,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #faa ,,new ,,york1 ,,september #ag1 #ahhg ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xxiv41 ,no4 #faa4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,page ,i4 ,,biography4--,the ,new ,statue of ,philip ,lebon4--,biography of the ,french pioneer inventor of gas lighting1 with notes on the recent inauguration of his statue4--#a illustration4 #igeg ,,ii4 ,,chemistry4--,the ,analysis of ,urine4--,an elaborate investigation of the method of analyzing chemically and microscopically this fluid1 with illustrations of the apparatus employed4--#d illustrations #igeh ,,iii4 ,,electricity4--,electrical ,alarm for ,pharmacists4--,an apparatus for indicating to the pharmacist when he removes from the shelf a bottle containing poison4--#b illustrations4 #igec ,electric ,steel ,railways4--,by ,,george ,w4 ,,mansfield4--,a full discussion of the problem of electric railways2 comparison with horse and cable traction4 #igeb ,,iv4 ,,engineering4--,improved ,oscillating ,hydraulic ,motor4--,a small motor for household use1 as for driving sewing machines and other domestic machinery4--#h illustrations4 #igea ,the ,ceara ,harbor ,works4--,a remarkable engineering work now in progress in ,brazil2 the formation of an artificial harbor4--#d illustrations4 #igeb ,v4 ,,geology4--,notes of a ,recent ,visit to ,some of the ,petroleum-,producing ,territories of the ,united ,states and ,canada4--,by ,,boverton ,,redwood1 ,f4,i4,c41 ,f4,c4,s4--,the second portion of this valuable paper1 treating more particularly of ,canadian petroleum4 #igfe ,,vi4 ,,meteorology4--,the ,meteorologiske ,institut at ,upsala1 and ,cloud ,measurements4--,the methods used and results attained in the famous ,upsala observatory under ,profs4 ,ekholm and ,hagstrm2 the measurement of clouds4--#a illustration4 #igfd ,,vii4 ,,miscellaneous4--,drawing ,instrument for ,accurate ,work4--,by ,j4 ,,lehrke4--,a magnifying instrument for fine work and measurements4--#b illustrations4 #iged ,liquid and ,gaseous ,rings4--,notes on the production of vortex rings4--,the different aspects and breaking up of smoke rings4--#f illustrations4 #igfj ,scenes among the ,extinct ,volcanoes of ,rhineland4--,the picturesque features of the geological formations of this region described4--#aj illustrations4 #igfb ,shall ,we ,have a ,national ,horse8--,an eloquent plea by ,,randolph ,,huntington for the production of a good type of animal4--,use of the ,arabian horse as an improver of the breed4 #igfj ,,viii4 ,,naval ,,engineering4--,trial ,trip of the ,ohio4--,the remarkable results attained by the introduction of new boilers and machinery in an ,american steamship4 #igea ,,ix4 ,,physiology4--,apparatus for ,determining ,mechanically the ,reaction ,period of ,hearing4--,an interesting study of the time of transmission of an impulse through the sensor and motor nerves4--#a illustration4 #igec ,x4 ,,sanitation4--,a ,new ,disinfector4--,description of a new apparatus for disinfecting by superheated steam and air1 with tabular statement of elaborate tests made with it4--#b illustrations4 #iged ,trees from a ,sanitary ,aspect4--,by ,,charles ,,roberts1 ,f4,r4,c4,s41 etc4--,the sanitary value of trees considered by this eminent sanitarian4--,the uses and abuses of shade near houses4 #igfe ,,xi4 ,,technology4--,a ,new ,alkali ,process4--,the ,parnell ,simpson process of making carbonate of soda1 combining the features of the ,leblanc and ammonia methods4 #igee ,a ,new ,process for the ,distillation and ,concentration of ,chemical ,liquids4--,by ,,george ,,anderson1 of ,london4--,an apparatus and process especially adapted to the manufacture of sulphate of ammonia4--,the invention of ,alex4 ,angus ,croll described4--#a illustration4 #igeg ,barlow's ,machine for ,moulding ,candles4--,a new apparatus for candle manufacture1 fully described and illustrated4--#e illustrations4 #iged ,temperature of ,gas ,distillation4--,the mooted question discussed by ,mr4 ,,wm4 ,,foulis1 the eminent gas engineer4 #igef ,the ,largest ,black ,ash ,furnace in the ,world4--,note of a recent furnace for use in the ,leblanc process of soda manufacture4 #igef 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improved ,,oscillating ,,hydraulic ,,motor4 ,the motor of ,,mm4 ,schaltenbrand ,moller is adapted for use for household purposes1 where small power is required1 as in driving sewing machines4 ,fig4 #a shows the motor with all its parts in side elevation1 the flywheel and head rest being in section4 ,fig4 #b is a side view1 with the air reservoir and distribution valve in section through the line #a-b4 ,figs4 #c and #d represent the same apparatus1 but without support1 as where it is to be used on the table of a sewing machine1 with the crank of the motor directly fastened to the flywheel of the sewing machine4 ,fig4 #e is a plan or horizontal section at the level of the line #c-d1 and ,fig4 #f is a section passing through the same line1 but only including the cylinder and axis of the distributing valve4 ,fig4 #g is a horizontal section of the button of the cock through the line #e-f of ,fig4 #c4 ,finally1 ,fig4 #h shows in detail1 plan1 and elevation the arrangement of the starting valve4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #a through #h ,,improved ,,oscillating ,,hydraulic ,,motor4 ,this little motor does not show any new principle4 ,it uses the old oscillating cylinder1 but it embraces in its construction ingenious details which render its application very simple and very easy1 especially1 as we have already said1 to sewing machines4 ,in the first place1 the oscillating bronze cylinder1 ,a1 is cast in one piece with the distribution cock1 a1 ,fig4 #c1 and its seat1 b1 also of bronze1 is adjusted and fastened by means of the screw1 b1 to the air reservoir1 ,c'1 cast with its cistern1 ,c1 acting as foundation or bed plate for the motor4 ,this cistern is held either on the base of the cast iron bearing frame1 ,d1 of the main shaft1 d1 d1 ,figs4 #a and #b1 or directly on the sewing machine table1 ,figs4 #c and #d1 by means of two pins1 e and e'1 so that it can oscillate about an axis which is perpendicular to the shaft1 d1 to which is attached the disk1 ,f1 carrying the crank4 ,this arrangement of parts1 in combination with the horizontal axis of the distribution valve and with the piston rod1 g1 considered as a vertical axis of rotation1 forms a species of universal joint between the crank pin and the table1 so that it can be put in place without adjustment by any workman1 who only has to screw up the two screws1 h1 to fasten to the table the standard1 ,e1 and the piece1 ,e'1 in which are screwed the pivots1 e and e'1 which support the tank1 and this all the rest of the motor4 ,as is seen more clearly in ,fig4 #b1 the water under pressure enters by the pipe1 c1 to which is attached a small tube of ,india rubber1 and leaves by the pipe1 c'1 and is carried away by another ,india rubber tube4 ,the openings of the distribution cock are symmetrically pierced in the seat and plug1 which latter is divided internally by a horizontal diaphragm so arranged that at each oscillation communication is established alternately above and below the piston4 ,so that it can be started or stopped quickly1 the opening and closing of the throttle valve1 i 7,fig4 #b71 is effected by a single pulling movement upon the handle1 ,i1 and this draws out the valve horizontally4 ,for this end the lever is pivoted upon the extremity of the valve stem1 and ends in a bar engaging with a fork which acts as its fulcrum4 ,this fork is cast in one piece with the plug1 ,j1 which closes the opening through which the valve is put in place1 as shown in detail in ,fig4 #h4 ,to prevent the lever from spinning out of the fork when it is pulled or pushed1 this lever is prevented from turning by the valve stem1 provided for this purpose with a double rib1 i' 7,figs4 #b and #h71 which engages in slots in one piece1 j1 secured in the interior of the plug1 ,j4 ,lest the friction of the conical distribution valve oscillating with the cylinder should occasion a loss of power1 care is taken to leave the key free in its seat1 b1 by not forcing the pivot1 k 7,figs4 #a1 #c1 and #e71 whose position in its seat is regulated by the screw1 k'4 ,it follows that a very slight escape of water may be produced1 but that does no harm1 as it is caught in the reservoir1 ,c1 provided with a little pipe1 ,k 7,figs4 #a and #c71 to carry it away4 ,to maintain proper relations between the pressure of the water1 or the work it is called upon to do1 and the motor1 the quantity of water introduced into the cylinder at each stroke of the piston is regulated by adjusting the length of stroke by the crank pin4 ,for this end the course of the latter is made variable by means of the piece1 f1 adjusted by set-screw in the interior of the disk1 ,f 7,figs4 #c and #g71 and tapped for the reception of a screw terminated by a milled button1 f4 ,if this button is turned1 it moves the piece1 f1 and therefore regulates the distance of the crank pin1 g'1 to which the piston rod1 g1 is attached 7,fig4 #c7 from the center of rotation4 ,when the motor is arranged as shown in ,figs4 #a and #b1 or for the transmission of motion by means of a band wheel1 p1 cast in one with the flywheel1 ,p1 the disk which receives the crank pin of variable position is fixed directly upon the axle1 d1 of the same flywheel carried by the support1 ,d2 but when the motor can be applied directly1 as is the case for example in the ,singer sewing machine1 upon the axle of the machine1 no support is used1 and the arrangement shown in ,figs4 #c and #d is adopted4 ,in this case the disk1 ,f'1 is cast with three arms which serve1 by means of a screw1 to fasten it to the flywheel carried by the axle of the sewing machine4 ,when the motor is used on the upper stories of buildings1 the changes of speed incidental to drawing the water from the lower stories from the same pipe can be compensated by the use of an accumulator4 ,this accessory apparatus is composed of a reservoir of a capacity of #aj liters or more1 intercalated in the pipe which supplies the motor1 so that the water coming from the principal pipe enters the bottom of this reservoir1 passing through an ,india rubber valve opening inward1 the supply for the motor coming through a tube always open and placed above this valve4 ,the air trapped in the accumulator is compressed by the water1 and when the pressure in the pipe decreases1 the valve closes and the compressed air drives the water through the motor with decreasing pressure until normal pressure is re-established in the pipes4--,publication ,industrielle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,trial ,,trip ,,of ,,the ,,ohio4 ,some important trials of the new machinery of the screw steamer ,ohio1 belonging to the ,international ,navigation ,company1 have recently taken place on the ,clyde4 ,the ,ohio is an ,american built steamer measuring #cdc ft4 by #dc ft4 by #cd ft4 #f in41 and of #c1cbe tons gross4 ,she has been entirely refitted with new engines and boilers by ,messrs4 ,james ,howden ,co41 ,glasgow1 who also rearranged the bunker1 machinery1 and hold spaces1 so as to give the important advantage of increased cargo accommodation obtainable from the use of their improved machinery1 which occupies considerably less space than the engines and boilers of the same power which have been replaced4 ,the new engines are of the triple expansion type1 and the boilers1 which are designed for supplying steam of #aej lb4 pressure1 are worked on ,howden's system of forced draught1 which combines increased power with high economy in fuel4 ,the object of the owners in refitting the ,ohio was to test the capability and economy of this system of forced draught on a sufficient scale to guide them in dealing with steamships of the largest class and great power4 ,in the refit of the ,ohio the boilers were designed to work with a very moderate air pressure1 this being sufficient for the power required by the contract4 ,the combined power and economy1 however1 guaranteed by ,messrs4 ,howden ,co4 for the use of their system of forced draught was higher than has hitherto been attempted in any steamship1 and sufficient1 if attained1 to prove the large reduction that could safely be made in the number and size of boilers for the use of the system1 and the quantity of coal required to produce a given power4 ,the contract for the refit of the steamer required that #b1ajj indicated horse power 7which was the maximum power of the engines removed7 should be maintained during the trial on a consumption of #a4be lb4 of coal per indicated horse power per hour4 ,originally the boilers of the ,ohio1 from which this power was produced1 were three in number1 double ended1 #ab ft4 #f in4 in diameter by #ag ft4 #f in4 in length1 having each six furnaces #c ft4 in diameter1 or eighteen furnaces in all1 with an aggregate fire grate area of #cjj square feet4 ,the new boilers1 fitted with the forced draught1 are likewise three in number1 but single ended1 #ac ft4 in diameter by #aa ft4 #b in4 in length1 having each three furnaces #c ft4 #c in4 in diameter1 or nine furnaces in all1 with an aggregate fire grate area of #aab square feet4 ,air for combustion is supplied to the boilers by one of ,messrs4 ,w4,h4 ,allen ,co4's fans1 #e ft4 #f in4 in diameter1 driven direct by an engine having a cylinder #g in4 in diameter with stroke of #d in4 ,the boilers removed had two stoke holds across the ship1 one fore and one aft of the boilers1 while the new boilers have only one stoke hold on the after side4 ,the engines removed have cylinders #eg in4 and #ij in4 in diameter by #dh in4 stroke1 while the new engines have three cylinders #ca in41 #df in41 and #gb in4 in diameter respectively1 with piston stroke of #ea in4 ,during the trials the coals were weighed out under the supervision of the officers of the company1 who also took the record of speed and other data4 ,after running down ,channel for a considerable time1 the trial on the coals weighed out began1 and lasted #d hours #aj minutes1 during which time #aj1hhe lb4 of ,welsh coal were burned1 the trial ending with the same revolutions of engines and the same pressure in boilers with which it began4 ,the mean indicated horse power1 calculated from the mean of seven sets of indicator cards1 taken during the trial1 and the mean revolutions per minute1 found by dividing the total revolutions recorded on the engine counter by the minutes in the period of the trial1 amounted to #b1abd1 thus making the consumption #a4bc lb4 per indicated horse power per hour1 and the power per square foot of fire grate almost exactly #ai indicated horse power4 ,while testing the indicated horse power and consumption of coal1 the steamer ran to and fro between the ,cloch and ,cumbrae lights1 and also made several runs on the measured mile at ,skelmorlie1 from which the mean speed of the vessel was found to be #ad4ab knots per hour4 ,the remarkably high results obtained were most satisfactory to the representatives of the owners1 and a large party of experts on board congratulated ,mr4 ,howden on the successful fulfillment of the onerous guarantees undertaken4--,engineering4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,ceara ,,harbor ,,works4 ,the works illustrated by the engravings are now being constructed under a concession from the imperial government of ,brazil4 ,the province of ,ceara has an area of about #ej1jjj square miles1 and is one of the richest in ,brazil4 ,its produce comprises sugar1 coffee1 cocoa1 cotton1 tobacco1 spices1 fruit1 cabinet and dye woods1 ,india rubber1 etc4 ,its population at the last census1 taken in #ahgg1 amounted to #ieb1fbd inhabitants1 that of the capital1 the city and port of ,ceara1 being about #dj1jjj4 ,although ,ceara is the principal seaport at which lines of ,english1 ,french1 ,american1 ,brazilian1 and other steamers regularly call1 prior to the commencement of the harbor improvements it was almost an open roadstead1 passengers and goods having to be conveyed by lighters and boats between vessels and the shore4 ,the official statistics of the trade and shipping of the port show that an income of #ce1gej per annum will be collected by the ,ceara harbor corporation from the dues which they are authorized by their concession to charge on all imports and exports and on the vessels using the port and from the rent of the bonded warehouses4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,harbor ,,works1 ,,ceara1 ,,brazil4 ,the drawings given here show the nature of the works1 which are of a simple character4 ,the depth of water along the principal quay1 which is being constructed of solid concrete1 and is connected with the shore by an iron and steel viaduct over #gej ft4 in length--which is already completed--will be #ai ft4 at low water and #be ft4 at high4 ,this quay and breakwater is shown in perspective1 in plan1 and in section1 and is of a very heavy section1 as will be gathered by the scale given immediately below it4 ,meanwhile the landing of cargo is temporarily carried on at the end of the viaduct1 which at high tide has a depth of about #bj ft4 of water4 ,the custom house and bonded warehouses are being built of the fine granite obtained at the ,monguba quarries1 which adjoin the ,baturite railway1 about sixteen miles from the port4 ,a new incline has also been constructed from the rail way down to the port4 ,the line has been laid along the viaduct1 and will be extended over the quays as soon as they are completed4 ,the concrete1 of which a large quantity is being used1 is mixed by ,carey ,latham's patent mixers1 and the contractors have supplied the very large and complete plant for carrying out the operations4 ,the engineer to the corporation is ,mr4 ,r4,e4 ,wilson1 ,m4 ,inst4 ,c4,e41 ,westminster1 and his resident at ,ceara is ,mr4 ,r4,t4,h4 ,saunders1 ,m4 ,inst4 ,c4,e4 ,the contractors for the work are ,messrs4 ,punchard1 ,mc,taggart ,co41 their representative at ,ceara being ,mr4 ,george ,wilson1 ,m4 ,inst4 ,c4,e4--,the ,engineer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,electric ,,street ,,railroads4 ,,by ,,george ,w4 ,,mansfield4 ,why should we prefer electricity as the propelling agent of our street cars over all other known methods8 ,i answer1 without hesitation1 because it is the best1 and being the best is the cheapest4 ,briefly ,i will present the grounds upon which ,i take my stand4 ,to-day the only methods for tramway service are three in number3 ,horses1 with a history of fifty years and over2 cables1 with a history of fifteen years2 and electricity1 with a history of two years4 ,i give the latter two years on the basis of the oldest electric street railroad in existence to-day1 and that is the ,baltimore railroad1 equipped with the ,daft system4 ,the main points for consideration common to each are six in number3 #ast4 ,obtaining of franchise4 #b;d4 ,construction of buildings1 viz41 engine house or stable4 #c;d4 ,equipment--rolling stock1 horses1 engines and dynamos4 #dth4 ,construction of tramway4 #eth4 ,cost of operation4 #fth4 ,individual characteristics and advantages4 ,each of these requires a paper by itself1 but in as concise a way as possible1 presenting only the salient reasons and figures1 ,i shall endeavor to embody it in one4 #ast4 ,obtaining of franchise4 ,i assume the municipal officers and the promoters honest men4 ,it is the universal settled conviction that a street car propelled with certainty and promptness by mechanical means is infinitely to be preferred to horses4 ,hence1 if this guarantee can be given1 there need be no fear from the other side of the house4 ,years of experience prove that this guarantee can be given4 ,the mechanical methods are electricity and the cable4 ,to suit local conditions the former has three general applications--overhead1 underground1 and accumulator systems2 while the latter has but one1 the underground4 ,hence1 the former1 electricity1 has three chances to the latter's one to meet the whims1 opinions1 or decisions of municipal authorities4 ,other advantages accruing from mechanical methods are cleaner streets1 absence of noise1 quick time1 no blockades1 no stables accumulating filth and breeding pestilence1 and lastly the great moral sympathetic feeling for man's most faithful and valuable servant1 the horse4 ,these all are directly in favor of obtaining the right franchise4 ,the three general ways of obtaining the same are a definite payment of cash to the authorities1 a guarantee of an annual payment of a certain per cent4 of the earnings1 and lastly a combination of the two4 ,for the city or town the latter way is the safest1 and the best1 all things considered4 ,as electricity is mechanical1 and as it can be shown that it is the cheapest to construct and most economical1 and has three chances to operate1 it stands by far the most likely to obtain the franchise4 #b;d4 ,construction of buildings4 ,the governing factors under this head are the local land valuation and tax4 ,the system necessitating a spread eagle policy on the land question will cost4 ,what could be a more perfect illustration than the horse railroad system8 ,the motive power of the ,new ,york ,central ,railroad between ,new ,york and ,albany could be comfortably stowed in the barns of some of the ,new ,york ,city street railways4 ,what a contrast6 ,the real estate1 buildings1 and fixtures of the ,third ,ave4 line are valued at #a1ebd1jjj1 and what buildings6 ,cattle sheds in the metropolis of ,america4 ,surely they did not cost a tithe of this great sum4 ,what did8 ,the land1 a whole block and more4 ,henry ,george advocates might find food for thought here4 ,all this is true of the other lines in every city in the ,union4 ,enormous expenditures for land4 ,a good one half of their capital sunk in purchasing the necessary room4 ,go where you will1 a good fifty per cent4 of the capital is used for land for their stables4 ,this obviously does not include equipment4 ,how is it with mechanical systems8 ,the land is one of the minor considerations1 the last thing considered4 ,let us look at some figures4 ,from careful examination of many engine plants1 considering the ratio between a certain number of horses with their necessary adjuncts and a steam plant of numerically equal power1 ,i find it stands as #a to #cj4 ,that is1 a steam plant complete of #cj horse power capacity would need only one thirtieth the floor space of thirty horses4 ,with larger powers this ratio is still greater1 and from one estimate ,i found that it stood as #a to #ajh1 i4e41 for horses ,i should have to have #ajh times more floor space than for an equal number of mechanical horse power4 ,it must be remembered also that the mechanical horse power is #ej per cent4 greater than the best animal horsepower4 ,from one maker1 taking the engine alone1 ,i found that a rated #ajj horse power engine1 guaranteed in every particular1 would have ample room in the stall for one horse in the average stable4 ,another instance showed that ,i could get a steam plant complete1 engine1 boiler1 etc41 of #ej horse power1 in a space #e by #f feet1 which is smaller than the average stall4 ,here is shown the enormous saving in land purchase4 ,for car room a building several stories high would answer perfectly1 since quick-hoisting elevators could be put in and the tracks on each floor have wire connections with the dynamos1 so that the cars could be run across the floor to where you please1 facilitating storage and dispensing with handling4 ,this would not be possible with the cable4 ,comparing electricity and cable on this point1 all things favor the former clearly and beyond all question4 ,furthermore1 if locality so favored1 the subject of land purchase for electricity could be tabooed entirely1 since distance can be so readily overcome4 ,way out in the suburbs or back in the country by the side of some waterfall1 your station might be1 while the current is sent to the great city over heavy conductors4 ,here land rent or tax would be at the minimum4 ,with horses or cable plainly proximity must be had4 ,it is estimated that the land occupied by the ,madison ,avenue line of ,new ,york ,city is worth the cost of #dj miles of ordinary double track4 #c;d4 ,equipment at station and rolling stock4 ,the rolling stock would be in each case approximately the same4 ,consisting of cars of equal seating capacity1 the difference of cost would be the necessary attachments for the mechanical systems4 ,a first class #af foot horse car costs #a1bjj2 ,a first class #af foot cable car costs about #a1hjj2 and ,a first class #af foot electric car costs about #b1bjj4 ,rates3 ,electricity1 #a2 horse1 #j4ed2 cable1 #j4ha4 ,i believe1 however1 that the mechanical system is bound to work material changes in car construction1 in fact it is almost imperative4 ,in all probability a car with #ae to #bj per cent4 greater seating capacity than the horse car can be constructed on a different plan for the price given for the electric car4 ,this price1 it must be noted1 is the one for attachment of motor to the present horse car4 ,the horse cars produced to-day are most carefully planned1 thoroughly built1 and admirably adapted to their service1 but the inexorable law of progress decrees their extinction1 for something better4 ,motive power4 ,to represent clearly the costs1 etc41 of the three systems under this head1 let us assume a road4 ,take1 if you please1 a double line #f miles long1 and operating #bd cars with speed of #f miles an hour1 and running #bj hours out of #bd4 ,this would call for #dh horses on the track and #aib horses in the stables1 or a total of #bdj horses2 at #afj1 counting harness1 etc41 this would cost #ch1djj4 ,with electricity we will proceed as follows3 ,the weight of car with #cj passengers and motor attachments would be about #i1jjj lb4 ,it is easily calculated that to propel the same at the specified rate on a level would take about #a4ge horse power1 a total of #db horse power4 ,to make allowances for grades we can calculate that1 if the entire road was one gradient of three per cent41 each car would take about #f4d horse power1 or since only #ab are going up1 a total of #gf4h horse power4 ,it will be fair now to take the average of these two1 or #ei4d horse power for an average road4 ,allowing #ce per cent4 loss from engine to work done in actually propelling car1 we would have to have #ia4c horse power4 ,allowing a good safety factor1 it would be well to put in a #aej horse power plant4 ,this would cost complete #g1jjj2 necessary dynamos1 #c1ejj4 ,among these figures should be counted cost of conductor of sufficient size to allow of but three per cent4 in energy to overcome its resistance4 ,this ,i have calculated using a potential of #fjj volts2 and find that the total cost of six miles copper conductor is #af1jjj with above conditions4 ,the total cost is now seen to be #bf1ejj4 ,as to cables1 since the recovery of energy available for tractive purposes is but #ce percent41 then the engine of #afi horse power represents what must be had4 ,allowing a generous factor of safety1 let us say that a #bej is all sufficient4 ,this would cost complete and erected about #ab1jjj4 ,the cable would cost #ae4jjj1 and gears1 etc41 #h1jjj1 making a total of #ce1jjj4 ,the ratio of the three systems stands3 ,electricity1 #a2 cable1 #a4ji2 horse1 #a4de4 #dth4 ,construction of tramway4 ,figures upon this point must necessarily be either averages or approximations4 ,the nature of the locality socially1 naturally1 and we grieve to say it1 politically1 has a strong influence upon its construction4 ,estimating on single track only1 a horse road would cost as an average #i1jjj per mile4 ,with electricity we have several methods we can avail ourselves of3 ,surface1 costing about #aj1jjj2 overhead double conductor1 #ae4fif2 underground1 #bc1ejj4 ,with cable but one method1 the underground1 is possible4 ,this cost is variously estimated at from #cj1jjj to #aaj1jjj per mile2 however1 the latter figure is excessive4 ,a fair average would be #ce1jjj4 ,the ratio of constructions could be fairly placed as follows1 putting electricity as #a1 by taking the average of the three methods at #af1gcb3 ,horse road1 #j4ec2 cable1 #b4ji4 ,unquestionably a great majority of roads of the past have not been constructions of engineering1 and of all places requiring care1 skill1 and engineering1 the street roads are the places4 #eth4 ,cost of operation4 ,a fair figure for cost of one horse for one year is #bbj4 ,for electricity1 allowing #ce per cent4 loss in transmission1 etc41 #a4ed horsepower would be the work done by engine to get #a horse power on the track4 ,there are to-day plenty of steam plants producing #a horse power for work at from #cj to #ej per annum4 ,take the average1 #dj4 ,with electricity then #fe would well represent the price of producing #a4ed horsepower4 ,with cable these figures would hold true1 but more work is required4 ,a greater loss is entailed4 ,since but #cb per cent4 is recovered1 the figure for #a horse power on the track would be #b4hf horse power4 ,at the above rates this would be #aaj per horse power per year4 ,our ratio here is3 ,electricity1 #a2 cables1 #a4ga2 horses1 #c4ch4 ,this is by no means the whole of the story1 for just here must we compute the depreciation and hence repairs due to time4 ,let us take the road figured on heretofore1 and make three tables4 ,in the following ,i have under each system taken the estimated costs1 allowed a fair per cent4 for depreciation1 summed up and obtained the ratios4 ,any figure then like interest1 etc41 which would not affect ratios1 ,i have omitted4 ,,electricity4 ,conductors1 #a per cent4 #afj4jj ,engine and dynamos1 #e per cent4 #ebe4jj ,cars1 #aj per cent4 #e1bhj4jj ,roadway1 #aj per cent4 #b1jjg4jj ----------- ,total4 #g1igb4jj ,,horses4 ,horses and appurtenances1 #bj per cent4 #g1ghj4jj ,cars1 #aj per cent4 #b1hhj4jj ,roadway1 etc41 #aj per cent4 #c1ejj4jj ----------- ,total4 #aa1gdj4jj ,,cables4 ,cable1 #ej per cent4 #g1ejj4jj ,engine and boiler1 etc41 #e per cent4 #a1jjj4jj ,cars1 #aj per cent4 #d1cbj4jj ,roadway1 #aj per cent4 #c1ejj4jj ------------ ,total4 #af1cbj4jj ,these totals put in ratio are as follows3 ,electricity1 #a2 cable1 #b4jd2 and horses1 #a4dg4 ,placing all the ratios obtained in a table1 we have the following3 ,electricity4 ,horses4 ,cables4 ,depreciation4 #a #a4dg #b4jd ,operating expenses4 #a #c4ch #a4ga ,construction of tramway4 #a #j4ec #b4ji ,motors1 cars1 etc4 #a #a4fc #a4ba ,cars4 #a #j4ed #j4ha --- ---- ---- ,totals4 #e #g4ee #g4hf ,average4 #a #a4ea #a4eg ,now this table must stand by itself for what it represents1 and no more4 ,it will be noted that ,i have not introduced the subject of men4 ,this would unquestionably show favorably for both electricity and cable4 ,again1 note1 please1 that this table does not represent your profits exactly as per ratios4 ,i have to get them operated the same number of cars and under the same headway4 ,now with either electricity or cable a higher rate of speed can be maintained with but a very small proportionate increase of cost4 ,this means quicker time1 more trips1 and greater receipts4 ,evidently1 as a financial investment1 even if cost of maintenance and operating is greater1 the cable is to be preferred to horses4 ,how is it with electricity8 ,the ratios of expenses1 etc41 stand for themselves1 the law of speed is far simpler than with cable1 bringing even greater receipts1 and again in practice the saving of coal in proportion to work done on track day or night is immensely more economical than with the cable4 ,this point will be touched upon later4 #fth4 ,individual characteristics and advantages4 ,under this head a few of the salient features of each system will be mentioned4 ,as the possibilities and limitations of the horse railroad system are1 however1 so well known1 it is needless to go over them4 ,i therefore will confine myself to the electric and cable systems4 ,with electricity single track lines1 crooked streets1 all descriptions of turnouts1 crossings1 branches1 etc41 are as easy to construct and operate as with horses4 ,with the cable system they are either impossible or enormously expensive4 ,with electricity the line is not a unit1 so that the complete stoppage of the whole line is absolutely impossible4 ,with cable it is a unit and it is possible4 ,with electricity the life of the conductor is infinite2 with cable1 two years4 ,with electricity1 and the improvements now being made in traction wheels1 etc41 the heaviest grades are as easily surmounted as with the cable2 although it is true that for grades exceptional in character1 such as #bj per cent4 grades or over1 ,i should be willing to give the contract to cable4 ,with electricity any speed can be attained by the individual cars4 ,they are absolutely independent4 ,lost time can be made up1 etc4 ,with cable the cars are dependent upon speed of cable4 ,lost time cannot be made up except on down grades4 ,with electricity work done by engine is synchronous with work done on the track at any time of the day or night1 with the loss of #ce per cent4 due to the conversions in each case4 ,in other words1 for every horse power of useful work done on track the engine does #a4ed horse power4 ,this ratio is constant4 ,it makes no difference whether #a or #ajj horse power of work is necessary on the track1 the engine has but to do #ce per cent4 in excess4 ,with cable1 if #a horse power of work is all that is required on the track1 the engine may be doing #be horse power to get that amount there through the gears and cable4 ,with heavier loads this is somewhat diminished1 but about the very best figure that can be put forth is but #ce per cent4 recovery1 with #fe per cent4 loss--the exact converse of electricity under heavy loads4--,street ,railway ,journal4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,electrical ,,alarm ,,for ,,pharmacies4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,to avoid the errors which sometimes occur in a pharmacy or in a laboratory1 where one bottle is taken for another1 especially in the case of those containing highly poisonous or dangerous substances1 a simple arrangement1 shown in the cuts1 has been proposed4 ,the apparatus1 in principle1 is a species of electrical alarm1 in circuit with an ordinary house telegraph line4 ,it consists essentially1 as shown in ,fig4 #a1 of a battery1 bell1 and pedestal1 provided with an electric contact on which the flask rests4 ,fig4 #b shows this contact or break piece4 ,on a series of pedestals thus arranged and intercalated in the same circuit the flasks containing poisonous or dangerous substances1 whose inadvertent handling might cause trouble1 are placed4 ,in removing one of these flasks the circuit is closed1 and the electric bell notifies the pharmacist of the danger attendant on the use of the substances contained in the flask referred to1 thus guarding against the errors due to carelessness1 and quite too frequent1 especially in pharmacies4--,chronica ,cientifica4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,apparatus ,,for ,,determining ,,mechanically ,,the ,,reaction ,,period ,,of ,,hearing4 ,the following apparatus1 constructed after the designs of ,dr4 ,loeb1 assistant in the ,physiological ,institute at ,wurzburg1 is for the purpose of measuring the reaction period of hearing1 that is1 the period which elapses between the time when a sound wave affects the auditory nerve and is thence transferred to the brain1 then affecting the consciousness1 and the moment when the motor nerves can be thrown into action by the will4 ,it is1 therefore1 necessary to fix both instants--when the sound is produced and when the observer has1 from its warning1 received the impulse so as to press down a key4 ,the great advantage of this instrument over others adapted for the same end consists in this1 that the determination in its essentials is effected entirely by mechanism1 and1 therefore1 the graphic results attained by it are free from all sources of error1 which errors other methods always introduce to a greater or less extent4 ,thus its results are quite unexceptionable4 ,illustration3 ,,reaction ,,period ,,of ,,hearing4 ,the apparatus shown in the cut rests on three feet1 two of them consisting of strong screws1 so that by aid of the circular level1 l1 on the base plate1 it can be adjusted perfectly level4 ,on a little shelf attached to a square rod1 seen on the left of the instrument1 rising from the base plate1 and near its top1 is a horizontal tube1 through which1 by a bulb not shown in the cut1 a blast of air can be blown4 ,in front of the other opening of the tube is a horizontal fork of ebonite1 whose arms carry on the side opposite the tube a metallic ball4 ,through the arms of the fork pass the wires of the circuit of an electric battery4 ,these terminate in two rounded ends1 which1 when the arms approach each other1 are touched by the metallic ball1 so that the latter also closes the metallic circuit4 ,by the blast of air a wooden wedge contained in the tube is driven between the arms of the fork1 the ball falls from them1 and the electric stream is cut off4 ,the ball drops upon the inclined metallic plate1 p1 bounces off it1 and is received in a little sack1 ,s4 ,when the observer hears the ball strike the plate1 he presses on the key1 t1 and the interval between the two instants1 namely1 the falling of the ball upon the plate and the pressing of the key1 t1 is what is to be mechanically fixed and measured4 ,the electric current1 which is closed by the ball as long as it lies on the jaws of the fork1 flows around the arms of the electro-magnet1 m1 which continually attracts an armature fastened to a lever arm1 and coming over the poles of the magnet4 ,if the circuit is broken by the fall of the ball1 the armature at once rises upward4 ,by this a spring contained in the tube1 g1 and hitherto kept compressed1 is released1 which gives a shock to the right angled frame1 a a1 containing a blackened or smoked plate of glass1 so that1 following the wire1 b1 acting as a guide1 the plate flies from left to right of the apparatus4 ,to prevent the plate from recoiling1 a catch1 d1 is fastened to the side bar1 c4 ,furthermore1 lest the friction of the wire1 b1 in the guiding apertures of the frame should impair its velocity as it moves from left to right1 it is connected with a weight pan by a cord passing over the pulley1 g1 which is so loaded that by the added velocity with which it strives to fall1 the retardation already alluded to is overcome1 so that the frame moves from left to right with even speed4 ,in front of the frame1 a a1 is the tuning fork1 f1 which as estimated makes #ahd vibrations in a second4 ,by the stylus1 y1 on the upper limb of the fork these oscillations are marked upon the sliding plate of glass as a wave line4 ,lest1 after the first impulses of the fork have been registered1 they should soon die away1 in front of it is an electro-magnet1 ,h1 whose pole-faces near the arms of the tuning fork pass over them4 ,the latter1 to be more strongly affected by the magnet1 are provided with faces of soft iron4 ,to the lower face of the lower arm of the fork a small sharp stylus is fastened1 which1 with each beat of the fork1 comes into contact with the mercury in the little cup1 n1 or a spring used instead of it4 ,this closes an electric circuit1 which passes around the magnet1 thence going through the tuning fork by the binding screw1 k1 and thence by connections not shown in the cut back to the battery4 ,in consequence of the magnetism thus excited1 the arms of the tuning fork are attracted by the poles of the magnet1 and forced to beat with increased amplitude4 ,in a short time a constant amplitude of oscillation is reached1 when the magnetic impulses are of equal influence with the atmospheric resistance and the internal force of the tuning fork restraining its movements4 ,finally1 the stylus1 s1 which touches the glass plate directly above y1 is for registering the moments when by the falling ball the sound is produced and when the observer presses the key4 ,this is brought about by the rod1 i1 to which s is firmly screwed1 being jerked upward a short distance at each of these instants1 so that the horizontal lines which the stylus1 s1 marks upon the screen passing in front of it are broken at both places4 ,the mechanism which jerks the rod1 i1 upward is thus arranged3 ,the inclined plate1 p1 on which the ball drops1 is carried by the upper horizontal arm of an angular lever turning on the axis1 x1 and counterpoised by the balancing weight1 x'4 ,by the falling ball this arm is pressed downward1 and the lower horizontal arm1 w1 of the lever is also moved4 ,on a second horizontal axis the lever1 v1 partly concealed1 moves1 restricted as to its length of swing by the screws1 n4 ,as long as the concealed arm is not moved1 v is lightly pressed by the small spring1 e1 against w4 ,the projection1 z1 at the upper end of v holds the rod1 i1 which the strong spring1 h1 is continually pressing upward4 ,when the ball falls upon the plate1 p1 the arm1 w1 presses against the lower end of v1 the projection1 z1 sets free the rod1 and it springs upward4 ,this movement is soon arrested1 as the projection1 z'1 engages with a stud situated on the right side of the rod1 i4 ,this projection is situated on the vertical arm of an angular lever whose other arm is the key1 t4 ,when the observer presses the key1 the rod1 i1 again is jerked upward by the spring1 h4 ,the screw1 o1 tapped into the rod1 i1 prevents the rod going higher than necessary1 by striking a plate1 which also serves as guide for i4 ,to determine the interval between the falling of the ball and pressing of the key1 one has finally to count the waves inscribed by the tuning fork1 which come under the portion of the line inscribed by s1 which is bounded by the two breaks produced by the successive movements of the rod4 ,to make the glass plate carried by the frame available for more observations1 which plate can be used as a photographic negative1 the frame1 ,t1 is adjustable up and down upon the pillars1 ,n4 ,this frame carries the tuning fork1 mercury cup1 n1 and the electro-magnet1 ,m4 ,the spring1 s1 can also be moved up and down along the rod1 i4--,h4 ,heele in ,zeitschrift fur ,instrumentenkunde4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,new ,,disinfector4 ,the accompanying engravings represent a new disinfecting apparatus invented by ,mr4 ,w4,e4 ,thursfield1 ,m4 ,inst4 ,c4,e41 of ,victorgasse1 ,vienna4 ,the principle on which its action is based is that the complete destruction of all germs in wearing apparel and bedding1 without any material injury whatever to the latter1 is only to be obtained by subjecting the articles infected1 for a period proportionate to their structural resistance1 to a moist heat of at least #bab deg4 ,fah4 ,recent experiences in ,berlin have shown that1 for security's sake1 a temperature of #bbj deg4 is better4 ,to insure the thorough penetration of this temperature in every fiber1 a heat of from #bfj deg4 to #bgj deg4 must be maintained in the disinfecting chamber itself4 ,to obtain this by means of ordinary or superheated steam involves the employment of boilers working under a pressure of #b to #c atmospheres1 of disinfecting chambers capable of resisting an equal tension1 and of skilled labor in attending to the same2 in other words1 a large initial outlay and correspondingly heavy working expenses in fuel and wages4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 ,i and ,,ii ,,the ,,aero-,,steam ,,disinfector4 ,the disinfecting apparatus1 illustrated in a portable and stationary form1 of the dimensions adopted by the sanitary authorities of ,vienna1 ,budapest1 ,prague1 ,lemberg1 ,teplitz1 etc41 and by the ,imperial and ,royal ,theresianum ,institute1 and sanctioned for use in barracks1 military hospitals1 etc41 by the ,austrian ,ministry of ,war1 and for ambulance hospitals by the ,red ,cross1 acts by means of a mixture of steam and hot air in such proportion that the steam1 after expending its mechanical energy in inducting the hot air into the disinfecting chamber1 is1 by contact with the clothes or bedding of a lower temperature1 not only condensed1 but by condensation completely neutralizes the risk of injury through any chance excess of hot air4 ,the boiler being practically open is inexplosive1 and requires neither safety valves nor skilled attendance4 ,the heat generated in the furnace is utilized to the utmost1 and the escaping vapors form a steam jacket in the double casing of the disinfecting chamber4 ,the method of manipulation reduces the danger of contagion to a minimum1 as the clothes or bedding are placed in specially constructed sacks in the sick chamber itself1 and1 after being tightly closed1 the sacks are removed and hung in the disinfector4 ,the stationary apparatus1 which is constructed to disinfect four complete suits of clothes1 including underlinen1 or one complete set of bedding1 including mattress1 is specially adapted for hospitals1 barracks1 jails1 etc4 ,its dimensions can easily be increased1 but the size shown has proved itself1 from an economical point of view1 the best1 as1 where the quantity of articles to be disinfected varies1 several apparatus can be erected at a less cost than one large one1 and one or more be heated as the quantity of infected articles be small or large4 ,in the accompanying drawing ,a is the boiler1 which is filled by pouring water into the reservoir1 ,b1 until the same1 entering the boiler at its lowest part through the tube1 ,c1 rises to the desired height in the water gauge1 ,g4 ,c acts also in the place of a safety valve4 ,d is the fire space1 ,e a movable grate1 and ,f the coal hopper4 ,the fuel consists of charcoal or coke4 ,the boiler is emptied by the cock1 ,h4 ,i is a steam pipe connecting the steam space with the hot air tube1 ,l4 ,k is an auxiliary pipe to admit the steam into the chimney during stoppage for emptying and recharging the disinfecting chamber in continuous working4 ,the admission of air is regulated by the handle1 ,l1 and the draught in the chimney1 ,m1 by the handle1 ,n4 ,o is the disinfecting chamber inclosed by the space1 ,p1 which acts at the same time as a steam jacket and as a channel for the downward passage of the vapors escaping from the chamber through the outlets1 ,s4 ,the lower portion of the disinfecting chamber1 ,q1 is funnel-shaped for the better mixture and distribution of the steam and hot air1 and to collect any condensation water4 ,q is a sieve to catch any fallen article4 ,the vertical tubes1 ,s1 which serve at the same time to strengthen the chamber1 connect the lower portion of the steam jacket1 ,p1 with the circular channel1 ,t1 which is again connected with the chimney1 ,m1 by the tube1 ,t'4 ,the disinfection chamber is hermetically closed by the double cover1 ,r1 to the lower plate of which hooks for hanging the sacks are fastened4 ,the cover fits in a sand bath1 and is raised and lowered by means of the pulley chain1 ,w1 and the swinging crane1 ,x4 ,u is a thermometer indicating the temperature of the steam and hot air in the disinfecting chamber1 ,v a cock for drawing off any condensation water1 ,y a battery connected with an electrical thermometer to be placed in the clothes or bedding1 and ,z the sacks in which the infected articles are hung4 ,the portable apparatus1 as shown1 for heating with gas1 or even spirits of wine1 can also be heated with a similar steam and hot air apparatus as the stationary disinfector4 ,in country towns or villages1 or even in cities1 whose architectural arrangements permit1 the portable disinfector can easily be drawn by one man into the courtyard or garden of any house1 and the process of disinfection conducted on the spot4 ,its usefulness in campaigns for ambulance hospitals is self-evident4 ,the letters denoting the several parts are the same as in the stationary apparatus4 ,the portable disinfector is constructed to disinfect two complete suits of clothes or one mattress4 ,the extremely favorable results are shown in the accompanying table of trials4--,the ,engineer4 ,,table ,,of ,,results ,,with ,,wm4 ,e4 ,,thursfield',s ,,steam ,,and ,,hot ,,air ,,disinfectors4 ,part #a4 ,portable ,apparatus4 ,series of ,trials4 ,i4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,,iv4 ,v4 ,,vi4 ,,vii4,,viii4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,contents of boiler1 in gallons #c4hed4ah - #d4ahd4ah #d4ah #e4g #e4g ,water added during the process - #a4ed - - - - #a4d #j4f ,temperature of water degs4 ,fah4 - - - #gb #eg #ed #dc #acb ,firing commenced with spirits of wine at hours min4 - #b4abi4ajd4cj - #aj4j - - ,firing commenced with gas at #a4cj - - - #c4j - - - ,firing commenced with coke at - - - - - - - #a4aj ,firing commenced with charcoal at - - - - - - #aj4ab ,steam generated at - #b4cdi4bhd4dac4aeaj4ahaj4cea4cd #bab deg4 in chamber registered by external thermometer at #b4cjb4dji4cd - - - #aj4eja4eb #bab deg4 in clothes registered by electrical thermometer at - - - #e4bed4ahab4ab - - #bba deg4 in clothes registered by electrical thermometer at - - - - - - #aa4eab4cd ,highest temperature in chamber registered by external thermometer deg4 - #bgj #bej - #cbd #bee #cjb #bge ,mean temperature in chamber registered by external thermometer #bda #beg #bci #bff - #bec #bff #bff ,trial closed at hours1 min4 #d4ded4ajaa4de4ded4cjab4cjaa4eab4ce ,max4 therm4 registered in mattress deg4#bfb - - - - - - - ,max4 therm4 registered in overcoat - #bci #bbf - - - #bbc #bbc ,max4 therm4 registered in winter coat - - - #bcb #bbc #bad - - ,max4 therm4 regis'd in winter trousers - #bdc #bci - - - - - ,max4 therm4 regis'd in summer trousers - #bdf #beb - - - - - ,time required to generate steam min4 - #bb #ah #aa #ae #ah #bc #bd ,time required to generate #bab deg4 in chamber #fj #bh #bd - - - #ch #db ,time required to generate #bab deg4 in clothes - - - #ee #gh #acb - - ,time required to generate #bba deg4 in clothes - - - - - - #ii #he ,total duration of process #ace #aah #aad #ge #ij #aej #ii #he ,water evaporated1 in gallons - - - #a4fea4ij #b4ge #d4c #c4c ,consumption of spirits of wine pints - - - #c4j - #i4f - - ,consumption of gas1 in cubic feet - - - - #gj - - - ,consumption of cokes1 in cbs - - - - - - - #f ,consumption of charcoal1 in cbs - - - - - - #h4h - ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,part #b4 ,stationary ,apparatus4 ,series of ,trials4 ,,ix4 ,x4 ,,xi4 ,,xii4,,xiii4 ,,xiv4 ,,xv4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,contents of boiler1 in gallons #aj4j #aj4j #aj4j #aj4j #aj4j #aj4j #aj4j ,water added during the process #d4c - - #g4d #a4d - - ,temperature of water degs4 ,fah4 #ed #df #agf #dc #dc #dc #ajd ,firing commenced with spirits of wine at hours min4 - - - - - - - ,firing commenced with gas at - - - - - - - ,firing commenced with coke at - #h4ae #a4ac #a4dc #b4ed - - ,firing commenced with charcoal at #b4ae - - - - #h4dcaj4af ,steam generated at #b4ch #h4ec #a4bj #b4c #c4ai #i4c #aj4bc #bab deg4 in chamber registered by external thermometer at #b4de #i4c #a4bh #b4ah #c4cg #i4abaj4ca #bab deg4 in clothes registered by electrical thermometer at - - #a4ee - - - - #bba deg4 in clothes registered by electrical thermometer at - - - #c4ej #d4bfaj4d #ab4jc ,highest temperature in chamber registered by external thermometer deg4 #bic #cbj #bhd #bhd #cjb #bhd #bge ,mean temperature in chamber registered by external thermometer #bhd #bhd #bff #bff #bhd #bff #bff ,trial closed at hours1 min #d4cjaa4j #b4aj #c4ej #d4ceaj4ajab4jc ,max4 therm4 registered in mattress deg4 - - - - - - - ,max4 therm4 registered in overcoat #bec #bdd #bbf - - - #bbc ,max4 therm4 registered in winter coat - - - #bcj #bcb #bbc - ,max4 therm4 regis'd in winter trousers #bfb - #bec - - - - ,max4 therm4 regis'd in summer trousers #bhj - #bfd - - - - ,time required to generate steam min #bc #ch #g #bj #be #bj #g ,time required to generate #bab deg4 in chamber #cj #dh #ae #ce #dc #bi #ae ,time required to generate #bab deg4 in clothes - - #db - - - - ,time required to generate #bba deg4 in clothes - - - #abg #ib #ha #ajg ,total duration of process #ace #aje #eg #abg #aja #hg #ajg ,water evaporated1 in gallons #f4ic - - #i4bd - #c4fc #d4hd ,consumption of spirits of wine pints - - - - - - - ,consumption of gas1 in cubic feet - - - - - - - ,consumption of cokes1 in cbs - - #h4h #af4e - - - ,consumption of charcoal1 in cbs - - - - - #ad4c #ac4h ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,n4,b4--,in every case1 even in the trials ,v4 and ,x41 in which the temperature in the disinfecting chamber rose above #cbj deg4 ,fah41 the clothes1 owing to the complete saturation of the hot air with live steam1 remained absolutely unimpaired4 ,the column water evaporated shows the quantity of live steam passing through the disinfecting chamber averages #ac cubic feet per minute with gas or spirits1 and #bb cubic feet with charcoal or coke in the portable and #cc cubic feet in the stationary apparatus4 ,trials ,,vi41 ,,vii41 and ,,viii4 took place in open air4 ,according to trial ,,xii41 from #bh to #cj complete suits of clothes can be disinfected at an expenditure of about #ge cbs4 of coke per diem4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,drawing ,,instrument ,,for ,,accurate ,,work4 ,,by ,j4 ,,lehrke4 ,this arrangement consists in a cylindrical metal or horn mounted lens two to four centimeters long1 and magnifying two or three times1 and two or three centimeters in diameter1 whose side is provided with a contrivance for holding after it has been pushed into place a copying needle1 a protractor1 etc4 ,while hitherto the architect in using millimeter paper must hold separately in his hands a magnifying glass and needle1 while the engraver holds the engraving tool inclined in one hand and the magnifying glass in the other1 or must work under a large lens standing on three feet1 it is now possible by a firm connection between the lens and needle or other instrument to draw directly with one hand and under the lens4 ,in the accompanying cut one of these lenses is shown in section1 ,a1 in which the glass is set obliquely1 in whose focus the needle1 a1 is held and the field of view is enlarged4 ,a longer description is unnecessary1 as the illustration gives the best explanation4 ,it need only be remarked that the stud1 s1 projecting a little near the glass1 is for the purpose of preventing the instrument from leaving the position coinciding with the plane of the drawing4 ,for architects and engineers is provided a small compass1 b1 of about #b cm4 diameter1 for laying off parallel widths1 for making smaller scales and the like4 ,in these cases it is substituted for the needle4 ,in like manner for calculating cross profiles by graphical methods1 for reading parallel divisions1 for estimating areas1 or revising maps1 a finely divided prismatic ivory rule1 c1 can be placed under the glass1 ,b1 and will do good service4 ,in this case the plane of the lens must be perpendicular to the axis of the tube4 ,illustration3 ,,improved ,,drawing ,,instrument4 ,for draughtsmen a parallel drawing pen1 something like b1 is used1 which gives several lines at once1 perfectly parallel and close together2 or a drawing pen with which the smallest signatures1 such as boundary stones and figures1 can be made neatly and exactly1 which is secured like the needle1 a1 and for which the cylinder serves also as pen holder1 offers a great advance4 ,thus a whole series of instruments can be used with the lens4 ,for instance1 a naturalist can use with it a knife or other instrument4 ,to avoid injury from the instruments1 one should1 in laying down the cylinder1 place it on its side4 ,it is also recommended that on the outer tube of the frame1 which is appropriately lacquered of black color1 white arrows should be placed in the direction of the points of the instrument1 so that the eyes shall be protected from injury in handling the instrument1 as by the points being stuck into the pupil1 owing to lifting the instrument in an inverted position4--,zeitschrift fur ,instrumentenkunde4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,barlow',s ,,machine ,,for ,,moulding ,,candles4 ,that style of machine for moulding candles in which the candles are forced out at the top by means of a piston is the one most employed1 and it is an apparatus of this kind that we illustrate herewith4 ,in its construction1 this apparatus presents some important improvements in detail which it is of interest to set forth4 ,the improvements made by the ,messrs4 ,barlow have been studied with a view of manufacturing candles with conical ends1 adapted to all chandeliers1 without interfering with rapidity of production or increasing the net cost4 ,these gentlemen have likewise so simplified the continuous system of drawing the wick along as to prevent any loss of cotton4 ,in the next place1 the structure of the moulds1 properly so called1 is new4 ,instead of being cast1 as is usually the case1 they are rolled and drawn out1 thus giving them smooth surfaces and permitting of their being soldered1 are assembled by means of threaded bronze sockets4 ,the engravings between ,figs4 #c and #d show these two modes of fixation4 ,at a may be seen the old method of junction by soldering1 and at b the screwing of the moulds into the socket4 ,this machine consists of a box which is alternately heated and cooled1 and which is fixed upon a frame1 ,a1 at the lower part of which are located the wick bobbins1 ,e4 ,toward the top of the machine there is a mechanism for actuating the two pairs of jaws1 ,b1 which grasp the candles forced upward by the play of the pistons1 ,d4 ,this mechanism1 which is controlled by a lever1 acts by means of an eccentric4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #a and #b4 ,,barlow',s ,,candle ,,moulding ,,machine4 ,the pistons1 ,d1 are hollow1 and are provided above with pieces which form the small end of the candles4 ,instead of using tin1 as is usually done1 the ,messrs4 ,barlow employ galvanized iron in the construction of these pistons1 and mount them through screw rings--no soldering being used4 ,for this reason1 any workman whatever can quickly replace one of the tubes4 ,all the pistons are placed upon a horizontal table1 which is made to rise and descend at will1 in order to regulate the length of the candles and remove them from the mould4 ,a winch transmits the motion which is communicated to it to two pairs of pinions that gear with racks fixed to the frame to lift the table that supports the pistons4 ,how these latter are mounted may be seen from an inspection of ,figs4 #c to #e4 ,this new arrangement of spiral springs for the purpose is designed to hold the pistons on the table firmly1 and at the same time to prevent the shock that their upper ends might undergo in case of an abrupt turn of the winch4 ,moreover1 the forged iron plate1 ,h1 is not exposed to breakage as it is in other machines1 where it is of cast iron4 ,the bobbins already mentioned revolve upon strong iron rods1 and the moving forward of the wick in the moulds is effected automatically by the very fact of the manufactured candles' being forced out4 ,these latter are held in position through the double play of the jaws1 ,b1 while the stearic acid is flowing into the upper part of the moulds4 ,the cotton wick is thus drawn along and kept in the axis of the candles4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #c1 #d1 #e4 ,,barlow',s ,,candle ,,moulding ,,machine4 ,one peculiarity of the machine consists in the waste system applied to the mould box4 ,steam or hot or cold water is sent into the latter through the conduit1 ,l1 starting from a junction between pipes provided with cocks4 ,when the water contained in the box is in excess1 it flows out through the waste pipes1 ,g1 which terminate in a single conduit4 ,owing to the branchings at ,t1 and to the cocks of the conduits that converge at ,l1 it is very easy to vary the temperature of the box at will4 ,the warm or cold water or steam may be admitted or shut off simultaneously4 ,when first beginning operations1 the wick is introduced into each mould by hand4 ,the piston table is raised by means of the winch1 and is held in this position through the engaging of a click with a ratchet on the windlass4 ,a fine iron rod long enough to reach beneath the pistons and catch the end of the wick is next introduced4 ,after this is removed1 the wick is fixed once for all1 and in any way whatever1 to the top of the mould4 ,this operation having been accomplished1 the piston table is lowered1 and the machine is ready to receive the stearic acid4 ,the moulds are of tin and are open at both ends4 ,in order to facilitate the removal of the candles1 they are made slightly conical4 ,when the candles have hardened1 the ends are equalized with a wooden or tin spatula1 and then the piston table is raised4 ,at this instant1 the jaws1 ,b1 are closed so as to hold the candles in place4 ,the latter1 in rising1 pull into the mould a new length of wick1 well centered4 ,a slight downward tension is exerted upon the wick by hand1 then a new operation is begun4 ,during this time1 the candles held between the jaws having become hard1 their wicks are now cut by means of the levers1 ,c1 and they are removed from the machine and submitted to a finishing process4--,revue ,industrielle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,new ,,alkali ,,process4 ,in several former notes and articles in these pages1 we have spoken of the severe crisis through which the old established1 or ,leblanc1 process has now for some years been passing4 ,it is1 in fact1 pushed well nigh out of the running by the newer process1 known as the ammonia-soda process1 and would have had to give up the battle before now were it not for the fact that one of its by-products1 bleaching powder1 cannot1 so far1 be produced at all by the ammonia-soda works4 ,the bleaching powder trade has thus remained in the hands of the workers of the ,leblanc process1 and its sale has enabled them to cover much of the loss which they are suffering on the manufacture of soda ash and caustic soda4 ,in brief outline1 the old ,leblanc process consists in the following operations3 ,salt is decomposed and boiled down with sulphuric acid4 ,sulphate of sodium is formed1 and a large amount of hydrochloric acid is given off4 ,this is condensed1 and is utilized in the manufacture of the bleaching powder mentioned above4 ,the sulphate of sodium1 known as salt cake1 is mixed with certain proportions of small coal and limestone1 and subjected to a further treatment in a furnace1 by which a set of reactions take place1 causing the conversion of the sulphate of sodium of the salt cake into carbonate of sodium1 a quantity of sulphide of calcium being produced at the same time4 ,the mass resulting from this process is known as black ash4 ,it is extracted with water1 which dissolves out the carbonate of sodium1 which is sold as such or worked into caustic soda1 as may be required4 ,the insoluble residue is the alkali waste1 which forms the vast piles1 so hideous to look at and so dreadful to smell1 which surround our large alkali works4 ,the sulphuric acid required for the conversion of the salt into salt cake is made by the alkali manufacturer himself1 this manufacture necessitating a large plant of lead chambers and accessories1 and keeping up an immense trade in pyrites from ,spain and ,portugal4 ,the development of the alkali trade in this country has been something colossal1 and the interests involved in it and connected with it are so great that anything affecting it may safely be said to be of truly national importance1 quite apart from what technical interest it may possess4 ,the ammonia-soda process1 which has played such havoc with the old style of manufacture1 proceeds on totally different lines4 ,briefly stated1 it depends on the fact that if a solution of salt in water is mixed with bicarbonate of ammonium1 under proper conditions1 a reaction takes place by which the salt1 or chloride of sodium1 is converted at once into bicarbonate of sodium1 the bicarbonate of ammonium being at the same time converted into chloride of ammonium4 ,the bicarbonate of sodium settles out at once as insoluble crystals1 easily removed1 marketable at once as such1 or easily converted into simple carbonate of sodium1 and further into caustic soda1 as in the ordinary old process4 ,the residual chloride of ammonium is decomposed by distillation with lime1 giving ammonia for reconversion into bicarbonate of ammonium1 and chloride of calcium1 which is a waste product4 ,the maker of ammonia soda works direct on the brine1 as pumped from the salt fields4 ,his plant is simpler and less costly1 and he arrives at his first marketable product much more rapidly and with very much lower working costs than the maker of ,leblanc soda1 in spite of all the great mechanical improvements which have of late years been introduced into the old process1 and which have cheapened its work4 ,the original patents on the use of ammonium bicarbonate have1 we understand1 long since expired4 ,but the working details of the process and much of the most successful apparatus have undergone great development and improvement during late years1 all the important points being covered by patents still in force1 and mainly1 if not wholly1 in the hands of the one large firm which is now carrying on the manufacture in this country1 and is controlling the market4 ,the one weak spot of the ammonia-soda process1 as we mentioned before1 is its inability to supply hydrochloric acid or chlorine1 and so allow of making bleaching powder4 ,time after time it has been announced positively that the problem was solved1 that the ammonia-soda makers had devised a method of producing hydrochloric acid or chlorine1 or both1 without the use of sulphuric acid4 ,but the announcements have so far proved baseless1 and at present the ,leblanc makers are getting incredulous1 and do not much excite themselves over new statements of the kind1 though they know that if once their rivals had this weapon in their hands the battle would be over and the ,leblanc process doomed to rapid extinction4 ,such is at present the state of the struggle in this great industry1 and the above outline sketch of the two processes is designed to give some idea of the conditions to such of our readers as may not have any special knowledge of these manufactures4 ,at the present moment great interest is being taken in a new process1 about to be put to work on a large scale1 which is designed to take up the cudgels against the ammonia process and enable the ,leblanc makers to continue the fight on something more like equal terms4 ,we allude to the process proposed and patented by ,messrs4 ,parnell ,simpson1 and about to be worked by the ,lancashire ,alkali and ,sulphur ,company1 at ,widnes4 ,we recently had the opportunity of inspecting fully the plant erected1 and of having the method of procedure explained to us4 ,we look upon the new process as such a spirited attempt to turn the tide of a long and losing battle1 and as so very interesting on its own merits1 that an account of it in these pages will be thoroughly in place4 ,the main idea of the process is to combine the ,leblanc and the ammonia-soda manufacture4 ,but in place of using caustic lime to decompose the ammonium chloride and get back the ammonia1 the alkali waste spoken of above is employed1 it being found that not only is the ammonia driven off1 but that also the sulphur in the waste is obtained in a form allowing of its easy utilization1 it and the ammonia combining to form ammonium sulphide1 which passes over in gaseous form from the decomposing apparatus4 ,this ammonium sulphide is1 as we shall see1 quite as available for the working of the ammonia-soda manufacture as pure and simple ammonia1 and all the sulphur can be obtained from it4 ,in outline the process is as follows3 ,we will suppose that a quantity of bicarbonate of sodium has been just precipitated from a brine solution1 and we have the residual ammonium chloride to deal with4 ,this is decomposed by alkali waste1 giving a final liquor of calcium chloride1 which is run to waste1 and a quantity of ammonium sulphide gas4 ,this latter is led at once into a solution of salt in water1 till saturation takes place4 ,into this liquor of brine and ammonium sulphide pure carbonic acid gas is now passed4 ,the ammonium sulphide is decomposed1 pure sulphureted hydrogen gas is given off1 which is conducted to a gas holder and stored1 while ammonium bicarbonate is formed in the liquor1 which brings about the conversion of the salt into bicarbonate of sodium1 ready for removal and preparation for the market4 ,it will be observed that we printed the word pure in italics in speaking of the carbonic acid used4 ,this is one of the great points in the process1 as in order that the sulphureted hydrogen gas obtained shall be concentrated and pure1 only pure carbonic acid can be used in liberating it4 ,the apparatus employed in its preparation is perhaps the most ingenious part of the works1 and well worthy of attention by others besides alkali makers4 ,the method is based on the fact that if dilute impure carbonic acid is passed into a solution of carbonate of sodium1 the carbonic acid is absorbed1 bicarbonate of sodium being formed1 and the diluting gases passing away4 ,the bicarbonate of sodium on heating gives up the extra carbonic acid1 which can be collected and stored pure1 while the liquor passes back to simple carbonate of sodium1 to be used over again as an absorbent4 ,this is not at all new in theory1 of course1 nor is this the first proposal to use it commercially2 but it is claimed that this is the first successful working of it on a large scale4 ,the gases from a large limekiln supply the dilute carbonic acid gas1 which contains #be per cent4 to #cj per cent4 of pure gas1 the principal diluting gas being1 of course1 nitrogen4 ,this kiln gas is drawn from the kiln by a blowing engine1 and is first cooled in two large receivers4 ,it is then forced into the solution of sodium carbonate in the absorption tower1 #fe ft4 high by #f ft4 diameter1 filled with the liquor4 ,the tower has many diaphragms and perforated mushrooms1 to cause a proper dispersion of the gases as they ascend through the liquor4 ,the strength of liquor found best adapted for the work is equal to a density of about #cj ,twaddell4 ,after saturation the mud of bicarbonate of sodium is drawn off and passed into the decomposer1 a tower #ce ft4 high by #f ft4 #f in4 in diameter1 with perforated shelves1 into which steam is blown from below1 the liquor passing downward4 ,the bicarbonate is decomposed1 pure carbonic acid being given off4 ,this is passed through a scrubber and into a gas holder ready for use4 ,the liquor1 which has now returned to the state of simple carbonate of sodium1 only requires cooling to be ready to absorb a fresh lot of carbonic acid gas4 ,the cooling is effected in a tower packed loosely with bricks1 the hot liquor trickling down against a powerful current of air blown in from below4 ,liquor has been cooled in this way1 in once passing through the tower1 from #bbj ,fahr4 to #eh ,fahr41 but of course the exact cooling obtained depends more or less on the temperature of the atmosphere4 ,the next stage of the process1 if we follow on after the preparation of the pure carbonic acid1 is the employment of the gas for the decomposition of the ammonium sulphide absorbed in a brine liquor as above explained4 ,the brine and ammonium sulphide are contained in what is known as a ,solvay tower1 provided with proper means for dispersion and absorption of the carbonic acid gas4 ,the precipitated bicarbonate of sodium is removed and washed1 and prepared for the market in whatever form is required1 the sulphureted hydrogen gas being led to a holder and stored1 as before stated4 ,the decomposition of the ammonium chloride by means of alkali waste is carried out in a specially designed still4 ,this is a tower #de ft4 high by #h ft4 diameter1 divided by horizontal plates into compartments of about #c ft4 #h in4 in height4 ,these compartments communicate with one another by means of pockets1 or recesses1 in the shell of the tower4 ,a vertical shaft1 with arms1 revolves in the tower4 ,the waste is fed in at the top by means of hopper and screw feed4 ,the liquor is heated by steam blown in to over #bab ,fahr4 ,the ammonium sulphide is led direct into an absorbing vessel full of brine4 ,it now only remains to see how it is proposed to deal with the sulphureted hydrogen gas which represents the sulphur recovered from the waste4 ,it can be burnt direct to sulphurous acid and utilized for the production of vitriol perfectly pure and free from arsenic1 commanding a special price4 ,but ,messrs4 ,parnell ,simpson state that by a method of restricted combustion they are able to obtain nearly all the sulphur as such1 and put it on the market on equal terms with the best ,sicilian sulphur4 ,we did not gather that this has yet been done on the working scale1 however4 ,it will be seen that it is proposed that a ,leblanc alkali maker shall continue to produce a portion of his make by the old process1 but shall erect plant to enable him to make another portion by the ,parnell ,simpson method1 using his ,leblanc waste in place of the caustic lime now employed by the ammonia soda people4 ,he is thus to have the benefit of the cheaper process for1 say1 half his make1 while he further cheapens the ammonia method by saving the cost of lime and by recovering the sulphur otherwise lost in his waste4 ,the saving in lime is stated to be one ton for each ton of sodium carbonate produced1 or in cash value about #ajs4 per ton at ,widnes1 while the sulphur saved is estimated to be #f cwt4 per ton of sodium carbonate4 ,we reproduce these figures with all reserve1 not being ourselves sufficiently specialists to judge of them4 ,but we were assured that they represent the minimum expected1 and reasons were given to us to show that they would probably be exceeded4 ,another gain for the ,leblanc maker would be that he will escape the cost of removal and disposal of a portion of his refuse or waste4 ,the plant now erected was calculated for a yield of one hundred tons carbonate of sodium and about thirty-five tons of sulphur per week1 but it now appears likely that this will be exceeded2 while the carbonic acid plant was supposed to be equal to a yield of #f tons of pure gas per day1 and is now found capable of doing twice as much4 ,a few weeks will now bring this new combination process into the active and crucial test of the markets4 ,chemists and chemical engineers have all along taken a keen interest in the ingenious ideas of ,parnell ,simpson4 ,commercial men are no less interested in the financial result of the experiment about to be tried at the expense of a few gentlemen of ,liverpool and district4 ,so far as we can learn1 opinions are to some extent divided1 though many good judges are very hopefully inclined4 ,for our own part1 speaking with diffidence1 as being a little off our regular track of work1 we will only say that we were favorably impressed with what we saw and heard2 and we certainly wish the venture that full success which its cleverness and its pluck1 as well as its great importance at this crisis1 deserve for it4--,engineering4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,temperature ,,of ,,gas ,,distillation4 ,an important subject for investigation1 which has not yet been satisfactorily determined1 is the temperature at which it is most beneficial to distill coals of various qualities4 ,the practice of allowing the charge to remain in the retort for some time after most of the gas has been driven off1 to enable 7it is said7 the retort to recover heat for the next charge1 often leads to misconception as to the true temperature of carbonization4 ,the effect of this is to equalize the temperatures inside and outside the retort4 ,this inside temperature is not maintained1 the temperature outside not being high enough to transmit the heat with sufficient rapidity2 and so1 in an apparently hot retort1 the coal may be carbonized at a comparatively low temperature4 ,a truer test of temperature is that of the outside of the retort1 which should be not less than #djj to #ejj ,fahr4 above the temperature necessary for proper carbonization4 ,in all experiments relating to temperature pretending to any degree of accuracy1 a pyrometer of some kind should be used4 ,judging of the temperature by the color is often misleading4 ,not only may the eye be deceived1 but different clays do not present the same appearance at the same temperature4 ,a good1 reliable pyrometer to estimate temperatures to 7say7 #bejj ,fahr4 is much wanted4 ,experience during the last few years with the high temperatures obtained by the use of regenerative furnaces has led me to the conclusion that higher heats than are usual may be employed with advantage1 as regards both the quantity and the quality of gas1 provided the retorts are heated uniformly throughout their length1 and the weight and duration of the charge are so adjusted that the coal does not remain longer in the retort than is just sufficient to drive off the gas2 and that the more rapidly the coal is carbonized1 the better are the results4 ,in two retorts of the same size1 one making #e1jjj and the other #aj1jjj cubic feet per day1 the gas will be twice as long in contact with the surface of the retort in the former as in the latter--to the probable detriment of its quality1 and increased tendency to stoppage in the ascension pipes4 ,a subject closely allied to that just alluded to is the temperature of the gas as it leaves the retort4 ,until within the last few years1 it was generally assumed that this was not higher than from #bjj to #cjj ,fahr42 and a very plausible theory was given to account for such a comparatively low temperature4 ,a discussion which took place a few years ago in the ,journal of ,gas ,lighting showed that at that time opinions on this subject were not unanimous4 ,but the conclusion arrived at seemed to be that the gas was not higher in temperature than that before stated2 and if higher temperatures were observed1 they were due to the tarry matter in the gas1 and were not those of the gas itself4 ,a little reflection is sufficient to show that the existence of gas intimately mixed with tarry matter at a high temperature1 without being itself raised to that temperature1 is a physical impossibility4 ,in a paper read to a ,continental gas association about a year ago1 the writer stated1 as the result of many experiments1 that unless the temperature in the ascension pipe rises above #dhj ,fahr41 thickening of the tar in the hydraulic main and choking of the ascension pipe will certainly occur4 ,this led me to make a series of experiments1 extending over many months1 on the temperature of the gas in the ascension pipes at different points and at various times during the charge4 ,the results of these experiments may be of some interest1 and may lead to further investigation4 ,the temperatures were taken by mercurial thermometers registering #fjj ,fahr41 except those near the mouthpiece1 which were taken by a ,siemens water pyrometer4 ,every care was exercised to insure accuracy2 and the instruments were carefully adjusted4 ,at a distance of #ah inches from the mouthpiece1 the temperatures varied from an average of #hij1 shortly after the retort was charged1 to #eah at the end of the charge2 at #ab feet distant from the mouthpiece1 the corresponding temperature was #ddd1 falling to #afg at the end of the charge2 and at #bb feet1 the average temperature varied from #bdf at the commencement to #add at the end of the charge4 ,these are the averages of a number of experiments4 ,in some instances they were considerably above these averages--temperatures over #ijj being frequently obtained4 ,this is about the temperature of a low red heat1 and is much higher than any ,i have seen recorded4 ,when the gas was allowed to issue from a hole in the ascension pipe1 #a inches in diameter1 #ah inches above the mouthpiece1 a strip of lead held about an inch from the orifice was freely melted4 ,in the settings on which these experiments were made1 the middle ascension pipe takes the gas from the two central retorts2 and it is of interest to note that in this pipe the temperature of the gas #ah inches from the upper retort was found to be #ajad ,fahr41 and at the point where it entered the hydraulic main it was #ddj ,fahr4 ,zinc was freely melted by the gas issuing from a hole #ah inches from the mouthpiece4 ,the temperatures always fall toward the end of the charge2 the fall of temperature in the ascension pipe being a good indication that the charge is worked off4 ,they increase with the heat of the retort and with the weight of the charge4 ,experiments were also made to ascertain the temperature of the gas in the retort2 and for this purpose one of ,murrie's pyrometers was used1 the action of which depends on the pressure produced by the vaporization of mercury in a malleable iron tube4 ,the end of this tube was first rested on the top of the coal1 but not in contact with the retort4 ,it reached about #ah inches into the retort1 and therefore was not in the hottest part4 ,in this position the temperature indicated shortly after charging the retort was #aaaj ,fahr41 gradually rising to #afdj ,fahr4 ,the end of the tube was then embedded in the coal1 when the pyrometer indicated a temperature of #abfj ,fahr4 within #cj minutes after the retort was charged2 gradually rising toward the end of the charge as before4 ,at the time these temperatures were taken1 the retorts were each producing #aj1jjj cubic feet of gas per day4 ,i had no opportunity of testing the accuracy of the statement that1 with lower temperatures1 there is a tendency to stoppage of the ascension pipes2 but with these high temperatures 7contrary to what might be expected7 there is no trouble from stoppages4 ,these experiments1 so far as they have gone1 lead to the conclusion that the temperature of the gas as it is evolved from the coal is not less than #abjj ,fahr41 and that cooling commences immediately on the gas leaving the retort4 ,the temperatures being far above that of liquefaction1 the gases are cooled very rapidly4 ,the temperature of the gas in the ascension pipe depends on the rapidity with which the gas is evolved--that is to say1 the greater the quantity produced in a given time1 the less effective is the cooling action of the mouthpiece and the ascension pipe2 and although ,i had no opportunity of testing it1 ,i should expect to find that with retorts making from #e1jjj to #f1jjj cubic feet of gas per day1 the maximum temperature in the ascension pipe #ah inches from the mouthpiece will not exceed #djj to #ejj ,fahr41 while with lower heats and lighter charges the temperatures will be still lower4 ,that these temperatures have some effect in causing or preventing stoppage in the ascension pipes there can be no doubt2 and it is important that this subject should be thoroughly investigated4 ,it is of interest to consider what must be the physical condition of the gas at these high temperatures4 ,all the hydrocarbons which are afterward condensed must then be in the condition of gases having various degrees of condensability1 mixed with and rendered visible by a cloud of carbon particles or soot4 ,if this soot could be removed from the gas at this stage without reducing the temperature1 we should probably have no thick tar or pitch1 but only comparatively light-colored oils2 and it might possibly lead to an entirely different mode of conducting the process of condensation4 ,these are a few of the subjects on which it is extremely desirable that we should possess that complete information which can only be obtained by well-directed investigations with different materials and under varying conditions4 ,there are many others in connection with carbonization and purification which might be mentioned2 but ,i think ,i have said sufficient to show the necessity that exists for more minute investigation and research4 ,investigations such as are here indicated do not involve any large expenditure of money2 but they do require care and intelligence to prevent errors being made4 ,experiments should not be condemned as defective because the results differ from old-established theories2 yet when this does happen1 it is in all cases better to suspect the new experiment rather than the old theory1 until the results have been fully established4--,wm4 ,foulis1 ,journal of ,gas ,lighting4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,largest ,,black ,,ash ,,furnace ,,in ,,the ,,world4 ,the ,widnes ,alkali ,company have recently erected an enormous revolving black ash furnace1 which is #cj ft4 in length and has a diameter of #ab ft4 #f in4 ,the inside length is #bh ft4 #f in41 with a diameter of #aa ft4 #d in4 ,the furnace is lined with #af1jjj fire bricks and #abj fire-clay breakers1 each weighing #a cwt4 ,the weight of salt cake per charge1 i4e41 contained in each charge of salt cake1 limestone1 mud1 and slack1 is #h tons #ab cwt4 ,for #aaj tons of salt cake charged there are also used about #ajj tons of lime mud and limestone and #ee tons of mixing slack4 ,the total amount of salt cake decomposed weekly is about #djj tons1 which may be calculated to yield #bdj tons of #fj per cent caustic soda4 ,there is claimed for this massive furnace an economy in iron plate1 in expense on the engine power and on fuel consumed1 as well as on wear and tear4--,watson ,smith1 in ,industries4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,statue ,,of ,,philip ,,lebon4 ,the inauguration of the statue of ,philip ,lebon1 the inventor of lighting by gas1 occurred on the #bfth of ,june1 at ,chaumont1 under the auspices of the ,technical ,gas ,society of ,france4 ,the statue1 which we illustrate herewith1 is due to the practiced chisel of the young sculptor ,antide ,pechine1 who has perfectly understood his work1 and has represented the inventor at the moment at which he observes a flame start from a glass balloon in which he had heated some sawdust4 ,the attitude is graceful and the expression of the face is meditative and intelligent4 ,the statue1 which is ten feet in height1 was exhibited at the last ,salon4 ,it was cast at the ,barbedienne works4 ,it would be impossible to applaud too much the homage that has just been rendered to the inventor of gas lighting1 for ,philip ,lebon1 like so many other benefactors of humanity1 has not by far the celebrity that ought to belong to him4 ,when we study the documents that relate to his existence1 when we follow the flashes of genius that darted through his brain1 when we see the obstacles that he had to conquer1 and when we thoroughly examine his great character and the lofty sentiments that animated him1 we are seized with admiration for the humble worker who endowed his country with so great a benefit4 ,lebon was born at ,brachay on the #bith of ,may1 #agfg4 ,at the age of twenty1 he was admitted to the ,school of ,bridges and ,roads1 where he soon distinguished himself by his ingenious and investigating turn of mind4 ,his first labors were in connection with the steam engine1 then in its infancy1 and on ,april #ah1 #agib1 the young engineer obtained a national award of #djj to continue the experiments that he had begun on the improvement of this apparatus4 ,it was at about the same epoch that ,lebon was put upon the track of lighting by gas1 during a sojourn at ,brachay4 ,he one day threw a handful of sawdust into a glass vial that he heated over a fire4 ,he observed issuing from the bottle a dense smoke which suddenly caught fire and produced a beautiful luminous flame4 ,the inventor understood the importance of the experiment that he had just performed1 and resolved to work it further4 ,he had just found that wood and other combustibles were1 under the action of heat1 capable of disengaging a gas fit for lighting and heating4 ,he had seen that the gas which is disengaged from wood is accompanied with blackish vapors of an acrid and empyreumatic odor4 ,in order that it might serve for the production of light1 it was necessary to free it from these foreign products4 ,lebon passed the vapor through a tube into a flask of water1 which condensed the tarry and acid substances1 and the gas escaped in a state of purity4 ,this modest apparatus was the first image of the gas works2 and it comprised the three essential parts thereof--the generating apparatus1 the purifying apparatus1 and the receiver for collecting the gas4 ,one year afterward1 the inventor had seen ,fourcroy1 ,prony1 and the great scientists of his epoch4 ,on the #bhth of ,september1 #agii1 he took out a patent in which he gives a complete description of his thermo lamp1 by means of which he produced a luminous gas1 while at the same time manufacturing wood tar and pyroligneous or acetic acid4 ,in this patent he mentions coal as proper to replace wood1 and he explains his system with a visible emotion and singular ardor4 ,in reading what he has written we are struck with that form of persuasion that does not permit of doubting that he foresaw the future in reserve for his system4 ,unfortunately1 ,lebon could not devote all his time to his discovery4 ,being a government engineer1 without money and fortune1 he had to attend to his duties4 ,he went as an ordinary engineer to ,angouleme1 but he did not forget his illuminating gas1 and he strongly regretted ,paris1 which he termed an incomparable focus of study4 ,he devoted himself to mathematics and science1 he made himself beloved by all1 and his mind wandered far from his daily occupation4 ,the engineer in chief soon complained of him1 but a committee appointed to investigate the charges that had been made against him affirmed that he was free from any reproach4 ,he was sent back to his post1 but war was decimating the resources of ,france1 and the republic1 while ,bonaparte was in ,italy1 no longer had any time to pay its engineers4 ,lebon wrote some pressing letters to the minister1 asking for the sums due on his work1 but all of them remained without reply4 ,his wife went to ,paris1 but her applications were fruitless4 ,she wrote herself to the minister the following letter1 which exists in the archives of the ,school of ,bridges and ,roads3 ,liberty1 equality1 fraternity--,paris4 #bb ,messidor1 year ,,vii4 of the ,french ,republic1 one and indivisible--the wife of ,citizen ,lebon to ,citizen ,minister of the ,interior3 ,it is neither alms nor a favor that ,i ask of you1 it is justice4 ,i have for two months been languishing at #abj leagues from my household4 ,do not1 by further delay1 force the father of a family1 for want of means1 to leave a state for which he has sacrificed everything4 444 ,have regard for our position1 citizen4 ,it is oppressive1 and my demand is just4 ,there is more than one motive to persuade me that my application will not be fruitless with a minister who makes it a law and duty for himself to be just4 ,greeting and esteem4 ,your devoted fellow-citizen1 ,madame ,lebon1 nee ,de ,brambille4 ,in #ahja1 ,lebon was called to ,paris1 as attache in the service of ,blin1 engineer in chief of pavements4 ,he took a second patent--a true scientific memoir full of facts and ideas4 ,it speaks of the numerous applications of illuminating gas and its mode of production1 lays down the basis of the entire manufacture--furnaces1 condensers1 purifiers1 gas burners4 ,nothing is forgotten1 not even the steam engine and balloon4 ,lebon proposed to the government to construct an apparatus for heating and lighting the public buildings1 but the offer was rejected4 ,it was then that the unfortunate inventor1 wearied by all his tentatives1 fatigued by his thousands of vexations1 made up his mind to have recourse to the public in order to convince it of the utility of his invention4 ,he rented the hotel ,seignelay1 ,st4 ,dominique-,st4 ,germain ,st41 and invited the public thither4 ,here he arranged a gas apparatus1 which distributed light and heat to all the rooms4 ,he lighted the gardens with thousands of gas jets in the form of rosettes and flowers4 ,a fountain was illuminated with the new gas1 and the water that flowed from it seemed to be luminous4 ,the crowd hastened from all parts and came to salute the new invention4 ,lebon1 excited by this success1 published a prospectus1 a sort of profession of faith1 a model of grandeur and sincerity1 a true monument of astonishing foresight4 ,he followed his gas into the future and saw it circulating through pipes1 whence it threw light into all the streets of future capitals4 ,we reproduce a few passages from this remarkable production3 ,it is painful1 says he1 and ,i experience the fact at this moment1 to have extraordinary effects to announce4 ,those who have not seen cry out against the possibility1 and those who have seen often judge of the facility of a discovery by what they have to conceive of its demonstration4 ,if the difficulty is conquered1 the merit of the inventor vanishes with it4 ,i would rather destroy every idea of merit than allow the slightest appearance of mystery or charlatanism to exist4 ,this aeriform principle is freed from those humid vapors that are so injurious and disagreeable to the organs of sight and smell1 and of the soot which soils apartments4 ,purified to perfect transparency1 it travels in the state of cold air1 and is led by the smallest as well as frailest pipes1 by conduits an inch square1 formed in the plaster of ceilings or walls1 and even tubes of gummed taffety would perfectly answer the purpose4 ,only the extremity of the tube1 which puts the inflammable gas in contact with the air1 and upon which the flame rests1 should be of metal4 ,illustration3 ,,statue ,,of ,,philip ,,lebon4 ,every one finally paid homage to the illustrious inventor1 and a committee appointed in the name of the minister affirmed that the advantageous results given by the experiments of ,citizen ,lebon have met and even exceeded the hopes of the friends of the sciences and arts4 ,napoleon ,i4 soon granted ,lebon a concession in the forest of ,rouvray for the organization of an industry of wood distillation and gas making4 ,unfortunately1 ,lebon was obliged to undertake too many things at once4 ,he prepared the gas1 and produced acetic acid and tar that he had to send to ,harve for the use of the navy4 ,despite all his trouble and fatigue1 he had something like a ray of hope4 ,he believed that he saw the day of fortune dawning4 ,his works were visited by numerous scientists1 and among others the ,russian princes ,galitzin and ,dolgorouki1 who1 in the name of their government1 proposed to the inventor to transfer his plant to ,russia1 he to be free to set forth the conditions4 ,lebon refused this splendid offer1 and1 in an outburst of patriotism1 answered that his discovery belonged to his country1 and that no other nation should before his own have the benefit of his labors4 ,the hopes of ,lebon were of short duration4 ,enemies and competitors caused him a thousand troubles1 and the elements themselves seemed to turn against him4 ,during a hurricane1 the humble house in which he dwelt was destroyed1 and a fire shortly afterward consumed a portion of his works4 ,fatality1 like the genius of old1 seemed to be following up the unfortunate inventor2 but sorrows and reverses could not have any hold on this invincible spirit1 who was so well seconded by a wife of lofty character4 ,lebon1 always at work1 was seemingly about to triumph over all obstacles1 and the hour of the realization of his project of lighting on a large scale was near1 when a death as tragic as it was mysterious snatched him from his labors4 ,on the very day of the crowning of the emperor1 ,december #b1 #ahjd1 the body of ,philip ,lebon was found lying inert and lifeless in the ,champs ,elysees1 exhibiting thirteen deep wounds made by a dagger4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,new ,,process ,,for ,,the ,,distillation ,,and ,,concentration ,,of ,,chemical ,,liquids4 ,,especially ,,adapted ,,to ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,sulphate ,,of ,,ammonia4 ,,inventor1 ,,alex4 ,,angus ,,croll4#a4 ,footnote #a3 ,read at the recent meeting of the ,gas ,institute1 ,glasgow4 ,,by ,,george ,,anderson1 ,,of ,,london4 ,the paper ,i have to lay before you describes the last product of the brain of one of your past presidents--,alexander ,angus ,croll--in connection with our industry4 ,it may not be so well known to some of the younger as it is to many of the older members of the ,institute that the fertile brain of ,mr4 ,croll has done much for the improvement and the extension of the gas industry4 ,i consider that he has been the most successful pioneer both in the cheapening and the purification of gas--two elements without which our industry would progress but slowly if at all2 and the success which has crowned his efforts1 to our advantage1 has reflected itself favorably on himself1 showing by his financial success that he has also been a good man of business4 ,all these are conditions which enhance the value of this paper4 ,in the present instance1 ,i claim no other credit than that of being the mouthpiece of ,mr4 ,croll1 whose assistant ,i was for ten of the busiest and most important years of his eventful life2 and having 7with my son ,bruce7 taken part in the experiments1 ,i have been asked to describe the process to the ,institute4 ,the manufacture of sulphate of ammonia1 as hitherto conducted1 has consisted either in bringing together sulphuric acid and ammoniacal liquor or in distilling the liquor by external heat1 or by the introduction of steam1 and bringing it into contact with the acid in the form of gases and vapor of water4 ,in either case a large volume of noxious gases is given off1 the chief of which1 being sulphureted hydrogen1 has to be fixed by another method1 in order to comply with acts of ,parliament for the prevention of nuisances4 ,by the processes hitherto used1 we sometimes get only #a tons of salts to every ton of acid used2 while in the more perfect forms of apparatus1 we may get #a-a_/c tons of salts4 ,by ,mr4 ,croll's process1 however1 we get an increased yield of salts on the acid used1 as follows3 ,the experiments were made with sulphuric acid of the specific gravity of #ahch1 or nearly concentrated oil of vitriol2 and the quantity used was #h ounces in each experiment4 ,the ammoniacal liquor was of uniform strength throughout all the experiments1 being kept in a corked jar2 and the solution of sulphate of ammonia was passed through filter paper before being crystallized4 ,thus we obtained a white salt4 ,in each experiment the solution of sulphate was divided into four equal parts by weight1 and one part filtered and crystallized to dryness over a spirit lamp2 the weight in each experiment being as nearly as possible the same1 or #c oz4 of salt to #b oz4 of acid--being in the proportion of #bf oz4 of sulphate to #a lb4 of acid1 or #cb cwt4 of salts to #bj cwt4 of acid4 ,the results surprised me2 and being uniform over a number of experiments1 pleased me4 ,still1 ,i preserved the character of a critic and said3 ,i should like to treat #h oz4 of acid in the ordinary way--saturating it with ammoniacal liquor1 and then crystallizing it4 ,oh6 ,mr4 ,croll said1 we know what that will produce4 ,i replied3 ,yes2 but ,i would like to do it with the precise acid and liquor we have been using1 so that we may have the experiment on all fours with yours1 barring your process4 ,these experiments were made at his country residence4 ,i was staying there for the night4 ,so next morning ,i got down before him1 went at my experiment1 saturated #h oz4 of acid 7and a nice smell ,i made7 out in the grounds1 treated it afterward by division into four parts1 filtered and crystallized it1 all as before1 with the result that ,i obtained #b oz41 as against his #c oz4--or in the proportion of #bg cwt4 of salt to the ton of acid1 as against his #cb cwt4 ,i now thought of business4 ,what is the royalty to be8 ,i said1 as we sat at breakfast4 ,this we settled as we ,scotch say in a crack1 or as an ,englishman would say in a jiffy4 ,mr4 ,croll decided to have the apparatus put up on a manufacturing scale here in ,glasgow2 and ,i determined to erect similar apparatus at one of my gas works4 ,i dare say that it will be uppermost in your minds1 ,whence comes the increased yield of salts8 ,well1 ,i will state one fact1 and leave you to ruminate on it1 namely1 by ,mr4 ,croll's process we did not seem to produce any sulphureted hydrogen4 ,the experiments were conducted in a room with ordinary doors and windows1 but without a chimney2 and we were not troubled with any offensive smell--a state of things that could not possibly have existed had we been experimenting with any other apparatus hitherto employed in the manufacture of sulphate of ammonia4 ,the apparatus1 which will presently be described1 only substitutes1 for the present mode of distillation1 a new one1 which forms the subject of ,mr4 ,croll's patent4 ,all other parts of present apparatus can remain as they now exist4 ,mr ,croll has also introduced another mode of producing sulphate of ammonia1 which dispenses with all the apparatus hitherto in use after the distillatory portion1 and produces the salt in a state fit for the farmer1 ready to be put on the land4 ,this process consists in sending the products of distillation through a vessel filled with wood sawdust saturated with sulphuric acid4 ,the ammonia becomes fixed and crystallized in the sawdust1 and is ready for use4 ,there are many works1 both at home and abroad1 to which the conveyance of sulphuric acid is both difficult and expensive1 on account of the cost of carriage and the breakage which occurs2 and thus in many such works the ammonia is not utilized4 ,this saturated sawdust process will1 ,i think1 remove the difficulty2 for ,i find that dry sawdust absorbs double its own weight of sulphuric acid1 and this could be conveyed in the most ordinary casks in a damp state1 and save all waste and annoyance from breakage of bottles4 ,in this state it could be used by the farmer1 or the sulphate of ammonia could be washed out1 crystallized1 and exported in the state of salt4 ,in the remainder of this paper ,i have been assisted by my son ,bruce1 who also assisted in the experiments that ,i have described4 ,he has since been engaged on the trials on a manufacturing scale2 and ,i ask you to permit him to read the concluding portion of the paper1 in which he will describe the process1 and what he has done4 ,the process referred to in the foregoing portion of the paper is a method employed for heating the liquor1 whereby a chemical action is brought into play1 with the results already mentioned4 ,this method consists in passing the products of combustion of a furnace from a clear fire in a hot state through a still containing the ammoniacal liquor4 ,the hot gases from the furnace impart their heat to the liquor1 causing the volatilization of the condensed gases1 and at the same time act chemically upon the liquor and evolved gases1 so that ammonia and sulphuric acid are resulting products1 in the compound state of sulphate of ammonia4 ,the formation of the ammonia produced in the process is probably due to the decomposition of nitrogenous bodies contained in solution in the liquor--the sulphocyanide1 for instance2 the nitrogen being given off in the form of ammonia4 ,of the sulphuric acid produced1 we look upon the sulphureted hydrogen as the source1 also any sulphites existing in the liquor1 which in their volatile state take up the atom of oxygen necessary for their conversion into sulphate4 ,illustration ,the apparatus used in working the process consists of a tower still1 containing a number of superposed trays about #c or #d inches apart1 with a lipped hole through the bottom of each at the side4 ,the trays are so placed in the tower that the holes are at alternate sides4 ,the liquor passes into the top of the still1 and zigzags down through the series of trays1 as in an ordinary ,coffey still4 ,the bottom tray differs from the rest2 being much deeper1 and having holes through it connecting it with the furnace1 which is set immediately below it4 ,the products of combustion of the fuel are caused to pass from the furnace up through the holes in the trays in the still1 and1 together with the gases evolved from the liquor1 are directed into the saturator1 where the sulphate of ammonia is obtained either in solution or in the crystalline state4 ,where the process is at present being worked1 an exhauster is used to draw the furnace gases through the still2 but it might be advantageous to use a blower4 ,a small plant has been put in action at the gas works in ,kilkenny and another on a larger scale1 and differing somewhat in detail1 here in ,glasgow at the ,alum and ,ammonia ,company's works1 where the liquor from the ,tradeston ,gas ,works is converted4 ,the trials on a working scale have only been made at both places within the past ten days2 and1 so far1 nothing has appeared against the principle1 though in certain of the details of construction some alterations are being made to improve it4 ,the extra yield of salt from a given quantity of acid obtained in the experiments has been proved in practice1 as also the absorption of the sulphureted hydrogen4 ,the other day1 while ammoniacal liquor of about #i oz4 strength was being run at the rate of #gj gallons per hour through the still1 #e feet in diameter and #aj feet high1 containing seventeen trays1 no smell of sulphureted hydrogen was perceptible from the waste gases from the saturator1 although on applying lead paper a slight trace of this impurity was noticeable1 and it may be stated that the gases were being delivered at the ground level1 where there was no difficulty in testing them4 ,in the ,glasgow apparatus we have found it advisable to enlarge the pipe leading the gases into the saturator1 as the volume of these is much greater than would be the case in the ordinary method of working4 ,further experience will probably indicate the desirability of increasing the height of the still1 which1 being only #aj feet1 is not more than half the height that ,coffey stills are ordinarily made4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,analysis ,,of ,,urine4 ,,introduction4 ,whatever may be the position of ,british pharmacists in comparison with those of other countries1 it cannot be said that they have paid the attention to the analysis of urine which the subject has received from pharmacists on the ,continent4 ,considering the importance of the subject1 this curious neglect can only be attributed to the fact that the pharmacist in ,great ,britain is but slowly attaining the position of chemical expert to the physician1 which his foreign confrere has so long held with credit and even distinction4 ,in ,france1 for example1 ,m4 ,mhu1 whose name is familiar to readers of this journal1 is looked upon as one of the leading authorities on morbid urine and its analysis1 and yet a list of goodly pharmaceutical papers shows that1 as the medical analyst1 he has not forgotten his connection with pure pharmacy4 ,there are several points about urinary analysis which entitle it to a very high position in the estimation of pharmacists4 ,in the first place1 the physician is no more likely to be fonder of the test tube than of the pestle1 of analyzing urine than of compounding his own medicines4 ,leading men in the profession are more and more setting their faces against the dispensing doctor1 and there are numbers among them who admit that they succeed no better as analysts than they do as dispensers4 ,some old fashioned practitioners trouble themselves very little about their patients' urine1 except1 perhaps1 in respect of sugar and albumen4 ,on the other hand1 numbers of leading physicians1 including especially those highly educated gentlemen who cultivate a consulting practice1 are in the habit of pushing urinary analysis almost to an excess4 ,one well-known specialist of the writer's acquaintance1 with an extensive ,west ,end practice1 makes quantitative determinations of urea1 uric acid1 and total acidity1 in addition to conducting other diagnostic experiments1 on every occasion that he interviews his patients4 ,by this means he has accumulated in his case books a mass of data which he considers most valuable as an aid to diagnosis1 and through that to successful treatment4 ,pharmacists are proverbially neat-handed1 as ,mr4 ,martindale would say1 and their habit of conducting dispensing operations which involve the dexterous manipulation of very small quantities of material fit them admirably to undertake volumetric and other rapid analytical determinations4 ,compared with the doctor there is no doubt that in this matter the chemist is facile princeps1 and from the nature of their respective occupations such could only have been expected4 ,a few chemists throughout the country lay themselves out to save their local doctors from unwelcome test tube practice1 and these almost to a man find it pay4 ,some charge a handsome fee to patients1 and a small one when the analysis comes through the physician4 ,others find it to their interest to furnish medical men with qualitative reports on sugar or albumen gratuitously4 ,although this practice has certain obvious drawbacks1 if a doctor sends his prescriptions to a chemist1 the latter is often willing to gratuitously perform his chemical work4 ,in the present article we propose to describe briefly but fully the methods which have been found of most value in practice4 ,,preliminary ,,operations4 ,it is the practice of some physicians to direct the patient to preserve all the urine passed in twenty-four hours1 and to forward this in one bottle for analysis4 ,others1 again1 merely send a small sample of morning and evening urine in separate phials1 desiring only a comparative report4 ,in the former case the volume should be accurately measured1 and the quantity noted either in fluid ounces or cubic centimeters before commencing the analysis4 ,this need not be done if small samples only are received4 ,the color should be noted4 ,it varies greatly1 through every shade of yellow and amber to dark brown1 with a tinge of green or red1 if the coloring matter of bile or blood is present4 ,also note relative transparency or cloudiness1 specific gravity1 and reaction1 as all these observations are useful in diagnosis4 ,odor is not quite so important4 ,the specific gravity should be taken at about #fj ,f4 in an ordinary specific gravity bottle1 or more conveniently by means of a good urinometer4 ,in the latter case it is very important to have an instrument of known accuracy1 many of those in the market being valueless4 ,urinometers of glass1 though fragile1 are decidedly more cleanly and less liable to get out of order than the gilded brass instruments carried in the pocket by many physicians4 ,mr4 ,j4,j4 ,hicks1 of #h ,hatton ,garden1 ,e4,c41 manufactures a very creditable patent urinometer at an extremely low cost4 ,healthy urine has a density of from #a4jae to #a4jbe2 but variations from this range are common4 ,illustration ,a fair quantity of the urine1 after shaking1 should be placed in a tall conical glass vessel1 to allow easy collection of the precipitate for subsequent1 microscopical examination4 ,if an abundant amorphous deposit of a fawn or pink--from uroerythrin--color slowly settles and is readily diffused1 urates in excess can be anticipated4 ,their presence is proved by the readiness with which they dissolve on warming with the supernatant urine to about the temperature of the blood4 ,no difficulty is experienced if small quantities of albumen are present1 as that body is not coagulated until the temperature rises much higher4 ,a sandy precipitate of free uric acid will not dissolve on warming the urine1 and its identity can further be determined by means of the microscope1 or by applying a well-known color-reaction4 ,a grain or so is oxidized into reddish alloxan and alloxantin by carefuly evaporating with a few drops of strong nitric acid on a piece of porcelain4 ,a little ammonia is then added1 when the fine purple murexide stain will be produced4 ,it is always advisable to mention the reaction to test papers of all samples received4 ,urine is normally acid1 but there are certain diseases which render fluid neutral or alkaline4 ,the urea of acid urine on standing is changed by a putrefactive ferment into ammonic carbonate1 but this decomposition in a state of health should not take place for at least twenty-four hours4 ,alkalies1 or organic salts of alkaline metals1 when taken as medicine render the urine alkaline1 and the indication is then not of much moment2 but if none of these causes exist1 the condition is of serious diagnostic import4 ,where it is desired to determine the degree of acidity of the urine voided1 say1 by a gouty patient1 a dilute volumetric solution of caustic soda should be employed1 using a few drops of an alcoholic solution of phenolphthalein as an indicator1 and reporting in terms of oxalic acid4 ,the soda solution may conveniently contain the equivalent of one milligramme of recrystallized oxalic acid 7,h#b;,c#b,o#d4b;,h#b,o7 in each cubic centimeter4 ,,urea4 ,carbamide1 as it is called by systematic chemists1 or urea1 is next to water the largest constituent of urine1 and forms about one-third of its total solids4 ,derived from ammonic carbonate by abstracting two molecules of the elements of water1 it is readily converted by putrefaction into that salt1 and the urine under these circumstances becomes strongly alkaline in reaction4 ,earthy phosphates then fall naturally out of solution1 so that the putrid fluid is always well furnished with sediment4 ,nitrogen that has served its purpose as muscle or other proteid leaves the animal economy chiefly in the form of urea1 and its proportion in the urine1 therefore1 is a fair index of the activity of wasting influences4 ,for its determination ,knop's sodic hypobromite method1 on account of its convenience1 is now generally preferred4 ,the volumetric process of ,liebig1 which depends on the formation of an insoluble compound of urea with mercuric nitrate1 possesses no advantages and is troublesome to work4 ,the principle of the hypobromite process is simple4 ,in a strongly alkaline solution urea is broken up by sodic hypobromite1 its nitrogen being evolved in the gaseous state1 and its carbon and hydrogen oxidized to carbonic anhydride and water respectively4 ,the volume of free nitrogen obtained bears a direct ratio to the amount of urea decomposed4 ,illustration ,among the number of instruments which have been introduced for the purpose of conveniently measuring the evolved gas1 that of ,gerrard1 an illustration of which we give1 is one of the simplest1 cheapest1 and best4 ,the ureometer tube1 b1 is connected at the base with a movable reservoir1 c1 and by means of a rubber tube passing through a cork at the top to the generating bottle1 a4 ,to use the apparatus1 fill b to zero with water and have the reservoir placed so high that it contains only an inch or so of the liquid4 ,replace the cork with attached tube tightly in b4 ,now pour into the generating bottle #be c4c4 of a solution prepared by dissolving #a part of caustic soda in #b parts of distilled water1 and dexterously break in the liquid a tube containing #b4b c4c4 of bromine4 ,the tubes will be found very convenient1 obviating entirely the suffocating fumes diffused in the act of measuring bromine4 ,allow to stand in the solution of sodic hypobromite thus prepared a test tube containing exactly #e c4c4 of the urine under examination4 ,cork the bottle as shown in the illustration1 see that the water is at zero1 and that the liquid in the reservoir is at the same level1 and then allow the urine to gradually mix with the hypobromite solution4 ,cool the evolved gas by placing the bottle in cold water1 adjust the levels of the water in the tube and reservoir 7to obviate a correction for pressure71 and read off the percentage of urea in terms of which the tube is graduated4 ,stale urine1 the urea of which has largely been converted into ammonic carbonate1 still yields a very fair result1 that salt being also completely split up by the powerful oxidant employed4 ,should the urine contain albumen1 it is advisable to remove it by boiling and filtering1 as1 although only slowly decomposed by the hypobromite solution1 it communicates to the liquid such a tendency to froth that the disengagement of the nitrogen is seriously impeded4 ,most of those alkaloids which might possibly be present do not yield the gas when treated in this manner1 and therefore may be disregarded4 ,,sugar4 ,glucose1 so characteristic of diabetes mellitus1 is not difficult of detection or estimation4 ,the facility with which it reduces alkaline cupric1 argentic1 bismuthous1 ferric1 mercuric salts1 indigo and potassic picrate and chromate solutions has been utilized for the preparation of several ready methods for its determination4 ,trommer's test consists in adding enough cupric sulphate to color green1 then excess of alkali1 and boiling4 ,yellow to brick-red cuprous oxide forms as a heavy precipitate if glucose is present4 ,the organic matter of the urine prevents the precipitation of cupric hydrate on the addition of the alkali4 ,this test is delicate and deservedly popular4 ,fehling's well-known solution contains sodio-potassic tartrate1 which serves the purpose chiefly of retaining the copper in solution4 ,unfortunately1 ,fehling's original solution has a tendency to become hyper-sensitive if kept long1 a proneness to change that is much increased on dilution4 ,when so altered1 the solution will yield a more or less copious precipitate of cuprous oxide on merely boiling1 and quite independent of the presence of glucose4 ,this decomposition is obviated by preserving the copper salt in a separate solution from the tartrate and alkali1 and mixing before use4 ,schmiedeberg substitutes mannite and ,cresswell glycerin for the ,rochelle salt1 in order to render the solution stable4 ,some prepared by the writer over twelve months ago1 according to the suggestion of the latter physician1 has since shown no signs of decomposition1 and is now as good as it was then4 ,for qualitative purposes the solution may be prepared thus3 ,dissolve #ce gm4 of recrystallized cupric sulphate and #bjj c4c4 of pure glycerin in #ajj c4c4 of distilled water4 ,dissolve separately #hj gm4 of caustic soda in #djj c4c4 of water4 ,mix the solutions and boil for a quarter of an hour4 ,a small amount of reduction from impurity in the glycerin takes place4 ,allow to stand till clear1 decant1 and dilute to #a1bej c4c4 ,ten cubic centimeters will then equal roughly #e centigrammes of glucose4 ,for exact quantitative determination it is necessary to standardize the solution with pure anhydrous dextrose4 ,to a practiced operator the indications yielded by the use of this test are of great value2 but beginners are exceedingly liable to mistake its various reactions1 and to report the urine as saccharine when normal traces only of sugar are present4 ,the bismuth test of ,bottger1 as greatly improved by ,nylander1 is fairly delicate1 and not so easily misread as ,fehling's4 ,a large volume of reagent being used with a comparatively small quantity of urine1 the precipitate of earthy phosphates does not interfere in the least with the reaction4 ,on boiling about #c drachms of ,nylander's solution and #bj minims of urine for a minute or two1 the liquid darkens with a trace of sugar1 and becomes opaque and black if the latter is present in quantity4 ,the reagent is prepared by dissolving #did grains of caustic soda1 #bdg grains of ,rochelle salt1 and #aed grains of subnitrate of bismuth 7free from silver7 in #ac fluid oz4 of distilled water4 ,it should be decanted for use from any sediment4 ,illustration3 ,,dr4 ,,pavy',s ,,apparatus4 ,in those cases where the amount of glucose present is required to be determined1 ,dr4 ,pavy's ammonia cupric process distances all compeers for ease of application and delicacy of end-reaction1 combined with considerable accuracy4 ,his solution differs from that of ,fehling in containing ammonia1 which dissolves the cuprous oxide as soon as it is formed1 yielding a colorless solution4 ,it is only necessary1 therefore1 to note the moment that the blue color of the liquid is exactly discharged1 in order to tell when all the copper present has been reduced4 ,pavy's solution is prepared as follows3 ,dissolve #cef grains of ,rochelle salt and the same weight of caustic potash in distilled water2 dissolve separately #gc grains of recrystallized cupric sulphate in more water with heat4 ,add the copper solution to that first prepared1 and when cold add #ab fluid oz4 of strong ammonia 7sp4 gr4 #j4hhj71 and distilled water to #dj fluid oz4 ,the estimation is thus conducted3 ,dilute #aj c4c4 of the ammoniated cupric solution--equivalent to #e milligrammes of glucose--with #bj c4c4 of distilled water1 and place in a #f or #h oz4 flask4 ,attach this by means of a cork to the nozzle of an ordinary ,mohr's burette1 b1 preferably fitted with a glass stopcock1 and filled previously with the diluted urine4 ,the small tube1 c1 which traverses the cork is intended to permit the escape of steam4 ,now raise the blue liquid in the flask to active ebullition--not too violent--by the aid of a spirit lamp or small ,bunsen flame4 ,turn the stopcock in order to allow the urine to flow into the boiling solution at the rate of about #ajj drops per minute 7not more or much less7 until the azure tint is exactly discharged4 ,then stop the flow1 and note the number of cubic centimeters used4 ,that amount of dilute urine will contain #e milligrammes of glucose4 ,to render the determination as accurate as possible1 the urine should be diluted to such an extent that not less than #d or more than #g c4c4 are required to decolorize the solution1 and the proportions necessary will be found to vary from #a part of urine in #b to #a in #cj or #dj4 ,the subsequent calculation is very simple4 ,if you wish to give the percentage of sugar1 multiply #j4jje by #ajj1 and divide the product by the number of cubic centimeters of dilute urine employed4 ,the figure thus obtained1 multiplied by the extent of dilution--i4e41 if there is #a of urine in #aj1 multiply by #aj--;gives the required percentage4 ,the number of grains per fluid ounce can of course be obtained by multiplying the percentage by #d4cge4 ,to observe easily the exact end-reaction a piece of white paper should be placed behind the flask4 ,if the analyst objects to the escape of the waste ammoniacal fumes1 they may be conducted by a suitable arrangement into water or dilute acid4 ,in addition to glucose there are small quantities of other copper-reducing bodies present in all urine1 which always render the reading higher than strict accuracy would demand4 ,their aggregate proportion1 however1 is1 comparatively speaking1 so minute that for most medical purposes their presence may be disregarded4 ,greater care must be exercised1 though1 in those instances where such a deoxidizer as chloral hydrate is accidentally present4 ,in case of doubt1 a little washed and pressed yeast should be allowed to stand with the urine for a day or two in a warm place4 ,alcoholic fermentation with evolution of carbonic acid gas soon sets in1 and the specific gravity of the liquid is lowered considerably4 ,this reaction points conclusively to the presence of sugar4 ,based upon ,braun's potassic picrate test1 ,dr4 ,g4 ,johnson has devised a colorimetric process for the estimation of sugar4 ,on boiling an alkaline solution of that salt with glucose1 the former is reduced to deep red-brown picramate1 the color of the liquid1 of course1 varying in intensity according to the proportion of sugar present4 ,this solution is diluted till it corresponds in tint with a ferric acetate standard1 and the percentage of sugar is then readily calculated4 ,for those who prefer this process the convenient apparatus manufactured by ,mr4 ,cetti1 of #cf ,brooke street1 ,holborn1 is recommended1 who will also furnish full particulars of the test4 ,,albumen4 ,normal urine is free from coagulable proteids1 though it is admitted that albumen may sometimes occur in the absence of disease4 ,it is always highly important1 therefore1 to determine accurately the presence or absence of this body4 ,in the relentless malady named after ,richard ,bright1 the urine always contains albumen1 and if accompanied by the casts of the uriniferous tubules your report may amount to a sentence of certain death4 ,the tests which we now describe are accurate and easily applied2 but reliance should never be placed on any single reaction--at any rate until the operator has acquired considerable experience4 ,galippe's picric acid test has within the last few years attracted much attention1 chiefly through the commendation it has received from ,dr4 ,george ,johnson4 ,a saturated solution is prepared by dissolving #adj grains of recrystallized picric acid 7carbazotic acid1 or1 more correctly1 trinitrophenol7 in #a pint of water with heat1 and decanting the clear solution4 ,some of the urine is rendered perfectly bright by filtration--repeated1 if necessary--through good filtering paper1 and to this an equal volume of the picric acid solution is added4 ,in the presence of albumen a more or less distinct haze is produced1 which on heating to the boiling point is rather intensified than otherwise4 ,peptones1 if present1 yield a similar haze1 and quinine or other alkaloid a more or less crystalline precipitate2 but in both these cases the opalescence is completely dissipated by heat4 ,mucin1 an important constituent of some urines1 is not affected by picric acid1 and the test is decidedly one of great value4 ,the nitric acid test4 ,heller's contact method1 which can also be used with the last-described reagent1 is the best mode of applying the old-fashioned and favorite test with nitric acid4 ,to #e volumes of a filtered saturated solution of magnesic sulphate1 prepared by dissolving #aj parts of the salt in #ac parts of distilled water1 add #a volume of strong nitric acid1 and label ,sir ,w4 ,roberts' nitric acid reagent4 ,a couple of drachms of bright filtered urine is allowed to float on an equal quantity of this solution in a test tube2 care being taken that the contact line is sharply defined4 ,in a period of time varying from a few seconds to a quarter of an hour1 according to the amount of albumen present1 a delicate opalescent zone forms at the point of junction1 and if mucin also is present1 a more diffused haze higher up in the urine4 ,special attention should be given to the position of the opacity4 ,in some concentrated urines a belt of urates will appear at the line of demarkation2 but these dissolve on warming4 ,moreover1 owing to the dilution necessary in the mode of applying ,galippe's picric acid test1 they are not so readily shown by the latter4 ,a oz4 glass syringe can very conveniently be substituted for a test tube in making analyses according to ,heller's method4 ,some of the urine should be drawn up1 and then an equal volume of the reagent4 ,on setting aside1 the albumen ring will rapidly develop4 ,the boiling test4 ,this method also is very delicate and valuable4 ,it depends on the well-known property possessed by many proteids of coagulating under the influence of heat4 ,the urine should have an acid reaction to test paper2 if alkaline1 it must be cautiously neutralized with dilute acetic acid4 ,in either case a single drop of strong acetic acid should be added to about three drachms of the bright liquid4 ,if this precaution is omitted1 there is danger of precipitating earthy phosphates on heating2 and should a great excess of acid be employed1 a non-coagulable form of albumen known as syntonin is formed1 besides increasing the likelihood of precipitating mucin4 ,place the prepared urine in a narrow test-tube and hold it in a small flame so that the upper part only of the liquid approaches the boiling point4 ,by this means very small traces of albumen are easily observed1 the opalescence produced contrasting strongly with the cold and clear fluid beneath4 ,the ferrocyanide test4 ,hydroferrocyanic acid yields a precipitate immediately in the presence of much albumen1 and if traces only are present1 in the course of a few minutes4 ,to apply the test1 strongly acidulate with acetic acid1 and then add a few drops of recently prepared potassic ferrocyanide solution4 ,this is one of the most delicate tests known4 ,it is often desirable that the percentage of albumen present should be determined at frequent intervals1 in order to note the success or otherwise of the physician's treatment4 ,these quantitative determinations1 being intended only for comparative purposes1 do not demand any very excessive degree of accuracy1 such as would be difficult to obtain in ordinary practice4 ,the recent method of a ,continental worker4 ,dr4 ,esbach1 affords indications sufficiently precise for therapeutical requirements1 and is at the same time extremely easy of application4 ,the filtered acid urine is poured into the glass tube up to the mark ,u1 and then the special reagent is added till the level of the liquid stands at ,r4 ,illustration ,mix the liquids thoroughly1 without shaking1 by reversing the tube a dozen times1 close with a cork1 and allow it to stand upright for twenty-four hours4 ,the height at which the coagulum then stands1 read off on the scale1 will indicate the number of parts per thousand1 or grammes of albumen in one liter4 ,this divided by ten gives the percentage4 ,dr4 ,esbach's test solution is prepared by dissolving #aj grammes of picric acid and #bj grammes of citric acid in #ijj c4c4 of boiling distilled water1 and then adding1 when cold1 sufficient water to yield #a liter4 ,the citric acid is only employed for the purpose of maintaining the acidity of the liquid1 and is really not essential4 ,,uric ,,or ,,lithic ,,acid4 ,the determination of the proportion of uric acid in urine was formerly rather neglected by physicians4 ,there is now1 however1 a growing tendency in a certain class of diseases to attach considerable importance to its accurate estimation1 and1 as some little trouble is involved1 pharmacists should be prepared to undertake the work4 ,a rough way is to concentrate somewhat1 acidulate with hydrochloric acid1 and collect and weigh the precipitate thrown down on standing4 ,there are several objections1 however1 to this method1 and many attempts have been made to elaborate a more reliable process4 ,one of the most recent1 and which has been pronounced the most practical and successful1 has been devised by ,professor ,haycraft4 ,although apparently rather detailed and elaborate1 the determination is easy and extremely simple4 ,the following solutions must be prepared3 #a4 ,dissolve #e grammes of nitrate of silver in #ajj c4c4 of distilled water1 and add ammonia until the precipitate first formed redissolves4 #b4 ,dilute strong nitric acid with about two volumes of distilled water2 boil1 to destroy the lower oxides of nitrogen1 and preserve in the dark4 #c4 ,dissolve about #h grammes of ammonic thiocyanate 7sulphocyanide7 crystals in a liter of water1 and adjust to decinormal argentic nitrate solution1 by diluting till one volume is exactly equal to a volume of the latter4 ,dilute the solution thus prepared with nine volumes of distilled water1 and label ,centinormal ammonic-thiocyanate solution4 #d4 ,a saturated solution of ferric alum4 #e4 ,strong solution of ammonia 7sp4 gr4 #j4hhj74 ,the uric acid estimation is conducted as follows3 ,place #be per cent4 of urine in a beaker with #a gramme of sodic bicarbonate4 ,add #b or #c c4c4 of strong ammonia1 and then #a or #b c4c4 of the ammoniated silver solution4 ,if1 on allowing the precipitate caused by the latter reagent to subside1 a further precipitate is produced by the addition of more solution1 the urine contains an iodide1 and silver solution must be added till there is an excess4 ,the gelatinous urate must now be collected1 the following special procedure being necessary3 ,prepare an asbestos filter by filling a #d oz4 glass funnel to about one-third with broken glass1 and covering this with a bed of asbestos to about a quarter of an inch deep4 ,this is best managed by shaking the latter in a flask with water until the fibers are thoroughly separated1 and then pouring the emulsion so made in separate portions on to the broken glass4 ,on account of the nature of the precipitate and of the filter1 it is necessary to use a ,sprengel pump1 in order to suck the liquid through4 ,the small apparatus sold to students by chemical instrument makers will answer the purpose admirably4 ,having collected the precipitate of silver urate on the prepared filter1 wash it repeatedly with distilled water1 until the washings cease to become opalescent with a soluble chloride4 ,now dissolve the pure urate by washing it through the filter with a few cubic centimeters of the special nitric acid4 ,the process is carried out thus3 ,add to the liquid in the beaker a few drops of the ferric-alum solution to act as an indicator1 and from a burette carefully drop in centinormal ammonic thiocyanate until a permanent red coloration of ferric thiocyanate barely appears4 ,the number of cubic centimeters used of the thiocyanate solution multiplied by #j4jjafh gives the amount of uric acid in the #be c4c4 ,one milligramme may be added to compensate for loss1 and the whole multiplied by four gives the percentage of uric acid in the urine4 ,the whole process depends on the fact that argentic urate fails to dissolve in ammonia1 but is soluble in nitric acid1 and is thus easily obtained in the pure state4 ,by determining the amount of combined silver1 the percentage of uric acid can readily be calculated4 ,the addition of sodic bicarbonate prevents the otherwise inevitable reduction of the silver salt4 ,,bile4 ,in diseases affecting the liver1 the urine frequently becomes contaminated with biliary constituents4 ,if the coloring matter of bile is present 7bilirubin1 etc471 the liquid is darkened considerably in tint1 and may assume various shades of brown or green4 ,should the color be decided1 the fluid will be found to foam strongly on shaking1 and white blotting-paper will be stained by it yellow or greenish4 ,these characters point to the presence of bile in fair quantity1 and it is only necessary to apply a single confirmatory test4 ,allow some of the urine to flow carefully1 according to ,heller's method1 over a couple of drachms of yellow nitric acid 7i4e41 acid containing traces of the lower oxides of nitrogen74 ,a number of rapidly changing colors soon appear1 passing through green1 blue1 violet1 and red to yellow4 ,the first of these tints1 green1 is the only one that undoubtedly points to the presence of biliary coloring matter1 all the others being yielded by another constituent of urine1 indican1 when similarly treated4 ,should the color of the urine suggest the presence of only traces of bile1 the best plan is not to treat the urine directly1 but extract a quantity of it by shaking with chloroform4 ,on separating the latter1 and covering with yellowish nitric acid1 the color changes will be observed penetrating into the chloroform4 ,a little1 also1 evaporated on a slide yields reddish crystals1 which exhibit a pretty play of colors under the microscope when touched with nitric acid4 ,it is not unfrequently considered important to test urine for the sodium salts of the conjugate biliary acids1 taurocholic and glycocholic4 ,dr4 ,oliver1 of ,harrogate1 has proposed the use of an acidulated peptone solution for this purpose1 and the reaction is undoubtedly a good one4 ,the reagent is prepared by dissolving #cj grains of flesh peptone1 #d grains of salicylic acid1 and #cj minims of strong acetic acid1 in sufficient water to produce #h fluid oz4 of solution4 ,thus prepared1 the peptone shows no signs of decomposition on keeping4 ,to use the test1 mix #a fluid drachm of the reagent with #bj minims of urine1 previously diluted to a standard specific gravity of #a4jjc4 ,a haze is produced1 which will be found to be more or less distinct1 according to the proportion of bile salts present4 ,,chlorides4 ,a normal and variable constituent of urine1 chlorine1 is not usually required to be determined4 ,should the estimation be considered necessary1 however1 ,volhard's silver process1 which has been noticed in treating of uric acid1 possesses several advantages over other methods3 #aj c4c4 of urine are diluted with #fj c4c4 of distilled water4 ,to this is added #b c4c4 of pure #gj percent4 nitric acid and #ae c4c4 of a standard solution of silver nitrate 7#a c4c4 #j4ja gramme ,na,cl74 ,shake well and make up to #ajj c4c4 with water4 ,all the chlorine present will now be precipitated in the liquid as a silver salt4 ,filter an aliquot part 7about #gj or #hj c4c471 and determine in the clear solution the excess of silver with standard ammonic thiocyanate1 using the ferric alum indicator4 ,the difference between this and the amount of silver originally present in the aliquot part has been precipitated as silver chloride 7,ag,cl74 ,the whole estimation should be conducted as rapidly as possible4 ,a simple calculation will then give the proportion of chlorine in the dilute urine1 and this multiplied by ten shows the percentage4 ,it is usual to report in terms of ,na,cl4 ,,phosphates4 ,in those cases where the pharmacist is asked to determine phosphoric acid quantitatively1 the uranic-acetate method described in ,sutton's ,volumetric ,analysis yields the most satisfactory results4 ,the process requires some little experience to use it with ease1 and is too lengthy for quotation here4 ,,microscopical ,,examination4 ,a good microscope is one of the first necessaries of the urinary analyst4 ,by its aid it is possible to distinguish easily many solid constituents of urine--normal and pathological2 indeed1 the examination of urinary deposits is often quite as important as the more elaborate wet analysis4 ,a well-made instrument is no luxury to the pharmacist2 but even those whose chief aim is bon march can procure capital students' microscopes at exceedingly low cost4 ,one of the cheapest1 and at the same time an instrument of good quality1 is the ,star1 manufactured by ,messrs4 ,r4 ,j4 ,beck1 of #ca ,cornhill1 ,e4,c4 ,equipped with a good microscope1 the analyst should obtain a fair supply of typical slides for comparison4 ,the following selection will be found sufficient for his purpose3 ,a set of the chief varieties of uric acid1 calcic oxalate1 and triple phosphate2 the urates and oxalurates2 urea nitrate1 calcic hippurate and carbonate1 hippuric acid1 cystin1 well mounted casts of the tubili uriniferi1 spermatozoa1 etc4 ,in doubtful cases microchemical reagents can be employed1 using ,professor ,attfield's ,chemistry as a guide4 ,where mounted objects are not at hand1 reference may be made to the capitally executed plates in that work4 ,after obtaining a little experience in the use of the microscope1 no difficulty will be met with in these examinations4--,the ,chemist and ,druggist4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,liquid ,,and ,,gaseous ,,rings4 ,all who have learned a little of chemistry doubtless remember the experiment with vortex rings produced by phosphorus trihydride mixed with a little phosphide of hydrogen4 ,as this curious phenomenon evidently does not depend upon the peculiar properties of this gas1 ,i have been trying for some time to reproduce it by means of tobacco smoke1 and even with chemical precipitates1 which are1 in a way1 liquid smoke4 ,after a few tentatives made at different times1 my experiment succeeded perfectly4 ,the following is1 in brief1 the mode of operating3 ,take up a little hydrochloric acid in a pipette and put a few drops of it into a very dilute solution of nitrate of mercury1 and you will obtain rings of mercurial chloride that will1 in their descent1 take on the same whirling motion that characterizes the aureolas of phosphureted hydrogen4 ,the drops of acid should be allowed to fall slowly1 and from a feeble height1 to the surface of the liquid contained in the vessel4 ,it is unnecessary to say that the result may be obtained through the use of other solutions1 provided that a precipitate is produced that is not very thick1 for in the latter case the rings do not form4 ,if need be1 we may have recourse to milk1 and carefully pour a few drops of it into a glass of water4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,production ,,of ,,smoke ,,rings4 ,as regards smoke rings1 it is easy to produce these by puffing cigar smoke through a tube 7,fig4 #a74 ,but1 in order to insure success1 a few precautions are necessary4 ,the least current of air must be avoided1 and this requires the closing of the windows and doors4 ,moreover1 in order to interrupt the ascending currents that are formed in proximity to the body1 the operation should be performed over a table1 as shown in the figure4 ,the rings that pass beyond the table are not perceptibly influenced by currents of hot air4 ,a tube inch in diameter1 made by rolling up a sheet of common letter paper1 suffices for making very beautiful rings of one inch or more in diameter4 ,in order to observe the rings well1 it is well to project them toward the darkest part of the room1 or toward the black table1 if the operator is seated4 ,the first puffs will not produce any rings if the tube has not previously been filled with smoke4 ,the whirling motion is perfectly visible on the exit of the ring from the tube1 and even far beyond4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #b1 #c1 ,,and #d4--,,various ,,aspects ,,of ,,smoke ,,rings4 ,as for the aspect of the rings projected with more or less velocity to different distances from the tube1 ,figs4 #b1 #c1 and #d give quite a clear idea of that4 ,figs4 #c and #f show the mode of destruction of the rings when the air is still4 ,there are always filaments of smoke that fall after being preceded by a sort of cup4 ,these capricious forms of smoke1 in spreading through a calm atmosphere1 are especially very apparent when the rays of the sun enter the room4 ,very similar ones may be obtained in a liquid whose transparency is interfered with by producing a precipitate or rings in it4--,la ,nature4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #e ,,and #f44--,,smoke ,,rings ,,breaking ,,up4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,shall ,,we ,,have ,a ,,national ,,horse8 ,to the ,editor of ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement3 ,in your issue for ,august #ac is ,a ,proposition for a ,government ,breeding ,farm for ,cavalry ,horses1 by ,lieutenant ,s4,c4 ,robertson ,u4,s4,a41 ,first ,cavalry4 ,the article is national in conception1 deep in careful thought1 which only gift1 with practical experience with ability1 could so ably put before the people4 ,as a business proposition1 it is creditable to an officer in the ,united ,states army4 ,the husbandman and agriculturist1 also the navy and scientific explorations1 each in turn present their wants before the government for help in some way1 and receive assistance4 ,the seaman wants new and improved or better ships1 and the navy gets them2 but the poor cavalryman must put up with any kind of a craft he can get2 the horse is the cavalryman's ship--war vessel on land4 ,the appeal of ,lieut4 ,robertson to our government for better horses is reasonable2 and he tries to help the government with a carefully studied business proposition through which to enable our government to grant the supplication of the army4 ,that ,lieut4 ,robertson loves a horse1 and knows what a good one is1 no man can dispute who has read his article2 but as to how it can best be produced1 he does not know4 ,while ,i for one applaud both his article and his earnestness1 with your permission ,i will make some suggestions as to the breeding side of his proposition4 ,the business portion will1 of course1 come under the ordnance department in any event4 ,as for a government breeding establishment for any kind of livestock in this great agricultural country1 ,i feel that such would be at variance with the interests of husbandry in ,america4 ,the breeding of horses is particularly an important branch of agriculture1 and the farmers should be assisted by the government in the improvement of their horses1 until they are raised to a standard which in case of emergency could supply the army at a moment's notice with the best horses in the world at the least possible expense4 ,our government ,agricultural ,bureau is constantly spending thousands of dollars to help the agriculturist in matter of better and greater varieties of improved seeds and the better way for cultivation4 ,now1 the seed of animal life is as important as in vegetable life to the interest and welfare of the husbandman1 which also means the government4 ,for the government to become a monopolist of any important branch in agriculture is not in harmony with the principles of our republican-democratic form of government4 ,while advocating a protective tariff against outside depreciation of home industries1 our government should not in any way approach monarchical intrusion upon the industries of its husbandmen4 ,our government cannot afford to make its agriculturists competitors in so important a matter to them 7the farmers7 as in the raising of horses2 but the government can see to it that the husbandman has a standard for excellence in the breeding of horses which shall be recognized as a national standard the civilized world over4 ,then1 by that standard1 and through our superior advantages over any other civilized nation in the vast extent of cheap and good grass lands1 with abundance of pure water1 and with all temperatures of climate1 we can grow1 as a people1 the best horses in the world1 to be known as the ,national ,horse of ,america4 ,our government must have a blood standard for the breeding of horses1 by which our horses can be bred and raised true to a type1 able to reproduce itself in any country to which we may export them2 and the types can be several1 as our territory is so great and demands so varied1 but blood and breeding must be the standard for each type4 ,our fancy breeders have a standard now1 called a time standard1 which is purely a gambling standard1 demoralizing in all its tendencies to both man and beast4 ,with this the government need have nothing to do1 for it will die out of itself as the masses learn more of it1 and especially would it cease to be1 once the government established a blood standard for the breeding of all horses1 and particularly a ,national ,horse4 ,when the cereal crops of our country are light1 or the prices fall below profitable production1 the farmer has always a colt or two to sell1 thus helping him through the year4 ,in place of constantly importing horses from ,france1 ,england1 and ,scotland1 where they are raised mostly in paddocks1 and paying out annually millions of dollars1 it is our duty to be exporting4 ,as an ,american ,i am ashamed when ,i see paraded at our county or state fairs stallions and mares wearing the blue ribbon of superexcellence1 with boastful exclamation by the owner of a thoroughbred imported ,percheron1 or a thoroughbred imported ,french coacher1 or a thoroughbred imported ,scotch ,clyde1 or a thoroughbred imported ,english coacher1 or a thoroughbred imported ,english ,shire1 or a thoroughbred imported ,english ,cleveland ,bay6 ,the ,american farmer and his boys look on aghast at the majesty and beauty of these prize winners over our big-headed1 crowbar-necked1 limp-tailed1 peeked-quartered horses called standard bred6 ,what standard8 ,time standard1 as created by a man who is neither a horseman nor a breeder2 but because of the lack of intelligent information and want of courage upon the part of a few1 this man's ipse dixit has become law for the ,american breeders until such time as cultured intelligence shall cause them to rebel4 ,it soon will4 ,it is indeed time for the government to step in and regulate our horse breeding4 ,of all the national industries there is none of more importance than that of horses4 ,more so in ,america than in any other country1 because our facilities are greater1 and results can be greater under proper regulation4 ,lieut4 ,robertson has proved to be the right man in the right place1 to open the door for glorious results to our nation4 ,no one man or a small body of men can regulate this horse-breeding industry1 but as in ,france1 ,russia1 and ,england1 the government must place its hand and voice4 ,we are indeed an infant country1 but have grown to an age where parental restraint must be used now1 if ever4 ,we have millions of farmers in ,america1 breeding annually millions of horses2 and except we have another internal war1 our horses will soon become a burden and a pest4 ,there are numbers of rich men throughout the country breeding fancy horses1 for sport and speculation1 but they only add to the increasing burden of useless animals1 except for gambling purposes2 for they are neither work horses1 coach horses1 nor saddle horses4 ,our farmers of the land are the breeders1 as our recent war of the rebellion testified4 ,the war of #ahab1 the ,mexican war of #ahdg1 and the war of #ahfa each called for horses at a moment's notice1 and our farmers supplied them1 destroying foundation bloods for recuperation4 ,from #ahfa to #ahfc the noble patriotism of our farmers caused them to vie with each other as to who should give the best and least money to help the government2 and cannot our government now do something for the strength and sinew of the land1 the farmers8 ,i was dealing in horses1 more or less1 from #ahfa to #ahfc 7as ,i had been before and long after71 and many was the magnificent horse ,i saw led out by the farmer for the government1 at a minimum price1 when1 previous to #ahfa1 #djj1 #ejj1 and even #fjj was refused for the same animals4 ,horses that would prove a headlight to any gentleman's coach in the city1 and others that would trot off fourteen to sixteen miles an hour on the road as easy as they would eat their oats1 went into the cavalry or artillery or to baggage trains4 ,what were left for recuperation at the close of the war were mongrels from ,canada or the ,indian and wild lands of the ,west1 and such other lazy brutes as our good farmers would not impose upon the government with or later were condemned by the army buyers4 ,these were largely of the ,abdallah type of horse1 noted for coarseness1 homeliness1 also soft and lazy constitutions4 ,no one disputes the brute homeliness of the ,abdallah horse1 and in this the old and trite saying of ,like begets like is exemplified in descendants1 with which our country is flooded4 ,the speed element of which we boast was left in our mares of ,arabian blood through ,clay and ,morgan1 but was so limited in numbers as to be an apology for our present time standard in the breeding of fancy horses4 ,knowing that ,abdallah blood produced no speed1 and being largely ignorant as to the breeding of our mares1 which were greatly scattered over the land after the war1 some kind of a guess had to be made as to the possibility of the colts we were breeding1 hence the time standard fallacy4 ,but it has ruined enough men1 and gone far enough4 ,upon ,lieutenant ,robertson's proposition1 a turn can be made1 and a solid base for blood with breeding of all ,american horses can be demanded by the government for the country's good4 ,from the earliest history of man1 as a people increased in wealth1 they gave attention to mental culture with refinement2 following which the horse was cultivated to a high blood standard with national pride4 ,from the ,egyptians1 the ,moors1 the ,romans1 and ,britons to ,france1 ,russia1 and ,prussia we look1 finding the horse by each nation had been a national pride--each nation resorting to the same primitive blood from which to create its type1 and that primitive was the ,arabian4 ,scientists have theorized1 men have written1 and boys have imagined in print1 as to some other than the ,arabian from which to create a type of horse1 and yet through all ages we find that ,arabian has been the one stepping stone for each advanced nation upon which blood to build its national horse4 ,scientists have reasoned and explored1 trying to prove to the contrary1 but what have they proved8 ,the ,arabian horse still remains the fact4 ,the lion1 the tiger1 the leopard1 still remain the same1 as does the ass and the zebra4 ,as ,god created and man named them1 with all animal life1 subject to the will of man1 so do they all continue to remain and reproduce1 each true to its type1 free from imperfections or disease2 also the same in vegetable and mineral life4 ,in animal life1 the build1 form1 color1 size1 and instincts remain the same1 true to its blood from the first1 and yet all was created for man through which to amuse him and make him work4 ,it is a fact that all of man's creations from any primitive life1 either animal or vegetable1 will degenerate and cease to be1 while of ,god's perfect creations1 all continue the same4 ,we will condense on the horse4 ,the ,arabian is the most pliable in its blood of any other known to man4 ,from it1 any other type can be created4 ,once a type has been created1 it must be sustained in itself by close breeding1 which can be continued for quite a number of years without degeneracy4 ,for invigoration or revitalizing1 resort must be made to its primitive blood cause4 ,to go out of the family to colder or even warmer creations of man means greater mongrelization of both blood and instinct1 also to invite new diseases4 ,nothing is more infatuating than the breeding of horses4 ,a gifted practical student in the laws of animal life may create a new and fixed type of horse1 but it can be as quickly destroyed by the multitude1 through ignorant mongrelization4 ,in the breeding of horses1 our people are wild2 and in no industry can our government do more good than in making laws relating to their breeding4 ,it can father the production of a national horse without owning a breeding farm4 ,it can make blood and breeding a standard for different types1 and see to it that its laws are obeyed1 thus benefiting all the agriculturists1 and have breeding farms in ,america2 and also itself as a government1 financially4 ,we must not however begin upon the creation of other nations1 but independently upon ,god's gift to man1 as did ,england1 ,france1 and ,russia4 ,that a government should interfere in the breeding of horses is no new thing4 ,the ,arabs of the desert boast to this day of ,king ,solomon's stud of horses2 but in each and every instance where a nation has regulated and encouraged the breeding of the horse to a high standard of excellence1 they have all begun at the primitive1 or ,arabian4 ,thus ,england in boasting of her thoroughbred race horse admits it to be of ,arabian origin4 ,russia in boasting of her ,orloff trotting and saddle horse tells you it is of ,arabian origin4 ,france boldly informs you that her ,percheron is but an enlarged ,arabian1 and offers annual special premiums to such as revitalize it with fresh ,arabian blood4 ,after the war of #ahab our forefathers imported many ,arabian stallions to recuperate the blood of their remnants in horses4 ,from #ahcj such prominent men as ,andrew ,jackson and ,henry ,clay said all they could by private letter and public speech to encourage the importation of and breeding freely to the ,arabian horse1 and specially did the ,state of ,kentucky follow the advice of ,henry ,clay1 so that from #ahcj up to #aheg ,kentucky had more ,arabian stallions in her little district than the combined ,states of the ,union4 ,kentucky has had a prestige in her mares since the war1 and it comes in the larger amount of ,arabian blood influence she has had in them1 than could be found elsewhere4 ,kentucky is shut in1 as it were1 and retaining her mares largely impregnated with ,arabian blood1 all that was necessary for them to do was to get trotting-bred stallions from ,new ,york ,state1 then eclipse all other ,states in the produce4 ,while ,i cheerfully award to ,kentucky all credit due to it1 ,i am not willing that ,lieut4 ,robertson should make his base for government breeding establishment sectional1 nor would ,i submit to ,england through ,kentucky4 ,i am too ,american for that4 ,for cavalry purposes1 the ,prussian horse is the best in the world1 and is also ,arabian in its closest foundation4 ,to get at this blood question more definitely1 let us inquire into these different recognized self-producing national types of horses abroad4 ,first is the ,english thoroughbred race horse1 which is simply an improved ,arab4 ,the functions of this ,english national horse are but twofold--to run races and to beget himself1 after which he ceases to be of value4 ,he is not a producer of any other type of value2 to breed him out of his family is mongrelism and degeneracy1 so we don't want him1 even though we could humiliate our ,american pride through our loved ,state of ,kentucky4 ,count ,orloff of ,russia was a great horseman1 exceedingly fond of horseback riding independent of the chase4 ,he tried in #ahjj to breed a satisfactory horse from the ,english thoroughbred race horse1 but went from bad to worse until he resorted to the ever-pliant blood of the ,arabian4 ,he sent to ,egypt and secured a thoroughbred ,arabian stallion1 paying #h1jjj for him 7in our money74 ,this horse he bred to ,danish mares1 largely of ,arabian blood1 and created a very stout1 short-backed horse1 standing from #ae to #ae and #af hands high1 of great trotting speed1 also able to run to weight1 and with good disposition1 which the ,english thoroughbred did not have4 ,this type he continued to close-breed1 going back to the ,arabian for renewed stoutness4 ,at his death1 his estates passed to his daughter1 who continued her father's breedings until the ,russian government purchased the entire collection1 about #ahdf1 since when the ,russian government ,orloff trotting and saddle horse has become famous the world over as a first-class saddle1 cavalry1 stage coach1 and trotting horse combined4 ,they are broken at three years of age1 and scarce any that cannot beat #b3cj at trotting speed1 and from that down to #b3ae in their crude way of hitching and driving4 ,this is something for ,american breeders to think very interestedly upon4 ,france wanted heavy draught horses1 also proud coach horses2 so rather than go to any competing nation for their created types1 her enterprising subjects took the same ,arabian blood1 and from it created the beautiful ,percheron1 also ,french coach horses1 so greatly valued and admired the world over1 and which the gifted and immortal ,rosa ,bonheur has so happily reproduced upon canvas4 ,can ,america show any kind of a horse to tempt her brush8 ,with regard to a foundation for a government or national horse1 ,i am certain so gifted and able ,united ,states officer as ,mr4 ,s4,c4 ,robertson did not know that it was unnecessary to go to ,england for the blood of their national horse1 even though we smuggled it through ,kentucky or any other of our ,states4 ,again1 it would be impossible to produce any type of a horse from the ,english thoroughbred1 except a dunghill1 and ,mr4 ,robertson would not have his government breed national dunghills6 ,i love ,england as our mother country1 but am an ,american1 born and dyed in the wool to our independence1 from the ,declaration4 ,now let us see what ,england says of her thoroughbred3 ,he is no longer to be relied upon for fulfilling his twofold functions as a racer and reproducer of himself4 ,he is degenerating in stoutness and speed4 ,as a sire he has acquired faults of constitution and temper which1 while leaving him the best we have1 is not the best we should aspire to have4 ,his stoutness and speed are distinctly ,arabian qualities1 to which we must resort for fresh and pure blood4 ,we have shown that the ,englishman says his thoroughbred is full of radical and growing defects in wind1 tendons1 feet1 and temper1 and that his twofold functions are to run races and reproduce himself1 which are the end of his purpose4 ,does our government want breeding farms upon which to nurse these admitted defects1 including the confirmed roarer1 for cavalry horses8 ,i quote again3 ,those who have had most to do with him are ready to admit that he no longer possesses the soundness1 stoutness1 speed1 courage1 and beauty he inherited from his ,arabian parentage4 ,as a sire for half-bred stock1 he may do for those who will use him1 but we must resort to the ,arabian if we would revitalize and sustain our thoroughbred race horse4 ,in the face of these statements1 in print abroad1 would ,lieut4 ,robertson make the base for our proposed national horse that of the ,english thoroughbred1 scattering the weeds from such imperfect breedings among the farmers of our land8 ,i am writing as an old horseman and breeder1 and not as a newspaper man or young enthusiast1 although the enthusiasm of youth is still in me1 for which ,i am thankful4 ,this question of horse breeding ,i have been deeply interested in for forty years past4 ,let me quote to the reader from one of many letters ,i have received from ,sir ,wilfrid ,seawen ,blunt during the past seven years4 ,his practical knowledge of the ,english thoroughbred race horse and his blood cause1 the ,arabian1 is the equal if not superior to any other one man of this present age4 ,with his wife1 ,lady ,anne1 he dwelt with the different tribes of the desert1 studying the ,arabs as a people1 in their customs and habits1 also traditions with beliefs4 ,in matter of their horses1 ,mr4 ,blunt made a special study1 while ,lady ,anne put her diaries in book form after her return1 and which book should be owned by every cultured and educated lady in ,america4 ,after spending a year in ,arabia1 traveling both sides of the ,euphrates and through ,mesopotamia1 as no other ,anglo-,saxons have been known to do1 living with the different ,bedouin tribes of the desert as they lived1 ,mr4 ,blunt and his wife1 ,lady ,anne1 came out with sixteen of the choicest bred mares to be found1 also two stallions1 the mares mostly with foal4 ,these were placed upon their estates1 ,crabbet ,park1 to continue inbreeding as upon the desert1 pure to its blood4 ,as this question in itself will make a long and interesting article1 ,i will avoid it at present1 quoting to the reader from one of my old letters3 ,,crabbet ,,park1 ,,sussex1 ,,england4 ,dear ,sir3 ,political matters have prevented an earlier reply to your last4 ,i am well satisfied with my present results1 and shall not abandon what ,i have undertaken4 ,the practical merits of ,arabian blood are well understood by us4 ,our sale of young stock maintains itself in good prices in spite of bad times2 indeed1 my average within the past two years has risen from #hd to #ajb on the pure-breds sold as yearlings1 and we receive the most flattering and satisfactory accounts from purchasers1 although it is known that ,i retain the best of each year's produce1 and so have greatly improved my breeding stock4 ,you speak of the opinions of the press as against you4 ,the sporting press are not breeders1 but are the mouthpiece of prejudices4 ,we have had them somewhat against us1 but they now view things in more friendly tone4 ,for immediate use in running races 7in which the sporting press are chiefly interested71 the ,arabian in his undeveloped state and under size will not compete with the ,english race horse4 ,this fact has caused racing men to doubt his other many and more important merits2 indeed1 it is only those who have had personal experience of him that as yet acknowledge them4 ,the strong points in the ,arabian are many3 ,first1 his undoubted soundness in constitution1 in wind1 limb1 and feet4 ,it will be noticed that the ,englishman must have soundness in wind1 limb1 and feet1 showing that their thoroughbred is the thorn in that particular4 ,the ,arabian has also wonderful intelligence1 great beauty1 and good disposition1 with an almost affectionate desire to adapt himself to your wishes4 ,in breeding1 ,i have found the pure-breds delicate during the first few weeks after birth1 and have lost a good many1 especially those foaled early in the year2 yet it is a remarkable fact that during the eight years of my breeding them1 ,i have had no serious illness in the stables2 once over the dangerous age1 they seem to have excellent constitutions1 and are always sound in wind1 limb1 and feet4 ,second1 they are nearly all good natural and fast walkers1 also fast trotters2 and from the soundness of their feet are especially fitted for fast road work1 being able to do almost any number of miles without fatigue4 ,third1 they are nearly all good natural jumpers1 and ,i have not had a single instance of a colt that would not go across country well to hounds4 ,they are very bold fencers1 requiring neither whip nor spur4 ,they carry weight well1 making bold and easy jumps where other larger horses fail4 ,fourth1 they have naturally good mouths1 and good tempers1 with free and easy paces2 so that one who has accustomed himself to riding a pure-bred ,arabian will hardly go back1 if he can help it1 to any other sort of horse4 ,there is all the difference in riding the ,arabian and the ordinary ,english hunter or half-bred that there is in riding in a well-hung gig or a cart without springs4 ,fifth4 ,as sires for half-bred stock1 the ,arabian may not be better than a first-class ,english thoroughbred1 but is certainly better than a second-class one1 and first-class sires are out of the reach of all ordinary breeders2 for that reason ,i recommend a fair trial of his quality1 confident your breeders will not be disappointed4 ,with good young mares who require a horse to give their offspring quality1 that is to say1 beauty1 with courage and stoutness1 and with a turn of speed for fast road work1 the ,arabian is better than any class of ,english thoroughbreds that are used for cross breeding4 ,i trust then for that reason you will not allow yourself to be discouraged by the slowness of the people to appreciate all the merits of the ,arabian at once4 ,our breeders are full of prejudices1 and only experience can teach them the value of things outside their own circle of knowledge4 ,i have no doubt whatever that truth will in the end prevail2 but you must have patience4 ,remember that a public is always impatient1 and most often unreasonably so4 ,my stud ,i keep at a permanent strength of twelve brood mares1 and as many fillies growing in reserve4 ,you ask me regarding the pacing gait4 ,i have seen it in the pure-bred ,arabs on the desert2 and in many parts of the ,east it is cultivated1 notably in ,asia ,minor and ,barbary4 ,the walk1 pace1 amble1 trot1 and run are found in the ,arabian1 and either can be cultivated as a specialty4 ,if you think any of my letters to you are of general value to your people1 ,i am quite willing you should so use them4 ,i am1 very truly yours1 ,,wilfrid ,,scawen ,,blunt4 ,to ,,randolph ,,huntington1 ,rochester1 ,n4,y4 ,my experience with ,arabian blood the past seven years justifies all that ,mr4 ,blunt has predicted to me from time to time4 ,so also do old letters by ,andrew ,jackson and ,henry ,clay hold out the same inducements to the breeders of ,kentucky and ,tennessee in their day4 ,from my long years of experience in all classes of horses1 ,i am frank to say to-day that ,i would not be without a thoroughbred ,arabian stallion on my place1 and journalists who inform their readers that they are liable to splints1 ringbones1 and spavins1 give themselves away to all intelligent readers and breeders as exceedingly superficial in matter of horses2 for ringbones and spavins are positively unknown among the ,arabs4 ,the way to get rid of such imperfections in our mongrel breed of horses is to fill them up with pure ,arab blood4 ,such paper men also talk about fresh ,diomed and fresh ,messenger blood1 as though there had been a drop of it in never so diluted form for any influence these many years1 of course forgetting that ,diomed was a very strongly inbred ,arabian horse4 ,he came to this country when #ba years old4 ,he was foaled #aggg1 and arrived in ,virginia in #agih4 ,from his old age and rough voyage in an old-fashioned ship1 it required nearly a year to recuperate from the journey1 and was #bc years old before he could do stud service to any extent4 ,then1 at no time to his death was he a sure foal getter1 even to a few mares4 ,he died in #ahjh1 thirty-one years old1 long enfeebled and unfit for service4 ,between #ahjh and #ahhg is quite a period of time1 during which we have had four different wars1 beginning with #ahab1 and how much ,diomed blood does the reader suppose there is in this country8 ,yet ,i take up daily and weekly papers devoted to horse articles1 extolling the value of ,diomed blood as cause for excellence in some young horse4 ,are we a nation of idiots to be influenced by such nonsense8 ,i wish there was fresh ,diomed blood2 thus the public would know what ,arab blood had done for ,england4 ,so ,i can say of imported ,messenger4 ,what our breeders want is good1 solid information in print1 and not the2 dreamings of some professional writer for money4 ,for myself1 ,i am on the downhill side of life1 but so long as ,i can help the young by pen or example1 ,i shall try4 ,,randolph ,,huntington4 ,rochester1 ,n4,y4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,scenes ,,among ,,the ,,extinct ,,volcanoes ,,of ,,rhineland4 ,in the province of the ,rhine there is a range of mountains1 including several extinct volcanoes1 which offer grand and beautiful scenery and every opportunity for geological study1 leading the mind back to the early ages of the earth4 ,let us take an imaginary trip through this region1 starting on our wanderings from the ,rhine1 where it breaks through the vine-clad slate mountains of the ,westerwald and the ,eifel4 ,a short distance above the mouth of the ,ahr we leave its banks1 turning to the west1 and entering the mountains at the village of ,nieder ,breisig4 ,a pretty valley leads us up through orchards and meadows4 ,the lower hills are covered with vineyards and the mountains with a dense growth of bushes1 so that we do not obtain an extended view until we reach an elevated ridge4 ,illustration3 ,,distant ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,volcanic ,,portion ,,of ,,the ,,eifel1 ,,taken ,,from ,,the ,,heights ,,of ,,the ,,schneifel4 ,the valley of the ,rhine lies far below us1 but the glittering surface of the river1 with the little towns1 the castles and villas and the gardens and vineyards on its banks are still visible1 while in the background the mountains of the ,westerwald have risen above the hills on the river4 ,this range stretches out into a long wooded ridge crowned by cone-shaped peaks of basalt4 ,to the northwest of this lies ,siebengebirge1 with its numerous domes and pinnacles1 making a grand picture veiled in the blue mist of distance4 ,on the opposite side we have a very different view of curious dome and cone shaped summits surrounded by undulating plateaus or descending into deep ravines and gorges4 ,it is the western part of the volcanic region of ,rhineland which lies before us1 and in the center of which is the ,laachersee or lake of ,laach4 ,the origin of these volcanoes is not as remote as many suppose1 but their activity must have continued for a comparatively long period1 judging from the extent of their lava beds4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,shores ,,of ,,laachersee4 ,there was a time when the sea covered the lowlands of ,north ,germany1 and the waves of a deep bay washed the slopes of the ,siebengebirge4 ,then the bed of the ,rhine lay in the highlands1 which it gradually washed away until the surface of the river was far1 far below the level of its old bed2 and then the volcanoes poured forth their streams of lava over the surrounding plains4 ,in the course of time the surface of the country has changed so that these lava beds now lie on the mountain sides overhanging the valleys of to-day4 ,some of the volcanoes sent forth melted stones and ashes from their summits1 and streams of lava from their sides1 while the craters of others cracked and then sank in1 throwing their debris over the neighboring country4 ,in the ,eifel there are many such funnels which now contain water forming beautiful lakes 7,maaren71 which add much to the scenery of the ,eifel4 ,the ,laachersee is the largest of these lakes4 ,in the mean time the channel of the ,rhine had been worn away almost to its present level1 but the mountains still sent forth their streams of lava1 which stopped brooks and filled the ravines1 and even the ,rhine itself was dammed up by the great stream from ,fornicherkopf forming what was formerly the ,neuwied4 ,the old lava stream which obstructed the river is still to be seen in a towering wall of rock1 extending close beside the road and track that follow the shore4 ,illustration3 ,,crater ,,and ,,lake ,,on ,,top ,,of ,,the ,,mosenberge4 ,after having made these observations1 we descend from the height which afforded us the view of the ,vinrt ,valley4 ,a clear brook flows through green meadows and variegated fields stretch along the mountain sides1 while modest little villages are scattered among the fruit trees4 ,on the other side of the valley rises the ,herchenberg1 an extinct volcano4 ,as we climb its sides we see traces of the former devastation4 ,loose ashes cover the ground1 bits of mica glittering in the sun1 and on the summit we find enormous masses of stone which were melted and then baked together4 ,in the center lies the old crater1 a quiet1 barren place bearing very little vegetation1 but from its wall an excellent view of the surrounding country can be obtained4 ,not far from this mountain lies the mighty ,bausenberg1 with its immense1 well preserved crater1 only one side of which has been broken away1 and which is covered with a thick growth of bushes4 ,the ledges of this mountain are full of interest for the mineralogist4 ,nearer to ,lake ,laach are the ,wahnenkopfe1 the proud ,veitskopf1 and other cone-shaped peaks4 ,to these we direct our steps1 and after a long tramp over the rolling1 cultivated plateau1 we climb the wood-covered sides of the great basin in whose depths the ,laachersee lies4 ,from the shore of this lake rise the high volcanic peaks which tower above all the other mountains4 ,illustration3 ,,lake ,,gemunden4 ,tired from our climb through the ashes1 which are heated by the sun1 we rest in the shade of a beech-wood1 looking through the leaves into the valley below us1 with the old cloisters and the high ,roman church which the monks once built on the banks of the lake4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,crater ,,of ,,the ,,herchenberges4 ,to the south of the lake rise other volcanoes1 lying on the border of the fertile ,maifeld1 which gradually descends to the valley of ,neuwied4 ,here1 at the southern declivity of the group of volcanoes which surrounds the ,laachersee1 remarkably large streams of lava were ejected1 covering the surface of the plateau with a thick layer4 ,the largest of these streams is that from the ,niedermendig1 which consists of porous masses of nepheline lava4 ,in the time of the ,romans millstones were made from this mass of rock1 and the industry is carried on now on a larger scale4 ,it is a strange sight which meets one's eyes when1 after descending through narrow passages1 he finds himself in large1 dark halls1 from which the stone has been cut away1 and in which there are well-like shafts4 ,the stones are raised through these shafts by means of gigantic cranes and engines4 ,because of the rapid evaporation of the water in the porous stone1 these vaults are always cool1 winter and summer1 and therefore they are used by several brewers as storehouses for their beer1 which owes its fame to these underground halls4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,millstone ,,galleries ,,in ,,the ,,lava ,,beds ,,of ,,niedermendig4 ,illustration3 ,,on ,,the ,,lava ,,beds ,,of ,,niedermendig4 ,although the traces of former volcanic action are evident to the student of nature1 the ,rhine with its mild climate and luxuriant vegetation has covered many marks of the former chaotic state of the land4 ,very little of this beauty is seen on the higher and1 therefore1 more severe and barren mountains of the ,western ,eifel1 through which a volcanic fissure runs from the foot of the high unhospitable ,schneifel to ,bertrich ,baths1 near the ,moselle4 ,from the ridge of the ,schneifel the traveler from the north has his first glimpse of the still distant system of volcanoes4 ,the most beautiful part of this portion of the ,eifel is in the neighborhood of ,dann and ,manderscheid4 ,near the former rises a barren mountain with a long ridge1 on each side of which is a deep basin4 ,these are sunken craters1 which now contain lakes1 and near these two there is a third1 larger lake1 the ,maar von ,schalkemehren1 on the cultivated banks of which we find a little village4 ,the middle one1 the ,weinfelder ,maar1 is the most interesting for geologists1 for there seems to have been scarcely any change here since the time of the eruption4 ,on the other side of the mountain lies the ,gremundener ,maar1 the shores of which are not barren and waste land1 like those of the middle lake1 but it is surrounded by a dark wreath of woods whose tops are mirrored in the crystal water4 ,farther to the south1 near the villages of ,gillenfeld and ,meerfeld1 there are more lakes4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,weinfelder ,,lake ,,on ,,the ,,mauseberge4 ,illustration3 ,,eastern ,,declivity ,,of ,,mosenberge ,,near ,,manderscheid4 ,the grandest picture of these ancient events is offered by the ,mosenberg1 near ,manderscheid1 a mighty volcano which commands an extensive view of the country4 ,two old craters lie on its double top1 one of which has fallen in1 forming a short rocky valley1 but the other retains its original regular shape4 ,in the circular funnel1 whose walls consist of masses of lava stone1 rests a quiet1 black lake1 that looks very mysterious to the wanderer4 ,only low juniper bushes grow near the crater1 bearing witness to the barrenness of the land4 ,from the foot of this mountain an immense stream of lava1 as wide and deep as a glacier1 broke forth and flowed into the valley1 where the end of the stream is still to be seen in a high1 steep wall of rock4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cheese ,,grotto ,,at ,,bertrich ,,baths4 ,similar sights are met all through this western volcanic region1 and we can consider the mineral and acid springs1 which are very numerous1 as the last traces of the former disturbances1 the products of the decomposition of the volcanic stones buried in the earth4 ,at ,bertrich ,baths there are hot springs which were known to the ,romans1 for numerous antiquities dating from their time have been excavated here4 ,near these springs1 at ,bertrich1 there is a ,cheese ,grotto1 which is a break through the foot of a stream of lava1 the stones of which have not assumed the usual form of solidified columns1 but have taken flat1 round shapes which resemble the forms of cheeses4 ,now we have completed our wanderings1 which required only a few days1 although they extended over this whole volcanic region1 and which end here on the ,moselle4--,ueber ,land und ,meer2 ,allgemeine ,illustrirte ,zeitung4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,nature4 ,,the ,,meteorologiske ,,institut ,,at ,,upsala1 ,,and ,,cloud ,,measurements4 ,the ,meteorological ,institute at ,upsala has gained so much fame by the investigations on clouds which have been carried on there during the last few years1 that a few notes on a recent visit to that establishment will interest many readers4 ,the ,institute is not a government establishment2 it is entirely maintained by the ,university of ,upsala4 ,the personnel consists of ,prof4 ,hildebrandsson1 as director2 ,m4 ,ekholm and one other male assistant1 besides a lady who does the telegraphic and some of the computing work4 ,the main building contains a commodious office1 with a small library and living apartments for the assistant4 ,the principal instrument room is a separate pavilion in the garden4 ,here is located ,thiorell's meteograph1 which records automatically every quarter of an hour on a slip of paper the height of the barometer1 and the readings of the wet and dry thermometers4 ,another instrument records the direction and velocity of the wind4 ,this meteograph of ,thiorell's is a very remarkable instrument4 ,every fifteen minutes an apparatus is let loose which causes three wires to descend from rest till they are stopped by reaching the level of the mercury in the different tubes4 ,when contact is made with the surface of the mercuries1 an electric current passes and stops the descent of each wire at the proper time4 ,the downward motion of the three wires has actuated three wheels1 each of which carries a series of types on its edge1 to denote successive readings of its own instrument4 ,for instance1 the barometer-wheel carries successive numbers for every five-hundredth of a millimeter--#gfj4jj1 #gfj4je1 #gfj4a1 etc42 so that when the motion is stopped the uppermost type gives in figures the actual reading of the barometer4 ,then a subsidiary arrangement first inks the types1 then prints them on a slip of paper1 and finally winds the dipping wires up to zero again4 ,an ingenious apparatus prevents the electricity from sparking when contact is made1 so that there is no oxidation of the mercury4 ,the mechanism is singularly beautiful1 and it is quite fascinating to watch the self acting starting1 stopping1 inking1 and printing arrangements4 ,we could not but admire the exquisite order in which the whole apparatus was maintained4 ,the sides of the various glass tubes were as clean as when they were new1 and the surfaces of the mercuries were as bright as looking glasses4 ,the university may well be proud that the instruments were entirely constructed in ,stockholm by the skillful mechanic ,sorrenson1 though the cost is necessarily high4 ,the meteograph1 with the anemograph1 cost #fjj1 but the great advantage is that no assistant is required to sit up at night1 and that all the figures wanted for climatic constants are ready tabulated without any further labor4 ,but the ,institute is most justly celebrated for the researches on the motion and heights of clouds that have been carried on of late years under the guidance of ,prof4 ,hildebrandsson1 with the assistance of ,messrs4 ,ekholm and ,hagstrm4 ,the first studies were on the motion of clouds round cyclones and anticyclones2 but the results are now so well known that we need not do more than mention them here4 ,latterly the far more difficult subjects of cloud heights and cloud velocities have been taken up1 and as the methods employed and the results that have been obtained are both novel and important1 we will describe what we saw there4 ,we should remark1 in the first instance1 that the motion of the higher atmosphere is far better studied by clouds than by observations on mountain tops1 for on the latter the results are always more or less influenced by the local effect of the mountain in deflecting the wind and forcing it upward4 ,the instrument which they employ to measure the angles from which to deduce the height of the clouds is a peculiar form of altazimuth that was originally designed by ,prof4 ,mohn1 of ,christiania1 for measuring the parallax of the aurora borealis4 ,it resembles an astronomical altazimuth1 but instead of a telescope it carries an open tube without any lenses4 ,the portion corresponding to the object glass is formed by thin cross wires3 and that corresponding to the eye piece by a plate of brass1 pierced in the center by a small circular hole an eighth of an inch in diameter4 ,the tube of the telescope is replaced by a lattice of brass work1 so as to diminish1 as far as possible1 the resistance of the wind4 ,the vertical and horizontal circles are divided decimally1 and this much facilitates the reduction of the readings4 ,the general appearance of the instrument is well shown in the figure1 which is engraved from a photograph ,i took of ,mr4 ,ekholm while actually engaged in talking through a telephone to ,m4 ,hagstrm as to what portion of a cloud should be observed4 ,the latticework tube1 the cross wires in place of an object glass1 and the vertical circle are very obvious1 while the horizontal circle is so much end on that it can scarcely be recognized except by the tangent screw which is seen near the lower telephone4 ,two such instruments are placed at the opposite extremities of a suitable base4 ,the new base at ,upsala has a length of #d1bgb feet2 the old one was about half the length4 ,the result of the change has been that the mean error of a single determination of the highest clouds has been reduced from #i to a little more than #c per cent4 of the actual height4 ,at the same time the difficulty of identifying a particular spot on a low cloud is considerably increased4 ,a wire is laid between the two ends of the base1 and each observer is provided with two telephones--one for speaking1 the other for listening4 ,when an observation is to be taken1 the conversation goes on somewhat as follows3 ,first observer1 who takes the lead--,do you see a patch of cloud away down west8 ,yes4 ,can you make out a well-marked point on the leading edge8 ,yes4 ,well1 then2 now4 ,at this signal both observers put down their telephones1 which have hitherto engaged both their hands1 begin to count fifteen seconds1 and adjust their instruments to the point of cloud agreed on4 ,at the fifteenth second they stop1 read the various arcs1 and the operation is complete4 ,but when the angles have been measured the height has to be calculated1 and also the horizontal and vertical velocities of the cloud by combining the position and height at two successive measurements at a short interval4 ,there are already well-known trigonometrical formul for calculating all these elements1 if all the observations are good2 but at ,upsala they do far more4 ,not only are the observations first controlled by forming an equation to express the condition that the two lines of sight from either end of the base should meet in a point1 if the angles have been correctly measured and all bad sets rejected2 but the mean errors of the rectangular co-ordinates are calculated by the method of least squares4 ,illustration3 ,n4 ,,ekholm ,,measuring ,,clouds4 ,this figure shows the peculiar ocular part of the altazimuth1 with the vertical and horizontal circles4 ,it also shows the telephonic arrangement4 ,the whole of the calculations are combined into a series of formul which are necessarily complicated1 and even by using logarithms of addition and subtraction and one or two subsidiary tables--such as for log4 sin7theta_/#b7 specially constructed for this work--the computation of each set of observations takes about twenty minutes4 ,before we describe the principal results that have been attained1 it may be well to compare this with the other methods which have been used to determine the height of clouds4 ,a great deal of time and skill and money have been spent at ,kew in trying to perfect the photographic method of measuring the height of clouds4 ,very elaborate cloud cameras1 or photo-nephoscopes1 have been constructed1 by means of which photographs of a cloud were taken simultaneously from both ends of a suitable base4 ,the altitude and azimuth of the center of the plate were read off by the graduated circles which were attached to the cameras2 and the angular measurements of any point of cloud on the picture were calculated by proper measurements from the known center of the photographic plate4 ,when all this is done1 the result ought to be the same as if the altitude and azimuth of the point of the cloud had been taken directly by an ordinary angle measuring instrument4 ,it might have been thought that there would be less chance of mistaking the point of the cloud to be measured1 if you had the pictures from the two ends of the base to look at leisurely than if you could only converse through a telephone with the observer at the other end of the base4 ,but in practice it is not so4 ,no one who has not seen such cloud photographs can realize the difficulty of identifying any point of a low cloud when seen from two stations half a mile or a whole mile apart1 and for other reasons1 which we will give presently1 the form of a cloud is not so well defined in a photograph as it is to the naked eye4 ,at ,kew an extremely ingenious sort of projector has been devised1 which gives graphically the required height of a cloud from two simultaneous photographs at opposite ends of the same base1 but it is evident that this method is capable of none of the refinements which have been applied to the ,upsala measures1 and that the rate of vertical ascent or descent of a cloud could hardly be determined by this method4 ,but there is a far greater defect in the photographic method1 which at present no skill can surmount4 ,we saw that the altazimuth employed at ,upsala had no lenses4 ,the meaning of this will be obvious to anyone who looks through an opera glass at a faint cloud4 ,he will probably see nothing for want of contrast1 and if anything of the nature of a telescope is employed1 only well-defined cloud outlines can be seen at all4 ,the same loss of light and contrast occurs with a photographic lens1 and many clouds that can be seen in the sky are invisible on the ground glass of the camera4 ,cirrus and cirro-stratus--the very clouds we want most to observe--are always thin and indefined as regards their form and contrast against the rest of the sky1 so that this defect of the method is the more unfortunate4 ,but even when the image of a cloud is visible on the focusing glass1 it does not follow that any image will be seen in the picture4 ,in practice1 thin1 high white clouds against a blue sky can rarely be taken at all1 or only under exceptional circumstances of illumination4 ,the reason seems to be that there is very little light reflected at all from a thin wisp of cirrus1 and what there is must pass through an atmosphere always more or less charged with floating particles of ice or water1 besides earthy dust of all kinds4 ,the light which is scattered and diffused by all these small particles is also concentrated on the sensitive plate by the lens1 and the resulting negative shows a uniform dark surface for the sky without any trace of the cloud4 ,what image there might have been is buried in photographic fog4 ,in order to compare the two methods of measuring clouds1 ,i went out one day last ,december at ,upsala with ,messrs4 ,ekholm and ,hagstrm when they were measuring the height of some clouds4 ,it was a dull afternoon1 a low foggy stratus was driving rapidly across the sky at a low level1 and through the general misty gloom of a northern winter day we could just make out some striated stripes of strato-cirrus--low cirro-stratus--between the openings in the lower cloud layer4 ,the camera and lens that ,i use habitually for photographing cloud forms--not their angular height--was planted a few feet from the altazimuth with which ,m4 ,ekholm was observing1 and while he was measuring the necessary angles ,i took a picture of the clouds4 ,as might have been expected under the circumstances1 the low dark cloud came out quite well1 but there was not the faintest trace of the strato-cirrus on the negative4 ,,mm4 ,ekholm and ,hagstrm1 however1 succeeded in measuring both layers of cloud1 and found that the low stratus was floating at an altitude of about #b1jjj feet high1 while the upper strato-cirrus was driving from ,s4 #eg ,w4 at an altitude of #ai1fec feet1 with a horizontal velocity of #ha and a downward velocity of #g4b feet per second4 ,this is a remarkable result1 and shows conclusively the superiority of the altazimuth to the photographic method of measuring the heights of clouds4 ,whenever opportunity occurs1 measures of clouds are taken three times a day at ,upsala1 and it may be well to glance at the principal results that have been obtained4 ,the greatest height of any cloud which has yet been satisfactorily measured is only #dc1hjj feet1 which is rather less than has usually been supposed2 but the highest velocity1 #aab miles an hour with a cloud at #bh1jjj feet1 is greater than would have been expected4 ,it may be interesting to note that the isobars when this high velocity was reported were nearly straight1 and sloping toward the northwest4 ,the most important result which has been obtained from all the numerous measures that have been made is the fact clouds are not distributed promiscuously at all heights in the air1 but that they have1 on the contrary1 a most decided tendency to form at three definite levels4 ,the mean summer level of these three stories of clouds at ,upsala has been found to be as follows3 low clouds--stratus1 cumulus1 cumulo-nimbus1 #b1jjj-f1jjj feet2 middle clouds--strato-cirrus and cumulo-cirrus1 #ab1ijj-ae1jjj feet2 high clouds--cirrus1 cirro-stratus1 cirro-cumulus1 #bj1jjj-bg1jjj feet4 ,it would be premature at present to speculate on the physical significance of this fact1 but we find the same definite layers of clouds in the tropics as in these high latitudes1 and no future cloud nomenclature or cloud observations will be satisfactory which do not take the idea of these levels into account4 ,but the refinements of the methods employed allow the diurnal variations both of velocity and altitude to be successfully measured4 ,the velocity observations confirm the results that have been obtained from mountain stations--that1 though the general travel of the middle and higher clouds is much greater than that of the surface winds1 the diurnal variation of speed at those levels is the reverse of what occurs near the ground4 ,the greatest velocity on the earth's surface is usually about #b p4m42 whereas the lowest rate of the upper currents is about midday4 ,the diurnal variation of height is remarkable1 for they find at ,upsala that the mean height of all varieties of clouds rises in the course of the day1 and is higher between #f and #h in the evening than either in the early morning or at midday4 ,such are the principal results that have been obtained at ,upsala1 and no doubt they surpass any previous work that has been done on the subject4 ,but whenever we see good results it is worth while to pause a moment to consider the conditions under which the work has been developed1 and the nature and nurture of the men by whom the research has been conducted4 ,scientific research is a delicate plant1 that is easily nipped in the bud1 but which1 under certain surroundings and in a suitable moral atmosphere1 develops a vigorous growth4 ,the ,meteorological ,institute of ,upsala is an offshoot of the ,astronomical ,observatory of the university2 and a university1 if properly directed1 can develop research which promises no immediate reward in a manner that no other body can approach4 ,if you want any quantity of a particular kind of calculation1 or to carry on the routine of any existing work in an observatory1 it is easy to go into the labor market and engage a sufficient number of accurate computers1 either by time or piece work1 or to find an assistant who will make observations with the regularity of clockwork4 ,but original research requires not only special natural aptitudes and enthusiasm to begin with1 but even then will not flourish unless developed by encouragement and the identification of the worker with his work4 ,it is rarely1 except in universities1 that men can be found for the highest original research4 ,for there only are young students encouraged to come forward and interest themselves in any work for which they seem to have special aptitude4 ,now1 this is the history of the ,upsala work4 ,prof4 ,hildebrandsson was attached as a young man to the meteorological department of the astronomical observatory1 and when the study of stars and weather were separated1 he obtained the second post in the new ,meteorological ,institute4 ,from this his great abilities soon raised him to the directorship1 which he now holds with so much credit to the university4 ,m4 ,ekholm1 a much younger man1 has been brought up in the same manner4 ,first as a student he showed such aptitude for the work as to be engaged as assistant2 and now1 as the actual observation and reduction of the cloud work is done by him and ,m4 ,hagstrm1 the results are published under their names1 so that they are thoroughly identified with the work4 ,upsala is the center of the intellectual life of ,sweden1 and there1 rather than at ,stockholm1 could men be found to carry out original research4 ,it redounds to the credit of the university that it has so steadily supported ,prof4 ,hildebrandsson1 and that he in his turn has utilized the social and educational system by which he is surrounded to bring up assistants who can co-operate with him in a great work that brings credit both to himself1 to themselves1 and to the institute which they all represent4 ,,ralph ,,abercromby4 99 99 99 99 99 ,continued from ,,supplement1 ,no4 #faj1 page #igdd4 ,,journal ,,of ,,the ,,society ,,of ,,chemical ,,industry4 ,,notes ,,of ,a ,,recent ,,visit ,,to ,,some ,,of ,,the ,,petroleum-,,producing ,,territories ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,and ,,canada4 ,,by ,,boverton ,,redwood1 ,f4,i4,c41 ,f4,c4,s4 ,,canadian ,,petroleum4 ,when ,i visited ,canada in #ahgg-gh1 the refining of petroleum was principally conducted in the city of ,london1 ,ontario4 ,at the present time ,petrolia1 ,ontario1 is the chief seat of the industry1 and it was accordingly to this city that we made our way4 ,here we were treated with the greatest kindness and hospitality by ,mr4 ,john ,d4 ,noble1 vice-president of the ,petrolia ,crude ,oil and ,tanking ,co41 and his brother1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,d',oyley ,noble1 and were enabled in the short time at our disposal to visit typical portions of the producing territory and some of the principal refineries4 ,the development of the ,canadian petroleum industry may be said to date from #aheg1 when a well dug for water was found to yield a considerable quantity of petroleum2 but long previously1 indeed from the time of the earliest settlements in the county of ,lamberton1 in the western part of the province of ,ontario1 petroleum was known to exist in ,canada4 ,in #ahfb productive flowing wells were drilled at ,oil ,springs1 but these wells1 which were comparatively shallow1 quickly became exhausted1 and the territory was deserted on the discovery in #ahfe of oil at ,petrolia1 seven miles to the northward1 and about #af miles southwest of the outlet of ,lake ,huron4 ,recently the ,oil ,springs wells have been drilled deeper1 and are now producing #aj1jjj to #ab1jjj barrels 7of #db ,american gallons7 per month4 ,petroleum has also been found at ,bothwell1 #ce miles from ,oil ,springs1 but this district has ceased to yield4 ,quite recently a new territory has been discovered at ,euphemia1 #ag miles from ,bothwell1 where1 at the time of our visit1 there were four wells producing collectively #gj barrels per day4 ,this territory is by some regarded as part of the ,bothwell field4 ,the present producing oil belt extends from ,petrolia in a northwesterly direction1 to the township of ,sarnia1 and in a southeasterly direction to ,oil ,springs1 but in the latter direction there is a break of about four and a quarter miles1 commencing at a point about two miles from ,petrolia4 ,at ,oil ,springs there appears to be a pool about two miles square4 ,the extension of the belt then continues in the same direction1 with another break of about nine miles1 to the new oil field of ,euphemia1 the average width of the oil belt being about two miles4 ,in all1 about #ae1jjj wells are believed to have been drilled in the ,canadian oil fields1 and of these about #b1ejj are now producing1 the average yield being about three quarters of a barrel per well per day4 ,the aggregate production is probably about #gjj1jjj barrels per annum1 the greater part of which is obtained in the ,petrolia district1 and the stocks were at the time of our visit stated to amount to from #djj1jjj to #dej1jjj barrels4 ,in the ,canadian oil fields the drilling contractor usually employs his own derrick1 engine1 boiler1 and tools1 furnishes wood and water1 cases the well1 and fixes the pump2 the well owner providing the casing and pump1 and subsequently erecting the permanent derrick4 ,the wells in the ,oil ,springs field were formerly from #bjj ft4 to #cjj ft4 in depth1 but the oil stratum then worked became waterlogged1 and the wells are now sunk to a depth of about #cge ft41 and are cased to a depth of about #bge ft4 to shut off the water4 ,the contract price for drilling a #d-e_/h in4 hole to a depth of about #cge ft4 under the conditions mentioned is #aej dols4 7#cj71 and the time occupied in drilling is usually about a week when the work is continued night and day4 ,the wells in the ,petrolia field have a depth of #dhj ft41 the contract price1 including the cost of #ajj ft4 of wooden conductor1 being #age dols4 7#ce71 and the time occupied in drilling being from six to twelve days4 ,pole tools are used in drilling1 the poles being of white ash1 #cg ft4 in length4 ,the derrick is about #dh ft4 in height4 ,an auger some #d ft4 in length1 and about a foot in diameter1 is used to bore through the earth to the bed rock1 the auger being rotated by horse power4 ,the drilling tools commonly consist of a bit1 #b ft4 in length by #d-e_/h in4 in diameter1 weighing about #fj lb42 a sinker bar1 into which the bit is screwed1 #cj ft4 in length by #c in4 in diameter1 weighing about #a1jdj lb42 and the jars1 inserted between the sinker bar and the poles about #f ft4 in length1 and weighing #aej lb4 ,the tools are suspended by a chain1 which passes three times round the end of the walking beam and thence to the windlass1 with ratchet wheel fixed on the walking beam1 by means of which the tools are gradually lowered as the drilling proceeds4 ,the cable is thus only employed in raising the tools from the well and lowering them into it4 ,the sand pump or bailer is frequently as much as #cg ft4 in length1 and is about #d in4 in diameter4 ,the casing 7#d-e_/h in diameter7 costs about #de cents 7#as4 #aj;d47 per foot1 and the #a in4 pump1 with piping1 costs from #fe dols4 7#ac7 to #he dols4 7#ag71 according to the length of pipe required4 ,an ordinary square frame derrick costs1 with mud sill1 from #bb dols4 7#d #hs47 to #bg dols4 7#e #hs471 and the walking beam about #h dols4 7#a #abs47 ,in many cases1 however1 a three-pole derrick1 which can be erected at an expense of about #aj dols4 7#b71 is employed4 ,a #ajj barrel wooden tank costs1 erected1 #ej dols4 7#aj74 ,,the ,,canadian ,,torpedo4 ,the wells are torpedoed on completion with from #h to #aj quarts of nitroglycerine1 at a cost of #d dols4 7#afs47 per quart4 ,the torpedoes employed in the ,canadian oil field are much smaller than those used for a similar purpose in the ,united ,states1 the tin shell being only #f ft4 in length by #c in4 in diameter4 ,we were enabled to witness the operation of torpedoing a well1 and the following particulars1 based on notes taken at the time1 may be of interest3 ,the torpedo case1 which was furnished with a tube or anchor at the lower end1 #h ft4 in length1 was placed in the mouth of the well and suspended so that its upper end was level with the surface of the ground4 ,eight quarts of nitroglycerine1 which was in a tin can1 was then poured into the torpedo case1 and the torpedo was carefully lowered into the well1 which contained at the time about #bej ft4 of water1 until the end of the anchor rested on the bottom of the well4 ,a traveling primer or go-devil squib was then prepared as follows3 ,a tin cone1 #ad in4 in length by #b in4 in diameter at the open end1 was partially filled with sand to give it the necessary weight4 ,a piece of double tape fuse1 #b ft4 long1 was inserted into a ,nobel's treble detonator1 and over the detonator and a portion of the fuse a perforated tin tube or sheath was passed4 ,this tube was then inserted through a hole in a strip of tin fixed across the mouth of the conical cup into the sand1 so that the detonator was embedded4 ,the sand was then saturated with nitroglycerine1 the fuse lighted1 and the primer dropped into the well4 ,in about #de seconds there was a perceptible tremor of the ground1 immediately followed by a slight sound of the explosion4 ,after an interval of a second or two there was a gurgling noise1 and a magnificent black fountain shot up twice as high as the derrick1 upon which all the spectators ran for shelter from the impending shower of oil and water4 ,the well not being a flowing one1 the outrush was only of momentary duration1 and within a few minutes the drillers were at work removing from the well1 by means of the sand pump1 the fragments of rock which had been detached by the explosion4 ,on the table are specimens of this rock1 which ,i obtained at the time4 ,the maximum yield per well is ten barrels per day1 and the minimum yield for which it is considered profitable to pump is a quarter of a barrel per day4 ,the yield being in some cases so small1 it is usual to pump a number of wells through the agency of one engine1 the various pumps being connected with the motor by means of wooden rods4 ,in one instance ,i saw as many as eighty wells being thus pumped from one center4 ,the motive power was a #gj h4p4 engine1 which communicated motion1 similar to that of the balance wheel of a watch1 to a large horizontal wheel4 ,from this wheel six main rod lines radiated1 the length of stroke of the main lines being #af in41 and the rate of movement #cb strokes per minute4 ,some of the wells being pumped from this center were from one-half to three-quarters of a mile distant1 and altogether about eight miles of rods were employed in the pumping of the eighty wells4 ,the pipe line system in ,canada has not been fully developed1 and accordingly the well owner has to convey his oil by road to the nearest receiving station4 ,thus from the ,euphemia oil field the oil has to be teamed #ag miles1 to ,bothwell4 ,for the conveyance of the oil by road a long and slightly conical wooden tank or barrel1 resting horizontally on a wagon1 is employed4 ,these vessels hold from eight to ten barrels of oil4 ,the ,petrolia ,crude ,oil and ,tanking ,company is the principal transporting and storing company4 ,the storage charge is one cent 7d47 per barrel per month1 and the delivery charge two cents per barrel4 ,the petroleum produced in the ,oil ,springs field is stored separately from that obtained in the ,petrolia field4 ,the storage takes place for the most part in large underground tanks excavated in the retentive clay4 ,these remarkable tanks are often as much as #cj ft4 in diameter by #fj ft4 in depth1 and hold from #e1jjj to #h1jjj barrels4 ,in the construction of the tanks the alluvial soil1 of which there is about #ah ft4 or #bj ft4 above the clay1 is curbed with wood and thoroughly puddled with clay4 ,on the completion of the excavation1 the entire vertical surface is then lined with rings of pine wood1 so that the upper part down to the solid clay is doubly lined4 ,the bottom is not lined4 ,the roof of the tank is of wood1 covered with clay4 ,the cost of such a tank is about #bb cents 7#aa;d47 per barrel1 or #a1gfj dols4 7#cfc7 for an #h1jjj barrel tank1 and the time occupied in making such a tank is about six weeks4 ,the crude petroleum from the ,petrolia field usually has a specific gravity ranging from #j4hei to #j4hgg1 while the specific gravity of the petroleum from the ,oil ,springs field ranges from #j4hdd to #j4hed4 ,the oil occurs in the corniferous limestone1 and buildings constructed of this stone frequently exude petroleum in hot weather4 ,canadian crude petroleum is of a black color1 and possesses a very disagreeable odor1 due to the presence of sulphur compounds4 ,these characteristics are shown by the samples on the table1 for some of which ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,james ,kerr1 secretary of the ,petrolia ,oil ,exchange4 ,the stills used in the process of refining the crude oil are horizontal two-flued cylinders1 #cj ft4 in length by #aj ft4 in diameter1 provided with six #b in4 vapor pipes4 ,the charge is #bfj barrels1 and the following is an outline of the method of working4 ,assuming the still to be charged on ,monday morning1 heating is commenced about #g ,a4,m41 and the naphtha begins to come over about #h ,a4,m4 ,of this product about six barrels is obtained in the case of ,petrolia crude1 or #g barrels in the case of ,oil ,springs crude4 ,the distillation of the naphtha takes from #b to #c hours1 say till #aj3cj ,a4,m4 ,the heat is then increased1 and the distillation of the kerosene commences about noon1 and continues till about #aj ,p4,m4 ,of the kerosene distillate about #hj barrels are obtained4 ,the first portion of the kerosene distillate is usually collected separately1 is steamed to drive off the more volatile hydrocarbons1 and is then mixed with the remainder of the kerosene distillate4 ,the product which then commences to distill is known as tailings4 ,this is collected separately and is redistilled4 ,the distillation of the tailings continues till about #e ,a4,m4 on ,wednesday1 by which time about #hj barrels has been obtained4 ,steam is then passed into the still through a perforated pipe extending to the bottom1 and about #ba barrels of gas oil is distilled over4 ,the additional quantity of kerosene obtained on redistilling the tailings brings up the total yield of this product to about #db per cent4 of the crude oil4 ,the gas oil is sold for the manufacture of illuminating gas4 ,the residue is distilled for lubricating oils and paraffin4 ,the agitator in which the kerosene distillate is treated commonly takes a charge of #dfe barrels4 ,to this quantity of distillate two carboys of oil of vitriol is added1 and the oil and acid are agitated together for #bj minutes4 ,the tarry acid having been allowed to settle is drawn off1 and seven carboys more of acid is added4 ,agitation having been effected for #cj or #dj minutes1 the tarry acid is removed as before4 ,another similar treatment with seven carboys of acid follows1 and occasionally a fourth addition of acid is made4 ,the oil is next allowed to remain at rest for an hour1 any acid which settles out being drawn off1 and cold 7or1 in winter1 slightly warmed7 water is allowed to pass down through the oil in fine streams1 this treatment being continued1 without agitation of the oil1 for half an hour1 or until the dark color which the oil assumed on treatment with acid is removed4 ,the water is then drawn off1 #aj barrels of solution of caustic soda 7sp4 gr4 #ae ,b47 is added1 and agitation conducted for #ae minutes4 ,the caustic soda solution having been drawn off1 #cj barrels of a solution of litharge in caustic soda is added4 ,this solution is made by dissolving caustic soda in water to a density of #ah ,b4 and then adding the litharge4 ,agitation with this solution is continued for about six hours1 or until the oil is thoroughly deodorized4 ,about #ajj lb4 of sublimed sulphur is then added1 and the agitation is continued for another two hours4 ,the oil having been allowed to settle all night1 the litharge solution is drawn off1 and the oil run into a shallow tank or bleacher1 where it is exposed to the light to improve its color1 and is1 if necessary1 steamed to drive off the lighter hydrocarbons and raise the flashing point to the legal minimum of #ie ,f4 ,to raise the flashing point from #gc ,f4 to #ie ,f4 7,abel test7 is stated to involve in practice a loss of #aj per cent41 the burning quality of the oil being at the same time seriously impaired1 and upon this ground the ,ontario refiners in #ahhf petitioned for a reduction of the test standard4 ,the average percentage yield of the various products is given in the following table3 ,naphtha4 #e ,kerosene4 #db ,gas oil4 #h ,tar4 #be ,coke4 #aj ,loss 7including water74 #aj --- #ajj ,there are a dozen petroleum refineries in ,canada1 and the annual outturn of kerosene is about #bjj1jjj barrels of #de imperial gallons per annum4 ,the total consumption of kerosene in ,canada is about #cjj1jjj barrels1 one-third of which is manufactured in the ,united ,states4 ,the ,united ,states oil is subject to a duty of #dj cents on the package and #g-a_/e cents per imperial gallon on the contents1 besides which there is an inspection fee of #cj cents per package4 ,of lubricating oils the outturn is from #ge1jjj to #ajj1jjj barrels per annum4 ,the quality of ,canadian kerosene has been greatly improved of late years1 but notwithstanding the elaborate process of refining1 the oil1 though thoroughly deodorized and of good color1 contains sulphur1 and of course evolves sulphur compounds in its combustion4 ,the rules of the ,petrolia ,oil ,exchange provide that refined kerosene shall be of the odor locally known as inoffensive1 and shall absolutely stand the test of oxide of lead in a strong solution of caustic soda without change of color4 ,the burning percentage in the case of ,extra ,refined ,oil1 ,water ,white in color1 and of specific gravity not exceeding #j4hjj1 is required to be not less than #gj2 in the case of ,no4 #a ,refined ,oil1 ,prime ,white in color1 not less than #fj2 and in the case of ,no4 #b ,refined ,oil1 ,standard ,white in color1 to be not less than #ee4 ,the burning percentage is determined by the use of a lamp thus described3 ,the bowl of the lamp is cylindrical1 #d in4 in diameter and #b in4 deep1 with a neck placed thereon of such a height that the top of the wick tube is #c in4 above the bowl4 ,a sun-hinge burner is used1 taking a wick #g_/h in4 wide and #a_/h in4 thick1 and a chimney about #h in4 long4 ,the test is conducted as follows3 ,the lamp bowl is filled with the oil and weighed1 then lighted and turned up full flame just below the smoking point1 and burned without interference till #ab oz4 of the oil is consumed4 ,the quantity consumed during the first hour and the last hour is noted4 ,the ratio of the two quantities is the measure of the burning quality1 and the percentage that the latter quantity is of the former is the burning percentage referred to4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,trees ,,from ,a ,,sanitary ,,aspect4 ,,by ,,charles ,,roberts1 ,f4,r4,c4,s41 ,,etc4 ,as this is the usual time of the year for planting1 pruning1 and removing forest trees and shrubs1 it is a fit time for considering the influence which trees exert on the sanitary surroundings of dwelling places4 ,the recent parliamentary report on forestry shows that trees are now of little commercial value in this country4 ,and we may conclude1 therefore1 that they are chiefly grown for picturesque effect1 and for the shelter from the sun and winds which they afford4 ,the relation of forests to rainfall has been studied by meteorologists1 but little attention has been given by medical climatologists to the share which trees take in determining local variations of climate and the sanitary condition of dwellings1 notwithstanding they play as important a part as differences of soil1 of which so much is said and written nowadays4 ,this remark does not apply to large towns1 where trees grow with difficulty and are comparatively few in number1 and where they afford a grateful relief to the eye1 shade from the sun1 and to a very slight extent temper the too dry atmosphere1 but to suburban and country districts1 where it is the custom to bury houses in masses of foliage--a condition of things which is deemed the chief attraction1 and often a necessary accompaniment1 of country life4 ,trees of all kinds exercise a cooling and moistening influence on the atmosphere and soil in which they grow4 ,the extent of these conditions depends on the number of trees and whether they stand alone1 in belts1 or in forests2 on their size1 whether tall trees with branchless stems or thickets of underwood3 on their species1 whether deciduous or evergreen2 and on the season of the year4 ,the cooling of the air and soil is due to the evaporation of water by the leaves1 which is chiefly drawn from the subsoil--not the surface--by the roots1 and to the exclusion of the sun's rays from the ground1 trees themselves being little susceptible of receiving and radiating heat4 ,the moisture of the atmosphere and ground about trees is due to the collection by the leaves and branches of a considerable portion of the rainfall1 the condensation of aqueous vapor by the leaves1 and the obstruction offered by the foliage to evaporation from the ground beneath the trees4 ,the experiments of ,m4 ,fautrat show that the leafage of leaf bearing trees intercepts one-third1 and that of pine trees the half1 of the rainfall1 which is afterward returned to the atmosphere by evaporation4 ,on the other hand1 these same leaves and branches restrain the evaporation of the water which reaches the ground1 and that evaporation is nearly four times less under a mass of foliage in a forest1 and two and one-third times under a mass of pines1 than in the open4 ,moreover1 trees prevent the circulation of the air by lateral wind currents and produce stagnation4 ,hence1 as ,mr4 ,e4,j4 ,symons has truly observed1 a lovely spot embowered in trees and embraced by hills is usually characterized by a damp1 misty1 cold1 and stagnant atmosphere1 a condition of climate which is obviously unfavorable to good health and especially favorable to the development of consumption and rheumatism1 our two most prevalent diseases4 ,now1 if we examine the surroundings of many of our suburban villas and country houses of the better sort1 we shall find them embowered in trees1 and subject to all the insanitary climatic conditions just mentioned4 ,the custom almost everywhere prevails of blocking out of view other houses1 roads1 etc41 by belts of trees1 often planted on raised mounds of earth1 and surrounded by high close walls or palings1 from a foolish ambition of seeming to live quite in the country4 ,this is a most unwise proceeding from a sanitary point of view1 and should be protested against as strongly by medical men as defective drainage and bad water supply4 ,many houses stand under the very drip and shadow of trees1 and the grounds of others are inclosed by dense belts of trees and shrubs1 which convert them into veritable reservoirs of damp1 stagnant air1 often loaded with the effluvia of decaying leaves and other garden refuse1 a condition of atmosphere very injurious to health1 and answerable for much of the neuralgia of a malarious kind1 of which we have heard so much lately4 ,a very slight belt of trees suffices to obstruct the lateral circulation of the air1 and if the sun be also excluded the natural upward currents are also prevented4 ,as far back as #afie ,lancisi recognized the influence of slight belts of trees in preventing the spread of malaria in ,rome1 and the cold1 damp1 stagnant air of spaces inclosed by trees is easily demonstrated by the wet and dry bulb thermometer1 or even by the ordinary sensations of the body4 ,a dry garden1 on gravel1 of three acres in extent in ,surrey1 surrounded by trees1 is generally three or four degrees colder than the open common beyond the trees2 and a large pond in a pine wood twenty miles from ,london afforded skating for ninety consecutive days in the winter of #ahhe-hf1 while during the greater part of the time the lakes in the ,london parks were free from ice4 ,the speculative builder has more sins to answer for than the faulty construction of houses4 ,he generally begins his operations by cutting down all the fine old trees which occupy the ground1 and which from their size and isolation are more beautiful than young ones and are little likely to be injurious to health1 and ends them by raising mounds and sticking into them dense belts of quick-growing trees like poplars to hide as speedily as possible the desolation of bricks and mortar he has created4 ,it is this senseless outdoor work of the builder and his nurseryman which stands most in need of revision from time to time in suburban residences1 but which rarely receives it from a silly notion1 amounting to tree worship1 which prohibits the cutting down of trees1 no matter how injudicious may have been the planting of them in the first instance from a sanitary or picturesque point of view4 ,the following hints for planting and removing trees may be useful to those persons who have given little attention to the subject4 ,a tree should not stand so near a house that1 if it were to fall1 it would fall on the house2 or1 in other words1 the root should be as far from the house as the height of the tree4 ,belts of trees may be planted on the north and east aspects of houses1 but on the east side the trees should not be so near1 nor so high1 as to keep the morning sun from the bedroom windows in the shorter days of the year4 ,on the south and west aspects of houses isolated trees only should be permitted1 so that there may be free access of the sunshine and the west winds to the house and grounds4 ,high walls and palings on these aspects are also objectionable1 and should be replaced by fences1 or better still open palings1 especially about houses which are occupied during the fall of the leaf1 and in the winter4 ,trees for planting near houses should be chosen in the following order3 ,conifers1 birch1 acacia1 beech1 oak1 elm1 lime1 and poplar4 ,pine trees are the best of all trees for this purpose1 as they collect the greatest amount of rainfall and permit the freest evaporation from the ground1 while their branchless stems offer the least resistance to the lateral circulation of the air4 ,acacias1 oaks1 and birches are late to burst into leaf1 and therefore allow the ground to be warmed by the sun's rays in the early spring4 ,the elm1 lime1 and chestnut are the least desirable kinds of trees to plant near houses1 although they are the most common4 ,they come into leaf early and cast their leaves early1 so that they exclude the spring sun and do not afford much shade in the hot autumn months1 when it is most required4 ,the lime and the elm are1 however1 beautiful trees1 and will doubtless on this account often be tolerated nearer houses than is desirable from a purely sanitary point of view4 ,trees are often useful guides to the selection of residences4 ,numerous trees with rich foliage and a rank undergrowth of ferns or moss indicate a damp1 stagnant atmosphere2 while abundance of flowers and fruit imply a dry1 sunny climate4 ,children will be healthiest where most flowers grow1 and old people will live longest where our common fruits ripen best1 as these conditions of vegetation indicate a climate which is least favorable to bronchitis and rheumatism4 ,pines and their companions1 the birches1 indicate a dry1 rocky1 sandy1 or gravel soil2 beeches1 a dryish1 chalky1 or gravel soil2 elms and limes1 a rich and somewhat damp soil2 oaks and ashes1 a heavy clay soil2 and poplars and willows1 a low1 damp1 or marshy soil4 ,many of these are found growing together1 and it is only when one species predominates in number and vigor that it is truly characteristic of the soil and that portion of the atmosphere in connection with it4 ,curzon ,street1 ,mayfair1 ,w4--,lancet4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,solidification ,,by ,,pressure4 ,m4 ,amagat has succeeded in solidifying various liquids1 by compressing them in cylinders of bronze and steel4 ,he has also photographed the crystals after crystallization1 by means of a ray of electric light traversing the interior of the vessel by glass cones serving as panes4 ,the stages of crystallization can be observed in this way with chloride of carbon1 and it is seen that the process varies with the rapidity with which the pressure is produced4 ,if rapidly1 a sudden circlet of crystals gathers round the edge of the luminous field1 and grows to the center4 ,the pressure being continued1 the field becomes obscure1 then transparent4 ,as the pressure is diminished the reverse takes place1 and the liquid state is reproduced4 ,m4 ,amagat finds that chloride of carbon solidifies at #ai4e ,cent41 under a pressure of #baj atmospheres4 ,at #bb ,cent41 benzine crystallizes with a pressure of about #ijj atmospheres4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement4 ,,published ,,weekly4 ,terms of ,subscription1 #e a year4 ,sent by mail1 postage prepaid1 to subscribers in any part of the ,united ,states or ,canada4 ,six dollars a year1 sent1 prepaid1 to any foreign country4 ,all the back numbers of ,,the ,,supplement1 from the commencement1 ,january #a1 #ahgf1 can be had4 ,price1 #aj cents each4 ,all the back volumes of ,,the ,,supplement can likewise be supplied4 ,two volumes are issued yearly4 ,price of each volume1 #b4ej stitched in paper1 or #c4ej bound in stiff covers4 ,,combined ,,rates4--,one copy of ,,scientific ,,american and one copy of ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement1 one year1 postpaid1 #g4jj4 ,a liberal discount to booksellers1 news agents1 and canvassers4 ,,munn ,,co41 ,,publishers1 #cfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york1 ,n4 ,y4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,patents4 ,in connection with the ,,scientific ,,american1 ,messrs4 ,,munn ,co4 are solicitors of ,american and ,foreign ,patents1 have had #db years' experience1 and now have the largest establishment in the world4 ,patents are obtained on the best terms4 ,a special notice is made in the ,,scientific ,,american of all inventions patented through this ,agency1 with the name and residence of the ,patentee4 ,by the immense circulation thus given1 public attention is directed to the merits of the new patent1 and sales or introduction often easily effected4 ,any person who has made a new discovery or invention can ascertain1 free of charge1 whether a patent can probably be obtained1 by writing to ,,munn ,co4 ,we also send free our ,hand ,book about the ,patent ,laws1 ,patents1 ,caveats1 ,trade ,marks1 their costs1 and how procured4 ,address ,,munn ,,co41 #cfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york4 ,branch ,office1 #fbb and #fbd ,f ,st41 ,washington1 ,d4,c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,,architects ,,and ,,builders ,,edition4 #b4ej ,a ,,year4 ,,single ,,copies1 #be ,,cts4 ,this is a ,special ,edition of the ,,scientific ,,american1 issued monthly--on the first day of the month4 ,each number contains about forty large quarto pages1 equal to about two hundred ordinary book pages1 forming1 practically1 a large and splendid ,,magazine ,,of ,,architecture1 richly adorned with elegant plates in colors and with fine engravings1 illustrating the most interesting examples of modern ,architectural ,construction and allied subjects4 ,a special feature is the presentation in each number of a variety of the latest and best plans for private residences1 city and country1 including those of very moderate cost as well as the more expensive4 ,drawings in perspective and in color are given1 together with full ,plans1 ,specifications1 ,costs1 ,bills of ,estimate1 and ,sheets of ,details4 ,no other building paper contains so many plans1 details1 and specifications regularly presented as the ,,scientific ,,american4 ,hundreds of dwellings have already been erected on the various plans we have issued during the past year1 and many others are in process of construction4 ,architects1 ,builders1 and ,owners will find this work valuable in furnishing fresh and useful suggestions4 ,all who contemplate building or improving homes1 or erecting structures of any kind1 have before them in this work an almost endless series of the latest and best examples from which to make selections1 thus saving time and money4 ,many other subjects1 including ,sewerage1 ,piping1 ,lighting1 ,warming1 ,ventilating1 ,decorating1 ,laying out of ,grounds1 etc41 are illustrated4 ,an extensive ,compendium of ,manufacturers' ,announcements is also given1 in which the most reliable and approved ,building ,materials1 ,goods1 ,machines1 ,tools1 and ,appliances are described and illustrated1 with addresses of the makers1 etc4 ,the fullness1 richness1 cheapness1 and convenience of this work have won for it the ,,largest ,,circulation of any ,architectural publication in the world4 ,,munn ,,co41 ,,publishers1 #cfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york4 ,a ,catalogue of valuable books on ,architecture1 ,building1 ,carpentry1 ,masonry1 ,heating1 ,warming1 ,lighting1 ,ventilation1 and all branches of industry pertaining to the art of ,building1 is supplied free of charge1 sent to any address4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,building ,,plans ,,and ,,specifications4 ,in connection with the publication of the ,,building ,,edition of the ,,scientific ,,american1 ,messrs4 ,munn ,co4 furnish plans and specifications for buildings of every kind1 including ,churches1 ,schools1 ,stores1 ,dwellings1 ,carriage ,houses1 ,barns1 etc4 ,in this work they are assisted by able and experienced architects4 ,full plans1 details1 and specifications for the various buildings illustrated in this paper can be supplied4 ,those who contemplate building1 or who wish to alter1 improve1 extend1 or add to existing buildings1 whether wings1 porches1 bay windows1 or attic rooms1 are invited to communicate with the undersigned4 ,our work extends to all parts of the country4 ,estimates1 plans1 and drawings promptly prepared4 ,terms moderate4 ,address ,,munn ,,co41 #cfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york4