,illu/ration ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ,,supplem5t ,,no4 #ejh ,,new ,,york1 ,,septemb] #bf1 #ahhe ,sci5tific ,am]ican ,supplem5t4 ,vol4 ,,xx41 ,no4 #ejh4 ,sci5tific ,am]ican e/abli%$ #ahde ,sci5tific ,am]ican ,supplem5t1 #e a ye>4 ,sci5tific ,am]ican & ,supplem5t1 #g a ye>4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts ,,page ,i4 ,,*emi/ry ,,& ,,metallurgy4--,! ,c[les ,electric ,smelt+ ,process4 #e figures4 #haac ,on ! ,electrical ,furnace & ! ,r$uction ( ! ,oxides ( ,boron1 ,silicon1 ,alum9um1 & o!r ,metals by ,c>bon4--,by ,,eug5e ,h4 ,,c[les1 ,,alfr$ ,h4 ,,c[les1 & ,,*>les ,f4 ,,mab]y4 #haab ,*emical ,action ( ,light4 #haag ,eutexia4--,cryohydrates4--,eutectic salt alloys & metal alloys4 #haag ,*9ol9e4 #haah ,me?od ( ,rapid ,e/imation ( ,urea4 #a figure4 #haah ,assay ( ,e>!nw>e ,glaze4 #haab ,,ii4 ,,eng9e]+ ,,& ,,me*anics4--,deep ,%afts & ,deep ,m9+4 #hajd ,s9k+ ( ! ,quievre*a9 ,work+ ,%aft4--,num]\s figures4 #hajh ,on ! ,elem5t>y ,pr9ciples ( ! ,gas ,eng9e4--,an int]e/+ pap] read be=e ! ,gas ,in/itute by ,mr4 ,,d5ny ,,lane1 ( ,cork1 & discussion foll[+4 #haji ,m4 ,,meizel',s ,reciprocat+ ,exhau/]4 #haab ,automatic ,siphon = ,irrigation4 #a figure4 #haac ,,iii4 ,,electricity1 ,,telegraphy1 ,,etc4--,optical ,telegraphy4-- ,cryptography4--,pres]vation ( ,telegrams4--,! projector 9 optical telegraphy4--,use ( balloons4 #d figures4 #haad ,a ,new ,/yle ( ,subm>9e ,telegraph4 #d figures4 #haae ,a ,new ,circuit ,cutt]4 #b figures4 #haae ,new ,micro ,telephonic ,app>atus4 #e figures4 #haaf ,messrs4 ,kapp & ,crompton's ,measur+ ,in/rum5ts4 #e figures4 #haaf ,,iv4 ,,geology1 ,,etc4--,p]meability ( ,s& ,rock4--,by ,f4,h4 ,,newell4 #hajc ,! ,grotto ( ,g>gas1 9 ! ,pyr5ees4--,paleontological rema9s f\nd !re94 #b engrav+s4 #hajc ,rem>kable ,wells & ,cav]ns 9 ,yucatan4--,by ,,alice ,d4 ,,le ,,plongeon4 #haje ,v4 ,,natural ,,hi/ory4--,! ,cabbage ,butt]fly & ! ,peacock ,butt]fly4 #haje ,,vi4 ,,botany ,,& ,,horticulture4--,! ,bhotan ,cypress 7,cupressus torulosa74--,) engrav+4 #hajf ,! ,pit*] ,plant4 #hajf ,:at is a ,plant8 #hajf ,camellias4--,culture ( ! same4 #hajf ,arisma ,fimbriatum4--,leaf1 spa!1 & floral details4--,) engrav+4 #hajg ,,vii4 ,,miscellane\s4--,/rik+ a ,light ) ,bamboo4 #hajg ,exp]im5ts 9 ,memory4 #hajg 99 99 99 99 99 ,,p]meability ,,( ,,s& ,,rock4 ,by ,,fr$]ick ,h4 ,,newell1 ,m4,e4 ,among oil produc]s1 !re has be5 mu* discussion z to :e!r ! s& rock 9 :i* petroleum occurs is ( necessity fissur$ or is /ill 9 its orig9al unbrok5 condition4 ,! e>lie/ & mo/ natural !ory1 :i* = ye>s 0 indisput$1 & is /ill giv5 by "s textbooks1 01 t oil wells rea*$ a cavity fill$ ) petroleum4 ,)9 ! pa/ few ye>s1 h[ev]1 ! op9ion has be5 ga9+ gr\nd t ! oil is /or$ 9 ! s&rock itself 9 ! m9ute spaces betwe5 ! small gra9s ( s&1 n entirely fill$ by cem5t+ mat]ial1 & t crevices hold+ & conduct+ oil are r>e1 all fissures z a rule be+ conf9$ to ! upp] fre%-wat] be>+ rocks ( ! well4 ,mr4 ,c>ll1 9 ,,iii4 ,p5nsylvania ,second ,geological ,survey1 has discuss$ ?is subject v fully1 & has made e/imates ( ! quantity ( oil t ! s& rock c hold & deliv] into a well2 also1 ,t4 ,/]ry ,hunt1 9 8 ,*emical & ,geological ,essays1 has made d$uctions z to ! petroleum conta9$ 9 ! ,niag>a lime/one t outcrops ab\t ,*icago4 ,:ile ! exp]im5ts & conclusions ( ^! geologi/s g to prove t ^! rocks are capable ( hold+ ! oil1 !re are on record no facts z to ! ph5om5a ( its fl[1 o!r ?an by capill>ity1 ?r\gh ! rock4 ,to obta9 "s data ( ! fl[ ( liquids "u pressure ?r\gh c]ta9 oil-be>+ /ones1 s]ies ( te/s on small pieces 7 made4 ,^! te/s 7 c>ri$ on dur+ ?is spr+1 & _m results q unlook$ = 7 obta9$4 ,:5 crude oil1 k]os5e1 or wat] 7riv] or di/ill$7 0 =c$ ?r\gh ! specim5s1 ! pressure be+ con/ant1 ! rate ( fl[ 0 v>iable4 ,at fir/1 ! am\nt fl[+ ?r\gh 0 l>ge1 !n fell (f rapidly1 & :5 ! fl[ _h dim9i%$ to ab\t "o-qu>t] ( its orig9al rate1 ! decrease 0 v slight1 b /ill cont9u$ z long z measurem5ts 7 made1 9 "s cases = ?ree weeks4 ,:5 us+ crude oil1 ?is result 0 n surpris+1 =1 z ! oil m5 say1 crude oil p>aff9es up a rock1 t is1 clogs ! m9ute pores by deposit+ solid p>aff9e 7872 b ?is s-call$ p>aff9+ took place1 n only ) crude oil1 b ) ref9$ oil1 & ev5 ) di/ill$ wat]4 ,! only explanation z yet is1 t liquids fl[+ "u pressure ?r\gh rock on :i* !y ex]t little or no dissolv+ effect1 in/ead ( wa%+ out f9e p>ticles1 t5d to dislodge any m9ute gra9s ( ! /one t may n be firmly held by cem5t1 & ^! block up extremely f9e & crook$ pores 9 :i* ! fluid is pass+4 ,sev]al te/s indicat$ t ?is block+ up 0 l>gely ne> ! surface into :i* ! fluid 0 pass+4 ,:5 ?is surface 0 gr\nd (f1 ev5 #a_/ej ( an in*1 ! fl[ increas$ imm$iately ne>ly to ! orig9al rate4 ,rev]s+ ! fl[ also _h ! effect ( increas+ ! rate1 ev5 above t ( any "t previ\s4 ,) ! mod]ate pressures us$--f #b to #hj ( m]cury--! results %[ t ! rate ( fl[1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 is directly proportional to ! pressure4 ,! porosity ( rock is n always a crit]ion ( its p]meability2 a v f9e gra9$ m>ble1 conta9+ ab\t #j4f p] c5t4 cell space1 transmitt$ wat] & oil m freely ?an a %ale t w\ld hold #d p] c5t4 ( its bulk ( wat]4 ,if ! above conclusions hold on a l>ge scale z on ! small1 !y may aid 9 expla9+ ! dim9i%$ fl[ ( oil wells4 ,n only w ! fl[ less5 f r$uc$ gas pressure1 b ! passages 9 ! rock become less able to all[ ! oil to fl[ ?r\gh4 ,! increase 9 fl[ foll[+ ! explosion ( l>ge %ots 9 a s& rock may be due n only to fissur+ ( ! rock1 b to tempor>y rev]sal ( ! pressure1 ! =ce ( ! explosive t5d+ to drive ! oil back = an in/ant4 ,! l>ge %ots n[ us$ 7up to #bjj qu>ts1 or say #ffj p\nds ( nitroglyc]9e7 mu/ ex]t "s influ5ce ( ?is k9d1 especially :5 held d[n by #ejj feet ( liquid tamp+4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ^! te/s1 x 0 notic$ t fre% wat] has a m en]getic dis9tegrat+ action on ! %ales & clay ?an on salt wat]4 ,?is may furni% a reason = ! fact1 notic$ by ! oil m51 t fre% wat] has a mu* m injuri\s effect ?an salt 9 clogg+ a well4 ,no oil-be>+ s& rock is free f lam9 ( %ale1 & :5 fre% wat] gets d[n into ! s&1 ! wat] mu/1 z ! exp]im5ts %[1 rapidly break up ! %ale1 sett+ free f9e p>ticles1 :i* soon are driv5 along into ! m9ute int]/ices ( ! s& rock1 pla/]+ x up & injur+ ! well4--,eng9e]+ & ,m9+ ,j\rnal4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,grotto ,,( ,,g>gas4 ,! grotto ( ,g>gas is locat$ 9 ,m\nt ,tibiran ab\t ?ree hundr$ y>ds above ! level ( ! valley1 & ab\t two miles s\!a/ ( ! village ( ,av5tignan4 ,access to x is easy1 s9ce a road made by ,mr4 ,bord]es 9 #ahhd all[s c>riages to rea* its entrance4 ,?is grotto is "o ( ! mo/ beautiful 9 ! ,pyr5ees1 & pres5ts to ! visitor a succession ( va/ halls ) ro(s t are curv$ l a dome1 or are 9 ! =m ( an ogive1 or are z flat z a ceil+4 ,x is easy to explore ^! halls1 = ! floor is cov]$ ) a ?ick /alagmitic /ratum1 & is n irregul> z 9 ! majority ( l>ge caves4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,section ,,( ,,! ,,grotto ,,( ,,g>gas4 ,^u ent]+ ?r\gh ! iron gate at ! m\? ( ! grotto1 "o f9ds himself 9 ,be> ,hall1 :]e9 a /range calc>e\s concretion (f]s ! =m ( ! c>nivor\s animal aft] :i* ! room is nam$4 ,?is *amb] is ab\t #hj feet 9 wid? by #ih 9 l5g?4 ,we fir/ desc5d a slope =m$ ( e>? & debris mo/ly d]iv$ f ! outside4 ,?is slope1 9 :i* are cut sev]al /eps1 re/s ^u a h>d1 compact1 & cry/all9e /alagmitic floor4 ,^u turn+ to ! "r1 we come to ! ,hall ( ,columns1 ! mo/ beautiful ( all4 ,"h ! floor bri/les ) /alagmites1 :i* 9 sev]al places are connect$ ) ! /alactites t dep5d f ! ceil+4 ,?is room is ab\t #ej feet squ>e4 ,aft] ?is we rea* ! ,hall ( ,crevices1 #hj feet squ>e1 & ?is leads to ! great ,hall ( ,g>gas1 :i* is ab\t #cbh feet 9 l5g? by #hj1 #ih1 & #aje 9 wid?4 ,9 c]ta9 places enorm\s fissures 9 ! vault rise to a great height4 ,"s ( ^!1 %ap$ l great inv]t$ funnels1 are m ?an #fj y>ds 9 l5g?4 ,! grotto t]m9ates 9 ! ,creep+ ,hall4 ,z its "n indicates1 ?is "p ( ! cave c only be trav]s$ by ly+ flat ^u ! belly4 ,x gives access to ! upp] grotto ?r\gh a n>r[ & difficult passage t x w\ld be possible to wid51 & :i* w\ld !n all[ visitors to make _! exit by trav]s+ ! beautiful upp] grotto1 ^: natural entrance is situat$ #aej y>ds above ! pres5t "o4 ,?is latt] 0 bla/$ out ab\t ?irty ye>s ago4 ,^u foll[+ ! direction ( ! great crevices1 we rea* a small *amb]1 :]e9 are f\nd ! ,oubliettes ( ,g>gas--a v]tical well #fe feet feet 9 dep?4 ,! ap]ture t gives access to ?is /range well 7r5d]$ important ?r\gh ! paleontological rema9s collect$ 9 x7 is no m ?an two feet 9 diamet]4 ,su* is ! g5]al configuration ( ! grotto4 ,9 #ahfe ,dr4 ,g>rig\ & ,mr4 ,de ,*a/aigni] visit$ ! grotto1 & 7 ! fir/ to make excavations !re94 ,^! latt] all[$ ^! sci5ti/s to asc]ta9 t ! great *amb] conta9$ ! rema9s ( a quat]n>y fauna1 &1 ne> ! declivity1 a deposit ( ! re9de] age4 ,z soon z x 0 possible to obta9 a p]mit f ! ,municipal ,c\ncil ( ,av5tignan to d s1 ,i began ! "w ( excavation1 & ! p]si/5ce ) :i* ,i cont9u$ my explorations l$ me to discov] "o ( ! mo/ important deposits t we possess 9 ! *a9 ( ! ,pyr5ees4 ,my fir/ excavations 9 ,be> ,hall 7 made 9 #ahgc1 & 7 p>ticul>ly fruitful 9 an op5+ #bi feet long by #aj wide t t]m9ates ! hall1 to ! left4 ,i h rem>k$ t ^! sorts ( retreats 9 grottoes are g5]ally ri* 9 bones4 ,curr5ts ( wat] ru%+ ?r\gh ! entrance to ! grotto c>ry along ! bones--entire1 brok51 or gnaw$--t lie ^u ! gr\nd4 ,^! rema9s are transport$ to ! dep?s ( ! cave1 & are (t5 /opp$ along ! walls1 & lie buri$ 9 ! *amb]s 9 argillace\s mud4 ,r\nd$ fl9t /ones are con/antly associat$ ) ! bones1 & ! latt] are always 9 great disord]4 ,! species t ,i met ) 7 z foll[s3 ! great cave be>1 ! little be>1 ! hy5a1 ! great cat1 ! rh9oc]os1 ! ox1 ! horse1 & ! /ag4 ,! /alagmitic floor is #a1 #b1 & #b in*es ?ick4 ,! bones 7 ei!r scatt]$ or accumulat$ at c]ta9 po9ts4 ,!y 7 g5]ally brok51 & (t5 worn & r\nd$4 ,!y appe>$ to h be5 roll$ ) viol5ce by ! wat]s4 ,! clay t conta9$ !m 0 f #c to #f feet 9 ?ickness1 & re/$ ^u a /ratum ( wat]-worn pebbles ^: dim5sions v>i$ f ! size ( ! fi/ to a gra9 ( s&4 ,a ?ick lay] ( v h>d1 cry/all9e /alagmite cov]s ! ,hall ( ,columns1 & x 0 v difficult to excavate )\t de/roy+ ?is "p ( ! grotto4 ,i f\nd t !re anci5tly exi/$ sev]al ap]tures t are n[ seal$ up1 ei!r by calc>e\s concretions or by e>?y rubbi% f ! m\nta94 ,"o ( ^! 0 situat$ 9 ! vic9ity ( ! pres5t m\?1 & p]mitt$ ( ! access to ,be> ,hall ( a ho/ ( c>nivora t f\nd !re9 a va/ & conv5i5t place ( %elt]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,skeleton ,,( ,,! ,,cave ,,hy5a4 ,^! excavations reveal$ to me at ?is entrance1 at ! bottom ( ! declivity1 a ?ick /ratum ( rema9s br\ght ?i!r by primitive man4 ,?is deposit1 :i* 0 =m$ ( black e>? mix$ ) *>coal & num]\s rema9s ( bones1 calc9$ & brok5 longitud9ally = ! mo/ "p1 conta9$ rudely work$ fl9t /ones4 ,i collect$ a few implem5ts1 "o surface ( :i* (f]$ a clean fracture1 :ile ! o!r repres5t$ ! cutt+ edge4 ,accord+ to ,mr4 ,de ,mortillet1 su* in/rum5ts 7 n int5d$ to h a h&le4 ,!y 7 capable ( s]v+ z p>+ knives & saws1 b !y 7 especially design$ = scrap+ bones & sk9s4 ,! deposit 0 f #bf to #cb feet squ>e & f #b in*es to #e feet deep1 & re/$ ^u a b$ ( brok5 /ones above ! /alagmite4 ,! animals f\nd 9 x 7 ! mod]n be> 7r>e71 ! auro*s1 ! ox1 ! horse1 & ! /ag--! la/ f\r 9 abundance4 ,at ! extremity ( ! grotto !re is a well ) v]tical sides :i* is no less ?an #fe feet 9 dep?4 ,x is call$ ! ,g>gas ,oubilettes4 ,its m\? is f #ae to #bd in*es 9 diamet]1 & sc>cely gives passage to a man 7,fig4 #a74 ,mr4 ,bord]es1 9 ! hope ( discov]+ a new grotto1 0 ! fir/ to desc5d into ?is well1 :i* he did by means ( a rope ladd]1 & collect$ a few bones t 7 a revelation to me4 ,despite ! great difficulty & dang] ( excavat+ at ?is po9t1 ,i proce$$1 & f\nd at ! fir/ bl[ ( ! pick t !re 0 "h a deposit ( ! highe/ importance1 s9ce all ! bones t ,i met ) 7 intact4 ,! fir/ ?+ collect$ 0 an entire skull ( ! great cave be>1 ) its maxill>ies 9 place4 ,f ?is mom5t ,i began a s]ies ( excavations t la/$ two ye>s4 ,! desc5t is effect$ ?r\gh a n>r[ v]tical passage #f feet 9 l5g?4 ,! cavity aft]w>d imp]ceptibly wid5s1 &1 at a dep? ( #ab y>ds1 rea*es #f feet 9 diamet]1 & at #ae y>ds #aj feet4 ,f9ally1 9 ! wide/ "p 7at a dep? ( #fb feet7 x measures ab\t #af feet 7,fig4 #a74 ,a glance at ! section ( ! well1 :i* ,i h drawn z accurately z possible 7n an easy ?+ to d :5 "o is /&+ ^u a rope ladd]71 w give an idea ( ! =m ( ?is /range pocket =m$ 9 ! lime/one ( ! m\nta9 ?r\gh ! mo/ complex dislocations & erosions4 ,two lat]al pockets attract$ my att5tion because ( ! enorm\s quantity ( clay & bones t ob/ruct$ !m4 ,! fir/1 to ! left1 0 ab\t #ae feet f ! orifice4 ,:5 we _h entirely empti$ x1 we f\nd t x communicat$ ) ! bottom ( ! well by a n>r[ passage4 ,an entire skeleton ( ! great cave be> _h /opp$ up ?is n>r[ passage1 & ( ?is1 by ! aid ( a small ladd]1 we ga!r$ ! great] "p ( ! skeleton1 ! /ate ( pres]vation ( :i* 0 rem>kable4 ,! second pocket1 :i* 0 almo/ completely fill$ ) clay1 & situat$ a little l[] ?an ! o!r1 likewise communicat$ ) a ?ird cavity t rea*$ ! bottom ( ! well4 ,! clay ( ^! diff]5t pockets conta9$ s l>ge a quantity ( bones t we c\ld h>dly use our picks1 & ! excavation _h to be p]=m$ ) v %ort hooks1 & (t5 by h&4 ,9 ?is way ,i 0 enabl$ to remove ! bones )\t accid5t4 ,! l[] pocket 0 dug out fir/1 & ) extreme c>e1 ! bones be+ hoi/$ out by means ( a basket atta*$ to a rope4 ,?ree or f\r c&les suffic$ to give u light4 ,! air 0 heavy & v w>m1 &1 aft] /ay+ 9 x = two h\rs1 x 0 necess>y to come to ! surface to brea!4 ,aft] extract+ ! bones f ! l[] pocket1 & :5 no m clay rema9$1 we successively dug out ! upp] ones & ?rew ! e>? to ! bottom ( ! well4 ,on ! #bj? ( ,decemb]1 #ahhd1 my excavat+ 0 f9i%$4 ,to-day ! ,oubliettes ( ,g>gas are ob/ruct$ ) ! clay t x 0 impossible to c>ry else:]e4 ,! animals t ,i ?us collect$ 9 ! well 7 ! foll[+3 ,! great be> 79 abundance71 ! little be> 7a v>iety ( ! prec$+71 ! hy5a1 & ! wolf4 ,! pockets conta9$ ne>ly entire skeletons ( ^! species4 ,h[ _h ! animals be5 able to p5etrate ?is well8 ,x is difficult to admit t x 0 ?r\gh ! ap]ture t ,i h m5tion$4 ,i endeavor$ to asc]ta9 :e!r !re 0 n ano!r communication ) ! ,g>gas grotto1 & _h ! satisfaction ( f9d+ a fissure t end$ 9 ! cave1 & t probably 0 wid] at ! epo* at :i* ! place s]v$ z a lair = ! be> & hy5a4 ,v old individuals & o!r adults1 & v "y animals1 7 liv+ 9 ! grotto1 &1 be+ surpris$1 )\t p[] to save !mselves1 by a sudd5 inundation1 rea*$ ! bottom ( ! well t we h describ$4 ,! entire rema9s ( ^! animals 7 c>ri$ along by ! wat] & deposit$ 9 ! pockets 9 ! rock4 ,once buri$ 9 ! argillace\s mud1 ! bones no long] und]w5t ! action ( ! runn+ wat]1 & _! pres]vation 0 !nce secur$4--,f4 ,regnault1 9 ,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,deep ,,%afts ,,& ,,deep ,,m9+4 ,a correspond5t ( ! ,new ,york ,sun1 writ+ f ,virg9ia ,city1 ,nevada1 describes ! progress ( ! "w !re on ! ,comb9ation %aft ( ! ,com/ock lode1 ! deepe/ v]tical %aft 9 ,am]ica1 & ! second deepe/ 9 ! _w4 ,x is be+ sunk by ! ,*oll> ,potosi1 ,hale ,norcross1 & ,savage m9+ companies2 h5ce its "n ( ! ,comb9ation %aft4 ,?is %aft has n[ rea*$ a p]p5dicul> dep? ( a little ov] #c1ajj feet4 ,!re is only "o deep] v]tical %aft 9 ! _w--! ,adalb5t %aft ( ! silv]-lead m9es ( ,przibram1 ,bohemia1 :i* at la/ acc\nts _h rea*$ a dep? ( #c1bhj feet4 ,! atta9m5t ( t dep? 0 made ! occasion ( a fe/ival1 :i* cont9u$ ?ree days1 & 0 /ill fur!r honor$ by ! /rik+ (f ( commemorative m$als ( ! value ( a flor9 ea*4 ,!re is no record ( ! beg9n+ ( "w on ?is m9e at ,przibram1 al?\gh its writt5 hi/ory goes back to #aebg4 ,tw5ty ye>s ago v few m9+ %afts 9 ! _w _h rea*$ a dep? ( #b1jjj feet4 ,! v deepe/ at t "t 0 9 a metallif]\s m9e 9 ,hanov]1 :i* _h be5 c>ri$ d[n #b1ijj feet2 b ?is 0 probably n a s+le p]p5dicul> %aft4 ,two v]tical %afts ne> ,gilly1 9 ,belgium1 are sunk to ! dep? ( #b1hdg feet4 ,at ?is po9t !y are connect$ by a drift1 f :i* an explor+ %aft or w9ze is sunk to a fur!r dep? ( #fff feet1 & f t aga9 0 put d[n a bore hole #di feet 9 dep?1 mak+ ! total dep? rea*$ #c1efb feet4 ,z ! bore hole did n rea* ! seam ( coal s\ght =1 !y return$ & resum$ op]ations at ! #b1hdg level4 ,9 ,europe x is ?\ght wor?y ( p>ticul> note t !re are v]tical %afts ( ! foll[+ dep?s3 ,feet4 ,eimk]t's %aft ( ! ,lugan] ,coal ,m9+ ,company1 ,saxony #b1fec ,sampson %aft ( ! ,ob]h>tz silv] m9e1 ne> ,/4 ,&reasb]g1 ,hanov]4 #b1dcg ,! hoi/+ %aft ( ! ,rosebridge ,colli]y1 ne> ,wigan1 ,lanca%ire1 ,engl&4 #b1deh ,%aft ( ! coal m9es ( ,/4 ,luke1 ne> ,/4 ,*aumont1 ,france4 #b1bec ,amelia %aft1 ,%emnitz1 ,hung>y4 #a1ghb ,! ,no4 #a ,camphaus5 %aft1 ne> ,fi%ba*1 9 ! dep>tm5t ( ! ,sa>bruck ,colli]ies1 ,prussia4 #a1fej ,n[1 tak+ ! m9es ( ! ,com/ock = a di/ance ( ov] a mile--f ! ,utah on ! nor? to ! ,alto on ! s\?--!re is h>dly a m9e t is n d[n ov] #b1ejj feet1 & mo/ ( ! %afts are deep] ?an ^? m5tion$ above2 :ile ! ,union ,consolidat$ %aft has a v]tical dep? ( #b1ijj feet1 & ! ,yell[ ,jacket a dep? ( #c1jcj feet4 ,9 8 clos+ argum5t be=e ! ,congressional ,committee on ,m9es & ,m9+ 9 #ahgb1 ,adolph ,sutro ( ! ,sutro tunnel said3 ,! deepe/ hole dug by man s9ce ! _w has exi/$ is only #b1gjj feet deep1 & x rema9s = ! y\nge/ nation on e>? to contribute m to sci5ce & geology by giv+ opportunities ( /udy+ ! =mation ( m9]al ve9s at a great] dep? ?an has ev] be5 accompli%$ by any o!r nation 9 ! _w4 ,mr4 ,sutro 0 ( ! op9ion t ! completion ( 8 tunnel w\ld enable our lead+ m9+ companies to rea* a v]tical dep? ( #e1jjj feet4 ,?is great dep? has nev] yet be5 atta9$ except 9 a bore hole or artesian well4 ,! deepe/ po9ts to :i* ! cru/ ( ! e>? has ev] be5 p5etrat$ h be5 by means ( su* bor+s 9 que/ ( salt1 coal1 or wat]4 ,a bore hole = salt at ,prob/ ,jes>1 ne> ,lub!51 = ! ,gov]nm5t ( ,meckl5b]g-,s*w]91 is d[n #c1cae feet1 ! size ( :i* bore is twelve in*es at ! top & ?ree in*es at ! bottom4 ,a bore hole 0 put d[n = ! ,prussian ,gov]nm5t to ! dep? ( #d1ahc feet4 ,b 9 ^! bore holes ! ,unit$ ,/ates leads ! _w1 z !re is "o ne> ,/4 ,l\is1 ,mo41 t is #e1ejj feet 9 dep?4 ,"h on ! ,com/ock1 9 ! ,union ,consolidat$ m9e1 a dep? ( #c1cjj feet has be5 atta9$1 b n by means ( a s+le v]tical %aft4 ,! v]tical dep? ( ! %aft is #b1ijj feet2 ! rema9d] ( ! dep? has be5 atta9$ by means ( w9zes sunk f drifts4 ,sev]al long drifts 7 run at ?is great dep? )\t difficulty z reg>ds v5tilation or heat4 ,! comb9ation %aft is situat$ mu* fur!r ea/ 79 :i* direction ! lode dips7 ?an any o!r on ! ,com/ock4 ,x is #c1jjj feet ea/ ( ! po9t :]e ! great ve9 crops out on ! side ( ,m\nt ,davidson2 #b1bjj feet ea/ ( ! old ,*oll>-,potosi %aft1 #a1hjj ft4 ea/ ( ! old ,hale ,norcross 7or ,fair7 %aft1 & #b1jjj ft4 ea/ ( ! ,savage %aft4 ,?us1 x w be se5 x is f> out to ! front 9 ! c\ntry t[>d :i* ! ve9 is go+4 ,! %aft is sunk 9 a v h>d rock 7&esite71 e foot ( :i* requires to be bla/$4 ,! op5+ is ab\t ?irty feet 9 l5g? by t5 feet 9 wid?4 ,9 timb]+ up ?is is divid$ into f\r diff]5t comp>tm5ts1 "s = ! hoi/+ & "s = ! pump+ ma*9]y1 ?us pres5t+ ! appe>ance at ! top ( f\r small %afts set 9 a r[4 ,ov] ! %aft /& sev]al l>ge build+s1 all fill$ ) pond]\s ma*9]y4 ,! ,sutro dra9 tunnel 7ne>ly f\r miles 9 l5g?7 connects ) ! %aft at a dep? ( #a1fjj ft41 up to :i* po9t all ! wat] enc\nt]$ bel[ is pump$4 ,! %aft 0 sunk to ! dep? ( #b1bjj ft4 be=e m wat] 0 enc\nt]$ ?an c\ld be hoi/$ out 9 ! skips ) ! dirt4 ,at ! #b1bjj level two ,corni% pumps1 ea* ) columns fifte5 in*es 9 diamet]1 7 put 94 ,at ! #b1djj level ! same pumps 7 us$4 ,on ?is level a drift 0 run t connect$ ) ! old ,hale ,norcross & ,savage %afts1 produc+ a good circulation ( air bo? 9 ! %aft & 9 ! m9es m5tion$4 ,at ?is po9t1 on acc\nt ( ! infl[ f ! m9es consequ5t ^u connect+ ) !m by means ( ! drift1 !y _h m wat] ?an ! ,corni% pumps c\ld h&le1 & introduc$ ! hydraulic pumps1 :i* pumps are run by ! pressure ( wat] f ! surface ?r\gh a pipe runn+ d[n f ! top ( ! %aft1 :]eas ! ,corni% pumps are run by huge /eam eng9es4 ,by means ( ! hydraulic pumps !y 7 enabl$ to s9k ! %aft to ! #b1fjj level1 & ext5d$ ! ,corni% pumps to t po9t1 :]e ano!r set ( hydraulic pumps 0 put 94 ,!y !n sunk ! %aft to ! #b1hjj level1 :5 !y ran ano!r drift we/w>d1 & tapp$ ! ve94 ,! prospects at ?is dep? 9 ! ,hale ,norcross & ,*oll> m9es 7 s enc\rag+ t ! managem5t decid$ to s9k ! %aft to ! dep? ( #c1jjj ft4 ,on rea*+ ! #c1jjj level1 !y ran a ?ird drift ?r\gh to ! ve94 ,! di/ance f ! %aft to ! ea/ wall ( ! ve9 0 f\nd to be only #bej ft4 ,at ! dep? ( #c1jjj ft4 !y put 9 "o ( ! pair ( hydraulic pumps t is to be set up !re4 ,! second pump is n[ arriv+ f ,san ,francisco1 & z soon z ! sev]al p>ts are on ! gr\nd1 x w be at once put 9 place alongside its fell[ on ! #c1jjj level4 ,?is additional pump w increase ! capacity f #fjj1jjj to #gjj1jjj gallons 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 or ab\t =ty-five m9]s' in*es4 ,ow+ to ! excell5t %[+ ( ore obta9$ on ! #c1jjj level by ! ,hale ,norcross ,company1 & to ! cont9uation ( ! ore bel[ t level 7z %[n by a w9ze sunk 9 ! ve971 ! managem5t det]m9$ to s9k ! %aft to ! v]tical dep? ( #c1bjj ft4 ,x is n[ #c1abj ft4 deep1 & x is safe to say t x w rea* ! dep? ( #c1bjj ft4 e>ly 9 ,septemb]1 :5 x w lack b eighty feet ( be+ z deep z ! %aft at ,przibram 0 at ! "t ( ! great fe/ival4 ,al?\gh ! %aft is ( great size--ab\t ?irty feet by t5 feet be=e ! timb]s are put 9--! workm5 l[] x at ! rate ( ab\t ?ree feet a day1 9 rock z h>d z fl9t4 ,! hydraulic pump n[ work+ at ! #c1jjj foot level ( ! %aft is ! deepe/ 9 ! _w4 ,9 ,europe ! deepe/ is 9 a m9e 9 ! ,h>tz ,m\nta9s1 ,g]many1 :i* is work+ at ! dep? ( #b1gjj feet4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 a small pump n half ! size ( ! "o 9 ! ,comb9ation %aft4 ,al?\gh ^! pumps 7 fir/ us$ 9 ,europe1 ^? 9 op]ation "h are f> sup]ior 9 size1 & 9 e o!r respect1 to ^? ( ! ,old ,_w1 sev]al valuable improvem5ts hav+ be5 made 9 !m by ! ma*9i/s ( ! ,pacific coa/4 ,! capacity ( ! two ,corni% pumps1 :i* lift ! wat] f ! #b1ijj foot level to ! ,sutro dra9 tunnel 7at ! #a1fjj level71 is ab\t #a1jjj1jjj gallons 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 & ! capacity ( ! pres5t hydraulic pumps is #c1ejj1jjj gallons 9 ! same "t4 ,!y are n[ daily pump+1 ) bo? hydraulic & ,corni% pumps1 ab\t #d1jjj1jjj gallons1 b c\ld pump at lea/ #ejj1jjj gallons m 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs ?an !y are n[ do+4 ,! daily capacity ) ! hydraulic pump n[ com+1 & :i* w be set up z mate to t n[ 9 op]ation at ! #c1jjj foot level1 w be #e1bjj1jjj gallons4 ,! wat] :i* fe$s ! pressure pipe ( ! ?ree sets ( hydraulic pumps is br\ght f ne> ,lake ,tahoe1 9 ! ,si]ra ,nevada ,m\nta9s4 ,! di/ance is ab\t ?irty miles1 & ! great] "p ( ! way ! wat] fl[s ?r\gh iron pipes1 :i* at "o po9t cross a depression #a1gbj feet 9 dep?4 ,! pressure pipe takes ?is wat] f a tank situat$ on ! ea/]n slope ( ,m\nt ,davidson1 #c1ejj feet we/ ( ! %aft4 ,at ! tank ?is pipe is twelve in*es 9 diamet]1 b is only eight in*es :]e x ent]s ! top ( ! %aft4 ,! tank :5ce ! wat] is tak5 is #dbf feet high] ?an ! top ( ! %aft1 !re=e ! v]tical pressure ^u ! hydraulic pump at ! #c1jjj foot level is #c1dbf feet4 ,! pressure pipe is ( ord9>y galvaniz$ iron :]e x receives ! wat] at ! tank1 b gradually gr[s ?ick] & /rong]1 & at ! #c1jjj level x is con/ruct$ ( ca/ iron1 & is #b in*es 9 ?ickness4 ,! pressure at ?is po9t is #a1ejj p\nds to ! squ>e in*4 ,9 ! e>ly days ( hydraulic m9+ 9 ,cali=nia ! m9]s ?\ght t ) a v]tical pressure ( #cjj feet !y c\ld almo/ te> ! _w to pieces1 & n a man among !m c\ld h be5 made to believe t any pipe c\ld be con/ruct$ t w\ld )/& a v]tical pressure ( #a1jjj feet2 b we n[ see t a ?ickness ( two & a half in*es ( ca/ iron w su/a9 a v]tical pressure ( ov] #c1djj feet4 ,!re is only "o pressure pipe = all ! hydraulic pumps4 ,?is ext5ds f ! tank on ! side ( ! m\nta9 to ! #c1jjj foot level4 ,x is tapp$ at ! po9ts :]e are situat$ ! sev]al sets ( hydraulic pumps4 ,! wat] f ! pressure pipe ent]s "o "p ( ! pump1 :]e x moves a pi/on-back & =?1 j z ! pi/on ( a /eam eng9e is mov$ by /eam4 ,?is wat] eng9e moves a pump :i* n only raises to ! surface ! wat] :i* has be5 us$ z driv+ p[]1 b also a va/ quantity ( wat] f ! %aft1 all ( :i* is =c$ up to ! ,sutro dra9 tunnel ?r\gh :at is call$ a return pipe4 ,ea* set ( hydraulic pumps has its return pipe2 !re=e !re are ?ree return pipes--"o f ! #b1djj1 "o f ! #b1fjj1 & ano!r f ! #c1jjj level4 ,"s idea may be =m$ ( ! great size ( ^! hydraulic eng9es :5 x is kn[n t ! /ations excavat$ = !m at ! sev]al levels :]e !y are plac$ are #he feet long1 #bh feet wide1 & #ab feet high4 ,all ?is space is s fill$ ) ma*9]y t only suffici5t room is left to all[ ( ! workm5 mov+ ab\t x4 ,"o ( ^! /ations w\ld1 on ! surface1 =m a hall l>ge en\gh = a ball room1 & to ^? :o are unacqua9t$ ) ! skill ( our m9]s x mu/ seem wond]ful t su* great op5+s c be made & securely support$ f> d[n 9 ! b[els ( ! e>?2 yet x is v effectually done4 ,^! great subt]ranean halls are support$ by timb]s #adaf in*es squ>e set along ! walls ?ree feet ap>t1 f c5t] to c5t]1 & ! caps or joi/s pass+ ov]head are timb]s ( ! same size4 ,! timb] us$ is m\nta9 spruce4 ,n "o ( ^! huge /ations has ?us f> co/ "o doll> = repairs4 ,! /ation at ! #b1djj level has be5 9 use five ye>s1 t at ! #b1fjj ?ree ye>s1 & ! "o at ! #c1jjj level eight mon?s4 ,room = v5tilation is left beh9d ! timb]s1 & all are /ill s\nd4 ,timb]s ( ! same k9d are us$ 9 ! %aft1 & all are s\nd4 ,! %aft has co/ no?+ = repairs4 ,be+ 9 h>d &esite rock f top to bottom1 ! gr\nd does n swell & cr[d ^u ! timb]s4 ,if x %all be ?\ght advisable to g to a great] dep? ?an #c1bjj feet1 a /ation ( l>ge size w be made on ! ea/ side ( ! pres5t %aft1 & 9 ?is /ation w be sunk a %aft ( small] size4 ,! reason :y ! "w w be cont9u$ 9 ?is way is t 9 a s+le hoi/ ( #c1bjj feet ! weight ( a /eel wire cable ( t l5g? is v great--s great t ! load$ cage x br+s up is a m]e trifle 9 comp>ison4 ,9 ?is second>y %aft ! hoi/+ app>atus & pumps w be run by means ( compress$ air4 ,z x is v exp5sive to make compress$ air by /eam p[]1 ! pressure pipe w be tapp$ at ! level ( ! ,sutro tunnel1 & a /ream ( wat] tak5 out t w be us$ 9 runn+ a turb9e :eel ( suffici5t capacity to drive ?ree air compressors4 ,z !re w be a v]tical pressure ^u ! turb9e at ?is dep? ( ov] #b1jjj feet1 a l>ge /ream ( wat] w n be requir$4 ,! wat] us$ 9 driv+ ! :eel w fl[ out ?r\gh ! ,sutro tunnel1 & give no tr\ble 9 ! %aft4 ,by means ( ?is great %aft & its p[]ful hydraulic & ,corni% pumps ! cru/ ( ! e>? w probably yet be p5etrat$ to f> great] dep? ?an 9 any o!r place 9 ! _w4 ,x has be5 only a little ov] t5 ye>s s9ce ! "w ( s9k+ x 0 begun1 :]eas 9 ! m9es ( ! ,old ,_w !y h be5 delv+ s9ce "t :]e( ! memory ( man runne? n to ! contr>y4 ,! "w on ! ,comb9ation %aft has be5 by no means cont9u\s4 ,!re h be5 long /oppages aside f ^? requir$ at su* times z !y 7 engag$ 9 runn+ long drifts to ! we/w>d to tap ! ve91 & at times = _m mon?s1 :5 ! sev]al companies int]e/$ 9 ! %aft 7 engag$ 9 prospect+ ! v>i\s levels x _h op5$ up4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,rem>kable ,,wells ,,& ,,cav]ns4 ,yucatan is "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ ,/ates ( ,mexico1 ow+ to ! spl5did anci5t palaces & temples ( once gr& cities1 n[ hidd5 9 ! =e/s4 ,t c\ntry also pres5ts great attractions = geologi/s & botani/s1 z well z naturali/s1 :o !re f9d r>e & beautiful birds1 insects1 & reptiles4 ,!re are no riv]s on ! surface ( ! l&1 b 9 _m p>ts x is entirely und]m9$ by ext5sive cav]ns1 9 :i* are bas9s ( wat] f$ by subt]ranean curr5ts4 ,! cav]ns are delightfully cool ev5 at midday1 & ! fanta/ic =ms ( "s ( ! /alactites & /alagmites are a nev]-end+ s\rce ( int]e/4 ,!re are long w9d+ passages & roomy *amb]s foll[+ "o aft] ano!r = great di/ances1 ) "h & !re "s *9k 9 ! /ony vault above1 ?r\gh :i* a sunbeam p5etrates1 enabl+ u to see to ! "r & left op5+s lead+ to untrodd5 places 9 ! b[els ( ! e>?4 ,z few ( ^! caves h be5 explor$1 ! wilde/ acc\nts are giv5 by ! natives conc]n+ ! d>k recesses :]e only wild bea/s seek %elt]4 ,be=e v5tur+ f> 91 x is advisable to secure "o end ( a ball ( tw9e at ! entrance1 & keep ! ball 9 h&2 nor is x safe to g )\t lant]ns or tor*es1 le/ we /ep into "s yawn+ *asm or deep wat]4 ,! lead] ( "o p>ty sudd5ly saw a v d>k spot j be=e him2 he jump$ ov]1 in/ead ( /epp+ on x1 & told ! o!rs to halt4 ,exam9ation prov$ ! d>k pat* to be a pit t seem$ bottomless4 ,awe-inspir+ z are ! int]iors ( "s ( ^! caves1 !y are frequ5tly mo/ beautiful4 ,! natural pill>s are (t5 gr& 9 dim5sions & sp>kl+ ) v>i\s hues1 :ile /alactites & /alagmites sometimes resemble famili> objects ) a/oni%+ p]fection4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 n advisable to place implicit confid5ce 9 acc\nts ( ! natives1 = ! reality1 no matt] h[ beautiful1 c h>dly be equal to :at ! vivid imag9ation ( ! ,indian has pictur$4 ,any?+ be>+ ! lea/ resemblance to a woman is call$ a mo/ beautiful ,virg9 ,m>y4 ,fanta/ic flut+s become an organ1 & a level rock an alt>4 ,only once we 7 n disappo9t$1 :51 hav+ be5 told to look = a pulpit1 we f\nd "o t appe>$ z if man mu/ h fa%ion$ x1 support$ on a sl5d] pyramidal base1 ! upp] "p v symmetrical1 & ornam5t$ ) a p]fect imitation ( bun*es ( grapes & o!r fruit4 ,z ,i h already said1 9 ^! caves are %eets ( wat]1 "s v l>ge1 o!rs only a few feet 9 circumf]5ce1 f$ by subt]ranean curr5ts4 ,:5 ! wat] is cle> & sweet1 x is peopl$ by a k9d ( bagre1 a bl9d fi% call$ by ! natives tzau1 also a species ( ,silurus4 ,b !re are likewise m$ic9al & !rmal wat]s1 by ba?+ 9 :i* _m p claim to h be5 cur$ ( mo/ pa9ful & ob/9ate diseases4 ,/range /ories are told ( "s ( ^! wat]s4 ,( "o x is said t ^? :o approa* x )\t hold+ _! brea? fall dead4 ,p :o live ne> ! place swe> x is s1 & say ! wat] appe>s to boil on su* occasions4 ,f ! !rmal wat]s1 9 "s cases #ajj feet bel[ ! soil1 & )\t means ( access except by buckets let d[n ?r\gh an op5+ 9 ! rock1 w>m vapors issue at e>ly morn1 b :5 ! sun is high ! wat] is cool & pleasant to dr9k4 ,! "n s5ote is giv5 to all ^! deposits ( wat]1 also to "s imm5se natural circul> wells f #ej to #cjj feet 9 diamet]4 ,! walls are m or less p]p5dicul>1 g5]ally cov]$ ) tropical vegetation4 ,! curr5t 9 "s is swift1 b no inlets or outlets are visible4 ,! wat] is delici\sly pure & sweet1 mu* bett] ?an t ( wells op5$ by man 9 ! same c\ntry4 ,^! enorm\s deposits g5]ally h a rugg$ pa?1 sometimes v /eep1 lead+ to ! wat]'s edge1 b d>+ natives ?r[ !mselves f ! br9k1 aft]w>d asc5d+ by /\t roots t hang l ropes d[n ! walls1 ! trees above suck+ ?r\gh ^! roots ! life-su/a9+ fluid m ?an a hundr$ feet bel[4 ,9 ! we/ "p ( ,yucatan is a village call$ ,bolon*5 7n9e wells71 because 9 ! public squ>e !re are n9e circul> op5+s cut ?r\gh a /ratum ( rock4 ,!y are m\?s ( "o imm5se ci/]n1 if natural or made by h& ! natives d n "k1 b 9 times ( dr\ght x is empty1 :i* %[s t x is n suppli$ by any subt]ranean spr+4 ,!n ! p dep5d entirely on wat] f\nd 9 a cave a mile & a half f ! village2 x is p]haps ! mo/ rem>kable cav]n 9 ! :ole c\ntry4 ,! entrance is magnific5tly wild & picturesque4 ,x is necess>y to c>ry tor*es1 = ! way is d>k & dang]\s4 ,aft] advanc+ sixty or sev5ty feet we desc5d a /rong b r\gh ladd] tw5ty feet long1 plac$ aga9/ a v precipit\s rock4 ,n ! fa9te/ glimm] ( daylight rea*es t spot2 b aft] a :ile we /& on ! br9k ( a p]p5dicul> precipice1 ! bottom ( :i* is /rongly illum9at$ ?r\gh a hole 9 ! surface rock m ?an #bjj feet above4 ,/&+ on ! v]ge ( ?is awful pit 9 ! dim light1 ! rocks & crags seem to take on mo/ weird %apes4 ,we g d[n into ! great hole by a ladd] eighty feet high & twelve wide1 &1 rea*+ ! bottom1 are z yet b at ! m\? ( ! cave1 :i*1 by ! bye1 is call$ ,xtacunbi ,xunan 7! hidd5 lady71 because1 say ! ,indians1 a lady 0 /ol5 f h] "m & hidd5 !re by h] lov]4 ,n[1 to our "r1 we f9d a n>r[ passage1 & soon ano!r ladd]2 ! d>kness is int5se & ! desc5t cont9u\s1 ?\gh irregul>1 l a s]ies ( hills & dales1 ladd]s be+ plac$ aga9/ ! /eepe/ places4 ,aft] an exhau/+ j\rney we rea* a va/ *amb]1 f :i* crook$ passages lead 9 v>i\s directions to wells1 sev5 9 all1 ea* nam$ accord+ to ! peculi> k9d ( wat]4 ,"o1 always w>m1 is call$ ,*ocoh 7hot wat]72 ano!r1 ,ocih99 7milky wat]71 & ,akabh 7d>k wat]74 ,ab\t #djj paces away f ! *amb]1 pass+ ?r\gh a v n>r[1 close passage1 !re is a bas9 ( r$ wat] t ebbs & fl[s l ! sea1 rec$+ ) ! s\? w9d1 increas+ ) ! nor?we/4 99,transcrib]'s note3 c d5otes upside-d[n 'c' 9 orig9al4 ,to rea* ! mo/ di/ant well1 we g d[n yet "o m ladd]1 ! sev5?4 ,on "o side ( x !re is a p]p5dicul> wall1 on ! o!r a yawn+ gulf1 s :5 "o ( ! /eps1 m]ely r\nd /icks ti$ ) )es1 gave way b5ea? our feet1 we tightly grasp$ ! /ick above4 ,hav+ rea*$ ! bottom ( ! ladd]1 we crawl on our h&s & feet ?r\gh a brok51 w9d+ passage ab\t #hjj feet long1 !n see be=e u a bas9 ( cry/all9e wat]1 & h[ ?ir/y we are6 ,?is bas9 is #a1djj feet f ! m\? ( ! cave1 & ab\t #dej feet bel[ ! e>?'s surface4 ,sev]al hundr$ p dur+ five mon?s 9 e ye> dep5d entirely on t s\rce = all ! wat] !y use4 ,) _! frail pit*]s & fl>+ tor*es !y w5d _! way1 gasp+ = brea?1 ?r\gh ! intricate passages1 & rea*+ ! wat]1 are s pr(usely p]spir+ t !y mu/ wait be=e qu5*+ _! ?ir/4 ,! way back is ev5 h>d]1 & !y are tir$ & load$2 yet ^! p are su* lov]s ( cleanl9ess t on _! arrival at _! poor huts1 be=e ta/+ food1 !y w use "s ( ! wat] t has co/ !m s mu*1 to ba! _! smoke-begrim$ sk94 ,z sev]al wom5 once fa9t$ 9 ! cave1 m5 g5]ally fet* ! wat] n[4 ,yucatan is1 & has be5 = ages pa/1 q free f e>?quakes1 :ile all surr\nd+ c\ntries are f "t to "t convuls$4 ,?is immunity may be due to ! va/ cav]ns & num]\s great wells exi/+ ?r\gh\t ! l&4 ,pl9y ! ,eld] 0 ( op9ion t if num]\s deep wells 7 made 9 ! e>? to s]ve z outlets = ! gases t di/urb its upp] /rata1 ! /r5g? ( ! e>?quakes w\ld be dim9i%$1 & if we may judge by ,yucatan1 ,pl9y 0 "r 9 8 conjectures4 ,aft] him1 o!r sci5ti/s :o h c>efully /udi$ ! subject h express$ ! same op9ion ) reg>d to ! efficacy ( l>ge wells4 ,,alice ,d4 ,,le ,,plongeon4 ,brooklyn1 ,july #ae1 #ahhe4 99 99 99 99 99 ,*ol]a fail$ to /rike a s+le "o ( ! #d1jjj wom5 employ$ 9 ! national tobacco factory at ,val5cia1 ,spa91 ?\gh ! disease rag$ viol5tly 9 t city1 & ! ,m$ical ,_w recalls t tobacco work]s 7 also notic$ to enjoy exemption f attack dur+ an epidemic at ,am/]dam4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,cabbage ,,butt]fly4 ,a pat* ( eggs & ! m9ute cat]pill>s or l>v ne>ly em]g$ f !m are se5 on ! leaf4 ,^! t9y eggs are at fir/ q :ite or pale yell[1 & =m an object = ! microscope ( rem>kable beauty1 :i* is wor?y ( ! exam9ation ( all :o take an int]e/ 9 ! g>d5 & its insect life4 ,an egg magnifi$ is drawn at ! bottom left-h& corn] ( ! woodcut4 ,:5 ! eggs are ne> ! hat*+ po9t !y d>k5 9 color1 & a magnify+ glass reveals ?r\gh ! delicate transp>5t %ell a sight :i* fills ! obs]v] ) amazem5t2 ! embryo cat]pill> is se5 9 gradual c\rse ( =mation1 & if pati5ce & w>m? h p]mitt$ x1 ! obs]v] w witness slight movem5ts )9 ! life-case1 & pres5tly ! %ell w break & a black head ) mov+ jaws w be ?ru/ out2 ! little cat]pill> unfolds & sl[ly crawls away f ! egg-%ell1 & ins]ts its jaws into ! gre5 leaf4 ,x is curi\s to witness h[ judici\sly ! little creatures avoid cr[d+ toge!r1 b /rike out 9 diff]5t directions1 & ?us !y make sure ( a pl5tiful supply ( food1 & di/ribute ! effects ( _! depr$ations4 ,^! cat]pill>s eat cont9ually1 & h5ce rapidly increase 9 size1 until !y pres5t ! appe>ance %[n 9 our draw+ at ! bottom ( ! illu/ration1 :i* is a full gr[n cat]pill>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,cabbage ,,& ,,peacock ,,butt]flies4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ?is insect is compos$ ( ?irte5 segm5ts f head to tail1 :i* is a di/9ctive *>act]i/ic ( all insects bo? 9 ! l>val & p]fect /ates2 b 9 ! case ( ?is & mo/ o!r cat]pill>s ^! segm5ts are %>ply def9$ & readily recogniz$4 ,x w also be notic$ t ! ?ree segm5ts or jo9ts ne>e/ ! head be> a pair ( legs ea*2 ^! are ! real feet1 or clasp]s1 z !y are sometimes t]m$1 :i* develop into ! feet ( ! future butt]fly4 ,!re are f\r pairs ( false feet or suck]s1 :i* adh]e to ! gr\nd by suction1 & :i* disappe> 9 ! butt]fly4 ,on ! la/ or tail end is a fif? pair ( suck]s also1 :i* c atta* !mselves to a surface ) consid]able =ce1 z any "o c atte/ :o has notic$ ! wriggl+s ( "o ( ^! cat]pill>s :5 feel+ = new fe$+ gr\nd4 ,! cat]pill> n[ ceases to eat1 & quietly betakes itself to a seclud$ corn]1 :]e 9 peace x sp9s a web ar\nd its body1 & wrapt !re9 rema9s quiesc5t1 await+ its *ange into ! butt]fly4 ,al?\gh s dormant outw>dly1 activity reigns inside2 processes are go+ on )9 t *rysalis-case :i* are ! amazem5t & ! puzzle ( all naturali/s4 ,9 c\rse ( "t ! worm is *ang$ into ! beautiful w+$ butt]fly1 :i* breaks its case & em]ges s(t & wet2 b x quickly dries & spreads its w+s to comm5ce its life 9 ! air & sun%9e4 ,! *rysalis is repres5t$ 9 ! figure on ! left4 ,! butt]fly1 x w be recogniz$1 is "o ( ! common insects s famili> to all1 ) /rongly ve9$ :ite w+s1 be>+ ?ree black spots1 two on ! upp] & "o on ! l[] w+1 & d>k color+ on ! corn] ( ! upp] w+s4 ,! ant5n1 z ) all butt]flies1 are clubb$ at ! extremity--unlike mo?s'1 :i* are tap]+--& ! l>ge black />+ eyes are ! optical app>atus1 conta9+1 we are told1 ?\s&s ( l5ses1 ea* a p]fect1 simple eye4 ,! w+s d]ive _! *ief color+ f ! cov]+ ( scales1 :i* lie on l slates on a ro(1 & are atta*$ 9 a simil> mann]4 ,a small portion ( ! w+ magnifi$ is repres5t$ at ! bottom "r h& corn]1 & deta*$ scales m highly magnifi$ next to x1 exhibit+ some:at ! =m ( battl$oors4 ,,! ,,peacock ,,butt]fly4 ,ano!r well kn[n insect is illu/rat$ 9 ! figure 9 ! upp] portion--! peacock butt]fly 7,vanessa ,io74 ,! curi\s spik$ & spott$ cat]pill> fe$s ^u ! common nettle4 ,?is beautiful butt]fly--common 9 mo/ di/ricts--is brilliantly color$ & figur$ on ! upp] side ( ! w+s1 b only ( a mottl$ br[n on ! "u surface1 some:at resembl+ a dri$ & br[n leaf1 s t x is no easy matt] to detect ! conspicu\s1 brightly-deck$ insect :5 x alights f flight ^u foliage1 & br+s its w+s toge!r ov] its back aft] ! mann] ( butt]flies4 ,at ! left-h& corn] is se5 ! head ( ! insect1 magnifi$1 %[+ ! long spiral tongue4 ,?is is a curi\s /ructure1 & "o t w repay ! tr\ble ( microscopic exam9ation4 ,9 ! figure ! pr(ile is se51 ! l>ge comp\nd eye at ! side & ! long curv$ tongue1 s elephant9e-look+ 9 =m1 ?\gh ( m9ute size1 is se5 unroll$ z x is :5 ab\t to be ins]t$ into fl[]s to pump up ! honey-juice4 ,?is little piece ( insect app>atus is a mass ( muscles & s5sitive n]ves compris+ a ma*9e ( great] complexity & ( no less precision 9 its action ?an ! mod]n pr9t+ ma*9e4 ,:5 n 9 use1 ! tongue rolls into a spiral & disappe>s "u ! head4 ,a butt]fly's tongue may readily be unroll$ by c>efully ins]t+ a p9 )9 ! fir/ spiral & g5tly draw+ x out4--,! ,g>d5]s' ,*ronicle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,bhotan ,,cypress4 7,,cupressus ,,torulosa47 ,?is cypress1 ap>t f its elegant gr[?1 is int]e/+ z be+ ! only species ( ,cupressus indig5\s to ,india4 ,x is a native ( ! ,himalayas 9 ! ,bhotan di/rict1 & x also occurs on ! bord]s ( ,*9ese ,t>t>y4 ,x =ms1 !re=e1 a connect+ l9k1 z x 71 betwe5 ! true cypresses ( ! extreme ea/ & ^? t are natives ( ,europe4 ,x is s+ul> to note t ?is g5us ( conif]s ext5ds ?r\gh\t ! entire bread? ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 ,cupressus funebris repres5t+ ! extreme ea/ 9 ,*9a1 & ,c4 macroc>pa ! extreme we/ on ! ,cali=nian seacoa/4 ,! nor!rly & s\!rly limits1 x is int]e/+ to m>k1 are1 on ! contr>y1 s+ul>ly re/rict$1 ! mo/ s\!rly be+ f\nd 9 ,mexico2 ! mo/ nor!rly 7,c4 nutka5sis7 9 ,nootka ,s\nd1 & ! subject ( ^! rem>ks 7,c4 torulosa7 9 ,bhotan4 ,! :ole ( ! regions int]v5+ betwe5 ^! extreme lat]al po9ts h _! cypresses4 ,! ,european species are ,c4 lusitanica 7! c$> ( ,goa71 :i* inhabits ,spa9 & ,portugal2 ,c4 semp]vir5s 7! ,roman cypress71 :i* is c5t]$ *iefly 9 ! s\!a/]ly p>ts ( ,europe1 ext5d+ into ,asia ,m9or4 ,f>!r ea/w>d ,c4 torulosa is met )1 & ! *a9 is ext5d$ ea/w>d by ,c4 funebris1 also kn[n z ,c4 p5dula4 ,! headqu>t]s ( ! cypresses are und\bt$ly 9 ! extreme we/1 = "h may be f\nd "s f\r or five di/9ct species1 includ+ ! well-kn[n ,c4 ,lawsoniana1 probably ! mo/ popul> ( all conif] 9 g>d5s1 ,c4 ,gov5iana1 ,c4 ,macnabiana1 ,c4 macroc>pa1 & ,c4 nutka5sis 7spelt ,c4 nutkanus by ! ,cali=nian botani/s74 ,! ea/]n repres5tative ( ! cypresses 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,nor? ,am]ica is ,c4 ?yoides1 popul>ly kn[n z ! :ite c$>4 ,9 ,mexico ?ree or f\r species occur1 s t ! g5us 9 r\nd numb]s only conta9s ab\t a doz5 species4 ,! ,cali=nian botani/ ,mr4 ,s]5o ,watson takes away ,lawson's cypress f ,cupressus & puts x 9 ! g5us ,*amcyp>is1 ! *ief po9ts ( di/9ction be+ ! flatt5$ two-rank$ bran*lets & ! small globose cones matur+ ! fir/ ye>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,cones ,,( ,,cupressus ,,torulosa 7,,natural ,,size74 ,all ! cypresses are und\bt$ly valuable f a g>d5 po9t ( view1 b ! v>i\s species v>y 9 degree z reg>ds _! utility z ornam5tal subjects4 ,i %\ld rank !m 9 ! foll[+ ord] 9 po9t ( m]it3 ,c4 ,lawsoniana1 ,c4 nutka5sis1 ,c4 macroc>pa1 ,c4 semp]vir5s1 ,c4 ?yoides1 ,c4 ,macnabiana1 & ,c4 ,gov5iana2 !n w\ld foll[ ,c4 torulosa1 ,c4 funebris1 ,c4 ,knightiana1 & o!r ,mexican species4 ,^! are plac$ la/1 n because !y are less elegant ?an ! o!rs1 b on acc\nt ( _! t5d]ness1 all be+ liable to succumb to our damp & cold w9t]s4 ,! species :i* conc]ns u at pres5t1 ,c4 torulosa1 is an old introduction1 se$s ( x hav+ be5 s5t to ?is c\ntry by ,walli* s long back z #ahbd1 & previ\s to ?is date x 0 f\nd by ,royle on ! ,himalayas1 gr[+ at elevations ( "s #aa1ejj feet above sea level4 ,com+ f su* a height1 "o w\ld suppose x to be h>di] ?an x really is1 b its t5d]ness may probably be acc\nt$ = by ! wood n gett+ ?or\ghly rip5$ dur+ our summ]s4 ,x is a v h&some tree1 said to rea* f #bj feet to #abe feet 9 height 9 its native habitat4 ,x has a p]fectly /raight /em2 ! gr[? is pyramidal or r conical1 & ! old wood is ( a w>m purpli%-br[n4 ,! foliage is a glauc\s gray-gre51 & ! bran*es h a twi/$ & tuft$ appe>ance4 ,!re are sev]al v>ieties ( x :i* are1 or h be51 9 cultivation4 ,( ^! "o ( ! be/ is corneyana1 :i* ,gordon rank$ z a di/9ct species4 ,x 0 suppos$ to be ,*9ese1 & 0 introduc$ to cultivation by ,messrs4 ,knight ,p]ry1 ! pr$ecessors ( ,messrs4 ,veit* at ! ,*elsea ,nurs]ies4 ,x diff]s f ,c4 torulosa prop]1 its habit be+ ( l[ /ature1 & has sl5d] p5dul\s bran*es2 h5ce1 x has be5 kn[n 9 g>d5s by ! names ( ,c4 gracilis1 ,c4 c]nua1 & ,c4 p5dula4 ,o!r v>ieties ( ,c4 torulosa are ^? nam$ 9 g>d5s & nurs]ies--viridis1 a k9d devoid ( ! glauc\s foliage ( ! orig9al2 maje/ica1 a robu/ v>iety2 & nana1 a v dw>f & compact-gr[+ sort4 ,!re is also a s-call$ v>iegat$ =m1 b x is n wor?y ( m5tion4 ,! synonyms ( ,c4 torulosa itself are ,c4 ca%m]iana1 ,c4 nepal5sis1 & ,c4 p5dula4 ,hav+ reg>d to ! t5d]ness ( ?is ,bhotan cypress1 x %\ld only be plant$ 9 ! w>me/ localities1 & 9 dry %elt]$ positions2 upl& di/ricts1 too1 provid$ !y are %elt]$1 are und\bt$ly suitable = x1 inasmu* z gr[? is ret>d$ 9 spr+1 &1 !re=e1 ! "y %oots escape injury f late spr+ fro/s4--,w4,g41 9 ,! ,g>d54 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,pit*] ,,plant4 ,! v>iety ( ! pit*] plant 7,s>rac5ia v>iol>is7 f\nd 9 ,nor? ,am]ica is c>nivor\s1 be+ a fe$] on v>i\s animal sub/ances4 ,mrs4 ,m>y ,treat1 an ,am]ican naturali/1 made1 a few ye>s ago1 sev]al exp]im5ts ^u ! plants ( ?is species to be f\nd 9 ,florida2 & to ! labors ( ?is lady ! writ] has be5 indebt$1 9 "s measure1 9 ! prep>ation ( ?is pap]4 ,! ,s>rac5ia d]ives its "n ( pit*] plant f ! fact ( its possess+ ! foll[+ curi\s *>act]i/ics3 ,! m$ian n]ve is prolong$ beyond ! leaves 9 ! mann] ( a t5dril1 & t]m9ates 9 a species ( cup or urn4 ,?is cup is ord9>ily ?ree or f\r in*es 9 dep?1 & "o to "o & a half in*es 9 wid?4 ,! orifice ( ! cup is cov]$ ) a lid1 :i* op5s & %uts at c]ta9 p]iods4 ,at sunrise ! cup is f\nd fill$ ) sweet1 limpid wat]1 at :i* "t ! lid is d[n4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ! day ! lid op5s1 :5 ne>ly half ! wat] is evaporat$2 b dur+ ! night ?is loss is made up1 & ! next morn+ ! cup is aga9 q full1 & ! lid is %ut4 ,ab\t ! middle ( ,m>* ! plants put =? _! leaves1 :i* are f six to twelve in*es long1 holl[1 & %ap$ some?+ l a trumpet1 :ile ! ap]ture ( ! apex is =m$ almo/ precisely 9 ! same mann] z ^? ( ! plants previ\sly describ$4 ,a broad w+ ext5ds along "o side ( ! leaf1 f ! base to ! op5+ at ! top2 ?is w+ is b\nd or edg$ ) a purple cord1 :i* ext5ds likewise ar\nd ! cup4 ,?is cord secretes a sweet fluid1 & n only fly+ insects1 b ^? also t crawl ^u ! gr\nd1 are attract$ by x to ! plants4 ,ants1 especially1 are v fond ( ?is fluid1 s t a l9e ( aphides1 ext5d+ f ! base to ! summit ( a leaf1 may frequ5tly be obs]v$ sl[ly advanc+ t[>d ! orifice ( ! cup1 d[n :i* !y disappe>1 nev] to return4 ,fly+ insects ( e k9d are equally drawn to ! plant2 & directly !y ta/e ! fluid1 !y act v curi\sly4 ,aft] fe$+ ^u ! secretions = two or ?ree m9utes !y become q /upid1 un/eady on _! feet1 & :ile try+ to pass _! legs ov] _! w+s to cle> !m1 !y fall d[n4 ,x is ( no use to lib]ate any ( ! small] insects2 e fly1 remov$ f ! leaf ^u :i* x _h be5 fe$+1 return$ imm$iately x 0 at lib]ty to d s1 & walk$ d[n ! fatal cup z ?\gh drawn to x by a species ( irresi/ible fasc9ation4 ,x is n alone t flies & o!r small insects are ov]p[]$ by ! fluid :i* exudes f ! cord 9 "q4 ,ev5 l>ge insects succumb to x1 al?\gh ( c\rse n s quickly4 ,mrs4 ,treat says3 ,a l>ge cockroa* 0 fe$+ on ! secretion ( a fre% leaf1 :i* _h caught b little or no prey4 ,aft] fe$+ a %ort "t ! insect w5t d[n ! tube s tight t ,i c\ld n dislodge x1 ev5 :5 turn+ ! leaf upside d[n & knock+ x q h>d4 ,x 0 late 9 ! ev5+ :5 ,i obs]v$ x ent]2 ! next morn+ ,i cut ! tube op52 ! cockroa* 0 /ill alive1 b x 0 cov]$ ) a secretion produc$ f ! inn] surface ( ! tube1 & its legs fell (f z ,i extricat$ x4 ,f all appe>ance ! t]rible ,s>rac5ia 0 eat+ its victim alive4 ,& yet1 p]haps1 ,i %\ld n say 't]rible1' = ! plant seems to supply its victims ) a ,le!-l draught be=e dev\r+ !m4 ,if only a few insects alight ^u a leaf1 no unpleasant smell is p]ceptible dur+ or aft] ! process ( dige/ion2 b if a l>ge numb] ( !m be caught1 :i* is commonly ! case1 a mo/ (f5sive odor emanates f ! cup1 al?\gh ! putrid matt] does n appe> to injure 9 any mann] ! inn] surface ( ! tube1 food1 ev5 9 ?is condition1 be+ readily absorb$1 & go+ to n\ri% ! plant4 ,9 fact1 x w\ld seem t ! ,s>rac5ia1 l "s animals1 c fe$ ^u c>rion & ?rive ^u x4 ,9 in/ances 9 :i* exp]im5ts h be5 made ) fre%1 raw beef or mutton1 ! meat has be5 cov]$ 9 a few h\rs ) ! secretions ( ! leaves1 & ! blood extract$ f x4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 "o diff]5ce betwe5 ! dige/+ p[]s ( ! leaves :5 ex]cis$ ^u insects or ^u meat4 ,ev5 if ! bodies ( insects h become putrid1 ! plant1 z has already be5 /at$1 has no difficulty 9 assimilat+ !m2 b z reg>ds meat1 x is only :5 x is p]fectly sweet t ! secretions ( ! leaves w act ^u x4 ,! pit*] plant und\bt$ly d]ives its pr9cipal n\ri%m5t f ! insects x eats4 ,x1 too--unlike mo/ o!r c>nivor\s plants1 :i*1 :5 ! quantity ( food ) :i* !y h to deal is 9 excess ( _! p[]s ( dige/ion1 succumb to ! ef=t & die--appe>s to f9d x easy to dev\r any numb] ( insects1 small or l>ge1 ! op]ation be+ ) x simply a "q ( "t4 ,flies1 beetles1 or ev5 cockroa*es1 at ! expiration ( ?ree or f\r days at mo/1 disappe>1 no?+ be+ left ( !m save _! w+s & o!r h>d1 p>ts ( _! bodies4 ,! ,s>rac5ia is1 inde$1 n only ! mo/ voraci\s ( all kn[n species ( c>nivor\s plants1 b ! lea/ fa/idi\s z to ! nature ( ! food ^u :i* x fe$s4--,w4,c4,m41 ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,:at ,,is ,a ,,plant8 ,mr4 ,worsley-,b5ison has be5 discuss+ ?is "q 9 a v int]e/+ way1 & he says 9 conclusion t physiologically ! mo/ di/9ctive feature ( plant-life is ! p[] to manufacture prote9 f less complex bodies2 t ( animal-life1 ! abs5ce ( su* p[]4 ,he f9ds t 9 =m1 9 ! pres5ce ( />*1 ( *lorophyl1 9 p[] ( locomotion1 9 ! pres5ce ( circulatory organs1 ( ! body call$ nitrog51 9 ! functions ( respiration & s5sation1 !re are no diagno/ic *>act]s4 ,he f9ds1 h[ev]1 fairly con/ant & well-m>k$ di/9ctions 9 ! pres5ce ( a cellulose coat 9 ! plant-cell1 9 dige/ion foll[$ by absorption1 & 9 ! p[] to manufacture prote94 ,! morphological feature ( plants is ?is cellulose coat2 ( animals1 its abs5ce2 ! physiological peculi>ity ( plants1 ?is manufactur+ p[]2 ( animals1 ! want ( x4 ,b aft] all ! discussion he says3 ,to ! "q1 ,is ?is an animal or a plant8 we mu/ (t5 reply1 ,we d n "k4--,! ,microscope4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,camellias4 ,next to ! rose1 no fl[]99 is m beautiful or m useful ?an ! camellia4 ,x may readily be s manag$ t its natural season ( bloom+ %all be f ,octob] to ,m>*1 ?us com+ 9 at a "t :5 roses c h>dly be _h )\t =c+4 ,9 e quality1 ) ! s+le exception ( sc5t1 ! camellia may be pron\nc$ ! equal ( ! rose4 ,x c be us$ 9 all comb9ations or = all purposes = :i* roses c be employ$4 ,9 =m & color x is probably m p]fect1 & fully z brilliant4 ,x is equally or m durable1 ei!r on ! plant or z a cut fl[]4 ,x is a little de>] to buy1 & p]haps slightly m difficult to cultivate2 b l mo/ plants ! camellia has crucial p]iods 9 its life1 :5 x ne$s special treatm5t4 ,t giv51 x may be gr[n ) ! utmo/ ease2 t )held1 its culture becomes prec>i\s1 or a failure4 ,! camellia is s h>dy t x w live 9 ! op5 air 9 _m p>ts ( ,great ,brita91 & h]e9 lies a dang] to _m cultivators4 ,because x is q or almo/ h>dy1 !y keep x almo/ cool4 ,?is is all v well if ! cool treatm5t be n c>ri$ to extremes1 & p]si/$ 9 all ! ye> r\nd4 ,camellias 9 a dormant /ate w live & ?rive 9 any temp]ature above ! freez+ po9t1 & w take little or no hurt if subject$ to f #c-d bel[ x1 or a temp]ature ( #bg ,fahr4 99 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,orig9al fl\r4 ,!y w also bloom freely 9 a temp]ature ( #dj1 ?\gh #de suits !m bett]4 ,h5ce1 dur+ ! late summ] & e>ly autumn x is h>dly possible to keep camellias too cool ei!r out ( doors or 94 ,!y are also p>ticul>ly s5sitive to heat j be=e ! fl[]-buds beg9 to swell 9 late autumn or w9t]2 a sudd5 or s5sible rise ( temp]ature at t /age s5ds ! fl[]-buds (f 9 %[]s4 ,?is is :at too (t5 happ5s1 9 fact1 to ! camellias ( amateurs4 ,no soon] d ! buds beg9 to %[ !n a natural impati5ce seizes ! possessor's ( well-budd$ camellias to h ! fl[]s op5$4 ,m w>m?1 a clos] atmosph]e1 is br\ght to be> ^u !m1 & d[n fall ! buds 9 %[]s on /age or floor--! *ief cause ( ?is slip betwe5 ! buds & ! op5 fl[]s be+ a rise ( temp]ature4 ,a close or arid atmosph]e (t5 leads to ! same results4 ,camellias c h>dly h too free a circulation ( air or too l[ a temp]ature4 ,ano!r frequ5t cause ( buds dropp+ arises f ei!r too little or too mu* wat] at ! roots4 ,ei!r a paucity or excess ( wat] at ! roots %\ld lead to id5tical results4 ,mo/ amateurs ov]wat] _! camellias dur+ _! fl[]+ /ages4 ,see+ s _m buds exp&+1 !y naturally ru% to ! conclusion t a good deal ( wat] mu/ be us$ to fill !m to bur/+ po9t4 ,b ! op5+ ( camellia buds is less a manufacture ?an a m]e developm5t1 & ! /ra9 on ! plant & dra9 on ! roots is f> less dur+ ?is /age ?an _m suppose4 ,( c\rse ! opposite extreme ( ov]-dry roots mu/ be provid$ aga9/1 else ?is w\ld also cause ! plants to ca/ (f _! buds4 ,b our object n[ is less to po9t out h[ buds are to be develop$ into fully exp&$ fl[]s ?an to %[ h[ !y 7 to be =m$ 9 pl5ty1 & ! plants pres]v$ 9 robu/ heal? ye> aft] ye>4 ,"o ( ! simple/ & sure/ modes ( rea*+ ?is desirable end is to adopt a sy/em ( semi-tropical treatm5t = two mon?s or s aft] fl[]+4 ,! mom5t or ev5 be=e ! late blooms fade1 ! plants %\ld be prun$ if necess>y4 ,few plants be> ! knife bett] ?an camellias1 ?\gh x is folly to cut !m unless !y are too tall or too l>ge = _! qu>t]s or h gr[n out ( =m4 ,z a rule heal?y camellias produce suffici5t or ev5 a r$undancy ( %oots )\t cutt+ back2 b %\ld !y ne$ prun+1 aft] fl[]+ is ! be/ "t to p]=m ! op]ation4 ,dur+ ! break+ ( ! t5d] leaves & ! gr[? ( ! "y %oots 9 _! fir/ /ages1 ! plant %\ld be %ad$ f direct sun%9e1 unless1 inde$1 !y are a long way f ! glass1 :5 ! diffusion & disp]sion ( ! rays ( light tone d[n or break _! scor*+ =ce2 few "y leaves & %oots are m t5d] & easily burn$ ?an camellia1 & scor*+ n only disfigures ! plants1 b also h9d]s ! =mation ( f9e gr[?s & ! developm5t ( fl[]-buds4 ,! atmosph]e dur+ ! e>ly season ( gr[? may almo/ t\* saturation4 ,x mu/ n fail to be g5ial1 & ?is g5iality ( ! air mu/ be kept up by ! surface-spr9kl+ ( pa?s1 floors1 /ages1 walls1 & ! plants !mselves at lea/ twice a day4 ,) ! pots or bord] well dra9$ x is h>dly possible to ov]wat] ! roots ( camellias dur+ _! p]iod ( wood-mak+4 ,! temp]ature may range f #ej to #fe dur+ mo/ ( ! p]iod4 ,z ! fl[]-buds =m1 & become m conspicu\s1 ! tropical treatm5t may become less & less tropical1 until ! camellias are subject$ to ! common treatm5t ( gre5h\se or cons]vatory plants 9 summ]4 ,ev5 at ?is e>ly /age x is wise to att5d to ! ?9n+ ( ! buds4 ,_m v>ieties ( camellias--notably t mo/ useful ( all v>ieties1 ! d\ble :ite--w (t5 set & swell five or t5 times m buds ?an x ought to be all[$ to c>ry4 ,no?+ is ga9$1 b a good deal is lo/1 by all[+ s _m embryo fl[]-buds to be =m$ or p>tially develop$4 ,x is 9 fact f> wis] to take (f ! majority ( ! excess at ! e>lie/ possible po9t1 s z to conc5trate ! /r5g? ( ! plant into ^? t rema94 ,z x is1 h[ev]1 (t5 a po9t ( great mom5t to h a succession ( camellia fl[]s = z long a p]iod z possible on ! same plants1 buds ( all sizes %\ld be select$ to rema94 ,=tunately1 x is f\nd 9 practice t ! plants1 unless ov]weight$ ) blooms1 d n ca/ (f ! small] or lat] buds 9 _! ef=ts to op5 _! e>li] & l>g] ones4 ,) ! sett+1 ?9n+1 & p>tial swell+ ( ! fl[]-buds ! semi-tropical treatm5t ( camellias mu/ close2 cont9u$ long]1 ! result w\ld be _! bloom+ out ( season1 or m probably _! n bloom+ at all4 ,! be/ place = camellias f ! "t ( sett+ _! fl[]-buds to _! bloom+ season is a vex$ "q1 :i* c h>dly be said to h be5 settl$ z yet4 ,!y may ei!r be left 9 a cool gre5h\se1 or plac$ 9 a %ad$1 %elt]$ position 9 ! op5 air4 ,"s ( ! f9e/ camellias ev] se5 h be5 plac$ 9 ! op5 air f ,june to ,octob]4 ,^! 9 "s cases h be5 /ood beh9d s\?1 & 9 o!rs beh9d we/ walls4 ,^? fac+ ! ea/ 9 _! summ] qu>t]s 71 on ! :ole1 ! f9e/1 _m ( !m be+ truly magnific5t plants1 n a few ( !m hav+ be5 import$ direct f ,flor5ce at a "t :5 camellias 7 f> less gr[n 9 ,engl& ?an n[4 ,9 all cases :]e camellias are plac$ 9 ! op5 air 9 summ]1 c>e w be tak5 to place ! pots on worm pro( bases1 & to %ield ! tops f direct sun%9e f #aj to #d o'clock4 ,if ^! two po9ts are att5d$ to1 & also %elt] f high w9ds1 x matt]s little :]e !y /&4 ,9 all cases x is well to place camellias "u glass %elt] e>ly 9 ,octob]1 less = fe> ( cold ?an ( saturat+ ra9s caus+ a sodd5 /ate ( ! soil 9 ! pots4 ,:ile adv]t+1 h[ev]1 to ! safety & usefulness ( plac+ camellias 9 ! op5 air 9 summ]1 x mu/ n be inf]r$ t ?is is ess5tial to ! successful culture2 x is1 9 fact1 f> o!rwise1 z ! majority ( ! f9e/ camellias 9 ! c\ntry are plant$ out 9 cons]vatories ) immovable ro(s4 ,_m su* h\ses are1 h[ev]1 treat$ to special semi-tropical treatm5t z has be5 describ$1 & are kept z cool & op5 z possible aft] ! fl[]-buds are fairly set1 s t ! cultural & climatic conditions approximate z closely z possible to ^? "h indicat$4 ,soil & seasons ( pott+ may be describ$ z vex$ que/ions 9 camellia culture4 ,z to ! fir/1 "s affect pure loam1 o!rs peat only1 yet m a half & half ( bo?1 ) a lib]al proportion ( gritty s&1 or a little sma%$ *>coal or bruis$ bones z por\s or fe$+ ag5ts1 or bo?4 ,mo/ gr[]s pref] ! mixture1 & z good camellias are gr[n 9 ea* ( its con/itu5ts1 x foll[s )\t say+ t !y may also be well gr[n 9 v>i\s proportions ( bo?4 ,"u r ?an ov] pott+ suits ! plants be/1 & ! be/ "t is d\btless j be=e !y are ab\t to />t into fre% gr[?1 ?\gh _m good cultivators elect to %ift _! plants 9 ! late summ] or autumn1 t is1 soon aft] ! gr[? is f9i%+1 & ! fl[]-buds fairly & fully set = ! next season4 ,f all :i* x is obvi\s t ! camellia is n only among ! mo/ useful & %[y1 b likewise among ! mo/ accommodat+ ( plants4 ,"u good cultivation x is also "o ( ! cleane/1 ?\gh :5 scab gets on x1 x is difficult to get rid ( x4 ,mealy-bugs also occasionally make a hurri$ visit to camellias :5 mak+ _! gr[?1 z well z aphides4 ,b ! leaves once =m$ & advanc$ to semi-maturity are too h>d & lea!ry = su* insects1 :ile !y w be> scale be+ rubb$ (f !m ) impunity4 ,b really well-gr[n camellias1 z a rule1 are :olly free f insect pe/s1 & _! clean1 d>k1 glossy leaves are only ( second>y beauty to _! brilliant1 exquisitely =m$1 & _m siz$ fl[]s4--,d4,t41 ,! ,g>d5]s' ,*ronicle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,aris,,ma ,,fimbriatum4 ,ma/42 sp4 nov4 ,illu/ration3 ,,aris,,ma ,,fimbriatum3 ,,leaf1 ,,spa!1 ,,& ,,floral ,,details4 ,"s few ye>s s9ce we _h occasion to figure "s v rem>kable ,himalayan species ( ?is g5us1 9 :i* ! end ( ! spadix 0 prolong$ into a v long1 ?read-l app5dage ?r[n ov] ! leaves ( ! plant or ( its neighbors1 & ultimately rea*+ ! gr\nd1 & ?us1 x is presum$1 af=d+ ants & o!r insects means ( access to ! fl[]s1 & consequ5t f]tilization4 ,^! species 7 gr[n by ,mr4 ,elwes1 & exhibit$ by him be=e ! ,sci5tific ,committee4 ,! pres5t species is ( some:at simil> "*1 b is1 we believe1 new alike to g>d5s & to sci5ce4 ,we met ) x 9 ! c\rse ( ! autumn 9 ! nurs]y ( ,messrs4 ,s&]1 at ,/4 ,alban's2 b le>n t x has s9ce pass$ into ! h&s ( ,mr4 ,w4 ,bull1 ( ,*elsea4 ,x 0 import$ accid5tally ) or*ids1 probably f ! ,philipp9e ,isl&s4 ,x belongs to ,engl]'s section1 trisecta1 hav+ two /alk$ leaves1 ea* deeply divid$ into ?ree ovate acute glabr\s segm5ts4 ,! petioles are long1 pale purpli%1 rose-color$1 spr9kl$ ) small purpli% spots4 ,! spa!s are oblong acute or acum9ate1 convolute at ! base1 br[ni%-purple1 /rip$ longitud9ally ) n>r[ :iti% b&s4 ,! spadix is cyl9drical1 sl5d]1 t]m9at+ 9 along1 :ip-l extremity1 mu* long] ?an ! spa!4 ,! fl[]s h ! arrangem5t & /ructure common to ! g5us1 ! females be+ cr[d$ at ! base ( ! spadix1 ! males imm$iately above !m1 & ^! pass+ gradually into fle%y incurv$ processes1 :i* 9 _! turn pass gradually into long1 sl5d]1 purpli% ?reads1 cov]+ ! :ole ( ! free end ( ! spadix4--,m4,t4,m41 9 ,! ,g>d5ess' ,*ronicle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,/rik+ ,a ,,light4 ,9 ! new edition ( ,mason's ,burma we read t among o!r uses to :i* ! bamboo is appli$1 n ! lea/ useful is t ( produc+ fire by friction4 ,= ?is purpose a jo9t ( ?or\ghly dry bamboo is select$1 ab\t #a in*es 9 diamet]1 & ?is jo9t is !n split 9 halves4 ,a ball is n[ prep>$ by scrap+ (f %av+s f a p]fectly dry bamboo1 & ?is ball be+ plac$ on "s firm support1 z a fall5 log or piece ( rock1 "o ( ! above halves is held by its ends firmly d[n on x1 s t ! ball ( s(t fib] is press$ ) "s =ce aga9/ its inn] or concave surface4 ,ano!r man n[ takes a piece ( bamboo a foot long or less1 & %ap$ ) a blunt edge1 some?+ l a pap] knife1 & comm5ces a saw+ motion backw>d & =w>d across ! horizontal piece ( bamboo1 & j ov] ! spot :]e ! ball ( s(t fib] is held4 ,! motion is sl[ at fir/1 & by degrees a groove is =m$1 :i* soon deep5s z ! motion increases 9 quickness4 ,soon smoke arises1 & ! motion is n[ made z rapid z possible1 & by ! "t ! bamboo is cut ?r\gh n only smoke b sp>ks are se51 :i* soon ignite ! mat]ials ( :i* ! ball b5ea? is compos$4 ,! fir/ t5d] sp>k is n[ c>efully bl[n1 & :5 well alight ! ball is )drawn1 & leaves & o!r inflammable mat]ials heap$ ov] x1 & a fire secur$4 ,?is is ! only me?od t ,i am aw>e ( = procur+ fire by friction 9 ,burma1 b on ! hills & out ( ! way p>ts1 t philosophical toy1 ! pyrophorus1 is /ill 9 use4 ,?is consi/s#a ( a %ort jo9t ( a ?ick woody bamboo1 neatly cut1 :i* =ms a cyl9d]4 ,at ! bottom ( ?is a bit ( t9d] is plac$1 & a tightly-fitt+ pi/on ins]t$ compos$ ( "s h>d wood4 ,! tube be+ n[ held 9 "o h&1 or firmly support$1 ! pi/on is driv5 viol5tly d[n on ! t9d] by a sm>t bl[ f ! h&1 ) ! result ( ignit+ ! t9d] b5ea?4 ,footnote #a3 ,x is also made ( a solid cyl9d] ( buffalo's horn1 ) a c5tral holl[ ( ?ree-sixte5?s ( an in* 9 diamet] & ?ree in*es deep burnt into x4 ,! pi/on1 :i* fits v tightly 9 x1 is made ( iron-wood or "s wood equally h>d4 ,ano!r me?od ( obta9+ fire by friction f bamboos is ?us describ$ by ,capta9 ,t4,h4 ,lew9 7,hill ,tracts ( ,*ittagong1 & ! ,dwell]s ,!re91 ,calcutta1 #ahfi1 p4 #hc71 z practic$ 9 ! ,*ittagong ,hills4 ,! ,tipporahs make use ( an +5i\s device to obta9 fire2 !y take a piece ( dry bamboo1 ab\t a foot long1 split x 9 half1 & on its out] r\nd surface cut a nick1 or not*1 ab\t an eigh? ( an in* broad1 circl+ r\nd ! semi-circumf]5ce ( ! bamboo1 %all[ t[>d ! edges1 b deep5+ 9 ! c5t] until a m9ute slit ( ab\t a l9e 9 bread? pi]ces ! inn] surface ( ! bamboo fire-/ick4 ,!n a flexible /rip ( bamboo is tak51 ab\t #a feet long & an eigh? ( an in* 9 bread?1 to fit ! circl+ not*1 or groove1 9 ! fire-/ick4 ,?is slip or b& is rubb$ ) f9e dry s&1 & !n pass$ r\nd ! fire-/ick1 on :i* ! op]ator /&s1 a foot on ei!r end4 ,!n ! slip1 grasp$ firmly1 an end 9 ea* h&1 is pull$ /eadily back & =?1 increas+ gradually 9 pressure & velocity z ! smoke comes4 ,by ! "t ! fire-b& snaps ) ! friction !re ought to appe> ?r\gh ! slit 9 ! fire-/ick "s inc&esc5t du/1 & ?is plac$1 sm\ld]+ z x is1 9 a ne/ ( dry bamboo %av+s1 c be g5tly bl[n into a flame4--,! ,g>d5]s' ,*ronicle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,exp]im5ts ,,9 ,,memory4 ,:5 we read h[ "o m$ival sa9t /ood erect 9 8 cell = a week )\t sleep or food1 m]ely *ew+ a planta9-leaf out ( humility1 s z n to be too p]fect2 h[ ano!r rema9$ all night up to 8 neck 9 a pond t 0 freez+ ov]2 & h[ o!rs /ill p]=m$ = ! glory ( ,god feats no less task+ to _! en]gies1 we are incl9$ to ?9k1 t1 ) ! gods ( yore1 ! m51 too1 h dep>t$1 & t ! e>? is h&$ ov] to a race ^: w has become z feeble z its fai?4 ,b we ought n to yield to ^! in/igations1 by :i* ! evil "o tempts u to disp>age our own g5]ation4 ,! gods h some:at *ang$ _! %ape1 'tis true1 & ! m5 _! m9ds2 b bo? are /ill alive & vigor\s z ev] = an eye t c look "u sup]ficial disguises4 ,! human en]gy no long] freezes itself 9 fi%-ponds1 & />ves itself 9 cells2 b ne> ! nor? pole1 9 c5tral ,africa1 on ,alp9e c\loirs1 & especially 9 :at are n[adays call$ psy*o-physical laboratories1 x maybe f\nd z inv9cible z ev]1 & ready = e fre% dem&4 ,to mo/ p a nor? pole exp$ition w\ld be an easy task comp>$ ) ^? ineffably t$i\s measurem5ts ( simple m5tal processes ( :i* ,ern/ ,he9ri* ,web] set ! fa%ion "s =ty ye>s ago1 & ! necessity ( ext5d+ :i* 9 e possible direction becomes m & m app>5t to /ud5ts ( ! m9d4 ,?9k ( mak+ =ty ?\s& e/imates ( :i* is ! heavi] ( two weights1 or sev5ty ?\s& answ]s z to :e!r y\r sk9 is t\*$ at two po9ts or at "o1 & !n tabulat+ & ma!matically discuss+ y\r results6 ,insight is to be ga9$ at no less price ?an ?is4 ,! new sort ( /udy ( ! m9d be>s ! same relation to ! old] psy*ology t ! microscopic anatomy ( ! body does to ! anatomy ( its visible =m1 & ! "o w und\bt$ly be z fruitful & z indisp5sable z ! o!r4 ,dr4 ,ebb+haus#a makes an orig9al addition to h]oic psy*ological lit]ature 9 ! little "w ^: title we h giv54 ,= m ?an two ye>s he has app>5tly sp5t a consid]able "t ea* day 9 committ+ to memory sets ( mean+less syllables1 & try+ to trace num]ically ! laws accord+ to :i* !y 7 reta9$ or =gott54 ,mo/ ( 8 results1 we are sorry to say1 add no?+ to our gross exp]i5ce ( ! matt]4 ,"h1 z 9 ! case ( ! sa9ts1 h]oism seems to be its own rew>d4 ,b ! incid5tal results are usually ! mo/ pregnant 9 ?is dep>tm5t2 & two ( ^? :i* ,dr4 ,ebb+haus has rea*$ seems to u to amply ju/ify 8 pa9s4 ,! fir/ is1 t1 9 =gett+ su* ?+s z ^! li/s ( syllables1 ! loss goes on v mu* m rapidly at fir/ ?an lat] on4 ,he measur$ ! loss by ! numb] ( seconds requir$ to rele>n ! li/ aft] x _h be5 once le>n$4 ,r\ghly speak+1 if x took a ?\s& seconds to le>n ! li/1 & five hundr$ to rele>n x1 ! loss betwe5 ! two le>n+s w\ld h be5 "o-half4 ,measur$ 9 ?is way1 full half ( ! =gett+ seems to occur )9 ! fir/ half-h\r1 :ile only f\r-fif?s is =gott5 at ! end ( a mon?4 ,! nature ( ?is result might h be5 anticipat$1 b h>dly its num]ical proportions4 ,footnote #a3 ,ueb] das ,g$*tniss4 ,unt]su*ung5 zur exp]im5tell5 ,psy*ologie4 ,von ,h]m4 ,ebb+haus4 ,leipzig3 ,dunck] u4 ,humblot1 #ahhe4 #ajafi pp4 #hvo4 ,! o!r important result relates to ! "q :e!r ideas are recall$ only by ^? t previ\sly came imm$iately be=e !m1 or :e!r an idea c possibly recall ano!r idea1 ) :i* x 0 nev] 9 imm$iate contact1 )\t pass+ ?r\gh ! int]m$iate m5tal l9ks4 ,! "q is ( !oretic importance ) reg>d to ! way 9 :i* ! process ( association ( ideas mu/ be conceiv$2 & ,dr4 ,ebb+haus' attempt is z successful z x is orig9al1 9 br++ two views1 :i* seem at fir/ sight inaccessible to pro(1 to a direct practical te/1 & giv+ ! victory to "o ( !m4 ,8 exp]im5ts conclusively %[ t an idea is n only associat$ directly ) ! "o t foll[s x1 & ) ! re/ ?r\gh t1 b t x is directly associat$ ) all t are ne> x1 ?\gh 9 unequal degrees4 ,he fir/ measur$ ! "t ne$$ to impress on ! memory c]ta9 li/s ( syllables1 & !n ! "t ne$$ to impress li/s ( ! same syllables ) gaps betwe5 !m4 ,?us1 repres5t+ ! syllables by numb]s1 if ! fir/ li/ 0 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d 444 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 #af1 ! second w\ld be #a1 #c1 #e 444 #ae1 #b1 #d1 #f 444 #af1 & s =?1 ) _m v>iations4 ,n[1 if #a & #c 9 ! fir/ li/ 7 le>n$ 9 t ord] m]ely by #a call+ up #b1 & by #b call+ up #c1 leav+ out ! #b ought to leave #a & #c ) no tie 9 ! m9d2 & ! second li/ ought to take z mu* "t 9 ! le>n+ z if ! fir/ li/ _h nev] be5 he>d (4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 #a has a direct influ5ce on #c z well z on #b1 t influ5ce %\ld be ex]t$ ev5 :5 #b is dropp$ out2 & a p]son famili> ) ! fir/ li/ ought to le>n ! second "o m rapidly ?an o!rwise he c\ld4 ,?is latt] case is :at actually occurs2 & ,dr4 ,ebb+haus has f\nd t syllables orig9ally sep>at$ by z _m z sev5 int]m$i>ies /ill reveal1 by ! increas$ rapidity ) :i* !y are le>n$ 9 ord]1 ! /r5g? ( ! tie t ! orig9al le>n+ e/abli%$ betwe5 !m1 ov] ! heads1 s to speak1 ( all ! re/4 ,x may be t ?is p>ticul> s]ies ( exp]im5ts is ! ent]+ w$ge ( a new me?od ( incalculable rea* 9 su* que/ions4 ,! future alone c %[4 ,mean:ile1 :5 we add to ,dr4 ,ebb+haus' h]oism 9 ! pursuit ( true av]ages1 8 high critical acum51 8 mode/ tone1 & 8 poli%$ /yle1 x w be se5 t we h a new-com] 9 psy*ology f :om ! be/ may be expect$4--,w4,j41 ,sci5ce4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,s9k+ ,,( ,,! ,,quievre*a9 ,,work+ ,,%aft4 ,! s9k+ ( m9e %afts 9 c]ta9 ,belgian & ,fr5* bas9s1 :]e ! coal deposit is cov]$ ) ?ick /rata ( wat]y e>?1 has f all times be5 consid]$ z ! mo/ tr\blesome & delicate1 & (t5 ! mo/ difficult op]ation1 ( ! m9]'s art4 ,( ! few mod]n processes t h be5 employ$ = ?is purpose1 t ( ,messrs4 ,k9d & ,*audron has be5 f\nd mo/ satisfactory1 al?\gh x leaves mu* to be desir$ :]e x is a "q ( trav]s+ mov+ s&4 ,an int]e/+ modification ( ?is well-kn[n process has rec5tly be5 describ$ by ,mr4 ,e4 ,*avatte1 9 ! ,bullet9 de la ,societe ,indu/rielle du ,nord de la ,france4 ,two ye>s ago ! au?or _h to s9k a work+ %aft at ,quievre*a91 #aaa feet ( :i* 0 to trav]se a mass ( mov+ & fl[+ s&1 inconsi/5t e>?1 gravel1 & m>ls1 & proce$$ z foll[s3 ,he fir/ put d[n two beams1 ,a ,b 7,pl4 #a1 ,figs4 #b1 #c1 & #i71 ea* #hb feet 9 l5g? & ( #bjbj in* section 9 ! c5t]1 & ^u ^! plac$ two o!rs1 ,e ,f1 ( #afaf in* section4 ,b5ea? ! two fir/ 7 ins]t$ six joi/s1 c c c c c c1 ab\t #hb feet 9 l5g? & ( #ad or #af in* section 9 ! c5t]4 ,f9ally ^! 7 /r5g!n$ at _! extremities ) two o!rs1 d d1 ab\t #hb feet 9 l5g?4 ,all ^! timb]s1 hav+ be5 connect$ by tie b&s & bolts1 con/itut$ a rigid /ructure t cov]$ a surface ( ne>ly sev5 hundr$ squ>e y>ds4 ,f ! beams1 ,a ,b & ,e ,f1 !re 0 susp5d$ a r$ fir frame by means ( ?irty-f\r iron rods4 ,^u ?is frame1 :i* 0 entirely imm]s$ 9 ! mov+ s&1 !re 0 e/abli%$ brick masonry 7,figs4 #a1 #b1 & #c74 ,z ! ends ( ! timb]s ent]$ ! latt]1 & 7 connect$ by #a in* bolts1 !y concurr$ 9 mak+ ! entire affair p]fectly solid4 ,! frame1 ,k ,k1 0 provid$ ) an oak5 r+1 :i* 0 affix$ to x ) bolts4 ,aft] ?is1 a ca/ iron tubb+1 hav+ a cutt+ edge1 & be+ compos$ ( r+s #c4bh feet wide & made ( six segm5ts1 0 l[]$4 ,?is tubb+ 0 p]fectly tight1 all ! surfaces ( ! jo9ts hav+ be5 made ev5 & provid$ ) /rips ( lead "o-t5? ( an in* ?ick4 ,x weigh$ #d1jjj p\nds to ! runn+ foot4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,section ?r\gh ,a ,b4 ,,fig4 #b4--,plan4 ,,fig4 #c4--,section ?r\gh ,c ,d4 ,,fig4 #e4--,section ?r\gh ,e ,f ( ,fig4 #d4 ,,figs4 #f ,,& #g4--,"w ,prep>$ & f9i%$4 ,,fig4 #aj4--,section ?r\gh ,a ,b & ,c ,d ( ,fig4 #ab4 ,,figs4 #aa #f ,,& #ab4--;,arrangem5t ( jack-screw4 ,,fig4 #ac4--,section ?r\gh ,a ,b & ,c ,d ( ,fig4 #aa4 ,,plate ,i4--,,s9k+ ,a ,,m9e ,,%aft4 ,x 0 fir/ rais$ to a height ( fifte5 feet1 s z to cause x to ent] ! s& by virtue ( its own gravity4 ,x ?us p5etrat$ to a dep? ( ab\t tw5ty in*es4 ,aft] ?is ! workm5 7 ord]$ to man ! w9dlasses & hoi/ out "s ( ! s&4 ,?is caus$ ! tubb+ to desc5d ab\t eight in*es m1 :5 x came to a /&/ill4 ,x 0 n[ load$ ) #ag1jjj p\nds ( pig iron1 b 9 va91 = x refus$ to budge4 ,mr4 ,*avatte !re=e _h rec\rse to a dr$ge ) v]tical axis1 con/ruct$ z foll[s3 ,^u a squ>e axis1 ,a ,b 7,pl4 #b1 ,figs4 #a1 #b1 & #c71 provid$ ) d\ble cross braces1 ,c ,d1 & /r5g!n$ by diagonals1 7 rivet$1 by _! upp] extremities1 two *eeks1 ,g ,h1 ^: l[] extremities held ! /eel plates1 ,i ,j ,i' ,j'1 :i*1 9 turn1 7 fa/5$ to ! axis1 ,a ,b1 by _! o!r extremities4 ,^! plates 7 s incl9$ z to scrape ! surface ( ! gr\nd ov] :i* !y 7 mov$4 ,!y ea* c>ri$ two bags made ( co>se canvas & /r5g!n$ by five /rong lea!r /raps 7,figs4 #b & #d74 ,to ! /eel plates 7 rivet$ two plates ( iron conta9+ num]\s ap]tures1 ?r\gh :i* pass$ lea!r /raps design$ = fa/5+ !reto ! l[] "p ( ! m\? ( ! bags4 ,t portion ( ! m\? ( ! latt] t 0 to rema9 op5 0 fa/5$ 9 ! same way to two o!r plates1 ,x ,y1 ,x ,y 7,fig4 #a71 held betwe5 ! l[] cross-braces4 ,:5 ! app>atus 0 revolv$1 ! plates scrap$ ! e>? to be remov$1 & desc5d$ 9 measure z ! latt] ent]$ ! bags4 ,^! bags1 :5 full1 7 hook$1 by means ( ! five r+s :i* !y c>ri$1 to ! device %[n 9 ,fig4 #h 7,pl4 #b71 & rais$ to ! surface & empti$ into c>s4 ,! dr$ge 0 set 9 motion by f\r oak lev]s 7,figs4 #e & #f74 ,two ( ^! 7 mann$ by workm5 /ation$ ^u ! surface floor+1 & ! o!r two by workm5 ^u ! floor+ 9 ! tubb+4 ,! axis 0 elongat$1 9 measure z ! app>atus desc5d$1 by rods ( ! same dim5sions fa/5$ toge!r by ca/ iron sleeves & bolts 7,fig4 #g74 ,! /eel plates 7 n capable ( act+ alone1 ev5 9 cases :]e !y op]at$ 9 pure mov+ s& conta9+ no pebbles1 = ! s& 0 too compact to be easily scrap$ up by ! /eel1 & s x _h to be previ\sly divid$4 ,= ?is purpose ,mr4 ,*avatte us$ rakes :i* 7 9 =m exactly l ^? ( ! extirpators1 ,u & ,v1 ( ,figs4 #a1 #b1 & #c1 ( ,pl4 #b1 except t ! divid]s c>ri$ tee? t 7 n s /rong z ^? ( ! extirpators1 & t 7 set clos] toge!r4 ,^! rakes 7 let d[n & drawn up at w4 ,!y 7 maneuv]$ z foll[s3 ,! dr$ge desc5d$ ) ! extirpators po9t+ upw>d4 ,:5 _! heads rea*$ ! level ( ! upp] floor1 ! tools 7 remov$4 ,!n ! dr$ge 0 rais$ aga94 ,9 ?is way ! extirpators lay ^u ! floor1 &1 if ! lift+ 0 cont9u$1 !y plac$ !mselves 9 _! work+ position1 9 :i* !y 7 fix$ by ! bolts ,a ,b ,c 7,fig4 #a74 ,aft] ?is1 ! app>atus 0 let d[n & revolv$4 ,! rakes divid$ ! e>?1 ! scrap]s collect$ x1 & ! bags pocket$ x4 ,! great difficulty 0 to cause ! tubb+ to desc5d v]tically1 & also to ov]come ! enorm\s lat]al pressure ex]t$ ^u x by ! e>? t 0 be+ trav]s$4 ,wat] put into ! %aft help$ some:at1 b ! great /ress to be ex]t$ _h to be effect$ by means ( p[]ful jack screws4 ,^! 7 plac$ directly ^u ! tubb+1 & bore aga9/ /rong beams ^: extremities 7 ins]t$ into ! masonry4 ,z a usual ?+ x is n easy to use m ?an f\r or six su* jacks1 s9ce ! numb] ( beams t c be employ$ is limit$1 ow+ to ! dang] ( ob/ruct+ ! m\? ( ! %aft4 ,yet twelve 7 us$ by ,mr4 ,*avatte1 & ?is numb] might h be5 d\bl$ _h x be5 necess>y4 ,z we h se51 ! frame1 ,k ,k 7,pl4 #a1 ,fig4 #c71 0 provid$ ) an oak circle trav]s$ by #cb bolts4 ,! l5g? ( ^! latt] 0 two in*es & a qu>t] long] ?an !y ne$$ to h be51 or !y 7 provid$ ) wood5 coll>s ( t ?ickness4 ,lat] on1 ^! coll>s 7 replac$ ) iron b>s t held ! wood aga9/ :i* ! jacks bore 9 ord] to press ! tubb+ d[nw>d 7,pl4 #a1 ,figs4 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 & #ac74 ,mr4 ,*avatte's great anxiety 0 to "k :e!r he %\ld succe$ 9 caus+ ! fir/ section ( tubb+ to trav]se ! f\r feet ( gravel2 = 9 case x did n pass1 he w\ld be oblig$ to employ a second section ( small] diamet]1 ?us increas+ ! exp5se4 ,he 0 p]suad$ t ! co>se gravel rema9+ 9 ! side ( ! %aft w\ld greatly ret>d ! desc5t ( ! tubb+4 ,s he _h decid$ to remove su* ob/ructions at ! prop] mom5t ?r\gh div]s or a div+ bell4 ,!n an idea occurr$ to him t disp5s$ ) all t tr\ble1 & all[$ him to cont9ue ) ! fir/ section4 ,?is 0 to place ^u ! dr$ge two claw-b>s1 ,t 7,pl4 #b1 ,fig4 #c71 :i* effect$ ! op]ation ( wid5+ ) wond]ful ease4 ,to d ?is x 0 only necess>y to turn up ! bags1 & revolve ! app>atus dur+ its desc5t4 ,! claw at ! extremity ( ! b> pull$ out ev]y?+ )9 its rea*1 & ?us made an absolutely free passage = ! tubb+4 ,! s&s & gravels 7 pass$ by means ( a s+le section ( tubb+ #ca feet 9 l5g?1 :i* 0 n /opp$ until x _h p5etrat$ a /ratum ( :ite *alk to a dep? ( two y>ds4 ,?is *alk _h no consi/5cy1 al?\gh x conta9$ ?9 plates ( q l>ge dim5sions4 ,^! 7 cut1 z if ) a pun*1 by means ( ! tee? ( ! extirpator4 ,x n[ rema9s to say a few words conc]n+ ! s9k+ ( ! %aft1 :i*1 aft] ! op]ation ( ! dr$ge1 0 cont9u$ by ! process call$ natural level ,! "w 0 n easy until a dep? ( #aaa feet _h be5 rea*$4 ,up to ?is po9t x _h be5 necess>y to proce$ ) great prud5ce1 & reta9 ! %ift+ e>? by means ( f\r iron plate tubes weigh+ #ed tons4 ,be=e f9d+ a means ( wid5+ ! "w already done by ! dr$ge1 ,mr4 ,*avatte 0 c]ta9 t he w\ld h to use two sections ( tubb+1 & s _h giv5 ! fir/ section a diamet] ( #af feet4 ,he c\ld !n greatly r$uce ! diamet]1 & br+ x to #ae feet z soon z ! gr\nd aug] 0 us$4 ,aft] two y>ds ( soil _h be5 remov$ f b5ea? ! edge ( ! tubb+1 ! e>? began to give way4 ,see+ ?is1 ,mr4 ,*avatte let d[n a tube #ac feet 9 l5g? & #ae4d 9 diamet]4 ,! ext]ior ( ?is 0 provid$ ) #ab oak guides1 :i* slid+ ov] ! surface ( ! tubb+ _h ! effect ( caus+ ! tube to desc5d v]tically4 ,& ?is 0 necess>y1 because ?is tube _h to be driv5 d[n e "t an excavation ( half a y>d _h be5 made4 ,aft]w>d1 a diamet] ( #ae4ce feet 0 proce$$ )1 & ! small c5tral %aft ( #d feet diamet] 0 begun4 ,?is latt] _h n z yet be5 sunk1 = fe> ( caus+ a fall ( ! e>?4 ,next1 ! e>? 0 excavat$ to a dep? ( #h4b feet1 & a tube #af4d feet 9 l5g? 0 ins]t$2 !n a fur!r excavation ( #h4b feet 0 made1 & ! tube driv5 home4 ,aft] ?is an excavation ( #bf feet 0 made1 & a tube ( ! same l5g? & #ad feet 9 diamet] 0 driv5 d[n4 ,f9ally1 ! %ift+ soil 0 f9i%$ ) a f\r? tube #ai feet 9 l5g? & #ad feet 9 diamet]4 ,a dep? ( #aaa feet _h n[ be5 rea*$1 & ! mat]ial enc\nt]$ 0 solid :ite *alk4 ,f ?is po9t ! "w proce$$ ) a diamet] ( #ac4i feet to a dep? ( #dej feet4 ,! small %aft _h be5 sunk directly to a dep? ( #dge feet4 ,at #dej feet ! diamet] 0 dim9i%$ by ?ree in*es4 ,!n an advance ( a foot 0 made1 & ! diamet] r$uc$ by "o & a half in*4 ,! reason = ?is r$uction 9 ! diamet] & *ange 9 ! mode ( deep5+ 0 z foll[s3 ,! ,*audron moss-box1 :5 x *ances to rea* its seat intact1 & c consequ5tly op]ate well1 und\bt$ly makes a good w$g+4 ,b h[ _m times does x n happ5 t x gets injur$ be=e rea*+ its de/9ation8 ,besides1 z x (t5 re/s ^u e>? t has cav$ 9 ^u its seat dur+ ! desc5t ( ! tubb+1 x gets askew1 & lat] on has to be rais$ on "o side by means ( jacks or o!r app>atus4 ,"u su* circum/ances1 ,mr4 ,*avatte consid]$ ?is moss-box z m detrim5tal ?an useful1 & n at all indisp5sable1 & s sub/itut$ beton = x1 z _h previ\sly be5 done by ,mr4 ,b\rg1 director ( ! ,bois-du-,luc coal m9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #f ,,& #d4--;,details ( dr$ge4 ,,figs4 #e #f ,,& #f4--;,details ( maneuv]+ lev]4 ,,fig4 #g4--,mode ( l5g!n+ ! axis ( ! dr$ge4 ,,fig4 #h4--;,hooks = lift+ ! dr$ge bags4 ,,fig4 #i4--;,arrangem5t ( valves 9 ! beton box4 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,device = c5t]+ ! tubb+4 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,?is eng9e] likewise suppress$ ! balanc+ column1 :i* is (t5 a s\rce ( tr\ble 9 ! desc5t ( ! tubb+1 & =c$ 8 tubb+ to c5t] itself ) ! %aft ?r\gh a guide ) f\r bran*es rivet$ "u ! false bottom t ent]$ ! small %aft 7,pl4 #b1 ,fig4 #aj74 ,mr4 ,b\rg s manag$ t !re rema9$ an empty space ( t5 in*es to fill 9 ) beton4 ,mr4 ,*avatte _h at fir/ int5d$ to proce$ 9 ! same way1 b ! two la/ tubb+s1 ^u :i* he _h n c\nt$1 =c$ him to r$uce ! space to #e in*es4 ,"u su* circum/ances x 0 n prud5t to employ ! same means = guid+ ! base ( ! tubb+1 because1 if ! c5tral %aft _h n exactly ! same c5t] z ! l>ge "o1 !re w\ld h be5 dang] ( ?r[+ ! tubb+ sideways & caus+ x to leak4 ,see+ :i*1 ,mr4 ,*avatte /r5g!n$ ! l[] "p ( ! base r+ & plac$ x ^u ano!r r+ tap]+ d[nw>d1 & #bg in*es 9 height 7,pl4 #a1 ,fig4 #e74 ,! object ( ?is l[] r+ 0 to =ce ! tubb+ to rema9 conc5tric ) ! %aft1 to =m a tight jo9t ) its upp] conical portion1 & to =m a jo9t ^u ! seat ) its l[] flange1 s z to prev5t ! beton f fl[+ into ! small %aft4 ,aft] ! %aft 0 pump$ out1 digg+ by h& 0 begun ) a diamet] ( #ab feet4 ,aft] desc5d+ #bj in*es an #haj in* curb 0 laid1 9 ord] to consolidate ! e>? & prev5t any movem5t ( ! tubb+4 ,!n ! excavat+ 0 cont9u$ to a dep? ( #ca in*es1 & ) a diamet] ( #i feet4 ,at ?is po9t ano!r curb 0 put 9 = consolidat+ ! e>?4 ,f9ally1 ! bottom 0 wid5$ out z %[n 9 ,fig4 #g1 s t ?ree basal w$g$ curbs c\ld be put 94 ,?is done1 ! false tubb+ 0 put 9 place2 & f9ally1 :5 proce$+ upw>d1 ! la/ r+ compos$ ( twelve pieces 0 rea*$1 ! e>? 0 excavat$ & at once replac$ ) a coll> compos$ ( twelve pieces ( oak tight5$ up by oak w$ges4 ,ea* ( ^! pieces 0 cem5t$ sep>ately & 9 measure z !y 7 assembl$4 ,?r\gh motive ( economy no masonry 0 plac$ "u ! base ( ! ?ree w$g$ curbs4 ,9 fact1 by replac+ ?is ) a w$g$ curb ( wood trav]s$ by six bolts design$ to fix ! ca/ iron curb imm$iately above1 ,mr4 ,*avatte obta9$ a ?ird curb t he w\ld h _h to h made ( ca/ iron4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,! ,,elem5t>y ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,! ,,gas-,,eng9e4#a ,footnote #a3 ,a pap] read be=e ! ,gas ,in/itute1 ,man*e/]1 ,june1 #ahhe4 ,by ,,d5ny ,,lane1 ( ,cork4 ,among ! mo/ useful inv5tions ( ! latt] half ( ! n9ete5? c5tury ! gas-eng9e holds a prom95t place4 ,:ile its developm5t has n be5 s brilliant or s />tl+ z t :i* we c note 9 ! employm5t ( electricity1 x holds1 among ! applications ( heat1 ! mo/ important place ( any inv5tion made )9 t p]iod4 ,ev5 amid ! contrivances by :i*1 9 rec5t times1 ! o!r =ces ( nature h be5 subdu$ to ! uses ( man1 !re are only a few :i* rival ! gas-eng9e 9 practical importance4 ,) reg>d to ! /eam-eng9e itself1 x is rem>kable h[ little t is new has really be5 inv5t$ s9ce ! "t ( ,watt & ,w\lfe4 ,9 ! specifications ( ! =m] c be %[n completely del9eat$1 or fully =e%ad[$1 ne>ly e ess5tial condition ( ! economy & effici5cy atta9$ 9 our own days2 & x is only by a gradual survival ( ! fitte/ ( ! _m contrivances :i* 7 made to c>ry out 8 broad ideas t ! /eam-eng9e ( ! pres5t has atta9$ its great economy4 ,x is b )9 ! la/ fifty ye>s t ! laws ( ! relation betwe5 ! diff]5t physical =ces 7 fir/ enunciat$ by ,ju/ice ,grove1 & confirm$ by ! classical rese>*es ( ,dr4 ,j\le--! "o a lawy]1 work+ h>d at 8 pr(ession1 ! o!r a man ( bus9ess engag$ 9 manufacture4 ,bo? are /ill liv+ among u2 ! latt] hav+ )drawn f bus9ess1 :ile ! =m] is a ,judge ( ! ,high ,c\rt ( ,ju/ice4 ,i always regret t ! claims ( 8 pr(ession h wean$ ,ju/ice ,grove f sci5ce2 =1 :ile x may be possible to f9d 9 ! ranks ( ! ,b> _m :o might wor?ily occupy 8 place on ! ,b5*1 x w\ld be h>d to f9d among m5 ( sci5ce any ) z wide-rea*+ & practical philosophy z t :i* he owns4 ,! *emi/ demon/rat$ long s9ce t x 0 impossible = man to create or de/roy a s+le p>ticle ( pond]able matt]2 b x rema9$ = our own "t to prove t x 0 equally impossible to create or de/roy any ( ! en]gy :i* exi/$ 9 nature z heat1 me*anical p[]1 electricity1 or *emical aff9ity4 ,all t x is 9 ! p[] ( man to d is to conv]t "o ( ^! =ms into ano!r4 ,?is1 p]haps ! greate/ ( all sci5tific discov]ies s9ce ! "t ( ,newton1 0 fir/1 ,i believe1 enunciat$ 9 #ahdb by ,grove1 9 a lecture giv5 at ! ,london ,in/itution2 & x 0 exp]im5tally prov$ by ! rese>*es ( ,j\le1 describ$ 9 a pap] :i* he read at ! meet+ ( ! ,briti% ,association :i* 0 held at ,cork--my native city--9 #ahdc4 ,my fri5d ,dr4 ,sullivan1 n[ ,presid5t ( ,que5's ,college1 ,cork1 & ,i myself _h ! privilege ( be+ two ( a select audi5ce ( half a doz5 p1 :o alone took suffici5t int]e/ 9 ! subject to he> = ! fir/ "t develop$ ! exp]im5tal pro( ( ! !ory :i* welds into "o coh]5t sy/em ! :ole physical =ces ( ! univ]se1 & enables "o ( ^! to be measur$ by ano!r4 ,"o bran* ( ! correlation ( physical =ces1 z x 0 t]m$ by ,grove1 0 ! relation betwe5 me*anical p[] & heat1 & ! conv]tibility ( ea* into ! o!r1 :i*1 "u ! "n ( ,!rmodynamics1 has become "o ( ! mo/ important bran*es ( practical sci5ce4 ,j\le's fir/ exp]im5ts cle>ly prov$ t ea* ( ^! =ms ( en]gy 0 conv]tible into ! o!r2 b "s discrepancies arose 9 det]m9+ ! exact equival5t ( ea*4 ,8 subsequ5t rese>*es1 h[ev]1 cle>ly demon/rat$ ! true relation betwe5 bo?4 ,tak+ z ! unit ( heat ! am\nt :i* w\ld be necess>y to raise #a lb4 ( wat] #a ( ,fahr5heit's scale 7n[ call$ ! ,engli% !rmal unit71 he prov$ t ?is unit 0 equival5t to ! me*anical p[] :i* w\ld be requir$ to raise #ggb lb4 #a foot1 or to raise #a lb4 #ggb ft4 p]p5dicul>ly aga9/ ! =ce ( gravity4 ,! heat-unit--! p\nd-degree--:i* ,i w di/+ui% by ! ,greek lett] !ta1 is a comp\nd unit ( mass & temp]ature2 ! second--! foot-p\nd f4p4--a comp\nd unit ( mass & space4 ,?is equation1 call$ ,j\le's equival5t1 or #a !rmal unit #ggb foot-p\nds1 is ! f\ndation & ! corn]-/one ( !rmodynamics4 ,x is ess5tial to und]/& ! mean+ ( ?is equation4 ,x expresses ! maximum effect ( ! giv5 cause1 viz41 t if all ! heat 7 conv]t$ into p[]1 or all ! p[] 7 conv]t$ into heat1 #a !rmal unit w\ld produce #ggb foot-p\nds1 or #ggb foot-p\nds w\ld raise #a lb4 ( wat] #a ,fahr4 ,b !re is nev] a complete conv]sion ( any =m ( en]gy4 ,common solid coal may be p>tly conv]t$ into gases 9 a retort2 b "s ( ! c>bon rema9s un*ang$1 & m is dissipat$ b n lo/4 ,9 ! same way1 if ,i take five sov]eigns to ,p>is & conv]t !m into francs1 & return to ,london & conv]t ! francs into %ill+s1 ,i %all n h #ajj %ill+s1 b only p]haps #ie %ill+s4 ,b ! five %ill+s h n be5 lo/2 ?ree ( !m rema9 9 ! ,fr5* *ange de monnaies1 & two ( !m 9 ! ,engli% ex*ange (fice4 ,i may h =feit$ some?+1 b ! _w has =feit$ no?+4 ,!re rema9s 9 x exactly ! same numb] ( sov]eigns1 francs1 & %ill+s z !re 0 be=e ,i set out on my travels4 ,no?+ has be5 lo/1 b "s ( my money has be5 dissipat$2 & ! analog\s case1 ! dissipation ( en]gy1 has =m$ ! subject ( m ?an "o le>n$ essay4 ,be=e ! inv5tion ( ! /eam-eng9e1 ! only p[]s employ$ 9 me*anics 7 ^? ( w9d & wat] mills1 & animal p[]4 ,9 ! fir/ two1 no conv]sion ( "o =ce into ano!r took place2 !y 7 m]e k9ematic devices = employ+ ! me*anical =ce already exi/+ 9 ! gale ( w9d & ! head ( wat]4 ,) reg>d to ! p[] develop$ by man & o!r animals1 we _h 9 !m examples ( mo/ effici5t heat-eng9es1 conv]t+ into p[] a l>ge p]c5tage ( ! fuel burnt 9 ! lungs4 ,b animal p[] is small 9 am\nt1 & x is exp5sive = two reasons--fir/1 because ! ag5ts require long int]vals ( re/1 dur+ :i* !y /ill burn fuel2 & next1 because ! fuel !y require is v exp5sive4 ,a p\nd ( bread or beef1 or oats or beans1 co/s a great deal m ?an a p\nd ( coal2 :ile x does n1 by its combu/ion1 g5]ate ne>ly s mu* heat4 ,! /eam-eng9e1 !re=e1 took ! place ( animal p[]1 & = a long "t /ood alone2 & ne>ly all ! motive p[] d]iv$ f heat is /ill produc$ by ! me*anism :i* ,watt br\ght to su* great effici5cy 9 s %ort a "t4 ,n[ ! practical "q = all design]s & employ]s ( heat-eng9es is to det]m9e h[ ! greate/ quantity ( motive =ce c be develop$ f ! heat evolv$ f a giv5 k9d ( fuel2 & coal be+ ! *eape/ ( all1 we w see :at are ! results obta9able f x by ! /eam-eng9e4 ,9 ?is we h ?ree effici5cies to consid]--^? ( ! furnace1 ! boil]1 & ! cyl9d]4 ,fir/1 ) respect to ! furnace4 ,! object is to comb9e ! c>bon & ! hydrog5 ( ! coal ) a suffici5t quantity ( ! oxyg5 ( ! air to effect complete combu/ion into c>bonic acid & wat]4 ,9 ord] to d ?is1 we h to use a quantity ( air mu* l>g] ?an is !oretically necess>y1 & also to heat an am\nt ( in]t nitrog5 five times great] ?an ! necess>y oxyg52 & we are !re=e oblig$ to create a draught :i* c>ries away to ! *imney a consid]able portion ( ! heat develop$4 ,! combu/ion1 moreov]1 is nev] p]fect2 & "s heat is lo/ by conduction & radiation4 ,! pr9cipal loss is by hot gases escap+ f ! flues to ! *imney4 ,ev5 ) well-set boil]s1 ! temp]ature 9 ! *imney v>ies f #djj to #fjj ,fahr4 ,tak+ ! mean ( #ejj1 ?is w\ld repres5t a l>ge proportion ( ! total heat1 ev5 if ! combu/ion 7 p]fect2 =1 z a g5]al rule1 ! supply ( air to a furnace is d\ble t :i* is !oretically necess>y4 ,= our pres5t purpose1 x w be suffici5t to see h[ mu* ! :ole loss is1 )\t divid+ x "u ! sev]al heads ( imp]fect combu/ion1 radiation1 & convection1 by ! heat$ gases pass+ to ! *imney4 ,) a v good boil] & furnace ea* p\nd ( coal evaporates #aj p\nds ( wat] f #fb ,fahr41 *ang+ x into /eam ( #fe lb4 pressure at a temp]ature ( #cab1 or #bej above t ( ! wat] f :i* x is g5]at$4 ,besides ^! #bej1 ea* p\nd ( /eam conta9s #hid units ( lat5t heat1 or #a1add units 9 all4 ,a v good cond5s+ eng9e w "w ) #b4b lb4 ( coal & #bb lb4 ( /eam p] horse p[] p] h\r4 ,n[4 #a lb4 ( good coal w1 by its combu/ion1 produce #ad1jjj heat-units2 & ! #b4b lb4 ( coal multipli$ by #ad1jjj repres5t #cj1hjj!ta4 ,( ^! we f9d 9 ! boil] #bb #a1add1 or #be1afh units1 or ab\t #ha p] c5t41 ( ! :ole heat ( combu/ion2 s t ! diff]5ce 7#e1fcb units1 or #ah p] c5t47 has be5 lo/ by imp]fect combu/ion1 radiation1 or convection4 ,! wat] requir$ = cond5s+ ?is quantity ( /eam is #eej lb42 &1 tak+ ! temp]ature 9 ! hot well z #ajb1 #eej lb4 h be5 rais$ #dj f #fb4 ,?us we acc\nt = #eej #dj #bb1jjj1 or 7say7 #ga p] c5t4 /ill rema9+ z heat4 ,if we add ?is #ga p] c5t4 to #ah p] c5t4 we h #ij p] c5t41 & !re rema9 only #aj p] c5t4 ( ! heat t c possibly h be5 conv]t$ into p[]4 ,b "s ( ?is has be5 lo/ by radiation f /eam-pipes1 cyl9d]1 etc4 ,all[+ b #a p] c5t4 = ?is1 we h only #i p] c5t4 z ! effici5cy ( a really good cond5s+ eng9e4 ,?is e/imate agrees v closely ) ! actual result2 = ! #b4b lb4 ( coal w\ld develop #cj1hjj!ta2 & ?is1 multipli$ by ,j\le's equival5t1 am\nts to ne>ly #bd millions ( foot-p\nds4 ,z #a horse p[] is a little less ?an #b million foot-p\nds p] h\r1 only "o-twelf?1 or a little m ?an #h p] c5t4 ( ! total heat is conv]t$2 s t :e!r we look at ! total quantity ( heat :i* we %[ unconv]t$1 or ! total heat conv]t$1 we f9d t ea* supplem5ts & corroborates ! o!r4 ,if we take ! effici5cy ( ! eng9e alone1 )\t consid]+ ! loss caus$ by ! boil]1 we f9d t ! #be1afh!ta :i* ent]$ ! boil] %\ld h giv5 #ai1dbi1fif foot-p\nds2 s t ! #b millions giv5 by ! eng9e repres5t ab\t #aj p] c5t4 ( ! heat :i* has left ! boil]4 ,! =ego+ figures ref] to l>ge /ation>y or m>9e eng9es1 ) fir/-rate boil]s4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we come to high-pressure eng9es ( ! be/ type1 ! consumption ( coal is twice z mu*2 & = ^? ( any ord9>y type x is usual to calculate #a cubic foot1 or #fb lb41 ( wat] evaporat$ p] horse p[]4 ,?is w\ld r$uce ! effici5cy to ab\t #f p] c5t4 = ! be/1 & #c p] c5t4 = ! ord9>y non-cond5s+ eng9es2 & if to ?is we add ! ineffici5cy ( "s boil]s1 x is c]ta9 t _m small eng9es d n conv]t into p[] m ?an #b p] c5t4 ( ! pot5tial en]gy conta9$ 9 ! coal4 ,at "o "t ! /eam-eng9e 0 ?reat5$ ) s]i\s rivalry by ! hot-air eng9e4 ,ab\t ! ye> #ahaf ! ,rev4 ,mr4 ,/irl+1 a ,scot* cl]gyman1 inv5t$ "o :i* a memb] ( ?is ,in/itute 7,mr4 ,george ,&]son7 rememb]s to h se5 /ill at "w at ,dundee4 ,! pr9ciple ( x 0 t a quantity ( air "u pressure 0 mov$ by a mass1 call$ a displac]1 f ! cold to ! hot end ( a l>ge vessel :i* 0 heat$ by a fire b5ea? & cool$ by a curr5t ( wat] above4 ,! same air 0 alt]nately heat$ & cool$1 exp&$ & contract$2 & by ! diff]5ce ( pressure mov$ ! pi/on 9 a work+ cyl9d]4 ,9 ?is arrangem5t ! furnace 0 ineffici5t4 ,z only a small portion ( heat rea*$ ! compress$ air1 ! loss by radiation 0 v great1 & ! we> & te> exce$+ly heavy4 ,?is sy/em1 ) "s modifications1 0 reviv$ by ,rank9e1 ,ericsson1 ,laub]eau1 ,ryd]1 ,buckett1 & ,bailey4 ,siem5s employ$ a simil> sy/em1 only sub/itut+ /eam = air4 ,ano!r sy/em1 orig9ally propos$ by ,sir ,george ,cayley1 consi/$ 9 compress+ by a pump cold air :i* 0 subsequ5tly pass$ p>tly ?r\gh a furnace1 &1 exp&+1 mov$ a l>g] pi/on at ! same pressure2 & ! diff]5ce ( ! areas ( ! pi/ons multipli$ by ! pressure common to bo? repres5t$ ! indicat$ p[]4 ,?is pr9ciple 0 subsequ5tly develop$ by a v able me*anic1 ,mr4 ,w5ham2 b 8 eng9e nev] came mu* into favor4 ,! only hot-air eng9es at pres5t 9 use are ,ryd]'s1 ,buckett's1 & ,bailey's1 employ$ to a limit$ ext5t = small p[]s4 ,i h n said any?+ ( ! !rmal pr9ciples involv$ 9 ! con/ruction ( ^! eng9es1 z !y are precisely ! same z ^? affect+ ! subject ( ! pres5t pap]4 ,be=e expla9+ ! pr9ciple ^u :i* ! gas-eng9e & e o!r hot-air eng9e dep5ds1 ,i %all rem9d y ( a few data ) :i* mo/ ( y are already famili>4 ,! volume ( e gas increases ) ! temp]ature2 & ?is increase 0 ! basis ( ! air !rmomet]--! fir/ ev] us$4 ,x is to be regrett$ t x 0 n ! f\ndation ( all o!rs2 = x is bas$ on a physical pr9ciple univ]sally applicable4 ,al?\gh ! volume increases ) ! temp]ature1 x does n increase 9 proportion to ! degrees ( any ord9>y scale1 b mu* m sl[ly4 ,n[1 if to ea* ( ! t]ms ( an ari?metical s]ies we add ! same numb]1 ! new s]ies s =m$ increases or decreases m sl[ly ?an ! orig9al2 & x 0 discov]$ t1 by add+ #dfa to ! degrees ( ,fahr5heit's scale1 ! new scale s =m$ repres5t$ exactly ! increm5t ( volume caus$ by increase ( temp]ature4 ,?is scale1 propos$ by ,sir ,w4 ,?omson 9 #ahdh1 is call$ ! scale ( absolute temp]ature4 ,its z]o1 call$ ! absolute z]o1 is #dfa bel[ ! z]o ( ,fahr5heit1 or #dic bel[ ! freez+ po9t ( wat]2 & ! degree ( heat measur$ by x is t]m$ ! absolute temp]ature4 ,x is (t5 conv5i5t to ref] to #ci ,fahr4 7:i* happ5s to be ! po9t at :i* wat] atta9s its maximum d5sity71 z ?is is ! same z #ejj absolute2 =1 c\nt+ f ?is datum level1 a volume ( air exp&s exactly #a p] c5t4 = #e1 & w\ld be d\bl$ at #a1jjj absolute1 or #eci ,fahr4 ,:5ev] any body is compress$1 its specific heat is dim9i%$2 & ! surplus portion is1 z x 71 pu%$ out ( ! body--appe>+ z s5sible heat4 ,& :5ev] any body is exp&$1 its specific heat is increas$2 & ! additional quantity ( heat requisite is1 z x 71 suck$ 9 f surr\nd+ bodies--s produc+ cold4 ,?is action may be comp>$ to t ( a wet sponge f :i*1 :5 compress$1 a portion ( ! wat] is =c$ out1 & :5 ! sponge is all[$ to exp&1 ! wat] is drawn back4 ,?is effect is manife/$ by ! increase ( temp]ature 9 air-compress+ ma*9es1 & ! cold produc$ by all[+ or =c+ air to exp& 9 air-cool+ ma*9es4 ,at #ci ,fahr41 #a lb4 ( air measures #ab cubic feet4 ,let u suppose t #a lb4 ( air at #ci ,fahr4 #ejj absolute1 is conta9$ 9 a non-conduct+ cyl9d] ( #a foot area & #ab feet deep "u a c\nt]pois$ pi/on4 ,! pressure ( ! atmosph]e on ! pi/on #add squ>e in*es #ad4g lb41 or #b1aaf lb4 ,if ! air be n[ heat$ up to #eci ,fahr4 #a1jjj absolute1 & at ! same "t ! pi/on is n all[$ to move1 ! pressure is d\bl$2 & :5 ! pi/on is releas$1 x w\ld rise #ab feet1 provid$ t ! temp]ature rema9$ con/ant1 & ! indicator w\ld describe a hyp]bolic curve 7call$ an iso!rmal7 because ! temp]ature w\ld h rema9$ equal ?r\gh\t4 ,b1 9 fact1 ! temp]ature is l[]$1 because expansion has tak5 place1 & ! indicator curve :i* w\ld !n be describ$ is call$ an adiabatic curve1 :i* is m incl9$ to ! horizontal l9e :5 ! volumes are repres5t$ by horizontal & ! pressures by v]tical co-ord9ates4 ,9 ?is case x is suppos$ t !re is no conduction or transmission 7diabasis7 ( heat ?r\gh ! sides ( ! conta9+ vessel4 ,if1 h[ev]1 an additional quantity ( heat be communicat$ to ! air1 s z to ma9ta9 ! temp]ature at #a1jjj absolute1 ! pi/on w rise until x is #ab feet above its orig9al position1 & ! indicator w describe an iso!rmal curve4 ,n[ m>k ! diff]5ce4 ,:5 ! pi/on 0 fix$1 only a heat+ effect result$2 b :5 ! pi/on mov$ up #ab feet1 n only a heat+ b a me*anical1 9 fact1 a !rmodynamic1 effect 0 produc$1 = ! weight ( ! atmosph]e 7#b1aaf lb47 0 lift$ #ab feet #bf1dej foot-p\nds4 ,! specific heat ( air at con/ant pressure has be5 prov$ by ! exp]im5ts ( ,regnault to be #j4bcgh1 or some?+ less ?an "o-f\r? ( t ( wat]--a result arriv$ at by ,rank9e f totally diff]5t data4 ,9 ! case we h tak51 !re h be5 exp5d$ #ejj #j4bcgh1 or 7say7 #aah4i!ta to produce #bf1dej f4p4 ,ea* unit has !re=e produc$ 7#bf1dej _/ #aah4j7 #bbb4e f4p41 in/ead ( #ggb f4p41 :i* w\ld h be5 r5d]$ if e unit _h be5 conv]t$ into p[]4 ,we !re=e conclude t 7#bbb4e _/ #ggb7 #bi p] c5t4 ( ! total heat has be5 conv]t$4 ,! residue1 or #ga p] c5t41 rema9s un*ang$ z heat1 & may be p>tly sav$ by a reg5]ator1 or appli$ to o!r purposes = :i* a mod]ate heat is requir$4 ,! quantity ( heat necess>y to raise ! heat ( air at a con/ant volume is only #ga p] c5t4 ( t requir$ to raise to ! same temp]ature ! same weight ( air "u con/ant pressure4 ,?is is exactly ! result :i* ,laplace arriv$ at f obs]vations on ! velocity ( s\nd1 & may be /at$ ?us-- ,specific ,foot- ,p] heat4 p\nds4 c5t4 ,kp #a lb4 ( air at con/ant pressure #j4bcgh #ggb #ahc4e #ajj ,kv #a lb4 ( air at con/ant volume #j4afhh #ggb #acj4c #ga ------ --- ----- --- ,diff]5ce1 be+ heat conv]t$ into p[] #j4jfij #ggb #ec4b #bi ,or1 9 a hot-air eng9e )\t reg5]ation1 ! maximum effect ( #a lb4 ( air heat$ #a ,fahr4 w\ld be #ec4b f4p4 ,! quantity ( heat ,ky necess>y to heat air "u con/ant volume is to ,kv1 or t necess>y to heat x "u con/ant pressure1 z #ga3ajj1 or z #a3a4djh1 or v ne>ly z #a3,,sqrt7#b7--;a result :i* 0 arriv$ at by ,masson f !oretical consid]ations4 ,! #ga p] c5t4 escap+ z heat may be utiliz$ 9 place ( o!r fuel2 & ) ! fir/ hot-air eng9e ,i ev] saw1 x 0 employ$ = dry+ blocks ( wood4 ,9 ! same way1 ! unconv]t$ heat ( ! exhau/ /eam f a high-pressure eng9e1 or ! heat$ gases & wat] pass+ away f a gas-eng9e1 may be employ$4 ,illu/ration ,we are n[ 9 a position to judge :at is ! practical effici5cy ( ! gas-eng9e4 ,"s ye>s s9ce1 9 a lett] :i* ,i address$ to ,eng9e]+1 & :i* also appe>$ 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ,gas ,light+1#b ,i %[$ 7,i believe = ! fir/ "t7 t1 9 ! ,otto-,crossley eng9e1 #ah p] c5t4 ( ! total heat 0 conv]t$ into p[]1 z aga9/ ! #h p] c5t4 giv5 by a v good /eam-eng9e4 ,ab\t ! end ( #ahhc a v elaborate essay1 by ,m4 ,witz1 appe>$ 9 ! ,annales de ,*imie et de ,physique1 report+ exp]im5ts on a simil> eng9e1 :i* gave an effici5cy some:at l[]4 ,e>ly 9 #ahhd !re appe>$ 9 ,van ,no/r&'s ,eng9e]+ ,magaz9e a mo/ valuable pap]1 by ,messrs4 ,brooks & ,/ew>d1 ) a preface by ,pr(essor ,?ur/on1#c 9 :i* ! effici5cy 0 e/imat$ at #ag to #ah p] c5t4 ( ! total heat ( combu/ion4 ,bo? ^! pap]s %[ :at ,i _h no opportunity ( asc]ta9+1 t is1 :at becomes ( ! #hb p] c5t4 ( heat :i* is n utiliz$--in=mation ( ! greate/ importance1 z x indicates 9 :at direction improvem5t may be s\ght =1 & h[ loss may be avoid$4 ,b1 %ort z is ! "t t has elaps$ s9ce ! appe>ance ( ^! pap]s1 y w f9d t progress has be5 made1 & t a /ill high] effici5cy is n[ claim$4 ,footnote #b3 ,see ,j\rnal1 vol4 xxxv1 pp4 #ia1 #acc4 ,footnote #c3 ,ibid41 vol4 xliii41 pp4 #gjc1 #gdd4 ,:5 ,i fir/ wrote on ?is subject1 ,i reli$ ^u "s data :i* l$ me to suppose t ! heat+ p[] ( ord9>y coal gas 0 high] ?an x really is4 ,at our la/ meet+1 ,mr4 ,h>tley prov$1 by exp]im5ts ) 8 calorimet]1 t gas ( #af or #ag c&les gave only ab\t #fcj units ( heat p] cubic foot4 ,n[1 if all ?is heat c\ld be conv]t$ into p[]1 x w\ld yield #fcj #ggb1 or #dhf1cfj f4p42 & x w\ld require only #a1ihj1jjj _/ #dhf1cfj #d4jg cubic feet to produce #a indicat$ horse p[]4 ,"s rec5t te/s h %[n t1 ) gas ( simil> heat+ p[]1 #ah cubic feet h giv5 #a indicat$ horse p[]1 & !re=e #d4jg _/ #ah #bb4f ( ! :ole heat has be5 conv]t$--a truly wond]ful proportion :5 comp>$ ) /eam-eng9es ( a simil> p[]1 %[+ only an effici5cy ( #b to #d p] c5t4 ,! fir/ gas-eng9e :i* came into practical use 0 ,l5oir's1 inv5t$ ab\t #ahff1 9 :i* ! mixture ( gas & air drawn 9 = "p ( ! /roke at atmosph]ic pressure 0 inflam$ by ! sp>k f an induction coil4 ,?is requir$ a c\ple ( cells ( a /rong ,buns5 batt]y1 0 apt to miss fire1 & us$ ab\t #ij cubic feet ( gas p] horse p[]4 ,?is 0 succe$$ by ,hugon's eng9e1 9 :i* ! ignition 0 caus$ by a small gas flame1 & ! consumption 0 r$uc$ to #hj cubic feet4 ,9 #ahfd ,otto's atmosph]ic eng9e 0 inv5t$1 9 :i* a heavily-load$ pi/on 0 =c$ upw>d by an explosion ( gas & air drawn 9 at atmosph]ic pressure4 ,9 its upw>d /roke ! pi/on 0 free to move2 b 9 its d[nw>d /roke x 0 connect$ ) a rat*et1 & ! p>tial vacuum =m$ aft] ! explosion b5ea? ! pi/on1 toge!r ) its own weight 9 fall+1 op]at$ ?r\gh a rack1 & caus$ rotation ( ! fly:eel4 ,?is eng9e 7:i*1 9 an improv$ =m1 uses only ab\t #bj cubic feet ( gas7 is /ill l>gely employ$1 "s #a1fjj hav+ be5 con/ruct$4 ,! great objection to x 0 ! noise x produc$1 & ! we> & te> ( ! rat*et & rack arrangem5ts4 ,9 #ahgf ! ,otto-,crossley sil5t eng9e 0 introduc$4 ,z y are aw>e1 x is a s+le-act+ eng9e1 9 :i* ! gas & air are drawn 9 by ! fir/ outw>d1 & compress$ by ! fir/ inw>d /roke4 ,! compress$ mixture is !n ignit$2 &1 be+ exp&$ by heat1 drives ! pi/on outw>d by ! second outw>d /roke4 ,ne> ! end ( ?is /roke ! exhau/-valve is op5$1 ! products ( combu/ion p>tly escape1 & are p>tly driv5 out by ! second inw>d /roke4 ,i say p>tly1 = a consid]able cle>ance space1 equal to #ch p] c5t4 ( ! :ole cyl9d] volume1 rema9s unexhau/$ at ! inn] end ( ! cyl9d]4 ,:5 work+ to full p[]1 only "o /roke out ( e f\r is effective2 b ?is eng9e works ) only #ah to #bb cubic feet ( gas p] horse p[]4 ,up to ! pres5t "t ,i am in=m$ t ab\t #ah1jjj ( ^! eng9es h be5 manufactur$4 ,sev]al o!r compression eng9es h be5 introduc$1 ( :i* ! be/ kn[n is ,mr4 ,dugald ,cl]k's1 us+ ab\t #bj feet ( ,glasg[ cannel gas4 ,x gives "o effective /roke = e revolution2 ! mixture be+ compress$ 9 a sep>ate air-pump4 ,b ?is arrangem5t leads to additional friction2 & ! p[] measur$ by ! brake is a small] p]c5tage ( ! indicat$ horse p[] ?an 9 ! ,otto-,crossley eng9e4 ,a numb] ( gas eng9es--su* z ,biss*op's 7mu* us$ = v small p[]s71 ,robson's 7at pres5t und]go+ trans=mation 9 ! able h&s ( ,messrs4 ,tangye71 ,kort+'s1 & o!rs--are 9 use2 b1 s f> z ,i c le>n1 all require a l>g] quantity ( gas ?an ^? previ\sly ref]r$ to4 ,illu/ration3 ,,otto ,,atmosph]ic ,,gas ,,eng9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,cl]ck',s ,,gas ,,eng9e1 #f ,,horse ,,p[]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,otto-,,crossley ,,gas ,,eng9e1 #af ,h4,p4 ,consumption #ag4f cubic feet ( #af-;c&le gas p] !oretical horse p[] p] h\r4 ,av]age pressure1 #ij4d con/ant1 4#efh !oretical horse p[] p] p\nd #ej4h !oretical horse p[]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,atk9son',s ,,diff]5tial ,,gas ,,eng9e1 #h ,h4,p4 ,i h all along spok5 ( effici5cy z a p]c5tage ( ! total quantity ( heat evolv$ by ! fuel2 & ?is is1 9 ! eyes ( a manufactur]1 ! ess5tial "q4 ,o!r ?+s be+ equal1 t eng9e is ! mo/ economical :i* requires ! smalle/ quantity ( coal or ( gas4 ,b m5 ( sci5ce (t5 employ ! t]m effici5cy 9 ano!r s5se1 :i* ,i w expla94 ,if ,i w9d a clock1 ,i h sp5t a c]ta9 am\nt ( en]gy lift+ ! weight4 ,?is is call$ en]gy ( position2 & x is return$ by ! fall ( ! weight to its orig9al level4 ,9 ! same way if ,i heat air or wat]1 ,i communicate to x en]gy ( heat1 :i* rema9s pot5tial z long z ! temp]ature does n fall1 b :i* c be sp5t aga9 by a decrease ( temp]ature4 ,9 e heat-eng9e1 !re=e1 !re mu/ be a fall f a high] to a l[] temp]ature2 o!rwise no "w w\ld be done4 ,if ! wat] 9 ! cond5s] ( a /eam-eng9e 7 z hot z t 9 ! boil]1 !re w\ld be equal pressure on bo? sides ( ! pi/on1 & consequ5tly ! eng9e w\ld rema9 at re/4 ,n[1 ! great] ! fall1 ! great] ! p[] develop$2 = a small] proportion ( ! heat rema9s z heat4 ,if we call ! high] temp]ature ,t & ! l[] ,t' on ! absolute scale1 ,t - ,t' is ! diff]5ce2 & ! ratio ( ?is to ! high] temp]ature is call$ ! effici5cy4 ,?is is ! f\ndation ( ! =mula we meet s (t53 ,e 7,t - ,t'7_/,t4 ,a p]fect heat-eng9e w\ld1 !re=e1 be "o 9 :i* ! temp]ature ( ! absolute z]o w\ld be atta9$1 = 7,t - ,o7_/,t #a4 ,?is l[ temp]ature1 h[ev]1 has nev] be5 rea*$1 & 9 all practical cases we are conf9$ )9 mu* n>r[] limits4 ,tak+ ! case ( ! cond5s+ eng9e1 ! limits 7 #cab to #ajb1 or #ggc & #efc absolute1 respectively4 ,! equation !n becomes 7#ggc - #efc7_/ggc #baj_/ggc or 7say7 #bg p] c5t4 ,) non-cond5s+ eng9es1 ! temp]atures may be tak5 z #cab & #bab1 or #ggc & #fgc absolute respectively4 ,! equation !n becomes 7#ggc - #fgc7_/ggc #ajj_/ggc1 or ne>ly #ac p] c5t4 ,! practical effici5cies are n ne>ly ?is1 b !y are 9 ab\t ! same ratio--#bg_/ac4 ,if1 !n1 we multiply ! !oretical effici5cies by #j4cg1 we get ! practical effici5cies1 say #aj p] c5t4 & #e p] c5t42 & x is 9 ! =m] s5se t ,m4 ,witz calculat$ ! effici5cy ( ! /eam-eng9e at #ce p] c5t4--a /atem5t :i*1 ,i own1 puzzl$ me a little :5 ,i fir/ met x4 ,^! effici5cies d n take any acc\nt ( loss ( heat be=e ! boil]4 ,9 ! case ( ! gas-eng9e1 ! "q is mu* m complicat$ on acc\nt ( ! l>ge cle>ance space & ! e>ly op5+ ( ! exhau/4 ,! highe/ temp]ature has be5 calculat$ by ! ,am]ican obs]v]s at #c1ddc absolute1 & ! obs]v$ temp]ature ( ! exhau/ gases 0 #a1bbi4 ,! fraction !n becomes 7#cddc - #abbi7_/cddc #fd p] c5t4 ,if we multiply ?is by #j4cg1 z we did 9 ! case ( ! /eam-eng9e1 we get #bc4g p] c5t41 or approximately ! same z t arriv$ at by direct exp]i5ce4 ,inde$1 if ! consumption is1 z sometimes /at$1 less ?an #ah feet1 ! two p]c5tages w\ld be exactly ! same4 ,i d n put ?is =w>d z sci5tifically true2 b ! co9cid5ce is at lea/ /rik+4 ,i h spok5 ( ! illum9at+ p[] ( ! gas z ( importance2 = ! ri*] gases h also m calorific p[]1 & an eng9e w\ld1 ( c\rse1 require a small] quantity ( !m4 ,! heat-giv+ p[] does n1 h[ev]1 v>y z ! illum9at+ p[]1 b at a mu* sl[] rate2 &1 adopt+ ! same contrivance z t on :i* ! absolute scale ( temp]ature is =m$1 ,i w\ld sugge/ a =mula ( ! foll[+ type3 ,h ,c 7,i ,k71 9 :i* ,h repres5ts ! numb] ( heat-units giv5 out by ! combu/ion ( #a cubic foot ( gas1 ,i is ! illum9at+ p[] 9 c&les1 & ,c & ,k two con/ants to be det]m9$ by exp]im5t4 ,if we take ! value = motive p[] ( ! diff]5t qualities ( gas z giv5 9 ,mr4 ,*>les ,hunt's int]e/+ pap] 9 our ,transactions = #ahhb1 ,c might )\t any great error be tak5 z #bb & ,k z #g4e4 ,) ,p9ts*'s oil gas1 h[ev]1 z comp>$ ) coal gas1 ?is =mula does n hold2 & ,c %\ld be tak5 mu* l[]1 & ,k mu* high] ?an ! figures giv5 above4 ,t is to say1 ! heat+ p[] increases 9 a sl[] progression4 ,! data available1 h[ev]1 are few2 b ,i tru/ t ,mr4 ,h>tley w on ?is1 z he has done on s _m o!r sci5tific subjects1 come to our aid4 ,i w n[ ref] to ! valuable exp]im5ts ( ,messrs4 ,brooks & ,/ew>d1 :i* 7 mo/ c>efully made4 ,ev]y?+ 0 measur$--! gas by a #fj light1 & ! air by a #cjj light met]2 ! indicat$ horse p[]1 by a /eam-eng9e indicator2 ! useful "w1 by a ,prony brake2 ! temp]ature ( ! wat]1 by a /&>d !rmomet]2 & t ( ! escap+ gases1 by a pyromet]4 ,! gas itself 0 analyz$2 & its heat+ p[] calculat$1 f its composition1 z #fag4e!ta4 ,its specific gravity 0 4#dfd2 & ! volume ( air 0 ab\t sev5 times t ( ! gas us$ 7or "o-eigh? ( ! mixture71 & 0 only #aa p] c5t4 by weight m ?an 0 ne$$ = p]fect combu/ion4 ,! results arriv$ at 7 z foll[s3 ,p] c5t4 ,conv]t$ into indicat$ horse p[]1 includ+ friction1 etc4 #ag4j ,escap$ ) ! exhau/ gas4 #ae4e ,escap$ 9 radiation4 #ae4e ,communicat$ to wat] 9 ! jacket4 #eb4j ,x w ?us be se5 t m ?an half ( ! heat is communicat$ to ! wat] 9 ! jacket4 ,n[1 ?is is ! opposite ( ! /eam-eng9e1 :]e ! jacket is us$ to transmit heat to ! cyl9d]1 & n f x4 ,?is cool+ is r5d]$ necess>y1 because )\t x ! oil w\ld be c>boniz$1 & lubrication ( ! cyl9d] r5d]$ impossible4 ,inde$1 a simil> difficulty has occurr$ ) all hot-air eng9es1 & is1 ,i ?9k1 ! reason !y h n be5 m g5]ally adopt$4 ,i felt ?is s /rongly t1 = "s "t aft] ! introduction ( ! gas-eng9e1 ,i 0 v cauti\s 9 recomm5d+ ^? :o consult$ me to adopt x4 ,i 0 afraid t ! we> & te> w\ld be excessive4 ,i h1 h[ev]1 = "s "t pa/ be5 ?or\ghly satisfi$ t ?is fe> 0 ne$less2 z ,i am satisfi$ t a well-made gas-eng9e is z durable z a /eam-eng9e1 & ! p>ts subject to we> c be replac$ at mod]ate co/4 ,we h no boil]1 no fe$ pump1 no /uff+-boxes to att5d to--no wat]-gauges1 pressure-gauges1 safety-valve1 or ?rottle-valve to be look$ aft]2 ! gov]nor is ( a v simple con/ruction2 & ! slide-valves may be remov$ & replac$ 9 a few m9utes4 ,an occasional clean+ out ( ! cyl9d] at consid]able int]vals is all ! sup]vision t ! eng9e requires4 ,! v l>ge p]c5tage ( heat absorb$ by ! wat]-jacket %\ld po9t out to ! +5uity ( inv5tors ! fir/ problem to be attack$1 viz41 h[ to save ?is heat )\t wa/+ ! lubricant or mak+ x inop]ative2 & 9 ! solution ( ?is problem1 ,i look = ! mo/ important improvem5t to be expect$ 9 ! eng9e4 ,! mo/ obvi\s contrivance w\ld be "s sort ( int]cept+ %ield1 :i* w\ld save ! walls ( ! cyl9d] & ! r+s ( ! pi/on f ! heat ( ! ignit$ gases4 ,i h j le>n$ t some?+ ( ! k9d is "u trial4 ,ano!r solution may possibly be f\nd 9 ! employm5t ( a fluid pi/on2 b "h we are plac$ 9 a dilemma betwe5 ! liquids t are decompos$ & ! metals t are oxidiz$ at high temp]atures4 ,next1 ! loss by radiation--#ae p] c5t4--seems l>ge2 b ?is is to be attribut$ to ! fact t ! inside surface ( ! cyl9d] is at ea* inw>d /roke expos$ to ! atmosph]e--an influ5ce :i* contributes to ! cool+ necess>y = lubrication4 ,! rema9+ #ae p] c5t41 :i* is c>ri$ away by ! exhau/1 is small comp>$ ) ! proportion pass+ away ) ! exhau/ /eam ( a high-pressure or ! wat] ( a cond5s+ eng9e4 ,z ! wat] 9 ! jacket c be safely rais$ to #bab ,fahr41 ! :ole ( ! jacket heat c be utiliz$ :]e hot wat] is requir$ = o!r purposes2 & ?is1 ) ! exhau/ gases1 has be5 us$ = dry+ & heat+ purposes4 ,) su* advantages1 x may be ask$3 ,:y does n ! gas-eng9e ev]y:]e sup]s$e ! /eam-eng9e8 ,my answ] is a simple "o3 ,! gas we manufacture is a de> fuel comp>$ ) coal4 ,ord9>y coal gas measures #cj cubic feet to ! p\nd2 & #a1jjj cubic feet1 !re=e1 weigh #cc lb4 ,tak+ ! price at #bs4 #i;d4 p] #a1jjj cubic feet1 x co/s #a;d4 p] lb4 ,! #cj cubic feet at #fcj!ta give #ai1jjj!ta all available heat4 ,al?\gh good coal may yield #ad1jjj units by its combu/ion1 only ab\t #aa1jjj ( ^! rea* ! boil]2 s t ! ratio ( ! useful heat is #aa_/ai4 ,! !rmal effici5cy ( ! be/ non-cond5s+ eng9e to t ( ! gas-eng9e is 9 ! ratio #d_/bb4 ,multiply+ toge!r ^! two ratios1 we get #aa #d #dd -- x ------- ---- #ai #bba_/b #d4bh ,t is1 speak+ r\ghly1 #a lb4 ( gas gives ab\t t5 times z mu* p[] z #a lb4 ( coal does 9 a good non-cond5s+ eng9e4 ,b at #ahs4 #h;d4 a ton we get #aj lb4 ( coal = #a;d42 s t ) ^! figures ! *eapness ( ! coal w\ld j comp5sate = ! effici5cy ( ! gas4 ,z to ! wa/e heat pass+ away f ! eng9e be+ utiliz$1 "h ! gas-eng9e has no advantage2 &1 s f> z ?is is conc]n$1 ! gas is ab\t eight times de>] ?an coal4 ,! prices ( gas & coal v>y s mu* 9 diff]5t places t x is h>d to det]m9e 9 :at cases gas or coal w be ! de>] fuel1 consid]+ ?is po9t alone4 ,b !re are o!r k9ds ( non-illum9at+ gases--su* z ,wilson's1 ,/rong's1 & ,d[son's--:i* are n[ com+ into use2 & at ,messrs4 ,crossley's works y w h an opportunity ( see+ a l>ge eng9e]+ factory employ+ sev]al hundr$ me*anics1 & )\t a *imney1 9 :i* e %aft & tool is driv5 by gas-eng9es suppli$ by ,d[son's gas1 & 9 :i* ! consumption ( coal is only #a4b lb4 p] indicat$ horse p[]4 ,! greate/ economy ev] claim$ = ! /eam-eng9e 0 a consumption ( #a4f lb42 & ?is ) /eam ( v high pressure1 exp&$ 9 ?ree cyl9d]s successively4 ,?us 9 a qu>t] ( a c5tury ! gas-eng9e has beat5 9 ! race ! /eam-eng9e2 al?\gh f ,watt's fir/ idea ( improvem5t1 ne>ly a c5tury & a qu>t] h elaps$4 ,z reg>ds ! /eam-eng9e1 x is ! op9ion ( compet5t au?orities t ! limits ( temp]ature betwe5 :i* x works are s re/rict$1 & s mu* ( ! heat is exp5d$ 9 produc+ a *ange ( /ate f liquid to vapor1 t little fur!r improvem5t c be made4 ,) respect to gas-eng9es1 ! limits ( temp]ature are mu* fur!r ap>t4 ,a *ange ( /ate is n requir$1 & s v great improvem5t may /ill be look$ =4 ,x is n impossible ev5 t "s ( ! y\ng] memb]s ( our body may live to see t p]iod =etold by "o ( ! greate/ ( our civil eng9e]s--t happy "t :5 boil] explosions w only be matt]s ( hi/ory2 t p]iod1 n a mill5nium remov$ by a ?\s& ye>s1 b an era def]r$ p]haps by only half a doz5 decades1 :5 ! use ( ! gas-eng9e w be univ]sal1 & a /eam-eng9e c be f\nd only 9 a cab9et ( antiquities4 ,discussion4 ,! ,presid5t said ?is 0 a v delightful pap]2 & no?+ c\ld be f9] ?an ,mr4 ,lane's description ( ! conv]sion ( heat into p[]1 & ! gradual gr[? ( !ory into practical "w4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,f\lis 7,glasg[7 agre$ t x 0 admirable2 b x requir$ to be read to be ?or\ghly appreciat$4 ,:5 memb]s 7 able to read x1 !y w\ld f9d ,mr4 ,lane _h giv5 a v cle> description ( ! elem5t>y pr9ciples ( !rmo-dynamics 9 _! relation to ! gas-eng9e & ! /eam-eng9e4 ,!re 0 v little 9 ! pap] to raise discussion2 b ,mr4 ,lane _h made exce$+ly cle> h[ ! pres5t loss 9 a gas-eng9e 0 occasion$1 & _h also %[n h[1 9 ! future developm5t ( ! eng9e1 ! loss might be sav$1 & ! eng9e r5d]$ m effici5t4 ,mr4 ,h4,p4 ,holt 7( ,messrs4 ,crossley ,bros41 ,limit$7 said he c\ld indorse ev]y?+ ,mr4 ,lane _h said4 ,he _h f\nd ! pap] mo/ int]e/+ & in/ructive ev5 to himself1 ?\gh he _h "s little practical exp]i5ce ( gas-eng9es1 & 0 suppos$ to "k a little ab\t !m4 ,he did n pret5d to be able to tea* o!r p2 b if he c\ld say any?+ z to indicator c>ds1 or answ] any que/ions1 he %\ld be happy to d s4 7,he !n describ$ ! indicator diagram ( ! atmosph]ic gas-eng9e47 ,9 ?is eng9e ! proportion ( ! *>g+ /roke to ! :ole sweep ( ! pi/on 0 ab\t #aj p] c5t42 & z ! *>ge drawn 9 consi/$ ( ab\t #aj p] c5t4 ( gas1 ab\t #a-ajj ( ! total sweep ( ! pi/on 0 compos$ ( ! gas4 ,mr4 ,f\lis ask$ :at proportion ! p[] indicat$ on ! diagram bore to ! p[] indicat$ on ! brake 9 ! atmosph]ic eng9e4 ,mr4 ,holt said un=tunately he _h n any figures ) him :i* w\ld give ?is in=mation2 & x 0 s long s9ce he _h any?+ practically to d ) ?is =m ( eng9e1 t he %\ld n l to speak f memory4 ,he might add t ! l>ge/ size ( gas-eng9e made 7( ab\t #ajj horse p[] indicat$7 0 at "w at ,messrs4 ,edw9 ,butt]wor? & ,co4's1 ( ,man*e/]4 ,x 0 n[ driv5 by ord9>y coal gas2 b ,d[son plant 0 to be put up v %ortly 9 ord] to r$uce ! co/ ( work+1 :i*1 ?\gh n excessive1 w\ld be /ill m economical ) ! ,d[son gas--probably only ab\t #cjs4 p] week4 ,! pres5t co/ 0 ab\t #d p] week1 ?\gh x 0 n work+ always at full p[]4 ,mr4 ,t4 ,holgate 7,batley7 said he ?\ght x 0 g5]ally und]/ood1 by ^? :o _h /udi$ ! subject1 t ! adoption ( compression ( ! gase\s mixture be=e ignition _h1 s f>1 m ?an any?+ else1 contribut$ to ! improv$ work+ ( gas-eng9es4 ,?is fact _h n be5 suffici5tly br\ght out 9 ! pap]1 al?\gh ,mr4 ,lane _h cle>ly indicat$ "s ( ! directions 9 :i* fur!r improvem5ts 7 likely to obta94 ,gas eng9e]s 7 l>gely indebt$ to ,mr4 ,dugald ,cl]k = ! /atem5t he _h made ( ! !ory ( ! gas-eng9e4#d ,mr4 ,lane _h giv5 "s figures1 arriv$ at by ,messrs4 ,brooks & ,/ew>d1 f exp]im5ts made 9 ,am]ica2 b1 prior to ^! ,mr4 ,cl]k _h giv5 o!rs :i* 7 9 ! ma9 9 accordance ) !m4 ,pr(essor ,k5n$y _h also made exp]im5ts1 ! results ( :i* agre$ ) !m4#e ,! ext5t ( ! loss by ! cool+ wat] 0 ?us well asc]ta9$2 & x 0 no d\bt by a r$uction ( ?is loss t fur!r improvem5t 9 ! work+ ( gas-eng9es w\ld ev5tually be obta9$4 ,footnote #d3 ,see ,j\rnal1 vol4 xxxix41 p4 #fdh4 ,footnote #e3 ,ibid41 vol4 xl41 p4 #iee4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,pat]son 7,w>r+ton7 express$ 8 appreciation ( ! pap]1 z "o ( exceptional int]e/ & value4 ,he said he did n rise ) a view to make any obs]vations !reon4 ,! analysis ( fir/ pr9ciples requir$ m matur$ consid]ation & ?\ght ?an c\ld be giv5 to x "h4 ,! op9ion1 h[ev]1 he _h =m$ ( ! pap] plac$ x beyond ! rea* ( criticism4 ,x 0 n[ _m ye>s s9ce 8 att5tion _h be5 drawn to ! "n ( ,d5ny ,lane2 & ev]y?+ t _h come f 8 facile p5 convey$ s\nd sci5tific conclusions4 ,! pap] to :i* !y _h j li/5$ 0 no exception4 ,x 0 inve/$ ) great int]e/1 & w\ld be reg>d$ z a valuable contribution to ! ,transactions ( ! ,in/itute4 ,mr4 ,lane1 9 reply1 ?ank$ ! memb]s = ! k9d expressions us$ ) respect to 8 pap]4 ,8 object 9 writ+ x 0 t any "o :o _h n paid any att5tion to ! subject be=e %\ld be able to und]/& ?or\ghly ! pr9ciples on :i* gas & hot-air eng9es op]at$2 & he believ$ any "o :o read x ) mod]ate c>e w\ld p]fectly und]/& all ! ess5tial conditions ( ! gas-eng9e4 ,he might m5tion t n long aft] ! !rmo-dynamic !ory 0 s f> develop$ z to det]m9e ! am\nt ( heat conv]t$ into p[]1 a v em95t ,fr5* ,eng9e]--,m4 ,hirn--conduct$ "s exp]im5ts on /eam-eng9es at a l>ge factory1 & ?\ght he c\ld acc\nt = ! :ole heat ( combu/ion 9 ! cond5s$ wat] & ! heat :i* pass$ away2 s mu* s t he actually d\bt$ altoge!r ! !ory ( !rmo-dynamics4 ,h[ev]1 be+ op5 to conviction1 he made fur!r exp]im5ts1 & discov]$ t he _h be5 9 error1 & ultimately became "o ( ! mo/ en]getic support]s ( ! !ory4 ,?is %[$ h[ necess>y x 0 to be c>eful be=e arriv+ at a conclusion on su* a subject4 ,he _h endeavor$1 z f> z ! nature ( ! case all[$1 to avoid any sci5tific ab/ractions1 because he knew t :5 practical m5 came to !ory--x's & y's1 diff]5tials1 integrals1 & o!r ma!matical =mul--!y 7 apt to be t]rifi$4 ,! ,presid5t said x 0 l com+ d[n to e day life to say t x 0 important t gas manag]s %\ld be famili> ) ! appliances us$ 9 ! consumption ( gas1 & %\ld be able1 :5 call$ ^u1 to give an intellig5t description ( _! me?od ( work+4 ,a /udy ( ,mr4 ,lane's pap] w\ld reveal _m matt]s ( int]e/ ) reg>d to ?is wond]ful motor1 :i* 0 com+ daily m & m into use1 n only to ! advantage ( gas manufactur]s1 b ( ^? :o employ$ !m4 99 99 99 99 99 ,m4 ,,meizel',s ,,reciprocat+ ,,exhau/]4 ,at ! rec5t ,congress ( ! ,societe ,te*nique de l',indu/rie du ,gaz en ,france1 ,m4 ,meizel1 ,*ief ,eng9e] ( ! ,/4 ,eti5ne ,gas ,works1 describ$ a new exhau/] devis$ by him on ! reciprocat+ pr9ciple1 & = :i* he claims c]ta9 advantages ov] ! appliances n[ 9 g5]al use4 ,exhau/]s con/ruct$ on ! above-nam$ pr9ciple h hi!rto1 ,m4 ,meizel says1 be5 co/ly to fit up1 ow+ to ! necessity = provid+ ma*9]y & special me*anism = ! transmission ( motion4 ,?is has prev5t$ ! employm5t ( cyl9d]s ( l>ge dim5sions2 &1 consequ5tly1 :5 ! quantity ( gas to be dealt ) has be5 consid]able1 ! numb] ( exhau/]s has _h to be increas$4 ,! result ( ?is has be5 inconv5i5ce1 :i* has l$ to a pref]5ce be+ %[n = o!r k9ds ( exhau/]s1 not)/&+ ! manife/ advantages :i*1 9 ,m4 ,meizel's op9ion1 ^? ( ! reciprocat+ type possess4 ,! improvem5t :i* he has effect$ 9 ^! appliances consi/s 9 ! application to !m ( cyl9d]s work+ automatically2 & ! g5]al features ( ! arrangem5t are %[n 9 ! accompany+ illu/rations4 ,illu/ration3 ,,improv$ ,,reciprocat+ ,,gas ,,exhau/]4 ,! pr9cipal advantages to be ga9$ by ! use ( ?is exhau/] are /at$ by ,m4 ,meizel to be ! foll[+3 ,consid]ably less motive =ce is necess>y ?an is ! case ) o!r exhau/]s1 :i* require /eam eng9es & all ! auxili>y me*anism = ! transmission ( p[]4 ,by its quiet & regul> action1 x prev5ts oscillation & un/ead9ess 9 ! fl[ ( gas 9 ! hydraulic ma91 z well z 9 ! pipes lead+ !refrom--a defect :i* has be5 f\nd to exi/ ) o!r exhau/]s4 ,! bells1 be+ ( l>ge area1 s]ve ! purpose ( a cond5s]2 & z1 ow+ to its d5sity1 ! t> falls to ! bottom ( ! l[] vessels1 :i* are fill$ ) wat]1 contact betwe5 ! gas & t> is avoid$4 ,al?\gh ! appliance is ( sub/antial con/ruction1 its action is s s5sitive t x readily adapts itself to ! requirem5ts ( production4 ,x may be plac$ 9 ! op5 air2 & !re=e its e/abli%m5t is att5d$ ) less outlay ?an is ! case ) o!r exhau/]s1 :i* h to be plac$ "u cov]1 & provid$ ) driv+ ma*9]y &1 ( c\rse1 a supply ( /eam4 ,! total sup]ficial area ( ! exhau/] above describ$1 includ+ ! gov]nor1 is #aej squ>e feet2 & its capacity p] #bd h\rs is #bcj1jjj cubic feet4 ,x works sil5tly1 ) an almo/ entire abs5ce ( friction2 & consequ5tly !re are few p>ts :i* require lubrication4 ,exhau/]s ( ?is type 7:i*1 ,m4 ,meizel says1 c\ld be made available = v5tilation purposes1 9 case ( necessity7 may be con/ruct$ ( all sizes1 f #ejj cubic feet p] h\r upw>d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,automatic ,,siphon ,,= ,,irrigation4 ,:51 at an elevat$ po9t 9 a mead[1 !re exi/s a spr+ or ve9 ( wat] t _c be utiliz$ at a di/ance1 ei!r because ! supply is n suffici5t1 or because ( ! p]meability ( ! soil1 x becomes v advantage\s to accumulate ! wat] 9 a res]voir1 :i* may be empti$ f "t to "t ?r\gh an ap]ture l>ge en\gh to all[ ! wat] to fl[ 9 abundance ov] all p>ts ( ! field4 ,illu/ration3 ,,giral',s ,,automatic ,,siphon4 ,! /or+ up ( ! wat] p]mits ( irrigat+ a mu* great] area ( l&1 & has ! advantage ( all[+ ! wat]+ to be effect$ int]mitt+ly1 ?is be+ bett] ?an if x 7 done cont9u\sly4 ,b ?is mode ( irrigat+ requires assidu\s att5tion4 ,x is necess>y1 9 fact1 :5 ! res]voir is full1 to g & raise ! plug1 wait till ! wat] has fl[$ out1 & !n put 9 ! plug aga9 z accurately z possible--a ?+ t x is n always easy to d4 ,! "w is a cont9u\s piece ( drudg]y1 & takes j z mu* ! long] to d 9 proportion z ! res]voir is m di/ant f "o's dwell+4 ,9 ord] to d away ) ?is inconv5i5ce1 ,mr4 ,giral1 ( ,langogne 7,loz]e71 has inv5t$ a sort ( movable siphon t primes itself automatically1 h[ev] small be ! spr+ t fe$s ! res]voir 9 :i* x is plac$4 ,! app>atus 7see figure7 consi/s ( an elb[$ pipe1 ,c ,a ,b ,d ,e1 ( galvaniz$ iron1 ^: extremity1 ,c1 communicates ) ! outlet1 ,r1 :]e x is fix$ by means ( a piece ( rubb] ( peculi> =m t all[s ! o!r extremity1 ,b ,d ,e1 to revolve ar\nd ! axis1 ,k1 :ile at ! same "t keep+ ! outlet pipe h]metically clos$4 ,?is rubb]1 ^: l[] extremity is b5t back l ! bell ( a trumpet1 =ms a wa%] aga9/ :i* !re is appli$ a galvaniz$ iron r+ t is fix$ to ! m\? ( ! outlet pipe by means ( six small screws4 ,?is r+ is provid$ ) two /uds :i* engage ) two flexible ?imbles1 ,k & ,l1 t are affix$ to ! siphon by f\r rivets4 ,^! /uds & ?imbles1 z well z ! screws1 are likewise galvaniz$4 ,betwe5 ! bran*es1 ,a ,b ,d ,e1 ( ! pipe !re is sold]$ a %eet ( galvaniz$ iron1 :i* =ms isolat$ly a receptacle or air-*amb]1 ,f1 t conta9s at its upp] "p a small ap]ture1 b1 t rema9s always op51 &1 at its l[] "p1 a copp] screw-plug1 d1 & a galvaniz$ hook1 ,h4 ,9 ! int]ior ( ?is *amb] !re is arrang$ a small lead5 siphon1 a b c1 ^: long] leg1 a1 passes ?r\gh ! bottom1 :]e x is sold]$1 & ^: %ort] "o1 c1 ends 9 close proximity to ! bottom4 ,f9ally1 a galvaniz$ iron *a91 ,g ,h1 fix$ at ,g to ! bottom ( ! res]voir1 & provid$ ) a weight1 ,p1 ( galvaniz$ iron1 is hook$ at ,h to ! siphon & all[s x to rise m or less1 accord+ z x is giv5 a great] or less l5g?4 ,f :at prec$es1 x w be se5 t ! outlet is entirely clos$1 s t1 9 ord] t ! wat] may escape1 x mu/ pass into ! pipe 9 ! direction1 ,e ,d ,b ,a ,c4 ,?is grant$1 let u see h[ ! app>atus works3 ,9 measure z ! wat] rises 9 ! res]voir1 ! siphon gradually loses weight1 & its extremity1 ,b ,d ,h1 is f9ally lift$ by ! ?ru/1 s t ! entire affair revolves ^u ! /uds1 ,k1 until ! *a9 becomes taut4 ,! app>atus !n ceases to rise2 b ! wat]1 ev] cont9u+ to rise1 f9ally rea*es ! apex1 b1 ( ! small] siphon1 &1 ?r\gh x1 ent]s ! air *amb] & fills x4 ,! equilibrium be+ ?us brok51 ! siphon desc5ds to ! bottom1 becomes prim$1 & empties ! res]voir4 ,:5 ! level ( ! wat]1 9 desc5d+1 is at ! height ( ! small siphon1 a b c1 ?is latt]1 :i* is also prim$1 empties ! *amb]1 ,f1 9 turn1 s t1 at ! mom5t ! l>ge siphon loses its prim+1 ! entire app>atus is 9 ! same /ate t x 0 at fir/4 ,9 %ort1 :5 ! wat] ent]s ! res]voir1 ! siphon1 movable ^u its base1 rises to ! height at :i* x is desir$ t ! fl[ %all take place4 ,be+ arre/$ at ?is po9t by ! *a91 x becomes prim$1 & s9ks1 & ! wat] escapes4 ,:5 ! wat] is exhau/$1 ! siphon rises anew 9 ord] to aga9 s9k2 & ?is goes on z long z ! p]iod ( irrigation la/s4 ,?is app>atus1 :i* is simple 9 its op]ation1 & n v co/ly1 is be+ employ$ ) success = irrigat+ sev]al mead[s 9 ! upp] bas9 ( ! ,alli]4--,le ,g5ie ,civil4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,assay ,,( ,,e>!nw>e ,,glaze4 ,lead oxide melt$ or incompletely vitrifi$ is /ill 9 common use 9 ! manufacture ( inf]ior e>!nw>e1 & sometimes leads to s]i\s results4 ,to detect lead 9 a glaze1 ,m4 ,h]bel9 moi/5s a slip ( :ite l95 or cotton1 free f />*1 ) nitric acid at #aj p] c5t4 & rubs x = t5 to fifte5 seconds on ! side ( ! ut5sil "u exam9ation1 & !n deposits a drop ( a solution ( potassium iodide1 at #e p] c5t4 on ! "p :i* has be5 9 contact4 ,a lead glaze simply fus$ gives a v highly color$ yell[ spot ( potassium iodide2 a lead glaze incompletely vitrifi$ gives spots ! m decid$1 ! less p]fect ! vitrification2 & a glaze ( good quality gives no s5sible color at all4--,m4 ,h]bel94 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,! ,,electrical ,,furnace ,,& ,,! ,,r$uction ,,( ,,! ,,oxides ,,( ,,boron1 ,,silicon1 ,,alum9um1 ,,& ,,o!r ,,metals ,,by ,,c>bon4#a ,footnote #a3 ,read at ! rec5t meet+ ( ! ,am]ican ,association1 ,ann ,arbor1 ,mi*4 ,by ,,eug5e ,h4 ,,c[les1 ,,alfr$ ,h4 ,,c[les1 ,,& ,,*>les ,f4 ,,mab]y4 ,! application ( electricity to metallurgical processes has hi!rto be5 conf9$ to ! r$uction ( metals f solutions1 & few attempts h be5 made to effect dry r$uctions by means ( an electric curr5t4 ,sir ,w4 ,siem5s attempt$ to utilize ! int5se heat ( an electric arc = ?is purpose1 b accompli%$ little beyond fus+ sev]al p\nds ( /eel4 ,a %ort "t s9ce1 ,eug5e ,h4 ,c[les & ,alfr$ ,h4 ,c[les ( ,clevel& conceiv$ ! idea ( obta9+ a cont9u\s high temp]ature on an ext5d$ scale by introduc+ into ! pa? ( an electric curr5t "s mat]ial t w\ld af=d ! requisite resi/ance1 !reby produc+ a correspond+ increase 9 ! temp]ature4 ,aft] num]\s exp]im5ts t ne$ n be describ$ 9 detail1 co>sely pulv]iz$ c>bon 0 select$ z ! be/ means = ma9ta9+ a v>iable resi/ance & at ! same "t z ! mo/ available sub/ance = ! r$uction ( oxides4 ,:5 ?is mat]ial1 mix$ ) ! oxide to be r$uc$1 0 made a "p ( ! electric circuit 9 a fire clay retort1 & submitt$ to ! action ( a curr5t f a p[]ful dynamo ma*9e1 n only 0 ! oxide r$uc$1 b ! temp]ature increas$ to su* an ext5t t ! :ole int]ior ( ! retort fus$ completely4 ,9 o!r exp]im5ts lumps ( lime1 s&1 & corundum 7 fus$1 ) indications ( a r$uction ( ! correspond+ metal2 on cool+1 ! lime =m$ l>ge1 well-def9$ cry/als1 ! corundum beautiful r$1 gre51 & blue hexagonal cry/als4 ,foll[+ up ^! results ) ! assi/ance ( ,*>les ,f4 ,mab]y1 pr(essor ( *emi/ry 9 ! ,case ,s*ool ( ,appli$ ,sci5ce1 :o became int]e/$ at ?is /age ( ! exp]im5ts1 x 0 soon f\nd t ! int5se heat ?us produc$ c\ld be utiliz$ = ! r$uction ( oxides 9 l>ge quantities1 & exp]im5ts 7 next tri$ on a l>ge scale ) a curr5t f two dynamos driv5 by an equival5t ( fifty horse p[]4 ,= ! protection ( ! walls ( ! furnace1 :i* 7 made ( fire brick1 a mixture ( ! ore & co>sely pulv]iz$ gas c>bon 0 made a c5tral core1 & x 0 surr\nd$ on ! sides & bottom by f9e *>coal1 ! curr5t foll[+ ! less] resi/ance ( ! c5tral core f c>bon electrodes :i* 7 ins]t$ at ! ends ( ! furnace 9 contact ) ! core4 ,9 ord] to protect ! ma*9es f ! v>iable resi/ance )9 ! furnace1 a resi/ance box consi/+ ( a coil ( ,g]man silv] wire plac$ 9 a l>ge tank ( wat] 0 introduc$ into ! ma9 circuit1 & a ,bru% ammet] 0 also atta*$ by means ( a %unt circuit1 to indicate ! quantity ( curr5t t 0 be+ absorb$ 9 ! furnace4 ,! latt] 0 *>g$ by fir/ fill+ x ) *>coal1 mak+ a tr\gh 9 ! c5t]1 & fill+ ?is c5tral space ) ! ore mixture1 :i* 0 cov]$ ) a lay] ( co>se *>coal4 ,! furnace 0 clos$ at ! top ) fire brick slabs conta9+ two or ?ree holes = ! escape ( ! gase\s products ( ! r$uction1 & ! entire furnace made air-tight by lut+ ) fire clay4 ,)9 a few m9utes aft] />t+ ! dynamo1 a /ream ( c>bonic oxide issu$ ?r\gh ! op5+s1 burn+ usually ) a flame eighte5 in*es 9 height4 ,! "t requir$ = complete r$uction 0 ord9>ily ab\t an h\r4 ,! furnace at pres5t 9 use is *>g$ 9 sub/antially ! same mann]1 & ! curr5t is suppli$ by a ,bru% ma*9e ( v>iable electromotive =ce driv5 by an equival5t ( =ty horse p[]4 ,a ,bru% ma*9e capable ( utiliz+ #abe horse p[]1 or two & "o-half times z l>ge z any hi!rto con/ruct$ by ! ,bru% ,electric ,company1 is be+ made = ! ,c[les ,electric ,smelt+ & ,alum9um ,company1 & ?is ma*9e w soon be 9 op]ation4 ,exp]im5ts already made s t alum9um1 silicon1 boron1 manganese1 magnesium1 sodium & potassium c be r$uc$ f _! oxides ) ease4 ,9 fact1 !re is no oxide t c )/& temp]atures atta9able 9 ?is electrical furnace4 ,*>coal is *ang$ to graphite4 ,does ?is indicate fusion or solution ( c>bon8 ,z to :at c be accompli%$ by conv]t+ enorm\s electrical en]gy into heat )9 a limit$ space1 x c only be said t x op5s ! way into an ext5sive field = bo? pure & appli$ *emi/ry4 ,x is n difficult to conceive ( temp]atures limit$ only by ! capability ( c>bon to resi/ fusion4 ,! results to be obta9$ ) ! l>ge ,bru% ma*9e above m5tion$ w be ( "s importance 9 ?is direction4 ,s9ce ! co/ ( ! motive p[] is ! *ief exp5se 9 accompli%+ r$uctions by ?is me?od1 its comm]cial success is closely connect$ ) ! *eape/ =m ( p[] to be obta9$4 ,realiz+ ! importance ( ?is po9t1 ! ,c[les ,electric ,smelt+ & ,alum9um ,company has pur*as$ an ext5sive & reliable wat] p[]1 & works are soon to be erect$ = ! utilization ( #a1bjj horse p[]4 ,an important feature 9 ! use ( ^! furnaces1 f a comm]cial /&po9t1 is ! slight te*nical skill requir$ 9 _! manipulation4 ,! f\r furnaces 9 op]ation 9 ! exp]im5tal laboratory at ,clevel& are 9 *>ge ( two "y m5 tw5ty ye>s ( age1 :o1 six mon?s ago1 knew absolutely no?+ ( electricity4 ,! products at pres5t manufactur$ are ! v>i\s grades ( alum9um bronze made f a ri* furnace product t is obta9$ by add+ copp] to ! *>ge ( ore1 silicon bronze prep>$ 9 ! same mann]1 & alum9um silv]1 an alloy ( alum9um ) sev]al o!r metals4 ,a boron bronze may be prep>$ by ! r$uction ( boracic acid 9 contact ) copp]4 ,z comm]cial results may be m5tion$ ! production 9 ! exp]im5tal laboratory1 :i* av]ages fifty p\nds ( #aj p] c5t4 alum9um bronze daily1 & x c be suppli$ to ! trade 9 l>ge quantities at prices bas$ on #e p] p\nd = ! alum9um conta9$1 ! l[e/ m>ket quotation ( ?is metal be+ at pres5t #ae p] p\nd4 ,silicon bronze c be furni%$ at prices f> bel[ ^? ( ! ,fr5* manufactur]s4 ,! alloys :i* ! metals obta9$ by ! me?ods above describ$ =m ) copp] h be5 made ! subject ( c>eful /udy4 ,an alloy conta9+ #aj p] c5t4 ( alum9um & #ij p] c5t4 ( copp] =ms ! s-call$ alum9um bronze ) a f9e gold5 color1 :i* x reta9s = a long "t4 ,! t5sile /r5g? ( ?is alloy is usually giv5 z #ajj1jjj p\nds to ! squ>e in*2 b ca/+s ( our t5 p] c5t4 bronze h /ood a /ra9 ( #aji1jjj p\nds4 ,x is a v h>d1 t\gh alloy1 ) a capacity to )/& we> f> 9 excess ( any o!r alloy 9 use4 ,all grades ( alum9um bronze make f9e ca/+s1 tak+ v exact impressions1 & !re is no loss 9 remelt+1 z 9 ! case ( alloys conta9+ z9c4 ,! #e p] c5t4 alum9um alloy is a close approximation 9 color to #ah c>at gold1 & does n t>ni% readily4 ,its t5sile /r5g? 9 ! =m ( ca/+s is equival5t to a /ra9 ( #fh1jjj p\nds to ! squ>e in*4 ,an alloy conta9+ #b or #c p] c5t4 alum9um is /rong] ?an brass1 possesses great] p]man5cy ( color1 & w\ld make an excell5t sub/itute = t metal4 ,:5 ! p]c5tage ( alum9um rea*es #ac1 an exce$+ly h>d1 brittle alloy ( a r$di% color is obta9$1 & high] p]c5tages increase ! brittl5ess1 & ! color becomes grayi%-black4 ,above #be p] c5t4 ! /r5g? aga9 increases4 ,! effect ( silicon 9 small proportions ^u copp] is to greatly increase its t5sile /r5g?4 ,:5 m ?an #e p] c5t4 is pres5t1 ! product is exce$+ly brittle & grayi%-black 9 color4 ,x is probable t silicon acts to a c]ta9 ext5t z a flux+ mat]ial ^u ! oxides pres5t 9 ! copp]1 !reby mak+ ! metal m homog5e\s4 ,on acc\nt ( its sup]ior /r5g? & high conductivity = electrical curr5ts1 silicon bronze is ! be/ mat]ial kn[n = telegraph & telephone wire4 ,! elem5t boron seems to h almo/ z m>k$ an effect ^u copp] z c>bon does ^u iron4 ,a small p]c5tage 9 copp] increases its /r5g? to #ej1jjj or #fj1jjj p\nds p] squ>e in* )\t dim9i%+ to any l>ge ext5t its conductivity4 ,alum9um increases v consid]ably ! /r5g? ( all metals ) :i* x is alloy$4 ,an alloy ( copp] & nickel conta9+ a small p]c5tage ( alum9um1 call$ ,h]cules metal1 )/ood a /ra9 ( #aje1jjj p\nds1 & broke )\t elongation4 ,ano!r grade ( ?is metal broke "u a /ra9 ( #aaa1jjj p\nds1 ) an elongation equival5t to #cc p] c5t4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t ^! te/s 7 all made ^u ca/+s ( ! alloys4 ,! /r5g? ( common brass is d\bl$ by ! addition ( #b or #c p] c5t4 ( alum9um4 ,alloys ( alum9um & iron are obta9$ )\t difficulty2 "o product 0 analyz$1 conta9+ #dj p] c5t4 ( alum9um4 ,9 ! furnace iron does n seem to be absorb$ readily by ! r$uc$ alum9um :5 copp] is pres5t2 b 9 "o exp]im5t a mixture compos$ ( old files1 #fj p] c5t42 nickel1 #e p] c5t42 & ( #aj p] c5t4 alum9um bronze #ce p] c5t41 0 melt$ toge!r1 & x gave a malleable product t /ood a /ra9 ( #fi1jjj p\nds4 ,:5 ! r$uction ( alum9ic oxide by c>bon is conduct$ )\t ! addition ( copp]1 a brittle product is obta9$ t behaves 9 _m respects l pig iron z x comes f ! bla/ furnace4 ,! same product is =m$ 9 consid]able quantities1 ev5 :5 copp] is pres5t1 & frequ5tly ! copp] alloy is f\nd emb$d$ 9 x4 ,graphite is always f\nd associat$ ) x1 ev5 :5 *>coal is ! r$uc+ mat]ial1 & analysis inv>iably %[s a v high p]c5tage ( metallic alum9um4 ,?is extremely int]e/+ sub/ance is at pres5t "u exam9ation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,c[les ,,electric ,,smelt+ ,,process4 ,! use ( electricity 9 ! r$uction ( metals f _! ores is ext5d+ s rapidly1 & ! me?ods ( its g5]ation & application h be5 s greatly improv$ )9 a few ye>s1 t ! possibility ( its becom+ ! *ief ag5t 9 ! metallurgy ( ! future may n[ be admitt$1 ev5 9 cases :]e ! pres5t co/ ( treatm5t is too high to be comm]cially advantage\s4 ,! ref9+ ( copp] & ! sep>ation ( copp]1 gold1 & silv] by electrolysis h ?us f> attract$ ! greate/ am\nt ( att5tion1 b a comm]cial success has also be5 a*iev$ 9 ! dry r$uction by electricity ( "s ( ! m valuable metals by ! ,c[les ,electric ,smelt+ & ,alum9um ,company1 ( ,clevel&1 ,ohio4 ,bo? ?is me?od ( manufacture & ! qualities ( ! products are s int]e/+ & important t x is ) pleasure we call att5tion to !m z /eps t[>d t l>ge & *eap production ( alum9um t ! abundance ( its ores & ! importance ( its physical prop]ties h = sev]al ye>s made ! unatta9$ goal ( _m skillful metallurgi/s4 ,! ,messrs4 ,c[les h succe$$ 9 greatly r$uc+ ! m>ket value ( alum9um & its alloys1 & !reby va/ly ext5d+ its uses1 & !y are n[ by f> ! l>ge/ produc]s 9 ! _w ( ^! important products4 ,z describ$ 9 _! pat5ts1 ! ,c[les process consi/s ess5tially 9 ! use = metallurgical purposes ( a body ( granul> mat]ial ( high resi/ance or l[ conductivity int]pos$ )9 ! circuit 9 su* a mann] z to =m a cont9u\s & unbrok5 "p ( ! same1 :i* granul> body1 by reason ( its resi/ance1 is made inc&esc5t1 & g5]ates all ! heat requir$4 ,! ore or light mat]ial to be r$uc$--z1 = example1 ! hydrat$ oxide ( alum9um1 alum1 *loride ( sodium1 oxide ( calcium1 or sulphate ( /rontium--is usually mix$ ) ! body ( granul> resi/ance mat]ial1 & is ?us br\ght directly 9 contact ) ! heat at ! po9ts ( g5]ation1 at ! same "t ! heat is di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! mass ( granul> mat]ial1 be+ g5]at$ by ! resi/ance ( all ! granules1 & is n localiz$ at "o po9t or along a s+le l9e4 ,! mat]ial be/ adapt$ = ?is purpose is electric light c>bon1 z x possesses ! necess>y am\nt ( electrical resi/ance1 & is capable ( endur+ any kn[n degree ( heat :5 protect$ f oxyg5 )\t dis9tegrat+ or fus+2 b cry/all9e silicon or o!r equival5t ( c>bon c be employ$ = ! same purpose4 ,?is is pulv]iz$ or granulat$1 ! degree ( granulation dep5d+ ^u ! size ( ! furnace4 ,co>se granulat$ c>bon works bett] ?an f9ely pulv]iz$ c>bon1 & gives m ev5 results4 ,! electrical en]gy is m ev5ly di/ribut$1 & ! curr5t c n s readily =m a pa? ( highe/ temp]ature1 & consequ5tly ( lea/ resi/ance ?r\gh ! mass along :i* ! entire curr5t or ! bulk ( ! curr5t c pass4 ,! op]ation mu/ necess>ily be conduct$ )9 an air-tight *amb] or 9 a non-oxidiz+ atmosph]e1 z o!rwise ! c>bon w be consum$ & act z fuel4 ,! c>bon acts z a deoxidiz+ ag5t = ! ore or metallif]\s mat]ial treat$1 & to ?is ext5t x is consum$1 b o!rwise ?an f ?is cause1 x rema9s unimpair$4 ,fig4 ,i4 ( ! accompany+ draw+s is a v]tical longitud9al section ?r\gh a retort design$ = ! r$uction ( z9c ore1 accord+ to ?is process1 & ,fig4 ,,ii4 is a front elevation ( ! same4 ,fig4 ,,iii4 is a p]spective view ( a furnace adapt$ to )/& a v high temp]ature1 & ,figs4 ,,iv4 & ,v4 are respectively longitud9al & transv]se sections ( ! same4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,c[les ,,electric ,,smelt+ ,,process4 ,?is retort consi/s ( a cyl9d]1 ,a1 made ( silica or o!r non-conduct+ mat]ial1 suitably emb$d$ 9 a body1 ,b1 ( p[d]$ *>coal1 m9]al wool1 or ( "s o!r mat]ial :i* is n a good conductor ( heat4 ,! re> end ( ! retort-cyl9d] is clos$ by means ( a c>bon plate1 ,c1 :i* plate =ms ! positive electrode1 & ) ?is plate ! positive wire ( ! electric circuit is connect$4 ,! out] end ( ! retort is clos$ by means ( an inv]t$ graphite crucible1 ,d1 to :i* ! negative wire ( ! electric circuit is atta*$4 ,! graphite crucible s]ves z a plug = clos+ ! end ( ! retort4 ,x also =ms a cond5s+ *amb] = ! z9c fumes1 & x also con/itutes ! negative electrode4 ,! t]m electrode is us$ 9 ?is case z designat+ ! t]m9als ( ! circuit prop]1 or t portion ( x :i* acts simply z an electrical conductor1 & n ) ! int5tion ( indicat+ ! ends ( a l9e betwe5 :i* !re is no circuit connection4 ,! circuit betwe5 ! electrodes1 s call$1 is cont9u\s1 be+ e/abli%$ by means ( & ?r\gh ! body ( brok5 c>bon conta9$ 9 ! retort1 ,a4 ,!re is no deposit made on ei!r plate ( ! decompos$ con/itu5ts ( ! mat]ial r$uc$4 ,! m\? ( ! crucible is clos$ ) a lut+ ( clay1 or o!rwise1 & ! op5+1 d1 made 9 ! upp] side ( ! crucible1 ne> its extremity1 comes entirely )9 ! retort1 & =ms a passage = ! z9c fumes f ! retort *amb] into ! cond5s+ *amb]4 ,! pipe1 ,e1 s]ves z a v5t = ! cond5s+ *amb]4 ,! z9c ore is mix$ ) pulv]iz$ or granul> c>bon1 & ! retort *>g$ ne>ly full ?r\gh ! front end ) ! mixture1 ! plug1 ,d1 be+ remov$ = ?is purpose4 ,a small space is left at ! top1 z %[n4 ,aft] ! plug has be5 ins]t$ & ! jo9t prop]ly lut$1 ! electric circuit is clos$ & ! curr5t all[$ to pass ?r\gh ! retort1 trav]s+ its entire l5g? ?r\gh ! body ( mix$ ore & c>bon4 ,! c>bon con/itu5ts ( ! mass become inc&esc5t1 g5]at+ a v high degree ( heat1 & be+ 9 direct contact ) ! ore1 ! latt] is rapidly & effectually r$uc$ & di/ill$4 ,! heat evolv$ r$uces ! ore & di/ills ! z9c1 & ! z9c fumes are cond5s$ 9 ! cond5s+ *amb]1 precisely z 9 ! pres5t me?od ( z9c mak+1 ) ?is important exception t1 aside f ! reaction produc$ by heat+ c>bon 9 ! pres5ce ( z9c oxide1 ! electric curr5t1 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! z9c oxide1 has a decompos+ & dis9tegrat+ action ^u x1 n unlike ! effect produc$ by an electric curr5t 9 a solution4 ,?is action accel]ates ! r$uction1 & promotes economy 9 ! process4 ,ano!r =m ( furnace is illu/rat$ by ,fig4 ,,iii41 :i* is a p]spective view ( a furnace adapt$ = ! r$uction ( ores & salts ( non-volatile metals & simil> *emical comp\nds4 ,figs4 ,,iv4 & ,v4 are longitud9al & transv]se sections1 respectively1 ?r\gh ! same1 illu/rat+ ! mann] ( pack+ & *>g+ ! furnace4 ,! walls & floors ,l ,l'1 ( ! furnace are made ( fire bricks1 & d n necess>ily h to be v ?ick or /rong1 ! heat to :i* !y are subject$ n be+ excessive4 ,! c>bon plates are small] ?an ! cross section ( ! box1 z %[n1 & ! spaces betwe5 !m & ! end walls are pack$ ) f9e *>coal4 ,! furnace is cov]$ ) a removable slab ( fireclay1 ,n1 :i* is provid$ ) "o or m v5ts1 n1 = ! escap+ gases4 ,! space betwe5 ! c>bon plates con/itutes ! work+ "p ( ! furnace4 ,?is is l9$ on ! bottom & sides ) a pack+ ( f9e *>coal1 ,o1 or su* o!r mat]ial z is bo? a poor conductor ( heat & electricity--z1 = example1 9 "s cases1 silica or pulv]iz$ corundum or well-burn$ lime--& ! *>ge1 ,p1 ( ore & brok51 granul>1 or pulv]iz$ c>bon occupies ! c5t] ( ! box1 ext5d+ betwe5 ! c>bon plates4 ,a lay] ( granul> *>coal1 ,o'1 also cov]s ! *>ge on top4 ,! protection af=d$ by ! *>coal jacket1 z reg>ds ! heat1 is s complete1 t ) ! cov]+-slab remov$1 ! h& c be held )9 a few in*es ( ! expos$ *>coal jacket2 b ) ! top cov]+ ( *>coal also remov$ & ! core expos$1 ! h& _c be held )9 sev]al feet4 ,! *>coal pack+ beh9d ! c>bon plates is requir$ to conf9e ! heat & to protect !m f combu/ion4 ,) ?is furnace1 alum9um c be r$uc$ directly f its ores2 & *emical comp\nds f corundum1 cryolite1 clay1 etc41 & silicon1 boron1 calcium1 manganese1 magnesium1 & o!r metals are 9 l mann] obta9$ f _! ores & comp\nds4 ,! r$uction ( ores accord+ to ?is process c be practic$1 if circum/ances require x1 )\t any built furnace4 ,at pres5t1 ! ,c[les company is engag$ mo/ly 9 ! produc+ ( alum9um bronze & alum9um silv] & silicon bronze4 ,! plant1 7 x run to its full capacity1 is capable ( turn+ out eighty p\nds ( alum9um bronze1 conta9+ #aj p] c5t4 ( alum9um daily2 or1 7 x to run ^u silicon bronze1 c\ld turn out "o hundr$ & tw5ty p\nds ( t p] day1 or1 we believe1 m alum9um bronze daily ?an c be produc$ by all o!r plants 9 ! _w comb9$4 ,?is production1 h[ev]1 is b t ( ! exp]im5tal laboratory1 & arrangem5ts are mak+ to turn out a ton ( bronze daily1 & ! works h an ultimate capacity ( f eight to t5 ?\s& horse p[]4 ,! en]gy consum$ by ! r$uction ( ! ore is almo/ entirely electrical1 only en\gh c>bon be+ us$ to unite ) ! oxyg5 ( ! ore to c>ry x out ( ! furnace 9 ! =m ( ! c>bon monoxide1 ! alum9um rema9+ beh9d4 ,consequ5tly1 ! plant necess>y to produce alum9um on a l>ge scale involves a l>ge numb] ( ! mo/ p[]ful dynamos4 ,^! are to be driv5 by wat]-p[] or natural gas & m>9e eng9es ( great capacity4 ,! retail price ( /&>d #aj p] c5t4 alum9um bronze is #a p] p\nd avoirdupois1 :i* means less ?an #i p] p\nd = alum9um1 ! l[e/ price at :i* x has ev] be5 sold1 yet ! ,c[les company has laid a proposition be=e ! ,gov]nm5t to furni% ?is same bronze 9 l>ge quantities at v mu* l[] prices ?an ?is4 ,! ,h]cules alloy1 ca/+s ( :i* w /& ov] #ajj1jjj p\nds to ! squ>e in* t5sile /ra91 sells at #ge c4 a p\nd1 & is also (f]$ ! ,gov]nm5t or o!r l>ge consum]s at a heavy disc\nt4 ,! alloys are gu>ante$ to conta9 exactly :at is adv]tis$2 !y are /&>diz$ into #aj p] c5t41 #g4e p] c5t41 #e p] c5t4 & #b4e p] c5t4 alum9um bronze be=e %ipm5t4 ,! curr5t available at ! ,c[les company's works 01 until rec5tly1 #ccj amp]es1 driv5 by an electromotive =ce ( #aaj volts & suppli$ by two ,edison dynamos2 b ! company has n[ add$ a l>ge ,bru% ma*9e t has a curr5t ( #efj amp]es & #eb volts electromotive =ce4 ,we %all1 on ano!r occasion1 give "s p>ticul>s ( exp]im5ts 9 ! r$uction ( refractory ores by ! process4--,eng4 & ,m9+ ,j\r4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,optical ,,telegraphy4#a ,footnote #a3 ,cont9u$ f page #hjid4 ,,cryptography4--,,pres]vation ,,( ,,telegrams4 ,optical telegraphy1 by reason ( its v pr9ciple1 pres5ts bo? ! advantage & inconv5i5ce ( leav+ no automatic trace ( ! correspond5ce t x transmits4 ,! advantage is v evid5t 9 cases 9 :i* an optical /ation falls into ! h&s ( ! enemy2 on ! o!r h&1 ! inconv5i5ce is %[n 9 cases :]e a badly transmitt$ or badly collat$ telegram all[s an ambiguity to /& subject to dispute4 ,moreov]1 9 case ( w>f>e betwe5 civiliz$ nations t h all ! res\rces ( sci5ce at _! disposal1 !re may be reason to fe> le/ "o ( ! enemy's optical /ations sub/itute itself = ! correspond+ /ation1 & take advantage ( ! situation to ?r[ confusion into ! ord]s transmitt$4 ,! rem$y = ?is appe>s to reside 9 ! use ( cryptography & 9 ! ex*ange1 at v>i\s int]vals1 ( c]ta9 words t h be5 agre$ ^u be=eh&1 & t ! enemy is ignorant (4 ,z = ! automatic pres]vation ( telegrams1 ! problem has n be5 satisfactorily solv$4 ,x has be5 propos$ to connect ! key ( ! manipulator ( ! optical app>atus ) ! manipulator ( an ord9>y ,morse app>atus1 ?us p]mitt+ ! telegram to be pres]v$ ^u a b& ( pap]4 ,x is unnecess>y to say t ! space occupi$ by a dispat* ?us transmitt$ w\ld be consid]able2 b ?is is n :at has /opp$ innovators4 ,! pr9cipal objection resides 9 ! increase 9 muscul> "w impos$ by ?is arrangem5t ^u ! telegraph]4 ,oblig$ to keep 8 eye fix$ int5tly at ! receiv+ telescope1 :ile at ! same "t maneuv]+ ! manipulator & spell+ al\d ! words t he is receiv+1 ! op]ator %\ld h a v s5sitive manipulator at 8 disposal1 & n be submitt$ to m5tal or physical ov]taxation4 ,s ! app>atus t h be5 devis$ h n met ) mu* success4 ,two ,fr5* (fic]s1 work+ indep5d5tly1 h hit ^u ! same idea ( receiv+ ! indications transmitt$ by ! vibration ( ! lum9\s fascicle directly ^u _! travel4 ,! me?od consi/s 9 ! use ( t peculi> prop]ty ( sel5ium ( becom+ a good conductor "u ! action ( a lum9\s ray1 :ile 9 d>kness x totally prev5ts ! passage ( ! electric curr5t4 ,su* modification ( ! physical prop]ties ( sel5ium1 moreov]1 occurs )\t ! p]ceptible developm5t ( any me*anical "w4 ,if1 !n1 9 ! l9e ( travel ( ! lum9\s fascicle emitt$ by ! optical app>atus1 or 9 a portion ( su* fascicle1 we int]pose a fragm5t ( sel5ium connect$ ) ! two poles ( a local pile1 x is easy to see t ! curr5t f ! latt] w be op5$ or clos$ accord+ z ! lum9\s ray f ! app>atus w or w n /rike ! sel5ium1 & t ! l5g? ( "t dur+ :i* ! curr5t passes w dep5d ^u ! l5g? ( ! lum9\s attacks4 ,a ,morse app>atus int]pos$ 9 ?is annex$ circuit w !re=e give an automatic inscription ( ! correspond5ce ex*ang$4 ,su* is ! pr9ciple4 ,b1 practically1 v great difficulties pres5t !mselves1 ^! be+ connect$ ) ! rapid weak5+ ( ! electric prop]ties ( ! sel5ium1 & ) ! necessity ( hav+ rec\rse to inf9itely small me*anical actions only4 ,! problem is nev]!less be=e u1 & x is to be hop$ t ! p]sev]ance ( ! sci5ti/s :o are at "w ^u x w "s day succe$ 9 solv+ x4 ,f9ally1 we may call att5tion to ! attempts made to receive ! lum9\s impression ^u a b& prep>$ ) gelat9o-bromide ( silv]4 ,9 practice ?is b& w\ld unw9d uni=mly at ! focus ( ! receiv+ telescope1 :i* w\ld be plac$ 9 a box1 =m+ a cam]a obscura4 ,! velocity ( ?is b& prep>$ = photograph+ ! signals w\ld be regulat$ by clockwork4 ,! exp]im5ts t h be5 made h n giv5 results t are absolutely satisfactory1 by reason ( ! l5g? ( ! signals receiv$ & ! me*anical complication ( ! device4 ,,optical ,,telegraphy ,,by ,,means ,,( ,,projectors4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,! projectors employ$ = light+ to a di/ance ! surr\nd+s ( a /ronghold or ( a %ip h likewise be5 appli$ 9 optical telegraphy4 ,= ?is purpose ,messrs4 ,sautt]1 ,lemonni] ,co4 h add$ to _! usual project+ app>atus "s peculi> arrangem5ts t p]mit ( occultations ( ! lum9\s focus at prop] int]vals4 ,figs4 #ba & #bb %[ ! arrangem5t ( ! app>atus1 ! pr9ciple ( :i* is z foll[s3 ,:5 ! axis ( ! projector po9ts t[>d ! cl\ds1 & 9 ! direction occupi$ by a correspond+ /ation1 ! occultations ( ! lum9\s s\rce plac$ 9 ! focus ( ! app>atus produce ^u ! cl\ds1 :i* act z a scre51 an alt]nate s]ies ( fla%es & ext9ctions4 ,x is !re=e possible ) ?is arrangem5t1 & by ! use ( ! ,morse alphabet1 to e/abli% an optical communication at a di/ance4 ,! use ( ?is projector 7! pr9cipal inconv5i5ce ( :i* is t x requires a cl\d$ sky7 ev5 p]mits two obs]v]s :o are hidd5 f ea* o!r by ! nature ( ! gr\nd to easily communicate at a di/ance ( #cf or #dh miles4 ,,use ,,( ,,! ,,projector ,,9 ,,optical ,,telegraphy4 ,illu/ration3 ,,figs4 #ba ,,& #bb4--;,,front ,,view ,,& ,,longitud9al ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,mang9 ,,projector4 7,scale #a_/ae74 ,a4 ,elliptical mirror4 ,b4 ,arm ( ! same4 ,c4 ,nut = fix+ ! mirror4 ,d4 ,support ( ! mirror4 ,e4 ,occultator4 ,f4 ,support = same4 ,g4 ,lev] = maneuv]+ ! occultator4 ,i4 ,support ( ! occultator rod4 ,j4 ,screw = fix+ ! mirror support4 ,k4 ,screw = fix+ ! support ( ! occultator rod4 ,l4 ,screw = fix+ ! occultator support4 ,! app>atus %[n 9 ,figs4 #ba & #bb p]mits ( signal+ 9 ?ree ways3 #a4 ,^u ! ,cl\ds4--,9 ?is case ! mirror1 ,a1 is remov$1 & ! projector incl9$ above ! horizon 9 su* a way z to illum9ate ! cl\ds to z great a di/ance z possible4 ,a maneuv] ( ! occultator1 ,e1 betwe5 ! lamp & ! mirror arre/s ! lum9\s rays ( ! s\rce1 or all[s !m to pass1 & ?us produces ^u ! cl\ds ! dots & da%es ( ! conv5tional alphabet4 #b4 ,isolat$ ,communication by ,lum9\s ,fascicles4--,:5 x is desir$ to correspond to a %ort di/ance ( #b or #c miles1 & e/abli% a communication betwe5 two isolat$ po/s1 ! mirror1 ,a1 is put 9 place ^u its support1 ,b4 ,! lum9\s fascicle emanat+ f ! s\rce reflect$ by ! mirror is ?r[n v]tically4 ,by revolv+ ! mirror #ij ar\nd its horizontal axis ! fascicle becomes horizontal1 & may ?us be ?r[n 9 a giv5 direction at unequal int]vals & dur+ irregul> times1 & furni% conv5tional signs4 #c4 ,night ,communication ^u ! ,entire ,horizon4--,:5 we wi% to correspond at a %ort di/ance1 say two miles1 & make signals visible f ! entire horizon1 ! mirror1 ,a1 is put 9 place1 s t x %all reflect ! lum9\s fascicle v]tically4 ,! fascicle1 at a di/ance ( ab\t fifty feet1 meets a :ite balloon :i* x r5d]s visible f e po9t 9 ! horizon4 ,! maneuv] ( ! occultator br+s ! balloon out ( d>kness or plunges x !re9to aga91 & ?us produces ! signs necess>y = a]ial communication4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,^! +5i\s arrangem5ts1 :i* dep5d ^u ! /ate ( ! atmosph]e1 d n appe> to h be5 imitat$ outside ( ! navy4 ,,capt4 ,,gaumet',s ,,optical ,,telegraph4 ,! sy/em ( optical communication propos$ by ,capt4 ,gaumet1 & :i* he names ! ,telelogue1 is bas$ ^u ! visibility ( color$ or lum9\s objects1 & ^u ! possibility ( pi]c+ ! opaque curta9 =m$ by ! atmosph]e betwe5 ! obs]v]'s eye & a signal1 by utiliz+ ! diff]5ce 9 brightness t exi/s betwe5 su* objects & ! atmosph]e4 ,x is a "q1 !n1 ( giv+ su* diff]5ce 9 int5sity its maximum ( brightness4 ,to d ?is1 ,capt4 ,gaumet proposes to employ silv]$ signals ^u a black backgr\nd4 ,he uses ! simple lett]s ( ! alphabet1 b *anges _! value4 ,8 app>atus has ! =m ( a l>ge album glu$ at ! back to a slop+ desk4 ,ea* silv]$ lett]1 glu$ to a piece ( black clo?1 is se5 9 relief ^u ! op5 regi/]4 ,a sort ( index along ! side1 z 9 comm]cial blank-books1 p]mits ( quickly f9d+ any lett] at w4 ,su* is ! manipulator ( ! app>atus4 ,! receiv] consi/s ( a spy-glass affix$ to ! bo>d t c>ries ! regi/]4 ,= a range ( two & a half miles1 ! complete app>atus1 ) a #abaf in* manipulator & telescope1 weighs b f\r & a half p\nds4 ,= d\ble ?is range1 ) a #bjbh in* manipulator & telescope1 ! total weight is ?irte5 p\nds4 ,! l>g] app>atus1 accord+ to ! inv5tor1 h a range ( sev5 miles4 ,= night "w ! manipulator is light$ ei!r by "o lamp1 or by two lamps ) reflector1 plac$ lat]ally aga9/ x4 ,?is app>atus1 al?\gh well kn[n1 & hav+ be5 publicly exp]im5t$ )1 has n1 to our k1 be5 appli$ practically4 ,f a milit>y /&po9t1 its %ort range w evid5tly n p]mit x to compete ) optical telegraphic app>atus1 prop]ly s call$4 ,p]haps x might r be ( s]vice = private communications betwe5 localities n v f> ap>t1 s9ce x co/s b little & is easily op]at$4 ,,optical ,,signal+ ,,betwe5 ,,bodies ,,( ,,troops4 ,optical communications by signals1 dur+ day & night1 ) exp]i5c$ m51 may1 9 ! abs5ce ( telephones1 telegraphs1 & mess5g]s1 r5d] important s]vice :5 ! di/ance involv$ is great] ?an two ?\s& feet4 ,?is mode ( correspond5ce is bas$ ^u ! use ( ! ,morse alphabet4 ,! signals are divid$ into night & day ones4 ,! day signals are made ) small flags4 ,:5 ^! are want+1 %eets ( :ite c>dbo>d may be us$4 ,! night signals are made ) a lant]n provid$ ) a support1 :i* may be fix$ to a wall or ^u a bayonet4 ,9 day signal+1 ! da%es ( ! ,morse alphabet are =m$ by means ( two flags 7,fig4 #bc7 held simultane\sly at arm's l5g? by ! signal]4 ,! dots are =m$ ) a s+le flag held 9 ! "r h& 7,fig4 #bd74 ,9 ?is way x is possible1 by extremely simple comb9ations1 to e/abli% a correspond5ce1 & produce any conv5tional signal4 ,by means ( relay /ations1 ! signals may be transmitt$ f "o to ano!r to a great di/ance4 ,9 signal+ ) ! lant]n1 long & %ort int]ruptions ( ! lum9\s s\rce are produc$ by means ( a scre54 ,,optical ,,telegraphy ,,by ,,lum9\s ,,balloons4 ,v>i\s int]e/+ exp]im5ts h be5 made ) a view to utiliz+ lum9\s captive balloons = optical communications4 ,z we h already se51 ?is maybe effect$ by us+ opaque balloons1 & ?r[+ ^u !m at unequal int]vals a lum9\s fascicle by means ( a projector4 ,z = us+ a lum9\s s\rce plac$ 9 ! c> ( a balloon1 t _c be ?\ght ( 9 ! pres5t /ate ( a]onautic sci5ce2 ! cont9ual rotation ( ! balloon ar\nd its axis w\ld r5d] ! projection & reception ( ! signals 9 a giv5 direction impossible4 ,,optical ,,telegraphy ,,9 ,,! ,,m>9e4 ,= communicat+ optically f %ip to %ip dur+ ! day1 ! m>9e uses flags ( diff]5t =ms & colors1 & flames4 ,betwe5 %ips & ! l& !re are us$ :at are call$ semaphore signals1 :i* are made by means ( a ma/ provid$ ) ?ree arms & a disk plac$ at ! upp] "p4 ,! comb9ations ( signs ?us obta9$1 :i* are analog\s 9 pr9ciple to ^? ( ! ,*appe telegraph1 p]mit ( satisfactorily communicat+ to a di/ance4 ,on bo>d %ip1 h& signals are us$ l ^? employ$ by ! army = communicat+ betwe5 bodies ( troops4 ,= night communications ! m>9e employs lights correspond+ to ! day flags1 z well z rockets1 & lum9\s rays project$ by means ( reflectors & int]cept$ by scre5s4 ,9 conclusion1 x may be said t optical telegraphy1 :i* has only )9 a few ye>s em]g$ f ! doma9 ( !ory to ent] t ( practice1 has tak5 a rem>kable /ride 9 ! milit>y art & 9 sci5ce4 ,x is due to its processes t ,col4 ,p]ri] has 9 rec5t ye>s be5 enabl$ to c>ry out c]ta9 geodesic "w t w\ld h =m]ly be5 reg>d$ z impracticable1 notably ! prolongation ( ! arc ( ! m]idian betwe5 ,france & ,spa94 ,v rec5tly1 an optical communication e/abli%$ betwe5 ,mauritius & ,reunion isl&s1 to a di/ance ( #abi miles1 ) #bd in* app>atus1 prov$ t1 9 c]ta9 cases1 ! co/ly lay+ ( a subm>9e cable may be replac$ by ! direct emission ( a lum9\s ray4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,new ,,/yle ,,( ,,subm>9e ,,telegraph4 ,mr4 ,f4 ,von ,faund-,szyll has devis$ an orig9al sy/em ( subm>9e telegraph1 :i* is bas$ ^u ! well kn[n prop]ty t sel5ium exhibits ( modify+ its resi/ance "u ! influ5ce ( lum9\s rays1 & :i* he /yles ! ,sel5-,diff]5zialrecord]4 ,contr>y to :at is f\nd 9 ! o!r sy/ems hi!rto employ$1 ! ,faund-,szyll sy/em utilizes ! cable curr5t m]ely = />t+ ! receiv+ app>atus1 :i* are op]at$ by means ( /rong local batt]ies4 ,! result is t ! me*anical "w t devolves ^u ! l9e curr5t1 :i* is1 z well kn[n1 v weak1 is exce$+ly r$uc$4 ,! sy/em consi/s ( two ess5tial p>ts3 7#a7 ,! receiv]1 prop]ly s call$4 7#b7 ,! relay z well z ! regi/]+ app>atus or diff]5zialrecord]4 ,! receiv] consi/s ( a clos$ box1 ,k1 9 ! int]ior ( :i* !re is a v int5se s\rce ( light ^: rays escape by pass+ ?r\gh ap]tures1 a a'1 9 ! front "p 7,fig4 #a74 ,z a s\rce ( light1 !re may be conv5i5tly employ$ an inc&esc5t lamp1 g1 capable ( giv+ an int5se light1 & arrang$ 7z %[n 9 ,fig4 #b7 beh9d ! side t conta9s ! slits1 a a'4 ,! />t+ app>atus consi/s ( a small galvanometric helix1 r1 analog\s to ,?omson's siphon record]1 :i* is susp5d$ f a cocoon fib] & capable ( mov+ 9 an extremely p[]ful magnetic field1 ,n ,s4 ,?is helix c>ries1 z may be se5 9 ,figs4 #a1 #c & #d1 a prolongation1 v1 at its l[] end ^: =m is t ( a prism1 & :i* is arrang$ 9 front ( ! p>tition ( ! box1 ,k1 9 su* a way t x exactly cov]s ! two slits1 a & a :5 ! bobb9 is at re/1 & 9 ?is case prev5ts ! lum9\s rays ( ! lamp1 g1 f escap+ f ! box4 ,b1 z soon z ! curr5t s5t ?r\gh ! cable rea*es ! spirals ( ! bobb91 ?r\gh ! conductors1 y y'1 ! sum ( ! elem5t>y electrodynamic actions t arise causes ! helix to revolve to ! "r or left1 accord+ to ! pol>ity ( ! curr5t1 :ile at ! same "t ! helix slightly approa*es "o or ! o!r ( ! poles ( ! magnet4 ,! prolongation1 v1 ( ! helix1 be+ firmly unit$ ) ! latt]1 foll[s x 9 its motion1 & has ! effect ( p]mitt+ ! lum9\s rays to escape ?r\gh "o or ! o!r ( ! slits1 a a'1 s t ! free+ ( ! lum9\s fascicle1 if su* an expression is all[able1 is effect$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,9 ord] to prev5t oscillations1 :i* c\ld n fail to occur aft] ea* emission ( a curr5t 7s t ! helix1 in/ead ( return+ to a position ( equilibrium & /opp+ !re1 w\ld g beyond x & alt]nately uncov] ! slits1 a a'71 ! app>atus is provid$ ) a liquid dead5]4 ,to ?is end1 ! prolongation1 v1 c>ries a piece1 o1 :i* dips into a cup conta9+ a mixture ( glyc]9e & wat]4 ,we %all n[ describe ! diff]5zialrecord]4 ,opposite ! two slits1 a & a'1 !re are two p[]ful conv]g+ l5ses1 l & l'1 ^: foci co9cide ) two sorts ( sel5ium plate rheo/at1 z & z'4 ,! result ( ?is arrangem5t is t z soon z "o ( ! slits1 z a consequ5ce ( ! displacem5t ( ! helix1 r1 all[s a lum9\s fascicle to escape1 ?is latt] falls ^u ! correspond+ l5s1 :i* conc5trates x & s5ds x to ! sel5ium plates j m5tion$4 ,"u ! influ5ce ( ! lum9\s rays1 ! resi/ance t ! sel5ium (f]s to ! passage ( an electric curr5t in/antly *anges4 ,at ,m & ,m' are plac$ two horse%oe magnets ^: poles are provid$ ) pieces ( s(t iron t s]ve z cores to exce$+ly f9e wire bobb9s1 d4 ,^! pol>iz$ pieces are arrang$ 9 ! %ape ( a ,/4 ,&rew's cross1 & 9 su* a way t ! poles ( ! same "n occupy ! two extremities ( ! same arm ( ! cross1 an arrangem5t v cle>ly %[n 9 ,fig4 #b4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,betwe5 ! poles ( ! magnets1 ,m & ,m'1 !re is a p]man5t magnet1 ,a1 movable ar\nd a v]tical axis1 i4 ,f\r spiral spr+s1 f1 ^: t5sion may be regulat$1 p]mit ( c5t]+ ?is latt] piece 9 su* a way t :5 ! curr5t is trav]s+ ! spirals ( ! pol> bobb9s x is equally di/ant f ! f\r poles1 n1 s1 s'1 & n'4 ,"u su* circum/ances x is evid5t t a diff]5ce 9 ! p[] ( attraction ( ^! f\r poles1 h[ev] feeble x be1 w result 9 mov+ ! magnet1 ,a1 9 "o direction or ! o!r ar\nd its axis4 ,! en]gy & ext5t ( su* motion may1 moreov]1 be magnifi$ by prop]ly act+ ^u ! f\r regulat+ spr+s4 ,! bobb9s ( ! magnet1 ,m1 are m\nt$ 9 s]ies ) ! sel5ium plates1 z1 ! local batt]y1 ,b1 & a resi/ance box1 ,w4 ,^? ( ! magnet1 ,m'1 are 9 s]ies ) z'1 ,b'1 & ,w'4 ,! local batt]ies1 ,b & ,b'1 are compos$ ( q a l>ge numb] ( elem5ts4 ,! curr5t f ! batt]y1 ,b1 trav]ses ! sel5ium plates & ! bobb9s ( ! magnet1 ,m1 & returns to ,b ?r\gh ! rheo/at1 ,w2 & ! same occurs ) ! curr5t f ,b'4 ,! two curr5ts1 !n1 are absolutely indep5d5t ( "o ano!r4 ,f ?is description x is v easy to see h[ ! sy/em works4 ,let u suppose1 9 fact1 t ! curr5t :i* is trav]s+ ! spirals ( ! helix1 r1 has a direction su* t ! helix 9 its movem5t approa*es ! pole1 ,s2 !n ! prolongation1 v1 w uncov] ! slit1 a1 :i*1 along ) a'1 _h up to ?is mom5t be5 clos$1 & a lum9\s fascicle escap+ ?r\gh a w /rike ! l5s1 l'1 & f !nce conv]ge ^u ! sel5ium plates1 z'4 ,?is is all ! duty t ! l9e curr5t has to p]=m4 ,! lum9\s rays1 9 fall+ ^u ! sel5ium plates1 z'1 modify ! resi/ance t ^! (f]$ to ! passage ( ! curr5t produc$ by ! batt]y1 ,b'4 ,z ?is resi/ance dim9i%es1 ! int5sity ( ! curr5t 9 ! circuit suppli$ by ! batt]y1 ,b'1 increases1 ! attractive action ( ! pol> pieces ( ! magnet1 ,m'1 dim9i%es1 ! equilibrium is de/roy$1 & ! piece1 ,a1 revolves ar\nd ! axis1 i4 ,if ! pol>ity ( ! l9e curr5t 7 diff]5t1 ! same succession ( ph5om5a w\ld occur1 save t ! direction ( ,a's rotation w\ld be contr>y4 ,z = ! rheo/ats1 ,w ,w'1 _! object is to correct v>iations 9 ! sel5ium's resi/ance & to balance ! resi/ances ( ! two correspond+ circuits4 ,! magnet1 ,a1 w be comb9$ ) a regi/]+ app>atus s z to directly or indirectly actuate ! pr9t+ lev]4 ,! entire fir/ "p ( ?is app>atus1 :i* is v s5sitive1 may be easily protect$ f all ext]nal influ5ce by plac+ x 9 a box1 &1 if ne$ be1 9 a room di/ant f ! "o 9 :i* ! employes "w4 ,illu/ration3 ,,figs4 #c ,,& #d4 ,! diff]5zialrecord] alone has to be 9 ! "w room4 ,z may be se51 ! sy/em is n want+ 9 orig9ality4 ,exp]i5ce alone w p]mit ( pron\nc+ ^u ! "q z to :e!r x is z practical z +5i\s4--,la ,lumi]e ,electrique4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,new ,,circuit ,,cutt]4 ,messrs4 ,?omson ,bottomley h rec5tly inv5t$ a peculi> circuit cutt] bas$ ^u ! use ( a metal ^: melt+ po9t is exce$+ly l[4 ,rec\rse is _h to ?is process = break+ ! curr5t )9 z %ort a "t z possible4 ,9 ?is new device ! ends ( ! conductors are sold]$ toge!r ) ! metal 9 "q at "o or sev]al po9ts ( ! circuit4 ,! metal employ$ is silv] or copp] ( v great conductivity1 see+ t ! increase ( temp]ature 9 a conductor1 due to a sudd5 increase ( ! curr5t1 is inv]sely proportional to ! product ( ! electric resi/ance by ! specific heat ( ! conductor2 t ^! metals are be/ adapt$ = giv+ con/ant & def9ite results2 & t ! contacts are bett] ?an ) lead or ! o!r metals ( l[ melt+ po9t :i* are frequ5tly employ$ 9 circuit cutt]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,fig4 #a repres5ts "o =m ( ! new device4 ,"h1 a is ! copp] or silv] wire1 & b is a sold]+ made ) a v fusible metal & secur+ a cont9uity ( ! circuit4 ,ea* extremity ( ! wire1 a1 is connect$ ) a heavy r+1 c1 ( copp] or o!r good conduct+ metal4 ,! hook1 d1 ) :i* ! upp] r+1 c1 is 9 contact1 communicates metallically ) "o ( ! extremities ( ! conductor at ! place :]e ! latt] is int]rupt$ = ! ins]tion ( ! circuit cutt]4 ,! hook1 e1 ) :i* ! l[] r+1 c1 is 9 contact1 t5ds con/antly to desc5d "u ! action ( a spiral spr+1 f1 :i* is connect$ metallically ) ! o!r extremity ( ! pr9cipal conductor4 ,! hooks1 d & e1 are arrang$ approximately 9 ! same v]tical plane1 & h a slightly r\nd$ upp] & l[] surface1 design$ to prev5t ! r+s1 c1 ( ! fusible wire1 a1 f escap+ f ! hooks4 ,9 ,fig4 #a ! position ( ! arm1 e1 :5 !re is no fusible wire 9 circuit1 is %[n by dott$ l9es4 ,:5 ?is arm occupies ! position %[n by entire l9es1 x ex]ts a c]ta9 traction ^u ! sold]+1 b1 & sep>ates ! two halves ( ! wire1 a1 z soon z ! int5sity ( circulation exce$s its normal value4 ,! mode ( putt+ ! wire ) fusible sold]+ into circuit is cle>ly %[n 9 ! engrav+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,fig4 #b %[s a diff]5t mode ( m\nt+ ! wire4 ,! wire1 q1 is sold]$ 9 ! c5t]1 & is b5t into ! %ape ( a ,u1 & kept 9 place by ! pieces1 r & s4 ,9 ?is way ! two ends ( x t5d con/antly to sep>ate f ea* o!r4 ,messrs4 ,?omson ,bottomley likewise employ weights1 simply1 = submitt+ ! wire to a con/ant /ress4 ,! app>atus is inclos$ 9 a box provid$ ) a glass cov]4--,la ,lumi]e ,electrique4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,new ,,micro-,,telephonic ,,app>atus4 ,despite ! simplicity ( _! p>ts1 & ! slight value ( ! mat]ials employ$1 ! exi/+ micro-telephonic app>atus keep at relatively high prices1 & ! use ( !m is (t5 reject$1 to ! b5efit ( speak+ tubes1 :5 ! di/ance betwe5 /ations is n too great4 ,we propose to describe a new /yle ( app>atus t are 9 no wise inf]ior to ^? 9 g5]al use1 & ! price ( :i* is relatively l[4 ,! microphone transmitt] may h sev]al =ms4 ,! mo/ elem5t>y ( ^! consi/s ( two pieces ( c>bon1 f "o to "o & a qu>t] in*es 9 l5g? by "o-half in* 9 wid?1 betwe5 :i* are fix$ two nails1 ab\t two in*es 9 l5g?1 ^: extremities1 fil$ to a po9t1 ent] small conical ap]tures 9 ! c>bons4 ,fig4 #a gives an idea ( ! arrangem5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,fig4 #b repres5ts a model :i* is a little m complicat$1 b :i* gives rem>kable results4 ,! l>ge/ nail is "h two in*es 9 l5g?1 & ! %orte/ ?ree-qu>t] in*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,! receiv]s may be ,bell telephones ( ! simple/ =m f\nd 9 ! m>ket 7,fig4 #c72 b = ^! !re may be sub/itut$ a b> ( s(t iron1 ca/ iron1 or /eel1 "o ( ! extremities ( :i* is provid$ ) a bobb9 ^u1 :i* is w\nd insulat$ copp] wire #j4jb in* 9 diamet]4 ,! app>atus is m\nt$ l an ord9>y ,bell telephone4 ,a horse%oe electro may also be us$1 & ! poles be made to act 7,fig4 #d74 ,! curr5t s5t by ! transmitt] suffices to produce a magnetic field 9 :i* ! v>iations 9 int5sity produc$ by ! microphone succe$ p]fectly 9 reproduc+ spee* & music4 ,) f\r ,leclan*e elem5ts1 ! s\nds are p]ceiv$ v cle>ly4 ,! elem5ts us$ may be bi*romate ( pota% ones1 ^? ( ,lel&e & ,*ap]on1 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,,receiv]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,to ?is app>atus !re may be add$ a second bobb9 ( co>s] wire into :i* is pass$ a curr5t f a local pile4 ,?is produces a mu* int5s] magnetic field1 &1 consequ5tly1 l\d] s\nds4 ,?is modification1 h[ev]1 is really useful only = long di/ances4 ,any arrangem5t imag9able may be giv5 ! transmitt] & receiv]2 b1 aside f ! fact t ! ones j indicat$ are ! simple/1 !y give results t are at lea/ equal1 if n sup]ior1 to all o!rs4 ,we %all insi/ "h only ^u ! arrangem5t ( ! microphone1 :i* is new 7at lea/ 9 practice71 & ^u ! uselessness ( hav+ well magnetiz$ /eel b>s & wires ( extreme f95ess 9 ! receiv]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,we h /at$ t ! nail microphones are ! simple/4 ,! nails may be replac$ by copp] or any o!r metal1 or !y may be well nickeliz$2 b common nails answ] v well1 & d n oxidize mu*4 ,an app>atus ( ?is k9d 7,fig4 #e7 t has be5 = m ?an a ye> 9 a laboratory fill$ ) acid vapors is yet work+ v well4 ,^! app>atus possess ! fur!r advantage ( be+ v /rong1 & ( und]go+ viol5t %ocks )\t break+ or ev5 gett+ out ( ord]4 ,!y may be us$ ei!r ) or )\t induction coils4 ,we h n yet measur$ _! range1 b c cite ! foll[+ fact3 ,"o ( ^! app>atus1 q crudely m\nt$1 0 put into a circuit ) a resi/ance ( #cjj ohms4 ,) a s+le already exhau/$ bi*romate elem5t1 giv+ sc>cely #b volts1 musical s\nds & spee* rea*$ ! receiv] )\t be+ notably weak5$4 ,su* resi/ance repres5ts a l5g? ( eighte5 miles ( ord9>y telegraph wire4 ,aft] ?is1 #gjj ohms 7 ov]come ) #c4d volts4 ,?is result 0 obta9$ by direct transmission1 & )\t an induction coil1 & x is probable t x might be mu* exce$$ )\t s5sibly increas+ ! electromotive =ce ( ! curr5t4--,le ,g5ie ,civil4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,messrs4 ,,kapp ,,& ,,crompton',s ,,measur+ ,,in/rum5ts4 ,we give h]e)1 f ! ,elektrote*nis*e ,zeits*rift1 a few int]e/+ details 9 reg>d to ! measur+ app>atus ( ,messrs4 ,kapp & ,crompton4 ,x is evid5t t :5 we use p]man5t magnets or spr+s z direct+ =ces 9 measur+ in/rum5ts1 we _c c\nt ^u an absolute con/ancy 9 ! indications1 z ! magnetism ( ! magnetiz$ pieces1 or ! t5sion ( ! spr+s1 modifies 9 "t4 ,! app>atus require to be regulat$ f "t to "t1 & h5ce ! idea ( sub/itut+ electro-magnets = p]man5t ones4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,if we suppose 7,fig4 #a7 a magnetiz$ ne$le1 n s1 plac$ betwe5 ! extremities ( a s(t iron core1 ,n ,s1 & if we gr\p ! circuit 9 su* a way t ! curr5t1 aft] trav]s+ ! coil1 e e1 ( ! electro1 trav]ses a circle1 d d1 situat$ 9 a plane at "r angles ) ! plane ( ! ne$le's oscillation1 x is evid5t t we %all h obta9$ an app>atus t satisfies ! a=esaid conditions4 ,x seems at fir/ sight t 9 su* an in/rum5t ! direct+ =ce %\ld be con/ant f ! mom5t ! electro 0 saturat$1 & x w\ld be possible1 7 suffici5tly ?9 cores us$1 to obta9 a con/ancy 9 ! direct+ magnetic field = relatively feeble int5sities4 ,9 reality1 ! actions are m complex4 ,! ne$le1 n s1 is1 9 fact1 induc$ to return to its position ( equilibrium by two =ces1 ! fir/ ( :i* 7! attraction ( ! poles1 ,n ,s7 rapidly increases ) ! int5sity s z to become quickly & p]ceptibly con/ant1 :ile ! second 7! sum ( ! elem5t>y electrodynamic actions t are ex]t$ betwe5 ! spirals1 e e1 & ! ne$le1 n s7 increases proportionally to ! int5sity ( ! curr5t4 ,if we repres5t ^! two sections graphically by ref]r+ ! magnetic mom5ts z ord9ates & ! curr5t int5sities z abscissas to two co-ord9ate axes 7,fig4 #b71 we %all obta9 = ! fir/ =ce ! curve1 ,o ,a ,b1 :i*1 />t+ f ,a1 becomes s5sibly p>allel ) ! axis ( ,x1 & = ! second ! "r l9e1 ,o ,d4 ,! resultant action is repres5t$ by ! curve1 ,o ,e ,e',f4 ,x w be se5 t ?is action1 f> f be+ con/ant1 increases q rapidly ) ! int5sity ( ! curr5t1 s t ! deflections w\ld become feebl] & feebl] = /rong int5sities1 ( curr5t2 & ?is1 z well kn[n1 w\ld r5d] ! app>atus v defective f a practical po9t ( view4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,b ! action ( ! spirals c be annull$ )\t s5sibly dim9i%+ ! magnetism ( ! core by arrang+ a second sy/em ( spirals id5tical ) ! fir/1 b plac$ 9 a plane at "r angles !re)1 or1 m simply /ill1 by hav+ a s+le sy/em ( spirals compris+ ! coil ( ! electro-magnet1 b di/ribut$ 9 a plane t is oblique ) respect to ! ne$le's position ( re/4 ,x !n becomes possible1 by prop]ly modify+ su* angle ( incl9ation1 to obta9 a total direct+ action t %all cont9ue to increase ) ! int5sity1 & :i*1 graphically repres5t$1 %all give ! curve1 ,o ,g ,g',h1 = example 7,fig4 #b74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,?is arrangem5t1 :i* is adopt$ 9 ,mr4 ,kapp's in/rum5ts1 gives v good results1 z may be easily se5 by ref]5ce to ,figs4 #c & #d1 9 :i* ! curr5t int5sities or diff]5ces ( pot5tial are ref]r$ z ord9ates & ! degrees ( deflection ( ! ne$le z abscissas4 ,! unbrok5 l9es repres5t ! curves obta9$ ) ! app>atus j describ$1 :ile ! dott$ ones give ! curve ( deflection ( an ord9>y tang5t galvanomet]4 ,^! curves %[ t = /rong int5sities ( curr5t ,mr4 ,kapp's in/rum5t is m advantage\s ?an ! tang5t galvanomet]4 ,mr4 ,crompton has con/ruct$ an amp]emet] ^u ! same pr9ciple1 :i* is %[n 9 ,fig4 #e4--,la ,lumi]e ,electrique4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,*emical ,,action ,,( ,,light4 ,pr(essor ,a4 ,vogel1 9 a communication to ! ,sitzungsb]i*te d] ,mun*5] ,akademie1 br+s into prom95ce ! fact t ! hemlock plant1 :i* yields coni9e 9 ,bav>ia1 conta9s none 9 ,scotl&4 ,h5ce he concludes t sol> light plays a "p 9 ! g5]ation ( ! alkaloids 9 plants4 ,?is view is corroborat$ by ! circum/ance t ! tropical c9*onas1 if cultivat$ 9 our feebly light$ ho?\ses1 yield sc>cely any alkaloids4 ,pr(4 ,vogel has prov$ ?is exp]im5tally4 ,he has exam9$ ! b>ks ( c9*ona plants obta9$ f diff]5t cons]vatories1 b has n f\nd 9 any ( !m ! *>act]i/ic reaction ( qu99e4 ,( c\rse x is /ill possible t qu99e might be discov]$ 9 o!r cons]vatory-gr[n c9*onas1 especially z ! specim5s op]at$ ^u 7 n fully develop$4 ,b z ! reaction employ$ indicates v small quantities ( qu99e1 x may be safely assum$ t ! b>ks exam9$ conta9$ n a trace ( ?is alkaloid1 & x c sc>cely be d\bt$ t ! defici5cy ( sunlight 9 our ho?\ses is "o ( ! causes ( ! defici5cy ( qu99e4 ,x w at once /rike ! read] z desirable t specim5s ( c9*onas %\ld be cultivat$ 9 ho?\ses "u ! influ5ce ( ! electric light1 9 addition to t ( ! sun4 ,if sunlight c be reg>d$ z a factor 9 ! =mation ( alkaloids 9 ! liv+ plant1 x has1 on ! o!r h&1 a decid$ly injuri\s action ^u ! qu99e 9 ! b>k /ripp$ f ! tree4 ,on dry+ su* b>k 9 full sunlight ! qu99e is decompos$1 & !re are =m$ d>k-color$1 amorph\s1 res9-l masses4 ,9 ! manufacture ( qu99e ! b>k is consequ5tly dri$ 9 d>kness4 ,?is peculi> behavior ( qu99e on exposure to sunlight f9ds its p>allel 9 ! behavior ( *lorophyl ) ! direct rays ( ! sun4 ,x is well kn[n t ! orig9 ( *lorophyl 9 ! plant is entirely connect$ ) light1 s t etiolat$ leaves gr[+ 9 ! d>k =m no *lorophyl4 ,b z soon z *lorophyl is remov$ f ! sph]e ( vegetable life1 a brief exposure to ! direct rays ( ! sun de/roys its gre5 color completely4 ,pr(4 ,a4 ,vogel conjectures t ! =mation ( tann9 9 ! liv+ plant is to "s ext5t influ5c$ by light4 ,?is supposition is support$ by ! fact t ! proportion ( tann9 9 bee* or l>* b>k increases f bel[ upw>d--t is1 f ! less illum9at$ to ! m illum9at$ p>ts1 & ?is 9 ! proportions ( #d3f & #e3aj4 ,sunny m\nta9 slopes ( a m$ium height yield1 accord+ to wide exp]i5ce1 on an av]age ! p9e-b>ks ri*e/ 9 tann94 ,9 woods 9 level di/ricts ! proportion ( tann9 is greate/ 9 localities expos$ to ! light1 :ile d>kness seems to h an unfavorable effect4 ,"h1 also1 we mu/ ref] to ! obs]vation t leaves exceptionally expos$ to ! light are relatively ri* 9 tann94 ,we may "h add t 9 ! v frequ5t cases :]e a leaf is %ad[$ by ano!r 9 v close proximity1 or :]e a portion ( a leaf has be5 fold$ ov] by "s insect1 ! portion ?us %ad$ reta9s a pale gre5 color1 :ile adjac5t leaves1 or o!r portions ( ! same leaf1 assume _! yell[1 r$1 or br[n autumnal t9ts4 ,if1 z seems highly probable1 ^! t9ts are due to trans=mation products ( tann91 we may n unnaturally conclude t !y w be abs5t :]e tann9 has n be5 g5]at$4--,j\r4 ( ,sci5ce4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,eutexia4#a ,footnote #a3 ,read be=e ! ,birm+ham ,philosophical ,society1 ,janu>y #bb1 #ahhe4 ,by ,,?omas ,,turn]1 ,assoc4 ,r4,s4,m41 ,f4,c4,s41 ,demon/rator ( ,*emi/ry1 ,mason ,college4 ,!re are a numb] ( int]e/+ facts1 "s ( :i* are kn[n to mo/ p]sons1 & _m ( !m h be5 long recogniz$1 ( :i*1 h[ev]1 x mu/ be own$ t ! explanation is some:at obscure1 & ! connections exi/+ betwe5 !m h be5 b rec5tly po9t$ out4 ,z an example ( ?is1 x is well kn[n t salt wat] freezes at a l[] temp]ature ?an fre% wat]1 & h5ce sea-wat] may be q liquid :ile riv]s & ponds are cov]$ ) ice4 ,aga91 x is notic$ t mixtures ( salts (t5 h a fus+-po9t l[] ?an t ( ei!r ( ! con/itu5t salts1 & ( ?is fact we (t5 take advantage 9 flux+ op]ations4 ,fur!r1 x is well kn[n t c]ta9 alloys c be prep>$1 ! melt+-po9ts ( :i* are l[] ?an ! melt+-po9t ( ei!r ( ! con/itu5t metals alone4 ,?us1 :ile potassium melts at #fb4e ,c41 & sodium at ab\t #ih1 an alloy ( ^! metals is fluid at ord9>y temp]atures1 & fusible metal melts bel[ ! temp]ature ( boil+ wat]1 or m ?an #aaj l[] ?an ! melt+-po9t ( t91 ! mo/ fusible ( ! ?ree metals :i* ent] into ! composition ( ?is alloy4 ,b ?\gh ^! & _m simil> facts h be5 long kn[n1 x is b rec5tly1 ow+ l>gely to ! labors ( ,dr4 ,gu?rie1 t fre% tru?s h be5 br\ght to light1 & a connection %[n to exi/ ?r\gh\t ! :ole :i* 0 previ\sly unse51 ?\gh we h /ill to ackn[l$ge t at pres5t !re is mu* at ! root ( ! matt] :i* is b imp]fectly und]/ood4 ,/ill ,dr4 ,gu?rie proves a relation%ip to exi/ betwe5 ! sev]al facts we h previ\sly m5tion$1 & also betwe5 a numb] ( o!r ph5om5a :i* at fir/ sight appe> to be equally isolat$ & unexpect$1 & we are ask$ to reg>d !m all z examples ( :at he has call$ eutexia4 ,we may def9e a eutectic sub/ance z a body compos$ ( two or m con/itu5ts1 :i* con/itu5ts are 9 su* proportion to "o ano!r z to give to ! resultant comp\nd body a m9imum temp]ature ( liquefaction--t is1 a l[] temp]ature ( liquefaction ?an t giv5 by any o!r proportion4#b ,x w be se5 at once by ?is def9ition t ! temp]ature ( liquefaction ( a eutectic sub/ance is l[] ?an ! temp]ature ( liquefaction ( ei!r or any ( ! con/itu5ts ( ! mixture4 ,&1 fur!r1 x is pla9 t ^? sub/ances only c be eutectic :i* we c obta9 bo? z liquid & solid1 & h5ce ! prop]ty ( eutexia is closely connect$ ) solution4 ,footnote #b3 ,gu?rie1 ,phil4 ,mag4 #e1 xvii41 p4 #dfb4 ,foll[+ 9 ! natural divisions adopt$ by ,dr4 ,gu?rie1 we may consid] eutexia 9 ?ree aspects3 ,i4 ,,cryohydrates4 ,if a dilute aque\s sal9e solution be tak5 at ord9>y temp]atures1 & !n sl[ly cool$ to "s po9t bel[ z]o on ! ,c5tigrade scale1 ! foll[+ s]ies ( *anges w 9 g5]al be obs]v$3 ,on rea*+ a po9t bel[ z]o1 ! position ( :i* is dep5d5t ^u ! nature ( ! salt & ! am\nt ( dilution1 x w be f\nd t ice is =m$2 ?is w float ^u ! surface ( ! solution1 & may be readily remov$4 ,if ! ice s remov$ be aft]w>d press$1 or c>efully dra9$1 x w be f\nd to consi/ ( ne>ly pure wat]1 ! liquid dra9+ away be+ a /rong sal9e solution :i* _h become me*anically entangl$ among ! cry/als ( ice dur+ solidification4 ,if we fur!r cool ! br9e :i* rema9s1 we notice a tol]ably uni=m fall ( temp]ature ) accompany+ =mation ( ice4 ,b at l5g? a po9t is rea*$ at :i* ! temp]ature ceases to fall until ! :ole ( ! rema9+ "m-liquor has solidifi$1 ) ! production ( a comp\nd call$ a cryohydrate1#c :i* possesses physical prop]ties diff]5t f ^? ( ei!r ! ice or ! salt f :i* x is =m$4 ,footnote #c3 ,gu?rie1 ,phil4 ,mag41 #d? ,s]ies1 xlix41 pp4 #a1 #bjf1 #bff2 #e? ,s]ies1 i41 pp4 #di1 #ced1 #ddf1 vi41 p4 #ce4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 we comm5ce ) a saturat$ sal9e solution1 9 g5]al x is notic$ on cool+ ! liquid a sep>ation ( salt ensues1 :i* salt s9ks to ! bottom ( ! mass1 & may be remov$4 ,! salt s sep>at+ may be ei!r anhydr\s or a hydrate ( great] conc5tration ?an ! "m-liquor4 ,s long z ?is sep>ation proce$s ! temp]ature falls1 b at l5g? a po9t is rea*$ at :i* ! !rmomet] rema9s /ation>y until ! :ole is solidifi$1 ) ! production ( a cryohydrate4 ,?is temp]ature ( solidification is ! same :e!r we />t ) a dilute or a saturat$ solution1 & ! composition ( ! cryohydrate is f\nd to be con/ant4 ,! temp]ature ( production ( ! cryohydrate is id5tical ) ! l[e/ temp]ature :i* c be produc$ on employ+ a mixture ( ice & ! salt z a freez+ mixture or cryog54 ,x w be readily se5 t 9 ! =mation ( a cryohydrate we h an example ( eutexia1 s9ce ! con/itu5ts are pres5t 9 su* proportion z to give to ! resultant comp\nd body a m9imum temp]ature ( liquefaction4 ,,ii4 ,,eutectic ,,salt ,,alloys4#d ,footnote #d3 ,f4 ,gu?rie1 ,phil4 ,mag4 #e1 xvii41 p4 #dfi2 ,f4,b4 ,gu?rie1 ,j\rn4 ,*em4 ,soc14 #ahhe1 p4 #id4 ,al?\gh x has be5 long kn[n t on mix+ c]ta9 salts ! result+ sub/ance possess$ a l[] melt+-po9t ?an ei!r ( ! con/itu5t salts alone1 /ill b few det]m9ations ( ! melt+-po9ts ( mixtures ( salts h be5 made1 & ev5 ^! are (t5 ( small value1 on acc\nt ( ! v consid]able range ( temp]ature obs]v$ dur+ solidification4 ,?is is due l>gely to ! fact t eutectic mixtures 7 n kn[n1 z equival5t proportions ( v>i\s salts h be5 employ$1 :ile eutectic mixtures are seldom f\nd to possess any simple ari?metical molecul> relation%ip betwe5 _! con/itu5ts4 ,eutectic salt alloys closely resemble cryohydrates 9 behavior4 ,if = simplicity we conf9e our att5tion to a fus$ mixture ( two salts 9 any proportion o!r ?an eutectic1 x is f\nd t1 on cool+1 ! !rmomet] falls /eadily1 until at l5g? t salt :i* is 9 excess ( ! proportion requir$ = a eutectic mixture beg9s to sep>ate out4 ,if ?is is remov$1 ! !rmomet] falls until a fix$ po9t is rea*$ at :i* ! temp]ature rema9s /ation>y until ! :ole ( ! mixture solidifies4 ,on remelt+1 ! temp]ature ( solidification is f\nd to be q fix$1 & ! mixture is evid5tly eutectic4 ,x is ( int]e/ to notice t f our k ( ! cryohydrates x becomes possible to pr$ict ! exi/5ce1 composition1 & temp]ature ( solidification ( a eutectic alloy1 if we are previ\sly furni%$ ) ! melt+-po9ts ( mixtures ( ! sub/ances 9 "q4 ,or1 9 o!r cases1 we may pr$ict f ! curve ( melt+-po9ts t no eutectic alloy is possible4 ,z an example1 we may take ! det]m9ations ( ! melt+-po9ts ( mixtures ( potassium & sodium nitrate by ,m4 ,maum54#e ,^! are graphically repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #a1 ! curve be+ d]iv$ f ! mean ( ! temp]atures giv5 9 ! memoir4 ,f ?is diagram we %\ld be l$ to expect a eutectic mixture1 s9ce ! curve dips bel[ a horizontal l9e pass+ ?r\gh ! melt+-po9t ( ! m fusible ( its con/itu5ts4 ,f our curve we %\ld expect a eutectic mixture ) ab\t #ce p] c5t4 ,,kno#c1 & ) a temp]ature ( solidification bel[ #bcc4 ,dr4 ,gu?rie gives #cb4i p] c5t4 at #bae4 ,?is agreem5t is z good z might be expect$ :5 "o rememb]s t ! melt+-po9ts1 n be+ ( eutectic mixtures1 are difficult to det]m9e1 & a consid]able range is giv52 t analyses ( mixtures ( potassium & sodium salts are apt to v>y2 & t ! two obs]v]s diff] by #g 9 ! temp]atures giv5 = ! melt+-po9ts ( ! orig9al salts4 ,footnote #e3 ,comptes ,r5dus1 #ahhc1 #b1 p4 #de4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,dr4 ,tild5 has drawn my att5tion to an int]e/+ example ( ! l[]+ ( melt+-po9t by ! mixture ( salts4 ,! melt+-po9t ( monohydro*loride ( turp5t9e oil is #abe1 :ile t ( ! dihydro*loride is #ej2 b on simply /irr+ toge!r ^! comp\nds 9 a mort> at common temp]atures1 !y imm$iately liquefy4 ,two molecules ( ! monohydro*loride & "o molecule ( ! dihydro*loride =m a mixture :i* melts at ab\t #bj4 ,,iii4 ,,eutectic ,,metallic ,,alloys4 ,al?\gh _m fusible alloys h be5 long kn[n1 ,i believe no true eutectic metallic alloy _h be5 /udi$ until ,dr4 ,gu?rie#f work$ at ! subject1 employ+ ! same me?ods z ) 8 cryohydrates4 ,x is f\nd if two metals are fus$ toge!r & ! mixture all[$ to cool1 t ! temp]ature falls until a po9t is rea*$ at :i* t metal :i* is pres5t 9 a proportion great] ?an is requir$ to =m ! eutectic alloy beg9s to sep>ate4 ,if ?is solid be remov$ z x =ms1 ! temp]ature gradually falls until a fix$ po9t is rea*$1 at :i* ! eutectic alloy solidifies4 ,"h ! !rmomet] rema9s /ation>y until ! :ole has become solid1 &1 on remelt+1 ?is temp]ature is f\nd to be q fix$4 ,9 addition to ! di-eutectic alloys1 we h also tri- & tetra-eutectic alloys1 & z an example ( ! latt] we may take ! bismu?-t9-lead-cadmium eutectic alloy1 melt+ at #ga4 ,footnote #f3 ,phil4 ,mag41 #e? ,s]ies1 xvii41 p4 #dfb4 ,we h already se5 ) salt eutectics t1 giv5 ! curve ( melt+-po9ts ( a mixture 9 v>i\s proportions1 we may pr$ict ! exi/5ce1 composition1 & melt+-po9t ( ! eutectic alloy4 ,z a matt] ( c\rse1 ! same ?+ holds good = metallic eutectics4 ,an int]e/+ example ( ?is is furni%$ by ! t9-lead alloys1 ! melt+-po9ts ( :i* h be5 det]m9$ by ,pilli*ody4#g ,f ^! det]m9ations we obta9 ! curve giv5 9 ,fig4 #b1 & f ?is curve1 s9ce x dips bel[ a horizontal l9e pass+ ?r\gh ! melt+-po9t ( ! m fusible con/itu5t1 we are at once able to pr$ict a eutectic alloy4 ,we %\ld fur!r expect ?is to h a con/itution betwe5 ,pb,sn#c & ,pb,sn#d & a melt+-po9t some:at bel[ #aha4 ,on melt+ toge!r t9 & lead1 & all[+ ! alloy to cool1 we f9d our expectation ju/ifi$2 = by p\r+ (f ! fluid portion :i* rema9s aft] solidification has comm5c$1 & repeat+ ?is sev]al times ) ! portion s remov$1 we at l5g? obta9 an alloy :i* solidifies at ! con/ant temp]ature ( #ahj1 :5 ! melt+-po9t ( t9 is tak5 z #bbh4 ,on analysis #a4jfd grm4 ( ?is alloy gave #j4hhe grm4 ,sn,o#b1 :i* corresponds to ,sn #fe4dc p] c5t41 or ,pb,sn#c4c4 ,?is1 !re=e1 is ! composition ( ! eutectic alloy1 & x f9ds its place naturally on ! curve giv5 9 ,fig4 #b4 ,footnote #g3 ,d+l]'s ,polyt4 ,j\rn41 #afb1 p4 #bag2 ,jahresb]i*te1 #ahfa1 p4 #bgi4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,x w be se5 t ! subject ( eutexia embraces _m po9ts ( practical importance & ( !oretical int]e/4 ,?us x has be5 %[n by ,dr4 ,gu?rie t ! desilv]iz+ ( lead 9 ,patt9son's process is b a case ( eutexia1 ! sep>ation ( lead on cool+ a ba? ( arg5tif]\s lead poor 9 silv] be+ analog\s to ! sep>ation ( ice f a salt solution4 ,dr4 ,gu?rie has also %[n t eutexia may reasonably be suppos$ to h play$ an important "p 9 ! production & sep>ation ( _m rock-=m+ m9]als4 ,x is ) consid]able diffid5ce t ,i sugge/ ! foll[+ z an explanation ( ! multitude ( facts to :i* previ\s ref]5ce has be5 made4 ,9 a mixture ( two sub/ances1 ,a & ,b1 we h ! foll[+ =ces active1 t5d+ to produce solidification3 #a4 ,! cohesion betwe5 ! p>ticles ( ,a4 #b4 ,! cohesion betwe5 ! p>ticles ( ,b4 #c4 ,! cohesion betwe5 ! p>ticles ( ,a & ! p>ticles ( ,b4 ,) reg>d to ?is la/ factor1 x w be se5 t !re are ?ree cases possible3 #a4 ,! cohesion ( ! mixture ,a ,b may be great] ?an ! cohesion ( ,a ! cohesion ( ,b4 #b4 ,! cohesion ( ,a ,b may be equal to ! cohesion ( ,a ! cohesion ( ,b4 #c4 ,! cohesion ( ,a ,b may be less ?an ! cohesion ( ,a ! cohesion ( ,b4 ,n[1 s9ce cohesion t5ds to produce solidification1 we %\ld 9 ! fir/ case expect to f9d ! melt+-po9t ( ! mixture high] ?an ! mean ( ! melt+-po9ts ( its con/itu5ts1 or ! curve ( melt+-po9ts w\ld be ( ! =m giv5 9 a1 ,fig4 #c4 ,"h no eutectic mixture is possible4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,9 ! second case1 :]e cohesion ,a ,b cohesion ,a ,b1 we %\ld obta9 melt+-po9ts = ! mixture :i* w\ld agree ) ! mean ( ! melt+-po9ts ( ! con/itu5ts1 ! curve ( melt+-po9ts w\ld be a /raight l9e1 & aga9 no eutectic mixture w\ld be possible4 ,9 ! ?ird case1 h[ev]1 :]e cohesion ,a ,b is less ?an cohesion ,a ,b1 we %\ld f9d ! melt+-po9ts ( ! mixture l[] ?an ! mean ( ! melt+-po9ts ( its con/itu5ts1 & ! curve ( melt+-po9ts w\ld be ( ! =m giv5 9 e1 ,fig4 #c4 ,"h1 9 ^? cases :]e ! diff]5ce ( cohesion on mixture is consid]able1 ! curve ( melt+-po9ts may dip bel[ ! l9e e f4 ,?is is ! only case 9 :i* a eutectic mixture is possible1 & x is1 ( c\rse1 f\nd at ! l[e/ po9t ( ! curve4 ,if x be true1 z above sugge/$1 t ! =ce ( cohesion is at its m9imum 9 ! eutectic alloy1 we %\ld expect to f9d1 9 prep>+ a eutectic sub/ance1 ei!r t actual expansion took place1 or t ! molecul> volume w\ld gradually increase 9 pass+ along our curve ( melt+-po9ts1 f ei!r end1 = ea* molecule add$1 & t x w\ld obta9 its greate/ value at ! po9t correspond+ to ! eutectic alloy4 ,( ?is ,i h no direct evid5ce z yet1 b x is a po9t ( consid]able int]e/1 & ,i may possibly return to x at "s future "t4--,*emical ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,*9ol9e4 ,dr4 ,conrad ,b]5s1 ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,p5nsylvania1 rea*es ! foll[+3 #a4 ,*9ol9e t>trate is a p[]ful ag5t1 produc+ dea? by asphyxia4 #b4 ,! drug increases ! =ce & frequ5cy ( ! respirations by /imulat+ ! vagus roots 9 ! lung4 #c4 ,x p>alyzes respiration f9ally by a second>y depressant action ^u ! respiratory c5t]4 #d4 ,x does n cause convulsions4 #e4 ,x less5s & f9ally aboli%es reflex action by a direct action ^u ! cord1 & by a slight action ^u ! muscles & n]ves4 #f4 ,x dim9i%es or aboli%es muscul> contractility respectively :5 appli$ ?r\gh ! circulation or directly4 #g4 ,x coagulates myos9 & album54 #h4 ,x causes insalivation by p>alysis ( ! secretory fib]s ( ! *orda tympani2 increases ! fl[ ( bile2 has no action ^u ! sple54 #i4 ,x l[]s blood-pressure by p>alyz+ ! vaso-motor c5t]s & by a direct depressant action ^u ! he>t muscle4 #aj4 ,x dim9i%es ! pulse rate by direct action ^u ! he>t4 #aa4 ,x l[]s ! temp]ature by increas+ ! loss ( heat4 #ab4 ,x is a p[]ful antiseptic2 &1 f9ally1 #ac4 ,its pa?s ( elim9ation are n kn[n4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,me?od ,,= ,,rapid ,,e/imation ,,( ,,urea4 ,be+ call$ ^u to make a good _m brief & rapid analyses ( ur9e on cl9ic days ( our m$ical dep>tm5t1 ,i devis$ ! foll[+ modification ( ,knop's me?od ( e/imat+ urea2 & aft] us+ x = a ye> ) p]fectly satisfactory results1 v5ture to describe & recomm5d x z especially adapt$ = physicians' use1 by reason ( simplicity1 *eapness1 & accuracy4 ,9 p]fect+ & te/+ x ,i 0 assi/$ greatly by ,j4 ,torrey1 ,jr41 !n work+ ) me4 ,illu/ration ,! app>atus consi/s ( ! glass tube1 ,a1 :i* is ab\t #h cm4 long & #b cm4 9 diamet]1 jo9$ to ! tube1 ,b1 :i* is ab\t #be or #cj cm4 9 l5g? 9 its long] arm & #h or #aj 9 its %ort]1 & has a diamet] ( ab\t #e mm4 ,ne> ! b5d is an outlet tube1 c1 provid$ ) ball valve or p9* cock4 d1 e1 f1 g1 are m>ks ^u ! tubes4 ,c is a rubb] cork ) two holes ?r\gh :i* ! b5t tube1 ,d1 passes4 ,d is ( su* size & l5g? z to hold ab\t #a c4c41 & "o ( its ends may be a trifle long] ?an ! o!r4 ,! app>atus is us$ z foll[s3 ,remove ! cork & p\r 9 m]cury until x /&s at e & g1 !n fill up to ! m>k1 f1 ) sodium or potassium hypobromite 7made by %ak+ up brom9e ) a /rong solution ( sodium or potassium hydroxide74 ,next c>efully fill ! tube 9 ! cork ) ! ur9e1 be+ c>eful especially n to run x ov] or leave air bubbles 9 x4 ,?is c easily be done by us+ a small pipette1 b if accid5tally a little runs ov]1 x %\ld be wip$ (f ! end ( ! cork ) blott+ pap]4 ,! cork is !n to be ins]t$ closely into ! tube2 ! ur9e tube be+ s small1 ! ur9e w n run out 9 s do+4 ,! m]cury is !n drawn out ?r\gh c till x /&s 9 ,b at d4 ,its level 9 ,a w ( c\rse n be *ang$ greatly4 ,n[1 incl9e ! app>atus till ! surface ( ! hypobromite t\*es ! ur9e 9 ! long] "p ( ! ur9e tube1 & !n br+ x upright aga94 ,! ur9e w ?us be dis*>g$ into ! hypobromite1 :i* w ( c\rse decompose ! urea1 lib]at+ nitrog51 :i* w cause ! m]cury to rise 9 ,b4 ,%ake until no fur!r *ange ( level is se51 & m>k ! level ( m]cury 9 ,b ) a rubb] b&1 !n remove ! cork1 draw out ! liquid ) a pipette1 dry out ! tube above ! m]cury ) scrap ( blott+ pap]1 p\r back ! m]cury drawn out1 & repeat ! process to be sure t no error 0 made4 ,if n[ two or ?ree m>ks h be5 made ^u ! tube1 ,b1 indicat+ ! height ( ! m]cury :5 solutions conta9+ kn[n p] c5ts4 ( urea are us$1 an accurate op9ion c be at once =m$ z to ! condition ( ! ur9e z reg>ds urea4 ,z is well kn[n1 normal ur9e conta9s ab\t #b4e-c p] c5t4 ( urea1 s t graduations repres5t+ #b1 #b4e1 #c1 & #d p] c5t4 are usually all t are ne$$1 ?\gh ( c\rse _m m c be easily made4 ,! results obta9$ ) ?is app>atus h be5 repeat$ly comp>$ ) ^? ( m elaborate ones1 & no practical diff]5ce obs]v$4 ,evid5tly ! same app>atus1 diff]5tly graduat$1 might be employ$ to det]m9e ! c>bonate pres5t 9 su* a sub/ance z crude soda a% or o!r simil> mixture4 ,9 su* a case ! weigh$ mat]ial w\ld be put ^u ! m]cury ) wat] & ! small tube fill$ ) acid4 ,b[do9 ,college ,*emical ,laboratory4--,f4,c4 ,rob9son1 9 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,j\r4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,catalogue conta9+ brief notices ( _m important sci5tific pap]s h]et(ore publi%$ 9 ! ,,supplem5t1 may be _h gratis at ?is (fice4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ,,supplem5t4 ,,publi%$ ,,weekly4 ,t]ms ( ,subscription1 #e a ye>4 ,s5t by mail1 po/age prepaid1 to subscrib]s 9 any "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates or ,canada4 ,six doll>s a ye>1 s5t1 prepaid1 to any =eign c\ntry4 ,all ! back numb]s ( ,,! ,,supplem5t1 f ! comm5cem5t1 ,janu>y #a1 #ahgf1 c be _h4 ,price1 #aj c5ts ea*4 ,all ! back volumes ( ,,! ,,supplem5t c likewise be suppli$4 ,two volumes are issu$ ye>ly4 ,price ( ea* volume1 #b4ej /it*$ 9 pap]1 or #c4ej b\nd 9 /iff cov]s4 ,,comb9$ ,,rates4--,"o copy ( ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican & "o copy ( ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ,,supplem5t1 "o ye>1 po/paid1 #g4jj4 ,a lib]al disc\nt to booksell]s1 news ag5ts1 & canvass]s4 ,,munn ,,co41 ,,publi%]s1 #cfa ,,broadway4 ,,new ,,york1 ,n4,y4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,pat5ts4 ,9 connection ) ! ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican1 ,messrs4 ,,munn ,,co4 are solicitors ( ,am]ican & ,=eign ,pat5ts1 h _h #dj ye>s' exp]i5ce1 & n[ h ! l>ge/ e/abli%m5t 9 ! _w4 ,pat5ts are obta9$ on ! be/ t]ms4 ,a special notice is made 9 ! ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ( all inv5tions pat5t$ ?r\gh ?is ,ag5cy1 ) ! 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