,the ,first ,book of ,farming ,illustration3 ,,the ,,farm ,,equipment--,,plants1 ,,soils1 ,,animals1 ,,tools1 ,,buildings4 ,the ,first ,book of ,farming ,by ,,charles ,l4 ,,goodrich ,farmer ,expert in the ,bureau of ,plant ,industry1 ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 ,washington1 ,d4,c4 ,illustrated ,,garden ,,city ,,new ,,york ,,doubleday1 ,,page ,,company #aibc #aije1 by ,,doubleday1 ,,page ,,company ,,published ,,march1 #aije ,,printed ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,at ,,the ,,country ,,life ,,press1 ,,garden ,,city1 ,n4,y4 ,,preface ,the most successful farmers of the present day are those who work in harmony with the forces and laws of nature which control the growth and development of plants and animals4 ,these men have gained their knowledge of those laws and forces by careful observation1 experiment and study4 ,this book is a result of the author's search for these facts and truths as a student and farmer and his endeavor as a teacher to present them in a simple manner to others4 ,the object in presenting the book to the general public is the hope that it may be of assistance to farmers1 students and teachers1 in their search for the fundamental truths and principles of farming4 ,in the first part of the book an attempt has been made to select the most important and fundamental truths and principles underlying all agriculture and to present them in the order of their importance1 beginning with the most important4 ,an endeavor has been made to present these truths to the reader and student in a simple and interesting manner4 ,as far as possible each advance step is based on a previously stated fact or truth4 ,a number of side truths are introduced at various places4 ,a number of simple experiments have been introduced into the text in the belief that they will make the work more interesting to the general reader1 and will aid the student in learning to make simple investigations for himself4 ,the author recommends all who use the book to perform the experiments and to make the observations1 and so come actively in touch with the work4 ,the observations begin on the farm4 ,the author considers the plant the central and all-important factor or agent on the farm4 ,the root is regarded as the most important part of the plant to itself1 and consequently to the plant grower4 ,the general truths or principles which state the conditions necessary for the growth and development of plant roots are regarded as the foundation truths or fundamental principles of all agriculture4 ,these truths are as follows3 ,the roots of farm plants need for their best growth and development3 ,a firm1 mellow soil4 ,a moist soil4 ,a ventilated soil4 ,a warm soil4 ,a soil supplied with plant food4 ,the first two chapters lead the reader quickly through logical reasoning to these fundamental truths1 on which the remainder of the work is based4 ,a study of soils is made in connection with the root studies1 as the two are so closely related4 ,after the study of roots and soils the other parts of the plant are considered in the order of their importance to the farmer or plant grower4 ,the aim is always to get at fundamental facts and principles underlying all agricultural and horticultural practice4 ,the author regards the conditions necessary to root growth and development as the important factor constituting soil fertility1 and in the last ten chapters takes up the discussion of certain farm operations and practices and their effects on these necessary conditions1 and consequently their effect on the fertility of the soil4 ,the author extends gratitude to all who have in any way assisted in the preparation of this book1 whether through advice1 preparation of the text1 preparation of the illustrations1 or any other way in which he has received assistance4 ,c4,l4 ,,goodrich4 ,,glenndale1 ,prince ,george ,co41 ,maryland1 ,january #ba1 #aije4 ,,contents ,,part ,i ,,general ,,principles ,,underlying ,,plant ,,culture ,chapter ,page ,i4--,,introduction ,,to ,,plants #c ,,ii4--,,roots #i ,uses of roots to plants #i ,habit of growth of roots #aa ,conditions necessary for root growth #bj ,,iii4--,,soils #bc ,relation of soil to plants #bc ,classification of soils #bf ,how were soils made8 #cj ,soil texture #cg ,,iv4--,,relation ,,of ,,soils ,,to ,,water #ci ,importance of water to plants #ci ,sources of soil water #dj ,attitude of soils toward water3 ,percolation ,absorption from below ,power to hold water #dj ,the effect of working soils when wet #de ,v4--,,forms ,,of ,,soil ,,water #dh ,free water #dh ,capillary water #di ,film water #ej ,,vi4--,,loss ,,of ,,soil ,,water ,by surface wash ,by percolation and leaching ,by evaporation ,by transpiration ,how to check these losses #ec ,,vii4--,,soil ,,temperature #eg ,how soils are warmed #eh ,how soils lose heat ,how to check loss of heat #ei ,conditions which influence soil temperature #fj ,value of organic matter #fa ,,viii4--,,plant ,,food ,,in ,,the ,,soil #fc ,,ix4--,,seeds #gj ,conditions necessary for sprouting #gj ,seed testing #ge ,how the seeds come up #gg ,use of cotyledons and endosperm #gi ,x4--,,seed ,,planting #ha ,depth of planting3 ,operation of planting ,planting machines #ha ,seed classification #he ,transplanting #hg ,,xi4--,,spading ,,and ,,plowing #ij ,spading the soil #ij ,plowing #ia ,why we spade and plow #ia ,parts of a plow #ib ,characteristics of a good plow #ie ,the furrow slice #if ,how deep to plow #if ,breaking out the middles #ig ,ridging the land #ih ,time to plow #ih ,bare fallow #ajj ,,xii4--,,harrowing ,,and ,,rolling #aja ,harrowing3 ,why we harrow ,time to harrow #aja ,types of harrows #ajb ,rolling #ajf ,,xiii4--,,leaves #ajh ,facts about leaves #ajh ,the uses of leaves to plants3 ,transpiration ,starch making ,digestion of food ,conditions necessary for leaf work #aji ,how the work of leaves is interfered with #aae ,,xiv4--,,stems #abj ,what are stems for8 #abj ,how the work of the stem may be interfered with #abf ,,xv4--,,flowers #abh ,function of flowers #abh ,parts of flowers #abi ,functions of the parts3 ,cross pollination #acj ,value of a knowledge of the flowers #acd ,fruit #acf ,,part ,,ii ,,soil ,,fertility ,,as ,,affected ,,by ,,farm ,,operations ,,and ,,farm ,,practices ,chapter ,page ,,xvi4--,a ,,fertile ,,soil #ada ,physical properties3 ,power to absorb and hold water ,power of ventilation ,power to absorb and hold heat #adb ,biological properties #adc ,nitrogen-fixing germs #add ,nitrifying germs #ade ,denitrifying germs #adg ,chemical properties3 ,nitrogen in the soil ,phosphoric acid in the soil ,potash in the soil ,lime in the soil ,great importance of physical properties #adg ,maintenance of fertility #aej ,,xvii4--,,soil ,,water #aea ,importance of soil water #aea ,necessity of soil water #aea ,sources and forms of soil water #aec ,too much water #aed ,not enough water #aed ,loss of soil water #aee ,how some farm operations influence soil water #aef ,hoeing1 raking1 harrowing and cultivating #aeh ,manures and soil water #aei ,methods of cropping and soil water #aei ,selection of crops with reference to soil water #afj ,,xviii4--,,the ,,after-,,cultivation ,,of ,,crops #afd ,loss of water by evaporation #afd ,loss of water through weeds #afe ,saving the water #afe ,time to cultivate #aff ,tools for after-cultivation #afg ,hilling and ridging #afi ,,xix4--,,farm ,,manures #aga ,the functions of manures and fertilizers #aga ,classification #aga ,importance of farm manures #agb ,barn or stable manure #agc ,loss of value #agc ,checking the losses #agf ,applying the manure to the soil #agg ,proper condition of manure when applied #agi ,composts #aha ,,xx4--,,farm ,,manures1 ,,concluded #ahc ,green-crop manures3 ,functions #ahc ,benefits #ahe ,character of best plants for green-crop manuring #ahe ,the time for green-manure crops #ahf ,leguminous green-manure crops #ahf ,non-leguminous green-manure plants #aia ,,xxi4--,,commercial ,,fertilizers #aib ,the raw materials #aib ,sources of nitrogen #aic ,sources of phosphoric acid #aie ,sources of potash #aii ,sources of lime #bjj ,,xxii4--,,commercial ,,fertilizers1 ,,continued #bjb ,mixed fertilizers3 ,what they are ,many brands ,safeguard for the farmer ,low grade materials ,inflating the guarantee #bjb ,valuation #bje ,low grade mixtures #bjg ,buy on the plant food basis #bji ,,xxiii4--,,commercial ,,fertilizers1 ,,concluded #baa ,home mixing of fertilizers #baa ,kind and amount to buy #bab ,the crop #bac ,the soil #bae ,the system of farming #bae ,testing the soil #bae ,,xxiv4--,,rotation ,,of ,,crops #bai ,systems of cropping #bai ,the one crop system #bba ,rotation of crops #bbd ,benefits derived from rotation of crops #bcj ,the typical rotation #bca ,conditions which modify the rotation #bcb ,general rules #bcc ,length of rotation #bcc ,,xxv4--,,farm ,,drainage #bce ,how surplus water affects fertility #bce ,indications of a need of drainage #bce ,drains3 ,surface drains ,open ditch drains ,covered drains or under drains #bcf ,influence of covered drains on fertility #bcg ,location of drains3 ,grade ,tile drains #bch ,,glossary #bda ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,the farm equipment--plants1 soils1 animals1 tools1 buildings ,frontispiece ,figure ,facing ,page #a4 ,specimen plants for study #f #b4 ,the first effort of a sprouting seed #g #c4 ,germinating seeds with roots #g #d4 ,to show that plant roots take water from the soil #aj #e4 ,to show that plant roots take food from the soil #aj #f4 ,a radish root1 from which the stored food has been used to help produce a crop of seeds #aa #g4 ,a sweet-potato root producing new plants #aa #h4 ,sweet-potato roots #ad #i4 ,soy-bean roots #ae #aj4 ,a plow stopped in the furrow1 to show what it does to the roots of plants when used for after-cultivation #ah #aa4 ,a corn-plant ten days after planting the seed #ai #ab4 ,to show where growth in length of the root takes place #bb #ac4 ,radish seeds sprouted on dark cloth #bb #ad4 ,to show how water gets into the roots of plants #bc #ae4 ,to show osmose #bc #af4 ,to show that roots need air #bf #ag4 ,comparison of fresh and boiled water #bf #ah4 ,comparison of moist sand and puddled clay #bg #ai4 ,comparing soils #cb #bj4 ,water-test of soils #cc #ba4 ,to show what becomes of the water taken from the soil by roots #dj #bb4 ,percolation experiment4 ,to show the relative powers of soils to take in water falling on the surface #da #bc4 ,bottles used in place of the lamp chimneys in ,figs4 #bb and #bd #dd #bd4 ,capillarity of soils4 ,to show the relative powers of soils to take water from below #dd #be4 ,water-absorbing and water-holding powers of soils #de #bf4 ,capillary tubes4 ,to show how water rises in small tubes or is drawn into small spaces #dh #bg4 ,capillary plates #dh #bh4 ,a cone of soil to show capillarity #di #bi4 ,to show the relative amounts of film-moisture held by coarse and fine soils #di #cj4 ,to show the effect of a soil mulch #ef #ca4 ,soil temperature experiment #eg #cb4 ,charts showing average temperature of a set of dry and wet soils during a period of five days #fj #cc4 ,to show the value of organic matter #fa #cd4 ,soy-bean roots1 showing nodules or tubercles #fd #ce4 ,garden-pea roots1 showing tubercles or nodules #fe #cf4 ,to show that seeds need water for germination #gb #cg4 ,to show that seeds need air for germination #gb #ch4 ,to show that seeds need air for germination #gc #ci4 ,a seed-tester3 two plates and a moist cloth #hj #dj4 ,a seed-tester3 a plaster cast with cavities in the surface for small seeds #hj #da4 ,germinating corn-kernel and bean #ha #db4 ,to show how the bean-plant gets up #hb #dc4 ,to show how the corn-plant gets out of the soil #hb #dd4 ,to show the use of cotyledons #hc #de4 ,to show the use of the kernel to the young corn-plant #hf #df4 ,to show how deeply seeds should be planted #hg #dg4 ,operations of seed-planting #hh #dh4 ,a collection of planting machines #hi #di4 ,spading-fork and spade #ib #ej4 ,a wood beam-plow #ic #ea4 ,a slip-nose share and a slip-nose #if #eb4 ,a straight knife coulter #if #ec4 ,an iron beam-plow with rolling coulter and double clevis #if #ed4 ,a rolling cutter-harrow #ig #ee4 ,spring-toothed harrows #ig #ef4 ,spike-toothed harrows #ajd #eg4 ,a coulter-toothed harrow #ajd #eh4 ,a plank harrow #aje #ei4 ,to show transpiration #ajh #fj4 ,amount of transpiration #aji #fa4 ,to show that growing leaves contain starch #aad #fb4 ,to show that starch disappears from the leaf when the plant is placed in the dark #aad #fc4 ,to show that sunlight is necessary for starch-making by leaves #aae #fd4 ,to show that chlorophyl is necessary for starch formation in the leaf #aae #fe4 ,to show the giving off of gas by leaves1 and that sunlight is necessary for it #aah #ff4 ,seedling radishes reaching for light #aai #fg4 ,elm leaves injured by the imported elm-tree leaf-beetle1 a chewing insect #aai #fh4 ,a horse-chestnut stem1 showing leaves1 buds1 and scars1 where last year's leaves dropped off #abh #fi4 ,an underground stem4 ,buds show distinctly #abi #gj4 ,flower of cherry #acj #ga4 ,flower of apple #acj #gb4 ,pistil and stamen of flowering raspberry #aca #gc4 ,flower of buttercup #aca #gd4 ,a magnolia flower showing central column of pistils and stamens #acd #ge4 ,flowers of squash #ace #gf4 ,flower of a lily #acf #gg4 ,bud and flower of jewel-weed or touch-me-not #acg #gh4 ,pistillate flower and perfect flower of strawberry #acg #gi4 ,a crop of cowpeas #agh #hj4 ,red clover #agi #ha4 ,soy-beans in young orchard #ahb #hb4 ,a young alfalfa plant just coming into flower #ahc #hc4 ,cross-sections of stone-drains #bch #hd4 ,cross-section of a pole-drain and of a tile-drain #bch #he4 ,a collection of drainage tools #bci #hf4 ,a poorly laid tile-drain and a properly graded tile-drain #bci ,,part ,i ,general ,principles ,underlying ,plant ,culture ,,the ,,first ,,book ,,of ,,farming ,,part ,i ,general ,principles ,underlying ,plant ,culture ,,chapter ,i ,,introduction ,,to ,,plants ,our object in reading and studying this book is to find out some facts that will help those of us who are thinking of going into farming and gardening as a business or recreation to start right1 and will also help those of us that are already in the business to make our farms and gardens more productive4 ,in order to make the book of greatest value to you1 ,i would urge you not only to read and study it1 but also to make the excursions suggested and to perform the experiments4 ,in other words1 it will be of much greater value to you if you will make the observations and investigations and find out for yourselves the important facts and principles rather than simply take statements of the book unquestioned4 ,a very good time to begin this work is during the latter part of the summer1 when the summer crops are ripening and the fall and winter crops are starting into growth4 ,so suppose we begin our study with a visit to some farm in early ,september1 to bring to mind the many things a farmer works with1 the many things he has to think about and know about4 ,as we approach the farm we will probably see first the farm-house surrounded by shade trees1 perhaps elms or maples1 with the barns and other buildings grouped nearby4 ,as we pass up the front walk we notice more or less lawn of neatly clipped grass1 with flower beds bordering the walk1 or we may find a number of chickens occupying the front yard1 and the flower beds1 placed in red half-barrels1 set upon short posts4 ,in the flower beds we may find petunias1 nasturtiums1 geraniums1 rose bushes and other flowering plants4 ,going around the house1 we come upon the dairy1 with its rack of cans and pans set out for the daily sunning and airing4 ,nearby is a well with its oaken bucket2 at the barn we find the farmer1 and he very kindly consents to go with us to answer questions4 ,in the barn and sheds we find wagons1 plows1 harrows1 seed drills1 hoes1 rakes1 scythes and many other tools and machines4 ,passing on to the fields1 we go through the vegetable garden1 where are carrots1 parsnips1 cabbages1 beets1 celery1 sage and many other vegetables and herbs4 ,on the right1 we see a field of corn just ready to harvest1 and beyond a field of potatoes4 ,on the left is the orchard1 and we are invited to refresh ourselves with juicy apples4 ,in the field beyond the hired man is plowing with a fine team of horses4 ,in the ,south we would find a field of cotton and one of sweet potatoes1 and perhaps sugar cane or peanuts4 ,we have not failed to notice the pig weeds in the corn field nor the rag weed in the wheat stubble1 and many other weeds and grasses in the fence corners4 ,perhaps we may meet the cows coming from pasture to the stable4 ,all the way we have been trampling on something very important which we will notice on our way back4 ,in this field we find a coarse sandy soil1 in the next one a soil that is finer and stiffer4 ,the plow is turning up a reddish soil4 ,in the garden we find the soil quite dark in color4 ,but these are only a few of the things we have found4 ,if you have used your notebook you will discover that you have long lists of objects which you have noticed1 and these may be grouped under the following headings3 ,animals1 ,plants1 ,soils1 ,buildings1 ,tools1 etc4 ,the farmer1 then1 in his work on the farm deals with certain agents1 chief among which are ,soils1 ,plants1 ,animals1 ,tools and ,buildings4 ,other agents which assist or retard his work according to circumstances are the air1 sunlight1 heat1 moisture1 plant food1 microscopic organisms called bacteria1 etc4 ,these agents are controlled in their relations to one another by certain forces which work according to certain laws and principles of nature4 ,to work intelligently and to obtain the best results the farmer must become familiar with these agents and must work in harmony with the laws and principles which control them4 ,let us take up the study of some of these groups of agents1 beginning with the most important or central one on the farm4 ,which do you think is the most important group8 ,some will say tools4 ,the majority will probably say1 study the soil first1 because we must work the soil before we can grow good crops4 ,some few will mention plants4 ,this last is right4 ,the farm animals are dependent on plants for food4 ,we till or work the soil to produce plants4 ,plants are living1 growing things1 and certain requirements or conditions are necessary for their growth and development2 we cannot intelligently prepare the soil for plant growth until we know something about the work of plants and the conditions they need to do their work well4 ,for our first study of plants let us get together a number of farm and garden plants4 ,say1 we have a corn plant1 cotton1 beet1 turnip1 carrot1 onion1 potato1 grass1 geranium1 marigold1 pigweed1 thistle1 or other farm or garden plants4 ,in each case get the entire plant1 with as much root as possible4 ,do these plants in any way resemble one another8 ,all are green1 all have roots1 all have stems and leaves1 some of them have flowers1 fruit1 and seeds1 and the others in time will produce them4 ,why does the farmer raise these plants8 ,for food for man and animals2 for clothing2 for ornamental purposes2 for pleasure1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,specimen ,,plants ,,for ,,study4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,the first effort of a sprouting seed is to send a root down into the soil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,germinating seeds produce roots before they send a shoot up into the air4 ,which part of any or all of these farm plants is of greatest importance to the plant itself8 ,i am sure that you will agree that the root is the part most important to the plant itself1 for if any part of a plant be separated from the root1 that part ceases growth and will soon die1 unless it is able to put out new roots4 ,but the root from which the plant was cut will generally send up new shoots1 unless it has nearly completed its life work4 ,when a slip or cutting is placed in water or in moist sand it makes a root before it continues much in growth4 ,when a seed is planted its first effort is to send a rootlet down into the soil4 ,experiment to see if this is true by planting slips of willow1 or geranium1 or by planting corn or beans in a glass tumbler of soil1 or in a box having a glass side1 placing the seeds close to the glass2 then watch and see what the seed does4 ,figs4 #b and #c4 ,which of the parts of the plant is of greatest importance to the farmer or any plant grower1 or to which part of a plant should the plant grower give his best attention8 ,you will probably mention different parts of the different plants in answering this question4 ,for instance1 some will say1 ,the seed is the most important part of the wheat plant to the farmer1 for that is what the wheat is grown for4 ,the fruit is the most important part of the apple plant for the same reason4 ,the leaves and grain of the corn1 the leaves of the cabbage1 are the important parts of these plants and should have the best attention of the grower1 because they are the parts for which he grows the plants4 ,but you must remember that all of these parts are dependent on the root for life and growth1 as was brought out in the answer to the last question1 and that if the farmer or plant grower desires a fine crop of leaves1 stems1 flowers1 fruit or seeds1 he must give his very best attention to the root4 ,judging from the poor way in which many farmers and plant growers prepare the soil for the plants they raise1 and the poor way they care for the soil during the growth of the plants1 they evidently think least of1 and give least attention to1 the roots of the plants4 ,then1 in studying our plants1 which part shall we study first8 ,why1 the roots1 of course3 ,to find out what they do for the plant1 how they do this work1 and what conditions are necessary for them to grow and to do their work well4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,roots ,,uses ,,of ,,roots ,,to ,,plants ,of what use are roots to plants1 or1 what work do they perform for the plants8 ,if the reader has ever tried to pull up weeds or other plants he will agree that one function of the roots of plants is to hold them firmly in place while they are growing4 ,experiment4--,pull two plants from the soil1 shake them free of earth1 and place the roots of one in water and expose the roots of the other to the air4 ,notice that the plant whose roots are exposed to the air soon wilts1 while the one whose roots were placed in water keeps fresh4 ,you have noticed how a potted plant will wilt if the soil in the pot is allowed to become dry 7see ,fig4 #d71 or how the leaves of corn and other plants curl up and wither during long periods of dry weather4 ,it is quite evident roots absorb moisture from the soil for the plant4 ,experiment4--,plant some seeds in tumblers or in boxes filled with sand and in others filled with good garden soil4 ,keep them well watered and watch their progress for a few weeks 7see ,fig4 #e74 ,the plants in the garden soil will grow larger than those in the sand4 ,the roots evidently must get food from the soil and those in the good garden soil get more than those in the poorer sand4 ,another important function of plant roots then is to take food from the soil for the plant4 ,you know how thick and fleshy the roots of radishes1 beets and turnips are4 ,well1 go into the garden and see if you can find a spring radish or an early turnip that has sent up a flower stalk1 blossomed and produced seeds4 ,if you are successful1 cut the root in two and notice that instead of being hard and fleshy like the young radish or turnip1 it has become hollow1 or soft and spongy 7see ,fig4 #f74 ,evidently the hard1 fleshy young root was packed with food1 which it afterwards gave up to produce flower stalk and seeds4 ,a fourth use of the root1 then1 is to store food for the future use of the plant4 ,experiment4--,plant a sweet potato or place it with the lower end in a tumbler of water and set it in a warm room4 ,observe it from day to day as it puts out new shoots bearing leaves and roots 7see ,fig4 #g74 ,break these off and plant them in soil and you have a number of new plants4 ,if you can get the material1 repeat this experiment with roots of horse-radish1 raspberry1 blackberry or dahlia4 ,from this we see that it is the work of some roots to produce new plants4 ,this function of roots is made use of in propagating or obtaining new plants of the sweet potato1 horse-radish1 blackberry1 raspberry1 dahlia and other plants4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,to show that plant-roots take water from the soil1 the plants in ,a are suffering from thirst4 ,b has sufficient water4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,to show that plant roots take food from the soil4 ,both boxes were planted at the same time4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,a radish root1 from which the stored food has been used to help produce a crop of seeds4 ,notice the spindle shaded seed-vessels4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,a sweet-potato root producing new plants4 ,we have now learned five important things that roots do for plants1 namely3 ,roots hold plants firmly in place4 ,they absorb water from the soil for the plants4 ,they absorb food from the soil for the plants4 ,some roots store food for the future use of the plant4 ,some roots produce new plants4 ,how do the roots do this work8 ,to answer this question it will be necessary to study the habit of growth of the roots of our plants4 ,,habit ,,of ,,growth ,,of ,,roots ,the proper place to begin this study is in the field or garden4 ,so we will make another excursion1 and this time we will take with us a pick-axe or mattock1 a shovel or two1 a sharp stick1 a quart or half-gallon pitcher1 and several buckets of water4 ,arrived in the field1 we will select a well-developed plant1 say1 of corn1 potato or cotton4 ,then we will dig a hole about six feet long1 three feet wide1 and five or six feet deep1 close to the plant1 letting one side come about four or five inches from the base of the plant4 ,it will be well to have this hole run across the row rather than lengthwise with it4 ,then with the pitcher pour water about the base of the plant and wash the soil away from the roots4 ,gently loosening the soil with the sharpened stick will hasten this work4 ,in this way carefully expose the roots along the side of the hole1 tracing them as far as possible laterally and as deep as possible1 taking care to loosen them as little as possible from their natural position4 7,see ,figs4 #h and #i47 ,having exposed the roots of one kind of plant to a width and depth of five or six feet1 expose the roots of six or eight plants of different kinds to a depth of about eighteen inches4 ,as this may require more time than we can take for it in one day1 it will be well to cover the exposed roots with some old burlaps or other material until we have them all ready1 in order to keep them from drying and from injury4 ,when all is ready we will study the root system of each plant and answer these four questions3 ,in what part of the soil are most of the roots8 ,how deep do they penetrate the soil8 ,how near do they come to the surface of the soil8 ,how far do they reach out sidewise or laterally from the plant8 ,to the first question1 ,in what part of the soil are most of the roots8 you will give the following answers3 ,in the upper layer4 ,in the surface soil4 ,in the softer soil4 ,in the darker soil4 ,in the plowed soil4 ,these are all correct1 but the last is the important one4 ,most of the roots will be formed in that part of the soil that has been plowed or spaded4 ,the second question1 ,how deep do the roots penetrate the soil8 is easily answered4 ,roots will be found penetrating the soil to depths of from two to six feet or more4 7,see ,fig4 #h47 ,the author has traced the roots of cowpea and soy bean plants to depths of five and six feet1 corn roots four and five feet1 parsnips over six feet4 ,the sweet-potato roots illustrated in ,fig4 #h penetrated the soil to a depth of over five feet4 ,the roots of alfalfa or lucern have been traced to depths of from thirteen to sixteen feet or more4 ,how near to the surface of the soil do you find roots8 ,main side or lateral roots will be found within two or three inches of the surface1 and little rootlets from these will be found reaching up as near the surface as there is a supply of moisture4 ,after a continued period of wet weather1 if the soil has not been disturbed1 roots will be found coming to the very surface and even running along the top of the soil4 ,as to the fourth question1 ,how far do roots reach out sidewise or laterally from the plant8 you will find roots extending three1 four1 five and even six or more feet from the plant4 ,they have numerous branches and rootlets1 which fill all parts of the upper soil4 ,tree roots have been found thirty or forty feet in length4 ,we started on this observation lesson to find out something about the habit of growth of roots1 so that we could tell how the roots do their work for the plant4 ,but before going on with that question1 let us stop right here and see whether we cannot find some very important lessons for the farmer and plant grower from what we have already seen4 ,is a knowledge of these facts we have learned about roots of any value to the farmer8 ,let us examine each case and see4 ,of what value is it to the farmer to know that the larger part of the roots of farm plants develop in that part of the soil that has been plowed or spaded8 ,it tells him that plowing tends to bring about the soil conditions which are favorable to the growth and development of roots4 ,therefore1 the deeper he plows1 the deeper is the body of the soil having conditions best suited for root growth1 and the larger will be the crop which grows above the soil4 ,of what value is it to the farmer to know that the roots of farm plants penetrate to depths of five or six feet in the soil8 ,to answer this question it will be necessary for us to know something of the conditions necessary for root growth4 ,so we will leave this till later4 ,of what value is it to the farmer to know that many of the roots of his farm plants come very near the surface of the soil8 ,it tells him that he should be careful in cultivating his crop to injure as few of these roots as possible4 ,in some parts of the country1 particularly in the ,south1 the tool commonly used for field cultivation is a small plow4 ,this is run alongside of the row1 throwing the soil from the crop1 and then again throwing the soil to the crop4 ,suppose we investigate1 and see how this affects the roots of the crop4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,sweet potato roots4 ,the great mass of the roots is in the plowed soil4 ,many of them reach out #e to #g feet from the plant4 ,some reach a depth of more than #e feet1 and others come to the very surface of the soil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,soy-bean roots showing location1 extent and depth of root-growth4 ,let us visit a field where some farmer is working a crop with a plow1 or get him to do it1 for the sake of the lesson4 ,we will ask him to stop the plow somewhere opposite a plant1 then we will dig a hole a little to one side of the plow and wash away the soil from over the plow 7see ,fig4 #aj71 and see where the roots are4 ,we will find that the plow-point runs under many strong-feeding lateral roots and tears them off1 thus checking the feeding power of the plant1 and consequently checking its growth4 ,now1 if we can get a cultivator1 we will have that run along the row and then wash away the loosened soil4 ,it will be found that few1 if any1 of the main lateral roots have been injured4 ,is it of any value to the farmer to know that roots extend laterally three to six feet and more on all sides of the plant1 and that every part of the upper soil is filled with their branches and rootlets8 ,this fact has a bearing on the application of manures and fertilizers4 ,it tells the farmer that when he applies the manure and fertilizers to the soil he should mix the most of them thoroughly all through the soil1 placing only a little directly in the row to start the young plant4 ,to find out how quickly the roots reach out into the soil1 wash the soil away from some seedlings that have been growing only a few days1 say1 seven1 ten and fifteen4 7,see ,fig4 #aa47 ,from our observations1 then1 we have learned the important lessons of deep1 thorough plowing1 careful shallow after-cultivation1 and that fertilizers should be well mixed with the soil4 ,we are now ready to go back to our study of the habit of growth of roots1 and can perhaps tell something of how the root does its work for the plant4 ,it is very easy to see how the roots hold the plant firmly in place1 for they penetrate so thoroughly every part of the soil1 and to such distances1 that they hold with a grip that makes it impossible to remove the plant from the soil without tearing it free from the roots4 ,it is also on account of this very thorough reaching out through the soil that the roots are able to supply the plant with sufficient moisture and food4 ,we have doubtless observed that most of these roots are very slender and many very delicate4 ,how did they manage to reach out into the soil so far from the plant8 ,or where does the root grow in length8 ,to answer this question ,i will ask you to perform the following experiment3 ,experiment4--,place some kernels of corn or other large seeds on a plate between the folds of a piece of wet cloth4 ,cover with a pane of glass or another plate4 ,keep the cloth moist till the seeds sprout and the young plants have roots two or three inches long4 ,now have at hand a plate1 two pieces of glass1 #d by #f inches1 a piece of white cloth about #d by #h inches1 a spool of dark thread1 and two burnt matches1 or small slivers of wood4 ,a shallow tin pan may be used in place of the plate4 ,lay one pane of glass on the plate1 letting one end rest in the bottom of the plate and the other on the opposite edge of the plate4 ,at one end of the piece of cloth cut two slits on opposite sides about an inch down from the end and reaching nearly to the middle4 ,wet the cloth and spread it on the glass4 ,take one of the sprouted seeds1 lay it on the cloth1 tie pieces of thread around the main root at intervals of one-quarter inch from tip to seed4 ,tie carefully1 so that the root will not be injured4 ,place the second pane of glass over the roots1 letting the edge come just below the seed1 slipping in the slivers of wood to prevent the glass crushing the roots4 ,wrap the two flaps of the cloth about the seed4 ,pour some water in the plate and leave for development4 7,fig4 #ab47 ,a day or two of waiting will show conclusively that the lengthening takes place at the tip only1 or just back of the tip4 ,is this fact of any value to the farmer8 ,yes4 ,the soft tender root tips will force their way through a mellow soil with greater ease and rapidity than through a hard soil1 and the more rapid the root growth the more rapid the development of the plant4 ,this teaches us again the lesson of deep1 thorough breaking and pulverizing of the soil before the crop is planted4 ,we have learned that the roots grow out into the soil in search of moisture and food1 which they absorb for the use of the plant4 ,how does the root take in moisture and food8 ,many people think that there are little mouths at the tips of the roots1 and that the food and moisture are taken in through them4 ,this is not so1 for examination with the most powerful microscopes fails to discover any such mouths4 ,sprout seeds of radish1 turnip or cabbage1 or other seeds1 on dark cloth1 placed in plates and kept moist4 ,notice the fuzz or mass of root hairs near the ends of the tender roots of the seedlings 7,fig4 #ac74 ,plant similar seed in sand or soil1 and when they have started to grow pull them up and notice how difficult it is to remove all of the sand or dirt from the roots4 ,this is because the delicate root hairs cling so closely to the soil grains4 ,the root hairs are absorbing moisture laden with plant food from the surface of the soil particles4 ,the root hairs are found only near the root tips4 ,as the root grows older1 its surface becomes tougher and harder1 and the hairs die1 while new ones appear on the new growth just back of the root tips1 which are constantly reaching out after moisture and food4 ,the moisture gets into the root hairs by a process called osmose4 ,the following interesting experiment will give you an idea of this process or force of osmose4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,a plow stopped in the furrow1 to show what it does to the roots of plants when used for after-cultivation4 ,notice the point of the plow under the roots4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,a corn-plant ten days after planting the seed4 ,to show how quickly the roots reach out into the soil4 ,some of the roots were over #ah inches long4 ,experiment4--,procure a wide-mouthed bottle1 an egg1 a glass tube about three inches long and a quarter-inch in diameter1 a candle1 and a piece of wire a little longer than the tube4 ,remove a part of the shell from the large end of the egg without breaking the skin beneath4 ,this is easily done by gently tapping the shell with the handle of a pocket-knife until it is full of small cracks1 and then1 with the blade of the knife1 picking off the small pieces4 ,in this way remove the shell from the space about the size of a nickel4 ,remove the shell from the small end of the egg over a space about as large as the end of the glass tube4 ,next1 from the lower end of the candle cut a piece about one-half inch long4 ,bore a hole in this just the size of the glass tube4 ,now soften one end of the piece of candle with the hole in it and stick it on to the small end of the egg so that the hole in the candle comes over the hole in the egg4 ,heat the wire1 and with it solder the piece of candle more firmly to the egg1 making a water-tight joint4 ,place the glass tube in the hole in the piece of candle1 pushing it down till it touches the egg4 ,then1 with the heated wire1 solder the tube firmly in place4 ,now run the wire down the tube and break the skin of the egg just under the end of the tube4 ,fill the bottle with water till it overflows1 and set the egg on the bottle1 the large end in contact with the water 7,fig4 #ad74 ,in an hour or so the contents of the egg will be seen rising in the glass tube4 ,this happens because the water is making its way by osmose into the egg through the skin1 which has no openings1 so far as can be discovered4 ,if the bottle is kept supplied with water as fast as it is taken up by the egg1 almost the entire contents of the egg will be forced out of the tube4 ,in this way water in which plant food is dissolved enters the slender root hairs and rises through the plant4 ,experiment4--,this process of osmose may also be shown as follows 7,fig4 #ae73 ,remove the shell from the large end of an egg without breaking the skin1 break a hole in the small end of the egg and empty out the contents of the egg2 rinse the shell with water4 ,fill a wide-mouthed bottle with water colored with a few drops of red ink4 ,fill the egg-shell partly full of clear water and set it on the bottle of colored water4 ,colored water will gradually pass through the membrane of the egg and color the water in the shell4 ,prepare another egg in the same way1 but put colored water in the shell and clear water in the bottle4 ,the colored water in the shell will pass through the skin and color the water in the bottle4 ,sugar or salt may be used in place of the red ink1 and their presence after passing through the membrane may be detected by taste4 ,,conditions ,,necessary ,,for ,,root ,,growth ,we have learned some of the things that the roots do for plants and a little about how the work is done4 ,the next thing to find out is3 ,what conditions are necessary for the root to do its work8 ,we know that a part of the work of the root is to penetrate the soil and hold the plant firmly in place4 ,therefore1 it needs a firm soil4 ,we know that the part of the root which penetrates the soil is tender and easily injured4 ,therefore1 for rapid growth the root needs a mellow soil4 ,we know that part of the work of the root is to take moisture from the soil4 ,therefore1 it needs a moist soil4 ,we know that part of the work of the root is to take food from the soil4 ,therefore1 it needs a soil well supplied with plant food4 ,we know that roots stop their work in cold weather4 ,therefore1 they need a warm soil4 ,another condition needed by roots we will find out by experiment4 ,experiment4--,take two wide-mouthed clear glass bottles 7,fig4 #af72 fill one nearly full of water from the well or hydrant2 fill the other bottle nearly full of water that has been boiled and cooled2 place in each bottle a slip or cutting of ,wandering ,jew 7called also inch plant1 or tradescantia1 and spiderwort71 or some other plant that roots readily in water4 ,then pour on top of the boiled water about a quarter of an inch of oil--lard oil or cotton-seed oil or salad oil4 ,this is to prevent the absorption of air4 ,in a few days roots will appear on the slip in the hydrant water1 while only a very few short ones1 if any1 will appear in the boiled water1 and they will soon cease growing4 ,why is this8 ,to answer this question1 try another experiment4 ,take two bottles1 filled as before1 one with hydrant water and the other with boiled water2 drop into each a slip of glass or a spoon or piece of metal long enough so that one end will rest on the bottom and the other against the side of the bottle1 and let stand for an hour or so 7,fig4 #ag74 ,at the end of that time bubbles of air will be seen collecting on the glass or spoon in the hydrant water1 but none in the boiled water4 ,this shows us that water contains more or less air1 and that boiling the water drives this air out4 ,the cutting in the boiled water did not produce roots because there was no air in it and the oil kept it from absorbing any4 ,experiment4--,into some tumblers of moist sand put cuttings of several kinds of plants that root readily 7,fig4 #ah71 geranium1 tradescantia1 begonia1 etc4 ,put cuttings of same plants into tumblers filled with clay that has been wet and stirred very thoroughly1 until it is about the consistency of cake batter4 ,keep the sand and puddled clay moist2 do not allow the clay to crack1 which it will do if it dries4 ,the cuttings in the sand will strike root and grow1 while most1 if not all1 those in the clay will soon die4 ,the reason for this is that the sand is well ventilated and there is sufficient air for root development1 while the clay is very poorly ventilated1 and there is not sufficient air for root growth4 ,these experiments show us that to develop and do their work roots need air or a well-ventilated soil4 ,we have found the conditions which are necessary for the growth and development of plant roots1 namely3 ,a firm1 mellow soil4 ,a moist soil4 ,a soil supplied with available plant food4 ,a warm soil4 ,a ventilated soil4 ,these are the most important facts about plant growth so far as the plant grower is concerned4 ,in other words1 these conditions which are necessary for root growth and development are the most important truths of agriculture1 or they are the foundation truths or principles upon which all agriculture is based4 ,having found these conditions1 the next most important step is to find out how to bring them about in the soil1 or1 if they already exist1 how to keep them or to improve them4 ,this brings us1 then1 to a study of soils4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,to show where growth in length of the root takes place4 ,forty hours before the photograph was taken the tip of the root was inch from the lowest thread4 ,the glass cover was taken from this in order to get a good picture of the root4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,radish seeds sprouted on dark cloth4 ,to show root hairs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,to show how water gets into the roots of plants4 ,water passed up into the egg through the skin1 or membrane1 and forced the contents up the glass tube until it began to overflow4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,to show osmose 7see page #ai74 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,soils ,the soil considered agriculturally1 is that part of the earth's crust which is occupied by the roots of plants and from which they absorb food and moisture4 ,,relation ,,of ,,soil ,,to ,,plants ,we have learned that plant roots penetrate the soil to hold the plant in a firm and stable position1 to absorb moisture and with it plant food4 ,we learned also that for roots to do these things well1 the soil in which they grow must be mellow and firm1 and must contain moisture and plant food1 air must circulate in its pores and it must be warm4 ,how can we bring about these conditions8 ,to answer this question intelligently it will be necessary for us to study the soil to find out something about its structure1 its composition1 its characteristics2 also1 how it was made and what forces or agencies were active in making it4 ,are these forces acting on the soil at the present time8 ,do they have any influence over the conditions which are favorable or unfavorable to plant growth8 ,if so1 can we control them in their action for the benefit or injury of plants8 ,we will begin this soil study with an excursion and a few experiments4 ,go to the field4 ,examine the soil in the holes dug for the root lessons1 noticing the difference between the upper or surface soil and the under or subsoil4 ,examine as many kinds of surface soils and subsoils as possible1 also decayed leaf mould1 the black soil of the woods1 etc4 ,if there are in the neighborhood any exposed embankments where a road has been cut through a hill1 or where a river or the sea water has cut into a bank of soil1 visit them and examine the exposed soils4 ,experiment4--,place in separate pans1 dishes1 plates1 boxes1 or on boards1 one or two pints each of sand1 clay1 decayed vegetable matter or leaf mould or woods soil1 and garden soil4 ,the soil should be fresh from the field4 ,examine the sand1 clay and leaf mould1 comparing them as to color2 are they light or dark1 are they moist or not8 ,test the soils for comparative size of particles by rubbing between the fingers 7,fig4 #ai71 noticing if they are coarse or fine1 and for stickiness by squeezing in the hand and noting whether or not they easily crumble afterwards4 ,experiment4--,take samples1 about a teaspoonful1 of sand1 clay and leaf mould4 ,dry them and then place each in an iron spoon or on a small coal shovel and heat in stove to redness4 ,it will be found that the leaf mould will smoke and burn1 and will diminish in amount1 while the sand and clay will not4 ,experiment4--,take two wide-mouthed bottles2 fill both nearly full of water4 ,into one put about a teaspoonful of clay and into the other the same amount of sand2 shake both bottles thoroughly and set on table to settle 7,fig4 #bj74 ,it will be found that the sand settles very quickly and the clay very slowly4 ,as the result of our three experiments we will find something as follows3 ,sand is light in color1 moist1 coarse1 not sticky1 settles quickly in water1 and will not burn4 ,clay is darker in color1 moist1 very fine1 quite sticky1 settles slowly in water1 and will not burn4 ,leaf mould or humus is very dark in color1 moist1 very fine1 slightly sticky1 and burns when placed in the fire4 ,experiment4--,we now have knowledge and means for making simple tests of soils4 ,repeat the last three experiments with the garden soil4 ,we will find1 perhaps1 that it is dark in color and some of it burns away when placed in the fire1 therefore it contains organic matter or decaying vegetable matter or humus1 as it is called4 ,this sample has perhaps fine particles and coarse particles2 part of it will settle quickly in water while part settles very slowly1 and it is sticky4 ,therefore we conclude that there are both clay and sand in it4 ,if we shake a sample of it in a bottle of water and let it settle for several days1 we can tell roughly from the layers of soil in the bottom of the bottle the relative amounts of sand and clay in the soil4 ,also if we weigh a sample before and after burning we can tell roughly the amount of organic matter in the soil4 ,test a number of soils and determine roughly the proportions of sand1 clay and organic matter in them4 ,experiment4--,take the pans of soil used in our first soil experiment and separate the soils in the pans into two parts by a trench across the centre on the pan4 ,now wet the soil in one side of the pan and stir it with a stick or a spoon1 carefully smooth the surface of the soil in the other side of the pan and pour or sprinkle some water on it1 but do not stir it4 ,set the pans aside till the soils are dry4 ,this drying may take several days and in the meantime we will study the classification of soils4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,to show that roots need air4 ,bottle ,a was supplied with fresh water1 and bottle ,b with water that had been boiled to drive the air out and then cooled4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,bottle ,a contains fresh water1 bottle ,b contains boiled water4 ,notice the air bubbles in bottle ,a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,tumblers ,a and ,c contained moist sand1 ,b and ,d contained puddled clay4 ,cuttings in ,b and ,d died1 because there was not sufficient ventilation in the clay for root-development4 ,,classification ,,of ,,soils ,soil materials and soils are classified as follows3 ,stones4--,coarse1 irregular or rounded rock fragments or pieces of rock4 ,gravel4--,coarse fragments and pebbles ranging in size from several inches in diameter down to #a_/be inch4 ,sand4--,soil particles ranging from #a_/be of an inch down to #a_/ejj of an inch in diameter4 ,sand is divided into several grades or sizes4 ,coarse sand #a_/be to #a_/ej of an inch4 ,medium sand #a_/ej to #a_/ajj of an inch4 ,fine sand #a_/ajj to #a_/bej of an inch4 ,very fine sand #a_/bej to #a_/ejj of an inch4 ,these grades of sand correspond very nearly with the grains of granulated and soft sugar and fine table salt4 ,silt4--,fine soil particles ranging from #a_/ejj to #a_/ejjj of an inch in diameter4 ,it feels very fine and smooth when rubbed between the fingers1 especially when moist4 ,a good illustration of silt is the silicon used for cleaning knives1 a small amount of which can be obtained at most any grocery store4 ,by rubbing some of this between the fingers1 both dry and wet1 one can get a fair idea of how a silty soil should feel4 ,silt when wet is sticky like clay4 ,clay4--,the finest of rock particles1 #a_/ejjj to #a_/bejjjj of an inch in diameter1 too small to imagine4 ,clay when wet is very soft1 slippery and very sticky4 ,yellow ochre and whiting from the paint shop are good illustrations of clay4 ,humus1 or decaying vegetable and animal matter4 ,this is dark brown or almost black in color--decaying leaves and woods soil are examples4 ,soils composed of the above materials3 ,sands or ,sandy ,soils4--,these soils are mixtures of the different grades of sand and small amounts of silt1 clay and organic matter4 ,they are light1 loose and easy to work4 ,they produce early crops1 and are particularly adapted to early truck1 fruit and bright tobacco1 but are too light for general farm crops4 ,to this class belongs the so-called ,norfolk ,sand4 ,this is a coarse to medium1 yellow or brown sand averaging about five-sixths sand and one-sixth silt and clay and is a typical early truck soil found all along the eastern coast of the ,united ,states4 ,it is a mealy1 porous1 warm sand1 well drained and easily cultivated4 ,in regions where trucking forms an important part of agriculture1 this soil is sought out as best adapted to the production of watermelons1 canteloupes1 sweet potatoes1 early ,irish potatoes1 strawberries1 early tomatoes1 early peas1 peppers1 egg plant1 rhubarb and even cabbage and cauliflower1 though the latter crops produce better yields on a heavier soil4 ,a very similar sand in the central part of the country is called ,miami ,sand and1 on the ,pacific ,coast1 ,fresno ,sand4 ,these names are given to these type soils by the ,bureau of ,soils of the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture4 ,loams or ,loamy ,soils1 consist of mixtures of the sands1 silt and clay with some organic matter4 ,the term loam is applied to a soil which1 from its appearance in the field and the feeling when handled1 appears to be about one-half sand and the other half silt and clay with more or less organic matter4 ,these are naturally fine in texture and quite sticky when wet4 ,they would be called clay by many on account of their stickiness4 ,they are good soils for general farming and produce good grain1 grass1 corn1 potatoes1 cotton1 vegetables1 etc4 ,sandy ,loams1 averaging about three-fifths sand and two-fifths silt and clay4 ,these soils are tilled easily and are the lightest desirable soil for general farming4 ,they are particularly adapted to corn and cotton and in some instances are used for small fruits and truck crops4 ,silt ,loam consists largely of silt with a small amount of sand1 clay1 and organic matter4 ,these soils are some of the most difficult to till1 but when well drained they are with careful management good general farming soils1 producing good corn1 wheat1 oats1 potatoes1 alfalfa and fair cotton4 ,clay ,loams4--,these soils contain more clay than the silt loams4 ,they are stiff1 sticky soils1 and some of them are difficult to till4 ,they are generally considered the strongest soils for general farming4 ,they are particularly adapted to wheat1 hay1 corn and grass4 ,gravelly loams are from one-fourth to two-thirds coarse grained2 the remaining fine soil may be sandy loam1 silt or clay loam4 ,they are adapted to various crops according to the character of the fine soil4 ,some of them are best planted to fruit and forest4 ,stony ,loam4--,like the gravelly loam the stony loams are one-fourth to three-fourths sandy1 silty or clay loam1 the remainder being rock fragments of larger size than the gravel4 ,these fragments are sometimes rough and irregular and sometimes rounded4 ,the stones interfere seriously with tillage1 and naturally the soils are best planted with forest or fruit4 ,clay ,soils4--,clay soils are mixtures of sand1 silt1 clay and humus1 the clay existing in quite large quantities1 there being a greater preponderance of the clay characteristics than in the clay loams2 they are very heavy1 sticky1 and difficult to manage4 ,some clay soils are not worth farming4 ,those that can be profitably tilled are adapted to wheat1 corn1 hay and pasture4 ,adobe ,soils4--,these are peculiar soils of the dry ,west4 ,they are mixtures of clay1 silt1 some sand and large amounts of humus4 ,their peculiar characteristic is that they are very sticky when wet and bake very hard when dry and are1 therefore1 very difficult to manage1 though they are generally very productive when they are moist enough to support crops4 ,swamp ,muck is a dark brown or black swamp soil consisting of large amounts of humus or decaying organic matter mixed with some fine sand and clay4 ,it is found in low wet places4 ,peat is also largely vegetable matter1 consisting of tough roots1 partially decayed leaves1 moss1 etc4 ,it is quite dense and compact and in some regions is used for fuel4 ,,how ,,were ,,soils ,,made8 ,as a help in finding the answer to this question collect and examine a number of the following or similar specimens3 ,brick4--,take pieces of brick and rub them together4 ,a fine powder or dust will be the result4 ,stones4--,rub together pieces of stone2 the same result will follow1 except that the dust will be finer and will be produced with greater difficulty because the stones are harder4 ,some stones will be found which will grind others without being much affected themselves4 ,rock ,salt or ,cattle ,salt4--,this is a soft rock1 easily broken4 ,place on a slate or platter one or two pieces about the size of an egg or the size of your fist4 ,slowly drop water on them till it runs down and partly covers the slate1 then set away till the water dries up4 ,fine particles of salt will be found on the slate wherever the water ran and dried4 ,this is because the water dissolved some of the rock4 ,lime ,stone4--,this is harder4 ,crush two samples to a fine powder and place one in water and the other in vinegar4 ,water has apparently no effect on it1 but small bubbles are seen to rise from the sample in vinegar4 ,the vinegar which is a weak acid is slowly dissolving the rock4 ,the chemists tell us water will also dissolve the limestone1 but very slowly4 ,there are large areas of soil which are the refuse from the dissolving of great masses of limestone4 ,we find that the rocks about us differ in hardness3 they are ground to powder when rubbed together1 some are easily dissolved in water1 others are dissolved by weak acids4 ,geologists tell us that the whole crust of the earth was at one time made up of rocks1 part of which have been broken down into coarse and fine particles which form the gravel1 sand and clay of our soils4 ,the organic matter of our soils has been added by the decay of plants and animals4 ,several agencies have been active in this work of breaking down the rocks and making soils of them4 ,if we look about we can perhaps see some of this work going on now4 ,work of the ,sun4--,examine a crockery plate or dish that has been many times in and out of a hot oven1 noticing the little cracks all over its surface4 ,most substances expand when they are heated and contract when they are cooled4 ,when the plate is placed in the oven the surface heats faster than the inner parts1 and cools faster when taken out of the oven4 ,the result is that there is unequal expansion and contraction in the plate and consequently tension or pulling of its parts against each other4 ,the weaker part gives way and a crack appears4 ,if hot water is put into a thick glass tumbler or bottle1 the inner surface heats and expands faster than the outer parts and the result is tension and cracking4 ,if cold water be poured on a warm bottle or piece of warm glass1 it cracks1 because there is unequal contraction4 ,in the early part of a bright sunny afternoon feel of the surface of exposed rocks1 bricks1 boards1 or buildings on which the sun has been shining4 ,examine them in the same way early the next morning4 ,you will find that the rocks are heated by the sun just as the plate was heated when put into the oven1 and when the sun goes down the rocks cool again4 ,this causes tension in the rocks and little cracks and checks appear in them just as in the heated plate1 only more slowly4 ,this checking may also be brought about by a cool shower falling on the sun heated rocks just as the cool water cracked the warm glass4 ,many rocks if examined closely will be found to be composed of several materials4 ,these materials do not expand and contract alike when heated and cooled and the tendency for them to check is greater even than that of the plate4 ,this is the case with most rocks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--;,,comparing ,,soils4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,,water ,,test ,,of ,,soils4 ,bottle ,a contains sand and water1 bottle ,b clay and water4 ,the sand settles quickly1 the clay very slowly4 ,work of ,rain4--,rain falling on the rocks may dissolve a part of them just as it dissolved the rock salt2 or1 working into the small cracks made by the sun1 may wash out loosened particles2 or1 during cold weather it may freeze in the cracks and by its expansion chip off small pieces2 or1 getting into large cracks and freezing1 may split the rock just as freezing water splits a water pitcher or the water pipes4 ,work of ,moving ,water4--,visit some neighboring beach or the banks of some rapid stream4 ,see how the waves are rolling the sand and pebbles up and down the beach1 grinding them together1 rounding their corners and edges1 throwing them up into sand beds1 and carrying off the finer particles to deposit elsewhere4 ,now visit a quiet cove or inlet and see how the quiet water is laying down the fine particles1 making a clay bed4 ,notice also how the water plants along the border are helping4 ,they act as an immense strainer1 collecting the suspended particles from the water1 and with them and their bodies building beds of soil rich in organic matter or humus4 ,the sun1 besides expanding and cracking the rocks by its heat1 helps in another way to make soils4 ,it warms the water that has been grinding soil on the beach or along the river banks and causes some of it to evaporate4 ,this vapor rises1 forms a cloud and floats away in the air4 ,by and by the vapor forms into rain drops which may fall on the top of some mountain4 ,these rain drops may wash loosened particles from the surface or crevices of exposed rocks4 ,these drops are joined by others until1 by and by1 they form a little stream which carries its small burden of rock dust down the slope1 now dropping some particles1 now taking up others4 ,other little streams join this one until they form a brook which increases in size and power as it descends the mountain side4 ,as it grows by the addition of other streams it picks up larger pieces1 grinds them together1 grinds at its banks and loads itself with rocks1 pebbles1 sand and clay4 ,as the stream reaches the lower part of the mountain where the slope is less steep1 it is checked in its course and the larger stones and pebbles are dropped while the sand and finer particles are carried on and deposited on the bottom of some broad quiet river farther down1 and when the river overflows its banks1 are distributed over the neighboring meadows1 giving them a new coating of soil and often adding to their fertility4 ,what a river does not leave along its course it carries out to sea to help build the sand bars and mud flats there4 ,the rain drops have now gotten back to the beach where they take up again the work of grinding the soil4 ,the work of moving water can be seen in almost any road or cultivated field during or just after a rain1 and particularly on the hillsides1 where often the soil is loosened and carried from higher to lower parts1 making barren sand and clay banks of fertile hillsides and destroying the fertility of the bottom lands below4 ,we have already noticed the work of freezing water in splitting small and large fragments from the rocks4 ,water moving over the surface of the earth in a solid form1 or ice1 was at an earlier period in the history of the earth one of the most powerful agencies in soil formation4 ,away up in ,greenland and on the northern border of this continent the temperature is so low that most if not all of the moisture that falls on the earth falls as snow4 ,this snow has piled up until it has become very deep and very heavy4 ,the great weight has packed the bottom of this great snow bank to ice4 ,on the mountains where the land was not level the masses of snow and ice1 centuries ago1 began to slide down the slopes and finally formed great rivers of solid water or moving ice4 ,the geologists tell us that at one time a great river of ice extended from the ,arctic region as far south as central ,pennsylvania and from ,new ,england to the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,this vast river was very deep and very heavy and into its under surface were frozen sand1 pebbles1 larger stones and even great rocks4 ,thus it acted as a great rasp or file and did an immense amount of work grinding rocks and making soils4 ,it ground down mountains and carried great beds of soil from one place to another4 ,when this great ice river melted1 it dropped its load of rocks and soils1 and as a result we find in that region of the country great boulders and beds of sand and clay scattered over the land4 ,work of the ,air4--,the air has helped in the work of wearing down the rocks and making soils4 ,if a piece of iron be exposed to moist air a part of the air unites with part of the iron and forms iron rust4 ,in the same way when moist air comes in contact with some rocks part of the air unites with part of the rock and forms rock rust which crumbles off or is washed away by water4 ,thus the air helps to break down the rocks4 ,moving air or wind picks up dust particles and carries them from one field to another4 ,on sandy beaches the wind often blows the sand along like snow and piles it into drifts4 ,the entire surface of sandy regions is sometimes changed in this way4 ,sands blown from deserts sometimes bury forests which with their foliage sift the fatal winding sheet from the dust-laden winds4 ,the ,work of ,plants4--,living plants sometimes send their roots into rock crevices2 there they grow1 expand1 and split off rock fragments4 ,certain kinds of plants live on the surface of rocks4 ,they feed on the rocks and when they die and decay they keep the surface of the rocks moist and also produce carbonic acid which dissolves the rocks slowly just as the vinegar dissolved the limestone in our experiment4 ,dead decaying roots1 stems1 and leaves of plants form largely the organic matter of the soil4 ,when organic matter has undergone a certain amount of decay it is called humus1 and these soils are called organic soils or humus soils4 ,the black soils of the woods1 swamps and prairies1 contain large amounts of humus4 ,work of ,animals4--,earth worms and the larv of insects which burrow in the soil eat soil particles which pass through their bodies and are partially dissolved4 ,these particles are generally cast out on the surface of the soil4 ,thus these little animals help to move soil1 to dissolve soil1 and to open up passages for the entrance of air and rain4 ,,soil ,,texture ,we have seen that the soil particles vary in size and that for the best development of the plant the particles of the soil must be so arranged that the delicate rootlets can readily push their way about in search of food1 or1 in other words1 that the soil must have a certain texture4 ,by the texture of the soil we mean the size of its particles and their relation to each other4 ,the following terms are used in describing soil textures3 ,coarse1 fine1 open1 close1 loose1 hard1 stiff1 compact1 soft1 mellow1 porous1 leachy1 retentive1 cloddy1 lumpy1 light1 heavy4 ,which of these terms will apply to the texture of sand1 which to clay1 which to humus1 which to the garden soil1 which to a soil that plant roots can easily penetrate8 ,we find then that texture of the soil depends largely on the relative amounts of sand1 silt1 clay and humus that it contains4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,relation ,,of ,,soils ,,to ,,water ,,importance ,,of ,,water ,,to ,,plants ,we learned in a previous paragraph that plant roots take moisture from the soil4 ,what becomes of this moisture8 ,we will answer this question with an experiment4 ,experiment4--,take a pot or tumbler in which a young plant is growing1 also a piece of pasteboard large enough to cover the top of the pot or tumbler2 cut a slit from the edge to the centre of the board1 then place it on top of the pot1 letting the stem of the plant enter the slit4 ,now close the slit with wax or tallow1 making it perfectly tight about the stem4 ,if the plant is not too large invert a tumbler over it 7,fig4 #ba71 letting the edge of the tumbler rest on the pasteboard2 if a tumbler is not large enough use a glass jar4 ,place in a sunny window4 ,moisture will be seen collecting on the inner surface of the glass4 ,where does this come from8 ,it is absorbed from the soil by the roots of the plant and is sent with its load of dissolved plant food up through the stem to the leaves4 ,there most of the moisture is passed from the leaves to the air and some of it is condensed on the side of the glass4 ,by experiments at the ,cornell ,university ,agricultural ,experiment ,station1 ,ithaca1 ,n4,y41 it has been found that during the growth of a sixty bushel crop of corn the plants pump from the soil by means of their roots1 and send into the air through their leaves over nine hundred tons of water4 ,a twenty-five bushel crop of wheat uses over five hundred tons of water in the same way4 ,this gives us some idea of the importance of water to the plant and the necessity of knowing something of the power of the soil to absorb and hold moisture for the use of the plant4 ,also the importance of knowing if we can in any way control or influence the water-holding power of the soil for the good of the plant4 ,,sources ,,of ,,soil ,,water ,from what sources does the soil receive water8 ,from the air above1 in the form of rain1 dew1 hail and snow1 falling on the surface1 and from the lower soil4 ,this water enters the soil more or less rapidly4 ,,attitude ,,of ,,the ,,soils ,,towards ,,water ,which soils have the greater power to take in the rain which falls on their surface8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,to show what becomes of the water taken from the soil by roots4 ,moisture1 sent up from the roots1 has been given off by the leaves and has condensed on the glass4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,,percolation ,,experiment4 ,to show the relative powers of soils to take in water falling on the surface4 ,a1 sand2 ,b1 clay2 ,c1 humus2 ,d1 garden soil4 ,experiment4--,take four student-lamp chimneys4 7,in case the chimneys cannot be found get some slender bottles like salad oil bottles or wine bottles and cut the bottoms off with a hot rod4 ,while the rod is heating make a shallow notch in the glass with the wet corner of a file in the direction you wish to make the cut4 ,when the rod is hot lay the end of it lengthwise on the notch4 ,very soon a little crack will be seen to start from the notch4 ,lead this crack around the bottle with the hot rod and the bottom of the bottle will drop off47 7,fig4 #bc47 ,make a rack to hold them4 ,tie a piece of cheese cloth or other thin cloth over the small ends of the chimneys4 ,then fill them nearly full respectively1 of dry1 sifted1 coarse sand1 clay1 humus soil1 and garden soil4 ,place them in the rack2 place under them a pan or dish4 ,pour water in the upper ends of the tubes until it soaks through and drips from the lower end 7,fig4 #bb74 ,ordinary sunburner lamp chimneys may be used for the experiment by tying the cloth over the tops2 then invert them1 fill them with soil and set in plates or pans4 ,the sand will take the water in and let it run through quickly2 the clay is very slow to take it in and let it run through2 the humus soil takes the water in quite readily4 ,repeat the experiment with one of the soils1 packing the soil tightly in one tube and leaving it loose in another4 ,the water will be found to penetrate the loose soil more rapidly than the packed soil4 ,we see then that the power of the soil to take in rainfall depends on its texture or the size and compactness of the particles4 ,if the soil of our farm is largely clay1 what happens to the rain that falls on it8 ,the clay takes the water in so slowly that most of it runs off and is lost4 ,very likely it carries with it some of the surface soil which it has soaked and loosened1 and thus leaves the farm washed and gullied4 ,what can we do for our clay soils to help them to absorb the rain more rapidly8 ,for immediate results we can plow them and keep them loose and open with the tillage tools4 ,for more permanent results we may mix sand with them1 but sand is not always to be obtained and is expensive to haul4 ,the best method is to mix organic matter with them by plowing in stable manures1 or woods soil1 or decayed leaves1 or by growing crops and turning them under4 ,the organic matter not only loosens the soil but also adds plant food to it1 and during its decay produces carbonic acid which helps to dissolve the mineral matter and make available the plant food that is in it4 ,clay soils can also be made loose and open by applying lime to them4 ,experiment4--,take two bottles or jars1 put therein a few spoonsful of clay soil1 fill with water1 put a little lime in one of them1 shake both and set them on the table4 ,it will be noticed that the clay in the bottle containing lime settles in flakes or crumbs1 and much faster than in the other bottle4 ,in the same manner1 lime applied to a field of clay has a tendency to collect the very fine particles of soil into flakes or crumbs and give it somewhat the open texture of a sandy soil4 ,lime is applied to soil for this purpose at the rate of twenty bushels per acre once in four or five years4 ,which soils have the greater power to absorb or pump moisture from below8 ,experiment4--,use the same or a similar set of tubes as in the experiment illustrated in ,fig4 #bc4 ,fill the tubes with the same kinds of dry sifted soils4 ,then pour water into the pan or dish beneath the tubes until it rises a quarter of an inch above the lower end of the tubes 7,fig4 #bd74 ,watch the water rise in the soils4 ,the water will be found to rise rapidly in the sand about two or three inches and then stop or continue very slowly a short distance further4 ,in the clay it starts very slowly1 but after several hours is finally carried to the top of the soil4 ,the organic matter takes it up less rapidly than the sand1 faster than the clay1 and finally carries it to the top4 ,by this and further experiments it will be found that the power of soils to take moisture from below depends on their texture or the size and closeness of their particles4 ,we found the sand pumped the water only a short distance and then stopped4 ,what can we do for our sandy soils to give them greater power to take moisture from below8 ,for immediate results we can compact them by rolling or packing4 ,this brings the particles closer together1 makes the spaces between them smaller1 and therefore allows the water to climb higher4 ,for more lasting results we can fill them with organic matter in the shape of stable manures or crops turned under4 ,clay may be used1 but is expensive to haul4 ,which soils have greatest power to hold the water which enters them8 ,experiment4--,use the same or similar apparatus as for the last experiment4 ,after placing the cloth caps over the ends of the tubes label and carefully weigh each one1 keeping a record of each2 then fill them with the dry soils and weigh again4 ,now place the tubes in the rack and pour water in the upper ends until the entire soil is wet2 cover the tops and allow the surplus water to drain out2 when the dripping stops1 weigh the tubes again1 and by subtraction find the amount of water held by the soil in each tube2 compute the percentage4 ,it will be found that the organic matter will hold a much larger percentage of water than the other soils2 and the clay more than the sand4 ,the tube of organic soil will actually hold a larger amount of water than the other tubes4 7,see also ,fig4 #be47 ,in the experiment on page #dj we noticed that the sand took in the water poured on its surface and let it run through very quickly4 ,this is a fault of sandy soils4 ,what can we do for our sandy soils to help them to hold better the moisture which falls on them and tends to leach through them8 ,for immediate effect we can close the pores somewhat by compacting the soil with the roller4 ,for more lasting effects1 we can fill them with organic matter4 ,which soils will hold longest the water which they have absorbed8 ,or which soils will keep moist longest in dry weather8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,to show how bottles may be used in place of lamp chimneys shown in ,figs #bb and #bd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--;,,capillarity ,,of ,,soils ,to show the relative powers of soils to take water from below4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,,water-,,absorbing ,,and ,,water-,,holding ,,powers ,,of ,,soils4 ,experiment4--,fill a pan or bucket with moist sand1 another with moist clay1 and a third with moist organic matter2 set them in the sun to dry and notice which dries last4 ,the organic matter will be found to hold moisture much longer than the other soils4 ,the power of the other soils to hold moisture through dry weather can be improved by mixing organic matter with them4 ,we find then that the power of soils to absorb and hold moisture depends on the amount of sand1 clay1 or humus which they contain1 and the compactness of the particles4 ,we see also how useful organic matter is in improving sandy and clayey soils4 ,,the ,,effect ,,of ,,working ,,soils ,,when ,,wet ,by this time the soils we left in the pans 7see page #bf71 sand1 clay1 humus and garden soil1 must be dry4 ,if so1 examine them4 ,we find that the clay which was stirred when wet has dried into an almost bricklike mass1 while that which was not stirred is not so hard1 though it has a thick1 hard crust4 ,the sand is not much affected by stirring when wet4 ,the organic matter which was stirred when wet has perhaps stiffened a little1 but very easily crumbles2 the unstirred part was not much affected by the wetting and drying4 ,the garden soil after drying is not as stiff as the clay nor as loose as the sand and humus4 ,this is because it is very likely a mixture of all three1 the sand and the humus checking the baking4 ,this teaches us that it is not a good plan to work soils when they are wet if they are stiff and sticky2 and that our stiff clay soils can be kept from drying hard or baking by the use of organic matter4 ,and that's a witness for organic matter4 ,the relation of the soil to moisture is very important1 for moisture is one of the greatest factors if not the greatest in the growth of the crop4 ,the power to absorb or soak up moisture from any source is greatest in those soils whose particles are smaller and fit closer together4 ,it is for this reason that strong loams and clay soils absorb and hold three times as much water as sandy soils do1 while peaty or humus soils absorb a still larger proportion4 ,the reason why crops burn up so quickly on sandy soils during dry seasons is because of their weak power to hold water4 ,the clay and humus soils carry crops through dry weather better because of their power to hold moisture and to absorb or soak up moisture from below4 ,it is for this reason also that clay and peaty soils more often need draining than sandy soils4 ,when rain falls on a sandy soil it enters readily1 but it is apt to pass rapidly down and be1 to a great extent1 lost in the subsoil1 for the sand has not sufficient power to hold much of it4 ,when rain falls on a clay soil it enters less readily because of the closeness of the particles1 and during long rains or heavy showers some of the water may run off the surface4 ,if the surface has been recently broken and softened with the plow or cultivator the rain enters more readily4 ,what does enter is held and is not allowed to run through as in the case of the sand4 ,humus soil absorbs the rain as readily as the sand and holds it with a firmer grip than clay4 ,this fact gives us a hint as to how we may improve the sand and clay4 ,organic matter mixed with these soils by applying manures or plowing under green crops will cause the sand to hold the rain better and the clay to absorb it more readily4 ,,chapter ,v ,,forms ,,of ,,soil ,,water ,water which comes to the soil and is absorbed exists in the soil principally in two forms3 ,free water and capillary water4 ,,free ,,water ,free water is that form of water which fills our wells1 is found in the bottoms of holes dug in the ground during wet seasons and is often found standing on the surface of the soil after heavy or long continued rains4 ,it is sometimes called ground water or standing water and flows under the influence of gravity4 ,is free water good for the roots of farm plants8 ,if we remember how the root takes its food and moisture1 namely through the delicate root hairs2 and also remember the experiment which showed us that roots need air1 we can readily see that free water would give the root hairs enough moisture1 but it would at the same time drown them by cutting off the air4 ,therefore free water is not directly useful to the roots of house plants or farm plants1 excepting such as are naturally swamp plants1 like rice1 which grows part of the time with its roots covered with free water4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--;,,capillary ,,tubes4 ,to show how water rises in small tubes or is drawn into small spaces4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--;,,capillary ,,plates4 ,water is drawn to the highest point where the glass plates are closest together4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,a cone of soil to show capillarity4 ,water poured about the base of this cone of soil has been drawn by capillary force half-way to the top4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,to show the relative amounts of film-moisture held by coarse and fine soils4 ,the colored water in bottle ,a represents the amount of water required to cover the half pound of pebbles in the tumbler ,b with a film of moisture4 ,the colored water in bottle ,c shows the amount required to cover the soil grains in the half pound of sand in tumbler ,d4 ,,capillary ,,water ,if you will take a number of glass tubes of different sizes1 the largest not more than one-fourth of an inch in diameter1 and hold them with one end of each in water or some colored liquid1 you will notice that the water rises in the tubes 7,fig4 #bf71 and that it rises highest in the smallest tube4 ,the force which causes the water to rise in these tubes is called the capillary force1 from the old ,latin word capillum 7a hair71 because it is most marked in hair-like tubes1 the smaller the tube the higher the water will rise4 ,the water which rises in the tubes is called capillary water4 ,another method of illustrating capillary water is to tie or hold together two flat pieces of glass1 keeping two of the edges close together and separating the opposite two about one-eighth of an inch with a sliver of wood4 ,then set them in a plate of water or colored liquid and notice how the water rises between the pieces of glass1 rising higher the smaller the space 7,fig4 #bg74 ,it is the capillary force which causes water to rise in a piece of cloth or paper dipped in water4 ,take a plate and pour onto it a cone-shaped pile of dry sand or fine soil2 then pour water around the base of the pile and note how the water is drawn up into the soil by capillary force 7,fig4 #bh74 ,capillary water is the other important form of water in the soil4 ,this is moisture which is drawn by capillary force or soaks into the spaces between the soil particles and covers each particle with a thin film of moisture4 ,,film ,,water ,take a marble or a pebble1 dip it into water and notice the thin layer or film of water that clings to it4 ,this is a form of capillary water and is sometimes called film water or film moisture4 ,take a handful of soil that is moist but not wet1 notice that it does not wet the hand1 and yet there is moisture all through it2 each particle is covered with a very thin film of water4 ,now this film water is just the form of water that can supply the very slender root hairs without drowning them1 that is1 without keeping the air from them4 ,and the plant grower should see to it that the roots of his plants are well supplied with film water and are not drowned by the presence of free water4 ,capillary water may sometimes completely fill the spaces between the soil particles2 when this occurs the roots are drowned just as in the case of free water as we saw when cuttings were placed in the puddled clay 7see ,fig4 #ah74 ,free water is indirectly of use to the plant because it serves as a supply for capillary and film moisture4 ,now ,i think we can answer the question which was asked when we were studying the habit of growth of roots but was left unanswered at the time 7see page #ad74 ,the question was this3 ,of what value is it to the farmer to know that roots enter the soil to a depth of three to six feet8 ,we know that roots will not grow without air4 ,we also know that if the soil is full of free water there is no air in it1 and1 therefore1 roots of most plants will not grow in it4 ,it is1 therefore1 of interest to the farmer to see that free water does not come within at least three or four feet of the surface of the soil so that the roots of his crops may have plenty of well ventilated soil in which to develop4 ,if there is a tendency for free water to fill the soil a large part of the time1 the farmer can get rid of it by draining the land4 ,we get here a lesson for the grower of house plants also4 ,it is that we must be careful that the soil in the pots or boxes in which our plants are growing is always supplied with film water and not wet and soggy with free water4 ,water should not be left standing long in the saucer under the pot of a growing plant4 ,it is best to water the pot from the top and let the surplus water drain into the saucer and then empty it out4 ,which soils have the greatest capacity for film water8 ,experiment4--,place in a tumbler or bottle one-half pound of pebbles about the size of a pea or bean2 pour a few drops of water on them and shake them2 continue adding water and shaking them till every pebble is covered with a film of water2 let any surplus water drain off4 ,then weigh again2 the difference in the two weights will be approximately the weight of the film water that the pebbles can carry4 ,repeat this with sand and compare the two amounts of water4 ,a striking illustration can be made by taking two slender bottles and placing in them amounts of colored water equal to the amounts of film water held by the pebbles and sand respectively4 ,in the accompanying illustration 7,fig4 #bi71 ,a represents the amount of water that was found necessary to cover the pebbles in tumbler ,b with a film of moisture4 ,c is the amount that was necessary to cover with a film the particles of sand in ,d4 ,the finer soil has the greater area for film moisture4 ,it has been estimated that the particles of a cubic foot of clay loam have a possible aggregate film surface of three-fourths of an acre4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,loss ,,of ,,soil ,,water ,,loss ,,of ,,soil ,,water ,,and ,,means ,,of ,,checking ,,the ,,loss ,we noticed in previous paragraphs that soil might at times have too much water in it for proper ventilation and so check the growth of the roots of the plant4 ,now is it possible that soil water may be lost or wasted and if so can we check the loss8 ,in the experiment to find out how well the soils would take in the rainfall 7page #dj7 we noticed that the clay soil took in the water very slowly and that on a field of clay soil part of the rain water would be likely to run off over the surface and be lost4 ,free water may be lost then1 by surface wash4 ,we noticed methods of checking this loss1 namely1 pulverizing the soil with the tillage tools and putting organic matter into it to make it absorb the rain more readily4 ,we noticed that water poured on the sand ran through it very quickly and was apt to be lost by leaching or percolation4 ,this we found could be checked by rolling the soil and by putting organic matter into it to close the pores4 ,we learned that roots take water from the soil for the use of the plant and send it up to the leaves1 which in turn send it out into the air1 or transpire it1 as this process is called4 ,we learned also that the amount transpired is very great4 ,now water that is pumped up and transpired by the crops we are growing we consider properly used4 ,but when weeds grow with the crop and pump and transpire water we consider this water as lost or wasted4 ,water may be lost then by being pumped up and transpired by weeds4 ,and this is the way weeds do their greatest injury to crops during dry weather4 ,the remedy is easily pointed out4 ,kill the weeds or do not let them get a start4 ,there is another way1 which we are not apt to notice1 by which water may be lost from the soil4 ,when the soil in the pans in a previous experiment 7page #bf7 had been wet and set aside a few days it became very dry4 ,how did the water get out of this soil8 ,that at the surface of the soil evaporated or was changed into vapor and passed into the air4 ,then water from below the surface was pumped up by capillary force to take its place just as the water was pumped up in the tubes of soil4 ,this in turn was evaporated and the process repeated till all of the water in the soil had passed into the air4 ,now this process is going on in the field whenever it is not raining or the ground is not frozen very hard4 ,water then may be lost by evaporation4 ,how can we check this loss8 ,suppose we try the experiment of covering the soil with some material that cannot pump water readily4 ,experiment4--,take four glass fruit jars1 two-quart size1 with straight sides4 ,if you cannot get them with straight sides cut off the tops with a hot iron just below the shoulder2 tin pails will do if the glass jars cannot be had4 ,fill these with moist soil from the field or garden1 packing it till it is as hard as the unplowed or unspaded soil4 ,leave one of them in this condition2 from two of them remove an inch or two of soil and replace it in the case of one with clean1 dry1 coarse sand1 and in the case of the other with chaff or straw cut into half-inch lengths4 ,stir the soil in the fourth one to a depth of one inch1 leaving it light and crumbly4 ,now weigh the jars and set them aside4 ,weigh each day for several days4 ,the four jars illustrated in ,fig4 #cj were prepared in this way and allowed to stand seven days4 ,in that time they lost the following amounts of water3 ,amounts of water lost from jars of prepared soil in seven days4 ,no4 #a packed soil--lost #e4e oz4 equal to about #ge tons per acre4 ,no4 #b covered with straw--lost #b oz4 equal to about #bg tons per acre4 ,no4 #c covered with dry sand--lost #j oz4 equal to about tons per acre4 ,no4 #d covered with crumbled soil--lost #b4e oz41 equal to about #cd tons per acre4 ,why did not #b1 #c and #d lose as much water as ,no4 #a8 ,the soil in jar ,no4 #a was packed and water was pumped to the surface by capillary force and was evaporated as fast as it came to the surface4 ,in ,no4 #b the water could rise rapidly until it reached the straw1 then it was stopped almost entirely4 ,but the straw being coarse1 the air circulated in it more or less freely and there was a slow loss by evaporation4 ,in jar ,no4 #c the water could rise only to the sand1 which was so coarse that the water could not climb on it to the surface1 and the air circulated in the sand so slowly that there was not sufficient evaporation to affect scales weighing to one-quarter ounce4 ,no4 #d lost less than ,no4 #a because1 as in the case of the sand1 the water could not climb rapidly to the surface on the coarse crumbs of soil4 ,the loss that did take place from ,no4 #d was what the air took from the loosely stirred soil on the surface with a very little from the lower soil4 ,simply stirring the surface of the sod in ,no4 #d reduced the loss of water to less than half the loss from the hard soil in ,no4 #a4 ,this experiment gives us the clew to the method of checking loss of water from the soil by evaporation4 ,it is to keep the water from climbing up to the surface1 or check the power of the soil to pump the water to the surface by making it loose on top4 ,this loose soil is called a soil mulch4 ,everything that we do to the soil that loosens and crumbles the surface tends to check the loss of water by evaporation from the soil below4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--,,to ,,show ,,the ,,effect ,,of ,a ,,soil ,,mulch #a4 ,packed soil1 lost in #g days #e4e ozs4 water1 equal to #ge tons per acre4 #b4 ,packed soil1 covered with straw1 lost in #g days #b ozs4 water1 equal to #bg tons per acre4 #c4 ,packed soil1 covered with sand1 lost in #g days #j ozs4 water1 equal to tons per acre4 #d4 ,packed soil1 covered with soil mulch1 lost in #g days #b4e ozs4 water1 equal to #cd tons per acre4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,soil ,,temperature ,we learned that roots need heat for their growth and development4 ,now what is the relation of the different kinds of soil toward heat or what are their relative powers to absorb and hold heat8 ,experiment4--,some days before this experiment1 spread on a dry floor about a half bushel each of sand1 clay and decayed leaf mould or black woods soil4 ,stir them occasionally till they are thoroughly dry4 ,when they are dry place them separately in three boxes or large flower pots and keep dry4 ,in three similar boxes or pots place wet sand1 wet clay1 and wet humus4 ,place a thermometer in each of the soils1 placing the bulb between one and two inches below the surface 7,fig4 #ca74 ,then place the soils out of doors where the sun can shine on them and leave them several days4 ,if a rain should come up protect the dry soils4 ,observe and make a record of the temperatures of each soil several times a day4 ,chart the average of several days observations4 ,fig4 #cb shows the averages of several days observations on a certain set of soils4 ,it will be noticed that the temperature of the soils increased until the early part of the afternoon and after that time they lost heat4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,,soil ,,temperature ,,experiment4 ,thermometer in pot of soil4 ,,how ,,soils ,,are ,,warmed ,experiment4--,hold your hand in bright sunlight or near a warm stove or radiator4 ,your hand is warmed by heat radiated from the sun or warm stove through the air to your body4 ,in the same manner the rays of the sun heat the surface of the soil4 ,experiment4--,take the stove poker or any small iron rod and hold one end of it in the fire or hold one end of a piece of wire in a candle or lamp flame4 ,the end of the rod or wire will quickly become very hot and heat will gradually be carried its entire length until it becomes too hot to hold4 ,this carrying of the heat from particle to particle through the length of the rod is called heating by conduction4 ,now when the warm rays of the sun reach the soil1 or a warm wind blows over it1 the surface particles are warmed and then pass the heat on to the next ones below1 and these in turn pass it to others and so on till the soil becomes heated to a considerable depth by conduction4 ,a clay soil will absorb heat by conduction faster than a sandy soil because the particles of the clay lie so close together that the heat passes more readily from one to another than in the case of the coarser sand4 ,if the soil is open and porous1 warm air and warm rains can enter readily and carry heat to the lower soil4 ,you have noticed how a pile of stable manure steams in cold weather4 ,you doubtless know that manure from the horse stable is often used to furnish heat for hotbeds and for sweet potato beds4 ,now the heat which warms the manure and sends the steam out of it1 and warms the hotbed and sweet potato bed1 is produced by the decaying or rotting of the manure4 ,more or less heat is produced by the decay of all kinds of organic matter4 ,so if the soil is well supplied with organic matter1 the decay of this material will add somewhat to the warmth of the soil4 ,,how ,,soils ,,lose ,,heat ,wet one of your fingers and hold your hand up in the air4 ,the wet finger will feel colder than the others and will gradually become dry4 ,this is because some of the heat of your finger is being used to dry up the water or change it into a vapor1 or in other words to evaporate it4 ,in the same manner a wet soil loses heat by the evaporation of water from its surface4 ,experiment4--,heat an iron rod1 take it from the fire and hold it near your face or hand4 ,you will feel the heat without touching the rod4 ,the heat is radiated from the rod through the air to your body and the rod gradually cools4 ,in the same way the soil may lose its heat by radiating it into the air4 ,a clay soil will lose more heat by radiation than a sandy soil because the clay is more compact4 ,,conditions ,,which ,,influence ,,soil ,,temperature ,it will be noticed that the dry soils are warmer than the wet ones4 ,why is this8 ,scientists tell us that it takes a great deal more heat to warm water than it does to warm other substances4 ,therefore when soil is wet it takes much more heat to warm it than if it were dry4 ,it will be seen that of the dry soils the humus is the warmest4 ,why8 ,experiment4--,take two thermometers1 wrap the bulb of one with a piece of black or dark colored cloth and the bulb of the other with a piece of white cloth1 then place them where the sun will shine on the cloth covered bulbs4 ,the mercury in both thermometers will be seen to rise1 but in the thermometer with the dark cloth about the bulb it will rise faster and higher than in the other4 ,this shows that the dark cloth absorbs heat faster than the white cloth4 ,in the same manner a dark soil will absorb heat faster than a light colored soil2 therefore it will be warmer if dry4 ,why was the dry clay warmer than the dry sand8 ,because its darker color helped it to absorb heat more rapidly than the sand1 and1 as the particles were smaller and more compact1 heat was carried into it more rapidly by conduction4 ,why were the wet humus and clay cooler than the wet sand8 ,as they were darker in color and the clay was more compact than the sand1 they must have absorbed more heat1 but they also held more water1 and1 therefore1 lost more heat by evaporation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,charts showing average temperature of a set of dry and wet soils during a period of five days4 ,h1 humus2 ,c1 clay2 ,s1 sand4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4 ,to show the value of organic matter4 #a contains clay subsoil2 #b1 clay subsoil and fertilizer2 #c1 clay subsoil and organic matter4 ,all planted at the same time4 ,of the dry soils1 then1 the humus averaged warmest1 because1 on account of its dark color1 it absorbed heat more readily than the others4 ,the dry clay was warmer than the sand on account of its color and compact texture4 ,of the wet soils the sand was the warmest1 because1 on account of its holding less moisture1 less heat was required to raise its temperature and there was less cooling by evaporation1 while the other soils1 although they absorbed more heat than the sand1 lost more on account of greater evaporation1 due to their holding more moisture4 ,why are sandy soils called warm soils and clay soils said to be cold8 ,how may we check losses of heat from the soil8 ,if we make a mulch on the surface of the soil evaporation will be checked and therefore loss of heat by evaporation will be checked also4 ,the mulch will also check the conduction of heat from the lower soil to the surface and therefore check loss of heat by radiation from the surface4 ,,value ,,of ,,organic ,,matter ,figure #cc illustrates a simple way to show the value of organic matter in the soil4 ,the boxes are about twelve inches square and ten inches deep4 ,they were filled with a clay subsoil taken from the second foot below the surface of the field4 ,to the second box was added sufficient commercial fertilizer to supply the plants with all necessary plant food4 ,to the third box was added some peat or decayed leaves1 in amount about ten per cent4 of the clay subsoil4 ,the corn was then planted and the boxes were all given the same care4 ,the better growth of the corn in the third box was due to the fact that the organic matter not only furnished food for the corn but during its decay prepared mineral plant food that was locked up in the clay1 and also brought about better conditions of air and moisture by improving the texture of the soil4 ,the plants in the second box had sufficient plant food1 but did not make better growth because poor texture prevented proper conditions of air and moisture4 ,and that's another witness for organic matter4 ,decaying organic matter or humus is really the life of the soil and it is greatly needed in most of the farm soils of the eastern part of the country4 ,it closes the pores of sandy soils and opens the clay1 thus helping the sand to soak up and hold more moisture and lessening excessive ventilation1 and at the same time helping the roots to take a firmer hold4 ,it helps the clay to absorb rain1 helps it to pump water faster1 helps it to hold water longer in dry weather1 increases ventilation1 favors root penetration and increases heat absorption4 ,we can increase the amount of organic matter in the soil by plowing in stable manure1 leaves and other organic refuse of the farm1 or we can plow under crops of clover1 grass1 grain or other crops grown for that purpose4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,plant ,,food ,,in ,,the ,,soil ,we learned in previous paragraphs that the roots of plants take food from the soil1 and that a condition necessary for the root to do its work for the plant was the presence of available plant food in sufficient quantities4 ,what is plant food8 ,for answer let us go to the plant and ask it what it is made of4 ,experiment4--,take some newly ripened cotton or cotton wadding1 a tree branch1 a cornstalk1 and some straw or grass4 ,pull the cotton apart1 then twist some of it and pull apart2 in turn break the branch1 the cornstalk and the straw4 ,the cotton does not pull apart readily nor do the others break easily2 this is because they all contain long1 tough fibres4 ,these fibres are called woody fibre or cellulose4 ,the cotton fibre is nearly pure cellulose4 ,experiment4--,get together some slices of white potato1 sweet potato1 parsnip1 broken kernels of corn1 wheat and oats1 a piece of laundry starch and some tincture of iodine diluted to about the color of weak tea4 ,rub a few drops of the iodine on the cut surfaces of the potatoes1 parsnip1 and the broken surfaces of the grains4 ,notice that it turns them purple4 ,now drop a drop of the iodine on the laundry starch4 ,it turns that purple also4 ,this experiment tells us that plants contain starch4 ,experiment4--,chew a piece of sorghum cane1 sugar cane1 cornstalk1 beet root1 turnip root1 apple or cabbage4 ,they all taste sweet and must therefore contain sugar4 ,examine a number of peach and cherry trees4 ,you will find on the trunk and branches more or less of a sticky substance called gum4 ,experiment4--,crush on paper seeds of cotton1 castor-oil bean1 peanuts1 ,brazil nuts1 hickory nuts1 butternuts1 etc4 ,they make grease spots2 they contain fat and oil4 ,experiment4--,chew whole grains of wheat and find a gummy mucilaginous substance called wheat gum1 or wet a pint of wheat flour to a stiff dough1 let it stand about an hour1 and then wash the starch out of it by kneading it under a stream of running water or in a pan of water1 changing the water frequently4 ,the result will be a tough1 yellowish gray1 elastic mass called gluten4 ,this is the same as the wheat gum and is called an albuminoid because it contains nitrogen and is like albumen1 a substance like the white of an egg4 ,if we crush or grate some potatoes or cabbage leaves to a pulp and separate the juice1 then heat the clear juice1 a substance will separate in a flaky form and settle to the bottom of the liquid4 ,this is vegetable albumen4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,soy-bean roots4 ,showing nodules of tubercles1 the homes of nitrogen-fixing bacteria4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,garden-pea roots1 showing tubercles or nodules1 the homes of nitrogen-fixing bacteria4 ,experiment4--,crush the leaves or stems of several growing plants and notice that the crushed and exposed parts are moist4 ,in a potato or an apple we find a great deal of moisture4 ,plants then are partly made of water4 ,in fact growing plants are from #fe to #ie per cent4 water4 ,experiment4--,expose a plant or part of a plant to heat2 the water is driven off and there remains a dry portion4 ,heat the dry part to a high degree and it burns2 part passes into the air as smoke and part remains behind as ashes4 ,we have found then the following substances in plants3 ,woody fibre or cellulose1 starch1 sugar1 gum1 fats and oils1 albuminoids1 water1 ashes4 ,aside from these are found certain coloring matters1 certain acids and other matters which give taste1 flavor1 and poisonous qualities to fruits and vegetables4 ,more or less of all these substances are found in all plants4 ,now these are all compound substances4 ,that is1 they can all be broken down into simpler substances1 and with the exception of the water and the ashes1 the plants do not take them directly from the soil4 ,the chemists tell us that these substances are composed of certain chemical elements1 some of which the plant obtains from the air1 some from the soil and some from water4 ,the following table gives the substances found in plants1 the elements of which they are composed1 and the sources from which the plants obtain them3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,substances found ,elements of which ,sources from in plants4 they are made4 which plants obtain them4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,cellulose or woody fibre ,carbon ,air ,starch ------------------------------------- ,sugar ,gum ,oxygen ,water ,fat and ,oil ,hydrogen ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,carbon ,air ------------------------------------- ,albuminoids ,oxygen ,water ,hydrogen ------------------------------------- ,nitrogen ,sulphur ,phosphorus ---------------------------------------- ,soil ,phosphorus ,potassium ,ashes ,calcium ,magnesium ,iron ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,water ,oxygen ,soil ,hydrogen ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,here is a brief description of these chemical elements4 ,oxygen1 a colorless gas1 forms one-fifth of the air4 ,hydrogen1 a colorless gas1 forms a part of water4 ,carbon1 a dark solid1 forms nearly one-half of all organic matter2 charcoal is one of its forms4 ,the lead in your pencil is another example4 ,nitrogen1 a colorless gas1 forms four-fifths of the air4 ,found in all albuminoids4 ,sulphur1 a yellow solid4 ,phosphorus1 a yellowish white solid4 ,potassium1 a silver white solid4 ,calcium1 a yellowish solid4 ,found in limestone4 ,magnesium1 a silver white solid4 ,iron1 a silver gray solid4 ,of these elements the nitrogen1 sulphur1 phosphorus1 potassium1 calcium1 magnesium1 and iron must not only exist in the soil but must also be there in such form that the plant can use them4 ,the plant does not use them in their simple elementary form but in various compounds4 ,these compounds must be soluble in water or in weak acids4 ,of these seven elements of plant food the nitrogen1 phosphorus1 and potassium and calcium are of particular importance to the farmer1 because they do not always exist in the soil in sufficient available quantities to produce profitable crops4 ,professor ,roberts1 of ,cornell ,university1 tells us that an average acre of soil eight inches deep contains three thousand pounds of nitrogen4 ,the nitrogen exists largely in the humus of the soil and it is only as the humus decays that the nitrogen is made available4 ,here is another reason for keeping the soil well supplied with organic matter4 ,the decay of this organic matter is hastened by working the soil2 therefore good tillage helps to supply the plant with nitrogen4 ,if the nitrogen becomes available when there is no crop on the soil it will be washed out by rains and so lost4 ,therefore the soil1 especially if it is sandy1 should be covered with a crop the year through4 ,many lands lose large amounts of plant food by being left bare through the fall and winter1 especially in those parts of the country where the land does not freeze4 ,the phosphorus1 potassium and calcium also exist in most soils in considerable quantities1 but often are not available2 thorough tillage and the addition of organic matter will help to make them available1 and new supplies may be added in the form of fertilizers4 ,calcium is found in nearly all soils in sufficient quantities for most crops1 but sometimes there is not enough of it for such crops as clover1 cowpea1 alfalfa1 etc4 ,it is also used to improve soil texture4 ,the entire subject of commercial fertilizers is based almost entirely on the fact of the lack of these four elements in the soil in sufficient available quantities to grow profitable crops4 ,the plant gets its phosphorus from phosphoric acid1 its potassium from potash1 and its calcium from lime4 ,there is a class of plants which have the power of taking free nitrogen from the air4 ,these are the leguminous plants2 such as clover1 beans1 cowpeas1 alfalfa1 soy bean1 etc4 ,they do it through the acid of microscopic organisms called bacteria which live in nodules or tubercles on the roots of these plants 7,figs4 #cd-ce74 ,collect roots of these plants and find the nodules on them4 ,the bacteria take nitrogen from the air which penetrates the soil and give it over to the plants4 ,here is another reason for good soil ventilation4 ,this last fact brings us to another very important property of soils4 ,soils have existing in them many very small plants called bacteria4 ,they are so very small that it would take several hundred of them to reach across the edge of this sheet of paper4 ,we cannot see them with the naked eye but only with the most powerful microscopes4 ,some of these minute plants are great friends to the farmer1 for it is largely through their work that food is made available for the higher plants4 ,some of them break down the organic matter and help prepare the nitrogen for the larger plants4 ,others help the leguminous plants to feed on the nitrogen of the air4 ,to do their work they need warmth1 moisture1 air1 and some mineral food2 these conditions we bring about by improving the texture of the soil by means of thorough tillage and the use of organic matter4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,seeds ,,conditions ,,necessary ,,for ,,seeds ,,to ,,sprout ,in the spring comes the great seed-planting time on the farm1 in the home garden and in the school garden4 ,many times the questions will be asked3 ,why didn't those seeds come up8 ,how shall ,i plant seeds so as to help them sprout easily and grow into strong plants8 ,to answer these questions1 perform a few experiments with seeds1 and thus find out what conditions are necessary for seeds to sprout1 or germinate4 ,for these experiments you will need a few teacups1 glass tumblers or tin cans1 such as tomato cans or baking-powder cans2 a few plates1 either of tin or crockery2 some wide-mouth bottles that will hold about half a pint1 such as pickle1 olive1 or yeast bottles or druggists' wide-mouth prescription bottles2 and a few pieces of cloth4 ,also seeds of corn1 garden peas and beans4 ,experiment4--,put seeds of corn1 garden peas1 and beans 7about a handful of each7 to soak in bottles or tumblers of water4 ,next day1 two hours earlier in the day1 put a duplicate lot of seeds to soak4 ,when this second lot of seeds has soaked two hours1 you will have two lots of soaked seeds of each kind1 one of which has soaked twenty-four hours and the other two hours4 ,now take these seeds from the water and dry the surplus water from them by gently patting or rubbing a few at a time in the folds of a piece of cloth1 taking care not to break the skin or outer coating of the seed4 ,place them in dry bottles1 putting in enough to cover the bottoms of the bottles about three seeds deep2 cork the bottles4 ,if you cannot find corks1 tie paper over the mouths of the bottles4 ,label the bottles ,seeds soaked #bd hours1 ,seeds soaked #b hours1 and let them stand in a warm place several days4 ,if there is danger of freezing at night1 the bottles of seeds may be kept in the kitchen or living room where it is warm1 until they sprout4 ,observe the seeds from day to day4 ,the seeds that soaked twenty-four hours will sprout readily 7,fig4 #cf71 while most1 if not all1 of those that soaked only two hours will not sprout4 ,why is this8 ,it is because the two-hour soaked seeds do not receive sufficient moisture to carry on the process of sprouting4 ,our experiment teaches us that seeds will not sprout until they receive enough moisture to soak them through and through4 ,this also teaches that when we plant seeds we must so prepare the soil for them and so plant them that they will be able to get sufficient moisture to sprout4 ,experiment4--,soak some beans1 peas or corn1 twenty-four hours2 carefully dry them with a cloth4 ,in one half-pint bottle place enough of them to cover the bottom of the bottle two or three seeds deep2 mark this bottle ,a4 ,fill another bottle two-thirds full of them and mark the bottle ,b 7,fig4 #cg74 ,cork the bottles and let them stand for several days4 ,also let some seeds remain soaking in the water4 ,the few seeds in bottle ,a will sprout1 while1 the larger number in bottle ,b will not sprout1 or will produce only very short sprouts4 ,why do not the seeds sprout easily in the bottle which is more than half full8 ,to answer this question try the following experiment3 ,experiment4--,carefully loosen the cork in bottle ,b 7the bottle containing poorly sprouted seeds71 light a match1 remove the cork from the bottle and introduce the lighted match4 ,the match will stop burning as soon as it is held in the bottle1 because there is no fresh air in the bottle to keep the match burning4 ,test bottle ,a in the same way4 ,what has become of the fresh air that was in the bottles when the seeds were put in them8 ,the seeds have taken something from it and have left bad air in its place2 they need fresh air to help them sprout1 but they have not sprouted so well in bottle ,b because there was not fresh air enough for so many seeds4 ,the seeds in the water do not sprout because there is not enough air in the water4 ,now try another experiment4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,to show that seeds need water for germination4 ,the beans in bottle ,a were soaked #b hours1 those in bottle ,b were soaked #bd hours4 ,they were then removed from the water and put into dry bottles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4 ,to show that seeds need air for germination4 ,the beans in both bottles were soaked #bd hours1 and then were put into dry bottles ,bottle ,a contained sufficient air to start the few seeds4 ,bottle ,b had not enough4 ,the water in the tumbler ,c did not contain sufficient air for germination4 ,see experiment1 page #gb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4 ,to show that seeds need air for germination4 ,corn planted in puddled clay in tumbler ,a could not get sufficent air for sprouting4 ,the moist sand in tumbler ,b admitted sufficient air for germination4 ,experiment4--,fill some tumblers or teacups or tin cans with wet sand and others with clay that has been wet and then thoroughly stirred till it is about the consistency of cake batter or fresh mixed mortar4 ,take a tumbler of the wet sand and one of the wet clay and plant two or three kernels of corn in each1 pressing the kernels down one-half or three-quarters of an inch below the surface2 cover the seeds and carefully smooth the surface4 ,in other tumblers plant peas1 beans1 and other seeds4 ,cover the tumblers with saucers1 or pieces of glass or board to keep the soil from drying4 ,watch them for several days4 ,if the clay tends to dry and crack1 moisten it1 fill the cracks and smooth the surface4 ,the seeds in the sand will sprout but those in the clay will not 7see ,fig4 #ch74 ,why is this8 ,water fills the small spaces between the particles of clay and shuts out the fresh air which is necessary for the sprouting of the seeds4 ,this teaches us that when we plant seeds we must so prepare the soil1 and so plant the seeds that they will get enough fresh air to enable them to sprout1 or1 in other words1 the soil must be well ventilated4 ,experiment4--,plant seeds of corn and beans in each of two tumblers2 set one out of doors in a cold place and keep the other in a warm place in the house4 ,the seeds kept in the house will sprout quickly but those outside in the cold will not sprout at all4 ,this shows us that seeds will not sprout without heat4 ,if the weather is warm place one of the tumblers in a refrigerator4 ,why don't we plant corn in ,december8 ,why not plant melons in ,january8 ,why not plant cotton in ,november8 ,the seeds of farm crops may be divided into two classes according to the temperatures at which they will germinate or sprout readily and can be safely planted4 ,class ,a4 ,those seeds that will germinate or sprout at an average temperature of forty-five degrees in the shade1 or at about the time the peach and plum trees blossom3 ,barley ,beet ,parsley ,oats ,carrot ,parsnip ,rye ,cabbage ,onion ,wheat ,cauliflower ,pea ,red ,clover ,endive ,radish ,crimson ,clover ,kale ,turnip ,grasses ,lettuce ,spinach ,these can be planted with safety in the spring as soon as the ground can be prepared1 and some of them1 if planted in the fall1 live through the winter4 ,class ,b4 ,those seeds that will germinate or sprout at an average temperature of sixty degrees in the shade1 or when the apple trees blossom3 ,alfalfa ,soy ,bean ,squash ,cow ,pea ,pole ,bean ,cucumber ,corn ,string ,bean ,pumpkin ,cotton ,melon ,tomato ,egg ,plant ,okra ,pepper ,we are now ready to answer the question3 ,what conditions are necessary for seeds to sprout or germinate8 ,these conditions are3 ,the presence of enough moisture to keep the seed thoroughly soaked4 ,the presence of fresh air4 ,the presence of more or less heat4 ,this teaches us that when we plant seeds in the window box or in the garden or on the farm we must so prepare the soil and so plant the seeds that they will be able to obtain sufficient moisture1 heat1 and air for sprouting4 ,the moisture must be film water1 for if it is free water or capillary water filling the soil pores1 there can be no ventilation and1 therefore1 no sprouting4 ,,seed ,,testing ,in a previous experiment 7page #gc7 the seeds planted in the wet clay did not sprout 7see ,fig4 #ch74 ,in answer to the question1 ,why is this8 some will say the seeds were bad4 ,it often happens on the farm that the seeds do not sprout well and the farmer accuses the seedsman of selling him poor seed1 but does not think that he himself may be the cause of the failure by not putting the seeds under the proper conditions for sprouting4 ,how can we tell whether or not our seeds will sprout if properly planted8 ,we can test them by putting a number of seeds from each package under proper conditions of moisture1 heat and air1 as follows3 ,for large seeds take two plates 7see ,fig4 #ci7 and a piece of cloth as wide as the bottom of the plate and twice as long4 ,count out fifty or one hundred seeds from a package1 wet the cloth and wring it out4 ,place one end of the cloth on the plate1 place the seeds on the cloth and fold the other end of the cloth over them4 ,on a slip of paper mark the number of seeds and date1 and place on the edge of the plate4 ,now cover the whole with another plate1 or with a pane of glass to keep from drying4 ,set the plate of seeds in a warm room and examine occasionally for several days4 ,if the cloth tends to dry1 moisten it from time to time4 ,as the seeds sprout take them out and keep a record of them4 ,or leave them in the plate and after four or five days count those that have sprouted4 ,this will give the proportion of good seeds in the packages4 ,for small seeds fold the cloth first and place the seeds on top of it4 ,another good tester for small seeds is made by running about an inch of freshly mixed plaster of ,paris into a small dish or pan and moulding flat cavities in the surface by setting bottles into it4 ,the dish or pan and bottles should be slightly greased to prevent the plaster sticking to them4 ,when the cast has hardened it should be turned out of the mould and set in a large dish or pan4 ,one hundred small seeds are then counted out and put into one of the cavities1 others are put into the other cavities4 ,water is then poured into the pan till it rises half way up the side of the plaster cast or porous saucer4 ,the whole thing is then covered to keep in the moisture 7,fig4 #dj74 ,another method is to get boxes of finely pulverized sand or soil and carefully plant in it fifty or one hundred seeds of each kind to be tested4 ,then by counting those that come up1 the proportion of good seeds can easily be found4 ,in every case the testers should be kept at a temperature of about seventy degrees or about that of the living room4 ,,how ,,the ,,seeds ,,come ,,up ,plant a few seeds of corn1 beans and garden peas in boxes or tumblers each day for several days in succession4 ,then put seeds of corn1 beans and garden peas to soak4 ,after these have soaked a few hours1 examine them to find out how the seed is constructed4 ,note first the general shape of the seeds and the scar 7,fig4 #da-d7 on one side as in the bean or pea and at one end or on one edge in the corn4 ,this scar1 also called hilum1 is where the seed was attached to the seed vessel4 ,cut into the bean and pea1 they will be found to be protected by a tough skin or coat4 ,within this the contents of the seed are divided into two bodies of equal size lying close to each other and called seed leaves or cotyledons 7,fig4 #da-e74 ,between them near one end or one side will be found a pair of very small white leaves and a little round pointed projection4 ,the part bearing the tiny leaves was formerly1 and is sometimes now1 called the plumule1 but is generally called the epicotyl1 because it grows above or upon the cotyledons4 ,the round pointed projection was formerly called the radicle1 but is now spoken of as the hypocotyl1 because it grows below or under the cotyledons4 ,examine a dry kernel of corn and notice that on one side there is a slight oval-shaped depression 7,fig4 #da-a74 ,now take a soaked kernel and cut it in two pieces making the cut lengthwise from the top of the kernel through the centre of the oval depression and examine the cut surface4 ,a more or less triangular-shaped body will be found on the concave side of the kernel 7see ,figs4 #da-b and #da-c74 ,this is the one cotyledon of the corn4 ,besides this will be found quite a mass of starchy material packed in the coverings of the kernel and in close contact with one side of the cotyledon4 ,this is sometimes called the endosperm4 ,within the cotyledon will be found a little growing shoot pointed toward the top of the kernel4 ,this is the epicotyl1 and another growing tip pointed toward the lower end of the kernel2 this is the hypocotyl or the part which penetrates the soil and forms roots4 ,now examine the seeds that were planted in succession4 ,some will be just starting a growing point down into the soil4 ,some of them have probably come up and others are at intermediate stages4 ,how did the bean get up8 ,after sending down a root the hypocotyl began to develop into a strong stem which crooked itself until it reached the surface of the soil and then pulled the cotyledons or seed-leaves after it 7,fig4 #db74 ,these turn green and after a time shrink and fall off4 ,the pea cotyledons were left down in the soil1 the epicotyl alone pushing up to the surface4 ,the corn pushed a slender growing point to the surface leaving the cotyledon and endosperm behind in the soil but still attached to the little plant 7,fig4 #dc74 ,,use ,,of ,,cotyledons ,,and ,,endosperm ,experiment4--,plant some beans in a pot or box of soil and as soon as they come up cut the seed-leaves from some of them and watch their growth for several days4 ,it will soon be seen that the plants on which the seed-leaves were left increase in size much more rapidly than those from which the seed-leaves were removed 7see ,figs4 #dc and #dd74 ,sprout some corn in the seed tester4 ,when the seedlings are two or three inches long1 get a wide-mouthed bottle or a tumbler of water and a piece of pasteboard large enough to cover the top4 ,cut a slit about an eighth of an inch wide from the margin to the centre of the pasteboard disk4 ,take one of the seedlings1 insert it in the slit1 with the kernel under the pasteboard so that it just touches the water4 ,take another seedling of the same size1 carefully remove the kernel from it without injuring the root1 and place this seedling in the slit beside the first one 7,fig4 #de74 ,watch the growth of these two seedlings for a few days4 ,repeat this with sprouted peas4 ,in each case it will be found that the removal of the seed-leaves or the kernel checks the growth of the seedling4 ,therefore1 it must be that the seed-leaves which appear above ground1 as in the case of the bean1 or the kernel of the corn which remains below the surface of the soil1 furnish the little plant with food until its roots have grown strong enough to take sufficient food from the soil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4 ,a seed-tester1 consisting of two plates and a moist cloth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--;,a ,,seed-,,tester4 ,a plaster cast with cavities in the surface for small seeds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4 #a4 ,corn-kernel showing depression at z4 #b4 ,section of same after soaking4 #c4 ,corn-kernel after germination has begun4 ,the seed-coat a has been partly removed4 #d4 ,bean showing scar or hilum at h4 #e4 ,the same1 split open4 #f4 ,bean with one cotyledon removed1 after sprouting had begun4 a1 ,seed-coat2 b1 cotyledon2 c1 epicotyl2 d1 hypocotyl2 e1 endosperm4 7,drawings by ,m4,e4 ,feltham47 ,,chapter ,x ,,seed ,,planting ,,how ,,deep ,,should ,,seeds ,,be ,,planted8 ,experiment4--,plant several kernels of corn in moist soil in a glass tumbler or jar4 ,put one kernel at the bottom and against the side of the glass1 place the next one a half inch or an inch higher and an inch and a half to one side of the first seed and against the glass4 ,continue this till the top of the glass is reached 7,fig4 #b74 ,leave the last seed not more than one-fourth inch below the top of the soil4 ,the soil should be moist at the start and the seeds should all be against the glass so they can be seen4 ,this can best be done by planting as you fill the glass with soil4 ,plant peas and beans in the same way4 ,do not water the soil after planting4 ,set aside in a warm place and wait for the seeds to come up4 ,another method of performing this experiment is to make a box having one side glass 7,fig4 #df74 ,the length and the depth of the box will depend upon the size of the glass you use4 ,fill the box nearly full of moist soil and plant seeds of corn and beans and peas at depths of one-quarter inch1 one inch1 two inches1 three inches1 and four inches4 ,these seeds can best be put in as the box is being filled4 ,hold each individual seed against the glass with a stick so that when planted they may be seen through the glass4 ,protect the seeds and roots from light by using a sheet of cardboard1 tin or wrapping paper or a piece of board1 and set in a warm place4 ,many of the seeds planted only one-quarter inch deep will not sprout because the soil about them will probably dry out before they take from it enough moisture to sprout4 ,the one and two-inch deep seeds will probably come up all right4 ,of the three and four-inch deep seeds1 the corn and peas will probably make their way to the surface because they send up only a slender shoot1 which can easily force its way through the soil4 ,the deep-planted beans will make a strong effort but will not succeed in forcing their way to the surface because they are not able to lift the large seed-leaves through so much soil1 and will finally give up the struggle4 ,if any of the deeper beans do get up1 the seed-leaves will probably be broken off and the little plant will starve and be dwarfed4 ,this experiment teaches us that we should plant seeds deep enough to get sufficient moisture for sprouting and yet not so deep that the young seedlings will not be able to force their way to the surface4 ,seeds which raise their cotyledons above the soil should not be planted as deep as those which do not4 ,large1 strong seeds like corn1 peas1 etc41 which do not lift their cotyledons above the surface1 can be planted with safety at a depth of from one to four or five inches4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4 ,to show how the bean plant gets up4 ,notice the curved hypocotyls pulling the seed-leaves or cotyledon out of the soil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4 ,to show how the corn-plant gets out of the soil4 ,a slender growing point pushes straight up through the soil1 leaving the kernel behind4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4 ,to show the use of the cotyledons4 ,these are the plants shown in tumbler #b1 ,fig #db1 forty-eight hours after removing the cotyledons from plant ,b4 ,plant ,b1 although first up1 has been handicapped by the loss of its cotyledons4 ,seeds of carrot1 celery1 parsley1 parsnip and egg plant are weak and rather slow in germinating4 ,it is customary to plant them rather thickly in order that by the united strength of many seeds they may more readily come to the surface4 ,this point should be observed also in planting seeds in heavy ground that is liable to pack and crust over before the seeds germinate4 ,seed should always be sown in freshly stirred soil and may be planted by hand or with a machine4 ,for the home garden and the school garden1 and when only small quantities of any one variety are planted1 a machine is hardly desirable and hand planting is preferable4 ,the rows are marked out with the garden marker1 or the end of a hoe or rake handle 7,fig4 #dg71 using a line or the edge of a board as a guide4 ,the seeds are then carefully and evenly dropped in the mark or furrow4 ,the covering is done with the hand or a rake or hoe1 and the soil is pressed over the seeds by patting it with the covering tool or walking on the row and pressing it with the feet4 ,this pressing of the soil over the seeds is to bring the particles of soil close to each other and to the seed so that film water can climb upon them and moisten the seed sufficiently for sprouting4 ,a convenient way of distributing small seeds like those of turnip and cabbage1 is to take a small pasteboard box or tin spice or baking-powder box1 and punch a small hole in the bottom near one end or side4 ,through this the seeds can be sifted quite evenly4 ,for the larger operations of the farm and market garden1 hand and horse-power drills and broadcasters are generally used1 though some farmers still plant large fields by hand4 ,the grasses and clovers are generally broadcasted by hand or machine1 and are then lightly harrowed and are generally rolled4 ,the small grains 7wheat1 oats1 etc47 are broadcasted by many farmers1 but drilling is considered better4 ,with the grain drill the seed is deposited at a uniform depth and at regular intervals4 ,in broadcasting1 some of the seeds are planted too deep1 and some too shallow1 and others are left on the surface of the soil4 ,from experiment it has been found that there is a loss of about one-fifth of the seed when broadcasted as compared with drilling4 ,as in the case of grass seed1 the grains are generally rolled after sowing4 ,corn is planted by hand1 or by hand- and horse-corn-planters1 which drop a certain number of seeds at any required distance in the row4 ,there are a number of seed drills made for planting vegetable seeds which are good machines4 ,the main points to be considered in seed drills or seed planting machines are3 ,simplicity and durability of structure4 ,ease of draft4 ,uniformity in quantity of seed planted1 and in the distances apart and depth to which they are planted4 ,the distances apart at which seeds are planted vary according to the character of the plant4 ,bushy1 spreading plants and tall plants require more room than low and slender-growing plants4 ,visit the neighboring hardware stores and farms and examine as many seed-growing tools as possible to see how they are constructed and how properly used4 ,practice planting with these tools1 if possible4 ,illustrations of grain drills and other seed-planting machines will be found in seed catalogues1 hardware catalogues1 and in the advertising columns of agricultural papers4 ,,seed ,,classification ,in order to become familiar with the farm and garden seeds1 obtain samples of as many of them as possible4 ,put them in small bottles--homoeopathic vials for instance--or stick a few of each kind on squares of cardboard4 ,arrange them in groups according to resemblances or relationships1 comparing not only the seeds but the plants on which they grew4 ,if you cannot recall the plants1 and there is no collection available1 study the illustrations in seed catalogues which can be obtained from seedsmen4 ,the following groups contain most of the farm and garden seeds1 excepting flower seeds3 ,,grass ,,family3 ,,mustard ,,family3 ,,nightshade ,,family3 ,corn1 ,mustard1 ,potato1 ,wheat1 ,cabbage1 ,tomato1 ,oats1 ,cauliflower1 ,egg ,plant1 ,rye1 ,collards1 ,pepper4 ,barley1 ,brussels ,sprouts1 ,sorghum1 ,kale1 ,,goosefoot ,,family3 ,orchard ,grass1 ,kohl ,rabi1 ,beet1 ,red ,top ,grass1 ,radish1 ,chard1 ,timothy1 ,ruta ,baga1 ,spinach1 ,kentucky ,blue ,grass4 ,turnips1 ,mangle ,wurzel4 ,watercress4 ,,gourd ,,family3 ,,pea ,,or ,,legume ,,family3 ,canteloupe1 ,,thistle ,,family3 ,garden ,pea1 ,citron1 ,artichoke1 ,canada ,field ,pea1 ,cucumber1 ,cardoon1 ,cow ,pea1 ,gourd1 ,chicory1 ,soy ,bean1 ,muskmelon1 ,dandelion1 ,bush ,bean1 ,pumpkin1 ,endive1 ,lima ,bean1 ,squash1 ,lettuce1 ,velvet ,bean1 ,watermelon1 ,salsify1 ,vetch1 ,cymling4 ,sunflower1 ,clover1 ,tansy4 ,alfalfa4 ,,parsley ,,family3 ,caraway1 ,,lily ,,family3 ,,mallow ,,family3 ,carrot1 ,asparagus1 ,okra1 ,celery1 ,garlic1 ,cotton4 ,coriander1 ,leek1 ,cumin1 ,onion4 ,fennel1 ,parsley1 ,parsnip4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4 ,to show the use of the kernel to the young corn-plant4 ,the kernel was carefully removed from the plant on the right when both plants were of the same size4 ,the result is a dwarfing of the plant4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4 ,to show how deeply seeds should be planted4 ,seeds #a and #e did not sprout because they were not deep enough to get sufficient moisture4 ,the corn-plants from sprouting seeds #b1 #c and #d all pushed their slender growing points to the surface4 ,of the beans1 ,no4 #f succeeded in pulling the cotyledons to the surface1 and has made a good plant4 ,nos4 #g and #h1 although they made a hard struggle1 were not able to raise the cotyledons through so great a depth of soil1 and finally gave up the struggle4 ,,transplanting ,the seeds of some crops--cabbage1 tomato1 lettuce1 for example--are planted in window boxes1 hot-beds1 cold frames or a corner of the field or garden4 ,when the seedlings have developed three or four leaves or have become large enough to crowd one another1 they are thinned out or are transplanted into other boxes1 frames or plots of ground1 or are transplanted into the field or garden4 ,the time and method of transplanting depend largely on ,the condition of the plant4 ,the condition of the soil4 ,the condition of the atmosphere4 ,for best results in field planting the plant should be well grown1 strong and stocky1 with well developed roots and three or four strong leaves4 ,the soil should be thoroughly prepared1 moist and freshly stirred4 ,a moist day just before a light shower is the best time4 ,these conditions being present1 the plants are carefully lifted from the seed bed with as little disturbance of the roots as possible and carried to the field or garden4 ,some plants1 like cabbage1 will stand considerable rough treatment1 while others1 like the eggplant1 require greater care4 ,in the field or garden a hole is made for each plant with the hand1 a stick or dibber or any convenient tool1 the roots of the plant are carefully placed in it and the soil is pressed about them4 ,if the soil is moist and freshly stirred1 new roots will generally start in a very short time4 ,plants that have been grown in pots1 small boxes or tin cans1 as tomatoes and eggplants are sometimes grown1 may be quickly transplanted in the field in the following manner3 ,open the furrow with a small plow1 knock the plants out of the pots or cans and place them along the land side of the furrow at the proper distances1 then turn the soil back against them with the plow4 ,when there is a large number of plants to be set1 as in planting cabbage1 sweet potatoes1 etc41 by the acre1 it is not always convenient to wait for a cloudy day or to defer operations till the sun is low in the afternoon4 ,in such cases the roots of the plants should be dipped in water or in thin mud just before setting them1 or a little water may be poured into each hole as the plant is put in4 ,the soil should always be well firmed about the roots4 ,the firming of the soil about the roots of a newly set plant is as important as firming it over planted seeds4 ,the soil should be packed so tightly that the individual leaves will be torn off when an attempt is made to pull the plant up by them4 ,in dry or warm weather it is a good plan to trim the tops of plants when setting them4 ,this can be done readily with some plants1 such as cabbage and lettuce1 by taking a bundle of them in one hand and with the other twisting off about half of their tops4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4 ,operations of seed-planting3 #a1 making the drill2 #b1 dropping the seeds2 #c1 covering the seeds2 #d1 packing the soil over the seeds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4 ,a collection of planting machines4 ,the large central machine is a grass and grain planter4 ,the one on the left1 a potato planter4 ,the one on the right1 a corn1 bean1 and pea planter4 ,the three smaller machines in front are hand seed planters4 ,the proper time to transplant fruit and ornamental trees and shrubs is during the fall1 winter and early spring1 which is their dormant or resting season1 as this gives the injured roots a chance to recover and start new rootlets before the foliage of the plant makes demands on them for food and moisture4 ,in taking up large plants many roots are broken or crushed4 ,these broken and injured roots should be trimmed off with a smooth cut4 ,the tree or shrub is then placed in the hole prepared for it and the soil carefully filled in and packed about the roots4 ,after the plant is set1 the top should be trimmed back to correspond with the loss of root4 ,if the plant is not trimmed1 more shoots and leaves will start into growth than the damaged roots can properly furnish with food and water1 and the plant will make a weak growth or die4 ,there are on the market a number of hand transplanting machines which1 from their lack of perfection1 have not come into general use4 ,many of them require more time to operate than is consumed in hand planting4 ,a number of large machines for transplanting are in successful and satisfactory use on large truck and tobacco farms4 ,these machines are drawn by horses and carry water for watering each plant as it is set4 ,practice transplanting in window boxes or in the open soil and see how many of your plants will survive the operation4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,spading ,,and ,,plowing ,we have learned the important conditions necessary for the sprouting of seeds and for the growth and development of roots4 ,we have also learned something about the soil1 its properties1 and its relation to1 or its behavior toward these important conditions4 ,we are therefore prepared to discuss intelligently methods of treating the soil to bring about1 or maintain1 these conditions4 ,,spading ,,the ,,soil ,the typical tool for preparing the soil for root growth is a spade or spading fork 7,fig4 #di74 ,with this tool properly used we can prepare the soil for a crop better than with any other4 ,in spading1 the spade or fork should be pushed into the soil with the foot the full length of the blade and nearly straight down4 ,the handle is then pulled back and the spadeful of earth is pried loose1 lifted slightly1 thrown a little forward1 and at the same time turned4 ,the lumps are then broken by striking them with the blade or teeth of the tool4 ,all weeds and trash should be covered during the operation4 ,a common fault of beginners is to put the spade in the soil on a slant and only about half the length of the blade1 and then flop the soil over in the hole from which it came1 often covering the edge of the unspaded soil4 ,the good spader works from side to side across his piece of ground1 keeping a narrow trench or furrow between the spaded and unspaded soil1 into which weeds and trash and manure may be drawn and thoroughly covered1 and also to prevent covering the unspaded soil4 ,if this work has been well done with the ordinary spade or fork and finished with a rake1 the result will be a bed of soil twelve to fifteen inches deep1 fine and mellow and well prepared for root penetration1 for good ventilation1 for the absorbing and holding of moisture and warmth4 ,this method should always be employed for small gardens and flower beds4 ,,plowing ,for preparing large areas of soil the plow is the tool most generally used4 ,,why ,,do ,,we ,,spade ,,and ,,plow8 ,to break and pulverize the soil and make it soft and mellow1 so the roots of plants may enter it in search of food1 and get a firm hold for the support of the plant which is above ground4 ,to make the soil open and porous1 so that it can more readily absorb rain as it falls on the surface4 ,to check loss of water by evaporation4 ,to admit air to the roots of plants4 ,also to allow air to act chemically on the mineral and organic matter of the soil and make them available to the crop4 ,to raise the temperature of soils in the spring1 or of damp soils at any time4 ,to mix manures and organic matter with the soil4 ,the more thoroughly manure is distributed through the soil the more easily plants will get it and the greater will be its effect on the soil4 ,to destroy the insect enemies of the plant by turning them up to the frost and the birds4 ,to kill weeds4 ,weeds injure crops3 ,they waste valuable moisture by pumping it up from the soil and sending it out into the air through their leaves4 ,in this way they do their greatest injury to crops4 ,they crowd and shade the crop4 ,they take plant food which the plant should have4 ,spading and plowing bring about conditions necessary for the sprouting or germination of seeds4 ,spading and plowing also tend to bring about conditions necessary for the very important work of certain of the soil bacteria4 ,,parts ,,of ,a ,,plow ,it will be found that a good farm plow has the following parts 7,fig4 #ej73 ,a standard or stock1 the central part of the plow to which many of the other parts are attached4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,,spading-,,fork ,,and ,,spade4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--;,a ,,wood ,,beam-,,plow a1 stock2 b1 beam2 c1 handles2 d1 clevis1 e1 shackle1 f1 share2 g1 mould board2 h1 landside2 k1 jointer or skimmer1 l1 truck or wheel1 p1 point or nose1 s1 shin4 ,a beam1 to which the power is attached by which the plow is drawn4 ,some plows have wooden beams and others have iron beams4 ,handles by which the plowman guides and steadies the plow and also turns it at the corners of the plowed ground in going about the field4 ,a clevis1 which is attached to the end of the beam and is used to regulate the depth of plowing4 ,to the clevis is attached a draft ring or shackle1 to which the horse or team is fastened4 ,to make the plow run deep the draft ring or shackle is placed in the upper holes or notches of the clevis2 to make it run shallow the ring is placed in the lower holes4 ,on some plows there are only notches in the clevis for holding the ring1 they answer the same purpose as holes4 ,the clevis is also used on some plows to regulate the width of the furrow4 ,by moving the draft ring or shackle towards the plowed land the plow is made to cut a wider furrow1 moving it away from the plowed land causes the plow to cut narrower4 ,some plows have a double clevis so that the draft ring may be raised or lowered1 or moved to right or left4 ,with some plows the width of the furrow is adjusted by moving the beam at its attachment to the handles4 ,a share1 called by some the point1 which shears the bottom of the furrow slice from the land4 ,the share should be sharp1 especially for plowing in grass land and land full of tough roots4 ,if the share1 particularly the point1 becomes worn so that it bevels from beneath upwards it will be hard to keep the plow in the soil1 for it will tend to slide up to the surface4 ,if this happens the share must be renewed or sharpened4 ,plows are being made now with share and point separate1 and both of these reversible 7,fig4 #ea71 so that if either becomes worn on the under side it can be taken out and turned over and put back and it is all right1 they thus become self-sharpening4 ,a mouldboard4 ,this turns and breaks the furrow slice4 ,the degree to which the mouldboard pulverizes depends on the steepness of its slant upward and the abruptness of its curve sidewise4 ,the steeper it is and the more abrupt the curve1 the greater is its pulverizing power4 ,a steep1 abrupt mouldboard is adapted to light soils and to the heavier soils when they are comparatively dry4 ,this kind of a plow is apt to puddle a clay soil if it is quite moist4 ,for breaking new land a plow with a long1 gradually sloping share and mouldboard is used4 ,a landslide1 which keeps the plow in place4 ,a coulter4 ,some plows have a straight knife-like coulter 7,fig4 #eb7 which is fastened to the beam just in front of the mouldboard and serves to cut the furrow slice from the land4 ,in some plows this is replaced by an upward projection of the share2 this is wide at the back and sharp in front and is called the shin of the plow from its resemblance to the shin bone4 ,the coulter is sometimes made in the form of a sharp1 revolving disk 7,fig4 #ec71 called a rolling coulter4 ,this form is very useful in sod ground and in turning under vines and tall weeds4 ,it also lessens the draft of the plow4 ,a jointer or skimmer which skims stubble and grass from the surface of the soil and throws them into the bottom of the furrow where they are completely covered4 ,the jointer helps also to pulverize the soil4 ,a truck or wheel1 attached under the end of the beam4 ,this truck makes the plow run steadier4 ,this is sometimes used to make the plow run shallower by setting it low down4 ,this is not right1 for it then acts as a brake and makes the plow draw harder4 ,the depth of the furrow should be adjusted at the clevis4 ,a plow not only has parts but it has character also4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,a ,,good ,,plow ,a good plow should be strong in build and light in weight4 ,the draft should be as light as possible4 ,the plow should run steadily4 ,a good plow should not only turn the soil but should pulverize it as well4 ,when plowing1 the team should be hitched to the plow with as short traces as possible1 and the plow should be so adjusted that it will cut furrows of the required width and thickness with the least possible draft on the team and the least exertion on the part of the plowman4 ,,the ,,furrow ,,slice ,in plowing1 the furrow slice may be cut thin and wide and be turned over flat4 ,this method is adapted to breaking new land and heavy sod land4 ,it may be cut thick and narrow and be turned up on edge4 ,or it may be cut of such a width and depth that the plow will turn it at an angle of about forty-five degrees4 ,by this last method the greatest amount of soil can be turned at least expense of labor2 the furrow slice can be more thoroughly broken2 the greatest surface is exposed to the action of the air1 and plant food is more evenly distributed through the soil4 ,,how ,,deep ,,shall ,,we ,,plow8 ,we learned in a previous chapter that the roots of farm plants develop largely in that part of the soil which is worked by the plow2 therefore1 to have as much tilled soil as possible for root growth1 we should generally plow as deep as possible without turning too much of the subsoil to the surface4 ,lands that have been plowed deep should be deepened gradually by plowing up a half-inch to an inch of subsoil each year until the plow reaches a depth of at least nine or ten inches4 ,there is an opinion among many farmers that sandy soils should not be plowed deep4 ,but as these soils are apt to be leachy it seems best to fill them with organic matter to as great a depth as possible to increase their water-holding power1 and this can best be done by plowing farm manures in deep4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--;,a ,,slip-,,nose ,,share4 ,n1 ,a ,,slip-,,nose4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--;,c1 ,,straight ,,knife ,,coulter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4 ,an iron beam-plow1 with rolling coulter and double clevis4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--;,a ,,rolling ,,coulter ,,harrow4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--,,spring-,,toothed ,,harrows4 ,in many parts of the ,south the farmers use very small plows and small animals to draw them4 ,the result is that the soil is not prepared to a sufficient depth to allow of the large root development necessary for large crops4 ,these farmers need larger tools and heavier animals if they expect to make much improvement in the yield of their crops4 ,these small plows and this shallow plowing have done much to aid the washing and gulleying of the hill farms by rain4 ,the shallow layer of loose soil takes in the rain readily1 but as the harder soil beneath does not take the water as readily1 the shallow plowed soil soon fills1 then becomes mud1 and the whole mass goes down the slope4 ,the land would wash less if it had not been plowed at all1 and least of all if it were plowed deep1 for then there would be a deep reservoir of loose soil which would be able to hold a large amount of water until the harder lower soil could take care of it4 ,,breaking ,,out ,,the ,,middles ,some farmers have a way when getting the land ready for a crop1 of plowing the rows first and then breaking out the middles or spaces between after the crop is planted4 ,this is a poor practice1 as it interferes with thorough preparation of the soil4 ,the ground can be more thoroughly plowed and broken up before the crop is planted than afterwards4 ,this practice of leaving the middles interferes with proper harrowing and after-cultivation4 ,,throwing ,,the ,,land ,,up ,,in ,,ridges ,many farmers throw the land up into ridges with the plow and then plant on the ridge4 ,when land is thrown into ridges a greater amount of surface is exposed to the air and a greater loss of moisture by evaporation takes place1 therefore ridge culture is more wasteful of soil water than level culture4 ,for this reason dry soils everywhere and most soils in dry climates should1 wherever practicable1 be left flat4 ,on stiff1 heavy soils which are slow to dry out1 and on low bottom lands it may be desirable to ridge the land to get the soil dried out and warmed quicker in the spring4 ,late fall and early planter truck crops are often planted on the southern slopes of low ridges thrown up with the plow for warmth and protection from cold winds4 ,,time ,,to ,,plow ,the time of plowing will depend somewhat on the nature of the soil1 climate and the crop4 ,more plowing is done in the spring just before planting spring and summer crops than at any other time1 excepting in localities that plant large areas of winter grain and truck4 ,this spring plowing should be done early1 for the spring plowing tends to dry the loosened soil somewhat and allows it to become warm at an earlier date1 and at the same time the loosened soil tends to hold water in the lower soil for future use by the crop and allows the soil to take in spring rains more readily4 ,if a cover crop or green manure crop is to be turned under in the spring it should be done early so as to prevent the crop to be turned under from pumping too much water out of the soil and thus interfering with the growth of the crop for which the land is being prepared4 ,there are some particular advantages to be gained by fall plowing in heavy soils3 ,immediately after harvest the land is usually dry and easy to work4 ,the soil plowed at this time and left rough is acted upon physically by frost which pulverizes it1 and chemically by rain and air which renders plant food available4 ,insects are turned up and exposed to frost and birds4 ,a great number of weeds are destroyed and the land is more easily fitted for crops in the spring4 ,fall plowing should be done as early as possible1 especially in the dryer regions1 to catch all water possible4 ,it is not advisable to plow sandy soils in the fall lest plant food be washed out of them4 ,when possible a cover crop should be put on fall plowed land where there is likely to be loss of plant food by leaching4 ,,bare ,,fallow ,the term fallowing is sometimes applied to the operation of plowing1 and sometimes the land is left bare without a crop sometime after plowing2 this is called bare fallowing the land4 ,bare fallowing should not be practiced on all soils4 ,it is adapted3 ,to dry climates and dry seasons where it is desirable to catch and save every possible drop of rainfall1 and where plant food will not be washed out of the exposed soils by rains4 ,to heavy clay lands4 ,to lands that are foul with weeds and insects4 ,to sour soils which are sweetened by exposure to air and rain4 ,light sandy soils should not be subjected to bare fallow unless they are very foul with weeds4 ,they should always be covered with a crop to prevent loss of plant food by leaching4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,harrowing ,,and ,,rolling ,,harrowing ,after spading or plowing the next operation in the preparation of the soil is generally raking1 harrowing or dragging4 ,the objects of these operations are3 ,to break lumps and clods left by the plow and spade and to further pulverize the soil4 ,harrowing and raking aid in controlling soil ventilation1 and put the soil in better condition to absorb moisture4 ,they check the loss of moisture by making a mulch of fine loose earth on the surface4 ,the harrow and rake destroy the weeds4 ,the harrow brings about conditions favorable to the even distribution of seeds4 ,it is also the tool generally used to cover seeds sown broadcast4 ,harrowing is generally done just before planting1 and with some crops just after1 to cover seeds or to smooth the ground4 ,harrowing is also done in the first stages of growth of some crops to kill weeds and make a soil mulch4 ,the harrow should always follow the plow within a few hours unless it is desired to leave the land in a bare fall or winter fallow4 ,at other times of the year the lumps of earth are apt to dry out and become hard and difficult to break4 ,if there is but one work team on the farm it is a good plan during the plowing season to stop the plow in time to harrow the day's plowing before the day's work ends4 ,,harrows ,there are several types of harrows in use4 ,they may be classified according to the style of their teeth or cutting parts2 they are as follows3 ,rolling cutter harrows4 ,spring-toothed harrows4 ,spike-toothed harrows4 ,coulter-toothed harrows4 ,chain harrows4 ,brush harrows4 ,plank or drag harrows4 ,these types vary in the depth to which they cut1 and the degree to which they pulverize the soil4 ,rolling cutter harrows4 ,harrows of this type 7see ,fig4 #ed7 consist of one or more revolving shafts on which are arranged a number of concave disks4 ,these disks are either entire1 notched1 or made of several pieces fastened together4 ,examples of these are the disk1 cutaway and spading harrows4 ,these harrows cut and move the soil deeper than the other types4 ,they are especially adapted to work on heavy clay soils4 ,the value of this type of harrow as moisture preservers depends on the manner in which they are used4 ,if the disks are so set that they cover but a portion of the surface with a mulch of fine earth they leave a ridge exposed to the action of the wind and sun and the rate of evaporation is greatly increased4 ,the disks should be set at such an angle that the whole surface shall be stirred or covered4 ,soils which need the disk harrow should generally be gone over again with some shallower working tool to smooth the surface4 ,an objection to the rolling cutters is that unless great care is taken they will leave the land in ridges and valleys4 ,the two gangs of disks throw the earth in opposite directions4 ,they are generally set to throw it from the centre and the result is a shallow double furrow the width of the machine4 ,by lapping each time the furrow is partially filled1 but to get the land smooth a smoothing harrow should be used after the rolling cutter4 ,spring-toothed harrows 7,fig4 #ee74 ,spring-toothed harrows with their curved spring teeth enter the soil readily1 draw moderately easy and pass over obstructions without much difficulty4 ,they are very useful in new land that is full of roots and stumps and also stony land4 ,they pulverize the soil to an average depth4 ,they leave the soil in ridges4 ,the ridges can be leveled by a smoother in the shape of a piece of plank attached to the rear of the harrow4 ,on newly plowed grass land they tend to tear up the sod and leave it on the surface4 ,they also tend to drag out coarse manures when plowed in4 ,the original and more common form of the spring-toothed harrow is a floating harrow when at work4 ,that is1 it rests on the points of the teeth and is dragged or floated over the ground4 ,a newer form of spring-toothed harrow1 sometimes called the fallow cultivator1 is mounted on high wheels and its action is largely controlled by them4 ,this form of harrow is claimed to do much better work than the floating harrow and may in a large measure displace the rolling cutter4 ,the weight of this harrow is entirely taken from the soil except in the wheel tracks1 and the entire action is that of pulverizing and lightening the soil4 ,spike-toothed harrows 7,fig4 #ef74 ,the teeth of these harrows are round1 square or diamond-shaped spikes fastened into a wood or iron frame4 ,the teeth are set in a vertical position or are inclined to the rear4 ,these harrows are shallow in their action2 they run easily but tend to compact the soil more than the other types and are therefore better adapted to loose soils and to finishing off after the work of the deep cutting harrows4 ,they are also used for covering seeds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--,,spike-,,toothed ,,harrows4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--;,a ,,coulter-,,toothed ,,harrow4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--;,a ,,plank ,,harrow4 ,coulter-toothed harrows4 ,the coulter-toothed harrows 7,fig4 #eg7 have teeth resembling the coulter of a plow twisted or bent into various shapes4 ,the ,acme is a good example of this class of harrow4 ,it cuts1 turns and pulverizes the surface soil somewhat after the manner of the plow4 ,it prepares a fine mulch and leaves an excellent seed bed4 ,it is an excellent harrow to finish off with after using a rolling cutter4 ,chain harrows4 ,the chain harrow consists of a web of chains linked together4 ,they have a wonderful power for breaking clods and are useful for collecting weeds4 ,they shake the dirt from the weeds and roll them into heaps4 ,chain harrows tend to compact the soil4 ,brush harrows4 ,the brush harrow is a primitive form made by fastening brush to a long pole4 ,brush harrows are quite useful for brushing in seed and for pulverizing manure broadcasted on grass lands4 ,plank harrows4 ,the plank harrow 7see ,fig4 #eh7 is made of several planks fastened together so that each plank overlaps the next one to it1 like the clapboards of a house4 ,this harrow is as good as a roller in fining and smoothing the surface soil4 ,it is an excellent tool to use alternately with a spike or coulter-toothed harrow on lumpy soil4 ,this tool rasps or grinds many of the lumps or clods which slip by the harrow teeth and presses others into the ground so that the harrow following can get a grip on them4 ,it is a harrow that can be made on any farm4 ,this planker is an excellent tool to smooth the surface1 for broadcasting small seeds and for planting truck crops4 ,,rolling ,the objects of rolling are3 ,to compress the surface soil so that the harrow will do its work more efficiently1 also to break clods or lumps that may have resisted the action of the harrow4 ,to smooth the surface of the soil for an even distribution of small seeds1 and to firm the soil around such seeds after they are planted so that they will keep moist and sprout readily4 ,to give compactness to soils that are light and loose and thus enable them to hold moisture and plant food better4 ,to press into the ground the roots of plants partly dislodged by the frost4 ,to remove the conditions favorable to the development of many kinds of insects4 ,to sink surface stones so that they will not interfere with harvesting the crop4 ,light porous soils may be rolled at any time1 but clay soils can be rolled to advantage only when they are stiff and cloddy4 ,spring-sown grain is often rolled as soon as sown4 ,this is all right in ordinary spring weather1 but if showers are frequent and the soil is quite moist the rolling should be omitted till after the grain is up4 ,the same practice will apply to autumn-sown grain also4 ,if the soil is dry the rolling helps it to pump water up to the seeds4 ,but if it is moist and showers are frequent the combined action of the roller and the rain is to make so thick a crust that many of the seeds will not be able to force their way through it or will be smothered by poor ventilation4 ,after the grain is up the rolling may be done to advantage1 as it then makes a firm soil about the roots of the plants1 a condition of benefit to grain crops4 ,the most simple form of roller is a solid or hollow cylinder of wood fastened into a frame by which it is drawn4 ,some rollers have spikes or blunt attachments fastened to their surfaces for breaking clods4 ,a roller that is quite popular consists of a cylinder of pressed steel4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,leaves ,,facts ,,about ,,leaves ,we found in an earlier lesson that all of our farm plants have roots1 stems1 leaves1 flowers1 fruit and seeds4 ,we studied the root first as being the most important part of the plant to the farmer4 ,the seed was the next part studied1 for that was considered the next most important1 because the seed is the main reliance for new plants4 ,the part next in importance is the leaf and that we will now study4 ,if you will go into the field and observe the leaves on a number of plants1 you will find that the following facts are true3 ,they are all green4 ,they are flat and thin4 ,many of them are very broad4 ,some of the leaves on a single branch are larger than others on the same branch1 and some have longer stems than others4 ,most of them have a rather dark glossy upper surface and a lighter rougher under surface4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4 ,to show transpiration4 ,plant ,a was set in the sunlight1 plant ,b was left in the darker part of the room4 ,a has transpired much more than ,b1 showing that sunlight is necessary for this work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--;,,amount ,,of ,,transpiration ,this plant transpired within #dh hours an amount of water equal to the colored liquid in the bottle standing on the jar1 more than #f ounces4 ,the leaves on the lower branches of the trees are spread out in a more or less flat layer and have their glossy surfaces all turned up1 while those on branches in the tops of trees or shrubs are arranged all around the branch1 the glossy surface being turned up4 ,what are the reasons for these facts8 ,a study of the work of the leaves and the conditions necessary for them to perform their work will help us to answer this question4 ,,the ,,uses ,,of ,,leaves ,,to ,,plants ,experiment4--7,see ,fig4 #ei74 ,take a pot or tumbler in which a young plant is growing1 also a piece of pasteboard large enough to cover the top of the pot2 cut a slit from the edge to the centre of the pasteboard1 then place it on the top of the pot1 letting the plant enter the slit4 ,now close the slit with wax or tallow1 making it perfectly tight about the stem4 ,if the plant is not too large1 invert a tumbler over it1 letting the edge of the tumbler rest on the pasteboard2 if a tumbler is not large enough use a glass jar4 ,if a potted plant is not convenient a slip or a seedling bean or pea placed in a tumbler of water will serve the purpose4 ,prepare several and place some in a sunny window and leave others in the room where it is darker1 and observe them from time to time4 ,in the case of those plants that were set in the sunny window moisture will be seen collecting on the inner surface of the tumbler4 ,where does this come from8 ,it is absorbed from the soil by the roots and is sent with its load of dissolved plant food up through the stems to the leaves4 ,there most of the water is passed from the leaves to the air and is condensed on the sides of the glass4 ,a work of leaves then is to throw off or to transpire moisture and thus make room for a new supply of food-laden moisture4 ,this water is thrown off through little pores or mouths or stomata which are very small and very numerous on the under side of the leaf4 ,it will be noticed that the plant not placed in the sunlight transpires very little moisture1 showing that sunlight helps the leaves in this work of transpiration4 ,how much water does a plant transpire or throw off from its leaves8 ,experiment4--7,see ,fig4 #fj74 ,fill a common quart fruit jar or can with soil and plant in it a kernel of corn1 a bean1 a cotton seed or seed of some other plant4 ,after the plant has grown to be twelve or fifteen inches high1 cut a piece of pasteboard a little larger than the top of the jar1 cut a hole in the centre as large as the stem of the plant and make a slit from edge to centre4 ,soak the pasteboard in melted wax or paraffine candle4 ,cool it and then place it over the jar1 slipping it around the plant stem4 ,now solder the pasteboard to the jar with melted candle making the joints tight all the way around4 ,then close up the slit and the hole about the stem4 ,the jar is now completely sealed and there is no way for water to escape except through the plant4 ,the plant should be well watered before the jar is closed4 ,now weigh the jar and set in the sunlight4 ,weigh again the next day4 ,the difference in the two weights will represent the amount of water transpired by the plant4 ,the weighings may be repeated until moisture gives out4 ,if it is desired to continue this experiment some time1 a small hole should be cut in the pasteboard before it is fastened to the jar4 ,this hole is for adding water to the jar from time to time4 ,the hole should be kept closed with a cork4 ,the amount of water added should always be weighed and account taken of it in the following weighings4 ,while this plant is growing it will be well to wrap the jar with paper to protect the roots from the light4 ,it has been found that the amount of water necessary to grow a plant to maturity is equal to from #cjj to #ejj times the weight of the plant when dry4 ,this gives us an idea of the very great importance of water to plants4 ,experiment4--,take a few leaves from a plant of cotton1 bean1 clover or other plant that has been growing in the sunlight2 boil them for a few minutes to soften the tissues1 then place them in alcohol for a day or until the green coloring matter is extracted by the alcohol4 ,wash the leaves by taking them from the alcohol and putting them in a tumbler of water4 ,then put them in saucers in a weak solution of iodine4 ,the leaf will be seen to gradually darken2 this will continue until it becomes dark purple or almost black 7,fig4 #fa74 ,we have already learned that iodine turns starch this color1 so we conclude that leaves must contain starch4 7,five or ten cents worth of tincture of iodine from a drug store diluted to about the color of weak tea will be sufficient for these leaf experiments47 ,experiment4--,if a potted plant was used for the last experiment1 set it away in a dark closet after taking the leaves for the experiment4 ,a day or two after1 take leaves from it before removing it from the closet4 ,boil these leaves and treat them with alcohol as in the previous experiment4 ,then wash them and test them with iodine as before4 ,no starch will be found in the leaves 7,fig4 #fb74 ,the starch that was in them when placed in the closet has disappeared4 ,now paste some thick paper labels on some of the leaves of a plant exposed to the sunlight4 ,after a few hours remove the leaves that have the labels on them1 boil1 treat with alcohol and test with the iodine4 ,in this case starch will be found in all parts of the leaf except the part over which the label was pasted 7,fig4 #fc74 ,if the sunlight is intense and the label thin1 some starch will appear under it4 ,according to these last experiments1 leaves contain starch at certain times1 and this starch seems to appear when the leaf is in the sunlight and to disappear when the light is cut off4 ,the fact is that the leaves manufacture starch for the plant and sunlight is necessary for this work4 ,the starch is then changed to sugar which is carried by the sap to other parts of the plant where it is again changed to starch to be built into the plant structure or stored for future use4 ,experiment4--,take leaves from a plant of silver-leaf geranium growing in the sunlight4 ,if this plant cannot be had1 the leaves from some other variegated white and green leaved plant will do4 ,boil these leaves1 treat with alcohol1 wash and test with iodine 7,fig4 #fd74 ,starch will be found in the leaf wherever there was green coloring matter in it1 while the parts that were white will show no starch4 ,the green coloring matter seems to have something to do with the starch making1 in fact starch is manufactured only where it is present4 ,this coloring matter is called chlorophyl or leaf green4 ,we are told by the chemists that this starch is made from carbon and water4 ,there exists in the air a gas called carbonic acid gas2 this gas is composed of carbon and oxygen4 ,it is breathed out of the lungs of animals and is produced by the burning and decay of organic matter4 ,the under side of the leaf contains hundreds of little pores or mouths called stomata4 ,this gas mixed with air enters these mouths4 ,the green part of the leaf aided by the sun takes hold of the gas and separates the carbon from the oxygen4 ,the oxygen is allowed to go free1 but the carbon is made to unite with water and form starch4 ,experiment4--,the escape of this oxygen gas may be seen by taking some water weed from either fresh or salt water and placing it in a glass jar of the kind of water from which it came1 then set the jar in the sunlight4 ,after a time bubbles of gas will be seen collecting and rising to the surface4 ,if a mass of weed like the green scum of fresh water ponds or green sea lettuce be used1 the bubbles of gas will become entangled in the mass and will cause it to rise to the surface of the water4 ,at the same time prepare another jar of the weed and place it somewhere out of the sun2 very few bubbles will be seen to rise and the weed will settle to the bottom of the jar 7,fig4 #fe74 ,all of the food of the plant1 whether taken from the air or from the soil is digested in the leaves1 and sunlight and air are necessary for this work4 ,another function of leaves then is to digest food for the plant4 ,important functions of leaves then are3 ,to transpire moisture sent up by the roots4 ,to manufacture starch by combining some of the water sent up by the roots with carbon taken from the air4 ,to digest the starch and food sent up by the roots4 ,to do these things well leaves must be connected with a strong1 healthy root system and must have plenty of light and air4 ,we are now ready to give reasons for the facts about leaves mentioned in the first part of the chapter 7see page #aji74 ,leaves are green because the green coloring matter is necessary for the leaf to do its work4 ,leaves are flat and thin and broad in order that they may present a large surface to the air and sunlight4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4 ,to show that growing leaves contain starch4 #a4 ,represents a green cotton leaf as picked from the plant4 #b4 ,is the same leaf after taking out the green coloring matter2 the leaf is white4 #c4 ,the same leaf after treatment with weak iodine turned to a dark purple1 showing the presence of starch4 7,drawings by ,m4,e4 ,feltham47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4 ,to show that starch disappears from the leaf when the plant is placed in the dark4 ,the plant from which was taken the leaf represented in ,fig #fa1 was immediately placed in a dark closet for #bd hours4 ,then leaf #d was taken from it2 #e represents this leaf after the chlorophyl was taken from it3 it is white2 #f is the same after treatment with iodine4 ,the leaf remains white1 showing no starch4 7,drawings by ,m4,e4 ,feltham47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4 ,to show that sunlight is necessary for starch-making by leaves4 ,leaf #g had a paper label stuck to its upper surface a couple of hours while the plant was exposed to sunlight2 #h is the same leaf after the chlorophyl was taken out1 and #i represents it after treatment with iodine4 ,the leaf turned purple in all parts except the part that was shaded by the label4 ,starch was removed from the portion under the label1 but was not renewed because the label kept out the necessary sunlight4 7,drawings by ,m4,e4 ,feltham47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4 ,to show that chlorophyl is necessary for starch formation in the leaf4 #aj is a variegated leaf from a silver-leaved geranium2 the center is an irregular patch of green1 with an irregular border of white4 #aa1 after taking out the green4 #ab1 after iodine treatment1 the leaf turns purple only where it was originally green1 showing that no starch forms in the white border4 7,drawings by ,m4,e4 ,feltham47 ,some leaves on the branch are larger than others because in the struggle for light and air they have had a better chance than the others or they have had more of the food which has come up from the root4 ,some of the leaves have developed longer stems than others in their effort to reach out after light and air4 ,most leaves have the little mouths through which air is taken in and water and oxygen given out on the rough side1 and that side is turned down toward the earth probably so that rain and dust will not choke the little pores4 ,the leaves of the lower branches tend to spread out in a broad1 flat plane because in the effort to get light no leaf will grow directly under and in the shadow of another1 while on those branches which grow straight up from the top of the tree the leaves can get light from all sides and so arrange themselves around the stem4 ,is it of any value to the plant grower to know these facts about leaves8 ,it is1 for knowing these things he can better understand the necessity of caring for the leaves of his growing plants to see that their work is not interfered with4 ,,how ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,some ,,leaves ,,is ,,interfered ,,with ,many people who grow house plants have trouble in keeping them well clothed with leaves1 for instance1 the geranium and the rubber plant4 ,the leaves are constantly turning yellow and dropping off or drying up4 ,this sometimes occurs from over-watering or not sufficiently watering the soil in the pot or box4 ,if the watering is all right the trouble may occur in this way3 ,the air of the house is quite dry1 especially in winter4 ,as a result transpiration from the leaf may be excessive4 ,more water is transpired than is necessary1 consequently more is pumped by the roots and with it more food is sent to the leaf than it can take care of4 ,as the excess of water is transpired the excess of food is left in the leaf4 ,the tendency is to clog its pores and therefore interfere with its work1 and gradually weaken and finally kill it4 ,the remedy for this is to spray the leaves frequently so as to keep the air about them moist and so check transpiration4 ,keeping a vessel of water near them helps also as this tends to keep the air moist4 ,dust sometimes chokes the leaves4 ,washing or spraying remedies this4 ,sometimes house plants1 and out-door plants as well1 become covered with a small1 green insect called the plant louse or aphis4 ,this insect has a sharp beak like a mosquito and it sucks the juices from the leaf and causes it to curl up1 interfering with its work and finally killing it4 ,frequent spraying with water will tend to keep these away4 ,a surer remedy against them is to spray the plants with weak tobacco water made by soaking tobacco or snuff in water1 or to fumigate them with tobacco smoke4 ,sometimes the under side of the leaf becomes infested with a very small mite called red spider because it spins a web4 ,these mites injure the leaf by sucking sap from it4 ,they can be kept in check by frequent spraying for they do not like water4 ,if1 then1 we are careful to frequently spray the leaves of our house plants we will have very little trouble from aphis1 red spider or over transpiration4 ,the aphis1 or plant louse1 is often very numerous on out-door plants1 for instance1 the rose1 chrysanthemum1 cabbage1 and fruit trees4 ,they vary in color from green to dark brown or black4 ,they are treated in the same way as those on the house plants4 ,some familiar out-door insects which interfere with leaf work are the common potato bug1 the green cabbage worm1 the rose slug1 the elm tree leaf beetle1 the canker worm1 the tomato worm4 ,these insects and many others eat the leaves 7,fig4 #fg74 ,they chew and swallow their food and are called chewing insects4 ,all insects which chew the leaves of plants can be destroyed by putting poison on their food4 ,the common poisons used for this purpose are ,paris green and ,london purple1 which contain arsenic1 and are used at the rate of one teaspoonful to a pail of water or one-fourth pound to a barrel of water4 ,this is sprinkled or sprayed on the leaves of the plants4 ,another poison used is white hellebore4 ,this loses its poisoning qualities when exposed to the air for a time4 ,therefore it is safer to use about the flower garden and on plants which are soon to be used as food or whose fruit is to be used soon1 like cabbages and current bushes4 ,this hellebore is sifted on the plant full strength1 or it may be diluted by mixing one part of hellebore with one or two parts of flour1 plaster1 or lime4 ,it is also used in water1 putting one ounce of hellebore in three gallons of water and then spraying it on the plants4 ,plants may be sprayed by using a watering pot with a fine rose or sprinkler1 or an old hair-brush or clothes-brush4 ,for large plants or large numbers of smaller plants spray pumps of various sizes are used4 ,sometimes chewing insects on food plants and sucking insects on all plants are treated by spraying them with soapy solutions or oily solutions which injure their bodies4 ,the work of the leaf is also interfered with by diseases which attack the leaves and cause parts or the whole leaf to turn yellow or brown or become blistered or filled with holes4 ,the common remedy for most of these diseases is called the ,bordeaux ,mixture4 ,it is prepared as follows3 ,dissolve four pounds of blue vitriol 7blue stone1 or copper sulphate7 in several gallons of water4 ,then slake four pounds of lime4 ,mix the two and add enough water to make a barrelful4 ,the mixture is then sprayed on the plants4 ,for more detailed directions for spraying plants and combating insects and diseases write to your ,state ,experiment ,station and to the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture at ,washington1 ,d4,c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4 ,to show the giving off of gas by leaves1 and that sunlight is necessary for it4 ,the jars contain seaweed4 ,a was set in the sun and developed enough gas to float part of the plant4 ,b was left in the darker part of the room and developed very little gas4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4 ,seedling radishes reaching for light4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4 ,elm leaves injured by the imported elm-tree leaf beetle1 a chewing insect4 ,the work of the leaves of house plants is often interfered with by not giving them sufficient sunlight4 ,garden and field plants are sometimes planted so thick that they crowd each other and shut the light and air from each other1 or weeds are allowed to grow and do the same thing1 the result being that the leaves cannot do good work and the plant becomes weak and sickly4 ,weeds are destroyed by pulling them up and exposing their roots to the sun4 ,this should be done before the weeds blossom1 to prevent them from producing fresh seeds for a new crop of weeds4 ,some weeds have fleshy roots--for example1 dock1 thistle--in which food is stored2 these roots go deep in the ground1 and when the upper part of the plant is cut or broken off the root sends up new shoots to take the place of the old4 ,some have underground stems in which food is stored for the same purpose4 ,the surest way to get rid of such weeds1 in fact1 of all weeds1 is to prevent their leaves from growing and making starch and digesting food for them4 ,this is accomplished by constantly cutting off the young shoots as soon as they appear above the soil1 or by growing some crop that will smother them4 ,the constant effort to make new growth will soon exhaust the supply of stored food and the weed will die4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,stems ,,what ,,are ,,stems ,,for8 ,visit the farm or garden and the fields to examine stems and study their general appearances and habits of growth4 ,notice that many plants1 like the trees1 bushes and many vegetable and flowering plants1 have stems which are very much branched1 while others have apparently single stems with but few or no branches4 ,examine these stems carefully and note that there are leaves on some part of all of them and that just above the point where each leaf is fastened to the stem there is a bud which may sometime produce a new branch 7,fig4 #fh74 ,if the stems of trees and other woody plants be examined in the winter after the leaves have fallen1 it will be seen that the buds are still there1 and that just below each bud is a mark or leaf scar left by the fallen leaf4 ,these buds are the beginnings of new branches for another year's growth4 ,on some branches will be found also flowers and fruit or seed vessels4 ,buds and leaves or buds and leaf scars distinguish stems from roots4 ,some plants have stems under the soil as well as above it4 ,these underground stems resemble roots but can be distinguished from them by the rings or joints where will be found buds and small scale-like leaves 7,fig4 #fi74 ,quitch-grass or wiregrass1 ,burmuda grass1 white potato and artichoke are examples of underground stems4 ,now study the habit of growth of these stems4 ,notice that3 ,some plants grow erect with strong1 stiff stems1 for example1 corn1 sunflower1 maple1 pine1 elm and other trees4 ,many of these erect stems have branches reaching out into the air in all directions4 ,stand under a tree close to the stem or trunk and look up into the tree and notice that the leaves are near the outer ends of the branches while in the centre of the tree the branches are nearly bare4 ,why is this8 ,if you remember the work of leaves and the conditions necessary for their work you will be able to answer this question4 ,leaves need light and air for their work1 and these erect1 branching stems hold the leaves up and spread them out in the light and air4 ,notice that where several trees grow close together1 they are one-sided1 and that the longest and largest branches are on the outside of the group and that they have more leaves than the inner branches4 ,why8 ,why do the trees in thick woods have most of the living branches and bear most of their leaves away up in the top of the tree8 ,some stems instead of standing up erect climb up on other plants or objects by means of springlike tendrils which twist about the object and so hold up the slender stem4 ,on the grape vine these tendrils are slender branches4 ,on the sweet pea and garden pea they are parts of the leaves4 ,the trumpet creeper and ,english ivy climb by means of air roots4 ,the nasturtium climbs by means of its leaf stems4 ,other stems get up into the light and air with their leaves by twining about upright objects4 ,for example1 the morning glory and pole bean4 ,some stems will be found that spread their leaves out to the sun by creeping over the ground4 ,sweet potato1 melon1 squash1 and cucumber vines are examples of such plants4 ,one use of the stems of plants then is to support the leaves1 flowers and fruit1 and expose them to the much needed light and air4 ,experiment4--,get a piece of grape vine and cut it into pieces four or five inches long2 notice that the cut surface appears to be full of little holes4 ,cut a piece from between joints1 place one end in your mouth and blow hard4 ,it will be found that air can be blown through the piece of vine4 ,now pour about an inch of water in a tumbler or cup and color it with a few drops of red ink4 ,then stand some of the pieces of grape vine in the colored water4 ,in a few hours the colored water will appear at the upper ends of the sticks4 ,capillary force has caused the colored water to rise through the small tubes in the vine4 ,repeat this experiment with twigs of several kinds of trees and soft green plants1 as elm1 maple1 sunflower1 corn1 etc4 ,it will not be possible to blow through these twigs1 but the red water will rise through them by osmose1 and in a few hours will appear at the upper ends4 ,if some leaves are left on the stems the colored water will appear in them4 ,some white flowers can be colored in this way4 ,in this manner the stem carries plant food dissolved in water from the roots to the leaves1 and after the leaves have digested it carries it back to various parts of the plant4 ,the stem then serves as a conductor or a passage for food and moisture between roots and leaves4 ,visit a strawberry bed or search for wild strawberry plants4 ,notice that from the older and larger plants are sent out long1 slender1 leafless stems with a bud at the tip4 ,these stems are called runners4 ,find some runners that have formed roots at the tip and have developed a tuft of leaves there1 forming new plants4 ,find some black raspberry plants and notice that some of the canes have bent over and taken root at the tips sending up a new shoot and thus forming a new plant4 ,you know how rapidly wire grass and ,bermuda grass will overrun the garden or farm4 ,one way in which they do this is by sending out underground stems which take root at the joints and so form new plants4 ,another use of the stem then is to produce new plants4 ,on the farm we make use of this habit of stems when we wish to produce new white potato plants4 ,we cut an old potato in pieces and plant them4 ,the buds in the eyes grow and form new plants4 ,one way of getting new grape plants is to take a ripened vine in the fall and cut it in pieces with two or three buds and plant them so that one or both of the buds are covered with soil4 ,the pieces will take root and in the spring will send up new shoots and thus form new plants4 ,you can obtain new plants from geranium1 verbena1 nasturtium and many other flowering plants1 by cutting and planting slips or parts of the stems from them4 ,in parts of the ,south new sweet potato plants are obtained by cutting parts of the stems from growing plants and planting them4 ,florists produce large numbers of new plants by taking advantage of this function of stems4 ,experiment4--,take a white potato which is a thickened stem and place it in a warm1 dark place4 ,it will soon begin to sprout or send out new stems1 and as these new stems grow the potato shrinks and shrivels up4 ,why is this8 ,it is because the starch and other material stored in the potato are being used to feed the new branches4 ,when we plant potatoes in the garden and field the new plants produced from the eyes of the potato are fed by the stored material until they strike root and are able to take care of themselves4 ,all stems store food for the future use of the plant4 ,annual plants1 or those which live but one year1 store food in their stems and leaves during the early part of their growth4 ,during the fruiting or seed forming season this food material is transferred to the seeds and there stored1 and the stems become woody4 ,this is a fact to bear in mind in connection with the harvesting of hay or other fodder crops4 ,if we let the grass stand until the seeds form in the head1 the stem and leaves send their nourishment to the seeds and become woody and of less value than if cut before the seeds are fully formed4 ,in plants of more than one year's growth the stored food is used to give the plant a start the following season1 or for seed production4 ,the rapid growth of leaf and twig on trees and shrubs in spring is made from the food stored in the stem the season before4 ,sago is a form of starch stored in the stem of the sago palm for the future use of the plant4 ,maple sugar is made from the food material stored in the trunk of the maple tree for the rapid growth of twig and leaf in the spring4 ,cane sugar is the food stored in the sugar cane to produce new plants the next season4 ,if we examine the stem of a tree that has been cut down we find that it is woody1 that the wood is arranged in rings or layers and that the outer part of the stem is covered with bark4 ,we will notice also that the wood near the centre of the tree is darker than the outer part4 ,this inner part is called the heart wood of the tree4 ,the lighter wood is called the sap wood4 ,it is through the outer or sap wood that the water taken in by the root is passed up to the leaves where the food which it carries is digested and then sent back to the plant4 ,the returning digested food is sent back largely through the bark4 ,between the bark and the wood is a very thin layer which is called cambium4 ,this is the active growing tissue of the stem4 ,in the spring it is very soft and slippery and causes the bark to peel off easily4 ,this cambium builds a new ring of wood outside of the old wood and a new ring of bark on the inside of the bark4 ,in this way the tree grows in diameter4 ,now if the bark is injured1 or any part of the stem1 all parts below the wound are cut off from the return supply of digested food and their growth is checked4 ,when such a wound does occur1 or if a wound is made by cutting off a branch1 the cambium sets to work to repair the damage by pushing out a new growth which tends to cover the wound4 ,we can help this by covering the wound and keeping the air from it to prevent its drying and to keep disease from attacking it before it is healed4 ,,how ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,the ,,stem ,,may ,,be ,,interfered ,,with ,if there are any peach trees near by1 examine the trunks close to the ground1 even pulling away the soil for a few inches4 ,you will very likely find a mass of gummy substance oozing from the tree4 ,pull this away and in it and in the wood under it will be found one or more yellowish white worms4 ,these are tree borers4 ,they will be found in almost all peach trees4 ,they interfere with the work of the stem and in many cases kill the trees4 ,these worms may be kept somewhat in check by keeping papers wrapped about the lower part of the tree4 ,but the surest way to keep them in check is to dig them out1 spring and fall1 with a knife and wire4 ,borers attack the other fruit trees and also ornamental trees and shrubs4 ,rabbits sometimes gnaw the bark from trees during severe winters4 ,careless workmen sometimes injure the bark of trees by allowing plows and mowing machines or other tools which they are using among them to come in contact with the trees and injure the bark4 ,young trees purchased from the nursery generally have a label fastened to them with a piece of wire4 ,unless this wire is removed or is carefully watched and enlarged from time to time it will cut into the bark as the stem grows and interfere with its work and often kill the top of the tree or injure a main branch4 ,these are a few ways in which the work of the stem is sometimes checked and the plant injured thereby4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,flowers ,in our study of the parts of plants the flower and fruit have been given the last place because in the growing of most farm plants a knowledge of the functions of the flower is of less importance than that of the roots1 leaves and stems4 ,however1 a knowledge of these parts is necessary for successful fruit culture and some other horticultural industries4 ,as with the other parts of the plant our study will not be exhaustive but will be simply an attempt to bring out one or two important truths of value to most farmers4 ,in the study of flowers the specimens used for study will depend upon the time of the year in which the studies are made and need not necessarily be the ones used here for illustration4 ,,function ,,or ,,use ,,of ,,flowers ,,to ,,plants ,of what use is the flower to the plant8 ,you have doubtless noticed that most flowers are followed by fruit or seed vessels4 ,in fact1 the fruit and seeds are really produced from the flower1 and the work of most flowers is to produce seeds in order to provide for new plants4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4 ,a horse-chestnut stem showing leaves1 buds1 and scars where last year's leaves dropped off4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--;,,an ,,underground ,,stem ,buds show distinctly at points indicated by b4 ,to understand how this comes about it will be necessary to study the parts of the flower and find out their individual uses or functions4 ,,parts ,,of ,a ,,flower ,if we take for our study any of the following flowers3 cherry1 apple1 buttercup1 wild mustard1 and start from the outside1 we will find an outer and under part which in most flowers is green4 ,this is called the calyx 7,figs4 #gj-gd74 ,in the buttercup and mustard the calyx is divided into separate parts called sepals4 ,in the cherry1 peach and apple1 the calyx is a cup or tube with the upper edge divided into lobes4 ,above the calyx is a broad spreading corolla which is white or brightly colored and is divided into several distinct parts called petals4 ,the petals of one kind of flower are generally different in shape1 size and color from those of other flowers4 ,in some flowers the petals are united into a corolla of one piece which may be funnel-shaped1 as in the morning glory or petunia of the garden1 or tubular as in the honeysuckle1 wheel-shaped as in the tomato and potato1 or of various other forms4 ,within the corolla are found several bodies having long1 slender stems with yellow knobs on their tips4 ,these are called stamens4 ,the slender stems are called stalks or filaments and the knobs anthers4 ,the anthers of some of the stamens will very likely be found covered with a fine1 yellow powder called pollen4 ,this pollen is produced within the anther which1 when ripe1 bursts and discharges the pollen4 ,the stamens vary greatly in number in different kinds of flowers4 ,in the centre of the cherry1 peach1 or mustard flower will be found an upright slender body called the pistil4 ,in the peach and cherry the pistil has three parts1 a lower rounded1 somewhat swollen part called the ovary1 a slender stem arising from it called the style1 and a slight enlargement at the top of the style called the stigma4 ,the stigma is generally roughened or sticky4 ,if the ovary is split open1 within it will be found a little body called an ovule1 which is to develop into a seed4 ,in the apple flower the pistils will be found to have one ovary with five styles and stigmas and in the ovary will be several ovules4 ,in the buttercup will be found a large number of small pistils1 each consisting of an ovary and stigma4 ,the parts of different flowers will be found to vary in color1 in shape1 in relative size and in number4 ,in some flowers one or more of the parts will be found wanting4 ,examine a number of flowers and find the parts4 ,,functions ,,of ,,the ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,flowers ,now what are the uses of these parts of the flower8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--;,,flower ,,of ,,cherry4 a1 pistil2 b1 stamen2 c1 corolla2 d1 calyx2 e1 section of flower showing ovary with ovule4 7,drawing by ,m4,e4 ,feltham47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4 #a4 ,flower of apple2 b1 stamens2 c1 corolla2 d1 calyx4 #b4 ,section of same2 a1 style2 e1 compound ovary2 f1 filament2 g1 anther4 7,drawing by ,m4,e4 ,feltham47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4 ,a4 ,pistil of flowering raspberry2 e1 ovary2 t1 style2 s1 stigma4 ,b4 ,stamen of flowering raspberry2 f1 filament2 g1 anther2 p1 pollen4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--;,,flower ,,of ,,buttercup4 c1 petals2 d1 sepals2 h1 ripened pistils1 or fruit4 7,drawing by ,m4,e4 ,feltham47 ,if we watch a flower of the peach or cherry from week to week1 we will see that the pistil develops into a peach or cherry which bears within a seed from which a new plant will be produced if the seed is placed under conditions necessary for germination or sprouting4 ,the pistils of the flowers of other plants will be found to develop into fleshy fruits1 hard nuts1 dry pods or husks containing one or more seeds4 ,the work of the pistil or pistils of flowers then is to furnish seeds for the production of new plants4 ,the botanists tell us that a pistil will not produce seeds unless it is fertilized by pollen from the same kind of flower falling on its stigma4 ,the work of the stamen then is to produce pollen to fertilize the pistils4 ,pistils and stamens are both necessary for the production of fruit and seed4 ,they are therefore called the essential or necessary parts of the flower4 ,the botanists also tell us that nature has provided that in most cases the pistils shall be fertilized by the pollen of some other flower than their own1 as this produces stronger seeds4 ,how is the pollen carried from flower to flower8 ,go into the garden or field and watch the bees and butterflies flying about the flowers1 resting on them and crawling into them4 ,they are seeking for nectar which the flower secretes4 ,as they visit plant after plant1 feeding from many flowers1 their bodies become more or less covered with pollen as they brush over the stamens4 ,some of this pollen in turn gets rubbed off on the stigmas of the pistils and they become fertilized4 ,thus the bees and some other insects have become necessary as pollen carriers for some of the flowers and the flowers in turn feed them with sweet nectar4 ,this gives us a hint as to one use of the corollas which spreads out such broad1 brightly-colored1 conspicuous petals4 ,it must be that they are advertisements or sign boards to attract the bees and to tell them where they can find nectar and so lead them unconsciously to carry pollen from flower to flower to fertilize the pistils4 ,the act of carrying pollen to the pistil is called pollination1 and carrying pollen from the stamens of one flower to the pistil of another flower is called cross pollination4 ,if we examine a blossom bud just before it opens we will see only the calyx4 ,everything else will be wrapped up inside of it4 ,evidently1 then1 the calyx is a protecting covering for the other parts of the flower until blossoming time4 ,the corolla will be found carefully folded within the calyx and also helps protect the stamens and pistil4 ,some flowers do not produce bright-colored corollas to attract the bees1 for examples1 the flowers of the grasses1 wheat1 corn1 and other grains1 the willows1 butternuts1 elms1 pines and others4 ,but they produce large amounts of pollen which is carried by the wind to the pistils4 ,you have sometimes noticed in the spring that after a rain the pools of water are surrounded by a ring of yellow powder and you have perhaps thought it was sulphur4 ,it was not sulphur but was composed of millions of pollen grains from flowers4 ,one spring ,sunday ,i laid my hat on the seat in church4 ,when ,i picked it up at the end of the service ,i found considerable dust on it4 ,i brushed the dust off1 but on reaching home ,i found some remaining and noticed that is was yellow1 so ,i examined it with a magnifying glass and found that it was nearly all pollen grains4 ,then ,i rubbed my finger across a shelf in my room and found it slightly dusty2 the magnifying glass showed me that this dust was half pollen4 ,this shows what a great amount of pollen is produced and discharged into the air1 and it shows that very few pistils could escape even if they were under cover of a building4 ,to make sure of cross pollination nature has in some cases placed the stamens and pistils in different flowers on the same plant4 ,this will be found true of the flowers of the squashes1 melons and cucumber4 ,below some of the flower buds will be seen a little squash1 melon or cucumber 7,fig4 #ge74 ,these are the ovaries of pistils and the stigmas will be found within the bud or will be seen when the bud opens4 ,but no stamen will be found here4 ,other flowers on these plants will be found to possess only stamens4 ,these staminate flowers produce pollen and then die4 ,they do not produce any fruit1 but their pollen is necessary for the little cucumbers1 squashes and melons to develop4 ,another example is the corn plant4 ,here the pistils are on the ear1 the corn silk being the styles and stigmas1 while the pollen is produced in the tassel at the top of the plant4 ,with some plants we find that not only are the pistils and stamens in separate flowers but the staminate and pistilate flowers are placed on different plants4 ,this will be found true of the osage orange and the willow4 ,in many flowers that have both stamens and pistils or are perfect flowers the stigmas and pollen ripen at different times4 ,with some varieties of fruit it is found that the pistils cannot be fertilized by pollen of the same variety4 ,this is true of most of our native plums4 ,for example1 the pistils of the wild goose plum cannot be fertilized by pollen of wild goose plums even if it comes from other trees than the one bearing the pistils4 ,they must have pollen from another variety of plum4 ,,value ,,of ,a ,,knowledge ,,of ,,the ,,flower ,many times it happens that a farmer or a gardener wants to start a strawberry bed and buys plants of a variety of berries that have the reputation of being very productive4 ,he plants them and cultivates them carefully1 and at the proper time they blossom very freely1 and there is promise of a large crop1 yet very few berries appear and this continues to be the case4 ,not satisfied with them he buys another variety and plants near them1 and after that the old bed becomes very productive4 ,now why is this8 ,it happens that the flowers of some varieties of strawberries have a great many pistils but no stamens1 or very few stamens1 and there is not pollen enough to fertilize all of the blossoms1 and when such a variety is planted it is necessary to plant near it some variety that produces many stamens and therefore pollen enough to fertilize both varieties in order to be sure of a crop4 ,those strawberries which produce flowers with only pistils are called pistilate varieties1 while those with both stamens and pistils are called perfect varieties 7,fig4 #gh74 ,in planting them there should be at least one row of a perfect variety to every four or five pistilate rows4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4 ,a magnolia flower showing central column of pistils and stamens1 the pistils being above and the stamens below them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--;,,flowers ,,of ,,squash4 ,a1 pistillate flower2 ,b1 staminate flower4 ,a means of insuring cross-pollination4 ,we have learned that certain varieties of plums cannot be fertilized by pollen from the same variety1 and to make them fruitful some other variety must be planted among them to produce pollen that will make them fruitful4 ,this is more or less true of all our fruits4 ,therefore it is not best generally to plant one variety of fruit by itself4 ,not knowing this some orchardists have planted large blocks of a single variety of fruit which has been unfruitful till some other varieties have been planted near them or among them4 ,a knowledge of the necessity of pollination is very important to those gardeners who grow cucumbers1 tomatoes1 melons and other fruiting plants in greenhouses4 ,here in most cases the pollination is done by hand4 ,we noticed that nature provides that most of the flowers shall be cross pollinated4 ,this is particularly true of the flowers of the fruit trees1 and for this reason it is impossible to get true varieties of fruit from seed4 ,for example1 if we plant seeds of the wine sap apple1 the new trees produced from them will not produce the same kind of apple but each tree will produce something different and they will very likely all be poorer than the parent fruit4 ,this is because of the mixture of pollens which fertilize the pistils4 ,knowing this fact the nurseryman plants apple seeds and grows apple seedlings4 ,when these get to be the size of a lead pencil he grafts them1 that is1 he digs them up1 cuts off the tops away down to the root and then takes twigs from the variety he wishes to grow and sets or splices these twigs in the roots of the seedlings and then plants them4 ,the root and the new top unite and produce a tree that bears the same kind of fruit as that produced by the tree from which the twig was taken4 ,these are a few of the reasons why it is well to know something about flowers and their work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--;,,flower ,,of ,a ,,lily4 ,notice how the stigma and the anthers are kept as far as possible from each other to guard against self-pollination and to insure cross-pollination4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4 ,bud and flower of jewel-weed1 or touch-me-not4 ,a4 ,interior of bud4 ,stamens are seen1 but there appears to be no pistil4 ,b4 ,section of bud showing the pistil concealed behind the stamens4 ,c4 ,bee entering flower comes in contact with stamens and is loaded with pollen4 ,d4 ,same bee entering older flower4 ,the stamens have ripened and been pushed off by the lengthened pistil1 which is brushed by the back of the bee1 and thus is pollinated4 ,this is a contrivance to insure cross-pollination4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4 ,a4 ,pistillate flower of strawberry4 ,b4 ,perfect flower of strawberry4 7,drawing by ,m4,e4 ,feltham47 ,,fruit ,the pistil develops and forms the fruit of the plant4 ,this fruit bears seed for the production of new plants4 ,this fruit may be a dry pod like the bean or pea1 or it may be a fleshy fruit like the apple or plum4 ,now the developing pistil or fruit may be checked in its work of seed production by insects and diseases1 and to secure good fruit it is in many cases necessary to spray the fruits just as the leaves are sprayed1 to keep these insects and diseases in check4 ,the fruits of most plants1 like the leaves1 need light and air for their best development1 and it sometimes happens that the branches of the fruit trees grow so thick that the fruits do not get sufficient light and air4 ,this makes it necessary to thin the branches or in other words to prune the tree4 ,some trees also start more fruit than they can properly feed and as a result the ripened fruits are small and the tree is weakened4 ,this makes it necessary to thin the fruits while they are young and undeveloped4 ,,part ,,ii ,soil ,fertility as ,affected by ,farm ,operations and ,farm ,practices ,,the ,,first ,,book ,,of ,,farming ,,part ,,ii ,soil ,fertility as ,affected by ,farm ,operations and ,farm ,practices ,,chapter ,,xvi ,a ,,fertile ,,soil ,what is a fertile soil8 ,the expression a fertile soil is often used as meaning a soil that is rich in plant food4 ,in its broader and truer meaning a fertile soil is one in which are found all the conditions necessary to the growth and development of plant roots4 ,these conditions1 as learned in ,chapter ,,ii1 are as follows3 ,the root must have a firm yet mellow soil4 ,it must be well supplied with moisture4 ,it must be well supplied with air4 ,it must have a certain amount of heat4 ,it must be supplied with available plant food4 ,in order to furnish these needs or conditions the soil must possess certain characteristics or properties4 ,these properties may be grouped under three heads3 ,physical properties2 the moisture1 heat and air conditions needed by the roots4 ,biological properties2 the work of very minute living organisms in the soil4 ,chemical properties2 plant food in the soil4 ,,physical ,,properties ,,of ,a ,,fertile ,,soil ,three very important physical properties of a fertile soil are its ,power to take water falling on the surface4 ,power to absorb water from below4 ,power to hold water4 ,the fertile soil must possess all three of these powers4 ,the relative degrees to which these three powers or properties are possessed determine more than anything else the kind of crops or the class of crops that will grow best on a given soil4 ,these powers depend1 as we learned in ,chapter ,,iv1 on the texture of the soil or the relative amounts of sand1 silt1 clay and humus contained in the soil4 ,the power of admitting a free circulation of air through its pores is also an important property of a fertile soil1 for air is necessary to the life and growth of the roots4 ,this property is dependent also on texture4 ,two other important properties of a fertile soil are power to absorb and power to hold heat4 ,these depend upon the power of the soil to take in warm rain and warm air1 and also upon density and color4 ,the denser or more compact soil and the darker soil having greater power to absorb heat4 ,the compactness of the soil which gives it greater powers to absorb heat weakens its powers to hold it1 because the compactness allows more rapid conduction of heat to the surface1 where it is lost by radiation4 ,the more moisture a soil holds1 the weaker is its heat-holding power1 because the heat is used in warming and evaporating water from the surface of the soil4 ,these important properties or conditions of moisture1 heat and air1 are1 as we have seen1 dependent on soil texture and color1 which in turn are dependent upon the relative amounts of sand1 clay and humus in the soil4 ,we are able to control soil texture and therefore these physical properties to a certain degree by means of tillage and the addition of organic matter or humus 7see ,chapter ,,iv74 ,,biological ,,properties ,,of ,a ,,fertile ,,soil ,biology is the story or science of life2 and the biological properties of the soil have to do with living organisms in the soil4 ,the soil of every fertile field is full of very small or microscopic plants called bacteria or germs4 ,they are said to be microscopic because they are so small that they cannot be seen without the aid of a powerful magnifying glass or microscope4 ,they are so small that it would take about #aj1jjj average-sized soil bacteria or soil germs placed side by side to measure one inch4 ,a knowledge of three classes of these soil germs is of great importance to the farmer4 ,these three classes of germs are3 ,nitrogen-fixing germs4 ,nitrifying germs4 ,denitrifying germs4 ,,nitrogen-,,fixing ,,germs ,we learned in ,chapter ,,viii that nitrogen is one of the necessary elements of plant food1 and that although the air is four-fifths nitrogen1 most plants must take their nitrogen from the soil4 ,there is1 however1 a class of plants called legumes which can use the nitrogen of the air4 ,clover1 alfalfa1 lucern1 cowpea1 soy bean1 snap bean1 vetch and similar plants are legumes4 ,these legumes get the nitrogen from the air in a very curious and interesting manner4 ,it is done through the aid of bacteria or germs4 ,carefully dig up the roots of several legumes and wash the soil from them4 ,on the roots will be found many small enlargements like root galls2 these are called nodules or tubercles4 ,on clover roots these nodules are about the size of the head of a pin while on the soy bean and cowpea they are nearly as large as a pea 7see ,fig4 #cd74 ,these nodules are filled with bacteria or germs and these germs have the power of taking nitrogen from the air which finds its way into the soil4 ,after using the nitrogen the germ gives it to the plant which then uses it to build stem1 leaves and roots4 ,in this way the legumes are able to make use of the nitrogen of the soil air1 and these germs which help them to do it by catching the nitrogen are called nitrogen-fixing germs4 ,the work of these germs makes it possible for the farmer to grow nitrogen1 so to speak1 on the farm4 ,by growing crops of legumes and turning them under to decay in the soil1 or leaving the roots and stubble to decay after the crop is harvested1 he can furnish the following crop with a supply of nitrogen in a very cheap manner and lessen the necessity of buying fertilizer4 ,,nitrifying ,,germs ,almost all the nitrogen of the soil is locked up in the humus and cannot in that condition be used by the roots of plants4 ,the nitrogen caught by the nitrogen-fixing germs and built into the structure of leguminous plants which are grown and turned under to feed other plants cannot be used until the humus1 which is produced by their partial decay1 is broken down and the nitrogen built into other substances upon which the root can feed4 ,the breaking down of the humus and building of the nitrogen into other substances is the work of another set of bacteria or germs called nitrifying germs4 ,these nitrifying germs attack the humus1 break it down1 separate the nitrogen1 cause it to unite with the oxygen of the air and thus build it into nitric acid which can be used by plant roots4 ,this nitric acid if not immediately used will unite with lime or potash or soda or other similar substances and form nitrates1 as nitrate of lime1 nitrate of potash or common saltpetre4 ,these nitrates are soluble in water and can be easily used by plant roots4 ,if there are no plant roots to use them they are easily lost by being washed out of the soil4 ,the work of the nitrifying germs is called nitrification4 ,to do their work well the nitrogen-fixing germs and the nitrifying germs require certain conditions4 ,the soil must be moist4 ,the soil must be well ventilated to supply nitrogen for the nitrogen-fixing germs and oxygen for the nitrifying germs4 ,the soil must be warm4 ,summer temperature is the most favorable4 ,their work begins and continues slowly at a temperature of about forty-five degrees and increases in rapidity as the temperature rises until it reaches ninety or ninety-five4 ,the nitrifying germs require phosphoric acid1 potash and lime in the soil4 ,direct sunlight destroys these bacteria1 therefore they cannot work at the surface of the soil unless it is shaded by a crop4 ,from this we see that these bacteria or germs work best in the soil that has conditions necessary for the growth and development of plant roots4 ,,denitrifying ,,germs ,these germs live on the coarse organic matter of the soil4 ,like the nitrifying germs they need oxygen1 and when they cannot get it more readily elsewhere they take it from the nitric acid and nitrates4 ,this allows the nitrogen of the nitrates to escape as a free gas into the air again1 and the work of the nitrogen-fixing and nitrifying germs is undone and the nitrogen is lost4 ,this loss of nitrogen is most apt to occur when the soil is poorly ventilated1 because of its being very compact1 or when the soil spaces are filled with water4 ,this loss of nitrogen by denitrification can be checked by keeping the soil well ventilated4 ,,chemical ,,properties ,,of ,a ,,fertile ,,soil ,by the term chemical properties we have reference to the chemical composition of the soil1 the chemical changes which take place in the soil1 and the conditions which influence these changes4 ,the sand1 clay and humus of the soil are made up of a great variety of substances4 ,the larger part of these act simply as a mechanical support for the plants and also serve to bring about certain physical conditions4 ,only a very small portion of these substances serve as the direct food of plants and the chemical conditions of these substances are of great importance4 ,in ,chapter ,,viii we learned that plants are composed of several elements and that seven necessary elements are taken from the soil4 ,these seven are nitrogen1 phosphorus1 potassium1 magnesium1 calcium1 iron and sulphur4 ,now a fertile soil must contain these seven elements of plant food and they must be in such form that the plant roots can use them4 ,plant roots can generally get from most soils enough of the magnesium1 calcium1 iron1 and sulphur to produce well developed plants4 ,but the nitrogen1 phosphorus and potassium1 although they exist in sufficient quantities in the soil1 are often in such a form or condition that the roots cannot get enough of one or more of them to produce profitable crops4 ,for this reason these three elements are of particular importance to the farmer for1 in order to keep his soil fertile1 he must so treat it that these elements will be made available or he must add more of them to the soil in the proper form or condition4 ,nitrogen in the soil4--,plant roots use nitrogen in the form of nitric acid and salts of nitrogen called nitrates4 ,but the nitrogen of the soil is very largely found in the humus with the roots cannot use4 ,a chemical change must take place in it and the nitrogen be built into nitric acid and nitrates4 ,this1 we have learned1 is done through the aid of the nitrifying germs4 ,phosphoric acid in the soil4--,phosphorus does not exist pure in the soil4 ,the plant finds it as a phosphoric acid united with the other substances forming phosphates4 ,these are often not available to plants1 but can to a certain extent be made available through tillage and by adding humus to the soil4 ,potash in the soil4--,the plant finds potassium in potash which exists in the soil4 ,potash like phosphoric acid often exists in forms which the plant cannot use but may be made available to a certain extent by tillage1 the addition of humus1 and the addition of lime to the soil4 ,lime in the soil4--,most soils contain the element calcium or lime1 the compound in which it is found1 in sufficient quantities for plant food4 ,but lime is also of importance to the farmer and plant grower because it is helpful in causing chemical changes in the soil which tend to prepare the nitrogen1 phosphoric acid and potash for plant use4 ,it is also helpful in changing soil texture4 ,the chemical changes which make the plant foods available are dependent on moisture1 heat1 and air with its oxygen1 and are therefore dependent largely on texture1 and therefore on tillage4 ,when good tillage and the addition of organic matter and lime do not render available sufficient plant food1 then the supply of available food may be increased by the application of manure and fertilizers4 ,it will be seen that all these classes of properties are necessary to furnish all the conditions for root growth4 ,the proper chemical conditions require the presence of both physical and biological properties and the biological work in the soil requires both chemical and physical conditions4 ,from the farmer's standpoint the physical properties seem to be most important1 for the others are dependent on the proper texture1 moisture1 heat and ventilation which are controlled largely by tillage4 ,therefore the first effort of the farmer to improve the fertility of his soil should be to improve his methods of working the soil4 ,every one of these properties of the fertile soil1 and consequently every one of the conditions necessary for the growth and development of plant roots1 is influenced in some way by every operation performed on the soil1 whether it be plowing1 harrowing1 cultivating1 applying manure1 growing crops1 harvesting1 or anything else1 and the thoughtful farmer will frequently ask himself the question3 ,how is this going to effect the fertility of my soil or the conditions necessary for profitable crop production8 ,,maintenance ,,of ,,fertility ,the important factors in maintaining or increasing the fertility of the soil are3 ,the mechanical operations of tillage1 especially with reference to the control of soil water4 ,the application of manures and fertilizers1 especially with reference to maintaining a supply of humus and plant food4 ,methods or systems of cropping the soil1 with reference to economizing fertility4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,soil ,,water ,the more important tillage tools and tillage operations we studied in ,chapters ,,xi and ,,xii4 ,they will be noticed here only in connection with their influence over soil water1 for in the regulation of this important factor in soil fertility the other conditions of fertility are also very largely controlled4 ,,importance ,,of ,,soil ,,water ,of all the factors influencing the growth of plants1 water is beyond doubt the most important1 and the maintaining of the proper amount of soil water is one of the most important problems of the thinking farmer in controlling the fertility of his soil4 ,,necessity ,,of ,,soil ,,water ,the decay of mineral and organic matter in the soil1 and the consequent setting free of plant food1 can take place only in the presence of moisture4 ,the plant food in barn manures and crops plowed under for green moisture1 can be made available only when there is sufficient moisture in the soil to permit breaking down and decomposition4 ,the presence of moisture in the soil is necessary for the process of nitrification to take place4 ,soil moisture is necessary to dissolve plant food4 ,plant roots can absorb food from the soil only when it is in solution1 and it seems to be necessary that a large quantity of water pass through the plant tissues to furnish the supply of mineral elements required by growth4 ,moisture is necessary to build plant tissues4 ,the quantity of water entering into the structure of growing plants varies from sixty to as high as ninety-five per cent1 of their total weight4 ,during the periods of active growth there is a constant giving off of moisture by the foliage of plants and this must be made good by water taken from the soil by their roots4 ,in a series of experiments at the ,university of ,wisconsin ,agricultural ,experiment ,station1 it was found that in raising oats1 every ton of dry matter grown required #ebb4d tons of water to produce it2 for every ton of dry matter of corn there were required #cji4h tons of water2 a ton of dry red clover requires #deb4h tons of water to grow it4 ,at the ,cornell ,university ,agricultural ,experiment ,station1 a yield of potatoes at the rate of #dej bushels per acre represented a water requirement of #acaj4ge tons of water4 ,,sources ,,and ,,forms ,,of ,,soil ,,water ,the soil which is occupied by the roots of plants receives moisture in the form of rain1 snow and dew from above and free and capillary water rising from below4 ,free water is that form of water which fills our wells1 is found in the bottom of holes dug in the ground during wet seasons1 and is often found standing on the surface of the soil after heavy or long continued rains4 ,it is sometimes called 'ground water' or 'standing water1' and flows under the influence of gravity4 ,free water is not used directly by plants unless they are swamp plants1 and its presence within eighteen inches of the surface is injurious to most farm plants4 ,free water serves as the main source of supply for capillary water4 ,capillary water is water which is drawn by capillary force or soaks into the spaces between the soil particles and covers these particles with a thin film of moisture4 ,it is a direct source of water to plants4 ,capillary water will flow in any direction in the soil1 the direction of flow being determined by texture and dryness1 the flow being stronger toward the more compact and drier parts4 ,if the soil is left lumpy and cloddy then capillary water cannot rise readily from below to take the place of that which is lost by evaporation4 ,if1 however1 the soil is fine and well pulverized1 the water rises freely and continuously to supply the place of that taken by plant roots or evaporation from the surface4 ,,too ,,much ,,water ,some farm lands contain too much water for the growth of farm crops2 for example1 bottom lands which are so low that water falling on the surface cannot run off or soak down into the lower soil4 ,the result is that the spaces between the soil particles are most of the time filled with water1 and this checks ventilation1 which is a necessary factor in soil fertility4 ,this state of affairs occurs also on sloping uplands which are kept wet by spring water or by seepage water from higher lands4 ,some soils are so close and compact that water falling on the surface finds great difficulty in percolating through them1 and therefore renders them too wet for profitable cropping during longer or shorter periods of the year4 ,nearly all such lands can be improved by removing the surplus water through drains4 7,see ,chapter ,,xxv47 ,percolation and ventilation of close compact soils can be improved by mixing lime and organic matter with them4 ,,not ,,enough ,,water ,in some sections of the country1 particularly the arid and semi-arid sections of the ,west1 the soil does not receive a sufficient supply of rain water for the production of profitable yearly crops4 ,these soils are rendered unfertile by the lack of this one all important factor of fertility4 ,they can be made fertile and productive by supplying them with sufficient water through irrigation4 ,the crop-producing power of some lands is lowered even in regions where the rainfall is sufficient1 because these lands are not properly prepared by tillage and the addition of organic matter to absorb and hold the water that comes to them1 or part of the water may be lost or wasted by lack of proper after-tillage or after-cultivation4 ,this state of affairs is of course improved by better preparation to receive water before planting the crop and better methods of after-cultivation to save the water for the use of the crop4 ,,loss ,,of ,,soil ,,water ,aside from what is used by the crops the soil may lose its water in the following ways3 ,rain water which comes to the soil may be lost by running off over the surface of the land4 ,this occurs especially on hilly farms and in the case of close1 compact soils4 ,water may be lost from the soil by leaching through the lower soil4 ,water may be lost from the soil by evaporation from the surface4 ,the soil may lose water by the growth of weeds which are continually pumping water up by their roots and transpiring it from their leaves into the air4 ,,how ,,some ,,farm ,,operations ,,influence ,,soil ,,water ,plowing and soil water4 ,one of the first effects of deeply and thoroughly plowing a close1 compact soil1 is that rain will sink into it readily and not be lost by surface wash4 ,in many parts of the country1 especially the ,south1 great damage is done by the surface washing and gulleying of sloping fields4 ,the shallow layer of soil stirred up by small plows and practice of shallow plowing so prevalent in the ,south takes in the rain readily1 but as the harder soil beneath does not easily absorb the water the shallow layer of plowed soil soon fills1 then becomes mud1 and the whole mass goes down the slope4 ,where the land is plowed deep there is prepared a deep reservoir of loose soil that is able to hold a large amount of water till the harder lower soil can gradually absorb it4 ,the soil stirred and thoroughly broken by the plow serves not only as a reservoir for the rainfall1 but also acts as a mulch over the more compact soil below it1 thus checking the rapid use of capillary water to the surface and its consequent loss by evaporation4 ,the plow which breaks and pulverizes the soil most thoroughly is the one best adapted to fit the soil for receiving and holding moisture4 ,if the plowing is not well done or if the land is too dry when plowed and the soil is left in great coarse lumps and clods1 the air circulates readily among the clods and takes from them what little moisture they may have had and generally the soil is left in a worse condition than if it had not been plowed at all4 ,fall plowing on rolling land and heavy soil leaving the surface rough helps to hold winter snows and rains when they fall1 giving to such fields a more even distribution of soil water in the spring4 ,spring plowing should be done early1 before there is much loss of water from the surface by evaporation4 ,professor ,king1 of the ,university of ,wisconsin ,agricultural ,experiment ,station1 carried on an experiment to see how much soil water could be saved by early plowing4 ,he selected two similar pieces of ground near each other and tested them for water ,april #bith4 ,immediately after testing one piece was plowed4 ,seven days later1 ,may #fth1 he tested them for water again and found that both had lost some water1 but that the piece which was not plowed had lost #i4ac pounds more water per square foot of surface than the plowed piece4 ,this means that by plowing one part a week earlier than the other he saved in it water equal to a rainfall of nearly two inches or at the rate of nearly #bjj tons of water per acre4 ,,hoeing1 ,,raking1 ,,harrowing1 ,,and ,,cultivating ,these operations when properly and thoroughly done tend to supplement the work of the plow in fitting the soil to absorb rain and in making a mulch to check loss by surface evaporation4 ,the entire surface should be worked and the soil should be left smooth and not in ridges4 ,rolling cutters and spring-toothed harrows are apt to leave ridges and should have an attachment for smoothing the surface or be followed by a smoothing harrow4 ,cultivators used to make mulches to save water should have many narrow teeth rather than few broad ones4 ,if a large broad-toothed tool is used to destroy grass and large weeds it should be followed by a smoother to level the ridges and thus lessen the evaporating surface4 ,the soil should be cultivated as soon after a rain as it can be safely worked4 ,rolling compacts the soil and starts a quicker capillary movement of water toward the surface and a consequent loss by evaporation4 ,when circumstances will permit1 the roller should be followed by a light harrow to restore the mulch4 ,ridging the land tends to lessen the amount of moisture in the soil because it increases the evaporating surface4 ,it should be practiced only on wet land or in early spring to secure greater heat4 ,drains placed in wet land remove free water to a lower depth and increase the depth of soil occupied by capillary water and therefore increase the body of soil available to plant roots4 ,,manures ,,and ,,soil ,,water ,humus1 as we learned in ,chapter ,,iv1 has a very great and therefore important influence over the water-absorbing and water-holding powers of soils4 ,therefore1 any of the farm practices that tend to increase or diminish the amount of humus in the soil are to be seriously considered because of the effect on the water content of the soil4 ,for this reason the application of barn manures and green crops turned under tend to improve the water conditions of most soils4 ,the mixing of heavy applications of coarse manures or organic matter with light sandy soils may make them so loose and open that they will lose moisture rapidly4 ,when this practice is necessary the land should be rolled after the application of the manure4 ,,methods ,,of ,,cropping ,,and ,,soil ,,water ,constant tillage hastens the decay of organic matter in the soil4 ,hence any method or system of cropping which does not occasionally return to the soil a new supply of humus tends to weaken the powers of the soil toward water4 ,all of the operations and practices which influence soil water also affect the other conditions necessary to root growth2 namely1 texture1 ventilation1 heat1 and plant food1 and those operations and practices which properly control and regulate soil water to a large degree control and regulate soil fertility4 ,,selection ,,of ,,crops ,,with ,,reference ,,to ,,soil ,,water ,while climatic conditions determine the general distribution of plants1 the amount of water which a soil holds and can give up to plants during the growing season determines very largely the crops to which it is locally best adapted4 ,with crops that can be grown on a wide range of soils the water which the soil can furnish largely determines the time of maturing1 the yield1 and often the quality of the crop4 ,with such a crop a small supply of water tends to hasten maturity at the expense of yield4 ,the sweet potato1 when wanted for early market and high prices1 is grown on the light sandy soils called early truck soils4 ,these soils hold from five to seven per cent1 of water4 ,that is1 the texture is such that during the early part of the growing season one hundred pounds of this soil is found to hold an average of from five to seven pounds of water under field conditions4 ,this soil1 holding little water1 warms up early and thus hastens growth4 ,then as the warmer summer weather advances1 the water supply diminishes1 growth is checked1 and the crop matures rapidly4 ,on account of the small amount of water and the early checking of growth1 the yield of the crop is less than if grown on a soil holding more water1 but the earlier maturity makes it possible to realize a much higher price per bushel for the crop4 ,a sweet potato grown on such a light soil is dry and starchy1 a quality which brings a higher price in the northern markets than does the moist1 soggy potato grown on heavier soils which contain more water and produce larger yields4 ,early white potatoes1 early cabbage1 water melons1 musk-melons1 tomatoes and other early truck and market garden crops are also grown on light soil holding from five to seven per cent4 of water4 ,the main crop of potatoes and cabbage and the canning crop of tomatoes are grown on the loam soils holding from ten to eighteen per cent4 of water4 ,such soils produce a later though much larger yield4 ,upland cotton produces best on a deep loam that is capable of furnishing a uniform supply of about ten or twelve per cent4 of water during the growing season4 ,sea ,island ,cotton grows best on a light1 sandy soil holding only five per cent4 of water4 ,on light1 sandy soils the ,upland ,cotton produces small plants with small yield of lint1 while on clay and bottom land1 which are apt to have large amounts of water1 the plants grow very large and produce fewer bolls1 which are very late in maturing4 ,corn1 while it will grow on a wide range of soils1 produces best on loam or moist bottom lands holding about fifteen per cent4 of water during the growing season4 ,the grasses and small grains do best on cool1 firm soils holding eighteen to twenty-two per cent4 of water4 ,sorghum or ,molasses ,cane grows best on good corn soil1 while the sugar cane of the ,gulf ,states requires a soil with twenty-five per cent4 of water for best growth4 ,while the amount of water which a soil will hold is determined largely by texture1 it is also considerably influenced by the amount and frequency of rainfall and the location of the soil as to whether it be upland or bottom land4 ,the average percentage of water held by a soil during the growing season may be approximately determined in the following manner3 ,sample the soil in one of the following methods3 ,take to the field a spade1 a box that will hold about half a bushel1 and a pint or quart glass jar with a tight cover4 ,if a cultivated field1 select a place free from grass and weeds4 ,dig a hole one foot deep and about eighteen inches square4 ,trim one side of the hole square4 ,now from this side cut a slice about three inches thick and one foot deep1 quickly place this in the box and thoroughly break lumps and mix together1 then fill jar and cork tightly4 ,another method is to take a common half-inch or two-inch carpenter's auger and bore into the soil with it4 ,pull it out frequently and put the soil which comes up with it into the jar until you have a sample a foot deep4 ,if one boring twelve inches deep does not give sufficient soil make another boring or two close by and put all into the jar4 ,take the sample1 by whatever method obtained1 weigh out ten or twenty ounces of the moist soil and dry it at a temperature just below #bab degrees4 ,when it is thoroughly dry weigh again4 ,the difference between the two weights will be the amount of water held by the sample4 ,now divide this by the weight of the dry sample and the result will be the per cent4 of water held by the soil4 ,several samples taken from different parts of the field will give an average for the field4 ,repeat this every week or oftener through the season and an approximate estimate of the water-holding capacity of the soil will be obtained and consequently an indication of the crops to which the soil is best adapted4 ,,example4 ,weight of a soil sample1 #bj ounces4 ,when dried this sample weighs #ag ounces4 #bj - #ag #b1 the water held by the soil4 #b4be #ag4ge 4#ab plus4 ,this soil held a little over twelve per cent4 of water4 ,if this soil continues to give about the same result for successive tests during the growing season1 the results would indicate a soil adapted to cotton1 late truck or corn4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,the ,,after-,,cultivation ,,of ,,crops ,the term after-cultivation is here used in referring to those tillage operations which are performed after the crop is planted4 ,synonymous terms are cultivation1 inter-tillage1 working the crop4 ,after-cultivation influences the texture1 ventilation1 heat1 plant food and moisture factors of fertility1 but most particularly the moisture factor4 ,under ordinary circumstances the greatest benefit derived from after-cultivation when properly performed is the saving of soil water for the use of the crop4 ,,loss ,,of ,,water ,,by ,,evaporation ,soil water is seldom at rest unless the soil be frozen solid4 ,when rain falls on a fertile soil there is a downward movement of water4 ,when the rain ceases1 water begins to evaporate from the surface of the soil4 ,its place is taken by water brought from below by capillarity4 ,this is in turn evaporated and replaced by more from below4 ,this process continues with greater or less rapidity according to the dryness of the air and the compactness of the soil4 ,,loss ,,of ,,water ,,through ,,weeds ,we learned in a former chapter that during their growth farm plants require an amount of water equal to from #cjj to #ejj times their dry weight4 ,weeds require just as much water and some of them probably more than the cultivated plants4 ,this water is largely absorbed by the roots and sent up to the leaves where it is transpired into the air and is lost from the soil1 and therefore is unavailable to the growing crop until it again falls onto the soil4 ,in some parts of the country1 particularly the semi-arid ,west1 the rainfall is not sufficient to supply the soil with enough water to grow such crops as it could otherwise produce4 ,in the moister regions the rainfall is not evenly distributed throughout the growing season1 and there are longer or shorter intervals between rains when the loss of water through evaporation and weeds is apt to be greater than the rainfall4 ,for these reasons it is best to check these losses and save the water in the soil for the use of the crops4 ,,saving ,,the ,,water ,this can be done by3 ,preventing the growth of weeds and by checking losses by evaporation with a soil mulch4 ,,time ,,to ,,cultivate ,a seedling plant is easiest killed just as it has started into growth4 ,the best time to kill a plant starting from an underground stem or a root is just as soon as it appears above the surface in active growth4 ,the best time to cultivate1 then1 to kill weeds is as soon as the weeds appear4 ,at this time large numbers can be killed with the least of effort4 ,do not let them get to be a week or two old before getting after them4 ,in planting some crops the ground between the rows becomes trampled and compact4 ,this results in active capillarity which brings water to the surface and it is lost by evaporation4 ,every rainfall tends to beat the soil particles together and form a crust which enables the capillary water to climb to the surface and escape into the air4 ,this loss by evaporation should be constantly watched for and the soil should be stirred and a mulch formed whenever it becomes compact or a crust is formed4 ,the proper time to cultivate1 then1 to save water is as soon as weeds appear or as soon as the surface of the soil becomes compact or crusted by trampling1 by the beating of rain or from any other cause1 whether the crop is up or not4 ,the cultivation should start as soon after a rain as the soil is dry enough to work safely4 ,the surface soil should always be kept loose and open4 ,the efficacy of the soil mulch depends on the thoroughness and frequency of the operation4 ,it is particularly beneficial during long1 dry periods4 ,during such times it is not necessary to wait for a rain to compact the soil2 keep the cultivators going1 rain or no rain4 ,,tools ,,for ,,after-,,cultivation ,the main objects of after-cultivation are to destroy weeds and to form a soil mulch for the purpose of controlling soil moisture4 ,these ends are secured by shallow surface work4 ,it is not necessary to go more than two or three inches deep4 ,deeper work will injure the roots of the crop4 ,therefore the proper tools for after-cultivation in the garden are the hoe and rake and for field work narrow-toothed harrows and cultivators or horse-hoes which stir the whole surface thoroughly to a moderate depth4 ,these field tools are supplemented in some cases by the hand hoe1 but over wide areas of country the hoe never enters the field4 ,a light spike-toothed harrow can be used on corn1 potatoes1 and similar crops1 and accomplish the work of cultivation rapidly until they get to be from four to six inches high2 after that cultivators which work between the rows should be used4 ,a very useful class of tools for destroying weeds in the earlier stages are the so-called weeders4 ,they somewhat resemble a horse hay rake and have a number of flexible wire teeth which destroy shallow rooted weeds but slip around the more firmly rooted plants of the crop4 ,these weeders must be used frequently to be of much value1 for after a weed is well rooted the weeder cannot destroy it4 ,there is a larger class of hand wheel hoes which are very useful in working close planted garden and truck crops4 ,they either straddle the row1 working the soil on both sides at the same time1 or1 running between the rows1 work the soil to a width of from six to eighteen inches4 ,for best results with the weeder and hand wheel hoes the soil should be thoroughly prepared before planting by burying all trash with the plow and breaking all clods with harrow and roller4 ,the objection made to the deep-working implements1 like the plow1 is that they injure the crop by cutting its feeding roots1 and this has been found by careful experiment and observation to diminish the crop4 ,some farmers object to using a light harrow for cultivation in the early stages of the crop because they say the harrow will destroy the crop as well as the weeds4 ,this danger is not so great as it seems4 ,the seeds of the crop are deeper in the soil than the seeds of the weeds which germinate and appear so quickly4 ,the soil has also been firmed about them4 ,hence they have a firmer hold on the soil and but few of them are destroyed if the work is carefully done4 ,in working crops not only should weeds be destroyed but also surplus plants of the crop1 as these have the same effect as weeds2 namely1 they occupy the soil and take plant food and moisture which if left to fewer plants would produce a larger harvest4 ,,hilling ,,and ,,ridging ,except in low1 wet ground1 the practice of hilling or ridging up crops is now considered by those who have given the matter thorough study1 to be unnecessary1 flat and shallow culture being cheaper4 ,it saves more moisture1 and for this reason1 in the majority of cases1 produces larger crops4 ,sometimes during very long-continued periods of wet weather weeds and grass become firmly established among the plants of the crop4 ,under such circumstances it is necessary to use on the cultivator teeth having long1 narrow sweeps that will cut the weeds just beneath the surface of the soil4 ,sometimes a broad-toothed tool is used that will throw sufficient soil over the large weeds near the rows to smother them4 ,the condition to be met and the effect of the operation should always be given serious thought4 ,we have considered after-cultivation as influencing soil fertility by checking a loss of water by evaporation and weed transpiration1 and this is its main influence but other benefits follow4 ,keeping the surface soil loose and open benefits fertility because it directly aids the absorption of rain1 favors ventilation1 and has a beneficial influence over soil temperature4 ,indirectly through these factors it aids the work of the beneficial soil bacteria and the chemical changes in the process of preparing plant food for crop use4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,farm ,,manures ,,functions ,,of ,,manures ,,and ,,fertilizers ,in ,chapter ,,ii we learned that the roots of plants for their growth and development need a soil that is firm yet mellow1 moist1 warm1 ventilated and supplied with plant food4 ,we also learned that of the plant foods there is often not enough available nitrogen1 phosphoric acid1 potash and lime for the needs of the growing plants4 ,manures and fertilizers are applied to the soil for their beneficial effects on these necessary conditions for root growth and therefore to assist in maintaining soil fertility4 ,,classification ,,of ,,manures ,,and ,,fertilizers ,manures may be classified as follows3 ,barn or stable manures1 ,farm manures4 ,green-crop manures1 ,composts4 ,commercial ,materials furnishing nitrogen1 fertilizers phosphoric acid1 or artificial potash1 manures4 lime4 ,,importance ,,of ,,farm ,,manures ,of these two classes of manures the farmer should rely chiefly on the farm manures letting the commercial fertilizers take a secondary place because3 ,farm manures are complete manures2 that is they contain all the necessary elements of plant food4 ,farm manures add to the soil large amounts of organic matter or humus4 ,the decay of organic matter produces carbonic acid which hastens the decay of mineral matter in the soil and so increases the amount of available plant food4 ,the organic matter changes the texture of the soil4 ,it makes sandy soils more compact and therefore more powerful to hold water and plant food4 ,it makes heavy clay soils more open and porous1 giving them greater power to absorb moisture and plant food4 ,this admits also of better circulation of the air in the soil1 and prevents baking in dry weather4 ,farm manures influence all of the conditions necessary for root growth while the commercial fertilizers influence mainly the plant food conditions4 ,the farm manures are good for all soils and crops4 ,they are lasting in their effects on the soil4 ,,barn ,,or ,,stable ,,manure ,barn or stable manure consists of the solid and liquid excrement of any of the farm animals mixed with the straw or other materials used as bedding for the comfort of the animals and to absorb the liquid parts4 ,the liquid parts should be saved1 as they contain more than half of the nitrogen and potash in the manure4 ,the value of barn manure for improving the soil conditions necessary for root growth depends in a measure upon the plant food in it1 but chiefly upon the very large proportion of organic matter which it contains when it is applied to the soil4 ,these factors are influenced somewhat3 by the kind of animal that produces the manure2 by the kind of food the animal receives2 by the kind and amount of litter or bedding used2 but they depend particularly on the way the manure is cared for after it is produced4 ,,loss ,,of ,,value ,improper care of the manure may cause it to diminish in value very much4 ,loss by leaching4 ,if the manure is piled against the side of the stable where water from the roof can drip on it1 as is often the case1 or if it is piled in an exposed place where heavy rain can beat on it1 the rain water in leaching through the manure washes out of it nitrogen and potash1 which pass off in the dark brown liquid that oozes from the base of the pile4 ,loss by heating or fermenting4 ,when barn manure is thrown into piles it soon heats and throws off more or less steam and gas4 ,this heating of the manure is caused by fermentation or the breaking down of the materials composing the manure and the forming of new compounds4 ,this fermentation is produced by very small or microscopic plants called bacteria4 ,the fermentation of the manure is influenced by the following conditions3 ,a certain amount of heat is necessary to start the work of the bacteria4 ,after they have once started they keep up and increase the temperature of the pile until it gets so hot that sometimes a part of the manure is reduced to ashes4 ,the higher the temperature the more rapid the fermentation4 ,this can be seen particularly in piles of horse manure4 ,the bacteria which produce the most rapid fermentation in manure need plenty of air with its oxygen4 ,therefore fermentation will be more or less rapid according as the manure is piled loosely or in a close compact mass4 ,a certain amount of moisture is necessary for the fermentation to take place1 but if the manure is made quite wet the temperature is lowered and the fermentation is checked4 ,the water also checks the fermentation by limiting the supply of air that can enter the pile4 ,the composition of the manure influences the fermentation4 ,the presence of considerable amounts of soluble nitrogen hastens the rapidity of the fermentation4 ,now when the manure ferments a large part of the organic matter in it is broken down and changed into gases4 ,the gas formed most abundantly by the fermentation is carbonic acid gas1 which is produced by the union of oxygen with carbon of the organic matter4 ,the formation of this gas means a loss of humus4 ,this loss can be noticed by the fact that the pile gradually becomes smaller4 ,the next most abundant product of the fermentation is water vapor which can often be seen passing off in clouds of steam4 ,when manure ferments rapidly the nitrogen in it is changed largely into ammonia4 ,this ammonia combines with part of the carbonic acid gas and forms carbonate of ammonia1 a very volatile salt which rapidly changes to a vapor and is lost in the atmosphere4 ,this causes a great loss of nitrogen during the rapid decomposition of the manure4 ,this loss can be detected by the well known odor of the ammonia which is particularly noticeable about horse stables and piles of horse manure4 ,besides these gases a number of compounds of nitrogen1 potash1 etc41 are formed which are soluble in water4 ,it is these that form the dark brown liquid that sometimes oozes out from the base of the manure heap4 ,at the ,cornell ,university ,agricultural ,experiment ,station1 the following experiment was carried out to find out how much loss would take place from a pile of manure3 ,four thousand pounds of manure from the horse stable were placed out of doors in a compact pile and left exposed from ,april #beth to ,september #bb;d4 ,the results were as follows3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,april #be4 ,sept4 #bb4 ,loss per cent4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,gross weight #d1jjj lbs4 #a1gcj lbs4 #eg ,nitrogen #ai4f #g4gi #fj ,phos4 acid #ad4h #g4gi #dg ,potash #cf #h4fe #gf ,value of plant food per ton #b4cj #a4jf ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,this shows a loss of more than half the bulk of the manure and more than half the plant food contained in it4 ,,checking ,,the ,,losses ,the first step to be taken in preserving the manure or in checking losses is to provide sufficient bedding or litter in the stable to absorb and save all the liquid parts4 ,the losses from fermentation of hot manures like horse manure may be largely checked by mixing with the colder manure from the cow stable4 ,losses from fermentation may also be checked4 ,by piling compactly1 which keeps the air out4 ,by moistening the pile1 which lowers the temperature and checks the access of oxygen4 ,the manure may be hauled directly to the field each day and spread on the surface or plowed in4 ,this method is the best when practicable because fermentation of the manure will take place slowly in the soil and the gases produced will be absorbed and retained by the soil4 ,gypsum or land plaster is often sprinkled on stable floors and about manure heaps to prevent the loss of ammonia4 ,copperas or blue stone1 kainite and superphosphate are sometimes used for the same purpose4 ,there is1 however1 nothing better nor so good for this purpose as dry earth containing a large percentage of humus4 ,losses from washing or leaching by rain may be prevented by piling the manure under cover or by hauling it to the field as soon as produced and spreading it on the surface or plowing it under4 ,,applying ,,the ,,manure ,,to ,,the ,,soil ,from ten to twenty tons per acre is considered a sufficient application of barn manure for most farm crops4 ,larger amounts are sometimes applied to the soil for truck and market garden crops4 ,barn manures are applied to the soil by these methods3 ,the manure is sometimes hauled out from the barn and placed in a large pile in the field or in many small piles where it remains for some time before being spread and plowed or harrowed in4 ,some farmers spread it on the field and allow it to lie some time before plowing it in4 ,it is sometimes spread as soon as hauled to the field and is immediately plowed in or mixed with the soil4 ,this last is the safest and most economical method so far as the manure alone is concerned4 ,when the manure is left in a large pile it suffers losses due to fermentation and leaching4 ,at the ,cornell ,university ,agricultural ,experiment ,station1 five tons of manure from the cow stable1 including three hundred pounds of gypsum which was mixed with it1 were exposed in a compact pile out of doors from ,april #beth to ,september #bb;d4 ,the result was as follows3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,april #be ,sept #bb ,loss per cent4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,gross weight #aj1jjj lbs4 #e1abe lbs4 #di ,nitrogen #dg #bh #da ,phos4 acid #cb #bf #ai ,potash #dh #dd #h ,value of plant food per ton #b4bi #a4fj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,when distributed over the field in small piles and allowed to remain so for some time1 losses from fermentation take place1 and the rain washes plant food from the pile into the soil under and immediately about it4 ,this results in an uneven distribution of plant food over the field1 for when the manure is finally scattered and plowed in1 part of the field is fertilized with washed out manure while the soil under and immediately about the location of the various piles is often so strongly fertilized that nothing can grow there unless it be rank1 coarse weeds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--;,a ,,crop ,,of ,,cowpeas4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--,,red ,,clover4 ,when the manure is spread on the surface and allowed to lie for some time it is apt to become dry and hard1 and when finally plowed in1 decays very slowly4 ,when the manure is plowed in or mixed with the soil as soon as applied to the field there results an even distribution of plant food in the soil1 fermentation takes place gradually and all gases formed are absorbed by the soil1 there is very little loss of valuable nitrogen and organic matter1 and the fermentation taking place in the soil also aids in breaking down the mineral constituents of the soil and making available the plant food held by them4 ,therefore it seems best to spread the manure and plow it in or mix it with the soil as soon as it is hauled to the field1 when not prevented by bad weather and other more pressing work4 ,,proper ,,condition ,,of ,,manure ,,when ,,applied ,a large part of the value of barn manure lies in the fact that it consists largely of organic matter1 and therefore has an important influence on soil texture1 and during its decay in the soil produces favorable chemical changes in the soil constituents4 ,therefore it will produce its greatest effect on the soil when applied fresh4 ,for this reason it is generally best to haul the manure to the field and mix it with the soil as soon after it is produced as possible4 ,if coarse manures are mixed with light1 sandy soils it is best to follow with the roller1 otherwise the coarse manure may cause the soil to lie so loose and open that both soil and manure will lose moisture so rapidly that fermentation of the manure will be stopped and the soil will be unfit for planting4 ,if it is desired to apply manure directly to delicate rooted truck and vegetable crops it is best to let it stand for some time until the first rank fermentation has taken place and the manure has become rotten4 ,a good practice is to apply the manure in its fresh condition to coarse feeding crops like corn1 and then follow the corn by a more delicate rooted crop which requires the manure to be in a more decomposed condition than is necessary for the corn4 ,in this case the corn is satisfied and the remaining manure is in proper condition for the following crop when it is planted4 ,another practice is to broadcast the coarse manure on grass land and then when the hay is harvested the sod and remaining manure are plowed under for the following crop4 ,a study of root development in ,chapter ,,ii4 tells us that most of the manure used for cultivated crops should be broadcasted and thoroughly mixed with the soil4 ,a small amount may be placed in the drill or hill and thoroughly mixed with the soil for crops that are planted in rows or furrows in order to give the young plant a rapid start4 ,for the vegetable garden and flower garden and lawns1 it is best to apply only manure that has been piled for some time and has been turned over several times so that it is well rotted and broken up4 ,there may not be a single farm where it will be possible to carry out to the letter these principles applying to the treatment and application of barn manures4 ,this is because climate1 crops and conditions vary in different parts of the country and on different farms4 ,therefore we should study carefully our conditions and the principles and make our practice so combine the two as to produce the best and most economical results under the circumstances4 ,if we can get manure out in the winter it will very much lessen the rush of spring work4 ,in some parts of the country on account of deep snows1 heavy rainfall and hilly fields1 it is not advisable to apply manure in the winter4 ,this will necessitate storing the manure4 ,if conditions are such that we can get the manure on to the land as soon as it is made1 it should be applied to land on which a crop is growing or land which is soon to be planted4 ,if land is not intended for an immediate crop1 put a cover crop on it4 ,,composts ,composts are collections of farm trash or rubbish1 as leaves1 potato tops1 weeds1 road and ditch scrapings1 fish1 slaughter-house refuse1 etc41 mixed in piles with lime1 barn manure1 woods-earth1 swamp muck1 peat and soil4 ,the object of composting these materials is to hasten their decay and render available the plant food in them4 ,there are certain disadvantages in composting1 namely3 ,expense of handling and carting on account of bulk4 ,low composition4 ,loss of organic matter by fermentation4 ,compost heaps serve as homes for weed seeds1 insects and plant diseases4 ,nevertheless1 all waste organic matter on the farm should be saved and made use of as manure4 ,these materials when not too coarse may be spread on the surface of the soil and plowed under2 they should never be burned unless too coarse and woody or foul with weed seeds1 insects and disease4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--,,soy ,,beans ,,in ,,young ,,orchard4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--;,a ,,young ,,alfalfa ,,plant ,,just ,,coming ,,into ,,flower4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,farm ,,manures--,,concluded ,,green-,,crop ,,manures ,green-crop manures are crops grown and plowed under for the purpose of improving the fertility of the soil4 ,the main object of turning these crops under is to furnish the soil with humus4 ,any crop may be used for this purpose4 ,by growing any of the class of crops called ,legumes we may add to the soil not only humus but also nitrogen4 ,cowpeas1 beans1 clover1 vetch and plants having foliage1 flowers1 seed pods and seeds like them are called ,legumes4 ,most of the farm plants take their nitrogen from the soil4 ,this nitrogen is taken in the form of nitric acid and nitrogen salts dissolved in soil water4 ,the legumes1 however1 are able to use the free nitrogen which forms four-fifths of the atmosphere4 ,this they do not of their own power but through the aid of very minute plants called bacteria or nitrogen-fixing germs4 ,these germs are so small that they cannot be seen without the use of a powerful microscope4 ,it would take ten thousand average sized bacteria placed side by side to measure one inch4 ,these little germs make their homes in the roots of the legumes1 causing the root to enlarge at certain points and form tubercles or nodules 7,figs4 #cd and #ce74 ,carefully dig up a root of clover1 cowpea1 soy bean or other legume and wash the soil from it4 ,you will find numbers of the little tubercles or nodules4 ,on the clover they will be about the size of a pin head or a little larger4 ,on the soy bean they will be nearly as large as the beans4 ,these nodules are filled with colonies or families of bacteria which take the free nitrogen from the air which penetrates the soil and give it over to the plant in return for house rent and starch or other food they may have taken from the plant4 ,in an experiment at ,cornell ,university ,agricultural ,experiment ,station1 in #ahif1 clover seeds were sown ,august #ast1 and the plants were dug ,november #dth1 three months and four days after the seeds were sown4 ,the clovers were then weighed and tested and the following results were obtained3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,nitrogen ,,in ,,an ,,acre ,,of ,,clovers4 ---------------------------------------- ---- ,lbs4 in tops4 ,lbs4 in roots4 ,lbs41 total4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,crimson ,clover #abe4bh #cj4ff #aee4id ,mammoth ,clover #fg4eg #gh4ci #ade4if ,red ,clover #fc4aa #dj4be #ajc4cf ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,a large part of the nitrogen found in these plants was undoubtedly taken by the roots from the soil air4 ,besides adding humus and nitrogen to the soil the legumes1 being mostly deep-rooted plants1 are able to take from the subsoil food which is out of reach of other plants4 ,this food is distributed throughout the plant and when the plant is plowed under the food is deposited in the upper soil for the use of shallow-rooted plants4 ,,benefits ,the benefits derived from green crop manuring then are as follows3 ,we add to the soil organic matter or humus which is so helpful in bringing about the conditions necessary for root growth4 ,by using the legumes for our green manure crops we may supply the soil with nitrogen taken from the air4 ,we return to the surface soil not only the plant food taken from it but also plant food brought from the subsoil by the roots of the green manure plants4 ,,character ,,of ,,best ,,plants ,,for ,,green ,,crop ,,manuring ,the plants best adapted to green crop manuring are deep-rooted1 heavy-foliaged plants4 ,of these the legumes are by far the best1 as they collect the free nitrogen from the air which other plants cannot do4 ,this enables the farmer to grow nitrogen which is very expensive to buy4 ,,the ,,time ,,for ,,growing ,,green ,,manure ,,crops ,green manure crops may be grown at any time that the soil is not occupied by other crops1 provided other conditions are suitable4 ,land which is used for spring and summer crops often lies bare and idle during fall and winter4 ,a hardy green manure crop planted after the summer crop is harvested will make considerable growth during the fall and early spring1 and this can be plowed under for the use of the following summer crops4 ,if there is a long interval of time during spring or summer when the land is bare1 that is a good time for a green manure crop4 ,green manure crops are often planted between the rows of other crops such as corn or cotton at the last working of the crop for the benefit of the crop which is to follow4 ,it is advisable to arrange for a green manure crop at least once in three or four years4 ,,leguminous ,,green ,,manure ,,crops ,cowpea4 7,field pea1 stock pea1 black pea1 black-eyed pea1 clay pea1 etc47 7,fig4 #gi47 ,the cowpea is perhaps the most important leguminous plant grown for soil improvement in the ,south4 ,it will grow anywhere south of the ,ohio ,river and can be grown with fair success in many localities farther north4 ,it is a tender annual1 that is1 it is killed by frost and makes its entire growth from seed to seed in a single season4 ,it should therefore be planted only during the spring and summer4 ,this crop not only has power like the other legumes to take nitrogen from the air1 but it is also a strong feeder1 that is1 it can feed upon mineral plant food in the soil that other plants are unable to make use of4 ,for this reason it will grow on some of the poorest soils1 and is a good plant with which to begin the improvement of very poor land4 ,it is a deep-rooted plant4 ,on the farm of the ,hampton ,normal and ,agricultural ,institute cowpea roots have been traced to the depth of sixty-one inches4 ,cowpeas will grow on almost any land that is not too wet4 ,from one and one-half to three bushels of seed are used per acre4 ,these are sown broadcast and harrowed in or are planted in drills or furrows and cultivated a few times4 ,aside from its value as a green manure crop the cowpea is useful as food for man and the farm animals4 ,the green pods are used as string beans or snaps4 ,the ripened seeds are used as a food and the vines make good fodder for the farm animals4 ,experiments at the ,louisiana ,experiment ,station show that one acre of cowpeas yielding #c1igj4ch pounds of organic matter1 turned under1 gave to the soil #fd4ie pounds of nitrogen1 #bj4ci pounds of phosphoric acid and #aaj4ef pounds of potash4--,farmer's ,bulletin1 #af ,u4,s4 ,dept4 of ,agriculture4 ,it is now grown in all the ,states south of the ,ohio ,river1 and in #ahii there were planted nearly #hjj1jjj acres to the crop4 ,basing our estimate on the amount of nitrogen stored in the soil by this crop1 it is fair to say that fully fifteen million pounds of this valuable substance were collected and retained as a result of the planting of the cowpea alone4 ,this at fifteen cents per pound 7the market price of nitrogen7 would be worth something more than #b1jjj1jjj for nitrogen alone4--,year ,book of the ,department of ,agriculture1 #aijb4 ,the ,clovers4--,these are the most extensively grown plants for green manure purposes in the ,united ,states4 ,they are deep-rooted1 and are able to use mineral food that is too tough for other plants4 ,they furnish large crops of hay or green forage and a good aftermath and sod to turn under as green manure1 or the entire crop may be plowed under4 ,red ,clover is the most widely planted 7,fig4 #hj74 ,it is a perennial plant and grows from the most northern ,states to the northern border of the ,gulf ,states4 ,it grows best on the loams and heavier soils well supplied with water1 but not wet4 ,it is sown broadcast at the rate of from ten to twenty pounds of seed per acre4 ,in the ,north it is generally sown in the spring on fields of winter grain4 ,in the ,south1 ,september and ,october are recommended as the proper sowing times4 ,it is the custom to let it grow two years1 cutting it for hay and seed1 and then to turn the aftermath and sod under4 ,mammoth ,red ,clover1 also called sapling clover and pea-vine clover1 closely resembles the red clover1 but is ranker in growth and matures two or three weeks later4 ,it is better adapted to wet land than the red clover4 ,crimson ,clover1 also called ,german clover and ,italian clover1 is a valuable green manure crop in the central and southern ,states east of the ,mississippi4 ,it is a hardy annual in that section and is generally sown from the last of ,july to the middle of ,october1 either by itself or with cultivated crops at their last working4 ,fifteen and twenty pounds of seed are used to the acre4 ,it makes a good growth during the fall and early winter and is in blossom and ready to cut or plow under in ,april or ,may4 ,it grows at a season when the cowpea will not live4 ,crimson clover will grow on soils too light for other clovers4 ,the ,soy ,bean1 also called soja bean and ,japanese pea1 is another leguminous crop used for green manuring 7,fig4 #ha74 ,it was introduced into this country from ,japan and in some localities is quite extensively planted4 ,it grows more upright than the cowpea and produces a large amount of stem and foliage which may be used for fodder or turned under for green manure ,the seeds are used for food for man and beast4 ,the soy bean is planted and cared for in the same manner as the cowpea4 ,the ,canadian ,field ,pea is sometimes grown in the north as a green manure crop4 ,white ,sweet ,clover1 white melitot or ,bokhara clover1 grows as a weed from ,new ,england to the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,in the ,gulf ,states it is regarded as a valuable forage and green manure plant4 ,one or two pecks of seed per acre are sown in ,january or ,february4 ,alfalfa1 or lucern1 though grown more for a forage crop than for green manuring1 should be mentioned here1 for wherever grown and for whatever purpose1 its effects on the soil are beneficial 7,fig4 #hb74 ,this plant requires a well prepared soil that is free from weeds4 ,twenty to twenty-five pounds of seed are planted per acre4 ,in the north the seeding is generally done in the spring after danger of frost is past1 as frost kills the young plants4 ,in the ,south fall seeding is the custom in order to give the young plants a long start ahead of the spring weeds4 ,one seeding if well cared for lasts for many years4 ,alfalfa is pastured or cut for hay1 four to eight tons being the yield4 ,many fields run out in five or six years and the sod is plowed under4 ,this plant sends its roots thirteen1 sixteen1 and even thirty feet into the soil after water and food1 and when these roots decay they furnish the lower soil with organic matter and their passages serve as drains and ventilators in the soil4 ,alfalfa is grown extensively in the semi-arid regions of the country4 ,,non-,,leguminous ,,green ,,manure ,,plants ,among the non-leguminous green manure plants are rye1 wheat1 oats1 mustard1 rape1 buckwheat4 ,of these the rye and buckwheat are most generally used1 the rye being a winter crop and the other a warm weather plant4 ,they are both strong feeders and can use tough plant food4 ,they do not add new nitrogen to the soil though they furnish humus and prepare food for the weaker feeders which may follow them4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,commercial ,,fertilizers ,,the ,,raw ,,materials ,next to the soil itself1 the farmer's most important sources of plant food are the farm manures4 ,but most farms do not produce these in sufficient quantities to keep up the plant food side of fertility4 ,therefore the farmer must resort to other sources of plant food to supplement the farm manures4 ,there is a large class of materials called ,commercial ,fertilizers1 which1 if judiciously used1 will aid in maintaining the fertility of the farm with economy4 ,we learned in a previous chapter that the plant foods1 nitrogen1 phosphoric acid1 potash and lime1 are apt to be found wanting in sufficient available quantities to supply the needs of profitable crops4 ,we learned also that lime is useful in improving the texture of the soil and in making other plant foods available4 ,now the commercial fertilizers are used to supply the soil with these four substances and they may be classified according to the substance furnished as follows3 ,sources of nitrogen1 phosphoric acid1 potash1 lime4 ,,sources ,,of ,,nitrogen ,nitrogen is the most expensive of plant foods to buy1 therefore special attention should be given to producing it on the farm by means of barn manures and legumes plowed under4 ,the principal commercial sources of nitrogen are3 ,nitrate of soda1 sulphate of ammonia1 dried blood1 tankage1 dry ground fish1 cotton-seed meal4 ,nitrate of ,soda or ,chile saltpetre containing #ae4e per cent4 of nitrogen1 is found in large deposits in the rainless regions of western ,south ,america4 ,in the crude state as it comes from the mine it contains common salt and earthy matter as impurities4 ,to remove these impurities the crude nitrate is put into tanks of warm water4 ,the nitrate dissolves and the salt and earthy matter settle to the bottom of the tank4 ,the water with the nitrate in solution is then drawn off into other tanks from which the water is evaporated1 leaving the nitrate1 a coarse1 dirty looking salt which is packed in three-hundred-pound bags and shipped4 ,plants that take their nitrogen from the soil take it in the form of nitrate4 ,hence nitrate of soda1 which is very soluble in water1 is immediately available to plants and is one of the most directly useful nitrogen fertilizers4 ,it is used for quick results and should be applied only to land that has a crop or is to be immediately planted1 otherwise it is liable to be lost by leaching4 ,sulphate of ,ammonia contains #bj per cent4 of nitrogen4 ,it is a white salt1 finer and cleaner looking than the nitrate4 ,it is a by-product of the gas works and coke ovens4 ,the nitrogen in it is quite readily available4 ,dried ,blood contains #h to #ab per cent4 of nitrogen4 ,this is blood collected in slaughter-houses and dried by steam or hot air4 ,it decays rapidly in the soil and is a quick acting nitrogen fertilizer4 ,tankage contains #d to #h per cent4 of nitrogen and #g to #bj per cent4 of phosphoric acid4 ,slaughter-house waste1 such as meat and bone scrap1 are boiled or steamed to extract the fat4 ,the settlings are dried and ground and sold as tankage4 ,it is much slower in its action than dried blood and supplies the crop with both nitrogen and phosphoric acid4 ,dried ,fish ,scrap is a by-product of the fish oil factories and the fish canning factories4 ,it contains #g to #i per cent4 of nitrogen and #f to #h per cent4 of phosphoric acid4 ,it undergoes nitrification readily and is a quick acting organic source of nitrogen and phosphoric acid4 ,cotton-seed ,meal contains #g per cent4 of nitrogen1 about #b4e phosphoric acid1 and #a4e per cent4 of potash4 ,it is a product of the cotton oil factories and is obtained by grinding the cotton seed cake from which the oil has been pressed4 ,it is a most valuable source of nitrogen for the ,south4 ,the nitrogen in the dried blood1 tankage1 fish scrap and cotton-seed meal1 being organic nitrogen1 must be changed by the process of nitrification to nitric acid or nitrate before it is available4 ,they are therefore better materials to use for a more gradual and continuous feeding of crops than the nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia4 ,scrap leather1 wool waste1 horn and hoof shavings are rich in nitrogen but they decay so slowly that they make poor fertilizers4 ,they are used by fertilizer manufacturers in making cheap mixed fertilizers4 ,,sources ,,of ,,phosphoric ,,acid ,the principal commercial sources of phosphoric acid are3 ,phosphate ,rocks4 ,bones4 ,fish scrap4 ,phosphate slag4 ,the ,phosphate ,rocks are found in shallow mines in ,north and ,south ,carolina1 ,georgia1 ,florida and ,tennessee1 and also as pebbles in the river beds4 ,they are the fossil remains of animals4 ,after being dug from the mines the rock is kiln dried and then ground to a very fine powder called floats which is used on the soil4 ,the phosphoric acid in the floats is insoluble and becomes available only as the phosphate decays4 ,this is too slow for most plants so it is treated with oil of vitriol or sulphuric acid to make it available4 ,the phosphoric acid in the ground rock is combined with lime1 forming a phosphate of lime which is insoluble4 ,when treated with the oil of vitriol or sulphuric acid1 the sulphuric acid takes lime from the phosphate and forms sulphate of lime or gypsum4 ,the phosphoric acid is left combined with the smallest possible amount of lime and is soluble in water4 ,it is then called soluble or water soluble phosphoric acid4 ,now if this soluble form remains unused it begins to take on lime again and turns back toward its original insoluble form4 ,after a time it gets to such a state that it is no longer soluble in water but is soluble in weak acids4 ,it is then said to be reverted phosphoric acid4 ,reverted phosphoric acid is also called citrate soluble phosphoric acid1 because in testing fertilizers the chemists use ammonium citrate to determine the amount of reverted phosphoric acid4 ,this form still continues to take on lime and by and by gets back to the original insoluble form called insoluble phosphoric acid4 ,the soluble phosphoric acid and reverted phosphoric acid are available to plant roots4 ,the insoluble form is not4 ,the rock phosphates contain from #bf to #ce per cent4 of insoluble phosphoric acid4 ,the acid phosphates or dissolved rock phosphates contain from #ab to #af per cent4 of available phosphoric acid and from #a to #d per cent4 of insoluble4 ,bone ,fertilizers4 ,bones have long been a valuable and favored source of phosphoric acid4 ,in addition to phosphoric acid they contain some nitrogen which adds to their value4 ,they are organic phosphates and are quite lasting in their effect on the soil as they decay slowly4 ,the terms ,raw ,bone1 ,steamed ,bone1 ,ground ,bone1 ,bone ,meal1 ,bone ,dust1 ,bone ,black1 ,dissolved ,bone1 indicate the processes through which the bone has passed in preparation1 or the condition of the material as put on the market and used on the soil4 ,ground bone1 bone meal1 bone dust1 indicate the mechanical conditions of the bones4 ,the bones are sometimes ground raw just as they come from the slaughter-house or kitchen1 or they are sometimes first steamed to extract the fat for soap1 and the nitrogenous matter for glue4 ,raw ,bone4 ,analysis3 ,nitrogen1 #b4e to #d4e per cent4 ,available phosphoric acid1 #e to #h per cent4 ,insoluble phosphoric acid #ae to #ag per cent4 ,steamed ,bone contains #a4e to #b4e per cent4 of nitrogen1 #f to #i per cent4 of available phosphoric acid and #af to #bj per cent4 of insoluble phosphoric acid4 ,steamed bone pulverizes much finer than raw bone and decays more rapidly in the soil because the fat has been extracted from it4 ,dissolved ,bone4 ,ground bone is sometimes treated with sulphuric acid to render the phosphoric acid in it more available4 ,it is then called dissolved bone and contains thirteen to fifteen per cent4 of available phosphoric acid and two to three per cent4 of nitrogen4 ,dissolved ,bone ,black4 ,bone charcoal is used for refining sugar4 ,it is then turned over to the fertilizer manufacturers who sell it as ,bone ,black or treat it with sulphuric acid and then put it on the market as dissolved bone black4 ,the bone black contains thirty to thirty-six per cent4 of insoluble phosphoric acid4 ,the dissolved bone black contains #ae to #ag per cent4 of available phosphoric acid and #a to #b per cent4 insoluble4 ,thomas ,slag1 ,phosphate ,slag1 ,odorless ,phosphate4 ,phosphorous is an impurity in certain iron ores4 ,in the manufacture of ,bessemer steel this is extracted by the use of lime which melts in the furnace1 unites with the phosphorous and brings it away in the slag4 ,this slag is ground to a fine powder and used as a fertilizer4 ,it contains #aa to #bc per cent4 of phosphoric acid1 most of which is available4 ,superphosphate4 ,the term superphosphate is applied to the phosphates that have been treated with sulphuric acid to make the phosphoric acid available4 ,dissolved bone1 dissolved bone black1 and the dissolved phosphate rocks are superphosphates4 ,fish ,scrap1 mentioned as a source of nitrogen1 is also a valuable source of phosphoric acid1 containing #f to #h per cent41 which is quite readily available owing to the rapid decay of the scrap4 ,,sources ,,of ,,potash ,the chief sources of potash used for fertilizers are the potash salts from the potash mines at ,stassfurt1 ,germany1 where there is an immense deposit of rock salt and potash salts4 ,the principal products of these mines used in this country are the crude salts3 ,kainite1 containing #ab per cent4 of potash4 ,sylvinite1 containing #af to #bj per cent4 of potash1 and the higher grade salts manufactured from the crude salts3 ,muriate of ,potash1 containing #ej per cent4 potash4 ,high grade ,sulphate of ,potash1 containing #ej per cent4 potash4 ,low grade ,sulphate of ,potash1 containing #be per cent4 potash4 ,wood ,ashes1 if well kept and not allowed to get wet and leach1 contain #d to #i per cent4 of potash4 ,cotton ,hull ,ashes contain #bj to #cj per cent1 of potash and #g to #i per cent4 of phosphoric acid4 ,the potash in all these forms is soluble in water and equally available to plants4 ,the crude salts1 kainite and sylvinite1 and the muriate contain chlorine and are not considered good for potatoes and tobacco as the chlorine lowers the quality of these products4 ,in tobacco regions tobacco refuse is a valuable source of potash1 the stems are about five per cent4 potash4 ,,lime ,lime is generally supplied to the soil in the form of quicklime made by burning lime stone or shells4 ,other forms are gypsum or land plaster1 gas lime 7a refuse from gas works7 and marl4 ,most soils contain sufficient lime for the food requirements of most plants4 ,some soils1 however1 are deficient in lime and some crops1 particularly the legumes1 are benefitted by direct feeding with lime4 ,lime is valuable for its effect on the soil properties which constitute fertility4 ,physically lime acts on the texture of the soil making clay soils mealy and crumbly1 and causing the lighter soils to adhere or stick together more closely4 ,chemically1 lime decomposes minerals containing potash and other plant foods1 thus rendering them available for the use of plants4 ,it also aids the decay of organic matter and sweetens sour soils4 ,biologically lime aids the process of nitrification4 ,the action of lime is greatest in its caustic or unslacked form4 ,too much or too frequent liming may injure the soil4 ,it should be carefully tried in a small way1 and its action noted1 before using it extensively4 ,a common way of using lime is to place twenty to forty bushels on an acre in heaps of three to five bushels1 covering them with soil until the lime slacks to a fine powder4 ,the lime is then spread and harrowed in4 ,lime tends to hasten the decay of humus4 ,it should not be applied oftener than once in four or five years4 ,gypsum1 a sulphate of lime1 is similar to lime in its action on the soil4 ,its most important effect is the setting free of potash from its compounds4 ,gas lime should be used with great care as it contains substances that are poisonous to plant roots4 ,it is best to let it lie exposed to the weather several months before using4 ,marl is simply soil containing an amount of lime varying from five to fifty per cent4 ,it has value in the vicinity of marl beds but does not pay to haul very far4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,commercial ,,fertilizers--,,continued ,,mixed ,,fertilizers ,what they are4 ,there are a large number of business concerns in the country which buy the raw materials described in ,chapter ,,xxi1 mix them in various proportions1 and sell the product as mixed or manufactured fertilizers4 ,if these mixtures contain the three important plant foods1 nitrogen1 phosphoric acid and potash1 they are sometimes called complete manures or fertilizers4 ,in some parts of the country all commercial fertilizers are called guano4 ,many brands4 ,these raw materials are mixed in many different proportions and many dealers have special brands for special crops4 ,there are consequently large numbers of brands of fertilizers which vary in the amounts1 proportions and availability of the plant foods they contain4 ,for instance1 in #aijc1 twenty-three fertilizer manufacturers offered for sale ninety-six different brands in the ,state of ,rhode ,island4 ,in ,missouri one hundred and ten brands1 made by sixteen different manufacturers1 were offered for sale4 ,eighty-three manufacturers placed six hundred and forty-four brands on the market in ,new ,york ,state during the same year4 ,of one hundred and twenty brands registered for sale in ,vermont in the spring of #aijd1 there were seventeen mixtures for corn and thirty-four for potatoes4 ,the result of this is more or less confusion on the part of the farmer in purchasing fertilizers1 and with many a farmer it is a lottery as to whether or not he is buying what his crop or his soil needs4 ,some of the manufacturers are not above using poor1 low grade1 raw materials in making these mixtures4 ,this means that the farmer should make himself familiar with the subject of fertilizers if he desires to use them intelligently and economically4 ,safeguard for the farmer4 ,as a safeguard to the buyer of fertilizers the ,state laws require that every brand put on the market shall be registered and that every bag or package sold shall have stated on it an analysis showing the amounts of nitrogen1 or its equivalent in ammonia1 the soluble phosphoric acid1 the reverted phosphoric acid1 the insoluble phosphoric acid1 and the potash4 ,this registration is generally made at the ,state experiment station1 and the director of the station is instructed to take samples of these brands and have them analyzed1 and publish the results together with the analysis guaranteed by the maker4 ,these analyses are published in bulletin form and should be in the hands of every farmer who makes a practice of using commercial fertilizers4 ,the manufacturers of fertilizers comply with the law by printing on the bag or package the per cents of plant food in the fertilizers1 and these statements in the great majority of cases agree favorably with the analyses of the experiment stations1 but they do not in all cases state what materials were used to furnish the different kinds of plant food1 and it is not always possible to find this out by analysis4 ,low grade materials4 ,for instance in mixing a fertilizer one manufacturer may use dried blood to furnish nitrogen and another may use leather waste or horn shavings4 ,the latter contains more nitrogen than the dried blood1 but they are so tough and decay so slowly that they are of little benefit to a quick growing plant4 ,inflating the guarantee4 ,although the dealer states correctly the per cents of plant food in the fertilizer1 he is quite frequently inclined to repeat this in a different form1 and thus give the impression that the mixture contains more than it really does4 ,the dealers also give the nitrogen as ammonia because it makes a larger showing4 ,phosphoric acid is often stated as bone phosphate because in this the amount appears to be greater4 ,for example1 an analysis taken from a fertilizer catalogue reads as follows3 ,ammonia #b to #c per cent4 ,available ,phosphoric ,acid #h to #aj ,total ,phosphoric ,acid #aa to #ad ,total ,bone ,phosphate #bc to #be ,actual ,potash #aj to #ab ,sulphate of ,potash #ah to #bj ,a better statement would be as follows3 ,nitrogen #a4fe per cent4 ,available ,phosphoric ,acid #h ,total ,phosphoric ,acid 7furnished in ,bone ,phosphate7 #aa ,potash 7furnished in ,sulphate of ,potash7 #aj ,ammonia is reduced to terms of nitrogen by multiplying by 4#hbd4 ,all bone phosphate is forty-six per cent4 phosphoric acid4 ,when bone phosphate is given instead of phosphoric acid it simply makes the mixture appear to have more in it1 and when both phosphoric acid and bone phosphate are stated one is merely a repetition of the other4 ,the same is true of the statements1 potash and sulphate of potash1 one is a repetition of the other only a different form4 ,,valuation ,the experiment stations not only publish comparative analyses of the registered fertilizers but they also compute the market values of the plant food contained in them and compare these valuations with the selling price of the fertilizers4 ,they also furnish a list of trade values of the plant foods in raw materials for the convenience of fertilizer buyers in testing the values of the brands offered them on the markets4 ,in the following list are given the trade values agreed upon by the ,experiment ,stations of ,massachusetts1 ,rhode ,island1 ,connecticut1 ,new ,jersey and ,vermont1 after a careful study of prices ruling in the larger markets of the southern ,new ,england and ,middle ,states4 ,trade values of fertilizing ingredients in raw materials and chemicals for #aijd3 ,cents per lb4 ,nitrogen in ,nitrates #af ,nitrogen in ,ammonia ,salts #ag ,organic ,nitrogen in dry and fine ground fish1 blood1 and meat1 and in mixed fertilizers #ag ,organic ,nitrogen in fine ground bone and tankage #ag ,organic ,nitrogen in coarse bone and tankage #ab ,phosphoric ,acid soluble in water #d ,phosphoric ,acid soluble in ammonium citrate #d ,phosphoric ,acid in fine ground bone and tankage #d ,phosphoric ,acid in coarse bone and tankage #c ,phosphoric ,acid 7insoluble in water and in ammonium citrate7 in mixed fertilizer #b ,potash as high-grade sulphate and in mixtures free from muriate 7chloride7 #e ,potash as muriate #d ,for example1 in calculating the commercial value of the plant food in a fertilizer we will take the formula mentioned on page #bje1 namely3 ,ammonia #b to #c per cent4 ,available ,phosphoric ,acid #h to #aj ,total ,phosphoric ,acid #aa to #ad ,total ,bone ,phosphate #bc to #be ,actual ,potash #aj to #ab ,sulphate of ,potash #ah to #bj ,this fertilizer is evidently a mixture of bone meal and sulphate of potash and the plant food contained in it is as follows3 ,nitrogen #a4fe per cent4 ,available ,phosphoric ,acid #h ,insoluble ,phosphoric ,acid #c ,potash #aj ,one hundred pounds of the mixture would contain3 ,pounds4 ,value per #ajj lbs4 ,nitrogen #a4fd value at #ag 4#bi ,available ,phosphoric ,acid #h #d 4#cb ,insoluble ,phosphoric ,acid #c #b 4#jf ,potash #aj #e 4#ej ----- ,total #a4ag ,in one ton the whole value would be twenty times this or #bc4dj4 ,add to this #h1 which is about the average charge for mixing1 bagging1 shipping1 selling and profit1 and we find that #cb is probably the lowest figure at which this fertilizer could be purchased on the markets1 and very likely the price would be higher as we have taken the lowest guaranteed per cent4 of plant food for our basis of calculation4 ,fertilizers are generally mixed and sold to the farmer on the ton basis4 ,,low ,,grade ,,mixtures ,most dealers1 to meet a certain demand1 furnish mixtures ranging from #ae to #be per ton4 ,these mixtures are necessarily low grade and are more expensive than the higher priced high grade mixtures4 ,for example3 ,a certain potato fertilizer on the market1 which we will call mixture ,a1 has the following guaranteed analysis3 ,ammonia #g to #h per cent4 ,available ,phosphoric ,acid #f to #g ,actual ,potash #e to #f ,a ton of this would contain3 ,pounds4 ,nitrogen #aae4d value at #ag #bj4ai ,available ,phosphoric ,acid #abj #d #d4hj ,potash #ajj #e #e4jj ----- ------ ,totals #cce4d #bi4ii ,add to this the average charge for mixing1 bagging1 selling1 profit1 etc41 #h1 and the cost will be #cg4ii4 ,the selling price of this fertilizer would probably be not less than #dj4 ,now suppose the farmer thinks this a high priced and expensive fertilizer and looks about for something cheaper4 ,he finds a low grade potato fertilizer1 which we will call mixture ,b1 that has the following guarantee3 ,ammonia #c to #d per cent4 ,available ,phosphoric ,acid #c to #c ,actual ,potash #b to #c ,just one-half the guarantee of the high grade mixture ,a4 ,a ton of this contains3 ,pounds4 ,nitrogen #eg4g value at #ag #aj4aj ,available ,phosphoric ,acid #fj #d #b4dj ,potash #ej #e #b4ej ----- ------ ,totals #afg4g #ae4jj ,add average charge for mixing1 etc4 #h4jj ------ #bc4jj ,the selling price of this would very likely be not less than #be4 ,this seems at first sight to be cheaper and more reasonable4 ,but let us see4 ,in a ton of mixture ,a he gets #cce4d pounds of plant food for #dj1 or at an average cost of twelve cents per pound1 while in a ton of mixture ,b he gets #afg4g pounds of plant food for #be1 or at an average cost of fifteen cents per pound4 ,to put it another way1 in a ton of the high grade mixture ,a1 he gets #cce4d pounds of plant food for #dj4 ,to get the same amount of plant food1 #cce4d pounds1 in the low grade mixture1 ,b1 it will be necessary to buy two tons at a cost of #ej4 ,a low grade fertilizer is always expensive even if the plant food is furnished by high grade materials4 ,,buy ,,on ,,the ,,plant ,,food ,,basis ,the farmer generally buys his fertilizer on the ton basis4 ,a better method is to buy just as the fertilizer manufacturers buy the raw materials they use for mixing1 namely1 on the basis of actual plant food in the fertilizer4 ,the dealers have what they call the unit basis1 a unit meaning one per cent4 of a ton or twenty pounds of plant food4 ,a ton of nitrate of soda1 for instance1 contains #caj pounds or #ae units of nitrogen1 which at #c4bj cents per unit would cost #di4 ,buy your mixture of a reliable firm1 find out the actual amounts of the plant foods in the mixture and pay a fair market price for them4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,commercial ,,fertilizers--,,concluded ,,the ,,home ,,mixing ,,of ,,fertilizers ,when a considerable amount of fertilizer is used a better plan than buying mixed fertilizer is to buy the raw materials and mix them yourself4 ,for example1 a farmer is about to plant five acres of cabbages for the market4 ,he finds that a certain successful cabbage grower recommends the use of fifty pounds nitrogen1 fifty pounds phosphoric acid and seventy pounds potash per acre4 ,for the five acres this will mean #bej pounds nitrogen1 #bej pounds phosphoric acid and #cej pounds potash4 ,to furnish the nitrogen he can buy #a1fac pounds of nitrate of soda or #b1ejj pounds dried blood or #a1bej pounds sulphate of ammonia1 or a part of each4 ,to furnish the phosphoric acid he can buy #a1ghf pounds acid phosphate4 ,seven hundred pounds of either sulphate or muriate of potash will furnish the potash4 ,these materials can be easily mixed by spreading in alternate layers on a smooth floor and then shovelling over the entire mass several times4 ,the mixture can be further improved by passing it through a sand or coal screen or sieve4 ,by following this method of buying the raw materials and mixing them on the farm1 the farmer can reduce his fertilizer bill by quite a considerable amount and at the same time can obtain just the kinds and proper amounts of plant foods needed by his crops4 ,,kind ,,and ,,amount ,,to ,,buy ,the farmer should make the best use of farm manures and through tillage to render plant food available for his crops before turning to commercial fertilizer for additional plant food4 ,if he grows leguminous crops for green manuring1 for feeding stock or for cover crops1 he can in many cases secure1 chiefly through them1 sufficient high priced nitrogen for the needs of his crops1 and it is necessary only occasionally to purchase moderate amounts of phosphoric acid1 potash and lime4 ,for special farming and special crops it may be necessary to use the commercial fertilizer more freely4 ,it is impossible to say here just what amounts or what kinds of fertilizer should be purchased1 because no two farms are exactly alike as to soil1 methods of cropping or methods of tillage4 ,there are certain factors1 however1 which will serve as a general guide and which should be considered in determining the kind and amount of fertilizer to buy4 ,these factors are3 ,the crop4 ,the soil4 ,the system of farming4 ,,the ,,crop ,crop roots differ in their powers of feeding1 or their powers of securing plant foods4 ,some roots can use very tough plant foods1 while others require it in the most available form4 ,some roots secure nitrogen from the air4 ,the cowpea roots1 for example1 can take nitrogen from the air and they can use such tough phosphoric acid and potash that it seldom pays to feed them directly with fertilizers4 ,a bale per acre crop of cotton requires for the building of roots1 stems1 leaves1 bolls1 lint and seed3 #ajc pounds of ,nitrogen4 #da ,phosphoric ,acid4 #fe ,potash4 and yet experiment and experience have proved that the best fertilizer for such a crop contains the following amounts of plant food3 ,nitrogen #bj pounds ,phosphoric ,acid #gj ,potash #bj ,this means that cotton roots are fairly strong feeders of nitrogen and potash1 but are weak on the phosphoric acid side4 ,the small grains1 wheat1 oats1 barley and rye1 can use tough phosphoric acid and potash1 but are weak on nitrogen1 and as they make the greater part of their growth in the cool spring before nitrification is rapid1 they are benefitted by the application of nitrogen1 particularly in the form of nitrate1 which is quickly available4 ,clover1 peas1 beans1 etc41 have the power of drawing nitrogen from the air1 but draw from the soil lime1 phosphoric acid and potash4 ,hence the phosphates1 potash manures and lime are desirable for these crops4 ,root and tuber crops are unable to use the insoluble mineral elements in the soil1 hence they require application of all the important plant foods in readily available form4 ,nitrogen is especially beneficial to beets4 ,turnips are benefitted by liberal applications of soluble phosphoric acid4 ,white and sweet potatoes require an abundance of potash4 ,if we are growing tender1 succulent market garden crops1 we need nitrogenous manures1 which increase the growth of stem and foliage4 ,fruit trees are slow growing plants and do not need quick acting fertilizers4 ,the small fruits1 being more rapid in growth1 require more of the soluble materials4 ,a dark1 healthy green foliage indicates a good supply of nitrogen1 while a pale yellowish green may indicate a need of nitrogen4 ,a well developed head of grain1 seed pod or fruit indicates liberal supplies of phosphoric acid and potash4 ,,the ,,soil ,soils that are poor in humus are generally in need of nitrogen4 ,heavy soils are generally supplied with potash but lack phosphoric acid4 ,sandy soils are apt to be poor in potash and nitrogen4 ,,system ,,of ,,farming ,a system of general or diversified farming embracing crop products and stock raising1 requires much less artificial manuring than does a system which raises special crops or quick growing crops in rapid succession1 as in the case of truck farming or market gardening4 ,,testing ,,the ,,soil ,every farmer should be more or less of an investigator and experimenter4 ,the factors mentioned previously as indicating the presence or absence of sufficient quantities of certain plant foods serve as a general guide1 but are not absolute4 ,the best method of determining what plant foods are lacking in the soil is to carry on some simple experiments4 ,the following plan for soil testing with plant foods is suggestive3 ,to test the soil for a possible need of the single plant foods1 a series of five plots may be laid off4 ,these plots should be long and narrow and may be one-twentieth1 one-sixteenth1 one-tenth1 one eighth acre or larger4 ,a plot one rod wide and eight rods long will contain one-twentieth acre4 ,the width of the plot may be adjusted to accommodate a certain number of rows of crop and the length made proper to include an even fraction of an acre4 ,a strip three or four feet in width should be left between each two plots4 ,these strips are to be left unfertilized and are for the purpose of preventing one plot being affected by the plant food of another4 ,the plots are all plowed1 planted and cared for alike1 the only difference in treatment being in the application of plant food4 ,if the plots are one-twentieth acre in size1 plant foods may be applied as follows4 ---------------------------- ,,plot #a4 ,nitrate of ,soda #h lbs4 ---------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,plot #b4 ,acid ,phosphate #af lbs4 ---------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,plot #c4 ,nothing4 ---------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,plot #d4 ,muriate of ,potash #h lbs4 ---------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,plot #e4 ,lime #a bushel4 ---------------------------- ,plot #c is a check plot for comparison4 ,the measuring of the plots1 weighing and application of the fertilizers1 planting and care of the crops1 weighing and measuring at harvest1 should be carefully and accurately done4 ,a number of additional plots may be added if desired to test the effect of plant foods in combination4 ,for instance3 ---------------------------- ,,plot #f4 ,nitrate of ,soda #h lbs4 ,acid ,phosphate #af ---------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,plot #g4 ,nitrate of ,soda #h lbs4 ,muriate of ,potash #h ---------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,plot #h4 ,nothing4 ---------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,plot #i4 ,muriate of ,potash #h lbs4 ,acid ,phosphate #af ---------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,plot #aj4 ,nitrate of ,soda #h lbs4 ,acid ,phosphate #af ,muriate of ,potash #h ---------------------------- ,if the amount of fertilizer is too small to distribute evenly over the plot1 mix it thoroughly with a few quarts of dry earth or sand to give it more bulk and then apply it4 ,in the use of fertilizers it should always be remembered that small crops are not always due to lack of plant food1 but may be caused by an absence of the other conditions necessary for root growth and development4 ,the soil may not be sufficiently moist to properly supply the plants with water4 ,too much water may check ventilation4 ,poor tillage may check root development4 ,unless the physical conditions are right the possible effects of additional plant food in the form of fertilizers are greatly diminished4 ,the farmer who gets the largest return from fertilizers is the one who gives greatest attention to the physical properties of the soil4 ,he makes use of organic matter and is very thorough in his methods of tillage4 ,every farmer should apply to his ,state ,experiment ,station for bulletins on the subject of fertilizers4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,the ,,rotation ,,of ,,crops ,,systems ,,of ,,cropping ,there are two methods or systems of cropping the soil3 ,the ,one ,crop ,system1 or the continuous cropping of the soil year after year with one kind of crop4 ,the ,rotation of ,crops or the selection of a given number of different crops and growing them in regular order4 ,the purpose of this chapter is to inquire into the effect of these two systems of cropping3 ,on the soil conditions necessary for the best growth and development of the crops4 ,on the market value of the crops4 ,on the increase of or the protection from injurious diseases and insects4 ,on the distribution of labor throughout the year4 ,on the caring for farm stock4 ,on the providing for home supplies4 ,this inquiry and the conclusion will be based on the following facts learned in the foregoing chapters4 ,plant roots need for their growth and development 7see ,chapter ,,ii73 ,a mellow yet firm soil4 ,a moist soil4 ,a ventilated soil4 ,a warm soil4 ,a soil supplied with plant food4 ,decaying organic matter or humus is one of the most important ingredients of our soils4 ,because3 ,it greatly influences soil texture and therefore the conditions necessary for root growth4 ,its presence or absence greatly influences the attitude of soils toward water1 the most important factor in plant growth4 ,its presence helps light1 sandy soils to hold more water and to better pump water from below1 while it helps close1 heavy soils to better take in the water which falls on their surface4 ,its absence causes an opposite state of affairs4 ,the presence of organic matter checks excessive ventilation in too open1 sandy soil by filling the pores1 and improves poor ventilation in heavy clay soils by making them more open4 ,humus1 on account of its color1 influences the heat absorbing powers of soils4 ,the organic matter is constantly undergoing more or less rapid decay unless the soil be perfectly dry or frozen solid4 ,stirring and cultivating the soil hasten this decay4 ,as the organic matter decays it adds available plant food to the soil1 particularly nitrogen4 ,as it decays1 it produces carbonic acid and other acids which are able to dissolve mineral plant food not soluble in pure water and thus render it available to plants4 ,plants1 although they require the same elements of plant food1 take them in different amounts and different proportions4 ,plants differ in the extent and depth of root growth and therefore take food from different parts of the soil4 ,some are surface feeders while others feed on the deeper soil4 ,plants differ in their power to take plant food from the soil2 some are weak feeders1 and can use only the most available food2 others are strong feeders1 and can use tougher plant food4 ,plants vary in the amount of heat they require to carry on their growth and development4 ,,the ,,one ,,crop ,,system ,we are now ready for the question4 ,what effect has the continuous cultivation1 year after year1 of the same kind of crop on the soil conditions necessary to the best growth and development of that crop or any other crop8 ,suppose we take cotton for example4 ,how does cotton growing affect soil humus8 ,during the cultivation of cotton1 the organic matter or humus of the soil decays in greater quantities than are added by the stalks and leaves of the crop4 ,therefore1 cotton is a humus wasting crop1 and the continuous cultivation of this crop tends to exhaust the supply of organic matter in the soil4 ,how does cotton growing affect soil texture8 ,cotton growing wastes soil humus and therefore injures soil texture by making the lighter soils more loose and open1 and the heavier soils more dense and compact4 ,how does cotton growing affect soil water8 ,by wasting humus cotton growing injures soil texture and so weakens the water holding and water pumping power of light soils and weakens the water absorbing power of heavy soils4 ,therefore the continuous cultivation of cotton weakens the power of the soil over water1 that most important factor in crop growth4 ,how does cotton growing affect soil ventilation8 ,continuous cotton culture1 by wasting humus1 injures texture and therefore injures soil ventilation1 causing too much ventilation in the lighter soils and too little in heavier soils4 ,how does cotton culture affect plant food in the soil8 ,continuous cotton growing wastes plant food3 ,because it wastes organic matter which contains valuable plant food1 particularly nitrogen4 ,because by wasting organic matter it increases the leaching of the lighter soils and the surface washing of the heavier soils4 ,because its roots occupy largely the upper soil and do not make use of much food from the lower soil4 ,because it grows only during the warm part of the year and there is no crop on the land to check loss of plant food from leaching and surface wash during the winter4 ,because it is a weak feeder of phosphoric acid1 and can use only that which is in the most available form4 ,in applying fertilizer to cotton it is necessary for best results to apply at least twice as much phosphoric acid as the crop can use1 because it can use only that which is in the most available form and the remainder is left in the soil unused4 ,continuous cotton culture then has an injurious effect on all the important soil conditions necessary to its best growth and development1 and the result is a diminishing yield or an increasing cost in maintaining fertility by the use of fertilizer4 ,how does continuous cotton culture affect the economics of the farm8 ,the injury to the soil conditions necessary to root growth diminishes the yield and therefore increases the cost of production4 ,the poor soil conditions tend not only to diminish yield but also to diminish the quality of the crop1 which tends to lower the price received for the cotton4 ,keeping the land constantly in cotton tends to increase the insect enemies and the diseases of the crop4 ,the continuous growing of cotton does not permit the constant employment of one set of laborers throughout the year4 ,the continuous growing of cotton generally means that most of the farm goes into cotton4 ,a small patch of corn is planted for the stock1 which are apt to suffer from a lack of variety in food4 ,the same is true with reference to home supplies4 ,very few vegetables are grown for the table and there is little milk1 butter or eggs for home use or exchange for groceries or drygoods at the store4 ,thus we see that the continuous growing of cotton on the soil1 year after year1 has a bad effect on conditions necessary to its best growth and development and also on the economics of the farm4 ,these facts are true to a greater or less degree in the case of nearly all of the farm crops4 ,the grain crops are often considered as humus makers because of the stubble turned under1 but ,professor ,snyder1 of ,minnesota1 found that five years' continuous culture of wheat resulted in an annual loss of #aga pounds of nitrogen per acre1 of which only #bd4e was taken by the crop1 the remaining #adf4e pounds were lost through a waste of organic matter4 ,,the ,,rotation ,,of ,,crops ,now1 suppose that instead of growing cotton on the same soil year after year1 we select four crops--cotton1 corn1 oats and cowpea--and grow them in regular order1 a rotation practiced in some parts of the ,south4 ,we will divide the farm into three fields and number them #a1 #b and #c1 and will plant these crops as indicated by the following diagrams3 ,illustration3 ,plan of farm4 ,plan for planting4 ,,field #a4 ,,field #b4 ,,field #c4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,,oats1 ,,corn1 #ast year harvested in followed by or #aije4 ,,cotton spring1 oats1 followed by planted in ,,cowpeas4 fall4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,,corn1 ,,oats1 #b;d year followed by harvested in or #aijf4 oats1 ,,cotton4 spring1 planted in followed by fall4 ,,cowpeas4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,,oats1 ,,corn1 #c;d year harvested in followed by or #aijg4 spring1 oats1 ,,cotton4 followed by planted in ,,cowpeas4 fall4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,each of these crops occupies one-third of the farm each year1 and yet the crop on each field changes each year so that no one kind of crop is grown on any field oftener than once in three years4 ,the cotton is grown for market1 the corn partly to sell1 partly to feed1 the oats to feed and the cowpeas to plow under4 ,all cotton and corn refuse is plowed under4 ,what effect will such a system have on the conditions necessary for plant growth8 ,suppose we follow the crops on ,field #a4 ,cotton1 corn1 and oats are humus wasting crops but the pea crop which is grown the third year is plowed under1 and largely1 if not entirely1 remedies the loss by furnishing a new supply of organic matter1 and the ill effects which we noticed would follow the loss of organic matter due to the continuous growing of cotton are avoided1 soil texture is preserved1 soil ventilation is not injured1 and the power of the soil over water is preserved4 ,what is the effect on plant food in the soil8 ,before answering this question let us see what amounts of plant foods these crops take out of the soil4 ,we will assume that the soil is a good loam at the start and will produce3 ,one bale of five hundred pounds of lint cotton per acre1 sixty bushels shelled corn per acre1 thirty bushels oats per acre1 or two tons cowpea hay per acre4 ,such a yield of crop would take from the soil the following amounts of plant food per acre3 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,phosphoric ,nitrogen1 ,acid1 ,potash1 pounds4 pounds4 pounds4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,cotton 7whole plant7 #ajc #da #fe ,corn 7whole plant7 #hd #bf #fa ,oats 7whole plant7 #cb #ac #bg ,cowpea #gh #bc #ff ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,now suppose we sell the lint of the cotton1 keeping all the rest of the plant1 including the seed1 on the farm and turning it back into the soil4 ,of the corn suppose we sell one-half the grain and keep the other half and the fodder for use on the farm4 ,suppose the oats be made into oat hay and be fed on the farm and the cowpeas be turned under4 ,assuming that the cowpeas take half their nitrogen from the air4 ,this will mean that in the course of three years we take out of the soil of each acre in the crops3 ,nitrogen4 ,phosphoric ,acid4 ,potash4 #beh pounds4 #ajc pounds4 #bai pounds4 but we return to the soil in crop refuse and manure from the stock3 ,nitrogen4 ,phosphoric ,acid4 ,potash4 #bef pounds4 #hg pounds4 #aig pounds4 ,this assumes that we have taken from the farm in products sold3 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,nitrogen4 ,phosphoric ,potash4 ,acid4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,cotton ,lint #b #a #b ,corn #bh #ab #aj ,animal products #aa #c #aj ----------------------------------- ,totals #da #af #bb ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,the plant food charged to animal products is twenty per cent4 of that in the grain and forage fed to the stock4 ,at the end of the three years the plant food account will balance up with3 ,nitrogen a gain of #b pounds4 ,phosphoric ,acid a loss of #af ,potash a loss of #bb ,this result is of course approximate4 ,there will be some loss of nitrogen through leaching and denitrification4 ,some of the potash and phosphoric acid will be converted into unavailable forms4 ,this can be made good by applying to the cotton a fertilizer containing twenty pounds of nitrogen1 sixty pounds of phosphoric acid and twenty pounds of potash4 ,additional nitrogen and organic matter can be grown to turn under by planting crimson clover in the cotton at the last working for a winter cover crop to be turned under for the corn1 and by planting cowpeas or soy beans between the rows of corn4 ,if this is done it may not be necessary to add any nitrogen in the fertilizer1 letting that supply only phosphoric acid and potash4 ,if commercial fertilizer is used on the cotton1 it would be a good plan to apply the manure from the stock to the corn4 ,to follow our crop on ,field #a through the three years we will have1 first1 cotton drawing large amounts of plant food from the soil and diminishing the humus of the soil4 ,growing a winter crop of crimson clover1 turning back all the cotton refuse except the lint and oil1 and applying the barn manure will furnish ample plant food for the corn and replenish the organic matter4 ,the corn is a rather stronger feeder of phosphoric acid than cotton and will be able to get sufficient from that left by the cotton4 ,the oats will be able to get a full ration after the corn1 and the cowpeas will readily take care of themselves on the score of plant food and will put the soil in fine condition for cotton again4 ,the peas may be left on the ground to turn under in the spring at cotton planting time1 or they may be plowed under in the early fall and a crimson clover or vetch cover crop planted1 which will be plowed under for the cotton4 ,these same facts will be true of each of the three fields4 ,the humus and1 therefore1 texture will be taken care of2 ventilation1 soil temperature and plant food will be controlled to advantage4 ,each of the crops will be represented on the farm each year and the yields of each crop will be better than if grown continuously alone4 ,the quality and therefore the market value will be greater4 ,insects and disease will be easier kept in control1 and stock will be more economically furnished with a variety of foods4 ,,benefits ,,derived ,,from ,,rotation ,,of ,,crops ,rotation of crops economizes the natural plant food of the soil and also that which is applied in the form of manure and fertilizer4 ,this is because3 ,crops take food from the soil in different amounts and different proportions4 ,crops differ in their feeding powers4 ,crops differ in the extent and depth to which they send their roots into the soil in search of food and water4 ,crops differ in the time of year at which they make their best growths4 ,rotation helps to maintain or improve the texture of the soil because the amount of humus in the soil is maintained or increased by turning under green manure and cover crops which should occur in every well-planned rotation4 ,rotation helps to maintain or increase the plant food in the surface soil4 ,when crops like cowpeas or clover which take mineral food from the subsoil and nitrogen from the air1 are plowed under1 they give up the plant food in their leaves1 stems and upper roots to the surface soil1 and thus help to maintain or increase fertility4 ,rotation tends to protect crops from injurious insects and diseases4 ,if one kind of crop is grown continuously on one piece of land the soil becomes infested with the insects and diseases which injure that particular crop4 ,if the crop is changed1 the insects and diseases find difficulty in adapting themselves to the change and consequently diminish in numbers4 ,rotation helps to keep the soil free from weeds4 ,if the same kind of crop were grown year after year on the same field1 the weeds which grow most readily along with that crop would soon take possession of the soil4 ,for example1 chick weed1 dock1 thistle1 weeds peculiar to grain and grain crops tend to increase if the land is long occupied by these crops4 ,rotation helps the farmer to make a more even distribution of labor throughout the year4 ,this is because crops differ as to the time of year at which they are planted and harvested4 ,rotation of crops enables the farmer to provide for his stock more economically4 ,live stock fares better on a variety of food1 which is more cheaply secured by a system of rotation than otherwise4 ,,the ,,typical ,,rotation ,a typical rotation for general farming should contain at least3 ,one money crop which is necessarily an exhaustive crop4 ,one manurial crop which is a soil enricher4 ,one feeding crop which diminishes fertility only a little4 ,one cleansing crop1 a hoed or cultivated crop4 ,,conditions ,,which ,,modify ,,the ,,rotation ,there are certain conditions which tend to modify the rotation or to influence the farmer in his choice of crops4 ,they are as follows3 ,first of all the climate will set a limit on the number and varieties of crops from which a choice can be made for a given locality4 ,the kind of farming which he chooses to carry on1 whether stock raising1 grain farming1 truck farming1 or a combination of two or more of these1 or others4 ,kind of soil4 ,certain soils are best adapted to particular crops4 ,for example1 heavy soils are best suited to wheat1 grass1 clover1 cabbages1 etc4 ,light1 sandy soils to early truck1 certain grades of tobacco1 etc4 ,the demand for crops and their market value4 ,facilities for getting crops to market1 good or bad country roads1 railroads and water transportation4 ,the state of the land with respect to weeds1 insect pests and plant diseases4 ,,general ,,rules ,a few general rules may be made use of in arranging the order of the crops in the rotation though they cannot always be strictly followed4 ,crops that require the elements of plant food in the same proportion should not follow each other4 ,deep-rooted crops should alternate with shallow-rooted crops4 ,humus makers should alternate with humus wasters4 ,every well arranged rotation should have at least one crop grown for its manurial effect on the soil1 as a crop of cowpeas1 or one of clover1 to be turned under4 ,the objection often made to this last rule is that1 aside from the increase in fertility1 there is no direct return for the time1 labor and seed1 and the land brings no crop for a year4 ,it is not necessary to use the entire crop for green manuring--a part of it may be used for hay or for pasture with little loss of the manurial value of the crop1 provided the manure from that part of the crop taken off is returned and the part of the crop not removed is turned under4 ,,length ,,of ,,the ,,rotation ,the length of the rotation may vary from a two-course or two crop rotation to one of several courses4 ,crimson clover may be alternated with corn1 both crops being grown within a year4 ,a three-course rotation1 popular in some parts of the country1 is wheat1 clover1 and potatoes2 potatoes being the money crop and cleansing crop1 wheat a secondary money crop or feeding crop1 and clover the manurial and feeding crop4 ,a popular four-course rotation is corn1 potatoes or truck1 small grain1 clover2 the potatoes being the chief money crop1 corn the feeding crop1 the small grain the secondary money or feeding crop1 and clover the manurial and feeding crop4 ,on many ,new ,england farms near towns1 hay and straw are the chief money crops4 ,here the rotation is grass two or more years1 then a cleansing crop and a grain crop4 ,a ,canadian rotation is wheat1 hay1 pasture1 oats1 peas4 ,a rotation for the ,south might be corn1 crimson clover1 cotton1 crimson clover2 this rotation covering a period of two years4 ,a ,south ,carolina rotation is oats1 peas1 cotton1 corn--a three-year rotation4 ,it might be improved as follows3 ,oats1 peas1 crimson clover1 cotton1 crimson clover1 corn4 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,farm ,,drainage ,some farm lands contain so much water that the conditions of fertility are interfered with and therefore the crop producing power of these lands is lowered4 ,,how ,,surplus ,,water ,,affects ,,fertility ,this surplus water diminishes fertility by reducing the area of film water in the soil4 ,it checks soil ventilation4 ,it tends to keep the soil cold4 ,it dilutes plant food in the soil4 ,it interferes with proper tillage4 ,,indications ,,of ,a ,,need ,,of ,,drainage ,the above-mentioned state of affairs occurs sometimes in fields at the foot of hills1 or on sloping uplands which receive spring water or seepage water from higher lands4 ,some fields are underlaid by a close1 compact subsoil which so checks percolation that the surface soil is too wet for tillage operations the greater part of the year4 ,in such cases3 ,a need of drainage is generally indicated by the presence of more or less free water standing on the surface4 ,in some lands the surface water does not appear as free water standing on the surface4 ,in such cases3 ,a need of drainage is indicated by the curling and wilting of the leaves of corn and other crops during dry1 hot weather4 ,this curling and wilting is due to the fact that during the early growth of the crop free water stands so high in the soil that the crop roots are confined to a shallow layer of soil4 ,when dry1 hot weather comes1 the free water recedes1 the upper soil dries out1 and the roots cannot get sufficient water to supply the demands of transpiration1 hence the curling and wilting of the leaves4 ,if drains are placed in this soil1 the free water will be kept at a lower level in the spring and the plant roots will develop deeper in the soil1 where there will be constant supply of film water during the dryer and warmer summer weather4 ,the wiry and spindling growth of grass and grain crops may indicate too much water4 ,the growth of moss on the surface of the ground and the cracking of the soil in dry weather are also indications of too much water4 ,,drains ,how can we get rid of this surplus free water8 ,we can make passageways through the soil to a lower level and then let gravity pull the water through them to lower ground below4 ,these passageways are called drains4 ,drains may be classed as3 ,surface drains which are shallow1 open channels made in the soil with a plow1 hoe or other tool1 to carry off surface water4 ,they are temporary and need frequent renewing4 ,open-ditch drains are deeper1 more permanent water passageways around or across the fields4 ,surface and open-ditch drains take only surface water4 ,they also carry off surface soil and manures washed into them4 ,they frequently become choked or stopped by trash and soil1 and are in the way of cultivation and harvesting operations4 ,covered drains1 under drains or blind ditches are water passageways made of brush1 poles1 stones1 tiles1 etc4 7,figs4 #hj-ha71 placed in the bottoms of ditches and then covered with soil4 ,,influence ,,of ,,covered ,,or ,,under ,,drains ,,on ,,fertility ,influence on soil water4 ,covered or under drains take not only surface water1 but also remove free water from the soil beneath down to nearly the level of the bottom of the drains1 and thus increase the area of film water4 ,removing the free water enables the soil to absorb more readily rain water falling on the surface and therefore checks surface wash and the gullying of fields4 ,influence on soil ventilation4 ,lowering the free water allows a deeper penetration of air and1 therefore1 a deeper root development and enables crops to better resist dry periods4 ,influence on soil temperature4 ,lowering the free water in the soil influences soil temperature3 ,by diminishing the amount of water to be heated4 ,by checking evaporation4 ,by letting warm showers sink down into the soil4 ,by increasing ventilation and therefore permitting the circulation of warm air in the soil4 ,the cropping season is lengthened by causing the soil to be warmer and drier earlier in the spring and later in the fall4 ,influence on plant food in the soil4 ,covered or under drains check losses of plant food that occur with surface and open ditch drains4 ,they render available more plant food1 for lowering free water and increasing ventilation3 ,deepen the feeding area of the roots4 ,aid the process of nitrification4 ,aid chemical changes which make plant food available4 ,check denitrification4 ,,location ,,of ,,drains ,as gravity is the force that is to take the surplus water from the soil1 the outlet of the drainage system should be at the lowest part of the area to be drained4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--;,,cross-,,sections ,,of ,,stone-,,drains4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4 ,a4 ,cross-section of a pole-drain4 ,b4 ,cross-section of a tile-drain4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4--;,a ,,collection ,,of ,,drainage ,,tools4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4 ,a represents a poorly laid tile-drain4 ,it is poorly graded1 and has partly filled with soil4 ,it has lost more than half its water carrying capacity4 ,b was properly graded1 and has kept free from sediment4 ,the main drains should be located in the lowest parts of the fields1 indicated by courses taken by water after a rain or by small streams running through the farm4 ,the lateral drains1 if surface or open ditch drains1 should run across the slopes2 if under drains1 they should run up and down the slopes4 ,grade or slope of the drain4 ,the grade of the drain should be sufficient to cause a flow of the water4 ,in the case of open ditches it should not be steep enough to cause too rapid a current and a consequent serious washing of the banks of the ditch4 ,large1 deep ditches will carry water with a grade of one inch to a hundred feet4 ,tile drains4 ,covered or under drains are made of brush1 poles1 planks1 stones1 tiles1 etc4 7,figs4 #hc-hd74 ,where tiles can be obtained at reasonable prices they are considered best4 ,tiles are made of clay and are burnt like brick4 ,they are more lasting than wood and are easier and cheaper to lay than stone1 unless the stone must be gotten rid of4 ,the most approved form of drain tile is the round or circular form4 ,these are made in sizes ranging from two and one-half to six and eight inches in diameter1 and in pieces one foot in length4 ,the size used depends on the length of the drain1 the amount of water to carry1 the frequency of heavy rainfalls and the character of the soil4 ,the distance apart varies from twenty-five feet in heavy soils to over two hundred feet in light soils4 ,the usual depth is about three feet1 though the farther apart the deeper they are put4 ,a lateral tile drain should enter a main at an acute angle to prevent too great a check in the current4 ,in putting in a drainage system the first thing to be done is to make a plan of the ground and determine the slope of the land and the grade of the drain4 ,the ditches are then staked out and the digging proceeds4 ,in digging the ditches plows are sometimes used to throw out the top soil1 then the work is finished with spades and shovels4 ,professional ditchers use special tools and they take out only sufficient earth to make room for the tiles 7,fig4 #he74 ,the tiles are then laid end to end1 the joints covered with a piece of sod1 some grass1 straw1 paper or clay1 to prevent loose soil sifting in4 ,as the tiles are laid1 enough soil is placed on them to hold them in place until the ditch is filled4 ,in laying the tiles an even grade should be maintained 7,fig4 #hf74 ,a lessening of the grade checks the current of water and tends to cause a stoppage of the drain4 ,the water gets into the drain through the joints where the tiles come together4 ,the outlet of a tile drain should be protected by brick work or should be of glazed tile such as the so-called terra-cotta tile1 to prevent injury by frost4 ,the mouth of the drain should be protected by a screen of wire to prevent the entrance of rats and other small animals4 ,,glossary ,acid1 a chemical name given to many sour substances4 ,albumen1 a nitrogenous organic compound4 ,albuminoid1 a nitrogenous substance resembling albumen4 ,ammonia1 a gas containing nitrogen produced by the decay of organic matter4 ,annual1 a plant that lives only one year2 corn and sunflower are examples4 ,anther1 the part of a stamen that bears the pollen4 ,available1 that which can be used4 ,bacteria1 very small plants1 so small that they cannot be seen without the aid of a powerful microscope4 ,they are sometimes called germs4 ,some of them are beneficial1 some do great harm and some produce disease4 ,biennial1 a plant that lives two years1 usually producing seeds the second year4 ,bordeaux mixture1 a mixture of copper sulphate1 lime and water used to prevent plant diseases4 ,it was invented in ,bordeaux1 ,france4 ,bud1 an undeveloped branch4 ,calyx1 the outermost part of a flower4 ,cambium1 the active growing layer between the bark and the wood of a tree4 ,capillary1 ,hair-like4 ,a name given to very small spaces through which water flows by the force of capillary attraction4 ,carbohydrate1 an organic substance made of oxygen1 hydrogen and carbon1 but containing no nitrogen2 cellulose or woody fibre1 sugar1 starch are examples4 ,carbon1 a chemical element4 ,charcoal is nearly pure carbon4 ,carbonic acid gas1 a gas consisting of carbon and oxygen4 ,it is produced from the lungs of animals1 and by the decay or burning of organic matter4 ,catch crop1 a crop growing during the interval between regular crops4 ,cereal1 a name given to the grain crops that are used for food4 ,chlorophyl1 the green matter in plants4 ,commercial fertilizers1 materials containing plant food which are bought and sold in the markets to improve the soil4 ,compost1 a mixture of decaying organic matter used to enrich the soil4 ,cross pollination1 the pollination of a flower by pollen brought from some other flower4 ,cover crop1 a crop to cover the soil during the interval between regular corps4 ,cultivator1 a farm implement used to loosen the surface of the soil and to kill weeds after a crop has been planted4 ,cutting1 a part of a plant placed in moist soil1 water or other medium with the object of its producing roots and making a new plant4 ,dormant1 said of plants when they are resting or inactive4 ,most plants are dormant during the winter season4 ,drainage1 the method by which surplus water is removed from the land4 ,element1 a substance that cannot be divided into simpler substances4 ,fermentation1 the process by which organic substances are broken down or changed and new substances formed4 ,fertility1 that state or condition of the soil which enables it to produce crops4 ,fibre1 long thread-like structure4 ,flocculate1 to make crumbly4 ,free water1 standing water or water which flows under the influence of gravity4 ,function1 the particular action of any part of an organism4 ,furrow1 the trench left by the plow4 ,furrow slice1 the strip of earth which is turned by the plow4 ,germinate1 to sprout4 ,grafting1 the process of inserting a cion or bud in a stock plant4 ,green manure crops1 crops intended to be plowed under to improve the soil4 ,harrow1 an implement used to pulverize the surface of the soil4 ,heavy soils1 soils that are hard to work2 stiff1 cloddy soils4 ,horticulture1 that branch of agriculture which deals with the growing of fruits1 vegetables1 flowers and ornamental plants4 ,humus1 partially decayed animal and vegetable matter in the soil4 ,hydrogen1 a gaseous1 chemical element1 one of the constituents of water4 ,inter-tillage1 tillage between plants4 ,irrigation1 the practice of supplying plants with water by artificial means4 ,kainite1 a potash salt used in making fertilizer4 ,kernel1 a single seed or grain4 ,leaching1 passing through and going off in drainage water4 ,legume1 a plant belonging to the bean1 pea and clover family4 ,light soils1 soils which are loose and open and easy to work4 ,loam1 a mixture of sand1 clay and organic matter4 ,mould board1 the curved part of the plow which turns the furrow slice4 ,mulch1 a covering on the soil4 ,it may be of straw1 leaves1 pulverized soil or other material4 ,nectar1 a sweet substance in flowers from which bees make honey4 ,nitrate1 a soluble form of nitrogen4 ,nitrification1 the changing of nitrogen into a nitrate4 ,nitrogen1 a gas forming four-fifths of the air4 ,nitrogen is a very necessary food of plants4 ,organic matter1 substances produced by the growth of plants and animals4 ,osmose1 the movement of fluids through membranes or thin partitions4 ,oxygen1 a gas which forms one-fifth of the air4 ,its presence is necessary to the life of all green plants and all animals4 ,ovary1 the part of the pistil that bears the developing seeds4 ,ovule1 an immature seed in the ovary4 ,perennial1 living through several years4 ,phosphoric acid1 an important plant food found in phosphates4 ,pistil1 the part of the flower which produces seeds4 ,propagate1 to increase in number4 ,pollen1 the powdery substance produced by stamens4 ,pollination1 the transfer of pollen from stamens to pistils4 ,potash1 an important plant food4 ,pruning1 removing parts of a plant for the good of what remains4 ,retentive1 holding1 retaining1 said of soil which holds water4 ,reverted1 said of phosphoric acid in the process of becoming insoluble4 ,rotation of crops1 a change of crops in regular order4 ,sap1 the juice or liquid contents of plants4 ,seed bed1 the earth in which seeds are sown4 ,seedling1 a young plant just from the seed4 ,also a plant raised from a seed in distinction from one produced from a graft or a cutting4 ,sepal1 one of the parts of the calyx4 ,slip1 a cutting placed in water or moist soil or other substance to produce roots and form a new plant4 ,soil1 that part of the earth's crust into which plants send their roots for food and water4 ,stamen1 that part of a flower which bears the pollen4 ,stigma1 the part of the pistil which receives the pollen4 ,stomata1 breathing pores in plants4 ,subsoil1 that part of the soil which lies beneath the soil that is worked with the tillage tools4 ,sap root1 a main root that runs straight down into the soil4 ,tillage1 stirring the soil4 ,transpiration1 the giving off of water from plants4 ,tubercle1 a small nodular growth on the roots of plants4 ,under drainage1 drainage from below4 ,vitality of seeds1 the ability of seeds to grow4 ,,index ,acid phosphates1 #aif4 ,adobe soils1 #cj4 ,after-cultivation1 #aeh1 #afd4 benefits from1 #afd4 flat1 #afi4 frequency of1 #afg4 saves water1 #afd4 shallow1 #ae1 #afg1 #afi4 time for1 #aff4 tools for1 #afg4 ,agencies active in making soils1 #cb4 ,agents1 with which farmer works1 #e4 most important1 #f4 ,agriculture1 foundation facts and principles of1 #bb4 ,air1 and the farmer1 #e4 in relation to germination1 #gb4 necessary for root growth1 #bj4 work of1 in making soils1 #cf4 ,albuminoids in plants1 #fd1 #ff4 ,alfalfa or lucern1 #fh4 roots1 #ac4 soils1 #bi4 ,ammonia in fertilizers1 #bjd1 #bje4 in barn manures1 #age4 lost by fermentation1 #age4 sulphate of1 #aid4 ,analysis of plants1 #afc-aff4 of fertilizers1 #bjc4 ,animals1 #e4 and the farmer1 #e4 dependent on plants1 #f4 work of1 in making soils1 #cg4 ,annual plants1 #abe4 ,anthers1 #abi4 ,aphis1 #aaf4 ,apple1 flower of1 #abi1 #acj4 ,ash in plants1 #fe1 #ff4 ,ashes1 a source of potash1 #aii4 cotton hull1 #aii4 ,bacteria1 #fh1 #adc4 and the farmer1 #e1 #add4 denitrifying1 #add4 in manures1 #agd4 in the roots of legumes1 #fh4 in the soil1 #fh1 #adc4 nitrifying1 #add4 nitrogen-fixing1 #add4 ,bare fallow1 #ajj4 when advisable1 #ajj4 ,barn manures1 #aga4 application of1 #agg4 condition of1 #agi4 effect of on soil texture1 #agb4 loss of value of1 #agc4 meaning of term1 #agc4 ,beet1 #f4 ,beets1 #d4 nitrogen for1 #bad4 ,biological properties of a fertile soil1 #adc4 ,biology1 #adc4 ,blood1 dried1 #aid4 as a fertilizer1 #aid4 nitrogen in1 #aid4 ,bokhara clover1 #aij4 ,bone1 dissolved1 #aig4 dust1 #aig4 ground1 #aig4 ,bone fertilizers1 #aig4 meal1 #aig4 raw1 #aig4 steamed1 #aig4 ,bone black1 #aig4 dissolved1 #aih4 ,bones1 #aie1 #aig4 ,bordeaux mixture1 #aah4 ,breaking out the middles1 #ig4 ,brick1 #cj4 ,brush harrow1 #ajb1 #aje4 ,buds1 #abj4 ,buildings1 #e4 and the farmer1 #e4 ,bureau of soils1 ,united ,states1 #bh4 ,department of ,agriculture1 #bh4 ,buttercup1 flower of1 #abi1 #acj4 ,cabbage1 fertilizer for1 #baa4 soil1 #bh1 #afa4 transplanting1 #hg1 #hh4 worm1 #aag4 ,cabbages1 #d4 ,calcium in plants1 #ff1 #fg4 in soils1 #fh4 ,calyx1 #abi4 function of1 #acb4 ,cambium1 #abf4 ,canadian field pea1 #ahi4 ,canteloupe soil1 #bh4 ,capillary force1 #di4 meaning of term1 #di4 tubes1 #di4 water1 #aec4 ,carbon in plants1 #ff4 ,carbonic acid in soil1 #cg4 ,carrots1 #d1 #f4 ,cauliflower soil1 #bh4 ,celery1 #d4 ,cellulose in plants1 #fc1 #ff4 ,chain harrow1 #ajb1 #aje4 ,chemical properties of a fertile soil1 #adg4 ,cherry flower1 #abi1 #acj4 ,chlorophyl in leaves1 #aac4 ,classification of soils1 #bf4 ,clay1 #bg1 #ch4 and lime1 #db4 loams1 #bi4 power to absorb water1 #da1 #db4 relation to water1 #be1 #da1 #dc4 soils1 #bi4 soils injured by working when wet1 #de4 to improve texture of1 #db4 water-holding power1 #dd4 ,clevis1 #ic4 ,climbing plants1 #aba4 ,clover1 #fh4 ,bokhara1 #aij4 crimson1 #ahi4 mammoth1 #ahi4 red1 #ahh4 ,clovers1 as green manure-crops1 #ahh4 as nitrogen gatherers1 #ahd4 nodules on roots of1 #ahd4 ,commercial fertilizers1 #aga1 #aib4 amount to buy1 #bab4 home mixing1 #baa4 kind to buy1 #bab4 raw materials1 #aib4 7,see also ,fertilizers47 ,composts1 #aga1 #aha4 ,conditions necessary for root growth1 #bj4 ,corn1 a humus waster1 #bbf4 depth of root growth of1 #ac4 flower of1 #acb4 germination of1 #gh1 #gi4 in rotation1 #bbf1 #bbi1 #bcd4 plant1 #f4 pollination of1 #acc4 rapid growth of roots of1 #ac4 roots cut by plow1 #ad4 soils1 #bh1 #bi1 #cj1 #afa4 structure of seed1 #gh4 water used by1 #dj4 ,corolla1 #abi4 function of1 #acb4 ,cotton1 #e1 #afa4 a humus waster1 #bba4 in rotation1 #bbe-bbi4 plant1 #f4 plant food removed by1 #bbg4 ,sea ,island1 #afa4 soils1 #bh1 #bi1 #afa4 upland1 #afa4 ,cotton hull ashes1 #aii4 ,cotton-seed meal1 #aid4 ,cotyledons1 #gg4 use of1 #gi4 ,coulter of plow1 #id4 ,coulter-toothed harrow1 #ajb1 #ajd4 ,cow manure1 #agh4 losses by exposure1 #agh4 ,cowpeas1 #fh1 #ahf4 for green manuring1 #ahf4 plant food in1 #ahg4 root growth of1 #ab4 soils for1 #ahg4 ,cropping and soil water1 #aei1 #afj4 ,crops1 cleansing1 #bcb4 feeding1 #bcb4 in rotation1 #bai4 manurial1 #bcb4 money1 #bcb4 ,cucumber flower1 #acc4 ,cultivation4 7,see ,after-cultivation47 ,denitrification1 #adg4 conditions favoring1 #adg4 ,denitrifying germs1 #add1 #adg4 ,draft ring of plow1 #ic4 ,draining1 need of1 #bce4 ,drains1 #aeh-bci4 and capillary water1 #bcg4 covered1 #bcg4 ,drains1 effect on film water1 #bcg4 effect on plant food1 #bch4 effect on soil temperature1 #bch4 effect on soil water1 #bcg4 grade of1 #bci4 lateral1 #bci4 location of1 #bch4 main1 #bci4 open ditch1 #bcg4 surface1 #bcg4 tile1 #bci4 ,dried blood1 #aid4 as a fertilizer1 #aid4 nitrogen in1 #aid4 ,early crops1 soils for1 #bg1 #bh4 ,egg experiments to show osmose1 #ah1 #ai4 ,egg plant1 soil for1 #bh4 ,elements in plants1 #ff4 ,elm tree leaf beetle1 #aag4 ,endosperm1 #gh4 use of1 #gi4 ,epicotyl1 #gh4 ,essential organs of flowers1 #aca4 ,evaporation1 loss of water by1 #ed4 loss of heat by1 #ei4 ,excursion1 to examine soils1 #bd4 to see plow cutting roots1 #ad4 to study roots1 #aa4 to study leaves1 #ajh4 to study stems1 #abj4 to visit farm1 #d4 ,experiment to show1 air necessary for germination1 #gc4 amount of transpiration1 #aaj4 capillarity1 #di4 capacity of soils for film water1 #ea4 checking loss of water by evaporation1 #ee4 chlorophyl necessary for starch making1 #aac4 effect of soil mulch1 #ee4 depth of planting seeds1 #ha4 effect of lime on clay soil1 #db4 effect of working soil when wet1 #bf1 #de4 exclusion of oxygen by leaf1 #aac4 film water1 #ej4 growth in length of roots1 #af4 heat necessary for germination1 #gc4 how food and water get into the root1 #ah1 #ai4 how soils are warmed1 #eh4 how soils lose heat1 #ei4 importance of roots1 #g4 moisture necessary for germination1 #ga4 no starch formed in dark1 #aab4 osmose1 #ah1 #ai4 plants contain albuminoids1 #fd4 plants contain ashes1 #fe4 plants contain cellulose1 #fc4 plants contain gum1 #fd4 plants contain oil1 #fd4 plants contain starch1 #fd4 plants contain sugar1 #fd4 plants contain water1 #fe4 power of soils to absorb rain1 #dj4 power of soils to hold water1 #dd1 #de4 power of soils to pump water1 #dc4 roots absorb moisture1 #i4 roots take food from soil1 #i4 roots produce new plants1 #aj4 roots need air1 #ba4 soil characteristics1 #bd1 #be4 soil temperature1 #eg1 #fj4 starch in leaf1 #aaa4 stems carry sap1 #abb4 stems store food1 #abd4 transpiration1 the fact1 #aji4 transpiration1 amount1 #aaa4 use of cotyledons1 #gi4 what becomes of water taken by roots1 #ci4 ,fallow1 bare1 #ajj4 ,fall plowing1 #ii4 ,families of plants1 #hf4 ,farm drainage1 #bce4 ,farm manures1 #aga1 #ahc4 classification of1 #aga4 importance of1 #agb4 ,farmer deals with agents1 laws and forces1 #e4 ,fat in plants1 #fd4 ,fermentation of manures1 #agd4 ,fertile soil1 a1 #ada4 biological properties of1 #adb1 #adc4 chemical properties of1 #adb1 #adg4 most important properties of1 #aej4 physical properties of1 #adb4 ,fertility of the soil1 #aej4 economizing the1 #aej4 maintaining the1 #aej4 ,fertilizers1 commercial1 #fh1 #aib4 analysis of1 #bjc4 classification of1 #aga4 home mixing1 #baa4 how to know what kind is needed1 #bab4 importance of thorough mixing with the soil1 #ae4 manufactured1 #bjb4 many brands1 #bjb4 mixed1 #bjb4 raw materials1 #aib4 sources of lime1 #aic1 #bjj4 sources of nitrogen1 #aic4 sources of phosphoric acid1 #aic1 #aie4 sources of potash1 #aic1 #aii4 use of by farmer1 #agb1 #aib4 value of plant food in1 #bje4 ,filament of stamen1 #abi4 ,film water1 #ej4 ,fish scrap as a fertilizer1 #aid4 ,flower1 of apple1 #abi1 #acj4 of buttercup1 #abi1 #acj4 calyx1 #abi4 of cherry1 #abi1 #acj4 corolla1 #abi4 of cucumber1 #acc4 functions of parts of1 #acj4 of honeysuckle1 #abi4 of melon1 #acc4 parts of1 #abi4 of peach1 #abi1 #acj4 petals1 #abi4 of petunia1 #abi4 pistil1 #acj4 pollen1 #acj4 of potato1 #abi4 sepals1 #abi4 stamen1 #abi4 of squash1 #acc4 of tomato1 #abi4 of wild mustard1 #abi1 #acj4 ,flowers1 #h1 #abh4 essential parts of1 #aca4 functions of1 #acj4 ,food of plants1 #fc4 ,forces of nature and the farmer1 #e4 ,forest soils1 #bi4 ,foundation facts and principles of agriculture1 #bb4 ,free water in the soil1 #dh1 #aec4 injurious to roots1 #aec4 source of capillary and film water1 #aec4 ,fresno sand1 #bh4 ,fruit1 #h1 #acf4 ,fruit soils1 #bi4 ,fruits1 #bg4 ,furrow slice1 #if4 ,gas lime1 #bja4 ,geranium1 #f4 ,germinating seeds1 need air1 #gc4 need heat1 #gc4 need water1 #ga4 ,germs1 #adc4 denitrifying1 #add1 #adg4 nitrifying1 #add1 #ade4 nitrogen fixing1 #add4 ,goosefoot family1 #hf4 ,gourd family1 #hf4 ,grafting1 #acf4 ,grain crops humus wasters1 #bbd4 ,grain soils1 #bh4 ,grass1 #e4 family1 #hf4 soils1 #bh1 #bi1 #cj1 #afb4 ,gravel1 #bf4 ,gravelly loams1 #bi4 ,green-crop manures1 #aga1 #ahc4 benefits from1 #ahe4 best plants for1 #ahe4 ,green manure-crops1 #ahf4 clovers as1 #ahh4 cowpeas as1 #ahf4 legumes as1 #ahf4 non-leguminous1 #aia4 soy-bean as1 #ahi4 time for growing1 #ahf4 ,gum in plants1 #fd1 #ff4 ,gypsum1 #bja4 ,habit of growth of roots1 #aa4 ,handles of plow1 #ic4 ,harrowing1 #aja1 #aeh4 objects of1 #aja4 time for1 #aja4 ,harrows1 #d1 #ajb4 brush1 #ajb1 #aje4 chain1 #ajb1 #aje4 coulter-toothed1 #ajb1 #ajd4 plank1 #ajb1 #aje4 rolling cutter1 #ajb1 #ajc4 spike-toothed1 #ajb1 #ajd4 spring-toothed1 #ajb1 #ajc4 ,hay soils1 #bi1 #cj4 ,heat and the farmer1 #e4 ,heat necessary for germination1 #gc4 ,hilling the crop1 #afi4 ,hilum1 #gg4 ,hoeing and soil water1 #aeh4 ,hoes1 #d4 ,horn shavings as fertilizer1 #aie4 ,horse manure1 #agf4 losses when piled1 #agf4 ,house plants1 watering of1 #ea4 ,how the bean gets up1 #gh4 ,how the corn gets up1 #gi4 ,humus1 #bg1 #ch4 influence on soil texture1 #fb4 nitrogen in1 #fg4 a source of nitrogen1 #fg4 water-absorbing power of1 #da4 water-holding power of1 #dd4 water-pumping power of1 #dc4 ,hydrogen in plants1 #ff4 ,hypocotyl1 #gh4 ,ice1 work of1 in making soils1 #ce4 ,insects1 chewing1 #aag4 how to combat1 #aaf1 #aag4 injure leaves1 #aaf4 sucking1 #aaf4 ,insect pollination1 #aca4 ,inter-tillage1 #afd4 ,iodine1 test for starch1 #fd4 ,iron in plants1 #ff4 ,jointer of plow1 #ie4 value as a pulverizer1 #ie4 ,kainite1 #aii4 ,knowledge of flowers1 value of1 #acd4 ,land plaster1 #bjj4 ,laws of nature1 #e4 ,leaf work1 conditions necessary for1 #aad4 interfered with1 #aae1 #aah4 ,leather as a fertilizer1 #aie4 ,leaves1 #h1 #ajh4 digest food1 #aad4 facts about1 #ajh4 functions of1 #aji4 manufacture starch1 #aab4 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soils1 #cf4 rain in making soils1 #cc4 ,wood ashes1 #aii4 ,wool waste as fertilizer1 #aie4 99 99 99 99 99