4 ,commercial students' need for cultural and other supplementary education may be even greater than that of academic students4 ,the graduation rate of commercial students in public schools has been increased since the organization of a separate commercial high school and the number of students entering has been decreased4 ,commercial high schools receive a grade of children who are about medium in scholarship and normal in age4 ,commercial and academic high school teachers are similar in scholastic preparation and in the salaries they are paid4 ,the ,cleveland ,normal ,school does not prepare definitely for the teaching of commercial subjects4 ,commercial teachers are nominally supervised by the district superintendents4 ,public schools receive #bi per cent of the city's day commercial students4 ,the private schools receive a few more than the sum of public1 parochial1 and philanthropic schools4 ,public schools receive #bb per cent of the city's night commercial students4 ,the private schools receive more than twice as many as the public and philanthropic schools4 ,there are no night commercial classes in parochial schools4 ,the length of the day course in most private schools is eight months or less2 in public schools it is four years4 ,the public school1 if it believes in longer preparation for commercial work than most private schools give1 should demonstrate the reason to parents and children4 ,training for boys and girls should be different in content and in emphasis4 ,the usual course of study in commercial schools is suitable for girls and unsuitable for boys4 ,a girl needs1 chiefly1 specific training in some one line of work4 ,she has a choice among stenography1 bookkeeping1 and machine operating4 ,a boy needs1 chiefly1 general education putting emphasis on writing1 figuring1 and spelling2 general information2 and the development of certain qualities and standards4 ,for students electing to go into commercial work1 general education may be taught more effectively through the medium of commercial subjects than through academic ones4 ,boys' training looks forward to both clerical work and business administration2 but as clerical work is a preparation for business and is likely to occupy the first few years of wage earning1 training should aim especially to meet the needs of clerical positions4 ,clerical positions for boys cover a variety of work which cannot be definitely anticipated and cannot therefore be specifically trained for4 ,but certain fundamental needs are common to all4 ,most of the specialized training for boys should be given in night continuation classes4 ,girl stenographers need a full high school course for its educational value and for maturity4 ,girls going into other clerical positions can qualify with a year or two less of education2 but immaturity in any case puts them at a disadvantage4 ,boys' training1 for those who cannot remain in school1 should be compressed into fewer than four years4 ,immaturity in the case of boys is not a great disadvantage4 ,bookkeeping has general value in the information it gives about business methods and for its drill in accuracy4 ,to some extent it may aid in the development of reasoning4 ,much of the bookkeeping in actual use in business consists in making entries of one kind only and in checking and verifying4 ,understanding of debit and credit1 posting1 and trial balance1 is the maximum practical need of the younger workers4 ,penmanship demands compactness1 legibility1 neatness1 and ease in writing2 also1 the correct writing and placing of figures4 ,the chief demand of business in arithmetic is for fundamental operations--adding and multiplying--also for ability to make calculations and to verify results mentally4 ,undergraduate experience in school or business offices may be a valuable method of acquainting students with office practice and routine and with business organization and business standards4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,summary ,,of ,,report ,,on ,,department ,,store ,,occupations ,the field covered in this volume is limited to the business of retail selling as carried on in the department stores and some other stores of ,cleveland4 ,the retail stores considered can all be assigned to one of the three following classes3 7#a7 ,the department store of the first rank which draws trade not only from the whole city and the suburbs but also from the towns and smaller cities of a large surrounding district2 7#b7 the neighborhood store which does a smaller business within narrower limits1 drawing its trade1 as the name indicates1 from the immediate neighborhood2 7#c7 the five and ten cent store1 well known by syndicate names1 where no merchandise which must be sold above #aj cents is carried4 ,,department ,,stores ,the five largest department stores in ,cleveland employ about #e1hjj people distributed among several mercantile departments1 and in a variety of occupations that find a place in the industry4 ,of these #e1hjj people approximately seven-tenths are women and three-tenths are men2 #ij per cent are over #ah years of age and #aj per cent are under #ah4 ,the entire force of a store is sometimes arbitrarily divided by the management into productive1 and non-productive help4 ,from #dj to #fj per cent of the employees were reported as actually taking in money1 while the remainder1 the non-producers1 were engaged in keeping the business going and making it possible for the producers to sell goods4 ,the greatest number of opportunities either for employment or promotion are in the selling force4 ,this is often spoken as being on the floor4 ,both boys and girls may find employment here1 though a large majority of the sales force is made up of them4 ,speaking in general terms1 men are only employed to sell men's furnishings1 sporting goods1 bulky merchandise1 such as rugs1 furniture1 blankets1 etc41 and yard goods which are difficult to handle1 such as household linens and dress goods4 ,positions as buyers and buyer's assistants are not restricted by sex and boys and girls may both consider them as a possible goal4 ,,neighborhood ,,stores ,a neighborhood store is that type of department store which draws its trade from a comparatively limited area of which the store is the center4 ,the kind of goods carried are practically the same as in the large department store and the variety of merchandise may be nearly as great2 but the selection is more limited because of the small stock4 ,promotion to selling positions is more rapid in the neighborhood stores than in regular department stores4 ,one reason for this is that a larger proportion of the force is productive1 i4e41 selling4 ,this proportion may run as high as #hj or even #ij per cent1 as compared with the #dj to #fj per cent of productive help in large department stores4 ,employment in these stores is looked upon as desirable preliminary training for service in larger department stores4 ,this is the general opinion held by those who hire the employees in the larger stores4 ,the selling experience gained in neighborhood stores is looked upon as general1 in that it gives an acquaintance with a variety of merchandise rather than an extensive knowledge of any line of stock4 ,this experience makes the employee adaptable and resourceful4 ,another advantage of neighborhood training for sales people is the fact that they are brought into closer human relations with the customer and thus learn the value of personality as a factor in making sales4 ,,five ,,and ,,ten ,,cent ,,stores ,cleveland had in the fall of #aiae six large stores where nothing costing over #aj cents is sold4 ,these belong to three syndicates or chains4 ,to show the extent to which this business has developed it may be stated that the largest of these syndicates1 which controls three of the six ,cleveland stores1 has #gdg branches in different parts of the country4 ,the number of saleswomen in a single store ranges from #ab to #gj4 ,the total number in the six stores was approximately #bbf4 ,the shift in this branch of retail trade is large1 as there are continual changes in the selling force4 ,one store reported the number of new employees hired in six months as being about equal to the average selling force4 ,the managers of the five and ten cent stores without exception stated that they preferred to hire beginners who were without store experience4 ,the hours of work are longer and the conditions under which the work is done are more trying than is usually the case in the larger department stores4 ,the girl who expects her application for employment in the five and ten cent store to be accepted must be #ah years old in order that she may legally work after six o'clock4 ,it is better for her to be without previous selling experience 7unless in other five and ten cent stores71 as employers in these stores prefer to train help according to their own methods4 ,,wages ,,and ,,employment ,the wages paid beginners in the department stores are fair as compared with other industries employing the same grade of help4 ,boys and girls when they first enter employment receive from #c4ej to #g1 depending on the store where they get their first job4 ,in addition to the salary most department stores give bonuses or commissions through which the members of the sales force may increase their compensation4 ,the ,survey ,staff worked out comparisons on the basis of data supplied by the ,state ,industrial ,commission between the earnings of workers in department store occupations and those in other industries4 ,diagram #c shows graphically a comparison of the wages of women workers in six different industries4 ,an interesting point brought out by this graphic comparison is that retail trade constitutes a much better field for women's employment as compared with the great majority of positions open to them in other lines than is commonly assumed to be the case4 ,this is brought out even more clearly in ,table #ae1 which compares1 on a percentage basis1 those who earn #ab a week and over1 in all of the industries of the city employing as many as #ejj women in #aiad4 ,illustration3 ,diagram #c4--,per cent of women earning each class of weekly wages in each of six occupations ,,table #ae4--,,per ,,cent ,,of ,,women ,,employees ,,over #ah ,,years ,,of ,,age ,,earning #ab ,a ,,week ,,and ,,over ,office employees1 in retail and wholesale stores #ca4h ,employees in women's clothing factories #bb4e ,saleswomen in retail and wholesale stores #ba4j ,employees in men's clothing factories #ac4c ,employees in hosiery and knit goods factories #g4i ,employees in printing and publishing establishments #g4g ,employees in telephone and telegraph offices #f4c ,employees in laundries and dry cleaning establishments #d4d ,employees in cigar and tobacco factories #c4i ,employees in gas and electric fixtures concerns #c4b ,if the data were for retail stores only and did not include wholesale stores1 then office work1 which now stands at the head of the list1 would probably not make so good a showing1 although the superiority over the selling positions is1 from the wage-earning standpoint1 so marked that there seems to be no escape from the conclusion that on the whole women office workers are better paid than women in the sales force4 ,on the other hand the proportion of saleswomen earning #ab and over is from nearly seven times as great to not far from twice as great as it is in the factory industries1 if we except the workers in women's clothing factories1 whose earnings per week are better than those of the saleswomen4 ,with respect to the men employed on the sales force of the department stores a somewhat different situation exists4 ,in ,diagram #d a comparison is made of the wages paid in sales positions with the wages paid in clerical positions4 ,here it will be noted that men who sell goods in retail and wholesale stores earn more on the average than men occupying clerical positions1 such as bookkeepers1 stenographers1 and office clerks4 ,this comparison does not include traveling salesmen4 ,a further comparison of the earnings of the men in stores with the earnings of male workers 7omitting office clerks7 in the different industries of the city employing the largest number of men is given in ,diagram #e1 which shows the per cent in each industry earning #ah a week and over4 ,illustration3 ,diagram #d4--,per cent of salesmen and of men clerical workers in stores receiving each class of weekly wage ,in comparing wages in stores with those in the manufacturing industries it must be not forgotten that the working day and week in the larger stores is shorter than in most of the factories4 ,hence a comparison of earnings on the basis of wage per hour would show a still greater advantage in favor of both sales persons and clerical workers4 ,illustration3 ,diagram #e4--,per cent of male workers in non-clerical positions in six industries earning #ah per week and over ,,regularity ,,of ,,employment ,in department store work and in nearly all branches of retail selling there is a marked fluctuation in the number employed during the year4 ,sales work in the department stores is seasonal in the sense that a large number of extra sales women are taken on during the ,christmas season for a period of temporary employment1 usually lasting from one to two months4 ,the proportion of the total working force for the whole year employed in such transient jobs is approximately one-fourth4 ,how selling positions in retail and wholesale stores compare with other fields of employment in this respect is seen in ,diagram #f4 ,illustration3 ,diagram #f4--,per cent that the average number of women employed during the year is of the highest number employed in each of six industries ,,opportunities ,,for ,,advancement ,in regard to promotion in department stores it should be noted that as a rule the executives are made in the business and are not1 as in some industries1 brought in from the outside because they must have some special training which the organization itself does not provide4 ,not only in ,cleveland but in other cities where studies of the same kind have been made it has been found that practically all the people holding important floor positions have come up from the ranks4 ,the various lines of promotion through the different departments are analyzed in detail in the report4 ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,training ,that vocational training for department store employees is both desirable and possible is proved by the fact that most of the large stores in ,cleveland make some provision for the instruction of their workers4 ,some of these classes are carefully organized and excellently taught with every promise of increasing in usefulness4 ,others employ methods of instruction which belong to the academic school of an earlier decade and give evidence that the problem of vocational training with which they are presumably concerned is not even understood4 ,from the standpoint of the school there are two well recognized kinds of training possible for department store employees3 trade preparatory and trade extension training4 ,eventually it may prove practicable to organize instruction of both kinds1 but it is the opinion of the author of the report that under present conditions the surest results can be expected from trade extension training4 ,in trade extension instruction the members of the group to be dealt with have already secured their foothold in the industry2 and having mastered at least the rudiments of their job they have acquired a basis of experience which may be utilized for purposes of instruction4 ,these people are responsive to teaching organized with regard to their needs1 for daily experience is demonstrating to them their deficiencies4 ,the success of the proposed training will largely depend upon the employment of simple and direct methods that shall place this knowledge in the hands and head of the person or group needing it4 ,the application of this instruction must be immediate and practical and must not be dependent upon the working out of a complicated course or schedule4 ,the organization must be flexible enough to admit of bringing together a group having a common need1 although they may come from different departments of the business4 ,since the unit of class organization is not previous school experience or similar employment1 it will be seen that this class should be held only until the need is fully supplied and should then give place to another organized on the same basis4 ,as in all vocational teaching1 the size of the class should be limited4 ,to make this work really effective1 the instructor should come in sufficiently close contact with all pupils to enable him to obtain a personal knowledge of their needs and capabilities4 ,a further necessity for small classes and individual instruction is found in the fact that there is a constant shift of employees in the industry as well as frequent accessions from the outside4 ,it readily can be seen that this is not a problem of the regular school and that it cannot be met by ordinary classroom methods4 ,part time or continuation classes1 such as have already proved feasible for other kinds of trade instruction1 are the most practicable methods of doing this work4 ,classes for the instruction of employees are already maintained in the majority of large stores4 ,the extension of this plan of separate responsibility is one way of meeting the problem4 ,but this method has certain obvious faults4 ,the unequal opportunity which it affords to department store employees as a body is a conspicuous drawback4 ,the value of the instruction so given1 moreover1 will always depend to a large extent on the comprehension of the problem by the firm maintaining the classes4 ,the method involves much duplication of effort1 which is particularly wasteful when the instruction of small groups is involved4 ,another possible method would be for the several department stores to get together and cooeperate in providing instruction4 ,there would seem to be no reason why stores should not unite for this purpose as well as for any other4 ,the advantages of this method are economy of maintenance and administration1 the ability to command expert service1 and the possibility of securing and sharing the results of a great variety of such experiences as does not consist of exclusive trade secrets4 ,the number of people whom it would be necessary to employ exclusively for the purpose of conducting these classes would be small as compared with the results accomplished4 ,collectively these stores now have in their employ a body of highly paid experts in all lines of merchandise4 ,a large amount of the most accurate technical knowledge covering the work of all departments is already available in the several stores4 ,these are valuable resources which should be utilized by a cooeperative school of this kind4 ,for the head of such a school1 it would be desirable to secure a man or woman of more than usual ability and discernment who1 above all else1 could sense the business and routine of each contributing store from the standpoint of the employee and of store organization4 ,it would be the business of this person to become familiar with the available sources of knowledge in the different stores and then arrange for the presentation of this knowledge to the various classes4 ,by cooeperation with the floor men1 heads of sections and departments1 as well as with the employees themselves1 he should come into close contact with the requirements of the workers and should gather from the different stores those who1 because of their common need1 can be made into a school unit4 ,it would also be necessary to employ assistants of practical experience who would attend to the details of routine teaching1 and act as interpreters for those experts who have the knowledge but not the ability to impart it even to a small class4 ,it is realized that a scheme of this kind would involve the overcoming of many objections and difficulties of adjustment before it could be put into actual operation4 ,it would necessitate mutual concessions and forbearance on the part of everybody concerned1 but the results would unquestionably justify the labor4 ,a third method1 already in operation in ,boston1 ,new ,york1 and ,buffalo1 calls for the cooeperation of the stores and the schools4 ,this partnership1 it is claimed1 makes certain that the needs of the pupil are considered before the demands of the business4 ,it insures equal opportunity for all employees so far as instruction is concerned and it divides the expense of maintenance between the industry and the school4 ,it is to be regretted that this scheme frequently results in the employment of teachers who1 although certificated for regular school work1 have no other qualifications1 instead of persons of practical experience4 ,the employment of such teachers too often leads to the following of ordinary school practices and academic traditions rather than the methods and practice of business4 ,in some quarters it is maintained that this instruction should be entirely taken over by the public schools1 thus relieving the store of any responsibility in the matter4 ,it is probably not now advisable for the school to assume full responsibility for such training4 ,the heavy expense involved and the physical limitations of the schools would make it difficult1 without the cooeperation of the store1 to reproduce the trade atmosphere necessary for real vocational training4 ,as a result1 the instruction would become abstract and theoretical1 with the major portion of the effort limited to a continuation of elementary school subjects taught with reference to their application to department store work4 ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,instruction ,the analysis of the industry shows that in each occupation or job there is a definite amount of knowledge which must be acquired by the efficient worker4 ,a study of this analysis and of the examples of technical knowledge needed by the worker at different points in the industry will show that no such thing as a general course is possible4 ,in every case the character of the instruction should be such that it will answer a definite need of the employee4 ,what this instruction should be in specific cases can be settled only1 on the one hand1 by a thorough analysis of the occupation to determine what demands it makes upon the workers1 and on the other1 by a careful study of the workers themselves to ascertain how far they have been unable to meet these demands without assistance4 ,lessons can then be organized dealing with such subject matter as individuals or groups have failed to grasp1 the lack of which limits their efficiency or restricts their usefulness4 ,it can readily be seen that this instruction will cover a wide range of subjects1 from the use of fractions needed by checkers and salesgirls in yard goods sections1 to the special technical knowledge of fine furs required by the salesperson who handles this merchandise4 ,the method by which this instruction can best be given is in a series of short unit courses4 ,in every case the length of the course is to be determined by the subject matter4 ,for instance1 two one-half hour lessons may be a course1 when this time is sufficient for the necessary teaching4 ,the group or class to which this instruction is given might be made up of those who need the same technical knowledge1 although they might expect to make a different application of this instruction4 ,for instance1 the unit course on silks might be given to a group composed of salespeople from the silk section1 the waists and gowns section1 and the section of men's neckwear4 ,the report gives detailed examples of the kinds of technical knowledge needed in the different departments of the store4 ,it maintains that such instruction cannot be successfully given by regular school teachers4 ,as in other industries the teacher needs actual experience in the occupation for which training is given4 ,academic training and teaching experience are desirable and valuable1 but among the qualifications demanded of a teacher of this kind they are of secondary importance4 ,the final chapter of the report contains valuable instructions for young persons who desire to secure positions in retail trade4 ,these instructions cover such matters as work papers1 methods of securing a position1 and requirements for employment in various kinds of department store work4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,summary ,,of ,,report ,,on ,,the ,,garment ,,trades ,the clothing industry in ,cleveland has grown very rapidly in recent years4 ,during the #aj year period from #aijj-aj the number of persons employed in the industry increased approximately #ajj per cent4 ,this increase was much greater than the increase throughout the country as a whole and was more than twice as large as the increase in the population of the city4 ,there is every indication that this rapid growth is still continuing4 ,it is estimated that approximately #aj1jjj workers are employed in the industry at the present time4 ,the distribution of men and women in the industry is most interesting4 ,the making of men's garments has been more fully standardized and is subject to fewer changes than the making of women's garments4 ,in this standardized and systematized branch of the industry the women now outnumber the men4 ,in the manufacture of women's garments1 where the styles change more frequently and the work is of a more varied character1 more men than women are employed4 ,the methods of work are of three general types3 ,the old tailoring system known as team work1 or a slight modification of it2 piece operating2 and section work4 ,under the team system1 used extensively in the making of women's coats1 a head tailor hires his own helpers 7operators and finishers71 supervises them and pays them by the week out of the lump sum he receives for the garments from the clothing establishment4 ,under the piece operating system each operator sews up all the seams on one piece1 or garment1 and each finisher does all the hand sewing on one garment4 ,each operator and each finisher is an independent worker4 ,the whole body of finishers keeps pace with the whole body of operators4 ,piece operating is used almost entirely in dress and skirt making1 and to some extent in coat making4 ,the section system is based on the subdivision of processes into a number of minor operations4 ,the workers are divided into groups1 each group making a certain part of the garment4 ,the various operations are divided into as many minor operations as the number of workers and quantity and kind of materials will warrant4 ,each of these minor operations is performed by operators who do nothing else4 ,this specialization has been carried to a high degree in the manufacture of men's clothing1 and section work is increasingly used on women's coats4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,working ,,force ,one of the objects of the study was to find how many positions there are for men and women in each occupation in the industry4 ,through the cooeperation of employers data were obtained from the records of #ej establishments employing a total of #h1ccg garment workers1 approximately four-fifths of the total number in the city4 ,the distribution of workers by sex in the various occupations is shown in ,diagram #g4 ,the apportioning of work to the two sexes seems to depend partly upon the weight of materials and partly upon previous training4 ,the men are mostly foreign born tailors who have had the kind of training necessary for the more complicated work4 ,the women are largely ,american born of foreign parentage1 trained in ,american shops and employed chiefly upon operations that may be learned in a relatively short time4 ,cutting and pressing are practically monopolized by men4 ,nearly all hand sewers are women1 except for a few basters on men's clothing4 ,most designers are men1 although a few women designers are found in dress and waist shops4 ,in the largest trade1--machine operating1--about two-thirds of the workers are women4 ,in no trade in which both sexes are employed is the difference in their work more apparent4 ,the weight of materials decides to some extent the division of operating between men and women4 ,some employers are of the opinion that garments made of such thick materials as plush1 corduroys1 and cheviots are too heavy to be manipulated under needle machinery by women and consequently employ only men operators4 ,where light weight materials are used1 as in the manufacture of dresses and waists1 delicacy in handling is required1 and nearly all the operators are women4 ,illustration3 ,diagram #g4--;,distribution of #h1ccg clothing workers by sex in the principal occupations in the garment industry ,four-fifths of the men and two-fifths of the women employed in the industry are of foreign birth and the majority of the native born workers are of foreign parentage4 ,there is an increasing demand for workers who understand ,english1 due to the fact that they are able to follow directions more intelligently4 ,there are relatively few workers under the age of #ah4 ,many firms will employ no one under this age because of various complications which arise in connection with the age and schooling certification of girls between the ages of #af and #ah4 ,of #be women's clothing factories visited during the ,survey only nine had any workers under #ah4 ,according to the report of the ,industrial ,commission of ,ohio for #aiad only eight per cent of the workers employed in making men's clothing1 and less than two per cent of the workers employed in making women's clothing were under #ah years of age4 ,,earnings ,in general the wages paid in garment making compare favorably with those of other manufacturing industries4 ,this is particularly true with respect to the earnings of women workers4 ,a considerably larger proportion of the women employed in the garment industry earn what may be considered high wages for industrial workers than in any of the larger factory industries of the city4 ,this is clearly shown in ,diagram #h which lists nine of the principal fields of industrial employment for women4 ,the proportions of women receiving under #h a week are lower in men's and women's clothing than in the other seven industries4 ,in the proportion of women receiving #ab and over1 women's clothing ranks first and men's clothing third4 ,illustration3 ,diagram #h4--,percentage of women in men's and women's clothing and seven other important women employing industries receiving under #h1 #h to #ab1 and #ab and over per week4 ,the comparison of the wages paid men employees shown in ,diagram #i is somewhat less favorable4 ,women's clothing ranks with printing and publishing as to the proportion of male workers receiving the highest specified earnings per week4 ,men's clothing ranks sixth among the industries compared4 ,the various kinds of work do not command fixed wage rates1 as do many other types of industrial employment4 ,quantity of output as well as quality of workmanship is an important factor in the determination of wages4 ,men generally turn out a greater output than women on the same kind of work and piece workers usually earn more than those paid by the week4 ,the lowest1 average1 and highest wages for each of the principal occupations in the two branches of the industry are shown in ,tables #af and #ag4 ,one reason often given for the higher earnings received by workers on women's garments is the greater irregularity of employment in this branch of the industry4 ,this1 however1 does not sufficiently account for the difference4 ,the most weighty reason is that a higher degree of adaptability is required of workers than is the case in the manufacture of men's clothing4 ,illustration3 ,diagram #i4--,percentage of men in men's and women's clothing and seven other manufacturing industries receiving under #ah1 #ah to #be1 and #be and over per week ,,table #af4--,,wages ,,for ,,full-,,time ,,working ,,week1 ,,women',s ,,clothing1 ,,cleveland1 #aiae ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,workers ,lowest ,average ,highest ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,assorters1 women #f4jj #h4ge #ad4jj ,hand sewers1 women #f4jj #aj4jj #bj4jj ,trimming girls #g4jj #aj4be #ae4jj ,operators199 women #f4jj #ab4jj #cj4jj ,sample makers1 women #aj4jj #ab4ge #ae4jj ,examiners1 women #h4jj #ac4ej #ah4jj ,models1 suit and cloak #aj4jj #ae4be #ba4jj ,forewomen #i4jj #af4be #be4jj ,operators199 men #g4jj #ag4ge #ej4jj ,pressers1 men #i4jj #ah4be #ce4jj ,cutters1,sec4 men #h4jj #ai4be #cj4jj ,pattern graders1 suit and cloak1 men #ac4jj #bb4jj #bg4ej ,sample makers1 men #ac4jj #bb4ej #be4jj ,examiners1 men #af4jj #be4jj #de4jj ,head tailors1 men #ah4jj #be4jj 444 ,foremen #ad4jj #cj4jj #ge4jj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- 993 ,includes piece and section operators and helpers to head tailors ,sec43 ,includes all cutters except foremen1 apprentices1 and pattern graders ,,table #ag4--;,,average ,,wages ,,for ,,full-,,time ,,working ,,week ,,for ,,similar ,,workers1 ,,men',s ,,and ,,women',s ,,clothing1 ,,cleveland1 #aiae ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,workers ,men's ,women's clothing clothing ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,hand sewers1 women #i4ej #aj4jj ,section operators1 women #i4be #aa4be ,examiners1 women #g4jj #ac4ej ,section operators1 men #af4ej #ae4be ,pressers1 under #ab4jj #ae4ge ,forewomen #aa4jj #af4be ,pressers1 upper #ah4ej #ai4ej ,cutters1 cloth #ah4ge #bj4jj ,examiners1 men #ag4ge #be4jj ,foremen #bi4be #cj4jj ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,regularity ,,of ,,employment ,the making of women's clothing is seasonal1 to meet a seasonal purchasing demand4 ,most people purchase their summer clothes in ,april and ,may1 and their winter clothes in ,october and ,november4 ,during the months previous to these purchasing seasons a large number of workers are needed1 but after the height of the purchasing period employment becomes less and less steady until the first demands of the new season are felt4 ,during the rush season a greater number of workers is employed1 or the output may be augmented by increasing the speed at which the work is performed or the number of hours in the working day4 ,a combination of these methods is frequently used4 ,during dull periods the workers may be busy from a few hours a week to full working time2 while in rush periods they may work not only the regular working hours1 but in addition a good deal of over-time4 ,compared with other manufacturing industries as regards regularity of employment men's clothing makes an excellent showing while women's clothing ranks low4 ,in ,diagram #aj the average number of unemployed among each #ajj workers is shown for men's and women's clothing and for #ae other large manufacturing industries in the city4 ,men's clothing leads the list1 with an average unemployment of four among each #ajj workers1 while women's clothing ranks #adth1 with #ae among each #ajj4 ,,training ,,and ,,promotion ,designers learn their work through apprenticeships to custom tailors and cutters and by taking supplementary courses in drafting and grading of patterns in a designing school4 ,most designers in ,cleveland have had training in designing schools in ,new ,york or ,chicago4 ,illustration3 ,diagram #aj4--,the black portions of the bars show the average number of unemployed among each #ajj workers in men's clothing1 women's clothing and #ae other specified industries ,with but few exceptions organized training for machine operating is found only in the largest establishments4 ,there is general agreement among employers that it takes a girl who has never operated a machine before about four weeks to learn an easy operation well enough to be taken on at regular piece rates4 ,a much longer time is required to become a first class worker on a single operation1 and to acquire skill in a group of operations takes from one to two years4 ,girls are not usually employed as hand sewers unless they know how to do plain sewing4 ,a girl who starts with this knowledge should be able to learn factory sewing well enough to earn fair wages within from six months to a year4 ,in cutting1 which has a so-called apprenticeship lasting from two to six years1 there is no formal system of instruction4 ,boys must pick up the trade from observation and practice4 ,beginners start as errand boys1 cloth boys1 bundlers1 or helpers4 ,pressing is usually learned in cleaning and pressing shops4 ,it takes about eight weeks for a green hand to become a good seam presser4 ,to become a final presser on skirts and dresses requires from six months to a year1 and on jackets and cloaks from two to three years4 ,examiners have usually had considerable previous experience as machine operators or finishers4 ,the length of experience depends on the kinds of garments and ranges from three to eight years4 ,trimmers and assorters learn their work as helpers to experienced employees4 ,a year or so of experience is required before they can be entrusted with responsible work4 ,foremen are selected from the working force or1 in a few cases1 trained especially for their positions4 ,although there are few opportunities each year for advancement to foremanship1 employers declare they cannot get enough persons of ability to fill vacancies4 ,a study of the previous experience of foremen and forewomen made by the survey shows that they come from nearly every department of the factory4 ,the length of previous experience among the cases studied ranged from three months to nine years4 ,,educational ,,needs ,the quality which proprietors of garment making establishments value above all others in their employees is adaptability4 ,the reason for this is that the manufacturing of clothing differs from almost all other kinds of industrial work in the frequency with which changes take place in the size and shape of the product and in the range of materials which must be handled by the same workers4 ,there is an annual change in the weight of cloth used for the different seasons1 from light to heavy and from heavy to light4 ,the size and shape of the pieces which compose the finished garment are determined by changes in style which vary from the minor modifications occurring yearly in men's clothing to the radical changes in the style of women's clothing4 ,a wide variety of fabrics is employed1 ranging from thick to thin1 smooth to rough1 closely woven to loosely woven and from plain weave to fancy weave4 ,in one season a single establishment will make garments from as many as #bjj different fabrics1 and each operator is likely to work upon #fj or more different kinds of cloth4 ,in view of the fact that many of the workers are foreigners or of foreign parentage1 and that the frequent changes in styles and materials require the giving of detailed instructions by foremen1 instruction in ,english is of more importance in the garment trades than in occupations where there is a larger proportion of native born and where the products and processes are more uniformly standardized4 ,all clothing workers should have a practical knowledge of the fundamental operations of arithmetic4 ,where the piece and section systems are in operation it is important for the worker to keep account of what she has accomplished and to know enough arithmetic to check her own record with the tally kept by the foreman or payroll girl4 ,some of the occupations1 such as cutting1 involve a considerable amount of arithmetical computation4 ,as in other trades1 all workers and prospective workers need a general knowledge of industrial conditions4 ,they would greatly benefit from a better understanding of the supply of labor1 factors affecting prices1 organization of workers1 industrial legislation1 the relative importance of the field of employment in different industries1 the nature of important industrial processes1 and the like4 ,at the present time there is little opportunity for gaining such information either before entering any specific line of work or afterwards4 ,for certain small groups within the clothing industry there are needs in the way of technical training that are important and at present unsupplied4 ,training in applied mathematics1 drafting and design would be of benefit to a considerable number of employees who are occupying or working towards advanced positions4 ,a large proportion of the women workers need skill in hand sewing4 ,before girls enter the industry they should have careful and systematic training in plain sewing stitches1 sewing on buttons and other fasteners1 and button hole making4 ,machine operating is the most important occupation in the industry1 and employs more women than any other occupation in the city1 except perhaps dressmaking4 ,after a careful study of the characteristics of this occupation and the various conditions affecting it1 the survey reached the conclusion that there should be established by the school system a trade course for prospective power machine operators4 ,,sewing ,,courses ,,in ,,the ,,public ,,schools ,in the elementary schools manual training sewing is given in the fifth and sixth grades4 ,it consists of one hour a week of hand sewing taught by a regular grade teacher or sometimes by teachers of domestic science or other special subjects4 ,the aim is to give the girls a knowledge of practical sewing which may be of use to them in the home4 ,in five of the elementary schools hand and machine sewing is taught by special sewing teachers4 ,about four per cent of all the seventh and eighth grade girls in the elementary schools receive this instruction4 ,in the technical high schools the sewing course covers four years work4 ,during the first two years all girls are required to take plain hand and machine sewing three and three-quarter hours a week4 ,in the third and fourth years they may elect either millinery or dressmaking1 and special courses in these subjects are provided for girls who wish to prepare for trade work4 ,the aim of the sewing course as stated in the outline of the ,east ,technical ,high ,school is 7#a7 ,preparation for efficiency in the selection of the materials used in sewing and the construction of articles relating to the home and family sewing3 7#b7 laying the foundation for courses in college1 normal school1 or business school4 ,a two year elective course in sewing is provided in the academic high school as a part of the home economic course4 ,the aim of this sewing1 which is called domestic art1 is stated thus3 ,problem--my personal appearance is one of my chief assets4 ,what can ,i do to improve it8 ,dressmaking and millinery classes are conducted in the night technical high schools to teach girls how to make their own clothes and hats4 ,the manual training sewing in the fifth and sixth grades cannot be considered as furnishing any important contribution in the training of those who will make their living in the sewing trades4 ,much the same must be said of the work in the technical high schools4 ,it is taught not for the purpose of securing quick1 accurate hand or machine stitching1 but to enable the girls to make a few garments for their personal use4 ,due to the fact that very few of the girls who become wage earners in these trades remain in school after the completion of the elementary course it is doubtful whether the technical high school offers a hopeful field for practical training4 ,the work in the elementary schools is so hampered by lack of equipment that the results1 from the standpoint of trade preparation1 amount to very little4 ,,elective ,,sewing ,,courses ,,in ,,the ,,junior ,,high ,,school ,the reduction of retardation all through the grades is of fundamental importance to any plan of vocational training4 ,the age of #ae is the final compulsory attendance age for girls1 and those who enter at six and seven and make regular progress should be in the first or second high school year by the time they reach this age4 ,last year there were1 however1 #a1agj fifteen-year-old girls in the ,cleveland schools who were from one to seven grades below normal4 ,instead of being in the high school1 they were scattered from the second grade to the eighth1 and they constituted more than half of all the girls of that age in the school system4 ,it is clear that unless the schools can carry them through more nearly on schedule time there is no hope of providing industrial training for a large proportion of them1 because they reach the end of the compulsory period before entering the grades in which industrial training can be given effectively and economically4 ,the report recommends that during the junior high school period girls who expect to enter the sewing trades should be given work in mechanical drawing1 elementary science1 industrial conditions1 elementary mechanics and hand and machine sewing4 ,the fundamentals of sewing can be thoroughly taught in two years4 ,the work during the first year might well be limited to hand sewing4 ,machine sewing should be taken up in the second year1 and the girls given an opportunity during the third year to specialize somewhat broadly in a trade school on the kind of work in which they may wish to engage--power operating1 dressmaking1 or millinery4 ,a ,,one ,,year ,,trade ,,course ,,for ,,girls ,specialized training must be conducted under conditions closely resembling those found in the industry4 ,this involves equipment similar to that used in the factory1 an ample supply of materials1 and a corps of teachers who have had practical experience4 ,it might seem that on the score of adequate equipment the factory itself would be the place for such training4 ,but the fact is that the main object of the factory is to turn out as large a quantity as possible of saleable product4 ,in the school the main object should be to turn out as large a quantity of saleable skill and knowledge as possible1 with the saleable product as a secondary1 although necessary1 feature4 ,the junior high school is not the place for specialized trade training1 since it is reasonably certain that there would not be a sufficient number of girls in each junior high school desiring to enter a single trade to warrant the provision of special equipment and special teachers4 ,for this reason the report favors a trade course in a separate school plant where girls who wish to specialize in any of the sewing trades can be taught in fairly large classes4 ,the work done during the past few years in such institutions as the ,boston ,trade ,school for ,girls and the ,manhattan ,trade ,school for ,girls in ,new ,york ,city gives evidence of the practicability of this plan4 ,,trade-,,extension ,,training ,the only instruction offered by the public school system at the present time which can be considered as trade-extension training for the garment industries is that given in the sewing classes in the technical night schools4 ,the enrollment in these classes during the second term of #aiae-af was #bbi4 ,only a small proportion of the girls and women enrolled in the night sewing classes make their living by sewing4 ,the students employed by day in clothing factories or in any of the sewing trades constitute somewhat less than #ae per cent of the total number enrolled4 ,nearly half of the enrollment is made up of workers in commercial1 clerical or professional pursuits and approximately one-third are not employed in any gainful occupation4 ,in both technical night schools the emphasis is laid on training for home sewing rather than on training for wage earning4 ,the courses now given are not planned for workers in the garment trades1 but to help women and girls who want to learn how to make1 alter1 and repair their own garments4 ,if a trade school of the kind described in the previous section were established it would be possible to give at night short unit courses in machine or hand sewing to those workers who wish to extend their experience and prepare themselves for advancement1 utilizing in the night classes the equipment of the day school4 ,it is probable also that special day classes could be organized during the dull season to give beginners the opportunity to learn new processes and extend their knowledge of trade theory4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,summary ,,of ,,report ,,on ,,dressmaking ,,and ,,millinery ,at the time of the last census the total number of women in ,cleveland employed as milliners or dressmakers was approximately #e1jjj1 of whom about seven-tenths were dressmakers and about three-tenths milliners4 ,for the most part they were of native birth4 ,the proportion of young girls engaged in these occupations was relatively small1 the age distribution showing that only about one-third of the milliners and less than one-fifth of the dressmakers were under #ba years of age4 ,,dressmaking ,four distinctive lines of work are done by those who are classified by the census as dressmakers and seamstresses3 dressmaking proper1 usually carried on in shops2 alteration work in stores2 general sewing done by seamstresses at home or in the homes of customers2 and the work of the so-called dressmaking school1 in which the dressmaker helps her customers do their general sewing4 ,shop dressmaking is in the main confined to the making of afternoon and evening gowns and fancy blouses4 ,nearly uniform processes of work are maintained and the workers in the different establishments need about the same kinds of abilities and degrees of skill4 ,there is a strong and increasing tendency towards specialization of the work4 ,among each #ajj workers in dressmaking shops about #ac are head girls1 #ee are finishers or makers1 #af are helpers1 eight are apprentices1 and the rest are lining makers1 cutters1 embroiderers1 errand girls1 shoppers1 and stock girls4 ,alteration work constitutes a separate sewing trade and consists of the adjustment of ready-made garments to individual peculiarities4 ,it furnishes employment to several hundred workers in ,cleveland4 ,the weekly wages most commonly paid to each class of workers in dressmaking shops may be roughly stated as follows3 apprentices1 #b to #d2 helpers #f to #i2 finishers or makers #aj to #ab2 and drapers #ah to #bj4 ,lining making1 done in most shops by apprentices or helpers1 pays from #d to #f a week4 ,in one shop a specialist on linings received #ab4 ,women cutters1 found in two shops1 and doing supervisory work similar to that done by drapers1 earned from #ae to #be4 ,hemstitchers earn #aj to #ad and a guimpe maker in one shop earned #ab4 ,errand girls were found at #c and #f2 stock girls at #h1 #ab1 and #ac2 and shoppers at from #c4ej to #aj4 ,beginners in alteration departments are started at from #e to #g4 ,regular alteration hands earn from #g to #ah1 the average being #i or #aj4 ,fitters earn about the same as drapers in dressmaking shops1 averaging from #ae to #ah1 with a range of from #aj to #be4 ,as a rule comparatively little time is lost through irregularity of employment4 ,workers average from #aj to #aa months' work out of the year4 ,establishments usually close during the month of ,august and for one or two weeks in the spring4 ,workers in alteration department average #aa months of work4 ,dress alteration work is steady1 while suit and coat alteration is irregular4 ,apprenticeship in dressmaking comprehends a trying-out period of from six months to a year4 ,most shops take apprentices1 the proportion in the trade being one to every #ab workers2 and an effort is made to keep these new workers if they are at all satisfactory4 ,there is no standardized apprenticeship wage4 ,girls may serve without pay for six months1 or may start at from #ej cents to #d a week4 ,at the end of six months they may be earning from #a4ej to #f4 ,the lack of any wage standard in apprenticeship probably accounts for the fact that it is difficult to get girls to enter this trade4 ,,millinery ,millinery requires the handling of small pieces of the most varied sorts of material1 most of it perishable4 ,the materials must be measured1 cut1 turned1 twisted1 and draped into innumerable designs and color combinations1 and sewed with various kinds of stitching4 ,the main processes are making1 trimming1 and designing4 ,making consists in fashioning a specified shape from wire or buckram and covering it with such materials as straw or velvet4 ,the covering may be put on plain1 or may be shirred or draped4 ,trimming consists in placing and sewing on all sorts of decorative materials4 ,a combination of the two processes of making and trimming1 known as copying1 consists in making a hat from the beginning exactly like a specified model4 ,designing is the creation of original models4 ,the increase in the use of the factory-made hat has decreased the number of workers in custom millinery1 and has also had an effect in diverting business from small retail shops to millinery departments in stores4 ,the number of millinery workers constantly fluctuates1 not only from season to season1 but from year to year4 ,according to a close estimate not more than #b1jjj workers were actually engaged in millinery occupations during the busiest part of #aiae4 ,between #a1bjj and #a1djj were in retail shops2 about #cjj were in millinery departments in stores2 and about #cjj more were in wholesale houses4 ,the data collected indicate that the wages of workers in retail shops are lower in general than the wages of workers in millinery departments in stores and in wholesale houses4 ,makers in retail shops earn from #c to #af a week1 the average being about #h4 ,trimmers earn from #aj to #dj1 with an average of about #ah4 ,out of #de retail shops1 only #bb paid as high as #aj to any maker2 #ae paid as high as #ab2 six paid as high as #ae2 and only one paid over #ae4 ,in millinery departments in stores1 trimmers1 who are generally designers1 earn from #ae to #ej a week or more4 ,the rate most commonly received is #be4 ,makers are started at from #d to #f and may advance to #ae1 with an average of about #aj4 ,in wholesale houses designers earn from #be to #fj1 or more4 ,makers start at about #e1 and the usual range is from #aj to #ae4 ,those employed in straight copying may earn between #ae and #bj4 ,the #aiad report of the ,industrial ,commission of ,ohio presents data showing that of the women #ah years of age and over employed in wholesale houses #cg per cent receive under #h1 about #bb per cent receive between #h and #ab1 while #da per cent receive #ab and over4 ,the girls under #ah years of age were1 with one exception1 receiving less than #d per week4 ,employment in retail shops averages about #cb weeks during the year2 in the millinery departments of stores from #cb to #db weeks2 and in wholesale houses about #dj weeks4 ,the proportion of workers employed the year round is very small4 ,the majority of millinery workers are faced with the problem of tiding themselves over two dull seasons1 aggregating from #ab to #bh weeks each year4 ,the millinery apprenticeship period lasts for two seasons of #ab weeks each4 ,almost all retail shops take apprentices in large numbers1 there being one apprentice to every three or four workers in the trade4 ,few apprentices are found in stores and wholesale houses4 ,the apprenticeship wage is extremely low4 ,the usual rate is #a a week during the first season and from #a4ej to #b during the second4 ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,training ,the needs of girls who are soon to leave school and go to work can best be met by a modification of the junior high school course and by the establishment of a one-year trade school for girls4 ,before a re-organization of the junior high school work is made to meet the needs of these girls an effort should be made to reduce retardation so that more girls will reach the junior high school before the end of the compulsory attendance period4 ,the present courses should be reorganized so as to give basic preparation for wage earning and should be as concrete and real as a thorough understanding of the requirements of the gainful occupations can make them4 ,thorough sewing courses planned from the standpoint of the sewing trades should be offered1 extending over two years4 ,the program suggested closely resembles that recommended for the garment trades4 ,it is also recommended that a one-year trade school be established for preparing girls to enter employment in dressmaking and millinery4 ,the history of trade schools for girls1 both private and public1 indicates that such a school1 if properly conducted1 would be highly successful in ,cleveland4 ,the classes in sewing and millinery in the evening technical high schools do not offer trade-extension training for workers and it is not likely that they could be easily reorganized to furnish such training4 ,it is recommended that if a trade school is established in ,cleveland1 short unit courses in sewing and related subjects1 such as design1 be given in evening classes4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,summary ,,of ,,report ,,on ,,the ,,metal ,,trades ,approximately one-half of the total number of persons in ,cleveland engaged in manufacturing are found in the metal industries4 ,when the last federal census was taken nearly one-seventh of the entire male population was employed in establishments engaged in the manufacture of crude or finished metal products4 ,pittsburgh only1 among the #aj largest cities in the country1 has a higher proportion of its industrial population working in such establishments4 ,in relation to its total population1 ,cleveland has twice as many people working in these industries as ,chicago1 three times as many as ,philadelphia1 and four times as many as ,new ,york4 ,it is estimated that at the present time the number of wage earners in the city engaged in this kind of work is between #gj1jjj and #hj1jjj4 ,the report deals with the three leading industries of the city1--foundry and machine shop products1 automobile manufacturing1 and steel works and rolling mills4 ,the study of this last group also includes several related industries1 such as blast furnaces1 wire mills1 nail mills1 and bolt1 nut1 and rivet factories4 ,about three-fourths of the total number of wage earners in the city engaged in the manufacture of metal products are found in these three industries4 ,the field investigations consisted of personal visits to the manufacturing establishments for the purpose of securing first hand data as to industrial conditions1 and conferences with employers1 superintendents1 foremen1 and workmen as to the need and possibilities of training for metal working occupations4 ,in all1 #fj establishments1 employing approximately #ce1jjj men1 were visited4 ,the conclusions as to vocational training were based on an analysis of educational needs in the various metal industries1 together with an extended study of the social and economic factors which condition the training of all workers4 ,particular attention was given to the administrative problems involved in such training in public schools4 ,,foundry ,,and ,,machine ,,shop ,,products ,according to the ,united ,states ,census1 foundries and factories making machine shop products gave employment in #aiji to nearly #ah1jjj ,cleveland wage-earners4 ,this industrial group ranks first in the city1 employing more than twice as many workers as the next largest industry1--automobile manufacturing1--and approximately two-fifths of the total working force in all metal industries4 ,its growth during the previous five years1 from the standpoint of number of workers employed1 showed an increase of about #cc per cent1 and it is estimated that the total number of wage-earners in #aiad was approximately #be1jjj4 ,at the present time1 due to the impetus given to this branch of manufacturing by the ,european war1 the working force is undoubtedly in excess of this figure4 ,the report gives extended consideration to the machinist's trade1 which constitutes by far the largest body of skilled workers in the city4 ,this trade has been affected more than any other by the progress of invention and the modern tendency towards specialization4 ,in many establishments the all-round machinist1 competent to do independent work and operate the wide variety of machine tools now used in the trade1 had practically disappeared4 ,in his place are found specialist machine hands who have learned the operation of a single machine tool1 but have no general knowledge of the trade1 and who if called on to perform work requiring the use of a machine tool different from the one on which they are employed are unable to do so4 ,there are hundreds of drill press hands who cannot operate a milling machine1 lathe hands who know nothing of planer work1 and so on4 ,the subdivision of these occupations follows closely the advance in invention1 so that employers advertising for help frequently specify not only the machine tool to be used but add the name of the firm which manufactures that particular type of machine1 with the result that there are about as many kinds of machinists as there are manufacturers of machine tools4 ,table #ah shows the estimated number of men employed1 with their distribution in the various branches of the trade4 ,,table #ah4--,,proportions ,,and ,,estimated ,,numbers ,,employed ,,in ,,machine ,,tool ,,occupations1 #aiae ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,estimated ,workers ,per cent number ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,lathe hands #ah4h #c1chd ,drill press operators #ag4i #c1bbb ,bench hands #ac4d #b1dab ,machinists #ab4g #b1bhf ,screw machine operators #i4d #a1fib ,milling machine operators #h4f #a1edh ,tool makers #h4c #a1did ,grinding machine operators #f4b #a1aaf ,planer hands #b4b #cif ,turret lathe operators #a4h #cbd ,gear cutter operators 4#g #abf ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,total #ajj4j #ah1jjj ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,specialization has operated to lower standards of skill and keep down wages4 ,the average wage of the all-round machinist is very nearly the lowest found among the skilled trades4 ,the union scale is but #ad cents an hour above that paid unskilled labor1 while the average earnings of machine operators range from four to #ab cents above laborers' wages4 ,only among the highly skilled tool makers do the wages approach those received by skilled labor in most other industries4 ,table #ai shows the average1 highest1 and lowest rates per hour for all branches of the machine trades in the establishments from which data were collected during the survey1 with the per cent employed on piece work and day work4 ,,table #ai4--;,,average1 ,,highest1 ,,and ,,lowest ,,earnings1 ,,in ,,cents ,,per ,,hour1 ,,and ,,per ,,cent ,,employed ,,on ,,piece ,,work ,,and ,,day ,,work1 #aiae ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,per cent,per cent on piece on day ,workers ,lowest ,average,highest work work ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,tool makers #be4j #ci4j #ej4j 44 #ajj ,machinists #be4j #cc4b #ej4j 44 #ajj ,planer hands #bj4j #cb4b #db4j 44 #ajj ,grinding machine operators #bj4j #cb4j #ej4j #gj #cj ,bench hands #ag4e #bi4f #de4j #dh #eb ,screw machine operators #ag4e #bi4e #fc4h #gi #ba ,lathe hands #ai4j #bi4a #dj4j #dj #fj ,turret lathe operators #be4j #bi4j #dg4e #hj #bj ,gear cutter operators #bj4j #bf4g #dj4j #if #d ,milling machine operators #ae4j #be4i #dj4j #ec #dg ,drill press operators #ae4j #bc4e #ce4j #ce #fe ,machinists' helpers #bj4j #bb4b #be4j 44 #ajj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,on the basis of weekly or yearly earnings1 the trade makes a better showing4 ,work is steady throughout the year1 and the time lost through unemployment on account of seasonal changes is slight4 ,also1 as the usual working day is from nine to #aj hours1 that is1 from one to two hours longer than in the higher paid building trades1 the difference in daily wages is really less marked than a comparison of hourly rates would seem to indicate4 ,little attempt has been made to adapt the apprentice system to modern conditions4 ,the term of service and rates of pay have changed but slightly over a long period of years4 ,as a result only a small proportion of the boys who begin as apprentices finish the apprenticeship term of three or four years4 ,employers attribute this to the relatively high wages paid for machine operating1 and the slight advantage1 from a wage standpoint1 of the all-round man over the machine operator4 ,after a year or two the apprentice finds that he can double his pay by taking a job as operator1 and the inducement for learning the trade thoroughly is too small to hold him4 ,the report gives a comparison of the earnings of an apprentice and a machine operator1 both starting at the same age1 the first becoming a journeyman machinist at the end of three years and the second specializing on a particular machine4 ,assuming that both boys go to work at the age of #af their total earnings up to the age of #be years will be approximately equal4 ,the lack of thoroughly trained workmen is beginning to be felt1 but the efforts made by industrial establishments to meet it have small prospects of success unless the economic factors of the problem are given greater consideration4 ,inasmuch as no regular apprenticeship period is served for machine operating1 a special effort was made to secure data relating to the time usually required for the worker to learn the operation of each tool well enough to earn average wages4 ,in this matter the individual opinions of foremen and superintendents differed widely1 but when the reports from all the establishments visited were compared1 a sufficient degree of uniformity was found to serve as a basis for estimating the amount of experience workers of average intelligence would need1 under normal shop conditions1 in order to become fairly proficient4 ,there was practical unanimity in fixing the period at four years for tool makers and three to four years for machinists4 ,higher estimates were received from the superintendents of plants doing a jobbing business or manufacturing high grade machine tools than from the specialized shops making a single product4 ,the superintendents of automobile manufacturing plants1 where the standard of quality in production is necessarily high1 gave the lowest estimates of all4 ,table #bj shows the estimated time required to learn the various types of machine work4 ,,table #bj4--;,,estimated ,,time ,,required ,,to ,,learn ,,machine ,,tool ,,work ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,workers ,time required ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,grinding machine operators #ab to #ae months ,lathe hands #f to #i months ,planer hands #f months ,gear cutter operators #f months ,turret lathe operators #d to #f months ,screw machine operators #c to #f months ,bench hands #c to #f months ,milling machine operators #b to #d months ,drilling machine operators #b weeks to #d months ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,the weakness of specialization1 with its constant tendency towards the substitution of semi-skilled operatives for trained workmen1 lies in its failure to provide a body of workers from whom to recruit the large directive force needed in any scheme of production based on semi-skilled labor4 ,this condition is regarded by many employers with grave concern1 and in a few plants apprentice schools designed primarily to train future foremen have been established4 ,practically all the foremen in the shops visited had received an all-round training as machinists1 and there are few opportunities for promotion open to men who have not a general knowledge of the trade4 ,on the other hand1 such general knowledge is only one of the requisites for advancement4 ,others are initiative1 resourcefulness1 tact1 self-control1 ability to get along with men1 and a disposition to subordinate personal interests to the interests of the business4 ,to these should be added the quality of patience1 for there must be vacancies before there can be promotions1 and vacancies among the better positions are not frequent4 ,ten of the establishments visited1 employing a total working force of over #e1jjj men1 reported but eight vacancies among foremen's positions over a period of one year4 ,these same establishments had in their employ a total of #fah all-round machinists and tool makers4 ,assuming that only the machinists and tool makers were eligible for promotion1 the mathematical chance per man of becoming a foreman during the year was about one in #gg4 ,other occupations studied in detail were pattern making1 molding1 core making1 blacksmithing1 and boiler making4 ,pattern making offers the most interesting work and the highest wages among the metal trades1 but the total number of ,american born pattern makers in the city does not exceed seven or eight hundred1 so the field of employment is relatively limited4 ,molding and core making1 in which between #d1jjj and #e1jjj men are engaged1 have practically become foreign trades4 ,less than #bj per cent of the molders in the city were born in this country4 ,these trades offer few opportunities for employment to boys of native birth4 ,somewhat similar conditions exist in the blacksmithing trade4 ,changed methods of production have largely done away with the old-time blacksmith1 who survives only in horse-shoeing and repair shops4 ,the proportion of native blacksmiths is steadily declining1 and it is unlikely that any considerable number of boys from the public schools will enter the trade4 ,the boiler making trade employs relatively few men1 the total number of native born boiler makers at the time of the last census being less than #fjj4 ,the trade seems to be at a standstill4 ,the increase during the previous decade was less than five per cent against a total population increase of #df per cent4 ,the average earnings per hour for these trades in the establishments visited by members of the ,survey ,staff are shown in ,table #ba4 ,,table #ba4--;,,average ,,earnings ,,per ,,hour ,,in ,,pattern ,,making1 ,,molding1 ,,core ,,making1 ,,blacksmithing1 ,,and ,,boiler ,,making ,average earnings ,workers ,per ,hour ,pattern makers 4#dd ,skilled molders 4#ci ,semi-skilled molders 4#bg ,skilled core makers 4#ci ,semi-skilled core makers 4#bg ,blacksmiths 4#cc ,boiler makers 4#cb ,the findings and recommendations as to training emphasize the fact that the vast majority of boys who become workers in the metal trades leave school by the time they are #ae with at most a common school education1 so that any vocational training before they go to work must be given between the ages of #ab and #ae and before the end of the eighth grade4 ,the report points out the impossibility of effective vocational instruction in elementary schools on account of the prohibitive cost per pupil for both equipment and teaching1 and endorses the recently adopted junior high school plan4 ,this form of organization has the great advantage of concentrating in large groups the boys who are old enough to make a beginning in prevocational training1 and through the departmental system of teaching offers facilities for differentiation of courses to meet their varying needs4 ,whatever their cultural value1 the present manual training courses in woodwork have little relation to the requirements of any metal working trade1 except pattern making1 in which some of the same tools are used4 ,no manual training work in metal is offered in the elementary and junior high schools4 ,the course recommended for the junior high school lays especial emphasis on applied mathematics1 mechanical drawings1 practice in assembling and taking apart machines1 and the utilization of the shop as a laboratory for teaching industrial science4 ,the report maintains that the object of such a course should be the development of industrial intelligence through the application of mathematical and mechanical principles to the solution of concrete problems1 rather than the teaching of specific operations and skill in the use of tools4 ,in mechanical drawing the ability to understand and interpret drawings should be given more importance than the ability to make drawings4 ,few workmen are ever called on to draw1 while the ability to read plans and sketches is always in demand4 ,it is also recommended that boys who do not expect to take a full high school course or who intend to leave at the end of the compulsory period should devote at least a period each week to the study of economic and working conditions in industrial and commercial occupations4 ,with respect to the technical high schools the report holds that these schools are primarily training schools for the higher positions of industry4 ,they undoubtedly offer the best instruction obtainable in the city for the ambitious boy who wishes to prepare himself for supervisory and managerial positions in industry or for a college engineering course4 ,the establishment of a separate two-year vocational school1 equipped for giving instruction in all the larger industrial trades1 is recommended4 ,the number of boys in the public schools between the ages of #ad and #af who are likely to enter the metal trades is between #gjj and #hjj1 of whom from #ejj to #fjj will become machinists or machine tool operators4 ,an enrollment of much less than this number is sufficient to justify the installation of good shop equipment and the employment of a corps of teachers who have had the special training necessary for this kind of work4 ,it should be possible to form a class in pattern making and foundry work of from #hj to #ajj boys1 and one of at least #cj in blacksmithing4 ,boiler making could be taught in connection with sheet metal work4 ,various changes are recommended in the present evening school classes for machinists1 molders1 and pattern makers now given by the technical high schools4 ,it is claimed that the courses as now organized are not elastic enough to meet the varying needs of the journeymen1 helpers1 machine operators1 and apprentices employed in these trades4 ,the great need is for short unit courses in which the instruction is limited to a particular machine or a special branch of the trade4 ,the long course tends to discourage the student1 especially when it embraces an amount of theory out of all proportion to his working needs4 ,,automobile ,,manufacturing ,due to the large number and specialized character of the occupations in this industry1 they are taken up in a more general way than the foundries and machine shop group4 ,the productive departments of the automobile factories utilize in the main the same equipment as other machinery manufacturing plants1 but specialization has been carried to a degree found in few other metal industries4 ,the all-round workman is a rara avis4 ,the machine shops are manned by machine specialists most of whom know how to operate a single machine tool or perform a single operation made up of relatively simple elements4 ,from one-half to two-thirds of the working force is recruited from immigrant labor which is broken in under skilful foremen within a period varying from a few days to a few weeks4 ,in the simpler assembling operations the jobs are so subdivided that any man who is not actually feebleminded can learn the work in a few days4 ,production is on a large scale1 permitting the maintenance of high-grade engineering and experimental departments1 where all of the work is planned to the last detail4 ,as a result the automobile manufacturers are turning out one of the most complicated and most efficient machines known to modern industry with a working force composed chiefly of semi-skilled labor4 ,for the machine shop workers the training suggested is similar to that recommended for the same class of workmen in other machine shops4 ,the necessity of short unit courses adapted for teaching parts of the trade rather than the whole trade is obvious1 as most automobile workers are employed on specialized operations4 ,short unit evening courses for motor and transmission assemblers1 and testers and inspectors1 are recommended4 ,,steel ,,works1 ,,rolling ,,mills1 ,,and ,,related ,,industries ,a somewhat similar treatment is followed with respect to the iron and steel group of industries--blast furnaces1 steel mills1 rolling mills1 wire mills1 nail mills1 and bolt1 nut1 and rivet factories4 ,these industries are characterized by a high proportion of common and semi-skilled labor in the working force4 ,between #ge and #ij per cent of the workers are of foreign birth4 ,in the operating department of one mill only two ,americans were found among a total of #fjj employees4 ,as a rule the native born workers are mechanics employed in the power and maintenance departments4 ,with scarcely an exception the occupations are of a nature that require the worker to learn through actual experience in the mills4 ,theory and practice must be learned at the same time4 ,even the supervisory and executive positions in which a technical education is of considerable value require a long and arduous apprenticeship on the job before the worker can compete with men who have started with the scantiest educational equipment1 but have picked up a knowledge of the processes by experience and observation4 ,below these positions the work rapidly grades off to various kinds of machine operating in which not even the ability to read or understand ,english is required4 ,no plan of vocational training is presented1 because at present the mills recruit almost exclusively from foreign labor1 and only a very small number of boys from the public schools are likely to seek employment in them4 ,the technical content of the work which might conceivably be given in evening classes1 except in the case of the few directive and supervisory positions1 is so small that continuation instruction offers but meager hopes of success4 ,under present conditions the long working day and the necessity of changing from the day to the night shift1 or vice-versa every two weeks1 constitutes an insuperable obstacle to the organization of night classes4 ,the principal need of the rank and file is a speaking and reading knowledge of the ,english language1 so that the workers can be taught to avoid and prevent accidents1 and give themselves the necessary care when they occur4 ,instruction in ,english with possibly courses in accident prevention and personal hygiene represent about the only training possible that can be said to have any real vocational significance4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,summary ,,of ,,report ,,on ,,the ,,building ,,trades ,a careful estimate places the number of men engaged in building construction in ,cleveland at the present time at about #cj1jjj1 comprising more than one-fifth of the total number employed in manufacturing and mechanical occupations4 ,about two-thirds of these workmen are skilled artisans1 distributed among some #bj different trades4 ,the estimated number in each trade is shown in ,table #bb4 ,,sources ,,of ,,labor ,,supply ,the building trades get their workers from four principal sources3 immigration1 native journeymen from outside the city1 helpers1 and apprentices4 ,immigration contributes the largest proportion in both skilled and unskilled work1 practically monopolizing the latter4 ,over four-fifths of all cabinet makers1 more than two-thirds of all brick and stone masons1 and nearly two-thirds of all carpenters are foreign born4 ,plumbers and steam-fitters show the smallest proportion of foreign labor4 ,,table #bb4--;,,estimated ,,number ,,of ,,men ,,engaged ,,in ,,building ,,trades1 #aiae ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,workers in trade ,number employed ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,carpenters #g1aje ,painters1 glaziers1 varnishers #b1gdf ,plumbers1 gas- and steam-fitters #b1jad ,bricklayers #a1hjj ,machine woodworkers #a1aih ,sheet metal workers or tinsmiths #a1jfi ,cabinet-makers #hie ,inside wiremen and fixture hangers #gej ,plasterers #fch ,paperhangers #cgi ,structural iron workers #cef ,roofers and slaters #cae ,stone-cutters #bib ,lathers #bge ,stone masons and marble setters #bej ,ornamental iron workers #bjj ,cement finishers #bjj ,hoisting engineers #aej ,elevator constructors #ajj ,parquet floor layers #ajj ,tile-layer #ajj ,asbestos workers #ge ,wood carvers #fc ,helpers #ibf ,apprentices #cjf ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,total #bb1cjb ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,,apprenticeship ,the general decline of the apprenticeship system which began with the invention of modern labor-saving machinery has affected the building trades least of all4 ,here it survives in an active state and is steadily gaining ground4 ,it is in favor with many employers and with all unions4 ,the best apprenticeship systems are found in the strongly organized trades4 ,it is true that in some of the trades apprenticeship is little more than a name1 meaning simply that permission has been granted to learn the trade4 ,the apprentice is left free to pick up what experience he can between the odd jobs that are given him4 ,what meager instruction he receives comes from a journeyman worker who is none too eager to give up what he considers the secrets of his trade4 ,the union regulations provide that boys shall not enter the trades as apprentices or helpers below the age of #af4 ,the limits set by the various trades and the union regulations as to length of apprenticeship are shown in ,tables #bc and #bd4 ,,table #bc4--,,union ,,regulations ,,as ,,to ,,entering ,,age ,,of ,,apprentices ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,asbestos workers ,enter at any age ,bricklayers ,between #af and #bc ,carpenters ,between #ag and #bb ,cement finishers ,must be full grown ,elevator constructors ,must be full grown ,lathers ,must be #ah years old ,inside wiremen ,between #af and #ba ,painters and paperhangers ,before #ba years old ,plumbers and gas-fitters ,must be #af years old ,sheet metal workers ,must be over #af years ,slate and tile roofers ,must enter before #be ,steam-fitters ,must be full grown ,structural and ornamental iron workers ,between #ah and #be ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,table #bd4--,,union ,,regulations ,,as ,,to ,,length ,,of ,,apprenticeship ,,period ,trades in which indentures are usually signed ,bricklayer #d years ,plasterers #d years ,sheet metal workers #d years ,trades in which indentures are seldom signed ,steam-fitters #e years ,carpenters #d years ,inside wiremen #d years ,plumbers and gas-fitter #d years ,cement finishers #c years ,asbestos workers #c years ,painters and paperhangers #c years ,slate and tile roofers #c years ,lathers #b years ,structural and ornamental iron workers #aa_/b years ,elevator constructors varies ,all obtainable information points to the conclusion that the number of apprentices employed in the city is far below the maximum permitted by the unions4 ,many large contractors have no apprentices and say they will not bother with them4 ,others state that they have been unable to get or keep good apprentices and have therefore given up the plan4 ,,union ,,organization ,the building trades are among the most strongly organized in the city4 ,it is estimated that their unions at the present time include about #ij per cent of all the men engaged in building work4 ,practically all the large contracting firms employ only union labor4 ,the few non-union workers are employed by small contractors4 ,requirements for admission to the different unions vary to a marked degree4 ,if the union is strong and has a good control over the labor supply1 admission fees are higher and regulations as to apprentices and helpers are more stringent than if the union is fighting to gain a foothold4 ,,earnings ,no industrial workers in the city are paid better wages than those employed in the building trades4 ,more than one-half of the skilled workers are in trades that pay an hourly wage of #ej cents or over4 ,the hourly rate in each occupation is shown in ,table #be4 ,,table #be4--,,union ,,scale ,,of ,,wages ,,in ,,cents ,,per ,,hour ,,may #a1 #aiae #gj ,cents ,bricklayers #gj4jj ,hoisting engineers on boom derricks1 etc4 #gj4jj ,stone masons #gj4jj ,structural iron workers #gj4jj ,from #fj to #gj ,cents ,marble setters #fh4ge ,inside wiremen #fh4ge ,plasterers #fh4ge ,slate and tile roofers #fg4ej ,parquet floor layers 7carpenters7 #fb4ej ,lathers1 first class #fb4ej ,plumbers #fb4ej ,steam-fitters #fb4ej ,stone-cutters #fb4ej ,hoisting engineers1 brick hoists #fj4jj ,elevator constructors #fj4jj ,from #ej to #fj ,cents ,tile layers #ei4ch ,lathers1 second class #ef4be ,carpenters #ee4jj ,cement workers1 finishers #ee4jj ,sheet metal workers #ej4jj ,painters #ej4jj ,paperhangers #ej4jj ,from #dj to #ej ,cents ,asbestos workers #dg4ej ,composition roofers #db4ej ,under #dj ,cents ,cabinet-makers and bench hands #cg4ej ,machine woodworkers #cg4ej ,electrical fixture hangers #cg4ej ,hod-carriers #ce4jj ,union organization is a more powerful factor in determining wages in these trades than technical knowledge and skill4 ,a high degree of skill in a given trade brings little advantage in the matter of wages4 ,by establishing a minimum scale below which no journeyman shall work1 the union secures practically a flat rate of pay for most of the men in the trade4 ,when there is much building work and good men are scarce1 contractors sometimes pay higher wages to highly skilled workmen in order to secure their services4 ,as a rule1 however1 their reward comes in the form of steadier employment4 ,the less skilled man is the first to be laid off when business is slack1 while the first-class workman1 for the reason that he is so hard to replace1 is the last to be discharged4 ,many unions1 among them those of the carpenters1 bricklayers1 and painters1 make no provision as to the wages of apprentices4 ,table #bf shows the wages in three of the building trades that have established a uniform scale for apprentices4 ,sheet metal apprentices are paid a bonus of #a extra for each week served4 ,,table #bf4--,,usual ,,weekly ,,wages ,,of ,,apprentices ,,in ,,three ,,building ,,trades ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,sheet metal ,year ,inside wiremen ,plasterers workers ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,first year #e4ej #e4ej to #f4be #e4jj ,second year #ac4bj #h4be to #aa4jb #e4ej to #f4jj ,third year #ag4fj #ac4ge to #af4jj #f4ej to #g4jj ,fourth year #bb4jj #ai4be #h4jj to #i4jj ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,hours ,the usual working day is eight hours4 ,many of the trades work only a half day on ,saturdays throughout the year2 practically all have this half holiday during the four summer months4 ,for holiday or over-time work the men receive either pay and a half or double pay4 ,,regularity ,,of ,,employment ,due to the seasonal character of building work1 it is next to impossible for a building contractor to keep a large force employed all the year4 ,one result of this situation is that the men change employers more than any other workers in industry4 ,irregularity of employment is greater in building construction than in any other of the principal industries of the city4 ,a comparison between the different branches of building work as to regularity of employment is presented in ,diagram #aa4 ,the best showing is made by electrical contracting1 in which the average number employed is #ic per cent of the maximum working force1 and the poorest by plastering in which the average is only #ff per cent of the maximum4 ,,health ,,conditions ,nearly all of the building trades are open air occupations1 much even of the inside work being done before the buildings are closed in4 ,for the most part the materials used are not injurious to health if reasonable precautions are taken and ordinary habits of cleanliness observed4 ,in general1 health conditions are better than those found in the factory industries4 ,illustration3 ,diagram #aa4--,sections in outline represent percentage of men employed1 and sections in black percentage of men unemployed in each of nine building industries at the time when each industry showed the largest percentage of unemployment ,,opportunities ,,for ,,advancement ,the building trades offer many opportunities for advancement4 ,one reason for this is the large number of supervisory positions made necessary by the wide range of building activities4 ,a foreman in almost any of the trades must be able to read plans1 as he must lay out the work4 ,it is not necessary for him to be the most skilled mechanic in the force4 ,employers and superintendents say that in selecting foremen they lay about equal weight on skill and on ability to handle men4 ,as a rule1 foremanship carries with it higher wages1 although in some cases the pay is the same as that of the regular journeymen4 ,the reward for the added responsibility comes in the form of steadier employment4 ,it is not uncommon for a foreman to be hired on a salary basis and carried on the payroll throughout the entire year4 ,small contracting offers another form of advancement4 ,it requires but little initial investment to make a modest beginning1 because individual workmen in the various building trades provide their own tools and no expensive machines are required4 ,comparatively little working capital is necessary1 as provision is made in most contracts for part payments as the work progresses4 ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,training ,the recommendations of the report relating to training for the building trades may be summarized under five headings3 #a4 ,reduce retardation4 ,the first step in improving the educational preparation of workers entering the building trades is to reduce retardation or slow progress in the elementary grades4 ,at present it is approximately true of the men entering the building trades that one-third drop out of school by the sixth grade1 two-thirds by the seventh grade1 and three-thirds by the eighth grade4 ,now according to law a boy cannot go to work until he is #af1 and if he has made normal progress he will have completed the eight grades of the elementary course before he has reached that age4 ,in point of fact1 many of these boys do not make normal progress through the grades and hence they reach the age of #ae before completing the elementary course4 ,as a result they fall out of school without having had those portions of the work in reading1 drawing1 mathematics1 and elementary science which would be of most direct use to them in their future work4 #b4 ,general industrial courses in seventh1 eighth1 and ninth grades4 ,if retardation could be largely reduced in the elementary grades1 industrialized courses could be properly introduced in the seventh1 eighth1 and ninth grades for boys intending to enter the building trades4 ,the specific changes recommended include as their most important elements3 a4 ,increased training in industrial arithmetic beginning in the seventh grade4 b4 ,courses in industrial drawing4 c4 ,courses in elementary science relating to industry4 d4 ,courses in industrial information4 e4 ,general courses in industrial shop work4 ,these are general industrial courses and it is recommended that they be introduced as prominent features of the work of the junior high school4 ,they are not intended to take the place of specialized courses in the building trades1 but they are proposed as courses valuable for all future industrial workers and within which certain adaptations should be made for those who are intending to enter the building trades4 #c4 ,a two year industrial trade school4 ,in addition to the general industrial courses in junior high schools that have been recommended in the previous section1 there should be established a two year industrial trade school for boys4 ,it should receive boys #ad to #af years of age who desire direct trade-preparatory training4 ,there are good reasons why the present elementary schools1 the proposed junior high schools1 and the existing technical high schools cannot satisfactorily take the place of a specialized two year course in giving boys direct trade-preparatory education4 ,boys who go through the technical high schools do not remain in the building trades as artisans4 ,this is shown by the fact that less than two per cent of the graduates of these schools are working in the building trades4 ,the elementary schools and the junior high schools cannot conduct satisfactory trade-preparatory courses for the building industry for the reason that they do not bring together at any one point a sufficient number of these future workers to make it possible to teach them economically4 ,this is a consideration which conditions every plan for the organization of industrial education4 ,it is a question of the community's capacity to absorb workmen trained for any given occupation4 ,in ,cleveland about #d1jjj boys leave the public elementary schools each year4 ,approximately #b1djj of them drop out of the elementary schools or leave after graduating from them1 while the remaining #a1fjj go on to high school4 ,the future workers in the building trades will be largely recruited from the #b1djj boys who leave the elementary schools each year4 ,most of them range in age from #ad to #af and in school advancement from the fifth to the eighth grades4 ,they represent a cross-section of a large part of the city's adult manhood of a few years hence4 ,now the census figures tell us that if present conditions maintain in the future only about #ajj of the #d1jjj boys leaving school each year will be carpenters4 ,for the purposes of the present inquiry we may assume that these #ajj future carpenters are to be found among the #b1djj boys who do not go on to high school4 ,but ,cleveland has #ajh elementary schools and these #ajj future carpenters are widely scattered among them4 ,even if we knew which boys were destined to become carpenters1 and even if we knew when they would leave school1 and even if we should decide to give them all trade preparatory education for the last two years of their school life1 we should still have an average class in carpentry of only two boys in each elementary school4 ,this is administratively and educationally impossible4 ,for similar reasons specialized trade preparatory classes in junior high schools would prove exceedingly difficult to organize4 ,the whole situation is changed1 however1 when we gather in a central school all these future artisans who have decided that they wish to prepare for specific trades4 ,under these conditions classes would be sufficiently large so that specialized training could be given and special equipment provided4 ,this work would best be undertaken in a school entirely devoted to the purpose1 but such courses might be organized in connection with the present technical high schools4 ,this arrangement would be less desirable and probably give inferior results4 ,the important point1 however1 is not so much the organization or curriculum for these classes1 it is the fundamental fact that trade classes can be wisely organized only when a sufficiently large number of pupils can be gathered in one place so as to make the work efficient and economical4 ,the effectiveness of the trade-preparatory training recommended would be greatly increased if the upper limit of the compulsory attendance period for boys should be placed at #af years instead of at #ae as it is now4 #d4 ,trade-,extension ,classes for ,apprentices4 ,at the present time the technical high schools offer evening classes for apprentices in the building trades4 ,about one-seventh of the apprentices of the city are enrolled in these classes4 ,in the main they are full grown men4 ,in general they do not want shop work related to their own trades1 but prefer instead to enroll in courses in drawing4 ,the considerations already presented bear in minor degree on the problem of providing evening instruction for trade apprentices4 ,the essential for efficient work is that a sufficient number of pupils be brought together so as to make it possible to organize specialized classes in different kinds of work that the pupils want and need4 ,so long as there are only #ej apprentices enrolled in the entire city1 and these represent a number of trades1 many different stages of advancement1 and a variety of needs1 truly efficient work will be impossible4 ,better conditions can be brought about only through the cooeperation of the unions1 the employers1 and the school people4 #e4 ,trade-,extension ,work for ,journeymen4 ,the evening technical schools now maintain shop classes and drawing classes for workers in the building trades4 ,less than one per cent of the workers in these trades are enrolled in these classes4 ,there is little differentiation in the school work offered to helpers1 apprentices1 and journeymen4 ,the result is that the work is much less efficient than it might well be4 ,it cannot be rendered much more efficient than it is until the classes are increased in size and as a result the work differentiated and specialized4 ,this type of improvement will result only from putting the night school work in the hands of skilful and well paid directors and teachers who bring to it a degree of energy1 enterprise1 ingenuity1 and adaptability that it is unreasonable to expect and impossible to get from day school teachers who have already given the best that is in them to their regular classes and are giving a fatigued margin of work and attention to their night school pupils4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,summary ,,of ,,report ,,on ,,railroad ,,and ,,street ,,transportation ,the report on railroad and street transportation takes up a class of wage earning occupations that give employment in ,cleveland to approximately #ae1jjj men4 ,a much larger proportion than is found in most other industrial manual occupations are natives of the city4 ,although some of the work is relatively unskilled1 all of the different occupations have one common characteristic--the necessity for a knowledge of the ,english language and some acquaintance with local customs and conditions4 ,for this reason comparatively few foreigners are employed4 ,the report takes up separately three types of workers1 those employed in railroad train service1 those engaged in wagon or automobile transportation1 and the car service employees of the street railroad4 ,,railroad ,,transportation ,the study covered only those railroad occupations that are directly concerned with the actual operation of trains1 such as those of engineers1 firemen1 conductors1 and trainmen4 ,these occupations have many points in common and bring into play many similar mental and physical characteristics4 ,the requirements for entrance are strict and examinations for the higher positions are obligatory4 ,in all of them the hazards are great4 ,each occupation is firmly intrenched in trade unionism4 ,differences with employers relating to such matters as promotion1 hours of labor1 wages1 and overtime are settled by collective bargaining or1 in case of failure to agree1 by arbitration proceedings4 ,the estimated number of men in ,cleveland employed in these occupations in #aiae is approximately #d1ejj4 ,of these about one-fourth are switchmen and flagmen1 one-fourth enginemen1 one-fifth brakemen1 one-sixth conductors1 and one-eighth firemen4 ,the requirements for entrance call for a high degree of physical fitness4 ,the applicant for employment must pass a severe examination as to vision and hearing1 and in addition furnish certain data as to his family history1 as it relates to insanity1 tuberculosis1 and certain other diseases4 ,the high standard maintained insures a type of employees which for physical fitness1 mental alertness1 and ability to handle difficult situations is unsurpassed in any industry4 ,frequent examinations1 which are compulsory1 are the stepping stones to the higher positions4 ,in this way a brakeman qualifies for the position of freight conductor1 a freight conductor for that of passenger conductor1 and a fireman for a position as engineer4 ,each of the two services1 passenger and freight1 has its advantages4 ,in the passenger service the working day is short1 with little overtime4 ,freight service requires a longer working day and a considerable amount of overtime4 ,promotions in both services and from one to the other are made on the basis of seniority4 ,violation of the strict rules laid down for the operation of trains on the part of employees may result in reprimand1 suspension1 or dismissal1 according to the gravity of the offense4 ,the penalty of suspension has practically superseded the others except in extreme cases1 such as drunkenness1 theft1 or other serious violations of the rules1 for which offenders are summarily dismissed4 ,on some railroads1 a graded system of demerits is used4 ,when an employee has received a certain number of demerits he is dismissed from the service4 ,the railroad unions are among the strongest and most aggressive in the country4 ,the total union membership among train operating employees alone in the country is approximately #cej1jjj4 ,the unions are all modeled upon the same general plan4 ,they are quite independent of each other1 keep strictly to their agreements and oppose the sympathetic strike4 ,they all maintain some form of life insurance4 ,four organizations have underwritten over #ejj1jjj1jjj of insurance and one of them in a single year paid claims amounting to #a1ace1jjj4 ,the influence of these unions has been particularly effective in securing the passage of protective state and national legislation such as full crew laws1 standardization of train equipment1 employers' liability laws1 car limit laws1 etc4 ,the hazardous nature of the work is indicated by a statement made by a prominent union official to the effect that the ,trainmen's ,brotherhood paid a claim for death or disability every seven hours4 ,a report to the ,interstate ,commerce ,commission states that there is one case of injury in train or yard service every nine minutes4 ,with the invention of safety devices the risk of accident has been greatly lessened1 but railroading is still one of the most dangerous industrial occupations4 ,there is little chance of employment for applicants under the age of #ba years4 ,in fact1 many roads refuse to employ men below this age4 ,physical or sense defects which often accompany advancing years1 and which would not disqualify a man in other occupations do so in railroad work4 ,the average length of the working life is a little over #ab years4 ,railroad employees are among the best paid workers in the country4 ,a close estimate based on extensive wage investigations places the annual earnings of engineers at from #a1bjj to #b1djj a year1 with an average of #a1fjj4 ,conductors average about #a1cej1 firemen a little over #ijj1 and other trainmen about #iej4 ,the usual working day is #aj hours1 although this is often exceeded4 ,overtime is paid on a regular scale agreed upon by the companies and the union4 ,the educational requirements are not very exacting4 ,a thorough grounding in the three ,r's is usually all that is necessary4 ,a large amount of trade knowledge is obtained through contact and participation after entering employment and can be gained in no other way4 ,the examinations for promotion are of a thorough-going character4 ,one of the roads in ,cleveland requires an examination of its firemen and trainmen six months after employment1 as to vision1 color-sense1 and hearing4 ,they must also pass an oral examination on the characteristics of their division and a written examination on certain set questions furnished them in advance4 ,two years later they are examined again1 the fireman for engineman1 and the brakeman for conductor4 ,the scope of these examinations covers the whole range of train operating4 ,each of the five large railroads entering ,cleveland has air-brake cars equipped with various forms of air brakes1 air signals1 pumps1 valves1 and injectors for the purpose of giving instruction to trainmen4 ,a competent instructor is put in charge of these cars to explain the theory and practice of the apparatus and also to give instruction in any new type of engine or train equipment4 ,the conclusions of the report are in the main negative with respect to specialized vocational training in the public schools4 ,there is no doubt that the general industrial course recommended for the junior high school period in previous chapters would be of some value to boys who may enter this line of work4 ,problems of railroad transportation might well be included as part of the work in applied mathematics4 ,what workers in these occupations need most1 however1 is a thorough elementary education4 ,,motor ,,and ,,wagon ,,transportation ,this section of the report takes up such occupations as those of teamsters1 chauffeurs1 and repairmen4 ,there are no reliable data as to the number of men in the city employed in these occupations1 but it is certain that it does not fall below #i1jjj4 ,notwithstanding the great increase in the use of automobiles and auto trucks in recent years the number of teamsters at the present time is in excess of #d1jjj men4 ,a very large proportion of the men employed in these occupations are of ,american birth4 ,the general conditions of labor such as wages1 hours of labor1 and so on1 are the same for teamsters and chauffeurs4 ,they earn about the same wages1 belong to the same union1 and work about the same hours4 ,the wages range from #be to #cg cents an hour4 ,earnings in the better paid jobs compare favorably with those in several of the skilled trades4 ,automobile repairmen earn from #cj to #de cents an hour1 and work from nine to #aj hours a day4 ,the working day for teamsters and chauffeurs is somewhat longer1 ranging from #aj to #ab hours4 ,at the present time these occupations are only partially organized in trade unions4 ,the report recommends the establishment of a course in automobile construction and operation in the technical high schools4 ,in view of the constantly increasing use of automobiles such a course would be of value to many boys besides those who enter employment as chauffeurs and truck drivers4 ,,street ,,railroad ,,transportation ,there are employed in ,cleveland at present approximately #b1ejj motormen and street car conductors4 ,almost all of them are of ,american birth1 and the majority are natives of the city4 ,as in railroad work each applicant for employment must pass an examination1 although the requirements are less exacting than those demanded in railroad work4 ,the preliminary training occupies about #aj days1 during which the motorman is taught by actual car operation how to operate the controller1 how to apply and release the brakes1 and other duties connected with the careful running of the car through crowded streets4 ,the conductor is taught the names of the streets1 how and when to call them1 where stops are to be made1 when to turn lights on and off1 how to act in case of accidents1 and the various duties which deal with the sale1 collection1 and reporting of transfers and tickets4 ,no one is admitted into the service before the age of #ba or after #ce4 ,promotion usually comes in the form of better runs4 ,the chances of promotion to positions above the grade of conductor or motorman are very slight4 ,about #ij per cent of the men belong to the local union4 ,union rates of pay for motormen and conductors are higher in ,cleveland than in most cities in the country1 in spite of the fact that this is the only large city in the country with a three cent street car fare4 ,the wages of both motormen and conductors are #bi cents an hour for the first year and #cb in succeeding years4 ,the hours of labor are very irregular4 ,the usual working day is from #aj to #ab hours4 ,the author of the report is of the opinion that no special instruction for this type of workers can be given by the public schools4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,summary ,,of ,,report ,,on ,,the ,,printing ,,trades ,a smaller proportion of the industrial population in ,cleveland is engaged in printing than in most large cities4 ,the number of persons employed in printing occupations in #aiae is estimated at approximately #c1ijj1 made up chiefly of skilled workmen4 ,little common labor is used in any department of the industry4 ,the business of printing is usually conducted in small establishments4 ,there are not more than six plants in the city which employ over #ge wage earners4 ,data collected from #dd local printing shops1 showed an average working force of only #cf persons4 ,due largely to this characteristic printing affords an unusual number of opportunities for advancement to the skilled workers in the industry4 ,the smaller the establishments are the greater is the proportion of proprietors1 superintendents1 managers and foremen to the total number of wage earners4 ,ten per cent of the total working force in the printing industry is employed in supervisory and directive positions4 ,in many of the large manufacturing industries of the city the proportion in such work is less than three per cent4 ,illustration3 ,diagram #ab4--,number of men in each #ajj in printing and five other industries earning each class of weekly wage4 ,black indicates less than #ah1 hatching1 #ah to #be1 and outline #be and over ,no other manufacturing industry employs so large a proportion of ,american born workers4 ,in recent years many of the skilled industrial trades have been recruited to a very large extent from foreign labor1 but in printing the ,american worker has so far held his own remarkably well4 ,this is due in part to the relatively high wages and desirable working conditions and to the necessity in all branches of printing for a working knowledge of ,english4 ,practically all of the trades are thoroughly organized4 ,the unions are united in a body called the ,council of the ,allied ,printing ,trades4 ,although only about half of the shops in the city employ union labor exclusively1 the union regulations as to wages and hours of labor are observed in both open and closed shops4 ,printing workers are among the best paid industrial wage earners in the city4 ,a comparison of the weekly earnings in the various manufacturing industries is shown in ,diagram #ab4 ,this comparison is based upon the #aiad report of the ,ohio ,industrial ,commission4 ,the comparison of the earnings of women in various industries1 shown in ,diagram #ac1 is less favorable to printing4 ,on the basis of the proportion of women that earn #ab and over per week this industry takes third place4 ,it should be noted1 however1 that nearly all the women employed are engaged in semi-skilled work in binderies1--a lower grade of work than that done by most women workers in clothing factories1 where wages are higher4 ,compared with other occupations that require about the same amount of experience and training1 in textile1 tobacco1 and confectionery manufacturing establishments1 the wages of women employed in the printing industry are relatively high4 ,wage earners in printing establishments lose less time through irregularity of employment than do those in most other factory industries4 ,the kind of work done by women is more seasonal than that done by men1 although less so than in other manufacturing industries which employ large numbers of women4 ,illustration3 ,diagram #ac4--,number of women in each #ajj in printing and six other industries earning each class of weekly wage4 ,black indicates less than #h1 hatching #h to #ab1 and outline #ab and over ,,composing ,,room ,,workers ,nearly all the workers in this department of the industry are hand or machine compositors4 ,until about #cj years ago1 before practical type-setting machines were invented1 all type was set by hand4 ,today the hand compositor1 except in very small shops1 works only on jobs requiring special type and special arrangement1 such as advertisements1 title covers of books1 letter heads1 and so on4 ,in the city there are about #a1bjj people employed in composing room occupations1 or about #cj per cent of the total number of workers in the industry4 ,this number includes some #ej women employed as proof-readers and copy-holders4 ,nine-tenths of the composing room workers are members of the ,international ,typographical ,union1 although the number of shops that employ union men exclusively1 called closed shops1 approximates only one-half of the total number in the city4 ,the remainder1 while employing union labor1 observing union hours1 and paying union wages1 reserve the right to hire non-union workmen4 ,composing room workers are the best paid in the industry4 ,a comparison of average wages in newspaper and job establishments is shown in ,table #bg4 ,,table #bg4--;,,average ,,daily ,,earnings ,,of ,,job ,,and ,,newspaper ,,composing-,,room ,,workers1 #aiae ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,newspaper ,workers in trade ,job offices offices ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,foremen #e4ai #f4fe ,linotype machinists #d4ff #d4hd ,proof-readers #d4fc #c4ih ,monotype operators #d4eg 44 ,linotypers #d4bh #d4fe ,monotype casters #c4if #d4cj ,stonemen #c4id #d4hi ,hand-compositors #c4dh #d4eh ,copy-holders #b4cj #b4ic ,apprentices #a4fd #a4cj ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,compositors suffer most from the diseases that are common to indoor workers4 ,the stooping position in which much of the work is done1 together with insufficient ventilation and the presence of gases from the molten metal used in monotype and linotype machines1 favors the development of lung diseases4 ,the number of deaths from consumption among compositors is more than double that in most outdoor occupations4 ,the apprenticeship system has held its own in the compositor's trade better than in most industrial occupations4 ,in the establishments visited by the ,survey ,staff there were approximately #ae apprentices to each #ajj hand and machine compositors4 ,as a rule there is no real system or method of instruction4 ,the points principally insisted upon by the union1 which strongly favors the apprenticeship system1 are that the number of apprentices employed shall not exceed that stipulated in the agreement between the employers and the union1 and that each apprentice shall be required to serve the full term of five years4 ,during the first and second years the apprentice is required to perform general work in the composing room under the direction of the foreman4 ,in the third year he joins the union as an apprentice4 ,the apprenticeship agreement stipulates that during this year he must be employed four hours each day at composition and distribution4 ,in the fourth and fifth years the number of hours per day on such work is increased to six and seven respectively4 ,during the last two years of his term he must take the evening trade course given by the ,international ,typographical ,union1 the expense of tuition being met by the local union4 ,the agreement contains no stipulation as to wages for the first and second years4 ,the wage for the third year is #i a week1 for the fourth year #ab1 and for the fifth1 #ae4 ,apprentices in newspaper composing rooms are permitted to spend the last six months of their period working on type-setting machines4 ,,the ,,pressroom ,the pressroom occupations include platen and cylinder pressmen1 web or newspaper pressmen1 platen and cylinder pressfeeders1 plate printers1 cutters1 flyboys and apprentices4 ,approximately #ae per cent of the men employed are cylinder pressmen1 about #aj per cent platen pressmen1 and less than three per cent web pressmen4 ,pressfeeders comprise over #dj per cent of the whole group4 ,nearly nine-tenths of all pressroom workers are employed in job establishments4 ,five occupations--those of cutters1 floormen1 flyboys1 plate printers1 and web pressmen--give employment to fewer than #dj men each4 ,the average daily earnings of pressroom workers in the establishments from which wage data were collected during the survey are shown in ,table #bh4 ,the hourly rates of pay are high as compared with those in other occupations requiring an equal or greater amount of skill and knowledge4 ,cylinder pressmen earn more per hour than do tool and die makers--the most highly skilled of the metal trades--and platen pressmen in charge of five or more presses earn more than all-round machinists and boiler makers4 ,the rate for cylinder pressfeeders is about three cents an hour higher than that received for specialized machine work in the metal trades4 ,,table #bh4--;,,average ,,daily ,,earnings ,,of ,,pressroom ,,workers1 #aiae ,job pressroom workers ,foremen #d4gh ,cylinder pressmen #c4fc ,cutters #c4da ,platen pressmen #b4ig ,floormen #b4ia ,cylinder pressfeeders1 men #b4ed ,cylinder pressfeeders1 women #a4gg ,platen pressfeeders1 men #a4hc ,platen pressfeeders1 women #a4gj ,flyboys #a4ef ,newspaper pressroom workers ,foremen #f4aa ,web pressmen #d4cc ,web pressmen's assistants #b4ie ,formal apprenticeship is practically unknown4 ,the boy begins as a pressfeeder1 usually on a platen press1 and in the course of time gets to be a platen pressman4 ,a knowledge of platen presswork does not qualify a man to run a cylinder press1 and as a rule the platen pressman who wants to change must serve some time as a cylinder pressfeeder and cylinder pressman's assistant4 ,there is no organized system for training beginners4 ,the boy who wants to become a pressman must pick up the trade through experience and practice1 the length of time required depending chiefly on how frequently changes occur among the force of pressmen employed in the shop4 ,,the ,,bindery ,the bindery is the only department of the industry in which any considerable number of women are employed4 ,some of the occupations1 such as gathering1 sewing1 and stitching1 are practically monopolized by women4 ,they are also employed extensively in hand and machine folding4 ,about one-fifth are gatherers and one-fifth sewers and stitchers4 ,the other three-fifths are distributed among a number of occupations usually classed as general bindery work4 ,the occupations in which men predominate are forwarding1 ruling1 and finishing1 and cutting4 ,the forwarders comprise more than one-fourth of the total number of men engaged in bindery work4 ,the other two skilled trades--ruling and finishing--give employment to about #ce men each4 ,the average daily earnings in the various occupations1 based on returns from #dd establishments1 were as shown in ,table #bi4 ,,table #bi4--;,,average ,,daily ,,earnings ,,of ,,bindery ,,workers1 #aiae ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,workers in trade ,men ,women ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,foremen #d4gh #b4je ,rulers #c4ef 44 ,finishers #c4ea 44 ,forwarders #c4bc 44 ,cutters #c4ba 44 ,machine-folders #b4ha #a4di ,wire-stitchers 44 #a4eg ,apprentices #a4ec 44 ,gatherers 44 #a4eb ,sewers 44 #a4eb ,other bindery operatives #a4dj #a4ea ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,on account of the seasonal character of the work considerable time is lost through unemployment1 particularly in those occupations in which women predominate4 ,beginners in these occupations in which the majority of the women are employed1 start on folding or pasting1 and as opportunity presents1 gradually acquire practice in the higher grades of work1 such as gathering and machine operating4 ,there are some traces of the apprenticeship system in forwarding1 ruling1 and finishing1 but these trades are so small that all of them combined require only a very few new workers each year4 ,,other ,,occupations ,other departments of the printing industry are photoengraving1 stereotyping1 electrotyping1 and lithographing4 ,they give employment to approximately #gjj workers1 distributed among more than #bj distinct trades1 requiring the most diverse sorts of skill1 knowledge1 and training4 ,there are about #ajj men in the city engaged in the different processes of photoengraving4 ,nearly all of the stereotypers1 numbering from #fj to #gj1 are employed in newspaper offices4 ,there are about #abe electrotypers and #djj lithographers4 ,the labor conditions closely approximate those found in other departments of the industry4 ,average wages for the different occupations are shown in ,table #cj4 ,,table #cj4--;,,average ,,daily ,,earnings ,,in ,,photoengraving1 ,,stereotyping1 ,,electrotyping1 ,,and ,,lithographing ,,occupations1 #aiae ,average ,workers in trade daily earnings ,photoengraving ,artists #f4cb ,photographers #d4fi ,etchers #d4eb ,routers #d4be ,finishers #d4ba ,proofers #c4fi ,strippers #c4fa ,blockers #b4cf ,apprentices #a4di ,art apprentices #a4bg ,stereotyping #d4jj ,electrotyping ,molders #d4da ,finishers #d4ja ,casters #c4ah ,routers #c4ag ,builders #c4ac ,blockers #b4je ,batterymen #a4ig ,case fillers #a4ei ,apprentices #a4aj ,lithographing ,lettermen #f4fc ,artists #f4da ,pressroom foremen #e4hj ,grainers #d4gc ,engravers #d4ce ,pressmen #c4ia ,transferers and proofers #c4da ,pressroom apprentices #b4hj ,tracers #b4fc ,stone polishers #b4ec ,pressfeeders #a4gb ,other apprentices #a4ei ,artist apprentices #a4bc ,flyboys #a4aj ,there is no well organized system for training apprentices in photoengraving1 stereotyping1 and electrotyping1 or in any of the lithographic trades1 except that of poster artist1 in which an efficient and strictly regulated system of apprenticeship is maintained4 ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,training ,the report maintains that up to the end of the compulsory attendance period school training preparatory to entering the printing trades must be of the most general sort1 due to the fact that in the average elementary school the number of boys who are likely to become printers is too small to form special classes4 ,for example1 in an elementary school of #a1jjj pupils the number of boys #ab years old and over to whom instruction in printing would be of value from the standpoint of future vocational utility1 would probably not exceed two4 ,while admitting the advantages of the junior high school for the purposes of vocational training1 the report points out that even in a school where only pupils of the upper grades are admitted1 the number who are likely to become printers is still too small to warrant special instruction4 ,in a junior high school of #a1jjj pupils not more than nine boys are likely to become printers4 ,the report recommends a general industrial course during the junior high school period4 ,what the boys need at this time is practice in the application of mathematics1 drawing1 and elementary science to industrial problems4 ,shop equipment should be selected with this object in mind4 ,it is doubtful whether it should include a printing shop1 for while such a shop would be useful to the few boys who will become printers1 it would be of little value in training for other industries4 ,the report suggests as subjects which should be included in the general industrial course practice in handling and assembling machinery1 the study of color harmony1 and the principles of design in connection with the work in drawing1 the use of printing shop problems in applied mathematics1 and thorough instruction in spelling1 punctuation1 and the division of words4 ,it also recommends the course of industrial information referred to in previous chapters4 ,the establishment of a two year printing course in a separate vocational school is recommended to meet the need for specialized instruction from the end of the compulsory period to the apprentice entering age4 ,the printing trades are relatively small and it is only by concentrating in a single school plant all the boys who may wish to enter them that specialized training can be made practicable4 ,in this way it would be possible to secure classes of from #fj to #ajj boys each for such trades as composition and presswork4 ,the report emphasizes the need for instruction in trade theory as against practice on specific operations4 ,it points out that the boys will have plenty of opportunity after they go to work to acquire speed and manual skill1 while they have little chance1 under modern shop conditions1 to obtain an understanding of the relation of drawing1 physics1 chemistry1 mathematics1 and art to their work4 ,the only trade extension training offered by the public schools at the present time is that given in the technical night schools4 ,during the second term of #aiae-af there were #bh persons enrolled in the technical night school printing class4 ,of these #bh persons three were journeymen printers1 five described themselves as helpers1 #aa were apprentices1 one was employed in the office of a printing establishment1 and eight were engaged in occupations unrelated to printing4 ,no special provision is made for the apprentices4 ,the course1 which includes hand composition1 a little press work1 and lectures on trade subjects1 is planned to help broaden the shop training of those working at the trade4 ,that it does so to any considerable extent is doubtful4 ,too much of the time is devoted to hand work and practice on operations which the boys can easily learn in the shops4 ,it is believed that the plan followed in the evening apprentice course prescribed by the ,international ,typographical ,union1 in which no shop equipment or apparatus is used1 is better adapted to the needs of boys employed in the trade4 ,the course consists of #df lessons in ,english1 lettering1 design1 color harmony1 job composition1 and imposition for machine1 and hand folding4 ,the classes are taught by journeymen teachers4 ,in ,february #aiaf about #ajj students were enrolled1 of whom approximately one-third were apprentices and two-thirds journeymen4 ,,cleveland ,,education ,,survey ,,reports ,these reports can be secured from the ,survey ,committee of the ,cleveland ,foundation1 ,cleveland1 ,ohio4 ,they will be sent postpaid for #be cents per volume with the exception of ,measuring the ,work of the ,public ,schools by ,judd1 ,the ,cleveland ,school ,survey by ,ayres1 and ,wage ,earning and ,education by ,lutz4 ,these three volumes will be sent for #ej cents each4 ,all of these reports may be secured at the same rates from the ,division of ,education of the ,russell ,sage ,foundation1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,child ,accounting in the ,public ,schools--,ayres4 ,educational ,extension--,perry4 ,education through ,recreation--,johnson4 ,financing the ,public ,schools--,clark4 ,health ,work in the ,public ,schools--,ayres4 ,household ,arts and ,school ,lunches--,boughton4 ,measuring the ,work of the ,public ,schools--,judd4 ,overcrowded ,schools and the ,platoon ,plan--,hartwell4 ,school ,buildings and ,equipment--,ayres4 ,schools and ,classes for ,exceptional ,children--,mitchell4 ,school ,organization and ,administration--,ayres4 ,the ,public ,library and the ,public ,schools--,ayres and ,mc,kinnie4 ,the ,school and the ,immigrant--,miller4 ,the ,teaching ,staff--,jessup4 ,what the ,schools ,teach and ,might ,teach--,bobbitt4 ,the ,cleveland ,school ,survey 7,summary7--,ayres4 99 99 99 99 99 ,boys and ,girls in ,commercial ,work--,stevens4 ,department ,store ,occupations--,o',leary4 ,dressmaking and ,millinery--,bryner4 ,railroad and ,street ,transportation--,fleming4 ,the ,building ,trades--,shaw4 ,the ,garment ,trades--,bryner4 ,the ,metal ,trades--,lutz4 ,the ,printing ,trades--,shaw4 ,wage ,earning and ,education 7,summary7--,lutz4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,typos ,corrected ,in ,text3 ,table #ae on page #abj3 establishments for estabments page #aid3 car fare for car far page #ae3 employee for employe 99 99 99 99 99