,a ,,short ,,history ,,of ,,english ,,agriculture ,,by ,w4,h4,r4 ,,curtler ,,oxford ,,at ,,the ,,clarendon ,,press #aiji ,,henry ,,frowde1 ,m4,a4 ,,publisher ,,to ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,oxford ,,london1 ,,edinburgh1 ,,new ,,york ,,toronto ,,and ,,melbourne ,,preface ',a husbandman'1 said ,markham1 'is the master of the earth1 turning barrenness into fruitfulness1 whereby all commonwealths are maintained and upheld4 ,his labour giveth liberty to all vocations1 arts1 and trades to follow their several functions with peace and industrie4 ,what can we say in this world is profitable where husbandry is wanting1 it being the great nerve and sinew which holdeth together all the joints of a monarchy8' ,and he is confirmed by ,young3 ',agriculture is1 beyond all doubt1 the foundation of every other art1 business1 and profession1 and it has therefore been the ideal policy of every wise and prudent people to encourage it to the utmost4' ,yet of this important industry1 still the greatest in ,england1 there is no history covering the whole period4 ,it is to remedy this defect that this book is offered1 with much diffidence1 and with many thanks to ,mr4 ,c4,r4,l4 ,fletcher of ,magdalen ,college1 ,oxford1 for his valuable assistance in revising the proof sheets1 and to the ,rev4 ,a4,h4 ,johnson of ,all ,souls for some very useful information4 ,as the agriculture of the ,middle ,ages has often been ably described1 ,i have devoted the greater part of this work to the agricultural history of the subsequent period1 especially the seventeenth1 eighteenth1 and nineteenth centuries4 ,w4,h4,r4 ,,curtler4 ,may #bb1 #aiji4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,i ,communistic ,farming4--,growth of the ,manor4--,early ,prices4--,the ,organization and ,agriculture of the ,manor ,,chapter ,,ii ,the ,thirteenth ,century4--,the ,manor at its ,zenith1 with ,seeds of ,decay already visible4--,walter of ,henley ,,chapter ,,iii ,the ,fourteenth ,century4--,decline of ,agriculture4--,the ,black ,death4-- ,statute of ,labourers ,,chapter ,,iv ,how the ,classes connected with the ,land lived in the ,middle ,ages ,,chapter ,v ,the ,break-up of the ,manor4--,spread of ,leases4--,the ,peasants' ,revolt4--,further ,attempts to regulate ,wages4--,a ,harvest ,home4--,beginning of the ,corn ,laws4--,some ,surrey ,manors ,,chapter ,,vi #adjj-aedj4 ,the so-called ',golden ,age of the ,labourer' in a ,period of ,general ,distress ,,chapter ,,vii ,enclosure ,,chapter ,,viii ,fitzherbert4--,the ,regulation of ,hours and ,wages ,,chapter ,,ix #aedj-afjj4 ,progress at last--,hop-growing4--,progress of ,enclosure4-- ,harrison's ,description ,,chapter ,x #aedj-afjj4 ,live ,stock4--,flax4--,saffron4--,the ,potato4--,the ,assessment of ,wages ,,chapter ,,xi #afjj-agjj4 ,clover and ,turnips4--,great ,rise in ,prices4--,more ,enclosure4--,a ,farming ,calendar ,,chapter ,,xii ,the ,great ,agricultural ,writers of the ,seventeenth ,century4--,fruit-growing4 --,a ,seventeenth-century ,orchard ,,chapter ,,xiii ,the ,evils of ,common ,fields4--,hops4--,implements4--,manures 4--,gregory ,king4--,corn ,laws ,,chapter ,,xiv #agjj-fe4 ,general ,characteristics of the ,eighteenth ,century4--,crops4 --,cattle4--,dairying4--,poultry4--,tull and the ,new ,husbandry4--,bad ,times4--,fruit-growing ,,chapter ,,xv #agjj-fe4 ,townshend4--,sheep-rot4--,cattle ,plague4--,fruit-growing ,,chapter ,,xvi #agfe-ic4 ,arthur ,young4--,crops and their ,cost4--,the ,labourers' ,wages and ,diet4--,the ,prosperity of ,farmers4--,the ,country ,squire4--,elkington4--,bakewell4--,the ,roads4--,coke of ,holkham ,,chapter ,,xvii #agic-ahae4 ,the ,great ,french ,war4--,the ,board of ,agriculture4--,high ,prices1 and ,heavy ,taxation ,,chapter ,,xviii ,enclosure4--,the ,small ,owner ,,chapter ,,xix #ahaf-cg4 ,depression ,,chapter ,,xx #ahcg-ge4 ,revival of ,agriculture4--,the ,royal ,agricultural ,society4--,corn ,law ,repeal4--,a ,temporary ,set-back4--,the ,halcyon ,days ,,chapter ,,xxi #ahge-aijh4 ,agricultural ,distress again4--,foreign ,competition4-- ,agricultural ,holdings ,act4--,new ,implements4--,agricultural ,commissions4--,the ,situation in #aijh ,,chapter ,,xxii ,imports and ,exports4--,live ,stock ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,modern ,farm ,live ,stock ,,appendices ,i4 ,average ,prices from #abei to #agjj ,,ii4 ,exports and ,imports of ,wheat and ,flour from and into ,england1 unimportant years omitted ,,iii4 ,average ,prices per ,imperial ,quarter of ,british ,corn in ,england and ,wales1 in each year from #agga to #aijg inclusive ,,iv4 ,miscellaneous ,information ,,landmarks ,,in ,,english ,,agriculture #ajhf4 ,domesday inquest1 most cultivated land in tillage4 ,annual value of land about #b;d4 an acre4 #abaf-gb4 ,henry ,,iii4 ,assize of ,bread and ,ale4 #abgb-acjg4 ,edward ,i4 ,general progress4 ,walter of ,henley4 #acjg4 ,edward ,,ii4 ,decline4 #acae4 ,great famine4 #accg4 ,export of wool prohibited4 #acdh-i4 ,black ,death4 ,heavy blow to manorial system4 ,many demesne lands let1 and much land laid down to grass4 #acea4 ,statute of ,labourers4 #acfj4 ,export of corn forbidden4 #acha4 ,villeins' revolt4 #acic4 ,richard ,,ii allows export of corn under certain conditions4 #adfc4 ,import of wheat under #fs4 #h;d4 prohibited4 ,end of fifteenth century4 ,increase of enclosure4 #aebc4 ,fitzherbert's ,surveying and ,husbandry4 #aedj4 ,general rise in prices and rents begins4 #aedi4 ,kett's rebellion4 ,the last attempt of the ,english peasant to obtain redress by force4 #aehf4 ,potatoes introduced4 #afja4 ,poor ,law ,act of ,elizabeth4 #afde4 ,turnips and clover introduced as field crops4 #affb4 ,statute of ,parochial ,settlement4 #affd4 ,importation of cattle1 sheep1 and swine forbidden4 #afhh4 ,bounty of #es4 per quarter on export of wheat1 and high duty on import4 #agcc4 ,tull publishes his ,horse-hoeing ,husbandry4 #agci4 ,great sheep-rot4 #agej4 ,exports of corn reached their maximum4 #agfj4 ,bakewell began experimenting4 #agfj 7about74 ,industrial and agrarian revolution1 and great increase of enclosure4 #agfd4 ,elkington's new drainage system4 #aggc4 ,wheat allowed to be imported at a nominal duty of #f;d4 a quarter when over #dhs4 #aggg4 ,bath and ,west of ,england ,society established1 the first in ,england4 #aghi4 ,england definitely becomes a corn-importing country4 #agic4 ,board of ,agriculture established4 #agie4 ,speenhamland ,act4 ,about same date swedes first grown4 #ahae4 ,duty on wheat reached its maximum4 #ahae-ce4 ,agricultural distress4 #ahbe4 ,export of wool allowed4 #ahce4 ,smith of ,deanston1 the father of modern drainage4 #ahch4 ,foundation of ,royal ,agricultural ,society4 #ahdf4 ,repeal of the ,corn ,laws4 #ahee-ge4 ,great agricultural prosperity4 #ahge4 ,english agriculture feels the full effect of unrestricted competition with disastrous results4 ,first ,agricultural ,holdings ,act4 #ahgi-hj4 ,excessive rainfall1 sheep-rot1 and general distress4 ,,chapter ,i ,,communistic ,,farming4--,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,manor4--,,early ,,prices4--,,the ,,organization ,,and ,,agriculture ,,of ,,the ,,manor ,when the early bands of ,english invaders came over to take ,britain from its ,celtic owners1 it is almost certain that the soil was held by groups and not by individuals1 and as this was the practice of the conquerors also they readily fell in with the system they found4#a ,these ,english1 unlike their descendants of to day1 were a race of countrymen and farmers and detested the towns1 preferring the lands of the ,britons to the towns of the ,romans4 ,co-operation in agriculture was necessary because to each household were allotted separate strips of land1 nearly equal in size1 in each field set apart for tillage1 and a share in the meadow and waste land4 ,the strips of arable were unfenced and ploughed by common teams1 to which each family would contribute4 ,apparently1 as the land was cleared and broken up it was dealt out acre by acre to each cultivator2 and supposing each group consisted of ten families1 the typical holding of #abj acres was assigned to each family in acre strips1 and these strips were not all contiguous but mixed up with those of other families4 ,the reason for this mixture of strips is obvious to any one who knows how land even in the same field varies in quality2 it was to give each family its share of both good and bad land1 for the householders were all equal and the principle on which the original distribution of the land depended was that of equalizing the shares of the different members of the community4#b ,in attributing ownership of lands to communities we must be careful not to confound communities with corporations4 ,maitland thinks the early land-owning communities blended the character of corporations and of co-owners1 and co-ownership is ownership by individuals4#c ,the vills or villages founded on their arrival in ,britain by our ,english forefathers resembled those they left at home1 and even there the strips into which the arable fields were divided were owned in severalty by the householders of the village4 ,there was co-operation in working the fields but no communistic division of the crops1 and the individual's hold upon his strips developed rapidly into an inheritable and partible ownership4 ',at the opening of ,anglo-,saxon history absolute ownership of land in severalty was established and becoming the rule4'#d ,in the management of the meadow land communal features were much more clearly brought out2 the arable was not reallotted1#e but the meadow was1 annually2 while the woods and pastures1 the right of using which belonged to the householders of the village1 were owned by the village 'community'4 ,there may have been at the time of the ,english conquest ,roman 'villas' with slaves and coloni cultivating the owners' demesnes1 which passed bodily to the new masters2 but the former theory seems true of the greater part of the country4 ,at first 'extensive' cultivation was practised2 that is1 every year a fresh arable field was broken up and the one cultivated last year abandoned1 for a time at all events2 but gradually 'intensive' culture superseded this1 probably not till after the ,english had conquered the land1 and the same field was cultivated year after year4#f ,after the various families or households had finished cutting the grass in their allotted portions of meadow1 and the corn on their strips of tillage1 both grass and stubble became common land and were thrown open for the whole community to turn their stock upon4 ,the size of the strips of land in the arable fields varied1 but was generally an acre1 in most places a furlong 7furrow long7 or #bbj yards in length1 and #bb yards broad2 or in other words1 #dj rods of #e-a_/b yards in length and #d in breadth4 ,there was1 however1 little uniformity in measurement before the ,norman ,conquest1 the rod by which the furlongs and acres were measured varying in length from #ab to #bd feet1 so that one acre might be four times as large as another4#g ,the acre was1 roughly speaking1 the amount that a team could plough in a day1 and seems to have been from early times the unit of measuring the area of land4#h ,of necessity the real acre and the ideal acre were also different1 for the reason that the former had to contend with the inequalities of the earth's surface and varied much when no scientific measurement was possible4 ,as late as #ahbj the acre was of many different sizes in ,england4 ,in ,bedfordshire it was #b roods1 in ,dorset #acd perches instead of #afj1 in ,lincolnshire #e roods1 in ,staffordshire #b-a_/d acres4 ,to-day the ,cheshire acre is #aj1bdj square yards4 ,as1 however1 an acre was and is a day's ploughing for a team1 we may assume that the most usual acre was the same area then as now4 ,there were also half-acre strips1 but whatever the size the strips were divided one from another by narrow grass paths generally called 'balks'1 and at the end of a group of these strips was the 'headland' where the plough turned1 the name being common to-day4 ,many of these common fields remained until well on in the nineteenth century2 in #ahae half the county of ,huntingdon was in this condition1 and a few still exist4#i ,cultivating the same field year after year naturally exhausted the soil1 so that the two-field system came in1 under which one was cultivated and the other left fallow2 and this was followed by the three-field system1 by which two were cropped in any one year and one lay fallow1 the last-named becoming general as it yielded better results1 though the former continued1 especially in the ,north4 ,under the three-field plan the husbandman early in the autumn would plough the field that had been lying fallow during summer1 and sow wheat or rye2 in the spring he broke up the stubble of the field on which the last wheat crop had been grown and sowed barley or oats2 in ,june he ploughed up the stubble of the last spring crop and fallowed the field4#aj ,as soon as the crops began to grow in the arable fields and the grass in the meadows to spring1 they were carefully fenced to prevent trespass of man and beast2 and1 as soon as the crops came off1 the fields became common for all the village to turn their stock upon1 the arable fields being usually common from ,lammas 7,august #a7 to ,candlemas 7,february #b7 and the meadows from ,july #f1 old ,midsummer ,day1 to ,candlemas#aa2 but as in this climate the season both of hay and corn harvest varies considerably1 these dates cannot have been fixed4 ,the stock1 therefore1 besides the common pasture1 had after harvest the grazing of the common arable fields and of the meadows4 ,the common pasture was early 'stinted' or limited1 the usual custom being that the villager could turn out as many stock as he could keep on his holding4 ,the trouble of pulling up and taking down these fences every year must have been enormous1 and we find legislation on this important matter at an early date4 ,about #gjj the laws of ,ine1 ,king of ,wessex1 provided that if 'churls have a common meadow or other partible land to fence1 and some have fenced their part and some have not1 and cattle stray in and eat up their common corn or grass2 let those go who own the gap and compensate to the others who have fenced their part the damage which then may be done1 and let them demand such justice on the cattle as may be right4 ,but if there be a beast which breaks hedges and goes in everywhere1 and he who owns it will not or cannot restrain it1 let him who finds it in his field take it and slay it1 and let the owner take its skin and flesh and forfeit the rest4' ,england was not given over to one particular type of settlement1 although villages were more common than hamlets in the greater part of the country4#ab ,the vill or village answers to the modern civil parish1 and the term may be applied to both the true or 'nucleated' village of clustered houses and the village of scattered hamlets1 each of a few houses1 existing chiefly on the ,celtic fringe4 ,the population of some of the villages at the time of the ,norman ,conquest was numerous1 #ajj households or #ejj people2 but the average townships contained from #aj to #bj households4#ac ,there was also the single farm1 such as that at ,eardisley in ,herefordshire1 described in ,domesday1 lying in the middle of a forest1 perhaps1 as in other similar cases1 a pioneer settlement of some one more adventurous than his fellows4#ad 99 99 99 99 99 ,such was the early village community in ,england1 a community of free landholders4 ,but a change began early to come over it4#ae ,the king would grant to a church all the rights he had in the village1 reserving only the trinoda necessitas1 these rights including the feorm or farm1 or provender rent which the king derived from the land--of cattle1 sheep1 swine1 ale1 honey1 c4--which he collected by visiting his villages1 thus literally eating his rents4 ,the churchmen did not continue these visits1 they remained in their monasteries1 and had the feorm brought them regularly2 they had an overseer in the village to see to this1 and so they tightened their hold on the village4 ,then the smaller people1 the peasants1 make gifts to the ,church4 ,they give their land1 but they also want to keep it1 for it is their livelihood2 so they surrender the land and take it back as a lifelong loan4 ,probably on the death of the donor his heirs are suffered to hold the land4 ,then labour services are substituted for the old provender rents1 and thus the ,church acquires a demesne1 and thus the foundations of the manorial system1 still to be traced all over the country1 were laid4 ,thegns1 the predecessors of the ,norman barons1 become the recipients of grants from the churches and from kings1 and householders 'commend' themselves and their land to them also1 so that they acquired demesnes4 ,this 'commendation' was furthered by the fact that during the long-drawn out conquest of ,britain the old kindred groups of the ,english lost their corporate sense1 and the central power being too weak to protect the ordinary householder1 who could not stand alone1 he had to seek the protection of an ecclesiastical corporation or of some thegn1 first for himself and then for his land4 ,the jurisdictional rights of the king also passed to the lord1 whether church or thegn2 then came the danegeld1 the tax for buying off the ,danes that subsequently became a fixed land tax1 which was collected from the lord1 as the peasants were too poor for the ,state to deal with them2 the lord paid the geld for their land1 consequently their land was his4 ,in this way the free ceorl of ,anglo-,saxon times gradually becomes the 'villanus' of ,domesday4 ,landlordship was well established in the two centuries before the ,conquest1 and the land of ,england more or less 'carved into territorial lordships'4#af ,therefore when the ,normans brought their wonderful genius for organization to this country they found the material conditions of manorial life in full growth2 it was their task to develop its legal and economic side4#ag ,as the manorial system thus superimposed upon the village community was the basis of ,english rural economy for centuries1 there need be no apology for describing it at some length4 ,the term 'manor'1 which came in with the ,conquest1#ah has a technical meaning in ,domesday1 referring to the system of taxation1 and did not always coincide with the vill or village1 though it commonly did so1 except in the eastern portion of ,england4 ,the village was the agrarian unit1 the manor the fiscal unit2 so that where the manor comprised more than one village1 as was frequently the case1 there would be more than one village organization for working the common fields4#ai ,the manor then was the 'constitutive cell' of ,english mediaeval society4#bj ,the structure is always the same2 under the headship of the lord we find two layers of population1 the villeins and the freeholders2 and the territory is divided into demesne land and tributary land of two classes1 viz4 that of the villeins and that of the freeholders4 ,the cultivation of the demesne 7which usually means the land directly occupied and cultivated by the lord1 though legally it has a wider meaning and includes the villein tenements71 depends to a certain extent on the work supplied by the tenants of the tributary land4 ,rents are collected1 labour superintended1 administrative business transacted by a set of manorial officers4 ,we may divide the tillers of the soil at the time of ,domesday into five great classes#ba in order of dignity and freedom3 #a4 ,liberi homines1 or freemen4 #b4 ,socmen4 #c4 ,villeins4 #d4 ,bordarii1 cotarii1 buri or coliberti4 #e4 ,slaves4 ,the two first of these classes were to be found in large numbers in ,norfolk1 ,suffolk1 ,lincolnshire1 ,nottinghamshire1 ,leicestershire1 and ,northamptonshire4 ,it is not easy to draw the line between them1 but the chief distinction lay in the latter being more burdened with service and customary dues and more especially subject to the jurisdictional authority of the lord4#bb ,they were both free1 but both rendered services to the lord for their land4 ,both the freemen and the slaves by #ajhf were rapidly decreasing in number4 ,the most numerous class#bc on the manors was the third1 that of the villeins or non-free tenants1 who held their land by payment of services to the lord4 ,the position of the villein under the feudal system is most complicated4 ,he both was and was not a freeman4 ,he was absolutely at the disposal of the lord1 who could sell him with his tenement1 and he could not leave his land without his lord's permission4 ,he laboured under many disabilities1 such as the merchet or fine for marrying his daughter1 and fines for selling horse or ox4 ,on the other hand1 he was free against every one but his lord1 and even against the lord was protected from the forfeiture of his 'wainage' or instruments of labour and from injury to life and limb4#bd ,his usual holding was a virgate of #cj acres of arable1 though the virgate differed in size even in the same manors2 but in addition to this he would have his meadow land and his share in the common pasture and wood1 altogether about #ajj acres of land4 ,for this he rendered the following services to the lord of the manor3 #a4 ,week work1 or labour on the lord's demesne for two or three days a week during most of the year1 and four or five days in summer4 ,it was not always the villein himself1 however1 who rendered these services1 he might send his son or even a hired labourer2 and it was the holding and not the holder that was considered primarily responsible for the rendering of services4#be #b4 ,precarii or boon days3 that is1 work generally during harvest1 at the lord's request1 sometimes instead of week work1 sometimes in addition4 #c4 ,gafol or tribute3 fixed payments in money or kind1 and such services as 'fold soke'1 which forced the tenants' sheep to lie on the lord's land for the sake of the manure2 and suit of mill1 by which the tenant was bound to grind his corn in the lord's mill4 ,with regard to the 'boon days' in harvest1 it should be remembered that harvest time in the ,middle ,ages was a most important event4 ,agriculture was the great industry1 and when the corn was ripe the whole village turned out to gather it1 the only exceptions being the housewives and sometimes the marriageable daughters4 ,even the larger towns suspended work that the townsmen might assist in the harvest1 and our long vacation was probably intended originally to cover the whole work of gathering in the corn and hay4 ,on the occasion of the 'boon-day' work1 the lord usually found food for the labourers which1 the ,inquisition of ,ardley#bf tells us1 might be of the following description3 for two men1 porridge of beans and peas and two loaves1 one white1 the other of 'mixtil' bread2 that is1 wheat1 barley1 and rye mixed together1 with a piece of meat1 and beer for their first meal4 ,then in the evening they had a small loaf of mixtil bread and two 'lescas' of cheese4 ,while harvest work was going on the better-off tenants1 usually the free ones1 were sometimes employed to ride about1 rod in hand1 superintending the others4 ,the services of the villeins were often very comprehensive1 and even included such tasks as preparing the lord's bath2 but on some manors their services were very light4#bg ,when the third of the above obligations1 the gafol or tribute1 was paid in kind it was most commonly made in corn2 and next came honey1 one of the most important articles of the ,middle ,ages1 as it was used for both lighting and sweetening purposes4 ,ale was also common1 and poultry and eggs1 and sometimes the material for implements4 ,these obligations were imposed for the most part on free and unfree tenants alike1 though those of the free were much lighter than those of the unfree2 the chief difference between the two1 as far as tenure of the land went1 lay in the fact that the former could exercise proprietary rights over his holding more or less freely1 the latter had none4#bh ,it seems very curious to the modern mind that the villein1 a man who farmed about #ajj acres of land1 should have been in such a servile condition4 ,the amount of work due from each villein came to be fixed by the extent or survey of the manor1 but the quality of it was not#bi2 that is1 each one knew how many days he had to work1 but not whether he was to plough1 sow1 or harrow1 c4 ,it is surprising to find1 that on the festival days of the ,church1 which were very numerous and observed as holy days1 the lord lost by no work being done1 and the same was the case in wet weather4 ,one of the most important duties of the tenant was the 'averagium'1 or duty of carrying for the lord1 especially necessary when his manors were often a long way apart4 ,he would often have to carry corn to the nearest town for sale1 the products of one manor to another1 also to haul manure on to the demesne4 ,if he owned neither horse nor ox1 he would sometimes have to use his own back4#cj ,the holding of the villein did not admit of partition by sale or descent1 it remained undivided and entire4 ,when the holder died all the land went to one of the sons if there were several1 often to the youngest4 ,the others sought work on the manor as craftsmen or labourers1 or remained on the family plot4 ,the holding therefore might contain more than one family1 but to the lord remained one and undivided4#ca ,in the fourth class came the bordarii1 the cotarii1 and the coliberti or buri2 or1 as we should say1 the crofters1 the cottagers1 and the boors4 ,the bordarii numbered #hb1fjj in ,domesday1 and were subject to the same kind of services as the villeins1 but the amount of the service was considerably less4#cb ,their usual holding was #e acres1 and they are very often found on the demesne of the manor1 evidently in this case labourers on the demesne1 settled in cottages and provided with a bit of land of their own4 ,the name failed to take root in this country1 and the bordarii seem to become villeins or cottiers4#cc ,the cotarii1 cottiers or cottagers1 were #f1hjj in number1 with small pieces of land sometimes reaching #e acres4#cd ,distinctly inferior to the villeins1 bordarii1 and cottars1 but distinctly superior to the slaves1 were the buri or coliberti who1 with the bordars and cottars1 would form a reserve of labour to supplement the ordinary working days at times when work was pressing1 as in hay time and harvest4 ,at the bottom of the social ladder in ,domesday came the slaves1 some #be1jjj in number1 who in the main had no legal rights1 a class which had apparently already diminished and was diminishing in numbers1 so that for the cultivation of the demesne the lord was coming to rely more on the labour of his tenants1 and consequently the labour services of the villeins were being augmented4#ce ,the agricultural labourer as we understand him1 a landless man working solely for wages in cash1 was almost unknown4 ,all the arrangements of the manor aimed at supplying labour for the cultivation of the lord's demesne1 and he had three chief officers to superintend it3 #a4 ,the seneschal1 who answers to our modern steward or land agent1 and where there were several manors supervised all of them4 ,he attended to the legal business and held the manor courts4 ,it was his duty to be acquainted with every particular of the manor1 its cultivation1 extent1 number of teams1 condition of the stock1 c4 ,he was also the legal adviser of his lord2 in fact1 very much like his modern successor4 #b4 ,the bailiff for each manor1 who collected rents1 went to market to buy and sell1 surveyed the timber1 superintended the ploughing1 mowing1 reaping1 c41 that were due as services from the tenants on the lord's demesne2 and according to ,fleta he was to prevent their 'casting off before the work was done'1 and to measure it when done4#cf ,and considering that those he superintended were not paid for their work1 but rendering more or less unwelcome services1 his task could not have been easy4 #c4 ,the praepositus or reeve1 an office obligatory on every holder of a certain small quantity of land2 a sort of foreman nominated from among the villeins1 and to a certain extent representing their interests4 ,his duties were supplementary to those of the bailiff3 he looked after all the live and dead stock of the manor1 saw to the manuring of the land1 kept a tally of the day's work1 had charge of the granary1 and delivered therefrom corn to be baked and malt to be brewed4#cg ,besides these three officers1 on a large estate there would be a messor who took charge of the harvest1 and many lesser officers1 such as those of the akermanni1 or leaders of the unwieldy plough teams2 oxherds1 shepherds1 and swineherds to tend cattle1 sheep1 and pigs when they were turned on the common fields or wandered in the waste2 also wardens of the woods and fences1 often paid by a share in the profits connected with their charge2 for instance1 the swineherd of ,glastonbury ,abbey received a sucking-pig a year1 the interior parts of the best pig1 and the tails of all the others slaughtered4#ch ,on the great estates these offices tended to become hereditary1 and many families did treat them as hereditary property1 and were a great nuisance in consequence to their lords4 ,at ,glastonbury we find the chief shepherd so important a person that he was party to an agreement concerning a considerable quantity of land4#ci ,there were also on some manors 'cadaveratores'1 whose duty was to look into and report on the losses of cattle and sheep from murrain1 a melancholy tale of the unhealthy conditions of agriculture4 ,the supervision of the tenants was often incessant and minute4 ,according to the ,court ,rolls of the ,manor of ,manydown in ,hampshire1 tenants were brought to book for all kinds of transgressions4 ,the fines are so numerous that it almost appears that every person on the estate was amerced from time to time4 ,in #acfe seven tenants were convicted of having pigs in their lord's crops1 one let his horse run in the growing corn1 two had cattle among the peas1 four had cattle on the lord's pasture1 three had made default in rent or service1 four were convicted of assault1 nine broke the assize of beer1 two had failed to repair their houses or buildings4 ,in all thirty-four were in trouble out of a population of some sixty families4 ,the account is eloquent of the irritating restrictions of the manor1 and of the inconveniences of common farming4#dj ,it is impossible to compare the receipts of the lord of the manor at this period with modern rents1 or the position of the villein with the agricultural labourer2 it may be said that the lord received a labour rent for the villein's holding1 or that the villein received his holding as wages for the services done for the lord1#da and part of the return due to the lord was for the use of the oxen with which he had stocked the villein's holding4 ,though in #ajff there were many free villages1 yet by the time of ,domesday they were fast disappearing and there were manors everywhere1 usually coinciding with the village which we may picture to ourselves as self-sufficing estates1 often isolated by stretches of dense woodland and moor from one another1 and making each veritably a little world in itself4 ,at the same time it is evident from the extent of arable land described in ,domesday that many manors were not greatly isolated1 and pasture ground was often common to two or more villages4#db ,if we picture to ourselves the typical manor1 we shall see a large part of the lord's demesne forming a compact area within which stood his house2 this being in addition to the lord's strips in the open fields intermixed with those of his tenants4 ,the mansion house was usually a very simple affair1 built of wood and consisting chiefly of a hall2 which even as late as the seventeenth century in some cases served as kitchen1 dining room1 parlour1 and sleeping room for the men2 and one or two other rooms4#dc ,it is probable that in early times the thegns possessed in most cases only one manor apiece1#dd so that the manor house was then nearly always inhabited by the lord1 but after the ,conquest1 when manors were bestowed by scores and even hundreds by ,william on his successful soldiers1 many of them can only have acted as the temporary lodging of the lord when he came to collect his rent1 or as the house of the bailiff4 ,according to the ,gerefa1 written about #ajjj--;and there was very little alteration for a long time afterwards--the mansion was adjacent to a court or yard which the quadrangular homestead surrounded with its barns1 horse and cattle stalls1 sheep pens and fowlhouse4 ,within this court were ovens1 kilns1 salt-house1 and malt-house1 and perhaps the hayricks and wood piles4 ,outside and surrounding the homestead were the enclosed arable and grass fields of the portion of the demesne which may be called the home farm1 a kitchen garden1 and probably a vineyard1 then common in ,england4 ,the garden of the manor house would not have a large variety of vegetables2 some onions1 leeks1 mustard1 peas1 perhaps cabbage2 and apples1 pears1 cherries1 probably damsons1 plums1#de strawberries1 peaches1 quinces1 and mulberries4 ,not far off was the village or town of the tenants1 the houses all clustering close together1 each house standing in a toft or yard with some buildings1 and built of wood1 turf1 clay1 or wattles1 with only one room which the tenant shared with his live stock1 as in parts of ,ireland to-day4 ,indeed1 in some parts of ,yorkshire at the beginning of the nineteenth century this primitive simplicity still prevailed1 live stock were still kept in the house1 the floors were of clay1 and the family slept in boxes round the solitary room4 ,examples of farmhouses clustered together at some distance from their respective holdings still survive1 though generally built of stone4 ,next the village1 though not always1 for they were sometimes at a distance by the banks of a stream1 were the meadows1 and right round stretched the three open arable fields1 beyond which was the common pasture and wood1#df and1 encircling all1 heath1 forest1 and swamp1 often cutting off the manor from the rest of the world4 ,the basis of the whole scheme of measurement in ,domesday was the hide1 usually of #abj acres1 the amount of land that could be ploughed by a team of #h oxen in a year2 a quarter of this was the virgate1 an eighth the bovate1 which would therefore supply one ox to the common team4 ,these teams1 however1 varied2 on the manors of ,s4 ,paul's ,cathedral in #abbb they were sometimes composed of horses and oxen1 or of #f horses only1 sometimes #aj oxen4#dg ,the farming year began at ,michaelmas when1 in addition to the sowing of wheat and rye1 the cattle were carefully stalled and fed only on hay and straw1 for roots were in the distant future1 and the corn was threshed with the flail and winnowed by hand4 ,in the spring1 after the ploughing of the second arable field1 the vineyard1 where there was one1 was set out1 and the open ditches1 apparently the only drainage then known1 cleansed4 ,in ,may it was time to set up the temporary fences round the meadows and arable fields1 and to begin fallowing the third field4 ,a valuable document1 describing the duties of a reeve1 gives many interesting details of eleventh-century farming3-- ',in ,may1 ,june1 and ,july one may harrow1 carry out manure1 set up sheep hurdles1 shear sheep1 do repairs1 hedge1 cut wood1 weed1 and make folds4 ,in harvest one may reap2 in ,august1 ,september1 and in ,october one may mow1 set woad with a dibble1 gather home many crops1 thatch them and cover them over1 cleanse the folds1 prepare cattle sheds and shelters ere too severe a winter come to the farm1 and also diligently prepare the soil4 ,in winter one should plough and in severe frosts cleave timber1 make an orchard1 and do many affairs indoors1 thresh1 cleave wood1 put the cattle in stalls and the swine in pigstyes1 and provide a hen roost4 ,in spring one should plough and graft1 sow beans1 set a vineyard1 make ditches1 hew wood for a wild deer fence2 and soon after that1 if the weather permit1 set madder1 sow flax seed and woad seed1 plant a garden and do many things which ,i cannot fully enumerate that a good steward ought to provide4'#dh ,the methods of cultivation were simple4 ,the plough1 if we may judge by contemporary illustrations1 had in the eleventh century a large wheel and very short handles4#di ,in the twelfth century ,neckham describes its parts3 a beam1 handles1 tongue1 mouldboard1 coulter1 and share4#ej ,breaking up the clods was done by the mattock or beetle1 and harrowing was done by hand with what looks like a large rake2 the scythes of the haymakers and the sickles of the reapers were very like those that still linger on in some districts to-day4 ,here is a list of tools and implements for the homestead3 an axe1 adze1 bill1 awl1 plane1 saw1 spokeshave1 tie hook1 auger1 mattock1 lever1 share1 coulter1 goad-iron1 scythe1 sickle1 weed-hook1 spade1 shovel1 woad dibble1 barrow1 besom1 beetle1 rake1 fork1 ladder1 horse comb1 shears1 fire tongs1 weighing scales1 and a long list of spinning implements necessary when farmers made their own clothes4 ,the author wisely remarks that one ought to have coverings for wains1 plough gear1 harrowing tackle1 c42 and adds another list of instruments and utensils3 a caldron1 kettle1 ladle1 pan1 crock1 firedog1 dishes1 bowls with handles1 tubs1 buckets1 a churn1 cheese vat1 baskets1 crates1 bushels1 sieves1 seed basket1 wire sieve1 hair sieve1 winnowing fans1 troughs1 ashwood pails1 hives1 honey bins1 beer barrels1 bathing tub1 dishes1 cups1 strainers1 candlesticks1 salt cellar1 spoon case1 pepper horn1 footstools1 chairs1 basins1 lamp1 lantern1 leathern bottles1 comb1 iron bin1 fodder rack1 meal ark or box1 oil flask1 oven rake1 dung shovel2 altogether a very complete list1 the compiler of which ends by saying that the reeve ought to neglect nothing that should prove useful1 not even a mousetrap1 nor even1 what is less1 a peg for a hasp4 ,manors in #ajhf were of all sizes1 from one virgate to enormous organizations like ,taunton or ,leominster1 containing villages by the score and hundreds of dependent holdings4#ea ,the ordinary size1 however1 of the ,domesday manor was from four to ten hides of #abj acres each1 or say from #ejj to #a1bjj acres1#eb and the ,manor of ,segenehou in ,bedfordshire may be regarded as typical4 ,held by ,walter brother of ,seiher it had as much land as ten ploughs could work1 four plough lands belonging to the demesne and six to the villeins1 of whom there were twenty-four1 with four bordarii and three serfs2 thus the villeins had #cj acres each1 the normal holding4 ,the manorial system was in fact a combination of large farming by the lords1 and small farming by the tenants4 ,nor must we compare it to an ordinary estate2 for it was a dominion within which the lord had authority over subjects of various ranks2 he was not only a proprietor but a prince with courts of his own1 the arbiter of his tenants' rights as well as owner of the land4 ,one of the most striking features of the ,domesday survey is the large quantity of arable land and the small quantity of meadow1 which usually was the only land whence they obtained their hay1 for the common pasture cannot often have been mown4#ec ,indeed1 it is difficult to understand how they fed their stock in hard winters4 ,according to the returns1 in many counties more acres were ploughed in #ajhf than to-day2 in some twice as much4 ,in ,somerset in #ajhf there were #egg1jjj acres of arable2 in #aijg1 #agh1ifg4 ,in ,gloucestershire1 in #ajhf1 #ehi1jjj acres2 in #aijg1 #bch1def4ed ,these are extreme instances2 but the preponderance of arable is startling1 even if we allow for the recent conversion of arable to pasture on account of the low price of corn4 ,between the eleventh century and the sixteenth1 the laying down of land to grass must have proceeded on a gigantic scale1 for ,harrison tells us that in his day ,england was mainly a grazing country4 ,no wonder ,harrison's contemporaries complained of the decay of tillage4 ,mediaeval prices and statistics are1 it is well known1 to be taken with great caution2 but we may assume that the normal annual value of land under cultivation in #ajhf was about #b;d4 an acre4#ee ,land indeed1 apart from the stock upon it1 was worth very little3 in the tenth and eleventh centuries it appears that the hide1 normally of #abj acres1 was only worth #e to buy1 apparently with the stock upon it4 ,in the time of ,athelstan a horse was worth #abj;d41 an ox #cj;d41 a cow #bj;d41 a sheep #e;d41 a hog #h;d41 a slave #a--so that a slave was worth #h oxen#ef2 and these prices do not seem to have advanced by the ,domesday period4 ,according to the ,pipe ,roll of #aaef1 wheat was #as4 #f;d4 a quarter2 but prices then depended entirely on seasons1 and we do not know whether that was good or bad4 ,however1 many years later1 in #abdc it was only #bs4 a quarter at ,hawsted4#eg ,in dear years1 nearly always the result of wet seasons1 it went up enormously2 in #ajbd the ,english ,chronicle tells us the acre seed of wheat1 that is about #b bushels1 sold for #ds41#eh #c bushels of barley for #fs4 and #d bushels of oats for #ds4 ,in #aaij ,holinshed says that1 owing to a great dearth1 the quarter of wheat was #ahs4 #h;d4 ,the average price1 however1 in the twelfth century was probably about #ds4 a quarter4 ,in #aaid ,roger of ,hoveden#ei says an ox1 a cow1 and a plough horse were the same price1 #ds42 a sheep with fine wool #aj;d41 with coarse wool #f;d42 a sow #ab;d41 a boar #ab;d4 ,sometimes prices were kept down by imports2 #abeh was a bad and dear year1 'most part of the corn rotted on the ground1' and was not all got in till after ,november #a1 so excessive was the wet and rain4 ,and upon the dearth a sore death and mortality followed for want of necessary food to sustain the pining bodies of the poor people1 who died so thick that there were great pits made in churchyards to lay the dead bodies in4 ,and corn had been dearer if great store had not come out of ,almaine1 but there came fifty great ships with wheat and barley1 meal and bread out of ,dutchland1 which greatly relieved the poor4#fj ,were the manors as isolated as some writers have asserted8 ,generally speaking1 we may say the means of communication were bad and many an estate cut off almost completely from the outside world1 yet the manors must often have been connected by waterways1 and sometimes by good roads1 with other manors and with the towns4 ,rivers in the ,middle ,ages were far more used as means of communication than to-day1 and many streams now silted up and shallow were navigable according to ,domesday4 ,water carriage was1 as always1 much cheaper than land carriage1 and corn could be carried from ,henley to ,london for #b;d4 or #c;d4 a quarter4 ,the roads left by the ,romans1 owing to the excellence of their construction1 remained in use during the ,middle ,ages1 and must have been a great advantage to those living near them2 but the other roads can have been little better than mud tracks1 except in the immediate vicinity of the few large towns4 ,the keeping of the roads in repair1 one part of the trinoda necessitas was imposed on all lands2 but the results often seem to have been very indifferent1 and they appear largely to have depended on chance1 or the goodwill or devotion of neighbouring landowners4#fa ,perhaps they would1 except in the case of the ,roman roads1 have been impassable but for the fact that the great lords and abbots were constantly visiting their scattered estates1 and therefore were interested in keeping such roads in order4 ,but in those days people were contented with very little1 and though ,edward ,i enforced the general improvement of roads in #abhe1 in the fourteenth century they were decaying4 ,parliament adjourned thrice between #acca and #achj because the state of the roads kept many of the members away4 ,in #acec the high road running from ,temple ,bar1 then the western limit of ,london1 to ,westminster was 'so full of holes and bogs' that the traffic was dangerous for men and carriages2 and a little later all the roads near ,london were so bad1 that carriers 'are oftentimes ,in peril of losing what they bring4' ,what must remote country roads have been like when these important highways were in this state8 ,if members of ,parliament1 rich men riding good horses1 could not get to ,london1 how did the clumsy wagons and carts of the day fare8 ,the ,church might well pity the traveller1 and class him with the sick 'and the captive among the unfortunates whom she recommended to the daily prayers of pious souls4'#fb ,rivers were mainly crossed by ford or ferry1 though there were some excellent bridges1 a few of which still remain1 maintained by the trinoda necessitas1 by gilds1 by 'indulgences' promised to benefactors1 and by toll1 the right to levy which1 called pontage1 was often spent otherwise than on the repair of the bridge4 ,a few of the old open fields still exist1 and the best surviving example of an open-field parish is that of ,laxton in ,nottinghamshire4#fc ,nearly half the area of the parish remains in the form of two great arable fields1 and two smaller ones which are treated as two parts of the third field4 ,the different holdings1 freehold and leasehold1 consist in part of strips of land scattered all over these fields4 ,the three-course system is rigidly adhered to1 first year wheat1 second year spring corn1 third year fallow4 ,in a corner of the parish is ,laxton ,heath1 a common covered with coarse grass where the sheep are grazed according to a 'stint' recently determined upon1 for when it was unstinted the common was overstocked4 ,the commonable meadows which the parish once had were enclosed at a date beyond anyone's recollection1 though the neighbouring parish of ,eakring still has some4 ,there are other enclosures in the remote parts of the parish which apparently represent the old woodland4 ,the inconvenience of the common-field system was extreme4 ,south ,luffenham in ,rutland1 not enclosed till #ahgi1 consisted of #a1jgd acres divided among twenty-two owners into #a1bch pieces4 ,in some places furrows served to divide the lands instead of turf balks1 which were of course always being altered4 ,another difficulty arose from there being no check to high winds1 which would sometimes sweep the whole of the crops belonging to different farmers in an inextricable heap against the nearest obstruction4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,vinogradoff1 ,growth of the ,manor1 p4 #ah2 ,medley1 ,constitutional ,history1 p4 #ae4 #b ,vinogradoff1 ,villeinage in ,england1 p4 #beg4 #c ,maitland1 ,domesday ,book and ,beyond1 pp4 #cda et seq4 #d ,stubbs1 ,constitutional ,history1 #cf4 #e ,vinogradoff1 ,english ,society in the ,eleventh ,century1 p4 #bhb1 says1 ',as a rule it was not subject to redivision4' #f ,cunningham1 ,growth of ,english ,industry and ,commerce1 i4 #db4 #g ,maitland1 op4 cit4 p4 #cfh4 #h ,anonymous ,treatise on ,husbandry1 ,royal ,historical ,society1 pp4 xli4 and #fh4 ,about #abcj1 ,smyth1 in his ,lives of the ,berkeleys1 i4 #aac1 says1 ',at this time lay all lands in common fields1 in one acre or ridge1 one man's intermixt with another4' #i ,see below4 #aj ,cunningham1 ,growth of ,english ,industry and ,commerce1 i4 #gd4 ,maitland thinks the two-field system was as common as the three-field1 both in early and mediaeval times4 ,domesday ,book and ,beyond1 p4 #cff4 #aa ,nasse1 ,agricultural ,community of the ,middle ,ages1 p4 #e4 ,to-day harvest generally commences about ,august #a1 so that this1 like the growth of grapes in mediaeval times1 seems to show our climate has grown colder4 #ab ,vinogradoff1 ,english ,society in the ,eleventh ,century1 p4 #bfd4 #ac ,maitland1 op4 cit4 p4 #ag4 #ad ,vinogradoff1 ,english ,society in the ,eleventh ,century1 p4 #bfe4 #ae ,maitland1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cah et seq4 #af ,vinogradoff1 ,english ,society in the ,eleventh ,century1 p4 #cde4 #ag ,vinogradoff1 ,english ,society in the ,eleventh ,century1 p4 #cci4 #ah ,maitland1 ,domesday ,book1 p4 #aaj #ai ,vinogradoff1 op4 cit4 p4 #cie4 #bj ,vinogradoff1 ,villeinage in ,england1 pp4 #bbe et seq4 #ba ,maitland1 op4 cit4 p4 #bc4 #bb ,vinogradoff1 op4 cit4 p4 #dcc4 #bc ,in ,domesday they number #ajh1ejj4 ,maitland1 ,domesday ,book4 #bd ,maitland1 op4 cit44 #be ,vinogradoff1 ,english ,society in the ,eleventh ,century1 p4 #cjj4 #bf ,domesday of ,s4 ,paul1 p4 lxviii4 #bg ,maitland1 ,domesday ,book1 p4 #ef4 #bh ,cunningham1 ,growth of ,english ,industry and ,commerce1 i4 #aff4 ,in some manors free tenants could sell their lands without the lord's licence1 in others not4 #bi ,vinogradoff1 ,villeinage in ,england1 p4 #bgi4 #cj ,vinogradoff1 ,villeinage in ,england1 p4 #bhe4 #ca ,ibid4 p4 #bdf2 and ,english ,society in the ,eleventh ,century1 p4 #ddh4 ,at the end of the eighteenth century1 in default of sons1 lands in some manors in ,shropshire descended to the youngest daughter4--,bishton1 ,general ,view of the ,agriculture of ,shropshire1 p4 #agh4 #cb ,vinogradoff1 ,english ,society in the ,eleventh ,century1 p4 #def4 #cc ,maitland1 ,domesday ,book1 p4 #dj4 #cd ,ibid4 #ce ,maitland1 ,domesday ,book1 p4 #ce4 #cf ,fleta1 c4 #gc4 #cg ,domesday of ,s4 ,paul1 xxxv4 ,fleta1 'an anonymous work drawn up in the thirteenth century to assist landowners in managing their estates' says1 the reeve 'shall rise early1 and have the ploughs yoked1 and then walk in the fields to see that all is right and note if the men be idle1 or if they knock off work before the day's task is fully done4' #ch ,vinogradoff1 ,villeinage in ,england1 p4 #cba4 #ci ,ibid4 p4 #cbd4 #dj ,manor of ,manydown1 ,hampshire ,record ,society1 p4 #ag4 ,breaking the assize of beer meant selling it without a licence1 or of bad quality4 ,the village pound was the consequence of the perpetual straying of animals1 and later on the vicar sometimes kept it4 ,see ibid4 p4 #ajd4 #da ,cunningham1 ,growth of ,english ,industry and ,commerce1 i4 #ajf4 #db ,vinogradoff1 ,villeinage in ,england1 p4 #bfd4 #dc ,andrews1 ,old ,english ,manor1 p4 #aaa4 #dd ,domesday of ,s4 ,paul1 p4 xxxvii4 #de ,thorold ,rogers1 ,agriculture and ,prices1 i4 #ag3 ,cunningham1 ,industry and ,commerce1 i4 #ee3 ,neckham1 ,de ,natura ,rerum1 ,rolls ,series1 ch4 clxvi4 ,rogers says there were no plums1 but ,neckham mentions them4 ,see also ,denton1 ,england in the ,fifteenth ,century1 p4 #fd4 ,matthew ,paris says the severe winter in #abeg destroyed cherries1 plums and figs4 ,chron4 ,maj41 ,rolls ,series1 v4 #ffj4 #df ,woods were used as much for pasture as for cutting timber and underwood4 ,not only did the pigs feed there on the mast of oak1 beech1 and chestnut1 but goats and horned cattle grazed on the grassy portions4 #dg ,the illustrations of contemporary ,,mss4 usually show teams in the plough of #b or #d oxen1 and #d was probably the team generally used1 according to ,vinogradoff1 op4 cit4 p4 #bec4 ,it must1 of course1 have varied according to the soil4 ,birch1 in his ,domesday1 p4 #bai1 says he has never found a team of #h in contemporary illustrations4 ,to-day oxen can be still seen ploughing in teams of two only4 ,however1 about a hundred years ago1 when oxen were in common use1 we find teams of #h1 as in ,shropshire1 for a single-furrow plough1 'so as to work them easily4' ,six hours a day was the usual day's work1 and when more was required one team was worked in the morning1 another in the afternoon4--,victoria ,county ,history3 ,shropshire1 ,agriculture4 ,walter of ,henley says the team stopped work at three4 #dh ,cunningham1 ,growth of ,english ,industry and ,commerce1 i4 #egj4 #di ,see the excellent reproductions of the ,calendar of the ,cott4 ,,mss4 in ,green's ,short ,history of the ,english ,people1 illustrated edition1 i4 #aee4 #ej ,de ,natura ,rerum1 ,rolls ,series1 p1 #bhj4 #ea ,vinogradoff1 ,english ,society in the ,eleventh ,century1 p4 #cjg4 #eb ,ibid4 p4 #cab4 ,perhaps one of the most interesting features of the smaller manors is that they were constantly being swallowed up by the larger4 #ec ,as some of the common pasture was held in severalty1 this may perhaps have been mown in scarce years4 ,walter of ,henley mentions mowing the waste1 see below1 p4 #cd4 #ed ,maitland1 ,domesday ,book1 #dcf2 ,board of ,agriculture ,returns1 #aijg4 #ee ,vinogradoff1 ,english ,society in the ,eleventh ,century1 p4 #caj2 ,birch1 ,domesday1 p4 #ahc4 #ef ,maitland1 ,domesday ,book4 #dd2 ,cunningham1 ,growth of ,industry and ,commerce1 i4 #aga2 ,domesday of ,s4 ,paul1 pp4 xliii4 and xci4 #eg ,cullum1 ,history of ,hawsted1 p4 #aha4 #eh ,rolls ,series1 ii4 #bbj4 ,according to this1 the price of a bushel of wheat reckoned in modern money was #c in that year #ei ,ibid4 iii4 #bbj4 #fj ,holinshed1 who is supported by ,william of ,malmesbury in the assertion that in time of scarcity ,england imported corn4 ,matthew ,paris1 ,chron4 ,maj41 v4 #fgc4 #fa ,jusserand1 ,english ,wayfaring ,life1 p4 #gi4 #fb ,jusserand1 ,english ,wayfaring ,life1 p4 #hi4 #fc ,gilbert ,slater1 ,the ,english ,peasantry and the ,enclosure of ,common ,fields1 p4 #h4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,thirteenth ,,century4--,,the ,,manor ,,at ,,its ,,zenith1 ,,with ,,seeds ,,of ,,decay ,,already ,,visible4--,,walter ,,of ,,henley ,in the thirteenth century the manorial system may be said to have been in its zenith2 the description therefore of ,cuxham ,manor in ,oxfordshire at that date is of special interest4 ,according to ,professor ,thorold ,rogers#fd there were two principal tenants1 each holding the fourth part of a military fee4 ,the prior of ,holy ,trinity1 ,wallingford1 held a messuage1 a mill1 and #f acres of land in free alms2 i4e4 under no obligation or liability other than offering prayers on behalf of the donor4 ,a free tenant had a messuage and #c-c_/d acres1 the rent of which was #cs4 a year4 ,he also had another messuage and nine acres1 for which he paid the annual rent of #a lb4 of pepper1 worth about #as4 #c;d4 ,the rector of the parish had part of a furrow1 i4e4 one of the divisions of the common arable field1 and paid #b;d4 a year for it4 ,another tenant held a cottage in the demesne under the obligation of keeping two lamps lighted in the church4 ,another person was tenant-at-will of the parish mill1 at a rent of #djs4 a year4 ,the rest of the tenants were villeins or cottagers1 thirteen of the former and eight of the latter4 ,each of the villeins had a messuage and half a virgate1 #ab to #ae acres of arable land at least1 for which his rent was chiefly corn and labour1 though there were two money payments1 a halfpenny on ,november #ab and a penny whenever he brewed4 ,he had to pay a quarter of seed wheat at ,michaelmas1 a peck of wheat1 #d bushels of oats1 and #c hens on ,november #ab1 and at ,christmas a cock1 two hens1 and two pennyworth of bread4 ,his labour services were to plough1 sow1 and till half an acre of the lord's land1 and give his work as directed by the bailiff except on ,sundays and feast days4 ,in harvest time he was to reap three days with one man at his own cost4 ,some of these tenants held1 besides their half virgates1 other plots of land for which each had to make hay for one day for the lord1 with a comrade1 and received a halfpenny2 also to mow1 with another1 three days in harvest time1 at their own charges1 and another three days when the lord fed them4 ,after harvest six pennyworth of beer was divided among them1 each received a loaf of bread1 and every evening when work was over each reaper might carry away the largest sheaf of corn he could lift on his sickle4 ,the cottagers paid from #as4 #b;d4 to #bs4 a year for their holdings1 and were obliged to work a day or two in the hay-making1 receiving therefor a halfpenny4 ,they also had to do from one to four days' harvest work1 during which they were fed at the lord's table4 ,for the rest of the year they were free labourers1 tending cattle or sheep on the common for wages or working at the various crafts usual in the village4 ,this manor was a small one1 and contained in all twenty-four households1 numbering from sixty to seventy inhabitants4#fe ,on most manors1 as in ,forncett1#ff which contained about #b1gjj acres1 from the preponderance of arable1 the chief source of income to the lord was from the grain crops2 other sources may be seen from the following table of the lord's receipts and expenses in #abgb-c3 ,,receipts4 s4 d4 ,fixed rents #ah #c #g-c_/d ,farm of market #j #b #f ,chevage#fg #j #h #f ,foldage #j #c #i-a_/b ,sale of works #e #ac #b-c_/d ,herbage #a #j #d ,hay #b #ab #aa ,turf1 c4 #a #ac #f-a_/b ,underwood #e #aj #b ,grain #fa #ab #c-a_/d ,cider #a #a #aa-a_/d ,stock #e #c #j ,dairy #d #c #j-c_/d ,pleas #ad #j #j ,tallage #af #ac #d ------------------ #abh #b #b-c_/d ,,expenses4 s4 d4 ,rents paid and allowed #j #c #b-a_/b ,ploughs and carts #b #ag #d ,buildings and walls #d #e #aj-a_/b ,small necessaries #j #g #aj-c_/d ,dairy #j #d #c-a_/d ,threshing #a #ae #e-a_/b ,meadow and autumn expenses #j #a #d ,stock #j #af #g ,bailiff #a #ai #j ,steward #a #f #i-a_/b ,grain #h #b #d-a_/b ,expenses of acct4 #a #j #h-a_/b ------------------ #bc #j #i-c_/d ,the manor was almost entirely self-sufficing2 of necessity1 for towns were few and distant1 and the roads to them bad4 ,each would have its smith1 millwright1 thatcher1 c41 paid generally in kind for their services4 ,there was little trade with the outside world1 except for salt--an invaluable article when meat had to be salted down every autumn for winter use1 since there were no roots to keep the cattle on--and iron for some of the implements4 ,nearly everything was made in the village4 ,the mediaeval system of tillage was compulsory2 even the freeholders could not manage their plots as they wished1 because all the soil of the township formed one whole and was managed by the entire village4 ,even the lord#fh had to conform to the customs of the community4 ,any other system than this1 which must have been galling to the more enterprising1 was impossible1 for as the various holdings lay in unfenced strips all over the great common fields1 individual initiative was out of the question4 ,as may be imagined1 the great number of strips all mixed together often led to great confusion1 sometimes #b or #c acres could not be found at all1 and disputes owing to careless measurement were frequent4 ,it is not surprising that the services by which the villeins paid rent for their holdings to the lord very early began to be commuted for money2 it was much more convenient to both parties2 and with this change from a 'natural economy' to a 'money economy' the destruction of the manorial system commenced1 though it was to take centuries to effect it4 ,the first money payments apparently date from as early as #ijj1fi but must then have been very few1 and services were the rule in the thirteenth and earlier centuries1 though at the beginning of the twelfth we find a great number of rent-paying tenants4#gj ,in the fourteenth century money began to be more generally available1 and the process of commutation grew steadily2 a process greatly accelerated by the destruction of large numbers of tenants who paid rent in services by the ,black ,death of #acdh-i1 which forced lords of manors to let their lands for money or work them themselves with hired labour4 ,before that visitation1 however1 it appears that commutation of labour services for fixed annual payments had made very little progress4#ga ,when these services were commuted for money in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries they were put at #a;d4 a day in winter1 and #b;d4 a day in summer1 and rather more in harvest#gb2 and we may put the ordinary agricultural labourers' wages from #abej-acej all the year round at #b;d4 a day1 and from #acej-adjj at #c;d41 but few were paid in this way4 ,many were paid by the year1 with allowances of food besides and sometimes clothes1 and many were in harvest at all events paid by the piece4 ,at ,crondal in ,hampshire in #abdh a carter by the year received #ds41 a herdsman #bs4 #c;d41 a day a or dairymaid1 #bs4#gc ,the change to money payments was beneficial to both parties2 it stopped many of the dishonest practices of the lord's bailiff1 apart from the fact that farming by officials was an expensive method4 ,it meant1 too1 that religious festivals and bad weather would no longer diminish the lord's profits2 on the other hand1 the tenant could devote himself entirely to his holding free from annoying labour services4#gd ,the state of agriculture at the time of ,domesday was apparently very low1 judging by the small returns of manors1#ge but by the time of ,edward ,i it had made considerable progress4 ,during the reign of ,henry ,,iii ,england had grown in opulence1 and continued to do so under his great son1 who found time from his manifold tasks to encourage agriculture and horticulture4 ,fruit and forest trees1 shrubs and flowers1 were introduced from the continent1 and we are told that the hop flourished in the royal gardens4#gf ,at his death ,england was prosperous1 the people progressing in comfort1 the population advancing1 the agricultural labourers were increasing in numbers1 the value of the land had risen and was rising4 ,then came a reaction from which ,england did not recover for two centuries1 and ,harrison1 who wrote his description of ,england at the end of the sixteenth century1 says that many of the improvements began to be neglected in process of time1 so that from ,henry ,,iv till the latter end of ,henry ,,vii there was little or no use for them in ,england1 'but they remained unknown4' ,the ,hundred ,rolls of ,edward ,i1 which embody the results of the labours of a commission appointed by that monarch to inquire into encroachments on royal lands and royal jurisdiction1 show clearly that there had been since the ,domesday ,survey a very great growth in the rural population1 a sure sign that agriculture was flourishing2 and on some estates the number of free tenants had increased largely1 but the burdens of the villeins were not less onerous than they had been4 ,it was in the thirteenth century that the practice of keeping strict and minute accounts became general1 and the accounts of the bailiff of those days would be a revelation to the bailiff of these4 ,at the same time we must not forget that the earliest improvements in ,english agriculture were largely due to the monks1 who from their constant journeys abroad were able to bring back new plants and seeds2 while it is well known that many of the religious houses1 the ,cistercians especially1 who always settled in the remote country1 were most energetic farmers1 their energy being materially assisted by their wealth4 ,it is said that the great ,becket when he visited a monastery did not disdain to labour in the field4 ,among other benefits that the landed interest gained at this time was the more easy transference of land provided1 inter alia1 by the statute of ,quia ,emptores1 which led to many tenants selling their lands1 provided the rights of the lord were preserved1 and to a great increase consequently of free tenants1 many of whom had quite small holdings4#gg ,the amalgamation of holdings by the more industrious and skilful has1 as we should expect1 been a well-marked tendency all through the history of ,english agriculture1 and began early4 ,for instance1 according to the records of ,s4 ,paul's ,cathedral1 ,john ,durant1 whose ancestor in #abbb held only one virgate in ',cadendon'1 had in #abgi eight or ten at least4 ,at ',belchamp'1 ,martin de ,suthmere1 one of the free tenants1 held #bde acres by himself and his tenants1 twenty-two in number1 who rendered service to him2 one of them being de ,vere1 ,earl of ,oxford1 who held #ag acres under ,martin4 ,to such a position had the abler of the small holders of a century or so before already pushed their way1 in spite of the heavy hand of feudalism1 which did much to hinder individual initiative4 ,at this period and until ,tudor times ,england1 as regards the cultivated land1 was essentially a corn-growing country2 the greater part of the lord's demesne was arable1 and the tillage fields of the villeins largely exceeded their meadows4 ,for instance1 in #abhe the cultivated lands at ,hawsted in ,suffolk were nearly all under the plough2 in seven holdings there were #ifh acres of arable and only #dj of meadow1 a proportion of #bd to #a4 ,no doubt there was plenty of common pasture1 but we cannot call this cultivated land4 ,the seven holdings were as follows3#gh ,acres4 ,arable4 ,meadow4 ,wood4 ,thomas ,fitzeustace1 lord of the manor #bdj #aj #aj ,william ,tallemache #bhj #ab #bd ,philip ,noel #abj #d #g ,robert de ,ros #ef #c #e ,walter de ,stanton #hj #c #a ,william de ,camaville #adj #f #h ,john ,beylham #eb #b #c --- -- -- #ifh #dj #eh ,these were the larger tenants2 among the smaller several had no meadow at all4 ,we must not forget that the grazing of the tillage fields after the crops were off was of great assistance to those who kept stock2 for there was plenty to eat on the stubbles4 ,the wheat was cut high1 the straw often apparently left standing #ah inches or #b feet high2 weeds of all kinds abounded1 for the land was badly cleaned2 and often only the upper part of the high ridges1 into which the land was thrown for purposes of drainage1 was cultivated1 the lower parts being left to natural grass4#gi ,the greatest authority for the farming of the thirteenth century is ,walter of ,henley1 who wrote1 about the middle of it1 a work which held the field as an agricultural textbook until ,fitzherbert wrote in the sixteenth century1 and much of his advice is valuable to-day4 ,there was from his time until the days of ,william ,marshall1 who wrote five centuries afterwards1 a controversy as to the respective merits of horses and oxen as draught animals1 and it is a curious fact that the later writer agreed with the earlier as to the superiority of oxen4 ',a plough of oxen'1 says ,walter1 'will go as far in the year as a plough of horses1 because the malice of the ploughman will not allow the plough of horses to go beyond their pace1 no more than the plough of oxen4 ,further1 in very hard ground where the plough of horses will stop1 the plough of oxen will pass4 ,and the horse costs more than the ox1 for he is obliged to have the sixth part of a bushel of oats every night1 worth a halfpenny at least1 and twelve pennyworth of grass in the summer4 ,besides1 each week he costs more or less a penny a week in shoeing1 if he must be shod on all four feet2' which was not the universal custom4 ',but the ox has only to have #c-a_/b sheaves of oats per week 7ten sheaves yielding a bushel of oats71 worth a penny1 and the same amount of grass as the horse4#hj ,and when the horse is old and worn out there is nothing but his skin1 but when the ox is old with ten pennyworth of grass he shall be fit for the larder4'#ha ,the labourer of the ,middle ,ages could not complain of lack of holidays2 ,walter of ,henley tells us that1 besides ,sundays1 eight weeks were lost in the year from holidays and other hindrances4#hb ,he advises the sowing of spring seed on clay or on stony land early1 because if it is dry in ,march the ground will harden too much and the stony ground become dry and open2 therefore fore sow early that corn may be nourished by winter moisture4 ,chalky and sandy ground need not be sown early4 ,at sowing1 moreover1 do not plough large furrows1 but little and well laid together1 that the seed may fall evenly4 ,let your land be cleaned and weeded after ,s4 ,john's ,day1 ,june #bd1 for before that is not a good time2 and if thistles are cut before ,s4 ,john's ,day 'for every one will come two or three4' ,do not sell your straw2 if you take away the least you lose much2 words which many a landlord to-day doubtless wishes were fixed in the minds of his tenants4 ,manure should be mixed with earth1 for it lasts only two or three years by itself1 but with earth it will last twice as long2 for when the manure and the earth are harrowed together the earth shall keep the manure so that it cannot waste by descending in the soil1 which it is apt to do4 ',feed your working oxen before some one1 and with chaff4 ,why8 ,i will tell you4 ,because it often happens that the oxherd steals the provender4' ,the oxen were also to be bathed1 and curried when dry with a wisp of straw1 which would cause them to lick themselves4 ',change your seed every year at ,michaelmas2 for seed grown on other ground will bring more profit than that which is grown on your own4' ,apparently the only drainage then practised was that of furrow and open ditch2 and we find him saying that to free your lands from too much water1 let the marshy ground be well ridged1 and the water made to run1 and so the ground may be freed from water4 ,here is his estimate of the cost of wheat growing#hc3 ',you know surely that an acre sown with wheat takes three ploughings1 except lands which are sown yearly2 and that each ploughing is worth #f;d4 and the harrowing #a;d41 and on the acre it is necessary to sow at least two bushels4 ,now two bushels at ,michaelmas are worth at least #ab;d41 and weeding #a_/b;d41 and reaping #e;d41 and carrying in ,august #a;d41 and the straw will pay for the threshing4'#hc ,the return was wretched3 'at three times your sowing you ought to have #f bushels1 worth #cs4' ,the total cost is thus #cs4 #a-a_/b;d42 and without debiting anything for rent and manure1 the loss would be #a-a_/b;d4 an acre4 ,the anonymous ,treatise on ,husbandry of about the same date says1 however1 that 'wheat ought to yield to the fifth grain1 oats to the fourth1 barley to the eighth1 beans and peas to the sixth4'#hd ,in the years #abdc-h the average yield of wheat at ,combe1 ,oxfordshire1 was #e bushels per acre1 of barley a little over #e1 oats #g4 ,in the ,manor of ,forncett1 in various years from #abij to #acjf1 wheat yielded about #aj bushels1 oats from #ab to #af1 barley #af1 and peas from #d to #ab bushels per acre4#he ,as for the dairy1 #b cows1 says ,walter1 should yield a wey1 7#b cwt7 of cheese annually1 and half a gallon of butter a week1 'if sorted out and fed in pasture of salt marsh2' but 'in pasture of wood or in meadows after mowing1 or in stubble1 it should take #c cows for the same4' ,twenty ewes1 which it was then the custom to milk1 fed in pasture of salt marsh1 ought to yield the same as the #b cows4 ,a gallon of butter was worth #f;d41 and weighed #g lb4 ,and the anonymous treatise says each cow ought to yield from the day after ,michaelmas until the first kalends of ,may1 twenty-eight weeks1 #aj;d4 more or less2 and from the first kalends of ,may till ,michaelmas1 twenty-four weeks1 the milk of a cow should be worth #cs4 #f;d42 and she should give also #f stones 7#ad lb4 per stone7 of cheese1 and 'as much butter as shall make as much cheese4'#hf ,it was a common practice all through the ,middle ,ages1 and survives in localities to-day1 to let out the cows by the year1 at from #cs4 to #fs4 #h;d4 a head1 often to the daya or dairymaid1 the owner supplying the food1 and the lessee agreeing to restore them in equal number and condition at the end of the term4#hg ,the anonymous treatise tells us that 'if you wish to farm out your stock you can take #ds4 #f;d4 clear for each cow and the tithe1 and for a sheep #f;d4 and the tithe1 and a sow should bring you #fs4 #f;d4 a year and acquit the tithe1 and each hen #i;d4 and the tithe2 and ,walter says1 ',when ,i was bailiff the dairymaids had the geese and hens to farm1 the geese at #ab;d4 and the hens at #c;d4' ,among other information conveyed by these two treatises we learn that the poor servants or labourers were accustomed to be fed on the diseased sheep1 salted and dried2 but ,walter adds1 ',i do not wish you to do this4' ,nor can we point the finger of scorn at this3 for in the disastrous season of #ahgi numbers of rotten sheep were sold to the butcher and consumed by the unsuspecting public without even being salted and dried4 ,he further tells us that 'you can well have #c acres weeded for #a;d41 and an acre of meadow mown for #d;d41 and an acre of waste meadow for #c-a_/b;d4 ,and know that #e men can well reap and bind #b acres a day of each kind of corn1 and where each takes #b;d4 a day then you must give #e;d4 an acre4'#hh ',one ought to thresh a quarter of wheat or rye for #b;d4 and a quarter of oats for #a;d4 ,a sow ought to farrow twice a year1 having each time at least #g pigs2 and each goose #e goslings a year and each hen #aae eggs and #g chicks1 #c of which ought to be made capons2 and for #e geese you must have one gander1 and for #e hens one cock4' ,the laying qualities of the hen1 in spite of the talk of the #bjj-;egg bird1 were evidently as good then as to-day4 ,in those days of self-supporting farms it was the custom to put together the farm implements at home1 and the farmer is advised that it will be well if he can have carters and ploughmen who should know how to work all their own wood1 though it should be necessary to pay them more4#hi ,the village smith1 however1 seems1 as we should expect1 to have done most of the iron work that was needed4#ij ,these extracts have given the reader some insight into thirteenth-century prices1 prices which in the case of grain altered very little for nearly #cjj years3 for instance1 the average price of wheat from #abei to #adjj was #es4 #aj-c_/d;d4 a quarter1 and from #adja to #aedj #es4 #aa-c_/d;d42 of barley1 #ds4 #c-c_/d;d4 from #abei to #adjj1 #cs4 #h-c_/d;d4 from #adja to #aedj2 of oats1 #bs4 #e-c_/d;d4 and #bs4 #b-a_/d;d4 in the same two periods respectively2 of rye1 #ds4 #e;d4 and #ds4 #g-c_/d;d42 and of beans1 #ds4 #c-a_/b;d4 and #cs4 #i-a_/d;d4#ia ,wheat fluctuated considerably1 being as we have seen #bs4 a quarter at ,hawsted in #abdc and in #abij #ads4 #aj;d41 a most exceptional price4 ,oxen1 which were chiefly valued as working animals1 were about #acs4 apiece#ib2 cows1 #is4 #e;d4 ,farm horses were of two varieties3 the 'affer' or 'stott'1 a rough small animal1 generally worth about #acs4 #e;d41 and the cart-horse1 probably the ancestor of our shire horses1 whose average price was #ais4 #d;d4 ,a good saddle-horse fetched as much as #e4 ,sheep were from #as4 #b;d4 to #as4 #e;d4 each4 ,in ,hampshire in #abdh shoeing ten farm horses for the plough for a year cost #es42 making a gate cost #ab;d4 ,as ,walter of ,henley said1 it cost a penny a week to shoe a horse on all four feet2 these horses must have been very roughly shod4#ic ,it is evident1 from what ,walter of ,henley says1 that horses were not always shod on all four feet1 and their shoes were generally very light4 ,the roads were mere tracks without any metalling1 so that there was little necessity for heavy shoes2 and as ,professor ,thorold ,rogers suggests1 it is quite possible that the hoofs of our horses have become weaker by reason of the continual paring and protection which modern shoeing involves4#id ,they weighed usually less than half a pound1 and cost about #ds4 a hundred4 ,the most striking fact about agricultural prices at this date is the low price of land compared with that of its products4 ,the annual rent of land was from #d;d4 to #f;d4#ie an acre1 and it was worth about ten years' purchase4 ,consequently1 a quarter of wheat was often worth more than an acre of land1 a good ox three times as much1 a good cart-horse four times1 while a good war-horse was worth the fee-simple of a small farm4 ,a greater breadth of wheat was sown than of any other crop2 but it seems that none was ever stored except in the castles and monasteries1 for in spite of successive abundant harvests a bad season would send the price up at once4 ,barley was1 as now1 chiefly used for making beer1 which was also made from oats and wheat1 of course without hops1 which were not used till the fifteenth century2 and sometimes it was made of oats1 barley1 and wheat1 a concoction worth #c_/d;d4 a gallon in #abhc4if ,cider was also drunk1 and was sold at ,exminster in ,devonshire in #abhf at #a_/b;d4 a gallon1 and apples fetched #b;d4 a bushel4 ,thorold ,rogers#ig says that wheat was the chief food of the ,english labourer from the earliest times until perhaps the seventeenth century1 when the enormous prices were prohibitive2 but this statement must be taken with reserve1 as must that of ,mr4 ,prothero#ih that rye was the bread-stuff of the peasantry4 ,where the labourer's food is mentioned as part of his wages1 wheat1 barley1 and rye all occur1 wheat and rye being often mixed together as 'mixtil'2 and it is most probable that in one district wheat1 in another one of the other cereals1 formed his chief bread-stuff1 according to the crop best adapted to the soil of the locality4 ,walter of ,henley mentions wheat as if it was the chief crop1 for he selects it as best illustrating the cost of corn-growing#ii2 and from the enormous number of entries enumerated by ,thorold ,rogers in his mediaeval statistics it was apparently more grown than other cereals4 ,the chief meat of the lower classes then1 as to-day1 was bacon from the innumerable herds of swine who roamed in the woods and wastes1 but in bad years1 when food was scarce1 the poor ate nuts1 acorns1 fern roots1 bark1 and vetches4#ajj ,as the cattle of the ,middle ,ages were like the mountain cattle of to-day1 so were the sheep like many of the sheep to be seen in the ,welsh mountains2 yet1 unlike the cattle1 an attempt seems to have been made1 judging by the high price of rams1 to improve the breed2 but they were probably poor animals worth from #as4 to #as4 #f;d4 each1 with a small fleece weighing about a pound and a half1 worth #c;d4 a lb4 or a little more4 ,,footnotes3 #fd ,six ,centuries of ,work and ,wages1 p4 #ci4 ,no one can write on ,english agriculture without acknowledging a deep debt to his monumental industry1 though his opinions are often open to question4 #fe ,compare the account of the manors in ,huntingdonshire belonging to ,romsey ,abbey given in ,page ,end of ,villeinage in ,england1 pp4 #bh et seq4 #ff ,davenport1 ,a ,norfolk ,manor1 p4 #cf2 and see ,hall1 ,pipe ,roll of ,bishopric of ,winchester1 p4 xxv4 #fg ,chevage1 poll money1 paid to the lord4 #fh ,vinogradoff1 ,villeinage in ,england1 p4 #bcj4 #fi ,cunningham1 ,industry and ,commerce1 i4 #aag4 #gj ,vinogradoff1 ,villeinage in ,england1 p4 #cjg4 ,on the ,berkeley estates in #aahi-abbj money was so scarce with the tenants that the rents1 apparently even where services had been commuted1 were commonly paid in oxen4--,smyth1 ,lives of the ,berkeleys1 i4 #aja4 ,in the thirteenth century the labour services of the villeins were stricter than in the eleventh4 ,vinogradoff1 op4 cit4 #bih4 #ga ,page1 ,end of ,villeinage1 p4 #ci4 #gb ,thorold ,rogers1 ,history of ,agriculture and ,prices1 i4 #hb4 #gc ,hampshire ,record ,society1 i4 #fd4 ,see ,appendix1 i4 #gd ,hasbach1 ,english ,agricultural ,labourer1 p4 #ad4 #ge ,hallam1 ,middle ,ages1 iii4 #cfa #gf ,denton1 ,england in the ,fifteenth ,century1 p4 #ef4 #gg ,cunningham1 ,industry and ,commerce1 i4 #bgc4 #gh ,cullum1 ,history of ,hawsted1 #aghd ed41 p4 #ahj4 #gi ,ballard1 ,domesday1 p4 #bjg4 #hj ,walter of ,henley1 ,royal ,historical ,society1 p4 #ab4 #ha ,walter reckons the above food of the horse at #abs4 #c;d41 and of the ox at #cs4 #a;d42 but both are wrong4 #hb ,ibid4 p4 #ae4 #hc ,walter of ,henley1 ,royal ,historical ,society1 p4 #ai4 #hd ,walter of ,henley1 ,royal ,historical ,society1 p4 #ga4 #he ,davenport1 ,a ,norfolk ,manor1 pp4 #bi et seq4 ,see also ,hall1 ,pipe ,roll of the ,bishopric of ,winchester1 p4 xxvi1 which gives an average yield of wheat over a large area in #abih-i at #d4c bushels per acre4 #hf ,walter of ,henley1 ,royal ,historical ,society1 p4 #gg4 #hg ,thorold ,rogers1 ,agriculture and ,prices1 i4 #cig2 ,archaeologia1 xviii4 #bha4 #hh ,walter of ,henley1 pp4 #fi1 #ge4 ,in ,lancashire1 at the end of the thirteenth century1 mowing #fj-a_/b acres cost #ags4 #g-a_/b;d4 ,victoria ,county ,history1 ,lancashire1 ,agriculture1 and ,two ,compoti of the ,lancashire and ,cheshire ,manors of ,henry de ,lacy 7,cheetham ,society74 #hi ,walter of ,henley1 p4 #fc4 #ij ,crondall1 ,records1 ,hampshire ,record ,society1 i4 #fe4 #ia ,see ,thorold ,rogers1 various tables in vol4 i4 of ,history of ,agriculture and ,prices4 ,compare these with the prices on the ,berkeley estates from #abha to #acjg1 omitting years of scarcity3 wheat1 #bs4 #d;d4 to #es42 oxen1 #ajs4 to #abs42 cows1 #is4 to #ajs42 bacon hogs1 #es42 fat sheep1 #as4 #f;d4 to #bs42 and in the early part of ,edward ,,iii's reign1 wheat1 #es4 #d;d4 to #ajs42 oxen1 #ads4 to #bds4 ,other prices about the same4--,smyth1 ,lives of the ,berkeleys1 i4 #afj4 #ib ,if it is true1 as generally stated1 that the mediaeval ox was one-third the size of his modern successor1 it is apparent that he was a very dear animal4 ,cattle at this date suffered from the ravages of wolves4 #ic ,crondall1 ,records1 ,hampshire ,record ,society1 i4 #fd4 #id ,history of ,agriculture and ,prices1 i4 #ebh4 #ie ,seebohm1 ,transactions of ,royal ,historical ,society1 ,new ,series1 xvii4 #bhh1 says that rent in the fourteenth century was commonly #d;d42 the usual average is stated at #f;d4 an acre4 #if ,domesday of ,s4 ,paul1 ,camden ,society1 p4 li4 #ig ,history of ,agriculture and ,prices1 i4 #bf4 #ih ,pioneers of ,agriculture1 p4 #ac4 #ii ,ed4 ,lamond1 ,royal ,historical ,society1 p4 #ai4 #ajj ,denton1 ,england in the ,fifteenth ,century1 p4 #ic4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,fourteenth ,,century4--,,decline ,,of ,,agriculture4--,,the ,,black ,,death4-- ,,statute ,,of ,,labourers ,after the death of ,edward ,i in #acjg the progress of ,english agriculture came to a standstill1 and little advance was made till after the battle of ,bosworth in #adhe4 ,the weak government of ,edward ,,ii1 the long ,french ,war commenced by ,edward ,,iii and lasting over a hundred years1 and the ,wars of the ,roses1 all combined to impoverish the country4 ,england1 too1 was repeatedly afflicted during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries by pestilences1 sometimes caused by famines1 sometimes coming with no apparent cause2 all probably aggravated1 if not caused1 by the insanitary habits of the people4 ,the mention of plagues1 indeed1 at this time is so frequent that we may call them chronic4 ,at this period corn and wool were the two main products of the farmer2 corn to feed his household and labourers1 and wool to put money in his pocket1 a somewhat rare thing4 ,english wool1 which came to be called 'the flower and strength and revenue and blood of ,england'1 was famous in very early times1 and was exported long before the ,conquest4 ,in ,edgar's reign the price was fixed by law1 to prevent it getting into the hands of the foreigner too cheaply2 a wey1 or weigh1 was to be sold for #abj;d4#aja ,patriotic ,englishmen asserted it was the best in the world1 and ,henry ,,ii1 ,edward ,,iii1 and ,edward ,,iv are said to have improved the ,spanish breed by presents of ,english sheep4 ,spanish wool1 however1 was considered the best from the earliest times until the ,peninsular ,war1 when the ,saxon and ,silesian wools deposed it from its pride of place4 ,smith1 in his ,memoirs of ,wool1#ajb is of the opinion that ,england 'borrowed some parts of its breed from thence1 as it certainly did the whole from one place or another4' ,spanish wool1 too1 was imported into ,england at an early date1 the manufacture of it being carried on at ,andover in #abfb4ajc ,yet until the fourteenth century it was not produced in sufficient quantities to compete seriously with ,english wool in the markets of the ,continent2 and it appears to have been the long wools1 such as those of the modern ,leicester and ,lincoln1 from which ,england chiefly derived its fame as a wool-producing country4 ,our early exports went to ,flanders1 where weaving had been introduced a century before the ,conquest1 and1 in spite of the growth of the weaving industry in ,england1 to that country the bulk of it continued to go1 all through the ,middle ,ages1 though in the thirteenth century a determined effort was made to divert a larger share of ,english wool to ,italy4#ajd ,during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the export of wool was frequently forbidden1#aje sometimes for political objects1 but also to gain the manufacture of cloth for ,england by keeping our wool from the foreigner2 but these measures did not stop the export1 they only hampered it and encouraged much smuggling4 ,it commanded what seems to us an astonishing price1 for #c;d4 a lb4 in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries is probably equal to nearly #ds4 in our money4 ,its value1 and the ease with which it could be packed and carried1 made it an object of great importance to the farmer4 ,in #accgajf we have a schedule of the price of wool in the various counties of ,england1 for in that year #cj1jjj sacks of the best wool was ordered to be bought in various districts by merchants for ,edward ,,iii1 to provide the sinews of war against ,france4 ,the price for the best wool was to be fixed by the king1 his council1 and the merchants2 the 'gross' wool being bought by agreement between buyer and seller4 ,of the former the highest price fixed was for the wool of ,hereford1 then and for long afterwards famous for its excellent quality1 #ab marks the sack of #cfd lb42 and the lowest for that of the northern counties1 #e marks the sack4 ,somewhat more than a century afterwards we have another similar list of wool prices1 when in #aded the ,commons petitioned the king that 'as the wools growing within this realm have hitherto been the great commodity1 enriching1 and welfare of this land1 and how of late the price is greatly decayed so that the ,commons were not able to pay their rents to their lords'1 the king would fix certain prices under which wools should not be bought4 ,the highest price fixed was for the wool of ',hereford1 in ,leominster'1 #ac a sack2 the lowest for that of ,suffolk1 #b #abs4#ajg2 the average being about #d #ajs4 ,the manorial accounts of the ,knights' ,hospitallers1 who then held land all over ,england1 afford valuable information as to agriculture in #acch4ajh ,from these we gather that the rent of arable land varied from #b;d4 to #bs4 an acre2 but the latter sum was very exceptional1 and there are only two instances of it given1 in ,lincolnshire and ,kent4 ,most of the tillage rented for less than #as4 an acre1 more than half being at #f;d4 or under1 and the average about #f;d4 ,on the other hand1 meadow land is seldom of less value than #bs4 an acre1 and in ,warwickshire1 ,oxfordshire1 and ,norfolk rose to #cs4 ,this is one of the numerous proofs of the great value of meadow land at a time when hay was almost the sole winter food of stock2 in some places it was eight or ten times as valuable as the arable4#aji ,the pasture on the ,hospitallers' estates was divided into several and common pasture1 the former often reaching #as4 an acre and sometimes #bs41 the latter rarely exceeding #d;d4 ,the most usual way1 however1 of stating the value of pasture was by reckoning the annual cost of feeding stock per head1 cows being valued at #bs41 oxen at #as41 a horse at a little less than an ox1 a sheep at #a;d4 ,the reign of ,edward ,,iii was a great era for wool-growers1 and the ,hospitallers at ,hampton in ,middlesex had a flock of #b1jjj sheep whose annual produce was six sacks of wool of #cfd lb4 each1 worth #d a sack1 which would make the fleeces weigh a little more than #a lb4 each4 ,the profit of cows on one of their manors was reckoned at #bs4 per head1 on another at #cs42 and the profit of #ajj sheep at #bjs4#aaj ,the wages paid to the labourers for day work were #b;d4 a day1 and we must remember that when he was paid by the day his wages were rightly higher than when regularly employed1 for day labour was irregular and casual4 ,the tenants about the same date obtained the following prices#aaa for some of their stock3-- s4 d4 ,a good ox1 alive1 fatted on corn #a #d #j not on corn #af #j ,a fatted cow #ab #j ,a two-year-old hog #c #d ,a sheep and its fleece #a #h ,a fatted sheep1 shorn #a #b goose #j #c ,hens1 each#aab #j #b #bj eggs #j #a ,in the middle of the fourteenth century occurred the famous ,black ,death1 the worst infliction that has ever visited ,england4 ,its story is too well known for repetition1 and it suffices to say that it was like the bubonic plague in the ,east of to-day3 it raged in #acdh-i1 and killed from one-third to one-half of the people4#aac ,it is said to have effected more important economic results than any other event in ,english history4 ,it is probable that the prices of labour were rising before this terrible calamity2 the dreadful famine of #acae-f1aad followed by pestilence1 when wheat went up to #bfs4 a quarter1 and according to the contemporary chroniclers1 in some cases much higher1 destroyed a large number of the population1 and other plagues had done their share to make labour scarce1 but after the ,black ,death the advance was strongly marked4 ,it also accelerated the break-up of the manorial system4 ,a large number of the free labourers were swept away1 and their labour lost to the lord of the manor2 the services of the villeins were largely diminished from the same cause2 many of the tenants1 both free and unfree1 were dead1 and the land thrown on the lord's hands4 ,flocks and herds were wandering about over the country because there was no one to tend them4 ,in short1 most manors were in a state of anarchy1 and their lords on the verge of ruin4 ,it is not to be wondered at1 therefore1 that they immediately adopted strong measures to save themselves and their property and1 no doubt they thought1 the whole country4 ,englishmen had by this time learnt to turn to ,parliament to remedy their ills1 but as the plague was still raging a proclamation was issued of which the preamble states that wages had already gone up greatly4 ',many1 seeing the necessity of masters and great scarcity of servants1 will not serve unless they get excessive wages'1 and it is1 therefore1 hard to till the land4 ,every one under the age of #fj1 it was ordered1 free or villein1 who can work1 and has no other means of livelihood1 is not to refuse to work for any one who offers the accustomed wages2 no labourer is to receive more wages than he did before the plague1 and none are to give more wages under severe penalties4 ,but besides regulating wages1 the proclamation also insists on reasonable prices for food and the necessaries of life3 it was a fair attempt not only to protect the landlords but the labourers also1 by keeping both wages and prices at their former rate1 so that its object was not tyrannous as has been stated4#aae ,it was at once disregarded1 a fate which met many of the proclamations and statutes of the ,middle ,ages1 which often seem to have been regarded as mere pious aspirations4 ,accordingly1 the ,statute of #acea1 #be ,edw4 ,,iii1 ,stat4 #b1 c4 #a1 states that the servants had paid no regard to the ordinance regulating wages1 'but to their ease and singular covetise do withdraw themselves unless they have livery and wages to the double or treble of that they were wont to take'4 ,accordingly1 it was again laid down that they were to take liveries and wages as before the ,black ,death1 and 'where wheat was wont to be given they shall take for the bushel #aj;d4 7#fs4 #h;d4 a quarter71#aaf or wheat at the will of the giver4 ,and that they be hired to serve by the whole year or by other usual terms1 and not by the day1 and that none pay in the time of sarcling 7weeding7 or hay-making but a penny a day1 and a mower of meadows for the acre #e;d41 or by the day #e;d41 and reapers of corn in the first week of ,august #b;d41 and the second #c;d41 without meat or drink4' ,and none were to take for the threshing of a quarter of wheat or rye more than #b;d41 and for the quarter of beans1 peas1 and oats more than #a;d4 ,these prices are certainly difficult to understand4 ,hay-making has usually been paid for at a rate above the ordinary1 because of the longer hours2 and here we find the price fixed at half the usual wages1 while mowing is five times as much1 and double the price paid for reaping1 though they were normally about the same price4#aag ,it is interesting to learn from the statute that there was a considerable migration of labourers at this date for the harvest1 from ,stafford1 ,lancaster1 ,derby1 ,craven1 the ,marches of ,wales and ,scotland1 and other places4 ,such was the first attempt made to control the labourers' wages by the legislature1 and like other legislation of the kind it failed in its object1 though the attempt was honestly made2 and if the rate of wages fixed was somewhat low1 its inequity was far surpassed by the exorbitance of the labourers' demands4#aah ,it was an endeavour to set aside economic laws1 and its futility was rendered more certain by the depreciation of the coinage in #acea1 which led to an advance in prices1 and compelled the labourers to persevere in their demands for higher wages4#aai ,both wages and prices1 except those of grain1 continued to increase1 and labour services were now largely commuted for money payments1#abj with the result that the manorial system began to break up rapidly4 ,owing to the dearth of labourers for hire1 and the loss of many of the services of their villeins1 the lords found it very hard to farm their demesne lands4 ,it should be remembered1 too1 that an additional hardship from which they suffered at this time was that the quit rents paid to them in lieu of services by tenants who had already become free were1 owing to the rise in prices1 very much depreciated4 ,their chief remedy was to let their demesne lands4 ,the condition of the ,manor of ,forncett in ,norfolk well illustrates the changes that were now going on4 ,there1 in the period #abgb-acjg1 there were many free tenants as well as villeins1 and the holdings of the latter were small1 usually only #e acres4 ,it is also to be noticed that in no year were all the labour services actually performed1 some were always sold for money4 ,yet in the period named there was not much progress in the general commutation of services for money payments1 and the same was the case in the manors1 whose records between #acbe and #acej ,mr4 ,page examined for his ,end of ,villeinage in ,england4#aba ,the reaping and binding of the entire grain crop of the demesne at ,forncett was done by the tenants exclusively1 without the aid of any hired labour4#abb ,however1 in the period #acjg-acgf the manor underwent a great change4 ,the economic position of the villeins1 the administration of the demesne1 and the whole organization of the manor were revolutionized4 ,much of the tenants' land had reverted to the lord1 partly by the deaths in the great pestilence1 partly because tenants had left the manor2 they had run away and left their burdensome holdings in order to get high wages as free labourers4 ,this of course led to a diminution of labour rents1 so the landlord let most of the demesne for a term of years1#abc a process which went on all over ,england2 and thus we have the origin of the modern tenant farmer4 ,a fact of much importance in connexion with the ,peasants' ,revolt1 soon to take place1 was that the average money rent of land per acre in ,forncett in #acgh was #aj;d41 while the labour rents for land1 where they were still paid by villeins who had not commuted or run away1 were1 owing to the rise in the value of labour1 worth two or three times this4 ,we cannot wonder that the poor villeins were profoundly discontented4 ,on this manor1 as on others1 some of the villeins1 in spite of the many disadvantages under which they lay1 managed to accumulate some little wealth4 ,in #acgh and in #adaj one bond tenant had two messuages and #gh acres of land2 in #adda another died seized of #e messuages and #eb acres2 some had a number of servants in their households1 but the majority were very poor4 ,there are several instances of bondmen fleeing from the manor2 and the officers of the manor failed to catch them4 ,this was common in other manors1 and the 'withdrawal' of villeins played a considerable part in the disappearance of serfdom and the break-up of the system4#abd ,the following table shows the gradual disappearance of villeins in the ,manor of ,forncett3 ,in #adjj the servile families who had land numbered #af #aejj #h #aebe #e #aeej #c #aege #j ,there is no event of greater importance in the agrarian history of ,england1 or which has led to more important consequences1 than the dissolution of this community in the cultivation of the land1 which had been in use so long1 and the establishment of the complete independence and separation of one property from another4#abe ,as soon as the manorial system began to give way1 and men to have a free hand1 the substitution of large for small holdings set in with fresh vigour1 for we have already seen that it had begun4 ,it was one of the chief causes of the stagnation of agriculture in the ,middle ,ages that it lay under the heavy hand of feudalism1 by which individualism was checked and hindered4 ,every one had his allotted position on the land1 and it was hard to get out of it1 though some exceptional men did so2 as a rule there was no chance of striking out a new line for oneself4 ,the villein was bound to the lord1 and no lord would willingly surrender his services4 ,there could be little improvement in farming when the custom of the manor and the collective ownership of the teams bound all to the same system of farming4#abf ,in fact1 agriculture under feudalism suffered from many of the evils of socialism4 ,but1 though hard hit1 the old system was to endure for many generations1 and the modern triumvirate of landlord1 tenant1 and labourer was not completely established in ,england until the era of the first ,reform ,bill4 ,,footnotes3 #aja ,cunningham1 ,growth of ,english ,industry and ,commerce1 i4 #acj4 ,a weigh in the ,middle ,ages was #ahb lbs41 or half a sack4 #ajb ,second edition1 i4 #ej n4 ,see also ,burnley1 ,history of ,wool1 p4 #ag4 #ajc ,gross1 ,gild ,merchant1 ii4 #d4 ,it is from the ,spanish merino1 crossed with ,leicesters and ,southdowns1 that the vast ,australian flocks of to-day are descended4 #ajd ,cunningham1 op4 cit4 i4 #fbh4 #aje ,ashley1 ,early ,history of ,english ,woollen ,industry1 p4 #cd4 #ajf ,calendar of ,close ,rolls1 #accg-i1 pp4 #adh-i4 #ajg ,rolls of ,parliament1 v4 #bge4 #ajh ,the ,hospitallers in ,england1 ,camden ,society4 #aji ,denton1 ,england in the ,fifteenth ,century1 p4 #adg4 #aaj ,hospitallers in ,england1 p4 xxvi4 #aaa ,ibid4 pp4 #a1 li4 #aab ,poultry-keeping was wellnigh universal1 judging by the number of rents paid in fowls and eggs4 #aac #acdh seems also to have been an excessively rainy year4 ,the wet season was very disastrous to live stock2 according to the accounts of the manors of ,christ ,church1 ,canterbury1 about this time 7,historical ,,mss4 ,commission1 #eth ,report1 #ddd7 there died of the murrain on their estates #beg oxen1 #eaa cows1 #d1ehe sheep4 ,murrain was the name given to all diseases of stock in the ,middle ,ages1 and is of constant occurrence in old records4 #aad ,the cause of this as usual was incessant rain during the greater part of the summer2 the chronicles of the time say that not only were the crops very short but those that did grow were diseased and yielded no nourishment4 ,the 'murrain' was so deadly to oxen and sheep that1 according to ,walsingham1 dogs and ravens eating them dropped down dead4 #aae ,see ,cunningham1 ,industry and ,commerce1 i4 #cce4 ,also in an age when the idea of ,competitive price had not yet been evolved1 and when regulation by authority was the custom1 it was natural and right that the ,government in such a crisis should try to check the demands of both labourers and producers1 which went far beyond what employers or consumers could pay4 ,putnam1 ,enforcement of the ,statute of ,labourers1 #bbj4 #aaf ,the average price of wheat in #acea was #ajs4 #b-a_/b;d41 which went down to #gs4 #b;d4 next year1 and #ds4 #b-a_/b;d4 the year after2 but judging by the ineffectiveness of the statute to reduce wages1 it probably had little effect in causing this fall4 #aag ,see ,appendix ,i4 #aah ,putnam1 op4 cit41 #bba4 ,the statute for the first ten years1 however1 kept wages from ascending as high as might have been the case4 #aai ,mc,pherson1 ,annals of ,commerce1 i4 #edc1 says that as the plague diminished the number of employers as well as labourers1 the demand for labour could not have been much greater than before1 and would have had little effect on the rate of if ,edward ,,iii had not debased the coinage4 ,but if the owners did decrease the lands would only accumulate in fewer hands1 and would still require cultivation4 #abj ,page1 ,end of ,villeinage1 pp4 #ei et seq4 #aba ,ibid4 p4 #dd4 #abb ,transactions1 ,royal ,historical ,society1 ,new ,series1 xiv4 #abc4 #abc ,this had been done before1 but was now much more frequent4 ,hasbach1 op4 cit4 p4 #ag4 #abd ',after the ,black ,death the flight of villeins was extremely common4'--,page1 op4 cit41 p4 #dj4 #abe ,nasse1 ,agricultural ,community of the ,middle ,ages1 p4 #a4 #abf ,cunningham1 ,industry and ,commerce1 i4 #acg4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,how ,,the ,,classes ,,connected ,,with ,,the ,,land ,,lived ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages ,the castles of the great landowners have been so often described that there is no need to do this again4 ,the popular idea of a baron of the ,middle ,ages is of a man who when he was not fighting was jousting or hunting4 ,such were1 no doubt1 his chief recreations2 so fond was he of hunting1 indeed1 that his own broad lands were not enough1 and he was a frequent trespasser on those of others2 the records of the time are full of cases which show that poaching was quite a fashionable amusement among the upper classes4 ,but among the barons were many men who1 like their successors to-day1 did their duty as landlords4 ,of one of the ,lords of ,berkeley in the fourteenth century1 it was said he was 'sometyme in husbandry at home1 sometyme at sport in the field1 sometyme in the campe1 sometyme in the ,court and ,council of ,state1 with that promptness and celerity that his body might have bene believed to be ubiquitary'4 ,many of them were farmers on a very large scale1 though they might not have so much time to devote to it as those excellent landlords the monks4 ,thomas ,lord ,berkeley1 who held the ,berkeley estates from #acbf to #acfa1 farmed the demesnes of a quantity of manors1 as was the custom1 and kept thereon great flocks of sheep1 ranging from #cjj to #a1ejj on each manor4#abg ,the stock of the ,bishop of ,winchester1 by an inquisition taken at his death in #acfg1 amounted to #abg draught horses1 #a1eef head of black cattle1 and #ab1ajd sheep and lambs4 ,almost every manor had one or two pigeon houses1 and the number of pigeons reared is astonishing2 from one manor ,lord ,berkeley obtained #b1aea pigeons in a single year4 ,no one but the lord was allowed to keep them1 and they were one of the chief grievances of the villeins1 who saw their seed devoured by these pests without redress4 ,their dung1 too1 was one of the most valued manures4 ,lord ,berkeley1 like other landlords1 went often in progress from one of his manors and farmhouses to another1 making his stay at each of them for one or two nights1 overseeing and directing the husbandry4 ,the castle of the great noble consumed an enormous amount of food in the course of the year2 from two manors on the ,berkeley estate came to the 'standinghouse' of the lord in twelve months1 #ag1jjj eggs1 #a1jjh pigeons1 #ia capons1 #aib hens1 #bhh ducks1 #chh chickens1 #aid pigs1 #de calves1 #cae quarters of wheat1 #cjd quarters of oats2 and from several other manors came the like or greater store1 besides goats1 sheep1 oxen1 butter1 cheese1 nuts1 honey1 c4#abh ,even the lavish hospitality of the lords1 and the great number of their retainers1 must have had some difficulty in disposing of these huge supplies4 ,the examining of their bailiff's accounts must have taken a considerable portion of the landlord's time1 for those of each manor were kept most minutely1 and set forth1 among other items1 'in what sort he husbanded' the demesne farms1 'what sorts of cattle he kept in them1 and what kinds of graine he yearly sowed according to the quality and condition of the ground1 and how those kinds of graine each second or third yeare were exchanged or brought from one manor to another as the vale corne into an upland soyle1 and contrarily'4 ,and we are told incidentally he 'set with hand1 not sowed his beanes'4 ,he was also accustomed to move his live stock from one manor to another1 as they needed it4 ,the accounts also stated what days' works were due from each tenant according to the season of the year1 and at the end of each year there was a careful valuation of live and dead stock4#abi ,the difference between the smaller gentry and the more important yeomen#acj who farmed their own land must have been very slight4 ,no doubt both of them were very rough and ignorant men1 who knew a great deal about the cultivation of their land and very little about anything else4 ,we may be sure that the ordinary house of both was generally of wood2 as there is no stone in many parts of ,england1 and bricks were not reintroduced till the fourteenth century and spread slowly4 ,even in ,elizabeth's reign1 ,harrison#aca tells us that 'the ancient houses of our gentry are yet for the most part of strong timber'1 and he even thinks that houses made of oak were luxurious1 for in times past men had been contented with houses of willow1 plum1 and elm1 but now nothing but oak was good enough2 and he quaintly says that the men who lived in the willow houses were as tough as oak1 and those who lived in the oak as soft as willow4 ,there are very few mansions left of the time before ,edward ,,iii1 for being of timber they naturally decayed4 ,in a lease1 dated #aaeb1 of a manor house belonging to ,s4 ,paul's ,cathedral1#acb is a description of a manor house which contained a hall #ce feet long1 #cj feet broad1 and #bb feet high2 that is1 #aa feet to the tie beam and #aa feet from that to the ridge board2 showing that the roof was open and that there were no upper rooms4 ,there was a chamber between the hall and the thalamus or inner room which was #ab feet long1 #ag feet broad1 and #ag feet high1 the roof being open as in the hall2 and the thalamus was #bb feet long1 #af feet broad1 and #ah feet high4 ,about the same date the ,manor house of ,thorp was larger1 and contained a hall1 a chamber1 tresantia 7apparently part of the hall or chamber separated by a screen to form an antechamber71 two private rooms1 a kitchen1 brew-house1 malt-house1 dairy1 ox shed1 and three small hen-houses4 ,the ordinary manor house of the ,middle ,ages contained three rooms at least1 of mean aspect1 the floor even of the hall1 which was the principal eating and sleeping room1 being of dirt2 and when there was an upper room or solar added1 which began to be done at the end of the twelfth century1#acc access to it was often obtained by an outside staircase4 ,if the manor house belonged to the owner of many manors1 it was sometimes inhabited by his bailiff4 ,the barns on the demesnes were often as important buildings as the manor houses2 one at ,wickham1 belonging to the canons of ,s4 ,paul's#acd in the twelfth century1 was #ee feet long1 #ac feet high from the floor to the principal beam1 and #aj-a_/b feet more to the ridge board2 the breadth between the pillars was #ai-a_/b feet1 and on each side it had a wing or aisle #f-a_/b feet wide and #f-a_/b feet high4 ,the amount of corn in the barn was often scored on the door-posts4#ace ,in the manor houses chimneys rarely existed1 the fire being made in the middle of the hall4 ,even in the early seventeenth century in ,cheshire there were no chimneys in the farmhouses1 and there the oxen were kept under the same roof as the farmer and his family4#acf ,when chimneys did come in they were not much thought of4 ',now we have chimneys our tenderlings complain of rheums1 catarrhs1 and poses 7colds72' for the smoke not only hardened the timbers1 but was said by ,harrison to be an excellent medicine for man4 ,instead of glass there was much lattice1 and that made either of wicker or fine rifts of oak in checkerwise1 and horn was also used4 ,beds1 of course1 were a luxury1 the owner of the manor1 his guests1 and retainers flung themselves down on the hall floor after supper and all slept together1 though sometimes rough mattresses were brought in4 ,furniture was rude and scanty4 ,in #aaej the farm implements and household furniture on the ,manor of ',waleton' was valued and consisted of #d carts1 #c baskets1 a basket used in winnowing corn1 a pair of millstones1 #aj tubs1 #d barrels1 #b boilers of lead with stoves1 #b wooden bowls1 #c three-legged tables1 #bj dishes or platters1 #b tablecloths worth #f;d41 #f metal bowls1 half a load of the invaluable salt1 #b axes1 a table with trestles 7the usual form of table71 and #e beehives made of rushes4#acg ,these articles were handed down from one generation to another1 and in a lease made #aej years afterwards of the same manor most of them reappear4 ,the greater part of the furniture1 until the fifteenth century1 was most likely made by migratory workmen1 who travelled from village to village2 for except the rudest pieces it was beyond the village carpenter1 and shops there were none4 ,it is not to be expected that when the master lived in this manner the lot of the labourer was a very good one4 ,his home was miserably poor1 generally of 'wattle and dab'1 sometimes wholly of mud and clay2 many with only one room for all purposes4 ,a bill is still in existence for a house1 if it can be called one1 built in #acjf for two labourers by ,queen's ,college1 ,oxford1 which cost #bjs4 in all1 and was a mere hovel without floor1 ceiling1 or chimney4#ach ,their wretched houses appear to have been built on the bare earth1 and unfloored4 ,perhaps as time went on a rude upper storey was added1 the floor of which was made of rough poles or hurdles and was reached by a ladder4 ,the furniture was miserably poor2 a few pots and pans1 cups and dishes1 and some tools would exhaust the list4#aci ,the goods and chattels of a landless labourer in #adca consisted of a dish1 an adze1 a brass pot1 #b plates1 #b augers1 an axe1 a three-legged stool1 and a barrel4#adj ,englishmen of all classes were hopelessly dirty in their habits2 even till the sixteenth century they were noted above other countries for the profuseness of their diet and their unclean ways4 ,erasmus spoke of the floor of his house as inconceivably filthy4 ,to save fuel1 the labourer's family in the cold season all lay huddled in a heap on the floor1 'pleasantly and hot'1 as ,barclay the poet tells us2 and if he ever had a bed it was a bundle of fern or straw thrown down1 with his cloak as a coverlet1 though thus he was just as well off as his social superiors1 for with them the loose cloak of the day was a common covering for the night4 ,he was constantly exposed to disease1 for sanitary precautions were ignored2 at the entrance of his hovel was a huge heap of decaying refuse1 poisoning air and water4 ,even in the sixteenth century a foreigner noticed that 'the peasants dwell in small huts and pile up their refuse out of doors in heaps so high that you cannot see their houses'4#ada ,diseased animals were constantly eaten1 vegetables were few1 and in the winter there was no fresh meat for any one1 except game and rabbits and1 for the well-to-do1 fish1 but we may doubt if the peasant got any but salt fish4 ,the consequence was that leprosy and kindred ailments were common2 and we do not wonder that plagues were frequent and slew the people like flies4 ,the peasants' food consisted largely of corn4 ,in the bailiff's accounts of the ,manor of ,woodstock in #abdb1 six servants at ,handborough received #da-a_/b bushels of corn each1 #b ox herds at ,combe received the same1 and #d servants at ,bladon had #cf bushels each4 ,in #abgd at ,bosham1 and in #abhh at ,stoughton in ,sussex1 the allowance was the same4#adb ,the writer of the anonymous ,treatise on ,husbandry says that in his time1 the thirteenth century1 the average annual allowance of corn to a labourer was #cf bushels4#adc ,fish1 too1 seem to have formed a large portion of his diet2 all classes ate enormous quantities of fish1 before the ,reformation1 in ,lent and on fast days1 and the labourer was constantly given salt herrings as part of his pay4 ,in #acei1 at ,hawsted1 the villeins when working were allowed #b herrings a day1 some milk1 a loaf1 and some drink4#add ,eden#ade says his food consisted of a few fish1 principally herrings1 a loaf of bread1 and some beer2 but we must certainly add pork1 which was his stand-by then as now4#adf ,in the fourteenth century1 at all events1 there were three kinds of bread in use--white bread1 ration bread1 and black bread2 and it was no doubt the latter that the peasant ate4#adg ,clothing was dear and cloth coarse1 the most valuable personal property consisting of clothing and metal vessels4 ,shirts were the subject of charitable gifts4#adh ,by #cg ,edw4 ,,iii1 c4 #ad1 labourers were not to wear any manner of cloth but 'blanket and russet wool of #ab;d4' and girdles of linen4 ,if they wore anything more extravagant it was forfeited to the king4 ,to the labourer of modern times the life of his forefathers would have seemed unutterably dull4 ,no books1 no newspapers1 no change of scene by cheap excursions1 no village school1 no politics4 ,the very cultivation of the soil by the old three-course system was monotonous4 ,but there were bright spots in his existence3 the village church not only afforded him the consolations of religion but also entertainments and society4 ,religion in the ,middle ,ages was a part of the people's daily life1 and its influence permeated even their amusements4 ,miracles and mystery plays1 played in the churches and churchyards1 were a common feature in village life2 as were the church ales or parish meetings held four or five times a year1 where cakes and beer were purchased from the churchwarden and consumed for the good of the parish4 ,indeed1 there can be no doubt that there was much more sociability than to-day1 in the country at least4 ,labour was lightened by the co-operation of the common fields2 common shepherds and herdsmen watched the sheep and cattle of the different tenants1 'a common mill ground the corn1 a common oven baked the bread1 a common smith worked at a common forge4' ,his existence1 moreover1 was enlivened by a considerable number of sports4 ,a statute at the end of the fourteenth century 7#ab ,ric4 ,,ii1 c4 #f7 says he was fond of playing at tennis7671 football1 quoits1 dice1 casting the stone1 and other games1 which this statute forbad him1 and enacted that he should use his bow and arrows on ,sundays and holidays instead of such idle sport4 ,this is a foretaste of the modern sentiment that seeks to wean him from watching football matches and take to miniature rifle clubs4 ,he was also1 like some of his successors1 fond of poaching1 though he appears to have been rash enough to indulge in it by day4 #ac ,ric4 ,,ii1 c4 #ac1 says he was prone on holidays1 when good ,christian people be in church hearing divine service1 to go hunting with greyhounds and other dogs1 in the parks and warrens of the lord and of others1 and sometimes these hunts were turned into conferences and conspiracies1' for to rise and disobey their allegiance'1 such as preceded the ,peasants' ,revolt of #acha2 and accordingly no one who did not own lands worth #djs4 a year was to keep a dog to hunt1 or ferrets other 'engines'3 the first game law on the ,english statute book4 ,,footnotes3 #abg ,smyth1 ,lives of the ,berkeleys1 i4 #cjb4 ,no doubt the riches of the ,berkeleys were considerably greater than those of many of the barons4 #abh ,lives of the ,berkeleys1 i4 #aff4 ,there is no reason to doubt ,smyth1 as he wrote with the original accounts before him4 #abi ,lives of the ,berkeleys1 i4 #aef4 #acj ,the yeoman is said to have made his appearance in the fifteenth century1 but the small freeholders of the manor before that date were to all intents and purposes yeomen4 ,no doubt1 as trade grew in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries successful tradesmen bought small freeholds in the country and swelled the numbers of yeomen4 #aca ,harrison1 ,description of ,britain1 ,f4,j4 ,furnivall edn41 p4 #ccg4 #acb ,domesday of ,s4 ,paul1 ,camden ,society1 p4 #abi4 #acc ,turner1 ,domestic ,architecture1 i4 #ei4 #acd ,domesday of ,s4 ,paul1 p4 #abc4 #ace ,historical ,,mss4 ,commission ,report1 v4 #ddd4 #acf ,ormerod1 ,history of ,cheshire1 i4 #abi4 #acg ,domesday of ,s4 ,paul1 p4 xcvii4 #ach ,denton1 ,england in the ,fifteenth ,century4 #aci ,eden1 ,state of the ,poor1 i4 #ba4 #adj ,see ,cullum1 ,history of ,hawsted4 #ada ,harrison1 ,description of ,britain1 ,appendix ii1 lxxxi4 ,in some manors1 however1 there were careful regulations for public health4 ,according to the ,durham ,halmote ,rolls1 published by the ,surtees ,society1 village officials watched over the water supply1 prevented the fouling of streams2 bye-laws were enacted as to the regulation of the common place for clothes washing1 and the times for emptying and cleansing ponds and mill-dams4 #adb ,ballard1 ,domesday1 ,antiquary ,series1 p4 #bji4 #adc ,walter of ,henley1 ,royal ,historical ,society1 p4 #ge4 #add ,cullum1 ,hawsted1 #aghd ed41 p4 #ahb4 #ade ,state of the ,poor1 i4 #ae4 #adf ,thorold ,rogers1 ,history of ,agriculture and ,prices1 i4 #cb4 #adg ,see ,knights ,hospitallers in ,england1 ,camden ,society1 ,introduction4 #adh ,thorold ,rogers1 op4 cit4 i4 #ff4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,break-,,up ,,of ,,the ,,manor4--,,spread ,,of ,,leases4--,,the ,,peasants' ,,revolt4--,,further ,,attempts ,,to ,,regulate ,,wages4--,a ,,harvest ,,home4-- ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,corn ,,laws4--,,some ,,surrey ,,manors ,we have seen that the landlords' profits were seriously diminished by the ,black ,death1 and they cast about them for new ways of increasing their incomes4 ,arable land had been until now largely in excess of pasture1 the cultivation of corn was the chief object of agriculture1 bread forming a much larger proportion of men's diet than now4 ,this began to change4 ,much of the land was laid down to grass1 and there was a steady increase in sheep farming2 thus commenced that revolution in farming which in the sixteenth century led ,harrison to say that ,england was mainly a stock-raising country4 ,the lords also let a considerable amount of their demesne land on leases for years4 ',then began the times to alter' says ,smyth of the ,lord ,berkeley of the end of the fourteenth century1 'and hee with them1 and he began to tack other men's cattle on his pasture by the week1 month1 and quarter1 and to sell his meadow grounds by the acre4 ,and in the time of ,henry ,,iv still more and more was let1 and in succeeding times4 ,as for the days' works of the copyhold tenants1 they also were turned into money4'#adi ,such leases had been used long before this1 but this is the date of their great increase4 ,in the thirteenth century a lease of #b acres of arable land in ,nowton1 ,suffolk1 let the land at #f;d4 an acre per annum for a term of six years4#aej ,it contains no clauses about cultivation2 the landlord warrants the said #b acres to the tenant1 and the tenant agrees to give them up at the end of the term freely and peaceably4 ,the deed was indented1 sealed1 and witnessed by several persons4 ,the impoverished landlords also let much of their land on stock and land leases4 ,the custom of stocking the tenants' land was a very ancient one3 the lord had always found the oxen for the plough teams of the villeins4 ,in the leases of the manors of ,s4 ,paul's in the twelfth century the tenant for life received stock both live and dead1 which when he entered was carefully enumerated in the lease1 and at the end of the tenancy he had to leave behind the same quantity4#aea ,it was a common practice also1 before the ,black ,death1 for the lord to let out cows and sheep at so much per head per annum4#aeb ,the stock and land lease therefore was no novelty4 ,in #adaj there is a lease of the demesne lands at ,hawsted by which the landlord kept the manor house and its appurtenances in his own hands1 the tenant apparently having the farm buildings1 which he was to keep in repair4 ,he was to receive at the beginning of the term #bj cows and one bull1 worth #is4 each2 #d stotts1 worth #ajs4 each2 and #d oxen1 worth #acs4 #d;d4 each2 which1 or their value in money1 were to be delivered up at the end of the term4 ,the tenant was also to leave at the end of the lease as many acres well ploughed1 sown1 and manured as he found at the beginning4 ,otherwise the landlord was not to interfere with the cultivation4 ,if the rent or any part thereof was in arrear for a fortnight after the two fixed days for payment1 the landlord might distrain2 and if for a month1 he might re-enter3 and both parties bound themselves to forfeit the then huge sum of #ajj upon the violation of any clause of the lease4#aec ,there is a lease#aed of a subsequent date 7the twentieth year of ,henry ,,viii71 but one which well illustrates the custom now so prevalent1 granted by the ,prior of the ,monastery of ,lathe in ,somerset to ,william ,pole of ,combe1 ,edith his wife1 and ,thomas his son1 for their lives4 ,with the land went #cfj wethers4 ,for the land they paid #af quarters of best wheat1 'purelye thressyd and wynowed1' #bb quarters of best barley1 and were to carry #d loads of wood and fatten one ox for the prior yearly2 the ox to be fattened in stall with the best hay1 the only way then known of fattening oxen4 ,for the flock of wethers they paid #f yearly4 ,the tenants were bound to keep hedges1 ditches1 and gates in repair4 ,also they were bound by a 'writing obligatory' in the sum of #ajj to deliver up the wether flock whole and sound1 'not rotten1 banyd1#aee nor otherwise diseased4' ,the consequence of the spread of leases was that the portion of the demesne lands which the lords farmed themselves dwindled greatly1 or it was turned from arable into grass4 ,stock and land leases survived in some parts till the beginning of the eighteenth century1 when it was still the custom for the landlord to stock the land and receive half the crop for rent4#aef ,according to the ,domesday of ,s4 ,paul1 in the thirteenth century1 a survey of eighteen manors containing #bd1jjj acres showed three-eighths of the land in demesne1 the rest in the hands of the tenants4 ,in #acei the lord of the principal manor at ,hawsted held in his own hand #egb acres of arable land1 worth #d;d4 to #f;d4 an acre rent1 and #ej acres of meadow1 worth #bs4 an acre4#aeg ,he had also pasture for #bd cows1 which was considered worth #cfs4 a year1 and for #ab horses and #ab oxen worth #dhs4 a year1 with #dj acres of wood1 estimated at #as4 an acre4 ,in #achg1 however1 the arable land had decreased to #cbj acres1 but the stock had increased1 and now numbered #d cart horses1 #f stotts or smaller horses1 #aj oxen1 #a bull1 #bf cows1 #f heifers1 #f calves1 #ib wethers1 #bj hoggerells or two-year-old sheep1 #a gander1 #d geese1 #cj capons1 #bf hens1 and only one cock4 ,the dairy of #bf cows was let out1 according to the custom of the time1 for #h a year2 and we are told that the oxen were fed on oats1 and shod in the winter only4 ,but if the position of the lords was severely affected by the great pestilence that of the villeins was also4 ,the villein himself was becoming a copyholder2 in the thirteenth century the nature of his holding had been written on the court roll1 before long he was given a copy of the roll1 and by the fifteenth century he was a copyholder4#aeh ,there was1 too1 a new spirit abroad in this century of disorganization and reform1 which stirred even the villeins with a desire for better conditions of life4 ,these men1 thus rising to a more assured position and animated by new hopes1 saw all round them hired labourers obtaining1 in spite of the ,statute of ,labourers1 double the amount of wages they had formerly received1 while they were bound down to the same services as before4 ,the advance in prices was further increased by the king's issuing in #acea an entirely new coinage1 of the same fineness but of less weight than the old2 so that the demands of the labourers after the ,black ,death were largely justified by the depreciation in the currency4#aei ,there had also arisen at this time1 owing to the increase in the wealth of the country1 a new class of landlords who did not care for the old system#afj2 and it is probably these men who are meant by the statute ,i ,ric4 ,,ii1 c4 #f1 which complains that the villeins daily withdrew their services to their lords at the instigation of various counsellors and abettors1 who made it appear by 'colour of certain exemplifications made out of the ,book of ,domesday' that they were discharged from their services1 and moreover gathered themselves in great routs and agreed to aid each other in resisting their lords1 so that justices were appointed to check this evil4 ,but there were other 'counsellors and abettors' of the ,peasants' ,revolt than the new landlords4 ,one of its most interesting features to modern readers is its thorough organization4 ,travelling agents and agitators like ,john ,ball were all over the country1 money was subscribed and collected1 and everything was ripe for the great rising of #acha1 which was brought to a head by the bad grading of the poll tax of ,king ,richard4 ,it has been said that the chief grievance of the villeins was that the lords of manors were attempting to reimpose commuted services1 but judging by the petition to the ,king when he met them at ,mile-end there can be no doubt that the chief grievance was the continuance of existing services4 ',we will'1 said they1 'that ye make us free for ever1 and that we be called no more bond1 or so reputed4' ,also1 as ,walsingham says1#afa they were careful to destroy the rolls and ancient records whereby their services were fixed1 and to put to death persons learned in the law4 ,as every one knows1 the revolt was a failure2 and whether it ultimately helped much to extinguish serfdom is doubtful4 ,it probably1 like the pestilence1 accelerated a movement which had been for some time in progress and was inevitable4 ,there is ample evidence to prove that there was a very general continuance of predial services after the revolt1 though they went on rapidly decreasing4 ,one of the chief methods adopted by the villeins to gain their freedom was desertion1 and so common did this become that apparently the mere threat of desertion enabled the villein to obtain almost any concession from his lord1 who was afraid lest his land should be utterly deserted4 ,the result was that by the middle of the fifteenth century the abolition of labour services was approaching completion4#afb ,it lingered on1 and ,fitzherbert lamented in ,elizabeth's reign the continuance of villeinage as a disgrace to ,england2 but it had then nearly disappeared1 and was unheard of after the reign of ,james ,i4#afc ,seven years after the ,peasants' ,revolt another attempt was made to regulate agricultural wages by the statute #ab ,ric4 ,,ii1 c4 #d1 which stated that 'the hires of the said servants and labourers have not been put on certainty before this time'1 though we have seen that the ,act of #acea tried to settle wages4 ,in the preamble it is said that the statute was enacted because labourers 'have refused for a long season to work without outrageous and excessive hire'1 and owing to the scarcity of labourers 'husbands' could not pay their rents1 a sentence which shows the general use of money rents4 ,the wages were as follows1 apparently with food3-- s4 d4 ,a bailiff annually1 and clothing once a year #ac #d ,a master hind1 without clothing #aj #j ,a carter1 #aj #j ,a shepherd1 #aj #j ,an ox or cow herd #f #h ,swine herd or female labourer1 without clothing #f #j ,a plough driver1 without clothing #g #j ,the farm servants' food would be worth considerably more than the actual cash he received2 a quarter of wheat1 barley1 and rye mixed every nine weeks was no unusual allowance1 which at #ds4 #d;d4 would be worth about #bes4 a year4 ,he would also have his harvest allowance1 though the statute above forbids any perquisites1 worth about #cs41 and sometimes it was accompanied by the gift of a pig1 some beer1 or some herrings4#afd ,his wife also1 at a time when women did the same work as the men1 could earn #a;d4 a day1 and his boy perhaps #a_/b;d4 ,if his wages were wholly paid in money1 we may say that in the last half of the fourteenth century the ordinary labourer earned #c;d4 a day1 so that as corn and pork1 his chief food1 had not risen at all1 he was much better off than in the preceding #ajj years4 ,cullum1 in his invaluable ,history of ,hawsted1 gives us a picture of harvesting on the demesne lands in #achi which shows an extraordinarily busy scene4 ,there were #bjj acres of all kinds of corn to be gathered in1 and over #cjj people took part2 though apparently such a crowd was only collected for the two principal days of the harvest1 and it must be remembered that the towns were emptied into the country at this important season4 ,the number of people for one day comprised a carter1 ploughman1 head reaper1 cook1 baker1 brewer1 shepherd1 daya 7dairymaid72 #bba hired reapers2 #dd pitchers1 stackers1 and reapers 7not hired1 evidently villeins paying their rents by work72 #bb other reapers1 hired for goodwill 7de amore72 and #bj customary tenants4 ,this small army of men consumed #bb bushels of wheat1 #h pennyworth of beer1 and #da bushels of malt1 worth #ahs4 #i-a_/b;d42 meat to the value of #is4 #aa-a_/b;d42 fish and herrings1 #es4 #a;d42 cheese1 butter1 milk1 and eggs1 #hs4 #c-a_/b;d42 oatmeal1 #e;d4 salt1 #c;d42 pepper and saffron1 #aj;d41 the latter apparently introduced into ,england in the time of ,edward ,,iii1 and much used for cooking and medicine1 but it gradually went out of fashion1 and by the end of the eighteenth century was only cultivated in one or two counties1 notably ,essex where ,saffron ,walden recalls its use2 candles1 #f;d42 and #e pairs of gloves #aj;d4#afe ,the presentation of gloves was a common custom in ,england2 and these would be presented as a sign of good husbandry1 as in the case of the rural bridegroom in the account of ,queen ,elizabeth's visit to ,kenilworth who wore gloves to show he was a good farmer4 ,tusser bids the farmer give gloves to his reapers4 ,the custom was still observed at ,hawsted in #aghd1 and in ,eden's time1 #agig1 the bursars of ,new ,college1 ,oxford1 presented each of their tenants with two pairs1 which the recipients displayed on the following ,sunday at church by conspicuously hanging their hands over the pew to show their neighbours they had paid their rent4 ,in this account of the ,hawsted harvest the large number of hired men and the few customary tenants is noteworthy as a sign of the times1 for before the ,black ,death the harvest work on the demesne was the special work of the latter4 ,in the fourteenth century the long series of corn laws was commenced which was to agitate ,englishmen for centuries1 and after an apparently final settlement in #ahdf to reappear in our day4#aff ,it was the policy of ,edward ,,iii to make food plentiful and cheap for the whole nation1 without special regard to the agricultural interest3 and by #cd ,edw4 ,,iii1 c4 #bj1 the export of corn to any foreign part except ,calais and ,gascony1 then ,british possessions1 or to certain places which the king might permit1 was forbidden4 ,richard ,,ii1 however1 reversed this policy in answer to the complaints of agriculturists whose rents were falling1#afg and endeavoured to encourage the farmer and especially the corn-grower2 for he saw the landlords turning their attention to sheep instead of corn1 owing to the high price of labour4 ,accordingly1 to give the corn-growers a wider market1 he allowed his subjects by the statute #ag ,ric4 ,,ii1 c4 #g1 to carry corn1 on paying the duties due1 to what parts they pleased1 except to his enemies1 subject however to an order of the ,council2 and owing to the interference of the ,council the law probably became a dead letter1 at all events we find it confirmed and amended by #d ,hen4 ,,vi1 c4 #e4 ,the prohibition of export must have been a serious blow to those counties near the sea1 for it was much easier to send corn by ship to foreign parts than over the bad roads of ,england to some distant market4#afh ,indeed1 judging by the great and frequent discrepancy of prices in different places at the same date1 the dispatch of corn from one inland locality to another was not very frequent4 ,richard also attempted to stop the movement1 which had even then set in1 of the countrymen to the growing towns1 forbidding by #ab ,ric4 ,,ii1 c4 #e1 those who had served in agriculture until #ab years of age to be apprenticed in the towns1 but to 'abide in husbandry'4 ,one of the most unjust customs of the ,middle ,ages was that which bade the tenants of manors1 except those who held the jus faldae1 fold their sheep on the land of the lord1 thus losing both the manure and the valuable treading4#afi ,however1 sometimes1 as in ,surrey1 the sheepfold was in a fixed place and the manure from it was from time to time taken out and spread on the land4#agj ,in the same district horses had been hitherto used for farm work1 as it was considered worthy of note that oxen were beginning to be added to the horse teams4 ,the milk of two good cows in twenty-four weeks was considered able to make a wey of cheese1 and in addition half a gallon of butter a week2 and the milk of #bj ewes was equal to that of #c cows4 ,on the ,manor of ,flaunchford1 near ,reigate1 the demesne land amounted to #ef acres of arable and two meadows1 but there must have been the usual pasture in addition to keep the following head of stock3 #ac cows1 who in the winter were fed from the racks in the yard2 #d calves1 bought at #as4 each2 #ab oxen for ploughing1 whose food was oats and hay--a very large number for #ef acres of arable1 and they were probably used on another manor2 #a stott1 used for harrowing2 a goat1 and a sow4 s4 d4 ,in #achb the total receipts of this manor were #h #a #i-a_/b ,the total expenses #g #j #e -------------- ,profit #a #a #d-a_/b ,among the receipts were3-- ,for the lord's plough1 let to farmers 7perhaps this accounts for the large team of oxen kept7 #f #h #ad bushels of apples #a #b #e loads of charcoal #af #h ,a cow #aj #j ,among the payments3-- ,for keeping plough in repair1 and the wages of a blacksmith1 one year by agreement #f #h ,making a new plough from the lord's timber #f ,mowing #b acres of meadow #a #j ,making and carrying hay of ditto1 with help of lord's servants #d ,threshing wheat1 peas1 and tares1 per quarter #d oats1 per quarter #a-a_/b ,winnowing #c quarters of corn #a ,cutting and binding wheat and oats1 per acre #f ,on the ,manor of ,dorking the harvest lasted five weeks as a rule2 the fore feet only of oxen used for ploughing1 and of heifers used for harrowing1 were shod4 ,for washing and shearing sheep #aj;d4 a hundred was the price2 ploughing for winter corn cost #f;d4 an acre1 and harrowing #a_/b;d4 #cj-a_/b acres of barley produced #da-a_/b quarters2 #bh acres of oats produced #ch-a_/b quarters2 #ac cows were let for the season at #es4 each4 ,in the same reign1 at ,merstham1 the demesne lands of #aff-a_/b acres were let on lease with all the live and dead stock1 which was valued at #bb #is4 #c;d41 and the rent was #cf or about #ds4 #d;d4 an acre1 an enormous price even including the stock4 ,,footnotes3 #adi ,smyth1 ,lives of the ,berkeleys1 ii4 #e4 ,there is no doubt the lease system was growing in the thirteenth century4 ,about #abdj the writ ,quare ejecit infra terminum protected the person of a tenant for a term of years1 who formerly had been regarded as having no more than a personal right enforceable by an action of covenant4 ,vinogradoff1 ,villeinage in ,england1 p4 #ccj2 but leases for lives and not for years seem the rule at that date4 #aej ,cullum1 ,hawsted1 p4 #age4 #aea ,see ,domesday of ,s4 ,paul1 ,introduction4 #aeb ,thorold ,rogers1 ,history of ,agriculture and ,prices1 i4 #be4 #aec ,cullum1 ,hawsted1 p4 #aie4 #aed ,cunningham1 ,industry and ,commerce1 i4 #ehf4 #aee ,banyd1 afflicted with sheep rot4 #aef ,eden1 ,state of the ,poor1 i4 #ee4 #aeg ,cullum1 ,hawsted1 p4 #ahb4 ,another instance of the difference in value between arable and tillage4 ,at the inquisition of the ,manor of ,great ,tey in ,essex1 #acbf1 the jury found that #ejj acres of arable land was worth #f;d4 an acre rent1 #bj acres of meadow #cs4 an acre1 and #aj acres of pasture #as4 an acre4 ,archaeologia1 xii4 #cj4 #aeh ,medley1 ,constitutional ,history1 p4 #eb4 #aei ,cunningham1 op4 cit4 i4 #cbh1 and #cce-f4 #afj ,domesday of ,s4 ,paul1 p4 lvii4 #afa ,hist4 ,angl41 ,rolls ,series1 i4 #dee4 ,the other political and social causes of the revolt do not concern us here4 ,the attempt to minimize its agrarian importance is strange in the light of the words and acts above mentioned4 #afb ,page1 op4 cit4 p4 #gg4 #afc ,cunningham1 ,industry and ,commerce1 i4 #djb1 #ecd2 ,transactions of the ,royal ,historical ,society1 ,new ,series1 xvii4 #bce4 ,fitzherbert probably referred more to villein status1 which continued longer than villein tenure4 #afd ,thorold ,rogers1 ,history of ,agriculture and ,prices1 i4 #bgh1 #bhh4 #afe ,harrison1 ,description of ,britain1 p4 #bcc1 says the produce of an acre of saffron was usually worth #bj4 #aff ,exportation of corn is mentioned in #aaha1 when a fine was paid to the king for licence to ship corn from ,norfolk and ,suffolk to ,norway4--,mc,pherson1 ,annals of ,commerce1 i4 #cde4 ,as early as the reign of ,henry ,,ii1 ,henry of ,huntingdon says1 ,german silver came to buy our most precious wool1 our milk 7no doubt converted into butter and cheese71 and our innumerable cattle4--,rolls ,series1 p4 #e4 ,in #adjj1 the ,chronicle of ,london says the country was saved from dearth by the importation of rye from ,prussia4 #afg ,hasbach1 op4 cit44 p4 #cb4 #afh ,lord ,berkeley1 about #acfj1 had a ship of his own for exporting wool and corn and bringing back foreign wine and wares4--,smyth1 ,lives of the ,berkeleys1 i4 #cfe4 #afi ,nasse1 ,agricultural ,community of the ,middle ,ages1 p4 #ff4 #agj ,customs in some ,surrey manors in the time of ,richard ,,ii1 ,archaeologia1 xviii4 #bha4 ,,chapter ,,vi #adjj-aedj ,,the ,,so-,,called ',,golden ,,age ,,of ,,the ,,labourer' ,,in ,a ,,period ,,of ,,general ,,distress ,in this period the average prices of grain remained almost unchanged until the last three decades1 when they began slowly and steadily to creep up1 this advance being helped to some extent by defective harvests4 ,in #aebg1 according to ,holinshed it rained from ,april #ab to ,june #c every day or night2 in ,may thirty hours without ceasing2 and the floods did much damage to the corn4 ,in #aebh incessant deluges of rain prevented the corn being sown in the spring1 and grain had to be imported from ,germany4 ,the price of wheat was a trifle higher than in the period #abei-adjj2 barley1 oats1 and beans lower2 rye higher4#aga ,oxen and cows were dearer1 horses about the same1 sheep a little higher1 pigs the same1 poultry and eggs dearer1 wool the same1 cheese and butter dearer4 ,the price of wheat was sometimes subject to astonishing fluctuations3 in #adci it varied from #hs4 to #bfs4 #h;d42 in #addj from #ds4 #b;d4 to #bes4 ,the rent of land continued the same1 arable averaging #f;d4 an acre1#agb though this was partly due to the fact that rents1 although now generally paid in money1 were still fixed and customary2 for the purchase value of land had now risen to twenty years instead of twelve4#agc ,the art of farming hardly made any progress1 and the produce of the land was consequently about the same or a little better than in the preceding period4#agd ,at the end of the fourteenth century the ordinary wheat crop at ,hawsted was in favourable years about a quarter to the acre1 but it was often not more than #f bushels2 and this was on demesne land1 usually better tilled than non-demesne land4#age ,as for the labourer1 it is well known that ,thorold ,rogers calls the fifteenth century his golden age1 and seeing that his days' wages1 if he 'found himself'1 were now #d;d4 and prices were hardly any higher all round than when he earned half the money in the thirteenth century1 there is much to support his view4 ,as to whether he was better off than the modern labourer it is somewhat difficult to determine2 as far as wages went he certainly was1 for his #d;d4 a day was equal to about #ds4 now2 it is true that on the innumerable holidays of the ,church he sometimes did not work1#agf but no doubt he then busied himself on his bit of common4 ,but so many factors enter into the question of the general material comfort of the labourer in different ages that it is almost impossible to come to a satisfactory conclusion4 ,denton paints a very gloomy picture of him at this time#agg2 so does ,mr4 ,jessop1 who says1 the agricultural labourers of the fifteenth century were1 compared with those of to-day1 'more wretched in their poverty1 incomparably less prosperous in their prosperity2 worse clad1 worse fed1 worse housed1 worse taught1 worse governed2 they were sufferers from loathsome diseases1 of which their descendants know nothing2 the very beasts of the field were dwarfed and stunted2 the disregard of to sell their corn at low prices to the detriment of the whole kingdom3 a typical example of the political economy of the time1 which considered the prosperity of agriculture indispensable to the welfare of the country1 even if the consumer suffered4 ,accordingly1 it was enacted that wheat could be exported without a licence when it was under #fs4 #h;d4 a quarter1 except to the king's enemies4 ,on imports of corn there had been no restriction until #adfc1 when #c ,edw4 ,,iv1 c4 #b forbade the import of corn when under #fs4 #h;d3 a statute due partly to the fear that the increase of pasture was a danger to tillage land and the national food supply1 and partly to the fact that the landed interest had become by now fully awake to the importance of protecting themselves by promoting the gains of the farmer4#agh ,it may be doubted1 however1 if much wheat was imported except in emergencies at this time1 for many countries forbade export4 ,these two statutes were practically unaltered till #aega1agi and by that of #adfc was initiated the policy which held the field for nearly #djj years4 ,thorold ,rogers denounces the landlords for legislating with the object of keeping up rents1 but1 as ,mr4 ,cunningham has pointed out1 this ignores the fact that the land was the great fund of national wealth from which taxation was paid2 if rents therefore rose it was a gain to the whole country1 since the fund from which the revenue was drawn was increased4#ahj ,in spite of the high wages of agricultural labourers1 the movement towards the towns noticed by ,richard ,,ii continued4 ,the statute #g ,hen4 ,,iv1 c4 #ag1 asserts that there is a great scarcity of labourers in husbandry and that gentlemen are much impoverished by the rate of wages2 the cause of the scarcity lying in the fact that many people were becoming weavers1#aha and it therefore re-enacted #ab ,ric4 ,,ii1 c4 #e1 which ordained that no one who had been a servant in husbandry until #ab years old should be bound apprentice1 and further enacted that no person with less than #bjs4 a year in land should be able to apprentice his son4 ,like many other statutes of the time this seems to have been inoperative1 for we find #bc ,hen4 ,,vi1 c4 #ab 7#addd71 enacting that if a servant in husbandry purposed leaving his master he was to give him warning1 and was obliged either to engage with a new one or continue with the old4 ,it also regulated the wages anew1 those fixed showing a substantial increase since the statute of #achh4 ,by the year3-- ,a bailiff was to have #a #cs4 #d;d41 and #es4 worth of clothes4 ,a chief hind1 carter1 or shepherd1 #a1 and #ds4 worth of clothes4 ,a common servant in husbandry1 #aes41 and #cs4 #d;d4 worth of clothes4 ,a woman servant1 #ajs41 and #ds4 worth of clothes4 ,all with meat and drink4 ,by the day1 in harvest1 wages were to be3-- ,a mower1 with meat and drink1 #d;d42 without1 #f;d4 ,a reaper or carter1 with meat and drink1 #c;d42 without1 #e;d4 ,a woman or labourer1 with meat and drink1 #b;d42 without1 #d;d4 ,in the next reign the labourer's dress was again regulated for him1 and he was forbidden to wear any cloth exceeding #bs4 a yard in price1 nor any 'close hosen'1 apparently tight long stockings1 nor any hosen at all which cost more than #ad;d4#ahb ,yeomen and those below them were forbidden to wear any bolsters or stuff of wool1 cotton wadding1 or other stuff in their doublets1 but only lining2 and somewhat gratuitously it was ordered that no one under the degree of a gentleman should wear pikes to his shoes4 ,in #adee ,england's ,thirty ,years' ,war1 the ,war of the ,roses1 began1 and agriculture received another set back4 ,the view that the war was a mere faction fight between nobles and their retainers1 while the rest of the country went about their business1 is somewhat exaggerated4 ,no doubt1 the mass of ,englishmen1 as in the civil war of the seventeenth century1 preferred to 'sit still'1 as ,clarendon said1 but the business of many must have been very much upset4 ,the various armies were compelled to obtain their supplies from the country1 and with the lawless habits of the times plundered friend and foe alike1 as ,cavalier and ,roundhead did afterwards2 and many a farmer must have seen all his stock driven off and his grain seized to feed the combatants4 ,for instance1 it was said before the battle called ,easter ,day ,field that all the tenants of ,abbot's ,ripton in ,huntingdonshire were copyholders of the ,abbot of ,ramsey1 and the northern army lay there so long that they impoverished the country and the tenants had to give up their copyholds through poverty4#ahc ,the loss of life1 too1 must have told heavily on a country already suffering from frequent pestilence4 ,it is calculated that about one-tenth of the whole population of the country were killed in battle or died of wounds and disease during the war2 and as these must have been nearly all men in the prime of life1 it is difficult to understand how the effect on the labour market was not more marked4 ,the enclosing of land for pasture farms1 which we shall next have to consider1 was probably in many cases an absolute necessity1 for the number of men left to till the soil must have been seriously diminished4 ,,footnotes3 #aga ,see table at end of volume4 ,the shrinkage of prices which occurred in the fifteenth century was due to the scarcity of precious metals4 #agb ,thorold ,rogers1 ,history of ,agriculture and ,prices1 iv4 #abh4 ,the rent of arable land on ,lord ,derby's estate in ,wirral in #aebb was a little under #f;d4 a statute acre2 of meadow1 about #as4 #f;d4--,cheshire ,sheaf 7,ser4 #c71 iv4 #bc4 #agc ,thorold ,rogers1 op4 cit4 iv4 #c4 #agd ,thorold ,rogers1 op4 cit4 iv4 #ci4 #age ,cullum1 ,hawsted1 p4 #ahg4 ,the amount of seed for the various crops was1 wheat #b bushels per acre1 barley #d1 oats #b-a_/b4 #agf ,by #d ,hen4 ,,iv1 c4 #ad1 labourers were to receive no hire for holy days1 or on the eves of feasts for more than half a day2 but the statute was largely disregarded4 #agg ,see ,england in the ,fifteenth ,century1 p4 #aje3 ',the undrained neglected soil1 the shallow stagnant waters which lay on the surface of the ground1 the unhealthy homes of all classes1 insufficient and unwholesome food1 the abundance of stale fish eaten1 and the scanty supply of vegetables predisposed rural and town population to disease4' #agh ,cunningham1 ,industry and ,commerce1 i4 #ddh4 #agi ,mc,culloch1 ,commercial ,dictionary 7#aheb71 p4 #dab4 ,in #addi ,parliament had decided that all foreign merchants importing corn should spend the money so obtained on ,english goods to prevent it leaving the country4--,mc,pherson1 ,annals of ,commerce1 i4 #fee4 #ahj ,cunningham1 ,industry and ,commerce1 i4 #aia4 #aha ,much of the weaving1 however1 was done in rural districts4 #ahb ,see #c ,edw4 ,,iv1 c4 #e2 ,rot4 ,parl4 v4 #aje2 #bb ,edw4 ,,iv1 c4 #a4 #ahc ,cunningham1 op4 cit4 i4 #def4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,enclosure ,we have now reached a time when the enclosure question was becoming of paramount importance1#ahd and began to cause constant anxiety to legislators1 while the writers of the day are full of it4 ,enclosure was of four kinds3 #a4 ,enclosing the common arable fields for grazing1 generally in large tracts4 #b4 ,enclosing the same by dividing them into smaller fields1 generally of arable4 #c4 ,enclosing the common pasture1 for grazing or tillage4 #d4 ,enclosing the common meadows or mowing grounds4 ,it is the first mainly1 and to a less degree the third of these1 which were so frequent a source of complaint in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries2 for the first1 besides displacing the small holder1 threw out of employment a large number of people who had hitherto gained their livelihood by the various work connected with tillage1 and the third deprived a large number of their common rights4 ,the first ,enclosure ,act was the ,statute of ,merton1 passed in #abce1 #bj ,henry ,,iii1 c4 #d1 which permitted lords of manors to add to their demesnes such parts of the waste pasture and woods as were beyond the needs of the tenants4 ,there is evidence1 however1 that enclosure1 probably of waste land1 was going on before this statute1 as the charter of ,john1 by which all ,devonshire except ,dartmoor and ,exmoor was deforested1 expressly forbids the making of hedges1 a proof of enclosure1 in those two forests4#ahe ,we may be sure that the needs of the tenants were by an arbitrary lord estimated at a very low figure4 ,at the same time many proceeded in due legal form4 ,thomas1 ,lord ,berkeley1 about the period of the ,act reduced great quantities of ground into enclosures by procuring many releases of common land from freeholders4#ahf ,his successor1 ,lord ,maurice1 was not so observant of legality4 ,he had a wood wherein many of his tenants and freeholders had right of pasture4 ,he wished to make this into a park1 and treated with them for that purpose2 but things not going smoothly1 he made the wood into a park without their leave1 and then treated with his tenants1 most of whom perforce fell in with his highhanded plan2 those who did not 'fell after upon his sonne with suits1 in their small comfort and less gaines4'#ahg ,sometimes the rich made the law aid their covetousness1 as did ,roger ,mortimer the paramour of the ',she ,wolf of ,france'4 ,some men had common of pasture in ,king's ,norton ,wood1 ,worcestershire1 who1 when ,mortimer enclosed part of their common land with a dike1 filled the dike up1 for they were deprived of their inheritance4 ,thereupon ,mortimer brought an action of trespass against them 'by means of jurors dwelling far from the said land'1 who were put on the panel by his steward1 who was also sheriff of the county1 and the commoners were convicted and cast in damages of #cjj1 not daring to appear at the time for fear of assault1 or even death4#ahh ,neither dared they say a word about the matter till ,mortimer was dead1 when it is satisfactory to learn that ,edward ,,iii gave them all their money back save #bj marks4 ,we are told that ,lord ,maurice ,berkeley consolidated much of his demesne lands1 throwing together the scattered strips and exchanging those that lay far apart from the manor houses for those that lay near2 trying evidently to get the home farms into a ring fence as we should term it4#ahi ,in this policy he was followed by his successor ,thomas the ,second1 who during his ownership of the estate from #abha to #acbj1 to the great profit of his tenants and himself1 encouraged them to make exchanges1 so as to make their lands lie in convenient parcels instead of scattered strips1 by which he raised the rent of an acre from #d;d4 and #f;d4 to #as4 #f;d4#aij ,there is a deed of enclosure made in the year #abej1 preserved1 by which the free men of ,north ,dichton 'appropriated and divided between them and so kept for ever in fee all that place called ,sywyneland1 with the moor1' and they were to have licence to appropriate that place1 which was common pasture 7the boundaries of which are given71 'save1 however1 to the grantor ,william de ,ros and his heirs' common of pasture in a portion thereof named by bounds1 with entry and exit for beasts after the wheat is carried4 ,the men of ,north ,dichton were also to have all the wood called ,rouhowthwicke1 and to do what they liked with it4#aia ,in return they gave the lord #aj marks of silver and a concession as regards a certain wood4 ,it has been noticed that the ,black ,death1 besides causing many of the landlords to let their demesnes1 also made them turn much tillage into grass to save labour1 which had grown so dear4 ,we have also seen that the statutes regulating wages were of little effect1 and they went on rising1 so that more land was laid down to grass4 ,the landowners may be said to have given up ordinary farming and turned to sheep raising4 ,english wool could always find a ready sale1 although ,spanish sheep farming had developed greatly2 and the profitable trade of growing wool attracted the new capitalist class who had sprung up1 so that they often invested their recently made fortunes in it1 buying up many of the great estates that were scattered during the war4#aib ,the increase of sheep farming was assisted by the fact that the domestic system of the manufacture of wool1 which supplanted the guild system1 led1 owing to its rapid and successful growth1 to a constant and increasing demand for wool4 ,at the same time this development of the cloth industry helped to alleviate the evils it had itself caused by giving employment to many whom the agricultural changes wholly or partially deprived of work4 ',it is important to remember1 that where peasant proprietorship and small farming did maintain their ground it was largely due to the domestic industries which supplemented the profits of agriculture4'#aic ,much of the land laid down to grass was demesne land1 but many of the common arable fields were enclosed and laid down4 ,john ,ross of ,warwick about #adfj compares the country as he knew it with the picture presented by the ,hundred ,rolls in ,edward ,i's time1 showing how many villages had been depopulated2 and he mentions the inconvenience to travellers in having to get down frequently to open the gates of enclosed fields4#aid ,enclosure was really a sure sign of agricultural progress2 nearly all the agricultural writers from ,fitzherbert onwards are agreed that enclosed land produced much more than uninclosed4 ,fitzherbert1 in the first quarter of the sixteenth century1 said an acre of land rented for #f;d4 uninclosed was worth #h;d4 when enclosed4 ,gabriel ,plattes1 in the seventeenth century1 said an acre enclosed was worth four in common4 ,in fact1 the history of enclosures is part of the history of the great revolution in agriculture by which the manorial system was converted into the modern system as we know it to-day of several ownership and the triumvirate of landlord1 tenant farmer1 and labourer4 ,no one could have objected to the enclosure of waste2 it was that of the common arable fields and of the common pasture that excited the indignation of contemporaries4 ,they saw many of the small holders displaced and the countryside depopulated2 many of the labourers were also thrown out of employment1 for there was no need in enclosed fields of the swineherd and shepherd and oxherd who had tended the common flocks of the villagers in the old unfenced fields4 ,but much of the opposition was founded on ignorance and hatred of change2 ,england had been for ages mainly a corn-growing land1 and1 many thought1 ought to remain so4 ,as a matter of fact1 what much of the arable land wanted was laying down to grass2 it was worn out and needed a rest4 ,the common field system was wasteful2 the land1 for instance1 could never be properly ploughed1 for the long narrow strips could not be cross-ploughed1 and much of it must have suffered grievously from want of manure at a time when hardly any stock was kept in the winter to make manure4 ,the beneficial effect of the rest is shown by the fact that at the end of the sixteenth century1 when some of the land came to be broken up1 the produce per acre of wheat had gone up largely4#aie ,marling and liming the land1 too1 which had been the salvation of much of it for centuries1 had gone out partly because of insecurity of tenure1 partly because in the unsettled state of ,england men knew not if they could reap any benefit therefrom2 and partly because1 says ,fitzherbert1 men were lazier than their fathers4 ,there can be no doubt that enclosures were often accompanied with great hardships and injustice4 ,dugdale1 speaking of ,stretton in ,warwickshire1#aif says that in ,henry ,,vii's time ,thomas ,twyford1 having begun the depopulation thereof1 decaying four messuages and three cottages whereunto #afj acres of 'errable' land belonged1 sold it to ,henry ,smith2 which ,henry1 following that example1 enclosed #fdj acres of land more1 whereby twelve messuages and four cottages fell to ruins and eighty persons there inhabiting1 being employed about tillage and husbandry1 were constrained to depart thence and live miserably4 ,by means whereof the church grew to such ruin that it was of no other use than for the shelter of cattle4 ,a sad picture1 and true of many districts1 but much of the depopulation ascribed to enclosures was due to the devastation of the ,civil ,wars4 ,in spite of these enclosures1 which began to change the ,england of open fields into the country we know of hedgerows and winding roads1 great part of the land was in a wild and uncultivated state of fen1 heath1 and wood1 the latter sometimes growing right up to the walls of the towns4#aig ,an unbroken series of woods and fens stretched right across ,england from ,lincoln to the ,mersey1 and northwards from the ,mersey to the ,solway and the ,tweed2 ,warwickshire1 ,northamptonshire1 and ,leicestershire were largely covered by forests1 and ,sherwood ,forest extended over nearly the whole of ,notts4 ,cannock ,chase was covered with oaks1 and in the forest of ,needwood in ,camden's time the neighbouring gentry eagerly pursued the cheerful sport of hunting4 ,the great forest of ,andredesweald1 though much diminished1 still covered a large part of ,sussex1 and the ,chiltern district in ,bucks and ,oxfordshire was thick with woods which hid many a robber4 ,the great fen in the east covered #cjj1jjj acres of land in six counties1 in spite of various efforts to reclaim the land1 and was to remain in a state of marsh and shallow water till the seventeenth century4 ,north and west of the great fen was ,hatfield ,chase1 #ahj1jjj acres mostly swamp and bog1 with here and there a strip of cultivated land1 much of which had been tilled and neglected2 a great part too of ,yorkshire was swamp1 heath1 and forest1 and of ,lancashire marshes and mosses1 some of which were not drained till recent times4 ,the best corn-growing counties were those lying immediately to the north of ,london1 stretching from ,suffolk to ,gloucestershire1 and including the southern portions of ,staffordshire and ,leicestershire2 ,essex was a great cheese county2 ,hants1 ,cambridgeshire1 ,northamptonshire1 and ,bedfordshire were famous for malt1 and ,leicestershire for peas and beans4 ,the population of ,england in #adhe was probably from two to two and a half millions4 ,at the time of ,domesday it was under two millions1 and from that date increased perhaps to nearly four millions at the time of the ,black ,death in #acdh-i1 which swept away from one-third to one-half of the people1 and repeated wars and pestilences seem to have kept it from increasing until ,tudor times4 ,of the whole population no fewer than eleven-twelfths were employed in agriculture4#aih ,it was sought to remedy enclosure and depopulation by legislation1 and the statute of #d ,hen4 ,,vii1 c4 #ai1 was passed1 which stated in its preamble that where in some towns 7meaning townships or villages7 #bjj persons used to be occupied and lived by their lawful labours1 now there are occupied only two or three herdsmen1 so that the residue fall into idleness1 and husbandry is greatly decayed1 churches destroyed1 the bodies there buried not prayed for1 the parsons and curates wronged1 and the defence of this land enfeebled and impaired2 the latter point being wisely deemed one of the most serious defects in the new system of farming4 ,indeed1 the encouragement of tillage was largely prompted by the desire to see the people fed on good home-grown corn and made strong and healthy by rural labour for the defence of ,england4 ,it therefore enacted that houses which within three years before had been let for farms with #bj acres of tillage land should be kept in that condition1 under a penalty of forfeiting half the profits to the king or the lord of the fee4 ,soon after ,henry ,,viii ascended the throne came another statute1 #f ,hen4 ,,viii1 c4 #e1 that all townships1 villages1 c41 decayed and turned from husbandry and tillage into pasture1 shall by the owner be rebuilt and the land made mete for tillage within one year2 and this was repeated and made perpetual by a law of the next year4#aii ,but legislation was in vain2 the price of wool was now beginning to advance so that the attraction of sheep farming was irresistible1 and laws1 which asked landowners and farmers to turn from what was profitable to what was not1 were little likely to be observed1 especially as the administration of these laws was in the hands of those whose interest it was that they should not be observed4 ,their ill success1 however1 did not deter the ,parliament from fresh efforts4 #be ,hen4 ,,viii1 c4 #ac1 sets forth the condition of affairs in its preamble3 as many persons have accumulated into few1 great multitude of farms and great plenty of cattle1 especially sheep1 putting such land as they can get into pasture1 and enhanced the old rents and raised the prices of corn1 cattle1 wool1 and poultry almost double1 'by reason whereof a mervaylous multitude and nombre of the people of this realme be not able to provide drynke and clothes necessary for themselves1 but be so discoraged with myserie and povertie that they fall dayly to thefte and robberye or pitifully dye for hunger and colde4' ,so greedy and covetous were some of these accumulators that they had as many as #bd1jjj sheep2 and a good sheep1 that was used to be sold for #bs4 #d;d4 or #cs4 at the most1 was now from #ds4 to #fs42 and a stone of clothing wool1 that in some shires was accustomed to be sold for #ah;d4 or #bj;d41 is now #cs4 #d;d4 to #ds42 and in others1 where it was #bs4 #d;d4 to #cs4 it is now #ds4 #h;d4 to #es4 ,it was therefore enacted that no man1 with some exceptions1 was to keep more than #b1jjj sheep at one time in any part of the realm1 though lambs under one year were not to count4 ,the frequency of these laws proves their inefficacy1 and the conduct of ,henry ,,viii was the chief cause of it2 for while ,parliament was complaining of the decrease of tillage he gave huge tracts of land taken from the monasteries to greedy courtiers1 who evicted the tenants and lived on the profits of sheep farming4#bjj ,for the dissolution of the monasteries was now taking ,place1#bja and the best landowners in ,england1 some of whom farmed their own land long after most of the lay landlords had given it up or turned it into grass1 and whose lands are said to have fetched a higher rent than any others1 were robbed and ruined4 ,including the dissolution of the monasteries and the confiscation of the chantry lands in #aedi by ,edward ,,vi1 about one-fifteenth of the land of ,england changed hands at this time4 ,the transfer of the abbey lands to ,henry's favourites was very prejudicial to farming2 it was a source of serious dislocation of agricultural industry1 marked by all the inconvenience1 injustice1 and loss that attends a violent transfer of property4 ,it is probable also that many of the monastic lands were let on stock and land leases2 and the stock was confiscated1 with inevitable ruin to the tenant as well as the landlord4#bjb ,and not only was a serious injury wrought to agriculture by the spoliation of a large number of landlords generally noted for their generosity and good farming1 but with the religious houses disappeared a large number of consumers of country produce1 the amount of which may be gathered from the following list of stores of the great ,abbey of ,fountains at the dissolution3 #b1cef horned cattle1 #a1cbf sheep1 #hf horses1 #gi swine1 and large quantities of wheat1 oats1 rye1 and malt1 with #cib loads of hay4#bjc ,it must indeed have seemed to many as if the poor farmer was never to have any rest2 no sooner were the long wars over and pestilences in some sense diminished1 than the evils of enclosure and the dissolution of the monasteries came upon him4 ,many ills were popularly ascribed to the fall of the monasteries2 in an old ballad in ,percy's ,reliques one of the characters says1 in western dialect3-- ',chill tell the what1 good vellowe1 ,before the friers went hence1 ,a bushel of the best wheate ,was zold vor vorteen pence1 ,and vorty eggs a penny ,that were both good and newe4' ,,note4--,if any further proof were needed of the constant attention given by ,parliament to agricultural matters1 it would be furnished by the ,acts for the destruction of vermin4#bjd ,our forefathers had no doubt that rooks did more harm than good1 yearly destroying a 'wonderfull and marvelous greate quantitie of corne and graine'2 and destroying the 'covertures of thatched housery1 bernes1 rekes1 stakkes1 and other such like'2 so that all persons were to do their best to kill them1 'on pain of a grevous amerciament'4 ,,footnotes3 #ahd ,much the same tendencies were at work in other countries1 especially in ,germany4 #ahe ,slater1 ,english ,peasantry and ,enclosure1 #bdh4 #ahf ,smyth1 ,lives of the ,berkeleys1 i4 #aac4 #ahg ,cal4 ,pat4 ,rolls1 #acca1 p4 #abg4 #ahh ,lives of the ,berkeleys1 i4 #ada4 #ahi ,ibid4 i4 #ada4 #aij ,lives of the ,berkeleys1 i4 #afj4 #aia ,historical ,,mss4 ,commission1 #fth ,report1 p4 #cei4 #aib ,cunningham1 ,industry and ,commerce1 i4 #cgi4 #aic ,ashley1 ,english ,woollen ,industry1 pp4 #hj-a4 ,broadly speaking1 there are four stages in the development of industry--the family system1 the guild system1 the domestic system1 and the factory system4 #aid ,hist4 ,reg4 ,angl41 p4 #abj4 #aie ,gisborne1 ,agricultural ,essays1 pp4 #ahf-i4 #aif ,antiquities of ,warwickshire #bnd ed41 p4 #ea4 #aig ,denton1 ,england in the ,fifteenth ,century1 p4 #ace4 #aih ,see ,cunningham1 ,industry and ,commerce1 i4 #cca2 ,denton1 ,england in the ,fifteenth ,century1 p4 #abg4 #aii #g ,hen4 ,,viii1 c4 #a4 #bjj ,cunningham1 ,industry and ,commerce1 i4 #dhi4 #bja ,dissolution of small monasteries1 #aecf2 of greater1 #aeci-dj4 #bjb ,thorold ,rogers1 ,history of ,agriculture and ,prices1 iv4 #abi4 #bjc ,dugdale1 ,monasticon1 v1 #bia4 #bjd #bd ,hen4 ,,viii1 c4 #aj2 #h ,eliz4 c4 #ae2 #ad ,eliz4 c4 #aa2 #ci ,eliz4 c4 #ah4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,fitzherbert4--,,the ,,regulation ,,of ,,hours ,,and ,,wages ,the farming of this period is portrayed for us by ,fitzherbert1 the first agricultural writer of any merit since ,walter of ,henley in the thirteenth century4 ,he was one of the ,justices of ,common ,pleas1 and had been a farmer for forty years before he wrote his books on husbandry1 and on surveying in #aebc1 so that he knew what he was writing about2 'there is nothing touching husbandry contained in this book but ,i have had experience thereof and proved the same4' ,in spite of the increase of grazing in his time he says the 'plough is the most necessarie instrument that an husbandman can occupy'1 and describes those used in various counties2 in ,kent1 for instance1 'they have some go with wheeles as they do in many other places'2 but the plough of his time is apparently the same as that of ,walter of ,henley1 and altered little till the seventeenth century4 ,the rudeness of it may be judged from the fact that in some places it only cost #aj;d4 or #as4 though in other parts they were as much as #fs4 or even #hs4 ,he says#bje it was too costly for a farmer to buy all his implements1 wherefore it is necessary for him to learn to make them1 as he had done in the ,middle ,ages before the era of ready-made implements1 when he always bought the materials and put them together at home4 ,on the vexed question of whether to use horses or oxen for ploughing1 he says it depends on the locality2 for instance1 oxen will plough in tough clay and upon hilly ground1 whereas horses will stand still2 but horses go faster than oxen on even ground and light ground1 and are 'quicke for carriages1 but they be far more costly to keep in winter4' ,according to him1 oxen had no shoes as horses had4#bjf ,here is his description of a harrow3 it is 'made of six final peeces of timber called harow bulles1 made either of ashe or oke2 they be two yardes long1 and as much as the small of a man's leg2 in every bulle are five sharpe peeces of iron called harow tyndes1 set somewhat a slope forward4' ,this harrow1 drawn by oxen1 was good to break the big clods1 and then the horse harrow came after to break the smaller clods4 ,it differed slightly from the former1 some having wooden tines4 ,for weeding corn the chief instrument 'is a pair of tongs made of wood1 and in dry weather ye must have a weeding hoke with a socket set upon a staffe a yard long4'#bjg ,he recommends that grass be mown early1 for the younger and greener the grass is the softer and sweeter it will be when it is hay1 and the seeds will be in it instead of fallen out as when left late2 advice which many slovenly farmers need to-day4 ,he does not approve of the custom of reaping rye and wheat high up and mowing them after1 but advises that they be cut clean2 barley and oats1 however1 should be commonly mown4 ,both wheat and rye were to be sown at ,michaelmas1 and were cast upon the fallow and ploughed under1 two ,london bushels of wheat and rye being the necessary amount of seed per acre4 ,in spite of his praise of the plough he allows that the sheep 'is the most profitablest cattel that a man can have'1 and he gives a list of their diseases1 among the things that rot them being a grass called sperewort1 another called peny grass1 while marshy ground1 mildewed grass1 and grass growing upon fallow and therefore full of weeds were all conducive to rot4 ,the chief cause1 however1 is mildew1 the sign of whose presence is the honeydew on the oak leaves4 ,in buying cattle to feed the purchaser is to see that the hair stare not1 and that the beast lacks no teeth1 has a broad rib1 a thick hide1 and be loose skinned1 for if it stick hard to his ribs he will not feed#bjh2 it should be handled to see if it be soft on the forecrop1 behind the shoulder1 on the hindermost rib upon the huck bone1 and at the nache by the tail4 ,among other diseases of cattle he mentions the gout1 'commonly in the hinder feet'2 but he never knew a man who could find a remedy4 ,he was a great advocate of enclosures2 for it was much better to have several closes and pastures to put his cattle in1 which should be well quick-setted1 ditched1 and hedged1 so as to divide those of different ages1 as this was more profitable than to have his cattle go before the herdsman 7in the common field74 ,it will be seen from the above that ,fitzherbert made no idle boast in saying he wrote of what he knew1 and much of his advice is applicable to-day1 though the time is past for the farmer's wife to 'wynowe all manner of cornes1 to make malte1 to shere corne1 and in time of nede to helpe her husbande to fyll the mucke wayne or dounge carte1 dryve the plough1 lode heye1 corne1 and such other'2 though she may go or ride to the market 'to sel butter1 cheese1 milke1 eggs1 chekyns1 hennes1 and geese4'#bji ,it appears that the horses of ,england at this time had considerably deteriorated1 for the statute #bg ,hen4 ,,viii1 c4 #f1 mentions the great decay of the breed1 the cause it is stated being that 'in most places of this ,realme little horsis and naggis of small stature and valeu be suffered to depasture and also to covour marys and felys of very small stature'2 therefore owners and farmers of deer parks shall keep in every such park two brood mares of #ac 'hand fulles' 7hands7 at least4 ,another statute1 #cb ,hen4 ,,viii1 c4 #ac1 strove to remedy this evil by enacting that no entire horse under #ae hands was to feed on any forest1 chase1 waste1 or common land4 ,this statute was a useful one1 so also was #ba ,hen4 ,,viii1 c4 #h1 which forbade for three years the killing of calves between ,january #a and ,may #a1 under a penalty of #fs4 #h;d41 because so many had been killed by 'covetous persons' that the cattle of the country were dwindling in number4 ,others1 however1 were merely meddlesome1 and directed against that unpopular man the dealer4 ,for instance1 owners refusing to sell cattle at assessed prices were to answer first in the ,star ,chamber 7#be ,hen4 ,,viii1 c4 #a72 and by #c and #d ,edw4 ,,vi1 c4 #ai1 no cattle were to be bought but in open fair or market1 and not to be resold then alive1 though a man might buy cattle anywhere for his own use4 ,no person1 again1 was to resell cattle within five weeks after he bought them 7#e ,edw4 ,,vi1 c4 #ad72 and a common drover had by the same ,act to have a licence from three justices before he could buy and sell cattle4 ,we may be sure that these laws were more honoured in the breach than in the observance1 as they deserved to be4 ,hops were said to have been introduced from the ,low ,countries about the middle of ,henry ,,viii's reign2 but there can be no doubt that this is a mistake4 ,it has been mentioned that they flourished in the gardens of ,edward ,i1 and a distinguished authority#baj says the hop may with probability be reckoned a native of ,britain2 but it was first used as a salad or vegetable for the table1 the young sprouts having the flavour of asparagus and coming earlier4 ,hasted1 the historian of ,kent1 states#baa that a petition was presented to ,parliament against the hop plant in #adbh wherein it was called a 'wicked weed'4 ,harrison says1 ',hops in time past were plentiful in this land1 afterwards their maintenance did cease1 and now 7cir4 #aehj7 being revived where are anie better to be found8'#bab ,even then growers had to face foreign competition1 as the customs accounts prove that considerable quantities were imported into ,england4 ,in #adhb a cwt4 was sold for #hs4 and #a cwt4 #ba lb4 for #ais4 #f;d41 an early example of that fluctuation in price which has long characterized them4#bac ,their average price about this time seems to have been #ads4 #a_/b;d4 a cwt4 ,during the ,tudor period the number of day labourers increased1 largely owing to the enclosures having deprived the small holder and commoner of their land and rights4 ,but judging by the statutes those paid yearly and boarded in the farm house were still most numerous4 ,in #adie the hours of labourers were first regulated by law4 ,the statute ,,ii ,hen4 ,,vii1 c4 #bb1 says that #bc ,hen4 ,,vi1 c4 #ab1bad was insufficiently observed2 and besides increasing wages slightly set forth the following hours for work on the farm3 the labourer was to be at his work from the middle of ,march to the middle of ,september before #e a4m41 and have half an hour for breakfast and an hour and a half for dinner and sleep1 when sleep was allowed1 that is from the middle of ,may to the middle of ,august2 when sleep was not allowed1 an hour for dinner and half an hour for his nonemete or lunch2 and he was to work till between #g and #h p4m4 ,during the rest of the year he was to work from daylight to dark4 ,the attempt to regulate hours1 which seem fair and reasonable1 no doubt met with better success than that to regulate wages1 for #f ,hen4 ,,viii1 c4 #c 7#aead71 says the previous statutes had been very much disregarded1 and sets down the rates once more3-- ,a bailiff's yearly wages1 with diet1 were to be not more than #a #fs4 #h;d41 and #es4 for clothes4 ,a chief hind1 carter1 or chief shepherd1 with diet1 not more than #a1 and #es4 for clothes4 ,a common servant or labourer1 with diet1 not more than #afs4 #h;d41 and #ds4 for clothes4 ,a woman servant1 with diet1 not more than #ajs41 and #ds4 for clothes4 ,by the day1 except in harvest1 a common labourer from ,easter to ,michaelmas was to have #b;d4 with food and drink1 #d;d4 without2 and from ,michaelmas to ,easter #a-a_/b;d4 with food and drink1 and #c;d4 without4 ,in harvest3-- ,a mower1 with food1 #d;d4 a day2 without1 #f;d4 ,a reaper1 with food1 #c;d4 a day2 without1 #e;d4 ,a carter1 with food1 #c;d42 without1 #e;d4 ,other labourers1 with food1 #b-a_/b;d42 without1 #d-a_/b;d4 ,women1 with food1 #b-a_/b;d42 without1 #d-a_/b;d4 ,,footnotes3 #bje ,booke of ,husbandry 7ed4 #aefh71 fol4 #e4 ,the surveyor of ,fitzherbert's day combined some of the duties of the modern bailiff and land agent3 he bought and sold for his employer1 valued his property1 and supervised the rents4 #bjf ,booke of ,husbandry 7ed4 #aefh71 fol4 vi4 #bjg ,ibid4 fol4 xv4 #bjh ,booke of ,husbandry 7ed4 #aefh71 fol4 xxix4 #bji ,fitzherbert adds pigs and all manner of cornes1 so altogether the farmer's wife seems to have done as much as the farmer4 #baj ,sir ,jas4 ,e4 ,smith1 ,english ,flora1 iv4 #bda4 #baa ,history of ,kent 7ed4 #aggh71 i4 #abc4 #bab ,description of ,britain 7,furnivall ed471 p4 #cbe4 #bac ,thorold ,rogers1 ,history of ,agriculture and ,prices1 iii4 #bed4 #bad ,see above4 ,,chapter ,,ix #aedj-afjj ,,progress ,,at ,,last4--,,hop-,,growing4--,,progress ,,of ,,enclosure4--,,harrison',s ',,description' ,the period we have now reached was one of steady growth in the value of land and its products4 ,in #aedc ,henry ,,viii1 who had given away or squandered1 in addition to the great treasure left him by his thrifty father1 all the wealth obtained from the dissolution of the monasteries1 debased the coinage in order to get more money into his insatiable hands1 and prices went up in consequence4 ,but there were other causes3 the influx of precious metals from newly discovered ,america into ,europe had commenced to make itself felt1 and the population of the country began to grow steadily4 ,also1 it must not be forgotten that the seasons1 which in the early part of the century had been normal1 were for the next sixty years frequently rainy and bad4 ,it is unnecessary to say that this must have largely helped to raise the price of corn4 ,the average price of wheat from #aedj-aehc was #acs4 #aj-a_/b;d4 a quarter2 from #aehc-agjb1 #cis4 #j-a_/b;d4 ,corn was still subject to extraordinary fluctuations3 in #aeeg1 ,holinshed says before harvest wheat was #ecs4 #d;d4 a quarter1 malt #dds4 ,after harvest wheat was #es41 malt #fs4 #h;d41 the former prices being due to a terrible drought in ,england4 ,oxen in the period #aehc-agjc were worth #ges4 instead of under #a in the period #adjj-aedj4 ,wool was from #i;d4 to #as4 a lb4 instead of about #c-a_/b;d41 and all other farm products increased with these4#bae ,hops were from #aedj-aehb about #bfs4 #h;d4 a cwt41 and from #aehc-agjj1 #hbs4 #i-a_/b;d4 ,in #aegd ,reynold ,scott published the first ,english treatise on hops1#baf in which he says1 'one man may well keep #b1jjj hils1 upon every hil well ordered you shall have #c lb4 of hoppes at the least1 one hundred pounds of these hoppes are commonly worth #bfs4 #h;d41 one acre of ground and the third part of one man's labour with small cost beside1 shall yield unto him that ordereth the same well1 fortie marks yearly and that for ever1' an optimistic estimate that many growers to-day would like to see realized4 ',in the preparation of a hop garden'1 says the same writer1 'if your ground be grasse1 it should be first sowen with hempe or beanes which maketh the ground melowe1 destroyeth weedes1 and leaveth the same in good season for this purpose4#bag ,at the end of ,marche1 repayre to some good garden to compound with the owner for choice rootes1 which in some places will cost #e;d4 an hundredth4 ,and now you must choose the biggest rootes you can find1 such as are three or four inches about1 and let every root be nine or ten inches long1 and contain three joints4' ,holes were then to be dug at least #h feet apart1 one foot square1 and one foot deep1 and in each two or three roots planted and well hilled up4 ,tusser1 however1 recommended them much closer3 ',five foot from another each hillock should stand1 ,as straight as a levelled line with the hand4 ,let every hillock be four foot wide4 ,three poles to a hillock1 ,i pas not how long1 ,shall yield the more profit set deeplie and strong4' ,three or four poles were to be set to each hill #ae or #af feet long1 unless the ground was very rich1 the poles #i or #aj inches in circumference at the butt1 so as to last longer and stand the wind well4 ,after they were put up1 the ground round the poles was to be well rammed4 ,rushes or grass were used for tieing the hops4 ,during the growth of the hops1 not more than two or three bines were to be allowed to each pole2 and after the first year the hills were to be gradually raised from the alleys between the rows until1 according to the illustrations in ,scott's book1 they were #c or #d feet high1 the 'greater you make your hylles the more hoppes you shall have upon your poals'4 ,when the time for picking came1 the bines when cut were carried to a 'floore prepared for the purpose'1 apparently of hardened earth1 where they were stripped into baskets1 and ,scott thought that 'it is not hurtfull greatly though the smaller leaves be mingled with the hoppes'4 ,in wet weather the hops were to be stripped in the house4 ,the fire for drying hops was of wood1 and some dried their hops in the sun1 both processes to us appearing very risky2 as the first would be too quick1 and the latter next to impossible in ,september in ,england4 ,they were sometimes packed in barrels1 as ,tusser tells us1 ',some close them up drie in a hogshead or vat1 yet canvas or sontage 7coarse cloth7 is better than that4' ,by this time ,england had largely changed from a corn-growing to a stock-raising country2 ,harrison1 writing in the middle of ,queen ,elizabeth's reign1 says1 'the soile of ,britaine is more inclined to feeding and grazing than profitable for tillage and bearing of corne 444 and such store is there of cattle in everie place that the fourth part of the land is scarcely manured for the provision of graine4' ,but this statement seems exaggerated4 ,we know that by ,harrison's time enclosures had affected but a small area1 and the greater part of the cultivated land was in open arable fields4 ,the yield of corn was now much greater than in the ,middle ,ages2 rye or wheat well tilled and dressed now produced #ae to #bj bushels to the acre instead of #f or #h1 barley #cf bushels1 oats #d or #e quarters#bah1 though in the north1 which was still greatly behind the rest of ,england1 crops were smaller4 ,no doubt this was partly due to the much-abused enclosures3 the industrious farmer could now do what he liked with his own1 without hindrance from his lazy or unskilful neighbour4 ,tusser's preference for the 'several' field is very decided2 comparing it with the 'champion' or common field he says3-- ,the countrie inclosed ,i praise the tother delighteth me not1 ,there swineherd that keepeth the hog there neetherd with cur and his horne1 ,there shepherd with whistle and dog be fence to the medowe and corne1 ,there horse being tide on a balke is readie with theefe for to walke1 ,where all things in common doth reste corne field with the pasture and meade1 ,tho' common ye do for the best yet what doth it stand ye in steade8 ,more plentie of mutton and beefe corne butter and cheese of the best ,more wealth any where 7to be briefe7 more people1 more handsome and prest 7neat47 ,where find ye8 7go search any coaste7 than there where enclosure is most4 ,more work for the labouring man as well in the towne as the fielde4 ,for commons these commoners crie inclosing they may not abide1 ,yet some be not able to bie a cow with her calf by her side4 ,nor laie 7intend7 not to live by their wurke1 ,but thievishly loiter and lurke4 ,what footpaths are made and how brode ,annoiance too much to be borne1 ,with horse and with cattle what rode is made thorowe erie man's come4 ,but the rich graziers boasted that they did not grow corn because they could buy it cheaper in the market2 and they are said to have traded on the necessity of the poor farmer to sell at ,michaelmas in order to pay his rent1 and when they had got the corn into their hands they raised the price4 ,the corn-dealers of the time were looked upon with dislike by every one2 many of the dearths then so frequent1 and nearly always caused by bad seasons1 were ascribed to 'engrossers buying of corn and witholding it for sale'4 ,by a statute of #aeeb the freedom of internal corn trade was entirely suppressed1 and no one could carry corn from one part of ,england to another without a licence1 and any one who bought corn to sell it again was liable to two months' imprisonment and forfeited his corn4 ,although we shall see that this policy was reversed in the next century1 the feeling against corn-dealers survived for many years and was loudly expressed during the ,napoleonic war2 indeed1 we may doubt if it is extinct to-day4 ,many of the fruits and garden produce1 which had been neglected since the first ,edward1 had by now come into use again1 'not onlie among the poor commons1 ,i meane of melons1 pompions1 gourds1 cucumbers1 radishes1 skirets 7probably a sort of carrot71 parsneps1 carrots1 cabbages1 navewes 7turnip radishes 78771 turnips1#bai and all kinds of salad herbes1 but also at the tables of delicate merchants1 gentlemen1 and the nobilitie4'#bbj ',also we have most delicate apples1 plummes1 pears1 walnuts1 filberts1 c41 and those of sundrie sorts1 planted within fortie years past1 in comparison of which most of the old trees are nothing worth3 so have we no less store of strange fruite1 as abricotes1 almonds1 peaches1 figges1 cornetrees 7probably cornels7 in noblemen's orchards4 ,i have seen capers1 orenges1 and lemmons1 and heard of wild olives growing here1 besides other strange trees4'#bba ,as a proof of the growth of grass in proportion to tillage between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries1 ,eden gives several examples1#bbb of which the following are significant3-- ,arable4 ,grass4 acres4 acres4 #acci4 #ah messuages in ,norfolk had #afj #fj #aced4 a ,norfolk manor #cjj #ei #acie4 #b messuages in ,warwickshire #djj #fj #aefj4 #b messuages in ,warwickshire #fjj #ffj #aefg4 a ,norfolk estate #bjj #djj #aefi4 manor #fj #fj ',our sheepe are very excellent for sweetness of flesh1 and our woolles are preferred before those of ,milesia and other places4'#bbc ,so thought ,harrison and many ,english landowners and farmers too1 so that legislation was powerless to stop the spread of sheep farming4 ,in #aeag a commission of inquiry instigated by ,wolsey held inquisition on enclosures and the decay of tillage1 and it seems to have been the only honest effort to stop the evil4 ,it was to inquire what decays1 conversions1 and park enclosures had been made since #adhi1 but the result even of this attempt was small4 ,in #aece a fresh statute1 #bg ,hen4 ,,viii1 c4 #bb1 stated that the ,act limiting the number of sheep to be kept had only been observed on lands held of the king1 whereon many houses had been rebuilt and much pasture reconverted to tillage2 but on lands holden of other lords this was not the case1 therefore the king was to have the moiety of the profits of such lands as had been converted from tillage to pasture since #d ,hen4 ,,vii until a proper house was built and the land returned to tillage2 but the ,act only applied to fourteen counties therein enumerated4 ,the enclosing for sheep-runs still went on1 however1 often with ruthless selfishness2 houses and townships were levelled1 says ,sir ,thomas ,more1 and nothing left standing except the church1 which was turned into a sheep-house3 ',the towns go down1 the land decays1 ,of corn-fields plain lays1 ,great men maketh nowadays ,a sheepcot of the church'1 said a contemporary ballad4 ,latimer wrote1 'where there were a great many householders and inhabitants there is now but a shepherd and his dog4' ',i am sorie to report it1' says ,harrison1#bbd 'but most sorrowful of all to understand that men of great port and countenance are so far from suffering their farmers to have anie gaine at all that they themselves become graziers1 butchers1 tanners1 sheepmasters1 and woodmen1 thereby to enrich themselves4' ,the ,act against pulling down farmhouses was evaded by repairing one room for the use of a shepherd2 a single furrow was driven across a field to prove it was still under the plough2 to avoid holding illegal numbers of sheep flocks were held in the names of sons and servants4#bbe ,the country swarmed with heaps of miserable paupers1 'sturdy and valiant' beggars1 and thieves who1 though hanged twenty at a time on a single gallows1 still infested all the countryside1 their numbers being swollen by the dissolution of the monasteries and the breaking up of the bands of retainers kept by the great nobles4 ,rents also were rising rapidly4 ,latimer's account of his father's farm is too well known to be again quoted2 his opinions were shared by all the writers of the day4 ,sir ,william ,forrest1 about #aedj1 says that landlords now demand fourfold rents1 so that the farmer has to raise his prices in proportion1 and beef and mutton were so dear that a poor man could not 'bye a morsell'4 ',howe joyne they lordshyp to lordshyppe1 manner to manner1 ferme to ferme4 ,how do the rych men1 and especially such as be shepemongers1 oppresse the king's people by devourynge their common pastures with the shepe so that the poore are not able to keepe a cowe1 but are like to starve4 ,and yet when was beef ever so dere or mutton1 wool now #hs4 a stone4 ',now'1 says another1 later in the century1 ',i can never get a horse shoed under #aj;d4 or #ab;d41 when ,i have also seen the common pryce was #f;d4 ,and cannot your neighbour remember that within these thirty years ,i could bye the best pigge or goose that ,i could lay my hand on for four pence which now costeth #ab;d41 a good capon for #c;d4 or #d;d41 a hen for #b;d41 which now costeth me double and triple4'#bbf ,parliament1 of course1 tried to regulate the price of food2 an ,act of #aecb1 #bd ,hen4 ,,viii1 c4 #c1 ordained that beef and pork should be #a_/b;d4 a lb4 and mutton and veal #e_/h;d4 a lb4 ,the decrease in the number of cows also received its attention2 #b and #c ,philip and ,mary1 c4 #c1 states that forasmuch of late years a great number of persons have fed in their pastures sheep and cattle with no regard to breeding1 so that there was great scarcity of stock1 therefore for every #fj sheep kept one milk cow shall be kept1 and for every #abj sheep one calf shall be bred1 and for every #aj head of horned cattle shall be kept one milk cow1 and for every two cows so kept one calf shall be bred4 ,the ,act was to last seven years1 but #ac ,eliz4 c4 #be made it perpetual4 ,in #aedi came the rising of ,robert ,kett in ,norfolk1 the last attempt of the ,english labourer to obtain redress of his wrongs by force of arms1 though ,kett himself belonged to the landlord class and took the side of the people probably by accident4 ,the petition of grievances drawn up by his followers aimed at diminishing the power of lords of manors as regards enclosures1 the keeping of dove-cots1 and other feudal wrongs4 ',we pray'1 said the insurgents1 'that all bondmen may be made free1 for ,god made all free with ,his precious blood-shedding4' ,the rebellion came to nothing1 and some of the abuses at which it was aimed were dying a natural death1 though enclosure often acted hardly on the poor man4 ,the manorial system went on steadily decaying1 and by this time the demesne lands had much diminished in area on most manors4 ,many parcels had been sold to the new landlord class1 who had made their fortunes in the towns and1 like most ,englishmen1 desired to become country gentlemen4 ,much of the demesne had been sold in small lots to well-off tradesmen1 and as the villeins had become copyholders a large part of the land was owned or occupied by yeomen or tenant farmers1 who cultivated from #bj to #aej acres4 ,many of the labourers also owned or rented cottages with #d or #e acres attached to them4 ,such was the rural society at the end of the ,tudor period4 ,the progress of enclosures helped to destroy this1 for the labourers gradually ceased to own or occupy land1 farms increased in size1 the ownership of land came to be more and more the privilege of the rich1 and people flocked in increasing numbers to the towns4#bbg;a ,in five ,norfolk manors in ,elizabeth's time only from one-seventh to one-tenth was in demesne1 and little of what was left was farmed by the lord1 but let to farmers on leases4#bbg;b ,on some manors the demesne land lay in compact blocks near the manor house2 on others it was in scattered strips of various size2 in others it lay in blocks and strips4 ,the following particulars of a manor in ,norfolk give a good picture of an estate in #aehf-h1 the tenants on it1 their rank1 and the size of their holdings3-- ,horstead with ,staninghall1 #b1gdf acres4 ,the tenants with messuages in the village were3-- ,acres4 #a4 ,j4 ,topliffe1 gentleman #bhj #b4 ,f4 ,woodhouse1 ,esquire #bgj #c4 ,r4 ,ward1 gentleman #bfe #d4 ,h4 ,shreve #ahj #e4 ,a4 ,pightling1 widow #abj #f4 ,w4 ,rose's heirs #aaj #g4 ,g4 ,berde #fj #h4 ,a4 ,thetford1 gentleman #fj #i4 ,t4 ,pightling #fj #aj4 ,r4 ,pightling #fj #aa4 ,j4 ,rose #dj #ab4 ,r4 ,lincoln #dj #ac4 ,w4 ,jeckell #bj #ad4 ,w4 ,bulwer #bj #ae4 ,e4 ,newerby1 gentleman #ae #af4 ,t4 ,barnard #ab #ag4 ,e4 ,sparke #aj ,there were also #ab tenants without houses1 holding from #a to #bj acres2 the demesne was #bcj acres2 there were two glebes containing #hd acres1 and town lands of #g acres4 ,the waste amounted to #cej acres1 which by #aeii had all disappeared4 ,on this manor the houses were not collected together in a village as usual in most parts of ,england1 but scattered about the estate4 ,in two other manors the amount of waste remaining at this period was very small1 but in three others little had been 'approved' and much consequently remained2 most of the 'approvements'1 where made1 seem to have been of long standing1 and all the enclosures made were for tillage1 not for grass as we should expect4 ,the #cej acres of waste that remained at ,horstead in #aehf-h was enclosed in #aeii by agreement between the lords of the manor and the tenants on the following terms3-- #a4 ,lords to take #hj acres in severalty4 #b4 ,lords to reserve all rights to treasure trove1 minerals1 waifs1 c41 with right of entry to take the same4 #c4 ,all rights of pasture1 shack1 and foldage were to be extinguished on all lands in the village4 #d4 ,the tenants were to pay an annual quit rent of #g #ads4 #e;d4 for their shares of the common4 ,before a man enclosed he consolidated his holding by exchange1 so as to bring it into a compact parcel instead of scattered strips1 a very lengthy process2 then he ploughed up the bounds between the strips2 after which he changed the direction of the ploughing1 ploughing the land crossways1 a very necessary change1 as it had all been ploughed lengthways for centuries2 and lastly he erected his fences3 the bounds of the strips1 however1 were sometimes left to show which were freehold and which copyhold4 ,on the other hand1 there were exceptions to the curtailment of the demesne3 on an ,oxfordshire manor of the sixteenth century the greater part of the #fd yard-lands of which it consisted had by then passed from the possession of the peasants to the private use of the lord of the manor4#bbh ,to each yard-land belonged a house and farmyard1 #bd to #bh-c_/d acres of arable land1 a share in the commonable meadows which for each occupier came to some #h acres1 also the right to turn out #h oxen or cows1 or #f horses and #dj sheep on to the common pasture4 ,probably1 as in other manors in ancient times1 each occupier had a right to as much firewood as was necessary1 and timber for building purposes and fences4 ,the arable land lay in numerous small plots of half an acre each and less1 mingled together in a state of great confusion1 and was farmed on the four-field system--wheat1 beans1 oats1 fallow--though #bjj years before the three-field system had been most common in the district4 ,many of the common arable fields evidently often contained1 in those days of poor cultivation and inefficient drainage1 patches of boggy and poor land which were left uncultivated4#bbi ,in the rolls of the ,manor of ,scotter in ,lincolnshire1 in the early part of the sixteenth century1 no one was to allow his horses to depasture in the arable fields unless they were tethered on these bad spots to prevent them wandering into the growing corn4#bcj ,many of the other regulations of this manor throw a flood of light on the farming of the day4 ,in #aeeg it was ordered that no man should drive his cattle unyoked through the corn-field under a penalty of #cs4 #d;d4 ,every man shall keep a sufficient fence against his neighbour under the same penalty4 ,no man shall make a footpath over the corn-field1 the penalty for so doing being #d;d4 ,every one shall both ring and yoke their swine before ,s4 ,ellen's ,day 7probably ,may #c71 under a penalty of #fs4 #h;d41 the custom of yoking swine to prevent them breaking fences being common until recent times4 ,it was the custom in some manors to sow peas in a plot especially set apart for the poor4 ,another rule was that no one should bake or brew by night for fear of burning down the flimsy houses and buildings4 ,the penalty for ploughing up the balks which divided the strips1 or meere 7marc7 furrows as they were called in ,lincolnshire1 was #b;d41 a very light one for so serious an offence4 ,in #aefe a penalty of #ajs4 was imposed on ,thomas ,dawson for breaking his hemp1 i4e4 separating the fibre from the bark in his large open chimney on winter nights1 a habit which the manor courts severely punished owing to the risk of fire1 for hemp refuse is very inflammable4 ,it #aegh it was laid down that every one was to sow the outside portion of their arable lands1 and not leave it waste for weeds to the damage of his neighbours2 and that those who were too poor to keep sheep should not gather wool before #h o'clock in the morning1 in reference to the custom of allowing the poor to pick refuse wool found on bushes and thorns1 and this rule was to prevent them tearing wool from the sheep at night under that pretext4 ,no man was to keep any beasts apart from the herdsman1 for if the herdsman did not know the animals he could not tell them from strays4 ,every one was to sweep their chimney four times a year1 for fear of sparks falling on the thatch4 ,no man was to suffer the nests of crows or magpies in his ground1 but pull them down before ,may ,day4 ,in the meadows1 before each man began to mow his grass he was to mark the exact limits of his own land with 'wadsticks' or tall rods1 so that there could be no mistake as to boundaries4 ,the health of the community and of the live stock also received attention3 in #aehc one ,pattynson was fined #as4 for allowing a 'scabbed' horse to go on the common2 dead cattle were to be buried the day after death1 and all unwholesome meat was to be buried4 ,harrison praises the farmer of his day highly3 'the soyle is even now in these oure dayes growne to be much more fruitfulle2 the cause is that our country men are grown more skilful and careful throwe recompense of gayne4' ,he was also doing well by means of his skill and care2 and in spite of the raising of rents by the much-abused landlords2 for in former times 'for all their frugality they were scarcely able to live and pay their rents on rent day without selling a cow or a horse'4 ,such also used to be their poverty1 that if a farmer went to the alehouse1 'a thing greatly used in those days1' and there1 'in a braverie to show what store he had1 did caste downe his purse and therein a noble or #f shillings in silver unto them1 it was very likely that all the rest could not lay downe so much against it4' ,and ,in ,henry's time1 though rents of #d had increased to #dj1 #ej1 or #ajj1 yet the farmer generally had at the end of his term saved six or seven years' rent1 besides a 'fair garnish of pewter on his cupboard'1 and odd vessels1 also 'three or four feather beds1 so manie coverlids and carpets of tapestry1 a silver salt1 a bowle for wine1 and a dozzen of spoones to furnish up the sute'4 ,his food consisted principally of beef1 and 'such food as the butcher selleth'1 mutton1 veal1 lamb1 pork1 besides souse1 brawn1 bacon1 fruit1 fruit pies1 cheese1 butter1 and eggs4#bca ,in feasting1 the husbandman or farmer exceeded1 especially at bridals1 purifications of women1 and such other meetings1 where 'it is incredible to tell what meat is consumed and spent'4 ,but1 besides these1 there were many poorer farmers who lived at home 'with hard and pinching diet'4 ,wheaten bread was at this time a luxury confined to the gentility1 the farmer's loaf1 according to ,tusser1 was sometimes wheat1 sometimes rye1 sometimes mastlin1 a mixture of wheat and rye1 though the poorer farmer on uninclosed land ate bread made of beans4 ,the poor ate bread of rye or barley1 and in time of dearth of beans1 peas1 and oats1 and sometimes acorns4#bcb ,according to ,tusser1 the labourer was allowed roast meat twice a week1 ',good plowmen looke weekly of custom and right1 ,for roast meate on ,sundaies1 and ,thursdaies at night'2 and ,latimer calls bacon 'the necessary meate' of the labourer1 and it seems to have been his great stand-by then as now4 ,the bread and bacon were supplemented largely by milk and porridge4#bcc ,the statute1 #bd ,hen4 ,,viii1 c4 #c1 says that all food1 and especially beef1 mutton1 pork1 and veal1 'which is the common feeding of mean and poor persons4' was too dear for them to buy1 and fixed the price of beef and pork at #a_/b;d4 a lb4 and of mutton and veal at #e_/h;d4 a lb42 but the statute1 like others of the kind1 was of little avail1 and the price of beef was in the middle of the sixteenth century about #a;d4 a lb4 or #h;d4 in our money4 ,as the average price of wheat at the same date was #ads4 a quarter1 or about #aabs4 in our money1 fresh meat was comparatively much cheaper1 and it is no wonder that even the farmer could not afford wheaten bread regularly4 ,moryson1 writing in ,elizabeth's reign1 says ',englishmen eate barley and rye brown bread1 and prefer it to white as abiding longer in the stomeck and not so soon digested'4#bcd ,a tithe dispute at ,north ,luffenham in ,rutlandshire throws considerable light on the financial position of the various classes interested in the land about #aegf4 ,at the trial several witnesses were examined1 who all made statements as to the amount of their worldly wealth1 and it is a noteworthy fact that even the humblest had saved something2 perhaps because there was no poor law or ,state pension fund to discourage thrift4#bce ,thomas ,blackburne1 a husbandman1 who had served his master as 'chief baylie of his husbandrie'1 had at the end of a long life saved #dj4 ,another1 ,william ,walker1 eighty years of age1 during forty years of service to ,mr4 ,john ,wymarke had put by #aj4 ,robert ,sculthorp1 who had at one time been a farmer1 was worth #bf #fs4 #h;d41 but the size of his farm is unfortunately not told us4 ,roland ,wymarke1 a gentleman farmer1 who had farmed for forty years at ,north ,luffenham1 was little better off than ,thomas ,blackburne1 the baylie1 for he estimated his capital at #ej4 #ej1 however1 must not be taken as representing the average wealth of a 'gentleman'1 though a few hundred pounds was then considered a considerable fortune4 ,in #aegg ,thomas ,corny1 a prosperous landlord at ,bassingthorpe1 ,lincolnshire1 had a house with a hall1 three parlours1 seven chambers1 a high garret1 maid's garret1 five chambers for yeomen hinds1 shepherd1 c41 two kitchens1 two larders1 milk-house1 brew-house1 buttery1 and cellar2 and it was furnished with tables1 carpets1 cushions1 pictures1 beds1 curtains1 chairs1 chests1 and numerous kitchen and other utensils1 besides a quantity of plate1 which was then looked upon not only as a useful luxury but as a safe form of investment4 ,the small squire was not nearly so well off as this4 ,in #aebg the house of ,john ,asfordby1 who was of that degree1 contained a hall1 parlour1 small parlour1 low parlour1 a chamber over the parlour1 gallery chamber1 buttery1 and kitchen1 and furniture was scanty1 but the plate cupboard was well filled4#bcf ,a prosperous yeoman was often comparatively better off than the small squire4 ,richard ,cust1 of ,pinchbeck in the same county1 though his house was small1 consisting only of a hall1 parlour with chamber over1 kitchen with chamber over1 brew-house1 milne-house 7mill-house71 and milk-house1 was richer in furniture1 possessing a folding-table1 #d chairs1 #f cushions1 #bg pieces of pewter1 #aj candlesticks1 #d basins1 #a laver1 #f beds1 and other articles4#bcg ,,footnotes3 #bae ,see table at end1 and ,thorold ,rogers's prices in ,vol4 ,v4 of his great work4 #baf ',a perfite platforme of a ,hoppegarden'1 in ,arte of ,gardening1 by ,r4 ,scott1 #aegd4 #bag ,tusser recommends that the hopyard be dug4 ,thomas ,tusser was born in ,essex1 about #aebe1 and died in #aehj4 ,he led a roving life1 which included a good deal of farming2 but the statement that he died poor appears to be inaccurate4 ,much of his advice is not very valuable4 #bah ,harrison1 ,description of ,britain1 p4 #aaj4 #bai ,usually grown in gardens1 until the middle of the seventeenth century4 ,tusser also mentions them4 #bbj ,description of ,britain1 ii4 #cbd 7,furnivall ed474 #bba ,harrison1 ,description of ,britain1 ii4 #cbi4 #bbb ,state of the ,poor1 i4 #dh-i4 ,blomefield's ,norfolk1 iv4 #efi1 i4 #ea1 i4 #fdi4 ,dugdale1 ,warwickshire1 p4 #eeg4 #bbc ,description of ,britain1 iii4 #e4 #bbd ,description of ,britain 7ed4 ,furnivall71 ii4 #bdc4 #bbe ,froude1 ,history of ,england1 v4 ,,iii4 #bbf ',a compendious or brief examination of certain ordinary complaints'1 quoted by ,eden1 ,state of the ,poor1 #a4 #aai4 #bbg;a ,transactions of the ,royal ,historical ,society 7,new ,series71 xix4 #ajc4 #bbg;b ,ibid4 xi4 #gd sq4 #bbh ,nasse1 ,agricultural ,community of the ,middle ,ages1 p4 #i4 ,archaeologia1 xxxiii4 #bgj4 #bbi ,in the still surviving open fields at ,laxton1 mentioned above1 there are certain unploughed portions called 'sicks'1 or grassy patches1 never cultivated4--,slater1 op4 cit4 p4 #i4 #bcj ,archaeologia1 xlvi4 #cgd4 #bca ,description of ,britain1 ii4 #aej4 #bcb ,in the reign of ,mary1 'the plain poor people did make very much of acorns4' ,cullum1 ,hawsted1 p4 #aha4 #bcc ,eden1 ,state of the ,poor1 i4 #aaf4 #bcd ,itinerary1 iii4 #adj4 #bce ,rutland ,magazine1 i4 #fd4 #bcf ,victoria ,county ,history3 ,lincolnshire1 ii4 #cca4 #bcg ,see ,records of ,cust ,family1 i4 #ef4 ,,chapter ,x #aedj-afjj ,,live ,,stock4--,,flax4--,,saffron4--,,the ,,potato4 ,,the ,,assessment ,,of ,,wages ,the cattle and sheep of this period have generally been described as poor animals1 and no doubt they would seem small to us4 ,to ,jacob ,rathgib1 a traveller1 writing in #aeib1 they seemed worthy of praise3 ',england has beautiful oxen and cows1 with very large horns1 low and heavy and for the most part black2 there is abundance of sheep and wethers1 which graze by themselves winter and summer without shepherds4' ,the heaviest wethers1 according to him1 weighed #fj lb4 and had at the most #f lb4 of wool1 a much heavier fleece than is generally ascribed to them2 others had #d or #e lb4 ,horses were abundant1 and1 though low and small1 were very fleet2 the riding horses being geldings and generally excellent4 ,immense numbers of swine were in the country1 'larger than in any other4' ,six years later another traveller1 ,hentzner1 noticed that the soil abounded with cattle1 and the inhabitants were more inclined to feeding than ploughing4 ,he saw1 too1 a ,berkshire harvest-home3 ',as we were returning to our inn 7at ,windsor7 we happened to meet some country people celebrating their harvest-home1 their last load of corn they crown with flowers1 having besides an image richly dressed by which perhaps they would signify ,ceres2 this they keep moving about1 while men and women1 men and maid-servants1 riding through the streets in the cart1 shout as loud as they can till they arrive at the barn4' ,harrison#bch tells us1 no doubt with patriotic bias1 that 'our oxen are such as the like are not to be found in any country of ,europe both for greatness of body and sweetness of flesh1 their horns a yard between the tips4' ,cows had doubled in price in his time1 from #bfs4 #h;d4 to #ecs4 #d;d4 ',our horses are high1 but not of such huge greatness as in other places1' yet remarkable for the easiness of their pace2 and #e or #f cart-horses will draw #cj cwt4 a long journey1 and a pack-horse will carry #d cwt4 without any hurt1--a statement which is one more proof of the poorness of the roads4 ,the chief horse fairs were at ',ripon1 ,newportpond1 ,wolfpit1 and ,harborow1' where horse dealers were as great rogues as ever4 ,pigeons were still the curse of the farmer1 and their cotes were called dens of thieves4 ,by the end of the sixteenth century1 certainly by the first quarter of the seventeenth1 the villein1 who in the ,middle ,ages had formed the bulk of the population1 had disappeared4#bci ,it is probable that even at the beginning of the ,tudor period the great majority of the bondmen had become free1 and that the serf then only formed one per cent4 of the population1 and many of those had left the country and become artizans in the towns1 for personal serfdom had outlasted demesne farming2 though even there the heavy hand of the lord was upon them and enforced the ancient customs4 ,in the sixteenth century flax was apparently grown upon most farms1 the statutes #cd ,hen4 ,,viii1 c4 #d1 and #e ,eliz41 c4 #e1 obliging every person occupying #fj acres of tillage to have a quarter of an acre in flax or hemp1 and ,moryson says the husbandmen wore garments of coarse cloth made at home1 so did their wives1 and 'in generall' their linen was coarse and made at home4#bdj ',good flax and good hemp to have of her own ,in ,maie a good housewife will see it be sowne'1 sings ,tusser4 ,the statute of ,henry ,,viii enjoined the sowing of flax and hemp because of the great increase of idle people in the realm1 to which the numerous imports1 especially linen cloth1 contributed4 ,saffron also was much grown1 that at ,saffron ,walden in ,essex was said to be the best in the world1 the profit from it being reckoned at #ac an acre4 ,its virtues were innumerable1 if we may believe the contemporary writers2 it flavoured dishes1 helped digestion1 was good for short wind1 killed moths1 helped deafness1 dissolved gravel1 and1 lastly1 'drunk in wine doth haste on drunkenesse4' ,the most important novelty of this century was the potato1 which the colonists1 sent out in #aehf by ,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 brought from ,virginia to ,ireland1 though it had been introduced into ,europe by the ,spaniards before this4 ,according to ,gerard1 the old ,english botanist1 it was1 on its first introduction from ,america1 only cultivated in the gardens of the nobility and gentry as a curious exotic2 and in #afjf it occurs among the vegetables considered necessary for a nobleman's household4#bda ,it is curious to find ,gerard comparing it to what he calls the 'common potato'1 in reality the sweet potato brought to ,england by ,drake and ,hawkins earlier in the century4 ,in ,james ,i's reign the root was considered a great delicacy1 and was sold to the queen's household at #bs4 a lb41 an enormous price4 ,like most agricultural novelties it spread very slowly1 but about the middle of the seventeenth century began to be planted out in the fields in small patches in ,lancashire1 whence it spread all over the kingdom and to ,france4#bdb ,at this date it was looked upon as a very second-rate article of food1 if we may judge by the ,spectator 7,no4 #bcb71 which alludes to it as the diet of beggars4 ,about #afij1 ,houghton says1 'now they begin to spread all the kingdom over1' and recommends them boiled or roasted and eaten with butter and sugar4#bdc ,eden notes its increasing popularity during the eighteenth century1 and by his time 7the end of that century7 in many parts it was the staple article of food for the poor2 in ,somerset the children mainly subsisted on it1 and in ,devon it was made into bread4 ,its cultivation on a large scale in the field did not1 however1 spread all over ,england till the ,napoleonic war1 and the ignorance and prejudice against it lasted for long2 even ,cobbett called it 'the lazy root1' and whole potatoes were used for seed regardless of the number of eyes4 ,in #aefc was passed the famous ,act1 #e ,eliz41 c4 #d1 which ,thorold ,rogers has asserted to be the commencement of a conspiracy for cheating the ,english workman of his wages1 to tie him to the soil1 to deprive him of hope1 and to degrade him into irremediable poverty4#bdd ,the violence of this language is a prima facie reason for doubting the correctness of his assertion1 which on examination is found to be grossly exaggerated4 ,under ,richard ,,ii the justices were authorized to fix the rate of wages1 provided they did not exceed the maximum fixed by ,parliament4 ,the ,elizabethan statute abolished the maximum and left the justices to fix reasonable rates4 ,so far from being an attempt to keep wages down it seems to have been an honest effort to regulate them according to prices1#bde whereas most previous statutes had merely reduced wages4 ,the preamble of the ,act states this clearly enough1 saying that the existing laws with regard to the hiring and wages of servants were insufficient2 chiefly because the wages 'are in dyvers places to small and not answerable to this time respecting the advancement of prices in all things that belong to the said servants and labourers1 the said lawes cannot conveniently without the great greefe and burden of the poore labourer and hired man be put in due execution4' ,but as several of these ,acts were still beneficial it was proposed to consolidate them into one statute in order to banish idleness1 advance husbandry1 and give the labourer decent wages4 ,it was enacted therefore that all persons between the ages of twelve years and sixty1 not being otherwise occupied1 'nor being a gentleman born1 nor having lands of the yearly value of #djs41 nor goods to the value of #aj1' should be compellable to serve in husbandry with 'any person that keepeth husbandry' by the year1 and the hours of work were re-enacted4 ,the rates of wages of artificers1 husbandmen1 c41 were to be ascertained yearly by the justices and the sheriff1 'if he conveniently may1' at quarter sessions1 'calling unto them such discrete and grave persons as they shall thinck meete and conferring together respecting the plentie or scarcitie of the tyme and other circumstances necessary to be considered1' and the wages fixed were to be certified into ,chancery4 ,then proclamations of the wages thus determined were to be made in the cities and market towns4 ,every person who gave higher wages than those established by the proclamation was to be imprisoned for ten days and fined #e1 every receiver to be imprisoned twenty-one days4 ,the importance still attached to the harvest season is shown by the section that all artificers and others were compellable to work in harvest or be put in the stocks two days and a night4 ,for the better advancement of husbandry and tillage every householder farming #fj acres of tillage or more might receive an apprentice in husbandry1 but no tradesman or merchant might take an apprentice save his own son1 unless his parents had freehold of the annual value of #djs42 and no person was to use 'any art mistery or manual occupation now in use' unless he had served seven years' apprenticeship to it4 ,there can be no doubt that the clauses last quoted confined a large portion of the population to agricultural work1 but as we know that the people were deserting the country and flocking to the towns1 this must have seemed to the framers of the law very desirable4 ,this method of fixing wages was in force until #ahad1 and its repeal then was entirely contrary to the opinion of the artizan class2 but it may be doubted if the magistrates extensively used the powers given them by the ,act1 and wages seem to have been settled generally by competition4 ,several instances remain1 however1 of wages drawn up under this ,act4 ,almost immediately after it was passed1 in ,june #aefd1 the ,rutland magistrates met under the ,act1 and stated that the prices of linen1 woollen1 leather1 corn1 and other victuals were great1 so they drew up the following list of wages#bdf3-- ,a bailiff in husbandry1 having charge of two plough lands1 at least should have by the year #djs41 and #hs4 for his livery4 ,a chief servant in husbandry1 which can eire 7plough71 sow1 mow1 thresh1 make a rick1 thatch and hedge1 and can kill and dress a hog1 sheep1 and calf1 by the year #djs41 and #fs4 for his livery4 ,a common servant in husbandry1 which can mow1 sow1 thresh1 and load a cart1 and cannot expertly make a rick1 hedge1 and thatch1 and cannot kill and dress a hog1 sheep1 or calf1 by the year #ccs4 #d;d41 and #es4 for his livery4 ,a mean servant in husbandry1 which can drive the plough1 pitch ,the cart1 and thresh1 and cannot expertly sow1 mow1 thresh1 and load a cart1 nor make a rick1 nor thatch1 by the year #bds41 and #es4 for his livery4 ,the chief shepherd is only to receive #bjs4 and #es4 for his livery2 but this must be an error1 as in the statutes #f ,hen4 ,,viii1 c4 #c1 and #bc ,hen4 ,,vi1 c4 #ab1 he was placed next the bailiff as we should expect4 ,these wages were evidently 'with diet'1 and show a considerable advance on those fixed by #f ,hen4 ,,viii1 c4 #c4bdg ,by the day the ordinary labourer was to have #f;d4 in winter1 #g;d4 in summer1 and #h;d4 to #aj;d4 in harvest time1 'finding himself4' ,a mower with meat earned #e;d41 without meat #aj;d4 a day2 a man reaper with meat #d;d41 without #h;d42 a woman reaper #c;d41 and #f;d4 ,as the price of corn and meat was three times what it had been in the fifteenth century1 and the labourers' wages1 taking into consideration his harvest pay1 not quite double1 the ,rutland magistrates hardly observed the spirit of the ,act4 ,rutland1 moreover1 judging by the assessments of the time1 was a county where agriculture was very flourishing2 and thirty years after we find in ,yorkshire that the winter wages of the labourer were #d;d4 and the summer #e;d4 a day3 that is1 he had little more wages than in the fifteenth century1 with provisions risen threefold4 ,at ,chester at the same date his day's wages were to be #d;d4 all the year round4#bdh ,in #afaj the ,rutland magistrates at ,oakham#bdi decreed that an ordinary labourer was to have #f;d4 a day in winter and #g;d4 in summer1 the same wages as in #aefd1 yet wheat in that year averaged #cbs4 #g;d4 a quarter4 ,a bailiff by the year was now advanced to #ebs41 a manservant of the best sort1 equal no doubt to the chief servant in husbandry1 to #ejs41 a 'common servant' to #djs41 and a 'mean servant' to #bis41 but all without livery4 ,at ,chelmsford1 in #afea1 there was a very different rate fixed1 the ordinary labourer getting from #as4 to #as4 #b;d4 a day2 but this seems to have been exceptional1 as at ,warwick in #afhd he was only to have #h;d41 and as late as #agbe in ,lancashire #i;d4 to #aj;d4 a day4#bej ,in #afhb1 by the ,bury ,st4 ,edmunds assessment1 a common labourer got #aj;d4 a day in winter and #as4 in summer1 and a reaper in harvest #as4 #h;d4 ,by the year a bailiff was paid #f1 a carter #e1 and a common servant #c #ajs41 of course with food4#bea ,these figures clearly prove that the wages fixed by the magistrates were often terribly inadequate1 though it must be said in their defence that the great rise in prices probably struck them as abnormal and not likely to last4 ,it should be remembered1 too1 that besides his wages the labourer and his family had often bye industries such as weaving to fall back upon1 and in most parts of ,england still a piece of common land to help him4 ,,footnotes3 #bch ,description of ,britain1 iii4 #b4 #bci ,transactions of the ,royal ,historical ,society 7,new ,series71 xvii4 #bce4 #bdj ,moryson1 ,itinerary 7ed4 #afag71 iii4 #agi4 #bda ,archaeologia xiii4 #cga4 #bdb ,in #afej it was much cultivated about ,london4 #bdc ,collections on ,husbandry and ,trade1 ii4 #dfh4 #bdd ,six ,centuries of ,work and ,wages1 p4 #cih4 #bde ,cunningham1 ,industry and ,commerce1 ii4 #ch4 ,the ,statute of ,labourers of #acea made the same effort1 see p4 #dc4 #bdf ,thorold ,rogers1 ,history of ,agriculture and ,prices1 iv4 #abj2 and ,work and ,wages1 p4 #chi4 #bdg ,see above4 #bdh ,thorold ,rogers1 ,work and ,wages1 pp4 #cij-a4 #bdi ,archaeologia1 xi4 #bjj4 #bej ,thorold ,rogers1 ,six ,centuries of ,work and ,wages1 p4 #cif4 #bea ,cullum1 ,hawsted1 p4 #bae4 ,it is strange to find food reckoned so highly2 if the common labourer at ,hawsted received his food1 he was only paid #e;d4 a day in winter1 and #f;d4 in summer2 if one man's food was reckoned at half his wages1 how far did the other half go in feeding and clothing his family8 ,,chapter ,,xi #afjj-agjj ,,clover ,,and ,,turnips4--,,great ,,rise ,,in ,,prices4 ,,more ,,enclosure4--,a ,,farming ,,calendar ,the seventeenth century was one of considerable progress in ,english agriculture4 ,the decay of common-field farming was enabling individual enterprise to have its way4 ,the population was rapidly growing2 by #afhh the returns of the hearth tax prove that the northern counties were nearly as thickly populated as the southern1 and prices during the first half were continually rising1 though after that they remained almost stationary1 since the effect of the influx of precious metals from the ,new ,world was exhausted4 ,in the first half of the century ,john ,smyth ascribes the advance of rents to the ,castilian voyages opening the ,new ,world1 whereby such floods of treasure have flowed into ,europe that the rates of ,christendom are raised near twentyfold'4 ,but the greatest agricultural event of the century was the introduction of clover and the encouragement of turnips as grown in ,holland1 by ,sir ,richard ,weston1 about #afde4 ,no doubt the turnip was already well known in ,england4 ,tusser and ,fitzherbert both mention it1 apparently as a garden root only2 but ,gerard in his ,herbal1 #aeig1 says it grew in fields 'and divers vineyards or hoppe gardens in most places of ,england'1 which certainly points to an effort having been made generally to use it as a field crop whenever an enclosed space gave it some protection from the depredations of the common herds4 ,however1 its cultivation must have declined1 as long after this it was regarded as a novelty as a field crop in most parts of ,england4#beb ,in ,holland it had been used in the field universally1 and this use with that of 'great'1 as it was called1 or broad clover1 ,weston pressed on the ,english farmer4 ,but their progress was wofully slow4 ,at ,hawsted in ,suffolk clover and turnips were first sown about #agjj1 and the eastern portion of ,england was far ahead of the north and west2 as late as #aggb ,arthur ,young wrote that 'sainfoin1 cabbages1 potatoes1 and carrots are not common crops in ,england2 ,i do not imagine above half or at most two-thirds of the nation cultivate clover4'#bec ,yet their introduction must have been of the greatest benefit to the farmer and the public2 his stock of hay was increased1 he could utilize his fallows1 and keep a much larger head of stock through the winter1 who would give him a greater quantity of manure4 ,every one where turnips were grown could now have fresh meat during the winter4 ,the slow progress of these great blessings is perhaps the strongest testimony in our history of the innate conservatism of the farmer4 ,the green crop was for long considered to be suited only to the garden1 and as our forefathers were prejudiced against the spade it was difficult to get such crops cultivated even there2 but it should also be remembered that no crop was possible in the common fields which did not come to maturity before ,lammas1 unless some special agreement was made as to it4#bed ,clover1 ,sir ,richard ,weston said1 thrives best when sown on the worst and barrenest ground1 which was to be pared and burnt1 and unslaked lime added to the ashes4 ,then it was to be well ploughed and harrowed1 and about #aj lb4 of seed sown per acre in the end of ,march or in ,april4 ',it will stand five years1 and then when ploughed up will yield three or four years running rich crops of wheat1 and then a crop of oats1 after which you may sow clover again4' ,in the seventeenth century the practice of liming and marling1 which had been largely discontinued since the fourteenth century1 was revived 7,westcote1 in his ,view of ,devon in #afcj1 calls liming1 c41 a new invention71 and there was also a great improvement in implements4 ,patents were taken out for draining machines in #afbh1 for new manures in #afcc-f1 ploughs #afbc-g and #afcd1 mechanical sowing #afcd-i4 ,only six were taken out1 however1 between #afdj and #agfj that concerned agriculture4#bee ,the ,civil ,war checked the improvement1 for though the great mass of the people had nothing to do with either party1 the country was of necessity in a very unsettled state1 and both sides plundered indiscriminately4 ,yet in some parts1 as in ,devonshire1 so many of the able men served in the two armies1 that few but old men1 women1 and children were left to manage the farms1 and even they were afraid to grow more than enough to supply themselves since both armies seized the crops4#bef ,these bad effects lasted for some time afterwards2 ,chapple1 a ,devonshire land agent of the eighteenth century1 says he had talked with people who remembered the state of husbandry in the last ten or twelve years of the reign of ,charles ,,ii1 when in many parts of ,devonshire an acre or two of wheat was esteemed a rarity4 ,that the rate of progress in the century was not more rapid is attributed by ,blyth to several causes#beg3-- #a4 ,want of leases1 by which tenants were deprived of security4 #b4 ,discouragement to flood 7irrigate7 land1 from the risk of law suits with neighbours4 #c4 ,intermixture of different properties in common fields4 #d4 ,unlimited pasturage on commons1 by which they were overstocked4 #e4 ,the want of a law compelling all men to kill moles4 #f4 ,the excessive number of water-mills1 to the great destruction of much gallant land4 ,the average price of wheat during the seventeenth century was #das4 a quarter1 of barley #bbs41 and oats #ads4 #h-a_/b;d4 ,oxen averaged about #e apiece1 cows much less1 about #c1 and there was not much change in their value during the century4 ,sheep were about #ajs4 #f;d41 and a cart-horse in the first half of the century from #e to #aj1 in the second half from #h to #ae4 ,beef rose from #b;d4 a lb4 in the early part of the century to #c;d4 at the close of it4 ,wool remained stationary at from #i;d4 to #as4 per lb4 #beh;,a proclamation of #afcc fixed the following prices for ,london poulterers and victuallers3-- s4 d4 ,best turkey-cock #d #d ,duck #h ,best hen #a #j #c eggs #a #a lb4 best fresh butter in winter #f #a lb4 best fresh butter in summer #e #a lb4 best salt butter #d-a_/b ,best fat goose #b #j crammed capon #b #f pullet #a #f chicken #f ,according to the ,manydown ,manor ,rolls the ,wootton churchwardens in #afjj paid from #hs4 to #aas4 for calves1 #ds4 #d;d4 for a fat lamb1 #hs4 for a sheep1 #fs4 #h;d4 for a barren ewe1 #f;d4 for a couple of chickens1 #as4 #f;d4 for #ejj faggots4#bei ,after the restoration in #affj another period of prosperity set in1#bfj and altogether the century was a prosperous one for farmers and manufacturers4 ,the newly established ,royal ,society materially helped agriculture4 ',since his majesty's most happy restoration the whole land hath been fermented and stirred up by the profitable hints it hath received from the ,royal ,society1 by which means parks have been disparked1 commons enclosed1 woods turned into arable1 and pasture lands improved by clover1 ,st4 foine1 turnips1 cole-seed1 and many other good husbandries1 so that the food of cattle is increased as fast1 if not faster1 than the consumption1 and by these means the rent of the kingdom is far greater than ever it was4'#bfa ,the century was distinguished also for the curious number of cycles of good and bad seasons2 #afdf-ej were years of prolonged dearth1 wheat reaching an enormous price1 and #affa-b1 were famine years1 while the end of the century was long famous for its barren years4 ,with the prices of produce rents rose enormously4 ,very early in the century#bfb rents of arable land had increased ninefold1 since the fifteenth century1 and by #afhh ,davenant and ,king estimated the average rent of arable land in ,england at #es4 #f;d4 per acre and of permanent grass at #hs4 #h;d4 ,perhaps this is too high an estimate1 as on the ,belvoir estate of #ag1hcg acres in #afib the rental all round was #cs4 #i-a_/d;d4 an acre for land above the average in quality1 though it must be remembered that the ,earls and ,dukes of ,rutland were indulgent landlords4 ,the ,history of ,hawsted affords a valuable index of the increase of rents at this period4#bfc ,in #aejj the average rent was #as4 #d;d4 an acre2 in #aegb1 #ci acres of arable1 meadow1 and pasture were let for #bs4 #c;d4 an acre1 the landlord1 it is interesting to notice1 reserving the right of hawking1 netting rabbits1 hunting1 and fowling2 and about the same date other lands on the estate were let at #as4 #c;d4 and #as4 #f;d4 an acre1 so that there had not generally been much advance since #aejj1 which is what we should expect1 as the great rise took place at the end of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth centuries4 ,in #aehi1 therefore1 it is not surprising to find that #dj acres of meadow and pasture let at #es4 an acre1 and in #afaa some buildings and #aee acres of park at #aas4 an acre4 ,in #afaf1 #cff acres of arable and pasture and #ci acres of meadow were valued at #abs4 an acre for letting1 and the ,hall ,farm of #age acres 7#h-a_/b acres meadow7 at #ajs42 and ,great ,pipers ,farm of #ach acres 7#h meadow7 at #gs41 while meadow and pasture near the mansion was valued at #bas4 an acre4 ,in #afeh the rent of the ,hall ,farm had advanced from #ajs4 an acre to about #acs41 though in #afhb it went down to #aas4 #f;d4#bfd ,according to the survey of the ,manor of ,manydown in ,hampshire in #afej1 meadow land was worth #bjs4 an acre1 pasture #hs4 to #ajs41 arable from #bs4 to #ajs41 the latter showing a great variation in quality4#bfe ,in #agbc ,bryers ,wood ,farm at ,hawsted1 which had been let in #afbj for #ae1 was let at #bi #es4 ,these rents are considerably higher than the estimate of ,davenant and ,king2 but it must be remembered that they were for land in the parts of ,england1 where farming was at its best1 and they1 in accounting for the whole country1 had to take into consideration a vast amount of land in the north and west which was worth very little4 ,in the ,rawlinson ,collection#bff in the ,bodleian ,library is a rental of ,lord ,kingston's estate in north ,nottinghamshire in #afhi1 the rents averaging #ajs4 an acre2 but this was an exceptionally good estate1 much of the property being meadow and pasture4 ,the farmhouses also were above the average1 while in two of the parishes the tenants had rights of common1 and in two others the tenancies were tithe free4 ,there was very little arable land on the estate1 three small holdings letting for #fs4 #h;d4 an acre2 and some of the pasture land was let at #ads41 #aes4 #f;d41 and even #ahs4 an acre4 ,the largest farm1 ,saundby ,hall1 of #fjg acres1 nearly all meadow and pasture1 was #is4 #aj;d4 an acre4 ,the cottages were fortunate in having pieces of land attached to them4 ,in ,saundby1 ,richard ,ffydall rented a cottage and #b acres of arable land for #a #acs4 #d;d42 ,widow ,johnson a cottage and yard for #acs4 #d;d42 ,william ,daubney a cottage with #f-a_/b acres of arable and #e-a_/b acres of pasture for #g #ahs4 #f;d4 ,a farm in ,scrooby1 consisting of a messuage1 cottage1 and #aac acres of arable1 meadow1 and pasture1 only let at #bc4 ,as to the freehold value of land1 in #afba1 according to ,d',ewes1 it was worth from sixteen to twenty years' purchase2 yet1 in #afhh1 ,sir ,josiah ,child said that lands now sell at twenty years' purchase1 which fifty or sixty years before sold at eight or ten2 and he also states1 'the same farms or lands to be now sold would yield treble and in some cases six times the money they were sold for fifty years ago'4#bfg ,davenant puts land at twelve years' purchase in #afjj1 at eighteen years in #afhh4bfh ,in #agbi the price of land was said to be twenty-seven years' purchased4#bfi ,the legislation against laying down tillage to grass was continued until the end of the sixteenth century4 ,the statute #ci ,eliz41 c4 #a1 repealed #d ,hen4 ,,vii1 c4 #ai1 and all other ,acts against pulling down houses1 and provided that a house of husbandry should be a house that hath or hath had #bj acres of arable land4 ,all such houses which had been destroyed during the last seven years were to be rebuilt1 and if destroyed more than seven years only one-half was to be rebuilt2 but to each of them at least #dj acres of land were to be attached4 ,the next statute1 #ci ,eliz41 c4 #b1 sets forth once more the advantages of tillage1 viz4 the increase and multiplying of people for service in the wars1 and in time of peace the employment of a greater number of people1 the keeping of people from poverty1 the dispersal of the wealth of the kingdom in many hands1 and 'the standing of this realm upon itself without depending upon foreign countries'#bgj2 and therefore enacts that lands converted from tillage to pasture shall be restored to tillage within three years1 and lands then in tillage should be so continued2 but this was only to extend to twenty-three counties1 and omitted most of those in the south-west4 ,at the beginning of the seventeenth century a reaction set in2 the price of corn had risen immensely and continued to do so1 the price of wool remained stationary1 and tillage was as profitable as grass4 ,in #afbj ,coke speaks of the man who only kept a shepherd and a dog as one who never prospered4 ,in #afbd several of the tillage laws were repealed4#bga ,as an example of the unenclosed fields1 at the end of the sixteenth century1 we may take the common fields at ,daventry1 which were three in number1 containing respectively #cfh1 #chc1 and #ebd acres1 divided into furlongs1 a term which had now a very wide signification1 each of which was subdivided into lands nearly always half an acre in extent1 several of these lands when adjoining being often held now by the same owner4 ,one furlong may be taken as an example4 ,it was #cg acres #a rood in extent1 and contained ninety-six lands1 owned by seventeen people4 ,the meadows were divided still more minutely1 some of the smaller portions being only a quarter of an acre each4 ,the largest meadow contained #ej acres1 divided among fifty-three people4 ,in the manor1 besides the arable and meadow1 there were #cjj acres of common pasture1 a park1 and a small wood4 ,there were forty-one freeholders and many leasehold tenants1 the average freehold being #cd acres1 the average leasehold only half an acre1 small holdings being the usual feature of the unenclosed township4 ,in the seventeenth century the price of wool ceased to operate as a cause of enclosure1 but in many parts the change to pasture continued1 owing to the rise in price of cattle and of wages4 ,the same reason1 too1 for laying down land to grass that had been so powerful in the preceding centuries still existed1 the common arable fields needed rest from continual cropping and poor manuring1 while good crops of corn could be grown from the virgin soil of the newly enclosed waste4 ,the preamble of the ,durham decrees clearly states this3 'the land is wasted and worn with continual ploweing1 and thereby made bare1 barren1 and very unfruitful4'#bgb ,we may1 therefore1 take ,coke's words as inapplicable to many districts4 ,in the seventeenth century there were several methods of enclosing4 ,sometimes the lord of the manor enclosed and left the land of the tenants still in common2 or a tenant enclosed piece by piece2 or enclosures were made by ,act of ,parliament1 the earliest of which for common fields was passed in the time of ,james ,i1 a method at this period very seldom used2 or there was an agreement between lord and tenants often authorized by the ,courts of ,chancery or ,exchequer4 ,besides enclosure1 another process was going on1 the consolidation of farms by the amalgamation of small holdings into larger ones4 ,farmhouses1 as we see them to-day1 began to appear on the holdings thus consolidated1 instead of being grouped together in villages4 ,a writer in #afjd says1 'we may see many of their houses built alone like raven's nests1 no birds building neere them' so unwonted was the sight of isolated dwellings in most places at the time4 ,however1 in #afcj ,charles ,i went back to the policy of his forefathers and issued letters to certain of the ,midland counties ordering all enclosures of the last two years to be removed1 and ,commissions were issued to inquire into the matter in #afcb1 #afce1 and #afcf1bgc the chief evil feared from enclosures being depopulation1 and enclosers were prosecuted in the ,court of ,star ,chamber4 ,the assertion that enclosures ceased during the seventeenth century has been proved inaccurate by modern research1 and there is no doubt that they went on continuously4 ,in #afjg1 in the ,midlands1 the enclosing of land produced serious armed resistance1 probably because the ,midland counties were then the great corn-growing district of ,england1 and the change to pasture and the consolidation of farms displaced a larger population there than elsewhere4 ,between #afbh and #afcj enclosures in ,leicestershire1 for instance1 were very numerous1 no less than #aj1jjj acres being enclosed in that time1 most of which was converted to pasture4 ,the attempt of the ,government to check the movement1 initiated by ,charles ,i1 seems to have had considerable effect1 but died away with the ,civil ,war1 and though other attempts were made under the ,commonwealth they came to nothing1 and from this time enclosures went on unchecked by the ,government1#bgd and were soon to have its active support4 ,yet there was a vast amount still in common field3 the whole of the cultivated land of ,england in #afhe was stated by ,king and ,davenant to amount to not much more than half the total area1 and of this cultivated portion three-fifths was still farmed on the old common-field system4 ,northamptonshire1 ,leicestershire1 ,rutland1 ,huntingdonshire1 and ,bedfordshire were comparatively unenclosed4#bge ,from the books and maps of the day 'it is clear that many routes which now pass through an endless succession of orchards1 corn-fields1 hay-fields1 and bean-fields then ran through nothing but heath1 swamp1 and warren4 ,in the drawings of an ,english landscape made in that age for the ,grand ,duke ,cosmo scarce a hedgerow is to be seen4444 ,at ,enfield1 hardly out of sight of the smoke of the capital1 was a region of five-and-twenty miles in circumference which contained only three houses and scarcely any enclosed fields4'#bgf ,the enclosure of these areas was to be mainly the work of the latter half of the eighteenth and the first quarter of the nineteenth centuries4 ,the amount of enclosure in the fifteenth1 sixteenth1 and the first half of the seventeenth centuries was1 according to the latest research1 much1 and perhaps very naturally1 exaggerated by contemporaries4 ,between #adee-afjg the enclosures in twenty-four counties are said to have amounted to some #ejj1jjj acres1 or #b4gf of their total area1#bgg but the evidence for this is by no means conclusive4 ,however1 there seems no reason to doubt that the enclosure of this period was but a faint beginning of that great outburst of it that marked the agrarian revolution of the middle of the eighteenth century1 and that it was mainly confined to the ,midland counties1 ,mr4 ,johnson1 in his recent ,ford ,lectures1 has stated that the enclosure of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was not accompanied by very much direct eviction of freeholders or bona fide copyholders of inheritance2 yet the small holder suffered in many ways1 e4g4 by the lord disproving the hereditary character of the copyhold1 or by changing copyholds of inheritance into copyholds for lives or leases for lives or years4 ,he and his successors could then refuse to renew at the termination of lives or years except on payment of a practically prohibitory fine4 ,in short1 though there was not much violation of legal right there was much injustice1 and enclosure1 though its effects were exaggerated at this period1 certainly tended to displace the small landholder4 ,it does not appear1 however1 that the moderate-sized proprietors were seriously affected4 ,many of the larger freeholders and copyholders on manors enclosed on their own account1 and perhaps increased at the expense of the very large and the very small4 ,indeed1 the decrease of small landowners was chiefly due to political and social causes4 ,the old self-sufficing1 agricultural economy of ,england1 which we have seen beginning to break up in the fourteenth century1 was becoming thoroughly disintegrated4 ,the capitalist class was increasing2 the successful merchant and lawyer were acquiring land and becoming squires2 there was an intense land hunger4 ,simon ,degge1 wilting of ,staffordshire in #affi1 says that in the previous sixty years half the lands had changed owners1 not so much as of old they were wont to do1 by marriage1 but by purchase2 and he notices how many lawyers and tradesmen have supplanted the gentry4#bgh ,in fact1 there was a much freer disposal of lands from the end of the fifteenth century1 when the famous ,taltarum's case enabled entailed estates to be barred1 until the ,restoration1 than there has been before or since4 ,for these two hundred years the courts of law and parliament resisted every effort to re-establish the system of entails2 the owners of land constantly multiplied1 and this tendency must have counteracted the displacement of the small holder by enclosure4 ,sir ,thomas ,smith1 writing towards the end of the sixteenth century1 says that it was the yeomen who bought the lands of 'unthrifty gentlemen2' and ,moryson tells us that 'the buyers 7excepting lawyers7 are for the most part citizens and vulgar men'4#bgi ,it became one of the boasts of ,england that she had a large number of yeomen farming their own land4 ,during the ,civil ,war1 however1 it became important to landowners to protect their properties in the interest of children and descendants from forfeiture for treason4 ,the judges lent their aid1 and the system of strict family settlements was devised1 under which the great bulk of the estates in ,england are now held4 ,this system favoured the accumulation of lands in a few hands and the aggregation of great estates1 and was largely responsible for the disappearance of the small freeholder4 ,in reviewing the progress of agriculture in the seventeenth century1 the drainage of the fen country of ,lincolnshire and the adjoining counties must not be forgotten4 ,it had been for centuries the scene of drainage operations on a more or less extended scale1 few of which1 however1 met with success2 but in the seventeenth century the growing value of land caused a serious revival of these efforts4 ,attempts made under ,elizabeth and ,james ,i had only succeeded in rescuing a certain amount of land for pasture1#bhj but in the reign of ,charles ,i the scheme of ,cornelius ,vermuyden was more successful4 ,his system1 however1 was defective1 and in the reign of ,charles ,,ii the ,bedford ,level was in a lamentable state and in danger of reverting to its primitive condition4 ,many of the works too were destroyed by the 'stiltwalkers'1 and in #agic ,maxwell states that out of #dd1jjj acres of fen land in ,huntingdonshire only #h1jjj or #aj1jjj were productive#bha2 and in #agid ,stone tells us that the commons round the ,isle of ,axholme were chiefly covered with water4#bhb ,still to ,vermuyden and his contemporaries must be assigned the credit of the first comprehensive scheme for rescuing these fertile lands from the waters that covered them4 ,at the commencement of this important century an old calendar of #afjfbhc clearly sets forth the farming work of the year3-- ,january and ,february are the best months for ploughing for peas1 beans1 and oats1 and to have peas soon in the year following sow them in the wane of the moon at ,s4 ,andrewstide before ,christmas2 which may be compared to ,tusser's advice for ,february1 ',go plow in the stubble1 for now is the season ,for sowing of fitches of beans and of peason4' ',clean grounds of all such rubbish as briars1 brambles1 blackthorns1 and shrubbs' 7then more often choking the ground than now71 which are to be fagoted as good fuel for baking and brewing4 ',do not plough in rainy weather1 for it impoverisheth the earth4' ,march and ,april4 ,take up colts from grass to be broken4 ,sow beans1 peas1 and oats4 ,in these months are all grounds where cattle went in the last winter to be furthed 7apparently managed7 and cleared and the mole-hills scattered1 that the fresh spring of grass may grow better4 ,all hedges and ditches to be made betwixt 'severals'1 evidently enclosures as distinguished from common fields4 ,from ,march #be to ,may #a summer pastures are to be spared1 that they may have time to get head before summer cattle be put in4 ,in the meantime such cattle are to be bestowed in meadows till ,may ,day1 and after that date such meadows are to be cleansed and spared until the crops of hay be taken off4 ,from now till midsummer sell fat cattle and sheep1 and with the money buy lean cattle and sheep4 ,sow barley4 ,may and ,june4 ,sort all cattle for their summer pasture on ,may ,day1 viz4 draught oxen by themselves1 milch cows by themselves1 weaning calves1 yearlings1 two-year-olds1 three- and four-year-olds1 every sort by themselves1 which being divided in pasture fitting for them will make larger and fairer cattle4 ,separate the horses in the same way4 ,wash sheep and shear four or five days after1 which done the wool is to be well wound and weighed1 and safely laid up in some place where there is not too much air or it will lose weight1 nor where it is damp or it will increase too much in weight4 ,cleanse winter corn from thistles and weeds4 ,july and ,august4 ,first of all comes hay-making4 ,in ,august wean lambs1 and put them in good pasture1 and in winter put them in fresh pasture until spring1 and then put them with the 'holding' sheep4 ,in these months is corn to be 'shornne or mowen downe' 7the writer1 it is to be noticed1 has no preference for either method72 and after the corn is carried put draught horses and oxen into the averish 7corn stubble71 to ease other pastures2 and after them put hogs in4 ,gather crabs in woods and hedgerows for making verjuice4 ,september and ,october4 ,have all plows and harrows neat and fit for sowing of wheat1 rye1 mesling 7wheat and rye mixed71 and vetches4#bhd ,pick hops4 ,buy store cattle1 both steers and heifers1 of three or four years old1 which being well wintered at grass1 or on straw at the barn doors1 will be the sooner fed the summer following1 and they will sooner feed after straw than grass4 ,from ,october to ,may are calves to be reared1 because then they be more hardly bred and become the stronger cattle4 ,feed brawns1 bacons1 lards1 and porkets on mast if there is any1 if not on corn4 ',in these months cleanse poundes or pools1 this season being the driest2' an extraordinary assertion1 unless the climate has changed1 seeing that according to the monthly averages from #ahda-aijf1 taken at the ,royal ,observatory1 ,greenwich1 ,october is the wettest month in the year4#bhe ,november and ,december4 ,sort all kinds of sheep until ,lady ,day1 viz4 wethers by themselves1 and weaning lambs by themselves2 and do not put rams to the ewes before ,s4 ,lukestide1 ,october #ah1 for those lambs fall about ,march #be1 and if they fall before then the scarcity of grass and the cold will so nip and chill them that they will die or be weaklings4 ,it is good at this time to take draught cattle and horses from grass into the house before any great storms begin4 ,thrash corn now after it hath had a good sweat in the mow1 and so dried again1 and give the straw to the draught oxen and cattle at the standaxe or at the barn doors for sparing of hay1 advice which ,tusser also gives3 ',serve rie straw out first1 then wheat straw and peas1 ,then ote straw and barley1 then hay if ye please4' ,,footnotes3 #beb ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal1 #ahif1 pp4 #gg sq41 and ,gerard1 ,herbal 7ed4 #afcc71 p4 #bcb4 #bec ,about #afhd1 ,john ,worlidge wrote to ,houghton that sheep fatted on clover were not such delicate meat as the heath croppers1 and that sheep fatten very well on turnips4 ,houghton1 ,collection for ,improvement of ,husbandry1 iv4 #adb4 ,this is said to be the first notice of turnips being given to sheep4 #bed ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal1 #ahif1 p4 #gg4 ,one of the proofs of the rarity of vegetables among the poorer classes of ,england1 especially in the ,middle ,ages1 is the fact that rents paid in kind never included them4 #bee ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal1 #ahib1 p4 #ai4 #bef ,chapple1 ,review of ,risdon's ,survey of ,devon 7#aghe71 p4 #ag n4 ,victoria ,county ,history3 ,devonshire1 ,agriculture4 #beg ,blyth was a great advocate of enclosure4 ',live the commoners do indeed'1 he says1 'very many in a mean1 low condition1 with hunger and ease4 ,better do these in ,bridewell4 ,what they get they spend4 ,and can they make even at the year's rent8' #beh ,rymer1 ,foedera 7,orig4 ed471 xix4 #eab4 #bei ,manydown ,manor ,rolls1 ,hampshire ,record ,society1 p4 #agb4 #bfj ,thorold ,rogers1 ,work and ,wages1 p4 #dei4 #bfa ,houghton1 ,collections1 c41 ii4 #ddh4 #bfb ,thorold ,rogers1 ,history of ,agriculture and ,prices1 v4 p4 vii4 ,cf4 p4 #aci infra4 #bfc ,cullum1 ,hawsted1 pp4 #aif et seq4 ,in the ,hawsted leases1 at the end of the sixteenth and beginning of the seventeenth centuries1 it is noteworthy that there were1 at a time of repeated complaints against laying down land to pasture1 clauses against breaking up pasture land4 #bfd ,in #afgg there were complaints of a fall in rents4 #bfe ,manydown ,manor ,rolls1 ,hampshire ,record ,society1 pp4 #agh et seq4 #bff ,rawl4 ,a4 #agj1 ,no4 #aja4 #bfg ,mc,pherson1 ,annals of ,commerce1 ii4 #dhc4 #bfh ,ibid4 ii4 #fcj4 #bfi ,ibid4 iii4 #adg4 ,the rental of the lands in ,england in #afjj was estimated by ,davenant at #f1jjj1jjj1 in #afhh at #ad1jjj1jjj2 and in #agbf by ,phillips at #bj1jjj1jjj4 ,ibid4 iii4 #acc4 ,in #ahej1 ,caird estimated it at #cg1dab1jjj4 #bgj ,with what horror would those legislators have contemplated ,england's position to-day1 when a temporary loss of the command of the sea would probably ruin the country4 #bga #ba ,jac4 #a1 c4 #bh4 #bgb ,transactions of the ,royal ,historical ,society 7,new ,series71 xix4 #aaf4 #bgc ,transactions of the ,royal ,historical ,society 7,new ,series71 xix4 #abg4 #bgd ,ibid4 #acj4 #bge ,see article in ,transactions of the ,royal ,historical ,society 7,new ,series71 xix4 #bgf ,macaulay1 ,history of ,england1 ch4 iii4 #bgg ,quarterly ,journal of ,economics1 xvii4 #ehg4 ,considering that the legislature of the sixteenth century was against enclosure and depopulation1 it is hard to understand #ca ,eliz41 c4 #g1 which forbade cottages to be erected unless #d acres of land were attached thereto1 in order to avoid the great inconvenience caused by the 'buyldinge of great nombers and multitude of cottages1 which are daylie more and more increased in many partes of this realme'4 ,how was it that cottages had increased so much in rural districts1 which are of course alluded to1 in spite of enclosure8 #bgh ,harwood1 ,erdeswick4 #bgi ,hasbach1 op4 cit4 p4 #dd4 #bhj ,cunningham1 ,industry and ,commerce1 i4 #ahg4 #bha ,general ,view of ,hunts41 p4 #h4 #bhb ,general ,view of ,lincoln1 p4 #bi4 #bhc ,farming ,calendar1 from an original ,,ms41 printed in ,archaeologia1 xiii4 #cgc et seq4 #bhd ,cf4 ,tusser3 ',october for wheat-sowing calleth as fast'2 and ',when wheat upon eddish 7stubble71 ye mind to bestowe ,let that be the first of the wheat ye do sowe'2 and ',who soweth in raine1 he shall reap it with tears'4 #bhe ,the writer of the diary probably meant this work should be done in ,september4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,great ,,agricultural ,,writers ,,of ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century4--,,fruit ,,growing4 ,a ,,seventeenth-,,century ,,orchard ,the seventeenth century is distinguished by a number of agricultural writers whose works1 as they afford the best account of the farming of the time1 we may be pardoned for freely quoting4 ,the best known of them were1 ,sir ,john ,norden1 ,gervase ,markham1 ,sir ,richard ,weston1 ,blythe1 ,hartlib1 ,sir ,hugh ,plat1 ,john ,evelyn1 ,john ,worlidge1 and ,houghton4 ,sir ,john ,norden printed his ,surveyor's ,dialogue in #afjh1 which is in the form of a conversation between a farmer and a surveyor1 the former at the outset telling the latter that men of his profession were then very unpopular because 'you pry into men's titles and estates1 and oftentimes you are the cause that men lose their land1 and customs are altered1 broken1 and sometimes perverted by your means4 ,and above all1 you look into the values of men's lands1 wherefore the lords of manors do reckon their tenants to a higher rent1 and therefore not only ,i but many poore tenants have good cause to speak against the profession'4#bhf ,the surveyor attributes the increase in prices to farmers outbidding one another for farms1 for the rents of farms and prices grow together2 a statement which seems to have been quite true and disposes of the assertion that the landlords raised the rents unfairly1 for they were quite entitled to what rent they could get in the open market1 the farmers being presumably wise enough not to offer rents which would preclude a profit4 ,he further blames the farmer of his day for being discontented with his lot3 in former times 'farmers and their wives were content with mean dyet and base attire and held their children to some austere government1 without haunting alehouses1 taverns1 dice1 and cards2 now the husbandman will be equal to the yeoman1 the yeoman to the gentleman1 the gentleman to the squire1 and there is at this day thirty times as much vainely spent in a family of like multitude and quality as was in former ages'2 a complaint that has been common in all ages4 ,contrary to what is the practice to-day1 and apparently to common sense1 the surveyor recommends that open drains be made as narrow above as at the bottom1 at the most not more than a foot and a half broad4#bhg ,hops1 he says1 were then grown in ,suffolk1 ,essex1 and ,surrey1 'in your loose and spongie grounds1 trenched4' ',carret' roots were raised in ,suffolk and ,essex1 and beginning to increase in all parts of the realm#bhh2 but if he alludes to their cultivation in the open field the statement must be taken with considerable qualification1 as they were not so grown generally until the end of the eighteenth century or the beginning of the next4 ,kent was then1 as now1 the great fruit county of ,england2 'above all others ,i think the ,kentishmen be most apt and industrious in planting orchards with pippins and cherries1 especially near the ,thames about ,feversham and ,sittingbourne4' ,but ,devon and ,hereford were also famous2 ,westcote about #afcj says the ,devonshire men had of late much enlarged their orchards1 and 'are very curious in planting and grafting all kinds of fruit'#bhi2 and ,john ,beale in #afef tells us ,hereford 'is reputed the orchard of ,england'#bij2 while ,hartlib says there were many orchards in ,worcestershire and ,gloucestershire4#bia ,he calls ',tandeane' near ,taunton the ,paradise of ,england1 where the husbandry was excellent1 the land fruitful by nature and improved by the art and industry of the farmers2 'they take extraordinary pains in soyling1 ploughing1 and dressing their lands1 and after the plow there goeth some three or four with mattocks to break the clods and to draw up the earth out of the furrows that the lands may lye round1 and that the water annoy not the seed 7the water evidently often lying long in the furrows between the great high ridges71 and to that end they most carefully cut gutters and trenches in all places4 ,and for the better enriching of their ploughing lands they cut up1 cast1 and carry in the unplowed headlands and places of no use4 ,their hearts1 hands1 eyes1 and all their powers concurre in one to force the earth to yield her utmost fruit2 and the crops of wheat that rewarded this industry were sometimes #h and #aj quarters to an acre4 ,a short pamphlet called the ,fruiterer's ,secrets1 published in ,london in #afjd1 imparts some interesting and curious information about fruit growing4#bib ,there were then four sorts of cherries in ,england1 ,flemish1#bic ,english1 ,gascoyne1 and black1 and the preserving of them from birds1 always a burden on the grower1 the author says can be done by a gun or a sling2 the worst enemies being jays and bullfinches1 who ate stones and all4 ,stone fruit should be gathered in dry weather1 and after the dew is off1 for if gathered wet it loses colour and becomes mildewed4 ,if nettles newly gathered are laid at the bottom of the basket and on the top of the fruit1 they will hasten the ripening of fruit picked unripe1 and make it keep its colour4 ,those ,english farmers who still shake their apples from the trees to fall and be bruised on the ground had better listen to the careful directions for placing the ladder on the trees where it will do no damage1 as to the use of the gathering hook so that the branches can be brought within easy reach of the picker on his ladder1 the wearing of a gathering apron1 and the emptying of it gently into the baskets4 ,green fern has the same effect on pears packed for carriage as nettles on stone fruit2 while apples should be packed in wheat1 or better still in rye straw4 ,for long journeys the ,american system of packing in barrels is anticipated1 the apples being carefully put in by hand1 and the barrels lined at both ends with straw1 but not at the sides to avoid heating1 while holes should be bored at either end to prevent heat4 ,pippins1 ,john ,apples1 ,pearmains1 and other 'keepers' need not be turned until the week before ,christmas1 and again at the end of ,march1 when they must be turned oftener2 but never touch fruit during a frost or a thaw1 or in rainy weather1 or it will turn black4 ,hartlib1 a few years after1 reckoned no less than #ejj sorts of apples in ,england1 though doubtless many of these were identical1 since the same apple often has two or three names in one parish4 ,the best for the table were the ,jennetings1 ,harvey ,apple1 ,golden ,pippin1 ,summer and ,winter ,pearmains1 ,john ,apple1 c42 for cider the ,red ,streak 7the great favourite71 ,jennet ,moyle1 ,eliot1 ,stocking ,apple1 c4 ,he was told that in ,herefordshire a tenant bought the farm he rented with the fruit crop of one year2 #aj to #ae having been given per acre for cherries and more for apples and pears4 ,pears for the table were the ,windsor1 ',burgamet1' ',boon ,christians'6 ,greenfield1 and others2 and for perry1 which ,john ,beale1 a well-known writer of the day considered 'a weak drink1 fit for our hindes and generally refused by our gentry as breeding wind in the stomack'1 the ,horse ,pear1 ,bosbury1 ,choak1 c4#bid ,there were many kinds of plums1 among them the ,mistle ,plum1 ,damazene1 ,violet1 and ,premorden4 ,four kinds of grafting were practised3 in the cleft1 and in the bark1 the two most usual ways2 shoulder or whip grafting1 and grafting by approach1#bie the last 'where the stock you intend to graft on and the tree from which you take your graft stand so near together that they may be joined1 then take the sprig you intend to graft and pare away about three inches in length of the rind and wood near unto the very pith1 and cut also the stock on which you intend to graft the same after the same manner that they may evenly join each other1 and so bind them and cover them with clay or wax4' ,inoculation was also practised1 'when the sap is at the fullest in the summer1 the buds you intend to inoculate being not too young but sufficiently grown4' ,for transplanting the middle of ,october is recommended1 and the wise advice added1 'plant not too deep1' and in clay plant as near the surface as possible1 for the roots will seek their way downward but rarely upward2 and in transplanting 'you may prune the branches as well as the roots of apples and pears1 but not of plums4' ,the best distance apart in an orchard for apples and pears was considered to be from #bj to #cj feet1 the further apart the more they benefit from the sun and air1 a piece of advice which many a subsequent planter has neglected4 ,for cherries and plums #ae to #bj feet was thought right4 ,worlidge's directions for pruning are minute and careful1 and should be well hammered into many slovenly farmers to-day4 ,cider-making was performed much as it is in old-fashioned farms to-day1 by mashing the apples in a trough by means of a millstone set edgeways1 and then pressing the juice out through hair mats1 the juice1 says ,hartlib1 'having been let stand a day or two and the black scum that ariseth in that time taken off they tunne it1 and in the barrels it continueth to work some days longer1 just as beer useth to do4#bif ,another method was to put the fruit in a clean vessel or trough1 and bruise or crush it with beetles1 then put the crushed fruit in a bag of hair-cloth and press it4#big ,after the cider was in the barrels there was placed in them a linen bag containing cloves1 mace1 cinnamon1 ginger1 and lemon peel which was said to make the cider taste as pleasantly as ,rhenish wine4 ,worlidge gives us what is perhaps the first mention of a poultry farm1 and strangely enough it seems to have paid4 ',i have been credibly informed that a good farm hath been wholly stocked with poultry1 spending the whole crop upon them and keeping severall to attend them1 and that it hath redounded to a very considerable improvement'4#bih ,incubators of a very rude sort were used1 three or four dozen eggs being placed in a 'lamp furnace made of a few boards'1 and hatched by the heat of a lamp or candle4 ,it must strike the reader that the accusation levelled against the ,english farmer1 of having made little progress in his art from the ,middle ,ages to the commencement of the reign of ,george ,,iii is hardly warranted4 ,their knowledge and skill in their business were evidently such as to make considerable progress inevitable1 and then as now they were in some cases assisted by their landlords1 as in ,herefordshire1 where ,lord ,scudamore1 after the assassination of his friend the ,duke of ,buckingham1 devoted his energies to the culture of fruit1 and with other public-spirited gentlemen turned that county into 'one entire orchard'1 besides improving the pastures and woods#bii2 though ,hartlib laments that gentlemen try so few experiments for the advancement of agriculture1 and that both landowners and farmers instead of communicating their knowledge to each other kept it jealously to themselves4#cjj ,the chief hindrance to landlord and tenant was that the heavy hand of ancient custom lay upon them1 with its antiquated communistic system of farming1 which still in the greater part of the land of ,england utterly prevented good husbandry and stifled individual effort4 ,it was one of these ,herefordshire gentlemen4 ,rowland ,vaughan1 who in #afaj wrote what is probably the first account of irrigation in ,england1 though the art was mentioned by ,fitzherbert and must have been known in ,devon and ,hampshire long before his time2 indeed1 it is another instance of the then isolation of country districts that he speaks as if he had made a new discovery4 ,he tells us that 'having sojourned two years in his father's house1 wearied in doing nothing and fearing his fortunes had been overthrown1 he cast about what was best to be done to retrieve his reputation'4 ,and one day he saw from a mole-hill on the side of a brook on his property a little stream of water issuing down the working of the mole1 which made the ground 'pleasing green'1 and from this he was led on to what he calls 'the drowning of his lands'4 ,this was so successful that he improved the value of his estate from #dj to #cjj a year1 and his neighbours1 who of course had first scoffed at him1 came to learn from him4 ,not many years after 'drowning' was said to have become one of the most universal and advantageous improvements in ,england4#cja ,vaughan says that he had counted as many as #cjj persons gleaning in one field after harvest1 and that in the mountains near eggs were #bj a penny1 and a good bullock #bfs4 #c;d41 but this was a backward region4#cjb ,between #afag and #afba the price of wheat fell from #dcs4 #c;d4 to #bas4 a quarter1 and immediately affected the payment of rent4#cjc ,mr4 ,john ,chamberlain1 in ,february1 #afbj1 wrote to ,sir ,dudley ,carleton1 ',we are here in a strange state to complain of plenty1 but so it is that corn beareth so low a price that farmers are very backward to pay their rents and in many places plead disability3 for remedy whereof the ,council have written letters into every shire to provide a granary with a stock to buy corn and keep it for a dear year4' ,sir ,symonds ,d',ewes notes in his diary that 'at this time 7#afba7 the rates of all sorts of corn were so extremely low as it made the very prices of land fall from twenty years' purchase to sixteen or seventeen4 ,for the best wheat was sold for #bs4 #h;d4 and #bs4 #f;d4 the bushel1 the ordinary at #bs4 ,barley and rye at #as4 #d;d4 and #as4 #c;d4 the bushel1 and the worser of those grains at a meaner rate1 the poorer sort that would have been glad but a few years before of coarse rye bread1 did now usually traverse the markets to find out the finer wheats as if nothing else would please their palates'4 ,instead of being glad that they were for once having a small share of the good things of this world1 he rejoices that their unthankfulness and daintiness was soon punished by high prices and dearness of all sorts of grain4#cjd ,the year #afcj was the commencement of a series of dear seasons1 when for nine consecutive years the price of wheat did not fall below #djs4 a quarter and actually touched #hfs4 ,the restraints laid on corn-dealers had1 since the principles of commerce were being better understood1 been modified in #afbd1 but the high prices revived the old hatred against them1 and we find ,sir ,john ,wingfield writing from ,rutland that he has 'taken order that ingrossers of corne shall be carefullie seen unto and that there is no ,badger 7corn-dealer7 licensed to carry corne out of this countrye nor any starch made of any kind of graine'4 ,he adds that he had 'refrayned the maulsters from excessive making of mault1 and had suppressed #bj alehouses'4#cje ,however1 the senseless policy of preventing trade in corn received a severe blow from the statute #ae ,car4 ,,ii1 c4 #g1 which enacted that when corn was under #dhs4 persons were to be allowed to buy and store corn and sell the same again without penalty1 provided they did not sell it in the same market within three months of buying it1 a statute which ,adam ,smith said contributed more to the progress of agriculture than any previous law in the statute book4 ,gervase ,markham1 who was born about #aefh and died in #afcg1 gives us a description of the day's work of the ,english farmer4 ,he is to rise at four in the morning1 feed his cattle and clean his stable4 ,while they are feeding he is to get his harness ready1 which will take him two hours4 ,then he is to have his breakfast1 for which half an hour is allowed4 ,getting the harness on his horses or cattle1 he is to start by seven to his work and keep at it till between two and three in the afternoon4 ,then he shall bring his team home1 clean them and give them their food1 dine himself1 and at four go back to his cattle and give them more fodder1 and getting into his barn make ready their food for next day1 not forgetting to see them again before going to his own supper at six4 ,after supper he is to mend shoes by the fireside for himself and his family1 or beat and knock hemp and flax1 or pitch and stamp apples or crabs for cider or verjuice1 or else grind malt1 pick candle-rushes1 or 'do some husbandry office within doors till it befall eight o'clock'4 ,then he shall take his lantern1 visit his cattle once more1 and go with all his household to rest4 ,the farm roller of this time1 according to ,markham1 was made of a round piece of wood #cj inches in circumference1 #f feet long1 having at each end a strong pin of iron to which shafts were made fast4#cjf ,he mentions wooden and iron harrows1 but this refers only to the tines1 the wooden ones being made of ash4 ,from an illustration of a harrow which he gives1 it appears it was much like ,fitzherbert's and many used to-day3 a wooden frame1 with the teeth set perhaps more closely than ours2 the single harrow #d feet square drawn by one horse1 the double harrow #g feet square by two oxen at least4 ,wheat he says1 when the land is dug #ae inches deep1 and the seed dibbled in1 will produce twelve times as much as when ploughed2 but he admits the 'intricacy and trouble' of this method4#cjg ,as to the question of mowing or reaping corn1 he is of opinion that though 'it is a custom in many countries of this kingdom not to sheare the wheat but to mow it1 in my conceit it is not so good1 for it both maketh the wheate foule and full of weede'4 ,barley1 however1 should be mown close to the ground1 though many reap it2 oats too were to be mown4 ,his directions for planting an orchard#cjh are interesting1 both as showing the kinds of fruit then grown1 the number of different sorts planted together1 and the growth of the olive in ,england4#cji ,the orchard1 he says1 should be a square1 divided into four quarters by alleys1 and in the first quarter should be apples of all sorts1 in the second pears and wardens of all sorts1 in the third quinces and chestnuts1 in the fourth medlars and services4 ,a wall is the best fence1 and on the north wall1 'against which the sunne reflects1 you shall plant the abricot1 verdochio1 peache1 and damaske plumbe2 against the east side the white muskadine grape1 the pescod plumbe1 and the ,emperiale plumbe2 against the west1 the grafted cherries and the olive tree2 and against the south side the almond and the figge tree4' ,as if this extraordinary mixture were not enough1 'round about the skirts of the alleys' were to be planted plums1 damsons1 cherries1 filberts and nuts of all sorts1 and the 'horse clog' and 'bulleye'1 the two latter being inferior wild plums4 ,plums were to be #e feet apart1 apples and other large fruit #ab feet4 ,young trees should be watered morning and evening in dry summers1 and old ones should have the earth dug away from the upper part of the roots from ,november to ,march1 then the earth1 mixed with dung or soap ashes1 replaced4 ,moss was carefully to be scraped off the trees with the back of an old knife1 and1 to prevent it1 the trees manured with swine's dung4 ,minute distinctions are given as to pruning and washing the trees with strong brine of water and salt1 either with a garden pump placed in a tub or with 'squirtes which have many hoales'1 the forerunner of modern spraying4 ,cider was then mostly made in the west1 as in ,devonshire and ,cornwall1 and perry in ,worcestershire and ,gloucestershire2 but he leaves out ,herefordshire1 where it was certainly made at this time4#caj ,a curious help to fattening beasts1 says ,markham1 is a lean horse or two kept with them1 for the beasts delight to feed with them4 ,fattening cattle were to have first bite at the pastures1 then draught cattle1 and then sheep2 after ,midsummer1 when there is an extraordinary sweetness in the grass1 suffer the cattle to eat the grass closer till ,lammas 7,august #a74 ,though some do not hold with him1 he thinks reading and writing not unprofitable to a husbandman1 but not much material 'to his bailiff'2 for there is more trust in an honest score chalked on a trencher than 'in a commen writen scrowle'4 ,landowners derived a good income from their woods and coppices4 ,an acre of underwood of twenty-one years' growth1 was at this time worth from #bj to #cj2 of twelve years' growth1 #e to #f2 but on many of the best lands it was only cut every thirty years4#caa ,in #agdb-c oak timber was worth from #ae;d4 to #ah;d4 per cubic foot and ash about #aj;d4 ,during the ,napoleonic war oak sold for #ds4 #f;d4 a foot4 ,in ,blyth's ,improver ,improved we have one of the first accounts of covered drains4 ,the draining trench was to be made deep enough to go the bottom of the 'cold spewing moist water' that feeds the flags and the rushes2 as for the width 'use thine own liberty' but be sure make it as straight as possible4 ,the bottom was to be filled in with faggots or stones to a depth of #ae inches1 a method in some parts retained till comparatively modern times1 with the top turf laid upon them grass downward1 and the drain filled in with the earth dug out of it4 ,a country gentleman at this date could keep up a good establishment on an income which to-day would compel him to live economically in a cottage4 ,from the accounts of ,mr4 ,master1 a landowner near ,chiselhurst1 it appears that a man with an income of #cjj or #djj a year could live in some luxury1 keep a stud of horses1 and a considerable number of servants4#cab ,some of them had no scruples about adding to their incomes by turning corn-dealers1 even selling such small quantities as pecks of peas1 bushels of rye1 and half pecks of oatmeal4 ,from the accounts of one of them1 ,henry ,best1#cac of ,elmswell1 we learn many valuable details concerning farming in ,yorkshire about #afda4 ,it was the custom to put the ram to the ewes about ,october #ah1 but ,best did so about ,michaelmas1 and generally used one ram to #cj or #dj ewes1 and he considered it necessary that the ewes should be two-shear4 ',good handsome ewes'1 he says1 could have been bought at ,kilham fair for #cs4 #f;d4 each1 a price far below the average of the time4 ,as for wages1 mowers of grass had #aj;d4 a day1 and found their own food and their scythes1 which cost them about #bs4 #c;d4 each4 ,haymakers got #d;d4 a day1 and had to 'meat themselves' and find their own forks and rakes4 ,shearers or reapers were paid from #h;d4 to #aj;d41 and found their own sickles2 binders and stackers1 #h;d42 mowers of 'haver'1 or oats1 #aj;d41 a good mower cutting #d acres a day4 ,in #afda he sold oats for #ads4 a quarter1 best barley for #bbs41 rye #bgs4 #f;d41 wheat #cjs4#cad ,the roads were dreadful1 and produce nearly all sent to market on pack-horses4 ',wee seldome send fewer than #h horse loads to the market at a time1 and with them two men1 for one man cannot guide the poakes 7sacks7 of above four horses4 ,when wee sende oats to the market wee sack them up in #c bushel poakes and lay #f bushels on a horse2 when wee sende wheate1 rye1 or masseldene 7rye and wheat7 and barley to market wee put it into mette poakes 7#b bushel sacks71 sometimes into half quarter sacks1 and these we lay on horses that are short coupled and well backed4' ,when the servants got to market they were charged a halfpenny a horse for stabling and hay1 but if they dined at the inn they paid nothing for their horses1 and their dinners cost them #d;d4 a head4 ,butter was sold by the lb41 or the 'cake' of #b lb41 and in the beginning of ,lent was #e;d4 a lb41 by ,april #bj1 #c;d41 in the middle of ,may1 #b-a_/b;d4 ,when ,william ,pinder took #ej acres of land 'of my ,lord ,haye' he paid a fine of #fj and a rent of #dj2 but this must have been an extremely choice piece of land1 for arable land rented apparently at less than #cs4 an acre4#cae ,the rent of a cottage was usually #ajs4 a year1 'though they have not so much as a yard or any backe side belonging to them4' ,there is more evidence1 if such were needed1 of the beneficial effect of enclosure1 which was said to treble the value of pasture4 ,good meadow land fetched a great price3 ',the medow ,sykes is about #e acres of grounde1 and was letten in the year #afbh at #f per annum1 and in #afce at #f #acs4 #d;d4 ,the requirements of a foreman on a farm were that he could sow1 mow1 stack peas1 go well with #d horses1 and be accustomed to marketing2 and for this when hired by the year he received #e marks1 and perhaps half a crown as earnest money4 ,the next man got #ejs41 the next #dfs4 #f;d41 the fourth #ces4 ',christopher ,pearson had the first year he dwelt here #c #es4 #j;d4 wages per annum and #es4 to a ,god's penny 7earnest money72 next year he had #d wages1 and he was both a good seedsman1' before the invention of drills a very valuable qualification1 'and did sow all our seed both the years4 ,when you are about to hire a servant you are to call them aside and talk privately with them concerning their wage1 and if the servants stand in the churchyard they usually call them aside and walk to the back side of the church and there treat of their wage4 ,i heard a servant asked what he could do1 who made this answer3 ,i can sowe1 ,i can mowe1 ,and ,i can stacke2 ,and ,i can doe ,my master too ,when my master turns his backe4' ,if we are to judge by the food provided for the thatchers1 who were little better than ordinary labourers1 the ,yorkshire farm-hand fared well on plenty of simple food1 his three meals a day consisting of butter1 milk1 cheese1 and either eggs1 pies1 or bacon1 sometimes porridge instead of milk4 ,probably1 however1 few country gentlemen were such industrious farmers as ,best2 many of them passed their days mostly in hunting and fowling and their evenings in drinking1 though we know too that there were exceptions who did not care for this rude existence4 ,deer hunting1 and we must add deer poaching1 was the great sport of the wealthy1 but the smaller gentry had to be content with simpler forms of the chase4 ,for fox hunting each squire had his own little pack1 and hunted only over his own estate and those of his friends4 ,he had also the otter1 the badger1 and the hare to amuse him4 ,fowling was conducted1 as in the ,middle ,ages1 by hawk or net1 for the shot gun had not yet come into use1 and was forbidden by an old law4#caf ,the partridge and pheasant1 as now1 were the chief game birds4 ,after the ,restoration the country gentlemen seem to have been infected by the dissipation of the ,court1 and farming was left to the tenant farmer and yeoman3 'our gentry'1 says ,pepys1 'have grown ignorant of everything in good husbandry4' ,the middle of the seventeenth century was the ,golden ,age of the yeoman who owned and farmed his land2 even at the end of the ,stuart period1 when their decline had already begun1 ,gregory ,king estimated their numbers at #afj1jjj families1 or about one-seventh of the population4 ,the class included all those between the man who owned freehold land worth #djs4 a year and the wealthier yeoman who was hardly distinguishable from the small gentleman4 ,owning their own land they were a sturdy and independent class1 and they 'took a jolly pride in voting as in fighting on the opposite side of the neighbouring squire'4 ',the yeomanry'1 wrote ,fuller1 'is an estate of people almost peculiar to ,england2' he 'wears russet clothes but makes golden payment1 having tin in his buttons and silver in his pocket ,he seldom goes abroad1 and his credit stretches farther than his travel4' ,the tenant farmers were nearly as numerous1 ,king estimating them at #aej1jjj families2 economically they were about on a level with the yeoman1 their social standing1 however1 was considerably inferior4 ,the greatest improvement of the seventeenth century1 the introduction from ,holland of turnips and clover1 was over-estimated by its author1 ,sir ,richard ,weston2 for he tells his sons that by sowing flax1 turnips1 and clover they might in five years improve #ejj acres of poor land so as to bring in #g1jjj a year4#cag ,to bring about this desirable consummation1 he provides his sons with accounts as to the cost1 one of which shows the cost of growing an acre of flax and the profit thereon1 though this gentleman's estimates are clearly optimistic3 ,,dr4 s4 d4 ,devonshiring1 i4e4 paring and burning #a #j #j ,lime #j #ab #j ,ploughing and harrowing #j #f #j #c bushels of seed #b #j #j ,weeding #j #a #j ,pulling and binding #j #aj #j ,grassing the seed from the flax #j #f #j ,watering1 drying1 swinging1 and beating #d #aj #j ---------- #i #e #j ,,cr4 s4 d4 #ijj lb4 of flax #dj #j #j #i #e #j ----------- ,balance profit #cj #ae #j ,turnips were to come after flax1 and were to be given to the cows as they did in ,flanders2 that is1 wash them clean1 put them in a trough where they were to be stamped together with a spitter or small spade2 and the turnips were to be followed by clover4 ,all these1 says ,weston1 were already grown in ,england1 but 'there is as much difference between what groweth here and there as is between the same thing which groweth in a garden and that which groweth wild in the fields'4 ,worlidge soon after recommended that clover be sown on barley or oats about the end of ,march or in ,april1 and harrowed in1 or by itself2 and says1 with optimism equal to ,weston's1 one acre of clover will feed you as many cows as #f acres of ordinary grass and make the milk richer4#cah ,it has been noticed that the price of wool altered little during the century1 and from the private accounts of ,sir ,abel ,barker#cai of ,hambleton1 in the ,county of ,rutland1 we learn that in #afdb he sold his wool to his 'loving friend ,mr4 ,william ,gladstone' for #a a tod1 though by #afdh it had gone up to #bis41 a good price for those days4 ,during the ,civil ,war some of ,barker's horses were carried off for the service of the ,state1 and he values them at #h a piece1 a fair price then4 ,some years later1 for mowing #dd acres of grass he sets down in his account #b #gs4 #j;d41 for making the same #b #cs4 #j;d41 and stacking it #cs4 ,simon ,hartlib1 a ,dutchman by birth and a friend of ,john ,milton1 published his ,legacy in #afea1 containing both rash statements and useful information4 ,we certainly cannot believe him when he states that pasture employs more hands than tillage4 ,his estimate of a good crop of wheat was from #ab to #af bushels per acre1 and he speaks strongly of the great fluctuations in prices1 for he had known barley sell at ,northampton at #f;d4 a bushel1 and within #ab months at #es41 and wheat in ,london in one year varied from #cs4 #f;d4 to #aes4 a bushel4 ,the enormous number of dovecotes was still a great nuisance1 and the pigeons were reckoned to eat #f1jjj1jjj quarters of grain annually4 ,hartlib recommends his countrymen to sow 'a seed commonly called ,saint ,foine1 which in ,england is as much as to say ,holy ,hay1' as they do in ,france3 especially on barren lands1 advice which some of them followed1 and in ,wilts41 soon after1 sainfoin is said to have so improved poor land that from a noble 7#fs4 #h;d47 per acre1 the rent had increased to #cjs4#cbj ,they were also to use 'another sort of fodder which they call ,la ,lucern at ,paris for dry and barren grounds'4 ,so wasteful were they of labour in some parts that in ,kent were to be seen #ab horses and oxen drawing one plough4#cba ,the use of the spade was long looked askance at by ,english husbandmen2 old men in ,surrey had told ,hartlib that they knew the first gardeners that came into those parts to plant cabbages and 'colleflowers'1 and to sow turnips1 carrots1 and parsnips1 and that they gave #h an acre for their land4 ,the latter statement must be an exaggeration1 as it is equivalent to a rent of about #dj in our money2 but we may give some credence to him when he says that the owner was anxious lest the spade should spoil his ground1 'so ignorant were we of gardening in those days4' ,though it was not the case in ,elizabeth's time1 by now the licorice1 saffron1 cherries1 apples1 pears1 hops1 and cabbages of ,england were the best in the world2 but many things were deficient1 for instance1 many onions came from ,flanders and ,spain1 madder from ,zealand1 and roses from ,france4#cbb ',it is a great deficiency in ,england that we have not more orchards planted4 ,it is true that in ,kent1 and about ,london1 and in ,gloucestershire1 ,herefordshire1 and ,worcestershire#cbc there are many gallant orchards1 but in other country places they are very rare and thin1 ,i know in ,kent some advance their ground from #es4 per acre to #e by this means'1 and #cj acres of cherries near ,sittingbourne had realized #a1jjj in one year4 ,his recipe for making old fruit trees bear well savours of a time when old women were still burnt as witches4 ',first split his root1 then apply a compost of pigeon's dung1 lees of wine1 or stale wine1 and a little brimstone'4 ,the tithes of wine in ,gloucestershire were 'in divers parishes considerably great'1 and wine was then made in ,kent and ,surrey1 notably by ,sir ,peter ,ricard1 who made #f or #h hogsheads yearly4#cbd ,there is no doubt that the vine has been grown in the open in ,england from very early times until comparatively recent ones4 ,the ,britons were taught to plant it by the ,romans in ,a4,d4 #bhj4cbe ,in ,domesday there are #ch examples of vineyards1 chiefly in the south central counties4 ,neckham1 who wrote in the twelfth century1 says the vineyard was an important adjunct to the mediaeval mansion4#cbf ,william of ,malmesbury praised the vines and wine of ,gloucestershire2 and says that the vine was either allowed to trail on the ground1 or trained to small stakes fixed to each plant4 ,indeed1 the mention of them in mediaeval chronicles is frequent4 ,two bushels of green grapes in #accb fetched #gs4 #f;d4#cbg ,richard ,,ii planted vines in great plenty1 according to ,stow1 within the upper park of ,windsor1 and sold some part to his people4 ,the wine made in ,england was sweetened with honey1 and probably flavoured and coloured with blackberries4#cbh ,at the dissolution of the monasteries there was a vineyard at ,barking ,nunnery4 ',we might have a reasonable good wine growing in many places of this realme'1 says ,barnaby ,googe1 about #aegg1 'as doubtless we had immediately after the ,conquest1 tyll1 partly by slothfulnesse1 partly by civil discord long continued1 it was left1 and so with time lost4444 ,there is besides ,nottingham an ancient house called ,chylwel in which remaineth yet as an ancient monument in a great wyndowe of glasse1 the whole order of planting1 proyning1 stamping1 and pressing of vines4 ,upon many cliffes and hills are yet to be seen the rootes and old remaines of vines4' ,plot1 in his ,natural ,history of ,staffordshire1#cbi says 'the vine has been improved by ,sir ,henry ,lyttelton at ,over 7,upper7 ,arley1 which is situate low and warm1 so that he has made wine there undistinguishable from the best ,french by the most judicious palates1 but this ,i suppose was done only in some over hot summer1 and ,dr4 ,bathurst made very good claret at ,oxon in #afhe1 a very mean year for the purpose4' ,in #agbj the famous vineyard at ,bath of #f acres1 planted with the 'white muscadene' and the 'black ,chester grape1' produced #ff hogsheads of wine worth #aj a hogshead1 but in unfavourable years grew very little4'#ccj ,mr4 ,peter ,collinson1 writing from ,middlesex in #agdg1 says1 'the vineyards turn to good profit1 much wine being made this year in ,england2' and again in #agdh1 'my vineyards are very ripe2 a considerable quantity of wine will this year be made in ,england4'#cca ,however1 the attempt made to grow vines on the undercliff at ,ventnor at the end of the eighteenth century by ,sir ,richard ,worsley ended in dismal failure1 and it is probable that the ,english climate in its normal years seldom produced good grapes out of doors whatever it may have done in exceptionally hot ones1 unless we assume that it has changed considerably1 for which there is little ground4 ,hartlib was no friend of commons2 they made the poor idle and trained them for the gallows or beggary1 and there were fewest poor where there were fewest commons1#ccb as in ,kent--a statement re-echoed by many observant writers2 he also recommends enclosures1 because they gave warmth and consequent fertility to the soil4 ,he tells us that an effort had been made by ,james ,i to encourage the growth of mulberry trees and the breeding of silkworms1 the lords-lieutenant of the different counties being urged to see to it1 but it had little effect4#ccc ,the number of different sorts of wheat was by this time considerable4 ,hartlib gives the white1 red1 bearded 7'which is not subject to mildews as others'72 some sorts with two rows1 others with four and six2 some with one ear on a stalk1 others with two2 the red stalk wheat of ,bucks2 winter wheat and summer wheat4 ,there were also twenty varieties of peas that he knew1 and the white1 black1 naked4 ,scotch1 and ,poland oats4 ,markham adds the whole straw wheat1 the great brown pollard1 the white pollard1 the organ1 the flaxen1 and the chilter wheat4 ,there was a sad lack of enterprise in the breeding of stock now and for many generations before2 indeed1 it may be doubted if this important branch of farming1 except perhaps in the case of sheep1 was much attended to until the time of ,bakewell and the ,collings4 ,in ,elizabeth's time a ,frenchman had twitted ,england with having only #c1jjj or #d1jjj horses worth anything1 which was one of the reasons that induced the ,spaniards to invade us4#ccd ',we are negligent1 too1 in our kine1 that we advance not the best species4' ,the size of cattle at this date1 however1 seems to have been greater than is often stated4 ,the ,report of the ,select ,committee on the ,cultivation of ,waste ,lands in #agie1 states that the average weight1 dressed1 of cattle at ,smithfield in #agaj was only #cgj lb41#cce yet the ,household ,book of ,prince ,henry at the commencement of the seventeenth century says that an ox should weigh #fjj lb4 the four quarters1 and cost about #i #ajs41 a sheep about #de lb41 so that the latter were apparently relatively smaller than the oxen4 ,in #afjc oxen were sold at ,tostock in ,suffolk weighing #a1jjj lb4 apiece1 dead weight4#ccf ,according to the records of ,winchester ,college1 the oxen sold there in the middle of the century averaged1 dressed1 about #ege lb42 in #afgg1 #ce oxen sold there averaged #gcj lb4 ',some kine1' it was said at the end of the century1 'have grown to be very bulky and a great many are sold for #aj or #ab apiece2 there was lately sold near ,bury a beast for #cj1 and 'twas fatted with cabbage leaves4 ,an ox near ,ripon weighed1 dressed1 #ac-a_/d cwt4'#ccg ,they were1 of course1 chiefly valued as beasts of draught1 and no doubt the one ,evelyn saw in #afdi1 'bred in ,kent1 #ag foot in length1 and much higher than ,i could reach1' was a powerful animal for this purpose4 ,the young ones were taught to draw by yoking two of them1 together with two old ones before and two behind1 with a man on each side the young ones1 'to keep them in order and speak them fair1' for if much beaten they seldom did well3 for the first two or three days they were worked only three or four hours a day1 but soon they worked as long as the older ones1 that is from #f to #aa1 then a bait of hay and rest till #a1 with work again till #e1 at least in ,lancashire4 ,they were kept in the yoke till nine or ten years old1 then turned on to the best grass in ,may1 and sold to the butcher4#cch ,,footnotes3 #bhf ,surveyor's ,dialogue 7ed4 #afjh71 p4 #b4 #bhg ,surveyor's ,dialogue1 p4 #ahh4 #bhh ,ibid4 p4 #bjg4 #bhi ,victoria ,county ,history3 ,devon1 ,agriculture4 #bij ,herefordshire ,orchards a ,pattern for ,all ,england 7ed4 #agbd74 #bia ,see infra1 p4 #acf4 #bib ,these extracts are from the original edition in the ,bodleian ,library4 #bic ',the ,flanders cherry excels'1 says ,worlidge1 ,syst4 ,agr41 p4 #ig4 #bid ,bradley1 in #agbf1 gives a long list of pears all with ,french names1 hardly any of which are now known in ,england4 #bie ,worlidge1 ,systema ,agriculturae1 p4 #ajg4 #bif ,annotation upon the ,legacie of ,husbandry1 #afea1 p4 #aje4 #big ,markham1 i4 #agd 7ed4 #afce74 #bih ,systema ,agriculturae1 p4 #aeb4 #bii ,evelyn1 ,pomona 7ed4 #affd71 p4 #b4 #cjj ,compleat ,husbandman 7ed4 #afei71 p4 #ge4 #cja ,most ,approved and ,long ,experienced ,waterworks4 ,london1 #afaj4 #cjb ,see ,worlidge1 ,systema ,agriculturae 7ed4 #affi71 p4 #aee4 #cjc ,tooke1 ,history of ,prices1 i4 #bc4 #cjd ,life of ,sir ,s4 ,d',ewes1 i4 #ahj4 #cje ,calendar of ,state ,papers1 ,domestic1 #afbi-ca1 p4 #dad4 #cjf ,whole ,art of ,husbandry 7ed4 #afce71 i4 #ej4 #cjg ,ibid4 i4 #ajj4 #cjh ,ibid4 i4 #aba4 #cji ,an astonishing statement2 cf4 ,denton1 ,england in the ,fifteenth ,century1 p4 #ef1 ,neckham1 ,de ,natura ,rerum1 cap4 clxvi4 and above1 p4 #ic4 #caj ,whole ,art of ,husbandry 7ed4 #afce71 i4 #agc4 #caa ,whole ,art of ,husbandry 7ed4 #afce71 ii4 #add4 and ,,ms4 accounts of ,mr4 ,chevallier of ,aspall ,hall1 ,suffolk4 #cab ,thorold ,rogers1 ,history of ,agriculture and ,prices1 v4 #bh4 #cac ,farming and ,account ,books of ,henry ,best of ,elmswell1 #afda1 ,surtees ,society1 xxxiii4 #aeg4 #cad ,ibid4 p4 #ii4 #cae ,farming and ,account ,books of ,henry ,best of ,elmswell1 #afda4 ,surtees ,society1 xxxiii4 #abd4 ,many districts in the north of ,england were still much behind the rest of the country4 #caf ,trevelyan1 ,england under the ,stuarts1 #h sq4 ,though1 as we have seen1 p4 #aeg1 the writer of the ,fruiterer's ,secrets recommends the gun for scaring birds in #afjd4 #cag ,the ,husbandry of ,brabant and ,flanders 7ed4 #afeb71 p4 #ah4 #cah ,systema ,agriculturae1 p4 #bf4 #cai ,,ms4 accounts of ,sir ,abel ,barker1 in the possession of ,g4,w4,p4 ,conant1 ,esq4 #cbj ,worlidge1 ,systema ,agriculturae1 p4 #bh4 #cba ,compleat ,husbandman 7#afei71 p4 #e4 #cbb ,ibid4 p4 #i4 #cbc ,cf4 supra1 p4 #acf4 #cbd ,compleat ,husbandman 7#afei71 p4 #bc4 #cbe ,archaeologia1 i4 #cbd2 iii4 #ec4 #cbf ,de ,natura ,rerum1 ,rolls ,ser41 lxi4 #cbg ,denton1 ,england in the ,fifteenth ,century1 #eg n4 #cbh ,ibid4 #cbi ,ed4 #afhf1 p4 #chj4 #ccj ,r4 ,bradley1 ,a ,general ,treatise of ,husbandry 7ed4 #agbf71 ii4 #eb4 #cca ,tooke1 ,history of ,prices i4 #dd4 ,brandy was made in the eighteenth century from grapes grown in the ,beaulieu vineyards in ,hampshire1 and a bottle of it long kept at the abbey4--,hampshire ,notes and ,queries1 vi4 #fb4 ,there are two vineyards to-day1 of #b-c_/d and #d acres respectively1 on the estates of the ,marquis of ,bute in ,glamorganshire2 but a vintage is only obtained once in four or five years from them1 and they are not profitable4 #ccb ,compleat ,husbandman1 #afei1 p1 #db4 #ccc ,compleat ,husbandman1 #afei1 p4 #eg4 #ccd ,ibid4 p4 #gc4 #cce ,in this apparently repeating ,davenant's statement4 ,see ,mc,culloch1 ,commercial ,dictionary1 #aheb1 p4 #bga4 #ccf ,thorold ,rogers1 ,history of ,agriculture and ,prices1 v4 #ccb4 #ccg ,houghton1 ,collections for ,improvement of ,husbandry1 i4 #bid4 #cch ,ibid41 ,collections for ,husbandry and ,trade 7ed4 #agbh71 iv4 #ccf4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,the ,,evils ,,of ,,common ,,fields4--,,hops4--,,implements4--,,man ures4--,,gregory ,,king--,,corn ,,laws ,from what has been said in the preceding pages1 it will be gathered that a vast amount of compassion has been wasted on the enclosure of commons1 for it is abundantly evident from contemporary writers that there were a large number of people dragging out a miserable existence on them1 by living on the produce of a cow or two1 or some sheep and a few poultry1 with what game they could sometimes catch1 and refusing regular work4 ,dymock1 ,hartlib's contemporary1 questions 'whether commons do not rather make poore by causing idlenesse than maintaine them2' and he also asks how it is that there are fewest poor where there are fewest commons4 ,in the common fields1 too1 there was continual strife and contention caused by the infinite number of trespasses that they were subject to4#cci ,the absence of hedges1 too1 in these great open fields was bad for the crops1 for there was nothing to mitigate drying and scorching winds1 while in the open waste and meadows the live stock must have sadly needed shelter and shade1 'losing more flesh in one hot day than they gained in three cool days4' ,worlidge1 a ,hampshire man1 joins in the chorus of praise of enclosures1 for they brought employment to the poor1 and maintained treble 'the number of inhabitants' that the open fields did2 and he gives further proof of the enclosure of land in the seventeenth century1 when he mentions 'the great quantities of land that have within our memories lain open1 and in common of little value1 yet when enclosed have proved excellent good land4' ,why then was this most obvious improvement not more generally effected8 ,because there was a great impediment to it in the numerous interests and diversity of titles and claims to almost every common field and piece of waste land in ,england1 whereby one or more envious or ignorant persons could thwart the will of the majority4#cdj ,another hindrance1 he says1 was that many roads passed over the commons and wastes1 which a statute was needed to stop4 ,in the seventeenth century hop growing was not nearly so common in ,england as in the preceding1 when ,harrison had said1 in his ,description of ,britain1 'there are few farmers or occupiers in the country which have not gardens and hops growing of their own1 and those far better than do come from ,flanders4' ,there seems1 indeed1 to have been a prejudice against the hop2 ,worlidge#cda says it was esteemed an unwholesome herb for the use it was usually put to1 'which may also be supplied with several other wholesome and better herbs4' ,john ,evelyn was very much against them1 probably because he was such an advocate of cider3 ',it is little more than an age1' he says1 'since hopps transmuted our wholesome ale into beer1 which doubtless much altered our constitutions4 ,that one ingredient1 by some not unworthily suspected1 preserving drink indeed1 and so by custom made agreeable1 yet repaying the pleasure with tormenting diseases1 and a shorter life1 may deservedly abate our fondness for it1 especially if with this be considered likewise the casualties in planting it1 as seldom succeeding more than once in three years4'#cdb ,the ,city of ,london petitioned against hops as spoiling the taste of drink4 ,yet its cultivation is said to have advanced the price of land to #dj1 #ej1 and sometimes #ajj an acre1 the latter an almost incredible price if we consider the value of money then4 ,there were not enough planted to serve the kingdom1 and ,flemish hops had to be imported1 though not nearly so good as ,english4 ,a great deal of dishonesty1 moreover1 was shown by the foreign importers1 so that in #afjc a statute 7#a ,jac4 ,i1 c4 #ah7 was passed against the 'false packinge of forreine hops1' by which it appears that the sacks were filled up with leaves1 stalks1 powder1 sand1 straw1 wood1 and even soil1 for increasing the weight1 by which ,english growers it is said lost #bj1jjj a year4 ,such hops were to be forfeited1 and brewers using them were to forfeit their value4 ,the chief cause of their decrease was that few farmers would take the trouble and care required to grow them1 in spite of the often excellent prices1 which at ,winchester at this date averaged from #ejs4 to #hjs4 a cwt41 sometimes1 however1 reaching over #bjjs41 as in #affe and #afhg1 though then as now they were subject to great fluctuations1 and in #afia were only #cas4 ,many1 too1 were discouraged by the fact 'they are the most of any plant that grows subject to the various mutations of the air1 mildews sometimes totally destroying them1' no doubt an allusion to the aphis blight4 ,hop yards were often protected at this early date by hedges of tall trees1 usually ash or poplar1 the elm being disapproved of as contracting mildews4 ,markham#cdc says that ,hertfordshire then contained as good hops as he had seen anywhere1 and there the custom was #bej hills to every rood1 'and every hill will bear #b-a_/b lb41 worth on an average #d nobles a cwt4 7a noble #fs4 #h;d472' hills were to be #f ft4 apart at least1 poles #af to #ah ft4 long and #i or #aj inches in circumference at the butt1 of ash1 oak1 beech1 alder1 maple or willow4 ,some planted the hills in 'plain squares chequerwise1 which is the best way if you intend to plough with horses between the hills4 ,others plant them in form of a quincunx1 which is better for the hop1 and will do very well where your ground is but small that you may overcome it with either the breast plough or spade4' ,the manure recommended by ,worlidge was good mould1 or dung and earth mixed4 ,the hills were like mole-hills #c feet high1 and sometimes were large enough to have as many as #bj poles1 so that some hop yards must have looked very different then from what they do now1 even when poles are retained2 but from two to five poles per hill was the more usual number4 ,cultivation was much the same as in ,reynold ,scott's time1 and picking was still done on a 'floor' prepared by levelling the hills1 watering1 treading1 and sweeping the ground1 round which the pickers sat and picked into baskets1 but the hop crib was also used4 ,it was considered better not to let the hops get too ripe1 as the growers were aware of the value of a fresh1 green-looking sample2 and ,worlidge advises the careful exclusion of leaves and stalks1 though ,markham does not agree with him4 ,kilns were of two sorts3 the ,english kiln made of wood1 lath1 and clay2 the ,french of brick1 lime1 and sand1 not so liable to burn as the former and therefore better4#cdd ,one method of drying was finely to bed the kiln with wheat straw laid on the hair-cloth1 the hops being spread #h inches thick over this1 'and then you shall keepe a fire a little more fervent than for the drying of a kiln full of malt1' the fire not to be of wood1 for that made the hops smoky and tasted the beer1 but of straw6 ,worlidge1 strangely1 recommended the bed of the kiln to be covered with tin1 as much better than hair-cloth1 for then any sort of fuel would do as well as charcoal1 since the smoke did not pass through the hops4 ,besides ,hertfordshire1 ,northamptonshire1 ,oxfordshire1 ,leicestershire1 and ,rutlandshire2 ,lincolnshire and ,cambridgeshire were recommended by ,markham for hop growing1 the great hop counties of to-day being passed over by him4 ,the growth of hemp and flax had by this time considerably decayed1 owing to the want of encouragement to trade in these commodities1 the lack of experience in growing them1 and the tithes which in some years amounted to more than the profits4#cde ,an acre of good flax was worth from #g to #ab2 but if 'wrought up fit to sell in the market' from #ae to #bj4 ,woad was considered a 'very rich commodity'1 but according to ,blyth it robbed the land if long continued upon it1 although if moderately used it prepared land for corn1 drawing a 'different juice from what the corn requires'4 ,it more than doubled the rent of land1 and had been sold at from #f to #bj a ton1 the produce of an acre4 ,john ,lawrence1 who wrote in the first quarter of the eighteenth century1 says woad was in his time cultivated by companies of people1 men1 women1 and children1 who hired the land1 built huts1 and grew and prepared the crop for the dyer's use1 then moved on to another place4#cdf ,there were proofs that man's inventive genius was at work among farm implements4 ,worlidge mentions#cdg an engine for setting corn1 invented by ,gabriel ,plat1 made of two boards bored with wide holes #d in4 apart1 set in a frame1 with a funnel to each hole4 ,it was fitted with iron pins #e in4 long to 'play up and down'1 and dibble holes into which the corn was to go from the funnels4 ,this machine was so intricate and clumsy that ,worlidge found no use for it4 ,however1 he recommends another instrument which certainly seems to anticipate ,tull's drill1 though ,tull is said to have stated when ,bradley showed him a cut of it that it was only a proposal and it never got farther than the cut4#cdh ,it consisted of a frame of small square pieces of timber #b inches thick2 the breadth of the frame #b feet1 the height #ah inches1 length #d feet1 placed on four good-sized wheels4 ,in the middle of the frame a coulter was fixed to make a furrow for the corn1 which fell through a wooden pipe behind1 that dropped the corn out of a hopper containing about a bushel1 the fall of the corn from the hopper being regulated by a wooden wheel in its neck4 ,the same frame might contain two coulters1 pipes1 and hoppers1 and the instrument could be worked with one horse and one man4 ,it was considered a great advance on sowing broadcast1 and by the use of it 'you may also cover your grain with any rich compost you shall prepare for that purpose1 either with pigeon dung1 dry or granulated1 or any other saline or lixirial 7alkaline1 or of potash7 substance1 which may drop after the corn from another hopper behind the one that drops the corn1 or from a separate drill'4 ,the corn thus sown in rows was found easier to weed and hoe1 so that it is clear that this advantage was well understood before ,tull's time4 ,there was a great diversity of ploughs at this date1 almost every county having some variation4#cdi ,the principal sorts were the double-wheel plough1 useful upon hard land1 usually drawn with horses or oxen two abreast1 the wheels #ah in4 to #bj in4 high4 ,the one-wheel plough1 which could be used on almost any sort of land2 it was very 'light and nimble'1 so that it could be drawn by one horse and held by one man1 and thus ploughed an acre a day4 ,then there was a 'plain plough without either wheel or foot'1 very easy to work and fit for any lands2 a double plough worked by four horses and two men1 of two kinds1 one ploughing a double furrow1 the other a double depth4 ,there were also ploughs with a harrow attached1 others constructed to plough1 sow1 and harrow1 but not of much value2 and a turfing plough for burning sod4 ,carts and waggons were of many sorts1 according to the locality1 the greater wheels of the waggon being usually #ah feet in circumference the lesser #i feet4 ,a useful implement was the trenching plough used on grass land to cut out the sides of trenches or drains1 with a long handle and beam and with a coulter or knife fixed in it and sometimes a wheel or wheels4 ,the following is a list of other implements then considered necessary for a farm4 ,for the field4 ,harrows ,mole spear ,beetles ,forks ,mole traps ,roller ,sickles ,weedhooks ,cradle scythe ,reaphooks ,pitchforks ,seedlip#cej ,sledds ,rakes ,for the barn and stable4 ,flails ,pannels 7pillions7 ,pails ,winnowing fan ,pack-saddles ,mane combs ,sieves ,cart lines ,goads ,sacks ,ladders ,yokes ,bins ,corn measures ,wanteyes#cea ,curry combs ,brooms ,suffingles 7surcingles87 ,whips ,skeps 7baskets7 ,screens for corn4 ,harness ,for the meadows and pastures4 ,scythes ,pitchforks ,cutting spade for hayrick ,rakes ,fetters and clogs ,horse-locks4 ,besides many tools4 ,a considerable variety of manures were in use1 chalk1 lime1 marl1 fuller's earth1 clay1 sand1 sea-weed1 river-weed1 oyster shells1 fish1 dung1 ashes1 soot1 salt1 rags1 hair1 malt dust1 bones1 horns1 and the bark of trees4 ,of the oyster shells ,worlidge says1 ',i am credibly informed that an ingenious gentleman living near the seaside laid on his lands great quantities1 which made his neighbours laugh at him 7as usually they do at anything besides their own clownish road or custom of ignorance71' and after a year or two's exposure to the weather 'they exceedingly enriched his land for many years after4' ,the bones then used were marrow-bones and fish bones1 or 'whatever hath any oiliness or fatness in it'1 but the bones of horses and other animals were also used1 burnt before being applied to the land1 crushing not being thought of till many years after4 ,in #afhh ,gregory ,king1#ceb who was much more accurate than most statisticians of his time1 gave the following estimate of the land of ,england and ,wales3-- ,acres4 ,per acre4 ,arable #i1jjj1jjj worth to rent #es4 #f;d4 ,pasture and meadow #ab1jjj1jjj #hs4 #h;d4 ,woods and coppices #c1jjj1jjj #es4 ,forests and parks #c1jjj1jjj #cs4 #h;d4 ,barren land #aj1jjj1jjj #as4 ,houses1 gardens1 churches1 c4 #a1jjj1jjj ,water and roads #a1jjj1jjj ---------- ,total3 #ci1jjj1jjj ,he valued the live stock of ,england and ,wales at #ah-a_/d millions1 and estimated the produce of the arable land in ,england at3 ,million ,value bushels4 per bushel4 ,wheat #ad #cs4 #f;d4 ,rye #aj #bs4 #f;d4 ,barley #bg #bs4 #j;d4 ,oats #af #as4 #f;d4 ,peas #g #bs4 #f;d4 ,beans #d #bs4 #f;d4 ,vetches #a #bs4 #f;d4 ,the same statistician drew up a scheme of the income and expenditure of the 'several families' in ,england in #afhh1 the population being #e-a_/b millions#cec3-- ,no4 of families ,class4 ,income4 in class4 #afj ,temporal lords #c1bjj #j #j #hjj ,baronets #hhj #j #j #fjj ,knights #fej #j #j #c1jjj ,esquires #dej #j #j #aa1jjj ,gentlemen #bhj #j #j #b1jjj ,eminent merchants #djj #j #j #h1jjj ,lesser merchants #aih #j #j #aj1jjj ,lawyers #aed #j #j #b1jjj ,eminent clergy #gb #j #j #h1jjj ,lesser clergy #ej #j #j ,yeoman3 #dj1jjj ,freeholders of the better sort #ia #j #j #abj1jjj ,freeholders of the lesser sort #ee #j #j #abj1jjj 7,tenant7 farmers #db #aj #j #ej1jjj ,shopkeepers and tradesmen #de #j #j #fj1jjj ,artisans #ch #j #j #cfd1jjj ,labouring people and outservants #ae #j #j #djj1jjj ,cottagers and paupers #f #aj #j ,he calculated that the freeholder of the better sort saved on an average #h #aes4 #j;d4 a year per family of #g2 and the lesser sort #b #aes4 #j;d4 a year with a family of #e-a_/b4 ,the tenant farmer with a family of #e1 only saved #bes4 a year1 while labouring families who1 he said1 averaged #c-a_/b 7certainly an under estimate71 lost annually #gs41 and cottagers and paupers with families of #c-a_/d 7also an under estimate7 lost #afs4 #c;d4 a year4 ,it will thus be seen that the tenant farmers1 labourers1 and cottagers1 the bulk of those who worked on the land1 were very badly off2 the tenant farmer saved considerably less than the artisan4 ,it will also be noticed that the rural population of ,england was about three-quarters of the whole4#ced ,the winter of #afhc-d was marked by one of the severest frosts that have ever visited ,england4 ,ice on the ,thames is said to have been eleven inches thick2 by ,jan4 #i there were streets of booths on it2 and by the #bdth1 the frost continuing more and more severe1 all sorts of shops and trades flourished on the river1 'even to a printing press1 where the people and ladies took a fancy to have their names printed and the day and year set down when printed on the ,thames4' ,coaches plied1 there was bull-baiting1 horse and coach races1 puppet plays and interludes1 tippling 'and other lewd places'--a regular carnival on the water4#cee ,altogether the frost which began at ,christmas lasted ninety-one days and did much damage on land1 many of the trees were split as if struck by lightning1 and men and cattle perished in some parts4 ,poultry and other birds and many plants and vegetables also perished4 ,wheat1 however1 was little affected1 as the average price was under #djs4 a quarter4 ,in #afib a series of very bad seasons commenced1 lasting1 with a break in #afid1 until #afih1 always known as the 'ill' or 'barren' seasons1 and the cause was the usual one in ,england1 excessive cold and wet4 ,in #afic wheat was over #fjs4 a quarter1 and in ,kent turnips were made into bread for the poor4#cef ,the difference in the price of farm produce in various localities was striking1 and an eloquent testimony to the wretched means of communication4 ,at ,newark1 for instance1 in #afib-c wheat was from #cfs4 to #djs4 a quarter1 while at ,brentford it touched #gfs42 next year in the same two places it was #cbs4 and #hfs4 respectively4 ,in #afie-f hay at ,newark was #acs4 #d;d4 a ton1 at ,northampton it was from #ces4 to #djs4 ,in #affb was passed the famous statute of parochial settlement1 #ad ,car4 ,,ii1 c4 #ab1 which forged cruel fetters for the poor1 and is said to have caused the iron of slavery to enter into the soul of the ,english labourer4#ceg ,the ,act states1 that the reason for passing it was the continual increase of the poor throughout the kingdom1 which had become exceeding burdensome owing to the defects in the law4 ,poor people1 moreover1 wandered from one parish to another in order 'to settle where there is the best ,stocke1 the largest commons or wastes to build cotages1 and the most woods for them to burn and destroy4'#ceh ,it was therefore determined to stop these wanderings1 and most effectually was it done4 ,two justices were empowered to remove any person who settled in any tenement under the yearly value of #aj within forty days to the place where he was last legally settled1 unless he gave sufficient security for the discharge of the parish in case he became a pauper4 ,it is true that certain relaxations were subsequently made4 ,the ,act of #afia1 #c ,w4 ,m41 c4 #b1 allowed derivative settlements on payment of taxes for one year1 serving an annual office1 hiring for a year1 and apprenticeship2 while the ,act of #afif1 #h #i ,wm4 ,,iii1 c4 #cj1 allowed the grant of a certificate of settlement1 under which safeguard the holder could migrate to a district where his labour was required1 the new parish being assured he would not become chargeable to it1 and therefore not troubling to remove him till there was actual need3 but the statute acted as an effectual check on migration and prevented the labourer carrying his work where it was wanted4#cei ,it became the object of parishes to have as few cottages and therefore as few poor as possible4 ,in 'close' parishes1 i4e4 where all the land belonged to one owner1 as distinguished from 'open' ones where it belonged to several1 all the cottages were often pulled down so that labourers coming to work in it had to travel long distances in all weathers4 ,we shall see further relaxation in the law in #agie1 but it was not until modern times that this abominable system was destroyed4 ,the agricultural labourer's difficulty in building a house was aggravated by the statute #ca ,eliz41 c4 #g1 before noticed1 which in order to restrain the building of cottages enacted that none1 except in towns and certain other places1 were to be built unless #d acres of land were attached to them1 under a penalty of #aj1 and #djs4 a month for continuing to maintain it4 ,this ,act was not repealed until the reign of ,george ,,iii4 ,however1 it seems to have been frequently winked at4 ,in ,shropshire1 for instance1 the fine often was only nominal2 in the seventeenth century orders authorizing the building of cottages on the waste were freely given by the ,court of ,quarter ,sessions1 and orders were also made by the ,court for the erection of cottages elsewhere4#cfj ,at the restoration of ,charles ,,ii the corn laws had practically been unaltered since #aega1cfa when it had been enacted that corn might be exported from certain ports in certain ships at all times when proclamation was not made to the contrary1 on a payment of #ab;d4 a quarter on wheat and #h;d4 a quarter on other grain4 ,now both export and import were subjected to heavy duties1 but these caused such high prices in corn that they were reduced in #affc2 yet high duties were again imposed in #afgc1 which continued until the revolution4 ,then1 owing to good crops and low prices1 which brought distress on the landed interest1 a new policy was introduced3 export duties were abolished and the other extreme resorted to1 viz4 a bounty on export of #es4 in the quarter as long as the home price did not exceed #dhs4 ,at the same time import duties remained high1 and this system lasted till #aggc4 ,never had the corn-growers of ,england been so thoroughly protected1 yet1 owing to causes over which the legislators had no control1 namely bountiful seasons1 the prices of wheat for the next seventy years was from #ae to #bj per cent4 cheaper than in the previous forty4 ,modern economists have described this system as one of the worst instances of a class using their legislative power to subsidize themselves at the expense of the community4 ,as a matter of fact it was the firm conviction of the statesmen and economists of the time1 that husbandry1 being the main industry and prop of ,england1 and the foundation on which the whole political power of the country was based1 should receive every encouragement4 ,at all events1 in many ways the policy was successful4#cfb ,it encouraged investment in land1 and materially assisted the agricultural improvement for which the eighteenth century was noted1 the export too employed ,english shipping1 and thus aided industry4 ,arthur ,young said it was the singular felicity of this country to have devised a plan which accomplished the strange paradox of at once lowering the price of corn and encouraging agriculture1 for by the system in vogue till #aggc if corn was scarce it was imported1 while if there was a glut at home export was assisted so that great fluctuations in price were prevented4#cfc ,it seemed of the utmost importance to men of that time that ,england should be self-supporting and independent of possible adversaries for the necessaries of life2 the wisdom of the policy was never questioned1 and was accepted by statesmen of every party4#cfd ,to blame the landowners for adopting what seemed the wisest course to every sensible person is merely an instance of partisan spite4 ,at the ,peace of ,paris in #agfc the question as to whether ,england or ,france was to be the great colonizing country of the world was finally settled1 and a great development of ,english trade ensued4 ,it was accompanied by a great increase of population1 exports of corn were largely reduced1 and the balance began to incline the other way1 so that the next ,act of importance was that of #aggc which permitted the import of foreign wheat at a nominal duty of #f;d4 a quarter when it was over #dhs41 but prohibited export and the bounty on export when wheat was at or above #dds4 ,this was the nearest approach to free trade before #ahdf4 ,the time1 however1 was not yet ripe for this1 and the nominal duty on imports was too small for landlords and farmers1 so that in #agia the price when the same nominal duty was to come into force was raised to #eds41 while between #ejs4 and #eds4 a duty of #bs4 #f;d4 was imposed1 and under #ejs4 a duty of #bds4 #c;d42 and export was allowed without bounty when wheat was under #dfs4 ,export of corn1 however1 by this time had become a matter of little moment1 ,england having definitely ceased to be an exporting country after #aghi4 ,not only were ,english landowners after the ,restoration anxious to protect their corn1 but they also took alarm at the imports of ,irish cattle which they said lowered ,english rents1 so that in #affe and #afhj 7#ah ,car4 ,,ii1 c4 #b1 and #cb ,car4 ,,ii1 c4 #b7 laws were framed absolutely prohibiting the import of ,irish cattle1 sheep1 and swine1 as well as of beef1 pork1 bacon1 and mutton1 and even butter and cheese4 ,the statute #ab ,car4 ,,ii1 c4 #d1 also virtually excluded ,irish wool from ,england by duties amounting to prohibition4 ,it was not until #agei that free imports of cattle from ,ireland were allowed for five years1#cfe a period prolonged by #e ,geo4 ,,iii1 c4 #aj1 and a statute of #aggb4 ,in #afii wool was allowed to be shipped from six specified ports in ,ireland to eight specified ports in ,england1#cff and by #af ,geo4 ,,ii1 c4 #aa1 wool might be sent from ,ireland to any port in ,england under certain restrictions4 ,,footnotes3 #cci ,worlidge1 ,systema ,agriculturae 7ed4 #affi71 p4 #aj4 #cdj ,ibid4 p4 #abd4 #cda ,ibid4 p4 #abd4 #cdb ,pomona 7ed4 #affd71 p4 #a4 #cdc ,ed4 #afce1 ,book i1 p4 #age4 #cdd ,markham1 op4 cit4 i4 #ahh4 #cde ,worlidge1 ,systema ,agriculturae1 p4 #ch4 ,plot1 however1 in his ,natural ,history of ,staffordshire1 #afhf1 says hemp and flax were sown in small quantities all over the county1 p4 #aji4 #cdf ,new ,system of ,agriculture 7ed4 #agbf71 p4 #aac4 ,woad is still grown 'in some districts in ,england' 7,morton1 ,cyclopaedia of ,agriculture1 ii4 #aaei71 but in the ,agricultural ,returns of #aijg apparently occupies too small an acreage to entitle it to a separate mention4 #cdg ,worlidge1 ,systema ,agriculturae1 p4 #dc4 #cdh ,tull1 in his ,horseshoeing ,husbandry 7p4 #adg71 speaks of the drill as if already in use4 #cdi ,worlidge1 ,systema ,agriculturae1 p4 #bje4 #cej ,the seedlip was a long-shaped basket suspended from the sower's shoulder and was usually made of wood4 #cea ,horse-girths for securing pack-saddles4 #ceb ,houghton1 about the same time1 said ,england contained #bh to #bi million acres1 of which #ab millions lay waste 7,collections1 iv4 ,,ii74 ,in #aijg the ,board of ,agriculture returned the total area of ,england and ,wales1 excluding water1 at #cg1acj1cdd acres4 #cec ,eden1 ,state of the ,poor1 i4 #bbh4 #ced ,if we allow that most of the two last classes enumerated were country folk4 ,for the decline of the yeoman class1 see chap4 xviii4 #cee ,evelyn's ,diary4 #cef ,tooke1 ,history of ,prices1 i4 #bc4 #ceg ,fowle1 ,poor ,law1 p4 #fc4 #ceh ,hasbach1 op4 cit4 p4 #ff1 says1 'the abuses complained of in the preamble 7of the ,act7 did actually exist4' #cei ,hasbach1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fg1 #acd1 says the statute of #affb did not entail so much evil by hindering migration as is generally supposed4 #cfj ,shropshire ,county ,records3 ,abstracts of the orders made by the ,court of ,quarter ,sessions1 #afch-aghb1 pp4 xxiv1 xxv4 #cfa ,see above1 p4 #gj4 #ac ,eliz41 c4 #ac4 ,mc,culloch1 ,commercial ,dictionary 7#aheb71 p4 #dab4 #cfb ,cunningham1 ,english ,industry and ,commerce1 ii4 #cga4 #cfc ,political ,arithmetic1 pp4 #bg-cd1 #aic1 #bgf4 #cfd ,lecky1 ,england in the ,eighteenth ,century1 vi4 #aib4 #cfe ,mc,pherson1 ,annals of ,commerce1 iii4 #caa4 #cff ,ibid4 ii4 #gjf2 iii4 #bba1 #bic4 ,,chapter ,,xiv #agjj-agfe ,,general ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century4--,,crops4--,,cattle4-- ,,dairying4--,,poultry4--,,tull ,,and ,,the ,,new ,,husbandry4--,,bad ,,times4 --,,fruit-,,growing ,the history of agriculture in the eighteenth century is remarkable for several features of great importance4 ,it first saw the application of capital in large quantities to farming1 the improvements of the time being largely initiated by rich landowners whom ,young praises rightly as public-spirited men who deserved well of their country1 though ,thorold ,rogers attributes a meaner motive for the improvement of their estates1 namely1 their desire not to be outshone by the wealthy merchants4#cfg ,they were often ably assisted by tenant farmers1 many of whom were now men with considerable capital1 for whom the smaller farms were amalgamated into large ones4 ,after the agricultural revolution of the latter half of the century1 the tendency to consolidate small holdings into large farms grew apace and was looked on as a decided mark of progress4 ,this agricultural revolution was largely a result of the industrial revolution that then took place in ,england4 ,owing to mechanical inventions and the consequent growth of the factory system1 the great manufacturing towns arose1 whence came a great demand for food1 and1 to supply this demand1 farms1 instead of being small self-sufficing holdings just growing enough for the farmer and his family and servants1 grew larger1 and became manufactories of corn and meat4 ,the century was also remarkable for another great change4 ,england1 hitherto an exporting country1 became an importing one4 ,the progress of the century was furthered by a band of men whose names are1 or ought to be1 household words with ,english farmers3 ,jethro ,tull1 ,lord ,townshend1 ,arthur ,young1 ,bakewell1 ,coke of ,holkham1 and the ,collings4 ,further the century witnessed a great number of enclosures1 especially when it was drawing to its close4 ,according to the ,report of the ,committee on ,waste ,lands in #agig1 the number of ,enclosure ,acts was3 under ,anne1 #b ,acts1 enclosing #a1dci acres2 under ,geo4 ,i1 #af ,acts1 enclosing #ag1ifj acres2 under ,geo4 ,,ii1 #bbf ,acts1 enclosing #cah1ggh acres2 from #agfj to #agig1 #a1ecb ,acts1 enclosing #b1hjd1aig acres4 ,the period from #agjj to #agfe has been called the golden age of the agricultural classes1 as the fifteenth century has been called the golden age of the labourer1 but the farmer and landlord were often hard pressed2 rates were low1 wages were fair1 and the demand for the produce of the farm constant owing to the growth of the population1 yet prices for wheat1 stock1 and wool were often unremunerative to the farmer1 and we are told in #agcd1 'necessity has compelled our farmers to more carefulness and frugality in laying out their money than they were accustomed to in better times4'#cfh ,the labourer's wages varied according to locality4 ,the assessment of wages by the magistrates in ,lancashire for #agbe remains1 and according to that the ordinary labourer earned #aj;d4 a day in the summer and #i;d4 in the winter months1 with extras in harvest1 and this may be taken as the average pay at that date4 ,threshing and winnowing wheat by piece-work cost #bs4 a quarter1 oats #as4 a quarter4 ,making a ditch #d feet wide at the top1 #ah inches wide at the bottom1 and #c feet deep1 double set with quicks1 cost #as4 a rood 7#h yards71 #aj;d4 if without the quick4#cfi ,the magistrates remarked in their proclamation on the plenty of the times and were afraid that for the northern part of the county1 which was then very backward1 the wages were too liberal4 ,wheat was1 unfortunately1 that year #dfs4 #a;d4 a quarter1 but a few years before and after that date it was cheap--#bjs41 #bds41 #bhs4 a quarter--and fresh meat was only #c;d4 a lb41 so that their wages went a long way4#cgj ,a considerable portion of the wages was paid in kind1 not only in drink but in food1 though this custom became less frequent as the century went on4#cga ,as for his food1 ,eden tells us#cgb that the diet of ,bedford workhouse in #agcj was much better than that of the most industrious labourer in his own home1 and this was the diet3 bread and cheese or broth for breakfast1 boiled beef hot or cold1 sometimes with suet pudding for dinner1 and bread and cheese or broth for supper4 ,this must have been sufficiently monotonous1 and we may be sure the labourer at home very seldom had boiled beef for dinner2 but in the north he was much cleverer than his southern brother in cooking cereal foods such as oatmeal porridge1 crowdie 7also of oatmeal71 frumenty or barley milk1 barley broth1 c4#cgc ,the village of the first half of the eighteenth century contained a much better graded society than the village of to-day4 ,it had few gaps1 so that there was a ladder from the lowest to the highest ranks1 owing to the existence of many small holders of various degree1 soon to be diminished by enclosure and consolidation4#cgd ,there was a great increase in the number of live stock owing to the spread1 gradual though it was1 of roots and clover1 which increased the winter food2 'of late years1' it was said in #agci1 'there have been improvements made in the breed of sheep by changing of rams1 and sowing of turnips1 grass seeds1 c4'#cge ,crops1 too1 were improving2 and enclosed lands about #agbf were said to produce over #bj bushels of wheat to the acre4#cgf ,though the number of ,enclosure ,acts at the beginning of the century was nothing like the number at the end1 the process was steadily going on1 often by non-parliamentary enclosure1 and was approved by nearly every one4 ,some1 however1 were opposed to it4 ,john ,cowper1 who wrote an essay on ',enclosing ,commons' in #agcb1 said1 a common was often the chief support of forty or fifty poor families1 and even though their rights were bought out they were under the necessity of leaving their old homes1 for their occupation was gone2 but he says nothing of the well-known increased demand for labour on the enclosed lands4 ,the force of his arguments may be gauged from his answer to ,lawrence's statement that enclosure is the greatest benefit to good husbandry1 and a remedy for idleness4 ,on the contrary1 says he1 who among the country people live lazier lives than the grazier and the dairyman8 ,all the dairyman has to do is to call his cows together to be milked6 ,worlidge in #affi had lamented that turnips were so little grown by ,english farmers in the field1 and that it was a plant 'usually nourished in gardens'1#cgg and in a letter to ,houghton in #afhd1 he is the first to mention the feeding of turnips to sheep4#cgh ,however1 in #agbf it was said that nothing of late years had turned to greater profit to the farmer1 who now found it one of his chief treasures2 and there were then three sorts3 the round which was most common1 the yellow1 and the long4#cgi ,for winter use they were to be sown from the beginning of ,june to the middle of ,august1 on fallow which had been brought to a good tilth1 the seed harrowed in with a bush harrow1 and if necessary rolled4 ,when the plants had two or three leaves each they were to be hoed out1 leaving them five or six inches apart1 though some slovenly farmers did not trouble to do this2 but there is no mention of hoeing between the rows4 ,the fly was already recognized as a pest1 and soot and common salt were used to fight it4 ,folding sheep in winter on turnips was then little practised1 though ,lawrence strongly recommends it4 ,according to ,defoe1#chj ,suffolk was remarkable for being the first county where the feeding and fattening of sheep and other cattle with turnips was first practised in ,england1 to the great improvement of the land1 'whence'1 he says1 'the practice is spread over most of the east and south1 to the great enriching of farmers and increase of fat cattle4' ,there were great disputes as to collecting the tithe1 always a sore subject1 on turnips2 and the custom seems to have been that if they were eaten off by store sheep they went tithe free1 if sheep were fattened on them the tithe was paid4#cha ,clover1 the other great novelty of the seventeenth century1 was now generally sown with barley1 oats1 or rye grass1 about #ae lb4 per acre4 ,this amount1 sown on #b acres of barley1 would next year produce #b loads worth about #e4 ,the next crop stood for seed1 which was cut in ,august1 the hay being worth #i1 and the seed out of it1 #cjj lb41 was sold much of it for #af;d4 a lb41 the sum realized in that year from the #b acres being #cj1 without counting the aftermath4 ,at this time most of the seed was still imported from ,flanders4#chb ,much of the common and waste land of ,england1 not previously worth #f;d4 an acre1 had been by #agcb vastly improved through sowing artificial grasses on it1 so that various people had gained considerable estates4#chc ,carrots were also now grown as a field crop in places1 especially near ,london1 two sorts being known1 the yellow and red1 used chiefly by farmers for feeding their hogs4#chd ,of wheat the names were many1 but there were apparently only seven distinct sorts1 the ,double-eared1 ,eggshell1 ,red or ,kentish1 ,great-bearded1 ,pollard1 ,grey1 and ,flaxen or ,lammas4#che ,the growth of saffron had declined1 though the ,english variety was the best in the world1 according to ,lawrence1 and except in ,cambridgeshire and about ,saffron ,walden it was little known4 ,though it was still some time before the days of ,bakewell1 increased attention was given to cattle-breeding2 it was urged that a well-shaped bull be put to cows1 one that had 'a broad and curled forehead1 long horns1 fleshy neck1 and a belly long and large4'#chf ,such in #agbf was the ideal type of the long-horns of the ,midland and the north1 but it was noticed that of late years and especially in the north the ,dutch breed was much sought after1 which had short horns and long necks1 the breed with which the ,collings were to work such wonders4 ,the then great price of #bj had been given for a cow of this breed4 ,bradley1 ,professor of ,botany at ,cambridge1 and a well-known writer on agriculture1 divided the cattle of ,england into three sorts according to their colour3 the black1 white1 and red4#chg ,the black1 commonly the smallest1 was the strongest for labour1 chiefly found in mountainous countries2 also bred chiefly in ,cheshire1 ,yorkshire1 ,lancashire1 and ,derbyshire1 sixty years before this1 and in those days ,cheshire cheese came from these cattle1 apparently very much like the modern ,welsh breed4#chh ,the white were much larger1 and very common in ,lincolnshire at the end of the seventeenth century4 ,they gave more milk than the black sort but went dry sooner4 ,they were also found in ,suffolk and ,surrey4 ,the red cattle were the largest in ,england1 their milk rich and nourishing1 so much so that it was given specially to consumptives4 ,they were first bred in ,somerset1 where in ,bradley's time particular attention was paid to their breeding1 and were evidently the ancestors of the modern ,devons4 ,about ,london these cows were often fed on turnips1 given them tops and all1 which made their milk bitter4 ,they were also found in ,lincolnshire and some other counties1 where 'they were fed on the marshes'1 and ,defoe saw1 in the ,weald of ,kent1 'large ,kentish bullocks1 generally all red with their horns crooked inward4' ,bradley gives the following balance sheet for a dairy of nine cows3#chi ,,dr4 s4 d4 #f months' grass keep at #as4 #f;d4 per week per head #ag #aa #j #f months' winter keep 7straw1 hay1 turnips1 and grains7 at #bs4 per week per head #bc #h #j --------- #dj #ai #j ,,cr4 #ac1adj gallons of milk #acf #ag #f #dj #ai #j --------- ,balance 7profit7 #ie #ah #f ,a correspondent1 however1 pointed out to ,bradley that this yield and profit was far above the average1 which was about #e a cow1 on whom ,bradley retorted that it could be made1 though it was exceptional4 ,in the eighteenth century the great trade of driving ,scottish cattle to ,london began1 ,walter ,scott's grandfather being the pioneer4 ,the route followed diverged from the ,great ,north ,road in ,yorkshire in order to avoid turnpikes1 and the cattle1 grazing leisurely on the strips of grass by the roadside1 generally arrived at ,smithfield in good condition4#cij ,defoe tells us that most of the ,scottish cattle which came yearly into ,england were brought to the village of ,s4 ,faiths1 north of ,norwich1 'where the ,norfolk graziers go and buy them4 ,these ,scots runts1 coming out of the cold and barren highlands1 feed so eagerly on the rich pasture in these marshes that they grow very fat4 ,there are above #dj1jjj of these ,scots cattle fed in this county every year4 ,the gentlemen of ,galloway go to ,england with their droves of cattle and take the money themselves4'#cia ,it was no uncommon thing for a ,galloway nobleman to send #d1jjj black cattle and #d1jjj sheep to ,england in a year1 and altogether from #ej1jjj to #fj1jjj cattle were said to come to ,england from ,galloway yearly4 ,gentlemen on the ,border before the ,union got a very pretty living by tolls from these cattle2 and the ,earl of ,carlisle made a good income in this way4 ,cattle were sometimes of a great size4 ,in #afig1 in the park of ,sir ,john ,fagg near ,steyning1 ,defoe saw four bullocks of ,sir ,john's own breeding for which was refused in ,defoe's hearing #bf apiece4 ,they were driven to ,smithfield and realized #be each1 having probably sunk on the way1 but dressed they weighed #hj stone a quarter6#cib ,these weights must have been very exceptional1 but go to prove that cattle then could be grown to much greater size than is generally credited4 ,a good price for a bullock in the first half of the eighteenth century was from #g to #aj4 ,the best poultry at the same date 7#agcf7 were said to be 'the white-feathered sort'1 especially those that had short and white legs1 which were esteemed for the whiteness of their flesh2 but those that had long yellow legs and yellow beaks were considered good for nothing4#cic ,care was to be used in the choice of a cock1 for those of the game kind were to be avoided as unprofitable4 ,bradley gives a balance sheet for #ab hens and #b cocks who had a free run in a farmyard and an orchard3#cid ,,dr4 s4 d4 #ci bushels of barley #c #e #j ,balance1 profit #af #j ---------- #d #a #j ,,cr4 s4 d4 ,eggs 7number unfortunately not given7 #a #e #j #bj early chickens at #as4 #a #j #j #gb late chickens at #f;d4 #a #af #j ---------- #d #a #j ,he also recommends that in stocking a farm of #bjj a year the following poultry should be purchased3 s4 d4 #bd chickens at #d;d4 #h #j #bj geese #a #j #j #bj turkeys #a #j #j #bd ducks #ab #j #f pair of pigeons #ab #j ,the best way to fatten chickens1 according to ,bradley1 was to put them in coops and feed them with barley meal1 being careful to put a small quantity of brickdust in their water to give them an appetite4#cie ,on this farm were #bj acres of cow pasture besides common1 and this with some turnips kept #i cows1 which gave about three gallons of milk a day at least1 the milk being worth #a;d4 a quart4 ,his pigs were of the ',black ,bantham' breed1 which were better than the large sort common in ,england1 for the flesh was much more delicate4 ,suffolk was famous for supplying ,london with turkeys4#cif ,three hundred droves of turkeys1 each numbering from #cjj to #ajjj1 had in one season passed over ,stratford ,bridge on the road from ,ipswich to ,london4 ,geese also travelled on foot to ,london in prodigious numbers from ,norfolk1 ,suffolk1 and the ,fen country1 often #a1jjj to #c1jjj in a drove1 starting in ,august when harvest was nearly over1 so that the geese might feed on the stubble by the way2 'and thus they hold on to the end of ,october1 when the roads begin to be too stiff and deep for their broad feet and short legs to march on4' ,there was1 however1 a more rapid method of getting poultry to the great market1 by means of carts of four stages or stories1 one above another1 to carry the birds in1 drawn by two horses1 which by means of relays travelled night and day1 and covered as much as #ajj miles in two days and one night1 the driver sitting on the topmost stage4 ,hop growing in #agbi1 according to ,richard ,bradley1 paid well2 he says1 'ground never esteemed before worth a shilling an acre per annum1 is rendered worth forty1 fifty1 or sometimes more pounds a year by planting hops judiciously4 ,an acre of hops shall bring to the owner clear profit about #cj yearly2 but ,i have known hop grounds that have cleared above #ej yearly per acre4' ,at this date #ab1jjj acres in ,england were planted with hops4 ,the great market for hops was ,stourbridge ,fair1 once the greatest mart in ,england and still preserving much of its former importance3 'there is scarce any price fixed for hops in ,england till they know how they sell in ,stourbridge ,fair4'#cig ,thither they came from ,chelmsford1 ,canterbury1 ,maidstone1 and ,farnham1 where the bulk of the hops in ,england were then grown1 though some were to be found at ,wilton near ,salisbury1 in ,herefordshire1 and ,worcestershire4 ,round ,canterbury ,defoe says there were #f1jjj acres of hops1 all planted within living memory#cih2 but the ,maidstone district was called 'the mother of hop grounds'1 and with the country round ,feversham was famous for apples and cherries4 ,the finest wool still1 it seems1 came from near ,leominster1 where the sheep in ,markham's time were described as small-boned and black-faced1 with a light fleece1 and apparently they still had the same appearance at the beginning of the eighteenth century#cii2 and large-boned sheep with coarser wool were to be found in the counties of ,warwick1 ,leicester1 ,buckingham1 ,northampton1 and ,nottingham2 in the north of ,england too were big-boned sheep with inferior wool1 the largest with coarse wool being found in the marshes of ,lincolnshire4 ,about this time wool had fallen much in price3 ',has nobody told you1' writes a west country farmer to his absentee landlord in #agcg1 'that wool has fallen to near half its price1 and that we cannot find purchasers for a great part of it at any price whatsoever4 ,when most of our estates 7farms7 were taken wool was generally #g;d41 #h;d41 or more by the pound2 the same is now #d;d4 and still falling4'#djj ,but the latter price was exceptionally low2 ,smith#dja gives the following average prices per tod of #bh lb43 #agjf #ags4 #f;d4 #agag-h #bcs4 to #bgs4 #agcg-db #aas4 to #ads4 #agdc #bjs4 #agdc-ec #bds4 ,after #agec it fell again1 largely owing to the great plague among cattle1 which brought about a 'prodigious increase of sheep'#djb2 and about #aggj ,young#djc favoured corn rather than wool1 for there was always a market for the former1 but the foreign demand for cloth was diminishing1 especially in the case of ,france1 besides prohibition of export kept down the price4#djd ,yet although wool was being deserted for corn it had in ,young's time 'been so long supposed the staple and foundation of all our wealth1 that it is somewhat dangerous to hazard an opinion not consonant to its encouragement'4 ,at the end of the century1 however1 there was a rapid increase in the price1 partly due to increased demand by spinners and weavers who1 owing to machinery1 were working more economically2 and partly to the enclosure of commons1 and the ploughing up of land for corn4#dje ,cheshire had long been famous for cheese4 ,barnaby ,googe1 in the last quarter of the sixteenth century1 says1 'in ,england the best cheese is the ,cheshyre and the ,shropshyre1 then the ,banbury cheese1 next the ,suffolk and the ,essex1 and the very worst the ,kentish cheese4' ,camden1 who died in #afbc1 tells us that 'the grasse and fodder 7in ,cheshire7 is of that goodness and vertue that cheeses be made here in great number1 and of a most pleasing and delicate taste such as all ,england again affordeth not the like1 no though the best dairywomen otherwise and skillfullest in cheese making be had from hence2' and a little later it was said no other county in the realm could compare with ,cheshire1 not even that wonderful agricultural country ,holland from which ,england learnt so much4#djf ,in ,lawrence's time ,cheddar cheese was also famous1 and there it had long been a custom for several neighbours to join their milk together to make cheeses1 which were of a large size1 weighing from #cj lb4 to #ajj lb4 ,good cheese came also from ,gloucestershire and ,warwickshire4 ,the ,cheshire men sent great quantities by sea to ,london1 a long and tedious voyage1 or else by land to ,burton-on-,trent1 and down that river to ,hull and then by sea to ,london4 ,the ,gloucestershire men took it to ,lechlade and sent it down the ,thames2 from ,warwickshire it went by land all the way1 or to ,oxford and thence down the ,thames to ,london4 ,stilton1 too1 had lately become famous1 and was considered the best of all1 selling for the then great price of #as4 a lb4 on the farm1 and #bs4 #f;d4 at the ,bell ,inn1 ,stilton1 where it seems to have first been sold in large quantities1 though ,leicestershire perhaps claims the honour of first making it4#djg ,the eastern side of ,suffolk was1 in ,defoe's time1 famous for the best butter and perhaps the worst cheese in ,england1 the butter being 'barrelled and sometimes pickled up in small casks'4#djh ,rabbits were occasionally kept in large numbers for profit2 at ,auborne ,chase in ,wilts1 there was a warren of #gjj acres surrounded by a wall--a most effective way of preventing escape1 but somewhat expensive4 ,in winter time they were fed on hay1 and hazel branches from which they ate the bark4 ,they were never allowed to get below #h1jjj head1 and from these1 after deducting losses by poachers1 weazles1 polecats1 foxes1 c41 #bd1jjj were sold annually4 ,these rabbits1 owing to the quality of the grass1 were famous for the sweetness of their flesh4 ,the proprietor1 ,mr4 ,gilbert1 began to kill them at ,bartholomewtide1 ,aug4 #bd1 and from then to ,michaelmas obtained #is4 a dozen for them delivered free in ,london2 but those from ,michaelmas to ,christmas realized #ajs4 #f;d4 a dozen4 ,the difference in price at the two periods is accounted for by the fact that their skins were much better in the latter1 and the rabbits kept longer when killed2 they must also have been larger4 ,a skin before ,michaelmas was only worth #a;d41 but soon after nearly #f;d42 and in ,hertfordshire was a warren where rabbit skins with silvery hair fetched #as4 each4#dji ,we have now reached the period when the result of ,jethro ,tull's labours was given to the world1 his ,horse-hoeing ,husbandry appearing in #agcc4 ,it is no exaggeration to say that agriculture owes more to ,tull than to any other man2 the principles formulated in his famous book revolutionized ,british agriculture1 though we shall see that it took a long time to do it4 ,he has indeed been described as 'the greatest individual improver agriculture ever knew'4 ,he first realized that deep and perfect pulverization is the great secret of vegetable nutrition1 and was thus led on to perfect the system of drilling seed wide enough apart to admit of tillage in the intervals1 and abandoning the wide ridges in vogue1 laid the land into narrow ridges #e feet or #f feet wide4 ,he was born at ,basildon in ,berkshire1 heir to a good estate1 and was called to the bar in #afii1 but on his marriage in the same year settled on the paternal farm of ,howberry in ,oxfordshire4 ,in his preface to his book he throws a flash of light on country life at a time when the roads were nearly as bad as in the ,middle ,ages1 so that they effectually isolated different parts of ,england1 when he speaks of 'a long confinement within the limits of a lonely farm1 in a country where ,i am a stranger1 having debarred me from all conversation'4#daj ,he took to agriculture more by necessity than by choice1 for he knew too much 'the inconveniency and slavery attending the exorbitant power of husbandry servants'1 and he further gives this extraordinary character of the farm labourer of his day3 '',tis the most formidable objection against our agriculture that the defection of labourers is such that few gentlemen can keep their land in their own hands1 but let them for a little to tenants who can bear to be insulted1 assaulted1 kicked1 cuffed1 and ,bridewelled1 with more patience than gentlemen are endowed with4'#daa ,tull wrote just before it became the fashion for gentlemen to go into farming1 and laments that the lands of the country were all1 or mostly1 in the hands of rack-renters1 whose supposed interest it was that they should never be improved for fear of fines and increased rents4 ,gentlemen then knew so little of farming that they were unable to manage their estates4 ,no doubt his scathing remarks helped to initiate the well-known change in this respect1 and soon1 over all ,england1 gentlemen of education and position were engaged in removing this reproach from their class4 ,the same complaint as to their ignorance of matters connected with their land crops up again during the great ,french war1 but they then had a good excuse1 as they were busy fighting the ,french4 ,tull invented his drill about #agja at ,howberry4 ,the first occasion for making it1 he says1 was that it 'was very difficult to find a man that could sow clover tolerably2 they had a habit to throw it once with the hand to two large strides and go twice in each cast2 thus1 with #i or #aj lb4 of seed to an acre1 two-thirds of the ground was unplanted4 ,to remedy this ,i made a hopper1 to be drawn by a boy1 that planted an acre sufficiently with #f lb4 of seed2 but when ,i added to this hopper an exceeding light plough that made #f channels eight inches asunder1 into which #b lb4 to an acre being drilled the ground was as well planted4 ,this drill was easily drawn by a man1 and sometimes by a boy4' ,his invention was largely prompted by his desire to do without the insolent farm servant whom he has described above1 and the year after it was invented he certainly had his wish1 for they struck in a body and were dismissed3 'it were more easy to teach the beasts of the field than to drive the ploughman out of his way4' ,his ideas were largely derived from the mechanism of the organ which1 being fond of music1 he had mastered in his youth--a rotary mechanism1 which is the foundation of all agricultural sowing implements4 ,his first invention may be described as a drill plough to sow wheat and turnip seed in drills three rows at a time1 a harrow to cover the seed being attached4 ,afterwards he invented a turnip drill1 so arranged as regards dropping the seed and its subsequent covering with soil that half the seed should come up earlier than the rest1 to enable a portion at least to escape the dreaded fly4 ,he was a great believer in doing everything himself1 and worked so hard at his drill that he had to go abroad for his health4 ,he was somewhat carried away by his invention1 and asserts that the expense of a drilled crop of wheat was one-ninth of that sown in the old way1 giving the following figures to prove his assertion3 ,the ,old ,way s4 d4 ,seed1 #b-a_/b bushels1 at #cs4 #g #f ,three ploughings1 harrrowing1 and sowing #af #j ,weeding #b #j ,rent of preceding fallow #aj #j ,manure #b #aj #j ,reaping #d #f --------- #d #aj #jdab ,the ,new ,way ,seed1 #c pecks #b #c ,tillage #d #j ,drilling #f ,weeding #f ,uncovering 7removing clods fallen on the wheat7 #b ,brine and lime #a ,reaping #b #f ----- #aj #j ,it should be noted that he has omitted to charge rent for the year in which the crop was grown in both cases4 ,he considered fallowing and manure unnecessary1 and grew without manure #ac successive wheat crops on the same piece of ground1 getting better crops than his neighbours who pursued the ordinary course of farming4 ,his three great principles1 indeed1 were drilling1 reduction of seed1 and absence of weeds1 and he saw that dung was a great carrier of the latter but lacked a due appreciation of its chemical action4 ,of course1 like all improvers1 he was met with unlimited opposition1 and on the publication of his book he was assailed with abuse1 which1 being a sensitive man1 caused him extreme annoyance4 ,his health was bad1 his troubles with his labourers unending1 his son a spendthrift1 and he died at his now famous home1 ,prosperous ,farm1 near ,hungerford1 in #agda1 having said not long before his death1 ',some1 allowed as good judges1 have upon a full view and examination of my practice declared their opinion that it would one day become the general husbandry of ,england4'#dac ,scotland was the first to perceive the merits of the system1 and it gradually worked southwards into ,england1 but for many years had to fight against ignorance and prejudice1 even so intelligent a man as ,arthur ,young being opposed to it4 ,farm leases had by this time assumed their modern form1 and cultivation clauses were numerous4 ,in one of #agcb1 at ,hawsted1 the tenant was to keep the hedges in repair1 being allowed bushes and stakes for so doing4 ,he was also to bestow on some part of the lands one load of good rotten muck over and above what was made on the farm for every load of hay1 straw1 or stover 7fodder7 which he should carry off4#dad ,in another of #agdj1 he was to leave in the last year of the tenancy one-third of the arable land summer tilled1 ploughed1 and fallowed1 for which he was to be paid according to the custom of the country4 ,in #agec1 in the lease of ,pinford ,end ,farm1 there was a penalty of #aj an acre for breaking up pasture2 a great increase in the amount of the penalty4 ,all compost1 dung1 soil1 and ashes arising on the farm were to be bestowed upon it4 ,only two crops successively were to be taken on any of the arable land1 but land sown with clover and rye-grass1 if fed off1 or with turnips which were fed on some part of the farm1 were not to count as crops4 ,the ashes mentioned were those from wood1 which were now carefully looked after1 as it had become the custom to sell them to the soap-boilers1 who came round to every farm collecting them4 ,this is the earliest mention in a ,hawsted lease of rye-grass1 clover1 and turnips1 though clover and turnips had been first cultivated there about #agjj1 and soon spread4 ,the winter of #agjh-i was very severe1 a great frost lasting from ,october until the spring2 wheat was #has4 #i;d4 a quarter1 and high prices lasted until #agae4dae ,from #agae to #agfe was an era of good seasons and low prices generally2 in that half-century ,tooke says there were only five bad seasons4 ,in #agcb prices of corn were very low1 wheat being about #bds4 a quarter1 so that we are not surprised to find that its cultivation often did not pay at all4#daf ,at ,little ,gadsden in ,hertfordshire1 in that year a fair season1 and on enclosed land1 the following is the balance sheet for an acre3 ,,dr4 s4 d4 ,rent #ab #j ,dressing 7manuring7 #a #j #j #b-a_/b bushels of seed #g #f ,ploughing first time #f #j twice more #h #j ,harrowing #f ,reaping and carrying #f #f ,threshing #c #i -------- #c #d #c ,,cr4 s4 d4 #ae bushels of wheat 7a poor crop1 as #bj bushels was now about the average7 #b #b #j ,straw #aa #f #b #ac #f -------- ,,loss #aj #i ,on barley1 worth about #a a quarter1 the loss was #cs4 #f;d4 an acre2 on oats1 worth #acs4 a quarter1 however1 the profit was #bas42 on beans1 #bfs4 #f;d41 these being that year exceptionally good and worth #bjs4 a quarter4#dag ,ellis objected to the new mode of drilling wheat because1 he said1 the rows are more exposed to the violence of the winds1 rains1 c41 by growing apart1 than if close together1 when the stalks support each other4#dah ,this estimate may be compared to that of ,tull for the 'old way' of sowing wheat1#dai and to the following estimate of fifty years later in ,surrey1 when wheat was a much better price3-- ,,dr4 s4 d4 ,rent1 tithe1 taxes #a #j #j ,team1 c4 #a #j #j #b bushels of seed #aj #j ,carting and spreading manure and water furrowing #b #f ,brining #f ,weeding #a #f ,reaping and carrying #i #j ,threshing and cleaning #g #f ,binding straw #a #f --------- #c #ab #fdbj ,,cr4 #bj bushels at #es4 #e #j #j #a-a_/b loads of straw #a #b #f --------- #f #b #f ,the profit was thus #b #ajs4 #j;d4 an acre1 and for barley it was #c #cs4 #f;d41 for oats #a #ais4 #aj;d41 for beans #a #acs4 #j;d4#dba ,this crop of wheat was not very good1 as the average in that district was from #bj to #be bushels per acre1 and ,young before this saw crops of #cj bushels per acre growing4 ,the over frequent use of fallows1 which had so long marked agriculture1 was in the early half of the eighteenth century beginning to be strongly disapproved of4 ,bradley advocated the continuous cultivation of the ground with different kinds of crops1 'for ,i find'1 he said1 'by experience that if such crops are sown as are full of fibrous roots1 such roots greatly help to open the parts of grounds inclining to too much stiffness4'#dbb ,,footnotes3 #cfg ,six ,centuries of ,work and ,wages1 p4 #dgb4 #cfh ,see ,baker1 ,record of ,seasons and ,prices1 p4 #ahe4 #cfi ,eden1 ,state of the ,poor1 iii p4 cvii2 ,thorold ,rogers1 ,work and ,wages1 p4 #cif4 #cgj ,in ,herefordshire at this time it was #a-a_/b;d4 per lb4 #cga ,hasbach1 op4 cit4 p4 #hf4 #cgb ,eden1 op4 cit4 i4 #bhf4 #cgc ,ibid4 i4 #dih4 #cgd ,hasbach1 op4 cit4 p4 #ga4 #cge ,smith1 ,memoirs of ,wool1 ii4 #ic4 #cgf ,john ,lawrence1 ,new ,system of ,agriculture1 p4 #de4 ,in #agab1 a normal season1 #dh acres of wheat at ,southwick in ,hants produced #af bushels per acre1 #de acres of barley #ab bushels per acre1 #cj acres of oats #bd bushels per acre2 at the same place #bdj sheep realized #hs4 each1 cows #fes41 calves #a1 horses #f1 hay #bes4 a ton 7,hampshire ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #abj74 #cgg ,worlidge1 ,systema ,agriculturae1 p4 #db4 #cgh ,collections1 iv4 #adb4 #cgi ,lawrence1 ,new ,system of ,agriculture1 p4 #aji4 #chj ,tour 7ed4 #agbd71 i4 #hg4 #cha ,ellis1 ,chiltern and ,vale ,farming1 p4 #cec4 #chb ,bradley1 ,general ,treatise1 i4 #age4 #chc ,ellis1 ,chiltern and ,vale ,farming1 p4 #bfj4 #chd ,j4 ,lawrence1 ,new ,system of ,agriculture1 p4 #aab4 #che ,ibid4 p4 #ib4 ,about #ageg ,lucerne1 hitherto little grown in ,england1 took its place in the rotation of crops4 #chf ,ibid4 p4 #acj4 #chg ,a ,general ,treatise on ,husbandry 7#agbf71 i4 #gb2 cf4 c4 #chh ,the black cattle seem to have been spread very generally over ,england1 according to previous writers and to ,defoe1 who often mentions them4 ,he saw a 'prodigious quantity' in the meadows by the ,waveney in ,norfolk4--,tour1 i4 #ig4 #chi ,bradley1 ,general ,treatise1 i4 #gf4 #cij ,slater1 ,english ,peasantry1 p4 #eb4 #cia ,tour 7ed4 #agbd71 i4 7#a7 #ig1 and iii4 7#b7 #gc4 #cib ,ibid4 i4 #fc4 #cic ,j4 ,lawrence1 ,new ,system of ,agriculture1 p4 #aea4 #cid ,bradley1 ,general ,treatise1 i4 #aaj4 #cie ,country ,gentleman and ,farmer's ,director 7#agbf71 p4 #g4 #cif ,defoe1 ,tour1 i4 #hg4 #cig ,defoe1 ,tour 7#crd ed471 i4 #ha4 #cih ,defoe1 ,tour 7ed4 #agbd71 ii4 #a1 #acd4 #cii ,bradley1 ,general ,treatise1 i4 #afj2 see also ,smith1 ,memoirs of ,wool1 ii4 #afi1 where the sheep of ,leominster1 of ,cotteswold1 and of the ,isle of ,wight are said to be the best in #agai4 ,the great market for sheep was ,weyhill ,fair1 and ,stourbridge ,fair was a great wool market4 #djj ,the ,west ,country ,farmer1 a ,representation of the ,decay of ,trade1 #agcg4 #dja ,memoirs of ,wool1 ii4 #bdc4 #djb ,ibid4 ii4 #cii4 #djc ,farmer's ,letters 7#crd ed471 p4 #bg4 #djd ,cunningham1 ,industry and ,commerce1 ii4 #chd4 #dje ,cunningham1 ,industry and ,commerce1 ii4 #deh4 #djf ,ormerod1 ,cheshire1 i4 #abi4 ,these words were written about #afef4 #djg ,see ,victoria ,county ,history3 ,rutland1 ,agriculture4 ,stilton was eaten in the same condition as many prefer it now1 'with the mites round it so thick that they bring a spoon for you to eat them4' #djh ,defoe1 ,tour1 i4 7#a7 #gh4 ,cheshire cheese was #b;d4 to #b-a_/b;d4 per lb41 ,cheddar #f;d4 to #h;d4 in #agbd1 an extraordinary difference4 #dji ,bradley1 i4 #agb4 #daj ,preface to ,horse-hoeing ,husbandry1 7ed4 #agcc74 #daa ,horse-hoeing ,husbandry1 p4 vi4 #dab ,the ,west ,country ,farmer1 above quoted1 says wheat growing 7in #agcg7 paid little4 ,before a bushel can be sold it costs #d an acre1 and the crop probably fetches half the money4 #dac ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journ4 7#crd ,ser471 ii4 #bj4 #dad ,cullum1 ,hawsted1 p4 #baf4 #dae ,tooke1 ,history of ,prices1 i4 #ce4 #daf ,wheat averaged3 #agah-bb about #bgs4 #agcj about #cjs4 #agej about #cjs4 #agbd #cfs4 #agcb #bds4 #agee #ces4 #agbe #dfs4 #agcf #cjs4 #agfj #chs4 #agbf #ces4 #agdj #dbs4 #agfe #dbs4 #agbh #ebs4 #agdd #bcs4 #dag ,ellis1 ,chiltern and ,vale ,farming1 p4 #bji4 ,nothing is charged for tithe and taxes4 #dah ,ibid4 p4 #ceb4 #dai ,see above1 p4 #agg1 also p4 #aii for ,young's estimate in #aggj4 #dbj ,nothing is charged for the manure which was carted and spread4 #dba ,john ,trusler1 ,practical ,husbandry1 p4 #bh4 #dbb ,country ,gentleman and ,farmer's ,director 7#agbf71 p4 xiii4 ,,chapter ,,xv #agjj-agfe ,,townshend4--,,sheep-,,rot4--,,cattle ,,plague4 ,,fruit-,,growing ,in #agcj ,charles1 second ,viscount ,townshend1 retired from politics1 on his quarrel with his brother-in-law ,walpole1 who remarked that 'as long as the firm was ,townshend and ,walpole the utmost harmony prevailed1 but it no sooner became ,walpole and ,townshend than things went wrong'4 ,he devoted himself to the management of his ,norfolk estates and set an example to ,english landlords in wisely and diligently experimenting in farm practice which was soon followed on all sides1 the names of ,lords ,ducie1 ,peterborough1 and ,bolingbroke being the best known of his fellow-labourers4 ,a generation afterwards ,young wrote1 'half the ,county of ,norfolk within the memory of man yielded nothing but sheep feed1 whereas those very tracts of land are now covered with as fine barley and rye as any in the world and great quantities of wheat besides4'#dbc ,there can be no doubt from this statement1 made by an eyewitness of exceptional capacity1 that he commenced the work so nobly carried on by ,coke4 ,the same authority tells us that when ,townshend began his improvements near ,norwich much of the land was an extensive heath without either tree or shrub1 only a sheepwalk to another farm2 so many carriages crossed it that they would sometimes be a mile abreast of each other in pursuit of the best track4 ,by #agfj there was an excellent turnpike road1 enclosed on each side with a good quickset hedge1 and all the land let out in enclosures and cultivated on the ,norfolk system in superior style2 the whole being let at #aes4 an acre1 or ten times its original value4 ,townshend's two special hobbies were the field cultivation of turnips1 and improvement in the rotation of crops4 ,pope says his conversation was largely of turnips1 and he was so zealous in advocating them that he was nicknamed ',turnip ,townsend'4#dbd ,he initiated the ,norfolk or four-course system of cropping1 in which roots1 grasses1 and cereals were wisely blended1 viz4 turnips1 barley1 clover and rye grass1 wheat4 ,he also reintroduced marling to the light lands of ,norfolk1 and followed ,tull's system of drilling and horse-hoeing turnips1 with the result that the poor land of which his estate was largely composed was converted into good corn and cattle-growing farms4 ,like all the progressive agriculturists of the day1 he was an advocate of enclosures1 and he had no small share in the growth of the movement by which1 in the reigns of ,anne and the first two ,georges1 #bdd enclosure ,acts were passed and #cch1agg acres enclosed4 ,the progress of enclosure was alleged as a proof that ,england was never more prosperous than under ,walpole2 the number of private gentlemen in ,britain of ample estates was said to exceed that of any country in the world proportionately1 and was far greater than in the reign of ,charles ,,ii4 ,the value of land at twenty-six or twenty-seven years' purchase was a conclusive proof of the wealth of ,england4#dbe ,though1 however1 the first half of the century was generally prosperous there were bad times for farmer and landlord4 ,we have seen that wheat-growing paid little1 although from #afhi to #aggc the farmer was protected against imports and aided by a bounty on exports4 ,in #agch ,lord ,lyttelton wrote3 ',in most parts of ,england1 gentlemen's rents are so ill paid and the weight of taxes lies so heavy upon them that those who have nothing from the ,court can scarce support their families4'#dbf ,sheep in the damp climate of ,england have always been subject to rot1 and in #agce there was1 according to ,ellis1 the most general rot in the memory of man owing to a very wet season2 and1 as in the disastrous year of #ahgi1 which must be fresh in many farmers' memories1 other animals1 deer1 hares1 and rabbits1 were affected also2 and the dead bodies of rotten sheep were so numerous in road and field that the stench was offensive to every one4 ,another bad outbreak occurred in #agdg4 ,it is well known that farmers are always grumblers1 probably with an eye to the rent2 but even in these much praised times they apparently made small profits4 ,the west country farmer quoted before1 who had been fifty years on the same estate1 and writes with the stamp of sincerity1 admits in #agcg that 'with all the skill and diligence in the world he can hardly keep the cart upon the wheels4 ,wool had gone down1 wheat didn't pay and graziers were doing badly2 tho' formerly our cattle and wool was always a sure card'4 ,he says that the profits of grazing were reckoned at one-third of the improvement that ensued from the grazing1 but the grazier was not now getting this4 ,he attributed much of the distress1 however1 to the extravagance of the times4 ,landlords1 including his own1 preferred ,london to the country1 and spent their money there4 ,how different was the behaviour of his landlord's grandfather4 ',many a time would his worship send for me to go a-hunting or shooting with him2 often would he take me with him on his visits and would introduce me as his friend4 ,the country gentlewoman and the parson's wife1 that used to stitch for themselves1 are now so hurried with dressings and visits and other attractions that they hire an ,abigail to do it4' ,he thought1 too1 the labourers were getting too high wages2 'they are so puffed up by our provender as to offer us their heels and threaten on any occasion to leave us to do our work ourselves4' ,one would like to hear the labourers' opinion on this point1 but they were dumb4 ,in spite of higher wages the young men and young women flocked to the cities1 and those who remain were lazy and extravagant1 even the country wenches contending about 'double caps1 huge petticoats1 clock stockings1 and other trumpery'4#dbg ,the bounty now paid on the export of wheat was naturally resented by the common people1 as it raised the price of their bread4 ,in #agcg a load belonging to ,farmer ,waters of ,burford1 travelling along the road to ,redbridge for exportation1 was stopped near ,white parish by a crowd of people who knocked down the leading horse1 broke the wagon in pieces1 cut the sacks1 and strewed about the corn1 with threats that they would do the like to all who sold wheat to export4#dbh ,while ,england was paying farmers to export wheat she was also importing1 though in plentiful years importers had a very bad time4 ,in #agcj there were lying at ,liverpool #cc1jjj windles 7a windle--#bbj lb47 of imported corn1 unsaleable owing to the great crop in ,england4#dbi ,the year #agdj was distinguished by one of the severest winters on record4 ,from ,january #a to ,february #e the thermometer seldom reached #cb1 and the cold was so intense that hens and ducks1 even cattle in their stalls died of it1 trees were split asunder1 crows and other birds fell to the ground frozen in their flight4 ,this extraordinary winter was followed by a cold and late spring2 no verdure had appeared by ,may2 in ,july it was still cold1 and thousands of acres of turnips rotted in the ground4 ,among minor misfortunes may be noticed the swarms of grasshoppers who devastated the pastures near ,bristol at the end of ,august #agdb1dcj and the swarms of locusts who came to ,england in #agdh and consumed the vegetables4#dca ,the cattle plague of #agdedcb was so severe that owing to the scarcity of stock great quantities of grass land were ploughed up1 which helped to account for the fact that in #agej the export of corn from ,england reached its maximum2 though the main cause of this was the long series of excellent seasons that set in after #agdj4dcc ,the cattle plague also raged in #aged in spite of an ,order in ,council that all infected cattle should be shot and buried #d ft4 deep1 and pitch1 tar1 rosin1 and gunpowder burnt where infected cattle had died1 and cow-houses washed with vinegar and water4 ,such were the sanitary precautions of the time4#dcd ,in #agef came another bad year1 corn was so scarce that there were many riots2 the king expressed to ,parliament his concern at the suffering of the poor1 and the export of corn was temporarily prohibited4 ,the fluctuations in price are remarkable3 in #agef1 before the deficiency of the harvest was realized1 wheat was #bbs4 and it went up at the following rate3 ,jan41 #ageg1 #dis42 ,feb41 #eas42 ,march1 #eds42 ,april1 #fds42 ,june1 #gbs4 ,about the middle of the century1 if we may judge from the ,compleat ,cyderman written in #aged by experienced hands living in ,devon1 ,cornwall1 ,herefordshire1 and elsewhere1 fruit-growing received an amount of attention which diminished greatly in after years4 ,the authors fully realized that an orchard under tillage causes apple trees to grow as fast again as under grass1 and this was well understood and practised in ,kent1 where crops of corn were grown between the trees4 ,a ,devonshire 'cyderist' urged that orchards should be well sheltered from the east winds1 which 'bring over the narrow sea swarms of imperceptible eggs1 or insects in the air1 from the vast tracts of ,tartarian and other lands1 from which proceeded infinite numbers of lice1 flies1 bugs1 caterpillars1 cobwebs1 c4' ,the best protection was a screen of trees1 and the best tree for the purpose1 a perry pear tree4 ,in the hard frosts of #agji1 #agaf1 and #agdj great numbers of fruit and other trees had been destroyed4 ,in ,devon what was called the ',southams method' was used for top-dressing the roots of old apple trees1 which was done in ,november with soil from the roads and ditches1 or lime or chalk1 laid on furze sometimes1 #f inches thick1 for #d or #e ft4 all round the trees4 ,great attention was paid there to keeping the heads of fruit trees in good order1 so that branches did not interfere with each other1#dce and the heads were made to spread as much as possible4 ,many of the trees were grown with the first branches commencing #d ft4 #f in4 from the ground4 ,it was claimed that ,devon excelled all other parts of ,england in the management of fruit trees1 a reputation that was not maintained1 according to the works of half a century later4 ,the best cider apple ,in the county then was the ,white-sour1 white in colour1 of a middling size1 and early ripe2 other good ones were the ',deux-,anns1 ,jersey1 ,french ,longtail1 ,royal ,wilding1 ,culvering1 ,russet1 ,holland ,pippin1 and ,cowley ,crab4' ,in ,herefordshire it was the custom to open the earth about the roots of the apple trees and lay them bare and exposed for the 'twelve days of the ,christmas holidays'1 that the wind might loosen them4 ,then they were covered with a compost of dung1 mould1 and a little lime4 ',the best way' to plant was to take off the turf and lay it by itself1 then the next earth or virgin mould1 to be laid also by itself4 ,next put horse litter over the bottom of the hole with some of the virgin mould on that1 on which place the tree1 scattering some more virgin mould over the roots1 then spread some old horse-dung over this and upon that the turf1 leaving it in a basin shape4 ,the ground between the trees in ,devonshire in young orchards was first planted with cabbage plants1 next year with potatoes1 next with beans1 and so on until the heads of the trees became large enough1 when the land was allowed to return to pasture1 a proceeding which was quite contrary to their previously quoted assertion that tillage was best for fruit trees4 ,the cider-makers were quite convinced1 as many are to-day1 that rotten apples were invaluable for cider1 and the lady who was famous for the best cider in the county never allowed one to be thrown away4 ,a generation later than this ,marshall#dcf noted that in ,herefordshire the management of orchards and their produce was far from being well understood1 though 'it has ever borne the name of the first cider county'4 ,all the old fruits were lost or declining in quality1 the famous ,red ,streak ,apple was given up and the ,squash ,pear no longer made to flourish4 ,as for prices1 in #agjg apples were selling at ,liverpool for #bs4 #f;d4 a bushel1#dcg a very good price if we allow for the difference in the value of money1 but prices then were entirely dependent on the ,english seasons2 no foreign apples were imported1 and a night's frost would treble prices in a day4 ,in #agdb at ,aspall ,hall1 ,suffolk1 apples1 apparently for cider1 were #aj;d4 a bushel1 in #agde #as4 a bushel1 in #agdf only #d;d41 and in #agdg cider there was worth #f;d4 a gallon4#dch ,at the end of the century1 in 'the great hit' of #aghd1 common apples were less than #f;d4 a bushel1 the best about #bs4 in #aghf the price was twice as high1 owing to a short crop4 ,incidentally there is mentioned in the ,compleat ,cyderman a novel implement1 'a most profitable new invented five-hoe plough1 that after the ground has been once ploughed with a common plough will plough four or five acres in one day with only four horses1 and by a little alteration is fitted to hoe turnips or rape crops as it is now practised by the ordinary farmers'2 much too favourable an estimate of the ordinary farmer1 as ,young found horse-hoeing rare4 ,an acre of good orchard land at this time was let at #b an acre2 and this is a fair balance sheet for an acre#dci3-- ,,dr4 s4 d4 ,rent of one acre #b #j #j ,tithe on #aj hogsheads1 #f;d4 #e #j ,gathering1 making1 and carriage to and from the pound1 #cs4 #f;d4 a hogshead #a #ae #j ,racking twice1 #f;d4 #e #j ,casks and cooperage #h #j --------- #d #ac #j ,,cr4 s4 d4 #aj hogsheads diminished by racking and waste to #h1 #abs4 #f;d4 #e #j #j ,leaving a balance of #gs4 for spoiling1 c41 so there was not much profit in cider-making then4 ,the same authority sets down the cost of planting an acre of apples as3-- s4 d4 #acb trees1 #bs4 #ac #d #j 7,the custom had been to plant #afj trees to the acre1 but this was considered too close47 ,carriage per tree1 #b;d42 manure per tree1 #c;d42 planting per tree1 #c;d4 #d #h #j ,interest on #ag #abs4 #j;d4 for fifteen years before orchard is profitable1 #e per cent4 #ac #b #f ,loss of half the rent of the land for the same period1 #ajs4 an acre #g #aj #j ,building cellarage for product per acre #e #j #j --------- #dc #d #f ,for this outlay the landowner would gain an additional rent of #a a year1 so that1 according to this authority1 growing cider fruit at that time paid neither landlord nor tenant4 ,,footnotes3 #dbc ,farmer's ,letters1 i4 #aj4 #dbd ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal 7#crd ,series71 iii4 #a4 #dbe ,see the ,hyp ,doctor1 ,no4 #di4 #dbf ,tooke1 ,history of ,prices1 i4 #db4 #dbg ,cf4 this and ,tull's character of servants with ,defoe's accusation of their laziness4 #dbh ,salisbury newspaper1 quoted by ,baker1 ,seasons and ,prices1 p4 #ahg4 #dbi ,see ,autobiography of ,wm4 ,stout1 ed4 by ,j4 ,harland4 #dcj ,gentleman's ,magazine1 #agdb4 #dca ,baker1 op4 cit4 p4 #aid4 #dcb ,a ,defence of the ,farmers of ,great ,britain 7#ahad71 p4 #cj4 #dcc ,tooke1 ,history of ,prices1 i4 #db4 #dcd ,see a curious pamphlet called ,an ,exhortation to all ,people to ,consider the ,afflicting ,hand of ,god 7#aged71 p4 #f4 ,the plague lasted from #agde to #agef4 #dce ,the ,compleat ,cyderman1 p4 #df4 #dcf ,rural ,economy of ,gloucestershire 7#aghh71 ii4 #bjf4 #dcg ,blundell's ,diary1 p4 #ee4 #dch ,,ms4 accounts of ,mr4 ,chevallier1 of ,aspall ,hall4 #dci ,the ,case with the ,county of ,devon with respect to the ,new ,excise ,duty on ,cider 7#agfc74 ,the duty was #ds4 a hogshead1 but the opposition was so strong it was taken off4 ,,chapter ,,xvi #agfe-agic ,,arthur ,,young4--,,crops ,,and ,,their ,,cost4--,,the ,,labourers' ,,wages ,,and ,,diet4--,,the ,,prosperity ,,of ,,farmers4--,,the ,,country ,,squire4--,,elkington4--,,bakewell4--,, the ,,roads4--,,coke ,,of ,,holkham4 ,the history of ,english agriculture in the latter half of the eighteenth century has been so well described by ,arthur ,young that any account of it at that time must largely be an epitome of his writings4 ,the greatest of ,english writers on agriculture was born in #agda1 and began farming early2 but1 as he confesses himself1 was a complete failure4 ,when he was twenty-six he took a farm of #cjj acres at ,samford ,hall in ,essex1 and after five years of it paid a farmer #ajj to take it off his hands1 who thereupon made a fortune out of it4 ,he had already begun writing on agriculture1 and it must be confessed that he began to advise people concerning the art of agriculture on a very limited experience4 ,it paid him1 however1 much better than farming1 for between #agff and #agge he realized #c1jjj on his works1 among which were ,the ,farmer's ,letters1 ,the ,southern1 ,northern1 and ,eastern ,tours4 ,these are his qualifications for writing on agriculture1 from his own pen3 ',i have been a farmer these many years' 7he was not yet thirty71 'and that not in a single field or two but upon a tract of near #cjj acres most part of the time4 ,i have cultivated on various soils most of the vegetables common in ,england and many never introduced into field husbandry4 ,i have always kept a minute register of my business in every detail of culture1 expenses1 and produce1 and an accurate comparison of the old and new husbandry4'#ddj ,it is said that though he really understood the theory and practice of farming he failed utterly in small economies4 ,he was also far too vivacious and fond of society for the monotonous work of the plain farmer4 ,at the same time his failures gave his observant mind a clear insight into the principles of agriculture4 ,he was indefatigable in inquiries1 researches1 and experiments2 and the best proof of the value of his works is that they were translated into ,russian1 ,german1 and ,french4 ,he tells us in the preface to ,rural ,economy that his constant employment for the previous seven years1 'when out of my fields1 has been registering experiments4' ,his pet aversions were absentee landlords1 obsolete methods of cultivation1 wastes and commons1 and small holdings 7though towards the end of his life he changed his opinion as to the last72 and the following1 according to him1 were the especially needed improvements of the time3-- ,the knowledge of good rotations of crops so as to do away with fallows1 which was to be effected by the general use of turnips1 beans1 peas1 tares1 clover1 c41 as preparation for white corn2 covered drains2 marling1 chalking1 and claying2 irrigation of meadows2 cultivation of carrots1 cabbages1 potatoes1 sainfoin1 and lucerne2 ploughing1 c41 with as few cattle as possible2 the use of harness for oxen2 cultivation of madden liquorice1 hemp1 and flax where suitable4#dda ,above all1 the cultivation of waste lands1 which he was to live to see so largely effected4 ,there was little knowledge of the various sorts of grasses at this time1 and to ,young is due the credit of introducing the cocksfoot1 and crested dog's tail4 ,in #agij he contemplated retiring to ,france or ,america1 so heavy was taxation in ,england4 ',men of large fortune and the poor'1 he said1 in words which many to-day will heartily endorse1 'have reason to think the government of this country the first in the world2 the middle classes bear the brunt4' ,perhaps to-day 'men of large fortune' have altered their opinion and only 'the poor' are satisfied4 ,however1 he only visited ,france1 and gave us his vivid picture of that country before the great revolution4 ,in #agic the ,board of ,agriculture was formed1 and ,young was made secretary with a salary of #djj a year4 ,about #ahaj he wrote that the preceding half-century had been by far the most interesting in the progress of agriculture1 and ascribes the increase of interest in it to the publication of his ,tours4 ,george ,,iii told him he always took with him the ,farmer's ,letters4 ,the improvement1 ,young said1 had been largely due to individual effort1 for commerce had been predominant in ,parliament and agriculture had begun to be neglected2 a statement which1 seeing that ,parliament was then almost entirely composed of landowners1 must be accepted with some reserve4 ,young died in #ahbj1 having been totally blind for some time1 a misfortune which did not prevent him working hard4 ,in his well-known ,tours he often had much difficulty in obtaining information1 and confesses that he was forced to make more than one farmer drunk before he got anything out of him4 ,the exodus from the country to the towns then1 as so often in history1 was noted by thinking people1 but ,young says it was merely a natural consequence of the demand for profitable employment and was not to be regretted2 but he wrote in a time when the country population was still numerous1 and there was little danger of ,england becoming1 what she is to-day1 a country without a solid foundation1 with no reservoir of good country blood to supply the waste of the towns4 ,when ,young began to write1 the example of ,townshend and his contemporaries was being followed on all sides1 and this good movement was stimulated by ,young's writings4 ,farming was the reigning taste of the day4 ,there was scarce a nobleman without his farm1 most of the country gentlemen were farmers1 and attended closely to their business instead of leaving it to stewards1 'who governed in matters of wheat and barley as absolutely as in covenants of leases1' and the squire delighted in setting the country a staring at the novelties he introduced4 ,even the stable and the kennel were ousted by farming from rural talk1#ddb and citizens who breathed the smoke of ,london five days a week were farmers the other two1 and many young fellows of small fortune who had been brought up in the country took farms1 and the fashion was followed by doctors1 lawyers1 clergymen1 soldiers1 sailors1 and merchants4 ,the ,american and ,french ,war of #agge-hc and the great conflict with ,france from #agic to #ahae were1 however1 to divert many of the upper classes from agriculture1 for they very properly thought their duty was then to fight for their country2 so that we again have numerous complaints of agents and stewards managing estates who knew nothing whatever about their business4 ,it was not to be wondered at that all this activity brought about considerable progress4 ',there have been1' said ,young about #aggj1 'more experiments1 more discoveries1 and more general good sense displayed within these ten years than in a hundred preceding ones1' a statement which perhaps did not attach sufficient importance to the work of ,townshend and his contemporaries1 and to the 'new husbandry' of ,tull1 which ,young did not appreciate at its full value4#ddc ,the place subsequently taken by the ,board of ,agriculture1 and in our time by the ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 was then occupied by the ,society for the ,encouragement of ,arts1 ,manufactures1 and ,commerce1 which offered premiums for such objects as the cultivation of carrots in the field for stock1 then little practised2 for gathering the different sorts of grass seeds and keeping them clean and free from all mixture with other grasses1 a very rare thing at that time2 for experiments in the comparative merits of the old and new husbandry2 for the growth of madder2 #bj for a turnip-slicing machine1 then apparently unknown1 and for experiments whether rolling or harrowing grass land was better1 'at present one of the most disputed points of husbandry4' ,in spite of this progress1 many crops introduced years before were unknown to many farmers4 ,sainfoin1 cabbages1 potatoes1 carrots1 were not common crops in every part of ,england1 though every one of them was well known in some part or other2 not more than half1 or at most two-thirds1 of the nation cultivated clover4 ,many1 however1 of the nobility and gentry in the north had grown cabbages with amazing success1 lately1 #cj guineas an acre being sometimes the value of the crop4 ,half the cultivated lands1 in spite of the progress of enclosure for centuries1 were still farmed on the old common-field system4 ,when anything out of the common was to be done on common farms1 all common work came to a standstill4 ',to carry out corn stops the ploughs1 perhaps at a critical season2 the fallows are frequently seen overrun with weeds because it is seed time2 in a word1 some business is ever neglected4'#ddd ,as for the outcry against enclosing commons and wastes1 people forgot that the farmers as well as the poor had a right of common and took special care by their large number of stock to starve every animal the poor put on the common4#dde ,about the same time that ,young wrote these words there appeared a pamphlet written by ',a ,country ,gentleman' on the advantages and disadvantages of enclosing waste lands and common fields1 which puts the arguments against enclosure very forcibly4#ddf ,the writer's opinion was that it was clearly to the landowner's gain to promote enclosures1 but that the impropriator of tithes reaped most benefit and the small freeholder least1 because his expenses increased inversely to the smallness of his allotment4 ,as to diminution of employment1 he reckoned that enclosed arable employed about ten families per #a1jjj acres1 open field arable twenty families1 a statement opposed to the opinion of nearly all the agricultural writers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries4 ,it is surely an incontestable fact that enclosed land meant much better tillage1 and better tillage meant more labour1 the excessive amount of fallow necessary under the common-field system1 from the inability to grow roots except by special arrangement1 is alone enough to prove this4 ,the same writer admitted that common pastures1 wastes1 c41 employed only one family per #b1jjj acres1 but enclosed pasture five families per #a1jjj acres1 and enclosed wastes sixteen families4 ,a ',country ,farmer'1 who wrote in #aghf1 states that many of the small farmers displaced by enclosures sold their few possessions and emigrated to ,america4#ddg ,the growing manufacturing towns also absorbed a considerable number4 ,that there was a considerable amount of hardship inflicted on small holders and commoners is certain1 but industrial progress is frequently attended by the dislocation of industry and consequent distress2 the introduction of machinery1 for instance1 often causing great suffering to hand-workers1 but eventually benefiting the whole community4 ,how many men has the self-binding reaping machine thrown for a time out of work8 ,so enclosure caused distress to many individuals1 but was for the good of the whole nation4 ,the history of enclosure is really the history of progress in farming2 the conversion of land badly tilled in the old common fields1 and of waste land little more valuable than the prairies2 into well-managed fruitful farms4 ,that much of the common-field land when enclosed was laid down to grass is certainly true1 and certainly inevitable if it paid best under grass4#ddh ,no one can expect the holders of land naturally best suited for grass to keep it under tillage for philanthropic purposes4 ,a vast number of the commoners too were idle thriftless beings1 whose rights on a few acres enabled them to live a life of pilfering and poaching2 and it was a very good thing when such people were induced to lead a more regular and respectable existence4 ,the great blot on the process was that it made the ,english labourer a landless man4 ,compensation was given him at the time of enclosure in the shape of allotments or sums of money1 but the former he was generally compelled to give up owing to the expense he had been put to at allotment1 and the latter he often spent in the public-house4 ,at this date the proprietors of large estates who wished to enclose by ,act of ,parliament1 generally settled all the particulars among themselves before calling any meeting of the rest of the proprietors4 ,the small proprietor had very little say either in regulating the clauses of the ,act1 or in the choice of commissioners4 ,any owner of one-fifth of the land1 however1 could negative the measure and often used his right to impose unreasonable clauses4 ,it is well known that the legal expenses and fencing were very costly4 ,the enclosure commissioners too often divided the land in an arbitrary and ignorant manner1 and there was no appeal from them except by filing a bill in ,chancery4 ,accounts were hardly ever shown by the commissioners1 and if a proprietor refused to pay the sums levied they were empowered to distrain immediately4 ,all these evils attending enclosure made many who were eager to benefit by it very chary in commencing it4#ddi ,then1 as now1 one of the commonest errors of farmers was that of taking too much land for their capital2 ,young considered #f an acre necessary on an average1 equal to more than #ab to-day2 a sum which few farmers at any time have in hand when they take a farm4 ,as for gentlemen farmers1 who were then rushing into the business1 they were warned that they had no chance of success if they kept any company or amused themselves with anything but their own business1 unless perhaps they had a good bailiff4 ,lime1 one of the most ancient of manures1 was then the most commonly used in ,england1 #hj to #ajj loads an acre being a common dressing1 but many farmers were very ignorant of its proper use4 ,marl1 which to-day is seldom used1 was considered to last for twenty years1 though for the first year no benefit was observable1 and very little the second and the third1 its value then becoming very apparent4 ,in the last five years1 however1 its value was nearly worn out4 ,but it was much to be questioned whether marl in its best state anywhere yields an increase of produce equal to that which a good manuring of dung will give4#dej ,marl was applied in huge quantities on arable and grass1 and often made the latter look like arable land so thickly was it spread4 ,at this date 7#aggj7 the average crops on poor1 and on good land were#dea3 ,on land worth #es4 an acre3 ,wheat #ab bushels per acre4 ,rye #af ,barley #af ,oats #bj ,turnips1 to the value of #a4 ,clover ,on land worth #bjs4 an acre3 ,wheat #bh bushels per acre4 ,barley #dj ,oats #dh ,beans #dj ,turnips1 to the value of #c4 ,clover ,the cost of cultivating the latter1 which may be given in full1 as it affords an excellent example of the price of growing various crops1 and the methods of their cultivation at this period1 was as follows3 ,first year1 turnips3 s4 d4 ,rent #a #j #j ,tithe and 'town charges' #h #j ,five ploughings1 #ds4 #a #j #j ,three harrowings #a #j ,seed #f ,sowing #c ,twice hand-hoeing #g #j ----------- #b #af #i ,it will be noticed there was no horse-hoeing4 ,second year1 barley3 s4 d4 ,rent1 tithe1 c4 #a #h #j ,three ploughings #ab #j ,three harrowings #a #j ,seed #h #j ,sowing #c ,mowing and harvesting #c #j ,water furrowing #f ,threshing1 #as4 a quarter #e #j ----------- #b #ag #i ,third year1 clover3 s4 d4 ,rent1 c4 #a #h #j ,seed #e #j ,sowing #c ---------- #a #ac #c ,fourth year1#deb wheat3 s4 d4 ,rent1 c4 #a #h #j ,one ploughing #d #j ,three harrowings #a #j ,seed #aj #j ,sowing #c ,water furrowing #i ,thistling #a #f ,reaping and harvesting #g #j ,threshing1 #bs4 a quarter #g #j ---------- #b #ai #f ,fifth year1 beans3 s4 d4 ,rent1 c4 #a #h #j ,two ploughings #h #j ,seed1 #b bushels #h #j ,sowing #f ,twice hand-hoeing #ab #j ,twice horse-hoeing #c #j ,reaping and harvesting #h #j ,threshing #e #j ---------- #c #ab #f ,sixth year1 oats3 s4 d4 ,rent1 c4 #a #h #j ,once ploughing #d #j ,two harrowings #h ,four bushels of seed #f #j ,sowing #c ,mowing and harvesting #c #j ,threshing1 #as4 a quarter #f #j ---------- #b #g #aa ,good land at a high rent is always better than poor land at a low rent2 the average profit per acre on #es4 land was then about #hs4 #h;d41 on #bjs4 land1 #bis4 ,grass was much more profitable than tillage1 the profit on #bj acres of arable in nine years amounted to #hh1 whereas on grass it was #bab1 or #is4 #i;d4 an acre per annum for the former and #bcs4 for the latter4#dec ,yet dairying1 at all events1 was then on the whole badly managed and unprofitable4 ,the average cow ate #b-a_/b acres of grass1 and the rent of this with labour and other expenses made the cost #e a year per cow1 and its average produce was not worth more than #e #fs4 #c;d4#ded ,this scanty profit was due to the fact that few farmers used roots1 cabbages1 c41 for their cows1 and to their wrong management of pigs1 kept on the surplus dairy food4 ,by good management the nett return could be made as much as #d #aes4 #j;d4 per cow4 ,the management of sheep in the north of ,england was wretched4 ,in ,northumberland the profit was reckoned at #as4 a head1 partly derived from cheese made from ewes' milk4 ,the fleeces averaged #b lb41 and the wool was so bad as not to be worth more than #c;d4 or #d;d4 per lb4#dee ,pigs could be made to pay well1 as the following account testifies3 ,food and produce of a sow in one year 7#agfc71 which produced seven pigs in ,april and eleven in ,october3 ,,dr4 s4 d4 ,grains #aj #d ,cutting a litter #a #f #e quarters peas #e #b #j #aj bushels barley #a #j #j ,expenses in selling#def #aa #f #aj bushels peas #a #f #c ---------- #h #aa #g ,,cr4 s4 d4 ,a pig #b #c ,a fat hog #a #i #j ,another1 #aaj lb4 wt4 #a #ab #i ,another1 #aaf lb4 wt4 #b #j #j ,heads #e #c #c fat hogs #f #g #j #a fat hog #b #j #j #aj young pigs #d #af #f ----------- #ah #ab #i #h #aa #g ----------- ,profit #aj #a #b ,we have seen that ,young thought little of the 'new husbandry'2 he does not even give ,tull the credit of inventing the drill3 ',mr4 ,tull perhaps again invented it4 ,he practised it upon an extent of ground far beyond that of any person preceding him3 the spirit of drilling died with ,mr4 ,tull and was not revived till within a few years4'#deg ,it was doubtful if #ej acres of corn were then annually drilled in ,england4 ,lately drilling had been revived and there were keen disputes as to the old and new methods of husbandry1 the efficacy of the new being far from decided4 ,the cause of the slow adoption of drill husbandry was the inferiority of the drills hitherto invented4 ,they were complex in construction1 expensive1 and hard to procure4 ,it seemed impossible to make a drill or drill plough as it was called1 for such it then was--a combination of drill1 plough1 and harrow--capable of sowing at various depths and widths1 and at the same time light enough for ordinary use4 ,all the drills hitherto made were too light to stand the rough use of farm labourers3 'common ploughs and harrows the fellows tumble about in so violent a manner that if they were not strength itself they would drop to pieces4 ,in drawing such instruments into the field the men generally mount the horses1 and drag them after them2 in passing gateways twenty to one they draw them against the gate post4' ,some of 'these fellows' are still to be seen6 ,another defect in drilling was that the drill plough filled up all the water furrows1 which1 at a time when drainage was often neglected1 were deemed of especial importance1 and they all had to be opened again4 ,further1 said the advocates of the old husbandry1 it was a question whether all the horse-hoeings1 hand-hoeings1 and weedings of the new husbandry1 though undoubtedly beneficial1 really paid4 ,it was very hard to get enough labourers for these operations4 ,with more reason they objected to the principles of discarding manure and sowing a large number of white straw crops in succession1 but admitted the new system was admirably adapted for beans1 turnips1 cabbages1 and lucerne4 ,however1 there were many followers of ,tull4 ,the ,author of ,dissertations on ,rural ,subjects#deh thought the drill plough an excellent invention1 as it saved seed and facilitated hoeing2 but he said ,tull's drill was defective in that the distances between the rows could not be altered1 a defect which the writer claims to have remedied4 ,young's desire for a stronger drill seems to have been soon answered1 as the same writer says the barrel drill invented by ,du-,hamel and improved by ,craik was strong1 cheap1 and easily managed4 ,the tendency of the latter half of the century was decidedly in favour of larger farms2 it was a bad thing for the small holders1 but it was an economic tendency which could not be resisted4 ,the larger farmers had more capital1 were more able and ready to execute improvements2 they drained their land1 others often did not2 having sufficient capital they were able both to buy and sell to the best advantage and not sacrifice their produce at a low price to meet the rent1 as the small farmer so often did and does4 ,they could pay better wages and so get better men1 kept more stock and better1 and more efficient implements4 ,they also had a great advantage in being able by their good teams to haul home plenty of purchased manure1 which the small farmer often could not do4 ,the small tenants1 who had no by-industry1 then1 as now1 had to work and live harder than the ordinary labourer to pay their way4 ,young calculated as early as #agfh that the average size of farms over the greater part of ,england was slightly under #cjj acres4#dei ,in his ,tour in ,france ,young1 speaking of the smallness of ,french farms as compared with ,english ones1 and of the consequent great inferiority of ,french farming1 says1 ',where is the little farmer to be found who will cover his whole farm with marl at the rate of #ajj to #aej tons per acre2 who will drain his land at the expense of #b to #c an acre2 who will1 to improve the breed of his sheep1 give #a1jjj guineas for the use of a single ram for a single season2 who will send across the kingdom to distant provinces for new implements and for men to use them8 ,deduct from agriculture all the practices that have made it flourishing in this island1 and you have precisely the management of small farms4' ,in #ahfh the ,report of the ,commission on the ,agriculture of ,france#dfj agreed with ,young1 noting the grave consequences of the excessive subdivision of land1 loss of time1 waste of labour1 difficulties in rotation of crops1 and of liberty of cultivation4 ,for stocking an arable farm of #gj acres ,young considered the following expenditure necessary1 the items of which give us interesting information as to prices about #aggj3-- s4 d4 ,rent1 tithe1 and town charges for first year #gj #j #j ,household furniture #cj #j #j ,wagon #be #j #j ,cart with ladders #ab #j #j ,tumbril #aj #j #j ,roller for broad lands 7of wood7 #b #j #j narrow #a #ae #j ,cart harness for #d horses #h #ag #j ,plough #b #af #j #b ploughs #c #j #j ,a pair of harrows #a #ae #j ,screen1 bushel1 fan1 sieves1 forks1 rakes1 c4 #h #j #j ,dairy furniture #c #j #j #bj sacks #b #aj #j #d horses #cb #j #j ,wear and tear1 and shoeing one year #ac #j #j ,keep of #d horses from ,michaelmas to ,may ,day1 #bs4 #f;d4 each a week #ad #j #j #e cows #bj #j #j #bj sheep #e #aj #j ,one sow #ae #j ,one servant's board and wages for one year #ae #j #j ,a labourer's wages for one year #bj #j #j ,seed for first year1 #db acres1 #aas4 #f;d4 #bd #c #j ,harvest labour #a #aj #j ------------ #cbf #aa #j ,or nearly #e an acre4 ,about the same date the ,complete ,english ,farmer reckoned that the occupier of a farm of #ejj acres 7#cjj arable1 #bjj pasture71 ought to have a capital of #a1ejj1 and estimated that1 after paying expenses and maintaining his family1 he could put by #ej a year2 'but this capital was much beyond what farmers in general can attain to4'#dfa ,the controversy of horses versus oxen for working purposes was still raging1 and ,young favoured the use of oxen2 for the food of horses cost more1 so did their harness and their shoeing1 they are much more liable to disease1 and oxen when done with could be sold for beef4 ,one stout lad1 moreover1 could attend to #h or #aj oxen1 for all he had to do was to put their fodder in the racks and clean the shed2 no rubbing1 no currying or dressing being necessary4 ,no beasts fattened better than oxen that had been worked4 ,a yoke of oxen would plough as much as a pair of horses and carry a deeper and truer furrow1 while they were just as handy as horses in wagons1 carts1 rollers1 c4 ,william ,marshall1 the other great agricultural writer of the end of the eighteenth century1 agreed with ,young1 yet in spite of all these advantages horses were continually supplanting oxen4 ,among the improvements in agriculture was the introduction of broad-wheeled wagons2 narrow-wheeled ones were usual1 and these on the turnpikes were only allowed to be drawn by #d horses so that the load was small1 but broad-wheeled wagons might use #h horses4 ,the cost of the latter was #ej against #be for the former4#dfb ,young's opinion of the labouring man1 like ,tull's1 was not a high one4 ',i never yet knew'1 he says1 'one instance of any poor man's working diligently while young and in health to escape coming to the parish when ill or old4' ,this is doubtless too sweeping4 ,there must have been others like ,george ,barwell1 whom ,marshall tells of in his ,rural ,economy of the ,midlands1 who had brought up a family of five or six sons and daughters on a wage of #es4 to #gs4 a week1 and after they were out in the world saved enough to support him in his old age4 ,the majority1 however1 long before the crushing times of the ,french ,war1 seem to have been thoroughly demoralized by indiscriminate parish relief1 and habitually looked to the parish to maintain them in sickness and old age4 ,cullum#dfc a few years later1 remarks on the poor demanding assistance without the scruple and delicacy they used to have1 and says 'the present age seems to aim at abolishing all subordination and dependence and reducing all ranks as near a level as possible4'6 ,idleness1 drunkenness1 and what was then often looked on with disgust and contempt1 excessive tea-drinking1 were rife4 ,tea then was very expensive1 #hs4 or #ajs4 a lb4 being an ordinary price1 so that the poor had to put up with a very much adulterated article1 most pernicious to health4 ,the immoderate use of this was stated to have worse effects than the immoderate use of spirits4 ,the consumption of it was largely caused by the deficiency of the milk supply1 owing to the decrease of small farms2 the large farmers did not retail such small commodities as milk and butter1 but sent them to the towns so that the poor often went without4#dfd ,in #agfg ,young found wages differing according to the distance from ,london#dfe3-- s4 d4 #bj miles from ,london they were per week #aj #i ,from #bj to #fj #g #h #fj to #aaj #f #d #aaj to #agj #f #c ,giving an average of #gs4 #i;d4 which1 however1 was often exceeded as there was much piece-work which enabled the men to earn more4 ,young drew up a dietary for a labourer1 his wife1 and a family of three children1 which he declared to be sufficient3-- s4 d4 ,food1 #fs4 per week#dff2 per year #ae #ab #j ,rent #a #aj #j ,clothes #b #aj #j ,soap and candles #a #e #j ,loss of time through illness1 and medicine #a #j #j ,fuel #b #j #j ---------- #bc #ag #j s4 d4 ,the man's wages were1 #as4 #c;d4 a day1 for the year #ai #aj #j ,the woman's1 #c-c_/d;d4 a day1 for the year #d #ag #f ,the boy of fifteen could earn #i #j #j ,the boy of ten could earn #d #g #f ---------- #cg #ae #j ,which would give the family a surplus of #ac #ahs4 #j;d4 a year4 ,what the man's food should consist of is shown by a list of 'seven days' messes for a stout man'3-- s4 d4 #ast day4 #b lb4 of bread made of wheat1 rye1 and potatoes--'no bread exceeds it' #b ,cheese1 #b oz4 #d;d4 a lb #a_/b ,beer1 #b quarts #a #bnd day4 ,three messes of soup #b #crd day4 ,rice pudding #b-a_/b #dth day4 #a_/d lb4 of fat meat and potatoes baked together #b-c_/d ,beer #a #eth day4 ,rice milk #b #fth day4 ,same as first day #c-a_/b #gth day4 ,potatoes1 fat meat1 cheese1 and beer #d --------- #a #i-a_/d ,as ,young was a man of large practical experience we may assume that this1 though it seems a very insufficient diet1 was not unlike the food of some labourers at that date4 ,however1 the bread he recommends was not that eaten by a large number of them4 ,eden#dfg states that in #agfd about half the people of ,england were estimated to be using wheaten bread1 and at the end of the century1 although prices had risen greatly1 he says that in the ,home ,counties wheaten bread was universal among the peasant class4 ,young1 indeed1 acknowledges that many insisted on wheaten bread4#dfh ,in ,suffolk1 according to ,cullum1#dfi pork and bacon were the labourer's delicacies1 bread and cheese his ordinary diet4 ,the north of ,england was more thrifty than the south4 ,at the end of the eighteenth century barley and oaten bread were much used there4 ,lancashire people fed largely on oat bread1 leavened and unleavened2 the #ccrd ,regiment1 which went by the name of the ',havercake lads'1 was usually recruited from the ,west ,riding where oat bread was in common use1 and was famous for having fine men in its ranks4#dgj ,the labourers of the north were also noted for their skill in making soups in which barley was an important ingredient4 ,in many of the southern counties tea was drunk at breakfast1 dinner1 and supper by the poor1 often without milk or sugar2 but alcoholic liquors were also consumed in great quantities1 the southerner apparently always drinking a considerable amount1 the northerner at rare intervals drinking deep4 ,the drinking in cider counties seems always to have been worse as far as quantity goes than elsewhere1 and the drink bills on farms were enormous4 ,marshall says that in ,gloucestershire drinking a gallon 'bottle'1 generally a little wooden barrel1 at a draught was no uncommon feat2 and in the ,vale of ,evesham a labourer who wanted to be even with his master for short payment emptied a two-gallon bottle without taking it from his lips4 ,even this feat was excelled by 'four well-seasoned yeomen1 who resolved to have a fresh hogshead tapped1 and setting foot to foot emptied it at one sitting4'#dga ,yet in the beer-drinking counties great quantities were consumed2 a gallon a day per man all the year round being no uncommon allowance4#dgb ,the superior thrift of the north was shown in clothes as well as food1 the midland and southern labourer at the end of the century buying all his clothes1 the northerner making them almost all at home2 there were many respectable families in the north who had never bought a pair of stockings1 coat1 or waistcoat in their lives1 and a purchased coat was considered a mark of extravagance and pride4 ,perhaps the most remarkable feature of ,young's dietary is that green vegetables are absolutely ignored4 ,the peasant was supposed to need them as little as in the ,middle ,ages4 ,however1 ,young admits that very few labourers lived as cheaply as this1 and he found the actual ordinary budget for the same family to be3-- s4 d4 ,food1 per week1 #gs4 #f;d42 per year #ai #aj #j ,beer #as4 #f;d4 #c #ah #j ,soap and candles #a #e #j ,rent #a #aj #j ,clothes #b #aj #j ,fuel #b #j #j ,illness1 c4 #a #j #j ,infant #b #ab #j ---------- #cd #e #j ,this1 with the same ,income as before1 left him with a surplus of #c #ajs4 #j;d42 but as it was not likely his wife could work all the year round1 or that both his eldest children should be boys1 it appears that his expenses must often have exceeded his income4 ,this being so1 it is not surprising that he was often drunken and reckless1 and ready to come on the parish for relief4 ,to labour incessantly1 often with wife and boys1 to live very poorly1 yet not even make both ends meet1 was enough to kill all spirit in any one4 ,a great evil from which the labourer suffered was the restrictions thrown on him of settling in another parish4 ,if he desired to take his labour to a better market he often found it closed to him4 ,his marriage was discouraged1#dgc because a single man did not want a cottage and a married one did4 ,to ease the rates there was open war against cottages1 and many were pulled down4#dgd ,if a labourer in a parish to which he did not legally belong signified his intention of marrying1 he immediately had notice to quit the parish and retire to his own1 unless he could procure a certificate that neither he nor his would be chargeable4 ,if he went to his own parish he came off very badly1 for they didn't want him1 and cottages being scarce he probably had to put up with sharing one with one or more families4 ,sensible men cried out for the total abolition of the poor laws1 the worst effects of which were still to be felt4 ,yet there was a considerable migration of labour at harvest time when additional hands were needed4 ,labourers came from neighbouring counties1 artisans left their workshops in the towns1 ,scots came to the ,northern counties1 ,welshmen to the western1 and ,irishmen appeared in many parts2 and they were as a rule supplied by a contractor4#dge ,london was regarded as a source of great evil to the country by attracting the young and energetic thither4 ,it used1 men said1 to be no such easy matter to get there when a stage coach was four or five days creeping #ajj miles and fares were high2 but in #aggj a country fellow #ajj miles from ,london jumped on a coach in the morning and for #hs4 or #ajs4 got to town by night1 'and ten times the boasts are sounded in the ears of country fools by those who have seen ,london to induce them to quit their healthy clean fields for a region of dirt1 stink1 and noise4' ,a prejudice might well have been entertained against the metropolis at this time1 for it literally devoured the people of ,england1 the deaths exceeding the births by #h1jjj a year4 ,one of the causes that had hitherto kept people from ,london was the dread of the small-pox1 but that was now said to be removed by inoculation4 ,among the troubles farmers had to contend with were the audacious depredations caused by poachers1 generally labourers1 who swarmed in many villages4 ,they took the farmer's horses out of his fields after they had done a hard day's work and rode them all night to drive the game into their nets1 blundering over the hedges1 sometimes staking the horses1 riding over standing corn1 or anything that was cover for partridges1 and when they had sold their ill-gotten game spent the money openly at the nearest alehouse4 ,then they would go back and work for the farmers they had robbed1 drunk1 asleep1 or idle the whole day4 ,the subscription packs of foxhounds were also a great nuisance1 many of the followers being townsmen who bored through hedges and smashed the gates and stiles1 conduct not unknown to-day4 ,in spite of these drawbacks the long period of great abundance from #agae to #agfe and the consequent cheapness of food with an increase of wages was attended with a great improvement in the condition and habits of the people4 ,adam ,smith refers to 'the peculiarly happy circumstances of the country'2 ,hallam described the reign of ,george ,,ii as 'the most prosperous period that ,england has ever experienced'#dgf2 and it was ,young's opinion about #aggj that ,england was in a most rich and flourishing situation1 'her agriculture is upon the whole good and spirited and every day improving1 her industrious poor are well fed1 clothed1 and lodged at reasonable rates1 the prices of all necessaries being moderate1 our population increasing1 the price of labour generally high4'#dgg ,the great degree of luxury to which the country had arrived within a few years 'is not only astonishing but almost dreadful to think of4 ,time was when those articles of indulgence which now every mechanic aims at the possession of were enjoyed only by the baron or lord4'#dgh ,great towns became the winter residence of those who could not afford ,london1 and the country was said to be everywhere deserted1 an evil largely attributed to the improvement of posting and coaches4 ,the true country gentleman was seldom to be found1 the luxuries of the age had softened down the hardy roughness of former times and the 'country1 like the capital1 is one scene of dissipation4' ,the private gentleman of #cjj or #djj a year must have his horses1 dogs1 carriages1 pictures1 and parties1 and thus goes to ruin4 ,the articles of living1 says the same writer1 were #ajj per cent4 dearer than some time back4 ,this is a very different picture from that in which ,young represents every one rushing into farming1 but no doubt depicts one phase of national life4 ,an excellent observer#dgi noticed in #agib that the preceding forty or fifty years had witnessed the total destruction in ,england of the once common type of the small country squire4 ,he was3-- ',an independent gentleman of #cjj per annum who commonly appeared in a plain drab or plush coat1 large silver buttons1 a jockey cap1 and rarely without boots4 ,his travels never exceeded the distance of the county town1 and that only at assize or session time1 or to attend an election4 ,once a week he commonly dined at the next market town with the attorneys and justices4 ,he went to church regularly1 read the weekly journal1 settled the parochial disputes1 and afterwards adjourned to the neighbouring alehouse1 where he generally got drunk for the good of his country4 ,he was commonly followed by a couple of greyhounds and a pointer1 and announced his arrival at a neighbour's house by smacking his whip and giving a view halloo4 ,his drink was generally ale1 except on ,christmas ,day1 the ,fifth of ,november1 or some other gala day1 when he would make a bowl of strong brandy4 ,the mansion of one of these squires was of plaster striped with timber1 not unaptly called callimanco work1 or of red brick with large casemented bow windows2 a porch with seats in it and over it a study3 the eaves of the house well inhabited by swallows1 and the court set round with hollyhocks2 near the gate a horse-block for mounting4 ,the hall was furnished with flitches of bacon1 and the mantelpiece with guns and fishing-rods of different dimensions1 accompanied by the broadsword1 partisan1 and dagger borne by his ancestor in the ,civil ,wars4 ,against the wall was posted ,king ,charles's ,golden ,rules1 ,vincent ,wing's ,almanac and a portrait of the ,duke of ,marlborough2 in his window lay ,baker's ,chronicle1 ,foxe's ,book of ,martyrs1 ,glanvill ,on ,apparitions1 ,quincey's ,dispensatory1 ,the ,complete ,justice1 and a ,book of ,farriery4 ,in a corner by the fireside stood a large wooden two-armed chair with a cushion1 and within the chimney corner were a couple of seats4 ,here at ,christmas he entertained his tenants1 assembled round a glowing fire made of the roots of trees2 and told and heard the traditionary tales of the village about ghosts and witches while a jorum of ale went round4 ,these men and their houses are no more4' ,the farmer1 in some parts at all events1 was becoming a more civilized individual2 the late race had lived in the midst of their enlightened neighbours like beings of another order#dhj2 in their personal labour they were indefatigable1 in their fare hard1 in their dress homely1 in their manners rude4 ,the ,french and ,american ,war of #agge-hc was a very prosperous time1 and the farmer's mode of living greatly improved4 ,farmhouses in ,england1 it was noticed1 were in general well furnished with every convenient accommodation4 ,into many of them a 'barometer had of late years been introduced'4 ,the teapot and the mug of ale jointly possessed the breakfast table1 and meat and pudding smoked on the board every noon4 ,formerly one might see at church what was the cut of a coat half a century ago1 now dress was spruce and modern4#dha ,as a proof of the spirit of improvement among farmers1 ,marshall instances the custom in the ,midlands of placing their sons as pupils on other farms to widen their experience4 ',their entertainments are as expensive as they are elegant1 for it is no uncommon thing for one of these new-created farmers to spend #aj or #ab1 at one entertainment1 and to have the most expensive wines2 to set off the entertainment in the greatest splendour an elegant sideboard of plate is provided in the newest fashion4'#dhb ,as to dress1 no one could tell the farmer's daughter from the duke's4 ,marshall noticed that in ,warwickshire the harness of the farmer's teams was often ridiculously ornamented1 and the horses were overfed and underworked to save their looks4 ,before enclosure the farmer entertained his friends with bacon fed by himself1 washed down with ale brewed from his own malt1 in a brown jug1 or a glass if he was extravagant4 ,he wore a coat of woollen stuff1 the growth of his own flock1 spun by his wife and daughters1 his stockings came from the same quarter1 so did the clothes of his family4 ,some of these farmers were doing their share in helping the progress of agriculture4 ,in #agfd ,joseph ,elkington1 of ,princethorpe in ,warwickshire1 was the first to practise the under drainage of sloping land that was drowned by the bursting of springs4 ,he drained some fields at ,princethorpe which were very wet1 and dug a trench #d or #e feet deep for this purpose2 but finding this did not reach the principal body of subjacent water1 he drove an iron bar #d feet below the bottom of his trench and on withdrawing it the water gushed out4 ,he was thus led to combine the system of cutting drains1 aided when necessary by auger holes4 ,his main principles were three3 7#a7 ,finding the main spring1 or cause of the mischief4 7#b7 ,taking the level of that spring and ascertaining its subterranean bearings1 for if the drain is cut a yard below the line of the spring the water issuing from it cannot be reached1 but on ascertaining the line by levelling the spring can be cut effectually4 7#c7 ,using the auger to tap the spring when the drain was not deep enough for the purpose4#dhc ,it was owing to the ,board of ,agriculture at the end of the century that he obtained the vote of #a1jjj from ,parliament1 and a skilful surveyor was appointed to observe his methods and give them to the public1 for he was too ignorant himself to give an intelligible account of his system4 ,after the publication of the report his system was followed generally until ,smith of ,deanston in #ahce gave the method now in use to his country4 ,robert ,bakewell1 who did more to improve live stock than any other man1 was born at ,dishley1 ,leicestershire1 in #agce1 and succeeding to the management of his father's farm in #agfj began to make experiments in breeding4#dhd ,he scorned the old idea that the blood must be constantly varied by the mixture of different breeds1 and his new system differed from the old in two chief points3 7#a7 small versus large bone1 and consequently a greater proportion of flesh and a greater tendency to fatten2 7#b7 permissible in-breeding versus perpetual crossing with strange breeds4 ,he took immense pains in selecting the best animals to breed from1 and had at ,dishley a museum of skeletons and pickled specimens for the comparison of one generation with another1 and he conducted careful post-mortem examinations on his stock4 ,his great production was the new ,leicester breed of sheep1#dhe which in half a century spread over every part of the ,united ,kingdom1 as well as to ,europe and ,america1 and gave ,england #b lb4 of meat where she had one before4 ,sheep at this time were divided into two main classes3 7#a7 short-woolled or field sheep1 fed in the open fields2 7#b7 long-woolled or pasture sheep1 fed in enclosures4 ,that they were not at a very high state of perfection may be gathered from this description of the chief variety of the latter1 the ',warwickshire' breed3 'his frame large and loose1 his bones heavy1 his legs long and thick1 his chine as well as his rump as sharp as a hatchet1 his skin rattling on his ribs like a skeleton covered with parchments4' ,the origin of the new ,leicester sheep is uncertain1 but apparently the old ,lincoln breed was the basis of it1 though this1 like other large breeds of ,english sheep1 was itself an introduction of the last half century4 ,the new sheep was described as having a clean head1 straight broad flat back1 barrel-like body1 fine small eyes1 thin feet1 mutton fat1 fine-grained and of good flavour1 wool #h lb4 to the fleece1 and wethers at two years old weighed from #bj to #cj lb4 a quarter4 ,by #aggj his rams were hired for #be guineas a season1 and soon after he made #c1jjj a year by their hire1 one named ',two-pounder' bringing him #a1bjj guineas in one year4 ,one of his theories was that the poorer the land the more it demanded well-made sheep1 which is no doubt true to a certain extent2 but it has been proved conclusively since that the quality of the breed gradually drops to the level of the land unless artificially assisted4 ,at his death he left two distinct breeds of sheep1 for he improved on his own new ,leicester1 so that the improved became the ',new ,leicester' and the former the ',old ,leicester4' ,however1 at the time and1 afterwards1 his sheep were generally called ',new ,leicesters'1 and sometimes the ',dishley breed'4 ,there was much prejudice among farmers against the new breed2 in the ,midlands most of the farmers would have nothing to do with them1 and 'their grounds were stocked with creatures that would disgrace the meanest lands in the kingdom4' ,yet in ,april1 #aghf1 yearling wethers of the new breed were sold for #bhs4 while those of the old were #afs4 ,the cattle which he set to work to improve were the famous old longhorn breed1 the prevailing breed of the ,midlands1 which had already been considerably improved by ,webster of ,canley in ,warwickshire1 and others1 especially in ,lancashire and the north4 ,the kind of cattle esteemed hitherto had been 'the large1 long-bodied1 big-boned1 coarse1 flat-sided kind1 and often lyery or black-fleshed4'#dhf ,he founded his herd upon two heifers of ,webster's and a bull from ,westmoreland1 and from these bred all his cattle4 ,the celebrated bull ',twopenny' was a son of the ,westmoreland bull and one of these heifers1 who came to be celebrated in agricultural history as ',old ,comely'1 for she was slaughtered at the age of twenty-six4 ,he bred his cattle so that they produced an enormous amount of fat1 as hitherto there had been a difficulty in producing animals to fatten readily2 but this he pushed to too great an extreme1 so that there has been a reaction4 ,the following is a description of a six-year-old bull1 got by ',twopenny' out of a ,canley cow3 ',his head1 chest1 and neck remarkably fine and clean2 his chest extraordinarily deep2 his brisket bearing down to his knees2 his chine thin1 loin narrow at the chine1 but remarkably wide at the hips4 ,quarters long1 round bones snug1 but thighs rather full and remarkably let down4 ,the carcase throughout1 chine excepted1 large1 roomy1 deep1 and well spread4'#dhg ,the new longhorn1 however good for the grazier1 was not a good milker4 ,bakewell was a great believer in straw as a food1 and strongly objected to having it trodden into manure2 his beasts were largely fed on it1 in such small quantities that they greedily ate what was before them and wasted little4 ,his activity was not confined to the breeding of cattle and sheep1 for he also produced a breed of black horses1 thick and short in the body1 with very short legs and very powerful1 two ploughing #d acres a day1 a statement which seems much exaggerated2 and was famous for his skill in irrigating meadows1 by which he could cut grass four times a year4 ,he was a firm believer in the wisdom of treating stock gently and kindly1 and his sheep were kept as clean as racehorses4 ,a visitor to ,dishley saw a bull of huge proportions1 with enormous horns1 led about by a boy of seven4 ,he travelled much1 and admired the farms of ,norfolk most in ,england1 and those of ,holland and ,flanders abroad1 founding his own system on these4 ,it was his opinion that the ,devon breed of cattle were incapable of improvement by a cross of any other breed1 and that from the ,west ,highland heifer the best breed of cattle might be produced4 ,he died in #agie1 and apparently did not keep what he made1 owing largely to his boundless hospitality1 which had entertained ,russian princes1 ,german royal dukes1 ,english peers1 and travellers from all countries4 ,his breed of cattle has completely disappeared1 unless traces survive in the lately resuscitated longhorn breed1 but his principles are still acted upon1 viz4 the correlation of form1 and the practice of consanguineous breeding under certain conditions4 ,bakewell's earliest pupil was ,george ,culley1 who devoted himself to improving the breed of cattle1 and became one of the most famous agriculturists at the end of the eighteenth and the commencement of the nineteenth centuries4 ,another farmer to whom ,english agriculture owes much was ,john ,ellman of ,glynde1 born in #agec1 who by careful selection firmly established the reputation of the ,southdown sheep which had previously been hardly recognized4 ,he was one of the founders of the ,smithfield ,cattle ,show in #agic1 which helped materially to improve the live stock of the country4 ,the relations between landlord and tenant1 judging from the accounts of contemporary writers1 were generally good4 ,leases were less frequent than agreements voidable by six months' notice on either side1 and when there was a tenancy-at-will the tenant who entered as a young man was often expected to hand on the holding to his posterity1 and therefore executed improvements at his own cost1 so complete was the trust between landlord and tenant4 ,tenants then did much that they would refuse to do to-day1 as the following lease1 common in the ,midlands in #aghf1 shows#dhh3 ,tenant agrees to take1 c41 and to pay the stipulated rent within forty days1 without any deduction for taxes1 and double rent so long as he continues to hold after notice given4 ,to repair buildings1 accidents by fire excepted4 ,to repair gates and fences4 ,when required1 to cut and plash the hedges1 and make the ditches #c feet by #b feet1 or pay or cause to be paid to the landlord #as4 per rood for such as shall not be done after three months' notice has been given in writing4 ,not to break up certain lands specified in the schedule1 'under #bj an acre4' ,not to plough more than a specified number of acres of the rest of the land in any one year1 under the same penalty4 ,to forfeit the same sum for every acre that shall be ploughed for any longer time than three crops successively1 without making a clean summer fallow thereof after the third crop4 ,and the like sum for every acre over and above a specified number 7clover excepted7 that shall be mown in any one year4 ,at the time of laying down arable lands to grass he shall manure them with #h quarters of lime per acre1 and sow the same with #ab lb4 of clover seeds1 and one bushel of rye-grass per acre4 ,shall spend on the premises all hay1 straw1 and manure1 or leave them at the end of the term4 ,tenant on quitting to be allowed for hay left on the premises1 for clover and rye-grass sown in the last year1 and for all fallows made within that time4'#dhi ,a striking picture of the conditions prevailing in many parts of ,england at this period is given by ,mr4 ,loch in his account of the estates of the ,marquis of ,stafford4#dij ,when this nobleman inherited his property in ,staffordshire and ,shropshire1 much of the land1 as in other parts of ,england1 was held on leases for three lives1 a system said to have been ruinous in its effects4 ,although the farms were held at one-third of their value1 nothing could be worse than the course of cultivation pursued1 no improvements were carried out1 and all that could be hoped for was that the land would not be entirely run out when the lease expired4 ,the closes were extremely small and of the most irregular shape2 the straggling fences occupied a large portion of the land2 the crookedness of the ditches1 by keeping the water stagnant1 added to1 rather than relieved1 the wetness of the soil4 ,farms were much scattered1 and to enable the occupiers to get at their land1 lanes wound backwards and forwards from field to field1 covering a large quantity of ground4 ,it is to the great credit of the ,marquis of ,stafford that this miserable state of things was swept away4 ,lands were laid together1 the size of the fields enlarged1 hedges and ditches straightened1 the drainage conducted according to a uniform plan1 new and substantial buildings erected1 indeed the whole countryside transformed4 ,another evil custom on the estate had been to permit huts of miserable construction to be erected to the number of several hundreds by the poorest1 and in many instances the most profligate1 of the population4 ,they were not regularly entered in the rental account1 but had a nominal payment fixed upon them which was paid annually at the court leet4 ,these cottages were built on the sides of the roads and on the lord's waste1 which was gradually absorbed by the encroachment1 which the occupiers of these huts made from time to time by enclosing the land that lay next them4 ,these wretched holdings gradually fell into the hands of a body of middlemen1 who underlet them at an extravagant rent to the occupiers2 and these men began to consider that they had an interest independent of the landlord1 and had at times actually mortgaged1 sold1 and devised it4 ,this abuse was also put an end to1 the cottagers being made immediate tenants of the landlord1 to their great gain1 but to this day small aggregations of houses in ,shropshire called ',heaths' mark the encroachments of these squatters on the roadside wastes4 ,this class1 indeed1 has been well known in ,england since the ,middle ,ages4 ,norden speaks of them in #afjb1 and so do many subsequent writers4 ,numbers of small holdings exist to-day obtained in this manner1 and the custom must to some extent have counteracted the effect of enclosure4#dia ,the roads of ,england up to the end of the eighteenth century were generally in a disgraceful condition4 ,some improvement was effected in the latter half of the century1 but it was not until the days of ,telford and ,macadam that they assumed the appearance with which we are familiar2 and long after that1 though the main roads were excellent1 the by-roads were often atrocious1 as readers of such books as ,handley ,cross1 written in the middle of the nineteenth century1 will remember4 ,defoe in his tour in #agbd found the road between ,s4 ,albans and ,nottingham 'perfectly frightful1' and the great number of horses killed by the 'labour of these heavy ways a great charge to the country'4 ,he notes1 however1 an improvement from turnpikes4 ,many of the roads were much worn by the continual passing of droves of heavy cattle on their way to ,london4 ,sheep could not travel in the winter to ,london as the roads were too heavy1 so that the price of mutton at that season in town was high4 ,breeders were often compelled to sell them cheap before they got to ,london1 because the roads became impassable for their flocks when the bad weather set in4#dib ,in #agcd ,lord ,cathcart wrote in his diary3 ',all went well until ,i arrived within #c miles of ,doncaster1 when suddenly my horse fell with a crash and with me under him4 ,i fancied myself crushed to death4 ,i slept at ,doncaster and had a bad night4 ,i was so bad all day1 that ,i could get no further than ,wetherby4 ,next day ,i was all right again4 ,i had another terrible fall between ,north ,allerton and ,darlington1 but was not a bit the worse4'#dic ,it was owing to this defective condition of the roads that the prices of corn still differed greatly in various localities2 there would be a glut in one place and a deficiency in another1 with no means of equalizing matters4 ,to the same cause must be attributed in great measure the slow progress made in the improvement of agriculture4 ,new discoveries travelled very slowly2 the expense of procuring manure beyond that produced on the farm was prohibitive2 and the uncertain returns which arose from such confined markets caused the farmer to lack both spirit and ability to exert himself in the cultivation of his land4#did ,therefore farming was limited to procuring the subsistence of particular farms rather than feeding the public4 ,the opposition to better roads was due in great measure to the landowners1 who feared that if the markets in their neighbourhood were rendered accessible to distant farmers their estates would suffer4 ,but they were not alone in their opposition2 in the reign of ,queen ,anne the people of ,northampton were against any improvement in the navigation of the ,nene1 because they feared that corn from ,huntingdon and ,cambridge would come up the river and spoil their market4#die ,horner was very enthusiastic over the improvement recently effected3 'our very carriages travel with almost winged expedition between every town of consequence in the kingdom and the metropolis' and inland navigation was soon likely to be established in every part1 in consequence of which the demand for the produce of the land increased and the land itself became more valuable and rents rose4 ',there never was a more astonishing revolution accomplished in the internal system of any country'2 and the carriage of grain was effected with half the former number of horses4 ,it is clear1 however1 that he was easily satisfied1 and this opinion must be compared with the statements of ,young and ,marshall1 who were continually travelling all over ,england some time after it was written1 and found the roads1 in many parts1 in a very bad state4 ,even near ,london they were often terrible4 ',of all the cursed roads that ever disgraced this kingdom in the very ages of barbarism1 none ever equalled that from ,billericay to the ,king's ,head at ,tilbury4#dif ,it is for near #ab miles so narrow that a mouse cannot pass by any carriage4 ,i saw a fellow creep under his wagon to assist me to lift1 if possible1 my chaise over a hedge4 ,the ruts are of an incredible depth1 and everywhere chalk wagons were stuck fast till #bj or #cj horses tacked to each drew them out one by one' ,others said that turnpike roads were the enemies of cheapness2 as soon as they opened up secluded spots1 low prices vanished and all tended to one level4 ,owing to the work of ,telford and ,macadam1 the high roads by the first quarter of the nineteenth century attained a high pitch of excellence2 and were thronged with traffic1 coaches1 postchaises1 private carriages1 equestrians1 carts and wagons3 so animated a sight that our forefathers built small houses called 'gazebos' on the sides of the road1 where they met to take tea and watch the ever varying stream4 ,it should not be forgotten1 too1 that the inns1 where numbers of horses put up1 were splendid markets for the farmers' oats1 hay1 and straw4 ,the seasons in the latter part of the eighteenth century were distinguished for being frequently bad4 ,in #aggd ,gilbert ,white wrote1 ',such a run of wet seasons as we have had the last ten or eleven years would have produced a famine a century or two ago4' ,owing to the dearness of bread in #agfg riots broke out in many places1 many lives were lost1 and the gaols were filled with prisoners4#dig #aggi was1 however1 a year of great fertility and prices were low all round3 wheat #ccs4 #h;d41 barley #bfs41 oats #acs4 #f;d41 wool #abs4 a tod of #bh lb43 and there were many complaints of ruined farmers and distressed landlords4 ,though ,england was now becoming an importing country1 the amount of corn imported was insufficient to have any appreciable effect on prices1 which were mainly influenced by the seasons1 as the following instance of the fluctuations caused by a single bad season 7#aghb7 testifies#dih3 ,prices after harvest of #agha4 ,prices after harvest of #aghb4 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,wheat1 per bushel #e #j ,wheat1 per bushel #aj #f ,barley #b #i ,barley #g #b ,dutch oats for seed #a #h ,dutch oats for seed #c #f ,clover seed1 per cwt4 #a #aa #f ,clover seed1 per cwt4 #e #aj #j ,the summer of #aghc was amazing and portentous and full of horrible phenomena1 according to ,white1 with a peculiar haze or smoky fog prevailing for many weeks4 ',the sun at noon looked as blank as a clouded moon1 and shed a rust-coloured ferruginous light on the ground and floors of rooms4' ,this was succeeded by a very severe winter1 the thermometer on ,december #aj being #a below zero2 the worst since #agci-dj4 ,in #aghh occurred a severe drought in the summer1 #e1jjj horned cattle perishing for lack of water4#dii ,in #agia there was a remarkable change of temperature in the middle of ,june1 the thermometer in a few days falling from #ge to #be1 and the hills of ,kent and ,surrey were covered with snow4 ,we have now to deal with one of those landowners whose great example is one of the glories of ,english agriculture4 ,coke of ,holkham began his great agricultural work about #aggf on an estate where1 as old ,lady ,townshend said1 'all you will see will be one blade of grass and two rabbits fighting for that2' in fact it was little better than a rabbit warren4 ,it has been said that all the wheat consumed in the county of ,norfolk was at this time imported from abroad2 but this is in direct contradiction to ,young's assertion1 already noted1 that there were in #agfg great quantities of wheat besides other crops in the county4 ,coke's estate indeed seems to have been considerably behind many parts of the shire when he began his farming career4#ejj ,when ,coke came into his estate1 in five leases which were about to expire the farms were held at #cs4 #f;d4 an acre2 and in the previous leases they had been #as4 #f;d4 an acre4 ,we may judge of the quality of this land by comparing it with the average rent of #ajs4 which ,young says prevailed at this time4 ,with a view to remedy this state of things he studied the agriculture of other counties1 and his observations thereon reveal a very poor kind of farming in many places3 in ,cheshire the rich pasture was wasted and the poor impoverished by sheer ignorance1 in ,yorkshire luxuriant grass was understocked1 in ,shropshire there were hardly any sheep2 in his own part of ,norfolk the usual rotation was three white straw crops and then broadcast turnips4#eja ,this ,coke changed to two white crops and two years pasture1 and he dug up and brought to the surface the rich marl which lay under the flint and sand1 so that clover and grasses began to grow4 ,so successful was he in this that in #agif he cut nearly #djj tons of sainfoin from #ajd acres of land previously valued at #abs4 an acre4 ,he increased his flock of sheep from #hjj worthless animals with backs as narrow as rabbits1 the description of the ,norfolk sheep of the day1 to #b1ejj good ,southdowns4 ,encouraged by the ,duke of ,bedford1 another great agriculturist1 he started a herd of ,north ,devons1 and1 fattening two ,devons against one ,shorthorn1 found the former weighed #adj stone1 the latter #aaj1 and the ,shorthorn had eaten more food than the two ,devons4 ,however1 a single experiment of this kind is not very conclusive4 ,the ploughs of ,norfolk were1 as in many other counties1 absurdly over-horsed1 from three to five being used when only two were necessary2 so ,coke set the example of using two whenever possible1 and won a bet with ,sir ,john ,sebright by ploughing an acre of stiff land in ,hertfordshire in a day with a pair of horses4 ,he transformed the bleak bare countryside by planting #ej acres of trees every year until he had #c1jjj acres well covered1 and in #ahcb had probably the unique experience of embarking in a ship which was built of oak grown from the acorns he had himself planted4#ejb ,between #aggf and #ahdb 7the date of his death7 he is said to have spent #ecf1iib on improving his estate1 without reckoning the large sums spent on his house and demesne1 the home farm1 and his marsh farm of #dei acres4 ,this expenditure paid in the long run1 but when he entered upon it1 it must have seemed very doubtful if this would be the case4 ,a good understanding between landlord and tenant was the basis of his policy1 and to further this he let his farms on long leases1 at moderate rents1 with few restrictions4 ,when farmers improved their holdings on his estate the rent was not raised on them1 so that the estate benefited greatly1 and good tenants were often rewarded by having excellent houses built for them2 so good1 indeed1 that his political opponents the ,tories1 whom he1 as a staunch ,whig detested1 made it one of their complaints against him that he built palaces for farmhouses4 ,at first he met with that stolid opposition to progress which seems the particular characteristic of the farmer4 ,for sixteen years no one followed him in the use of the drill1 though it was no new thing2 and when it was adopted he reckoned its use spread at the rate of a mile a year4 ,yet eventually he had his reward2 his estate came to command the pick of ,english tenant farmers1 who never left it except through old age1 and would never live under any other landlord4 ,even the ,radical ,cobbett1 to whom1 as to most of his party1 landlords were1 and are1 the objects of inveterate hatred1 said that every one who knew him spoke of him with affection4 ,coke was the first to distinguish between the adaptability of the different kinds of grass seeds to different soils1 and thereby made the hitherto barren lands of his estate better pasture land than that of many rich counties4 ,carelessness about the quality of grasses sown was universal for a long time4 ,the farmer took his seeds from his own foul hayrick1 or sent to his neighbour for a supply of rubbish2 even ,bakewell derived his stock from his hayloft4 ,it was not until the ,society for the ,encouragement of ,arts offered prizes for clean hay seeds that some improvement was noticeable4 ,in ,norfolk1 as in other parts of ,england1 there was at this time a strong prejudice against potatoes2 the villagers of ,holkham refused to have anything to do with them1 but ,coke's invincible persistency overcame this unreasoning dislike and soon they refused to do without them4 ,coke was a great advocate for sowing wheat early and very thick in the rows1 and for cutting it when ear and stem were green and the grain soft1 declaring that by so doing he got #bs4 a quarter more for it2 he also believed in the early cutting of oats and peas4 ,it was his custom to drill #d bushels of wheat per acre1 which he said prevented tillering and mildew4 ,he was the first to grow swedes on a large scale4#ejc ,the famous ,holkham ,sheep-shearings1 known locally as ',coke's ,clippings'1 which began in #aggh and lasted till #ahba1 arose from his practice of gathering farmers together for consultation on matters agricultural1 and developed into world-famous meetings attended by all nationalities and all ranks1 men journeying from ,america especially to attend them1 and ,lafayette expressed it as one of his great regrets that he had never attended one4 ,at these gatherings all were equal1 the suggestion of the smallest tenant farmer was listened to with respect1 and the same courtesy and hospitality were shown to all whether prince or farmer4 ,at the last meeting in #ahba no less than #g1jjj people were present4 ,his skill1 energy1 and perseverance worked a revolution in the crops2 his own wheat crops were from #aj to #ab coombs an acre1 his barley sometimes nearly #bj4 ,the annual income of timber and underwood was #b1gjj1 and from #aggf to #ahaf he increased the rent roll of his estate from #b1bjj to #bj1jjj1 which1 even after allowing for the great advance in prices during that period1 is a wonderful rise4 ,it is a very significant fact that there was not an alehouse on the estate1 and in connexion with this1 and with the fact that his improvements made a constant demand for labour1 we are not surprised to learn that the workhouse was pulled down as useless1 for it was always empty1 and this at a time when the working-classes of ,england were pauperized to an alarming degree4 ,the year #ahah was one of terrible distress all over ,england in country and town1 yet at his sheep-shearing of that year ,coke was enabled to say he had trebled the population of his estate and not a single person was out of employment1 though everywhere else farmers were turning off hands and cutting down wages4 ,principally through his agency1 between #ahjd and #ahba1 no less than #aec enclosures took place in ,norfolk1 while between #agij and #ahaj1 #b1jjj1jjj acres of waste land in ,england were brought under cultivation largely by his efforts4 ,he is said1 indeed1 to have transformed agriculture throughout ,england1 and1 but for that1 the country would not have been able to grow enough food for its support during the war with ,napoleon1 and must have succumbed4 ,,footnotes3 #ddj ,northern ,tour1 i4 #i4 ,for an interesting account of ,young1 see ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal 7#crd ,series71 iv4 #a4 #dda ,in #agbf ,bradley had urged the use of liquorice1 madder1 woad1 and caraway as improvers of the land in the ,preface to the ,country ,gentleman4 #ddb ,rural ,economy 7#agga71 pp4 #agc-e4 ,trusler1 who wrote in #aghj1 mentions 'the general rage for farming throughout the kingdom4'--,practical ,husbandry1 p4 ,i4 #ddc ,in #aghj ,sir ,thomas ,bernard1 travelling through ,northumberland1 saw 'luxuriant plantations1 neat hedges1 rich crops of corn1 comfortable farmhouses' in a county whereof the greater part was barren moor dearly rented at #as4 #f;d4 an acre thirty years before1 and he said the county had increased in annual value fourfold1 7,contemporary ,,ms41 unpublished47 #ddd ,rural ,economy1 p4 #bf4 #dde ,farmer's ,letters 7#crd ed471 p4 #hi4 #ddf ,slater1 ,english ,peasantry and ,enclosure1 p4 #ie4 #ddg ,ibid4 p4 #aja4 #ddh ,young1 ,northern ,tour1 iv4 #cdj1 about #aggj estimates the cultivated land of ,england to be half pasture and half arable1 and1 in the absence of reliable statistics1 his opinion on this point is certainly the best available4 ,the conversion of a large portion of the richer land from arable to grass in the eighteenth century was compensated for1 according to ,young1 by the conversion1 on enclosure1 of poor sandy soils and heaths or moors into corn land4 ,hasbach1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cgj-a4 #ddi ,young1 ,northern ,tour1 i4 #bbb4 #dej ,rural ,economy1 p4 #beb4 #dea ,ibid4 p4 #bga4 #deb ,cf4 above1 p4 #ahj4 #dec ,farmer's ,letters 7#crd ed71 p4 #cgb4 #ded ,northern ,tour1 iv4 #afg4 #dee ,ibid4 iv4 #ahf4 #def ,this large item is explained by the fact that a bailiff was employed to sell1 and no bailiff could find customers 'without feeling the same drought as stage coachmen when they see a sign'4--,young1 ,farmer's ,letters1 p4 #djc4 #deg ,rural ,economy1 p4 #cad4 #deh #agge1 pp4 x-xiii4 #dei ,northern ,tour1 iv4 #aib-bjb4 #dfj ,see ,parliamentary ,reports ,commission 7#ahha71 xvi4 #bfj4 #dfa ,dissertations on ,rural ,subjects1 p4 #bgh4 #dfb ,farmer's ,letters1 p4 #dcc4 #dfc ,history of ,hawsted1 p4 #afi4 #dfd ,hasbach1 op4 cit4 p4 #abg2 ,kent1 ,hints to ,gentlemen1 p4 #aeb4 #dfe ,southern ,tour1 p4 #cbd4 ,he says nothing of the manufacturing towns1 which had not yet began to influence the wages of farm labourers near them as they soon afterwards did4 #dff ,some prices at this time were3 bread per lb41 #b;d42 butter1 #e-a_/b;d4 to #h;d42 cheese1 #c-a_/b;d4 to #d;d42 beef1 #c;d4 to #e;d42 mutton1 #c-a_/b;d4 to #e;d4 #dfg ,state of the ,poor1 i4 #efb4 #dfh ,according to ,walter ,harte1 though the yeoman in the middle of the seventeenth century ate bread of rye and barley 7maslin71 in #agff even the poor cottagers looked upon it with horror and demanded best wheaten bread4 ,yet in #agff the quartern loaf in ,london was #as4 #f;d4--,tooke1 ,history of ,prices1 i4 #fh4 #dfi ,history of ,hawsted1 p4 #ahd4 #dgj ,eden1 ,state of the ,poor1 i4 #eac4 #dga ,rural ,economy of ,gloucestershire1 i4 #ec4 #dgb ,eden1 op4 cit4 i4 #edg4 #dgc ,farmer's ,letters1 i4 #cjj #dgd ,the pulling down of cottages began to be complained of in the seventeenth century2 they harboured the poor1 who were a charge upon the parish1 and repairs were saved4--,transactions ,royal ,historical ,society 7,new ,series71 xix4 #abj4 #dge ,hasbach1 op4 cit4 #hb2 ,clarke1 ,general ,view of ,herefordshire1 p4 #bi2 ,marshall1 ,review of ,northern ,department1 p4 #cge4 #dgf ,tooke1 ,history of ,prices1 i4 #ej2 ,hallam1 ,constitutional ,history1 iii4 #cjb4 #dgg ,northern ,tour1 iv4 #dbj4 ,the increase in population in the first half of the eighteenth century was slow2 after the ,peace of ,paris in #agfc1 when the commerce and manufactures of the country were extended in an unprecedented degree1 it was rapid4 #dgh ,the ,way to be ,rich and ,respectable1 ,london1 #aghj4 #dgi ,grose1 ,olio1 pp4 #da-d2 ,lecky1 ,history of ,england in ,eighteenth ,century1 vi4 #afi et4 seq4 #dhj ,cullum1 ,history of ,hawsted1 p4 #bai4 #dha ,cullum1 ,history of ,hawsted1 p4 #bbe4 #dhb ,thoughts on ,enclosure1 by a ,country ,farmer 7#aghf71 p4 #ba4 #dhc ,johnstone1 ,account of ,elkington's ,draining 7#agig71 pp4 #h-i4 #dhd ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal 7#ahid71 p4 #aa1 from which this account of ,bakewell is mainly taken4 #dhe ,according to some1 ,joseph ,allom originated the breed1 and ,bakewell vastly improved it4 ,we may safely give the chief credit to so careful and gifted a breeder as ,bakewell4 #dhf ,culley on ,live ,stock 7#ahjg71 p4 #ef4 #dhg ,marshall1 ,rural ,economy of the ,midland ,counties1 i4 #bgc4 #dhh ,victoria ,county ,history3 ,warwickshire1 ,agriculture4 #dhi ,in ,lancashire at this date it was not uncommon1 when a tenant wished for his farm or a particular field to be improved by draining1 marling1 liming1 or laying down to grass1 to hand it over to the landlord for the process2 who1 when completed1 returned it to the tenant with an advanced rent of #aj per cent4 upon the improvements4--,marshall1 ,review of ,reports to ,board of ,agriculture 7under ,lancashire74 #dij #ahbj1 p4 #agc et seq4 #dia ,see ,hasbach1 op4 cit4 pp4 #gg sq42 ,annals of ,agriculture1 xxxvi4 #dig2 ,scrutton1 ,commons and ,common ,fields1 p4 #aci4 #dib ,defoe1 ,tour1 ii4 #agh et seq4 #dic ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal 7#crd ,ser471 ii4 #i4 #did ,horner1 ,inquiry into the ,means of ,preserving the ,public ,roads 7#agfg71 pp4 #d et seq4 #die ,victoria ,county ,history3 ,northants41 ii4 #bej4 #dif ,young1 ,southern ,tour 7ed4 #b71 p4 #hh4 #dig ,tooke1 ,history of ,prices1 i4 #fh4 ,it is difficult to understand the price of the quartern loaf1 #as4 #f;d4 in #agff1 as wheat was only #dcs4 #a;d4 a quarter4 ,prices of wheat in these years were3 s4 d4 #agfg #dg #d #agfh #ec #i #agfi #dj #g #aggj #dc #f #agga #dg #b #aggb #ej #h #aggc #ea #j #aggd #eb #h #agge #dh #d #aggf #ch #b #aggg #de #f #aggh #db #j #aggi #cc #h ,these returns differ from those of the ,board of ,agriculture2 see ,appendix ,,iii4 #dih ,annals of ,agriculture1 iii4 #cff4 #dii ,baker1 ,seasons and ,prices1 pp4 #bbd et seq4 #ejj ,a4 ,stirling1 ,coke of ,holkham1 i4 #bdi4 #eja ,but in other parts of it the cultivation of turnips was well understood1 for the ,complete ,farmer1 s4v4 ,turnips 7ed4 #c71 says that about #agej ,norfolk farmers boasted that turnips had doubled the value of their holdings1 and ,norfolk men were famous for understanding hoeing and thinning1 which were little practised elsewhere4 ,further1 ,young1 ,southern ,tour1 p4 #bgc1 says3 'the extensive use of turnips is known but little of except in ,norfolk1 ,suffolk1 and ,essex4 ,i found no farmers but in these counties that understood anything of fatting cattle with them2 feeding lean sheep being the only use they put them to4' #ejb ,a4 ,stirling1 op4 cit4 i4 #bfd4 #ejc ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal 7#ahie71 p4 #ab4 ,,chapter ,,xvii #agic-ahae ,,the ,,great ,,french ,,war4--,,the ,,board ,,of ,,agriculture4--,,high ,,prices1 ,,and ,,heavy ,,taxation4 ,this period1 that of the great war with ,france1 was one generally of high prices and prosperity for landowners and farmers4 ,it was a prosperity1 however1 that was largely fictitious1 and when the high prices of the war time were over1 it was succeeded by many disastrous years4 ,the prosperity1 too1 was also largely neutralized by a crushing weight of taxation and rates1 while the labourer1 although his wages were increased1 found prices grow at a much greater rate1 and it was1 as ,thorold ,rogers has said1 the most miserable period in his history4 ,its commencement was marked by the foundation of the ,board of ,agriculture4 ,on ,may #ae1 #agic1 ,sir ,john ,sinclair#ejd moved in the ,house of ,commons1 'that ,his ,majesty would take into his consideration the advantages which might be derived from the establishment of such a board1 for though in some particular districts improved methods of cultivating the soil were practised1 yet in the greatest part of these kingdoms the principles of agriculture are not sufficiently understood1 nor are the implements of husbandry or the stock of the farmer brought to that perfection of which they are capable4 ,his ,majesty's faithful ,commons were persuaded that if it were founded a spirit of improvement might be encouraged1 which would result in important national benefits4 ,the motion was carried by #aja to #bf4 ,by its charter the board consisted of a president1 #af ex-officio and #cj ordinary members1 with honorary and corresponding members4 ,it was not a ,government department in the modern sense of the term1 but a society for the encouragement of agriculture1 as the ,royal ,society is for the encouragement of science4 ,it was1 indeed1 supported by parliamentary grants1 receiving a sum of #c1jjj a year1 but the ,government had only a limited control over its affairs through the ex-officio members1 among whom were the ,archbishops of ,canterbury and ,york1 the ,lord ,chancellor1 the ,first ,lord of the ,admiralty1 and the ,speaker4 ,the first president was ,sir ,john ,sinclair1 and the first secretary ,arthur ,young1 with a salary of #djj a year1 which he thought insufficient4#eje ,the first task of the new board was that of preparing statistical accounts of ,english agriculture1 and it was intended to take in hand the commutation of tithes1 which would have been a great boon to farmers1 with whom the prevailing system of collecting tithes was very unpopular2 but the ,primate's opposition stopped this4 ,the board appointed lecturers1 procured a reward for ,elkington for his draining system1 encouraged ,macadam in his plans for improving roads1 and ,meikle the inventor of the thrashing machine1 and obtained the removal of taxes on draining tiles1 and other taxes injurious to agriculture4 ,it also recommended the allotment system1 and ,sinclair desired #c acres and a cow for every industrious cottager4 ,during the abnormally high prices of provisions from #agid-f1 the quartern loaf in ,london in #agie being #as4 #f;d41 though next year it dropped to #g-c_/d;d41#ejf the board made experiments in making bread with substitutes for wheat1 which resulted in a public exhibition of eighty different sorts of bread4 ,its efforts were generally followed by increased zeal among agriculturists2 but ,sinclair1 an able but impetuous man1#ejg appears to have taken things too much into his own hands and pushed them too speedily4 ,financial difficulties came1 chiefly owing to the cost of the surveys1 which had been hurried on with undue haste and often with great carelessness1 the surveyors sometimes being men who knew nothing of the subject4 ,sinclair was deposed from the presidency in #agih1 and succeeded by ,lord ,somerville4 ,he again was succeeded by ,lord ,carrington1 under whose presidency the board offered premiums 7the first of #bjj71 owing to the high price of wheat and consequent distress1 for essays on the best means of converting certain portions of grass land into tillage without exhausting the soil1 and of returning the same to grass1 after a certain period1 in an improved state1 or at least without injury4 ,the general report1 based on the information derived from these essays1 states that no high price of corn or temporary distress would justify the ploughing up of old meadows or rich pastures1 and that on certain soils well adapted to grass age improves the quality of the pasture to a degree which no system of management on lands broken up and laid down can equal4 ,in spite of this1 the cupidity of landowners and farmers1 when wheat was a guinea a bushel or at prices near it1 led to the ploughing up of much splendid grass land1 which was never laid down again until1 perhaps in recent years1 owing to the low price of grain2 so that some of the land at all events has1 owing to bad times1 returned to the state best suited to it4 ,the board looked upon the enclosure and cultivation of waste lands1 which in ,england they estimated at #f1jjj1jjj acres1#ejh as a panacea for the prevailing distress1 and after much opposition they managed to pass through both ,houses in #ahja a ,bill cheapening and facilitating the process of parliamentary enclosure4 ,this ,act1 #da ,geo4 ,,iii1 c4 #aji1 'extracted a number of clauses from various private ,acts and enacted that they should hold good in all cases where the special ,act did not expressly provide to the contrary4' ,another benefit rendered to agriculture was the establishment in #ahjc of lectures on agricultural chemistry1 the first lecturer engaged being ,mr41 afterwards ,sir ,humphry1 ,davy1 who may be regarded as the father of agricultural chemistry4 ,in #ahjf ,sinclair was re-elected president1 and his second term was mainly devoted to completing the agricultural surveys of the different counties1 which1 before his retirement in #ahac1 he had with one or two exceptions the satisfaction of seeing finished4 ,though over-impetuous1 he rendered valuable service to agriculture1 not only by his own energy but by stirring up energy in others2 as ,william ,wilberforce the philanthrophist said1 ',i have myself seen collected in that small room several of the noblemen and gentlemen of the greatest properties in the ,british ,isles1 all of them catching and cultivating an agricultural spirit1 and going forth to spend in the employment of labourers1 and ,i hope in the improvement of land1 immense sums which might otherwise have been lavished on hounds and horses1 or squandered on theatricals4' ,among the numerous subjects into which the board inquired was the divining rod for finding water1 which was tested in ,hyde ,park in #ahja1 and successfully stood the test4 ,in #ahje1 ,davy the chemist reported on a substance in ,south ,america called 'guana'1 which he had analysed and found to contain one-third of ammoniacal salt with other salts and carbon1 but its use was not to come for another generation4 ,from the time of ,sinclair's retirement in #ahac the board declined4 ,arthur ,young1 its secretary1 had become blind and his capacity therefore impaired4 ,one year its lack of energy was shown by the return of #b1jjj of the ,government grant to the ,treasury because it had nothing to spend it on4 ,the ,prime ,minister1 ,lord ,liverpool1 was against it1 the clergy feared the commutation of tithe which the board advocated1 the legal profession was against the ,enclosure ,act1 the landed interest thought the surveys were intended for purposes of taxation2 and the grant being withdrawn1 an effort to maintain the board by voluntary subscription failed1 so that it dissolved in #ahbb1 after doing much valuable work for ,english agriculture4 ,before its extinction it had held in #ahba1 at ,aldridge's ,repository1 the first national agricultural show4 #fhe was given in prizes1 and the entries included #aj bulls1 #i cows and heifers1 several fat steers and cows1 #g pens of ,leicester and ,cotswold rams and ewes2 #ab pens of ,down1 and #i or #aj pens of ,merino rams and ewes4#eji ,most of the cattle shown were ,shorthorn1 or ,durham1 as they were then called1 with some ,herefords1 ,devons1 ,longhorns1 and ,alderneys4 ,there were also exhibits of grass1 turnip-seed1 roots1 and implements4 ,this first national show had been preceded by many local ones4#eaj ,the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth centuries saw the establishment all over ,england of farmers' clubs1 cattle shows1 and ploughing matches4 ,the period now before us is marked by the great work of the ,collings1 who next to ,bakewell did most to improve the cattle of the ,united ,kingdom4 ,charles ,colling was born in #agea1 and the scene of his famous labours was ,ketton near ,darlington4 ,he had learnt from ,bakewell the all-importance of quality in cattle1 and determined to improve the local ,shorthorn breed near his own home1 which had been described in #agdd as 'the most profitable beasts for the dairyman1 butcher1 and grazier1 with their wide bags1 short horns1 and large bodies4' ,he was to make these 'profitable beasts' the best all-round cattle in the world1 and to succeed where ,george ,culley had failed4 ,the first bull of merit he possessed was ',hubback'1#eaa described as a little yellow1 red1 and white five-year-old1 which was mated with cows afterwards to be famous1 named ,duchess1 ,daisy1 ,cherry1 and ,lady ,maynard4 ,at first ,colling was against in-breeding1 and not until #agic did he adopt it1 more by accident than intention1 but the experiment being successful he became an enthusiast4 ,the experiment was the putting of ,phoenix to ,lord ,bolingbroke1 who was both her half-brother and her nephew1 and the result was the famous ,favourite4 ,a young farmer who saw ,favourite and his sister at ,darlington in #agii1 was so struck by them that he paid ,colling the first #ajj guineas ever given for a ,shorthorn cow4#eab ,one of ,hubback's daughters had in #agie1 by ,favourite1 a roan calf which grew to be the celebrated ,durham ,ox1 which at five and a half years weighed #c1jbd lb41 and was sold for #adj4 ,it was sold again for #bej1 the second purchaser refusing #b1jjj for it1 and taking it round ,england on show made a profitable business out of it1 in one day in ,london making #ig4 ,a still more famous animal was the bull ,comet1 born #ahjd1 which at the great sale in #ahaj fetched #a1jjj guineas4 ,this bull was the crowning triumph of ,colling's career and the result of very close breeding1 being described as the best bull ever seen1 with a fine masculine head1 broad and deep chest1 shoulders well laid back1 loins good1 hind-quarters long1 straight and well packed1 thighs thick1 with nice straight hocks and hind legs4 ,perhaps ,colling thought he had pursued in-and-in breeding too far1 at all events in #ahaj he dispersed his famous herd4 ,the sale was held at a most propitious time1 for the ,durham ,ox had advertised the name of ,colling far and wide1 and owing to the war prices were very high4 ,comet fetched #a1jjj guineas1 and the other forty-seven lots averaged #aea #hs4 #e;d41 an unheard-of sale1 yet all the auctioneer got was #e guineas1 much of the work of the sale falling on the owner1 and the former sold the stock with a sand-glass4 ,after the sale at ,ketton1 ,brampton1 the farm of ,charles's brother ,robert1 became the centre of interest to the ,shorthorn world4 ,robert obtained excellent prices for his stock1 five daughters of his famous bull ,george fetching #bjj guineas each4 ,probably he1 like his brother1 pursued in-and-in breeding too far1 and in #ahah there was another great sale2 but war-prices had gone and agriculture was depressed1 so that the cattle fetched less than at ,ketton1 but still averaged #abh #ads4 #i;d4 for #fa lots1 and #bb rams averaged #ci #fs4 #d;d4 ,robert died in #ahbj1 his brother in #ahcf4 ,it cannot be said that the ,collings were the founders of a new breed of cattle2 they were the collectors and preservers of an ancient breed that might otherwise have disappeared4#eac ,the object of good breeders was now to get their cattle fat at an early age1 and they so far succeeded as to sell three-year-old steers for #bj apiece1 generally fed thus3 in the first winter1 hay and turnips2 the following summer1 coarse pasture2 the second winter1 straw in the foldyard and a few turnips2 next summer1 tolerable good pasture2 and the third winter1 as many turnips as they could eat4#ead ,cattle at this time were classified thus3 ,shorthorns1 ,devons1 ,sussex1 ,herefords 7the two latter said by ,culley to be varieties of the ,devon71 ,longhorned1 ,galloway or ,polled1 ,suffolk ,duns1 ,kyloes1 and ,alderneys4 ,sheep thus3 the ,dishley ,breed 7,new ,leicesters71 ,lincolns1 ,teeswaters1 ,devonshire ,notts1 ,exmoor1 ,dorsetshire1 ,herefordshire1 ,southdown1 ,norfolk1 ,heath1 ,herdwick1 ,cheviot1 ,dunfaced1 ,shetland1 ,irish4#eae ,with the increased demand for corn and meat from the towns the necessity of new and better implements became apparent1 and many patents were taken out3 by ,praed1 for drill ploughs1 in #agha2 by ,horn1 for sowing machines1 in #aghd2 by ,heaton1 for harrows1 in #aghg2 for sowing machines1 by ,sandilands1 #aghh2 for reaping machines1 by ,boyce1 #agii2 winnowing machines1 by ,cooch1 #ahjj2 haymakers1 by ,salmon1 #ahaf2 and for scarifiers1 chaff-cutters1 turnip-slicers1 and food-crushers4#eaf ,but the great innovation was the threshing machine of ,meikle4 ,like most inventions1 it had forerunners4 ,the first threshing machine is mentioned in the ,select ,transactions of the ,society of ,improvers in the ,knowledge of ,agriculture in ,scotland1 published in #agdc by ,maxwell4 ,it was invented by ,michael ,menzies1 and by it one man could do the work of six4 ,one machine was worked by a great water-wheel and triddles1 another by a little wheel of #c feet diameter1 moved by a small quantity of water4 ,the first attempts to substitute horse or other power for manual in threshing were directed to the revolution of jointed flails1 which should strike the floor on which the corn was spread1 but this proved unsatisfactory1 so that rubbing the grain out of the straw by revolving cylinders was tried1#eag ,young1 in his northern tour1 met a ,mr4 ,clarke at ,belford in ,northumberland1 who was famous for mechanics1#eah among his inventions being a threshing machine worked by one horse1 which does not seem to have effected much4 ,eventually ,mr4 ,a4 ,meikle1 of ,houston ,mill near ,haddington1 in #agih erected a machine the principles of which1 much modified1 are those of to-day2 and in #ahjc ,mr4 ,aitchison1 of ,drumore in ,east ,lothian1 first applied steam to threshing4 ,it was some time1 however1 before this beneficent invention was generally used1 and when the machines were used they were usually driven by horse--or water-power until about #ahej4 ,in #ahhc ,messrs4 ,howard1 of ,bedford1 adapted a sheaf-binding apparatus to the threshing machine4 ,with new implements came new crops2 the ,swede turnip was grown on some farms in ,notts just before #ahjj1 but it is not known who introduced it4#eai ,the mangel wurzel was introduced about #aghj-e by ,parkyns1 and prickly comfrey in #ahaa4 ,the year #agie was one of great scarcity owing to the wet and stormy summer1 and in ,august wheat went up to #ajhs4 a quarter4#ebj ,as usual many other causes but the right one were put forth1 and the old accusations of monopoly1 forestalling1 and regrating were heard again4 ,the war with ,france1 with more reason1 was considered to have helped in raising prices1 but the chief cause was the bad season4 ,the members of both ,houses of ,parliament bound themselves to reduce the consumption of bread in their homes by one-third1 and recommended others to a similar reduction4 ,it was a period of terrible distress for the agricultural labourer4 ,his wages were about #is4 a week1 and it was impossible for him to live on them1 so that what is known as 'the allowance system' came in4 ,at ,speenhamland in ,berkshire1 in this year1 the magistrates agreed that it was not expedient to help the labourer by regulating his wages according to the statute of ,elizabeth1 but recommended the farmers to increase their pay in proportion to the present price of provisions1 and they also granted relief to all poor and industrious men according to the price of bread4 ,they were merely giving effect to ,gilbert's ,act of #aghb1 which legalized the supplementing of the wages of able-bodied men from the rates1 and the decision was nicknamed the ',speenhamland ,act' because it was so generally followed4 ,however well meant1 the effect was most demoralizing and the ,english labourer1 already too prone to look to the ,state for help1 was induced to depend less on his own exertions4 ,the real remedy would have been a substantial increase of his scanty wages4 ,as it was1 landowner and farmer were often paying the labourer in rates money that would far better have come to him in wages1 and the rates in some districts became so burdensome that land was thrown out of cultivation4 ,in the same year as the ,speenhamland ,act the statute #cf ,geo4 ,,iii1 c4 #bc1 forbade the removal of persons from any parish until they were in actual need of support2 but although the law was thus relaxed1 the fixed principle which caused the refusal of all permanent relief to labourers who had no settlement in the parish acted as a very efficient check on migration1 though1 as we have seen1 it did not entirely check it4 ,in #agif the question of regulating the labourers' wages by ,parliament was raised2 but ,pitt1 remembering such schemes had always failed1 was hostile1 and the matter dropped4#eba ,in the same year ,eden made his inquiries concerning the rate of wages and the cost of living4 ,in ,bedford1 he found the agricultural labourer was getting #as4 #b;d4 a day and beer1 with extras in harvest#ebb2 but bacon was #aj;d4 a lb4 and wheat #abs4 a bushel4 ,however1 parish allowances were liberal1 a man1 his wife1 and four children sometimes receiving #aas4 a week from that source4 ,in ,cumberland the labourer was being paid #aj;d4 to #as4 a day with food1 or #as4 #f;d4 to #as4 #h;d4 without2 in ,hertfordshire1 #as4 #f;d4 a day2 in ,suffolk1 #as4 #d;d4 a day and beer4 ,nearly everywhere his expenditure was much in excess of his earnings1 the yearly budgets of fifty-three families in twelve different counties showed generally large annual deficiencies1 amounting in one case to #ba #ahs4 #d;d4 ,in one case in ,lindsey1 where the deficiency was small1 the family lived on bread alone4 ,the factory system1 too1 had already deprived the labourer of many of his by-industries1 and thus helped the pauperism for which landlord and farmer had to pay in rates4 ,about #aghh ,sir ,william ,young proposed to send the unemployed labourers round to the parishioners to get work1 their wages being paid by their employers and by the parish4 ,this method of obtaining work was known as the 'roundsman system'4#ebc ,landlords1 however1 and farmers were profiting greatly by the high prices1 which fortunately received a check by the abundant harvest of #agif1 which1 with large imports1#ebd caused the price of wheat to fall to #egs4 #c;d41 and in #agih to #dgs4 #aj;d4 ,it is difficult to conceive what instability1 speculation1 and disaster such fluctuations must have led to4 ,in #agig the ,bank ,restriction ,act was passed1 suspending cash payments1 and thereby causing a huge growth in credit transactions1 a great factor in the inflated prosperity of this period4 ,in ,january1 #agii1 wool was #bs4 a lb41 and prices at ,smithfield3 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,beef1 per stone of #h lb4 #c #j to #c #d ,mutton #c #j #d #b ,pork #b #h #c #h ,the summer of that year was uninterruptedly wet2 some corn in the north was uncut in ,november1 so that wheat went up to #ids4 #b;d41 and in ,june1 #ahjj1 was #acds4 #e;d41 the scarcity being aggravated by the ,russian ,government laying an embargo on ,british shipping4#ebe ,yet ,pitt denied that the high prices were due to the war4#ebf ,they were due1 indeed1 to several causes3 #a4 ,frequent years of scarcity4 #b4 ,increase of consumption1 owing to the great growth of the manufacturing population1 ,england during the war having almost a monopoly of the trade of ,europe4 #c4 ,napoleon's obstructions to importation4 #d4 ,the unprecedented fall of foreign exchanges4 #e4 ,the rise in the price of labour1 scanty as it was4 #f4 ,suspension of cash payments1 which produced a medium of circulation of an unlimited nature1 and led to speculation4#ebg ,in ,march1 #ahja1 wheat was #aefs42 beef at ,smithfield1 #es4 to #fs4 #f;d4 a stone2 and mutton1 #fs4 #f;d4 to #hs4 ,a rise in wages was allowed on all sides to be imperative1 but the labourer even now got on an average little more than #is4 a week1#ebh a very inadequate pittance1 though generally supplemented by the parish4 ,arthur ,young#ebi tells of a person living near ,bury in #ahja1 who1 before the era of high prices1 earned #es4 a week1 and with that could purchase3 ,a bushel of wheat4 malt4 #a lb4 of butter4 #a lb4 of cheese4 ,a pennyworth of tobacco4 ,but in #ahja the same articles cost him3 s4 d4 ,a bushel of wheat #af #j malt #i #j #a lb4 of butter #a #j #a lb4 of cheese #d ,tobacco #a -------- #a #f #e ,his wages were now #is41 and his allowance from the rates #fs41 so that there was a deficiency of #aas4 #e;d4 ,the increase in the cost of living in the last thirty years is further illustrated by the following table3 #aggc4 #agic4 #agii4 #ahjj4 s4 d4 s4 d4 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,coomb of malt #ab #j #a #c #j #a #c #j #b #j #j ,chaldron of coals #a #aa #f #b #j #f #b #f #j #b #aa #j ,coomb of oats #e #j #ac #j #af #j #a #a #j ,load of hay #b #b #j #d #aj #j #e #e #j #g #j #j ,meat1 per lb4 #d #e #g #i ,butter1 #f #aa #aa #a #d ,loaf sugar1 per lb4 #h #a #j #a #c #a #d ,poor rates1 in the #a #j #b #f #c #j #e #j ,it was again proposed by ,mr4 ,whitbread in the ,house of ,commons that wages should be regulated by the price of provisions1 and a minimum wage fixed2 but there was enough sense in the ,house to reject this return to obsolete methods4 ,after ,march1 #ahja1 prices commenced to fall1 owing to a favourable season and the reopening of the ,baltic ports1 which allowed imports to come in more freely1 for most of our foreign corn at this time came from ,germany and ,denmark4 ,at the end of the year wheat averaged #ges4 #f;d41 and with fair seasons it came down in the beginning of #ahjd to #dis4 #f;d4 ,beef at ,smithfield was from #ds4 to #es4 #d;d4 a stone1 mutton from #ds4 to #ds4 #f;d4#ecj ,this great drop in prices was accompanied by an increase in wages1 the labourer from #ahjd to #ahaj getting on an average #abs4 a week#eca2 the cost of implements rose1 so did the rate of interest1 and the cry of agricultural distress in #ahjd was heard everywhere4 ,more protection was demanded by those interested in the land1 and accordingly a duty of #bds4 #c;d4 was imposed when the price was #fcs4 or under2 a bounty was paid on export when it was #djs4 or under2 and wheat might be exported without bounty up to #eds4 ,however1 #ahjd was a very deficient harvest1 owing to blight and mildew1 and by the end of the year wheat was #hfs4 #b;d4 ,the harvests till #ahjh were not as bad as that of #ahjd1 but not good enough to lower the prices4 ,also1 owing to the ,berlin and ,milan ,decrees of ,napoleon and the ,non-intercourse ,act of the ,united ,states of ,america1 imports were restricted so that at the end of #ahjh wheat was #ibs4 ,in this year the exports of wheat exceeded the imports1 but it was due to the requirements of our army in ,spain2 and #aghi was the last year when exports were greater under normal circumstances4#ecb #ahji was a bad harvest1 so was #ahaj2 in the former rot being very prevalent among sheep2 and by ,august1 #ahaj1 hay was #aa a load and wheat #aafs41 only large imports 7#a1efg1abf quarters7 preventing a famine4 ,down wool was #bs4 #a;d4 per lb41 beef and mutton #h-a_/b;d41 cheese #h;d4#ecc ,in #ahaa the whole of ,july and part of ,august were wet and cold2 and in ,august1 #ahab1 wheat averaged #aees41 the finest ,dantzic selling at ,mark ,lane for #ahjs41 and oats reached #hds4 ,as our imports of corn then chiefly came from the north-west of ,europe1 which has a climate very similar to our own1 crops there were often deficient from bad seasons in the same years as our own1 and the price consequently high4 ,on the other hand1 it is a proof that produce will find the best market regardless of hindrances1 that much of our corn at this time came from ,france4 ,corn in #ahac was seized on with such avidity that there was no need to show samples4 ,as high prices had now prevailed for some time and were still rising1 landlords and farmers jumped to the conclusion that they would be permanent2 so that this is the period when rents experienced their greatest increase1 in some cases having increased fivefold since #agij1 and speculations in land were most general4 ,land sold for forty years' purchase1 many men of spirit and adventure very different from farmers 'were tempted to risk their property in agricultural speculations'1#ecd and large sums were sunk in lands and improvements in the spirit of mercantile enterprise4 ,the land was considered as a kind of manufacturing establishment1 and 'such powers of capital and labour were applied as forced almost sterility itself to become fertile4' ,even good pastures were ploughed up to grow wheat at a guinea a bushel1 and much worthless land was sown with corn4 ,manure was procured from the most remote quarters1 and we are told a new science rose up1 agricultural chemistry1 which1 'with much frivolity and many refinements remote from common sense1 was not without great operation on the productive powers of land4' ,land jobbing and speculation became general1 and credit came to the aid of capital4 ,the larger farmers1 as we have seen1 were before the war inclined to an extravagance that amazed their older contemporaries2 now we are told1 some insisted on being called esquire1 and some kept liveried servants4#ece ,it is somewhat curious to learn that one of the drawbacks from which farmers suffered at this time was the ravages of pigeons1 which seem to have been as numerous as in the ,middle ,ages1 when the lord's dovecote was the scourge of the villein's crops4 ,in #ahac there was said to be #bj1jjj pigeon houses in ,england and ,wales1 each on an average containing #ajj pairs of old pigeons4#ecf ,another pest was the large number of 'vermin'1 whose destruction had long before been considered important enough to demand the attention of the legislature4#ecg ,some parishes devoted large portions of their funds to this object2 in #aghf ,east ,budleigh in ,devonshire1 out of a total receipt of #bj #as4 #h-a_/b;d41 voted #e #ajs4 for vermin killing4 ,that now sacred animal the fox was then treated with scant respect1 farmers and landlords paying for his destruction as 'vermin'#ech2 the parish accounts of ,ashburton in ,devonshire1 for instance1 from #agfa-ahbj include payments for killing #ah foxes and #d vixens1 with no less than #aec badgers4 ,but the edifice of artificial prosperity was already tottering4 ,after #ahab prices fell steadily1#eci the abundant harvest of #ahac and the opening of the continental ports accelerated this1 and by ,december1 #ahac1 wheat was #gcs4 #c;d4 ,yet agriculture had made solid progress4 ,the ,committee of the ,house of ,commons which inquired into the state of the corn trade in #ahac stated that through the extension of1 and improvements in1 agriculture the agricultural produce of the kingdom had increased one-fourth in the preceding ten years4#edj ,the high prices had attracted a large amount of capital to the land1 so that there was very rapid and extensive progress1 the methods of tillage were improved1 large tracts of inferior pasture converted into arable1 much1 however1 of which was soon to revert to weeds2 there were many enclosures1 and many fens1 commons1 and wastes reclaimed4 ,but there was a reverse side to this picture of prosperity1 even in the case of landlord and farmer4 ,the burden of taxation was crushing2 a contemporary writer1 a farmer of twenty-five years standing1#eda wrote that1 with the land tax remaining the same1 there was a high property tax1 house and window taxes were doubled1 poor rates in some places trebled1 highway1 church1 and constable rates doubled and trebled1 and there were oppressive taxes on malt and horses1 both nags and farm animals4 ,a man renting a farm at #gj and keeping two farm-horses1 a nag1 and a dog1 would pay taxes for them of #e #js4 #f;d41 a fourteenth of his rent4#edb ,indeed1 poor rates of #afs4 and #bjs4 in the were known1#edc and they were occasionally more than the whole rent received by the landlord forty years before4 ,a ,devonshire landowner complained that seven-sixteenths out of the annual value of every estate in the county was taken from owners and occupiers in direct taxes4#edd ,and the ,committee on ,agricultural ,depression of #ahbb asserted that during the war taxes and rates were quadrupled4#ede ,blacksmiths1 whitesmiths1 collar makers1 ropers1 carpenters1 and many other tradesmen with whom the farmer dealt1 raised their prices threefold2 and it was openly asserted that the high prices of grain and stock were not proportionate to the increase of other prices4 ,much of the grass land broken up in the earlier years of the war was before the close in a miserable condition1 for it was cropped year after year without manure1 and was worn out4 ,on the whole it may be doubted if the bulk of the farmers of ,england made large profits during the war2 many no doubt profited by the extraordinary fluctuations in prices1 and it was those men who 'kept liveried servants'2 but there must have been many who lost heavily by the same means1 and the rise of rent1 taxes1 rates1 labour1 and tradesmen's prices largely discounted the prices of corn and stock4 ,the landowners at this period have generally been described as flourishing at the expense of the community1 but their increased rents were greatly neutralized by the weight of taxation and the general rise in prices4 ,a contemporary writer says that owing to the heavy taxes1 even in the war time1 he 'often had not a shilling at the end of the year4'#edf ,the following accounts1 drawn up in #ahje1edg do not show that farmers were making much money with wheat at #ajs4 a bushel3 ,account of the culture of an acre of wheat on good fallow land3 ,dr4 s4 d4 ,two years' rent #b #j #j ,hauling dung from fold #aj #j ,four ploughings #b #j #j ,two harrowings #d #j ,lime #a #ah #j ,seed1 #b-a_/b bushels #a #e #j ,reaping #e #j ,threshing #aj #j ,wages #e #j ,tithes and taxes #ae #j -------- #i #ab #j ,cr4 s4 d4 #bj bushels of wheat at #ajs #aj #j #j ,the straw was set against the value of the dung4 ,the tailend wheat was ,eaten by the family6 --------- #aj #j #j ,and on a farm on good land in the same county the following would be the annual balance sheet at the same date3 ,dr4 s4 d4 ,rent #bjj #j #j ,tithes #dj #j #j ,wages #eh #j #j ,extra harvestmen #g #j #j ,tradesmen's bills #ej #j #j ,taxes and rates #eh #j #j ,malt1 hops1 and cider #fj #j #j ,lime #bj #j #j ,hop poles #aj #j #j ,expenses at fairs and markets #h #j #j ,clothing1 groceries1 c41 for the family #de #j #j ,interest on #a1ejj capital1 at #e per cent4 #ge #j #j ,sundries #ae #j #j ---------- #fdf #j #j ,cr4 s4 d4 #cfj bushels of wheat1 #aj s4 #ahj #j #j #cjj bushels of barley1 #fs4 #ij #j #j #ajj bushels of peas1 #fs4 #cj #j #j #bj cwt4 hops #fj #j #j ,sale of oxen1 cows and calves #aej #j #j ,profits from sheep #ajj #j #j from pigs1 poultry1 dairy1 and sundries #ej #j #j ---------- #ffj #j #j ,according to this the farmer did little more than pay rent1 interest on capital1 and get a living4 ,yet prices of what he had to sell had gone up greatly3 wheat in ,herefordshire in #agfj was #cs4 a bushel1 in #ahje1 #ajs42 butcher's meat in #agfj was #a-a_/b;d4 a lb41 in #ahjd1 #g;d42 fresh butter #d-a_/b;d4 in #agfj1 #as4 #c;d4 in #ahjd2 a fat goose in ,hereford market in #agdj1 #aj;d42 #agfj1 #as42 #ahjd1 #ds42 a couple of fowls in #agdj1 #f;d42 #agfj1 #g;d42 #ahjd1 #bs4 #d;d4#edh ,the winter of #ahac-d was extraordinarily severe1 and the wheat crop was seriously injured1 but the increased breadth of cultivation1 a large surplus1 and great importations kept the price down4 ,many sheep1 however1 were killed by the hard winter1 which also reduced the quality of the cattle1 so that meat was higher in #ahad than at any previous period4#edi ,at ,smithfield beef was #fs4 to #gs4 a stone1 mutton #gs4 to #hs4 #f;d4 ,with the peace of #ahad the fictitious prosperity came to an end1 a large amount of paper was withdrawn from circulation1 which lowered the price of all commodities1 and a large number of country banks failed4 ,the first sufferers were the agricultural classes1 who happened at that time to hold larger supplies than usual1 the value of which fell at once2 the incomes of all were diminished1 and the capital of many annihilated4#eej ,at the same time the demand for our manufactures from abroad fell off2 the towns were impoverished1 and bought less from the farmer4 ,the short period of war in #ahae had little effect on prices1 and in ,january1 #ahaf1 wheat was #ebs4 #f;d41 and the prices of live stock had fallen considerably4 ,in #ahae protection reached its highest limit1 the ,act of that year prohibiting import of wheat when the price was under #hjs4 a quarter1 and other grain in proportion4#eea ,however1 it was of no avail2 and in the beginning of #ahaf the complaints of agricultural distress were so loud and deep that the ,board of ,agriculture issued circular letters to every part of the kingdom1 asking for information on the state of agriculture4 ,according to the answers given1 rent had already fallen on an average #be per cent4 and agriculture was in a 'deplorable state4'#eeb ,bankruptcies1 seizures1 executions1 imprisonments1 were rife1 many farmers had become parish paupers4 ,rent was much in arrear1 tithes and poor rates unpaid1 improvements generally discontinued1 live stock diminished2 alarming gangs of poachers and other depredators ranged the country4 ,the loss was greater on arable than on grass land1 and 'flock farms' had suffered less than others1 though they had begun to feel it heavily4 ,all classes connected with the land suffered severely2 the landlords could not get many of their rents2 the farmer's stock had depreciated #dj per cent4#eec2 many labourers1 who during the war had been getting from #aes4 to #afs4 a week and #ahs4 in summer1#eed were walking the country searching for employment4 ,many tenants threw up their farms1 and it was often noticed that landlords1 'knowing very little of agriculture and taken by surprise1' could not manage the farms thrown on their hands1 and they went uncultivated4 ,some farmers paid up their rent to date1 sold their stock1 and went off without any notice2 others1 less scrupulous1 drove off their stock and moved their household furniture in the night without settling4#eee ,farmers and landowners were asked to state the remedies required4 ,some asked for more rent reduction and further prohibition of import1 but the most general cry was for the lessening of taxation4 ,a ,herefordshire farmer#eef stated that in #ahae the taxes on a farm of #cjj acres in that county were3 s4 d4 ,property tax1 landlord and tenant #ie #af #aj ,great tithes #fd #ag #f ,lesser tithes #bi #ae #j ,land tax #ad #j #j ,window lights #bd #a #f ,poor rates1 landlord #aj #j #j tenant #dj #j #j ,cart-horse duty1 landlord1 #c horses #b #aa #j ,two saddle horses1 landlord #i #j #j ,gig #f #f #j ,cart-horse duty1#eeg tenant #g #b #j ,one saddle horse1 tenant #b #ac #f ,landlord's malt duty on #fj bushels of barley #ba #j #j ,tenant's duty for making #abj bushels of barley into malt #db #j #j ,new rate for building shire hall1 paid by landlord #i #j #j tenant #c #j #j ,surcharge #b #h #j ------------ #chc #aa #d ,the parish of ,kentchurch1 in ,herefordshire1 paid in direct taxes a greater sum than the lands of the whole parish could be let for4 ,another very general complaint was of the collection of tithe in kind1 a most awkward and offensive method1 causing great expense and waste1 which1 however1 had given way in many places to compounding4 ,such is the picture of agriculture after twenty years of high prices and protection4#eeh ,one may naturally ask1 if much money had been made by farmers during these years1 where had it all gone to that they were reduced at the first breath of adversity to such straits8 ,some allowance must be made for the fact that these accounts come from those interested in the land1 who were always ready to make the most of misfortune with a view to further protection1 and the farmer is a notorious grumbler4 ,it seems1 however1 that most landlords and tenants believed that the high prices would last for ever1 and lived accordingly1 and1 as we have seen1 many made no profit at all because of their increased burdens4 ,as a matter of fact1 both were grumbling because prices had come back to their natural level after an unnatural inflation4#eei ,hemp at this date was still grown in ,lincolnshire and ,somerset1 and ,marshall tells us that in #ahjc there was a considerable quantity of hemp grown in ,shropshire4#efj ,in that county there was a small plot of ground1 called 'the hemp-yard1' appendant to almost every farm-house and to many of the best sort of cottages4 ,whenever a cottager had #aj or #ae perches of land to his cottage1 worth from #as4 #f;d4 to #bs4 #f;d4 a year1 with the aid of his wife's industry it enabled him to pay his rent4 ,a peck of hempseed1 costing #bs41 sowed about #aj perches of land1 and this produced from #bd to #cf lb4 of tow when dressed and fit for spinning4 ,a dozen pounds of tow made #aj ells of cloth1 worth generally about #cs4 an ell4 ,thus a good crop on #aj perches of land brought in #d #ajs4 #j;d41 half of which was nett profit4 ,the hemp was pulled a little before harvest1 and immediately spread on grass land1 where it lay for a month or six weeks4 ,the more rain there was the sooner it was ready to take off the grass4 ,when the rind peeled easily from the woody part1 it was1 on a dry day1 taken into the house1 and when harvest was over well dried in fine weather and dressed1 being then fit for the tow dresser1 who prepared it for spinning4 ,after the crop of hemp the land was sown with turnips1 a valuable resource for the winter4 ,since #ahae little hemp or flax has been grown in ,england#efa2 in #aijg there were1 according to the ,agricultural ,returns1 #cee acres of flax grown in ,england1 and hemp was not mentioned4 ,,footnotes3 #ejd ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal1 #ahif1 p4 #a1 and #ahih1 p4 #a4 #eje ,autobiography1 p4 #bdb4 #ejf ,eden1 ,state of the ,poor1 i4 #ah4 #ejg ',had his industry been under the direction of a better judgement1 he would have been an admirable president4'--,young1 ,autobiography1 p4 #caf4 #ejh ,the ,report of the ,committee on ,waste ,lands1 #agie1 estimated wastes and commons at #g1hjj1jjj acres1 p4 #bba4 #eji ,the ,merino was largely imported into ,england by the efforts of ,george ,,iii1 and a ,merino ,society was formed in #ahaa2 but many circumstances made it of such little profit to cultivate it in preference to native breeds1 that it was diverted to ,australia4--,burnley1 ,history of ,wool1 p4 #ag4 #eaj ,the first1 the ,bath and ,west of ,england1 was established in #aggg4 #eaa ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal1 #ahii1 p4 #g4 #eab ,higher prices had been realized for the improved ,longhorns2 in #agia1 at the sale of ,mr4 ,fowler of ,little ,rollright1 ,sultan a two-year-old bull fetched #baj guineas1 and a cow #bfj guineas2 and at ,mr4 ,paget's sale in #agic1 a bull of the same breed sold for #djj guineas4--,culley on ,live ,stock1 p4 #ei4 #eac ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal1 #ahii1 p4 #bh4 #ead ,culley on ,live ,stock 7#ahjg71 pp4 #df-g4 #eae ,culley on ,live ,stock1 p4 vi4 #eaf ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal1 #ahib1 p4 #bg4 #eag ,morton1 ,cyclopaedia of ,agriculture1 ii4 #ifd4 #eah ,northern ,tour1 iii4 #di4 ,clarke also experimented on the effect of electricity on vegetables1 electrifying turnips in boxes with the result that growth was quickened and weight increased4 #eai ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal1 #ahif1 p1 #ic4 #ebj ,tooke1 ,history of ,prices1 p4 #ahb4 #eba ,autobiography of ,a4 ,young1 p4 #bef4 #ebb ,state of the ,poor1 i4 #efe et seq42 ,thorold ,rogers1 ,work and ,wages1 p4 #dhg4 ,it is difficult to calculate the exact income of the labourer2 besides extras in harvest1 and relief from the parish1 he might have a small holding1 or common rights1 also payments in kind and the earnings of his wife and children4 #ebc ,hasbach1 op4 cit4 p4 #aha2 ,eden1 op4 cit4 li4 #bg4 #ebd ,imports of wheat and flour in #agif were #hgi1bjj quarters4 #ebe ,yet imports were comparatively large2 #a1bfd1ebj quarters of wheat1 against #dfc1ahe quarters in #agii4 #ebf ,tooke1 ,history of ,prices1 p4 #bai4 #ebg ,farmer's ,magazine1 #ahag1 p4 #fj4 #ebh ,thorold ,rogers1 ,work and ,wages1 c4 #ah4 #ebi ,annals of ,agriculture1 xxxvii4 #bfe4 ,in #ahje1 in ,herefordshire1 the labourer was getting about #fs4 #f;d4 a week--,see ,duncumb1 ,general ,view of ,agriculture of ,herefordshire4 ,those who lived in the farm-house often fared best3 in #ahjh the diet of a ,hampshire farm servant was1 for breakfast1 bacon1 bread1 and skim milk2 for lunch1 bread and cheese and small beer2 for dinner1 between #c p4m4 and #d p4m41 pickled pork or bacon with potatoes1 cabbages1 turnips1 or greens1 and broths of wheat-flour and garden stuff4 ,supper consisted of bread and cheese and a pint of ale4 ,his bread was usually made of wheat1 which1 considering the price1 is remarkable4 ,on ,sundays he had fresh meat4 ,the farmers lived in many cases little better2 a statement which must be compared with others ascribing great extravagance to them4--,vancouver1 ,general ,view of the ,agriculture of ,hants 7#ahjh71 p4 #chc4 #ecj ,tooke1 ,history of ,prices1 i4 #bcf4 #eca ,thorold ,rogers1 ,work and ,wages1 c4 #ah4 ,in many cases he was getting #aes4 and #afs4 a week all the year round4 ,the ,parliamentary ,committee of #ahbb put his wages during the war at from #aes4 to #afs4 a week4 ,parliamentary ,reports ,committees1 v4 #gb2 but it is difficult to say how much he received as wages1 and how much as parish relief4 ,recruiting for the war helped to raise wages1 as did the increased growth of corn4 #ecb ,mc,culloch1 ,commercial ,dictionary 7#ahdg71 p4 #dch4 ,see ,appendix1 ii4 #ecc ,tooke1 i4 #cai1 and ,pamphleteer1 vi4 #bjj 7,a4 ,young74 ,since #aggj1 says the latter1 labour by #ahaj-aa had doubled1 but meat had risen #adf per cent41 cheese #aec per cent41 bread #ajj per cent4 ,wages therefore had not risen in proportion to prices4 #ecd ,inquiry into ,agricultural ,distress 7#ahbb71 p4 #ch4 #ece ,thoughts on ,present ,depressed ,state of ,agricultural ,industry 7#ahag71 p4 #f4 #ecf ,vancouver1 ,general ,view of the ,agriculture of ,devon1 p4 #ceg4 #ecg ,see #ad ,eliz41 c4 #aa1 and #ci ,eliz41 c4 #ah4 #ech ,transactions of the ,devon ,association1 xxix4 #bia-cdi4 #eci ,average annual prices of wheat were3 #ahab1 #abfs4 #f;d42 #ahac1 #ajis4 #i;d42 #ahad1 #gds4 #d;d42 #ahae1 #fes4 #g;d4 #edj ,porter1 ,progress of the ,nation1 p4 #adi4 #eda ,a ,defence of the ,farmers and ,landowners of ,great ,britain 7#ahad71 p4 #di4 #edb ,ibid4 p4 x4 #edc ,ibid4 p4 #g4 #edd ,agricultural ,state of the ,kingdom1 p4 #fg4 #ede ,parliamentary ,reports 7,committees71 v4 #gb4 #edf ,thoughts on the ,present ,depressed ,state of the ,agricultural ,interest 7#ahag71 p4 #d4 #edg ,duncumb1 ,general ,view of the ,agriculture of ,hereford1 #ahje4 ,the writer of ,a ,defence of the ,farmers and ,landowners of ,great ,britain 7#ahad7 puts the average crop of wheat in the ,united ,kingdom at #ae or #af bushels an acre1 p4 #bh4 ,a very low estimate4 #edh ,duncumb1 ,general ,view of the ,agriculture of ,hereford1 p4 #adj4 #edi ,tooke1 ,history of ,prices1 ii4 #d4 #eej ,farmer's ,magazine 7#ahag71 p4 #fi4 #eea ,the duties were often evaded by smuggling2 coasting vessels met the foreign corn ships at sea1 received their cargoes1 and landed them so as to escape the duty4 #eeb ,agricultural ,state of the ,kingdom1 p4 #e4 #eec ,observations for the ,use of ,landed ,gentlemen 7#ahag71 p4 #g4 #eed ,defence of the ,farmers1 c4 7#ahad72 and ,parliamentary ,reports1 v4 #gb4 #eee ,agricultural ,state of the ,kingdom1 p4 #fd4 #eef ,ibid4 p4 #aje4 #eeg ,the agricultural horse tax was repealed in #ahba1 the tax on ponies and mules in #ahbc4 #eeh ,there were some exceptions1 but the overwhelming majority of replies to the letters were couched in the above spirit4 #eei ,at a time when landlords formed the majority in ,parliament1 it is curious to find a substantial farmer asserting that 'the landed interest has been1 since the corn law of #aggc1 held in a state of complete vassalage to the commercial and manufacturing1 and the farmers of the country in a state very little superior to that of ,polish peasants4' #efj ,review of ,western ,department1 pp4 #bdi1 #bej4 #efa ,morton1 ,cyclopaedia of ,agriculture1 ii4 #bf4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,enclosure--,,the ,,small ,,owner ,the war period was one of great activity in enclosure2 from #agih to #ahaj there were #ief ,bills2 from #ahaa-bj1 #gga4efb ,it must be remembered1 however1 that the number of ,acts is not a conclusive test of the amount of enclosure1 as there was a large amount that was non-parliamentary3 by the principal landlord1 and by freeholders who agreed to amicable changes and transfer1 as at ,pickering1 in ,yorkshire4#efc ,roughly speaking1 about one-third of the ,acts were for enclosing commonable waste1 the rest for enclosing open and commonable fields and lands4#efd ,owing to the expense an ,act was only obtained in the last resource4 ,it was also because of the expense#efe that many landlords desirous to enclose were unable to do so1 and therefore devoted their attention to the improvement of the common fields4 ,that agriculture benefited by enclosure there is no possible doubt1 but it was attended with great hardships4 ,the landowner generally gained1 for his rents increased largely4 ,in twenty-three parishes of ,lincolnshire1 for instance1 his rents doubled on enclosure4 ,but the expenses were so heavy that his gain was often very small1 and sometimes he was a loser by the process4 ,as for the farmers1 the poorer ones suffered1 for more capital was needed for enclosed lands1 and the process generally was so slow1 taking from two to six years before the final award was given1 that many farmers were thrown out in the management of their farms1 for they did not know where their future lands would be allotted4 ,that the poor suffered greatly is indubitable3 ',by nineteen ,enclosure ,acts out of twenty the poor are injured1 in some cases grossly injured1' wrote ,young in #ahja4eff ,in the ,acts it was endeavoured to treat them fairly1#efg and allotments were made to them1 or money paid on enclosure in lieu of their rights of common1 or small plots of land2 but the expense of enclosing small allotments was proportionately very great1 generally too great1 and they had to be sold1 while the sums of money were often spent in the alehouse4 ,the results of sixty-eight ,acts were investigated in the eastern counties1 with the result that in all but fifteen the poor were injured4 ,it was generally found that they had lost their cows4 ,its effect on the smallholder is well described by ,davis in his ,report on ,wilts4#efh ,there1 before enclosure1 the tenants usually occupied yard-lands consisting of a homestead1 #b acres of meadow1 #ah acres of arable1 generally in eighteen or twenty strips1 with a right on the common meadows1 common fields and downs for #dj sheep1 and as many cattle as the tenant could winter with the fodder he grew4 ,the #dj sheep were kept by a common shepherd with the common herd1 were taken every day to the downs and brought back every night to be folded on the arable fields1 the rule being to fold #a1jjj sheep on a 'tenantry' acre 7three-quarters of a statute acre7 every night4#efi ,in breeding sheep regard was had to 'folding quality1' i4e4 the propensity to drop manure only after being folded at night1 as much as to quality and quantity of wool and meat4 ,on enclosure the common flock was broken up4 ,the small farmer had no longer any common to turn his horses on4 ,the down on which he fed his sheep was largely curtailed1 the common shepherd was abolished1 and the farmer had too few sheep to enable him individually to employ a shepherd4 ,therefore he had to part with his flock4 ,having no cow common and very little pasture land he could not keep cows4 ,in such circumstances the small farmer1 after a few years1 succumbed and became a labourer1 or emigrated1 or went to the towns4 ,in a pamphlet called ,the ,case of ,labourers in ,husbandry1 #agie1 the ,rev4 ,david ,davies said1 'by enclosure an amazing number of people have been reduced from a comfortable state of partial independence to the precarious condition of mere hirelings1 who when out of work immediately come on the parish4' ,it has often been said that the poor were robbed of their share in the land by the landowners2 but as a matter of fact it was the expense of securing the compensation allowed them1 much greater in proportion on small holdings than on large1 which went into the pockets of surveyors and lawyers1 that did this4 ,it was also often through the farmer that the labourer was deprived of his land when he had retained an acre or two after enclosure4 ,wishing to make the labourer dependent on him1 he persuaded the agent to let the cottages with the farm1 and the agent in order to avoid collecting a number of small rents consented4 ,as soon as the farmer had the cottages he took the land from them and added it to his own4 ,the peasant's losses engaged the serious attention of many landlords2 near ,tewkesbury1 in #aggc1 the lord of the manor on enclosure1 besides reserving #be acres for the use of the poor1 allowed land to each cottage sufficient to keep a horse or a cow1 often added a small building1 and gave stocks for raising orchards4 ,even some of the idlest were thereby made industrious1 poor rates sank to #d;d4 in the 1 though the population increased1 and the labourer always had for sale some poultry1 or the produce of his cow1 or some fruit4#egj ,in #ahjj the ,board of ,agriculture1 composed almost entirely of landowners1 noticing that the poor of ,rutland and ,lincolnshire1 who had land for one or two cows and some potatoes1 had not applied for poor relief1 offered a gold medal for the most satisfactory account of the best means of supporting cows on poor land1 in a method applicable to cottagers4#ega ,young recommended that in the case of extensive wastes every cottage on enclosure should be secured sufficient land on which to keep a cow1 the land to be inalienable from the cottage and the ownership vested in the parish4 ,lord ,winchelsea#egb urged that a good garden should always go with a cottage1 and set the example himself1 one which has been generally followed in ,england by the greater landlords with much success4 ,as may be imagined1 these schemes or others similar to them were put into effect by the conscientious and energetic1 but not by the apathetic and careless4 ,further1 an ,act was passed in the fifty-ninth year of ,george ,,iii1 which enabled parishes to lease or buy #bj acres of land for the employment of their poor4 ,in many cases1 it must be allowed1 the grazing of the commons was often worth very little4 ,let one man1 it was said in #agie1 put a cow on a common in spring for nothing1 and let another pay a farmer #as4 #f;d4 a week to keep a cow of equal value on enclosed land4 ,when both are driven to market at ,michaelmas the extra weight of the latter will more than repay the cost of the keep1 while her flow of milk meanwhile has been much superior4 ,the ,committee on ,waste ,lands of #agie attributed the great increase in the weight of cattle not only to the improved methods of breeding1 but to their being fed on good enclosed lands instead of wastes and commons4#egc ,even when commons were stinted they were in general overstocked1 while disease was always being spread with enormous loss to the commoners4 ,the larger holders1 too1 who had common rights1 often crowded out the smaller4 ,there were often1 as we have seen1 a large number of 'squatters' on commons who had seized and occupied land without any legal title4 ,as a rule1 if these people had been in possession twenty-one years their title was respected2 if not1 no regard was very justly paid to them on enclosure1 and they were deprived of what they had seized4 ,eden wrote when enclosure was at its height2 he was a competent and accurate observer1 and this is his picture of the 'commoner'3#egd ',the advantages which cottagers and poor people derive from commons and wastes are rather apparent than real2 instead of sticking regularly to labour they waste their time in picking up a few dry sticks or in grubbing on some bleak moor4 ,their starved pig or two1 together with a few wandering goslings1 besides involving them in perpetual altercations with their neighbours1 are dearly paid for in care1 time1 and bought food4 ,there are thousands and thousands of acres in the kingdom1 now the sorry pastures of geese1 hogs1 asses1 half-grown horses1 and half-starved cattle1 which want but to be enclosed to be as rich as any land now in tillage4' ,enclosure worked an important social revolution4 ,before it the entirely landless labourer was rare3 he nearly always had some holding in the common field or a right on the common pasture4 ,with enclosure his holding or right had generally disappeared1 and he deteriorated socially4 ,it was very unfortunate1 too1 that when enclosure was most active domestic industries1 such as weaving1 decayed1 and deprived the labourer and his family of a badly needed addition to his scanty income4 ,in its physical and moral effects the system of domestic manufactures was immensely preferable to that of the crowded factory1 while economically it enabled the tillers of the soil to exist on farms which could not support them by agriculture alone4 ,this uprooting of a great part of the agricultural population from the soil by irresistible economic causes brought with it grave moral evils1 and created divisions and antagonisms of interest from which we are suffering to-day4#ege ,if some such scheme as that of ,arthur ,young or ,lord ,winchelsea had been universally adopted1 this blot on an inevitable movement might have been removed1 and a healthy rural population planted on ,english soil4 ,another result followed1 the labourer no longer boarded as a rule in his employer's house1 where the farmer worked and lived with his men2 the tie of mutual interest was loosened1 and he worked for this or that master indifferently4 ,one advantage1 however1 arose1 in that1 having to find a home of his own1 he married early1 but this was vitiated by his knowledge that the parish would support his children1 on which knowledge he was induced to rely4 ,on the other hand1 the farmer often rose in the social scale4 ,with the abandonment of the handicaps and restrictions of the common-field system the efficient came more speedily to the front4 ,it was they who had amassed capital1 and capital was now needed more than ever1 so they added field to field1 and consolidated holdings4 ,the ,act of #ahde did away with the necessity for private ,enclosure ,acts1 still further reducing the expense2 and since that date there have been #hj1jjj or #ij1jjj acres of common arable fields and meadows enclosed without parliamentary sanction1 and #aci1eag acres of the same have been enclosed with it1#egf besides many acres of commons and waste4 ,in the ,report of the ,committee of ,enclosures of #ahdd1egg there is a curious description of the way in which common fields were sometimes allotted4 ,there were in some open fields1 lands called 'panes'1 containing forty or sixty different lands1 and on a certain day the best man of the parish appeared to take possession of any lot he thought fit4 ,if his right was called in question there was a fight for it1 and the survivor took the first lot1 and so they went on through the parish4 ,there was also the old 'lot meadow' in which the owners drew lots for choice of portions4 ,on some of the grazing lands the right of grazing sheep belonged to a man called a 'flockmaster'1 who during certain months of the year had the exclusive right of turning his sheep on all the lands of the parish4 ,closely connected with the subject of enclosure is that of the partial disappearance of the small owner1 both the yeoman who farmed his own little estate and the peasant proprietor4 ,we have noticed above#egh ,gregory ,king's statement as to the number of small freeholders in ,england in #afhh1 no less than #afj1jjj1 or with their families about one-seventh of the population of the country4 ,this date1 that of the ,revolution1 marks an epoch in their history1 for from that time they began to diminish in proportion to the population4 ,their number in #afhh is a sufficient answer to the exaggerated statement of contemporaries in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries as to the depopulation caused by enclosures4 ,chamberlayne1 in his ,state of ,great ,britain1 published at about the same time as ,gregory ,king's figures1 says there were more freeholders in ,england than in any country of like extent in ,europe3 '#dj or #ej a year is very ordinary1 #ajj or #bjj in some counties is not rare1 sometimes in ,kent and in the ,weald of ,sussex #ejj or #fjj per annum1 and #c1jjj or #d1jjj of stock4' ,in the first quarter of the eighteenth century he was a prominent figure4 ,defoe#egi describes the number and prosperity of the ,greycoats of ,kent 7as they were called from their homespun garments71 'whose interest is so considerable that whoever they vote for is always sure to carry it4' ,why has this sturdy class so dwindled in numbers1 and left ,england infinitely the weaker for their decrease8 ,the causes are several2 social1 economic1 and political4 ,the chief1 perhaps1 is the peculiar form of ,government which came in with the ,revolution4 ,the landed gentry by that event became supreme1 the national and local administration was entirely in their hands1 and land being the foundation of social and political influence was eagerly sought by them where it was not already in their hands4#ehj ,at the same time the successful business men1 whose numbers now increased rapidly from the development of trade1 bought land to 'make themselves gentlemen'4 ,both these classes bought out the yeomen1 who do not seem to have been very loath to part with their land4 ,the recently devised system of strict family settlements enabled the old and the new gentlemen to keep this land in their families4 ,the complicated title to land made its transfer difficult and costly1 so that there was little breaking up of estates to correspond with the constant buying up of small owners4 ,to the smaller freeholder1 as has been noticed1 the enclosure of waste land did much harm1 for it was necessary to his holding4 ,again1 smaller arable farms did not pay as well as large ones1 so they tended to disappear4 ,the decay of home industries was also a heavy blow to the smaller yeoman and the peasant proprietor4 ,under this combination of circumstances many of the yeomen left the land4 ,yet though ,young1 less than a century after ,king and ,davenant1 said that the small freeholder had practically disappeared1 there were at the end of the eighteenth century many left all over ,england1 who however largely disappeared during the war and in the bad times after the war4#eha ,but a contrary tendency was at work which helped to replenish the class4 ,the desire of the ,englishman for land is not confined to the wealthy classes4 ,at the end of the eighteenth century men who had made small fortunes in trade were buying small properties and taking the place of the yeomen4#ehb ,in the great ,french ,war of #agic-ahae1 many yeomen1 attracted by the high prices of land1 sold their properties1 but at the same time many farmers1 attracted by the high prices of produce1 which had often enriched them1 bought land4#ehc ,during the 'good times' of #ahec-ge many small holders1 like those of ,axholme1 noticed in the ,report of the ,agricultural ,commission of #ahic1 bought land4 ,a new class of small owners also has sprung up1 who1 dwelling in or near towns and railway stations1 have bought small freeholds4 ,the return of the owners of land of #ahgb-f gave the following numbers of those owning land in ,england and ,wales#ehd3 ,total number of owners of3 ,number4 ,acreage4 less than one acre #gjc1bhi #aea1aga #a acre and under #aj #aba1ihc #dgh1fgi #aj #ej #gb1fdj #a1gej1jgi #ej #ajj #be1hci #a1gia1fje #ajj #ejj #cb1cag #f1hbg1cdf ,the great majority of the first class here enumerated1 those owning less than one acre1 do not concern us1 as they were evidently merely houses and gardens not of an agricultural character1 but a large number of the second class and most of the other three must have been agricultural1 though unfortunately no distinction is made4 ,it will be seen1 therefore1 that there were a considerable number of small owners in ,england in #ahgb1 and their numbers have probably increased since4 ,many of them1 however1 are of the new class mentioned above1 and there appears to be no doubt that the number of the peasant proprietors and of the yeomen of the old sort has much diminished1 especially in proportion to the growth of population4 ,,footnotes3 #efb ,cf4 supra1 p4 #afc4 #efc ,r4 ,marshall1 ,rural ,economy of ,yorkshire1 p4 #ag et seq4 #efd ,slater1 ,english ,peasantry and ,enclosure1 p4 #g4 #efe ,it was stated in the ,report of the ,committee on ,enclosures 7#ahdd71 p4 #ca1 that the ordinary expense of obtaining an ,enclosure ,act was from #a1jjj to #a1ejj4 ,in #ahad the enclosure of three farms1 amounting to #egj acres1 including subdivision fences and money paid to a tenant for relinquishing his agreement1 cost the landlord nearly #d1jjj4--;,agricultural ,state of the ,kingdom 7#ahaf71 p4 #aaf4 #eff ,enquiry into the ,propriety of ,supplying ,wastes to the better ,support of the ,poor1 p4 #db4 #efg ,the usual clause in ,enclosure ,acts stated that the land should be 'allotted according to the several and respective rights of all who had rights and interests' in the enclosed property1 and expenses were to be borne 'in proportion to the respective shares of the people interested'4 #efh pp4 #h et seq4 ,slater1 op4 cit4 p4 #aac4 #efi ,cf4 ,marshall's account of the common-field townships in ,hampshire at the end of the eighteenth century4 ,each occupier of land in the common fields contributed to the town flock a number of sheep in proportion to his holding1 which were placed under a shepherd who fed them and folded them on all parts of the township4 ,a similar practice was observed with the common herd of cows1 which were placed under one cowherd who tended them by day and brought them back at night to be milked1 distributing them among their respective owners1 and in the morning they were collected by the sound of the horn4--,rural ,economy of ,southern ,counties1 ii4 #cea4 #egj ,report of ,committee on ,waste ,lands 7#agie71 p4 #bjd4 ,ground was frequently left by the ,acts for the erection of cottages for the poor1 and special allotments were made to ,guardians for the use of the poor1 in addition to the land allotted to all according to their respective claims4 ,can any one doubt that if there had been a systematic robbery of the smaller holders on enclosure they would not have risen 'en masse'8 #ega ,slater1 op4 cit4 p4 #acc4 #egb ,agricultural ,state of the ,kingdom 7#ahaf71 p4 #h4 #egc ,report1 p4 #bjd4 #egd ,state of the ,poor1 pp4 i1 xviii4 #ege ,lecky1 ,england in the ,eighteenth ,century1 vi4 #aia4 #egf ,slater1 op4 cit4 p4 #aia4 #egg ,report1 p4 #bg4 #egh ,see above4 ,another estimate puts them at #ahj1jjj4 #egi ,tour1 i4 7#b71 #cg1 #ch4 #ehj ,toynbee1 ,industrial ,revolution1 p4 #fb4 #eha ,hasbach1 op4 cit4 p4 #ga4 #ehb ,marshall1 ,review of ,agriculture1 ,reports ,western ,department1 p4 #ah4 #ehc ,parliamentary ,reports1 ,commissioners 7#ahig71 xv4 #cb4 #ehd ,parliamentary ,accounts and ,papers1 lxxx4 #ba4 ,the number of those owning over #ejj acres does not concern the small owner or the yeoman class1 but they were3 from #ejj acres to #a1jjj1 #d1gii2 from #a1jjj to #b1jjj1 #b1gai2 from #b1jjj to #e1jjj1 #a1hae2 from #e1jjj to #aj1jjj1 #eha2 from #aj1jjj to #bj1jjj1 #bbc2 from #bj1jjj to #ej1jjj1 #ff2 from #ej1jjj to #ajj1jjj1 #c2 over #ajj1jjj1 #a4 ,for the numbers of the 'holdings' of various sizes in #ahge and #aijg see below1 p4 #ccd4 ,the term 'holdings'1 however1 includes freeholds and leaseholds4 ,,chapter ,,xix #ahaf-ahcg ,,depression ,the summer of #ahaf was wretched2 the distress1 aggravated by the bad season1 caused riots everywhere4 ,at ,bideford the mob interfered to prevent the export of a cargo of potatoes2 at ,bridport they broke into the bakers' shops4 ,incendiary fires broke out night after night in the eastern counties4 ,at ,swanage six people out of seven were paupers1 and in one parish in ,cambridgeshire every person but one was a pauper or a bankrupt4#ehe ,corn rose again3 by ,june1 #ahag1 it was #aags41 but fell to #ggs4 in ,september4 ,in #ahah occurred a drought of four months1 lasting from ,may till ,september1 and great preparations were made to ward off the expected famine2 immense quantities of wheat came from the ,baltic1 of maize from ,america1 and beans and maize from ,italy and ,egypt1 with hay from ,new ,york1 as it was selling at #aj a ton4 ,however1 rain fell in ,september1 brown fields suddenly became green1 turnips sprang up where none had appeared1 and even spring corn that had lain in the parched ground began to grow1 so the fear of scarcity passed4 ,in #ahbb came a good season1 which produced a great crop of wheat2 in the lifetime of the existing generation old men declared that such a harvest had been known only once before2 imports also came from ,ireland to the amount of nearly a million quarters1 so that the price at the end of the year was #chs41 and the average price for the year was #dds4 #g;d4 ,beef went down to #bs4 #e;d4 a stone and mutton to #bs4 #b;d4 ,the cry of agricultural distress again rose loudly4 ,farmers were still1 though some of the war taxes had been remitted1 heavily taxed2 for the taxes on malt1 soap1 salt1 candles1 leather1 all pressed heavily4#ehf ,the chief cause of the distress was the long-felt reaction after the war1 but it was aggravated by the return to cash payments in #ahai4 ,gold had fallen to its real value1 and the fall in gold had been followed by a fall in the prices of every other article4#ehg ,the produce of many thousand acres in ,england did not sell that year for as much money as was expended in growing it1 without reckoning rent1 taxes1 and interest on capital4#ehh ,estates worth #c1jjj a year1 says the same writer1 some years since1 were now worth #a1jjj4 ,bacon had gone down from #fs4 #f;d4 to #bs4 #d;d4 a stone2 ,southdown ewes from #ejs4 to #aes41 and lambs from #dbs4 to #es4 ,a ,dorset farmer told the ,parliamentary committee that since #ahae he knew of fifty farmers1 farming #bd1jjj acres1 who had failed entirely4#ehi ,in the ,tyne ,mercury of ,october #cj1 #ahba1 it was recorded that ,mr4 ,thos4 ,cooper of ,bow purchased #c milch cows and #dj sheep for #ah #afs4 #f;d4 which sum four years previously would only have bought their skins4 ,prime beef was sold in ,salisbury market at #d;d4 retail1 and good joints of mutton at #c-a_/b;d4#eij ,everywhere the farmers were complaining bitterly1 but 'hanging on like sailors to the masts or hull of a wreck'4 ,in ,sussex labourers were being employed to dig holes and fill them in again1 proof enough of distress but also of great folly4 ,many thousands of acres were now a mass of thistles and weeds1 once fair grass land ploughed up during the war for wheat1 and abandoned at the fall of prices4 ,there were no less than #dge petitions on agricultural distress presented to the ,house from #ahbj to ,march #ca1 #ahbb4 ,in #ahbb1 it was proposed that the ,government should purchase wheat grown in ,england to the value of one million sterling and store it2 also that when the average price of wheat was under #fjs4 the ,government should advance money on such corn grown in the ,united ,kingdom as should be deposited in certain warehouses1 to an extent not exceeding two-thirds the value of the corn4#eia ,there were not wanting men1 however1 who put the other side of the question4 ,in a tract called ,the ,refutation of the ,arguments used on the ,subject of the ,agricultural ,petition1 written in #ahai1 it was said that the increase in the farmer's expenditure was the cause of his discontent4 ',he now assumes the manners and demands the equipage of a gentleman1 keeps a table like his landlord1 anticipates seasons in their productions1 is as choice in his wines1 his horses1 and his furniture4' ,let him be more thrifty4 ',let him dismiss his steward1 a character a few years back only known to the great landowner1 and cease from degrading the ,british farmer into a synonym for prodigality4' ,lord ,liverpool1 in the ,house of ,lords1 in a speech which roused great opposition among agriculturists1 minimized the distress2 distress there was1 he admitted1 but it was not confined to ,england1 it was world-wide2 neither was it produced by excessive taxation1 for since #ahae taxation had been reduced #be per cent41 while though rents and prices had fallen they were much higher than before the war4 ,another writer said at the time1 ',individuals of all classes have of late been as it were inflated above their natural size3 let this unnatural growth be reduced2 let them resume their proper places and appearances1 and the quantum of substantial enjoyment1 real comfort and happiness1 will not be found lessened4' ,it was also asserted that the taxes on malt1 leather1 soap1 salt1 and candles1 were not very pressing4 ,the persistent cries of distress produced a ,bill giving still further protection to corn-growers1 which was fortunately not carried into effect4 ,there was no doubt1 however1 about the reality of the crisis through which the landed classes were passing4 ,many of the landowners were heavily in debt4 ,mortgages had been multiplied during the war1 and while prices were high payment of interest was easy2 but when prices fell and the tenant threw up his farm1 the landlord could not throw over the mortgage1 and the interest hung like a dead weight round his neck4#eib ,the price to which wheat fell at the end of #ahbb was to be the lowest for some years2 it soon recovered1 and until #ahcd the average annual prices ranged from #ecs4 to #fhs4 #f;d41 while in #ahbe beef at ,smithfield was #es4 and mutton #es4 #d;d4 a stone4 ,in #ahbc there was a marked improvement1 and the king's speech congratulated the country on 'the gradual abatement of those difficulties under which agriculture has so long suffered4'#eic ,in #ahbd 'agriculture was recovering from the depression under which it laboured4'#eid ,in #ahbe it was said1 'there never was a period in the history of this country when all the great interests of the nation were in so thriving a condition4'#eie ,in that year over-speculation produced a panic and agricultural distress was again evident4 ,in #ahbf ,cobbett said1 'the present stock of the farms is not in one-half the cases the property of the farmer1 it is borrowed stock4'#eif ,in #ahbh all the farmers in ,kent were said to be insolvent4#eig ,at the meeting of ,parliament in #ahcj the king lamented the state of affairs1 and ascribed it to unfavourable seasons and other causes beyond the reach of legislative remedy4 ,many had learnt that high protection was no protection for farmers1 and it was stated more than once that the large foreign supply of grain1 though only then about one-third of the home-grown1 depressed our markets4 ,at the same time1 it must be admitted that agriculture1 like all other industries1 was suffering from the crisis of #ahbe4 ,in #ahcj1 the country was filled with unrest1 in which the farm labourer shared4 ,his motives1 however1 were hardly political4 ,he had a rooted belief that machinery was injuring him1 the threshing machine especially2 and he avenged himself by burning the ricks of obnoxious farmers4 ,letters were sent to employers demanding higher wages and the disuse of machines1 and notices signed ',swing' were affixed to gates and buildings4 ,night after night incendiary fires broke out1 and emboldened by impunity the rioters proceeded to pillage by day4 ,in ,hampshire they moved in bodies #a1ejj strong4 ,a special ,commission was appointed1 and the disorders put down at last with a firm hand4 ,in #ahbh there had been a relaxation in the duties on corn1 the object of the ,act passed in that year being to secure the farmer a constant price of #hs4 a bushel instead of #ajs4 as in #ahae1 and by a sliding scale to prevent the disastrous fluctuations in prices4 ,the best proof of its failure is afforded by the appointment of another parliamentary committee in #ahcc to inquire into the distressed state of agriculture4 ,at this inquiry many witnesses asserted that the cultivation of inferior soils and heavy clays had diminished from one-fourth to one-fifth4#eih ,it was also asserted that farmers were paying rent out of capital4#eii ,tooke1 however1 thought there was much exaggeration of the distress1 which was proved by the way the farmers weathered the low prices of #ahce1 when wheat1 after a succession of four remarkably good seasons1 averaged #cis4 #d;d4 for the year4 ,in these abundant years1 too1 he asserts that the home supply was equal to the demand1#fjj though the committee of #ahcc had stated that this had ceased to be the case4#fja ,another committee1 the last for many years1 sat in #ahce to consider the distress2 but although prices were low the whole tenor of the evidence established the improvement of farming1 the extension of cultivation1 and the increase of produce1 and it was noticed at this time that towns dependent on agriculture were uniformly prosperous4#fjb ,on the whole1 in spite of exaggeration from interested motives1 the distress for the twenty years after the battle of ,waterloo was real and deep2 twenty years of depression succeeded the same period of false exaltation4 ,the progress1 too1 during that time was real1 and made1 as was remarked1 because of adversity4 ,from this time agriculture slowly revived4 ,on one point both of the two last committees were agreed1 that the condition of the labourer was improved1 and they said he was better off than at any former period1 for his wages remained the same1 while prices of necessaries had fallen4 ,that his wages went further is true1 but they were still miserably low1 and he was often housed worse than the animals on the farm4 ',wattle and dab' 7or mud and straw7 formed the walls of his cottage1 the floors were often of mud1 and all ages and both sexes frequently slept in one room4 ,a block of ten cottages were put up in the parish of ,holmer#fjc at the commencement of the nineteenth century1 which were said to have combined 'comfort1 convenience1 and economy2' they each contained one room #ab feet by #ad feet and #f feet high with a bedroom over1 and cost #cb #ajs4 each4 ,they were evidently considered quite superior dwellings1 far better than the ordinary run of labourer's cottages4 ,cobbett gives us a picture of some in ,leicestershire in #ahbf2 'hovels made of mud and straw1 bits of glass1 or of old cast-off windows1 without frames or hinges frequently1 and merely stuck in the mud wall4 ,enter them and look at the bits of chairs or stools1 the wretched boards tacked together to serve for a table1 the floor of pebble1 broken brick1 or of the bare ground2 look at the thing called a bed1 and survey the rags on the backs of the wretched inhabitants4'#fjd ,the chief exceptions to this state of affairs were the estates of many of the great landlords4 ,on that of the ,earl of ,winchelsea in ,rutland1 the cottages he had built contained a kitchen1 parlour1 dairy1 two bedrooms1 and a cow-house1 and several had small holdings attached of from #e to #bj acres4#fje ,not long before1 wages in ,hampshire and ,wiltshire were #es4 and #fs4 a week4#fjf ,in #ahbb it was stated that 'beef and mutton are things the taste of which was unknown to the mass of labourers4 ,no one has lived more in cottages than ,i1 and ,i declare solemnly ,i never remember once to have seen such a thing4'#fjg ,a group of women labourers1 whom ,cobbett saw by the roadside in ,hampshire1 presented 'such an assemblage of rags as ,i never saw before even amongst the hoppers at ,farnham4'#fjh ,the labourer's wages may have gone a little further1 but he had lost his by-industries1 his bit of land and rights of common1 and would have had a very different tale to tell from that of the framers of the reports above quoted4 ,in spite of the complaints made that the improvements of the coaches and of the roads drew the countryman to the towns1 many stirred hardly at all from their native parish1 and their lives were now infinitely duller than in the ,middle ,ages4 ,the great event of the year was the harvest home1 which was usually a scene of great merry-making4 ,in ,devonshire1 when a farmer's wheat was ripe he sent round notice to the neighbourhood1 and men and women from all sides came to reap the crop4 ,as early as eleven or twelve1 so much ale and cider had been drunk that the shouts and ribald jokes of the company were heard to a considerable distance1 attracting more helpers1 who came from far and near1 but none were allowed to come after #ab o'clock4 ,between #ab and #a came dinner1 with copious libations of ale and cider1 which lasted till #b1 when reaping was resumed and went on without interruption except from the squabbles of the company till #e1 when what were called 'drinkings'1 or more food and drink1 were taken into the field and consumed4 ,after this the corn reaped was bound into sheaves till evening1 when after the sport of throwing their reaping hooks at a sheaf which had been set up as a mark for a prize1 all proceeded to supper and more ale and cider till the small hours4#fji ,no wages were paid at these harvestings1 but the unlimited amount of eating and drinking was very expensive1 and about this date the practice of using hired labour had largely superseded this old custom4 ,the close of this period was marked by two ,acts of great benefit to farmers3 the ,poor ,law ,amendment ,act of #ahcd 7#d #e ,wm4 ,,iv1 c4 #gf71 which reduced the rates1#faj and marked 'the beginning of a period of slow recovery in the labourer's standard of life1 moral and material1 though at first it brought him not a little adversity'#faa2 and the ,tithe ,commutation ,act of #ahcf 7#f #g ,wm4 ,,iv1 c4 #ga71 which substituted for the tithe paid in kind or the fluctuating commuted tithe1 a tithe rent charge equivalent to the market value1 on a septennial average1 of the exact quantities of wheat1 barley1 and oats1 which made up the legal tithes by the estimate in #ahcf4 ,thus was removed a perpetual source of dispute and antagonism between tithe-payer and tithe-owner4 ,the system hitherto pursued1 moreover1 was wasteful4 ,in exceptionally favourable circumstances the clergy did not receive more than two-thirds of the value of the tithe in kind4 ,the delays were a frequent source of loss4 ,in rainy weather1 when the farmer desired to get his crops in quickly1 he was obliged to shock his crops1 give the tithe-owners notice to set out their tithes1 and wait for their arrival2 in the meantime the crop1 perhaps1 being badly damaged4#fab ,,footnotes3 #ehe ,walpole1 ,history of ,england1 i4 #afa4 #ehf ,inquiry into ,agricultural ,distress 7#ahbb71 p4 #dj4 #ehg ,walpole1 op4 cit4 ii4 #bb4 #ehh ,a ,letter to the ,earl of ,liverpool by an ,old ,tory1 #ahbb4 ,the ,committee on ,agricultural ,distress found that farmers were paying rent out of capital 7,parliamentary ,reports4 ,committees1 v4 #ga71 and that leases fixed on the basis of the high prices of the war meant ruin to the farmer if held to his engagement4 #ehi ,parliamentary ,reports1 ,committees1 ix4 #ach4 #eij ,cobbett1 ,rural ,rides 7ed4 #ahhe71 i4 #c1 #af4 #eia ,report of the ,committee on ,agricultural ,depression 7#ahbb71 pp4 #c1 #d4 #eib ,walpole1 ,history of ,england1 ii4 #bc4 #eic ,hansard1 ix4 #aedd4 #eid ,ibid4 x4 #a1 #b4 #eie ,ibid4 xii4 #a4 #eif ,rural ,rides1 ii4 #aii4 #eig ,walpole1 ,history of ,england1 ii4 #ebf4 ,the distress was aggravated by rot among sheep1 which is said to have destroyed one-fourth of those in the kingdom4 ,see ,parliamentary ,reports1 ,commissioners 7#ahcf71 viii 7#b71 p4 #aih4 #eih ,tooke1 ,history of ,prices1 ii4 #bbg4 #eii ,report of #ahcc1 p4 #f4 #fjj ,tooke1 ,history of ,prices1 ii1 #bch4 #fja ,imports fell considerably at this date2 they were3 #ahcb #a1bed1cea quarters4 #ahcc #a1aff1deg #ahcd #iha1dhf #ahce #gej1hjh #ahcf #hfa1aef #ahcg #a1aji1dib #ahch #a1ibc1djj ,there were also considerable exports3 #ahcb #bhi1eeh quarters4 #ahcc #if1bab #ahcd #aei1dhb #ahce #acd1jgf #ahcf #bef1igh #ahcg #cjh1dbj #ahch #aeh1fba ,mc,culloch1 ,commercial ,dictionary 7#ahdg71 p4 #dch4 #fjb ,porter1 ,progress of the ,nation1 p4 #aea4 #fjc ,see ,duncumb1 ,general ,view of ,herefordshire1 7#ahje74 #fjd ,rural ,rides1 ii4 #cdh4 #fje ,london1 ,encyclopaedia of ,agriculture 7#ahca71 p4 #aaef4 #fjf ,cobbett1 ,rural ,rides1 i4 #adi4 ,the average1 however1 now was about #is42 see ,parliamentary ,reports1 v4 #gb4 #fjg ,a ,letter to the ,earl of ,liverpool by an ,old ,tory 7#ahbb71 p4 #af4 #fjh ,rural ,rides1 i4 #ah4 #fji ,moore1 ,history of ,devonshire1 i4 #dcj4 #faj ,by this ,act and the various amending ,acts the law of settlement1 so long a burden on the labourer1 is now settled thus3 a settlement may be acquired by birth1 parentage1 marriage1 renting a tenement1 by being bound apprentice and inhabiting1 by estate1 payment of taxes1 and by residence4--,stephen1 ,commentaries on the ,laws of ,england 7#aijc71 iii4 #hg4 #faa ,hasbach1 op4 cit4 p4 #bag4 #fab ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal 7#aija71 p4 #i4 ,,chapter ,,xx #ahcg-ahge ,,revival ,,of ,,agriculture4--,,the ,,royal ,,agricultural ,,society4--,,corn ,,law ,,repeal4--,a ,,temporary ,,set-,,back4--,,the ,,halcyon ,,days ,the revival of agriculture roughly coincided with the accession of ,queen ,victoria4 ,it was proved that ,scotch farmers who had farmed highly had weathered the storm4 ,instead of repeatedly calling on ,parliament to help them they had helped themselves1 by spending large sums in draining and manuring the land2 they had adopted the subsoil plough1 and the drainage system of ,smith of ,deanston1 used machinery to economize labour1 and improved the breed of stock4 ,this was an object-lesson for the ,english farmer1 and he began to profit by it4 ,it was high time that he did4 ,in spite of the undoubted progress made1 farming was still often terribly backward4 ,little or no machinery was used1 implements were often bad1 teams too large1 drilling little practised1 drainage utterly inefficient2 in fact1 while one farmer used all the improvements made1 a hundred had little to do with them4 ,but better times were at hand4 ,about #ahce ,elkington's system of drainage1 which among the more advanced agriculturists1 at any rate1 had been used for half a century1 was superseded by that of ,james ,smith of ,deanston1 a system of thorough drainage and deep ploughing1 which effected a complete revolution in the art of draining1 and holds the field to-day4 ,hitherto the draining of land had been done by a few drains where they were thought necessary1 which was often a failure4 ,smith initiated a complete system of parallel underground drains1 near enough to each1 other to catch all the superfluous water1 running into a main drain which ran along the lowest part of the ground4 ,his system has also been called 'furrow or frequent draining'1 as the drains were generally laid in the furrows from two to two-and-a-half feet deep at short intervals4 ,even then the tributary drains were at first filled in with stones #ab inches deep1 as they had been for centuries1 and sometimes with thorns1 or even turves1 as tiles were still expensive2 and the main was made of stonework4 ,however1 the invention of machines for making tiles cheapened them1 and the substitution of cylindrical pipes for horse-shoe tiles laid on flat soles still further lowered the cost and increased the efficiency4#fac ,in #ahdh1 ,peel introduced ,government ,drainage ,loans1 repayable by twenty-two instalments of #f #a_/b per cent4 ,this was consequently an era of extensive drainage works all over ,england1 which sorely needed it2 but even now the work was often badly done4 ,in some cases it was the custom for the tenant to put in as many tiles as his landlord gave him1 and they were often merely buried4 ,at ,stratfieldsaye1 for instance1 where the ,iron ,duke was a generous and capable landlord1 the drains were sometimes a foot deep1 while others were #f feet deep and #fj feet apart1#fad although the soil required nothing of the kind4 ,vast sums were also spent on farm-buildings1 still often old and rickety1 with deficient and insanitary accommodation2 in ,devonshire the farmer was bound by his lease to repair 'old mud and wooden houses'1 at a cost of #aj per cent4 on his rent1 and there were many such all over ,england4 ,farm-buildings were often at the extreme end of the holding1 the cattle were crowded together in draughty sheds1 and the farmyard was generally a mass of filth and spoiling manure1 spoiling because all the liquid was draining away from it into the pool where the live stock drank2 a picture1 alas1 often true to-day4 ,it was to bring the great mass of landlords and farmers into line with those who had made the most of what progress there had been1 that the ,royal ,society was founded in #ahch1 in imitation of the ,highland ,society1 but also owing to the realization of the great benefits conferred on farming during the last half-century by the exertions of ,agricultural ,societies1 the ,smithfield ,club ,shows having especially aided the breeding of live stock4 ,writing on the subject of the ,society1 ,mr4 ,handley#fae spoke of the wretched modes of farming still to be seen in the country1 especially in the case of arable land1 though there had been a marked improvement in the breeding of stock4 ,prejudice1 as ever1 was rampant4 ,bone manure1 though in the previous twenty years it had worked wonders1 was in many parts unused4 ,it was felt that what the ,english farmer needed was 'practice with science'4 ,the first ,president of the ,society was ,earl ,spencer1 and it at once set vigorously to work1 recommending prizes for essays on twenty-four subjects1 some of which are in the first volume of the ,society's ,journal4 ,prizes were also offered for the best draining-plough1 the best implement for crushing gorse1 for a ploughing match to be held at the first country meeting of the ,society fixed at ,oxford in #ahci1 for the best cultivated farm in ,oxfordshire and the adjacent counties1 and for the invention of any new agricultural implement4 ,in #ahdj the ,society was granted a charter under the title of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society of ,england1 and its career since then has been one of continued usefulness1 and forms a prominent feature in the agricultural history of the times4 ,in #ahcifaf the first country meeting of the ,society was held at ,oxford1 and its #bdg entries of live stock and #ed of implements were described as constituting a show of unprecedented magnitude4 ,according to ,bell's ,weekly ,messenger for ,july #bb1 #ahci1 the show for some time had been the all-absorbing topic of conversation not only among agriculturists1 but among the community at large1 and the first day #bj1jjj people attended the show1 many having come great distances by road4 ,everybody and every exhibit had to get to ,oxford by road2 some ,shorthorn cattle1 belonging to the famous ,thomas ,bates of ,kirkleavington1 took nearly three weeks on the road1 coming from ,london to ,aylesbury by canal4 ,but such a journey was not unusual then1 for cattle were often two or three weeks on the road to great fairs1 and stood the journey best on hay2 it was surprising how fresh and sound they finished4#fag ,the show ground covered #g acres1 and among the implements tested was a subsoil plough1 ,biddell's ,scarifier1 and a drill for depositing manure after turnips4 ,there were only six classes for cattle--,shorthorns1 ,herefords1 ,devons1 ,cattle of any other breed1 ,dairy ,cattle1 and ,oxen2 one class for horses1 and three for sheep--,leicesters1 ,southdown or other ,short ,wool1 and ,long ,woolled2 with one for pigs4#fah ,the ,shorthorns1 with the exception of the ,kirkleavingtons1 were bred in the neighbourhood1 and many good judges said long afterwards that a finer lot had not been seen since4 ,the ,duchesses especially impressed all who saw them4 ,the rest of the live stock was in no way remarkable4 ,from this small beginning1 then thought so much of1 the show grew fast1 and the ,warwick meeting#fai of #ahib1 after several years of agricultural depression1 illustrates the excellent work of the ,society and the enormous progress made by ,english agriculture4 ,the show ground covered #ij acres2 horses were now divided into ,thoroughbred ,stallions1 ,hunters1 ,coach ,horses1 ,hackneys1 ,ponies1 ,harness ,horses and ,ponies1 ,shires1 ,clydesdales1 ,suffolks1 and ,agricultural ,horses4 ,cattle were classified as ,shorthorns1 ,herefords1 ,devons1 ,sussex1 ,longhorns 7described as few in number and of no particular quality1 'a breed which has now been many years on the wane'1 but has recently been revived71#fbj ,welsh1 ,red ,polled1 ,jerseys1 ,guernseys1 ,kerry and ,dexter-,kerry4 ,the increased variety of sheep was also striking2 ,leicesters1 ,cotswolds1 ,lincolns1 ,oxford ,downs1 ,shropshires1 ,southdowns1 ,hampshire ,downs1 ,suffolks1 ,border ,leicesters1 ,clun ,forest1 and ,welsh ,mountain4 ,pigs were divided into ,large1 ,middle1 and ,small white ,berkshires1 any other black breed1 and ,tamworths4 ,altogether the total number of stock exhibited was #a1heh1 and the number of implements was #e1dcj4 ,in #ahdj appeared ,liebig's ,chemistry in its ,application to ,agriculture and ,physiology1 tracing the relations between the nutrition of plants and the composition of the soil1 a book which was received with enthusiasm1 and completely changed the attitude which agriculturists generally had maintained towards chemistry2 one of contempt1 founded on ignorance4 ,but1 as ,mr4 ,prothero has said1#fba 'if the new agriculture was born in the laboratory of ,glissen1 it grew into strength at the experimental station of ,rothamsted4' ,there1 for more than half a century1 ,lawes and ,gilbert conducted experiments1 of vast benefit to agriculture1 in the objects1 method1 and effect of manuring2 the scientific bases for the rotation of crops1 and the results of various foods on animals in the production of meat1 milk1 and manure4 ,the use of artificial manures now spread rapidly2 bones1 used long before uncrushed1 are said to have been first crushed in #aggb1 and their value was realized by ,coke of ,holkham1 but for long they were crushed by hammer or horse mill1 and their use was consequently limited4 ,then iron rollers worked by steam ground them cheaply and effectively1 and their use soon spread1 though it was not till about #ahdj that it can be said to have become general4 ,its effects were often described as wonderful4 ,in ,cheshire1 cheese-making had exhausted the soil1 and it was said that by boning and draining an additional cow could be kept for every #d acres1 and tenants readily paid #g per cent4 to their landlords for expenditure in bone manure4 ,its use had indeed raised many struggling farmers to comparative independence4#fbb ,a very large quantity of the bones used came from ,south ,america4#fbc ,porter also noticed that 'since #ahdj an extensive trade has been carried on in an article called ,guano'1 the guana of ,davy1 'from the islands of the ,pacific and off the coast of ,africa'4 ,nitrate of soda was just coming in1 but was not much used till some years later4 ,in #ahdj ,liebig suggested the treatment of bones with sulphuric acid1 and in #ahdc ,lawes patented the process and set up his works at ,deptford4#fbd ,italian rye grass1 not to be confounded with the old ,english ray grass1 had been introduced by ,thomson of ,banchory1 in #ahcd1 from ,munich2#fbe and though the swede was known at the end of the eighteenth century1 in many parts it had only just become common4 ,in ,notts it was in #ahdd described as having recently become 'the sheet-anchor of the farmer'4#fbf ,in ,cheshire a writer at the same date said1 'in the year #ahad there were not #e acres of ,swedish turnips grown in the parish where ,i reside2 now there are from #fj to #hj1 and in many parts of the county the increase has been in a much greater ratio4'#fbg ,about this time a remedy was found in the south for leaving the land idle during the nine months between harvesting the corn crop in ,august1 and sowing the turnip crop in the following ,june1 by sowing rye1 which was eaten green by the sheep in ,may1 a good preparation for the succeeding winter crop4 ,turnip cutters were at last being used1 and corn and cake crushers soon followed4 ,the seasons from #ahch to #ahda were bad1 and must be characterized as a period of dearth1 wheat keeping at a good price4#fbh ,that of #ahdd-e was remarkable for the first general appearance of the potato disease1 not only in these islands but on the continent of ,europe4#fbi ,in ,august1 #ahdf1 the worst apprehensions of the failure of the crop were more than realized1 and the terrible results in ,ireland are well known4 ,in the early part of #ahdg there was a fear of scarcity in corn1 and the price of wheat rose to #ajbs4 #e;d4 in spite of an importation of #d1ejj1jjj quarters1 but this was largely owing to the absence of any reliable agricultural statistics1 which were not furnished till #ahff1 and the price soon fell4#fcj ,we have now reached the period of free trade1 when the ,corn ,laws1 which had protected agriculture more or less effectually for so long1 were definitely abandoned4 ,that they had failed to prevent great fluctuations in the price of corn is abundantly evident1 it is also equally evident that they kept up the average price2 in the ten years from #ahcg to #ahdf1 the average price of wheat was #ehs4 #g;d4 a quarter1 in the seven years from #ahdh to #ahec1 the average price was #dhs4 #b;d4#fca ,the average imports of wheat and flour for the same period were #b1afa1hac and #d1dja1jjj quarters respectively4 ,but to obtain the real effect of free trade on prices1 the prices for the period between #ahae and #ahdf must be compared with those between #ahdf and the present day1 when the fall is enormous4 ,the ,act of #ahae1 which ,tooke said had failed to secure any one of the objects aimed at by its promoters1 had received two important alterations4 ,in #ahbh 7#i ,geo4 ,,iv1 c4 #fj7 a duty of #cfs4 #h;d4 was imposed when the price was #ejs41 decreasing to #as4 when it was #gcs4 ,in #ahdc 7#e ,vict4 c4 #ad7 a duty of #bjs4 was imposed when the price was #ejs41 and the duty became #gs4 when the price reached #fes4 ,a contemporary writer denies that these duties benefited the farmer at all3 'if the present shifting scale of duty was intended to protect the farmer1 keep the prices of corn steady1 insure a supply to the consumer at a moderate price1 and benefit the revenue1 it has signally failed4 ,during the continuation of the ,corn ,laws the farmers have suffered the greatest privations4 ,the variations in price have been extreme1 and when a supply of foreign corn has been required it has only reached the consumer at a high price1 and benefited the revenue little4'#fcb ,rents of farms were often calculated not on the market price of wheat1 but on the price thought to be fixed by the duties1 which was occasionally much higher4#fcc ,it was also said that but for the restrictions that had been imposed in the supposed interests of agriculture1 the skill and enterprise of farmers would have been better directed than it had been4 ,by means of these restrictions and the consequent enhancement of the cost of living1 the cultivation of the land had been injuriously restricted1 for the energies of farmers had been limited to producing certain descriptions of food1 and they had neglected others which would have been far#fcd more profitable4 ,the landlord had profited by higher rents1 but1 according to ,caird1 a most competent observer1 had generally speaking been induced by a reliance on protection to neglect his duty to his estates1 so that buildings were poor1 and drainage neglected4 ,the labourer was little if any better off than eighty years before4 ,it was a mystery even to farmers how they lived in many parts of the country2 'our common drink1' said one1 'is burnt crust tea1 we never know what it is to get enough to eat4'#fce ,against these disadvantages can only be put the fact that protection had kept up the price of corn1 a calamity for the mass of the people4 ,the amount of wheat imported into ,england before the era of ,corn ,law repeal was inconsiderable4 ,mr4 ,porter has shown#fcf how very small a proportion of wheat used in this country was imported from #ahja-dd4 ,from #ahja to #ahaj the average annual import of wheat into the kingdom was #fjj1idf quarters1 or a little over a peck annually per head1 the average annual consumption per head being about eight bushels4 ,between #ahaa and #ahbj the average importation was #deh1egh quarters1 or for the increased population a gallon-and-a-half per head1 and the same share for each person was imported in the next decade #ahba-cj4 ,from #ahca-dj the average imports arose to #fjg1fch quarters1 or two-and-a-quarter gallons per head1 and in #ahda-d an average import of #a1ija1die quarters raised the average supply to four-and-a-half gallons per person1 still a very small proportion of the amount consumed4 ,in #ahcf a small association had been formed in ,london for advocating the repeal of the ,corn ,laws1 and in #ahch a similar association was formed in ,manchester4#fcg ,at one of its earliest meetings appeared ,richard ,cobden1 under whose guidance the association became the ,anti-,corn ,law ,league1 and at whose invitation ,john ,bright joined the ,league4 ,under these two men the ,anti-,corn ,law ,league commenced its great agitation1 its object being 'to convince the manufacturer that the ,corn ,laws were interfering with the growth of trade1 to persuade the people that they were raising the price of food1 to teach the agriculturist that they had not even the solitary merit of securing a fixed price for corn'4 ,the country was deluged with pamphlets1 backed up by constant public meetings2 and these efforts1 aided by unfavourable seasons1 convinced many of the errors of protection4 ,in #ahdj the ,league spent #e1gjj in distributing #afj1jjj circulars and #aej1jjj pamphlets1 and in delivering #djj lectures to #hjj1jjj people4 ,bakers were persuaded to bake taxed and untaxed shilling loaves1 and1 on the purchaser choosing the larger1 to demand the tax from the landlord2 in #ahdc the ,league collected #ej1jjj1 next year #ajj1jjj1 and in #ahde #bej1jjj in support of their agitation4 ,yet for some years they had little success in ,parliament2 even in #ahdb ,peel only amended the laws2 and it was not until #ahdf that1 convinced by the ,league's arguments1 as he himself confessed1 and stimulated by the famine in ,ireland1 he introduced the famous ,act1 #i #aj ,vict4 c4 #bb4 ,by this the maximum duty on imported wheat was at once to be reduced to #ajs4 a quarter when the price was under #dhs41 to #es4 on barley when the price was under #bfs41 and to #ds4 on oats when the price was under #ahs41 with lower duties as prices rose above these figures1 but the most important part of the ,act was that on ,february #a1 #ahdi1 these duties were to cease1 and only a nominal duty of #as4 a quarter on foreign corn be retained1 which was abolished in #ahfj4 ,by #i and #aj ,vict4 c4 #bc the duties on live stock were also abolished entirely4 ,down to #ahdb the importation of horned cattle1 sheep1 hogs1 and other animals used as food was strictly prohibited1#fch but in that year the prohibition was withdrawn and they were allowed to enter the country on a payment of #bjs4 a head on oxen and bulls1 #aes4 on cows1 #cs4 on sheep1 #es4 on hogs2 which duties continued till #ahdf4 ,it is interesting to find that so shrewd an observer as ,mc,culloch did not expect any great increase in the imports of live animals from the reduction of the duties1 but he anticipated a great increase in salted meat from abroad2 cold storage being then undreamt of4 ,the full effect of this momentous change was not to be felt for a generation1 but the immediate effect was an agricultural panic apparently justified by falling prices4 ,in #ahej wheat averaged #djs4 #c;d4 and in #ahea #chs4 #f;d4 ,on the other hand1 stock farmers were doing well4 ,but on the corn lands the prices of the protection era had to come down2 many farms were thrown up1 some arable turned into pasture2 distress was widespread4 ,owing to the depressed state of agriculture in #ahej1 the ,times sent ,james ,caird on a tour through ,england1 and one of the most important conclusions arrived at in his account of his tour is1 that owing to protection1 the majority of landowners had neglected their land2 but another cause of neglect was that the great body of ,english landlords knew nothing of the management of their estates1 and committed it to agents who knew little more and merely received the rents4 ,the important business of being a landowner is the only one for which no special training is provided4 ,many of the landlords1 however1 then1 as now1 were unable to improve their estates if they desired to do so1 as they were hopelessly encumbered1 and the expense of sale was almost prohibitive4 ,the contrast between good and bad farmers was more marked in #ahej than to-day1 the efforts of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society to raise the general standard of farming had not yet borne much fruit4 ,in many counties1 side by side1 were farmers who used every modern improvement1 and those who still employed the methods of the eighteenth century3 on one farm wheat producing #dj bushels an acre1 threshed by steam at a cost of #cs4 #f;d41 on the next #bj bushels to the acre threshed by the flail at a cost of #is4#fci ,drainage in the counties where it was needed had made considerable progress1 the removal of useless hedgerows often crowded with timber1 that kept the sun from the crops and whose roots absorbed much of the nourishment of the soil1 was slowly extending1 but farm-buildings almost everywhere were defective4 ',the inconvenient ill-arranged hovels1 the rickety wood and thatch barns and sheds devoid of every known improvement for economizing labour1 food1 and manure1 which are to be met with in every county in ,england1 are a reproach to the landlords in the eyes of all good farmers4'#fdj ,the farm-buildings of ,belgium1 ,holland1 ,france1 and the ,rhenish ,provinces were much superior4 ,in parts of ,england indeed no progress seems to have been made for generations at this date4 ,thousands of acres of peat moss in ,lancashire were unreclaimed1 and many parts of the ,fylde district were difficult even to traverse4 ,even in ,warwickshire1 in the heart of ,england1 between ,knowle and ,tamworth1 instead of signs of industry and improvement were narrow winding lanes leading to nothing1 traversed by lean pigs and rough cattle1 broad copse-like hedges1 small and irregular fields of couch1 amidst which straggled the stalks of some smothered cereal2 these with gipsy encampments and the occasional sound of the poacher's gun from woods and thickets around were the characteristics of the district4#fda ,leases were the exception throughout ,england1 though more prevalent in the west4#fdb ,the greater proportion of farms were held on yearly agreements terminable by six months' notice on either side1 a system preferred by the landlord as enabling him to retain a greater hold over his land1 and acquiesced in by the tenant because of easy rents4 ,in spite of this insecurity of tenure and the absence of ,agricultural ,holdings ,acts1 the tenants invested their capital largely with no other security than the landlord's character1 'for in no country of the world does the character of any class of men stand so high for fair and generous dealing as that of the great body of the ,english landlords4' ,the custom of tenant-right was unknown except in certain counties1 ,surrey1 ,sussex1 the ,weald of ,kent1 ,lincoln1 ,north ,notts1 and in part of the ,west ,riding of ,yorkshire4#fdc ,where it existed1 the agriculture was on the whole inferior to that of the districts where it did not1 and it had frequently led to fraud in a greater or less degree4 ,many farmers were in the practice of 'working up to a quitting'1 or making a profit by the difference which their ingenuity and that of their valuer enabled them to demand at leaving as compared with what they paid on entry4 ,the best farmers as well as the landlords were said to be disgusted with the system4 ,the dislike for leases in the days immediately before the repeal of the ,corn ,laws was partly due to the uncertainty how long protection would last2 but chiefly then1 as afterwards1 to the fact that if a man improved his farm under a lease he had nearly always to pay an increased rent on renewal1 but if he held from year to year his improvement1 if any1 was so gradual and imperceptible that it was hardly noticed and the rent was not raised4 ,it may also be attributable to the modern disinclination to be bound down to a particular spot for a long period4 ,at all events1 the general dislike of farmers for leases is a curious commentary on the assertions of those writers who said that leases were his chief necessity4 ,the disparity of the labourer's wages in #ahej was most remarkable1 ranging from #aes4 a week in parts of ,lancashire to #fs4 in ,south ,wilts1 the average of the northern counties being #aas4 #f;d41 and of the southern #hs4 #e;d4 a difference due wholly to the influence of manufactures1 which is still further proved by the fact that in ,lancashire in #aggj wages were below the average for ,england4 ,in fact since ,young's time wages in the north had increased #ff per cent41 in the south only #ad per cent4 ,in ,berkshire and ,wiltshire there had been no increase in that period1 and in ,suffolk an actual decrease4 ,it is not surprising to learn that in some southern counties wages were not sufficient for healthy sustenance1 and the consequence was1 that there1 the average amount of poor relief per head of population was #hs4 #h-a_/b;d41 but in the north #ds4 #g-c_/d;d41 and the percentage of paupers was twice as great in the former as in the latter4 ,this was mainly due to two causes3 7#a7 the ratepayers of parishes in the south were accustomed to divide among themselves the surplus labour1 not according to their requirements but in proportion to the size of their farms1 so that a farmer who was a good economist of labour was reduced by this system to the same level as his unskilful neighbours1 and the labourer himself had no motive to do his best1 as every one1 good and bad1 was employed at the same rate4 7#b7 ,to the system of close and open parishes1 by which large proprietors could drive the labourer from the parish where he worked to live in some distant village in case he should become chargeable to the rates1 so that it was a common thing to see labourers walking three or four miles each day to their work and back1 and in one county farmers provided donkeys for them4 ,between #ahdj and #ahej the labourer had1 however1 already benefited by free trade1 for the price of many articles he consumed fell #cj2 on the other hand the rent of his cottage in eighty years had increased #ajj1 and meat #gj1 which however did not1 unfortunately1 affect him much4 ,the great development of railway construction also helped him by absorbing much surplus labour1 and the work of his wife and children was more freely exploited at this date to swell the family budget4#fdd ,the great difference between the wages of the north and the south is a clear proof that the wages of the agricultural labourer are not dependent on the prices of agricultural produce1 for those were the same in both regions4 ,it was unmistakably due to the greater demand for labour in the north4 ,the housing of the labourer was1 especially in the south1 often a black blot on ,english civilization4 ,from many instances collected by an inquirer in #ahdd the following may be taken4 ,at ,stourpaine in ,dorset1 one bedroom in a cottage contained three beds occupied by eleven people of all ages and both sexes1 with no curtain or partition whatever4 ,at ,milton ,abbas1 on the average of the last census there were thirty-six persons in each house1 and so crowded were they that cottagers with a desire for decency would combine and place all the males in one cottage1 and all the females in another4 ,but this was rare1 and licentiousness and immorality of the worst kind were frequent4#fde ,as for the farmer1 the stock raiser was doing better than the corn grower4 ,the following table shows the rent of cultivated land per acre1 the produce of wheat per acre in bushels1 the price of provisions1 wages of labour1 and rent of cottages in ,england at the date of ,young's tours1 about #aggj1 and of ,caird's in #ahejfdg3 ,rent of ,produce of cultivated land ,wheat ,price per lb4 of per acre4 per acre4 ,bread4 ,meat4 ,butter4 #aggj #acs4 #d;d4 #bc #a-a_/b;d4 #c-a_/d;d4 #f;d4 #ahej #bfs4 #aj;d4 #bf-c_/dfdf #a-a_/d;d4 #e;d4 #as4 ,price of ,wool ,cottage ,labourer's wages per lb4 rents4 per week4 #aggj #e-a_/b;d4 #cds4 #h;d4 #gs4 #c;d4 #ahej #as4 #gds4 #f;d4 #is4 #g;d4 ,thus in eighty years the average rent of arable land rose #ajj1 the average wheat crop #ad1 while the price of bread had decreased #af4 ,but meat had increased #gj1 wool over #ajj1 butter #ajj4 ,the chief benefit to the farmer therefore lay in the increased value of live stock and its products1 and it was found then1 as in the present depression1 that the holders of strong wheat land suffered most1 which was further illustrated by the fact that the rent of the corn-growing counties of the east coast averaged #bcs4 #h;d4 per acre2 that of the mixed corn and grass counties in the midlands and west1 #cas4 #e;d4 ,writing in #ahdg1 ,porter said rents had doubled since #agij4fdh ,in ,essex farms could be pointed out which were let in #agij at less than #ajs4 an acre1 but during the war at from #des4 to #ejs4 ,in #ahah the rent went down to #ces41 and in #ahdg was #bjs4 ,in ,berks4 and ,wilts4 farms let at #ads4 per acre in #agij1 rose by #ahaj to #gjs41 or fivefold2 sank in #ahbj to #ejs41 and in #ahdg to #cjs4 ,in ,staffordshire farms on one estate let for #hs4 an acre in #agij1 rose during the war to #ces41 and at the peace were lowered to #bjs41 at which price they remained4 ,owing to better farming light soils had been applied to uses for which heavy lands alone had formerly been considered fit1 with a considerable increase of rent4 ,on the ,duke of ,rutland's#fdi ,belvoir estate1 of from #ah1jjj to #bj1jjj acres of above average quality1 rents were in-- #agii #ais4 #c-c_/d;d4 an acre4 #ahab #bes4 #h-c_/d;d4 #ahcj #bes4 #a-c_/d;d4 #ahej #cfs4 #h;d4 ,but the ,dukes of ,rutland were indulgent landlords and evidently took no undue advantage of the high prices during the war1 a policy whose wisdom was fully justified afterwards4 ,it was the opinion of most competent judges1 even after the abolition of the ,corn ,laws1 that ,english land would continue to rise in value4 ,porter stated that the ,united ,kingdom could never be habitually dependent on the soil of other countries for the food of its people1 there was not enough shipping to transport it if it could4#fej ,caird prophesied that in the next eighty years the value of land in ,england would more than double4 ,the wellnigh universal opinion was that as the land of ,england could not increase1 and the population was constantly increasing1 land must become dearer4 ,men failed to foresee the opening of millions of acres of virgin soil in other parts of the world1 and the improvement of transport to such an extent that wheat has occasionally been carried as ballast4 ,about twenty-five or thirty years after these prophecies their fallacy began to be cruelly exposed4#fea ,about #ahecfeb matters began to mend1 chiefly owing to the great expansion in trade that followed the great gold discoveries in ,america and ,australia4 ,then1 came the ,crimean ,war1 with the closing of the ,baltic to the export of ,russian corn1 wheat in #ahee averaging #gds4 #h;d41 and in the next decade the ,american ,war crippled another competitor1 the imports of wheat from the ,united ,states sinking from #af1adj1jjj cwt in #ahfb1 to #fce1jjj cwt4 in #ahff4 ,from #ahec until #ahge ,english agriculture prospered exceedingly1 assisted largely by good seasons4 ,between #ahed and #ahfe there were ten good harvests1 and only two below the average4 ,prices of produce rose almost continuously1 and the price and rent of land with them4 ,the trade of the country was good1 and the demand for the farmer's products steadily grew2 the capital value of the land1 live stock1 and crops upon it1 increased in this period by #dde1jjj1jjj4fec ,it appeared as if the abolition of the ,corn ,laws was not to have any great effect after all4 ,now at last the great body of farmers began to approach the standard set them long before by the more energetic and enterprising4 ,early maturity in finishing live stock for the market by scientific feeding probably added a fourth to their weight ,the produce of crops per acre grew1 and drainage and improvements were carried out on all sides1 the greatest improvement being made in the cultivation and management of strong lands1 of which drainage was the foundation1 and enabled the occupier to add swedes to his course of cropping4#fed ,it was in this period that ,shorthorns1 ,herefords1 and ,devons attained a standard of excellence which has made them sought after by the whole world2 and other breeds were perfected1 the ,sussex and ,aberdeen ,angus especially2 while in sheep the improvement was perhaps even greater4#fee ,the improved ,lincolns1 ,oxford ,downs1 ,hampshire ,downs1 and ,shropshires took their place as standard breeds at this period4 ,in #ahff1 after many years of expectation and disappointment1 agriculturists were furnished with statistics which are trustworthy for practical purpose1 but are somewhat vitiated by the fact that the live stock census was taken on ,march #e1 which obviously omitted a large number of young stock2 so that those for #ahfg1 when the census was taken on ,june #be1 are better for purposes of comparison with those of subsequent years1 when the census has been taken on ,june #d or #e4 ,between #ahfg and #ahgh the cattle in ,england and ,wales had increased from #d1jac1efd to #d1fdb1fda1 though sheep had diminished from #bb1jbe1dih to #ba1cfi1haj4fef ,the total acreage under cultivation had increased from #be1dea1ebf acres to #bg1afd1cbf acres in the same period4 ,there was1 however1 one black shadow in this fair picture3 in #ahfe ,england was invaded by the rinderpest1 which spread with alarming rapidity1 killing #b1jjj cows in a month from its first appearance1 and within six months infecting thirty-six counties4#feg ,the alarm was general1 and town and country meetings were held in the various districts where the disease appeared to concert measures of defence4 ,the ,privy ,council issued an order empowering ,justices to appoint inspectors authorized to seize and slaughter any animal labouring under such diseases2 but1 in spite of this1 the plague raged with redoubled fury throughout ,september4 ,there was gross mismanagement in combating it1 for the inspectors were often ignorant men1 and no compensation was paid for slaughter1 so that farmers often sold off most of their diseased stock before hoisting the black flag4 ,the ravages of the disease in the ,london cow-houses was fearful1 as might be expected1 and they are said to have been left empty2 by no means an unmixed evil1 as the keeping of cow-houses in towns was a glaring defiance of the most obvious sanitary laws4 ,in ,october a ,commission was appointed to investigate the origin and nature of the disease1 and the first return showed a total of #ag1fgc animals attacked4 ,by ,march #i1 #ahff1 #aag1ffd animals had died from the plague1 and #bf1ace been killed in the attempt to stay it4 ,by the end of ,august the disease had been brought within very narrow limits1 and was eventually stamped out by the resolute slaughter of all infected animals4 ,by ,november #bd the number of diseased animals that had died or been killed was #bji1ccb1feh and the loss to the nation was reckoned at #c1jjj1jjj4 ,the disease was brought by animals exported from ,russia1 who came from ,revel1 via the ,baltic1 to ,hull4 ,in #ahgb1 cattle brought to the same port infected the cattle of the ,east ,riding of ,yorkshire1 but this outbreak was checked before much damage had been done1 and since #ahgg there has been no trace of this dreaded disease in the kingdom4 ,the cattle plague1 rinderpest1 or steppe murrain1 is said#fei to have first appeared in ,england in #affe1 the year of the ,great ,plague1 and reappeared in #agad1 when it came from ,holland1 but did little damage1 being chiefly confined to the neighbourhood of ,london4 ,the next outbreak was in #agde1 and lasted for twelve years1 undoubtedly coming from ,holland2 it is said to have caused such destruction among the cattle1 that much of the grass land in ,england was ploughed up and planted with corn1 so that the exports of grain increased largely4 ,in #agfi it came again1 but only affected a few localities1 and disappeared in #agga1 not to return till #ahfe4 ,foot and mouth disease was first observed in ,england in #ahci1ffj and it was malignant in #ahdj-a1 when cattle1 sheep1 and pigs were attacked as they were during the serious outbreak of #ahga-b4 ,in #ahhc no less than #bai1bhi cattle were attacked1 besides #bag1dib sheep1 and #bd1ccb pigs1 when the disease was worse than it has ever been in ,england4 ,since then1 though there have been occasional outbreaks1 it has much abated4 ,another dread scourge of cattle1 pleuro-pneumonia1 was at its worst in #ahgb1 a most calamitous year in this respect1 when #g1ihc cattle were attacked4 ,in #ahij the ,board of ,agriculture assumed powers with respect to it under the ,diseases of ,animals ,act of that year1 and their consequent action has been attended with great success in getting rid of the disease4 ,at the end of this halcyon period farmers had to contend with a new difficulty1 the demand for higher wages by their labourers at the instigation of ,joseph ,arch4#ffa ,this famous agitator was born at ,barford in ,warwickshire in #ahbf1 and as a boy worked for neighbouring farmers1 educating himself in his spare time4 ,the miserable state of the labourer which he saw all around him entered into his soul1 meat was rarely seen on his table1 even bacon was a luxury in many cottages4 ,tea was #fs4 to #gs4 a lb41 sugar #h;d41 and other prices in proportion2 the labourers stole turnips for food1 and every other man was a poacher4 ,arch made himself master of everything he undertook1 became famous as a hedger1 mower1 and ploughman1 and being consequently employed all over the ,midlands and ,south ,wales1 began to gauge the discontent of the labourer who was then voiceless1 voteless1 and hopeless4 ,his wages by #ahgb had increased to #abs4 a week1 but had not kept pace with the rise in prices4 ,bread was #g-a_/b;d4 a loaf2 the labourer had lost the benefit of his children's labour1 for they had now all gone to school2 his food was 'usually potatoes1 dry bread1 greens1 herbs1 kettle broth made by putting bread in the kettle1 weak tea1 bacon sometimes1 fresh meat hardly ever4'#ffb ,it is difficult to realize that at the end of the third quarter of the nineteenth century1 when ,gladstone said the prosperity of the country was advancing 'by leaps and bounds'1 that any class of the community in full work could live under such wretched conditions4 ,arch came to the conclusion that labour could only improve its position when organized1 and the ,agricultural ,labourers' ,union was initiated in #ahgb4 ,not that the idea of obtaining better conditions by combination was new to the rural labourer4 ,it was attempted in #ahcb in ,dorset1 but speedily crushed1 and not till #ahfe was a new union founded in ,scotland1 which was followed by a strike in ,buckinghamshire in #ahfg1 and the foundation of a union in ,herefordshire in #ahga4ffc ,it was determined to ask for #afs4 a week and a #i-a_/b hours' working day1 which the farmers refused to grant1 and the men struck4 ,the agitation spread all over ,england1 and was often conducted unwisely and with a bitter spirit1 but the labourer was embittered by generations of sordid misery4 ,very reluctantly the farmers gave way1 and generally speaking wages went up during the agitation to #ads4 or #aes4 a week1 though ,arch himself admits that even during the height of it they were often only #aas4 and #abs4 ,with the bad times1 about #ahgi1 wages began to fall again1 and men were leaving the ,agricultural ,union2 by #ahhb ,arch says many were again taking what the farmer chose to give4 ,from #ahhd the ,union steadily declined1 and after a temporary revival about #ahij1 practically collapsed in #ahid4 ,other unions had been started1 but were then going down hill1 and in #aijf only two remained in a moribund condition4 ,their main object1 to raise the labourer's wages1 was largely counteracted by the acute depression in agriculture1 and though there has since been considerable recovery1 there are districts in ,england to-day where he only gets #aas4 and #abs4 a week4 ,the ,labourers' ,union helped to deal a severe blow to the 'gang system'1 which had grown up at the beginning of the century 7when the high corn prices led to the breaking up of land where there were no labourers1 so that 'gangs' were collected to cultivate it#ffd71 by which overseers1 often coarse bullies1 employed and sweated gangs sometimes numbering #fj or #gj persons1 including small children1 and women1 the latter frequently very bad specimens of their sex4 ,these gangs went turnip-singling1 bean-dropping1 weeding c41 while pea-picking gangs ran to #djj or #ejj4 ,though some of these gangs were properly managed1 the system was a bad one1 and the ,union and the ,education ,acts helped its disappearance4 ,,footnotes3 #fac ,cylindrical pipes came in about #ahdc1 though they had been recommended in #agbg by ,switzer4 #fad ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal 7#ast series71 xxii4 #bfj4 #fae ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal1 #ahij1 pp4 #a sq4 #faf ,ibid41 #ahid1 pp4 #bje sq4 #fag ,mc,combie1 ,cattle and ,cattle ,breeders1 p4 #cc4 #fah ,these classes1 however1 did not comprise all the then known breeds of live stock4 #fai ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal1 #ahib1 pp4 #dgi sq4 #fbj ,at the show at ,birmingham ,in #ahih there were #bb entries of ,longhorns2 in #ahii a ,longhorn ,cattle ,society was established1 and the herd-book resuscitated4 ,more than twenty herds of the breed are now well established4 #fba ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal1 #aija1 p4 #bd4 #fbb ,caird1 ,english ,agriculture in #ahej-a1 pp4 #beb sq4 #fbc ,porter1 ,progress of the ,nation1 p4 #adb4 #fbd ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal1 #aija1 p4 #be4 #fbe ,ibid4 #ahif1 p4 #if4 #fbf ,ibid4 7#ast ser471 vi4 #b4 #fbg ,ibid4 7#ast ser471 v4 #ajb4 #fbh #ahch1 #fds4 #g;d2 #ahci1 #gjs4 #h;d42 #ahdj1 #ffs4 #d;d42 #ahda1 #fds4 #d;d4 #fbi ,tooke1 ,history of ,prices1 iv4 #ai4 #fcj ,c4 ,wren ,hoskyns1 ,agricultural ,statistics1 p4 #e4 #fca ,the abnormal prices during the ,crimean ,war cannot fairly be taken into account4 ,the home and foreign supplies of wheat and flour from #ahci-df were3-- ,home ,supplies4 ,foreign ,supplies4 qrs4 qrs4 #ahci-dj #d1jbb1jjj #a1gfb1dhb #ahdj-a #c1hgj1fdh #a1ibe1bda #ahda-b #c1fbf1agc #b1ihe1dbb #ahdb-c #e1jgh1ihi #b1dje1bag #ahdc-d #e1bac1ded #a1fjf1iab #ahdd-e #f1ffd1cfh #dgf1aij #ahde-f #e1fii1ifi #b1gcb1acd 7,tooke1 ,history of ,prices1 iv4 #dad47 #ahdd-e was a very abundant crop1 and the threatened repeal of the ,corn ,laws induced farmers to send all the corn possible to market4 #fcb ,tooke1 ,history of ,prices1 iv4 #cb4 #fcc ,cobden's ,speech1 ,march #ab1 #ahdd4 #fcd ,tooke1 ,history of ,prices1 iv4 #adb4 #fce ,from evidence collected by ,mr4 ,austin in the southern counties4 #fcf ,progress of ,nation1 pp4 #acg sq4 ,for the amount imported before that date1 see ,appendix #b4 #fcg ,walpole1 ,history of ,england1 iv4 #fc sq4 ,cobden apparently never contemplated such low prices for corn as have prevailed since #ahhc4 ,in his speech of ,march #ab1 #ahdd1 he mentioned #ejs4 a quarter as a probable price under free trade1 and he died before the full effect of foreign competition was felt by the ,english farmer4 #fch ,mc,culloch1 ,commercial ,dictionary1 #ahdg1 p4 #bgd4 ,see below1 pp4 #cbe sq4 #fci ,caird1 ,english ,agriculture in #ahej-a1 p4 #dih4 #fdj ,ibid4 p4 #dij4 #fda ,victoria ,county ,history3 ,warwickshire1 ii4 #bgg4 #fdb ,caird1 op4 cit41 p4 #dha4 #fdc ,caird1 op4 cit4 p4 #ejg4 #fdd ,hasbach1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bbj1 #bbf4 #fde ,cobden's ,speech1 ,march #ab1 #ahdd4 #fdf ,mr4 ,pusey1 one of the best informed agriculturists of the day1 estimated the produce of wheat per acre in #ahdj at #bf bushels4--,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal1 #ahij1 p4 #bj4 #fdg ,caird1 ,english ,farming in #ahej-a1 p4 #dgd4 #fdh ,progress of the ,nation4 #fdi ,thorold ,rogers1 ,history of ,agriculture and ,prices1 v4 #bi4 #fej ,progress of the ,nation1 pp4 #acg-i4 #fea ,yet as the growth of population overtakes the corn and meat supply1 these prophets may in the end prove correct4 #feb ,the ,great ,exhibition of #ahea was said to have widely diffused the use of improved implements4--,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal1 #ahef1 p4 #ed4 #fec ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal1 #ahij1 p4 #cd4 #fed ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal1 #ahef1 p4 #fj4 #fee ,ibid4 #aija1 p4 #cj4 ,see below1 p4 #cdc4 #fef ,board of ,agriculture ,returns1 #ahgh1 and ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal1 #ahfh1 p4 #bci4 ,young estimated the number of cattle in ,england in #aggj at #b1heb1jdh1 including #fhd1dia draught cattle4--,eastern ,tour1 iv4 #def4 #feg ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal1 7#bnd ser471 ii4 #bcj4 #feh ,ibid4 iii4 #dcj4 #fei ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal 7#bnd ser471 ii4 #bgj4 #ffj ,see ,autobiography of ,joseph ,arch4 #ffa ,ibid4 ix4 #bgd4 #ffb ,in many districts1 however1 his food was better than this4 #ffc ,hasbach1 op4 cit41 pp4 #bgf-g4 #ffd ,hasbach1 op4 cit41 pp4 #aic1 et seq4 ,the ,gangs ,act 7#cj #ca ,vict4 c4 #acj7 had already brought the system under control4 ,,chapter ,,xxi #ahge-aijh ,,agricultural ,,distress ,,again4--,,foreign ,,competition4--,,agricultural ,,holdings ,,acts4--,,new ,,implements4--,,agricultural ,,commissions4--,,the ,,situation ,,in #aijh ,about the year #ahge the good times came to an end4 ,the full force of free trade was at last felt4 ,the seasons assisted the decline1 and there was now no compensation in the shape of higher prices4 ,in the eight years between #ahgd and #ahhb there were only two good crops4 ,a new and formidable competitor had entered the field2 between #ahfj and #ahhj the produce of wheat in the ,united ,states had trebled4 ,vast stretches of virgin soil were opened up with the most astonishing rapidity by railroads1 and ,european immigrants poured in4 ,the cost of transport fell greatly1 and ,england was flooded with foreign corn and meat4 ,english land which had to support the landlord1 the tithe-owner1 the land agent1 the farmer1 the labourer1 and a large army of paupers1#ffe had to compete with land where often one man was owner1 farmer1 and labourer1 with no tithe and no poor rates4 ,yet prices held up fairly well until #ahhd1 when there was a collapse from which they have not yet recovered4 ,in #ahgg wheat was #efs4 #i;d41 in #ahhc #das4 #g;d41 and in #ahhd #ces4 #h;d42 by #ahid the average price for the year was #bbs4 #aj;d4#fff ,farmers' capital was reduced from #cj to #ej per cent41 and rents and the purchase value of land in a similar proportion4 ,poor clays only fit for wheat and beans went out of cultivation1 though much has since been laid down to grass1 and much has 'tumbled down'4 ,in fact most of the increased value of the good period between #ahec-ge disappeared4 ,the year #ahgi will long be remembered as 'the ,black ,year'4 ,it was the worst of a succession of wet seasons in the midland1 western and southern counties of ,england1 the average rainfall being one-fourth above the average1 and #ahhj was little better4 ,the land1 saturated and chilled1 produced coarser herbage1 the finer grasses languished or were destroyed1 fodder and grain were imperfectly matured4 ,mould and ergot were prevalent among plants1 and flukes producing liver-rot among live stock1 especially sheep4 ,in #ahgi in ,england and ,wales #c1jjj1jjj sheep died or were sacrificed from rot1#ffg by #ahha #e1jjj1jjj had perished at an estimated loss of #aj1jjj1jjj1 and many1 alas6 were sent to market full of disease4 ,cattle also were infected1 and hares1 rabbits1 and deer suffered4 ,in some cases entire flocks of sheep disappeared4 ,the disease was naturally worst on low-lying and ill-drained pastures1 but occurred even on the drier uplands hitherto perfectly free from liver-rot1 carried thither no doubt by the droppings of infected sheep1 hares1 and rabbits1 and perhaps by the feet of men and animals4 ,apart from medicine1 concentrated dry food given systematically1 the regular use of common salt1 and of course removal from low-lying and damp lands1 were found the best preventives4 ,besides this great calamity1 this year was distinguished by one of the worst harvests of the century1 outbreaks of foot and mouth disease1 of pleuro-pneumonia1 and a disastrous attack of foot-rot4 ,the misfortunes of the landed interest produced a ,commission in #ahgi under the ,duke of ,richmond1 which conducted a most laborious and comprehensive inquiry4 ,their report1 issued in #ahhb1 stated that they were unanimously convinced of the great intensity and extent of the distress that had fallen upon the agricultural community4 ,owner and occupier had alike been involved4 ,yet1 though agricultural distress had prevailed over the whole country1 the degree had varied in different counties1 and in some cases in different parts of the same counties4 ,cheshire1 for instance1 had not suffered to anything like the same extent as other counties1 nor was the depression so severe in ,cumberland1 ,westmoreland1 ,northumberland1 and parts of ,yorkshire4 ,the rainfall had been less in the northern counties4 ,in the midlands1 the eastern1 and most of the southern counties the distress was severe1 in ,essex the state of agriculture was deplorable1 but ,kent1 ,devon1 and ,cornwall were not hardly hit4#ffh ,the chief causes of the depression were said to be these3-- #a4 ,the succession of unfavourable seasons1 causing crops deficient in quantity and quality1 and losses of live stock4 #b4 ,low prices1 partly due to foreign imports and partly to the inferior quality of the home production4 #c4 ,increased cost of production4 #d4 ,increased pressure of local taxation by the imposition of new rates1 viz4 the education rate and the sanitary rate2 and the increase of old rates1 especially the highway rate1 in consequence of the abolition of turnpikes4 ,some exceptionally bad instances of this were given4 ,in the parish of ,didmarton1 ,gloucestershire1 the average amount of rates paid for the five years ending ,march #ca1 #aheh1 was #bf #fs4 #c;d41 for the five years ending ,march #ca1 #ahgh1 #aah #aas4 #g;d4 ,in the ,northleach ,union the rates had increased thus in decennial periods from #ahej3-- #ahej-a #e1dga #ahfj-a #e1ecd #ahgj-a #h1ebe #ahgh-i #aj1jhi ,on one small property in ,staffordshire the increase of rates1 other than poor rates1 amounted to #cs4 #f;d4 in the on the rateable value4 #e4 ,excessive rates charged by railway companies for the conveyance of produce1 and preferential rates given to foreign agricultural produce2 the railway companies alleging1 in defence of this1 that foreign produce was consigned in much greater bulk1 by few consignors1 than home grown1 and could be conveyed much more economically than if picked up at different stations in small quantities4 ,as to the effect of restrictive covenants on the depression1 the balance of evidence did not incline either way4#ffi ,the ,agricultural ,holdings ,act of #ahge was stated to have done much good in the matter of compensation to tenants for improvements1 notwithstanding its merely permissive character1 as it had reversed the presumption of law in relation to improvements effected by the tenant1 prescribed the amount of compensation1 and the mode in which it should be given4 ,as to the important subject of freedom of cropping and sale of produce1 there were diverse opinions1 some advocating it wholly1 others not believing in it at all1 others saying each landlord and each tenant should make their own bargains since each farm stands on its own footing1 others again favouring modified restrictions4 ,the preponderance of opinion was in favour of a modification of the law of distress4 ,the ,commission further said that the pressure of foreign competition was greatly in excess of the anticipations of the supporters and of the apprehensions of the opponents of ,corn ,law ,repeal2 if it had not been for this1 ,english farmers would have been partly compensated for the deficient yield by higher prices4 ,on the other hand1 the farmer had had the advantage of an increased and cheapened supply of feeding stuffs1 such as maize1 linseed and cotton cakes1 and of artificial manures imported from abroad4 ,at the same time the benefit to the community from cheap food was immense4 ,it seemed just1 however1 that as agriculture was suffering from low prices1 by which the country gained as a whole1 that the proportion of taxation imposed on the land should be lessened2 it was especially unjust that personal property was exempted from local rates1 contrary to the ,act of #dc ,eliz4 c4 #b1 and the whole burden thrown on real property4 ,the difficulties of farmers were aggravated by the high price of labour1 which had increased #be per cent4 in twenty years1 largely owing to the competition of other industries1 and at the same time become less efficient4 ,as provisions were cheap1 and employment abundant1 the labourer had been scarcely affected by the distress4 ,his cottage1 however1 especially if in the hands of a small owner1 with neither the means nor the will to expend money on improvements1 was often still very defective4 ,farmers were already complaining of the results of the new system of education1 for which they had to pay1 while it deprived them of the labour of boys1 and drained from the land the sources of future labour by making the young discontented with farm work4 ,the ,commission denied that rents had been unduly raised previous to #ahgefgj2 and in the exceptional cases where they had been1 it was due to the imprudent competition of tenant farmers encouraged by advances made by country bankers1 the sudden withdrawal of which had greatly contributed to the present distress4 ,districts where dairying was carried on had suffered least1 yet the yield of milk was much diminished1 and the quality deteriorated1 owing to the inferiority of grass from a continuance of wet seasons4 ,the production and sale of milk was increasing largely1 so that the attention of farmers and landlords was being drawn to this important branch of farming1 milk-sellers necessarily suffering less from foreign competition than any other farmers4 ,let us turn once more to the hop yards3 in #ahgh the acreage of hops in ,england reached its maximum4 ,we have seen that in the first half of the eighteenth century hop yards covered #ab1jjj acres2 which between #agej and #aghj increased to #be1jjj1 and by #ahjj to #cb1jjj4 ,in #ahgh1 #ga1ghi acres were grown4 ,the great increase prior to that year was due to the abolition of the excise duty in #ahfb1 which on an average was equal to an annual charge of nearly #g an acre4#fga ,this encouraged hop-growing more than the taking off of the import duty in the same year discouraged it4 ,in #ahhb there was a very small crop in ,england1 which raised the average price to #ah #ajs4 a cwt42 some choice samples fetching #cj a cwt42 growers who had good crops realizing much more than the freehold value of the hop yards4 ,this1 however1 was most unfortunate for them1 as it led to a great increase in the use of hop substitutes1 such as quassia1 chiretta1 colombo1 gentian1 c41 which1 with the decreasing consumption of beer and the demand for lighter beer1 has done more than foreign competition to lower the price and thereby cause so large an area to be grubbed up as unprofitable1 that in #aijg it was reduced to #dd1ich acres4 ,yet the quality of the hops has in the last generation greatly improved in condition1 quality1 and appearance4 ,growers also have in the same period often incurred great expense in substituting various methods of wire-work for poles2 and washing1 generally with quassia chips and soft soap and water1 has become wellnigh universal1 so that the expense of growing the crop has increased1 while the price has been falling4#fgb ,the crop has always been an expensive one to grow2 ,marshall in #agih put it at #bj an acre1 exclusive of picking1 drying1 and marketing#fgc2 and ,young estimated the total cost at the same date at #ca #ajs4 an acre#fgd2 to-day #dj an acre is by no means an outside price4 ,it may be some encouragement to growers to remember that hops have always been subject to great fluctuations in price2 between #afic and #agjj1 for instance1 they varied from #djs4 to #bdjs4 a cwt41 so that they may yet see them at a remunerative figure4 ',upon the whole'1 says an eighteenth-century writer1 'though many have acquired large estates by hops1 their real advantage is perhaps questionable4 ,by engrossing the attention of the farmer they withdraw him from slower and more certain sources of wealth1 and encourage him to rely too much upon chance for his rent1 rather than the honest labour of the plough4 ,to the landlord the cultivation of hops is an evil1 defrauding the arable land of its proper quantity of manure and thereby impoverishing his estate4' ,it was by this time the general opinion of men with a thorough experience of farming1 that in many parts of ,great ,britain no sufficient compensation was secured to the tenant for his unexhausted improvements4 ,in some counties and districts this compensation was given by established customs1 in others customs existed which were insufficient1 in many they did not exist at all4 ,it must be confessed that often when a tenant leaves his farm there is more compensation due to the landlord than to the tenant4 ,human nature being what it is1 the temptation to get as much out of the land just before leaving it is wellnigh irresistible to many farmers4 ,in these days1 when the landlord is often called upon by the tenant to do what the tenant used to do himself1 the question of compensation to the tenant must on many estates appear to the landlord extremely ironical4 ,it is1 in the greater number of cases1 the landlord who should receive compensation1 and not the tenant2 and though he has power to demand it1 such power is over and over again not put in force4 ,at the same time there are bad men in the landlord class as in any other1 and from them the tenant required protection4 ,by the ,agricultural ,holdings 7,england7 ,act of #ahge1 #ch #ci ,vict4 c4 #ib1 improvements for which compensation could be claimed by the tenant were divided into three classes4 ,first class improvements1 such as drainage of land1 erection or enlargement of buildings1 laying down of permanent pasture1 c41 required the previous consent in writing of the landlord to entitle the tenant to compensation4 ,second class improvements1 such as boning of land with undissolved bones1 chalking1 claying1 liming1 and marling the land1 the latter now hardly ever practised1 required notice in writing by the tenant to the landlord of his intention1 and if notice to quit had been given or received1 the consent in writing of the landlord was necessary4 ,for third class improvements1 such as the application to the land of purchased manure1 and consumption on the holding by cattle1 sheep1 or pigs1 of cake or other feeding stuff not produced on the holding1 no consent or notice was required4 ,improvements in the first class were deemed to be exhausted in twenty years1 in the second in seven1 and in the third in two4 ,it was the opinion of the ,richmond ,commission of #ahgi that1 notwithstanding the beneficial effects of this ,act1 no sufficient compensation for his unexhausted improvements was secured to the tenant4 ,the landlord and tenant also might agree in writing that the ,act should not apply to their contract of tenancy1 so in #ahhc when the ,agricultural ,holdings ,act of that year 7#df #dg ,vict4 c4 #fa7fge was passed1 it was made compulsory as far as regarded compensation1 and the time limit as regards the tenant's claims for improvements was abolished1 the basis for compensation for all improvements recognized by the ,act being laid down as 'the value of the improvement to an incoming tenant'4 ,improvements for which compensation could be claimed were again divided into three classes as before1 but the drainage of land was placed in the second class instead of the first1 and so only required notice to the landlord4 ,this was the only improvement in the second class2 the other improvements which had been in the second class in the ,act of #ahge were now placed in the third1 where no consent or notice was required4 ,the ,act also effected three other important alterations in the law2 first1 as to ',notices to ,quit'1 a year's notice being necessary where half a year's notice had been sufficient1 though this section might be excluded by agreement2 secondly1 after ,january #a1 #ahhe1 the landlord could only distrain for one year's rent instead of six years as formerly2 and thirdly1 as to fixtures4 ,these formerly became the property of the landlord on the determination of the tenancy1 but by #ad #ae ,vict4 c4 #be an agricultural tenant was enabled to remove fixtures put up by him with the consent of his landlord for agricultural purposes4 ,now all fixtures erected after the commencement of the ,act were the property of and removable by the tenant1 but the landlord might elect to purchase them4 ,this ,act was amended by the ,act of #aijj 7#fc #fd ,vict4 #ej71 and has been much altered by the ,agricultural ,holdings ,act of #aijf 7#f ,edw4 ,,vii1 c4 #ef71 which has treated the landlord with a degree of severity1 which considering the excellent relations that have for the most part existed between ,english landlords and tenants for generations1 is utterly unwarranted4 ,in several respects indeed he has been treated by the ,act as if the land did not belong to him1 while freedom of contract1 until recent years one of the most cherished principles of our law1 is arbitrarily interfered with4 ,the chief alterations made by the ,act of #aijf were3-- #a4 ,improvements4--,by the ,act of #ahhc1 in the valuation for improvements under the first schedule1 such part of the improvement as is justly due to the inherent capabilities of the soil was not credited to the tenant ,this provision is repealed by the ,act of #aijf1 in reference to which it must be said that the latent fertility of the soil1 sometimes very considerable1 may be developed by a small outlay on the part of the tenant for which outlay he is certainly entitled to compensation4 ,but the greater part of the improvement may be due to the soil which belongs to the landlord1 yet the ,act credits the tenant with the whole of this improvement4 ,an addition is made to the list of improvements which a tenant may make without his landlord's consent and for which he is entitled on quitting to compensation1 viz4 repairs to buildings1 being buildings necessary for the proper working of the holding1 other than repairs which the tenant is obliged to execute4 #b4 ,damage by ,game4 ,a tenant may now claim compensation for damage to crops by deer1 pheasants1 partridges1 grouse1 and black game4 #c4 ,freedom of ,cropping and ,disposal of ,produce4 ,prior to this ,act it had been the custom for generations to insert covenants in agreements providing for the proper cultivation of the farm2 as1 for instance1 forbidding the removal from the holding of hay1 straw1 roots1 green crops1 and manure made on the farm4 ,these and other covenants were merely in the interests of good farming1 and to prevent the soil deteriorating4 ,in recent times vexatious covenants formerly inserted had practically disappeared1 and where still existing were seldom enforced4 ,by this ,act1 notwithstanding any custom of the country or any contract or agreement1 the tenant may follow any system of cropping1 and dispose of any of his produce as he pleases1 but after so doing he must make suitable and adequate provision to protect the farm from injury thereby3 a proviso vague and difficult to enforce1 and not sufficient to prevent an unscrupulous tenant greatly injuring his farm4 #d4 ,compensation for unreasonable disturbance4 ,if a landlord without good cause1 and for reasons inconsistent with good estate management1 terminates a tenancy by notice to quit2 or refuses to grant a renewal of the tenancy if so requested at least one year before the expiration thereof2 or if a tenant quits his holding in consequence of a demand by the landlord for an increased rent1 such demand being due to an increased value in the holding owing to improvements done by the tenant2 in either of such events the tenant is entitled to compensation4 ,this compensation for disturbance is in direct opposition to the recommendation of the ,commission of #ahid1fgf and seems to be an unwarrantable interference with the owner's management of his own land4 ,another benefit1 and one long needed1 was conferred on farmers by the ,ground ,game ,act of #ahhj1 #dc #dd ,vict41 c4 #dg4 ,before the ,act the tenant had by common law the exclusive right to the game1 including hares and rabbits1 unless it was reserved to the landlord1 which was usually the case4 ,by this ,act the right to kill ground game1 which often worked terrible havoc in the tenant's crops1 was rendered inseparable from the occupation of the land1 though the owner may reserve to himself a concurrent right4 ,one consequence of this ,act has been that the hare has disappeared from many parts of ,england4 ,the greatest improvement in implements during this period was in the direction of reaping and mowing machines1 which have now attained a high degree of perfection4 ,as early as #aghj the ,society of ,arts offered a gold medal for a reaping machine1 but it was not till #ahab that ,john ,common of ,denwick1 ,northumberland1 invented a machine which embodied all the essential principles of the modern reaper4 ,popular hostility to the machine was so great that ,common made his early trials by moonlight1 and he ceased from working on them4#fgg ,his machine was improved by the ,browns of ,alnwick1 who sold some numbers in #ahbb1 and shortly afterwards emigrated to ,canada taking with them models of ,common's reapers4 ,mc,cormick1 the reputed inventor of the reaping machine1 knew the ,browns1 and obtained from them a model of ,common's machine which was almost certainly the father of the famous machine exhibited by him at the ,great ,exhibition of #ahea4 ,various other inventors have assisted in improving this implement1 and in #ahgc the first wire binder was exhibited in ,europe by the ,american1 ,w4,a4 ,wood1 wire soon giving place to string owing to the outcry of farmers and millers4 ,the self-binding reaper is the most ingenious of agricultural machines1 and has been of enormous benefit to farmers in saving labour4 ,though the hay-tedding machine was invented in #ahad it is only during the last thirty years that its use has become common1 the spread of the mowing machine making it a necessity1 cutting the grass so fast that only a very large number of men with the old forks could keep up with it4 ,the tedder also rendered raking by hand too slow1 and the horse-rake1 patented first in #ahda1 has immensely improved in the last thirty years4 ,another enormous labour saver is the hay and straw elevator1 having endless chains furnished with carrying forks at intervals of a few feet1 driven by horse gear4 ,the steam cultivator invented by ,john ,fowler is much used1 but cannot be said to have superseded the ordinary working stock of the farm1 though for deep ploughing on large farms of heavy land it is invaluable4 ,improvements in dairying appliances have also been great1 but the ,english farmer has generally fought shy of factories or creameries1 so that his butter still lacks the uniform quality of his foreign rivals4 ,in manures the most important innovation in the last generation has been the constantly growing use of basic slag1 formerly left neglected at the pit mouth and now generally recognized as a wonderful producer of clover4 ,most of the suggestions of the ,commission of #ahgi were carried into effect4 ,rents were largely reduced1 so that between #ahhj and #ahhd the annual value of agricultural land in ,england sank #e1gej1jjj4fgh ,grants were made by the ,government in aid of local burdens1 cottages were improved although the landowners' capital was constantly dwindling1 ,settled ,land ,acts assisted the transfer of limited estates1 a ,minister of ,agriculture was appointed in #ahhi1 and in #ahia the payment of the tithe was transferred from the tenant to the landlord1 which generally meant that the whole burden was now borne by the latter4 ,still foreign imports continued to pour in and prices to fall4 ,wheat land1 which was subject to the fiercest competition1 began to be converted to other uses1 and between #ahgh and #aijg had fallen in ,england from #c1jda1bad acres to #a1ecg1bjh1 most of it being converted to pasture or 'tumbling down' to grass1 while a large quantity was used for oats4 ,the price of live stock was now falling greatly before increasing imports of live animals and dead meat1 while cheese1 butter1 wool1 and fruit were also pouring in4 ,farming1 too1 was now suffering from a new enemy1 gambling in farm produce1 which began to show itself about #ahhj and has since materially contributed to lowering prices4#fgi ,the enormous gold premium in the ,argentine ,republic1 with the steady fall in silver1 was another factor4 ,as ,mr4 ,prothero says1 ',enterprise gradually weakened1 landlords lost their ability to help1 and farmers their recuperative power4 ,the capital both of landlords and tenants was so reduced that neither could afford to spend an unnecessary penny4 ,land deteriorated in condition1 drainage was practically discontinued 444 less cake and less manure were bought1 labour bills were reduced1 and the number of males employed in farming dwindled as the wheat area contracted4'#fhj ,the year #ahic was remarkable for a prolonged drought in the spring2 from ,march #b to ,may #ad hardly any rain fell1 and live stock were much reduced in quality from the parching of the herbage1 while in many parts the difficulty of supplying them with water was immense4 ,in the same year another ,commission on ,agriculture was appointed1 whose description of the condition of agriculture was a lamentable one4 ,the ,commission in their final report#fha stated that the seasons since #ahhb had on the whole been satisfactory from an agricultural point of view1 and the evidence brought forward showed that the existing depression was to be mainly attributed to the fall in prices of farm produce4 ,this fall had been most marked in the case of grain1 particularly wheat1 and wool also had fallen heavily4 ,it was not surprising therefore to find that the arable counties#fhb had suffered most2 in counties where dairying1 market gardening1 poultry farming1 and other special industries prevailed the distress was less acute1 but no part of the country could be said to have escaped4 ,in north ,devon1 noted for stock rearing1 rents had only fallen #aj to #ae per cent4 since #ahha1 and in many cases there had been no reduction at all4 ,in ,herefordshire and ,worcestershire good grass lands1 hop lands1 and dairy farms had maintained their rents in many instances1 and the reductions had apparently seldom exceeded #ae per cent42 on the heavy arable lands1 however1 the reduction was from #bj to #dj per cent4 ,in ,cheshire1 devoted mainly to dairying1 there had been no general reduction of rent1 though there had been remissions1 and in some cases reductions1 of #aj per cent4 ,in fact1 grazing and dairy lands1 which comprise so large an area of the northern and western counties1 were not badly affected1 though the depreciation in the value of live stock and the fall in wool had considerably diminished farm profits and rents4 ,but of the eastern counties1 those in which there are still large quantities of arable land1 a different tale was told4 ,in ,essex much of the clay land was going out of cultivation2 many farms1 after lying derelict for a few years1 were let as grass runs for stock at a nominal rent ,the rent of an estate near ,chelmsford of #a1dah acres had fallen from #a1cad in #ahgi to #dae in #ahib1 or from #ahs4 #f;d4 an acre to #es4 #aj;d4#fhc ,the net rental of another had fallen from #g1fhb in #ahha to #b1bbd in #ahib1 and the landlord's income from his estate of #ac1jji acres in #ahib-c was #as4 an acre4 ,the balance sheet of the estate for the same year is an eloquent example of the landowner's profits in these depressed times#fhd3 #aa3ab ,,am #g_/be_/bjje,,receipts4 s4 d4 ,tithe received #gih #e #i ,cottage rents #die #h #f ,garden #bac #e #aj ,estate #g1deb #ad #h ,tithes refunded by tenants #ecj #ae #b -------------- #i1dij #i #aa ,,payments4 s4 d4 ,tithe1 rates and taxes #b1ifd #a #i ,rent-charge and fee farm rents #agi #j #d ,gates and fencing #h #g #h ,estate repairs and buildings #d1cej #ab #h ,draining #agj #f #a ,brickyard #agj #a #h ,management #icf #ad #g ,insurances #eh #aa #e ,balance profit #feb #ac #i --------------- #i1dij #i #aa ,in the great agricultural county of ,lincoln rents had fallen from #cj to #ge per cent4#fhe ,the average amount realized on an acre of wheat had fallen from #aj #fs4 #c;d4 in #ahgc-g to #b #ahs4 #aa;d4 in #ahibfhf2 and the fall in the price of cattle between #ahhb and #ahic was a little over #cj per cent4 ,many of the large farmers in ,lincolnshire before #ahge had lived in considerable comfort and even luxury1 as became men who had invested large sums1 sometimes #bj1jjj1 in their business4 ,they had carriages1 hunters1 and servants1 and gave their children an excellent start in life4 ,but all this was changed2 a day's hunting occasionally was the utmost they could afford1 and wives and daughters took the work from the servants4 ,the small farmers had suffered more than the large ones1 and the condition of the small freeholders was said to be deplorable2 a fact to be noted by those who think small holdings a panacea for distress4#fhg ,even near ,boston1 where the soil is favourable for market gardening1 the evidence of the small holder was 'singularly unanimous' as to their unfortunate condition4 ,the small occupiers were better off than the freeholders1 because their rents had been reduced and they could leave their farms if they did not pay2 but their position was very unsatisfactory4 ,from the evidence given to the assistant commissioner it is clear that the small occupier and freeholder could only get on by working harder and living harder than the labourer4 ',we all live hard and never see fresh meat1' said one4 ',we can't afford butcher's meat1' said another4 ,another said1 ',in the summer ,i work from #d a4m4 to #h p4m41 and often do not take more than an hour off for meals4 ,that is penal servitude1 except you have your liberty4 ,a foreman who earns #a a week is better off than ,i am4 ,he has no anxiety1 and not half the work4' ,these instances could be multiplied many times1 so that it is not surprising that the children of these men have flocked to the towns4 ,in ,norfolk1 'twenty or thirty years ago1 no class connected with the land held their heads higher' than the farmers4 ,many of them owned the whole or a part of the land they farmed1 and lived in good style4 ,all this was now largely changed4 ',the typical ,norfolk farmer of to-day is a harassed and hardworking man1' engaged in the struggle to make both ends meet4 ,many were ruined4 ,however1 there were farmers who1 by skill1 enterprise1 and careful management1 made their business pay even in these times1 such as the tenant of the farm at ,papplewick in ,nottinghamshire who gained the first prize in the ,royal ,agricultural ,society's farm competition in #ahhh4fhh4 ,this farm consisted of #ebb acres1 of which only #fa were grass1 but chiefly owing to the trouble taken in growing fine root crops1 a large number of live stock were annually purchased and sold off1 the following balance sheet showing a profit of #c #as4 #j;d4 per acre3 ,,dr4 ,rent1 tithes1 rates1 taxes1 c4 #bgh ,wages #chg ,purchase of cake1 corn1 seeds1 manure1 c4 #fhh ,purchase of live stock #b1fed ----- #d1jjg ,profit #a1ehi ------ #e1eif ,,cr4 ,corn1 hay1 potatoes1 and like product sold #fee ,live stock1 poultry1 dairy produce1 and wool sold #d1ida ------ #e1eif ,the reductions of rents in various counties were estimated thus#fhi3 ,per cent4 ,per cent4 ,northumberland #bj to #be ,hereford #bj to #cj ,cumberland #bj to #dj ,somerset #bj to #dj ,york #aj to #ej ,oxford #be to #ej ,lancaster #e to #cj ,suffolk up to #gj ,stafford #aj to #be ,essex #be to #ajj ,leicester #dj ,kent #ae to #ajj ,nottingham #ad to #ej ,hants #be to #ajj ,warwick #be to #fj ,wilts #aj to #ge ,huntington #dj to #ej ,devon #aj to #be ,derby #ad to #be ,cornwall #aj to #ajj ,this large reduction in the rent rolls of landowners has materially affected their position and weakened their power4 ,many1 indeed1 have been driven from their estates1 while others can only live on them by letting the mansion house and the shooting1 and occupying some small house on the lands they are reluctant to leave4 ,the agricultural depression1 which set in about #ahge1 may in short be said to have effected a minor social revolution1 and to have completed the ruin of the old landed aristocracy as a class4 ,the depreciation of their rents may be judged from the following figures#fij3 ,gross annual value of lands1 including tithes1 under ,schedule ,a in ,england4 ,decrease4 #ahgi-hj #ahic-d ,amount4 ,per cent4 #dh1ecc1cdj #cf1iii1hdf #aa1ecc1did #bc4g ,these figures1 however1 are far from indicating the full extent of the decline in the rental value of purely agricultural land1 as they include ornamental grounds1 gardens1 and other properties1 and do not take into account temporary remissions of rent4 ,sir ,james ,caird1 as early as #ahhf1 estimated the average reduction on agricultural rents at #cj per cent4 ,the loss in the capital value of land has inevitably been great from this reduction in rents1 and has been aggravated by the fact that the confidence of the public in agricultural land as an investment has been much shaken4 ,in #ahge thirty years' purchase on the gross annual value of land was the capital value1 in #ahid only eighteen years' purchase2 and whereas the capital value of land in the ,united ,kingdom was in #ahge #b1jjg1ccj1jjj1 in #ahid it was #a1jja1hbi1bab1 a decrease of #di4f per cent4 ,moreover1 landlords have incurred increased expenditure on repairs1 drainage1 and buildings1 and taxation has grown enormously4 ,on the occupiers of land the effect of the depression was no less serious1 their profits having fallen on an average #dj per cent4#fia ,occupying owners had suffered as much as any other class1 both yeomen who farmed considerable farms and small freeholders4 ,many of the former had bought land in the good times when land was dear and left a large portion of the purchase money on mortgage1 with the result that the interest on the mortgage was now more than the rent of the land4#fib ,they were thus worse off than the tenant farmer1 for they paid a higher rent in the shape of interest2 moreover1 they could not leave their land1 for it could only be sold at a ruinous loss4 ,the 'statesmen' of ,cumberland were weighed down by the same burdens and their disappearance furthered2 for instance1 in the parish of ,abbey ,quarter1 between #aghj and #ahab their number decreased from #ea to #ch4 ,by #ahcg it was #cj2 by #ahfd1 #ba2 and in #ahid only #i remained4 ,the small freeholders were also largely burdened with mortgages1 and even in the ,isle of ,axholme were said to have suffered more than any other class2 largely because of their passion for acquiring land at high prices1 leaving most of the purchase money on mortgage1 and starting with insufficient capital4 ,as regards the agricultural labourer1 the chief effect of the depression had been a reduction of the number employed and a consequent decrease in the regularity of employment4 #fic ,their material condition had everywhere improved1 though there were still striking differences in the wages paid in different parts2 and the improvement1 though partly due to increased earnings1 was mainly attributable to the cheapening of the necessaries of life4#fid ,the great majority of ordinary labourers were hired by the week1 except those boarded in the farm-house1 who were generally hired by the year4 ,men1 also1 who looked after the live stock were hired by the year4 ,weekly wages ranged from #ajs4 in ,wilts1 and ,dorset to #ahs4 in ,lancashire1 and averaged #acs4 #f;d4 for the whole country4 ,the fall in the prices of agricultural produce is best represented in tabular form3 ,,triennial ,,average ,,of ,,british ,,wheat1 ,,barley1 ,,and ,,oats ,,per ,,quarter4 ,wheat4 ,barley4 ,oats4 s4 d4 s4 d4 s4 d4 #ahgf-h #di #i #ch #d #be #f #ahic-e #bd #a #bd #j #af #i ,thus wheat had fallen #ec per cent41 barley #cg1 and oats #cd4 ,,triennial ,,average ,,prices ,,of ,,british ,,cattle1 ,,per ,,stone ,,of #h ,,lb4 ,inferior quality4 ,second quality4 ,first quality4 s4 d4 s4 d4 s4 d4 #ahgf-h #d #e #e #f #f #j #ahic-e #b #h #d #j #d #g ,or a fall of #bd per cent4 in the best quality1 and #dj per cent4 in inferior grades4 ,the decline in the prices of all classes of sheep amounted on the average to from so to #cj per cent41 and in the price of wool of from #dj to #ej per cent42 that is1 from an average of #as4 #f;d4 a lb4 in #ahgd-f1 to a little over #i;d4 in #ahic-e4 ,milk1 butter1 and cheese were stated to have fallen from #be to #cc per cent4 between #ahgd and #ahia1 and there had been a further fall since4 ,in districts1 however1 near large towns there had been much less reduction in the price of milk4 ,this general fall in prices seems to have been directly connected with the increase of foreign competition4#fie ,wheat has been most affected by this development1 and at the date of the ,commission the home production had sunk to #be per cent4 of the total quantity needed for consumption4 ,other home-grown cereals had not been similarly displaced1 but the large consumption of maize had affected the price of feeding barley and oats4 ,as regards meat1 while foreign beef and mutton had seriously affected the price of inferior ,british grades1 the influence on superior qualities had been much less marked4 ,foreign competition had been1 on the whole1 perhaps more severe in pork than in other classes of meat1 but had been confined mainly to bacon and hams4 ,the successful competition of the foreigner in our butter and cheese markets was attributed mainly to the fact that the dairy industry is better organized abroad than in ,great ,britain4 ,the ,commission found that another cause of the depression was the increased cost of production1 not so much from the increase of wages1 as from the smaller amount of work done for a given sum4 ,where wages in the previous twenty years had remained stationary1 the cost of work had increased because the labourer did not work so hard or so well as his forefathers4 ,the following table#fif is a striking proof of the increased ratio of the cost of labour to gross profits3 ,ratio of ,average cost of ,acreage ,period ,average annual ,average labour of of gross cost of cost per to gross ,county4 farm4 acct4 profit4 labour4 acre4 profits4 s4 d4 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,per cent4 ,suffolk #eij #ahci-dc #a1egg #ac #c #ggc #aa #j #bf #b #di4jc #ahfc-fg #a1ede #j #i #hcf #i #j #bh #d #ed4jg #ahga-ge #a1gbe #j #a #a1jbf #ad #h #ce #b #ei4dh #ahij-id #gbh #aj #e #igc #a #e #cc #j #acc4ej ,on a farm in ,wilts41 between #aheh and #ahic1 the ratio of the cost of labour to gross profits had increased from #dg4j per cent4 to #hh4c per cent42 on one in ,hampshire1 between #ahgc and #ahij1 from #dd4d per cent4 to #ahd4c per cent42 and many similar instances are given1 illustrating very forcibly the economic revolution which has led to the transfer of a larger share of the produce of the land to the labourer4 ,on the other hand1 this ,commission found1 like the last1 that the farmer had derived considerable benefit from the decrease in cost of cake and artificial manure1 while the low price of corn had led to its being largely used in place of linseed and cotton cakes4 ,before leaving the subject of this famous ,commission it is well to state the answer of ,sir ,john ,lawes1 than whom there was no higher authority1 to the oft-repeated assertion that high farming would counteract low prices4 ',the result of all our experiments1' he said1 'is that the reverse is the case4 ,as you increase your crops so each bushel after a certain amount costs you more and more 444 the last bushel always costs you more than all the others4' ,as prices went lower 'we must contract our farming to what ,i should call the average of the seasons'2 and in the corn districts1 the higher the farmer had farmed his land by adding manure the worse had been the financial results4#fig ,in #ahif the injustice of the incidence of rates on agricultural land was partly remedied1 the occupier being relieved of half the rates on the land apart from the buildings1 which ,act was continued in #aija4fih ,but the system is still inequitable1 for a farmer who pays a rent of #bdj a year even now probably pays more rates than the occupier of a house rated at #abj a year4 ,yet the farmer's income would very likely not be more than #bjj a year1 whereas the occupier of the house rated at #abj might have an income of #b1jjj a year4 ,in #aija and #aijb ,mr4 ,rider ,haggard1 following in the footsteps of ,young1 ,marshall1 and ,caird1 made an agricultural tour through ,england4 ,he considered that1 after foreign competition1 the great danger to ,english farming was the lack of labour1#fii for young men and women were everywhere leaving the country for the towns1 attracted by the nominally high wages1 often delusive1 and by the glamour of the pavement4 ,yet the labourer has come better out of the depression of the last generation than either landowner or farmer3 he is better housed1 better fed1 better clothed1 better paid1 but filled with discontent4 ,since ,mr4 ,haggard wrote1 however1 there seems to be a reaction1 small indeed but still marked1 against the townward movement1 and in most places the supply of labour is sufficient4 ,the quality1 however1 is almost universally described as inferior2 the labourer takes no pride in his work1 and good hedgers1 thatchers1 milkers1 and men who understand live stock are hard to obtain#gjj2 and the reason for this is in large measure due to the modern system of education which keeps a boy from farm work until he is too old to take to it4 ,his wages to-day in most parts are good2 near manufacturing towns the ordinary farm hand is paid from #ahs4 to #bjs4 a week with extras in harvest1 and in purely agricultural districts from #acs4 to #aes4 a week1 often with a cottage rent free at the lower figure4 ,his cottage has improved vastly1 especially on large estates1 though often leaving much to be desired1 and the rent usually paid is #d or #e a year1 rising to #g and #h near large towns4 ,the wise custom of giving him a garden has spread1 and is nearly always found to be much more helpful than an allotment4 ,the superior or more skilled workmen1#gja such as the wagoner1 stockman1 or shepherd1 earns in agricultural counties like ,herefordshire from #ads4 to #ahs4 a week1 and in manufacturing counties like ,lancashire from #bjs4 to #bbs4 a week1 with extras such as #c;d4 a lamb in lambing time4 ,at the lower wages he often has a cottage and garden rent free4 ,the improved methods of cutting and harvesting crops have so enabled the farmer to economize labour that the once familiar figure of the ,irish labourer with his knee-breeches and tall hat1 who came over for the harvest1 has almost disappeared4 ,women1 who formerly shared with the men most of the farm work1 now are little seen in most parts of ,england at work in the fields1 and are better occupied in attending to their homes4 ,the divorce of the labourer from the land by enclosure had early exercised men's minds1 and many efforts were made to remedy this4 ,about #ahcf especially1 several landowners in various parts of ,england introduced allotments1 and the movement spread rapidly1 so that in #ahic the ,royal ,commission on ,labour stated that in most places the supply was equal to or in excess of the demand4#gjb ,however1 previous ,allotments and ,small ,holdings ,acts not being considered so successful as was desired1 in #aijg an effort was made to give more effect to the cry of 'back to the land' by a ,small ,holdings and ,allotments ,act#gjc which enables ,county ,councils to purchase land by agreement or take it on lease1 and1 if unable to acquire it by agreement1 to do so compulsorily1 in order to provide small holdings for persons desiring to lease them4 ,the ,county ,council may also arrange with any ,borough ,council or ,urban ,district ,council to act as its agent in providing and managing small holdings4 ,the duty of supplying allotments rests in the first instance with the ,rural ,parish ,councils1 though if they do not take proper steps to provide allotments1 the ,county ,council may itself provide them4 ,it is a praiseworthy effort1 though marked by arbitrary methods and that contempt for the rights of property1 provided it belongs to some one else1 that is a characteristic of to-day4 ,that it will succeed where the small holder has some other trade1 and in exceptionally favoured situations1 is very probable2 most of the small holders who were successful before the ,act had something to fall back upon3 they were dealers1 hawkers1 butchers1 small tradesmen1 c4 ,there is no doubt1 too1 that an allotment helps both the town artisan and the country labourer to tide over slack times4 ,whether it will succeed in planting a rural population on ,english soil is another matter4 ,it is a consummation devoutly to be wished1 for a country without a sound reserve of healthy country-people is bound to deteriorate4 ,the small holder1 pure and simple1 without any by-industry1 has hitherto only been able to keep his head above water by a life which without exaggeration may be called one of incessant toil and frequent privation1 such a life as the great mass of our 'febrile factory element' could not endure4 ,and if there is one tendency more marked than another in the history of ,english agriculture1 it is the disappearance of the small holding4 ,in the ,middle ,ages it is probable that the average size of a man's farm was #cj acres1 with its attendant waste and wood2 since then amalgamation has been almost constant4 ,it is true that the occupier of a few acres often brings to bear on it an amount of industry which is greater in proportion than that bestowed on a large farm2 but the large farmer has1 as ,young pointed out long ago1 very great advantages4 ,he is nearly always a man of superior intelligence and training4 ,he has more capital1 and can buy and sell in the best markets2 he can purchase better stock1 and save labour and the cost of production by using the best machinery4 ,by buying in large quantities he gets manures1 cakes1 seeds1 c41 better and cheaper than the small holder4 ,besides the small holders who have outside industries to fall back upon1 those who are aided by some exceptionally favourable element in the soil or climate1 or proximity to good markets1 should do well4 ,yet in the ,isle of ,axholme1 the paradise of small holders1 we have seen that the ,commission of #ahid reported that distress was severe4 ,this1 however1 seems to have been largely due to the exaggerated land-hunger in the good times1 which induced the tenants to buy lands at too high a price2 and under normal conditions1 such as they are now returning to1 the tenants seem to thrive4 ,in this district the preference for ownership as opposed to tenancy is1 in spite of recent experiences1 unqualified1 though it is admitted that the best way is to begin by renting and save enough to buy4#gjd ,the soil is peculiarly favourable to the production of celery and early potatoes2 and large tracts of land are divided into unfenced strips locally known as 'selions' of from a quarter of an acre to #c acres each1 cultivated by men who live in the villages1 each having one or more strips1 some as much as #bj acres1 and it is considered that #aj acres is the smallest area on which a man can support a family without any other industry to help him4 ,yet in the fen districts and on the marsh lands between ,boston and the east coast of ,lincolnshire1 where the land is naturally very productive1 many people are making livings out of #e or #f acres1 mainly by celery and early potatoes4#gje ,other districts adapted naturally to small holdings are those of ,rock and ,far ,forest1 the famous ,vale of ,evesham1 the ,sandy and ,biggleswade district of ,bedfordshire2 ,upwey1 ,dorset2 ,calstock and ,st4 ,dominick1 ,cornwall2 ,wisbech1 ,cambridgeshire2 and ,tiptree1 ,essex4 ,apart1 however1 from by-industries1 and exceptional climate1 soil1 and situation1 the small holding for the purpose of raising corn and meat1 as distinguished from that which is devoted to dairying1 fruit-growing1 and market gardening1 does not seem to-day to have much chance of success4 ,if farms were still self-sufficing1 and simply provided food and clothing for the farmer1 the small producer even of corn and meat might do as well as the larger farmer on a lower scale1 but such conditions have gone2 all holdings now are chiefly manufactories of food1 and the smaller manufactory has little chance in competition with the greater4 ,the example of foreign countries is usually held up to ,englishmen in this connexion1 and the argument naturally used is that 'if small holdings answer in ,france and ,belgium1 why can they not do so in ,england8' ,on this point the testimony of ,sir ,john ,lawes is worth quoting4#gjf ',in most1 if not in all continental countries' he says1 'the success of small holdings depends very materially on whether or not the soil and the climate are suitable for what may be called industrial crops3 such as tobacco1 hops1 sugar beet1 colza1 flax1 hemp1 grapes1 and other fruit and vegetables2 where these conditions do not exist the condition of the cultivators is such as would not be tolerated in this country4' ,that is the reason probably why small holdings1 apart from exceptional conditions1 do not answer in ,england2 the ,englishman of to-day is not anxious to face the hard and grinding conditions under which the continental small holder lives4 ,since ,mr4 ,haggard's tour the black clouds which have so long lowered over agriculture have shown signs of lifting4 ,rents have been adjusted to a figure at which the farmer has some chance of competing with the foreigner1#gjg though the price of grain keeps wretchedly low2 stock has improved1 and there is undoubtedly to-day 7#aijh7 a brisker demand for farms1 and in some localities rents have even advanced slightly4 ,the yeoman--that is1 the man who owns and farms his own land1 perhaps the most sound and independent class in the community--has1 unfortunately for ,england1 largely disappeared4 ,even of those who remain1 some prefer to let their property and rent holdings from others6 ,it has been noticed that the labourer's lot has improved in this generation of adversity2 and well it might1 for his previous condition was miserable in the extreme4 ,the farmers have suffered severely1 many losing all their capital and becoming farm labourers4 ,the landlords have suffered most2 they have not been able to throw up their land like the farmer1 and until quite recently have watched it becoming poorer and poorer4 ,the depression1 in short1 has driven from their estates many who had owned them for generations4 ,those who have survived have usually been men with incomes from other sources than land1 and they have generally deserved well of their country by keeping their estates in good condition in spite of falling rents and increasing taxation4 ,no class of men1 indeed1 have been more virulently and consistently abused than the landlords of ,england1 and none with less justice4 ,there have been many who have forgotten that property has its duties as well as its rights2 they have erred like other men1 but as a rule they play their part well4 ,even the worst are to some extent obliged by their very position to be public spirited1 for the mere possession of an estate involves the employment of a number of people in healthy outdoor occupations which ,englishmen to-day so especially need to counteract the degenerating influences of town life4 ,many of the great estates#gjh are carried on at a positive loss to their owners1 and it may be doubted whether agricultural property pays the possessor a return of #b per cent4 per annum2 which is as much as to say that the landlord furnishes the tenant with capital in the form of land at that rate for the purpose of his business4 ,what other class is content with such a scanty return8 ,they are often charged with not managing their estates on business principles1 and no charge is worse founded4 ,it would be a sad day for the tenants on many an estate if they were managed on commercial lines4 ,one of the first results would be that many properties would be given up as a dead loss4 ,they could only be made to pay by raising the rents or cutting down the ever-recurring expenditure on repairs and buildings which are necessary for the welfare of the tenants4 ,the ,duke of ,bedford1 in his ,story of a ,great ,estate1 has said that the rent has completely disappeared from three of his estates4 ,on the ,thorney and ,woburn estates over #gej1jjj was spent on new works and permanent improvements alone between #ahaf and #ahie1 and the result1 owing to agricultural depression and increased burdens on the land1 was a net loss of #g1jjj a year2 and every one with any knowledge of the management of land knows that this is no isolated case1 though it may be on an exceptionally large scale4 ,where would many tenants be if commercial principles ruled on rent audit days8 ,the larger ,english landlords of to-day are as a rule not dependent on their rent rolls4 ,to their great advantage1 and to the advantage of their tenants1 they generally own other property1 so that they need not regard the land as a commercial investment4 ,they can therefore support the necessary outlay on a large estate1 the capital expenditure on improvements of all kinds1 and thus relieve the tenant of any expense of this kind4 ,the farms are let at moderate1 not rack rents1 such as the tenants can easily pay4 ,also the landlord can make large reductions of rent in years of exceptional distress4#gji ,rents are generally collected three months after they are due1 a considerable concession2 and even then arrears are numerous1 for any reasonable excuse for being behind with the rent is generously listened to4 ,it is owing to forbearance in this and other matters that the relations between landlord and tenant are generally excellent4 ,where are the best farm buildings1 where the best cottages1 where does the owner carry on a home farm often for the assistance of the tenant by letting him have the use of entire horses1 well-bred bulls1 and rams1 if not on the larger estates8 ,the restrictions in leases1 so much decried of late years1 were nearly always in the interest of good farming1 and their abolition will lead to the deterioration of many a holding4 ,bacon said1 ',where men of great wealth do stoop to husbandry1 it multiplieth riches exceedingly' and wiser words were never uttered4 ,yet these are the men who are singled out for attack by agitators1 who are only listened to because the greater number of modern ,englishmen are ignorant of the land and everything connected with it4 ,at a time when rents have dwindled1 in some cases almost to vanishing point1 taxation has increased1 and confiscatory schemes and meddlesome restrictions have frightened away capital from the land4 ,many of the landlords of ,england would clearly gain by casting off the burden of their heavily weighted property1 but they nearly all stick nobly to their duty1 and hope for that restoration of confidence in the sanctity of property and of respect for freedom of contract which would do so much towards the rehabilitation of what is still the greatest and most important industry in the country4 ,,footnotes3 #ffe ,and an ever increasing burden of taxation4 #fff ,see ,appendix ,,iii4 #ffg ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal1 #ahha1 pp4 #adb1 #aii4 #ffh ,parliamentary ,reports of ,commissioners1 #ahhb1 xiv4 pp4 #i sq4 #ffi ,parliamentary ,reports of ,commissioners1 #ahhb1 xiv4 #ad4 #fgj ,the rise between #aheg and #ahgh has been estimated at #bj per cent41 and between #ahfg and #ahgg at #aa-a_/b per cent4 ,hasbach1 op4 cit41 p4 #bia4 #fga ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal1 #ahij1 p4 #cbd4 #fgb ,see infra1 p4 #ccj4 #fgc ,rural ,economy of ,southern ,counties1 i4 #bhe-f4 #fgd ,victoria ,county ,history3 ,hereford1 ,agriculture4 #fge ,in one respect the ,act of #ahhc restricted the rights of tenants to compensation1 for while the ,act of #ahge had expressly reserved the rights of the parties under 'custom of the country'1 the ,act of #ahhc provided that a tenant 'shall not claim compensation by custom or otherwise than in manner authorized by this ,act for any improvement for which he is entitled to compensation under this ,act' 7 #eg74 #fgf ,parliamentary ,reports1 ,commissioners 7#ahig71 xv4 #if4 #fgg ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal 7#ahib71 p4 #fc4 #fgh ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal 7#aija71 p4 #cc4 ,cf4 infra1 p4 #caj4 #fgi ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal 7#ahic71 p4 #bhf2 7#ahid71 p4 #fgg4 ,sometimes to artificially raising them4 #fhj ,ibid4 7#aija71 p4 #cd4 #fha ,parliamentary ,reports1 ,commissioners 7#ahig71 xv4 #fhb ,broadly speaking1 the arable section1 or eastern group1 included the counties of ,bedford1 ,berks41 ,bucks1 ,cambridge1 ,essex1 ,hants1 ,hertford1 ,huntingdon1 ,kent1 ,leicester1 ,lincoln1 ,middlesex1 ,norfolk1 ,northampton1 ,notts1 ,oxford1 ,rutland1 ,suffolk1 ,surrey1 ,sussex1 ,warwick1 and the ,east ,riding of ,york2 the grass section1 or western group1 included the remaining counties4 #fhc ,parliamentary ,reports1 ,commissioners 7#ahid71 xvi4 7#a71 ,app4 ,b4 ii4 #fhd ,ibid4 ,app4 ,b4 iii4 #fhe ,ibid4 7#ahie71 xvi4 #afi4 #fhf ,ibid4 p4 #afd4 #fhg ,parliamentary ,reports1 ,commissioners 7#ahie71 xvi4 #ahg-h4 #fhh ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal 7#bnd ser471 xxiv4 #ech #fhi ,ibid4 7#ahid71 p4 #fha4 #fij ,parliamentary ,reports1 ,commissioners 7#ahig71 xv4 #bb4 ,cf4 p4 #cai n4 #fia ,ibid4 pp4 #cj-a4 #fib ,parliamentary ,reports1 ,commissioners 7#ahig71 xv4 #ca4 #fic ,ibid4 p4 #cg3 ,,number ,,of ,,agricultural ,,labourers ,,in ,,england ,,and ,,wales4 #ahga4 #ahha4 #ahia4 #aija4 #iif1fdb #hij1agd #gih1iab #eie1gjb ,the figures for #aija are from ,summary ,tables1 ,parliamentary ,blue ,book 7,c1 d4 #a1 #ebc71 p4 #bjb1 ,table xxxvi4 #fid ,according to the ,report of the ,royal ,commission on ,labour1 #ahic-d1 the labourer was 'better fed1 better dressed1 his education and language improved1 his amusements less gross1 his cottage generally improved1 though generally on small estates there were many bad ones still'4--,parliamentary ,reports1 #ahic1 xxxv4 ,index #e et seq4 #fie ,parliamentary ,reports1 ,commissioners 7#ahig71 xv4 #ec1 #he4 ,sir ,robert ,giffen suggested that the decline in the price of wheat pay be partly attributed to the great increase in the supply and consumption of meat4 #fif ,parliamentary ,reports1 ,commissioners 7#ahig71 xv4 ,app4 iii4 ,table viii4 ,from an examination of the accounts of seventy-seven farms1 the average expenditure on labour was found to be #ca4d per cent4 of the total outlay4 #fig ,parliamentary ,reports1 ,commissioners 7#ahig71 xv4 #ajf4 ,but see above1 p4 #bga4 #fih #ei #fj ,vict41 c4 #af2 ,i ,edw4 ,,vii1 c4 #ac4 #fii ,rural ,england1 ii4 #eci4 ,yet the census returns of #ahga1 #ahha1 and #ahia gave no support to the idea that young men were leaving agriculture for the towns4 ,see ,parl4 ,reports 7#ahic71 xxxviii4 7#b7 #cc4 #gjj ,the author speaks from information derived from answers to questions addressed to landowners1 farmers1 and agents in many parts of ,england1 to whom he is greatly indebted4 #gja ,it is1 however1 a fallacy to assume1 as is nearly always done1 that the ordinary farm labourer1 at all events of the old type1 is unskilled4 ,a good man1 who can plough well1 thatch1 hedge1 ditch1 and do the innumerable tasks required on a farm efficiently1 is a much more skilled worker than many who are so called in the towns4 #gjb ,parl4 ,reports 7#ahic71 xxxv4 ,index4 #gjc #g ,edw4 ,,vii1 c4 #ed1 amending the ,allotments ,acts of #ahhg and #ahij and the ,small ,holdings ,act of #ahib4 ,the ,allotments ,act of #ahhg defined an 'allotment' as any parcel of land of not more than #b acres held by a tenant under a landlord2 but for the purposes of the ,acts of #ahib and #aijg a 'small holding' means an agricultural holding which exceeds one acre and either does not exceed #ej acres or1 if exceeding #ej acres1 is of an annual value not exceeding #ej4 ,at the same time the ,act defines an allotment as a holding of any size up to #e acres1 so that up to that size a parcel of land may be treated as a small holding or an allotment4 #gjd ,jebb1 ,small ,holdings1 p4 #be4 #gje ,jebb1 op4 cit41 p4 #bh4 #gjf ,allotments and ,small ,holdings 7#ahib71 p4 #ai et seq4 #gjg ,the gross income derived from the ownership of lands in ,great ,britain1 as returned under ,schedule ,a of the ,income ,tax1 decreased from #ea1haa1bcd in #ahgf-g to #cf1fji1hhd in #aije-f4 ,in #ahej ,caird estimated the rental of ,english land1 exclusive of ,middlesex1 at #cg1dab1jjj4 ,cf4 above1 p4 #caj4 #gjh ,according to the ,commission of #ahid1 the amount expended on improvements and repairs alone on some great estates was3 ,on ,lord ,derby's1 in ,lancashire1 of #dc1bag acres1 #bjj1jjj in twelve years1 or #af1ejj1 or #gs4 #h;d4 an acre1 each year4 ,on ,lord ,sefton's1 of #ah1jjj acres1 #bhf1jjj in twenty-two years1 or about #ac1jjj1 or #ads4 an acre1 each year4 ,on the ,earl of ,ancaster's estates in ,lincolnshire1 of #ec1iic acres1 #fhi1jjj was spent in twelve years1 or #aas4 #g;d4 an acre each year2 and many similar instances are given4--,parliamentary ,reports1 ,commissioners 7#ahig71 xv4 #bhg-i4 #gji ,shaw ,lefevre1 ,agrarian ,tenures1 p4 #ai4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,imports ,,and ,,exports4--,,live ,,stock ,it is a curious fact that the barriers which protected the ,british farmer were thrown down shortly before he became by unforeseen causes exposed to the competition of the whole world4 ,down to #ahdf ,germany supplied more than half the wheat that was imported into ,england1 ,denmark sent more than ,russia1 and the ,united ,states hardly any4 ,other competitors who have since arisen were then unknown4 ,by the end of the next decade ,russia and the ,united ,states sent large quantities1 as may be gathered from the following table #gaj3 ,,annual ,,average ,,imports ,,of ,,wheat ,,and ,,flour ,,for ,,the ,,seven ,,years #ahei-ahfe4 ,cwt4 ,russia #e1cej1hfa ,denmark and the ,duchies #ifi1hij ,germany #f1ceh1bbi ,france #c1hbh1fia ,spain #cca1dfc ,wallachia and ,moldavia #bie1dge ,turkish dominions1 not otherwise specified #ebh1efh ,egypt #a1dbc1aic ,canada #b1bbc1hji ,united ,states #aj1jhj1iaa ,other countries #a1jcf1ifh ,in the years #ahga-e the ,united ,states held the first place1 ,russia came next1 and ,germany third with only about one-sixth of the ,american imports1 and ,canada was running ,germany close4 ,other formidable competitors were now arising1 and by #aija the chief importing countries#gaa were3 ,cwt4 ,argentina #h1cji1gjf ,russia#gab #b1ehj1hje ,united ,states of ,america #ff1hee1jbe ,australia #f1aig1jai ,canada #h1egg1ifj ,india #c1cda1ejj ,since then the imports of wheat and flour from the ,united ,states have decreased1 and in #aijd ,india took the first place1 ,russia the second1 ,argentina the third1 and the ,united ,states the fourth4 ,however1 in #aijg the ,united ,states sent more than any other country1 followed by ,argentina1 ,india1 ,canada1 ,russia1 and ,australia1 in the order named4 ,it is probable in the near future that the imports from the ,united ,states will decline considerably1 for in the last quarter of a century its population has increased #fh per cent4 and its wheat area only #be per cent4 ,on the other hand1 the population of ,canada increased #cc per cent4 and her wheat area #aeh per cent4 in the same time2 while in ,argentina an addition of #gj per cent4 to the population has been accompanied by an increase of the wheat area from half a million to fourteen million acres4 ,it is probable also that ,india and ,australia will continue to send large supplies1 and there are said to be vast wheat-growing tracts opened up by the ,siberian ,railway1 so that there seems little chance of wheat rising very much in price for many years to come1 apart from exceptional causes such as bad seasons and 'corners'4 ,mc,culloch1 writing in #ahdc1gac says that1 except ,denmark and ,ireland1 no country of ,western ,europe 'has been in the habit of exporting cattle'4 ,danish cattle1 however1 could rarely be sold in ,london at a profit1 and ,irish cattle alone disturbed the equanimity of the ,english farmer4 ,for a few years after the repeal of the corn laws and of the prohibition of imports of live stock1 the imports of live stock1 meat1 and dairy produce were1 except from ,ireland1 almost nil#gad2 since then they have increased enormously1 and in #aijg the value of live cattle1 sheep1 and pigs imported was #h1bgc1fdj1 not so great1 however1 as some years before1 owing to restrictions imposed2 but this decrease has been made up by the increase in the imports of meat1 which in #aijg touched their highest figure of #ah4gea1eee cwt1 valued at the large sum of #da1fig1ije4gae ,forty years ago hardly any foreign butter or cheese was imported2 to-day it is perhaps no exaggeration to say that not one hundredth part of the butter eaten in ,london is ,british2 in #aijg the amount of butter imported was #d1caj1aef cwt41 and of cheese1 #b1cgb1bcc cwt4 ,the increase in the imports was largely assisted by the fact that in the last half of the nineteenth century ,english farmers had directed their attention chiefly to meat-producing animals and neglected the milch cow4 ,however1 of late years great efforts have been made to recover lost ground1 and in ,england the number of cows and heifers in milk or in calf has increased from #a1efg1ghi in #ahgh to #b1jbj1cdj in #aijf4 ,the regulation of the imports and exports of live stock did not concern the legislature so early as those of corn4 ,one of the earliest statutes on the subject is ,,ii ,hen4 ,,vii1 c4 #ac1 which forbade the export of horses and of mares worth more than #fs4 #h;d41 because many had been conveyed out of the land1 so that there were few left for its defence and the price of horses had been thereby increased4 ,a subsequent statute1 #bb ,hen4 ,,viii1 c4 #g1 says this law was disobeyed by many who secretly exported horses1 so it was enacted that no one should export a horse without a licence2 and #a ,edw4 ,,vi1 c4 #e1 continued this4 ,but after this date the export of horses does not seem to have occupied the attention of ,parliament4 #bb ,hen4 ,,viii1 c4 #g1 also forbade the export of cattle and sheep without a licence because so many had been carried out of the realm that victual was scarce and cattle dear4 ,by #bb ,car4 ,,ii1 c4 #ac1 oxen might be exported on payment of a duty of #as4 each1 the last statute on the subject4 ,as for sheep1 their export without the king's licence had been forbidden by #c ,hen4 ,,vi1 c4 #b1 because men had been in the habit of taking them to ,flanders and other countries1 where they sheared them and sold the wool and the mutton4 #h ,eliz41 c4 #c1 forbade their export1 and #ac and #ad ,car4 ,,ii1 c4 #ah1 declared the export of sheep and wool a felony4 ,the importation of cattle was forbidden by #ae ,car4 ,,ii1 c4 #g1 which stated that the 'comeing in of late of vast numbers of cattle already fatted' had caused 'a very great part of the land of this kingdom to be much fallen and like dayly to fall more in their rents and values'2 therefore every head of great cattle imported was to pay #bjs4 to the king1 #ajs4 to the informer1 and #ajs4 to the poor after ,july #a1 #affd4 ,by #ah ,car4 ,,ii1 c4 #b1 the importation of cattle was declared a common nuisance1 and if any cattle1 sheep1 or swine were imported they were to be seized and forfeited4 ,by #cb ,car4 ,,ii1 c4 #b1 this was made perpetual and continued in force till #ahdb1 though it was repealed as to ,ireland1 as we have seen4#gaf ,it appears from the laws dealing with the matter that in the time of the ,plantagenets ,england exported butter and cheese4 ,in the reign of ,edward ,,iii they were merchandise of the staple1 and therefore when exported had to go to ,calais when the staple was fixed there4 ,this caused great damage1 it is said1 to divers persons in ,england1 for the butter and cheese would not keep until buyers came2 therefore #c ,hen4 ,,vi1 c #d1 enacted that the chancellor might grant licence to export butter and cheese to other places than to the staple4 ,the regulation of the export of wool frequently occupied the attention of ,parliament ,it has been noticed#gag that the laws of ,edgar fixed its price for export1 and ,henry of ,huntingdon mentions its export in the twelfth century1 while during the reign of ,edward ,i it was for some time forbidden except by licence1 which led to its being smuggled out in wine casks4#gah ,the ,hundred ,rolls give the names of several ,italian merchants who were engaged in buying wool for export1 the ecclesiastical houses1 especially the ,cistercians1 furnishing a great quantity1 and the chief port then for the wool trade was ,boston1 ,the export was again prohibited in #accg1 the great object being to make the foreigner pay dearly for our staple product3 an object which was certainly effected1 for when ,queen ,philippa redeemed her crown from pawn at ,cologne in #acdb by a quantity of ,english wool1 #as4 #c-a_/b;d4 a lb4 was the price1 and it was even said to sell in ,flanders at #cs4 a lb41 a price which1 expressed in modern money1 seems fabulous4#gai ,however1 in the next reign ,english wool began to decline in price1 owing probably to changes in fashion1 but the long wools maintained their superiority and their export was forbidden by ,henry ,,vi and ,elizabeth4#gbj ,in the reign of ,james ,i it was confessed 'that the cloth of this kingdom hath wanted both estimation and vent in foreign parts1 and that the wools are fallen from their stated values'1 so that export was prohibited entirely2 and #ac and #ad ,car4 ,,ii1 c4 #ah1 declared the export of wool a felony1 though #g and #h ,will4 ,,iii1 c4 #bh1 says this did not deter people from exporting it1 so that the law was made more stringent on the subject1 and export continued to be forbidden until #ahbe4gba ,in a letter written in #afgg the fall of rents in ,england1 which had caused the value of estates to sink from twenty-one to sixteen or seventeen years' purchase1 is ascribed mainly to the low price of wool1#gbb owing to the prohibition of export and increased imports from ,ireland and ,spain4 ,it was now1 said the writer1 worth #g;d4 instead of #ab;d41 and a great quantity of ,spanish wool was being sold in ,england at low rates4 ,these 'low rates' were #bs4 and #bs4 #b;d4 a lb4 for the best wool1 whereas in #affj the best ,spanish wool was #ds4 and #ds4 #b;d4 a lb4 ,we have seen#gbc that ,spanish wool was imported into ,england in the ,middle ,ages4 ,in #afgg1 according to ,smith1#gbd ,england imported #b1jjj bags of #bjj lb4 each from ,spain#gbe2 in the three years #agji-aa1 #ad1jjj bags2 in the three years #agac-ad1 #bj1jjj bags2 and about #agcj some came from ,jamaica1 ,maryland1 and ,virginia1 and down to #ahjb imports were free4#gbf ,in that year a duty of #es4 #c;d4 a cwt4 was imposed1 which in #ahai was raised to #efs4 a cwt41 which1 however1 was reduced to #a;d4 a lb4 on #as4 wool and #a_/b;d4 a lb4 on wool under #as4 in #ahbd4 ,in #ahbe colonial wool was admitted free1 and in #ahdd the duty taken off altogether1 and imports from our colonies and foreign countries soon assumed enormous proportions4 ,down to #ahad nearly all our imports of wool came from ,spain2 after that the greater part came from ,germany and the ,east ,indies2 but ,russia and ,india soon began to send large quantities1 and in recent times ,australasia has been our chief importer1 in #aijg sending #cba1dgj1eed lb41 while ,new ,zealand sent #aeh1djf1bee lb4 out of a total import of #gfd1bhf1fbe lb4 ,about #ahjj our imports of wool were #h1fji1cfh lb46#gbg ,of our enormous imports of wool1 however1 a very large quantity is re-exported4 ,in #ahbh it was stated before the ,house of ,lords that ,english wool had deteriorated considerably during the previous thirty years1 owing chiefly to the farmer increasing the weight of the carcase and the quantity of wool1 so that fineness of fleece was injured4 ,the great extension of turnips and the introduction of a large breed of sheep also appeared to have lessened the value of the fleece1 yet ,english wool to-day still commands a high price in comparison with that of other countries1 though the price in recent years has declined greatly2 in #ahga it was #as4 #e-a_/b;d4 a lb41 in #ahgb #as4 #i-a_/b;d41 in #ahgc #as4 #g;d4 ,in #aijg ,leicester wool was #ab-a_/b;d41 ,southdown #ad;d4 to #ae;d41 and ,lincoln #ab;d4 a lb42 ,australian at the same date being #aa;d41 and ,new ,zealand #aa-a_/b;d4 ,the fruit-grower has also had to contend with an enormous foreign supply1 which nearly always has a better appearance than that grown in these islands1 though the quality is often inferior4 ,in #ahfj apples were included with other raw fruits in the returns1 so that the exact figures are not given1 but apparently about #ejj1jjj cwt4 came in2 by #aijc this had increased to #d1efi1edf bushels1 and in #aijg #c1ebf1bcb bushels arrived4 ,enormous foreign supplies of grapes1 pears1 plums1 cherries1 and even strawberries have also combined to keep the home price down4 ,the decrease in the acreage of hops1 from its maximum of #ga1ghi acres in #ahgh to #dd1ich in #aijg1 was ascribed by the recent ,commission to the lessening demand for beer in ,england1 the demand for lighter kinds of beer1 and the use of hop substitutes1 and not to increase in foreign competition2 which the following figures seem to bear out3 ,,imports ,,of ,,hops4 ,cwt4 #ahfa #adi1agf #ahfg #bif1aag #ahfi #cbb1eae #ahgj #abg1hec #ahge #bef1ddd #ahgg 7the year before the record acreage planted7 #bej1jci #ahgi #bfb1gfe #aijc #aac1iih #aijd #cac1ffg #aije #ajh1iec #aijf #bcb1fai #aijg #bjb1cbd ,in recent years they have been a loss to the grower2 as the average crop is a little under #i cwt4 per acre1 and the total cost of growing and marketing from #ce to #de an acre1 it is obvious that prices of about #c per cwt41 which have ruled lately1 are unremunerative4 ,however disastrous to the farmer and landowner1 the increased quantities and low prices of food thus obtained have been of inestimable benefit to the crowded population of ,england4 ,in #ahea the whole corn supply1 both ,english and foreign1 afforded #cag lb4 per annum per head of the population of #bg millions4 ,in #ahhi the total supply gave #djj lb4 per head to a population of #cg-a_/b millions at a greatly reduced cost4#gbh ,the supply of animal food presents similar contrasts2 in #ahea each person obtained #ij lb41 in #ahhi #aae lb4 ,the average value of the imports of food per head in the period #ahei-fe was about #bes42 in the period #aija-g1 #fes4#gbi ,the products which have stood best against foreign competition are fresh milk1 hay and straw1 the softer kinds of fruit that will not bear carriage well1 and stock of the finest quality4 ,these islands still maintain their great reputation for the excellent quality of their live stock1 and exports1 chiefly of pedigree animals1 touched their highest figure in #aijf3 ,average per ,no4 ,total ,value4 head4 ,cattle #e1faf #cbg1cce #eh ,sheep #ab1gaf #bjd1jfa #af ,pigs #b1bba #bj1bib #i #ahgg4gcj ,acreage under crops and grass in ,england #bd1cab1jcc ,corn crops4 ,wheat #b1ihg1abi ,barley or bere #b1jjj1eca ,oats #a1dhi1iii ,rye #dh1fjd ,beans #dgj1aec ,peas #cjf1cef --------- ,total #g1cjb1ggb ,green crops4 ,potatoes #cjc1ifd ,turnips and swedes #a1die1hhe ,mangels #cdh1bhi ,carrots #ad1dde ,cabbage1 kohl rabi1 and rape #agf1bah ,vetches and other green crops #dbj1cgc --------- ,total #b1gei1agd ,flax #g1baj ,hops #ga1bci ,barefallow or uncropped arable #egf1bce ,clover1 sainfoin1 and grasses under rotation #b1gcg1chg ---------- ,total arable #ac1ded1jag ,permanent grass1 exclusive of mountain or heath land #aj1heh1jaf ---------- #bd1cab1jcc #aijg4 ,total acreage under crops and grass #bd1ehe1dee ,corn crops4 ,wheat #a1ecg1bjh ,barley #a1daa1afc ,oats #a1ifg1fhb ,rye #ec1hcg ,beans #bif1ahf ,peas #afd1cbf ----------- ,total #e1dcj1djb ,potatoes #cha1hia ,turnips and swedes #a1jeh1bib ,mangels #dcf1aic ,cabbage #fe1bfb ,kohl rabi #bj1egb ,rape #gi1iac ,vetches or tares #ade1jfg ,lucerne #fc1cgi ,hops #dd1ich ,small fruit #gc1cgb ,clover1 sainfoin1 and grasses under rotation #b1faa1gbb ,other crops #aag1iad ,bare fallow #bdh1fgh ---------- ,total arable #aj1ggg1eie ,permanent grass #ac1hjg1hfj ---------- #bd1ehe1dee ,the small fruit was divided into3 ,strawberries #bc1fbc ,raspberries #f1dgi-a_/b ,currants and gooseberries #bd1agh-c_/d ,others #ai1jij --------------- #gc1cga-a_/d ,as arable land has suffered much more than grass from foreign imports1 it was inevitable that this country should become more pastoral2 in #ahgg the arable land of ,england amounted to #ac1ded1jag acres1 and permanent grass to #aj1heh1jaf4 ,by #aijg this was practically reversed1 the permanent grass amounting to #ac1hjg1hfj acres and the arable to #aj1ggg1eie4 ,in corn crops the great decrease has been in the acreage of wheat1 but barley1 beans1 and peas have also diminished1 while oats have increased4 ,in green crops there has been a great decrease in turnips and swedes1 compensated to some extent by an increase in mangels1 and a sad decrease in hops4 ,the changes in thirty years can be gathered from the tables of the ,board of ,agriculture given on p4 #cca4 ,in #ahgg no separate return of small fruit was made1 but in #ahgh the orchards of ,england1 including fruit trees of any kind1 covered #afa1bbh acres1 which by #aijg had grown to a total area under fruit of #bid1iaj acres1 among which were #afh1egf acres of apples1 #h1cfe of pears1 #aa1ieb of cherries1 and #ad1ega of plums4 ,much of the small fruit is included in the orchards4 ',other crops' were further divided into3 ,acres4 ,carrots #aa1hig ,onions #c1daf ,buckwheat #e1bbf ,flax #cee ,others #ig1jbj ------- #aag1iad ,the average yield per acre of various crops in ,england for the ten years #ahig-aijf was3 ,bushels4 ,wheat #ca4agca ,barley #cb4hh ,oats #da4ch ,beans #bi4bh ,peas #bg4ae ,tons4 ,potatoes #e4gd ,turnips and swedes #ab4ai ,mangels #ai4bd ,cwt4 ,hay from clover1 and grasses under rotation #bi4dj ,hay from permanent grass #bd4cc ,hops #h4ha ,the live stock in #ahgg consisted of3 ,horses used solely for purposes of agriculture #gfa1jhi ,unbroken horses and mares kept solely for breeding #cji1aai --------- #a1jgj1bjh --------- ,cattle4 ,cows and heifers in milk or in calf #a1eeg1egd ,two years old and over #a1jgb1djg ,under two years of age #a1cdi1ffi --------- #c1igi1fej --------- ,sheep #ah1ccj1cgg ,pigs #b1aad1gea ,in #aijg3 ,horses used solely for agriculture #hfc1hag ,unbroken #cbe1ccj --------- #a1ahi1adg --------- ,cattle4 ,cows and heifers in milk or in calf #b1jcb1bhd ,two years old and over #a1jdc1jcd ,under two years of age #a1iab1dac --------- #d1ihg1gca --------- ,sheep#gcb #ae1jih1ibh ,pigs #b1beg1acf ,the decrease in sheep and the increase in cattle and horses 7though of late years the latter have shown a tendency to decrease7 are to be noted4 ,the number of live stock per #a1jjj acres of cultivated land in the ,united ,kingdom and other countries is3 ,country4 ,cattle4 ,sheep4 ,pigs4 ,total4 ,united ,kingdom #bdg #fai #gf #idb ,belgium #daa #ed #bdj #gje ,denmark #bfd #abf #bji #eii ,france #afg #bjg #hh #dfb ,germany #bba #ij #baf #ebg ,holland #cbb #aaf #afd #fjb ,it will be observed that in cattle the ,united ,kingdom comes out badly1 but is pre-eminent in sheep and has the largest total2 though1 as cattle require more acreage1 ,belgium nearly equals its aggregate produce for #a1jjj acres4 ,as regards prices at the two periods #ahga-e and #aijf-g1 if we take #ajj as the price at the former the following are the prices at the latter3 ,beef #ga ,mutton #ic ,bacon #aba ,wheat #ef ,butter #ig ,cheese #ajj ,turning once more to the occupation of land1 the percentage of land occupied by owners in #aijg in ,england was #ab4d1 the rest being occupied by tenants1 and the following is a statement of the number of agricultural holdings of various sizes in #ahge and #aijg3 #ahge4gcc #ej acres #ej to #ajj to #cjj to #ejj to ,above and #ajj #cjj #ejj #a1jjj #a1jjj under4 acres4 acres4 acres4 acres4 acres4 #bic1dfi #dd1hdb #eh1dej #aa1bde #c1hga #dfc #aijg4 ,above #a and ,above #e and ,above #ej and ,above not exceeding not exceeding not exceeding #cjj #e acres4 #ej acres4 #cjj acres4 acres4 #hj1iba #afe1ige #aji1ibg #ad1feb ,,footnotes3 #gaj ,mc,culloch1 ,commercial ,dictionary 7#ahhb71 p4 #ddi4 #gaa ,see ,returns of the ,board of ,agriculture4 #gab ,the imports from ,russia were that year exceptionally small4 #gac ,mc,culloch1 ,commercial ,dictionary 7#aheb71 p4 #bgd4 #gad ,in #ahfj the number of live cattle imported was #ajd1efi2 in #ahig1 #fah1cba2 in #aijg1 #dgb1jae4 #gae ,in #ahfj the quantity of beef imported was #bhc1ccb cwt42 in #aijg1 #f1jcc1gcf cwt4 #gaf ,see above4 #gag ,supra1 p4 #ch4 #gah ,cunningham1 ,industry and ,commerce1 i4 #agf1 #aib2 ,hundred ,rolls1 i4 #dje1 #dad4 #gai ,burnley1 ,history of ,wool1 p4 #fe4 #gbj ,ibid4 p4 #gj4 #gba ,cf4 supra1 p4 #agb4 #gbb ,smith1 ,memoirs of ,wool1 i4 #bbb4 #gbc ,see above4 #gbd ,smith1 ,memoirs of ,wool1 ii4 #beb4 #gbe ,mc,pherson1 ,annals of ,commerce1 iii4 #aef4 #gbf ,mc,culloch1 ,commercial ,dictionary1 p4 #adca4 ,for imports see ,appendix1 p4 #ced4 #gbg ,of which #f1jjj1jjj lb4 came from ,spain4 ,the first ,spanish ,merino sheep were introduced into ,australia in #agig4 ,see ,cunningham1 ,industry and ,commerce1 ii4 #ech1 and cf4 below4 #gbh ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal 7#ahij71 p4 #bi4 #gbi ,board of ,agriculture ,returns 7#aijg71 p4 #ahg4 #gcj ,cf4 ,appendix ,,iv4 #gca ,in #aijg the average wheat crop was #cc4if bushels per acre in ,england and #ci4ah in ,scotland4 ,the average yield per acre of wheat in ,holland is #cd4a bushels2 ,belgium1 #cd2 ,germany1 #cj4c2 ,denmark1 #bh4b ,france1 #aig4 #gcb ,the total number of sheep in ,great ,britain in #ahgg was #bh1afa1afd2 in #aijg1 #bf1aae1dee4 ,in #afhh ,youatt estimates it at #ab1jjj1jjj2 ,in #agda1 #ag1jjj1jjj2 in #ahjj #bf1jjj1jjj2 in #ahcj #cb1jjj1jjj4 #gcc ,unfortunately the class #ej acres and under at this time included holdings under one acre1 so that it is useless for the comparison of the number of small holdings at the two dates1 for in #aijg none appear under one acre4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,modern ,,farm ,,live ,,stock ,,cart ,,horses ,arthur ,young at the end of the eighteenth century found only two kinds of cart horses worthy of mention1 the ,shire and the ,suffolk ,punch2 to-day1 besides these two1 we have the ,clydesdale4 ,the ,shire horse1 according to ,sir ,walter ,gilbey1 is the purest survival of the ,great ,horse of mediaeval times1 known also as the ,war ,horse1 and the ,old ,english ,black ,horse4 ,it is the largest of draught horses1 attaining a height of #ag to #ag4c hands and a weight of #b1bjj lb41 its general characteristics being immense strength1 symmetrical proportions1 bold free action1 and docile disposition4 ,in #ahgh the ,shire ,horse ,society was established to improve the breed1 and distribute sound and healthy sires through the country4 ,the ,clydesdale1 whose native home is the valley of the ,clyde1 is not so large as the ,shire1 but strong1 active1 and a fine worker4 ,they are either derived from a cross between ,flemish stallions and ,lanarkshire mares1 or are an improvement of the old ,lanark breed4#gcd ,the ,suffolk ,punch looks what he is-a thorough farm horse4 ,he stands lower than the two former breeds1 but weighs heavily1 often #b1jjj lb4 ,they are generally chestnut or light dun in colour1 and their legs are without the feather of the ,clydesdale and ,shire4 ,they have been long associated with ,suffolk1 and were mentioned by ,camden in #aehf4 ,according to the ,suffolk ,stud ,book of #ahhj1 the ,suffolk horses of to-day are with few exceptions the descendants in the direct male line of the original breed described by ,arthur ,young4 ,,cattle ,what was the original breed of cattle in this island is uncertain4 ,the ,report of the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science in #ahhg favours the view that the herds of wild cattle1 such as still exist at ,chillingham1 represent the original breed of ,great ,britain4 ,it states that the 'urus' was the only indigenous wild ox in this country1 and the source of all our domesticated breeds as well as of the few wild ones that remain1 such as the ,chillingham breed1 which is small1 white1 with the inside of the ear red1 and a brownish muzzle4 ,some1 however1 assert they are merely the descendants of a domesticated breed run wild1 which have reverted somewhat to the ancient type4#gce ,according to ,thorold ,rogers1 the cattle of the ,middle ,ages were small rough animals like the mountain breeds of to-day1 and at the end of the sixteenth century we have seen they had large horns1 were low and heavy1 and for the most part black4#gcf ,the great variety of cattle in ,great ,britain may be due to their being the descendants of several species1 or to difference of climate and soil1 or to spontaneous variation1 but the chief cause is the diligent selection of breeders4 ,marshall is quite positive#gcg that the ,hereford1 ,devon1 ,sussex1 and the black mountain breeds of ,scotland and ,wales are all descended from the original native breed of this island1 that the ,shorthorns came from the ,continent1 and the ,longhorns probably from ,ireland4 ,bradley's division of cattle into black1 white1 and red tells us little4#gch ,there was very little attempt at improvement until the middle of the eighteenth century1 for peace was necessary for long continued effort1 and #agdf1 the date of ,culloden1 the last battle fought on ,british soil1 may be taken practically as the commencement of the era of progress4 ,the ,shorthorn is the most famous and widely-spread breed of this country1 if not in the world2 it exceeds in number any other breed in the ,united ,kingdom1 and most cross-breds have ,shorthorn blood in them4 ,it adapts itself to any climate1 and is equally noted for beef-making and milk-yielding4 ,the origin of the ,shorthorns is uncertain2 they originated from the ,teeswater and ,holderness varieties1 but where these came from is a matter of dispute4 ,young1 in his ,northern ,tour1#gci says1 ',in ,yorkshire the common breed was the short-horned kind of cattle called ,holderness1 but really the ,dutch sort'2 and many have said the ,holderness and the ,teeswater breeds both came from ,holland1 and were practically the same1 while others assert the original home of the ,teeswaters was the ,west ,highlands4#gdj ,john ,lawrence speaks of the ,dutch breed with short horns in #agbf2gda but1 unless they were smuggled over1 it certainly seems strange that any ,dutch cattle should have been imported in the eighteenth century1 for the importation of cattle was strictly forbidden during the whole century4 ,it was ,george ,culley's opinion that they came from ,holland1 because few were found except along the eastern coast2 he also knew farmers who went over to ,holland to buy bulls4#gdb ,be this as it may1 it was the cattle of the ,teeswater district in ,durham that the ,collings improved1 and they are still called ,durhams in many parts4 ,the work of the ,collings#gdc was carried on by ,thomas ,booth1 who farmed his own estate of ,killerby in ,yorkshire1 where he turned his attention to ,shorthorns about #agij1 and by #ahad he was as well known as the ,collings4 ,he improved the ,shorthorns by reducing the bone1 especially the length and coarseness of the legs1 the too prominent hips1 and the heavy shoulder bones4 ,in #ahai he removed to ,warlaby1 and died there in #ahce1 having given up the ,killerby estate to his son ,john1 who with his brother ,richard ably sustained their father's reputation4 ',booth strains' equally with ',bates strains'1 the results of the work of ,bates of ,kirkleavington1 whose cattle we have seen at the ,oxford ,show in #ahci1 and whose herd was dispersed in #ahej1 have been the foundation of many famous herds1 and can be traced in many a pedigree animal of to-day4 ,the palmy days of the ,shorthorns were the 'seventies' of the last century1 when they made fabulous prices4 ,at the great sale at ,new ,york ,mills1 in #ahgc1 eleven females of the ,duchess tribe averaged #d1ebb #ads4 #b;d41 and one cow sold for #h1deh #fs4 #h;d4 ,in #ahgg ,mr4 ,loder bought ,third ,duchess of ,hillhurst for #d1ajj guineas2 in #ahgf ,lord ,bective gave #d1cjj guineas for ,fifth ,duchess of ,hillhurst1 then #af months old2 and in #ahge the bull ,duke of ,connaught sold for #d1ejj guineas4 ,it was not likely that with the advent of bad times these prices would continue1 and nothing like them in the ,shorthorn world has occurred since4 ,herefords4#gdd ,herefordshire cattle have long been famous as one of the finest breeds in the world4 ,marshall1 writing in #aghh1 does not hesitate to say1 ',the ,herefordshire breed of cattle1 taking it all in all1 may without risque be deemed the first breed of cattle in the land4' ,their origin has been accounted for in various ways4 ,some say they were originally brown or reddish-brown from ,normandy or ,devon1 others that they came from ,wales1 while it is recorded that ,lord ,scudamore in the latter half of the seventeenth century introduced red cows with white faces from ,flanders4 ,however1 they do not emerge from obscurity until about the middle of the eighteenth century1 when ,messrs4 ,tomkins1 ,weyman1 ,yeomans1 ,hewer1 and ,tully devoted their energies to establishing a county breed4 ,there were four varieties of ,herefords1 which have now practically merged into the red with white face1 mane1 and throat3 the mottle face1 with red marks intermixed with the parts usually white2 the dark greys2 light greys2 and the red with the white face4 ,the rivalry between the breeders of the white and the mottle faces almost caused the failure of the ,herd-,book commenced in #ahde by ,mr4 ,eyton4 ,the mottle-faced party seems to have been then the most influential1 but the dark and light grey varieties also had strong adherents4 ,in #aheg ,mr4 ,duckham took over the management of the ,herd-,book1 and to his exertions the breed owes a deep debt of gratitude4 ,one of the greatest supporters of the ,herefordshire breed was ,mr4 ,westcar of ,creslow1 who1 starting in #aggi1 attended ,hereford ,october ,fair for forty years1 and when the ,smithfield ,show commenced in #agii won innumerable first prizes there with ,herefordshire cattle4 ,between #agii and #ahaa twenty of his ,herefordshire prize oxen averaged #ajf #fs4 each1 and at the sale of ,mr4 ,ben ,tomkins's herd after his death in #ahai twenty-eight breeding animals averaged #aeb1 one cow fetching #bfb #aes4 ,herefords are famous for their feeding qualities at grass1 and good stores are scarce1 the best being fattened on their native pastures4 ,they are not only almost the only breed in their own county1 but few ,english counties south of ,shropshire are without them2 they have done well in ,ireland1 and in ,canada1 the ,united ,states1 ,south ,america1 and ,australia have attained great success4 ,they are not so well qualified for crossing as ,shorthorns1 but have blended well with that breed1 and produced good crosses with ,ayrshires and ,jerseys1 but not with ,devons4 ,it has been said that they are not a favourite sort with ,london butchers1 as they require time to ripen1 which does not suit a hurrying age4 ,hence they probably flourished best under the old school of graziers1 who sometimes kept them to six or seven years old4 ,at all events they are a very fine breed for beef purposes1 their meat being particularly tender1 juicy1 and fine-grained4 ,they are seldom kept for dairy purposes1 being poor milkers2 consequently the calf is nearly always allowed to run with the dam1 which accounts for the fact that one seldom sees pure-bred ,herefords that are not well grown4 ,the highest price paid for a ,hereford was #d1jjj guineas for ,lord ,wilton in #ahhd4 ,devons4 ,the cattle of ,north ,devon can be traced as the peculiar breed of the county from which they take their name from the earliest records4 ,bradley mentioned the red cattle of ,somerset in #agbf1 and no doubt there were many in ,devonshire4#gde ,william ,marshall states 7#ahje71 and he is supported by subsequent writers1 that 'they are of the middle horn class'1 and in his time so nearly resembled the ,herefordshire breed in frame1 colour1 and horn1 as not to be distinguishable from them1 except in the greater cleanness of the head and fore-quarters1 and their smaller size4 ,yet they could not have had the white faces and throats of the ,herefords1 as they have always been famous for their uniformity in colour--a fine dark red4#gdf ,he also compares them to the cattle of ,sussex and the native cattle of ,norfolk4#gdg ,the ,devons then differed very much in different parts of the county2 those of ,north ,devon taking the lead1 being 'nearly what cattle ought to be'4 ,they were1 considered as draught animals1 the best workers anywhere beyond all comparison1 though rather small1 for which deficiency they made up in exertion and agility4 ,as dairy cattle they were not very good1 since rearing for the east country graziers had long been the main object of ,devon cattle farmers1 but as grazing cattle they were excellent4 ,vancouver1 a few years after this1 praised their activity in work and their unrivalled aptitude to fatten1 but says they were then declining in their general standard of excellence1 and in numbers1 owing to the great demand for them from other parts of ,england1 where the buyers 7,mr4 ,coke1 who had established a valuable herd of them1 and others7 spared neither pains nor price to obtain those of the highest excellence4 ,this danger was clearly perceived by ,francis ,quartly of ,molland1 who set to work to remedy it by systematically buying the choicest cows he could procure4 ,as the reputation and perhaps continuance of the ,devon breed is due to him more than to any other man1 his account of his own efforts on behalf of it is specially valuable4#gdh ,at the end of the eighteenth century the principal ,north ,devon yeomen were all breeders1 and every week you might see in the ,molton ,market1 their natural locality1 animals that would now be called choice4 ,there were few cattle shows in those days1 and therefore the relative value of animals was not so easily tested4 ,the war prices tempted many farmers to sell their best bulls and cows out of the district1 so that good animals were becoming scarce1 and the breed generally going back4 ,mr4 ,quartly therefore for years bought all the best animals he could find with rare skill and judgement1 and continued to improve his stock till he brought it to perfection4 ,about the year #ahcd cattle shows began at ,exeter1 and for the first year or two ,mr4 ,quartly did not compete2 then he allowed his nephews to enter in all the classes1 and they brought home all the prizes4 ,this lead they kept1 and at the ,royal ,show at ,exeter in #ahej their stock obtained nine out of the ten prizes for ,devons4 ,the ,devon ,herd-,book was first published in #ahea by ,captain ,t4,t4 ,davy1 and a writer in #aheh says that of twenty-nine prize bulls in the first three volumes twenty-seven were descended from the ,quartly bull ,forester1 and of thirty-four prize cows twenty-nine from the cow ,curly1 also of their stock4 ,among other famous breeders of ,devons contemporary with ,quartly were ,messrs4 ,merson1 ,davy1 ,michael ,thorne1 ,yapp1 ,buckingham1 the ,halses1 and ,george ,turner4 ,in #ahbi ,moore says1 ',the young heifers of ,north ,devon1 with their taper legs1 the exact symmetry of their form1 and their clear coats of dark red1 are pictures of elegance4' ,their superiority for grazing and draught was proved by the high prices demanded for them1 but they were not equally esteemed as dairy animals1#gdi though of late years this reproach has been removed4 ,the ploughing of two acres of fallow land was the common work of four oxen1 which1 when fattened at five years old1 would reach eleven score a quarter4 ,since the publication of the ,herd-,book1 ,devons have spread all over the world1 to ,mexico1 ,jamaica1 ,canada1 ,australia1 ,france1 and ,united ,states1 and the fact that in their original home they have been largely kept by tenant farmers proves them a good rent-paying breed4 ,yet it cannot be pretended that away from their native country they are as much valued as the ,shorthorn and ,hereford4 ,the ,south ,hams breed of ,south ,devon is a distinct variety1 though it is believed to be descended from the ',rubies'#gej and apparently has at some time been crossed with the ,guernsey2 they are good milkers and attain a great size1 but the quality of the meat is decidedly inferior to that of ,north ,devon4 ,from the earliest times the real ,devon colour has been red1 varying from a dark to a lighter or almost chestnut shade2 half a century ago the lighter ones were more numerous than at present1 and they are often of richer quality though less hardy than the dark ones4 ,the ,sussex is larger and coarser than the ,devon1 of a deep brown chestnut colour1 very hardy1 a beef-producing but not a milk-yielding sort4 ,longhorns1#gea a generation ago nearly extinct1 once the favourite cattle of the midlands and portions of the north1 are descended from a breed long established in the ,craven district of ,yorkshire4 ',the true ,lancashire1' said ,young in #aggj1 'were ,longhorns1 and in ,derbyshire were a bastard sort of ,lancashires4'#geb ,it was this breed that ,bakewell improved1 and of late years great efforts1 chiefly in ,warwickshire and ,leicestershire1 have been made to revive it4 ,the ,red ,polled1 or ,norfolk ,polled1 is the only hornless breed of ,english cattle1 and they are good milkers and fatteners4 ,the ,lincoln ,red is a small red variety of the ,shorthorn4 ,many of the ,welsh breeds have spread into the adjacent parts of ,england1 and may be classified as ,north and ,south ,welsh1 or ,angleseys and ,castle ,martins2 black in colour1 and generally with long horns4 ,the ,scottish cattle--the ,aberdeen ,angus1 the ,galloways1 the ,highland breed1 and the ,ayrshires--are also seen in ,england1 but not so often as the ,jerseys and ,guernseys from the ,channel ,islands1 while the small ,dexters and ,kerrys from ,ireland are favourites with some ,english farmers4 ,,sheep ,the sheep of the ,british ,isles may be divided into three main classes3-- #a4 ,longwools1 containing ,leicesters1 ,border ,leicester's1 ,cotswolds1 ,lincolns1 ,kentish1 ,devon ,longwool1 ,south ,devon1 ,wensleydale1 and ,roscommon4 #b4 ,shortwools3 the ,oxford ,downs1 ,southdowns1 ,shropshires1 ,hampshire ,downs1 ,suffolks1 ,ryelands1 ,somerset and ,dorset ,horned1 and ,clun ,forest4 #c4 ,mountain breeds3 ,cheviots1 ,blackfaced ,mountain1 ,herdwick1 ,lonk1 ,dartmoor1 ,exmoor1 ,welsh ,mountain1 and ,limestone4 ,these are all ,english except the ,border ,leicester1 ,cheviot1 and ,blackfaced ,mountain1 which are ,scotch2 the ,welsh ,mountain is of course ,welsh1 and the ,roscommon ,irish4 #a4 ,the ,leicesters1 the largest and in many respects the most important of ,british longwool sheep1 are the sheep which ,bakewell improved so greatly4 ,they are capable of being brought to a great weight1 and their long fine wool averages #g lb4 to the fleece4 ,the ,border ,leicesters are an offshoot of the last named1 bred on the ,scottish ,border1 and originating from the flock which ,george and ,matthew ,culley in #agfg took from the ,tees to the ,tweed4 ,the ,cotswolds have been on the ,gloucestershire hills for ages1 and have long been famous for the length of their fleece1 hardiness1 and breeding qualities4 ,the ,lincoln is the result of the old native breed of the county improved by ,leicester blood4 ,they have larger heads and denser and heavier wool than the ,leicesters1 averaging #h to #i lb4 to the fleece1 but have been known to yield #ad lb4 ,the ,kentish or ,romney ,marsh have long existed in the district whence they obtain their name1 but are not much known away from that locality4 ,the ,devon ,longwool is a result of the infusion of ,leicester blood among the old ,bampton stock of ,devonshire called ,bampton ,notts or polled sheep4 ,the ,south ,devons or ,south ,hams are another local breed1 and are a result of the improvement of the ,south ,hams ,notts by the ,leicester4 ,the ,wensleydales are descendants of the old ,teeswater breed1 itself a variety of the old ,leicester and improved by the new ,leicesters of ,culley4 #b4 ,oxford ,downs1 a modern black-faced breed1 now widely spread all over the midland counties1 are a mixture of ,cotswolds with ,hampshire ,downs and ,southdowns1 and originated at the beginning of ,queen ,victoria's reign1 but were not definitely so called till #aheg4 ,this cross of two distinct varieties1 the long and the short wool1 has approximated to the shortwool type4 ,the ,southdown1 formerly ,sussex ,down1 an old breed bred for ages on the chalky soils of the ,south ,downs1 is 'perhaps'1 says ,youatt1 'the most valuable breed in the kingdom4' ,it was to ,john ,ellman of ,glynde1 at the end of the eighteenth century1 that they owe their present perfection1 and they have exercised as much influence among the shortwools as the ,leicesters among the longwools4 ,the ,shropshire sheep is a descendant of the original ,longmynd or old ,shropshire sheep1 which began to be crossed by the ,southdown at the commencement of the nineteenth century4#gec ,they were recognized as a distinct breed in #ahec1 and since then have become one of the most valued breeds1 combining the symmetry and quality of the ,southdown with the weight of the ,cotswold and the fattening tendency of the ,leicester1 with a hardier constitution4 ,the ,hampshire ,down is another instance of the widespread influence of the ,southdown1 being the result of crossing that breed with the old ,wiltshire sheep1 which had long curling horns1 and the ,berkshire ,knott4 ,they are heavier than the ,shropshire1 and are perhaps more distinguished for early maturity than any other breed4 ,the ,suffolk is derived from the old horned ,norfolk ewe mated with the ,southdown1 and was first granted its name in #ahei4 ,the ,ryeland is a small1 hornless1 white-faced breed which has been in ,herefordshire for centuries1 but of late years has dwindled in numbers before the advent of the ,shropshire4 ,the ,somerset and ,dorset ,horned is another old breed1 preserved in a pure state1 much improved in modern times1 and very hardy4 ,the ,clun ,forest breed of ,west ,shropshire and the adjacent parts of ,wales is a mixture of the ,ryeland1 ,shropshire1 and ,welsh breeds4 #c4 ,the ,cheviot is found on both sides of the hills of that name1 though ,northumberland is said to be its original home1 and it was improved in the eighteenth century by crossing with the ,lincoln4 ,the ,blackfaced ,mountain breed is found chiefly in ,scotland1 but thrives on the bleak grazing lands of the north of ,england4 ,the ,herdwicks' home is the hills of ,cumberland and ,westmoreland1 where they are hardy enough to fatten on the poor1 thin pasture4 ,the ,lonk is the largest mountain breed1 belonging to the fells of ,yorkshire and ,lancashire4 ,the ,dartmoors and ,exmoors almost certainly came from one stock1 though the former are now the larger1 and are the few real survivors of the old forest or mountain breeds of ,england4 ,the ,exmoor is horned1 the ,dartmoor hornless4 ,the ,welsh ,mountain is a small1 hardy1 soft-woolled breed1 their mutton having the best flavour of any sheep1 and their wool making the famous ,welsh flannel4 ,the ,limestone is little known outside the fells of ,westmoreland4 ,,pigs ,our pigs may be roughly divided into white1 black1 and red2 the first comprising the ,large1 ,middle1 and ,small ,whites1 formerly called ,yorkshires2 the second the ,small ,black 7,suffolk or ,essex71 the ,large ,black only recently recognized1 but apparently very ancient1 and the ,berkshire1 which often has white marks on face1 legs1 or tail4 ,the red is the ,tamworth1 one of the oldest breeds1 its skin being red with dark spots4 ,,footnotes3 #gcd ,youatt1 ,complete ,grazier 7#aijj71 p4 #chh2 cf4 pp4 #ajd-e4 #gce ,youatt1 ,complete ,grazier 7#aijj71 p4 #f4 #gcf ,see above4 #gcg ,rural ,economy of ,west of ,england1 i4 #bce cf4 above1 p4 #bce4 #gch ,see above4 #gci ii4 #abf2 about #aggj4 #gdj ,youatt1 ,complete ,grazier1 p4 #ah1 and see ',druid'1 ,saddle and ,sirloin4 #gda ,cf4 supra1 p4 #afg4 #gdb ,culley on ,live ,stock 7#ahjg71 p4 #db4 #gdc ,see p4 #bcc4 #gdd ,much of these accounts of ,herefords and ,devons is from the author's articles in the ,victoria ,county ,history4 #gde ,see above4 #gdf ,risdon1 ,survey 7#ahaj71 ,introd4 p4 viii4 #gdg ,rural ,economy of ,west of ,england1 i4 #bce4 ,risdon says of ,devonshire3 ',as to cattle1 no part of the ,kingdom is better supplied with beasts of all sorts1 whether for profit or pleasure1' those for pleasure being apparently wild ones kept in parks4--,chapple's ,review of ,risdon's ,survey1 p4 #bc4 #gdh ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal 7#ast ser471 xi4 #fhj4 ,see also ibid4 xix4 #cfh1 and 7#bnd ser47 v4 #ajg2 xiv4 #ffc2 xx4 #fia4 #gdi ,history of ,devon1 i4 #def4 #gej ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal 7#crd ser471 i4 #ebg4 #gea ,see above4 #geb ,northern ,tour1 ii4 #abf4 #gec ,r4,a4,s4,e4 ,journal 7#aheh71 p4 #db4 ,,appendix ,i ,,average ,,prices ,,from #abei ,,to #agjjged ,,corn ,,per ,,quarter4 ,,wheat4 ,,barley4 ,,oats4 #abei-adjj #es4 #aj-c_/d;d4 #ds4 #c-c_/d;d4 #bs4 #e-c_/d;d4 #adja-aedj #es4 #aa-c_/d;d4 #cs4 #h-c_/d;d4 #bs4 #b-a_/d;d4 #aeda-hb #acs4 #aj-a_/b;d4 #hs4 #e-c_/d;d4 #es4 #e-a_/b;d4 #aehc-agjj #cis4 #j-a_/b;d4 #bas4 #d;d4 #acs4 #aj;d4 ,,rye4 ,,beans4 #abei-adjj #ds4 #d-g_/h;d4 #ds4 #c-a_/b;d4 #adja-aedj #ds4 #g-c_/d;d4 #cs4 #i-a_/d;d4 #aeda-hb -- #is4 #a-a_/b;d4 #aehc-agjj -- #bbs4 #c-a_/d;d4 ,,live ,,stock4 ,,oxen4 ,,cows4 ,,cart ,,horses4#gee #abei-adjj #acs4 #a-a_/d;d4 #is4 #e;d4 #afs4 #d;d4 #adja-aedj moderate increase #ads4 unaltered #aeda-hb #ees4 #cbs4 great increase #aehc-agjj #ajjs4 #fjs4 #aehj-afdj #e to #aj #afdj-agjj #h to #ae ,,pigs ,,sheep4 ,,lambs4 7,,grown74 ,,boars4 #abei-adjj #as4 #b;d4 to #as4 #e;d4 #h;d4 #cs4 #ds4 #g;d4 #adja-aedj moderate increase #i;d4 unaltered #fs4 #aeda-hb #cs4 to #ds4 #f;d4 #bs4 to #cs4 #fs4 #h;d4 to #hs4 -- #aehc-agjj #ajs4 #g;d4 -- great increase ,,poultry ,,and ,,eggs4 ,,hens4 ,,ducks4 ,,geese4 ,,eggs4 #abei-adjj #a-f_/h;d4 #b;d4 #c-e_/h;d4 #d-a_/b;d4 per #abj #adja-aedj #b-a_/d;d4 #b-a_/d;d4 #d-c_/d;d4 #f-a_/b;d #aeda-hb #d-c_/d;d4 #d-c_/d;d4 #aj;d4 #g-a_/b;d4 #aehc-agjj #h;d4-#as4 #i-a_/d;d4 #bs4 #cs4 #c;d4 ,,wool4 ,,cheese4 ,,butter4 ,per lb4 #abei-adjj #c-e_/g;d4 #d-a_/b;d4 per #g lb4 #d-c_/d;d4 per #g lb4 #adja-aedj #c-e_/g;d4 #a_/b;d4 per lb4 #a;d4 per lb4 #aeda-hb #g-a_/b;d4 #a;d4 #c;d4 #aehc-agjb #i;d4-#as4 #c-a_/b;d4 #d-a_/b;d4 ,,hay4 ,,hops4 ,per load4 ,per cwt4 #abei-adjj #cs4 #h;d4 -- #adja-aedj unaltered #ads4 #j-a_/b;d4 #aeda-hb #is4 #f;d4 #bfs4 #h;d4 #aehc-agjb #bfs4 #d;d4 #hbs4 #i;d4 ,,labour4 ,reaping ,reaping ,labourer per wheat oats ,mowing day without per acre4 per acre4 per acre4 food4 #abfa-acej #e-e_/h;d4 #d-g_/h;d4 #e-a_/d;d4 #b;d4 #acea-adjj #h-a_/b;d4 #h-a_/d;d4 #g;d4 #c;d4 #adja-aedj #i-c_/d;d4 #h-a_/d;d4 #h-a_/h;d4 #d;d4 #aeda-hb --#gef -- -- #f-a_/b;d4 #aehc-afdj -- -- #as4 #g;d4 #h-a_/b;d4 #afdj-agjj -- -- #as4 #h;d4 #aj;d4 ,,price ,,of ,,land ,,per ,,acre4 ,to ,rent4 ,to ,buy4 ,arable4 ,grass4 #abfa-acej #d;d4-#f;d4 #as4-#bs4 #ab years' purchase #acea-adjj #f;d4 #bs4 #adja-aedj #f;d4 #bs4 #ae-bj years #aeda-hb slight increase unaltered #aehc-afdj great increase #bj years #afda-agjj #es4 #hs4 #aggj #ajs4 #cj years ,,footnotes3 #ged ,summarized from ,thorold ,rogers' prices in his ,history of ,agriculture and ,prices1 with some alterations4 #gee ,affri1 #acs4 #e;d4 cart horses1 #ais4 #d;d4 ,a good saddle horse about #acjj was worth #e4 ,by #aehj it was worth #aj to #ae1 by #agjj #bj to #be4 #gef ,a decided increase1 but prices fluctuate so much that it is hard to strike an average4 ,,appendix ,,ii ,,table ,,showing ,,exports ,,and ,,imports ,,of ,,wheat ,,and ,,flour ,,from ,,and ,,into ,,england1 ,,unimportant ,,years ,,omitted ,exports4 ,imports4 ,quarters4 ,quarters4 ,england4 #afig #ad1fii #djj #agjc #aff1fae #ej #agag #bb1ied none #agbh #c1hag #gd1egd #agcc #dbg1aii #g #agej #idg1fjb #bgi ,great ,britain4 #ageg #aa1ede #ada1efb #ageh #i1bcd #bj1cec #agfa #dda1ief none #agfg #e1jga #dig1ije #aggj #ge1ddi #cd #agge #ia1jcg #efj1ihh #aggf #baj1ffd #bj1egh #aghj #bbd1jei #c1iae #aghf #bje1dff #ea1dfc #aghg #abj1ecf #ei1cci #aghi #adj1jad #aab1fef #agia #gj1fbf #dfi1jef #agif #bd1fgi #hgi1bjj #ahja #bh1djf #a1dbd1gfe #ahjh #ih1jje #hd1hhi #ahaj #ge1ghe #a1efg1abf #ahae #bbg1idg #chd1dge #ahbe #ch1gif #ghg1fjf #ahcg #cjh1dbj #a1aji1dib #ahci #db1eab #c1aaj1gbi #ahdb #fh1jdg #c1aaa1bij ,the above figures are taken from ,mc,culloch's ,commercial ,dictionary1 #ahdg1 p4 #dch1 and agree roughly with those given by ,mc,pherson1 ,annals of ,commerce1 iii4 #fgd1 and iv4 #baf and #ecb4 ,after #ahdb1 exports played a very small part1 and imports continued to increase2 in #ahdg1 #d1fab1aaj quarters of wheat and flour came in2 and the following figures show their growth in recent times3-- ,,average ,,of ,,annual ,,imports ,,of ,,wheat ,,and ,,flour ,,in ,,cwts4 #ahfa-e #cd1fea1edi #ahff-gj #cg1bgc1fgh #ahga-e #ej1die1abg #ahgf-hj #fc1cji1hgd #ahha-e #gg1bhe1hha #ahhf-ij #gg1gid1chj #ahia-e #if1ehb1hfc #ahif-aijj #ie1ief1cgf #aija-e #aaa1fch1hag ,with regard to the exports and imports of all kinds of corn1 large quantities were exported in the first half of the eighteenth century4 ,in #agcc1 #hjj1jjj quarters were sent to ,france1 ,portugal1 ,spain1 and ,italy1#geg and exports reached their maximum in #agej with #a1ffg1ggh quarters1 but by #agfj had decreased to #fjj1jjj1 and after that fell considerably2 in #agga1 for instance1 the first year of the corn register1 they only amounted to #ha1ffe quarters1 whereas imports were #bjc1abb4 ,the figures of the imports were swollen by the large quantities of oats which came into ,england at this time4 ,the following years are typical of the fluctuations in the trade3-- ,exports4 ,imports4 #aggd #dg1ifa #hjc1hdd #aggf #cgf1bdi #ddd1aba #aghj #djj1djh #bai1jic #aghb #bgh1iee #acc1ffc #aghc #ajd1bgd #heb1chi #aghd-h large excess of imports1 mainly oats #aghi #feb1gfd #dgh1dbf the last year when exports of all kinds of corn exceeded imports4#geh ,to sum up1 according to these figures1 ,england's exports of wheat regularly exceeded her imports from #afig until #ageg1 with the exception of the years #agbh-i2 then they fluctuated till #aghi1 the last year in which exports of wheat exceeded imports1 and as the same year is the last time when our exports of all kinds of corn exceeded our imports1 ,england at that date ceased to be an exporting country4#gei ,,footnotes3 #geg ,mc,pherson1 ,annals of ,commerce1 iii4 #aih4 #geh ,ibid4 iii4 #fgd2 iv4 #baf1 #ecb4 #gei ,the excess of exports of wheat in #ahjh was accidentally due to the requirements of the army in ,spain4 ,,appendix ,,iii ,,average ,,prices ,,per ,,imperial ,,quarter ,,of ,,british ,,corn ,,in ,,england ,,and ,,wales1 ,,in ,,each ,,year ,,from #agga ,,to #aijg ,,inclusive1 ,,according ,,to ,,the ,,returns ,,of ,,the ,,board ,,of ,,agriculture ,,years4 ,,wheat4 ,,barley4 ,,oats4 s4 d4 s4 d4 s4 d4 #agga #dh #g #bf #e #ag #b #aggb #eb #c #bf #a #af #h #aggc #eb #g #bi #b #ag #h #aggd #ed #c #bi #d #ah #d #agge #di #aj #bf #i #ag #j #aggf #ci #d #bj #i #ae #e #aggg #df #aa #ba #a #af #a #aggh #dc #c #bc #d #ae #g #aggi #cd #h #bj #a #ad #e #aghj #cf #i #ag #f #ac #b #agha #df #j #ag #h #ad #a #aghb #di #c #bc #b #ae #g #aghc #ed #c #ca #c #bj #e #aghd #ej #d #bh #h #ah #aj #aghe #dc #a #bd #i #ag #h #aghf #dj #j #be #a #ah #f #aghg #db #e #bc #d #ag #b #aghh #df #d #bb #h #af #a #aghi #eb #i #bc #f #af #f #agij #ed #i #bf #c #ai #e #agia #dh #g #bf #aj #ah #a #agib #dc #j #bg #g #af #i #agic #di #c #ca #a #bj #f #agid #eb #c #ca #i #ba #c #agie #ge #b #cg #e #bd #e #agif #gh #g #ce #d #ba #aj #agig #ec #i #bg #b #af #c #agih #ea #aj #bi #j #ai #e #agii #fi #j #cf #b #bg #f #ahjj #aac #aj #ei #aj #ci #d #ahja #aai #f #fh #f #cg #j #ahjb #fi #aj #cc #d #bj #d #ahjc #eh #aj #be #d #ba #f #ahjd #fb #c #ca #j #bd #c #ahje #hi #i #dd #f #bh #d #ahjf #gi #a #ch #h #bg #g #ahjg #ge #d #ci #d #bh #d #ahjh #ha #d #dc #e #cc #d #ahji #ig #d #dg #j #ca #e #ahaj #ajf #e #dh #a #bh #g #ahaa #ie #c #db #c #bg #g #ahab #abf #f #ff #i #dd #f #ahac #aji #i #eh #f #ch #f #ahad #gd #d #cg #d #be #h #ahae #fe #g #cj #c #bc #g #ahaf #gh #f #cc #aa #bg #b #ahag #if #aa #di #d #cb #e #ahah #hf #c #ec #aj #cb #e #ahai #gd #f #de #i #bh #b #ahbj #fg #aj #cc #aj #bd #b #ahba #ef #a #bf #j #ai #f #ahbb #dd #g #ba #aj #ah #a #ahbc #ec #d #ca #f #bb #aa #ahbd #fc #aa #cf #d #bd #aj #ahbe #fh #f #dj #j #be #h #ahbf #eh #h #cd #d #bf #h #ahbg #eh #f #cg #g #bh #b #ahbh #fj #e #cb #aj #bb #f #ahbi #ff #c #cb #f #bb #i #ahcj #fd #c #cb #g #bd #e #ahca #ff #d #ch #j #be #d #ahcb #eh #h #cc #a #bj #e #ahcc #eb #aa #bg #f #ah #e #ahcd #df #b #bi #j #bj #aa #ahce #ci #d #bi #aa #bb #j #ahcf #dh #f #cb #aj #bc #a #ahcg #ee #aj #cj #d #bc #a #ahch #fd #g #ca #e #bb #e #ahci #gj #h #ci #f #be #aa #ahdj #ff #d #cf #e #be #h #ahda #fd #d #cb #aj #bb #e #ahdb #eg #c #bg #f #ai #c #ahdc #ej #a #bi #f #ah #d #ahdd #ea #c #cc #h #bj #g #ahde #ej #aj #ca #h #bb #f #ahdf #ed #h #cb #h #bc #h #ahdg #fi #i #dd #b #bh #h #ahdh #ej #f #ca #f #bj #f #ahdi #dd #c #bg #i #ag #f #ahej #dj #c #bc #e #af #e #ahea #ch #f #bd #i #ah #g #aheb #dj #i #bh #f #ai #a #ahec #ec #c #cc #b #ba #j #ahed #gb #e #cf #j #bg #aa #ahee #gd #h #cd #i #bg #e #ahef #fi #b #da #a #be #b #aheg #ef #d #db #a #be #j #aheh #dd #b #cd #h #bd #f #ahei #dc #i #cc #f #bc #b #ahfj #ec #c #cf #g #bd #e #ahfa #ee #d #cf #a #bc #i #ahfb #ee #e #ce #a #bb #g #ahfc #dd #i #cc #aa #ba #b #ahfd #dj #b #bi #aa #bj #a #ahfe #da #aj #bi #i #ba #aj #ahff #di #aa #cg #e #bd #g #ahfg #fd #e #dj #j #bf #j #ahfh #fc #i #dc #j #bh #a #ahfi #dh #b #ci #e #bf #j #ahgj #df #aa #cd #g #bb #aj #ahga #ef #h #cf #b #be #b #ahgb #eg #j #cg #d #bc #b #ahgc #eh #h #dj #e #be #e #ahgd #ee #i #dd #aa #bh #aj #ahge #de #b #ch #e #bh #h #ahgf #df #b #ce #b #bf #c #ahgg #ef #i #ci #h #be #aa #ahgh #df #e #dj #b #bd #d #ahgi #dc #aj #cd #j #ba #i #ahhj #dd #d #cc #a #bc #a #ahha #de #d #ca #aa #ba #i #ahhb #de #a #ca #b #ba #aj #ahhc #da #g #ca #aj #ba #e #ahhd #ce #h #cj #h #bj #c #ahhe #cb #aj #cj #a #bj #g #ahhf #ca #j #bf #g #ai #j #ahhg #cb #f #be #d #af #c #ahhh #ca #aj #bg #aj #af #i #ahhi #bi #i #be #aj #ag #i #ahij #ca #aa #bh #h #ah #g #ahia #cg #j #bh #b #bj #j #ahib #cj #c #bf #b #ai #aj #ahic #bf #d #be #g #ah #i #ahid #bb #aj #bd #f #ag #a #ahie #bc #a #ba #aa #ad #f #ahif #bf #b #bb #aa #ad #i #ahig #cj #b #bc #f #af #aa #ahih #cd #j #bg #b #ah #e #ahii #be #h #be #g #ag #j #aijj #bf #aa #bd #aa #ag #g #aija #bf #i #be #b #ah #e #aijb #bh #a #be #h #bj #b #aijc #bf #i #bb #h #ag #b #aijd #bh #d #bb #d #af #d #aije #bi #h #bd #d #ag #d #aijf #bh #c #bd #b #ah #d #aijg #cj #g #be #a #ah #aj ,,appendix ,,iv ,,miscellaneous ,,information ,gregory ,king1 at the end of the seventeenth century1 estimated the acreage of ,england and ,wales at #ci1jjj1jjj--not at all a bad estimate1 the area1 excluding water1 according to the ,board of ,agriculture ,returns of #aijg1 being #cg1acj1cdd4 ,the different estimates by ,grew1 ,templeman1 ,petty1 ,young1 ,halley1 ,middleton1 and others varied between #ca1fdh1jjj and #df1iaf1jjj acres4 ,the last1 that of ,arthur ,young1 was actually adopted by ,pitt for his estimate of the income-tax4#gfj 99 99 99 99 99 ,caird in #ahejgfa estimated the cultivated lands of ,england at #bg1jjj1jjj acres 7in #aijg they were #bd1ehe1dee acres71 cultivated thus3-- ,permanent grass #ac1ccc1jjj ,arable #ac1ffg1jjj the latter being divided as follows3-- ,acres4 ,bushels ,produce1 per acre4 quarters4 ,wheat #c1daf1gej #bg #aa1eca1eca ,barley #a1daf1gej #ch #f1gbi1efb ,oats and rye #b1jjj1jjj #dd #aa1jjj1jjj ,clover and seeds #b1bgg1gej ,beans and peas #a1aci1jjj #cj #d1bga1bej ,turnips1 marigolds1 potatoes #b1aaf1gej ,rape and fallow #a1cjj1jjj ,davenant1 at the end of the seventeenth century1 made the following estimate showing the importance of wool in ,english trade#gfb3-- ,annual income of ,england #dc1jjj1jjj ,yearly rent of land #aj1jjj1jjj ,value of wool shorn yearly #b1jjj1jjj woollen manufactures #aj1jjj1jjj ,thus the rents of land formed nearly one-fourth the total income of the country1 and wool paid one-fifth of the rents4#gfc ,in the eighteenth century a great quantity of wool was smuggled out of ,england in defiance of the law2 in the space of four months in #aged1 #d1jjj tods was 'run' into ,boulogne4#gfd ,,foreign ,,and ,,colonial ,,wool ,,imported ,,into ,,england4#gfe lb4 #agff #a1ibf1jjj #agga #a1hbi1jjj #aghj #cbc1jjj #agij #b1ehb1jjj #ahjj #h1fji1jjj #ahaj #aj1iad1jjj #ahbj #i1gge1jjj #ahcj #cb1cje1jjj #ahdj #di1dcf1jjj #ahej #gd1cbf1jjj #ahee #ii1cjj1jjj #aheg #abg1cij1jjj ,,prices ,,of ,,labour ,,in ,,surrey ,,in #aghj4gff s4 d4 ,day labourer1 per day1 in winter #a #d in summer #a #f ,reaping wheat1 per acre #g #j and according to the crop up to #ab #j ,mowing barley1 per acre #b #f oats1 #as4 #f;d4 to #b #j grass #b #f ,hand-hoeing turnips1 per acre1 first time #f #j second time #d #j ,thatching hayricks1 per square of #ajj ft4 #a #j ,washing and shearing sheep1 per score #c #j ,ploughing light land1 per acre #e #j stiff #gs4 to #aj #j ,common hurdles1 each #e ,,occupiers ,,of ,,land4 ,in #ahaf there were said to be #ehi1cgd occupiers of land in ,great ,britain#gfg-- ,with incomes under #ej #aad1ggh ,between #ej and #aej #dcb1ecd ,over #aej #db1jfb ------- #ehi1cgd ,in #aijg there were #eaj1ied occupiers of one acre and more4 ,,mulhall',s ,,calculation ,,of ,,average ,,annual ,,wages ,,in ,,england4 ,bailiff4 ,shepherd4 ,labourer4 ,woman4 ,boy4 #ahjj #bj #af #ab #h #f #ahej #dj #be #bj #aj #h #ahhj #eb #cf #cj #ae #aj ,the average annual cost of living of an agricultural family of five was in #ahbc #ca1 in #ahhc1 #cg4 ,,comparative ,,statement ,,by ,a4 ,,young ,,of ,,prices ,,and ,,wages ,,in ,,england ,,from #abjj ,,to #ahaj ,,on ,,the ,,principle ,,of ,,representing ,,facts ,,in #ahaj ,,by ,,the ,,number #bj1 ,,and ,,the ,,facts ,,of ,,the ,,preceding ,,periods ,,by ,,the ,,proportion ,,borne ,,by ,,them ,,to ,,that ,,number4 ,labourer's ,periods4 ,wheat4 ,meat4 ,wool4 ,wages4 ,horses4 #abjj-ii #e-a_/b 444 #c-a_/b 444 #acjj-ii #f-a_/d 444 #d-c_/d 444 #adjj-ii #c 444 #e-a_/b 444 #aejj-ii #f 444 #e-a_/b 444 #afjj-ii #i-a_/d 444 #h 444 #agjj-ff #g-c_/d #g-a_/b #ab #aj #ae-c_/d #agfg-hi #aa #aa-a_/b #ae-a_/c #ab-a_/b #ag-a_/d #agij-ahjc #ac #af-a_/b #af-a_/f #af-c_/d #ai-a_/b #ahjd-aj #bj #bj #bj #bj #bj ,thus wheat in #ahjd-aj had risen #bcc per cent4 since the sixteenth century4 ,,the ,,labourer',s ,,wages4 ,the following table1 published by ,mr4 ,barton in #ahag1gfh shows the depreciation of the labourer's wages in purchasing power between #agdb and #ahjh3-- ,weekly ,price of ,wages in ,period4 pay4 wheat4 pints of s4 d4 s4 d4 bread4 #agdb-eb #f #j #cj #j #ajb #agfa-gj #g #f #db #f #ij #aghj-ij #h #j #ea #b #hj #agie-i #i #j #gj #h #fe #ahjj-h #aa #j #hf #h #fj ,in answer to inquiries sent by the ,poor ,law ,commissioners in #ahcd to #ijj parishes in ,england the average weekly wages of labourers were-- in summer1 s4 d4 in #bed parishes1 with beer or cider #aj #d-c_/d #ebb without beer or cider #aj #e-a_/b in winter1 in #bjj with beer or cider #i #b-a_/d #edd without beer or cider #i #aa-c_/d ,the annual average inclusive earnings of the labourer s4 d4 himself were stated at #bg #ag #aj and of his wife and children #ac #ai #aj ------------ #da #ag #h ,it will thus be seen that the wife and children provided a third of the income4 ,the majority of the parishes said the labourer could maintain his family on these wages4 ,here is the weekly budget of a labourer with an average family in #ahjj3--gfi ,cr4 s4 d4 ,wages #ae #j ,garden #a #f ,extras #a #j ----- #ag #f ,dr4 s4 d4 ,rent #a #g-a_/b ,bread #f #j ,bacon #b #f ,tea and sugar #a #c ,cheese #a #f ,butter #a #f ,fuel #a #c ,candles and soap #j #f ,clothes #a #f ,schooling #j #c ,sundries #j #f --------- #ah #d-a_/b ,there is no fresh meat1 and it is hard to say where any economy could be practised4 ,,contract ,,prices ,,of ,,butcher',s ,,meat ,,per ,,cwt4 ,,at ,,greenwich ,,hospital1 #agcj-ahdb4ggj s4 d4 #agcj #a #e #h #agdj #a #h #j #agej #a #f #f #agfj #a #aa #f #aggj #a #h #f #aghj #a #ab #f #agij #a #af #aj #ahjj #d #d #ahaj #c #ab #j #ahae #c #h #j #ahbj #c #aj #d #ahbe #b #ai #f #ahcj #b #c #f #ahce #b #j #g #ahdj #b #ad #j #ahdb #b #ab #h ,,footnotes3 #gfj ,c4 ,wren ,hoskyns1 ,pamphlet on ,agricultural ,statistics1 p4 #ai4 #gfa ,english ,agriculture in #ahej-a1 p4 #eba4 ,cf4 above1 p4 #cca4 #gfb ,smith1 ,memoirs of ,wool1 i4 #aeg4 #gfc ,in #aijh the rental of agricultural land was #c-a_/b per cent4 of the total income of the country4 ,see ,the ,times ,may #ac1 #aiji4 #gfd ,ibid4 ii4 #bfd4 #gfe ,cunningham1 ,industry and ,commerce1 ii4 #fic4 ,cf4 above1 p4 #cbh4 #gff ,trusler1 ,practical ,husbandry1 p4 #aec4 #gfg ,farmer's ,magazine 7#ahag71 p4 #f4 ,statistics at this date1 however1 must be taken with caution4 ,they were usually estimates4 ,cf4 above1 p4 #ccd1 for holdings in ,england4 #gfh ,parliamentary ,reports1 ,commissioners 7#ahha71 xvi1 #cje4 #gfi ,parliamentary ,reports1 ,commissioners 7#ahha71 xvi4 #caj4 #ggj ,mc,culloch1 ,commercial ,dictionary 7#aheb71 p4 #bga4 ,,index ,a ,abbot's ,ripton1 #gb4 ,aberdeen ,angus cattle1 #bhh1 #cdc4 ,accounts1 keeping1 #bi1 #di4 ,accumulation of estates1 #abc4 ,acre1 #b2 tenantry1 #bec4 ,advantages of large farms1 #bjb4 ,affer1 the1 #ce4 ,agricultural ,holdings ,acts1 #bhc1 #bif1 #bii-cjc4 ,agricultural revolution1 the1 of eighteenth century1 #afb4 ,agriculture1 state of1 #bh1 #ch1 #aaa1 #aac1 #aae1 #abc1 #acb1 #afj1 #afb1 #aib1 #bjd1 #baa1 #bba1 #bbi1 #bdd1 #bde1 #bej1 #bfe1 #bfg1 #bgd1 #bhg1 #cje2 seventeenth-century writers on1 #abg2 state of1 in eighteenth century1 #afb1 #aib1 #bba1 #bbi2 nineteenth1 #bdd1 #bde1 #bfb-gj1 #bga1 #bhg4 ,aitchison1 #bcg4 ,akermanni1 #ac4 ,alderney cattle1 #bcc4 ,ale1 #aj4 ,allotments1 #aif1 #bcj1 #bec1 #been41 #cae-g4 ,allowance system1 #bcg4 ,allowances1 parish1 #bch1 #bda1 #beg1 #bhd4 ,almaine1 corn from1 #bj4 ,almonds1 #ic1 #acf4 ,amalgamation of farms1 #bi1 #df1 #dg1 #ie1 #aai1 #abj1 #afb1 #bjb1 #beh1 #cag4 ,america1 gold discoveries in1 #bhg2 imports from1 #bfb1 #bic1 #cbc-d4 ,ancaster1 ,earl of1 estate of1 #cba4 ,andover1 #ci4 ,anti-,corn ,law ,league1 #bhj4 ,apples1 #ae1 #fe1 #ic1 #abi1 #acj1 #aca1 #ace-f1 #adc1 #aga1 #ahf-i1 #cbi1 #ccb4 7,see ,prices47 ,apprentices1 #ajh4 ,apricots1 #ic1 #acf4 ,arable district of ,england 7#ahic71 #cjfn4 ,arable fields1 #a1 #b1 #d1 #af1 #gc4 ,arable land1 #ef1 #ii1 #ajj1 #aie2 amount of1 in #afhh1 #aee2 decrease of1 #ei2 extent of1 in ,domesday1 #ai2 in #aggj1 #aii2 in #ahej1 #cec2 in #ahgg and #aijg1 #ccb2 preponderance of1 #be1 #cj2 produce of1 in #afhh1 #aee2 suffers more than grass1 #bdh1 #bff1 #bha1 #bhe1 #bhf1 #cjf2 value of1 #ai1 #dj1 #eh1 #aae-g1 #aci4 ,arch1 ,joseph1 #bij-b4 ,ardley1 ,inquisition of1 #i4 ,argentina1 imports from1 #cbd4 ,arley1 ,upper1 wine made at1 #ade4 ,artificial 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