,! ,fir/ ,book ( ,f>m+ ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,f>m ,,equipm5t--,,plants1 ,,soils1 ,,animals1 ,,tools1 ,,build+s4 ,! ,fir/ ,book ( ,f>m+ ,by ,,*>les ,l4 ,,goodri* ,f>m] ,exp]t 9 ! ,bureau ( ,plant ,indu/ry1 ,unit$ ,/ates ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4,c4 ,illu/rat$ ,,g>d5 ,,city ,,new ,,york ,,d\bl$ay1 ,,page ,,company #aibc #aije1 by ,,d\bl$ay1 ,,page ,,company ,,publi%$ ,,m>*1 #aije ,,pr9t$ ,,9 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,at ,,! ,,c\ntry ,,life ,,press1 ,,g>d5 ,,city1 ,n4,y4 ,,preface ,! mo/ successful f>m]s ( ! pres5t day are ^? :o "w 9 h>mony ) ! =ces & laws ( nature :i* control ! gr[? & developm5t ( plants & animals4 ,^! m5 h ga9$ _! k ( ^? laws & =ces by c>eful obs]vation1 exp]im5t & /udy4 ,?is book is a result ( ! au?or's se>* = ^! facts & tru?s z a /ud5t & f>m] & 8 endeavor z a tea*] to pres5t !m 9 a simple mann] to o!rs4 ,! object 9 pres5t+ ! book to ! g5]al public is ! hope t x may be ( assi/ance to f>m]s1 /ud5ts & tea*]s1 9 _! se>* = ! fundam5tal tru?s & pr9ciples ( f>m+4 ,9 ! fir/ "p ( ! book an attempt has be5 made to select ! mo/ important & fundam5tal tru?s & pr9ciples und]ly+ all agriculture & to pres5t !m 9 ! ord] ( _! importance1 beg9n+ ) ! mo/ important4 ,an endeavor has be5 made to pres5t ^! tru?s to ! read] & /ud5t 9 a simple & int]e/+ mann]4 ,z f> z possible ea* advance /ep is bas$ on a previ\sly /at$ fact or tru?4 ,a numb] ( side tru?s are introduc$ at v>i\s places4 ,a numb] ( simple exp]im5ts h be5 introduc$ into ! text 9 ! belief t !y w make ! "w m int]e/+ to ! g5]al read]1 & w aid ! /ud5t 9 le>n+ to make simple inve/igations = himself4 ,! au?or recomm5ds all :o use ! book to p]=m ! exp]im5ts & to make ! obs]vations1 & s come actively 9 t\* ) ! "w4 ,! obs]vations beg9 on ! f>m4 ,! au?or consid]s ! plant ! c5tral & all-important factor or ag5t on ! f>m4 ,! root is reg>d$ z ! mo/ important "p ( ! plant to itself1 & consequ5tly to ! plant gr[]4 ,! g5]al tru?s or pr9ciples :i* /ate ! conditions necess>y = ! gr[? & developm5t ( plant roots are reg>d$ z ! f\ndation tru?s or fundam5tal pr9ciples ( all agriculture4 ,^! tru?s are z foll[s3 ,! roots ( f>m plants ne$ = _! be/ gr[? & developm5t3 ,a firm1 mell[ soil4 ,a moi/ soil4 ,a v5tilat$ soil4 ,a w>m soil4 ,a soil suppli$ ) plant food4 ,! fir/ two *apt]s lead ! read] quickly ?r\gh logical reason+ to ^! fundam5tal tru?s1 on :i* ! rema9d] ( ! "w is bas$4 ,a /udy ( soils is made 9 connection ) ! root /udies1 z ! two are s closely relat$4 ,aft] ! /udy ( roots & soils ! o!r p>ts ( ! plant are consid]$ 9 ! ord] ( _! importance to ! f>m] or plant gr[]4 ,! aim is always to get at fundam5tal facts & pr9ciples und]ly+ all agricultural & horticultural practice4 ,! au?or reg>ds ! conditions necess>y to root gr[? & developm5t z ! important factor con/itut+ soil f]tility1 & 9 ! la/ t5 *apt]s takes up ! discussion ( c]ta9 f>m op]ations & practices & _! effects on ^! necess>y conditions1 & consequ5tly _! effect on ! f]tility ( ! soil4 ,! au?or ext5ds gratitude to all :o h 9 any way assi/$ 9 ! prep>ation ( ?is book1 :e!r ?r\gh advice1 prep>ation ( ! text1 prep>ation ( ! illu/rations1 or any o!r way 9 :i* he has receiv$ assi/ance4 ,c4,l4 ,,goodri*4 ,,gl5ndale1 ,pr9ce ,george ,co41 ,m>yl&1 ,janu>y #ba1 #aije4 ,,cont5ts ,,"p ,i ,,g5]al ,,pr9ciples ,,und]ly+ ,,plant ,,culture ,*apt] ,page ,i4--,,introduction ,,to ,,plants #c ,,ii4--,,roots #i ,uses ( roots to plants #i ,habit ( gr[? ( roots #aa ,conditions necess>y = root gr[? #bj ,,iii4--,,soils #bc ,relation ( soil to plants #bc ,classification ( soils #bf ,h[ 7 soils made8 #cj ,soil texture #cg ,,iv4--,,relation ,,( ,,soils ,,to ,,wat] #ci ,importance ( wat] to plants #ci ,s\rces ( soil wat] #dj ,attitude ( soils t[>d wat]3 ,p]colation ,absorption f bel[ ,p[] to hold wat] #dj ,! effect ( work+ soils :5 wet #de ,v4--,,=ms ,,( ,,soil ,,wat] #dh ,free wat] #dh ,capill>y wat] #di ,film wat] #ej ,,vi4--,,loss ,,( ,,soil ,,wat] ,by surface wa% ,by p]colation & lea*+ ,by evaporation ,by transpiration ,h[ to *eck ^! losses #ec ,,vii4--,,soil ,,temp]ature #eg ,h[ soils are w>m$ #eh ,h[ soils lose heat ,h[ to *eck loss ( heat #ei ,conditions :i* influ5ce soil temp]ature #fj ,value ( organic matt] #fa ,,viii4--,,plant ,,food ,,9 ,,! ,,soil #fc ,,ix4--,,se$s #gj ,conditions necess>y = spr\t+ #gj ,se$ te/+ #ge ,h[ ! se$s come up #gg ,use ( cotyl$ons & endosp]m #gi ,x4--,,se$ ,,plant+ #ha ,dep? ( plant+3 ,op]ation ( plant+ ,plant+ ma*9es #ha ,se$ classification #he ,transplant+ #hg ,,xi4--,,spad+ ,,& ,,pl[+ #ij ,spad+ ! soil #ij ,pl[+ #ia ,:y we spade & pl[ #ia ,p>ts ( a pl[ #ib ,*>act]i/ics ( a good pl[ #ie ,! furr[ slice #if ,h[ deep to pl[ #if ,break+ out ! middles #ig ,ridg+ ! l& #ih ,"t to pl[ #ih ,b>e fall[ #ajj ,,xii4--,,h>r[+ ,,& ,,roll+ #aja ,h>r[+3 ,:y we h>r[ ,"t to h>r[ #aja ,types ( h>r[s #ajb ,roll+ #ajf ,,xiii4--,,leaves #ajh ,facts ab\t leaves #ajh ,! uses ( leaves to plants3 ,transpiration ,/>* mak+ ,dige/ion ( food ,conditions necess>y = leaf "w #aji ,h[ ! "w ( leaves is int]f]$ ) #aae ,,xiv4--,,/ems #abj ,:at are /ems =8 #abj ,h[ ! "w ( ! /em may be int]f]$ ) #abf ,,xv4--,,fl[]s #abh ,function ( fl[]s #abh ,p>ts ( fl[]s #abi ,functions ( ! p>ts3 ,cross poll9ation #acj ,value ( a k ( ! fl[]s #acd ,fruit #acf ,,"p ,,ii ,,soil ,,f]tility ,,z ,,affect$ ,,by ,,f>m ,,op]ations ,,& ,,f>m ,,practices ,*apt] ,page ,,xvi4--,a ,,f]tile ,,soil #ada ,physical prop]ties3 ,p[] to absorb & hold wat] ,p[] ( v5tilation ,p[] to absorb & hold heat #adb ,biological prop]ties #adc ,nitrog5-fix+ g]ms #add ,nitrify+ g]ms #ade ,d5itrify+ g]ms #adg ,*emical prop]ties3 ,nitrog5 9 ! soil ,phosphoric acid 9 ! soil ,pota% 9 ! soil ,lime 9 ! soil ,great importance ( physical prop]ties #adg ,ma9t5ance ( f]tility #aej ,,xvii4--,,soil ,,wat] #aea ,importance ( soil wat] #aea ,necessity ( soil wat] #aea ,s\rces & =ms ( soil wat] #aec ,too mu* wat] #aed ,n en\gh wat] #aed ,loss ( soil wat] #aee ,h[ "s f>m op]ations influ5ce soil wat] #aef ,hoe+1 rak+1 h>r[+ & cultivat+ #aeh ,manures & soil wat] #aei ,me?ods ( cropp+ & soil wat] #aei ,selection ( crops ) ref]5ce to soil wat] #afj ,,xviii4--,,! ,,aft]-,,cultivation ,,( ,,crops #afd ,loss ( wat] by evaporation #afd ,loss ( wat] ?r\gh we$s #afe ,sav+ ! wat] #afe ,"t to cultivate #aff ,tools = aft]-cultivation #afg ,hill+ & ridg+ #afi ,,xix4--,,f>m ,,manures #aga ,! functions ( manures & f]tiliz]s #aga ,classification #aga ,importance ( f>m manures #agb ,b>n or /able manure #agc ,loss ( value #agc ,*eck+ ! losses #agf ,apply+ ! manure to ! soil #agg ,prop] condition ( manure :5 appli$ #agi ,compo/s #aha ,,xx4--,,f>m ,,manures1 ,,conclud$ #ahc ,gre5-crop manures3 ,functions #ahc ,b5efits #ahe ,"* ( be/ plants = gre5-crop manur+ #ahe ,! "t = gre5-manure crops #ahf ,legum9\s gre5-manure crops #ahf ,non-legum9\s gre5-manure plants #aia ,,xxi4--,,comm]cial ,,f]tiliz]s #aib ,! raw mat]ials #aib ,s\rces ( nitrog5 #aic ,s\rces ( phosphoric acid #aie ,s\rces ( pota% #aii ,s\rces ( lime #bjj ,,xxii4--,,comm]cial ,,f]tiliz]s1 ,,cont9u$ #bjb ,mix$ f]tiliz]s3 ,:at !y are ,_m br&s ,safegu>d = ! f>m] ,l[ grade mat]ials ,inflat+ ! gu>antee #bjb ,valuation #bje ,l[ grade mixtures #bjg ,buy on ! plant food basis #bji ,,xxiii4--,,comm]cial ,,f]tiliz]s1 ,,conclud$ #baa ,home mix+ ( f]tiliz]s #baa ,k9d & am\nt to buy #bab ,! crop #bac ,! soil #bae ,! sy/em ( f>m+ #bae ,te/+ ! soil #bae ,,xxiv4--,,rotation ,,( ,,crops #bai ,sy/ems ( cropp+ #bai ,! "o crop sy/em #bba ,rotation ( crops #bbd ,b5efits d]iv$ f rotation ( crops #bcj ,! typical rotation #bca ,conditions :i* modify ! rotation #bcb ,g5]al rules #bcc ,l5g? ( rotation #bcc ,,xxv4--,,f>m ,,dra9age #bce ,h[ surplus wat] affects f]tility #bce ,indications ( a ne$ ( dra9age #bce ,dra9s3 ,surface dra9s ,op5 dit* dra9s ,cov]$ dra9s or "u dra9s #bcf ,influ5ce ( cov]$ dra9s on f]tility #bcg ,location ( dra9s3 ,grade ,tile dra9s #bch ,,gloss>y #bda ,,li/ ,,( ,,illu/rations ,! f>m equipm5t--plants1 soils1 animals1 tools1 build+s ,frontispiece ,figure ,fac+ ,page #a4 ,specim5 plants = /udy #f #b4 ,! fir/ ef=t ( a spr\t+ se$ #g #c4 ,g]m9at+ se$s ) roots #g #d4 ,to %[ t plant roots take wat] f ! soil #aj #e4 ,to %[ t plant roots take food f ! soil #aj #f4 ,a radi% root1 f :i* ! /or$ food has be5 us$ to help produce a crop ( se$s #aa #g4 ,a sweet-potato root produc+ new plants #aa #h4 ,sweet-potato roots #ad #i4 ,soy-bean roots #ae #aj4 ,a pl[ /opp$ 9 ! furr[1 to %[ :at x does to ! roots ( plants :5 us$ = aft]-cultivation #ah #aa4 ,a corn-plant t5 days aft] plant+ ! se$ #ai #ab4 ,to %[ :]e gr[? 9 l5g? ( ! root takes place #bb #ac4 ,radi% se$s spr\t$ on d>k clo? #bb #ad4 ,to %[ h[ wat] gets into ! roots ( plants #bc #ae4 ,to %[ osmose #bc #af4 ,to %[ t roots ne$ air #bf #ag4 ,comp>ison ( fre% & boil$ wat] #bf #ah4 ,comp>ison ( moi/ s& & puddl$ clay #bg #ai4 ,comp>+ soils #cb #bj4 ,wat]-te/ ( soils #cc #ba4 ,to %[ :at becomes ( ! wat] tak5 f ! soil by roots #dj #bb4 ,p]colation exp]im5t4 ,to %[ ! relative p[]s ( soils to take 9 wat] fall+ on ! surface #da #bc4 ,bottles us$ 9 place ( ! lamp *imneys 9 ,figs4 #bb & #bd #dd #bd4 ,capill>ity ( soils4 ,to %[ ! relative p[]s ( soils to take wat] f bel[ #dd #be4 ,wat]-absorb+ & wat]-hold+ p[]s ( soils #de #bf4 ,capill>y tubes4 ,to %[ h[ wat] rises 9 small tubes or is drawn into small spaces #dh #bg4 ,capill>y plates #dh #bh4 ,a cone ( soil to %[ capill>ity #di #bi4 ,to %[ ! relative am\nts ( film-moi/ure held by co>se & f9e soils #di #cj4 ,to %[ ! effect ( a soil mul* #ef #ca4 ,soil temp]ature exp]im5t #eg #cb4 ,*>ts %[+ av]age temp]ature ( a set ( dry & wet soils dur+ a p]iod ( five days #fj #cc4 ,to %[ ! value ( organic matt] #fa #cd4 ,soy-bean roots1 %[+ nodules or tub]cles #fd #ce4 ,g>d5-pea roots1 %[+ tub]cles or nodules #fe #cf4 ,to %[ t se$s ne$ wat] = g]m9ation #gb #cg4 ,to %[ t se$s ne$ air = g]m9ation #gb #ch4 ,to %[ t se$s ne$ air = g]m9ation #gc #ci4 ,a se$-te/]3 two plates & a moi/ clo? #hj #dj4 ,a se$-te/]3 a pla/] ca/ ) cavities 9 ! surface = small se$s #hj #da4 ,g]m9at+ corn-k]nel & bean #ha #db4 ,to %[ h[ ! bean-plant gets up #hb #dc4 ,to %[ h[ ! corn-plant gets out ( ! soil #hb #dd4 ,to %[ ! use ( cotyl$ons #hc #de4 ,to %[ ! use ( ! k]nel to ! "y corn-plant #hf #df4 ,to %[ h[ deeply se$s %\ld be plant$ #hg #dg4 ,op]ations ( se$-plant+ #hh #dh4 ,a collection ( plant+ ma*9es #hi #di4 ,spad+-=k & spade #ib #ej4 ,a wood beam-pl[ #ic #ea4 ,a slip-nose %>e & a slip-nose #if #eb4 ,a /raight knife c\lt] #if #ec4 ,an iron beam-pl[ ) roll+ c\lt] & d\ble clevis #if #ed4 ,a roll+ cutt]-h>r[ #ig #ee4 ,spr+-too!d h>r[s #ig #ef4 ,spike-too!d h>r[s #ajd #eg4 ,a c\lt]-too!d h>r[ #ajd #eh4 ,a plank h>r[ #aje #ei4 ,to %[ transpiration #ajh #fj4 ,am\nt ( transpiration #aji #fa4 ,to %[ t gr[+ leaves conta9 />* #aad #fb4 ,to %[ t />* disappe>s f ! leaf :5 ! plant is plac$ 9 ! d>k #aad #fc4 ,to %[ t sunlight is necess>y = />*-mak+ by leaves #aae #fd4 ,to %[ t *lorophyl is necess>y = />* =mation 9 ! leaf #aae #fe4 ,to %[ ! giv+ (f ( gas by leaves1 & t sunlight is necess>y = x #aah #ff4 ,se$l+ radi%es rea*+ = light #aai #fg4 ,elm leaves injur$ by ! import$ elm-tree leaf-beetle1 a *ew+ insect #aai #fh4 ,a horse-*e/nut /em1 %[+ leaves1 buds1 & sc>s1 :]e la/ ye>'s leaves dropp$ (f #abh #fi4 ,an und]gr\nd /em4 ,buds %[ di/9ctly #abi #gj4 ,fl[] ( *]ry #acj #ga4 ,fl[] ( apple #acj #gb4 ,pi/il & /am5 ( fl[]+ raspb]ry #aca #gc4 ,fl[] ( butt]cup #aca #gd4 ,a magnolia fl[] %[+ c5tral column ( pi/ils & /am5s #acd #ge4 ,fl[]s ( squa% #ace #gf4 ,fl[] ( a lily #acf #gg4 ,bud & fl[] ( jewel-we$ or t\*-me-n #acg #gh4 ,pi/illate fl[] & p]fect fl[] ( /rawb]ry #acg #gi4 ,a crop ( c[peas #agh #hj4 ,r$ clov] #agi #ha4 ,soy-beans 9 "y or*>d #ahb #hb4 ,a "y alfalfa plant j com+ into fl[] #ahc #hc4 ,cross-sections ( /one-dra9s #bch #hd4 ,cross-section ( a pole-dra9 & ( a tile-dra9 #bch #he4 ,a collection ( dra9age tools #bci #hf4 ,a poorly laid tile-dra9 & a prop]ly grad$ tile-dra9 #bci ,,"p ,i ,g5]al ,pr9ciples ,und]ly+ ,plant ,culture ,,! ,,fir/ ,,book ,,( ,,f>m+ ,,"p ,i ,g5]al ,pr9ciples ,und]ly+ ,plant ,culture ,,*apt] ,i ,,introduction ,,to ,,plants ,our object 9 read+ & /udy+ ?is book is to f9d out "s facts t w help ^? ( u :o are ?9k+ ( go+ into f>m+ & g>d5+ z a bus9ess or recreation to />t "r1 & w also help ^? ( u t are already 9 ! bus9ess to make our f>ms & g>d5s m productive4 ,9 ord] to make ! book ( greate/ value to y1 ,i w\ld urge y n only to read & /udy x1 b also to make ! excursions sugge/$ & to p]=m ! exp]im5ts4 ,9 o!r words1 x w be ( mu* great] value to y if y w make ! obs]vations & inve/igations & f9d out = y\rselves ! important facts & pr9ciples r ?an simply take /atem5ts ( ! book unque/ion$4 ,a v good "t to beg9 ?is "w is dur+ ! latt] "p ( ! summ]1 :5 ! summ] crops are rip5+ & ! fall & w9t] crops are />t+ into gr[?4 ,s suppose we beg9 our /udy ) a visit to "s f>m 9 e>ly ,septemb]1 to br+ to m9d ! _m ?+s a f>m] works )1 ! _m ?+s he has to ?9k ab\t & "k ab\t4 ,z we approa* ! f>m we w probably see fir/ ! f>m-h\se surr\nd$ by %ade trees1 p]haps elms or maples1 ) ! b>ns & o!r build+s gr\p$ ne>by4 ,z we pass up ! front walk we notice m or less lawn ( neatly clipp$ grass1 ) fl[] b$s bord]+ ! walk1 or we may f9d a numb] ( *ick5s occupy+ ! front y>d1 & ! fl[] b$s1 plac$ 9 r$ half-b>rels1 set ^u %ort po/s4 ,9 ! fl[] b$s we may f9d petunias1 na/urtiums1 g]aniums1 rose bu%es & o!r fl[]+ plants4 ,go+ ar\nd ! h\se1 we come ^u ! dairy1 ) its rack ( cans & pans set out = ! daily sunn+ & air+4 ,ne>by is a well ) its oak5 bucket2 at ! b>n we f9d ! f>m]1 & he v k9dly cons5ts to g ) u to answ] que/ions4 ,9 ! b>n & %$s we f9d wagons1 pl[s1 h>r[s1 se$ drills1 hoes1 rakes1 scy!s & _m o!r tools & ma*9es4 ,pass+ on to ! fields1 we g ?r\gh ! vegetable g>d51 :]e are c>rots1 p>snips1 cabbages1 beets1 cel]y1 sage & _m o!r vegetables & h]bs4 ,on ! "r1 we see a field ( corn j ready to h>ve/1 & beyond a field ( potatoes4 ,on ! left is ! or*>d1 & we are invit$ to refre% ourselves ) juicy apples4 ,9 ! field beyond ! hir$ man is pl[+ ) a f9e team ( horses4 ,9 ! ,s\? we w\ld f9d a field ( cotton & "o ( sweet potatoes1 & p]haps sug> cane or peanuts4 ,we h n fail$ to notice ! pig we$s 9 ! corn field nor ! rag we$ 9 ! :eat /ubble1 & _m o!r we$s & grasses 9 ! f5ce corn]s4 ,p]haps we may meet ! c[s com+ f pa/ure to ! /able4 ,all ! way we h be5 trampl+ on some?+ v important :i* we w notice on our way back4 ,9 ?is field we f9d a co>se s&y soil1 9 ! next "o a soil t is f9] & /iff]4 ,! pl[ is turn+ up a r$di% soil4 ,9 ! g>d5 we f9d ! soil q d>k 9 color4 ,b ^! are only a few ( ! ?+s we h f\nd4 ,if y h us$ y\r notebook y w discov] t y h long li/s ( objects :i* y h notic$1 & ^! may be gr\p$ "u ! foll[+ head+s3 ,animals1 ,plants1 ,soils1 ,build+s1 ,tools1 etc4 ,! f>m]1 !n1 9 8 "w on ! f>m deals ) c]ta9 ag5ts1 *ief among :i* are ,soils1 ,plants1 ,animals1 ,tools & ,build+s4 ,o!r ag5ts :i* assi/ or ret>d 8 "w accord+ to circum/ances are ! air1 sunlight1 heat1 moi/ure1 plant food1 microscopic organisms call$ bact]ia1 etc4 ,^! ag5ts are controll$ 9 _! relations to "o ano!r by c]ta9 =ces :i* "w accord+ to c]ta9 laws & pr9ciples ( nature4 ,to "w intellig5tly & to obta9 ! be/ results ! f>m] mu/ become famili> ) ^! ag5ts & mu/ "w 9 h>mony ) ! laws & pr9ciples :i* control !m4 ,let u take up ! /udy ( "s ( ^! gr\ps ( ag5ts1 beg9n+ ) ! mo/ important or c5tral "o on ! f>m4 ,:i* d y ?9k is ! mo/ important gr\p8 ,"s w say tools4 ,! majority w probably say1 /udy ! soil fir/1 because we mu/ "w ! soil be=e we c gr[ good crops4 ,"s few w m5tion plants4 ,?is la/ is "r4 ,! f>m animals are dep5d5t on plants = food4 ,we till or "w ! soil to produce plants4 ,plants are liv+1 gr[+ ?+s1 & c]ta9 requirem5ts or conditions are necess>y = _! gr[? & developm5t2 we _c intellig5tly prep>e ! soil = plant gr[? until we "k some?+ ab\t ! "w ( plants & ! conditions !y ne$ to d _! "w well4 ,= our fir/ /udy ( plants let u get toge!r a numb] ( f>m & g>d5 plants4 ,say1 we h a corn plant1 cotton1 beet1 turnip1 c>rot1 onion1 potato1 grass1 g]anium1 m>igold1 pigwe$1 ?i/le1 or o!r f>m or g>d5 plants4 ,9 ea* case get ! entire plant1 ) z mu* root z possible4 ,d ^! plants 9 any way resemble "o ano!r8 ,all are gre51 all h roots1 all h /ems & leaves1 "s ( !m h fl[]s1 fruit1 & se$s1 & ! o!rs 9 "t w produce !m4 ,:y does ! f>m] raise ^! plants8 ,= food = man & animals2 = clo?+2 = ornam5tal purposes2 = pleasure1 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,specim5 ,,plants ,,= ,,/udy4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,! fir/ ef=t ( a spr\t+ se$ is to s5d a root d[n into ! soil4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,g]m9at+ se$s produce roots be=e !y s5d a %oot up into ! air4 ,:i* "p ( any or all ( ^! f>m plants is ( greate/ importance to ! plant itself8 ,i am sure t y w agree t ! root is ! "p mo/ important to ! plant itself1 = if any "p ( a plant be sep>at$ f ! root1 t "p ceases gr[? & w soon die1 unless x is able to put out new roots4 ,b ! root f :i* ! plant 0 cut w g5]ally s5d up new %oots1 unless x has ne>ly complet$ its life "w4 ,:5 a slip or cutt+ is plac$ 9 wat] or 9 moi/ s& x makes a root be=e x cont9ues mu* 9 gr[?4 ,:5 a se$ is plant$ its fir/ ef=t is to s5d a rootlet d[n into ! soil4 ,exp]im5t to see if ?is is true by plant+ slips ( will[1 or g]anium1 or by plant+ corn or beans 9 a glass tumbl] ( soil1 or 9 a box hav+ a glass side1 plac+ ! se$s close to ! glass2 !n wat* & see :at ! se$ does4 ,figs4 #b & #c4 ,:i* ( ! p>ts ( ! plant is ( greate/ importance to ! f>m] or any plant gr[]1 or to :i* "p ( a plant %\ld ! plant gr[] give 8 be/ att5tion8 ,y w probably m5tion diff]5t p>ts ( ! diff]5t plants 9 answ]+ ?is "q4 ,= in/ance1 "s w say1 ,! se$ is ! mo/ important "p ( ! :eat plant to ! f>m]1 = t is :at ! :eat is gr[n =4 ,! fruit is ! mo/ important "p ( ! apple plant = ! same reason4 ,! leaves & gra9 ( ! corn1 ! leaves ( ! cabbage1 are ! important p>ts ( ^! plants & %\ld h ! be/ att5tion ( ! gr[]1 because !y are ! p>ts = :i* he gr[s ! plants4 ,b y mu/ rememb] t all ( ^! p>ts are dep5d5t on ! root = life & gr[?1 z 0 br\ght out 9 ! answ] to ! la/ "q1 & t if ! f>m] or plant gr[] desires a f9e crop ( leaves1 /ems1 fl[]s1 fruit or se$s1 he mu/ give 8 v be/ att5tion to ! root4 ,judg+ f ! poor way 9 :i* _m f>m]s & plant gr[]s prep>e ! soil = ! plants !y raise1 & ! poor way !y c>e = ! soil dur+ ! gr[? ( ! plants1 !y evid5tly ?9k lea/ (1 & give lea/ att5tion to1 ! roots ( ! plants4 ,!n1 9 /udy+ our plants1 :i* "p %all we /udy fir/8 ,:y1 ! roots1 ( c\rse3 ,to f9d out :at !y d = ! plant1 h[ !y d ?is "w1 & :at conditions are necess>y = !m to gr[ & to d _! "w well4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,roots ,,uses ,,( ,,roots ,,to ,,plants ,( :at use are roots to plants1 or1 :at "w d !y p]=m = ! plants8 ,if ! read] has ev] tri$ to pull up we$s or o!r plants he w agree t "o function ( ! roots ( plants is to hold !m firmly 9 place :ile !y are gr[+4 ,exp]im5t4--,pull two plants f ! soil1 %ake !m free ( e>?1 & place ! roots ( "o 9 wat] & expose ! roots ( ! o!r to ! air4 ,notice t ! plant ^: roots are expos$ to ! air soon wilts1 :ile ! "o ^: roots 7 plac$ 9 wat] keeps fre%4 ,y h notic$ h[ a pott$ plant w wilt if ! soil 9 ! pot is all[$ to become dry 7see ,fig4 #d71 or h[ ! leaves ( corn & o!r plants curl up & )] dur+ long p]iods ( dry wea!r4 ,x is q evid5t roots absorb moi/ure f ! soil = ! plant4 ,exp]im5t4--,plant "s se$s 9 tumbl]s or 9 boxes fill$ ) s& & 9 o!rs fill$ ) good g>d5 soil4 ,keep !m well wat]$ & wat* _! progress = a few weeks 7see ,fig4 #e74 ,! plants 9 ! g>d5 soil w gr[ l>g] ?an ^? 9 ! s&4 ,! roots evid5tly mu/ get food f ! soil & ^? 9 ! good g>d5 soil get m ?an ^? 9 ! poor] s&4 ,ano!r important function ( plant roots !n is to take food f ! soil = ! plant4 ,y "k h[ ?ick & fle%y ! roots ( radi%es1 beets & turnips are4 ,well1 g into ! g>d5 & see if y c f9d a spr+ radi% or an e>ly turnip t has s5t up a fl[] /alk1 blossom$ & produc$ se$s4 ,if y are successful1 cut ! root 9 two & notice t in/ead ( be+ h>d & fle%y l ! "y radi% or turnip1 x has become holl[1 or s(t & spongy 7see ,fig4 #f74 ,evid5tly ! h>d1 fle%y "y root 0 pack$ ) food1 :i* x aft]w>ds gave up to produce fl[] /alk & se$s4 ,a f\r? use ( ! root1 !n1 is to /ore food = ! future use ( ! plant4 ,exp]im5t4--,plant a sweet potato or place x ) ! l[] end 9 a tumbl] ( wat] & set x 9 a w>m room4 ,obs]ve x f day to day z x puts out new %oots be>+ leaves & roots 7see ,fig4 #g74 ,break ^! (f & plant !m 9 soil & y h a numb] ( new plants4 ,if y c get ! mat]ial1 repeat ?is exp]im5t ) roots ( horse-radi%1 raspb]ry1 blackb]ry or dahlia4 ,f ?is we see t x is ! "w ( "s roots to produce new plants4 ,?is function ( roots is made use ( 9 propagat+ or obta9+ new plants ( ! sweet potato1 horse-radi%1 blackb]ry1 raspb]ry1 dahlia & o!r plants4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,to %[ t plant-roots take wat] f ! soil1 ! plants 9 ,a are suff]+ f ?ir/4 ,b has suffici5t wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,to %[ t plant roots take food f ! soil4 ,bo? boxes 7 plant$ at ! same "t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,a radi% root1 f :i* ! /or$ food has be5 us$ to help produce a crop ( se$s4 ,notice ! sp9dle %ad$ se$-vessels4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,a sweet-potato root produc+ new plants4 ,we h n[ le>n$ five important ?+s t roots d = plants1 namely3 ,roots hold plants firmly 9 place4 ,!y absorb wat] f ! soil = ! plants4 ,!y absorb food f ! soil = ! plants4 ,"s roots /ore food = ! future use ( ! plant4 ,"s roots produce new plants4 ,h[ d ! roots d ?is "w8 ,to answ] ?is "q x w be necess>y to /udy ! habit ( gr[? ( ! roots ( our plants4 ,,habit ,,( ,,gr[? ,,( ,,roots ,! prop] place to beg9 ?is /udy is 9 ! field or g>d54 ,s we w make ano!r excursion1 & ?is "t we w take ) u a pick-axe or mattock1 a %ovel or two1 a %>p /ick1 a qu>t or half-gallon pit*]1 & sev]al buckets ( wat]4 ,arriv$ 9 ! field1 we w select a well-develop$ plant1 say1 ( corn1 potato or cotton4 ,!n we w dig a hole ab\t six feet long1 ?ree feet wide1 & five or six feet deep1 close to ! plant1 lett+ "o side come ab\t f\r or five in*es f ! base ( ! plant4 ,x w be well to h ?is hole run across ! r[ r ?an l5g?wise ) x4 ,!n ) ! pit*] p\r wat] ab\t ! base ( ! plant & wa% ! soil away f ! roots4 ,g5tly loos5+ ! soil ) ! %>p5$ /ick w ha/5 ?is "w4 ,9 ?is way c>efully expose ! roots along ! side ( ! hole1 trac+ !m z f> z possible lat]ally & z deep z possible1 tak+ c>e to loos5 !m z little z possible f _! natural position4 7,see ,figs4 #h & #i47 ,hav+ expos$ ! roots ( "o k9d ( plant to a wid? & dep? ( five or six feet1 expose ! roots ( six or eight plants ( diff]5t k9ds to a dep? ( ab\t eighte5 in*es4 ,z ?is may require m "t ?an we c take = x 9 "o day1 x w be well to cov] ! expos$ roots ) "s old burlaps or o!r mat]ial until we h !m all ready1 9 ord] to keep !m f dry+ & f injury4 ,:5 all is ready we w /udy ! root sy/em ( ea* plant & answ] ^! f\r que/ions3 ,9 :at "p ( ! soil are mo/ ( ! roots8 ,h[ deep d !y p5etrate ! soil8 ,h[ ne> d !y come to ! surface ( ! soil8 ,h[ f> d !y rea* out sidewise or lat]ally f ! plant8 ,to ! fir/ "q1 ,9 :at "p ( ! soil are mo/ ( ! roots8 y w give ! foll[+ answ]s3 ,9 ! upp] lay]4 ,9 ! surface soil4 ,9 ! s(t] soil4 ,9 ! d>k] soil4 ,9 ! pl[$ soil4 ,^! are all correct1 b ! la/ is ! important "o4 ,mo/ ( ! roots w be =m$ 9 t "p ( ! soil t has be5 pl[$ or spad$4 ,! second "q1 ,h[ deep d ! roots p5etrate ! soil8 is easily answ]$4 ,roots w be f\nd p5etrat+ ! soil to dep?s ( f two to six feet or m4 7,see ,fig4 #h47 ,! au?or has trac$ ! roots ( c[pea & soy bean plants to dep?s ( five & six feet1 corn roots f\r & five feet1 p>snips ov] six feet4 ,! sweet-potato roots illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #h p5etrat$ ! soil to a dep? ( ov] five feet4 ,! roots ( alfalfa or luc]n h be5 trac$ to dep?s ( f ?irte5 to sixte5 feet or m4 ,h[ ne> to ! surface ( ! soil d y f9d roots8 ,ma9 side or lat]al roots w be f\nd )9 two or ?ree in*es ( ! surface1 & little rootlets f ^! w be f\nd rea*+ up z ne> ! surface z !re is a supply ( moi/ure4 ,aft] a cont9u$ p]iod ( wet wea!r1 if ! soil has n be5 di/urb$1 roots w be f\nd com+ to ! v surface & ev5 runn+ along ! top ( ! soil4 ,z to ! f\r? "q1 ,h[ f> d roots rea* out sidewise or lat]ally f ! plant8 y w f9d roots ext5d+ ?ree1 f\r1 five & ev5 six or m feet f ! plant4 ,!y h num]\s bran*es & rootlets1 :i* fill all p>ts ( ! upp] soil4 ,tree roots h be5 f\nd ?irty or =ty feet 9 l5g?4 ,we />t$ on ?is obs]vation lesson to f9d out some?+ ab\t ! habit ( gr[? ( roots1 s t we c\ld tell h[ ! roots d _! "w = ! plant4 ,b be=e go+ on ) t "q1 let u /op "r "h & see :e!r we _c f9d "s v important lessons = ! f>m] & plant gr[] f :at we h already se54 ,is a k ( ^! facts we h le>n$ ab\t roots ( any value to ! f>m]8 ,let u exam9e ea* case & see4 ,( :at value is x to ! f>m] to "k t ! l>g] "p ( ! roots ( f>m plants develop 9 t "p ( ! soil t has be5 pl[$ or spad$8 ,x tells him t pl[+ t5ds to br+ ab\t ! soil conditions :i* are favorable to ! gr[? & developm5t ( roots4 ,!re=e1 ! deep] he pl[s1 ! deep] is ! body ( ! soil hav+ conditions be/ suit$ = root gr[?1 & ! l>g] w be ! crop :i* gr[s above ! soil4 ,( :at value is x to ! f>m] to "k t ! roots ( f>m plants p5etrate to dep?s ( five or six feet 9 ! soil8 ,to answ] ?is "q x w be necess>y = u to "k some?+ ( ! conditions necess>y = root gr[?4 ,s we w leave ?is till lat]4 ,( :at value is x to ! f>m] to "k t _m ( ! roots ( 8 f>m plants come v ne> ! surface ( ! soil8 ,x tells him t he %\ld be c>eful 9 cultivat+ 8 crop to injure z few ( ^! roots z possible4 ,9 "s p>ts ( ! c\ntry1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! ,s\?1 ! tool commonly us$ = field cultivation is a small pl[4 ,?is is run alongside ( ! r[1 ?r[+ ! soil f ! crop1 & !n aga9 ?r[+ ! soil to ! crop4 ,suppose we inve/igate1 & see h[ ?is affects ! roots ( ! crop4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,sweet potato roots4 ,! great mass ( ! roots is 9 ! pl[$ soil4 ,_m ( !m rea* out #e to #g feet f ! plant4 ,"s rea* a dep? ( m ?an #e feet1 & o!rs come to ! v surface ( ! soil4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,soy-bean roots %[+ location1 ext5t & dep? ( root-gr[?4 ,let u visit a field :]e "s f>m] is work+ a crop ) a pl[1 or get him to d x1 = ! sake ( ! lesson4 ,we w ask him to /op ! pl[ some:]e opposite a plant1 !n we w dig a hole a little to "o side ( ! pl[ & wa% away ! soil f ov] ! pl[ 7see ,fig4 #aj71 & see :]e ! roots are4 ,we w f9d t ! pl[-po9t runs "u _m /rong-fe$+ lat]al roots & te>s !m (f1 ?us *eck+ ! fe$+ p[] ( ! plant1 & consequ5tly *eck+ its gr[?4 ,n[1 if we c get a cultivator1 we w h t run along ! r[ & !n wa% away ! loos5$ soil4 ,x w be f\nd t few1 if any1 ( ! ma9 lat]al roots h be5 injur$4 ,is x ( any value to ! f>m] to "k t roots ext5d lat]ally ?ree to six feet & m on all sides ( ! plant1 & t e "p ( ! upp] soil is fill$ ) _! bran*es & rootlets8 ,?is fact has a be>+ on ! application ( manures & f]tiliz]s4 ,x tells ! f>m] t :5 he applies ! manure & f]tiliz]s to ! soil he %\ld mix ! mo/ ( !m ?or\ghly all ?r\gh ! soil1 plac+ only a little directly 9 ! r[ to />t ! "y plant4 ,to f9d out h[ quickly ! roots rea* out into ! soil1 wa% ! soil away f "s se$l+s t h be5 gr[+ only a few days1 say1 sev51 t5 & fifte54 7,see ,fig4 #aa47 ,f our obs]vations1 !n1 we h le>n$ ! important lessons ( deep1 ?or\gh pl[+1 c>eful %all[ aft]-cultivation1 & t f]tiliz]s %\ld be well mix$ ) ! soil4 ,we are n[ ready to g back to our /udy ( ! habit ( gr[? ( roots1 & c p]haps tell some?+ ( h[ ! root does its "w = ! plant4 ,x is v easy to see h[ ! roots hold ! plant firmly 9 place1 = !y p5etrate s ?or\ghly e "p ( ! soil1 & to su* di/ances1 t !y hold ) a grip t makes x impossible to remove ! plant f ! soil )\t te>+ x free f ! roots4 ,x is also on acc\nt ( ?is v ?or\gh rea*+ out ?r\gh ! soil t ! roots are able to supply ! plant ) suffici5t moi/ure & food4 ,we h d\btless obs]v$ t mo/ ( ^! roots are v sl5d] & _m v delicate4 ,h[ did !y manage to rea* out into ! soil s f> f ! plant8 ,or :]e does ! root gr[ 9 l5g?8 ,to answ] ?is "q ,i w ask y to p]=m ! foll[+ exp]im5t3 ,exp]im5t4--,place "s k]nels ( corn or o!r l>ge se$s on a plate betwe5 ! folds ( a piece ( wet clo?4 ,cov] ) a pane ( glass or ano!r plate4 ,keep ! clo? moi/ till ! se$s spr\t & ! "y plants h roots two or ?ree in*es long4 ,n[ h at h& a plate1 two pieces ( glass1 #d by #f in*es1 a piece ( :ite clo? ab\t #d by #h in*es1 a spool ( d>k ?read1 & two burnt mat*es1 or small sliv]s ( wood4 ,a %all[ t9 pan may be us$ 9 place ( ! plate4 ,lay "o pane ( glass on ! plate1 lett+ "o end re/ 9 ! bottom ( ! plate & ! o!r on ! opposite edge ( ! plate4 ,at "o end ( ! piece ( clo? cut two slits on opposite sides ab\t an in* d[n f ! end & rea*+ ne>ly to ! middle4 ,wet ! clo? & spread x on ! glass4 ,take "o ( ! spr\t$ se$s1 lay x on ! clo?1 tie pieces ( ?read ar\nd ! ma9 root at int]vals ( "o-qu>t] in* f tip to se$4 ,tie c>efully1 s t ! root w n be injur$4 ,place ! second pane ( glass ov] ! roots1 lett+ ! edge come j bel[ ! se$1 slipp+ 9 ! sliv]s ( wood to prev5t ! glass cru%+ ! roots4 ,wrap ! two flaps ( ! clo? ab\t ! se$4 ,p\r "s wat] 9 ! plate & leave = developm5t4 7,fig4 #ab47 ,a day or two ( wait+ w %[ conclusively t ! l5g!n+ takes place at ! tip only1 or j back ( ! tip4 ,is ?is fact ( any value to ! f>m]8 ,yes4 ,! s(t t5d] root tips w =ce _! way ?r\gh a mell[ soil ) great] ease & rapidity ?an ?r\gh a h>d soil1 & ! m rapid ! root gr[? ! m rapid ! developm5t ( ! plant4 ,?is tea*es u aga9 ! lesson ( deep1 ?or\gh break+ & pulv]iz+ ( ! soil be=e ! crop is plant$4 ,we h le>n$ t ! roots gr[ out into ! soil 9 se>* ( moi/ure & food1 :i* !y absorb = ! use ( ! plant4 ,h[ does ! root take 9 moi/ure & food8 ,_m p ?9k t !re are little m\?s at ! tips ( ! roots1 & t ! food & moi/ure are tak5 9 ?r\gh !m4 ,?is is n s1 = exam9ation ) ! mo/ p[]ful microscopes fails to discov] any su* m\?s4 ,spr\t se$s ( radi%1 turnip or cabbage1 or o!r se$s1 on d>k clo?1 plac$ 9 plates & kept moi/4 ,notice ! fuzz or mass ( root hairs ne> ! ends ( ! t5d] roots ( ! se$l+s 7,fig4 #ac74 ,plant simil> se$ 9 s& or soil1 & :5 !y h />t$ to gr[ pull !m up & notice h[ difficult x is to remove all ( ! s& or dirt f ! roots4 ,?is is because ! delicate root hairs cl+ s closely to ! soil gra9s4 ,! root hairs are absorb+ moi/ure lad5 ) plant food f ! surface ( ! soil p>ticles4 ,! root hairs are f\nd only ne> ! root tips4 ,z ! root gr[s old]1 its surface becomes t\gh] & h>d]1 & ! hairs die1 :ile new ones appe> on ! new gr[? j back ( ! root tips1 :i* are con/antly rea*+ out aft] moi/ure & food4 ,! moi/ure gets into ! root hairs by a process call$ osmose4 ,! foll[+ int]e/+ exp]im5t w give y an idea ( ?is process or =ce ( osmose4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,a pl[ /opp$ 9 ! furr[1 to %[ :at x does to ! roots ( plants :5 us$ = aft]-cultivation4 ,notice ! po9t ( ! pl[ "u ! roots4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,a corn-plant t5 days aft] plant+ ! se$4 ,to %[ h[ quickly ! roots rea* out into ! soil4 ,"s ( ! roots 7 ov] #ah in*es long4 ,exp]im5t4--,procure a wide-m\!d bottle1 an egg1 a glass tube ab\t ?ree in*es long & a qu>t]-in* 9 diamet]1 a c&le1 & a piece ( wire a little long] ?an ! tube4 ,remove a "p ( ! %ell f ! l>ge end ( ! egg )\t break+ ! sk9 b5ea?4 ,?is is easily done by g5tly tapp+ ! %ell ) ! h&le ( a pocket-knife until x is full ( small cracks1 & !n1 ) ! blade ( ! knife1 pick+ (f ! small pieces4 ,9 ?is way remove ! %ell f ! space ab\t ! size ( a nickel4 ,remove ! %ell f ! small end ( ! egg ov] a space ab\t z l>ge z ! end ( ! glass tube4 ,next1 f ! l[] end ( ! c&le cut a piece ab\t "o-half in* long4 ,bore a hole 9 ?is j ! size ( ! glass tube4 ,n[ s(t5 "o end ( ! piece ( c&le ) ! hole 9 x & /ick x on to ! small end ( ! egg s t ! hole 9 ! c&le comes ov] ! hole 9 ! egg4 ,heat ! wire1 & ) x sold] ! piece ( c&le m firmly to ! egg1 mak+ a wat]-tight jo9t4 ,place ! glass tube 9 ! hole 9 ! piece ( c&le1 pu%+ x d[n till x t\*es ! egg4 ,!n1 ) ! heat$ wire1 sold] ! tube firmly 9 place4 ,n[ run ! wire d[n ! tube & break ! sk9 ( ! egg j "u ! end ( ! tube4 ,fill ! bottle ) wat] till x ov]fl[s1 & set ! egg on ! bottle1 ! l>ge end 9 contact ) ! wat] 7,fig4 #ad74 ,9 an h\r or s ! cont5ts ( ! egg w be se5 ris+ 9 ! glass tube4 ,?is happ5s because ! wat] is mak+ its way by osmose into ! egg ?r\gh ! sk91 :i* has no op5+s1 s f> z c be discov]$4 ,if ! bottle is kept suppli$ ) wat] z fa/ z x is tak5 up by ! egg1 almo/ ! entire cont5ts ( ! egg w be =c$ out ( ! tube4 ,9 ?is way wat] 9 :i* plant food is dissolv$ ent]s ! sl5d] root hairs & rises ?r\gh ! plant4 ,exp]im5t4--,?is process ( osmose may also be %[n z foll[s 7,fig4 #ae73 ,remove ! %ell f ! l>ge end ( an egg )\t break+ ! sk91 break a hole 9 ! small end ( ! egg & empty out ! cont5ts ( ! egg2 r9se ! %ell ) wat]4 ,fill a wide-m\!d bottle ) wat] color$ ) a few drops ( r$ ink4 ,fill ! egg-%ell p>tly full ( cle> wat] & set x on ! bottle ( color$ wat]4 ,color$ wat] w gradually pass ?r\gh ! membrane ( ! egg & color ! wat] 9 ! %ell4 ,prep>e ano!r egg 9 ! same way1 b put color$ wat] 9 ! %ell & cle> wat] 9 ! bottle4 ,! color$ wat] 9 ! %ell w pass ?r\gh ! sk9 & color ! wat] 9 ! bottle4 ,sug> or salt may be us$ 9 place ( ! r$ ink1 & _! pres5ce aft] pass+ ?r\gh ! membrane may be detect$ by ta/e4 ,,conditions ,,necess>y ,,= ,,root ,,gr[? ,we h le>n$ "s ( ! ?+s t ! roots d = plants & a little ab\t h[ ! "w is done4 ,! next ?+ to f9d out is3 ,:at conditions are necess>y = ! root to d its "w8 ,we "k t a "p ( ! "w ( ! root is to p5etrate ! soil & hold ! plant firmly 9 place4 ,!re=e1 x ne$s a firm soil4 ,we "k t ! "p ( ! root :i* p5etrates ! soil is t5d] & easily injur$4 ,!re=e1 = rapid gr[? ! root ne$s a mell[ soil4 ,we "k t "p ( ! "w ( ! root is to take moi/ure f ! soil4 ,!re=e1 x ne$s a moi/ soil4 ,we "k t "p ( ! "w ( ! root is to take food f ! soil4 ,!re=e1 x ne$s a soil well suppli$ ) plant food4 ,we "k t roots /op _! "w 9 cold wea!r4 ,!re=e1 !y ne$ a w>m soil4 ,ano!r condition ne$$ by roots we w f9d out by exp]im5t4 ,exp]im5t4--,take two wide-m\!d cle> glass bottles 7,fig4 #af72 fill "o ne>ly full ( wat] f ! well or hydrant2 fill ! o!r bottle ne>ly full ( wat] t has be5 boil$ & cool$2 place 9 ea* bottle a slip or cutt+ ( ,w&]+ ,jew 7call$ also in* plant1 or tradescantia1 & spid]wort71 or "s o!r plant t roots readily 9 wat]4 ,!n p\r on top ( ! boil$ wat] ab\t a qu>t] ( an in* ( oil--l>d oil or cotton-se$ oil or salad oil4 ,?is is to prev5t ! absorption ( air4 ,9 a few days roots w appe> on ! slip 9 ! hydrant wat]1 :ile only a v few %ort ones1 if any1 w appe> 9 ! boil$ wat]1 & !y w soon cease gr[+4 ,:y is ?is8 ,to answ] ?is "q1 try ano!r exp]im5t4 ,take two bottles1 fill$ z be=e1 "o ) hydrant wat] & ! o!r ) boil$ wat]2 drop into ea* a slip ( glass or a spoon or piece ( metal long en\gh s t "o end w re/ on ! bottom & ! o!r aga9/ ! side ( ! bottle1 & let /& = an h\r or s 7,fig4 #ag74 ,at ! end ( t "t bubbles ( air w be se5 collect+ on ! glass or spoon 9 ! hydrant wat]1 b none 9 ! boil$ wat]4 ,?is %[s u t wat] conta9s m or less air1 & t boil+ ! wat] drives ?is air out4 ,! cutt+ 9 ! boil$ wat] did n produce roots because !re 0 no air 9 x & ! oil kept x f absorb+ any4 ,exp]im5t4--,into "s tumbl]s ( moi/ s& put cutt+s ( sev]al k9ds ( plants t root readily 7,fig4 #ah71 g]anium1 tradescantia1 begonia1 etc4 ,put cutt+s ( same plants into tumbl]s fill$ ) clay t has be5 wet & /irr$ v ?or\ghly1 until x is ab\t ! consi/5cy ( cake batt]4 ,keep ! s& & puddl$ clay moi/2 d n all[ ! clay to crack1 :i* x w d if x dries4 ,! cutt+s 9 ! s& w /rike root & gr[1 :ile mo/1 if n all1 ^? 9 ! clay w soon die4 ,! reason = ?is is t ! s& is well v5tilat$ & !re is suffici5t air = root developm5t1 :ile ! clay is v poorly v5tilat$1 & !re is n suffici5t air = root gr[?4 ,^! exp]im5ts %[ u t to develop & d _! "w roots ne$ air or a well-v5tilat$ soil4 ,we h f\nd ! conditions :i* are necess>y = ! gr[? & developm5t ( plant roots1 namely3 ,a firm1 mell[ soil4 ,a moi/ soil4 ,a soil suppli$ ) available plant food4 ,a w>m soil4 ,a v5tilat$ soil4 ,^! are ! mo/ important facts ab\t plant gr[? s f> z ! plant gr[] is conc]n$4 ,9 o!r words1 ^! conditions :i* are necess>y = root gr[? & developm5t are ! mo/ important tru?s ( agriculture1 or !y are ! f\ndation tru?s or pr9ciples ^u :i* all agriculture is bas$4 ,hav+ f\nd ^! conditions1 ! next mo/ important /ep is to f9d out h[ to br+ !m ab\t 9 ! soil1 or1 if !y already exi/1 h[ to keep !m or to improve !m4 ,?is br+s u1 !n1 to a /udy ( soils4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,to %[ :]e gr[? 9 l5g? ( ! root takes place4 ,=ty h\rs be=e ! photograph 0 tak5 ! tip ( ! root 0 in* f ! l[e/ ?read4 ,! glass cov] 0 tak5 f ?is 9 ord] to get a good picture ( ! root4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,radi% se$s spr\t$ on d>k clo?4 ,to %[ root hairs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,to %[ h[ wat] gets into ! roots ( plants4 ,wat] pass$ up into ! egg ?r\gh ! sk91 or membrane1 & =c$ ! cont5ts up ! glass tube until x began to ov]fl[4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,to %[ osmose 7see page #ai74 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,soils ,! soil consid]$ agriculturally1 is t "p ( ! e>?'s cru/ :i* is occupi$ by ! roots ( plants & f :i* !y absorb food & moi/ure4 ,,relation ,,( ,,soil ,,to ,,plants ,we h le>n$ t plant roots p5etrate ! soil to hold ! plant 9 a firm & /able position1 to absorb moi/ure & ) x plant food4 ,we le>n$ also t = roots to d ^! ?+s well1 ! soil 9 :i* !y gr[ mu/ be mell[ & firm1 & mu/ conta9 moi/ure & plant food1 air mu/ circulate 9 its pores & x mu/ be w>m4 ,h[ c we br+ ab\t ^! conditions8 ,to answ] ?is "q intellig5tly x w be necess>y = u to /udy ! soil to f9d out some?+ ab\t its /ructure1 its composition1 its *>act]i/ics2 also1 h[ x 0 made & :at =ces or ag5cies 7 active 9 mak+ x4 ,are ^! =ces act+ on ! soil at ! pres5t "t8 ,d !y h any influ5ce ov] ! conditions :i* are favorable or unfavorable to plant gr[?8 ,if s1 c we control !m 9 _! action = ! b5efit or injury ( plants8 ,we w beg9 ?is soil /udy ) an excursion & a few exp]im5ts4 ,g to ! field4 ,exam9e ! soil 9 ! holes dug = ! root lessons1 notic+ ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! upp] or surface soil & ! "u or subsoil4 ,exam9e z _m k9ds ( surface soils & subsoils z possible1 also decay$ leaf m\ld1 ! black soil ( ! woods1 etc4 ,if !re are 9 ! neighborhood any expos$ embankm5ts :]e a road has be5 cut ?r\gh a hill1 or :]e a riv] or ! sea wat] has cut into a bank ( soil1 visit !m & exam9e ! expos$ soils4 ,exp]im5t4--,place 9 sep>ate pans1 di%es1 plates1 boxes1 or on bo>ds1 "o or two p9ts ea* ( s&1 clay1 decay$ vegetable matt] or leaf m\ld or woods soil1 & g>d5 soil4 ,! soil %\ld be fre% f ! field4 ,exam9e ! s&1 clay & leaf m\ld1 comp>+ !m z to color2 are !y light or d>k1 are !y moi/ or n8 ,te/ ! soils = comp>ative size ( p>ticles by rubb+ betwe5 ! f+]s 7,fig4 #ai71 notic+ if !y are co>se or f9e1 & = /ick9ess by squeez+ 9 ! h& & not+ :e!r or n !y easily crumble aft]w>ds4 ,exp]im5t4--,take samples1 ab\t a teaspoonful1 ( s&1 clay & leaf m\ld4 ,dry !m & !n place ea* 9 an iron spoon or on a small coal %ovel & heat 9 /ove to r$ness4 ,x w be f\nd t ! leaf m\ld w smoke & burn1 & w dim9i% 9 am\nt1 :ile ! s& & clay w n4 ,exp]im5t4--,take two wide-m\!d bottles2 fill bo? ne>ly full ( wat]4 ,into "o put ab\t a teaspoonful ( clay & into ! o!r ! same am\nt ( s&2 %ake bo? bottles ?or\ghly & set on table to settle 7,fig4 #bj74 ,x w be f\nd t ! s& settles v quickly & ! clay v sl[ly4 ,z ! result ( our ?ree exp]im5ts we w f9d some?+ z foll[s3 ,s& is light 9 color1 moi/1 co>se1 n /icky1 settles quickly 9 wat]1 & w n burn4 ,clay is d>k] 9 color1 moi/1 v f9e1 q /icky1 settles sl[ly 9 wat]1 & w n burn4 ,leaf m\ld or humus is v d>k 9 color1 moi/1 v f9e1 slightly /icky1 & burns :5 plac$ 9 ! fire4 ,exp]im5t4--,we n[ h k & means = mak+ simple te/s ( soils4 ,repeat ! la/ ?ree exp]im5ts ) ! g>d5 soil4 ,we w f9d1 p]haps1 t x is d>k 9 color & "s ( x burns away :5 plac$ 9 ! fire1 !re=e x conta9s organic matt] or decay+ vegetable matt] or humus1 z x is call$4 ,?is sample has p]haps f9e p>ticles & co>se p>ticles2 "p ( x w settle quickly 9 wat] :ile "p settles v sl[ly1 & x is /icky4 ,!re=e we conclude t !re are bo? clay & s& 9 x4 ,if we %ake a sample ( x 9 a bottle ( wat] & let x settle = sev]al days1 we c tell r\ghly f ! lay]s ( soil 9 ! bottom ( ! bottle ! relative am\nts ( s& & clay 9 ! soil4 ,also if we weigh a sample be=e & aft] burn+ we c tell r\ghly ! am\nt ( organic matt] 9 ! soil4 ,te/ a numb] ( soils & det]m9e r\ghly ! proportions ( s&1 clay & organic matt] 9 !m4 ,exp]im5t4--,take ! pans ( soil us$ 9 our fir/ soil exp]im5t & sep>ate ! soils 9 ! pans into two p>ts by a tr5* across ! c5tre on ! pan4 ,n[ wet ! soil 9 "o side ( ! pan & /ir x ) a /ick or a spoon1 c>efully smoo? ! surface ( ! soil 9 ! o!r side ( ! pan & p\r or spr9kle "s wat] on x1 b d n /ir x4 ,set ! pans aside till ! soils are dry4 ,?is dry+ may take sev]al days & 9 ! meantime we w /udy ! classification ( soils4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,to %[ t roots ne$ air4 ,bottle ,a 0 suppli$ ) fre% wat]1 & bottle ,b ) wat] t _h be5 boil$ to drive ! air out & !n cool$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,bottle ,a conta9s fre% wat]1 bottle ,b conta9s boil$ wat]4 ,notice ! air bubbles 9 bottle ,a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,tumbl]s ,a & ,c conta9$ moi/ s&1 ,b & ,d conta9$ puddl$ clay4 ,cutt+s 9 ,b & ,d di$1 because !re 0 n suffici5t v5tilation 9 ! clay = root-developm5t4 ,,classification ,,( ,,soils ,soil mat]ials & soils are classifi$ z foll[s3 ,/ones4--,co>se1 irregul> or r\nd$ rock fragm5ts or pieces ( rock4 ,gravel4--,co>se fragm5ts & pebbles rang+ 9 size f sev]al in*es 9 diamet] d[n to #a_/be in*4 ,s&4--,soil p>ticles rang+ f #a_/be ( an in* d[n to #a_/ejj ( an in* 9 diamet]4 ,s& is divid$ into sev]al grades or sizes4 ,co>se s& #a_/be to #a_/ej ( an in*4 ,m$ium s& #a_/ej to #a_/ajj ( an in*4 ,f9e s& #a_/ajj to #a_/bej ( an in*4 ,v f9e s& #a_/bej to #a_/ejj ( an in*4 ,^! grades ( s& correspond v ne>ly ) ! gra9s ( granulat$ & s(t sug> & f9e table salt4 ,silt4--,f9e soil p>ticles rang+ f #a_/ejj to #a_/ejjj ( an in* 9 diamet]4 ,x feels v f9e & smoo? :5 rubb$ betwe5 ! f+]s1 especially :5 moi/4 ,a good illu/ration ( silt is ! silicon us$ = clean+ knives1 a small am\nt ( :i* c be obta9$ at mo/ any groc]y /ore4 ,by rubb+ "s ( ?is betwe5 ! f+]s1 bo? dry & wet1 "o c get a fair idea ( h[ a silty soil %\ld feel4 ,silt :5 wet is /icky l clay4 ,clay4--,! f9e/ ( rock p>ticles1 #a_/ejjj to #a_/bejjjj ( an in* 9 diamet]1 too small to imag9e4 ,clay :5 wet is v s(t1 slipp]y & v /icky4 ,yell[ o*re & :it+ f ! pa9t %op are good illu/rations ( clay4 ,humus1 or decay+ vegetable & animal matt]4 ,?is is d>k br[n or almo/ black 9 color--decay+ leaves & woods soil are examples4 ,soils compos$ ( ! above mat]ials3 ,s&s or ,s&y ,soils4--,^! soils are mixtures ( ! diff]5t grades ( s& & small am\nts ( silt1 clay & organic matt]4 ,!y are light1 loose & easy to "w4 ,!y produce e>ly crops1 & are p>ticul>ly adapt$ to e>ly truck1 fruit & bright tobacco1 b are too light = g5]al f>m crops4 ,to ?is class belongs ! s-call$ ,norfolk ,s&4 ,?is is a co>se to m$ium1 yell[ or br[n s& av]ag+ ab\t five-six?s s& & "o-six? silt & clay & is a typical e>ly truck soil f\nd all along ! ea/]n coa/ ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,x is a mealy1 por\s1 w>m s&1 well dra9$ & easily cultivat$4 ,9 regions :]e truck+ =ms an important "p ( agriculture1 ?is soil is s\ght out z be/ adapt$ to ! production ( wat]melons1 cantel\pes1 sweet potatoes1 e>ly ,iri% potatoes1 /rawb]ries1 e>ly tomatoes1 e>ly peas1 pepp]s1 egg plant1 rhub>b & ev5 cabbage & caulifl[]1 ?\gh ! latt] crops produce bett] yields on a heavi] soil4 ,a v simil> s& 9 ! c5tral "p ( ! c\ntry is call$ ,miami ,s& &1 on ! ,pacific ,coa/1 ,fresno ,s&4 ,^! names are giv5 to ^! type soils by ! ,bureau ( ,soils ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture4 ,loams or ,loamy ,soils1 consi/ ( mixtures ( ! s&s1 silt & clay ) "s organic matt]4 ,! t]m loam is appli$ to a soil :i*1 f its appe>ance 9 ! field & ! feel+ :5 h&l$1 appe>s to be ab\t "o-half s& & ! o!r half silt & clay ) m or less organic matt]4 ,^! are naturally f9e 9 texture & q /icky :5 wet4 ,!y w\ld be call$ clay by _m on acc\nt ( _! /ick9ess4 ,!y are good soils = g5]al f>m+ & produce good gra91 grass1 corn1 potatoes1 cotton1 vegetables1 etc4 ,s&y ,loams1 av]ag+ ab\t ?ree-fif?s s& & two-fif?s silt & clay4 ,^! soils are till$ easily & are ! lighte/ desirable soil = g5]al f>m+4 ,!y are p>ticul>ly adapt$ to corn & cotton & 9 "s in/ances are us$ = small fruits & truck crops4 ,silt ,loam consi/s l>gely ( silt ) a small am\nt ( s&1 clay1 & organic matt]4 ,^! soils are "s ( ! mo/ difficult to till1 b :5 well dra9$ !y are ) c>eful managem5t good g5]al f>m+ soils1 produc+ good corn1 :eat1 oats1 potatoes1 alfalfa & fair cotton4 ,clay ,loams4--,^! soils conta9 m clay ?an ! silt loams4 ,!y are /iff1 /icky soils1 & "s ( !m are difficult to till4 ,!y are g5]ally consid]$ ! /ronge/ soils = g5]al f>m+4 ,!y are p>ticul>ly adapt$ to :eat1 hay1 corn & grass4 ,gravelly loams are f "o-f\r? to two-?irds co>se gra9$2 ! rema9+ f9e soil may be s&y loam1 silt or clay loam4 ,!y are adapt$ to v>i\s crops accord+ to ! "* ( ! f9e soil4 ,"s ( !m are be/ plant$ to fruit & =e/4 ,/ony ,loam4--,l ! gravelly loam ! /ony loams are "o-f\r? to ?ree-f\r?s s&y1 silty or clay loam1 ! rema9d] be+ rock fragm5ts ( l>g] size ?an ! gravel4 ,^! fragm5ts are sometimes r\gh & irregul> & sometimes r\nd$4 ,! /ones int]f]e s]i\sly ) tillage1 & naturally ! soils are be/ plant$ ) =e/ or fruit4 ,clay ,soils4--,clay soils are mixtures ( s&1 silt1 clay & humus1 ! clay exi/+ 9 q l>ge quantities1 !re be+ a great] prepond]ance ( ! clay *>act]i/ics ?an 9 ! clay loams2 !y are v heavy1 /icky1 & difficult to manage4 ,"s clay soils are n wor? f>m+4 ,^? t c be pr(itably till$ are adapt$ to :eat1 corn1 hay & pa/ure4 ,adobe ,soils4--,^! are peculi> soils ( ! dry ,we/4 ,!y are mixtures ( clay1 silt1 "s s& & l>ge am\nts ( humus4 ,_! peculi> *>act]i/ic is t !y are v /icky :5 wet & bake v h>d :5 dry & are1 !re=e1 v difficult to manage1 ?\gh !y are g5]ally v productive :5 !y are moi/ en\gh to support crops4 ,swamp ,muck is a d>k br[n or black swamp soil consi/+ ( l>ge am\nts ( humus or decay+ organic matt] mix$ ) "s f9e s& & clay4 ,x is f\nd 9 l[ wet places4 ,peat is also l>gely vegetable matt]1 consi/+ ( t\gh roots1 p>tially decay$ leaves1 moss1 etc4 ,x is q d5se & compact & 9 "s regions is us$ = fuel4 ,,h[ ,,7 ,,soils ,,made8 ,z a help 9 f9d+ ! answ] to ?is "q collect & exam9e a numb] ( ! foll[+ or simil> specim5s3 ,brick4--,take pieces ( brick & rub !m toge!r4 ,a f9e p[d] or du/ w be ! result4 ,/ones4--,rub toge!r pieces ( /one2 ! same result w foll[1 except t ! du/ w be f9] & w be produc$ ) great] difficulty because ! /ones are h>d]4 ,"s /ones w be f\nd :i* w gr9d o!rs )\t be+ mu* affect$ !mselves4 ,rock ,salt or ,cattle ,salt4--,?is is a s(t rock1 easily brok54 ,place on a slate or platt] "o or two pieces ab\t ! size ( an egg or ! size ( y\r fi/4 ,sl[ly drop wat] on !m till x runs d[n & p>tly cov]s ! slate1 !n set away till ! wat] dries up4 ,f9e p>ticles ( salt w be f\nd on ! slate :]ev] ! wat] ran & dri$4 ,?is is because ! wat] dissolv$ "s ( ! rock4 ,lime ,/one4--,?is is h>d]4 ,cru% two samples to a f9e p[d] & place "o 9 wat] & ! o!r 9 v9eg>4 ,wat] has app>5tly no effect on x1 b small bubbles are se5 to rise f ! sample 9 v9eg>4 ,! v9eg> :i* is a weak acid is sl[ly dissolv+ ! rock4 ,! *emi/s tell u wat] w also dissolve ! lime/one1 b v sl[ly4 ,!re are l>ge areas ( soil :i* are ! refuse f ! dissolv+ ( great masses ( lime/one4 ,we f9d t ! rocks ab\t u diff] 9 h>dness3 !y are gr\nd to p[d] :5 rubb$ toge!r1 "s are easily dissolv$ 9 wat]1 o!rs are dissolv$ by weak acids4 ,geologi/s tell u t ! :ole cru/ ( ! e>? 0 at "o "t made up ( rocks1 "p ( :i* h be5 brok5 d[n into co>se & f9e p>ticles :i* =m ! gravel1 s& & clay ( our soils4 ,! organic matt] ( our soils has be5 add$ by ! decay ( plants & animals4 ,sev]al ag5cies h be5 active 9 ?is "w ( break+ d[n ! rocks & mak+ soils ( !m4 ,if we look ab\t we c p]haps see "s ( ?is "w go+ on n[4 ,"w ( ! ,sun4--,exam9e a crock]y plate or di% t has be5 _m times 9 & out ( a hot ov51 notic+ ! little cracks all ov] its surface4 ,mo/ sub/ances exp& :5 !y are heat$ & contract :5 !y are cool$4 ,:5 ! plate is plac$ 9 ! ov5 ! surface heats fa/] ?an ! inn] p>ts1 & cools fa/] :5 tak5 out ( ! ov54 ,! result is t !re is unequal expansion & contraction 9 ! plate & consequ5tly t5sion or pull+ ( its p>ts aga9/ ea* o!r4 ,! weak] "p gives way & a crack appe>s4 ,if hot wat] is put into a ?ick glass tumbl] or bottle1 ! inn] surface heats & exp&s fa/] ?an ! out] p>ts & ! result is t5sion & crack+4 ,if cold wat] be p\r$ on a w>m bottle or piece ( w>m glass1 x cracks1 because !re is unequal contraction4 ,9 ! e>ly "p ( a bright sunny aft]noon feel ( ! surface ( expos$ rocks1 bricks1 bo>ds1 or build+s on :i* ! sun has be5 %9+4 ,exam9e !m 9 ! same way e>ly ! next morn+4 ,y w f9d t ! rocks are heat$ by ! sun j z ! plate 0 heat$ :5 put into ! ov51 & :5 ! sun goes d[n ! rocks cool aga94 ,?is causes t5sion 9 ! rocks & little cracks & *ecks appe> 9 !m j z 9 ! heat$ plate1 only m sl[ly4 ,?is *eck+ may also be br\ght ab\t by a cool %[] fall+ on ! sun heat$ rocks j z ! cool wat] crack$ ! w>m glass4 ,_m rocks if exam9$ closely w be f\nd to be compos$ ( sev]al mat]ials4 ,^! mat]ials d n exp& & contract alike :5 heat$ & cool$ & ! t5d5cy = !m to *eck is great] ev5 ?an t ( ! plate4 ,?is is ! case ) mo/ rocks4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--;,,comp>+ ,,soils4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,,wat] ,,te/ ,,( ,,soils4 ,bottle ,a conta9s s& & wat]1 bottle ,b clay & wat]4 ,! s& settles quickly1 ! clay v sl[ly4 ,"w ( ,ra94--,ra9 fall+ on ! rocks may dissolve a "p ( !m j z x dissolv$ ! rock salt2 or1 work+ into ! small cracks made by ! sun1 may wa% out loos5$ p>ticles2 or1 dur+ cold wea!r x may freeze 9 ! cracks & by its expansion *ip (f small pieces2 or1 gett+ into l>ge cracks & freez+1 may split ! rock j z freez+ wat] splits a wat] pit*] or ! wat] pipes4 ,"w ( ,mov+ ,wat]4--,visit "s neighbor+ bea* or ! banks ( "s rapid /ream4 ,see h[ ! waves are roll+ ! s& & pebbles up & d[n ! bea*1 gr9d+ !m toge!r1 r\nd+ _! corn]s & edges1 ?r[+ !m up into s& b$s1 & c>ry+ (f ! f9] p>ticles to deposit else:]e4 ,n[ visit a quiet cove or inlet & see h[ ! quiet wat] is lay+ d[n ! f9e p>ticles1 mak+ a clay b$4 ,notice also h[ ! wat] plants along ! bord] are help+4 ,!y act z an imm5se /ra9]1 collect+ ! susp5d$ p>ticles f ! wat]1 & ) !m & _! bodies build+ b$s ( soil ri* 9 organic matt] or humus4 ,! sun1 besides exp&+ & crack+ ! rocks by its heat1 helps 9 ano!r way to make soils4 ,x w>ms ! wat] t has be5 gr9d+ soil on ! bea* or along ! riv] banks & causes "s ( x to evaporate4 ,?is vapor rises1 =ms a cl\d & floats away 9 ! air4 ,by & by ! vapor =ms into ra9 drops :i* may fall on ! top ( "s m\nta94 ,^! ra9 drops may wa% loos5$ p>ticles f ! surface or crevices ( expos$ rocks4 ,^! drops are jo9$ by o!rs until1 by & by1 !y =m a little /ream :i* c>ries its small burd5 ( rock du/ d[n ! slope1 n[ dropp+ "s p>ticles1 n[ tak+ up o!rs4 ,o!r little /reams jo9 ?is "o until !y =m a brook :i* increases 9 size & p[] z x desc5ds ! m\nta9 side4 ,z x gr[s by ! addition ( o!r /reams x picks up l>g] pieces1 gr9ds !m toge!r1 gr9ds at its banks & loads itself ) rocks1 pebbles1 s& & clay4 ,z ! /ream rea*es ! l[] "p ( ! m\nta9 :]e ! slope is less /eep1 x is *eck$ 9 its c\rse & ! l>g] /ones & pebbles are dropp$ :ile ! s& & f9] p>ticles are c>ri$ on & deposit$ on ! bottom ( "s broad quiet riv] f>!r d[n1 & :5 ! riv] ov]fl[s its banks1 are di/ribut$ ov] ! neighbor+ mead[s1 giv+ !m a new coat+ ( soil & (t5 add+ to _! f]tility4 ,:at a riv] does n leave along its c\rse x c>ries out to sea to help build ! s& b>s & mud flats !re4 ,! ra9 drops h n[ gott5 back to ! bea* :]e !y take up aga9 ! "w ( gr9d+ ! soil4 ,! "w ( mov+ wat] c be se5 9 almo/ any road or cultivat$ field dur+ or j aft] a ra91 & p>ticul>ly on ! hillsides1 :]e (t5 ! soil is loos5$ & c>ri$ f high] to l[] p>ts1 mak+ b>r5 s& & clay banks ( f]tile hillsides & de/roy+ ! f]tility ( ! bottom l&s bel[4 ,we h already notic$ ! "w ( freez+ wat] 9 splitt+ small & l>ge fragm5ts f ! rocks4 ,wat] mov+ ov] ! surface ( ! e>? 9 a solid =m1 or ice1 0 at an e>li] p]iod 9 ! hi/ory ( ! e>? "o ( ! mo/ p[]ful ag5cies 9 soil =mation4 ,away up 9 ,gre5l& & on ! nor!rn bord] ( ?is cont95t ! temp]ature is s l[ t mo/ if n all ( ! moi/ure t falls on ! e>? falls z sn[4 ,?is sn[ has pil$ up until x has become v deep & v heavy4 ,! great weight has pack$ ! bottom ( ?is great sn[ bank to ice4 ,on ! m\nta9s :]e ! l& 0 n level ! masses ( sn[ & ice1 c5turies ago1 began to slide d[n ! slopes & f9ally =m$ great riv]s ( solid wat] or mov+ ice4 ,! geologi/s tell u t at "o "t a great riv] ( ice ext5d$ f ! ,arctic region z f> s\? z c5tral ,p5nsylvania & f ,new ,engl& to ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s4 ,?is va/ riv] 0 v deep & v heavy & into its "u surface 7 froz5 s&1 pebbles1 l>g] /ones & ev5 great rocks4 ,?us x act$ z a great rasp or file & did an imm5se am\nt ( "w gr9d+ rocks & mak+ soils4 ,x gr\nd d[n m\nta9s & c>ri$ great b$s ( soil f "o place to ano!r4 ,:5 ?is great ice riv] melt$1 x dropp$ its load ( rocks & soils1 & z a result we f9d 9 t region ( ! c\ntry great b\ld]s & b$s ( s& & clay scatt]$ ov] ! l&4 ,"w ( ! ,air4--,! air has help$ 9 ! "w ( we>+ d[n ! rocks & mak+ soils4 ,if a piece ( iron be expos$ to moi/ air a "p ( ! air unites ) "p ( ! iron & =ms iron ru/4 ,9 ! same way :5 moi/ air comes 9 contact ) "s rocks "p ( ! air unites ) "p ( ! rock & =ms rock ru/ :i* crumbles (f or is wa%$ away by wat]4 ,?us ! air helps to break d[n ! rocks4 ,mov+ air or w9d picks up du/ p>ticles & c>ries !m f "o field to ano!r4 ,on s&y bea*es ! w9d (t5 bl[s ! s& along l sn[ & piles x into drifts4 ,! entire surface ( s&y regions is sometimes *ang$ 9 ?is way4 ,s&s bl[n f des]ts sometimes bury =e/s :i* ) _! foliage sift ! fatal w9d+ %eet f ! du/-lad5 w9ds4 ,! ,"w ( ,plants4--,liv+ plants sometimes s5d _! roots into rock crevices2 !re !y gr[1 exp&1 & split (f rock fragm5ts4 ,c]ta9 k9ds ( plants live on ! surface ( rocks4 ,!y fe$ on ! rocks & :5 !y die & decay !y keep ! surface ( ! rocks moi/ & also produce c>bonic acid :i* dissolves ! rocks sl[ly j z ! v9eg> dissolv$ ! lime/one 9 our exp]im5t4 ,dead decay+ roots1 /ems1 & leaves ( plants =m l>gely ! organic matt] ( ! soil4 ,:5 organic matt] has und]gone a c]ta9 am\nt ( decay x is call$ humus1 & ^! soils are call$ organic soils or humus soils4 ,! black soils ( ! woods1 swamps & prairies1 conta9 l>ge am\nts ( humus4 ,"w ( ,animals4--,e>? worms & ! l>v ( insects :i* burr[ 9 ! soil eat soil p>ticles :i* pass ?r\gh _! bodies & are p>tially dissolv$4 ,^! p>ticles are g5]ally ca/ out on ! surface ( ! soil4 ,?us ^! little animals help to move soil1 to dissolve soil1 & to op5 up passages = ! entrance ( air & ra94 ,,soil ,,texture ,we h se5 t ! soil p>ticles v>y 9 size & t = ! be/ developm5t ( ! plant ! p>ticles ( ! soil mu/ be s arrang$ t ! delicate rootlets c readily pu% _! way ab\t 9 se>* ( food1 or1 9 o!r words1 t ! soil mu/ h a c]ta9 texture4 ,by ! texture ( ! soil we mean ! size ( its p>ticles & _! relation to ea* o!r4 ,! foll[+ t]ms are us$ 9 describ+ soil textures3 ,co>se1 f9e1 op51 close1 loose1 h>d1 /iff1 compact1 s(t1 mell[1 por\s1 lea*y1 ret5tive1 cloddy1 lumpy1 light1 heavy4 ,:i* ( ^! t]ms w apply to ! texture ( s&1 :i* to clay1 :i* to humus1 :i* to ! g>d5 soil1 :i* to a soil t plant roots c easily p5etrate8 ,we f9d !n t texture ( ! soil dep5ds l>gely on ! relative am\nts ( s&1 silt1 clay & humus t x conta9s4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,relation ,,( ,,soils ,,to ,,wat] ,,importance ,,( ,,wat] ,,to ,,plants ,we le>n$ 9 a previ\s p>agraph t plant roots take moi/ure f ! soil4 ,:at becomes ( ?is moi/ure8 ,we w answ] ?is "q ) an exp]im5t4 ,exp]im5t4--,take a pot or tumbl] 9 :i* a "y plant is gr[+1 also a piece ( pa/ebo>d l>ge en\gh to cov] ! top ( ! pot or tumbl]2 cut a slit f ! edge to ! c5tre ( ! bo>d1 !n place x on top ( ! pot1 lett+ ! /em ( ! plant ent] ! slit4 ,n[ close ! slit ) wax or tall[1 mak+ x p]fectly tight ab\t ! /em4 ,if ! plant is n too l>ge inv]t a tumbl] ov] x 7,fig4 #ba71 lett+ ! edge ( ! tumbl] re/ on ! pa/ebo>d2 if a tumbl] is n l>ge en\gh use a glass j>4 ,place 9 a sunny w9d[4 ,moi/ure w be se5 collect+ on ! inn] surface ( ! glass4 ,:]e does ?is come f8 ,x is absorb$ f ! soil by ! roots ( ! plant & is s5t ) its load ( dissolv$ plant food up ?r\gh ! /em to ! leaves4 ,!re mo/ ( ! moi/ure is pass$ f ! leaves to ! air & "s ( x is cond5s$ on ! side ( ! glass4 ,by exp]im5ts at ! ,cornell ,univ]sity ,agricultural ,exp]im5t ,/ation1 ,i?aca1 ,n4,y41 x has be5 f\nd t dur+ ! gr[? ( a sixty bu%el crop ( corn ! plants pump f ! soil by means ( _! roots1 & s5d into ! air ?r\gh _! leaves ov] n9e hundr$ tons ( wat]4 ,a tw5ty-five bu%el crop ( :eat uses ov] five hundr$ tons ( wat] 9 ! same way4 ,?is gives u "s idea ( ! importance ( wat] to ! plant & ! necessity ( kn[+ some?+ ( ! p[] ( ! soil to absorb & hold moi/ure = ! use ( ! plant4 ,also ! importance ( kn[+ if we c 9 any way control or influ5ce ! wat]-hold+ p[] ( ! soil = ! good ( ! plant4 ,,s\rces ,,( ,,soil ,,wat] ,f :at s\rces does ! soil receive wat]8 ,f ! air above1 9 ! =m ( ra91 dew1 hail & sn[1 fall+ on ! surface1 & f ! l[] soil4 ,?is wat] ent]s ! soil m or less rapidly4 ,,attitude ,,( ,,! ,,soils ,,t[>ds ,,wat] ,:i* soils h ! great] p[] to take 9 ! ra9 :i* falls on _! surface8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,to %[ :at becomes ( ! wat] tak5 f ! soil by roots4 ,moi/ure1 s5t up f ! roots1 has be5 giv5 (f by ! leaves & has cond5s$ on ! glass4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,,p]colation ,,exp]im5t4 ,to %[ ! relative p[]s ( soils to take 9 wat] fall+ on ! surface4 ,a1 s&2 ,b1 clay2 ,c1 humus2 ,d1 g>d5 soil4 ,exp]im5t4--,take f\r /ud5t-lamp *imneys4 7,9 case ! *imneys _c be f\nd get "s sl5d] bottles l salad oil bottles or w9e bottles & cut ! bottoms (f ) a hot rod4 ,:ile ! rod is heat+ make a %all[ not* 9 ! glass ) ! wet corn] ( a file 9 ! direction y wi% to make ! cut4 ,:5 ! rod is hot lay ! end ( x l5g?wise on ! not*4 ,v soon a little crack w be se5 to />t f ! not*4 ,lead ?is crack ar\nd ! bottle ) ! hot rod & ! bottom ( ! bottle w drop (f47 7,fig4 #bc47 ,make a rack to hold !m4 ,tie a piece ( *eese clo? or o!r ?9 clo? ov] ! small ends ( ! *imneys4 ,!n fill !m ne>ly full respectively1 ( dry1 sift$1 co>se s&1 clay1 humus soil1 & g>d5 soil4 ,place !m 9 ! rack2 place "u !m a pan or di%4 ,p\r wat] 9 ! upp] ends ( ! tubes until x soaks ?r\gh & drips f ! l[] end 7,fig4 #bb74 ,ord9>y sunburn] lamp *imneys may be us$ = ! exp]im5t by ty+ ! clo? ov] ! tops2 !n inv]t !m1 fill !m ) soil & set 9 plates or pans4 ,! s& w take ! wat] 9 & let x run ?r\gh quickly2 ! clay is v sl[ to take x 9 & let x run ?r\gh2 ! humus soil takes ! wat] 9 q readily4 ,repeat ! exp]im5t ) "o ( ! soils1 pack+ ! soil tightly 9 "o tube & leav+ x loose 9 ano!r4 ,! wat] w be f\nd to p5etrate ! loose soil m rapidly ?an ! pack$ soil4 ,we see !n t ! p[] ( ! soil to take 9 ra9fall dep5ds on its texture or ! size & compactness ( ! p>ticles4 ,if ! soil ( our f>m is l>gely clay1 :at happ5s to ! ra9 t falls on x8 ,! clay takes ! wat] 9 s sl[ly t mo/ ( x runs (f & is lo/4 ,v likely x c>ries ) x "s ( ! surface soil :i* x has soak$ & loos5$1 & ?us leaves ! f>m wa%$ & gulli$4 ,:at c we d = our clay soils to help !m to absorb ! ra9 m rapidly8 ,= imm$iate results we c pl[ !m & keep !m loose & op5 ) ! tillage tools4 ,= m p]man5t results we may mix s& ) !m1 b s& is n always to be obta9$ & is exp5sive to haul4 ,! be/ me?od is to mix organic matt] ) !m by pl[+ 9 /able manures1 or woods soil1 or decay$ leaves1 or by gr[+ crops & turn+ !m "u4 ,! organic matt] n only loos5s ! soil b also adds plant food to x1 & dur+ its decay produces c>bonic acid :i* helps to dissolve ! m9]al matt] & make available ! plant food t is 9 x4 ,clay soils c also be made loose & op5 by apply+ lime to !m4 ,exp]im5t4--,take two bottles or j>s1 put !re9 a few spoonsful ( clay soil1 fill ) wat]1 put a little lime 9 "o ( !m1 %ake bo? & set !m on ! table4 ,x w be notic$ t ! clay 9 ! bottle conta9+ lime settles 9 flakes or crumbs1 & mu* fa/] ?an 9 ! o!r bottle4 ,9 ! same mann]1 lime appli$ to a field ( clay has a t5d5cy to collect ! v f9e p>ticles ( soil into flakes or crumbs & give x some:at ! op5 texture ( a s&y soil4 ,lime is appli$ to soil = ?is purpose at ! rate ( tw5ty bu%els p] acre once 9 f\r or five ye>s4 ,:i* soils h ! great] p[] to absorb or pump moi/ure f bel[8 ,exp]im5t4--,use ! same or a simil> set ( tubes z 9 ! exp]im5t illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #bc4 ,fill ! tubes ) ! same k9ds ( dry sift$ soils4 ,!n p\r wat] into ! pan or di% b5ea? ! tubes until x rises a qu>t] ( an in* above ! l[] end ( ! tubes 7,fig4 #bd74 ,wat* ! wat] rise 9 ! soils4 ,! wat] w be f\nd to rise rapidly 9 ! s& ab\t two or ?ree in*es & !n /op or cont9ue v sl[ly a %ort di/ance fur!r4 ,9 ! clay x />ts v sl[ly1 b aft] sev]al h\rs is f9ally c>ri$ to ! top ( ! soil4 ,! organic matt] takes x up less rapidly ?an ! s&1 fa/] ?an ! clay1 & f9ally c>ries x to ! top4 ,by ?is & fur!r exp]im5ts x w be f\nd t ! p[] ( soils to take moi/ure f bel[ dep5ds on _! texture or ! size & clos5ess ( _! p>ticles4 ,we f\nd ! s& pump$ ! wat] only a %ort di/ance & !n /opp$4 ,:at c we d = our s&y soils to give !m great] p[] to take moi/ure f bel[8 ,= imm$iate results we c compact !m by roll+ or pack+4 ,?is br+s ! p>ticles clos] toge!r1 makes ! spaces betwe5 !m small]1 & !re=e all[s ! wat] to climb high]4 ,= m la/+ results we c fill !m ) organic matt] 9 ! %ape ( /able manures or crops turn$ "u4 ,clay may be us$1 b is exp5sive to haul4 ,:i* soils h greate/ p[] to hold ! wat] :i* ent]s !m8 ,exp]im5t4--,use ! same or simil> app>atus z = ! la/ exp]im5t4 ,aft] plac+ ! clo? caps ov] ! ends ( ! tubes label & c>efully weigh ea* "o1 keep+ a record ( ea*2 !n fill !m ) ! dry soils & weigh aga94 ,n[ place ! tubes 9 ! rack & p\r wat] 9 ! upp] ends until ! entire soil is wet2 cov] ! tops & all[ ! surplus wat] to dra9 out2 :5 ! dripp+ /ops1 weigh ! tubes aga91 & by subtraction f9d ! am\nt ( wat] held by ! soil 9 ea* tube2 compute ! p]c5tage4 ,x w be f\nd t ! organic matt] w hold a mu* l>g] p]c5tage ( wat] ?an ! o!r soils2 & ! clay m ?an ! s&4 ,! tube ( organic soil w actually hold a l>g] am\nt ( wat] ?an ! o!r tubes4 7,see also ,fig4 #be47 ,9 ! exp]im5t on page #dj we notic$ t ! s& took 9 ! wat] p\r$ on its surface & let x run ?r\gh v quickly4 ,?is is a fault ( s&y soils4 ,:at c we d = our s&y soils to help !m to hold bett] ! moi/ure :i* falls on !m & t5ds to lea* ?r\gh !m8 ,= imm$iate effect we c close ! pores some:at by compact+ ! soil ) ! roll]4 ,= m la/+ effects1 we c fill !m ) organic matt]4 ,:i* soils w hold longe/ ! wat] :i* !y h absorb$8 ,or :i* soils w keep moi/ longe/ 9 dry wea!r8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,to %[ h[ bottles may be us$ 9 place ( lamp *imneys %[n 9 ,figs #bb & #bd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--;,,capill>ity ,,( ,,soils ,to %[ ! relative p[]s ( soils to take wat] f bel[4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,,wat]-,,absorb+ ,,& ,,wat]-,,hold+ ,,p[]s ,,( ,,soils4 ,exp]im5t4--,fill a pan or bucket ) moi/ s&1 ano!r ) moi/ clay1 & a ?ird ) moi/ organic matt]2 set !m 9 ! sun to dry & notice :i* dries la/4 ,! organic matt] w be f\nd to hold moi/ure mu* long] ?an ! o!r soils4 ,! p[] ( ! o!r soils to hold moi/ure ?r\gh dry wea!r c be improv$ by mix+ organic matt] ) !m4 ,we f9d !n t ! p[] ( soils to absorb & hold moi/ure dep5ds on ! am\nt ( s&1 clay1 or humus :i* !y conta91 & ! compactness ( ! p>ticles4 ,we see also h[ useful organic matt] is 9 improv+ s&y & clayey soils4 ,,! ,,effect ,,( ,,work+ ,,soils ,,:5 ,,wet ,by ?is "t ! soils we left 9 ! pans 7see page #bf71 s&1 clay1 humus & g>d5 soil1 mu/ be dry4 ,if s1 exam9e !m4 ,we f9d t ! clay :i* 0 /irr$ :5 wet has dri$ into an almo/ bricklike mass1 :ile t :i* 0 n /irr$ is n s h>d1 ?\gh x has a ?ick1 h>d cru/4 ,! s& is n mu* affect$ by /irr+ :5 wet4 ,! organic matt] :i* 0 /irr$ :5 wet has p]haps /iff5$ a little1 b v easily crumbles2 ! un/irr$ "p 0 n mu* affect$ by ! wett+ & dry+4 ,! g>d5 soil aft] dry+ is n z /iff z ! clay nor z loose z ! s& & humus4 ,?is is because x is v likely a mixture ( all ?ree1 ! s& & ! humus *eck+ ! bak+4 ,?is tea*es u t x is n a good plan to "w soils :5 !y are wet if !y are /iff & /icky2 & t our /iff clay soils c be kept f dry+ h>d or bak+ by ! use ( organic matt]4 ,& t's a witness = organic matt]4 ,! relation ( ! soil to moi/ure is v important1 = moi/ure is "o ( ! greate/ factors if n ! greate/ 9 ! gr[? ( ! crop4 ,! p[] to absorb or soak up moi/ure f any s\rce is greate/ 9 ^? soils ^: p>ticles are small] & fit clos] toge!r4 ,x is = ?is reason t /rong loams & clay soils absorb & hold ?ree times z mu* wat] z s&y soils d1 :ile peaty or humus soils absorb a /ill l>g] proportion4 ,! reason :y crops burn up s quickly on s&y soils dur+ dry seasons is because ( _! weak p[] to hold wat]4 ,! clay & humus soils c>ry crops ?r\gh dry wea!r bett] because ( _! p[] to hold moi/ure & to absorb or soak up moi/ure f bel[4 ,x is = ?is reason also t clay & peaty soils m (t5 ne$ dra9+ ?an s&y soils4 ,:5 ra9 falls on a s&y soil x ent]s readily1 b x is apt to pass rapidly d[n & be1 to a great ext5t1 lo/ 9 ! subsoil1 = ! s& has n suffici5t p[] to hold mu* ( x4 ,:5 ra9 falls on a clay soil x ent]s less readily because ( ! clos5ess ( ! p>ticles1 & dur+ long ra9s or heavy %[]s "s ( ! wat] may run (f ! surface4 ,if ! surface has be5 rec5tly brok5 & s(t5$ ) ! pl[ or cultivator ! ra9 ent]s m readily4 ,:at does ent] is held & is n all[$ to run ?r\gh z 9 ! case ( ! s&4 ,humus soil absorbs ! ra9 z readily z ! s& & holds x ) a firm] grip ?an clay4 ,?is fact gives u a h9t z to h[ we may improve ! s& & clay4 ,organic matt] mix$ ) ^! soils by apply+ manures or pl[+ "u gre5 crops w cause ! s& to hold ! ra9 bett] & ! clay to absorb x m readily4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,=ms ,,( ,,soil ,,wat] ,wat] :i* comes to ! soil & is absorb$ exi/s 9 ! soil pr9cipally 9 two =ms3 ,free wat] & capill>y wat]4 ,,free ,,wat] ,free wat] is t =m ( wat] :i* fills our wells1 is f\nd 9 ! bottoms ( holes dug 9 ! gr\nd dur+ wet seasons & is (t5 f\nd /&+ on ! surface ( ! soil aft] heavy or long cont9u$ ra9s4 ,x is sometimes call$ gr\nd wat] or /&+ wat] & fl[s "u ! influ5ce ( gravity4 ,is free wat] good = ! roots ( f>m plants8 ,if we rememb] h[ ! root takes its food & moi/ure1 namely ?r\gh ! delicate root hairs2 & also rememb] ! exp]im5t :i* %[$ u t roots ne$ air1 we c readily see t free wat] w\ld give ! root hairs en\gh moi/ure1 b x w\ld at ! same "t dr[n !m by cutt+ (f ! air4 ,!re=e free wat] is n directly useful to ! roots ( h\se plants or f>m plants1 except+ su* z are naturally swamp plants1 l rice1 :i* gr[s "p ( ! "t ) its roots cov]$ ) free wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--;,,capill>y ,,tubes4 ,to %[ h[ wat] rises 9 small tubes or is drawn into small spaces4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--;,,capill>y ,,plates4 ,wat] is drawn to ! highe/ po9t :]e ! glass plates are close/ toge!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,a cone ( soil to %[ capill>ity4 ,wat] p\r$ ab\t ! base ( ?is cone ( soil has be5 drawn by capill>y =ce half-way to ! top4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,to %[ ! relative am\nts ( film-moi/ure held by co>se & f9e soils4 ,! color$ wat] 9 bottle ,a repres5ts ! am\nt ( wat] requir$ to cov] ! half p\nd ( pebbles 9 ! tumbl] ,b ) a film ( moi/ure4 ,! color$ wat] 9 bottle ,c %[s ! am\nt requir$ to cov] ! soil gra9s 9 ! half p\nd ( s& 9 tumbl] ,d4 ,,capill>y ,,wat] ,if y w take a numb] ( glass tubes ( diff]5t sizes1 ! l>ge/ n m ?an "o-f\r? ( an in* 9 diamet]1 & hold !m ) "o end ( ea* 9 wat] or "s color$ liquid1 y w notice t ! wat] rises 9 ! tubes 7,fig4 #bf71 & t x rises highe/ 9 ! smalle/ tube4 ,! =ce :i* causes ! wat] to rise 9 ^! tubes is call$ ! capill>y =ce1 f ! old ,lat9 ^w capillum 7a hair71 because x is mo/ m>k$ 9 hair-l tubes1 ! small] ! tube ! high] ! wat] w rise4 ,! wat] :i* rises 9 ! tubes is call$ capill>y wat]4 ,ano!r me?od ( illu/rat+ capill>y wat] is to tie or hold toge!r two flat pieces ( glass1 keep+ two ( ! edges close toge!r & sep>at+ ! opposite two ab\t "o-eigh? ( an in* ) a sliv] ( wood4 ,!n set !m 9 a plate ( wat] or color$ liquid & notice h[ ! wat] rises betwe5 ! pieces ( glass1 ris+ high] ! small] ! space 7,fig4 #bg74 ,x is ! capill>y =ce :i* causes wat] to rise 9 a piece ( clo? or pap] dipp$ 9 wat]4 ,take a plate & p\r onto x a cone-%ap$ pile ( dry s& or f9e soil2 !n p\r wat] ar\nd ! base ( ! pile & note h[ ! wat] is drawn up into ! soil by capill>y =ce 7,fig4 #bh74 ,capill>y wat] is ! o!r important =m ( wat] 9 ! soil4 ,?is is moi/ure :i* is drawn by capill>y =ce or soaks into ! spaces betwe5 ! soil p>ticles & cov]s ea* p>ticle ) a ?9 film ( moi/ure4 ,,film ,,wat] ,take a m>ble or a pebble1 dip x into wat] & notice ! ?9 lay] or film ( wat] t cl+s to x4 ,?is is a =m ( capill>y wat] & is sometimes call$ film wat] or film moi/ure4 ,take a h&ful ( soil t is moi/ b n wet1 notice t x does n wet ! h&1 & yet !re is moi/ure all ?r\gh x2 ea* p>ticle is cov]$ ) a v ?9 film ( wat]4 ,n[ ?is film wat] is j ! =m ( wat] t c supply ! v sl5d] root hairs )\t dr[n+ !m1 t is1 )\t keep+ ! air f !m4 ,& ! plant gr[] %\ld see to x t ! roots ( 8 plants are well suppli$ ) film wat] & are n dr[n$ by ! pres5ce ( free wat]4 ,capill>y wat] may sometimes completely fill ! spaces betwe5 ! soil p>ticles2 :5 ?is occurs ! roots are dr[n$ j z 9 ! case ( free wat] z we saw :5 cutt+s 7 plac$ 9 ! puddl$ clay 7see ,fig4 #ah74 ,free wat] is indirectly ( use to ! plant because x s]ves z a supply = capill>y & film moi/ure4 ,n[ ,i ?9k we c answ] ! "q :i* 0 ask$ :5 we 7 /udy+ ! habit ( gr[? ( roots b 0 left unansw]$ at ! "t 7see page #ad74 ,! "q 0 ?is3 ,( :at value is x to ! f>m] to "k t roots ent] ! soil to a dep? ( ?ree to six feet8 ,we "k t roots w n gr[ )\t air4 ,we also "k t if ! soil is full ( free wat] !re is no air 9 x1 &1 !re=e1 roots ( mo/ plants w n gr[ 9 x4 ,x is1 !re=e1 ( int]e/ to ! f>m] to see t free wat] does n come )9 at lea/ ?ree or f\r feet ( ! surface ( ! soil s t ! roots ( 8 crops may h pl5ty ( well v5tilat$ soil 9 :i* to develop4 ,if !re is a t5d5cy = free wat] to fill ! soil a l>ge "p ( ! "t1 ! f>m] c get rid ( x by dra9+ ! l&4 ,we get "h a lesson = ! gr[] ( h\se plants also4 ,x is t we mu/ be c>eful t ! soil 9 ! pots or boxes 9 :i* our plants are gr[+ is always suppli$ ) film wat] & n wet & soggy ) free wat]4 ,wat] %\ld n be left /&+ long 9 ! sauc] "u ! pot ( a gr[+ plant4 ,x is be/ to wat] ! pot f ! top & let ! surplus wat] dra9 into ! sauc] & !n empty x out4 ,:i* soils h ! greate/ capacity = film wat]8 ,exp]im5t4--,place 9 a tumbl] or bottle "o-half p\nd ( pebbles ab\t ! size ( a pea or bean2 p\r a few drops ( wat] on !m & %ake !m2 cont9ue add+ wat] & %ak+ !m till e pebble is cov]$ ) a film ( wat]2 let any surplus wat] dra9 (f4 ,!n weigh aga92 ! diff]5ce 9 ! two weights w be approximately ! weight ( ! film wat] t ! pebbles c c>ry4 ,repeat ?is ) s& & comp>e ! two am\nts ( wat]4 ,a /rik+ illu/ration c be made by tak+ two sl5d] bottles & plac+ 9 !m am\nts ( color$ wat] equal to ! am\nts ( film wat] held by ! pebbles & s& respectively4 ,9 ! accompany+ illu/ration 7,fig4 #bi71 ,a repres5ts ! am\nt ( wat] t 0 f\nd necess>y to cov] ! pebbles 9 tumbl] ,b ) a film ( moi/ure4 ,c is ! am\nt t 0 necess>y to cov] ) a film ! p>ticles ( s& 9 ,d4 ,! f9] soil has ! great] area = film moi/ure4 ,x has be5 e/imat$ t ! p>ticles ( a cubic foot ( clay loam h a possible aggregate film surface ( ?ree-f\r?s ( an acre4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,loss ,,( ,,soil ,,wat] ,,loss ,,( ,,soil ,,wat] ,,& ,,means ,,( ,,*eck+ ,,! ,,loss ,we notic$ 9 previ\s p>agraphs t soil might at times h too mu* wat] 9 x = prop] v5tilation & s *eck ! gr[? ( ! roots ( ! plant4 ,n[ is x possible t soil wat] may be lo/ or wa/$ & if s c we *eck ! loss8 ,9 ! exp]im5t to f9d out h[ well ! soils w\ld take 9 ! ra9fall 7page #dj7 we notic$ t ! clay soil took 9 ! wat] v sl[ly & t on a field ( clay soil "p ( ! ra9 wat] w\ld be likely to run (f ov] ! surface & be lo/4 ,free wat] may be lo/ !n1 by surface wa%4 ,we notic$ me?ods ( *eck+ ?is loss1 namely1 pulv]iz+ ! soil ) ! tillage tools & putt+ organic matt] into x to make x absorb ! ra9 m readily4 ,we notic$ t wat] p\r$ on ! s& ran ?r\gh x v quickly & 0 apt to be lo/ by lea*+ or p]colation4 ,?is we f\nd c\ld be *eck$ by roll+ ! soil & by putt+ organic matt] into x to close ! pores4 ,we le>n$ t roots take wat] f ! soil = ! use ( ! plant & s5d x up to ! leaves1 :i* 9 turn s5d x out into ! air1 or transpire x1 z ?is process is call$4 ,we le>n$ also t ! am\nt transpir$ is v great4 ,n[ wat] t is pump$ up & transpir$ by ! crops we are gr[+ we consid] prop]ly us$4 ,b :5 we$s gr[ ) ! crop & pump & transpire wat] we consid] ?is wat] z lo/ or wa/$4 ,wat] may be lo/ !n by be+ pump$ up & transpir$ by we$s4 ,& ?is is ! way we$s d _! greate/ injury to crops dur+ dry wea!r4 ,! rem$y is easily po9t$ out4 ,kill ! we$s or d n let !m get a />t4 ,!re is ano!r way1 :i* we are n apt to notice1 by :i* wat] may be lo/ f ! soil4 ,:5 ! soil 9 ! pans 9 a previ\s exp]im5t 7page #bf7 _h be5 wet & set aside a few days x became v dry4 ,h[ did ! wat] get out ( ?is soil8 ,t at ! surface ( ! soil evaporat$ or 0 *ang$ into vapor & pass$ into ! air4 ,!n wat] f bel[ ! surface 0 pump$ up by capill>y =ce to take its place j z ! wat] 0 pump$ up 9 ! tubes ( soil4 ,?is 9 turn 0 evaporat$ & ! process repeat$ till all ( ! wat] 9 ! soil _h pass$ into ! air4 ,n[ ?is process is go+ on 9 ! field :5ev] x is n ra9+ or ! gr\nd is n froz5 v h>d4 ,wat] !n may be lo/ by evaporation4 ,h[ c we *eck ?is loss8 ,suppose we try ! exp]im5t ( cov]+ ! soil ) "s mat]ial t _c pump wat] readily4 ,exp]im5t4--,take f\r glass fruit j>s1 two-qu>t size1 ) /raight sides4 ,if y _c get !m ) /raight sides cut (f ! tops ) a hot iron j bel[ ! %\ld]2 t9 pails w d if ! glass j>s _c be _h4 ,fill ^! ) moi/ soil f ! field or g>d51 pack+ x till x is z h>d z ! unpl[$ or unspad$ soil4 ,leave "o ( !m 9 ?is condition2 f two ( !m remove an in* or two ( soil & replace x 9 ! case ( "o ) clean1 dry1 co>se s&1 & 9 ! case ( ! o!r ) *aff or /raw cut into half-in* l5g?s4 ,/ir ! soil 9 ! f\r? "o to a dep? ( "o in*1 leav+ x light & crumbly4 ,n[ weigh ! j>s & set !m aside4 ,weigh ea* day = sev]al days4 ,! f\r j>s illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #cj 7 prep>$ 9 ?is way & all[$ to /& sev5 days4 ,9 t "t !y lo/ ! foll[+ am\nts ( wat]3 ,am\nts ( wat] lo/ f j>s ( prep>$ soil 9 sev5 days4 ,no4 #a pack$ soil--lo/ #e4e oz4 equal to ab\t #ge tons p] acre4 ,no4 #b cov]$ ) /raw--lo/ #b oz4 equal to ab\t #bg tons p] acre4 ,no4 #c cov]$ ) dry s&--lo/ #j oz4 equal to ab\t tons p] acre4 ,no4 #d cov]$ ) crumbl$ soil--lo/ #b4e oz41 equal to ab\t #cd tons p] acre4 ,:y did n #b1 #c & #d lose z mu* wat] z ,no4 #a8 ,! soil 9 j> ,no4 #a 0 pack$ & wat] 0 pump$ to ! surface by capill>y =ce & 0 evaporat$ z fa/ z x came to ! surface4 ,9 ,no4 #b ! wat] c\ld rise rapidly until x rea*$ ! /raw1 !n x 0 /opp$ almo/ entirely4 ,b ! /raw be+ co>se1 ! air circulat$ 9 x m or less freely & !re 0 a sl[ loss by evaporation4 ,9 j> ,no4 #c ! wat] c\ld rise only to ! s&1 :i* 0 s co>se t ! wat] c\ld n climb on x to ! surface1 & ! air circulat$ 9 ! s& s sl[ly t !re 0 n suffici5t evaporation to affect scales weigh+ to "o-qu>t] ounce4 ,no4 #d lo/ less ?an ,no4 #a because1 z 9 ! case ( ! s&1 ! wat] c\ld n climb rapidly to ! surface on ! co>se crumbs ( soil4 ,! loss t did take place f ,no4 #d 0 :at ! air took f ! loosely /irr$ soil on ! surface ) a v little f ! l[] soil4 ,simply /irr+ ! surface ( ! sod 9 ,no4 #d r$uc$ ! loss ( wat] to less ?an half ! loss f ! h>d soil 9 ,no4 #a4 ,?is exp]im5t gives u ! clew to ! me?od ( *eck+ loss ( wat] f ! soil by evaporation4 ,x is to keep ! wat] f climb+ up to ! surface1 or *eck ! p[] ( ! soil to pump ! wat] to ! surface by mak+ x loose on top4 ,?is loose soil is call$ a soil mul*4 ,ev]y?+ t we d to ! soil t loos5s & crumbles ! surface t5ds to *eck ! loss ( wat] by evaporation f ! soil bel[4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--,,to ,,%[ ,,! ,,effect ,,( ,a ,,soil ,,mul* #a4 ,pack$ soil1 lo/ 9 #g days #e4e ozs4 wat]1 equal to #ge tons p] acre4 #b4 ,pack$ soil1 cov]$ ) /raw1 lo/ 9 #g days #b ozs4 wat]1 equal to #bg tons p] acre4 #c4 ,pack$ soil1 cov]$ ) s&1 lo/ 9 #g days #j ozs4 wat]1 equal to tons p] acre4 #d4 ,pack$ soil1 cov]$ ) soil mul*1 lo/ 9 #g days #b4e ozs4 wat]1 equal to #cd tons p] acre4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,soil ,,temp]ature ,we le>n$ t roots ne$ heat = _! gr[? & developm5t4 ,n[ :at is ! relation ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( soil t[>d heat or :at are _! relative p[]s to absorb & hold heat8 ,exp]im5t4--,"s days be=e ?is exp]im5t1 spread on a dry floor ab\t a half bu%el ea* ( s&1 clay & decay$ leaf m\ld or black woods soil4 ,/ir !m occasionally till !y are ?or\ghly dry4 ,:5 !y are dry place !m sep>ately 9 ?ree boxes or l>ge fl[] pots & keep dry4 ,9 ?ree simil> boxes or pots place wet s&1 wet clay1 & wet humus4 ,place a !rmomet] 9 ea* ( ! soils1 plac+ ! bulb betwe5 "o & two in*es bel[ ! surface 7,fig4 #ca74 ,!n place ! soils out ( doors :]e ! sun c %9e on !m & leave !m sev]al days4 ,if a ra9 %\ld come up protect ! dry soils4 ,obs]ve & make a record ( ! temp]atures ( ea* soil sev]al times a day4 ,*>t ! av]age ( sev]al days obs]vations4 ,fig4 #cb %[s ! av]ages ( sev]al days obs]vations on a c]ta9 set ( soils4 ,x w be notic$ t ! temp]ature ( ! soils increas$ until ! e>ly "p ( ! aft]noon & aft] t "t !y lo/ heat4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,,soil ,,temp]ature ,,exp]im5t4 ,!rmomet] 9 pot ( soil4 ,,h[ ,,soils ,,are ,,w>m$ ,exp]im5t4--,hold y\r h& 9 bright sunlight or ne> a w>m /ove or radiator4 ,y\r h& is w>m$ by heat radiat$ f ! sun or w>m /ove ?r\gh ! air to y\r body4 ,9 ! same mann] ! rays ( ! sun heat ! surface ( ! soil4 ,exp]im5t4--,take ! /ove pok] or any small iron rod & hold "o end ( x 9 ! fire or hold "o end ( a piece ( wire 9 a c&le or lamp flame4 ,! end ( ! rod or wire w quickly become v hot & heat w gradually be c>ri$ its entire l5g? until x becomes too hot to hold4 ,?is c>ry+ ( ! heat f p>ticle to p>ticle ?r\gh ! l5g? ( ! rod is call$ heat+ by conduction4 ,n[ :5 ! w>m rays ( ! sun rea* ! soil1 or a w>m w9d bl[s ov] x1 ! surface p>ticles are w>m$ & !n pass ! heat on to ! next ones bel[1 & ^! 9 turn pass x to o!rs & s on till ! soil becomes heat$ to a consid]able dep? by conduction4 ,a clay soil w absorb heat by conduction fa/] ?an a s&y soil because ! p>ticles ( ! clay lie s close toge!r t ! heat passes m readily f "o to ano!r ?an 9 ! case ( ! co>s] s&4 ,if ! soil is op5 & por\s1 w>m air & w>m ra9s c ent] readily & c>ry heat to ! l[] soil4 ,y h notic$ h[ a pile ( /able manure /eams 9 cold wea!r4 ,y d\btless "k t manure f ! horse /able is (t5 us$ to furni% heat = hotb$s & = sweet potato b$s4 ,n[ ! heat :i* w>ms ! manure & s5ds ! /eam out ( x1 & w>ms ! hotb$ & sweet potato b$1 is produc$ by ! decay+ or rott+ ( ! manure4 ,m or less heat is produc$ by ! decay ( all k9ds ( organic matt]4 ,s if ! soil is well suppli$ ) organic matt]1 ! decay ( ?is mat]ial w add some:at to ! w>m? ( ! soil4 ,,h[ ,,soils ,,lose ,,heat ,wet "o ( y\r f+]s & hold y\r h& up 9 ! air4 ,! wet f+] w feel cold] ?an ! o!rs & w gradually become dry4 ,?is is because "s ( ! heat ( y\r f+] is be+ us$ to dry up ! wat] or *ange x into a vapor1 or 9 o!r words to evaporate x4 ,9 ! same mann] a wet soil loses heat by ! evaporation ( wat] f its surface4 ,exp]im5t4--,heat an iron rod1 take x f ! fire & hold x ne> y\r face or h&4 ,y w feel ! heat )\t t\*+ ! rod4 ,! heat is radiat$ f ! rod ?r\gh ! air to y\r body & ! rod gradually cools4 ,9 ! same way ! soil may lose its heat by radiat+ x into ! air4 ,a clay soil w lose m heat by radiation ?an a s&y soil because ! clay is m compact4 ,,conditions ,,:i* ,,influ5ce ,,soil ,,temp]ature ,x w be notic$ t ! dry soils are w>m] ?an ! wet ones4 ,:y is ?is8 ,sci5ti/s tell u t x takes a great deal m heat to w>m wat] ?an x does to w>m o!r sub/ances4 ,!re=e :5 soil is wet x takes mu* m heat to w>m x ?an if x 7 dry4 ,x w be se5 t ( ! dry soils ! humus is ! w>me/4 ,:y8 ,exp]im5t4--,take two !rmomet]s1 wrap ! bulb ( "o ) a piece ( black or d>k color$ clo? & ! bulb ( ! o!r ) a piece ( :ite clo?1 !n place !m :]e ! sun w %9e on ! clo? cov]$ bulbs4 ,! m]cury 9 bo? !rmomet]s w be se5 to rise1 b 9 ! !rmomet] ) ! d>k clo? ab\t ! bulb x w rise fa/] & high] ?an 9 ! o!r4 ,?is %[s t ! d>k clo? absorbs heat fa/] ?an ! :ite clo?4 ,9 ! same mann] a d>k soil w absorb heat fa/] ?an a light color$ soil2 !re=e x w be w>m] if dry4 ,:y 0 ! dry clay w>m] ?an ! dry s&8 ,because its d>k] color help$ x to absorb heat m rapidly ?an ! s&1 &1 z ! p>ticles 7 small] & m compact1 heat 0 c>ri$ into x m rapidly by conduction4 ,:y 7 ! wet humus & clay cool] ?an ! wet s&8 ,z !y 7 d>k] 9 color & ! clay 0 m compact ?an ! s&1 !y mu/ h absorb$ m heat1 b !y also held m wat]1 &1 !re=e1 lo/ m heat by evaporation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,*>ts %[+ av]age temp]ature ( a set ( dry & wet soils dur+ a p]iod ( five days4 ,h1 humus2 ,c1 clay2 ,s1 s&4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cc4 ,to %[ ! value ( organic matt]4 #a conta9s clay subsoil2 #b1 clay subsoil & f]tiliz]2 #c1 clay subsoil & organic matt]4 ,all plant$ at ! same "t4 ,( ! dry soils1 !n1 ! humus av]ag$ w>me/1 because1 on acc\nt ( its d>k color1 x absorb$ heat m readily ?an ! o!rs4 ,! dry clay 0 w>m] ?an ! s& on acc\nt ( its color & compact texture4 ,( ! wet soils ! s& 0 ! w>me/1 because1 on acc\nt ( its hold+ less moi/ure1 less heat 0 requir$ to raise its temp]ature & !re 0 less cool+ by evaporation1 :ile ! o!r soils1 al?\gh !y absorb$ m heat ?an ! s&1 lo/ m on acc\nt ( great] evaporation1 due to _! hold+ m moi/ure4 ,:y are s&y soils call$ w>m soils & clay soils said to be cold8 ,h[ may we *eck losses ( heat f ! soil8 ,if we make a mul* on ! surface ( ! soil evaporation w be *eck$ & !re=e loss ( heat by evaporation w be *eck$ also4 ,! mul* w also *eck ! conduction ( heat f ! l[] soil to ! surface & !re=e *eck loss ( heat by radiation f ! surface4 ,,value ,,( ,,organic ,,matt] ,figure #cc illu/rates a simple way to %[ ! value ( organic matt] 9 ! soil4 ,! boxes are ab\t twelve in*es squ>e & t5 in*es deep4 ,!y 7 fill$ ) a clay subsoil tak5 f ! second foot bel[ ! surface ( ! field4 ,to ! second box 0 add$ suffici5t comm]cial f]tiliz] to supply ! plants ) all necess>y plant food4 ,to ! ?ird box 0 add$ "s peat or decay$ leaves1 9 am\nt ab\t t5 p] c5t4 ( ! clay subsoil4 ,! corn 0 !n plant$ & ! boxes 7 all giv5 ! same c>e4 ,! bett] gr[? ( ! corn 9 ! ?ird box 0 due to ! fact t ! organic matt] n only furni%$ food = ! corn b dur+ its decay prep>$ m9]al plant food t 0 lock$ up 9 ! clay1 & also br\ght ab\t bett] conditions ( air & moi/ure by improv+ ! texture ( ! soil4 ,! plants 9 ! second box _h suffici5t plant food1 b did n make bett] gr[? because poor texture prev5t$ prop] conditions ( air & moi/ure4 ,& t's ano!r witness = organic matt]4 ,decay+ organic matt] or humus is really ! life ( ! soil & x is greatly ne$$ 9 mo/ ( ! f>m soils ( ! ea/]n "p ( ! c\ntry4 ,x closes ! pores ( s&y soils & op5s ! clay1 ?us help+ ! s& to soak up & hold m moi/ure & less5+ excessive v5tilation1 & at ! same "t help+ ! roots to take a firm] hold4 ,x helps ! clay to absorb ra91 helps x to pump wat] fa/]1 helps x to hold wat] long] 9 dry wea!r1 increases v5tilation1 favors root p5etration & increases heat absorption4 ,we c increase ! am\nt ( organic matt] 9 ! soil by pl[+ 9 /able manure1 leaves & o!r organic refuse ( ! f>m1 or we c pl[ "u crops ( clov]1 grass1 gra9 or o!r crops gr[n = t purpose4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,plant ,,food ,,9 ,,! ,,soil ,we le>n$ 9 previ\s p>agraphs t ! roots ( plants take food f ! soil1 & t a condition necess>y = ! root to d its "w = ! plant 0 ! pres5ce ( available plant food 9 suffici5t quantities4 ,:at is plant food8 ,= answ] let u g to ! plant & ask x :at x is made (4 ,exp]im5t4--,take "s newly rip5$ cotton or cotton wadd+1 a tree bran*1 a corn/alk1 & "s /raw or grass4 ,pull ! cotton ap>t1 !n twi/ "s ( x & pull ap>t2 9 turn break ! bran*1 ! corn/alk & ! /raw4 ,! cotton does n pull ap>t readily nor d ! o!rs break easily2 ?is is because !y all conta9 long1 t\gh fibres4 ,^! fibres are call$ woody fibre or cellulose4 ,! cotton fibre is ne>ly pure cellulose4 ,exp]im5t4--,get toge!r "s slices ( :ite potato1 sweet potato1 p>snip1 brok5 k]nels ( corn1 :eat & oats1 a piece ( laundry />* & "s t9cture ( iod9e dilut$ to ab\t ! color ( weak tea4 ,rub a few drops ( ! iod9e on ! cut surfaces ( ! potatoes1 p>snip1 & ! brok5 surfaces ( ! gra9s4 ,notice t x turns !m purple4 ,n[ drop a drop ( ! iod9e on ! laundry />*4 ,x turns t purple also4 ,?is exp]im5t tells u t plants conta9 />*4 ,exp]im5t4--,*ew a piece ( sorghum cane1 sug> cane1 corn/alk1 beet root1 turnip root1 apple or cabbage4 ,!y all ta/e sweet & mu/ !re=e conta9 sug>4 ,exam9e a numb] ( pea* & *]ry trees4 ,y w f9d on ! trunk & bran*es m or less ( a /icky sub/ance call$ gum4 ,exp]im5t4--,cru% on pap] se$s ( cotton1 ca/or-oil bean1 peanuts1 ,brazil nuts1 hickory nuts1 butt]nuts1 etc4 ,!y make grease spots2 !y conta9 fat & oil4 ,exp]im5t4--,*ew :ole gra9s ( :eat & f9d a gummy mucilag9\s sub/ance call$ :eat gum1 or wet a p9t ( :eat fl\r to a /iff d\gh1 let x /& ab\t an h\r1 & !n wa% ! />* out ( x by knead+ x "u a /ream ( runn+ wat] or 9 a pan ( wat]1 *ang+ ! wat] frequ5tly4 ,! result w be a t\gh1 yell[i% gray1 ela/ic mass call$ glut54 ,?is is ! same z ! :eat gum & is call$ an album9oid because x conta9s nitrog5 & is l album51 a sub/ance l ! :ite ( an egg4 ,if we cru% or grate "s potatoes or cabbage leaves to a pulp & sep>ate ! juice1 !n heat ! cle> juice1 a sub/ance w sep>ate 9 a flaky =m & settle to ! bottom ( ! liquid4 ,?is is vegetable album54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,soy-bean roots4 ,%[+ nodules ( tub]cles1 ! homes ( nitrog5-fix+ bact]ia4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,g>d5-pea roots1 %[+ tub]cles or nodules1 ! homes ( nitrog5-fix+ bact]ia4 ,exp]im5t4--,cru% ! leaves or /ems ( sev]al gr[+ plants & notice t ! cru%$ & expos$ p>ts are moi/4 ,9 a potato or an apple we f9d a great deal ( moi/ure4 ,plants !n are p>tly made ( wat]4 ,9 fact gr[+ plants are f #fe to #ie p] c5t4 wat]4 ,exp]im5t4--,expose a plant or "p ( a plant to heat2 ! wat] is driv5 (f & !re rema9s a dry portion4 ,heat ! dry "p to a high degree & x burns2 "p passes into ! air z smoke & "p rema9s beh9d z a%es4 ,we h f\nd !n ! foll[+ sub/ances 9 plants3 ,woody fibre or cellulose1 />*1 sug>1 gum1 fats & oils1 album9oids1 wat]1 a%es4 ,aside f ^! are f\nd c]ta9 color+ matt]s1 c]ta9 acids & o!r matt]s :i* give ta/e1 flavor1 & poison\s qualities to fruits & vegetables4 ,m or less ( all ^! sub/ances are f\nd 9 all plants4 ,n[ ^! are all comp\nd sub/ances4 ,t is1 !y c all be brok5 d[n into simpl] sub/ances1 & ) ! exception ( ! wat] & ! a%es1 ! plants d n take !m directly f ! soil4 ,! *emi/s tell u t ^! sub/ances are compos$ ( c]ta9 *emical elem5ts1 "s ( :i* ! plant obta9s f ! air1 "s f ! soil & "s f wat]4 ,! foll[+ table gives ! sub/ances f\nd 9 plants1 ! elem5ts ( :i* !y are compos$1 & ! s\rces f :i* ! plants obta9 !m3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,sub/ances f\nd ,elem5ts ( :i* ,s\rces f 9 plants4 !y are made4 :i* plants obta9 !m4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,cellulose or woody fibre ,c>bon ,air ,/>* ------------------------------------- ,sug> ,gum ,oxyg5 ,wat] ,fat & ,oil ,hydrog5 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,c>bon ,air ------------------------------------- ,album9oids ,oxyg5 ,wat] ,hydrog5 ------------------------------------- ,nitrog5 ,sulphur ,phosphorus ---------------------------------------- ,soil ,phosphorus ,potassium ,a%es ,calcium ,magnesium ,iron ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,wat] ,oxyg5 ,soil ,hydrog5 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,"h is a brief description ( ^! *emical elem5ts4 ,oxyg51 a colorless gas1 =ms "o-fif? ( ! air4 ,hydrog51 a colorless gas1 =ms a "p ( wat]4 ,c>bon1 a d>k solid1 =ms ne>ly "o-half ( all organic matt]2 *>coal is "o ( its =ms4 ,! lead 9 y\r p5cil is ano!r example4 ,nitrog51 a colorless gas1 =ms f\r-fif?s ( ! air4 ,f\nd 9 all album9oids4 ,sulphur1 a yell[ solid4 ,phosphorus1 a yell[i% :ite solid4 ,potassium1 a silv] :ite solid4 ,calcium1 a yell[i% solid4 ,f\nd 9 lime/one4 ,magnesium1 a silv] :ite solid4 ,iron1 a silv] gray solid4 ,( ^! elem5ts ! nitrog51 sulphur1 phosphorus1 potassium1 calcium1 magnesium1 & iron mu/ n only exi/ 9 ! soil b mu/ also be !re 9 su* =m t ! plant c use !m4 ,! plant does n use !m 9 _! simple elem5t>y =m b 9 v>i\s comp\nds4 ,^! comp\nds mu/ be soluble 9 wat] or 9 weak acids4 ,( ^! sev5 elem5ts ( plant food ! nitrog51 phosphorus1 & potassium & calcium are ( p>ticul> importance to ! f>m]1 because !y d n always exi/ 9 ! soil 9 suffici5t available quantities to produce pr(itable crops4 ,pr(essor ,rob]ts1 ( ,cornell ,univ]sity1 tells u t an av]age acre ( soil eight in*es deep conta9s ?ree ?\s& p\nds ( nitrog54 ,! nitrog5 exi/s l>gely 9 ! humus ( ! soil & x is only z ! humus decays t ! nitrog5 is made available4 ,"h is ano!r reason = keep+ ! soil well suppli$ ) organic matt]4 ,! decay ( ?is organic matt] is ha/5$ by work+ ! soil2 !re=e good tillage helps to supply ! plant ) nitrog54 ,if ! nitrog5 becomes available :5 !re is no crop on ! soil x w be wa%$ out by ra9s & s lo/4 ,!re=e ! soil1 especially if x is s&y1 %\ld be cov]$ ) a crop ! ye> ?r\gh4 ,_m l&s lose l>ge am\nts ( plant food by be+ left b>e ?r\gh ! fall & w9t]1 especially 9 ^? p>ts ( ! c\ntry :]e ! l& does n freeze4 ,! phosphorus1 potassium & calcium also exi/ 9 mo/ soils 9 consid]able quantities1 b (t5 are n available2 ?or\gh tillage & ! addition ( organic matt] w help to make !m available1 & new supplies may be add$ 9 ! =m ( f]tiliz]s4 ,calcium is f\nd 9 ne>ly all soils 9 suffici5t quantities = mo/ crops1 b sometimes !re is n en\gh ( x = su* crops z clov]1 c[pea1 alfalfa1 etc4 ,x is also us$ to improve soil texture4 ,! entire subject ( comm]cial f]tiliz]s is bas$ almo/ entirely on ! fact ( ! lack ( ^! f\r elem5ts 9 ! soil 9 suffici5t available quantities to gr[ pr(itable crops4 ,! plant gets its phosphorus f phosphoric acid1 its potassium f pota%1 & its calcium f lime4 ,!re is a class ( plants :i* h ! p[] ( tak+ free nitrog5 f ! air4 ,^! are ! legum9\s plants2 su* z clov]1 beans1 c[peas1 alfalfa1 soy bean1 etc4 ,!y d x ?r\gh ! acid ( microscopic organisms call$ bact]ia :i* live 9 nodules or tub]cles on ! roots ( ^! plants 7,figs4 #cd-ce74 ,collect roots ( ^! plants & f9d ! nodules on !m4 ,! bact]ia take nitrog5 f ! air :i* p5etrates ! soil & give x ov] to ! plants4 ,"h is ano!r reason = good soil v5tilation4 ,?is la/ fact br+s u to ano!r v important prop]ty ( soils4 ,soils h exi/+ 9 !m _m v small plants call$ bact]ia4 ,!y are s v small t x w\ld take sev]al hundr$ ( !m to rea* across ! edge ( ?is %eet ( pap]4 ,we _c see !m ) ! nak$ eye b only ) ! mo/ p[]ful microscopes4 ,"s ( ^! m9ute plants are great fri5ds to ! f>m]1 = x is l>gely ?r\gh _! "w t food is made available = ! high] plants4 ,"s ( !m break d[n ! organic matt] & help prep>e ! nitrog5 = ! l>g] plants4 ,o!rs help ! legum9\s plants to fe$ on ! nitrog5 ( ! air4 ,to d _! "w !y ne$ w>m?1 moi/ure1 air1 & "s m9]al food2 ^! conditions we br+ ab\t by improv+ ! texture ( ! soil by means ( ?or\gh tillage & ! use ( organic matt]4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,se$s ,,conditions ,,necess>y ,,= ,,se$s ,,to ,,spr\t ,9 ! spr+ comes ! great se$-plant+ "t on ! f>m1 9 ! home g>d5 & 9 ! s*ool g>d54 ,_m times ! que/ions w be ask$3 ,:y didn't ^? se$s come up8 ,h[ %all ,i plant se$s s z to help !m spr\t easily & gr[ into /rong plants8 ,to answ] ^! que/ions1 p]=m a few exp]im5ts ) se$s1 & ?us f9d out :at conditions are necess>y = se$s to spr\t1 or g]m9ate4 ,= ^! exp]im5ts y w ne$ a few teacups1 glass tumbl]s or t9 cans1 su* z tomato cans or bak+-p[d] cans2 a few plates1 ei!r ( t9 or crock]y2 "s wide-m\? bottles t w hold ab\t half a p9t1 su* z pickle1 olive1 or yea/ bottles or druggi/s' wide-m\? prescription bottles2 & a few pieces ( clo?4 ,also se$s ( corn1 g>d5 peas & beans4 ,exp]im5t4--,put se$s ( corn1 g>d5 peas1 & beans 7ab\t a h&ful ( ea*7 to soak 9 bottles or tumbl]s ( wat]4 ,next day1 two h\rs e>li] 9 ! day1 put a duplicate lot ( se$s to soak4 ,:5 ?is second lot ( se$s has soak$ two h\rs1 y w h two lots ( soak$ se$s ( ea* k9d1 "o ( :i* has soak$ tw5ty-f\r h\rs & ! o!r two h\rs4 ,n[ take ^! se$s f ! wat] & dry ! surplus wat] f !m by g5tly patt+ or rubb+ a few at a "t 9 ! folds ( a piece ( clo?1 tak+ c>e n to break ! sk9 or out] coat+ ( ! se$4 ,place !m 9 dry bottles1 putt+ 9 en\gh to cov] ! bottoms ( ! bottles ab\t ?ree se$s deep2 cork ! bottles4 ,if y _c f9d corks1 tie pap] ov] ! m\?s ( ! bottles4 ,label ! bottles ,se$s soak$ #bd h\rs1 ,se$s soak$ #b h\rs1 & let !m /& 9 a w>m place sev]al days4 ,if !re is dang] ( freez+ at night1 ! bottles ( se$s may be kept 9 ! kit*5 or liv+ room :]e x is w>m1 until !y spr\t4 ,obs]ve ! se$s f day to day4 ,! se$s t soak$ tw5ty-f\r h\rs w spr\t readily 7,fig4 #cf71 :ile mo/1 if n all1 ( ^? t soak$ only two h\rs w n spr\t4 ,:y is ?is8 ,x is because ! two-h\r soak$ se$s d n receive suffici5t moi/ure to c>ry on ! process ( spr\t+4 ,our exp]im5t tea*es u t se$s w n spr\t until !y receive en\gh moi/ure to soak !m ?r\gh & ?r\gh4 ,?is also tea*es t :5 we plant se$s we mu/ s prep>e ! soil = !m & s plant !m t !y w be able to get suffici5t moi/ure to spr\t4 ,exp]im5t4--,soak "s beans1 peas or corn1 tw5ty-f\r h\rs2 c>efully dry !m ) a clo?4 ,9 "o half-p9t bottle place en\gh ( !m to cov] ! bottom ( ! bottle two or ?ree se$s deep2 m>k ?is bottle ,a4 ,fill ano!r bottle two-?irds full ( !m & m>k ! bottle ,b 7,fig4 #cg74 ,cork ! bottles & let !m /& = sev]al days4 ,also let "s se$s rema9 soak+ 9 ! wat]4 ,! few se$s 9 bottle ,a w spr\t1 :ile1 ! l>g] numb] 9 bottle ,b w n spr\t1 or w produce only v %ort spr\ts4 ,:y d n ! se$s spr\t easily 9 ! bottle :i* is m ?an half full8 ,to answ] ?is "q try ! foll[+ exp]im5t3 ,exp]im5t4--,c>efully loos5 ! cork 9 bottle ,b 7! bottle conta9+ poorly spr\t$ se$s71 light a mat*1 remove ! cork f ! bottle & introduce ! light$ mat*4 ,! mat* w /op burn+ z soon z x is held 9 ! bottle1 because !re is no fre% air 9 ! bottle to keep ! mat* burn+4 ,te/ bottle ,a 9 ! same way4 ,:at has become ( ! fre% air t 0 9 ! bottles :5 ! se$s 7 put 9 !m8 ,! se$s h tak5 some?+ f x & h left bad air 9 its place2 !y ne$ fre% air to help !m spr\t1 b !y h n spr\t$ s well 9 bottle ,b because !re 0 n fre% air en\gh = s _m se$s4 ,! se$s 9 ! wat] d n spr\t because !re is n en\gh air 9 ! wat]4 ,n[ try ano!r exp]im5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,to %[ t se$s ne$ wat] = g]m9ation4 ,! beans 9 bottle ,a 7 soak$ #b h\rs1 ^? 9 bottle ,b 7 soak$ #bd h\rs4 ,!y 7 !n remov$ f ! wat] & put into dry bottles4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cg4 ,to %[ t se$s ne$ air = g]m9ation4 ,! beans 9 bo? bottles 7 soak$ #bd h\rs1 & !n 7 put into dry bottles ,bottle ,a conta9$ suffici5t air to />t ! few se$s4 ,bottle ,b _h n en\gh4 ,! wat] 9 ! tumbl] ,c did n conta9 suffici5t air = g]m9ation4 ,see exp]im5t1 page #gb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4 ,to %[ t se$s ne$ air = g]m9ation4 ,corn plant$ 9 puddl$ clay 9 tumbl] ,a c\ld n get suffic5t air = spr\t+4 ,! moi/ s& 9 tumbl] ,b admitt$ suffici5t air = g]m9ation4 ,exp]im5t4--,fill "s tumbl]s or teacups or t9 cans ) wet s& & o!rs ) clay t has be5 wet & !n ?or\ghly /irr$ till x is ab\t ! consi/5cy ( cake batt] or fre% mix$ mort>4 ,take a tumbl] ( ! wet s& & "o ( ! wet clay & plant two or ?ree k]nels ( corn 9 ea*1 press+ ! k]nels d[n "o-half or ?ree-qu>t]s ( an in* bel[ ! surface2 cov] ! se$s & c>efully smoo? ! surface4 ,9 o!r tumbl]s plant peas1 beans1 & o!r se$s4 ,cov] ! tumbl]s ) sauc]s1 or pieces ( glass or bo>d to keep ! soil f dry+4 ,wat* !m = sev]al days4 ,if ! clay t5ds to dry & crack1 moi/5 x1 fill ! cracks & smoo? ! surface4 ,! se$s 9 ! s& w spr\t b ^? 9 ! clay w n 7see ,fig4 #ch74 ,:y is ?is8 ,wat] fills ! small spaces betwe5 ! p>ticles ( clay & %uts out ! fre% air :i* is necess>y = ! spr\t+ ( ! se$s4 ,?is tea*es u t :5 we plant se$s we mu/ s prep>e ! soil1 & s plant ! se$s t !y w get en\gh fre% air to enable !m to spr\t1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! soil mu/ be well v5tilat$4 ,exp]im5t4--,plant se$s ( corn & beans 9 ea* ( two tumbl]s2 set "o out ( doors 9 a cold place & keep ! o!r 9 a w>m place 9 ! h\se4 ,! se$s kept 9 ! h\se w spr\t quickly b ^? outside 9 ! cold w n spr\t at all4 ,?is %[s u t se$s w n spr\t )\t heat4 ,if ! wea!r is w>m place "o ( ! tumbl]s 9 a refrig]ator4 ,:y don't we plant corn 9 ,decemb]8 ,:y n plant melons 9 ,janu>y8 ,:y n plant cotton 9 ,novemb]8 ,! se$s ( f>m crops may be divid$ into two classes accord+ to ! temp]atures at :i* !y w g]m9ate or spr\t readily & c be safely plant$4 ,class ,a4 ,^? se$s t w g]m9ate or spr\t at an av]age temp]ature ( =ty-five degrees 9 ! %ade1 or at ab\t ! "t ! pea* & plum trees blossom3 ,b>ley ,beet ,p>sley ,oats ,c>rot ,p>snip ,rye ,cabbage ,onion ,:eat ,caulifl[] ,pea ,r$ ,clov] ,endive ,radi% ,crimson ,clov] ,kale ,turnip ,grasses ,lettuce ,sp9a* ,^! c be plant$ ) safety 9 ! spr+ z soon z ! gr\nd c be prep>$1 & "s ( !m1 if plant$ 9 ! fall1 live ?r\gh ! w9t]4 ,class ,b4 ,^? se$s t w g]m9ate or spr\t at an av]age temp]ature ( sixty degrees 9 ! %ade1 or :5 ! apple trees blossom3 ,alfalfa ,soy ,bean ,squa% ,c[ ,pea ,pole ,bean ,cucumb] ,corn ,/r+ ,bean ,pumpk9 ,cotton ,melon ,tomato ,egg ,plant ,okra ,pepp] ,we are n[ ready to answ] ! "q3 ,:at conditions are necess>y = se$s to spr\t or g]m9ate8 ,^! conditions are3 ,! pres5ce ( en\gh moi/ure to keep ! se$ ?or\ghly soak$4 ,! pres5ce ( fre% air4 ,! pres5ce ( m or less heat4 ,?is tea*es u t :5 we plant se$s 9 ! w9d[ box or 9 ! g>d5 or on ! f>m we mu/ s prep>e ! soil & s plant ! se$s t !y w be able to obta9 suffici5t moi/ure1 heat1 & air = spr\t+4 ,! moi/ure mu/ be film wat]1 = if x is free wat] or capill>y wat] fill+ ! soil pores1 !re c be no v5tilation &1 !re=e1 no spr\t+4 ,,se$ ,,te/+ ,9 a previ\s exp]im5t 7page #gc7 ! se$s plant$ 9 ! wet clay did n spr\t 7see ,fig4 #ch74 ,9 answ] to ! "q1 ,:y is ?is8 "s w say ! se$s 7 bad4 ,x (t5 happ5s on ! f>m t ! se$s d n spr\t well & ! f>m] accuses ! se$sman ( sell+ him poor se$1 b does n ?9k t he himself may be ! cause ( ! failure by n putt+ ! se$s "u ! prop] conditions = spr\t+4 ,h[ c we tell :e!r or n our se$s w spr\t if prop]ly plant$8 ,we c te/ !m by putt+ a numb] ( se$s f ea* package "u prop] conditions ( moi/ure1 heat & air1 z foll[s3 ,= l>ge se$s take two plates 7see ,fig4 #ci7 & a piece ( clo? z wide z ! bottom ( ! plate & twice z long4 ,c\nt out fifty or "o hundr$ se$s f a package1 wet ! clo? & wr+ x out4 ,place "o end ( ! clo? on ! plate1 place ! se$s on ! clo? & fold ! o!r end ( ! clo? ov] !m4 ,on a slip ( pap] m>k ! numb] ( se$s & date1 & place on ! edge ( ! plate4 ,n[ cov] ! :ole ) ano!r plate1 or ) a pane ( glass to keep f dry+4 ,set ! plate ( se$s 9 a w>m room & exam9e occasionally = sev]al days4 ,if ! clo? t5ds to dry1 moi/5 x f "t to "t4 ,z ! se$s spr\t take !m out & keep a record ( !m4 ,or leave !m 9 ! plate & aft] f\r or five days c\nt ^? t h spr\t$4 ,?is w give ! proportion ( good se$s 9 ! packages4 ,= small se$s fold ! clo? fir/ & place ! se$s on top ( x4 ,ano!r good te/] = small se$s is made by runn+ ab\t an in* ( fre%ly mix$ pla/] ( ,p>is into a small di% or pan & m\ld+ flat cavities 9 ! surface by sett+ bottles into x4 ,! di% or pan & bottles %\ld be slightly greas$ to prev5t ! pla/] /ick+ to !m4 ,:5 ! ca/ has h>d5$ x %\ld be turn$ out ( ! m\ld & set 9 a l>ge di% or pan4 ,"o hundr$ small se$s are !n c\nt$ out & put into "o ( ! cavities1 o!rs are put into ! o!r cavities4 ,wat] is !n p\r$ into ! pan till x rises half way up ! side ( ! pla/] ca/ or por\s sauc]4 ,! :ole ?+ is !n cov]$ to keep 9 ! moi/ure 7,fig4 #dj74 ,ano!r me?od is to get boxes ( f9ely pulv]iz$ s& or soil & c>efully plant 9 x fifty or "o hundr$ se$s ( ea* k9d to be te/$4 ,!n by c\nt+ ^? t come up1 ! proportion ( good se$s c easily be f\nd4 ,9 e case ! te/]s %\ld be kept at a temp]ature ( ab\t sev5ty degrees or ab\t t ( ! liv+ room4 ,,h[ ,,! ,,se$s ,,come ,,up ,plant a few se$s ( corn1 beans & g>d5 peas 9 boxes or tumbl]s ea* day = sev]al days 9 succession4 ,!n put se$s ( corn1 beans & g>d5 peas to soak4 ,aft] ^! h soak$ a few h\rs1 exam9e !m to f9d out h[ ! se$ is con/ruct$4 ,note fir/ ! g5]al %ape ( ! se$s & ! sc> 7,fig4 #da-d7 on "o side z 9 ! bean or pea & at "o end or on "o edge 9 ! corn4 ,?is sc>1 also call$ hilum1 is :]e ! se$ 0 atta*$ to ! se$ vessel4 ,cut into ! bean & pea1 !y w be f\nd to be protect$ by a t\gh sk9 or coat4 ,)9 ?is ! cont5ts ( ! se$ are divid$ into two bodies ( equal size ly+ close to ea* o!r & call$ se$ leaves or cotyl$ons 7,fig4 #da-e74 ,betwe5 !m ne> "o end or "o side w be f\nd a pair ( v small :ite leaves & a little r\nd po9t$ projection4 ,! "p be>+ ! t9y leaves 0 =m]ly1 & is sometimes n[1 call$ ! plumule1 b is g5]ally call$ ! epicotyl1 because x gr[s above or ^u ! cotyl$ons4 ,! r\nd po9t$ projection 0 =m]ly call$ ! radicle1 b is n[ spok5 ( z ! hypocotyl1 because x gr[s bel[ or "u ! cotyl$ons4 ,exam9e a dry k]nel ( corn & notice t on "o side !re is a slight oval-%ap$ depression 7,fig4 #da-a74 ,n[ take a soak$ k]nel & cut x 9 two pieces mak+ ! cut l5g?wise f ! top ( ! k]nel ?r\gh ! c5tre ( ! oval depression & exam9e ! cut surface4 ,a m or less triangul>-%ap$ body w be f\nd on ! concave side ( ! k]nel 7see ,figs4 #da-b & #da-c74 ,?is is ! "o cotyl$on ( ! corn4 ,besides ?is w be f\nd q a mass ( />*y mat]ial pack$ 9 ! cov]+s ( ! k]nel & 9 close contact ) "o side ( ! cotyl$on4 ,?is is sometimes call$ ! endosp]m4 ,)9 ! cotyl$on w be f\nd a little gr[+ %oot po9t$ t[>d ! top ( ! k]nel4 ,?is is ! epicotyl1 & ano!r gr[+ tip po9t$ t[>d ! l[] end ( ! k]nel2 ?is is ! hypocotyl or ! "p :i* p5etrates ! soil & =ms roots4 ,n[ exam9e ! se$s t 7 plant$ 9 succession4 ,"s w be j />t+ a gr[+ po9t d[n into ! soil4 ,"s ( !m h probably come up & o!rs are at int]m$iate /ages4 ,h[ did ! bean get up8 ,aft] s5d+ d[n a root ! hypocotyl began to develop into a /rong /em :i* crook$ itself until x rea*$ ! surface ( ! soil & !n pull$ ! cotyl$ons or se$-leaves aft] x 7,fig4 #db74 ,^! turn gre5 & aft] a "t %r9k & fall (f4 ,! pea cotyl$ons 7 left d[n 9 ! soil1 ! epicotyl alone pu%+ up to ! surface4 ,! corn pu%$ a sl5d] gr[+ po9t to ! surface leav+ ! cotyl$on & endosp]m beh9d 9 ! soil b /ill atta*$ to ! little plant 7,fig4 #dc74 ,,use ,,( ,,cotyl$ons ,,& ,,endosp]m ,exp]im5t4--,plant "s beans 9 a pot or box ( soil & z soon z !y come up cut ! se$-leaves f "s ( !m & wat* _! gr[? = sev]al days4 ,x w soon be se5 t ! plants on :i* ! se$-leaves 7 left increase 9 size mu* m rapidly ?an ^? f :i* ! se$-leaves 7 remov$ 7see ,figs4 #dc & #dd74 ,spr\t "s corn 9 ! se$ te/]4 ,:5 ! se$l+s are two or ?ree in*es long1 get a wide-m\!d bottle or a tumbl] ( wat] & a piece ( pa/ebo>d l>ge en\gh to cov] ! top4 ,cut a slit ab\t an eigh? ( an in* wide f ! m>g9 to ! c5tre ( ! pa/ebo>d disk4 ,take "o ( ! se$l+s1 ins]t x 9 ! slit1 ) ! k]nel "u ! pa/ebo>d s t x j t\*es ! wat]4 ,take ano!r se$l+ ( ! same size1 c>efully remove ! k]nel f x )\t injur+ ! root1 & place ?is se$l+ 9 ! slit beside ! fir/ "o 7,fig4 #de74 ,wat* ! gr[? ( ^! two se$l+s = a few days4 ,repeat ?is ) spr\t$ peas4 ,9 ea* case x w be f\nd t ! removal ( ! se$-leaves or ! k]nel *ecks ! gr[? ( ! se$l+4 ,!re=e1 x mu/ be t ! se$-leaves :i* appe> above gr\nd1 z 9 ! case ( ! bean1 or ! k]nel ( ! corn :i* rema9s bel[ ! surface ( ! soil1 furni% ! little plant ) food until its roots h gr[n /rong en\gh to take suffici5t food f ! soil4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ci4 ,a se$-te/]1 consi/+ ( two plates & a moi/ clo?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--;,a ,,se$-,,te/]4 ,a pla/] ca/ ) cavities 9 ! surface = small se$s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #da4 #a4 ,corn-k]nel %[+ depression at z4 #b4 ,section ( same aft] soak+4 #c4 ,corn-k]nel aft] g]m9ation has begun4 ,! se$-coat a has be5 p>tly remov$4 #d4 ,bean %[+ sc> or hilum at h4 #e4 ,! same1 split op54 #f4 ,bean ) "o cotyl$on remov$1 aft] spr\t+ _h begun4 a1 ,se$-coat2 b1 cotyl$on2 c1 epicotyl2 d1 hypocotyl2 e1 endosp]m4 7,draw+s by ,m4,e4 ,fel?am47 ,,*apt] ,x ,,se$ ,,plant+ ,,h[ ,,deep ,,%\ld ,,se$s ,,be ,,plant$8 ,exp]im5t4--,plant sev]al k]nels ( corn 9 moi/ soil 9 a glass tumbl] or j>4 ,put "o k]nel at ! bottom & aga9/ ! side ( ! glass1 place ! next "o a half in* or an in* high] & an in* & a half to "o side ( ! fir/ se$ & aga9/ ! glass4 ,cont9ue ?is till ! top ( ! glass is rea*$ 7,fig4 #b74 ,leave ! la/ se$ n m ?an "o-f\r? in* bel[ ! top ( ! soil4 ,! soil %\ld be moi/ at ! />t & ! se$s %\ld all be aga9/ ! glass s !y c be se54 ,?is c be/ be done by plant+ z y fill ! glass ) soil4 ,plant peas & beans 9 ! same way4 ,d n wat] ! soil aft] plant+4 ,set aside 9 a w>m place & wait = ! se$s to come up4 ,ano!r me?od ( p]=m+ ?is exp]im5t is to make a box hav+ "o side glass 7,fig4 #df74 ,! l5g? & ! dep? ( ! box w dep5d ^u ! size ( ! glass y use4 ,fill ! box ne>ly full ( moi/ soil & plant se$s ( corn & beans & peas at dep?s ( "o-qu>t] in*1 "o in*1 two in*es1 ?ree in*es1 & f\r in*es4 ,^! se$s c be/ be put 9 z ! box is be+ fill$4 ,hold ea* individual se$ aga9/ ! glass ) a /ick s t :5 plant$ !y may be se5 ?r\gh ! glass4 ,protect ! se$s & roots f light by us+ a %eet ( c>dbo>d1 t9 or wrapp+ pap] or a piece ( bo>d1 & set 9 a w>m place4 ,_m ( ! se$s plant$ only "o-qu>t] in* deep w n spr\t because ! soil ab\t !m w probably dry out be=e !y take f x en\gh moi/ure to spr\t4 ,! "o & two-in* deep se$s w probably come up all "r4 ,( ! ?ree & f\r-in* deep se$s1 ! corn & peas w probably make _! way to ! surface because !y s5d up only a sl5d] %oot1 :i* c easily =ce its way ?r\gh ! soil4 ,! deep-plant$ beans w make a /rong ef=t b w n succe$ 9 =c+ _! way to ! surface because !y are n able to lift ! l>ge se$-leaves ?r\gh s mu* soil1 & w f9ally give up ! /ruggle4 ,if any ( ! deep] beans d get up1 ! se$-leaves w probably be brok5 (f & ! little plant w />ve & be dw>f$4 ,?is exp]im5t tea*es u t we %\ld plant se$s deep en\gh to get suffici5t moi/ure = spr\t+ & yet n s deep t ! "y se$l+s w n be able to =ce _! way to ! surface4 ,se$s :i* raise _! cotyl$ons above ! soil %\ld n be plant$ z deep z ^? :i* d n4 ,l>ge1 /rong se$s l corn1 peas1 etc41 :i* d n lift _! cotyl$ons above ! surface1 c be plant$ ) safety at a dep? ( f "o to f\r or five in*es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db4 ,to %[ h[ ! bean plant gets up4 ,notice ! curv$ hypocotyls pull+ ! se$-leaves or cotyl$on out ( ! soil4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dc4 ,to %[ h[ ! corn-plant gets out ( ! soil4 ,a sl5d] gr[+ po9t pu%es /raight up ?r\gh ! soil1 leav+ ! k]nel beh9d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dd4 ,to %[ ! use ( ! cotyl$ons4 ,^! are ! plants %[n 9 tumbl] #b1 ,fig #db1 =ty-eight h\rs aft] remov+ ! cotyl$ons f plant ,b4 ,plant ,b1 al?\gh fir/ up1 has be5 h&icapp$ by ! loss ( its cotyl$ons4 ,se$s ( c>rot1 cel]y1 p>sley1 p>snip & egg plant are weak & r sl[ 9 g]m9at+4 ,x is cu/om>y to plant !m r ?ickly 9 ord] t by ! unit$ /r5g? ( _m se$s !y may m readily come to ! surface4 ,?is po9t %\ld be obs]v$ also 9 plant+ se$s 9 heavy gr\nd t is liable to pack & cru/ ov] be=e ! se$s g]m9ate4 ,se$ %\ld always be s[n 9 fre%ly /irr$ soil & may be plant$ by h& or ) a ma*9e4 ,= ! home g>d5 & ! s*ool g>d51 & :5 only small quantities ( any "o v>iety are plant$1 a ma*9e is h>dly desirable & h& plant+ is pref]able4 ,! r[s are m>k$ out ) ! g>d5 m>k]1 or ! end ( a hoe or rake h&le 7,fig4 #dg71 us+ a l9e or ! edge ( a bo>d z a guide4 ,! se$s are !n c>efully & ev5ly dropp$ 9 ! m>k or furr[4 ,! cov]+ is done ) ! h& or a rake or hoe1 & ! soil is press$ ov] ! se$s by patt+ x ) ! cov]+ tool or walk+ on ! r[ & press+ x ) ! feet4 ,?is press+ ( ! soil ov] ! se$s is to br+ ! p>ticles ( soil close to ea* o!r & to ! se$ s t film wat] c climb ^u !m & moi/5 ! se$ suffici5tly = spr\t+4 ,a conv5i5t way ( di/ribut+ small se$s l ^? ( turnip & cabbage1 is to take a small pa/ebo>d box or t9 spice or bak+-p[d] box1 & pun* a small hole 9 ! bottom ne> "o end or side4 ,?r\gh ?is ! se$s c be sift$ q ev5ly4 ,= ! l>g] op]ations ( ! f>m & m>ket g>d51 h& & horse-p[] drills & broadca/]s are g5]ally us$1 ?\gh "s f>m]s /ill plant l>ge fields by h&4 ,! grasses & clov]s are g5]ally broadca/$ by h& or ma*9e1 & are !n lightly h>r[$ & are g5]ally roll$4 ,! small gra9s 7:eat1 oats1 etc47 are broadca/$ by _m f>m]s1 b drill+ is consid]$ bett]4 ,) ! gra9 drill ! se$ is deposit$ at a uni=m dep? & at regul> int]vals4 ,9 broadca/+1 "s ( ! se$s are plant$ too deep1 & "s too %all[1 & o!rs are left on ! surface ( ! soil4 ,f exp]im5t x has be5 f\nd t !re is a loss ( ab\t "o-fif? ( ! se$ :5 broadca/$ z comp>$ ) drill+4 ,z 9 ! case ( grass se$1 ! gra9s are g5]ally roll$ aft] s[+4 ,corn is plant$ by h&1 or by h&- & horse-corn-plant]s1 :i* drop a c]ta9 numb] ( se$s at any requir$ di/ance 9 ! r[4 ,!re are a numb] ( se$ drills made = plant+ vegetable se$s :i* are good ma*9es4 ,! ma9 po9ts to be consid]$ 9 se$ drills or se$ plant+ ma*9es are3 ,simplicity & durability ( /ructure4 ,ease ( draft4 ,uni=mity 9 quantity ( se$ plant$1 & 9 ! di/ances ap>t & dep? to :i* !y are plant$4 ,! di/ances ap>t at :i* se$s are plant$ v>y accord+ to ! "* ( ! plant4 ,bu%y1 spread+ plants & tall plants require m room ?an l[ & sl5d]-gr[+ plants4 ,visit ! neighbor+ h>dw>e /ores & f>ms & exam9e z _m se$-gr[+ tools z possible to see h[ !y are con/ruct$ & h[ prop]ly us$4 ,practice plant+ ) ^! tools1 if possible4 ,illu/rations ( gra9 drills & o!r se$-plant+ ma*9es w be f\nd 9 se$ catalogues1 h>dw>e catalogues1 & 9 ! adv]tis+ columns ( agricultural pap]s4 ,,se$ ,,classification ,9 ord] to become famili> ) ! f>m & g>d5 se$s1 obta9 samples ( z _m ( !m z possible4 ,put !m 9 small bottles--homoeopa?ic vials = in/ance--or /ick a few ( ea* k9d on squ>es ( c>dbo>d4 ,arrange !m 9 gr\ps accord+ to resemblances or relation%ips1 comp>+ n only ! se$s b ! plants on :i* !y grew4 ,if y _c recall ! plants1 & !re is no collection available1 /udy ! illu/rations 9 se$ catalogues :i* c be obta9$ f se$sm54 ,! foll[+ gr\ps conta9 mo/ ( ! f>m & g>d5 se$s1 except+ fl[] se$s3 ,,grass ,,family3 ,,mu/>d ,,family3 ,,night%ade ,,family3 ,corn1 ,mu/>d1 ,potato1 ,:eat1 ,cabbage1 ,tomato1 ,oats1 ,caulifl[]1 ,egg ,plant1 ,rye1 ,coll>ds1 ,pepp]4 ,b>ley1 ,brussels ,spr\ts1 ,sorghum1 ,kale1 ,,goosefoot ,,family3 ,or*>d ,grass1 ,kohl ,rabi1 ,beet1 ,r$ ,top ,grass1 ,radi%1 ,*>d1 ,timo?y1 ,ruta ,baga1 ,sp9a*1 ,k5tucky ,blue ,grass4 ,turnips1 ,mangle ,wurzel4 ,wat]cress4 ,,g\rd ,,family3 ,,pea ,,or ,,legume ,,family3 ,cantel\pe1 ,,?i/le ,,family3 ,g>d5 ,pea1 ,citron1 ,arti*oke1 ,canada ,field ,pea1 ,cucumb]1 ,c>doon1 ,c[ ,pea1 ,g\rd1 ,*icory1 ,soy ,bean1 ,muskmelon1 ,d&elion1 ,bu% ,bean1 ,pumpk91 ,endive1 ,lima ,bean1 ,squa%1 ,lettuce1 ,velvet ,bean1 ,wat]melon1 ,salsify1 ,vet*1 ,cyml+4 ,sunfl[]1 ,clov]1 ,tansy4 ,alfalfa4 ,,p>sley ,,family3 ,c>away1 ,,lily ,,family3 ,,mall[ ,,family3 ,c>rot1 ,asp>agus1 ,okra1 ,cel]y1 ,g>lic1 ,cotton4 ,cori&]1 ,leek1 ,cum91 ,onion4 ,f5nel1 ,p>sley1 ,p>snip4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #de4 ,to %[ ! use ( ! k]nel to ! "y corn-plant4 ,! k]nel 0 c>efully remov$ f ! plant on ! "r :5 bo? plants 7 ( ! same size4 ,! result is a dw>f+ ( ! plant4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #df4 ,to %[ h[ deeply se$s %\ld be plant$4 ,se$s #a & #e did n spr\t because !y 7 n deep en\gh to get suffici5t moi/ure4 ,! corn-plants f spr\t+ se$s #b1 #c & #d all pu%$ _! sl5d] gr[+ po9ts to ! surface4 ,( ! beans1 ,no4 #f succe$$ 9 pull+ ! cotyl$ons to ! surface1 & has made a good plant4 ,nos4 #g & #h1 al?\gh !y made a h>d /ruggle1 7 n able to raise ! cotyl$ons ?r\gh s great a dep? ( soil1 & f9ally gave up ! /ruggle4 ,,transplant+ ,! se$s ( "s crops--cabbage1 tomato1 lettuce1 = example--are plant$ 9 w9d[ boxes1 hot-b$s1 cold frames or a corn] ( ! field or g>d54 ,:5 ! se$l+s h develop$ ?ree or f\r leaves or h become l>ge en\gh to cr[d "o ano!r1 !y are ?9n$ out or are transplant$ into o!r boxes1 frames or plots ( gr\nd1 or are transplant$ into ! field or g>d54 ,! "t & me?od ( transplant+ dep5d l>gely on ,! condition ( ! plant4 ,! condition ( ! soil4 ,! condition ( ! atmosph]e4 ,= be/ results 9 field plant+ ! plant %\ld be well gr[n1 /rong & /ocky1 ) well develop$ roots & ?ree or f\r /rong leaves4 ,! soil %\ld be ?or\ghly prep>$1 moi/ & fre%ly /irr$4 ,a moi/ day j be=e a light %[] is ! be/ "t4 ,^! conditions be+ pres5t1 ! plants are c>efully lift$ f ! se$ b$ ) z little di/urbance ( ! roots z possible & c>ri$ to ! field or g>d54 ,"s plants1 l cabbage1 w /& consid]able r\gh treatm5t1 :ile o!rs1 l ! eggplant1 require great] c>e4 ,9 ! field or g>d5 a hole is made = ea* plant ) ! h&1 a /ick or dibb] or any conv5i5t tool1 ! roots ( ! plant are c>efully plac$ 9 x & ! soil is press$ ab\t !m4 ,if ! soil is moi/ & fre%ly /irr$1 new roots w g5]ally />t 9 a v %ort "t4 ,plants t h be5 gr[n 9 pots1 small boxes or t9 cans1 z tomatoes & eggplants are sometimes gr[n1 may be quickly transplant$ 9 ! field 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,op5 ! furr[ ) a small pl[1 knock ! plants out ( ! pots or cans & place !m along ! l& side ( ! furr[ at ! prop] di/ances1 !n turn ! soil back aga9/ !m ) ! pl[4 ,:5 !re is a l>ge numb] ( plants to be set1 z 9 plant+ cabbage1 sweet potatoes1 etc41 by ! acre1 x is n always conv5i5t to wait = a cl\dy day or to def] op]ations till ! sun is l[ 9 ! aft]noon4 ,9 su* cases ! roots ( ! plants %\ld be dipp$ 9 wat] or 9 ?9 mud j be=e sett+ !m1 or a little wat] may be p\r$ into ea* hole z ! plant is put 94 ,! soil %\ld always be well firm$ ab\t ! roots4 ,! firm+ ( ! soil ab\t ! roots ( a newly set plant is z important z firm+ x ov] plant$ se$s4 ,! soil %\ld be pack$ s tightly t ! individual leaves w be torn (f :5 an attempt is made to pull ! plant up by !m4 ,9 dry or w>m wea!r x is a good plan to trim ! tops ( plants :5 sett+ !m4 ,?is c be done readily ) "s plants1 su* z cabbage & lettuce1 by tak+ a bundle ( !m 9 "o h& & ) ! o!r twi/+ (f ab\t half ( _! tops4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dg4 ,op]ations ( se$-plant+3 #a1 mak+ ! drill2 #b1 dropp+ ! se$s2 #c1 cov]+ ! se$s2 #d1 pack+ ! soil ov] ! se$s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dh4 ,a collection ( plant+ ma*9es4 ,! l>ge c5tral ma*9e is a grass & gra9 plant]4 ,! "o on ! left1 a potato plant]4 ,! "o on ! "r1 a corn1 bean1 & pea plant]4 ,! ?ree small] ma*9es 9 front are h& se$ plant]s4 ,! prop] "t to transplant fruit & ornam5tal trees & %rubs is dur+ ! fall1 w9t] & e>ly spr+1 :i* is _! dormant or re/+ season1 z ?is gives ! injur$ roots a *ance to recov] & />t new rootlets be=e ! foliage ( ! plant makes dem&s on !m = food & moi/ure4 ,9 tak+ up l>ge plants _m roots are brok5 or cru%$4 ,^! brok5 & injur$ roots %\ld be trimm$ (f ) a smoo? cut4 ,! tree or %rub is !n plac$ 9 ! hole prep>$ = x & ! soil c>efully fill$ 9 & pack$ ab\t ! roots4 ,aft] ! plant is set1 ! top %\ld be trimm$ back to correspond ) ! loss ( root4 ,if ! plant is n trimm$1 m %oots & leaves w />t into gr[? ?an ! damag$ roots c prop]ly furni% ) food & wat]1 & ! plant w make a weak gr[? or die4 ,!re are on ! m>ket a numb] ( h& transplant+ ma*9es :i*1 f _! lack ( p]fection1 h n come into g5]al use4 ,_m ( !m require m "t to op]ate ?an is consum$ 9 h& plant+4 ,a numb] ( l>ge ma*9es = transplant+ are 9 successful & satisfactory use on l>ge truck & tobacco f>ms4 ,^! ma*9es are drawn by horses & c>ry wat] = wat]+ ea* plant z x is set4 ,practice transplant+ 9 w9d[ boxes or 9 ! op5 soil & see h[ _m ( y\r plants w survive ! op]ation4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,spad+ ,,& ,,pl[+ ,we h le>n$ ! important conditions necess>y = ! spr\t+ ( se$s & = ! gr[? & developm5t ( roots4 ,we h also le>n$ some?+ ab\t ! soil1 its prop]ties1 & its relation to1 or its behavior t[>d ^! important conditions4 ,we are !re=e prep>$ to discuss intellig5tly me?ods ( treat+ ! soil to br+ ab\t1 or ma9ta91 ^! conditions4 ,,spad+ ,,! ,,soil ,! typical tool = prep>+ ! soil = root gr[? is a spade or spad+ =k 7,fig4 #di74 ,) ?is tool prop]ly us$ we c prep>e ! soil = a crop bett] ?an ) any o!r4 ,9 spad+1 ! spade or =k %\ld be pu%$ into ! soil ) ! foot ! full l5g? ( ! blade & ne>ly /raight d[n4 ,! h&le is !n pull$ back & ! spadeful ( e>? is pri$ loose1 lift$ slightly1 ?r[n a little =w>d1 & at ! same "t turn$4 ,! lumps are !n brok5 by /rik+ !m ) ! blade or tee? ( ! tool4 ,all we$s & tra% %\ld be cov]$ dur+ ! op]ation4 ,a common fault ( beg9n]s is to put ! spade 9 ! soil on a slant & only ab\t half ! l5g? ( ! blade1 & !n flop ! soil ov] 9 ! hole f :i* x came1 (t5 cov]+ ! edge ( ! unspad$ soil4 ,! good spad] works f side to side across 8 piece ( gr\nd1 keep+ a n>r[ tr5* or furr[ betwe5 ! spad$ & unspad$ soil1 into :i* we$s & tra% & manure may be drawn & ?or\ghly cov]$1 & also to prev5t cov]+ ! unspad$ soil4 ,if ?is "w has be5 well done ) ! ord9>y spade or =k & f9i%$ ) a rake1 ! result w be a b$ ( soil twelve to fifte5 in*es deep1 f9e & mell[ & well prep>$ = root p5etration1 = good v5tilation1 = ! absorb+ & hold+ ( moi/ure & w>m?4 ,?is me?od %\ld always be employ$ = small g>d5s & fl[] b$s4 ,,pl[+ ,= prep>+ l>ge areas ( soil ! pl[ is ! tool mo/ g5]ally us$4 ,,:y ,,d ,,we ,,spade ,,& ,,pl[8 ,to break & pulv]ize ! soil & make x s(t & mell[1 s ! roots ( plants may ent] x 9 se>* ( food1 & get a firm hold = ! support ( ! plant :i* is above gr\nd4 ,to make ! soil op5 & por\s1 s t x c m readily absorb ra9 z x falls on ! surface4 ,to *eck loss ( wat] by evaporation4 ,to admit air to ! roots ( plants4 ,also to all[ air to act *emically on ! m9]al & organic matt] ( ! soil & make !m available to ! crop4 ,to raise ! temp]ature ( soils 9 ! spr+1 or ( damp soils at any "t4 ,to mix manures & organic matt] ) ! soil4 ,! m ?or\ghly manure is di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! soil ! m easily plants w get x & ! great] w be its effect on ! soil4 ,to de/roy ! insect enemies ( ! plant by turn+ !m up to ! fro/ & ! birds4 ,to kill we$s4 ,we$s injure crops3 ,!y wa/e valuable moi/ure by pump+ x up f ! soil & s5d+ x out into ! air ?r\gh _! leaves4 ,9 ?is way !y d _! greate/ injury to crops4 ,!y cr[d & %ade ! crop4 ,!y take plant food :i* ! plant %\ld h4 ,spad+ & pl[+ br+ ab\t conditions necess>y = ! spr\t+ or g]m9ation ( se$s4 ,spad+ & pl[+ also t5d to br+ ab\t conditions necess>y = ! v important "w ( c]ta9 ( ! soil bact]ia4 ,,p>ts ,,( ,a ,,pl[ ,x w be f\nd t a good f>m pl[ has ! foll[+ p>ts 7,fig4 #ej73 ,a /&>d or /ock1 ! c5tral "p ( ! pl[ to :i* _m ( ! o!r p>ts are atta*$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,,spad+-,,=k ,,& ,,spade4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--;,a ,,wood ,,beam-,,pl[ a1 /ock2 b1 beam2 c1 h&les2 d1 clevis1 e1 %ackle1 f1 %>e2 g1 m\ld bo>d2 h1 l&side2 k1 jo9t] or skimm]1 l1 truck or :eel1 p1 po9t or nose1 s1 %94 ,a beam1 to :i* ! p[] is atta*$ by :i* ! pl[ is drawn4 ,"s pl[s h wood5 beams & o!rs h iron beams4 ,h&les by :i* ! pl[man guides & /eadies ! pl[ & also turns x at ! corn]s ( ! pl[$ gr\nd 9 go+ ab\t ! field4 ,a clevis1 :i* is atta*$ to ! end ( ! beam & is us$ to regulate ! dep? ( pl[+4 ,to ! clevis is atta*$ a draft r+ or %ackle1 to :i* ! horse or team is fa/5$4 ,to make ! pl[ run deep ! draft r+ or %ackle is plac$ 9 ! upp] holes or not*es ( ! clevis2 to make x run %all[ ! r+ is plac$ 9 ! l[] holes4 ,on "s pl[s !re are only not*es 9 ! clevis = hold+ ! r+1 !y answ] ! same purpose z holes4 ,! clevis is also us$ on "s pl[s to regulate ! wid? ( ! furr[4 ,by mov+ ! draft r+ or %ackle t[>ds ! pl[$ l& ! pl[ is made to cut a wid] furr[1 mov+ x away f ! pl[$ l& causes ! pl[ to cut n>r[]4 ,"s pl[s h a d\ble clevis s t ! draft r+ may be rais$ or l[]$1 or mov$ to "r or left4 ,) "s pl[s ! wid? ( ! furr[ is adju/$ by mov+ ! beam at its atta*m5t to ! h&les4 ,a %>e1 call$ by "s ! po9t1 :i* %e>s ! bottom ( ! furr[ slice f ! l&4 ,! %>e %\ld be %>p1 especially = pl[+ 9 grass l& & l& full ( t\gh roots4 ,if ! %>e1 p>ticul>ly ! po9t1 becomes worn s t x bevels f b5ea? upw>ds x w be h>d to keep ! pl[ 9 ! soil1 = x w t5d to slide up to ! surface4 ,if ?is happ5s ! %>e mu/ be r5ew$ or %>p5$4 ,pl[s are be+ made n[ ) %>e & po9t sep>ate1 & bo? ( ^! rev]sible 7,fig4 #ea71 s t if ei!r becomes worn on ! "u side x c be tak5 out & turn$ ov] & put back & x is all "r1 !y ?us become self-%>p5+4 ,a m\ldbo>d4 ,?is turns & breaks ! furr[ slice4 ,! degree to :i* ! m\ldbo>d pulv]izes dep5ds on ! /eepness ( its slant upw>d & ! abruptness ( its curve sidewise4 ,! /eep] x is & ! m abrupt ! curve1 ! great] is its pulv]iz+ p[]4 ,a /eep1 abrupt m\ldbo>d is adapt$ to light soils & to ! heavi] soils :5 !y are comp>atively dry4 ,?is k9d ( a pl[ is apt to puddle a clay soil if x is q moi/4 ,= break+ new l& a pl[ ) a long1 gradually slop+ %>e & m\ldbo>d is us$4 ,a l&slide1 :i* keeps ! pl[ 9 place4 ,a c\lt]4 ,"s pl[s h a /raight knife-l c\lt] 7,fig4 #eb7 :i* is fa/5$ to ! beam j 9 front ( ! m\ldbo>d & s]ves to cut ! furr[ slice f ! l&4 ,9 "s pl[s ?is is replac$ by an upw>d projection ( ! %>e2 ?is is wide at ! back & %>p 9 front & is call$ ! %9 ( ! pl[ f its resemblance to ! %9 bone4 ,! c\lt] is sometimes made 9 ! =m ( a %>p1 revolv+ disk 7,fig4 #ec71 call$ a roll+ c\lt]4 ,?is =m is v useful 9 sod gr\nd & 9 turn+ "u v9es & tall we$s4 ,x also less5s ! draft ( ! pl[4 ,a jo9t] or skimm] :i* skims /ubble & grass f ! surface ( ! soil & ?r[s !m into ! bottom ( ! furr[ :]e !y are completely cov]$4 ,! jo9t] helps also to pulv]ize ! soil4 ,a truck or :eel1 atta*$ "u ! end ( ! beam4 ,?is truck makes ! pl[ run /eadi]4 ,?is is sometimes us$ to make ! pl[ run %all[] by sett+ x l[ d[n4 ,?is is n "r1 = x !n acts z a brake & makes ! pl[ draw h>d]4 ,! dep? ( ! furr[ %\ld be adju/$ at ! clevis4 ,a pl[ n only has p>ts b x has "* also4 ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,a ,,good ,,pl[ ,a good pl[ %\ld be /rong 9 build & light 9 weight4 ,! draft %\ld be z light z possible4 ,! pl[ %\ld run /eadily4 ,a good pl[ %\ld n only turn ! soil b %\ld pulv]ize x z well4 ,:5 pl[+1 ! team %\ld be hit*$ to ! pl[ ) z %ort traces z possible1 & ! pl[ %\ld be s adju/$ t x w cut furr[s ( ! requir$ wid? & ?ickness ) ! lea/ possible draft on ! team & ! lea/ ex]tion on ! "p ( ! pl[man4 ,,! ,,furr[ ,,slice ,9 pl[+1 ! furr[ slice may be cut ?9 & wide & be turn$ ov] flat4 ,?is me?od is adapt$ to break+ new l& & heavy sod l&4 ,x may be cut ?ick & n>r[ & be turn$ up on edge4 ,or x may be cut ( su* a wid? & dep? t ! pl[ w turn x at an angle ( ab\t =ty-five degrees4 ,by ?is la/ me?od ! greate/ am\nt ( soil c be turn$ at lea/ exp5se ( labor2 ! furr[ slice c be m ?or\ghly brok52 ! greate/ surface is expos$ to ! action ( ! air1 & plant food is m ev5ly di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! soil4 ,,h[ ,,deep ,,%all ,,we ,,pl[8 ,we le>n$ 9 a previ\s *apt] t ! roots ( f>m plants develop l>gely 9 t "p ( ! soil :i* is work$ by ! pl[2 !re=e1 to h z mu* till$ soil z possible = root gr[?1 we %\ld g5]ally pl[ z deep z possible )\t turn+ too mu* ( ! subsoil to ! surface4 ,l&s t h be5 pl[$ deep %\ld be deep5$ gradually by pl[+ up a half-in* to an in* ( subsoil ea* ye> until ! pl[ rea*es a dep? ( at lea/ n9e or t5 in*es4 ,!re is an op9ion among _m f>m]s t s&y soils %\ld n be pl[$ deep4 ,b z ^! soils are apt to be lea*y x seems be/ to fill !m ) organic matt] to z great a dep? z possible to increase _! wat]-hold+ p[]1 & ?is c be/ be done by pl[+ f>m manures 9 deep4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--;,a ,,slip-,,nose ,,%>e4 ,n1 ,a ,,slip-,,nose4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--;,c1 ,,/raight ,,knife ,,c\lt]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ec4 ,an iron beam-pl[1 ) roll+ c\lt] & d\ble clevis4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--;,a ,,roll+ ,,c\lt] ,,h>r[4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--,,spr+-,,too!d ,,h>r[s4 ,9 _m p>ts ( ! ,s\? ! f>m]s use v small pl[s & small animals to draw !m4 ,! result is t ! soil is n prep>$ to a suffici5t dep? to all[ ( ! l>ge root developm5t necess>y = l>ge crops4 ,^! f>m]s ne$ l>g] tools & heavi] animals if !y expect to make mu* improvem5t 9 ! yield ( _! crops4 ,^! small pl[s & ?is %all[ pl[+ h done mu* to aid ! wa%+ & gulley+ ( ! hill f>ms by ra94 ,! %all[ lay] ( loose soil takes 9 ! ra9 readily1 b z ! h>d] soil b5ea? does n take ! wat] z readily1 ! %all[ pl[$ soil soon fills1 !n becomes mud1 & ! :ole mass goes d[n ! slope4 ,! l& w\ld wa% less if x _h n be5 pl[$ at all1 & lea/ ( all if x 7 pl[$ deep1 = !n !re w\ld be a deep res]voir ( loose soil :i* w\ld be able to hold a l>ge am\nt ( wat] until ! h>d] l[] soil c\ld take c>e ( x4 ,,break+ ,,out ,,! ,,middles ,"s f>m]s h a way :5 gett+ ! l& ready = a crop1 ( pl[+ ! r[s fir/ & !n break+ out ! middles or spaces betwe5 aft] ! crop is plant$4 ,?is is a poor practice1 z x int]f]es ) ?or\gh prep>ation ( ! soil4 ,! gr\nd c be m ?or\ghly pl[$ & brok5 up be=e ! crop is plant$ ?an aft]w>ds4 ,?is practice ( leav+ ! middles int]f]es ) prop] h>r[+ & aft]-cultivation4 ,,?r[+ ,,! ,,l& ,,up ,,9 ,,ridges ,_m f>m]s ?r[ ! l& up into ridges ) ! pl[ & !n plant on ! ridge4 ,:5 l& is ?r[n into ridges a great] am\nt ( surface is expos$ to ! air & a great] loss ( moi/ure by evaporation takes place1 !re=e ridge culture is m wa/eful ( soil wat] ?an level culture4 ,= ?is reason dry soils ev]y:]e & mo/ soils 9 dry climates %\ld1 :]ev] practicable1 be left flat4 ,on /iff1 heavy soils :i* are sl[ to dry out1 & on l[ bottom l&s x may be desirable to ridge ! l& to get ! soil dri$ out & w>m$ quick] 9 ! spr+4 ,late fall & e>ly plant] truck crops are (t5 plant$ on ! s\!rn slopes ( l[ ridges ?r[n up ) ! pl[ = w>m? & protection f cold w9ds4 ,,"t ,,to ,,pl[ ,! "t ( pl[+ w dep5d some:at on ! nature ( ! soil1 climate & ! crop4 ,m pl[+ is done 9 ! spr+ j be=e plant+ spr+ & summ] crops ?an at any o!r "t1 except+ 9 localities t plant l>ge areas ( w9t] gra9 & truck4 ,?is spr+ pl[+ %\ld be done e>ly1 = ! spr+ pl[+ t5ds to dry ! loos5$ soil some:at & all[s x to become w>m at an e>li] date1 & at ! same "t ! loos5$ soil t5ds to hold wat] 9 ! l[] soil = future use by ! crop & all[s ! soil to take 9 spr+ ra9s m readily4 ,if a cov] crop or gre5 manure crop is to be turn$ "u 9 ! spr+ x %\ld be done e>ly s z to prev5t ! crop to be turn$ "u f pump+ too mu* wat] out ( ! soil & ?us int]f]+ ) ! gr[? ( ! crop = :i* ! l& is be+ prep>$4 ,!re are "s p>ticul> advantages to be ga9$ by fall pl[+ 9 heavy soils3 ,imm$iately aft] h>ve/ ! l& is usually dry & easy to "w4 ,! soil pl[$ at ?is "t & left r\gh is act$ ^u physically by fro/ :i* pulv]izes x1 & *emically by ra9 & air :i* r5d]s plant food available4 ,insects are turn$ up & expos$ to fro/ & birds4 ,a great numb] ( we$s are de/roy$ & ! l& is m easily fitt$ = crops 9 ! spr+4 ,fall pl[+ %\ld be done z e>ly z possible1 especially 9 ! dry] regions1 to cat* all wat] possible4 ,x is n advisable to pl[ s&y soils 9 ! fall le/ plant food be wa%$ out ( !m4 ,:5 possible a cov] crop %\ld be put on fall pl[$ l& :]e !re is likely to be loss ( plant food by lea*+4 ,,b>e ,,fall[ ,! t]m fall[+ is sometimes appli$ to ! op]ation ( pl[+1 & sometimes ! l& is left b>e )\t a crop sometime aft] pl[+2 ?is is call$ b>e fall[+ ! l&4 ,b>e fall[+ %\ld n be practic$ on all soils4 ,x is adapt$3 ,to dry climates & dry seasons :]e x is desirable to cat* & save e possible drop ( ra9fall1 & :]e plant food w n be wa%$ out ( ! expos$ soils by ra9s4 ,to heavy clay l&s4 ,to l&s t are f\l ) we$s & insects4 ,to s\r soils :i* are sweet5$ by exposure to air & ra94 ,light s&y soils %\ld n be subject$ to b>e fall[ unless !y are v f\l ) we$s4 ,!y %\ld always be cov]$ ) a crop to prev5t loss ( plant food by lea*+4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,h>r[+ ,,& ,,roll+ ,,h>r[+ ,aft] spad+ or pl[+ ! next op]ation 9 ! prep>ation ( ! soil is g5]ally rak+1 h>r[+ or dragg+4 ,! objects ( ^! op]ations are3 ,to break lumps & clods left by ! pl[ & spade & to fur!r pulv]ize ! soil4 ,h>r[+ & rak+ aid 9 controll+ soil v5tilation1 & put ! soil 9 bett] condition to absorb moi/ure4 ,!y *eck ! loss ( moi/ure by mak+ a mul* ( f9e loose e>? on ! surface4 ,! h>r[ & rake de/roy ! we$s4 ,! h>r[ br+s ab\t conditions favorable to ! ev5 di/ribution ( se$s4 ,x is also ! tool g5]ally us$ to cov] se$s s[n broadca/4 ,h>r[+ is g5]ally done j be=e plant+1 & ) "s crops j aft]1 to cov] se$s or to smoo? ! gr\nd4 ,h>r[+ is also done 9 ! fir/ /ages ( gr[? ( "s crops to kill we$s & make a soil mul*4 ,! h>r[ %\ld always foll[ ! pl[ )9 a few h\rs unless x is desir$ to leave ! l& 9 a b>e fall or w9t] fall[4 ,at o!r times ( ! ye> ! lumps ( e>? are apt to dry out & become h>d & difficult to break4 ,if !re is b "o "w team on ! f>m x is a good plan dur+ ! pl[+ season to /op ! pl[ 9 "t to h>r[ ! day's pl[+ be=e ! day's "w ends4 ,,h>r[s ,!re are sev]al types ( h>r[s 9 use4 ,!y may be classifi$ accord+ to ! /yle ( _! tee? or cutt+ p>ts2 !y are z foll[s3 ,roll+ cutt] h>r[s4 ,spr+-too!d h>r[s4 ,spike-too!d h>r[s4 ,c\lt]-too!d h>r[s4 ,*a9 h>r[s4 ,bru% h>r[s4 ,plank or drag h>r[s4 ,^! types v>y 9 ! dep? to :i* !y cut1 & ! degree to :i* !y pulv]ize ! soil4 ,roll+ cutt] h>r[s4 ,h>r[s ( ?is type 7see ,fig4 #ed7 consi/ ( "o or m revolv+ %afts on :i* are arrang$ a numb] ( concave disks4 ,^! disks are ei!r entire1 not*$1 or made ( sev]al pieces fa/5$ toge!r4 ,examples ( ^! are ! disk1 cutaway & spad+ h>r[s4 ,^! h>r[s cut & move ! soil deep] ?an ! o!r types4 ,!y are especially adapt$ to "w on heavy clay soils4 ,! value ( ?is type ( h>r[ z moi/ure pres]v]s dep5ds on ! mann] 9 :i* !y are us$4 ,if ! disks are s set t !y cov] b a portion ( ! surface ) a mul* ( f9e e>? !y leave a ridge expos$ to ! action ( ! w9d & sun & ! rate ( evaporation is greatly increas$4 ,! disks %\ld be set at su* an angle t ! :ole surface %all be /irr$ or cov]$4 ,soils :i* ne$ ! disk h>r[ %\ld g5]ally be gone ov] aga9 ) "s %all[] work+ tool to smoo? ! surface4 ,an objection to ! roll+ cutt]s is t unless great c>e is tak5 !y w leave ! l& 9 ridges & valleys4 ,! two gangs ( disks ?r[ ! e>? 9 opposite directions4 ,!y are g5]ally set to ?r[ x f ! c5tre & ! result is a %all[ d\ble furr[ ! wid? ( ! ma*9e4 ,by lapp+ ea* "t ! furr[ is p>tially fill$1 b to get ! l& smoo? a smoo?+ h>r[ %\ld be us$ aft] ! roll+ cutt]4 ,spr+-too!d h>r[s 7,fig4 #ee74 ,spr+-too!d h>r[s ) _! curv$ spr+ tee? ent] ! soil readily1 draw mod]ately easy & pass ov] ob/ructions )\t mu* difficulty4 ,!y are v useful 9 new l& t is full ( roots & /umps & also /ony l&4 ,!y pulv]ize ! soil to an av]age dep?4 ,!y leave ! soil 9 ridges4 ,! ridges c be level$ by a smoo!r 9 ! %ape ( a piece ( plank atta*$ to ! re> ( ! h>r[4 ,on newly pl[$ grass l& !y t5d to te> up ! sod & leave x on ! surface4 ,!y also t5d to drag out co>se manures :5 pl[$ 94 ,! orig9al & m common =m ( ! spr+-too!d h>r[ is a float+ h>r[ :5 at "w4 ,t is1 x re/s on ! po9ts ( ! tee? & is dragg$ or float$ ov] ! gr\nd4 ,a new] =m ( spr+-too!d h>r[1 sometimes call$ ! fall[ cultivator1 is m\nt$ on high :eels & its action is l>gely controll$ by !m4 ,?is =m ( h>r[ is claim$ to d mu* bett] "w ?an ! float+ h>r[ & may 9 a l>ge measure displace ! roll+ cutt]4 ,! weight ( ?is h>r[ is entirely tak5 f ! soil except 9 ! :eel tracks1 & ! entire action is t ( pulv]iz+ & light5+ ! soil4 ,spike-too!d h>r[s 7,fig4 #ef74 ,! tee? ( ^! h>r[s are r\nd1 squ>e or diamond-%ap$ spikes fa/5$ into a wood or iron frame4 ,! tee? are set 9 a v]tical position or are incl9$ to ! re>4 ,^! h>r[s are %all[ 9 _! action2 !y run easily b t5d to compact ! soil m ?an ! o!r types & are !re=e bett] adapt$ to loose soils & to f9i%+ (f aft] ! "w ( ! deep cutt+ h>r[s4 ,!y are also us$ = cov]+ se$s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--,,spike-,,too!d ,,h>r[s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--;,a ,,c\lt]-,,too!d ,,h>r[4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--;,a ,,plank ,,h>r[4 ,c\lt]-too!d h>r[s4 ,! c\lt]-too!d h>r[s 7,fig4 #eg7 h tee? resembl+ ! c\lt] ( a pl[ twi/$ or b5t into v>i\s %apes4 ,! ,acme is a good example ( ?is class ( h>r[4 ,x cuts1 turns & pulv]izes ! surface soil some:at aft] ! mann] ( ! pl[4 ,x prep>es a f9e mul* & leaves an excell5t se$ b$4 ,x is an excell5t h>r[ to f9i% (f ) aft] us+ a roll+ cutt]4 ,*a9 h>r[s4 ,! *a9 h>r[ consi/s ( a web ( *a9s l9k$ toge!r4 ,!y h a wond]ful p[] = break+ clods & are useful = collect+ we$s4 ,!y %ake ! dirt f ! we$s & roll !m into heaps4 ,*a9 h>r[s t5d to compact ! soil4 ,bru% h>r[s4 ,! bru% h>r[ is a primitive =m made by fa/5+ bru% to a long pole4 ,bru% h>r[s are q useful = bru%+ 9 se$ & = pulv]iz+ manure broadca/$ on grass l&s4 ,plank h>r[s4 ,! plank h>r[ 7see ,fig4 #eh7 is made ( sev]al planks fa/5$ toge!r s t ea* plank ov]laps ! next "o to x1 l ! clapbo>ds ( a h\se4 ,?is h>r[ is z good z a roll] 9 f9+ & smoo?+ ! surface soil4 ,x is an excell5t tool to use alt]nately ) a spike or c\lt]-too!d h>r[ on lumpy soil4 ,?is tool rasps or gr9ds _m ( ! lumps or clods :i* slip by ! h>r[ tee? & presses o!rs into ! gr\nd s t ! h>r[ foll[+ c get a grip on !m4 ,x is a h>r[ t c be made on any f>m4 ,?is plank] is an excell5t tool to smoo? ! surface1 = broadca/+ small se$s & = plant+ truck crops4 ,,roll+ ,! objects ( roll+ are3 ,to compress ! surface soil s t ! h>r[ w d its "w m effici5tly1 also to break clods or lumps t may h resi/$ ! action ( ! h>r[4 ,to smoo? ! surface ( ! soil = an ev5 di/ribution ( small se$s1 & to firm ! soil ar\nd su* se$s aft] !y are plant$ s t !y w keep moi/ & spr\t readily4 ,to give compactness to soils t are light & loose & ?us enable !m to hold moi/ure & plant food bett]4 ,to press into ! gr\nd ! roots ( plants p>tly dislodg$ by ! fro/4 ,to remove ! conditions favorable to ! developm5t ( _m k9ds ( insects4 ,to s9k surface /ones s t !y w n int]f]e ) h>ve/+ ! crop4 ,light por\s soils may be roll$ at any "t1 b clay soils c be roll$ to advantage only :5 !y are /iff & cloddy4 ,spr+-s[n gra9 is (t5 roll$ z soon z s[n4 ,?is is all "r 9 ord9>y spr+ wea!r1 b if %[]s are frequ5t & ! soil is q moi/ ! roll+ %\ld be omitt$ till aft] ! gra9 is up4 ,! same practice w apply to autumn-s[n gra9 also4 ,if ! soil is dry ! roll+ helps x to pump wat] up to ! se$s4 ,b if x is moi/ & %[]s are frequ5t ! comb9$ action ( ! roll] & ! ra9 is to make s ?ick a cru/ t _m ( ! se$s w n be able to =ce _! way ?r\gh x or w be smo!r$ by poor v5tilation4 ,aft] ! gra9 is up ! roll+ may be done to advantage1 z x !n makes a firm soil ab\t ! roots ( ! plants1 a condition ( b5efit to gra9 crops4 ,! mo/ simple =m ( roll] is a solid or holl[ cyl9d] ( wood fa/5$ into a frame by :i* x is drawn4 ,"s roll]s h spikes or blunt atta*m5ts fa/5$ to _! surfaces = break+ clods4 ,a roll] t is q popul> consi/s ( a cyl9d] ( press$ /eel4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,leaves ,,facts ,,ab\t ,,leaves ,we f\nd 9 an e>li] lesson t all ( our f>m plants h roots1 /ems1 leaves1 fl[]s1 fruit & se$s4 ,we /udi$ ! root fir/ z be+ ! mo/ important "p ( ! plant to ! f>m]4 ,! se$ 0 ! next "p /udi$1 = t 0 consid]$ ! next mo/ important1 because ! se$ is ! ma9 reliance = new plants4 ,! "p next 9 importance is ! leaf & t we w n[ /udy4 ,if y w g into ! field & obs]ve ! leaves on a numb] ( plants1 y w f9d t ! foll[+ facts are true3 ,!y are all gre54 ,!y are flat & ?94 ,_m ( !m are v broad4 ,"s ( ! leaves on a s+le bran* are l>g] ?an o!rs on ! same bran*1 & "s h long] /ems ?an o!rs4 ,mo/ ( !m h a r d>k glossy upp] surface & a light] r\gh] "u surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ei4 ,to %[ transpiration4 ,plant ,a 0 set 9 ! sunlight1 plant ,b 0 left 9 ! d>k] "p ( ! room4 ,a has transpir$ mu* m ?an ,b1 %[+ t sunlight is necess>y = ?is "w4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--;,,am\nt ,,( ,,transpiration ,?is plant transpir$ )9 #dh h\rs an am\nt ( wat] equal to ! color$ liquid 9 ! bottle /&+ on ! j>1 m ?an #f ounces4 ,! leaves on ! l[] bran*es ( ! trees are spread out 9 a m or less flat lay] & h _! glossy surfaces all turn$ up1 :ile ^? on bran*es 9 ! tops ( trees or %rubs are arrang$ all ar\nd ! bran*1 ! glossy surface be+ turn$ up4 ,:at are ! reasons = ^! facts8 ,a /udy ( ! "w ( ! leaves & ! conditions necess>y = !m to p]=m _! "w w help u to answ] ?is "q4 ,,! ,,uses ,,( ,,leaves ,,to ,,plants ,exp]im5t4--7,see ,fig4 #ei74 ,take a pot or tumbl] 9 :i* a "y plant is gr[+1 also a piece ( pa/ebo>d l>ge en\gh to cov] ! top ( ! pot2 cut a slit f ! edge to ! c5tre ( ! pa/ebo>d1 !n place x on ! top ( ! pot1 lett+ ! plant ent] ! slit4 ,n[ close ! slit ) wax or tall[1 mak+ x p]fectly tight ab\t ! /em4 ,if ! plant is n too l>ge1 inv]t a tumbl] ov] x1 lett+ ! edge ( ! tumbl] re/ on ! pa/ebo>d2 if a tumbl] is n l>ge en\gh use a glass j>4 ,if a pott$ plant is n conv5i5t a slip or a se$l+ bean or pea plac$ 9 a tumbl] ( wat] w s]ve ! purpose4 ,prep>e sev]al & place "s 9 a sunny w9d[ & leave o!rs 9 ! room :]e x is d>k]1 & obs]ve !m f "t to "t4 ,9 ! case ( ^? plants t 7 set 9 ! sunny w9d[ moi/ure w be se5 collect+ on ! inn] surface ( ! tumbl]4 ,:]e does ?is come f8 ,x is absorb$ f ! soil by ! roots & is s5t ) its load ( dissolv$ plant food up ?r\gh ! /ems to ! leaves4 ,!re mo/ ( ! wat] is pass$ f ! leaves to ! air & is cond5s$ on ! sides ( ! glass4 ,a "w ( leaves !n is to ?r[ (f or to transpire moi/ure & ?us make room = a new supply ( food-lad5 moi/ure4 ,?is wat] is ?r[n (f ?r\gh little pores or m\?s or /omata :i* are v small & v num]\s on ! "u side ( ! leaf4 ,x w be notic$ t ! plant n plac$ 9 ! sunlight transpires v little moi/ure1 %[+ t sunlight helps ! leaves 9 ?is "w ( transpiration4 ,h[ mu* wat] does a plant transpire or ?r[ (f f its leaves8 ,exp]im5t4--7,see ,fig4 #fj74 ,fill a common qu>t fruit j> or c ) soil & plant 9 x a k]nel ( corn1 a bean1 a cotton se$ or se$ ( "s o!r plant4 ,aft] ! plant has gr[n to be twelve or fifte5 in*es high1 cut a piece ( pa/ebo>d a little l>g] ?an ! top ( ! j>1 cut a hole 9 ! c5tre z l>ge z ! /em ( ! plant & make a slit f edge to c5tre4 ,soak ! pa/ebo>d 9 melt$ wax or p>aff9e c&le4 ,cool x & !n place x ov] ! j>1 slipp+ x ar\nd ! plant /em4 ,n[ sold] ! pa/ebo>d to ! j> ) melt$ c&le mak+ ! jo9ts tight all ! way ar\nd4 ,!n close up ! slit & ! hole ab\t ! /em4 ,! j> is n[ completely seal$ & !re is no way = wat] to escape except ?r\gh ! plant4 ,! plant %\ld be well wat]$ be=e ! j> is clos$4 ,n[ weigh ! j> & set 9 ! sunlight4 ,weigh aga9 ! next day4 ,! diff]5ce 9 ! two weights w repres5t ! am\nt ( wat] transpir$ by ! plant4 ,! weigh+s may be repeat$ until moi/ure gives out4 ,if x is desir$ to cont9ue ?is exp]im5t "s "t1 a small hole %\ld be cut 9 ! pa/ebo>d be=e x is fa/5$ to ! j>4 ,?is hole is = add+ wat] to ! j> f "t to "t4 ,! hole %\ld be kept clos$ ) a cork4 ,! am\nt ( wat] add$ %\ld always be weigh$ & acc\nt tak5 ( x 9 ! foll[+ weigh+s4 ,:ile ?is plant is gr[+ x w be well to wrap ! j> ) pap] to protect ! roots f ! light4 ,x has be5 f\nd t ! am\nt ( wat] necess>y to gr[ a plant to maturity is equal to f #cjj to #ejj times ! weight ( ! plant :5 dry4 ,?is gives u an idea ( ! v great importance ( wat] to plants4 ,exp]im5t4--,take a few leaves f a plant ( cotton1 bean1 clov] or o!r plant t has be5 gr[+ 9 ! sunlight2 boil !m = a few m9utes to s(t5 ! tissues1 !n place !m 9 alcohol = a day or until ! gre5 color+ matt] is extract$ by ! alcohol4 ,wa% ! leaves by tak+ !m f ! alcohol & putt+ !m 9 a tumbl] ( wat]4 ,!n put !m 9 sauc]s 9 a weak solution ( iod9e4 ,! leaf w be se5 to gradually d>k52 ?is w cont9ue until x becomes d>k purple or almo/ black 7,fig4 #fa74 ,we h already le>n$ t iod9e turns />* ?is color1 s we conclude t leaves mu/ conta9 />*4 7,five or t5 c5ts wor? ( t9cture ( iod9e f a drug /ore dilut$ to ab\t ! color ( weak tea w be suffici5t = ^! leaf exp]im5ts47 ,exp]im5t4--,if a pott$ plant 0 us$ = ! la/ exp]im5t1 set x away 9 a d>k closet aft] tak+ ! leaves = ! exp]im5t4 ,a day or two aft]1 take leaves f x be=e remov+ x f ! closet4 ,boil ^! leaves & treat !m ) alcohol z 9 ! previ\s exp]im5t4 ,!n wa% !m & te/ !m ) iod9e z be=e4 ,no />* w be f\nd 9 ! leaves 7,fig4 #fb74 ,! />* t 0 9 !m :5 plac$ 9 ! closet has disappe>$4 ,n[ pa/e "s ?ick pap] labels on "s ( ! leaves ( a plant expos$ to ! sunlight4 ,aft] a few h\rs remove ! leaves t h ! labels on !m1 boil1 treat ) alcohol & te/ ) ! iod9e4 ,9 ?is case />* w be f\nd 9 all p>ts ( ! leaf except ! "p ov] :i* ! label 0 pa/$ 7,fig4 #fc74 ,if ! sunlight is int5se & ! label ?91 "s />* w appe> "u x4 ,accord+ to ^! la/ exp]im5ts1 leaves conta9 />* at c]ta9 times1 & ?is />* seems to appe> :5 ! leaf is 9 ! sunlight & to disappe> :5 ! light is cut (f4 ,! fact is t ! leaves manufacture />* = ! plant & sunlight is necess>y = ?is "w4 ,! />* is !n *ang$ to sug> :i* is c>ri$ by ! sap to o!r p>ts ( ! plant :]e x is aga9 *ang$ to />* to be built into ! plant /ructure or /or$ = future use4 ,exp]im5t4--,take leaves f a plant ( silv]-leaf g]anium gr[+ 9 ! sunlight4 ,if ?is plant _c be _h1 ! leaves f "s o!r v>iegat$ :ite & gre5 leav$ plant w d4 ,boil ^! leaves1 treat ) alcohol1 wa% & te/ ) iod9e 7,fig4 #fd74 ,/>* w be f\nd 9 ! leaf :]ev] !re 0 gre5 color+ matt] 9 x1 :ile ! p>ts t 7 :ite w %[ no />*4 ,! gre5 color+ matt] seems to h some?+ to d ) ! />* mak+1 9 fact />* is manufactur$ only :]e x is pres5t4 ,?is color+ matt] is call$ *lorophyl or leaf gre54 ,we are told by ! *emi/s t ?is />* is made f c>bon & wat]4 ,!re exi/s 9 ! air a gas call$ c>bonic acid gas2 ?is gas is compos$ ( c>bon & oxyg54 ,x is brea!d out ( ! lungs ( animals & is produc$ by ! burn+ & decay ( organic matt]4 ,! "u side ( ! leaf conta9s hundr$s ( little pores or m\?s call$ /omata4 ,?is gas mix$ ) air ent]s ^! m\?s4 ,! gre5 "p ( ! leaf aid$ by ! sun takes hold ( ! gas & sep>ates ! c>bon f ! oxyg54 ,! oxyg5 is all[$ to g free1 b ! c>bon is made to unite ) wat] & =m />*4 ,exp]im5t4--,! escape ( ?is oxyg5 gas may be se5 by tak+ "s wat] we$ f ei!r fre% or salt wat] & plac+ x 9 a glass j> ( ! k9d ( wat] f :i* x came1 !n set ! j> 9 ! sunlight4 ,aft] a "t bubbles ( gas w be se5 collect+ & ris+ to ! surface4 ,if a mass ( we$ l ! gre5 scum ( fre% wat] ponds or gre5 sea lettuce be us$1 ! bubbles ( gas w become entangl$ 9 ! mass & w cause x to rise to ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,at ! same "t prep>e ano!r j> ( ! we$ & place x some:]e out ( ! sun2 v few bubbles w be se5 to rise & ! we$ w settle to ! bottom ( ! j> 7,fig4 #fe74 ,all ( ! food ( ! plant1 :e!r tak5 f ! air or f ! soil is dige/$ 9 ! leaves1 & sunlight & air are necess>y = ?is "w4 ,ano!r function ( leaves !n is to dige/ food = ! plant4 ,important functions ( leaves !n are3 ,to transpire moi/ure s5t up by ! roots4 ,to manufacture />* by comb9+ "s ( ! wat] s5t up by ! roots ) c>bon tak5 f ! air4 ,to dige/ ! />* & food s5t up by ! roots4 ,to d ^! ?+s well leaves mu/ be connect$ ) a /rong1 heal?y root sy/em & mu/ h pl5ty ( light & air4 ,we are n[ ready to give reasons = ! facts ab\t leaves m5tion$ 9 ! fir/ "p ( ! *apt] 7see page #aji74 ,leaves are gre5 because ! gre5 color+ matt] is necess>y = ! leaf to d its "w4 ,leaves are flat & ?9 & broad 9 ord] t !y may pres5t a l>ge surface to ! air & sunlight4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fa4 ,to %[ t gr[+ leaves conta9 />*4 #a4 ,repres5ts a gre5 cotton leaf z pick$ f ! plant4 #b4 ,is ! same leaf aft] tak+ out ! gre5 color+ matt]2 ! leaf is :ite4 #c4 ,! same leaf aft] treatm5t ) weak iod9e turn$ to a d>k purple1 %[+ ! pres5ce ( />*4 7,draw+s by ,m4,e4 ,fel?am47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fb4 ,to %[ t />* disappe>s f ! leaf :5 ! plant is plac$ 9 ! d>k4 ,! plant f :i* 0 tak5 ! leaf repres5t$ 9 ,fig #fa1 0 imm$iately plac$ 9 a d>k closet = #bd h\rs4 ,!n leaf #d 0 tak5 f x2 #e repres5ts ?is leaf aft] ! *lorophyl 0 tak5 f x3 x is :ite2 #f is ! same aft] treatm5t ) iod9e4 ,! leaf rema9s :ite1 %[+ no />*4 7,draw+s by ,m4,e4 ,fel?am47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fc4 ,to %[ t sunlight is necess>y = />*-mak+ by leaves4 ,leaf #g _h a pap] label /uck to its upp] surface a c\ple ( h\rs :ile ! plant 0 expos$ to sunlight2 #h is ! same leaf aft] ! *lorophyl 0 tak5 out1 & #i repres5ts x aft] treatm5t ) iod9e4 ,! leaf turn$ purple 9 all p>ts except ! "p t 0 %ad$ by ! label4 ,/>* 0 remov$ f ! portion "u ! label1 b 0 n r5ew$ because ! label kept out ! necess>y sunlight4 7,draw+s by ,m4,e4 ,fel?am47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fd4 ,to %[ t *lorophyl is necess>y = />* =mation 9 ! leaf4 #aj is a v>iegat$ leaf f a silv]-leav$ g]anium2 ! c5t] is an irregul> pat* ( gre51 ) an irregul> bord] ( :ite4 #aa1 aft] tak+ out ! gre54 #ab1 aft] iod9e treatm5t1 ! leaf turns purple only :]e x 0 orig9ally gre51 %[+ t no />* =ms 9 ! :ite bord]4 7,draw+s by ,m4,e4 ,fel?am47 ,"s leaves on ! bran* are l>g] ?an o!rs because 9 ! /ruggle = light & air !y h _h a bett] *ance ?an ! o!rs or !y h _h m ( ! food :i* has come up f ! root4 ,"s ( ! leaves h develop$ long] /ems ?an o!rs 9 _! ef=t to rea* out aft] light & air4 ,mo/ leaves h ! little m\?s ?r\gh :i* air is tak5 9 & wat] & oxyg5 giv5 out on ! r\gh side1 & t side is turn$ d[n t[>d ! e>? probably s t ra9 & du/ w n *oke ! little pores4 ,! leaves ( ! l[] bran*es t5d to spread out 9 a broad1 flat plane because 9 ! ef=t to get light no leaf w gr[ directly "u & 9 ! %ad[ ( ano!r1 :ile on ^? bran*es :i* gr[ /raight up f ! top ( ! tree ! leaves c get light f all sides & s arrange !mselves ar\nd ! /em4 ,is x ( any value to ! plant gr[] to "k ^! facts ab\t leaves8 ,x is1 = kn[+ ^! ?+s he c bett] und]/& ! necessity ( c>+ = ! leaves ( 8 gr[+ plants to see t _! "w is n int]f]$ )4 ,,h[ ,,! ,,"w ,,( ,,"s ,,leaves ,,is ,,int]f]$ ,,) ,_m p :o gr[ h\se plants h tr\ble 9 keep+ !m well clo!d ) leaves1 = in/ance1 ! g]anium & ! rubb] plant4 ,! leaves are con/antly turn+ yell[ & dropp+ (f or dry+ up4 ,?is sometimes occurs f ov]-wat]+ or n suffici5tly wat]+ ! soil 9 ! pot or box4 ,if ! wat]+ is all "r ! tr\ble may occur 9 ?is way3 ,! air ( ! h\se is q dry1 especially 9 w9t]4 ,z a result transpiration f ! leaf may be excessive4 ,m wat] is transpir$ ?an is necess>y1 consequ5tly m is pump$ by ! roots & ) x m food is s5t to ! leaf ?an x c take c>e (4 ,z ! excess ( wat] is transpir$ ! excess ( food is left 9 ! leaf4 ,! t5d5cy is to clog its pores & !re=e int]f]e ) its "w1 & gradually weak5 & f9ally kill x4 ,! rem$y = ?is is to spray ! leaves frequ5tly s z to keep ! air ab\t !m moi/ & s *eck transpiration4 ,keep+ a vessel ( wat] ne> !m helps also z ?is t5ds to keep ! air moi/4 ,du/ sometimes *okes ! leaves4 ,wa%+ or spray+ rem$ies ?is4 ,sometimes h\se plants1 & out-door plants z well1 become cov]$ ) a small1 gre5 insect call$ ! plant l\se or aphis4 ,?is insect has a %>p beak l a mosquito & x sucks ! juices f ! leaf & causes x to curl up1 int]f]+ ) its "w & f9ally kill+ x4 ,frequ5t spray+ ) wat] w t5d to keep ^! away4 ,a sur] rem$y aga9/ !m is to spray ! plants ) weak tobacco wat] made by soak+ tobacco or snuff 9 wat]1 or to fumigate !m ) tobacco smoke4 ,sometimes ! "u side ( ! leaf becomes infe/$ ) a v small mite call$ r$ spid] because x sp9s a web4 ,^! mites injure ! leaf by suck+ sap f x4 ,!y c be kept 9 *eck by frequ5t spray+ = !y d n l wat]4 ,if1 !n1 we are c>eful to frequ5tly spray ! leaves ( our h\se plants we w h v little tr\ble f aphis1 r$ spid] or ov] transpiration4 ,! aphis1 or plant l\se1 is (t5 v num]\s on out-door plants1 = in/ance1 ! rose1 *rysan!mum1 cabbage1 & fruit trees4 ,!y v>y 9 color f gre5 to d>k br[n or black4 ,!y are treat$ 9 ! same way z ^? on ! h\se plants4 ,"s famili> out-door insects :i* int]f]e ) leaf "w are ! common potato bug1 ! gre5 cabbage worm1 ! rose slug1 ! elm tree leaf beetle1 ! cank] worm1 ! tomato worm4 ,^! insects & _m o!rs eat ! leaves 7,fig4 #fg74 ,!y *ew & swall[ _! food & are call$ *ew+ insects4 ,all insects :i* *ew ! leaves ( plants c be de/roy$ by putt+ poison on _! food4 ,! common poisons us$ = ?is purpose are ,p>is gre5 & ,london purple1 :i* conta9 ars5ic1 & are us$ at ! rate ( "o teaspoonful to a pail ( wat] or "o-f\r? p\nd to a b>rel ( wat]4 ,?is is spr9kl$ or spray$ on ! leaves ( ! plants4 ,ano!r poison us$ is :ite hellebore4 ,?is loses its poison+ qualities :5 expos$ to ! air = a "t4 ,!re=e x is saf] to use ab\t ! fl[] g>d5 & on plants :i* are soon to be us$ z food or ^: fruit is to be us$ soon1 l cabbages & curr5t bu%es4 ,?is hellebore is sift$ on ! plant full /r5g?1 or x may be dilut$ by mix+ "o "p ( hellebore ) "o or two p>ts ( fl\r1 pla/]1 or lime4 ,x is also us$ 9 wat]1 putt+ "o ounce ( hellebore 9 ?ree gallons ( wat] & !n spray+ x on ! plants4 ,plants may be spray$ by us+ a wat]+ pot ) a f9e rose or spr9kl]1 or an old hair-bru% or clo!s-bru%4 ,= l>ge plants or l>ge numb]s ( small] plants spray pumps ( v>i\s sizes are us$4 ,sometimes *ew+ insects on food plants & suck+ insects on all plants are treat$ by spray+ !m ) soapy solutions or oily solutions :i* injure _! bodies4 ,! "w ( ! leaf is also int]f]$ ) by diseases :i* attack ! leaves & cause p>ts or ! :ole leaf to turn yell[ or br[n or become bli/]$ or fill$ ) holes4 ,! common rem$y = mo/ ( ^! diseases is call$ ! ,bordeaux ,mixture4 ,x is prep>$ z foll[s3 ,dissolve f\r p\nds ( blue vitriol 7blue /one1 or copp] sulphate7 9 sev]al gallons ( wat]4 ,!n slake f\r p\nds ( lime4 ,mix ! two & add en\gh wat] to make a b>relful4 ,! mixture is !n spray$ on ! plants4 ,= m detail$ directions = spray+ plants & combat+ insects & diseases write to y\r ,/ate ,exp]im5t ,/ation & to ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture at ,wa%+ton1 ,d4,c4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fe4 ,to %[ ! giv+ (f ( gas by leaves1 & t sunlight is necess>y = x4 ,! j>s conta9 seawe$4 ,a 0 set 9 ! sun & develop$ en\gh gas to float "p ( ! plant4 ,b 0 left 9 ! d>k] "p ( ! room & develop$ v little gas4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ff4 ,se$l+ radi%es rea*+ = light4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fg4 ,elm leaves injur$ by ! import$ elm-tree leaf beetle1 a *ew+ insect4 ,! "w ( ! leaves ( h\se plants is (t5 int]f]$ ) by n giv+ !m suffici5t sunlight4 ,g>d5 & field plants are sometimes plant$ s ?ick t !y cr[d ea* o!r & %ut ! light & air f ea* o!r1 or we$s are all[$ to gr[ & d ! same ?+1 ! result be+ t ! leaves _c d good "w & ! plant becomes weak & sickly4 ,we$s are de/roy$ by pull+ !m up & expos+ _! roots to ! sun4 ,?is %\ld be done be=e ! we$s blossom1 to prev5t !m f produc+ fre% se$s = a new crop ( we$s4 ,"s we$s h fle%y roots--= example1 dock1 ?i/le--9 :i* food is /or$2 ^! roots g deep 9 ! gr\nd1 & :5 ! upp] "p ( ! plant is cut or brok5 (f ! root s5ds up new %oots to take ! place ( ! old4 ,"s h und]gr\nd /ems 9 :i* food is /or$ = ! same purpose4 ,! sure/ way to get rid ( su* we$s1 9 fact1 ( all we$s1 is to prev5t _! leaves f gr[+ & mak+ />* & dige/+ food = !m4 ,?is is accompli%$ by con/antly cutt+ (f ! "y %oots z soon z !y appe> above ! soil1 or by gr[+ "s crop t w smo!r !m4 ,! con/ant ef=t to make new gr[? w soon exhau/ ! supply ( /or$ food & ! we$ w die4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,/ems ,,:at ,,are ,,/ems ,,=8 ,visit ! f>m or g>d5 & ! fields to exam9e /ems & /udy _! g5]al appe>ances & habits ( gr[?4 ,notice t _m plants1 l ! trees1 bu%es & _m vegetable & fl[]+ plants1 h /ems :i* are v mu* bran*$1 :ile o!rs h app>5tly s+le /ems ) b few or no bran*es4 ,exam9e ^! /ems c>efully & note t !re are leaves on "s "p ( all ( !m & t j above ! po9t :]e ea* leaf is fa/5$ to ! /em !re is a bud :i* may sometime produce a new bran* 7,fig4 #fh74 ,if ! /ems ( trees & o!r woody plants be exam9$ 9 ! w9t] aft] ! leaves h fall51 x w be se5 t ! buds are /ill !re1 & t j bel[ ea* bud is a m>k or leaf sc> left by ! fall5 leaf4 ,^! buds are ! beg9n+s ( new bran*es = ano!r ye>'s gr[?4 ,on "s bran*es w be f\nd also fl[]s & fruit or se$ vessels4 ,buds & leaves or buds & leaf sc>s di/+ui% /ems f roots4 ,"s plants h /ems "u ! soil z well z above x4 ,^! und]gr\nd /ems resemble roots b c be di/+ui%$ f !m by ! r+s or jo9ts :]e w be f\nd buds & small scale-l leaves 7,fig4 #fi74 ,quit*-grass or wiregrass1 ,burmuda grass1 :ite potato & arti*oke are examples ( und]gr\nd /ems4 ,n[ /udy ! habit ( gr[? ( ^! /ems4 ,notice t3 ,"s plants gr[ erect ) /rong1 /iff /ems1 = example1 corn1 sunfl[]1 maple1 p9e1 elm & o!r trees4 ,_m ( ^! erect /ems h bran*es rea*+ out into ! air 9 all directions4 ,/& "u a tree close to ! /em or trunk & look up into ! tree & notice t ! leaves are ne> ! out] ends ( ! bran*es :ile 9 ! c5tre ( ! tree ! bran*es are ne>ly b>e4 ,:y is ?is8 ,if y rememb] ! "w ( leaves & ! conditions necess>y = _! "w y w be able to answ] ?is "q4 ,leaves ne$ light & air = _! "w1 & ^! erect1 bran*+ /ems hold ! leaves up & spread !m out 9 ! light & air4 ,notice t :]e sev]al trees gr[ close toge!r1 !y are "o-sid$1 & t ! longe/ & l>ge/ bran*es are on ! outside ( ! gr\p & t !y h m leaves ?an ! inn] bran*es4 ,:y8 ,:y d ! trees 9 ?ick woods h mo/ ( ! liv+ bran*es & be> mo/ ( _! leaves away up 9 ! top ( ! tree8 ,"s /ems in/ead ( /&+ up erect climb up on o!r plants or objects by means ( spr+like t5drils :i* twi/ ab\t ! object & s hold up ! sl5d] /em4 ,on ! grape v9e ^! t5drils are sl5d] bran*es4 ,on ! sweet pea & g>d5 pea !y are p>ts ( ! leaves4 ,! trumpet creep] & ,engli% ivy climb by means ( air roots4 ,! na/urtium climbs by means ( its leaf /ems4 ,o!r /ems get up into ! light & air ) _! leaves by tw9+ ab\t upright objects4 ,= example1 ! morn+ glory & pole bean4 ,"s /ems w be f\nd t spread _! leaves out to ! sun by creep+ ov] ! gr\nd4 ,sweet potato1 melon1 squa%1 & cucumb] v9es are examples ( su* plants4 ,"o use ( ! /ems ( plants !n is to support ! leaves1 fl[]s & fruit1 & expose !m to ! mu* ne$$ light & air4 ,exp]im5t4--,get a piece ( grape v9e & cut x into pieces f\r or five in*es long2 notice t ! cut surface appe>s to be full ( little holes4 ,cut a piece f betwe5 jo9ts1 place "o end 9 y\r m\? & bl[ h>d4 ,x w be f\nd t air c be bl[n ?r\gh ! piece ( v9e4 ,n[ p\r ab\t an in* ( wat] 9 a tumbl] or cup & color x ) a few drops ( r$ ink4 ,!n /& "s ( ! pieces ( grape v9e 9 ! color$ wat]4 ,9 a few h\rs ! color$ wat] w appe> at ! upp] ends ( ! /icks4 ,capill>y =ce has caus$ ! color$ wat] to rise ?r\gh ! small tubes 9 ! v9e4 ,repeat ?is exp]im5t ) twigs ( sev]al k9ds ( trees & s(t gre5 plants1 z elm1 maple1 sunfl[]1 corn1 etc4 ,x w n be possible to bl[ ?r\gh ^! twigs1 b ! r$ wat] w rise ?r\gh !m by osmose1 & 9 a few h\rs w appe> at ! upp] ends4 ,if "s leaves are left on ! /ems ! color$ wat] w appe> 9 !m4 ,"s :ite fl[]s c be color$ 9 ?is way4 ,9 ?is mann] ! /em c>ries plant food dissolv$ 9 wat] f ! roots to ! leaves1 & aft] ! leaves h dige/$ x c>ries x back to v>i\s p>ts ( ! plant4 ,! /em !n s]ves z a conductor or a passage = food & moi/ure betwe5 roots & leaves4 ,visit a /rawb]ry b$ or se>* = wild /rawb]ry plants4 ,notice t f ! old] & l>g] plants are s5t out long1 sl5d]1 leafless /ems ) a bud at ! tip4 ,^! /ems are call$ runn]s4 ,f9d "s runn]s t h =m$ roots at ! tip & h develop$ a tuft ( leaves !re1 =m+ new plants4 ,f9d "s black raspb]ry plants & notice t "s ( ! canes h b5t ov] & tak5 root at ! tips s5d+ up a new %oot & ?us =m+ a new plant4 ,y "k h[ rapidly wire grass & ,b]muda grass w ov]run ! g>d5 or f>m4 ,"o way 9 :i* !y d ?is is by s5d+ out und]gr\nd /ems :i* take root at ! jo9ts & s =m new plants4 ,ano!r use ( ! /em !n is to produce new plants4 ,on ! f>m we make use ( ?is habit ( /ems :5 we wi% to produce new :ite potato plants4 ,we cut an old potato 9 pieces & plant !m4 ,! buds 9 ! eyes gr[ & =m new plants4 ,"o way ( gett+ new grape plants is to take a rip5$ v9e 9 ! fall & cut x 9 pieces ) two or ?ree buds & plant !m s t "o or bo? ( ! buds are cov]$ ) soil4 ,! pieces w take root & 9 ! spr+ w s5d up new %oots & ?us =m new plants4 ,y c obta9 new plants f g]anium1 v]b5a1 na/urtium & _m o!r fl[]+ plants1 by cutt+ & plant+ slips or p>ts ( ! /ems f !m4 ,9 p>ts ( ! ,s\? new sweet potato plants are obta9$ by cutt+ p>ts ( ! /ems f gr[+ plants & plant+ !m4 ,flori/s produce l>ge numb]s ( new plants by tak+ advantage ( ?is function ( /ems4 ,exp]im5t4--,take a :ite potato :i* is a ?ick5$ /em & place x 9 a w>m1 d>k place4 ,x w soon beg9 to spr\t or s5d out new /ems1 & z ^! new /ems gr[ ! potato %r9ks & %rivels up4 ,:y is ?is8 ,x is because ! />* & o!r mat]ial /or$ 9 ! potato are be+ us$ to fe$ ! new bran*es4 ,:5 we plant potatoes 9 ! g>d5 & field ! new plants produc$ f ! eyes ( ! potato are f$ by ! /or$ mat]ial until !y /rike root & are able to take c>e ( !mselves4 ,all /ems /ore food = ! future use ( ! plant4 ,annual plants1 or ^? :i* live b "o ye>1 /ore food 9 _! /ems & leaves dur+ ! e>ly "p ( _! gr[?4 ,dur+ ! fruit+ or se$ =m+ season ?is food mat]ial is transf]r$ to ! se$s & !re /or$1 & ! /ems become woody4 ,?is is a fact to be> 9 m9d 9 connection ) ! h>ve/+ ( hay or o!r fodd] crops4 ,if we let ! grass /& until ! se$s =m 9 ! head1 ! /em & leaves s5d _! n\ri%m5t to ! se$s & become woody & ( less value ?an if cut be=e ! se$s are fully =m$4 ,9 plants ( m ?an "o ye>'s gr[? ! /or$ food is us$ to give ! plant a />t ! foll[+ season1 or = se$ production4 ,! rapid gr[? ( leaf & twig on trees & %rubs 9 spr+ is made f ! food /or$ 9 ! /em ! season be=e4 ,sago is a =m ( />* /or$ 9 ! /em ( ! sago palm = ! future use ( ! plant4 ,maple sug> is made f ! food mat]ial /or$ 9 ! trunk ( ! maple tree = ! rapid gr[? ( twig & leaf 9 ! spr+4 ,cane sug> is ! food /or$ 9 ! sug> cane to produce new plants ! next season4 ,if we exam9e ! /em ( a tree t has be5 cut d[n we f9d t x is woody1 t ! wood is arrang$ 9 r+s or lay]s & t ! out] "p ( ! /em is cov]$ ) b>k4 ,we w notice also t ! wood ne> ! c5tre ( ! tree is d>k] ?an ! out] "p4 ,?is inn] "p is call$ ! he>t wood ( ! tree4 ,! light] wood is call$ ! sap wood4 ,x is ?r\gh ! out] or sap wood t ! wat] tak5 9 by ! root is pass$ up to ! leaves :]e ! food :i* x c>ries is dige/$ & !n s5t back to ! plant4 ,! return+ dige/$ food is s5t back l>gely ?r\gh ! b>k4 ,betwe5 ! b>k & ! wood is a v ?9 lay] :i* is call$ cambium4 ,?is is ! active gr[+ tissue ( ! /em4 ,9 ! spr+ x is v s(t & slipp]y & causes ! b>k to peel (f easily4 ,?is cambium builds a new r+ ( wood outside ( ! old wood & a new r+ ( b>k on ! inside ( ! b>k4 ,9 ?is way ! tree gr[s 9 diamet]4 ,n[ if ! b>k is injur$1 or any "p ( ! /em1 all p>ts bel[ ! w\nd are cut (f f ! return supply ( dige/$ food & _! gr[? is *eck$4 ,:5 su* a w\nd does occur1 or if a w\nd is made by cutt+ (f a bran*1 ! cambium sets to "w to repair ! damage by pu%+ out a new gr[? :i* t5ds to cov] ! w\nd4 ,we c help ?is by cov]+ ! w\nd & keep+ ! air f x to prev5t its dry+ & to keep disease f attack+ x be=e x is heal$4 ,,h[ ,,! ,,"w ,,( ,,! ,,/em ,,may ,,be ,,int]f]$ ,,) ,if !re are any pea* trees ne> by1 exam9e ! trunks close to ! gr\nd1 ev5 pull+ away ! soil = a few in*es4 ,y w v likely f9d a mass ( gummy sub/ance ooz+ f ! tree4 ,pull ?is away & 9 x & 9 ! wood "u x w be f\nd "o or m yell[i% :ite worms4 ,^! are tree bor]s4 ,!y w be f\nd 9 almo/ all pea* trees4 ,!y int]f]e ) ! "w ( ! /em & 9 _m cases kill ! trees4 ,^! worms may be kept some:at 9 *eck by keep+ pap]s wrapp$ ab\t ! l[] "p ( ! tree4 ,b ! sure/ way to keep !m 9 *eck is to dig !m out1 spr+ & fall1 ) a knife & wire4 ,bor]s attack ! o!r fruit trees & also ornam5tal trees & %rubs4 ,rabbits sometimes gnaw ! b>k f trees dur+ sev]e w9t]s4 ,c>eless workm5 sometimes injure ! b>k ( trees by all[+ pl[s & m[+ ma*9es or o!r tools :i* !y are us+ among !m to come 9 contact ) ! trees & injure ! b>k4 ,"y trees pur*as$ f ! nurs]y g5]ally h a label fa/5$ to !m ) a piece ( wire4 ,unless ?is wire is remov$ or is c>efully wat*$ & enl>g$ f "t to "t x w cut into ! b>k z ! /em gr[s & int]f]e ) its "w & (t5 kill ! top ( ! tree or injure a ma9 bran*4 ,^! are a few ways 9 :i* ! "w ( ! /em is sometimes *eck$ & ! plant injur$ !reby4 ,,*apt] ,,xv ,,fl[]s ,9 our /udy ( ! p>ts ( plants ! fl[] & fruit h be5 giv5 ! la/ place because 9 ! gr[+ ( mo/ f>m plants a k ( ! functions ( ! fl[] is ( less importance ?an t ( ! roots1 leaves & /ems4 ,h[ev]1 a k ( ^! p>ts is necess>y = successful fruit culture & "s o!r horticultural indu/ries4 ,z ) ! o!r p>ts ( ! plant our /udy w n be exhau/ive b w be simply an attempt to br+ out "o or two important tru?s ( value to mo/ f>m]s4 ,9 ! /udy ( fl[]s ! specim5s us$ = /udy w dep5d ^u ! "t ( ! ye> 9 :i* ! /udies are made & ne$ n necess>ily be ! ones us$ "h = illu/ration4 ,,function ,,or ,,use ,,( ,,fl[]s ,,to ,,plants ,( :at use is ! fl[] to ! plant8 ,y h d\btless notic$ t mo/ fl[]s are foll[$ by fruit or se$ vessels4 ,9 fact1 ! fruit & se$s are really produc$ f ! fl[]1 & ! "w ( mo/ fl[]s is to produce se$s 9 ord] to provide = new plants4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fh4 ,a horse-*e/nut /em %[+ leaves1 buds1 & sc>s :]e la/ ye>'s leaves dropp$ (f4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--;,,an ,,und]gr\nd ,,/em ,buds %[ di/9ctly at po9ts indicat$ by b4 ,to und]/& h[ ?is comes ab\t x w be necess>y to /udy ! p>ts ( ! fl[] & f9d out _! individual uses or functions4 ,,p>ts ,,( ,a ,,fl[] ,if we take = our /udy any ( ! foll[+ fl[]s3 *]ry1 apple1 butt]cup1 wild mu/>d1 & />t f ! outside1 we w f9d an out] & "u "p :i* 9 mo/ fl[]s is gre54 ,?is is call$ ! calyx 7,figs4 #gj-gd74 ,9 ! butt]cup & mu/>d ! calyx is divid$ into sep>ate p>ts call$ sepals4 ,9 ! *]ry1 pea* & apple1 ! calyx is a cup or tube ) ! upp] edge divid$ into lobes4 ,above ! calyx is a broad spread+ corolla :i* is :ite or brightly color$ & is divid$ into sev]al di/9ct p>ts call$ petals4 ,! petals ( "o k9d ( fl[] are g5]ally diff]5t 9 %ape1 size & color f ^? ( o!r fl[]s4 ,9 "s fl[]s ! petals are unit$ into a corolla ( "o piece :i* may be funnel-%ap$1 z 9 ! morn+ glory or petunia ( ! g>d51 or tubul> z 9 ! honeysuckle1 :eel-%ap$ z 9 ! tomato & potato1 or ( v>i\s o!r =ms4 ,)9 ! corolla are f\nd sev]al bodies hav+ long1 sl5d] /ems ) yell[ knobs on _! tips4 ,^! are call$ /am5s4 ,! sl5d] /ems are call$ /alks or filam5ts & ! knobs an!rs4 ,! an!rs ( "s ( ! /am5s w v likely be f\nd cov]$ ) a f9e1 yell[ p[d] call$ poll54 ,?is poll5 is produc$ )9 ! an!r :i*1 :5 ripe1 bur/s & dis*>ges ! poll54 ,! /am5s v>y greatly 9 numb] 9 diff]5t k9ds ( fl[]s4 ,9 ! c5tre ( ! *]ry1 pea*1 or mu/>d fl[] w be f\nd an upright sl5d] body call$ ! pi/il4 ,9 ! pea* & *]ry ! pi/il has ?ree p>ts1 a l[] r\nd$1 some:at swoll5 "p call$ ! ov>y1 a sl5d] /em aris+ f x call$ ! /yle1 & a slight enl>gem5t at ! top ( ! /yle call$ ! /igma4 ,! /igma is g5]ally r\gh5$ or /icky4 ,if ! ov>y is split op51 )9 x w be f\nd a little body call$ an ovule1 :i* is to develop into a se$4 ,9 ! apple fl[] ! pi/ils w be f\nd to h "o ov>y ) five /yles & /igmas & 9 ! ov>y w be sev]al ovules4 ,9 ! butt]cup w be f\nd a l>ge numb] ( small pi/ils1 ea* consi/+ ( an ov>y & /igma4 ,! p>ts ( diff]5t fl[]s w be f\nd to v>y 9 color1 9 %ape1 9 relative size & 9 numb]4 ,9 "s fl[]s "o or m ( ! p>ts w be f\nd want+4 ,exam9e a numb] ( fl[]s & f9d ! p>ts4 ,,functions ,,( ,,! ,,p>ts ,,( ,,! ,,fl[]s ,n[ :at are ! uses ( ^! p>ts ( ! fl[]8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--;,,fl[] ,,( ,,*]ry4 a1 pi/il2 b1 /am52 c1 corolla2 d1 calyx2 e1 section ( fl[] %[+ ov>y ) ovule4 7,draw+ by ,m4,e4 ,fel?am47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ga4 #a4 ,fl[] ( apple2 b1 /am5s2 c1 corolla2 d1 calyx4 #b4 ,section ( same2 a1 /yle2 e1 comp\nd ov>y2 f1 filam5t2 g1 an!r4 7,draw+ by ,m4,e4 ,fel?am47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gb4 ,a4 ,pi/il ( fl[]+ raspb]ry2 e1 ov>y2 t1 /yle2 s1 /igma4 ,b4 ,/am5 ( fl[]+ raspb]ry2 f1 filam5t2 g1 an!r2 p1 poll54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--;,,fl[] ,,( ,,butt]cup4 c1 petals2 d1 sepals2 h1 rip5$ pi/ils1 or fruit4 7,draw+ by ,m4,e4 ,fel?am47 ,if we wat* a fl[] ( ! pea* or *]ry f week to week1 we w see t ! pi/il develops into a pea* or *]ry :i* be>s )9 a se$ f :i* a new plant w be produc$ if ! se$ is plac$ "u conditions necess>y = g]m9ation or spr\t+4 ,! pi/ils ( ! fl[]s ( o!r plants w be f\nd to develop into fle%y fruits1 h>d nuts1 dry pods or husks conta9+ "o or m se$s4 ,! "w ( ! pi/il or pi/ils ( fl[]s !n is to furni% se$s = ! production ( new plants4 ,! botani/s tell u t a pi/il w n produce se$s unless x is f]tiliz$ by poll5 f ! same k9d ( fl[] fall+ on its /igma4 ,! "w ( ! /am5 !n is to produce poll5 to f]tilize ! pi/ils4 ,pi/ils & /am5s are bo? necess>y = ! production ( fruit & se$4 ,!y are !re=e call$ ! ess5tial or necess>y p>ts ( ! fl[]4 ,! botani/s also tell u t nature has provid$ t 9 mo/ cases ! pi/ils %all be f]tiliz$ by ! poll5 ( "s o!r fl[] ?an _! own1 z ?is produces /rong] se$s4 ,h[ is ! poll5 c>ri$ f fl[] to fl[]8 ,g into ! g>d5 or field & wat* ! bees & butt]flies fly+ ab\t ! fl[]s1 re/+ on !m & crawl+ into !m4 ,!y are seek+ = nect> :i* ! fl[] secretes4 ,z !y visit plant aft] plant1 fe$+ f _m fl[]s1 _! bodies become m or less cov]$ ) poll5 z !y bru% ov] ! /am5s4 ,"s ( ?is poll5 9 turn gets rubb$ (f on ! /igmas ( ! pi/ils & !y become f]tiliz$4 ,?us ! bees & "s o!r insects h become necess>y z poll5 c>ri]s = "s ( ! fl[]s & ! fl[]s 9 turn fe$ !m ) sweet nect>4 ,?is gives u a h9t z to "o use ( ! corollas :i* spreads out su* broad1 brightly-color$1 conspicu\s petals4 ,x mu/ be t !y are adv]tisem5ts or sign bo>ds to attract ! bees & to tell !m :]e !y c f9d nect> & s lead !m unconsci\sly to c>ry poll5 f fl[] to fl[] to f]tilize ! pi/ils4 ,! act ( c>ry+ poll5 to ! pi/il is call$ poll9ation1 & c>ry+ poll5 f ! /am5s ( "o fl[] to ! pi/il ( ano!r fl[] is call$ cross poll9ation4 ,if we exam9e a blossom bud j be=e x op5s we w see only ! calyx4 ,ev]y?+ else w be wrapp$ up inside ( x4 ,evid5tly1 !n1 ! calyx is a protect+ cov]+ = ! o!r p>ts ( ! fl[] until blossom+ "t4 ,! corolla w be f\nd c>efully fold$ )9 ! calyx & also helps protect ! /am5s & pi/il4 ,"s fl[]s d n produce bright-color$ corollas to attract ! bees1 = examples1 ! fl[]s ( ! grasses1 :eat1 corn1 & o!r gra9s1 ! will[s1 butt]nuts1 elms1 p9es & o!rs4 ,b !y produce l>ge am\nts ( poll5 :i* is c>ri$ by ! w9d to ! pi/ils4 ,y h sometimes notic$ 9 ! spr+ t aft] a ra9 ! pools ( wat] are surr\nd$ by a r+ ( yell[ p[d] & y h p]haps ?\ght x 0 sulphur4 ,x 0 n sulphur b 0 compos$ ( millions ( poll5 gra9s f fl[]s4 ,"o spr+ ,sunday ,i laid my hat on ! seat 9 *ur*4 ,:5 ,i pick$ x up at ! end ( ! s]vice ,i f\nd consid]able du/ on x4 ,i bru%$ ! du/ (f1 b on rea*+ home ,i f\nd "s rema9+ & notic$ t is 0 yell[1 s ,i exam9$ x ) a magnify+ glass & f\nd t x 0 ne>ly all poll5 gra9s4 ,!n ,i rubb$ my f+] across a %elf 9 my room & f\nd x slightly du/y2 ! magnify+ glass %[$ me t ?is du/ 0 half poll54 ,?is %[s :at a great am\nt ( poll5 is produc$ & dis*>g$ into ! air1 & x %[s t v few pi/ils c\ld escape ev5 if !y 7 "u cov] ( a build+4 ,to make sure ( cross poll9ation nature has 9 "s cases plac$ ! /am5s & pi/ils 9 diff]5t fl[]s on ! same plant4 ,?is w be f\nd true ( ! fl[]s ( ! squa%es1 melons & cucumb]4 ,bel[ "s ( ! fl[] buds w be se5 a little squa%1 melon or cucumb] 7,fig4 #ge74 ,^! are ! ov>ies ( pi/ils & ! /igmas w be f\nd )9 ! bud or w be se5 :5 ! bud op5s4 ,b no /am5 w be f\nd "h4 ,o!r fl[]s on ^! plants w be f\nd to possess only /am5s4 ,^! /am9ate fl[]s produce poll5 & !n die4 ,!y d n produce any fruit1 b _! poll5 is necess>y = ! little cucumb]s1 squa%es & melons to develop4 ,ano!r example is ! corn plant4 ,"h ! pi/ils are on ! e>1 ! corn silk be+ ! /yles & /igmas1 :ile ! poll5 is produc$ 9 ! tassel at ! top ( ! plant4 ,) "s plants we f9d t n only are ! pi/ils & /am5s 9 sep>ate fl[]s b ! /am9ate & pi/ilate fl[]s are plac$ on diff]5t plants4 ,?is w be f\nd true ( ! osage orange & ! will[4 ,9 _m fl[]s t h bo? /am5s & pi/ils or are p]fect fl[]s ! /igmas & poll5 rip5 at diff]5t times4 ,) "s v>ieties ( fruit x is f\nd t ! pi/ils _c be f]tiliz$ by poll5 ( ! same v>iety4 ,?is is true ( mo/ ( our native plums4 ,= example1 ! pi/ils ( ! wild goose plum _c be f]tiliz$ by poll5 ( wild goose plums ev5 if x comes f o!r trees ?an ! "o be>+ ! pi/ils4 ,!y mu/ h poll5 f ano!r v>iety ( plum4 ,,value ,,( ,a ,,k ,,( ,,! ,,fl[] ,_m times x happ5s t a f>m] or a g>d5] wants to />t a /rawb]ry b$ & buys plants ( a v>iety ( b]ries t h ! reputation ( be+ v productive4 ,he plants !m & cultivates !m c>efully1 & at ! prop] "t !y blossom v freely1 & !re is promise ( a l>ge crop1 yet v few b]ries appe> & ?is cont9ues to be ! case4 ,n satisfi$ ) !m he buys ano!r v>iety & plants ne> !m1 & aft] t ! old b$ becomes v productive4 ,n[ :y is ?is8 ,x happ5s t ! fl[]s ( "s v>ieties ( /rawb]ries h a great _m pi/ils b no /am5s1 or v few /am5s1 & !re is n poll5 en\gh to f]tilize all ( ! blossoms1 & :5 su* a v>iety is plant$ x is necess>y to plant ne> x "s v>iety t produces _m /am5s & !re=e poll5 en\gh to f]tilize bo? v>ieties 9 ord] to be sure ( a crop4 ,^? /rawb]ries :i* produce fl[]s ) only pi/ils are call$ pi/ilate v>ieties1 :ile ^? ) bo? /am5s & pi/ils are call$ p]fect v>ieties 7,fig4 #gh74 ,9 plant+ !m !re %\ld be at lea/ "o r[ ( a p]fect v>iety to e f\r or five pi/ilate r[s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gd4 ,a magnolia fl[] %[+ c5tral column ( pi/ils & /am5s1 ! pi/ils be+ above & ! /am5s bel[ !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--;,,fl[]s ,,( ,,squa%4 ,a1 pi/illate fl[]2 ,b1 /am9ate fl[]4 ,a means ( insur+ cross-poll9ation4 ,we h le>n$ t c]ta9 v>ieties ( plums _c be f]tiliz$ by poll5 f ! same v>iety1 & to make !m fruitful "s o!r v>iety mu/ be plant$ among !m to produce poll5 t w make !m fruitful4 ,?is is m or less true ( all our fruits4 ,!re=e x is n be/ g5]ally to plant "o v>iety ( fruit by itself4 ,n kn[+ ?is "s or*>di/s h plant$ l>ge blocks ( a s+le v>iety ( fruit :i* has be5 unfruitful till "s o!r v>ieties h be5 plant$ ne> !m or among !m4 ,a k ( ! necessity ( poll9ation is v important to ^? g>d5]s :o gr[ cucumb]s1 tomatoes1 melons & o!r fruit+ plants 9 gre5h\ses4 ,"h 9 mo/ cases ! poll9ation is done by h&4 ,we notic$ t nature provides t mo/ ( ! fl[]s %all be cross poll9at$4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly true ( ! fl[]s ( ! fruit trees1 & = ?is reason x is impossible to get true v>ieties ( fruit f se$4 ,= example1 if we plant se$s ( ! w9e sap apple1 ! new trees produc$ f !m w n produce ! same k9d ( apple b ea* tree w produce some?+ diff]5t & !y w v likely all be poor] ?an ! p>5t fruit4 ,?is is because ( ! mixture ( poll5s :i* f]tilize ! pi/ils4 ,kn[+ ?is fact ! nurs]yman plants apple se$s & gr[s apple se$l+s4 ,:5 ^! get to be ! size ( a lead p5cil he grafts !m1 t is1 he digs !m up1 cuts (f ! tops away d[n to ! root & !n takes twigs f ! v>iety he wi%es to gr[ & sets or splices ^! twigs 9 ! roots ( ! se$l+s & !n plants !m4 ,! root & ! new top unite & produce a tree t be>s ! same k9d ( fruit z t produc$ by ! tree f :i* ! twig 0 tak54 ,^! are a few ( ! reasons :y x is well to "k some?+ ab\t fl[]s & _! "w4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--;,,fl[] ,,( ,a ,,lily4 ,notice h[ ! /igma & ! an!rs are kept z f> z possible f ea* o!r to gu>d aga9/ self-poll9ation & to insure cross-poll9ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gg4 ,bud & fl[] ( jewel-we$1 or t\*-me-n4 ,a4 ,int]ior ( bud4 ,/am5s are se51 b !re appe>s to be no pi/il4 ,b4 ,section ( bud %[+ ! pi/il conceal$ beh9d ! /am5s4 ,c4 ,bee ent]+ fl[] comes 9 contact ) /am5s & is load$ ) poll54 ,d4 ,same bee ent]+ old] fl[]4 ,! /am5s h rip5$ & be5 pu%$ (f by ! l5g!n$ pi/il1 :i* is bru%$ by ! back ( ! bee1 & ?us is poll9at$4 ,?is is a contrivance to insure cross-poll9ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gh4 ,a4 ,pi/illate fl[] ( /rawb]ry4 ,b4 ,p]fect fl[] ( /rawb]ry4 7,draw+ by ,m4,e4 ,fel?am47 ,,fruit ,! pi/il develops & =ms ! fruit ( ! plant4 ,?is fruit be>s se$ = ! production ( new plants4 ,?is fruit may be a dry pod l ! bean or pea1 or x may be a fle%y fruit l ! apple or plum4 ,n[ ! develop+ pi/il or fruit may be *eck$ 9 its "w ( se$ production by insects & diseases1 & to secure good fruit x is 9 _m cases necess>y to spray ! fruits j z ! leaves are spray$1 to keep ^! insects & diseases 9 *eck4 ,! fruits ( mo/ plants1 l ! leaves1 ne$ light & air = _! be/ developm5t1 & x sometimes happ5s t ! bran*es ( ! fruit trees gr[ s ?ick t ! fruits d n get suffici5t light & air4 ,?is makes x necess>y to ?9 ! bran*es or 9 o!r words to prune ! tree4 ,"s trees also />t m fruit ?an !y c prop]ly fe$ & z a result ! rip5$ fruits are small & ! tree is weak5$4 ,?is makes x necess>y to ?9 ! fruits :ile !y are "y & undevelop$4 ,,"p ,,ii ,soil ,f]tility z ,affect$ by ,f>m ,op]ations & ,f>m ,practices ,,! ,,fir/ ,,book ,,( ,,f>m+ ,,"p ,,ii ,soil ,f]tility z ,affect$ by ,f>m ,op]ations & ,f>m ,practices ,,*apt] ,,xvi ,a ,,f]tile ,,soil ,:at is a f]tile soil8 ,! expression a f]tile soil is (t5 us$ z mean+ a soil t is ri* 9 plant food4 ,9 its broad] & tru] mean+ a f]tile soil is "o 9 :i* are f\nd all ! conditions necess>y to ! gr[? & developm5t ( plant roots4 ,^! conditions1 z le>n$ 9 ,*apt] ,,ii1 are z foll[s3 ,! root mu/ h a firm yet mell[ soil4 ,x mu/ be well suppli$ ) moi/ure4 ,x mu/ be well suppli$ ) air4 ,x mu/ h a c]ta9 am\nt ( heat4 ,x mu/ be suppli$ ) available plant food4 ,9 ord] to furni% ^! ne$s or conditions ! soil mu/ possess c]ta9 *>act]i/ics or prop]ties4 ,^! prop]ties may be gr\p$ "u ?ree heads3 ,physical prop]ties2 ! moi/ure1 heat & air conditions ne$$ by ! roots4 ,biological prop]ties2 ! "w ( v m9ute liv+ organisms 9 ! soil4 ,*emical prop]ties2 plant food 9 ! soil4 ,,physical ,,prop]ties ,,( ,a ,,f]tile ,,soil ,?ree v important physical prop]ties ( a f]tile soil are its ,p[] to take wat] fall+ on ! surface4 ,p[] to absorb wat] f bel[4 ,p[] to hold wat]4 ,! f]tile soil mu/ possess all ?ree ( ^! p[]s4 ,! relative degrees to :i* ^! ?ree p[]s or prop]ties are possess$ det]m9e m ?an any?+ else ! k9d ( crops or ! class ( crops t w gr[ be/ on a giv5 soil4 ,^! p[]s dep5d1 z we le>n$ 9 ,*apt] ,,iv1 on ! texture ( ! soil or ! relative am\nts ( s&1 silt1 clay & humus conta9$ 9 ! soil4 ,! p[] ( admitt+ a free circulation ( air ?r\gh its pores is also an important prop]ty ( a f]tile soil1 = air is necess>y to ! life & gr[? ( ! roots4 ,?is prop]ty is dep5d5t also on texture4 ,two o!r important prop]ties ( a f]tile soil are p[] to absorb & p[] to hold heat4 ,^! dep5d ^u ! p[] ( ! soil to take 9 w>m ra9 & w>m air1 & also ^u d5sity & color4 ,! d5s] or m compact soil & ! d>k] soil hav+ great] p[] to absorb heat4 ,! compactness ( ! soil :i* gives x great] p[]s to absorb heat weak5s its p[]s to hold x1 because ! compactness all[s m rapid conduction ( heat to ! surface1 :]e x is lo/ by radiation4 ,! m moi/ure a soil holds1 ! weak] is its heat-hold+ p[]1 because ! heat is us$ 9 w>m+ & evaporat+ wat] f ! surface ( ! soil4 ,^! important prop]ties or conditions ( moi/ure1 heat & air1 are1 z we h se51 dep5d5t on soil texture & color1 :i* 9 turn are dep5d5t ^u ! relative am\nts ( s&1 clay & humus 9 ! soil4 ,we are able to control soil texture & !re=e ^! physical prop]ties to a c]ta9 degree by means ( tillage & ! addition ( organic matt] or humus 7see ,*apt] ,,iv74 ,,biological ,,prop]ties ,,( ,a ,,f]tile ,,soil ,biology is ! /ory or sci5ce ( life2 & ! biological prop]ties ( ! soil h to d ) liv+ organisms 9 ! soil4 ,! soil ( e f]tile field is full ( v small or microscopic plants call$ bact]ia or g]ms4 ,!y are said to be microscopic because !y are s small t !y _c be se5 )\t ! aid ( a p[]ful magnify+ glass or microscope4 ,!y are s small t x w\ld take ab\t #aj1jjj av]age-siz$ soil bact]ia or soil g]ms plac$ side by side to measure "o in*4 ,a k ( ?ree classes ( ^! soil g]ms is ( great importance to ! f>m]4 ,^! ?ree classes ( g]ms are3 ,nitrog5-fix+ g]ms4 ,nitrify+ g]ms4 ,d5itrify+ g]ms4 ,,nitrog5-,,fix+ ,,g]ms ,we le>n$ 9 ,*apt] ,,viii t nitrog5 is "o ( ! necess>y elem5ts ( plant food1 & t al?\gh ! air is f\r-fif?s nitrog51 mo/ plants mu/ take _! nitrog5 f ! soil4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a class ( plants call$ legumes :i* c use ! nitrog5 ( ! air4 ,clov]1 alfalfa1 luc]n1 c[pea1 soy bean1 snap bean1 vet* & simil> plants are legumes4 ,^! legumes get ! nitrog5 f ! air 9 a v curi\s & int]e/+ mann]4 ,x is done ?r\gh ! aid ( bact]ia or g]ms4 ,c>efully dig up ! roots ( sev]al legumes & wa% ! soil f !m4 ,on ! roots w be f\nd _m small enl>gem5ts l root galls2 ^! are call$ nodules or tub]cles4 ,on clov] roots ^! nodules are ab\t ! size ( ! head ( a p9 :ile on ! soy bean & c[pea !y are ne>ly z l>ge z a pea 7see ,fig4 #cd74 ,^! nodules are fill$ ) bact]ia or g]ms & ^! g]ms h ! p[] ( tak+ nitrog5 f ! air :i* f9ds its way into ! soil4 ,aft] us+ ! nitrog5 ! g]m gives x to ! plant :i* !n uses x to build /em1 leaves & roots4 ,9 ?is way ! legumes are able to make use ( ! nitrog5 ( ! soil air1 & ^! g]ms :i* help !m to d x by cat*+ ! nitrog5 are call$ nitrog5-fix+ g]ms4 ,! "w ( ^! g]ms makes x possible = ! f>m] to gr[ nitrog51 s to speak1 on ! f>m4 ,by gr[+ crops ( legumes & turn+ !m "u to decay 9 ! soil1 or leav+ ! roots & /ubble to decay aft] ! crop is h>ve/$1 he c furni% ! foll[+ crop ) a supply ( nitrog5 9 a v *eap mann] & less5 ! necessity ( buy+ f]tiliz]4 ,,nitrify+ ,,g]ms ,almo/ all ! nitrog5 ( ! soil is lock$ up 9 ! humus & _c 9 t condition be us$ by ! roots ( plants4 ,! nitrog5 caught by ! nitrog5-fix+ g]ms & built into ! /ructure ( legum9\s plants :i* are gr[n & turn$ "u to fe$ o!r plants _c be us$ until ! humus1 :i* is produc$ by _! p>tial decay1 is brok5 d[n & ! nitrog5 built into o!r sub/ances ^u :i* ! root c fe$4 ,! break+ d[n ( ! humus & build+ ( ! nitrog5 into o!r sub/ances is ! "w ( ano!r set ( bact]ia or g]ms call$ nitrify+ g]ms4 ,^! nitrify+ g]ms attack ! humus1 break x d[n1 sep>ate ! nitrog51 cause x to unite ) ! oxyg5 ( ! air & ?us build x into nitric acid :i* c be us$ by plant roots4 ,?is nitric acid if n imm$iately us$ w unite ) lime or pota% or soda or o!r simil> sub/ances & =m nitrates1 z nitrate ( lime1 nitrate ( pota% or common saltpetre4 ,^! nitrates are soluble 9 wat] & c be easily us$ by plant roots4 ,if !re are no plant roots to use !m !y are easily lo/ by be+ wa%$ out ( ! soil4 ,! "w ( ! nitrify+ g]ms is call$ nitrification4 ,to d _! "w well ! nitrog5-fix+ g]ms & ! nitrify+ g]ms require c]ta9 conditions4 ,! soil mu/ be moi/4 ,! soil mu/ be well v5tilat$ to supply nitrog5 = ! nitrog5-fix+ g]ms & oxyg5 = ! nitrify+ g]ms4 ,! soil mu/ be w>m4 ,summ] temp]ature is ! mo/ favorable4 ,_! "w beg9s & cont9ues sl[ly at a temp]ature ( ab\t =ty-five degrees & increases 9 rapidity z ! temp]ature rises until x rea*es n9ety or n9ety-five4 ,! nitrify+ g]ms require phosphoric acid1 pota% & lime 9 ! soil4 ,direct sunlight de/roys ^! bact]ia1 !re=e !y _c "w at ! surface ( ! soil unless x is %ad$ by a crop4 ,f ?is we see t ^! bact]ia or g]ms "w be/ 9 ! soil t has conditions necess>y = ! gr[? & developm5t ( plant roots4 ,,d5itrify+ ,,g]ms ,^! g]ms live on ! co>se organic matt] ( ! soil4 ,l ! nitrify+ g]ms !y ne$ oxyg51 & :5 !y _c get x m readily else:]e !y take x f ! nitric acid & nitrates4 ,?is all[s ! nitrog5 ( ! nitrates to escape z a free gas into ! air aga91 & ! "w ( ! nitrog5-fix+ & nitrify+ g]ms is undone & ! nitrog5 is lo/4 ,?is loss ( nitrog5 is mo/ apt to occur :5 ! soil is poorly v5tilat$1 because ( its be+ v compact1 or :5 ! soil spaces are fill$ ) wat]4 ,?is loss ( nitrog5 by d5itrification c be *eck$ by keep+ ! soil well v5tilat$4 ,,*emical ,,prop]ties ,,( ,a ,,f]tile ,,soil ,by ! t]m *emical prop]ties we h ref]5ce to ! *emical composition ( ! soil1 ! *emical *anges :i* take place 9 ! soil1 & ! conditions :i* influ5ce ^! *anges4 ,! s&1 clay & humus ( ! soil are made up ( a great v>iety ( sub/ances4 ,! l>g] "p ( ^! act simply z a me*anical support = ! plants & also s]ve to br+ ab\t c]ta9 physical conditions4 ,only a v small portion ( ^! sub/ances s]ve z ! direct food ( plants & ! *emical conditions ( ^! sub/ances are ( great importance4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,viii we le>n$ t plants are compos$ ( sev]al elem5ts & t sev5 necess>y elem5ts are tak5 f ! soil4 ,^! sev5 are nitrog51 phosphorus1 potassium1 magnesium1 calcium1 iron & sulphur4 ,n[ a f]tile soil mu/ conta9 ^! sev5 elem5ts ( plant food & !y mu/ be 9 su* =m t ! plant roots c use !m4 ,plant roots c g5]ally get f mo/ soils en\gh ( ! magnesium1 calcium1 iron1 & sulphur to produce well develop$ plants4 ,b ! nitrog51 phosphorus & potassium1 al?\gh !y exi/ 9 suffici5t quantities 9 ! soil1 are (t5 9 su* a =m or condition t ! roots _c get en\gh ( "o or m ( !m to produce pr(itable crops4 ,= ?is reason ^! ?ree elem5ts are ( p>ticul> importance to ! f>m] =1 9 ord] to keep 8 soil f]tile1 he mu/ s treat x t ^! elem5ts w be made available or he mu/ add m ( !m to ! soil 9 ! prop] =m or condition4 ,nitrog5 9 ! soil4--,plant roots use nitrog5 9 ! =m ( nitric acid & salts ( nitrog5 call$ nitrates4 ,b ! nitrog5 ( ! soil is v l>gely f\nd 9 ! humus ) ! roots _c use4 ,a *emical *ange mu/ take place 9 x & ! nitrog5 be built into nitric acid & nitrates4 ,?is1 we h le>n$1 is done ?r\gh ! aid ( ! nitrify+ g]ms4 ,phosphoric acid 9 ! soil4--,phosphorus does n exi/ pure 9 ! soil4 ,! plant f9ds x z a phosphoric acid unit$ ) ! o!r sub/ances =m+ phosphates4 ,^! are (t5 n available to plants1 b c to a c]ta9 ext5t be made available ?r\gh tillage & by add+ humus to ! soil4 ,pota% 9 ! soil4--,! plant f9ds potassium 9 pota% :i* exi/s 9 ! soil4 ,pota% l phosphoric acid (t5 exi/s 9 =ms :i* ! plant _c use b may be made available to a c]ta9 ext5t by tillage1 ! addition ( humus1 & ! addition ( lime to ! soil4 ,lime 9 ! soil4--,mo/ soils conta9 ! elem5t calcium or lime1 ! comp\nd 9 :i* x is f\nd1 9 suffici5t quantities = plant food4 ,b lime is also ( importance to ! f>m] & plant gr[] because x is helpful 9 caus+ *emical *anges 9 ! soil :i* t5d to prep>e ! nitrog51 phosphoric acid & pota% = plant use4 ,x is also helpful 9 *ang+ soil texture4 ,! *emical *anges :i* make ! plant foods available are dep5d5t on moi/ure1 heat1 & air ) its oxyg51 & are !re=e dep5d5t l>gely on texture1 & !re=e on tillage4 ,:5 good tillage & ! addition ( organic matt] & lime d n r5d] available suffici5t plant food1 !n ! supply ( available food may be increas$ by ! application ( manure & f]tiliz]s4 ,x w be se5 t all ^! classes ( prop]ties are necess>y to furni% all ! conditions = root gr[?4 ,! prop] *emical conditions require ! pres5ce ( bo? physical & biological prop]ties & ! biological "w 9 ! soil requires bo? *emical & physical conditions4 ,f ! f>m]'s /&po9t ! physical prop]ties seem to be mo/ important1 = ! o!rs are dep5d5t on ! prop] texture1 moi/ure1 heat & v5tilation :i* are controll$ l>gely by tillage4 ,!re=e ! fir/ ef=t ( ! f>m] to improve ! f]tility ( 8 soil %\ld be to improve 8 me?ods ( work+ ! soil4 ,e "o ( ^! prop]ties ( ! f]tile soil1 & consequ5tly e "o ( ! conditions necess>y = ! gr[? & developm5t ( plant roots1 is influ5c$ 9 "s way by e op]ation p]=m$ on ! soil1 :e!r x be pl[+1 h>r[+1 cultivat+1 apply+ manure1 gr[+ crops1 h>ve/+1 or any?+ else1 & ! ?\ghtful f>m] w frequ5tly ask himself ! "q3 ,h[ is ?is go+ to effect ! f]tility ( my soil or ! conditions necess>y = pr(itable crop production8 ,,ma9t5ance ,,( ,,f]tility ,! important factors 9 ma9ta9+ or increas+ ! f]tility ( ! soil are3 ,! me*anical op]ations ( tillage1 especially ) ref]5ce to ! control ( soil wat]4 ,! application ( manures & f]tiliz]s1 especially ) ref]5ce to ma9ta9+ a supply ( humus & plant food4 ,me?ods or sy/ems ( cropp+ ! soil1 ) ref]5ce to economiz+ f]tility4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii ,,soil ,,wat] ,! m important tillage tools & tillage op]ations we /udi$ 9 ,*apt]s ,,xi & ,,xii4 ,!y w be notic$ "h only 9 connection ) _! influ5ce ov] soil wat]1 = 9 ! regulation ( ?is important factor 9 soil f]tility ! o!r conditions ( f]tility are also v l>gely controll$4 ,,importance ,,( ,,soil ,,wat] ,( all ! factors influ5c+ ! gr[? ( plants1 wat] is beyond d\bt ! mo/ important1 & ! ma9ta9+ ( ! prop] am\nt ( soil wat] is "o ( ! mo/ important problems ( ! ?9k+ f>m] 9 controll+ ! f]tility ( 8 soil4 ,,necessity ,,( ,,soil ,,wat] ,! decay ( m9]al & organic matt] 9 ! soil1 & ! consequ5t sett+ free ( plant food1 c take place only 9 ! pres5ce ( moi/ure4 ,! plant food 9 b>n manures & crops pl[$ "u = gre5 moi/ure1 c be made available only :5 !re is suffici5t moi/ure 9 ! soil to p]mit break+ d[n & decomposition4 ,! pres5ce ( moi/ure 9 ! soil is necess>y = ! process ( nitrification to take place4 ,soil moi/ure is necess>y to dissolve plant food4 ,plant roots c absorb food f ! soil only :5 x is 9 solution1 & x seems to be necess>y t a l>ge quantity ( wat] pass ?r\gh ! plant tissues to furni% ! supply ( m9]al elem5ts requir$ by gr[?4 ,moi/ure is necess>y to build plant tissues4 ,! quantity ( wat] ent]+ into ! /ructure ( gr[+ plants v>ies f sixty to z high z n9ety-five p] c5t1 ( _! total weight4 ,dur+ ! p]iods ( active gr[? !re is a con/ant giv+ (f ( moi/ure by ! foliage ( plants & ?is mu/ be made good by wat] tak5 f ! soil by _! roots4 ,9 a s]ies ( exp]im5ts at ! ,univ]sity ( ,wiscons9 ,agricultural ,exp]im5t ,/ation1 x 0 f\nd t 9 rais+ oats1 e ton ( dry matt] gr[n requir$ #ebb4d tons ( wat] to produce x2 = e ton ( dry matt] ( corn !re 7 requir$ #cji4h tons ( wat]2 a ton ( dry r$ clov] requires #deb4h tons ( wat] to gr[ x4 ,at ! ,cornell ,univ]sity ,agricultural ,exp]im5t ,/ation1 a yield ( potatoes at ! rate ( #dej bu%els p] acre repres5t$ a wat] requirem5t ( #acaj4ge tons ( wat]4 ,,s\rces ,,& ,,=ms ,,( ,,soil ,,wat] ,! soil :i* is occupi$ by ! roots ( plants receives moi/ure 9 ! =m ( ra91 sn[ & dew f above & free & capill>y wat] ris+ f bel[4 ,free wat] is t =m ( wat] :i* fills our wells1 is f\nd 9 ! bottom ( holes dug 9 ! gr\nd dur+ wet seasons1 & is (t5 f\nd /&+ on ! surface ( ! soil aft] heavy or long cont9u$ ra9s4 ,x is sometimes call$ 'gr\nd wat]' or '/&+ wat]1' & fl[s "u ! influ5ce ( gravity4 ,free wat] is n us$ directly by plants unless !y are swamp plants1 & its pres5ce )9 eighte5 in*es ( ! surface is injuri\s to mo/ f>m plants4 ,free wat] s]ves z ! ma9 s\rce ( supply = capill>y wat]4 ,capill>y wat] is wat] :i* is drawn by capill>y =ce or soaks into ! spaces betwe5 ! soil p>ticles & cov]s ^! p>ticles ) a ?9 film ( moi/ure4 ,x is a direct s\rce ( wat] to plants4 ,capill>y wat] w fl[ 9 any direction 9 ! soil1 ! direction ( fl[ be+ det]m9$ by texture & dryness1 ! fl[ be+ /rong] t[>d ! m compact & dri] p>ts4 ,if ! soil is left lumpy & cloddy !n capill>y wat] _c rise readily f bel[ to take ! place ( t :i* is lo/ by evaporation4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! soil is f9e & well pulv]iz$1 ! wat] rises freely & cont9u\sly to supply ! place ( t tak5 by plant roots or evaporation f ! surface4 ,,too ,,mu* ,,wat] ,"s f>m l&s conta9 too mu* wat] = ! gr[? ( f>m crops2 = example1 bottom l&s :i* are s l[ t wat] fall+ on ! surface _c run (f or soak d[n into ! l[] soil4 ,! result is t ! spaces betwe5 ! soil p>ticles are mo/ ( ! "t fill$ ) wat]1 & ?is *ecks v5tilation1 :i* is a necess>y factor 9 soil f]tility4 ,?is /ate ( affairs occurs also on slop+ upl&s :i* are kept wet by spr+ wat] or by seepage wat] f high] l&s4 ,"s soils are s close & compact t wat] fall+ on ! surface f9ds great difficulty 9 p]colat+ ?r\gh !m1 & !re=e r5d]s !m too wet = pr(itable cropp+ dur+ long] or %ort] p]iods ( ! ye>4 ,ne>ly all su* l&s c be improv$ by remov+ ! surplus wat] ?r\gh dra9s4 7,see ,*apt] ,,xxv47 ,p]colation & v5tilation ( close compact soils c be improv$ by mix+ lime & organic matt] ) !m4 ,,n ,,en\gh ,,wat] ,9 "s sections ( ! c\ntry1 p>ticul>ly ! arid & semi-arid sections ( ! ,we/1 ! soil does n receive a suffici5t supply ( ra9 wat] = ! production ( pr(itable ye>ly crops4 ,^! soils are r5d]$ unf]tile by ! lack ( ?is "o all important factor ( f]tility4 ,!y c be made f]tile & productive by supply+ !m ) suffici5t wat] ?r\gh irrigation4 ,! crop-produc+ p[] ( "s l&s is l[]$ ev5 9 regions :]e ! ra9fall is suffici5t1 because ^! l&s are n prop]ly prep>$ by tillage & ! addition ( organic matt] to absorb & hold ! wat] t comes to !m1 or "p ( ! wat] may be lo/ or wa/$ by lack ( prop] aft]-tillage or aft]-cultivation4 ,?is /ate ( affairs is ( c\rse improv$ by bett] prep>ation to receive wat] be=e plant+ ! crop & bett] me?ods ( aft]-cultivation to save ! wat] = ! use ( ! crop4 ,,loss ,,( ,,soil ,,wat] ,aside f :at is us$ by ! crops ! soil may lose its wat] 9 ! foll[+ ways3 ,ra9 wat] :i* comes to ! soil may be lo/ by runn+ (f ov] ! surface ( ! l&4 ,?is occurs especially on hilly f>ms & 9 ! case ( close1 compact soils4 ,wat] may be lo/ f ! soil by lea*+ ?r\gh ! l[] soil4 ,wat] may be lo/ f ! soil by evaporation f ! surface4 ,! soil may lose wat] by ! gr[? ( we$s :i* are cont9ually pump+ wat] up by _! roots & transpir+ x f _! leaves into ! air4 ,,h[ ,,"s ,,f>m ,,op]ations ,,influ5ce ,,soil ,,wat] ,pl[+ & soil wat]4 ,"o ( ! fir/ effects ( deeply & ?or\ghly pl[+ a close1 compact soil1 is t ra9 w s9k into x readily & n be lo/ by surface wa%4 ,9 _m p>ts ( ! c\ntry1 especially ! ,s\?1 great damage is done by ! surface wa%+ & gulley+ ( slop+ fields4 ,! %all[ lay] ( soil /irr$ up by small pl[s & practice ( %all[ pl[+ s preval5t 9 ! ,s\? takes 9 ! ra9 readily1 b z ! h>d] soil b5ea? does n easily absorb ! wat] ! %all[ lay] ( pl[$ soil soon fills1 !n becomes mud1 & ! :ole mass goes d[n ! slope4 ,:]e ! l& is pl[$ deep !re is prep>$ a deep res]voir ( loose soil t is able to hold a l>ge am\nt ( wat] till ! h>d] l[] soil c gradually absorb x4 ,! soil /irr$ & ?or\ghly brok5 by ! pl[ s]ves n only z a res]voir = ! ra9fall1 b also acts z a mul* ov] ! m compact soil bel[ x1 ?us *eck+ ! rapid use ( capill>y wat] to ! surface & its consequ5t loss by evaporation4 ,! pl[ :i* breaks & pulv]izes ! soil mo/ ?or\ghly is ! "o be/ adapt$ to fit ! soil = receiv+ & hold+ moi/ure4 ,if ! pl[+ is n well done or if ! l& is too dry :5 pl[$ & ! soil is left 9 great co>se lumps & clods1 ! air circulates readily among ! clods & takes f !m :at little moi/ure !y may h _h & g5]ally ! soil is left 9 a worse condition ?an if x _h n be5 pl[$ at all4 ,fall pl[+ on roll+ l& & heavy soil leav+ ! surface r\gh helps to hold w9t] sn[s & ra9s :5 !y fall1 giv+ to su* fields a m ev5 di/ribution ( soil wat] 9 ! spr+4 ,spr+ pl[+ %\ld be done e>ly1 be=e !re is mu* loss ( wat] f ! surface by evaporation4 ,pr(essor ,k+1 ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,wiscons9 ,agricultural ,exp]im5t ,/ation1 c>ri$ on an exp]im5t to see h[ mu* soil wat] c\ld be sav$ by e>ly pl[+4 ,he select$ two simil> pieces ( gr\nd ne> ea* o!r & te/$ !m = wat] ,april #bi?4 ,imm$iately aft] te/+ "o piece 0 pl[$4 ,sev5 days lat]1 ,may #f?1 he te/$ !m = wat] aga9 & f\nd t bo? _h lo/ "s wat]1 b t ! piece :i* 0 n pl[$ _h lo/ #i4ac p\nds m wat] p] squ>e foot ( surface ?an ! pl[$ piece4 ,?is means t by pl[+ "o "p a week e>li] ?an ! o!r he sav$ 9 x wat] equal to a ra9fall ( ne>ly two in*es or at ! rate ( ne>ly #bjj tons ( wat] p] acre4 ,,hoe+1 ,,rak+1 ,,h>r[+1 ,,& ,,cultivat+ ,^! op]ations :5 prop]ly & ?or\ghly done t5d to supplem5t ! "w ( ! pl[ 9 fitt+ ! soil to absorb ra9 & 9 mak+ a mul* to *eck loss by surface evaporation4 ,! entire surface %\ld be work$ & ! soil %\ld be left smoo? & n 9 ridges4 ,roll+ cutt]s & spr+-too!d h>r[s are apt to leave ridges & %\ld h an atta*m5t = smoo?+ ! surface or be foll[$ by a smoo?+ h>r[4 ,cultivators us$ to make mul*es to save wat] %\ld h _m n>r[ tee? r ?an few broad ones4 ,if a l>ge broad-too!d tool is us$ to de/roy grass & l>ge we$s x %\ld be foll[$ by a smoo!r to level ! ridges & ?us less5 ! evaporat+ surface4 ,! soil %\ld be cultivat$ z soon aft] a ra9 z x c be safely work$4 ,roll+ compacts ! soil & />ts a quick] capill>y movem5t ( wat] t[>d ! surface & a consequ5t loss by evaporation4 ,:5 circum/ances w p]mit1 ! roll] %\ld be foll[$ by a light h>r[ to re/ore ! mul*4 ,ridg+ ! l& t5ds to less5 ! am\nt ( moi/ure 9 ! soil because x increases ! evaporat+ surface4 ,x %\ld be practic$ only on wet l& or 9 e>ly spr+ to secure great] heat4 ,dra9s plac$ 9 wet l& remove free wat] to a l[] dep? & increase ! dep? ( soil occupi$ by capill>y wat] & !re=e increase ! body ( soil available to plant roots4 ,,manures ,,& ,,soil ,,wat] ,humus1 z we le>n$ 9 ,*apt] ,,iv1 has a v great & !re=e important influ5ce ov] ! wat]-absorb+ & wat]-hold+ p[]s ( soils4 ,!re=e1 any ( ! f>m practices t t5d to increase or dim9i% ! am\nt ( humus 9 ! soil are to be s]i\sly consid]$ because ( ! effect on ! wat] cont5t ( ! soil4 ,= ?is reason ! application ( b>n manures & gre5 crops turn$ "u t5d to improve ! wat] conditions ( mo/ soils4 ,! mix+ ( heavy applications ( co>se manures or organic matt] ) light s&y soils may make !m s loose & op5 t !y w lose moi/ure rapidly4 ,:5 ?is practice is necess>y ! l& %\ld be roll$ aft] ! application ( ! manure4 ,,me?ods ,,( ,,cropp+ ,,& ,,soil ,,wat] ,con/ant tillage ha/5s ! decay ( organic matt] 9 ! soil4 ,h5ce any me?od or sy/em ( cropp+ :i* does n occasionally return to ! soil a new supply ( humus t5ds to weak5 ! p[]s ( ! soil t[>d wat]4 ,all ( ! op]ations & practices :i* influ5ce soil wat] also affect ! o!r conditions necess>y to root gr[?2 namely1 texture1 v5tilation1 heat1 & plant food1 & ^? op]ations & practices :i* prop]ly control & regulate soil wat] to a l>ge degree control & regulate soil f]tility4 ,,selection ,,( ,,crops ,,) ,,ref]5ce ,,to ,,soil ,,wat] ,:ile climatic conditions det]m9e ! g5]al di/ribution ( plants1 ! am\nt ( wat] :i* a soil holds & c give up to plants dur+ ! gr[+ season det]m9es v l>gely ! crops to :i* x is locally be/ adapt$4 ,) crops t c be gr[n on a wide range ( soils ! wat] :i* ! soil c furni% l>gely det]m9es ! "t ( matur+1 ! yield1 & (t5 ! quality ( ! crop4 ,) su* a crop a small supply ( wat] t5ds to ha/5 maturity at ! exp5se ( yield4 ,! sweet potato1 :5 want$ = e>ly m>ket & high prices1 is gr[n on ! light s&y soils call$ e>ly truck soils4 ,^! soils hold f five to sev5 p] c5t1 ( wat]4 ,t is1 ! texture is su* t dur+ ! e>ly "p ( ! gr[+ season "o hundr$ p\nds ( ?is soil is f\nd to hold an av]age ( f five to sev5 p\nds ( wat] "u field conditions4 ,?is soil1 hold+ little wat]1 w>ms up e>ly & ?us ha/5s gr[?4 ,!n z ! w>m] summ] wea!r advances1 ! wat] supply dim9i%es1 gr[? is *eck$1 & ! crop matures rapidly4 ,on acc\nt ( ! small am\nt ( wat] & ! e>ly *eck+ ( gr[?1 ! yield ( ! crop is less ?an if gr[n on a soil hold+ m wat]1 b ! e>li] maturity makes x possible to realize a mu* high] price p] bu%el = ! crop4 ,a sweet potato gr[n on su* a light soil is dry & />*y1 a quality :i* br+s a high] price 9 ! nor!rn m>kets ?an does ! moi/1 soggy potato gr[n on heavi] soils :i* conta9 m wat] & produce l>g] yields4 ,e>ly :ite potatoes1 e>ly cabbage1 wat] melons1 musk-melons1 tomatoes & o!r e>ly truck & m>ket g>d5 crops are also gr[n on light soil hold+ f five to sev5 p] c5t4 ( wat]4 ,! ma9 crop ( potatoes & cabbage & ! cann+ crop ( tomatoes are gr[n on ! loam soils hold+ f t5 to eighte5 p] c5t4 ( wat]4 ,su* soils produce a lat] ?\gh mu* l>g] yield4 ,upl& cotton produces be/ on a deep loam t is capable ( furni%+ a uni=m supply ( ab\t t5 or twelve p] c5t4 ( wat] dur+ ! gr[+ season4 ,sea ,isl& ,cotton gr[s be/ on a light1 s&y soil hold+ only five p] c5t4 ( wat]4 ,on light1 s&y soils ! ,upl& ,cotton produces small plants ) small yield ( l9t1 :ile on clay & bottom l&1 :i* are apt to h l>ge am\nts ( wat]1 ! plants gr[ v l>ge & produce few] bolls1 :i* are v late 9 matur+4 ,corn1 :ile x w gr[ on a wide range ( soils1 produces be/ on loam or moi/ bottom l&s hold+ ab\t fifte5 p] c5t4 ( wat] dur+ ! gr[+ season4 ,! grasses & small gra9s d be/ on cool1 firm soils hold+ eighte5 to tw5ty-two p] c5t4 ( wat]4 ,sorghum or ,molasses ,cane gr[s be/ on good corn soil1 :ile ! sug> cane ( ! ,gulf ,/ates requires a soil ) tw5ty-five p] c5t4 ( wat] = be/ gr[?4 ,:ile ! am\nt ( wat] :i* a soil w hold is det]m9$ l>gely by texture1 x is also consid]ably influ5c$ by ! am\nt & frequ5cy ( ra9fall & ! location ( ! soil z to :e!r x be upl& or bottom l&4 ,! av]age p]c5tage ( wat] held by a soil dur+ ! gr[+ season may be approximately det]m9$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,sample ! soil 9 "o ( ! foll[+ me?ods3 ,take to ! field a spade1 a box t w hold ab\t half a bu%el1 & a p9t or qu>t glass j> ) a tight cov]4 ,if a cultivat$ field1 select a place free f grass & we$s4 ,dig a hole "o foot deep & ab\t eighte5 in*es squ>e4 ,trim "o side ( ! hole squ>e4 ,n[ f ?is side cut a slice ab\t ?ree in*es ?ick & "o foot deep1 quickly place ?is 9 ! box & ?or\ghly break lumps & mix toge!r1 !n fill j> & cork tightly4 ,ano!r me?od is to take a common half-in* or two-in* c>p5t]'s aug] & bore into ! soil ) x4 ,pull x out frequ5tly & put ! soil :i* comes up ) x into ! j> until y h a sample a foot deep4 ,if "o bor+ twelve in*es deep does n give suffici5t soil make ano!r bor+ or two close by & put all into ! j>4 ,take ! sample1 by :atev] me?od obta9$1 weigh out t5 or tw5ty ounces ( ! moi/ soil & dry x at a temp]ature j bel[ #bab degrees4 ,:5 x is ?or\ghly dry weigh aga94 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! two weights w be ! am\nt ( wat] held by ! sample4 ,n[ divide ?is by ! weight ( ! dry sample & ! result w be ! p] c5t4 ( wat] held by ! soil4 ,sev]al samples tak5 f diff]5t p>ts ( ! field w give an av]age = ! field4 ,repeat ?is e week or (t5] ?r\gh ! season & an approximate e/imate ( ! wat]-hold+ capacity ( ! soil w be obta9$ & consequ5tly an indication ( ! crops to :i* ! soil is be/ adapt$4 ,,example4 ,weight ( a soil sample1 #bj ounces4 ,:5 dri$ ?is sample weighs #ag ounces4 #bj - #ag #b1 ! wat] held by ! soil4 #b4be #ag4ge 4#ab plus4 ,?is soil held a little ov] twelve p] c5t4 ( wat]4 ,if ?is soil cont9ues to give ab\t ! same result = successive te/s dur+ ! gr[+ season1 ! results w\ld indicate a soil adapt$ to cotton1 late truck or corn4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii ,,! ,,aft]-,,cultivation ,,( ,,crops ,! t]m aft]-cultivation is "h us$ 9 ref]r+ to ^? tillage op]ations :i* are p]=m$ aft] ! crop is plant$4 ,synonym\s t]ms are cultivation1 int]-tillage1 work+ ! crop4 ,aft]-cultivation influ5ces ! texture1 v5tilation1 heat1 plant food & moi/ure factors ( f]tility1 b mo/ p>ticul>ly ! moi/ure factor4 ,"u ord9>y circum/ances ! greate/ b5efit d]iv$ f aft]-cultivation :5 prop]ly p]=m$ is ! sav+ ( soil wat] = ! use ( ! crop4 ,,loss ,,( ,,wat] ,,by ,,evaporation ,soil wat] is seldom at re/ unless ! soil be froz5 solid4 ,:5 ra9 falls on a f]tile soil !re is a d[nw>d movem5t ( wat]4 ,:5 ! ra9 ceases1 wat] beg9s to evaporate f ! surface ( ! soil4 ,its place is tak5 by wat] br\ght f bel[ by capill>ity4 ,?is is 9 turn evaporat$ & replac$ by m f bel[4 ,?is process cont9ues ) great] or less rapidity accord+ to ! dryness ( ! air & ! compactness ( ! soil4 ,,loss ,,( ,,wat] ,,?r\gh ,,we$s ,we le>n$ 9 a =m] *apt] t dur+ _! gr[? f>m plants require an am\nt ( wat] equal to f #cjj to #ejj times _! dry weight4 ,we$s require j z mu* wat] & "s ( !m probably m ?an ! cultivat$ plants4 ,?is wat] is l>gely absorb$ by ! roots & s5t up to ! leaves :]e x is transpir$ into ! air & is lo/ f ! soil1 & !re=e is unavailable to ! gr[+ crop until x aga9 falls onto ! soil4 ,9 "s p>ts ( ! c\ntry1 p>ticul>ly ! semi-arid ,we/1 ! ra9fall is n suffici5t to supply ! soil ) en\gh wat] to gr[ su* crops z x c\ld o!rwise produce4 ,9 ! moi/] regions ! ra9fall is n ev5ly di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! gr[+ season1 & !re are long] or %ort] int]vals betwe5 ra9s :5 ! loss ( wat] ?r\gh evaporation & we$s is apt to be great] ?an ! ra9fall4 ,= ^! reasons x is be/ to *eck ^! losses & save ! wat] 9 ! soil = ! use ( ! crops4 ,,sav+ ,,! ,,wat] ,?is c be done by3 ,prev5t+ ! gr[? ( we$s & by *eck+ losses by evaporation ) a soil mul*4 ,,"t ,,to ,,cultivate ,a se$l+ plant is easie/ kill$ j z x has />t$ into gr[?4 ,! be/ "t to kill a plant />t+ f an und]gr\nd /em or a root is j z soon z x appe>s above ! surface 9 active gr[?4 ,! be/ "t to cultivate1 !n1 to kill we$s is z soon z ! we$s appe>4 ,at ?is "t l>ge numb]s c be kill$ ) ! lea/ ( ef=t4 ,d n let !m get to be a week or two old be=e gett+ aft] !m4 ,9 plant+ "s crops ! gr\nd betwe5 ! r[s becomes trampl$ & compact4 ,?is results 9 active capill>ity :i* br+s wat] to ! surface & x is lo/ by evaporation4 ,e ra9fall t5ds to beat ! soil p>ticles toge!r & =m a cru/ :i* enables ! capill>y wat] to climb to ! surface & escape into ! air4 ,?is loss by evaporation %\ld be con/antly wat*$ = & ! soil %\ld be /irr$ & a mul* =m$ :5ev] x becomes compact or a cru/ is =m$4 ,! prop] "t to cultivate1 !n1 to save wat] is z soon z we$s appe> or z soon z ! surface ( ! soil becomes compact or cru/$ by trampl+1 by ! beat+ ( ra9 or f any o!r cause1 :e!r ! crop is up or n4 ,! cultivation %\ld />t z soon aft] a ra9 z ! soil is dry en\gh to "w safely4 ,! surface soil %\ld always be kept loose & op54 ,! efficacy ( ! soil mul* dep5ds on ! ?or\ghness & frequ5cy ( ! op]ation4 ,x is p>ticul>ly b5eficial dur+ long1 dry p]iods4 ,dur+ su* times x is n necess>y to wait = a ra9 to compact ! soil2 keep ! cultivators go+1 ra9 or no ra94 ,,tools ,,= ,,aft]-,,cultivation ,! ma9 objects ( aft]-cultivation are to de/roy we$s & to =m a soil mul* = ! purpose ( controll+ soil moi/ure4 ,^! ends are secur$ by %all[ surface "w4 ,x is n necess>y to g m ?an two or ?ree in*es deep4 ,deep] "w w injure ! roots ( ! crop4 ,!re=e ! prop] tools = aft]-cultivation 9 ! g>d5 are ! hoe & rake & = field "w n>r[-too!d h>r[s & cultivators or horse-hoes :i* /ir ! :ole surface ?or\ghly to a mod]ate dep?4 ,^! field tools are supplem5t$ 9 "s cases by ! h& hoe1 b ov] wide areas ( c\ntry ! hoe nev] ent]s ! field4 ,a light spike-too!d h>r[ c be us$ on corn1 potatoes1 & simil> crops1 & accompli% ! "w ( cultivation rapidly until !y get to be f f\r to six in*es high2 aft] t cultivators :i* "w betwe5 ! r[s %\ld be us$4 ,a v useful class ( tools = de/roy+ we$s 9 ! e>li] /ages are ! s-call$ we$]s4 ,!y some:at resemble a horse hay rake & h a numb] ( flexible wire tee? :i* de/roy %all[ root$ we$s b slip ar\nd ! m firmly root$ plants ( ! crop4 ,^! we$]s mu/ be us$ frequ5tly to be ( mu* value1 = aft] a we$ is well root$ ! we$] _c de/roy x4 ,!re is a l>g] class ( h& :eel hoes :i* are v useful 9 work+ close plant$ g>d5 & truck crops4 ,!y ei!r /raddle ! r[1 work+ ! soil on bo? sides at ! same "t1 or1 runn+ betwe5 ! r[s1 "w ! soil to a wid? ( f six to eighte5 in*es4 ,= be/ results ) ! we$] & h& :eel hoes ! soil %\ld be ?or\ghly prep>$ be=e plant+ by bury+ all tra% ) ! pl[ & break+ all clods ) h>r[ & roll]4 ,! objection made to ! deep-work+ implem5ts1 l ! pl[1 is t !y injure ! crop by cutt+ its fe$+ roots1 & ?is has be5 f\nd by c>eful exp]im5t & obs]vation to dim9i% ! crop4 ,"s f>m]s object to us+ a light h>r[ = cultivation 9 ! e>ly /ages ( ! crop because !y say ! h>r[ w de/roy ! crop z well z ! we$s4 ,?is dang] is n s great z x seems4 ,! se$s ( ! crop are deep] 9 ! soil ?an ! se$s ( ! we$s :i* g]m9ate & appe> s quickly4 ,! soil has also be5 firm$ ab\t !m4 ,h5ce !y h a firm] hold on ! soil & b few ( !m are de/roy$ if ! "w is c>efully done4 ,9 work+ crops n only %\ld we$s be de/roy$ b also surplus plants ( ! crop1 z ^! h ! same effect z we$s2 namely1 !y occupy ! soil & take plant food & moi/ure :i* if left to few] plants w\ld produce a l>g] h>ve/4 ,,hill+ ,,& ,,ridg+ ,except 9 l[1 wet gr\nd1 ! practice ( hill+ or ridg+ up crops is n[ consid]$ by ^? :o h giv5 ! matt] ?or\gh /udy1 to be unnecess>y1 flat & %all[ culture be+ *eap]4 ,x saves m moi/ure1 & = ?is reason1 9 ! majority ( cases1 produces l>g] crops4 ,sometimes dur+ v long-cont9u$ p]iods ( wet wea!r we$s & grass become firmly e/abli%$ among ! plants ( ! crop4 ,"u su* circum/ances x is necess>y to use on ! cultivator tee? hav+ long1 n>r[ sweeps t w cut ! we$s j b5ea? ! surface ( ! soil4 ,sometimes a broad-too!d tool is us$ t w ?r[ suffici5t soil ov] ! l>ge we$s ne> ! r[s to smo!r !m4 ,! condition to be met & ! effect ( ! op]ation %\ld always be giv5 s]i\s ?\ght4 ,we h consid]$ aft]-cultivation z influ5c+ soil f]tility by *eck+ a loss ( wat] by evaporation & we$ transpiration1 & ?is is its ma9 influ5ce b o!r b5efits foll[4 ,keep+ ! surface soil loose & op5 b5efits f]tility because x directly aids ! absorption ( ra91 favors v5tilation1 & has a b5eficial influ5ce ov] soil temp]ature4 ,indirectly ?r\gh ^! factors x aids ! "w ( ! b5eficial soil bact]ia & ! *emical *anges 9 ! process ( prep>+ plant food = crop use4 ,,*apt] ,,xix ,,f>m ,,manures ,,functions ,,( ,,manures ,,& ,,f]tiliz]s ,9 ,*apt] ,,ii we le>n$ t ! roots ( plants = _! gr[? & developm5t ne$ a soil t is firm yet mell[1 moi/1 w>m1 v5tilat$ & suppli$ ) plant food4 ,we also le>n$ t ( ! plant foods !re is (t5 n en\gh available nitrog51 phosphoric acid1 pota% & lime = ! ne$s ( ! gr[+ plants4 ,manures & f]tiliz]s are appli$ to ! soil = _! b5eficial effects on ^! necess>y conditions = root gr[? & !re=e to assi/ 9 ma9ta9+ soil f]tility4 ,,classification ,,( ,,manures ,,& ,,f]tiliz]s ,manures may be classifi$ z foll[s3 ,b>n or /able manures1 ,f>m manures4 ,gre5-crop manures1 ,compo/s4 ,comm]cial ,mat]ials furni%+ nitrog51 f]tiliz]s phosphoric acid1 or artificial pota%1 manures4 lime4 ,,importance ,,( ,,f>m ,,manures ,( ^! two classes ( manures ! f>m] %\ld rely *iefly on ! f>m manures lett+ ! comm]cial f]tiliz]s take a second>y place because3 ,f>m manures are complete manures2 t is !y conta9 all ! necess>y elem5ts ( plant food4 ,f>m manures add to ! soil l>ge am\nts ( organic matt] or humus4 ,! decay ( organic matt] produces c>bonic acid :i* ha/5s ! decay ( m9]al matt] 9 ! soil & s increases ! am\nt ( available plant food4 ,! organic matt] *anges ! texture ( ! soil4 ,x makes s&y soils m compact & !re=e m p[]ful to hold wat] & plant food4 ,x makes heavy clay soils m op5 & por\s1 giv+ !m great] p[] to absorb moi/ure & plant food4 ,?is admits also ( bett] circulation ( ! air 9 ! soil1 & prev5ts bak+ 9 dry wea!r4 ,f>m manures influ5ce all ( ! conditions necess>y = root gr[? :ile ! comm]cial f]tiliz]s influ5ce ma9ly ! plant food conditions4 ,! f>m manures are good = all soils & crops4 ,!y are la/+ 9 _! effects on ! soil4 ,,b>n ,,or ,,/able ,,manure ,b>n or /able manure consi/s ( ! solid & liquid excrem5t ( any ( ! f>m animals mix$ ) ! /raw or o!r mat]ials us$ z b$d+ = ! com=t ( ! animals & to absorb ! liquid p>ts4 ,! liquid p>ts %\ld be sav$1 z !y conta9 m ?an half ( ! nitrog5 & pota% 9 ! manure4 ,! value ( b>n manure = improv+ ! soil conditions necess>y = root gr[? dep5ds 9 a measure ^u ! plant food 9 x1 b *iefly ^u ! v l>ge proportion ( organic matt] :i* x conta9s :5 x is appli$ to ! soil4 ,^! factors are influ5c$ some:at3 by ! k9d ( animal t produces ! manure2 by ! k9d ( food ! animal receives2 by ! k9d & am\nt ( litt] or b$d+ us$2 b !y dep5d p>ticul>ly on ! way ! manure is c>$ = aft] x is produc$4 ,,loss ,,( ,,value ,improp] c>e ( ! manure may cause x to dim9i% 9 value v mu*4 ,loss by lea*+4 ,if ! manure is pil$ aga9/ ! side ( ! /able :]e wat] f ! ro( c drip on x1 z is (t5 ! case1 or if x is pil$ 9 an expos$ place :]e heavy ra9 c beat on x1 ! ra9 wat] 9 lea*+ ?r\gh ! manure wa%es out ( x nitrog5 & pota%1 :i* pass (f 9 ! d>k br[n liquid t oozes f ! base ( ! pile4 ,loss by heat+ or f]m5t+4 ,:5 b>n manure is ?r[n into piles x soon heats & ?r[s (f m or less /eam & gas4 ,?is heat+ ( ! manure is caus$ by f]m5tation or ! break+ d[n ( ! mat]ials compos+ ! manure & ! =m+ ( new comp\nds4 ,?is f]m5tation is produc$ by v small or microscopic plants call$ bact]ia4 ,! f]m5tation ( ! manure is influ5c$ by ! foll[+ conditions3 ,a c]ta9 am\nt ( heat is necess>y to />t ! "w ( ! bact]ia4 ,aft] !y h once />t$ !y keep up & increase ! temp]ature ( ! pile until x gets s hot t sometimes a "p ( ! manure is r$uc$ to a%es4 ,! high] ! temp]ature ! m rapid ! f]m5tation4 ,?is c be se5 p>ticul>ly 9 piles ( horse manure4 ,! bact]ia :i* produce ! mo/ rapid f]m5tation 9 manure ne$ pl5ty ( air ) its oxyg54 ,!re=e f]m5tation w be m or less rapid accord+ z ! manure is pil$ loosely or 9 a close compact mass4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt ( moi/ure is necess>y = ! f]m5tation to take place1 b if ! manure is made q wet ! temp]ature is l[]$ & ! f]m5tation is *eck$4 ,! wat] also *ecks ! f]m5tation by limit+ ! supply ( air t c ent] ! pile4 ,! composition ( ! manure influ5ces ! f]m5tation4 ,! pres5ce ( consid]able am\nts ( soluble nitrog5 ha/5s ! rapidity ( ! f]m5tation4 ,n[ :5 ! manure f]m5ts a l>ge "p ( ! organic matt] 9 x is brok5 d[n & *ang$ into gases4 ,! gas =m$ mo/ abundantly by ! f]m5tation is c>bonic acid gas1 :i* is produc$ by ! union ( oxyg5 ) c>bon ( ! organic matt]4 ,! =mation ( ?is gas means a loss ( humus4 ,?is loss c be notic$ by ! fact t ! pile gradually becomes small]4 ,! next mo/ abundant product ( ! f]m5tation is wat] vapor :i* c (t5 be se5 pass+ (f 9 cl\ds ( /eam4 ,:5 manure f]m5ts rapidly ! nitrog5 9 x is *ang$ l>gely into ammonia4 ,?is ammonia comb9es ) "p ( ! c>bonic acid gas & =ms c>bonate ( ammonia1 a v volatile salt :i* rapidly *anges to a vapor & is lo/ 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,?is causes a great loss ( nitrog5 dur+ ! rapid decomposition ( ! manure4 ,?is loss c be detect$ by ! well kn[n odor ( ! ammonia :i* is p>ticul>ly noticeable ab\t horse /ables & piles ( horse manure4 ,besides ^! gases a numb] ( comp\nds ( nitrog51 pota%1 etc41 are =m$ :i* are soluble 9 wat]4 ,x is ^! t =m ! d>k br[n liquid t sometimes oozes out f ! base ( ! manure heap4 ,at ! ,cornell ,univ]sity ,agricultural ,exp]im5t ,/ation1 ! foll[+ exp]im5t 0 c>ri$ out to f9d out h[ mu* loss w\ld take place f a pile ( manure3 ,f\r ?\s& p\nds ( manure f ! horse /able 7 plac$ out ( doors 9 a compact pile & left expos$ f ,april #be? to ,septemb] #bb;d4 ,! results 7 z foll[s3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,april #be4 ,sept4 #bb4 ,loss p] c5t4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,gross weight #d1jjj lbs4 #a1gcj lbs4 #eg ,nitrog5 #ai4f #g4gi #fj ,phos4 acid #ad4h #g4gi #dg ,pota% #cf #h4fe #gf ,value ( plant food p] ton #b4cj #a4jf ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,?is %[s a loss ( m ?an half ! bulk ( ! manure & m ?an half ! plant food conta9$ 9 x4 ,,*eck+ ,,! ,,losses ,! fir/ /ep to be tak5 9 pres]v+ ! manure or 9 *eck+ losses is to provide suffici5t b$d+ or litt] 9 ! /able to absorb & save all ! liquid p>ts4 ,! losses f f]m5tation ( hot manures l horse manure may be l>gely *eck$ by mix+ ) ! cold] manure f ! c[ /able4 ,losses f f]m5tation may also be *eck$4 ,by pil+ compactly1 :i* keeps ! air out4 ,by moi/5+ ! pile1 :i* l[]s ! temp]ature & *ecks ! access ( oxyg54 ,! manure may be haul$ directly to ! field ea* day & spread on ! surface or pl[$ 94 ,?is me?od is ! be/ :5 practicable because f]m5tation ( ! manure w take place sl[ly 9 ! soil & ! gases produc$ w be absorb$ & reta9$ by ! soil4 ,gypsum or l& pla/] is (t5 spr9kl$ on /able floors & ab\t manure heaps to prev5t ! loss ( ammonia4 ,copp]as or blue /one1 ka9ite & sup]phosphate are sometimes us$ = ! same purpose4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 no?+ bett] nor s good = ?is purpose z dry e>? conta9+ a l>ge p]c5tage ( humus4 ,losses f wa%+ or lea*+ by ra9 may be prev5t$ by pil+ ! manure "u cov] or by haul+ x to ! field z soon z produc$ & spread+ x on ! surface or pl[+ x "u4 ,,apply+ ,,! ,,manure ,,to ,,! ,,soil ,f t5 to tw5ty tons p] acre is consid]$ a suffici5t application ( b>n manure = mo/ f>m crops4 ,l>g] am\nts are sometimes appli$ to ! soil = truck & m>ket g>d5 crops4 ,b>n manures are appli$ to ! soil by ^! me?ods3 ,! manure is sometimes haul$ out f ! b>n & plac$ 9 a l>ge pile 9 ! field or 9 _m small piles :]e x rema9s = "s "t be=e be+ spread & pl[$ or h>r[$ 94 ,"s f>m]s spread x on ! field & all[ x to lie "s "t be=e pl[+ x 94 ,x is sometimes spread z soon z haul$ to ! field & is imm$iately pl[$ 9 or mix$ ) ! soil4 ,?is la/ is ! safe/ & mo/ economical me?od s f> z ! manure alone is conc]n$4 ,:5 ! manure is left 9 a l>ge pile x suff]s losses due to f]m5tation & lea*+4 ,at ! ,cornell ,univ]sity ,agricultural ,exp]im5t ,/ation1 five tons ( manure f ! c[ /able1 includ+ ?ree hundr$ p\nds ( gypsum :i* 0 mix$ ) x1 7 expos$ 9 a compact pile out ( doors f ,april #be? to ,septemb] #bb;d4 ,! result 0 z foll[s3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,april #be ,sept #bb ,loss p] c5t4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,gross weight #aj1jjj lbs4 #e1abe lbs4 #di ,nitrog5 #dg #bh #da ,phos4 acid #cb #bf #ai ,pota% #dh #dd #h ,value ( plant food p] ton #b4bi #a4fj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,:5 di/ribut$ ov] ! field 9 small piles & all[$ to rema9 s = "s "t1 losses f f]m5tation take place1 & ! ra9 wa%es plant food f ! pile into ! soil "u & imm$iately ab\t x4 ,?is results 9 an unev5 di/ribution ( plant food ov] ! field1 = :5 ! manure is f9ally scatt]$ & pl[$ 91 "p ( ! field is f]tiliz$ ) wa%$ out manure :ile ! soil "u & imm$iately ab\t ! location ( ! v>i\s piles is (t5 s /rongly f]tiliz$ t no?+ c gr[ !re unless x be rank1 co>se we$s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--;,a ,,crop ,,( ,,c[peas4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--,,r$ ,,clov]4 ,:5 ! manure is spread on ! surface & all[$ to lie = "s "t x is apt to become dry & h>d1 & :5 f9ally pl[$ 91 decays v sl[ly4 ,:5 ! manure is pl[$ 9 or mix$ ) ! soil z soon z appli$ to ! field !re results an ev5 di/ribution ( plant food 9 ! soil1 f]m5tation takes place gradually & all gases =m$ are absorb$ by ! soil1 !re is v little loss ( valuable nitrog5 & organic matt]1 & ! f]m5tation tak+ place 9 ! soil also aids 9 break+ d[n ! m9]al con/itu5ts ( ! soil & mak+ available ! plant food held by !m4 ,!re=e x seems be/ to spread ! manure & pl[ x 9 or mix x ) ! soil z soon z x is haul$ to ! field1 :5 n prev5t$ by bad wea!r & o!r m press+ "w4 ,,prop] ,,condition ,,( ,,manure ,,:5 ,,appli$ ,a l>ge "p ( ! value ( b>n manure lies 9 ! fact t x consi/s l>gely ( organic matt]1 & !re=e has an important influ5ce on soil texture1 & dur+ its decay 9 ! soil produces favorable *emical *anges 9 ! soil con/itu5ts4 ,!re=e x w produce its greate/ effect on ! soil :5 appli$ fre%4 ,= ?is reason x is g5]ally be/ to haul ! manure to ! field & mix x ) ! soil z soon aft] x is produc$ z possible4 ,if co>se manures are mix$ ) light1 s&y soils x is be/ to foll[ ) ! roll]1 o!rwise ! co>se manure may cause ! soil to lie s loose & op5 t bo? soil & manure w lose moi/ure s rapidly t f]m5tation ( ! manure w be /opp$ & ! soil w be unfit = plant+4 ,if x is desir$ to apply manure directly to delicate root$ truck & vegetable crops x is be/ to let x /& = "s "t until ! fir/ rank f]m5tation has tak5 place & ! manure has become rott54 ,a good practice is to apply ! manure 9 its fre% condition to co>se fe$+ crops l corn1 & !n foll[ ! corn by a m delicate root$ crop :i* requires ! manure to be 9 a m decompos$ condition ?an is necess>y = ! corn4 ,9 ?is case ! corn is satisfi$ & ! rema9+ manure is 9 prop] condition = ! foll[+ crop :5 x is plant$4 ,ano!r practice is to broadca/ ! co>se manure on grass l& & !n :5 ! hay is h>ve/$ ! sod & rema9+ manure are pl[$ "u = ! foll[+ crop4 ,a /udy ( root developm5t 9 ,*apt] ,,ii4 tells u t mo/ ( ! manure us$ = cultivat$ crops %\ld be broadca/$ & ?or\ghly mix$ ) ! soil4 ,a small am\nt may be plac$ 9 ! drill or hill & ?or\ghly mix$ ) ! soil = crops t are plant$ 9 r[s or furr[s 9 ord] to give ! "y plant a rapid />t4 ,= ! vegetable g>d5 & fl[] g>d5 & lawns1 x is be/ to apply only manure t has be5 pil$ = "s "t & has be5 turn$ ov] sev]al times s t x is well rott$ & brok5 up4 ,!re may n be a s+le f>m :]e x w be possible to c>ry out to ! lett] ^! pr9ciples apply+ to ! treatm5t & application ( b>n manures4 ,?is is because climate1 crops & conditions v>y 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! c\ntry & on diff]5t f>ms4 ,!re=e we %\ld /udy c>efully our conditions & ! pr9ciples & make our practice s comb9e ! two z to produce ! be/ & mo/ economical results "u ! circum/ances4 ,if we c get manure out 9 ! w9t] x w v mu* less5 ! ru% ( spr+ "w4 ,9 "s p>ts ( ! c\ntry on acc\nt ( deep sn[s1 heavy ra9fall & hilly fields1 x is n advisable to apply manure 9 ! w9t]4 ,?is w necessitate /or+ ! manure4 ,if conditions are su* t we c get ! manure on to ! l& z soon z x is made1 x %\ld be appli$ to l& on :i* a crop is gr[+ or l& :i* is soon to be plant$4 ,if l& is n int5d$ = an imm$iate crop1 put a cov] crop on x4 ,,compo/s ,compo/s are collections ( f>m tra% or rubbi%1 z leaves1 potato tops1 we$s1 road & dit* scrap+s1 fi%1 slaught]-h\se refuse1 etc41 mix$ 9 piles ) lime1 b>n manure1 woods-e>?1 swamp muck1 peat & soil4 ,! object ( compo/+ ^! mat]ials is to ha/5 _! decay & r5d] available ! plant food 9 !m4 ,!re are c]ta9 disadvantages 9 compo/+1 namely3 ,exp5se ( h&l+ & c>t+ on acc\nt ( bulk4 ,l[ composition4 ,loss ( organic matt] by f]m5tation4 ,compo/ heaps s]ve z homes = we$ se$s1 insects & plant diseases4 ,nev]!less1 all wa/e organic matt] on ! f>m %\ld be sav$ & made use ( z manure4 ,^! mat]ials :5 n too co>se may be spread on ! surface ( ! soil & pl[$ "u2 !y %\ld nev] be burn$ unless too co>se & woody or f\l ) we$ se$s1 insects & disease4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--,,soy ,,beans ,,9 ,,"y ,,or*>d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--;,a ,,"y ,,alfalfa ,,plant ,,j ,,com+ ,,into ,,fl[]4 ,,*apt] ,,xx ,,f>m ,,manures--,,conclud$ ,,gre5-,,crop ,,manures ,gre5-crop manures are crops gr[n & pl[$ "u = ! purpose ( improv+ ! f]tility ( ! soil4 ,! ma9 object ( turn+ ^! crops "u is to furni% ! soil ) humus4 ,any crop may be us$ = ?is purpose4 ,by gr[+ any ( ! class ( crops call$ ,legumes we may add to ! soil n only humus b also nitrog54 ,c[peas1 beans1 clov]1 vet* & plants hav+ foliage1 fl[]s1 se$ pods & se$s l !m are call$ ,legumes4 ,mo/ ( ! f>m plants take _! nitrog5 f ! soil4 ,?is nitrog5 is tak5 9 ! =m ( nitric acid & nitrog5 salts dissolv$ 9 soil wat]4 ,! legumes1 h[ev]1 are able to use ! free nitrog5 :i* =ms f\r-fif?s ( ! atmosph]e4 ,?is !y d n ( _! own p[] b ?r\gh ! aid ( v m9ute plants call$ bact]ia or nitrog5-fix+ g]ms4 ,^! g]ms are s small t !y _c be se5 )\t ! use ( a p[]ful microscope4 ,x w\ld take t5 ?\s& av]age siz$ bact]ia plac$ side by side to measure "o in*4 ,^! little g]ms make _! homes 9 ! roots ( ! legumes1 caus+ ! root to enl>ge at c]ta9 po9ts & =m tub]cles or nodules 7,figs4 #cd & #ce74 ,c>efully dig up a root ( clov]1 c[pea1 soy bean or o!r legume & wa% ! soil f x4 ,y w f9d numb]s ( ! little tub]cles or nodules4 ,on ! clov] !y w be ab\t ! size ( a p9 head or a little l>g]4 ,on ! soy bean !y w be ne>ly z l>ge z ! beans4 ,^! nodules are fill$ ) colonies or families ( bact]ia :i* take ! free nitrog5 f ! air :i* p5etrates ! soil & give x ov] to ! plant 9 return = h\se r5t & />* or o!r food !y may h tak5 f ! plant4 ,9 an exp]im5t at ,cornell ,univ]sity ,agricultural ,exp]im5t ,/ation1 9 #ahif1 clov] se$s 7 s[n ,augu/ #a/1 & ! plants 7 dug ,novemb] #d?1 ?ree mon?s & f\r days aft] ! se$s 7 s[n4 ,! clov]s 7 !n weigh$ & te/$ & ! foll[+ results 7 obta9$3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,nitrog5 ,,9 ,,an ,,acre ,,( ,,clov]s4 ---------------------------------------- ---- ,lbs4 9 tops4 ,lbs4 9 roots4 ,lbs41 total4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,crimson ,clov] #abe4bh #cj4ff #aee4id ,mammo? ,clov] #fg4eg #gh4ci #ade4if ,r$ ,clov] #fc4aa #dj4be #ajc4cf ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,a l>ge "p ( ! nitrog5 f\nd 9 ^! plants 0 und\bt$ly tak5 by ! roots f ! soil air4 ,besides add+ humus & nitrog5 to ! soil ! legumes1 be+ mo/ly deep-root$ plants1 are able to take f ! subsoil food :i* is out ( rea* ( o!r plants4 ,?is food is di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! plant & :5 ! plant is pl[$ "u ! food is deposit$ 9 ! upp] soil = ! use ( %all[-root$ plants4 ,,b5efits ,! b5efits d]iv$ f gre5 crop manur+ !n are z foll[s3 ,we add to ! soil organic matt] or humus :i* is s helpful 9 br++ ab\t ! conditions necess>y = root gr[?4 ,by us+ ! legumes = our gre5 manure crops we may supply ! soil ) nitrog5 tak5 f ! air4 ,we return to ! surface soil n only ! plant food tak5 f x b also plant food br\ght f ! subsoil by ! roots ( ! gre5 manure plants4 ,,"* ,,( ,,be/ ,,plants ,,= ,,gre5 ,,crop ,,manur+ ,! plants be/ adapt$ to gre5 crop manur+ are deep-root$1 heavy-foliag$ plants4 ,( ^! ! legumes are by f> ! be/1 z !y collect ! free nitrog5 f ! air :i* o!r plants _c d4 ,?is enables ! f>m] to gr[ nitrog5 :i* is v exp5sive to buy4 ,,! ,,"t ,,= ,,gr[+ ,,gre5 ,,manure ,,crops ,gre5 manure crops may be gr[n at any "t t ! soil is n occupi$ by o!r crops1 provid$ o!r conditions are suitable4 ,l& :i* is us$ = spr+ & summ] crops (t5 lies b>e & idle dur+ fall & w9t]4 ,a h>dy gre5 manure crop plant$ aft] ! summ] crop is h>ve/$ w make consid]able gr[? dur+ ! fall & e>ly spr+1 & ?is c be pl[$ "u = ! use ( ! foll[+ summ] crops4 ,if !re is a long int]val ( "t dur+ spr+ or summ] :5 ! l& is b>e1 t is a good "t = a gre5 manure crop4 ,gre5 manure crops are (t5 plant$ betwe5 ! r[s ( o!r crops su* z corn or cotton at ! la/ work+ ( ! crop = ! b5efit ( ! crop :i* is to foll[4 ,x is advisable to arrange = a gre5 manure crop at lea/ once 9 ?ree or f\r ye>s4 ,,legum9\s ,,gre5 ,,manure ,,crops ,c[pea4 7,field pea1 /ock pea1 black pea1 black-ey$ pea1 clay pea1 etc47 7,fig4 #gi47 ,! c[pea is p]haps ! mo/ important legum9\s plant gr[n = soil improvem5t 9 ! ,s\?4 ,x w gr[ any:]e s\? ( ! ,ohio ,riv] & c be gr[n ) fair success 9 _m localities f>!r nor?4 ,x is a t5d] annual1 t is1 x is kill$ by fro/ & makes its entire gr[? f se$ to se$ 9 a s+le season4 ,x %\ld !re=e be plant$ only dur+ ! spr+ & summ]4 ,?is crop n only has p[] l ! o!r legumes to take nitrog5 f ! air1 b x is also a /rong fe$]1 t is1 x c fe$ ^u m9]al plant food 9 ! soil t o!r plants are unable to make use (4 ,= ?is reason x w gr[ on "s ( ! poore/ soils1 & is a good plant ) :i* to beg9 ! improvem5t ( v poor l&4 ,x is a deep-root$ plant4 ,on ! f>m ( ! ,hampton ,normal & ,agricultural ,in/itute c[pea roots h be5 trac$ to ! dep? ( sixty-"o in*es4 ,c[peas w gr[ on almo/ any l& t is n too wet4 ,f "o & "o-half to ?ree bu%els ( se$ are us$ p] acre4 ,^! are s[n broadca/ & h>r[$ 9 or are plant$ 9 drills or furr[s & cultivat$ a few times4 ,aside f its value z a gre5 manure crop ! c[pea is useful z food = man & ! f>m animals4 ,! gre5 pods are us$ z /r+ beans or snaps4 ,! rip5$ se$s are us$ z a food & ! v9es make good fodd] = ! f>m animals4 ,exp]im5ts at ! ,l\isiana ,exp]im5t ,/ation %[ t "o acre ( c[peas yield+ #c1igj4ch p\nds ( organic matt]1 turn$ "u1 gave to ! soil #fd4ie p\nds ( nitrog51 #bj4ci p\nds ( phosphoric acid & #aaj4ef p\nds ( pota%4--,f>m]'s ,bullet91 #af ,u4,s4 ,dept4 ( ,agriculture4 ,x is n[ gr[n 9 all ! ,/ates s\? ( ! ,ohio ,riv]1 & 9 #ahii !re 7 plant$ ne>ly #hjj1jjj acres to ! crop4 ,bas+ our e/imate on ! am\nt ( nitrog5 /or$ 9 ! soil by ?is crop1 x is fair to say t fully fifte5 million p\nds ( ?is valuable sub/ance 7 collect$ & reta9$ z a result ( ! plant+ ( ! c[pea alone4 ,?is at fifte5 c5ts p] p\nd 7! m>ket price ( nitrog57 w\ld be wor? some?+ m ?an #b1jjj1jjj = nitrog5 alone4--,ye> ,book ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 #aijb4 ,! ,clov]s4--,^! are ! mo/ ext5sively gr[n plants = gre5 manure purposes 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,!y are deep-root$1 & are able to use m9]al food t is too t\gh = o!r plants4 ,!y furni% l>ge crops ( hay or gre5 =age & a good aft]ma? & sod to turn "u z gre5 manure1 or ! entire crop may be pl[$ "u4 ,r$ ,clov] is ! mo/ widely plant$ 7,fig4 #hj74 ,x is a p]5nial plant & gr[s f ! mo/ nor!rn ,/ates to ! nor!rn bord] ( ! ,gulf ,/ates4 ,x gr[s be/ on ! loams & heavi] soils well suppli$ ) wat]1 b n wet4 ,x is s[n broadca/ at ! rate ( f t5 to tw5ty p\nds ( se$ p] acre4 ,9 ! ,nor? x is g5]ally s[n 9 ! spr+ on fields ( w9t] gra94 ,9 ! ,s\?1 ,septemb] & ,octob] are recomm5d$ z ! prop] s[+ times4 ,x is ! cu/om to let x gr[ two ye>s1 cutt+ x = hay & se$1 & !n to turn ! aft]ma? & sod "u4 ,mammo? ,r$ ,clov]1 also call$ sapl+ clov] & pea-v9e clov]1 closely resembles ! r$ clov]1 b is rank] 9 gr[? & matures two or ?ree weeks lat]4 ,x is bett] adapt$ to wet l& ?an ! r$ clov]4 ,crimson ,clov]1 also call$ ,g]man clov] & ,italian clov]1 is a valuable gre5 manure crop 9 ! c5tral & s\!rn ,/ates ea/ ( ! ,mississippi4 ,x is a h>dy annual 9 t section & is g5]ally s[n f ! la/ ( ,july to ! middle ( ,octob]1 ei!r by itself or ) cultivat$ crops at _! la/ work+4 ,fifte5 & tw5ty p\nds ( se$ are us$ to ! acre4 ,x makes a good gr[? dur+ ! fall & e>ly w9t] & is 9 blossom & ready to cut or pl[ "u 9 ,april or ,may4 ,x gr[s at a season :5 ! c[pea w n live4 ,crimson clov] w gr[ on soils too light = o!r clov]s4 ,! ,soy ,bean1 also call$ soja bean & ,japanese pea1 is ano!r legum9\s crop us$ = gre5 manur+ 7,fig4 #ha74 ,x 0 introduc$ into ?is c\ntry f ,japan & 9 "s localities is q ext5sively plant$4 ,x gr[s m upright ?an ! c[pea & produces a l>ge am\nt ( /em & foliage :i* may be us$ = fodd] or turn$ "u = gre5 manure ,! se$s are us$ = food = man & bea/4 ,! soy bean is plant$ & c>$ = 9 ! same mann] z ! c[pea4 ,! ,canadian ,field ,pea is sometimes gr[n 9 ! nor? z a gre5 manure crop4 ,:ite ,sweet ,clov]1 :ite melitot or ,bokh>a clov]1 gr[s z a we$ f ,new ,engl& to ! ,gulf ( ,mexico4 ,9 ! ,gulf ,/ates x is reg>d$ z a valuable =age & gre5 manure plant4 ,"o or two pecks ( se$ p] acre are s[n 9 ,janu>y or ,febru>y4 ,alfalfa1 or luc]n1 ?\gh gr[n m = a =age crop ?an = gre5 manur+1 %\ld be m5tion$ "h1 = :]ev] gr[n & = :atev] purpose1 its effects on ! soil are b5eficial 7,fig4 #hb74 ,?is plant requires a well prep>$ soil t is free f we$s4 ,tw5ty to tw5ty-five p\nds ( se$ are plant$ p] acre4 ,9 ! nor? ! se$+ is g5]ally done 9 ! spr+ aft] dang] ( fro/ is pa/1 z fro/ kills ! "y plants4 ,9 ! ,s\? fall se$+ is ! cu/om 9 ord] to give ! "y plants a long />t ahead ( ! spr+ we$s4 ,"o se$+ if well c>$ = la/s = _m ye>s4 ,alfalfa is pa/ur$ or cut = hay1 f\r to eight tons be+ ! yield4 ,_m fields run out 9 five or six ye>s & ! sod is pl[$ "u4 ,?is plant s5ds its roots ?irte51 sixte51 & ev5 ?irty feet into ! soil aft] wat] & food1 & :5 ^! roots decay !y furni% ! l[] soil ) organic matt] & _! passages s]ve z dra9s & v5tilators 9 ! soil4 ,alfalfa is gr[n ext5sively 9 ! semi-arid regions ( ! c\ntry4 ,,non-,,legum9\s ,,gre5 ,,manure ,,plants ,among ! non-legum9\s gre5 manure plants are rye1 :eat1 oats1 mu/>d1 rape1 buck:eat4 ,( ^! ! rye & buck:eat are mo/ g5]ally us$1 ! rye be+ a w9t] crop & ! o!r a w>m wea!r plant4 ,!y are bo? /rong fe$]s & c use t\gh plant food4 ,!y d n add new nitrog5 to ! soil ?\gh !y furni% humus & prep>e food = ! weak] fe$]s :i* may foll[ !m4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi ,,comm]cial ,,f]tiliz]s ,,! ,,raw ,,mat]ials ,next to ! soil itself1 ! f>m]'s mo/ important s\rces ( plant food are ! f>m manures4 ,b mo/ f>ms d n produce ^! 9 suffici5t quantities to keep up ! plant food side ( f]tility4 ,!re=e ! f>m] mu/ resort to o!r s\rces ( plant food to supplem5t ! f>m manures4 ,!re is a l>ge class ( mat]ials call$ ,comm]cial ,f]tiliz]s1 :i*1 if judici\sly us$1 w aid 9 ma9ta9+ ! f]tility ( ! f>m ) economy4 ,we le>n$ 9 a previ\s *apt] t ! plant foods1 nitrog51 phosphoric acid1 pota% & lime1 are apt to be f\nd want+ 9 suffici5t available quantities to supply ! ne$s ( pr(itable crops4 ,we le>n$ also t lime is useful 9 improv+ ! texture ( ! soil & 9 mak+ o!r plant foods available4 ,n[ ! comm]cial f]tiliz]s are us$ to supply ! soil ) ^! f\r sub/ances & !y may be classifi$ accord+ to ! sub/ance furni%$ z foll[s3 ,s\rces ( nitrog51 phosphoric acid1 pota%1 lime4 ,,s\rces ,,( ,,nitrog5 ,nitrog5 is ! mo/ exp5sive ( plant foods to buy1 !re=e special att5tion %\ld be giv5 to produc+ x on ! f>m by means ( b>n manures & legumes pl[$ "u4 ,! pr9cipal comm]cial s\rces ( nitrog5 are3 ,nitrate ( soda1 sulphate ( ammonia1 dri$ blood1 tankage1 dry gr\nd fi%1 cotton-se$ meal4 ,nitrate ( ,soda or ,*ile saltpetre conta9+ #ae4e p] c5t4 ( nitrog51 is f\nd 9 l>ge deposits 9 ! ra9less regions ( we/]n ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,9 ! crude /ate z x comes f ! m9e x conta9s common salt & e>?y matt] z impurities4 ,to remove ^! impurities ! crude nitrate is put into tanks ( w>m wat]4 ,! nitrate dissolves & ! salt & e>?y matt] settle to ! bottom ( ! tank4 ,! wat] ) ! nitrate 9 solution is !n drawn (f into o!r tanks f :i* ! wat] is evaporat$1 leav+ ! nitrate1 a co>se1 dirty look+ salt :i* is pack$ 9 ?ree-hundr$-p\nd bags & %ipp$4 ,plants t take _! nitrog5 f ! soil take x 9 ! =m ( nitrate4 ,h5ce nitrate ( soda1 :i* is v soluble 9 wat]1 is imm$iately available to plants & is "o ( ! mo/ directly useful nitrog5 f]tiliz]s4 ,x is us$ = quick results & %\ld be appli$ only to l& t has a crop or is to be imm$iately plant$1 o!rwise x is liable to be lo/ by lea*+4 ,sulphate ( ,ammonia conta9s #bj p] c5t4 ( nitrog54 ,x is a :ite salt1 f9] & clean] look+ ?an ! nitrate4 ,x is a by-product ( ! gas works & coke ov5s4 ,! nitrog5 9 x is q readily available4 ,dri$ ,blood conta9s #h to #ab p] c5t4 ( nitrog54 ,?is is blood collect$ 9 slaught]-h\ses & dri$ by /eam or hot air4 ,x decays rapidly 9 ! soil & is a quick act+ nitrog5 f]tiliz]4 ,tankage conta9s #d to #h p] c5t4 ( nitrog5 & #g to #bj p] c5t4 ( phosphoric acid4 ,slaught]-h\se wa/e1 su* z meat & bone scrap1 are boil$ or /eam$ to extract ! fat4 ,! settl+s are dri$ & gr\nd & sold z tankage4 ,x is mu* sl[] 9 its action ?an dri$ blood & supplies ! crop ) bo? nitrog5 & phosphoric acid4 ,dri$ ,fi% ,scrap is a by-product ( ! fi% oil factories & ! fi% cann+ factories4 ,x conta9s #g to #i p] c5t4 ( nitrog5 & #f to #h p] c5t4 ( phosphoric acid4 ,x und]goes nitrification readily & is a quick act+ organic s\rce ( nitrog5 & phosphoric acid4 ,cotton-se$ ,meal conta9s #g p] c5t4 ( nitrog51 ab\t #b4e phosphoric acid1 & #a4e p] c5t4 ( pota%4 ,x is a product ( ! cotton oil factories & is obta9$ by gr9d+ ! cotton se$ cake f :i* ! oil has be5 press$4 ,x is a mo/ valuable s\rce ( nitrog5 = ! ,s\?4 ,! nitrog5 9 ! dri$ blood1 tankage1 fi% scrap & cotton-se$ meal1 be+ organic nitrog51 mu/ be *ang$ by ! process ( nitrification to nitric acid or nitrate be=e x is available4 ,!y are !re=e bett] mat]ials to use = a m gradual & cont9u\s fe$+ ( crops ?an ! nitrate ( soda or sulphate ( ammonia4 ,scrap lea!r1 wool wa/e1 horn & ho( %av+s are ri* 9 nitrog5 b !y decay s sl[ly t !y make poor f]tiliz]s4 ,!y are us$ by f]tiliz] manufactur]s 9 mak+ *eap mix$ f]tiliz]s4 ,,s\rces ,,( ,,phosphoric ,,acid ,! pr9cipal comm]cial s\rces ( phosphoric acid are3 ,phosphate ,rocks4 ,bones4 ,fi% scrap4 ,phosphate slag4 ,! ,phosphate ,rocks are f\nd 9 %all[ m9es 9 ,nor? & ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 ,georgia1 ,florida & ,t5nessee1 & also z pebbles 9 ! riv] b$s4 ,!y are ! fossil rema9s ( animals4 ,aft] be+ dug f ! m9es ! rock is kiln dri$ & !n gr\nd to a v f9e p[d] call$ floats :i* is us$ on ! soil4 ,! phosphoric acid 9 ! floats is insoluble & becomes available only z ! phosphate decays4 ,?is is too sl[ = mo/ plants s x is treat$ ) oil ( vitriol or sulphuric acid to make x available4 ,! phosphoric acid 9 ! gr\nd rock is comb9$ ) lime1 =m+ a phosphate ( lime :i* is insoluble4 ,:5 treat$ ) ! oil ( vitriol or sulphuric acid1 ! sulphuric acid takes lime f ! phosphate & =ms sulphate ( lime or gypsum4 ,! phosphoric acid is left comb9$ ) ! smalle/ possible am\nt ( lime & is soluble 9 wat]4 ,x is !n call$ soluble or wat] soluble phosphoric acid4 ,n[ if ?is soluble =m rema9s unus$ x beg9s to take on lime aga9 & turns back t[>d its orig9al insoluble =m4 ,aft] a "t x gets to su* a /ate t x is no long] soluble 9 wat] b is soluble 9 weak acids4 ,x is !n said to be rev]t$ phosphoric acid4 ,rev]t$ phosphoric acid is also call$ citrate soluble phosphoric acid1 because 9 te/+ f]tiliz]s ! *emi/s use ammonium citrate to det]m9e ! am\nt ( rev]t$ phosphoric acid4 ,?is =m /ill cont9ues to take on lime & by & by gets back to ! orig9al insoluble =m call$ insoluble phosphoric acid4 ,! soluble phosphoric acid & rev]t$ phosphoric acid are available to plant roots4 ,! insoluble =m is n4 ,! rock phosphates conta9 f #bf to #ce p] c5t4 ( insoluble phosphoric acid4 ,! acid phosphates or dissolv$ rock phosphates conta9 f #ab to #af p] c5t4 ( available phosphoric acid & f #a to #d p] c5t4 ( insoluble4 ,bone ,f]tiliz]s4 ,bones h long be5 a valuable & favor$ s\rce ( phosphoric acid4 ,9 addition to phosphoric acid !y conta9 "s nitrog5 :i* adds to _! value4 ,!y are organic phosphates & are q la/+ 9 _! effect on ! soil z !y decay sl[ly4 ,! t]ms ,raw ,bone1 ,/eam$ ,bone1 ,gr\nd ,bone1 ,bone ,meal1 ,bone ,du/1 ,bone ,black1 ,dissolv$ ,bone1 indicate ! processes ?r\gh :i* ! bone has pass$ 9 prep>ation1 or ! condition ( ! mat]ial z put on ! m>ket & us$ on ! soil4 ,gr\nd bone1 bone meal1 bone du/1 indicate ! me*anical conditions ( ! bones4 ,! bones are sometimes gr\nd raw j z !y come f ! slaught]-h\se or kit*51 or !y are sometimes fir/ /eam$ to extract ! fat = soap1 & ! nitrog5\s matt] = glue4 ,raw ,bone4 ,analysis3 ,nitrog51 #b4e to #d4e p] c5t4 ,available phosphoric acid1 #e to #h p] c5t4 ,insoluble phosphoric acid #ae to #ag p] c5t4 ,/eam$ ,bone conta9s #a4e to #b4e p] c5t4 ( nitrog51 #f to #i p] c5t4 ( available phosphoric acid & #af to #bj p] c5t4 ( insoluble phosphoric acid4 ,/eam$ bone pulv]izes mu* f9] ?an raw bone & decays m rapidly 9 ! soil because ! fat has be5 extract$ f x4 ,dissolv$ ,bone4 ,gr\nd bone is sometimes treat$ ) sulphuric acid to r5d] ! phosphoric acid 9 x m available4 ,x is !n call$ dissolv$ bone & conta9s ?irte5 to fifte5 p] c5t4 ( available phosphoric acid & two to ?ree p] c5t4 ( nitrog54 ,dissolv$ ,bone ,black4 ,bone *>coal is us$ = ref9+ sug>4 ,x is !n turn$ ov] to ! f]tiliz] manufactur]s :o sell x z ,bone ,black or treat x ) sulphuric acid & !n put x on ! m>ket z dissolv$ bone black4 ,! bone black conta9s ?irty to ?irty-six p] c5t4 ( insoluble phosphoric acid4 ,! dissolv$ bone black conta9s #ae to #ag p] c5t4 ( available phosphoric acid & #a to #b p] c5t4 insoluble4 ,?omas ,slag1 ,phosphate ,slag1 ,odorless ,phosphate4 ,phosphor\s is an impurity 9 c]ta9 iron ores4 ,9 ! manufacture ( ,bessem] /eel ?is is extract$ by ! use ( lime :i* melts 9 ! furnace1 unites ) ! phosphor\s & br+s x away 9 ! slag4 ,?is slag is gr\nd to a f9e p[d] & us$ z a f]tiliz]4 ,x conta9s #aa to #bc p] c5t4 ( phosphoric acid1 mo/ ( :i* is available4 ,sup]phosphate4 ,! t]m sup]phosphate is appli$ to ! phosphates t h be5 treat$ ) sulphuric acid to make ! phosphoric acid available4 ,dissolv$ bone1 dissolv$ bone black1 & ! dissolv$ phosphate rocks are sup]phosphates4 ,fi% ,scrap1 m5tion$ z a s\rce ( nitrog51 is also a valuable s\rce ( phosphoric acid1 conta9+ #f to #h p] c5t41 :i* is q readily available ow+ to ! rapid decay ( ! scrap4 ,,s\rces ,,( ,,pota% ,! *ief s\rces ( pota% us$ = f]tiliz]s are ! pota% salts f ! pota% m9es at ,/assfurt1 ,g]many1 :]e !re is an imm5se deposit ( rock salt & pota% salts4 ,! pr9cipal products ( ^! m9es us$ 9 ?is c\ntry are ! crude salts3 ,ka9ite1 conta9+ #ab p] c5t4 ( pota%4 ,sylv9ite1 conta9+ #af to #bj p] c5t4 ( pota%1 & ! high] grade salts manufactur$ f ! crude salts3 ,muriate ( ,pota%1 conta9+ #ej p] c5t4 pota%4 ,high grade ,sulphate ( ,pota%1 conta9+ #ej p] c5t4 pota%4 ,l[ grade ,sulphate ( ,pota%1 conta9+ #be p] c5t4 pota%4 ,wood ,a%es1 if well kept & n all[$ to get wet & lea*1 conta9 #d to #i p] c5t4 ( pota%4 ,cotton ,hull ,a%es conta9 #bj to #cj p] c5t1 ( pota% & #g to #i p] c5t4 ( phosphoric acid4 ,! pota% 9 all ^! =ms is soluble 9 wat] & equally available to plants4 ,! crude salts1 ka9ite & sylv9ite1 & ! muriate conta9 *lor9e & are n consid]$ good = potatoes & tobacco z ! *lor9e l[]s ! quality ( ^! products4 ,9 tobacco regions tobacco refuse is a valuable s\rce ( pota%1 ! /ems are ab\t five p] c5t4 pota%4 ,,lime ,lime is g5]ally suppli$ to ! soil 9 ! =m ( quicklime made by burn+ lime /one or %ells4 ,o!r =ms are gypsum or l& pla/]1 gas lime 7a refuse f gas works7 & m>l4 ,mo/ soils conta9 suffici5t lime = ! food requirem5ts ( mo/ plants4 ,"s soils1 h[ev]1 are defici5t 9 lime & "s crops1 p>ticul>ly ! legumes1 are b5efitt$ by direct fe$+ ) lime4 ,lime is valuable = its effect on ! soil prop]ties :i* con/itute f]tility4 ,physically lime acts on ! texture ( ! soil mak+ clay soils mealy & crumbly1 & caus+ ! light] soils to adh]e or /ick toge!r m closely4 ,*emically1 lime decomposes m9]als conta9+ pota% & o!r plant foods1 ?us r5d]+ !m available = ! use ( plants4 ,x also aids ! decay ( organic matt] & sweet5s s\r soils4 ,biologically lime aids ! process ( nitrification4 ,! action ( lime is greate/ 9 its cau/ic or unslack$ =m4 ,too mu* or too frequ5t lim+ may injure ! soil4 ,x %\ld be c>efully tri$ 9 a small way1 & its action not$1 be=e us+ x ext5sively4 ,a common way ( us+ lime is to place tw5ty to =ty bu%els on an acre 9 heaps ( ?ree to five bu%els1 cov]+ !m ) soil until ! lime slacks to a f9e p[d]4 ,! lime is !n spread & h>r[$ 94 ,lime t5ds to ha/5 ! decay ( humus4 ,x %\ld n be appli$ (t5] ?an once 9 f\r or five ye>s4 ,gypsum1 a sulphate ( lime1 is simil> to lime 9 its action on ! soil4 ,its mo/ important effect is ! sett+ free ( pota% f its comp\nds4 ,gas lime %\ld be us$ ) great c>e z x conta9s sub/ances t are poison\s to plant roots4 ,x is be/ to let x lie expos$ to ! wea!r sev]al mon?s be=e us+4 ,m>l is simply soil conta9+ an am\nt ( lime v>y+ f five to fifty p] c5t4 ,x has value 9 ! vic9ity ( m>l b$s b does n pay to haul v f>4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii ,,comm]cial ,,f]tiliz]s--,,cont9u$ ,,mix$ ,,f]tiliz]s ,:at !y are4 ,!re are a l>ge numb] ( bus9ess conc]ns 9 ! c\ntry :i* buy ! raw mat]ials describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xxi1 mix !m 9 v>i\s proportions1 & sell ! product z mix$ or manufactur$ f]tiliz]s4 ,if ^! mixtures conta9 ! ?ree important plant foods1 nitrog51 phosphoric acid & pota%1 !y are sometimes call$ complete manures or f]tiliz]s4 ,9 "s p>ts ( ! c\ntry all comm]cial f]tiliz]s are call$ guano4 ,_m br&s4 ,^! raw mat]ials are mix$ 9 _m diff]5t proportions & _m deal]s h special br&s = special crops4 ,!re are consequ5tly l>ge numb]s ( br&s ( f]tiliz]s :i* v>y 9 ! am\nts1 proportions & availability ( ! plant foods !y conta94 ,= in/ance1 9 #aijc1 tw5ty-?ree f]tiliz] manufactur]s (f]$ = sale n9ety-six diff]5t br&s 9 ! ,/ate ( ,rhode ,isl&4 ,9 ,miss\ri "o hundr$ & t5 br&s1 made by sixte5 diff]5t manufactur]s1 7 (f]$ = sale4 ,eighty-?ree manufactur]s plac$ six hundr$ & =ty-f\r br&s on ! m>ket 9 ,new ,york ,/ate dur+ ! same ye>4 ,( "o hundr$ & tw5ty br&s regi/]$ = sale 9 ,v]mont 9 ! spr+ ( #aijd1 !re 7 sev5te5 mixtures = corn & ?irty-f\r = potatoes4 ,! result ( ?is is m or less confusion on ! "p ( ! f>m] 9 pur*as+ f]tiliz]s1 & ) _m a f>m] x is a lott]y z to :e!r or n he is buy+ :at 8 crop or 8 soil ne$s4 ,"s ( ! manufactur]s are n above us+ poor1 l[ grade1 raw mat]ials 9 mak+ ^! mixtures4 ,?is means t ! f>m] %\ld make himself famili> ) ! subject ( f]tiliz]s if he desires to use !m intellig5tly & economically4 ,safegu>d = ! f>m]4 ,z a safegu>d to ! buy] ( f]tiliz]s ! ,/ate laws require t e br& put on ! m>ket %all be regi/]$ & t e bag or package sold %all h /at$ on x an analysis %[+ ! am\nts ( nitrog51 or its equival5t 9 ammonia1 ! soluble phosphoric acid1 ! rev]t$ phosphoric acid1 ! insoluble phosphoric acid1 & ! pota%4 ,?is regi/ration is g5]ally made at ! ,/ate exp]im5t /ation1 & ! director ( ! /ation is in/ruct$ to take samples ( ^! br&s & h !m analyz$1 & publi% ! results toge!r ) ! analysis gu>ante$ by ! mak]4 ,^! analyses are publi%$ 9 bullet9 =m & %\ld be 9 ! h&s ( e f>m] :o makes a practice ( us+ comm]cial f]tiliz]s4 ,! manufactur]s ( f]tiliz]s comply ) ! law by pr9t+ on ! bag or package ! p] c5ts ( plant food 9 ! f]tiliz]s1 & ^! /atem5ts 9 ! great majority ( cases agree favorably ) ! analyses ( ! exp]im5t /ations1 b !y d n 9 all cases /ate :at mat]ials 7 us$ to furni% ! diff]5t k9ds ( plant food1 & x is n always possible to f9d ?is out by analysis4 ,l[ grade mat]ials4 ,= in/ance 9 mix+ a f]tiliz] "o manufactur] may use dri$ blood to furni% nitrog5 & ano!r may use lea!r wa/e or horn %av+s4 ,! latt] conta9s m nitrog5 ?an ! dri$ blood1 b !y are s t\gh & decay s sl[ly t !y are ( little b5efit to a quick gr[+ plant4 ,inflat+ ! gu>antee4 ,al?\gh ! deal] /ates correctly ! p] c5ts ( plant food 9 ! f]tiliz]1 he is q frequ5tly incl9$ to repeat ?is 9 a diff]5t =m1 & ?us give ! impression t ! mixture conta9s m ?an x really does4 ,! deal]s also give ! nitrog5 z ammonia because x makes a l>g] %[+4 ,phosphoric acid is (t5 /at$ z bone phosphate because 9 ?is ! am\nt appe>s to be great]4 ,= example1 an analysis tak5 f a f]tiliz] catalogue reads z foll[s3 ,ammonia #b to #c p] c5t4 ,available ,phosphoric ,acid #h to #aj ,total ,phosphoric ,acid #aa to #ad ,total ,bone ,phosphate #bc to #be ,actual ,pota% #aj to #ab ,sulphate ( ,pota% #ah to #bj ,a bett] /atem5t w\ld be z foll[s3 ,nitrog5 #a4fe p] c5t4 ,available ,phosphoric ,acid #h ,total ,phosphoric ,acid 7furni%$ 9 ,bone ,phosphate7 #aa ,pota% 7furni%$ 9 ,sulphate ( ,pota%7 #aj ,ammonia is r$uc$ to t]ms ( nitrog5 by multiply+ by 4#hbd4 ,all bone phosphate is =ty-six p] c5t4 phosphoric acid4 ,:5 bone phosphate is giv5 in/ead ( phosphoric acid x simply makes ! mixture appe> to h m 9 x1 & :5 bo? phosphoric acid & bone phosphate are /at$ "o is m]ely a repetition ( ! o!r4 ,! same is true ( ! /atem5ts1 pota% & sulphate ( pota%1 "o is a repetition ( ! o!r only a diff]5t =m4 ,,valuation ,! exp]im5t /ations n only publi% comp>ative analyses ( ! regi/]$ f]tiliz]s b !y also compute ! m>ket values ( ! plant food conta9$ 9 !m & comp>e ^! valuations ) ! sell+ price ( ! f]tiliz]s4 ,!y also furni% a li/ ( trade values ( ! plant foods 9 raw mat]ials = ! conv5i5ce ( f]tiliz] buy]s 9 te/+ ! values ( ! br&s (f]$ !m on ! m>kets4 ,9 ! foll[+ li/ are giv5 ! trade values agre$ ^u by ! ,exp]im5t ,/ations ( ,massa*usetts1 ,rhode ,isl&1 ,connecticut1 ,new ,j]sey & ,v]mont1 aft] a c>eful /udy ( prices rul+ 9 ! l>g] m>kets ( ! s\!rn ,new ,engl& & ,middle ,/ates4 ,trade values ( f]tiliz+ +r$i5ts 9 raw mat]ials & *emicals = #aijd3 ,c5ts p] lb4 ,nitrog5 9 ,nitrates #af ,nitrog5 9 ,ammonia ,salts #ag ,organic ,nitrog5 9 dry & f9e gr\nd fi%1 blood1 & meat1 & 9 mix$ f]tiliz]s #ag ,organic ,nitrog5 9 f9e gr\nd bone & tankage #ag ,organic ,nitrog5 9 co>se bone & tankage #ab ,phosphoric ,acid soluble 9 wat] #d ,phosphoric ,acid soluble 9 ammonium citrate #d ,phosphoric ,acid 9 f9e gr\nd bone & tankage #d ,phosphoric ,acid 9 co>se bone & tankage #c ,phosphoric ,acid 7insoluble 9 wat] & 9 ammonium citrate7 9 mix$ f]tiliz] #b ,pota% z high-grade sulphate & 9 mixtures free f muriate 7*loride7 #e ,pota% z muriate #d ,= example1 9 calculat+ ! comm]cial value ( ! plant food 9 a f]tiliz] we w take ! =mula m5tion$ on page #bje1 namely3 ,ammonia #b to #c p] c5t4 ,available ,phosphoric ,acid #h to #aj ,total ,phosphoric ,acid #aa to #ad ,total ,bone ,phosphate #bc to #be ,actual ,pota% #aj to #ab ,sulphate ( ,pota% #ah to #bj ,?is f]tiliz] is evid5tly a mixture ( bone meal & sulphate ( pota% & ! plant food conta9$ 9 x is z foll[s3 ,nitrog5 #a4fe p] c5t4 ,available ,phosphoric ,acid #h ,insoluble ,phosphoric ,acid #c ,pota% #aj ,"o hundr$ p\nds ( ! mixture w\ld conta93 ,p\nds4 ,value p] #ajj lbs4 ,nitrog5 #a4fd value at #ag 4#bi ,available ,phosphoric ,acid #h #d 4#cb ,insoluble ,phosphoric ,acid #c #b 4#jf ,pota% #aj #e 4#ej ----- ,total #a4ag ,9 "o ton ! :ole value w\ld be tw5ty times ?is or #bc4dj4 ,add to ?is #h1 :i* is ab\t ! av]age *>ge = mix+1 bagg+1 %ipp+1 sell+ & pr(it1 & we f9d t #cb is probably ! l[e/ figure at :i* ?is f]tiliz] c\ld be pur*as$ on ! m>kets1 & v likely ! price w\ld be high] z we h tak5 ! l[e/ gu>ante$ p] c5t4 ( plant food = our basis ( calculation4 ,f]tiliz]s are g5]ally mix$ & sold to ! f>m] on ! ton basis4 ,,l[ ,,grade ,,mixtures ,mo/ deal]s1 to meet a c]ta9 dem&1 furni% mixtures rang+ f #ae to #be p] ton4 ,^! mixtures are necess>ily l[ grade & are m exp5sive ?an ! high] pric$ high grade mixtures4 ,= example3 ,a c]ta9 potato f]tiliz] on ! m>ket1 :i* we w call mixture ,a1 has ! foll[+ gu>ante$ analysis3 ,ammonia #g to #h p] c5t4 ,available ,phosphoric ,acid #f to #g ,actual ,pota% #e to #f ,a ton ( ?is w\ld conta93 ,p\nds4 ,nitrog5 #aae4d value at #ag #bj4ai ,available ,phosphoric ,acid #abj #d #d4hj ,pota% #ajj #e #e4jj ----- ------ ,totals #cce4d #bi4ii ,add to ?is ! av]age *>ge = mix+1 bagg+1 sell+1 pr(it1 etc41 #h1 & ! co/ w be #cg4ii4 ,! sell+ price ( ?is f]tiliz] w\ld probably be n less ?an #dj4 ,n[ suppose ! f>m] ?9ks ?is a high pric$ & exp5sive f]tiliz] & looks ab\t = some?+ *eap]4 ,he f9ds a l[ grade potato f]tiliz]1 :i* we w call mixture ,b1 t has ! foll[+ gu>antee3 ,ammonia #c to #d p] c5t4 ,available ,phosphoric ,acid #c to #c ,actual ,pota% #b to #c ,j "o-half ! gu>antee ( ! high grade mixture ,a4 ,a ton ( ?is conta9s3 ,p\nds4 ,nitrog5 #eg4g value at #ag #aj4aj ,available ,phosphoric ,acid #fj #d #b4dj ,pota% #ej #e #b4ej ----- ------ ,totals #afg4g #ae4jj ,add av]age *>ge = mix+1 etc4 #h4jj ------ #bc4jj ,! sell+ price ( ?is w\ld v likely be n less ?an #be4 ,?is seems at fir/ sight to be *eap] & m reasonable4 ,b let u see4 ,9 a ton ( mixture ,a he gets #cce4d p\nds ( plant food = #dj1 or at an av]age co/ ( twelve c5ts p] p\nd1 :ile 9 a ton ( mixture ,b he gets #afg4g p\nds ( plant food = #be1 or at an av]age co/ ( fifte5 c5ts p] p\nd4 ,to put x ano!r way1 9 a ton ( ! high grade mixture ,a1 he gets #cce4d p\nds ( plant food = #dj4 ,to get ! same am\nt ( plant food1 #cce4d p\nds1 9 ! l[ grade mixture1 ,b1 x w be necess>y to buy two tons at a co/ ( #ej4 ,a l[ grade f]tiliz] is always exp5sive ev5 if ! plant food is furni%$ by high grade mat]ials4 ,,buy ,,on ,,! ,,plant ,,food ,,basis ,! f>m] g5]ally buys 8 f]tiliz] on ! ton basis4 ,a bett] me?od is to buy j z ! f]tiliz] manufactur]s buy ! raw mat]ials !y use = mix+1 namely1 on ! basis ( actual plant food 9 ! f]tiliz]4 ,! deal]s h :at !y call ! unit basis1 a unit mean+ "o p] c5t4 ( a ton or tw5ty p\nds ( plant food4 ,a ton ( nitrate ( soda1 = in/ance1 conta9s #caj p\nds or #ae units ( nitrog51 :i* at #c4bj c5ts p] unit w\ld co/ #di4 ,buy y\r mixture ( a reliable firm1 f9d out ! actual am\nts ( ! plant foods 9 ! mixture & pay a fair m>ket price = !m4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii ,,comm]cial ,,f]tiliz]s--,,conclud$ ,,! ,,home ,,mix+ ,,( ,,f]tiliz]s ,:5 a consid]able am\nt ( f]tiliz] is us$ a bett] plan ?an buy+ mix$ f]tiliz] is to buy ! raw mat]ials & mix !m y\rself4 ,= example1 a f>m] is ab\t to plant five acres ( cabbages = ! m>ket4 ,he f9ds t a c]ta9 successful cabbage gr[] recomm5ds ! use ( fifty p\nds nitrog51 fifty p\nds phosphoric acid & sev5ty p\nds pota% p] acre4 ,= ! five acres ?is w mean #bej p\nds nitrog51 #bej p\nds phosphoric acid & #cej p\nds pota%4 ,to furni% ! nitrog5 he c buy #a1fac p\nds ( nitrate ( soda or #b1ejj p\nds dri$ blood or #a1bej p\nds sulphate ( ammonia1 or a "p ( ea*4 ,to furni% ! phosphoric acid he c buy #a1ghf p\nds acid phosphate4 ,sev5 hundr$ p\nds ( ei!r sulphate or muriate ( pota% w furni% ! pota%4 ,^! mat]ials c be easily mix$ by spread+ 9 alt]nate lay]s on a smoo? floor & !n %ovell+ ov] ! entire mass sev]al times4 ,! mixture c be fur!r improv$ by pass+ x ?r\gh a s& or coal scre5 or sieve4 ,by foll[+ ?is me?od ( buy+ ! raw mat]ials & mix+ !m on ! f>m1 ! f>m] c r$uce 8 f]tiliz] bill by q a consid]able am\nt & at ! same "t c obta9 j ! k9ds & prop] am\nts ( plant foods ne$$ by 8 crops4 ,,k9d ,,& ,,am\nt ,,to ,,buy ,! f>m] %\ld make ! be/ use ( f>m manures & ?r\gh tillage to r5d] plant food available = 8 crops be=e turn+ to comm]cial f]tiliz] = additional plant food4 ,if he gr[s legum9\s crops = gre5 manur+1 = fe$+ /ock or = cov] crops1 he c 9 _m cases secure1 *iefly ?r\gh !m1 suffici5t high pric$ nitrog5 = ! ne$s ( 8 crops1 & x is necess>y only occasionally to pur*ase mod]ate am\nts ( phosphoric acid1 pota% & lime4 ,= special f>m+ & special crops x may be necess>y to use ! comm]cial f]tiliz] m freely4 ,x is impossible to say "h j :at am\nts or :at k9ds ( f]tiliz] %\ld be pur*as$1 because no two f>ms are exactly alike z to soil1 me?ods ( cropp+ or me?ods ( tillage4 ,!re are c]ta9 factors1 h[ev]1 :i* w s]ve z a g5]al guide & :i* %\ld be consid]$ 9 det]m9+ ! k9d & am\nt ( f]tiliz] to buy4 ,^! factors are3 ,! crop4 ,! soil4 ,! sy/em ( f>m+4 ,,! ,,crop ,crop roots diff] 9 _! p[]s ( fe$+1 or _! p[]s ( secur+ plant foods4 ,"s roots c use v t\gh plant foods1 :ile o!rs require x 9 ! mo/ available =m4 ,"s roots secure nitrog5 f ! air4 ,! c[pea roots1 = example1 c take nitrog5 f ! air & !y c use su* t\gh phosphoric acid & pota% t x seldom pays to fe$ !m directly ) f]tiliz]s4 ,a bale p] acre crop ( cotton requires = ! build+ ( roots1 /ems1 leaves1 bolls1 l9t & se$3 #ajc p\nds ( ,nitrog54 #da ,phosphoric ,acid4 #fe ,pota%4 & yet exp]im5t & exp]i5ce h prov$ t ! be/ f]tiliz] = su* a crop conta9s ! foll[+ am\nts ( plant food3 ,nitrog5 #bj p\nds ,phosphoric ,acid #gj ,pota% #bj ,?is means t cotton roots are fairly /rong fe$]s ( nitrog5 & pota%1 b are weak on ! phosphoric acid side4 ,! small gra9s1 :eat1 oats1 b>ley & rye1 c use t\gh phosphoric acid & pota%1 b are weak on nitrog51 & z !y make ! great] "p ( _! gr[? 9 ! cool spr+ be=e nitrification is rapid1 !y are b5efitt$ by ! application ( nitrog51 p>ticul>ly 9 ! =m ( nitrate1 :i* is quickly available4 ,clov]1 peas1 beans1 etc41 h ! p[] ( draw+ nitrog5 f ! air1 b draw f ! soil lime1 phosphoric acid & pota%4 ,h5ce ! phosphates1 pota% manures & lime are desirable = ^! crops4 ,root & tub] crops are unable to use ! insoluble m9]al elem5ts 9 ! soil1 h5ce !y require application ( all ! important plant foods 9 readily available =m4 ,nitrog5 is especially b5eficial to beets4 ,turnips are b5efitt$ by lib]al applications ( soluble phosphoric acid4 ,:ite & sweet potatoes require an abundance ( pota%4 ,if we are gr[+ t5d]1 succul5t m>ket g>d5 crops1 we ne$ nitrog5\s manures1 :i* increase ! gr[? ( /em & foliage4 ,fruit trees are sl[ gr[+ plants & d n ne$ quick act+ f]tiliz]s4 ,! small fruits1 be+ m rapid 9 gr[?1 require m ( ! soluble mat]ials4 ,a d>k1 heal?y gre5 foliage indicates a good supply ( nitrog51 :ile a pale yell[i% gre5 may indicate a ne$ ( nitrog54 ,a well develop$ head ( gra91 se$ pod or fruit indicates lib]al supplies ( phosphoric acid & pota%4 ,,! ,,soil ,soils t are poor 9 humus are g5]ally 9 ne$ ( nitrog54 ,heavy soils are g5]ally suppli$ ) pota% b lack phosphoric acid4 ,s&y soils are apt to be poor 9 pota% & nitrog54 ,,sy/em ,,( ,,f>m+ ,a sy/em ( g5]al or div]sifi$ f>m+ embrac+ crop products & /ock rais+1 requires mu* less artificial manur+ ?an does a sy/em :i* raises special crops or quick gr[+ crops 9 rapid succession1 z 9 ! case ( truck f>m+ or m>ket g>d5+4 ,,te/+ ,,! ,,soil ,e f>m] %\ld be m or less ( an inve/igator & exp]im5t]4 ,! factors m5tion$ previ\sly z indicat+ ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( suffici5t quantities ( c]ta9 plant foods s]ve z a g5]al guide1 b are n absolute4 ,! be/ me?od ( det]m9+ :at plant foods are lack+ 9 ! soil is to c>ry on "s simple exp]im5ts4 ,! foll[+ plan = soil te/+ ) plant foods is sugge/ive3 ,to te/ ! soil = a possible ne$ ( ! s+le plant foods1 a s]ies ( five plots may be laid (f4 ,^! plots %\ld be long & n>r[ & may be "o-tw5tie?1 "o-sixte5?1 "o-t5?1 "o eigh? acre or l>g]4 ,a plot "o rod wide & eight rods long w conta9 "o-tw5tie? acre4 ,! wid? ( ! plot may be adju/$ to accommodate a c]ta9 numb] ( r[s ( crop & ! l5g? made prop] to include an ev5 fraction ( an acre4 ,a /rip ?ree or f\r feet 9 wid? %\ld be left betwe5 ea* two plots4 ,^! /rips are to be left unf]tiliz$ & are = ! purpose ( prev5t+ "o plot be+ affect$ by ! plant food ( ano!r4 ,! plots are all pl[$1 plant$ & c>$ = alike1 ! only diff]5ce 9 treatm5t be+ 9 ! application ( plant food4 ,if ! plots are "o-tw5tie? acre 9 size1 plant foods may be appli$ z foll[s4 ---------------------------- ,,plot #a4 ,nitrate ( ,soda #h lbs4 ---------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,plot #b4 ,acid ,phosphate #af lbs4 ---------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,plot #c4 ,no?+4 ---------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,plot #d4 ,muriate ( ,pota% #h lbs4 ---------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,plot #e4 ,lime #a bu%el4 ---------------------------- ,plot #c is a *eck plot = comp>ison4 ,! measur+ ( ! plots1 weigh+ & application ( ! f]tiliz]s1 plant+ & c>e ( ! crops1 weigh+ & measur+ at h>ve/1 %\ld be c>efully & accurately done4 ,a numb] ( additional plots may be add$ if desir$ to te/ ! effect ( plant foods 9 comb9ation4 ,= in/ance3 ---------------------------- ,,plot #f4 ,nitrate ( ,soda #h lbs4 ,acid ,phosphate #af ---------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,plot #g4 ,nitrate ( ,soda #h lbs4 ,muriate ( ,pota% #h ---------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,plot #h4 ,no?+4 ---------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,plot #i4 ,muriate ( ,pota% #h lbs4 ,acid ,phosphate #af ---------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,plot #aj4 ,nitrate ( ,soda #h lbs4 ,acid ,phosphate #af ,muriate ( ,pota% #h ---------------------------- ,if ! am\nt ( f]tiliz] is too small to di/ribute ev5ly ov] ! plot1 mix x ?or\ghly ) a few qu>ts ( dry e>? or s& to give x m bulk & !n apply x4 ,9 ! use ( f]tiliz]s x %\ld always be rememb]$ t small crops are n always due to lack ( plant food1 b may be caus$ by an abs5ce ( ! o!r conditions necess>y = root gr[? & developm5t4 ,! soil may n be suffici5tly moi/ to prop]ly supply ! plants ) wat]4 ,too mu* wat] may *eck v5tilation4 ,poor tillage may *eck root developm5t4 ,unless ! physical conditions are "r ! possible effects ( additional plant food 9 ! =m ( f]tiliz]s are greatly dim9i%$4 ,! f>m] :o gets ! l>ge/ return f f]tiliz]s is ! "o :o gives greate/ att5tion to ! physical prop]ties ( ! soil4 ,he makes use ( organic matt] & is v ?or\gh 9 8 me?ods ( tillage4 ,e f>m] %\ld apply to 8 ,/ate ,exp]im5t ,/ation = bullet9s on ! subject ( f]tiliz]s4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv ,,! ,,rotation ,,( ,,crops ,,sy/ems ,,( ,,cropp+ ,!re are two me?ods or sy/ems ( cropp+ ! soil3 ,! ,"o ,crop ,sy/em1 or ! cont9u\s cropp+ ( ! soil ye> aft] ye> ) "o k9d ( crop4 ,! ,rotation ( ,crops or ! selection ( a giv5 numb] ( diff]5t crops & gr[+ !m 9 regul> ord]4 ,! purpose ( ?is *apt] is to inquire into ! effect ( ^! two sy/ems ( cropp+3 ,on ! soil conditions necess>y = ! be/ gr[? & developm5t ( ! crops4 ,on ! m>ket value ( ! crops4 ,on ! increase ( or ! protection f injuri\s diseases & insects4 ,on ! di/ribution ( labor ?r\gh\t ! ye>4 ,on ! c>+ = f>m /ock4 ,on ! provid+ = home supplies4 ,?is inquiry & ! conclusion w be bas$ on ! foll[+ facts le>n$ 9 ! =ego+ *apt]s4 ,plant roots ne$ = _! gr[? & developm5t 7see ,*apt] ,,ii73 ,a mell[ yet firm soil4 ,a moi/ soil4 ,a v5tilat$ soil4 ,a w>m soil4 ,a soil suppli$ ) plant food4 ,decay+ organic matt] or humus is "o ( ! mo/ important +r$i5ts ( our soils4 ,because3 ,x greatly influ5ces soil texture & !re=e ! conditions necess>y = root gr[?4 ,its pres5ce or abs5ce greatly influ5ces ! attitude ( soils t[>d wat]1 ! mo/ important factor 9 plant gr[?4 ,its pres5ce helps light1 s&y soils to hold m wat] & to bett] pump wat] f bel[1 :ile x helps close1 heavy soils to bett] take 9 ! wat] :i* falls on _! surface4 ,its abs5ce causes an opposite /ate ( affairs4 ,! pres5ce ( organic matt] *ecks excessive v5tilation 9 too op51 s&y soil by fill+ ! pores1 & improves poor v5tilation 9 heavy clay soils by mak+ !m m op54 ,humus1 on acc\nt ( its color1 influ5ces ! heat absorb+ p[]s ( soils4 ,! organic matt] is con/antly und]go+ m or less rapid decay unless ! soil be p]fectly dry or froz5 solid4 ,/irr+ & cultivat+ ! soil ha/5 ?is decay4 ,z ! organic matt] decays x adds available plant food to ! soil1 p>ticul>ly nitrog54 ,z x decays1 x produces c>bonic acid & o!r acids :i* are able to dissolve m9]al plant food n soluble 9 pure wat] & ?us r5d] x available to plants4 ,plants1 al?\gh !y require ! same elem5ts ( plant food1 take !m 9 diff]5t am\nts & diff]5t proportions4 ,plants diff] 9 ! ext5t & dep? ( root gr[? & !re=e take food f diff]5t p>ts ( ! soil4 ,"s are surface fe$]s :ile o!rs fe$ on ! deep] soil4 ,plants diff] 9 _! p[] to take plant food f ! soil2 "s are weak fe$]s1 & c use only ! mo/ available food2 o!rs are /rong fe$]s1 & c use t\gh] plant food4 ,plants v>y 9 ! am\nt ( heat !y require to c>ry on _! gr[? & developm5t4 ,,! ,,"o ,,crop ,,sy/em ,we are n[ ready = ! "q4 ,:at effect has ! cont9u\s cultivation1 ye> aft] ye>1 ( ! same k9d ( crop on ! soil conditions necess>y to ! be/ gr[? & developm5t ( t crop or any o!r crop8 ,suppose we take cotton = example4 ,h[ does cotton gr[+ affect soil humus8 ,dur+ ! cultivation ( cotton1 ! organic matt] or humus ( ! soil decays 9 great] quantities ?an are add$ by ! /alks & leaves ( ! crop4 ,!re=e1 cotton is a humus wa/+ crop1 & ! cont9u\s cultivation ( ?is crop t5ds to exhau/ ! supply ( organic matt] 9 ! soil4 ,h[ does cotton gr[+ affect soil texture8 ,cotton gr[+ wa/es soil humus & !re=e injures soil texture by mak+ ! light] soils m loose & op51 & ! heavi] soils m d5se & compact4 ,h[ does cotton gr[+ affect soil wat]8 ,by wa/+ humus cotton gr[+ injures soil texture & s weak5s ! wat] hold+ & wat] pump+ p[] ( light soils & weak5s ! wat] absorb+ p[] ( heavy soils4 ,!re=e ! cont9u\s cultivation ( cotton weak5s ! p[] ( ! soil ov] wat]1 t mo/ important factor 9 crop gr[?4 ,h[ does cotton gr[+ affect soil v5tilation8 ,cont9u\s cotton culture1 by wa/+ humus1 injures texture & !re=e injures soil v5tilation1 caus+ too mu* v5tilation 9 ! light] soils & too little 9 heavi] soils4 ,h[ does cotton culture affect plant food 9 ! soil8 ,cont9u\s cotton gr[+ wa/es plant food3 ,because x wa/es organic matt] :i* conta9s valuable plant food1 p>ticul>ly nitrog54 ,because by wa/+ organic matt] x increases ! lea*+ ( ! light] soils & ! surface wa%+ ( ! heavi] soils4 ,because its roots occupy l>gely ! upp] soil & d n make use ( mu* food f ! l[] soil4 ,because x gr[s only dur+ ! w>m "p ( ! ye> & !re is no crop on ! l& to *eck loss ( plant food f lea*+ & surface wa% dur+ ! w9t]4 ,because x is a weak fe$] ( phosphoric acid1 & c use only t :i* is 9 ! mo/ available =m4 ,9 apply+ f]tiliz] to cotton x is necess>y = be/ results to apply at lea/ twice z mu* phosphoric acid z ! crop c use1 because x c use only t :i* is 9 ! mo/ available =m & ! rema9d] is left 9 ! soil unus$4 ,cont9u\s cotton culture !n has an injuri\s effect on all ! important soil conditions necess>y to its be/ gr[? & developm5t1 & ! result is a dim9i%+ yield or an increas+ co/ 9 ma9ta9+ f]tility by ! use ( f]tiliz]4 ,h[ does cont9u\s cotton culture affect ! economics ( ! f>m8 ,! injury to ! soil conditions necess>y to root gr[? dim9i%es ! yield & !re=e increases ! co/ ( production4 ,! poor soil conditions t5d n only to dim9i% yield b also to dim9i% ! quality ( ! crop1 :i* t5ds to l[] ! price receiv$ = ! cotton4 ,keep+ ! l& con/antly 9 cotton t5ds to increase ! insect enemies & ! diseases ( ! crop4 ,! cont9u\s gr[+ ( cotton does n p]mit ! con/ant employm5t ( "o set ( labor]s ?r\gh\t ! ye>4 ,! cont9u\s gr[+ ( cotton g5]ally means t mo/ ( ! f>m goes into cotton4 ,a small pat* ( corn is plant$ = ! /ock1 :i* are apt to suff] f a lack ( v>iety 9 food4 ,! same is true ) ref]5ce to home supplies4 ,v few vegetables are gr[n = ! table & !re is little milk1 butt] or eggs = home use or ex*ange = groc]ies or drygoods at ! /ore4 ,?us we see t ! cont9u\s gr[+ ( cotton on ! soil1 ye> aft] ye>1 has a bad effect on conditions necess>y to its be/ gr[? & developm5t & also on ! economics ( ! f>m4 ,^! facts are true to a great] or less degree 9 ! case ( ne>ly all ( ! f>m crops4 ,! gra9 crops are (t5 consid]$ z humus mak]s because ( ! /ubble turn$ "u1 b ,pr(essor ,snyd]1 ( ,m9nesota1 f\nd t five ye>s' cont9u\s culture ( :eat result$ 9 an annual loss ( #aga p\nds ( nitrog5 p] acre1 ( :i* only #bd4e 0 tak5 by ! crop1 ! rema9+ #adf4e p\nds 7 lo/ ?r\gh a wa/e ( organic matt]4 ,,! ,,rotation ,,( ,,crops ,n[1 suppose t in/ead ( gr[+ cotton on ! same soil ye> aft] ye>1 we select f\r crops--cotton1 corn1 oats & c[pea--& gr[ !m 9 regul> ord]1 a rotation practic$ 9 "s p>ts ( ! ,s\?4 ,we w divide ! f>m into ?ree fields & numb] !m #a1 #b & #c1 & w plant ^! crops z indicat$ by ! foll[+ diagrams3 ,illu/ration3 ,plan ( f>m4 ,plan = plant+4 ,,field #a4 ,,field #b4 ,,field #c4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,,oats1 ,,corn1 #a/ ye> h>ve/$ 9 foll[$ by or #aije4 ,,cotton spr+1 oats1 foll[$ by plant$ 9 ,,c[peas4 fall4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,,corn1 ,,oats1 #b;d ye> foll[$ by h>ve/$ 9 or #aijf4 oats1 ,,cotton4 spr+1 plant$ 9 foll[$ by fall4 ,,c[peas4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,,oats1 ,,corn1 #c;d ye> h>ve/$ 9 foll[$ by or #aijg4 spr+1 oats1 ,,cotton4 foll[$ by plant$ 9 ,,c[peas4 fall4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,ea* ( ^! crops occupies "o-?ird ( ! f>m ea* ye>1 & yet ! crop on ea* field *anges ea* ye> s t no "o k9d ( crop is gr[n on any field (t5] ?an once 9 ?ree ye>s4 ,! cotton is gr[n = m>ket1 ! corn p>tly to sell1 p>tly to fe$1 ! oats to fe$ & ! c[peas to pl[ "u4 ,all cotton & corn refuse is pl[$ "u4 ,:at effect w su* a sy/em h on ! conditions necess>y = plant gr[?8 ,suppose we foll[ ! crops on ,field #a4 ,cotton1 corn1 & oats are humus wa/+ crops b ! pea crop :i* is gr[n ! ?ird ye> is pl[$ "u1 & l>gely1 if n entirely1 rem$ies ! loss by furni%+ a new supply ( organic matt]1 & ! ill effects :i* we notic$ w\ld foll[ ! loss ( organic matt] due to ! cont9u\s gr[+ ( cotton are avoid$1 soil texture is pres]v$1 soil v5tilation is n injur$1 & ! p[] ( ! soil ov] wat] is pres]v$4 ,:at is ! effect on plant food 9 ! soil8 ,be=e answ]+ ?is "q let u see :at am\nts ( plant foods ^! crops take out ( ! soil4 ,we w assume t ! soil is a good loam at ! />t & w produce3 ,"o bale ( five hundr$ p\nds ( l9t cotton p] acre1 sixty bu%els %ell$ corn p] acre1 ?irty bu%els oats p] acre1 or two tons c[pea hay p] acre4 ,su* a yield ( crop w\ld take f ! soil ! foll[+ am\nts ( plant food p] acre3 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,phosphoric ,nitrog51 ,acid1 ,pota%1 p\nds4 p\nds4 p\nds4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,cotton 7:ole plant7 #ajc #da #fe ,corn 7:ole plant7 #hd #bf #fa ,oats 7:ole plant7 #cb #ac #bg ,c[pea #gh #bc #ff ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,n[ suppose we sell ! l9t ( ! cotton1 keep+ all ! re/ ( ! plant1 includ+ ! se$1 on ! f>m & turn+ x back into ! soil4 ,( ! corn suppose we sell "o-half ! gra9 & keep ! o!r half & ! fodd] = use on ! f>m4 ,suppose ! oats be made into oat hay & be f$ on ! f>m & ! c[peas be turn$ "u4 ,assum+ t ! c[peas take half _! nitrog5 f ! air4 ,?is w mean t 9 ! c\rse ( ?ree ye>s we take out ( ! soil ( ea* acre 9 ! crops3 ,nitrog54 ,phosphoric ,acid4 ,pota%4 #beh p\nds4 #ajc p\nds4 #bai p\nds4 b we return to ! soil 9 crop refuse & manure f ! /ock3 ,nitrog54 ,phosphoric ,acid4 ,pota%4 #bef p\nds4 #hg p\nds4 #aig p\nds4 ,?is assumes t we h tak5 f ! f>m 9 products sold3 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,nitrog54 ,phosphoric ,pota%4 ,acid4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,cotton ,l9t #b #a #b ,corn #bh #ab #aj ,animal products #aa #c #aj ----------------------------------- ,totals #da #af #bb ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,! plant food *>g$ to animal products is tw5ty p] c5t4 ( t 9 ! gra9 & =age f$ to ! /ock4 ,at ! end ( ! ?ree ye>s ! plant food acc\nt w balance up )3 ,nitrog5 a ga9 ( #b p\nds4 ,phosphoric ,acid a loss ( #af ,pota% a loss ( #bb ,?is result is ( c\rse approximate4 ,!re w be "s loss ( nitrog5 ?r\gh lea*+ & d5itrification4 ,"s ( ! pota% & phosphoric acid w be conv]t$ into unavailable =ms4 ,?is c be made good by apply+ to ! cotton a f]tiliz] conta9+ tw5ty p\nds ( nitrog51 sixty p\nds ( phosphoric acid & tw5ty p\nds ( pota%4 ,additional nitrog5 & organic matt] c be gr[n to turn "u by plant+ crimson clov] 9 ! cotton at ! la/ work+ = a w9t] cov] crop to be turn$ "u = ! corn1 & by plant+ c[peas or soy beans betwe5 ! r[s ( corn4 ,if ?is is done x may n be necess>y to add any nitrog5 9 ! f]tiliz]1 lett+ t supply only phosphoric acid & pota%4 ,if comm]cial f]tiliz] is us$ on ! cotton1 x w\ld be a good plan to apply ! manure f ! /ock to ! corn4 ,to foll[ our crop on ,field #a ?r\gh ! ?ree ye>s we w h1 fir/1 cotton draw+ l>ge am\nts ( plant food f ! soil & dim9i%+ ! humus ( ! soil4 ,gr[+ a w9t] crop ( crimson clov]1 turn+ back all ! cotton refuse except ! l9t & oil1 & apply+ ! b>n manure w furni% ample plant food = ! corn & repl5i% ! organic matt]4 ,! corn is a r /rong] fe$] ( phosphoric acid ?an cotton & w be able to get suffici5t f t left by ! cotton4 ,! oats w be able to get a full ration aft] ! corn1 & ! c[peas w readily take c>e ( !mselves on ! score ( plant food & w put ! soil 9 f9e condition = cotton aga94 ,! peas may be left on ! gr\nd to turn "u 9 ! spr+ at cotton plant+ "t1 or !y may be pl[$ "u 9 ! e>ly fall & a crimson clov] or vet* cov] crop plant$1 :i* w be pl[$ "u = ! cotton4 ,^! same facts w be true ( ea* ( ! ?ree fields4 ,! humus &1 !re=e1 texture w be tak5 c>e (2 v5tilation1 soil temp]ature & plant food w be controll$ to advantage4 ,ea* ( ! crops w be repres5t$ on ! f>m ea* ye> & ! yields ( ea* crop w be bett] ?an if gr[n cont9u\sly alone4 ,! quality & !re=e ! m>ket value w be great]4 ,insects & disease w be easi] kept 9 control1 & /ock w be m economically furni%$ ) a v>iety ( foods4 ,,b5efits ,,d]iv$ ,,f ,,rotation ,,( ,,crops ,rotation ( crops economizes ! natural plant food ( ! soil & also t :i* is appli$ 9 ! =m ( manure & f]tiliz]4 ,?is is because3 ,crops take food f ! soil 9 diff]5t am\nts & diff]5t proportions4 ,crops diff] 9 _! fe$+ p[]s4 ,crops diff] 9 ! ext5t & dep? to :i* !y s5d _! roots into ! soil 9 se>* ( food & wat]4 ,crops diff] 9 ! "t ( ye> at :i* !y make _! be/ gr[?s4 ,rotation helps to ma9ta9 or improve ! texture ( ! soil because ! am\nt ( humus 9 ! soil is ma9ta9$ or increas$ by turn+ "u gre5 manure & cov] crops :i* %\ld occur 9 e well-plann$ rotation4 ,rotation helps to ma9ta9 or increase ! plant food 9 ! surface soil4 ,:5 crops l c[peas or clov] :i* take m9]al food f ! subsoil & nitrog5 f ! air1 are pl[$ "u1 !y give up ! plant food 9 _! leaves1 /ems & upp] roots to ! surface soil1 & ?us help to ma9ta9 or increase f]tility4 ,rotation t5ds to protect crops f injuri\s insects & diseases4 ,if "o k9d ( crop is gr[n cont9u\sly on "o piece ( l& ! soil becomes infe/$ ) ! insects & diseases :i* injure t p>ticul> crop4 ,if ! crop is *ang$1 ! insects & diseases f9d difficulty 9 adapt+ !mselves to ! *ange & consequ5tly dim9i% 9 numb]s4 ,rotation helps to keep ! soil free f we$s4 ,if ! same k9d ( crop 7 gr[n ye> aft] ye> on ! same field1 ! we$s :i* gr[ mo/ readily along ) t crop w\ld soon take possession ( ! soil4 ,= example1 *ick we$1 dock1 ?i/le1 we$s peculi> to gra9 & gra9 crops t5d to increase if ! l& is long occupi$ by ^! crops4 ,rotation helps ! f>m] to make a m ev5 di/ribution ( labor ?r\gh\t ! ye>4 ,?is is because crops diff] z to ! "t ( ye> at :i* !y are plant$ & h>ve/$4 ,rotation ( crops enables ! f>m] to provide = 8 /ock m economically4 ,live /ock f>es bett] on a v>iety ( food1 :i* is m *eaply secur$ by a sy/em ( rotation ?an o!rwise4 ,,! ,,typical ,,rotation ,a typical rotation = g5]al f>m+ %\ld conta9 at lea/3 ,"o money crop :i* is necess>ily an exhau/ive crop4 ,"o manurial crop :i* is a soil enri*]4 ,"o fe$+ crop :i* dim9i%es f]tility only a little4 ,"o cleans+ crop1 a ho$ or cultivat$ crop4 ,,conditions ,,:i* ,,modify ,,! ,,rotation ,!re are c]ta9 conditions :i* t5d to modify ! rotation or to influ5ce ! f>m] 9 8 *oice ( crops4 ,!y are z foll[s3 ,fir/ ( all ! climate w set a limit on ! numb] & v>ieties ( crops f :i* a *oice c be made = a giv5 locality4 ,! k9d ( f>m+ :i* he *ooses to c>ry on1 :e!r /ock rais+1 gra9 f>m+1 truck f>m+1 or a comb9ation ( two or m ( ^!1 or o!rs4 ,k9d ( soil4 ,c]ta9 soils are be/ adapt$ to p>ticul> crops4 ,= example1 heavy soils are be/ suit$ to :eat1 grass1 clov]1 cabbages1 etc4 ,light1 s&y soils to e>ly truck1 c]ta9 grades ( tobacco1 etc4 ,! dem& = crops & _! m>ket value4 ,facilities = gett+ crops to m>ket1 good or bad c\ntry roads1 railroads & wat] transportation4 ,! /ate ( ! l& ) respect to we$s1 insect pe/s & plant diseases4 ,,g5]al ,,rules ,a few g5]al rules may be made use ( 9 arrang+ ! ord] ( ! crops 9 ! rotation ?\gh !y _c always be /rictly foll[$4 ,crops t require ! elem5ts ( plant food 9 ! same proportion %\ld n foll[ ea* o!r4 ,deep-root$ crops %\ld alt]nate ) %all[-root$ crops4 ,humus mak]s %\ld alt]nate ) humus wa/]s4 ,e well arrang$ rotation %\ld h at lea/ "o crop gr[n = its manurial effect on ! soil1 z a crop ( c[peas1 or "o ( clov]1 to be turn$ "u4 ,! objection (t5 made to ?is la/ rule is t1 aside f ! increase 9 f]tility1 !re is no direct return = ! "t1 labor & se$1 & ! l& br+s no crop = a ye>4 ,x is n necess>y to use ! entire crop = gre5 manur+--a "p ( x may be us$ = hay or = pa/ure ) little loss ( ! manurial value ( ! crop1 provid$ ! manure f t "p ( ! crop tak5 (f is return$ & ! "p ( ! crop n remov$ is turn$ "u4 ,,l5g? ,,( ,,! ,,rotation ,! l5g? ( ! rotation may v>y f a two-c\rse or two crop rotation to "o ( sev]al c\rses4 ,crimson clov] may be alt]nat$ ) corn1 bo? crops be+ gr[n )9 a ye>4 ,a ?ree-c\rse rotation1 popul> 9 "s p>ts ( ! c\ntry1 is :eat1 clov]1 & potatoes2 potatoes be+ ! money crop & cleans+ crop1 :eat a second>y money crop or fe$+ crop1 & clov] ! manurial & fe$+ crop4 ,a popul> f\r-c\rse rotation is corn1 potatoes or truck1 small gra91 clov]2 ! potatoes be+ ! *ief money crop1 corn ! fe$+ crop1 ! small gra9 ! second>y money or fe$+ crop1 & clov] ! manurial & fe$+ crop4 ,on _m ,new ,engl& f>ms ne> t[ns1 hay & /raw are ! *ief money crops4 ,"h ! rotation is grass two or m ye>s1 !n a cleans+ crop & a gra9 crop4 ,a ,canadian rotation is :eat1 hay1 pa/ure1 oats1 peas4 ,a rotation = ! ,s\? might be corn1 crimson clov]1 cotton1 crimson clov]2 ?is rotation cov]+ a p]iod ( two ye>s4 ,a ,s\? ,c>ol9a rotation is oats1 peas1 cotton1 corn--a ?ree-ye> rotation4 ,x might be improv$ z foll[s3 ,oats1 peas1 crimson clov]1 cotton1 crimson clov]1 corn4 ,,*apt] ,,xxv ,,f>m ,,dra9age ,"s f>m l&s conta9 s mu* wat] t ! conditions ( f]tility are int]f]$ ) & !re=e ! crop produc+ p[] ( ^! l&s is l[]$4 ,,h[ ,,surplus ,,wat] ,,affects ,,f]tility ,?is surplus wat] dim9i%es f]tility by r$uc+ ! area ( film wat] 9 ! soil4 ,x *ecks soil v5tilation4 ,x t5ds to keep ! soil cold4 ,x dilutes plant food 9 ! soil4 ,x int]f]es ) prop] tillage4 ,,indications ,,( ,a ,,ne$ ,,( ,,dra9age ,! above-m5tion$ /ate ( affairs occurs sometimes 9 fields at ! foot ( hills1 or on slop+ upl&s :i* receive spr+ wat] or seepage wat] f high] l&s4 ,"s fields are und]laid by a close1 compact subsoil :i* s *ecks p]colation t ! surface soil is too wet = tillage op]ations ! great] "p ( ! ye>4 ,9 su* cases3 ,a ne$ ( dra9age is g5]ally indicat$ by ! pres5ce ( m or less free wat] /&+ on ! surface4 ,9 "s l&s ! surface wat] does n appe> z free wat] /&+ on ! surface4 ,9 su* cases3 ,a ne$ ( dra9age is indicat$ by ! curl+ & wilt+ ( ! leaves ( corn & o!r crops dur+ dry1 hot wea!r4 ,?is curl+ & wilt+ is due to ! fact t dur+ ! e>ly gr[? ( ! crop free wat] /&s s high 9 ! soil t ! crop roots are conf9$ to a %all[ lay] ( soil4 ,:5 dry1 hot wea!r comes1 ! free wat] rec$es1 ! upp] soil dries out1 & ! roots _c get suffici5t wat] to supply ! dem&s ( transpiration1 h5ce ! curl+ & wilt+ ( ! leaves4 ,if dra9s are plac$ 9 ?is soil1 ! free wat] w be kept at a l[] level 9 ! spr+ & ! plant roots w develop deep] 9 ! soil1 :]e !re w be con/ant supply ( film wat] dur+ ! dry] & w>m] summ] wea!r4 ,! wiry & sp9dl+ gr[? ( grass & gra9 crops may indicate too mu* wat]4 ,! gr[? ( moss on ! surface ( ! gr\nd & ! crack+ ( ! soil 9 dry wea!r are also indications ( too mu* wat]4 ,,dra9s ,h[ c we get rid ( ?is surplus free wat]8 ,we c make passageways ?r\gh ! soil to a l[] level & !n let gravity pull ! wat] ?r\gh !m to l[] gr\nd bel[4 ,^! passageways are call$ dra9s4 ,dra9s may be class$ z3 ,surface dra9s :i* are %all[1 op5 *annels made 9 ! soil ) a pl[1 hoe or o!r tool1 to c>ry (f surface wat]4 ,!y are tempor>y & ne$ frequ5t r5ew+4 ,op5-dit* dra9s are deep]1 m p]man5t wat] passageways ar\nd or across ! fields4 ,surface & op5-dit* dra9s take only surface wat]4 ,!y also c>ry (f surface soil & manures wa%$ into !m4 ,!y frequ5tly become *ok$ or /opp$ by tra% & soil1 & are 9 ! way ( cultivation & h>ve/+ op]ations4 ,cov]$ dra9s1 "u dra9s or bl9d dit*es are wat] passageways made ( bru%1 poles1 /ones1 tiles1 etc4 7,figs4 #hj-ha71 plac$ 9 ! bottoms ( dit*es & !n cov]$ ) soil4 ,,influ5ce ,,( ,,cov]$ ,,or ,,"u ,,dra9s ,,on ,,f]tility ,influ5ce on soil wat]4 ,cov]$ or "u dra9s take n only surface wat]1 b also remove free wat] f ! soil b5ea? d[n to ne>ly ! level ( ! bottom ( ! dra9s1 & ?us increase ! area ( film wat]4 ,remov+ ! free wat] enables ! soil to absorb m readily ra9 wat] fall+ on ! surface & !re=e *ecks surface wa% & ! gully+ ( fields4 ,influ5ce on soil v5tilation4 ,l[]+ ! free wat] all[s a deep] p5etration ( air &1 !re=e1 a deep] root developm5t & enables crops to bett] resi/ dry p]iods4 ,influ5ce on soil temp]ature4 ,l[]+ ! free wat] 9 ! soil influ5ces soil temp]ature3 ,by dim9i%+ ! am\nt ( wat] to be heat$4 ,by *eck+ evaporation4 ,by lett+ w>m %[]s s9k d[n into ! soil4 ,by increas+ v5tilation & !re=e p]mitt+ ! circulation ( w>m air 9 ! soil4 ,! cropp+ season is l5g!n$ by caus+ ! soil to be w>m] & dri] e>li] 9 ! spr+ & lat] 9 ! fall4 ,influ5ce on plant food 9 ! soil4 ,cov]$ or "u dra9s *eck losses ( plant food t occur ) surface & op5 dit* dra9s4 ,!y r5d] available m plant food1 = l[]+ free wat] & increas+ v5tilation3 ,deep5 ! fe$+ area ( ! roots4 ,aid ! process ( nitrification4 ,aid *emical *anges :i* make plant food available4 ,*eck d5itrification4 ,,location ,,( ,,dra9s ,z gravity is ! =ce t is to take ! surplus wat] f ! soil1 ! outlet ( ! dra9age sy/em %\ld be at ! l[e/ "p ( ! area to be dra9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--;,,cross-,,sections ,,( ,,/one-,,dra9s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hd4 ,a4 ,cross-section ( a pole-dra94 ,b4 ,cross-section ( a tile-dra94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #he4--;,a ,,collection ,,( ,,dra9age ,,tools4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hf4 ,a repres5ts a poorly laid tile-dra94 ,x is poorly grad$1 & has p>tly fill$ ) soil4 ,x has lo/ m ?an half its wat] c>ry+ capacity4 ,b 0 prop]ly grad$1 & has kept free f s$im5t4 ,! ma9 dra9s %\ld be locat$ 9 ! l[e/ p>ts ( ! fields1 indicat$ by c\rses tak5 by wat] aft] a ra9 or by small /reams runn+ ?r\gh ! f>m4 ,! lat]al dra9s1 if surface or op5 dit* dra9s1 %\ld run across ! slopes2 if "u dra9s1 !y %\ld run up & d[n ! slopes4 ,grade or slope ( ! dra94 ,! grade ( ! dra9 %\ld be suffici5t to cause a fl[ ( ! wat]4 ,9 ! case ( op5 dit*es x %\ld n be /eep en\gh to cause too rapid a curr5t & a consequ5t s]i\s wa%+ ( ! banks ( ! dit*4 ,l>ge1 deep dit*es w c>ry wat] ) a grade ( "o in* to a hundr$ feet4 ,tile dra9s4 ,cov]$ or "u dra9s are made ( bru%1 poles1 planks1 /ones1 tiles1 etc4 7,figs4 #hc-hd74 ,:]e tiles c be obta9$ at reasonable prices !y are consid]$ be/4 ,tiles are made ( clay & are burnt l brick4 ,!y are m la/+ ?an wood & are easi] & *eap] to lay ?an /one1 unless ! /one mu/ be gott5 rid (4 ,! mo/ approv$ =m ( dra9 tile is ! r\nd or circul> =m4 ,^! are made 9 sizes rang+ f two & "o-half to six & eight in*es 9 diamet]1 & 9 pieces "o foot 9 l5g?4 ,! size us$ dep5ds on ! l5g? ( ! dra91 ! am\nt ( wat] to c>ry1 ! frequ5cy ( heavy ra9falls & ! "* ( ! soil4 ,! di/ance ap>t v>ies f tw5ty-five feet 9 heavy soils to ov] two hundr$ feet 9 light soils4 ,! usual dep? is ab\t ?ree feet1 ?\gh ! f>!r ap>t ! deep] !y are put4 ,a lat]al tile dra9 %\ld ent] a ma9 at an acute angle to prev5t too great a *eck 9 ! curr5t4 ,9 putt+ 9 a dra9age sy/em ! fir/ ?+ to be done is to make a plan ( ! gr\nd & det]m9e ! slope ( ! l& & ! grade ( ! dra94 ,! dit*es are !n /ak$ out & ! digg+ proce$s4 ,9 digg+ ! dit*es pl[s are sometimes us$ to ?r[ out ! top soil1 !n ! "w is f9i%$ ) spades & %ovels4 ,pr(essional dit*]s use special tools & !y take out only suffici5t e>? to make room = ! tiles 7,fig4 #he74 ,! tiles are !n laid end to end1 ! jo9ts cov]$ ) a piece ( sod1 "s grass1 /raw1 pap] or clay1 to prev5t loose soil sift+ 94 ,z ! tiles are laid1 en\gh soil is plac$ on !m to hold !m 9 place until ! dit* is fill$4 ,9 lay+ ! tiles an ev5 grade %\ld be ma9ta9$ 7,fig4 #hf74 ,a less5+ ( ! grade *ecks ! curr5t ( wat] & t5ds to cause a /oppage ( ! dra94 ,! wat] gets into ! dra9 ?r\gh ! jo9ts :]e ! tiles come toge!r4 ,! outlet ( a tile dra9 %\ld be protect$ by brick "w or %\ld be ( glaz$ tile su* z ! s-call$ t]ra-cotta tile1 to prev5t injury by fro/4 ,! m\? ( ! dra9 %\ld be protect$ by a scre5 ( wire to prev5t ! entrance ( rats & o!r small animals4 ,,gloss>y ,acid1 a *emical "n giv5 to _m s\r sub/ances4 ,album51 a nitrog5\s organic comp\nd4 ,album9oid1 a nitrog5\s sub/ance resembl+ album54 ,ammonia1 a gas conta9+ nitrog5 produc$ by ! decay ( organic matt]4 ,annual1 a plant t lives only "o ye>2 corn & sunfl[] are examples4 ,an!r1 ! "p ( a /am5 t be>s ! poll54 ,available1 t :i* c be us$4 ,bact]ia1 v small plants1 s small t !y _c be se5 )\t ! aid ( a p[]ful microscope4 ,!y are sometimes call$ g]ms4 ,"s ( !m are b5eficial1 "s d great h>m & "s produce disease4 ,bi5nial1 a plant t lives two ye>s1 usually produc+ se$s ! second ye>4 ,bordeaux mixture1 a mixture ( copp] sulphate1 lime & wat] us$ to prev5t plant diseases4 ,x 0 inv5t$ 9 ,bordeaux1 ,france4 ,bud1 an undevelop$ bran*4 ,calyx1 ! out]mo/ "p ( a fl[]4 ,cambium1 ! active gr[+ lay] betwe5 ! b>k & ! wood ( a tree4 ,capill>y1 ,hair-l4 ,a "n giv5 to v small spaces ?r\gh :i* wat] fl[s by ! =ce ( capill>y attraction4 ,c>bohydrate1 an organic sub/ance made ( oxyg51 hydrog5 & c>bon1 b conta9+ no nitrog52 cellulose or woody fibre1 sug>1 />* are examples4 ,c>bon1 a *emical elem5t4 ,*>coal is ne>ly pure c>bon4 ,c>bonic acid gas1 a gas consi/+ ( c>bon & oxyg54 ,x is produc$ f ! lungs ( animals1 & by ! decay or burn+ ( organic matt]4 ,cat* crop1 a crop gr[+ dur+ ! int]val betwe5 regul> crops4 ,c]eal1 a "n giv5 to ! gra9 crops t are us$ = food4 ,*lorophyl1 ! gre5 matt] 9 plants4 ,comm]cial f]tiliz]s1 mat]ials conta9+ plant food :i* are b\ght & sold 9 ! m>kets to improve ! soil4 ,compo/1 a mixture ( decay+ organic matt] us$ to enri* ! soil4 ,cross poll9ation1 ! poll9ation ( a fl[] by poll5 br\ght f "s o!r fl[]4 ,cov] crop1 a crop to cov] ! soil dur+ ! int]val betwe5 regul> corps4 ,cultivator1 a f>m implem5t us$ to loos5 ! surface ( ! soil & to kill we$s aft] a crop has be5 plant$4 ,cutt+1 a "p ( a plant plac$ 9 moi/ soil1 wat] or o!r m$ium ) ! object ( its produc+ roots & mak+ a new plant4 ,dormant1 said ( plants :5 !y are re/+ or inactive4 ,mo/ plants are dormant dur+ ! w9t] season4 ,dra9age1 ! me?od by :i* surplus wat] is remov$ f ! l&4 ,elem5t1 a sub/ance t _c be divid$ into simpl] sub/ances4 ,f]m5tation1 ! process by :i* organic sub/ances are brok5 d[n or *ang$ & new sub/ances =m$4 ,f]tility1 t /ate or condition ( ! soil :i* enables x to produce crops4 ,fibre1 long ?read-l /ructure4 ,flocculate1 to make crumbly4 ,free wat]1 /&+ wat] or wat] :i* fl[s "u ! influ5ce ( gravity4 ,function1 ! p>ticul> action ( any "p ( an organism4 ,furr[1 ! tr5* left by ! pl[4 ,furr[ slice1 ! /rip ( e>? :i* is turn$ by ! pl[4 ,g]m9ate1 to spr\t4 ,graft+1 ! process ( ins]t+ a cion or bud 9 a /ock plant4 ,gre5 manure crops1 crops int5d$ to be pl[$ "u to improve ! soil4 ,h>r[1 an implem5t us$ to pulv]ize ! surface ( ! soil4 ,heavy soils1 soils t are h>d to "w2 /iff1 cloddy soils4 ,horticulture1 t bran* ( agriculture :i* deals ) ! gr[+ ( fruits1 vegetables1 fl[]s & ornam5tal plants4 ,humus1 p>tially decay$ animal & vegetable matt] 9 ! soil4 ,hydrog51 a gase\s1 *emical elem5t1 "o ( ! con/itu5ts ( wat]4 ,int]-tillage1 tillage betwe5 plants4 ,irrigation1 ! practice ( supply+ plants ) wat] by artificial means4 ,ka9ite1 a pota% salt us$ 9 mak+ f]tiliz]4 ,k]nel1 a s+le se$ or gra94 ,lea*+1 pass+ ?r\gh & go+ (f 9 dra9age wat]4 ,legume1 a plant belong+ to ! bean1 pea & clov] family4 ,light soils1 soils :i* are loose & op5 & easy to "w4 ,loam1 a mixture ( s&1 clay & organic matt]4 ,m\ld bo>d1 ! curv$ "p ( ! pl[ :i* turns ! furr[ slice4 ,mul*1 a cov]+ on ! soil4 ,x may be ( /raw1 leaves1 pulv]iz$ soil or o!r mat]ial4 ,nect>1 a sweet sub/ance 9 fl[]s f :i* bees make honey4 ,nitrate1 a soluble =m ( nitrog54 ,nitrification1 ! *ang+ ( nitrog5 into a nitrate4 ,nitrog51 a gas =m+ f\r-fif?s ( ! air4 ,nitrog5 is a v necess>y food ( plants4 ,organic matt]1 sub/ances produc$ by ! gr[? ( plants & animals4 ,osmose1 ! movem5t ( fluids ?r\gh membranes or ?9 p>titions4 ,oxyg51 a gas :i* =ms "o-fif? ( ! air4 ,its pres5ce is necess>y to ! life ( all gre5 plants & all animals4 ,ov>y1 ! "p ( ! pi/il t be>s ! develop+ se$s4 ,ovule1 an immature se$ 9 ! ov>y4 ,p]5nial1 liv+ ?r\gh sev]al ye>s4 ,phosphoric acid1 an important plant food f\nd 9 phosphates4 ,pi/il1 ! "p ( ! fl[] :i* produces se$s4 ,propagate1 to increase 9 numb]4 ,poll51 ! p[d]y sub/ance produc$ by /am5s4 ,poll9ation1 ! transf] ( poll5 f /am5s to pi/ils4 ,pota%1 an important plant food4 ,prun+1 remov+ p>ts ( a plant = ! good ( :at rema9s4 ,ret5tive1 hold+1 reta9+1 said ( soil :i* holds wat]4 ,rev]t$1 said ( phosphoric acid 9 ! process ( becom+ insoluble4 ,rotation ( crops1 a *ange ( crops 9 regul> ord]4 ,sap1 ! juice or liquid cont5ts ( plants4 ,se$ b$1 ! e>? 9 :i* se$s are s[n4 ,se$l+1 a "y plant j f ! se$4 ,also a plant rais$ f a se$ 9 di/9ction f "o produc$ f a graft or a cutt+4 ,sepal1 "o ( ! p>ts ( ! calyx4 ,slip1 a cutt+ plac$ 9 wat] or moi/ soil or o!r sub/ance to produce roots & =m a new plant4 ,soil1 t "p ( ! e>?'s cru/ into :i* plants s5d _! roots = food & wat]4 ,/am51 t "p ( a fl[] :i* be>s ! poll54 ,/igma1 ! "p ( ! pi/il :i* receives ! poll54 ,/omata1 brea?+ pores 9 plants4 ,subsoil1 t "p ( ! soil :i* lies b5ea? ! soil t is work$ ) ! tillage tools4 ,sap root1 a ma9 root t runs /raight d[n into ! soil4 ,tillage1 /irr+ ! soil4 ,transpiration1 ! giv+ (f ( wat] f plants4 ,tub]cle1 a small nodul> gr[? on ! roots ( plants4 ,"u dra9age1 dra9age f bel[4 ,vitality ( se$s1 ! ability ( se$s to gr[4 ,,index ,acid phosphates1 #aif4 ,adobe soils1 #cj4 ,aft]-cultivation1 #aeh1 #afd4 b5efits f1 #afd4 flat1 #afi4 frequ5cy (1 #afg4 saves wat]1 #afd4 %all[1 #ae1 #afg1 #afi4 "t =1 #aff4 tools =1 #afg4 ,ag5cies active 9 mak+ soils1 #cb4 ,ag5ts1 ) :i* f>m] works1 #e4 mo/ important1 #f4 ,agriculture1 f\ndation facts & pr9ciples (1 #bb4 ,air1 & ! f>m]1 #e4 9 relation to g]m9ation1 #gb4 necess>y = root gr[?1 #bj4 "w (1 9 mak+ soils1 #cf4 ,album9oids 9 plants1 #fd1 #ff4 ,alfalfa or luc]n1 #fh4 roots1 #ac4 soils1 #bi4 ,ammonia 9 f]tiliz]s1 #bjd1 #bje4 9 b>n manures1 #age4 lo/ by f]m5tation1 #age4 sulphate (1 #aid4 ,analysis ( plants1 #afc-aff4 ( f]tiliz]s1 #bjc4 ,animals1 #e4 & ! f>m]1 #e4 dep5d5t on plants1 #f4 "w (1 9 mak+ soils1 #cg4 ,annual plants1 #abe4 ,an!rs1 #abi4 ,aphis1 #aaf4 ,apple1 fl[] (1 #abi1 #acj4 ,a% 9 plants1 #fe1 #ff4 ,a%es1 a s\rce ( pota%1 #aii4 cotton hull1 #aii4 ,bact]ia1 #fh1 #adc4 & ! f>m]1 #e1 #add4 d5itrify+1 #add4 9 manures1 #agd4 9 ! roots ( legumes1 #fh4 9 ! soil1 #fh1 #adc4 nitrify+1 #add4 nitrog5-fix+1 #add4 ,b>e fall[1 #ajj4 :5 advisable1 #ajj4 ,b>n manures1 #aga4 application (1 #agg4 condition (1 #agi4 effect ( on soil texture1 #agb4 loss ( value (1 #agc4 mean+ ( t]m1 #agc4 ,beet1 #f4 ,beets1 #d4 nitrog5 =1 #bad4 ,biological prop]ties ( a f]tile soil1 #adc4 ,biology1 #adc4 ,blood1 dri$1 #aid4 z a f]tiliz]1 #aid4 nitrog5 91 #aid4 ,bokh>a clov]1 #aij4 ,bone1 dissolv$1 #aig4 du/1 #aig4 gr\nd1 #aig4 ,bone f]tiliz]s1 #aig4 meal1 #aig4 raw1 #aig4 /eam$1 #aig4 ,bone black1 #aig4 dissolv$1 #aih4 ,bones1 #aie1 #aig4 ,bordeaux mixture1 #aah4 ,break+ out ! middles1 #ig4 ,brick1 #cj4 ,bru% h>r[1 #ajb1 #aje4 ,buds1 #abj4 ,build+s1 #e4 & ! f>m]1 #e4 ,bureau ( soils1 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #bh4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 #bh4 ,butt]cup1 fl[] (1 #abi1 #acj4 ,cabbage1 f]tiliz] =1 #baa4 soil1 #bh1 #afa4 transplant+1 #hg1 #hh4 worm1 #aag4 ,cabbages1 #d4 ,calcium 9 plants1 #ff1 #fg4 9 soils1 #fh4 ,calyx1 #abi4 function (1 #acb4 ,cambium1 #abf4 ,canadian field pea1 #ahi4 ,cantel\pe soil1 #bh4 ,capill>y =ce1 #di4 mean+ ( t]m1 #di4 tubes1 #di4 wat]1 #aec4 ,c>bon 9 plants1 #ff4 ,c>bonic acid 9 soil1 #cg4 ,c>rots1 #d1 #f4 ,caulifl[] soil1 #bh4 ,cel]y1 #d4 ,cellulose 9 plants1 #fc1 #ff4 ,*a9 h>r[1 #ajb1 #aje4 ,*emical prop]ties ( a f]tile soil1 #adg4 ,*]ry fl[]1 #abi1 #acj4 ,*lorophyl 9 leaves1 #aac4 ,classification ( soils1 #bf4 ,clay1 #bg1 #ch4 & lime1 #db4 loams1 #bi4 p[] to absorb wat]1 #da1 #db4 relation to wat]1 #be1 #da1 #dc4 soils1 #bi4 soils injur$ by work+ :5 wet1 #de4 to improve texture (1 #db4 wat]-hold+ p[]1 #dd4 ,clevis1 #ic4 ,climb+ plants1 #aba4 ,clov]1 #fh4 ,bokh>a1 #aij4 crimson1 #ahi4 mammo?1 #ahi4 r$1 #ahh4 ,clov]s1 z gre5 manure-crops1 #ahh4 z nitrog5 ga!r]s1 #ahd4 nodules on roots (1 #ahd4 ,comm]cial f]tiliz]s1 #aga1 #aib4 am\nt to buy1 #bab4 home mix+1 #baa4 k9d to buy1 #bab4 raw mat]ials1 #aib4 7,see also ,f]tiliz]s47 ,compo/s1 #aga1 #aha4 ,conditions necess>y = root gr[?1 #bj4 ,corn1 a humus wa/]1 #bbf4 dep? ( root gr[? (1 #ac4 fl[] (1 #acb4 g]m9ation (1 #gh1 #gi4 9 rotation1 #bbf1 #bbi1 #bcd4 plant1 #f4 poll9ation (1 #acc4 rapid gr[? ( roots (1 #ac4 roots cut by pl[1 #ad4 soils1 #bh1 #bi1 #cj1 #afa4 /ructure ( se$1 #gh4 wat] us$ by1 #dj4 ,corolla1 #abi4 function (1 #acb4 ,cotton1 #e1 #afa4 a humus wa/]1 #bba4 9 rotation1 #bbe-bbi4 plant1 #f4 plant food remov$ by1 #bbg4 ,sea ,isl&1 #afa4 soils1 #bh1 #bi1 #afa4 upl&1 #afa4 ,cotton hull a%es1 #aii4 ,cotton-se$ meal1 #aid4 ,cotyl$ons1 #gg4 use (1 #gi4 ,c\lt] ( pl[1 #id4 ,c\lt]-too!d h>r[1 #ajb1 #ajd4 ,c[ manure1 #agh4 losses by exposure1 #agh4 ,c[peas1 #fh1 #ahf4 = gre5 manur+1 #ahf4 plant food 91 #ahg4 root gr[? (1 #ab4 soils =1 #ahg4 ,cropp+ & soil wat]1 #aei1 #afj4 ,crops1 cleans+1 #bcb4 fe$+1 #bcb4 9 rotation1 #bai4 manurial1 #bcb4 money1 #bcb4 ,cucumb] fl[]1 #acc4 ,cultivation4 7,see ,aft]-cultivation47 ,d5itrification1 #adg4 conditions favor+1 #adg4 ,d5itrify+ g]ms1 #add1 #adg4 ,draft r+ ( pl[1 #ic4 ,dra9+1 ne$ (1 #bce4 ,dra9s1 #aeh-bci4 & capill>y wat]1 #bcg4 cov]$1 #bcg4 ,dra9s1 effect on film wat]1 #bcg4 effect on plant food1 #bch4 effect on soil temp]ature1 #bch4 effect on soil wat]1 #bcg4 grade (1 #bci4 lat]al1 #bci4 location (1 #bch4 ma91 #bci4 op5 dit*1 #bcg4 surface1 #bcg4 tile1 #bci4 ,dri$ blood1 #aid4 z a f]tiliz]1 #aid4 nitrog5 91 #aid4 ,e>ly crops1 soils =1 #bg1 #bh4 ,egg exp]im5ts to %[ osmose1 #ah1 #ai4 ,egg plant1 soil =1 #bh4 ,elem5ts 9 plants1 #ff4 ,elm tree leaf beetle1 #aag4 ,endosp]m1 #gh4 use (1 #gi4 ,epicotyl1 #gh4 ,ess5tial organs ( fl[]s1 #aca4 ,evaporation1 loss ( wat] by1 #ed4 loss ( heat by1 #ei4 ,excursion1 to exam9e soils1 #bd4 to see pl[ cutt+ roots1 #ad4 to /udy roots1 #aa4 to /udy leaves1 #ajh4 to /udy /ems1 #abj4 to visit f>m1 #d4 ,exp]im5t to %[1 air necess>y = g]m9ation1 #gc4 am\nt ( transpiration1 #aaj4 capill>ity1 #di4 capacity ( soils = film wat]1 #ea4 *eck+ loss ( wat] by evaporation1 #ee4 *lorophyl necess>y = />* mak+1 #aac4 effect ( soil mul*1 #ee4 dep? ( plant+ se$s1 #ha4 effect ( lime on clay soil1 #db4 effect ( work+ soil :5 wet1 #bf1 #de4 exclusion ( oxyg5 by leaf1 #aac4 film wat]1 #ej4 gr[? 9 l5g? ( roots1 #af4 heat necess>y = g]m9ation1 #gc4 h[ food & wat] get into ! root1 #ah1 #ai4 h[ soils are w>m$1 #eh4 h[ soils lose heat1 #ei4 importance ( roots1 #g4 moi/ure necess>y = g]m9ation1 #ga4 no />* =m$ 9 d>k1 #aab4 osmose1 #ah1 #ai4 plants conta9 album9oids1 #fd4 plants conta9 a%es1 #fe4 plants conta9 cellulose1 #fc4 plants conta9 gum1 #fd4 plants conta9 oil1 #fd4 plants conta9 />*1 #fd4 plants conta9 sug>1 #fd4 plants conta9 wat]1 #fe4 p[] ( soils to absorb ra91 #dj4 p[] ( soils to hold wat]1 #dd1 #de4 p[] ( soils to pump wat]1 #dc4 roots absorb moi/ure1 #i4 roots take food f soil1 #i4 roots produce new plants1 #aj4 roots ne$ air1 #ba4 soil *>act]i/ics1 #bd1 #be4 soil temp]ature1 #eg1 #fj4 />* 9 leaf1 #aaa4 /ems c>ry sap1 #abb4 /ems /ore food1 #abd4 transpiration1 ! fact1 #aji4 transpiration1 am\nt1 #aaa4 use ( cotyl$ons1 #gi4 :at becomes ( wat] tak5 by roots1 #ci4 ,fall[1 b>e1 #ajj4 ,fall pl[+1 #ii4 ,families ( plants1 #hf4 ,f>m dra9age1 #bce4 ,f>m manures1 #aga1 #ahc4 classification (1 #aga4 importance (1 #agb4 ,f>m] deals ) ag5ts1 laws & =ces1 #e4 ,fat 9 plants1 #fd4 ,f]m5tation ( manures1 #agd4 ,f]tile soil1 a1 #ada4 biological prop]ties (1 #adb1 #adc4 *emical prop]ties (1 #adb1 #adg4 mo/ important prop]ties (1 #aej4 physical prop]ties (1 #adb4 ,f]tility ( ! soil1 #aej4 economiz+ !1 #aej4 ma9ta9+ !1 #aej4 ,f]tiliz]s1 comm]cial1 #fh1 #aib4 analysis (1 #bjc4 classification (1 #aga4 home mix+1 #baa4 h[ to "k :at k9d is ne$$1 #bab4 importance ( ?or\gh mix+ ) ! soil1 #ae4 manufactur$1 #bjb4 _m br&s1 #bjb4 mix$1 #bjb4 raw mat]ials1 #aib4 s\rces ( lime1 #aic1 #bjj4 s\rces ( nitrog51 #aic4 s\rces ( phosphoric acid1 #aic1 #aie4 s\rces ( pota%1 #aic1 #aii4 use ( by f>m]1 #agb1 #aib4 value ( plant food 91 #bje4 ,filam5t ( /am51 #abi4 ,film wat]1 #ej4 ,fi% scrap z a f]tiliz]1 #aid4 ,fl[]1 ( apple1 #abi1 #acj4 ( butt]cup1 #abi1 #acj4 calyx1 #abi4 ( *]ry1 #abi1 #acj4 corolla1 #abi4 ( cucumb]1 #acc4 functions ( p>ts (1 #acj4 ( honeysuckle1 #abi4 ( melon1 #acc4 p>ts (1 #abi4 ( pea*1 #abi1 #acj4 petals1 #abi4 ( petunia1 #abi4 pi/il1 #acj4 poll51 #acj4 ( potato1 #abi4 sepals1 #abi4 /am51 #abi4 ( squa%1 #acc4 ( tomato1 #abi4 ( wild mu/>d1 #abi1 #acj4 ,fl[]s1 #h1 #abh4 ess5tial p>ts (1 #aca4 functions (1 #acj4 ,food ( plants1 #fc4 ,=ces ( nature & ! f>m]1 #e4 ,=e/ soils1 #bi4 ,f\ndation facts & pr9ciples ( agriculture1 #bb4 ,free wat] 9 ! soil1 #dh1 #aec4 injuri\s to roots1 #aec4 s\rce ( capill>y & film wat]1 #aec4 ,fresno s&1 #bh4 ,fruit1 #h1 #acf4 ,fruit soils1 #bi4 ,fruits1 #bg4 ,furr[ slice1 #if4 ,gas lime1 #bja4 ,g]anium1 #f4 ,g]m9at+ se$s1 ne$ air1 #gc4 ne$ heat1 #gc4 ne$ wat]1 #ga4 ,g]ms1 #adc4 d5itrify+1 #add1 #adg4 nitrify+1 #add1 #ade4 nitrog5 fix+1 #add4 ,goosefoot family1 #hf4 ,g\rd family1 #hf4 ,graft+1 #acf4 ,gra9 crops humus wa/]s1 #bbd4 ,gra9 soils1 #bh4 ,grass1 #e4 family1 #hf4 soils1 #bh1 #bi1 #cj1 #afb4 ,gravel1 #bf4 ,gravelly loams1 #bi4 ,gre5-crop manures1 #aga1 #ahc4 b5efits f1 #ahe4 be/ plants =1 #ahe4 ,gre5 manure-crops1 #ahf4 clov]s z1 #ahh4 c[peas z1 #ahf4 legumes z1 #ahf4 non-legum9\s1 #aia4 soy-bean z1 #ahi4 "t = gr[+1 #ahf4 ,gum 9 plants1 #fd1 #ff4 ,gypsum1 #bja4 ,habit ( gr[? ( roots1 #aa4 ,h&les ( pl[1 #ic4 ,h>r[+1 #aja1 #aeh4 objects (1 #aja4 "t =1 #aja4 ,h>r[s1 #d1 #ajb4 bru%1 #ajb1 #aje4 *a91 #ajb1 #aje4 c\lt]-too!d1 #ajb1 #ajd4 plank1 #ajb1 #aje4 roll+ cutt]1 #ajb1 #ajc4 spike-too!d1 #ajb1 #ajd4 spr+-too!d1 #ajb1 #ajc4 ,hay soils1 #bi1 #cj4 ,heat & ! f>m]1 #e4 ,heat necess>y = g]m9ation1 #gc4 ,hill+ ! crop1 #afi4 ,hilum1 #gg4 ,hoe+ & soil wat]1 #aeh4 ,hoes1 #d4 ,horn %av+s z f]tiliz]1 #aie4 ,horse manure1 #agf4 losses :5 pil$1 #agf4 ,h\se plants1 wat]+ (1 #ea4 ,h[ ! bean gets up1 #gh4 ,h[ ! corn gets up1 #gi4 ,humus1 #bg1 #ch4 influ5ce on soil texture1 #fb4 nitrog5 91 #fg4 a s\rce ( nitrog51 #fg4 wat]-absorb+ p[] (1 #da4 wat]-hold+ p[] (1 #dd4 wat]-pump+ p[] (1 #dc4 ,hydrog5 9 plants1 #ff4 ,hypocotyl1 #gh4 ,ice1 "w (1 9 mak+ soils1 #ce4 ,insects1 *ew+1 #aag4 h[ to combat1 #aaf1 #aag4 injure leaves1 #aaf4 suck+1 #aaf4 ,insect poll9ation1 #aca4 ,int]-tillage1 #afd4 ,iod9e1 te/ = />*1 #fd4 ,iron 9 plants1 #ff4 ,jo9t] ( pl[1 #ie4 value z a pulv]iz]1 #ie4 ,ka9ite1 #aii4 ,k ( fl[]s1 value (1 #acd4 ,l& pla/]1 #bjj4 ,laws ( nature1 #e4 ,leaf "w1 conditions necess>y =1 #aad4 int]f]$ )1 #aae1 #aah4 ,lea!r z a f]tiliz]1 #aie4 ,leaves1 #h1 #ajh4 dige/ food1 #aad4 facts ab\t1 #ajh4 functions (1 #aji4 manufacture />*1 #aab4 transpire wat]1 #aaj4 ,legume family1 #hf4 ,legumes1 def9ition (1 #fh4 nitrog5 fix]s1 #fh1 #ahf1 #add4 value z gre5 manure plants1 #add1 #ahe4 ,legum9\s plants1 #fh4 ,light necess>y = leaf "w1 #aad4 ,lily family1 #hf4 ,lime1 #bjj4 am\nt to use1 #bjj4 effect on s&1 #bjj4 effect on clay1 #bjj4 9 soils1 #adi4 its action on soils1 #adi1 #bjj4 sets free pota%1 #adi4 s\rces (1 #aga1 #bjj4 ,lime /one soluble 9 wat]1 #ca4 ,loam1 #bh4 ,loamy soils1 #bh4 ,london purple1 #aag4 ,loss ( soil wat]1 #ec1 #aee4 ,luc]n1 #ac4 roots1 #ac4 ,magnesium 9 plants1 #ff4 ,ma9t5ance ( f]tility1 #aej4 ,mat]ials compos+ soils1 #bf4 ,mall[ family1 #hf4 ,manures1 b>n1 #aga1 #agc4 application (1 #agg4 c>e (1 #agc4 *eck+ losses f1 #agf4 effect on soil texture1 #agb4 effect on soil wat]1 #aei4 functions (1 #aga4 losses f lea*+1 #agc4 losses f heat+1 #agd4 ,_m ?+s ! f>m] deals )1 #e4 ,m>igold1 #f4 ,m>l1 #bja4 ,melon fl[]1 #acc4 ,miami s&1 #bh4 ,microscopic organisms1 #e4 ,mix$ f]tiliz]s1 #bjb4 inflat+ ! gu>antee1 #bjd4 l[ grade1 #bjd1 #bjg4 _m br&s1 #bjb4 valuation (1 #bje4 ,morn+-glory1 #abi4 ,mo/ important factor 9 ! rais+ ( crops1 #aea4 ,m\ld bo>d ( pl[1 #id4 ,muck1 swamp1 #cj4 ,mul*1 soil1 #ef4 h[ made1 #ef4 to save wat]1 #ef4 ,muriate ( pota%1 #aii4 ,mu/>d1 family1 #hf4 fl[]1 #abi1 #acj4 ,muskmelon soils1 #afa4 ,night %ade family1 #hf4 ,nitrates1 :at !y are1 #adf4 availability (1 #adf1 #aic4 solubility (1 #adf4 ,nitrate ( soda1 #aic4 nitrog51 #aic4 ,nitric acid 9 soil1 #adf4 ,nitrification1 #adf4 aid$ by pl[+1 #adf4 aid$ by lime1 #adf4 conditions favorable to1 #adf4 ,nitrify+ g]ms1 #add1 #ade4 ,nitrog51 #ff4 add$ to ! soil by legumes1 #fh4 gr[n on ! f>m1 #fh4 9 humus1 #afg4 9 soils1 #fg1 #adh4 9 plants1 #ff1 #fg4 9 f]tiliz]s1 #aib4 loss (1 #fg4 s\rces (1 #aga4 ,nitrog5-fix+ g]ms1 #add4 ,non-legum9\s gre5 manure-crops1 #aia4 ,norfolk s&1 #bh4 ,oats1 soil =1 #bi4 ,object ( ?is book1 #c4 ,odorless phosphate1 #aih4 ,oil 9 plants1 #fd1 #ff4 ,"o-crop sy/em1 #bba4 effect on f]tility1 #bba4 ,onion1 #f4 ,organic matt]1 9 soils1 #cb1 #fb1 #bbj4 value (1 #fa4 ,osmose1 #ah4 ,ov>y ( fl[]1 #acj4 ,ovules1 #acj4 ,oxyg5 9 plants1 #ff4 ,p>is gre5 to de/roy *ew+ insects1 #aag4 ,p>sley family1 #hf4 ,p>snip root1 dep? ( gr[?1 #ac4 ,p>snips1 #d4 ,pa/ure1 soils =1 #cj4 ,pea family1 #hf4 soils1 #bh4 ,pea* bor]1 #abg4 fl[]1 #acj4 ,peanuts1 #e4 ,peat1 #cj4 ,pepp]s1 soil =1 #bh4 ,p]colation ( wat]1 #da4 ,petals1 #abi4 ,petunia1 #abi4 ,pigwe$s1 #e1 #f4 ,pi/il1 #acj4 function (1 #aca4 ,phosphate1 odorless1 #aih4 rock1 #aie4 slag1 #aie1 #aih4 ,phosphoric acid1 #aie4 available1 #aie1 #aif4 9 f]tiliz]s1 #aie4 9 soil1 #adh4 insoluble1 #aie1 #aif4 rev]t$1 #aif4 soluble1 #aif4 s\rces (1 #aga4 ,phosphorus 9 plants1 #ff1 #fg4 9 soils1 #fh4 ,plank h>r[1 #ajb1 #aje4 ,plant1 analysis (1 #fc4 mo/ important "p ( to plant itself1 #g4 mo/ important "p ( to plant gr[]1 #g4 ,plant diseases1 #aah4 ,plant food1 #fc4 & ! f>m]1 #e4 ,plant food1 9 soil1 #fc4 9 f]tiliz]s1 #fh1 #aib1 #bje4 :at x is1 #fc1 #fi4 ,plant+1 corn1 #hd4 grass se$1 #hd4 gra9 se$1 #hd4 me?od (1 #hc4 se$s1 #ha4 vegetable se$s1 #hd4 ,plants1 #e4 & ! f>m]1 #e4 conditions = gr[?1 #f4 composition ( food (1 #fc4 = /udy1 #f4 liv+1 gr[+ ?+s1 #f4 p>ts (1 #f4 resemble "o ano!r1 #f4 :y rais$1 #f4 "w ( 9 mak+ soils1 #cf4 ,pl[ beam1 #ic4 c\lt]1 #id4 *>act]i/ics (1 #ie4 clevis1 #ic4 cutt+ roots1 #ae4 draft r+1 #ic4 h&les1 #ic4 jo9t]1 #ie4 l&side1 #id4 m\ldbo>d1 #id4 p>ts (1 #ib4 %ackle1 #ic4 %>e1 #ic4 /&>d1 #ib4 truck1 #ie4 ,pl[+1 #ij4 dep? (1 #if4 effect on soil wat]1 #aef4 favors root gr[?1 #ad4 9 fall1 #ii1 #aeg4 9 spr+1 #ih1 #aeg4 importance ( deep1 #ae1 #ag4 objects (1 #ia1 #ib4 to save wat]1 #ib4 "t =1 #ih4 ,pl[s1 #d4 ,plumule1 #gh4 ,poll51 #acj4 ,poll9ation1 #aca1 #acb1 #ace4 cross1 #acb1 #acc1 #ace4 ( wild goose plum1 #acd4 ,pota%1 #aii4 9 f]tiliz]s1 #aii4 9 soils1 #adi4 s\rces (1 #aga4 ,potassium1 9 plants1 #ff1 #fg4 9 soils1 #fh4 ,potato1 #f4 soils1 #bh1 #bi1 #afa4 ,potato1 sweet1 roots (1 #ac4 soils1 #bh1 #afj4 ,prop]ties ( a f]tile soil1 #ada4 ,prun+1 #acg4 ,quit*-grass1 #aba4 und]gr\nd /em (1 #aba4 ,radicle1 #gh4 ,radi%1 %runk5 root (1 #aj4 ,ragwe$1 #e4 ,ra91 "w ( 9 mak+ soils1 #cc4 on clay soils1 #da4 on s&y soils1 #da4 ,rake1 #aja4 ,rakes1 #d4 ,rak+ & soil wat]1 #aeh4 ,r$ spid]1 #aag4 ,rhub>b soil1 #bh4 ,ridg+ ! soil1 #ih1 #aeh1 #afi4 ,rock salt1 #ca4 ,roll]s1 #ajg4 ,roll+1 #aja1 #ajf1 #aeh4 autumn-s[n gra91 #ajf4 light soils1 #ajf4 reason =1 #ajf4 spr+-s[n gra91 #ajf4 ,roll+ cutt] h>r[s1 #ajb4 ,root1 #h4 h[ x takes moi/ure1 #ah4 mo/ important "p ( plant1 #g4 ,root hairs1 #ag1 #ah4 ,roots1 absorb wat]1 #i1 #aa1 #ag4 absorb plant food1 #aj1 #aa4 alfalfa1 #ac4 & f]tiliz]s1 #ae4 gr[? ( 9 l5g?1 #af4 conditions necess>y = gr[? (1 #h1 #bj1 #ada1 #bbj4 corn1 #ac4 c[pea1 #ab4 dep? ( gr[? (1 #ab4 ext5t ( gr[? (1 #ab4 habit ( gr[? (1 #aa1 #ae4 hold plant 9 place1 #i1 #aa1 #ae1 #af4 important lessons f1 #ac1 #ae4 location (1 #ab1 #ac4 ne$ firm soil1 #bj1 #bb1 #bc4 ne$ mell[ soil1 #bj1 #bb1 #bc4 ne$ moi/ soil1 #bj1 #bb1 #bc4 ne$ plant food 9 soil1 #bj1 #bb1 #bc4 ne$ w>m soil1 #bj1 #bb1 #bc4 ne$ air 9 soil1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc4 produce new plants1 #aj1 #aa4 rapidity ( gr[? (1 #ae4 soy-bean1 #ab4 /ore food1 #aj1 #aa4 sweet potato1 #ac4 tree1 #ac4 uses (1 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 #ae4 "w (1 #i1 #aj1 #ae4 ,rotation ( crops1 #bai4 b5efits f1 #bcj4 conditions :i* modify1 #bcb4 effect ^u f]tility1 #bbd4 examples (1 #bcd4 g5]al rules =1 #bcc4 l5g? (1 #bcc4 typical1 #bca4 ,sampl+ soils1 #afc4 ,s&1 #bf1 #ch4 ,fresno1 #bh4 grades (1 #bf4 ,miami1 #bh4 ,norfolk1 #bh4 p[] to absorb wat]1 #da1 #dc4 ,s&y soils1 #bg4 adapt$ to e>ly truck1 #bg4 effect ( humus on1 #dc1 #dd1 #bbj4 improv+1 #dc4 wat]-hold+ p[] (1 #dd4 ,s&y loam1 #bh4 ,sapwood1 #abf4 ,scy!s1 #d4 ,se$ leaves1 #gg4 ,se$1 #acj4 classification (1 #he4 crab1 drills1 #d1 #hd4 plant+1 #ha1 #hc4 ,se$s1 #h4 dep? to plant1 #ha4 h[ !y come up1 #gg4 h[ to te/1 #ge4 :i* g]m9ate at a temp]ature ( #de degrees1 #gd4 :i* g]m9ate at a temp]ature ( #fj degrees1 #gd4 ,se$s to g]m9ate1 ne$ air1 #gb1 #gc1 #ge4 ne$ heat1 #gc1 #ge4 ne$ moi/ure1 #ga1 #ge4 ,sepals1 #abi4 ,%all[ cultivation1 #ad1 #ae1 #afg1 #afi4 ,%>e ( pl[1 #ic4 ,%ackle ( pl[1 #ic4 ,silt1 #bg1 #ch4 ,silt loam1 #bi4 ,small fruit soils1 #bj4 ,soil1 a f]tile1 #ada4 def9ition (1 #bc4 =mation (1 #cj1 #bcg4 mat]ial compos+1 #adg1 #bf4 mul*1 #ef4 temp]ature1 #eg1 #fj4 te/+1 #afb1 #bae4 texture1 #cg1 #adb4 texture important1 #adb1 #adc4 v5tilation1 #fh1 #adb4 w>m$ by sun1 #eh4 w>m$ by conduction1 #eh4 wat]1 #dj1 #aea4 ,soils1 #e1 #bc4 adobe1 #cj4 alfalfa1 #bi4 & ! f>m]1 #e4 attitude ( t[>d wat]1 #dj4 cabbage1 #bh1 #afa4 cantel\pe1 #bh1 #afa4 capacity = film wat]1 #ea4 caulifl[]1 #bh4 classifi$1 #bf4 clay1 #bi4 cloddy1 #ch4 close1 #ch4 co>se1 #ch4 compact1 #ch4 corn1 #bh1 #bi1 #cj1 #afa4 cotton1 #bh1 #bi1 #afa4 effect ( work+ :5 wet1 #bf1 #da4 egg plant1 #bh4 f9e1 #ch4 =e/1 #bi4 fruit1 #bg1 #bi4 g5]al f>m+1 #bh1 #bi4 gra91 #bh1 #afb4 grass1 #bh1 #bi1 #afb4 gravelly1 #bi4 h>d1 #ch4 hay1 #bi1 #cj4 heavy1 #ch4 h[ made1 #cj4 humus1 #bg1 #ch4 lea*y1 #ch4 loamy1 #bh4 loose1 #ch4 lose heat1 #ei4 light1 #ch4 lime 91 #fg1 #adi4 loss ( wat] f1 #ec1 #aec4 lumpy1 #ch4 mell[1 #ch4 oat1 #bi4 op51 #ch4 organic matt] 91 #bbj4 pa/ure1 #cj4 pea1 #bh4 peat1 #cj4 pepp]s1 #bh4 plant food 91 #fc4 potato1 #bh1 #bi1 #afa4 por\s1 #ch4 relation ( to wat]1 #ci1 #df4 relation ( to plants1 #bc4 ret5tive1 #ch4 rhub>b1 #bh4 s&y1 #bg4 small fruit1 #bh1 #bi4 s(t1 #ch4 sorghum1 #afb4 /iff1 #ch4 /ony1 #bi4 /rawb]ry1 #bh4 swamp1 #cj4 te/+1 #afb1 #bae4 tobacco1 #bg4 tomato1 #bh1 #afa4 truck1 #bg1 #bh1 #bi1 #afa4 vegetable1 #bh4 wat]-absorb+ p[] (1 #dj1 #dc1 #df1 #adb4 wat]-hold+ p[] (1 #dd1 #adb4 wat]melon1 #bh1 #afa4 :eat1 #bi1 #cj4 ,soil wat]1 #aej1 #aea4 am\nt ( us$ by plants1 #dj4 & f>m op]ations1 #aef4 control (1 #ec4 =m (1 #dh1 #aec4 greate/ factor 9 gr[? ( crop1 #df4 importance (1 #ci1 #aea4 loss (1 #ec1 #aee1 #aeg1 #afd4 loss ( by evaporation1 #ed4 loss ( by we$s1 #ed1 #afe4 loss ( by surface wa%1 #ec4 necessity =1 #aea4 n en\gh1 #aed4 sav+1 #afe4 s\rces (1 #dj1 #aec4 too mu*1 #aed4 ,soil wat] influ5c$1 by cropp+1 #aei4 by h>r[+1 #aja1 #ajc1 #aeh4 by humus1 #db1 #dc1 #dd1 #de1 #bbj4 by pl[+1 #ia1 #aef4 by ridg+1 #ih1 #aeh4 by roll+1 #ajf1 #aeh4 ,sorghum soils1 #afb4 ,soy-bean1 z a gre5 manure crop1 #ahi4 gr[? ( roots1 #ab4 ,spade1 #ij4 ,spad+1 #ij4 ,spad+-=k1 #ij4 ,spike-too!d h>r[s1 #ajb1 #ajd4 ,spray+1 #aah4 ,spr+ pl[+1 #ih4 ,spr+-too!d h>r[s1 #ajb1 #ajc4 ,squa% fl[]s1 #acc4 ,/able manure1 #aga1 #agc4 ,/am51 #abi4 function (1 #aca4 ,/am9ate fl[]s1 #acc4 ,/>* 9 plants1 #fd1 #ff4 iod9e te/ =1 #fd4 ,/ems1 #h1 #abj4 di/+ui%$ f roots1 #abj4 habit ( gr[? (1 #aba4 /ructure (1 #abe4 und]gr\nd1 #aba4 uses (1 #abj4 "w ( *eck$1 #abf4 ,/igma1 #acj4 ,/omata1 #aaj4 ,/ones1 #bf1 #ca4 ,/ony loam1 #bi4 ,/rawb]ry fl[]s1 #acd4 p]fect1 #ace4 pi/illate1 #ace4 ,/udy ( plants begun1 #f4 ,/yle1 #acj4 ,sug> cane1 #e4 soil1 #afb4 ,sug> 9 plants1 #fd1 #ff4 ,sulphate ( ammonia1 #aid4 ,sulphate ( pota%1 #aii4 ,sulphur 9 plants1 #ff4 ,sun1 "w ( 9 mak+ soils1 #cb1 #cd4 ,sunlight1 & ! f>m]1 #e4 necess>y = leaf "w1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #aab4 ,sup]phosphates1 #aih4 ,swamp muck1 #cj4 ,sweet clov]1 #aij4 ,sweet potato roots1 #ac4 soils1 #bh1 #afj4 ,sweet potatoes1 #e4 ,sylv9ite1 #aii4 ,sy/ems ( cropp+1 #aai4 ,tankage1 #aid4 z f]tiliz]1 #aid4 nitrog5 91 #aid4 phosphoric acid 91 #aid4 ,temp]ature ( soil1 #eg4 ,t5drils1 plants climb by1 #abb4 ,te/+ se$s1 #ge4 ,te/+ soils = wat]1 #afb4 = plant food1 #bae4 ,texture ( soils1 #cg1 #adc1 #aej4 ,?9n+ fruit1 #acg4 ,?i/le1 #f4 ,?i/le family1 #hf4 ,?omas slag1 #aih4 z f]tiliz]1 #aih4 phosphoric acid 91 #aih4 ,tillage & plant food1 #fg4 & f]tility1 #aej4 ,"t to beg9 ?is /udy1 #c4 ,"t to pl[1 #ih4 ,tobacco soils1 #bg4 ,tomato soils1 #afa4 ,tools1 #e4 & ! f>m]1 #e4 ,transpiration1 ! fact1 #aaj4 am\nt (1 #aaa4 ,transplant+1 #hg4 ma*9es1 #hi4 ,truck ( pl[1 #ie4 ,truck soils1 #bg1 #bh1 #bi1 #afa4 ,tub]cles on roots ( legumes1 #fh1 #add4 ,turnip1 #f4 ,type soils1 #bf4 ,"u dra9s1 #bcg4 advantage (1 #bcg4 ,und]gr\nd /ems1 #aba4 ,value ( k ( fl[]s1 #acd4 ,vegetables1 roots1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae4 soil =1 #bh4 ,v5tilation ( soils1 #fh1 #adb4 necess>y = g]m9ation1 #gc4 necess>y = root gr[?1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc4 necess>y = fixation ( nitrog51 #add4 ,wat]1 absorption ( by soil1 #dj1 #dc1 #df1 #adb4 am\nt us$ by plants1 #dj4 capill>y1 #di1 #aec4 evaporation (1 #ed1 #aee4 free1 #dh1 #aec4 film1 #ej4 gr\nd1 #dh4 importance ( to plants1 #ci4 p]colation (1 #da4 relation ( soils to1 #ci4 /&+1 #dh4 "w ( 9 mak+ soils1 #cc1 #ce4 ,wat] & ! f>m]1 #e4 ,wat] 9 plants1 #fe4 ,wat]+ h\se plants1 #ea4 ,wat]melon soils1 #bh1 #afa4 ,we$]s1 #afg4 ,we$s1 #ed4 h[ !y injure crops1 #ed1 #ib4 h[ to kill1 #aai4 wa/e soil wat]1 #ed4 ,:eat soils1 #bi1 #cj4 wat] us$ by1 #dj4 ,:eel hoes1 #afh4 ,:ite hellebore1 #aag4 ,w9d poll9ation1 #acb4 ,"w ( roots1 #i1 #aj1 #ae4 ,"w ( sun 9 mak+ soils1 #cb1 #cd4 air 9 mak+ soils1 #cf4 animals 9 mak+ soils1 #cg4 mov+ ice 9 mak+ soils1 #ce4 mov+ wat] 9 mak+ soils1 #cc1 #ce4 plants 9 mak+ soils1 #cf4 ra9 9 mak+ soils1 #cc4 ,wood a%es1 #aii4 ,wool wa/e z f]tiliz]1 #aie4 99 99 99 99 99