,,! ,,bir?-,,"t ,,( ,,! ,,_w ,,& ,,o!r ,,sci5tific ,,essays by ,j4 ,,joly1 ,m4,a41 ,sc4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,geology ,,& ,,m9]alogy ,,9 ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,( ,,dubl9 ,e4 ,p4 ,,dutton ,,& ,,company #fha ,,fif? ,,av5ue ,,new ,,york ,cov] ,title page ,,cont5ts ,,page ,i4 ,,! ,,bir?-,,"t ,,( ,,! ,,_w - - - - - - - - - - - #a ,,ii4 ,,d5udation - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - #cj ,,iii4 ,,! ,,abundance ,,( ,,life - - - - - - - - - - - - #fj ,,iv4 ,,! ,,bright ,,col\rs ,,( ,,alp9e ,,fl[]s - - - - - #ajb ,v4 ,,m\nta9 ,,g5esis - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - #aaf ,,vi4 ,,alp9e ,,/ructure - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - #adf ,,vii4 ,,o!r ,,m9ds ,,?an ,,ours - - - - - - - - - - - - #afb ,,viii4 ,,! ,,lat5t ,,image - - - - - - - - - - - - - - #bjb ,,ix4 ,,pleo*roic ,,haloes - - - - - - - - - - - - - - #bad ,x4 ,,! ,,use ,,( ,,radium ,,9 ,,m$ic9e - - - - - - - - - #bdd ,,xi4 ,,skat+ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - #bfj ,,xii4 ,a ,,speculation ,,z ,,to ,a ,,pre-,,mat]ial ,,univ]se - #bhh ,,li/ ,,( ,,illu/rations ,,plate ,i4 ,,lake ,,( ,,luc]ne1 ,,look+ ,,we/ ,,f ,,brunn5 - ,frontispiece ,,plate ,,ii4 ,,uplift$ ,,f ,,! ,,seas4 ,,cliffs ,,( ,,! ,,titlis1 ,,switz]l& - to face p4 #d ,,plate ,,iii4 ,,an ,,alp9e ,,torr5t ,,at ,,"w--,,val ,d',,h]5s1 ,,switz]l& - to face p4 #ca ,,plate ,,iv4 ,,e>? ,,pill>s--,,val ,d',,h]5s - to face p4 #cd ,,plate ,v4 ,,sc5es ,,( ,,desolation4 ,,! ,,weis%orn ,,se5 ,,f ,,bella ,,tola1 ,,switz]l& - to face p4 #dj ,,plate ,,vi4 ,,alluvial ,,cone--,,nicolai ,,?al1 ,,switz]l&4 ,,mora9e ,,on ,,alets* ,,glaci] ,,switz]l& - to face p4 #ej ,,plate ,,vii4 ,,9 ,,! ,,region ,,( ,,! ,,croci2 ,,dolomites4 ,,! ,,ro?w& ,,se5 ,,f ,,monte ,,piano - to face p4 #fj ,,plate ,,viii4 ,,firs ,,assail+ ,,! ,,heights ,,( ,,! ,,mad]an] ,,?al1 ,,switz]l& - to face p4 #gc ,,plate ,,ix4 ,,life ,,ne> ,,! ,,sn[ ,,l9e2 ,,! ,,bog-,,cotton ,,9 ,,possession4 ,,ne> ,,! ,,ts*+el ,,pass1 ,,switz]l& - to face p4 #hj ,,plate ,x4 ,,! ,,joy ,,( ,,life4 ,,! ,,ampezzo ,,?al2 ,,dolomites - to face p4 #ic ,,plate ,,xi4 ,,p9es ,,solemnly ,,quiet4 ,d,,ssi/ock2 ,,mad]an] ,,?al - to face p4 #ajj ,,plate ,,xii4 ,,alp9e ,,fl[]s ,,9 ,,! ,,valleys - to face p4 #aje ,,plate ,,xiii4 ,,alp9e ,,fl[]s ,,on ,,! ,,heights - to face p4 #ajf ,,plate ,,xiv4 ,,m\nta9 ,,solitudes2 ,,val ,,de ,,z9al4 ,,f ,,left ,,to ,,"r ,,ro?horn2 ,,besso2 ,,ob]gabelhorn2 ,,matt]horn2 ,,pic ,,de ,,z9al 7,,?r\gh ,,cl\d72 ,,d5t ,,blan*e - to face p4 #aaf ix ,,plate ,,xv4 ,,sector ,,( ,,! ,,e>? ,,rise ,,( ,,isogeo!rms ,,into ,a ,,deposit ,,evolv+ ,,radioactive ,,heat - to face p4 #aah ,,plate ,,xvi4 ,,! ,,m\nta9s ,,come ,,& ,,g4 ,,! ,,d5t ,,blan*e ,,se5 ,,f ,,! ,,sass5eire - to face p4 #acc ,,plate ,,xvii4 ,,diagrammatic ,,sections ,,( ,,! ,,himalaya - to face p4 #adj ,,plate ,,xviii4 ,,residues ,,( ,,d5udation4 ,,! ,,matt]horn ,,se5 ,,f ,,! ,,summit ,,( ,,! ,,z9al ,,ro?horn - to face p4 #adh ,,plate ,,xix4 ,,! ,,fold$ ,,rocks ,,( ,,! ,,matt]horn1 ,,se5 ,,f ,,ne> ,h,,hbalm4 ,,sket* ,,made ,,9 #aijf - to face p4 #aef ,,plate ,,xx4 ,,s*iap>elli',s ,,map ,,( ,,m>s ,,( #ahhb1 ,,& ,,additions 7,,9 ,,r$7 ,,( #ahib - to face p4 #aff ,,plate ,,xxi4 ,,globe ,,( ,,m>s ,,%[+ ,,pa? ,,( ,,9-,,fall+ ,,satellite - to face p4 #ahh ,,plate ,,xxii4 ,,canals ,,mapp$ ,,by ,,l[ell ,,comp>$ ,,) ,,canals ,,=m$ ,,by ,,9-,,fall+ ,,satellites - to face p4 #aib ,,plate ,,xxiii4 ,,haloes ,,9 ,,mica2 ,,co4 ,,c>l[4 ,,halo ,,9 ,,biotite ,,conta9$ ,,9 ,,granite - to face p4 #bbd ,,plate ,,xxiv4 ,,radium ,,halo1 ,,mu* ,,enl>g$4 ,,?orium ,,halo ,,& ,,radium ,,halo ,,9 ,,mica - to face p4 #bbh ,,plate ,,xxv4 ,,halo ,,r\nd ,,capill>y ,,9 ,,glass ,,tube4 ,,haloes ,,r\nd ,,tubul> ,,passages ,,9 ,,mica - to face p4 #bcj ,,plate ,,xxvi4 ,,alets* ,,glaci]1 ,,switz]l& - to face p4 #bhb ,,plate ,,xxvii4 ,,! ,,middle ,,alets* ,,glaci] ,,jo9+ ,,! ,,great ,,alets* ,,glaci]4 ,,glaci]s ,,( ,,! ,,laut]brunn5 ,,?al - to face p4 #bhe ,,plate ,,xxviii4 ,,p]*$ ,,block ,,on ,,! ,,alets* ,,glaci]4 ,,granite ,,erratic ,,ne> ,,r\ndwood1 ,,co4 ,,wickl[2 ,,n[ ,,brok5 ,,up ,,& ,,remov$ - to face p4 #bhf ,& ,fifte5 ,illu/rations 9 ! ,text4 x ,,preface ,t9s volume conta9s twelve essays writt5 at v>i\s times dur+ rec5t ye>s4 ,_m ( !m are /udies contribut$ to ,sci5tific ,reviews or deliv]$ z popul> lectures4 ,"s are expositions ( views ! sci5tific basis ( :i* may be reg>d$ z e/abli%$4 ,o!rs--! great] numb]--may be describ$ z attempt+ ! solution ( problems :i* _c be approa*$ by direct obs]vation4 ,! essay on ,! ,bir?-"t ( ! ,_w is bas$ on a lecture deliv]$ be=e ! ,royal ,dubl9 ,society4 ,! subject has attract$ mu* att5tion )9 rec5t ye>s4 ,! age ( ! ,e>? is1 inde$1 ( prim>y importance 9 our conception ( ! longevity ( planet>y sy/ems4 ,! essay deals ) ! evid5ce1 d]iv$ f ! inve/igation ( purely t]re/rial ph5om5a1 z to ! p]iod :i* has elaps$ s9ce ! ocean cond5s$ ^u ! ,e>?'s surface4 ,dr4 ,deck]'s rec5t addition to ! subject appe>$ too late = inclusion 9 x4 ,he f9ds t ! movem5ts 7t]m$ iso/atic7 :i* geologi/s recognise z tak+ place deep 9 ! ,e>?'s cru/1 indicate an age ( ! same ord] ( magnitude xi z t :i* is inf]r$ f ! /ati/ics ( d5udative hi/ory4#a ,! subject ( ,d5udation naturally arises f ! fir/ essay4 ,9 ?9k+ ov] ! me?od ( f9d+ ! age ( ! ocean by ! accumulation ( sodium !re91 ,i p]ceiv$ s long ago z #ahii1 :5 my fir/ pap] 0 publi%$1 t ?is me?od af=d$ a means ( asc]ta9+ ! gr& total ( d5udative "w effect$ on ! ,e>?'s surface s9ce ! beg9n+ ( geological "t2 ! result+ k 9 no way involv+ any assumption z to ! duration ( ! p]iod compris+ ! d5udative actions4 ,?is idea has be5 elaborat$ 9 v>i\s publications s9ce !n1 bo? by myself & by o!rs4 ,d5udation1 :ile includ+ a survey ( ! subject g5]ally1 is ma9ly a popul> acc\nt ( ?is me?od & its results4 ,x closes ) a ref]5ce to ! fasc9at+ problems pres5t$ by ! inn] nature ( s$im5tation3 a bran* ( sci5ce to :i* ,i endeav\r$ to contribute "s ye>s ago4 ,m\nta9 ,g5esis fir/ br+s 9 ! subject ( ! geological int]v5tion ( radioactivity4 ,!re c1 ,i believe1 be no d\bt z to ! influ5ce ( trans=m+ elem5ts ^u ! developm5ts ( ! surface features ( ! ,e>?2 &1 if ,i am "r1 ?is s\rce ( !rmal en]gy is ma9ly responsible = t local accumulation ( wr9kl+ :i* we t]m m\nta9 *a9s4 ,! #a ,bull4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,am]ica1 vol4 xxvi1 ,m>* #aiae4 xii pap] on ,alp9e ,/ructure is a repr9t f ,radioactivity & ,geology1 :i* = ! sake ( complet5ess is "h includ$4 ,x is direct$ to ! elucidation ( a detail ( m\nta9 g5esis3 a detail :i* ent]s into rec5t !ories ( ,alp9e developm5t4 ,! weakness ( ! !ory ( ! hor/ is manife/1 h[ev]1 9 _m ( its o!r applications2 if n1 inde$1 9 all4 ,! =ego+ essays on ! physical influ5ces affect+ ! surface features ( ! ,e>? are accompani$ by "o entitl$ ,! ,abundance ( ,life4 ,?is orig9at$ amid/ ! ov]:elm+ pres5tation ( life :i* confronts u 9 ! ,swiss ,alps4 ,! subject is suffici5tly inspir+4 ,c no fundam5tal reason be giv5 = ! urg5cy & aggressiv5ess ( life8 ,vitality is an ev]-ext5d+ ph5om5on4 ,x is pla9 t ! great pr9ciples :i* h be5 enunciat$ 9 explanation ( ! orig9 ( species d n really t\* ! problem4 ,9 ! essay--:i* is an e>ly "o 7#ahij7--! explanation ( ! :ole great matt] is s\ght--& z ,i believe f\nd--9 ! attitude ( ! organism t[>ds en]gy ext]nal to x2 an attitude :i* results 9 its evasion ( ! ret>dative & dissipatory effects :i* prevail 9 lifeless dynamic sy/ems ( all k9ds4 ,o!r ,m9ds ?an ,ours8 attempts a solution ( ! vex$ "q ( ! orig9 ( ! ,m>tian canals4 ,! essay is an abridgm5t ( two popul> lectures on ! subject4 ,i _h previ\sly writt5 an acc\nt ( my views :i* c>ri$ ! enquiry z f> z x 0 9 xiii my p[] to g4 ,?is pap] appe>$ 9 ! ,transactions ( ! ,royal ,dubl9 ,society1 #ahig4 ,! !ory put =w>d is a purely physical "o1 &1 if ju/ifi$1 ! view t intellig5t be+s exi/ 9 ,m>s d]ives no support f 8 visible surface features2 b is1 9 fact1 confront$ ) fre% difficulties4 ,pleo*roic ,haloes is a popul> exposition ( an inconspicu\s b v beautiful ph5om5on ( ! rocks4 ,m9ute d>k5$ sph]es--a microscopic detail--appe> ev]y:]e 9 c]ta9 ( ! rock m9]als4 ,:at are !y8 ,! discov]ies ( rec5t radioactive rese>*--*iefly due to ,ru!r=d--give ! answ]4 ,! measurem5ts appli$ to ! little objects r5d] ! explanation beyond "q4 ,!y turn out to be a q extraord9>y record ( radioactive en]gy2 a record accumulat$ s9ce remote geological times1 & assur+ u1 indirectly1 ( ! /ability ( ! *emical elem5ts 9 g5]al s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! _w4 ,?is assurance is1 )\t pro(1 (t5 assum$ 9 our views on ! geological hi/ory ( ! ,globe4 ,skat+ is a disc\rse1 ) a rec5t addition support+ ! orig9al !sis4 ,x is an illu/ration ( a common exp]i5ce--! explanation ( an unimportant action involv+ pr9ciples ! mo/ influ5tial consid]$ z a "p ( ,nature's res\rces4 ,! address on ,! ,lat5t ,image deals ) a subject :i* _h be5 approa*$ by v>i\s writ]s be=e ! "t ( my essay2 b1 s f> z ,i "k1 an explanation xiv bas$ on ! facts ( photo-electricity _h n be5 attempt$4 ,/ud5ts ( ?is subject w notice t ! views express$ are simil> to ^? subsequ5tly put =w>d by ,l5>d & ,sael& 9 explanation ( phosphoresc5ce4 ,! :ole matt] is ( m practical importance ?an appe>s at fir/ sight1 = ! photoelectric nature ( ! effects involv$ 9 ! radiative treatm5t ( _m cruel diseases seems to be beyond d\bt4 ,x 0 9 connection ) photo-electric sci5ce t ,i 0 l$ to take an int]e/ 9 ! application ( radioactivity 9 m$ic9e4 ,! lecture on ,! ,use ( ,radium 9 ,m$ic9e deals ) ?is subject4 ,t[>ds ! conclusion ( ?is essay ref]5ce w be f\nd to a practical outcome ( su* /udies :i*1 by improv+ on ! me?ods1 & facilitat+ ! application1 ( radioactive treatm5t1 has1 9 ! h&s ( skill$ m$ical m51 already result$ 9 ! alleviation ( suff]+4 ,leav+ out mu* :i* might well appe> 9 a prefatory notice1 a ^w %\ld yet be add$ respect+ ! illu/rations ( sc5]y4 ,!y are a small selection f a consid]able numb] ( photographs tak5 dur+ my summ] w&]+s 9 ! ,alps 9 company ) ,h5ry ,h4 ,dixon4 ,an exception is ,plate ,x1 :i* is by ! late ,dr4 ,edw>d ,/apleton4 ,f :at has be5 said above1 x w be ga!r$ t ^! illu/rations are fitly includ$ among pages :i* owe s mu* to ,alp9e inspiration4 ,!y illu/rate ! xv subjects dealt )1 &1 x is to be hop$1 !y w 9 "s cases recall to ! read] sc5es :i* h 9 pa/ times influ5c$ 8 ?\ghts 9 ! same mann]2 sc5es :i* 9 _! endless p]spective seem to r$uce to _! prop] insignificance ! less] ?+s ( life4 ,my ?anks are due to ,mr4 ,john ,murray = k9dly cons5t+ to ! reissue ( ! essay on ,! ,bir?-"t ( ! ,_w f ! pages ( ,sci5ce ,progress2 to ,messrs4 ,con/able ,co4 = leave to repr9t ,pleo*roic ,haloes f ,b$rock1 & also to make "s extracts f ,radioactivity & ,geology2 & to ! ,c\ncil ( ! ,royal ,dubl9 ,society = p]mission to republi% c]ta9 pap]s f ! ,proce$+s ( ! ,society4 ,iveagh ,geological ,laboratory1 ,tr9ity ,college1 ,dubl94 ,july1 #aiae4 xvi ,,! ,,bir?-,,"t ,,( ,,! ,,_w #a ,,long ago ,lucretius wrote3 ,= lack ( p[] to solve ! "q tr\bles ! m9d ) d\bts1 :e!r !re 0 ev] a bir?-"t ( ! _w & :e!r likewise !re is to be any end4 ,& if 7he says 9 answ]7 !re 0 no bir?-"t ( e>? & heav5 & !y h be5 f ev]la/+1 :y be=e ! ,!ban w> & ! de/ruction ( ,troy h n o!r poets z well sung o!r !mes8 ,:i!r h s _m de$s ( m5 s (t5 pass$ away1 :y live !y n[h]e embodi$ 9 la/+ records ( fame8 ,! tru? me?9ks is t ! sum has b a rec5t date1 & ! nature ( ! _w is new & has b lately _h its comm5cem5t4#b ,?us spake ,lucretius ne>ly #b1jjj ye>s ago4 ,s9ce !n we h atta9$ ano!r /&po9t & f\nd v diff]5t limitations4 ,to ,lucretius ! _w comm5c$ ) man1 & ! answ] he w\ld give to 8 que/ions 0 9 accord ) 8 philosophy3 he w\ld date ! bir?-"t ( ! _w f ! "t :5 #a ,a lecture deliv]$ be=e ! ,royal ,dubl9 ,society1 ,febru>y #f?1 #aiad4 ,sci5ce ,progress1 vol4 ix41 p4 #cg #b ,de ,r]um ,natura1 translat$ by ,h4 ,a4 ,j4 ,munro 7,cambridge1 #ahhf74 #a poets fir/ sang ^u ! e>?4 ,mod]n ,sci5ce has along ) ! !ory t ! ,e>? dat$ its beg9n+ ) ! adv5t ( man1 swept utt]ly away ?is beautiful imag9+4 ,we c1 inde$1 f9d no beg9n+ ( ! _w4 ,we trace back ev5ts & come to b>ri]s :i* close our vi/a--b>ri]s :i*1 = all we "k1 may = ev] close x4 ,!y /& l ! gates ( ivory & ( horn2 portals f :i* only dreams proce$2 & ,sci5ce _c z yet say ( ?is or t dream if x proce$s f ! gate ( horn or f t ( ivory4 ,9 %ort1 ( ! ,e>?'s orig9 we h no c]ta9 k2 nor c we assign any date to x4 ,possibly its =mation 0 an ev5t s gradual t ! beg9n+ 0 spread ov] imm5se p]iods4 ,we c only trace ! hi/ory back to c]ta9 ev5ts :i* may ) consid]able c]ta9ty be reg>d$ z u%]+ 9 our geological era4 ,not)/&+ our limitations1 ! date ( ! bir?-"t ( our geological era is ! mo/ important date 9 ,sci5ce4 ,= 9 tak+ into our m9ds ! spaci\s hi/ory ( ! univ]se1 ! _w's age mu/ play ! "p ( "t-unit ^u :i* all our conceptions dep5d4 ,if we date ! geological hi/ory ( ! ,e>? by ?\s&s ( ye>s1 z did our =]unn]s1 we mu/ %ape our ideas ( planet>y "t accord+ly2 & ! duration ( our sol> sy/em1 & ( ! heav5s1 becomes comp>able ) t ( ! dyna/ies ( anci5t nations4 ,if by millions ( ye>s1 ! sun & />s are proportionately v5]able4 ,if by hundr$s or ?\s&s ( millions ( #b ye>s ! human m9d mu/ cons5t to correspond+ly va/ epo*s = ! duration ( mat]ial *anges4 ,! geological age plays ! same "p 9 our views ( ! duration ( ! univ]se z ! ,e>?'s orbital radius does 9 our views ( ! imm5sity ( space4 ,lucretius knew no?+ ( our "t-unit3 8 unit 0 ! life ( a man4 ,s also he knew no?+ ( our space-unit1 & he m>vels t s small a body z ! sun c %$ s mu*1 heat & light ^u ! ,e>?4 ,a /udy ( ! rocks %[s u t ! _w 0 n always :at x n[ is & long has be54 ,we live 9 an epo* ( d5udation4 ,! ra9s & fro/s dis9tegrate ! hills2 & ! riv]s roll to ! sea ! f9ely divid$ p>ticles into :i* !y h be5 resolv$2 z well z ! salts :i* h be5 lea*$ f !m4 ,! s$im5ts collect ne> ! coa/s ( ! cont95ts2 ! dissolv$ matt] m+les ) ! g5]al ocean4 ,! geologi/ has measur$ & mapp$ ^! deposits & trac$ !m back into ! pa/1 lay] by lay]4 ,he f9ds !m ev] ! same2 s&/ones1 slates1 lime/ones1 etc4 ,b "o ?+ is n ! same4 ,life gr[s ev] less div]sifi$ 9 "* z ! s$im5ts are trac$ d[nw>ds4 ,mammals & birds1 reptiles1 amphibians1 fi%es1 die out successively 9 ! pa/2 & b>r5 s$im5ts ultimately succe$1 leav+ ! fir/ beg9n+s ( life undeciph]able4 ,b5ea? ^! b>r5 s$im5ts lie rocks collectively diff]+ 9 "* f ^? above3 ma9ly volcanic or p\r$ out f fissures 9 #c ! e>ly cru/ ( ! ,e>?4 ,s$im5ts are sc>ce among ^! mat]ials4#a ,!re c be little d\bt t 9 ?is und]ly+ floor ( igne\s & metamorphic rocks we h rea*$ ^? surface mat]ials ( ! e>? :i* exi/$ be=e ! long epo* ( s$im5tation began1 & be=e ! seas came into be+4 ,!y =m$ ! floor ( a vaporis$ ocean ^u :i* ! wat]s cond5s$ "h & !re f ! hot & heavy atmosph]e4 ,su* 7 ! probable conditions :i* prec$$ ! bir?-"t ( ! ocean & ( our era ( life & its evolution4 ,x is f ?is epo* we date our geological age4 ,our next purpose is to consid] h[ long ago1 measur$ 9 ye>s1 t bir?-"t 04 ,t ! geological age ( ! ,e>? is v great appe>s f :at we h already review$4 ,! s$im5ts ( ! pa/ are _m miles 9 collective ?ickness3 yet ! feeble silt ( ! riv]s built !m all f base to summit4 ,!y h be5 uplift$ f ! seas & pil$ into m\nta9s by movem5ts s sl[ t dur+ all ! "t man has be5 ^u ! ,e>? b little *ange w\ld h be5 visible4 ,! m\nta9s h aga9 be5 worn d[n into ! ocean by d5udation & aga9 y\ng] m\nta9s built out ( _! r$eposit$ mat]ials4 ,! contemplation ( su* va/ ev5ts #a ,= a description ( ^! e>ly rocks1 see especially ! monograph ( ,van ,hise & ,lei? on ! pre-,cambrian ,geology ( ,nor? ,am]ica 7,bullet9 #cfj1 ,u4,s4 ,geol4 ,survey74 #d prep>es our m9ds to accept _m scores ( millions ( ye>s or hundr$s ( millions ( ye>s1 if su* be yield$ by our calculations4 ,,! ,,age ,,z ,,inf]r$ ,,f ,,! ,,?ickness ,,( ,,! ,,s$im5ts ,! e>lie/ recognis$ me?od ( arriv+ at an e/imate ( ! ,e>?'s geological age is bas$ ^u ! measurem5t ( ! collective s$im5ts ( geological p]iods4 ,! me?od has und]gone mu* revision f "t to "t4 ,let u briefly review x on ! late/ data4 ,! me?od consi/s 9 measur+ ! dep?s ( all ! successive s$im5t>y deposits :]e ^! are be/ develop$4 ,we g all ov] ! explor$ _w1 recognis+ ! successive deposits by _! fossils & by _! /ratigraphical relations1 measur+ _! ?ickness & select+ z "p ( ! data requir$ ^? b$s :i* we believe to mo/ completely repres5t ea* =mation4 ,! total ( ^! measurem5ts w\ld tell u ! age ( ! ,e>? if _! tale 0 inde$ complete1 & if we knew ! av]age rate at :i* !y h be5 deposit$4 ,we soon1 h[ev]1 f9d difficulties 9 arriv+ at ! quantities we require4 ,?us x is n easy to measure ! real ?ickness ( a deposit4 ,x may be fold$ back ^u itself1 & s we may measure x twice ov]4 ,we may exagg]ate its ?ickness by measur+ x n q /raight across ! b$d+ or by unwitt+ly includ+ volcanic mat]ials4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re #e may be deposits :i* are inaccessible to u2 or1 aga91 an entire abs5ce ( deposits2 ei!r because n laid d[n 9 ! areas we exam9e1 or1 if laid d[n1 aga9 wa%$ into ! sea4 ,^! s\rces ( error 9 "p neutralise "o ano!r4 ,"s make our result+ age too long1 o!rs make x out too %ort4 ,b we d n "k if a balance ( error does n /ill rema94 ,"h1 h[ev]1 is a table ( deposits :i* summ>ises a great deal ( our k ( ! ?ickness ( ! /ratigraphical accumulations4 ,x is due to ,sollas4#a ,feet4 ,rec5t & ,plei/oc5e - - #d1jjj ,plioc5e - - #ac1jjj ,mioc5e - - #ad1jjj ,oligoc5e - - #b1jjj ,eoc5e - - #bj1jjj #fc1jjj ,upp] ,cretace\s - - #bd1jjj ,l[] ,cretace\s - - #bj1jjj ,jurassic - - #h1jjj ,trias - - #g1jjj #fi1jjj ,p]mian - - #b1jjj ,c>bonif]\s - - #bi1jjj ,devonian - - #bb1jjj #fc1jjj ,silurian - - #ae1jjj ,ordovician - - #ag1jjj ,cambrian - - #f1jjj #eh1jjj ,algonkian--,keewe5awan - - #ej1jjj ,algonkian--,animikian - - #ad1jjj ,algonkian--,huronian - - #ah1jjj #hb1jjj ,ar*an - - 8 ,total - - #cce1jjj feet4 #a ,address to ! ,geol4 ,soc4 ( ,london1 #aeji4 #f ,9 ! next place we require to "k ! av]age rate at :i* ^! rocks 7 laid d[n4 ,?is is really ! weake/ l9k 9 ! *a94 ,! mo/ div]se results h be5 arriv$ at1 :i* space does n p]mit u to consid]4 ,! value requir$ is mo/ difficult to det]m9e1 = x is diff]5t = ! diff]5t classes ( mat]ial1 & v>ies f riv] to riv] accord+ to ! conditions ( dis*>ge to ! sea4 ,we may probably take x z betwe5 two & six in*es 9 a c5tury4 ,n[ ! total dep? ( ! s$im5ts z we see is ab\t #cce1jjj feet 7or #fd miles71 & if we take ! rate ( collect+ z ?ree in*es 9 a hundr$ ye>s we get ! "t = all to collect z #acd millions ( ye>s4 ,if ! rate be f\r in*es1 ! "t is soo millions ( ye>s1 :i* is ! figure ,geikie fav\r$1 al?\gh 8 result 0 bas$ on some:at diff]5t data4 ,sollas mo/ rec5tly f9ds #hj millions ( ye>s4#a ,,! ,,age ,,z ,,inf]r$ ,,f ,,! ,,mass ,,( ,,! ,,s$im5ts ,9 ! above me?od we obta9 our result by ! measurem5t ( ! l9e> dim5sions ( ! s$im5ts4 ,^! measurem5ts1 z we h se51 are difficult to arrive at4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 proce$ by measurem5ts ( ! mass ( ! s$im5ts1 & !n ! me?od becomes m def9ite4 ,! new me?od is pursu$ z foll[s3 #a ,geikie1 ,text ,book ( ,geology 7,macmillan1 #aijc71 vol4 i41 p4 #gc1 et seq4 ,sollas1 loc4 cit4 ,joly1 ,radioactivity & ,geology 7,con/able1 #aiji71 & ,phil4 ,mag41 ,sept4 #aiaa4 #g ,! total mass ( ! s$im5ts =m$ s9ce d5udation began may be asc]ta9$ ) comp>ative accuracy by a /udy ( ! *emical composition ( ! wat]s ( ! ocean4 ,! salts 9 ! ocean are und\bt$ly d]iv$ f ! rocks2 increas+ age by age z ! latt] are degrad$ f _! orig9al "* "u ! action ( ! wea!r1 etc41 & conv]t$ to ! s$im5t>y =m4 ,by comp>+ ! av]age *emical composition ( ^! two classes ( mat]ial--! prim>y or igne\s rocks & ! s$im5t>y--x is easy to arrive at a k ( h[ mu* ( ?is or t con/itu5t 0 giv5 to ! ocean by ea* ton ( prim>y rock :i* 0 d5ud$ to ! s$im5t>y =m4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 w n assi/ u to our object unless ! ocean has reta9$ ! salts %$ into x4 ,x has n g5]ally done s4 ,9 ! case ( e sub/ance b "o ! ocean cont9ually gives up aga9 m or less ( ! salts suppli$ to x by ! riv]s4 ,! "o exception is ! elem5t sodium4 ,! great solubility ( its salts has protect$ x f ab/raction1 & x has gone on collect+ dur+ geological "t1 practically 9 its entirety4 ,?is gives u ! clue to ! d5udative hi/ory ( ! ,e>?4#a ,! process is n[ simple4 ,we e/imate by *emical exam9ation ( igne\s & s$im5t>y rocks ! am\nt ( sodium :i* has be5 suppli$ to ! ocean p] ton ( s$im5t produc$ by d5udation4 ,we also calculate #a ,trans4 ,r4,d4,s41 ,may1 #ahii4 #h ! am\nt ( sodium conta9$ 9 ! ocean4 ,we divide ! "o into ! o!r 7/at$1 ( c\rse1 9 ! same units ( mass71 & ! quoti5t gives u ! numb] ( tons ( s$im5t4 ,! mo/ rec5t e/imate ( ! s$im5ts made 9 ?is mann] af=ds #ef x #ajaf tonnes4#a ,n[ we are assur$ t all ?is s$im5t 0 transport$ by ! riv]s to ! sea dur+ geological "t4 ,?us x foll[s t1 if we c e/imate ! av]age annual rate ( ! riv] supply ( s$im5ts to ! ocean ov] ! pa/1 we c calculate ! requir$ age4 ,! l& surface is at pres5t l>gely cov]$ ) ! s$im5t>y rocks !mselves4 ,s$im5t d]iv$ f ^! rocks mu/ be reg>d$ z1 = ! mo/ "p1 purely cyclical2 t is1 circulat+ f ! sea to ! l& & back aga94 ,x does n g to increase ! great body ( detrital deposits4 ,we _c1 !re=e1 take ! pres5t riv] supply ( s$im5t z repres5t+ t obta9+ ov] ! long pa/4 ,if ! l& 0 all cov]$ /ill ) prim>y rocks we might d s4 ,x has be5 e/imat$ t ab\t #be p] c5t4 ( ! exi/+ cont95tal area is cov]$ ) ar*an & igne\s rocks1 ! rema9d] be+ s$im5ts4#b ,on ?is e/imate we may f9d valuable #a ,cl>ke1 ,a ,prelim9>y ,/udy ( ,*emical ,d5udation 7,wa%+ton1 #aiaj74 ,my own e/imate 9 #ahii 7loc4 cit47 made z a te/ ( yet ano!r me?od ( f9d+ ! age1 %[$ t ! s$im5ts may be tak5 z suffici5t to =m a lay] #a4a mile deep if spread uni=mly ov] ! cont95ts2 & w\ld am\nt to #fd x #ajah tons4 #b ,van ,tillo1 ,comptes ,r5dues 7,p>is71 vol4 cxiv41 #ahib4 #i major & m9or limits to ! geological age4 ,if we take #be p] c5t4 only ( ! pres5t riv] supply ( s$im5t1 we evid5tly fix a major limit to ! age1 = x is c]ta9 t ov] ! pa/ !re mu/ h be5 on ! av]age a fa/] supply4 ,if we take ! entire riv] supply1 on simil> reason+ we h :at is und\bt$ly a m9or limit to ! age4 ,! riv] supply ( detrital s$im5t has n be5 v ext5sively inve/igat$1 al?\gh ! quantities involv$ may be f\nd ) comp>ative ease & accuracy4 ,! foll[+ table embodies ! results obta9$ = "s ( ! lead+ riv]s4#a ,mean annual ,total annual ,ratio ( dis*>ge 9 s$im5t 9 s$im5t cubic feet ?\s&s to wat] p] second4 ( tons4 by weight4 ,potomac - #bj1afj #e1eeg #a 3 #c4ege ,mississippi - #faj1jjj #djf1bej #a 3 #a1ejj ,rio ,gr&e - #a1gjj #c1hcj #a 3 #bia ,uruguay - #aej1jjj #ad1ghb #a 3 #aj1jjj ,rhone - #fe1hej #cf1jjj #a 3 #a1gge ,po - #fb1bjj #fg1jjj #a 3 #ijj ,danube - #cae1bjj #ajh1jjj #a 3 #b1hhj ,nile - #aac1jjj #ed1jjj #a 3 #b1jej ,irrawaddy - #dge1jjj #bia1dcj #a 3 #a1faj ,mean - #bja1dfh #aji1fej #a 3 #b1gca ,we see t ! ratio ( ! weight ( wat] to ! #a ,russell1 ,riv] ,developm5t 7,john ,murray1 #ahhh74 #aj weight ( transport$ s$im5t 9 six out ( ! n9e riv]s does n v>y widely4 ,! mean is #b1gcj to #a4 ,b ?is is n ! requir$ av]age4 ,! wat]-dis*>ge ( ea* riv] has to be tak5 into acc\nt4 ,if we ascribe to ! ratio giv5 = ea* riv] ! weight prop] to ! am\nt ( wat] x dis*>ges1 ! proportion ( weight ( wat] to weight ( s$im5t1 = ! :ole quantity ( wat] involv$1 comes out z #b1ebj to #a4 ,n[ if ?is proportion holds = all ! riv]s ( ! _w--:i* collectively dis*>ge ab\t #bg x #ajab tonnes ( wat] p] annum--! riv]-born detritus is #a4jg x #ajaj tonnes4 ,to ?is an addition ( #aa p] c5t4 has to be made = silt pu%$ along ! riv]-b$4#a ,on ^! figures ! m9or limit to ! age comes out z #dg millions ( ye>s1 & ! major limit z #ahh millions4 ,we are "h go+ on r defici5t e/imates1 ! riv]s involv$ repres5t+ only "s #f p] c5t4 ( ! total riv] supply ( wat] to ! ocean4 ,b ! result is probably n v f> out4 ,we may arrive at a probable age ly+ betwe5 ! major & m9or limits4 ,if1 fir/1 we take ! ari?metic mean ( ^! limits1 we get #aag millions ( ye>s4 ,n[ ?is is almo/ c]ta9ly excessive1 = we "h assume t ! rate ( cov]+ ( ! prim>y rocks by s$im5ts 0 uni=m4 ,x w\ld n be s1 h[ev]1 = ! rate ( supply ( orig9al s$im5t mu/ h be5 cont9ually dim9i%+ #a ,accord+ to obs]vations made on ! ,mississippi 7,russell1 loc4 cit474 #aa dur+ geological "t1 & h5ce we may assume t ! rate ( advance ( ! s$im5ts on ! prim>y rocks has also be5 dim9i%+4 ,n[ we may probably take1 z a fair assumption1 t ! s$im5t-cov]$ area 0 at any in/ant increas+ at a rate proportionate to ! rate ( supply ( s$im5t2 t is1 to ! area ( prim>y rocks !n expos$4 ,on ?is assumption ! age is f\nd to be #hg millions ( ye>s4 ,,! ,,age ,,by ,,! ,,sodium ,,( ,,! ,,ocean ,i h next to lay be=e y a q diff]5t me?od4 ,i h already t\*$ ^u ! *emi/ry ( ! ocean1 & on ! rem>kable fact t ! sodium conta9$ 9 x has be5 pres]v$1 practically1 9 its entirety f ! beg9n+ ( geological "t4 ,t ! sea is "o ( ! mo/ beautiful & magnific5t sights 9 ,nature1 all admit4 ,b1 ,i ?9k1 to ^? :o "k its /ory its beauty & magnific5ce are t5-fold increas$4 ,its saltness x due to no magic mill4 ,x is ! dissolv$ rocks ( ! ,e>? :i* give x at once its br9e1 its /r5g?1 & its buoyancy4 ,! riv]s :i* we say fl[ ) fre% wat] to ! sea nev]!less conta9 ^? traces ( salt :i*1 collect$ ov] ! long ages1 occasion ! saltness ( ! ocean4 ,ea* gallon ( riv] wat] contributes to ! f9al result2 & ?is has be5 go+ on s9ce ! beg9n+ ( our era4 ,! mighty total ( ! riv]s is #f1ejj cubic miles ( wat] 9 ! ye>6 #ab ,!re is little d\bt t ! primeval ocean 0 9 ! condition ( a fre%-wat] lake4 ,x c be %[n t a primitive & m rapid solution ( ! orig9al cru/ ( ! ,e>? by ! sl[ly cool+ ocean w\ld h giv5 rise to relatively small sal9ity4 ,! fact is1 ! quantity ( salts 9 ! ocean is enorm\s4 ,we are only n[ conc]n$ ) ! sodium2 b if we c\ld extract all ! rock-salt 7! *loride ( sodium7 f ! ocean we %\ld h en\gh to cov] ! entire dry l& ( ! ,e>? to a dep? ( #djj feet4 ,x is ?is gigantic quantity :i* is go+ to ent] into our e/imate ( ! ,e>?'s age4 ,! calculat$ mass ( sodium conta9$ 9 ?is rock-salt is #ad1acj million million tonnes4 ,if n[ we c det]m9e ! rate at :i* ! riv]s supply sodium to ! ocean1 we c det]m9e ! age4#a ,z ! result ( _m ?\s&s ( riv] analyses1 ! total am\nt ( sodium annually dis*>g$ to ! ocean #a ,trans4 ,r4,d4,s41 #ahii4 ,a pap] by ,edmund ,halley1 ! a/ronom]1 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions ( ! ,royal ,society = #agae1 conta9s a sugge/ion = f9d+ ! age ( ! _w by ! foll[+ proc$ure4 ,he proposes to make obs]vations on ! saltness ( ! seas & ocean at int]vals ( "o or m c5turies1 & f ! increm5t ( saltness arrive at _! age4 ,! measurem5ts1 z a matt] ( fact1 are impracticable4 ,! sal9ity w\ld only ga9 7if all rema9$ 9 solution7 "o million? "p 9 ,too ye>s2 &1 ( c\rse1 ! cont9u\s rejection ( salts by ! ocean w\ld invalidate ! me?od4 ,! la/ objection also invalidates ! calculation by ,t4 ,mell>d ,reade 7,proc4 ,liv]pool ,geol4 ,soc41 #ahgf7 ( a m9or limit to ! age by ! calcium sulphate 9 ! ocean4 ,bo? pap]s 7 q unkn[n to me :5 work+ out my me?od4 ,halley's pap] 01 ,i ?9k1 only br\ght to light 9 #aijh4 #ac by all ! riv]s ( ! _w is f\nd to be probably n f> f #age million tonnes4#a ,divid+ ?is into ! mass ( oceanic sodium we get ! age z #hj4g millions ( ye>s4 ,c]ta9 corrections h to be appli$ to ?is figure :i* result 9 rais+ x to a little ov] #ij millions ( ye>s4 ,sollas1 z ! result ( a c>eful review ( ! data1 gets ! age z betwe5 #hj & #aej millions ( ye>s4 ,my own result#b 0 betwe5 #hj & #ij millions ( ye>s2 b ,i subsequ5tly f\nd t ^u c]ta9 extreme assumptions a maximum age might be arriv$ at ( #aje millions ( ye>s4#c ,cl>ke reg>ds ! #hj4g millions ( ye>s z c]ta9ly a maximum 9 ! light ( c]ta9 calculations by ,beck]4#d ,! ord] ( magnitude ( ^! results _c be %ak5 unless on ! assumption t !re is some?+ entirely mislead+ 9 ! exi/+ rate ( solv5t d5udation4 ,on ! /r5g? ( ! results ( ano!r & #a ,f4 ,w4 ,cl>ke1 ,a ,prelim9>y ,/udy ( ,*emical ,d5udation 7,smi?sonian ,miscellane\s ,collections1 #aiaj74 #b ,loc4 cit4 #c ,! ,circulation ( ,salt & ,geological ,"t 7,geol4 ,mag41 #aija1 p4 #cej74 #d ,beck] 7loc4 cit471 assum+ t ! expos$ igne\s & ar*an rocks alone are responsible = ! supply ( sodium to ! ocean1 arrives at #gd millions ( ye>s z ! geological age4 ,?is matt] 0 discuss$ by me =m]ly 7,trans4 ,r4,d4,s41 #ahii1 pp4 #ed et seq474 ,! assumption made is1 ,i believe1 inadmissible4 ,x is n support$ by riv] analyses1 or by ! *emical "* ( residual soils f s$im5t>y rocks4 ,!re may be "s conv]g5ce 9 ! rate ( solv5t d5udation1 b--z ,i ?9k on ! evid5ce--9 our "t unimportant4 #ad entirely diff]5t me?od ( approa*+ ! "q ( ! ,e>?'s age 7:i* %all be pres5tly ref]r$ to71 x has be5 cont5d$ t x is too l[4 ,x is ev5 ass]t$ t x is f n9e to f\rte5 times too l[4 ,we h !n to consid] :e!r su* an enorm\s error c ent] into ! me?od4 ,! measurem5ts involv$ _c be s]i\sly impugn$4 ,corrections = possible errors appli$ to ! quantities ent]+ into ?is me?od h be5 consid]$ by v>i\s writ]s4 ,my own orig9al corrections h be5 g5]ally confirm$4 ,i ?9k ! only po9t left op5 = discussion is ! pr9ciple ( uni=mit>ianism involv$ 9 ?is me?od & 9 ! me?ods previ\sly discuss$4 ,9 ord] to appreciate ! =ce ( ! evid5ce = uni=mity 9 ! geological hi/ory ( ! ,e>?1 x is1 ( c\rse1 necess>y to possess "s acqua9tance ) geological sci5ce4 ,"s ( ! mo/ em95t geologi/s1 among :om ,lyell & ,geikie#a may be m5tion$1 h upheld ! doctr9e ( uni=mity4 ,x mu/ "h suffice to dwell ^u a few po9ts hav+ special ref]5ce to ! matt] "u discussion4 ,! m]e ext5t ( ! l& surface does n1 )9 limits1 affect ! "q ( ! rate ( d5udation4 ,?is arises f ! fact t ! ra9 supply is q insuffici5t to d5ude ! :ole exi/+ l& surface4 ,ab\t #cj p] c5t4 ( x does n1 9 fact1 dra9 to ! #a ,see especially ,geikie's ,address to ,sect4 ,c41 ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,rep41 #acii4 #ae ocean4 ,if ! cont95ts become invad$ by a great transgression ( ! ocean1 ?is ra9less area dim9i%es3 & ! d5ud$ area advances inw>ds )\t dim9ution4 ,if ! ocean rec$es f ! pres5t /r& l9es1 ! ra9less area advances outw>ds1 b1 ! ra9 supply be+ s5sibly con/ant1 no *ange 9 ! riv] supply ( salts is to be expect$4 ,age-long subm]g5ce ( ! entire l&1 or ( any v l>ge proportion ( :at n[ exi/s1 is negativ$ by ! cont9u\s sequ5ce ( va/ areas ( s$im5t 9 e geologic age f ! e>lie/ times4 ,n[ s$im5t-receiv+ areas always are b a small fraction ( ^? expos$ areas :5ce ! s$im5ts are suppli$4#a ,h5ce 9 ! cont9u\s records ( ! s$im5ts we h assurance ( ! cont9u\s exposure ( ! cont95ts above ! ocean surface4 ,! doctr9e ( ! p]man5cy ( ! cont95ts has 9 its ma9 features be5 accept$ by ! mo/ em95t au?orities4 ,z to ! actual am\nt ( l& :i* 0 expos$ dur+ pa/ times to d5udative effects1 no data exi/ to %[ x 0 v diff]5t f :at is n[ expos$4 ,x has be5 e/imat$ t ! av]age area ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican cont95t ov] geologic "t 0 ab\t eight-t5?s ( its exi/+ area4#b ,re/orations ( o!r cont95ts1 s f> z !y h be5 attempt$1 w\ld n #a ,on ! /r5g? ( ! ,mississippi measurem5ts ab\t #a to #ah 7,magee1 ,am4 ,j\r4 ( ,sc41 #ahib1 p4 #ahh74 #b ,s*u*]t1 ,bull4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,am41 vol4 xx41 #aiaj4 #af sugge/ any m s]i\s div]g5cy "o way or ! o!r4 ,t climate 9 ! oceans & ^u ! l& 0 ?r\gh\t mu* z x is n[1 ! cont9u\s *a9 ( teem+ life & ! s5sitive temp]ature limits ( protoplasmic exi/5ce are suffici5t evid5ce4#a ,! influ5ce at once ( climate & ( elevation ( ! l& may be apprais$ at _! true value by ! asc]ta9$ facts ( solv5t d5udation1 z ! foll[+ table %[s4 ,tonnes remov$ 9 ,mean elevation4 solution p] squ>e ,metres4 mile p] annum4 ,nor? ,am]ica - #gi #gjj ,s\? ,am]ica - #ej #fej ,europe - #ajj #cjj ,asia - #hd #iej ,africa - #dd #fej ,9 ?is table ! e/imat$ numb] ( tonnes ( matt] 9 solution1 :i* = e squ>e mile ( area ! riv]s convey to ! ocean 9 "o ye>1 is giv5 9 ! fir/ column4 ,^! results are compil$ by ,cl>ke f a v l>ge numb] ( analyses ( riv] wat]s4 ,! second column ( ! table gives ! mean heights 9 metres above sea level ( ! sev]al cont95ts1 z cit$ by ,arrh5ius4#b ,( all ! d5udation results giv5 9 ! table1 ^? relat+ to ,nor? ,am]ica & to ,europe are f> ! #a ,see also ,p\lton1 ,address to ,sect4 ,d41 ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,rep41 #ahif4 #b ,lehybu* dev ,kosmis*5 ,physik1 vol4 i41 p4 #cdg4 #ag mo/ reliable4 ,inde$ ^! may be describ$ z highly reliable1 be+ f\nd$ on "s ?\s&s ( analyses1 _m ( :i* h be5 sy/ematically pursu$ ?r\gh e season ( ! ye>4 ,^! %[ t ,europe ) a mean altitude ( less ?an half t ( ,nor? ,am]ica %$s to ! ocean #be p] c5t4 m salts4 ,a result :i* is to be expect$ :5 ! m important factors ( solv5t d5udation are giv5 intellig5t consid]ation & we discrim9ate betwe5 conditions fav\r+ solv5t & detrital d5udation respectively3 conditions 9 _m cases antagoni/ic4#a ,h5ce if x is true1 z has be5 /at$1 t we n[ live 9 a p]iod ( exceptionally high cont95tal elevation1 we mu/ inf] t ! av]age supply ( salts to ! ocean by ! riv]s ( ! _w is less ?an ov] ! long pa/1 & t1 !re=e1 our e/imate ( ! age ( ! ,e>? z already giv5 is excessive4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 "o condition :i* w op]ate to unduly dim9i% our e/imate ( geologic "t1 & x is a condition :i* may possibly obta9 at ! pres5t "t4 ,if ! l& is1 on ! :ole1 n[ s9k+ relatively to ! ocean level1 ! d5udation area t5ds1 z we h se51 to move inw>ds4 ,x w ?us encroa* ^u regions :i* h n = long p]iods dra9$ to ! ocean4 ,on su* areas !re is an accumulation ( soluble salts :i* ! defici5t riv]s h n be5 able to c>ry to ! ocean4 ,?us ! salt cont5t ( c]ta9 ( #a ,see ! essay on ,d5udation4 #ah ! riv]s dra9+ to ! ocean w be influ5c$ n only by pres5t d5udative effects1 b also by ! /or$ results ( pa/ effects4 ,c]ta9 riv]s appe> to reveal ?is unduly increas$ salt supply ^? :i* fl[ ?r\gh comp>atively arid areas4 ,h[ev]1 ! fl[(f ( su* tribut>ies is relatively small & ! f9al effects on ! great riv]s app>5tly unimportant--a result :i* might h be5 anticipat$ :5 ! extremely sl[ rate ( ! l& movem5ts is tak5 into acc\nt4 ,! difficulty ( effect+ any reconciliation ( ! me?ods already describ$ & t n[ to be giv5 increases ! int]e/ bo? ( ! =m] & ! latt]4 ,,! ,,age ,,by ,,radioactive ,,trans=mations ,ru!r=d sugge/$ 9 #aije t z helium 0 cont9ually be+ evolv$ at a uni=m rate by radioactive sub/ances 79 ! =m ( ! alpha rays7 a det]m9ation ( ! age ( m9]als conta9+ ! radioactive elem5ts might be made by measurem5ts ( ! am\nt ( ! /or$ helium & ( ! radioactive elem5ts giv+ rise to x1 ,! p>5t radioactive sub/ances are--accord+ to pres5t k--uranium & ?orium4 ,an e/imate ( ! am\nts ( ^! elem5ts pres5t enables ! rate ( production ( ! helium to be calculat$4 ,ru!r=d %ortly aft]w>ds f\nd by ?is me?od an age ( #bdj millions ( ye>s = a radioactive m9]al ( presumably remote age4 ,/rutt1 :o c>ri$ #ai 8 measurem5ts to a wond]ful degree ( ref9em5t1 f\nd ! foll[+ ages = m9]al sub/ances orig9at+ 9 diff]5t geological ages3 ,oligoc5e - #h4d millions ( ye>s4 ,eoc5e - #ca millions ( ye>s4 ,l[] ,c>bonif]\s - #aej millions ( ye>s4 ,ar*an - #gej millions ( ye>s4 ,p]iods ( "t mu* less ?an1 & v inconsi/5t )1 ^! 7 also f\nd4 ,! l[] results are1 h[ev]1 easily expla9$ if we assume t ! helium--:i* is a gas "u prevail+ conditions--escapes 9 _m cases sl[ly f ! m9]al4 ,ano!r product ( radioactive orig9 is lead4 ,! sugge/ion t ?is sub/ance might be made available to det]m9e ! age ( ! ,e>? also orig9at$ ) ,ru!r=d4 ,we are at lea/ assur$ t ?is elem5t _c escape by gase\s diffusion f ! m9]als4 ,boltwood's results on ! am\nt ( lead conta9$ 9 m9]als ( v>i\s ages1 tak5 9 conjunction ) ! am\nt ( uranium or p>5t sub/ance pres5t1 af=d$ ages ris+ to #a1fdj millions ( ye>s = ar*an & #a1bjj millions = ,algonkian "t4 ,beck]1 apply+ ! same me?od1 obta9$ results ris+ to q incr$ible p]iods3 f #a1fga to #aa1dgj millions ( ye>s4 ,beck] ma9ta9$ t orig9al lead r5d]$ ! det]m9ations indef9ite4 ,! m rec5t results ( ,mr4 ,a4 ,holmes support ! conclusion t orig9al lead may be pres5t & may completely falsify results d]iv$ #bj f m9]als ( l[ radioactivity 9 :i* ! d]iv$ lead w\ld be small 9 am\nt4 ,by reject+ su* results z appe>$ to be ( ?is "*1 he arrives at #cgj millions ( ye>s z ! age ( ! ,devonian4 ,i mu/ n[ describe a v rec5t me?od ( e/imat+ ! age ( ! ,e>?4 ,!re are1 9 c]ta9 rock-=m+ m9]als1 col\r-*anges set up by radioactive causes4 ,! m9ute & curi\s m>ks s produc$ are kn[n z haloes2 = !y surr\nd1 9 r+like =ms1 m9ute p>ticles ( includ$ sub/ances :i* conta9 radioactive elem5ts4 ,x is n[ well kn[n h[ ^! haloes are =m$4 ,! p>ticle 9 ! c5tre ( ! halo conta9s uranium or ?orium1 &1 necess>ily1 along ) ! p>5t sub/ance1 ! v>i\s elem5ts d]iv$ f x4 ,9 ! process ( trans=mation giv+ rise to ^! sev]al d]iv$ sub/ances1 atoms ( helium--! alpha rays--project$ ) great velocity into ! surr\nd+ m9]al1 occasion ! col\r *anges ref]r$ to4 ,^! *anges are limit$ to ! di/ance to :i* ! alpha rays p5etrate2 h5ce ! halo is a sph]ical volume surr\nd+ ! c5tral sub/ance4#a ,! "t requir$ to =m a halo c\ld be f\nd if on ! "o h& we c\ld asc]ta9 ! numb] ( alpha rays eject$ f ! nucleus ( ! halo 91 say1 "o ye>1 &1 on ! o!r1 if we det]m9$ by exp]im5t j h[ _m alpha rays 7 requir$ to produce ! same #a ,phil4 ,mag41 ,m>*1 #aijg & ,febru>y1 #aiaj2 also ,b$rock1 ,janu>y1 #aiac4 ,see ,pleo*roic ,haloes 9 ?is volume4 #ba am\nt ( col\r alt]ation z we p]ceive to ext5d ar\nd ! nucleus4 ,! latt] e/imate is fairly easily & surely made4 ,b to "k ! numb] ( rays leav+ ! c5tral p>ticle 9 unit "t we require to "k ! quantity ( radioactive mat]ial 9 ! nucleus4 ,?is _c be directly det]m9$4 ,we c only1 f kn[n results obta9$ ) l>g] specim5s ( j su* a m9]al sub/ance z composes ! nucleus1 guess at ! am\nt ( uranium1 or x may be ?orium1 :i* may be pres5t4 ,?is me?od has be5 appli$ to ! uranium haloes ( ! mica ( ,c\nty ,c>l[4#a ,results = ! age ( ! halo ( f #bj to #djj millions ( ye>s h be5 obta9$4 ,?is mica 0 probably =m$ 9 ! granite ( ,le9/] 9 late ,silurian or 9 ,devonian times4 ,! high] results are probably ! lea/ 9 error1 ^u ! data involv$2 = ! assumption made z to ! am\nt ( uranium 9 ! nuclei ( ! haloes 0 su* z to r5d] ! high] results ! m reliable4 ,?is me?od is1 ( c\rse1 a radioactive me?od1 & simil> to ! me?od by helium /orage1 save t x is free ( ! risk ( error by escape ( ! helium1 ! effects ( :i* are1 z x 71 regi/]$ at ! mom5t ( its production1 s t its subsequ5t escape is ( no mom5t4 #a ,joly & ,ru!r=d1 ,phil4 ,mag41 ,april1 #aiac4 #bb ,,review ,,( ,,! ,,results ,we %all n[ briefly review ! results on ! geological age ( ! ,e>?4 ,by me?ods bas$ on ! approximate uni=mity ( d5udative effects 9 ! pa/1 a p]iod ( ! ord] ( #ajj millions ( ye>s has be5 obta9$ z ! duration ( our geological age2 & consi/5tly :e!r we accept = measurem5t ! s$im5ts or ! dissolv$ sodium4 ,we c give reasons :y ^! measurem5ts might af=d too great an age1 b we c f9d absolutely no good reason :y !y %\ld give "o mu* too l[4 ,by measur+ radioactive products ages h be5 f\nd :i*1 :ile !y v>y widely among !mselves1 yet claim to possess accuracy 9 _! sup]ior limits1 & exce$ ^? d]iv$ f d5udation f n9e to f\rte5 times4 ,9 ?is difficulty let u consid] ! claims ( ! radioactive me?od 9 any ( its =ms4 ,9 ord] to be tru/wor?y x mu/ be true2 7#a7 t ! rate ( trans=mation n[ %[n by ! p>5t sub/ance has obta9$ ?r\gh\t ! entire pa/1 & 7#b7 t !re 7 no o!r radioactive sub/ances1 ei!r n[ or =m]ly exi/+1 except uranium1 :i* gave rise to lead4 ,z reg>ds me?ods bas$ on ! production ( helium1 :at we h to say w l>gely apply to x also4 ,if "s unkn[n s\rce ( ^! elem5ts exi/s we1 ( c\rse1 on our assumption ov]e/imate ! age4 #bc ,z reg>ds ! fir/ po9t3 ,9 ascrib+ a con/ant rate ( *ange to ! p>5t sub/ance--:i* ,beck] 7loc4 cit47 describes z a simple ?\gh trem5d\s extrapolation--we reason ^u analogy ) ! con/ant rate ( decay obs]v$ 9 ! d]iv$ radioactive bodies4 ,if uranium & ?orium are really prim>y elem5ts1 h[ev]1 ! analogy reli$ on may be mislead+2 at lea/1 x is obvi\sly incomplete4 ,x is incomplete 9 a p>ticul> :i* may be v important3 ! mode ( orig9 ( ^! p>5t bodies--:atev] x may h be5--is diff]5t to t ( ! second>y elem5ts ) :i* we comp>e !m4 ,a conv]g5ce 9 _! rate ( trans=mation is n impossible1 or ev5 improbable1 s f> z we kn[n4 ,z reg>ds ! second po9t3 ,x is assum$ t uranium alone ( ! elem5ts 9 radioactive m9]als is ultimately trans=m$ to lead by radioactive *anges4 ,we mu/ consid] ?is assumption4 ,rec5t advances 9 ! *emi/ry ( ! radioactive elem5ts has br\ght out evid5ce t all ?ree l9es ( radioactive desc5t kn[n to u--i4e4 ^? beg9n+ ) uranium1 ) ?orium1 & ) act9ium--alike conv]ge to lead4#a ,!re are difficulties 9 ! way ( believ+ t all ! lead-l atoms s produc$ 7isotopes ( lead1 z ,soddy proposes to call !m7 actually rema9 z /able lead 9 ! m9]als4 ,= "o #a ,see ,soddy's ,*emi/ry ( ! ,radioactive ,elem5ts 7,longmans1 ,gre5 ,co474 #bd ?+ !re is sometimes1 along ) v l>ge am\nts ( ?orium1 an almo/ entire abs5ce ( lead 9 ?orianites & ?orites4 ,& 9 "s urano--?orites ! lead may be notic$ to foll[ ! uranium 9 approximate proportionality1 not)/&+ ! pres5ce ( l>ge am\nts ( ?orium4#a ,?is is 9 fav\r ( ! assumption t all ! lead pres5t is d]iv$ f ! uranium4 ,! act9ium is pres5t 9 negligibly small am\nts4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re is evid5ce aris+ f ! atomic weight ( lead :i* seems to involve "s o!r p>5t ?an uranium4 ,soddy1 9 ! "w ref]r$ to1 po9ts ?is out4 ,! atomic weight ( radium is well kn[n1 & uranium 9 its desc5t has to *ange to ?is elem5t4 ,! loss ( mass betwe5 radium & uranium-d]iv$ lead c be accurately e/imat$ by ! numb] ( alpha rays giv5 (f4 ,f ?is we get ! atomic weight ( uranium-d]iv$ lead z closely #bjf4 ,n[ ! be/ det]m9ations ( ! atomic weight ( normal lead assign to ?is elem5t an atomic weight ( closely #a ,x seems v difficult at pres5t to sugge/ an end product = ?orium1 unless we assume t1 by loss ( electrons1 ?orium ,e1 or ?orium-lead1 rev]ts to a sub/ance *emically id5tical ) ?orium itself4 ,su* a *ange--:e!r consid]$ f ! po9t ( view ( ! p]iodic law or ( ! radioactive !ory w\ld involve _m int]e/+ consequ5ces4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 q possible t ! nature ( ! conditions att5d+ ! deposition ( ! uranium ores1 _m ( :i* are comp>atively rec5t1 are responsible = ! difficulties obs]v$4 ,! ?orium & uranium ores are1 aga91 specially prone to alt]ation4 #be #bjg4 ,by a some:at simil> calculation x is d$uc$ t ?orium-d]iv$ lead w\ld possess ! atomic weight ( #bjh4 ,?us normal lead might be an admixture ( uranium- & ?orium-d]iv$ lead4 ,h[ev]1 z we h se51 ! view t ?orium gives rise to /able lead is beset ) "s difficulties4 ,if we are go+ ^u reliable facts & figures1 we mu/1 !n1 assume3 7a7 ,t "s o!r elem5t ?an uranium1 & g5etically connect$ ) x 7probably z p>5t sub/ance71 gives rise1 or =m]ly gave rise1 to lead ( heavi] atomic weight ?an normal lead4 ,x may be obs]v$ respect+ ?is !ory t !re is "s support = ! view t a p>5t sub/ance bo? to uranium & ?orium has exi/$ or possibly exi/s4 ,! evid5ce is f\nd 9 ! proportionality frequ5tly obs]v$ betwe5 ! am\nts ( ?orium & uranium 9 ! prim>y rocks4#a ,or3 7b7 ,we may meet ! difficulties 9 a simpl] way1 :i* may be /at$ z foll[s3 ,if we assume t all /able lead is d]iv$ f uranium1 & at ! same "t recognise t lead is n p]fectly homog5e\s 9 atomic weight1 we mu/1 ( necessity1 ascribe to uranium a simil> want ( homog5eity2 heavy atoms ( uranium giv+ rise to heavy #a ,comp>e results = ! ?orium cont5t ( su* rocks 7appe>+ 9 a pap] by ! au?or ,cong4 ,int4 de ,radiologie et d',electricit1 vol4 i41 #aiaj1 p4 #cgc71 & ^? = ! radium cont5t1 z collect$ 9 ,phil4 ,mag41 ,octob]1 #aiab1 p4 #fig4 ,also ,a4 ,l4 ,flet*]1 ,phil4 ,mag41 ,july1 #aiaj2 ,janu>y1 #aiaa1 & ,june1 #aiaa4 ,j4 ,h4 ,j4 ,poole1 ,phil4 ,mag41 ,april1 #aiae #bf atoms ( lead & light atoms ( uranium g5]at+ light atoms ( lead4 ,?is assumption seems to be involv$ 9 ! figures ^u1 :i* we are go+4 ,/ill rely+ on ^! figures1 we f9d1 h[ev]1 t exi/+ uranium _c give rise to lead ( normal atomic weight4 ,we c only conclude t ! heavi] atoms ( uranium h decay$ m rapidly ?an ! light] ones4 ,9 ?is connection x is ( int]e/ to note ! complexity ( uranium z rec5tly e/abli%$ by ,geig]1 al?\gh 9 ?is case x is assum$ t ! %ort]-liv$ isotope be>s ! relation ( (fspr+ to ! long]-liv$ & l>gely prepond]at+ con/itu5t4 ,h[ev]1 !re does n seem to be any direct pro( ( ?is z yet4 ,f ^! consid]ations x w\ld seem t unless ! atomic weight ( lead 9 uran9ites1 etc41 is #bjf1 ! =m] complexity & m accel]at$ decay ( uranium are indicat$ 9 ! data respect+ ! atomic weights ( radium & lead#a4 ,z an alt]native view1 we may assume1 z 9 our fir/ hypo!sis1 t "s elem5tally diff]5t b g5etically connect$ sub/ance1 decay+ along bran*+ l9es ( desc5t at a rate suffici5t to practically remove ! :ole ( x dur+ geological "t1 =m]ly exi/$4 ,:i*ev] hypo!sis we adopt #a ,lat] inve/igation has %[n t ! atomic weight ( lead 9 uranium-be>+ ores is ab\t #bjf4f 7see ,ri*>ds & ,lemb]t1 ,j\rn4 ( ,am4 ,claem4 ,soc41 ,july1 #aiad74 ,?is result gives support to ! view express$ above4 #bg we are confront$ by probabilities :i* invalidate "t-measurem5ts bas$ on ! lead & helium ratio 9 m9]als4 ,we h1 9 %ort1 grave reason to "q ! measure ( uni=mit>ianism po/ulat$ 9 f9d+ ! age by any ( ! kn[n radioactive me?ods4 ,t we h mu* to le>n respect+ our assumptions1 :e!r we pursue ! geological or ! radioactive me?ods ( approa*+ ! age ( our era1 is1 inde$1 probable4 ,:atev] ! issue x is c]ta9 t ! reconcil+ facts w leave u ) mu* m light ?an we at pres5t possess ei!r z respects ! ,e>?'s hi/ory or ! hi/ory ( ! radioactive elem5ts4 ,) ?is necess>y admission we leave our /udy ( ! ,bir?-,"t ( ! ,_w4 ,x has l$ u a long way f ,lucretius4 ,we d n ask if o!r ,iliads h p]i%$2 or if poets be=e ,hom] h va9ly sung1 becom+ a prey to all-consum+ "t4 ,we move 9 a great] hi/ory1 ! l&m>ks ( :i* are n ! bir? & dea? ( k+s & poets1 b ( species1 g5]a1 ord]s4 ,& we set out ^! organic ev5ts n accord+ to ! pass+ g5]ations ( man1 b ov] scores or hundr$s ( millions ( ye>s4 ,h[ mu* ,lucretius has lo/1 & h[ mu* we h ga9$1 is b\nd up ) ! "q ( ! intr9sic value ( k & great ideas4 ,let u appraise k z we w\ld ! ,hom]ic poems1 z "s- #bh ?+ :i* ennobles life & makes x happi]4 ,well1 !n1 we are1 z ,i ?9k1 9 possession today ( "s ( ^? lo/ ,iliads & ,odysseys = :i* ,lucretius look$ 9 va94#a #a ,! duration 9 ! pa/ ( ,sol> heat is necess>ily b\nd up ) ! geological age4 ,!re is no kn[n means 7outside speculative sci5ce7 ( acc\nt+ = m ?an ab\t #cj million ye>s ( ! exi/+ sol> temp]ature 9 ! pa/4 ,9 ?is direction ! age seems c]ta9ly limit$ to #ajj million ye>s4 ,see a review ( ! "q by ,dr4 ,l9demann 9 ,nature1 ,april #e?1 #aiae4 #bi ,,d5udation ,,! subject ( d5udation is at once "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ & "o ( ! mo/ complicat$ ) :i* ! geologi/ has to deal4 ,:ile its great results are app>5t ev5 to ! mo/ casual obs]v]1 ! factors :i* h l$ to ^! results are 9 _m cases s indet]m9ate1 & 9 "s cases app>5tly s v>iable 9 influ5ce1 t ?\ghtful writ]s h ev5 claim$ precisely opposite effects z orig9at+ f1 ! same cause4 ,inde$1 x is almo/ impossible to deal ) ! subject )\t ent]+ ^u controv]sial matt]s4 ,9 ! foll[+ pages ,i %all endeav\r to keep to broad issues :i* are1 at ! pres5t day1 ei!r conc$$ by ! great] numb] ( au?orities on ! subject1 or are1 f _! /rictly quantitative "*1 n op5 to controv]sy4 ,x is evid5t1 9 ! fir/ place1 t d5udation--or ! we>+ away ( ! l& surfaces ( ! e>?--is ma9ly a result ( ! circulation ( wat] f ! ocean to ! l&1 & back aga9 to ! ocean4 ,an action entirely condition$ by sol> heat1 & )\t :i* x w\ld completely cease & fur!r *ange ^u ! l& come to an end4 ,to :at actions1 !n1 is s great a pot5cy ( ! #cj circulat+ wat] to be trac$8 ,broadly speak+1 we may classify !m z me*anical & *emical4 ,! fir/ involves ! sep>ation ( rock masses into small] fragm5ts ( all sizes1 d[n to ! f9e/ du/4 ,! second involves ! actual solution 9 ! wat] ( ! rock con/itu5ts1 :i* may be reg>d$ z ! f9al act ( dis9tegration4 ,! riv]s be> ! burd5 bo? ( ! comm9ut$ & ! dissolv$ mat]ials to ! sea4 ,! mud & s& c>ri$ by _! curr5ts1 or gradually pu%$ along _! b$s1 repres5t ! =m]2 ! invisible dissolv$ matt]1 only to be demon/rat$ to ! eye by evaporation ( ! wat] or by *emical precipitation1 repres5ts ! latt]4 ,! results ( ^! actions1 integrat$ ov] geological "t1 are enorm\s4 ,! entire bulk ( ! s$im5t>y rocks1 su* z s&/ones1 slates1 %ales1 conglom]ates1 lime/ones1 etc41 & ! salt cont5t ( ! ocean1 are due to ! comb9$ activity ( me*anical & solv5t d5udation4 ,we %all1 lat] on1 make an e/imate ( ! magnitude ( ! quantities actually involv$4 ,9 ! ,swiss valleys we see torr5ts ( muddy wat] hurry+ along1 & if we foll[ !m up1 we trace !m to glaci]s high among ! m\nta9s4 ,f b5ea? ! foot ( ! glaci]1 we f9d1 ! torr5t has bir?4 ,! fir/ debris giv5 to ! riv] is d]iv$ f ! we>+ ( ! rocky b$ along :i* ! glaci] moves4 ,! riv] ( ice bequea?s to ! riv] ( wat]--( :i* x is ! p>5t--! spoils :i* x has won f ! rocks #ca ,! "w ( me*anical dis9tegration is1 h[ev]1 n re/rict$ to ! glaci]'s b$4 ,x proce$s ev]y:]e ov] ! surface ( ! rocks4 ,x is aid$ by ! mo/ div]se actions4 ,= in/ance1 ! freez+ & expansion ( wat] 9 ! *9ks & cracks 9 ^? alp9e heights :]e betwe5 sunrise & sunset ! heat ( summ] reigns1 & betwe5 sunset & sunrise ! cold ( w9t]4 ,aga91 "u ^! conditions ! m]e *ange ( surface temp]ature f night to day sev]ely /resses ! surface lay]s ( ! rocks1 &1 on ! same pr9ciples z we expla9 ! fracture ( an unequally heat$ glass vessel1 ! rocks cleave (f 9 slabs :i* slip d[n ! /eeps ( ! m\nta9 & collect z screes 9 ! valley4 ,at l[] levels ! expansive =ce ( vegetable gr[? is n unimportant1 z all w admit :o h se5 ! /rong roots ( ! p9es p5etrat+ ! crannies ( ! rocks4 ,nor does ! riv] :i* fl[s 9 ! b$ ( ! valley act z a c>ri] only4 ,li/5+ c>efully we may detect b5ea? ! ro> ( ! alp9e torr5t ! crun*+ & knock+ ( desc5d+ b\ld]s4 ,& 9 ! po?oles scoop$ by its :irl+ wat]s we recognise ! abrasive action ( ! susp5d$ s& ^u ! riv] b$4 ,a view f an ,alp9e summit reveals a sc5e ( rem>kable desolation 7,pl4 ,v1 p4 #dj74 ,screes lie pil$ aga9/ ! /eep slopes4 ,cliffs /& %att]$ & ready to fall 9 ru9s4 ,& "h ! =ces at "w readily reveal !mselves4 ,an occasional wrea? ( :ite smoke among #cb ! f>-(f peaks1 foll[$ by a rumbl+ rev]b]ation1 m>ks ! fall ( an avalan*e4 ,wat] ev]y:]e trickles ?r\gh ! %aly dbris scatt]$ ar\nd4 ,9 ! full sun%9e ! rocks are almo/ too hot to be> t\*+4 ,a few h\rs lat] ! cold is deadly1 & all becomes a froz5 sil5ce4 ,9 su* sc5es ( desolation & de/ruction1 detrital s$im5ts are actively be+ g5]at$4 ,z we desc5d into ! valley we he> ! deep voice ( ! torr5ts :i* are cont9ually hurry+ ! dis9tegrat$ rocks to ! ocean4 ,a rem>kable demon/ration ( ! activity ( me*anical d5udation is %[n by ! ph5om5on ( e>? pill>s4 ,! photograph 7,pl4 ,,iv47 ( ! e>? pill>s ( ! ,val d',hr5s 7,switz]l&7 %[s ! peculi> appe>ance ^! objects pres5t4 ,!y arise "u conditions :]e l>ge /ones or b\ld]s are scatt]$ 9 a deep deposit ( clay1 & :]e mu* ( ! d5udation is due to wat] sc\r4 ,! l>ge b\ld]s n only act z %elt] aga9/ ra91 b !y b9d & consolidate by _! m]e weight ! clay ^u :i* !y re/4 ,h5ce ! mat]ials und]ly+ ! b\ld]s become m resi/ant1 & z ! surr\nd+ clays are gradually wa%$ away & c>ri$ to ! /reams1 ^! compact$ p>ts p]si/1 &1 f9ally1 /& l walls or pill>s above ! g5]al level4 ,aft] a "t ! great b\ld]s fall (f & ! und]ly+ clay becomes worn by ! ra9wa% to fanta/ic spikes & ridges4 ,9 ! ,val d',hr5s ! e>? pill>s are =m$ #cc ( ! deep mora9e /uff :i* ?ickly ov]lies ! slopes ( ! valley4 ,! wall ( pill>s runs across ! axis ( ! valley1 d[n ! slope ( ! hill1 & crosses ! road1 s t x has to be tunnell$ to p]mit ! passage ( traffic4 ,x is n improbable t "s additional influ5ce--possibly ! pres5ce ( lime--has h>d5$ ! mat]ial =m+ ! pill>s1 & t5d$ to _! pres]vation4 ,d5udation has1 h[ev]1 o!r me?ods ( "w ?an purely me*anical2 me?ods m noiseless & g5tle1 b n less effective1 z ! victories ( peace ate no less ?an ^? ( w>4 ,ov] ! imm5se tracts ( ! cont95ts *emical "w proce$s rel5tlessly4 ,! rock 9 g5]al1 m especially ! prim>y igne\s rock1 is n /able 9 pres5ce ( ! atmosph]e & ( wat]4 ,"s ( ! m9]als1 su* z c]ta9 silicates & c>bonates1 dissolve relatively fa/1 o!rs ) extreme sl[ness4 ,9 ! process ( solution *emical actions are involv$2 oxidation 9 pres5ce ( ! free oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e2 attack by ! feeble acid aris+ f ! solution ( c>bon dioxide 9 wat]2 or1 aga91 by ! activity ( c]ta9 acids--hum\s acids--:i* orig9ate 9 ! decomposition ( vegetable rema9s4 ,^! *emical ag5ts may 9 "s in/ances1 e4g4 9 ! case ( c>bonates su* z lime/one or dolomite--br+ practically ! :ole rock into solution4 ,9 o!r in/ances--e4g4 granites1 basalts1 etc4--!y may remove "s ( ! #cd con/itu5t m9]als completely or p>tially1 su* z felsp>1 oliv9e1 augite1 & leave m resi/ant sub/ances to be ultimately wa%$ d[n z f9e s& or mud into ! riv]4 ,x is (t5 difficult or impossible to appraise ! relative effici5cy ( me*anical & *emical d5udation 9 remov+ ! mat]ials f a c]ta9 area4 ,!re c be1 inde$1 little d\bt t 9 m\nta9\s regions ! me*anical effects are l>gely pr$om9ant4 ,! silts ( glacial riv]s are little diff]5t f fre%ly-p[d]$ rock4 ,! wat] :i* c>ries !m b little diff]5t f ! pure ra9 or sn[ :i* falls f ! sky4 ,!re has n be5 "t = ! *emical or solv5t actions to take place4 ,n[ :ile gravitational =ces fav\r sudd5 %ock & viol5t motions 9 ! hills1 ! effect ( ^! on solv5t & *emical d5udation is b small4 ,nor is good dra9age fav\rable to *emical actions1 = wat] is ! prim>y factor 9 e case4 ,wat] takes up & removes soluble comb9ations ( molecules1 & p5etrates b5ea? residual insoluble sub/ances4 ,x c>ries ! oxyg5 & acids d[nw>ds ?r\gh ! soils1 & f9ally conveys ! results ( its own "w to ! riv]s & /reams4 ,! l[] mean temp]ature ( ! m\nta9s z well z ! p]fect dra9age dim9i%es *emical activities4 ,h5ce we conclude t ! heights are n g5]ally fav\rable to ! purely solv5t & *emical actions4 ,x is on ! l[]-ly+ l& t soils t5d to accumulate1 #ce & 9 ^! ! *ief solv5t & ! *ief *emical d5udation ( ! ,e>? are effect$4 ,! solv5t & *emical effects :i* g on 9 ! f9ely-divid$ mat]ials ( ! soils may be obs]v$ 9 ! laboratory4 ,!y proce$ fa/] ?an w\ld be anticipat$4 ,! obs]vation is made by pass+ a measur$ quantity ( wat] backw>ds & =w>ds = "s mon?s ?r\gh a tube conta9+ a few grammes ( p[d]$ rock4 ,f9ally ! wat] is analys$1 & 9 ?is mann] ! am\nt ( dissolv$ matt] x has tak5 up is e/imat$4 ,! rock p[d] is exam9$ "u ! microscope 9 ord] to det]m9e ! size ( ! gra9s1 & s to calculate ! total surface expos$ to ! action ( ! wat]4 ,we mu/ be c>eful 9 su* exp]im5ts to p]mit free oxidation by ! atmosph]e4 ,results obta9$ 9 ?is way ( c\rse take no acc\nt ( ! *emical effects ( organic acids su* z exi/ 9 ! soils4 ,! quantities obta9$ 9 ! laboratory w1 !re=e1 be defici5t z comp>$ ) ! natural results4 ,9 ?is mann] x has be5 f\nd t fre% basalt expos$ to cont9ually mov+ wat] w lose ab\t #j4bj gramme p] squ>e metre ( surface p] ye>4 ,! m9]al or?oclase1 :i* ent]s l>gely into ! con/itution ( _m granites1 0 f\nd to lose "u ! same conditions #j4jbe gramme4 ,a glassy lava 7obsidian7 ri* 9 silica & 9 ! *emical con/itu5ts ( an av]age granite1 0 m resi/ant /ill2 los+ b #j4jac gramme p] squ>e metre p] ye>4 ,hornbl5de1 a m9]al #cf abundant 9 _m rocks1 lo/ #j4jge gramme4 ,! mean ( ! results %[$ t #j4jh gramme 0 wa%$ 9 a ye> f ea* squ>e metre4 ,su* results give u "s indication ( ! rate at :i* ! "w ( solution goes on 9 ! f9ely divid$ soils4#a ,x might be urg$ t1 z ! me*anical break up ( rocks1 & ! production 9 ?is way ( l>ge surfaces1 mu/ be at ! basis ( solv5t & *emical d5udation1 ^! latt] activities %\ld be pr$om9ant 9 ! m\nta9s4 ,! answ] to ?is is t ! soils r>ely owe _! exi/5ce to me*anical actions4 ,! alluvium ( ! valleys con/itutes only n>r[ m>g9s to ! riv]s2 ! f9] dbris f ! m\nta9s is rapidly br\ght into ! ocean4 ,! soils :i* cov] ! great] "p ( cont95tal areas h _h a v diff]5t orig94 ,9 any qu>ry :]e a section ( ! soil & ( ! und]ly+ rock is visible1 we may /udy ! mode ( =mation ( soils4 ,our obs]vations are1 we w suppose1 pursu$ 9 a granite qu>ry4 ,we fir/ note t ! mat]ial ( ! soil ne>e/ ! surface is int]mix$ ) ! roots ( grasses1 trees1 or %rubs4 ,exam9+ a h&ful ( ?is soil1 we see gli/5+ flakes ( mica :i* pla9ly are d]iv$ f ! orig9al granite4 ,wa%+ (f ! f9] p>ticles1 we f9d ! l>ge/ rema9+ gra9s are compos$ ( ! all b inde/ructible qu>tz4 #a ,proc4 ,roy4 ,iri% ,acad41 ,,viii41 ,s]4 ,a1 p4 #ba4 #cg ,?is also is f ! granite4 ,"s few ( ! gra9s are ( *alky-look+ felsp>2 aga9 a granitic m9]al4 ,:at is ! f9] silt we h wa%$ (f8 ,x1 too1 is compos$ ( m9]al p>ticles to a great ext5t2 rock du/ /a9$ ) iron oxide & int]mix$ ) organic rema9s1 bo? animal & vegetable4 ,b if we make a *emical analysis ( ! f9] silt we f9d t ! composition is by no means t ( ! granite b5ea?4 ,! *emi/ is able to say1 f a /udy ( 8 results1 t !re has be51 9 ! fir/ place1 a l>ge loss ( mat]ial att5d+ ! conv]sion ( ! granite to ! soil4 ,he f9ds a conc5tration ( c]ta9 ( ! m resi/ant sub/ances ( ! granite aris+ f ! loss ( ! less resi/ant4 ,?us ! p]c5tage am\nt ( alum9a is increas$4 ,! p]c5tage ( iron is also increas$4 ,b silica & mo/ o!r sub/ances %[ a dim9i%$ p]c5tage4 ,notably lime has ne>ly disappe>$4 ,soda is mu* r$uc$2 s is magnesia4 ,pota% is n s completely ab/ract$4 ,f9ally1 ow+ to hydration1 !re is mu* m comb9$ wat] 9 ! soil ?an 9 ! rock4 ,?is is a typical result = rocks ( ?is k9d4 ,deep] 9 ! soil we (t5 obs]ve a *ange ( texture4 ,x has become f9]1 & at ! same "t ! clay is pal] 9 col\r4 ,?is subsoil repres5ts ! f9] p>ticles c>ri$ by ra9 f above4 ,! *ange ( col\r is due to ! /ate ( ! iron :i* is less oxidis$ l[ d[n 9 ! soil4 ,b5ea? ! subsoil ! soil gr[s #ch aga9 co>s]4 ,f9ally1 we recognise 9 x fragm5ts ( granite :i* ev] gr[ l>g] z we desc5d1 till ! soil has become replac$ by ! loose & %att]$ rock4 ,b5ea? ?is ! only sign ( wea!r+ app>5t 9 ! rock is ! ru/y hue imp>t$ by ! oxidis$ iron :i* ! p]colat+ ra9 has lea*$ f iron-be>+ m9]als4 ,! soil we h exam9$ has pla9ly be5 d]iv$ 9 situ f ! und]ly+ rock4 ,x repres5ts ! m insoluble residue aft] wat] & acids h done _! "w4 ,ea* ye> !re mu/ be a v sl[ s9k+ ( ! surface1 b ! ablation is inf9itesimal4 ,! dep? ( su* a soil may be consid]able4 ,! total surface expos$ by ! c\ntless gra9s ( :i* x is compos$ is enorm\s4 ,9 a cubic foot ( av]age soil ! surface area ( ! gra9s may be #ej1jjj squ>e feet or m4 ,h5ce a soil only two feet deep may expose #ajj1jjj squ>e feet = ea* squ>e foot ( surface area4 ,x is true t soils =m$ 9 ?is mann] by atmosph]ic & organic actions take a v long "t to gr[4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$1 h[ev]1 t ! process is ?r\gh\t att5d$ by ! removal 9 solution3 ( *emically alt]$ mat]ials4 ,consid]ations su* z ! =ego+ mu/ conv9ce u t :ile ! accumulation ( ! detrital s$im5ts ar\nd ! cont95ts is l>gely ! result ( activities progress+ on ! /eep] slopes ( ! l&1 t is1 #ci among ! m\nta9\s regions1 ! fe$+ ( ! salts to ! ocean arises f ! sl[] "w ( meteorological & organic ag5cies attack+ ! molecul> con/itution ( ! rocks2 processes :i* be/ proce$ :]e ! dra9age is sluggi% & ! quiesc5t conditions p]mit ( ! developm5t ( abundant organic gr[? & decay4 ,/ati/ics ( ! solv5t d5udation ( ! cont95ts support ?is view4 ,)9 rec5t ye>s a v l>ge am\nt ( "w has be5 exp5d$ on ! *emical inve/igation ( riv] wat]s ( ,am]ica & ( ,europe4 ,f4 ,w4 ,cl>ke has1 at ! exp5se ( mu* lab\r1 collect$ & comp>$ ^! results4 ,!y are express$ z s _m tonnes remov$ 9 solution p] squ>e mile p] annum4 ,= ,nor? ,am]ica ! result %[s #gi tonnes s remov$2 = ,europe #ajj tonnes4 ,n[ !re is a notable diff]5ce betwe5 ! mean elevations ( ^! two cont95ts4 ,nor? ,am]ica has a mean elevation ( #gjj metres ov] sea level1 :]eas ! mean elevation ( ,europe is b #cjj metres4 ,we see 9 ^! figures t ! m m\nta9\s l& supplies less dissolv$ matt] to ! ocean ?an ! l& ( l[] elevation1 z our /udy has l$ u to expect4 ,we h n[ consid]$ ! s\rce ( ! detrital s$im5ts1 z well z ( ! dissolv$ matt] :i* has giv5 to ! ocean1 9 ! c\rse ( geological "t1 its pres5t gigantic load ( salts4 ,x is true !re are fur!r solv5t & *emical effects ex]t$ by ! sea wat] #dj ^u ! s$im5ts dis*>g$ into x2 b we are ju/ifi$ 9 conclud+ t1 relatively to ! simil> actions tak+ place 9 ! soils1 ! solv5t & *emical "w ( ! ocean is small4 ,! fact is1 ! deposit$ detrital s$im5ts ar\nd ! cont95ts occupy an area small :5 contra/$ ) ! va/ /ret*es ( ! l&4 ,! area ( deposition is mu* less ?an t ( d5udation2 probably h>dly z mu* z "o tw5tie?4 ,&1 aga91 ! conditions ( a]ation & circulation :i* l>gely promote *emical & solv5t d5udation 9 ! soils are relatively limit$ & ineffective 9 ! detrital oceanic deposits4 ,! summation ( ! am\nts ( dissolv$ & detrital mat]ials :i* d5udation has br\ght into ! ocean dur+ ! long d5udative hi/ory ( ! ,e>?1 z we might anticipate1 reveals quantities ( almo/ unrealisable greatness4 ,! facts are among ! mo/ impressive :i* geological sci5ce has br\ght to light4 ,else:]e 9 ?is volume !y h be5 m5tion$ :5 discuss+ ! age ( ! ,e>?4 ,9 ! pres5t connection1 h[ev]1 !y are des]v+ ( sep>ate consid]ation4 ,! basis ( our reason+ is t ! ocean owes its saltness ma9ly if n entirely to ! d5udative activities we h be5 consid]+4 ,we mu/ e/abli% ?is4 ,we may1 9 ! fir/ place1 say t any o!r view at once raises ! greate/ difficulties4 ,! *emical composition ( ! detrital s$im5ts :i* are spread ov] #da ! cont95ts & :i* build up ! m\nta9s1 diff]s on ! av]age v consid]ably f t ( ! igne\s rocks4 ,we "k ! =m] h be5 d]iv$ f ! latt]1 & we "k t ! diff]5ce 9 ! composition ( ! two classes ( mat]ials is due to ! removal 9 solution ( c]ta9 ( ! con/itu5ts ( ! igne\s rocks4 ,b ! ocean alone c h receiv$ ?is dissolv$ matt]4 ,we "k ( no o!r place 9 :i* to look = x4 ,x is true t "s "p ( ?is dissolv$ matt] has be5 aga9 reject$ by ! ocean2 ?us ! =mation ( lime/one is l>gely due to ! ab/raction ( lime f sea wat] by organic & o!r ag5cies4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 9 no way relieves u ( ! necessity ( trac+ to ! ocean ! sub/ances dissolv$ f ! igne\s rocks4 ,x foll[s t we h "h a v causa = ! saltness ( ! ocean4 ,! view t ! ocean 0 salt f ! fir/ is )\t "o kn[n fact to support x1 & leaves u ) ! burd5 ( ! entire dissolv$ salts ( geological "t to dispose (--,:]e & h[8 ,! argum5t we h outl9$ above becomes conv9c+ly /rong :5 exam9$ m closely4 ,= ?is purpose we fir/ comp>e ! av]age *emical composition ( ! s$im5t>y & ! igne\s rocks4 ,! foll[+ table gives ! p]c5tages ( ! *ief *emical con/itu5ts3 #a #a ,f4 ,w4 ,cl>ke3 ,a ,prelim9>y ,/udy ( ,*emical ,d5udation1 p4 #ac #db ,igne\s4 ,s$im5t>y4 ,silica 7,si,o#b7 - #ei4ii #eh4ea ,alum9a 7,al#b,o#c7 - #ae4jd #ac4jg ,f]ric oxide 7,f#b,o#c7 - #b4ei #c4dj ,f]r\s oxide 7,fe,o7 - #c4cd #b4jj ,magnesia 7,mg,o7 - #c4hi #b4eb ,lime 7,ca,o7 - #d4ha #e4db ,soda 7,na#b,o7 - #c4da #a4ab ,pota% 7,k#b,o7 - #b4ie #b4hj ,wat] 7,h#b,o7 - #a4ib #d4bh ,c>bon dioxide 7,,co#b7 - -- #d4ic ,m9or con/itu5ts - #b4jf #a4ie #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,9 ! d]ivation ( ! s$im5ts f ! igne\s rocks !re is a loss by solution ( ab\t #cc p] c5t2 i4e4 #ajj tons ( igne\s rock yields r less ?an #gj tons ( s$im5t>y rock4 ,?is involves a conc5tration 9 ! s$im5ts ( ! m insoluble con/itu5ts4 ,to ?is rule ! lime-cont5t appe>s to be an exception4 ,x is n s 9 reality4 ,its high value 9 ! s$im5ts is due to its re/oration f ! ocean to ! l&4 ,! magnesia & pota% are1 also1 l>gely re/or$ f ! ocean2 ! =m] 9 dolomites & magnesian lime/ones2 ! latt] 9 glauconite s&s4 ,! iron ( ! s$im5ts %[s increas$ oxidation4 ,! mo/ notable diff]5ce 9 ! two analyses appe>s1 h[ev]1 9 ! soda p]c5tages4 ,?is falls f #c4da 9 ! igne\s rock to #a4ab 9 ! av]age s$im5t4 ,inde$1 ?is #dc defici5cy ( soda 9 s$im5t>y rocks is s *>act]i/ic ( second>y rocks t x may ) "s safety be appli$ to discrim9ate betwe5 ! two classes ( sub/ances 9 cases :]e petrological di/9ctions ( o!r k9ds break d[n4 ,to :at is ?is s m>k$ defici5cy ( soda to be ascrib$8 ,x is a result ( ! extreme solubility ( ! salts ( sodium 9 wat]4 ,?is has n only r5d]$ its deposition by evaporation a relatively r>e & unimportant incid5t ( geological hi/ory1 b also has protect$ x f ab/raction f ! ocean by organic ag5cies4 ,! elem5t sodium has1 9 fact1 accumulat$ 9 ! ocean dur+ ! :ole ( geological "t4 ,we c use ! facts associat$ ) ! accumulation ( sodium salts 9 ! ocean z a means ( obta9+ additional support to ! view1 t ! processes ( solv5t d5udation are responsible = ! saltness ( ! ocean4 ,! new evid5ce may be /at$ z foll[s3 ,e/imates ( ! am\nts ( s$im5t>y rock on ! cont95ts h repeat$ly be5 made4 ,x is true t ^! e/imates are no m ?an approximations4 ,b !y und\bt$ly are approximations1 & z su* may legitimately be us$ 9 our argum5t2 m especially z f9al agreem5t t5ds to *eck & to support ! sev]al e/imates :i* ent] into !m4 ,! mo/ rec5t & probable e/imates ( ! s$im5ts on ! l& assign an av]age ?ickness ( "o mile ( #dd second>y rocks ov] ! l& area ( ! _w4 ,to ?is "s increase mu/ be made to all[ = simil> mat]ials conceal$ 9 ! ocean1 pr9cipally ar\nd ! cont95tal m>g9s4 ,if we add #aj p] c5t4 & assign a specific gravity ( #b4e we get z ! mass ( ! s$im5ts #fd x #ajaf tonnes4 ,b z ?is is ab\t #fg p] c5t4 ( ! p>5t igne\s rock--i4e4 ! av]age igne\s rock f :i* ! s$im5ts are d]iv$--we conclude t ! prim>y d5ud$ rock am\nt$ to a mass ( ab\t #ie x #ajaf tonnes4 ,n[ f ! mean *emical composition ( ! second>y rocks we calculate t ! mass ( s$im5ts z above det]m9$ conta9s #j4gb x#ajaf tonnes ( ! sodium oxide1 ,na#b,o4 ,if to ?is am\nt we add ! quantity ( sodium oxide :i* mu/ h be5 giv5 to ! ocean 9 ord] to acc\nt = ! sodium salts conta9$ !re91 we arrive at a total quantity ( oxide ( sodium :i* mu/ be t possess$ by ! prim>y rock be=e d5udation began its "w ^u x4 ,! mass ( ! ocean be+ well asc]ta9$1 we easily calculate t ! sodium 9 ! ocean conv]t$ to sodium oxide am\nts to #b4a x #ajaf tonnes4 ,h5ce betwe5 ! e/imat$ s$im5ts & ! wat]s ( ! ocean we c acc\nt = #b4hb x #ajaf tonnes ( soda4 ,:5 n[ we put ?is quantity back into ! e/imat$ mass ( prim>y rock we f9d t x assigns to ! prim>y rock a soda p]c5tage ( #c4j4 ,on ! av]age analysis giv5 above ?is %\ld be #c4da p] c5t4 ,! agreem5t1 #de all ?+s consid]$1 m especially ! unc]ta9ty 9 ! e/imate ( ! s$im5ts1 is pla9ly 9 support ( ! view t oceanic salts are d]iv$ f ! rocks2 if1 inde$1 x does n r5d] x a c]ta9ty4 ,a lead+ & fundam5tal inf]5ce 9 ! d5udative hi/ory ( ! ,e>? ?us f9ds support3 inde$1 we may say1 v]ification4 ,9 ! light ( ?is fact ! :ole "w ( d5udation /&s reveal$4 ,t ! ocean began its hi/ory z a va/ fre%-wat] envelope ( ! ,globe is a view :i* accords ) ! evid5ce = ! primitive high temp]ature ( ! ,e>?4 ,geological hi/ory op5$ ) ! cond5sation ( an atmosph]e ( imm5se ext5t1 :i*1 aft] long fluctuations betwe5 ! /ates ( /eam & wat]1 f9ally settl$ ^u ! surface1 almo/ free ( matt] 9 solution3 an ocean ( di/ill$ wat]4 ,! epo* ( d5udation !n began4 ,x w1 probably1 cont9ue till ! wat]s1 und]go+ fur!r loss ( !rmal en]gy1 suff] yet ano!r *ange ( /ate1 :5 _! circulation w cease & _! attack ^u ! rocks come to an end4 ,f :at has be5 review$ above x is evid5t t ! sodium 9 ! ocean is an index ( ! total activity ( d5udation integrat$ ov] geological "t4 ,f ?is ! broad facts ( ! results ( d5udation admit ( det]m9ation ) consid]able accuracy4 ,we c e/imate ! am\nt ( rock :i* has be5 degrad$ by solv5t & *emical actions1 & ! am\nt ( s$im5ts :i* has be5 d]iv$ f x4 ,we are1 #df ?us1 able to am5d our e/imate ( ! s$im5ts :i*1 z det]m9$ by direct obs]vation1 s]v$ to support ! basis ( our argum5t4 ,we n[ g /raight to ! ocean = ! am\nt ( sodium ( d5udative orig94 ,!re may1 inde$1 h be5 "s primitive sodium dissolv$ by a m rapid d5udation :ile ! ,e>?'s surface 0 /ill fall+ 9 temp]ature4 ,x c be %[n1 h[ev]1 t ?is am\nt 0 relatively small4 ,neglect+ x we may say ) safety t ! quantity ( sodium c>ri$ into ! ocean by ! riv]s mu/ be betwe5 #ad1jjj & #ae1jjj million million tonnes3 i4e4 #ad1ejj x #ajab tonnes1 say4 ,keep+ ! figures to r\nd numb]s we f9d t ?is am\nt ( sodium involves ! d5udation ( ab\t #hj x #ajaf tonnes ( av]age igne\s rock to #ec x #ajaf tonnes ( av]age s$im5t4 ,f ^! va/ quantities we "k t ! p>5t rock d5ud$ dur+ geological "t am\nt$ to "s #cjj million cubic kilometres or ab\t sev5ty million cubic miles4 ,! s$im5ts d]iv$ !refrom possess$ a bulk ( #bbj million cubic kilometres or fifty million cubic miles4 ,! area ( ! l& surface ( ! ,globe is #add million squ>e kilometres4 ,! p>5t rock w\ld h cov]$ ?is to a uni=m dep? ( r m ?an two kilometres1 & ! d]iv$ s$im5t to m ?an #a4e kilometres1 or ab\t "o mile deep4 ,! sl[ accompli%m5t ( results s va/ conveys "s idea ( ! great duration ( geological "t4 #dg ,! =ego+ me?od ( inve/igat+ ! /ati/ics ( solv5t d5udation is capable ( af=d+ in=mation n only z to ! am\nt ( s$im5ts ^u ! l&1 b also z to ! quantity :i* is spread ov] ! floor ( ! ocean4 ,we see ?is :5 we foll[ ! fate ( ! #cc p] c5t4 ( dissolv$ salts :i* has be5 lea*$ f ! p>5t igne\s rock1 & ! mass ( :i* we calculate f ! asc]ta9$ mass ( ! latt]1 to be #bg x #ajaf tonnes4 ,?is quantity 0 at "o "t or ano!r all 9 ! ocean4 ,b1 z we saw above1 a c]ta9 "p ( x has be5 aga9 ab/ract$ f solution1 *iefly by organic ag5cies4 ,n[ ! ab/ract$ solids h n be5 altoge!r reta9$ b5ea? ! ocean4 ,movem5ts ( ! l& dur+ geological "t h result$ 9 "s portion be+ uplift$ along ) o!r s$im5ts4 ,^! sub/ances con/itute1 ma9ly1 ! lime/ones4 ,we see1 !n1 t ! #bg x #ajaf tonnes ( sub/ances lea*$ f ! p>5t igne\s rocks h _h a ?reefold de/9ation4 ,"o "p is /ill 9 solution2 a second "p has be5 precipitat$ to ! bottom ( ! ocean2 a ?ird "p exi/s on ! l& 9 ! =m ( calc>e\s rocks4 ,obs]vation on ! l& s$im5ts %[s t ! calc>e\s rocks am\nt to ab\t #e p] c5t4 ( ! :ole4 ,f ?is we f9d t #c x #ajaf tonnes1 approximately1 ( su* rocks h be5 tak5 f ! ocean4 ,?is acc\nts = "o ( ! ?ree classes ( mat]ial #dh into :i* ! orig9al dissolv$ matt] has be5 divid$4 ,ano!r ( ! ?ree quantities is easily e/imat$3 ! am\nt ( matt] /ill 9 solution 9 ! ocean4 ,! volume ( ! ocean is #a1dad million cubic kilometres & its mass is #ade x #ajaf tonnes4 ,! dissolv$ salts 9 x con/itute #c4d p] c5t4 ( its mass2 or1 r m ?an #e x #ajaf tonnes4 ,! lime/ones on ! l& & ! salts 9 ! sea wat] toge!r make up ab\t #h x #ajaf tonnes4 ,if we1 n[1 d$uct ?is f ! total ( #bg x #ajaf tonnes1 we f9d t ab\t #ai x #ajaf tonnes mu/ exi/ z precipitat$ matt] on ! floor ( ! ocean4 ,! area ( ! ocean is #cfg x #ajab squ>e metres1 s t if ! precipitat$ s$im5t possesses an av]age specific gravity ( #b4e1 x w\ld cov] ! entire floor to a uni=m dep? ( #bah metres2 t is #gae feet4 ,?is assumes t !re 0 uni=m deposition ( ! ab/ract$ matt] ov] ! floor ( ! ocean4 ,( c\rse1 ?is assumption is n ju/ifiable4 ,x is c]ta9 t ! rate ( deposition on ! floor ( ! sea has v>i$ enorm\sly ) v>i\s conditions--pr9cipally ) ! dep?4 ,aga91 x mu/ be rememb]$ t ?is e/imate takes no acc\nt ( solid mat]ials o!rwise br\ght into ! oceanic deposits2 e4g41 by w9d-transport$ du/ f ! l& or volcanic ejectam5ta 9 ! ocean dep?s4 ,x is n probable1 h[ev]1 t any consid]able addition to ! e/imat$ mean dep? ( deposit f su* s\rces w\ld be all[able4 #di ,! greatness ( ! quantities involv$ 9 ^! det]m9ations is almo/ awe inspir+4 ,take ! case ( ! dissolv$ salts 9 ! ocean4 ,!y are b a fraction1 z we h se51 ( ! total results ( solv5t d5udation & repres5t ! integration ( ! m9ute traces contribut$ by ! riv] wat]4 ,yet ! common salt 7*loride ( sodium7 alone1 conta9$ 9 ! ocean1 w\ld1 if ab/ract$ & spread ov] ! dry l& z a lay] ( rock salt hav+ a specific gravity ( #b4b1 cov] ! :ole to a dep? ( #ajg metres or #ced feet4 ,! total salts 9 solution 9 ! ocean simil>ly spread ov] ! l& w\ld increase ! dep? ( ! lay] to #dfj feet4 ,aft] consid]+ :at ?is means we h to rememb] t ?is am\nt ( matt] n[ 9 solution 9 ! seas is1 9 po9t ( fact1 less ?an a fif? "p ( ! total dissolv$ f ! rocks dur+ geological "t4 ,! transport by d5udation ( detrital & dissolv$ matt] f ! l& to ! ocean has _h a mo/ important influ5ce on ! ev5ts ( geological hi/ory4 ,! exi/+ surface features ( ! e>? mu/ h be5 l>gely condition$ by ! dynamical effects aris+ !refrom4 ,9 deal+ ) ! subject ( m\nta9 g5esis we w1 else:]e1 see t all ! great m\nta9 ranges h orig9at$ 9 ! accumulation ( ! detrital s$im5ts ne> ! %ore 9 areas :i*1 9 consequ5ce ( ! load1 gradually became depress$ & develop$ into syncl9es ( _m ?\s&s ( feet 9 dep?4 ,! mo/ impressive surface features ( ! ,globe orig9at$ #ej 9 ?is mann]4 ,we w see too t ^! ev5ts 7 ( a rhy?mic "*2 ! uprais+ ( ! m\nta9s involv+ int5sifi$ me*anical d5udation ov] ! elevat$ area & 9 ?is way an accel]at$ transport ( detritus to ! sea2 ! =mation ( fre% deposits2 r5ew$ syncl9al s9k+ ( ! sea floor1 &1 f9ally1 ! upheaval ( a y\ng] m\nta9 range4 ,?is extraord9>y sequ5ce ( ev5ts has be5 det]m9$ by ! ev5ts ( detrital d5udation act+ along ) c]ta9 g5]al conditions :i* h all along involv$ ! gr[? ( compressive /resses 9 ! surface cru/ ( ! ,e>?4 ,! effects ( purely solv5t d5udation are less easily trac$1 b1 v probably1 !y h be5 ( n less importance4 ,i ref] "h to ! transport f ! l& to ! sea ( matt] 9 solution4 ,solv5t d5udation1 z obs]v$ above1 takes place ma9ly 9 ! soils & 9 ?is way ov] ! m level cont95tal areas4 ,x has result$ 9 ! removal f ! l& & transf] to ! ocean ( an am\nt ( matt] :i* repres5ts a uni=m lay] ( "o half a kilometre2 t is ( m ?an #a1fjj feet ( rock4 ,! cont95ts h1 dur+ geological "t1 be5 light5$ to ?is ext5t4 ,on ! o!r h& all ?is matt] has = ! great] "p escap$ ! geosyncl9es & become uni=mly diffus$ ?r\gh\t ! ocean or precipitat$ ov] its floor pr9cipally on ! cont95tal slopes be=e ! great dep?s are rea*$4 ,( ?is mat]ial ! ocean #ea wat]s conta9 9 solution an am\nt suffici5t to increase _! specific gravity by #b4g p] c5t4 ,tak+ ! la/ po9t fir/1 x is int]e/+ to note ! effects ^u ! bulk ( ! ocean :i* has result$ f ! matt] dissolv$ 9 x4 ,f ! kn[n d5sity ( av]age sea wat] we f9d t #ajj ccs4 ( x weigh j #ajb4g grammes4 ,( ?is #c4e p] c5t4 by weight are solids 9 solution4 ,t is to say1 #c4eid grammes4 ,h5ce ! weight ( wat] pres5t is #ii4a grammes1 or a volume ( #ii4a ccs4 ,f ?is we see t ! salts pres5t h increas$ ! volume by #j4i ccs4 or #j4i p] c5t4 ,! av]age dep? ( ! ocean is #b1jjj fa?oms or #c1gjj metres4 ,! increase ( dep? due to salts dissolv$ 9 ! ocean has be51 !re=e1 #ajh feet or #cc4bd metres4 ,?is result assumes t !re has be5 no increas$ ela/ic compression due to ! increas$ pressure1 & no *ange ( compressional ela/ic prop]ties4 ,we may be sure t ! rise on ! %ore l9e ( ! l& has n be5 less ?an #ajj feet4 ,we see !n t z ! result ( solv5t d5udation we h to d ) a heavi] & a deep] ocean1 exp&$ 9 volume by ne>ly "o p] c5t4 & ! floor ( :i* has become rais$1 on an av]age1 ab\t #gjj feet by precipitat$ s$im5t4 ,"o ( ! fir/ conceptions1 :i* ! /ud5t ( geology has to dismiss f 8 m9d1 is t ( ! immobility or rigidity ( ! ,e>?'s cru/4 ,! lane1 we live on sways ev5 to ! g5tle rise & fail ( ocean tides #eb ar\nd ! coa/s4 ,x suff]s its own tidal oscillations due to ! moon's attractions4 ,l>ge tracts ( semi-liquid matt] und]lie x4 ,!re is e evid5ce t ! rais$ features ( ! ,globe are su/a9$ by su* pressures act+ ov] o!r & adjac5t areas z s]ve to keep !m 9 equilibrium aga9/ ! =ce ( gravity4 ,?is /ate ( equilibrium1 :i* 0 fir/ recognis$ by ,pratt1 z "p ( ! dynamics ( ! ,e>?'s cru/1 has be5 nam$ iso/asy4 ,! /ate ( ! cru/ is t ( mobile equilibrium4 ,! transf] ( matt] f ! expos$ l& surfaces to ! sub-oceanic slopes ( ! cont95ts & ! increase 9 ! d5sity ( ! ocean1 mu/ all along h be5 att5d$ by iso/atic readju/m5t4 ,we _c take any o!r view4 ,on ! "o h& ! l& 0 be+ light5$2 on ! o!r ! sea 0 increas+ 9 mass & dep? & ! flanks ( ! cont95ts 7 be+ load$ ) ! matt] remov$ f ! l& & borne 9 solution to ! ocean4 ,h[ important ! result+ movem5ts mu/ h be5 may be ga!r$ f ! fact t ! exi/+ l& ( ! ,globe /&s at a mean elevation ( no m ?an #b1jjj feet above sea level4 ,we h se5 t solv5t d5udation remov$ ov] #a1fjj feet ( rock4 ,b we h no evid5ce t on ! :ole ! elevation ( l& 9 ! pa/ 0 ev] v diff]5t f :at x n[ is4 ,we h1 !n1 pres5t$ to our view ! rem>kable fact t ?r\gh\t ! pa/1 & act+ ) extreme #ec sl[ness1 ! l& has /eadily be5 melt$ d[n into ! sea & z /eadily be5 uprais$ f ! wat]s4 ,x is possible t ! increas$ bulk ( ! ocean has l$ to a c]ta9 dim9ution ( ! expos$ l& area4 ,! po9t is a difficult "o4 ,"o ?+ we may )\t mu* risk assume4 ,! sub-a]eal curr5t ( dissolv$ matt] f ! l& to ! ocean 0 accompani$ by a sub-cru/al flux f ! ocean areas to ! l& areas2 ! heat$ visc\s mat]ials creep+ f dep?s f> b5ea? ! ocean floor to dep?s b5ea? ! roots ( ! m\nta9s :i* arose ar\nd ! oceans4 ,su* movem5ts took ages = _! accompli%m5t4 ,inde$1 !y h be51 probably1 cont9u\s all along & are /ill proce$+4 ,a l[ degree ( viscosity w suffice to p]mit ( movem5ts s sl[4 ,sup]impos$ ^u ^! movem5ts ! rhy?mic alt]nations ( depression & elevation ( ! geosyncl9es probably result$ 9 releas+ ! cru/ f local accumulation ( /ra9s aris+ 9 ! m rigid surface mat]ials4 ,! :ole sequ5ce ( movem5ts pres5ts an extraord9>y picture ( pseudo-vitality--rem9d+ u ( ! circulatory & respiratory sy/ems ( a va/ organism4 ,all great results 9 our univ]se are f\nd$ 9 motions & =ces ! mo/ m9ute4 ,9 contemplat+ ! ,cause or ! ,effect we /& equally impress$ ) ! spectacle pres5t$ to u4 ,we %all n[ turn f ! great effects ( d5udation ^u ! hi/ory & evolution ( a _w & consid] = a mom5t activities #ed s m9ute 9 detail t _! op]ations w probably = ev] elude our bodily s5ses1 b :i* nev]!less h necess>ily affect$ & modifi$ ! great results we h be5 consid]+4 ,! ocean a little way f ! l& is g5]ally s free f susp5d$ s$im5ts t x has a blackness z ( ink4 ,?is blackness is due to its absolute fre$om f p>ticles reflect+ ! sun's light4 ,! beautiful blue ( ! ,swiss & ,italian lakes is due to ! pres5ce ( v f9e p>ticles c>ri$ into !m by ! riv]s2 ! f9e/ fl\r ( ! glaci]s1 :i* rema9 almo/ indef9itely susp5d$ 9 ! wat]4 ,b 9 ! ocean x is only 9 ^? places :]e rapid curr5ts runn+ ov] %all[s /ir cont9ually ! s$im5ts or :]e ! fre% wat] ( a great riv] is c>ri$ f> f ! l&1 t ! pres5ce ( silt is to be obs]v$4 ,! beautiful ph5om5on ( ! coal-black sea is famili> to e ya*tsman :o has sail$ to ! we/ ( our ,isl&s4#a ,!re is1 9 fact1 a v rem>kable diff]5ce 9 ! mann] ( settlem5t ( f9e s$im5ts 9 salt & 9 fre% wat]4 ,we are "h br\ght into contact ) "o ( ^? subtle yet influ5tial natural actions ! explanation ( :i* involves sci5tific advance along _m app>5tly unconnect$ l9es ( inve/igation4 #a ,see ,tyndall's ,voyage to ,alg]ia 9 ,fragm5ts ( ,sci5ce4 ,! cause ( ! blue col\r ( ! lakes has be5 discuss$ by v>i\s obs]v]s1 n always ) agreem5t4 #ee ,x is easy to obs]ve 9 ! laboratory ! fact ( ! diff]5t behavi\r ( salt & fre% wat] t[>ds f9ely divid$ sub/ances4 ,! nature ( ! insoluble sub/ance is n important4 ,we place1 9 a good light1 two glass vessels ( equal dim5sions2 ! "o fill$ ) sea wat]1 ! o!r ) fre% wat]4 ,into ea* we /ir ! same weight ( v f9ely p[d]$ slate3 j s mu* z w produce a cl\d9ess4 ,9 a few h\rs we f9d ! sea wat] limpid4 ,! fre% wat] is /ill cl\dy1 h[ev]2 &1 inde$1 may be h>dly diff]5t 9 appe>ance f :at x 0 at />t+4 ,9 itself ?is is a mo/ extraord9>y exp]im5t4 ,we w\ld h anticipat$ q ! opposite result ow+ to ! great] d5sity ( ! sea wat]4 ,b a /ill m int]e/+ exp]im5t rema9s to be c>ri$ out4 ,9 ! sea wat] we h _m diff]5t salts 9 solution4 ,let u see if ^! salts are equally responsible = ! result we h obta9$4 ,= ?is purpose we measure out quantities ( sodium *loride & magnesium *loride 9 ! proportion 9 :i* !y exi/ 9 sea wat]3 t is ab\t z sev5 to "o4 ,we add su* an equal am\nt ( wat] to ea* z repres5ts ! dilution ( ^! salts 9 sea wat]4 ,!n f9ally we /ir a little ( ! f9ely p[d]$ slate into ea*4 ,x w be f\nd t ! magnesium *loride1 al?\gh s mu* m dilute ?an ! sodium *loride1 is consid]ably m active 9 cle>+ out ! susp5sion4 ,we may n[ try su* m>9e salts z magnesium sulphate1 #ef or calcium sulphate aga9/ sodium *loride2 keep+ ! m>9e proportions4 ,aga9 we f9d t ! magnesium & calcium salts are ! mo/ effective1 al?\gh s mu* m dilute ?an ! sodium salt4 ,!re is no visible clue to ! explanation ( ^! results4 ,b we mu/ conclude z mo/ probable t "s action is at "w 9 ! sea wat] & 9 ! salt solutions :i* clumps or flocculates ! s$im5t4 ,= only by ! ga!r+ ( ! p>ticles toge!r 9 little aggregates c we expla9 _! rapid fall to ! bottom4 ,x is n a "q ( viscosity 7i4e4 ( resi/ance to ! motion ( ! p>ticles71 = ! salt solutions are r m visc\s ?an ! fre% wat]4 ,/ill m rem>kable is ! fact t e dissolv$ sub/ance w n br+ ab\t ! result4 ,?us if we dissolve sug> 9 wat] we f9d t1 if any?+1 ! silt settles m sl[ly 9 ! sug> solution ?an 9 fre% wat]4 ,n[ !re is "o effect produc$ by ! solution ( su* salts z we h dealt ) :i* is n produc$ by su* bodies z sug>4 ,! wat] is r5d]$ a conductor ( electricity4 ,long ago ,f>aday expla9$ ?is z due to ! pres5ce ( free atoms ( ! dissolv$ salt 9 ! solution1 c>ry+ electric *>ges4 ,we n[ speak ( ! salt z ionis$4 ,t is x is p>tly split up into ions or free electrifi$ atoms ( *lor9e1 sodium1 magnesium1 etc41 accord+ to ! p>ticul> salt 9 solution4 ,?is fact leads u to ?9k t ^! electrifi$ #eg atoms mov+ ab\t 9 ! solution may be ! cause ( ! clump+ or flocculation4 ,su* electrifi$ atoms are abs5t f ! sug> solution3 sug> does n become ionis$ :5 x is dissolv$4 ,! suspicion t ! free electrifi$ atoms play a "p 9 ! ph5om5on is /r5g!n$ :5 we recall ! rem>kable diff]5ce 9 ! action ( sodium *loride & magnesium *loride4 ,9 ea* ( ! solutions ( ^! sub/ances !re are free *lor9e atoms ea* ( :i* c>ries a s+le *>ge ( negative electricity4 ,z ^! atoms are alike 9 bo? solutions ! diff]5t behavi\r ( ! solutions _c be due to ! *lor9e4 ,b ! metallic atom is v diff]5t 9 ! two cases4 ,! ionis$ sodium atom is kn[n to be monad or c>ries b "o positive *>ge2 :]eas ! magnesium atom is diad & c>ries two positive *>ges4 ,if1 !n1 we assume t ! metallic1 positively electrifi$ atom is 9 ea* case responsible1 we h some?+ to g on4 ,x may be n[ /at$ t x has be5 f\nd by exp]im5t & support$ by !ory t ! clump+ p[] ( an ion rises v rapidly ) its val5cy2 t is ) ! numb] ( unit *>ges associat$ ) x4 ,?us diads su* z magnesium1 calcium1 b>ium1 etc41 are v mu* m effici5t ?an monads su* z sodium1 potassium1 etc41 & aga91 triads su* z alum9ium are1 simil>ly1 v mu* m p[]ful ?an diad atoms4 ,"h1 9 %ort1 we h arriv$ at ! active cause ( ! ph5om5on4 ,its inn] me*anism #eh is1 h[ev]1 h>d] to fa?om4 ,a plausible explanation c be (f]$1 b a /udy ( x w\ld take u too f>4 ,suffici5t has be5 said to %[ ! v subtile nature ( ! =ces at "w4 ,we h "h an effect due to ! sea salts d]iv$ by d5udation f ! l& :i* has be5 sl[ly augm5t+ dur+ geological "t4 ,x is c]ta9 t ! ocean 0 practically fre% wat] 9 remote ages4 ,dur+ ^? times ! silt f ! great riv]s w\ld h be5 c>ri$ v f> f ! l&4 ,a ,mississippi ( ^? ages w\ld h s5t its f9] susp5sions f> abroad on a contempor>y ,gulf /ream3 n improbably "r across ! ,atlantic4 ,! e>li] s$im5ts ( argillace\s type 7 n collect$ 9 ! geosyncl9es & ! g5esis ( ! m\nta9s 0 delay$ proportionately4 ,b x 01 probably1 n = v long t su* conditions prevail$4 ,= ! accumulation ( calcium salts mu/ h be5 rapid1 & al?\gh ! great sal9ity due to sodium salts 0 ( sl[ gr[? ! salts ( ! diad elem5t calcium mu/ h soon introduc$ ! coop]ation ( ! ion 9 ! "w ( build+ ! m\nta94 #ei ,,! ,,abundance ,,( ,,life #a ,,we _h rea*$ ! ,pass ( ,tre ,croci#b;& f a po9t a little bel[ ! summit1 look$ ea/w>d ov] ! glori\s ,val ,buona4 ,! p9es :i* clo!d ! floor & l[] slopes ( ! valley1 ext5d$ _! multitudes into ! fur!/ di/ance1 among ! _m recesses ( ! m\nta9s1 & into ! conflu5t ,val di ,misur9a4 ,9 ! sun%9e ! ,alp9e butt]flies flitt$ f /one to /one4 ,! gr\nd at our feet & ev]y:]e ?r\gh\t ! =e/s team$ ) ! c\ntless millions ( ! small black ants4 ,x 0 a magnific5t display ( vitality2 ( ! aggressiv5ess ( vitality1 assail+ ! b>r5 heights ( ! lime/one1 wr++ a subsi/5ce f dead ?+s4 ,& ! "q sugge/$ itself ) new =ce3 :y ! abundance ( life & its un5d+ activity8 ,9 try+ to answ] ?is "q1 ! pres5t sket* orig9at$4 ,i propose to ref] = an answ] to dynamic consid]ations4 ,x is app>5t t natural selection c only be conc]n$ 9 a second>y way4 ,natural selection def9es #a ,proc4 ,roy4 ,dubl9 ,soc41 vol4 vii41 #ahij4 #b ,9 ! ,dolomites ( ,s\!a/ ,tyrol2 dur+ ! summ] ( #ahij4 ,mu* ( :at foll[s 0 evolv$ 9 discussion ) my fell[-travell]1 ,h5ry ,h4 ,dixon4 ,mu* ( x is 84 #fj a c]ta9 c\rse ( developm5t = ! organism2 b v evid5tly "s prop]ty ( inh]5t progressiv5ess 9 ! organism mu/ be involv$4 ,! m9]al is n affect$ by natural selection to ent] on a c\rse ( cont9ual v>iation & multiplication4 ,! dynamic relations ( ! organism ) ! environm5t are evid5tly v diff]5t f ^? ( inanimate nature4 ,,g5]al ,,dynamic ,,conditions ,,att5d+ ,,inanimate ,,actions ,x is necess>y1 9 ! fir/ place1 to ref] briefly to ! ph5om5a att5d+ ! transf] ( en]gy )9 & into inanimate mat]ial sy/ems4 ,x is n assum$ "h t ^! ph5om5a are re/rict$ 9 _! sph]e ( action to inanimate nature4 ,x is1 9 fact1 v c]ta9 t !y are n2 b :ile !y conf] on dead nature its own dynamic t5d5cies1 x w appe> t _! effects are by v>i\s means evad$ 9 liv+ nature4 ,we1 !re=e1 treat ( !m z *>act]i/ic ( inanimate actions4 ,we accept z fundam5tal to all ! consid]ations :i* foll[ ! tru? ( ! pr9ciple ( ! ,cons]vation ( ,en]gy4#a #a ,! pr9ciple ( ! ,cons]vation ( ,en]gy has acquir$ s mu* sci5tific weight dur+ ! la/ tw5ty ye>s t no physiologi/ w\ld feel any confid5ce 9 an exp]im5t :i* %[$ a consid]able diff]5ce betwe5 ! "w done by ! animal & ! balance ( ! acc\nt ( ,en]gy receiv$ & sp5t4--,cl]k ,maxwell1 ,nature1 vol4 xix41 p4 #adb4 ,see also ,helmholtz ,on ! ,cons]vation ( ,=ce4 #fa ,:atev] speculations may be made z to ! c\rse ( ev5ts v di/ant f u 9 space1 x appe>s c]ta9 t dissipation ( en]gy is at pres5t actively progress+ ?r\gh\t our sph]e ( obs]vation 9 inanimate nature4 ,x foll[s1 9 fact1 f ! second law ( !rmodynamics1 t :5ev] "w is d]iv$ f heat1 a c]ta9 quantity ( heat falls 9 pot5tial )\t do+ "w or1 9 %ort1 is dissipat$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 "w may be entirely conv]t$ into heat4 ,! result is ! heat-t5d5cy ( ! univ]se4 ,heat1 be+ an undirect$ =m ( en]gy1 seeks1 z x 71 its own level1 s t ! result ( ?is heat-t5d5cy is cont9ual approa* to uni=mity ( pot5tial4 ,! heat-t5d5cy ( ! univ]se is also reveal$ 9 ! f>-rea*+ law ( maximum "w1 :i* def9es t *emical *ange1 accompli%$ )\t ! int]v5tion ( ext]nal en]gy1 t5ds to ! production ( ! body1 or sy/em ( bodies1 :i* dis5gage ! greate/ quantity ( heat4#a ,&1 aga91 va/ numb]s ( actions go+ on ?r\gh\t nature are att5d$ by dissipatory !rmal effects1 z ^? aris+ f ! motions ( proximate molecules 7friction1 viscosity71 & f ! fall ( electrical pot5tial4 ,?us1 on all sides1 ! en]gy :i* 0 once mo/ probably exi/5t 9 ! =m ( gravitational pot5tial1 is be+ dissipat$ into unavailable =ms4 ,we mu/ #a ,b]!lot1 ,essai de ,mcanique ,*imique4 #fb recognize dissipation z an inevitable att5dant on inanimate transf] ( en]gy4 ,b :5 we come to consid] inanimate actions 9 relation to "t1 or "t-rate ( *ange1 we f9d a new feature 9 ! ph5om5a att5d+ transf] ( en]gy2 a feature :i* is really involv$ 9 g5]al /atem5ts z to ! laws ( physical int]actions4#a ,x is se51 t ! attitude ( inanimate mat]ial sy/ems is v g5]ally1 if n 9 all cases1 ret>dative ( *ange--oppos+ x by effects g5]at$ by ! prim>y action1 :i* may be call$ second>y = conv5i5ce4 ,fur!r1 x w be se5 t ^! second>y effects are ^? conc]n$ 9 br++ ab\t ! inevitable dissipation4 ,z example1 let u endeav\r to transf] gravitational pot5tial en]gy conta9$ 9 a mass rais$ above ! surface ( ! ,e>? into an ela/ic body1 :i* we c put into compression by re/+ ! weight ^u x4 ,9 ?is way "w is done aga9/ ela/ic =ce & /or$ z ela/ic pot5tial en]gy4 ,we may deal ) a metal spr+1 or ) a mass ( gas conta9$ 9 a cyl9d] fitt$ ) a pi/on ^u :i* ! weight may be plac$4 ,9 ei!r case we f9d ! effect ( compression is to raise ! temp]ature ( ! sub/ance1 ?us caus+ its #a ,helmholtz1 ,ice & ,glaci]s4 ,atk9son's collection ( 8 ,popul> ,lectures4 ,fir/ ,s]ies1 p4#abj4 ,quot$ by ,tate1 ,heat1 p4 #caa4 #fc expansion or increas$ resi/ance to ! desc5t ( ! weight4 ,& ?is resi/ance cont9ues1 ) dim9i%+ int5sity1 till all ! heat g5]at$ is dissipat$ into ! surr\nd+ m$ium4 ,! second>y effect ?us delays ! f9al transf] ( en]gy4 ,aga91 if we suppose ! gas 9 ! cyl9d] replac$ by a vap\r 9 a /ate ( saturation1 ! effect ( increas$ pressure1 z ( a weight plac$ ^u ! pi/on1 is to r$uce ! vap\r to a liquid1 !reby br++ ab\t a great dim9ution ( volume & proportional loss ( gravitational pot5tial by ! weight4 ,b ?is *ange w by no means be br\ght ab\t in/antane\sly4 ,:5 a little ( ! vap\r is cond5s$1 ?is portion p>ts ) lat5t heat ( vaporisation1 increas+ ! t5sion ( ! rema9d]1 or rais+ its po9t ( saturation1 s t be=e ! weight desc5ds any fur!r1 ?is heat has to escape f ! cyl9d]4 ,_m m su* cases might be cit$4 ,! heat+ ( india-rubb] :5 exp&$1 its cool+ :5 compress$1 is a rem>kable "o2 = at fir/ sight x appe>s z if ?is mu/ r5d] x exceptional to ! g5]al law1 mo/ sub/ances exhibit+ ! opposite !rmal effects :5 /ress$4 ,h[ev]1 "h1 too1 ! action ( ! /ress is oppos$ by ! second>y effects develop$ 9 ! sub/ance2 = x is f\nd t ?is sub/ance contracts :5 heat$1 exp&s :5 cool$4 ,aga91 ice be+ a sub/ance :i* contracts 9 melt+1 ! effect ( pressure is to facilitate melt+1 l[]+ its freez+ po9t4 ,b #fd s soon z a little melt+ occurs1 ! result+ liquid calls on ! residual ice = an am\nt ( heat equival5t to ! lat5t heat ( liquefaction1 & s by cool+ ! :ole1 ret>ds ! *ange4 ,su* p>ticul> cases illu/rate a pr9ciple controll+ ! int]action ( matt] & en]gy :i* seems univ]sal 9 application save :5 evad$1 z we %all see1 by ! +5uity ( life4 ,?is pr9ciple is n only reveal$ 9 ! rese>*es ( ! laboratory2 x is manife/ 9 ! hi/ory ( worlds & sol> sy/ems4 ,?us1 consid] ! effects aris+ f ! aggregation ( matt] 9 space "u ! influ5ce ( ! mutual attraction ( ! p>ticles4 ,! t5d5cy "h is loss ( gravitational pot5tial4 ,! f9al approa* is h[ev] ret>d$ by ! temp]ature1 or vis viva ( ! p>ts att5d+ collision & compression4 ,f ?is cause ! great suns ( space radiate = ages be=e ! f9al loss ( pot5tial is atta9$4 ,cl]k ,maxwell#a obs]ves on ! g5]al pr9ciple t less =ce is requir$ to produce a *ange 9 a body :5 ! *ange is unoppos$ by con/ra9ts ?an :5 x is subject$ to su*4 ,f ?is if we assume ! ext]nal =ces act+ ^u a sy/em n to rise above a c]ta9 pot5tial 7:i* is ! ord] ( nature71 ! con/ra9ts ( second>y actions may1 "u c]ta9 circum/ances1 lead to f9al rejection ( "s ( ! en]gy1 or1 9 any #a ,!ory ( ,heat1 p4 #aca4 #fe case1 to ret>dation ( *ange 9 ! sy/em--dissipation ( en]gy be+ ! result4#a ,z su* con/ra9ts seem inh]5tly pres5t 9 ! prop]ties ( matt]1 we may summ>ise z foll[s3 ,! transf] ( en]gy into any inanimate mat]ial sy/em is att5d$ by effects ret>dative to ! transf] & conducive to dissipation4 ,0 ?is ! only possible dynamic ord] rul+ 9 mat]ial sy/ems x is q c]ta9 ! myriads ( ants & p9es nev] c\ld h be51 except all g5]at$ by creative act at va/ prim>y exp5diture ( en]gy4 ,gr[? & reproduction w\ld h be5 impossible 9 sy/ems :i* ret>d$ *ange at e /ep & nev] proce$$ 9 any direction b 9 t ( dissipation4 ,once creat$1 inde$1 x is conceivable t1 z heat eng9es1 !y might h dragg$ out an exi/5ce ( alt]nate life & dea?2 life 9 ! h\rs ( sun%9e1 dea? 9 h\rs ( d>kness3 no f9al dea?1 h[ev]1 _! lot1 till _! p>ts 7 simply worn out by long use1 nev] made good by repair4 ,b ! su/a9$ & increas+ activity ( organiz$ nature is a fact2 !re=e "s o!r ord] ( ev5ts mu/ be possible4 #a ,! law ( ,lea/ ,action1 :i* has be5 appli$1 n alone 9 optics1 b 9 _m me*anical sy/ems1 appe>s physically bas$ ^u ! re/ra9t & ret>dation oppos+ ! transf] ( en]gy 9 mat]ial sy/ems4 #ff ,,g5]al ,,dynamic ,,conditions ,,att5d+ ,,animate ,,actions ,:at is ! actual dynamic attitude ( ! prim>y organic eng9e--! vegetable organism8 ,we consid]1 "h1 9 ! fir/ place1 n int]v5+1 b result+ ph5om5a4 ,! "y leaf expos$ to sol> radiation is small at fir/1 & ! quantity ( radiant en]gy x receives 9 unit ( "t _c exce$ t :i* falls ^u its surface4 ,b :at is ! effect ( ?is en]gy8 ,n to produce a ret>dative reaction1 b an accel]ative response3 =1 9 ! enl>g+ ( ! leaf by gr[?1 ! plant op5s = itself new *annels ( supply4 ,if we ref] to ! liv+ protoplasm :i*1 ) its unkn[n molecul> arrangem5t1 is ! only absolute te/ ( ! cell & ( ! organism 9 g5]al1#a we f9d a simil> attitude t[>ds ext]nal s\rces ( available en]gy4 ,9 ! act ( gr[? increas$ rate ( assimilation is involv$1 s t !re is an accel]ation ( *ange till a bulk ( maximum activity is atta9$4 ,! surface1 f9ally1 becomes too small = ! absorption ( en]gy adequate to su/a9 fur!r increase ( mass 7,sp5c]#b71 & ! accel]ation ceases4 ,! wa/e go+ on 9 ! c5tral p>ts is !n j balanc$ by ! r5ewal at ! surface4 ,by division1 by spread+ ( ! mass1 by #a ,claus1 ,zoology1 p4 #ac4 #b ,g$des & ,?omson1 ,! ,evolution ( ,sex1 p4 #bbj4 #fg out-fl[+ processes1 ! normal activity ( gr[? may be re/or$4 ,till ?is mom5t no?+ w\ld be ga9$ by any ( ^! *anges4 ,"o or o!r ( !m is n[ conducive to progressive absorption ( en]gy by ! organism1 & "o or o!r occurs1 mo/ g5]ally ! be/ ( !m1 subdivision4 ,two units n[ exi/2 ! total mass imm$iately on division is unalt]$1 b pa?s = ! m abundant absorption ( en]gy are laid op54 ,! ency/m5t ( ! protoplasm 7occurr+ "u conditions ^u :i* naturali/s d n seem agre$#a7 is to all appe>ance protective f an unfav\rable environm5t1 b x is (t5 a p]iod ( int]nal *ange z well1 result+ 9 a segregation )9 ! mass ( num]\s small units1 foll[$ by a breakup ( ! :ole into ^! units4 ,x is ?us an ext5sion ( ! basis ( supply1 & 9 an impov]i%$ m$ium1 :]e unit ( surface is less active1 is evid5tly ! be/ means ( pres]v+ a condition ( progress4 ,?us1 9 ! organism :i* =ms ! basis ( all modes ( life1 a def9ite law ( action is obey$ "u v>i\s circum/ances ( reaction ) ! available en]gy ( its environm5t4 ,simil>ly1 9 ! case ( ! m complex leaf1 we see1 n only 9 ! ph5om5on ( gr[?1 b 9 its ext5sion 9 a flatt5$ =m1 & 9 ! ori5tation ( greate/ surface t[>ds ! s\rce ( en]gy1 an attitude t[>ds #a ,h[ev]1 ,9 no way comp>able ) dea?4 ,weismann1 ,biological ,memoirs1 p4 #aeh4 #fh available en]gy causative ( accel]at$ transf]4 ,!re is seem+ly a pr9ciple at "w1 lead+ to ! increase ( organic activity4 ,_m o!r examples might be adduc$4 ,! ga/rula /age 9 ! developm5t ( embryos1 :]e by invag9ation su* an arrangem5t ( ! multiply+ cells is secur$ z to (f] ! greate/ possible surface consi/5t ) a fir/ division ( lab\r2 ! provision ( cilia = draw+ ^u ! en]gy supplies ( ! m$ium2 & m g5]ally ! specialisation ( organs 9 ! high] developm5ts ( life1 may alike be reg>d$ z ef=ts ( ! organism direct$ to ! absorption ( en]gy4 ,:5 any p>ticul> organ becomes unavail+ 9 ! obta9m5t ( supplies1 ! organ 9 ! c\rse ( "t becomes abort$ or disappe>s4#a ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 a too ready & lib]al supply r5d]s ex]tion & specialisation unnecess>y1 a simil> abortion ( functionless organs takes place4 ,?is is se5 9 ! degrad$ memb]s ( c]ta9 p>asites4 ,dur+ c]ta9 epo*s ( geological hi/ory1 ! vegetable _w develop$ enorm\sly2 9 response probably to lib]al supplies ( c>bon dioxide4 ,a /ructural adaptation to ! ri* atmosph]e occurr$1 su* z 0 calculat$ to coop]ate 9 rapidly consum+ ! supplies1 & to ?is ob$i5ce to a law ( progressive transf] ( en]gy we owe ! va/ /ores ( en]gy n[ accumulat$ #a ,claus1 ,zoology1 p4 #aeg #fi 9 our coal fields4 ,& :51 fur!r1 we reflect t ?is /ore ( en]gy _h long s9ce be5 dissipat$ into space b = ! int]v5tion ( ! organism1 we see def9itely ano!r factor 9 organic transf] ( en]gy--a factor act+ cons]vatively ( en]gy1 or antagoni/ically to dissipation4 ,! t5d5cy ( organiz$ nature 9 ! pres5ce ( unlimit$ supplies is to run riot4 ,?is seems s univ]sal a relation1 t we are safe 9 see+ "h cause & effect1 & 9 draw+ our conclusions z to ! attitude ( ! organism t[>ds available en]gy4 ,new species1 :5 !y come on ! field ( geological hi/ory1 arm$ ) fre% adaptations1 irresi/ible till ! sl[ def5ces ( ! subject$ organisms are complet$1 atta9 enorm\s sizes "u ! /imulus ( abundant supply1 till f9ally1 ! environm5t1 liv+ & dead1 reacts ^u !m ) re/ra9+ influ5ce4 ,! exub]ance ( ! organism 9 pres5ce ( en]gy is (t5 s abundant z to lead by deprivation to its self-de/ruction4 ,?us ! gr[? ( bact]ia is (t5 controll$ by _! own wa/e products4 ,a mom5t's consid]ation %[s t su* progressive activity d5otes an accel]ative attitude on ! "p ( ! organism t[>ds ! transf] ( en]gy into ! organic mat]ial sy/em4 ,f9ally1 we are consci\s 9 ourselves h[1 by use1 our faculties are develop$2 & x is app>5t t all su* progressive developm5ts mu/ re/ on actions :i* respond to supplies ) fre% dem&s4 ,possibly 9 ! pres5t & ev]- #gj increas+ consumption ( inanimate p[] by civilis$ races1 we see reveal$ ! dynamic attitude ( ! organism work+ ?r\gh ?\ght-processes4 ,:e!r ?is be s or n1 we f9d g5]ally 9 organis$ nature causes at "w :i* 9 "s way lead to a progressive transf] ( en]gy into ! organic sy/em4 ,& we notice1 too1 t all is n sp5t1 b bo? imm$iately 9 ! gr[? ( ! individual1 & ultimately 9 ! multiplication ( ! species1 !re are actions associat$ ) vitality :i* ret>d ! dissipation ( en]gy4 ,we proce$ to /ate ! dynamical pr9ciples involv$ 9 ^! manife/ations1 :i* appe> *>act]i/ic ( ! organism1 z foll[s3-- ,! transf] ( en]gy into any animate mat]ial sy/em is att5d$ by effects conducive to ! transf]1 & ret>dative ( dissipation4 ,?is /atem5t is1 ,i ?9k1 p]fectly g5]al4 ,x has be5 9 "p advanc$ be=e1 b f ! organic m ?an ! physical po9t ( view4 ,?us1 hung] is an ess5tial *>act]i/ic ( liv+ matt]2 & aga91 hung] is a dom9ant *>act]i/ic ( liv+ matt]1#a are1 9 "p1 expressions ( ! /atem5t4 ,if x be object$ aga9/ ! g5]ality ( ! /atem5t1 t !re are p]iods 9 ! life ( individuals :5 /agnation & decay make _! appe>ance1 we may answ]1 t #a ,evolution ( ,sex4 ,g$des & ,?omson1 *ap4 xvi4 ,see also a ref]5ce to ,cope's !ory ( ,gr[? ,=ce1 9 ,wallace's ,d>w9ism1 p4 #dbe4 #ga su* ph5om5a arise 9 phases ( life develop$ "u conditions ( ext]nal con/ra9t1 z w be urg$ m fully fur!r on1 & t 9 fact ! special conditions ( old age d n & _c express ! true law & t5d5cy ( ! dynamic relations ( life 9 ! face ( its evid5t advance ^u ! ,e>?4 ,! law ( ! uncon/ra9$ cell is gr[? on an ev] increas+ scale2 & al?\gh we assume ! organic configuration1 :e!r somatic or reproductive1 to be ess5tially un/able1 s t cont9ual infl[ ( en]gy is requir$ m]ely to keep x 9 exi/5ce1 ?is does n vitiate ! fact t1 :5 free ( all ext]nal con/ra9t1 gr[? ga9s on wa/e4 ,inde$1 ev5 9 ! case ( old age1 ! /atem5t rema9s ess5tially true1 = ! ph5om5a !n display$ po9t to a breakd[n ( ! function+ p[] ( ! cell1 an approximation to configurations incapable ( assimilation4 ,x is n z if life %[$ 9 ^! ph5om5a t its conditions c\ld obta9 9 ! mid/ ( abundance1 & yet its law be susp5d$2 b z if !y repres5t$ a degradation ( ! v conditions ( life1 a break up1 "u ! laws ( ! inanimate1 ( ! animate contrivance2 s t en]gy is no long] available to x1 or ! prim>y condition1 ! transf] ( en]gy into ! animate sy/em1 is imp]fectly obey$4 ,x is to ! p]fect contrivance ( life our /atem5t ref]s4 ,t ! f9al end ( all w be g5]al non-availability !re seems little reason to d\bt1 & ! organism1 itself dep5d5t ^u diff]5ces ( pot5tial1 _c #gb hope to c>ry on aggregation ( en]gy beyond ! p]iod :5 diff]5ces ( pot5tial are n4 ,! organism is n acc\ntable = ?is4 ,x is be+ affect$ by ev5ts ext]nal to x1 by ! actions go+ on ?r\gh inanimate ag5ts4 ,& al?\gh !re be only a "p ( ! receiv$ en]gy pres]v$1 !re is a "p pres]v$1 & ?is am\nt is cont9ually on ! increase4 ,to see ?is x is only necess>y to reflect t ! sum ( animate en]gy--capability ( do+ "w 9 any way ?r\gh animate means--at pres5t ^u ! ,e>?1 is ! result1 al?\gh a small "o1 ( en]gy rea*+ ! ,e>? s9ce a remote p]iod1 & :i* o!rwise _h be5 dissipat$ 9 space4 ,9 inanimate actions ?r\gh\t nature1 z we "k x1 ! availability is cont9ually dim9i%+4 ,! *ange is all ! "o way4 ,z1 h[ev]1 ! supply ( available en]gy 9 ! univ]se is 7probably7 limit$ 9 am\nt1 we mu/ look ^u ! two z simply effect+ ! f9al dissipation ( pot5tial 9 v diff]5t ways4 ,! animate sy/em is aggressive on ! en]gy available to x1 sp5ds ) economy1 & inve/s at int]e/ till dea? f9ally deprives x ( all4 ,x has heirs1 inde$1 :o inh]it "s ( its ga9s1 b !y1 too1 mu/ die1 & ultimately !re w be no successors1 & ! great] "p mu/ melt away z if x _h nev] be54 ,! inanimate sy/em responds to ! =ces impos$ ^u x by sluggi% *anges2 ( t :i* is ?ru/ ^u x1 x squ&]s uselessly4 ,! pa? ( ! en]gy is v diff]5t 9 ! two cases4 #gc ,:ile x is true g5]ally t bo? sy/ems ultimately result 9 ! dissipation ( en]gy to uni=m pot5tial1 ! organism c1 z we h se51 "u p>ticul> circum/ances evade ! f9al doom altoge!r4 ,x c lay up a /ore ( pot5tial en]gy :i* may be p]man5t4 ,?us1 s long z !re is free oxyg5 9 ! univ]se1 our coalfields might1 at any "t 9 ! remote future1 g5]ate light & heat 9 ! univ]sal grave4 ,x is necess>y to obs]ve on ! fundam5tal di/9ction betwe5 ! gr[? ( ! protoplasm & ! gr[? ( ! cry/al4 ,x is common to draw comp>ison betwe5 ! two1 & to po9t to metabolism z ! *ief di/9ction4 ,b :ile ?is is ! mo/ obvi\s di/9ction ! m fundam5tal "o rema9s 9 ! en]gy relations ( ! two ) ! environm5t4#a ,! gr[? ( ! cry/al is ! result ( loss ( en]gy2 t ( ! organism ! result ( ga9 ( en]gy4 ,! cry/al repres5ts a la/ position ( /able equilibrium assum$ by molecules ^u a c]ta9 loss ( k9etic en]gy1 & ! =mation ( ! cry/al by evaporation & conc5tration ( a liquid does n1 9 its dynamic aspect1 diff] mu* f ! precipitation ( an amorph\s s$im5t4 ,! organism1 on ! o!r h&1 repres5ts a m or less un/able condition =m$ & ma9ta9$ by infl[ ( en]gy2 its =mation1 inde$1 (t5 att5d$ ) a loss ( k9etic en]gy 7fixation ( c>bon 9 plants71 b1 if s1 accompani$ by #a ,x appe>s exceptional = ! cry/al l9e configuration to /& high] 9 ! scale ( en]gy ?an ! amorph\s4 #gd a m ?an comp5satory increase ( pot5tial molecul> en]gy4 ,?us1 betwe5 gr[? 9 ! liv+ _w & gr[? 9 ! dead _w1 ! en]gy relations ) ! environm5t reveal a m>k$ contra/4 ,aga91 9 ! ph5om5a ( combu/ion1 !re are c]ta9 sup]ficial resemblances :i* h l$ to comp>ison betwe5 ! two4 ,"h aga91 h[ev]1 ! attitudes t[>ds ! en]gy ( ! environm5t /& v mu* z & -4 ,! life absorbs1 /ores1 & sp5ds ) economy4 ,! flame only recklessly sp5ds4 ,! prop]ty ( /orage by ! organism calls out a fur!r di/9ction betwe5 ! c\rse ( ! two processes4 ,x secures t ! *emical activity ( ! organism c be propagat$ 9 a m$ium 9 :i* ! supply ( en]gy is discont9u\s or localis$4 ,! *emical activity ( ! combu/ion c1 /rictly speak+1 only be propagat$ among contigu\s p>ticles4 ,i ne$ n dwell on ! latt] fact2 an example ( ! =m] is se5 9 ! action ( ! roots ( plants1 :i* w (t5 trav]se a b>r5 place or circumv5t an ob/acle 9 _! se>* = en]gy4 ,9 ?is mann] roots w f9d out spots ( ri* nutrim5t4 ,?us !re is a dynamic di/9ction betwe5 ! progress ( ! organism & ! progress ( ! combu/ion1 or ( ! *emical reaction g5]ally4 ,& al?\gh !re be un/able *emical sy/ems :i* absorb en]gy dur+ reaction1 ^! are 7dynamically7 no m ?an ! expansion ( ! compress$ gas4 ,!re is a c]ta9 #ge initial capacity 9 ! sy/em = a giv5 quantity ( en]gy2 ?is satisfi$1 progress ceases4 ,! progress ( ! organism 9 "t is cont9ual1 & goes on f less to great] s long z its developm5t is uncon/ra9$ & ! supply ( en]gy is unlimit$4 ,we mu/ reg>d ! organism z a configuration :i* is s contriv$ z to evade ! t5d5cy ( ! univ]sal laws ( nature4 ,except we are prep>$ to believe t a violation ( ! second law ( !rmodynamics occurs 9 ! organism1 t a sort+ demon is at "w )9 x1 we mu/1 ,i ?9k1 assume t ! int]actions go+ on among its molecules are accompani$ by ret>dation & dissipation l ! re/ ( nature4 ,t su* conditions are n incompatible ) ! def9ition ( ! dynamic attitude ( ! organism1 c be %[n by analogy ) our inanimate ma*9es :i*1 by aid ( hypo!ses 9 keep+ ) ! second law ( !rmodynamics1 may be suppos$ to fulfil ! en]gy-functions ( ! plant or animal1 &1 9 fact1 9 all app>5t respects con=m to ! def9ition ( ! organism4 ,we may assume ?is accompli%$ by a contrivance ( ! nature ( a /eam-eng9e1 driv5 by sol> en]gy4 ,x has a boil]1 :i* we may suppose f$ by ! action ( ! eng9e4 ,x has pi/on1 cranks1 & o!r movable p>ts1 all subject to resi/ance f friction1 etc4 ,n[ !re is no reason :y ?is eng9e %\ld n exp5d its surplus en]gy 9 %ap+1 fitt+1 & />t+ into action o!r eng9es3--9 fact1 9 reproductive sacrifice4 ,all #gf ^! o!r eng9es repres5t a multipli$ absorption ( en]gy z ! effects ( ! en]gy receiv$ by ! p>5t eng9e1 & may 9 "t be suppos$ to reproduce !mselves4 ,fur!r1 we may suppose ! p>5t eng9e to be small & capable ( develop+ v little p[]1 b ! :ole s]ies z increas+ 9 p[] at ea* g5]ation4 ,?us ! prim>y en]gy relations ( ! vegetable organism are repres5t$ 9 ^! eng9es1 & no violation ( ! second law ( !rmodynamics involv$4 ,we might ext5d ! analogy1 & assum+ ^! eng9es to sp5d a portion ( _! surplus en]gy 9 do+ "w aga9/ *emical =ces--z1 = example1 by decompos+ wat] ?r\gh ! int]v5tion ( a dynamo--suppose !m to lay up 9 ?is way a /ore ( pot5tial en]gy capable ( heat+ ! boil]s ( a second ord] ( eng9es1 repres5t+ ! gram9ivor\s animal4 ,x is obvi\s )\t proce$+ to a t]ti>y or c>nivor\s ord]1 t ! condition ( en]gy 9 ! animal _w may be suppos$ fulfill$ 9 ^! successive s]ies ( eng9es1 & no violation ( ! pr9ciples gov]n+ ! actions go+ on 9 our ma*9es assum$4 ,organisms evolv+ on simil> pr9ciples w\ld exp]i5ce loss at e transf]4 ,?us only a portion ( ! radiant en]gy absorb$ by ! leaf w\ld be exp5d$ 9 actual "w1 *emical & gravitational1 etc4 ,x is v c]ta9 t ?is is1 9 fact1 :at takes place4 ,x is1 p]haps1 wor? pass+ obs]vation t1 f ! nutritive dep5d5ce ( ! animal ^u ! vegetable1 #gg & ! fact t a conv]sion ( ! en]gy ( ! "o to ! purposes ( ! o!r _c occur )\t loss1 ! mean en]gy absorb$ daily by ! vegetable = ! purpose ( gr[? mu/ greatly exce$ t us$ 9 animal gr[?2 s t ! *emical pot5tial en]gy ( vegetation ^u ! e>? is mu* great] ?an ! en]gy ( all k9ds repres5t$ 9 ! animal configurations4#a ,x appe>s1 too1 t 9 ! p[] possess$ by ! vegetable ( rema9+ comp>atively inactive1 ( surviv+ h>d times by ! exp5diture & absorption ( b little1 ! vegetable con/itutes a v]itable res]voir = ! uni=m supply ( ! m un/able & active animal4 ,f9ally1 on ! "q ( ! mann] ( orig9 ( organic sy/ems1 x is to be obs]v$ t1 :ile ! life ( ! pres5t is v surely ! survival ( ! fitte/ ( ! t5d5cies & *ances ( ! pa/1 yet1 9 ! initiation ( ! organis$ _w1 a s+le *ance may h decid$ a :ole c\rse ( ev5ts3 =1 once orig9at$1 its own law secures its increase1 al?\gh )9 ! new ord] ( actions1 ! law ( ! fitte/ mu/ ass]t itself4 ,t su* a progressive mat]ial sy/em z an organism 0 possible1 & at "s remote p]iod 0 initiat$1 is matt] ( k2 :e!r or n ! initiatory liv+ configuration 0 r>e & =tuit\s1 or ! probable result ( ! g5]al action ( physical laws act+ among innum]able *ances1 mu/ rema9 matt] ( #a ,i f9d a simil> conclusion arriv$ at 9 ,semp]'s ,animal ,life1 p4 #eb4 #gh speculation4 ,9 ! ev5t ( ! =m] be+ ! tru?1 x is evid5tly possible1 9 spite ( a l>ge f9ite numb] ( habitable worlds1 t life is non-exi/5t else:]e4 ,if ! latt] is ! tru?1 x is almo/ c]ta9 t !re is life 9 all1 or _m ( ^? worlds4 ,,evolution ,,& ,,accel]ation ,,( ,,activity ,! prim>y factor 9 evolution is ! /ruggle = exi/5ce4 ,?is involves a natural selection among ! _m v>iations ( ! organism4 ,if we seek ! und]ly+ causes ( ! /ruggle1 we f9d t ! necessity ( food & 79 a less] degree7 ! desire = a mate are ! pr9cipal causes ( cont5tion4 ,! =m] is mu* ! m important factor1 &1 accord+ly1 we f9d ! great] degree ( specialisation bas$ ^u x4 ,! pres5t view assumes a dynamic necessity = its dem&s involv$ 9 ! nature ( ! organism z su*4 ,?is assumption is bas$ on obs]vation ( ! outcome ( its uncon/ra9$ gr[?1 reproduction1 & life-acts4 ,we h ! same "r to ass]t ?is ( ! organism z we h to ass]t t ret>dation & degradation att5d ! actions ( inanimate ma*9es1 :i* ass]tion1 also1 is bas$ on obs]vation ( results4 ,?us we pass f ! sup]ficial /atem5ts t organisms require food 9 ord] to live1 or t organisms desire food1 to ! m fundam5tal "o t3 ,! organism is a configuration ( matt] :i* absorbs en]gy accel]atively1 )\t limit1 :5 uncon/ra9$4 #gi ,?is is ! dynamic basis = a /ruggle = exi/5ce4 ,! organism be+ a mat]ial sy/em respond+ to accession ( en]gy ) fre% dem&s1 & en]gy be+ limit$ 9 am\nt1 ! /ruggle foll[s z a necessity4 ,?us1 evolution guid+' ! /eps ( ! en]gy-seek+ organism1 mu/ presuppose & f9d its orig9 9 t inh]5t prop]ty ( ! organism :i* det]m9es its attitude 9 pres5ce ( available en]gy4 ,turn+ to ! factor1 adaptation1 we f9d t ?is also mu/ presuppose1 9 ord] to be explicable1 "s quality ( aggressiv5ess on ! "p ( ! organism4 ,= adaptation 9 ?is or t direction is ! result ( repulse or victory1 &1 !re=e1 we mu/ presuppose an attack4 ,! attack is made by ! organism 9 ob$i5ce to its law ( dem&2 we see 9 ! adaptation ( ! organism b ! accumulat$ wisdom d]iv$ f pa/ defeats & victories4 ,:]e ! environm5t is active1 t is liv+1 adaptation occurs on bo? sides4 ,improv$ means ( def5ce or improv$ means ( attack1 bo? presuppose activity4 ,?us ! reactions to ! environm5t1 animate & inanimate1 are at once ! outcome ( ! et]nal aggressiv5ess ( ! organism1 & ! s\rce ( fre% aggressiv5ess ^u ! res\rces ( ! m$ium4 ,z conc]ns ! survival ( ! fitte/ 7or natural selection71 we c1 ,i ?9k1 at once conclude t ! organism :i* be/ fulfils ! organic law "u ! circum/ances ( supply is ! fitte/1 ipso facto4 ,9 _m #hj cases ?is is conta9$ 9 ! commons5se consid]ation1 t to be /rong1 consi/5t ) concealm5t f enemies :i* are /rong]1 is be/1 z giv+ ! organism ma/]y ov] foes :i* are weak]1 & g5]ally r5d]s x bett] able to secure supplies4 ,weismann po9ts out t natural selection fav\rs e>ly & abundant reproduction4 ,b :e!r ! qualifications ( ! fitte/ be /r5g?1 f]tility1 cunn+1 fleetness1 imitation1 or concealm5t1 we are safe 9 conclud+ t gr[? & reproduction mu/ be ! prim>y qualities :i* at once det]m9e selection & are fo/]$ by x4 ,inh]5t 9 ! nature ( ! organism is accel]at$ absorption ( en]gy1 b ! qualifications ( ! fitte/ are v>i\s1 = ! supply ( en]gy is limit$1 & !re are _m competitors = x4 ,to secure t none be wa/$ is ultimately ! object ( natural selection1 decid+ among ! eag] competitors :at is be/ = ea*4 ,9 %ort1 ! facts & g5]alisations conc]n+ evolution mu/ presuppose an organism end[$ ) ! quality ( progressive absorption ( en]gy1 & ret5tive ( x4 ,! cont9uity ( organic activity 9 a _w :]e supplies are int]mitt5t is evid5tly only possible ^u ! latt] condition4 ,?us x appe>s t ! dynamic attitude ( ! organism1 consid]$ 9 ^! pages1 occupies a fundam5tal position reg>d+ its evolution4 ,we turn to ! consid]ation ( old age & dea?1 endeav\r+ to discov] 9 :at relation !y /& to ! innate progressiv5ess ( ! organism4 #ha ,,! ,,p]iodicity ,,( ,,! ,,organism ,,& ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,progressive ,,activity ,! organic sy/em is ess5tially un/able4 ,its aggressive attitude is involv$ 9 ! ph5om5on ( gr[?1 & 9 reproduction :i* is a =m ( gr[?4 ,b ! en]gy absorb$ is n only sp5t 9 gr[?4 ,x p>tly goes1 also1 to make good ! decay :i* arises f ! in/ability ( ! organic unit4 ,! cell is molecul>ly p]i%able4 ,x possesses its entity mu* z a top keeps erect1 by ! cont9ual infl[ ( en]gy4 ,metabolism is always tak+ place )9 x4 ,any o!r condition w\ld1 probably1 involve ! difficulties ( p]petual motion4 ,! ph5om5on ( old age is n evid5t 9 ! case ( ! unicellul> organism reproduc+ by fission4 ,at any /age ( its hi/ory all ! individuals are ( ! same age3 all conta9 a l portion ( ! orig9al cell1 s f> z ?is c be reg>d$ z p]si/+ :]e !re is cont9ual flux ( matt] & en]gy4 ,9 ! high] organisms dea? is univ]sally evid5t4 ,:y is ?is8 ,! "q is "o ( great complexity4 ,consid]$ f ! m fundam5tal molecul> po9t ( view we %\ld p]haps look to failure ( ! p[] ( cell division z ! condition ( mortality4 ,= x is to ?is ph5om5on--t ( cell division--t ! cont9u$ life ( ! protozoon is to be ascrib$1 z we h already se54 ,reproduction is1 9 fact1 ! sav+ factor "h4 ,z we d n "k ! s\rce or nature ( ! /imulus #hb responsible = cell division we _c give a molecul> acc\nt ( dea? 9 ! high] organisms4 ,h[ev] we %all n[ see t1 philosophically1 we are entitl$ to consid] reproduction z a sav+ factor 9 ?is case also2 & to reg>d ! dea? ( ! individual mu* z we reg>d ! fall ( ! leaf f ! tree3 i4e4 z ! cessation ( an outgr[? f a developm5t ext5d+ f ! pa/ into ! future4 ,! ph5om5a ( old age & natural dea? are1 9 %ort1 n at v>iance ) ! progressive activity ( ! organism4 ,we p]ceive ?is :5 we come to consid] dea? f ! evolution>y po9t ( view4 ,pr(essor ,weismann1 9 8 two essays1 ,! ,duration ( ,life1 & ,life & ,dea?1#a adopts & def5ds ! view t dea? is n a prim>y necessity b t x has be5 second>ily acquir$ by adaptation4 ,! cell 0 n inh]5tly limit$ 9 its numb] ( cell-g5]ations4 ,! l[ unicellul> organisms are pot5tially immortal1 ! high] multicellul> =ms ) well-diff]5tiat$ organs conta9 ! g]ms ( dea? )9 !mselves4 ,he f9ds ! necessity ( dea? 9 its utility to ! species4 ,long life is a useless luxury4 ,e>ly & abundant reproduction is be/ = ! species4 ,an immortal individual w\ld gradually become injur$ & w\ld be valueless or ev5 h>mful to ! species by tak+ ! place ( ^? t are s\nd4 ,h5ce natural selection w %ort5 life4 #a ,see 8 ,biological ,memoirs4 ,ox=d1 #ahhh4 #hc ,weismann cont5ds aga9/ ! transmission ( acquir$ *>act]s z be+ unprov$4#a ,he bases ! appe>ance ( dea? on v>iations 9 ! reproductive cells1 enc\rag$ by ! ceaseless action ( natural selection1 :i* l$ to a diff]5tiation into p]i%able somatic cells & immortal reproductive cells4 ,! "t-limit ( any p>ticul> organism ultimately dep5ds ^u ! numb] ( somatic cell-g5]ations & ! duration ( ea* g5]ation4 ,^! quantities are pr$e/9$ 9 ! g]m itself :i* gives rise to ea* individual4 ,! exi/5ce ( immortal metazoan organisms is conceivable1 b _! capacity = exi/5ce is influ5c$ by conditions ( ! ext]nal _w2 ?is r5d]s necess>y ! process ( adaptation4 ,9 fact1 9 ! diff]5tiation ( somatic f reproductive cells1 mat]ial 0 provid$ ^u :i* natural selection c\ld op]ate to %ort5 or to l5g!n ! life ( ! individual 9 accordance ) ! ne$s ( ! species4 ,! soma is 9 a s5se a second>y app5dage ( ! real be>] ( life--! reproductive cells4 ,! somatic cells probably lo/ _! immortal qualities1 on ?is immortality becom+ useless to ! species4 ,_! mortality may h be5 a m]e consequ5ce ( _! diff]5tiation 7loc4 cit41 p4 #adj71 itself due to natural selection4 ,natural dea? 0 n1 9 fact1 introduc$ f absolute intr9sic necessity inh]5t 9 ! nature ( liv+ matt]1 b on gr\nds ( utility1 #a ,biological ,memoirs1 p4 #adb4 #hd t is f necessities :i* sprang up1 n f ! g5]al conditions ( life1 b f ^? special conditions :i* dom9ate ! life ( multicellul> organisms4 ,on ! inh]5t immortality ( life1 ,weismann f9ally /ates3 ,reproduction is1 9 tru?1 an ess5tial attribute ( liv+ matt]1 j z ! gr[? :i* gives rise to x4444 ,life is cont9u\s1 & n p]iodically int]rupt$3 ev] s9ce its fir/ appe>ance ^u ! ,e>? 9 ! l[e/ organism1 x has cont9u$ )\t break2 ! =ms 9 :i* x is manife/ h alone und]gone *ange4 ,e individual alive today--ev5 ! highe/--is to be d]iv$ 9 an unbrok5 l9e f ! fir/ & l[e/ =ms4 #a ,at ! pres5t day ! view is v preval5t t ! soma ( high] organisms is1 9 a s5se1 b ! c>ri] = a p]iod ( ! immortal reproductive cells 7,ray ,lanke/]7#b--;an app5dage due to adaptation1 conc]n$ 9 _! supply1 protection1 & transmission4 ,& :e!r we reg>d ! "t-limit ( its functions z due to ext]nal con/ra9ts1 recurr5tly act+ till _! effects become h]$it>y1 or to v>iations m directly ( int]nal orig91 enc\rag$ by natural selection1 we see 9 old age & dea? ph5om5a ultimately br\ght ab\t 9 ob$i5ce to ! action ( an environm5t4 ,^! are n inh]5t 9 ! prop]ties ( liv+ matt]4 ,b1 9 spite #a ,loc4 cit41 p4 #aei #b ,g$des & ,?omson1 ,! ,evolution ( ,sex1 *ap4 xviii4 #he ( its mortality1 ! body rema9s a /rik+ manife/ation ( ! progressiv5ess ( ! organism1 = to ?is x mu/ be ascrib$4 ,to x en]gy is available :i* is d5i$ to ! protozoon4 ,+5i\s adaptations to environm5t are m especially its privilege4 ,a high] manife/ation1 h[ev]1 0 possible1 & 0 f\nd 9 ! developm5t ( m9d4 ,?is1 too1 is a s]vant ( ! cell1 z ! g5ii ( ! lamp4 ,?r\gh x en]gy is available :i* is d5i$ to ! body4 ,?is is ! ma/]piece ( ! cell4 ,its activity dates1 z x 71 b f ye/]day1 & today x inh]its ! mo/ div]se en]gies ( ! ,e>?4 ,tak+ ?is view ( organic succession1 we may lik5 ! individual to a p>ticle vibrat+ = a mom5t & !n com+ to re/1 b sweep+ out 9 its motion "o wave 9 ! cont9u\s organic vibration travell+ f ! pa/ into ! future4 ,b z ?is vibration is "o spread+ ) increas$ en]gy f ea* vibrat+ p>ticle1 its propagation involves a cont9ual accel]at$ infl[ ( en]gy f ! surr\nd+ m$ium1 a dynamic condition unkn[n 9 p]iodic effects transmitt$ by inanimate actions1 &1 inde$1 m>k+ ! fundam5tal diff]5ce betwe5 ! dynamic attitudes ( ! animate & inanimate4 ,we c trace ! p]iodic succession ( individuals on a diagram ( activity ) "s advantage4 ,consid]+1 fir/1 ! case ( ! unicellul> organism reproduc+ by subdivision & recall+ t conditions1 def9ite & inevitable1 oppose a limit to ! rate ( gr[?1 or1 = our #hf pres5t purpose1 rate ( consumption ( en]gy1 we proce$ z foll[s3 ,fig4 #a ,along a horizontal axis units ( "t are measur$2 along a v]tical axis units ( en]gy4 ,!n ! life-hi/ory ( ! amoeba1 = example1 appe>s z a l9e su* z ,a 9 ,fig4 #a4 ,dur+ ! e>li] /ages ( its gr[? ! rate ( absorption ( en]gy is small2 s t 9 ! unit int]val ( "t1 t1 ! small quantity ( en]gy1 e#a1 is absorb$4 ,z life advances1 ! activity ( ! organism augm5ts1 till f9ally ?is rate atta9s a maximum1 :5 e#b units ( en]gy are consum$ 9 ! unit ( "t4#a #a ,ref]5ce to p4 #gf1 :]e ! organic sy/em is treat$ z purely me*anical1 may help read]s to und]/& :at is involv$ 9 ?is curve4 ,! sol> eng9e may1 unque/ionably1 h its activity def9$ by su* a curve4 ,! organism is1 inde$1 m complex2 b nei!r ?is fact nor our ignorance ( its me*anism1 affects ! pr9ciples :i* ju/ify ! diagram4 #hg ,on ?is diagram reproduction1 on ! "p ( ! organism1 is repres5t$ by a l9e :i* repeats ! curvature ( ! p>5t organism orig9at+ at su* a po9t z ,p 9 ! pa? ( ! latt]1 :5 ! rate ( consumption ( en]gy has become con/ant4 ,! organism ,a has n[ ceas$ to act z a unit4 ,! products ( fission ea* c>ry on ! vital developm5t ( ,fig4 #b ! species along ! curve ,b1 :i* may be numb]$ 7#b71 to signify t x repres5ts ! activity ( two individuals1 & s on1 ! numb]+ advanc+ 9 geometrical progression4 ,! p>ticul> curvature adopt$ 9 ! diagram is1 ( c\rse1 imag9>y2 b x is n ( an indet]m9ate nature4 ,its c\rse = any species is a *>act]i/ic ( fundam5tal physical importance1 reg>d+ ! "p play$ 9 nature by ! p>ticul> organism4 #hh ,9 ,fig4 #b is repres5t$ ! pa? ( a primitive multicellul> organism be=e ! effects ( competition produc$ or fo/]$ its mortality4 ,! lett]+ ( ,fig4 #a applies2 ! successive reproductive acts are m>k$ ,p#a1 ,p#b2 ,q#a1 ,q#b1 etc41 9 ! pa?s ( ! successive individuals4 ,fig4 #c ,! next figure 7,fig4 #c7 diagrammatically illu/rates dea? 9 organic hi/ory4 ,! pa? ev] turns m & m f ! axis ( en]gy1 till at l5g? ! po9t is rea*$ :5 no m en]gy is available2 a tang5t to ! curve at ?is po9t is at "r angles to ! axis ( en]gy & p>allel to ! "t axis4 ,! dea? po9t is rea*$1 & h[ev] great a l5g? we measure along ! axis ( "t1 no fur!r consumption ( en]gy is #hi indicat$ by ! pa? ( ! organism4 ,draw+ ! l9e beyond ! dea? po9t is mean+less = our pres5t purpose4 ,x is obs]vable t :ile ! progress ( animate nature f9ds its repres5tation on ?is diagram by l9es slop+ upw>ds f left to "r1 ! c\rse ( ev5ts 9 inanimate nature--= example1 ! hi/ory ( ! organic configuration aft] dea?1 or ,fig4 #d ! *anges progress+--let u say1 9 ! sol> sy/em1 or 9 ! process ( a cry/allisation1 w\ld appe> z l9es slop+ d[nw>ds f left to "r4 ,:atev] our views on ! orig9 ( dea? may be1 we h to recognise a p]iodicity ( functions 9 ! life-hi/ory ( ! successive individuals ( ! pres5t day2 & :e!r or n we trace ?is directly or indirectly to #ij a sort ( int]f]5ce ) ! ris+ wave ( life1 impos$ by ! activity ( a s]ies ( d]iv$ units1 ea* seek+ en]gy1 & 9 virtue ( its adaptation ea* be+ m fitt$ to obta9 x ?an its pr$ecessor1 or ev5 leave ! idea ( int]f]5ce out ( acc\nt altoge!r 9 ! orig9ation or p]petuation ( dea?1 ! tru? ( ! diagram 7,fig4 #d7 holds 9 s f> z x may be suppos$ to graphically repres5t ! dynamic hi/ory ( ! individual4 ,! po9t *os5 on ! curve = ! orig9ation ( a d]iv$ unit is only applicable to c]ta9 organisms1 _m reproduc+ at ! v close ( life4 ,a *a9 ( units are suppos$ "h repres5t$4#a ,,! ,,l5g? ,,( ,,life ,if we lay out waves z above to a common scale ( "t = diff]5t species1 ! diff]5ce ( longevity is %[n 9 ! great] or less numb] ( vibrations execut$ 9 a giv5 "t1 i4e4 9 great] or less frequ5cy4 ,we _c inde$ draw ! curvature correctly1 = ?is w\ld necessitate a k :i* we h n ( ! activity ( ! organism at diff]5t p]iods ( its life-hi/ory1 & s nei!r c we plot ! direction ( ! organic l9e ( propagation ) respect to ! #a ,project+ ^u ! axes ( "t & en]gy any "o complete vibration1 z 9 ,fig4 #d1 ! total en]gy consum$ by ! organism dur+ life is ! l5g? ,e on ! axis ( en]gy1 & its p]iod ( life is ! l5g? ,t on ! "t-axis4 ,! mean activity is ! quoti5t ,e_/,t4 #ia axes ( ref]5ce z ?is involves a k ( ! mean activity4#a ,! gr\p ( curves :i* foll[1 relat+ to typical animals possess+ v diff]5t activities 7,fig4 #e71 are !re=e entirely diagrammatic1 except 9 respect to ! approximate ,fig4 #e longevity ( ! organisms4 7#a7 might repres5t an animal ( ! l5g? ( life & ( ! activity ( ,man2 7#b71 on ! same scale ( longevity1 #a ,9 ! relative food-supply at v>i\s p]iods ( life ! curvature is approximately det]m9able4 #ib "o ( ! small] mammals2 & 7#c71 ! life-hi/ory ( a cold blood$ animal liv+ to a great age2 e4g4 c]ta9 ( ! reptilia4 ,x is probable1 t to conditions ( /ructural developm5t1 "u ! influ5ce ( natural selection1 ! "q ( long] or %ort] life is 9 a great degree ref]able4 ,?us1 developm5t along l9es ( l>ge gr[? w t5d to a sl[ rate ( reproduction f ! simple fact t unlimit$ en]gy to supply abundant reproduction is n procurable1 :atev] we may assume z to ! /r5g? or cunn+ ex]t$ by ! individual 9 its ef=ts to obta9 its supplies4 ,on ! o!r h&1 developm5t along l9es ( small gr[?1 9 t reproduction is less co/ly1 w probably lead to increas$ rate ( reproduction4 ,x is1 9 fact1 matt] ( g5]al obs]vation t 9 ! case ( l>g] animals ! rate ( reproduction is g5]ally sl[] ?an 9 ! case ( small] animals4 ,b ! rate ( reproduction might be expect$ to h an important influ5ce 9 det]m9+ ! p>ticul> p]iodicity ( ! organism4 ,7 we to depict 9 ! la/ diagram1 on ! same "t-scale z ,man1 ! vibrations ( ! small] & %ort]-liv$ liv+ ?+s1 we w\ld see b a /raight l9e1 save = secul> v>iations 9 activity1 repres5t+ ! progress ( ! species 9 "t3 ! t9y ?rills ( its units lo/ 9 comp>ison ) ! yet brief p]iod ( ,man4 ,! int]dep5d5ce ( ! rate ( reproduction & #ic ! duration ( ! individual is1 inde$1 v probably reveal$ 9 ! fact t %ort-liv$ animals mo/ g5]ally reproduce !mselves rapidly & 9 great abundance1 & vice v]sa4 ,9 _m cases :]e ?is appe>s contradict$1 x w be f\nd t ! "y are expos$ to su* dang]s t b few survive 7e4g4 _m ( ! reptilia1 etc471 & s ! rate ( reproduction is actually sl[4 ,dea? ?r\gh ! p]iodic rig\r ( ! inanimate environm5t calls =? ph5om5a v diff]5t f dea? introduc$ or fav\r$ by competition4 ,a multiplicity ( effects simulative ( dea? occur4 ,organisms w1 = example1 le>n to meet v rigor\s conditions if sl[ly introduc$1 & n p]man5t4 ,a transitory p]iod ( want c be tid$ ov] by contrivance4 ,! lily )draw+ its vital =ces into ! bulb1 protect$ f ! greate/ extremity ( rig\r by seclusion 9 ! ,e>?2 ! trance ( ! hib]nat+ animal2 are in/ances ( su* contrivances4 ,b !re are organisms ^: life-wave truly takes up ! p]iodicity ( ! ,e>? 9 its orbit4 ,?us ! small] animals & plants1 possess+ less res\rces 9 !mselves1 die at ! approa* ( w9t]1 propagat+ !mselves by units :i*1 :e!r egg or se$1 und]go a p]iod ( quiesc5ce dur+ ! season ( want4 ,9 ^! quiesc5t units ! en]gy ( ! organism is pot5tial1 & ! "t-en]gy function is 9 abeyance4 ,?is condition is1 p]haps1 =e%ad[$ 9 ! ency/- #id m5t ( ! amoeba 9 resi/ance to dr\ght4 ,9 mo/ cases ( hib]nation ! "t-en]gy function seems ma9ta9$ at a loss ( pot5tial by ! organism1 a dim9i%$ vital consumption ( en]gy be+ c>ri$ on at ! exp5se ( ! /or$ en]gy ( ! tissues4 ,s1 too1 ev5 among ! l>ge/ organisms !re w be a dim9ution ( activity p]iodically inspir$ by climatological conditions4 ,?us1 :olly or 9 "p1 ! activity ( organisms is recurr5tly affect$ by ! great en]gy--tides set up by ! ,e>?'s orbital motion4 ,fig4 #f ,simil>ly 9 ! ph5om5on ( sleep ! organism responds to ! ,e>?'s axial p]iodicity1 = 9 ! int]val ( night a p]iod ( impov]i%m5t has to be endur$4 ,?us ! diurnal waves ( en]gy also meet a response 9 ! organism4 ,^! tides & waves ( activity w\ld appe> z l>g] & small] ripples #ie on ! life-curve ( ! organism4 ,b 9 "s1 9 :i* life & dea? are encompass$ 9 a day1 ?is w\ld n be s2 & = ! annual among plants1 ! se$ re/ divides ! waves ) l9es ( no activity 7,fig4 #f74 ,?us1 f9ally1 we reg>d ! organism z a dynamic ph5om5on pass+ ?r\gh p]iodic v>iations ( int5sity4 ,! mat]ial sy/ems conc]n$ 9 ! transf] ( ! en]gy rise1 fl\ri%1 & fall 9 endless succession1 l cities ( anci5t dyna/ies4 ,at po9ts ( simil> phase ^u ! waves ! rate ( consumption ( en]gy is approximately ! same2 ! functions1 too1 :i* dem& & exp5d ! en]gy are ( simil> nature4 ,t ! rhy?m ( ^! ev5ts is ultimately bas$ on h>mony 9 ! configuration & motion ( ! molecules )9 ! g]m seems an unavoidable conclusion4 ,9 ! life ( ! individual rhy?mic dynamic ph5om5a reappe> :i* 9 "s cases h no long] a p>allel 9 ! ext]nal _w1 or "u conditions :5 ! individual is no long] influ5c$ by ^! ext]nal conditions411 ,9 _m cases ! p]iodic ph5om5a ultimately die out "u new influ5ces1 l ! oscillations ( a body 9 a visc\s m$ium2 9 o!rs :5 !y seem to be m deeply root$ 9 physiological conditions !y p]si/4 ,! l5g? ( life is dep5d5t ^u ! numb] #a ,! ,desc5t ( ,man4 #if ( g5]ations ( somatic cells :i* c succe$ "o ano!r 9 ! c\rse ( a s+le life1 & fur!rmore ! numb] z well z ! duration ( ea* s+le cell-g5]ation is pr$e/9$ 9 ! g]m itself4#a ,only 9 ! vague conception ( a h>monis+ or =mative /ructural influ5ce d]iv$ f ! g]m1 p]i%+ 9 ea* cell f int]nal causes1 b h&$ f cell to cell till ! =mative influ5ce itself degrades into molecul> discords1 does x seem possible to =m any physical repres5tation ( ! successive ev5ts ( life4 ,! degradation ( ! molecul> =mative influ5ce might be suppos$ involv$ 9 its frequ5t transf]5ce accord+ to "s su* dynamic actions z occur 9 inanimate nature4 ,?us1 ultimately1 to ! wa/e )9 ! cell1 to ! pres5ce ( a =ce ret>dative ( its p]petual h>monic motions1 ! dea? ( ! individual is to be ascrib$4 ,p]haps 9 protoplasmic wa/e ! exi/5ce ( a univ]sal dea? %\ld be recognis$4 ,x is "h we seem to t\* inanimate nature2 & we are l$ back to a =m] conclusion t ! organism 9 its uncon/ra9$ /ate is to be reg>d$ z a contrivance = evad+ ! dynamic t5d5cies ( actions 9 :i* lifeless matt] p>ticipates4#b #a ,weismann1 ,life & ,dea?2 ,biological ,memoirs1 p4 #adf4 #b ,9 connection ) ! pr$e/9at+ p[] & possible complexity ( ! g]m1 x is in/ructive to reflect on ! v great molecul> population ( ev5 ! smalle/ spores--giv+ rise to v simple =ms4 ,?us1 ! spores ( ! unicellul> ,s*izomycetes are e/imat$ to dim5sions z l[ z #a_/aj1jjj ( a millimetre 9 diamet] 7,cornil et ,babes1 ,les ,batt]ies1 #a4 #cg74 ,f ,"l ,kelv9's e/imate ( ! numb] ( molecules 9 wat]1 compris$ )9 ! l5g? ( a wave-l5g? ( yell[ light 7,! ,size ( ,atoms1 ,proc4 ,r4 ,i41 vol4 x41 p4 #ahe7 x is probable t su* spores conta9 "s #ejj1jjj molecules1 :ile "o hundr$ molecules range along a diamet]4 #ig ,,! ,,num]ical ,,abundance ,,( ,,life ,we began by seek+ 9 v>i\s manife/ations ( life a dynamic pr9ciple suffici5tly compreh5sive to embrace its v v>i\s ph5om5a4 ,?is1 to all appe>ance1 f\nd1 we h be5 l$ to reg>d life1 to a great ext5t1 z a p]iodic dynamic ph5om5on4 ,fundam5tally1 9 t *>act]i/ic ( ! contrivance1 :i* leads x to respond fav\rably to transf] ( en]gy1 its enorm\s ext5sion is due4 ,x is probable t to its in/ability its num]ical abundance is to be trac$--= ?is1 necessitat+ ! cont9ual supply ( all ! p>ts already =m$1 r5d]s l>ge1 undiff]5tiat$ gr[?1 incompatible ) ! limit$ supplies ( ! environm5t4 ,^! are fundam5tal conditions ( abundant life ^u ! ,e>?4 ,al?\gh we recognise 9 ! in/ability ( liv+ sy/ems ! und]ly+ reason = _! num]ical abundance1 second>y evolution>y causes are at "w4 ,! mo/ important ( ^! is ! self-fav\r+ nature ( ! ph5om5on ( reproduction4 ,?us !re is a t5d5cy n only to fav\r reproductiv5ess1 b e>ly reproductiv5ess1 9 ! =m ( "o prolific reproductive4 #ih act1 aft] :i* ! individual dies4#a ,h5ce ! wavel5g? ( ! species dim9i%es1 reproduction is m frequ5t1 & correspond+ly great] numb]s come & g 9 an int]val ( "t4 ,ano!r cause ( ! num]ical abundance ( life exi/s1 z already /at$1 9 ! conditions ( n\ri%m5t4 ,en]gy is m readily convey$ to ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! small] mass1 & h5ce ! less] organisms w m actively functionate2 & ?is1 z be+ ! urg+ dynamic attitude1 z well z t mo/ g5]ally fav\rable 9 ! /ruggle1 w multiply & fav\r su* =ms ( life4 ,on ! o!r h&1 h[ev]1 ^! =ms w h less res\rce )9 !mselves1 & less p[] ( endurance1 s t !y are only suitable to fairly uni=m conditions ( supply2 !y _c survive ! long cont9u$ want ( w9t]1 & s we h ! seasonal abundance ( summ]4 ,only ! l>g] & m resi/ant organisms1 :e!r animal or vegetable1 w1 9 g5]al1 populate ! ,e>? f ye> to ye>4 ,f ?is we may conclude t1 b = ! seasonal en]gy-tides1 ! developm5t ( life ^u ! globe _h gone along v diff]5t l9es f ^? actually foll[$4 ,x is1 inde$1 possible t ! evolution ( ! l>g] organisms w\ld n h occurr$2 !re w\ld h be5 no vacant place = _! developm5t1 & a be+ s end[$ z ,man c\ld h>dly #a ,weismann1 ,! ,duration ( ,life4 #ii h be5 evolv$4 ,we may1 too1 apply ?is reason+ else:]e1 & reg>d z highly probable1 t 9 worlds :i* are )\t seasonal influ5ces1 ! high] developm5ts ( life h n appe>$2 except !y h be5 evolv$ "u o!r conditions1 :5 !y might = a p]iod p]si/4 ,we h1 inde$1 only to picture to ourselves :at ! consequ5ce ( a cont9uance ( summ] w\ld be on insect life to arrive at an idea ( ! antagoni/ic influ5ces obta9+ 9 su* worlds to ! survival ( l>g] organisms4 ,x appe>s t to ! dynamic attitude ( life 9 ! fir/ place1 & second>ily to ! environm5tal conditions limit+ undiff]5tiat$ gr[?1 z well z to ! action ( h]$ity 9 transmitt+ ! reproductive qualities ( ! p>5t to ! (fspr+1 ! multitudes ( ! p9es1 & ! ho/s ( ants1 are to be ascrib$4 ,o!r causes are v c]ta9ly at "w1 b ^!1 ,i ?9k1 mu/ rema9 prim>y causes4 ,we well "k t ! abundance ( ! ants & p9es is n a ti! ( ! abundance ar\nd u visible & invisible4 ,x is a va9 endeav\r to realise ! c\ntless numb]s ( our fell[-citiz5s ^u ! ,e>?2 b1 = our purpose1 ! re/less ants1 & ! p9es solemnly quiet 9 ! sun%9e1 h s]v$ z types ( animate ?+s4 ,9 ! p9e ! gates ( ! organic h be5 ?r[n op5 t ! vivify+ riv] ( en]gy may fl[ 94 ,! ants & ! butt]flies sip = a brief mom5t ( its wat]s1 & aga9 vani% into ! #ajj inorganic3 life1 love & dea? encompass$ 9 a day4 ,:e!r ! organism /&s at re/ & life comes to x on ! mat]ial curr5ts ( ! w9ds & wat]s1 or 9 ! vibratory en]gy ( ! !r2 or1 aga91 :e!r ) re/less crav+ x hurries hi!r & ?i!r 9 se>* ( x1 matt]s no?+4 ,! "o pr9ciple--! accel]ative law :i* is ! law ( ! organic--urges all alike onw>d to developm5t1 reproduction & dea?4 ,b al?\gh ! individual dies dea? is n ! end2 = life is a rhy?mic ph5om5on4 ,?r\gh ! pass+ ages ! waves ( life p]si/3 waves :i* *ange 9 _! =m & 9 ! frequ5cy to :i* !y are attun$ f "o geologic p]iod to ! next1 b :i* /ill ev] p]si/ & /ill ev] increase4 ,& 9 ! end ! organism outla/s ! g5]ations ( ! hills4 #aja ,,! ,,bright ,,col\rs ,,( ,,alp9e ,,fl[]s #a ,,x is admitt$ by all obs]v]s t _m species ( fl[]+ plants gr[+ on ! high] alps ( m\nta9\s regions display a m vivid & ri*] col\r 9 _! bloom ?an is display$ 9 ! same species gr[+ 9 ! valleys4 ,t ?is is actually ! case1 & n m]ely an effect produc$ ^u ! obs]v] by ! scant foliage r5d]+ ! bloom m conspicu\s1 has be5 %[n by comp>ative microscopic exam9ation ( ! petals ( species gr[+ on ! heights & 9 ! valleys4 ,su* exam9ation has reveal$ t 9 _m cases pigm5t granules are m num]\s 9 ! individuals gr[+ at ! high] altitudes4 ,! diff]5ce is specially m>k$ 9 ,myosotis sylvatica1 ,campanula rotundifolia1 ,ranunculus sylvaticus1 ,galium cruciatum1 & o!rs4 ,x is less m>k$ 9 ! case ( ,?ymus s]pyllum & ,g]anium sylvaticum2 :ile 9 ,rosa alp9a & ,erig]on alp9us no diff]5ce is obs]vable4#b ,9 ! foll[+ cases a diff]5ce ( int5sity ( col\r is1 accord+ to ,k]n] 7,pflanz5leb51 #aa4 #ejd71 especially noticeable3-- ,agro/emma gi?ago1 ,campanula #a ,proc4 ,royal ,dubl9 ,society1 #ahic4 #b ,g4 ,bonni]1 quot$ by ,de ,v>igny1 ,exp]im5tal ,evolution1 p4 #ee4 #ajb pusilla1 ,dian?us inodorus 7silve/ris71 ,gypsophila rep5s1 ,lotus corniculatus1 ,sapon>ia ocymoides1 ,satureja hort5sis1 ,t>axacumm (fic9ale1 ,vicia cracca1 & ,vicia sepium4 ,to my own obs]vation ?is beautiful ph5om5on has always appe>$ mo/ obvi\s & impressive4 ,x appe>s to h /ruck _m unpr(essional obs]v]s4 ,helmholtz (f]s ! explanation t ! vivid col\rs are ! result ( ! bright] sunlight ( ! heights4 ,x has be5 said1 too1 t !y are ! direct *emical effects ( a m highly ozoniz$ atmosph]e4 ,! latt] explanation ,i am unable to ref] to its au?or4 ,! foll[+ pages conta9 a sugge/ion on ! matt]1 :i* occurr$ to me :ile t\r+1 along ) ,h5ry ,h4 ,dixon1 9 ! ,l9?al di/rict ( ,switz]l& la/ summ]4#a ,if ! bloom ( ^! high] alp9e fl[]s is especially pleas+ to our own /hetic in/9cts1 & m>k$ly conspicu\s to u z obs]v]s1 :y n also especially attractive & conspicu\s to ! insect ^: mission x is to w&] f fl[] to fl[] ov] ! pa/ures8 ,! answ] to ?is "q involves ! hypo!sis ,i w\ld advance z acc\nt+ = ! bright col\rs ( high-gr[+ individuals4 ,9 %ort1 ,i believe a satisfactory explanation is to be f\nd 9 ! conditions ( insect life 9 ! high] alps4 ,9 ! high] pa/ures ! summ] beg9s late & #a ,! summ] ( #ahib4 #ajc closes e>ly1 & ev5 9 ! middle ( summ] ! day closes 9 ) extreme cold1 & ! cold ( night is only dispell$ :5 ! sun is well up4 ,aga91 cl\ds cov] ! heights :5 all is cle> bel[1 & cold w9ds sweep ov] !m :5 !re is w>m? & %elt] 9 ! valleys4 ,) ^! rigor\s conditions ! poll9at+ insects h to cont5d 9 _! se>* = food1 & t :5 ! rival attractions ( ! valleys bel[ are s _m4 ,i believe x is ^! rigor\s conditions :i* are indirectly responsible = ! bright col\rs ( alp9e fl[]s4 ,= su* conditions w br+ ab\t a comp>ative sc>city ( insect activity on ! heights2 & a sc>city or unc]ta9ty 9 ! action ( insect ag5cy 9 effect+ f]tilization w int5sify ! competition to attract att5tion1 & only ! brighte/ blooms w be f]tiliz$4#a ,?is w be a natural selection ( ! brighte/1 or ! #a ,grant ,all51 ,i h rec5tly le>n$1 advances 9 ,sci5ce 9 ,arcady ! !ory t !re is a natural selective cause fo/]+ ! bright blooms ( alp9es4 ,! selective cause is1 h[ev]1 by him ref]r$ to ! great] abundance ( butt]fly relatively to bee f]tiliz]s4 ,! =m]1 he says1 display m /hetic in/9ct ?an bees4 ,9 ! valley ! bees secure ! f]tilization ( all4 ,i may obs]ve t ^u ! ,fridol9s ,alp all ! f]tiliz]s we obs]v$ 7 bees4 ,i h always f\nd butt]flies v sc>ce at altitudes ( #g1jjj to #h1jjj feet4 ,! alp9e bees are v light 9 body1 l our hive bee1 & ,i d n ?9k r>efaction ( ! atmosph]e c op]ate to h9d] its asc5t to ! heights1 z ,grant ,all5 sugge/s4 ,! obs]vations on ! dea?-rate ( bees & butt]flies on ! glaci]1 to be ref]r$ to pres5tly1 seem to negative su* a hypo!sis1 & to %[ t a l>ge prepond]ance ( bees ov] butt]flies make _! way to ! heights4 #ajd brighte/ w be ! fitte/1 & ?is condition1 along ) ! influ5ce ( h]$ity1 w enc\rage a race ( vivid fl[]s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! m scant & unc]ta9 root supply1 & ! sev]e atmosph]ic conditions1 w n enc\rage ! gross] /ruggle = exi/5ce :i* 9 ! valleys is c>ri$ on s eag]ly betwe5 leaves & bran*es--! normal (f5sive & def5sive weapons ( ! plant--& s ! /ruggle becomes ref9$ into ! m /hetic "o ( col\r & brightness betwe5 fl[] & fl[]4 ,h5ce ! scant foliage & vivid bloom w\ld be at once ! result ( a necess>y economy1 & a resort to ! be/ me?od ( secur+ reproduction "u ! circum/ances ( insect f]tiliz+ ag5cy4 ,or1 9 o!r words1 :ile ! luxuriant gr[? is =bidd5 by ! conditions1 & ?us me?ods ( (f5ce & def5ce1 bas$ ^u vigor\s developm5t1 r$uc$ 9 importance1 x w\ld appe> t ! /ruggle is ma9ly ref]r$ to rivalry = insect pref]5ce4 ,x is probable t ?is is ! m economical mann] ( c>ry+ on ! conte/4 ,9 ! valleys we see on e side ! /ruggle betwe5 ! vegetative organs ( ! plant2 ! s\ndless battle among ! leaves & bran*es4 ,! blossom "h is c>ri$ al(t on a sl5d] /em1 or else1 tak+ b a second>y "p 9 ! conte/1 x is relegat$ to obscurity 7,p#a4 ,,xii474 ,fur!r up on ! m\nta9s1 :]e ! conditions are m sev]e & ! supplies less abundant1 ! leaf & bran* assume less] dim5sions1 = !y are co/ly weapons to provide & ! elem5ts are unfri5dly #aje to _! exi/5ce 7,pl4 ,,xiii474 ,/ill high]1 approa*+ ! climatic limit ( vegetable life1 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce is ma9ly c>ri$ on by ! /hetic rivalry ( l[ly b conspicu\s blossoms4 ,z reg>ds ! conditions ( insect life 9 ! high] alps1 x came to my notice 9 a v /rik+ mann] t va/ numb]s ( su* bees & butt]flies z v5ture up p]i% 9 ! cold ( night "t4 ,x appe>s z if at ! approa* ( dusk ^! are attract$ by ! gleam ( ! sn[1 & quitt+ ! pa/ures1 lose !mselves ^u ! glaci]s & firns1 !re to die 9 hundr$s4 ,?us 9 an asc5t ( ! ,tdi f ! ,fridol9%te we c\nt$ 9 ! e>ly dawn sixty-sev5 froz5 bees1 tw5ty-n9e dead butt]flies1 & "s half-doz5 mo?s on ! ,bif]t5 ,glaci] & ,firn4 ,^! numb]s1 x is to be rememb]$1 only includ$ ^? ly+ to ei!r side ( our way ov] ! sn[1 s t ! numb] mu/ h m\nt$ up to ?\s&s :5 integrat$ ov] ! entire glaci] & firn4 ,approa*+ ! summit none 7 f\nd4 ,! bees resembl$ our hive bee 9 appe>ance1 ! butt]flies resembl$ ! small :ite v>iety common 9 our g>d5s1 :i* has yell[ & black ^u its w+s4 ,"o l>ge mo?1 /rip$ across ! abdom51 & measur+ ne>ly two in*es 9 l5g? ( body1 0 f\nd4 ,^u our return1 long aft] ! sun's rays _h gr[n /rong1 we obs]v$ "s ( ! butt]flies %[$ signs ( reanimation4 ,we desc5d$ s quickly to avoid ! inconv5i5ce ( ! s(t sn[ t we _h "t = no #ajf close obs]vation on ! froz5 bees4 ,b dead bees are common objects ^u ! sn[s ( ! alps4 ,^! rem>ks ,i not$ d[n r\ghly :ile at ,l9?al la/ summ]1 b q rec5tly ,i read 9 ,natural ,sci5ce#a ! foll[+ note3 ,late ,fl[]+ ,plants4--,:ile we write1 ! ivy is 9 fl[]1 & bees1 wasps1 & flies are jo/l+ ea* o!r & /ruggl+ to f9d /&+-room on ! sweet-smell+ plant4 ,h[ great mu/ be ! advantage obta9$ by ?is plant ?r\gh its exceptional habit ( fl[]+ 9 ! late autumn1 & rip5+ its fruit 9 ! spr+4 ,to anyone :o has wat*$ ! /ruggle to approa* ! ivy-blossom at a "t :5 ne>ly all o!r plants are b>e1 x is evid5t t1 z f> z transport ( poll5 & cross-f]tilization g1 ! plant c\ld n fl[] at a m suitable "t4 ,! season is s late t mo/ o!r plants are out ( fl[]1 b yet x is n too late = _m insects to be br\ght out by ea* sunny day1 & ea* insect1 judg+ by its behavi\r1 mu/ be exceptionally hungry4 ,n only has ! ivy ! _w to itself dur+ its fl[]+ season1 b x delays to rip5 its se$ till ! spr+1 a "t :5 mo/ o!r plants h %$ _! se$1 & mo/ edible fruits h be5 pick$ by ! birds4 ,?us birds want+ fruit 9 ! spr+ c obta9 little b ivy1 & h[ !y appreciate ! ivy b]ry is evid5t #a ,= ,decemb]1 #ahib1 vol4 i41 p4 #gcj4 #ajg by ! purple /a9s ev]y:]e visible )9 a %ort di/ance ( ! bu%4 ,^! rem>ks sugge/ t ! ivy adopts ! conv]se attitude t[>ds its visitors to t =c$ ^u ! alp9e fl[]4 ,! ivy bloom is small & inconspicu\s1 b !n x has ! season to itself1 & its inconspicu\sness is no disadvantage1 i4e4 if "o plant 0 m conspicu\s ?an its neighb\rs1 x w\ld n h any decid$ advantage :]e ! poll9at+ insect is abundant & o!rwise unprovid$ =4 ,its d>k-gre5 b]ries 9 spr+1 :i* ,i w\ld describe z v inconspicu\s1 h a simil> advantage 9 relation to ! necessities ( bird life4 ,! exp]im5ts ( ,m4 ,c4 ,flahault mu/ be notic$4 ,?is naturali/ grew se$s ( col\r$ fl[]s :i* _h rip5$ 9 ,p>is1 "p 9 ,upsala1 & "p 9 ,p>is2 & se$ :i* _h rip5$ 9 ,upsala1 "p at ,p>is1 & "p at ,upsala4 ,! fl[]s op5+ 9 ! m nor!rn city 7 9 mo/ cases ! bright]4#a ,if ?is obs]vation may be consid]$ indisputable1 z appe>s to be ! case1 ! "q arises1 ,are we to reg>d ?is z a direct effect ( ! m rigor\s climate ^u ! developm5t ( col\r+ matt] on ! blooms op5+ at ,upsala8 ,if we suppose an affirmative answ]1 ! !ory ( direct effect by sun brightness mu/ ,i ?9k be ab&on$4 ,b ,i v5ture to ?9k t ! explanation ( ! ,upsala #a ,quot$ by ,de ,v>igny1 ,exp]im5tal ,evolution1 p4 #ef4 #ajh exp]im5t is n to be f\nd 9 direct climatic influ5ce ^u ! col\r1 b 9 causes :i* lie deep]1 & involve "s factors d$ucible f biological !ory4 ,! organism1 z a result ( ! great facts ( h]$ity & ( ! survival ( ! fitte/1 is necess>ily a sy/em :i* ga!rs exp]i5ce ) successive g5]ations2 & ! pr9cipal lesson ev] be+ impress$ ^u x by ext]nal ev5ts is economy4 ,its success dep5ds ^u ! use x makes ( its opportunities = ! reception ( en]gy & ! economy atta9$ 9 dispos+ ( :at is ga9$4 ,) reg>d to us+ ! pass+ opportunity ! entire seasonal developm5t ( life is a manife/ation ( ?is attitude1 & ! fleetness1 agility1 etc41 ( high] organisms are developm5ts 9 ?is direction4 ,! high] vegetable organism is n locomotory1 save 9 ! transf]5ces ( poll5 & se$1 = its food comes to x1 & ! necess>y relative motion betwe5 food & organism is pres]v$ 9 ! quick motion ( radiat$ en]gy f ! sun & ! sl[] motion ( ! w9ds on ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,b1 ev5 s1 ! vegetable organism mu/ /& ev] ready & wait+ = its supplies4 ,its molecul> p>ts mu/ be ready to seize ! prey (f]$ to x1 some:at z ! wait+ spid] ! fly4 ,h5ce1 ! plant /&s ready2 & e cl\d ) mov+ %ad[ cross+ ! fields h&icaps ! %ad$ to ! b5efit ( ! un%ad$ plant 9 ! adjo9+ field4 ,! op5 bloom #aji is a manife/ation ( ! g5]ally expectant attitude ( ! plant1 b 9 relation to reproduction4 ,z reg>ds economy1 any pr9ciple ( maximum economy1 :]e _m functions h to be fulfill$1 w1 we may v safely pr$ict1 involve z f> z possible mutual helpfulness 9 ! processes go+ on4 ,?us ! process ( ! developm5t t[>ds meet+ any p>ticul> ext]nal conditions1 ,a1 suppose1 w1 if possible1 t5d to =w>d ! developm5t t[>ds meet+ conditions ,b2 s t1 9 %ort1 :]e circum/ances ( morphology & physiology are fav\rable1 ! ideally economical sy/em w be atta9$ :5 9 place ( two sep>ate processes1 a1 1 ! "o process y1 *eap] ?an a 1 suffices to advance developm5t simultane\sly 9 bo? ! directions ,a & ,b4 ,! economy is z obvi\s z t involv$ 9 kill+ two birds ) ! "o /one--if s crude a simile is p]missible--& x is to be expect$ t to fo/] su* economy w be ! t5d5cy ( evolution 9 all organic sy/ems subject$ to re/ra9ts z ^? we are acqua9t$ ) inv>iably are4 ,su* economy might be simply illu/rat$ by consid]+ ! case ( a res]voir ( wat] elevat$ above two hydraulic motors1 s t ! elevat$ mass ( wat] possess$ gravitational pot5tial4 ,! available en]gy "h repres5ts ! /or$-up en]gy 9 ! organism4 ,h[ be/ may ! wat] be convey$ to ! two motors ! organic sy/ems react+ t[>ds conditions ,a & ,b s #aaj t z little en]gy z possible is lo/ 9 transit8 ,if ! motors are ne> toge!r x is mo/ economical to use ! "o conduit1 :i* w di/ribute ! requisite supply ( wat] to bo?4 ,if ! motors are locat$ f> asund] x w be mo/ economical to lay sep>ate conduits4 ,!re is greate/ economy 9 meet+ a plurality ( functions by ! same tra9 ( physiological processes :]e ?is is consi/5t ) meet+ o!r dem&s necessitat$ by ext]nal or int]nal conditions4 ,b an important & obvi\s consequ5ce arises 9 ! supply ( ! two motors f ! "o conduit4 ,we _c "w "o motor )\t work+ ! o!r4 ,if we op5 a valve 9 ! conduit bo? motors />t into motion & beg9 consum+ ! en]gy /or$ 9 ! tank4 ,& al?\gh !y may bo? "u "o set ( conditions be do+ useful & necess>y "w1 9 "s o!r set ( conditions x may be ne$less = bo? to be driv54 ,?is la/ fact is an illu/ration ( a consid]ation :i* mu/ ent] into ! ph5om5on :i* an em95t biologi/ speaks ( z physiological or unconsci\s memory1#a ,= ! developm5t ( ! organism f ! ovum is b ! />t+ ( a tra9 ( int]dep5d5t ev5ts ( a complexity dep5d+ ^u ! exp]i5ce ( ! pa/4 #a ,ewald ,h]+1 quot$ by ,ray ,lanka/]1 ,! ,advancem5t ( ,sci5ce1 p4 #bhc4 #aaa ,9 %ort1 we may suppose ! entire developm5t ( ! plant1 t[>ds meet+ c]ta9 gr\ps ( ext]nal conditions1 physiologically knit toge!r accord+ z ,nature t5ds to associate c]ta9 gr\ps ( conditions4 ,?us1 9 ! case 9 po9t1 climatic rig\r & sc>city ( poll9at+ ag5cy w ev] be associat$2 & 9 ! long exp]i5ce ( ! pa/ ! mo/ economical physiological attitude t[>ds bo? is1 we may suppose1 adopt$2 s t ! pres5ce ( "o condition excites ! app>5t unconsci\s memory ( ! o!r4 ,9 reality ! process ( meet+ ! "o condition involves ! process & developm5t = meet+ ! o!r4 ,& ?is consid]ation may be ext5d$ v g5]ally to su* organisms z c survive "u ! same associat$ natural conditions1 = ! hi/ory ( evolution is s long1 & ! p[] ( locomotion s ess5tial to ! organism at "s p]iod 9 its life hi/ory1 t we _c philosophically assume a local hi/ory = memb]s ( a species ev5 if widely sev]$ geographically at ! pres5t day4 ,at "s p]iod 9 ! pa/ !n1 x is v possible t ! individuals today ?riv+ at ,p>is1 acquir$ ! exp]i5ce call$ out at ,upsala4 ,! p]fection ( physiological memory inspires no limit to ! date at :i* ?is may h occurr$--possibly ! result ( a succession ( sev]e seasons at ,p>is2 possibly ! result ( migrations --& ! se$ ( _m fl[]+ plants possess means ( migration only inf]ior to ^? possess$ by ! fly+ & swimm+ animals4 ,b1 aga91 possibly ! exp]i- #aab ence 0 acquir$ f> back 9 ! evolution>y hi/ory ( ! fl[]4#a ,b a fur!r consid]ation arises4 ,n only at ea* mom5t 9 ! life ( ! individual mu/ maximum income & mo/ judici\s exp5diture be consid]$1 b 9 its :ole life hi/ory1 & ev5 ov] ! hi/ory ( its race1 ! effici5cy mu/ t5d to be a maximum4 ,?is pr9ciple is ev5 c>ri$ s f> t :5 necess>y x leads to ! dea? ( ! individual1 z 9 ! case ( ^? organisms :i*1 hav+ accompli%$ ! reproductive act1 almo/ imm$iately expire4 ,?is view ( nature may be repell5t1 b x is1 nev]!less1 evid5t t we are p>ts ( a sy/em :i* ru?lessly sacrifices ! individual on g5]al gr\nds ( economy4 ,?us1 if ! curve :i* def9es ! mean rate ( reception ( en]gy ( all k9ds at diff]5t p]iods 9 ! life ( ! organism be oppos$ by a second curve1 drawn bel[ ! axis along :i* "t is measur$1 repres5t+ ! mean rate ( exp5diture ( en]gy on developm5t1 reproduction1 etc4 7,fig4 #g71 ?is latt] curve1 :i* is1 ( c\rse1 #a ,! blooms ( self-f]tilis+1 & especially ( clei/ogamic plants 7e4g4 ,viola71 are examples ( unconsci\s memory1 or unconsci\s association ( ideas lead+ to ! developm5t ( organs n[ functionless4 ,! ,pont$]ia crassipes ( ! ,amazon1 :i* develops its float+ bladd]s :5 gr[n 9 wat]1 b aborts !m rapidly :5 gr[n on l&1 & seems to reta9 ?is p[] ( adaptation to ! environm5t = an indef9ite p]iod ( "t1 mu/ act 9 ea* case ^u an unconsci\s memory bas$ ^u pa/ exp]i5ce4 ,_m o!r cases might be cit$4 #aac physiologically dep5d5t on ! =m]1 mu/ be ( su* a nature f its orig9 to its completion 9 dea?1 t ! condition is realiz$ ( ! mo/ economical rate ( exp5diture at ea* p]iod ( life4#a ,! rate ( exp5diture ( en]gy at any p]iod ( life is1 ( c\rse1 9 su* a curve def9$ by ! slope ( ! curve t[>ds ! axis ( "t at ! p]iod 9 "q2 b ?is p>ticul> slope mu/ be l$ to by a previ\s "p ( ! curve1 & involves its pa/ & future c\rse to a v great ext5t4 ,fig4 #g ,!re w1 !re=e1 be impress$ ^u ! organism by ! factors ( evolution a unifi$ c\rse ( economical exp5diture complet$ only by its dea?1 & :i* w give to ! developm5tal progress ( ! individual its prophetic "*4 ,9 ?is way we look to ! unifi$ c>e] ( ea* organic unit1 f its comm5cem5t 9 ! ovum to ! day #a ,see ,! ,abundance ( ,life4 #aad :5 x is done ) vitality1 = t prep>ation = mom5t\s organic ev5ts :i* is 9 progress ?r\gh\t ! entire c\rse ( developm5t2 & to ! economy involv$ 9 ! weld+ ( physiological processes = ! ph5om5on ( physiological memory1 :]e9 we see reflect$1 z x 71 9 ! developm5t ( ! organism1 ! association ( inorganic re/ra9ts occurr+ 9 nature :i* at "s previ\s p]iod impress$ itself ^u ! pla/ic organism4 ,we may picture ! se$l+ at ,upsala1 sway$ by organic memory & ! inh]it$ t5d5cy to an economical prep>ation = future ev5ts1 gradually develop+ t[>ds ! /hetic climax ( its c>e]4 ,9 "s su* mann] only does x appe> possible to acc\nt = ! prophetic developm5t ( organisms1 n alone to be obs]v$ 9 ! alp9e fl[]s1 b ?r\gh\t nature4 ,& ?us1 f9ally1 to ! effects ( natural selection & to actions def9$ by g5]al pr9ciples involv$ 9 biology1 ,i w\ld ref] = explanation ( ! mann] 9 :i* fl[]s on ! ,alps develop _! peculi> beauty4 #aae ,,m\nta9 ,,g5esis ,,our ance/ors reg>d$ m\nta9\s regions ) feel+s ( horror1 m+l$ ) commis]ation = ^? :om an unk9dly de/9y _h condemn$ to dwell !re94 ,we1 on ! o!r h&1 f9d 9 ! contemplation ( ! great alps ( ! ,e>? su* peaceful & elevat$ ?\ghts1 & su* re/ to our s\ls1 t x is to ^? v solitudes we turn to heal ! w\nds ( ife4 ,x is difficult to expla9 ! cause ( ?is v diff]5t po9t ( view4 ,x is probably1 9 "p1 to be ref]r$ to t cl\d ( sup]/iti\s horror :i*1 ?r\gh\t ! ,middle ,ages1 peopl$ ! solitudes ) unkn[n t]rors2 &1 9 "p1 to ! asceticism :i* l$ ! pi\s to reg>d ! beauty & joy ( life z sn>es to ! s\l's well-be+4 ,9 ^? et]nal solitudes :]e ! ov]:elm+ =ces ( ,nature are mo/ 9 evid5ce1 an evil pr9ciple mu/ dwell or a dragon's dreadful brood mu/ f9d a home4 ,b :ile 9 our "t ! ae/hetic aspect ( ! hills appeals to all1 !re rema9s 9 ! physical hi/ory ( ! m\nta9s mu* t is lo/ to ^? :o h n %>$ 9 ! sci5tific /udies ( alp9e /ructure & g5esis4 ,!y lose a pa/ hi/ory :i* = int]e/ com- #aaf petes ) any?+ sci5ce has to tell ( ! *anges ( ! ,e>?4 ,great z are ! physical features ( ! m\nta9s comp>$ ) ! works ( ,man1 & great z are ! =ces involv$ comp>$ ) ^? we c orig9ate or control1 ! l(tie/ ranges are small contra/$ ) ! dim5sions ( ! ,e>?4 ,x is well to be> ?is 9 m9d4 ,i give "h 7,pl4 ,,xv47 a measur$ draw+ %[+ a sector cut f a sph]e ( #ej cms4 radius2 s mu* ( x z to exhibit ! conv]g5ce ( its radial b\nd>ies :i* if prolong$ w meet at ! c5tre4 ,on ! same scale z ! radius ! diagram %[s ! highe/ m\nta9s & ! deepe/ ocean4 ,! av]age height ( ! l& & ! av]age dep? ( ! ocean are also exhibit$4 ,we see h[ small a movem5t ( ! cru/ ! l(tie/ elevation ( ! ,himalaya repres5ts & :at a little depression holds ! ocean4 ,nev]!less1 x is n by any means easy to expla9 ! g5esis ( ^? small elevations & depressions4 ,x w\ld lead u f> f our imm$iate subject to discuss ! v>i\s !oretical views :i* h be5 advanc$ to acc\nt = ! facts4 ,! idea t m\nta9 folds1 & ! less] rugosities ( ! ,e>?'s surface1 arose 9 a wr9kl+ ( ! cru/ "u ! influ5ce ( cool+ & skr9kage ( ! subcru/al mat]ials1 is held by _m em95t geologi/s1 b n )\t diss5t f o!rs4 ,! mo/ /rik+ obs]vational fact connect$ ) m\nta9 /ructure is t1 )\t exception1 ! ranges #aag ( ! ,e>? are built ess5tially ( s$im5t>y rocks3 t is ( rocks :i* h be5 accumulat$ at "s remote pa/ "t b5ea? ! surface ( ! ocean4 ,a volcanic core !re may sometimes be--probably an att5dant or consequ5ce ( ! uplift+--or a core ( plutonic igne\s rocks :i* has aris5 "u ! same compressive =ces :i* h b[$ & ar*$ ! /rata f _! orig9al horizontal position4 ,x is n uncommon to meet among unobs]vant p ^? :o reg>d all m\nta9 ranges z volcanic 9 orig94 ,volcanoes1 h[ev]1 d n build m\nta9 ranges4 ,!y break out z m or less isolat$ cones or hills4 ,comp>e ! map ( ! ,auv]gne ) t ( ,switz]l&2 ! volcanoes ( ,s\? ,italy ) ! ,ap5n9es4 ,su* great ranges z ^? :i* bord] ) triple walls ! we/ coa/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica are 9 no s5se volcanic3 nor are ! ,pyr5ees1 ! ,caucasus1 or ! ,himalaya4 ,volcanic mat]ials are p\r$ out f ! summits ( ! ,&es1 b ! range itself is built up ( fold$ s$im5ts on ! same ar*itecture z ! o!r great ranges ( ! ,e>?4 ,be=e attempt+ an explanation ( ! orig9 ( ! m\nta9s we mu/ fir/ become m closely acqua9t$ ) ! ph5om5a att5d+ m\nta9 elevation4 ,at ! pres5t day great accumulations ( s$im5t are tak+ place along ! m>g9s ( ! cont95ts :]e ! riv]s rea* ! ocean4 ,?us1 ! ,gulf ( ,mexico receiv+ ! s$im5t ( ! ,mississippi & ,rio ,gr&e2 #aah ! nor!a/ coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica receiv+ ! s$im5ts ( ! ,amazons2 ! ea/ coa/ ( ,asia receiv+ ! detritus ( ! ,*9ese riv]s2 are in/ances ( su* areas ( deposition4 ,ye> by ye>1 c5tury by c5tury1 ! accumulation progresses1 & z x gr[s ! floor ( ! sea s9ks "u ! load4 ,( ! yield+ ( ! cru/ "u ! bur!n ( ! s$im5ts we are assur$2 = o!rwise ! _m miles ( v]tically pil$ /rata :i* are uplift$ to our view 9 ! m\nta9s1 nev] c\ld h be5 deposit$ 9 ! coa/al seas ( ! pa/4 ,! flexure & s9k+ ( ! cru/ are und5iable realities4 ,su* va/ subsid+ areas are kn[n z geosyncl9es4 ,f ! accumulat$ s$im5ts ( ! geosyncl9es ! m\nta9 ranges ( ! pa/ h 9 e case orig9at$2 & ! m\nta9s ( ! future w assur$ly arise & l(ty ranges w /& :]e n[ ! ocean wat]s close ov] ! collect+ s$im5ts4 ,e m\nta9 range ^u ! ,e>? en=ces ! c]ta9ty ( ?is pr$iction4 ,! m\nta9-=m+ movem5t takes place aft] a c]ta9 great dep? ( s$im5t is collect$4 ,x is mo/ int5se :]e ! ?ickness ( deposit is greate/4 ,we see ?is :5 we exam9e ! /ructure ( our exi/+ m\nta9 ranges4 ,at ei!r side :]e ! s$im5ts ?9 out1 ! di/urbance dies away1 till we f9d ! comp>atively %all[ & undi/urb$ level s$im5ts :i* clo! ! cont95tal surface4 ,:atev] be ! connection betwe5 ! deposition & #aai ! subsequ5t upheaval1 ! elem5t ( great dep? ( accumulation seems a necess>y condition & mu/ evid5tly ent] z a factor into ! ,physical ,processes involv$4 ,! m\nta9 range c only arise :]e ! geosyncl9e is deeply fill$ by long ages ( s$im5tation4 ,dana's description ( ! ev5ts att5d+ m\nta9 build+ is impressive3 ,a m\nta9 range ( ! common type1 l t to :i* ! ,appala*ians belong1 is made out ( ! s$im5t>y =mations ( a long prec$+ era2 b$s t 7 laid d[n con=mably1 & 9 succession1 until !y _h rea*$ ! ne$$ ?ickness2 b$s spread+ ov] a region t5s ( ?\s&s ( squ>e miles 9 area4 ,! region ov] :i* s$im5t>y =mations 7 9 progress 9 ord] to make1 f9ally1 ! ,appala*ian range1 rea*$ f ,new ,york to ,alabama1 & _h a bread? ( #ajj to #bjj miles1 & ! pile ( horizontal b$s along ! middle 0 #dj1jjj feet 9 dep?4 ,! pile = ! ,wahsat* ,m\nta9s 0 #fj1jjj feet ?ick1 accord+ to ,k+4 ,! b$s = ! ,appala*ians 7 n laid d[n 9 a deep ocean1 b 9 %all[ wat]s1 :]e a gradual subsid5ce 0 9 progress2 & !y at la/1 :5 ready = ! g5esis1 lay 9 a tr\gh #dj1jjj feet deep1 fill+ ! tr\gh to ! brim4 ,x ?us appe>s t epo*s ( m\nta9-mak+ h occurr$ only aft] long int]vals ( quiet 9 ! hi/ory ( a cont95t4#a #a ,dana1 ,manual ( ,geology1 ?ird edition1 p4 #gid #abj ,on ! we/]n side ( ,nor? ,am]ica ! "w ( m\nta9-build+ 01 inde$1 on ! gr&e/ scale4 ,= long ages & ?r\gh a succession ( geological epo*s1 s$im5tation _h proce$$ s t ! accumulations ( ,palaeozoic & ,mesozoic times _h collect$ 9 ! geosyncl9e =m$ by _! own ev] increas+ weight4 ,! site ( ! future ,l>amide range 0 9 late ,cretace\s times occupi$ by "s #ej1jjj feet ( s$im5t>y deposits2 b ! limit _h app>5tly be5 atta9$1 & at ?is "t ! ,l>amide range1 z well z its s\!rly cont9uation into ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! ,rockies1 _h _! beg9n+4 ,*amb]l9 & ,salisbury#a e/imate t ! height ( ! m\nta9s develop$ 9 ! ,l>amide range at ?is "t 0 #bj1jjj feet1 & t1 ow+ to ! fur!r elevation :i* has s9ce tak5 place1 f #cb1jjj to #ce1jjj feet w\ld be _! pres5t height if erosion _h n r$uc$ !m4 ,?us on ei!r side ( ! ,am]ican cont95t we h ! same =ces at "w1 ?r[+ up m\nta9 ridges :]e ! s$im5ts _h =m]ly be5 %$ into ! ocean4 ,^! great ev5ts are ( a rhy?mic "*2 ! cru/1 z x 71 pulsat+ "u ! comb9$ influ5ces ( s$im5tation & d5udation4 ,! fir/ involves d[nw>d movem5ts "u a ga!r+ load1 & ultimately a rev]sal ( ! movem5t to "o ( upheaval2 ! second factor1 :i* ?r\gh\t has be5 9 #a ,*amb]l9 & ,salisbury1 ,geology1 #aijf1 iii41 #afc4 #aba op]ation z creator ( ! s$im5ts1 !n int]v5es z an assailant ( ! newly-rais$ m\nta9s1 transport+ _! mat]ials aga9 to ! ocean1 :5 ! rhy?mic action is re/or$ to its fir/ phase1 & ! age-long sequ5ce ( ev5ts mu/ beg9 all ov] aga94 ,x has long be5 inf]r$ t compressive /ress 9 ! cru/ mu/ be a prim>y condition ( ^! movem5ts4 ,! wvork requir$ to effect ! upheavals mu/ be d]iv$ f "s preexi/+ s\rce ( en]gy4 ,! ph5om5on--intr9sically "o ( fold+ ( ! cru/--sugge/s ! adju/m5t ( ! e>?-cru/ to a less5+ radius2 ! fact t great m\nta9-build+ movem5ts h simultane\sly affect$ ! entire e>? is c]ta9ly 9 fav\r ( ! view t a g5]ally prevail+ cause is at ! basis ( ! ph5om5on4 ,! compressive /resses mu/ be conf9$ to ! upp] few miles ( ! cru/1 =1 9 fact1 ! d[nw>d increase ( temp]ature & pressure soon conf]s fluid prop]ties on ! m$ium1 & sl[ tang5tial compression results 9 hydro/atic pressure r ?an direct$ /resses4 ,?us ! fold+ visible 9 ! m\nta9 range1 & ! lat]al compression aris+ !refrom1 are effects conf9$ to ! upp] p>ts ( ! cru/4 ,! en]gy :i* uplifts ! m\nta9 is probably a surviv+ "p ( ! orig9al gravitational pot5tial en]gy ( ! cru/ itself4 ,x mu/ be assum$ t ! cru/ 9 foll[+ d[nw>ds ! %r9k+ subcru/al magma1 develops imm5se compressive /resses 9 #abb its mat]ials1 va/ geographical areas be+ involv$4 ,:5 fold+ at l5g? takes place along ! axis ( ! elongat$ syncl9e ( deposition1 ! /resses f9d relief probably = "s hundr$s ( miles1 & ! region ( fold+ n[ becomes compress$ 9 a transv]se direction4 ,z an illu/ration1 ! ,l>amide range1 accord+ to ,dawson1 repres5ts ! r$uction ( a surface-belt #ej miles wide to "o ( #be miles4 ,! m>vell\s translatory movem5ts ( cru/al folds f s\? to nor? aris+ 9 ! g5esis ( ! ,swiss ,alps1 :i* rec5t rese>* has br\ght to light1 is ano!r example ( ^! movem5ts ( relief1 :i* cont9ue to take place p]haps = _m millions ( ye>s aft] !y are initiat$4 ,! result ( ?is yield+ ( ! cru/ is a buckl+ ( ! surface :i* on ! :ole is direct$ upw>ds2 b depression also is an att5dant1 9 _m cases at lea/1 on m\nta9 upheaval4 ,?us we f9d t ! ocean floor is depress$ into a syncl9e along ! we/]n coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica2 a tr\gh always p>allel to ! ranges ( ! ,&es4 ,! d[nw>d deflection ( ! cru/ is ( c\rse an outcome ( ! same compressive /resses :i* elevate ! m\nta94 ,! fact t ! yield+ ( ! cru/ is always situat$ :]e ! s$im5ts h accumulat$ to ! greate/ dep?1 has l$ to attempts f "t to "t ( e/abli%+ a physical connexion betwe5 ! "o & ! o!r4 ,! be/-kn[n ( ^! !ories is t ( ,babbage & ,h]s*el4 ,?is seeks ! connexion 9 ! rise ( ! #abc geo!rms into ! s9k+ mass ( s$im5t & ! consequ5t increase ( temp]ature ( ! e>?-cru/ b5ea?4 ,x w be und]/ood t z ^! isogeo!rms1 or levels at :i* ! temp]ature is ! same1 lie at a uni=m di/ance f ! surface all ov] ! ,e>?1 unless :]e special v>iations ( conductivity may di/urb !m1 ! introduction ( mat]ial press$ d[nw>ds f above mu/ result 9 ^! mat]ials p>tak+ ( ! temp]ature prop] to ! dep? to :i* !y are depress$4 ,9 o!r words ! geo!rms rise into ! s9k+ s$im5ts1 always1 h[ev]1 pres]v+ _! =m] av]age di/ance f ! surface4 ,! argum5t is t z ?is process und\bt$ly involves ! heat+ up ( t portion ( ! cru/ :i* ! s$im5ts h displac$ d[nw>ds1 ! result mu/ be a local enfeeblem5t ( ! cru/1 & h5ce ^! areas become ^? ( lea/ resi/ance to ! /resses 9 ! cru/4 ,:5 ?is !ory is exam9$ closely1 we see t x only am\nts to say+ t ! b$d$ rocks1 :i* h tak5 ! place ( ! igne\s mat]ials b5ea?1 z a "p ( ! rigid cru/ ( ! ,e>?1 mu/ be less able to )/& compressive /ress ?an ! av]age cru/4 ,= !re has be5 no absolute rise ( ! geo!rms1 ! !rmal conductivities ( bo? classes ( mat]ials diff]+ b little4 ,s$im5t>y rock has m]ely tak5 ! place ( av]age cru/-rock1 & is subject$ to ! same av]age temp]ature & pressure prevail+ 9 ! surr\nd+ cru/4 ,b are !re any gr\nds = ! #abd assumption t ! compressive resi/ance ( a complex ( s$im5t>y rocks is inf]ior to "o ( igne\s mat]ials8 ,! metamorphos$ silice\s s$im5ts are among ! /ronge/ rocks kn[n z reg>ds resi/ance to compressive /ress2 & if lime/ones h inde$ pla/ic qualities1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t _! av]age am\nt is only "s #e p] c5t4 ( ! :ole4 ,aga91 s f> z rise ( temp]ature 9 ! upp] cru/ may affect ! "q1 a temp]ature :i* w s(t5 an av]age igne\s rock w n s(t5 a s$im5t>y rock1 = ! reason t ! effect ( solv5t d5udation has be5 to remove ^? alkal9e silicates :i* conf] fusibility4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we take into acc\nt ! radioactive cont5t ( ! s$im5ts ! matt] assumes a diff]5t aspect4 ,! facts z to ! g5]al di/ribution ( radioactive sub/ances at ! surface1 & 9 rocks :i* h come f consid]able dep?s 9 ! cru/1 lead u to reg>d z c]ta9 ! widespread exi/5ce ( heat-produc+ radioactive elem5ts 9 ! ext]ior cru/ ( ! ,e>?4 ,we f9d1 inde$1 9 ?is fact an explanation--at lea/ 9 "p--( ! outfl[ ( heat cont9ually tak+ place at ! surface z reveal$ by ! ris+ temp]ature inw>ds4 ,& we conclude t !re mu/ be a ?ickness ( cru/ am\nt+ to "s miles1 conta9+ ! radioactive elem5ts4 ,"s ( ! mo/ rec5t measurem5ts ( ! quantities ( radium & ?orium 9 ! rocks ( igne\s orig9--e4g4 granites1 sy5ites1 diorites1 basalts1 etc41 %[ t ! #abe radioactive heat cont9ually giv5 out by su* rocks am\nts to ab\t "o million? "p ( #j4f calories p] second p] cubic metre ( av]age igne\s rock4 ,z we h to acc\nt = ! escape ( ab\t #j4jjad calorie#a p] squ>e metre ( ! ,e>?'s surface p] second 7assum+ ! rise ( temp]ature d[nw>ds1 i4e4 ! gradi5t ( temp]ature1 to be "o degree c5tigrade 9 #ce metres7 ! d[nw>d ext5sion ( su* rocks might1 prima facie1 be z mu* z #ai kilometres4 ,ab\t ?is calculation we h to obs]ve t we assume ! av]age radioactivity ( ! mat]ials ) :i* we h dealt at ! surface to ext5d uni=mly all ! way d[n1 i4e4 t our exp]im5ts reveal ! av]age radioactivity ( a radioactive cru/4 ,!re is mu* to be said = ?is assumption4 ,! rocks :i* ent] into ! measurem5ts come f all dep?s ( ! cru/4 ,x is highly probable t ! less silici\s1 i4e4 ! m basic1 rocks1 ma9ly come f consid]able dep?s2 ! m acid or silica-ri* rocks1 f high] levels 9 ! cru/4 ,! radioactivity det]m9$ z ! mean ( ! values = ^! two classes ( rock closely agrees ) t f\nd = int]m$iate rocks1 or rocks conta9+ an int]m$iate am\nt ( silica4 ,cl>ke cont5ds t ?is la/ class ( mat]ial probably repres5ts ! av]age composition ( ! ,e>?'s cru/ s f> z x has be5 explor$ by u4 #a ,! calorie ref]r$ to is ! quantity ( heat requir$ to heat "o gram ( wat]1 i4e4 "o cubic c5timetre ( wat]--?r\gh "o degree c5tigrade4 #abf ,x is !re=e highly probable t ! value f\nd = ! mean radioactivity ( acid & basic rocks1 or t f\nd = int]m$iate rocks1 truly repres5ts ! radioactive /ate ( ! cru/ to a consid]able dep?4 ,b x is easy to %[ t we _c ) confid5ce speak ( ! ?ickness ( ?is cru/ z det]m9able by equat+ ! heat outfl[ at ! surface ) ! heat production ( ?is av]age rock4 ,?is appe>s 9 ! failure ( a radioactive lay]1 tak5 at a ?ickness ( ab\t #ai-kilometres1 to acc\nt = ! deep-seat$ high temp]atures :i* we f9d to be indicat$ by volcanic ph5om5a at _m places on ! surface4 ,x is n h>d to %[ t ! #ai-kilometre lay] w\ld acc\nt = a temp]ature no high] ?an ab\t #bgj ,c4 at its base4 ,x is true t ?is w be augm5t$ b5ea? ! s$im5t>y deposits z we %all pres5tly see2 & t x is j 9 association ) ^! deposits t deep-seat$ temp]atures are mo/ 9 evid5ce at ! surface2 b /ill ! result t ! maximum temp]ature b5ea? ! cru/ 9 g5]al atta9s a value no high] ?an #bgj ,c4 is h>dly t5able4 ,we conclude1 !n1 t "s o!r s\rce ( heat exi/s b5ea?4 ,?is may be radioactive 9 orig9 & may be easily acc\nt$ = if ! radioactive mat]ials are m sp>sely di/ribut$ at ! base ( ! upp] cru/4 ,or1 aga91 ! heat may be primeval or orig9al heat1 /ill escap+ f a cool+ _w4 ,= our pres5t purpose x does n mu* matt] :i* view #abg we adopt4 ,b we mu/ recognise t ! calculat$ dep? ( #ai kilometres ( cru/1 possess+ ! av]age radioactivity ( ! surface1 is excessive2 =1 9 fact1 we are compell$ by ! facts to recognise t "s o!r s\rce ( heat exi/s b5ea?4 ,if ! obs]v$ surface gradi5t ( temp]ature p]si/$ uni=mly d[nw>ds1 at "s #ce kilometres b5ea? ! surface !re w\ld exi/ temp]atures 7( ab\t #ajjj ,c47 adequate to s(t5 basic rocks4 ,x is probable1 h[ev]1 t ! gradi5t dim9i%es d[nw>ds1 & t ! level at :i* su* temp]atures exi/ lies r deep] ?an ?is4 ,x is1 d\btless1 some:at v>iable accord+ to local conditions2 nor c we at all approximate closely to an e/imate ( ! dep? at :i* ! fusion temp]atures w be rea*$1 =1 9 fact1 ! exi/5ce ( ! radioactive lay] v mu* complicates our e/imates4 ,9 :at foll[s we assume ! dep? ( s(t5+ to lie at ab\t #dj kilometres b5ea? ! surface ( ! normal cru/2 t is #be miles d[n4 ,x is to be obs]v$ t ,pre/wi* & o!r em95t geologi/s1 f a /udy ( ! facts ( cru/-fold+1 etc41 h arriv$ at simil> e/imates4#a ,z a fur!r assumption we are probably n f> wrong if we assign to ! radioactive "p ( ?is cru/ a ?ickness ( ab\t #aj or #ab kilometres2 i4e4 six or sev5 miles4 ,?is is necess>ily a r\gh approximation only2 b ! conclusions at :i* #a ,pre/wi*1 ,proc4 ,royal ,soc41 xii41 p4 #aeh et seq4 #abh we %all arrive are rea*$ 9 _! ess5tial features all[+ a wide latitude 9 our *oice ( data4 ,we %all speak ( ?is "p ( ! cru/ z ! normal radioactive lay]4 ,an important fact is evolv$ f ! ma!matical inve/igation ( ! temp]ature conditions aris+ f ! pres5ce ( su* a radioactive lay]4 ,x is f\nd t ! greate/ temp]ature1 due to ! radioactive heat ev]y:]e evolv$ 9 ! lay]--i4e4 ! temp]ature at its base--is proportional to ! squ>e ( ! ?ickness ( ! lay]4 ,?is fact has a direct be>+ on ! influ5ce ( radioactivity ^u m\nta9 elevation2 z we %all n[ f9d4 ,! normal radioactive lay] ( ! ,e>? is compos$ ( rocks ext5d+--z we assume--approximately to a dep? ( #ab kilometres 7#g4e miles74 ,! temp]ature at ! base ( ?is lay] due to ! heat be+ cont9ually evolv$ 9 x1 is1 say1 t#a4 ,n[1 let u suppose1 9 ! tr\gh ( ! geosyncl9e1 & ^u ! top ( ! normal lay]1 a deposit (1 say1 #aj kilometres 7#f4b miles7 ( s$im5ts is =m$ dur+ a long p]iod ( cont95tal d5udation4 ,:at is ! effect ( ?is on ! temp]ature at ! base ( ! normal lay] depress$ b5ea? ?is load8 ,! total ?ickness ( radioactive rocks is n[ #bb kilometres4 ,accord+ly we f9d ! new temp]ature t#b1 by ! proportion t#a 3 t#b 33 #ab 3 #bb ,t is1 z #add to #dhd4 ,9 fact1 ! temp]ature is m ?an trebl$4 ,x is true we "h assume ! radioactivity ( ! s$im5ts #abi & ( ! normal cru/ to be ! same4 ,! s$im5ts are1 h[ev]1 less radioactive 9 ! proportion ( #d to #c4 ,nev]!less ! effects ( ! increas$ ?ickness w be consid]able4 ,n[ ?is rem>kable increase 9 ! temp]ature arises entirely f ! condition att5d+ ! radioactive heat+2 & involves some?+ additional to ! temp]ature conditions det]m9$ by ! m]e depression & ?ick5+ ( ! cru/ z 9 ! ,babbage-,h]s*el !ory4 ,! latt] !ory only involves a %ift+ ( ! temp]ature levels 7or geo!rms7 into ! deposit$ mat]ials4 ,! radioactive !ory involves an actual rise 9 ! temp]ature at any di/ance f ! surface2 s t ! level 9 ! cru/ at :i* ! rocks are s(t5$ is ne>] to ! surface 9 ! geosyncl9es ?an x is else:]e 9 ! normal cru/ 7,pl4 ,,xv1 p4 #aah74 ,9 ?is mann] ! rigid "p ( ! cru/ is r$uc$ 9 ?ickness :]e ! great s$im5t>y deposits h collect$4 ,a t5-kilometre lay] ( s$im5t might result 9 r$uc+ ! effective ?ickness ( ! cru/ by #cj p] c5t42 a f\rte5-kilometre lay] might r$uce x by ne>ly #ej p] c5t4 ,ev5 a f\r-kilometre deposit might r$uce ! effective resi/ance ( ! cru/ to compressive =ces1 by #aj p] c5t4 ,su* results are1 ( c\rse1 approximate only4 ,!y %[ t z ! s$im5ts gr[ 9 dep? !re is a ris+ ( ! geo!rm ( pla/icity--:atev] its true temp]ature may be--gradually r$uc+ ! ?ickness ( t "p #acj ( ! upp] cru/ :i* is be>+ ! simultane\sly increas+ compressive /resses4 ,bel[ ?is geo!rm long-cont9u$ /ress resolves itself into hydro/atic pressure2 above x 7!re is1 ( c\rse1 no %>p l9e ( dem>cation7 ! cru/ accumulates ela/ic en]gy4 ,! f9al yield+ & flexure occur :5 ! resi/ant cross-section has be5 suffici5tly dim9i%$4 ,x is probable t !re is also "s outw>d hydro/aitic ?ru/ ov] ! area ( ris+ temp]ature1 :i* assi/s 9 det]m9+ ! upw>d ?r[ ( ! folds4 ,:5 yield+ has begun 9 any geosyncl9e1 & ! mat]ials are fault$ & ov]?ru/1 !re results a consid]ably increas$ ?ickness4 ,z an in/ance1 consid] ! pil+ up ( s$im5ts ov] ! exi/+ mat]ials ( ! ,alps1 :i* result$ f ! compressive =ce act+ f s\? to nor? 9 ! progress ( ,alp9e upheaval4 ,s*midt ( ,basel has e/imat$ t f #ae to #bj kilometres ( rock cov]$ ! mat]ials ( ! ,simplon z n[ expos$1 at ! "t :5 ! orog5ic =ces 7 actively at "w fold+ & %e>+ ! b$s1 & inject+ into _! folds ! pla/ic gneisses com+ f b5ea?4#a ,! lat]al compression ( ! area ( deposition ( ! ,l>amide1 already ref]r$ to1 result$ 9 a great ?ick5+ ( ! deposits4 ,_m o!r cases might be cit$2 ! effect is always 9 "s degree necess>ily produc$4 #a ,s*midt1 ,ec4 ,geol4 ,helvelix1 vol4 ix41 ,no4 #d1 p4 #eij #aca ,if "t be giv5 = ! heat to accumulate 9 ! l[] dep?s ( ! cru%$-up s$im5ts1 "h is an additional s\rce ( increas$ temp]ature4 ,! pil$-up masses ( ! ,simplon might h occasion$ a rise due to radioactive heat+ ( "o or two hundr$ degrees1 or ev5 m2 & if ?is be add$ to ! int]ior heat1 a total ( f #hjj to #ajjj might h prevail$ 9 ! rocks n[ expos$ at ! surface ( ! m\nta94 ,ev5 a less] temp]ature1 accompani$ by ! int5se pressure conditions1 might well occasion ! appe>ances ( !rmal metamorphism describ$ by ,we9s*5k1 & = :i*1 o!rwise1 !re is difficulty 9 acc\nt+4#a ,?is increase ^u ! prim>ily develop$ temp]ature conditions takes place concurr5tly ) ! progress ( compression2 & :ile x _c be tak5 into acc\nt 9 e/imat+ ! conditions ( initial yield+ ( ! cru/1 x adds an elem5t ( in/ability1 inasmu* z any progressive ?ick5+ by lat]al compression results 9 an accel]at$ rise ( ! goe!rms4 ,x is probable t "t suffici5t = ^! effects to develop1 if n to _! f9al1 yet to a consid]able ext5t1 is (t5 available4 ,! visc\s movem5ts ( silice\s mat]ials1 & ! out-p\r+ ( igne\s rocks :i* (t5 att5d m\nta9 elevation1 w\ld f9d an explanation 9 su* temp]atures4 #a ,we9s*5k1 ,congrs ,gol4 ,int]nat41 #aijj1 i41 p4 #ccb4 #acb ,!re is no m /rik+ feature ( ! "p "h play$ by radioactivity ?an ! fact t ! rhy?mic occurr5ce ( depression & upheaval succe$+ ea* o!r aft] great int]vals ( "t1 & (t5 %ift+ _! position b little f ! fir/ sc5e ( s$im5tation1 becomes acc\nt$ =4 ,! s\rce ( !rmal en]gy1 z we h already rem>k$1 is 9 fact transport$ ) ! s$im5ts--t en]gy :i* det]m9es ! place ( yield+ & upheaval1 & orda9s t ! m\nta9 ranges %all /& ar\nd ! cont95tal bord]s4 ,s$im5tation f ?is po9t ( view is a convection ( en]gy4 ,:5 ! consolidat$ s$im5ts are by ^! & by succe$+ movem5ts =c$ upw>ds into m\nta9s1 !y are expos$ to d5udative effects greatly exce$+ ^? :i* affect ! pla9s4 ,witness ! removal dur+ late ,t]ti>y times ( ! va/ ?ickness ( rock envelop+ ! ,alps4 ,su* great masses are hurri$ away by ice1 riv]s1 & ra94 ,! ocean receives !m2 & ) inf9ite pati5ce ! _w awaits ! sl[ accumulation ( ! radioactive en]gy beg9n+ afre% ^u its "w4 ,! "t = su* ev5ts appe>s to u imm5se1 = millions ( ye>s are requir$ = ! s$im5ts to gr[ 9 ?ickness1 & ! geo!rms to move upw>ds2 b va/ z x is1 x is b a mom5t 9 ! life ( ! p>5t radioactive sub/ances1 ^: atoms1 h>dly dim9i%$ 9 numb]s1 pursue _! *anges :ile ! m\nta9s come & g1 & ! #acc rudim5ts ( life develop into its highe/ consummations4 ,to ^? unacqua9t$ ) ! results ( geological inve/igation ! hi/ory ( ! m\nta9s z deciph]$ 9 ! rocks seems almo/ incr$ible4 ,! rec5tly publi%$ sections ( ! ,himalaya1 due to ,h4 ,h4 ,hayd5 & ! _m di/+ui%$ m5 :o h contribut$ to ! ,geological ,survey ( ,india1 %[ ^! great ranges to be ess5tially =m$ ( fold$ s$im5ts p5etrat$ by va/ masses ( granite & o!r eruptives4 ,_! geological hi/ory may be summ>is$ z foll[s ,! ,himalayan area 9 pre-,cambrian times 01 9 its s\?we/]n ext5sion1 "p ( ! floor ( a sea :i* cov]$ mu* ( :at is n[ ! ,indian ,p59sula4 ,9 ! nor!rn %all[s ( ?is sea 7 laid d[n b$s ( conglom]ate1 %ale1 s&/one & lime/one1 d]iv$ f ! d5udation ( ,ar*an rocks1 :i*1 probably1 rose z hills or m\nta9s 9 p>ts ( ,p59sul> ,india & along ! ,tibetan edge ( ! ,himalayan region4 ,^! b$s con/itute ! record ( ! long ,purana ,era#a & are probably coeval ) ! ,algonkian ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,ev5 9 ^! e>ly times volcanic di/urbances affect$ ?is area & ! l[] b$s ( ! ,purana deposits 7 p5etrat$ by volcanic outfl[s1 cov]$ by %eets ( lava1 uplift$1 d5ud$ & aga9 subm]g$ #a ,see footnote1 p4 #aci4 #acd b5ea? ! wat]s4 ,two su* p]iods ( in/ability h left _! records 9 ! s$im5ts ( ! ,purana sea4 ,! succe$+ era--! ,dravidian ,era--op5s ) ,haimanta 7,cambrian7 times4 ,a %all[ sea n[ ext5d$ ov] ,kumaun1 ,g>wal1 & ,spiti1 z well z ,ka%mir & ultimately ov] ! ,salt ,range region ( ! ,punjab z is %[n by deposits 9 ^! areas4 ,?is sea 0 n1 h[ev]1 connect$ ) ! ,cambrian sea ( ,europe4 ,! fossil faunas left by ! two seas are di/9ct4 ,aft] an int]val ( di/urbance dur+ clos+ ,haimanta times1 geographical *anges att5dant on fur!r l& movem5ts occurr$4 ,! c5tral sea ( ,asia1 ! ,te?ys1 ext5d$ we/w>ds & n[ jo9$ ) ! ,european ,paleozoic sea2 & deposits ( ,ordovician & ,silurian age 7 laid d[n3--! ,mu? deposits4 ,! succe$+ ,devonian ,p]iod saw ! :ole ,nor!rn ,himalayan area "u ! wat]s ( ! ,te?ys :i*1 ea/w>d1 ext5d$ to ,burma & ,*9a &1 we/w>d1 cov]$ ,ka%mir1 ! ,h9du ,ku% & "p ( ,afghani/an4 ,deposits cont9u$ to be =m$ 9 ?is area till middle ,c>bonif]\s times4 ,ne>4 ! close ( ! ,dravidian ,era ,ka%mir became convuls$ by volcanic di/urbance & ! ,p5jal traps 7 eject$4 ,x 0 a "t ( worldwide di/urbance & ( r$i/ribution ( l& & wat]4 ,c>bonif]\s times _h begun1 & ! geographical *anges 9 #ace ! s\!rn limits ( ! ,te?ys are reg>d$ z u%]+ 9 a new & la/ era 9 ,indian geological hi/ory ! ,aryan ,bra4 ,india 0 n[ "p ( ,gondwanal&2 t vani%$ cont95t :i* !n rea*$ we/w>d to ,s\? ,africa & ea/w>d to ,au/ralia4 ,a b\ld]-b$ ( glacial orig91 ! ,tal*ir ,b\ld]-b$1 occurs 9 _m surviv+ p>ts ( ?is great l&4 ,x ent]s l>gely into ! ,salt ,range deposits4 ,!re is evid5ce t ext5sive %eets ( ice1 we>+ d[n ! rocks ( ,rajputana1 %ov$ _! mora9es nor?w>d into ! ,salt ,range ,sea2 !n1 probably1 a s\!rn ext5sion ( ! ,te?ys4 ,subsequ5t to ?is ice age ! ,indian coalfields ( ! ,gondwana 7 laid d[n1 ) b$s ri* 9 ! ,glossopt]is & ,gangamopt]is flora4 ,?is rem>kable c>bonif]\s flora ext5ds to ,s\!rn ,ka%mir1 s t x is to be inf]r$ t ?is region 0 also "p ( ! ma9 ,gondwanal&4 ,b its em]g5ce 0 b = a brief p]iod4 ,upp] ,c>bonif]\s m>9e deposits succe$$2 &1 9 fact1 !re 0 no important discont9uity 9 ! deposits 9 ?is area f ,panjal times till ! e>ly ,t]ti>ies4 ,dur+ ! :ole ( :i* va/ p]iod ,ka%mir 0 cov]$ ) ! wat]s ( ! ,te?ys4 ,! clos+ ,dravidian di/urbances ( ! ,ka%mir region did n1 app>5tly1 ext5d to ! ea/]n ,himalayan area4 ,b ! ,c>bonif]\s ,p]iod 01 9 ?is #acf ea/]n area1 "o ( in/ability1 culm9at+1 at ! close ( ! ,p]iod1 9 a /eady rise ( ! l& & a nor?w>d retreat ( ! ,te?ys4 ,ne>ly ! entire ,himalaya ea/ ( ,ka%mir became a l& surface & rema9$ expos$ to d5udative =ces = s long a "t t 9 places ! :ole ( ! ,c>bonif]\s1 ,devonian1 & a l>ge "p ( ! ,silurian & ,ordovician deposits 7 remov$--"s ?\s&s ( feet 9 ?ickness--be=e resubm]g5ce 9 ! ,te?ys occurr$4 ,t[>ds ! end ( ! ,palaeozoic ,age ! ,aryan ,te?ys rec$$ we/w>ds1 b /ill cov]$ ! ,himalaya & 0 /ill connect$ ) ! ,european ,palozoic sea4 ,! ,himalayan area 7z well z ,ka%mir7 rema9$ subm]g$ 9 its wat]s ?r\gh\t ! entire ,mesozoic ,age4 ,dur+ ,cretace\s times ! ,te?ys became greatly ext5d$1 indicat+ a consid]able subsid5ce ( nor?we/]n ,india1 ,afghani/an1 ,we/]n ,asia1 &1 probably1 mu* ( ,tibet4 ,! %all[-wat] "* ( ! deposits ( ! ,tibetan ,himalaya indicates1 h[ev]1 a coa/ l9e ne> ?is region4 ,volcanic mat]ials1 n[ p\r$ out1 =e%ad[ ! incom+ ( ! great m\nta9-build+ epo* ( ! ,t]ti>y ,era4 ,! enorm\s mass ( ! ,deccan traps1 possess+ a volume :i* has be5 e/imat$ at z mu* z #f1jjj cubic miles1 0 probably extrud$ ov] ! ,nor!rn ,p59sul> region dur+ late ,cretace\s times4 ,! sea n[ began to retreat1 & by ! close ( #acg ! ,eoc5e1 x _h mov$ we/w>d to ,s9d & ,balu*i/an4 ,! movem5ts ( ! ,e>?'s cru/ 7 att5d$ by int5se volcanic activity1 & great volumes ( granite 7 inject$ into ! s$im5ts1 foll[$ by dykes & outfl[s ( basic lavas4 ,! ,te?ys vani%$ to return no m4 ,x survives 9 ! ,m$it]ranean ( today4 ,! m\nta9-build+ movem5ts cont9u$ into ,plioc5e times4 ,! ,nummulite b$s ( ! ,eoc5e 71 z ! result1 ultimately uplift$ #ah1ejj feet ov] sea level1 a total uplift ( n less ?an #bj1jjj feet4 ,?us ) _m vicissitudes1 involv+ int]vals ( volcanic activity1 local uplift+1 & ext5sive local d5udation1 ! ,himalaya1 :i* _h orig9at$ 9 ! s$im5ts ( ! anci5t ,purana sea1 f> back 9 pre-,cambrian times1 & :i* _h develop$ pot5tially 9 a long sequ5ce ( deposits collect+ almo/ cont9u\sly ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( geological "t1 f9ally took _! place high 9 ! heav5s1 :]e only ! w9ds--fa9t at su* altitudes--& ! lights ( heav5 c visit _! et]nal sn[s4#a ,9 ?is great hi/ory x is significant t ! longe/ cont9u\s s]ies ( s$im5t>y deposits :i* ! _w has kn[n has become transfigur$ into ! l(tie/ elevation ^u its surface4 #a ,see ,a ,sket* ( ! ,geography & ,geology ( ! ,himalaya ,m\nta9s & ,tibet4 ,by ,colonel ,s4 ,g4 ,burr>d1 ,r4,e41 ,f4,r4,s41 & ,h4 ,h4 ,hayd51 ,f4,g4,s41 ,"p ,,iv4 ,calcutta1 #aijh4 #ach ,! diagrammatic sections ( ! ,himalaya accompany+ ?is brief description arc tak5 f ! monograph ( ,burr>d & ,hayd5 7loc4 cit47 on ! ,himalaya4 ,look+ at ! sections we see t "s ( ! l(tie/ summits are sculptur$ 9 granite & o!r cry/all9e rocks4 ,! appe>ance ( ^! mat]ials at ! surface indicates ! removal by d5udation & ! extreme metamorphism ( mu* s$im5t>y deposit4 ,! cry/all9e rocks1 inde$1 p5etrate "s ( ! olde/ rocks 9 ! _w4 ,!y appe> 9 contact ) ,ar*aean1 ,algonkian or e>ly ,palaeozoic rocks4 ,a /udy ( ! sections reveals n only ! sev]e e>? movem5ts1 b also ! imm5se am\nt ( s$im5t>y deposits involv$ 9 ! g5esis ( ^! alps4 ,x w be not$ t ! v]tical scale is n exagg]at$ relatively to ! horizontal4#a ,al?\gh !re is no evid5ce ( m\nta9 build+ #a ,to ^? unacqua9t$ ) ! t]m9ology ( ,indian geology ! foll[+ li/ ( approximate equival5ts 9 "t w be ( use ,ng>i ,khorsum ,b$s - ,plei/oc5e4 ,siwalik ,s]ies - ,mioc5e & ,plioc5e4 ,sirmur ,s]ies - ,oligoc5e4 ,kampa ,sy/em - ,eoc5e & ,cretace\s4 ,lilang ,sy/em - ,triassic4 ,kul+ ,sy/em - ,p]mian4 ,gondwana ,sy/em - ,c>bonif]\s4 ,k5aw> ,sy/em - ,c>bonif]\s & ,devonian ,mu? ,sy/em - ,silurian4 ,haimanta ,sy/em - ,mid4 & ,l[] ,cambrian4 ,purana ,gr\p - ,algonkian4 ,vaikrita ,sy/em - ,ar*an4 ,dal+ ,s]ies - ,ar*an4 #aci on a l>ge scale 9 ! ,himalayan area till ! ,t]ti>y upheaval1 x is1 9 ! majority ( cases1 lit]ally correct to speak ( ! m\nta9s z hav+ _! g5]ations l organic be+s1 & pass+ ?r\gh all ! /ages ( bir?1 life1 dea? & reproduction4 ,! ,alps1 ! ,jura1 ! ,pyr5ees1 ! ,&es1 h be5 remade m ?an once 9 ! c\rse ( geological "t1 ! dbris ( a worn-out range be+ aga9 uplift$ 9 succe$+ ages4 ,?us to dwell = a mom5t on "o case only3 t ( ! ,pyr5ees4 ,! ,pyr5ees arose z a range ( old] ,palmozoic rocks 9 ,devonian times4 ,^! e>ly m\nta9s1 h[ev]1 7 suffici5tly worn out & depress$ by ,c>bonif]\s times to receive ! deposits ( t age laid d[n on ! up-turn$ edges ( ! old] rocks4 ,& to ,c>bonif]\s succe$$ ,p]mian1 ,triassic1 ,jurassic & ,l[] ,cretace\s s$im5ts all laid d[n 9 con=mable sequ5ce4 ,!re 0 !n fre% di/urbance & upheaval foll[$ by d5udation1 & ^! m\nta9s1 9 turn1 became worn out & depress$ b5ea? ! ocean s t ,upp] ,gre5s& rocks 7 laid d[n uncon=rnably on all b5ea?4 ,to ^! n[ succe$$ ,upp] ,*alk1 s$im5ts ( ,danian age1 & s on1 till ,eoc5e times1 :5 ! tale 0 complet$ & ! exi/+ ranges rose f ! sea4 ,today we f9d ! fold$ ,nummulitic /rata ( ,eoc5e age uplift$ #aa1jjj feet1 or )9 #bjj feet ( ! greate/ heights ( ! ,pyr5ees4 ,& s !y /& await+ #adj ! "t :5 once aga9 !y %all fall into ! portion ( outworn faces4#a ,only m\nta9s c beget m\nta9s4 ,great accumulations ( s$im5t are a necess>y condition = ! localisation ( cru/-flexure4 ,! e>lie/ m\nta9s arose z purely igne\s or volcanic elevations1 b ! g5]ations ( ! hills soon orig9at$ 9 ! collection ( ! dbris1 "u ! law ( gravity1 9 ! holl[ places4 ,& if a f\nd]$ range is expos$ n[ to our view encumb]$ ) ?\s&s ( feet ( ov]ly+ s$im5ts we "k t :ile ! "o range 0 s9k+1 ano!r1 f :i* ! s$im5ts 7 d]iv$1 surely exi/$4 ,?r\gh ! w9d[s 9 ! deep-cut rocks ( ! ,swiss valleys we see ! old] ,c>bonif]\s ,alps look+ out1 revisit+ ! sun light1 aft] scores ( millions ( ye>s ( imprisonm5t4 ,we "k t j z surely z ! ,alps ( today are f\nd+ by _! muddy torr5ts ranges yet to arise1 s o!r primeval ,alps f$ into ! ocean ! mat]ials ( ^! buri$ pre-,p]mian rocks4 ,?is succession ( ev5ts only c cease :5 ! rocks h be5 suffici5tly impov]i%$ ( ! heat-produc+ sub/ances1 or ! =ces ( compression %all h di$ out 9 ! surface cru/ ( ! e>?4 ,x seems impossible to escape ! conclusion t 9 ! great developm5t ( ocean-encircl+ areas ( #a ,see ,pre/wi*1 ,*emical & ,physical ,geology1 p4 #cjb4 #ada deposition & cru/al fold+1 ! heat ( radioactivity has be5 a det]m9+ factor4 ,we recognise 9 ! movem5ts ( ! s$im5ts n only an influ5ce localis+ & accel]at+ cru/al movem5ts1 b "o :i*1 9 subs]vi5ce to ! primal di/ribution ( l& & wat]1 has det]m9$ "s ( ! greate/ geographical features ( ! globe4 ,x is no m ?an a /ep to %[ t b\nd up ) ! radioactive en]gy are mo/ ( ! e>?quake & volcanic ph5om5a ( ! e>?4 ,! association ( e>?quakes ) ! great geosyncl9es is well kn[n4 ,! "w ( ,de ,montessus %[$ t ov] #id p] c5t4 ( all record$ %ocks lie 9 ! geosyncl9al belts4 ,!re c be no d\bt t ^! manife/ations ( in/ability are ! results ( ! local weakness & flexure :i* orig9at$ 9 ! accumulation ( en]gy d5ud$ f ! cont95ts4 ,simil>ly we may view 9 volcanoes ph5om5a ref]able to ! same fundam5tal cause4 ,! volcano 01 9 fact1 long reg>d$ z m intimately connect$ ) e>?quakes ?an x1 probably1 actually is2 ! association be+ reg>d$ 9 a causative light1 :]eas ! connexion is m t ( possess+ a common orig94 ,! girdle ( volcanoes ar\nd ! ,pacific & ! e>?quake belt co9cide4 ,aga91 ! anci5t & mod]n volcanoes & e>?quakes ( ,europe are associat$ ) ! geosyncl9e ( ! great] ,m$it]ranean1 ! ,te?ys ( ,mesozoic times4 ,!re is no difficulty 9 und]/&+ 9 a #adb g5]al way ! nature ( ! association4 ,! e>?quake is ! manife/ation ( rupture & slip1 &1 z ,suess has %[n1 ! epic5tres %ift along t fault l9e :]e ! cru/ has yield$4#a ,! volcano m>ks ! spot :]e ! zone ( fusion is br\ght s high 9 ! fractur$ cru/ t ! melt$ mat]ials are p\r$ out ^u ! surface4 ,9 a rec5t "w on ! subject ( e>?quakes ,pr(essor ,hobbs writes3 ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ ( ! g5]alisations :i* ,de ,montessus has rea*$ z a result ( 8 protract$ /udies1 is t ! e>?quake di/ricts on ! l& correspond almo/ exactly to ^? belts ^u ! globe :i* 7 ! almo/ cont9u\s ocean bas9s ( ! long ,second>y era ( geological hi/ory4 ,)9 ^! belts ! s$im5t>y =mations ( ! cru/ 7 laid d[n 9 ! greate/ ?ickness1 & ! =mations foll[ ea* o!r 9 relatively complete succession4 ,= almo/ or q ! :ole ( ?is long era x is !re=e cle> t ! ocean cov]$ ^! zones4 ,ab\t !m ! =mations are f\nd int]rupt$1 & ! lacuna indicate t ! sea invad$ ! area only to rec$e f x1 & aga9 at "s lat] p]iod to transgress ^u x4 ,= a long "t1 !re=e1 ^! e>?quake belts 7 ! sea bas9s--! geosyncl9es4 ,!y became lat] ! ris+ m\nta9s ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod1 & m\nta9s !y #a ,suess1 ,! ,face ( ! ,e>?1 vol4 ii41 *ap4 ii4 #adc are today4 ,! e>?quake belts are h5ce ^? portions ( ! e>?'s cru/ :i* 9 rec5t times h suff]$ ! greate/ movem5ts 9 a v]tical direction--!y are ! mo/ mobile portions ( ! e>?'s cru/4#a ,:e!r ! movem5ts att5d+ m\nta9 elevation & d5udation are a connect$ & integral "p ( ^? wide geographical *anges :i* result 9 subm]g5ce & elevation ( l>ge cont95tal areas1 is an obscure & complex "q4 ,we seem1 inde$1 accord+ to ! views ( "s au?orities1 h>dly 9 a position to affirm ) c]ta9ty t su* widespread movem5ts ( ! l& h actually occurr$1 & t ! ph5om5a are n ! outcome ( fluctuations ( oceanic level2 t our obs]vations g no fur!r ?an ! recognition ( positive & negative movem5ts ( ! /r&4 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 ! great] "p ( me*anical d5udation dur+ geological "t has be5 done on ! m\nta9 ranges4 ,x is1 9 %ort1 indisputable t ! orog5ic movem5ts :i* uplift ! hills h be5 at ! basis ( geological hi/ory4 ,to !m ! great accumulations ( s$im5ts :i* n[ =m s l>ge a "p ( cont95tal l& are ma9ly due4 ,!re c be no d\bt ( ! fact t ^! movem5ts h sway$ ! entire hi/ory1 bo? inorganic & organic1 ( ! _w 9 :i* we live4 #a ,hobbs1 ,e>?quakes1 p4 #eh4 #add ,to sum ! cont5ts ( ?is essay 9 ! mo/ g5]al t]ms1 we f9d t 9 ! conception ( d5udation z produc+ ! convection & accumulation ( radio!rmal en]gy ! surface features ( ! globe receive a new significance4 ,! heat ( ! e>? is n int]nal only1 b r a heat-s\rce exi/s at ! surface1 :i*1 z we h se51 _c prevail to ! same degree )92 & :5 ! conditions become fav\rable = ! aggregation ( ! en]gy1 ! cru/1 heat$ bo? f b5ea? & f above1 assumes prop]ties m ak9 to ^? ( its e>li] /ages ( developm5t1 ! secul> heat-loss be+ re/or$ 9 ! radioactive supplies4 ,^! causes ( local mobility h be5 9 op]ation1 %ift+ some:at f place to place1 & def9$ geographically by ! cont95tal masses und]go+ d5udation1 s9ce ! e>lie/ times4 #ade ,,alp9e ,,/ructure ,,an intellig5t obs]v] ( ! geological *anges progress+ 9 s\!rn ,europe 9 ,eoc5e times w\ld h se5 little to inspire him ) a premonition ( ! ev5ts !n develop+4 ,! ,nummulitic lime/ones 7 be+ laid d[n 9 t enl>g$ ,m$it]ranean :i* at ?is p]iod1 save = a few isl&s1 cov]$ mo/ ( s\? ,europe4 ,( ^! /ratifi$ rema9s1 z well z ( ! great b$s ( ,cretace\s1 ,jurassic1 ,triassic1 & ,p]mian s$im5ts b5ea?1 our hypo!tical obs]v] w\ld probably h be5 reg>dless2 j z today we obs]ve1 ) an indiff]5ce born ( our transitor9ess1 ! deposits rapidly ga!r+ :]ev] riv] dis*>ge is di/ribut+ ! s$im5ts ov] ! sea-floor1 or ! lime-secret+ organisms are actively at "w4 ,& yet x took b a few millions ( ye>s to uplift ! deposits ( ! anci5t ,te?ys2 pile high its s$im5ts 9 fold ^u fold 9 ! ,alps1 ! ,c>pa?ians1 & ! ,himalayas2 &--expos+ !m to ! rig\rs ( d5udation at altitudes :]e glaciation1 l&slip1 & torr5t prevail--inaugurate a new epo* ( s$im5tation & upheaval4 #adf ,9 ! case ( ! ,alps1 to :i* we wi% n[ specially to ref]1 ! *ief upheaval appe>s to h be5 9 ,oligoc5e times1 al?\gh movem5t cont9u$ to ! close ( ! ,plioc5e4 ,!re 0 ?us a p]iod ( "s millions ( ye>s )9 :i* ! entire ph5om5a 7 compris$4 ,avail+ ourselves ( ,sollas' computations1#a we may sum ! maximum dep?s ( s$im5t>y deposits ( ! geological p]iods conc]n$ z foll[s3-- ,plioc5e - - - - - #c1iej m4 ,mioc5e - - - - - #d1bej m4 ,oligoc5e - - - - #c1ffj m4 ,eoc5e - - - - - - #f1ajj m4 & assum+ t ! orog5ic =ces began _! "w 9 ! la/ qu>t] ( ! ,eoc5e p]iod1 we h a total ( #ac1djj m4 z "s measure ( ! "t :i* elaps$4 ,at ! rate ( io c5timetres 9 a c5tury ^! deposits c\ld n h collect$ 9 less ?an #ac4d millions ( ye>s4 ,x w\ld appe> t n less ?an "s t5 millions ( ye>s 7 consum$ 9 ! g5esis ( ! ,alps be=e con/ructive movem5ts f9ally ceas$4 ,! progress ( ! e>?-movem5ts 0 att5d$ by ! usual volcanic ph5om5a4 ,! ,oligoc5e & ,mioc5e volcanoes ext5d$ 9 a b& m>k$ by ! ,auv]gne1 ! ,eiffel1 ! ,bohemian1 & ! ea/]n ,c>pa?ian eruptions2 &1 lat]1 t[>ds ! close ( ! movem5ts 9 ,plioc5e times1 ! s\? bord] #a ,sollas1 ,anniv]s>y ,address1 ,geol4 ,soc41 ,london1 #aiji4 #adg regions ( ! ,alps became ! sc5e ( eruptions su* z ^? ( ,etna1 ,santor91 ,somma 7,vesuvius71 etc4 ,we h ref]r$ to ^! well-kn[n episodes ) two objects 9 view3 to recall to m9d ! "t-int]val involv$1 & ! evid5ce ( int5se cru/al di/urbance1 bo? dynamic & !rmal4 ,accord+ to views expla9$ 9 a previ\s essay1 ! en]getic effects ( radium 9 ! s$im5ts & upp] cru/ 7 a pr9cipal factor 9 localis+ & br++ ab\t ^! results4 ,we propose n[ to inquire if1 also1 9 ! m intimate /ructure ( ! ,alps1 ! radioactive en]gy may n h borne a "p4 ,:at we see today 9 ! ,alps is b a residue sp>$ by d5udation4 ,x is c]ta9 t va/ ?icknesses ( mat]ial h disappe>$4 ,ev5 :ile con/ructive effects 7 /ill 9 progress1 d5udative =ces 7 n idle4 ,( ?is fact ! %+le accumulations ( ! ,molasse1 :]e1 on ! nor!rn bord]s ( ! ,alps1 !y /& pil$ into m\nta9s1 be> eloqu5t te/imony4 ,9 ! sub-,ap5n9e s]ies ( ,italy1 ! great b$s ( clays1 m>ls1 & lime/ones af=d evid5ce ( ^! de/ructive processes cont9u$ into ,plioc5e times4 ,we h already ref]r$ to ,s*midt's e/imate t ! s$im5t>y cov]+ mu/ h 9 places am\nt$ to f #ae1jjj to #bj1jjj metres4 ,! evid5ce = ?is is ma9ly tectonic or /ructural2 b is p>tly =?com+ 9 ! *anges :i* ! mat]ials n[ op5 to our inspection pla9ly reveal4 ,?us x is impos- #adh sible to suppose t gneissic rocks c become s f> pla/ic z to fl[ 9 & ar\nd ! calc>e\s s$im5ts1 or be p5etrat$ by ! latt]--z we see 9 ! ,jungfrau & else:]e--unless great pressures & high temp]atures prevail$4 ,&1 accord+ to "s writ]s1 ! temp]atures reveal$ by ! intimate /ructural *anges ( rock-=m+ m9]als mu/ h am\nt$ to ^? ( fusion4 ,! exi/5ce ( su* conditions is support$ by ! obs]vation t :]e !4cry/allisation is n[ ! mo/ p]fect1 ! ph5om5a ( fold+ & injection are be/ develop$4#a ,^! high temp]atures w\ld appe> to be unacc\ntable )\t ! int]v5tion ( radio!rmal effects2 &1 inde$1 h be5 reg>d$ z enigmatic by obs]v]s ( ! ph5om5a 9 "q4 ,a cov]+ ( #bj1jjj metres 9 ?ickness w\ld n occasion an e>?-temp]ature exce$+ #ejj ,c4 if ! gradi5ts 7 su* z obta9 9 m\nta9 regions g5]ally2 & #fjj is ab\t ! limit we c\ld ascribe to ! purely passive effects ( su* a lay] 9 elevat+ ! geo!rms4 ,^? :o are /ill unacqua9t$ ) ! rec5tly publi%$ obs]vations on ! /ructure ( ! ,alps may f9d x difficult to ent] into :at has n[ to be /at$2 = ! facts are1 inde$1 v diff]5t f ! g5]ally preconceiv$ ideas ( m\nta9 =mation4 ,nor c we wond] t _m geologi/s = long held #a ,we9s*5k1 ,c4 ,r4 ,congrs ,gol41 #aijj1 p4 #cba1 et seq4 #adi back f admitt+ views :i* appe>$ s extreme4 ,receptivity is ! fir/ virtue ( ! sci5tific m9d2 b1 ) e desire to lay aside prejudice1 _m felt unequal to ! acceptance ( /ructural features involv+ a fold+ ( ! e>?-cru/ 9 laps :i* lay = scores ( miles f c\ntry to c\ntry1 & ! c>riage ( m\nta9\s mat]ials f ! s\? ( ! ,alps to ! nor?1 leav+ !m f9ally z ,alp9e ranges ( anci5t s$im5ts repos+ on f\ndations ( m rec5t date4 ,! hi/orian ( ! subject w h to relate h[ "s :o f9ally 7 mo/ active 9 advanc+ ! new views 7 at fir/ oppos$ to !m4 ,9 ! *ange ( conviction ( ^! em95t geologi/s we h ! /ronge/ pro( ( ! conv9c+ nature ( ! obs]vations & ! reality ( ! tectonic features ^u :i* ! rec5t views are f\nd$4 ,! less] m\nta9s :i* /& along ! nor!rn bord] ( ! great lime/one ,alps1 ^? kn[n z ! ,pralpes1 pres5t ! /range *>act]i/ic ( re/+ ^u mat]ials y\ng] ?an !mselves4 ,su* m\nta9s z ! rem>kable-look+ ,my!n1 ne> ,s*wyz1 = in/ance1 are wea!r$ f masses ( ,triassic & ,jurassic rock1 & repose on ! mu* m rec5t ,flys*4 ,9 %>p contra/ to ! ,flys* sc5]y1 !y /& z abrupt & gigantic erratics1 :i* h be5 transport$ f ! c5tral zone ( ! ,alps ly+ f> to ! s\?4 ,!y are /rang]s petrologically1 #aej /ratigraphically1 & geographically1#a to ! locality 9 :i* !y n[ occur4 ,! exotic mat]ials may be dolomites1 lime/ones1 s*i/s1 s&/ones1 or rocks ( igne\s orig94 ,!y %[ 9 e case traces ( ! sev]e dynamic actions to :i* !y h be5 subject$ 9 transit4 ,! igne\s1 l ! s$im5t>y1 klipp51 c be trac$ to di/ant s\rces2 to ! massif ( ,belladonne1 to ,mont ,blanc1 ,lugano1 & ! ,tyrol4 ,! ,pralpes are1 9 fact1 m\nta9s )\t local roots4 ,9 ?is la/-nam$ ess5tial feature1 ! ,pralpes d n diff] f ! /ill great] lime/one ,alps :i* succe$ !m to ! s\?4 ,^! giants1 e4g4 ! ,jungfrau1 ,wett]horn1 ,eig]1 etc41 are also )\t local f\ndations4 ,!y h be5 =m$ f ! ov]?r[n & drawn-out anticl9es ( great cru/-folds1 ^: syncl9es or roots are traceable to ! s\? side ( ! ,rhone ,valley4 ,! ,b]nese ,ob]l& orig9at$ 9 ! pil+-up ( f\r great %eets or recumb5t folds1 "o ( :i* is cont9u$ into ! ,pralpes4 ,) ,lugeon#b we may see 9 ! ph5om5on ( ! =mation ( ! ,pralpes a detail2 reg>d+ x z a normal expression ( t me*anism :i* has creat$ ! ,swiss ,alps4 ,= ^! lime/one masses ( ! ,ob]l& are n indications ( a m]ely local %ift ( ! s$im5t>y cov]+ ( ! ,alps4 ,almo/ ! :ole cov]+ has #a ,de ,lapp>5t1 ,trait de ,gologie1 p4 #a1ghe4 #b ,lugeon1 ,bullet9 ,soc4 ,gol4 de ,france1 #aija1 p4 #ggb4 #aea be5 pu%$ ov] & pil$ up to ! nor?4 ,lugeonl concludes t1 be=e d5udation _h done its "w & cut (f ! ,pralpes f _! roots1 !re w\ld h be5 f\nd %eets1 to ! numb] ( eight1 sup]impos$ & ext5d+ betwe5 ! ,mont ,blanc massif & ! massif ( ! ,f9/]a>horn3 ^! %eets be+ ! ov]?r[n folds ( ! wr9kl$ s$im5t>y cov]+4 ,! g5]al nature ( ! alp9e /ructure ,fig4 #h w be und]/ood f ! pres5tation ( x diagrammatically aft] ,s*midt ( ,basel 7,fig4 #h74b ,! section ext5ds f nor? to s\?1 & br+s out ! relations ( ! sev]al recumb5t folds4 ,we mu/ imag9e almo/ ! :ole ( ^! sup]impos$ folds n[ remov$ f ! c5tral regions ( ! ,alps by d5udation1 #a ,lugeon1 loc4 cit4 #b ,s*midt1 ,ec4 ,geol4 ,helvetiae1 vol4 ix41 ,no4 #d4 #aeb & leav+ ! und]ly+ gneisses ris+ ?r\gh ! rema9s ( ,p]mian1 ,triassic1 & ,jurassic s$im5ts2 :ile to ! nor? ! great lime/one m\nta9s & fur!r nor? /ill1 ! ,pralpes1 c>v$ f ! rema9s ( ! recumb5t folds1 n[ /& ) almo/ z little resemblance to ! vani%$ m\nta9s z ! memories ( ! pa/ h to its =m] int5se reality4 ,^! views z to ! orig9 ( ! ,alps1 :i* are %>$ at ! pres5t day by s _m di/+ui%$ geologi/s1 _h _! orig9 9 ! lab\rs ( _m n[ gone2 dat+ back to ,/ud]2 f9d+ _! inspiration 9 ! "w ( ,heim1 ,suess1 & ,m>cel ,b]tr&2 & _! consummation 9 t ( ,lugeon1 ,s*>dt1 ,ro?pletz1 ,s*midt1 & _m o!rs4 ,nor mu/ x be =gott5 t ne>] home1 some:at simil> ph5om5a1 necess>ily on a small] scale1 7 recognis$ by ,lapwor?1 tw5ty-six ye>s ago1 9 8 "w on ! /ructure ( ! ,scotti% ,highl&s4 ,an important tectonic pr9ciple und]lies ! developm5t ( ! ph5om5a we h j be5 review+4 ,! upp]mo/ ( ! sup]impos$ recumb5t folds is m ext5d$ 9 its developm5t ?an ^? :i* lie b5ea?4 ,pass+ d[nw>ds f ! highe/ ( ! folds1 !y are f\nd to be less & less ext5d$ bo? 9 ! nor!rly & 9 ! s\!rly direction1 speak+ ( ! special case--! ,alps--n[ be=e u4 ,?is feature might be describ$ some:at diff]5tly4 ,we might say t ^? folds :i* _h _! roots f>!r #aec to ! s\? 7 ! mo/ drawn-out t[>ds ! nor?3 or aga9 we might say t ! syncl9al or deep-seat$ "p ( ! fold has lagg$ beh9d ! anticl9al or :at 0 orig9ally ! highe/ "p ( ! fold1 9 ! advance ( ! latt] to ! nor?4 ,! anticl9e has advanc$ relatively to ! syncl9e4 ,to ?is law "o exception only is obs]v$ 9 ! ,swiss ,alps2 ! %eet ( ! ,br*e 7,byecci5decke7 falls %ort1 9 its nor!rly ext5sion1 ( ! und]ly+ fold1 :i* ext5ds to =m ! ,pralpes4 ,contemplat+ su* a g5]alis$ section z ,pr(essor ,s*midt's1 or1 inde$1 m p>ticul> sections1 su* z ^? 9 ! ,mont ,blanc ,massif by ,m>cel ,b]tr&1#a ( ! ,d5t de ,morcles1 ,diabl]ets1 ,wildhorn1 & ,massif de la ,br*e by ,lugeon1#b or f9ally ,t]mi]'s section ( ! ,pelv\x ,massif1#c "o is rem9d$ ( ! break+ ( waves on a slop+ bea*4 ,! wave1 ret>d$ at its base1 is c>ri$ =w>d above by its mom5tum1 & f9ally spreads f> up on ! /r&2 & if x c\ld !re rema91 ! succe$+ wave mu/ necess>ily f9d itself sup]impos$ ^u ! fir/4 ,b no effects ( in]tia1 no k9etic effects1 may be call$ to our aid 9 expla9+ ! =mation ( m\nta9s4 ,"s geologi/s h accord+ly suppos$ t 9 ord] to acc\nt = #a ,m>cel ,b]tr&1 ,cong4 ,gol4 ,int]nat41 #aijj1 ,guide ,gol41 xiii4 a1 p4 #da4 #b ,lugeon1 loc4 cit41 p4 #ggc4 #c ,de ,lapp>5t1 ,traite de ,gol41 p4 #a1ggc4 #aed ! recumb5t folds & ! peculi> ph5om5a ( increas+ ov]lap1 or df]lem5t1 an ob/acle1 fix$ & deep-seat$1 mu/ h arre/$ ! roots or syncl9es ( ! folds1 & held !m aga9/ translational motion1 :ile a movem5t ( ! upp] cru/ drew out & c>ri$ =w>d ! anticl9es4 ,o!rs h cont5t$ !mselves by record+ ! facts )\t advanc+ any explanatory hypo!sis beyond t embodi$ 9 ! inconte/able /atem5t t su* ph5om5a mu/ be ref]r$ to ! effects ( tang5tial =ces act+ 9 ! ,e>?'s cru/4 ,x w\ld appe> t ! explanation ( ! ph5om5a ( recumb5t folds & _! df]lem5t is to be obta9$ directly f ! temp]ature conditions prevail+ ?r\gh\t ! /ress$ pile ( rocks2 & "h ! subject ( m\nta9 tectonics t\*es t ) :i* we 7 else:]e specially conc]n$--! geological influ5ce ( accumulat$ radioactive en]gy4 ,z already %[n#a1 a rise ( temp]ature due to ?is s\rce ( sev]al hundr$ degrees might be add$ to su* temp]atures z w\ld arise f ! m]e blanket+ ( ! ,e>?1 & ! consequ5t upw>d movem5t ( ! geo!rms4 ,! "t elem5t is "h ! mo/ important consid]ation4 ,! :ole sequ5ce ( ev5ts f ! fir/ orog5ic movem5ts to ! f9al upheaval 9 ,plioc5e times mu/ probably h occupi$ n less ?an t5 million ye>s4 #a ,m\nta9 ,g5esis1 p4 #abi1 et seq4 #aee ,un=tunately ! full inve/igation ( ! di/ribution ( temp]ature aft] any giv5 "t is beset ) difficulties2 ! conditions be+ extremely complex4 ,if ! radioactive heat+ 0 /rictly adiabatic--t is1 if all ! heat 0 cons]v$ & none ent]$ f )\t--! "t requir$ = ! atta9m5t ( ! equilibrium radioactive temp]ature w\ld be j ab\t six million ye>s4 ,! conditions are n1 inde$1 adiabatic2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 ! rocks uprais$ by lat]al pressure 7 by no means at #j ,c4 to />t )4 ,!y mu/ be assum$ to h possess$ su* temp]atures z ! prior radio!rmal effects1 & ! conduct$ heat f ! ,e>?'s int]ior1 may h e/abli%$4 ,x w\ld f ?is appe> probable t if a duration ( t5 million ye>s 0 involv$1 ! equilibrium radioactive temp]atures mu/ ne>ly h be5 atta9$4 ,! effects ( heat conduct$ f ! und]ly+ e>?cru/ h to be add$1 lead+ to a fur!r rise 9 temp]ature ( n less ?an #ejj or #fjj 4 ,9 su* consid]ations ! obs]v$ indications ( high temp]atures 9 mat]ials n[ laid b>e by d5udation1 probably f9d _! explanation 7,p#a4 ,,xix74 ,! fir/ fact t we inf] f ! =m] exi/5ce ( su* a temp]ature di/ribution is ! improbability1 inde$ ! impossibility1 t any?+ resembl+ a rigid ob/acle1 or deep-seat$ hor/1 c h exi/$ b5ea? ! pres5t surface-level1 & oppos$ ! nor!rly movem5t ( ! deep-ly+ syncl9es4 ,= #aef su* a hor/ c only h be5 con/itut$ ( "s silice\s rock-mat]ial su* z we f9d ev]y:]e ris+ ?r\gh ! worn-d[n s$im5ts ( ! ,alps2 & ! idea t ?is c\ld reta9 rigidity "u ! prevail+ temp]ature conditions1 mu/ be dismiss$4 ,!re is no ne$ to lab\r ?is "q2 ! hor/ _c h exi/$4 ,to :at1 !n1 is ! ret>dation ( ! l[] p>ts ( ! folds1 _! ov]?r[1 above1 to ! nor?1 & _! df]lem5t1 to be ascrib$8 ,a little consid]ation %[s t ! v conditions ( high temp]ature & viscosity1 :i* r5d] unt5able ! hypo!sis ( a rigid ob/acle1 suffice to af=d a full explanation ( ! ret>dation ( ! roots ( ! folds4 ,= direct$ translatory movem5ts _c be transmitt$ ?r\gh a fluid1 pressure 9 :i* is necess>ily hydro/atic1 & mu/ be ex]t$ equally 9 e direction4 ,& ?is applies1 n only to a fluid1 b to a body :i* w yield visc\sly to an impress$ =ce4 ,!re w be a gradation1 accord+ z viscosity gives place to rigidity1 betwe5 ! /ates 9 :i* ! appli$ =ce resolves itself into a purely hydro/atic pressure1 & 9 :i* x is transmitt$ ?r\gh ! mat]ial z a direct$ ?ru/4 ,! nature ( ! =ce1 9 ! mo/ g5]al case1 ( c\rse1 has to be consid]$2 :e!r x is sudd5ly appli$ & ( brief duration1 or /eady & long-cont9u$4 ,! latt] conditions alone apply to ! pres5t case4 ,x foll[s f ?is t1 al?\gh a tang5tial =ce #aeg or pressure be eng5d]$ by a cru/al movem5t occurr+ to ! s\?1 & ! resultant effects be transmitt$ nor?w>ds1 ^! /resses c only me*anically affect ! rigid p>ts ( ! cru/ into :i* !y are c>ri$4 ,t is to say1 !y may result 9 fold+ & cru%+1 or horizontally transport+1 ! upp] lay]s ( ! ,e>?'s cru/2 b 9 ! deep]-ly+ visc\s mat]ials !y mu/ be resolv$ into hydro/atic pressure :i* may act to upheave ! ov]ly+ cov]+1 b mu/ refuse to transmit ! horizontal translatory movem5ts affect+ ! rigid mat]ials above4 ,betwe5 ! regions 9 :i* ^! two oppos+ conditions prevail !re w be no h>d & fa/ l9e2 b ) ! d[nw>d increase ( fluidity !re w be a gradual failure ( ! me*anical conditions & an increase ( ! hydro/atic4 ,?us :ile ! upp]mo/ lay]s ( ! cru/ may be transport$ to ! full am\nt ( ! cru/al displacem5t act+ f ! s\? 7speak+ /ill ( ! ,alps7 deep] d[n !re w be a less] horizontal movem5t1 & /ill deep] !re is no influ5ce to urge ! visc\s rock-mat]ials 9 a nor!rly direction4 ,! consequ5ces ( ^! conditions mu/ be ! recumb5ce ( ! folds =m$ "u ! cru/-/ress1 & _! df]lem5t t[>ds ! nor?4 ,to see ?is1 we mu/ foll[ ! sev]al /ages ( developm5t4 ,! e>lie/ movem5ts1 we may suppose1 result 9 flexures ( ! ,jura-,m\nta9 type--t is1 9 a #aeh succession ( undulations m or less symmetrical4 ,z ! orog5ic =ce cont9ues & develops1 ^! undulations give place to folds1 ! limbs ( :i* are approximately v]tical1 & ! syncl9al p>ts ( :i* become ev] m & m depress$ into ! deep]1 & necess>ily hott]1 und]ly+ mat]ials2 ! anticl9es be+ probably correspond+ly elevat$4 ,^! ev5ts are sl[ly develop$1 & ! temp]ature b5ea? is /eadily ris+ 9 consequ5ce ( ! conduct$ int]ior heat1 & ! /eady accumulation ( radioactive en]gy 9 ! s$im5t>y rocks & 9 ! buri$ radioactive lay] ( ! ,e>?4 ,! "w exp5d$ on ! cru%$ & %e>$ rock also contributes to ! develop+ temp]ature4 ,?us ! geo!rms mu/ move upw>ds1 & ! visc\s conditions ext5d f bel[2 cont9ually dim9i%+ ! d[nw>d range ( ! translatory movem5ts progress+ 9 ! high] p>ts4 ,:ile above ! fold$ s$im5ts are be+ c>ri$ nor?w>d1 b5ea? !y are becom+ an*or$ 9 ! gr[+ viscosity ( ! m$ium4 ,! anticl9es w b5d ov]1 & ! mo/ s\!rly ( ! folds w gradually become pu%$ or b5t ov] ^? ly+ to ! nor?4 ,f9ally1 ! :ole upp] "p ( ! %eaf w become horizontally recumb5t2 & z ! upp]mo/ folds w be ^? exp]i5c+ ! greate/ effects ( ! cont9u$ displacem5t1 ! df]lem5t or ov]lap mu/ necess>ily arise4 ,we may foll[ ^! /ages ( m\nta9 evolution #aei 9 a diagram 7,fig4 #i7 9 :i* we elim9ate int]m$iate conditions1 & reg>d ! e>ly & f9al /ages ( developm5t only4 ,9 ! upp] sket* we suppose ! lat]al compression mu* develop$ & ! upw>d movem5t ( ! geo!rms 9 progress4 ,! dott$ l9e may be assum$ to be a geo!rm hav+ a temp]ature ( viscosity4 ,if ! conditions "h %[n p]si/ ,fig4 #i indef9itely1 !re is no d\bt t ! only fur!r developm5ts possible are ! cont9u$ cru%+ ( ! s$im5ts & ! bodily displacem5t ( ! :ole mass to ! nor?4 ,! second figure is int5d$ to %[ 9 :at mann] ^! results are evad$4 ,! geo!rm ( viscosity has ris54 ,all above x is affect$ me*anically by ! cont9u+ /ress1 & borne nor?w>ds 9 v>y+ #afj degree dep5d+ ^u ! rigidity4 ,! folds h be5 ov]?r[n & drawn out2 ^? :i* lay orig9ally mo/ to ! s\? h become ! upp]mo/2 &1 exp]i5c+ ! maximum am\nt ( displacem5t1 ov]lap ^? ly+ b5ea?4 ,!re has also be5 a c]ta9 am\nt ( up?r[ ow+ to ! hydro/atic pressure4 ,?is la/-m5tion$ elem5t ( ! ph5om5a is ( highly indet]m9ate "*1 = we "k n ! limits to :i* ! hydro/atic pressure may be transmitt$1 & :]e x may mo/ readily f9d relief4 ,:ile1 accord+ to "s ( ! publi%$ sections1 ! uplift+ =ce w\ld seem to h influ5c$ ! f9al results ( ! orog5ic movem5ts1 a discussion ( its effects w\ld n be pr(itable4 #afa ,,o!r ,,m9ds ,,?an ,,ours8 ,,9 ! ye> #afaj ,galileo1 look+ ?r\gh 8 telescope !n newly p]fect$ by 8 own h&s1 discov]$ t ! planet ,jupit] 0 att5d$ by a tra9 ( t9y />s :i* w5t r\nd & r\nd him j z ! moon goes r\nd ! ,e>?4 ,x 0 a revelation too great to be cr$it$ by mank9d4 ,x 0 oppos$ to ! doctr9e ( ! c5trality ( ! ,e>?1 = x sugge/$ t o!r worlds con/itut$ l ours might exi/ 9 ! heav5s4 ,"s said x 0 a m]e optic illusion2 o!rs t he :o look$ ?r\gh su* a tube did x at ! p]il ( 8 s\l--x 0 b a delusion ( ,satan4 ,galileo conv]t$ a few ( ! unbeliev]s :o _h ! c\rage to look ?r\gh 8 telescope4 ,to ! o!rs he said1 he hop$ !y w\ld see ^? moons on _! way to heav54 ,old z ?is /ory is x has nev] lo/ its pa?os or its tea*+4 ,! _s :i* assail$ ,galileo's discov]ies & :i* f9ally 0 pot5t to ov]%ad[ 8 decl9+ ye>s1 clos$ 9 =m] days ! m\?s ( ^? :o ask$ ! "q writt5 at ! head ( ?is lecture3 ,are we to believe t !re are o!r m9ds ?an ours8 #afb ,today we consid] ! "q 9 a v diff]5t _s4 ,few w\ld reg>d x z ei!r fooli% or improp]4 ,its int5se int]e/ w\ld be admitt$ by all1 & b = ! limitations clos+ our way on e side x w\ld1 d\btless1 attract ! mo/ e>ne/ inve/igation4 ,ev5 on ! m]e balance ( judgm5t betwe5 ! probable & ! improbable1 we h little to g on4 ,we "k no?+ def9itely z to ! conditions "u :i* life may orig9ate3 :e!r ^! are su* z to be r>e almo/ to impossibility1 or common almo/ to c]ta9ty4 ,only )9 n>r[ limits ( temp]ature & 9 pres5ce ( c]ta9 ( ! elem5ts1 c life l ours exi/1 & outside ^! conditions life1 if su* !re be1 mu/ be diff]5t f ours4 ,once orig9at$ x is s con/itut$ z to assail ! en]gies ar\nd x & to advance f less to great]4 ,d we "k m ?an ^! vague facts8 ,yes1 we h 9 our exp]i5ce "o o!r fact & "o involv+ mu*4 ,we "k t our _w is v old2 t life has be5 = _m millions ( ye>s ^u x2 & t ,man z a ?9k+ be+ is b ( ye/]day4 ,"h is !n a condition to be fulfill$4 ,to e _w is physically assign$ a limit to ! p]iod dur+ :i* x is habitable accord+ to our k ( life & its necessities4 ,?is limit pass$ & rationality miss$1 ! *ance = t _w is gone = ev]1 & o!r m9ds ?an ours assur$ly w n f x contemplate ! univ]se4 ,look+ at our own _w we see t ! tree ( life has1 #afc inde$1 bran*$1 leav$ &1 possibly1 budd$ _m times2 x nev] bloom$ b once4 ,all difficulties dissolve & speculations become ne$less "u "o condition only3 t 9 :i* rationality may be inf]r$ directly or indirectly by our obs]vations on "s si/] _w 9 space1 ,?is is j ! evid5ce :i* 9 rec5t ye>s has be5 claim$ z d]iv$ f a /udy ( ! surface ( ,m>s4 ,to t planet our hope ( su* evid5ce is re/rict$4 ,our survey 9 all o!r directions is b>r$ by insurm\ntable difficulties4 ,unless "s meteoric record rea*$ our ,e>?1 revelation>y ( intellig5ce on a p]i%$ _w1 our only hope ( obta9+ su* evid5ce re/s on ! obs]vation ( ,m>s' surface features4 ,to ?is subject we conf9e our att5tion 9 :at foll[s4 ,! obs]vations made dur+ rec5t ye>s ^u ! surface features ( ,m>s h1 excusably en\gh1 giv5 rise to s5sational reports4 ,we mu/ consid] "u :at circum/ances ^! obs]vations h be5 made4 ,m>s comes into p>ticul>ly fav\rable conditions = obs]vation e fifte5 ye>s4 ,x is true t e two ye>s & two mon?s we ov]take him 9 8 orbit & he is !n 9 opposition4 ,t is1 ! ,e>? is betwe5 him & ! sun3 he is !re=e 9 ! opposite "p ( ! heav5s to ! sun4 ,n[ ,m>s' orbit is v exc5tric1 sometimes he is #aci million miles f ! sun1 & sometimes he z z mu* z #aed million miles f ! sun4 ,! ,e>?'s orbit is1 by comp>ison1 almo/ #afd a circle4 ,evid5tly if we pass him :5 he is ne>e/ to ! sun we see him at 8 be/2 n only because he is !n ne>e/ to u1 b because he is !n also mo/ brightly lit4 ,9 su* fav\rable oppositions we are )9 #ce million miles ( him2 if ,m>s 0 9 aphelion we w\ld pass him at a di/ance ( #fa million miles4 ,opposition occurs "u ! mo/ fav\rable circum/ances e fifte5 ye>s4 ,!re 0 "o 9 #ahfb1 ano!r 9 #ahgg1 "o 9 #ahib1 & s on4 ,:5 ,m>s is #ce million miles (f & we apply a telescope magnify+ #a1jjj diamet]s1 we see him z if plac$ #ce1jjj miles (f4 ,?is w\ld be sev5 times ne>] ?an we see ! moon ) ! nak$ eye4 ,z ,m>s has a diamet] ab\t twice z great z t ( ! moon1 at su* a di/ance he w\ld look f\rte5 times ! diamet] ( ! moon4 ,grant+ fav\rable conditions ( atmosph]e mu* %\ld be se54 ,b ^! are j ! conditions ( atmosph]e ( :i* mo/ ( ! ,european obs]vatories _c boa/4 ,x is to ! hon\r ( ,s*iap>elli1 ( ,milan1 t "u comp>atively unfav\rable conditions & ) a small in/rum5t1 he s f> out/ripp$ 8 contempor>ies 9 ! obs]vation ( ! features ( ,m>s t ^? contempor>ies receiv$ mu* ( 8 e>ly discov]ies ) scepticism4 ,light & d>k outl9es & pat*es on ! planet's surface _h inde$ be5 mapp$ by o!rs1 & ev5 a c\ple ( ! canals sight$2 b at ! opposition ( #ahgg ,s*iap>elli fir/ mapp$ any consid]able #afe numb] ( ! celebrat$ canals & %[$ t ^! con/itut$ an extraord9>y & *>act]i/ic feature ( ! planet's geography4 ,he call$ !m canali1 mean+ !reby *annels4 ,x is rem>kable inde$ t a mi/ranslation appe>s really responsible = ! initiation ( ! idea t ^! features are canals4 ,9 #ahhb ,s*iap>elli />tl$ ! a/ronomical _w by decl>+ t he saw "s ( ! canals d\ble--t is appe>+ z two p>allel l9es4 ,z ^! l9es span ! planet's surface = di/ances ( _m ?\s&s ( miles ! ann\ncem5t naturally gave rise to mu* surprise &1 z ,i h said1 to mu* scepticism4 ,b he resolutely /uck to 8 /atem5t4 ,"h is 8 map ( #ahhb4 ,x is suffici5tly />tl+4 ,9 #ahib he drew a new map4 ,x adds a little to ! =m] map1 b ! d\bl+ 0 n s well se54 ,x is j ! /range/ feature ab\t ?is d\bl+ t at times x is conspicu\s1 at times invisible4 ,a l9e :i* is di/9ctly se5 z a s+le l9e at "o "t1 a few weeks lat] w appe> di/9ctly to consi/ ( two p>allel l9es2 l railway tracks1 b tracks p]haps #bjj miles ap>t & up to #c1jjj or ev5 #d1jjj miles 9 l5g?4 ,_m speculations 71 ( c\rse1 made to acc\nt = ! orig9 ( su* features4 ,no kn[n surface peculi>ity on ! ,e>? or moon at all resembles ^! features4 ,! moon's surface z y "k is crack$ & #aff /reak$4 ,b ! cracks are :at we g5]ally f9d cracks to be--ei!r aimless1 w&]+ l9es1 or1 if radiat+ f a c5tre1 !n l9es :i* contract 9 wid? z !y leave ! po9t ( rupture4 ,:]e w we f9d cracks accurately p>allel to "o ano!r sweep+ r\nd a planet's face ) /eady curvature =1 #d1jjj miles1 & cross+ ea* o!r z if q unhamp]$ by "o ano!r's pres5ce8 ,if ! ph5om5on on ,m>s be due to cracks !y imply a uni=mity 9 ?ickness & /r5g? ( cru/1 a homog5eity1 q beyond all anticipation4 ,we w aft]w>ds see t ! c\rse ( ! l9es is itself fur!r oppos$ to ! !ory t haphaz>d crack+ ( ! cru/ ( ! planet is responsible = ! l9es4 ,x 0 also sugge/$ t ! surface ( ! planet 0 cov]$ ) ice & t ^! 7 cracks 9 ! ice4 ,?is !ory has ev5 great] difficulties ?an ! la/ to cont5d )4 ,riv]s h be5 sugge/$4 ,a glance at our own maps at once disposes ( ?is hypo!sis4 ,riv]s w&] j z cracks d & p>allel riv]s l p>allel cracks are unkn[n4 ,9 "t ! _m sugge/ions 7 put aside4 ,"o only rema9$4 ,t ! l9es are actually ! "w ( intellig5ce2 actually are canals1 artificially made1 con/ruct$ = irrigation purposes on a scale ( :i* we c h>dly =m any conception bas$ on our own e>?ly eng9e]+ /ructures4 ,dur+ ! opposition ( #ahid1 ,p]cival ,l[ell1 along ) ,a4 ,e4 ,d\glass1 & ,w4 ,h4 ,pick]+1 #afg obs]v$ ! planet f ! summit ( a m\nta9 9 ,arizona1 us+ an #ah-;in* refract+ telescope & e res\rce ( delicate measurem5t & spectroscopy4 ,s sup]b a climate fav\r$ !m t = t5 mon?s ! planet 0 kept "u cont9ual obs]vation4 ,ov] #ijj draw+s 7 made & n only 7 ,s*iap>elli's *annels confirm$1 b !y add$ #aaf to 8 #gi1 on t portion ( ! planet visible at t opposition4 ,!y made ! fur!r important discov]y t ! l9es d n /op %ort at ! d>k regions ( ! planet's surface1 z hi!rto believ$1 b g "r on 9 _m cases2 ! curvature ( ! l9es be+ unalt]$4 ,l[ell is an uncompromis+ advocate ( ! canal !ory4 ,if 8 argum5ts are correct we h at once an answ] to our "q1 ,are !re o!r m9ds ?an ours8 ,we mu/ consid] a mom5t ,l[ell's argum5ts2 n t x is my int5tion to combat !m4 ,y mu/ =m y\r own conclusions4 ,i %all lay be=e y ano!r &1 z ,i v5ture to ?9k1 m adequate hypo!sis 9 explanation ( ! *annels ( ,s*iap>elli4 ,we le>n1 h[ev]1 mu* f ,l[ell's book--x is full ( int]e/4#a ,l[ell lays a deep f\ndation4 ,he beg9s by %[+ t ,m>s has an atmosph]e4 ,?is mu/ be grant$ him till "s c\nt] obs]vations are made4 #a ,m>s1 by ,p]cival ,l[ell 7,longmans1 ,gre5 ,co471 #ahif1 #afh ,x is g5]ally accept$4 ,:at t atmosph]e is1 is ano!r matt]4 ,he c]ta9ly has made out a good case = ! pres5ce ( wat] z "o ( its con/itu5ts1 ,x 0 long kn[n t ,m>s possess$ :ite regions at 8 poles1 j z our ,e>? does4 ,! wan+ ( ^! pol> sn[s--if inde$ !y are su*--) ! advance ( ! ,m>tian summ]1 _h (t5 be5 obs]v$4 ,l[ell plots day by day ?is wan+4 ,x is evid5t f 8 obs]vations t ! sn[fall mu/ be light inde$4 ,we see 9 8 map ! s\? pole turn$ t[>ds u4 ,m>s 9 p]ihelion always turns 8 s\? pole t[>ds ! sun & !re=e t[>ds ! ,e>?4 ,we see t betwe5 ! dates ,june #crd to ,augu/ #crd--or 9 two mon?s--! pol> sn[ _h almo/ completely vani%$4 ,?is d5otes a v scanty cov]+4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t ,m>s ev5 :5 ne>e/ to ! sun receives b half our supply ( sol> heat & light4 ,b o!r evid5ce exi/s to %[ t ,m>s probably possesses b little wat] ^u 8 surface4 ,! d>k places are n wat]-cov]$1 al?\gh !y h be5 nam$ z if !y 71 inde$1 seas & lakes4 ,v>i\s ph5om5a %[ ?is4 ,! canals %[ x4 ,x w\ld nev] d to imag9e canals cross+ ! seas4 ,no great riv]s are visible4 ,!re is a /rik+ abs5ce ( cl\ds4 ,! atmosph]e ( ,m>s seems z s]5e z t ( ,v5us appe>s to be cl\dy4 ,mi/s & cl\ds1 h[ev]1 sometime appe> to veil 8 face & add to ! difficulty ( #afi mak+ obs]vations ne> ! limb ( ! planet4 ,l[ell concludes x mu/ be a calm & s]5e atmosph]e2 probably only "o-sev5? ( our own 9 d5sity4 ,! normal height ( ! b>omet] 9 ,m>s w\ld !n be b f\r & a half in*es4 ,?is is a pressure f> less ?an exi/s on ! top ( ! highe/ t]re/rial m\nta94 ,a m\nta9 "h mu/ h an altitude ( ab\t t5 miles to possess s l[ a pressure on its summit4 ,drops ( wat] big en\gh to =m ra9 c h>dly collect 9 su* a r>efi$ atmosph]e4 ,moi/ure w fall z dew or fro/ ^u ! gr\nd4 ,! days w be hot ow+ to ! unimp$$ sol> radiation2 ! nights bitt]ly cold ow+ to ! free radiation into space4 ,we may add t 9 su* a climate ! fro/ w desc5d pr9cipally ^u ! high gr\nd at night "t & 9 ! advanc+ day x w melt4 ,! fre] radiation br+s ab\t ?is ph5om5on among our own m\nta9s 9 cle> & calm wea!r4 ,) ! progressive melt+ ( ! sn[ ^u ! pole ,l[ell connect$ _m ph5om5a ^u ! planet's surface ( mu* int]e/4 ,! d>k spaces appe> to gr[ d>k] & m gre5i%4 ,! canals beg9 to %[ !mselves & reveal _! d\ble nature4 ,all ?is sugge/s t ! moi/ure lib]at$ by ! melt+ ( ! pol> sn[ ) ! advanc+ ye>1 is c>ry+ vitality & spr+time ov] ! surface ( ! planet4 ,b h[ is ! wat] convey$8 ,l[ell believes pr9cipally by ! canals4 ,^! are #agj con/ruct$ triangulat+ ! surface ( ! planet 9 all directions4 ,:at we see1 accord+ to ,l[ell1 is n ! canal itself1 b ! broad b& ( vegetation :i* spr+s up on ! arrival ( ! wat]4 ,?is b& is p]haps ?irty or =ty miles wide1 b p]haps mu* less1 = ,l[ell reports t ! bett] ! conditions ( obs]vation ! f9] ! l9es appe>$1 s t !y may be z n>r[1 possibly1 z fifte5 miles4 ,x is to be rem>k$ t a j visible dot on ! surface ( ,m>s mu/ possess a diamet] ( #cj miles4 ,b a *a9 ( mu* small] dots w be visible1 j z we c see su* f9e objects z spid]s' webs4 ,! wid5+ ( ! canals is !n acc\nt$ =1 accord+ to ,l[ell1 by ! gr[? ( a b& ( vegetation1 simil> to t :i* spr+s into exi/5ce :5 ! floods ( ! ,nile irrigate ! pla9s ( ,egypt4 ,if no o!r explanation ( ! l9es is =?com+ ?an t !y are ! "w ( intellig5ce1 all ?is mu/ be rememb]$4 ,if all o!r !ories fail u1 mu* mu/ be grant$ ,l[ell4 ,we mu/ n reason l fi%es--z ,l[ell puts x--& d5y t intellig5t be+s c ?rive 9 an atmosph]ic pressure ( f\r & half in*es ( m]cury4 ,zurbrigg5 has rec5tly got to ! top ( ,aconcagua1 a height ( #bd1jjj feet4 ,on ! summit ( su* a m\nta9 ! b>omet] mu/ /& at ab\t t5 in*es4 ,:y %\ld n be+s be develop$ by evolution ) a lung capacity capable ( liv+ at two & a half times ?is altitude4 ,^? /eadily #aga curv$ p>allel l9es are1 inde$1 v unlike any?+ we h exp]i5ce (4 ,x w\ld be r to be expect$ t ano!r civilisation ?an our own w\ld pres5t _m wide diff]5ces 9 its developm5t4 ,:at !n is ! picture we h be=e u accord+ to ,l[ell8 ,x is a suffici5tly dramatic "o4 ,m>s is a _w ^: wat] supply1 nev] probably v abundant1 has ?r\gh c\ntless ye>s be5 dry+ up1 s9k+ into 8 surface4 ,b ! inhabitants are mak+ a brave fight = x1 ,!y h con/ruct$ canals "r r\nd _! _w s t ! wat]1 :i* o!rwise w\ld run to wa/e ov] ! va/ des]ts1 is l$ f oasis to oasis4 ,"h ! great c5tres ( civilisation are plac$3 _! ,londons1 ,vi5nas1 ,new ,yorks4 ,^! gigantic works are ! works ( despair4 ,a great & civilis$ _w f9ds dea? />+ x 9 ! face4 ,!y h _h to triple _! canals s t :5 ! c5tral canal has done its "w ! wat] is turn$ into ! side canals1 9 ord] to utilise x z f> z possible4 ,?r\gh _! spl5did telescopes !y mu/ view our seas & ample riv]s2 & mu/ die l travell]s 9 ! des]t see+ 9 a mirage ! cool wat]s ( a di/ant lake4 ,p]haps t lonely signal report$ to h be5 se5 9 ! twilight limb ( ,m>s 0 ! outcome ( pride 9 _! spl5did & p]i%+ civilisation4 ,!y w\ld leave "s memory ( x3 !y w\ld h u witness h[ great 0 t civilisation be=e !y p]i%6 ,i close ?is dramatic picture ) ! poor com=t #agb t sev]al philan?ropic p h sugge/$ signall+ to !m z a m>k ( sympa?y4 ,x is said t a =tune 0 bequea!d to ! ,fr5* ,academy = ! purpose ( communicat+ ) ! ,m>tians4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t we c\ld fla% signals to !m by means ( gigantic mirrors reflect+ ! light ( our ,sun4 ,or1 aga91 t we might light bonfires on a suffici5tly l>ge scale4 ,!y w\ld h to be ab\t t5 miles 9 diamet]6 ,a writ] 9 ! ,pall ,mall ,gazette sugge/$ t !re ne$ really be no difficulty 9 ! matt]4 ,) ! k9d coop]ation ( ! ,london ,gas ,companies 7?is 0 be=e ! days ( electric light+7 a signal might be s5t )\t any additional exp5se if ! gas companies w\ld cons5t to simultane\sly turn (f ! gas at int]vals ( five m9utes ov] ! :ole ( ,london1 a signal :i* w\ld be visible to ! a/ronom]s 9 ,m>s w\ld result4 ,he adds1 naively3 ,if only tri$ = an h\r ea* night "s results might be obta9$4 ,,ii ,we h review$ ! !ory ( ! artificial con/ruction ( ! ,m>tian l9es4 ,! am\nt ( consid]ation we are dispos$ to give to ! supposition t !re are ^u ,m>s o!r m9ds ?an ours w--z ,i h /at$--necess>ily dep5d ^u :e!r or n we c assign a probable explanation ( ! l9es ^u purely physical gr\nds4 ,if x is app>5t t su* #agc l9es w\ld be =m$ ) great probability "u c]ta9 conditions1 :i* conditions are !mselves probable1 !n ! argum5t by exclusion = ! exi/5ce ( civilisation on ,m>s1 at once breaks d[n4 ,fig4 #aj ,z a romance writ] is sometimes "u ! necessity ( transport+ 8 read]s to o!r sc5es1 s ,i mu/ n[ ask y to cons5t to be transport$ "s millions #agd ( miles into ! region ( ! heav5s :i* lies outside ,m>s' orbit4 ,betwe5 ,m>s & ,jupit] is a *asm ( #cda millions ( miles4 ,?is gap 9 ! sequ5ce ( planets 0 long kn[n to be q out ( keep+ ) ! ord]ly succession ( worlds outw>d f ! ,sun4 ,a society 0 =m$ at ! close ( ! la/ c5tury = ! detection ( ! miss+ _w4 ,on ! fir/ day ( ! la/ c5tury1 ,piazzi--:o1 by ! way1 0 n a memb] ( ! society--discov]$ a t9y _w 9 ! vacant gap4 ,al?\gh eag]ly welcom$1 z bett] ?an no?+1 x 0 a disappo9t+ f9d4 ,! new _w 0 a m]e rock4 ,a speck ( ab\t #afj miles 9 diamet]4 ,x 0 obvi\sly nev] int5d$ t su* a body %\ld h all ?is space to itself4 ,&1 sure en\gh1 %ortly aft]1 ano!r small _w 0 discov]$4 ,!n ano!r 0 f\nd1 & ano!r1 & s on2 & n[ m ?an #djj ( ^! /range little worlds are kn[n4 ,b :5ce came su* bodies8 ,! g5]ally accept$ belief is t ^! really repres5t a misbegott5 _w4 ,:5 ! ,sun 0 y\ng] he %$ (f ! sev]al worlds ( our sy/em z s _m r+s4 ,ea* r+ !n coalesc$ into a _w4 ,neptune be+ ! fir/ born2 ,m]cury ! y\nge/ born4 ,aft] ,jupit] 0 ?r[n (f1 & ! ,sun _h %runk away inw>ds "s #bjo million miles1 he %$ (f ano!r r+4 ,mean+ t ?is (fspr+ ( 8 %\ld gr[ up l ! re/1 develop into a /able _w ) ! #age pot5tiality ev51 x may be1 ( becom+ ! abode ( rational be+s4 ,b some?+ w5t wrong4 ,x broke up into a r+ ( little bodies1 circulat+ ar\nd him4 ,x is probable on ?is hypo!sis t ! numb] we are acqua9t$ ) does n ne>ly repres5t ! actual numb] ( pa/ & pres5t a/]oids4 ,x w\ld take #abe1jjj ( ! bigge/ ( !m to make up a globe z big z our _w4 ,!y1 s f> z !y are kn[n1 v>y 9 size f #aj miles to #afj miles 9 diamet]4 ,x is probable !n--on ! assumption t ?is failure ( a _w 0 int5d$ to be ab\t ! mass ( our ,e>?--t !y numb]$1 & possibly numb]1 _m hundr$s ( ?\s&s4 ,"s ( ^! little bodies are v peculi> 9 respect to ! orbits !y move 94 ,?is peculi>ity is sometimes 9 ! ecc5tricity ( _! orbits1 sometimes 9 ! mann] 9 :i* _! orbits are tilt$ to ! g5]al plane ( ! ecliptic1 9 :i* all ! o!r planets move4 ,! ecc5tricity1 accord+ to ,proctor1 9 "s cases may atta9 su* extremes z to br+ ! little _w inside ,m>s' mean di/ance f ! sun4 ,?is1 z y w rememb]1 is v mu* less ?an 8 greate/ di/ance f ! sun4 ,! entire belt ( a/]oids--z kn[n--lie mu* ne>] to ,m>s ?an to ,jupit]4 ,z reg>ds ! tilt ( _! orbits1 "s are actually z mu* z #cd degrees incl9$ to ! ecliptic1 s t 9 fact !y are se5 f ! ,e>? among our pol> con/ellations4 #agf ,f all ?is y see t ,m>s occupies a r hot com] 9 ! sol> sy/em4 ,is x n possible t m ?an once 9 ! remote pa/ ,m>s may h enc\nt]$ "o ( ^! w&]]s8 ,if he came )9 a c]ta9 di/ance ( ! small body 8 great mass w\ld sway x f its orbit1 & "u c]ta9 conditions he w\ld pick up a satellite 9 ?is mann]4 ,t 8 pres5t satellites 7 actually s acquir$ is ! sugge/ion ( ,newton1 ( ,yale ,college4 ,m>s' satellites are inde$ suspici\sly & mo/ abnormally small4 ,i h n "t to prove ?is to y by comp>ison ) ! o!r worlds ( ! sol> sy/em4 ,9 fact1 !y 7 n discov]$ till #ahgg--;al?\gh !y 7 pr$ict$ 9 a mo/ curi\s mann]1 ) ! mo/ uncannily accurate details1 by ,swift4 ,"o ( ^! bodies is ab\t #cf miles 9 diamet]4 ,?is is ,phobos4 ,phobos is only #c4gjj miles f ! surface ( ,m>s4 ,! o!r is small] & fur!r (f4 ,he is nam$ ,deimos1 & 8 diamet] is only #aj miles4 ,he is #ab1ejj miles f ,m>s' surface4 ,) ! exception ( ,phobos ! next smalle/ satellite kn[n 9 ! sol> sy/em is "o ( ,saturn's--,hyp]ion2 almo/ #hjj miles 9 diamet]4 ,! inn] "o goes all r\nd ,m>s 9 #g h\rs4 ,?is is ,phobos' mon?4 ,m>s turns on 8 axis 9 #bd h\rs & #dj m9utes1 s t p 9 ,m>s w\ld see ! rise ( ,phobos twice 9 ! c\rse ( a day & night2 lie w\ld app>5tly cross ! sky #agg go+ aga9/ ! o!r satellite2 t is1 he w\ld move app>5tly f we/ to ea/4 ,we may at lea/ assume z probable t o!r satellites h be5 ga!r$ by ,m>s 9 ! pa/ f ! army ( a/]oids4 ,"s ( ! satellites s pick$ up w\ld be direct3 t is1 w\ld move r\nd ! planet 9 ! direction ( 8 axial rotation4 ,o!rs1 on ! *ances1 w\ld be retrograde3 t is1 w\ld move aga9/ 8 axial rotation4 ,!y w\ld describe orbits mak+ ! same v>i\s angles ) ! ecliptic z d ! a/]oids2 & we may be sure !y w\ld be ( ! same v>y+ dim5sions4 ,we g on to inquire :at w\ld be ! consequ5ce to ,m>s ( su* captures4 ,a satellite captur$ 9 ?is mann] is v likely to be pull$ into ! ,planet4 ,?is is a probable end ( a satellite 9 any case4 ,x w probably be ! end ( our satellite too4 ,! satellite ,phobos is inde$ believ$ to be ab\t to take ?is v plunge into 8 planet4 ,b 9 ! case :5 ! satellite pick$ up happ5s to be rotat+ r\nd ! planet 9 ! opposite direction to ! axial rotation ( ! planet1 x is pretty c]ta9 t its c>e] z a satellite w be a brief "o4 ,! reasons = ?is ,i _c n[ give4 ,if1 !n1 ,m>s pick$ up satellites he is v sure to h absorb$ !m soon] or lat]4 ,soon] if !y happ5$ to be retrograde satellites1 lat] if direct satellites4 ,8 pres5t satellites are rec5t additions4 ,!y are direct4 #agh ,! pa? ( an expir+ satellite w be a sl[ spiral describ$ r\nd ! planet4 ,! spiral w at la/1 aft] _m ye>s1 br+ ! satellite d[n ^u ! surface ( ! prim>y4 ,its f9al approa* w be accel]at$ if ! planet possesses an atmosph]e1 z ,m>s probably does4 ,a satellite ( ! dim5sions ( ,phobos--t is #cf miles 9 diamet]--w\ld h>dly survive m ?an #cj to #fj ye>s )9 sev5ty miles ( ,m>s' surface4 ,x w !n be rotat+ r\nd ,m>s 9 an h\r & =ty m9utes1 mov+1 9 fact1 at ! rate ( #b4b miles p] second4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ?is #cj or #fj ye>s x w1 !re=e1 get r\nd p]haps #bjj1jjj times1 be=e x f9ally cra%es d[n ^u ! ,m>tians4 ,dur+ ?is clos+ hi/ory ( ! satellite !re is reason to believe1 h[ev]1 t x w\ld by no means pursue cont9ually ! same pa? ov] ! surface ( ! planet4 ,!re are _m di/urb+ factors to be consid]$4 ,be+ s small any l>ge surface features ( ,m>s w\ld probably act to p]turb ! orbit ( ! satellite4 ,! explanation ( ,m>s' l9es :i* ,i sugge/1 is t !y 7 =m$ by ! approa* ( su* satellites 9 =m] times4 ,i d n mean t !y are l9es cut into 8 surface by ! actual infall ( a satellite4 ,! f9al end ( ! satellite w\ld be too rapid = ?is1 ,i ?9k4 ,b ,i hope to be able to %[ y t !re is reason to believe t ! m]e passage ( ! satellite1 say at #gj miles above ! surface ( ! planet1 w1 9 itself1 give rise to effects on ! cru/ ( ! planet capable #agi ( acc\nt+ = j su* s+le or p>allel l9es z we see4 ,9 ! fir/ place we h to consid] ! /ability ( ! satellite4 ,ev5 9 ! case ( a small satellite we _c ov]look ! fact t ! half ( ! satellite ne> ! planet is pull$ t[>ds ! planet by a gravitational =ce great] ?an t attract+ ! out] half1 & t ! c5trifugal =ce is less on ! inn] ?an on ! out] hemisph]e4 ,h5ce !re exi/s a =ce t5d+ to te> ! satellite asund] on ! equatorial section tang5tial ,fig4 #aa to ! planet's surface4 ,if 9 a fluid or pla/ic /ate1 ,phobos1 = in/ance1 c\ld n possibly exi/ ne> ! planet's surface4 ,! =ces ref]r$ to w\ld decide its fate4 ,x may be %[n by calculation1 h[ev]1 t if ,phobos has ! /r5g? ( basalt or glass !re w\ld rema9 a consid]able coeffici5t ( safety 9 fav\r ( ! satellite's /ability2 ev5 :5 ! surfaces ( planet & satellite 7 sep>at$ by only five miles4 ,we h n[ to consid] "s ?+s :i* we expect w happ5 be=e ! satellite takes its f9al plunge into ! planet4 #ahj ,?is diagram 7,fig4 #aa7 %[s y ! satellite travell+ above ! surface ( ! planet4 ,! satellite is advanc+ t[>ds1 or away f1 ! spectator4 ,! planet is suppos$ to %[ its solid cru/ 9 cross section1 :i* may be a few miles 9 ?ickness4 ,bel[ ?is is su* a hot pla/ic magma z we h reason to believe und]lies mu* ( ! solid cru/ ( our own ,e>?4 ,n[ !re is an attraction betwe5 ! satellite & ! cru/ ( ! planet2 ! same gravitational attraction :i* exi/s betwe5 e p>ticle ( matt] 9 ! univ]se4 ,let u consid] h[ ?is attraction w affect ! planet's cru/4 ,i h drawn little arr[s to %[ h[ we may consid] ! attraction ( ! satellite pull+ ! cru/ ( ! planet n only upw>ds1 b also pull+ x inw>ds b5ea? ! satellite4 ,i h made ^! arr[s long] :]e calculation %[s ! /ress is great]4 ,y see t ! greate/ lift+ /ress is j b5ea? ! satellite1 :]eas ! greate/ /ress pull+ ! cru/ 9 "u ! satellite is at a po9t :i* lies out f "u ! satellite1 at a consid]able di/ance4 ,at ea* side ( ! satellite !re is a po9t :]e ! /ress pull+ on ! cru/ is ! greate/4 ,( ! two /resses ! lift+ /ress w t5d to raise ! cru/ a little2 ! pull+ /ress may 9 c]ta9 cases actually te> ! cru/ across2 z at ,a & ,b4 ,x is possible to calculate ! am\nt ( ! /ress at ! po9t at ea* side ( ! satellite :]e ! /ress is at its greate/4 ,we mu/ assume ! satellite to be a c]ta9 size & d5sity2 we mu/ also assume ! cru/ ( #aha ,m>s to be ( "s c]ta9 d5sity4 ,to fix our ideas on ^! po9ts ,i take ! case ( ! pres5t satellite ,phobos4 ,:at am\nt ( /ress w he ex]t ^u ! cru/ ( ,m>s :5 he approa*es )91 say1 #dj miles ( ! planet's surface8 ,we "k 8 size approximately--he is ab\t #cf miles 9 diamet]4 ,we c guess 8 d5sity to be betwe5 f\r times t ( wat] & eight times t ( wat]4 ,we may assume ! d5sity ( ,m>s' surface to be ab\t ! same z t ( our ,e>?'s surface1 t is ?ree times z d5se z wat]4 ,we n[ f9d t ! greate/ /ress t5d+ to r5d op5 ! surface cru/ ( ,m>s w be betwe5 #d1jjj & #h1jjj p\nds to ! squ>e foot accord+ to ! d5sity we assign to ,phobos4 ,w su* a /ress actually te> op5 ! cru/8 ,we are n able to answ] ?is "q ) any c]ta9ty4 ,mu* w dep5d ^u ! nature & condition ( ! cru/4 ,?us1 suppose t we are "h 7,fig4 #ab7 look+ d[n ^u ! satellite :i* is mov+ along sl[ly relatively to ,m>s' surface1 9 ! direction ( ! arr[4 ,! satellite has j pass$ ov] a weak & crack$ "p ( ! planet's cru/4 ,"h ! /ress has be5 suffici5t to />t two cracks4 ,n[ y "k h[ easy x is to te> a piece ( clo? :5 y g to ! edge ( x 9 ord] to make a beg9n+4 ,"h ! /ress f ! satellite has got to ! edge ( ! cru/4 ,x is greatly conc5trat$ j at ! extremities ( ! cracks4 ,x w1 unl] su* circum/ances probably c>ry on ! #ahb te>4 ,if x does n d s ?is "t1 rememb] ! satellite w "s h\rs lat] be com+ ov] ! same place aga91 & !n aga9 =1 at lea/1 _m hundr$s ( times4 ,!n also we are n limit$ to ! assumption t ! ,fig4 #ab satellite is z small z ,phobos4 ,suppose we consid] ! case ( a satellite approa*+ ,m>s :i* has a diamet] d\ble t ( ,phobos2 a diamet] /ill mu* less ?an t ( ! l>g] class ( a/]oids4 ,ev5 at ! di/ance #ahc ( #fe miles ! /ress w n[ am\nt to z mu* z f #ae to #cj tons p] squ>e foot4 ,x is almo/ c]ta9 t su* a /ress repeat$ a comp>atively few times ov] ! same p>ts ( ! planet's surface w\ld s r5d ! cru/ z to set up l9es along :i* plutonic action w\ld f9d a v5t4 ,t is1 we might expect along ^! l9es all ! ph5om5a ( upheaval & volcanic eruption :i* give rise to surface elevations4 ,! probable effect ( a satellite ( ?is dim5sion travell+ sl[ly relatively to ! surface ( ,m>s is1 !n1 to leave a v conspicu\s memorial ( 8 pres5ce beh9d him4 ,y see f ! diagram t ?is memorial w consi/ o3 two p>allel l9es ( di/urbance4 ,! l9e> "* ( ! gravitational effects ( ! satellite is due entirely to ! motion ( ! satellite relatively to ! surface ( ! planet4 ,if ! satellite /ood /ill above ! surface ! gravitational /ress 9 ! cru/ w\ld1 ( c\rse1 be ex]t$ radially outw>ds f ! c5tre ( ! satellite4 ,x w\ld atta9 at ! c5tral po9t b5ea? ! satellite its maximum v]tical effect1 & at "s radial di/ance measur$ outw>ds f ?is po9t1 :i* di/ance we c calculate1 its maximum horizontal te>+ effect4 ,:5 ! satellite moves relatively to ! planet's cru/1 ! horizontal te>+ =ce acts diff]5tly accord+ to :e!r x is direct$ 9 ! l9e ( motion or at "r angles to ?is l9e4 ,9 ! direction ( motion we see t ! satellite #ahd creates z x passes ov] ! cru/ a wave ( r>efaction or t5sion z at ,d1 foll[$ by compression j b5ea? ! satellite & by a rev]s$ direction ( gravitational pull z ! satellite passes onw>ds4 ,^! /resses rapidly replace "o ano!r z ! satellite travels along4 ,!y are resi/$ by ! in]tia ( ! cru/1 & are tak5 up by its ela/icity4 ,! nature ( ?is succession ( alt]nate compressions & r>efactions 9 ! cru/ possess "s resemblance to ^? aris+ 9 an e>?quake %ock4 ,if we consid] ! effects tak+ place lat]ally to ! l9e ( motion we see t !re are no su* *anges 9 ! nature ( ! =ces 9 ! cru/4 ,at ea* passage ( ! satellite ! horizontal te>+ /ress increases to a maximum1 :5 x is ex]t$ lat]ally1 along ! l9e pass+ ?r\gh ! horizontal projection ( ! satellite & at "r angles to ! l9e ( motion1 & aga9 dies away4 ,x is always a te>+ /ress1 r5ew$ aga9 & aga94 ,?is effect is at its maximum along two p>ticul> p>allel l9es :i* are tang5ts to ! circle ( maximum horizontal /ress & :i* run p>allel ) ! pa? ( ! satellite4 ,! di/ance sep>at+ ^! l9es dep5d ^u ! elevation ( ! satellite above ! planet's surface4 ,su* l9es m>k out ! !oretical axes ( ! d\ble canals :i* future cru/al movem5ts w m fully develop4 ,x is int]e/+ to consid] :at ! effect ( su* #ahe conditions w\ld be if !y arose at ! surface ( our own planet4 ,we assume a horizontal =ce 9 ! cru/ adequate to set up t5sile /resses ( ! ord]1 say1 ( fifte5 tons to ! squ>e foot & ^! /resses to be repeat$ e few h\rs2 our _w be+ also subject to ! dynamic effects we recognise 9 & b5ea? its cru/4 ,x is easy to see t ! areas ov] :i* ! satellite ex]t$ its gravitational /resses mu/ become ! foci --foci ( l9e> =m--( tectonic developm5ts or cru/ movem5ts4 ,! relief ( /resses1 f :atev] cause aris+1 9 & b5ea? ! cru/ mu/ surely take place 9 ^! regions ( di/urbance & along ^! l9e> areas4 ,"h mu/ become conc5trat$ ! fold+ movem5ts1 :i* are "u exi/+ conditions br\ght into ! geosyncl9es1 along ) _! att5dant volcanic ph5om5a4 ,9 ! case ( ,m>s su* a conc5tration ( tectonic ev5ts w\ld n1 ow+ to ! abs5ce ( ext5sive suba]ial d5udation & great oceans1 be complicat$ by ! exi/5ce ( su* syncl9al accumulations z h controll$ t]re/rial surface developm5t4 ,) ! passage ( "t ! l9e> features w\ld probably develop2 ! en]getic sub/ratum cont9ually ass]t+ its influ5ce along su* l9es ( weakness4 ,x is 9 ! highe/ degree probable t radioactivity plays no less a "p 9 ,m>tian hi/ory ?an 9 t]re/rial4 ,! fact ( radioactive heat+ all[s u to assume ! ?9 surface cru/ & cont9u$ sub-cru/al en]gy ?r\gh\t ! entire p]iod ( ! planet's hi/ory4 #ahf ,h[ f> willl ^! effects resemble ! d\ble canals ( ,m>s8 ,9 ?is figure & 9 ! calculations ,i h giv5 y ,i h suppos$ ! satellite engag$ 9 m>k+ ! planet's surface ) two l9es sep>at$ by ab\t ! int]val sep>at+ ! wid] d\ble canals ( ,m>s--t is ab\t #bbj miles ap>t4 ,:at ! di/ance betwe5 ! l9es w be1 z already /at$1 w dep5d ^u ! height ( ! satellite above ! surface :5 x comes ^u a "p ( ! cru/ 9 a condition to be affect$ by ! /resses x sets up 9 x4 ,if ! satellite does its "w at a po9t l[] d[n above ! surface ! canal produc$ w be n>r[]4 ,! /resses1 too1 w !n be mu* great]4 ,i mu/ also obs]ve t once ! cru/ has yield$ to ! pull+ /ress1 !re is great probability t 9 future revolutions ( ! satellite a c5tral fracture w result4 ,= !n all ! pull+ =ce adds itself to ! lift+ =ce & t5ds to cru% ! cru/ inw>ds on ! c5tral l9e b5ea? ! satellite4 ,x is ?us q possible t ! passage ( a satellite may give rise to triple l9es4 ,!re is reason to believe t ! canals on ,m>s are 9 "s cases triple4 ,i h spok5 all along ( ! satellite mov+ sl[ly ov] ! surface ( ,m>s4 ,i h done s z ,i _c at all pron\nce s readily on :at w happ5 :5 ! satellite's velocity ov] ! surface ( ,m>s is v great4 ,to acc\nt = all ! l9es mapp$ by ,l[ell "s ( !m mu/ h be5 produc$ by satellities mov+ relatively to ! surface ( ,m>s at velocities s great #ahg z ?ree miles a second or ev5 r m4 ,! /resses set up are1 9 su* cases1 v difficult to e/imate4 ,x has n yet be5 done4 ,p>allel l9es ( greate/ /ress or impulse ought to be =m$ z 9 ! o!r case4 ,i n[ ask y\r att5tion to ano!r k9d ( evid5ce t ! l9es are due 9 "s way to ! motion ( satellites pass+ ov] ! surface ( ,m>s4 ,i may put ! fre% evid5ce to :i* ,i ref]1 9 ?is way3 ,9 ,l[ell's map 7,p#a4 ,,xxii1 p4 #aib71 & 9 a less degree 9 ,s*iap>elli's map 7ante p4 #aff71 we are giv5 ! c\rse ( ! l9es z fragm5ts ( incomplete curves4 ,n[ ^! curves might h be5 any?+ at all4 ,we mu/ take !m z !y are1 h[ev]1 :5 we apply !m z a te/ ( ! !ory t ! motion ( a satellite r\nd ,m>s c /rike su* l9es4 ,if x c be %[n t satellites revolv+ r\nd ,m>s might /rike j su* curves !n we assume ?is z an add$ confirmation ( ! hypo!sis4 ,we mu/ beg9 by realis+ :at sort ( curves a satellite :i* di/urbs ! surface ( a planet w\ld leave beh9d x aft] its demise4 ,y might ?9k t ! satellite revolv+ r\nd & r\nd ! planet mu/ simply describe a circle ^u ! sph]ical surface ( ! planet3 a great circle z x is call$2 t is ! greate/ circle :i* c be describ$ ^u a sph]e4 ,?is great circle c1 h[ev]1 only be /ruck1 z y w see1 :5 ! planet is n turn+ ^u its axis3 a condition n likely to be realis$4 ,?is diagram 7,,pi4 ,,xxi7 %[s ! surface ( a globe #ahh cov]$ ) ! usual imag9>y l9es ( latitude & longitude4 ,! orbit ( a suppos$ satellite is %[n by a l9e cross+ ! sph]e at "s assum$ angle ) ! equator4 ,along ?is l9e ! satellite always moves at uni=m velocity1 pass+ across & r\nd ! back ( ! sph]e & aga9 across4 ,if ! sph]e is n turn+ on its pol> axis !n ?is satellite1 :i* we w suppose arm$ ) a p5cil :i* draws a l9e ^u ! sph]e1 w /rike a great circle "r r\nd ! sph]e4 ,b ! sph]e is rotat+4 ,& x is to be expect$ t at diff]5t times 9 a planet's hi/ory ! rate ( rotation v>ies v mu* inde$4 ,!re is reason to believe t our own day 0 once only #b h\rs long1 or !reab\ts4 ,aft] a prelim9>y rise 9 velocity ( axial rotation1 due to %r9kage att5d+ rapid cool+1 a planet z x advances 9 ye>s rotates sl[] & sl[]4 ,?is ph5om5on is due to tidal influ5ces ( ! sun or ( satellites4 ,on ! assumption t satellites fell into ,m>s !re w\ld 9 8 case be a fur!r action t5d+ to %ort5 8 day z "t w5t on4 ,! effect ( ! rotation ( ! planet w be1 ( c\rse1 t z ! satellite advances ) its p5cil x f9ds ! surface ( ! sph]e be+ displac$ f "u x4 ,! l9e /ruck ceases to be ! great circle b w&]s (f 9 ano!r curve--:i* is 9 fact n a circle at all4 ,y w readily see h[ we f9d ?is curve4 ,suppose ! sph]e to be rotat+ at su* a spe$ t :ile ! satellite is advanc+ ! di/ance ,oa1 ! po9t b on ! #ahi sph]e w be c>ri$ into ! pa? ( ! satellite4 ,! p5cil w m>k ?is po9t4 ,simil>ly we f9d t all ! po9ts along ?is full curv$ l9e are po9ts :i* w j f9d !mselves "u ! satellite z x passes ) its p5cil4 ,?is curve is !n ! track m>k$ out by ! revolv+ satellite4 ,y see x dott$ r\nd ! back ( ! sph]e to :]e x cuts ! equator at a c]ta9 po9t4 ,! c\rse ( ! curve & ! po9t :]e x cuts ! equator1 be=e proce$+ on its way1 entirely dep5d ^u ! rate at :i* we suppose ! sph]e to be rotat+ & ! satellite to be describ+ ! orbit4 ,we may call ! di/ance measur$ r\nd ! planet's equator sep>at+ ! />t+ po9t ( ! curve f ! po9t at :i* x aga9 meets ! equator1 ! span ( ! curve4 ,! span !n dep5ds entirely ^u ! rate ( rotation ( ! planet on its axis & ( ! satellite 9 its orbit r\nd ! planet4 ,b ! nature ( ev5ts might h be5 some:at diff]5t4 ,! satellite is1 9 ! figure1 suppos$ to be rotat+ r\nd ! sph]e 9 ! same direction z t 9 :i* ! sph]e is turn+4 ,x might h be5 t ,m>s _h pick$ up a satellite travell+ 9 ! opposite direction to t 9 :i* he 0 turn+4 ,) ! velocity ( planet on its axis & ( satellite 9 its orbit ! same z be=e1 a diff]5t curve w\ld h be5 describ$4 ,! span ( ! curve due to a retrograde satellite w be great] ?an t due to a direct satellite4 ,! retrograde satellite w h a span m ?an half #aij way r\nd ! planet1 ! direct satellite w describe a curve :i* w be less ?an half way r\nd ! planet3 t is a span due to a retrograde satellite w be m ?an #ahj degrees1 :ile ! span due to a direct satellite w be less ?an #ahj degrees ^u ! planet's equator4 ,i w\ld draw y\r att5tion to ! fact t :at ! span w be does n dep5d ^u h[ mu* ! orbit ( ! satellite is incl9$ to ! equator4 ,?is only decides h[ f> ! curve m>k$ out by ! satellite w rec$e f ! equator4 ,we f9d !n1 s f>1 t x is easy to di/+ui% betwe5 ! direct & ! retrograde curves4 ,! span ( "o is less1 ( ! o!r great]1 ?an #ahj degrees4 ,! numb] ( degrees :i* ei!r sort ( curve subt5ds ^u ! equator entirely dep5ds ^u ! velocity ( ! satellite & ! axial velocity ( ! planet4 ,b ( ^! two velocities t ( ! satellite may be tak5 z s5sibly inv>iable1 :5 close en\gh to use 8 p5cil4 ,?is dep5ds ^u ! law ( c5trifugal =ce1 :i* tea*es u t ! mass ( ! planet alone decides ! velocity ( a satellite 9 its orbit at any fix$ di/ance f ! planet's c5tre4 ,! o!r velocity--t ( ! planet ^u its axis--01 z we h se51 n 9 ! pa/ :at x is n[4 ,if !n ,m>s1 at v>i\s times 9 8 pa/ hi/ory1 pick$ up satellites1 ^! satellites w describe curves r\nd him hav+ diff]5t spans :i* w dep5d ^u ! velocity ( axial rotation ( ,m>s at ! "t & ^u ?is only4 #aia ,9 :at way n[ c we apply ?is k ( ! curves describ$ by a satellite z a te/ ( ! lun> orig9 ( ! l9es on ,m>s8 ,to d ?is we mu/ apply to ,l[ell's map4 ,we pick out pref]ably1 ( c\rse1 ! mo/ complete & def9ite curves4 ,! *a9 ( canals ( :i* ,a*]on & ,erebus are memb]s m>k out a fairly def9ite curve4 ,we produce x by eye1 pres]v+ ! curvature z f> z possible1 till x cuts ! equator4 ,read+ ! span on ! equator we f9d' x to be #bee degrees4 ,9 ! fir/ place we say !n t ?is curve is due to a retrograde satellite4 ,we also note on ,l[ell's map t ! greate/ rise ( ! curve is to a po9t ab\t #cb degrees nor? ( ! equator4 ,?is gives ! incl9ation ( ! satellite's orbit to ! plane ( ,m>s' equator4 ,) ^! data we calculate ! velocity :i* ! planet mu/ h possess$ at ! "t ! canal 0 =m$ on ! hypo!sis t ! curve 0 inde$ ! "w ( a satellite4 ,! f9al "q n[ rema9s ,if we det]m9e ! curve due to ?is velocity ( ,m>s on its axis1 w ?is curve fit t "o :i* appe>s on ,l[ell's map1 & ( :i* we h really avail$ ourselves ( only ?ree po9ts8 ,to answ] ?is "q we plot ^u a sph]e1 ! curve ( a satellite1 9 ! mann] ,i h describ$1 assign+ to ?is sph]e ! velocity d]iv$ f ! span ( #bee degrees4 ,hav+ plott$ ! curve on ! sph]e x only rema9s to transf] x to ,l[ell's map4 ,?is is easily done4 #aib ,?is map 7,pl4 ,,xxii7 %[s y ! result ( treat+ ?is1 z well z o!r curves1 9 ! mann] j describ$4 ,y see t :e!r ! fragm5t>y curves are /eep & rec$+ f> f ! equator2 or :e!r !y are flat & ly+ close along ! equator2 :e!r !y span less or m ?an #ahj degrees2 ! curves det]m9$ on ! supposition t !y are ! "w ( satellites revolv+ r\nd ,m>s agree ) ! mapp$ curves2 foll[+ !m ) wond]ful accuracy2 possess+ _! prop]ties1 &1 inde$1 9 "s cases1 actually co9cid+ ) !m4 ,i may add t ! inadmissible span ( #ahj degrees & spans v ne> ?is value1 :i* are n well admissible1 are s f> z ,i c f9d1 abs5t4 ,! curves are n great circles4 ,y w require ( me t ,i %\ld expla9 ! c5tres ( radiation s conspicu\s "h & !re on ,l[ell's map4 ,! meet+ ( m ?an two l9es at ! oases is a ph5om5on possibly ( ! same nature & also requir+ explanation4 ,9 ! fir/ place ! curves to :i* ,i h b briefly ref]r$ actually give rise 9 mo/ cases to nodal1 or cross+ po9ts2 sometimes on ! equator1 sometimes (f ! equator2 ?r\gh :i* ! pa? ( ! satellite returns aga9 & aga94 ,^! nodal po9ts w n1 h[ev]1 af=d a g5]al explanation ( ! _m-bran*$ radiants4 ,x is probable t we %\ld ref] su* an appe>ance #aic z is %[n at ! ,s9us ,titanum to ! p]turbations ( ! satellite's pa? due to ! surface features on ,m>s4 ,obs]ve t ! pr9cipal radiants are situat$ ^u ! b\nd>y ( ! d>k regions or at ! oases4 ,high] surface levels may be involv$ 9 bo? cases4 ,"s m>k$ diff]5ce 9 topography mu/ *>act]ise bo? ^! features4 ,! latt] may possibly orig9ate 9 ! de/ruction ( satellites4 ,or aga91 !y may arise 9 cru/al di/urbance ( a volcanic nature1 prim>ily induc$ or localis$ by ! cross+ ( two canals4 ,:atev] ! orig9 ( ^! features x is only necess>y to assume t !y repres5t elevat$ features ( "s magnitude to expla9 ! multiplication ( cross+ l9es4 ,we mu/ "h recall :at obs]v]s say ( ! multiplicity ( ! canals4 ,accord+ to ,l[ell1 ,:at _! numb] maybe lies q beyond ! possibility ( c\nt at pres5t2 = ! bett] our own air1 ! m ( !m are visible4 ,su* innum]able canals are j :at ! pres5t !ory requires4 ,an 9-fall+ satellite w1 9 ! c\rse ( ! la/ #fj or #hj ye>s ( its c>e]1 circulate "s #ajj1jjj times ov] ,m>s' surface4 ,n[ :at w det]m9e ! m conspicu\s developm5t ( a p>ticul> canal8 ,! mass ( ! satellite2 ! /ate ( ! surface cru/2 ! proximity ( ! satellite2 & ! am\nt ( repetition ov] ! same gr\nd4 ,! aft] effects may be tak5 z proportional to ! prim>y di/urbance4 #aid ,x is probable t elevat$ surface features w influ5ce two ( ^! conditions3 ! numb] ( repetitions & ! proximity to ! surface4 ,a tract #ajj miles 9 diamet] & elevat$ #e1jjj or #aj1jjj feet w\ld s]i\sly p]turb ! orbit ( su* a body z ,phobos4 ,x is to be expect$ t n only w\ld x be effective 9 sway+ ! orbit ( ! satellite 9 ! horizontal direction b also w\ld draw x d[n clos] to ! surface4 ,x is ev5 to be consid]$ if su* a mass might n become nodal to ! satellite's orbit1 s t ?is pass$ ?r\gh or above ?is po9t at v>i\s incl9ations ) its prim>y direction4 ,if act+ to br+ d[n ! orbit !n ?is w quick5 ! spe$ & cause ! satellite fur!r on its pa? to atta9 a some:at high] elevation above ! surface4 ,! l9es mo/ conspicu\s 9 ! telescope are1 9 %ort1 ^? :i* h be5 fav\r$ by a comb9ation ( circum/ances z review$ above1 among :i* cru/al features h1 9 "s cases1 play$ a "p4 ,i mu/ briefly ref] to :at is "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ features ( ! ,m>tian l9es3 ! mann] 9 :i* !y appe> to come & g l visions4 ,some?+ go+ on 9 ,m>s det]m9es ! ph5om5on4 ,on a p>ticul> night a c]ta9 l9e looks s+le4 ,a few nights lat] signs ( d\bl+ are p]ceiv$1 & lat] /ill1 :5 ! see+ is p>ticul>ly good1 n "o b two l9es are se54 ,?us1 z an example1 we may take ! case ( ,phison & ,euphrates4 ,fa9t glimpses ( ! dual /ate 7 detect$ 9 ! summ] #aie & autumn1 b n till ,novemb] did !y appe> z di/9ctly d\ble4 ,obs]ve t by ?is "t ! ,ant>ctic sn[s _h melt$1 & !re 0 9 addition1 suffici5t "t = ! moi/ure s lib]at$ to become diffus$ 9 ! planet's atmosph]e4 ,?is increase 9 ! def9ition & conspicu\sness ( c]ta9 details on ,m>s' surface is fur!r br\ght into connection ) ! lib]ation ( ! pol> sn[s & ! diffusion ( ?is wat] ?r\gh ! atmosph]e1 by ! fact t ! def9ition appe>$ progressively bett] f ! s\? pole upw>ds z ! sn[ disappe>$4 ,l[ell ?9ks ?is po9ts to vegetation spr++ up "u ! influ5ce ( moi/ure2 he consid]s1 h[ev]1 z we h se51 t ! canals convey ! moi/ure4 ,he has to assume ! con/ruction ( triple canals to expla9 ! d\bl+ ( ! l9es4 ,if we once admit ! canals to be elevat$ ranges--n necess>ily ( great height--! difficulty ( acc\nt+ = increas$ def9ition ) increase ( moi/ure vani%es4 ,we ne$ n necess>ily ev5 suppose vegetation conc]n$4 ,) respect to ?is la/ possibility we may rem>k t ! col\r obs]vations1 ^u :i* ! idea ( vegetation is bas$1 are likely to be unc]ta9 ow+ to possible fatigue effects :]e a d>k object is se5 aga9/ a r$di% backgr\nd4 ,h[ev] ?is may be we h to consid] :at ! effects ( moi/ure increas+ 9 ! atmosph]e ( ,m>s w be ) reg>d to ! visibility ( elevat$ ranges1 #aif ,we assume a s]5e & r>e atmosph]e3 ! nights int5sely cold1 ! days hot ) ! unveil$ sol> radiation4 ,on ! hill tops ! cold ( night w be /ill m int5se & s1 also1 w ! sol> radiation by day4 ,! result ( ?is /ate ( ?+s w be t ! moi/ure w be precipitat$ ma9ly on ! m\nta9s dur+ ! cold ( night--9 ! =m ( fro/--& dur+ ! day ?is cov]+ ( fro/ w melt2 &1 j z we see a heavy dew-fall d>k5 ! gr\nd 9 summ]1 s ! melt+ ice w set (f ! elevat$ l& aga9/ ! arid pla9s bel[4 ,our valleys are m moi/ ?an our m\nta9s only because our moi/ure is s abundant t x dra9s (f ! m\nta9s into ! valleys4 ,if moi/ure 0 sc>ce x w\ld di/il f ! pla9s to ! cold] elevations ( ! hills4 ,on ?is view ! acc5tuation ( a canal is ! result ( meteorological effects su* z w\ld arise 9 ! ,m>tian climate2 effects :i* mu/ be influ5c$ by conditions ( m\nta9 elevation1 atmosph]ic curr5ts1 etc4 ,we1 ?us1 foll[ ,l[ell 9 ascrib+ ! acc5tuation ( ! canals to ! circulation ( wat] 9 ,m>s2 b we assume a simple & natural mode ( conveyance & d n po/ulate artificial /ructures ( all b impossible magnitude4 ,t vegetation may take "p 9 ! d>k5+ ( ! elevat$ tracts is n improbable4 ,inde$ we w\ld expect t 9 ! ,m>tian climate ^! tracts w\ld be ! only f]tile p>ts ( ! surface4 ,cl\ds also !re c]ta9ly are4 ,m rec5t obs]vations #aig appe> to h set ?is beyond d\bt4 ,_! pres5ce obvi\sly br+s 9 o!r possible explanations ( ! com+ & go+ ( elevat$ surface features4 ,f9ally1 we may ask :at ab\t ! reliability ( ! maps8 ,ab\t ?is x is to be said t ! mo/ rec5t map--t by ,l[ell--has be5 confirm$ by num]\s draw+s by diff]5t obs]v]s1 & t x is1itself ! result ( ov] #ijj draw+s4 ,x has become a /&>d *>t ( ,m>s1 & :ile x w\ld be ra% to cont5d = abs5ce ( errors x appe>s c]ta9 t ! tr5d ( ! pr9cipal canals may be reli$ on1 z1 also1 ! g5]al features ( ! planet's surface4 ,! "q ( ! possibility ( illusion has frequ5tly be5 rais$4 ,:at ,i h said above to a great ext5t answ]s su* objections4 ,! close agreem5t betwe5 ! draw+s ( diff]5t obs]v]s ought really to set ! matt] at re/4 ,rec5tly1 h[ev]1 photography has left no fur!r room = scepticism4 ,fir/ photograph$ 9 #aije1 ! planet has s9ce be5 photograph$ _m ?\s&s ( times f v>i\s obs]vatories4 ,a majority ( ! canals h be5 s mapp$4 ,! d\bl+ ( ! canals is /at$ to h be5 also s record$4#a ,! hypo!sis :i* ,i h v5tur$ to put be=e y involves no organic int]v5tion to acc\nt = ! #a ,e4 ,c4 ,sliph]'s pap] 9 ,popul> ,a/ronomy = ,m>*1 #aiad1 gives a good acc\nt ( ! rec5t "w4 #aih details on ,m>s' surface4 ,!y are physical surface features4 ,m>s pres5ts 8 hi/ory writt5 ^u 8 face 9 ! sc>s ( =m] enc\nt]s--l ! %ield ( ,sir ,launcelot4 ,"s ( ! mo/ int]e/+ inf]5ces ( ma!matical & physical a/ronomy f9d a confirmation 9 8 hi/ory4 ,! sl[+ d[n 9 ! rate ( axial rotation ( ! prim>y2 ! f9al inevitable de/ruction ( ! satellite2 ! exi/5ce 9 ! pa/ ( a f> l>g] numb] ( a/]oids ?an we at pres5t are acqua9t$ )2 all ^! great facts are involv$ 9 ! !ory n[ advanc$4 ,if ju/ifiably1 !n is ,m>s' face a v]itable ,pr9cipia4 ,to fully answ] ! "q :i* heads ^! lectures1 we %\ld g out into ! popul\s solitudes 7if ! t]m be p]mitt$7 :i* lie beyond our sy/em4 ,x is well t !re is n[ no "t left to d s2 =1 9 fact1 !re we c only dream dreams :]e9 ! limits ( ! possible & ! impossible become lo/4 ,! m>vel ( ! inf9ite numb] ( />s is n s m>vell\s z ! rationality t fa9 w\ld compreh5d !m4 ,9 seek+ o!r m9ds ?an ours we seek = :at is almo/ inf9itely complex & coord9at$ 9 a mat]ial univ]se relatively simple & het]og5e\s4 ,9 our m5tal attitude t[>ds ! great "q1 ?is fact mu/ be reg>d$ z fundam5tal4 ,i c only fitly close a disc\rse :i* has ?r\gh\t weigh$ ! "q ( ! liv+ ?\ght aga9/ ! un?9k+ laws ( matt]1 by a p>aphrase ( ! words #aii ( a great poet :5 he1 9 high] &1 p]haps1 m philosophic language1 also s\ght to place ! "o 9 comp>ison ) ! o!r4#a ,ri*t] ?\ght t he 0--) 8 human he>t un/r5g!n$--tak5 by an angel among ! univ]se ( />s4 ,!n1 z !y j\rney$1 our sol> sy/em 0 sunk5 l a fa9t /> 9 ! abyss1 & !y travell$ yet fur!r1 on ! w+s ( ?\ght1 ?r\gh mighti] sy/ems3 ?r\gh all ! c\ntless numb]s ( our galaxy4 ,b at l5g? ^! also 7 left beh9d1 & fad$ l a mi/ into ! pa/4 ,b ?is 0 n all4 ,! dawn ( o!r galaxies appe>$ 9 ! void4 ,/>s m c\ntless /ill ) insuff]able light em]g$4 ,& ^! also 7 pass$4 ,& s !y w5t ?r\gh galaxies )\t numb] till at l5g? !y /ood 9 ! great ,ca!dral ( ! ,univ]se4 ,endless 7 ! />ry aisles2 endless ! />ry columns2 inf9ite ! ar*es & ! ar*itraves ( />s4 ,& ! poet saw ! mighty galaxies z /eps desc5d+ to inf9ity1 & z /eps go+ up to inf9ity4 ,!n 8 human he>t fa9t$ & he long$ = "s n>r[ cell2 long$ to lie d[n 9 ! grave t he might hide f inf9ity4 ,& he said to ! angel3 ,angel1 ,i c g ) !e no f>!r4 ,is !re1 !n1 no end to ! univ]se ( />s8 #a ,de ,qu9cy 9 8 ,sy/em ( ! ,heav5s gives a f9e p>aphrase ( ,ri*t]'s ,dream4 #bjj ,!n ! angel flung up 8 glori\s h&s to ! heav5 ( heav5s1 say+ ,end is !re none to ! univ]se ( ,god8 ,lo6 also !re is no beg9n+4 #bja ,,! ,,lat5t ,,image #a ,my incl9ation has l$ me1 9 spite ( a lively dread ( incurr+ a *>ge ( presumption1 to address y pr9cipally on t pr(\nd & mo/ subtle "q1 ! nature & mode ( =mation ( ! photographic image4 ,i am impell$ to d s1 n only because ! subject is full ( fasc9ation & hopefulness1 b because ! wide topics ( photographic me?ods or photographic applications w\ld be q unfitt+ly h&l$ by ! presid5t y h *os54 ,i w\ld fir/ direct y\r att5tion to ,sir ,james ,dew>'s rem>kable result t ! photographic plate reta9s consid]able p[] ( =m+ ! lat5t image at temp]atures approa*+ ! absolute z]o--a result :i*1 z ,i submit1 compels u to reg>d ! fundam5tal effects progress+ 9 ! film "u ! /imulus ( light undulations z o!r ?an ^? ( a purely *emical nature4 ,b few1 if any1 in/ances ( *emical comb9ation or decomposition are kn[n at s l[ a temp]ature4 ,purely *emical actions cease1 inde$1 at f> high] temp]atures1 fluor9e be+ among ! few bodies :i* /ill %[ #a ,presid5tial address to ! ,photographic ,conv5tion ( ! ,unit$ ,k+dom1 ,july1 #aije4 ,nature1 ,vol4 #gb1 p4 #cjh4 #bjb *emical activity at ! comp>atively elevat$ temp]ature ( -#ahj ,c4 ,9 %ort1 ?is result ( ,sir ,james ,dew>'s sugge/s t we mu/ seek = ! f\ndations ( photographic action 9 "s physical or intra-atomic effect :i*1 z 9 ! case ( radioactivity or fluoresc5ce1 is n re/rict$ to int]vals ( temp]ature ov] :i* active molecul> vis viva prevails4 ,x compels u to reg>d ) d\bt ! role ( oxidation or o!r *emical action z ess5tial1 b r po9ts to ! view t su* effects mu/ be second>y or subsidi>y4 ,we feel1 9 a ^w1 t we mu/ turn = guidance to "s purely photo-physical effect4 ,"h1 9 ! fir/ place1 we naturally recall ! views ( ,bose4 ,?is physici/ w\ld ref] ! =mation ( ! image to a /ra9 ( ! bromide ( silv] molecule "u ! electric =ce 9 ! light wave1 conv]t+ x into :at might be reg>d$ z an allotropic modification ( ! normal bromide :i* subsequ5tly responds specially to ! attack ( ! develop]4 ,! function ( ! s5sitis]1 accord+ to ?is view1 is to ret>d ! recov]y f /ra94 ,bose obta9$ _m sugge/ive p>allels betwe5 ! /ra9 ph5om5a he 0 able to obs]ve 9 silv] & o!r sub/ances "u electromagnetic radiation & ! behavi\r ( ! photographic plate :5 subject$ to long-cont9u$ exposure to light4 ,?is !ory1 :atev] x may h to recomm5d x1 c h>dly be reg>d$ z (f]+ a fundam5tal explanation4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 we are left 9 ! d>k z to :at #bjc ! /ra9 may be4 ,x may mean _m & v>i\s ?+s4 ,we "k no?+ z to ! inn] me*anism ( its effects ^u subsequ5t *emical actions--or at lea/ we _c correlate x ) :at is kn[n ( ! physics ( *emical activity4 ,f9ally1 z w be se5 lat]1 x is h>dly adequate to acc\nt = ! v>y+ degrees ( /ability :i* may app>5tly *>act]ise ! lat5t image4 ,/ill1 !re is mu* 9 ,bose's "w des]v+ ( c>eful consid]ation4 ,he has by no means exhau/$ ! l9e ( inve/igation he has orig9at$4 ,ano!r !ory has d\btless be5 9 ! m9ds ( _m4 ,i h said we mu/ seek guidance 9 "s photo-physical ph5om5on4 ,!re is "o su* :i* preem95tly connects light & *emical ph5om5a ?r\gh ! int]m$i>y ( ! effects ( ! =m] ^u a compon5t "p ( ! atom4 ,i ref] to ! ph5om5a ( photo-electricity4 ,x 0 asc]ta9$ by ,h]tz & 8 imm$iate successors t light has a rem>kable p[] ( dis*>g+ negative electrification f ! surface ( bodies--especially f c]ta9 sub/ances4 ,= long no explanation ( ! cause ( ?is appe>$4 ,b ! electron--! ubiquit\s electron--is n[ kn[n ) consid]able c]ta9ty to be responsible4 ,! effect ( ! electric =ce 9 ! light wave is to direct or assi/ ! electrons conta9$ 9 ! sub/ance to escape f ! surface ( ! body4 ,ea* electron c>ries away a v small *>ge ( negative electrification4 ,if1 !n1 a body is #bjd orig9ally *>g$ negatively1 x w be gradually dis*>g$ by ?is convective process4 ,if x is n *>g$ to />t )1 ! electrons w /ill be lib]at$ at ! surface ( ! body1 & ?is w acquire a positive *>ge4 ,if ! body is positively *>g$ at fir/1 we _c dis*>ge x by illum9ation4 ,x w\ld be sup]flu\s = me to speak "h ( ! nature ( electrons or ( ! v>i\s modes 9 :i* _! pres5ce may be detect$4 ,suffice x to say1 9 fur!r connection ) ! ,h]tz effect1 t :5 project$ among gase\s molecules ! electron soon atta*es itself to "o ( ^!4 ,9 o!r words1 x ionises a molecule ( ! gas or conf]s its electric *>ge ^u x4 ,! gase\s molecule may ev5 be itself disrupt$ by impact ( ! electron1 if ?is is mov+ fa/ en\gh1 & left b]eft ( an electron4 ,we mu/ note t su* ionisation may be reg>d$ z conf]r+ pot5tial *emical prop]ties ^u ! molecules ( ! gas & ^u ! sub/ance :5ce ! electrons are d]iv$4 ,simil> ionisation "u electric =ces ent]s1 z we n[ believe1 into all ! *emical effects progress+ 9 ! galvanic cell1 &1 inde$1 g5]ally 9 ionis$ solutes4 ,an exp]im5t w be/ illu/rate ! pr9ciples ,i wi% to rem9d y (4 ,a clean alum9ium plate1 c>efully insulat$ by a sulphur support1 is fac$ by a %eet ( copp]-wire-gauze plac$ a c\ple ( c5timetres away f x4 ,! gauze is ma9ta9$ at a high positive #bje pot5tial by ?is dry pile4 ,a s5sitive gold-leaf electroscope is atta*$ to ! alum9ium plate1 & its image ?r[n ^u ! scre54 ,i n[ turn ! light f ?is arc lamp ^u ! wire gauze1 ?r\gh :i* x 9 "p passes & %9es ^u ! alum9ium plate4 ,! electroscope at once *>ges up rapidly4 ,!re is a lib]ation ( negative electrons at ! surface ( ! alum9ium2 ^!1 "u ! attraction ( ! positive body1 are rapidly remov$ z ions1 & ! electroscope *>ges up positively4 ,aga91 if ,i simply electrify negatively ?is alum9ium plate s t ! leaves ( ! atta*$ electroscope div]ge widely1 & n[ expose x to ! rays f ! arc lamp1 ! *>ge1 z y see1 is v rapidly dissipat$4 ,) positive electrification ( ! alum9ium !re is no effect att5dant on ! illum9ation4 ,?us f ! "w ( ,h]tz & 8 successors we "k t light1 & m p>ticul>ly :at we call act9ic light1 is an effective means ( sett+ free electrons f c]ta9 sub/ances4 ,9 %ort1 our photographic ag5t1 light1 has ! p[] ( expell+ f c]ta9 sub/ances ! electron :i* is s pot5t a factor 9 mo/1 if n 9 all1 *emical effects4 ,i h n "t "h to ref] to ! "w ( ,el/] & ,geitel :]eby !y h %[n t ?is action is to be trac$ to ! electric =ce 9 ! light wave1 b mu/ turn to ! probable be>+ ( ?is ph5om5on on ! famili> facts ( photography4 ,i assume t ! exp]im5t ,i h %[n y is ! mo/ #bjf fundam5tal photographic exp]im5t :i* x is n[ 9 our p[] to make4 ,we mu/ fir/ ask f :at sub/ances c light lib]ate electrons4 ,!re are _m--metals z well z non-metals & liquids4 ,x is a v g5]al ph5om5on & mu/ op]ate widely ?r\gh\t nature4 ,b :at *iefly conc]ns ! pres5t consid]ation is ! fact t ! haloid salts ( silv] are vigor\sly photo-electric1 &1 x is sugge/ive1 possess1 accord+ to ,s*midt1 an activity 9 ! desc5d+ ord] bromide1 *loride1 iodide4 ,?is is1 9 o!r words1 _! ord] ( activity z ionis]s 7"u ! prop] conditions7 :5 expos$ to ultra-violet light4 ,photograph]s w recognise t ?is is also ! ord] ( _! photographic s5sitiv5ess4 ,ano!r class ( bodies also conc]ns our subject3 ! special s5sitis]s us$ by ! photograph] to modify ! spectral di/ribution ( s5sibility ( ! haloid salts1 e4g4 eos9e1 fu*s9e1 cyan9e4 ,^! aga9 are electron-produc]s "u light /imulus4 ,n[ x has be5 %[n by ,/olet[1 ,hallwa*s1 & ,el/] & ,geitel t !re is an intimate connection betwe5 photo-electric activity & ! absorption ( light by ! sub/ance1 &1 inde$1 t ! p>ticul> wave-l5g?s absorb$ by ! sub/ance are ^? :i* are effective 9 lib]at+ ! electrons4 ,?us we h /rong reason = believ+ t ! vigor\s photo-electric activity display$ by ! special s5sitis]s mu/ be dep5d5t ^u _! col\r absorption4 ,y w recognise t ?is is j #bjg ! connection betwe5 _! photographic effects & _! behavi\r t[>ds light4 ,!re is yet ano!r sugge/ive p>allel4 ,i ref]r$ to ! obs]vation ( ,sir ,james ,dew> z to ! cont9u$ s5sitiv5ess ( ! photographic film at ! l[e/ atta9$ extreme ( temp]ature1 & drew ! inf]5ce t ! fundam5tal photographic action mu/ be ( intra-atomic nature1 & n dep5d5t ^u ! vis viva ( ! molecule or atom4 ,9 !n seek+ ! orig9 ( photographic action 9 photo-electric ph5om5a we naturally ask1 ,are ^! latt] ph5om5a also traceable at l[ temp]atures8 ,if !y are1 we are entitl$ to look ^u ?is fact z a qualify+ *>act]i/ic or z ano!r l9k 9 ! *a9 ( evid5ce connect+ photographic ) photo-electric activity4 ,i h q rec5tly1 ) ! aid ( liquid air suppli$ to me f ! laboratory ( ! ,royal ,dubl9 ,society1 te/$ ! photo-s5sibility ( alum9ium & also ( silv] bromide d[n to temp]atures approa*+ t ( ! liquid air4 ,! mode ( obs]vation is ess5tially t ( ,s*midt--:at he t]ms 8 /atic me?od4 ,! sub/ance und]go+ obs]vation is1 h[ev]1 conta9$ at ! bottom ( a ?9 copp] tube1 #e cm4 9 diamet]1 :i* is imm]s$ to a dep? ( ab\t #aj cm 9 liquid air4 ,! tube is clos$ above by a p>aff9 /opp] :i* c>ries a ?9 qu>tz w9d[ z well z ! sulphur tubes ?r\gh :i* ! connections pass4 ,! air )9 is v c>efully dri$ by phosphorus #bjh p5toxide be=e ! exp]im5t4 ,! arc light is us$ z s\rce ( illum9ation4 ,x is f\nd t a vigor\s photo-electric effect cont9ues 9 ! case ( ! clean alum9ium4 ,9 ! case ( ! silv] bromide a di/9ct photo-electric effect is /ill obs]v$4 ,i h n _h leisure to make1 z yet1 any tru/wor?y e/imate ( ! p]c5tage effect at ?is temp]ature 9 ! case ( ei!r sub/ance4 ,nor h ,i det]m9$ ! temp]ature accurately4 ,! latt] may be tak5 z r\ghly ab\t -#aej ,c1 ,sir ,james ,dew>'s actual measilrem5ts af=d$ tw5ty p] c5t4 ( ! normal photographic effect at -#ahj ,c4 & t5 p] c5t4 at ! temp]ature ( -#beb4e ,c4 ,) ?is mu* to g ^u1 & ! important additional fact t ! electronic dis*>ge--z f ! ,x-ray tube or f radium--g5]ates ! lat5t image1 ,i ?9k we are fully entitl$ to sugge/1 z a legitimate lead to exp]im5t1 ! hypo!sis t ! beg9n+s ( photographic action involve an electronic dis*>ge f ! light-s5sitive molecule2 9 o!r words t ! lat5t image is built up ( ionis$ atoms or molecules ! result ( ! photo-electric effect on ! illum9at$ silv] haloid1 & x is ^u ^! ionis$ atoms t ! *emical effects ( ! develop] are subsequ5tly direct$4 ,x may be t ! lib]at$ electrons ionise molecules n directly affect$1 or x may be t 9 _! lib]ation !y disrupt complex molecules built up 9 ! rip5+ ( ! #bji emulsion4 ,) ! am\nt we h to g ^u we _c v5ture to p>ticul>ise4 ,x w be said t su* an action mu/ be 9 "p ( ! nature ( a *emical effect4 ,?is mu/ be admitt$1 &1 9 s f> z ! re>rangem5t ( molecul> fabrics is involv$1 ! result w d\btless be controll$ by temp]ature conditions4 ,! facts obs]v$ by ,sir ,james ,dew> support ?is4 ,b !re is involv$ a fundam5tal process--! lib]ation ( ! electron by ! electric =ce 9 ! light wave1 :i* is a physical effect1 & :i*1 ^u ! hypo!sis ( its reality z a factor 9 =m+ ! lat5t image1 appe>s to expla9 completely ! out/&+ photographic s5sitiv5ess ( ! film at temp]atures f> bel[ ^? at :i* *emical actions 9 g5]al cease4 ,aga91 we may assume t ! electron--produc+ p[] ( ! special s5sitis] or dye = ! p>ticul> ray x absorbs is responsible1 or responsible 9 "p1 = ! special s5sitiv5ess x conf]s ^u ! film4 ,sir ,wm4 ,abney has %[n t ^! s5sitis]s are active ev5 if laid on z a v>ni% on ! s5sitive surface & remov$ be=e developm5t4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$1 h[ev]1 t at temp]atures ( ab\t -#ej ^! s5sitis]s lose mu* ( _! influ5ce on ! film2 z ,i h po9t$ out 9 a pap] read be=e ! ,photographic ,conv5tion ( #ahid4 ,x4 appe>s to me t on ^! views ! curi\s ph5om5on ( recurr5t rev]sals does n pres5t a problem hopeless ( explanation4 ,! process ( photo- #baj ionisation con/itut+ ! lat5t image1 :]e ! ion is probably n imm$iately neutralis$ by *emical comb9ation1 pres5ts features ak9 to ! *>g+ ( a capacity--say a ,leyd5 j>4 ,!re may be a ris+ pot5tial betwe5 ! gr\ps ( ions until ultimately a po9t is atta9$ :5 !re is a spontane\s neutralisation4 ,i may obs]ve t ! ph5om5a ( rev]sal appe> to indicate t ! *ange 9 ! silv] bromide molecule1 :atev] be its nature1 is "o ( gradually increas+ int5sity1 & f9ally atta9s a maximum :5 a return to ! orig9al condition occurs4 ,! maximum is ! po9t ( mo/ int5se developable image4 ,x is probable t ! s5sitis]--9 ?is case ! gelat9 9 :i* ! bromide ( silv] is imm]s$--plays a "p 9 ! conditions ( /ability :i* are involv$4 ,( great int]e/ 9 all our consid]ations & !ories is ! rec5t "w ( ,wood on photographic rev]sal4 ,! result ( ?is "w is--z ,i take x--to %[ t ! /ability ( ! lat5t image may be v v>i\s accord+ to ! mode ( its =mation4 ,?us x appe>s t ! sort ( lat5t effect :i* is produc$ by pressure or friction is ! lea/ /able ( any4 ,?is may be rev]s$ or wip$ out by ! application ( any o!r kn[n =m ( photographic /imulus4 ,?us an exposure to ,x-rays w oblit]ate x1 or a v brief exposure to light4 ,! lat5t image aris+ f ,x-rays is next 9 ord] ( increas+ /ability4 ,light action w remove ?is4 ,?ird 9 ord] is a v brief light-%ock or sudd5 fla%4 ,?is #baa _c be rev]s$ by any ( ! =ego+ modes ( /imulation1 b a long-cont9u$ undulatory /imulus1 z f lamp-light1 w rev]se x4 ,la/ & mo/ /able ( all is ! gradually built-up configuration due to long-cont9u$ light exposure4 ,?is c only be rev]s$ by ov]do+ x accord+ to ! kn[n facts ( recurr5t rev]sal4 ,wood takes occasion to rem>k t ^! ph5om5a are 9 bad agreem5t ) ! /ra9 !ory ( ,bose4 ,we h1 9 fact1 b ! "o res\rce--! allotropic modification ( ! haloid--:]eby to expla9 all ^! ord]s ( /ability4 ,x appe>s to me t ! ela/icity ( ! electronic !ory is great]4 ,! /ate ( ! ionis$ sy/em may be v v>i\s accord+ z x arises f cont9u$ rhy?mic effects or f unorganis$ %ocks4 ,! ionisation due to ,x-rays or to friction w probably be q unorganis$1 t due to light m or less /able accord+ to ! gradual & g5tle nature ( ! =ces at "w4 ,i ?9k we are entitl$ to conclude t on ! :ole !re is no?+ 9 ,wood's beautiful exp]im5ts oppos$ to ! photo-electric orig9 ( photographic effects1 b t !y r fall 9 ) :at might be anticipat$ accord+ to t !ory4 ,:5 we look = fur!r support to ! views ,i h laid be=e y we are confront$ ) _m difficulties4 ,i h n z yet detect$ any electronic dis*>ge f ! film "u light /imulus4 ,?is may be due to my defective exp]im5ts1 or to a fact not$ by ,el/] & ,geitel conc]n+ ! photo-electric prop]ties ( gelat94 #bab ,!y obta9$ a vigor\s effect f ,balma9's lum9\s pa9t1 b :5 ?is 0 mix$ 9 gelat9 !re 0 no ext]nal effect4 ,s*midt's results z to ! cont9uance ( photo-electric activity :5 bodies 9 g5]al are dissolv$ 9 ea* o!r lead u to believe t an actual cons]vative prop]ty ( ! m$ium & n an effect ( ?is on ! lum9\s pa9t is "h involv$4 ,?is cons]vative effect ( ! gelat9 may be conc]n$ ) its efficacy z a s5sitis]4 ,9 ! views ,i h laid be=e y ,i h endeav\r$ to %[ t ! rec5t addition to our k ( ! electron z an entity tak+ "p 9 _m physical & *emical effects %\ld be kept 9 sight 9 seek+ an explanation ( ! mode ( orig9 ( ! lat5t image4#a #a ,= a m detail$ acc\nt ( ! subject1 & "s +5i\s ext5sions ( ! views express$ above1 see ,photo-,electricity1 by ,h4 ,/anley ,all53 ,longmans1 ,gre5 ,ca41 #aiac4 #bac ,,pleo*roic ,,haloes #a ,,x is n[ well e/abli%$ t a helium atom is expell$ f c]ta9 ( ! radioactive elem5ts at ! mom5t ( trans=mation4 ,! helium atom or alpha ray leaves ! trans=m+ atom ) a velocity :i* v>ies 9 ! diff]5t radioactive elem5ts1 b :i* is always v great1 atta9+ z mu* z #b x #aji cms4 p] second2 a velocity :i*1 if un*eck$1 w\ld c>ry ! atom r\nd ! e>? 9 less ?an two seconds4 ,! alpha ray c>ries a positive *>ge ( d\ble ! ionic am\nt4 ,:5 an alpha ray is dis*>g$ f ! trans=m+ elem5t into a gase\s m$ium its velocity is rapidly *eck$ & its en]gy absorb$4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt ( en]gy is ?us transf]r$ f ! trans=m+ atom to ! gas4 ,we recognise ?is en]gy 9 ! gas by ! alt]$ prop]ties ( ! latt]2 *iefly by ! fact t x becomes a conductor ( electricity4 ,! me*anism by :i* ?is *ange is effect$ is 9 "p kn[n4 ,! atoms ( ! gas1 :i* appe> to be freely p5etrat$ by ! alpha ray1 are s f> dismemb]$ z to yield *>g$ electrons or ions2 ! atoms rema9+ *>g$ ) an equal & opposite *>ge4 ,su* a m$ium ( #a ,be+ ! ,huxley ,lecture1 deliv]$ at ! ,univ]sity ( ,birm+ham on ,octob] #cj?1 #aiab4 ,b$rock1 ,jan41 #aiac4 #bad free electric *>ges becomes a conductor ( electricity by convection :5 an electromotive =ce is appli$4 ,! gas also acquires o!r prop]ties 9 virtue ( its ionisation4 ,"u c]ta9 conditions x may acquire *emical activity & new comb9ations may be =m$ or exi/+ ones brok5 up4 ,:5 its initial velocity is exp5d$ ! helium atom gives up its prop]ties z an alpha ray & !nce=? rema9s possess$ ( ! ord9>y v>y+ velocity ( !rmal agitation4 ,bragg & ,kleeman & o!rs h inve/igat$ ! c>e] ( ! alpha ray :5 its pa? or range lies 9 a gas at ord9>y or obta9able conditions ( pressure & temp]ature4 ,we w review "s ( ! facts asc]ta9$4 ,! range or di/ance trav]s$ 9 a gas at ord9>y pressures is a few c5timetres4 ,! foll[+ table1 compil$ by ,geig]1 gives ! range 9 air at ! temp]ature ( #ae ,c43 cms4 cms4 cms4 ,uranium #a - #b4ej ,?orium - #b4gb ,radioact9ium #d4fj ,uranium #b - #b4ij ,radio?orium #c4hg ,act9ium ,x - #d4dj ,ionium - #c4jj ,?orium ,x - #d4cj ,act ,emanation #e4gj ,radium - #c4cj ,? ,emanation #e4jj ,act9ium ,a - #f4ej ,ra ,emanation #d4af ,?orium ,a - #e4gj ,act9ium ,c - #e4dj ,radium ,a - #d4ge ,?orium ,c#a - #d4hj ,radium ,c - #f4id ,?orium ,c#b - #h4fj ,radium ,f - #c4gg ,x w be se5 t ! ray ( greate/ range is t proce$+ f ?orium ,c#b1 :i* rea*es a di/ance ( #h4f cms4 ,9 ! uranium family ! fa/e/ ray is #bae t ( radium ,c4 ,x atta9s #f4id cms4 ,!re is ?us an appreciable diff]5ce betwe5 ! ultimate di/ances trav]s$ by ! mo/ en]getic rays ( ! two families4 ,! %orte/ ranges are ^? ( uranium #a & #b4 ,! ionisation effect$ by ^! rays is by no means uni=m along ! pa? ( ! ray4 ,by exam9+ ! conductivity ( ! gas at diff]5t po9ts along ! pa? ( ! ray1 ! ionisation at ^! po9ts may be det]m9$4 ,at ! limits ( ! range ! ionisation ,fig4 #ac ceases4 ,9 ?is mann] ! range is1 9 fact1 det]m9$4 ,! dott$ curve 7,fig4 #ac7 depicts ! rec5t inve/igation ( ! ionisation effect$ by a %eaf ( p>allel rays ( radium ,c 9 air1 z det]m9$ by ,geig]4 ,! range is laid out horizontally 9 c5timetres4 ,! numb]s ( ions are laid out v]tically4 ,! rem>kable nature ( ! results w be at once app>5t4 ,we %\ld h expect$ t ! ray at ! beg9n+ ( its pa?1 :5 its velocity & k9etic en]gy 7 greate/1 w\ld h be5 m effective ?an t[>ds ! end ( its range #baf :5 its en]gy _h almo/ run out4 ,b ! curve %[s t x is j ! o!r way4 ,! lagg+ ray1 ab\t to resign its ionis+ prop]ties1 becomes a mu* m effici5t ionis] ?an x 0 at fir/4 ,! maximum effici5cy is1 h[ev]1 9 ! case ( a bundle ( p>allel rays1 n q at ! end ( ! range1 b ab\t half a c5timetre f x4 ,! increase to ! maximum is rapid1 ! fall f ! maximum to no?+ is mu* m rapid4 ,x c be %[n t ! ionisation effect$ any:]e along ! pa? ( ! ray is inv]sely proportional to ! velocity ( ! ray at t po9t4 ,b ?is evid5tly does n apply to ! la/ #e or #aj mms4 ( ! range :]e ! rate ( ionisation & ( ! spe$ ( ! ray *ange mo/ rapidly4 ,to :at are ! *ang+ prop]ties ( ! rays ne> ! end ( _! pa? to be ascrib$8 ,x is only rec5tly t ?is matt] has be5 elucidat$4 ,:5 ! alpha ray has suffici5tly sl[$ d[n1 its p[] ( pass+ "r ?r\gh atoms1 )\t appreciably exp]i5c+ any effects f !m1 dim9i%es4 ,! oppos+ atoms beg9 to ex]t an influ5ce on ! pa? ( ! ray1 deflect+ x a little4 ,! heavi] atoms w deflect x mo/4 ,?is effect has be5 v successfully inve/igat$ by ,geig]4 ,x is kn[n z scatt]+4 ,! angle ( scatt]+ increases rapidly ) ! decrease ( velocity4 ,n[ ! effect ( ! scatt]+ w be to cause "s ( ! rays to complete _! ranges #bag or1 m accurately1 to leave _! direct l9e ( advance a little soon] ?an o!rs4 ,9 ! beautiful exp]im5ts ( ,c4 ,t4 ,r4 ,wilson we are enabl$ to obta9 ocul> demon/ration ( ! scatt]+4 ,! photograph 7,fig4 #ad471 :i* ,i owe to ! k9dness ( ,mr4 ,wilson1 %[s ! deflection ( ! ray t[>ds ! end ( its pa?4 ,9 ,fig4 #ad ?is case ! pa? ( ! ray has be5 r5d]$ visible by ! cond5sation ( wat] p>ticles "u ! influ5ce ( ! ionisation2 ! atmosph]e 9 :i* ! ray travels be+ 9 a /ate ( sup]saturation ) wat] vap\r at ! in/ant ( ! passage ( ! ray4 ,x is evid5t t if we 7 obs]v+ ! ionisation along a %eaf ( p>allel rays1 all />t+ ) equal velocity1 #bah ! effect ( ! b5d+ ( "s ( ! rays ne> ! end ( _! range mu/ be to cause a decrease 9 ! aggregate ionisation ne> ! v end ( ! ultimate range4 ,=1 9 fact1 "s ( ! rays complete _! "w ( ionis+ at po9ts 9 ! gas be=e ! end is rea*$4 ,?is is ! cause1 or at lea/ an important contributory cause1 ( ! decl9e 9 ! ionisation ne> ! end ( ! range1 :5 ! effects ( a bundle ( rays are be+ obs]v$4 ,! explanation does n sugge/ t ! ionis+ p[] ( any "o ray is actually dim9i%$ be=e x f9ally ceases to be an alpha ray4 ,! full l9e 9 ,fig4 #ac gives ! ionisation curve :i* x may be expect$ w\ld be /ruck out by a s+le alpha ray4 ,9 x ! ionisation goes on increas+ till x abruptly ceases altoge!r1 ) ! entire loss ( ! initial k9etic en]gy ( ! p>ticle4 ,a highly rem>kable fact 0 f\nd out by ,bragg4 ,! effect ( ! atom trav]s$ by ! ray 9 *eck+ ! velocity ( ! ray is indep5d5t ( ! physical & *emical condition ( ! atom4 ,he measur$ ! /opp+ p[] ( a m$ium by ! di/ance ! ray c p5etrate into x comp>$ ) ! di/ance to :i* x c p5etrate 9 air4 ,! less ! ratio ! great] is ! /opp+ p[]4 ,! /opp+ p[] ( a sub/ance is proportional to ! squ>e root ( its atomic weight4 ,! /opp+ p[] ( an atom is n alt]$ if x is 9 *emical union ) ano!r atom4 ,! atomic weight is ! "o quality ( importance4 ,! physical #bai /ate1 :e!r ! elem5t is 9 ! solid1 liquid or gase\s /ate1 is unimportant4 ,& :5 we deal ) molecules ! /opp+ p[] is simply proportional to ! sum ( ! squ>e roots ( ! atomic weights ( ! atoms ent]+ into ! molecule4 ,?is is ! additive law1 & x obvi\sly enables u to calculate :at ! range 9 any sub/ance ( kn[n *emical composition & d5sity w be1 comp>$ ) ! range 9 air4 ,?is is ( special importance 9 connection ) ph5om5a we h pres5tly to consid]4 ,x means t1 kn[+ ! *emical composition & d5sity ( any m$ium :atsoev]1 solid1 liquid or gase\s1 we c calculate accurately ! di/ance to :i* any p>ticul> alpha ray w p5etrate4 ,nor h ! temp]ature & pressure to :i* ! m$ium is subject$ any influ5ce save 9 s f> z !y may affect ! proximity ( "o atom to ano!r4 ,! ret>dation ( ! alpha ray 9 ! atom is n affect$4 ,?is valuable additive law1 h[ev]1 _c be appli$ 9 /rictness to ! am\nt ( ionisation att5d+ ! ray4 ,! =m ( ! molecule1 or m g5]ally its volume1 may h an influ5ce ^u ?is4 ,bragg draws ! conclusion1 f ?is fact z well z f ! notable increase ( ionisation ) loss ( spe$1 t ! ionisation is dep5d5t ^u ! "t ! ray sp5ds 9 ! molecule4 ,! en]gy ( ! ray is1 inde$1 f\nd to be less effici5t 9 produc+ ionisation 9 ! small] atomm4 #bbj ,be=e leav+ our review ( ! g5]al laws gov]n+ ! passage ( alpha rays ?r\gh matt]1 ano!r po9t ( int]e/ mu/ be ref]r$ to4 ,we h hi!rto spok5 9 g5]al t]ms ( ! fact t ionisation att5ds ! passage ( ! ray4 ,we h said no?+ z to ! nature ( ! ionisation s produc$4 ,b 9 po9t ( fact ! ionisation due to an alpha ray is sui g5]is4 ,a glance at "o ( ,wilson's photographs 7,fig4 #ad47 illu/rates ?is4 ,! :ite /reak ( wat] p>ticles m>ks ! pa? ( ! ray4 ,! ions produc$ are evid5tly closely cr[d$ along ! track ( ! ray4 ,!y h be5 call$ into exi/5ce 9 a v m9ute in/ant ( "t4 ,n[ we "k t ions ( opposite sign if left to !mselves recomb9e4 ,! rate ( recomb9ation dep5ds ^u ! product ( ! numb] ( ea* sign pres5t 9 unit volume4 ,"h ! numb]s are v great & ! volume v small4 ,! ionic d5sity is !re=e high1 & recomb9ation v rapidly removes ! ions aft] !y are =m$4 ,we see "h a peculi>ity ( ! ionisation effect$ by alpha rays4 ,x is l9e> 9 di/ribution & v local4 ,mu* ( ! ionisation 9 gases is aga9 undone by recomb9ation be=e diffusion leads to ! sep>ation ( ! ions4 ,?is initial recomb9ation is greate/ t[>ds ! end ( ! pa? ( ! ray :]e ! ionisation is a maximum4 ,"h x may be s effective t ! =m ( ! curve is completely lo/ unless a v l>ge electromotive =ce is us$ to sep>ate ! ions :5 ! ionisation is be+ inve/igat$4 #bba ,we h n[ review$ rec5t "w at suffici5t l5g? to und]/& some?+ ( ! nature ( ! mo/ important advance ev] made 9 our k ( ! atom4 ,let u glance briefly at :at we h le>n$4 ,! radioactive atom 9 s9k+ to a l[] atomic weight ca/s out ) enorm\s velocity an atom ( helium4 ,x ?us loses a def9ite portion ( its mass & ( its en]gy4 ,helium :i* is *emically "o ( ! mo/ in]t ( ! elem5ts1 is1 :5 possess$ ( su* great k9etic en]gy1 able to p5etrate & ionise ! atoms :i* x meets 9 its pa?4 ,x sp5ds its en]gy 9 ! act ( ionis+ !m1 com+ to re/1 :5 x moves 9 air1 9 a few c5timetres4 ,its initial velocity dep5ds ^u ! p>ticul> radioactive elem5t :i* has giv5 rise to x4 ,! l5g? ( its pa? is !re=e diff]5t accord+ to ! radioactive elem5t f :i* x proce$s4 ,! ret>dation :i* x exp]i5ces 9 its pa? dep5ds entirely ^u ! atomic weight ( ! atoms :i* x trav]ses4 ,z x advances 9 its pa? its effectiv5ess 9 ionis+ ! atom rapidly increases & atta9s a v m>k$ maximum4 ,9 a gas ! ions produc$ be+ mu* cr[d$ toge!r recomb9e rapidly2 s rapidly t ! actual ionisation may be q conceal$ unless a suffici5tly /rong electric =ce is appli$ to sep>ate !m4 ,su* is a brief summ>y ( ! climax ( radioactive discov]y3--! bir?1 life & dea? ( ! alpha ray4 ,its adv5t into ,sci5ce has alt]$ fundam5tally our conception ( #bbb matt]4 ,x is fraught ) mom5t\s be>+s ^u ,geological ,sci5ce4 ,h[ ! "w ( ! alpha ray is sometimes record$ visibly 9 ! rocks & :at we may le>n f t record1 ,i propose n[ to br+ be=e y4 ,9 c]ta9 m9]als1 notably ! br[n v>iety ( mica kn[n z biotite1 ! microscope reveals m9ute circul> m>ks occurr+ "h & !re1 q irregul>ly4 ,! mo/ usual appe>ance is t ( a circul> area d>k] 9 col\r ?an ! surr\nd+ m9]al4 ,! radii ( ^! little disc-%ap$ m>ks :5 well def9$ are f\nd to be rem>kably uni=m1 9 "s cases f\r hundr$?s ( a millimetre & 9 o!rs ?ree hundr$?s1 ab\t4 ,^! are ! measurem5ts 9 biotite4 ,9 o!r m9]als ! measurem5ts are n q ! same z 9 biotite4 ,su* m9ute objects are q invisible to ! nak$ eye4 ,9 "s rocks !y are v abundant1 inde$ !y may be cr[d$ toge!r 9 su* numb]s z to d>k5 ! col\r ( ! m9]al conta9+ !m4 ,!y h long be5 a my/]y to petrologi/s4 ,close exam9ation %[s t !re is always a small speck ( a =eign body at ! c5tre ( ! circle1 & x is (t5 possible to id5tify ! nature ( ?is c5tral sub/ance1 small ?\gh x be4 ,mo/ g5]ally x is f\nd to be ! m9]al zircon4 ,n[ ?is m9]al 0 %[n by ,/rutt to conta9 radium 9 quantities mu* exce$+ ^? f\nd 9 ord9>y rock sub/ances4 #bbc ,"s o!r m9]al may occasionally =m ! nucleus1 b we nev] f9d any :i* is n kn[n to be specially likely to conta9 a radioactive sub/ance4 ,ano!r circum/ance we notice4 ,! small] ?is c5tral nucleus ! m p]fect 9 =m is ! d>k5$ circul> area surr\nd+ x4 ,:5 ! circle is v p]fect & ! c5tral m9]al cle>ly def9$ at its c5tre we f9d by measurem5t t ! radius ( ! d>k5$ area is g5]ally #j4jcc mm4 ,x may sometimes be #j4jdj mm4 ,^! are always ! measurem5ts 9 biotite4 ,9 o!r m9]als ! radii are a little diff]5t4 ,we see 9 ! photograph 7,pl4 ,,xxiii1 l[] figure71 mu* magnifi$1 a halo conta9$ 9 biotite4 ,we are look+ at a region 9 a rock-section1 ! rock be+ gr\nd d[n to su* a ?ickness t light freely passes ?r\gh x4 ,! biotite is 9 ! c5tre ( ! field4 ,qu>tz & felsp> surr\nd x4 ,! rock is a granite4 ,! biotite is n all "o cry/al4 ,two cry/als1 mutually incl9$1 are cut across4 ,! halo ext5ds across bo? cry/als1 b ow+ to ! fact t pol>is$ light is us$ 9 tak+ ! photograph x appe>s d>k] 9 "o cry/al ?an 9 ! o!r4 ,we see ! zircon :i* composes ! nucleus4 ,! f9e /riat$ appe>ance ( ! biotite is due to ! cleavage ( t m9]al1 :i* is cut across 9 ! section4 ,! "q arises :e!r ! d>k5$ area surr\nd+ ! zircon may n be due to ! influ5ce ( ! radioactive sub/ances conta9$ 9 ! zircon4 ,! #bbd extraord9>y uni=mity ( ! radial measurem5ts ( p]fectly =m$ haloes 7to use ! "n by :i* !y h long be5 kn[n7 sugge/s t !y may be ! result ( alpha radiation4 ,= 9 t case1 z we h se51 we c at once acc\nt = ! def9ite radius z simply repres5t+ ! range ( ! ray 9 biotite4 ,! fur!/-rea*+ ray w def9e ! radius ( ! halo4 ,9 ! case ( ! uranium family ?is w be radium ,c1 & 9 ! case ( ?orium x w be ?orium ,c4 ,n[ "h we possess a means ( at once confirm+ or reject+ ! view t ! halo is a radioactive ph5om5on & occasion$ by alpha radiation2 = we c calculate :at ! range ( ^! rays w be 9 biotite1 avail+ ourselves ( ,bragg's additive law1 already ref]r$ to4 ,:5 we make ?is calculation we f9d t radium ,c j p5etrates #j4jcc mm4 & ?orium ,c #j4jdj mm4 ,! pro( is complete t we are deal+ ) ! effects ( alpha rays4 ,obs]ve n[ t n only is ! co9cid5ce ( measurem5t & calculation a pro( ( ! view t alpha radiation has occasion$ ! halo1 b x is a v complete v]ification ( ! important fact /at$ by ,bragg1 t ! /opp+ p[] dep5ds solely on ! atomic weight ( ! atoms trav]s$ by ! ray4 ,we h se5 t our exam9ation ( ! rocks reveals only ! two sorts ( halo3 ! radium halo & ! ?orium halo4 ,?is is n )\t tea*+4 ,= :y n f9d an act9ium halo8 ,n[ ,ru!r=d long ago sugge/$ t ?is elem5t & its d]ivatives 7 #bbe probably an (fspr+ ( ! uranium family2 a side bran*1 z x 71 9 ! =mation ( :i* relatively few trans=m+ atoms took "p4 ,on ,ru!r=d's !ory !n1 act9ium %\ld always accompany uranium & radium1 b 9 v subord9ate am\nt4 ,! abs5ce ( act9ium haloes cle>ly supports ?is view4 ,= if act9ium 0 an indep5d5t elem5t we w\ld be sure to f9d act9ium haloes4 ,! diff]5ce 9 radius %\ld be noticeable4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 act9ium 0 always associat$ ) uranium & radium1 !n its effects w\ld be subm]g$ 9 ^? ( ! mu* m pot5t effects ( ! uranium s]ies ( elem5ts4 ,x w h occurr$ to y already t if ! radioactive orig9 ( ! halo is assur$ ! %ape ( a halo is n really circul>1 b sph]ical4 ,?is is s4 ,!re is no su* ?+ z a disc-%ap$ halo4 ,! halo is a sph]ical volume conta9+ ! radioactive nucleus at its c5tre4 ,! true radius ( ! halo may1 !re=e1 only be measur$ on sections pass+ ?r\gh ! nucleus4 #bbf ,9 ord] to und]/& ! mode ( =mation ( a halo we may pr(itably /udy on a diagram ! ev5ts :i* g on )9 ! halo-sph]e4 ,su* a diagram is se5 9 ,fig4 #ae4 ,x %[s to relatively correct scale ! limit+ range ( all ! alpha-ray produc+ memb]s ( ! uranium & ?orium families4 ,we "k t ea* memb] ( a family w exi/ 9 equilibrium am\nt )9 ! nucleus possess+ ! p>5t elem5t4 ,ea* alpha ray leav+ ! nucleus w j atta9 its range & !n cease to affect ! mica4 ,)9 ! halosph]e1 !re mu/ be1 !re=e1 ! accumulat$ effects ( ! influ5ces ( all ! rays4 ,ea* has its own sph]e ( influ5ce1 & ! sph]es are all conc5tric4 ,! radii 9 biotite ( ! sev]al sph]es are giv5 9 ! foll[+ table ,,uranium ,,family4 ,radium ,c - #j4jccj mm4 ,radium ,a - #j4jbbd mm4 ,ra ,emanation - #j4jaif mm4 ,radium ,f - #j4jagg mm4 ,radium - #j4jaef mm4 ,ionium - #j4jada mm4 ,uranium #a - #j4jacg mm4 ,uranium #b - #j4jaah mm4 ,,?orium ,,family4 ,?orium ,,ce - #j4jdj mm4 ,?orium ,a - #j4jbf mm4 ,? ,emanation - #j4jbc mm4 ,?orium ,ci - #j4jbb mm4 ,?orium ,x - #j4jbj mm4 ,radio?orium - #j4aai mm4 ,?orium - #j4jac mm4 ,9 ! photograph 7,pl4 ,,xxiv1 l[] figure71 we see a uranium & a ?orium halo 9 ! same cry/al ( mica4 ,! mica is conta9$ 9 a rock-section & is cut across ! cleavage4 ,! effects ( ?orium ,ca are cle>ly %[n #bbg z a light] bord] surr\nd+ ! accumulat$ inn] d>k5+ due to ! o!r ?orium rays4 ,! uranium halo 7to ! "r7 simil>ly %[s ! effects ( radium ,c1 b less di/9ctly4 ,haloes :i* are uni=mly d>k all ov] z describ$ above are1 9 po9t ( fact1 ov]-expos$2 to borr[ a famili> photographic t]m4 ,haloes are f\nd :i* %[ mu* beautiful int]nal detail4 ,too vigor\s action obscures ?is detail j z detail is lo/ 9 an ov]-expos$ photograph4 ,we may aga9 h "u-expos$ haloes 9 :i* ! action ( ! sev]al rays is incomplete or 9 :i* ! action ( c]ta9 ( ! rays has left little if any trace4 ,beg9n+ at ! mo/ "u-expos$ haloes we f9d circul> d>k m>ks hav+ ! radius #j4jab or #j4jac mm4 ,^! haloes are due to uranium1 al?\gh _! inn] d>k5+ is d\btless aid$ by ! passage ( rays :i* 7 too few to ext5d ! d>k5+ beyond ! vigor\s effects ( ! two uranium rays4 ,!n we f9d haloes c>ri$ out to ! radii #j4jaf1 #j4jah & #j4jai mm4 ,! la/ sometimes %[ v beautiful out] r+s hav+ radial dim5sions su* z w\ld be produc$ by radium ,a & radium ,c4 ,f9ally we may h haloes 9 :i* int]ior detail is lo/ s f> out z ! radius due to emanation or radium ,a1 :ile outside ?is floats ! r+ due to radium ,c4 ,c]ta9 v>iations ( ^! effects may occur1 m>k+1 app>5tly1 diff]5t /ages ( exposure4 ,plates ,,xxiii & ,,xxiv 7upp] figure7 illu/rate "s ( ^! /ages2 #bbh ! latt] photograph be+ greatly enl>g$ to %[ cle>ly ! halo-sph]e ( radium ,a4 ,9 mo/ ( ! cases m5tion$ above ! /ructure evid5tly %[s ! exi/5ce ( conc5tric sph]ical %ells ( d>k5$ biotite4 ,?is is a v int]e/+ fact4 ,= x proves t 9 ! m9]al ! alpha ray gives rise to ! same increas$ ionisation t[>ds ! end ( its range1 z ,bragg det]m9$ 9 ! case ( gases4 ,& we mu/ conclude t ! halo 9 e case gr[s 9 ?is mann]4 ,a sph]ical %ell ( d>k5$ biotite is fir/ produc$ & ! inn] col\ration is only effect$ z ! m feeble ionisation along ! track ( ! ray 9 c\rse ( ages gives rise to suffici5t alt]ation ( ! m9]al4 ,?is m feeble ionisation is1 ne> ! nucleus1 enhanc$ 9 its effects by ! fact t !re all ! rays comb9e to increase ! ionisation &1 moreov]1 ! sev]al tracks are !re cr[d$ by ! conv]g5cy to ! c5tre4 ,h5ce ! mo/ elem5t>y haloes seldom %[ def9ite r+s due to uranium1 etc41 b appe> z embryonic disc-l m>k+s4 ,! photographs illu/rate _m ( ! phases ( halo developm5t4 ,ru!r=d succe$$ 9 mak+ a halo artificially by compress+ into a capill>y glass tube a quantity ( ! emanation ( radium4 ,z ! emanation decay$ ! v>i\s d]iv$ products came into exi/5ce & all ! sev]al alpha rays p5etrat$ ! glass1 d>k5+ ! walls ( ! capill>y out to ! limit ( ! range ( radium ,c 9 glass4 ,plate ,,xxv %[s a magnifi$ section ( ! #bbi tube4 ,! d>k c5tral "p is ! capill>y4 ,! tubul> halo surr\nds x4 ,?is exp]im5t has1 h[ev]1 be5 anticipat$ by "s scores ( millions ( ye>s1 = "h is ! same effect 9 a biotite cry/al 7,pl4 ,,xxv74 ,along :at are app>5tly tubul> passages or cracks 9 ! mica1 a solution1 ri* 9 radioactive sub/ances1 has mov$2 probably dur+ ! f9al consolidation ( ! granite 9 :i* ! mica occurs4 ,a cont9u\s & v regul> halo has develop$ along ^! conduits4 ,a /r+ ( halo-sph]es may lie along su* passages4 ,we mu/ inf] t solutions or gases able to e/abli% ! radioactive nuclei mov$ along ^! conduits1 & we are entitl$ to ask if all ! haloes 9 ?is biotite are n1 9 ?is s5se1 ( second>y orig94 ,!re is1 ,i may add1 mu* to support su* a conclusion4 ,! widespread di/ribution ( radioactive sub/ances is mo/ readily appreciat$ by exam9ation ( sections ( rocks cut ?9 en\gh = microscopic inve/igation4 ,x is1 inde$1 difficult to f9d1 9 ! old] rocks ( granitic type1 mica :i* does n %[ haloes1 or traces ( haloes4 ,(t5 we f9d t e "o ( ! inclusions 9 ! mica--t is1 e "o ( ! e>li] =m$ sub/ances--conta9 radioactive elem5ts1 z indicat$ by ! pres5ce ( d>k5$ bord]s4 ,z w be se5 pres5tly ! quantities involv$ are g5]ally vani%+ly small4 ,= example x 0 f\nd by direct det]m9ation t 9 "o gram ( ! halo-ri* mica ( ,co4 ,c>l[ !re 0 r less ?an twelve billion?s ( a gram ( radium1 ,we are #bcj entitl$ to inf] t o!r r>e elem5ts are simil>ly widely di/ribut$ b rema9 undetectable because ( _! m /able prop]ties4 ,x mu/ n be ?\ght t ! "u-expos$ halo is a rec5t creation4 ,by no means4 ,all are old1 appall+ly old2 & 9 ! same rock all are1 probably1 ( ! same1 or neatly ! same1 age4 ,! "u-exposure is simply due to a less] quantity ( ! radioactive elem5ts 9 ! nucleus4 ,!y are "u-expos$1 9 %ort1 n because ( less] duration ( exposure1 b because ( insuffici5t action2 z :5 9 tak+ a photograph ! /op is n op5 en\gh = ! "t ( ! exposure4 ,! halo has1 s f>1 told u t ! additive law is obey$ 9 solid m$ia1 & t ! increas$ ionisation att5d+ ! sl[+ d[n ( ! ray obta9+ 9 gases1 also obta9s 9 solids2 =1 o!rwise1 ! halo w\ld n comm5ce its developm5t z a sph]ical %ell or envelope4 ,b "h we le>n t !re is probably a c]ta9 diff]5ce 9 ! c\rse ( ev5ts att5d+ ! imm$iate passage ( ! ray 9 ! gas & 9 ! solid4 ,9 ! =m]1 initial recomb9ation may obscure ! int5se ionisation ne> ! end ( ! range4 ,we c only detect ! true end-effects by artificially sep>at+ ! ions by a /rong electric =ce4 ,if ?is recomb9ation happ5$ 9 ! m9]al we %\ld n h ! conc5tric sph]es s well def9$ z we see !m to be4 ,:at1 !n1 h9d]s ! initial recomb9ation 9 ! solid8 ,! answ] probably is t ! newly =m$ #bca ion is in/antly us$ up 9 a fre% *emical comb9ation4 ,nor is x free to *ange its place z 9 ! gas4 ,!re is simply a new equilibrium br\ght ab\t by its sudd5 production4 ,9 ?is mann] ! conditions 9 ! complex molecule ( biotite1 t\rmal9e1 etc41 may be q z effective 9 prev5t+ initial recomb9ation z ! mo/ effective electric =ce we c\ld apply4 ,! f9al result is t we f9d ! ,bragg curve reproduc$ mo/ accurately 9 ! delicate %ad+ ( ! r+s mak+ up ! p]fectly expos$ halo4 ,t ! %ad+ ( ! r+s reproduces ! =m ( ! ,bragg curve1 project$1 z x 71 ^u ! l9e ( advance ( ! ray & reproduc$ 9 dep? ( %ad+1 %[s t 9 yet ano!r p>ticul> ! alpha ray behaves mu* ! same 9 ! solid z 9 ! gas4 ,a c>eful exam9ation ( ! out] edge ( ! circles always reveals a /eep b n abrupt cessation ( ! action ( ! ray4 ,n[ ,geig] has inve/igat$ & prov$ ! exi/5ce ( scatt]+ ( ! alpha ray by solids4 ,we may1 !re=e1 suppose ) mu* probability t !re is ! same scatt]+ )9 ! m9]al ne> ! end ( ! range4 ,! heavy iron atom ( ! biotite is1 d\btless1 *iefly responsible = ?is 9 biotite haloes4 ,i may obs]ve t ?is %ad+ ( ! out] b\nd+ surface ( ! sph]e ( action is f\nd h[ev] m9ute ! c5tral nucleus4 ,9 ! case ( a nucleus ( consid]able size ano!r effect comes 9 :i* t5ds to produce an enhanc$ %ad+4 ,?is w #bcb result if rays proce$ f diff]5t dep?s 9 ! nucleus4 ,if ! nucleus 7 ( ! same d5sity & atomic weight z ! surr\nd+ mica1 !re w\ld be little effect4 ,b its d5sity & molecul> weight are g5]ally great]1 h5ce ! ret>dation is great]1 & rays proce$+ f deep 9 ! nucleus exp]i5ce m ret>dation ?an ^? :i* proce$ f po9ts ne> to ! surface4 ,! di/ances rea*$ by ! rays 9 ! mica w v>y accord+ly1 & s !re w be a gradual cessation ( ! effects ( ! rays4 ,! result ( our /udy ( ! halo may be summ$ up 9 ! /atem5t t 9 ne>ly e p>ticul> we h ! ph5om5a1 :i* h be5 measur$ & obs]v$ 9 ! gas1 reproduc$ on a m9ute scale 9 ! halo4 ,initial recomb9ation seems1 h[ev]1 to be abs5t or dim9i%$ 9 effectiv5ess2 probably because ( ! new /ability in/antly assum$ by ! ionis$ atoms4 ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ po9ts ab\t ! halo rema9s to be ref]r$ to4 ,! halo is always uni=mly d>k5$ all r\nd its circumf]5ce & is p]fectly sph]ical4 ,sections1 :e!r tak5 9 ! plane ( cleavage ( ! mica or across x1 %[ ! same exactly circul> =m1 & ! same radius4 ,( c\rse1 if !re 0 any appreciable increase ( range along or across ! cleavage ! =m ( ! halo on ! section across ! cleavage %\ld be elliptical4 ,! fact t !re is no measurable ellipticity is1 ,i ?9k1 "o :i* on fir/ consid]ation w\ld n be expect$4 #bcc ,= :at are ! conditions att5d+ ! passage ( ! ray 9 a m$ium su* z mica8 ,accord+ to cry/allographic conceptions we h "h an ord]ly arrangem5t ( molecules1 ! units compos+ ! cry/al be+ alike 9 mass1 geometrically spac$1 & pol>is$ z reg>ds ! attractions !y ex]t "o ^u ano!r4 ,mica1 m especially1 has ! cleavage ph5om5on develop$ to a degree :i* transc5ds its developm5t 9 any o!r kn[n sub/ance4 ,we c cleave x & aga9 cleave x till its flakes float 9 ! air1 & we may yet g on cleav+ x by special means till ! flakes no long] reflect visible light4 ,& n less rem>kable is ! uniplan> nature ( its cleavage4 ,!re is little cleavage 9 any plane b ! "o1 al?\gh x is easy to %[ t ! molecules 9 ! plane ( ! flake are 9 ord]ly arrangem5t & are m easily p>t$ 9 "s directions ?an 9 o!rs4 ,9 su* a m$ium beyond all o!rs we mu/ look ) surprise ^u ! p]fect sph]e /ruck out by ! alpha rays1 because x seems c]ta9 t ! cleavage is due to less] attraction1 &1 probably1 fur!r spac+ ( ! molecules1 9 a direction p]p5dicul> to ! cleavage4 ,x may turn out t ! spac+ ( ! molecules w influ5ce b little ! av]age numb] p] unit di/ance enc\nt]$ by rays mov+ 9 div]g5t pa?s4 ,if ?is is s1 we seem left to conclude t1 9 spite ( its unequal & pol>is$ attractions1 !re is equal ret>dation & equal ionisation 9 ! molecule 9 :atev] #bcd direction x is approa*$4 ,or1 aga91 if ! enc\nt]s inde$ diff] 9 numb]1 !n "s comp5sat+ effect mu/ exi/ :]eby a direction ( less] l9e> d5sity involves great] /opp+ p[] 9 ! molecule enc\nt]$1 & vice v]sa4 ,! nature ( ! *ange produc$ by ! alpha rays is unkn[n4 ,b ! =mation ( ! halo is n1 at lea/ 9 its e>li] /ages1 att5d$ by de/ruction ( ! cry/allographic & optical prop]ties ( ! m$ium4 ,! optical prop]ties are unalt]$ 9 nature b are increas$ 9 int5sity4 ,?is applies till ! halo has become s d>k5$ t light is no long] transmitt$ "u ! conditions ( ?ickness obta9+ 9 rock sections4 ,x is well kn[n t !re is 9 biotite a maximum absorption ( a plane-pol>is$ light ray1 :5 ! plane ( vibration co9cides ) ! plane ( cleavage4 ,a section across ! cleavage !n %[s a maximum am\nt ( absorption4 ,a halo se5 on ?is section simply produces ?is effect 9 a m int5se degree4 ,?is is well %[n 9 ,plate ,,xxiii 7l[] figure71 on a portion ( ! halo-sph]e4 ,! descriptive "n ,pleo*roic ,halo has orig9at$ f ?is fact4 ,we mu/ conclude t ! effect ( ! ionisation due to ! alpha ray has n be5 to alt] fundam5tally ! conditions :i* give rise to ! optical prop]ties ( ! m$ium4 ,! increas$ absorption is probably associat$ ) "s *ange 9 ! *emical /ate ( ! iron pres5t4 ,haloes are1 ,i believe1 n f\nd 9 m9]als f :i* ?is #bce elem5t is abs5t4 ,"o ?+ is q c]ta94 ,! col\ration is n due to an accumulation ( helium atoms1 i4e4 ( sp5t alpha rays4 ,! evid5ce = ?is is conclusive4 ,if helium 0 responsible we %\ld h haloes produc$ 9 all sorts ( col\rless m9]als4 ,n[ we sometimes see zircons 9 felsp>s & 9 qu>tz1 etc41 b 9 no su* case is a halo produc$4 ,& halo-sph]es =m$ )9 & suffici5tly close to ! edge ( a cry/al ( mica are abruptly truncat$ by neighb\r+ areas ( fclsp> or qu>tz1 al?\gh we "k t ! rays mu/ pass freely across ! b\nd>y4 ,aga9 x is easy to %[ t ev5 9 ! olde/ haloes ! quantity ( helium involv$ is s small t "o might say ! halo-sph]e 0 a tol]ably good vacuum z reg>ds helium4 ,!re is1 f9ally1 no reason to suppose t ! imprison$ helium w\ld exhibit su* a col\ration1 or1 inde$1 any at all4 ,i h already ref]r$ to ! great age ( ! halo4 ,haloes are n f\nd 9 ! y\ng] igne\s rocks4 ,x is probable t a halo less ?an a million ye>s old has nev] be5 se54 ,?is1 prim facie1 indicates an extremely sl[ rate ( =mation4 ,& our calculations q support ! conclusions t ! gr[? ( a halo1 if ?is has be5 uni=m1 proce$s at a rate ( almo/ unimag9able sl[ness4 ,let u calculate ! numb] ( alpha rays :i* may h gone to =m a halo 9 ! ,devonian granite ( ,le9/]4 #bcf ,x is common to f9d haloes develop$ p]fectly 9 ?is granite1 & hav+ a nucleus ( zircon less ?an #e x #aj-d cms4 9 diamet]4 ,! volume ( zircon is #fe x #aj-ab c4cs4 & ! mass #c x #aj-aj grm42 & if !re 0 9 ?is zircon #aj-h grm4 radium p] gram 7a quantity ab\t five times ! greate/ am\nt measur$ by ,/rutt71 ! mass ( radium involv$ is #c x #aj-ah grm4 ,f ?is & f ! fact asc]ta9$ by ,ru!r=d t ! numb] ( alpha rays expell$ by a gram ( radium 9 "o second is #c4d x #ajaj1 we f9d t ?ree rays are %ot f ! nucleus 9 a ye>4 ,if1 n[1 geological "t s9ce ! ,devonian is #ej millions ( ye>s1 !n #aej millions ( rays built up ! halo4 ,if geological "t s9ce ! ,devonian is #djj millions ( ye>s1 !n #a1bjj millions ( alpha rays are conc]n$ 9 its g5esis4 ,! numb] ( ions involv$1 ( c\rse1 greatly exce$s ^! numb]s4 ,a s+le alpha ray fir$ f radium ,c w produce #b4cg x #aje ions 9 air4 ,b haloes may be f\nd q cle>ly def9$ & fairly d>k out to ! range ( ! emanation ray & d]iv$ f mu* less quantities ( radioactive mat]ials4 ,?us a zircon nucleus ) a diamet] ( b #c4d x #aj-d cms4 =m$ a halo /rongly d>k5$ )91 & %[+ radium ,a & radium ,c z cle> smoky r+s4 ,su* a nucleus1 on ! assumption made above z to its radium cont5t1 expels "o ray 9 a ye>4 ,b1 aga91 haloes are obs]v$ ) less black5$ pupils & ) fa9t r+ due to radium ,c1 =m$ r\nd nuclei #bcg ( r less ?an #b x #aj-d cms4 diamet]4 ,su* nuclei w\ld expel "o ray 9 five ye>s4 ,& ev5 less] nuclei w g5]ate 9 ^! old rocks haloes ) _! e>li] *>act]i/ic features cle>ly develop$4 ,9 ! case ( ! mo/ m9ute nuclei1 if my assumption z to ! uranium cont5t is correct1 an alpha ray is expell$1 probably1 no (t5] ?an once 9 a c5tury2 & possibly at /ill long] int]vals4 ,! equilibrium am\nt ( radium conta9$ 9 "s nuclei may am\nt to only a few atoms4 ,ev5 9 ! case ( ! l>g] nuclei & m p]fectly develop$ haloes ! quantity ( radium involv$ is _m millions ( times less ?an ! lea/ am\nt we c recognise by any o!r means4 ,b ! delicacy ( ! obs]vation is n adequately set =? 9 ?is /atem5t4 ,we c n only tell ! nature ( ! radioactive family ) :i* we are deal+2 b we c recognise ! pres5ce ( "s ( its con/itu5t memb]s4 ,i may say t x is n probable ! zircons are ri*] 9 radium ?an ,i h assum$4 ,my assumption involves ab\t #c p] c5t4 ( uranium4 ,i "k ( no analyses ascrib+ s great an am\nt ( uranium to zircon4 ,! v>iety cyrtolite has be5 f\nd to conta9 half ?is am\nt1 ab\t4 ,b ev5 if we d\bl$ our e/imate ( radium cont5t1 ! rem>kable nature ( our conclusions is h>dly less5$4 ,x may appe> /range t ! ev]-int]e/+ "q ( ! ,e>?'s age %\ld f9d elucidation f ! #bch /udy ( haloes4 ,nev]!less ! subjects are closely connect$4 ,! circum/ances are z foll[s4 ,geologi/s h e/imat$ ! age ( ! ,e>? s9ce d5udation began1 by measurem5ts ( ! integral effects ( d5udation4 ,^! me?ods agree 9 %[+ an age ( ab\t rob ye>s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 measurem5ts h be5 made ( ! accumulation 9 m9]als ( radioactive dbris--! helium & lead--& results obta9$ :i*1 al?\gh !y d n agree v well among !mselves1 are concordant 9 assign+ a v mu* great] age to ! rocks4 ,if ! radioactive e/imate is correct1 !n we are n[ liv+ 9 a "t :5 ! d5udative =ces ( ! ,e>? are ab\t eight or n9e times z active z !y h be5 on ! av]age ov] ! pa/4 ,su* a /ate ( ?+s is absolutely unacc\ntable4 ,& all ! m unacc\ntable because f all we "k we w\ld expect a some:at less] rate ( solv5t d5udation z ! _w gets old] & ! l& gets m & m load$ ) ! wa%$-out mat]ials ( ! rocks4 ,bo? ! me?ods ref]r$ to ( f9d+ ! age assume ! pr9ciple ( uni=mity4 ,! geologi/ cont5ds = uni=mity ?r\gh\t ! pa/ physical hi/ory ( ! ,e>?4 ,! physici/ claims ! l = ! *ange-rates ( ! radioactive elem5ts4 ,n[ ! /udy ( ! rocks enables u to inf] some?+ z to ! pa/ hi/ory ( our ,globe4 ,no?+ is1 on ! o!r h&1 kn[n respect+ ! orig9 ( uranium or ?orium--! p>5t radioactive bodies4 ,& :ile n que/ion+ ! law #bci & regul>ity :i* und\bt$ly prevail 9 ! p]iods ( ! memb]s ( ! radioactive families1 x appe>s to me t x is all[able to ask if ! *ange rate ( uranium has be5 always :at we n[ believe x to be4 ,?is comes to mu* ! same ?+ z suppos+ t atoms possess+ a fa/] *ange rate once 7 associat$ ) x :i* 7 capable ( yield+ bo? helium & lead to ! rocks4 ,su* atoms might h be5 collat]al 9 orig9 ) uranium f "s antec$5t elem5t4 ,l helium1 lead may be a d]ivative f m ?an "o sequ5ce ( radioactive *anges4 ,9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k ! possibilities are _m4 ,! rate ( *ange is kn[n to be connect$ ) ! range ( ! alpha ray expell$ by ! trans=m+ elem5t2 & ! con=mity ( ! halo ) our exi/+ k ( ! ranges is reason = assum+ t1 :atev] ! orig9 ( ! m active associate ( uranium1 ?is pass$ ?r\gh simil> elem5tal *anges 9 ! progress ( its dis9tegration4 ,!re may1 h[ev]1 h be5 diff]5ces 9 ! ranges :i* ! halo w\ld n reveal4 ,x is rem>kable t uranium at ! pres5t "t is app>5tly responsible = two alpha rays ( v diff]5t ranges4 ,if ^! proce$ f diff]5t elem5ts1 "o %\ld be fa/] 9 its *ange rate ?an ! o!r4 ,"s guidance may yet be =?com+ f ! /udy ( ! m obscure problems ( radioactivity4 ,n[ x is n improbable t ! halo may contribute directly to ?is discussion4 ,we c evid5tly attack #bdj ! biotite ) a kn[n numb] ( alpha rays & det]m9e h[ _m are requir$ to produce a c]ta9 int5sity ( d>k5+1 correspond+ to t ( a halo ) a nucleus ( measurable dim5sions4 ,on c]ta9 assumptions1 :i* are correct )9 def9$ limits1 we c calculate1 z ,i h done above1 ! numb] ( rays conc]n$ 9 =m+ ! halo4 ,9 do+ s we assume "s value = ! age ( ! halo4 ,let u take ! maximum radioactive value4 ,a halo orig9at+ 9 ,devonian times may atta9 a c]ta9 c5tral black5+ f ! effects (1 say1 rob rays4 ,b n[ suppose we f9d t we _c produce ! same degree ( black5+ ) ?is numb] ( rays appli$ 9 ! laboratory4 ,:at are we to conclude8 ,i ?9k !re is only ! "o conclusion op5 to u2 t "s o!r s\rce ( alpha rays1 or a fa/] rate ( supply1 exi/$ 9 ! pa/4 ,& ?is conclusion w\ld expla9 ! abs5ce ( haloes f ! y\ng] rocks2 :i*1 9 view ( ! va/ range ( effects possible 9 ! developm5t ( haloes1 is1 o!rwise1 n easy to acc\nt =4 ,x is app>5t t ! exp]im5t on ! biotite has a direct be>+ on ! validity ( ! radioactive me?od ( e/imat+ ! age ( ! rocks4 ,x is n[ be+ c>ri$ out by ,pr(essor ,ru!r=d "u reliable conditions4 ,f9ally1 !re is "o v c]ta9 & valuable fact to be le>n$ f ! halo4 ,! halo has e/abli%$ ! extreme r>ity ( radioactivity z an atomic ph5om5on4 ,"o & all ( ! speculations z to #bda ! sl[ breakd[n ( ! common] elem5ts may be dismiss$4 ,! halo %[s t ! mica ( ! rocks is radioactively s5sitive4 ,! fundam5tal crit]ion ( radioactive *ange is ! expulsion ( ! alpha ray4 ,! molecul> sy/em ( ! mica & ( _m o!r m9]als is un/able 9 pres5ce ( ^! rays1 j z a photographic plate is un/able 9 pres5ce ( light4 ,moreov]1 ! m9]al integrates ! radioactive effects 9 ! same way z a photographic salt integrates ! effects ( light4 ,9 bo? cases ! feeble/ activities become ultimately app>5t to our inspection4 ,we h se5 t "o ray 9 ea* ye> s9ce ! ,devonian p]iod w build ! fully =m$ halo3 an object unlike any o!r appe>ance 9 ! rocks4 ,& we h be5 able to allocate all ! haloes s f> inve/igat$ to "o or ! o!r ( ! kn[n radioactive families4 ,we are evid5tly ju/ifi$ 9 ! belief t _h o!r elem5ts be5 radioactive we mu/ ei!r f9d *>act]i/ic haloes produc$ by !m1 or else f9d a complete d>k5+ ( ! mica4 ,! feeble/ alpha rays emitt$ by ! relatively enorm\s quantities ( ! prevail+ elem5ts1 act+ ov] ! :ole duration ( geological "t--& x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! haloes we h be5 /udy+ are comp>atively "y--mu/ h regi/]$ _! effects on ! s5sitive m9]als4 ,& ?us we are safe 9 conclud+ t ! common elem5ts1 &1 inde$1 _m :i* w\ld be call$ r>e1 are possess$ ( a degree ( /ability :i* has pres]v$ !m un #bdb *ang$ s9ce ! beg9n+ ( geological "t4 ,ea* unaffect$ flake ( mica is1 ?us1 unassailable pro( ( a fact :i* b = ! halo w\ld1 probably1 h be5 = ev] beyond our cognisance4 ,,! ,,use ,,( ,,radium ,,9 ,,m$ic9e #a ,,x has be5 un=tunate = ! progress ( ! radioactive treatm5t ( disease t its me?ods & claims involve mu* ( ! m>vell\s4 ,up till rec5tly1 inde$1 a l>ge "p ( radioactive !rapeutics c\ld only be describ$ z bord]+ on ! occult4 ,x is n surpris+ t :51 9 addition to its occult & m>vell\s *>act]s1 claims 7 made on its behalf :i* 9 _m cases c\ld n be support$1 _m m$ical m5 came to reg>d x ) a c]ta9 am\nt ( suspicion4 ,today1 ,i believe1 we are 9 a bett] position4 ,i ?9k x is possible to ascribe a rational sci5tific basis to its legitimate claims1 & to %[1 9 fact1 t 9 radioactive treatm5t we are pursu+ me?ods :i* h be5 already tri$ ext5sively & f\nd to be ( def9ite value2 & t new me?ods diff] f ! old ma9ly 9 _! p[] & availability1 & little1 or n at all1 9 k9d4 ,let u briefly review ! basis ( ! sci5ce4 ,radium is a metallic elem5t *emically resembl+ b>ium4 ,x #a ,a ,lecture to ,po/graduate ,/ud5ts ( ,m$ic9e 9 connection ) ! f\nd+ ( ! ,dubl9 ,radium ,in/itute1 deliv]$ 9 ! ,s*ool ( ,physic 9 ,irel&1 ,tr9ity ,college1 on ,octob] #bnd1 #aiad #bdd possesses1 h[ev]1 a rem>kable prop]ty :i* b>ium does n4 ,its atoms are n equally /able4 ,9 a giv5 quantity ( radium a c]ta9 v small p]c5tage ( ! total numb] ( atoms pres5t break up p] second4 ,by break+ up we mean _! transmutation to ano!r elem5t4 ,radium1 :i* is a solid elem5t "u ord9>y conditions1 gives rise by transmutation to a gase\s elem5t--! emanation ( radium4 ,! new elem5t is a heavy gas at ord9>y temp]atures &1 l o!r gases1 c be liquifi$ by extreme cold4 ,! extraord9>y prop]ty ( transmutation is entirely automatic4 ,no influ5ce :i* *emi/ or physici/ c apply c affect ! rate ( trans=mation4 ,! emanation inh]its ! prop]ty ( in/ability1 b 9 its case ! in/ability is m pron\nc$4 ,a relatively l>ge fraction ( its atoms transmute p] second to a solid elem5t designat$ ,radium ,a4 ,9 turn ?is new g5]ation ( atoms breaks up--ev5 fa/] ?an ! emanation--becom+ yet ano!r elem5t ) specific *emical prop]ties4 ,& s on = a :ole sequ5ce ( transmutations1 till f9ally a /able sub/ance is =m$1 id5tical ) ord9>y lead 9 *emical & physical prop]ties1 b possess+ a slightly l[] atomic weight4 ,! g5ealogy ( ! radium s]ies ( elem5ts %[s t radium is n ! />t+ po9t4 ,x possesses ance/ors :i* h be5 trac$ back to ! elem5t uranium4 ,n[ :at be>+ has ?is s]ies ( transmutations #bde ^u m$ical sci5ce8 ,radium or emanation1 c41 are n 9 ! ,ph>macopoeia z are1 say1 ars5ic or bismu?4 ,! :ole m$ic9al value ( ^! elem5ts resides 9 ! v wond]ful ph5om5a ( _! radiations4 ,!y radiate 9 ! process ( transmut+4 ,! *ang+ atom may radiate a "p ( its own mass4 ,! alpha-ray 7a-ray7 is su* a mat]ial ray4 ,x is an electrifi$ helium atom ca/ out ( ! p>5t atom ) enorm\s velocity--su* a velocity z w\ld c>ry x1 if n imp$$1 all r\nd ! e>? 9 two seconds4 ,all alpha-rays are positively electrifi$ atoms ( ! elem5t helium1 :i* !reby is %[n to be an integral con/itu5t ( _m elem5ts4 ,! alpha-ray is n ( mu* value to m$ical sci5ce1 =1 9 spite ( its great velocity1 x is soon /opp$ by enc\nt] ) o!r atoms4 ,x c p5etrate only a m9ute fraction ( a millimetre into ord9>y s(t tissues4 ,we %all n fur!r consid] x4 ,transmut+ atoms give out also mat]ial rays ( ano!r k9d3 ! -rays4 ,! -ray is 9 mass b a v small fraction (1 ev51 a hydrog5 atom4 ,its spe$ may approa* t ( light4 ,z ca/ out by radioactive elem5ts x />ts ) spe$s :i* v>y ) ! elem5t1 & may be f "o-?ird to n9e-t5?s ! velocity ( light4 ,! -ray is negatively electrifi$4 ,x has long be5 kn[n to sci5ce z ! electron4 ,x is also id5tical ) ! ca?ode ray ( ! vacuum tube4 #bdf ,ano!r & q diff]5t k9d ( radiation is giv5 out by _m ( ! transmut+ elem5ts3--! y-ray4 ,?is is n mat]ial1 x is e!real4 ,x is kn[n n[ ) c]ta9ty t ! y-ray is 9 k9d id5tical ) light1 b ( v mu* %ort] wave l5g? ?an ev5 ! extreme ultraviolet light ( ! sol> spectrum4 ,! y-ray is fla%$ f ! transmut+ atom along ) ! -ray4 ,x is id5tical 9 "* ) ! x-ray b ( ev5 %ort] wave l5g?4 ,!re is a v int]e/+ connection betwe5 ! y-ray & ! -ray :i* x is important = ! m$ical man to und]/&--z f> z x is practicable on our pres5t k4 ,:5 y-rays or x-rays fall on matt] !y give rise to -rays4 ,! me*anism involv$ is n kn[n b x is possibly a result ( ! resonance ( ! atom1 or ( p>ts ( x1 to ! %ort light waves4 ,& x is rem>kable t ! y-rays :i*1 z we h se51 are %ort] & m p5etrat+ waves ?an ! x-rays1 give rise to -rays possess$ ( great] velocity & p5etration ?an -rays excit$ by ! x-rays4 ,inde$ ! -rays orig9at$ by y-rays may atta9 a velocity ne>ly approa*+ t ( light & z great z t ( any -rays emitt$ by transmut+ atoms4 ,aga9 !re is demon/rable evid5ce t -rays imp++ on matt] may give rise to y-rays4 ,! mo/ rem>kable demon/ration ( ?is is se5 9 ! x-ray tube4 ,"h ! x-rays orig9ate :]e ! /ream ( - or ca?ode-rays #bdg are arre/$ on ! anode4 ,b ! fir/ relation is at pres5t ( mo/ importance to u--i4e4 t ! y-or x-rays give rise to -rays4 ,?is relation gives u additional evid5ce ( ! id5tity ( ! physical effects ( y-1 x-1 & light-rays --us+ ! t]m light rays 9 ! usual s5se ( spectral rays4 ,= x has long be5 kn[n t light waves lib]ate electrons f atoms4 ,x has be5 f\nd t ^! electrons possess a c]ta9 initial velocity :i* is ! great] ! %ort] ! wave l5g? ( ! light conc]n$ 9 _! lib]ation4 ,! :ole sci5ce ( photo-electricity c5tres r\nd ?is ph5om5on4 ,! action ( light on ! photographic plate1 z well z _m o!r physical & *emical ph5om5a1 f9d an explanation 9 ?is lib]ation ( ! electron by ! light wave4 ,"h1 !n1 we h spectral light waves lib]at+ electrons--i4e4 v m9ute negatively-*>g$ p>ticles1 & we f9d t1 z we use %ort] light waves1 ! initial velocity ( ^! p>ticles increases4 ,aga91 we h x-rays :i* are f> small] 9 wave l5g? ?an spectral light1 lib]at+ mu* fa/] negatively electrifi$ p>ticles4 ,f9ally1 we h y-rays--! %orte/ ne!r waves ( all-lib]at+ negative p>ticles ( ! highe/ velocity kn[n4 ,pla9ly ! :ole s]ies ( ph5om5a is cont9u\s4 ,we c n[ look clos] at ! actions involv$ 9 ! !rapeutic influ5ce ( ! sev]al rays & 9 #bdh ?is way1 also1 see fur!r ! correlation betwe5 :at may be call$ photo-!rapeutics & radioactive !rapeutics4 ,! -ray1 :e!r we obta9 x directly f ! trans=m+ radioactive atom or :e!r we obta9 x z a result ( ! effects ( ! y- or x-rays ^u ! atom1 is an ionis+ ag5t ( wond]ful p[]4 ,:at is meant by ?is8 ,9 its physical aspect ?is means t ! atoms ?r\gh :i* x passes acquire free electric *>ges2 "s becom+ positive1 "s negative4 ,?is c only be due to ! loss ( an electron by ! affect$ atom4 ,! loss ( ! small negative *>ge c>ri$ 9 ! electron leaves ! atom positively electrifi$ or creates a positive ion4 ,! fix+ ( ! w&]+ electron to a neutral atom creates a negative ion4 ,be=e fur!r consid]ation ( ! importance ( ! ph5om5on ( ionisation we mu/ fix 9 our m9ds t ! ag5t1 :i* br+s ?is ab\t1 is ! -ray4 ,!re is little evid5ce t ! y-ray c directly create ions to any l>ge ext5t4 ,b ! action ( lib]at+ high-spe$ -rays results 9 ! creation ( _m ?\s&s ( ions by ea* -ray lib]at$4 ,z an ag5t 9 ! h&s ( ! m$ical man we mu/ reg>d ! y-ray z a light wave ( extremely p5etrat+ "*1 :i* creates high-spe$ -rays 9 ! tissues :i* x p5etrates1 ^! -rays be+ mo/ pot5t ionis+ ag5ts4 ,! -rays directly obta9$ f radioactive atoms assi/ 9 ! "w ( ionisation4 -rays d n #bdi p5etrate f> f _! s\rce4 ,! fa/e/ ( !m w\ld n probably p5etrate "o c5timetre 9 s(t tissues4 ,we mu/ n[ return to ! ph5om5on ( ionisation4 ,ionisation is reveal$ to obs]vation mo/ conspicu\sly :5 x takes place 9 a gas4 ,! & - electric *>ges on ! gas p>ticles end[ x ) ! prop]ties ( a conductor ( electricity1 ! ions mov+ freely 9 "o direction & ! - ions 9 ! opposite direction "u an electric pot5tial4 ,b !re are effects br\ght ab\t by ionisation ( m importance to ! m$ical man ?an ?is4 ,! *emi/ has long come to recognise t 9 ! ion he is conc]n$ ) ! inn] me*anism ( a l>ge numb] ( *emical ph5om5a4 ,= ) ! electrification ( ! atom attractive & repulsive =ces arise4 ,we c directly %[ ! *emical effects ( ! ionis+ -rays4 ,wat] expos$ to _! bomb>dm5t splits up into hydrog5 & oxyg54 ,&1 aga91 ! sep>at$ atoms may be 9 "p recomb9$ "u ! influ5ce ( ! radiation4 ,ammonia splits up into hydrog5 & nitrog54 ,c>bon dioxide =ms c>bon1 c>bon monoxide1 & oxyg52 hydro*loric acid =ms *lor9e & hydrog54 ,9 ^! cases1 also1 recomb9ation c be p>tially effect$ by ! rays4 ,we c be q sure t )9 ! complex /ructure ( ! liv+ cell ! ionis+ effects :i* ev]y:]e accompany ! -rays mu/ ex]t a pr(\nd influ5ce4 ,! sequ5ce ( *emical ev5ts :i* z yet seem #bej beyond ! k5 ( sci5ce & :i* are involv$ 9 metabolism _c fail to be affect$4 ,any1 x is n surpris+ t z ! result ( eap]9i5t x is f\nd t ! radiations are ag5ts :i* may be us$ ei!r = ! /imulation ( ! natural ev5ts ( gr[? or us$ = ! actual de/ruction ( ! cell4 ,x is easy to see t ! feeble radiation %\ld produce ! "o effect1 ! /rong ! o!r4 ,9 a simil> way by a mod]ate light /imulus we create ! lat5t image 9 ! photographic plate2 by an int5se light we aga9 de/roy ?is image4 ,! inn] me*anism 9 ?is la/ case c be logically /at$4#a ,!re is pla9ly a true physical basis "h = ! efficacy ( radioactive treatm5t &1 :at is m1 we f9d :5 we exam9e x1 t x is 9 k9d n diff]5t f t und]ly+ treatm5t by spectral radiations4 ,b 9 degree x is v diff]5t & "h is ! reason = ! special importance ( radioactivity z a !rapeutic ag5t4 ,! ,f9s5 light is capable ( influ5c+ ! s(t tissues to a %ort dep? only4 ,! reason is t ! wave l5g? ( ! light us$ is too great to pass )\t rapid absorption ?r\gh ! tissues2 &1 fur!r1 ! electrons x gives rise to--i4e4 ! -rays x lib]ates--are too sl[-mov+ to be v effici5t ionis]s4 ,x-rays p5etrate 9 "s cases q freely & give rise to mu* fa/] & m p[]ful -rays #a ,see ,! ,lat5t ,image1 p4 #bjb4 #bea ?an c ! ,f9s5 light4 ,b f> m p5etrat+ ?an x-rays are ! y-rays emitt$ 9 c]ta9 ( ! radioactive *anges4 ,^! give rise to -rays hav+ a velocity approximate to t ( light4 ,! y-rays are1 !re=e1 v p5etrat+ & p[]fully ionis+ light waves2 light waves :i* are q invisible to ! eye & c beam "r ?r\gh ! tissues ( ! body4 ,to ! m9d's eye only are !y visible4 ,& a v wond]ful picture !y make4 ,we see ! transmut+ atom fla%+ out ?is light = an inconceivably %ort in/ant z x ?r[s (f ! -ray4 ,& s f> ?is little c&le ?r[s 8 beams 9 ! complex sy/em ( ! cells1 s f> atoms %ak5 by ! rays s5d out -rays2 ^! 9 turn are hurl$ aga9/ o!r atomic sy/ems2 fre% sep>ations ( electrons arise & new attractions & repulsions spr+ up & ! mo/ important *emical *anges are br\ght ab\t4 ,our m5tal picture c claim to be no m ?an diagrammatic ( ! reality4 ,/ill we are "h deal+ ) recognis$ physical & *emical ph5om5a1 & _! description z occult 9 ! d]ogatory s5se is c]ta9ly n ju/ifiable4 ,hav+ n[ briefly review$ ! nature ( ! rays aris+ 9 radioactive sub/ances & ! rationale ( _! influ5ce1 we mu/ turn to m especially practical consid]ations4 ,! ,table giv5 opposite %[s t radium itself is responsible = a- & -rays only4 ,x happ5s t #beb ,p]iod 9 :ioh elem5t is trans=m$4 ,,uranium #a #b a #f x #aji ye>s4 ,,uranium ,x a #bd4f days4 ,,ionium a #h x #ajd ye>s4 ,,radium a #b x #ajb ye>s4 ,,emanation a #h4he days4 ,,radium ,a a #h m9utes4 ,,radium ,b y #bf4g m9utes4 ,,radium ,c a y #ac4e m9utes4 ,,radium ,d #ae ye>s4 ,,radium ,e y #d4h days4 ,,radium 7,polonium7 ,f a #adj days4 ,table %[+ ! successive g5]ations ( ! elem5ts ( ! ,uranium-radium family1 ! "* ( _! radiations & _! longevity4 #bec ! -rays emitt$ by radium are v s(t--i4e4 sl[ & easily absorb$4 ,! a-ray is 9 no case available = m ?an m]e surface application4 ,h5ce we see t1 contr>y to :at is g5]ally believ$1 radium itself is ( little direct !rapeutic value4 ,nor is ! next body 9 succession--! emanation1 = x gives only a-rays4 ,9 fact1 to be brief1 x is n till we come to ,radium ,b t -rays ( a relatively high p5etrative quality are rea*$2 & x is n till we come to ,radium ,c t highly p5etrative y-rays are obta9$4 ,x is ar\nd ?is elem5t1 ,radium ,c1 t ! *ief m$ical importance ( radioactive treatm5t by ?is family ( radioactive bodies c5tres4 ,n only are -rays ( ,radium ,c v p5etrat+1 b ! y-rays are p]haps ! mo/ en]getic rays ( !1 k9d kn[n4 ,fur!r 9 ! li/ !re is no v special m$ical int]e/4 ,n[1 h[ c we get a supply ( ?is valuable elem5t ,radium ,c8 ,we c obta9 x f radium itself4 ,= ev5 if radium has be5 depriv$ ( its emanation 7:i* is easily done by heat+ x or br++ x into solution7 9 a few weeks we get back ! ,radium ,c4 ,"o ?+ "h we mu/ be cle> ab\t4 ,) a giv5 quantity ( ,radium only a c]ta9 def9itely limit$ am\nt ( ,radium ,c1 or ( emanation1 or any o!r ( ! d]iv$ bodies1 w be associat$4 ,:y is ?is8 ,! answ] is because ! sev]al successive elem5ts are !mselves decay+ --i4e4 *ang+ "o into ! o!r4 ,! atomic p]- #bed c5tage ( ea*1 :i* decays 9 a second1 is a fix$ quantity :i* we _c alt]4 ,n[ if we picture radium :i* has be5 completely depriv$ ( its emanation1 aga9 accumulat+ by automatic transmutation a fre% /ore ( ?is elem5t1 we h to rememb]3-- 7i7 ,t ! rate ( creation ( emanation by ! radium is practically con/ant2 & 7#b7 t ! absolute am\nt ( ! emanation decay+ p] second increases z ! /ock ( emanation increases4 ,f9ally1 :5 ! am\nt ( accumulat$ emanation has increas$ to su* an ext5t t ! numb] ( emanation atoms transmut+ p] second becomes exactly equal to ! numb] be+ g5]at$ p] second1 ! am\nt ( emanation pres5t _c increase4 ,?is is call$ ! equilibrium am\nt4 ,if fifte5 memb]s are elect$ /eadily ea* ye> into a newly-f\nd$ society ! numb] ( memb]s w increase = ! fir/ few ye>s2 f9ally1 :5 ! losses by dea? ( ! memb]s equal ab\t fifte5 p] annum ! society c get no bigg]4 ,x has atta9$ ! equilibrium numb] ( memb]s4 ,?is applies to e "o ( ! successive elem5ts4 ,x takes tw5ty-"o days = ! equilibrium quantity ( emanation to be =m$ 9 radium :i* has be5 completely de-emanat$2 & x takes #c4h days = half ! equilibrium am\nt to be =m$4 ,aga91 if we />t ) a /ock ( emanation x takes j ?ree h\rs = ! equilibrium am\nt ( ,radium ,c to be =m$4 #bee ,we c evid5tly gr[ ,radium ,c ei!r f radium itself or f ! emanation ( radium4 ,if we use a tube ( radium we h an almo/ p]fectly con/ant quantity ( ,radium ,c pres5t1 = z fa/ z ! ,radium ,c & int]v5+ elem5ts decay ! ,radium1 :i* only dim9i%es v sl[ly 9 am\nt1 makes up ! loss4 ,b1 if we />t (f ) a tube ( emanation1 we d n possess a con/ant supply ( ,radium ,c1 because ! emanation is decay+ fairly rapidly & !re is no radium to make good its loss4 ,9 #c4h days ab\t "o half ! emanation is transmut$ & ! ,radium ,c decreases proportionately &1 ( c\rse1 ) ! ,radium ,c ! valuable radiations also decrease4 ,9 ano!r #c4h days--t is 9 ab\t a week f ! />t--! radioactive value ( ! tube has fall5 to "o-f\r? ( its orig9al value4 ,b 9 spite ( ! incon/ant "* ( ! emanation tube !re are _m reasons = pref]r+ its use to ! use ( ! radium tube4 ,*ief ( ^! is ! fact t we c keep ! preci\s radium safely lock$ up 9 ! laboratory & n expos$ to ! ?\s&-&-"o risks ( ! hospital4 ,!n1 secondly1 ! emanation1 be+ a gas1 is v conv5i5t = subdivision into a l>ge numb] ( v small tubes accord+ to ! dosage requir$4 ,9 fact ! volume ( ! emanation is exce$+ly m9ute4 ,! am\nt ( emanation 9 equilibrium ) "o gramme ( radium is call$ ! curie1 & ) "o #bef milligramme ! millicurie4 ,n[1 ! volume ( ! curie is only a little m ?an "o half a cubic millimetre4 ,h5ce 9 deal+ ) emanation f tw5ty or =ty milligrammes ( radium we are deal+ ) v small volumes4 ,h[ may ! emanation be obta9$8 ,! process is an easy "o 9 skill$ & practis$ h&s4 ,! salt ( radium--g5]ally ! bromide or *loride--is br\ght into acid solution4 ,?is causes ! emanation to be freely giv5 (f z fa/ z x is =m$4 ,at int]vals we pump x (f ) a m]cury pump4 ,let u see h[ _m millicuries we w 9 future be able to turn out 9 ! week 9 our new ,dubl9 ,radium ,in/itute4#a ,we %all h ab\t #acj milligrammes ( radium4 ,9 #c4h days we get #fe millicuries f ?is--i4e4 half ! equilibrium am\nt ( #acj millicuries4 ,h5ce 9 ! week1 we %all h ab\t #acj millicuries4 ,?is is n mu*4 ,_m exp]ts consid] ?is little en\gh = "o tube4 ,b "h 9 ,dubl9 we h be5 us+ ! emanation 9 a m economical & effective mann] ?an is ! usage else:]e2 accord+ to a me?od :i* has be5 work$ out & develop$ 9 our own ,radium ,in/itute4 ,! economy is obta9$ by ! v simple exp$i5t ( m9utely subdivid+ !' dose4 ,! sy/em 9 vogue1 g5]ally1 is to treat ! tum\r by ins]t+ into x "o or two v active #a ,!n rec5tly e/abli%$ by ! ,royal ,dubl9 ,society4 #beg tubes1 conta9+1 p]haps1 up to #bjj millicuries1 or ev5 m1 p] tube4 ,n[ ^! v heavily *>g$ tubes give a radiation s int5se at po9ts close to ! tube1 due to ! great] d5sity ( ! rays ne> ! tube1 &1 also1 to ! action ( ! s(t] & m easily absorbable rays1 t x has be5 f\nd necess>y to /op ^! s(t] rays--bo? ! y & --by wrapp+ lead or plat9um r\nd ! tube4 ,9 ?is lead or plat9um "s ?irty p] c5t4 or m ( ! rays is absorb$ &1 ( c\rse1 wa/$4 ,b 9 ! abs5ce ( ! scre5 !re is ext5sive necrosis ( ! tissues ne> ! tubes4 ,if1 h[ev]1 9 place ( "o or two su* tubes we use t5 or tw5ty1 ea* conta9+ "o-t5? or "o-tw5tie? ( ! dose1 we c avail ourselves ( ! s(t] rays ar\nd ea* tube ) b5efit4 ,?us a wa/eful loss is avoid$4 ,moreov] a m uni=m illum9ation ( ! tissues results1 j z we c illum9ate a hall m uni=mly by ! use ( _m less] c5tres ( light ?an by ! use ( "o int5se c5tre ( radiation4 ,also we get :at is call$ cross-radiation1:i* is f\nd to be b5eficial4 ,! surgeon kn[s f> bett] :at he is do+ by ?is me?od4 ,?us x may be arrang$ = ! effects to g on ) approximate uni=mity ?r\gh\t ! tum\r in/ead ( v>y+ rapidly ar\nd a c5tral po9t or--& ?is may be v important-- ! effects may be readily conc5trat$ locally4 ,f9ally1 n ! lea/ ( ! b5efit arises 9 ! easy te*nique ( ?is new me?od4 ,! quantities ( #beh emanation employ$ c fit 9 ! f9e/ capill>y glass tub+ & ! hairlike tubes c 9 turn be plac$ 9 f9e explor+ ne$les4 ,!re is comp>atively little inconv5i5ce to ! pati5t 9 ins]t+ ^! ne$les1 & !re is ! mo/ p]fect control ( ! dosage 9 ! numb] & /r5g? ( ^! tubes & ! duration ( exposure4#a ,! fir/ ,radium ,in/itute 9 ,irel& has already done good "w = ! relief ( human suff]+4 ,x w h1 ,i hope1 a great future be=e x1 = ,i v5ture1 ) diffid5ce1 to hold ! op9ion1 t ) increas$ /udy ! applications & claims ( radioactive treatm5t w increase4 #a ,= p>ticul>s ( ! new te*nique & ( "s ( ! "w already accompli%$1 see pap]s1 by ,dr4 ,walt] ,c4 ,/ev5son1 ,briti% ,m$ical ,j\rnal1 ,july #d?1 #aiad1 & ,m>* #bj?1 #aiae4 #bei ,,skat+ #a ,,x is n[ _m ye>s ago s9ce1 z a /ud5t1 ,i 0 pres5t at a college lecture deliv]$ by a c]ta9 le>n$ pr(essor on ! subject ( friction4 ,at ?is lecture a discussion arose out ( a "q address$ to our tea*]3 ,h[ is x we c skate on ice & on no o!r sub/ance8 ,! answ] came back )\t hesitation3 ,because ! ice is s smoo?4 ,x 0 at once object$3 ,b y c skate on ice :i* is n smoo?4 ,?is put ! pr(essor 9 a difficulty4 ,obvi\sly x is n on acc\nt ( ! smoo?ness ( ! ice4 ,a piece ( poli%$ plate glass is f> smoo!r ?an a surface ( ice aft] ! latt] is cut up by a day's skat+4 ,nev]!less1 on ! scrat*$ & torn ice-surface skat+ is /ill q possible2 on ! smoo? plate glass we "k we c\ld n skate4 ,"s little "t aft] ?is discussion1 ! connection betwe5 skat+ & a some:at ab/ruse fact 9 physical sci5ce occurr$ to me4 ,z ! fact itself is "o :i* has play$ a "p 9 ! geological hi/ory ( ! e>?1 #a ,a lecture deliv]$ be=e ! ,royal ,dubl9 ,society 9 #aije4 #bfj & a "p ( no little importance1 ! subject ( skat+1 :]eby x is p]haps be/ br\ght home to e "o1 is des]v+ ( our c>eful att5tion4 ,let n1 !n1 ! title ( ?is lecture mislead ! read] z to ! importance ( its subject matt]4 ,be=e go+ on to ! explanation ( ! wond]ful fre$om ( ! skat]'s movem5ts1 ,i wi% to v]ify :at ,i h inf]r$ z to ! great diff]5ce 9 ! slipp]9ess ( glass & ! slipp]9ess ( ice4 ,"h is a slab ( poli%$ glass4 ,i c raise x to any angle ,i please s t at l5g? ?is brass weight ( #bej grams j slips d[n :5 />t$ ) a slight %ove4 ,! angle is1 z y see1 ab\t #ab degrees4 ,i n[ transf] ! weight on to ?is l>ge slab ( ice :i* ,i fir/ rapidly dry ) s(t l954 ,obs]ve t ! weight slips d[n ! surface ( ice at a mu* l[] angle4 ,x is a v l[ angle inde$3 ,i read x z betwe5 #d & #e degrees4 ,we see by ?is exp]im5t t !re is a great diff]5ce betwe5 ! slipp]9ess ( ! two surfaces z measur$ by :at is call$ ! angle ( friction4 ,9 ?is exp]im5t1 too1 ! glass possesses by f> ! smoo!r surface al?\gh ,i h rubb$ ! deep] rugosities out ( ! ice by smoo?+ x ) a glass surface4 ,not)/&+ ?is1 its surface is spott$ ) small cavities due to bubbles & imp]fections4 ,x is c]ta9 t if ! glass 0 equally r\gh1 its angle ( friction t[>ds ! brass weight w\ld be high]4 #bfa ,we h1 h[ev]1 ano!r comp>ative exp]im5t to c>ry out4 ,i made z y saw a det]m9ation ( ! angle at :i* ?is weight ( #bej grams j slipp$ on ! ice4 ,! l[] surface ( ! weight1 ! "p :i* presses on ! ice1 consi/s ( a light1 brass curta9 r+4 ,?is c be deta*$4 ,its mass is only #f grams1 ! curta9 r+ be+1 9 fact1 holl[ & made ( v ?9 metal4 ,we h1 !re=e1 9 x a v small weight :i* pres5ts exactly ! same surface b5ea? z did ! weight ( #bej grams4 ,y see1 n[1 t ?is light weight w n slip on ice at #e or #f degrees ( slope1 b fir/ does s at ab\t io degrees4 ,?is is a v important exp]im5t z reg>ds our pres5t inquiry4 ,ice appe>s to possess m ?an "o angle ( friction accord+ z a heavy or a light weight is us$ to press ^u x4 ,we w make ! same exp]im5t ) ! plate ( glass4 ,y see t !re is little or no diff]5ce 9 ! angle ( friction ( brass on glass :5 we press ! surfaces toge!r ) a heavy or ) a light weight4 ,! light weight requires ! same slope ( #ab degrees to make x slip4 ,?is la/ result is 9 accordance ) ! laws ( friction4 ,we say t :5 solid presses on solid1 = ea* pair ( sub/ances press$ toge!r !re is a con/ant ratio betwe5 ! =ce requir$ to keep "o 9 motion ov] ! o!r1 & ! =ce press+ ! solids toge!r4 ,?is ratio is call$! coeffici5t ( friction4,! coeffici5t is1 9 fact1 con/ant or approximately #bfb s4 ,i c det]m9e ! coeffici5t ( friction f ! angle ( friction by tak+ ! tang5t ( ! angle4 ,! tang5t ( ! angle ( friction is ! coeffici5t ( friction4 ,if1 !n1 ! coeffici5t is con/ant1 s1 ( c\rse1 mu/ ! angle ( friction be con/ant4 ,we h se5 t x is s 9 ! case ( metal on glass1 b n s 9 ! case ( metal on ice4 ,?is curi\s result %[s t !re is some?+ abnormal ab\t ! slipp]9ess ( ice4 ,! exp]im5ts we h hi!rto made are op5 to ! reproa* t ! surface ( ! ice is probably damp ow+ to ! w>m? ( ! air 9 contact ) x4 ,i h "h a means ( deal+ ) a surface ( cold1 dry ice4 ,?is %all[ copp] tank ab\t #ah in*es 7#de cms47 long1 & #d in*es 7#aj cms47 wide1 is fill$ ) a freez+ 'mixture circulat$ ?r\gh x f a l>g] vessel conta9+ ice melt+ 9 hydro*loric acid at a temp]ature ( ab\t -#ah ,c4 ,?is keeps ! tank bel[ ! melt+ po9t ( ice4 ,! upp] surface ( ! tank is provid$ ) rais$ edges s t x c be flood$ ) wat]4 ,! wat] is n[ froz5 & its temp]ature is bel[ #j ,c4 ,x is ab\t #aj ,c4 ,i c place ov] ! ice a ro(-%ap$ cov] made ( two incl9$ slabs ( ?ick plate glass4 ,?is acts to keep out w>m air1 & to d away ) any possibility ( ! surface ( ! ice be+ wet ) wat] ?aw$ f ! ice4 ,! :ole tank along ) its ro( ( glass c be adju/$ to any angle1 & a1 scale at ! #bfc rais$ end ( ! tank gives ! angle ( slope 9 degrees4 ,a weight plac$ on ! ice c be easily se5 ?r\gh ! glass cov]4 ,! weight we %all use consi/s ( a v light r+ ( alum9ium wire :i* is r5d]$ pla9ly visible by a p+-pong ball atta*$ above x4 ,! weight re/s n[ on a copp] plate provid$ = ! purpose at ! upp] end ( ! tank4 ,! plate be+ 9 direct contact b5ea? ) ! freez+ mixture we are sure t ! alum9ium r+ is no hott] ?an ! ice4 ,a light j]k suffices to %ake ! weight on to ! surface ( ! ice4 ,we f9d t ?is r+ load$ ) only ! p+-pong ball1 & weigh+ a total ( #b4ee grams does n slip at ! l[ angles4 ,i h ! surface ( ! ice at an angle ( r ov] #ac1 & only by cont9u\s tapp+ ( ! app>atus c x be induc$ to slip d[n4 ,?is is a coeffici5t ( #j4bd1 & comp>es ) ! coeffici5t ( h>d & smoo? solids on "o ano!r4 ,i n[ replace ! empty p+-pong ball by a simil> ball fill$ ) lead %ot4 ,! total weight is n[ #aee grams4 ,y see ! angle ( slipp+ has fall5 to #g4 ,e "o :o has made friction exp]im5ts kn[s h[ unsatisfactory & inconsi/5t !y (t5 are4 ,we c only discuss notable quantities & broad results1 unless ! mo/ consci5ti\s c>e be tak5 to elim9ate errors4 ,! net result "h is t ice at ab\t -#aj ,c4 :5 press$ on by a v light weight possesses a #bfd coeffici5t ( friction comp>able ) ! usual coeffici5ts ( solids on solids1 b :5 ! pressure is increas$1 ! coeffici5t falls to ab\t half ?is value4 ,! foll[+ table embodies "s results obta9$ on ! friction ( ice & glass1 us+ ! me?ods ,i h %[n y4 ,i add "s ( ! m c>efully det]m9$ coeffici5ts ( o!r obs]v]s4 ,wt4 9 ,on ,plate ,on ,ice ,on ,ice ,grams4 ,glass4 at #j ,c4 at #aj ,c4 ,angle4 ,coeff4 ,angle4 ,coeff4 ,angle4 ,coeff ,alum9ium #b4ee #ab #j4bb #ab #j4ba #ac #j4bd ,same #aee #ab #j4bb #f #j4aa #g #j4ab ,brass #f4e #ab #j4bb #aj #j4ag #aj #j4ah ,same #ajg #ab #j4bb #e #j4ji #f #j4aj ,/eel on /eel 7,mor97 - - - - #j4ad ,brass on ca/ iron 7,mor97 - - #j4ai ,/eel on ca/ iron 7,mor97 - - #j4bj ,skate on ice 7,j4 ,mll]7 - - - #j4jaf--j4jcb ,be/-greas$ surfaces 7,p]ry7 - #j4jc--j4jcf ,y p]ceive f ! table t :ile ! friction ( brass or alum9ium on glass is q indep5d5t ( ! weight us$1 t ( brass or alum9ium on ice dep5ds 9 "s way ^u ! weight1 & falls 9 a v m>k$ degree :5 ! weight is heavy4 ,n[1 ,i ?9k t if we _h be5 on ! look out = any abnormality 9 ! friction ( h>d sub/ances on ice1 we w\ld h r anticipat$ a v>iation 9 ! #bfe o!r direction4 ,we w\ld h1 p]haps1 expect$ t a heavy weight w\ld h giv5 rise to ! great] friction4 ,i n[ turn to ! explanation ( ?is extraord9>y result4 ,y are aw>e t x requires an exp5diture ( heat m]ely to conv]t ice to wat]1 ! wat] produc$ be+ at ! temp]ature ( ! ice1 i4e4 at #j ,c41 f :i* x is d]iv$4 ,! heat requir$ to *ange ! ice f ! solid to ! liquid /ate is ! lat5t heat ( wat]4 ,we take ! unit quantity ( heat to be t :i* is requir$ to heat #a kilogram ( wat] #a ,c4 ,!n if we melt #a kilogram ( ice1 we mu/ supply x ) #hj su* units ( heat4 ,:ile melt+ is go+ on1 !re is no *ange ( temp]ature if ! exp]im5t is c>efully conduct$4 ,! melt+ ice & ! wat] com+ f x rema9 at #j ,c4 ?r\gh\t ! op]ation1 & nei!r ! !rmomet] nor y\r own s5sations w\ld tell y ( ! am\nt ( heat :i* 0 fl[+ 94 ,! heat is lat5t or hidd5 9 ! liquid produc$1 & has gone to d molecul> "w 9 ! sub/ance4 ,obs]ve t if we supply only #dj !rmal units1 we get only "o-half ! ice melt$4 ,if only #aj units are suppli$1 !n we get only "o eigh? ( a kilogram ( wat]1 & no m nor less4 ,i h v5tur$ to recall to y ^! commonplaces ( sci5ce be=e consid]+ a mode ( melt+ ice :i* is less g5]ally kn[n1 & :i* involves no supply ( heat on y\r "p4 ,?is me?od involves = its #bff und]/&+ a c>eful consid]ation ( ! !rmal prop]ties ( wat] 9 ! solid /ate4 ,x mu/ h be5 obs]v$ a v long "t ago t wat] exp&s :5 x freezes4 ,o!rwise ice w\ld n float on wat]2 &1 :at is p]haps m important 9 y\r eyes1 y\r wat] pipes w\ld n bur/ 9 w9t] :5 ! wat] freezes !re94 ,b al?\gh ! important fact ( ! expansion ( wat] on freez+ 0 s long pres5t$ to ! obs]vation ( mank9d1 x 0 n till almo/ exactly ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury t ,james ,?omson1 a gift$ ,iri%man1 pr$ict$ _m important consequ5ces aris+ f ! fact ( ! expansion ( wat] on becom+ solid4 ,! pr9ciples lie enunciat$ are p]fectly g5]al1 & apply 9 e case ( *ange ( volume att5d+ *ange ( /ate4 ,we are "h only conc]n$ ) ! case ( wat] & ice4 ,james ,?omson1 foll[+ a tra9 ( ?\ght :i* we _c "h pursue1 pr$ict$ t ow+ to ! fact ( ! expansion ( wat] on becom+ solid1 pressure w l[] ! melt+ po9t ( ice or ! freez+ po9t ( wat]4 ,normally1 z y are aw>e1 ! temp]ature is #j ,c4 or #cb ,f4 ,?omson said t ?is w\ld be f\nd to be ! freez+ po9t only at atmosph]ic pressure4 ,he calculat$ h[ mu* x w\ld *ange ) *ange ( pressure4 ,he pr$ict$ t ! freez+ po9t w\ld fall #j4jjge ( a degree ,c5tigrade = ea* additional atmosph]e ( pressure appli$ to ! wat]4 ,suppose1 #bfg = in/ance1 our e>? possess$ an atmosph]e s heavy to z ex]t a ?\s& times ! pressure ( ! exi/+ atmosph]e1 !n wat] w\ld n freeze at #j ,c41 b at -#g4e ,c4 or ab\t #ah ,f4 ,aga91 9 vacuo1 t is :5 ! pressure has be5 r$uc$ to ! relatively small vap\r pressure ( ! wat]1 ! freez+ po9t is above #j ,c41 i4e4 at #j4jjge ,c4 ,9 p>ts ( ! ocean dep?s ! pressure is mu* ov] a ?\s& atmosph]es4 ,fre% wat] w\ld rema9 liquid !re at temp]atures mu* bel[ #j ,c4 ,x w be evid5t en\gh1 ev5 to ^? n possess$ ( ! sci5tific insight ( ,james ,?omson1 t "s su* fact is to be anticipat$4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 easy to be wise aft] ! ev5t4 ,x appeals to u 9 a g5]al way t z wat] exp&s on freez+1 pressure w t5d to resi/ ! turn+ ( x to ice4 ,! wat] w try to rema9 liquid 9 ob$i5ce to ! pressure4 ,x w1 !re=e1 require a l[] temp]ature to induce x to become ice4 ,james ,?omson left 8 !sis z a pr$iction4 ,b he pr$ict$ exactly :at 8 di/+ui%$ bro!r1 ,sir ,william ,?omson--lat] ,"l ,kelv9--f\nd to happ5 :5 ! matt] 0 put to ! te/ ( exp]im5t4 ,we mu/ consid] ! exp]im5t made by ,"l ,kelv94 ,accord+ to ,?omson's views1 if a quantity ( ice & wat] are compress$1 !re mu/ be a fall ( temp]ature4 ,! nature ( 8 argum5t is z foll[s3 #bfh ,let ! ice & wat] be exactly at #j ,c4 to />t )4 ,!n suppose we apply1 say1 "o ?\s& atmosph]es pressure4 ,! melt+ po9t ( ! ice is l[]$ to -#g4e ,c4 ,t is1 x w require a temp]ature s l[ z -#g4e ,c4 to keep x solid4 ,x w !re=e at once set ab\t melt+1 = z we h se51 its actual temp]ature is n -#g4e ,c41 b a high] temp]ature1 i4e4 #j ,c4 ,9 o!r words1 x is #g4e above its melt+ po9t4 ,b z soon z x beg9s melt+ x also beg9s to absorb heat to supply ! #hj !rmal units :i*1 z we "k1 are requir$ to turn ea* kilogram ( ! ice to wat]4 ,:]e c x get ?is heat8 ,we assume t we give x none4 ,x has only two s\rces1 ! ice c take heat f itself1 & x c take heat f ! wat]4 ,x does bo? 9 ?is case1 & bo? ice & wat] drop 9 temp]ature4 ,!y fall 9 temp]ature till -#g4e is rea*$4 ,!n ! ice has got to its melt+ po9t "u ! pressure ( "o ?\s& atmosph]es1 or1 z we may put x1 ! wat] has rea*$ its freez+ po9t4 ,!re c be no m melt+4 ,! :ole mass is d[n to -#g4e ,c41 & w /ay !re if we keep heat f fl[+ ei!r into or out ( ! vessel4 ,!re is n[ m wat] & less ice 9 ! vessel ?an :5 we />t$1 & ! temp]ature has fall5 to -#g4e ,c4 ,! fall ( temp]ature to ! am\nt pr$ict$ by ! !ory 0 v]ifi$ by ,"l ,kelv94 ,suppose we n[ sudd5ly remove ! pressure2 :at w happ58 ,we h wat] & ice at -#g4e ,c4 #bfi & at ! normal pressure4 ,wat] at -#g4e & at ! normal pressure ( c\rse turns to ice4 ,! wat] w1 !re=e1 in/antly freeze 9 ! vessel1 & ! :ole process w be rev]s$4 ,9 freez+1 ! wat] w give up its lat5t heat1 & ?is w w>m up ! :ole mass till once aga9 #j ,c4 is atta9$4 ,!n !re w be no m freez+1 = aga9 ! ice is at its melt+ po9t4 ,?is is ! rem>kable s]ies ( ev5ts :i* ,james ,?omson pr$ict$4 ,& ^! are ! ev5ts :i* ,"l ,kelv9 by a delicate s]ies ( exp]im5ts1 v]ifi$ 9 e respect4 ,suppose we _h no?+ b solid ice 9 ! vessel at />t+1 w\ld ! exp]im5t result 9 ! same way8 ,yes1 x assur$ly w\ld4 ,! ice "u ! increas$ pressure w\ld melt a little ev]y:]e ?r\gh\t its mass1 tak+ ! requisite lat5t heat f itself at ! exp5se ( its s5sible heat1 & ! temp]ature ( ! ice w\ld fall to ! new melt+ po9t4 ,c\ld we melt ! :ole ( ! ice 9 ?is mann]8 ,aga9 ! answ] is yes4 ,b ! pressure mu/ be v great4 ,if we assume t all ! heat is obta9$ at ! exp5se ( ! s5sible heat ( ! ice1 ! cool+ mu/ be su* z to supply ! lat5t heat ( ! :ole mass ( wat] produc$4 ,h[ev]1 ! lat5t heat dim9i%es z ! melt+ po9t is l[]$1 & at a rate :i* w\ld r$uce x to no?+ at ab\t #ah1jjj atmosph]es4 ,m\sson1 op]at+ on ice enclos$ 9 a conduct+ cyl9d] & cool$ to -#ah at />t+ #bgj appe>s to h obta9$ v complete liquefaction4 ,m\sson mu/ h atta9$ a pressure ( at lea/ an am\nt adequate to l[] ! melt+ po9t bel[ -#ah4 ,! degree ( liquefaction actually atta9$ may h be5 due 9 "p to ! passage ( heat ?r\gh ! walls ( ! vessel4 ,he prov$ ! m or less complete liquefaction ( ! ice )9 ! vessel by ! fall ( a copp] index f ! top to ! bottom ( ! vessel :ile ! pressure 0 on4 ,i h "h a simple way ( demon/rat+ to y ! fall ( temp]ature att5d+ ! compression ( ice4 ,9 ?is m\ld1 :i* is /rongly made ( /eel1 l9$ ) boxwood to dim9i% ! passage ( conduct$ heat1 is a quantity ( ice :i* ,i compress :5 ,i =ce 9 ?is plung]4 ,9 ! ice is a !rmoelectric junction1 ! wires lead+ to :i* are 9 communication ) a reflect+ galvanomet]4 ,! !rmoc\ple is ( copp] & nickel1 & is ( su* s5sitiv5ess z to %[ by motion ( ! spot ( light on ! scre5 ev5 a small fraction ( a degree4 ,on apply+ ! pressure1 y see ! spot ( light is displac$1 & 9 su* a direction z to indicate cool+4 ,! balanc+ !rmoc\ple is all ! "t imb$d$ 9 a block ( ice s t its temp]ature rema9s unalt]$4 ,on tak+ (f ! pressure1 ! spot ( light returns to its fir/ position4 ,i c move ! spot ( light backw>ds & =w>ds on ! scre5 by tak+ (f & putt+ on ! pressure4 ,! effects are q in/antane\s4 #bga ,! fact la/ ref]r$ to is v important4 ,! ice1 9 fact1 is z x 7 automatically turn$ to wat]4 ,x is n a matt] ( ! conduction ( heat f po9t to po9t 9 ! ice4 ,its own s5sible heat is imm$iately absorb$ ?r\gh\t ! mass4 ,?is w\ld be ! !oretical result1 b x is probable t ow+ to imp]fections ?r\gh\t ! ice & failure 9 uni=mity 9 ! di/ribution ( ! /ress1 ! melt+ w\ld n take place q uni=mly or homog5e\sly4 ,be=e apply+ our new ideas to skat+1 ,i want y to notice a fact :i* ,i h inf]5tially /at$1 b n specifically m5tion$4 ,pressure w only lead to ! melt+ ( ice if ! new melt+ po9t1 i4e4 t due to ! pressure1 is bel[ ! prevail+ temp]ature4 ,let u take figures4 ,! ice to />t ) is1 say1 at -#c ,c4 ,suppose we apply su* a pressure to ?is ice z w conf] a melt+ po9t ( -#b ,c4 on x4 ,obvi\sly1 !re w be no melt+4 ,= :y %\ld ice :i* is at -#c ,c4 melt :5 its melt+ po9t is -#b ,c48 ,! ice is1 9 fact1 cold] ?an its melt+ po9t4 ,h5ce1 y note ?is fact3 ,! pressure mu/ be suffici5tly int5se to br+ ! melt+ po9t bel[ ! prevail+ temp]ature1 or !re w be no melt+2 & ! fur!r we r$uce ! melt+ po9t by pressure bel[ ! prevail+ temp]ature1 ! m ice w be melt$4 ,we come at l5g? to ! object ( our rem>ks ,i don't "k :o inv5t$ skat+ or skates4 ,x is said t 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury ! inhabitants ( #bgb ,engl& us$ to amuse !mselves by fa/5+ ! bones ( an animal b5ea? _! feet1 & pu%+ !mselves ab\t on ! ice by means ( a /ick po9t$ ) iron4 ,) su* skates1 any p]=mance ei!r on inside or outside edge 0 impossible4 ,we are a cons]vative p4 ,?is exhil>at+ amusem5t appe>s to h s]v$ ! p ( ,engl& = ?ree c5turies4 ,n till #affj 7 wood5 skates %od ) iron introduc$ f ! ,ne!rl&s4 ,x is c]ta9 t skat+ 0 a fa%ionable amusem5t 9 ,pepys' "t4 ,he writes 9 #affb to ! effect3 ,x be+ a great fro/1 did see p slid+ ) _! skates1 :i* is a v pretty art4 ,x is rem>kable t x 0 ! ,g]man poet ,klop/ock :o made skat+ fa%ionable 9 ,g]many4 ,until 8 "t1 ! art 0 consid]$ a pa/ime1 only fit = v "y or silly p4 ,i wi% n[ to dwell ^u t beautiful contrivance ! mod]n skate4 ,x is a rem>kable example ( h[ an appliance c develop t[>ds p]fection 9 ! abs5ce ( a really intellig5t und]/&+ ( ! pr9ciples und]ly+ its developm5t4 ,= :at are ! pr9ciples und]ly+ ! prop] con/ruction ( ! skate8 ,aft] :at ,i h said1 ,i ?9k y w readily und]/&4 ,! object is to produce su* a pressure "u ! blade t ! ice w melt4 ,we wi% to e/abli% su* a pressure "u ! skate t ev5 on a day :5 ! ice is bel[ z]o1 its melt+ #bgc po9t is s r$uc$ j "u ! edge ( ! skate t ! ice turns to wat]4 ,x is ?is melt+ ( ! ice "u ! skate :i* secures ! condition ess5tial to skat+4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! skate no long] re/s on a solid4 ,x re/s on a liquid4 ,y are aw>e h[ 9 cases :]e we want to r$uce friction--say at ! be>+ ( a :eel or "u a pivot--we introduce a liquid4 ,look at ! be>+s ( a /eam eng9e4 ,a cont9u\s /ream ( oil is f$ 9 to int]pose itself betwe5 ! solid surfaces4 ,i ne$ n illu/rate s well-kn[n a pr9ciple by exp]im5t4 ,solid friction disappe>s :5 ! liquid int]v5es4 ,9 its place we sub/itute ! less] difficulty ( %e>+ "o lay] ( ! liquid ov] ! o!r2 & if we keep up ! supply ( oil ! "w requir$ to d ?is is n v diff]5t1 no matt] h[ great we make ! pressure ^u ! be>+s4 ,comp>$ ) ! resi/ance ( solid friction1 ! resi/ance ( fluid friction is trifl+4 ,"h "u ! skate ! lubrication is p]haps ! mo/ p]fect :i* x is possible to conceive4 ,j4 ,mll] has det]m9$ ! coeffici5t by t[+ a skat] hold+ on by a spr+ balance4 ,! coeffici5t is betwe5 #j4jaf & #j4jcb4 ,9 o!r words1 ! skat] w\ld run d[n an incl9e s little z #a or #b degrees2 an incl9ation n p]ceivable by ! eye4 ,n[ obs]ve t ! l>g] ( ^! coeffici5ts is almo/ exactly ! same z t :i* ,p]ry f\nd 9 ! case ( well-greas$ surfaces4 ,b evid5tly no #bgd artificial sy/em ( lubrication c\ld hope to equal t :i* exi/s betwe5 ! skate & ! ice4 ,= ! lubrication "h is1 z x 71 automatic4 ,9 ! ma*9e if ! lubricant gets squeez$ out !re in/antly ensues solid friction4 ,"u ! skate ?is _c happ5 = ! squeez+ out ( ! lubricant is in/antly foll[$ by ! =mation ( ano!r film ( wat]4 ,! conditions ( pressure :i* may lead to solid friction 9 ! ma*9e "h automatically call ! lubricant into exi/5ce4 ,j "u ! edge ( ! skate ! pressure is enorm\s4 ,consid] t ! :ole weight ( ! skat] is born ^u a m]e knife edge4 ,! skat] alt]nately ?r[s 8 :ole weight ^u ! edge ( ea* skate4 ,b n only is ! weight ?us conc5trat$ ^u "o edge1 fur!r conc5tration is secur$ 9 ! be/ skates by mak+ ! skate holl[-gr\nd1 i4e4 increas+ ! ke5ness ( ! edge by mak+ x less ?an a "r angle4 ,/ill great] pressure is obta9$ by dim9i%+ ! l5g? ( t "p ( ! blade :i* is 9 contact ) ! ice4 ,?is is done by putt+ curvature on ! blade or mak+ x :at is call$ hog-back$4 ,y see t ev]y?+ is done to dim9i% ! area 9 contact ) ! ice1 & ?us to increase ! pressure4 ,! result is a v great compression ( ! ice b5ea? ! edge ( ! skate4 ,ev5 9 ! v colde/ wea!r melt+ mu/ take place to "s ext5t4 ,z we obs]v$ be=e1 ! melt+ is in/antane\s1 #bge ,heat has n to travel f "o po9t ( ! ice to ano!r2 imm$iately ! pressure comes on ! ice x turns to wat]4 ,x takes ! requisite heat f itself 9 ord] t ! *ange ( /ate may be accompli%$4 ,s soon z ! skate passes on1 ! wat] resumes ! solid /ate4 ,x is probable t !re is an in/antane\s escape1 & re-freez+ ( "s ( ! wat] f b5ea? ! skate1 ! skate in/antly tak+ a fre% be>+ & melt+ m ice4 ,! temp]ature ( ! wat] escap+ f b5ea? ! skate1 or left beh9d by x1 imm$iately becomes :at x 0 be=e ! skate press$ ^u x4 ,?us1 a mo/ wond]ful & complex s]ies ( molecul> ev5ts takes place b5ea? ! skate4 ,swift z x passes1 ! :ole sequ5ce ( ev5ts :i* ,james ,?omson pr$ict$ has to take place b5ea? ! blade ,compression2 l[]+ ( ! melt+ po9t bel[ ! temp]ature ( ! surr\nd+ ice2 melt+2 absorption ( heat2 & cool+ to ! new melt+ po9t1 i4e4 to t prop] to ! pressure b5ea? ! blade4 ,! skate n[ passes on4 ,!n foll[3 ,relief ( pressure2 re-solidification ( ! wat]2 re/oration ( ! borr[$ heat f ! congeal+ wat] & rev]sion ( ! ice to ! orig9al temp]ature4 ,if we reflect = a mom5t on all ?is1 we see t we d n skate on ice b on wat]4 ,we c\ld n skate on ice any m ?an we c\ld skate on glass4 ,we saw t ) light weights & :5 ! pressure #bgf ,diagram ,diagram %[+ successive /ates obta9+ 9 ice1 be=e1 dur+1 & aft] ! passage ( ! skate4 ,! temp]atures & pressures select$ = illu/ration are su* z might occur "u ord9>y conditions4 ,! edge ( ! skate is %[n 9 magnifi$ cross-section4 #bgg ,0 n suffici5t to melt ! ice1 ! friction 0 mu* ! same z t ( metal on glass4 ,ice is n slipp]y4 ,x is an error to say t x is4 ,! le>n$ pr(essor 0 v mu* a/ray :5 he said t y c\ld skate on ice because x is s smoo?4 ,! smoo?ness ( ! ice has no?+ to d ) ! matt]4 ,9 %ort1 ow+ to ! action ( gravity ^u y\r body1 y escape ! normal resi/ance ( solid on solid1 & glide ab\t ) feet w+$ l ! mess5g] ( ! ,gods2 b on wat]4 ,a second condition ess5tial to ! art ( skat+ is also involv$ 9 ! melt+ ( ! ice4 ,! s9k+ ( ! skate gives ! skat] bite4 ,?is x is :i* enables him to urge himself =w>d4 ,s long z skates consi/$ ( ! r\nd$ bones ( animals1 ! skat] _h to use a po9t$ /aff to propel himself4 ,9 creat+ bite1 ! skat] aga9 unconsci\sly appeals to ! peculi> physical prop]ties ( ice4 ,! pressure requir$ = ! propulsion ( ! skat] is spread all along ! l5g? ( ! groove he has cut 9 ! ice1 & obliquely d[nw>ds4 ,! skate w n slip away lat]ally1 = ! horizontal compon5t ( ! pressure is n en\gh to melt ! ice4 ,he ?us gets ! resi/ance he requires4 ,y see :at a v p]fect contrivance ! skate is2 & :at a similitude ( intellig5ce !re is 9 its evolution4 ,bl9d intellig5ce1 because x is c]ta9 ! true physics ( skat+ 0 nev] held 9 view by #bgh ! mak]s ( skates4 ,! evolution ( ! skate has be5 truly organic4 ,! skat] select$ ! fitte/ skate1 & h5ce ! fit skate surviv$4 ,9 a ^w1 ! possibility ( skat+ dep5ds on ! dynamical melt+ ( ice "u pressure4 ,& obs]ve ! :ole matt] turns ^u ! app>5tly unrelat$ fact t ! freez+ ( wat] results 9 a solid m bulky ?an ! wat] :i* gives rise to x4 ,if ice 0 less bulky ?an ! wat] f :i* x 0 d]iv$1 pressure w\ld n melt x2 x w\ld be all ! m solid = ! pressure1 z x 74 ,! melt+ po9t w\ld rise in/ead ( fall+4 ,mo/ sub/ances behave 9 ?is mann]1 & h5ce we _c skate ^u !m4 ,only q a few sub/ances exp& on freez+1 & x happ5s t _! p>ticul> melt+ temp]atures or o!r prop]ties r5d] !m unsuitable to skat+4 ,! mo/ abundant fluid sub/ance on ! e>?1 & ! mo/ abundant sub/ance ( any "o k9d on its surface1 ?us possesses ! ideally correct & suitable prop]ties = ! art ( skat+4 ,i h po9t$ out t ! pressure mu/ be su* z to br+ ! temp]ature ( melt+ bel[ t prevail+ 9 ! ice at ! "t4 ,we h se5 also1 t "o atmosph]e l[]s ! melt+ po9t ( ice by ! #a_/adj ( a degree ,c5tigrade2 m exactly by #j4jjge4 ,let u n[ assume t ! skate is s f> sunk5 9 ! ice z to be> = a l5g? ( two in*es1 & = a wid? ( "o-hundr$? ( an in*4 ,! skat] weighs1 #bgi let u say--#aej p\nds4 ,if ?is weight 0 borne on "o squ>e in*1 ! pressure w\ld be t5 atmosph]es4 ,b ! skat] re/s 8 weight1 9 fact1 ^u an area ( "o-fiftie? ( an in*4 ,! pressure is1 !re=e1 fifty times z great4 ,! ice is subject$ to a pressure ( #ejj atmosph]es4 ,?is l[]s ! melt+ po9t to -#c4ge ,c4 ,h5ce1 on a day :5 ! ice is at ?is temp]ature1 ! skate w s9k 9 ! ice till ! weight ( ! skat] is conc5trat$ z we h assum$4 ,8 skate c s9k no fur!r1 = any less] conc5tration ( ! pressure w n br+ ! melt+ po9t bel[ ! prevail+ temp]ature4 ,we c calculate ! !oretical bite = any /ate ( ! ice4 ,if ! ice is cold] ! bite w n be s deep4 ,if ! temp]ature 0 twice z f> bel[ z]o1 !n ! area ov] :i* ! skat]'s weight w be di/ribut$1 :5 ! skate has p5etrat$ its maximum dep?1 w be only half ! =m] area1 & ! pressure w be "o ?\s& atmosph]es4 ,an important consid]ation arises f ! fact t "u ! v extreme edge ( ! skate ! pressure is indef9itely great4 ,= ?is involves t !re w always be "s bite1 h[ev] cold ! ice may be4 ,t is1 ! n>r[ /rip ( ice :i* fir/ receives ! skat]'s weight mu/ p>tially liquefy h[ev] cold ! ice4 ,x mu/ h happ5$ to _m "h to be on ice :i* 0 too cold to skate on ) com=t4 ,! #bhj skat] 9 ?is case speaks ( ! ice z too h>d4 ,9 ! ,engad9e1 ! ice on ! l>ge lakes gets s cold t skat]s compla9 ( ?is4 ,on ! r9ks1 :i* are *iefly us$ !re1 ! ice is frequ5tly r5ew$ by flood+ ) wat] at ! close ( ! day4 ,x ?us nev] gets s v cold z on ! lakes4 ,i h be5 on ice 9 ,nor? ,france1 :i*1 9 ! e>ly morn+1 0 too h>d to af=d suffici5t bite = com=t4 ,! cause ( ?is is easily und]/ood f :at we h be5 consid]+4 ,we may n[ return to ! exp]im5tal results :i* we obta9$ e>ly 9 ! lecture4 ,! heavy weights slip (f ! ice at a l[ angle because j at ! po9ts ( contact ) ! ice ! latt] melts1 & !y1 9 fact1 slip n on ice b on wat]4 ,! light weights on cold1 dry ice d n l[] ! melt+ po9t bel[ ! temp]ature ( ! ice1 i4e4 bel[ -#aj ,c41 & s !y slip on dry ice4 ,!y !re=e give u ! true coeffici5t ( friction ( metal on ice4 ,?is subject has1 m rec5tly be5 inve/igat$ by ,h4 ,morphy1 ( ,tr9ity ,college1 ,dubl94 ,! ref9em5t ( a clos$ vessel at uni=m temp]ature1 9 :i* ! ice is =m$ & ! exp]im5t c>ri$ out1 is introduc$4 ,!rmoc\ples give ! temp]atures1 n only ( ! ice b ( ! alum9ium sleigh :i* slips ^u x "u v>i\s loads4 ,9 ?is way we may be c]ta9 t ! metal runn]s are truly at ! temp]ature ( ! ice4 ,i n[ quote f ,morphy's pap] #bha ,! angle ( friction 0 f\nd to rema9 con/ant until a c]ta9 /age ( ! load+1 :5 x sudd5ly fell to ab\t half ( its orig9al value4 ,x !n rema9$ con/ant = fur!r increases 9 ! load4 ,^! results1 :i* confirm$ ^? obta9$ previ\sly ) less satisfactory app>atus1 are %[n 9 ! table bel[4 ,9 ! fir/ column is %[n ! load1 i4e4 ! weight ( sleigh weight ( %ot add$4 ,9 ! second & ?ird columns are %[n1 respectively1 ! coeffici5t & angle ( friction1 :il/ ! f\r? gives ! temp]ature ( ! ice z det]m9$ f ! galvanomet] deflexions4 ,load4 ,tan y4 y4 ,temp4 #e4fh grams4 #j4cf4ja #bjcj' -#e4fe ,c4 #aj4ci -#e4fe #aa4if -#e4ge #ab4gd -#e4fj #ac4ec -#e4fe #ad4ca -#e4fe #ae4aj grams4 #j4ag4ja #i4cj'cj' -#e4fj #af4fg -#e4ee #ai4ha -#e4fj #bd4eb -#e4fj #e4fh grams4 #j4cf4ja #bjcj' -#e4fj ,^! exp]im5ts 7 repeat$ on ano!r occasion ) ! same result & simil> results _h be5 obta9$ ) diff]5t app>atus4 ,z a result ( ! inve/igation ! foll[+ po9ts are cle>ly %[n3-- #bhb 7#a7 ,! coeffici5t ( friction = ice at con/ant temp]ature may h ei!r ( two con/ant values accord+ to ! pressure p] unit surface ( contact4 7#b7 ,= small pressures1 & up to a c]ta9 well def9$ limit ( pressure1 ! coeffici5t is fairly l>ge1 hav+ ! value #j4cf4ja 9 ! case inve/igat$4 7#c7 ,= pressures great] ?an ! above limit ! coeffici5t is relatively small1 hav+ ! value #j4ag4ja 9 ! case inve/igat$4 ,x w be se5 t ,morphy's results are simil> to ^? arriv$ at 9 ! fir/ exp]im5tal consid]ation ( our subject2 b f ! mann] 9 :i* ! exp]im5ts h be5 c>ri$ out1 !y are m accurate & reliable4 ,a great deal m might be said ab\t skat+1 & ! alli$ sports ( toboggan+1 sleigh+1 curl+1 ice ya*t+1 & la/1 b by no means lea/1 slid+--t unpret5ti\s pa/ime ( ! million4 ,happy ! boy :o has nails 9 8 boots :5 ,jack-,fro/ appe>s 9 8 :ite g>m5t1 & congeals ! neighb\r+ pond4 ,b ,i mu/ turn away at ! ?re%old ( ! humor\s aspect ( my subject 7= ! victim ( ! /reet slide owes 8 injur$ dignity to ! ab/ruse laws we h be5 discuss+7 & pass to o!r & grav] subjects intimately connect$ ) skat+4 ,james ,?omson po9t$ out t if we apply compressional /ress to an ice cry/al conta9$ 9 a vessel #bhc :i* also conta9s o!r ice cry/als1 & wat] at #j ,c41 !n ! /ress$ cry/al w melt & become wat]1 b its c\nt]p>t or equival5t quantity ( ice w reappe> else:]e 9 ! vessel4 ,?is is1 obvi\sly1 b a d$uction f ! pr9ciples we h be5 exam9+4 ,! ph5om5on is commonly call$ regelation4 ,i h already made ! usual regelation exp]im5t be=e y :5 ,i compress$ brok5 ice 9 ?is m\ld4 ,! result 0 a cle>1 h>d & almo/ flawless l5s ( ice4 ,n[ 9 ?is op]ation we mu/ figure to ourselves ! pieces ( ice :5 press$ aga9/ "o ano!r melt+ away :]e compress$1 & ! wat] produc$ escap+ into ! spaces betwe5 ! fragm5ts1 & !re solidify+ 9 virtue ( its temp]ature be+ bel[ ! freez+ po9t ( un/ress$ wat]4 ,! f9al result is ! uni=m l5s ( ice4 ,! same process goes on 9 a less p]fect mann] :5 y make--or %all ,i bett] say--:5 y made sn[balls4 ,we n[ come to !ories ( glaci] motion2 ( :i* !re are two4 ,! "o ref]s x ma9ly to regelation2 ! o!r to a real viscosity ( ! ice4 ,! late ,j4 ,c4 ,m',connel e/abli%$ ! fact t ice possesses viscosity2 t is1 x w sl[ly yield & *ange its %ape "u long cont9u$ /resses4 ,8 obs]vations1 inde$1 raise a difficulty 9 apply+ ?is viscosity to expla9 glaci] motion1 = he %[$ t an ice cry/al is only visc\s 9 a c]ta9 /ructural #bhd direction4 ,a complex mixture ( cry/als su*1 z we "k glaci] ice to be1 ought1 we w\ld imag9e1 to display a nett or resultant rigidity4 ,a mass ( glaci] ice :5 di/ort$ by application ( a =ce mu/1 h[ev]1 und]go precisely ! trans=mations :i* took place 9 =m+ ! l5s f ! fragm5ts ( ice4 ,9 fact1 regelation w conf] ^u x all ! appe>ance ( viscosity4 ,let u picture to ourselves a glaci] press+ its enorm\s mass d[n a ,swiss valley4 ,at any po9t suppose x to be h9d]$ 9 its d[nw>d pa? by a rocky ob/acle4 ,at t po9t ! ice turns to wat] j z x does b5ea? ! skate4 ,! cold wat] escapes & solidifies else:]e4 ,b note ?is1 only :]e !re is fre$om f pressure4 ,9 escap+1 x c>ries away its lat5t heat ( liquefaction1 & ?is we mu/ assume1 is lo/ to ! region ( ice lately "u pressure4 ,?is region w1 h[ev]1 aga9 w>m up by conduction ( heat f ! surr\nd+ ice1 or by ! circulation ( wat] f ! suxface4 ,mean:ile1 ! pressure at t po9t has be5 reliev$4 ,! me*anical resi/ance is transf]r$ else:]e4 ,at ?is new po9t !re is aga9 melt+ & relief ( pressure4 ,9 ?is mann] ! glaci] may be suppos$ to move d[n4 ,!re is cont9ual flux ( conduct$ heat & conv]t$ lat5t heat1 hi!r & ?i!r1 to & f ! po9ts ( resi/ance4 ,! f9al motion ( ! :ole mass is necess>ily sl[2 a few feet 9 ! day or1 9 w9t]1 #bhe ev5 only a few in*es4 ,& z we might expect1 p]fect sil5ce att5ds ! d[nw>d slipp+ ( ! gigantic mass4 ,! motion is1 ,i believe1 suffici5tly expla9$ z a skat+ motion4 ,! skate is1 h[ev]1 fix$1 ! ice moves4 ,! great ,alets* ,glaci] collects its sn[s among ! highe/ summits ( ! ,ob]l&4 ,!nce1 ! consolidat$ ice makes its way into ! ,rhone ,valley1 travell+ a di/ance ( "s #bj miles4 ,! ice n[ melt+ into ! y\?ful ,rhone fell ^u ! ,mon*1 ! ,jungfrau or ! ,eig] 9 ! days :5 ,elizabe? rul$ 9 ,engl& & ,%akespe>e liv$4 ,! ice-fall is a common sight on ! glaci]4 ,9 great lumps & brok5 p9nacles x topples ov] "s rocky ob/acle & falls %att]$ on to ! glaci] bel[4 ,b a little fur!r d[n ! w\nd is heal$ aga91 & regelation has re/or$ ! smoo? surface ( ! glaci]4 ,all su* ph5om5a are expla9$ on ,james ,?omson's exposition ( ! behavi\r ( a sub/ance :i* exp&s on pass+ f ! liquid to ! solid /ate4 ,we ?us h arriv$ at v f>-rea*+ consid]ations aris+ out ( skat+ & its sci5ce4 ,! t5d5cy = sn[ to accumulate on ! highe/ regions ( ! ,e>? dep5ds on pr9ciples :i* we _c /op to consid]4 ,we "k x collects above a c]ta9 level ev5 at ! ,equator4 ,we may consid]1 !n1 t b = ! op]ation ( ! laws :i* ,james ,?omson br\ght to light1 & :i* 8 illu/ri\s bro!r1 #bhf ,"l ,kelv91 made manife/1 ! upl&s ( ! ,e>? c\ld n h fre$ !mselves ( ! bur!n ( ice4 ,! geological hi/ory ( ! ,e>? mu/ h be5 pr(\ndly modifi$4 ,! high] levels mu/ h be5 depress$2 ! g5]al level ( ! ocean relatively to ! l& !reby rais$1 &1 x is ev5 possible1 t su* a mean level might h be5 atta9$ z w\ld result 9 g5]al subm]g5ce4 ,dur+ ! la/ great glacial p]iod1 we may say ! fate ( ! _w hung on ! op]ation ( ^? laws :i* h conc]n$ u ?r\gh\t ?is lecture4 ,x is believ$ ! ice 0 pil$ up to a height ( "s #f1jjj feet ov] ! region ( ,sc&9avia4 ,"u ! influ5ce ( ! pressure & fusion at po9ts ( resi/ance1 ! accumulation 0 /ay$1 & x fl[$ s\?w>ds ! accumulation 0 /ay$1 & x fl[$ s\?w>ds ov] ,nor!rn ,europe4 ,! ,highl&s ( ,scotl& 7 cov]$ )1 p]haps1 ?ree or f\r ?\s& feet ( ice4 ,irel& 0 cov]$ f nor? to s\?1 & mighty ice-b]gs float$ f our we/]n & s\!rn %ores4 ,! transport$ or erratic /ones1 (t5 ( great size1 :i* are f\nd 9 _m p>ts ( ,irel&1 are records ( ^! long pa/ ev5ts3 ev5ts :i* happ5$ be=e ,man1 z a rational be+1 appe>$ ^u ! ,e>?4 #bhg ,a ,,speculation ,,z ,,to ,a ,,premat]ial ,,univ]se #a ,& !re=e444^! ?+s likewise _h a bir?2 = ?+s :i* are ( mortal body c\ld n = an inf9ite "t back444 h be5 able to set at naught ! puissant /r5g? ( immeasurable age4--,,lucretius1 ,de ,r]um ,natura4 ,o fe>ful m$itation6 ,:]e1 alack6 ,%all ,"t's be/ jewel f ,"t's *e/ lie hid8 --,,%akespe>e4 ,,9 ! mat]ial univ]se we f9d pres5t$ to our s5ses a physical developm5t cont9ually progress+1 ext5d+ to all1 ev5 ! mo/ m9ute1 mat]ial configurations4 ,"s fundam5tal di/9ctions exi/+ betwe5 ?is developm5t z app>5t 9 ! organic & ! inorganic sy/ems ( ! pres5t day are ref]r$ to else:]e 9 ?is volume4#b ,9 ! pres5t essay1 ^! sy/ems z hav+ a common orig9 & common end+1 are m]g$ 9 ! same consid]ation z to ! nature ( ! orig9 ( mat]ial sy/ems 9 g5]al4 ,?is pres5t essay is occupi$ by ! consid]ation ( ! necessity ( limit+ mat]ial int]actions 9 pa/ "t4 ,! speculation orig9at$ 9 ! difficulties :i* pres5t !mselves :5 we ascribe to ^! int]actions inf9ite duration 9 ! pa/4 ,^! difficulties fir/ claim our consid]ation4 #a ,proc4 ,royal ,dubl9 ,soc41 vol4 vii41 ,"p ,v1 #ahib4 #b ,! ,abundance ( ,life4 #bhh ,accept+ ! hypo!sis ( ,kant & ,laplace 9 its wide/ ext5sion1 we are ref]r$ to a primitive condition ( wide mat]ial diffusion1 & necess>ily too ( mat]ial in/ability4 ,! hypo!sis is1 9 fact1 bas$ ^u ?is mat]ial in/ability4 ,we may pursue ! sequ5ce ( ev5ts assum$ 9 ?is hypo!sis into ! future1 & into ! pa/4 ,9 ! future we f9d f9ality to progress cle>ly indicat$4 ,! hypo!sis po9ts to a "t :5 !re w be no m progressive *ange b a m]e sequ5ce ( unfruitful ev5ts1 su* z ! et]nal uni=m motion ( a mass ( matt] no long] ga9+ or los+ heat 9 an e!r possess$ ( a uni=m di/ribution ( en]gy 9 all its p>ts4 ,or1 aga91 if ! e!r absorb ! en]gy ( mat]ial motion1 ?is va/ & d>k aggregation et]nally pois$ & at re/ )9 x4 ,! action is transf]r$ to ! subtle p>ts ( ! e!r :i* suff] none ( ! en]gy to degrade4 ,?is is1 physically1 a ?9kable future4 ,our m9ds sugge/ no *ange1 & dem& none4 ,m ?an ?is1 *ange is un?9kable accord+ to our pres5t ideas ( en]gy4 ,( progress !re is an end4 ,?is f9ality p>te po/ is in/ructive4 ,ab/ract consid]ations1 bas$ on geometrical or analytical illu/rations1 "q ! f9it5ess ( "s physical developm5ts4 ,?us our sun may require et]nal "t to atta9 ! temp]ature ( ! e!r ar\nd x1 ! approa* to ?is condition be+ assum$ to be asymptotic 9 #bhi "*4 ,b consid] ! legitimate r$uctio ad absurdum ( an emb] rak$ f a fire #ajjj ye>s ago4 ,is x n yet cool$ d[n to ! con/ant temp]ature ( its surr\nd+s8 ,& we may evid5tly increase ! "t a million-fold if we please4 ,x appe>s z if we mu/ reg>d et]nity z outliv+ e progressive *ange1 ,= !re is no conv]g5ce or enfeeblem5t ( "t4 ,! ev]-fl[+ pres5t moves no diff]5tly = ! occurr5ce ( ! mightie/ or ! mo/ insignificant ev5ts4 ,& ev5 if we say t "t is only ! att5dant ^u ev5ts1 yet ?is att5dant waits pati5tly = ! end1 h[ev] long def]r$4 ,does ! ess5tially mat]ial hypo!sis ( ,kant & ,laplace acc\nt = an inf9ite pa/ z ?9kably z x acc\nts = ! inf9ite future8 ,z ?is hypo!sis is bas$ ^u mat]ial in/ability ! "q resolves itself into ?is3-- ,is ! assumption ( an inf9itely prolong$ pa/ in/ability a probable or possible acc\nt ( ! pa/8 ,!re are1 x appe>s to me1 great difficulties involv$ 9 accept+ ! hypo!sis ( inf9itely prolong$ mat]ial in/ability4 ,i w ref] "h to ?ree pr9cipal objections4 ,! fir/ may be call$ a metaphysical objection2 ! second is p>tly metaphysical & p>tly physical1 ! ?ird may be consid]$ a physical objection1 z x is involv$ directly 9 ! ph5om5a pres5t$ by our univ]se4 ,! metaphysical objection mu/ h pres5t$ itself to e "o :o has consid]$ ! "q4 ,x may #bij be put ?us3--,if pres5t ev5ts are m]ely "o /age 9 an inf9ite progress1 :y is n ! pres5t /age long ago pass$ ov]8 ,we are evid5tly at lib]ty to pu% back any /age ( progress to z remote a p]iod z we l by putt+ back fir/ ! "o be=e ?is & next ! /age prec$+ ?is1 & s on1 =1 by hypo!sis1 !re is no beg9n+ to ! progress4 ,?us1 ! sum ( pass+ ev5ts con/itut+ ! pres5t univ]se %\ld long ago h be5 accompli%$ & pass$ away4 ,if we consid] alt]native hypo!ses n involv+ ?is difficulty1 we are at once /ruck by ! fact t ! future ( mat]ial developm5t is free ( ! objection4 ,= ! et]nity ( unprogressive ev5ts involv$ 9 ! future on ,kant's hypo!sis1 is n only ?9kable1 b any *ange is1 z obs]v$1 irreconcilable ) our ideas ( en]gy4 ,z 9 ! future s 9 ! pa/ we look to a cessation to progress4 ,b z we believe ! activity ( ! pres5t univ]se mu/ 9 "s =m h exi/$ all along1 ! only refuge 9 ! pa/ is to imag9e an active b unprogressive et]nity1 ! unprogressive activity at "s p]iod becom+ a progressive activity--t progressive activity ( :i* we are spectators4 ,to ! unprogressive activity !re 0 no beg9n+2 9 fact1 beg9n+ is z un?9kable & uncall$ = to ! unprogressive activity ( ! pa/ z end+ is to ! unprogressive activity ( ! future1 :5 all developm5tal actions %all h ceas$4 ,!re is no beg9n+ or end+ to ! activity ( ! univ]se4 #bia ,!re is beg9n+ & end+ to pres5t progressive activity4 ,look+ ?r\gh ! realm ( nature we seek beg9n+ & end+1 b pass+ ?r\gh nature to et]nity we f9d nei!r4 ,bo? are ju/ifi$2 ! que/ion+ ( ! anci5t poet reg>d+ ! pa/1 & ( ! mod]n reg>d+ ! future1 quot$ at ! head ( ?is essay4 ,! next objection1 :i* is 9 "p metaphysical1 is f\nd$ on ! difficulty ( ascrib+ any ultimate reality or pot5cy to =ces dim9i%+ ?r\gh et]nal "t4 ,?us1 aga9/ ! assumption t our univ]se is ! result ( mat]ial aggregation progress+ ov] et]nal "t1 :i* involves ! primitive inf9ite sep>ation ( ! p>ticles1 we may ask1 :at =ce c h act$ betwe5 p>ticles sund]$ by inf9ite di/ance8 ,! gravitational =ce fall+ (f z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance1 mu/ vani% at inf9ity if we mean :at we say :5 we ascribe inf9ite sep>ation to !m4 ,_! condition is !n "o ( neutral /ability1 a f9ite movem5t ( ! p>ticles nei!r increas+ nor dim9i%+ int]action4 ,!y _h !n rema9$ et]nally 9 _! sep>at$ condition1 !re be+ no cause to r5d] su* condition f9ite4 ,! difficulty involv$ "h appe>s to me ( ! same nature z ! difficulty ( ascrib+ any residual heat to ! sun aft] et]nal "t has elaps$4 ,9 bo? cases we are b\nd to prolong ! "t1 f our v idea ( "t1 till progress is no m1 :5 9 ! "o case we c imag9e no mutual approximation ( ! #bib p>ticles1 9 ! o!r no fur!r cool+ ( ! body4 ,h[ev]1 ,i w riot dwell fur!r ^u ?is objection1 z x does n1 ,i believe1 pres5t itself ) equal =ce to e m9d4 ,a reason less op5 to dispute1 z be+ less subjective1 aga9/ ! aggregation ( inf9itely remote p>ticles z ! orig9 ( our univ]se1 is conta9$ 9 ! physical objection4 ,9 ?is objection we consid] t ! appe>ance pres5t$ by our univ]se negatives ! hypo!sis ( inf9itely prolong$ aggregation4 ,we base ?is negation ^u ! appe>ance ( simultaneity pres5t$ by ! heav5s1 cont5d+ t ?is simultaneity is contr>y to :at we w\ld expect to f9d 9 ! case ( p>ticles ga!r$ f inf9itely remote di/ances4 ,:e!r ^! p>ticles 7 end[$ ) relative motions or n is unimportant to ! consid]ation4 ,9 :at respects d ! ph5om5a ( our univ]se pres5t ! appe>ance ( simultane\s ph5om5a8 ,we mu/ rememb] t ! suns 9 space are z fires :i* bright5 only = a mom5t & are !n ext+ui%$4 ,x is 9 ?is s5se we mu/ reg>d ! longe/ burn+ ( ! />s4 ,:e!r j lit or j expir+ c\nts little 9 et]nity4 ,! light & heat ( ! /> is be+ absorb$ by ! e!r ( space z effectually & rapidly z ! ocean swall[s ! ripple f ! w+s ( an expir+ insect4 ,sir ,william ,h]s*el says ( ! galaxy ( ! milky way3-- ,we d n "k ! rate ( progress ( ?is my/]i\s *ronomet]1 b x is nev]!less c]ta9 t x _c #bic la/ = ev]1 & its pa/ duration _c be inf9ite4 ,we d n "k1 inde$1 ! rate ( progress ( ! *ronomet]1 b if ! dial be "o divid$ into et]nal durations ! consummation ( any f9ite physical *ange repres5ts su* a movem5t ( ! h& z is accompli%$ 9 a s+le vibration ( ! balance :eel4 ,h5ce we mu/ reg>d ! ho/s ( glitt]+ />s z a conflagration t has be5 simultane\sly light$ up 9 ! heav5s4 ,! enorm\s 7to our ideas7 !rmal en]gy ( ! />s resembles ! sc9tillation ( iron du/ 9 a j> ( oxyg5 :5 a p9* ( ! du/ is ?r[n 94 ,al?\gh "s p>ticles be burnt up be=e o!rs become alight1 & "s l+] yet a little long] ?an ! o!rs1 9 our day's "w ! sc9tillation ( ! iron du/ is ! "w ( a s+le in/ant1 & s 9 ! long night ( et]nity ! sc9tillation ( ! mightie/ suns ( space is ov] 9 a mom5t4 ,a little long]1 inde$1 9 duration ?an ! life :i* /irs a mom5t 9 response to ! diffusion ( ! en]gy1 b only v little4 ,s mu/ an ,et]nal ,be+ reg>d ! sc9tillation ( ! />s & ! p]iodic vibration ( life 9 our geological "t & ! mo/ endur+ ef=ts ( ?\ght4 ,! latt] inde$ are no m la/+ ?an 444 ! lab\r ( ants ,9 ! light ( a million million ( suns4 ,b ! myriad suns !mselves1 ) _! g5]ations1 are ! mom5t>y gleam ( lights = ev] aft] ext+ui%$4 #bid ,aga91 sci5ce sugge/s t ! pres5t process ( mat]ial aggregation is n f9i%$1 & possibly w only be :5 x prevails univ]sally4 ,h5ce ! v di/ribution ( ! />s1 z we obs]ve !m1 z isolat$ aggregations1 indicates a developm5t :i* 9 ! inf9ite duration mu/ be reg>d$ z equally advanc$ 9 all p>ts ( /ell> space & ess5tially a simultane\s ph5om5on4 ,= 7 we spectators ( a sy/em 9 :i* any v great diff]5ce ( age prevail$1 ?is v great diff]5ce w\ld be att5d$ by "s su* appe>ance z ! foll[+3-- ,! aupe>ance ( b "o />1 o!r g5]ations be+ long ext9ct or no o!rs yet come into be+2 or1 p]haps1 a fa9t nebul\s wrea? ( aggregat+ matt] some:]e solit>y 9 ! heav5s2 or no sign ( matt] beyond our sy/em1 ei!r because unga!r$ or long pass$ away into d>kness4#a ,"s su* appe>ances 7 to be expect$ _h ! aggregation ( matt] dep5d$ solely on *ance enc\nt]s ( p>ticles scatt]$ ?r\gh inf9ite space4 ,= z1 by hypo!sis1 ! aggregation occupies an inf9ite "t 9 consummation x is ne>ly a c]ta9ty t ea* p>ticle enc\nt]$ aft] immeasurable "t1 & !n = ! fir/ "t end[$ ) actual gravitational pot5tial en]gy1 w\ld h long exp5d$ ?is en]gy #a ,x is int]e/+ to reflect ^u ! effect :i* an entire abs5ce ( lum9>ies outside our sol> sy/em w\ld h _h ^u ! views ( our philosoph]s & ^u our outlook on life4 #bie be=e ano!r p>ticle 0 ga!r$4 ,b ! fact t s _m fires :i* we "k to be ( brief duration are scatt]$ ?r\gh a region ( space1 & ! fact ( a configuration :i* we believe to be a transitory ore1 sugge/ _! simultane\s aggregation "h & !re4 ,& 9 ! nebul\s wrea?s situat$ amid/ ! />s !re is evid5ce t ^! actually orig9at$ :]e !y n[ are1 = 9 su* no relative motion1 ,i believe1 has z yet be5 detect$ by ! spectroscope4 ,all ?is1 too1 is 9 keep+ ) ! nebul> hypo!sis ( ,kant & ,laplace s long z ?is does n assume a primitive inf9ite disp]sion ( matt]1 b ! ga!r+ ( matt] f f9ite di/ances fir/ into nebul\s pat*es :i* aggregat+ ) ea* o!r h giv5 rise to our sy/em ( />s4 ,b if we ext5d ?is hypo!sis ?r\gh\t an inf9ite pa/ by ! supposition ( aggregation ( inf9itely remote p>ticles we replace ! simultane\s approa* requir$ 9 ord] to accotnt = ! simultane\s ph5om5a visible 9 ! heav5s1 by a succession ( aggregative ev5ts1 by hypo!sis at int]vals ( ne>ly inf9ite duration1 :5 ! ev5ts ( ! univ]se _h consi/$ ( fitful gleams light$ aft] et]nities ( "t & ext+ui%$ = yet o!r et]nities4 ,f9ally1 if we seek to replace ! et]nal in/ability involv$ 9 ,kant's hypo!sis :5 ext5d$ ov] an inf9ite pa/1 by any hypo!sis ( mat]ial /ability1 we at once f9d ourselves 9 ! difficulty t f ! kn[n prop]ties ( matt] su* /ability mu/ h be5 #bif p]man5t if ev] exi/5t1 :i* is contr>y to fact4 ,?us ! k9etic in]tia express$ 9 ,newton's fir/ law ( motion might well be suppos$ to secure equilibrium ) mat]ial attraction1 b if primevally diffus$ matt] _h ev] ?us be5 held 9 equilibrium x mu/ h rema9$ s1 or x 0 ma9ta9$ s imp]fectly1 :i* br+s u back to endless evolution4 ,on ^! gr\nds ,i cont5d t ! pres5t gravitational prop]ties ( matt] _c be suppos$ to h act$ = all pa/ duration4 ,univ]sal equilibrium ( gravitat+ p>ticles w\ld h be5 inde/ructible by int]nal causes4 ,p]petual in/ability or evolution is alike un?9kable & contr>y to ! ph5om5a ( ! univ]se ( :i* we are cognisant4 ,we !re=e turn f gravitat+ matt] z af=d+ no rational acc\nt ( ! pa/4 ,we d s ( necessity1 h[ev] mu* we feel our ignorance ( ! nature ( ! unkn[n actions to :i* we h rec\rse4 ,a premat]ial condition ( ! univ]se 01 we assume1 a condition 9 :i* uni=mity z reg>ds ! av]age di/ribution ( en]gy 9 space prevail$1 b net]og5eity & in/ability 7 possible4 ,! realization ( t possibility 0 ! beg9n+ we seek1 & we today are witnesses ( ! tra9 ( ev5ts involv$ 9 ! breakd[n ( an et]nal pa/ equilibrium4 ,we are witnesses on ?is hypo!sis1 ( a cata/rophe possibly conf9$ to c]ta9 regions ( space1 b :i* is1 to ! motions & configurations conc]n$1 absolutely unique1 rev]sible to #big its =m] condition ( pot5tial by no process ( :i* we c h any conception4 ,our speculation is t we1 z spectators ( evolution1 are witness+ ! int]action ( =ces :i* h n always be5 act+4 ,a premat]ial /ate ( ! univ]se 0 "o ( unfruitful motions1 t is1 motions unatt5d$ by progress+ *anges1 9 our region ( ! e!r4 ,h[ ext5d$ we _c say2 ! nature ( ! motions we "k n2 b ! k9etic entities diff]$ f matt] 9 ! "o important p>ticul> ( n possess+ gravitational attraction4 ,su* k9etic configurations we _c consid] to be matt]4 ,x 0 possible to con/ruct matt] by _! summation or l9kage z ! configuration ( ! cry/al is possible 9 ! cle> sup]saturat$ liquid4 ,duration 9 an e!r fill$ ) su* motions w\ld pass 9 a succession ( m]e unfruitful ev5ts2 z duration1 we may imag9e1 ev5 n[ passes 9 p>ts ( ! e!r simil> to our own4 ,an endless 7x may be7 succession ( unprogressive1 fruitless ev5ts4 ,b at "o mom5t 9 ! inf9ite duration ! requisite configuration ( ! elem5t>y motions is atta9$2 solely by ! "o *ance disposition ! /ability ( all mu/ g1 spread+ f ! fateful po9t4 ,possibly ! mat]ial segregation 0 conf9$ to "o "p ( space1 ! elem5t>y motions cond5s+ ^u trans=mation1 & s impov]i%+ ! e!r ar\nd till ! action ceas$4 ,aga9 9 ! same s5se z ! #bih />s are simultane\s1 s also !y may be reg>d$ z uni=m 9 size1 = ! diff]5ce 9 magnitude might h be5 any?+ we please to imag9e1 if at ! same "t we ascribe suffici5t di/ance sund]+ great & small4 ,s1 too21 w a dilute solution ( acetate ( soda build a cry/al at "o po9t1 & ! impov]i%m5t ( ! m$ium *eck+ ! gr[? 9 ?is region1 ano!r c5tre w beg9 at ! fur!/ extremities ( ! fir/ cry/al till ! liquid is fill$ ) loose fea!ry aggregations comp>able 9 size ) "o ano!r4 ,9 a simil> way ! cry/alliz+ out ( matt] may h giv5 rise1 n to a uni=m nebula 9 space1 b to deta*$ nebula1 approximately ( equal mass1 f :i* ultimately 7 =m$ ! />s4 ,t an all-kn[+ ,be+ might h =etold ! ultimate ev5t at any prec$+ p]iod by obs]v+ ! motions ( ! p>ts !n occurr+1 & reason+ z to ! tra9 ( consequ5ces aris+ f ^! nations1 is supposable4 ,b consid]ations aris+ f ?is involve no difficulty 9 ascrib+ to ?is premat]ial tra9 ( ev5ts inf9ite duration4 ,= progress !re is none1 & we c q z easily conceive ( "s "p ( space :]e ! same ,inf9ite ,intellig5ce1 contemplat+ a simil> tra9 ( unfruitful motions1 f9ds t at no "t 9 ! future w ! equilibrium be di/urb$4 ,b :]e evolution is progress+ ?is is no long] conceivable1 z be+ contradictory to ! v idea ( progressive developm5t4 ,9 ?is case ,inf9ite ,intellig5ce #bii necess>ily f9ds1 z ! result ( 8 contemplation1 ! aggregation ( matt]1 & ! consequ5ces aris+ !refrom4 ,! negation ( s prim>y a mat]ial prop]ty z gravitation to ^! primitive motions ( 7or 97 ! e!r1 probably involves ! negation ( _m prop]ties we f9d associat$ ) matt]4 ,possibly ! quality ( in]tia1 equally prim>y1 is involv$ ) t ( gravitation1 & we may suppose t ^! two prop]ties s intimately associat$ 9 det]m9+ ! motions ( bodies 9 space 7 conf]r$ ^u ! primitive motions z cry/allographic attraction & rigidity are fir/ conf]r$ ^u ! solid gr[+ f ! sup]saturat$ liquid4 ,b 9 "s degree less speculative is ! supposition t ! new ord] ( motions involv$ ! trans=mation ( mu* en]gy into ! =m ( heat vibrations2 s t ! newly g5]at$ matt]1 l ! newly =m$ cry/al1 began its exi/5ce 9 a m$ium ri*ly f$ ) !rmal radiant en]gy4 ,we may consid] t ! !rmal conditions 7 su* z w\ld acc\nt = a primitive dissociation ( ! elem5ts4 ,&1 aga91 we recall h[ ! physici/ f9ds 8 e/imate ( ! en]gy involv$ 9 m]e gravitational aggregation inadequate to af=d explanation ( pa/ sol> heat4 ,x is supposable1 on su* a hypo!sis z we h be5 dwell+ on1 t ! entire subsequ5t gravitational cond5sation & conv]sion ( mat]ial pot5tial en]gy1 dat+ f ! fir/ =mation ( matt] to ! /age ( /> =mation #cjj may be insignificant 9 am\nt comp>$ ) ! conv]sion ( e!rial en]gy att5d+ ! cry/alliz+ out ( matt] f ! primitive motions4 ,& ?us possibly ! conditions !n obta9+ involv$ a progressively increas+ complexity ( mat]ial /ructure ! g5esis ( ! elem5ts1 f an infra-hydrog5 possess+ ! simple/ mat]ial configuration1 result+ ultimately 9 su* self-lum9\s nebula z we yet see 9 ! heav5s4 ,! late ,james ,croll1 9 8 ,/ell> ,evolution1 f9ds objections to an et]nal evolution1 "o ( :i* is simil> to ! metaphysical objection urg$ 9 ?is pap]4 ,8 way out ( ! difficulty is 9 ! speculation t our /ell> sy/em orig9at$ by ! collision ( two masses end[$ ) relative motion1 et]nal 9 pa/ duration1 _! meet+ u%]+ 9 ! dawn ( evolution4 ,h[ev]1 ! /ate ( aggregation "h assum$1 f ! kn[n laws ( matt] & f analogy1 calls = explanation z probably ! result ( prior diffusion1 :51 ( c\rse1 ! difficulty is only put back1 n set at re/4 ,nor d ,i ?9k ! primitive collision 9 h>mony ) ! numb] ( relatively /ation>y nebula visible 9 space4 ,! metaphysical objection is1 ,i f9d1 also urg$ by ,george ,salmon1 late ,provo/ ( ,tr9ity ,college1 9 fav\r ( ! creation ( ! univ]se4--7,s]mons on ,agno/icism47 ,a4 ,w9*ell1 9 ,_w ,life1 says3 ,we h n #cja ! slighte/ sci5tific gr\nds = assum+ t matt] exi/$ 9 a c]ta9 condition f all et]nity4 ,! ess5tial activity ( ! p[]s ascrib$ to x =bids ! ?\ght2 = all t we "k1 &1 inde$1 z ! conclusion f all t we "k1 primal matt] began its progressive *anges on ! morn+ ( its exi/5ce4 ,f9ally1 9 ref]5ce to ! hypo!sis ( a unique det]m9ation ( matt] aft] et]nal duration 9 ! pa/1 x may n be out ( place to rem9d ! read] ( ! complexity :i* mod]n rese>* ascribes to ! /ructure ( ! atom4 #cjb ,,index ,a4 ,abney1 ,sir ,wm41 on s5sitis]s1 #baj4 ,abundance ( life1 num]ical1 #ih-ajj4 ,adaptation & aggressiv5ess ( ! organism1 #hj4 ,additive law1 !1 ) ref]5ce to alpha rays1 #bbj4 ,age ( ,e>?1 comp>ison ( d5udative & radioactive me?ods ( f9d+1 #bc-bi4 ,alets* glaci]1 #bhf4 ,all51 ,grant1 on col\r ( ,alp9e plants1 #ajd4 ,all51 ,h4 ,/anley1 on photo-electricity1 #bjc4 ,alpha rays1 nature (1 #bad2 velocity (1 #bad2 effects (1 on gases1 #bad2 range (1 9 air1 #bae2 visualis$1 #bah2 ionisation curve (1 #baf2 numb] (1 f "o gram ( radium1 #bcg2 numb] ( ions made by1 #bcg4 ,alp9e fl[]s1 int5sity ( col\r (1 #ajb4 ,alps1 hi/ory (1 #ada2 ,t]ti>y d5udation (1 #adh2 dep? ( s$im5t>y cov]+ (1 #adh2 evid5ce ( high pressures & temp]atures 91 #adi2 rec5t !ories ( =mation (1 #aej et seq42 upheaval (1 #adg2 age (1 #adg2 volcanic ph5om5a att5d+ elevation (1 #adg4 ,&es1 tr\gh p>allel to1 #abc2 n volcanic 9 orig91 #aah4 ,angle ( friction on ice1 #bfa-bfe1 #bha-bhc2 on glass1 #bfa-bfe4 ,animate sy/ems1 dynamic conditions (1 #fg2 & transf] ( en]gy1 #ga2 & old age1 #gb2 me*anical imitation (1 #gf1 #gg4 ,animate & inanimate sy/ems comp>$1 #gc-ge4 ,appala*ian range1 =mation (1 #abj4 ,arrh5ius1 on elevation ( cont95ts1 #ag4 ,aryan ,era ( ,india1 #acf4 ,a/]oids1 probable orig9 (1 #age2 discov]y (1 #age2 dim5sions (1 #agf2 orbits (1 #agf2 ,m>s' moons d]iv$ f1 #agg4 ,b4 ,babbage & ,h]s*el1 !ory ( m\nta9 build+1 #abc4 ,babes 7& ,cornil71 size ( spores1 #ih4 ,beck]1 ,g4 ,f41 age ( ,e>? by sodium collection1 #ad2 age ( m9]als by lead ratio1 #bj4 ,b]!lot1 law ( maximum "w1 #fb4 ,b]tr&1 ,m>cel1 section ( ,mont ,blanc ,massif1 #aed4 ,beta rays1 nature (1 #bdf2 accompani$ by gamma rays1 #bdg2 production (1 by gamma rays1 #bdg2 z ionis+ ag5ts1 #bdi4 ,biotite1 conta9+ haloes1 #bbc2 pleo*roism (1 #bce2 int5sifi$ pleo*roism 9 halo1 #bce4 ,body & m9d1 z manife/ations ( progressiv5ess ( ! organism1 #hf4 ,boltwood1 age ( m9]als by lead ratio1 #bj4 ,bose1 !ory ( lat5t image1 #bjc4 ,bragg & ,kleeman1 on pa? ( ! alpha ray1 #bae2 /opp+ p[]1 #bai2 laws affect+ ionisation by alpha rays1 #bbj2 curve ( ionisation & /ructure ( ! halo1 #bcb4 ,brecci5decke1 %eet ( !1 #aed4 ,brd*e1 %eet ( !1 #aed4 ,burr>d & ,hayd5 on ! ,himalaya1 #ach2 sections ( ! ,himalaya1 #aci4 ,c4 ,canals & canali1 #aff2 curvature (1 & pa? ( a satellite1 #ahh et seq42 d\ble & triple acc\nt$ =1 #ahf1 #ahg2 d\bl+ (1 #aie2 disappe>ance & reappe>ance (1 #aif-aih2 photography (1 #aih2 n due to cracks1 #afg2 n due to riv]s1 #afg2 ( ,m>s1 d\ble nature (1 #aff1 #agj2 cross+ d>k regions ( planet's surface1 #afh2 ( ,m>s1 ,l[ell's views on1 #afh et seq42 %[n on ,l[ell's map1 inve/igation (1 #aib et seq42 radiat+1 explanation (1 #aic1 #aid2 numb] (1 #aid2 develop$ by second>y di/urbances1 #aid2 nodal developm5t (1 due to rais$ surface features1 #aie4 ,*amb]l9 & ,salisbury1 ! ,l>amide range1 #aba4 ,cl>ke1 ,f4 ,w41 e/imate ( mass ( s$im5ts1 #i2 age ( ,e>? by sodium collection1 #ad2 av]age composition ( s$im5t>y & igne\s rocks1 #db2 on av]age composition ( ! cru/1 #abf2 solv5t d5udation ( ! cont95ts1 #ag1 #dj4 ,claus1 protoplasm ! te/ ( ! cell1 #fg2 abortion ( useless organs1 #fi4 ,coeffici5t ( friction1 def9ition (1 #bfb2 d$uction (1 f angle ( friction1 #bfc2 abnormal values on ice1 #bfa-bfe1 #bhb2 = v>i\s sub/ances1 #bfe4 ,cont95tal areas1 movem5ts (1 #add4 ,cornil & ,babes1 size ( spores1 #ih4 ,croll1 ,james1 dawn ( evolution1 #cja4 ,cru/ ( ! ,e>?1 av]age composition (1 #abf2 dep? ( s(t5+ 91 #abh4 ,curie1 def9ition ( !1 #bef4 ,d4 ,dana1 on m\nta9 build+1 #abj4 ,dawson1 r$uction ( surface repres5t$ by ,l>amide range1 #abc4 ,deccan traps1 #acg df]lem5t1 !ory (1 #aee2 explanation (1 #aee et seq42 temp]ature involv$ 91 #aef4 ,deimos1 dim5sions (1 #agg2 orbit (1 #egg4 ,de ,lapp>5t1 exotic nature ( ! ,pralpes1 #aej4 ,de ,montessus & ! association ( e>?quakes ) geosyncl9es1 #adb4 ,d5udation z affect$ by cont95tal elevation1 #ag2 factors promot+1 #cj et seg42 relative activity 9 m\nta9s & on pla9s1 #ce-dj2 solv5t1 by ! sea1 #dj2 ! sodium index (1 #df-ej2 ?ickness ( rock-lay] remov$ f ! l&1 #ea4 ,de ,qu9cy1 ,sy/em ( ! ,heav5s1 #bjj4 ,dew>1 ,sir ,james1 lat5t image =m$ at l[ temp]atures1 #bjb4 ,dixon1 ,h4 ,h41 & ,a,gnadance ( ,life1 #fj4 ,d\ble canals1 =mation by attraction ( a satellite1 #ehe-ahg4 ,d\glass1 ,a4 ,e41 obs]vations on ,m>s1 #afg4 ,dravidian ,era ( ,india1 #ace4 ,e4 ,e>?1 e>ly hi/ory (1 #c1 #d2 dim5sions (1 relative to surface features1 #aag4 ,e>?'s age det]m9$ by ?ickness ( s$im5ts1 #e2 det]m9$ by mass ( ! s$im5ts1 #g2 det]m9$ by sodium 9 ! ocean1 #ab2 det]m9$ by radioactive trans=mations1 #ai2 significance (1 #b4 ,e>?quakes associat$ ) geosyncl9cs1 #adb4 ,effici5cy1 t5d5cy to maximum1 9 organisms1 #aac1 #aad4 ,elem5ts1 probable wide diffusion ( r>e1 #bcj2 r>ity ( radioactive1 #bda4 ,el/] & ,geitel1 photo-electric activity & absorption1 #bjg2 photo-electric prop]ties ( gelat91 #bab2 ,emanation ( radium1 !rapeutic use (1 #bef-bei2 advantages (1 9 m$ic9e1 #bef2 volume (1 #beg2 h[ obta9$1 #beg2 use (1 9 ne$les1 #beh4 ,equilibrium am\nt1 mean+ (1 #bed1 #bee4 ,evolution & accel]ation ( activity1 #gi2 ( ! univ]se n et]nal a pane ante1 #bih4 ,f4 ,f>aday & ionisation1 #eg4 ,f9ality ( progress a "p1 po/1 #bhi4 ,flahault1 exp]im5ts on col\r ( fl[]s1 #ajh4 ,flet*]1 ,a4 ,l41 proportionality ( ?orium & uranium1 #bf1 ,g4 ,galileo1 discov]y ( ,jupit]'s moons1 #afb4 ,gamma rays1 nature (1 #bdg3 production (1 by beta rays1 #bdg2 z ionis+ ag5ts1 #bdi4 ,g$des & ,?omson1 hung] & liv+ matt]1 #ga4 ,geig]1 range ( alpha rays 9 air1 #bae2 ionisation affect$ by alpha rays 9 air1 #baf2 on scatt]+1 #bag2 scatt]+ & ! /ructure ( ! halo1 #bcb4 ,geikie1 ,sir ,a41 uni=mity 9 geological hi/ory1 #ae4 ,geosyncl9es1 #aai2 association ) e>?quakes & volcanoes1 #adb2 ( ! te?ys1 #adb2 radioactive heat 91 due to s$im5ts1 #acj2 temp]ature effects due to lat]al compression (1 #aca4 ,glacial epo*1 ph5om5a (1 #bhg4 ,glaci] motion1 cause (4 #bhe4 ,glossopt]is & ,gangamopt]is flora1 #acf4 ,gondwanal&1 #acf4 ,gradi5t ( temp]ature 9 ,e>?'s surface cru/1 #abf4 ,h4 ,haimanta p]iod ( ,india1 #ace4 ,halley1 ,edmund1 f9d+ age by saltness ( ocean1 #ac4 ,hallwa*s1 photo-electric activity & absorption1 #bjg4 ,haloes1 pleo*roic1 f9d+ age ( rocks by1 #ba2 due to uranium & ?orium families1 #bbg2 radii (1 #bbg2 ov]-expos$ & und]expos$1 #bbh2 intimate /ructure (1 #bbi et seq42 artificial1 #bbi2 tubul>1 9 mica1 #bcj2 extreme age (1 #bca2 effect ( nucleus on /ructure (1 #bcb2 inf]5ce f sph]ical =m (1 9 cry/als1 #bcc2 /ructure (1 unaffect$ by cleavage1 #bce2 orig9 ( ! "n pleo*roic1#bce2 col\ration due to iron1 #bce2 col\ration n due to helium1 #bcf2 age ,(1 #bcf2 sl[ =mation (1 #bcg1 #bch2 numb] ( rays requir$ to build1 #bcg2 & age ( ! ,e>?1 #bch-bda4 ,hayd51 ,h4,h41 geology ( ! ,himalaya1 #acd1 #ach1 #aci4 ,heat-t5d5cy ( ! univ]se1 #fb4 ,heat emission f ! ,e>?'s surface1 #abf2 f av]age igne\s rock due to radioactivity1 #abf4 ,helium & ! alpha ray1 #bad1 #bbb2 col\ration ( halo n due to1 #bcf4 ,h]+1 ,e41 & physiological or unconsci\s memory1 #aaa4 ,h]s*el & ,babbage !ory ( m\nta9 build+1 #abc4 ,h]s*el1 ,sir ,w41 on galaxy ( milky way1 #bic4 ,h]tz1 negative electrification dis*>g$ by light1 #bjd4 ,himalaya1 geological hi/ory (1 #acd-aci4 ,hobbs1 on association ( e>?quakes & geosyncl9es1 #adc4 ,holmes1 ,a41 orig9al lead 9 m9]als1 #bj2 age ( ,devonian1 #ba4 ,hor/ conc]n$ 9 ,alp9e df]lem5t1 objections to1 #aef4 ,hyp]ion1 dim5sions (1 #agg4 ,i4 ,ice1 melt+ (1 by pressure1 #bfg et seq42 expansion ( wat] 9 becom+1 #bfg2 l[]+ ( melt+-po9t by pressure1 #bfg2 fall ( temp]ature "u pressure1 #bfh et seq42 viscosity (1 #bhd4 ,igne\s rocks1 av]age composition (1 #dc4 ,inanimate actions1 dynamic conditions (1 #fa4 ,inanimate sy/ems1 second>y effects 91 #fc-fe2 transf] ( en]gy into1 #ff4 ,indian geology1 equival5t nom5clature (1 #aci4 ,initial recomb9ation ( ions due to alpha rays1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bca2 & /ructure ( ! halo1 #bca4 ,insect life 9 ! high] ,alps1 #ajd1 #aje2 de/ruction (1 on ! ,alp9e sn[s1 #ajf4 ,ionisation by alpha ray1 d5sity (1 #bba2 importance 9 *emical actions1 #bej2 9 liv+ cell1 #bej4 ,ions1 numb] (1 produc$ by an alpha ray1 #bcg4 ,iso/asy1 #ec2 & pres]vation ( cont95ts1 #ec4 ,ivy1 inconspicu\s blossoms (1 #ajg2 delay 9 rip5+ se$1 #ajg4 ,k4 ,kant & ,laplace1 mat]ial hypo!sis (1 does n acc\nt = ! pa/1 #bij4 ,kelv91 ,"l1 exp]im5t on effects ( pressure on ice1 #bfh-bgj4 ,kleeman & ,bragg4 ,see ,bragg4 ,klop/ock introduces skat+ into ,g]many1 #bgc4 ,l4 ,lakes1 cause ( blue col\r (1 #ee4 ,l&1 movem5ts ( !1 #ec1 #ed4 ,lauke/]1 ,ray1 ! soma & reproductive cells1 #he4 ,lapwor?1 /ructure ( ! ,scotti% ,highlauds1 #aec4 ,lat5t heat ( wat]1 #bff4 ,lat5t image1 =m$ at l[ temp]atures1 #bjb2 ,bose's !ory (1 #bjc2 photo-electric !ory (1 #bjd1 #bji et seq4 ,lea/ action1 law (1 #ff4 ,lemb]t & ,ri*>ds1 atomic weight ( lead1 #bg4 ,l5g? ( life dep5d5t on conditions ( /ructural developm5t1 #ic2 dep5d5t on rate ( reproduction1 #id4 ,life-curves ( organisms hav+ diff]5t activities1 #ib4 ,life1 l5g? (1 #ia4 ,life waves ( a c]ial1 #ie2 ( ,ausaeba1 #hg2 ( a species1 #ij4 ,light1 effects (1 9 dis*>g+ negative electrification1 #bjd2 *emical effects (1 #bje2 exp]im5t %[+ effect (1 9 dis*>g+ electrifi$ body1 #bje4 ,l9demann1 ,dr41 duration ( sol> heat1 #bi4 ,l[ell1 ,p]cival1 obs]vations on ,m>s1 #afg et seq42 map ( ,m>s1 reliability (1 #aih4 ,lucretius1 bir?-"t ( ! _w1 #a4 ,lugeon1 =mation ( ! ,pralpes1 #aga2 sections 9 ! ,alps1 #aed4 ,lyell1 uni=mity 9 geological hi/ory1 #ae4 ,m4 ,magee1 relative areas ( deposition & d5udation1 #af4 ,m>s1 climate (1 #agj2 position 9 sol> sy/em1 #agd1 #age2 dim5sions ( satellites (1 #agg2 sn[ on1 #afi2 wat] on1 #afi2 cl\ds on1 #afi2 atmosph]e (1 #agj2 melt+ ( sn[ on1 #agj2 dim5sions ( canals1 #aga2 signal on1 #agb2 times ( opposition1 #afd2 orbit (1 #afe2 di/ance f ! ,e>?1 #afe2 ecc5tricity ( 8 orbit1 #afe2 obs]vations (1 by ,s*iap>elli1 #afe1 #aff2 ,l[ell's obs]vations on1 #afg et seq4 ,maxwell1 ,cl]k1 *anges made "u con/ra9ts1 #fe2 on cons]vation ( en]gy1 #fa4 ,m',connel1 ,j4 ,c41 viscosity & rigidity ( ice1 #bhd4 ,memory1 physiological1 #aaa1 #aab4 ,metamorphism1 !rmal1 9 ,alp9e rocks1 #acb1 #adi ,millicurie1 def9ition (1 #bef4 ,molasse1 accumulations (1 #adh4 ,mor91 coeffici5ts ( friction1 #bfe4 ,morphy1 ,h41 exp]im5ts on coeffici5t ( friction ( ice1 #bha4 ,m\nta9-build+ & ! geosyncl9es1 #aai-aba2 condition$ by radioactive en]gy1 #abe2 en]gy =1 due to gravitation1 #abb2 r$uction ( surface att5d+1 #abc2 depression att5d+1 #abc2 in/ability due to !rmal effects ( compression1 #acb2 igne\s ph5om5a att5d+1 #acb2 rhy?mic "* (1 acc\nt$ =1 #acc2 movem5ts conf9$ to upp] cru/1 #abb2 movem5ts due to compressive /resses 9 cru/1 #abb2 movem5ts1 rhy?mic "* (1 #aba4 ,m\nta9 ranges built ( s$im5t>y mat]ials1 #aah4 ,mll]1 ,j41 coeffici5t ( friction ( skate on ice1 #bfe1 #bgd4 ,mu? deposits ( ,india1 #ace4 ,n4 ,newton1 ,pr(essor1 ( ,yale1 on orig9 ( ,m>s' satellites1 #agg4 ,nucleus1 dim5sions (1 #bcg2 am\nt ( radium 91 #bch4 ,nummulitic b$s ( ,himalaya1 #ach4 ,o4 ,ocean1 am\nt ( rock salt 91 #ej2 cause ( black col\r (1 #ee2 e/imat$ mass ( s$im5ts 91 #dh2 increase ( bulk due to solv5t d5udation1 #eb2 its saltness due to d5udation1 #da4 ,old age & dea?1 #hb-he2 n at v>iance ) progressive activity1 #hc4 ,organic sy/ems1 orig9 (1 #gh4 ,organic vibrations1 #hf et seq4 ,organism & accel]ative absorption ( en]gy1 #gi2 & economy1 #aji-aaa2 & p]iodic rig\r ( ! environm5t1 #id1ie4 ,organism & sleep1 #ie2 ultimate explanation ( ry?mic ev5ts 91 #if1 #ig2 law ( action (1 #fh et seq42 p]iodicity (2 & law ( progressive activity1 #hb et seq4 ,p4 ,p5jal traps1 #ace4 ,pepys & skat+1 #bgc4 ,p]ry1 coeffici5t ( friction ( greas$ surfaces1 #bfe4 ,phobos1 dim5sions (1 #agg2 orbit (1 #agg4 ,photoelectric activity & absorption1 #bjg2 p]si/s at l[ temp]atures1 #bjh1 #bji2 n affect$ by solution1 #bac4 ,photo-electric exp]im5t1 #bje2 s5sitiv5ess ( ! h&s1 #bjg2 !ory ( lat5t image1 #bjd1 #bji et seq4 ,photographic rev]sal1 exp]im5ts on1 by ,wood1 #baa2 !ory (1 #baj4 ,piazzi1 discov]y ( fir/ ,a/]oid1 #age4 ,pick]+1 ,w4 ,h41 obs]vations on ,m>s1 #afg4 ,planet1 sl[+ ( axial rotation (1 #ahi4 ,plant1 expectant attitude (1 #aji4 ,pleo*roic haloes1 measurem5ts (1 #bbd2 !ory (1 #bbd et seq42 true =m (1 #bbf2 radius (1 & ! additive law1 #bbe2 abs5ce ( act9ium haloes1 #bbe2 see also ,haloes2 mode ( occurr5ce (1 #bbc et seq4 ,poole1 ,j4 ,h4 ,j41 proportionality ( ?orium & uranium1 #bf4 ,p\lton1 uni=mity ( pa/ climate1 #ag4 ,pratt1 ,ar*deacon1 & iso/asy1 #ec4 ,pralpes1 exotic nature (1 #aej1 #aea4 ,premat]ial univ]se1 nature ( a1 #big1 #cjj4 ,pre/wi* & ?ickness ( rigid cru/1 #abh2 hi/ory ( ! ,pyr5ees1 #adj4 ,primitive organisms1 int]f]5ce (1 #hi2 life-curves (1 #hh4 ,proctor & orbits ( ,a/]oids1 #agf4 ,protoplasm1 ency/m5t (1 #fh4 ,purana ,era ( ,india1 #acd4 ,pyr5ees1 hi/ory (1 #adj4 ,r4 ,radioactive elem5ts conc]n$ 9 m\nta9 build+1 #abe4 ,radioactive lay]1 failure to acc\nt = deep-seat$ temp]atures1 #abg2 assum$ ?ickness (1 #abh2 temp]ature at base (1 due to radioactivity1 #abi2 9 ! upp] cru/ ( ! ,e>?1 #abe2 ?ickness (1 #abf-abh4 ,radioactive treatm5t1 physical basis (1 #bea4 ,radioactivity & heat emission f av]age igne\s rock1 #abf2 r>ity (1 e/abli%$ by haloes1 #bda1 #bdc4 ,radium1 *emical nature & transmutation (1 #bdd-bde2 emanation (1 #bde2 rays f1 #bec1 #bed2 table ( family (1 #bec2 p]iod (1 #bec2 small !rapeutic value (1 #bed4 ,radium ,c1 !rapeutic value (1 #bed2 rays f4 #bed2 g5]ation (1 #bed4 ,rationality1 conditions = developm5t (1 #afc4 ,rays1 simil>ity 9 nature ( gamma1 ,x1 & light rays1 #bdh2 effects on liv+ cell1 #bea2 p5etration (1 #bea4 ,reade1 ,t4 ,mell>d1 f9d+ age ( ocean by calcium sulphate1 #ac4 ,recumb5t folds1 =mation (1 #aee et seq4 ,regelation1 #bhd2 affect+ glaci] motion1 #bhe4 ,rev]sal1 photographic1 explanation (1 #baa4 ,ri*>ds & ,lemb]t1 atomic weight ( lead1 #bg4 ,ri*t]1 ,jean ,paul1 ,dream ( ! ,univ]se1 #bjj4 ,rock salt 9 ! ocean1 am\nt (1 #ac4 ,rocks1 av]age composition (1 #dc2 radioactive heat f1 #abf2 rate ( solution (1 #cf4 ,russell1 ,i4 ,c41 riv] supply ( s$im5ts1 #aj4 ,ru!r=d1 ,sir ,e41 det]m9ation ( age ( m9]als1 #ai1 #bj2 age ( rocks by haloes1 #bb2 d]ivation ( act9ium1 #bbf2 artificial halo1 #bbi2 numb] ( alpha rays f "o gram ( radium1 #bcg4 ,s4 ,salt range deposits ( ,india1 #acd4 #ace4 ,saltness ( ! ocean due to d5udation1 #da-df4 ,salisbury 7& ,*amb]l971 ! ,l>imide range1 #aba4 ,salmon1 ,rev4 ,george1 on creation1 #cja4 ,satellite1 velocity (1 9 its orbit1 #aia2 me?od ( f9d+ pa? (1 ov] a rotat+ prim>y1 #ahi et seq42 direct & retrograde1 #agh2 ultimate end (1 #agh2 pa? (1 :5 fall+ into prim>y1 #agi2 effect ( ,m>s' atmosph]e on infall+ satellite1 #agi2 /ability ( close to prim>y1 #ahj2 effects (1 on cru/ ( prim>y1 #ahj et seq4 ,s*iap>elli1 obs]vations on ,m>s1 #afe #aff4 ,s*midt1 ,c41 orig9al dep? ( ,alp9e lay]1 #aca-adh2 /ructure ( ! ,alps1 #aeb4 ,s*midt1 ,g4 ,c41 on photo-electricity1 #bjg1 #bjh2 effect ( solution on photo-electric activity1 #bac4 ,s*u*]t1 ,c41 av]age area ( ,n4 ,am]ica dur+ geological "t1 #af4 ,s$im5t>y rocks1 av]age composition (1 #dc2 mass (1 det]m9$ by sodium index1 #dg4 ,s$im5tation a convection ( en]gy1 #acc4 ,s$im5ts1 av]age riv] supply (1 #aa2 on ocean floor1 mass (1 #dh2 av]age ?ickness (1 #di2 precipitation (1 by dissolv$ salts1 #ef-eh2 radioactivity ( #acj2 radioactive heat (1 influ5tial 9 m\nta9 build+1 #acj1 #aca2 rate ( collect+1 #g2 det]m9ation ( mass (1 #h2 riv] supply (1 #aj2 total ?ickness (1 #f4 ,semp]1 en]gy absorption ( vegetable & animal sy/ems1 #gh4 ,s5sitis]s1 effects ( l[ temp]ature on1 #baj4 ,simplon1 radioactive temp]ature 9 rocks (1 be=e d5udation1 #acb4 ,skates1 e>ly =ms (1 #bgc2 pr9ciples ( con/ruction (1 #bgc et seq42 action (1 on ice1 #bgf2 bite (1 #bgh-bhj4 ,skat+ n dep5d5t on smoo?ness ( ice1 #bfj2 hi/ory (1 #bgc4 ,skat+ only possible on v few sub/ances1 #bgi4 ,soddy1 ,f41 on isotopes1 #bd4 ,sodium1 defici5cy (1 9 s$im5ts1 #dd2 dis*>ge ( riv]s1 #ad4 ,soils1 =mation (1 #cg-ci2 surface area expos$ 91 #ci4 ,sollas1 ,w4 ,j41 age ( ,e>? by sodium 9 ocean1 #ad2 ?ickness ( s$im5ts1 #f4 ,sp5c]1 on division ( protoplasm1 #fg4 ,spores1 numb] ( molecules 91 #ig4 ,/ev5son1 ,dr4 ,walt] ,c41 & te*nique ( radioactive treatm5t1 #bei4 ,/olet[1 photo-electric activity anal absorption1 #bjg4 ,/opp+ p[] ( sub/ances ) ref]5ce to alpha rays1 #bai4 ,/ruggle = exi/5ce1 dynamic basis (1 #hj4 ,/rutt1 ,pr(4 ! ,hon4 ,r4 ,j41 age ( geological p]iods1 #bj2 radioactivity ( zircon1 #bbc4 ,sub-,ap5n9e s]ies ( ,italy1 #adh4 ,suess1 nature ( e>?quakes4 #adc4 ,survival ( ! fitte/ & ! organic law1 #hj4 ,t4 ,tal*ir b\ld]-b$1 #acf4 ,temp]ature gradi5t 9 ,e>?'s cru/1 #abf4 ,t]mi]1 section ( ! ,pelv\x ,massif1 #bed4 ,te?ys1 e>ly ext5t (1 #ace-acg2 geosyncl9es (1 #adb4 ,!rmal metamorphism 9 ,alp9e rocks1 #acb1 #adi4 ,?omson1 ,james1 pr$iction ( melt+ ( ice by pressure1 #bfg4 ,?orium & uranium1 proportionality (1 9 old] rocks1 #bf4 ,triple canals1 =mation (1 by attraction ( a satellite1 #ahg4 ,tyndall1 col\r ( ocean wat]1 #ee4 ,u4 ,uni=mit>ian view ( geological hi/ory1 #ae-ah4 ,univ]se1 simultaneity ( !1 #bic-bie4 ,uranium-radium family ( elem5ts1 table (1 #bec4 ,v4 ,val d',hr5s1 e>? pill>s (1 #cc4 ,van ,tillo1 nature ( cont95tal rock cov]+1 #i4 ,vegetable & animal sy/ems1 relative absorption ( en]gy (1 #gh4 ,vegetative organs1 /ruggle betwe51 #aje1 #ajf4 ,volcanoes & m\nta9 ranges1 #aah2 associat$ ) geosyncl9es1 #adb2 ,oligoc5e & ,mioc5e ( ,europe1 #adg4 ,w4 ,we9s*5k & !rmal metamorphism1 #acb1 #adi4 ,weismaun1 ency/m5t ( protoplasm1 #fh2 l5g? ( life & somatic cells1 #if2 orig9 ( dea?1 #hc2 t5d5cy to e>ly reproductiv5ess1 #ih4 ,wilson1 ,c4 ,t4 ,r41 visualis$ alpha rays1 #bah4 ,w9*ell1 progressive *anges ( matt] n et]nal1 #cjb4 ,wood1 ,r4 ,w41 on photographic rev]sal1 #baa4 ,z4 ,zircon1 radioactivity (1 #bbc2 z nucleus ( halo1 #bbc4