,illustration3 ,,the ,,aurora ,,borealis ,,in ,,the ,,arctic ,,regions4 ,a ,,catechism ,,of ,,familiar ,,things2 ,,their ,,history1 ,,and ,,the ,,events ,,which ,,led ,,to ,,their ,,discovery4 ,,with ,a ,,short ,,explanation ,,of ,,some ,,of ,,the ,,principal ,,natural ,,phenomena4 ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,schools ,,and ,,families4 ,enlarged and ,revised ,edition4 ,,new ,,york1 ,,cincinnati1 ,,and ,,st4 ,,louis3 ,,benziger ,,brothers ,,printers ,,to ,,the ,,holy ,,apostolic ,,see4 ,,copyright1 #ahha1 ,,by ,,benziger ,,brothers4 ,,preface4 ,this book1 a reprint of a successful ,english publication1 has been so enlarged as to be to all intents and purposes new4 ,it has been carefully revised by a ,reverend gentleman1 who for some time filled the chair of ,physics and ,chemistry in one of our colleges4 ,recent inventions and improvements are described in a simple1 popular style1 so as to be easily understood by all1 and short notices are given of prominent inventors and scientists4 ,the paragraphs relating to doctrinal matters conform in every respect to the teachings of the ,church4 ,a feature which will commend the book to every teacher is the definitions of difficult words and terms1 following the paragraphs in which such words occur4 ,technical language is avoided as much as possible1 so as to enable young pupils to become familiarly acquainted with the various phenomena of nature1 the leading characteristics and general history of the objects of the animal1 vegetable1 and mineral kingdoms1 and the fundamental truths of the arts and sciences4 ,the illustrations are of a superior order1 and a very complete ,index1 which will be appreciated by every teacher1 supplements the book4 ,in a word1 no pains have been spared to enhance the value of the work1 and render it an important auxiliary in the dissemination of useful and entertaining knowledge4 ,the publishers beg to acknowledge their obligations to the ,sisters of ,mercy1 ,loretto1 ,pa41 to whose kindness they are indebted for many valuable suggestions4 ,in the hope that the book may be found suited to the accomplishment of its aim1 it is respectfully submitted to schools and instructors of youth1 who are the best judges of its merits4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,dew1 ,water1 ,rain1 ,snow1 ,hail1 ,atmosphere1 ,wind1 ,lightning1 ,thunder1 ,electricity1 ,twilight1 and the ,aurora ,borealis ,,ii4 ,corn1 ,barley1 ,pearl ,barley1 ,oats1 ,rye1 ,potatoes1 ,tea1 ,coffee1 and ,chocolate ,,iii4 ,calico1 ,cotton1 ,cloth1 ,wool1 ,baize1 ,linen1 ,flax1 ,hemp1 ,diaper1 ,holland1 ,canvas1 and ,flannel ,,iv4 ,cocoa1 ,toddy1 ,cherries1 ,bark1 ,cork1 ,cochineal1 ,cloves1 ,cinnamon1 and ,cassia ,v4 ,bombazine1 ,crape1 ,camlet1 ,cambric1 ,lace1 ,silk1 ,velvet1 and ,mohair ,,vi4 ,currants1 ,raisins1 ,figs1 ,rice1 ,sugar1 ,sugar ,candy1 c41 ,sago1 ,millet1 ,ginger1 ,nutmeg1 ,mace1 ,pimento or ,allspice1 ,pepper1 and ,cayenne ,pepper ,,vii4 ,glass1 ,mirrors1 ,earthenware1 ,porcelain1 ,needles1 ,pins1 ,paper1 ,printing1 ,parchment1 and ,vellum ,,viii4 ,capers1 ,almonds1 ,oranges1 ,lemons1 ,citrons1 ,limes1 ,olives1 ,oils1 ,melons1 ,tamarinds1 and ,dates ,,ix4 ,hats1 ,stockings1 ,shoes1 ,gloves1 ,leather1 ,furs1 and ,ink ,x4 ,asbestus1 ,salt1 ,coal1 ,iron1 ,copper1 ,brass1 ,zinc1 and ,lapis ,calaminaris ,,xi4 ,yams1 ,mangoes1 ,bread-,fruit1 ,shea or ,butter ,tree1 ,cow ,tree1 ,water ,tree1 ,licorice1 ,manna1 ,opium1 ,tobacco1 and ,gum ,,xii4 ,spectacles1 ,mariner's ,compass1 ,barometer1 ,thermometer1 ,watches1 ,clocks1 ,telescope1 ,microscope1 ,gunpowder1 ,steam ,engine1 and ,electro-,magnetic ,telegraph ,,xiii4 ,soap1 ,candles1 ,tallow ,tree1 ,spermaceti1 ,wax1 ,mahogany1 ,india ,rubber or ,caoutchouc1 ,sponge1 ,coral1 ,lime1 ,carbon1 ,oxygen1 ,nitrogen1 ,gas1 ,hydrogen1 ,chalk1 and ,marble ,,xiv4 ,gold1 ,silver1 ,lead1 ,tin1 ,platina1 ,sulphur1 ,gems or ,precious ,stones--as ,diamonds1 ,rubies1 ,emeralds1 ,turquois1 ,pearls1 ,mother-of-,pearl1 and ,ivory ,,xv4 ,starch1 ,arrow-root1 ,tapioca1 ,isinglass1 ,caviare1 the ,vine1 ,wine1 ,gin1 ,rum1 ,brandy1 ,vinegar1 ,indigo1 ,gamboge1 ,logwood1 ,tar1 ,pitch1 ,camphor1 ,musk1 ,myrrh1 ,frankincense1 and ,turpentine ,,xvi4 ,bricks1 ,mortar1 ,granite1 ,slate1 ,limestone1 or ,calcareous ,rocks1 ,steel1 ,earths1 ,volcanoes1 and ,earthquakes ,,xvii4 ,architecture1 ,sculpture1 ,use of ,money1 and ,navigation ,,xviii4 ,music1 ,painting1 ,poetry1 ,astronomy1 ,arts and ,sciences1 ,art of ,writing1 and ,chemistry ,,xix4 ,attraction1 ,tides1 ,gravity1 ,artesian ,wells1 ,air1 ,aneroid ,barometer1 ,ear-,trumpet1 ,stethoscope1 ,audiphone1 ,telephone1 ,phonograph1 ,microphone1 ,megaphone1 ,tasimeter1 ,bathometer1 ,anemometer1 ,chronometer ,,xx4 ,light1 ,lime ,light1 ,magnesium ,light1 ,electric ,light1 ,rainbow1 ,prism1 ,spectrum1 ,colors1 ,photography1 ,camera ,obscura1 ,stereoscope1 ,kaleidoscope ,,xxi4 ,electricity1 ,electric ,currents1 ,electric ,battery1 ,electrotyping1 ,stereotyping1 ,telegraph1 ,ocean ,cable1 ,lightning ,rod1 ,the ,gulf ,stream1 ,the ,mt4 ,cenis ,tunnel1 ,the ,suez ,canal1 ,suspension ,bridges1 ,eminent ,americans ,a ,,catechism ,,of ,,familiar ,,things4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,dew1 ,,water1 ,,rain1 ,,snow1 ,,hail1 ,,atmosphere1 ,,wind1 ,,lightning1 ,,thunder1 ,,electricity1 ,,twilight1 ,,and ,,the ,,aurora ,,borealis4 ,what is ,dew8 ,moisture collected from the atmosphere by the action of cold4 ,during the day1 the powerful heat of the sun causes to arise from the earth and water a moist vapor1 which1 after the sun sinks below the horizon1 is condensed by the cold1 and falls in the form of dew4 ,dews are more copious in the ,spring and ,autumn than at any other season2 in warm countries than in cold ones3 because of the sudden changes of temperature4 ,egypt abounds in dews all the summer2 for the air being too hot to condense the vapors in the day-time1 they never gather into clouds and form rain4 ,horizon1 the line which bounds the view on all sides1 so that the earth and sky appear to meet4 ,a ,greek word1 from the verb signifying to mark boundaries4 ,temperature1 degree of heat or cold4 ,condense1 to cause the particles of a body to approach or unite more closely4 ,what are its uses8 ,it cools and refreshes the vegetable creation1 and prevents it from being destroyed by the heat of the sun4 ,all hot countries where there is little or no rain are therefore blessed with this provision by the all-bountiful ,creator1 to render them luxuriant and inhabitable2 and the dews which fall are so copious1 that the earth is as deeply soaked with them during the night as if a heavy rain had fallen4 ,for this reason also it is1 that we so often read in the ,bible of the dew of ,heaven being promised to the ,israelites as a signal favor4 ,luxuriant1 fertile1 flourishing4 ,signal1 remarkable1 eminent4 ,from what does the vapor originate8 ,vapor is water1 combined with a still greater quantity of caloric1--that is1 an imponderable and subtile form of matter1 which causes the sensation of heat2 and which1 driving asunder the particles of the water1 renders it ariform4 ,imponderable1 without sensible weight4 ,subtile1 thin1 not dense1 or compact4 ,particle1 a small portion of matter4 ,ariform1 having the form of air4 ,what is ,water8 ,the fluid which covers more than three-fifths of the surface of our globe1 and which is necessary for the life and health of the animal and vegetable creation2 for without water there would be neither rain nor dew1 and everything would perish4 ,it is likewise a necessary beverage for man and the inferior animals4 ,beverage1 drink1 liquor for drinking4 ,in how many states do we find ,water8 ,in four3 #ast1 solid1 as in ice1 snow1 hail1 c42 #b;d1 fluid1 as in its common form2 #c;d1 ariform1 as in steam2 and #dth1 in a state of union with other matter4 ,its most simple state is that of ice1 which is water deprived of a certain portion of its caloric3 crystallization then takes place1 and the water becomes solid and is called ice4 ,crystallization1 the process by which the parts of a solid body1 separated by solution or fusion1 are again brought into the solid form4 ,if the process is slow1 the figure assumed is regular and bounded by plane and smooth surfaces4 ,solution1 the diffusion of a solid through some liquid4 ,fusion1 melting1 or rendering fluid by heat4 ,from what cause is the ,water deprived of its caloric8 ,from the coldness of the atmosphere3 underneath the poles of our globe it is mostly solid2 there it is similar to the hardest rocks1 and may be cut with a chisel1 like stone or marble4 ,this great solidity is occasioned by the low temperature of the surrounding air2 and in very cold countries ice may be ground so fine as to be blown away by the wind1 and will still be ice4 ,poles1 the extremities or ends of the axis1 an imaginary line1 supposed to be drawn through the centre of the earth2 or when applied to the heavens1 the two points directly over them4 ,is ice the only instance of ,water existing in a state of solidity8 ,no2 it is found in a solid state in many minerals1 as in marble1 c41 and is then called water of ,crystallization4 ,it is essential1 in many cases1 to their solidity and transparency4 ,essential1 necessary4 ,transparency1 clearness1 the power of transmitting light4 ,does ,nature decompose ,water in any of her operations8 ,yes3 every living vegetable has the power of decomposing water1 by a secret process peculiar to itself4 ,fish1 too1 and all cold-blooded amphibious animals are gifted with the same power4 ,decomposing1 separating a mixed body into its several parts4 ,amphibious1 able to live both in water and out of it4 ,of what use is this power to vegetables8 ,the water which they decompose affords them nourishment for the support of their vital juices1 and enables them1 by combining the fluid gases which compose it with those of the air and the soil1 to form their different products2 while the superfluous gas is abundantly given out by their leaves1 to refresh the spent air1 and render it wholesome for the animals that breathe it4 ,vital1 belonging to life1 necessary to existence4 ,superfluous1 unnecessary1 not wanted4 ,what is ,rain8 ,the condensed aqueous vapors raised in the atmosphere by the sun and wind1 converted into clouds1 which fall in rain1 snow1 hail1 or mist3 their falling is occasioned by their own weight in a collision produced by contrary currents of wind1 from the clouds passing into a colder part of the air1 or by electricity4 ,if the vapors are more copious1 and rise a little higher1 they form a mist or fog1 which is visible to the eye2 higher still they produce rain4 ,hence we may account for the changes of the weather3 why a cold summer is always a wet one--a warm1 a dry one4 ,aqueous1 watery2 consisting of water4 ,collision1 a striking together1 a clash1 a meeting4 ,electricity1 a natural agent existing in all bodies 7see page #ah74 ,what seasons are more liable to rain than others8 ,the ,spring and ,autumn are generally the most rainy seasons1 the vapors rise more plentifully in ,spring2 and in the ,autumn1 as the sun recedes from us and the cold increases1 the vapors1 which lingered above us during the summer heats1 fall more easily4 ,recede1 to fall back1 to retreat4 ,what is ,snow8 ,rain congealed by cold in the atmosphere1 which causes it to fall to the earth in white flakes4 ,snow fertilizes the ground by defending the roots of plants from the intenser cold of the air and the piercing winds4 ,congealed1 turned by the force of cold from a fluid to a solid state2 hardened4 ,fertilize1 to render fruitful4 ,intenser1 raised to a higher degree1 more powerful4 ,what is ,hail8 ,drops of rain frozen in their passage through cold air4 ,hail assumes various figures according to the degrees of heat or cold through which it passes1 being sometimes round1 flat1 c4 ,what is the ,atmosphere8 ,the mass of ariform fluid which encompasses the earth on all sides3 it extends about fifty miles above its surface4 ,air is the elastic fluid of which it is composed4 ,elastic1 having the power of springing back1 or recovering its former figure after the removal of any external pressure which has altered that figure4 ,when the force which compresses the air is removed1 it expands and resumes its former state4 ,what are the uses of air8 ,it is necessary to the well-being of man1 since without it neither he nor any animal or vegetable could exist4 ,if it were not for atmospheric air1 we should be unable to converse with each other2 we should know nothing of sound or smell2 or of the pleasures which arise from the variegated prospects which surround us3 it is to the presence of air and carbonic acid that water owes its agreeable taste4 ,boiling deprives it of the greater part of these1 and renders it insipid4 ,variegated1 diversified1 changed2 adorned with different colors4 ,insipid1 tasteless4 ,what is ,wind8 ,air in motion with any degree of velocity4 ,what is ,lightning8 ,the effect of electricity in the clouds4 ,a flash of lightning is simply a stream of the electric fluid passing from the clouds to the earth1 from the earth to the clouds1 or from one cloud to another4 ,lightning usually strikes the highest and most pointed objects1 as high hills1 trees1 spires1 masts of ships1 c4 ,what is ,thunder8 ,the report which accompanies the electrical union of the clouds3 or the echoes of the report between them and the earth4 ,thunder is caused by a sudden discharge of electrical matter collected in the air1 by which vibrations are produced1 which give rise to the sound4 ,what is ,electricity8 ,one of those agents passing through the earth and all substances1 without giving any outward signs of its presence1 when at rest2 yet when active1 often producing violent and destructive effects4 ,it is supposed to be a highly elastic fluid1 capable of moving through matter4 ,clouds owe their form and existence1 probably1 to it2 and it passes through all substances1 but more easily through metals1 water1 the human body1 c41 which are called conductors1 than through air1 glass1 and silk1 which are called non-conductors4 ,when bodies are not surrounded with non-conductors1 the electricity escapes quickly into the earth4 ,to what part of bodies is ,electricity confined8 ,to their surfaces1 as the outside may be electric1 and the inside in a state of neutrality4 ,the heat produced by an electric shock is very powerful1 but is only accompanied by light when the fluid is obstructed in its passage4 ,the production and condensation of vapor is a great source of the atmospheric electricity4 ,condensation1 the act of making any body dense or compact2 that is1 of bringing its parts into closer union4 ,in what other sense is the term ,electricity employed8 ,this term is also employed to designate that important branch of knowledge which relates to the properties shown by certain bodies when rubbed against1 or otherwise brought in contact with1 each other1 to attract substances1 and emit sparks of fire4 ,designate1 to point out by some particular token4 ,emit1 to send forth1 to throw out4 ,illustration3 ,,cutting ,,and ,,gathering ,,ice1 ,,on ,,the ,,hudson ,,river1 ,,new ,,york4 ,whence is the word derived8 ,from electron1 the ,greek word for amber1 a yellow transparent substance1 remarkable for its electrical power when rubbed3 amber is of a resinous nature1 and is collected from the sea-shore1 or dug from the earth1 in many parts of the world4 ,it is employed in the manufacture of beads and other toys1 on account of its transparency2 is of some use in medicine1 and in the making of varnishes4 ,transparent1 clear1 capable of being seen through4 ,resinous1 containing resin1 a gummy vegetable juice4 ,name a few substances possessing this remarkable property4 ,silks of all kinds2 the hair and fur of animals1 paper1 sulphur1 and some other minerals2 most of the precious stones2 the paste of which false gems are made2 and many other substances used by us in the common affairs of life1 are susceptible of electrical excitement2 among domestic animals the cat furnishes a remarkable instance4 ,when dry and warm1 the back of almost any full-grown cat 7the darker its color the better7 can be excited by rubbing it with the hand in the direction of the hair1 a process which is accompanied with a slight snapping noise1 and in the dark by flashes of pale blue light4 ,when a piece of glass is rubbed with silk1 or a stick of red sealing-wax with woollen cloth1 each substance acquires the property of attracting and repelling feathers1 straws1 threads of cotton1 and other light substances2 the substances just mentioned as highly electric are1 however1 merely specimens4 ,all objects1 without exception1 most probably are capable of being electrically excited2 but some require more complicated contrivances to produce it than others4 ,electric1 having the properties of electricity4 ,susceptible1 disposed to admit easily4 ,repelling1 the act of driving back4 ,complicated1 formed by the union of several parts in one4 ,is there not a machine by which we are enabled to obtain large supplies of electric power at pleasure8 ,yes2 the electrical machine4 ,it is made of different forms and sizes3 for common purposes those of the simplest form are the best4 ,a common form of the machine consists of a circular plate of glass1 which can be turned about a horizontal axis by means of a suitable handle4 ,this plate turns between two supports1 and near its upper and lower edges are two pairs of cushions1 usually made of leather1 stuffed with horse-hair and coated with a mixture of zinc1 tin1 and mercury1 called an amalgam4 ,these cushions are the rubbers for producing friction1 and are connected with the earth by means of a metal chain or rod4 ,two large hollow cylinders of brass with globular ends1 each supported by two glass pillars1 constitute the reservoir for receiving the electricity4 ,they are called the prime conductors1 and are supplied with ,u-shaped rods of metal1 furnished with points along their sides1 called combs1 for the purpose of receiving the electricity from the glass plate1 the arms of the ,u being held upon either side4 ,the other ends of the conductors are connected by a rod from the middle of which projects another rod terminating in a knob1 for delivering the spark4 ,on turning the plate1 a faint snapping sound is heard1 and when the room is darkened1 a spark is seen to be thrown out from the knob projecting from the prime conductors4 ,many curious and interesting experiments may be performed by means of the machine1 illustrating the general properties of electricity4 ,for instance3 a person standing on an insulated bench1 that is1 a bench with glass legs1 or having the legs resting on glass1 and having one hand on the conductor1 can send sparks1 with the other hand1 to everything and everybody about4 ,this illustrates communication of electricity by contact4 ,a wooden head1 covered with long hairs1 when placed on the conductor1 illustrates electrical repulsion1 by the hairs standing on end4 ,if the hand is held to the knob1 sparks will pass from it in rapid succession1 causing in the hand a sensation of pain4 ,this is called an electric shock1 and is caused by the electric fluid occasioning a sudden motion by the contraction of the muscles through which it passes4 ,the force of the shock is in proportion to the power of the machine4 ,what are the ,muscles8 ,bundles of thin fleshy fibres1 or threads1 fastened to the bones of animals1 the contraction and expansion of which move the bones or perform the organic functions of life4 ,organic1 relating to organs or natural instruments by which some process is carried on4 ,functions1 employments or offices of any part of the body4 ,contraction1 drawing in or shortening4 ,expansion1 extending or spreading out4 ,what is ,twilight8 ,the light from the first dawning of day to the rising of the sun2 and again between its setting and the last remains of day4 ,without twilight1 the sun's light would appear at its rising1 and disappear at its setting1 instantaneously2 and we should experience a sudden transition from the brightest sunshine to the profoundest obscurity4 ,the duration of twilight is different in different climates2 and in the same places it varies at different periods of the year4 ,instantaneously1 done in an instant1 in a moment's time4 ,obscurity1 darkness1 want of light4 ,how is it produced8 ,by the sun's refraction--that is1 the variation of the rays of light from their direct course1 occasioned by the difference of density in the atmosphere4 ,variation1 change4 ,density1 closeness of parts1 compactness4 ,what is the poetical name for the morning ,twilight8 ,aurora1 the goddess of the morning1 and harbinger of the rising sun3 whom poets and artists represent as drawn by white horses in a rose-colored chariot1 unfolding with her rosy fingers the portals of the ,east1 pouring reviving dew upon the earth1 and re-animating plants and flowers4 ,harbinger1 a forerunner4 ,portals1 gates1 doors of entrance4 ,reanimating1 invigorating with new life4 ,what remarkable phenomenon is afforded to the inhabitants of the polar regions8 ,the ,aurora ,borealis1 or ,northern ,lights1 a luminous appearance in the northern parts of the heavens1 seen mostly during winter1 or in frosty weather1 and clear evenings2 it assumes a variety of forms and hues1 especially in the polar regions1 where it appears in its perfection1 and proves a great solace to the inhabitants amidst the gloom of their long winter's night1 which lasts from one to six months1 while the summer's day which succeeds it lasts in like manner for the same period of time4 ,of what nature is the ,aurora ,borealis8 ,it is decidedly an electrical phenomenon which takes place in the higher regions of the atmosphere4 ,it is somehow connected with the magnetic poles of the earth2 and generally appears in form of a luminous arch1 from east to west1 but never from north to south4 ,phenomenon1 an extraordinary appearance4 ,the word is from a ,greek one1 signifying1 to show or appear4 ,magnetic1 belonging to the magnet1 or loadstone4 ,luminous1 bright1 shining4 ,in what country is it seen constantly from ,october to ,christmas8 ,in ,siberia1 where it is remarkably bright4 ,on the western coast of ,hudson's ,bay1 the sun no sooner disappears1 than the ,aurora ,borealis diffuses a thousand different lights and colors with such dazzling beauty1 that even the full moon cannot eclipse it4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,corn1 ,,barley1 ,,pearl ,,barley1 ,,oats1 ,,rye1 ,,potatoes1 ,,tea1 ,,coffee1 ,,and ,,chocolate4 ,what is ,corn8 ,corn signifies a race of plants which produce grain in an ear or head1 fit for bread1 the food of man2 or the grain or seed of the plant1 separated from the ear4 ,what is generally meant by ,corn8 ,in this country1 maize1 or ,indian corn1 is generally meant2 but1 in a more comprehensive sense1 the term is applied to several other kinds of grain1 such as wheat1 rye1 barley1 oats1 c4 ,where was ,corn first used8 ,it is uncertain4 ,the ,athenians pretend that it was amongst them it was first used2 the ,cretans1 ,sicilians1 and ,egyptians also lay claim to the same4 ,from the accounts in the ,bible1 we find that its culture engaged a large share of the attention of the ancient ,hebrews4 ,culture1 growth1 cultivation4 ,hebrews1 the children of ,israel1 the ,jews ,who were the ,athenians8 ,inhabitants of ,athens1 the capital city of ,greece4 ,who were the ,cretans8 ,the inhabitants of ,crete1 an island of the ,archipelago4 ,who were the ,sicilians8 ,inhabitants of ,sicily1 the largest island of the ,mediterranean ,sea1 now a part of ,italy1 and separated from the mainland by the ,strait of ,messina4 ,where do the ,egyptians dwell8 ,in ,egypt1 a country of ,africa4 ,it is extremely fertile1 producing great quantities of corn4 ,in ancient times it was called the dry nurse of ,rome and ,italy1 from its furnishing with corn a considerable part of the ,roman ,empire2 and we are informed1 both from sacred and profane history1 that it was anciently the most fertile in corn of all countries of the world4 ,the corn of ,syria has always been very superior1 and by many classed above that of ,egypt4 ,for what is ,barley generally used8 ,it is very extensively used for making malt1 from which are prepared beer1 ale1 porter1 c42 in ,scotland it is a common ingredient in broths1 for which reason its consumption is very considerable1 barley broth being a dish very frequent there4 ,ingredient1 a separate part of a body consisting of different materials4 ,what is ,pearl ,barley8 ,barley freed from the husk by a mill4 ,what are ,oats8 ,a valuable grain1 serving as food for horses4 ,oats are also eaten by the inhabitants of many countries1 after being ground into meal and made into oat cakes4 ,oatmeal also forms a wholesome drink for invalids1 by steeping it in boiling water4 ,what are the uses of ,rye8 ,in this and some other countries it is much used for bread1 either alone or mixed with wheat2 in ,england principally as food for cattle1 especially for sheep and lambs1 when other food is scarce in winter4 ,rye yields a strong spirit when distilled4 ,distilled1 subjected to distillation--the operation of extracting spirit from a substance by evaporation and condensation4 ,of what country is the ,potato a native8 ,potatoes grew wild in ,peru1 a country of ,south ,america2 whence they were transplanted to other parts of the ,american continent1 and afterwards to ,europe4 ,the honor of introducing this useful vegetable into ,england is divided between ,sir ,francis ,drake1 in #aehj1 and ,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 in #aehf1 some ascribing it to the former1 and others to the latter4 ,it is certain they were obtained from ,virginia in the time of ,raleigh2 they were cultivated only in the gardens of the nobility1 and were reckoned a great delicacy4 ,they now constitute a principal article of food in most of the countries of ,europe and ,america2 in ,ireland1 they have long furnished nearly four-fifths of the entire food of the people4 ,what part of the plant is eaten8 ,the root1 which1 when roasted or boiled1 affords a wholesome and agreeable meal4 ,what is ,tea8 ,the leaves of an evergreen shrub1 a native of ,china and ,japan1 in which countries alone it is extensively cultivated for use4 ,the tea-plant was at one time introduced into ,south ,carolina1 where its culture appears to have been attended with but little success4 ,it may yet become a staple production of some portions of the ,united ,states4 ,evergreen1 retaining its leaves fresh and green through all seasons4 ,how is it prepared for use8 ,by carefully gathering the leaves1 one by one1 while they are yet small1 young1 and juicy4 ,they are then spread on large flat iron pans1 and placed over small furnaces1 when they are constantly shifted by the hand till they become too hot to be borne4 ,what is next done8 ,they are then removed with a kind of shovel resembling a fan1 and poured on mats1 whence they are taken in small quantities1 and rolled in the palm of the hand always in one direction1 until they cool and retain the curl4 ,how often is this operation repeated8 ,two or three times1 the furnace each time being made less hot4 ,the tea is then placed in the store-houses1 or packed in chests1 and sent to most of the countries in ,europe and ,america4 ,describe the appearance of the ,tea-tree4 ,the ,tea-tree when arrived at its full growth1 which it does in about seven years1 is about a man's height2 the green leaves are narrow1 and jagged all round2 the flower resembles that of the wild rose1 but is smaller4 ,the shrub loves to grow in valleys1 at the foot of mountains1 and on the banks of rivers where it enjoys a southern exposure to the sun2 though it endures considerable variation of heat and cold1 as it flourishes in the northern clime of ,pekin1 where the winter is often severe2 and also about ,canton1 where the heat is sometimes very great4 ,the best tea1 however1 grows in a temperate climate1 the country about ,nankin producing better tea than either ,pekin or ,canton1 between which two places it is situated4 ,what produces the difference between ,green and ,bohea1 or ,black8 ,there are varieties of the plant1 and the difference of the tea arises from the mode of preparation4 ,what nation first introduced it into ,europe8 ,the ,dutch in #afaj2 it was introduced into ,england in #afej ,what is ,coffee8 ,the berry of the coffee-tree1 a native of ,arabia4 ,the coffee-tree is an evergreen1 and makes a beautiful appearance at all times of the year1 but especially when in flower1 and when the berries are red1 which is usually during the winter4 ,it is also cultivated in ,persia1 the ,east ,indies1 ,liberia on the coast of ,africa1 the ,west ,indies1 ,brazil and other parts of ,south ,america1 as well as in most tropical climates4 ,tropical1 being within the tropics1 that is1 in the ,torrid ,zone4 ,who was the original discoverer of ,coffee1 for the drink of man8 ,it is not exactly known3 the earliest written accounts of the use of ,coffee are by ,arabian writers in the #aeth century2 it appears that in the city of ,aden it became1 in the latter half of that century1 a very popular drink1 first with lawyers1 studious persons1 and those whose occupation required wakefulness at night1 and soon after1 with all classes4 ,its use gradually extended to other cities1 and to those on the eastern shores of the ,mediterranean4 ,towards the end of the seventeenth century1 it was carried to ,batavia where it was soon extensively planted1 and at last young trees were sent to the botanical garden at ,amsterdam4 ,who introduced it into ,france and ,england8 ,thevenot1 the traveller1 brought it into ,france1 and a ,greek servant named ,pasqua 7taken to ,england by ,mr4 ,daniel ,edwards1 a ,turkey merchant1 in #afeb1 to make his coffee17 first set up the profession of coffee-man1 and introduced the drink among the ,english4 ,how is it prepared8 ,the berries are roasted in a revolving metallic cylinder1 till they are of a deep brown color1 and then ground to powder1 and boiled4 ,metallic1 consisting of metal4 ,what is ,chocolate8 ,a kind of cake or paste1 made of the kernel of the cacao-nut4 ,describe the ,cacao-nut ,tree4 ,it resembles the cherry tree1 and grows to the height of fifteen or sixteen feet4 ,the cacao-nut tree bears leaves1 flowers1 and fruit1 all the year through4 ,where does it grow8 ,in tropical regions1 where it is largely cultivated4 ,of what form is the fruit8 ,it is somewhat like a cucumber1 about three inches round1 and of a yellowish red color4 ,it contains from ten to forty seeds1 each covered with a little rind1 of a violet color2 when this is stripped off1 the kernel1 of which they make the chocolate1 is visible4 ,how do they make it into a drink8 ,by boiling it with water or milk4 ,there are various newly-invented ways of preparing chocolate1 so that it may be made in a few minutes1 by only pouring boiling water upon it4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,calico1 ,,cotton1 ,,cloth1 ,,wool1 ,,baize1 ,,linen1 ,,flax1 ,,hemp1 ,,diaper1 ,,holland1 ,,canvas1 ,,and ,,flannel4 ,what is ,calico8 ,a kind of printed cotton cloth1 of different colors4 ,from what place did it take its name8 ,from ,calicut1 a city on the coast of ,malabar1 where it was first made2 much is now manufactured in the ,united ,states1 ,england1 and many other countries4 ,what is ,cotton8 ,a downy or woolly substance1 enclosed in the pod1 or seed-vessel1 of the cotton-plant4 ,the commercial classification of cotton is determined--#a1 by cleanliness or freedom from sand1 dry leaf1 and other impurities2 #b1 by absence of color2 both subject also to character of staple1 length1 and strength and fineness of fibre4 ,these together determine relative value4 ,there are two general classifications1 long-stapled and short-stapled4 ,of the former the best is the sea island cotton of the ,united ,states4 ,the short staple cotton1 grows in the middle and upper country2 the long staple is cultivated in the lower country near the sea1 and on the islands near the coasts4 ,how is it cultivated8 ,the seeds are sown in ridges made with the plough or hoe2 when the plants are mature1 the pods open1 and the cotton is picked from them4 ,where did ,cotton anciently grow1 and for what was it used8 ,in ,egypt1 where it was used by the priests and sacrificers1 for a very singular kind of garment worn by them alone4 ,in what manufacture is it now used8 ,it is woven into muslins1 dimities1 cloths1 calicoes1 c42 and is also joined with silks and flax1 in the composition of other stuffs1 and in working with the needle4 ,how is the ,cotton separated from the seed8 ,by machines called cotton gins1 of which there are two kinds2 the roller-gin1 and the saw-gin4 ,in the former1 the cotton1 just as gathered from the plant1 is drawn between two rollers1 placed so closely together as to permit the passage of the cotton1 but not of the seeds1 which are consequently left behind4 ,in the saw-gin1 the cotton is placed in a receiver1 one side of which consists of a grating of parallel wires1 about an eighth of an inch apart2 circular saws1 revolving on a common axis between these wires1 entangle in their teeth the cotton1 and draw it from the seeds1 which are too large to pass between the wires4 ,how is it made into ,calico1 c48 ,the cotton having been separated from the seed1 is spun by a machine for the purpose4 ,it is next woven1 then dressed1 and printed4 ,what is ,cloth8 ,the word1 in its general sense1 includes all kinds of stuffs woven in the loom1 whether the threads be of wool1 cotton1 hemp1 or flax4 ,to what is it more particularly applied8 ,to a web or tissue of woollen threads4 ,web1 any thing woven4 ,what is ,wool8 ,the covering or hair of sheep4 ,to prepare it for the weaver1 it is first shorn1 washed1 and dried1 then carded or combed by machinery into fibres or threads3 formerly this was always performed by the hand1 by means of an instrument1 called a comb1 with several rows of pointed teeth2 this1 though not much used now1 is still occasionally employed1 except in large factories4 ,this combing is repeated two or three times1 till it is sufficiently smooth and even for spinning4 ,spinning or converting wool1 or cotton1 silk1 c4 into thread1 was anciently performed by the distaff and spindle3 these we find mentioned in sacred history1 and they have been used in all ages1 and in all countries yet discovered4 ,the natives of ,india1 and of some other parts of the world1 still employ this simple invention4 ,what was the next improvement8 ,the invention of the hand-wheel4 ,in #agfg1 a machine called the spinning-jenny was invented by a weaver named ,hargreaves2 but the greatest improvement in the art of spinning was effected by ,mr4 ,arkwright1 in #agfh3 these two inventions were combined1 and again improved upon in #aggf2 so that by the new plan1 the material can be converted into thread in a considerably shorter space of time than in the ancient mode2 leaving to man merely to feed the machine1 and join the threads when they break4 ,the sheep1 whose wool forms the material for nearly all woollen clothing1 came originally from ,africa4 ,does weaving differ according to the material used8 ,the principle of weaving is the same in every kind of fabric1 and consists in forming any kind of thread into a flat web1 or cloth1 by interlacing one thread with another2 the various appearances of the manufacture arise as much from the modes in which the threads are interwoven1 as from the difference of material4 ,is not the employment of ,wool in the manufacture of ,clothing of great antiquity8 ,in the earliest records we possess of the arts of mankind1 wool is mentioned as forming a chief article in the manufacture of clothing2 it is spoken of in the ,bible1 as a common material for cloth1 as early as the time of ,moses4 ,the ancient ,greeks and ,romans are well known to have possessed this art4 ,at the beginning of the thirteenth century1 the manufacture was established in many parts of ,europe1 particularly in ,spain1 from which country it extended itself to ,france and ,italy4 ,there is no doubt that it was introduced into ,england by its conquerors the ,romans1 a manufactory being established at ,winchester1 sufficiently large to supply the ,roman army4 ,manufactory1 a place where things are made or manufactured2 derived from the ,latin manus1 a hand1 and the verb facio1 to do or make4 ,what circumstance contributed to the progress of this manufacture among the ,english8 ,in #accj1 the ,english1 being desirous of improving their woollen manufacture1 invited over the ,flemings1 by the offer of various privileges1 to establish manufactories there4 ,the skill of these people soon effected a great improvement in the ,english fabrics1 so that there no longer remained any occasion for the exportation of ,english wool into ,flanders1 to be manufactured into fine cloth2 and a law was passed by the government to forbid it4 ,both the cotton and woollen manufactures have1 of late years1 arisen to great importance in the ,united ,states4 ,what country affords the best ,wool8 ,the wool of ,germany is most esteemed at the present day3 that of ,spain was formerly the most valuable1 but the ,spanish breed of sheep1 having been introduced into ,germany1 succeeded better there than in ,spain1 and increased so rapidly1 that the ,spanish wool trade has greatly diminished4 ,australia is one of the principal wool-growing countries in the world1 for the breed of sheep sent out to that country and ,tasmania has succeeded remarkably well4 ,what part of the world is meant by ,australia8 ,a ,british ,island in the ,south ,pacific ,ocean1 comprising the ,colonies of ,queensland1 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,victoria1 ,south ,australia1 and ,western ,australia4 ,it is the principal of the group of large islands1 in the ,oriental ,archipelago4 ,tasmania is another of the same group1 separated from ,new ,south ,wales by a channel called ,bass's ,strait1 and also belongs to ,great ,britain4 ,what is meant by an ,archipelago8 ,a part of a sea studded with numerous islands2 but the term is more particularly applied to that lying between ,europe and ,asia1 which contains the ,greek ,islands4 ,the word is a corruption from the ,greek1 signifying the gean ,sea4 ,is the ,wool of the sheep all of one quality8 ,no2 it varies according to the species of sheep1 the soil on which they are fed1 and the part of the animal from which it is taken3 the chief distinction is between the long and the short wool2 the long wool is employed in the manufacture of carpets1 crapes1 blankets1 c42 and the finer and shorter sorts for hosiery1 broadcloths c4 ,where were ,carpets originally made8 ,carpets are of oriental origin1 and are made of different sorts of stuffs2 they are woven in a variety of ways4 ,persian and ,turkey carpets are most esteemed2 they are woven in a piece1 in looms of a very simple construction4 ,formerly the manufacture of these carpets was confined to ,persia and ,turkey2 but they are now successfully made1 both in ,europe and the ,united ,states1 c4 ,great ,britain is the principal seat of the carpet manufacture of the world4 ,brussels1 ,wilton1 and ,kidderminster carpets derive their names from the places where they were invented4 ,is not the art of weaving very ancient8 ,it appears to have been known from a period as early as the time of ,abraham and ,jacob2 its inventor is not known1 but it is possible that men took a lesson from the ingenious spider1 which weaves its web after the same manner4 ,the ancient ,egyptians appear to have brought it to great perfection1 and were even acquainted with the art of interweaving colors after the manner of the ,scottish plaid4 ,what is ,baize8 ,a coarse1 open1 woollen stuff1 with a long nap4 ,it is chiefly made in the ,united ,states1 ,england1 ,france1 c4 ,what is ,linen8 ,there are various kinds of linen1 made from cotton1 flax1 and hemp2 but the term is chiefly applied to that woven with the two last mentioned4 ,linen means cloth of flax2 hence its derivation from the ,latin word linum1 flax4 ,what is ,flax8 ,an annual plant1 the fibres of which are beaten into threads1 spun1 and afterwards woven into linen2 it is extensively cultivated in the ,united ,states1 ,russia1 and some other countries of ,europe4 ,hemp is a plant of a similar nature1 equally used with flax1 in the manufacture of linens4 ,russian hemp is cultivated to a larger extent than that of any other country1 and is considered the best that is grown4 ,how long has the use of ,hemp and ,flax been known8 ,those plants are said to be natives of ,persia1 and introduced from some parts of the ,east into ,europe1 over which it is now widely distributed3 it existed both in a wild and cultivated state1 in some parts of ,russia1 as early as five centuries before ,christ ,these products form a considerable article of exportation1 besides the quantity used in ,russia itself2 a considerable part is wrought into linens1 diapers1 canvas1 and other manufactures2 and even the seeds are exported1 both in their natural state and as oil4 ,in various parts of ,russia1 hemp-seed oil and flax-seed 7or linseed7 oil are prepared in very large quantities4 ,what is ,diaper8 ,a sort of linen cloth1 woven in flowers1 and other figures2 it is said to have received its name from d',iper1 now ,ypres1 a town of ,belgium1 situated on a river of the same name1 where it was first made4 ,what is ,holland8 ,a fine1 close1 even1 linen cloth1 used for sheets1 c4 ,it obtained its name from being principally made in ,holland4 ,what is ,canvas8 ,a hempen cloth1 so loosely woven as to leave interstices between the threads1 in little squares4 ,it is used for working in patterns upon it with wools1 c42 by painters for a ground work on which they draw their pictures2 for tents1 sails1 and many other purposes4 ,there are several sorts1 varying in the fineness of their texture4 ,what is ,damask8 ,a sort of silken stuff1 having some parts raised on its surface to represent flowers or figures4 ,it took its name from ,damascus1 in ,syria1 whence it was first brought4 ,is there not another sort of ,damask8 ,yes1 made from linen2 and so called because its large flowers resemble those of damask roses4 ,it was first made in ,flanders1 and is used for table linen1 c4 ,what is ,flannel8 ,a slight1 loose1 woollen stuff1 used for warm clothing2 it was originally made in ,wales1 where it still continues to be manufactured in great perfection4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,cocoa1 ,,toddy1 ,,cherries1 ,,bark1 ,,cork1 ,,cochineal1 ,,cloves1 ,,cinnamon1 ,,and ,,cassia4 ,of what form is the tree which bears those large nuts1 called ,cocoa nuts8 ,it is tall and straight1 without branches1 and generally about thirty or forty feet high2 at the top are twelve leaves1 ten feet long1 and half a foot broad2 above the leaves1 grows a large excrescence in the form of a cabbage1 excellent to eat1 but taking it off kills the tree4 ,the cocoa is a species of ,palm4 ,is not the ,indian liquor called ,toddy1 produced from the ,cocoa ,tree8 ,yes1 between the leaves and the top arise several shoots about the thickness of a man's arm1 which1 when cut1 distil a white1 sweet1 and agreeable liquor2 while this liquor exudes1 the tree yields no fruit2 but when the shoots are allowed to grow1 it puts out a large cluster or branch1 on which the cocoa nuts hang1 to the number of ten or twelve4 ,distil1 to let fall in drops4 ,exude1 to force or throw out4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cathedral ,,of ,,milan1 ,,italy4 ,how often does this tree produce nuts8 ,three times a year1 the nuts being about the size of a man's head1 and of an oval form4 ,of what countries is it a native8 ,of ,asia1 the ,indies1 ,africa1 ,arabia1 the ,islands of the ,southern ,pacific1 and the hottest parts of ,america4 ,what are the uses of this ,tree8 ,the leaves of the tree are made into baskets2 they are also used for thatching houses3 the fibrous bark of the nut1 and the trunk of the tree1 are made into cordage1 sails1 and cloth2 the shell1 into drinking bowls and cups2 the kernel affords a wholesome food1 and the milk contained in the shell1 a cooling liquor4 ,from what country was the ,cherry ,tree first brought8 ,from ,cerasus1 a city of ,pontus1 in ,asia1 on the southern borders of the ,black ,sea2 from which place this tree was brought to ,rome1 in the year of that city #fhj1 by ,lucullus2 it was conveyed1 a hundred and twenty-eight years after1 into ,great ,britain1 ,a4,d4 #ee4 ,what is the meaning of ,a4,d48 ,a short way of writing ,anno ,domini1 ,latin words for in the year of our ,lord4 ,who was ,lucullus8 ,a renowned ,roman general4 ,is the wood of the ,cherry ,tree useful8 ,it is used in cabinet-making1 for boxes1 and other articles4 ,what is ,bark8 ,the exterior part of trees1 which serves them as a skin or covering4 ,exterior1 the outside4 ,does it not undergo some change during the year8 ,each year the bark of a tree divides1 and distributes itself two contrary ways1 the outer part gives towards the skin1 till it becomes skin itself1 and at length falls off2 the inner part is added to the wood4 ,the bark is to the body of a tree1 what the skin of our body is to the flesh4 ,of what use is ,bark8 ,bark is useful for many things3 of the bark of willows and linden trees1 ropes are sometimes made4 ,the ,siamese make their cordage of the cocoa tree bark1 as do most of the ,asiatic and ,african nations2 in the ,east ,indies1 they make the bark of a certain tree into a kind of cloth2 some are used in medicines1 as the ,peruvian bark for ,quinine2 others in dyeing1 as that of the alder2 others in spicery1 as cinnamon1 c42 the bark of oak1 in tanning2 that of a kind of birch is used by the ,indians for making canoes4 ,what are ,canoes8 ,boats used by savages2 they are made chiefly of the trunks of trees dug hollow2 and sometimes of pieces of bark fastened together4 ,how do the savages guide them8 ,with paddles1 or oars2 they seldom carry sails1 and the loading is laid in the bottom4 ,are not the savages very dexterous in the management of them8 ,yes1 extremely so2 they strike the paddles with such regularity1 that the canoes seem to fly along the surface of the water2 at the same time balancing the vessels with their bodies1 to prevent their overturning4 ,dexterous1 expert1 nimble4 ,do they leave their canoes in the water on their return from a voyage8 ,no1 they draw them ashore1 hang them up by the two ends1 and leave them to dry2 they are generally so light as to be easily carried from place to place4 ,were not books once made of ,bark8 ,yes1 the ancients wrote their books on the barks of many trees1 as on those of the ash and the lime tree1 c4 ,which part did they use8 ,not the exterior or outer bark1 but the inner and finer1 which is of so durable a texture1 that there are manuscripts written on it which are still extant1 though more than a thousand years old4 ,is it not also used in ,manure8 ,yes1 especially that of the oak2 but the best oak bark is used in tanning4 ,what is ,cork8 ,the thick1 spongy1 external bark of the ,cork ,tree1 a species of oak4 ,there are two varieties of this tree1 the broad-leaved and the narrow3 it is an evergreen1 and grows to the height of thirty feet4 ,the ,cork ,tree attains to a very great age4 ,where is the ,tree found8 ,in ,spain1 ,italy1 ,france1 and many other countries4 ,the true cork is the produce of the broad-leaved tree4 ,what are its uses8 ,cork is employed in various ways1 but especially for stopping vessels containing liquids1 and1 on account of its buoyancy in water1 in the construction of life boats4 ,it is also used in the manufacture of life preservers and cork jackets4 ,the greatest quantities are brought from ,catalonia1 in ,spain4 ,the uses of ,cork were well known to the ancients4 ,to what particular use did the ,egyptians put it8 ,they made coffins of it1 lined with a resinous composition1 which preserved the bodies of the dead uncorrupted4 ,what is ,cochineal8 ,a drug used by the dyers1 for dyeing crimsons and scarlets2 and for making carmine1 a brilliant red used in painting1 and several of the arts4 ,is it a plant8 ,no1 it is an insect4 ,the form of the ,cochineal is oval2 it is about the size of a small pea1 and has six legs armed with claws1 and a trunk by which it sucks its nourishment4 ,what is its habitation8 ,it breeds in a fruit resembling a pear2 the plant which bears it is about five or six feet high2 at the top of the fruit grows a red flower1 which when full blown1 falls upon it2 the fruit then appears full of little red insects1 having very small wings4 ,these are the ,cochineals4 ,how are they caught8 ,by spreading a cloth under the plant1 and shaking it with poles1 till the insects quit it and fly about1 which they cannot do many minutes1 but soon tumble down dead into the cloth2 where they are left till quite dry4 ,does the insect change its color when it is dead8 ,when the insect flies1 it is red2 when it is fallen1 black2 and when first dried1 it is greyish2 it afterwards changes to a purplish grey1 powdered over with a kind of white dust4 ,from what countries is the ,cochineal brought8 ,from the ,west ,indies1 ,jamaica1 ,mexico1 and other parts of ,america4 ,what are ,cloves8 ,the dried flower-buds of the ,clove ,tree1 anciently a native of the ,moluccas2 but afterwards transplanted by the ,dutch 7who traded in them17 to other islands1 particularly that of ,ternate4 ,it is now found in most of the ,east ,indian ,islands4 ,describe the ,clove ,tree4 ,it is a large handsome tree of the myrtle kind2 its leaves resemble those of the laurel4 ,though the ,clove ,tree is cultivated to a great extent1 yet1 so easily does the fruit on falling take root1 that it thus multiplies itself1 in many instances1 without the trouble of culture4 ,the clove when it first begins to appear is white1 then green1 and at last hard and red2 when dried1 it turns yellow1 and then dark brown4 ,what are its qualities8 ,the ,clove is the hottest1 and most acrid of aromatic substances2 one of our most wholesome spices1 and of great use in medicine2 it also yields an abundance of oil1 which is much used by perfumers1 and in medicine4 ,acrid1 of a hot1 biting taste4 ,aromatic1 fragrant1 having an agreeable odor4 ,what is ,cinnamon8 ,an agreeable1 aromatic spice1 the bark of a tree of the laurel kind2 the ,cinnamon tree grows in the ,southern parts of ,india2 but most abundantly in the island of ,ceylon1 where it is extensively cultivated2 its flowers are white1 resembling those of the lilac in form1 and are very fragrant2 they are borne in large clusters4 ,the tree sends up numerous shoots the third or fourth year after it has been planted2 these shoots are planted out1 when nearly an inch in thickness4 ,how is the bark procured8 ,by stripping it off from these shoots1 after they have been cut down2 the trees planted for the purpose of obtaining cinnamon1 throw out a great number of branches1 apparently from the same root1 and are not allowed to rise higher than ten feet2 but in its native uncultivated state1 the cinnamon tree usually rises to the height of twenty or thirty feet4 ,how is the ,cinnamon ,tree cultivated8 ,by seed1 sown during the rains2 from shoots cut from large trees2 and by transplanting old stumps4 ,the cinnamon tree1 in its wild state1 is said to be propagated by means of a kind of pigeons1 that feed on its fruit2 in carrying which to their nests1 the seeds fall out1 and1 dropping in various places1 take root1 spring up1 and become trees4 ,propagated1 spread1 extended1 multiplied4 ,what else is obtained from this tree8 ,the bark1 besides being used as a spice1 yields an oil highly esteemed1 both as a medicine and as a perfume2 the fruit by boiling also produces an oil1 used by the natives for burning in lamps2 as soon as it hardens1 it becomes a solid substance like wax1 and is formed into candles4 ,camphor is extracted from the root4 ,cassia is cinnamon of an inferior kind4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,bombazine1 ,,crape1 ,,camlet1 ,,cambric1 ,,lace1 ,,silk1 ,,velvet1 ,,and ,,mohair4 ,what is ,bombazine8 ,a stuff composed of silk and wool woven together in a loom4 ,it was first made at ,milan1 and thence sent abroad2 great quantities are now made in ,england and other countries4 ,where is ,milan situated8 ,in ,italy1 and is noted for its cathedral4 ,for what is ,bombazine used8 ,for dresses4 ,black bombazine is worn entirely for mourning4 ,the original bombazine has1 however1 become much less used than formerly1 on account of the numerous newly-invented fabrics of finer or coarser qualities1 composed of the same materials mixed in various degrees1 as ,mousselines de laine1 ,challis1 c4 ,what is ,crape8 ,a light1 transparent stuff1 resembling gauze1 made of raw silk very loosely woven1 or of wool2 by raw silk is meant1 silk in the state in which it is taken from the silk worm4 ,where was ,crape first made8 ,at ,bologna1 a city of ,italy4 ,what city of ,france was long celebrated for its manufacture8 ,lyons1 the second city of ,france1 where there are large silk manufactories4 ,great quantities are also made in ,england1 principally in the city of ,norwich1 which has long been distinguished for the beauty of its crapes4 ,what is ,camlet8 ,a stuff made sometimes of wool1 sometimes of silk and hair1 especially that of goats4 ,the oriental camlet is made of the pure hair of a sort of goat1 a native of ,angora1 a city of ,natolia1 in ,turkey4 ,the ,european camlets are made of a mixture of woollen thread and hair4 ,what countries are most noted for them8 ,england1 ,france1 ,holland1 and ,flanders2 the city of ,brussels1 in ,belgium1 exceeds them all in the beauty and quality of its camlets2 those of ,england are the next4 ,what is ,cambric8 ,a species of linen made of flax2 it is very fine and white4 ,from whence did it take its name8 ,from ,cambray1 a large and celebrated city of ,french ,flanders1 where it was first made2 it is now made at other places in ,france2 and also in ,england1 ,scotland1 ,ireland1 the ,united ,states1 c4 ,what is ,lace8 ,a work composed of many threads of fine linen or silk1 interwoven one with another according to some particular pattern4 ,belgium1 ,france1 and ,england are the principal countries in which this manufacture is carried on2 vast quantities of the finest laces were formerly made in ,flanders4 ,from what is ,silk produced8 ,from the silk-worm1 an insect not more remarkable for the precious matter it furnishes1 than for the many forms it assumes before and after it envelopes itself in the beautiful ball1 the silken threads of which form the elegant texture which is so much worn4 ,texture1 a web or substance woven4 ,what are the habits of this insect1 and on what does it feed8 ,after bursting from the egg1 it becomes a large worm or caterpillar of a yellowish white color1 7which is its first state27 this caterpillar feeds on the leaves of the mulberry tree1 till1 arriving at maturity1 it winds itself up in a silken bag or case1 called a cocoon1 about the size and shape of a pigeon's egg1 and becomes a chrysalis2 in which state it lies without signs of life2 in about ten days it eats its way out of its case1 a perfect butterfly1 which lays a number of eggs and then dies4 ,in the warmth of the summer weather1 these eggs are hatched1 and become worms1 as their parents did at first4 ,maturity1 ripeness1 perfection ,how much silk is each ball said to contain8 ,each ball consists of a very fine1 soft1 bright1 delicate thread1 which being wound off1 extends in length six miles4 ,what is meant by ,chrysalis8 ,the second state into which the insect passes before it comes to be a butterfly4 ,the maggot or worm having ceased to eat1 fixes itself in some place till its skin separates1 and discovers a horny1 oblong body1 which is the chrysalis4 ,where was ,silk first made8 ,the culture and manufacture of silk was originally confined to ,china4 ,the ,greeks1 under ,alexander the ,great1 brought home1 among other ,eastern luxuries1 wrought silks from ,persia1 about #cbc1 ,b4,c4 ,it was not long unknown to the ,romans1 although it was so rare1 that it was even sold weight for weight with gold4 ,the ,emperor ,aurelian1 who died in #bge1 ,b4,c4 refused the ,empress1 his wife1 a suit of silk which she solicited with much earnestness1 merely on account of its dearness4 ,heliogabalus1 the ,emperor1 who died half a century before ,aurelian1 was the first who wore a holosericum or garment all of silk4 ,who introduced the ,silk ,worm itself into ,europe8 ,two monks1 engaged as missionaries in ,china1 obtained a quantity of silk worms' eggs1 which they concealed in a hollow cane1 and conveyed in safety to ,constantinople in #eeb2 the eggs were hatched in the proper season by the warmth of manure1 and the worms fed with the leaves of the wild mulberry tree4 ,these worms in due time spun their silk1 and propagated under the care of the monks1 who also instructed the ,romans in the whole process of manufacturing their production4 ,from the insects thus produced1 proceeded all the silk worms which have since been reared in ,europe1 and the western parts of ,asia4 ,the mulberry tree was then eagerly planted1 and on this1 their natural food1 they were successfully reared in ,greece2 and the manufacture was established at ,thebes1 ,athens1 and ,corinth1 in particular4 ,the ,venetians1 soon after this time commencing a trade with the ,greeks1 supplied all the ,western parts of ,europe with silks for many centuries4 ,where were the cities of ,thebes and ,athens situated8 ,thebes was an ancient city of ,beotia1 in ,greece1 founded by ,cadmus1 a ,phenician1 though of ,egyptian parentage4 ,sailing from the coast of ,phenicia1 he arrived in ,beotia1 and built the city1 calling it ,thebes1 from the city of that name in ,egypt4 ,to this prince is ascribed the invention of sixteen letters of the ,greek ,alphabet4 ,athens was the capital of ,attica1 founded by ,cecrops1 an ,egyptian4 ,it was the seat of learning and the arts1 and has produced some of the most celebrated warriors1 statesmen1 orators1 poets1 and sculptors in the world4 ,since the emancipation of ,greece from the cruel bondage of its conquerors the ,turks1 who had oppressed it for three centuries1 ,athens has been chosen as its capital1 and is still a considerable town adorned with splendid ruins of the beautiful buildings it once possessed4 ,thebes and ,corinth1 another celebrated city1 are now only villages4 ,warrior1 a soldier4 ,statesmen1 men versed in the arts of government4 ,orator1 a public speaker4 ,poet1 one who composes poetry4 ,sculptor1 one who cuts figures in stone1 marble1 or ivory4 ,who were the ,venetians8 ,inhabitants of ,venice1 a city of ,italy4 ,did this manufacture continue to be confined to the ,greeks and ,venetians8 ,by no means4 ,the rest of ,italy1 and ,spain1 by degrees learnt the art from some manufactories in ,sicily2 and about the reign of ,francis the ,first1 the ,french became masters of it4 ,it1 however1 long remained a rarity2 their ,king1 ,henry the ,second1 is supposed to have worn the first pair of knit silk stockings4 ,the ,fourth ,henry encouraged the planting of mulberry trees2 his successors also did the same1 and the produce of silk in ,france is now very considerable4 ,when was the manufacture of silk introduced into ,england8 ,there was a company of silk women in ,england as early as the year #adee2 but they probably were merely employed in needlework of silk and thread1 for ,italy supplied ,england with the broad manufacture during the chief part of the fifteenth century4 ,the great advantage this new manufacture afforded1 made ,king ,james the ,first very desirous for its introduction into ,england1 particularly in #afjh1 when it was recommended1 in very earnest terms1 to plant mulberry trees for the rearing of silk worms2 but unhappily without effect4 ,however1 towards the latter end of this reign1 the broad silk manufacture was introduced1 and with great success4 ,the revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes contributed greatly to its promotion1 by the number of ,french workmen who took refuge in ,england2 to them the ,english are indebted for the art of manufacturing many elegant kinds of silks1 satins1 velvets1 c41 which had formerly been imported from abroad up to the year #agah4 ,the silk manufacture has also been successfully introduced into some portions of the ,united ,states4 ,revocation1 act of recalling1 repeal4 ,imported1 brought into4 ,what was the ,edict of ,nantes8 ,a law made in favor of the ,protestants1 the repealing of which drove many of their most skilful workmen to take refuge in ,england4 ,they were kindly received1 and settled in ,spitalfields1 and many other parts of ,england as well as ,ireland1 where they carried on a flourishing and ingenious manufacture4 ,were the attempts to rear ,silk ,worms in ,england successful8 ,no2 after many trials1 all of which failed1 attention was directed to the establishments for procuring both raw and wrought silks1 in the settlements in ,india belonging to ,britain2 this was attended with complete success1 the climate being extremely favorable1 and the price of labor cheap4 ,raw silk is imported in quantities from ,india1 ,china1 ,italy1 c4 ,how is the ,silk taken from the ,worm8 ,the people who are employed in the care of these insects collect the golden balls from off the mulberry trees1 7to the leaves of which the insects glue their silk7 and put them into warm water1 that the threads may unfasten and wind off more easily2 having taken off the coarse woolly part which covers the balls1 they take twelve or fourteen threads at a time1 and wind them off into skeins4 ,in order to prepare this beautiful material for the hand of the weaver to be wrought into silks1 stuffs1 brocades1 satins1 velvets1 ribbons1 c41 it is spun1 reeled1 milled1 bleached1 and dyed4 ,milled1 worked in a kind of mill4 ,bleached1 whitened4 ,what is ,velvet8 ,a rich kind of stuff1 all silk1 covered on the outside with a close1 short1 fine1 soft shag2 the wrong side being very strong and close4 ,the principal number1 and the best velvets1 were made in ,france and ,italy2 others in ,holland2 they are now brought to great perfection in ,england4 ,an inferior kind is made by mixing cotton with the silk4 ,velvet has been known in ,europe for some centuries1 but its manufacture was long confined to some of the chief cities of ,italy4 ,from that country the ,french learned the art1 and greatly improved it4 ,whence is the word ,velvet derived8 ,from the ,italian word velluto1 signifying velvet1 which comes from vellus1 hair or fleece4 ,what is ,mohair8 ,the hair of a kind of goat1 common about ,angora1 in ,turkey4 ,it is used in the manufacture of various kinds of stuffs1 shawls1 c4 ,is there not another animal much celebrated for the material it furnishes in the making of shawls8 ,yes2 the ,thibet goat4 ,the wool is sent to ,cashmere1 where it is spun and dyed4 ,cashmere is situated in the north-west extremity of ,india1 and has long been celebrated for the beautiful and valuable shawls bearing its name which are manufactured there4 ,the goats are beautiful creatures1 with long1 fine1 wavy hair1 reaching nearly to the ground1 so as almost to conceal their legs4 ,the material of which the shawls are made is a fine silky down1 which grows under the long hair1 next to the skin4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,currants1 ,,raisins1 ,,figs1 ,,rice1 ,,sugar1 ,,sugar ,,candy1 ,c41 ,,sago1 ,,millet1 ,,ginger1 ,,nutmeg1 ,,mace1 ,,pimento ,,or ,,allspice1 ,,pepper1 ,,and ,,cayenne ,,pepper4 ,what are ,currants8 ,a kind of small raisins or dried grapes4 ,whence are they brought8 ,from several islands of the ,archipelago1 particularly ,zante and ,cephalonia2 and from the ,isthmus of ,corinth1 in ,greece4 ,do they grow on bushes like our ,currants8 ,no1 on vines like other grapes1 except that the leaves are somewhat thicker1 and the grapes much smaller3 they have no pips1 and are of a deep red1 or rather black color4 ,when are they gathered1 and how are they dried8 ,they are gathered in ,august1 and laid on the ground in heaps till dry2 they are then cleaned1 and put into magazines1 from which they are taken and packed in barrels for exportation4 ,what do you mean by ,exportation8 ,the act of conveying goods for sale from one country to another4 ,what are ,raisins8 ,grapes prepared by drying them in the sun1 or by the heat of an oven4 ,raisins of ,damascus1 so called from the capital city of ,syria1 near which they are cultivated1 are very large1 flat1 and wrinkled on the surface2 soft and juicy inside1 and nearly an inch long4 ,raisins of the sun1 or jar raisins1 so called from being imported in jars1 are all dried by the heat of the sun2 they are of a reddish blue color1 and are the produce of ,spain1 whence the finest and best raisins are brought4 ,there are several other sorts1 named either from the place in which they grow1 or the kind of grape of which they are made1 as those of ,malaga1 ,valencia1 c4 ,in what manner are they dried8 ,the common way of drying grapes for raisins1 is to tie two or three bunches of them together while yet on the vine1 and dip them into a lye made of hot wood-ashes1 mixed with a little olive oil4 ,this makes them shrink and wrinkle3 after this they are cut from the branches which supported them1 but left on the vine for three or four days1 separated on sticks1 in an upright position1 to dry at leisure4 ,different modes1 however1 are adopted1 according to the quality of the grape4 ,the commonest kinds are dried in hot ovens1 but the best way is that in which the grapes are cut when fully ripe1 and dried by the heat of the sun1 on a floor of hard earth or stone4 ,lye1 a liquor made from wood-ashes2 of great use in medicine1 bleaching1 sugar works1 c4 ,what are ,figs8 ,a soft1 luscious fruit1 the produce of the fig-tree4 ,the best figs are brought from ,turkey1 but they are also imported from ,italy1 ,spain1 and the southern part of ,france4 ,the islands of the ,archipelago yield an inferior sort in great abundance4 ,in this country they are sometimes planted in a warm situation in gardens1 but1 being difficult to ripen1 they do not arrive at perfection4 ,the figs sent from abroad are dried by the heat of the sun1 or in furnaces for the purpose4 ,luscious1 sweet to excess1 cloying4 ,what is ,rice8 ,a useful and nutritious grain1 cultivated in immense quantities in ,india1 ,china1 and most eastern countries2 in the ,west ,indies1 ,central ,america1 and the ,united ,states2 and in southern ,europe4 ,it forms the principal food of the people of eastern and southern ,asia1 and is more extensively consumed than any other species of grain1 not even excepting wheat4 ,nutritious1 wholesome1 good for food4 ,does it not require a great deal of moisture8 ,yes1 it is usually planted in moist soils1 and near rivers1 where the ground can be overflowed after it is come up4 ,the ,chinese water their rice-fields by means of movable mills1 placed as occasion requires1 upon any part of the banks of a river2 the water is raised in buckets to a proper height1 and afterwards conveyed in channels to the destined places4 ,what is ,sugar8 ,a sweet1 agreeable substance1 manufactured chiefly from the ,sugar ,cane1#a a native of the ,east and ,west ,indies1 ,south ,america and the ,south ,sea ,islands2 it is much cultivated in all tropical countries4 ,the earliest authentic accounts of sugar1 are about the time of the ,crusades1#b when it appears to have been purchased from the ,saracens1 and imported into ,europe4 ,footnote #a3 ,most of the sugar in ,europe is made from beets4 ,footnote #b3 ,see ,chapter ,,xvii41 article ,navigation4 ,authentic1 true1 certain4 ,crusades1 holy wars4 ,saracens1 ,turks or ,arabs4 ,how is it prepared8 ,the canes are crushed between large rollers in a mill1 and the juice collected into a large vessel placed to receive it2 it is then boiled1 and placed in pans to cool1 when it becomes imperfectly crystallized1 in which state we use it4 ,this is called raw or soft sugar3 loaf sugar1 or the hard white sugar1 is the raw brown sugar1 prepared by refining it till all foreign matter is removed4 ,is the ,sugar ,cane the only vegetable that produces ,sugar8 ,all vegetables contain more or less sugar1 but the plant in which it most abounds is the sugar-cane4 ,in the ,united ,states1 a large quantity of sugar is prepared from the sap of the ,sugar ,maple ,tree4 ,the trees are tapped at the proper season by a cut being made in the bark1 and the juice runs into a vessel placed to receive it2 it is then prepared in the same manner as the juice of the sugar cane4 ,what is ,sugar ,candy8 ,sugar purified and crystallized4 ,what is ,barley ,sugar8 ,sugar boiled till it is brittle1 and cast on a stone anointed with oil of sweet almonds1 and then formed into twisted sticks4 ,what is ,sago8 ,a substance prepared from the pith of the ,sago ,palm1 which grows naturally in various parts of ,africa and the ,indies4 ,the pith1 which is even eatable in its natural state1 is taken from the trunk of the tree1 and thrown into a vessel placed over a horse-hair sieve2 water is then thrown over the mass1 and the finer parts of the pith pass through the sieve2 the liquor thus obtained is left to settle4 ,the clear liquor is then drawn off1 and what remains is formed into grains by being passed through metal dishes1 with numerous small holes2 it is next dried by the action of heat1 and in this state it is exported4 ,the ,sago ,palm also produces sugar4 ,what is ,millet1 and in what countries does it grow8 ,millet is an esculent grain1 originally brought from the ,eastern countries4 ,it is cultivated in many parts of ,europe1 but most extensively in ,egypt1 ,syria1 ,china1 and ,hindostan1 whence we are furnished with it1 it being rarely cultivated among us1 except as a curiosity4 ,esculent1 good for food4 ,for what is ,millet used8 ,it is in great request amongst the ,germans for puddings2 for which it is sometimes used amongst us4 ,the ,italians make loaves and cakes of it4 ,what is ,ginger8 ,the root of a plant cultivated in the ,east and ,west ,indies1 and in ,america2 it is a native of ,south-eastern ,asia and the adjoining islands4 ,describe its nature and use4 ,it is a warm aromatic1 much used in medicine and cookery4 ,the ,indians eat the root when green as a salad1 chopping it small with other herbs2 they also make a candy of it with sugar4 ,the ginger sold in the shops here is dried1 which is done by placing the roots in the heat of the sun or in ovens1 after being dug out of the ground4 ,quantities not only of the dried root1 but also of the candied sugar1 are imported4 ,what are ,nutmegs8 ,a delicate aromatic fruit or spice1 brought from the ,east ,indies4 ,the nutmeg tree greatly resembles our pear tree1 and produces a kind of nut1 which bears the same name as the tree4 ,illustration3 ,,glass ,,blowing ,,at ,,the ,,glass-,,works1 ,,pittsburgh1 ,,pa4 ,what is the appearance of the ,nutmeg8 ,its form is round1 and its smell agreeable4 ,the nutmeg is inclosed in four different covers2 the first1 a thick fleshy coat1 7like our walnut17 which opens of itself when ripe2 under this lies a thin reddish network1 of an agreeable smell and aromatic taste1 called mace2 this wraps up the shell1 which opens as the fruit grows4 ,the shell is the third cover1 which is hard1 thin1 and blackish2 under this is a greenish film of no use2 and in the last you find the nutmeg1 which is the kernel of the fruit4 ,what are its uses8 ,the nutmeg is much used in our food1 and is of excellent virtue as a medicine4 ,it also yields an oil of great fragrance4 ,is the ,mace used as a spice8 ,yes1 it is separated from the shell of the nutmeg1 and dried in the sun4 ,it is brought over in flakes of a yellow color1 smooth and net-like1 as you see it in the shops4 ,its taste is warm1 bitterish1 and rather pungent2 its smell1 aromatic4 ,it is used both in food and medicine1 as the nutmeg1 and also yields an oil4 ,pungent1 of a hot1 biting taste4 ,what is ,pimento or ,allspice8 ,the dried unripe berry or fruit of a tree growing in great abundance in ,jamaica1 particularly on the northern side of that island1 on hilly spots1 near the coast2 it is also a native of both ,indies4 ,the ,pimento ,tree is a ,west ,indian species of ,myrtle2 it grows to the height of twenty or thirty feet2 the leaves are all of a deep1 shining green1 and the blossom consists of numerous branches of small1 white1 aromatic flowers1 which render its appearance very striking2 there is scarcely in the vegetable world any tree more beautiful than a young ,pimento about the month of ,july1 when it is in full bloom4 ,when is the time to gather the spice8 ,about the month of ,september1 not long after the blossoms are fallen1 the berries are gathered by the hand2 one laborer on the tree1 employed in gathering the small branches1 will give employment to three below 7who are generally women and children7 in picking the berries4 ,they are then spread out thinly1 and exposed to the sun at its rising and setting for some days2 when they begin to dry1 they are frequently winnowed1 and laid on cloths to preserve them better from rain and dew2 by this management they become wrinkled1 and change from green to a deep reddish brown color4 ,great quantities are annually imported4 ,what are its uses8 ,it forms a pleasant addition to flavor food2 it also yields an agreeable essential oil1 and is accounted the best and mildest of common spices4 ,essential1 pure2 extracted so as to contain all the virtues of the spice in a very small compass4 ,why is it called ,allspice8 ,because it has been supposed to combine the flavor of cloves1 nutmegs1 and cinnamon2 the ,french call it round clove1 from its round shape1 and the taste being somewhat like that spice4 ,what is ,pepper8 ,the product of a creeping shrub1 growing in several parts of the ,east ,indies1 ,asia1 and ,america4 ,in what manner does ,pepper grow1 and what part of the shrub is used8 ,pepper is the fruit of this shrub1 and grows in bunches or clusters1 at first green2 as it ripens it becomes reddish1 until having been exposed for some time to the heat of the sun1 7or probably gathered before perfectly ripe17 it becomes black1 as in the condition we have it4 ,there are two sorts1 the black and the white4 ,what is the ,white ,pepper8 ,the white pepper is merely the black deprived of its outside skin4 ,for this purpose the finest red berries are selected1 and put in baskets to steep1 either in running water1 or in pits dug for the purpose1 near the banks of rivers4 ,sometimes they are only buried in the ground4 ,in any of these situations1 they swell and burst their skins1 from which1 when dry1 they are carefully separated by rubbing between the hands1 or fanning4 ,what is ,cayenne ,pepper8 ,the dried fruit of a plant called bird pepper1 a native of both ,indies4 ,it is more pungent than the other sorts4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,glass1 ,,mirrors1 ,,earthenware1 ,,porcelain1 ,,needles1 ,,pins1 ,,paper1 ,,printing1 ,,parchment1 ,,and ,,vellum4 ,what is ,glass8 ,a transparent1 solid1 brittle1 factitious body1 produced by fusing sand with an alkali4 ,the essential ingredients of glass are silex and potash1 or soda2 a few other substances are sometimes added4 ,silex is found nearly pure in rock crystal1 flint1 and other varieties of quartz2 for the manufacture of the better kinds of glass in this country1 it is generally obtained from sand1 especially the white sand of ,new ,jersey4 ,factitious1 made by art1 not found in a state of nature4 ,what is ,potash8 ,the saline matter obtained from the ashes of wood1 by causing water to pass through them2 the water imbibes the salt1 which is then obtained from it by evaporation4 ,when purified by calcination1 it is termed pearlash4 ,in countries where there are vast forests1 as in ,america and ,russia1 it is manufactured on a very large scale4 ,what can you say of the origin of ,glass8 ,the period of its invention is quite unknown4 ,pliny relates that some merchants1 driven by a storm to the coast of ,phenicia1 near the river ,belus1 made a large fire on the sand to dress some food1 using as fuel some of the plant ,kali1 which grew there in great abundance2 an imperfect glass was thus formed by the melting of the sand and ashes together4 ,this production was picked up by a ,syrian merchant1 who1 attracted by its great beauty1 examined the cause of its origin1 and1 after many attempts1 succeeded in its manufacture4 ,who was ,pliny8 ,a celebrated ,roman naturalist and historian4 ,at what place was ,glass first made8 ,some authors mention ,sidon in ,syria1 which became famous for glass and glass-houses2 but others maintain that the first glass-houses noticed in history were built at ,tyre2 which1 they add1 was the only place where glass was made for many ages4 ,it is certain that the art was known to the ,egyptians4 ,what is ,phenicia8 ,a sub-division of ,syria in ,asia4 ,what is an author8 ,a person who writes a book4 ,what is signified by a glass-house8 ,a building erected for the making and working of glass4 ,what countries had glass windows first8 ,italy1 then ,france and ,england2 they began to be common about the year #aahj4 ,in what year1 and where1 was the making of glass bottles begun8 ,in #aeeg1 in ,london4 ,the first glass plates for mirrors and coach-windows were made at ,lambeth1 in #afgc4 ,what is a ,mirror8 ,a body which exhibits the images of objects presented to it by reflection4 ,the word mirror is more peculiarly used to signify a smooth surface of glass1 tinned and quicksilvered at the back1#c which reflects the images of objects placed before it4 ,footnote #c3 ,see ,chapter ,,xii41 article ,mercury4 ,are they a modern invention8 ,the use of mirrors is very ancient2 mention is made of brazen mirrors or looking-glasses in ,exodus1 the #chth chapter and #hth verse4 ,some modern commentators will not admit the mirrors themselves to have been of brass1 but of glass set or framed in brass2 but the most learned among the ,jewish rabbins say that in those times the mirrors made use of by the ,hebrew women in dressing their heads were of metal1 and that the devout women mentioned in this passage made presents to ,moses of all their mirrors to make the brazen laver for the ,tabernacle4 ,it might likewise be proved that the ancient ,greeks made use of brazen mirrors1 from many passages in the ancient poets4 ,commentators1 explainers of passages in the ,bible1 c4 ,rabbins1 doctors among the ,jews1 their learned men or teachers4 ,what nation invented the large looking-glass plates now in use8 ,the ,french4 ,what city of ,italy excelled all ,europe for many years in the making of fine glass8 ,venice4 ,the manufacture of fine glass was first introduced into ,england by ,venetian artists in #ajgh4 ,of what is ,earthenware composed8 ,of clay1 and those earths which are capable of being kneaded into a paste easily receiving any form1 and acquiring solidity by exposure to fire3 sand1 chalk1 and flint are likewise mixed with clay4 ,in what manner is it formed into such a variety of shapes8 ,the flint or sand1 and soft clay1 are mixed together in various proportions for the different kinds of ware2 this paste is afterwards beaten till it becomes fit for being formed at the wheel into plates1 dishes1 basins1 c4 ,these are then put into a furnace and baked2 after which they are glazed4 ,what nation so greatly excelled in the manufacture of a beautiful species of ,earthenware8 ,the ,chinese1--who1 as far as can be ascertained1 were its inventors4 ,porcelain is a fine sort of earthenware1 chiefly made in ,china1 whence it was called ,china or ,china-ware2 it is also brought from many parts of the ,east1 especially from ,japan1 ,siam1 ,surat1 and ,persia4 ,the art of making porcelain was one of those in which ,europe had been excelled by oriental nations2 but for many years past earthenwares have been made in different parts of ,europe1 so like the oriental1 that they have acquired the name of porcelain4 ,the first ,european porcelains were made in ,saxony and ,france1 and afterwards in ,england1 ,germany1 and ,italy1 all of which differed from those of ,japan and ,china1 but each possessing its peculiar character4 ,they are now brought to great perfection in ,europe1 particularly in ,england1 ,france and ,prussia4 ,before the invention of ,earthenware1 what supplied its place to the early inhabitants of the world8 ,the more civilized the inhabitants of any country became1 the more they would perceive the convenience of possessing vessels of various descriptions for holding or preparing their food2 some of the objects which first presented themselves would be the larger kinds of shells2 and1 in hot climates1 the hard coverings of the cocoa-nut or gourd4 ,in some cases the skins of beasts were used1 as they still are in the ,east1 where they are sewed together1 and formed into a kind of bottle to hold milk1 wine1 c42 but the people of colder climates would not be able to avail themselves of these natural productions1 and would be obliged to make use of other substances4 ,what1 then1 would they employ8 ,clay1 which in many countries is found in great abundance1 from its adhesive property1 and its retaining its form when dry1 and becoming insoluble in water after having been baked in the fire1 would naturally attract the attention of an improving people3 from this it arises that the early remains of culinary and other vessels which have been discovered have been formed of this material4 ,among the remains of ancient ,egypt1 numerous vessels have been found formed of common clay baked in the fire2 and1 though of rude workmanship1 extremely elegant in form4 ,adhesive1 sticky2 apt or tending to adhere4 ,insoluble1 not capable of being dissolved4 ,culinary1 belonging to cooking or domestic purposes4 ,of what are ,needles made8 ,of steel2 and though exceedingly cheap1 they go through a great number of operations before they are brought to perfection4 ,it was in the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth that the ,english learnt the art of making needles4 ,of what are ,pins made8 ,of brass wire1 blanched with tin4 ,they are manufactured in ,england1 ,france1 the ,united ,states1 and other countries4 ,though there is scarcely any commodity cheaper than pins1 there is no other which passes through the hands of a greater number of workmen2 more than twenty persons being successively employed in the manufacture of each1 from the drawing of the brass wire to the sticking of the pin in the paper4 ,pins are supposed to have been made in ,england about #aedc1 or even earlier4 ,before this art was invented1 the ladies made use of wooden skewers4 ,blanched1 whitened4 ,of what is ,paper made8 ,of linen and cotton rags beaten to a pulp in water2 also from straw1 wood1 and many plants4 ,what materials were used for writing1 before the invention of ,paper8 ,various were the materials on which mankind in different ages and countries contrived to write3 stones1 bricks1 the leaves of herbs and trees1 and their rinds or barks2 tablets of wood1 wax1 and ivory2 plates of lead1 silk1 linen rolls1 c4 ,at length the ,egyptian paper made of the papyrus1 was invented2 then parchment2 and lastly1 paper manufactured of cotton or linen rags4 ,there are few sorts of plants which have not at some time been used for paper and books4 ,in ,ceylon1 for instance1 the leaves of the talipot2 in ,india1 the leaves of the palm 7with which they commonly covered their houses17 were used for books4 ,in the ,east ,indies1 the leaves of the plantain tree1 dried in the sun1 were used for the same purpose4 ,in ,china1 paper is made of the inner bark of the mulberry1 the bamboo1 the elm1 the cotton1 and other trees4 ,what is ,papyrus8 ,a large rush1 chiefly growing in ,egypt1 on the banks of the ,nile4 ,the ancient ,egyptians made sails1 ropes1 mats1 blankets1 and canvas1 of the stalks and fibres of the papyrus4 ,their priests also wore shoes made of it2 and even sugar was extracted from this plant4 ,moses1 the deliverer raised by ,god to rescue the ,israelites from the bondage of ,egypt1 was exposed to the ,nile in a basket of papyrus4 ,the plant is now1 however1 exceedingly scarce4 ,where was the first ,paper ,mill erected in ,england8 ,at ,dartford1 by a ,german named ,spilman1 in #aehh4 ,the only sort made1 however1 was the coarse brown2 and it was not till #afij1 when the ,french protestant refugees settled in ,england1 that their own paper-makers began to make white writing and printing paper4 ,the manufacture has been brought to great perfection1 both for beauty and substance1 in ,england and the ,united ,states4 ,protestant1 a name given in ,germany to those who adhered to the doctrines of the apostate monk1 ,martin ,luther1 because they protested against a decree of ,charles ,v4 and applied to a general council4 ,refugee1 from refuge1 a place of safety from danger2 an asylum4 ,here it more particularly means those ,french ,protestants who quit their homes and sought other countries1 after the revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes1 which deprived them of their religious liberty4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,dome ,,of ,,pisa1 ,,italy2 ,,with ,,the ,,famous ,,leaning ,,tower1 ,,in ,,the ,,distance4 ,is it known to whom we are indebted for the invention of ,linen ,paper8 ,not exactly4 ,it has long been disputed among the learned when1 and by whom1 it was invented2 some authors say it was discovered by the ,germans1 others by the ,italians2 others ascribe it to some refugee ,greeks at ,basil1 who took the idea from the making of cotton paper in their own country2 some1 that the ,arabs first introduced it into ,europe4 ,perhaps the ,chinese have the best title to the invention1 inasmuch as they have for many ages made paper1 and in some provinces of the same materials as are now used by us in its manufacture4 ,in what place was the art of ,printing first practised8 ,who were the inventors of ,printing1 in what city1 and in what year it was begun1 has long been a subject of great dispute4 ,mentz1 ,harlem1 and ,strasburg1 cities of ,germany1 all lay claim to the invention1 but ,mentz seems to have the best title to it4 ,what was the first ,book that was printed from metal types8 ,a copy of the ,holy ,scriptures1 which made its appearance between the years #adej and #adeb4 ,who introduced ,printing into ,england8 ,william ,caxton1 a merchant of ,london1 who had acquired a knowledge of it in his travels abroad4 ,of what does ,printing consist8 ,of the art of taking impressions with ink1 from movable characters and figures made of metal1 c41 upon paper or parchment4 ,what is ,parchment8 ,sheep or goat's skin1 prepared after a peculiar manner1 which renders it proper for several uses1 especially for writing on1 and for the covering of books4 ,the ancients seem to have used the skins of animals as a writing material1 from a remote period4 ,from what is the word ,parchment taken8 ,from ,pergamena1 the ancient name of this manufacture1 which it is said to have taken from the country of ,pergamus2 and to ,eumenes1 king of that country1 its invention is usually ascribed1 though in reality1 that prince appears to have been the improver1 rather than the inventor of parchment2 since some accounts refer its invention to a still earlier period of time4 ,herodotus1 an ancient ,greek historian1 who lived about #dej years before ,christ1 relates that the ancient ,ionians made use of sheep and goat-skins in writing1 many ages before the time of ,eumenes2 the ,persians of old1 too1 wrote all their records on skins1 and probably such skins were prepared and dressed for that purpose1 after a manner not unlike our parchments1 though not so artificially4 ,who were the ,ionians8 ,the inhabitants of ,ionia1 an ancient country in the western part of ,asia ,minor4 ,in what manner is ,parchment now prepared8 ,the sheep-skins are smeared over with lime#d on the fleshy side1 folded1 laid in heaps1 and thus left for some days2 they are next stretched very tight on wooden frames1 after having been washed1 drained1 and half dried4 ,the flesh is then carefully taken off with iron instruments constructed on purpose1 and the skin cleansed from the remaining hairs that adhere to it4 ,after having gone through several operations till it is perfectly clean and smooth1 it is fit for writing upon4 ,footnote #d3 ,see ,chapter ,,xvi41 article ,lime4 ,what are the uses of ,parchment8 ,parchment is of great use for writings which are to be preserved1 on account of its great durability2 the writing on it remaining perfect for a great number of years4 ,it is also used for the binding of books1 and various other purposes4 ,what is ,vellum8 ,a finer sort of parchment than the former1 but prepared in the same manner1 except that it is not passed through the lime-pit4 ,it is made of the skins of very young calves3 there is also a still finer sort made of the skins of sucking lambs1 or kids2 this is called virgin parchment1 and is very thin1 fine1 and white1 and is used for fancy-work1 such as ladies' fans1 c4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,capers1 ,,almonds1 ,,oranges1 ,,lemons1 ,,citrons1 ,,limes1 ,,olives1 ,,oils1 ,,melons1 ,,tamarinds1 ,,and ,,dates4 ,what are ,capers8 ,the full-grown flower-buds of the ,caper ,tree1 a small shrub1 generally found growing out of the fissures of rocks1 or among rubbish1 on old walls and ruins1 giving them a gay appearance with its large white flowers4 ,it is a native of ,italy3 it is also common in the south of ,france1 where it is much cultivated4 ,how are they prepared1 and for what are they used8 ,they are gathered1 and dried in the shade2 then infused in vinegar1 to which salt is added2 after which they are put in barrels1 to be used as a pickle1 chiefly in sauces4 ,what are frequently substituted for ,capers8 ,the buds of broom pickled in the same manner1 or the berries of the nasturtium1 an ,american annual plant1 with pungent fruit4 ,what are ,almonds8 ,the nut of the ,almond ,tree1 a species of the peach1 growing in most of the southern parts of ,europe2 there are two kinds1 the bitter and the sweet4 ,what are their qualities and use8 ,the sweet almonds are of a soft1 grateful taste1 and much used by the confectioner in numerous preparations of sweet-meats1 cookery1 c4 ,both sorts yield an oil1 and are useful in medicine4 ,of what country is the ,orange a native8 ,it is a native of ,china1 ,india1 and most tropical countries2 but has long been produced in great perfection in the warmer parts of ,europe and ,america4 ,oranges are imported in immense quantities every year1 from the ,azores1 ,spain1 ,portugal1 ,italy1 c4 ,they are brought over in chests and boxes1 packed separately in paper to preserve them4 ,the oranges in common use with us are the bitter or ,seville1 the ,china or sweet orange1 and those from ,florida4 ,where are the ,azores situated8 ,in the ,atlantic ,ocean1 about #hjj miles west of ,portugal4 ,these islands are very productive in wine and fruits4 ,where is ,seville8 ,in ,spain2 it is an ancient and considerable city1 the capital of the province of ,andalusia4 ,the flowers of the ,seville orange are highly odoriferous1 and justly esteemed one of the finest perfumes4 ,its fruit is larger than the ,china orange1 and rather bitter2 the yellow rind or peel is warm and aromatic4 ,the juice of oranges is a grateful and wholesome acid4 ,odoriferous1 sweet-scented1 fragrant2 having a brisk1 agreeable smell which may be perceived at a distance4 ,who first introduced the ,china ,orange into ,europe8 ,the ,portuguese4 ,it is said that the very tree from which all the ,european orange trees of this sort were produced1 was still preserved some years back1 at the house of the ,count ,st4 ,laurent1 in ,lisbon4 ,in ,india1 those most esteemed1 and which are made presents of as rarities1 are no larger than a billiard ball4 ,the ,maltese oranges are said by some to be the finest in the world4 ,who are the ,maltese8 ,the inhabitants of ,malta1 an island of the ,mediterranean1 situated between ,africa and ,sicily4 ,whence are ,lemons brought8 ,the ,lemon is a native of ,eastern ,asia1 whence it was brought to ,greece1 and afterwards to ,italy2 from ,italy it was transplanted to ,spain1 ,portugal1 and the ,south of ,france1 whence lemons are imported in great plenty4 ,what is the ,citron8 ,the fruit of the ,citron ,tree1 resembling the lemon1 but somewhat larger1 and having a finer pulp4 ,the citron was also brought originally from the ,east of ,asia1 but has since been produced in the warm parts of ,europe1 like the orange and lemon2 ,genoa especially is the greatest nursery for them4 ,its rind is principally brought to this country in a candied state1 and is applied by confectioners to various purposes4 ,where is ,genoa8 ,a city of ,northern ,italy1 on the ,mediterranean1 between the rivers ,bisagno and ,polcevera4 ,what is the ,lime8 ,the ,lime is by some thought to be a species of lemon1 by others not2 it is a smaller fruit1 and in the ,west ,indies is greatly preferred to the lemon4 ,it is cultivated in the ,south of ,europe1 the ,west ,indies1 and the warm parts of ,america4 ,the agreeable scent called ,bergamot is prepared from the rind of a small species of lime4 ,what are ,olives8 ,the fruit of the ,olive ,tree1 an evergreen1 now common in the woods of ,france1 ,spain1 and ,italy2 but in the wild state producing a small fruit of no value2 when cultivated1 however1 7which it is extensively1 both for the fruit and the quantity of oil which it yields17 it forms one of the richest productions of ,southern ,europe4 ,the olive came originally from ,asia4 ,its use is very ancient2 it is frequently spoken of in the ,bible1 both as in a wild and cultivated state4 ,the promised land of the ,israelites was a land of oil1 olive1 and honey4 ,from the time that the dove returned to ,noah in the ,ark with an olive leaf plucked off1 in all ages and countries1 wherever this tree is known1 down to the present day1 has an olive-branch been the favorite emblem of peace4 ,what nation holds the olive in great repute8 ,this tree was a great favorite with the ancient ,greeks1 and scarcely an ancient custom existed in which the olive was not in some way associated3 at their marriages and festivals1 all parts of their dwellings1 especially the doors1 were ornamented with them1 and the same custom prevails at the present day1 both in public and private rejoicings4 ,it was also scarcely less a favorite with the ,romans1 although it was not held in the same sacred light as amongst the ,greeks4 ,the olive-branch has likewise been universally considered the emblem of plenty1 and as such1 is found on the coins of those countries of which it is not a native4 ,two centuries after the foundation of ,rome1 both ,italy and ,africa were strangers to this useful plant2 it afterwards became naturalized in those countries1 and at length arrived in ,spain1 ,france1 c4 ,olive trees sometimes attain a great age4 ,how are the ,olives eaten8 ,the olives while on the tree are intolerably bitter1 without any of that peculiar taste which gains them admittance at the richest tables2 to fit them for which they are pickled4 ,ripe olives are eaten in the ,eastern countries1 especially amongst the ,greeks1 as an article of food1 particularly in ,lent4 ,the oil1 which they yield in great quantities1 is very highly esteemed2 being that chiefly used for salads1 c41 in medicine1 and in various manufactures4 ,lent1 a time of fasting2 the time from ,ash-,wednesday to ,easter4 ,how is the ,oil drawn from the ,olive8 ,by presses or mills made for the purpose4 ,the sweetest and best olive oil comes from the ,south of ,france1 from ,naples1 ,florence1 and ,lucca2 quantities are also brought from ,spain and the ,ionian ,islands4 ,where is ,naples8 ,in the ,south of ,italy4 ,where are ,florence and ,lucca situated8 ,in ,italy4 ,florence is a very ancient1 large1 and celebrated city1 the capital of ,italy2 ,lucca1 formerly a republic1 belongs now to the kingdom of ,italy4 ,republic1 a state in which the supreme power of government is lodged in representatives chosen by the people1 instead of being vested in an emperor or king4 ,you said that the olive is an ,evergreen3 to what plant or shrub is the term particularly applied8 ,to any shrub or tree whose leaves continue fresh and green all the year round1 winter and summer1 as the laurel1 pine1 cedar1 holly1 c41 which do not shed their leaves in autumn as other trees4 ,is oil a production confined to the ,olive alone8 ,by no means4 ,oil is a fatty1 inflammable matter1 drawn from many vegetable and animal bodies4 ,the oils in common use are of three different kinds4 ,the first are mere oily or fatty bodies1 extracted either by pressure1 or by decoction3 of the first kind are those of almonds1 nuts1 olives1 c42 and of the other1 those of different berries1 c41 which are procured by boiling the substance in water1 which causes the oil to collect on the top4 ,decoction1 act of boiling--a chemical term4 ,what are the second and third kinds of ,oils8 ,the second are those drawn from vegetables by common distillation in the alembic1 with the aid of water2 these contain the oily and volatile part of the plant1 and are called essential oils4 ,the third sort are those produced by distillation1 but of a different kind in an open vessel1 and without the help of water4 ,they are likewise divided into vegetable oils1 animal oils1 and mineral oils2 which last are those drawn from amber1 and a few other substances partaking both of the vegetable and mineral natures1 as ,petroleum1 commonly known as kerosene or coal oil4 ,alembic1 a chemical vessel used in distilling4 ,it consists of a vessel placed over a fire1 containing the substance to be distilled2 the upper part1 which receives and condenses the steam1 is called the head2 the beak of this is fitted to a vessel called a receiver4 ,volatile1 easily escaping1 quickly flying off4 ,whence is the word ,oil derived8 ,from the ,latin oleum1 formed from olea1 olive-tree1 the fruit of which abounds in oil4 ,what immense fish is it that furnishes us with a quantity of animal oil8 ,the ,whale1 the largest and noblest inhabitant of the waters4 ,it is protected from the cold by a case or coating of blubber1 that is1 a thick oily fat from which the oil is made2 numbers of them are caught for the sake of that4 ,ambergris1 highly prized in perfumery1 is a product of the sperm whale4 ,in what seas are they found8 ,chiefly in the ,northern ,seas3 extensive whale fisheries are carried on by the ,americans1 ,english1 ,dutch1 c41 and numbers of vessels are sent out for the purpose of taking the fish3 they usually sail in the latter end of ,march1 and begin fishing about ,may4 ,the whale fishery continues generally from that time till the latter end of ,june or ,july4 ,there are also other fishes and animals which afford us oils of different kinds1 which are used for various purposes in medicine and the arts4 ,is the oil called castor1 which is so much used in medicine1 the product of an animal or a plant8 ,castor oil is expressed from a ,west ,indian shrub1 called ,palma ,christi2 and especially from the ripe seeds1 which are full of this oil4 ,it is prepared by collecting these ripe seeds1 and freeing them from the husks2 then bruising and beating them into a paste2 they are next boiled in water1 when the oil rising to the surface is skimmed off as it continues to appear4 ,the ,castor-oil plant is found growing abundantly in ,sumatra1 particularly near the sea-shore4 ,where is ,sumatra situated8 ,in the ,oriental ,archipelago1 off the south eastern part of the continent of ,asia4 ,in what other countries is this plant found8 ,in some parts of ,africa1 ,syria1 and ,egypt4 ,it was anciently cultivated in the two last-mentioned countries in large quantities1 the seeds being used for the oil they yielded1 which was burnt in lamps4 ,illustration3 ,,beavers ,,building ,,their ,,huts4 ,is not the ,palma ,christi much affected by soil and situation8 ,greatly so4 ,in some places it attains the stature of a tree1 and is not a biennial plant1 but endures for many years1 as in the warm plains of ,irak1 ,arabia1 and some parts of ,africa4 ,biennial1 lasting for the space of two years only4 ,what are ,melons8 ,a species of the ,cucumis1 a genus of plants to which the cucumber belongs4 ,there are great varieties of this fruit cultivated in different parts of the world2 that sort called the ,cantaleup 7so named from being cultivated at a place of that name in the neighborhood of ,rome1 whither it was brought from ,armenia17 is a species of musk-melon2 the mature fruit is juicy1 and delicately flavored4 ,where is ,armenia situated8 ,armenia is a large country situated in ,asiatic ,turkey1 to the west of the ,caspian ,sea4 ,what species of ,melon is that which almost makes up for a scarcity of good water in hot countries8 ,the water-melon1 which affords a cool1 refreshing juice1 and quenches the thirst produced by the excessive heats4 ,it requires a dry1 sandy soil1 and a warm climate2 the pulp of the fruit is remarkably rich and delicious4 ,what are ,tamarinds8 ,the fruit of the ,tamarind ,tree1 a native of both the ,indies1 ,asia1 ,africa1 c4 ,it is of a roundish form1 and composed of two pods inclosed one within the other1 between which is a soft pulpy substance1 of a tart but agreeable taste2 the inner pod contains the seeds or stones4 ,tart1 sharp1 acid4 ,for what are they used8 ,we use them only as medicine2 but the ,africans1 and many of the ,oriental nations1 with whom they are common1 make them into a kind of preserve with sugar1 which they eat as a delicacy1 and which cools them in the violent heats of their climate4 ,from what nation was the knowledge of their use in medicine obtained8 ,from the ,arabians4 ,what does the word ,oriental signify8 ,belonging to the ,east2 therefore those countries of the globe situated in the ,east are called ,oriental1 those in the ,west1 ,occidental1 from ,oriens1 signifying ,east1 and ,occidens1 ,west4 ,what are ,dates8 ,the fruit of the ,palm1 a beautiful and graceful tree1 peculiar to the warmer regions of the globe2 the growth of the palm is extremely singular1 for although some species attain to the height of the largest forest trees1 their structure differs materially from that of a tree1 properly so called4 ,the leaves of the young plant arise directly from the surface of the ground1 and there is no appearance of any stem for several years2 this stem once formed1 never increases in size1 the growth of the plant being always upward1 so that the stem itself is formed by the prior growth of the green portions of the palm4 ,structure1 the manner of formation4 ,how often does this tree cast its circle of leaves8 ,every year2 so that the number of years a palm has existed is known by the scars which are left by their falling off4 ,the palm is an evergreen4 ,what are the uses of this ,tree8 ,the ,palm is of the utmost importance to the inhabitants of the tropical regions2 the fruit and sap providing them with food1 the fibrous parts with clothing1 and the leaves forming the greater part of their slightly-constructed huts2 the leaves of some species are formed into fans1 hats1 and parasols2 others are written on1 in the same manner that we write on paper2 artificial flowers are made of the pith of some2 the light and supple rattan walking-cane is the slender shoot of another kind2 and solid and useful utensils are made of the shell of the cocoa-nut4 ,the fibres of the ,date ,palm are formed into ropes and twine2 a liquor is drawn from the trunk1 called palm wine2 the trunks of the old trees furnish a hard and durable wood2 and even the nuts or stones of the fruit are useful for feeding cattle2 a wholesome flour is also made of the fruit1 when dried and reduced to powder4 ,constructed1 put together4 ,whence is its name derived8 ,from the ,latin word palma1 a hand1 given to these productions of the vegetable world1 from the supposed resemblance of their broad leaves to the human hand4 ,the ,date1 the fruit of the ,date ,palm1 derives its name from the ,greek dactylus1 a finger1 from its mode of growing in clusters spreading out like the fingers of the hand4 ,the ,palm sometimes forms impenetrable forests2 but more frequently is found in small groups of two or three1 or even singly1 beside springs and fountains of water1 affording a kindly shade to the thirsty traveller4 ,impenetrable1 not easily penetrated or got through4 ,from what countries are ,dates brought8 ,from ,egypt1 ,syria1 ,persia1 ,africa1 and the ,indies4 ,among the ,egyptians and ,africans1 they make a principal article of food4 ,dates1 when ripe1 are of a bright coral red1 of an oblong form1 and possess a sharp biting taste3 they are usually gathered in autumn1 before being perfectly ripe4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,hats1 ,,stockings1 ,,shoes1 ,,gloves1 ,,leather1 ,,furs1 ,,and ,,ink4 ,of what are ,hats made8 ,of felt and wool4 ,dress hats for men's wear1 were formerly made of beaver-fur1 but the increasing scarcity of this article led to the introduction of silk plush as a substitute1 and the result is that beaver is entirely superseded1 and plush is used altogether4 ,they possess many advantages over the beaver hat1 as they are light1 glossy1 and durable4 ,hats are also made of straw1 plaited and sewed together4 ,when did ,hats come into general use8 ,the first mention made of hats is about the time of the ,saxons1 but they were not worn except by the rich4 ,hats for men were invented at ,paris1 by a ,swiss1 in #adjd4 ,about the year #aeaj1 they were first manufactured in ,london1 by ,spaniards4 ,before that time both men and women in ,england commonly wore close1 knitted1 woollen caps4 ,they appear to have become more common in the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,it is related1 that when ,charles the ,second made his public entry into ,rouen1 in #addi1 he wore a hat lined with red velvet1 surmounted with a plume or tuft of feathers2 from which entry1 or at least during his reign1 the use of hats and caps is to be dated2 and from that time they took the place of chaperons and hoods1 that had been worn before in ,france4 ,where is ,rouen8 ,in the province of ,lower ,seine1 in ,france2 it was formerly the capital of ,normandy4 ,describe the ,castor1 or ,beaver1 and its habits4 ,the ,beaver has a broad1 flat tail1 covered with scales1 serving as a rudder to direct its motion in the water2 the toes of its hind feet are furnished with membranes1 after the manner of water-fowl2 the fore feet supply the place of hands1 like those of the squirrel4 ,the ,beaver has two kinds of hair1 of a light brown color1 one long and coarse1 the other short and silky4 ,the teeth resemble those of a rat or squirrel1 but are longer1 and admirably adapted for cutting timber or stripping off the bark from trees4 ,membranes1 thin1 flexible1 expanded skins1 connecting the toes of water-fowl and amphibious animals1 and thus enabling them to swim with greater ease4 ,where do ,beavers usually fix their habitations8 ,their houses are always situated in the water2 they are composed of clay1 which they make into a kind of mortar with their paws3 these huts are of an oval figure1 divided into three apartments raised one above the other1 and erected on piles driven into the mud4 ,each beaver has his peculiar cell assigned him1 the floor of which he strews with leaves or small branches of the pine tree4 ,the whole building is generally capable of containing eight or ten inhabitants4 ,on what does the ,beaver feed8 ,its food consists of fruit and plants2 and in winter1 of the wood of the ash and other trees4 ,the hunters and trappers in ,america formerly killed vast numbers for their skins1 which were in great demand1 as they were used in making hats1 but as the only use they are now put to is for trimming1 and for men's gloves and collars1 the demand has fallen off4 ,of what are stockings made8 ,of cotton1 silk1 or wool1 woven or knitted4 ,anciently1 the only stockings in use were made of cloth1 or stuff sewed together2 but since the invention of knitting and weaving stockings of silk1 c41 the use of cloth has been discontinued4 ,from what country is it supposed that the invention of silk knitted stockings originally came8 ,from ,spain1 in #aehi4 ,the art of weaving stockings in a frame was invented by ,william ,lee1 ,m4,a41 of ,st4 ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge1 ,england4 ,explain the signification of ,m4,a4 ,master of ,arts1 a degree of honor conferred by the ,universities4 ,what are ,shoes8 ,a covering for the foot1 now usually made of leather4 ,in different ages and countries1 shoes have been made of various materials1 as raw skins1 rushes1 broom1 paper1 silk1 wool1 iron1 silver1 and gold4 ,what nation wore ,shoes made of the bark of the papyrus8 ,the ,egyptians4 ,the ,turks always take off their shoes1 and leave them at the door1 when they enter ,mosques or dwelling-houses4 ,the same custom also prevails in other ,eastern nations4 ,what is a ,mosque8 ,a ,mahomedan church or temple4 ,what is meant by ,mahomedan8 ,belonging to the religion of ,mahomed1 the warrior and prophet of ,arabia and ,turkey1 who was its founder4 ,he was born at ,mecca1 a city of ,arabia1 in #ega2 and died in #fca1 at ,medina1 a city situated between ,arabia ,felix and ,arabia ,deserta4 ,his creed maintains that there is but one ,god1 and that ,mahomed is his ,prophet2 it enjoins the observance of prayers1 washings1 almsgiving1 fasting1 sobriety1 pilgrimage to ,mecca1 c4 ,what do the appellations of ,felix and ,deserta signify8 ,arabia1 a country of ,asia1 lying on the borders of the ,red ,sea1 is divided into ,petra1 ,deserta1 and ,felix2 ,petra1 signifying the ,stony2 ,deserta1 the ,desert2 and ,felix1 the fortunate or fruitful4 ,what is ,leather8 ,the skins of various animals1 as oxen1 cows1 calves1 c41 dressed and prepared for use4 ,how is the ,leather prepared8 ,by tanning2 that is1 steeping the skins in an infusion of tan1 by which they are rendered firm1 durable1 and1 in a great degree1 impervious to water4 ,infusion1 a liquor made by steeping anything in water1 or other liquids1 without boiling4 ,what is ,tan8 ,the bark of the oak-tree1 c41 ground by a mill into a coarse powder4 ,what is ,lime8#e ,a white1 soft1 friable1 earthy substance1 prepared from marble1 chalk1 and other lime-stones1 or from shells1 by burning in a kiln4 ,footnote #e3 ,for a further account of it1 see ,chapters ,,xiii4 ,,xvi4 ,friable1 easily powdered4 ,for what is it used8 ,its greatest use is in the composition of mortar for building2 it is also much used by tanners1 skinners1 c41 in the preparation of leather2 by soap-boilers in the manufacture of soap2 and by sugar-bakers for refining sugar4 ,what is a ,kiln8 ,a fabric of brick or stone1 formed for admitting heat in order to dry or burn materials placed in it4 ,of what are ,gloves made8 ,of leather1 silk1 thread1 cotton1 worsted1 c4 ,what skins are generally used for ,gloves8 ,those of the chamois1 kid1 lamb1 dog1 doe1 and many other animals4 ,what are ,furs1 and how are they prepared8 ,furs are the skins of wild animals1 dressed with the hair on1 and used as apparel1 either for warmth1 ornament1 or distinction of rank or dignity4 ,name a few of the principal furs in use4 ,the fur of the ermine1 an animal inhabiting the cold regions of ,europe and ,america1 is highly valued1 and much used for ornamental purposes4 ,in summer1 the upper part of the body is of a yellowish-brown color2 the under parts white1 slightly tinged with yellow4 ,it is then called a stoat4 ,in winter1 the fur is closer and finer1 and is of a snowy white color2 the tip of the tail is black throughout the year4 ,in ,europe the fur is much used for ornamenting the state robes of sovereigns and nobles4 ,the sable is another animal much prized for its rich fur2 it is a native of ,northern ,europe and ,america4 ,the skins of the marten1 found in ,north ,america1 as well as in ,northern ,asia and the mountains of ,kamtschatka2 and also of the bear1 fox1 raccoon1 badger1 lynx1 musk-rat1 rabbit1 hare1 and squirrel1 which are all procured in ,north ,america1 are valuable4 ,one of the most valuable descriptions of fur is that of the seal4 ,how is it procured8 ,by hunting the animals1 which is the employment both of natives and settlers from other countries2 the hunters sell the skins for money1 to a company established for the purpose of trading in furs1 or more frequently exchange them for clothes1 arms1 and other articles4 ,the ,alaska ,commercial ,company of ,san ,francisco is granted by the ,united ,states ,government the exclusive privilege of catching the fur seal4 ,what is ,alum8 ,a kind of mineral1 of a strong1 sharp taste4 ,it dissolves both in cold and boiling water1 but best in the latter4 ,it is of some use in medicine2 a principal ingredient in dyeing and coloring1 neither of which can be well performed without it1 as it sets and brightens the colors1 and prevents them from washing out4 ,it is also extremely useful in many arts and manufactures4 ,are there not different sorts of this material8 ,the principal kinds are native alums3 viz4 those prepared and perfected underground by the spontaneous operations of nature2 as the roch1 commonly called rock alum1 from ,rocha1 in ,syria1 whence it is brought4 ,spontaneous1 unassisted by art4 ,orientals1 inhabitants of the ,eastern parts of the world4 ,what is ,ink8 ,a liquor used in writing on paper or parchment1 made of copperas1 galls2 and gum arabic#f mixed together4 ,there are likewise several plants that may serve for the making of ink1 as oak-bark1 red roses1 log-wood1 c4 ,it is also made from an infusion of oak galls and iron filings3 there are also many other ways1 as well as materials1 employed in the making of this useful article4 ,ink is the name applied to all liquids used in writing1 of whatever color they may be1 as red1 blue1 c41 though black is the most used for common purposes4 ,the ink of the ancients seems to have been of a thick1 oily nature1 unlike the modern ink2 it consisted of nothing more than a species of soot1 or ivory black1 mixed with one fourth of gum4 ,footnote #f3 ,see ,chapter ,,xi4 ,what is ,copperas8 ,a kind of vitriol4 ,copperas is the name given to green vitriol1 which is a preparation from iron4 ,the blue vitriol is a sulphate of copper1 and the white vitriol a sulphate of zinc4 ,for what is ,vitriol used8 ,in the making of glass1 to color it2 in many arts and manufactures2 and in medicine4 ,what are ,galls8 ,excrescences formed on a kind of oak tree in certain warm climates2 perforations are made by an insect into the bark of the tree1 whence issues a liquid which hardens by exposure4 ,they are used in dyeing1 making ink1 and other compositions4 ,there are two sorts of oak galls in our shops1 brought from the ,levant1 and the southern parts of ,europe4 ,what does the word ,levant signify8 ,a country to the eastward4 ,it is applied to the countries of ,turkey1 ,greece1 ,asia ,minor1 ,syria1 ,egypt1 c41 which are washed by the eastern part of the ,mediterranean4 ,is the ,ink used in ,printing the same as writing ,ink8 ,no2 it is more of the nature of paint1 being thicker and more glutinous3 it chiefly consists of a mixture of oil and lamp-black1 or some other ingredient1 according to the color required2 and is remarkable for the ease with which it adheres to paper that is moistened4 ,glutinous1 gummy1 resembling glue4 ,what is ,indian1 or ,chinese ,ink8 ,an admirable composition1 not liquid like our ink1 but solid1 and made into cakes somewhat like the mineral colors we use in painting4 ,it is made into all sorts of figures1 usually long1 and about an inch thick2 sometimes gilt with the figures of birds1 flowers1 c4 ,to use this ink1 it must be rubbed with water1 on stone or earthenware1 till it produces a beautiful1 liquid1 shining black4 ,it is used in drawing1 c41 and is brought from ,china4 ,it is composed of lamp-black and size1 or animal glue1 or gum1 to which perfumes and other substances are sometimes added4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,asbestus1 ,,salt1 ,,coal1 ,,iron1 ,,copper1 ,,brass1 ,,zinc1 ,,and ,,lapis ,,calaminaris4 ,what is the name of the remarkable stone of which a cloth has been made1 that resists the action of fire8 ,the ,asbestus1 a mineral substance of a whitish or silver color4 ,there are several species of this mineral1 which are distinguished by different names1 according to the appearance of each1 as fibrous asbestus1 hard asbestus1 and woody asbestus2 it is the fibrous sort which is most noted for its uses in the arts4 ,it is usually found inclosed within very hard stones2 sometimes growing on their outside1 and sometimes detached from them4 ,fibrous1 full of fibres or threads4 ,what are its qualities8 ,it is insipid2 will not dissolve in water2 and exposed to the fire1 it neither consumes nor calcines4 ,the industry of mankind has found a method of working upon this untoward mineral and employing it in making cloth and paper2 the process is1 however1 difficult4 ,insipid1 without taste4 ,was not this curious mineral better known to the ancients than it is at present8 ,the linen made from it was highly esteemed by them2 it was not only better known1 but more common1 than among us1 being equally valuable with the richest pearls2 but the superiority of all other cloths to this in every respect1 except the resistance to fire1 has caused incombustible cloth to be regarded in modern times merely as a curiosity1 but it is still employed in chemical preparations4 ,incombustible1 remaining undestroyed in fire4 ,to what use did they put it8 ,in royal funerals1 it formed the shroud to wrap the body in that its ashes might be prevented from mingling with the wood1 c41 that composed the pile4 ,some of the ancients made themselves clothes of it1 particularly the ,brahmins among the ,hindoos2 it formed wicks for their perpetual lamps2 thread1 ropes1 nets1 and paper were also made of it4 ,pliny1 the ,roman naturalist1 says he has seen napkins of asbestus taken soiled from the table after a feast1 which were thrown into the fire1 and by that means better scoured than if they had been washed with water4 ,naturalist1 a person who studies nature1 especially in what relates to minerals1 vegetables1 and animals4 ,brahmins1 ,hindoo priests4 ,where is the ,asbestus found8 ,this mineral is found in the greatest quantity in the silver mines of ,saxony2 at ,bleyburg1 in ,carinthia2 in ,sweden1 ,corsica1 and sometimes in ,france1 ,england1 and the ,united ,states2 also in ,tartary and ,siberia4 ,what method is used in preparing the ,asbestus8 ,the stone is laid in warm water to soak1 then opened and divided by the hands1 that the earthy matter may be washed out4 ,this washing is several times repeated1 and the flax-like filaments collected and dried2 these are easily spun with the addition of flax4 ,the cloth when woven is best preserved by oil from breaking or wasting2 on exposure to the fire1 the flax and the oil burn out1 and the cloth remains of a pure white4 ,the shorter threads1 which separate on washing the stone1 may be made into paper in the usual manner4 ,what is ,salt8 ,a saline crystallization of a sharp1 pungent taste1 and cleansing quality1 used to season flesh1 fish1 butter1 c41 and other things that are to be kept4 ,it is distinguished1 with reference to the general sources from which it is most plentifully derived1 into three different sorts1 namely1 fossil1 or rock salt2 sea1 or marine salt2 and spring salt1 or that drawn from briny springs and wells4 ,marine1 belonging to the sea4 ,saline1 consisting of salt4 ,briny1 consisting of brine2 which means water tasting of salt2 it is used to signify the waters of the sea1 or any salt water4 ,what is ,fossil or ,rock ,salt8 ,that which is found in large beds in the bowels of the earth1 and which has not undergone any artificial preparation2 it is sometimes colorless1 but more frequently red1 yellow1 or blue1 and mixed with earthy impurities2 this salt was entirely unknown to the ancients1 who by rock salt meant that which adheres to the rocks above high-water mark1 being lodged there by the spray of the sea1 which is evaporated by the heat of the sun2 this is the purest salt1 and is to be found on the rocks of ,sicily1 and several islands of the ,west ,indies4 ,artificial1 produced by art1 and the labor of man4 ,evaporated1 converted into vapor and dissipated4 ,what is ,marine ,salt8 ,that which is made from sea-water1 concentrated by repeated evaporations1 and at length crystallized4 ,what is ,spring ,salt8 ,that salt which is not made from sea-water1 but from the water of salt wells or springs2 large quantities of this salt are made in the ,united ,states1 in some parts of which saline springs are numerous4 ,in what manner is it obtained8 ,the means employed for extracting the salt from the water vary according to circumstances4 ,in hot countries1 the water is merely exposed to the action of the sun1 until the water is evaporated2 the salt procured in this manner is considered the best4 ,what method is usually employed in countries where the sun's heat is not sufficiently powerful8 ,in climates where the rays of the sun do not afford sufficient heat1 the water1 which has been partly evaporated in large shallow reservoirs formed in the earth1 called salt-pans1 is poured into enormous coppers and boiled for four or five hours3 when the contents of the copper are wasted to half the quantity1 the liquid begins to be crystallized2 the vessel is again filled up1 and the brine again boiled and purified3 this is repeated three or four times4 ,after the last purifying the fire is kept very low for twelve or fourteen hours1 and when the moisture is nearly evaporated the salt is removed1 and1 after the remaining brine has drained off1 is placed in the store-houses4 ,in what countries is ,salt generally found8 ,this substance1 so necessary to the comfort of mankind1 is widely distributed over the face of the earth1 and nothing1 except1 perhaps1 the air we breathe1 is more easily placed within our reach4 ,the ocean is an exhaustless store-house of this valuable article4 ,those nations of the earth which are placed at a distance from the sea1 find themselves provided with magazines of salt1 either in solid masses1 or dissolved in the waters of inland lakes1 or issuing from the solid rocks in springs of brine4 ,at ,salina1 ,syracuse1 and other places in ,onondaga ,co41 ,new ,york1 salt springs are remarkably abundant1 and yield annually several millions of bushels2 immense quantities are also obtained from the salt-wells on the ,great and ,little ,kanawha1 and other places in ,western ,virginia2 it is also extensively manufactured in the western part of ,pennsylvania1 and throughout the ,western ,states4 ,name the countries most noted for mines of ,salt4 ,poland1 ,upper ,hungary1 and the mountains of ,catalonia1 have extensive salt mines2 those in the village of ,wieliczca1 in ,poland1 about five leagues from ,cracow1 are of a surprising depth and size4 ,in the interior of ,hindostan1 there is a remarkable salt lake2 and in several parts of the globe there are spots of ground impregnated entirely with this substance3 an island of the ,east ,indies contains a singular kind of fossil1 or native dry salt2 the soil there is in general very fruitful1 but in certain parts of the island1 there are spots of ground entirely barren1 without the appearance of anything vegetable upon them2 these spots taste very much of salt1 and abound with it in such quantities1 as to supply not only the whole island1 but the greater part of the adjacent continent4 ,in ,utah ,territory1 especially in the neighborhood of the ,mormon city1 at the ,great ,salt ,lake1 are found extensive plains thus impregnated with salt1 which is procured in great abundance4 ,fossil1 the remains of minerals or shells dug from the earth4 ,impregnated1 filled1 saturated4 ,catalonia1 a considerable province of ,spain1 situated to the north-east4 ,adjacent1 adjoining1 lying near1 or contiguous4 ,to what use did the ancient inhabitants of ,africa and ,arabia put this substance8 ,the large slabs of rock salt1 with which their country abounds1 were employed by them instead of stones1 in building their dwellings1 the pieces being easily cemented together by sprinkling the joints with water1 which1 melting the parts of the two surfaces that opposed each other1 formed the whole1 when dry1 into one solid block4 ,does ,rock ,salt undergo any preparation before it is used8 ,yes2 when taken from the earth it is dissolved in cold water1 and afterwards drawn off into salt-pans1 and refined in the same manner as the sea salt4 ,what is ,coal8 ,a hard1 black1 sulphurous and inflammable substance1 dug out of the earth1 serving in many countries as fuel4 ,it is common in most of the countries of ,europe and ,america4 ,in some parts of the ,united ,states1 it is found in beds having an area of several thousand square miles4 ,from what is ,coal supposed to have originated8 ,its origin is supposed to be derived from gigantic trees which flourished in the swamps and forests of the primeval earth4 ,these having been torn away from their native bed1 by storms and inundations1 were transported into some adjacent lake1 river1 or sea4 ,here they floated on the waters until1 saturated with them1 they sank to the bottom1 and being buried in the lower soil of adjacent lands1 became transformed into a new state among the members of the mineral kingdom4 ,a long interment followed1 during which a course of chemical changes1 and new combinations of their vegetable elements1 converted them to the mineral condition of coal4 ,primeval1 original1 existing before the flood4 ,gigantic1 extremely large1 greater than the usual size4 ,interment1 burial under the ground4 ,elements1 the several parts or principles of which bodies are composed4 ,what is a ,coal ,mine8 ,a subterraneous excavation1 from which coal is obtained4 ,do the terms ,coal and ,charcoal signify the same substance8 ,no2 ,charcoal is an artificial fuel1 made in imitation of coal1 by burning wood covered with earth so as partially to exclude the air4 ,it is used for various purposes1 as the making of gunpowder1#g polishing brass and copper1 c41 and when a clear and bright fire is required1 as it burns with little or no smoke2 it is dangerous1 however1 for one to remain many hours in a close room with a charcoal fire1 as the fumes it throws out are hurtful1 and would destroy life4 ,charcoal1 in fact1 is the coaly residuum of any vegetables burnt in close vessels2 but the common charcoal is that prepared from wood1 and is generally black1 very brittle1 light1 and destitute of taste or smell4 ,it is a powerful antiseptic1 unalterable and indestructible4 ,footnote #g3 ,see ,chapter ,,xii4 ,residuum1 the remaining part1 that which is left4 ,antiseptic1 that which prevents putrefaction4 ,what is ,iron8 ,one of the most useful and abundant metals2 being found in all mineral earths1 and stones2 in plants1 and animal fluids2 and is the chief cause of the varieties of color in all4 ,iron is found in great masses1 in various states1 in the bowels of the earth2 it is usually1 however1 compounded with stone1 from which it is separated by the action of fire4 ,in some parts of the world1 whole mountains are formed of iron2 among these may be mentioned the ,pilot ,knob and the ,iron ,mountain1 in ,missouri1 being unsurpassed by anything of the kind found elsewhere4 ,what are its characteristics8 ,it is hard1 fusible1 not very malleable1 but extremely ductile1 and very tenacious2 it is of a greyish color1 and nearly eight times heavier than water4 ,without iron1 society could make no progress in the cultivation of the ground1 in mechanical arts or trades1 in architecture or navigation2 it is therefore of the greatest use to man4 ,iron tools have been used in all ,european countries as long as their histories have existed2 this metal appears likewise to have been known and used by the inhabitants of the world in the earliest ages1 being frequently mentioned in the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,in the fourth chapter of ,genesis1 ,tubalcain is spoken of as a hammerer and artificer in every work of brass and iron1 and thus their existence was evidently known at that early period of the world4 ,artificer1 one who works or makes4 ,fusible1 capable of being melted by fire4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,salt ,,mines ,,of ,,wieliczca4 ,what do you mean by ,metals8 ,useful substances dug from the bowels of the earth1 being sometimes found pure1 but mostly combined with other matter4 ,they are distinguished by their weight1 tenacity1 hardness1 opacity1 color1 and peculiar lustre1 known as the metallic lustre2 they are fusible by heat1 and good conductors of heat and electricity2 many of them are malleable1 and some extremely ductile4 ,those which were first known are gold1 silver1 iron1 copper1 mercury1 lead1 and tin4 ,tenacity1 the firmness with which one part adheres to another4 ,opacity1 want of transparency or clearness4 ,what are ,metals called in their natural state8 ,ores2 so named because the metal contained in them is either mixed with other metals1 or with mineral earths1 from which they are separated and purified by various means3 such as washing1 roasting1 c41 but the method is always regulated by the nature of the ore4 ,what is ,copper8 ,a hard1 heavy1 ductile metal1 found native1 and in many ores2 of these the most important is copper pyrites1 which is a sulphuret of copper4 ,next to gold1 silver1 and platinum1 copper is the most malleable and ductile of metals2 it may be drawn into wires as fine as hair1 or beaten into leaves as thin as those of silver4 ,the rust of copper is very poisonous4 ,copper1 mixed with a certain quantity of tin1 forms bell-metal4 ,with a smaller proportion1 it forms bronze1 a substance used in sculpture for casting figures and statues4 ,it is an abundant metal1 and is found in various parts of the world4 ,native oxides of copper are found in ,cornwall1 ,siberia1 and in ,north and ,south ,america4 ,oxide1 a substance combined with ,oxygen1#h in a proportion not sufficient to produce acidity4 ,sulphuret1 a combination of sulphur with a base4 ,footnote #h3 ,see ,chapter ,,xiii41 article ,oxygen4 ,what are the uses of ,copper8 ,they are too various to be enumerated4 ,in sheets it is much used to sheathe the bottoms of ships1 for boilers1 and other utensils4 ,copper coin was the only money used by the ,romans till the #dheth year of their city1 when silver began to be coined4 ,in ,sweden1 houses are covered with this metal4 ,what is a ,mine8 ,a cavity under ground1 formed for the purpose of obtaining metals1 c42 mines are often very deep and extensive4 ,the descent into them is by a pit1 called a shaft2 the clues by which mines are discovered1 are1 mineral springs1 the discoloration of vegetables1 the appearance of pieces of ore1 c4 ,clues1 signs or means by which things hidden are brought to light4 ,what is ,brass8 ,a factitious metal1 consisting of copper and zinc4 ,brass is lighter and harder than pure copper1 and less subject to rust2 owing to these properties1 together with its beautiful color1 it is extremely useful in the manufacture of many utensils4 ,factitious1 made by art1 not found in a natural state4 ,what is ,zinc8 ,a metal of a brilliant bluish white color4 ,its name was unknown to the ancient ,greeks and ,arabians4 ,it is mixed with other substances in the ore1 from which it is obtained by smelting in the furnace4 ,it has never yet been found native or pure4 ,for what is ,zinc used8 ,from its readiness to dissolve in all acids1 and unite with other metals1 it is used in alloy with them in the composition of brass1 c4 ,thin sheets of zinc are also used to cover roofs of houses1 and in the manufacture of various household utensils4 ,what is ,lapis ,calaminaris8 ,lapis ,calaminaris1 or calamine stone1 is a native carbonate of zinc1 of some use in medicine1 but chiefly in founding4 ,it is1 sometimes brownish1 as that found in ,germany and ,england1 or red1 as that of ,france4 ,it is dug out of mines1 usually in small pieces2 generally out of those of lead4 ,calamine is mostly found in barren1 rocky soils4 ,founding1 the art of casting metals4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,yams1 ,,mangoes1 ,,bread-,,fruit1 ,,shea ,,or ,,butter ,,tree1 ,,cow ,,tree1 ,,water ,,tree1 ,,licorice1 ,,manna1 ,,opium1 ,,tobacco1 ,,and ,,gum4 ,what are ,yams8 ,the roots of a climbing plant growing in tropical climates4 ,the root of the yam is wholesome and well-flavored2 nearly as large as a man's leg1 and of an irregular form4 ,yams are much used for food in those countries where they grow2 the natives either roast or boil them1 and the white people grind them into flour1 of which they make bread and puddings4 ,the yam is of a dirty brown color outside1 but white and mealy within4 ,what are ,mangoes8 ,the fruit of the ,mango ,tree1 a native of ,india and the south-western parts of ,asia2 it also grows abundantly in the ,west ,indies and ,brazil4 ,it was introduced into ,jamaica in #aghb2 where it attains the height of thirty or forty feet1 with thick and wide-extended branches4 ,the varieties of the mango are very numerous1--upwards of eighty are cultivated2 and the quality of these varies according to the countries and situations in which they grow4 ,the mangoes of ,asia are said to be much better than those of ,america4 ,describe the appearance of the ,mango ,tree4 ,the flowers of this tree are small and whitish1 formed in pyramidal clusters4 ,the fruit has some resemblance to a short thick cucumber1 about the size of a goose's egg2 its taste is delicious and cooling2 it has a stone in the centre1 like that of a peach4 ,at first this fruit is of a fine green color1 and some varieties continue so1 while others change to a fine golden or orange color4 ,the mango tree is an evergreen1 bearing fruit once or twice a year1 from six or seven years old to a hundred4 ,pyramidal1 resembling a pyramid4 ,how is this fruit eaten8 ,when ripe1 it is eaten by the natives either in its natural state1 or bruised in wine4 ,it is brought to us either candied or pickled1 as the ripe fruit is very perishable2 in the latter case1 they are opened with a knife1 and the middle filled up with fresh ginger1 garlic1 mustard1 salt1 and oil or vinegar4 ,the fruit of the largest variety weighs two pounds or upwards4 ,the several parts of this tree are all applied to some use by the ,hindoos3 the wood is consecrated to the service of the dead2 from the flour of the dried kernels different kinds of food are prepared2 the leaves1 flowers1 and bark1 are medicinal4 ,medicinal1 fit for medicine1 possessing medical properties4 ,consecrated1 separated from a common to a sacred use4 ,is there not a tree which bears a fruit that may be used for bread8 ,yes2 the ,bread-fruit ,tree1 originally found in the southeastern parts of ,asia and the islands of the ,pacific ,ocean1 though introduced into the tropical parts of ,america4 ,it is one of the most interesting1 as well as singular productions of the vegetable kingdom1 being no less beautiful than it is useful4 ,this tree is large and shady2 its leaves are broad and indented1 like those of the fig tree--from twelve to eighteen inches long1 rather fleshy1 and of a dark green4 ,the fruit1 when full-grown1 is from six to nine inches round1 and of an oval form--when ripe1 of a rich1 yellow tinge2 it generally hangs in clusters of two or three1 on a small thick stalk2 the pulp is white1 partly farinaceous1 and partly fibrous1 but when ripe1 becomes yellow and juicy4 ,indented1 toothed like the edge of a saw4 ,farinaceous1 mealy1 consisting of meal or flour2 from farina1 flour4 ,how is the ,bread-,fruit eaten8 ,it is roasted until the outside is of a brown color and crisp2 the pulp has then the consistency of bread1 which the taste greatly resembles2 and thus it forms a nourishing food3 it is also prepared in many different ways1 besides that just mentioned4 ,the tree produces three1 sometimes four crops in a year1 and continues bearing for fifty years1 so that two or three trees are enough for a man's yearly supply4 ,its timber1 which at first is of a rich yellow1 but afterwards assumes the color of mahogany1 is used in the building of houses and canoes2 the flowers1 when dried1 serve as tinder2 the sap or juice serves for glue2 the inner bark is made1 by the natives of some of the islands of the ,pacific ,ocean1 into a kind of cloth2 and the leaves are useful for many purposes4 ,one species of the bread-fruit1 called the ,jaca tree1 grows chiefly on the mainland of ,asia4 ,mainland1 the continent4 ,describe the ,jaca ,tree4 ,this kind grows to the same1 if not a larger size than the bread-fruit of the islands1 but is neither so palatable nor so nutritious2 the fruit often weighs thirty pounds1 and contains two or three hundred seeds1 each four times as large as an almond4 ,december is the time when the fruit ripens2 it is then eaten1 but not much relished2 the seeds are also eaten when roasted4 ,there are also other trees in different parts of the world1 mostly of the palm species1 which yield bread of a similar kind4 ,is there not a tree which produces a substance resembling the ,butter which we make from the milk of the cow8 ,the ,shea1 or ,butter ,tree1 a native of ,africa3 it is similar in appearance to the ,american oak1 and the fruit1 7from the kernel of which the butter is prepared17 is somewhat like an olive in form4 ,the kernel is inclosed in a sweet pulp1 under a thin1 green rind4 ,how is the ,butter extracted8 ,the kernel1 being taken out and dried in the sun1 is boiled in water2 by which process a white1 firm1 and rich-flavored butter is produced1 which will keep for a whole year without salt4 ,the growth and preparation of this commodity is one of the first objects of ,african industry1 and forms a principal article of their trade with one another4 ,you have given me an account of a useful ,butter prepared from a plant2 is there not also a tree which can supply the want of a cow8 ,in ,south ,america there is a tree1 the juice of which is a nourishing milk2 it is called the ,cow ,tree4 ,this tree is very fine2 the leaves are broad1 and some of them ten inches long2 the fruit is rather fleshy1 and contains one or two nuts or kernels4 ,the milk is very abundant1 and is procured by incisions made in the trunk of the tree2 it is tolerably thick1 and of a glutinous quality1 a pleasant taste1 and agreeable smell4 ,the negroes and people at work on the farms drink it1 dipping into it their bread made of maize4 ,glutinous1 having the quality of glue1--an adhesive1 gummy substance1 prepared from the skins of animals3 it is used in joining wood1 c41 and for many other purposes4 ,what time of the day is the best for drawing the juice8 ,sunrise2 the blacks and natives then hasten from all quarters with large bowls to receive the milk2 some drink it on the spot1 others carry it home to their families4 ,what island possesses a remarkable substitute for the want of springs of ,water8 ,ferro1 one of the ,canary ,isles1 situated in the ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,in this island there is no water1 except on a part of the beach which is nearly inaccessible2 to supply the place of a fountain1 ,nature has bestowed on the island a particular kind of tree1 unknown in other parts of the world4 ,it is of a moderate size1 with straight1 long1 evergreen leaves2 on its top a small cloud continually rests1 which so drenches the leaves with moisture1 that it perpetually distils upon the ground a stream of clear water4 ,to these trees1 as to perennial springs1 the inhabitants of ,ferro repair1 and are supplied with abundance of water for themselves and cattle4 ,perennial1 lasting through the year1 perpetual4 ,what is ,licorice8 ,a plant1 the juice of which is squeezed from the roots1 and then boiled with sugar1 and used as a remedy for coughs1 c4 ,great quantities are exported from ,spain1 ,italy1 c4 ,the dried root is of great use in medicine1 and makes an excellent drink for colds and other affections of the lungs by boiling it with linseed4 ,what are the ,lungs8 ,the organs of respiration in man and many other animals4 ,there are two of these organs1 one on each side of the chest4 ,respiration1 breathing2 the act of inhaling air into the lungs1 and again expelling it1 by which animal life is supported4 ,what is ,manna8 ,a sweet1 white juice1 oozing from the branches and leaves of a kind of ash tree1 growing chiefly in the southern parts of ,italy1 during the heats of summer4 ,when dry1 it is very light1 easily crumbled1 and of a whitish1 or pale yellow color1 not unlike hardened honey4 ,is ,manna peculiar to the ,ash ,tree of ,southern ,italy8 ,no4 ,manna is nothing more than the nutritious juices of the tree1 which exude during the summer heats2 and what confirms this is1 that the very hot summers are always those which are most productive of manna4 ,several different species of trees produce a kind of manna2 the best and most used is1 however1 that of ,calabria1 in ,italy4 ,what are its uses8 ,it was much esteemed formerly in medicine1 but it has now gone nearly into disuse4 ,the peasants of ,mount ,libanus eat it as others do honey4 ,the ,bedouin ,arabs consume great quantities1 considering it the greatest dainty their country affords4 ,in ,mexico1 they are said to have a manna which they eat as we do cheese4 ,at ,brianon1 in ,france1 they collect it from all sorts of trees that grow there1 and the inhabitants observe1 that such summers as produce the greatest quantities of manna are very fatal to the trees1 many of them perishing in the winter4 ,is there not another tree which produces ,manna8 ,yes3 the ,tamarisk1 a tree peculiar to ,palestine and parts of ,arabia4 ,this remarkable substance is produced by several trees1 and in various countries of the ,east4 ,on ,mount ,sinai there is a different species of ,tamarisk that yields it4 ,it is found on the branches of the tree1 and falls on the ground during the heat of the day4 ,where is ,mount ,libanus8 ,mount ,libanus1 or ,lebanon1 is situated in ,asiatic ,turkey2 it was anciently famous for its large and beautiful cedar trees4 ,the ,cedars of ,lebanon are frequently mentioned in ,holy ,writ4 ,there are now scarcely any remaining of superior size and antiquity1 but they vary from the largest size down to mere saplings2 and their numbers seem to increase rather than diminish1 there being many young trees springing up4 ,how is ,manna gathered8 ,from ,august to ,september1 the ,italians collect it in the following manner1 viz43 by making an incision at the foot of the tree1 each day over that of the preceding1 about four inches from one another3 these cuts1 or incisions1 are nearly two inches long1 and half an inch deep4 ,when the cut is made1 the manna directly begins to flow1 at first like clear water1 but congealing as it flows1 it soon becomes firm3 this they collect in baskets4 ,manna has been found to consist of two distinct substances one nearly resembling sugar1 the other similar to a gum or mucilage4 ,what nation was fed with a kind of ,manna8 ,the ,children of ,israel1 when wandering in the desert wilderness1 where no food was to be procured1 were fed by a miraculous supply of manna1 showered down from ,heaven every morning on the ground in such quantities as to afford sufficient food for the whole host4 ,what is ,opium8 ,a narcotic1 gummy1 resinous juice1 drawn from the head of the white poppy1 and afterwards thickened2 it is brought over in dark1 reddish brown lumps1 which1 when powdered1 become yellow4 ,narcotic1 producing sleep and drowsiness4 ,in what countries is it cultivated8 ,in many parts of ,asia1 ,india1 and even the southern parts of ,europe1 whence it is exported into other countries4 ,the ,turks1 and other ,eastern nations1 chew it4 ,with us it is chiefly used in medicine4 ,the juice is obtained from incisions made in the seed-vessels of the plant2 it is collected in earthen pots1 and allowed to become sufficiently hard to be formed into roundish masses of about four pounds weight4 ,in ,europe the poppy is cultivated mostly for the seeds4 ,morphia and laudanum are medicinal preparations of opium4 ,what is ,tobacco8 ,an herbaceous plant which flourishes in many temperate climates1 particularly in ,north ,america2 it is supposed to have received its name from ,tabaco1 a province of ,mexico2 it is cultivated in the ,west ,indies1 the ,levant1 on the coast of ,greece1 in the ,archipelago1 ,malta1 ,italy1 ,france1 ,ceylon1 c4 ,it was not known in ,europe till the discovery of ,america by the ,spaniards2 and was carried to ,england about the time of ,queen ,elizabeth1 either by ,sir ,francis ,drake or ,sir ,walter ,raleigh4 ,tobacco is either taken as snuff1 smoked in pipes or in the form of cigars1 or chewed in the mouth like opium4 ,there are many different species of this plant1 most of them natives of ,america1 some of the ,cape of ,good ,hope and ,china4 ,tobacco contains a powerful poison called nicotine4 ,herbaceous1 like an herb or plant1 not a shrub or tree4 ,what part of the plant is used8 ,the leaves1 which are stripped from the plant1 and after being moistened with water1 are twisted up into rolls2 these are cut up by the tobacconist1 and variously prepared for sale1 or reduced into a scented powder called snuff4 ,who was ,sir ,francis ,drake8 ,sir ,francis ,drake was a distinguished naval officer1 who flourished in the reign of ,elizabeth4 ,he made his name immortal by a voyage into the ,south ,seas1 through the ,straits of ,magellan2 which1 at that time1 no ,englishman had ever attempted4 ,he died on board his own ship in the ,west ,indies1 #aeie4 ,who was ,sir ,walter ,raleigh8 ,sir ,walter ,raleigh was also an illustrious ,english navigator and historian1 born in #aeeb4 ,he performed great services for ,queen ,elizabeth1 particularly in the discovery of ,virginia1 and in the defeat of the ,spanish ,armada2 he lived in honor and prosperity during her reign1 but on the accession of ,james the ,first1 was stripped of his favor at court1 unaccountably accused of high treason1 tried1 and condemned to die2 being reprieved1 however1 he was imprisoned in the ,tower of ,london many years1 during which time he devoted himself to writing and study4 ,receiving1 at last1 a commission to go and explore the gold mines at ,guiana1 he embarked2 but his design having been betrayed to the ,spaniards1 he was defeated3 and on his return to ,england1 in ,july1 #afah1 was arrested and beheaded1 7by order of the ,king1 on his former attainder17 ,october #bi2 suffering his fate with great magnanimity4 ,high ,treason1 in ,england1 means an offence committed against the sovereign4 ,in the ,united ,states it consists in levying war against the government1 adhering to its enemies1 and giving them aid and comfort4 ,reprieved1 respited from sentence of death4 ,magnanimity1 greatness of mind1 bravery4 ,what is ,gum8 ,a mucilaginous juice1 exuding from the bark of certain trees or plants1 drawn thence by the warmth of the sun in the form of a glutinous matter2 and afterwards by the same cause rendered firm and tenacious4 ,there are many different gums1 named after the particular tree or plant from which they are produced4 ,mucilaginous1 consisting of mucilage4 ,tenacious1 adhering closely4 ,what is the character of ,gum8 ,gum is capable of being dissolved in water1 and forming with it a viscid transparent fluid2 but not in vinous spirits or oil2 it burns in the fire to a black coal1 without melting or catching fire2 and does not dissolve in water at boiling heat4 ,the name of gum has been inaccurately given to several species of gum-resins1 which consist of resin and various other substances1 flowing from many kinds of trees1 and becoming hard by exposure to the air4 ,these are soluble in dilute alcohol4 ,gum is originally a milky liquor1 having a greater quantity of water mixed with its oily parts1 and for that reason it dissolves in either water or oil4 ,another sort is not oily1 and therefore dissolves in water only1 as gum ,arabic1 the gum of the cherry-tree1 c4 ,viscid1 thick1 ropy4 ,vinous1 having the qualities of wine4 ,are the last-mentioned sorts properly called ,gums8 ,no1 though commonly called gums1 they are only dried mucilages1 which were nothing else than the mucilaginous lymph issuing from the vessels of the tree1 in the same manner as it does from mallows1 comfrey1 and even from the cucumber2 the vessels of which being cut across1 yield a lymph which is plainly mucilaginous1 and if well dried1 at length becomes a kind of gum1 or rather1 a hardened mucilage4 ,lymph1 transparent fluid4 ,what is ,gum ,arabic8 ,the juice of a small tree of the ,acacia tribe1 growing in ,egypt1 ,arabia ,petra1 ,palestine1 and in different parts of ,america4 ,are there other plants or trees which produce ,gum1 besides those already mentioned8 ,a great number1 though not all commonly in use4 ,the leaves of rhubarb1 the common plum1 and even the sloe and the laurel1 produce a clear1 tasteless gum2 there are also a number of different gums1 brought from foreign countries1 of great use in medicine and the arts4 ,most of the ,acacias produce gums1 though the quality of all is not equally good4 ,what is ,rhubarb8 ,a valuable root growing in ,china1 ,turkey1 and ,russian ,tartary4 ,quantities of it are imported from other parts of the world3 that from ,turkey is esteemed the best4 ,rhubarb is also cultivated in our gardens1 and the stalks of the leaves are often used in tarts2 but the root1 from the difference of climate1 does not possess any medicinal virtue4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,spectacles1 ,,mariner',s ,,compass1 ,,barometer1 ,,thermometer1 ,,watches1 ,,clocks1 ,,telescope1 ,,microscope1 ,,gunpowder1 ,,steam ,,engine1 ,,and ,,electro-,,magnetic ,,telegraph4 ,when were ,spectacles invented1 and who was their inventor8 ,it is supposed that they were first known about the thirteenth century1 and invented by a monk of ,pisa1 in ,italy1 named ,alexander de ,spina4 ,spectacles are composed of two circular pieces of glass set in a frame4 ,what are these glasses called8 ,lenses4 ,they are either convex or concave1 according to the kind of sight requiring them4 ,old people1 and those who can only see things at a distance1 from the flatness of the eye1 which prevents the rays of light converging so as to meet in the centre1 require convex lenses4 ,people who can only distinguish objects when viewed closely1 from the eye being too convex1 require concave lenses to counteract it by spreading the rays1 and thus rendering vision distinct4 ,convex1 rising outwardly in a circular form2 opposite to concave4 ,concave1 hollow2 round1 but hollow1 as the inner curve of an arch1 c4 ,converging1 tending to one point from different parts4 ,vision1 the faculty of seeing4 ,what is the ,mariner's ,compass8 ,a most useful and important instrument1 by the aid of which the navigator guides his ship on the sea1 and steers his way to the place of his destination4 ,the inventor of the ,mariner's ,compass is not known1 nor the exact time of its introduction2 it was employed in ,europe in navigation about the middle of the thirteenth century1 and has been in use more than five hundred years4 ,the ,chinese are said to have been acquainted with it much earlier1 but no reliance can be placed on their dates4 ,the power of the loadstone to attract iron was known to the ancient ,egyptians1 but it was not applied to any practical purpose4 ,navigator1 one who guides a ship4 ,steer1 to direct or guide a vessel in its course4 ,destination1 the place to which a person is bound4 ,practical1 capable of practice1 not merely speculative4 ,what is the ,loadstone8 ,an ore of iron which possesses the peculiar property of attracting iron1 namely1 of drawing it in contact with its own mass1 and holding it firmly attached by its own power of attraction4 ,a piece of loadstone drawn several times along a needle1 or a small piece of iron1 converts it into an artificial magnet2 if this magnetized needle is carefully balanced1 it will turn round of itself1 till its end points towards the ,north4 ,the magnetized needle also possesses the power of attracting iron1 and of communicating this power to another piece of iron or steel1 similar to that of the loadstone itself4 ,contact1 touch4 ,magnetized1 rendered magnetic4 ,describe the ,mariner's ,compass4 ,the ,mariner's ,compass consists of a circular box1 enclosing a magnetized bar of steel1 called the needle1 carefully balanced on an upright steel pivot1 and having that end which points to the ,north shaped like the head of an arrow2 attached to this needle1 and turning with it1 is a card on which are printed the divisions of ,north1 ,south4 ,east1 and ,west2 called the points of the compass4 ,by simply looking at the position of the needle1 the mariner can see the direction in which his vessel is sailing1 and regulate his helm accordingly4 ,helm1 the instrument by which a ship is steered1 consisting of a rudder and tiller4 ,what is a ,barometer8 ,an instrument for measuring the weight of the atmosphere1 which enables us to determine the changes of the weather1 the height of mountains1 c4 ,it consists of a glass tube hermetically sealed at one end1 filled with mercury1 and inverted in a basin of mercury2 according to the weight of the atmosphere1 this mercury rises or falls4 ,how is the ,hermetic seal formed8 ,by heating the edges of a vessel1 till they are just ready to melt1 and then twisting them closely together with hot pincers1 so that the air may be totally excluded4 ,the word is taken from ,hermes1 the ,greek name for ,mercury1 the heathen god of arts and learning1 and the supposed inventor of chemistry1#i which is sometimes called the hermetical art2 or perhaps from ,hermes1 an ancient king of ,egypt1 who was either its inventor1 or excelled in it4 ,footnote #i3 ,see ,chapter ,,xviii41 article ,chemistry4 ,what is ,mercury8 ,quicksilver1 or mercury1 is a white fluid metal1 the heaviest except platina and gold2 it readily combines with nearly all other metals1 and is used in the manufacture of looking-glasses1 barometers1 thermometers1 c42 in some of the arts1 and in the preparation of several powerful medicines4 ,it is found in ,california1 ,hungary1 ,sweden1 ,spain1 ,china1 and ,peru4 ,the quicksilver mine of ,guana ,velica1 in ,peru1 is one hundred and seventy fathoms in circumference1 and four hundred and eighty deep4 ,in this profound abyss are seen streets1 squares1 and a chapel1 where religious worship is performed4 ,the quicksilver mines of ,idria1 a town of ,lower ,austria1 have continually been wrought for more than #cjj years4 ,the vapor which is continually arising from the mercury is very hurtful to the miners1 who seldom survive many years4 ,abyss1 a gulf1 a depth without bottom4 ,in what state is ,mercury usually found8 ,either native1 or in the form of ore2 it is often found mixed with silver1 but more frequently with sulphur in the form of sulphuret1 which is decomposed by distillation4 ,running mercury is found in globules1 in ,america1 and is collected from the clefts of the rocks4 ,mercury has the appearance of melted silver2 it is neither ductile nor malleable in this state2 it is a substance so volatile1 when heated1 that it may be evaporated like water2 it is always seen in a fluid state1 even in temperate climates1 as a very small portion of heat is sufficient to preserve its fluidity4 ,it is used to separate gold and silver from the foreign matter found with those metals4 ,calomel1 a valuable medicine1 and vermilion1 a color1 are both preparations of mercury4 ,globules1 small particles of matter having the form of a ball or sphere4 ,what is a ,thermometer8 ,an instrument for measuring temperature4 ,it consists of a fine glass tube1 terminated at one end in a bulb1 usually filled with mercury1 which expands or contracts according to the degree of heat or cold4 ,on the scale of the ,fahrenheit thermometer1 the freezing point of water is marked #cb and the boiling point at #bab4 ,in both the ,centigrade and the ,reaumur scales the freezing point is at #j1 and the boiling point at #ajj in the ,centigrade and at #hj in ,reaumur's4 ,the invention of this instrument dates from about the close of the sixteenth century2 but it is not known by whom it was first brought into use4 ,terminated1 finished1 ended4 ,when and by whom were ,watches and ,clocks invented8 ,watches were invented about the year #aejj1 but who was the inventor is disputed4 ,they were1 however1 of little value as time-keepers1 before the application of the spiral spring as a regulator to the balance2 the glory of this excellent invention lies between ,dr4 ,hooke and ,m4 ,huygens2 the ,english ascribing it to the former1 the ,dutch1 ,french1 c41 to the latter4 ,some assert that pocket-watches were first made about #adgg1 at ,nuremberg1 in ,germany4 ,the most ancient clock of which we possess any certain account1 was made in #afcd by ,henry de ,wycke1 a ,german artist2 it was erected in a tower of the palace of ,charles ,v41 king of ,france4 ,the pendulum was applied by ,huygens1 in #afef4 ,what is a ,pendulum8 ,a weight so suspended from a fixed point that it may easily swing backward and forward2 its oscillations are always performed in equal times1 provided the length of the pendulum and the gravity remain the same4 ,it is said that the idea of employing the pendulum for the measurement of time1 was first conceived by ,galileo1 while a young man1 upon his observing attentively the regular oscillations of a lamp suspended from the roof of a church in ,pisa4 ,it was not1 however1 till the time of ,huygens that a method was devised of continuing its motions1 and registering the number of its oscillations4 ,oscillation1 a swinging backward and forward4 ,gravity1 the tendency of a body toward the centre of the earth4 ,registering1 recording4 ,illustration3 ,,charcoal ,,burning4 ,illustration3 ,,gold ,,miners ,,washing ,,ore4 ,to whom is the invention of ,gunpowder ascribed8 ,most authors suppose it was invented by ,bartholdus ,schwartz1 a monk of ,goslar1 a town of ,brunswick1 in ,germany1 about the year #acbj2 it appears1 however1 that it was known much earlier in many parts of the world1 and that the famous ,roger ,bacon1 who died in #abib1 knew its properties2 but it is not certain that he was acquainted with its application to fire-arms4 ,who was ,roger ,bacon8 ,a learned ,franciscan1 born at ,ilchester1 ,england1 in #abad4 ,he studied at ,oxford1 and afterwards became professor at that great ,university4 ,he was familiar with every branch of human knowledge1 but was especially distinguished for his extraordinary proficiency in the natural sciences4 ,to him we owe the invention of the telescope2 that of gunpowder is ascribed to him1 as stated above1 although we have no evidence to show whether he discovered its ingredients himself1 or whether he derived the knowledge from some ancient manuscripts4 ,bacon suffered some from the ignorance of the age in which he lived1 many of his experiments being looked upon as magic4 ,he died at ,oxford in the year #abid4 ,what is understood by ,magic8 ,magic is a term used to signify an unlawful and wicked kind of science1 depending1 as was pretended1 on the assistance of superhuman beings and of departed souls4 ,the term was anciently applied to all kinds of learning1 and in particular to the science of the ,magi or ,wise ,men of ,persia1 from whom it was called magic4 ,natural magic is no more than the application of natural active causes to passive things or subjects1 to produce effects apparently supernatural4 ,supernatural1 beyond the powers of nature2 miraculous4 ,of what is ,gunpowder composed8 ,of saltpetre1#aj sulphur1 and charcoal1 mixed together and powdered2 its explosive force when fired1 is owing to the instantaneous and abundant liberation of gaseous matter by the intense heat resulting from the action of the combustibles upon the saltpetre4 ,it is not known by whom it was first applied to the purposes of war1 but it is certain that it was used early in the fourteenth century4 ,cannons were used at the battle of ,cressy1 in #acdf2 small guns1 or muskets1 were introduced into the ,spanish army in #aeba4 ,footnote #aj3 ,see ,chapter ,,xiii4 ,explosive1 bursting out with violence and noise4 ,liberation1 a setting at liberty4 ,is not ,gunpowder highly combustible8 ,so combustible is gunpowder1 that a single spark of fire1 lighting upon any of it1 will cause it to explode with immense force2 and instances have occurred1 when any store or magazine of it has taken fire1 that have been attended with the most fatal effects4 ,it is useful to the miner and engineer as a ready means of overcoming the obstacles which are presented in their search for mineral treasures1 and in procuring materials for building4 ,from many passages in the ancient authors1 there is reason to suppose that gunpowder1 or a composition extremely like it1 was known to them2 but it does not appear to have been in general use1 and the invention of fire-arms is comparatively modern4 ,dynamite1 a recent invention1 has a still greater explosive force than gunpowder4 ,engineer1 one who works or directs an engine4 ,obstacles1 hinderances1 obstructions4 ,what is ,saltpetre8 ,a bitter kind of salt1 called by the ancients nitre1 but more commonly among us saltpetre4 ,it is composed of nitric acid and potassa4#aa ,it is found in earthy substances2 sometimes native or pure1 in the form of a shapeless salt4 ,vast quantities are found in several of the marly earths of the ,east ,indies1 ,china1 ,persia1 and also in ,south ,america4 ,in ,india it is found naturally crystallized1 and forming thin crusts upon the surface of the earth4 ,it is especially abundant in the ,united ,states1 being found in immense quantities in the limestone caves in the south-western ,states4 ,footnote #aa3 ,see ,potash1 ,chapter ,,vii41 article ,glass4 ,what do you mean by ,marly8 ,consisting of marl1 a kind of earth composed of different proportions of clay and carbonate of lime2 it is much used for manure4 ,there are several different-colored marls1 each possessing different qualities4 ,the most common are the red and the white1 though there are grey1 brown1 blue1 and yellow colored marls4 ,what is a ,telescope8 ,an optical instrument1 which serves for discovering and viewing distant objects1 either directly by glasses1 or by reflection4 ,the invention of the telescope is one of the noblest and most useful of which modern ages can boast1 since by means of this instrument the wonderful motions of the planets and fixed stars1 and all the heavenly bodies1 are revealed to us4 ,the honor of the invention is much disputed2 it is certain1 however1 that the celebrated ,galileo was the first who improved the telescope so as to answer astronomical purposes4 ,the name is formed from two ,greek words1 one signifying far1 the other to observe4 ,optical1 relating to ,optics1 the science of vision4 ,astronomical1 relating to ,astronomy4 ,who was ,galileo8 ,a most eminent astronomer and mathematician1 born at ,florence1 in ,italy4 ,his inventions and discoveries in ,astronomy1 ,geometry1 and ,mechanics1 contributed much to the advancement of those sciences4 ,he died in #afdb4 ,astronomer1 one versed in ,astronomy4 ,mathematician1 one versed in ,mathematics2 a science which treats of magnitude and number4 ,what is ,astronomy8#ab ,that science which teaches the knowledge of the heavenly bodies1 with the nature and causes of their various phenomena4 ,footnote #ab3 ,see ,chapter xviii4 ,what is ,geometry8 ,an ancient1 perfect1 and beautiful science1 which treats of the relations and properties of lines1 surfaces1 and solids4 ,what is meant by ,mechanics8 ,the science which investigates the laws of forces and powers1 and their action on bodies1 either directly or by machinery4 ,when the term mechanic is applied to a person1 it means one skilled in mechanics1 accustomed to manual labor4 ,investigate1 to search1 to inquire into4 ,manual1 performed by the hand4 ,what is a ,microscope8 ,an optical instrument1 by means of which very minute objects are represented exceedingly large1 and viewed very distinctly according to the laws of refraction or reflection4 ,nothing certain is known respecting the inventor of microscopes1 or the exact time of their invention1 but that they were first used in ,germany1 about #afba4 ,minute1 small1 diminutive4 ,refraction1 a change in the direction of a ray of light1 when it passes through transparent substances of different densities4 ,reflection1 a turning back of a ray of light after striking upon any surface4 ,what is the ,steam ,engine8 ,a machine that derives its moving power from the force of the steam produced from boiling water1 which is very great1 especially when1 as in the steam engine1 it is confined within a limited compass3 this useful machine is one of the most valuable presents that the arts of life have received from the philosopher1 and is of the greatest importance in working mines2 supplying cities with water2 in working metals2 in many mechanical arts2 and in navigation4 ,by the aid of steam1 vessels are propelled with greater swiftness than those which are wholly dependent on the winds and tides2 and thus trade is facilitated1 and we are enabled to communicate with distant lands in a much shorter space of time than was formerly consumed4 ,on land1 railroads are constructed1 on which steam carriages run with astonishing rapidity1 so that a journey which by coach and horses formerly required two or more days1 may now be performed in four or five hours4 ,mechanical1 belonging to ,mechanics4 ,to whom are we indebted for its invention8 ,its invention is by most writers ascribed to the ,marquis of ,worcester1 an ,englishman1 about #affc2 but it does not appear that the inventor could ever interest the public in favor of this1 or his other discoveries4 ,the steam engine of ,captain ,savery1 also an ,englishman1 is the first of which any definite description has been preserved4 ,it was invented in #afih4 ,since that period it has been successively improved by various persons1 but it is to ,mr4 ,watt and ,mr4 ,boulton1 of ,england1 that it is indebted for much of its present state of perfection4 ,by whom was the ,steam ,engine first applied to the purposes of ,navigation8 ,by ,john ,fitch1 of ,pennsylvania4 ,from papers in the historical collections of ,pennsylvania1 it appears that the first successful experiments were made at ,philadelphia1 in #aghe1 three years before the attempts at ,falkirk1 and on the ,clyde1 in ,scotland4 ,the boat made several trips on the ,delaware and ,schuylkill rivers1 but owing to repeated accidents to her machinery1 and the want of funds and competent mechanics for the necessary repairs1 she was abandoned4 ,in #ahjg1 ,robert ,fulton1 also of ,pennsylvania1 made his first experimental trip on the ,hudson ,river1 with complete success4 ,to this distinguished and ingenious ,american justly belongs the honor of having brought navigation by steam to a state of perfection4 ,in #ahai1 the first steamship crossed the ,atlantic from ,savannah to ,liverpool2 and in #ahch1 a regular communication by steamship was established between ,great ,britain and the ,united ,states4 ,since that period1 ocean navigation by steam-vessels has made rapid progress1 and1 at the present time1 numbers of steamers connect our various seaports with those of other nations1 and with each other4 ,what is the ,electro-,magnetic ,telegraph8 ,an instrument1 or apparatus1 by means of which intelligence is conveyed to any distance with the velocity of lightning4 ,the electric fluid1 when an excess has accumulated in one place1 always seeks to transfer itself to another1 until an equilibrium of its distribution is fully restored4 ,consequently1 when two places are connected by means of a good conductor of electricity1 as1 for instance1 the telegraphic wire2 the fluid generated by a galvanic battery1 if the communication be rendered complete1 instantaneously traverses the whole extent of the wire1 and charges1 at the distant station1 an electro-magnet2 this attracts one end of a lever1 and draws it downward1 while the other extremity is thrown up1 and1 by means of a style1 marks a slip of paper1 which is steadily wound off from a roller by the aid of clock-work4 ,if the communication is immediately broken1 only one wave of electricity passes over1 and a dot is made upon the paper2 if kept up1 a line is marked4 ,these dots and lines are made to represent the letters of the alphabet1 so that an operator employed for the purpose can easily read the message which is transmitted4--,the ,electro-,magnetic ,telegraph was first introduced upon a line between ,baltimore and ,washington1 by ,professor ,morse1 in #ahdd2 at the present time1 it is in successful operation between nearly all the important cities and towns of the ,united ,states and of ,europe4 ,an ,electro-,magnet is a piece of soft iron1 rendered temporarily magnetic by being placed within a coil of wire through which a current of electricity is passing4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,soap1 ,,candles1 ,,tallow ,,tree1 ,,spermaceti1 ,,wax1 ,,mahogany1 ,,indian ,,rubber ,,or ,,caoutchouc1 ,,sponge1 ,,coral1 ,,lime1 ,,carbon1 ,,oxygen1 ,,nitrogen1 ,,gas1 ,,hydrogen1 ,,chalk1 ,,and ,,marble4 ,of what is ,soap composed8 ,of soda or potash1 and various oily substances2 it is so useful for domestic and other purposes1 that it may be regarded as one of the necessaries of life2 immense quantities of it are consumed in all civilized countries4 ,soft soap is generally made of a lye of wood-ashes and quicklime1 boiled up with tallow or oil2 common household soap of soda and tallow1 or of potash and tallow2 when potash is used1 a large portion of common salt1 which contains soda1 is added to harden it4 ,the finest white soaps are made of olive oil and a lye consisting of soda and quicklime2 perfumes are sometimes added1 or various coloring matters stirred in to give the soap a variegated appearance4 ,the ancient ,greeks and ,hebrews appear to have been acquainted with the art of making soap1 or a composition very similar to it2 and also the ancient ,gauls and ,germans4 ,a soap-boiler's shop1 with soap in it1 was found in the city of ,pompeii1 in ,italy1 which was overwhelmed by an eruption of ,mount ,vesuvius1 ,a4,d4 #gi4 ,what is ,soda8 ,soda1 or barilla1 is obtained from the ashes of marine plants1 and by the decomposition of common salt2 its great depository is the ocean1 soda being the basis of salt4 ,the marine plants from which the soda is obtained1 are endowed with the property of decomposing the sea-salt which they imbibe1 and of absorbing the soda which it contains4 ,it is found native in ,egypt1 and is there called natron2 a name similar to that which it bore among the ,jews and ,greeks4 ,depository1 store-house1 place where anything is lodged4 ,imbibe1 to drink in1 to absorb4 ,of what are ,candles made8 ,of ,tallow1 which means animal fat melted and clarified1 that is1 cleansed or purified from filth4 ,tallow is procured from many animals1 but the most esteemed1 and the most used1 is that made from oxen1 sheep1 swine1 goats1 deer1 bears1 c42 some of which tallows or fats are used in medicine1 some in making soap1 and dressing leather2 others in the manufacture of candles1 c4 ,for the last-mentioned article1 that of sheep and oxen is most used2 candles of a better sort are likewise made of wax and spermaceti4 ,candles are kept burning by means of a wick of cotton or rush1 placed in the centre of the tallow1 which is moulded into a cylindrical form4 ,cylindrical1 having the form of a cylinder4 ,is there not a tree which yields a vegetable ,tallow8 ,yes2 ,china possesses a tree producing a substance like our tallow1 of which the ,chinese make their candles2 this tallow is extracted from the stone of the fruit1 the tallow being a white pulp which surrounds it4 ,in ,america1 likewise1 there is a shrub1 a native of the temperate parts1 especially towards the sea-side1 the seeds of which contain a waxy substance used for the same purpose1 and which is extracted by boiling2 this shrub is a species of myrtle1 and does not attain to any great size4 ,extracted1 drawn from4 ,what is ,spermaceti8 ,a whitish1 flaky1 unctuous substance1 prepared from an oil of the same name1 drawn from a particular kind of whale1 distinguished from the common whale by having teeth1 and a hunch on its back4 ,flaky1 having the nature of flakes4 ,what is ,wax8 ,a soft1 yellow1 concrete matter1 collected from vegetables by the bee1 of which this industrious and useful insect constructs its cell4 ,wax forms a considerable article of trade2 it is of two kinds1 the yellow and the white2 the yellow is the native wax as it is taken from the hive1 and the white is the same washed1 purified1 and exposed to the air4 ,concrete1 grown together1 solid4 ,what ,tree produces the beautiful and well-known wood so much used in making the various articles of household furniture8 ,the ,mahogany ,tree1 growing in ,america1 and the ,east and ,west ,indies2 it frequently grows in the crevices of rocks1 and other places of the same description4 ,this wood was not used for making furniture till near the end of the seventeenth century4 ,a ,london physician had a brother1 the captain of a ,west ,india ship1 who1 on his return to ,england1 having on board several logs of mahogany for the purpose of ballast1 made him a present of the wood1 he being engaged in a building project2 his carpenter1 however1 threw it aside1 observing that it was too hard to be wrought4 ,some time after1 the lady of the physician being in want of a box to hold candles1 the cabinet-maker was directed to make it of this wood2 he also made the same objection1 and declared that it spoiled his tools4 ,being urged1 however1 to make another trial1 he at length succeeded2 when the box was polished1 the beautiful color of the wood was so novel1 that it became an object of great curiosity4 ,before this time1 mahogany had been used partially in the ,west ,indies for ship-building1 but this new discovery of its beauty soon brought it into general use for making furniture4 ,crevice1 a rent1 a crack4 ,ballast1 the heavy matter placed in the hold of a vessel to keep it steady4 ,what is ,india ,rubber or ,caoutchouc8 ,an elastic1 resinous substance1 produced from a tree1 growing abundantly at ,cayenne1 ,quito1 and other parts of ,south ,america2 and also in some parts of the ,indies4 ,the tree which produces it is large1 straight1 and about sixty feet high4 ,there is1 however1 a small species found in ,sumatra and ,java1 and some of the neighboring islands4 ,how is the ,caoutchouc obtained from the ,tree8 ,by making incisions in the trunk of the tree1 from which the fluid resin issues in great abundance1 appearing of a milky whiteness at first1 but gradually becoming of a dark reddish color1 soft and elastic to the touch4 ,to what use is this substance put8 ,the ,indians make of it boots1 shoes1 bottles1 flambeaux1 and a species of cloth4 ,amongst us it is combined with sulphur1 forming the vulcanized rubber of commerce1 which is used for many purposes4 ,a greater proportion of sulphur1 produces vulcanite1 a hard black substance1 resembling jet4 ,flambeaux1 torches burnt to give light4 ,what is ,sponge8 ,a marine substance1 found adhering to rocks and shells under the sea-water1 or on the sides of rocks near the shore4 ,sponge was formerly imagined by some naturalists to be a vegetable production2 by others1 a mineral1 or a collection of sea-mud1 but it has since been discovered to be the fabric and habitation of a species of worm1 or polypus4 ,what do you mean by ,polypus8 ,a species of animals called ,zoophytes1 by which are meant beings having such an admixture of the characteristics of both plants and animals1 as to render it difficult to decide to which division they properly belong4 ,they are animal in substance1 possessed indeed of a stomach1 but without the other animal characteristics of blood-vessels1 bones1 or organs of sense2 these creatures live chiefly in water1 and are mostly incapable of motion3 they increase by buds or excrescences from the parent zoophyte1 and if cut off will grow again and multiply2 each part becoming a perfect animal4 ,myriads of the different species of zoophytes reside in small cells of coral1 sponge1 c41 or in forms like plants1 and multiply in such numbers as to create rocks and whole islands in many seas1 by their untiring industry4 ,polypus signifies having many feet1 or roots2 it is derived from the ,greek4 ,myriads1 countless numbers4 ,whence are the best and greatest number of ,sponges brought8 ,from the ,mediterranean1 especially from ,nicaria1 an island near the coast of ,asia3 the collection of sponges forms1 in some of these islands1 the principal support of their inhabitants4 ,they are procured by diving under water1 an exercise in which both men1 women1 and children are skilled from their earliest years4 ,the fine1 small sponges are esteemed the best1 and usually come from ,constantinople2 the larger and coarser sorts are brought from ,tunis and ,algiers1 on the coast of ,africa4 ,sponge is very useful in the arts1 as well as for domestic purposes4 ,what is ,coral8 ,a substance which1 like sponge1 was considered as a vegetable production1 until about the year #agbj1 when a ,french gentleman of ,marseilles commenced 7and continued for thirty years17 a series of observations1 and ascertained that the coral was a living animal of the ,polypus tribe4 ,the general name of zoophytes1 or plant animals1 has since been applied to them4 ,these animals are furnished with minute glands1 secreting a milky juice2 this juice1 when exuded from the animal1 becomes fixed and hard4 ,series1 a course or continued succession4 ,glands1 vessels4 ,exuded1 from exude1 to flow out4 ,is this substance considered by naturalists as the habitation of the ,insect8 ,not merely as the habitation1 but as a part of the animal itself1 in the same manner that the shell of a snail or an oyster is of those animals1 and without which they cannot long exist4 ,by means of this juice or secretion1 the coral insects1 at a vast but unknown depth below the surface of the sea1 attach themselves to the points and ridges of rocks1 which form the bottom of the ocean2 upon which foundation the little architects labor1 building up1 by the aid of the above-mentioned secretion1 pile upon pile of their rocky habitations1 until at length the work rises above the sea1 and is continued to such a height as to leave it almost dry1 when the insects leave building on that part1 and begin afresh in another direction under the water4 ,huge masses of rocky substances are thus raised by this wonderful little insect1 capable of resisting the tremendous power of the ocean when agitated to the highest pitch by winds or tempests4 ,architect1 one who builds4 ,how do these ,coral ,rocks become ,islands8 ,after the formation of this solid1 rocky base1 sea-shells1 fragments of coral1 and sea-sand1 thrown up by each returning tide1 are broken and mixed together by the action of the waves2 these1 in time1 become a sort of stone1 and thus raise the surface higher and higher2 meanwhile1 the ever-active surf continues to throw up the shells of marine animals and other substances1 which fill up the crevices between the stones2 the undisturbed sand on its surface offers to the seeds of trees and plants cast upon it by the waves1 a soil upon which they rapidly grow and overshadow the dazzling whiteness of the new-formed land4 ,trunks of trees1 washed into the sea by the rivers from other countries and islands1 here find a resting-place1 and with these come some small animals1 chiefly of the lizard and insect tribe4 ,even before the trees form a wood1 the sea-birds nestle among their branches1 and the stray land-bird soon takes refuge in the bushes4 ,at last1 man arrives and builds his hut upon the fruitful soil formed by the corruption of the vegetation1 and calls himself lord and master of this new creation4 ,surf1 the white spray or froth of the sea waves4 ,where is the ,coral ,insect found8 ,in nearly all great seas2 but particularly in the ,mediterranean1 where it produces ,corallines of the most beautiful forms and colors3 it is in the ,pacific ,ocean1 however1 where these tiny workmen are effecting those mighty changes1 which exceed the most wonderful works of man4 ,what is that part of the ,pacific called1 where the ,coral ,rocks are most abundant8 ,the ,coral ,sea1 from the number of coral reefs and sunken islands1 with which it abounds2 it includes a region of many miles in extent1 the whole of which is studded with numberless reefs1 rocks1 islands1 and columns of coral1 continually joining and advancing towards each other4 ,all navigators who have visited these seas1 state that no charts or maps are of any service after a few years1 owing to the number of fresh rocks and reefs which are continually rising to the surface4 ,the wonderful instinct of these animals leads them to continue working without ceasing1 until their labors are finished1 or their lives extinct4 ,reef1 a chain or line of rocks lying near the surface of the water4 ,extinct1 at an end1 dead4 ,what are the names of the principal islands of ,coral formation8 ,the ,new ,hebrides1 the ,friendly ,isles1 the ,navigator's ,isles1 the ,society ,islands1 the ,marquesas1 the ,gambier group1 and others4 ,these groups are separated from each other by channels or seas1 wider than those which divide the individual islands which form the respective groups2 but all these waters abound with shoals and minor islets1 which point out the existence of a common base1 and show that the work by which they will afterwards be united above the level of the sea is continually going forward4 ,shoals1 shallows2 places where the water is of little depth4 ,minor1 less1 smaller than others4 ,existence1 being4 ,what is a singular characteristic of the ,coral ,islands8 ,on all of them a plentiful supply of sweet and fresh water may be obtained by digging three or four feet into the coral2 and even within one yard of high-water mark such a supply is to be found4 ,they are mostly covered with a deep rich soil1 and well wooded with trees and evergreens of different kinds4 ,these islands vary in extent1 as well as in the degree of finish to which they have arrived2 some of the largest being about #cj miles in diameter1 and the smallest something less than a mile2--all of various shapes1 and all formed of living coral4 ,diameter1 a straight line through the middle of a circle4 ,is ,coral put to any use by man8 ,white ,coral1 which is nowhere so abundant as about the shores of ,ceylon1 and others of the neighboring ,indian coasts1 is employed as lime by the inhabitants of that part of the world1 for building houses1 c41 by burning it after the manner of our lime4 ,this coral lies in vast banks1 which are uncovered at low water4 ,coral1 particularly the beautiful red sort1 is likewise made into various ornaments1 as necklaces1 c4 ,of what is our ,lime composed8 ,of a useful earth1 which absorbs moisture and carbonic acid1 and exists as limestone1 or in marble and chalk1 which1 when burnt1 become lime3 in its native state it is called carbonate of lime1 and is burnt to disengage the carbonic acid2 when made into a paste1 with one part water and three parts lime1#ac and mixed with some other mineral or metallic substances1 it forms plastic cements and mortars2 and afterwards1 imbibing carbonic acid from the atmosphere1 it becomes again carbonate of lime1 as hard as at first2 and hence its use in building4 ,footnote #ac3 ,see ,chapter ,,xvi41 article ,lime4 ,plastic1 yielding1 capable of being spread out or moulded4 ,what do you mean by ,carbon8 ,a simple substance1 whose most common form is purified charcoal3 it is1 in fact1 the base of charcoal1 divested of all impurities2 combined with oxygen1 it forms carbonic acid gas1 formerly called fixed air4 ,it is diffused through all animal and vegetable bodies2 and may be obtained by exposing them to a red heat4 ,in its pure1 crystallized state1 it constitutes the diamond1 and as graphite1 is used in making the so-called lead-pencils4#ad ,footnote #ad3 ,see ,chapter ,,xiv41 article ,diamond4 ,what is ,oxygen8 ,air1 mentioned in the first chapter of this work as the gaseous substance which composes the atmosphere1 is formed by a mixture of two distinct elements1 one called ,nitrogen1 or ,azote1 the other ,oxygen4 ,oxygen is1 therefore1 an element or simple substance diffused generally through nature1 and its different combinations are essential to animal life and combustion4 ,it is1 in fact1 the most active agent in nature1 and the principle of acidity and combustion4 ,so wholesome and necessary is oxygen to life1 that it is often called vital air4 ,agent1 an actor2 a person or thing possessing the faculty of action4 ,essential1 necessary4 ,what are the properties of ,nitrogen or ,azote8 ,nitrogen is a substance also generally diffused through nature1 and particularly in animal bodies1 and causes great changes in those absorbing or exposed to it4 ,this gas1 combined with oxygen and hydrogen1 produces neither light1 heat1 nor combustion1 but serves to dilute the others3 of itself1 it is hurtful to animal life4 ,nitrogen makes the principal part of the salt we call nitre4 ,what is meant by ,combustion8 ,the decomposition of bodies by the action of fire2 the union of combustible bodies with the oxygen of the atmosphere4 ,the greater access the air has to a burning body1 the more rapid and complete is the process4 ,combustible1 capable of taking fire4 ,access1 the means or liberty of approach to anything4 ,are all bodies equally combustible8 ,no2 some are more so than others1 and burn with a bright flame2 as wood1 dry vegetables1 resins1 oils1 fats1 c42 others with difficulty1 and without any sensible flame1 as soot1 coal1 the ashes of plants1 c4 ,there are bodies1 also1 which are incombustible--that is1 incapable of taking fire1 as some alkalies1 earths1 c4 ,what is ,caloric8 ,caloric is that invisible agent which produces the sensation of heat4 ,it exists in all bodies2 it is a force we are ever in want of1 and thus it is hid in everything around us1 and penetrates all matter1 however different may be its nature or properties4 ,what is meant by ,gas8 ,all highly elastic fluids are called gases4 ,some are salutary1 but many extremely noxious1 especially such as those arising from the putrefaction of animal bodies2 the burning of charcoal2 corrupted air at the bottom of mines1 cellars1 c4 ,the inflammable gas1 which lights our streets1 churches1 shops1 c41 is procured chiefly from coal1 burnt in furnaces for the purpose the gas being passed through metal pipes1 conveyed underground to the places where the light is required3 escaping at the orifice prepared for it1 it is lighted when wanted1 and burns with1 a brilliant flame4 ,this gas consists of hydrogen and carbon2 and the oxygen of the air1 combined with the hydrogen1 causes light as long as hydrogen and oxygen exist and combine4 ,salutary1 wholesome1 healthful4 ,noxious1 hurtful1 unwholesome4 ,putrefaction1 decay4 ,orifice1 opening1 hole4 ,illustration3 ,,diamond ,,cutting ,,and ,,polishing4 ,what is ,hydrogen8 ,one of the most abundant principles in nature2 one part of it1 and eight of oxygen1 form water4 ,it is only met with in a gaseous form2 it is also very inflammable1 and is the gas called the fire-damp1 so often fatal to miners2 it is the chief constituent of oils1 fats1 spirits1 c42 and is produced by the decomposition of water4 ,constituent1 that which forms an essential part of anything4 ,what is ,chalk8 ,a white fossil substance1 by some reckoned a stone1 but of a friable kind1 which cannot1 therefore1 be polished as marble2 by others1 more properly ranked among the earths4 ,it is of two sorts1 one a hard dry chalk1 used for making lime2 the other a soft1 unctuous kind1 used in manuring land1 c4 ,chalk always contains quantities of flint-stone1 and the fossil remains of shells1 coral1 animal bones1 marine plants1 c42 from which circumstance there can be no doubt that chalk is the deposited mud of a former ocean4 ,the chemical name of chalk is carbonate of lime4 ,it effervesces strongly with an acid4 ,effervesce1 to froth or foam up4 ,deposited1 placed on anything4 ,where is ,chalk found8 ,in large beds or strata in the earth4 ,chalk1 on account of its abundance in ,england1 forms an important feature in the scenery and geology of that country2 it causes the whiteness of its sea-cliffs4 ,scotland and ,wales are entirely without chalk4 ,the white chalk is found1 with interruptions1 over a space above eleven hundred miles long1 extending from the north of ,ireland1 through ,england1 ,france1 ,belgium1 ,germany1 ,poland1 and ,southern ,russia1 to the ,crimea1 with a breadth of more than eight hundred miles4 ,the ,island of ,crete1 now called ,candia1 situated in the ,mediterranean1 was formerly noted for its chalk4 ,this substance is very useful in many of the arts and manufactures4 ,where is the ,crimea8 ,the peninsula of the ,crimea is a part of ,russia1 lying on the ,black ,sea1 by which it is bounded on the west and south4 ,are there any other kinds of this earth besides the common white chalk8 ,yes2 there are various kinds of chalk1 distinguished by their different colors1 as white1 black1 red1 c41 found in various parts of the world1 of great use to the painter1 both in oil and water colors1 and for drawing on paper1 c4 ,what is ,marble8 ,a kind of stone remarkable for its hardness and firm grain1 and for being susceptible of the finest polish4 ,it is dug in great masses from pits or quarries2 and is much used in ornamental buildings1 and for statues1 altars1 tombs1 chimney-pieces1 c4 ,the word is derived from the ,french marbre1 marble4 ,marble is supposed to be formed1 deep within the bowels of the earth1 from a loose and porous carbonate of lime1 subjected to enormous heat and pressure4 ,susceptible1 easily admitting anything additional4 ,porous1 full of holes1 or interstices4 ,are there different sorts of this ,stone8 ,marbles are of many different kinds1 usually named either from their color or country2 some of one simple color1 as white1 or black2 others streaked or variegated with different colors4 ,they are classified as ancient and modern3 the ancient are those found in quarries now lost or inaccessible to us1 and of which there are only some wrought pieces remaining2--the modern1 those from quarries still open1 and out of which blocks of marble continue to be taken4 ,in what countries is ,marble found8 ,the ,united ,states1 ,great ,britain1 ,france1 ,spain1 ,italy1 ,africa1 ,egypt1 and many other countries1 produce marbles of different colors and qualities2 some more beautiful1 valuable1 and more highly esteemed than others1 as those of ,egypt1 ,italy1 c4 ,those1 also1 of different places in the same country frequently differ from each other in quality and appearance ,of the ,european marbles1 that of ,italy is the most valuable4 ,what kind appears to have been held in the greatest esteem by the ancients8 ,a beautiful white marble1 called the ,parian2 of which the ,grecian statues were mostly made4 ,by some1 it is supposed to have taken its name from the ,isle of ,paros1 in the ,mediterranean2 but by others from ,parius1 a famous statuary1 who made it celebrated by cutting in it a statue of ,venus4 ,parian marble is often mentioned by ancient authors4 ,statues1 figures of men1 animals1 c41 cut in stone or marble4 ,statuary1 one who makes statues4 ,who was ,venus8 ,the goddess of love and beauty1 who was an object of adoration in the idolatrous ages1 when men ignorantly knelt down and worshipped stocks and stones1 which their own hands had fashioned after the likeness of things on the earth1 or imaginary creations of their fancy2--or1 again1 the sun1 moon1 and stars1 instead of the one and only true ,god4 ,in those times1 every nation had its peculiar deities1 to whom were paid divine rites and honors1 and to whose names costly temples were dedicated3 these deities were divided into two classes1 superior and inferior4 ,venus was one of the ,grecian goddesses1 supposed by them to have sprung from the froth of the sea4 ,kings and celebrated warriors1 and sages too1 after death1 frequently received divine honors2 as ,confucius1 the founder of the ,chinese empire1 who1 after death1 was worshipped by that people as a god4 ,romulus1 the first king of ,rome1 likewise1 was thus adored by the ,romans2 and many similar instances of the same species of idolatry amongst other nations might be recorded4 ,deities1 fabulous gods or goddesses4 ,idolatrous1 given to the worship of idols4 ,superior1 higher in rank4 ,inferior1 of a lower rank4 ,sage1 a wise man4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,gold1 ,,silver1 ,,lead1 ,,tin1 ,,platina1 ,,sulphur1 ,,gems ,,or ,,precious ,,stones1 ,,as ,,diamonds1 ,,rubies1 ,,emeralds1 ,,turquois1 ,,pearls1 ,,mother-,,or-,,pearls1 ,,and ,,ivory4 ,what is ,gold8 ,the purest and most precious of metals3 it is sometimes found in solid masses1 as in ,california1 ,peru1 ,hungary1 c42 in a shape resembling the branches of plants2 in thin plates covering other bodies1 as in ,siberia2 sometimes in a crystal form4 ,it1 however1 generally occurs in a metallic state1 and most commonly in the form of grains4 ,what is it called when found in a perfect metallic form8 ,native gold3 it is1 however1 seldom met with perfectly pure1 being frequently alloyed with silver1 copper1 iron1 or platina2 sometimes concealed in other minerals2 from which1 if sufficiently abundant1 it is extracted by art4 ,where and in what manner is ,gold generally found8 ,all parts of the earth afford gold2 though with great difference in point of purity and abundance4 ,it is chiefly obtained from mines4 ,many rivers contain gold in their sands1 especially those of ,california and ,guinea4 ,gold mines are of rare occurrence in ,europe1 but the metal is found in some of its rivers2 among its mines1 those of ,upper ,hungary are the most considerable4 ,china and ,japan are rich in this metal2 many parts of ,asia also possess it4 ,australia produces quantities of the metal4 ,it is also found in the eastern parts and interior of ,africa1 where gold dust is collected in great quantities from earth deposited by the rivers4 ,but it is in ,america that gold is found in the greatest abundance1 particularly in the ,state of ,california1 and in some parts of ,south ,america1 as ,brazil1 ,peru1 ,chili1 c4 ,guinea1 a country of ,western ,africa4 ,what are the uses of ,gold8 ,it is used for money1 jewelry1 plate1 c4 ,it is also employed in various ways in the arts4 ,what is the character of ,gold8 ,gold is so ductile and malleable1 that an ounce of it may be drawn into a thread of #gc leagues in length2 or beaten into #afj leaves of #i inches square1 and thin enough to be carried away by the slightest wind4 ,it readily assumes any form that human art can bestow upon it3 its color is unalterable1 and the beautiful polish of which it is susceptible1 renders it the best of all metals for ornamental purposes4 ,it is indestructible by air1 water1 or fire4 ,gold is the heaviest of all metals1 except platina2 it is neither very elastic1 nor very hard4 ,league1 a measure of length containing three miles4 ,indestructible1 incapable of being destroyed4 ,is not the use of ,gold quite ancient8 ,yes2 it appears to have been very early known to the inhabitants of the world4 ,in the #acth ,chapter of ,genesis1 ,abram is spoken of as very rich in silver and gold2 and in the #b;d ,chapter of the same book1 the land of ,hevilath 7now in the eastern part of ,arabia ,felix17 is pointed out as having gold4 ,arabia was famed for the fineness and quality of its gold4 ,in the time of ,solomon1 the gold of ,ophir seems to have been much esteemed1 as it is recorded that the gold used in the building of the ,temple was brought from that place by the merchant-vessels of ,hiram1 ,king of ,tyre4 ,ophir is supposed to have been situated somewhere in the ,east ,indies4 ,what is ,silver8 ,a beautiful white shining metal1 next to gold in value1 and1 like that precious substance1 of great antiquity4 ,it is found in ,sweden1 ,norway1 and the polar latitudes3 when it occurs in hot climates1 it is generally amidst mountains1 covered with perpetual snow4 ,latitude1 breadth1 width2 in ,geography1 the distance of a place in degrees1 north or south1 from the ,equator4 ,where are the richest ,silver ,mines found8 ,in ,south ,america1 especially among the ,andes2 the mines of ,mexico1 and those of ,nevada1 also1 are rich in this metal4 ,the richest and most important silver mines in ,europe are those of ,knigsberg1 in ,norway1 and of ,andalusia1 in ,spain4 ,with the exception of gold1 silver is the most ductile of all metals3 a single grain may be extended into a plate #abf inches long1 and half an inch broad4 ,it is capable of still further extension1 but its tenacity is inferior even to that of iron or copper4 ,a silver wire one-tenth of an inch thick will scarcely bear a weight of #bij pounds1 whilst a gold wire of the same thickness will support nearly double that weight4 ,like some other metals1 it is unalterable by air or moisture1 but by an intense heat may be volatilized1 being sometimes found in the soot of chimneys where large quantities are melted4 ,volatilized1 made to fly off by evaporation4 ,in what state is ,silver usually found8 ,it is rarely found in a state of purity1 being generally mixed with other metals1 as gold1 lead1 c4 ,masses of native silver are of no determinate form2 being found sometimes in small branches1 sometimes in threads1 or very frequently in leaves1 as in the ,siberian mines4 ,native1 or pure silver is chiefly found in the mines of ,potosi4 ,silver was used as money in commerce #aajj years before the foundation of ,rome4 ,commerce1 trade of one nation with another1 or different persons1 c4 with each other4 ,what is ,tin8 ,a white metal1 softer than any other excepting lead1 more elastic1 and more sonorous4 ,though tin is the lightest of all metals1 its ore is1 when rich1 the heaviest of all metallic ores4 ,it has both smell and taste2 is less ductile than some harder metals1 though it may be beaten into very thin leaves2 and it fuses so quickly1 that it requires a heat much less than is sufficient to make it red-hot4 ,was not the use of ,tin very early known8 ,tin was found in ,britain from the earliest ages2 the ,phenicians traded to ,cornwall for this metal #fjj years before ,christ4 ,where are the principal ,tin ,mines8 ,in ,saxony1 ,cornwall1 and ,bohemia4 ,tin is also found in ,spain1 ,sumatra1 ,siam1 ,mexico1 and ,chili4 ,a few specimens have been found at ,goshen1 in ,massachusetts4 ,specimens1 samples4 ,in what state is ,tin generally found8 ,tin is sometimes found native or pure1 but most frequently alloyed with other metals3 the working of tin mines is attended with much difficulty1 on account of their great depth1 and the hard rocks which obstruct the progress of the miners1 who are often obliged to cut through them4 ,this metal is very useful in the making of domestic utensils1 for coating the inside of copper and iron vessels1 and for various other purposes4 ,obstruct1 to stand in the way4 ,what is ,lead8 ,a coarse1 heavy metal1 of a bluish grey color3 it is so soft and flexible1 that it is easily cut with a knife1 and rolled out into sheets1 c42 it is very fusible and inelastic1 but less ductile and sonorous1 than any other metal4 ,next to gold1 platina1 and mercury1 it is the heaviest of the metals1 being eleven times heavier than an equal bulk of water4 ,this metal loses its malleability in proportion as it is heated3 as soon as it melts it calcines1 and greyish-colored ashes are formed on its surface2 when returning from a fluid to a solid state1 it is easily divided into small grains or powder1 or formed into shot1 c4 ,lead was in common use among the ancients4 ,flexible1 yielding1 easily bent4 ,sonorous1 giving sound when struck4 ,where is ,lead found8 ,in various countries2 but it abounds principally in ,great ,britain and ,spain2 the lead mines of ,illinois1 ,wisconsin1 and ,iowa1 are among the richest in the world4 ,lead is a metal of great utility2 it easily melts and mixes with gold1 silver1 and copper2 hence it is employed in refining gold and silver1 as it separates all the dirt and impurities from them2 it is much used in building1 particularly for covering gutters1 pipes1 c42 lead is also used in varnishes and oil-painting1 and makes the basis of the glazing of all the earthen and pottery wares4 ,refining1 cleansing1 purifying4 ,varnishes1 preparations for beautifying and preserving various articles4 ,what is peculiar to the ore of ,lead8 ,the ore of this metal is so poisonous1 that the steam arising from the furnaces in which it is smelted infects the grass of all the neighboring places1 and kills the animals which feed on it3 culinary vessels lined with a mixture of tin and lead1 are apt to convey pernicious qualities to the food prepared in them4 ,there are various preparations of lead1 serving for different purposes4 ,infects1 corrupts4 ,culinary1 adapted to the purposes of cooking4 ,pernicious1 hurtful1 dangerous4 ,ore1 the mineral soil1 earth1 or stone dug out of the mines1 which contains the metal4 ,what is ,black ,lead8 ,it is a kind of mineral1 of a deep shining black or bluish color1 soft and unctuous to the touch2 it is insoluble in acids1 and infusible by fire4 ,black lead has been found in many parts of the world1 in a state of greater or less purity1 but it is the ,english black lead which is the most esteemed4 ,insoluble1 incapable of dissolving4 ,infusible1 not capable of being melted4 ,is ,black ,lead a proper term for this mineral8 ,no2 because1 in reality1 there is not a particle of lead in it4 ,on the spot where it is procured1 it is called by two or three different names1 but the most usual is ,plumbago4 ,where is the best ,black ,lead found8 ,the best and greatest quantity is found in ,england1 in a mine near ,keswick1 in ,cumberland4 ,it is much used for pencils or crayons1 for writing1 drawing1 c42 for this purpose it is sawn into slips1 and fitted into a groove in a strip of soft wood1 as cedar1 c41 over which another is placed and fastened with glue4 ,what is ,platina8 ,a metallic substance1 more recently discovered than the metals already described2 and analogous to the perfect metals1 especially gold1--many of whose properties it possesses4 ,analogous1 bearing a resemblance4 ,whence is its name derived8 ,it is the diminutive of plata1 silver1 to which it appears very similar2 platina being a silver-colored metal1 in small grains4 ,diminutive1 a word lessening the meaning of the original4 ,whence is it obtained8 ,mostly from ,russia1 and1 also from ,south ,america4 ,its color does not tarnish by exposure to the air1 and appears to be equally permanent with that of pure gold2 the metal is indestructible by fire4 ,platina is capable of being alloyed with all metals2 is fused with difficulty1 but by great labor may be rendered malleable3 it is also the heaviest metal1 being #ba times heavier than water4 ,permanent1 lasting4 ,are there any other ,metals besides those already mentioned8 ,in addition to the metals known and used by the ancients1 the chemical science of later ages has1 by decomposing other earths1 added more than thirty to the number of metals1 some of them more curious than useful2 several of these are lighter than water4 ,all the metals possess different and distinct properties from each other4 ,they are divided into two classes1 the malleable and the brittle metals4 ,these last may be again divided into two others1--namely1 those which are easily1 and those which are with difficulty fused4 ,what do you mean by ,metallurgy8 ,the art of obtaining metals from their ores1 comprising the processes of assaying1 refining1 smelting1 c4 ,by assaying is meant1 the particular manner of examining an ore or mixed metal1 according to its nature1 so as to discover not only what metals and what proportions of metal may be obtained from it1 but also what other mineral substances or earths may be contained in it4 ,what do the terms ,refining and ,smelting signify8 ,refining is the art of rendering the metal free from all impurities4 ,smelting means the melting of a metal from its ore in a smelting furnace1 in order to separate the metallic parts from the sulphur1 arsenic1 and the earthy and stony substances with which they may be combined4 ,what is ,sulphur8 ,an inflammable1 fossil substance1 of a dry1 solid1 friable nature1 melting with a small proportion of heat2--when fired in the open air1 burning almost entirely away with a blue flame and noxious vapor4 ,it is abundantly diffused in many places1 especially where metallic minerals are found2 but more particularly in those districts where subterranean fires and volcanoes exist4 ,it is also found combined with many different substances4 ,describe the nature of ,sulphur1 and the places where it is mostly found4 ,sulphur almost pure1 called native or virgin sulphur1 is found in volcanoes and grottoes1 in the form of transparent crystals2 but the greatest quantity which exists naturally is combined with metals in ores4 ,sulphur is both fusible and volatile1--which qualities enable us to procure it from those minerals by the process of sublimation3 it unites easily1 in different degrees1 with all metallic matters1 excepting gold1 platina1 and zinc4 ,sublimation1 the act of bringing a solid substance into the state of vapor by heat1 and condensing it again by cold4 ,are not its uses very extensive8 ,yes1 both in the arts and in chemistry3 it is well known to be a principal ingredient in the preparation of gunpowder and fire-works2 it is also used for whitening wool1 straw1 silk1 c42 many other matters exposed to the vapors of sulphur when burning1 quickly lose their color1 which no other substance had been able to destroy4 ,sulphur is also frequently found in mineral waters4 ,whence are the greatest quantities of ,sulphur brought8 ,the largest quantities are brought from ,saxony1 in irregular masses1 which are afterwards melted and cast into small rolls4 ,there are about four species of sulphur2 namely1 the yellow native sulphur1 which in its purest state is clear1 and of a pale straw color1 found in the gold mines of ,peru2 in ,hungary1 and some other places3 the green native sulphur1 which is harder than the other1 is found in small crust-like masses2 this sort is chiefly confined to ,mount ,vesuvius3 and the grey native sulphur1 common in ,iceland and many other places4 ,native sulphur is also found at the coal mines1 near ,richmond1 ,virginia2 in ,connecticut1 ,pennsylvania1 and other parts of the ,united ,states4 ,which is the most rare and beautiful of all the kinds8 ,the red native sulphur2 it is mostly of a fine glowing red1 very bright and transparent2 it is found1 like the first-mentioned sort1 in the gold mines of ,peru4 ,common sulphur1 such as is used in trade and the arts1 is of a pale yellow color2 and possesses a peculiar and disagreeable smell1 particularly when heated or rubbed4 ,this is mostly extracted from the metallic sulphurets1 and is commonly called brimstone4 ,it is the sort employed in making matches4 ,is there not another substance also employed in the manufacture of matches8 ,yes3 ,phosphorus1 a peculiar substance1 chiefly of animal origin4 ,it is mostly procured by the decomposition of the phosphoric acid which is found in bones4 ,it was accidentally discovered at ,hamburgh1 in #affi1 by an alchemist named ,brandt4 ,alchemist1 one skilled in ,alchemy4#ae ,footnote #ae3 ,see ,chapter ,,xviii41 article ,chemistry4 ,what is the nature of ,phosphorus8 ,it is a solid1 inflammable substance1 which burns when in contact with atmospheric air4 ,it is used in various chemical experiments1 and for making matches2 for various kinds of fire-works1 c4 ,it will combine with all metals except gold and zinc2 and also with some earths4 ,some animals1 as the glow-worm1 possess very peculiar phosphorescent qualities4 ,phosphorescent1 having a phosphoric property1 emitting peculiar light like phosphorus4 ,what is ,arsenic8 ,a heavy metallic substance1 very volatile1 and highly inflammable2 so caustic or corrosive to animals1 as to become a violent poison in all its states4 ,in its metallic state it is used in several of the arts3 it is employed in the manufacture of factitious metals3 it is of use to the dyer in forming some of his colors2 and for that purpose is generally combined with potassa4 ,it is used in the making of small shot1 and also in the manufacture of glass1 to which it gives transparency2 in whitening copper2 in calico printing2 in the preparation of colors for the painter2 and in the working of platina1 and some other metals1 to render them more easily fusible4 ,caustic1 dry1 burning4 ,corrosive1 apt to corrode1 to eat away1 to penetrate4 ,how is the white powdered arsenic prepared8 ,by submitting the ore to a strong heat in a peculiar kind of furnace2 this produces a dark grey powder1 which is again heated in close iron vessels2 this separates it from its impurities1 and the arsenic is obtained in thick1 solid masses2 these1 by exposure to the air1 fall into a fine1 white powder4 ,from what is the word ,arsenic derived8 ,from a ,greek word1 signifying masculine--powerful 7as a poison74 ,arsenic is dug out of mines in ,saxony1 near ,goslar2 in ,bohemia2 in ,england1 in the ,mendip ,hills1 in great quantities4 ,it has so strong a corrosive quality as sometimes to burn the hands and feet of the miners2 it is a deadly poison for all known animals4 ,this poisonous mineral is not found native in its perfect form1 being generally united with metallic ores4 ,what do you mean by ,gems8 ,the word gem is used as a common name for all precious stones or jewels2 they consist of the siliceous earths2 and are much valued for their lustre1 transparency1 color1 hardness1 and rarity4 ,there are many different kinds of precious stones1 each distinguished by its peculiar character4 ,how are they divided8 ,into the pellucid gems1 which are of great lustre1 and extremely hard1 as the diamond2 the semi-pellucid1 those which are not so transparent1 but yet of great beauty2 those of one color1 as the emerald or turquois2 and those variegated or veined with different colors4 ,gems are sometimes found of regular shapes1 with a natural polish1 near the beds of rivers after great rains2 these are of the pebble kind4 ,sometimes they are found of irregular shapes1 with a rough coat1 in mines and the clefts of rocks4 ,pearls1 though not stones1 are also ranked among the number of gems4 ,pellucid1 clear as a drop of water4 ,semi-pellucid1 half pellucid4 ,describe the ,diamond4 ,the diamond is a precious stone1 the first in rank of all the gems1 and valued for its beautiful lustre2 it is the hardest of all stones1 as well as the most valuable4 ,the most esteemed are colorless4 ,a diamond in its natural state as it comes out of the mine1 and before it is cut1 is called rough1 because it has no brilliancy1 but is covered with an earthy crust4 ,the diamond is the ,adamant of the ancients2 hence the expression hard as adamant1 from its being the hardest substance in nature4 ,the cutting of diamonds is a work of labor1 and requires great skill2 the polishing is performed by a mill of simple construction4 ,where are they mostly found8 ,in yellow ochreous earths2 in mines2 and likewise in torrents1 which have torn them from their beds4 ,in former times1 all the diamonds that were known were brought from the famous mines of ,golconda1 in ,hindostan2 the islands of ,molucca and ,borneo have also produced many valuable stones4 ,the diamond mines of ,golconda are now so exhausted1 that they are not thought worth the expense of working2 these gems are now brought chiefly from ,brazil1 in ,south ,america4 ,what is meant by ,ochreous8 ,consisting of ochre1 a kind of earth with a rough and dusty surface1 composed of fine1 soft1 clayey particles1 which readily separate in water4 ,there are various colored ochres1 as red1 yellow1 blue1 green1 c42 they are very useful in many of the arts4 ,what term is used to denote the quality of the ,diamond8 ,in speaking of the value of diamonds1 we distinguish them as diamonds of the first water1 meaning those which possess the greatest perfection and purity1 which ought to be that of the clearest drop of water3 when they fall short of this perfection1 they are said to be of the second or third water1 and so on till the stone may be properly called a colored one4 ,what is the ,ruby8 ,a beautiful gem of a red color2 in its perfect state it is of great value4 ,the ruby is often found perfectly pure and free from all spots or blemishes2 but its value is much more frequently lessened by them1 especially in the larger stones4 ,it is very hard1 being second only to the diamond in this respect2 and is often naturally so bright and pure on the surface as to need no polishing2 it is often worn in rings1 c41 in its rough or native state4 ,the color of rubies varies from the deepest to the palest red1 all having more or less of a purplish tinge1 which is more plainly perceived in the deeper colored specimens than in the paler ones4 ,where are ,rubies found8 ,they are mostly found in gold mines4 ,we have the true rubies only from the ,east4 ,the ,isle of ,ceylon has long been celebrated for these gems2 they are found in a river which descends from the mountains2 they are brighter and more beautiful than those obtained in other parts1 but are very rare4 ,some crystals are frequently found tinged with the true color of the ruby1 but these want its lustre and hardness4 ,describe the ,emerald4 ,it is a precious stone of a beautiful transparent green color1 and1 when in a state of perfection1 nearly equal to the ruby in hardness4 ,the finest and best are found in ,america1 especially among the mountains of ,peru2 they are also obtained from a few places in the ,east4 ,these gems are often counterfeited1 as are most of the precious stones1 there being even false diamonds2 the genuine may be known by their extreme hardness and brilliancy4 ,counterfeited1 imitated with a view to defraud4 ,genuine1 true1 real4 ,what is the ,turquois8 ,a beautiful blue stone2 it is one of the softest of the gems1 and some varieties are often used for seals1 as they admit of being engraved upon4 ,the turquois is easily imitated1 and that often so perfectly as to render it very difficult to distinguish the counterfeit from the true gem4 ,in what countries are they found8 ,the ,oriental ,turquois comes from ,persia1 the ,indies1 and some parts of ,turkey2 the turquois is also found in various parts of ,europe1 as ,germany1 ,spain1 and ,france4 ,what is ,engraving8 ,the art of cutting metals or precious stones1 and representing thereon figures1 letters1 and devices2 the term is1 however1 more particularly applied to the art of producing figures or designs on metal1 c41 for the purpose of being subsequently printed on paper4 ,the ancients are well known to have excelled in engraving on precious stones2 many specimens have been preserved1 which surpass anything of the kind produced by the moderns4 ,this art is frequently alluded to in the ,bible4 ,engraving on wood1 according to some authors1 was introduced into ,europe from ,china by ,venetian merchants2 it is certain the art was practised in eastern and northern ,italy as early as the thirteenth century4 ,the invention of copper-plate engraving has been ascribed to a goldsmith of ,florence1 about the year #adfj4 ,device1 that which is formed by design4 ,design1 a representation of a thing by an outline2 a sketch4 ,describe ,wood ,engraving4 ,the subject is drawn on a block of box or pear-tree wood with a black-lead pencil1 or with a pen and ,indian ink2 the wood is then cut away1 so as to leave the lines which have been drawn1 as raised parts4 ,the ink is next applied1 and by pressing damp paper upon the block1 the impressions are obtained4 ,albert ,durer1 a celebrated painter of ,germany1 brought the art of engraving on wood and metal1 and taking off impressions on paper1 c41 to great perfection4 ,how is engraving on copper1 steel1 c41 performed8 ,this sort of engraving is performed with a sharp-pointed instrument called a graver1 by means of which figures1 landscapes1 c41 are traced upon a flat surface of the metal3 the lines are then filled with ink or a similar composition1 and the paper pressed on the plate4 ,when taken off1 an exact copy of the plate is impressed upon its surface4 ,illustration3 ,,cochineal ,,insects ,,and ,,plants4 ,what is ,lithography8 ,a species of engraving on stone1 from which impressions can be taken much more expeditiously and economically than from metal4 ,the process depends upon the following principles3--,first1 the facility with which calcareous stones imbibe water2 second1 the power of oily substances to repel water4 ,when drawings are executed upon the stone with crayons composed of oily materials1 and the surface of the stone is washed over with water1 the moisture is imbibed by the stone1 but repelled from the engraving2 and when the ink1 which also contains oily substances1 is applied1 it adheres only to the drawing1 and not to the other portions of the stone4 ,the block is then passed through a press1 and the impressions are taken off2 as many as #gj1jjj perfect copies have been obtained from a single stone4 ,expeditiously1 with celerity or dispatch4 ,economically1 with economy2 with frugality4 ,you describe ,pearls as being ranked among the number of ,gems1 although they are not ,stones2 what kind of substance are they8 ,pearls are excrescences found in the shells of a large species of oyster1 which are supposed to be produced by a disease of the fish4 ,the best pearls are generally taken from the most fleshy part of the oyster1 near the hinge of the shell1 but inferior kinds are found in all parts of the fish1 and adhering to the shells4 ,pearls1 from many allusions made to them in the ,old ,testament1 were not only known to the ancients1 but were regarded by them as costly and precious gems4 ,how do they get the ,oysters which contain them8 ,by diving under water and picking the oysters from the large beds at the bottom of the sea2 or the rocks to which they adhere4 ,the divers cast all the oysters they take into their boats1 and carry them ashore1 where they deposit them in heaps2 they are then left till they become putrid1 this being necessary in order to remove the pearls easily from the rough matter by which they are surrounded4 ,what sea produces the best and greatest number of ,pearls8 ,the finest and greatest quantities are obtained off the coast of ,ceylon2 the pearl oyster is also found in the seas of the ,east ,indies2 in those of ,america1 and in some parts of the ,european seas2 but these last are much inferior4 ,the ,oriental pearls are the finest on account of their size1 color1 and beauty1 being of a silvery white2 while the ,occidental pearls are smaller1 and frequently tinged with a yellow or blackish hue4 ,tinged1 slightly colored4 ,does not the ,pearl ,oyster produce a substance called ,mother-of-,pearl8 ,no2 the beautiful substance so much used for inlaying boxes1 and for ornamental knife-handles1 c41 is produced from the shell1 not of the pearl oyster1 but of another sea-fish of the oyster kind4 ,what is ,inlaying8 ,the art of ornamenting a plain surface of wood1 or other material1 with thin slices or leaves of a finer wood1 of a different kind2 as mahogany inlaid with ebony1 c41 or with ivory1 and other substances4 ,there are two kinds of inlaying2 one1 of the more ordinary sort1 which consists only of compartments of different kinds of wood1 inlaid with one another2 the other1 requiring greater skill1 represents flowers1 birds1 and other figures4 ,the thin plates of wood or other substance1 being sawed into slips1 and cut into the required forms1 are carefully joined1 and afterwards strongly glued down on the block of wood1 c41 intended to be thus ornamented4 ,compartment1 a division1 a separate part4 ,what is ,ebony8 ,a hard1 black-colored wood1 growing in the countries of the ,levant1 c42 there are1 however1 several black woods of different kinds which are also called ebony4 ,what is ,ivory8 ,the tooth or tusk of the ,elephant1 which grows on each side of his trunk2 it is somewhat like a horn in shape4 ,ivory is much esteemed for its beautiful white color1 polish1 and fine grain when wrought4 ,it has been used from the remotest ages of antiquity2 in the ,scriptures we read of ,solomon's ivory throne1 and also of vessels of ivory1 and beds of ivory3 by which it appears to have been a chief article of luxury1 as well as of trade4 ,remotest1 most distant4 ,of what countries is the ,elephant an inhabitant8 ,of many parts of ,asia and ,africa4 ,the elephant is the largest quadruped now in existence2 it is extremely sagacious1 docile and friendly3 in the countries where they live they are trained to useful labor1 and by their great strength are enabled to perform tasks which a man or horse could not accomplish3 among the native princes they were1 and even still are1 used in war3 with them the inhabitants are able to hunt and destroy the lion1 tiger1 and other beasts of prey4 ,with their long trunk1 or proboscis1 they can perform almost everything which man can with his hands4 ,quadruped1 an animal with four feet4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,starch1 ,,arrow-,,root1 ,,tapioca1 ,,isinglass1 ,,caviare1 ,,the ,,vine1 ,,wine1 ,,gin1 ,,rum1 ,,brandy1 ,,vinegar1 ,,indigo1 ,,gamboge1 ,,logwood1 ,,tar1 ,,pitch1 ,,camphor1 ,,musk1 ,,myrrh1 ,,frankincense1 ,,and ,,turpentine4 ,what is ,starch8 ,a white1 powdery sediment procured from the bottom of vessels in which flour or meal has been steeped in water4 ,pure starch is of a fine white color1 without taste or smell2 it will not dissolve in cold water1 but with warm forms a jelly1 in which form it is generally used2 it is made by crushing1 soaking1 and fermenting the grains of the cereals1 and then washing in pure water2 the water is then evaporated1 leaving behind the starch4 ,sediment1 matter subsided to the bottom of liquors4 ,for what is ,starch used8 ,to stiffen linen after washing2 to make hair powder2 and for other purposes in the arts4 ,from what vegetables is ,starch obtained8 ,all farinaceous vegetable substances afford it1 as the potato1 horse-chestnut1 c4 ,starch being the nutritive part of the vegetable1 forms an excellent food for invalids1 and constitutes the principal part of arrow-root1 tapioca1 c42 the different flavor of these substances being derived from the mixture of a small portion of foreign matter peculiar to the plants which yield them4 ,starch is procured from potatoes by crushing them to powder1 and then proceeding as in the manufacture of wheat starch4 ,what is ,arrow-root8 ,the starch obtained from the root of an ,american plant by pulverization4 ,it is often adulterated with potato starch1 and the latter is even sold instead of it1 for the two kinds resemble each other so closely that they can hardly be distinguished4 ,pulverization1 the act of reducing to powder4 ,adulterated1 corrupted by foreign mixture4 ,what is ,tapioca8 ,tapioca is another kind of starch1 obtained from the root of the manioc plant1 which is cultivated in most hot climates1 in ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,america4 ,a flour is also prepared from it1 which is used for making bread4 ,it is particularly cultivated in the tropical parts of ,america1 and in the ,west ,india islands1 where it forms a very important article of food for the ,negro population4 ,negro1 a name given to the black inhabitants of ,africa and their descendants4 ,population1 inhabitants of a place or country4 ,what is ,isinglass8 ,one of the purest and finest of animal glues4 ,it is the produce of several kinds of fish1 but especially of the sturgeon1 which inhabits the seas of ,northern ,europe and ,america4 ,from what part of the fish is it prepared8 ,from the air-bladder1 and certain parts of the entrails2 these are taken out while fresh1 cut open1 washed1 and exposed to the air a short time to stiffen2 the outside skin is then taken off1 and the remaining part formed into rolls1 fastened together with pegs1 and hung up to dry4 ,the isinglass is then separated into threads of different sizes1 or formed into flakes4 ,immense quantities are annually prepared in this manner in ,russia4 ,what are its uses8 ,dissolving readily in water or milk1 it yields a mild nutriment for the sick1 and enters into the composition of many delicacies for the table1 such as jellies1 c4 ,it is mixed with gum to give lustre to silk and satin2 it is also used in making court plaster1 and for clarifying various liquors4 ,gelatine1 now much used on account of its being less expensive1 is a similar preparation1 but of an inferior quality4 ,what else does the ,sturgeon supply8 ,its roe furnishes the delicacy called ,caviare1 which is in fact merely that part of the fish separated from the membranes and washed in vinegar and white wine1 and dried in the air4 ,it is then well salted1 and packed up in barrels ready for sale4 ,this is the method of preparing it in ,russia1 where large quantities of it are consumed4 ,it is largely exported to ,italy1 where it is highly esteemed4 ,it is unwholesome1 and at present the demand for it1 except in ,russia and ,italy1 is very limited4 ,the best is dry and of a brown color1 and is eaten with lemon juice on bread4 ,to what other uses is the fruit of the ,vine applied besides drying it for raisins1 as described in the sixth chapter8 ,the well-known plant1 called the ,vine1 has been an object of culture from the earliest ages of the world1 for the sake of the fermented liquor obtained from its fruit2 soon after the flood1 ,noe1 who appears to have been the first husbandman1 is mentioned as having planted a vineyard1 and drank of the juice of the grape2 in all those countries where it flourishes1 it is inseparably connected with their religious rites1 and wine1 like corn1 formed one of the principal articles which they offered on their altars to the gods whom they worshipped4 ,husbandman1 one who cultivates the fruits of the earth4 ,altar1 the place where sacrifices were anciently offered to some deity4 ,what countries produce the best ,wines8 ,the wines of ,france are generally admitted to be the finest2 the principal ones are ,champagne1 ,burgundy1 and ,claret4 ,of each of these1 there are several varieties1 celebrated for their peculiar flavor2 they are generally named after the places where they are made4 ,spain1 ,portugal1 ,italy1 ,germany1 ,hungary1 ,sicily1 ,greece1 and ,california1 also produce their various sorts of wine1 each esteemed in its kind4 ,may ,wine be extracted from other vegetable bodies8 ,the word is appropriated in a more particular manner to the fermented juice of the grape2 but nearly all vegetable productions may be made to afford wine4 ,that produced from ,apples is called ,cider2 that from ,pears1 ,perry4 ,a kind of wine1 called ,mead1 is prepared from honey and water4 ,appropriated1 applied to4 ,what is ,honey8 ,a sweet vegetable juice1 collected from the flowers of various plants by the bees4 ,what ,honey was reckoned by the ancients the best in the world8 ,the honey of ,hybla1 on the east coast of ,sicily1 and of ,hymettus1 a mountain of ,greece1 near ,athens4 ,what other fluid is drawn from ,wine8 ,spirits2 by this term is understood1 a volatile fluid called spirits of wine1 or alcohol1 obtained by distillation from wine1 beer1 and all fermented liquors4 ,it is colorless1 and of a strong penetrating taste and smell4 ,it is of great use in chemistry2 in dyeing to prepare the stuff for receiving colors2 and in many of the arts4 ,what is the vessel called which is used in ,distilling8 ,a ,still4 ,it is a vessel so formed as to collect the vapor1 which is the spirit1 or alcohol1 separated from the liquid from which it is drawn4 ,this liquid product is itself returned to the still2 and the same process is several times repeated1 till the alcohol or spirit is sufficiently strong and pure4 ,there are three principal spirits used in this country1 as gin1 rum1 and brandy4 ,product1 thing produced4 ,what is ,gin8 ,a spirit procured from raw barley1 oats1 and malt1 mixed together in certain proportions3 there are several varieties of this spirit1 all obtained from grain4 ,the peculiar flavor of gin is given by infusing a few hops and some of the berries of the juniper fir4 ,what is ,malt8 ,malt is barley prepared by being steeped in water and fermented1 and then dried in a kiln4 ,it is used for making beer1 c4 ,of what are ,hops the produce8 ,of a graceful climbing plant1 the blossoms of which are used in making beer1 to preserve it and improve its flavor4 ,what is ,rum8 ,a spirit obtained from molasses1 the fluid which drains from sugar while it is crystallizing4 ,what is ,brandy8 ,a spirit distilled from any wine2 but the best is procured from weak ,french wines1 which are unfit for exportation4 ,brandy1 from whatever wine it has been obtained1 is at first colorless2 different methods are employed to give it the color by which it is distinguished4 ,exportation1 the act of sending articles from one country to another4 ,what is ,vinegar8 ,an agreeable1 acid1 penetrating liquor1 prepared from wine1 beer1 c4 ,to make vinegar1 the wine or beer is made to undergo a second fermentation1 called the acid or acetous fermentation2 the first which the vegetable juice had to undergo1 in order to convert it into wine or beer1 being called the vinous fermentation4 ,vinegar is of great use in cookery and medicine2 the word is derived from the ,french for wine1 vin1 and aigre1 sour4 ,the ancients had several kinds of vinegar1 which they used as drinks2 but it is most likely that these vinegars were different from that so called among us1 and were more probably a kind of wine4 ,acetous1 sour4 ,vinous1 wine-like4 ,what materials are used for the dyeing and coloring of our manufactures8 ,there are many mineral and vegetable earths which furnish mankind with different colors for beautifying their various manufactures1 and assisting them in the arts1 c4 ,some species of insects also come to their aid1 as for instance1 the cochineals2 these insects are killed by the application of heat1 and thus form the drug used for giving red colors1 especially crimson and scarlet1 and for making carmine4 ,the beautiful and permanent blue called ,indigo1 is the produce of a small shrub1 two or three feet in height4 ,from what part is the ,dye obtained8 ,from the leaves2 the color is produced by soaking them some hours in water1 in large vessels constructed for the purpose2 the sediment of the blue liquor drawn from them is afterwards dried and sold in the form of small grains ,for the painter1 they are mixed with oil1 or diluted and made up into small cakes with gum water4 ,in what countries is ,indigo cultivated8 ,it is native in both ,indies1 and in ,south ,america1 where its cultivation affords employment to many of the inhabitants4 ,it also grows wild in parts of ,palestine1 and is much cultivated both in ,syria and ,egypt4 ,it once formed one of the staples of the ,southern ,states1 but has in a great measure given way to the cultivation of cotton4 ,has ,indigo been long known8 ,the culture and preparation of indigo were known to the ,oriental nations long before it was introduced into ,europe4 ,the inhabitants of ancient ,britain painted their bodies with the blue dye which they obtained from woad1 a plant which grows wild in ,france and along the shores of the ,baltic1 and which greatly resembles indigo in all its properties1 except its brilliancy of color4 ,brilliancy1 brightness4 ,what is ,gamboge8 ,the concrete resinous juice of a species of gum-tree1 growing in ,cambodia1 and other parts of the ,indies4 ,it is brought over in large cakes or rolls of a yellowish brown color outside1 and inside of a deep yellow or orange1 which changes to a pale bright yellow on being moistened4 ,what are the uses of ,gamboge8 ,dissolved in water1 it forms a beautiful and useful color for the painter4 ,it is also used in medicine4 ,gamboge is soluble in either water or spirits of wine4 ,mixed with a blue color1 it forms green1 in various shades according to the different proportions of the ingredients4 ,what is ,logwood8 ,the wood of a tree which grows in parts of ,america and the ,west ,indies4 ,it is imported in great quantities1 and employed in dyeing purple and the finest blacks4 ,what is ,tar8 ,a coarse1 resinous liquor issuing from the wood and bark of pine or fir-trees2 it is in fact the oily juices of the sap thickened and colored by the heat of the sun or by age2 it is extracted for use by burning the wood of the trees under a heavy covering of turf or earth2 the tar exudes during the slow combustion1 and is collected into a cavity dug in the ground for the purpose4 ,tar is exported in great quantities from ,norway1 ,sweden1 and our ,southern ,states4 ,what are its uses8 ,it is applied to the sides of ships and boats and their rigging1 to preserve them from the effects of the weather2 it is used instead of paint for palings1 c42 and sometimes also in medicine4 ,a kind1 called mineral tar1 is also drawn from coal by the process of distillation4 ,mineral tar is also found native in some parts of the earth4 ,what is ,pitch8 ,a kind of juice or gum1 likewise drawn from unctuous woods1 chiefly those of the pine and fir2 it is used for nearly the same purposes as tar in shipping1 medicine1 and various other arts4 ,pitch is properly a juice of the wild pine1 or pitch tree2 it is of a glossy black color1 dry brittle1 and less bitter and pungent than the liquid tar4 ,what is ,camphor8 ,a vegetable substance1 chiefly procured from a kind of laurel1 7,laurus ,camphora17 growing in ,borneo1 ,japan1 and many ,east ,indian islands2 it is also produced from other plants and shrubs1 though in very small quantities4 ,how1 and from what part of the tree is it taken8 ,all parts of the tree are impregnated with camphor2 but it is principally extracted from the roots and trunk1 by distillation2 it is white1 and of a crystal form3 its odor is extremely fragrant4 ,in this state it is called rough camphor1 and is thus exported4 ,the ,greeks and ,romans do not appear to have been acquainted with this valuable drug2 and we are indebted to the ,arabians for a knowledge of it4 ,what are the properties and uses of ,camphor8 ,it is a firm1 dry1 crystal matter1 with a hot1 sharp1 aromatic taste4 ,it is highly odorous1 and so inflammable as to burn and preserve its flame in water2 it totally vanishes or evaporates in the open air1 and in ,spirits of ,wine it entirely dissolves4 ,camphor has various uses--as in fire-works1 c42 it is an excellent preservative of animal and vegetable bodies1 as it resists worms and other insects4 ,in the courts of ,eastern princes it is burnt at night with wax4 ,its principal use with us is in medicine4 ,preservative1 a preventive of decay4 ,what is ,musk8 ,a dry1 friable substance of a dark color1 taken from a little bag under the belly of a small animal called the ,thibet ,musk1 which is a native of the ,indies1 ,tonquin1 and ,china4 ,it inhabits the woods and forests1 where the natives hunt it down4 ,musk is so strong a perfume as to be agreeable only in the smallest quantities1 or when mingled with some other scent2 it is used in perfumery1 c4 ,is there not another ,animal which produces a similar scent8 ,yes2 an animal of ,arabian origin produces an odoriferous substance called ,civet1 from which it takes its name of ,civet ,cat2 there are several species of this animal which produce it1 but it is from the ,civet ,cat that it is most commonly taken4 ,civets are found in all the warm parts of ,asia and ,africa1 in ,madagascar1 and the ,east ,indian ,islands4 ,it was formerly in high esteem1 but is at present very little used1 except to increase the power of other perfumes4 ,what is ,myrrh8 ,a kind of gum-resin1 issuing from the trunk of a tree growing in ,arabia1 ,egypt1 and ,abyssinia2 it flows either naturally1 or by incision2 and is sent to us in small lumps of a reddish brown or yellow color4 ,its smell is strong1 but not disagreeable4 ,our myrrh is the same drug that was used by the ancients under the above name4 ,its chief use now is in medicine4 ,the ancient ,egyptians employed it as an ingredient in the embalming of dead bodies4 ,embalming1 preserving the bodies of the dead from decaying or putrefying1 by impregnating them with aromatics and other substances which resist putrefaction4 ,where is ,abyssinia8 ,abyssinia is a large kingdom situated in ,eastern ,africa4 ,what is ,frankincense8 ,an odoriferous1 aromatic gum-resin1 which distils1 in the heat of summer1 from incisions made in the bark of the tree which produces it3 notwithstanding the great use of the gum1 both in ancient systems of religious worship and in modern medicine1 authors have been much divided in opinion with regard to the kind of tree from which it is obtained2 it is a species of turpentine tree belonging to an order of resinous and fragrant trees and shrubs inhabiting the tropical parts of the world4 ,for what was it formerly used8 ,the ancients burnt it in their temples as a perfume1 and to do honor to the divinities that were worshipped in them3 it appears to have been applied to the same purposes by people of all religions4 ,myrrh and ,frankincense were reckoned by the ,eastern nations amongst their most costly perfumes4 ,we are informed by ,st4 ,matthew's ,gospel in the ,new ,testament1 that the wise men who came to ,bethlehem to worship our ,saviour at his birth1 brought gifts of gold1 frankincense1 and myrrh4 ,many of the primitive ,christians were put to death because they would not offer incense to idols4 ,in the ,catholic ,church we still retain its use in many ceremonies4 ,primitive1 early4 ,incense1 perfumes burnt in religious rites1 or as an offering to some deity4 ,what is the appearance of ,frankincense8 ,it is generally imported in white or yellowish pieces1 or drops1 which possess a bitter1 disagreeable taste2 it is very inflammable1 and burns with a strong1 and pleasant odor4 ,that brought from the ,indies is inferior to that from ,arabia1 and inclines to a reddish color4 ,the common frankincense is softer1 more resinous1 and possesses less value than the former4 ,what is ,turpentine8 ,the resinous juice of many trees1 as the pine1 larch1 fir1 c42 it is1 in fact1 the juice that renders them evergreen1 and when in an over-abundant quantity1 bursts through their bark1 and oozes out4 ,common turpentine is that procured by incisions from the wild pine2 there are several kinds of turpentine procured from various resinous trees2 some are of use in medicine1 and most of them in making different kinds of varnishes1 for preserving and beautifying boxes1 paintings1 c4 ,ooze1 to flow gently4 ,is there not a tree more particularly designated the ,turpentine ,tree8 ,yes1 the ,terebinth or ,turpentine ,tree of ,palestine and the ,east4 ,it is one of the most common forest trees of those regions1 and is regarded with respect and distinction similar to that awarded to the oak in ,england4 ,what part of it produces the ,gum8 ,the gum1 or rather the resin1 distils from the trunk4 ,it is called ,cyprus or ,chian ,turpentine1 much of it being brought from the isles of ,cyprus and ,scio1 or ,chios1 and is procured1 by incision1 about the month of ,july4 ,this turpentine1 owing to its superior quality1 as well as its scarcity1 each tree seldom yielding over two or three pounds1 is very costly4 ,incision1 a cutting4 ,costly1 expensive4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,bricks1 ,,mortar1 ,,granite1 ,,slate1 ,,limestone1 ,,or ,,calcareous ,,rocks1 ,,steel1 ,,earths1 ,,volcanoes1 ,,and ,,earthquakes4 ,of what are ,bricks composed8 ,of clay1 dried by the heat of the sun1 or burnt in kilns2 their color varies with the different degrees of heat to which they are subjected in burning4 ,in the ,east1 bricks were baked in the sun2 the ,romans used them crude1 only laying them to dry in the air for a long space of time4 ,crude1 in the rough1 unbaked state1 just as they were formed4 ,how long have ,bricks been in use for building8 ,bricks appear to have been in use at a very remote period of antiquity1 both from the account of them in the ,holy ,scriptures1 and from the remains of them which have been found2 the ,tower of ,babel and the walls of ,babylon were built of them4 ,they were in early use among the ,egyptians1 as appears from the history of the ,jews before their deliverance by ,moses4 ,in the book of ,exodus1 we are told that this captive people were compelled to make bricks for that nation4 ,the ,romans1 under their first kings1 built with massive square stones2 but towards the end of the ,republic they began to use brick1 borrowing the practice from the ,greeks2 and the greatest and most durable buildings of the succeeding ,emperors were composed of them1 as the ,pantheon1 c4 ,massive1 bulky and heavy4 ,by whom was the ,tower of ,babel erected1 and why8 ,by the descendants of ,noe's three sons1 ,sem1 ,cham1 and ,japheth2 they were extremely numerous1 and dwelt in the land of ,sennaar2 becoming ambitious of distinguishing themselves1 they set about building a tower whose summit might reach to heaven4 ,sennaar was the original name of the country about ,babylon4 ,descendants1 those descended from a particular person or family4 ,what remarkable event followed their foolish pride8 ,the ,almighty suddenly frustrated their purpose by confusing their language and causing them all to express their words by different sounds2 hence arose the numbers of different languages spoken by the nations of the earth2 and thus what they imagined would be a monument of glory1 was made an awful memento of their pride and folly4 ,frustrated1 prevented4 ,monument1 anything by which the memory of persons or things is preserved4 ,memento1 a hint to awaken the memory of anything2 that which reminds4 ,what good effect did this event produce8 ,god1 who at all times can bring good out of evil1 by this means caused the other parts of the earth to be peopled2 for this visitation having effectually broken up their scheme1 they emigrated in parties1 and dispersed themselves over different parts of the world4 ,scheme1 plan1 intention4 ,emigrated1 removed from one country to another4 ,dispersed1 separated4 ,where was ,babylon8 ,this celebrated city1 so often mentioned in ,holy ,writ1 7and remarkable for the minuteness with which its destruction was foretold by the ,prophets17 was the capital of the ,assyrian ,empire1 and situated on the river ,euphrates4 ,after the destruction of ,nineve1 the ancient capital of this empire1 ,babylon became the most famous city of the ,east4 ,minuteness1 particularity4 ,what is meant by the ,assyrian ,empire8 ,the country of ,assyria1 in ,asia4 ,for what was this city particularly celebrated8 ,for its hanging gardens1 palaces1 temples1 and walls1 the latter of which are said to have been three hundred and fifty feet high1 and so broad that six chariots could go abreast upon them4 ,the city was so strongly fortified1 both by nature and art1 as to be thought impregnable4 ,fortified1 defended4 ,impregnable1 incapable of being taken or destroyed by an enemy4 ,by whom was it destroyed1 and when8 ,by ,cyrus1 #ech years before the birth of ,christ1 just fifty years after ,nabuchodonosor had destroyed the city of ,jerusalem and its temple4 ,who was ,cyrus8 ,the founder of the ,persian ,empire4 ,who was ,nabuchodonosor8 ,the ,king of ,babylon4 ,what was the ,pantheon8 ,a temple of a circular form which was dedicated to all the ,gods1 or all the ,saints4 ,that of all others the most celebrated1 is the ,pantheon of ancient ,rome1 and its remains are the most perfect amongst the wonders of that city at the present day4 ,circular1 having the form of a circle1 round4 ,by whom was it built8 ,by ,agrippa1 the ,consul of ,rome1 twenty-five years before ,christ2 it was dedicated by him to ,jupiter3 the name ,pantheon was given on account of the great number of statues of the ,gods ranged in niches all round it2 and because it was built in a circular form to represent heaven1 the residence of the ,gods4 ,it was afterwards converted into a church by ,pope ,boniface ,,iv1 and dedicated to the ,blessed ,virgin and all the ,martyrs1 under the title of ,our ,lady of the ,rotunda4 ,agrippa likewise built the ,pantheon at ,athens1 which was but little inferior to that of ,rome4 ,the ,greek ,christians afterwards converted it into a church1 dedicating it to the ,blessed ,virgin2 but the ,turks1 when they subdued ,greece1 changed it into a mosque4 ,dedicated1 appropriated to a particular person1 or to a sacred use4 ,residence1 dwelling1 habitation4 ,martyr1 one who is put to death for the cause of religion4 ,mosque1 a ,mahommedan temple4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,slate ,,quarry4 ,what is understood by a ,consul8 ,the chief magistrate of the ,roman republic or commonwealth4 ,after the ,romans had expelled their kings1 they were governed by two ,consuls2 these were established in the year of ,rome #bde4 ,the ,consuls were the head of the senate2 they commanded the armies of the republic1 and judged all the differences between the citizens3 they held their office for the space of a year2 at the end of which time1 new ones were elected4 ,consuls were even continued under the ,emperors after the republic was destroyed2 but it was then little more than an honorary title1 and at last was totally abolished4 ,expelled1 turned out4 ,abolished1 annulled1 made void4 ,to what is the term ,consul applied at the present time8 ,to an officer established by a commission from a king or state1 to reside in foreign countries of any considerable trade1 to facilitate and despatch business1 protect the merchants of the state1 c4 ,commission1 a trust imposed1 command1 authority4 ,facilitate1 to render easy4 ,what is meant by a ,senate8 ,an assembly or council of senators1 that is1 of the principal inhabitants of a state1 who have a share in the government4 ,what is the government of the ,united ,states8 ,it is one of limited and definite powers1 defined by a written constitution4 ,how are the legislative powers1 granted to the government1 vested8 ,in a ,congress1 consisting of a ,senate of two ,senators from each state1 chosen by the legislature thereof2 and a ,house of ,representatives1 consisting of one or more members from each state1 elected by the people in equal electoral districts4 ,legislative1 giving or enacting laws ,how are our laws made8 ,bills passed by the ,house of ,representatives and the ,senate1 on receiving the sanction of the ,president1 become laws2 or1 if vetoed by the ,president1 may be passed by two-thirds of both ,houses4 ,vetoed1 withheld assent to4 ,who was ,jupiter8 ,the principal deity of the ,pagan world4 ,what is used to cement bricks firmly together8 ,mortar2 a composition of lime1 sand1 gravel1 c41 mixed up with water2 the ancients had a kind of mortar so very hard and binding1 that1 even to this day1 it is next to impossible to separate the parts of some of their buildings4 ,what is ,granite8 ,a rock which has been formed by the union of three different minerals in a state of fusion2 these1 on cooling1 have crystallized and become distinct from each other in the mass4 ,it is remarkable for the beauty of its colors1 its hardness and durability4 ,there are granites of many different colors1 as red or rose-colored1 grey1 green1 variegated1 c4 ,fusion1 a melted state4 ,mass1 a body1 a lump4 ,what form does it bear8 ,granite does not1 generally1 form one extensive mass1 but remains in separate and large fragments1 rudely compacted together2 besides the three minerals of which it is composed1 particles of other stones1 or metallic earths1 are often accidentally mixed with it4 ,it is called granite from its granulous structure4 ,compacted1 joined together4 ,granulous1 consisting of small grains4 ,where is ,granite found8 ,granite occurs in all the larger mountain ranges1 and in isolated masses in every country2 not being a stratified rock1 and being excessively hard1 it is difficult to get it out in manageable masses4 ,in ,arabia ,petra1 the whole country abounds in masses of different granites4 ,isolated1 alone1 separated1 detached4 ,stratified1 consisting of strata or beds4 ,what mode is usually employed in this country in obtaining it8 ,blasting1 or blowing up with gunpowder2 the force of which detaches pieces from the rock1 which are hewn roughly into forms on the spot by a small pickaxe4 ,granite is also quarried by cutting a deep line some yards long1 and placing strong iron wedges at equal distances along this line2 these wedges are struck in succession with heavy hammers1 till the mass splits down4 ,another method of detaching masses of rock1 is by driving wooden wedges into a deep artificial or natural crack1 or fissure2 the wedges are then wet1 and1 in consequence of swelling1 burst the rock asunder4 ,quarried1 from to quarry1 a term used for the getting of stone from a quarry1 or place where stones are dug from the earth1 or detached from a large mass of rock4 ,detach1 to separate4 ,for what is this ,rock used8 ,on account of its great hardness1 it is used for large public structures1 as bridges1 churches1 c4 ,the ancient temples and other buildings in ,egypt1 ,asia1 and ,italy1 were built of different colored granites1 especially the beautiful ,oriental red granite4 ,what is ,slate8 ,the common name for a bluish fossil stone1 very soft when dug out of the quarry1 and easily cut or split into thin plates1--a property which renders it invaluable for a variety of purposes4 ,invaluable1 extremely valuable4 ,for what is it used8 ,slate has superseded the use of lead for covering roofs1 even of the largest buildings2 being lighter and more durable1 it is preferable to tile3 it is also employed for slabs to form cisterns1 shelves for dairies1 and other purposes1 on account of its strength1 coolness1 and the ease with which it can be cleaned2 the latter quality renders it also of great value in the business of education1 as a cheap substitute for paper4 ,the ancients were unacquainted with the use of slate4 ,what other kinds of stone are used in building8 ,limestone1 or the calcareous rocks of the geologist3 of these there are many varieties4 ,those which are easily cut and polished are termed marbles1 and are used in sculpture and in ornamental architecture4 ,the coarser marbles are used for the common purposes of building4 ,calcareous1 partaking of the nature of calx or lime1--a term employed to describe chalk1 marble1 and all other combinations of lime with carbonic acid4 ,geologist1 one who studies the science of ,geology4 ,of what do ,calcareous ,earths or ,stones consist8 ,calcareous earths1 stones1 or rocks consist of lime1 or pure calcareous earth1 carbonic acid1 and water4 ,what is ,quick-,lime8 ,limestone deprived of its carbonic acid and water by being subjected to an intense heat in a kiln4 ,how are these ,stones wrought8 ,to whatever purpose the stones are to be applied1 the larger blocks obtained from the quarry must be cut into smaller and more manageable pieces by sawing3 the saw used is a long blade of steel1 without teeth1 fixed in a heavy wooden frame4 ,these huge saws are worked by one or two men who sit in boxes to shelter them from the weather2 water is caused to drip constantly into the cut1 to facilitate the motion of the saw1 and keep it cool1 so as to prevent it from losing its temper4 ,huge1 very large4 ,temper1 hardness2 in speaking of metals it signifies the state to which they are reduced1 especially with regard to their hardness4 ,what is ,steel8 ,iron combined with a small portion of carbon2 its chemical name is ,carburet of ,iron4 ,it is not so malleable as iron in its ordinary state2 but is much harder1 more elastic1 and susceptible of a higher polish4 ,of this material are manufactured knives1 swords1 and all kinds of cutting instruments and edge tools1 used for domestic purposes and in the arts1 from the ponderous pit-saw to the finest lancet4 ,good steel is much more ductile than iron2 and a finer wire may be drawn from it than from any other metal4 ,the excellence of edge-tools depends upon their temper4 ,ponderous1 heavy4 ,you say that a ,geologist is one who studies ,geology3 what is meant by this term8 ,a science which enables us to read1 in the simple language of nature1 the changes which have taken place on the surface of the earth1 in its structure and mineral constitution4 ,it describes the different materials and the strata of which the crust of the earth is composed1 and investigates the causes of its physical features4 ,simple1 easily read4 ,what are ,strata8 ,layers of rocks and other substances of which the whole earth seems to be composed4 ,these rocks are found lying one above another in regular order2 beneath them are the unstratified rocks1 which seem to form the basis or foundations upon which the others have been deposited4 ,the various layers seem to have been formed during progressive stages of vegetable and animal organization4 ,these rocks and strata are divided into five classes or formations4 ,progressive1 moving forwards4 ,organization1 formation or structure of bodies4 ,name them4 ,the ,primitive1 or lower formations1 supposed to have been formed in the chaotic state of the earth1 because they have no trace of organized beings or petrifactions2 they are chiefly composed of silicious and argillaceous earths1 as granite1 slate1 c4--,transition rocks1 supposed to have been formed during the transition of the earth into a habitable state2 they differ from the primitive1 in containing the remains of marine animals3--the ,secondary rocks1 containing the remains of animals and vegetables1 and consequently formed after their creation2--the ,tertiary formation1 composed of layers of clay1 sand1 gravel1 and marl1 and containing peculiar organic remains2--and the ,alluvial formation1 constituted of parts of previous rocks separated by water1 c41 and deposited in beds4 ,petrifaction1 an animal or vegetable substance turned to stone4 ,silicious1 consisting of flint4 ,transition1 change from one state to another4 ,argillaceous1 clayey1 consisting of clay4 ,chaotic1 resembling chaos1 confused4 ,chaos1 confusion1 a mingled heap2 a term used in speaking of the world while yet without form2 a ,greek word1 signifying a confused mass4 ,alluvial1 deposited from water4 ,of what is this last compounded8 ,the ,alluvial formation is composed of sand1 gravel1 loam1 clay1 turf1 c41 and contains plants1 roots1 moss1 bones1 petrified wood1 and skeletons of animals4 ,it is distinguished from the ,tertiary formation chiefly by its superior position1 and by extending over regions where existing streams or other causes now in action could have produced it4 ,some geologists mention another formation called the ,volcanic1 because composed of minerals thrown from the crater of a volcano1 such as pumice stones1 lava1 c4 ,crater1 the mouth or opening of a volcano4 ,petrified1 hardened into stone4 ,you mentioned ,silicious and ,argillaceous ,earths3 is not1 then1 the earthy covering of our globe of one common character8 ,no2 by earth is understood a combination of many distinct bodies4 ,chemists1 by separating earths from each other1 and from foreign matters connected with them1 have discovered nine or ten primitive earths2 all of these1 except silex1 are compounds of oxygen with metallic bases4 ,chemist1 one who understands the science of chemistry4 ,of which of these ,simple or ,primitive ,earths are the solid portions of the globe principally composed8 ,of flint or silex1 lime or calcareous earth1 and clay or argil1 in various degrees of combination1 the greatest parts of the mountains and plains1 and the whole of what we commonly understand by soil1 mould1 earth1 c4 are composed4 ,these1 however1 though forming nearly all of the solid portions of the world1 are constantly mixed with foreign matters1 as metals1 7particularly iron17 and acids1 7as carbonic acid47 ,what are the properties of ,silex8 ,silex1 or pure flint1 will not dissolve in water1 nor can it be melted by itself in any heat2 but combined with alkalies1 as soda or potash1 it forms glass4 ,it is the principal ingredient of most of the precious stones4 ,what are the chief uses of ,silex8 ,it is the most durable article for the formation of roads2 a necessary ingredient in earthenware1 porcelain1 and cements2 and the principal material of glass and vitreous substances4 ,the making of pastes or artificial gems is a branch of the art of glass-making2 the basis used is a very hard and pure silex4 ,basis1 that part of any mixture which is the ground or base2 the first principle or element of a substance4 ,describe the properties of ,lime4 ,it is of a white color1 and possesses a hot1 caustic taste4 ,it forms peculiar salts with acids2 changes vegetable blues to green2 will not fuse2 gives out a quantity of caloric when united with water2 and absorbs carbonic acid when exposed to air4 ,lime is very useful in the arts and manufactures1 in medicine1 c4 ,the farmers use it as manure to fertilize land4 ,caustic1 burning1 corroding3 a term applied to substances which eat away and burn any thing with which they are brought in contact4 ,in what state is ,lime found in nature8 ,never native1 but combined with other substances2--generally with an acid1 and most plentifully with carbonic acid1 as in chalk1 marble1 c4 ,it is also found in vegetables1 and is the basis of animal bones2 it likewise occurs in the water of the ocean1 and in that of all springs and rivers4 ,the method of procuring lime1 from chalk1 marble1 limestone1 oyster-shells1 c41 has already been described in a former chapter4 ,what are the properties of ,clay8 ,argil1 or pure clay1 also called alumina1 from its being the basis of alum1 is soft to the touch1 adhesive1 and emits a peculiar odor when moistened2--forms a paste with water1 and hardens in the fire4 ,its uses are so various and important1 that it would have been almost impossible for man to have attained his present degree of civilization1 if it had not been given him by nature in such abundance4 ,its uses have already been described in the arts of brick-making1 pottery1 c4 ,besides these three principal primitive earths just described1 there are seven others1 having several properties in common1 yet each possessing its different and specific properties1 and evidently designed by nature for different purposes of utility4 ,specific1 belonging to its particular species4 ,utility1 usefulness4 ,what is a ,volcano8 ,an opening in the surface of the earth1 or in a mountain1 from which are ejected smoke1 flames1 stones1 lava1 c4 ,beneath the outer crust of the earth inflammable materials appear to exist1 which different causes excite into combustion4 ,volcanoes are supposed to owe their origin to the metals and minerals which form the basis of earths and alkalies2 and which1 when ignited1 expand1--shake the rocky foundations1--and sometimes1 bursting through1 produce all the destructive effects of earthquakes4 ,they break forth under the sea1 as well as the land1 and throw up mountains which rise above the level of the water4 ,during an eruption of ,vesuvius1 ,a4,d4 #gi1 three cities1 ,herculaneum1 ,pompeii1 and ,stabi1 were overwhelmed1 and lay buried beneath the matter ejected from the volcano until within a few years1 when excavations were made and many relics discovered2--streets1 houses1 papyri1 7manuscripts17 grain1 fruit1 bread1 medicines1 c4 c41 all in a remarkable state of preservation1 have been found just as they were left by the terrified inhabitants at the time of the eruption6 ,eruption1 an issuing or breaking forth with violence4 ,ejected1 thrown out4 ,are there many ,volcanoes8 ,there are upwards of two hundred volcanoes upon the globe2 more than one half of them are in ,america and ,oceanica ,the most noted volcanoes in ,america are ,cotopaxi 7the highest in the world71 near ,quito2 ,popocatapetl1 in ,mexico2 ,cosiguina1 and the ,water ,volcano1 in ,guatemala4 ,in ,france1 ,spain1 ,portugal1 and many other countries1 there are districts which show the former existence of volcanoes1 which have long been extinct2 near ,naples1 in an area of two hundred square miles1 there are sixty craters1 some of them larger than ,vesuvius2 in one of these1 the town of ,cumea has stood for three thousand years4 ,what can you say of new islands formed by ,volcanic ,agency8 ,many examples of new islands rising out of the sea by volcanic action are on record4 ,some of them are permanent1 but others1 after a time1 disappear4 ,teneriffe1 ,iceland1 ,sicily1 ,st4 ,helena2 part of ,sumatra1 ,java1 ,japan2 and the ,sandwich ,islands1 seem to have been upheaved by volcanic agency2 ,hawaii1 the largest of the last-named group1 contains an area of four thousand square miles1 and rises eighteen thousand feet above the ocean4 ,what are ,earthquakes8 ,shakings or vibrations of the ground2 sometimes accompanied by rents1 and rockings or heavings of the surface1 so as to overthrow buildings1 and swallow up towns and large tracts of country4 ,they are attended with a terrible subterranean noise1 like thunder1 and sometimes with an eruption of fire or water1 or else of smoke or winds4 ,subterranean1 underground4 ,what is supposed to cause them8 ,an electrical action between the atmosphere and some deep sub-strata2 or the sudden formation of gaseous matter beneath the surface of the earth by internal volcanic fires4 ,many hot countries1 where much electrical disturbance takes place1 are very subject to them3 earthquakes almost always precede volcanic eruptions2 an open volcano1 also1 probably diminishes the force of earthquakes1 by the vent which it affords4 ,earthquakes1 at different times1 have been productive of the most terrific effects3 towns and cities have been swallowed up1 and thousands of people destroyed by them4 ,the island of ,jamaica is remarkable for the earthquakes which frequently happen there4 ,precede1 to go before4 ,vent1 opening4 ,terrific1 full of terror1 dreadful4 ,where is ,jamaica situated8 ,in the ,west ,indies1--a large group of fertile islands which lie between ,north and ,south ,america4 ,jamaica is the principal one of those which belong to the ,english4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,architecture1 ,,sculpture1 ,,use ,,of ,,money1 ,,navigation4 ,what is meant by ,architecture8 ,the art of building or erecting edifices fit for the habitation of man1 to defend him from the weather1 and for his domestic comfort and convenience2 for devotion1 trade1 and other purposes1 and for the use of civilized life in every capacity4 ,capacity1 state1 condition4 ,is not this an art of great antiquity8 ,it is almost as ancient as human society2 the changes of the seasons first led men to build themselves huts or cabins1 into which they might retire for shelter2 in process of time1 their manner of building gradually improved1 and habitations were constructed of more stately forms and elegant proportions1 and greater skill and variety were displayed in their ornaments ,hence arose the ,five ,orders or manners of building4 ,of what were the first huts composed8 ,probably of the branches of trees driven into the ground1 and covered with mud and stubble2 at length1 as men became more expert1 they placed trunks of trees upright1 and laid others across them to sustain the outer coverings2 from this they took the hint of a more regular architecture1 and built edifices of brick and stone2 the trunks of trees which supported their dwellings gave them a notion of pillars or columns1 which they afterwards erected of more durable materials4 ,among uncivilized tribes at this day1 some reside underground1 having their dirty dwellings entirely closed during the winter months2 in warmer regions1 their habitations are built of stakes1 leaves1 and turf1 in the shape of a soldier's tent4 ,in ,africa1 their kraals or huts are constructed in this manner1 but of a circular form1 with a hole at the top to let out the smoke4 ,in many of the ,south ,sea ,islands1 the natives1 when first discovered1 had progressed still further1 having learnt to elevate the roofs on poles1 and to fill in the sides of their houses with boughs or rushes1 mud or sods4 ,probably1 most likely4 ,edifice1 a building4 ,notion1 idea4 ,durable1 lasting4 ,what people are represented by the ancient writers as having brought the art of ,building to a greater state of perfection8 ,the inhabitants of the city of ,tyre1 to whom ,solomon had recourse for workmen to build the ,temple4 ,isaias1 in his twenty-third chapter1 speaks of the ,tyrians and ,egyptians1 as having brought it to a great degree of magnificence2 as may be drawn from the various accounts handed down to us1 and the remains of their obelisks1 pyramids1 c4 ,what is an ,obelisk8 ,a very high and slender four-sided pyramid1 raised as an ornament in some public place2 and frequently covered with inscriptions and hieroglyphics4#af ,this kind of monument appears to be very ancient2 they were first made use of to declare to posterity the principal precepts of philosophy2 to mark the hours of the day by the shadows which they cast on the ground2 and1 in after-times1 to immortalize the actions of heroes1 and perpetuate the memory of persons beloved4 ,footnote #af3 ,see ,chapter ,,xiv4 ,inscription1 something written or engraved4 ,hieroglyphics1 emblems by which words were implied4 ,they were used before the invention of alphabets4 ,implied1 signified1 denoted4 ,posterity1 succeeding generations1 descendants4 ,immortalize1 to render immortal1--which means never-dying2 to perpetuate the memory of anything4 ,what is a ,pyramid8 ,a solid1 massive edifice1 rising from a square1 triangular1 or other base1 gradually diminishing in size till it ends in a point at the top4 ,like the obelisk1 pyramids were sometimes erected to preserve the memory of singular events1 or to transmit to future ages the glory and magnificence of princes2 but oftener as funeral monuments and receptacles for the dead1 particularly kings4 ,triangular1 three-sided1 having three angles4 ,diminishing1 growing smaller4 ,receptacle1 the place in which a thing is deposited4 ,is it known who were the erectors of these ,buildings8 ,no2 it is a curious fact that the ,egyptian pyramids1 so celebrated for their size and great antiquity1 should have the time of their erection and the names of their founders wrapt in such complete mystery4 ,all the different authors who have written concerning them1 disagree in their accounts of those who built them1 and nothing certain is known of their history4 ,founder1 one who establishes or erects4 ,mystery1 profound secresy4 ,what other nations excelled in the art of ,building8 ,the ,greeks and ,romans1 from whom we derive it1 also greatly excelled in this art4 ,grecian architecture was in its highest glory under ,pericles4 ,among the ,romans1 it arrived at its greatest perfection under the ,emperor ,augustus4 ,the five orders of ornamental architecture invented by the ancients1 at different times1 and on different occasions1 are of ,grecian and ,italian origin4 ,they are the ,tuscan1 the ,doric1 the ,ionic1 the ,corinthian1 and the ,composite2 each possessing its peculiar form and beauty1 and found in all the principal buildings of the ,christian world4 ,christian1 professing the religion of ,christ2 the term is applied to those who believe our ,lord ,jesus ,christ to be the only true ,god and ,saviour of the world4 ,who was ,pericles8 ,a celebrated ,athenian statesman1 orator1 and general1 who gained several victories over the ,lacedemonians and other enemies of his country4 ,are all the species of ornamental building confined to those nations already mentioned8 ,by no means2 besides the ,grecian and ,roman orders1 other civilized nations possess their separate styles2 as the ,hindoos1 ,chinese1 ,moors1 c42 and nothing can be more grand1 harmonious1 and picturesque1 than each of these in the beautiful specimens which are to be seen in their several countries4 ,the ,saxons1 also1 had a simple style of architecture1 distinguished by semi-circular arches1 and massive plain columns2 the ,normans1 too1 invented a beautiful kind called the ,gothic1 distinguished by its lightness and the number of its ornaments1 and by its pointed arches and pillars carved to imitate several combined together2 the ,gothic style is found in many old cathedrals4 ,hindoos1 inhabitants of ,hindostan1 in ,india4 ,moors1 inhabitants of ,morocco1 a kingdom of ,barbary1 in ,africa4 ,harmonious1 corresponding in all its parts with equal beauty and elegance4 ,picturesque1 like a picture4 ,saxons1 inhabitants of ,saxony1 a portion of ,germany4 ,semi-circular1 only half circular4 ,describe the ,five ,orders of ,architecture4 ,the ,tuscan 7from ,tuscany17 is the most simple and devoid of ornament1 and its columns or pillars are plain and massive4 ,the ,doric 7from the ,dorians1 in ,greece17 is durable and noble in appearance1 having its columns plain like the ,tuscan1 but the upper parts more ornamental4 ,the ,ionic1 7from ,iona1 in ,greece17 is neither so plain as the ,doric1 nor so richly elegant as the ,corinthian2 but is distinguished from the first two orders by having its columns or pillars fluted instead of plain1 and the upper part of them 7called the capitals17 adorned by the figures of rams' horns carved on them4 ,the ,corinthian is very rich and delicate1 with fluted pillars1 and the tops beautifully ornamented with leaves1 c4 ,the invention of this order is ascribed to ,callimachus1 a ,corinthian sculptor4 ,the ,composite is compounded of the other four2 it is very much like the ,corinthian1 and is also called the ,roman or ,italian order4 ,devoid1 free from1 destitute4 ,what is ,sculpture8 ,the art of cutting or carving wood1 stone1 and other materials2 and forming of them various figures or representations of men1 beasts and other objects4 ,the term is mostly limited to carving images or statues in stone4 ,this art is of great antiquity2 the sacred writings inform us of it in many passages1 as for instance in those in which are mentioned ,laban's images1 carried away by ,rachel2 the golden calf of the ,israelites1 c4 ,sculpture as an art is probably more ancient than painting4 ,what country was the most highly celebrated for its sculpture8 ,greece1 which produced many celebrated sculptors1 of whom the most eminent were ,phidias1 an ,athenian1 the great master of this art1 who lived in the time of ,pericles1 #djh years before ,christ2 ,lysippus1 a native of ,sicyon1 near ,corinth2 and ,praxiteles1 a native of ,magna ,grecia4 ,what event proved fatal to this art8 ,the death of ,alexander the ,great was followed by a visible decline in all the fine arts2 but the fatal blow to their existence was given by the success of the conquering ,romans1 who reduced ,greece to a ,roman province4 ,was ,sculpture always performed in ,stone8 ,no2 at first statues and other figures were formed of wood or baked clay1 afterwards of stone1 marble and metals2 though these last were not brought to any degree of perfection1 till about three hundred years before ,christ4 ,the ,greeks were famous for their works in ivory2 the great master of the art of carving statues in it was ,phidias4 ,what progress did the ,romans make in ,sculpture8 ,sculpture1 during their early history1 existed rather as a plant of foreign growth1 partially cultivated by them1 than as a native production of their own land4 ,they collected1 indeed1 some of the most exquisite samples of ,grecian sculpture1 and invited to their capital the yet remaining sculptors of ,greece1 by whose labors not only ,rome itself was embellished1 but also many of the cities of ,asia ,minor1 ,spain1 and ,gaul1 then under the ,roman dominion2 yet the taste for sculpture does not appear to have been cultivated in any measure corresponding with the advantages thus afforded them in the study of the best models of the art4 ,the best works were produced by ,greek artists1 and chiefly ,athenian1 while the attempts of the ,romans were unskilfully executed4 ,gaul1 the ancient name of ,france4 ,model1 pattern4 ,did it always continue thus8 ,no2 from the time of the ,emperor ,constantine1 sculpture1 and the rest of the fine arts1 gradually revived4 ,while inspired1 perhaps1 with a taste for sculpture by means of the scattered remains of ,grecian art1 the ,roman artists drew1 at the same time1 from their own resources1 and were by no means servile copyists of the sculptors of a former age4 ,the first academy of the art was founded at ,florence1 in #acej1 and at the close of the same century1 sculpture was firmly established in ,italy1 and itinerant sculptors1 not unskilful in their art1 wandered from thence to ,germany1 ,france1 and even to ,england4 ,the most eminent master of the art was ,michael ,angelo1 born in #adgd1 who was also a painter and architect2 from his time1 to the latter end of the last century1 sculpture again gradually declined1 but under ,canova1 a native of ,possagno1 in the ,venetian ,alps1 it revived4 ,he was born in #ageg4 ,besides the above mentioned1 were a number of others of various degrees of talent1 as well as some still living4 ,servile1 slavish1 mean4 ,itinerant1 wandering4 ,when was the knowledge of ,sculpture introduced into ,england8 ,at the time of its conquest by the ,romans2 but the art appears to have been very rude and imperfect4 ,from the time of the ,norman invasion1 and still further in the time of the ,crusades1 an improvement1 however1 began to show itself in ,british sculpture4 ,but it is probable that most of their best architectural and sculptural works were executed by foreigners1 members of those societies of wandering sculptors before mentioned4 ,under ,edward the ,third1 the art appears to have been much cultivated by ,englishmen4 ,it is well known that two ,italian sculptors were employed in ,england during the sixteenth century4 ,john of ,padua1 a pupil of ,michael ,angelo1 was master of works to ,henry the ,eighth4 ,in the reign of ,charles the ,first1 ,english sculptors flourished1 although their works are of a very low order4 ,invasion1 hostile entrance upon the rights or possessions of another4 ,architectural1 belong to ,architecture4 ,sculptural1 belonging to ,sculpture4 ,illustration3 ,,gathering ,,turpentine ,,by ,,scraping4 ,illustration3 ,,distilling ,,turpentine4 ,with whom may the ,school of ,british ,sculptors be considered as commencing8 ,with ,banks1 born in #agch1 and ,bacon1 born in #agdj2 these were in every respect ,english artists4 ,but the most eminent worker in the art which that country has yet produced1 was ,john ,flaxman1 born in #agee4 ,our own country also may boast of sculptors of superior talents1 and from the beautiful specimens of the art which have appeared1 the attainment of a high degree of excellence in it is to be anticipated4 ,attainment1 the act of arriving at or reaching4 ,anticipated1 expected1 foreseen4 ,give me a short account of this art in ,germany1 ,france1 and ,spain4 ,in these countries1 as in ,england and the ,united ,states1 during their early history1 many of the best works were executed by ,italians4 ,germany appears to have made little progress in sculpture before the seventeenth century2 since that period1 it has produced sculptors of some eminence1 although it is more celebrated for its writers on the art1 than for artists of eminence in its practice4 ,in ,france1 sculptors of some talent are mentioned as early as the sixteenth century4 ,girardon and ,puget were the most celebrated artists of this period4 ,spanish history gives a long list of native sculptors1 from the commencement of the same century1 but many of them are but little known beyond their own country4 ,berruguete1 a pupil of ,michael ,angelo1 appears to have founded the first regular school of the art4 ,paul de ,cespides1 and in the eighteenth century1 ,philip de ,castro1 were the most eminent among them4 ,when was the use of ,money first introduced8 ,it is not known with certainty3 there is1 however1 reason to believe that both gold and silver were very early used as money in ,egypt and ,asia3 it was afterwards introduced into ,carthage and ,greece2 whence it was brought to ,rome2 and from that city spread gradually westward1 through all the ,roman dominions4 ,before the use of money was introduced1 the only means of trade was by barter1 or the exchange of one commodity for another1 a custom long retained by uncivilized nations4 ,in time1 however1 men discovered the necessity of something which would enable them to trade with greater facility2 the first mention of money is in the time of ,abraham1 who1 we are told in the ,bible1 paid four hundred sides of silver of common current money1 for a burying place4 ,current1 generally received1 passing from hand to hand4 ,where was ,carthage8 ,carthage1 now ,tunis1 was a commercial city1 situated on the ,northern ,coast of ,africa1 which long contended for the dominion of the ,mediterranean with the ,romans2 but1 after three wars1 it was taken and destroyed by the ,roman general1 ,scipio ,africanus1 in the year #bea before ,christ4 ,commercial1 carrying on commerce or trade4 ,of what substances was ,money usually made8 ,of metals1 especially the precious metals1 because they possess great value in small bulk2 may be kept for any length of time without loss2 and their value1 although not altogether invariable1 yet1 generally speaking1 changes only by slow degrees1 and is less susceptible of fluctuation than that of most other articles4 ,at different times1 and amongst various nations1 however1 other things1 in the scarcity of metal1 have been substituted for it1 as shells1 wood1 leather1 paper1 or even pasteboard on extraordinary occasions4 ,fluctuation1 unsteadiness2 a wavering4 ,of what form was money generally made8 ,the form of money has been more various than its materials2 the ancient ,britons used as money1 rings or bars of iron or tin2 the ,lacedemonians used iron bars quenched with vinegar4 ,the money of most nations usually bore an impression peculiar to themselves1 as1 for instance1 the sicle of the ,jews was marked with the golden pot of manna on one side1 and ,aaron's rod on the other2 other coins with the figures of animals1 c42 in shape1 coins were either round1 irregular1 or square4 ,have the terms ,money and ,coin the same signification8 ,not exactly2 by money is understood any matters1 such as metal1 wood1 leather1 glass1 horn1 paper1 fruits1 shells1 c41 which have currency as a medium in commerce4 ,coin is a particular species always made of metal1 and struck off according to a certain process called coining2 it is not of equal antiquity with money4 ,in fact1 the very commodities themselves were the first moneys1 that is1 were current one for another by way of exchange4 ,coin is a piece of metal converted into money1 by the impression of certain marks or figures thereon4 ,the first coining of silver took place at ,rome1 two hundred and sixty-nine1 and of gold1 two hundred and six years before ,christ3 the ,romans1 after the commonwealth1 stamped their coins with the image of the reigning emperor1 which custom was followed by most civilized nations4 ,coins were1 and are1 frequently1 struck in commemoration of a particular event or celebrated person4 ,when was the use of stamped coin introduced into ,britain8 ,after the arrival of the ,romans in that island1 the natives imitated them1 coining both gold and silver with the images of their kings stamped upon them2 but the ,romans1 when they subdued the nation1 suppressed also their coins1 and obliged them to use their own2 hence the number of ,roman coins found among the relics of antiquity in that island4 ,suppressed1 put aside1 hindered from circulation4 ,relics1 remains4 ,what does the first coined money in ancient ,britain appear to have been8 ,copper money2 but after the arrival of the ,saxons in ,england1 scarcely any copper money was used for many centuries1 nor did it become common till #afgb2 it was first used in ,scotland and ,ireland in #acdj4 ,what is a ,mint8 ,a place established by public authority for coining money4 ,in the ,united ,states1 the first mint was in ,philadelphia2 branches have been established in other parts of the ,union4 ,in most countries1 the privilege of coining money is regarded as a prerogative of the sovereign power4 ,formerly1 in ,great ,britain1 cities1 towns1 and even individuals1 were allowed to coin money for the convenience of trade2 but now this is forbidden1 except at the ,mint in the ,tower of ,london4 ,what is meant by ,navigation8 ,the science or art by which the mariner is taught to conduct his ship from one place to another4 ,some1 perhaps1 will consider the formation and use of the ,ark1 as a first step towards the invention of this art2 but it is an erroneous idea1 because the direction and means for accomplishing this immense work were afforded by ,god1 for the preservation of righteous ,noe and his family4 ,besides1 nothing is recorded of any means or of any necessity for its occupants navigating it to any particular place1 or from one place to another2 no intention of this sort is apparent1 the ark being merely a vast shelter1 rendered capable of floating on the water4 ,erroneous1 wrong1 in error4 ,apparent1 manifest1 made to appear4 ,what probably gave the first idea of ,navigation8 ,accident most likely showed that wood always floats2 and on the fallen trunk of a tree1 perhaps1 some one ventured beyond his depth1 away from the land4 ,the trunk of a tree1 hollowed out1 for a more convenient position of the body1 formed the canoe1 usually found among uncivilized nations to this day4 ,from this rude beginning1 at great intervals of time1 and a slow pace of improvement1 the art has at length arrived at its present state of advancement4 ,what nation first applied this art to the purposes of ,trade8 ,the ,phenicians 7especially those of ,tyre1 their capital city1 and ,sidon17 were the first who adapted it to the purposes of commerce1 and constructed vessels fit to make voyages to foreign countries2 the poverty and narrowness of their land1 as well as their vicinity to two or three good ports1 and their natural genius for traffic1 urging them to seek foreign supplies4 ,we hear of them trading to ,arabia1 ,india1 ,persia1 ,greece1 ,africa1 ,spain1 and even as far as ,britain4 ,vicinity1 nearness1 neighborhood4 ,traffic1 ,trade1 commerce4 ,who were the ,phenicians8 ,the inhabitants of ,phenicia1 a country of ,syria1 in ,asia4 ,which was the more ancient city1 ,tyre or ,sidon8 ,sidon1--having been built1 as is supposed1 soon after the ,flood1 by ,sidon1 the eldest son of ,chanaan4 ,tyre1 about #be miles to the south1 was built about the year #abeb before ,christ1 by a colony from ,sidon4 ,the ,phenicians planted numerous colonies on the shores of the ,mediterranean and the ,atlantic1 and diffused1 to a great extent1 among their uncivilized neighbors the arts and improvements of civilized life4 ,one of their most celebrated colonies was that founded by them on the northern coast of ,africa2 and it was this colony that built the famous city of ,carthage4 ,diffused1 spread abroad1 scattered4 ,did not ,carthage afterwards become as flourishing as the parent city of ,tyre8 ,in time1 ,carthage not only equalled ,tyre itself1 but surpassed it1--pursuing the course the ,phenicians had begun1 and sending its merchant fleets through ,hercules' ,pillars1 7now the ,straits of ,gibraltar17 along the western coast of ,africa1 and northwards1 along the coast of ,europe1 visiting particularly ,spain1 ,gaul1 c4 ,they even undertook voyages1 the sole object of which was to discover new countries and explore unknown seas4 ,the ,carthaginians appear to have been the first who undertook voyages solely for the sake of discoveries4 ,were not both these celebrated cities destroyed8 ,tyre1 whose immense riches and power were the subject of many ancient histories1 was destroyed by the ,grecian ,emperor ,alexander the ,great1 and its navigation and commerce transferred by him to ,alexandria1 a new city which he meditated making his capital4 ,alexandria1 in a short time1 became the most important commercial city in the world4 ,thus arose navigation among the ,egyptians2 it was afterwards so successfully cultivated by them1 that ,tyre and ,carthage 7which last1 as before mentioned1 was subdued by the ,romans17 were quite forgotten4 ,transferred1 removed4 ,capital1 chief city or town in a state or kingdom4 ,who was ,alexander the ,great8 ,the son of ,philip1 ,king of ,macedonia1 in ,greece2 he was celebrated for his great ambition1 and the number of his conquests2 he overturned the ,persian empire1 and subdued many cities and provinces in the ,east4 ,did not ,alexandria undergo the same fate as ,tyre and ,carthage8 ,egypt was at last reduced to a ,roman province1 after the battle of ,actium1 and its trade and navigation fell into the hands of the ,emperor ,augustus1 in whose time ,alexandria was little inferior to ,rome2 and the magazines of the capital of the world were supplied with merchandise from the capital of ,egypt4 ,alexandria1 however1 at last underwent the fate of ,tyre and ,carthage1 being surprised by the ,saracens1 who overran the northern parts of ,africa2 and though it continued1 for a while1 to enjoy a considerable portion of the commerce of the ,christian merchants1 it afterwards remained in a languishing condition3 but still1 even at this day1 it is a place of considerable trade4 ,who were the ,saracens8 ,a ,mahommedan nation1 occupying a portion of what is now called ,arabia4 ,they extended their conquests over a large portion of ,asia1 northern ,africa1 and ,spain4 ,their name is derived from the word ,sara1 a desert4 ,what effect had the ,fall of the ,roman ,empire on ,navigation8 ,the fall of the ,roman empire not only drew along with it its learning and the polite arts1 but also the art of navigation2 the ,barbarians1 into whose hands the empire fell1 contenting themselves with enjoying the spoils of those whom they had conquered1 without seeking to follow their example in the cultivation of those arts and that learning which had rendered ,rome and its empire so famous4 ,what other people1 about this period1 distinguished themselves in the art of ,navigation8 ,the ,saracens or ,arabians1 whose fleets now rode triumphant in the ,mediterranean2 they had taken possession of ,cyprus1 ,rhodes1 and many of the ,grecian islands1 and extended their commerce and their discoveries in the ,east1 far beyond the utmost knowledge of their ancestors4 ,what other circumstance also prevented commercial intercourse from ceasing altogether8 ,constantinople1 though often threatened by the fierce invaders1 who spread desolation over ,europe1 was so fortunate as to escape their destructive rage4 ,in this city1 the knowledge of ancient arts and discoveries was preserved2 and commerce continued to flourish there1 when it was almost extinct in every other part of ,europe4 ,desolation1 destruction1 ruin4 ,did the citizens of ,constantinople confine their trade to the ,islands of the ,archipelago1 and the adjacent coast of ,asia8 ,no1 they took a wider range2 and1 following the course which the ancients had marked out1 imported the productions of the ,east ,indies from ,alexandria4 ,when ,egypt was torn from the ,roman ,empire by the ,arabians1 the industry of the ,greeks discovered a new channel by which the productions of ,india might be conveyed to ,constantinople4 ,did not the ,barbarians1 after a while1 turn their attention to ,navigation and ,commerce8 ,no sooner were the brave among these nations well settled in their new provinces--some in ,gaul1 as the ,franks2 others in ,spain1 as the ,goths2 and others in ,italy1 as the ,lombards1--than they began to learn the advantages of these arts1 and the proper methods of managing them1 from the people they had subdued2 and that with so much success1 that they even improved upon them1 and set on foot new institutions for their advantage4 ,to the ,lombards1 in particular1 is usually ascribed the invention and use of banks1 book-keeping1 and exchanges4 ,thus the people of ,italy1 and particularly those of ,venice and ,genoa1 have the glory of restoring to ,europe the advantages that had been destroyed by their own ravages4 ,institutions1 laws1 regulations4 ,exchange1 a species of mercantile transactions by which the debts due to persons at a distance are paid by order1 draft1 or bill of exchange1 without the transmission either of money or goods4 ,who were the ,franks8 ,a people who settled in ,gaul2 from them it took the name of ,franconia1 or ,france4 ,who were the ,goths8 ,an ancient people1 who inhabited that part of ,sweden called ,gothland2 and afterwards spread themselves over great part of ,europe4 ,who were the ,lombards8 ,the ,lombards1 or ,longobardi1 were1 like the ,franks1 a nation of ,germany2 who1 upon the decline of the ,roman ,empire1 invaded ,italy1 and1 taking the city of ,ravenna1 erected a kingdom4 ,where is ,ravenna8 ,in ,central ,italy4 ,it is the capital of a province of the same name2 it is an ancient town1 and the see of an archbishop4 ,see1 the seat of episcopal power2 the diocese of a bishop4 ,episcopal1 belonging to a bishop4 ,archbishop1 the presiding bishop of a province4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,grand ,,canal1 ,,venice1 ,,italy4 ,what was the origin of the city of ,venice8 ,in the ,adriatic ,sea were a great number of marshy islands1 separated only by narrow channels1 but well screened and almost inaccessible1 inhabited by a few fishermen4 ,to these islands the people of ,veneti 7a part of ,italy1 situated along the coasts of the gulf17 retired when ,alaric1 ,king of the ,goths1 ravaged ,italy4 ,these new ,islanders1 little imagining that this was to be their fixed residence1 did not1 at first1 think of forming themselves into one community1 but each of the #gb islands continued a long while under its respective masters1 and formed a distinct commonwealth4 ,adriatic ,sea1 a name given to the ,gulf of ,venice4 ,commonwealth1 a republic1 a government in which the supreme power is lodged in the people4 ,what circumstance caused them to unite8 ,their commerce becoming considerable enough to awaken the jealousy of their neighbors1 they united in a body for their mutual protection3 this union1 first begun in the #fth century and completed in the #hth1 laid the foundation of the future grandeur of the state of ,venice4 ,from the time of this union1 fleets of their merchantmen sailed to all the ports of the ,mediterranean2 and afterwards to those of ,egypt1 particularly to ,cairo1 a new city1 built by the ,saracen princes1 on the banks of the ,nile1 where they traded for spices1 c4 ,the ,venetians continued to increase their trade by sea and their conquests on land till #aejh1 when a number of jealous princes conspired against them to their ruin2 which was the more easily effected in consequence of their ,east ,indian commerce1 of which the ,portuguese and ,french had each obtained a share4 ,conspired1 united together in a plot4 ,what is the signification of ,mediterranean8 ,inclosed within land1 or remote from the ocean4 ,it is more particularly used to signify the sea which flows between ,europe and ,africa4 ,had not ,venice a formidable rival in a neighboring republic8 ,genoa1 which had applied itself to navigation at the same time with ,venice1 and with equal success1 was long its dangerous rival1 disputed with it the empire of the sea1 and shared with it the trade of ,egypt1 and other parts1 both of the ,east and ,west4 ,jealousy soon broke out2 and1 the two republics coming to blows1 there was almost continual war between them for three centuries3 at length1 towards the end of the #adth century1 the strife was ended by the fatal battle of ,chioza2 the ,genoese1 who till then had usually the advantage1 lost all1 and the ,venetians1 almost become desperate1 at one decisive blow1 beyond all expectation1 secured the empire of the sea and their superiority in commerce4 ,decisive1 final1 conclusive4 ,where is ,genoa situated8 ,in the north-western part of ,italy4 ,it was formerly a flourishing republic1 but belongs now to ,italy4 ,what event likewise contributed to the more rapid progress and diffusion of ,navigation and ,commerce8 ,the ,crusades3 for the ,genoese1 ,pisans1 and ,venetians1 furnished the fleets which carried those vast armies1 composed of all the nations of ,europe1 into ,asia1 upon this wild undertaking1 and also supplied them with provisions and military stores4 ,other travellers1 also1 besides those whom religious zeal sent forth to visit ,asia1 ventured into remote countries1 from motives either of commercial advantage1 or those of mere curiosity4 ,zeal1 devotion1 enthusiasm4 ,who were the ,pisans8 ,inhabitants of ,pisa1 an ancient town of ,tuscany2 it was once a great independent republic1 and is still adorned with noble edifices4 ,pisa has long been celebrated for its remarkable leaning tower4 ,tuscany is a beautiful and fruitful territory of ,italy2 its capital1 until the year #ahei1 was ,florence4 ,what were the ,crusades8 ,holy wars1 or expeditions1 undertaken by the ,christians against the ,turks and ,saracens1 to recover ,palestine1 between the years #aajj and #adjj4 ,what causes led to these wars8 ,many circumstances contributed to give rise to them4 ,they were undertaken1 first1 with a view to protecting the devout ,christian pilgrims1 who were in the habit of frequenting the venerable places where our ,saviour had lived1 taught1 suffered1 and triumphed1 from the fury and avarice of the heathens2 secondly1 with a view to getting possession of the ,holy ,land itself1 and of annexing it to ,christendom2 and thirdly1 to break down the power of ,mohammedanism1 and to elevate the ,cross in triumph and victory over ,palestine4 ,avarice1 an excessive desire of gain4 ,annexing1 adding1 joining4 ,what badge or sign was worn by those who engaged in the ,crusades8 ,they distinguished themselves by crosses of different colors1 worn on their clothes2 from which they took the name of ,croiss1 or ,cross-bearers2 each nation wore different colors3 for instance1 the ,english had white crosses1 the ,french red1 and so on4 ,to what invention is the art of ,navigation much indebted8 ,to that of the ,mariner's ,compass1 in the beginning of the #adth century2 and from this period may be dated the present perfection of this useful art4 ,you have given me an account of the restoration of ,navigation in ,southern ,europe3 did not the inhabitants of the ,north also turn their attention to it8 ,yes3 about the same time1 a new society of merchants was formed in the northern parts1 which not only carried commerce to the greatest perfection of which it was capable1 till the discovery of the ,indies1 but also formed new codes of useful laws for its regulation4 ,codes1 books or writings setting forth certain laws or rules respecting particular subjects2 books of civil laws4 ,are ,navigation and ,commerce inseparably connected with each other8 ,it may be considered as a general maxim1 that their union is so intimate1 that the fall of one inevitably draws after it that of the other2 and that they will always either flourish or decline together may be seen1 by examining the reason of their passing successively from the ,venetians1 ,genoese1 c41 to the ,portuguese and ,spaniards1 and from them to the ,english1 ,dutch1 c4 ,maxim1 rule1 an established principle4 ,intimate1 close4 ,inevitably1 without possibility of escape1 unavoidably4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,music1 ,,painting1 ,,poetry1 ,,astronomy1 ,,arts ,,and ,,sciences1 ,,art ,,of ,,writing1 ,,and ,,chemistry4 ,what are the earliest accounts of ,musical ,instruments on record8 ,the earliest accounts of music which we possess are to be found in the ,bible1 in which the state of the world before the flood is noticed4 ,jubal is said to have been the father of them that play upon the harp and organ2 but it is not to be supposed that these instruments at all resembled the harp and organ of modern times4 ,musical instruments1 in the times of ,david and ,solomon1 were used in religious services2 and music was certainly employed by the ,jews on many other occasions1 as at funerals and weddings1 at harvest home1 and at festivals of all kinds4 ,modern1 opposed to ancient1 pertaining to the present time1 or time not long past4 ,festival1 a rejoicing1 a feast1 a season dedicated to mirth4 ,what nation was particularly celebrated for musical talents8 ,the ancient ,egyptians2 who were so celebrated for their talents in music1 that the distinguished philosophers of ,greece braved many dangers1 in order to study the science in ,egypt2 and this1 at a period when the ,egyptians were far from being in the same high state of civilization as their forefathers had been in earlier times4 ,the history and monuments of ancient ,egypt have many accounts and representations of musical instruments1 and remains of these have lately been discovered1 so that we have ocular demonstration both of their existence and form4 ,civilization1 freedom from barbarity1 polish1 politeness1 possession of knowledge and the arts of life4 ,ocular1 known or seen by the eye4 ,demonstration1 the act of proving with certainty4 ,in how many divisions may musical instruments be arranged8 ,there are three kinds1 namely1 wind instruments1 as the trumpet1 and the organ2--stringed instruments1 as the harp or lyre1 violin1 c42 and instruments of concussion1 in which the sound is produced by striking a sonorous body1 as for instance the drum1 bells1 c4 ,which of these three kinds was the first invented8 ,it is impossible1 at the present day1 to decide which2 but it is most probable that instruments with strings were the last invented of the three kinds2 and it is most likely1 that of those in which sound is produced by the application of wind1 the trumpet or horn was first used4 ,this instrument1 in its rudest form1 was ready fashioned to the hand of man2 the horn of a ram or of an ox1 or some of the larger kinds of sea-shells1 were soon discovered to possess the power of producing sound1 by being blown into through a small hole at the pointed end4 ,what improvement in this instrument would naturally follow8 ,mankind having discovered the property possessed by a hollow tube of producing a certain sound1 soon found that the note varied according to the length and capacity of the tube4 ,a much greater improvement soon after took place2 it was discovered that one tube answered the purpose of many by boring holes in the course of its length1 and producing various musical sounds by stopping with the fingers certain of these holes4 ,most of our modern wind instruments are but improvements on the ancient inventions4 ,tube1 a pipe2 a long hollow body4 ,was not ,vocal ,music used before the invention of ,instrumental8 ,vocal music1 namely1 that produced by the human voice1 7so called to distinguish it from instrumental1 that produced by instruments17 was undoubtedly the first3 for man had not only the various tones of his own voice to make his observations on1 before any art or instrument was found out2 but the various natural strains of birds to give him a lesson in improving it1 and in modulating the sounds of which it is capable4 ,modulating1 forming sound to a certain key4 ,to what circumstance did an ancient poet ascribe the invention of stringed instruments8 ,to the observation of the winds whistling in the hollow reeds4 ,as for other kinds of instruments1 there were so many occasions for cords or strings1 that men were not long in observing their various sounds1 which might give rise to stringed instruments4 ,those of concussion1 as drums and cymbals1 might result from the observation of the naturally hollow noise made by concave bodies when struck4 ,what are the most ancient stringed instruments8 ,the most ancient instruments of this kind1 whose form is known1 are those of the ancient ,egyptians2 among these the harp stands pre-eminent4 ,one of the most celebrated representations of an ,egyptian harp was drawn from a painting discovered in one of the caverns in the mountains of ,egyptian ,thebes1 by some travellers3 it is called the ,theban harp1 and has thirteen strings2 its form is extremely elegant4 ,this harp is supposed to be one of the kind in use before and at the time of ,sesostris4 ,remains of ,egyptian harps of a more simple construction1 with only four strings1 have likewise been discovered4 ,among the monuments of ancient ,rome1 there are representations of stringed instruments resembling the harp1 but not equal in beauty of form to the famous ,egyptian harp already mentioned4 ,pre-eminent1 surpassing others4 ,who was ,sesostris8 ,a ,king of ,egypt1 who is said to have reigned some ages before the siege of ,troy4 ,he appears to have been celebrated for his conquests1 and for the number of edifices he erected to perpetuate his fame4 ,perpetuate1 to preserve from extinction2 to continue the memory of a person or event4 ,where was ,troy8 ,troy1 anciently called ,ilium1 was the capital of ,troas1 in ,asia4 ,it became famous for the ten years' siege it sustained against the ,greeks2 the history of this event is commemorated in the poems of ,homer and ,virgil4 ,is not the harp an instrument of high antiquity in ,great ,britain8 ,yes3 it was a favorite instrument with the ancient ,saxons in ,great ,britain4 ,the celebrated ,alfred entered the ,danish camp disguised as a harper1 because the harpers passed through the midst of the enemy unmolested on account of their calling4 ,the same deception was likewise practised by several ,danish chiefs1 in the camp of ,athelstan1 the ,saxon4 ,the bards1 or harpers of old1 were the historians of the time2 they handed down from generation to generation the history of remarkable events1 and of the deeds and lineage of their celebrated chiefs and princes4 ,the harpers of ,britain were formerly admitted to the banquets of kings and nobles3 their employment was to sing or recite the achievements of their patrons1 accompanying themselves on the harp4 ,no nations have been more famous for their harps and harpers than the ,welsh and ,irish4 ,recite1 to repeat or chant in a particular tone or manner4 ,achievement1 a great or heroic deed4 ,patron1 benefactor1 one who bestows favors4 ,what instrument was famous among the ancient ,greeks8 ,the ,lyre3 the invention1 or rather discovery1 of this instrument is ascribed by them to their most celebrated deities4 ,it is supposed to have originated from the discovery of a dead tortoise1 the flesh of which had dried and wasted1 so that nothing was left within the shell but sinews and cartilages3 these1 tightened and contracted1 on account of their dryness1 were rendered sonorous4 ,some one1 ,mercury or ,apollo1 they affirm1 in walking along1 happening to strike his foot against the tortoise1 was greatly pleased with the sound it produced3 thus was suggested to him the first idea of a lyre1 which he afterwards constructed in the form of a tortoise1 and strung with the dried sinews of dead animals4 ,the stringed instruments already described were made to give out musical sounds1 by causing a vibratory motion in their strings by means of the fingers4 ,sinew1 a tendon2 that which unites a muscle to a bone4 ,cartilage1 a gristly1 smooth1 solid substance1 softer than bone4 ,vibratory1 shaking4 ,who was ,mercury8 ,the heathen god of eloquence1 letters1 c41 and the messenger of the other gods4 ,who was ,apollo8 ,the god of music1 poetry1 medicine1 and the fine arts4 ,illustration3 ,,picking ,,cotton4 ,illustration3 ,,gathering ,,tea4 ,what is a ,tortoise8 ,a well-known animal1 with a thick shelly covering1 belonging to the order of reptiles2 there are two species1 the sea and the land tortoise2 the first named is called a turtle1 and affords delicious food2 land tortoises live to a very great age4 ,it is only one sort which furnishes the beautiful shell so much prized4 ,tortoises are found in many parts of the world4 ,the turtles on the ,brazilian shore are said to be so large as to be enough to dine fourscore men3 and in the ,indian sea1 the shells serve the natives for boats4 ,of what are the strings of the ,lyre1 c41 composed8 ,sometimes of either brass or silver wire1 c41 but most commonly of catgut4 ,what is ,catgut8 ,the intestines of sheep or lambs1 dried or twisted1 either singly or several together4 ,catgut is also used by watch-makers1 cutlers1 and other artificers1 in their different trades4 ,great quantities are imported from ,france and ,italy4 ,are there no other kind of ,instruments besides those already described8 ,yes1 music and musical instruments have progressively improved2 and it would be a needless task to enumerate the numbers of instruments of each kind now in use2 many1 as for instance the organ1 the piano1 musical boxes1 c41 are exceedingly complex and ingenious in their construction1 as well as remarkable for the sweetness of their various sounds2 some1 as the two first-named1 are played with the fingers1 and produce any melody or combination of sound at the will of the performer2 others1 as the musical-box1 barrel-organ1 c41 produce a particular melody1 or a certain number of melodies1 by means of machinery4 ,in the use of the last-named the performer is not at all indebted to his own musical skill1 as he has only to turn the handle which sets the machinery in motion1 and the musical box1 or barrel-organ1 will continue playing till it has finished the tunes to which it is set4 ,upon what principle do these last-mentioned instruments perform8 ,the barrel-organ and musical box both play on nearly the same principle1 though the former is turned by a handle1 and the latter only requires a certain spring to be touched1 in order to set it off or to stop it4 ,their machinery consists of a barrel pricked with brass pins2 when the barrel revolves1 these ping lift a series of steel springs of different lengths and thicknesses1 and the vibration of these springs when released1 produces the different notes4 ,what is ,painting8 ,the art of representing objects in nature1 or scenes in human life1 with fidelity and expression1 either in oil or water colors1 c4 ,fidelity1 truth1 faithfulness4 ,oil ,colors1 those colors which are mixed up with oil1 as the others are with water4 ,is not this art of great antiquity8 ,there is not the slightest doubt of it2 but to name the country where it was first practised1 or the circumstances attending its origin1 is beyond the power of the historian4 ,about a century after the call of ,abraham1 ,greek and ,egyptian tradition tells us of a colony planted at ,sicyon1 by an ,egyptian1 who brought with him the knowledge of painting and sculpture1 and founded the earliest and purest school of ,greek art4 ,the walls of ,babylon were adorned with paintings of different kinds of animals1 hunting expeditions1 combats1 c4 ,allusions to this custom of the ,babylonians1 of decorating their walls with paintings1 are found in the ,bible4 ,tradition1 a history or account delivered from mouth to mouth without written memorials2 communication from age to age4 ,allusion1 reference4 ,decorating1 ornamenting4 ,sicyon1 a kingdom of ,peloponnesus1 in ancient ,greece4 ,were the ,egyptians acquainted with this art8 ,it is now little doubted that1 although painting and sculpture existed in ,egypt1 and were probably at their highest condition1 eighteen centuries before the ,christian era1 yet1 at a still earlier period1 these arts were known in the kingdom of ,ethiopia2 and it is considered likely1 that the course of civilization descended from ,ethiopia to ,egypt4 ,there is1 however1 no record of any ,egyptian painter in the annals of the art2 and it does not appear that it ever flourished in that country1 or that other nations were much indebted to ,egypt for their knowledge of it4 ,era1 age1 period4 ,ethiopia1 the ancient name of the kingdoms of ,nubia and ,abyssinia1 in ,africa4 ,annal1 record1 history4 ,exploit1 action1 achievement1 deed of valor4 ,have we any notice of this art among the ,hebrews8 ,there is no allusion made to the existence of painting among this people1 and no proof that it was cultivated among them3 it is supposed that the neglect of this art arose from their not being permitted to represent any object by painting4 ,what progress did the generality of the ,eastern nations make in this art8 ,the art of painting among the ,phenicians1 ,persians1 and other ,eastern nations1 advanced but slowly4 ,the ,chinese appear1 until a very recent period1 to have contented themselves with only so much knowledge of the art as might enable them to decorate their beautiful porcelain and other wares2 their taste is very peculiar1 and though the pencilling of their birds and flowers is delicate1 yet their figures of men and animals are distorted1 and out of proportion2 and of perspective they seem to have but little idea4 ,latterly1 however1 a change has taken place in ,chinese art1 and proofs have been given of an attempt to imitate ,european skill4 ,the ,japanese figures approach more nearly to beauty of style than ,chinese productions of a similar kind4 ,distorted1 having a bad figure4 ,perspective1 the science by which things are represented in a picture according to their appearance to the eye4 ,who are the ,japanese8 ,the inhabitants of ,japan1 an empire of ,eastern ,asia1 composed of several large islands4 ,they are so similar in feature1 and in many of their customs and ceremonies1 to the ,chinese1 as to be regarded by some1 as the same race of men4 ,the ,japanese language is so very peculiar1 that it is rarely understood by the people of other nations4 ,their religion is idolatrous2 their government a monarchy1 controlled by the priesthood4 ,the people are very ingenious1 and the arts and sciences are held in great esteem by them4 ,in all respects1 ,japan is an important and interesting empire4 ,monarchy1 a government in which the power is vested in a king or emperor4 ,by what nations was the art of painting practised with great success8 ,by the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,greece produced many distinguished painters1 among whom ,apelles was one of the most celebrated2 he was a native of ,cos1 an island in the ,archipelago1 rather north of ,rhodes2 he flourished in the time of ,alexander the ,great1 and witnessed both the glory and the decay of ancient art3 the leading features of his style were beauty and grace4 ,but painting was not at any period so completely national in ,greece1 as sculpture1 its sister art2 the names of one hundred and sixty-nine eminent sculptors are recorded1 while only fifteen painters are mentioned4 ,zeuxis1 of ,heraclea1 was another famous ,greek painter1 who flourished #djj years before ,christ4 ,the ,romans were not without considerable masters in this art1 in the latter times of the republic1 and under the first emperors4 ,what nation is supposed to have known and practised this art even before the foundation of ,rome8 ,the ,etruscans1 inhabitants of ,etruria1 whose acquaintance with the arts has excited great astonishment among those who have most deeply searched into their history1 and traced their progress by means of the beautiful specimens of their works still extant4 ,their early works were not superior to those of other nations2 but either from their intercourse with ,greece1 or the original genius of the people1 they had attained considerable eminence in the arts of painting1 sculpture1 c41 before ,rome was founded4 ,pliny speaks of some beautiful pictures at ,ardea and ,lanuvium1 which were older than ,rome3 and another author also says that before ,rome was built1 sculpture and painting existed among them4 ,where was ,etruria situated8 ,in ,italy1 on the west of the ,tiber1 which separated it from the territory of ancient ,rome1 to which it was afterwards annexed by conquest4 ,etruria was the ancient name of ,tuscany4 ,annexed1 united4 ,was not the art greatly obscured for some centuries8 ,the irruption of ,barbarians into ,italy and ,southern ,europe1 proved fatal to painting1 and almost reduced it to its primitive state2 it was not until after a long period that it was fully restored4 ,the first certain signs of its revival took place about the year #ajff1 when ,greek artists were sent for to adorn several of the cities of ,italy4 ,cimabue1 a native of ,florence1 in the thirteenth century1 caught the inspiration of the ,greek artists1 and soon equalled their works4 ,he was both a painter and an architect4 ,irruption1 inroad1 invasion4 ,to what did this revolution in its history give rise8 ,it caused it to be distinguished into ancient and modern4 ,the ancient painting comprehends the ,greek and ,roman3 the modern has formed several schools1 each of which has its peculiar character and merit4 ,the first masters who revived the art were greatly surpassed by their scholars1 who carried it to the greatest state of perfection1 and advanced it not only by their own noble works1 but also by those of their pupils4 ,who were the principal masters of the ,italian school8 ,raphael and the celebrated ,michael ,angelo ,buonarotti2 the former is regarded as the prince of modern painters1 and is often styled the divine ,raphael2 he was born at ,urbino1 in #adhc4 ,michael ,angelo was born at ,florence1 in #aefd1 and united the professions of painter1 sculptor1 architect1 poet1 and musician4 ,besides these there were many other illustrious ,italian painters1 the principal of whom were ,leonardo da ,vinci1 ,titian1 ,correggio1 the three ,caracci1 ,guido1 ,parmegiano1 ,salvator ,rosa1 c4 ,was not ,raphael also reckoned as excellent an architect as he was a painter8 ,he was not only esteemed the best painter in the world1 but also the best architect2 he was at least so admired for skill and taste in architecture1 that ,leo the ,tenth charged him with the building of ,st4 ,peter's ,church at ,rome4 ,who was ,leo the ,tenth8 ,a great ,pope1 who was an ardent lover and patron of learning and the arts4 ,he was born at ,florence1 in #adge1 and died in #aeba4 ,give me a list of some of the most celebrated painters besides those already mentioned4 ,the great painters of the ,german school were ,albert ,durer1 ,holbein1 ,kneller and ,mengs1 with several others4 ,of the ,dutch school1 were ,rembrandt1 ,gerard ,dow1 ,mieris1 ,ostade1 ,polemberg1 ,berghem1 and ,wouvermans4 ,of the ,flemish1 ,rubens1 ,teniers1 ,jordaens1 and ,vandyck4 ,the admired painters of the ,french school1 were ,claude1 ,poussin1 ,le ,brun1 and many others4 ,the ,spaniards also have had their ,murillo1 ,velasquez1 c4 ,the ,english1 ,hogarth1 ,wright1 ,reynolds1 ,wilson1 ,northcote1 ,gainsborough1 ,morland1 ,barry1 and others4 ,the ,americans1 ,washington ,allston1 ,benjamin ,west1 ,gilbert ,stuart1 ,john ,singleton ,copley1 ,john ,trumbull1 ,g4 ,stuart ,newton1 ,thomas ,cole1 ,henry ,inman1 and a number of others2 besides many now living1 or but recently deceased4 ,upon what materials did the ancients paint their works8 ,principally upon wood2 the boards or tables were prepared with a thin ground of chalk and size of some kind4 ,linen cloth or canvas was also employed1 but there is no evidence of its use before the reign of ,nero4 ,parchment1 ivory and plaster were the other materials4 ,evidence1 testimony1 record4 ,who was ,nero8 ,one of the ,roman ,emperors1 a monster of cruelty1 extravagance1 and debauchery2 he raised a dreadful persecution against the ,christians1 in which ,st4 ,paul was beheaded1 and ,st4 ,peter crucified4 ,at last1 being deserted by his army and the senate1 he destroyed himself1 after a reign of fourteen years4 ,debauchery1 wickedness4 ,what is ,poetry8 ,the glowing language of impassioned feeling1 generally found in measured lines1 and often in rhyme4 ,most ancient people had their poets4 ,glowing1 warm1 energetic4 ,impassioned1 full of passion1 animated4 ,rhyme1 the correspondence of the last sound of one verse to the last sound or syllable of another4 ,name a few of the ancient poets4 ,david was an inspired poet of the ,hebrews3 ,homer1 one of the earliest poets of the ,greeks3 ,ossian1 an ancient poet of the ,scots3 ,taliesen1 an ancient poet of the ,welsh3 and ,odin1 an early poet of the ,scandinavians4 ,who were the ,scandinavians8 ,the inhabitants of ,scandinavia1 the ancient name of ,denmark1 ,sweden1 and ,norway4 ,what people are regarded as the ,fathers of ,poetry8 ,the ,greeks4 ,homer was the first and the prince of poets2 he celebrated the siege of ,troy in the ,iliad and ,odyssey1 two epic poems which have never been surpassed4 ,in the same kind of composition he was followed1 nine hundred years after1 by ,virgil1 in the ,eneid2 by ,tasso1 after another fifteen hundred years1 in the ',jerusalem ,delivered4' ,the ,greeks also boasted of their ,pindar and ,anacreon in lyric poetry2 and of ,aristophanes1 ,euripides1 ,sophocles1 and ,eschylus1 in dramatic poetry4 ,did the ,romans possess any distinguished ,poets8 ,yes2 among the epic poets were ,ovid and ,tibullus2 among dramatists1 ,plautus and ,terence2 of didactic and philosophic poets1 ,lucretius1 ,virgil1 ,horace1 and ,silius ,italicus4 ,all these were so many miracles of human genius2 and their works afford the models of their respective species of composition4 ,most of the works of the ancients have in sentiment1 if not in spirit1 been translated into ,english4 ,miracles1 wonders4 ,genius1 natural talent4 ,respective1 particular4 ,sentiment1 thought1 meaning4 ,did not the same revolution which undermined the ,greek and ,roman empires1 and destroyed learning1 the arts and sciences1 and the taste for elegance and luxury1 also prove fatal to ,poetry8 ,it did2 the hordes of barbarians who overran ,europe wiped out civilization in their progress1 and literature1 art1 and science fled before the wild conquerors to find a refuge in the monastery and the convent4 ,here knowledge was fostered with the love and ardor which religion alone can impart4 ,finally1 when the rude barbarians were converted1 it was to the religious ,orders that the world turned for the establishment of schools1 and it is to the ,church alone1 in the person of her popes1 her bishops1 and her monks that we are indebted for the preservation of learning1 and its revival in the fifteenth century4 ,what celebrated ,poets marked this revival8 ,in ,italy1 ,dante1 ,ariosto1 ,petrarch and ,tasso4 ,these were followed1 in ,france1 by ,racine1 ,corneille1 ,boileau1 ,voltaire1 ,la ,fontaine and ,delille2 in ,england1 by ,chaucer1 ,spenser1 ,shakspeare1 ,milton1 ,dryden1 ,pope1 ,thomson1 ,young1 ,collins1 ,gray1 ,byron1 ,coleridge1 c2 in ,scotland1 by ,sir ,walter ,scott2 in ,ireland1 by ,thomas ,moore2 in ,germany1 ,klopstock1 ,goethe and ,schiller4 ,name some of the distinguished poets of our own country4 ,henry ,wadsworth ,longfellow1 ,william ,cullen ,bryant1 ,james ,russell ,lowell1 ,john ,g4 ,whittier1 ,fitz-,greene ,halleck1 and many others whose meritorious works will be impartially judged by a future age4 ,impartially1 justly1 without prejudice4 ,name the different kinds of ,poetry4 ,epic1 or historical2 dramatic1 or representative1--from drama1 the name of all compositions adapted to recitation on the stage--in which are displayed1 for instruction and amusement1 all the passions1 feelings1 errors1 and virtues of the human race in real life2 lyric poetry1 or that suited to music1 as songs1 odes1 c2 didactic1 or instructive2 elegiac1 or sentimental1 and affecting2 satirical1 or censorious2 epigrammatic1 or witty and ludicrous2 and pastoral1 or descriptive of country life4 ,historical1 relating to history4 ,lyric1 pertaining to a lyre4 ,didactic1 doctrinal2 relating to doctrines or opinions4 ,elegiac1 relating to elegy2 mournful1 sorrowful4 ,elegy1 a mournful song3 a funeral composition2 a short poem without points or affected elegance4 ,satirical1 severe in language2 relating to satire4 ,satire1 a poem in which wickedness or folly is censured4 ,epigrammatic1 relating to epigram1--a short poem ending in a particular point or meaning1 understood but not expressed4 ,pastoral1 from pastor1 a shepherd2 relating to rural employments and those belonging to shepherds4 ,what is ,astronomy8 ,the science which treats of the heavenly bodies1 their arrangement1 magnitudes1 distances and motions4 ,the term ,astronomy is derived from two ,greek words1 signifying the law of the stars2 astron being the ,greek for star4 ,what can you say of its origin8 ,its origin has been ascribed to several persons1 as well as to different nations and ages4 ,belus1 ,king of ,assyria2 ,atlas1 ,king of ,mauritania2 and ,uranus1 ,king of the countries situated on the shores of the ,atlantic ,ocean1 are all recorded as the persons to whom the world is indebted for this noble science4 ,its origin is generally fixed in ,chaldea4 ,some choose1 however1 to attribute it to the ,hebrews2 others to the ,egyptians1--from whom1 they say1 it passed to the ,greeks4 ,what country is meant by ,mauritania8 ,mauritania is the name formerly given to a country in the northern part of ,africa4 ,chaldea is the ancient name for ,babylonia1 now called ,irak ,arabi1 a district of ,asiatic ,turkey4 ,by whom were the heavenly bodies first divided into ,constellations or groups8 ,by the ancients4 ,the phenomena of the heavens were studied in very early ages by several nations of the ,east4 ,the ,chaldeans1 the ,indians1 the ,chinese and the ,egyptians have all left evidence of the industry and ingenuity with which their observations were conducted4 ,phenomena1 appearances4 ,ingenuity1 skilfulness4 ,what progress did they make in ,astronomy8 ,they built observatories1--invented instruments for observing and measuring with correctness1--separated the stars into different groups or constellations1 for the more easily finding any particular star1--gave particular names to most of the moving stars or planets1 and noted the periods which each took to move through its apparent path in the heavens2 and in many other ways the ancients helped to lay the foundations of that mass of astronomical knowledge which men of later ages have brought to more maturity4 ,constellation1 a cluster of fixed stars2 an assemblage of stars4 ,observatory1 a place so built as to command a view of the heavens4 ,who first taught the true system of the ,universe8 ,pythagoras1 one of the most distinguished philosophers of antiquity4 ,he is thought to have been a native of ,samos1 an island in the ,archipelago2 he flourished about #ejj years before ,christ1 in the time of ,tarquin1 the last ,king of ,rome4 ,pythagoras was the first among the ,europeans who taught that the ,earth and ,planets turn round the ,sun1 which stands immovable in the centre2--that the diurnal motion of the ,sun and ,fixed ,stars is not real1 but apparent1--arising from the ,earth's motion round its own axis1 c4 ,after the time of ,pythagoras1 ,astronomy sunk into neglect4 ,philosopher1 one who studies philosophy4 ,philosophy1 all knowledge1 whether natural or moral4 ,the term is derived from the ,greek1 philos1 lover1 and sophia1 wisdom4 ,by whom was it revived8 ,by the family of the ,ptolemies1 kings of ,egypt1 who founded a school of astronomy at ,alexandria1 which produced several eminent astronomers1 particularly one named ,hipparchus4 ,the ,saracens1 on their conquest of ,egypt1 became possessed of the knowledge of ,astronomy1 which they carried with them out of ,africa into ,spain2 and thus1 after a long exile1 it was introduced afresh into ,europe4 ,did not ,astronomy from this time make great progress8 ,yes2 it made considerable advances1 being cultivated by the greatest geniuses1 and patronized by the greatest princes4 ,the system of the ,ptolemies1 called the ,ptolemaic1 had hitherto been used1 with some slight alterations2 but ,copernicus1 an eminent astronomer1 born at ,thorn1 in ,polish ,prussia1 in #adgc1 adopted the system which had been taught by ,pythagoras in ,greece1 five or six hundred years before the time of ,ptolemy4 ,about the same time with ,copernicus flourished ,tycho ,brahe1 born in ,denmark1 #aedf4 ,geniuses1 men gifted with superior mental faculties4 ,mental1 belonging to the mind4 ,faculties1 powers of doing anything1 whether menial or bodily2 abilities2 powers of the mind4 ,what next greatly forwarded this interesting science8 ,the introduction of telescopes by ,galileo1 who by their means discovered the small stars or satellites which attend the planet ,jupiter2 the various appearances of ,saturn2 the mountains in the ,moon2 the spots on the ,sun2 and its revolution on its axis4 ,satellites1 attendants4 ,what celebrated ,astronomer arose in ,england8 ,the immortal ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 born in #afdb1 at ,woolsthorpe1 in ,lincolnshire1 who has1 perhaps1 contributed more to the advancement of this science than any one who had before existed4 ,dr4 ,william ,herschel1 a native of ,hanover1 in ,germany1 born in #agch1 likewise made many useful discoveries in ,astronomy3 it was he who first discovered the seventh primary planet1 which he named1 in honor of ,king ,george the ,third1 the ,georgium ,sidus4 ,george the ,third took him under his especial patronage1 and constituted him his astronomer1 with a handsome pension4 ,he resided at ,slough1 near ,windsor1 where he died1 in #ahbb4 ,patronage1 support1 favor4 ,constituted1 appointed to any particular office or rank4 ,pension1 yearly allowance of money4 ,what other circumstance contributed to the advancement of ,astronomy8 ,the increasing perfection of our astronomical instruments1--by means of which1 the most important and interesting discoveries with regard to the heavens have been made4 ,it is now supposed that the myriads of the heavenly bodies are all distinct worlds2 it is certain1 from observations made by the aid of the telescope1 that the moon has its mountains1 valleys1 and caverns4 ,one of the greatest astronomers of our day was the eminent ,father ,secci4 ,what are generally meant by the ,arts8 ,systems of rules designed to facilitate the performance of certain actions2 in this sense1 it stands opposed to science4 ,the terms art and science are often incorrectly used4 ,science relates to principles1 and art to practice4 ,the word art is derived from a ,greek word signifying utility1 profit4 ,arts are divided into liberal and mechanical4 ,what are the ,liberal ,arts8 ,the liberal arts are those that are noble and ingenious1 or which are worthy of being cultivated without any immediate regard to the pecuniary profit arising from them4 ,they are ,poetry1 ,music1 ,painting1 ,sculpture1 ,architecture1 ,grammar1 ,logic1 ,rhetoric1 ,astronomy1 and ,navigation4 ,the arts which relate more especially to the sight and hearing are also called ,fine ,arts4 ,pecuniary1 relating to money4 ,military1 belonging to soldiers1 or to arms4 ,what do the ,fine ,arts usually include8 ,all those which are more or less addressed to the sentiment of taste1 and whose object is pleasure2 these are more especially ,music1 ,painting1 ,sculpture1 and ,poetry4 ,what are the ,mechanical ,arts8 ,those in which the hand and body are more concerned than the mind1 and which are chiefly cultivated for the sake of the profit attending them4 ,to this class belong those which furnish us with the necessaries of life1 and which are commonly called trades1 as carpentry1 weaving1 printing1 c4 ,there are also many other arts1 as the art of writing1 c4 ,when was the art of ,writing invented8 ,it is supposed that the art was invented before the ,deluge3 it was certainly practised long before the time of ,moses4 ,there were1 doubtless1 many steps taken in slow succession before the invention of alphabetic writing4 ,perhaps the earliest method might have been that which is still employed among the untutored tribes of ,north ,american ,indians1 who record events by picture-painting of the rudest description4 ,picture-painting was afterwards gradually converted into the hieroglyphical system1 which is still the only kind of writing among the ,chinese4 ,it is not known who invented the alphabetic system of writing4 ,deluge1 a flood3 the term used in particular to denote that mighty flood of water with which ,god swept away the first nations of the earth for their wickedness4 ,alphabetic1 from alphabet1 the series of written signs of language called letters4 ,the word is formed from alpha1 beta1 the names of the first two letters of the ,greek alphabet4 ,untutored1 ignorant1 unlearned4 ,were not the ,egyptians quite early acquainted with this art8 ,yes1 they were acquainted with two or three kinds of writing1 as well as the one in which symbolical characters were employed1 which was not used for common purposes4 ,on the contrary1 such symbols had something of a sacred character about them1 being unknown to the common people1 and only to be deciphered by the priests4 ,obelisks and pyramids were the great national records2 and on these the hieroglyphics were constantly used1 because unintelligible to the people1 until expounded by those who had the exclusive office of explaining them4 ,symbolical1 having the nature of signs or symbols--that is1 representations of different things4 ,deciphered1 read1 understood1 made out4 ,unintelligible1 that cannot be understood4 ,expounded1 explained1 interpreted4 ,were ,hieroglyphics employed before or after ,alphabetic ,writing8 ,they were undoubtedly employed at first from necessity1 not from choice or refinement2 and would never have been thought of1 if alphabetical characters had been known4 ,this style of writing must be reckoned as a rude improvement upon picture-writing1 which had previously been used4 ,hieroglyphics were employed by the ,egyptian priests in after times1 as a kind of sacred writing1 peculiar to themselves1 and serving to give an air of mystery to their learning and religion1 though fallen into disuse for other purposes4 ,what materials were employed by ancient nations in ,writing8 ,the ,eastern nations used tables of stone1 brass1 and wood1 so that the characters were engraved instead of being written in the usual manner4 ,the instrument used in writing on wood1 was made of metal1 and called a style4 ,for stone1 brass1 c41 a chisel was employed4 ,when the bark and leaves of trees1 skins1 and other materials of a more pliant nature1 superseded the above-named tables1 the chisel and the style1 or stylus1 gave way to the reed and cane1 and afterwards to the quill1 the hair pencil 7as now used by the ,chinese17 and the convenient lead pencil4 ,engraved1 inscribed with the graver1 a tool used in engraving on stone1 c4 ,pliant1 yielding1 easily bent4 ,have not the various nations among whom this useful art has been cultivated1 adopted different ways of arranging their written characters8 ,yes4 ,the ,hebrews1 ,chaldeans1 ,syrians1 ,arabians1 and ,egyptians1 begin each line on the right side1 and write towards the left4 ,the ,greeks1 ,latins1 and all ,european nations1 write from left to right4 ,the natives of ,china1 ,japan1 ,cochin ,china1 ,corea1 c41 write from the top to the bottom of the page4 ,where are ,cochin ,china1 and ,corea8 ,cochin ,china is a country situated in ,eastern ,asia4 ,corea is a peninsula of ,asia1 subject to ,china4 ,what is meant by ,science8 ,a clear and certain knowledge of anything founded on self-evident principles1 or demonstration4 ,the term is1 however1 more particularly applied to a systematic arrangement of the principles relating to any branch of knowledge1 and is employed in this sense in opposition to art3 thus the theoretical knowledge of chemistry is ranked as a science1 but the practical part is called an art2 thus it is sometimes spoken of as a science1 sometimes as an art4 ,practical1 relating to action1 not merely speculative4 ,what is ,chemistry8 ,a science which enables us to discover the peculiar properties of natural bodies1 either in their simple or compound state1 and the elementary or first principles of which they are composed1 by the processes of analysis and combination4 ,chemistry treats of those changes in natural bodies which are not accompanied by sensible motions4 ,compound1 mixed4 ,analysis1 a separation of a compound body into the several parts of which it consists4 ,is not the knowledge of ,chemistry very ancient8 ,chemistry1 as far as it regards the separating of metals from foreign matters in the ore1 smelting and refining them1 is of the highest antiquity2 it is even supposed to have been understood and practised in the antediluvian world4 ,antediluvian1 before the flood4 ,what nation appears to have excelled in ,chemistry in early times8 ,the ,egyptians were no mean proficients in many chemical operations1 especially in the arts of working metals1 softening ivory1 vitrifying flints1 and imitating precious stones4 ,chemistry1 however1 experienced the common fate of all the arts1 at the decline of the ,eastern empire4 ,proficients1 those who have made great progress in any art or science4 ,by whom was it revived8 ,after having long lain buried1 the famous ,roger ,bacon revived it2 and from his time to the present day it has gradually progressed to a state of perfection4 ,in former times1 the art of chemistry consisted only in the knowledge of working metals1 c42 but in latter ages1 its bounds have been greatly enlarged4 ,the knowledge of ,chemistry leads to many interesting and important discoveries1 and the arts and manufactures are greatly indebted to its aid2 indeed1 it is requisite to be a good chemist1 in order to attain to perfection in many of them4 ,requisite1 necessary4 ,by what other name has ,chemistry been known8 ,it was sometimes called ,alchemy2 by which is properly understood a refined and mysterious species of chemistry1 formerly much practised4 ,what were its objects8 ,the discovery of the art of converting metals into gold1 including the search after the ,philosopher's ,stone1 by which this change was to be effected2 and the discovery of a panacea or medicine for the cure of all diseases4 ,what was the ,philosopher's ,stone8 ,a substance1 for numbers of years eagerly sought for1 which was to convert metals1 such as lead1 copper1 c4 into gold4 ,this unknown substance was called the ,philosopher's ,stone1 probably on account of the number of learned men who engaged in the search after it4 ,illustration3 ,,united ,,states ,,signal ,,station1 ,,pike',s ,,peak1 ,,colorado4 ,was this search successful8 ,no2 but the delusion lasted several centuries1 notwithstanding the failures1 losses1 and disappointments of those engaged in it4 ,indeed1 so severe and ruinous were these1 in many instances1 that laws were passed to forbid the study4 ,in ,germany1 many of the alchemists who had the unfortunate reputation of possessing this wonderful stone were imprisoned and furnished with apparatus till they should purchase their liberty by making an ounce of gold4 ,delusion1 an error arising from false views4 ,apparatus1 a complete set of instruments or tools1 by which anything is made1 or any operation performed4 ,was any gold ever produced by this method8 ,not a particle2 the story of a stone having the property of converting the baser metals into gold being merely an absurd fable3 yet1 although the pursuits of ,alchemy were the most preposterous that can be conceived1 the ardor with which they were followed1 and the amazing number of experiments made in consequence1 led to the discovery of many facts to which ,chemistry is highly indebted4 ,preposterous1 absurd1 foolish2 contrary to nature or reason4 ,you inform me that ,chemistry enables us to discover the properties of bodies by means of analysis and combination3 what do these terms imply8 ,if a chemist wishes to examine the properties of a compound body1 he proceeds by analysis--that is1 by a separation of the substance to be examined into its constituent parts4 ,the chemical examination of bodies is generally effected by producing a change in the nature or state of the body under examination4 ,this change is frequently brought about by the addition of some other substance which forms a combination with a part of the substance examined1 and leaves the remainder in a detached state4 ,by what means do ,chemists effect a change in the qualities or states of natural bodies8 ,it is generally effected by means of heat1 which has a tendency to separate the particles of bodies from each other2 or by the mixture or combination of some other matter with the matter intended to be examined4 ,the mixture of two or more compounds often produces a decomposition by means of chemical affinity1 a property which different species of matter have to unite with each other2 and which is sometimes called elective affinity4 ,thus it may be observed1 chemists have not only the power of decomposing natural bodies1 but of producing by combination various other substances1 such as are not found in the kingdom of nature4 ,what do you mean by decomposition8 ,in chemical language1 it means the separation of a compound body into its simple elements4 ,give me an example4 ,water may be decomposed1 and reduced into oxygen and hydrogen1--both of them simple substances incapable of further decomposition4 ,is not the work of decomposition perpetually going forward8 ,yes2 and combustion is one of the great agents in this work4 ,by it animal and vegetable substances are converted into water and carbonic acid1 by the union of their hydrogen and carbon with the oxygen of the air4 ,these1 in time1 are again absorbed by vegetables1 and again decomposed to set the oxygen at liberty to produce fresh combustions4 ,of what use are the two remaining substances1 ,hydrogen and ,carbon8 ,these are appropriated by the vegetative organs to their growth and nourishment1 while the oxygen with which the carbon was combined is abundantly given off to purify the air and render it fit for the respiration of animals4 ,give me an idea of the mode in which ,chemists ascertain the affinity of bodies1 by relating an experiment4 ,dissolve a tea-spoonful of sugar of lead in water1 and pour the clear solution into a decanter or large glass bottle4 ,then take a small piece of zinc1 and twist round it some brass or copper wire1 so as to let the ends of the wire depend from it in any agreeable form4 ,suspend the zinc and wire in the solution which has been prepared2 in a short time1 metallic lead will deposit itself on the zinc and along the wire4 ,this is a beautiful illustration of chemical affinity2 the acid1 which constitutes a part of the sugar of lead1 has a stronger affinity for the zinc than for the lead1 and1 consequently1 will combine with the zinc1 and form a compound which remains in solution1 while the lead is precipitated on the zinc and wire in the form of a brilliant tree of metal4 ,affinity1 in chemistry1 that attraction which takes place between the elements of bodies1 and forms compounds4 ,what does the word ,nature signify8 ,in the above sense1 the system of the universe2 the creation1 the works of ,god4 ,by the kingdom of nature is meant the world and all things in it3 nature is divided into three kingdoms1 the animal1 vegetable1 and mineral4 ,what are the different states of natural bodies8 ,all bodies are either solid1 liquid1 or aeriform4 ,by solid bodies are meant those whose parts unite so firmly as to resist the impression or penetration of other bodies2 by liquid1 those substances whose parts do not unite firmly1 but have free motion among themselves2 by aeriform1 fluid substances1 having the form or nature of air4 ,liquid substances are nothing more than solids converted into liquids by heat1 a certain increase of which would convert the liquids into vapor4 ,what other name is given to ,liquids8 ,they are likewise called fluids3 we call the air1 also1 a fluid1 because it flows like a fluid1 and light substances will float in it4 ,what is the cause of bodies floating on liquids8 ,it is an established law of nature1 that all substances which weigh less than an equal bulk of any liquid1 will float on the surface of this liquid4 ,thus a cork will float on water1 while a stone sinks to the bottom4 ,the cork will not float in the air1 though lighter than water2 and the stone is not heavier than the whole of the water1 but more so than a portion of water of its own bulk1--and thus it sinks in it4 ,stones also differ in their weight or gravity3 for instance1 some of the asbestus kind are lighter than water4 ,iron1 brass1 indeed1 nearly all substances1 except gold and platina1 will float upon mercury1 because they are lighter than this liquid4 ,what is the cause of bodies being either solid1 liquid1 or aeriform8 ,when the principle of attraction prevails1 it causes them to become solid2 when caloric prevails1 they become aeriform4 ,fluidity is1 apparently1 a medium between the two4 ,how is the state of ,solidity in bodies accounted for8 ,the particles of all bodies are subject to two opposite powers1 repulsion and attraction2 between which they remain in equilibrium4 ,while the attractive force remains strongest1 the body remains in a state of solidity2 but if heat destroys this force1 the particles lose their cohesion1 and the body ceases to be solid4 ,cohesion1 act of sticking together1 union of the constituent parts of a body4 ,which is supposed to be the most natural state of all bodies8 ,solidity2 for by the combination of caloric with them we can reduce most substances to the fluid state2 while the greatest number of liquid substances take a solid form by the loss of caloric4 ,thus1 water congeals and forms ice2 and even the gases show this disposition to become solid1 when they lose their elasticity by forming some combination4 ,explain the terms ,repulsion and ,attraction4 ,repulsion is a peculiar property in the particles of matter1 which gives them a constant tendency to recede from each other4 ,attraction is an unknown force1 which causes bodies or their particles to approach each other4 ,the particles of all bodies possess this property1 which causes them to adhere1 and preserves the various substances around us from falling in pieces4 ,what different kinds of ,attraction can you mention8 ,attraction may be distinguished into that which takes place between bodies at sensible distances1 and that which manifests itself between the particles of matter at insensible distances4 ,give an example of the first kind of attraction4 ,one of the most familiar instances of attraction at sensible distances is seen in the descent of heavy bodies to the ground4 ,when a stone is lifted up in the hand1 the earth's attraction1 which previously caused it to remain at its surface1 is overcome2 but1 as soon as the hand is withdrawn1 the stone falls to the earth4 ,the force which causes this is called the attraction of gravitation1 or simply gravitation4 ,how is the second kind of attraction1 or that between the particles of bodies1 subdivided8 ,into the attraction of aggregation1 or cohesion2 and chemical attraction1 or affinity4 ,the former takes place between particles which are similar1 and the latter between those which are dissimilar4 ,all the operations of chemistry are founded upon the force of affinity which ,nature has established between the particles of different kinds of matter1 and which enables the chemist to produce new compounds differing more or less from the substances by whose union they were formed4 ,is it1 then1 necessary for chemists to understand the relative nature of all substances8 ,yes2 because the basis of this science consists in an analytical examination of the works of ,nature2 an investigation of the properties and uses of all substances we are acquainted with2 and the study of the effects of heat and mixture1 in order that we may find out their general and subordinate laws4 ,analytical1 relating to analysis4 ,investigation1 act of searching1 or tracing out4 ,subordinate1 inferior in nature1 dignity or power4 ,relate a few more of the advantages obtained by a knowledge of ,chemistry4 ,many of the wonderful operations of ,nature1 and the changes which take place in substances around us1 are1 by its means1 revealed to us4 ,in every manufacture1 art1 or walk of life1 the chemist possesses an advantage over his unskilled neighbor4 ,it is necessary to the farmer and gardener1 as it explains the growth of plants1 the use of manures1 and their proper application3 and indispensable to the physician1 that he may understand the animal economy1 and the effects which certain causes chemically produce2 and the nature of animal1 vegetable1 and mineral poisons4 ,the study is1 therefore1 an invaluable branch in the education of youth3 it is useful1 not only in the active1 but the moral life1 by laying the foundation of an ardent and inquiring mind4 ,even an everyday walk in the fields can be productive of instruction1 by a knowledge of it2--and let us always remember1 that ,knowledge is ,power4 ,indispensable1 necessary1 not to be done without4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,attraction1 ,,tides1 ,,gravity1 ,,artesian ,,wells1 ,,air1 ,,aneroid ,,barometer1 ,,ear-,,trumpet1 ,,stethoscope1 ,,audiphone1 ,,telephone1 ,,phonograph1 ,,microphone1 ,,megaphone1 ,,tasimeter1 ,,bathometer1 ,,anemometer1 ,,chronometer4 ,what is ,attraction8 ,by attraction is meant that property or quality in the particles of bodies which makes them tend toward each other4 ,are there several kinds of attraction8 ,yes4 ,attraction has received different names1 according to the circumstances under which it acts3 ,the force which keeps the particles of matter together to form bodies or masses1 is called attraction of cohesion2 that which makes bodies stick together only on their surfaces1 is called adhesion2 that which inclines different masses toward each other1 as the earth and the heavenly bodies1 is called gravitation2 that which forces the particles of substances of different kinds to unite1 is known under the name of chemical attraction2 that which causes the needle of the compass to point constantly toward the poles of the earth1 is magnetic attraction2 that which is excited by friction in certain substances1 is known as electrical attraction4 ,how do you know that attraction exists through the whole universe8 ,this great universal law was first discovered by ,sir ,isaac ,newton4 ,the sun and planets and other heavenly bodies are only guided in their path by gravitation4 ,do we experience this attraction upon our earth8 ,yes2 because our earth is carried around the sun by it2 and1 further1 the tides show it very clearly4 ,what are the ,tides8 ,the ebbing and flowing of the sea1 which regularly takes place twice in twenty-four hours4 ,the cause of the tides is the attraction of the sun1 but chiefly of the moon1 acting on the waters of the ocean4 ,what is ,gravity8 ,gravity is the attraction between the earth and the bodies on the earth1 which makes what we call weight of bodies4 ,what do you understand by specific weight or gravity8 ,it means the weight of a body as compared with the weight of an equal bulk of some other body taken as a standard--commonly water4 ,why do we say that certain metals--as1 for example1 platina or gold--are heavier than others1 say1 lead or iron8 ,because the former have a greater specific gravity4 ,but is not a pound of gold as heavy as a pound of lead8 ,yes2 but a lump of gold will be heavier than a lump of lead of equal bulk4 ,can we explain by this what we call floating8 ,a body will float in water if its gravity is less than that of water2 for example1 wood floats for this reason in water1 and a balloon in the air4 ,why does a portion of the floating body sink below the surface of the water8 ,because the body in order to float must displace a portion of water equal in weight to the whole floating body4 ,but why do iron steamers float--iron being heavier than water8 ,because the steamer is not a solid piece of iron1 but is hollow1 and so increased in bulk2 for that reason the weight of the vessel and its contents is less than that of an equal bulk of water4 ,how can you ascertain that air has weight8 ,we can do it by the barometer and by very many experiences in daily life4 ,if one end of a straw be dipped into a vessel of water and the other end be sucked1 the liquid will rise to the mouth4 ,there we see the pressure of the outside air forces the liquid through the straw where the air was removed by sucking4 ,can you show the same by another instrument8 ,yes2 the common water pump demonstrates the same as the straw4 ,a tube is placed into the water1 the air is sucked out from the tube by the movement of the pump1 and the outside air presses the water through the tube4 ,what are ,artesian wells8 ,wells so named because they were made first at ,artois1 in ,france4 ,they work on the principle that every liquid seeks its level4 ,of the rain which falls1 a part soaks into the soil of mountains1 until1 coming to a layer of rocks or clay through which it cannot pass1 it will collect and be stored up4 ,if a hole be bored into this reservoir the water will rise in it4 ,do you know some other properties of air8 ,it is the most necessary substance for our life2 it is the vehicle of all odors and smells2 it is the medium of all sounds1 and brings to our ear and so to our mind an immense knowledge of the outside world2 it is the cause of the beauty of the blue firmament or sky1 of the aurora and twilight2 it is the great nurse of the whole vegetable kingdom by clouds1 rain1 and dew4 ,what is an ,aneroid ,barometer8 ,it is a barometer in the construction of which no quicksilver or other liquid is used4 ,it consists of a metal box1 exhausted of air1 the top of which is of thin metal1 so elastic that it readily yields to alterations in the pressure of the atmosphere4 ,when the pressure increases1 the top is pressed inwards2 when1 on the contrary1 it decreases1 the elasticity of the lid1 aided by a spring1 tends to move it in the opposite direction4 ,these motions are transmitted by delicate levers to an index which moves on a scale4 ,this barometer has the advantage of being portable4 ,what is the ,ear-trumpet8 ,a trumpet-like instrument used to aid deaf persons in hearing4 ,its form is conical1 and the larger end is of a bell shape2 the small end is placed in the ear1 and the person talks in the large end4 ,it acts by concentrating the voice on the listener's ear4 ,what is a ,stethoscope8 ,an instrument used by physicians for ascertaining the action of the lungs1 judging by the sound of their motion whether they are healthy or not4 ,describe the ,audiphone4 ,it is a fan-shaped instrument to help deaf people1 and is made of flexible carbonized rubber4 ,fine silk cords attached to the upper edge bend it over1 and are fastened by a wedge in a handle4 ,the top edge of this fan rests upon the upper teeth1 and the sound waves strike its surface2 the vibrations are thus conveyed by the teeth and the bones of the face to the acoustic nerve in the ear4 ,describe the ,telephone4 ,it is an instrument by which conversation may be carried on at a distance1 and is composed of three parts--a thin disk of soft metal1 a small coil or bobbin of silk-covered copper wire1 and a small bar magnet about four inches long4 ,the bobbin is placed on one pole of the magnet1 so that the wire is as it were steeped in the magnetic space round the pole4 ,the metal disk is placed face close to the pole and bobbin1 so that when it vibrates in front of the pole a series of wave currents will be set up in the coil of wire on the bobbin4 ,the whole is encased in wood1 and a mouth-piece is provided for speaking against the disk4 ,the coil of wire on the bobbin is of course connected by its two ends into the circuit of a telegraph line4 ,who invented the ,telephone8 ,it was invented1 almost simultaneously1 by ,alex4 ,graham ,bell1 a native of ,scotland1 and ,professor of ,vocal ,physiology in the ,boston ,university1 and ,elisha ,gray1 of ,chicago4 ,what is a ,phonograph8 ,it is an instrument for recording the vibrations of sounds1 and consists of a revolving cylinder covered with tin-foil4 ,to this cylinder is attached a mouth-piece1 fitted with a thin plate or disk1 on the outer side of which1 next to the cylinder1 is a needle or point4 ,the cylinder runs on a screw1 so that the whole length of it1 from end to end1 may pass under the point4 ,on speaking into the mouth-piece the voice causes the disk to vibrate1 and the point to trace marks corresponding to these vibrations on the tin-foil4 ,by turning the cylinder so that the point again passes into the marks in the tin-foil1 the sounds that entered at the mouth-piece can be reproduced at any time4 ,by whom was the phonograph invented8 ,by ,thomas ,a4 ,edison1 who was born in ,ohio in #ahdg4 ,mr4 ,edison is the inventor of many improvements in telegraphy1 which have been adopted into general use1 and are to him the source of a large income4 ,to him1 also1 we are indebted for the megaphone1 microphone1 tasimeter1 an improvement in the telephone1 a system of electric lighting1 and many other inventions4 ,what is a ,microphone8 ,this instrument is a variety of telephone by means of which faint sounds can be heard at a very great distance4 ,it consists of a small battery for generating a weak current of electricity1 a telephone for the receiving instrument1 and a speaking or transmitting instrument4 ,the last is a small rod of gas carbon with the ends set loosely in blocks of the same material4 ,the blocks are attached to an upright support1 glued into a wooden base board4 ,this instrument is connected with the battery and the telephone4 ,so wonderfully sensitive is it1 that the ticking of a watch1 the walking of a fly across a board1 or the brush of a camel's-hair pencil can be heard even though it be hundreds of miles distant4 ,will you describe the ,megaphone8 ,it is a substitute for the ear and speaking trumpet4 ,it consists of three paper funnels placed side by side4 ,the two larger ones are about #f feet #h inches long and #bg-a_/b inches in diameter1 and are each provided with a flexible tube1 the ends of which are held to the ear4 ,the centre funnel1 which is used as a speaking-trumpet1 does not differ materially from an ordinary trumpet1 except that it is larger and has a larger bell mouth4 ,two persons1 each provided with a megaphone1 can1 without other apparatus1 carry on a conversation at a distance of one and a half or two miles4 ,what is the ,tasimeter8 ,it is an instrument1 sensitive to the smallest degree of heat1 and is mostly used in astronomy4 ,attached to a telescope it will show the heat coming from the stars4 ,what is a ,bathometer8 ,this ingenious instrument1 the invention of ,prof4 ,siemens of ,london1 enables those on board of ships to read from an index the depths of the ocean beneath them4 ,it consists of a highly sensitive steel spring to which a heavy piece of metal is attached4 ,the changes in weight to which the latter is subject in consequence of the variations of attractive force 7the deeper the ocean the smaller the latter1 and vice versa7 are registered on a scale by the indicator that is in connection with the steel spring4 ,what is an ,anemometer8 ,an instrument for measuring the velocity and force of the wind1 and by which storms1 at a distance1 can be predicted4 ,what is a ,chronometer8 ,a time-piece of delicate and exact construction1 chiefly employed by astronomers and navigators4 ,it differs only from an ordinary watch in its delicate springs1 in not being so much influenced by heat and cold1 and consequently in its accuracy in giving the time4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,light1 ,,lime ,,light1 ,,magnesium ,,light1 ,,electric ,,light1 ,,rainbow1 ,,prism1 ,,spectrum1 ,,colors1 ,,photography1 ,,camera ,,obscura1 ,,stereoscope1 ,,kaleidoscope4 ,do you know something about the nature of ,light8 ,light is a mere form of vibration like sound1 and like sound it requires some source to set this vibration going1 and some medium to carry this vibration as air carries sound4 ,is not the air this medium8 ,no1 it is supposed that there is an elastic fluid called ether which pervades all space and matter1 and if the molecules of a body are in motion they have the power of setting this ether in motion4 ,the movement thus produced will appear either as heat or light according to its velocity4 ,what sources of light do you know8 ,we are told that the principal source of light on earth is the sun1 either directly with its own beams or indirectly by supplying us with combustibles to produce light2 for oil1 gas1 candles1 and most of the substances used for producing light and heat when burning are but sending forth in another form the rays of the sun which were stored up in nature's economy4 ,another source of light is the result of chemical action1 such as the lime1 magnesium1 and electric light4 ,a third source of light is phosphorescence1 as we see it in the glow-worm and fireflies4 ,what is the ,drummond or ,lime ,light8 ,it is one of the most brilliant of artificial lights4 ,when a stream of oxygen and one of hydrogen under pressure are brought together and mixed within a few inches of the end of a blowpipe1 the mixture on lighting burns with a colorless flame possessing intense heat4 ,if this flame be made to play upon a ball of carbonate of lime1 the lime on becoming white hot gives off a powerful incandescence4 ,incandescence1 the glowing whiteness of a body caused by intense heat4 ,what is a ,blowpipe8 ,a tube1 usually bent near the end1 terminated with a finely-pointed nozzle1 for blowing through the flame of a lamp or gas-jet1 producing thereby a small conical flame possessing intense heat4 ,it is used in soldering silver1 brass1 etc4 ,a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen when ignited constitutes the hydrogen blowpipe1 invented by ,dr4 ,hare of ,philadelphia4 ,what is ,magnesium ,light8 ,when the metal magnesium is rolled out into a fine ribbon and heated to red heat it burns with a dazzling light4 ,which is the most powerful artificial light8 ,the so-called ,electric light4 ,this light1 whether produced by a series of galvanic cells or by dynamic power1 is the most brilliant and useful4 ,what is a ,rainbow8 ,the rainbow is that beautiful semi-circular band or arc of different colors in the clouds during the occurrence of rain in sunshine4 ,when the clouds opposite the sun are very dark and rain is falling from them1 the rays of the sun are divided by the raindrops as they would be by a prism4 ,there are often two rainbows at the same time1 because the primary bow is again reflected to another layer of clouds4 ,what is a ,prism8 ,a triangular solid piece of glass1 on which if a ray of light be cast it will be distinctly divided into the seven colors we see in a rainbow4 ,by this fact we see that white light is composed of different rays which have different reflective susceptibilities4 ,what is a ,spectrum8 ,it is this beautiful band of seven colors obtained by the refraction of a ray of light through the prism4 ,whence come the colors in the objects we see in nature8 ,they all come from light2 every object has a power to absorb certain rays and to reflect others4 ,a red cloth1 for example1 absorbs all the other colored rays except red1 and this it gives off1 thus appearing red4 ,why are the leaves of plants green8 ,because a peculiar chemical substance called chlorophyl1 formed within their cells1 absorbs all other rays of light1 reflecting only blue and yellow--which mixture produces the different green tints4 ,what is ,photography8 ,the word means light drawing4 ,it is a mode of fixing on certain substances the lights and shades of any object by means of a lens inserted in a camera obscura4 ,this process was first called ,daguerreotype from the name of the inventor1 ,daguerre4 ,a plate of copper thinly coated with silver is exposed to the vapor of iodine1 then placed in a camera obscura1 where an image of the object to be presented through a lens is cast upon it4 ,ambrotype is the same application to glass4 ,there are now different variations of method in the use of the same agents4 ,now photography consists in taking the images on what is called a negative--that is1 a glass coated with a silvered collodion 7gun-cotton dissolved in alcohol and ether7 film4 ,from this plate another image is taken on silvered paper1 which we call the positive image4 ,there are also other chemicals used instead of silver4 ,what is a ,camera ,obscura8 ,a small box or dark room into which the light is admitted through a lens4 ,what is a ,stereoscope8 ,it is an instrument exhibiting the effects and advantages of seeing with two eyes4 ,the instrument is so constructed that from a flat picture we may see the solid body in its reality in nature4 ,what is a ,kaleidoscope8 ,an instrument invented by ,sir ,david ,brewster1 consisting of a tube with slips of reflecting glass so arranged in the interior that small beads1 bits of colored glass1 and similar things are1 by revolving the tube1 thrown into an endless variety of beautiful shapes4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,electricity1 ,,electric ,,currents1 ,,electric ,,battery1 ,,electrotyping1 ,,stereotyping1 ,,telegraph1 ,,ocean ,,cable1 ,,lightning ,,rod1 ,,the ,,gulf ,,stream1 ,,the ,,mt4 ,,cenis ,,tunnel1 ,,the ,,suez ,,canal1 ,,suspension ,,bridges1 ,,eminent ,,americans4 ,what is the nature of ,electricity8 ,a form of energy into which all other forms can readily be converted4 ,what is an ,electric current8 ,electricity manifests itself in a variety of ways1 but all may be arranged under two heads1 viz41 #a1 as a charge2 #b1 as a current4 ,by means of friction1 many bodies become electrified--that is1 have acquired an electrical charge4 ,if this charge is in great quantity we call it high tension4 ,when a body containing an electrical charge is brought in contact with other bodies through which electricity is capable of passing1 there ensues a current of electricity4 ,such bodies are called conductors4 ,what are the sources of currents8 ,there are currents produced by chemical action called voltaic currents2 by the action of heat1 or thermo-electric currents2 by the motion of magnets1 or magneto-electric currents4 ,illustration3 ,,removing ,,the ,,earth ,,from ,,the ,,canal ,,by ,,means ,,of ,,dromedaries4 ,illustration3 ,,opening ,,the ,,suez ,,canal--,,procession ,,of ,,ships4 ,what is positive and what negative electricity8 ,no difference in electricity in itself4 ,when a body has more than its natural amount of electricity1 it is said to be charged positively2 when it has less than its natural amount it is negatively charged4 ,what is a ,cell2 what a ,battery8 ,if a piece of zinc and copper joined by a wire be dipped in a liquid--generally weak sulphuric acid--which will act chemically on the metals1 a current is produced4 ,such an arrangement is called a couple1 or cell4 ,if many cells are connected1 then it is called a battery4 ,what is ,thermo-electricity8 ,if two bars of any unlike metal--for example1 antimony and bismuth--be soldered together at one end1 and the other ends be connected by a wire and then the soldered end heated1 a current will flow4 ,what effects are produced by currents8 ,they produce heat1 light1 decomposition and combination in liquid chemical compounds2 they melt all metals1 excite magnetism1 and in the animal body excite movements of the muscles4 ,can you specify these effects8 ,a strong battery produces heat in such a degree that all metals can be melted4 ,light is produced in flashes1 or if the end of the leading wires are connected with two pencils of hard carbon1 and brought very near together1 then a brilliant light1 or arc1 called the voltaic arc1 is produced4 ,this is the dazzling bright light which we call electric light4 ,the chemical effect of a current in decomposing compound substances is called electrolysis4 ,in this way water can be decomposed into its compounds1 hydrogen and oxygen2 copper sulphate into sulphur and metallic copper1 etc4 ,in this way we can deposit strong adherent films of metal on the surface of any conductor2 for if the article to be coated be attached to the negative electrode of a battery1 and dipped into a solution of the metal with which we desire to coat the article1 say copper or silver1 and the positive electrode be attached to a plate of copper and also dipped into a liquid1 when the current passes1 the metal will be decomposed and deposited in a uniform layer over the article at the negative electrode4 ,this process is called electro-plating4 ,what is ,electrotyping8 ,it is the process of copying medals1 type1 wood-cuts1 engraved copper and steel plates1 etc41 by means of electrical deposition4 ,it is chiefly used for making1 from the ordinary movable types1 plates of fixed metallic types1 for printing books4 ,describe the process4 ,the article to be copied is first covered with black-lead1 and then a mould is made of it in wax or gutta-percha4 ,this mould is placed in a solution of sulphate of copper1 and attached to the negative pole of the battery1 while a plate of copper is hung from the positive pole4 ,the electric current decomposes the copper1 which is deposited in a thin film upon the mould4 ,this film is removed and stiffened by being backed with metal4 ,what is the difference between ,electrotyping and ,stereotyping8 ,in stereotyping1 a plaster of ,paris mould is taken from the types1 and upon this mould melted type-metal is poured1 which1 when hardened1 makes a solid plate4 ,is there any other method of stereotyping8 ,yes2 that known as the paper process4 ,a uniform sheet of soft matter is formed by pasting together sheets of thin1 tough tissue paper4 ,the types are oiled1 and the soft1 moist sheet is placed on them and beaten down with a stiff brush until it receives an impression of the type-form4 ,both are then run through a press1 and on being taken out the paper is found to form a perfect mould4 ,into this mould the type-metal is poured and the plate formed4 ,can you tell me some magnetic effects of the current8 ,all conductors become magnetic during the passage of a current through them1 and thereby acquire all the properties of a magnet4 ,there are bodies which are natural magnets1 and they are called permanent magnets4 ,those which become magnets only during the passage of a current are called electro-magnets4 ,do you know any application of those magnets8 ,they are employed in a great variety of electrical apparatus1 principally in telegraphy4 ,when was the first telegraph established8 ,it was made in #ahcf1 being invented by ,prof4 ,steinheil1 of ,munich1 and adopted by the government of ,bavaria4 ,it was #ab miles long1 and the signals were made by small bells4 ,who was the inventor of the telegraph in this country8 ,samuel ,f4,b4 ,morse1 who was born at ,charlestown1 ,mass41 ,april #bg1 #agia4 ,he began life as a painter1 but did not give his whole attention to art--chemistry and experiments in electricity and galvanism claiming much of his time4 ,he first conceived the idea of the telegraph in #ahcb1 and exhibited his invention to ,congress in #ahcg4 ,he struggled on with scanty means1 and was about to give up in despair when ,congress appropriated #cj1jjj for an experimental line1 which was opened on ,may #ab1 #ahdd1 between ,washington and ,baltimore4 ,prof4 ,morse died in #ahgb1 but not before he had reaped honors and fortune from his invention4 ,how rapidly does the electric current travel through the wires8 ,from experiments made it appears to be about #ae1djj miles in a second4 ,can more than one message be sent at the same time on the same wire8 ,yes2 it is possible now to send several messages at the same time4 ,what is a ,cable8 ,it is a telegraph wire under water4 ,prof4 ,morse1 in #ahdb1 laid a wire insulated by a covering of hemp coated with pitch-tar and ,india-rubber between ,governor's ,island and the ,battery1 ,new ,york4 ,several attempts were made in other countries4 ,what was the greatest telegraphic undertaking8 ,that of connecting ,europe with ,america by a submarine cable spanning the ocean1 which was commenced in #aheg and completed ,august #e1 #aheh4 ,to whom do we owe this grand undertaking8 ,this honor is entirely due to ,mr4 ,cyrus ,w4 ,field4 ,mr4 ,field was born at ,stockbridge1 ,mass41 on ,november #cjth1 #ahai4 ,in #ahec he became interested in ocean telegraphy1 and after many reverses succeeded in laying the first cable in ,august1 #aheh4 ,the message sent by ,queen ,victoria to the ,president of the ,united ,states1 consisting of #ii words1 occupied #fg minutes in transmitting4 ,in ,september of the same year this cable ceased to work1 but the energy of ,field restored confidence1 and another cable was made and laid down in ,july1 #ahfe1 but after #abjj miles were deposited it was lost4 ,in #ahff another was made and successfully laid in ,july4 ,in ,august the lost cable was found and spliced1 and carried to the western shore4 ,what is a ,dynamo-electric machine8 ,a machine by which very powerful currents can be obtained directly from mechanical power4 ,in these1 by means of a steam-engine or other power1 a number of coils of wire called the armature are set into rapid revolution between the poles of powerful electro-magnets4 ,all currents are caused to flow from the armature in one direction by means of a contrivance called the commutator4 ,very successful machines of this sort are the ,gramme machine1 the ,siemens1 and1 principally1 the so-called ,brush machine4 ,by these the electric light is now generally produced4 ,what is a ,lightning ,rod8 ,it is a rod of iron placed against a building to protect it from lightning4 ,three or four feet of one end is in the moist ground or in water1 while several feet of the other end extend above the highest part of the building4 ,the upper end of the rod is pointed with copper or some other metal which will not easily corrode4 ,by whom was it invented8 ,by ,benjamin ,franklin1 and first announced by him in his ,poor ,richard's ,almanac for #agec4 ,franklin was born at ,boston1 ,mass41 in #agjf4 ,by his talents1 prudence1 and honesty he rose from humble beginnings to be one of the foremost men of his time4 ,he was one of the committee of five chosen by ,congress to prepare the ,declaration of ,independence which he with other patriots afterwards signed4 ,towards the close of the year #aggf he was sent as ambassador to the ,french ,court1 and remained in ,europe some time4 ,he returned home in #aghe1 and died at ,philadelphia on the #agth of ,april1 #agij4 ,what is the ,gulf ,stream8 ,it is a warm current in the ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,what is its origin8 ,it may be considered as beginning on the west coast of ,africa1 within the region of the trade winds4 ,these cause a westward flow1 known as the equatorial current4 ,on reaching the coast of ,brazil1 the greater portion of this current bends northward1 carrying with it the waters of the ,amazon and ,orinoco1 and passes through the ,caribbean ,sea into the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,here it is further heated1 and rushes out through the only outlet1 the ,straits of ,florida4 ,describe its course4 ,deep and narrow1 it runs by ,florida with a velocity varying from two to five miles an hour1 and pressed by the cold current between it and the shore1 flows parallel to the coast as far as ,cape ,hatteras4 ,meeting shoals near this point1 the banks of sand extending as far as ,newfoundland1 it there turns abruptly to the east1 and with diminished speed and increased width1 rolls onward towards the coast of ,europe4 ,before long it divides into two great branches--the northern and southern4 ,the former extends as far as ,spitzbergen2 the latter1 sweeping along by the ,madeira and ,canary ,islands1 returns to the equator1 completing the circuit4 ,what influence has the ,gulf ,stream on the climate of ,europe8 ,various opinions have been expressed as to this4 ,it has been estimated that the amount of heat arising from the stream on a winter's day1 is sufficient to raise the atmosphere over the ,british ,isles from the freezing point to a summer temperature4 ,how may the ,gulf ,stream be distinguished8 ,it can be distinctly traced in the ocean by its dark indigo color1 its temperature1 and the swiftness of its waters4 ,which is the largest tunnel in the world8 ,the ,mt4 ,cenis ,tunnel1 or the tunnel of ,col de ,frejus1 by both of which names it is known4 ,it is the longest subterranean route for commerce and travel yet constructed1 being #g-a_/d miles in length4 ,it is on the crest of the ,cottian ,alps1 about #af miles south-west of the summit of ,mt4 ,cenis ,pass4 ,it was begun in #aheg1 and finished in #ahga4 ,col1 a defile4 ,what other great engineering work can you mention8 ,the ,suez ,canal1 a ship canal running across the ,isthmus of ,suez1 and connecting the ,mediterranean with the ,red ,sea4 ,the canal is #ajj miles in length1 and through it an uninterrupted communication is established whereby large sailing vessels and steamers may pass from sea to sea1 and thus avoid the long and dangerous voyage around the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,to whom is the world indebted for this canal8 ,this great work owes its inception and completion to the enterprise and indomitable energy of ,ferdinand de ,lesseps1 who was born at ,versailles1 ,france1 on the #aith ,november1 #ahje4 ,in ,january1 #ahef1 he obtained a charter from the ,egyptian ,government for a company to construct the canal1 and began work in #ahei4 ,though beset by many difficulties1 the persistent energy of ,de ,lesseps fought its way to success1 and in #ahfi he had the satisfaction of seeing the waters of the ,mediterranean and the ,red ,sea mingle in the ,bitter ,lakes4 ,he has since been engaged in many engineering projects1 the latest being a canal across the ,isthmus of ,panama to connect the ,atlantic and ,pacific oceans4 ,inception1 beginning4 ,indomitable1 not to be subdued4 ,persistent1 inclined to hold firm4 ,what is a ,suspension ,bridge8 ,a bridge supported by wires1 ropes1 or chains1 which usually pass over high piers or columns at each end1 and are secured in the ground below4 ,name some of the largest bridges of this kind4 ,that at ,niagara1 those over the ,allegheny at ,pittsburg and the ,ohio at ,cincinnati1 and the great ,east ,river bridge1 which connects ,new ,york and ,brooklyn4 ,who planned these bridges8 ,john ,a4 ,roebling1 who was born at ,mulhausen1 ,prussia1 ,june #ab1 #ahjf4 ,in #ahca he emigrated to this country1 and to his genius we are indebted for the bridges above named4 ,the reports1 plans1 and specifications of the ,east ,river bridge were completed1 and the work begun1 when ,roebling was severely injured in the foot while directing his work4 ,lockjaw succeeding amputation1 he died in ,brooklyn1 ,july #bb1 #ahfi4 ,to what great ,civil ,engineer has the ,west given birth8 ,james ,b4 ,eads4 ,born at ,lawrenceburg1 ,indiana1 ,may #bh1 #ahbj1 he began life as a clerk on a ,mississippi river steam-boat4 ,in #ahdb he entered a firm engaged in recovering sunken property1 and with such success that he retired with a fortune in #aheg4 ,during the civil war he devised a plan for the defence of the ,western waters1 and constructed several iron gun-boats with many novel features of his own invention4 ,he has since acquired reputation as projecting and constructing engineer of the ,illinois and ,st4 ,louis bridge1 and by building jetties at the ,south ,pass of the ,mississippi1 by which the depth of the river is increased1 and it is made more navigable4 ,these jetties are projecting dikes of brush1 fascines1 and stone4 ,fascines1 bundles of rods or of small sticks of wood1 bound at both ends and at intermediate points1 used in filling ditches1 etc4 ,give the names of some distinguished ,american inventors4 ,eli ,whitney1 the inventor of the ,cotton ,gin1 born in ,westborough1 ,mass41 #agfe2 died #ahbe4 ,jethro ,wood1 the inventor of the modern cast-iron plow1 born at ,white ,creek1 ,n4,y41 #aggd2 died #ahcd4 ,cyrus ,h4 ,mc,cormick1 inventor of the mowing machine1 born at ,walnut ,grove1 ,virginia1 in #ahji4 ,who was the inventor of the ,sewing ,machine8 ,elias ,howe4 ,he was born at ,spencer1 ,mass41 ,july #i1 #ahai4 ,when a boy he worked in a cotton mill at ,lowell1 but afterwards entered a machine shop in ,boston4 ,here he conceived the idea of the sewing machine1 and after long days of labor1 part of which time he and his family lived on the kindness of a friend1 he completed his invention4 ,after many struggles1 his talent1 industry1 and perseverance were rewarded1 and long before his death1 which occurred in ,october1 #ahfg1 he had acquired a large fortune4 ,,index4 ,abyssinia1 #adb ,adhesion1 #bja ,affinity1 ,chemical1 #aig1 #aii ,air1 #ag fixed1 #aab ,albert ,durer1 #acj ,alchemy1 #aid ,alcohol1 #acg ,alexander1 #afa ,alexandria1 #afh ,allspice or ,pimento1 #ea ,alluvial formations1 #aeb ,almonds1 #fa ,alphabet1 invention of1 #dc ,alum1 #gd ,alumina1 #aed ,amalgam1 #bj ,amber1 #ah ,ambergris1 #ff ,analysis and ,combination1 #aie ,anemometer1 #bjf ,angelo1 ,michael1 #afb ,anno ,domini1 #ce ,apelles1 #ahb ,apollo1 #agh ,arabic1 gum1 #id ,arabia1 ,felix and ,deserta1 #gb ,archipelago1 #cb ,architecture1 #aef orders of1 #aei1 #afj ,argil1 #aed ,armenia1 #fg ,arrow-root1 #acd ,arsenic1 #abf ,artesian ,wells1 #bjc ,arts1 #aij liberal1 #aij fine1 #aia mechanical1 #aia ,art of writing1 #aia ,asbestus1 #gf1 #gh ,astronomy1 science of1 #ahg ,athenians1 #bc ,atmosphere1 #ag ,attraction1 #bja ,audiphone1 #bjd ,aurora1 the1 #ba ,aurora ,borealis1 #bb ,australia1 #ca ,author1 #ed ,azores1 islands of1 #fb ,azote gas1 #aac ,babel1 tower of1 #add ,babylon1 #ade ,bacon1 ,roger1 #ii ,baize1 #cb ,barbarians1 #agj1 #ahc ,barilla or ,soda1 #aje ,bark1 #ce ,peruvian1 #cf ,barley1 #bd sugar1 #di ,barometer1 #if ,aneroid1 #bjc ,barrel organ1 #agi ,bathometer1 #bjf ,beaver1 #gj1 #ga1 #gd ,bell1 ,a4,g41 #bjd ,black lead1 #abb ,blowpipe1 #bjh ,bodies1 natural1 #aig ,bombazine1 #dj ,books first printed1 #ei ,books1 of what made1 #cg1 #eg ,bottles1 #ed ,box1 musical1 #agi ,brandy1 #acg ,brass1 #hd ,bread-fruit1 #hf ,bricks1 #add ,butter1 vegetable1 #hg tree1 #hg ,cable1 #bad ,cacao-nut tree1 #bg ,cadmus1 #dc ,calaminaris1 ,lapis1 #hd ,calcareous rocks1 #aej ,calico1 #bh ,caloric1 #ad1 #aad ,calomel1 #ig ,cambray1 #da ,cambric1 #da ,camera ,obscura1 #bji ,camlet1 #da ,camphor1 #adj ,candles1 #ajf ,candy1 ,sugar1 #di ,cannon1 #ajj ,canoe1 #cf ,cantaleup1 #fg ,canvas1 #cc ,caoutchouc1 #ajg ,capers1 #fa ,carbon1 #aab ,carbonic acid1 #aab ,carmine1 #ach ,carpets1 #cb ,carthage1 #afd ,cashmere shawls1 #df ,cassia1 #dj ,castor or beaver1 #gj ,castor oil1 #ff ,cat1 civet1 #ada domestic1 singular property of its fur1 #ai gut1 #agi ,caviare1 #ace ,cayenne pepper1 #ec ,chaldea1 #ahg ,chalk1 #aae ,charcoal1 #ha ,chemistry1 #aic-bjj ,cherry-tree1 #ce ,chinese or ,india ink1 #gf ,china orange1 #fb ,chocolate1 #bg ,chronometer1 #bjf ,chrysalis1 #db ,cider1 #acf ,cinnamon1 #ci ,citrons1 #fb ,clay or argil1 #aed ,clocks1 #ih ,cloth1 #bi ,cloves1 #ch1 #ci ,coal1 #ha ,cochineal1 #cg1 #ch1 #ach ,cocoa-nut tree1 #cd ,coffee1 #bf ,cohesion1 #bja ,coin1 #afe ,combustion1 #aac ,compass1 ,mariners'1 #ie ,commerce1 #agj ,constellations1 #ahh ,consul1 ,roman1 #adg ,copernicus1 #ahi ,copper1 #hc ,copperas1 #ge ,coral1 #aji-aab ,cork1 #cg ,corn1 #bc ,cotton1 #bh gins1 #bi ,cow-tree1 #hh ,crape1 #dj ,cretans1 #bc ,crimson1 #ach ,crusades1 #agb1 #agc ,crystallization1 #ad ,currants1 #df ,cyrus1 #adf ,damask1 #cd ,dates1 #fh1 #fi ,decomposition1 #aif ,deluge1 #aia ,dew1 #ac1 #ad ,diamond1 #abg ,diaper1 #cc ,distillation1 process of1 #acg ,drake1 ,sir ,francis1 #ib ,dyeing1 things used in1 #ach ,dynamite1 #ajj ,dynamo-electric machine1 #bad ,eads1 ,jas4 ,b1 #bah ,earths1 #aea argillaceous1 #aeb calcareous1 #aej silicious1 #aeb ,earthenware1 #ee ,earthquakes1 #aee ,ear-trumpet1 #bjd ,ebony1 #acb ,edison1 ,thos4 ,a41 #bje ,egyptian ,pyramids1 #aeh ,egyptians1 #bc ,electrical machine1 #ai properties in bodies1 #ai ,electricity1 #ah1 #baj ,electric ,battery1 #baa ,current1 #baj ,electro-,magnet1 #ajd ,magnetic ,teleg'ph41 #ajd1 #bac ,electron1 #ah ,electrotyping1 #bab ,elephant1 #acc ,emerald1 #abi ,engraving1 #acj ,ermine1 #gc ,etruscans1 #ahb ,evergreen1 #fe ,fermentation1 acetous1 #ach vinous1 #ach ,ferro1 #hh ,field1 ,cyrus ,w41 #bad ,figs1 #dh ,fine arts1 #aia ,fitch1 ,john1 #ajc ,flannel1 #cd ,flax1 #cc ,flint1 #aec ,floating1 #bjb ,florence1 #fd ,fossil or rock salt1 #gh ,franks1 #agj ,frankincense1 #adb ,franklin1 ,benj41 #bae ,fulton1 ,robert1 #ajc ,fur1 #gc ,galileo1 #aja1 #ahi ,galls1 #ge ,gamboge1 #aci ,gas1 #aad hydrogen1 #aad nitrogen or azote1 #aac oxygen1 #aac ,gelatine1 #ace ,gems1 #abg ,genoa1 #fc1 #agb ,geologist1 #aea ,geology1 #aea ,geometry1 #ajb ,gin1 #acg ,ginger1 #ej ,glass1 #ec house1 #ed windows1 #ed looking1 #ee ,gloves1 #gc ,goat1 ,angora1 #da ,gold1 #aah ,goths1 #agj ,granite1 #adh1 #adi ,gravitation1 #bja ,gravity1 #bjb ,gray1 ,elisha1 #bje ,gulf ,stream1 #bae ,gum1 #ic arabic1 #id ,gunpowder1 #ii1 #ajj ,guns1 #ajj ,hail1 #af ,harp1 #agf ,hats1 #gj ,hemp1 #cc ,herculaneum1 #aed ,hermetic ,seal1 #if ,herschel1 ,sir ,william1 #aij ,hieroglyphics1 #aia ,holland1 #cc ,honey1 #acf ,hops1 #acg ,howe1 ,elias1 #bah ,hybla1 #acf ,hydrogen1 #aad ,hymettus1 #acf ,ice1 #ae ,idria1 quicksilver mines of1 #ig ,india rubber1 #ajg or ,chinese ink1 #gf ,indigo1 #ach ,ink1 #gd used by the ancients1 #ge ,inlaying1 #acb ,insect1 coral1 #aji-aaa ,ionians1 #fj ,iron1 #hb ,isinglass1 #acb ,islands1 ,volcanic1 #aee ,ivory1 #ace ,jaca tree1 #hg ,japanese1 #aha ,jetties of the ,mississippi1 #bah ,jupiter1 #adh ,kaleidoscope1 #baj ,kiln1 #gc ,lace1 #da ,lapis calaminaris1 #hd ,laudanum1 #ia ,laws1 ,how made1 #adh ,lead1 #aba black1 #abb ,leather1 #gb ,legislative ,powers1 #adg ,lemon1 #fb ,lenses1 #ie ,leo the ,tenth1 #ahd ,lesseps1 ,ferd4 de1 #bag ,levant1 #ge ,libanus1 ,mount1 #ij ,licorice1 #hi ,light1 #bjg ,drummond1 #bjg ,electric1 #bjh1 #baa ,lime1 #bjg ,magnesium1 #bjh ,lightning1 #ag ,rod1 #bae ,lime1 a fruit1 #fc ,lime1 an earth1 #gc1 #aab quick1 #aej ,linen1 #cb ,liquids1 #aig1 #aih ,lithography1 #aca ,loadstone1 #ie ,logwood1 #aci ,lombards1 #agj ,lucca1 #fd ,lucullus1 #ce ,lungs1 #hi ,lyre1 #agh ,mc,cormick1 ,cyrus ,h41 #bah ,mace1 #ea ,magic1 #ii ,mahogany1 #ajg ,malt1 #acg ,maltese orange1 #fb ,mangoes1 #he ,manioc plant1 #acd ,manna1 #hi1 #ij ,marble1 #aaf ,parian1 #aag ,mariners' compass1 #ie ,marine salt1 #gh ,marl1 #aja ,mathematics1 #aja ,mead1 #acf ,mechanics1 #ajb ,mediterranean1 #aga ,megaphone1 #bjf ,melons1 #fg ,mercury1 #ig the god1 #agh ,metals1 primitive1 #hc ,metallurgy1 #abc ,microphone1 #bje ,microscope1 #ajb ,milan1 #dj ,millet1 #ej ,mineral oil1 #fe tar1 #adj ,mines1 #hd coal1 #ha ,mint1 #aff ,mirrors1 #ed1 #ee ,mohair1 #df ,mahomed1 #gb ,money1 #afc ,morphia1 #ia ,mortar1 #adh ,morse1 ,s4,f4,b41 #bac ,mosque1 #gb ,mother-of-pearl1 #acb ,mt4 ,cenis ,tunnel1 #baf ,muscles1 #ba ,music1 vocal1 #agf ,musical instruments1 #agd boxes1 #agi ,musk1 #ada ,myrrh1 #ada ,nantes1 ,edict of1 #de ,natron1 #aje ,nature1 kingdom of1 #aig ,navigation1 #aff-agd ,nabuchodonosor1 #adf ,needles1 #eg ,nero1 #ahe ,new ,south ,wales1 #ca ,newton1 ,sir ,isaac1 #ahi ,nicotine1 #ib ,nitre1 #ajj ,nitrogen1 #aac ,northern ,lights1 #bb ,nutmegs1 #ej ,oats1 #bd ,obelisk1 #aeh ,oils1 #fe ,oil1 olive1 #fd ,oil1 castor1 #ff mineral1 #fe ,olives1 #fc1 #fd ,olive branch1 the emblem of ,plenty1 #fd ,opium1 #ia ,orange1 #fa ,ore1 #hc ,organ1 barrel1 #agi ,oxide1 #hc ,oxygen1 #aac ,painters1 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