,,the  ,,life  ,,of  ,,jesus   ,,by     
,,ernest ,,renan   ,,introduction ,,by  
,,john ,,haynes ,,holmes  ,transcriber's
 note3 ,introduction by ,john ,haynes   
,holmes not included in this etext due  
to copyright restrictions4   ,,modern   
,,library ,,new ,,york   ,,introduction 
,,copyright1 #aibg1 ,,by ,,the ,,modern 
,,library1 ,,inc4   ,random ,house ,,is 
,,the ,,publisher ,,of  ,,the ,,modern  
,,library  ,,bennett ,a4 ,,cerf 99      
,,donald ,s4 ,,klopper 99 ,,robert ,k4  
,,haas  ,manufactured in the ,united    
,states of ,america  ,printed by        
,parkway ,printing ,company 99 ,bound by
 ,h4 ,wolff     ,,to ,,the ,,pure ,,soul
 ,,of  ,,my ,,sister ,,henriette  ,who  
,died at ,byblus on the #bdth of        
,september1 #ahfa   ,dost thou recall1  
from the bosom of ,god where thou       
reposest1 those long days at ,ghazir1 in
 which1 alone with thee1 ,i wrote these 
pages1 inspired by the places we had    
visited together8 ,silent at my side1   
thou didst read and copy each sheet as  

soon as ,i had written it1 whilst the   
sea1 the villages1 the ravines1 and the 
mountains1 were spread at our feet4     
,when the overwhelming light had given  
place to the innumerable army of stars1 
thy shrewd and subtle questions1 thy    
discreet doubts1 led me back to the     
sublime object of our common thoughts4  
,one day thou didst tell me that thou   
wouldst love this book--first1 because  
it had been composed with thee1 and also
 because it pleased thee4 ,though at    
times thou didst fear for it the narrow 
judgments of the frivolous1 yet wert    
thou ever persuaded that all truly      
religious souls would ultimately take   
pleasure in it4 ,in the midst of these  
sweet meditations1 the ,angel of ,death 
struck us both with his wing3 the sleep 
of fever seized us at the same time--,i 
awoke alone6444 ,thou sleepest now in   
the land of ,adonis1 near the holy      
,byblus and the sacred stream where the 
women of the ancient mysteries came to  
mingle their tears4 ,reveal to me1 ,o   

good genius1 to me whom thou lovedst1   
those truths which conquer death1       
deprive it of terror1 and make it almost
 beloved4     ,,preface   ,in presenting
 an ,english version of the celebrated  
work of ,m4 ,renan1 the translator is   
aware of the difficulty of adequately   
rendering a work so admirable for its   
style and beauty of composition4 ,it is 
not an easy task to reproduce the       
terseness and eloquence which           
characterize the original4 ,whatever its
 success in these respects may be1 no   
pains have been spared to give the      
author's meaning4 ,the translation has  
been revised by highly competent        
persons2 but although great care has    
been taken in this respect1 it is       
possible that a few errors may still    
have escaped notice4  ,the great problem
 of the present age is to preserve the  
religious spirit1 whilst getting rid of 
the superstitions and absurdities that  
deform it1 and which are alike opposed  
to science and common sense4 ,the works 

of ,mr4 ,f4,w4 ,newman and of ,bishop   
,colenso1 and the ,essays and ,reviews1 
are rendering great service in this     
direction4 ,the work of ,m4 ,renan will 
contribute to this object2 and1 if its  
utility may be measured by the storm    
which it has created amongst the        
obscurantists in ,france1 and the       
heartiness with which they have         
condemned it1 its merits in this respect
 must be very great4 ,it needs only to  
be added1 that whilst warmly            
sympathizing with the earnest spirit    
which pervades the book1 the translator 
by no means wishes to be identified with
 all the opinions therein expressed4    
,december #h1 #ahfc4     ,,contents     
,,page  ,introduction1 by ,john ,haynes 
,holmes                                 
#ae  ,introduction1 in ,which the       
,sources of ,this ,history ,are         
,principally ,treated                   
#be  ,,chapter ,i  ,place of ,jesus in  
the ,history of the ,world              
#fg  ,,chapter ,,ii  ,infancy and ,youth

 of ,jesus--,his ,first ,impressions    
#ha  ,,chapter ,,iii  ,education of     
,jesus                                  
#hi  ,,chapter ,,iv  ,the ,order of     
,thought ,which ,surrounded the         
,development of ,jesus                  
#ii  ,,chapter ,v  ,the ,first ,saying  
of ,jesus--,his ,ideas of a ,divine     
,father and of a ,pure ,religion--,first
 ,disciples                             
#aai  ,,chapter ,,vi  ,john the         
,baptist--,visit of ,jesus to ,john1 and
 ,his ,abode in the ,desert of          
,judea--,adoption of the ,baptism of    
,john               #ace  ,,chapter     
,,vii  ,development of the ,ideas of    
,jesus ,respecting the ,kingdom of ,god 
#adh  ,,chapter ,,viii  ,jesus at       
,capernaum                              
#afj  ,,chapter ,,ix  ,the ,disciples of
 ,jesus                                 
#agc  ,,chapter ,x  ,the ,preachings on 
the ,lake                               
#ahd  ,,chapter ,,xi  ,the ,kingdom of  
,god ,conceived as the ,inheritance of  

the ,poor                               
#aid  ,,chapter ,,xii  ,embassy from    
,john in ,prison to ,jesus--,death of   
,john--,relations of ,his ,school with  
,that of ,jesus                         
#bjf  ,,chapter ,,xiii  ,first ,attempts
 on ,jerusalem                          
#bac  ,,chapter ,,xiv  ,intercourse of  
,jesus with the ,pagans and the         
,samaritans            #bbg  ,,chapter  
,,xv  ,commencement of the ,legends     
,concerning ,jesus--,his ,own ,idea of  
,his ,supernatural ,character           
#bce  ,,chapter ,,xvi  ,miracles        
#bdh  ,,chapter ,,xvii  ,definitive     
,form of the ,ideas of ,jesus           
,respecting the ,kingdom of ,god        
#bei  ,,chapter ,,xviii  ,institutions  
of ,jesus                               
#bgc  ,,chapter ,,xix  ,increasing      
,progression of ,enthusiasm and of      
,exaltation             #bhe  ,,chapter 
,,xx  ,opposition to ,jesus             
#bie  ,,chapter ,,xxi  ,last ,journey of
 ,jesus to ,jerusalem                   

#cje  ,,chapter ,,xxii  ,machinations of
 the ,enemies of ,jesus                 
#cai  ,,chapter ,,xxiii  ,last ,week of 
,jesus                                  
#cbi  ,,chapter ,,xxiv  ,arrest and     
,trial of ,jesus                        
#cdd  ,,chapter ,,xxv  ,death of ,jesus 
#cfj  ,,chapter ,,xxvi  ,jesus in the   
,tomb                                   
#cgj  ,,chapter ,,xxvii  ,fate of the   
,enemies of ,jesus                      
#cgf  ,,chapter ,,xxviii  ,essential    
,character of the ,work of ,jesus       
#cha     ,,author',s ,,introduction1    
,in ,which the ,sources of ,this        
,history ,are ,principally ,treated   ,a
 history of the ,origin of ,christianity
 ought to embrace all the obscure1 and1 
if one might so speak1 subterranean     
periods which extend from the first     
beginnings of this religion up to the   
moment when its existence became a      
public fact1 notorious and evident to   
the eyes of all4 ,such a history would  
consist of four books4 ,the first1 which

 ,i now present to the public1 treats of
 the particular fact which has served as
 the starting-point of the new religion1
 and is entirely filled by the sublime  
person of the ,founder4 ,the second     
would treat of the apostles and their   
immediate disciples1 or rather1 of the  
revolutions which religious thought     
underwent in the first two generations  
of ,christianity4 ,i would close this   
about the year #ajj1 at the time when   
the last friends of ,jesus were dead1   
and when all the books of the ,new      
,testament were fixed almost in the     
forms in which we now read them4 ,the   
third would exhibit the state of        
,christianity under the ,antonines4 ,we 
should see it develop itself slowly1 and
 sustain an almost permanent war against
 the empire1 which had just reached the 
highest degree of administrative        
perfection1 and1 governed by            
philosophers1 combated in the new-born  
sect a secret and theocratic society    
which obstinately denied and incessantly

 undermined it4 ,this book would cover  
the entire period of the second century4
 ,lastly1 the fourth book would show the
 decisive progress which ,christianity  
made from the time of the ,syrian       
emperors4 ,we should see the learned    
system of the ,antonines crumble1 the   
decadence of the ancient civilization   
become irrevocable1 ,christianity profit
 from its ruin1 ,syria conquer the whole
 ,west1 and ,jesus1 in company with the 
gods and the deified sages of ,asia1    
take possession of a society for which  
philosophy and a purely civil government
 no longer sufficed4 ,it was then that  
the religious ideas of the races grouped
 around the ,mediterranean became       
profoundly modified2 that the ,eastern  
religions everywhere took precedence2   
that the ,christian ,church1 having     
become very numerous1 totally forgot its
 dreams of a millennium1 broke its last 
ties with ,judaism1 and entered         
completely into the ,greek and ,roman   
world4 ,the contests and the literary   

labors of the third century1 which were 
carried on without concealment1 would be
 described only in their general        
features4 ,i would relate still more    
briefly the persecutions at the         
commencement of the fourth century1 the 
last effort of the empire to return to  
its former principles1 which denied to  
religious association any place in the  
,state4 ,lastly1 ,i would only          
foreshadow the change of policy which1  
under ,constantine1 reversed the        
position1 and made of the most free and 
spontaneous religious movement an       
official worship1 subject to the ,state1
 and persecutor in its turn4  ,i know   
not whether ,i shall have sufficient    
life and strength to complete a plan so 
vast4 ,i shall be satisfied if1 after   
having written the ,life of ,jesus1 ,i  
am permitted to relate1 as ,i understand
 it1 the history of the apostles1 the   
state of the ,christian conscience      
during the weeks which followed the     
death of ,jesus1 the formation of the   

cycle of legends concerning the         
resurrection1 the first acts of the     
,church of ,jerusalem1 the life of      
,saint ,paul1 the crisis of the time of 
,nero1 the appearance of the            
,apocalypse1 the fall of ,jerusalem1 the
 foundation of the ,hebrew-,christian   
sects of ,batanea1 the compilation of   
the ,gospels1 and the rise of the great 
schools of ,asia ,minor originated by   
,john4 ,everything pales by the side of 
that marvellous first century4 ,by a    
peculiarity rare in history1 we see much
 better what passed in the ,christian   
world from the year #ej to the year #ge1
 than from the year #ajj to the year    
#aej4  ,the plan followed in this       
history has prevented the introduction  
into the text of long critical          
dissertations upon controverted points4 
,a continuous system of notes enables   
the reader to verify from the           
authorities all the statements of the   
text4 ,these notes are strictly limited 
to quotations from the primary sources2 

that is to say1 the original passages   
upon which each assertion or conjecture 
rests4 ,i know that for persons little  
accustomed to studies of this kind many 
other explanations would have been      
necessary4 ,but it is not my practice to
 do over again what has been already    
done well4 ,to cite only books written  
in ,french1 those who will consult the  
following excellent writings#a will     
there find explained a number of points 
upon which ,i have been obliged to be   
very brief3       ,etudes ,critiques sur
 l',evangile de saint ,matthieu1 par ,m4
      ,albert ,reville1 pasteur de      
l'eglise ,wallonne de      ,rotterdam4#b
       ,histoire de la ,theologie       
,chretienne au ,siecle ,apostolique1    
par ,m4 ,reuss1 professeur a la ,faculte
 de ,theologie et au      ,seminaire    
,protestant de ,strasbourg4#c       ,des
 ,doctrines ,religieuses des ,juifs     
pendant les ,deux      ,siecles         
,anterieurs a l',ere ,chretienne1 par   
,m4 ,michel      ,nicolas1 professeur a 

la ,faculte de ,theologie ,protestante  
de      ,montauban4#d       ,vie de     
,jesus1 par le ,dr4 ,strauss2 traduite  
par ,m4 ,littre1      ,membre de        
l',institut4#e       ,revue de          
,theologie et de ,philosophie           
,chretienne1 publiee      sous la       
direction de ,m4 ,colani1 de #ahej a    
#aheg4--,nouvelle      ,revue de        
,theologie1 faisant suite a la          
precedente depuis      #aheh4f          
,footnote #a3 ,while this work was in   
the press1 a book has appeared which ,i 
do not hesitate to add to this list1    
although ,i have not read it with the   
attention it deserves--,les ,evangiles1 
par ,m4 ,gustave d',eichthal4 ,premiere 
,partie3 ,examen ,critique et           
,comparatif des ,trois ,premiers        
,evangiles4 ,paris1 ,hachette1 #ahfc4   
,footnote #b3 ,leyde1 ,noothoven van    
,goor1 #ahfb4 ,paris1 ,cherbuliez4 ,a   
work crowned by the ,society of ,the    
,hague for the defence of the ,christian
 religion4  ,footnote #c3 ,strasbourg1  

,treuttel and ,wurtz4 #bnd edition4     
#ahfj4 ,paris1 ,cherbuliez4  ,footnote  
#d3 ,paris1 ,michel ,levy freres1 #ahfj4
  ,footnote #e3 ,paris1 ,ladrange4 #bnd 
edition1 #ahef4  ,footnote #f3          
,strasbourg1 ,treuttel and ,wurtz4      
,paris1 ,cherbuliez4  ,the criticism of 
the details of the ,gospel texts        
especially1 has been done by ,strauss in
 a manner which leaves little to be     
desired4 ,although ,strauss may be      
mistaken in his theory of the           
compilation of the ,gospels2#a and      
although his book has1 in my opinion1   
the fault of taking up the theological  
ground too much1 and the historical     
ground too little1#b it will be         
necessary1 in order to understand the   
motives which have guided me amidst a   
crowd of minutiae1 to study the always  
judicious1 though sometimes rather      
subtle argument1 of the book1 so well   
translated by my learned friend1 ,m4    
,littre4  ,footnote #a3 ,the great      
results obtained on this point have only

 been acquired since the first edition  
of ,strauss's work4 ,the learned critic 
has1 besides1 done justice to them with 
much candor in his after editions4      
,footnote #b3 ,it is scarcely necessary 
to repeat that not a word in ,strauss's 
work justifies the strange and absurd   
calumny by which it has been attempted  
to bring into disrepute with superficial
 persons1 a work so agreeable1 accurate1
 thoughtful1 and conscientious1 though  
spoiled in its general parts by an      
exclusive system4 ,not only has ,strauss
 never denied the existence of ,jesus1  
but each page of his book implies this  
existence4 ,the truth is1 ,strauss      
supposes the individual character of    
,jesus less distinct for us than it     
perhaps is in reality4  ,i do not       
believe ,i have neglected any source of 
information as to ancient evidences4    
,without speaking of a crowd of other   
scattered data1 there remain1 respecting
 ,jesus1 and the time in which he lived1
 five great collections of              

writings--#ast1 ,the ,gospels1 and the  
writings of the ,new ,testament in      
general2 #b;d1 ,the compositions called 
the ,apocrypha of the ,old ,testament2  
#c;d1 ,the works of ,philo2 #dth1 ,those
 of ,josephus2 #eth1 ,the ,talmud4 ,the 
writings of ,philo have the priceless   
advantage of showing us the thoughts    
which1 in the time of ,jesus1 fermented 
in minds occupied with great religious  
questions4 ,philo lived1 it is true1 in 
quite a different province of ,judaism  
to ,jesus1 but1 like him1 he was very   
free from the littlenesses which reigned
 at ,jerusalem2 ,philo is truly the     
elder brother of ,jesus4 ,he was        
sixty-two years old when the ,prophet of
 ,nazareth was at the height of his     
activity1 and he survived him at least  
ten years4 ,what a pity that the chances
 of life did not conduct him into       
,galilee6 ,what would he not have taught
 us6  ,josephus1 writing specially for  
pagans1 is not so candid4 ,his short    
notices of ,jesus1 of ,john the         

,baptist1 of ,judas the ,gaulonite1 are 
dry and colorless4 ,we feel that he     
seeks to present these movements1 so    
profoundly ,jewish in character and     
spirit1 under a form which would be     
intelligible to ,greeks and ,romans4 ,i 
believe the passage respecting ,jesus#a 
to be authentic4 ,it is perfectly in the
 style of ,josephus1 and if this        
historian has made mention of ,jesus1 it
 is thus that he must have spoken of    
him4 ,we feel only that a ,christian    
hand has retouched the passage1 has     
added a few words--without which it     
would almost have been                  
blasphemous#b--;has perhaps retrenched  
or modified some expressions4#c ,it must
 be recollected that the literary       
fortune of ,josephus was made by the    
,christians1 who adopted his writings as
 essential documents of their sacred    
history4 ,they made1 probably in the    
second century1 an edition corrected    
according to ,christian ideas4#d ,at all
 events1 that which constitutes the     

immense interest of ,josephus on the    
subject which occupies us1 is the clear 
light which he throws upon the period4  
,thanks to him1 ,herod1 ,herodias1      
,antipas1 ,philip1 ,annas1 ,caiaphas1   
and ,pilate are personages whom we can  
touch with the finger1 and whom we see  
living before us with a striking        
reality4  ,footnote #a3 ,ant41 ,,xviii4 
iii4 #c4  ,footnote #b3 ,if it be lawful
 to call him a man4  ,footnote #c3 ,in  
place of ,greek3 christos outos en1 he  
certainly had these ,greek3 christos    
outos elegeto4--,cf4 ,ant41 ,,xx4 ix4   
#a4  ,footnote #d3 ,eusebius 7,hist4    
,eccl41 i4 #aa1 and ,demonstr4 ,evang41 
iii4 #e7 cites the passage respecting   
,jesus as we now read it in ,josephus4  
,origen 7,contra ,celsus1 i4 #dg2 ii4   
#ac7 and ,eusebius 7,hist4 ,eccl41 ii4  
#bc7 cite another ,christian            
interpolation1 which is not found in any
 of the manuscripts of ,josephus which  
have come down to us4  ,the ,apocryphal 
books of the ,old ,testament1 especially

 the ,jewish part of the ,sibylline     
verses1 and the ,book of ,enoch1        
together with the ,book of ,daniel1     
which is also really an ,apocrypha1 have
 a primary importance in the history of 
the development of the ,messianic       
theories1 and for the understanding of  
the conceptions of ,jesus respecting the
 kingdom of ,god4 ,the ,book of ,enoch  
especially1 which was much read at the  
time of ,jesus1#a gives us the key to   
the expression ,son of ,man1 and to the 
ideas attached to it4 ,the ages of these
 different books1 thanks to the labors  
of ,alexander1 ,ewald1 ,dillmann1 and   
,reuss1 is now beyond doubt4 ,every one 
is agreed in placing the compilation of 
the most important of them in the second
 and first centuries before ,jesus      
,christ4 ,the date of the ,book of      
,daniel is still more certain4 ,the     
character of the two languages in which 
it is written1 the use of ,greek words1 
the clear1 precise1 dated announcement  
of events1 which reach even to the time 

of ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 the incorrect 
descriptions of ,ancient ,babylonia1    
there given1 the general tone of the    
book1 which in no respect recalls the   
writings of the captivity1 but1 on the  
contrary1 responds1 by a crowd of       
analogies1 to the beliefs1 the manners1 
the turn of imagination of the time of  
the ,seleucidae2 the ,apocalyptic form  
of the visions1 the place of the book in
 the ,hebrew canon1 out of the series of
 the prophets1 the omission of ,daniel  
in the panegyrics of ,chapter xlix4 of  
,ecclesiasticus1 in which his position  
is all but indicated1 and many other    
proofs which have been deduced a hundred
 times1 do not permit of a doubt that   
the ,book of ,daniel was but the fruit  
of the great excitement produced among  
the ,jews by the persecution of         
,antiochus4 ,it is not in the old       
prophetical literature that we must     
class this book1 but rather at the head 
of ,apocalyptic literature1 as the first
 model of a kind of composition1 after  

which come the various ,sibylline poems1
 the ,book of ,enoch1 the ,apocalypse of
 ,john1 the ,ascension of ,isaiah1 and  
the ,fourth ,book of ,esdras4  ,footnote
 #a3 ,jude ,epist4 #ad4  ,in the history
 of the origin of ,christianity1 the    
,talmud has hitherto been too much      
neglected4 ,i think with ,m4 ,geiger1   
that the true notion of the             
circumstances which surrounded the      
development of ,jesus must be sought in 
this strange compilation1 in which so   
much precious information is mixed with 
the most insignificant scholasticism4   
,the ,christian and the ,jewish theology
 having in the main followed two        
parallel ways1 the history of the one   
cannot well be understood without the   
history of the other4 ,innumerable      
important details in the ,gospels find1 
moreover1 their commentary in the       
,talmud4 ,the vast ,latin collections of
 ,lightfoot1 ,schoettgen1 ,buxtorf1 and 
,otho contained already a mass of       
information on this point4 ,i have      

imposed on myself the task of verifying 
in the original all the citations which 
,i have admitted1 without a single      
exception4 ,the assistance which has    
been given me for this part of my task  
by a learned ,israelite1 ,m4 ,neubauer1 
well versed in ,talmudic literature1 has
 enabled me to go further1 and to clear 
up the most intricate parts of my       
subject by new researches4 ,the         
distinction of epochs is here most      
important1 the compilation of the       
,talmud extending from the year #bjj to 
about the year #ejj4 ,we have brought to
 it as much discernment as is possible  
in the actual state of these studies4   
,dates so recent will excite some fears 
among persons habituated to accord value
 to a document only for the period in   
which it was written4 ,but such scruples
 would here be out of place4 ,the       
teaching of the ,jews from the ,asmonean
 epoch down to the second century was   
principally oral4 ,we must not judge of 
this state of intelligence by the habits

 of an age of much writing4 ,the ,vedas1
 and the ancient ,arabian poems1 have   
been preserved for ages from memory1 and
 yet these compositions present a very  
distinct and delicate form4 ,in the     
,talmud1 on the contrary1 the form has  
no value4 ,let us add that before the   
,mishnah of ,judas the ,saint1 which has
 caused all others to be forgotten1     
there were attempts at compilation1 the 
commencement of which is probably much  
earlier than is commonly supposed4 ,the 
style of the ,talmud is that of loose   
notes2 the collectors did no more       
probably than classify under certain    
titles the enormous mass of writings    
which had been accumulating in the      
different schools for generations4  ,it 
remains for us to speak of the documents
 which1 presenting themselves as        
biographies of the ,founder of          
,christianity1 must naturally hold the  
first place in a ,life of ,jesus4 ,a    
complete treatise upon the compilation  
of the ,gospels would be a work of      

itself4 ,thanks to the excellent        
researches of which this question has   
been the object during thirty years1 a  
problem which was formerly judged       
insurmountable has obtained a solution  
which1 though it leaves room for many   
uncertainties1 fully suffices for the   
necessities of history4 ,we shall have  
occasion to return to this in our       
,second ,book1 the composition of the   
,gospels having been one of the most    
important facts for the future of       
,christianity in the second half of the 
first century4 ,we will touch here only 
a single aspect of the subject1 that    
which is indispensable to the           
completeness of our narrative4 ,leaving 
aside all which belongs to the          
portraiture of the apostolic times1 we  
will inquire only in what degree the    
data furnished by the ,gospels may be   
employed in a history formed according  
to rational principles4#a  ,footnote #a3
 ,persons who wish to read more ample   
explanations1 may consult1 in addition  

to the work of ,m4 ,reville1 previously 
cited1 the writings of ,reuss and       
,scherer in the ,revue de ,theologie1   
vol4 x41 xi41 xv42 new series1 ii41     
iii41 iv42 and that of ,nicolas in the  
,revue ,germanique1 ,sept4 and ,dec41   
#ahfb2 ,april and ,june1 #ahfc4  ,that  
the ,gospels are in part legendary1 is  
evident1 since they are full of miracles
 and of the supernatural2 but legends   
have not all the same value4 ,no one    
doubts the principal features of the    
life of ,francis d',assisi1 although we 
meet the supernatural at every step4 ,no
 one1 on the other hand1 accords credit 
to the ,life of ,apollonius of ,tyana1  
because it was written long after the   
time of the hero1 and purely as a       
romance4 ,at what time1 by what hands1  
under what circumstances1 have the      
,gospels been compiled8 ,this is the    
primary question upon which depends the 
opinion to be formed of their           
credibility4  ,each of the four ,gospels
 bears at its head the name of a        

personage1 known either in the apostolic
 history1 or in the ,gospel history     
itself4 ,these four personages are not  
strictly given us as the authors4 ,the  
formulae according to ,matthew1         
according to ,mark1 according to ,luke1 
according to ,john1 do not imply that1  
in the most ancient opinion1 these      
recitals were written from beginning to 
end by ,matthew1 ,mark1 ,luke1 and      
,john1#a they merely signify that these 
were the traditions proceeding from each
 of these apostles1 and claiming their  
authority4 ,it is clear that1 if these  
titles are exact1 the ,gospels1 without 
ceasing to be in part legendary1 are of 
great value1 since they enable us to go 
back to the half century which followed 
the death of ,jesus1 and in two         
instances1 even to the eye-witnesses of 
his actions4  ,footnote #a3 ,in the same
 manner we say1 ,the ,gospel according  
to the ,hebrews1 ,the ,gospel according 
to the ,egyptians4  ,firstly1 as to     
,luke1 doubt is scarcely possible4 ,the 

,gospel of ,luke is a regular           
composition1 founded on anterior        
documents4#a ,it is the work of a man   
who selects1 prunes1 and combines4 ,the 
author of this ,gospel is certainly the 
same as that of the ,acts of the        
,apostles4#b ,now1 the author of the    
,acts is a companion of ,st4 ,paul1#c a 
title which applies to ,luke exactly4#d 
,i know that more than one objection may
 be raised against this reasoning2 but  
one thing1 at least1 is beyond doubt1   
namely1 that the author of the third    
,gospel and of the ,acts was a man of   
the second apostolic generation1 and    
that is sufficient for our object4 ,the 
date of this ,gospel can moreover be    
determined with much precision by       
considerations drawn from the book      
itself4 ,the twenty-first chapter of    
,luke1 inseparable from the rest of the 
work1 was certainly written after the   
siege of ,jerusalem1 and but a short    
time after4#e ,we are here1 then1 upon  
solid ground2 for we are concerned with 

a work written entirely by the same     
hand1 and of the most perfect unity4    
,footnote #a3 ,luke i4 #a-d4  ,footnote 
#b3 ,acts i4 #a4 ,compare ,luke i4 #a-d4
  ,footnote #c3 ,from xvi4 #aj1 the     
author represents himself as            
eye-witness4  ,footnote #d3 #b ,tim4 iv4
 #aa2 ,philemon #bd2 ,col4 iv4 #ad4 ,the
 name of ,lucas 7contraction of         
,lucanus7 being very rare1 we need not  
fear one of those homonyms which cause  
so many perplexities in questions of    
criticism relative to the ,new          
,testament4  ,footnote #e3 ,verses #i1  
#bj1 #bd1 #bh1 #cb4 ,comp4 xxii4 #cf4   
,the ,gospels of ,matthew and ,mark have
 not nearly the same stamp of           
individuality4 ,they are impersonal     
compositions1 in which the author       
totally disappears4 ,a proper name      
written at the head of works of this    
kind does not amount to much4 ,but if   
the ,gospel of ,luke is dated1 those of 
,matthew and ,mark are dated also2 for  
it is certain that the third ,gospel is 

posterior to the first two and exhibits 
the character of a much more advanced   
compilation4 ,we have1 besides1 on this 
point1 an excellent testimony from a    
writer of the first half of the second  
century--namely1 ,papias1 bishop of     
,hierapolis1 a grave man1 a man of      
traditions1 who was all his life seeking
 to collect whatever could be known of  
the person of ,jesus4#a ,after having   
declared that on such matters he        
preferred oral tradition to books1      
,papias mentions two writings on the    
acts and words of ,christ3 ,first1 a    
writing of ,mark1 the interpreter of the
 apostle ,peter1 written briefly1       
incomplete1 and not arranged in         
chronological order1 including          
narratives and discourses1 7,greek3     
lechthenta e prachthenta17 composed from
 the information and recollections of   
the apostle ,peter2 second1 a collection
 of sentences 7,greek3 logia7 written in
 ,hebrew#b by ,matthew1 and which each  
one has translated as he could4 ,it is  

certain that these two descriptions     
answer pretty well to the general       
physiognomy of the two books now called 
,gospel according to ,matthew1 ,gospel  
according to ,mark--the first           
characterized by its long discourses2   
the second1 above all1 by anecdote--much
 more exact than the first upon small   
facts1 brief even to dryness1 containing
 few discourses1 and indifferently      
composed4 ,that these two works1 such as
 we now read them1 are absolutely       
similar to those read by ,papias1 cannot
 be sustained3 ,firstly1 because the    
writings of ,matthew were to ,papias    
solely discourses in ,hebrew1 of which  
there were in circulation very varying  
translations2 and1 secondly1 because the
 writings of ,mark and ,matthew were to 
him profoundly distinct1 written without
 any knowledge of each other1 and1 as it
 seems1 in different languages4 ,now1 in
 the present state of the texts1 the    
,gospel according to ,matthew and the   
,gospel according to ,mark present      

parallel parts so long and so perfectly 
identical1 that it must be supposed1    
either that the final compiler of the   
first had the second under his eyes1 or 
vice versa1 or that both copied from the
 same prototype4 ,that which appears the
 most likely1 is1 that we have not the  
entirely original compilations of either
 ,matthew or ,mark2 but that our first  
two ,gospels are versions in which the  
attempt is made to fill up the gaps of  
the one text by the other4 ,every one   
wished1 in fact1 to possess a complete  
copy4 ,he who had in his copy only      
discourses1 wished to have narratives1  
and vice versa4 ,it is thus that the    
,gospel according to ,matthew is found  
to have included almost all the         
anecdotes of ,mark1 and that the ,gospel
 according to ,mark now contains        
numerous features which come from the   
,logia of ,matthew4 ,every one1 besides1
 drew largely on the ,gospel tradition  
then current4 ,this tradition was so far
 from having been exhausted by the      

,gospels1 that the ,acts of the         
,apostles and the most ancient ,fathers 
quote many words of ,jesus which appear 
authentic1 and are not found in the     
,gospels we possess4  ,footnote #a3 ,in 
,eusebius1 ,hist4 ,eccl41 iii4 #ci4 ,no 
doubt whatever can be raised as to the  
authenticity of this passage4 ,eusebius1
 in fact1 far from exaggerating the     
authority of ,papias1 is embarrassed at 
his simple ingenuousness1 at his gross  
millenarianism1 and solves the          
difficulty by treating him as a man of  
little mind4 ,comp4 ,irenaeus1 ,adv4    
,haer41 iii4 #a4  ,footnote #b3 ,that is
 to say1 in the ,semitic dialect4  ,it  
matters little for our present object to
 push this delicate analysis further1   
and to endeavor to reconstruct in some  
manner1 on the one hand1 the original   
,logia of ,matthew1 and1 on the other1  
the primitive narrative such as it left 
the pen of ,mark4 ,the ,logia are       
doubtless represented by the great      
discourses of ,jesus which fill a       

considerable part of the first ,gospel4 
,these discourses form1 in fact1 when   
detached from the rest1 a sufficiently  
complete whole4 ,as to the narratives of
 the first and second ,gospels1 they    
seem to have for basis a common         
document1 of which the text reappears   
sometimes in the one and sometimes in   
the other1 and of which the second      
,gospel1 such as we read it to-day1 is  
but a slightly modified reproduction4   
,in other words1 the scheme of the ,life
 of ,jesus1 in the synoptics1 rests upon
 two original documents--first1 the     
discourses of ,jesus collected by       
,matthew2 second1 the collection of     
anecdotes and personal reminiscences    
which ,mark wrote from the recollections
 of ,peter4 ,we may say that we have    
these two documents still1 mixed with   
accounts from another source1 in the two
 first ,gospels1 which bear1 not without
 reason1 the name of the ,gospel        
according to ,matthew and of the ,gospel
 according to ,mark4  ,what is          

indubitable1 in any case1 is1 that very 
early the discourses of ,jesus were     
written in the ,aramean language1 and   
very early also his remarkable actions  
were recorded4 ,these were not texts    
defined and fixed dogmatically4 ,besides
 the ,gospels which have come to us1    
there were a number of others professing
 to represent the tradition of          
eye-witnesses4#a ,little importance was 
attached to these writings1 and the     
preservers1 such as ,papias1 greatly    
preferred oral tradition4#b ,as men     
still believed that the world was nearly
 at an end1 they cared little to compose
 books for the future2 it was sufficient
 merely to preserve in their hearts a   
lively image of him whom they hoped soon
 to see again in the clouds4 ,hence the 
little authority which the ,gospel texts
 enjoyed during one hundred and fifty   
years4 ,there was no scruple in         
inserting additions1 in variously       
combining them1 and in completing some  
by others4 ,the poor man who has but one

 book wishes that it may contain all    
that is clear to his heart4 ,these      
little books were lent1 each one        
transcribed in the margin of his copy   
the words1 and the parables he found    
elsewhere1 which touched him4#c ,the    
most beautiful thing in the world has   
thus proceeded from an obscure and      
purely popular elaboration4 ,no         
compilation was of absolute value4      
,justin1 who often appeals to that which
 he calls ,the ,memoirs of the          
,apostles1#d had under his notice       
,gospel documents in a state very       
different from that in which we possess 
them4 ,at all events1 he never cares to 
quote them textually4 ,the ,gospel      
quotations in the pseudo-,clementinian  
writings1 of ,ebionite origin1 present  
the same character4 ,the spirit was     
everything2 the letter was nothing4 ,it 
was when tradition became weakened1 in  
the second half of the second century1  
that the texts bearing the names of the 
apostles took a decisive authority and  

obtained the force of law4  ,footnote   
#a3 ,luke i4 #a1 #b2 ,origen1 ,hom4 in  
,luc4 #a init42 ,st4 ,jerome1 ,comment4 
in ,matt41 prol4  ,footnote #b3 ,papias1
 in ,eusebius1 ,h4,e41 iii4 #ci4 ,comp4 
,irenaeus1 ,adv4 ,haer41 ,,iii4 ii4 and 
iii4  ,footnote #c3 ,it is thus that the
 beautiful narrative in ,john viii4     
#a-aa has always floated1 without       
finding a fixed place in the framework  
of the received ,gospels4  ,footnote #d3
 ,greek3 ,ta apomnemoneumata ton        
apostolon1 a kaleitai euangelia4        
,justin1 ,apol4 i4 #cc1 #ff1 #fg2 ,dial4
 cum ,tryph41 #aj1 #ajj-ajg4  ,who does 
not see the value of documents thus     
composed of the tender remembrances1 and
 simple narratives1 of the first two    
,christian generations1 still full of   
the strong impression which the         
illustrious ,founder had produced1 and  
which seemed long to survive him8 ,let  
us add1 that the ,gospels in question   
seem to proceed from that branch of the 
,christian family which stood nearest to

 ,jesus4 ,the last work of compilation1 
at least of the text which bears the    
name of ,matthew1 appears to have been  
done in one of the countries situated at
 the northeast of ,palestine1 such as   
,gaulonitis1 ,auranitis1 ,batanea1 where
 many ,christians took refuge at the    
time of the ,roman war1 where were found
 relatives of ,jesus#a even in the      
second century1 and where the first     
,galilean tendency was longer preserved 
than in other parts4  ,footnote #a3     
,julius ,africanus1 in ,eusebius1 ,hist4
 ,eccl41 i4 #g4  ,so far we have only   
spoken of the three ,gospels named the  
synoptics4 ,there remains a fourth1 that
 which bears the name of ,john4         
,concerning this one1 doubts have a much
 better foundation1 and the question is 
further from solution4 ,papias--who was 
connected with the school of ,john1 and 
who1 if not one of his auditors1 as     
,irenaeus thinks1 associated with his   
immediate disciples1 among others1      
,aristion1 and the one called           

,presbyteros ,joannes--says not a word  
of a ,life of ,jesus1 written by ,john1 
although he had zealously collected the 
oral narratives of both ,aristion and   
,presbyteros ,joannes4 ,if any such     
mention had been found in his work1     
,eusebius1 who points out everything    
therein that can contribute to the      
literary history of the apostolic age1  
would doubtless have mentioned it4  ,the
 intrinsic difficulties drawn from the  
perusal of the fourth ,gospel itself are
 not less strong4 ,how is it that1 side 
by side with narration so precise1 and  
so evidently that of an eye-witness1 we 
find discourses so totally different    
from those of ,matthew8 ,how is it that1
 connected with a general plan of the   
life of ,jesus1 which appears much more 
satisfactory and exact than that of the 
synoptics1 these singular passages occur
 in which we are sensible of a dogmatic 
interest peculiar to the compiler1 of   
ideas foreign to ,jesus1 and sometimes  
of indications which place us on our    

guard against the good faith of the     
narrator8 ,lastly1 how is it that1      
united with views the most pure1 the    
most just1 the most truly evangelical1  
we find these blemishes which we would  
fain regard as the interpolations of an 
ardent sectarian8 ,is it indeed ,john1  
son of ,zebedee1 brother of ,james 7of  
whom there is not a single mention made 
in the fourth ,gospel71 who is able to  
write in ,greek these lessons of        
abstract metaphysics to which neither   
the synoptics nor the ,talmud offer any 
analogy8 ,all this is of great          
importance2 and for myself1 ,i dare not 
be sure that the fourth ,gospel has been
 entirely written by the pen of a       
,galilean fisherman4 ,but that1 as a    
whole1 this ,gospel may have originated 
toward the end of the first century1    
from the great school of ,asia ,minor1  
which was connected with ,john1 that it 
represents to us a version of the life  
of the ,master1 worthy of high esteem1  
and often to be preferred1 is           

demonstrated1 in a manner which leaves  
us nothing to be desired1 both by       
exterior evidences and by examination of
 the document itself4  ,and1 firstly1 no
 one doubts that1 toward the year #aej1 
the fourth ,gospel did exist1 and was   
attributed to ,john4 ,explicit texts    
from ,st4 ,justin1#a from               
,athenagorus1#b from ,tatian1#c from    
,theophilus of ,antioch1#d from         
,irenaeus1#e show that thenceforth this 
,gospel mixed in every controversy1 and 
served as corner-stone for the          
development of the faith4 ,irenaeus is  
explicit2 now1 ,irenaeus came from the  
school of ,john1 and between him and the
 apostle there was only ,polycarp4 ,the 
part played by this ,gospel in          
,gnosticism1 and especially in the      
system of ,valentinus1#f in             
,montanism1#g and in the quarrel of the 
,quartodecimans1#h is not less decisive4
 ,the school of ,john was the most      
influential one during the second       
century2 and it is only by regarding the

 origin of the ,gospel as coincident    
with the rise of the school1 that the   
existence of the latter can be          
understood at all4 ,let us add that the 
first epistle attributed to ,st4 ,john  
is certainly by the same author as the  
fourth ,gospel1#i now1 this epistle is  
recognized as from ,john by             
,polycarp1#aj ,papias1#aa and           
,irenaeus4#ab  ,footnote #a3 ,apol41    
#cb1 #fa2 ,dial4 cum ,tryph41 #hh4      
,footnote #b3 ,legatio pro ,christ1 #aj4
  ,footnote #c3 ,adv4 ,graec41 #e1 #g2  
,cf4 ,eusebius1 ,h4,e41 iv4 #bi2        
,theodoret1 ,haeretic4 ,fabul41 i4 #bj4 
,footnote #d3 ,ad ,autolycum1 ii4 #bb4  
,footnote #e3 ,adv4 ,haer41 ,,ii4 xxii4 
#e1 ,,iii4 #a4 ,cf4 ,eus41 ,h4,e41 v4   
#h4  ,footnote #f3 ,irenaeus1 ,adv4     
,haer41 ,i4 iii4 #f2 ,,iii4 xi4 #g2 ,st4
 ,hippolytus1 ,philosophumena ,,vi4 ii4 
#bi1 and following4  ,footnote #g3      
,irenaeus1 ,adv4 ,haer41 ,,iii4 xi4 #i4 
,footnote #h3 ,eusebius1 ,hist4 ,eccl41 
v4 #bd4  ,footnote #i3 ,john1 i4 #c1 #e4

 ,the two writings present the most     
complete identity of style1 the same    
peculiarities1 the same favorite        
expressions4  ,footnote #aj3 ,epist4 ad 
,philipp41 #g4  ,footnote #aa3 ,in      
,eusebius1 ,hist4 ,eccl41 ,,iii4 #ci4   
,footnote #ab3 ,adv4 ,haer41 ,,iii4 xvi4
 #e1 #h2 ,cf4 ,eusebius1 ,hist4 ,eccl41 
v4 #h4  ,but it is1 above all1 the      
perusal of the work itself which is     
calculated to give this impression4 ,the
 author always speaks as an eye-witness2
 he wishes to pass for the apostle      
,john4 ,if1 then1 this work is not      
really by the apostle1 we must admit a  
fraud of which the author convicts      
himself4 ,now1 although the ideas of the
 time respecting literary honesty       
differed essentially from ours1 there is
 no example in the apostolic world of a 
falsehood of this kind4 ,besides1 not   
only does the author wish to pass for   
the apostle ,john1 but we see clearly   
that he writes in the interest of this  
apostle4 ,on each page he betrays the   

desire to fortify his authority1 to show
 that he has been the favorite of       
,jesus2#a that in all the solemn        
circumstances 7at the ,lord's supper1 at
 ,calvary1 at the tomb7 he held the     
first place4 ,his relations on the whole
 fraternal1 although not excluding a    
certain rivalry with ,peter2#b his      
hatred1 on the contrary1 of ,judas1#c a 
hatred probably anterior to the         
betrayal1 seems to pierce through here  
and there4 ,we are tempted to believe   
that ,john1 in his old age1 having read 
the ,gospel narratives1 on the one hand1
 remarked their various inaccuracies1#d 
on the other1 was hurt at seeing that   
there was not accorded to him a         
sufficiently high place in the history  
of ,christ2 that then he commenced to   
dictate a number of things which he knew
 better than the rest1 with the         
intention of showing that in many       
instances1 in which only ,peter was     
spoken of1 he had figured with him and  
even before him4#e ,already during the  

life of ,jesus1 these trifling          
sentiments of jealousy had been         
manifested between the sons of ,zebedee 
and the other disciples4 ,after the     
death of ,james1 his brother1 ,john     
remained sole inheritor of the intimate 
remembrances of which these two         
apostles1 by the common consent1 were   
the depositaries4 ,hence his perpetual  
desire to recall that he is the last    
surviving eye-witness1#f and the        
pleasure which he takes in relating     
circumstances which he alone could know4
 ,hence1 too1 so many minute details    
which seem like the commentaries of an  
annotator--it was the sixth hour2 it was
 night2 the servant's name was ,malchus2
 they had made a fire of coals1 for it  
was cold2 the coat was without seam4    
,hence1 lastly1 the disorder of the     
compilation1 the irregularity of the    
narration1 the disjointedness of the    
first chapters1 all so many inexplicable
 features on the supposition that this  
,gospel was but a theological thesis1   

without historic value1 and which1 on   
the contrary1 are perfectly             
intelligible1 if1 in conformity with    
tradition1 we see in them the           
remembrances of an old man1 sometimes of
 remarkable freshness1 sometimes having 
undergone strange modifications4        
,footnote #a3 ,john xiii4 #bc1 xix4 #bf1
 xx4 #b1 xxi4 #g1 #bj4  ,footnote #b3   
,john xviii4 #ae-af1 xx4 #b-f1 xxi4     
#ae-af4 ,comp4 i4 #ce1 #dj1 #da4        
,footnote #c3 ,john vi4 #fe1 xii4 #f1   
xiii4 #ba1 and following4  ,footnote #d3
 ,the manner in which ,aristion and     
,presbyteros ,joannes expressed         
themselves on the ,gospel of ,mark      
before ,papias 7,eusebius1 ,h4,e41      
,,iii4 #ci7 implies1 in effect1 a       
friendly criticism1 or1 more properly1 a
 sort of excuse1 indicating that ,john's
 disciples had better information on the
 same subject4  ,footnote #e3 ,compare  
,john xviii4 #ae1 and following1 with   
,matthew xxvi4 #eh2 ,john xx4 #b to #f1 
with ,mark xvi4 #g4 ,see also ,john     

xiii4 #bd1 #be4  ,footnote #f3 ,chap4 i4
 #ad1 xix4 #ce1 xxi4 #bd1 and following4
 ,compare the ,first ,epistle of ,st4   
,john1 chap4 i4 #c1 #e4  ,a primary     
distinction1 indeed1 ought to be made in
 the ,gospel of ,john4 ,on the one side1
 this ,gospel presents us with a rough  
draft of the life of ,jesus1 which      
differs considerably from that of the   
synoptics4 ,on the other1 it puts into  
the mouth of ,jesus discourses of which 
the tone1 the style1 the treatment1 and 
the doctrines have nothing in common    
with the ,logia given us by the         
synoptics4 ,in this second respect1 the 
difference is such that we must make    
choice in a decisive manner4 ,if ,jesus 
spoke as ,matthew represents1 he could  
not have spoken as ,john relates4       
,between these two authorities no critic
 has ever hesitated1 or can ever        
hesitate4 ,far removed from the simple1 
disinterested1 impersonal tone of the   
synoptics1 the ,gospel of ,john shows   
incessantly the preoccupation of the    

apologist--the mental reservation of the
 sectarian1 the desire to prove a       
thesis1 and to convince adversaries4#a  
,it was not by pretentious tirades1     
heavy1 badly written1 and appealing     
little to the moral sense1 that ,jesus  
founded his divine work4 ,if even       
,papias had not taught us that ,matthew 
wrote the sayings of ,jesus in their    
original tongue1 the natural1 ineffable 
truth1 the charm beyond comparison of   
the discourses in the synoptics1 their  
profoundly ,hebraistic idiom1 the       
analogies which they present with the   
sayings of the ,jewish doctors of the   
period1 their perfect harmony with the  
natural phenomena of ,galilee--all these
 characteristics1 compared with the     
obscure ,gnosticism1 with the distorted 
metaphysics1 which fill the discourses  
of ,john1 would speak loudly enough4    
,this by no means implies that there are
 not in the discourses of ,john some    
admirable gleams1 some traits which     
truly come from ,jesus4#b ,but the      

mystic tone of these discourses does not
 correspond at all to the character of  
the eloquence of ,jesus1 such as we     
picture it according to the synoptics4  
,a new spirit has breathed2 ,gnosticism 
has already commenced2 the ,galilean era
 of the kingdom of ,god is finished2 the
 hope of the near advent of ,christ is  
more distant2 we enter on the barrenness
 of metaphysics1 into the darkness of   
abstract dogma4 ,the spirit of ,jesus is
 not there1 and1 if the son of ,zebedee 
has truly traced these pages1 he had    
certainly1 in writing them1 quite       
forgotten the ,lake of ,gennesareth1 and
 the charming discourses which he had   
heard upon its shores4  ,footnote #a3   
,see1 for example1 chaps4 ix4 and xi4   
,notice especially1 the effect which    
such passages as ,john xix4 #ce1 xx4    
#ca1 xxi4 #bj-bc1 #bd1 #be1 produce1    
when we recall the absence of all       
comments which distinguishes the        
synoptics4  ,footnote #b3 ,for example1 
chap4 iv4 #a1 and following1 xv4 #ab1   

and following4 ,many words remembered by
 ,john are found in the synoptics 7chap4
 xii4 #af1 xv4 #bj74  ,one circumstance1
 moreover1 which strongly proves that   
the discourses given us by the fourth   
,gospel are not historical1 but         
compositions intended to cover with the 
authority of ,jesus certain doctrines   
dear to the compiler1 is their perfect  
harmony with the intellectual state of  
,asia ,minor at the time when they were 
written4 ,asia ,minor was then the      
theatre of a strange movement of        
syncretical philosophy2 all the germs of
 ,gnosticism existed there already4     
,john appears to have drunk deeply from 
these strange springs4 ,it may be that1 
after the crisis of the year #fh 7the   
date of the ,apocalypse7 and of the year
 #gj 7the destruction of ,jerusalem71   
the old apostle1 with an ardent and     
plastic spirit1 disabused of the belief 
in a near appearance of the ,son of ,man
 in the clouds1 may have inclined toward
 the ideas that he found around him1 of 

which several agreed sufficiently well  
with certain ,christian doctrines4 ,in  
attributing these new ideas to ,jesus1  
he only followed a very natural         
tendency4 ,our remembrances are         
transformed with our circumstances2 the 
ideal of a person that we have known    
changes as we change4#a ,considering    
,jesus as the incarnation of truth1     
,john could not fail to attribute to him
 that which he had come to consider as  
the truth4  ,footnote #a3 ,it was thus  
that ,napoleon became a liberal in the  
remembrances of his companions in exile1
 when these1 after their return1 found  
themselves thrown in the midst of the   
political society of the time4  ,if we  
must speak candidly1 we will add that   
probably ,john himself had little share 
in this2 that the change was made around
 him rather than by him4 ,one is        
sometimes tempted to believe that       
precious notes1 coming from the apostle1
 have been employed by his disciples in 
a very different sense from the         

primitive ,gospel spirit4 ,in fact1     
certain portions of the fourth ,gospel  
have been added later2 such is the      
entire twenty-first chapter1#a in which 
the author seems to wish to render      
homage to the apostle ,peter after his  
death1 and to reply to the objections   
which would be drawn1 or already had    
been drawn1 from the death of ,john     
himself1 7ver4 #ba-bc47 ,many other     
places bear the trace of erasures and   
corrections4#b ,it is impossible at this
 distance to understand these singular  
problems1 and without doubt many        
surprises would be in store for us1 if  
we were permitted to penetrate the      
secrets of that mysterious school of    
,ephesus1 which1 more than once1 appears
 to have delighted in obscure paths4    
,but there is a decisive test4 ,every   
one who sets himself to write the ,life 
of ,jesus without any predetermined     
theory as to the relative value of the  
,gospels1 letting himself be guided     
solely by the sentiment of the subject1 

will be led in numerous instances to    
prefer the narration of ,john to that of
 the synoptics4 ,the last months of the 
life of ,jesus especially are explained 
by ,john alone2 a number of the features
 of the passion1 unintelligible in the  
synoptics1#c resume both probability and
 possibility in the narrative of the    
fourth ,gospel4 ,on the contrary1 ,i    
dare defy any one to compose a ,life of 
,jesus with any meaning1 from the       
discourses which ,john attributes to    
him4 ,this manner of incessantly        
preaching and demonstrating himself1    
this perpetual argumentation1 this      
stage-effect devoid of simplicity1 these
 long arguments after each miracle1     
these stiff and awkward discourses1 the 
tone of which is so often false and     
unequal1#d would not be tolerated by a  
man of taste compared with the          
delightful sentences of the synoptics4  
,there are here evidently artificial    
portions1#e which represent to us the   
sermons of ,jesus1 as the dialogues of  

,plato render us the conversations of   
,socrates4 ,they are1 so to speak1 the  
variations of a musician improvising on 
a given theme4 ,the theme is not without
 some authenticity2 but in the          
execution1 the imagination of the artist
 has given itself full scope4 ,we are   
sensible of the factitious mode of      
procedure1 of rhetoric1 of gloss4#f ,let
 us add that the vocabulary of ,jesus   
cannot be recognized in the portions of 
which we speak4 ,the expression1 kingdom
 of ,god1 which was so familiar to the  
,master1#g occurs there but once4#h ,on 
the other hand1 the style of the        
discourses attributed to ,jesus by the  
fourth ,gospel1 presents the most       
complete analogy with that of the       
,epistles of ,st4 ,john2 we see that in 
writing the discourses1 the author      
followed not his recollections1 but     
rather the somewhat monotonous movement 
of his own thought4 ,quite a new        
mystical language is introduced1 a      
language of which the synoptics had not 

the least idea 7world1 truth1 life1     
light1 darkness1 etc474 ,if ,jesus had  
ever spoken in this style1 which has    
nothing of ,hebrew1 nothing ,jewish1    
nothing ,talmudic in it1 how1 if ,i may 
thus express myself1 is it that but a   
single one of his hearers should have so
 well kept the secret8  ,footnote #a3   
,the verses1 chap4 xx4 #cj1 #ca1        
evidently form the original conclusion4 
,footnote #b3 ,chap4 vi4 #b1 #bb1 vii4  
#bb4  ,footnote #c3 ,for example1 that  
which concerns the announcement of the  
betrayal by ,judas4  ,footnote #d3 ,see1
 for example1 chaps4 ii4 #be1 iii4 #cb1 
#cc1 and the long disputes of chapters  
vii41 viii41 and ix4  ,footnote #e3 ,we 
feel often that the author seeks        
pretexts for introducing certain        
discourses 7chaps4 iii41 v41 viii41     
xiii41 and following74  ,footnote #f3   
,for example1 chap4 xvii4  ,footnote #g3
 ,besides the synoptics1 the ,acts1 the 
,epistles of ,st4 ,paul1 and the        
,apocalypse1 confirm it4  ,footnote #h3 

,john iii4 #c1 #e4  ,literary history   
offers1 besides1 another example1 which 
presents the greatest analogy with the  
historic phenomenon we have just        
described1 and serves to explain it4    
,socrates1 who1 like ,jesus1 never      
wrote1 is known to us by two of his     
disciples1 ,xenophon and ,plato1 the    
first corresponding to the synoptics in 
his clear1 transparent1 impersonal      
compilation2 the second recalling the   
author of the fourth ,gospel1 by his    
vigorous individuality4 ,in order to    
describe the ,socratic teaching1 should 
we follow the dialogues of ,plato1 or   
the discourses of ,xenophon8 ,doubt1 in 
this respect1 is not possible2 every one
 chooses the discourses1 and not the    
dialogues4 ,does ,plato1 however1 teach 
us nothing about ,socrates8 ,would it be
 good criticism1 in writing the         
biography of the latter1 to neglect the 
dialogues8 ,who would venture to        
maintain this8 ,the analogy1 moreover1  
is not complete1 and the difference is  

in favor of the fourth ,gospel4 ,the    
author of this ,gospel is1 in fact1 the 
better biographer2 as if ,plato1 who1   
whilst attributing to his master        
fictitious discourses1 had known        
important matters about his life1 which 
,xenophon ignored entirely4  ,without   
pronouncing upon the material question  
as to what hand has written the fourth  
,gospel1 and whilst inclined to believe 
that the discourses1 at least1 are not  
from the son of ,zebedee1 we admit      
still1 that it is indeed the ,gospel    
according to ,john1 in the same sense   
that the first and second ,gospels are  
the ,gospels according to ,matthew1 and 
according to ,mark4 ,the historical     
sketch of the fourth ,gospel is the     
,life of ,jesus1 such as it was known in
 the school of ,john2 it is the recital 
which ,aristion and ,presbyteros        
,joannes made to ,papias1 without       
telling him that it was written1 or     
rather attaching no importance to this  
point4 ,i must add1 that1 in my opinion1

 this school was better acquainted with 
the exterior circumstances of the life  
of the ,founder than the group whose    
remembrances constituted the synoptics4 
,it had1 especially upon the sojourns of
 ,jesus at ,jerusalem1 data which the   
others did not possess4 ,the disciples  
of this school treated ,mark as an      
indifferent biographer1 and devised a   
system to explain his omissions4#a      
,certain passages of ,luke1 where there 
is1 as it were1 an echo of the          
traditions of ,john1#b prove also that  
these traditions were not entirely      
unknown to the rest of the ,christian   
family4  ,footnote #a3 ,papias1 loc4    
cit4  ,footnote #b3 ,for example1 the   
pardon of the adulteress2 the knowledge 
which ,luke has of the family of        
,bethany2 his type of the character of  
,martha responding to the ,greek3       
diechouei of ,john 7chap4 xii4 #b72 the 
incident of the woman who wiped the feet
 of ,jesus with her hair2 an obscure    
notion of the travels of ,jesus to      

,jerusalem2 the idea that in his passion
 he was seen by three witnesses2 the    
opinion of the author that some         
disciples were present at the           
crucifixion2 the knowledge which he has 
of the part played by ,annas in aiding  
,caiaphas2 the appearance of the angel  
in the agony 7comp4 ,john xii4 #bh1     
#bi74  ,these explanations will suffice1
 ,i think1 to show1 in the course of my 
narrative1 the motives which have       
determined me to give the preference to 
this or that of the four guides whom we 
have for the ,life of ,jesus4 ,on the   
whole1 ,i admit as authentic the four   
canonical ,gospels4 ,all1 in my opinion1
 date from the first century1 and the   
authors are1 generally speaking1 those  
to whom they are attributed2 but their  
historic value is very diverse4 ,matthew
 evidently merits an unlimited          
confidence as to the discourses2 they   
are the ,logia1 the identical notes     
taken from a clear and lively           
remembrance of the teachings of ,jesus4 

,a kind of splendor at once mild and    
terrible--a divine strength1 if we may  
so speak1 emphasizes these words1       
detaches them from the context1 and     
renders them easily distinguishable4    
,the person who imposes upon himself the
 task of making a continuous narrative  
from the gospel history1 possesses1 in  
this respect1 an excellent touchstone4  
,the real words of ,jesus disclose      
themselves2 as soon as we touch them in 
this chaos of traditions of varied      
authenticity1 we feel them vibrate2 they
 betray themselves spontaneously1 and   
shine out of the narrative with         
unequaled brilliancy4  ,the narrative   
portions grouped in the first ,gospel   
around this primitive nucleus have not  
the same authority4 ,there are many not 
well defined legends which have         
proceeded from the zeal of the second   
,christian generation4#a ,the ,gospel of
 ,mark is much firmer1 more precise1    
containing fewer subsequent additions4  
,he is the one of the three synoptics   

who has remained the most primitive1 the
 most original1 the one to whom the     
fewest after-elements have been added4  
,in ,mark1 the facts are related with a 
clearness for which we seek in vain     
amongst the other evangelists4 ,he likes
 to report certain words of ,jesus in   
,syro-,chaldean4#b ,he is full of minute
 observations1 coming doubtless from an 
eye-witness4 ,there is nothing to       
prevent our agreeing with ,papias in    
regarding this eye-witness1 who         
evidently had followed ,jesus1 who had  
loved him and observed him very closely1
 and who had preserved a lively image of
 him1 as the apostle ,peter himself4    
,footnote #a3 ,chaps4 i41 ii41          
especially4 ,see also chap4 xxvii4 #c1  
#ai1 #ea1 #ec1 #fj1 xxviii4 #b1 and     
following1 in comparing ,mark4          
,footnote #b3 ,chap4 v4 #da1 vii4 #cd1  
xv4 #bd4 ,matthew only presents this    
peculiarity once 7chap4 xxvii4 #df74    
,as to the work of ,luke1 its historical
 value is sensibly weaker4 ,it is a     

document which comes to us second-hand4 
,the narrative is more mature4 ,the     
words of ,jesus are there1 more         
deliberate1 more sententious4 ,some     
sentences are distorted and             
exaggerated4#a ,writing outside of      
,palestine1 and certainly after the     
siege of ,jerusalem1#b the author       
indicates the places with less          
exactitude than the other two synoptics2
 he has an erroneous idea of the temple1
 which he represents as an oratory where
 people went to pay their devotions4#c  
,he subdues some details in order to    
make the different narratives agree2#d  
he softens the passages which had become
 embarrassing on account of a more      
exalted idea of the divinity of         
,christ2#e he exaggerates the           
marvellous2#f commits errors in         
chronology2#g omits ,hebraistic         
comments2#h quotes no word of ,jesus in 
this language1 and gives to all the     
localities their ,greek names4 ,we feel 
we have to do with a compiler--with a   

man who has not himself seen the        
witnesses1 but who labors at the texts  
and wrests their sense to make them     
agree4 ,luke had probably under his eyes
 the biographical collection of ,mark1  
and the ,logia of ,matthew4 ,but he     
treats them with much freedom2 sometimes
 he fuses two anecdotes or two parables 
in one2#i sometimes he divides one in   
order to make two4#aj ,he interprets the
 documents according to his own idea2 he
 has not the absolute impassibility of  
,matthew and ,mark4 ,we might affirm    
certain things of his individual tastes 
and tendencies2 he is a very exact      
devotee2#aa he insists that ,jesus had  
performed all the ,jewish rites1#ab he  
is a warm ,ebionite and democrat1 that  
is to say1 much opposed to property1 and
 persuaded that the triumph of the poor 
is approaching2#ac he likes especially  
all the anecdotes showing prominently   
the conversion of sinners--the          
exaltation of the humble2#ad he often   
modifies the ancient traditions in order

 to give them this meaning2#ae he admits
 into his first pages the legends about 
the infancy of ,jesus1 related with the 
long amplifications1 the spiritual      
songs1 and the conventional proceedings 
which form the essential features of the
 ,apocryphal ,gospels4 ,finally1 he has 
in the narrative of the last hours of   
,jesus some circumstances full of tender
 feeling1 and certain words of ,jesus of
 delightful beauty1#af which are not    
found in more authentic accounts1 and in
 which we detect the presence of legend4
 ,luke probably borrowed them from a    
more recent collection1 in which the    
principal aim was to excite sentiments  
of piety4  ,footnote #a3 ,chap4 xiv4    
#bf4 ,the rules of the apostolate 7chap4
 x47 have there a peculiar character of 
exaltation4  ,footnote #b3 ,chap4 xix4  
#da1 #dc1 #dd1 xxi4 #i1 #bj1 xxiii4 #bi4
  ,footnote #c3 ,chap4 ii4 #cg1 xviii4  
#aj1 and following1 xxiv4 #ec4          
,footnote #d3 ,for example1 chap4 iv4   
#af4  ,footnote #e3 ,chap4 iii4 #bc4 ,he

 omits ,matt4 xxiv4 #cf4  ,footnote #f3 
,chap4 iv4 #ad1 xxii4 #dc1 #dd4         
,footnote #g3 ,for example1 in that     
which concerns ,quirinius1 ,lysanias1   
,theudas4  ,footnote #h3 ,compare ,luke 
i4 #ca with ,matt4 i4 #ba4  ,footnote   
#i3 ,for example1 chap4 xix4 #ab-bg4    
,footnote #aj3 ,thus1 of the repast at  
,bethany he gives two narratives1 chap4 
vii4 #cf-dh1 and x4 #ch-db4  ,footnote  
#aa3 ,chap4 xxiii4 #ef4  ,footnote #ab3 
,chap4 ii4 #ba1 #bb1 #ci1 #da1 #db4     
,this is an ,ebionitish feature4 ,cf4   
,philosophumena ,,vii4 vi4 #cd4         
,footnote #ac3 ,the parable of the rich 
man and ,lazarus4 ,compare chap4 vi4    
#bj1 and following1 #bd1 and following1 
xii4 #ac1 and following1 xvi4 entirely1 
xxii4 #ce4 ,acts ii4 #dd1 #de1 v4 #a1   
and following4  ,footnote #ad3 ,the     
woman who anoints his feet1 ,zaccheus1  
the penitent thief1 the parable of the  
,pharisee and the publican1 and the     
prodigal son4  ,footnote #ae3 ,for      
example1 ,mary of ,bethany is           

represented by him as a sinner who      
becomes converted4  ,footnote #af3      
,jesus weeping over ,jerusalem1 the     
bloody sweat1 the meeting of the holy   
women1 the penitent thief1 c4 ,the      
speech to the women of ,jerusalem       
7xxiii4 #bh1 #bi7 could scarcely have   
been conceived except after the siege of
 the year #gj4  ,a great reserve was    
naturally enforced in presence of a     
document of this nature4 ,it would have 
been as uncritical to neglect it as to  
employ it without discernment4 ,luke has
 had under his eyes originals which we  
no longer possess4 ,he is less an       
evangelist than a biographer of ,jesus1 
a harmonizer1 a corrector after the     
manner of ,marcion and ,tatian4 ,but he 
is a biographer of the first century1 a 
divine artist1 who1 independently of the
 information which he has drawn from    
more ancient sources1 shows us the      
character of the ,founder with a        
happiness of treatment1 with a uniform  
inspiration1 and a distinctness which   

the other two synoptics do not possess4 
,in the perusal of his ,gospel there is 
the greatest charm2 for to the          
incomparable beauty of the foundation1  
common to them all1 he adds a degree of 
skill in composition which singularly   
augments the effect of the portrait1    
without seriously injuring its          
truthfulness4  ,on the whole1 we may say
 that the synoptical compilation has    
passed through three stages3 ,first1 the
 original documentary state 7,greek3    
logia of ,matthew1 ,greek3 lechthenta e 
prachthenta of ,mark71 primary          
compilations which no longer exist2     
second1 the state of simple mixture1 in 
which the original documents are        
amalgamated without any effort at       
composition1 without there appearing any
 personal bias of the authors 7the      
existing ,gospels of ,matthew and       
,mark72 third1 the state of combination 
or of intentional and deliberate        
compiling1 in which we are sensible of  
an attempt to reconcile the different   

versions 7,gospel of ,luke74 ,the       
,gospel of ,john1 as we have said1 forms
 a composition of another orders and is 
entirely distinct4  ,it will be remarked
 that ,i have made no use of the        
,apocryphal ,gospels4 ,these            
compositions ought not in any manner to 
be put upon the same footing as the     
canonical ,gospels4 ,they are insipid   
and puerile amplifications1 having the  
canonical ,gospels for their basis1 and 
adding nothing thereto of any value4 ,on
 the other hand1 ,i have been very      
attentive to collect the shreds         
preserved by the ,fathers of the        
,church1 of the ancient ,gospels which  
formerly existed parallel with the      
canonical ,gospels1 and which are now   
lost--such as the ,gospel according to  
the ,hebrews1 the ,gospel according to  
the ,egyptians1 the ,gospels styled     
those of ,justin1 ,marcion1 and ,tatian4
 ,the first two are principally         
important because they were written in  
,aramean1 like the ,logia of ,matthew1  

and appear to constitute one version of 
the ,gospel of this apostle1 and because
 they were the ,gospel of the           
,ebionim--that is1 of those small       
,christian sects of ,batanea who        
preserved the use of ,syro-,chaldean1   
and who appear in some respects to have 
followed the course marked out by       
,jesus4 ,but it must be confessed that  
in the state in which they have come to 
us1 these ,gospels are inferior1 as     
critical authorities1 to the compilation
 of ,matthew's ,gospel which we now     
possess4  ,it will now be seen1 ,i      
think1 what kind of historical value ,i 
attribute to the ,gospels4 ,they are    
neither biographies after the manner of 
,suetonius1 nor fictitious legends in   
the style of ,philostratus2 they are    
legendary biographies4 ,i should        
willingly compare them with the ,legends
 of the ,saints1 the ,lives of          
,plotinus1 ,proclus1 ,isidore1 and other
 writings of the same kind1 in which    
historical truth and the desire to      

present models of virtue are combined in
 various degrees4 ,inexactitude1 which  
is one of the features of all popular   
compositions1 is there particularly     
felt4 ,let us suppose that ten or twelve
 years ago three or four old soldiers of
 the ,empire had each undertaken to     
write the life of ,napoleon from memory4
 ,it is clear that their narratives     
would contain numerous errors1 and great
 discordances4 ,one of them would place 
,wagram before ,marengo3 another would  
write without hesitation that ,napoleon 
drove the government of ,robespierre    
from the ,tuileries2 a third would omit 
expeditions of the highest importance4  
,but one thing would certainly result   
with a great degree of truthfulness from
 these simple recitals1 and that is the 
character of the hero1 the impression   
which he made around him4 ,in this sense
 such popular narratives would be worth 
more than a formal and official history4
 ,we may say as much of the ,gospels4   
,solely attentive to bring out strongly 

the excellency of the ,master1 his      
miracles1 his teaching1 the evangelists 
display entire indifference to          
everything that is not of the very      
spirit of ,jesus4 ,the contradictions   
respecting time1 place1 and persons were
 regarded as insignificant2 for the     
higher the degree of inspiration        
attributed to the words of ,jesus1 the  
less was granted to the compilers       
themselves4 ,the latter regarded        
themselves as simple scribes1 and cared 
but for one thing--to omit nothing they 
knew4#a  ,footnote #a3 ,see the passage 
from ,papias1 before cited4             
,unquestionably certain preconceived    
ideas associated themselves with such   
recollections4 ,several narratives1     
especially in ,luke1 are invented in    
order to bring out more vividly certain 
traits of the character of ,jesus4 ,this
 character itself constantly underwent  
alteration4 ,jesus would be a phenomenon
 unparalleled in history if1 with the   
part which he played1 he had not early  

become idealized4 ,the legends          
respecting ,alexander were invented     
before the generation of his companions 
in arms became extinct2 those respecting
 ,st4 ,francis d',assisi began in his   
lifetime4 ,a rapid metamorphosis        
operated in the same manner in the      
twenty or thirty years which followed   
the death of ,jesus1 and imposed upon   
his biography the peculiarities of an   
ideal legend4 ,death adds perfection to 
the most perfect man2 it frees him from 
all defect in the eyes of those who have
 loved him4 ,with the wish to paint the 
,master1 there was also the desire to   
explain him4 ,many anecdotes were       
conceived to prove that in him the      
prophecies regarded as ,messianic had   
had their accomplishment4 ,but this     
procedure1 of which we must not deny the
 importance1 would not suffice to       
explain everything4 ,no ,jewish work of 
the time gives a series of prophecies   
exactly declaring what the ,messiah     
should accomplish4 ,many ,messianic     

allusions quoted by the evangelists are 
so subtle1 so indirect1 that one cannot 
believe they all responded to a         
generally admitted doctrine4 ,sometimes 
they reasoned thus3 ,the ,messiah ought 
to do such a thing2 now ,jesus is the   
,messiah2 therefore ,jesus has done such
 a thing4 ,at other times1 by an inverse
 process1 it was said3 ,such a thing has
 happened to ,jesus2 now ,jesus is the  
,messiah2 therefore such a thing was to 
happen to the ,messiah4#a ,too simple   
explanations are always false when      
analyzing those profound creations of   
popular sentiment which baffle all      
systems by their fullness and infinite  
variety4 ,it is scarcely necessary to   
say that1 with such documents1 in order 
to present only what is indisputable1 we
 must limit ourselves to general        
features4 ,in almost all ancient        
histories1 even in those which are much 
less legendary than these1 details open 
up innumerable doubts4 ,when we have two
 accounts of the same fact1 it is       

extremely rare that the two accounts    
agree4 ,is not this a reason for        
anticipating many difficulties when we  
have but one8 ,we may say that amongst  
the anecdotes1 the discourses1 the      
celebrated sayings which have been given
 us by the historians1 there is not one 
strictly authentic4 ,were there         
stenographers to fix these fleeting     
words8 ,was there an analyst always     
present to note the gestures1 the       
manners1 the sentiments of the actors8  
,let any one endeavor to get at the     
truth as to the way in which such or    
such contemporary fact has happened2 he 
will not succeed4 ,two accounts of the  
same event given by different           
eye-witnesses differ essentially4 ,must 
we1 therefore1 reject all the coloring  
of the narratives1 and limit ourselves  
to the bare facts only8 ,that would be  
to suppress history4 ,certainly1 ,i     
think that if we except certain short   
and almost mnemonic axioms1 none of the 
discourses reported by ,matthew are     

textual2 even our stenographic reports  
are scarcely so4 ,i freely admit that   
the admirable account of the ,passion   
contains many trifling inaccuracies4    
,would it1 however1 be writing the      
history of ,jesus to omit those sermons 
which give to us in such a vivid manner 
the character of his discourses1 and to 
limit ourselves to saying1 with         
,josephus and ,tacitus1 that he was put 
to death by the order of ,pilate at the 
instigation of the priests8 ,that would 
be1 in my opinion1 a kind of            
inexactitude worse than that to which we
 are exposed in admitting the details   
supplied by the texts4 ,these details   
are not true to the letter1 but they are
 true with a superior truth1 they are   
more true than the naked truth1 in the  
sense that they are truth rendered      
expressive and articulate--truth        
idealized4  ,footnote #a3 ,see1 for     
example1 ,john xix4 #bc-bd4  ,i beg     
those who think that ,i have placed an  
exaggerated confidence in narratives in 

great part legendary1 to take note of   
the observation ,i have just made4 ,to  
what would the life of ,alexander be    
reduced if it were confined to that     
which is materially certain8 ,even      
partly erroneous traditions contain a   
portion of truth which history cannot   
neglect4 ,no one has blamed ,m4         
,sprenger for having1 in writing the    
life of ,mahomet1 made much of the      
hadith or oral traditions concerning the
 prophet1 and for often having          
attributed to his hero words which are  
only known through this source4 ,yet the
 traditions respecting ,mahomet are not 
superior in historical value to the     
discourses and narratives which compose 
the ,gospels4 ,they were written between
 the year #ej and the year #adj of the  
,hegira4 ,when the history of the       
,jewish schools in the ages which       
immediately preceded and followed the   
birth of ,christianity shall be written1
 no one will make any scruple of        
attributing to ,hillel1 ,shammai1       

,gamaliel the maxims ascribed to them by
 the ,mishnah and the ,gemara1 although 
these great compilations were written   
many hundreds of years after the time of
 the doctors in question4  ,as to those 
who believe1 on the contrary1 that      
history should consist of a simple      
reproduction of the documents which have
 come down to us1 ,i beg to observe that
 such a course is not allowable4 ,the   
four principal documents are in flagrant
 contradiction one with another4        
,josephus rectifies them sometimes4 ,it 
is necessary to make a selection4 ,to   
assert that an event cannot take place  
in two ways at once1 or in an impossible
 manner1 is not to impose an a priori   
philosophy upon history4 ,the historian 
ought not to conclude that a fact is    
false because he possesses several      
versions of it1 or because credulity has
 mixed with them much that is fabulous4 
,he ought in such a case to be very     
cautious--to examine the texts1 and to  
proceed carefully by induction4 ,there  

is one class of narratives especially1  
to which this principle must necessarily
 be applied4 ,such are narratives of    
supernatural events4 ,to seek to explain
 these1 or to reduce them to legends1 is
 not to mutilate facts in the name of   
theory2 it is to make the observation of
 facts our groundwork4 ,none of the     
miracles with which the old histories   
are filled took place under scientific  
conditions4 ,observation1 which has     
never once been falsified1 teaches us   
that miracles never happen but in times 
and countries in which they are         
believed1 and before persons disposed to
 believe them4 ,no miracle ever occurred
 in the presence of men capable of      
testing its miraculous character4       
,neither common people nor men of the   
world are able to do this4 ,it requires 
great precautions and long habits of    
scientific research4 ,in our days have  
we not seen almost all respectable      
people dupes of the grossest frauds or  
of puerile illusions8 ,marvellous facts1

 attested by the whole population of    
small towns1 have1 thanks to a severer  
scrutiny1 been exploded4#a ,if it is    
proved that no contemporary miracle will
 bear inquiry1 is it not probable that  
the miracles of the past1 which have all
 been performed in popular gatherings1  
would equally present their share of    
illusion1 if it were possible to        
criticise them in detail8  ,footnote #a3
 ,see the ,gazette des ,tribunaux1 #ajth
 ,sept4 and #aath ,nov41 #ahea1 #bhth   
,may1 #aheg4  ,it is not1 then1 in the  
name of this or that philosophy1 but in 
the name of universal experience1 that  
we banish miracle from history4 ,we do  
not say1 ,miracles are impossible4 ,we  
say1 ,up to this time a miracle has     
never been proved4 ,if to-morrow a      
thaumaturgus present himself with       
credentials sufficiently important to be
 discussed1 and announce himself as     
able1 say1 to raise the dead1 what would
 be done8 ,a commission1 composed of    
physiologists1 physicists1 chemists1    

persons accustomed to historical        
criticism1 would be named4 ,this        
commission would choose a corpse1 would 
assure itself that the death was real1  
would select the room in which the      
experiment should be made1 would arrange
 the whole system of precautions1 so as 
to leave no chance of doubt4 ,if1 under 
such conditions1 the resurrection were  
effected1 a probability almost equal to 
certainty would be established4 ,as1    
however1 it ought to be possible always 
to repeat an experiment--to do over     
again what has been done once2 and as1  
in the order of miracle1 there can be no
 question of ease or difficulty1 the    
thaumaturgus would be invited to        
reproduce his marvellous act under other
 circumstances1 upon other corpses1 in  
another place4 ,if the miracle succeeded
 each time1 two things would be proved3 
,first1 that supernatural events happen 
in the world2 second1 that the power of 
producing them belongs1 or is delegated 
to1 certain persons4 ,but who does not  

see that no miracle ever took place     
under these conditions8 but that always 
hitherto the thaumaturgus has chosen the
 subject of the experiment1 chosen the  
spot1 chosen the public2 that1 besides1 
the people themselves--most commonly in 
consequence of the invincible want to   
see something divine in great events and
 great men--create the marvellous       
legends afterward8 ,until a new order of
 things prevails1 we shall maintain then
 this principle of historical           
criticism--that a supernatural account  
cannot be admitted as such1 that it     
always implies credulity or imposture1  
that the duty of the historian is to    
explain it1 and seek to ascertain what  
share of truth or of error it may       
conceal4  ,such are the rules which have
 been followed in the composition of    
this work4 ,to the perusal of           
documentary evidences ,i have been able 
to add an important source of           
information--the sight of the places    
where the events occurred4 ,the         

scientific mission1 having for its      
object the exploration of ancient       
,phoenicia1 which ,i directed in #ahfj  
and #ahfa1a led me to reside on the     
frontiers of ,galilee and to travel     
there frequently4 ,i have traversed1 in 
all directions1 the country of the      
,gospels2 ,i have visited ,jerusalem1   
,hebron1 and ,samaria2 scarcely any     
important locality of the history of    
,jesus has escaped me4 ,all this        
history1 which at a distance seems to   
float in the clouds of an unreal world1 
thus took a form1 a solidity1 which     
astonished me4 ,the striking agreement  
of the texts with the places1 the       
marvellous harmony of the ,gospel ideal 
with the country which served it as a   
framework1 were like a revelation to me4
 ,i had before my eyes a fifth ,gospel1 
torn1 but still legible1 and            
henceforward1 through the recitals of   
,matthew and ,mark1 in place of an      
abstract being1 whose existence might   
have been doubted1 ,i saw living and    

moving an admirable human figure4       
,during the summer1 having to go up to  
,ghazir1 in ,lebanon1 to take a little  
repose1 ,i fixed1 in rapid sketches1 the
 image which had appeared to me1 and    
from them resulted this history4 ,when a
 cruel bereavement hastened my          
departure1 ,i had but a few pages to    
write4 ,in this manner the book has been
 composed almost entirely near the very 
places where ,jesus was born1 and where 
his character was developed4 ,since my  
return1 ,i have labored unceasingly to  
verify and check in detail the rough    
sketch which ,i had written in haste in 
a ,maronite cabin1 with five or six     
volumes around me4  ,footnote #a3 ,the  
work which will contain the results of  
this mission is in the press4  ,many    
will regret1 perhaps1 the biographical  
form which my work has thus taken4 ,when
 ,i first conceived the idea of a       
history of the origin of ,christianity1 
what ,i wished to write was1 in fact1 a 
history of doctrines1 in which men and  

their actions would have hardly had a   
place4 ,jesus would scarcely have been  
named2 ,i should have endeavored to show
 how the ideas which have grown under   
his name took root and covered the      
world4 ,but ,i have learned since that  
history is not a simple game of         
abstractions2 that men are more than    
doctrines4 ,it was not a certain theory 
on justification and redemption which   
brought about the ,reformation2 it was  
,luther and ,calvin4 ,parseeism1        
,hellenism1 ,judaism might have been    
able to have combined under every form2 
the doctrines of the ,resurrection and  
of the ,word might have developed       
themselves during ages without producing
 this grand1 unique1 and fruitful fact1 
called ,christianity4 ,this fact is the 
work of ,jesus1 of ,st4 ,paul1 of ,st4  
,john4 ,to write the history of ,jesus1 
of ,st4 ,paul1 of ,st4 ,john is to write
 the history of the origin of           
,christianity4 ,the anterior movements  
belong to our subject only in so far as 

they serve to throw light upon these    
extraordinary men1 who naturally could  
not have existed without connection with
 that which preceded them4  ,in such an 
effort to make the great souls of the   
past live again1 some share of          
divination and conjecture must be       
permitted4 ,a great life is an organic  
whole which cannot be rendered by the   
simple agglomeration of small facts4 ,it
 requires a profound sentiment to       
embrace them all1 moulding them into    
perfect unity4 ,the method of art in a  
similar subject is a good guide2 the    
exquisite tact of a ,goethe would know  
how to apply it4 ,the essential         
condition of the creations of art is1   
that they shall form a living system of 
which all the parts are mutually        
dependent and related4  ,in histories   
such as this1 the great test that we    
have got the truth is1 to have succeeded
 in combining the texts in such a manner
 that they shall constitute a logical1  
probable narrative1 harmonious          

throughout4 ,the secret laws of life1 of
 the progression of organic products1 of
 the melting of minute distinctions1    
ought to be consulted at each moment2   
for what is required to be reproduced is
 not the material circumstance1 which it
 is impossible to verify1 but the very  
soul of history2 what must be sought is 
not the petty certainty about trifles1  
it is the correctness of the general    
sentiment1 the truthfulness of the      
coloring4 ,each trait which departs from
 the rules of classic narration ought to
 warn us to be careful2 for the fact    
which has to be related has been living1
 natural1 and harmonious4 ,if we do not 
succeed in rendering it such by the     
recital1 it is surely because we have   
not succeeded in seeing it aright4      
,suppose that1 in restoring the ,minerva
 of ,phidias according to the texts1 we 
produced a dry1 jarring1 artificial     
whole2 what must we conclude8 ,simply   
that the texts want an appreciative     
interpretation2 that we must study them 

quietly until they dovetail and furnish 
a whole in which all the parts are      
happily blended4 ,should we then be sure
 of having a perfect reproduction of the
 ,greek statue8 ,no2 but at least we    
should not have the caricature of it2 we
 should have the general spirit of the  
work--one of the forms in which it could
 have existed4  ,this idea of a living  
organism we have not hesitated to take  
as our guide in the general arrangement 
of the narrative4 ,the perusal of the   
,gospels would suffice to prove that the
 compilers1 although having a very true 
plan of the ,life of ,jesus in their    
minds1 have not been guided by very     
exact chronological data2 ,papias1      
besides1 expressly teaches this4#a ,the 
expressions3 ,at this time 444 after    
that 444 then 444 and it came to pass   
4441 etc41 are the simple transitions   
intended to connect different narratives
 with each other4 ,to leave all the     
information furnished by the ,gospels in
 the disorder in which tradition        

supplies it1 would only be to write the 
history of ,jesus as the history of a   
celebrated man would be written1 by     
giving pell-mell the letters and        
anecdotes of his youth1 his old age1 and
 of his maturity4 ,the ,koran1 which    
presents to us1 in the loosest manner1  
fragments of the different epochs in the
 life of ,mahomet1 has yielded its      
secret to an ingenious criticism2 the   
chronological order in which the        
fragments were composed has been        
discovered so as to leave little room   
for doubt4 ,such a rearrangement is much
 more difficult in the case of the      
,gospels1 the public life of ,jesus     
having been shorter and less eventful   
than the life of the founder of         
,islamism4 ,meanwhile1 the attempt to   
find a guiding thread through this      
labyrinth ought not to be taxed with    
gratuitous subtlety4 ,there is no great 
abuse of hypothesis in supposing that a 
founder of a new religion commences by  
attaching himself to the moral aphorisms

 already in circulation in his time1 and
 to the practices which are in vogue2   
that1 when riper1 and in full possession
 of his idea1 he delights in a kind of  
calm and poetical eloquence1 remote from
 all controversy1 sweet and free as pure
 feeling2 that he warms by degrees1     
becomes animated by opposition1 and     
finishes by polemics and strong         
invectives4 ,such are the periods which 
may plainly be distinguished in the     
,koran4 ,the order adopted with an      
extremely fine tact by the synoptics1   
supposes an analogous progress4 ,if     
,matthew be attentively read1 we shall  
find in the distribution of the         
discourses1 a gradation perfectly       
analogous to that which we have just    
indicated4 ,the reserved turns of       
expression of which we make use in      
unfolding the progress of the ideas of  
,jesus will also be observed4 ,the      
reader may1 if he likes1 see in the     
divisions adopted in doing this1 only   
the indispensable breaks for the        

methodical exposition of a profound1    
complicated thought4  ,footnote #a3     
,loc4 cit4  ,if the love of a subject   
can help one to understand it1 it will  
also1 ,i hope1 be recognized that ,i    
have not been wanting in this condition4
 ,to write the history of a religion1 it
 is necessary1 firstly1 to have believed
 it 7otherwise we should not be able to 
understand how it has charmed and       
satisfied the human conscience72 in the 
second place1 to believe it no longer in
 an absolute manner1 for absolute faith 
is incompatible with sincere history4   
,but love is possible without faith4 ,to
 abstain from attaching one's self to   
any of the forms which captivate the    
adoration of men1 is not to deprive     
ourselves of the enjoyment of that which
 is good and beautiful in them4 ,no     
transitory appearance exhausts the      
,divinity2 ,god was revealed before     
,jesus--,god will reveal ,himself after 
him4 ,profoundly unequal1 and so much   
the more ,divine1 as they are grander   

and more spontaneous1 the manifestations
 of ,god hidden in the depths of the    
human conscience are all of the same    
order4 ,jesus cannot belong solely to   
those who call themselves his disciples4
 ,he is the common honor of all who     
share a common humanity4 ,his glory does
 not consist in being relegated out of  
history2 we render him a truer worship  
in showing that all history is          
incomprehensible without him4     ,,life
 ,,of ,,jesus     ,,chapter ,i4  ,,place
 ,,of ,,jesus ,,in ,,the ,,history ,,of 
,,the ,,world4   ,the great event of the
 ,history of the world is the revolution
 by which the noblest portions of       
humanity have passed from the ancient   
religions1 comprised under the vague    
name of ,paganism1 to a religion founded
 on the ,divine ,unity1 the ,trinity1   
and the ,incarnation of the ,son of     
,god4 ,it has taken nearly a thousand   
years to accomplish this conversion4    
,the new religion had itself taken at   
least three hundred years in its        

formation4 ,but the origin of the       
revolution in question with which we    
have to do is a fact which took place   
under the reigns of ,augustus and       
,tiberius4 ,at that time there lived a  
superior personage1 who1 by his bold    
originality1 and by the love which he   
was able to inspire1 became the object  
and fixed the starting-point of the     
future faith of humanity4  ,as soon as  
man became distinguished from the       
animal1 he became religious2 that is to 
say1 he saw in ,nature something beyond 
the phenomena1 and for himself something
 beyond death4 ,this sentiment1 during  
some thousands of years1 became         
corrupted in the strangest manner4 ,in  
many races it did not pass beyond the   
belief in sorcerers1 under the gross    
form in which we still find it in       
certain parts of ,oceania4 ,among some1 
the religious sentiment degenerated into
 the shameful scenes of butchery which  
form the character of the ancient       
religion of ,mexico4 ,amongst others1   

especially in ,africa1 it became pure   
,fetichism1 that is1 the adoration of a 
material object1 to which were          
attributed supernatural powers4 ,like   
the instinct of love1 which at times    
elevates the most vulgar man above      
himself1 yet sometimes becomes perverted
 and ferocious1 so this divine faculty  
of religion during a long period seems  
only to be a cancer which must be       
extirpated from the human race1 a cause 
of errors and crimes which the wise     
ought to endeavor to suppress4  ,the    
brilliant civilizations which were      
developed from a very remote antiquity  
in ,china1 in ,babylonia1 and in ,egypt1
 caused a certain progress to be made in
 religion4 ,china arrived very early at 
a sort of mediocre good sense1 which    
prevented great extravagances4 ,she     
neither knew the advantages nor the     
abuses of the religious spirit4 ,at all 
events1 she had not in this way any     
influence in directing the great current
 of humanity4 ,the religions of         

,babylonia and ,syria were never freed  
from a substratum of strange sensuality2
 these religions remained1 until their  
extinction in the fourth and fifth      
centuries of our era1 schools of        
immorality1 in which at intervals       
glimpses of the divine world were       
obtained by a sort of poetic intuition4 
,egypt1 notwithstanding an apparent kind
 of ,fetichism1 had very early          
metaphysical dogmas and a lofty         
symbolism4 ,but doubtless these         
interpretations of a refined theology   
were not primitive4 ,man has never1 in  
the possession of a clear idea1 amused  
himself by clothing it in symbols3 it is
 oftener after long reflections1 and    
from the impossibility felt by the human
 mind of resigning itself to the absurd1
 that we seek ideas under the ancient   
mystic images whose meaning is lost4    
,moreover1 it is not from ,egypt that   
the faith of humanity has come4 ,the    
elements which1 in the religion of a    
,christian1 passing through a thousand  

transformations1 came from ,egypt and   
,syria1 are exterior forms of little    
consequence1 or dross of which the most 
purified worships always retain some    
portion4 ,the grand defect of the       
religions of which we speak was their   
essentially superstitious character4    
,they only threw into the world millions
 of amulets and charms4 ,no great moral 
thought could proceed from races        
oppressed by a secular despotism1 and   
accustomed to institutions which        
precluded the exercise of individual    
liberty4  ,the poetry of the            
soul--faith1 liberty1 virtue1           
devotion--made their appearance in the  
world with the two great races which1 in
 one sense1 have made humanity1 viz41   
the ,indo-,european and the ,semitic    
races4 ,the first religious intuitions  
of the ,indo-,european race were        
essentially naturalistic4 ,but it was a 
profound and moral naturalism1 a loving 
embrace of ,nature by man1 a delicious  
poetry1 full of the sentiment of the    

,infinite--the principle1 in fine1 of   
all that which the ,germanic and ,celtic
 genius1 of that which a ,shakespeare   
and a ,goethe should express in later   
times4 ,it was neither theology nor     
moral philosophy--it was a state of     
melancholy1 it was tenderness1 it was   
imagination2 it was1 more than all1     
earnestness1 the essential condition of 
morals and religion4 ,the faith of      
humanity1 however1 could not come from  
thence1 because these ancient forms of  
worships had great difficulty in        
detaching themselves from ,polytheism1  
and could not attain to a very clear    
symbol4 ,brahminism has only survived to
 the present day by virtue of the       
astonishing faculty of conservation     
which ,india seems to possess4 ,buddhism
 failed in all its approaches toward the
 ,west4 ,druidism remained a form       
exclusively national1 and without       
universal capacity4 ,the ,greek attempts
 at reform1 ,orpheism1 the ,mysteries1  
did not suffice to give a solid aliment 

to the soul4 ,persia alone succeeded in 
making a dogmatic religion1 almost      
,monotheistic1 and skilfully organized2 
but it is very possible that this       
organization itself was but an          
imitation1 or borrowed4 ,at all events1 
,persia has not converted the world2 she
 herself1 on the contrary1 was converted
 when she saw the flag of the ,divine   
unity as proclaimed by ,mohammedanism   
appear on her frontiers4  ,it is the    
,semitic race#a which has the glory of  
having made the religion of humanity4   
,far beyond the confines of history1    
resting under his tent1 free from the   
taint of a corrupted world1 the ,bedouin
 patriarch prepared the faith of        
mankind4 ,a strong antipathy against the
 voluptuous worships of ,syria1 a grand 
simplicity of ritual1 the complete      
absence of temples1 and the idol reduced
 to insignificant theraphim1 constituted
 his superiority4 ,among all the tribes 
of the nomadic ,semites1 that of the    
,beni-,israel was already chosen for    

immense destinies4 ,ancient relations   
with ,egypt1 whence perhaps resulted    
some purely material ingredients1 did   
but augment their repulsion to idolatry4
 ,a ,law or ,thora1 very anciently      
written on tables of stone1 and which   
they attributed to their great liberator
 ,moses1 had become the code of         
,monotheism1 and contained1 as compared 
with the institutions of ,egypt and     
,chaldea1 powerful germs of social      
equality and morality4 ,a chest or      
portable ark1 having staples on each    
side to admit of bearing poles1         
constituted all their religious         
materiel2 there were collected the      
sacred objects of the nation1 its       
relics1 its souvenirs1 and1 lastly1 the 
book1#b the journal of the tribe1 always
 open1 but which was written in with    
great discretion4 ,the family charged   
with bearing the ark and watching over  
the portable archives1 being near the   
book and having the control of it1 very 
soon became important4 ,from hence1     

however1 the institution which was to   
control the future did not come4 ,the   
,hebrew priest did not differ much from 
the other priests of antiquity4 ,the    
character which essentially             
distinguishes ,israel among theocratic  
peoples is1 that its priesthood has     
always been subordinated to individual  
inspiration4 ,besides its priests1 each 
wandering tribe had its nabi or prophet1
 a sort of living oracle who was        
consulted for the solution of obscure   
questions supposed to require a high    
degree of clairvoyance4 ,the nabis of   
,israel1 organized in groups or schools1
 had great influence4 ,defenders of the 
ancient democratic spirit1 enemies of   
the rich1 opposed to all political      
organization1 and to whatsoever might   
draw ,israel into the paths of other    
nations1 they were the true authors of  
the religious preeminence of the ,jewish
 people4 ,very early they announced     
unlimited hopes1 and when the people1 in
 part the victims of their impolitic    

counsels1 had been crushed by the       
,assyrian power1 they proclaimed that a 
kingdom without bounds was reserved for 
them1 that one day ,jerusalem would be  
the capital of the whole world1 and the 
human race become ,jews4 ,jerusalem and 
its temples appeared to them as a city  
placed on the summit of a mountain1     
toward which all people should turn1 as 
an oracle whence the universal law      
should proceed1 as the centre of an     
ideal kingdom1 in which the human race1 
set at rest by ,israel1 should find     
again the joys of ,eden4#c  ,footnote   
#a3 ,i remind the reader that this word 
means here simply the people who speak  
or have spoken one of the languages     
called ,semitic4 ,such a designation is 
entirely defective2 but it is one of    
those words1 like ,gothic architecture1 
,arabian numerals1 which we must        
preserve to be understood1 even after we
 have demonstrated the error that they  
imply4  ,footnote #b3 ,i ,sam4 x4 #be4  
,footnote #c3 ,isa4 ii4 #a-d1 and       

especially chaps4 xl41 and following1   
lx41 and following2 ,micah iv4 #a1 and  
following4 ,it must be recollected that 
the second part of the book of ,isaiah1 
beginning at chap4 xl41 is not by       
,isaiah4  ,mystical utterances already  
made themselves heard1 tending to exalt 
the martyrdom and celebrate the power of
 the ,man of ,sorrows4 ,respecting one  
of those sublime sufferers1 who1 like   
,jeremiah1 stained the streets of       
,jerusalem with their blood1 one of the 
inspired wrote a song upon the          
sufferings and triumph of the servant of
 ,god1 in which all the prophetic force 
of the genius of ,israel seemed         
concentrated4#a ,for he shall grow up   
before him as a tender plant1 and as a  
root out of a dry ground3 he hath no    
form nor comeliness4 ,he is despised and
 rejected of men2 and we hid1 as it     
were1 our faces from him2 he was        
despised1 and we esteemed him not4      
,surely he hath borne our griefs1 and   
carried our sorrows2 yet we did esteem  

him stricken1 smitten of ,god1 and      
afflicted4 ,but he was wounded for our  
transgressions1 he was bruised for our  
iniquities3 the chastisement of our     
peace was upon him2 and with his stripes
 we are healed4 ,all we like sheep have 
gone astray2 we have turned every one to
 his own way2 and the ,lord hath laid on
 him the iniquity of us all4 ,he was    
oppressed1 and he was afflicted1 yet he 
opened not his mouth3 he is brought as a
 lamb to the slaughter1 and as a sheep  
before her shearers is dumb1 so he      
openeth not his mouth4 ,and he made his 
grave with the wicked4 ,when thou shalt 
make his soul an offering for sin1 he   
shall see his seed1 he shall prolong his
 days1 and the pleasure of the ,lord    
shall prosper in his hand4  ,footnote   
#a3 ,isa4 lii4 #ac1 and following1 and  
liii4 entirely4  ,important             
modifications were made at the same time
 in the ,thora4 ,new texts1 pretending  
to represent the true law of ,moses1    
such as ,deuteronomy1 were produced1 and

 inaugurated in reality a very different
 spirit from that of the old nomads4 ,a 
marked fanaticism was the dominant      
feature of this spirit4 ,furious        
believers unceasingly instigated        
violence against all who wandered from  
the worship of ,jehovah--they succeeded 
in establishing a code of blood1 making 
death the penalty for religious faults4 
,piety brings1 almost always1 singular  
contradictions of vehemence and         
mildness4 ,this zeal1 unknown to the    
coarser simplicity of the time of the   
,judges1 inspired tones of moving       
prophecy and tender unction1 which the  
world had never heard till then4 ,a     
strong tendency toward social questions 
already made itself felt2 ,utopias1     
dreams of a perfect society1 took a     
place in the code4 ,the ,pentateuch1 a  
mixture of patriarchal morality and     
ardent devotion1 primitive intuitions   
and pious subtleties1 like those which  
filled the souls of ,hezekiah1 of       
,josiah1 and of ,jeremiah1 was thus     

fixed in the form in which we now see   
it1 and became for ages the absolute    
rule of the national mind4  ,this great 
book once created1 the history of the   
,jewish people unfolded itself with an  
irresistible force4 ,the great empires  
which followed each other in ,western   
,asia1 in destroying its hope of a      
terrestrial kingdom1 threw it into      
religious dreams1 which it cherished    
with a kind of sombre passion4 ,caring  
little for the national dynasty or      
political independence1 it accepted all 
governments which permitted it to       
practise freely its worship and follow  
its usages4 ,israel will henceforward   
have no other guidance than that of its 
religious enthusiasts1 no other enemies 
than those of the ,divine unity1 no     
other country than its ,law4  ,and this 
,law1 it must be remarked1 was entirely 
social and moral4 ,it was the work of   
men penetrated with a high ideal of the 
present life1 and believing that they   
had found the best means of realizing   

it4 ,the conviction of all was1 that the
 ,thora1 well observed1 could not fail  
to give perfect felicity4 ,this ,thora  
has nothing in common with the ,greek or
 ,roman ,laws1 which1 occupying         
themselves with scarcely anything but   
abstract right1 entered little into     
questions of private happiness and      
morality4 ,we feel beforehand that the  
results which will proceed from it will 
be of a social1 and not a political     
order1 that the work at which this      
people labors is a kingdom of ,god1 not 
a civil republic2 a universal           
institution1 not a nationality or a     
country4  ,notwithstanding numerous     
failures1 ,israel admirably sustained   
this vocation4 ,a series of pious men1  
,ezra1 ,nehemiah1 ,onias1 the           
,maccabees1 consumed with zeal for the  
,law1 succeeded each other in the       
defense of the ancient institutions4    
,the idea that ,israel was a holy       
people1 a tribe chosen by ,god and bound
 to ,him by covenant1 took deeper and   

firmer root4 ,an immense expectation    
filled their souls4 ,all ,indo-,european
 antiquity had placed paradise in the   
beginning2 all its poets had wept a     
vanished golden age4 ,israel placed the 
age of gold in the future4 ,the         
perennial poesy of religious souls1 the 
,psalms1 blossomed from this exalted    
piety1 with their divine and melancholy 
harmony4 ,israel became truly and       
specially the people of ,god1 while     
around it the pagan religions were more 
and more reduced1 in ,persia and        
,babylonia1 to an official charlatanism1
 in ,egypt and ,syria to a gross        
idolatry1 and in the ,greek and ,roman  
world to mere parade4 ,that which the   
,christian martyrs did in the first     
centuries of our era1 that which the    
victims of persecuting orthodoxy have   
done1 even in the bosom of              
,christianity1 up to our time1 the ,jews
 did during the two centuries which     
preceded the ,christian era4 ,they were 
a living protest against superstition   

and religious materialism4 ,an          
extraordinary movement of ideas1 ending 
in the most opposite results1 made of   
them1 at this epoch1 the most striking  
and original people in the world4 ,their
 dispersion along all the coast of the  
,mediterranean1 and the use of the      
,greek language1 which they adopted when
 out of ,palestine1 prepared the way for
 a propagandism1 of which ancient       
societies1 divided into small           
nationalities1 had never offered a      
single example4  ,up to the time of the 
,maccabees1 ,judaism1 in spite of its   
persistence in announcing that it would 
one day be the religion of the human    
race1 had had the characteristic of all 
the other worships of antiquity1 it was 
a worship of the family and the tribe4  
,the ,israelite thought1 indeed1 that   
his worship was the best1 and spoke with
 contempt of strange gods2 but he       
believed also that the religion of the  
true ,god was made for himself alone4   
,only when a man entered into the       

,jewish family did he embrace the       
worship of ,jehovah4#a ,no ,israelite   
cared to convert the stranger to a      
worship which was the patrimony of the  
sons of ,abraham4 ,the development of   
the pietistic spirit1 after ,ezra and   
,nehemiah1 led to a much firmer and more
 logical conception4 ,judaism became the
 true religion in a more absolute       
manner2 to all who wished1 the right of 
entering it was given2#b soon it became 
a work of piety to bring into it the    
greatest number possible4#c ,doubtless  
the refined sentiment which elevated    
,john the ,baptist1 ,jesus1 and ,st4    
,paul above the petty ideas of race1 did
 not yet exist2 for1 by a strange       
contradiction1 these converts were      
little respected and were treated with  
disdain4#d ,but the idea of a sovereign 
religion1 the idea that there was       
something in the world superior to      
country1 to blood1 to laws--the idea    
which makes apostles and martyrs--was   
founded4 ,profound pity for the pagans1 

however brilliant might be their worldly
 fortune1 was henceforth the feeling of 
every ,jew4#e ,by a cycle of legends    
destined to furnish models of immovable 
firmness1 such as the histories of      
,daniel and his companions1 the mother  
of the ,maccabees and her seven sons1#f 
the romance of the race-course of       
,alexandria#g--the guides of the people 
sought above all to inculcate the idea1 
that virtue consists in a fanatical     
attachment to fixed religious           
institutions4  ,footnote #a3 ,ruth i4   
#af4  ,footnote #b3 ,esther ix4 #bg4    
,footnote #c3 ,matt4 xxiii4 #ae2        
,josephus1 ,vita1 #bc2 ,b4,j41 ,,ii4    
xvii4 #aj1 ,,vii4 iii4 #c2 ,ant41 ,,xx4 
ii4 #d2 ,horat41 ,sat4 ,i41 iv41 #adc2  
,juv41 xiv4 #if1 and following2         
,tacitus1 ,ann41 ,,ii4 #he2 ,hist41 ,v4 
#e2 ,dion ,cassius1 xxxvii4 #ag4        
,footnote #d3 ,mishnah1 ,shebiit1 ,x4   
#i2 ,talmud of ,babylon1 ,niddah1 fol4  
#ac b2 ,jebamoth1 #dg b1 ,kiddushim1 #gj
 b2 ,midrash1 ,jalkut ,ruth1 fol4 #afc  

d4  ,footnote #e3 ,apocryphal letter of 
,baruch1 in ,fabricius1 ,cod4 pseud41   
,v4,t41 ii41 #adg1 and following4       
,footnote #f3 ,,ii4 ,book of ,maccabees1
 ch4 vii4 and the ,de ,maccabaeis1      
attributed to ,josephus4 ,cf4 ,epistle  
to the ,hebrews xi4 #cc1 and following4 
,footnote #g3 ,,iii4 ,book 7,apocr47 of 
,maccabees2 ,rufin1 ,suppl4 ad ,jos41   
,contra ,apionem1 ii4 #e4  ,the         
persecutions of ,antiochus ,epiphanes   
made this idea a passion1 almost a      
frenzy4 ,it was something very analogous
 to that which happened under ,nero1 two
 hundred and thirty years later4 ,rage  
and despair threw the believers into the
 world of visions and dreams4 ,the first
 apocalypse1 ,the ,book of ,daniel1     
appeared4 ,it was like a revival of     
prophecy1 but under a very different    
form from the ancient one1 and with a   
much larger idea of the destinies of the
 world4 ,the ,book of ,daniel gave1 in a
 manner1 the last expression to the     
,messianic hopes4 ,the ,messiah was no  

longer a king1 after the manner of      
,david and ,solomon1 a theocratic and   
,mosaic ,cyrus2 he was a ,son of man    
appearing in the clouds#a--;a           
supernatural being1 invested with human 
form1 charged to rule the world1 and to 
preside over the golden age4 ,perhaps   
the ,sosiosh of ,persia1 the great      
prophet who was to come1 charged with   
preparing the reign of ,ormuzd1 gave    
some features to this new ideal4#b ,the 
unknown author of the ,book of ,daniel  
had1 in any case1 a decisive influence  
on the religious event which was about  
to transform the world4 ,he supplied the
 mise-en-scene1 and the technical terms 
of the new belief in the ,messiah2 and  
we might apply to him what ,jesus said  
of ,john the ,baptist3 ,before him1 the 
prophets2 after him1 the kingdom of     
,god4  ,footnote #a3 ,chap4 vii4 #ac1   
and following4  ,footnote #b3 ,vendidad1
 chap4 xix4 #ah1 #ai2 ,minokhired1 a    
passage published in the ,zeitschrift   
der deutschen morgenlaendischen         

,gesellschaft1 chap4 i4 #bfc2           
,boundehesch1 chap4 xxxi4 ,the want of  
certain chronology for the ,zend and    
,pehlvis texts leaves much doubt        
hovering over the relations between the 
,jewish and ,persian beliefs4  ,it must 
not1 however1 be supposed that this     
profoundly religious and soul-stirring  
movement had particular dogmas for its  
primary impulse1 as was the case in all 
the conflicts which have disturbed the  
bosom of ,christianity4 ,the ,jew of    
this epoch was as little theological as 
possible4 ,he did not speculate upon the
 essence of the ,divinity2 the beliefs  
about angels1 about the destinies of    
man1 about the ,divine personality1 of  
which the first germs might already be  
perceived1 were quite optional--they    
were meditations1 to which each one     
surrendered himself according to the    
turn of his mind1 but of which a great  
number of men had never heard4 ,they    
were the most orthodox even1 who did not
 share in these particular imaginations1

 and who adhered to the simplicity of   
the ,mosaic law4 ,no dogmatic power     
analogous to that which orthodox        
,christianity has given to the ,church  
then existed4 ,it was only at the       
beginning of the third century1 when    
,christianity had fallen into the hands 
of reasoning races1 mad with dialectics 
and metaphysics1 that that fever for    
definitions commenced which made the    
history of the ,church but the history  
of one immense controversy4 ,there were 
disputes also among the ,jews--excited  
schools brought opposite solutions to   
almost all the questions which were     
agitated2 but in these contests1 of     
which the ,talmud has preserved the     
principal details1 there is not a single
 word of speculative theology4 ,to      
observe and maintain the law1 because   
the law was just1 and because1 when well
 observed1 it gave happiness--such was  
,judaism4 ,no credo1 no theoretical     
symbol4 ,one of the disciples of the    
boldest ,arabian philosophy1 ,moses     

,maimonides1 was able to become the     
oracle of the synagogue1 because he was 
well versed in the canonical law4  ,the 
reigns of the last ,asmoneans1 and that 
of ,herod1 saw the excitement grow still
 stronger4 ,they were filled by an      
uninterrupted series of religious       
movements4 ,in the degree that power    
became secularized1 and passed into the 
hands of unbelievers1 the ,jewish people
 lived less and less for the earth1 and 
became more and more absorbed by the    
strange fermentation which was operating
 in their midst4 ,the world1 distracted 
by other spectacles1 had little         
knowledge of that which passed in this  
forgotten corner of the ,east4 ,the     
minds abreast of their age were1        
however1 better informed4 ,the tender   
and clear-sighted ,virgil seems to      
answer1 as by a secret echo1 to the     
second ,isaiah4 ,the birth of a child   
throws him into dreams of a universal   
palingenesis4#a ,these dreams were of   
every-day occurrence1 and shaped into a 

kind of literature which was designated 
,sibylline4 ,the quite recent formation 
of the empire exalted the imagination2  
the great era of peace on which it      
entered1 and that impression of         
melancholy sensibility which the mind   
experiences after long periods of       
revolution1 gave birth on all sides to  
unlimited hopes4  ,footnote #a3 ,egl4   
iv4 ,the ,cumaeum carmen 7v4 #d7 was a  
sort of ,sibylline apocalypse1 borrowed 
from the philosophy of history familiar 
to the ,east4 ,see ,servius on this     
verse1 and ,carmina ,sibyllina1 iii4    
#ig-hag2 cf4 ,tac41 ,hist41 v4 #ac4  ,in
 ,judea expectation was at its height4  
,holy persons--among whom may be named  
the aged ,simeon1 who1 legend tells us1 
held ,jesus in his arms2 ,anna1 daughter
 of ,phanuel1 regarded as a             
prophetess#a--passed their life about   
the temple1 fasting1 and praying1 that  
it might please ,god not to take them   
from the world without having seen the  
fulfillment of the hopes of ,israel4    

,they felt a powerful presentiment2 they
 were sensible of the approach of       
something unknown4  ,footnote #a3 ,luke 
ii4 #be1 and following4  ,this confused 
mixture of clear views and dreams1 this 
alternation of deceptions and hopes1    
these ceaseless aspirations1 driven back
 by an odious reality1 found at last    
their interpretation in the incomparable
 man1 to whom the universal conscience  
has decreed the title of ,son of ,god1  
and that with justice1 since he has     
advanced religion as no other has done1 
or probably ever will be able to do4    
,,chapter ,,ii4  ,,infancy ,,and ,,youth
 ,,of ,,jesus--,,his ,,first            
,,impressions4   ,jesus was born at     
,nazareth1#a a small town of ,galilee1  
which before his time had no            
celebrity4#b ,all his life he was       
designated by the name of the           
,nazarene1#c and it is only by a rather 
embarrassed and round-about way1#d that1
 in the legends respecting him1 he is   
made to be born at ,bethlehem4 ,we shall

 see later#e the motive for this        
supposition1 and how it was the         
necessary consequence of the ,messianic 
character attributed to ,jesus4#f ,the  
precise date of his birth is unknown4   
,it took place under the reign of       
,augustus1 about the ,roman year #gej1  
probably some years before the year #a  
of that era which all civilized people  
date from the day on which he was       
born4#g  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 xiii4 #ed1
 and following2 ,mark vi4 #a1 and       
following2 ,john i4 #de-df4  ,footnote  
#b3 ,it is neither named in the writings
 of the ,old ,testament1 nor in         
,josephus1 nor in the ,talmud4          
,footnote #c3 ,mark i4 #bd2 ,luke xviii4
 #cg2 ,john xix4 #ai2 ,acts ii4 #bb1    
iii4 #f4 ,hence the name of ,nazarenes  
for a long time applied to ,christians1 
and which still designates them in all  
,mohammedan countries4  ,footnote #d3   
,the census effected by ,quirinus1 to   
which legend attributes the journey from
 ,bethlehem1 is at least ten years later

 than the year in which1 according to   
,luke and ,matthew1 ,jesus was born4    
,the two evangelists in effect make     
,jesus to be born under the reign of    
,herod 7,matt4 ii4 #a1 #ai1 #bb2 ,luke  
i4 #e74 ,now1 the census of ,quirinus   
did not take place until after the      
deposition of ,archelaus1 i4e41 ten     
years after the death of ,herod1 the    
#cgth year from the era of ,actium      
7,josephus1 ,ant41 ,,xvii4 xiii4 #e1    
,,xviii4 i4 #a1 ii4 #a74 ,the           
inscription by which it was formerly    
pretended to establish that ,quirinus   
had levied two censuses is recognized as
 false 7see ,orelli1 ,inscr4 ,lat41 ,no4
 #fbc1 and the supplement of ,henzen in 
this number2 ,borghesi1 ,fastes         
,consulaires yet unpublished1 in the    
year #gdb74 ,the census in any case     
would only be applied to the parts      
reduced to ,roman provinces1 and not to 
the tetrarchies4 ,the texts by which it 
is sought to prove that some of the     
operations for statistics and tribute   

commanded by ,augustus ought to extend  
to the dominion of the ,herods1 either  
do not mean what they have been made to 
say1 or are from ,christian authors who 
have borrowed this statement from the   
,gospel of ,luke4 ,that which proves1   
besides1 that the journey of the family 
of ,jesus to ,bethlehem is not          
historical1 is the motive attributed to 
it4 ,jesus was not of the family of     
,david 7see ,chap4 ,,xv471 and if he had
 been1 we should still not imagine that 
his parents should have been forced1 for
 an operation purely registrative and   
financial1 to come to enrol themselves  
in the place whence their ancestors had 
proceeded a thousand years before4 ,in  
imposing such an obligation1 the ,roman 
authority would have sanctioned         
pretensions threatening her safety4     
,footnote #e3 ,chap4 ,,xiv4  ,footnote  
#f3 ,matt4 ii4 #a1 and following2 ,luke 
ii4 #a1 and following4 ,the omission of 
this narrative in ,mark1 and the two    
parallel passages1 ,matt4 xiii4 #ed1 and

 ,mark vi4 #a1 where ,nazareth figures  
as the country of ,jesus1 prove that    
such a legend was absent from the       
primitive text which has furnished the  
rough draft of the present ,gospels of  
,matthew and ,mark4 ,it was to meet     
oft-repeated objections that there were 
added to the beginning of the ,gospel of
 ,matthew reservations1 the             
contradiction of which with the rest of 
the text was not so flagrant1 that it   
was felt necessary to correct the       
passages which had at first been written
 from quite another point of view4      
,luke1 on the contrary 7chap4 iv4 #af71 
writing more carefully1 has employed1 in
 order to be consistent1 a more softened
 expression4 ,as to ,john1 he knows     
nothing of the journey to ,bethlehem2   
for him1 ,jesus is merely of ,nazareth  
or ,galilean1 in two circumstances in   
which it would have been of the highest 
importance to recall his birth at       
,bethlehem 7chap4 i4 #de1 #df1 vi4 #da1 
#db74  ,footnote #g3 ,it is known that  

the calculation which serves as basis of
 the common era was made in the sixth   
century by ,dionysius the ,less4 ,this  
calculation implies certain purely      
hypothetical data4  ,the name of ,jesus1
 which was given him1 is an alteration  
from ,joshua4 ,it was a very common     
name2 but afterward mysteries1 and an   
allusion to his character of ,saviour1  
were naturally sought for in it4#a      
,perhaps he1 like all mystics1 exalted  
himself in this respect4 ,it is thus    
that more than one great vocation in    
history has been caused by a name given 
to a child without premeditation4       
,ardent natures never bring themselves  
to see aught of chance in what concerns 
them4 ,god has regulated everything for 
them1 and they see a sign of the supreme
 will in the most insignificant         
circumstances4  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 i4 
#ba2 ,luke i4 #ca4  ,the population of  
,galilee was very mixed1 as the very    
name of the country#a indicated4 ,this  
province counted amongst its            

inhabitants1 in the time of ,jesus1 many
 who were not ,jews 7,phoenicians1      
,syrians1 ,arabs1 and even ,greeks74#b  
,the conversions to ,judaism were not   
rare in these mixed countries4 ,it is   
therefore impossible to raise here any  
question of race1 and to seek to        
ascertain what blood flowed in the veins
 of him who has contributed most to     
efface the distinction of blood in      
humanity4  ,footnote #a3 ,gelil         
haggoyim1 ,circle of the ,gentiles4     
,footnote #b3 ,strabo1 ,,xvi4 ii4 #ce2  
,jos41 ,vita1 #ab4  ,he proceeded from  
the ranks of the people4#a ,his father1 
,joseph1 and his mother1 ,mary1 were    
people in humble circumstances1 artisans
 living by their labor1#b in the state  
so common in the ,east1 which is neither
 ease nor poverty4 ,the extreme         
simplicity of life in such countries1 by
 dispensing with the need of comfort1   
renders the privileges of wealth almost 
useless1 and makes every one voluntarily
 poor4 ,on the other hand1 the total    

want of taste for art1 and for that     
which contributes to the elegance of    
material life1 gives a naked aspect to  
the house of him who otherwise wants for
 nothing4 ,apart from something sordid  
and repulsive which ,islamism bears     
everywhere with it1 the town of         
,nazareth1 in the time of ,jesus1 did   
not perhaps much differ from what it is 
to-day4#c ,we see the streets where he  
played when a child1 in the stony paths 
or little crossways which separate the  
dwellings4 ,the house of ,joseph        
doubtless much resembled those poor     
shops1 lighted by the door1 serving at  
once for shop1 kitchen1 and bedroom1    
having for furniture a mat1 some        
cushions on the ground1 one or two clay 
pots1 and a painted chest4  ,footnote   
#a3 ,we shall explain later 7,chap4     
,,xiv47 the origin of the genealogies   
intended to connect him with the race of
 ,david4 ,the ,ebionites suppressed them
 7,epiph41 ,adv4 ,haer41 ,,xxx4 #ad74   
,footnote #b3 ,matt4 xiii4 #ee2 ,mark   

vi4 #c2 ,john vi4 #db4  ,footnote #c3   
,the rough aspect of the ruins which    
cover ,palestine proves that the towns  
which were not constructed in the ,roman
 manner were very badly built4 ,as to   
the form of the houses1 it is1 in       
,syria1 so simple and so imperiously    
regulated by the climate1 that it can   
scarcely ever have changed4  ,the       
family1 whether it proceeded from one or
 many marriages1 was rather numerous4   
,jesus had brothers and sisters1#a of   
whom he seems to have been the eldest4#b
 ,all have remained obscure1 for it     
appears that the four personages who    
were named as his brothers1 and among   
whom one1 at least--,james--had acquired
 great importance in the earliest years 
of the development of ,christianity1    
were his cousins-german4 ,mary1 in fact1
 had a sister also named ,mary1#c who   
married a certain ,alpheus or ,cleophas 
7these two names appear to designate the
 same person#d71 and was the mother of  
several sons who played a considerable  

part among the first disciples of       
,jesus4 ,these cousins-german who       
adhered to the young ,master1 while his 
own brothers opposed him1#e took the    
title of brothers of the ,lord4#f ,the  
real brothers of ,jesus1 like their     
mother1 became important only after his 
death4#g ,even then they do not appear  
to have equaled in importance their     
cousins1 whose conversion had been more 
spontaneous1 and whose character seems  
to have had more originality4 ,their    
names were so little known1 that when   
the evangelist put in the mouth of the  
men of ,nazareth the enumeration of the 
brothers according to natural           
relationship1 the names of the sons of  
,cleophas first presented themselves to 
him4  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 xii4 #df1 and
 following1 xiii4 #ee1 and following2   
,mark iii4 #ca1 and following1 vi4 #c2  
,luke viii4 #ai1 and following2 ,john   
ii4 #ab1 vii4 #c1 #e1 #aj2 ,acts i4 #ad4
  ,footnote #b3 ,matt4 i4 #be4          
,footnote #c3 ,that these two sisters   

should bear the same name is a singular 
fact4 ,there is probably some error     
arising from the habit of giving the    
name of ,mary indiscriminately to       
,galilean women4  ,footnote #d3 ,they   
are not etymologically identical4       
,greek3 ,alphaios is the transcription  
of the ,syro-,chaldean name ,halphai2   
,greek3 ,klopas or ,greek3 ,kleopas is a
 shortened form of ,greek3 ,kleopatros4 
,but there might have been an artificial
 substitution of one for the other1 just
 as ,joseph was called ,hegissippus1 the
 ,eliakim ,alcimus1 c4  ,footnote #e3   
,john vii4 #c1 and following4  ,footnote
 #f3 ,in fact1 the four personages who  
are named 7,matt4 xiii4 #ee1 ,mark vi4  
#c7 as sons of ,mary1 mother of ,jesus1 
,jacob1 ,joseph or ,joses1 ,simon1 and  
,jude1 are found again a little later as
 sons of ,mary and ,cleophas4 7,matt4   
xxvii4 #ef2 ,mark xv4 #dj2 ,gal4 i4 #ai2
 ,epist4 ,james i4 #a2 ,epist4 ,jude #a2
 ,euseb41 ,chron4 ad ann4 ,r4 ,,dcccx42 
,hist4 ,eccl41 iii4 #aa1 #cb2 ,constit4 

,apost41 vii4 #df47 ,the hypothesis we  
offer alone removes the immense         
difficulty which is found in supposing  
two sisters having each three or four   
sons bearing the same names1 and in     
admitting that ,james and ,simon1 the   
first two bishops of ,jerusalem1        
designated as brothers of the ,lord1 may
 have been real brothers of ,jesus1 who 
had begun by being hostile to him and   
then were converted4 ,the evangelist1   
hearing these four sons of ,cleophas    
called brothers of the ,lord1 has placed
 by mistake their names in the passage  
,matt4 xiii4 #e  ,mark vi4 #c1 instead  
of the names of the real brothers1 which
 have always remained obscure4 ,in this 
matter we may explain how the character 
of the personages called brothers of the
 ,lord1 of ,james1 for instance1 is so  
different from that of the real brothers
 of ,jesus as they are seen delineated  
in ,john vii4 #b1 and following4 ,the   
expression brother of the ,lord         
evidently constituted1 in the primitive 

,church1 a kind of order similar to that
 of the apostles4 ,see especially #a    
,cor4 ix4 #e4  ,footnote #g3 ,acts i4   
#ad4  ,his sisters were married at      
,nazareth1#a and he spent the first     
years of his youth there4 ,nazareth was 
a small town in a hollow1 opening       
broadly at the summit of the group of   
mountains which close the plain of      
,esdraelon on the north4 ,the population
 is now from three to four thousand1 and
 it can never have varied much4#b ,the  
cold there is sharp in winter1 and the  
climate very healthy4 ,the town1 like   
all the small ,jewish towns at this     
period1 was a heap of huts built without
 style1 and would exhibit that harsh and
 poor aspect which villages in ,semitic 
countries now present4 ,the houses1 it  
seems1 did not differ much from those   
cubes of stone1 without exterior or     
interior elegance1 which still cover the
 richest parts of the ,lebanon1 and     
which1 surrounded with vines and        
fig-trees1 are still very agreeable4    

,the environs1 moreover1 are charming2  
and no place in the world was so well   
adapted for dreams of perfect happiness4
 ,even in our times ,nazareth is still a
 delightful abode1 the only place1      
perhaps1 in ,palestine in which the mind
 feels itself relieved from the burden  
which oppresses it in this unequaled    
desolation4 ,the people are amiable and 
cheerful2 the gardens fresh and green4  
,anthony the ,martyr1 at the end of the 
sixth century1 drew an enchanting       
picture of the fertility of the         
environs1 which he compared to          
paradise4#c ,some valleys on the western
 side fully justify his description4    
,the fountain1 where formerly the life  
and gaiety of the little town were      
concentrated1 is destroyed2 its broken  
channels contain now only a muddy       
stream4 ,but the beauty of the women who
 meet there in the evening--that beauty 
which was remarked even in the sixth    
century1 and which was looked upon as a 
gift of the ,virgin ,mary#d--;is still  

most strikingly preserved4 ,it is the   
,syrian type in all its languid grace4  
,no doubt ,mary was there almost every  
day1 and took her place with her jar on 
her shoulder in the file of her         
companions who have remained unknown4   
,anthony the ,martyr remarks that the   
,jewish women1 generally disdainful to  
,christians1 were here full of          
affability4 ,even now religious         
animosity is weaker at ,nazareth than   
elsewhere4  ,footnote #a3 ,mark vi4 #c4 
,footnote #b3 ,according to ,josephus   
7,b4,j41 ,,iii4 iii4 #b71 the smallest  
town of ,galilee had more than five     
thousand inhabitants4 ,this is probably 
an exaggeration4  ,footnote #c3         
,itiner41 ,sec4 #e4  ,footnote #d3 ,ant4
 ,martyr1 ,itiner41 ,sec4 #e4  ,the     
horizon from the town is limited4 ,but  
if we ascend a little the plateau1 swept
 by a perpetual breeze1 which overlooks 
the highest houses1 the prospect is     
splendid4 ,on the west are seen the fine
 outlines of ,carmel1 terminated by an  

abrupt point which seems to plunge into 
the sea4 ,before us are spread out the  
double summit which towers above        
,megiddo2 the mountains of the country  
of ,shechem1 with their holy places of  
the patriarchal age2 the hills of       
,gilboa1 the small1 picturesque group to
 which are attached the graceful or     
terrible recollections of ,shunem and of
 ,endor2 and ,tabor1 with its beautiful 
rounded form1 which antiquity compared  
to a bosom4 ,through a depression       
between the mountains of ,shunem and    
,tabor are seen the valley of the       
,jordan and the high plains of ,peraea1 
which form a continuous line from the   
eastern side4 ,on the north1 the        
mountains of ,safed1 in inclining toward
 the sea conceal ,st4 ,jean d',acre1 but
 permit the ,gulf of ,khaifa to be      
distinguished4 ,such was the horizon of 
,jesus4 ,this enchanted circle1 cradle  
of the kingdom of ,god1 was for years   
his world4 ,even in his later life he   
departed but little beyond the familial 

limits of his childhood4 ,for yonder1   
northward1 a glimpse is caught1 almost  
on the flank of ,hermon1 of             
,caesarea-,philippi1 his furthest point 
of advance into the ,gentile world2 and 
here southward1 the more sombre aspect  
of these ,samaritan hills foreshadows   
the dreariness of ,judea beyond1 parched
 as by a scorching wind of desolation   
and death4  ,if the world1 remaining    
,christian1 but attaining to a better   
idea of the esteem in which the origin  
of its religion should be held1 should  
ever wish to replace by authentic holy  
places the mean and apocryphal          
sanctuaries to which the piety of dark  
ages attached itself1 it is upon this   
height of ,nazareth that it will rebuild
 its temple4 ,there1 at the birthplace  
of ,christianity1 and in the centre of  
the actions of its ,founder1 the great  
church ought to be raised in which all  
,christians may worship4 ,there1 also1  
on this spot where sleep ,joseph1 the   
carpenter1 and thousands of forgotten   

,nazarenes who never passed beyond the  
horizon of their valley1 would be a     
better station than any in the world    
beside for the philosopher to           
contemplate the course of human affairs1
 to console himself for their           
uncertainty1 and to reassure himself as 
to the ,divine end which the world      
pursues through countless falterings1   
and in spite of the universal vanity4   
,,chapter ,,iii4  ,,education ,,of      
,,jesus4   ,this aspect of ,nature1 at  
once smiling and grand1 was the whole   
education of ,jesus4 ,he learned to read
 and to write1#a doubtless1 according to
 the ,eastern method1 which consisted in
 putting in the hands of the child a    
book1 which he repeated in cadence with 
his little comrades1 until he knew it by
 heart4#b ,it is doubtful1 however1 if  
he understood the ,hebrew writings in   
their original tongue4 ,his biographers 
make him quote them according to the    
translations in the ,aramean tongue2#c  
his principles of exegesis1 as far as we

 can judge of them by those of his      
disciples1 much resembled those which   
were then in vogue1 and which form the  
spirit of the ,targums and the          
,midrashim4#d  ,footnote #a3 ,john viii4
 #f4  ,footnote #b3 ,testam4 of the     
,twelve ,patriarchs1 ,levi4 #f4         
,footnote #c3 ,matt4 xxvii4 #df2 ,mark  
xv4 #cd4  ,footnote #d3 ,jewish         
translations and commentaries of the    
,talmudic epoch4  ,the schoolmaster in  
the small ,jewish towns was the hazzan1 
or reader in the synagogues4#a ,jesus   
frequented little the higher schools of 
the scribes or sopherim 7,nazareth had  
perhaps none of them71 and he had none  
of those titles which confer1 in the    
eyes of the vulgar1 the privileges of   
knowledge4#b ,it would1 nevertheless1 be
 a great error to imagine that ,jesus   
was what we call ignorant4 ,scholastic  
education among us draws a profound     
distinction1 in respect of personal     
worth1 between those who have received  
and those who have been deprived of it4 

,it was not so in the ,east1 nor1 in    
general1 in the good old times4 ,the    
state of ignorance in which1 among us1  
owing to our isolated and entirely      
individual life1 those remain who have  
not passed through the schools1 was     
unknown in those societies where moral  
culture1 and especially the general     
spirit of the age1 was transmitted by   
the perpetual intercourse of man with   
man4 ,the ,arab1 who has never had a    
teacher1 is often1 nevertheless1 a very 
superior man2 for the tent is a kind of 
school always open1 where1 from the     
contact of well-educated men1 there is  
produced a great intellectual and even  
literary movement4 ,the refinement of   
manners and the acuteness of the        
intellect have1 in the ,east1 nothing in
 common with what we call education4 ,it
 is the men from the schools1 on the    
contrary1 who are considered badly      
trained and pedantic4 ,in this social   
state1 ignorance1 which1 among us1      
condemns a man to an inferior rank1 is  

the condition of great things and of    
great originality4  ,footnote #a3       
,mishnah1 ,shabbath1 i4 #c4  ,footnote  
#b3 ,matt4 xiii4 #ed1 and following2    
,john vii4 #ae4  ,it is not probable    
that ,jesus knew ,greek4 ,this language 
was very little spread in ,judea beyond 
the classes who participated in the     
government1 and the towns inhabited by  
pagans1 like ,caesarea4#a ,the real     
mother tongue of ,jesus was the ,syrian 
dialect mixed with ,hebrew1 which was   
then spoken in ,palestine4#b ,still less
 probably had he any knowledge of ,greek
 culture4 ,this culture was proscribed  
by the doctors of ,palestine1 who       
included in the same malediction he who 
rears swine1 and he who teaches his son 
,greek science4#c ,at all events it had 
not penetrated into little towns like   
,nazareth4 ,notwithstanding the anathema
 of the doctors1 some ,jews1 it is true1
 had already embraced the ,hellenic     
culture4 ,without speaking of the       
,jewish school of ,egypt1 in which the  

attempts to amalgamate ,hellenism and   
,judaism had been in operation nearly   
two hundred years1 a ,jew--,nicholas of 
,damascus--had become1 even at this     
time1 one of the most distinguished men1
 one of the best informed1 and one of   
the most respected of his age4 ,josephus
 was destined soon to furnish another   
example of a ,jew completely            
,grecianized4 ,but ,nicholas was only a 
,jew in blood4 ,josephus declares that  
he himself was an exception among his   
contemporaries2#d and the whole         
schismatic school of ,egypt was detached
 to such a degree from ,jerusalem that  
we do not find the least allusion to it 
either in the ,talmud or in ,jewish     
tradition4 ,certain it is that ,greek   
was very little studied at ,jerusalem1  
that ,greek studies were considered as  
dangerous1 and even servile1 that they  
were regarded1 at the best1 as a mere   
womanly accomplishment4#e ,the study of 
the ,law was the only one accounted     
liberal and worthy of a thoughtful      

man4#f ,questioned as to the time when  
it would be proper to teach children    
,greek wisdom1 a learned rabbi had      
answered1 ,at the time when it is       
neither day nor night2 since it is      
written of the ,law1 ,thou shalt study  
it day and night4#g  ,footnote #a3      
,mishnah1 ,shekalim1 iii4 #b2 ,talmud of
 ,jerusalem1 ,megilla1 halaca xi42      
,sota1 vii4 #a2 ,talmud of ,babylon1    
,baba ,kama1 #hc a2 ,megilla1 #h b1 and 
following4  ,footnote #b3 ,matthew      
xxvii4 #df2 ,mark iii4 #ag1 v4 #da1 vii4
 #cd1 xiv4 #cf1 xv4 #cd4 ,the expression
 ,greek3 e patrios phone in the writers 
of the time1 always designates the      
,semitic dialect1 which was spoken in   
,palestine 7,,ii4 ,macc4 vii4 #ba1 #bg1 
xii4 #cg2 ,acts xxi4 #cg1 #dj1 xxii4 #b1
 xxvi4 #ad2 ,josephus1 ,ant41 ,,xviii4  
vi4 #aj1 xx4 sub fin42 ,b4,j41 prooem   
,i2 ,v4 vi4 #c1 ,v4 ix4 #b1 ,,vi4 ii4   
#a3 ,against ,appian1 ,i4 #i2 ,de       
,macc41 #ab1 #af74 ,we shall show1      
later1 that some of the documents which 

served as the basis for the synoptic    
,gospels were written in this ,semitic  
dialect4 ,it was the same with many of  
the ,apocrypha 7,,iv4 ,book of ,macc4   
xvi4 ad calcem1 c474 ,in fine1 the sects
 issuing directly from the first        
,galilean movement 7,nazarenes1         
,ebionim1 c471 which continued a long   
time in ,batanea and ,hauran1 spoke a   
,semitic dialect 7,eusebius1 ,de ,situ  
et ,nomin4 ,loc4 ,hebr41 at the word    
,greek3 ,choba2 ,epiph41 ,adv4 ,haer41  
xxix4 #g1 #i1 xxx4 #c2 ,st4 ,jerome1 ,in
 ,matt41 xii4 #ac2 ,dial4 adv4 ,pelag41 
iii4 #b74  ,footnote #c3 ,mishnah1      
,sanhedrim1 xi4 #a2 ,talmud of ,babylon1
 ,baba ,kama1 #hb b and #hc a2 ,sota1   
#di a and b2 ,menachoth1 #fd b2 comp4   
,,ii4 ,macc4 iv4 #aj1 and following4    
,footnote #d3 ,jos41 ,ant4 ,,xx4 xi4 #b4
  ,footnote #e3 ,talmud of ,jerusalem1  
,peah1 i4 #a4  ,footnote #f3 ,jos41     
,ant41 loc4 cit42 ,orig41 ,contra       
,celsum1 ii4 #cd4  ,footnote #g3 ,talmud
 of ,jerusalem1 ,peah1 i4 #a2 ,talmud of

 ,babylon1 ,menachoth1 #ii b4  ,neither 
directly nor indirectly1 then1 did any  
element of ,greek culture reach ,jesus4 
,he knew nothing beyond ,judaism2 his   
mind preserved that free innocence which
 an extended and varied culture always  
weakens4 ,in the very bosom of ,judaism 
he remained a stranger to many efforts  
often parallel to his own4 ,on the one  
hand1 the asceticism of the ,essenes or 
the ,therapeutae2#a on the other1 the   
fine efforts of religious philosophy put
 forth by the ,jewish school of         
,alexandria1 and of which ,philo1 his   
contemporary1 was the ingenious         
interpreter1 were unknown to him4 ,the  
frequent resemblances which we find     
between him and ,philo1 those excellent 
maxims about the love of ,god1 charity1 
rest in ,god1#b which are like an echo  
between the ,gospel and the writings of 
the illustrious ,alexandrian thinker1   
proceed from the common tendencies which
 the wants of the time inspired in all  
elevated minds4  ,footnote #a3 ,the     

,therapeutae of ,philo are a branch of  
the ,essenes4 ,their name appears to be 
but a ,greek translation of that of the 
,essenes 7,greek3 ,essaioi1 asaya1      
doctors74 ,cf4 ,philo1 ,de ,vita        
,contempl41 init4  ,footnote #b3 ,see   
especially the treatises ,quis ,rerum   
,divinarum ,haeres ,sit and ,de         
,philanthropia of ,philo4  ,happily for 
him1 he was also ignorant of the strange
 scholasticism which was taught at      
,jerusalem1 and which was soon to       
constitute the ,talmud4 ,if some        
,pharisees had already brought it into  
,galilee1 he did not associate with     
them1 and when1 later1 he encountered   
this silly casuistry1 it only inspired  
him with disgust4 ,we may suppose1      
however1 that the principles of ,hillel 
were not unknown to him4 ,hillel1 fifty 
years before him1 had given utterance to
 aphorisms very analogous to his own4   
,by his poverty1 so meekly endured1 by  
the sweetness of his character1 by his  
opposition to priests and hypocrites1   

,hillel was the true master of ,jesus1#a
 if indeed it may be permitted to speak 
of a master in connection with so high  
an originality as his4  ,footnote #a3   
,pirke ,aboth1 chap4 i4 and ii42 ,talm4 
of ,jerus41 ,pesachim1 vi4 #a2 ,talm4 of
 ,bab41 ,pesachim1 #ff a2 ,shabbath1 #cj
 b and #ca a2 ,joma1 #ce b4  ,the       
perusal of the books of the ,old        
,testament made much impression upon    
him4 ,the canon of the holy books was   
composed of two principal parts--the    
,law1 that is to say1 the ,pentateuch1  
and the ,prophets1 such as we now       
possess them4 ,an extensive allegorical 
exegesis was applied to all these books2
 and it was sought to draw from them    
something that was not in them1 but     
which responded to the aspirations of   
the age4 ,the ,law1 which represented   
not the ancient laws of the country1 but
 ,utopias1 the factitious laws and pious
 frauds of the time of the pietistic    
kings1 had become1 since the nation had 
ceased to govern itself1 an             

inexhaustible theme of subtle           
interpretations4 ,as to the ,prophets   
and the ,psalms1 the popular persuasion 
was that almost all the somewhat        
mysterious traits that were in these    
books had reference to the ,messiah1 and
 it was sought to find there the type of
 him who should realize the hopes of the
 nation4 ,jesus participated in the     
taste which every one had for these     
allegorical interpretations4 ,but the   
true poetry of the ,bible1 which escaped
 the puerile exegetists of ,jerusalem1  
was fully revealed to his grand genius4 
,the ,law does not appear to have had   
much charm for him2 he thought that he  
could do something better4 ,but the     
religious lyrics of the ,psalms were in 
marvellous accordance with his poetic   
soul2 they were1 all his life1 his food 
and sustenance4 ,the prophets--,isaiah  
in particular1 and his successor in the 
record of the time of the               
captivity1--with their brilliant dreams 
of the future1 their impetuous          

eloquence1 and their invectives mingled 
with enchanting pictures1 were his true 
teachers4 ,he read also1 no doubt1 many 
apocryphal works--i4e41 writings        
somewhat modern1 the authors of which1  
for the sake of an authority only       
granted to very ancient writings1 had   
clothed themselves with the names of    
prophets and patriarchs4 ,one of these  
books especially struck him1 namely1 the
 ,book of ,daniel4 ,this book1 composed 
by an enthusiastic ,jew of the time of  
,antiochus ,epiphanes1 under the name of
 an ancient sage1#a was the resume of   
the spirit of those later times4 ,its   
author1 a true creator of the philosophy
 of history1 had for the first time     
dared to see in the march of the world  
and the succession of empires1 only a   
purpose subordinate to the destinies of 
the ,jewish people4 ,jesus was early    
penetrated by these high hopes4         
,perhaps1 also1 he had read the books of
 ,enoch1 then revered equally with the  
holy books1#b and the other writings of 

the same class1 which kept up so much   
excitement in the popular imagination4  
,the advent of the ,messiah1 with his   
glories and his terrors--the nations    
falling down one after another1 the     
cataclysm of heaven and earth--were the 
familiar food of his imagination2 and1  
as these revolutions were reputed near1 
and a great number of persons sought to 
calculate the time when they should     
happen1 the supernatural state of things
 into which such visions transport us1  
appeared to him from the first perfectly
 natural and simple4  ,footnote #a3 ,the
 legend of ,daniel existed as early as  
the seventh century ,b4,c4 7,ezekiel    
xiv4 #ad and following1 xxviii4 #c74 ,it
 was for the necessities of the legend  
that he was made to live at the time of 
the ,babylonian captivity4  ,footnote   
#b3 ,epist4 ,jude1 #ad and following2 #b
 ,peter ii4 #d1 #aa2 ,testam4 of the    
,twelve ,patriarchs1 ,simeon1 #e2 ,levi1
 #ad1 #af2 ,judah1 #ah2 ,zab41 #c2 ,dan1
 #e2 ,naphtali1 #d4 ,the ,book of ,enoch

 still forms an integral part of the    
,ethiopian ,bible4 ,such as we know it  
from the ,ethiopian version1 it is      
composed of pieces of different dates1  
of which the most ancient are from the  
year #acj to #aej ,b4,c4 ,some of these 
pieces have an analogy with the         
discourses of ,jesus4 ,compare chaps4   
xcvi4-xcix4 with ,luke vi4 #bd1 and     
following4  ,that he had no knowledge of
 the general state of the world is      
apparent from each feature of his most  
authentic discourses4 ,the earth        
appeared to him still divided into      
kingdoms warring with one another2 he   
seemed to ignore the ,roman peace1 and  
the new state of society which its age  
inaugurated4 ,he had no precise idea of 
the ,roman power2 the name of ,caesar   
alone reached him4 ,he saw building1 in 
,galilee or its environs1 ,tiberias1    
,julias1 ,diocaesarea1 ,caesarea1       
gorgeous works of the ,herods1 who      
sought1 by these magnificent structures1
 to prove their admiration for ,roman   

civilization1 and their devotion toward 
the members of the family of ,augustus1 
structures whose names1 by a caprice of 
fate1 now serve1 though strangely       
altered1 to designate miserable hamlets 
of ,bedouins4 ,he also probably saw     
,sebaste1 a work of ,herod the ,great1 a
 showy city1 whose ruins would lead to  
the belief that it had been carried     
there ready made1 like a machine which  
had only to be put up in its place4     
,this ostentatious piece of architecture
 arrived in ,judea by cargoes2 these    
hundreds of columns1 all of the same    
diameter1 the ornament of some insipid  
,rue de ,rivoli these were what he      
called the kingdoms of the world and all
 their glory4 ,but this luxury of power1
 this administrative and official art1  
displeased him4 ,what he loved were his 
,galilean villages1 confused mixtures of
 huts1 of nests and holes cut in the    
rocks1 of wells1 of tombs1 of fig-trees1
 and of olives4 ,he always clung close  
to ,nature4 ,the courts of kings        

appeared to him as places where men wear
 fine clothes4 ,the charming            
impossibilities with which his parables 
abound1 when he brings kings and the    
mighty ones on the stage1#a prove that  
he never conceived of aristocratic      
society but as a young villager who sees
 the world through the prism of his     
simplicity4  ,footnote #a3 ,see1 for    
example1 ,matt4 xxii4 #b1 and following4
  ,still less was he acquainted with the
 new idea1 created by ,grecian science1 
which was the basis of all philosophy1  
and which modern science has greatly    
confirmed1 to wit1 the exclusion of     
capricious gods1 to whom the simple     
belief of ancient ages attributed the   
government of the universe4 ,almost a   
century before him1 ,lucretius had      
expressed1 in an admirable manner1 the  
unchangeableness of the general system  
of ,nature4 ,the negation of            
miracle--the idea that everything in the
 world happens by laws in which the     
personal intervention of superior beings

 has no share--was universally admitted 
in the great schools of all the         
countries which had accepted ,grecian   
science4 ,perhaps even ,babylon and     
,persia were not strangers to it4 ,jesus
 knew nothing of this progress4         
,although born at a time when the       
principle of positive science was       
already proclaimed1 he lived entirely in
 the supernatural4 ,never1 perhaps1 had 
the ,jews been more possessed with the  
thirst for the marvellous4 ,philo1 who  
lived in a great intellectual centre1   
and who had received a very complete    
education1 possessed only a chimerical  
and inferior knowledge of science4      
,jesus1 on this point1 differed in no   
respect from his companions4 ,he        
believed in the devil1 whom he regarded 
as a kind of evil genius1#a and he      
imagined1 like all the world1 that      
nervous maladies were produced by demons
 who possessed the patient and agitated 
him4 ,the marvellous was not the        
exceptional for him2 it was his normal  

state4 ,the notion of the supernatural1 
with its impossibilities1 is coincident 
with the birth of experimental science4 
,the man who is strange to all ideas of 
physical laws1 who believes that by     
praying he can change the path of the   
clouds1 arrest disease1 and even death1 
finds nothing extraordinary in miracle1 
inasmuch as the entire course of things 
is to him the result of the free will of
 the ,divinity4 ,this intellectual state
 was constantly that of ,jesus4 ,but in 
his great soul such a belief produced   
effects quite opposed to those produced 
on the vulgar4 ,among the latter1 the   
belief in the special action of ,god led
 to a foolish credulity1 and the        
deceptions of charlatans4 ,with him it  
led to a profound idea of the familiar  
relations of man with ,god1 and an      
exaggerated belief in the power of      
man--beautiful errors1 which were the   
secret of his power2 for if they were   
the means of one day showing his        
deficiencies in the eyes of the         

physicist and the chemist1 they gave him
 a power over his own age of which no   
individual had been possessed before his
 time1 or has been since4  ,footnote #a3
 ,matt4 vi4 #ac4  ,his distinctive      
character very early revealed itself4   
,legend delights to show him even from  
his infancy in revolt against paternal  
authority1 and departing from the common
 way to fulfill his vocation4#a ,it is  
certain1 at least1 that he cared little 
for the relations of kinship4 ,his      
family do not seem to have loved him1#b 
and at times he seems to have been hard 
toward them4#c ,jesus1 like all men     
exclusively preoccupied by an idea1 came
 to think little of the ties of blood4  
,the bond of thought is the only one    
that natures of this kind recognize4    
,behold my mother and my brethren1 said 
he1 in extending his hand toward his    
disciples2 he who does the will of my   
,father1 he is my brother and my sister4
 ,the simple people did not understand  
the matter thus1 and one day a woman    

passing near him cried out1 ,blessed is 
the womb that bare thee1 and the paps   
which gave thee suck6 ,but he said1     
,yea1 rather blessed are they that hear 
the word of ,god1 and keep it4#d ,soon1 
in his bold revolt against nature1 he   
went still further1 and we shall see him
 trampling under foot everything that is
 human1 blood1 love1 and country1 and   
only keeping soul and heart for the idea
 which presented itself to him as the   
absolute form of goodness and truth4    
,footnote #a3 ,luke ii4 #db and         
following4 ,the ,apocryphal ,gospels are
 full of similar histories carried to   
the grotesque4  ,footnote #b3 ,matt4    
xiii4 #eg2 ,mark vi4 #d2 ,john vii4 #c1 
and following4  ,footnote #c3 ,matt4    
xii4 #dh2 ,mark iii4 #cc2 ,luke viii4   
#ba2 ,john ii4 #d2 ,gospel according to 
the ,hebrews1 in ,st4 ,jerome1 ,dial4   
adv4 ,pelag41 iii4 #b4  ,footnote #d3   
,luke xi4 #bg1 and following4           
,,chapter ,,iv4  ,,the ,,order ,,of     
,,thought ,,which ,,surrounded ,,the    

,,development ,,of ,,jesus4   ,as the   
cooled earth no longer permits us to    
understand the phenomena of primitive   
creation1 because the fire which        
penetrated it is extinct1 so deliberate 
explanations have always appeared       
somewhat insufficient when applying our 
timid methods of induction to the       
revolutions of the creative epochs which
 have decided the fate of humanity4     
,jesus lived at one of those times when 
the game of public life is freely       
played1 and when the stake of human     
activity is increased a hundredfold4    
,every great part1 then1 entails death2 
for such movements suppose liberty and  
an absence of preventive measures1 which
 could not exist without a terrible     
alternative4 ,in these days1 man risks  
little and gains little4 ,in heroic     
periods of human activity1 man risked   
all and gained all4 ,the good and the   
wicked1 or at least those who believe   
themselves and are believed to be such1 
form opposite armies4 ,the apotheosis is

 reached by the scaffold2 characters    
have distinctive features1 which engrave
 them as eternal types in the memory of 
men4 ,except in the ,french ,revolution1
 no historical centre was as suitable as
 that in which ,jesus was formed1 to    
develop those hidden forces which       
humanity holds as in reserve1 and which 
are not seen except in days of          
excitement and peril4  ,if the          
government of the world were a          
speculative problem1 and the greatest   
philosopher were the man best fitted to 
tell his fellows what they ought to     
believe1 it would be from calmness and  
reflection that those great moral and   
dogmatic truths called religions would  
proceed4 ,but it is not so4 ,if we      
except ,cakya-,mouni1 the great         
religious founders have not been        
metaphysicians4 ,buddhism itself1 whose 
origin is in pure thought1 has conquered
 one-half of ,asia1 by motives wholly   
political and moral4 ,as to the ,semitic
 religions1 they are as little          

philosophical as possible4 ,moses and   
,mahomet were not men of speculation2   
they were men of action4 ,it was in     
proposing action to their               
fellow-countrymen1 and to their         
contemporaries1 that they governed      
humanity4 ,jesus1 in like manner1 was   
not a theologian1 or a philosopher1     
having a more or less well-composed     
system4 ,in order to be a disciple of   
,jesus1 it was not necessary to sign any
 formulary1 or to pronounce any         
confession of faith2 one thing only was 
necessary--to be attached to him1 to    
love him4 ,he never disputed about ,god1
 for he felt ,him directly in himself4  
,the rock of metaphysical subtleties1   
against which ,christianity broke from  
the third century1 was in nowise created
 by the ,founder4 ,jesus had neither    
dogma nor system1 but a fixed personal  
resolution1 which1 exceeding in         
intensity every other created will1     
directs to this hour the destinies of   
humanity4  ,the ,jewish people had the  

advantage1 from the captivity of        
,babylon up to the ,middle ,ages1 of    
being in a state of the greatest        
tension4 ,this is why the interpreters  
of the spirit of the nation during this 
long period seemed to write under the   
action of an intense fever1 which placed
 them constantly either above or below  
reason1 rarely in its middle path4      
,never did man seize the problem of the 
future and of his destiny with a more   
desperate courage1 more determined to go
 to extremes4 ,not separating the lot of
 humanity from that of their little     
race1 the ,jewish thinkers were the     
first who sought for a general theory of
 the progress of our species4 ,greece1  
always confined within itself1 and      
solely attentive to petty quarrels1 has 
had admirable historians2 but before the
 ,roman epoch1 it would be in vain to   
seek in her a general system of the     
philosophy of history1 embracing all    
humanity4 ,the ,jew1 on the contrary1   
thanks to a kind of prophetic sense     

which renders the ,semite at times      
marvellously apt to see the great lines 
of the future1 has made history enter   
into religion4 ,perhaps he owes a little
 of this spirit to ,persia4 ,persia1    
from an ancient period1 conceived the   
history of the world as a series of     
evolutions1 over each of which a prophet
 presided4 ,each prophet had his hazar1 
or reign of a thousand years 7chiliasm71
 and from these successive ages1        
analogous to the ,avataer of ,india1 is 
composed the course of events which     
prepared the reign of ,ormuzd4 ,at the  
end of the time when the cycle of       
chiliasms shall be exhausted1 the       
complete paradise will come4 ,men then  
will live happy2 the earth will be as   
one plain2 there will be only one       
language1 one law1 and one government   
for all4 ,but this advent will be       
preceded by terrible calamities4 ,dahak 
7the ,satan of ,persia7 will break his  
chains and fall upon the world4 ,two    
prophets will come to console mankind1  

and to prepare the great advent4#a      
,these ideas ran through the world1 and 
penetrated even to ,rome1 where they    
inspired a cycle of prophetic poems1 of 
which the fundamental ideas were the    
division of the history of humanity into
 periods1 the succession of the gods    
corresponding to these periods--a       
complete renovation of the world1 and   
the final advent of a golden age4#b ,the
 book of ,daniel1 the book of ,enoch1   
and certain parts of the ,sibylline     
books1#c are the ,jewish expression of  
the same theory4 ,these thoughts were   
certainly far from being shared by all2 
they were only embraced at first by a   
few persons of lively imagination1 who  
were inclined toward strange doctrines4 
,the dry and narrow author of the book  
of ,esther never thought of the rest of 
the world except to despise it1 and to  
wish it evil4#d ,the disabused epicurean
 who wrote ,ecclesiastes1 thought so    
little of the future1 that he considered
 it even useless to labor for his       

children2 in the eyes of this           
egotistical celibate1 the highest stroke
 of wisdom was to use his fortune for   
his own enjoyment4#e ,but the great     
achievements of a people are generally  
wrought by the minority4                
,notwithstanding all their enormous     
defects1 hard1 egotistical1 scoffing1   
cruel1 narrow1 subtle1 and sophistical1 
the ,jewish people are the authors of   
the finest movement of disinterested    
enthusiasm which history records4       
,opposition always makes the glory of a 
country4 ,the greatest men of a nation  
are those whom it puts to death4        
,socrates was the glory of the          
,athenians1 who would not suffer him to 
live amongst them4 ,spinoza was the     
greatest ,jew of modern times1 and the  
synagogue expelled him with ignominy4   
,jesus was the glory of the people of   
,israel1 who crucified him4  ,footnote  
#a3 ,yacna1 xiii4 #bd3 ,theopompus1 in  
,plut41 ,de ,iside et ,osiride1 sec4    
#dg2 ,minokhired1 a passage published in

 the ,zeitschrift der deutschen         
morgenlaendischen ,gesellschaft1 i41 p4 
#bfc4  ,footnote #b3 ,virg41 ,ecl4 iv42 
,servius1 at v4 #d of this ,eclogue2    
,nigidius1 quoted by ,servius1 at v4    
#aj4  ,footnote #c3 ,book iii41 #ig-hag4
  ,footnote #d3 ,esther vi4 #ac1 vii4   
#aj1 viii4 #g1 #aa-ag1 ix4 #a-bb2 and in
 the apocryphal parts1 ix4 #aj1 #aa1    
xiv4 #ac1 and following1 xvi4 #bj1 #bd4 
,footnote #e3 ,eccl4 i4 #aa1 ii4 #af1   
#ah-bd1 iii4 #ai-bb1 iv4 #h1 #ae1 #af1  
v4 #ag1 #ah1 vi4 #c1 #f1 viii4 #ae1 ix4 
#i1 #aj4  ,a gigantic dream haunted for 
centuries the ,jewish people1 constantly
 renewing its youth in its decrepitude4 
,a stranger to the theory of individual 
recompense1 which ,greece diffused under
 the name of the immortality of the     
soul1 ,judea concentrated all its power 
of love and desire upon the national    
future4 ,she thought she possessed      
divine promises of a boundless future2  
and as the bitter reality1 from the     
ninth century before our era1 gave more 

and more the dominion of the world to   
physical force1 and brutally crushed    
these aspirations1 she took refuge in   
the union of the most impossible ideas1 
and attempted the strangest gyrations4  
,before the captivity1 when all the     
earthly hopes of the nation had become  
weakened by the separation of the       
northern tribes1 they dreamt of the     
restoration of the house of ,david1 the 
reconciliation of the two divisions of  
the people1 and the triumph of theocracy
 and the worship of ,jehovah over       
idolatry4 ,at the epoch of the          
captivity1 a poet1 full of harmony1 saw 
the splendor of a future ,jerusalem1 of 
which the peoples and the distant isles 
should be tributaries1 under colors so  
charming1 that one might say a glimpse  
of the visions of ,jesus had reached him
 at a distance of six centuries4#a      
,footnote #a3 ,isaiah lx4 c4  ,the      
victory of ,cyrus seemed at one time to 
realize all that had been hoped4 ,the   
grave disciples of the ,avesta and the  

adorers of ,jehovah believed themselves 
brothers4 ,persia had begun by banishing
 the multiple devas1 and by transforming
 them into demons 7divs71 to draw from  
the old ,arian imaginations 7essentially
 naturalistic7 a species of ,monotheism4
 ,the prophetic tone of many of the     
teachings of ,iran had much analogy with
 certain compositions of ,hosea and     
,isaiah4 ,israel reposed under the      
,achemenidae1#a and under ,xerxes       
7,ahasuerus7 made itself feared by the  
,iranians themselves4 ,but the triumphal
 and often cruel entry of ,greek and    
,roman civilization into ,asia1 threw it
 back upon its dreams4 ,more than ever  
it invoked the ,messiah as judge and    
avenger of the people4 ,a complete      
renovation1 a revolution which should   
shake the world to its very foundation1 
was necessary in order to satisfy the   
enormous thirst of vengeance excited in 
it by the sense of its superiority1 and 
by the sight of its humiliation4#b      
,footnote #a3 ,the whole book of ,esther

 breathes a great attachment to this    
dynasty4  ,footnote #b3 ,apocryphal     
letter of ,baruch1 in ,fabricius1 ,cod4 
pseud41 ,v4,t41 ii4 p4 #adg1 and        
following4  ,if ,israel had possessed   
the spiritualistic doctrine1 which      
divides man in two parts--the body and  
the soul--and finds it quite natural    
that while the body decays1 the soul    
should survive1 this paroxysm of rage   
and of energetic protestation would have
 had no existence4 ,but such a doctrine1
 proceeding from the ,grecian           
philosophy1 was not in the traditions of
 the ,jewish mind4 ,the ancient ,hebrew 
writings contain no trace of future     
rewards or punishments4 ,whilst the idea
 of the solidarity of the tribe existed1
 it was natural that a strict           
retribution according to individual     
merits should not be thought of4 ,so    
much the worse for the pious man who    
happened to live in an epoch of impiety2
 he suffered1 like the rest1 the public 
misfortunes consequent on the general   

irreligion4 ,this doctrine1 bequeathed  
by the sages of the patriarchal era1    
constantly produced unsustainable       
contradictions4 ,already at the time of 
,job it was much shaken2 the old men of 
,teman who professed it were considered 
behind the age1 and the young ,elihu1   
who intervened in order to combat them1 
dared to utter as his first word this   
essentially revolutionary sentiment1    
,great men are not always wise2 neither 
do the aged understand judgment4#a ,with
 the complications which had taken place
 in the world since the time of         
,alexander1 the old ,temanite and       
,mosaic principle became still more     
intolerable4#b ,never had ,israel been  
more faithful to the ,law1 and yet it   
was subjected to the atrocious          
persecution of ,antiochus4 ,only a      
declaimer1 accustomed to repeat old     
phrases denuded of meaning1 would dare  
to assert that these evils proceeded    
from the unfaithfulness of the people4#c
 ,what6 these victims who died for their

 faith1 these heroic ,maccabees1 this   
mother with her seven sons1 will        
,jehovah forget them eternally8 ,will he
 abandon them to the corruption of the  
grave8#d ,worldly and incredulous       
,sadduceeism might possibly not recoil  
before such a consequence1 and a        
consummate sage1 like ,antigonus of     
,soco1#e might indeed maintain that we  
must not practise virtue like a slave in
 expectation of a recompense1 that we   
must be virtuous without hope4 ,but the 
mass of the people could not be         
contented with that4 ,some1 attaching   
themselves to the principle of          
philosophical immortality1 imagined the 
righteous living in the memory of ,god1 
glorious forever in the remembrance of  
men1 and judging the wicked who had     
persecuted them4#f ,they live in the    
sight of ,god2 444 they are known of    
,god4#g ,that was their reward4 ,others1
 especially the ,pharisees1 had recourse
 to the doctrine of the resurrection4#h 
,the righteous will live again in order 

to participate in the ,messianic reign4 
,they will live again in the flesh1 and 
for a world of which they will be the   
kings and the judges2 they will be      
present at the triumph of their ideas   
and at the humiliation of their enemies4
  ,footnote #a3 ,job xxxiii4 #i4        
,footnote #b3 ,it is nevertheless       
remarkable that ,jesus1 son of ,sirach1 
adheres to it strictly 7chap4 xvii4     
#bf-bh1 xxii4 #aj1 #aa1 xxx4 #d1 and    
following1 xli4 #a1 #b1 xliv4 #i74 ,the 
author of the book of ,wisdom holds     
quite opposite opinions 7iv4 #a1 ,greek 
text74  ,footnote #c3 ,esth4 xiv4 #f1 #g
 7apocr472 the apocryphal ,epistle of   
,baruch 7,fabricius1 ,cod4 pseud41      
,v4,t41 ii4 p4 #adg1 and following74    
,footnote #d3 #b ,macc4 vii4  ,footnote 
#e3 ,pirke ,aboth41 i4 #c4  ,footnote   
#f3 ,wisdom1 ii4-vi42 ,de ,rationis     
,imperio1 attributed to ,josephus1 #h1  
#ac1 #af1 #ah4 ,still we must remark    
that the author of this last treatise   
estimates the motive of personal        

recompense in a secondary degree4 ,the  
primary impulse of martyrs is the pure  
love of the ,law1 the advantage which   
their death will procure to the people1 
and the glory which will attach to their
 name4 ,comp4 ,wisdom1 iv4 #a1 and      
following2 ,eccl4 xliv41 and following2 
,jos41 ,b4,j41 ,,ii4 viii4 #aj1 ,,iii4  
viii4 #e4  ,footnote #g3 ,wisdom1 iv4   
#a2 ,de ,rat4 ,imp41 #af1 #ah4          
,footnote #h3 #b ,macc41 vii4 #i1 #ad1  
xii4 #dc1 #dd4  ,we find among the      
ancient people of ,israel only very     
indecisive traces of this fundamental   
dogma4 ,the ,sadducee1 who did not      
believe it1 was in reality faithful to  
the old ,jewish doctrine2 it was the    
,pharisee1 the believer in the          
resurrection1 who was the innovator4    
,but in religion it is always the       
zealous sect which innovates1 which     
progresses1 and which has influence4    
,besides this1 the resurrection1 an idea
 totally different from that of the     
immortality of the soul1 proceeded very 

naturally from the anterior doctrines   
and from the position of the people4    
,perhaps ,persia also furnished some of 
its elements4#a ,in any case1 combining 
with the belief in the ,messiah1 and    
with the doctrine of a speedy renewal of
 all things1 it formed those apocalyptic
 theories which1 without being articles 
of faith 7the orthodox ,sanhedrim of    
,jerusalem does not seem to have adopted
 them71 pervaded all imaginations1 and  
produced an extreme fermentation from   
one end of the ,jewish world to the     
other4 ,the total absence of dogmatic   
rigor caused very contradictory notions 
to be admitted at one time1 even upon so
 primary a point ,sometimes the         
righteous were to await the             
resurrection2#b sometimes they were to  
be received at the moment of death into 
,abraham's bosom2#c sometimes the       
resurrection was to be general2#d       
sometimes it was to be reserved only for
 the faithful2#e sometimes it supposed a
 renewed earth and a new ,jerusalem2    

sometimes it implied a previous         
annihilation of the universe4  ,footnote
 #a3 ,theopompus1 in ,diog4 ,laert41    
,proem1 #i4 ,boundehesch1 xxxi4 ,the    
traces of the doctrine of the           
resurrection in the ,avesta are very    
doubtful4  ,footnote #b3 ,john xi4 #bd4 
,footnote #c3 ,luke xvi4 #bb4 ,cf4 ,de  
,rationis ,imp41 #ac1 #af1 #ah4         
,footnote #d3 ,dan4 xii4 #b4  ,footnote 
#e3 #b ,macc4 vii4 #ad4  ,jesus1 as soon
 as he began to think1 entered into the 
burning atmosphere which was created in 
,palestine by the ideas we have just    
stated4 ,these ideas were taught in no  
school2 but they were in the very air1  
and his soul was early penetrated by    
them4 ,our hesitations and our doubts   
never reached him4 ,on this summit of   
the mountain of ,nazareth1 where no man 
can sit to-day without an uneasy1 though
 it may be a frivolous1 feeling about   
his destiny1 ,jesus sat often untroubled
 by a doubt4 ,free from                 
selfishness--that source of our         

troubles1 which makes us seek with      
eagerness a reward for virtue beyond the
 tomb--he thought only of his work1 of  
his race1 and of humanity4 ,those       
mountains1 that sea1 that azure sky1    
those high plains in the horizon1 were  
for him not the melancholy vision of a  
soul which interrogates ,nature upon her
 fate1 but the certain symbol1 the      
transparent shadow1 of an invisible     
world1 and of a new heaven4  ,he never  
attached much importance to the         
political events of his time1 and he    
probably knew little about them4 ,the   
court of the ,herods formed a world so  
different to his1 that he doubtless knew
 it only by name4 ,herod the ,great died
 about the year in which ,jesus was     
born1 leaving imperishable              
remembrances--monuments which must      
compel the most malevolent posterity to 
associate his name with that of         
,solomon2 nevertheless1 his work was    
incomplete1 and could not be continued4 
,profanely ambitious1 and lost in a maze

 of religious controversies1 this astute
 ,idumean had the advantage which       
coolness and judgment1 stripped of      
morality1 give over passionate fanatics4
 ,but his idea of a secular kingdom of  
,israel1 even if it had not been an     
anachronism in the state of the world in
 which it was conceived1 would          
inevitably have miscarried1 like the    
similar project which ,solomon formed1  
owing to the difficulties proceeding    
from the character of the nation4 ,his  
three sons were only lieutenants of the 
,romans1 analogous to the rajahs of     
,india under the ,english dominion4     
,antipater1 or ,antipas1 tetrarch of    
,galilee and of ,peraea1 of whom ,jesus 
was a subject all his life1 was an idle 
and useless prince1#a a favorite and    
flatterer of ,tiberius1#b and too often 
misled by the bad influence of his      
second wife1 ,herodias4#c ,philip1      
tetrarch of ,gaulonitis and ,batanea1   
into whose dominions ,jesus made        
frequent journeys1 was a much better    

sovereign4#d ,as to ,archelaus1 ethnarch
 of ,jerusalem1 ,jesus could not know   
him1 for he was about ten years old when
 this man1 who was weak and without     
character1 though sometimes violent1 was
 deposed by ,augustus4#e ,the last trace
 of self-government was thus lost to    
,jerusalem4 ,united to ,samaria and     
,idumea1 ,judea formed a kind of        
dependency of the province of ,syria1 in
 which the senator ,publius ,sulpicius  
,quirinus1 well known as consul1#f was  
the imperial legate4 ,a series of ,roman
 procurators1 subordinate in important  
matters to the imperial legate of       
,syria--,coponius1 ,marcus ,ambivius1   
,annius ,rufus1 ,valerius ,gratus1 and  
lastly 7in the twenty-sixth year of our 
era71 ,pontius ,pilate#g--;followed each
 other1 and were constantly occupied in 
extinguishing the volcano which was     
seething beneath their feet4  ,footnote 
#a3 ,jos41 ,ant41 ,,viii4 v4 #a1 vii4 #a
 and #b2 ,luke iii4 #ai4  ,footnote #b3 
,ibid41 ,,xviii4 ii4 #c1 iv4 #e1 v4 #a4 

,footnote #c3 ,ibid41 ,,xviii4 vii4 #b4 
,footnote #d3 ,ibid41 ,,xviii4 iv4 #f4  
,footnote #e3 ,ibid41 ,,xvii4 xii4 #b2  
and ,b4,j41 ,,ii4 vii4 #c4  ,footnote   
#f3 ,orelli1 ,inscr4 ,lat41 ,no4 #cfic2 
,henzen1 ,suppl41 ,no4 #gjda2 ,fasti    
praenestini1 on the #fth of ,march1 and 
on the #bhth of ,april 7in the ,corpus  
,inscr4 ,lat41 i4 #cad1 #cag72          
,borghesi1 ,fastes ,consulaires 7yet    
unedited71 in the year #gdb2 ,r4        
,bergmann1 ,de ,inscr4 ,lat4 ad4 ,p4,s4 
,quirinium1 ut videtur1 referenda       
7,berlin1 #ahea74 ,cf4 ,tac41 ,ann41 ii4
 #cj1 iii4 #dh2 ,strabo1 ,,xii4 vi4 #e4 
,footnote #g3 ,jos41 ,ant41 l4 ,,xviii4 
,continual seditions1 excited by the    
zealots of ,mosaism1 did not cease1 in  
fact1 to agitate ,jerusalem during all  
this time4#a ,the death of the seditious
 was certain2 but death1 when the       
integrity of the ,law was in question1  
was sought with avidity4 ,to overturn   
the ,roman eagle1 to destroy the works  
of art raised by the ,herods1 in which  

the ,mosaic regulations were not always 
respected#b--to rise up against the     
votive escutcheons put up by the        
procurators1 the inscriptions of which  
appeared tainted with idolatry#c--were  
perpetual temptations to fanatics1 who  
had reached that degree of exaltation   
which removes all care for life4 ,judas1
 son of ,sariphea1 ,matthias1 son of    
,margaloth1 two very celebrated doctors 
of the law1 formed against the          
established order a boldly aggressive   
party1 which continued after their      
execution4#d ,the ,samaritans were      
agitated by movements of a similar      
nature4#e ,the ,law had never counted a 
greater number of impassioned disciples 
than at this time1 when he already lived
 who1 by the full authority of his      
genius and of his great soul1 was about 
to abrogate it4 ,the ,zelotes 7,kenaim71
 or ,sicarii1 pious assassins1 who      
imposed on themselves the task of       
killing whoever in their estimation     
broke the ,law1 began to appear4#f      

,representatives of a totally different 
spirit1 the ,thaumaturges1 considered as
 in some sort divine1 obtained credence 
in consequence of the imperious want    
which the age experienced for the       
supernatural and the divine4#g          
,footnote #a3 ,ibid41 the books ,,xvi4  
and ,,xviii4 entirely1 and ,b4,j41 books
 ,i4 and ,,ii4  ,footnote #b3 ,jos41    
,ant41 ,,xv4 x4 #d4 ,compare ,book of   
,enoch1 xcvii4 #ac1 #ad4  ,footnote #c3 
,philo1 ,leg4 ad ,caium1 ,sec4 #ch4     
,footnote #d3 ,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xvii4 vi4 
#b1 and following2 ,b4,j41 ,i4 xxxiii4  
#c1 and following4  ,footnote #e3 ,jos41
 ,ant41 ,,xviii4 iv4 #a1 and following4 
,footnote #f3 ,mishnah1 ,sanhedrim1 ix4 
#f2 ,john xvi4 #b2 ,jos41 ,b4,j41 book  
,,iv41 and following4  ,footnote #g3    
,acts viii4 #i4 ,verse #aa leads us to  
suppose that ,simon the magician was    
already famous in the time of ,jesus4   
,a movement which had much more         
influence upon ,jesus was that of ,judas
 the ,gaulonite1 or ,galilean4 ,of all  

the exactions to which the country newly
 conquered by ,rome was subjected1 the  
census was the most unpopular4#a ,this  
measure1 which always astonishes people 
unaccustomed to the requirements of     
great central administrations1 was      
particularly odious to the ,jews4 ,we   
see that already1 under ,david1 a       
numbering of the people provoked violent
 recriminations1 and the menaces of the 
prophets4#b ,the census1 in fact1 was   
the basis of taxation2 now taxation1 to 
a pure theocracy1 was almost an impiety4
 ,god being the sole ,master whom man   
ought to recognize1 to pay tithe to a   
secular sovereign was1 in a manner1 to  
put him in the place of ,god4           
,completely ignorant of the idea of the 
,state1 the ,jewish theocracy only acted
 up to its logical induction--the       
negation of civil society and of all    
government4 ,the money of the public    
treasury was accounted stolen money4#c  
,the census ordered by ,quirinus 7in the
 year #f of the ,christian era7         

powerfully reawakened these ideas1 and  
caused a great fermentation4 ,an        
insurrection broke out in the northern  
provinces4 ,one ,judas1 of the town of  
,gamala1 upon the eastern shore of the  
,lake of ,tiberias1 and a ,pharisee     
named ,sadoc1 by denying the lawfulness 
of the tax1 created a numerous party1   
which soon broke out in open revolt4#d  
,the fundamental maxims of this party   
were--that they ought to call no man    
master1 this title belonging to ,god    
alone2 and that liberty was better than 
life4 ,judas had1 doubtless1 many other 
principles1 which ,josephus1 always     
careful not to compromise his           
co-religionists1 designedly suppresses2 
for it is impossible to understand how1 
for so simple an idea1 the ,jewish      
historian should give him a place among 
the philosophers of his nation1 and     
should regard him as the founder of a   
fourth school1 equal to those of the    
,pharisees1 the ,sadducees1 and the     
,essenes4 ,judas was evidently the chief

 of a ,galilean sect1 deeply imbued with
 the ,messianic idea1 and which became a
 political movement4 ,the procurator1   
,coponius1 crushed the sedition of the  
,gaulonite2 but the school remained1 and
 preserved its chiefs4 ,under the       
leadership of ,menahem1 son of the      
founder1 and of a certain ,eleazar1 his 
relative1 we find them again very active
 in the last contests of the ,jews      
against the ,romans4#e ,perhaps ,jesus  
saw this ,judas1 whose idea of the      
,jewish revolution was so different from
 his own2 at all events1 he knew his    
school1 and it was probably to avoid his
 error that he pronounced the axiom upon
 the penny of ,caesar4 ,jesus1 more     
wise1 and far removed from all sedition1
 profited by the fault of his           
predecessor1 and dreamed of another     
kingdom and another deliverance4        
,footnote #a3 ,discourse of ,claudius at
 ,lyons1 ,tab4 ii4 sub fin4 ,de         
,boisseau1 ,inscr4 ,ant4 de ,lyon1 p4   
#acf4  ,footnote #b3 #b ,sam4 xxiv4     

,footnote #c3 ,talmud of ,babylon1 ,baba
 ,kama1 #aac a2 ,shabbath1 #cc b4       
,footnote #d3 ,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xviii4 i4 
#a and #f2 ,b4,j41 ,,ii4 viii4 #a2 ,acts
 v4 #cg4 ,previous to ,judas the        
,gaulonite1 the ,acts place another     
agitator1 ,theudas2 but this is an      
anachronism1 the movement of ,theudas   
took place in the year #dd of the       
,christian era 7,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xx4 v4  
#a74  ,footnote #e3 ,jos41 ,b4,j41 ,,ii4
 xvii4 #h1 and following4  ,galilee was 
thus an immense furnace wherein the most
 diverse elements were seething4#a ,an  
extraordinary contempt of life1 or1 more
 properly speaking1 a kind of longing   
for death1#b was the consequence of     
these agitations4 ,experience counts for
 nothing in these great fanatical       
movements4 ,algeria1 at the commencement
 of the ,french occupation1 saw arise1  
each spring1 inspired men1 who declared 
themselves invulnerable1 and sent by    
,god to drive away the infidels2 the    
following year their death was          

forgotten1 and their successors found no
 less credence4 ,the ,roman power1 very 
stern on the one hand1 yet little       
disposed to meddle1 permitted a good    
deal of liberty4 ,those great1 brutal   
despotisms1 terrible in repression1 were
 not so suspicious as powers which have 
a faith to defend4 ,they allowed        
everything up to the point when they    
thought it necessary to be severe4 ,it  
is not recorded that ,jesus was even    
once interfered with by the civil power1
 in his wandering career4 ,such freedom1
 and1 above all1 the happiness which    
,galilee enjoyed in being much less     
confined in the bonds of ,pharisaic     
pedantry1 gave to this district a real  
superiority over ,jerusalem4 ,the       
revolution1 or1 in other words1 the     
belief in the ,messiah1 caused here a   
general fermentation4 ,men deemed       
themselves on the eve of the great      
renovation2 the ,scriptures1 tortured   
into divers meanings1 fostered the most 
colossal hopes4 ,in each line of the    

simple writings of the ,old ,testament  
they saw the assurance1 and1 in a       
manner1 the programme of the future     
reign1 which was to bring peace to the  
righteous1 and to seal forever the work 
of ,god4  ,footnote #a3 ,luke xiii4 #a4 
,the ,galilean movement of ,judas1 son  
of ,hezekiah1 does not appear to have   
been of a religious character2 perhaps1 
however1 its character has been         
misrepresented by ,josephus 7,ant41     
,,xvii4 x4 #e74  ,footnote #b3 ,jos41   
,ant41 ,,xvi4 vi4 #b1 #c2 ,,xviii4 i4   
#a4  ,from all time1 this division into 
two parties1 opposed in interest and    
spirit1 had been for the ,hebrew nation 
a principle which contributed to their  
moral growth4 ,every nation called to   
high destinies ought to be a little     
world in itself1 including opposite     
poles4 ,greece presented1 at a few      
leagues' distance from each other1      
,sparta and ,athens--to a superficial   
observer1 the two antipodes2 but1 in    
reality1 rival sisters1 necessary to one

 another4 ,it was the same with ,judea4 
,less brilliant in one sense than the   
development of ,jerusalem1 that of the  
,north was on the whole much more       
fertile2 the greatest achievements of   
the ,jewish people have always proceeded
 thence4 ,a complete absence of the love
 of ,nature1 bordering upon something   
dry1 narrow1 and ferocious1 has stamped 
all the works purely ,hierosolymite with
 a degree of grandeur1 though sad1 arid1
 and repulsive4 ,with its solemn        
doctors1 its insipid canonists1 its     
hypocritical and atrabilious devotees1  
,jerusalem has not conquered humanity4  
,the ,north has given to the world the  
simple ,shunammite1 the humble          
,canaanite1 the impassioned ,magdalene1 
the good foster-father ,joseph1 and the 
,virgin ,mary4 ,the ,north alone has    
made ,christianity2 ,jerusalem1 on the  
contrary1 is the true home of that      
obstinate ,judaism which1 founded by the
 ,pharisees1 and fixed by the ,talmud1  
has traversed the ,middle ,ages1 and    

come down to us4  ,a beautiful external 
nature tended to produce a much less    
austere spirit--a spirit less sharply   
monotheistic1 if ,i may use the         
expression1 which imprinted a charming  
and idyllic character on all the dreams 
of ,galilee4 ,the saddest country in the
 world is perhaps the region round about
 ,jerusalem4 ,galilee1 on the contrary1 
was a very green1 shady1 smiling        
district1 the true home of the ,song of 
,songs1 and the songs of the            
well-beloved4#a ,during the two months  
of ,march and ,april1 the country forms 
a carpet of flowers of an incomparable  
variety of colors4 ,the animals are     
small1 and extremely gentle--delicate   
and lively turtle-doves1 blue-birds so  
light that they rest on a blade of grass
 without bending it1 crested larks which
 venture almost under the feet of the   
traveller1 little river tortoises with  
mild and lively eyes1 storks with grave 
and modest mien1 which1 laying aside all
 timidity1 allow man to come quite near 

them1 and seem almost to invite his     
approach4 ,in no country in the world do
 the mountains spread themselves out    
with more harmony1 or inspire higher    
thoughts4 ,jesus seems to have had a    
peculiar love for them4 ,the most       
important acts of his divine career took
 place upon the mountains4 ,it was there
 that he was the most inspired2#b it was
 there that he held secret communion    
with the ancient prophets2 and it was   
there that his disciples witnessed his  
transfiguration4#c  ,footnote #a3 ,jos41
 ,b4,j41 ,,iii4 iii4 #a4 ,the horrible  
state to which the country is reduced1  
especially near ,lake ,tiberias1 ought  
not to deceive us4 ,these countries1 now
 scorched1 were formerly terrestrial    
paradises4 ,the baths of ,tiberias1     
which are now a frightful abode1 were   
formerly the most beautiful places in   
,galilee 7,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xviii4 ii4    
#c47 ,josephus 7,bell4 ,jud41 ,,iii4 x4 
#h7 extols the beautiful trees of the   
plain of ,gennesareth1 where there is no

 longer a single one4 ,anthony the      
,martyr1 about the year #fjj1           
consequently fifty years before the     
,mussulman invasion1 still found        
,galilee covered with delightful        
plantations1 and compares its fertility 
to that of ,egypt 7,itin41 ,sec4 #e74   
,footnote #b3 ,matt4 v4 #a1 xiv4 #bc2   
,luke vi4 #ab4  ,footnote #c3 ,matt4    
xvii4 #a1 and following2 ,mark ix4 #a1  
and following2 ,luke ix4 #bh1 and       
following4  ,this beautiful country has 
now become sad and gloomy through the   
ever-impoverishing influence of         
,islamism4 ,but still everything which  
man cannot destroy breathes an air of   
freedom1 mildness1 and tenderness1 and  
at the time of ,jesus it overflowed with
 happiness and prosperity4 ,the         
,galileans were considered energetic1   
brave1 and laborious4#a ,if we except   
,tiberias1 built by ,antipas in honor of
 ,tiberius 7about the year #ae71 in the 
,roman style1#b ,galilee had no large   
towns4 ,the country was1 nevertheless1  

well peopled1 covered with small towns  
and large villages1 and cultivated in   
all parts with skill4#c ,from the ruins 
which remain of its ancient splendor1 we
 can trace an agricultural people1 no   
way gifted in art1 caring little for    
luxury1 indifferent to the beauties of  
form and exclusively idealistic4 ,the   
country abounded in fresh streams and in
 fruits2 the large farms were shaded    
with vines and fig-trees2 the gardens   
were filled with trees bearing apples1  
walnuts1 and pomegranates4#d ,the wine  
was excellent1 if we may judge by that  
which the ,jews still obtain at ,safed1 
and they drank much of it4#e ,this      
contented and easily satisfied life was 
not like the gross materialism of our   
peasantry1 the coarse pleasures of      
agricultural ,normandy1 or the heavy    
mirth of the ,flemish4 ,it spiritualized
 itself in ethereal dreams--in a kind of
 poetic mysticism1 blending heaven and  
earth4 ,leave the austere ,baptist in   
his desert of ,judea to preach          

penitence1 to inveigh without ceasing1  
and to live on locusts in the company of
 jackals4 ,why should the companions of 
the bridegroom fast while the bridegroom
 is with them8 ,joy will be a part of   
the kingdom of ,god4 ,is she not the    
daughter of the humble in heart1 of the 
men of good will8  ,footnote #a3 ,jos41 
,b4,j41 ,,iii4 iii4 #b4  ,footnote #b3  
,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xviii4 ii4 #b2 ,b4,j41  
,,ii4 ix4 #a2 ,vita1 #ab1 #ac1 #fd4     
,footnote #c3 ,jos41 ,b4,j41 ,,iii4 iii4
 #b4  ,footnote #d3 ,we may judge of    
this by some enclosures in the          
neighborhood of ,nazareth4 ,cf4 ,song of
 ,solomon ii4 #c1 #e1 #ac1 iv4 #ac1 vi4 
#f1 #aj1 vii4 #h1 #ab1 viii4 #b1 #e2    
,anton4 ,martyr1 l4c4 ,the aspect of the
 great farms is still well preserved in 
the south of the country of ,tyre       
7ancient tribe of ,asher74 ,traces of   
the ancient ,palestinian agriculture1   
with its troughs1 threshing-floors1     
wine-presses1 mills1 c41 cut in the     
rock1 are found at every step4          

,footnote #e3 ,matt4 ix4 #ag1 xi4 #ai2  
,mark ii4 #bb2 ,luke v4 #cg1 vii4 #cd2  
,john ii4 #c1 and following4  ,the whole
 history of infant ,christianity has    
become in this manner a delightful      
pastoral4 ,a ,messiah at the marriage   
festival--the courtezan and the good    
,zaccheus called to his feasts--the     
founders of the kingdom of heaven like a
 bridal procession2 that is what        
,galilee has boldly offered1 and what   
the world has accepted4 ,greece has     
drawn pictures of human life by         
sculpture and by charming poetry1 but   
always without backgrounds or distant   
receding perspectives4 ,in ,galilee were
 wanting the marble1 the practiced      
workmen1 the exquisite and refined      
language4 ,but ,galilee has created the 
most sublime ideal for the popular      
imagination2 for behind its idyl moves  
the fate of humanity1 and the light     
which illumines its picture is the sun  
of the kingdom of ,god4  ,jesus lived   
and grew amidst these enchanting scenes4

 ,from his infancy1 he went almost      
annually to the feast at ,jerusalem4#a  
,the pilgrimage was a sweet solemnity   
for the provincial ,jews4 ,entire series
 of psalms were consecrated to celebrate
 the happiness of thus journeying in    
family companionship#b during several   
days in the spring across the hills and 
valleys1 each one having in prospect the
 splendors of ,jerusalem1 the           
solemnities of the sacred courts1 and   
the joy of brethren dwelling together in
 unity4#c ,the route which ,jesus       
ordinarily took in these journeys was   
that which is followed to this day      
through ,ginaea and ,shechem4#d ,from   
,shechem to ,jerusalem the journey is   
very tiresome4 ,but the neighborhood of 
the old sanctuaries of ,shiloh and      
,bethel1 near which the travellers pass1
 keeps their interest alive4            
,ain-el-,haramie1#e the last            
halting-place1 is a charming and        
melancholy spot1 and few impressions    
equal that experienced on encamping     

there for the night4 ,the valley is     
narrow and sombre1 and a dark stream    
issues from the rocks1 full of tombs1   
which form its banks4 ,it is1 ,i think1 
the valley of tears1 or of dropping     
waters1 which is described as one of the
 stations on the way in the delightful  
,eighty-fourth ,psalm1#f and which      
became the emblem of life for the sad   
and sweet mysticism of the ,middle      
,ages4 ,early the next day they would be
 at ,jerusalem2 such an expectation even
 now sustains the caravan1 rendering the
 night short and slumber light4         
,footnote #a3 ,luke ii4 #da4  ,footnote 
#b3 ,luke ii4 #db-dd4  ,footnote #c3    
,see especially ,ps4 lxxxiv41 cxxii41   
cxxxiii4 7,vulg41 lxxxiii41 cxxi41      
cxxxii74  ,footnote #d3 ,luke ix4       
#ea-ec1 xvii4 #aa2 ,john iv4 #d2 ,jos41 
,ant41 ,,xx4 vi4 #a2 ,b4,j41 ,,ii4 xii4 
#c2 ,vita1 #eb4 ,often1 however1 the    
pilgrims came by ,peraea1 in order to   
avoid ,samaria1 where they incurred     
dangers2 ,matt4 xix4 #a2 ,mark x4 #a4   

,footnote #e3 ,according to ,josephus   
7,vita1 #eb7 it was three days' journey4
 ,but the stage from ,shechem to        
,jerusalem was generally divided into   
two4  ,footnote #f3 lxxxiii4 according  
to the ,vulgate1 v4 #g4  ,these         
journeys1 in which the assembled nation 
exchanged its ideas1 and which were     
almost always centres of great          
agitation1 placed ,jesus in contact with
 the mind of his countrymen1 and no     
doubt inspired him whilst still young   
with a lively antipathy for the defects 
of the official representatives of      
,judaism4 ,it is supposed that very     
early the desert had great influence on 
his development1 and that he made long  
stays there4#a ,but the ,god he found in
 the desert was not his ,god4 ,it was   
rather the ,god of ,job1 severe and     
terrible1 accountable to no one4        
,sometimes ,satan came to tempt him4 ,he
 returned1 then1 into his beloved       
,galilee1 and found again his heavenly  
,father in the midst of the green hills 

and the clear fountains--and among the  
crowds of women and children1 who1 with 
joyous soul and the song of angels in   
their hearts1 awaited the salvation of  
,israel4  ,footnote #a3 ,luke iv4 #db1  
v4 #af4     ,,chapter ,v4  ,,the ,,first
 ,,sayings ,,of ,,jesus--,,his ,,ideas  
,,of ,a ,,divine ,,father ,,and ,,of ,a 
,,pure ,,religion--,,first ,,disciples4 
,joseph died before his son had taken   
any public part4 ,mary remained1 in a   
manner1 the head of the family1 and this
 explains why her son1 when it was      
wished to distinguish him from others of
 the same name1 was most frequently     
called the son of ,mary4#a ,it seems    
that having1 by the death of her        
husband1 been left friendless at        
,nazareth1 she withdrew to ,cana1#b from
 which she may have come originally4    
,cana#c was a little town at from two to
 two and a half hours' journey from     
,nazareth1 at the foot of the mountains 
which bound the plain of ,asochis on the
 north4#d ,the prospect1 less grand than

 at ,nazareth1 extends over all the     
plain1 and is bounded in the most       
picturesque manner by the mountains of  
,nazareth and the hills of ,sepphoris4  
,jesus appears to have resided some time
 in this place4 ,here he probably passed
 a part of his youth1 and here his      
greatness first revealed itself4#e      
,footnote #a3 ,this is the expression of
 ,mark vi4 #c2 cf4 ,matt4 xiii4 #ee4    
,mark did not know ,joseph4 ,john and   
,luke1 on the contrary1 prefer the      
expression son of ,joseph4 ,luke iii4   
#bc1 iv4 #bb2 ,john i4 #de1 iv4 #db4    
,footnote #b3 ,john ii4 #a1 iv4 #df4    
,john alone is informed on this point4  
,footnote #c3 ,i admit1 as probable1 the
 idea which identifies ,cana of ,galilee
 with ,kana el ,djelil4 ,we may1        
nevertheless1 attach value to the       
arguments for ,kefr ,kenna1 a place an  
hour or an hour and a half's journey    
,n4,n4,e4 of ,nazareth4  ,footnote #d3  
,now ,el-,buttauf4  ,footnote #e3 ,john 
ii4 #aa1 iv4 #df4 ,one or two disciples 

were of ,cana1 ,john xxi4 #b2 ,matt4 x4 
#d2 ,mark iii4 #ah4  ,he followed the   
trade of his father1 which was that of a
 carpenter4#a ,this was not in any      
degree humiliating or grievous4 ,the    
,jewish customs required that a man     
devoted to intellectual work should     
learn a trade4 ,the most celebrated     
doctors did so2#b thus ,st4 ,paul1 whose
 education had been so carefully tended1
 was a tent-maker4#c ,jesus never       
married4 ,all his power of love centred 
upon that which he regarded as his      
celestial vocation4 ,the extremely      
delicate feeling toward women1 which we 
remark in him1 was not separated from   
the exclusive devotion which he had for 
his mission4 ,like ,francis d',assisi   
and ,francis de ,sales1 he treated as   
sisters the women who were loved of the 
same work as himself2 he had his ,st4   
,clare1 his ,frances de ,chantal4 ,it   
is1 however1 probable that these loved  
him more than the work2 he was1 no      
doubt1 more beloved than loving4 ,thus1 

as often happens in very elevated       
natures1 tenderness of the heart was    
transformed in him into an infinite     
sweetness1 a vague poetry1 and a        
universal charm4 ,his relations1 free   
and intimate1 but of an entirely moral  
kind1 with women of doubtful character1 
are also explained by the passion which 
attached him to the glory of his        
,father1 and which made him jealously   
anxious for all beautiful creatures who 
could contribute to it4#d  ,footnote #a3
 ,mark vi4 #c2 ,justin1 ,dial4 cum      
,tryph41 #hh4  ,footnote #b3 ,for       
example1 ,rabbi ,johanan1 the shoemaker1
 ,rabbi ,isaac1 the blacksmith4         
,footnote #c3 ,acts xviii4 #c4          
,footnote #d3 ,luke vii4 #cg1 and       
following2 ,john iv4 #g1 and following2 
viii4 #c1 and following4  ,what was the 
progress of the ideas of ,jesus during  
this obscure period of his life8        
,through what meditations did he enter  
upon the prophetic career8 ,we have no  
information on these points1 his history

 having come to us in scattered         
narratives1 without exact chronology4   
,but the development of character is    
everywhere the same2 and there is no    
doubt that the growth of so powerful    
individuality as that of ,jesus obeyed  
very rigorous laws4 ,a high conception  
of the ,divinity--which he did not owe  
to ,judaism1 and which seems to have    
been in all its parts the creation of   
his great mind--was in a manner the     
source of all his power4 ,it is         
essential here that we put aside the    
ideas familiar to us1 and the           
discussions in which little minds       
exhaust themselves4 ,in order properly  
to understand the precise character of  
the piety of ,jesus1 we must forget all 
that is placed between the gospel and   
ourselves4 ,deism and ,pantheism have   
become the two poles of theology4 ,the  
paltry discussions of scholasticism1 the
 dryness of spirit of ,descartes1 the   
deep-rooted irreligion of the eighteenth
 century1 by lessening ,god1 and by     

limiting ,him1 in a manner1 by the      
exclusion of everything which is not    
,his very self1 have stifled in the     
breast of modern rationalism all fertile
 ideas of the ,divinity4 ,if ,god1 in   
fact1 is a personal being outside of us1
 he who believes himself to have        
peculiar relations with ,god is a       
visionary1 and as the physical and      
physiological sciences have shown us    
that all supernatural visions are       
illusions1 the logical ,deist finds it  
impossible to understand the great      
beliefs of the past4 ,pantheism1 on the 
other hand1 in suppressing the ,divine  
personality1 is as far as it can be from
 the living ,god of the ancient         
religions4 ,were the men who have best  
comprehended ,god--,cakya-,mouni1       
,plato1 ,st4 ,paul1 ,st4 ,francis       
d',assisi1 and ,st4 ,augustine 7at some 
periods of his fluctuating              
life7--,deists or ,pantheists8 ,such a  
question has no meaning4 ,the physical  
and metaphysical proofs of the existence

 of ,god were quite indifferent to them4
 ,they felt the ,divine within          
themselves4 ,we must place ,jesus in the
 first rank of this great family of the 
true sons of ,god4 ,jesus had no        
visions2 ,god did not speak to him as to
 one outside of ,himself2 ,god was in   
him2 he felt himself with ,god1 and he  
drew from his heart all he said of his  
,father4 ,he lived in the bosom of ,god 
by constant communication with ,him2 he 
saw ,him not1 but he understood ,him1   
without need of the thunder and the     
burning bush of ,moses1 of the revealing
 tempest of ,job1 of the oracle of the  
old ,greek sages1 of the familiar genius
 of ,socrates1 or of the angel ,gabriel 
of ,mahomet4 ,the imagination and the   
hallucination of a ,st4 ,theresa1 for   
example1 are useless here4 ,the         
intoxication of the ,soufi proclaiming  
himself identical with ,god is also     
quite another thing4 ,jesus never once  
gave utterance to the sacrilegious idea 
that he was ,god4 ,he believed himself  

to be in direct communion with ,god2 he 
believed himself to be the ,son of ,god4
 ,the highest consciousness of ,god     
which has existed in the bosom of       
humanity was that of ,jesus4  ,we       
understand1 on the other hand1 how      
,jesus1 starting with such a disposition
 of spirit1 could never be a speculative
 philosopher like ,cakya-,mouni4        
,nothing is further from scholastic     
theology than the ,gospel4#a ,the       
speculations of the ,greek fathers on   
the ,divine essence proceed from an     
entirely different spirit4 ,god1        
conceived simply as ,father1 was all the
 theology of ,jesus4 ,and this was not  
with him a theoretical principle1 a     
doctrine more or less proved1 which he  
sought to inculcate in others4 ,he did  
not argue with his disciples2#b he      
demanded from them no effort of         
attention4 ,he did not preach his       
opinions2 he preached himself4 ,very    
great and very disinterested minds often
 present1 associated with much          

elevation1 that character of perpetual  
attention to themselves1 and extreme    
personal susceptibility1 which1 in      
general1 is peculiar to women4#c ,their 
conviction that ,god is in them1 and    
occupies ,himself perpetually with them1
 is so strong1 that they have no fear of
 obtruding themselves upon others2 our  
reserve1 and our respect for the opinion
 of others1 which is a part of our      
weakness1 could not belong to them4     
,this exaltation of self is not egotism2
 for such men1 possessed by their idea1 
give their lives freely1 in order to    
seal their work2 it is the              
identification of self with the object  
it has embraced1 carried to its utmost  
limit4 ,it is regarded as vain-glory by 
those who see in the new teaching only  
the personal phantasy of the founder2   
but it is the finger of ,god to those   
who see the result4 ,the fool stands    
side by side here with the inspired man1
 only the fool never succeeds4 ,it has  
not yet been given to insanity to       

influence seriously the progress of     
humanity4  ,footnote #a3 ,the discourses
 which the fourth ,gospel attributes to 
,jesus contain some germs of theology4  
,but these discourses being in absolute 
contradiction with those of the         
synoptical ,gospels1 which represent1   
without any doubt1 the primitive ,logia1
 ought to count simply as documents of  
apostolic history1 and not as elements  
of the life of ,jesus4  ,footnote #b3   
,see ,matt4 ix4 #i1 and other analogous 
accounts4  ,footnote #c3 ,see1 for      
example1 ,john xxi4 #ae1 and following4 
,doubtless1 ,jesus did not attain at    
first this high affirmation of himself4 
,but it is probable that1 from the      
first1 he regarded his relationship with
 ,god as that of a son with his father4 
,this was his great act of originality2 
in this he had nothing in common with   
his race4#a ,neither the ,jew nor the   
,mussulman has understood this          
delightful theology of love4 ,the ,god  
of ,jesus is not that tyrannical master 

who kills us1 damns us1 or saves us1    
according to ,his pleasure4 ,the ,god of
 ,jesus is our ,father4 ,we hear ,him in
 listening to the gentle inspiration    
which cries within us1 ,abba1 ,father4#b
 ,the ,god of ,jesus is not the partial 
despot who has chosen ,israel for ,his  
people1 and specially protects them4 ,he
 is the ,god of humanity4 ,jesus was not
 a patriot1 like the ,maccabees2 or a   
theocrat1 like ,judas the ,gaulonite4   
,boldly raising himself above the       
prejudices of his nation1 he established
 the universal fatherhood of ,god4 ,the 
,gaulonite maintained that we should die
 rather than give to another than ,god  
the name of ,master2 ,jesus left this   
name to any one who liked to take it1   
and reserved for ,god a dearer name4    
,whilst he accorded to the powerful of  
the earth1 who were to him              
representatives of force1 a respect full
 of irony1 he proclaimed the supreme    
consolation--the recourse to the ,father
 which each one has in heaven--and the  

true kingdom of ,god1 which each one    
bears in his heart4  ,footnote #a3 ,the 
great soul of ,philo is in sympathy     
here1 as on so many other points1 with  
that of ,jesus4 ,de ,confus4 ,ling41    
,sec4 #ad2 ,de ,migr4 ,abr41 ,sec4 #a2  
,de ,somniis1 ii4 ,sec4 #da2 ,de ,agric4
 ,noe1 ,sec4 #ab2 ,de ,mutatione        
,nominum1 ,sec4 #d4 ,but ,philo is      
scarcely a ,jew in spirit4  ,footnote   
#b3 ,galatians iv4 #f4  ,this name of   
kingdom of ,god1 or kingdom of heaven1#a
 was the favorite term of ,jesus to     
express the revolution which he brought 
into the world4#b ,like almost all the  
,messianic terms1 it came from the book 
of ,daniel4 ,according to the author of 
this extraordinary book1 the four       
profane empires1 destined to fall1 were 
to be succeeded by a fifth empire1 that 
of the saints1 which should last        
forever4#c ,this reign of ,god upon     
earth naturally led to the most diverse 
interpretations4 ,to ,jewish theology1  
the kingdom of ,god is most frequently  

only ,judaism itself--the true religion1
 the monotheistic worship1 piety4#d ,in 
the later periods of his life1 ,jesus   
believed that this reign would be       
realized in a material form by a sudden 
renovation of the world4 ,but doubtless 
this was not his first idea4#e ,the     
admirable moral which he draws from the 
idea of ,god as ,father1 is not that of 
enthusiasts who believe the world is    
near its end1 and who prepare themselves
 by asceticism for a chimerical         
catastrophe2 it is that of men who have 
lived1 and still would live4 ,the       
kingdom of ,god is within you1 said he  
to those who sought with subtlety for   
external signs4#f ,the realistic        
conception of the ,divine advent was but
 a cloud1 a transient error1 which his  
death has made us forget4 ,the ,jesus   
who founded the true kingdom of ,god1   
the kingdom of the meek and the humble1 
was the ,jesus of early life#g--of those
 chaste and pure days when the voice of 
his ,father re-echoed within him in     

clearer tones4 ,it was then for some    
months1 perhaps a year1 that ,god truly 
dwelt upon the earth4 ,the voice of the 
young carpenter suddenly acquired an    
extraordinary sweetness4 ,an infinite   
charm was exhaled from his person1 and  
those who had seen him up to that time  
no longer recognized him4#h ,he had not 
yet any disciples1 and the group which  
gathered around him was neither a sect  
nor a school2 but a common spirit1 a    
sweet and penetrating influence was     
felt4 ,his amiable character1           
accompanied doubtless by one of those   
lovely faces#i which sometimes appear in
 the ,jewish race1 threw around him a   
fascination from which no one in the    
midst of these kindly and simple        
populations could escape4  ,footnote #a3
 ,the word heaven in the rabbinical     
language of that time is synonymous with
 the name of ,god1 which they avoided   
pronouncing4 ,compare ,matt4 xxi4 #be2  
,luke xv4 #ah1 xx4 #d4  ,footnote #b3   
,this expression occurs on each page of 

the synoptical ,gospels1 the ,acts of   
the ,apostles1 and ,st4 ,paul4 ,if it   
only appears once in ,john 7iii4 #c1    
#e71 it is because the discourses       
related in the fourth ,gospel are far   
from representing the true words of     
,jesus4  ,footnote #c3 ,dan4 ii4 #dd1   
vii4 #ac1 #ad1 #bb1 #bg4  ,footnote #d3 
,mishnah1 ,berakoth1 ii4 #a1 #c2 ,talmud
 of ,jerusalem1 ,berakoth1 ii4 #b2      
,kiddushin1 i4 #b2 ,talm4 of ,bab41     
,berakoth1 #ae a2 ,mekilta1 #db b2      
,siphra1 #agj b4 ,the expression appears
 often in the ,medrashim4  ,footnote #e3
 ,matt4 vi4 #cc1 xii4 #bh1 xix4 #ab2    
,mark xii4 #cd2 ,luke xii4 #ca4         
,footnote #f3 ,luke xvii4 #bj1 #ba4     
,footnote #g3 ,the grand theory of the  
revelation of the ,son of ,man is in    
fact reserved1 in the synoptics1 for the
 chapters which precede the narrative of
 the ,passion4 ,the first discourses1   
especially in ,matthew1 are entirely    
moral4  ,footnote #h3 ,matt4 xiii4 #ed  
and following2 ,mark vi4 #b and         

following2 ,john v4 #dc4  ,footnote #i3 
,the tradition of the plainness of      
,jesus 7,justin1 ,dial4 cum ,tryph41    
#he1 #hh1 #ajj7 springs from a desire to
 see realized in him a pretended        
,messianic trait 7,isa4 liii4 #b74      
,paradise would1 in fact1 have been     
brought to earth if the ideas of the    
young ,master had not far transcended   
the level of ordinary goodness beyond   
which it has not been found possible to 
raise the human race4 ,the brotherhood  
of men1 as sons of ,god1 and the moral  
consequences which result therefrom1    
were deduced with exquisite feeling4    
,like all the rabbis of the time1 ,jesus
 was little inclined toward consecutive 
reasonings1 and clothed his doctrine in 
concise aphorisms1 and in an expressive 
form1 at times enigmatical and          
strange4#a ,some of these maxims come   
from the books of the ,old ,testament4  
,others were the thoughts of more modern
 sages1 especially those of ,antigonus  
of ,soco1 ,jesus1 son of ,sirach1 and   

,hillel1 which had reached him1 not from
 learned study1 but as oft-repeated     
proverbs4 ,the synagogue was rich in    
very happily expressed sentences1 which 
formed a kind of current proverbial     
literature4#b ,jesus adopted almost all 
this oral teaching1 but imbued it with a
 superior spirit4#c ,exceeding the      
duties laid down by the ,law and the    
elders1 he demanded perfection4 ,all the
 virtues of humility--forgiveness1      
charity1 abnegation1 and                
self-denial--virtues which with good    
reason have been called ,christian1 if  
we mean by that that they have been     
truly preached by ,christ1 were in this 
first teaching1 though undeveloped4 ,as 
to justice1 he was content with         
repeating the well-known                
axiom--,whatsoever ye would that men    
should do to you1 do ye even so to      
them4#d ,but this old1 though somewhat  
selfish wisdom1 did not satisfy him4 ,he
 went to excess1 and said--,whosoever   
shall smite thee on thy right cheek1    

turn to him the other also4 ,and if any 
man will sue thee at the law1 and take  
away thy coat1 let him have thy cloak   
also4#e ,if thy right eye offend thee1  
pluck it out1 and cast it from thee4#f  
,love your enemies1 do good to them that
 hate you1 pray for them that persecute 
you4#g ,judge not1 that ye be not       
judged4#h ,forgive1 and ye shall be     
forgiven4#i ,be ye therefore merciful as
 your ,father also is merciful4#aj ,it  
is more blessed to give than to         
receive4#aa ,whosoever shall exalt      
himself shall be abased2 and he that    
shall humble himself shall be           
exalted4#ab  ,footnote #a3 ,the ,logia  
of ,st4 ,matthew joins several of these 
axioms together1 to form lengthened     
discourses4 ,but the fragmentary form   
makes itself felt notwithstanding4      
,footnote #b3 ,the sentences of the     
,jewish doctors of the time are         
collected in the little book entitled1  
,pirke ,aboth4  ,footnote #c3 ,the      
comparisons will be made afterward as   

they present themselves4 ,it has been   
sometimes supposed that--the compilation
 of the ,talmud being later than that of
 the ,gospels--parts may have been      
borrowed by the ,jewish compilers from  
the ,christian morality4 ,but this is   
inadmissible--a wall of separation      
existed between the ,church and the     
,synagogue4 ,the ,christian and ,jewish 
literature had scarcely any influence on
 one another before the thirteenth      
century4  ,footnote #d3 ,matt4 vii4 #ab2
 ,luke vi4 #ca4 ,this axiom is in the   
book of ,tobit1 iv4 #af4 ,hillel used it
 habitually 7,talm4 of ,bab41 ,shabbath1
 #ca a71 and declared1 like ,jesus1 that
 it was the sum of the ,law4  ,footnote 
#e3 ,matt4 v4 #ci1 and following2 ,luke 
vi4 #bi4 ,compare ,jeremiah1            
,lamentations iii4 #cj4  ,footnote #f3  
,matt4 v4 #bi1 #cj1 xviii4 #i2 ,mark ix4
 #df4  ,footnote #g3 ,matt4 v4 #dd2     
,luke vi4 #bg4 ,compare ,talmud of      
,babylon1 ,shabbath1 #hh b2 ,joma1 #bc  
a4  ,footnote #h3 ,matt4 vii4 #a2 ,luke 

vi4 #cg4 ,compare ,talmud of ,babylon1  
,kethuboth1 #aje b4  ,footnote #i3 ,luke
 vi4 #cg4 ,compare ,lev4 xix4 #ah2      
,prov4 xx4 #bb2 ,ecclesiasticus xxviii4 
#a1 and following4  ,footnote #aj3 ,luke
 vi4 #cf2 ,siphre1 #ea b 7,sultzbach1   
#ahjb74  ,footnote #aa3 ,a saying       
related in ,acts xx4 #ce4  ,footnote    
#ab3 ,matt4 xxiii4 #ab2 ,luke xiv4 #aa1 
xviii4 #ad4 ,the sentences quoted by    
,st4 ,jerome from the ,gospel according 
to the ,hebrews 7,comment4 in ,epist4 ad
 ,ephes41 v4 #d2 in ,ezek4 xviii42      
,dial4 adv4 ,pelag41 iii4 #b71 are      
imbued with the same spirit4  ,upon     
alms1 pity1 good works1 kindness1       
peacefulness1 and complete              
disinterestedness of heart1 he had      
little to add to the doctrine of the    
synagogue4#a ,but he placed upon them an
 emphasis full of unction1 which made   
the old maxims appear new4 ,morality is 
not composed of more or less            
well-expressed principles4 ,the poetry  
which makes the precept loved1 is more  

than the precept itself1 taken as an    
abstract truth4 ,now it cannot be denied
 that these maxims borrowed by ,jesus   
from his predecessors1 produce quite a  
different effect in the ,gospel to that 
in the ancient ,law1 in the ,pirke      
,aboth1 or in the ,talmud4 ,it is       
neither the ancient ,law nor the ,talmud
 which has conquered and changed the    
world4 ,little original in itself--if we
 mean by that that one might recompose  
it almost entirely by the aid of older  
maxims--the morality of the ,gospels    
remains1 nevertheless1 the highest      
creation of human conscience--the most  
beautiful code of perfect life that any 
moralist has traced4  ,footnote #a3     
,deut4 xxiv41 xxv41 xxvi41 c42 ,isa4    
lviii4 #g2 ,prov4 xix4 #ag2 ,pirke      
,aboth1 i42 ,talmud of ,jerusalem1      
,peah1 i4 #a2 ,talmud of ,babylon1      
,shabbath1 #fc a4  ,jesus did not speak 
against the ,mosaic law1 but it is clear
 that he saw its insufficiency1 and     
allowed it to be seen that he did so4   

,he repeated unceasingly that more must 
be done than the ancient sages had      
commanded4#a ,he forbade the least harsh
 word2#b he prohibited divorce1#c and   
all swearing2#d he censured revenge2#e  
he condemned usury2#f he considered     
voluptuous desire as criminal as        
adultery2#g he insisted upon a universal
 forgiveness of injuries4#h ,the motive 
on which he rested these maxims of      
exalted charity was always the same4444 
,that ye may be the children of your    
,father which is in heaven3 for ,he     
maketh ,his sun to rise on the evil and 
the good4 ,for if ye love them which    
love you1 what reward have ye8 do not   
even the publicans the same8 ,and if ye 
salute your brethren only1 what do ye   
more than others8 do not even the       
publicans so8 ,be ye therefore perfect1 
even as your ,father which is in heaven 
is perfect4#i  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 v4  
#bj1 and following4  ,footnote #b3      
,matt4 v4 #bb4  ,footnote #c3 ,matt4 v4 
#ca1 and following4 ,compare ,talmud of 

,babylon1 ,sanhedrim1 #bb a4  ,footnote 
#d3 ,matt4 v4 #cc1 and following4       
,footnote #e3 ,matt4 v4 #ch1 and        
following4  ,footnote #f3 ,matt4 v4 #db4
 ,the ,law prohibited it also 7,deut4   
xv4 #g1 #h71 but less formally1 and     
custom authorized it 7,luke vii4 #da1   
and following74  ,footnote #g3 ,matt4   
xxvii4 #bh4 ,compare ,talmud1 ,masseket 
,kalla 7edit4 ,fuerth1 #agic71 fol4 #cd 
b4  ,footnote #h3 ,matt4 v4 #bc1 and    
following4  ,footnote #i3 ,matt4 v4 #de1
 and following4 ,compare ,lev4 xi4 #dd1 
xix4 #b4  ,a pure worship1 a religion   
without priests and external            
observances1 resting entirely on the    
feelings of the heart1 on the imitation 
of ,god1#a on the direct relation of the
 conscience with the heavenly ,father1  
was the result of these principles4     
,jesus never shrank from this bold      
conclusion1 which made him a thorough   
revolutionist in the very centre of     
,judaism4 ,why should there be mediators
 between man and his ,father8 ,as ,god  

only sees the heart1 of what good are   
these purifications1 these observances  
relating only to the body8#b ,even      
tradition1 a thing so sacred to the     
,jews1 is nothing compared to           
sincerity4#c ,the hypocrisy of the      
,pharisees1 who1 in praying1 turned     
their heads to see if they were         
observed1 who gave their alms with      
ostentation1 and put marks upon their   
garments1 that they might be recognized 
as pious persons--all these grimaces of 
false devotion disgusted him4 ,they have
 their recompense1 said he2 but thou1   
when thou doest thine alms1 let not thy 
left hand know what thy right hand      
doeth1 that thy alms may be in secret1  
and thy ,father1 which seeth in secret1 
,himself shall reward thee openly4#d    
,and when thou prayest1 thou shalt not  
be as the hypocrites are3 for they love 
to pray standing in the synagogues1 and 
in the corners of the streets1 that they
 may be seen of men4 ,verily ,i say unto
 you1 ,they have their reward4 ,but     

thou1 when thou prayest1 enter into thy 
closet2 and when thou hast shut thy     
door1 pray to thy ,father which is in   
secret2 and thy ,father1 which seeth in 
secret1 shall reward thee openly4 ,but  
when ye pray1 use not vain repetitions1 
as the heathen do3 for they think that  
they shall be heard for their much      
speaking4 ,your ,father knoweth what    
things ye have need of before ye ask    
,him4#e  ,footnote #a3 ,compare ,philo1 
,de ,migr4 ,abr41 ,sec4 #bc and #bd2 ,de
 ,vita ,contemp41 the whole4  ,footnote 
#b3 ,matt4 xv4 #aa1 and following2 ,mark
 vii4 #f1 and following4  ,footnote #c3 
,mark vii4 #f1 and following4  ,footnote
 #d3 ,matt4 vi4 #a1 and following4      
,compare ,ecclesiasticus xvii4 #ah1     
xxix4 #ae2 ,talm4 of ,bab41 ,chagigah1  
#e a2 ,baba ,bathra1 #i b4  ,footnote   
#e3 ,matt4 vi4 #e-h4  ,he did not affect
 any external signs of asceticism1      
contenting himself with praying1 or     
rather meditating1 upon the mountains1  
and in the solitary places1 where man   

has always sought ,god4#a ,this high    
idea of the relations of man with ,god1 
of which so few minds1 even after him1  
have been capable1 is summed up in a    
prayer which he taught to his           
disciples3#b  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 xiv4 
#bc2 ,luke iv4 #db1 v4 #af1 vi4 #ab4    
,footnote #b3 ,matt4 vi4 #i1 and        
following2 ,luke xi4 #b1 and following4 
,our ,father which art in heaven1       
hallowed be thy name2 thy kingdom come2 
thy will be done on earth as it is in   
heaven4 ,give us this day our daily     
bread4 ,forgive us our trespasses1 as we
 forgive those who trespass against us4 
,lead us not into temptation2 deliver us
 from the evil one4#a ,he insisted      
particularly upon the idea1 that the    
heavenly ,father knows better than we   
what we need1 and that we almost sin    
against ,him in asking ,him for this or 
that particular thing4#b  ,footnote #a3 
i4e41 the devil4  ,footnote #b3 ,luke   
xi4 #e1 and following4  ,jesus in this  
only carried out the consequences of the

 great principles which ,judaism had    
established1 but which the official     
classes of the nation tended more and   
more to despise4 ,the ,greek and ,roman 
prayers were almost always mere         
egotistical verbiage4 ,never had ,pagan 
priest said to the faithful1 ,if thou   
bring thy offering to the altar1 and    
there rememberest that thy brother hath 
aught against thee2 leave there thy gift
 before the altar1 and go thy way2 first
 be reconciled with thy brother1 and    
then come and offer thy gift4#a ,alone  
in antiquity1 the ,jewish prophets1     
especially ,isaiah1 had1 in their       
antipathy to the priesthood1 caught a   
glimpse of the true nature of the       
worship man owes to ,god4 ,to what      
purpose is the multitude of your        
sacrifices unto me3 ,i am full of the   
burnt offerings of rams1 and the fat of 
fed beasts2 and ,i delight not in the   
blood of bullocks1 or of lambs1 or of   
he-goats4444 ,incense is an abomination 
unto me3 for your hands are full of     

blood2 cease to do evil1 learn to do    
well1 seek judgment1 and then come4#b   
,in later times1 certain doctors1       
,simeon the just1#c ,jesus1 son of      
,sirach1#d ,hillel1#e almost reached    
this point1 and declared that the sum of
 the ,law was righteousness4 ,philo1 in 
the ,judaeo-,egyptian world1 attained at
 the same time as ,jesus ideas of a high
 moral sanctity1 the consequence of     
which was the disregard of the          
observances of the ,law4#f ,shemaia and 
,abtalion also more than once proved    
themselves to be very liberal           
casuists4#g ,rabbi ,johanan ere long    
placed works of mercy above even the    
study of the ,law6#h ,jesus alone1      
however1 proclaimed these principles in 
an effective manner4 ,never has any one 
been less a priest than ,jesus1 never a 
greater enemy of forms1 which stifle    
religion under the pretext of protecting
 it4 ,by this we are all his disciples  
and his successors2 by this he has laid 
the eternal foundation-stone of true    

religion2 and if religion is essential  
to humanity1 he has by this deserved the
 ,divine rank the world has accorded to 
him4 ,an absolutely new idea1 the idea  
of a worship founded on purity of heart1
 and on human brotherhood1 through him  
entered into the world--an idea so      
elevated1 that the ,christian ,church   
ought to make it its distinguishing     
feature1 but an idea which1 in our days1
 only few minds are capable of          
embodying4  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 v4 #bc1
 #bd4  ,footnote #b3 ,isaiah i4 #aa1 and
 following4 ,compare ibid41 lviii4      
entirely2 ,hosea vi4 #f2 ,malachi i4    
#aj1 and following4  ,footnote #c3      
,pirke ,aboth1 i4 #b4  ,footnote #d3    
,ecclesiasticus xxxv4 #a1 and following4
  ,footnote #e3 ,talm4 of ,jerus41      
,pesachim1 vi4 #a4 ,talm4 of ,bab41 the 
same treatise #ff a2 ,shabbath1 #ca a4  
,footnote #f3 ,quod ,deus ,immut41 ,sec4
 #a and #b2 ,de ,abrahamo1 ,sec4 #bb2   
,quis ,rerum ,divin4 ,haeres1 ,sec4 #ac1
 and following2 #ee1 #eh1 and following2

 ,de ,profugis1 ,sec4 #g and #h2 ,quod  
,omnis ,probus ,liber1 entirely2 ,de    
,vita ,contemp41 entirely4  ,footnote   
#g3 ,talm4 of ,bab41 ,pesachim1 #fg b4  
,footnote #h3 ,talmud of ,jerus41 ,peah1
 i4 #a4  ,an exquisite sympathy with    
,nature furnished him each moment with  
expressive images4 ,sometimes a         
remarkable ingenuity1 which we call wit1
 adorned his aphorisms2 at other times1 
their liveliness consisted in the happy 
use of popular proverbs4 ,how wilt thou 
say to thy brother1 ,let me pull out the
 mote out of thine eye2 and1 behold1 a  
beam is in thine own eye8 ,thou         
hypocrite1 first cast out the beam out  
of thine own eye1 and then thou shalt   
see clearly to cast out the mote out of 
thy brother's eye4#a  ,footnote #a3     
,matt4 vii4 #d1 #e4 ,compare ,talmud of 
,babylon1 ,baba ,bathra1 #ae b1         
,erachin1 #af b4  ,these lessons1 long  
hidden in the heart of the young        
,master1 soon gathered around him a few 
disciples4 ,the spirit of the time      

favored small churches2 it was the      
period of the ,essenes or ,therapeutae4 
,rabbis1 each having his distinctive    
teaching1 ,shemaia1 ,abtalion1 ,hillel1 
,shammai1 ,judas the ,gaulonite1        
,gamaliel1 and many others1 whose maxims
 form the ,talmud1#a appeared on all    
sides4 ,they wrote very little2 the     
,jewish doctors of this time did not    
write books2 everything was done by     
conversations1 and in public lessons1 to
 which it was sought to give a form     
easily remembered4#b ,the proclamation  
by the young carpenter of ,nazareth of  
these maxims1 for the most part already 
generally known1 but which1 thanks to   
him1 were to regenerate the world1 was  
therefore no striking event4 ,it was    
only one rabbi more 7it is true1 the    
most charming of all71 and around him   
some young men1 eager to hear him1 and  
thirsting for knowledge4 ,it requires   
time to command the attention of men4   
,as yet there were no ,christians2      
though true ,christianity was founded1  

and1 doubtless1 it was never more       
perfect than at this first period4      
,jesus added to it nothing durable      
afterward4 ,indeed1 in one sense1 he    
compromised it2 for every movement1 in  
order to triumph1 must make sacrifices2 
we never come from the contest of life  
unscathed4  ,footnote #a3 ,see          
especially ,pirke ,aboth1 ch4 i4        
,footnote #b3 ,the ,talmud1 a resume of 
this vast movement of the schools1 was  
scarcely commenced till the second      
century of our era4  ,to conceive the   
good1 in fact1 is not sufficient2 it    
must be made to succeed amongst men4 ,to
 accomplish this1 less pure paths must  
be followed4 ,certainly1 if the ,gospel 
was confined to some chapters of        
,matthew and ,luke1 it would be more    
perfect1 and would not now be open to so
 many objections2 but would ,jesus have 
converted the world without miracles8   
,if he had died at the period of his    
career we have now reached1 there would 
not have been in his life a single page 

to wound us2 but1 greater in the eyes of
 ,god1 he would have remained unknown to
 men2 he would have been lost in the    
crowd of great unknown spirits1 himself 
the greatest of all2 the truth would not
 have been promulgated1 and the world   
would not have profited from the great  
moral superiority with which his ,father
 had endowed him4 ,jesus1 son of        
,sirach1 and ,hillel1 had uttered       
aphorisms almost as exalted as those of 
,jesus4 ,hillel1 however1 will never be 
accounted the true founder of           
,christianity4 ,in morals1 as in art1   
precept is nothing1 practice is         
everything4 ,the idea which is hidden in
 a picture of ,raphael is of little     
moment2 it is the picture itself which  
is prized4 ,so1 too1 in morals1 truth is
 but little prized when it is a mere    
sentiment1 and only attains its full    
value when realized in the world as     
fact4 ,men of indifferent morality have 
written very good maxims4 ,very virtuous
 men1 on the other hand1 have done      

nothing to perpetuate in the world the  
tradition of virtue4 ,the palm is his   
who has been mighty both in words and in
 works1 who has discerned the good1 and 
at the price of his blood has caused its
 triumph4 ,jesus1 from this double point
 of view1 is without equal2 his glory   
remains entire1 and will ever be        
renewed4     ,,chapter ,,vi4  ,,john    
,,the ,,baptist--,,visit ,,of ,,jesus   
,,to ,,john1 ,,and ,,his ,,abode ,,in   
,,the ,,desert ,,of ,,judea--,,adoption 
,,of ,,the ,,baptism ,,of ,,john4   ,an 
extraordinary man1 whose position1 from 
the absence of documentary evidence1    
remains to us in some degree            
enigmatical1 appeared about this time1  
and was unquestionably to some extent   
connected with ,jesus4 ,this connection 
tended rather to make the young prophet 
of ,nazareth deviate from his path2 but 
it suggested many important accessories 
to his religious institution1 and1 at   
all events1 furnished a very strong     
authority to his disciples in           

recommending their ,master in the eyes  
of a certain class of ,jews4  ,about the
 year #bh of our era 7the fifteenth year
 of the reign of ,tiberius7 there spread
 throughout ,palestine the reputation of
 a certain ,johanan1 or ,john1 a young  
ascetic full of zeal and enthusiasm4    
,john was of the priestly race1#a and   
born1 it seems1 at ,juttah near ,hebron1
 or at ,hebron itself4#b ,hebron1 the   
patriarchal city par excellence1        
situated at a short distance from the   
desert of ,judea1 and within a few      
hours' journey of the great desert of   
,arabia1 was at this period what it is  
to-day--one of the bulwarks of ,semitic 
ideas1 in their most austere form4 ,from
 his infancy1 ,john was ,nazir--that is 
to say1 subjected by vow to certain     
abstinences4#c ,the desert by which he  
was1 so to speak1 surrounded1 early     
attracted him4#d ,he led there the life 
of a ,yogi of ,india1 clothed with skins
 or stuffs of camel's hair1 having for  
food only locusts and wild honey4#e ,a  

certain number of disciples were grouped
 around him1 sharing his life and       
studying his severe doctrine4 ,we might 
imagine ourselves transported to the    
banks of the ,ganges1 if particular     
traits had not revealed in this recluse 
the last descendant of the great        
prophets of ,israel4  ,footnote #a3     
,luke i4 #e2 passage from the ,gospel of
 the ,ebionites1 preserved by           
,epiphanius1 7,adv4 ,haer41 xxx4 #ac47  
,footnote #b3 ,luke i4 #ci4 ,it has been
 suggested1 not without probability1    
that the city of ,juda mentioned in this
 passage of ,luke1 is the town of ,jutta
 7,josh4 xv4 #ee1 xxi4 #af74 ,robinson  
7,biblical ,researches1 i4 #did1 ii4    
#bjf7 has discovered this ,jutta1 still 
bearing the same name1 at two hours'    
journey south of ,hebron4  ,footnote #c3
 ,luke i4 #ae4  ,footnote #d3 ,luke i4  
#hj4  ,footnote #e3 ,matt4 iii4 #d2     
,mark i4 #f2 fragm4 of the ,gospel of   
the ,ebionites1 in ,epiph41 ,adv4       
,haer41 xxx4 #ac4  ,from the time that  

the ,jewish nation had begun to reflect 
upon its destiny with a kind of despair1
 the imagination of the people had      
reverted with much complacency to the   
ancient prophets4 ,now1 of all the      
personages of the past1 the remembrance 
of whom came like the dreams of a       
troubled night to awaken and agitate the
 people1 the greatest was ,elias4 ,this 
giant of the prophets1 in his rough     
solitude of ,carmel1 sharing the life of
 savage beasts1 dwelling in the hollows 
of the rocks1 whence he came like a     
thunderbolt1 to make and unmake kings1  
had become1 by successive               
transformations1 a sort of superhuman   
being1 sometimes visible1 sometimes     
invisible1 and as one who had not tasted
 death4 ,it was generally believed that 
,elias would return and restore         
,israel4#a ,the austere life which he   
had led1 the terrible remembrances he   
had left behind him--the impression of  
which is still powerful in the          
,east#b--the sombre image which1 even in

 our own time1 causes trembling and     
death--all this mythology1 full of      
vengeance and terror1 vividly struck the
 mind of the people1 and stamped as with
 a birth-mark all the creations of the  
popular mind4 ,whoever aspired to act   
powerfully upon the people1 must imitate
 ,elias2 and1 as solitary life had been 
the essential characteristic of this    
prophet1 they were accustomed to        
conceive the man of ,god as a hermit4   
,they imagined that all the holy        
personages had had their days of        
penitence1 of solitude1 and of          
austerity4#c ,the retreat to the desert 
thus became the condition and the       
prelude of high destinies4  ,footnote   
#a3 ,malachi iv4 #e1 #f2 7iii4 #bc1 #bd1
 according to the ,vulg472              
,ecclesiasticus xlviii4 #aj2 ,matt4 xvi4
 #ad1 xvii4 #aj1 and following2 ,mark   
vi4 #ae1 viii4 #bh1 ix4 #aj1 and        
following2 ,luke ix4 #h1 #ai2 ,john i4  
#ba1 #be4  ,footnote #b3 ,the ferocious 
,abdallah1 pacha of ,st4 ,jean d',acre1 

nearly died from fright at seeing him in
 a dream1 standing erect on his         
mountain4 ,in the pictures of the       
,christian churches1 he is surrounded   
with decapitated heads4 ,the ,mussulmans
 dread him4  ,footnote #c3 ,isaiah ii4  
#i-aa4  ,no doubt this thought of       
imitation had occupied ,john's mind4#a  
,the anchorite life1 so opposed to the  
spirit of the ancient ,jewish people1   
and with which the vows1 such as those  
of the ,nazirs and the ,rechabites1 had 
no relation1 pervaded all parts of      
,judea4 ,the ,essenes or ,therapeutae   
were grouped near the birthplace of     
,john1 on the eastern shores of the     
,dead ,sea4#b ,it was imagined that the 
chiefs of sects ought to be recluses1   
having rules and institutions of their  
own1 like the founders of religious     
orders4 ,the teachers of the young were 
also at times species of anchorites1#c  
somewhat resembling the gourous#d of    
,brahminism4 ,in fact1 might there not  
in this be a remote influence of the    

mounis of ,india8 ,perhaps some of those
 wandering ,buddhist monks who overran  
the world1 as the first ,franciscans did
 in later times1 preaching by their     
actions and converting people who knew  
not their language1 might have turned   
their steps toward ,judea1 as they      
certainly did toward ,syria and         
,babylon8#e ,on this point we have no   
certainty4 ,babylon had become for some 
time a true focus of ,buddhism4 ,boudasp
 7,bodhisattva7 was reputed a wise      
,chaldean1 and the founder of ,sabeism4 
,sabeism was1 as its etymology          
indicates1#f baptism--that is to say1   
the religion of many baptisms--the      
origin of the sect still existing called
 ,christians of ,st4 ,john1 or          
,mendaites1 which the ,arabs call       
el-,mogtasila1 the ,baptists4#g ,it is  
difficult to unravel these vague        
analogies4 ,the sects floating between  
,judaism1 ,christianity1 ,baptism1 and  
,sabeism1 which we find in the region   
beyond the ,jordan during the first     

centuries of our era1#h present to      
criticism the most singular problem1 in 
consequence of the confused accounts of 
them which have come down to us4 ,we may
 believe1 at all events1 that many of   
the external practices of ,john1 of the 
,essenes1#i and of the ,jewish spiritual
 teachers of this time1 were derived    
from influences then but recently       
received from the far ,east4 ,the       
fundamental practice which characterized
 the sect of ,john1 and gave it its     
name1 has always had its centre in lower
 ,chaldea1 and constitutes a religion   
which is perpetuated there to the       
present day4  ,footnote #a3 ,luke i4    
#ag4  ,footnote #b3 ,pliny1 ,hist4      
,nat41 v4 #ag2 ,epiph41 ,adv4 ,haer41   
xix4 #a and #b4  ,footnote #c3          
,josephus1 ,vita1 #b4  ,footnote #d3    
,spiritual preceptors4  ,footnote #e3 ,i
 have developed this point elsewhere4   
,hist4 ,gener4 des ,langues ,semitiques1
 ,,iii4 iv4 #a2 ,journ4 ,asiat41        
,february-,march1 #ahef4  ,footnote #f3 

,the ,aramean word seba1 origin of the  
name of ,sabians1 is synonymous with    
,greek3 baptizo4  ,footnote #g3 ,i have 
treated of this at greater length in the
 ,journal ,asiatique1 ,nov4-,dec41      
#ahec1 and ,august-,sept41 #ahee4 ,it is
 remarkable that the ,elchasaites1 a    
,sabian or ,baptist sect1 inhabited the 
same district as the ,essenes1 7the     
eastern bank of the ,dead ,sea71 and    
were confounded with them 7,epiph41     
,adv4 ,haer41 xix4 #a1 #b1 #d1 xxx4 #af1
 #ag1 liii4 #a1 #b2 ,philosophumena1    
,,ix4 iii4 #ae1 #af1 ,x4 xx4 #bi74      
,footnote #h3 ,see the remarks of       
,epiphanius on the ,essenes1            
,hemero-,baptists1 ,nazarites1 ,ossenes1
 ,nazarenes1 ,ebionites1 ,samsonites    
7,adv4 ,haer41 books i4 and ii471 and   
those of the author of the              
,philosophumena on the ,elchasaites     
7books ix4 and x74  ,footnote #i3       
,epiph41 ,adv4 ,haer41 xix41 xxx41 liii4
  ,this practice was baptism1 or total  
immersion4 ,ablutions were already      

familiar to the ,jews1 as they were to  
all religions of the ,east4#a ,the      
,essenes had given them a peculiar      
extension4#b ,baptism had become an     
ordinary ceremony on the introduction of
 proselytes into the bosom of the       
,jewish religion1 a sort of initiatory  
rite4#c ,never before ,john the         
,baptist1 however1 had either this      
importance or this form been given to   
immersion4 ,john had fixed the scene of 
his activity in that part of the desert 
of ,judea which is in the neighborhood  
of the ,dead ,sea4#d ,at the periods    
when he administered baptism1 he went to
 the banks of the ,jordan1#e either to  
,bethany or ,bethabara1#f upon the      
eastern shore1 probably opposite to     
,jericho1 or to a place called ,a,enon1 
or the ,fountains1#g near ,salim1 where 
there was much water4#h ,considerable   
crowds1 especially of the tribe of      
,judah1 hastened to him to be           
baptized4#i ,in a few months he thus    
became one of the most influential men  

in ,judea1 and acquired much importance 
in the general estimation4  ,footnote   
#a3 ,mark vii4 #d2 ,jos41 ,ant41        
,,xviii4 v4 #b2 ,justin1 ,dial4 cum     
,tryph41 #ag1 #bi1 #hj2 ,epiph41 ,adv4  
,haer41 xvii4  ,footnote #b3 ,jos41     
,b4,j41 ,,ii4 viii4 #e1 #g1 #i1 #ac4    
,footnote #c3 ,mishnah1 ,pesachim1 viii4
 #h2 ,talmud of ,babylon1 ,jebamoth1 #df
 b2 ,kerithuth1 #i a2 ,aboda ,zara1 #eg 
a2 ,masseket ,gerim 7edit4 ,kirchheim1  
#ahea71 pp4 #ch-dj4  ,footnote #d3      
,matt4 iii4 #a2 ,mark i4 #d4  ,footnote 
#e3 ,luke iii4 #c4  ,footnote #f3 ,john 
i4 #bh1 iii4 #bf4 ,all the manuscripts  
say ,bethany2 but1 as no one knows of   
,bethany in these places1 ,origen       
7,comment4 in ,joann41 vi4 #bd7 has     
proposed to substitute ,bethabara1 and  
his correction has been generally       
accepted4 ,the two words have1 moreover1
 analogous meanings1 and seem to        
indicate a place where there was a      
ferry-boat to cross the river4          
,footnote #g3 ,a,enon is the ,chaldean  

plural1 ,a,enawan1 fountains4  ,footnote
 #h3 ,john iii4 #bc4 ,the locality of   
this place is doubtful4 ,the            
circumstance mentioned by the evangelist
 would lead us to believe that it was   
not very near the ,jordan4              
,nevertheless1 the synoptics are agreed 
in placing the scene of the baptisms of 
,john on the banks of that river 7,matt4
 iii4 #f2 ,mark i4 #e2 ,luke iii4 #c74  
,the comparison of verses #bb and #bc of
 chap4 iii4 of ,john1 and of verses #c  
and #d of chap4 iv4 of the same ,gospel1
 would lead us to believe that ,salim   
was in ,judea1 and consequently in the  
oasis of ,jericho1 near the mouth of the
 ,jordan2 since it would be difficult to
 find in any other district of the tribe
 of ,judah a single natural basin in    
which any one might be totally immersed4
 ,saint ,jerome wishes to place ,salim  
much more north1 near ,beth-,schean or  
,scythopolis4 ,but ,robinson 7,bibl4    
,res41 iii4 #ccc7 has not been able to  
find anything at these places that      

justifies this assertion4  ,footnote #i3
 ,mark i4 #e2 ,josephus1 ,ant41 ,,xviii4
 v4 #b4  ,the people took him for a     
prophet1#a and many imagined that it was
 ,elias who had risen again4#b ,the     
belief in these resurrections was widely
 spread2#c it was thought that ,god     
would raise from the tomb certain of the
 ancient prophets to guide ,israel      
toward its final destiny4 ,others held  
,john to be the ,messiah himself1       
although he made no such pretensions4#d 
,the priests and the scribes1 opposed to
 this revival of prophetism1 and the    
constant enemies of enthusiasts1        
despised him4 ,but the popularity of the
 ,baptist awed them1 and they dared not 
speak against him4#e ,it was a victory  
which the ideas of the multitude gained 
over the priestly aristocracy4 ,when the
 chief priests were compelled to declare
 themselves explicitly on this point1   
they were considerably embarrassed4#f   
,footnote #a3 ,matt4 xiv4 #e1 xxi4 #bf4 
,footnote #b3 ,matt4 vi4 #ad2 ,mark vi4 

#ae2 ,john i4 #ba4  ,footnote #c3 ,matt4
 xiv4 #b2 ,luke ix4 #h4  ,footnote #d3  
,luke iii4 #ae1 and following2 ,john i4 
#bj4  ,footnote #e3 ,matt4 xxi4 #be1 and
 following2 ,luke vii4 #cj4  ,footnote  
#f3 ,matt41 loc4 cit4  ,baptism with    
,john was only a sign destined to make  
an impression1 and to prepare the minds 
of the people for some great movement4  
,no doubt he was possessed in the       
highest degree with the ,messianic hope1
 and that his principal action was in   
accordance with it4 ,repent1 said he1   
for the kingdom of heaven is at hand4#a 
,he announced a great wrath1 that is to 
say1 terrible calamities which should   
come to pass1#b and declared that the   
axe was already laid at the root of the 
tree1 and that the tree would soon be   
cast into the fire4 ,he represented the 
,messiah with a fan in his hand1        
collecting the good wheat and burning   
the chaff4 ,repentance1 of which baptism
 was the type1 the giving of alms1 the  
reformation of habits1#c were in ,john's

 view the great means of preparation for
 the coming events1 though we do not    
know exactly in what light he conceived 
them4 ,it is1 however1 certain that he  
preached with much power against the    
same adversaries as ,jesus1 against rich
 priests1 the ,pharisees1 the doctors1  
in one word1 against official ,judaism2 
and that1 like ,jesus1 he was specially 
welcomed by the despised classes4#d ,he 
made no account of the title son of     
,abraham1 and said that ,god could raise
 up sons unto ,abraham from the stones  
of the road4#e ,it does not seem that he
 possessed even the germ of the great   
idea which led to the triumph of ,jesus1
 the idea of a pure religion2 but he    
powerfully served this idea in          
substituting a private rite for the     
legal ceremonies which required priests1
 as the ,flagellants of the ,middle     
,ages were the precursors of the        
,reformation1 by depriving the official 
clergy of the monopoly of the sacraments
 and of absolution4 ,the general tone of

 his sermons was stern and severe4 ,the 
expressions which he used against his   
adversaries appear to have been most    
violent4#f ,it was a harsh and          
continuous invective4 ,it is probable   
that he did not remain quite a stranger 
to politics4 ,josephus1 who1 through his
 teacher ,banou1 was brought into almost
 direct connection with ,john1 suggests 
as much by his ambiguous words1#g and   
the catastrophe which put an end to     
,john's life seems to imply this4 ,his  
disciples led a very austere life1#h    
fasted often1 and affected a sad and    
anxious demeanor4 ,we have at times     
glimpses of communism--the rich man     
being ordered to share all that he had  
with the poor4#i ,the poor man appeared 
as the one who would be specially       
benefited by the kingdom of ,god4       
,footnote #a3 ,matt4 iii4 #b4  ,footnote
 #b3 ,matt4 iii4 #g4  ,footnote #c3     
,luke iii4 #aa-ad2 ,josephus1 ,ant4     
,,xviii4 v4 #b4  ,footnote #d3 ,matt4   
xxi4 #cb2 ,luke iii4 #ab-ad4  ,footnote 

#e3 ,matt4 iii4 #i4  ,footnote #f3      
,matt4 iii4 #g2 ,luke iii4 #g4          
,footnote #g3 ,ant4 ,,xviii4 v4 #b4 ,we 
must observe that1 when ,josephus       
described the secret and more or less   
seditious doctrines of his countrymen1  
he suppressed everything which had      
reference to the ,messianic beliefs1    
and1 in order not to give umbrage to the
 ,romans1 spread over these doctrines a 
vulgar and commonplace air1 which made  
all the heads of ,jewish sects appear as
 mere professors of morals or stoics4   
,footnote #h3 ,matt4 ix4 #ad4  ,footnote
 #i3 ,luke iii4 #aa4  ,although the     
centre of ,john's action was ,judea1 his
 fame quickly penetrated to ,galilee and
 reached ,jesus1 who1 by his first      
discourses1 had already gathered around 
himself a small circle of hearers4      
,enjoying as yet little authority1 and  
doubtless impelled by the desire to see 
a teacher whose instruction had so much 
in common with his own1 ,jesus quitted  
,galilee and repaired with his small    

group of disciples to ,john4#a ,the     
newcomers were baptized like every one  
else4 ,john welcomed this group of      
,galilean disciples1 and did not object 
to their remaining distinct from his    
own4 ,the two teachers were young2 they 
had many ideas in common2 they loved one
 another1 and publicly vied with each   
other in exhibitions of kindly feeling4 
,at the first glance1 such a fact       
surprises us in ,john the ,baptist1 and 
we are tempted to call it in question4  
,humility has never been a feature of   
strong ,jewish minds4 ,it might have    
been expected that a character so       
stubborn1 a sort of ,lamennais always   
irritated1 would be very passionate1 and
 suffer neither rivalry nor half        
adhesion4 ,but this manner of viewing   
things rests upon a false conception of 
the person of ,john4 ,we imagine him an 
old man2 he was1 on the contrary1 of the
 same age as ,jesus1#b and very young   
according to the ideas of the time4 ,in 
mental development1 he was the brother  

rather than the father of ,jesus4 ,the  
two young enthusiasts1 full of the same 
hopes and the same hatreds1 were able to
 make common cause1 and mutually to     
support each other4 ,certainly an aged  
teacher1 seeing a man without celebrity 
approach him1 and maintain toward him an
 aspect of independence1 would have     
rebelled2 we have scarcely an example of
 a leader of a school receiving with    
eagerness his future successor4 ,but    
youth is capable of any sacrifice1 and  
we may admit that ,john1 having         
recognized in ,jesus a spirit akin to   
his own1 accepted him without any       
personal reservation4 ,these good       
relations became afterward the          
starting-point of a whole system        
developed by the evangelists1 which     
consisted in giving the ,divine mission 
of ,jesus the primary basis of the      
attestation of ,john4 ,such was the     
degree of authority acquired by the     
,baptist1 that it was not thought       
possible to find in the world a better  

guarantee4 ,but far from ,john          
abdicating in favor of ,jesus1 ,jesus1  
during all the time that he passed with 
him1 recognized him as his superior1 and
 only developed his own genius with     
timidity4  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 iii4    
#ac1 and following2 ,mark i4 #i1 and    
following2 ,luke iii4 #ba1 and          
following2 ,john i4 #bi1 and following2 
iii4 #bb1 and following4 ,the synoptics 
make ,jesus come to ,john1 before he had
 played any public part4 ,but if it is  
true1 as they state1 that ,john         
recognized ,jesus from the first and    
welcomed him1 it must be supposed that  
,jesus was already a somewhat renowned  
teacher4 ,the fourth ,gospel brings     
,jesus to ,john twice1 the first time   
while yet unknown1 the second time with 
a band of disciples4 ,without touching  
here the question of the precise        
journeys of ,jesus 7an insoluble        
question1 seeing the contradictions of  
the documents and the little care the   
evangelists had in being exact in such  

matters71 and without denying that      
,jesus might have made a journey to     
,john when he had as yet no notoriety1  
we adopt the information furnished by   
the fourth ,gospel 7iii4 #bb1 and       
following71 namely1 that ,jesus1 before 
beginning to baptize like ,john1 had    
formed a school4 ,we must remember1     
besides1 that the first pages of the    
fourth ,gospel are notes tacked together
 without rigorous chronological         
arrangement4  ,footnote #b3 ,luke i41   
although indeed all the details of the  
narrative1 especially those which refer 
to the relationship of ,john with       
,jesus1 are legendary4  ,it seems1 in   
fact1 that1 notwithstanding his profound
 originality1 ,jesus1 during some weeks 
at least1 was the imitator of ,john4    
,his way as yet was not clear before    
him4 ,at all times1 moreover1 ,jesus    
yielded much to opinion1 and adopted    
many things which were not in exact     
accordance with his own ideas1 or for   
which he cared little1 merely because   

they were popular2 but these accessories
 never injured his principal idea1 and  
were always subordinate to it4 ,baptism 
had been brought by ,john into very     
great favor2 ,jesus thought himself     
obliged to do like ,john2 therefore he  
baptized1 and his disciples baptized    
also4#a ,no doubt he accompanied baptism
 with preaching1 similar to that of     
,john4 ,the ,jordan was thus covered on 
all sides with ,baptists1 whose         
discourses were more or less successful4
 ,the pupil soon equaled the master1 and
 his baptism was much sought after4     
,there was on this subject some jealousy
 among the disciples2#b the disciples of
 ,john came to complain to him of the   
growing success of the young ,galilean1 
whose baptism would1 they thought1 soon 
supplant his own4 ,but the two teachers 
remained superior to this meanness4 ,the
 superiority of ,john was1 besides1 too 
indisputable for ,jesus1 still little   
known1 to think of contesting it4 ,jesus
 only wished to increase under ,john's  

protection2 and thought himself obliged1
 in order to gain the multitude1 to     
employ the external means which had     
given ,john such astonishing success4   
,when he recommenced to preach after    
,john's arrest1 the first words put into
 his mouth are but the repetition of one
 of the familiar phrases of the         
,baptist4#c ,many other of ,john's      
expressions may be found repeated       
verbally in the discourses of ,jesus4#d 
,the two schools appear to have lived   
long on good terms with each other2#e   
and after the death of ,john1 ,jesus1 as
 his trusty friend1 was one of the first
 to be informed of the event4#f         
,footnote #a3 ,john iii4 #bb-bf1 iv4 #a1
 #b4 ,the parenthesis of ver4 #b appears
 to be an interpolation1 or perhaps a   
tardy scruple of ,john correcting       
himself4  ,footnote #b3 ,john iii4 #bf1 
iv4 #a4  ,footnote #c3 ,matt4 iii4 #b1  
iv4 #ag4  ,footnote #d3 ,matt4 iii4 #g1 
xii4 #cd1 xxiii4 #cc4  ,footnote #e3    
,matt4 xi4 #b-ac4  ,footnote #f3 ,matt4 

xiv4 #ab4  ,john1 in fact1 was soon cut 
short in his prophetic career4 ,like the
 ancient ,jewish prophets1 he was1 in   
the highest degree1 a censurer of the   
established authorities4#a ,the extreme 
vivacity with which he expressed himself
 at their expense could not fail to     
bring him into trouble4 ,in ,judea1     
,john does not appear to have been      
disturbed by ,pilate2 but in ,perea1    
beyond the ,jordan1 he came into the    
territory of ,antipas4 ,this tyrant was 
uneasy at the political leaven which was
 so little concealed by ,john in his    
preaching4 ,the great assemblages of men
 gathered around the ,baptist1 by       
religious and patriotic enthusiasm1 gave
 rise to suspicion4#b ,an entirely      
personal grievance was also added to    
these motives of state1 and rendered the
 death of the austere censor inevitable4
  ,footnote #a3 ,luke iii4 #ai4         
,footnote #b3 ,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xviii4 v4 
#b4  ,one of the most strongly marked   
characters of this tragical family of   

the ,herods was ,herodias1 granddaughter
 of ,herod the ,great4 ,violent1        
ambitious1 and passionate1 she detested 
,judaism1 and despised its laws4#a ,she 
had been married1 probably against her  
will1 to her uncle ,herod1 son of       
,mariamne1#b whom ,herod the ,great had 
disinherited1#c and who never played any
 public part4 ,the inferior position of 
her husband1 in respect to the other    
persons of the family1 gave her no      
peace2 she determined to be sovereign at
 whatever cost4#d ,antipas was the      
instrument of whom she made use4 ,this  
feeble man having become desperately    
enamored of her1 promised to marry her1 
and to repudiate his first wife1        
daughter of ,hareth1 king of ,petra1 and
 emir of the neighboring tribes of      
,perea4 ,the ,arabian princess1         
receiving a hint of this design1        
resolved to fly4 ,concealing her        
intention1 she pretended that she wished
 to make a journey to ,machero1 in her  
father's territory1 and caused herself  

to be conducted thither by the officers 
of ,antipas4#e  ,footnote #a3 ,jos41    
,ant41 ,,xviii4 v4 #d4  ,footnote #b3   
,matthew 7chap4 xiv4 #c1 in the ,greek  
text7 and ,mark 7chap4 vi4 #ag7 have it 
that this was ,philip2 but this is      
certainly an inadvertency 7see ,jos41   
,ant41 ,,xviii4 v4 #a1 #d74 ,the wife of
 ,philip was ,salome1 daughter of       
,herodias4  ,footnote #c3 ,jos41 ,ant41 
,,xviii4 iv4 #b4  ,footnote #d3 ,ibid41 
,,xviii4 vii4 #a1 #b1 ,b4,j41 ,,ii4 ix4 
#f4  ,footnote #e3 ,ibid41 ,,xviii4 v4  
#a4  ,makaur1#a or ,machero1 was a      
colossal fortress built by ,alexander   
,jannaeus1 and rebuilt by ,herod1 in one
 of the most abrupt wadys to the east of
 the ,dead ,sea4#b ,it was a wild and   
desolate country1 filled with strange   
legends1 and believed to be haunted by  
demons4#c ,the fortress was just on the 
boundary of the lands of ,hareth and of 
,antipas4 ,at that time it was in the   
possession of ,hareth4#d ,the latter    
having been warned1 had prepared        

everything for the flight of his        
daughter1 who was conducted from tribe  
to tribe to ,petra4  ,footnote #a3 ,this
 form is found in the ,talmud of        
,jerusalem 7,shebiit1 ix4 #b71 and in   
the ,targums of ,jonathan and of        
,jerusalem 7,numb4 xxii4 #ce74          
,footnote #b3 ,now ,mkaur1 in the wady  
,zerka ,main4 ,this place has not been  
visited since ,seetzen was there4       
,footnote #c3 ,josephus1 ,de ,bell4     
,jud41 ,,vii4 vi4 #a1 and following4    
,footnote #d3 ,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xviii4 v4 
#a4  ,the almost incestuous#a union of  
,antipas and ,herodias then took place4 
,the ,jewish laws on marriage were a    
constant rock of offence between the    
irreligious family of the ,herods and   
the strict ,jews4#b ,the members of this
 numerous and rather isolated dynasty   
being obliged to marry amongst          
themselves1 frequent violations of the  
limits prescribed by the ,law           
necessarily took place4 ,john1 in       
energetically blaming ,antipas1 was the 

echo of the general feeling4#c ,this was
 more than sufficient to decide the     
latter to follow up his suspicions4 ,he 
caused the ,baptist to be arrested1 and 
ordered him to be shut up in the        
fortress of ,machero1 which he had      
probably seized after the departure of  
the daughter of ,hareth4#d  ,footnote   
#a3 ,lev4 xviii4 #af4  ,footnote #b3    
,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xv4 vii4 #aj4  ,footnote
 #c3 ,matt4 xiv4 #d2 ,mark vi4 #ah2     
,luke iii4 #ai4  ,footnote #d3 ,jos41   
,ant41 ,,xviii4 v4 #b4  ,more timid than
 cruel1 ,antipas did not desire to put  
him to death4 ,according to certain     
rumors1 he feared a popular sedition4#a 
,according to another version1#b he had 
taken pleasure in listening to the      
prisoner1 and these conversations had   
thrown him into great perplexities4 ,it 
is certain that the detention was       
prolonged1 and that ,john1 in his       
prison1 preserved an extended influence4
 ,he corresponded with his disciples1   
and we find him again in connection with

 ,jesus4 ,his faith in the near approach
 of the ,messiah only became firmer2 he 
followed with attention the movements   
outside1 and sought to discover in them 
the signs favorable to the              
accomplishment of the hopes which he    
cherished4  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 xiv4   
#e4  ,footnote #b3 ,mark vi4 #bj4 ,i    
read ,greek3 eporei1 and not ,greek3    
epoiei4     ,,chapter ,,vii4            
,,development ,,of ,,the ,,ideas ,,of   
,,jesus ,,respecting ,,the ,,kingdom    
,,of ,,god4   ,up to the arrest of      
,john1 which took place about the summer
 of the year #bi1 ,jesus did not quit   
the neighborhood of the ,dead ,sea and  
of the ,jordan4 ,an abode in the desert 
of ,judea was generally considered as   
the preparation for great things1 as a  
sort of retreat before public acts4     
,jesus followed in this respect the     
example of others1 and passed forty days
 with no other companions than savage   
beasts1 maintaining a rigorous fast4    
,the disciples speculated much          

concerning this sojourn4 ,the desert was
 popularly regarded as the residence of 
demons4#a ,there exist in the world few 
regions more desolate1 more abandoned by
 ,god1 more shut out from life1 than the
 rocky declivity which forms the western
 shore of the ,dead ,sea4 ,it was       
believed that during the time which     
,jesus passed in this frightful country1
 he had gone through terrible trials2   
that ,satan had assailed him with his   
illusions1 or tempted him with seductive
 promises2 that afterward1 in order to  
recompense him for his victory1 the     
angels had come to minister to him4#b   
,footnote #a3 ,tobit viii4 #c2 ,luke xi4
 #bd4  ,footnote #b3 ,matt4 iv4 #a1 and 
following2 ,mark i4 #ab1 #ac2 ,luke iv4 
#a1 and following4 ,certainly1 the      
striking similarity that these          
narratives present to the analogous     
legends of the ,vendidad 7farg4 xix47   
and of the ,lalitavistara 7chap4 xvii41 
xviii41 xxi47 would lead us to regard   
them only as myths4 ,but the meagre and 

concise narrative of ,mark1 which       
evidently represents on this point the  
primitive compilation1 leads us to      
suppose a real fact1 which furnished    
later the theme of legendary            
developments4  ,it was probably in      
coming from the desert that ,jesus      
learned of the arrest of ,john the      
,baptist4 ,he had no longer any reason  
to prolong his stay in a country which  
was partly strange to him4 ,perhaps he  
feared also being involved in the       
severities exercised toward ,john1 and  
did not wish to expose himself1 at a    
time in which1 seeing the little        
celebrity he had1 his death could in no 
way serve the progress of his ideas4 ,he
 regained ,galilee1#a his true home1    
ripened by an important experience1 and 
having1 through contact with a great    
man1 very different from himself1       
acquired a consciousness of his own     
originality4  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 iv4  
#ab2 ,mark i4 #ad2 ,luke iv4 #ad2 ,john 
iv4 #c4  ,on the whole1 the influence of

 ,john had been more hurtful than useful
 to ,jesus4 ,it checked his development2
 for everything leads us to believe that
 he had1 when he descended toward the   
,jordan1 ideas superior to those of     
,john1 and that it was by a sort of     
concession that he inclined for a time  
toward baptism4 ,perhaps if the         
,baptist1 whose authority it would have 
been difficult for him to escape1 had   
remained free1 ,jesus would not have    
been able to throw off the yoke of      
external rites and ceremonies1 and would
 then1 no doubt1 have remained an       
unknown ,jewish sectary2 for the world  
would not have abandoned its old        
ceremonies merely for others of a       
different kind4 ,it has been by the     
power of a religion1 free from all      
external forms1 that ,christianity has  
attracted elevated minds4 ,the ,baptist 
once imprisoned1 his school was soon    
diminished1 and ,jesus found himself    
left to his own impulses4 ,the only     
things he owed to ,john1 were lessons in

 preaching and in popular action4 ,from 
this moment1 in fact1 he preached with  
greater power1 and spoke to the         
multitude with authority4#a  ,footnote  
#a3 ,matt4 vii4 #bi2 ,mark i4 #bb2 ,luke
 iv4 #cb4  ,it seems also that his      
sojourn with ,john had1 not so much by  
the influence of the ,baptist1 as by the
 natural progress of his own thought1   
considerably ripened his ideas on the   
kingdom of heaven4 ,his watchword1      
henceforth1 is the good tidings1 the    
announcement that the kingdom of ,god is
 at hand4#a ,jesus is no longer simply a
 delightful moralist1 aspiring to       
express sublime lessons in short and    
lively aphorisms2 he is the transcendent
 revolutionary1 who essays to renovate  
the world from its very basis1 and to   
establish upon earth the ideal which he 
had conceived4 ,to await the kingdom of 
,god is henceforth synonymous with being
 a disciple of ,jesus4#b ,this phrase1  
kingdom of ,god1 or kingdom of heaven1  
was1 as we have said1 already long      

familiar to the ,jews4 ,but ,jesus gave 
it a moral sense1 a social application1 
which even the author of the ,book of   
,daniel1 in his apocalyptic enthusiasm1 
had scarcely dared to imagine4          
,footnote #a3 ,mark i4 #ad1 #ae4        
,footnote #b3 ,mark xv4 #dc4  ,he       
declared that in the present world evil 
is the reigning power4 ,satan is the    
prince of this world1#a and everything  
obeys him4 ,the kings kill the prophets4
 ,the priests and the doctors do not    
that which they command others to do2   
the righteous are persecuted1 and the   
only portion of the good is weeping4    
,the world is in this manner the enemy  
of ,god and ,his saints3#b but ,god will
 awaken and avenge ,his saints4 ,the day
 is at hand1 for the abomination is at  
its height4 ,the reign of goodness will 
have its turn4  ,footnote #a3 ,john xii4
 #ca1 xiv4 #cj1 xvi4 #aa4 7,comp4 #b    
,cor4 iv4 #d2 ,ephes4 ii4 #b47          
,footnote #b3 ,john i4 #aj1 vii4 #g1    
xiv4 #ag1 #bb1 #bg1 xv4 #ah1 and        

following2 xvi4 #h1 #bj1 #cc1 xvii4 #i1 
#ad1 #af1 #be4 ,this meaning of the word
 world is especially applied in the     
writings of ,paul and ,john4  ,the      
advent of this reign of goodness will be
 a great and sudden revolution4 ,the    
world will seem to be turned upside     
down2 the actual state being bad1 in    
order to represent the future1 it       
suffices to conceive nearly the reverse 
of that which exists4 ,the first shall  
be last4#a ,a new order shall govern    
humanity4 ,now the good and the bad are 
mixed1 like the tares and the good grain
 in a field4 ,the master lets them grow 
together2 but the hour of violent       
separation will arrive4#b ,the kingdom  
of ,god will be as the casting of a     
great net1 which gathers both good and  
bad fish2 the good are preserved1 and   
the rest are thrown away4#c ,the germ of
 this great revolution will not be      
recognizable in its beginning4 ,it will 
be like a grain of mustard-seed1 which  
is the smallest of seeds1 but which1    

thrown into the earth1 becomes a tree   
under the foliage of which the birds    
repose2#d or it will be like the leaven 
which1 deposited in the meal1 makes the 
whole to ferment4#e ,a series of        
parables1 often obscure1 was designed to
 express the suddenness of this event1  
its apparent injustice1 and its         
inevitable and final character4#f       
,footnote #a3 ,matt4 xix4 #cj1 xx4 #af2 
,mark x4 #ca2 ,luke xiii4 #cj4          
,footnote #b3 ,matt4 xiii4 #bd1 and     
following4  ,footnote #c3 ,matt4 xiii4  
#dg1 and following4  ,footnote #d3      
,matt4 xiii4 #ca1 and following2 ,mark  
iv4 #ca1 and following2 ,luke xiii4 #ai1
 and following4  ,footnote #e3 ,matt4   
xiii4 #cc2 ,luke xiii4 #ba4  ,footnote  
#f3 ,matt4 xiii4 entirely2 xviii4 #bc1  
and following2 xx4 #a1 and following2   
,luke xiii4 #ah1 and following4  ,who   
was to establish this kingdom of ,god8  
,let us remember that the first thought 
of ,jesus1 a thought so deeply rooted in
 him that it had probably no beginning1 

and formed part of his very being1 was  
that he was the ,son of ,god1 the friend
 of his ,father1 the doer of his will4  
,the answer of ,jesus to such a question
 could not therefore be doubtful4 ,the  
persuasion that he was to establish the 
kingdom of ,god took absolute possession
 of his mind4 ,he regarded himself as   
the universal reformer4 ,the heavens1   
the earth1 the whole of nature1 madness1
 disease1 and death1 were but his       
instruments4 ,in his paroxysm of heroic 
will1 he believed himself all powerful4 
,if the earth would not submit to this  
supreme transformation1 it would be     
broken up1 purified by fire1 and by the 
breath of ,god4 ,a new heaven would be  
created1 and the entire world would be  
peopled with the angels of ,god4#a      
,footnote #a3 ,matt4 xxii4 #cj4  ,a     
radical revolution1#a embracing even    
nature itself1 was the fundamental idea 
of ,jesus4 ,henceforward1 without doubt1
 he renounced politics2 the example of  
,judas1 the ,gaulonite1 had shown him   

the inutility of popular seditions4 ,he 
never thought of revolting against the  
,romans and tetrarchs4 ,his was not the 
unbridled and anarchical principle of   
the ,gaulonite4 ,his submission to the  
established powers1 though really       
derisive1 was in appearance complete4   
,he paid tribute to ,caesar1 in order to
 avoid disturbance4 ,liberty and right  
were not of this world1 why should he   
trouble his life with vain anxieties8   
,despising the earth1 and convinced that
 the present world was not worth caring 
for1 he took refuge in his ideal        
kingdom2 he established the great       
doctrine of transcendent disdain1#b the 
true doctrine of liberty of souls1 which
 alone can give peace4 ,but he had not  
yet said1 ,my kingdom is not of this    
world4 ,much darkness mixed itself with 
even his most correct views4 ,sometimes 
strange temptations crossed his mind4   
,in the desert of ,judea1 ,satan had    
offered him the kingdoms of the earth4  
,not knowing the power of the ,roman    

empire1 he might1 with the enthusiasm   
there was in the heart of ,judea1 and   
which ended soon after in so terrible an
 outbreak1 hope to establish a kingdom  
by the number and the daring of his     
partisans4 ,many times1 perhaps1 the    
supreme question presented itself--will 
the kingdom of ,god be realized by force
 or by gentleness1 by revolt or by      
patience8 ,one day1 it is said1 the     
simple men of ,galilee wished to carry  
him away and make him king1#c but ,jesus
 fled into the mountain and remained    
there some time alone4 ,his noble nature
 preserved him from the error which     
would have made him an agitator1 or a   
chief of rebels1 a ,theudas or a        
,barkokeba4  ,footnote #a3 ,greek3      
,apochatastasis panton1 ,acts iii4 #ba4 
,footnote #b3 ,matt4 xvii4 #bc-bf2 xxii4
 #af-bb4  ,footnote #c3 ,john vi4 #ae4  
,the revolution he wished to effect was 
always a moral revolution2 but he had   
not yet begun to trust to the angels and
 the last trumpet for its execution4 ,it

 was upon men and by the aid of men     
themselves that he wished to act4 ,a    
visionary who had no other idea than the
 proximity of the last judgment1 would  
not have had this care for the          
amelioration of man1 and would not have 
given utterance to the finest moral     
teaching that humanity has received4    
,much vagueness no doubt tinged his     
ideas1 and it was rather a noble feeling
 than a fixed design1 that urged him to 
the sublime work which was realized by  
him1 though in a very different manner  
to what he imagined4  ,it was indeed the
 kingdom of ,god1 or in other words1 the
 kingdom of the ,spirit1 which he       
founded2 and if ,jesus1 from the bosom  
of his ,father1 sees his work bear fruit
 in the world1 he may indeed say with   
truth1 ,this is what ,i have desired4   
,that which ,jesus founded1 that which  
will remain eternally his1 allowing for 
the imperfections which mix themselves  
with everything realized by humanity1 is
 the doctrine of the liberty of the     

soul4 ,greece had already had beautiful 
ideas on this subject4#a ,various stoics
 had learned how to be free even under a
 tyrant4 ,but in general the ancient    
world had regarded liberty as attached  
to certain political forms2 freedom was 
personified in ,harmodius and           
,aristogiton1 ,brutus and ,cassius4 ,the
 true ,christian enjoys more real       
freedom2 here below he is an exile2 what
 matters it to him who is the transitory
 governor of this earth1 which is not   
his home8 ,liberty for him is truth4#b  
,jesus did not know history sufficiently
 to understand that such a doctrine came
 most opportunely at the moment when    
republican liberty ended1 and when the  
small municipal constitutions of        
antiquity were absorbed in the unity of 
the ,roman empire4 ,but his admirable   
good sense1 and the truly prophetic     
instinct which he had of his mission1   
guided him with marvelous certainty4 ,by
 the sentence1 ,render unto ,caesar the 
things which are ,caesar's1 and to ,god 

the things which are ,god's1 he created 
something apart from politics1 a refuge 
for souls in the midst of the empire of 
brute force4 ,assuredly1 such a doctrine
 had its dangers4 ,to establish as a    
principle that we must recognize the    
legitimacy of a power by the inscription
 on its coins1 to proclaim that the     
perfect man pays tribute with scorn and 
without question1 was to destroy        
republicanism in the ancient form1 and  
to favor all tyranny4 ,christianity1 in 
this sense1 has contributed much to     
weaken the sense of duty of the citizen1
 and to deliver the world into the      
absolute power of existing              
circumstances4 ,but in constituting an  
immense free association1 which during  
three hundred years was able to dispense
 with politics1 ,christianity amply     
compensated for the wrong it had done to
 civic virtues4 ,the power of the state 
was limited to the things of earth2 the 
mind was freed1 or at least the terrible
 rod of ,roman omnipotence was broken   

forever4  ,footnote #a3 ,see ,stobaeus1 
,florilegium1 ch4 lxii41 lxxvii41       
lxxxvi41 and following4  ,footnote #b3  
,john viii4 #cb1 and following4  ,the   
man who is especially preoccupied with  
the duties of public life1 does not     
readily forgive those who attach little 
importance to his party quarrels4 ,he   
especially blames those who subordinate 
political to social questions1 and      
profess a sort of indifference for the  
former4 ,in one sense he is right1 for  
exclusive power is prejudicial to the   
good government of human affairs4 ,but  
what progress have parties been able to 
effect in the general morality of our   
species8 ,if ,jesus1 instead of founding
 his heavenly kingdom1 had gone to      
,rome1 had expended his energies in     
conspiring against ,tiberius1 or in     
regretting ,germanicus1 what would have 
become of the world8 ,as an austere     
republican1 or zealous patriot1 he would
 not have arrested the great current of 
the affairs of his age1 but in declaring

 that politics are insignificant1 he has
 revealed to the world this truth1 that 
one's country is not everything1 and    
that the man is before1 and higher than1
 the citizen4  ,our principles of       
positive science are offended by the    
dreams contained in the programme of    
,jesus4 ,we know the history of the     
earth2 cosmical revolutions of the kind 
which ,jesus expected are only produced 
by geological or astronomical causes1   
the connection of which with spiritual  
things has never yet been demonstrated4 
,but1 in order to be just to great      
originators1 they must not be judged by 
the prejudices in which they have       
shared4 ,columbus discovered ,america1  
though starting from very erroneous     
ideas2 ,newton believed his foolish     
explanation of the ,apocalypse to be as 
true as his system of the world4 ,shall 
we place an ordinary man of our time    
above a ,francis d',assisi1 a ,st4      
,bernard1 a ,joan of ,arc1 or a ,luther1
 because he is free from errors which   

these last have professed8 ,should we   
measure men by the correctness of their 
ideas of physics1 and by the more or    
less exact knowledge which they possess 
of the true system of the world8 ,let us
 understand better the position of      
,jesus and that which made his power4   
,the ,deism of the eighteenth century1  
and a certain kind of ,protestantism1   
have accustomed us to consider the      
founder of the ,christian faith only as 
a great moralist1 a benefactor of       
mankind4 ,we see nothing more in the    
,gospel than good maxims2 we throw a    
prudent veil over the strange           
intellectual state in which it was      
originated4 ,there are even persons who 
regret that the ,french ,revolution     
departed more than once from principles1
 and that it was not brought about by   
wise and moderate men4 ,let us not      
impose our petty and commonplace ideas  
on these extraordinary movements so far 
above our every-day life4 ,let us       
continue to admire the morality of the  

gospel--let us suppress in our religious
 teachings the chimera which was its    
soul2 but do not let us believe that    
with the simple ideas of happiness1 or  
of individual morality1 we stir the     
world4 ,the idea of ,jesus was much more
 profound2 it was the most revolutionary
 idea ever formed in a human brain2 it  
should be taken in its totality1 and not
 with those timid suppressions which    
deprive it of precisely that which has  
rendered it efficacious for the         
regeneration of humanity4  ,the ideal is
 ever a ,utopia4 ,when we wish nowadays 
to represent the ,christ of the modern  
conscience1 the consoler1 and the judge 
of the new times1 what course do we     
take8 ,that which ,jesus himself did    
eighteen hundred and thirty years ago4  
,we suppose the conditions of the real  
world quite other than what they are2 we
 represent a moral liberator breaking   
without weapons the chains of the negro1
 ameliorating the condition of the poor1
 and giving liberty to oppressed        

nations4 ,we forget that this implies   
the subversion of the world1 the climate
 of ,virginia and that of ,congo        
modified1 the blood and the race of     
millions of men changed1 our social     
complications restored to a chimerical  
simplicity1 and the political           
stratifications of ,europe displaced    
from their natural order4 ,the          
restitution of all things#a desired by  
,jesus was not more difficult4 ,this new
 earth1 this new heaven1 this new       
,jerusalem which comes from above1 this 
cry3 ,behold ,i make all things new6#b  
are the common characteristics of       
reformers4 ,the contrast of the ideal   
with the sad reality1 always produces in
 mankind those revolts against          
unimpassioned reason which inferior     
minds regard as folly1 till the day     
arrives in which they triumph1 and in   
which those who have opposed them are   
the first to recognize their            
reasonableness4  ,footnote #a3 ,acts    
iii4 #ba4  ,footnote #b3 ,rev4 xxi4 #a1 

#b1 #e4  ,that there may have been a    
contradiction between the belief in the 
approaching end of the world and the    
general moral system of ,jesus1         
conceived in prospect of a permanent    
state of humanity1 nearly analogous to  
that which now exists1 no one will      
attempt to deny4#a ,it was exactly this 
contradiction that insured the success  
of his work4 ,the millenarian alone     
would have done nothing lasting2 the    
moralist alone would have done nothing  
powerful4 ,the millenarianism gave the  
impulse1 the moralist insured the       
future4 ,hence ,christianity united the 
two conditions of great success in this 
world1 a revolutionary starting-point1  
and the possibility of continuous life4 
,everything which is intended to succeed
 ought to respond to these two wants2   
for the world seeks both to change and  
to last4 ,jesus1 at the same time that  
he announced an unparalleled subversion 
in human affairs1 proclaimed the        
principles upon which society has       

reposed for eighteen hundred years4     
,footnote #a3 ,the millenarian sects of 
,england present the same contrast1 ,i  
mean the belief in the near end of the  
world1 notwithstanding much good sense  
in the conduct of life1 and an          
extraordinary understanding of          
commercial affairs and industry4  ,that 
which in fact distinguishes ,jesus from 
the agitators of his time1 and from     
those of all ages1 is his perfect       
idealism4 ,jesus1 in some respects1 was 
an anarchist1 for he had no idea of     
civil government4 ,that government      
seemed to him purely and simply an      
abuse4 ,he spoke of it in vague terms1  
and as a man of the people who had no   
idea of politics4 ,every magistrate     
appeared to him a natural enemy of the  
people of ,god2 he prepared his         
disciples for contests with the civil   
powers1 without thinking for a moment   
that there was anything in this to be   
ashamed of4#a ,but he never shows any   
desire to put himself in the place of   

the rich and the powerful4 ,he wishes to
 annihilate riches and power1 but not to
 appropriate them4 ,he predicts         
persecution and all kinds of punishment 
to his disciples2#b but never once does 
the thought of armed resistance appear4 
,the idea of being all-powerful by      
suffering and resignation1 and of       
triumphing over force by purity of      
heart1 is indeed an idea peculiar to    
,jesus4 ,jesus is not a spiritualist1   
for to him everything tended to a       
palpable realization2 he had not the    
least notion of a soul separated from   
the body4 ,but he is a perfect idealist1
 matter being only to him the sign of   
the idea1 and the real1 the living      
expression of that which does not       
appear4  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 x4 #ag1   
#ah2 ,luke xii4 #aa4  ,footnote #b3     
,matt4 v4 #aj1 and following2 x4        
entirely2 ,luke vi4 #bb1 and following2 
,john xv4 #ah1 and following2 xvi4 #b1  
and following1 #bj1 #cc2 xvii4 #ad4  ,to
 whom should we turn1 to whom should we 

trust to establish the kingdom of ,god8 
,the mind of ,jesus on this point never 
hesitated4 ,that which is highly        
esteemed among men1 is abomination in   
the sight of ,god4#a ,the founders of   
the kingdom of ,god are the simple4 ,not
 the rich1 not the learned1 not priests2
 but women1 common people1 the humble1  
and the young4#b ,the great             
characteristic of the ,messiah is1 that 
the poor have the gospel preached to    
them4#c ,the idyllic and gentle nature  
of ,jesus here resumed the superiority4 
,a great social revolution1 in which    
rank will be overturned1 in which all   
authority in this world will be         
humiliated1 was his dream4 ,the world   
will not believe him2 the world will    
kill him4 ,but his disciples will not be
 of the world4#d ,they will be a little 
flock of the humble and the simple1 who 
will conquer by their very humility4    
,the idea which has made ,christian the 
antithesis of worldly1 has its full     
justification in the thoughts of the    

master4#e  ,footnote #a3 ,luke xvi4 #ae4
  ,footnote #b3 ,matt4 v4 #c1 #aj1      
xviii4 #c1 xix4 #ad1 #bc1 #bd1 xxi4 #ca1
 xxii4 #b1 and following2 ,mark x4 #ad1 
#ae1 #bc-be2 ,luke iv4 #ah1 and         
following2 vi4 #bj1 xviii4 #af1 #ag1    
#bd1 #be4  ,footnote #c3 ,matt4 xi4 #e4 
,footnote #d3 ,john xv4 #ai1 xvii4 #ad1 
#af4  ,footnote #e3 ,see especially     
chapter xvii4 of ,st4 ,john1 expressing1
 if not a real discourse delivered by   
,jesus1 at least a sentiment which was  
very deeply rooted in his disciples1 and
 which certainly came from him4         
,,chapter ,,viii4  ,,jesus ,,at         
,,capernaum4   ,beset by an idea1       
gradually becoming more and more        
imperious and exclusive1 ,jesus proceeds
 henceforth with a kind of fatal        
impassibility in the path marked out by 
his astonishing genius and the          
extraordinary circumstances in which he 
lived4 ,hitherto he had only            
communicated his thoughts to a few      
persons secretly attracted to him2      

henceforward his teaching was sought    
after by the public4 ,he was about      
thirty years of age4#a ,the little group
 of hearers who had accompanied him to  
,john the ,baptist had1 doubtless1      
increased1 and perhaps some disciples of
 ,john had attached themselves to him4#b
 ,it was with this first nucleus of a   
church that he boldly announced1 on his 
return into ,galilee1 the good tidings  
of the kingdom of ,god4 ,this kingdom   
was approaching1 and it was he1 ,jesus1 
who was that ,son of ,man whom ,daniel  
had beheld in his vision as the divine  
herald of the last and supreme          
revelation4  ,footnote #a3 ,luke iii4   
#bc2 ,gospel of the ,ebionites1 in      
,epiph41 ,adv4 ,haer41 xxx4 #ac4        
,footnote #b3 ,john i4 #cg1 and         
following4  ,we must remember1 that in  
the ,jewish ideas1 which were averse to 
art and mythology1 the simple form of   
man had a superiority over that of      
,cherubs1 and of the fantastic animals  
which the imagination of the people1    

since it had been subjected to the      
influence of ,assyria1 had ranged around
 the ,divine ,majesty4 ,already in      
,ezekiel1#a the ,being seated on the    
supreme throne1 far above the monsters  
of the mysterious chariot1 the great    
revealer of prophetic visions1 had the  
figure of a man4 ,in the book of        
,daniel1 in the midst of the vision of  
the empires1 represented by animals1 at 
the moment when the great judgment      
commences1 and when the books are       
opened1 a ,being like unto a ,son of    
,man1 advances toward the ,ancient of   
days1 who confers on him the power to   
judge the world1 and to govern it for   
eternity4#b ,son of ,man1 in the        
,semitic languages1 especially in the   
,aramean dialects1 is a simple synonym  
of man4 ,but this chief passage of      
,daniel struck the mind2 the words1 ,son
 of ,man1 became1 at least in certain   
schools1#c one of the titles of the     
,messiah1 regarded as judge of the      
world1 and as king of the new era about 

to be inaugurated4#d ,the application   
which ,jesus made of it to himself was  
therefore the proclamation of his       
,messiahship1 and the affirmation of the
 coming catastrophe in which he was to  
figure as judge1 clothed with the full  
powers which had been delegated to him  
by the ,ancient of days4#e  ,footnote   
#a3 ,chap4 i4 #e1 #bf1 and following4   
,footnote #b3 ,daniel vii4 #ac1 #ad2    
comp4 viii4 #ae1 x4 #af4  ,footnote #c3 
,in ,john xii4 #cd1 the ,jews do not    
appear to be aware of the meaning of    
this word4  ,footnote #d3 ,book of      
,enoch1 xlvi4 #a-c1 xlviii4 #b1 #c1     
lxii4 #i1 #ad1 lxx4 #a 7division of     
,dilmann72 ,matt4 x4 #bc1 xiii4 #da1    
xvi4 #bg1 #bh1 xix4 #bh1 xxiv4 #bg1 #cj1
 #cg1 #ci1 #dd1 xxv4 #ca1 xxvi4 #fd2    
,mark xiii4 #bf1 xiv4 #fb2 ,luke xii4   
#dj1 xvii4 #bd1 #bf1 #cj1 xxi4 #bg1 #cf1
 xxii4 #fi2 ,acts vii4 #ee4 ,but the    
most significant passage is ,john v4    
#bg1 compared with ,rev4 i4 #ac1 xiv4   
#ad4 ,the expression ,son of woman1 for 

the ,messiah1 occurs once in the book of
 ,enoch1 lxii4 #e4  ,footnote #e3 ,john 
v4 #bb1 #bg4  ,the success of the       
teaching of the new prophet was this    
time decisive4 ,a group of men and      
women1 all characterized by the same    
spirit of juvenile frankness and simple 
innocence1 adhered to him1 and said1    
,thou art the ,messiah4 ,as the ,messiah
 was to be the son of ,david1 they      
naturally conceded him this title1 which
 was synonymous with the former4 ,jesus 
allowed it with pleasure to be given to 
him1 although it might cause him some   
embarrassment1 his birth being well     
known4 ,the name which he preferred     
himself was that of ,son of ,man1 an    
apparently humble title1 but one which  
connected itself directly with the      
,messianic hopes4 ,this was the title by
 which he designated himself1#a and he  
used ,the ,son of ,man as synonymous    
with the pronoun ,i1 which he avoided4  
,but he was never thus addressed1       
doubtless because the name in question  

would be fully applicable to him only on
 the day of his future appearance4      
,footnote #a3 ,this title occurs        
eighty-three times in the ,gospels1 and 
always in the discourses of ,jesus4     
,his centre of action1 at this epoch of 
his life1 was the little town of        
,capernaum1 situated on the shore of the
 lake of ,gennesareth4 ,the name of     
,capernaum1 containing the word caphar1 
village1 seems to designate a small town
 of the ancient character1 in opposition
 to the great towns built according to  
the ,roman method1 like ,tiberias4#a    
,that name was so little known that     
,josephus1 in one passage of his        
writings1#b takes it for the name of a  
fountain1 the fountain having more      
celebrity than the village situated near
 it4 ,like ,nazareth1 ,capernaum had no 
history1 and had in no way participated 
in the profane movement favored by the  
,herods4 ,jesus was much attached to    
this town1 and made it a second home4#c 
,soon after his return1 he attempted to 

commence his work at ,nazareth1 but     
without success4#d ,he could not perform
 any miracle there1 according to the    
simple remark of one of his             
biographers4#e ,the knowledge which     
existed there about his family1 not an  
important one1 injured his authority too
 much4 ,people could not regard as the  
son of ,david1 one whose brother1       
sister1 and brother-in-law they saw     
every day1 and it is remarkable besides1
 that his family were strongly opposed  
to him1 and plainly refused to believe  
in his mission4#f ,the ,nazarenes1 much 
more violent1 wished1 it is said1 to    
kill him by throwing him from a steep   
rock4#g ,jesus aptly remarked that this 
treatment was the fate of all great men1
 and applied to himself the proverb1 ,no
 one is a prophet in his own country4   
,footnote #a3 ,it is true that          
,tell-,houm1 which is generally         
identified with ,capernaum1 contains the
 remains of somewhat fine monuments4    
,but1 besides this identification being 

doubtful1 these monuments may be of the 
second or third century after ,christ4  
,footnote #b3 ,b4,j41 ,,iii4 x4 #h4     
,footnote #c3 ,matt4 ix4 #a2 ,mark ii4  
#a4  ,footnote #d3 ,matt4 xiii4 #ed1 and
 following2 ,mark vi4 #a1 and following2
 ,luke iv4 #af1 and following1 #bc-bd2  
,john iv4 #dd4  ,footnote #e3 ,mark vi4 
#e2 cf4 ,matt4 xii4 #eh2 ,luke iv4 #bc4 
,footnote #f3 ,matt4 xiii4 #eg2 ,mark   
vi4 #d2 ,john vii4 #c1 and following4   
,footnote #g3 ,luke iv4 #bi4 ,probably  
the rock referred to here is the peak   
which is very near ,nazareth1 above the 
present church of the ,maronites1 and   
not the pretended ,mount of             
,precipitation1 at an hour's journey    
from ,nazareth4 ,see ,robinson1 ii4     
#cce1 and following4  ,this check far   
from discouraged him4 ,he returned to   
,capernaum1#a where he met with a much  
more favorable reception1 and from      
thence he organized a series of missions
 among the small surrounding towns4 ,the
 people of this beautiful and fertile   

country were scarcely ever assembled    
except on ,saturday4 ,this was the day  
which he chose for his teaching4 ,at    
that time each town had its synagogue1  
or place of meeting4 ,this was a        
rectangular room1 rather small1 with a  
portico1 decorated in the ,greek style4 
,the ,jews not having any architecture  
of their own1 never cared to give these 
edifices an original style4 ,the remains
 of many ancient synagogues still exist 
in ,galilee4#b ,they are all constructed
 of large and good materials2 but their 
style is somewhat paltry1 in consequence
 of the profusion of floral ornaments1  
foliage1 and twisted work1 which        
characterize the ,jewish buildings4#c   
,in the interior there were seats1 a    
chair for public reading1 and a closet  
to contain the sacred rolls4#d ,these   
edifices1 which had nothing of the      
character of a temple1 were the centre  
of the whole ,jewish life4 ,there the   
people assembled on the ,sabbath for    
prayer1 and reading of the law and the  

prophets4 ,as ,judaism1 except in       
,jerusalem1 had1 properly speaking1 no  
clergy1 the first comer stood up1 gave  
the lessons of the day 7parasha and     
haphtara71 and added thereto a midrash1 
or entirely personal commentary1 in     
which he expressed his own ideas4#e     
,this was the origin of the homily1 the 
finished model of which we find in the  
small treatises of ,philo4 ,the audience
 had the right of making objections and 
putting questions to the reader2 so that
 the meeting soon degenerated into a    
kind of free assembly4 ,it had a        
president1#f elders1#g a hazzan1 i4e41 a
 recognized reader1 or apparitor1#h     
deputies1#i who were secretaries or     
messengers1 and conducted the           
correspondence between one synagogue and
 another1 a shammash1 or sacristan4#aj  
,the synagogues were thus really little 
independent republics1 having an        
extensive jurisdiction4 ,like all       
municipal corporations1 up to an        
advanced period of the ,roman empire1   

they issued honorary decrees1#aa voted  
resolutions1 which had the force of law 
for the community1 and ordained corporal
 punishments1 of which the hazzan was   
the ordinary executor4#ab  ,footnote #a3
 ,matt4 iv4 #ac2 ,luke iv4 #ca4         
,footnote #b3 ,at ,tell-,houm1 ,irbid   
7,arbela71 ,meiron 7,mero71 ,jisch      
7,giscala71 ,kasyoun1 ,nabartein1 and   
two at ,kefr-,bereim4  ,footnote #c3 ,i 
dare not decide upon the age of those   
buildings1 nor consequently affirm that 
,jesus taught in any of them4 ,how great
 would be the interest attaching to the 
synagogue of ,tell-,houm were we to     
admit such an hypothesis6 ,the great    
synagogue of ,kefr-,bereim seems to me  
the most ancient of all4 ,its style is  
moderately pure4 ,that of ,kasyoun bears
 a ,greek inscription of the time of    
,septimus ,severus4 ,the great          
importance which ,judaism acquired in   
,upper ,galilee after the ,roman war1   
leads us to believe that several of     
these edifices only date back to the    

third century--a time in which ,tiberias
 became a sort of capital of ,judaism4  
,footnote #d3 #b ,esdras viii4 #d2      
,matt4 xxiii4 #f2 ,epist4 ,james ii4 #c2
 ,mishnah1 ,megilla1 iii4 #a2 ,rosh     
,hasshana1 iv4 #g1 etc4 ,see especially 
the curious description of the synagogue
 of ,alexandria in the ,talmud of       
,babylon1 ,sukka1 #ea b4  ,footnote #e3 
,philo1 quoted in ,eusebius1 ,praep4    
,evang41 viii4 #g1 and ,quod ,omnis     
,probus ,liber1 ,sec4 #ab2 ,luke iv4    
#af2 ,acts xiii4 #ae1 xv4 #ba2 ,mishnah1
 ,megilla1 iii4 #d1 and following4      
,footnote #f3 ,greek3 ,archisunagogos4  
,footnote #g3 ,greek3 ,presbyteroi4     
,footnote #h3 ,greek3 ,huperetes4       
,footnote #i3 ,greek3 ,apostoloi1 or    
,greek3 angeloi4  ,footnote #aj3 ,greek3
 ,diakonos4 ,mark v4 #bb1 #ce1 and      
following2 ,luke iv4 #bj1 vii4 #c1 viii4
 #da1 #di1 xiii4 #ad2 ,acts xiii4 #ae1  
xviii4 #h1 #ag2 ,rev4 ii4 #a2 ,mishnah1 
,joma1 vii4 #a2 ,rosh ,hasshana1 iv4 #i2
 ,talm4 of ,jerus41 ,sanhedrim1 i4 #g2  

,epiph41 ,adv4 ,haer41 xxx4 #d1 #aa4    
,footnote #aa3 ,inscription of          
,berenice1 in the ,corpus ,inscr4       
,graec41 ,no4 #ecfa2 inscription of     
,kasyoun1 in the ,mission de ,phenicie1 
book iv4 in the press4  ,footnote #ab3  
,matt4 v4 #be1 x4 #ag1 xxiii4 #cd2 ,mark
 xiii4 #i2 ,luke xx4 #aa1 xxi4 #ab2     
,acts xxii4 #ai1 xxvi4 #aa2 #b ,cor4 xi4
 #bd2 ,mishnah1 ,maccoth1 iii4 #ab2     
,talmud of ,babylon1 ,megilla1 #g b2    
,epiph41 ,adv4 ,haer41 xxx4 #aa4  ,with 
the extreme activity of mind which has  
always characterized the ,jews1 such an 
institution1 notwithstanding the        
arbitrary rigors it tolerated1 could not
 fail to give rise to very animated     
discussions4 ,thanks to the synagogues1 
,judaism has been able to sustain intact
 eighteen centuries of persecution4     
,they were like so many little separate 
worlds1 in which the national spirit was
 preserved1 and which offered a ready   
field for intestine struggles4 ,a large 
amount of passion was expended there4   

,the quarrels for precedence were of    
constant occurrence4 ,to have a seat of 
honor in the first rank was the reward  
of great piety1 or the most envied      
privilege of wealth4#a ,on the other    
hand1 the liberty1 accorded to every    
one1 of instituting himself reader and  
commentator of the sacred text1 afforded
 marvelous facilities for the           
propagation of new ideas4 ,this was one 
of the great instruments of power       
wielded by ,jesus1 and the most habitual
 means he employed to propound his      
doctrinal instruction4#b ,he entered the
 synagogue1 and stood up to read2 the   
hazzan offered him the book1 he unrolled
 it1 and reading the parasha or the     
haphtara of the day1 he drew from this  
reading a lesson in conformity with his 
own ideas4#c ,as there were few         
,pharisees in ,galilee1 the discussion  
did not assume that degree of vivacity1 
and that tone of acrimony against him1  
which at ,jerusalem would have arrested 
him at the outset4 ,these good          

,galileans had never heard discourses so
 adapted to their cheerful              
imaginations4#d ,they admired him1 they 
encouraged him1 they found that he spoke
 well1 and that his reasons were        
convincing4 ,he answered the most       
difficult objections with confidence2   
the charm of his speech and his person  
captivated the people1 whose simple     
minds had not yet been cramped by the   
pedantry of the doctors4  ,footnote #a3 
,matt4 xxiii4 #f2 ,epist4 ,james ii4 #c2
 ,talmud of ,bab41 ,sukka1 #ea b4       
,footnote #b3 ,matt4 iv4 #bc1 ix4 #ce2  
,mark i4 #ba1 #ci1 vi4 #b2 ,luke iv4    
#ae1 #af1 #ca1 #dd1 xiii4 #aj2 ,john    
xviii4 #bj4  ,footnote #c3 ,luke iv4    
#af1 and following4 ,comp4 ,mishnah1    
,joma1 vii4 #a4  ,footnote #d3 ,matt4   
vii4 #bh1 xiii4 #ed2 ,mark i4 #bb1 vi4  
#a2 ,luke iv4 #bb1 #cb4  ,the authority 
of the young master thus continued      
increasing every day1 and1 naturally1   
the more people believed in him1 the    
more he believed in himself4 ,his sphere

 of action was very limited4 ,it was    
confined to the valley in which the     
,lake of ,tiberias is situated1 and even
 in this valley there was one region    
which he preferred4 ,the lake is five or
 six leagues long and three or four     
broad2 although it presents the         
appearance of an almost perfect oval1 it
 forms1 commencing from ,tiberias up to 
the entrance of the ,jordan1 a sort of  
gulf1 the curve of which measures about 
three leagues4 ,such is the field in    
which the seed sown by ,jesus found at  
last a well-prepared soil4 ,let us run  
over it step by step1 and endeavor to   
raise the mantle of aridity and mourning
 with which it has been covered by the  
demon of ,islamism4  ,on leaving        
,tiberias1 we find at first steep rocks1
 like a mountain which seems to roll    
into the sea4 ,then the mountains       
gradually recede2 a plain 7,el ,ghoueir7
 opens almost at the level of the lake4 
,it is a delightful copse of rich       
verdure1 furrowed by abundant streams   

which proceed partly from a great round 
basin of ancient construction           
7,ain-,medawara74 ,at the entrance of   
this plain1 which is1 properly speaking1
 the country of ,gennesareth1 there is  
the miserable village of ,medjdel4 ,at  
the other extremity of the plain 7always
 following the sea71 we come to the site
 of a town 7,khan-,minyeh71 with very   
beautiful streams 7,ain-et-,tin71 a     
pretty road1 narrow and deep1 cut out of
 the rock1 which ,jesus often traversed1
 and which serves as a passage between  
the plain of ,gennesareth and the       
northern slopes of the lake4 ,a quarter 
of an hour's journey from this place1 we
 cross a stream of salt water           
7,ain-,tabiga71 issuing from the earth  
by several large springs at a little    
distance from the lake1 and entering it 
in the midst of a dense mass of verdure4
 ,at last1 after a journey of forty     
minutes further1 upon the arid declivity
 which extends from ,ain-,tabiga to the 
mouth of the ,jordan1 we find a few huts

 and a collection of monumental ruins1  
called ,tell-,houm4  ,five small towns1 
the names of which mankind will remember
 as long as those of ,rome and ,athens1 
were1 in the time of ,jesus1 scattered  
in the space which extends from the     
village of ,medjdel to ,tell-,houm4 ,of 
these five towns1 ,magdala1 ,dalmanutha1
 ,capernaum1 ,bethsaida1 and            
,chorazin1#a the first alone can be     
found at the present time with any      
certainty4 ,the repulsive village of    
,medjdel has no doubt preserved the name
 and the place of the little town which 
gave to ,jesus his most faithful female 
friend4#b ,dalmanutha#c was probably    
near there4 ,it is possible that        
,chorazin was a little more inland1 on  
the northern side4#d ,as to ,bethsaida  
and ,capernaum1 it is in truth almost at
 hazard that they have been placed at   
,tell-,houm1 ,ain-et-,tin1              
,khan-,minyeh1 and ,ain-,medawara4#e ,we
 might say that in topography1 as well  
as in history1 a profound design has    

wished to conceal the traces of the     
great founder4 ,it is doubtful whether  
we shall ever be able1 upon this        
extensively devastated soil1 to         
ascertain the places where mankind would
 gladly come to kiss the imprint of his 
feet4  ,footnote #a3 ,the ancient       
,kinnereth had disappeared or changed   
its name4  ,footnote #b3 ,we know in    
fact that it was very near              
,tiberias4--,talmud of ,jerusalem1      
,maasaroth1 iii4 #a2 ,shebiit1 ix4 #a2  
,erubin1 v4 #g4  ,footnote #c3 ,mark    
viii4 #aj4 ,comp4 ,matt4 xv4 #ci4       
,footnote #d3 ,in the place named       
,khorazi or ,bir-kerazeh1 above         
,tell-,houm4  ,footnote #e3 ,the ancient
 hypothesis which identified ,tell-,houm
 with ,capernaum1 though strongly       
disputed some years since1 has still    
numerous defenders4 ,the best argument  
we can give in its favor is the name of 
,tell-,houm itself1 ,tell entering into 
the names of many villages1 and being a 
substitute for ,caphar4 ,it is          

impossible1 on the other hand1 to find  
near ,tell-,houm a fountain             
corresponding to that mentioned by      
,josephus 7,b4,j41 ,,iii4 x4 #h47 ,this 
fountain of ,capernaum seems to be      
,ain-,medawara1 but ,ain-,medawara is   
half an hour's journey from the lake1   
while ,capernaum was a fishing town on  
the borders of the lake 7,matt4 iv4 #ac2
 ,john vi4 #ag47 ,the difficulties about
 ,bethsaida are still greater2 for the  
hypothesis1 somewhat generally admitted1
 of two ,bethsaidas1 the one on the     
eastern1 the other on the western shore 
of the lake1 and at two or three leagues
 from one another1 is rather singular4  
,the lake1 the horizon1 the shrubs1 the 
flowers1 are all that remain of the     
little canton1 three or four leagues in 
extent1 where ,jesus founded his ,divine
 work4 ,the trees have totally          
disappeared4 ,in this country1 in which 
the vegetation was formerly so brilliant
 that ,josephus saw in it a kind of     
miracle--,nature1 according to him1     

being pleased to bring hither side by   
side the plants of cold countries1 the  
productions of the torrid zone1 and the 
trees of temperate climates1 laden all  
the year with flowers and fruits#a--;in 
this country travellers are obliged now 
to calculate a day beforehand the place 
where they will the next day find a     
shady resting-place4 ,the lake has      
become deserted4 ,a single boat in the  
most miserable condition now ploughs the
 waves once so rich in life and joy4    
,but the waters are always clear and    
transparent4#b ,the shore1 composed of  
rocks and pebbles1 is that of a little  
sea1 not that of a pond1 like the shores
 of ,lake ,huleh4 ,it is clean1 neat1   
free from mud1 and always beaten in the 
same place by the light movement of the 
waves4 ,small promontories1 covered with
 rose laurels1 tamarisks1 and thorny    
caper bushes1 are seen there2 at two    
places1 especially at the mouth of the  
,jordan1 near ,tarichea1 and at the     
boundary of the plain of ,gennesareth1  

there are enchanting parterres1 where   
the waves ebb and flow over masses of   
turf and flowers4 ,the rivulet of       
,ain-,tabiga makes a little estuary1    
full of pretty shells4 ,clouds of       
aquatic birds hover over the lake4 ,the 
horizon is dazzling with light4 ,the    
waters1 of an empyrean blue1 deeply     
imbedded amid burning rocks1 seem1 when 
viewed from the height of the mountains 
of ,safed1 to lie at the bottom of a cup
 of gold4 ,on the north1 the snowy      
ravines of ,hermon are traced in white  
lines upon the sky2 on the west1 the    
high1 undulating plateaux of ,gaulonitis
 and ,perea1 absolutely arid1 and       
clothed by the sun with a sort of       
velvety atmosphere1 form one compact    
mountain1 or rather a long and very     
elevated terrace1 which from ,caesarea  
,philippi runs indefinitely toward the  
south4  ,footnote #a3 ,b4,j41 ,,iii4 x4 
#h4  ,footnote #b3 ,b4,j41 ,,iii4 x4 #g2
 ,jac4 de ,vitri1 in the ,gesta ,dei per
 ,francos1 i4 #ajge4  ,the heat on the  

shore is now very oppressive4 ,the lake 
lies in a hollow six hundred and fifty  
feet below the level of the             
,mediterranean1#a and thus participates 
in the torrid conditions of the ,dead   
,sea4#b ,an abundant vegetation formerly
 tempered these excessive heats2 it     
would be difficult to understand that a 
furnace1 such as the whole basin of the 
lake now is1 commencing from the month  
of ,may1 had ever been the scene of     
great activity4 ,josephus1 moreover1    
considered the country very temperate4#c
 ,no doubt there has been here1 as in   
the campagna of ,rome1 a change of      
climate introduced by historical causes4
 ,it is ,islamism1 and especially the   
,mussulman reaction against the         
,crusades1 which has withered as with a 
blast of death the district preferred by
 ,jesus4 ,the beautiful country of      
,gennesareth never suspected that       
beneath the brow of this peaceful       
wayfarer its highest destinies lay      
hidden4  ,footnote #a3 ,this is the     

estimate of ,captain ,lynch 7in ,ritter1
 ,erdkunde xv41 #ast part1 p4 #bj47 ,it 
nearly agrees with that of ,m4 de       
,bertou 7,bulletin de la ,soc4 de       
,geogr41 #b;d series1 xii41 p4 #adf47   
,footnote #b3 ,the depression of the    
,dead ,sea is twice as much4  ,footnote 
#c3 ,b4,j41 ,,iii4 x4 #g and #h4        
,dangerous countryman6 ,jesus has been  
fatal to the country which had the      
formidable honor of bearing him4 ,having
 become a universal object of love or of
 hate1 coveted by two rival fanaticisms1
 ,galilee1 as the price of its glory1   
has been changed to a desert4 ,but who  
would say that ,jesus would have been   
happier1 if he had lived obscure in his 
village to the full age of man8 ,and who
 would think of these ungrateful        
,nazarenes1 if one of them had not1 at  
the risk of compromising the future of  
their town1 recognized his ,father1 and 
proclaimed himself the ,son of ,god8    
,four or five large villages1 situated  
at half an hour's journey from one      

another1 formed the little world of     
,jesus at the time of which we speak4   
,he appears never to have visited       
,tiberias1 a city inhabited for most    
part by ,pagans1 and the habitual       
residence of ,antipas4#a ,sometimes1    
however1 he wandered from his favorite  
region4 ,he went by boat to the eastern 
shore1 to ,gergesa1 for instance4#b     
,toward the north we see him at ,paneas 
or ,caesarea ,philippi1#c at the foot of
 ,mount ,hermon4 ,lastly1 he journeyed  
once in the direction of ,tyre and      
,sidon1#d a country which must have been
 marvellously flourishing at that time4 
,in all these countries he was in the   
midst of ,paganism4#e ,at ,caesarea1 he 
saw the celebrated grotto of ,panium1   
thought to be the source of the ,jordan1
 and with which the popular belief had  
associated strange legends2#f he could  
admire the marble temple which ,herod   
had erected near there in honor of      
,augustus2#g he probably stopped before 
the numerous votive statues to ,pan1 to 

the ,nymphs1 to the ,echo of the        
,grotto1 which piety had already begun  
to accumulate in this beautiful place4#h
  ,footnote #a3 ,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xviii4  
ii4 #c2 ,vita1 #ab1 #ac1 #fd4  ,footnote
 #b3 ,i adopt the opinion of ,dr4       
,thomson 7,the ,land and the ,book1 ii4 
#cd1 and following71 according to which 
the ,gergesa of ,matthew viii4 #bh1     
identical with the ,canaanite town of   
,girgash 7,gen4 x4 #af1 xv4 #ba2 ,deut4 
vii4 #a2 ,josh4 xxiv4 #aa71 would be the
 site now named ,kersa or ,gersa1 on the
 eastern shore1 nearly opposite         
,magdala4 ,mark v4 #a1 and ,luke viii4  
#bf1 name ,gadara or ,gerasa instead of 
,gergesa4 ,gerasa is an impossible      
reading1 the evangelists teaching us    
that the town in question was near the  
lake and opposite ,galilee4 ,as to      
,gadara1 now ,om-,keis1 at a journey of 
an hour and a half from the lake and    
from the ,jordan1 the local             
circumstances given by ,mark and ,luke  
scarcely suit it4 ,it is possible1      

moreover1 that ,gergesa may have become 
,gerasa1 a much more common name1 and   
that the topographical impossibilities  
which this latter reading offered may   
have caused ,gadara to be adopted4--,cf4
 ,orig41 ,comment4 in ,joann41 vi4 #bd1 
x4 #aj2 ,eusebius and ,st4 ,jerome1 ,de 
situ et nomin4 loc4 hebr41 at the words 
,greek3 ,gergesa1 ,greek3 ,gergasei4    
,footnote #c3 ,matt4 xvi4 #ac2 ,mark    
viii4 #bg4  ,footnote #d3 ,matt4 xv4    
#ba2 ,mark vii4 #bd1 #ca4  ,footnote #e3
 ,jos41 ,vita1 #ac4  ,footnote #f3      
,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xv4 x4 #c2 ,b4,j41 ,i4  
xxi4 #c1 ,,iii4 x4 #g2 ,benjamin of     
,tudela1 p4 #df1 edit4 ,asher4          
,footnote #g3 ,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xv4 x4 #c4
  ,footnote #h3 ,corpus inscr4 gr41     
,nos4 #decg1 #dech1 #dech b1 #deci4  ,a 
rationalistic ,jew1 accustomed to take  
strange gods for deified men or for     
demons1 would consider all these        
figurative representations as idols4    
,the seductions of the naturalistic     
worships1 which intoxicated the more    

sensitive nations1 never affected him4  
,he was doubtless ignorant of what the  
ancient sanctuary of ,melkarth1 at      
,tyre1 might still contain of a         
primitive worship more or less analogous
 to that of the ,jews4#a ,the ,paganism 
which1 in ,phoenicia1 had raised a      
temple and a sacred grove on every hill1
 all this aspect of great industry and  
profane riches1#b interested him but    
little4 ,monotheism takes away all      
aptitude for comprehending the ,pagan   
religion2 the ,mussulman1 thrown into   
polytheistic countries1 seems to have no
 eyes4 ,jesus assuredly learned nothing 
in these journeys4 ,he returned always  
to his well-beloved shore of            
,gennesareth4 ,there was the centre of  
his thoughts2 there he found faith and  
love4  ,footnote #a3 ,lucianus 7ut      
fertur71 ,de ,dea ,syria1 #c4  ,footnote
 #b3 ,the traces of the rich ,pagan     
civilization of that time still cover   
all the ,beled-,besharrah1 and          
especially the mountains which form the 

group of ,cape ,blanc and ,cape         
,nakoura4     ,,chapter ,,ix4  ,,the    
,,disciples ,,of ,,jesus4   ,in this    
terrestrial paradise1 which the great   
revolutions of history had till then    
scarcely touched1 there lived a         
population in perfect harmony with the  
country itself1 active1 honest1 joyous1 
and tender-hearted4 ,the ,lake of       
,tiberias is one of the best supplied   
with fish of any in the world4#a ,very  
productive fisheries were established1  
especially at ,bethsaida1 and at        
,capernaum1 and had produced a certain  
degree of wealth4 ,these families of    
fishermen formed a gentle and peaceable 
society1 extending by numerous ties of  
relationship through the whole district 
of the lake which we have described4    
,their comparatively easy life left     
entire freedom to their imagination4    
,the ideas about the kingdom of ,god    
found in these small companies of worthy
 people more credence than anywhere     
else4 ,nothing of that which we call    

civilization1 in the ,greek and worldly 
sense1 had reached them4 ,neither was   
there any of our ,germanic and ,celtic  
earnestness2 but1 although goodness     
amongst them was often superficial and  
without depth1 their habits were quiet1 
and they were in some degree intelligent
 and shrewd4 ,we may imagine them as    
somewhat analogous to the better        
populations of the ,lebanon1 but with   
the gift1 not possessed by the latter1  
of producing great men4 ,jesus met here 
his true family4 ,he installed himself  
as one of them2 ,capernaum became his   
own city2#b in the centre of the little 
circle which adored him1 he forgot his  
sceptical brothers1 ungrateful ,nazareth
 and its mocking incredulity4  ,footnote
 #a3 ,matt4 iv4 #ah2 ,luke v4 #dd1 and  
following2 ,john i4 #dd1 xxi4 #a1 and   
following2 ,jos41 ,b4,j41 ,,iii4 x4 #g2 
,jac4 de ,vitri1 in the ,gesta ,dei per 
,francos1 i4 p4 #ajge4  ,footnote #b3   
,matt4 ix4 #a2 ,mark ii4 #a1 #b4  ,one  
house especially at ,capernaum offered  

him an agreeable refuge and devoted     
disciples4 ,it was that of two brothers1
 both sons of a certain ,jonas1 who     
probably was dead at the period when    
,jesus came to stay on the borders of   
the lake4 ,these two brothers were      
,simon1 surnamed ,cephas or ,peter1 and 
,andrew4 ,born at ,bethsaida1#a they    
were established at ,capernaum when     
,jesus commenced his public life4 ,peter
 was married and had children2 his      
mother-in-law lived with him4#b ,jesus  
loved this house and dwelt there        
habitually4#c ,andrew appears to have   
been a disciple of ,john the ,baptist1  
and ,jesus had perhaps known him on the 
banks of the ,jordan4#d ,the two        
brothers continued always1 even at the  
period in which it seems they must have 
been most occupied with their master1 to
 follow their business as fishermen4#e  
,jesus1 who loved to play upon words1   
said at times that he would make them   
fishers of men4#f ,in fact1 among all   
his disciples he had none more          

faithfully attached4  ,footnote #a3     
,john i4 #dd4  ,footnote #b3 ,matt4     
viii4 #ad2 ,mark i4 #cj2 ,luke iv4 #ch2 
#a ,cor4 ix4 #e2 #a ,peter v4 #ac2      
,clem4 ,alex41 ,strom41 iii4 #f1 vii4   
#aa2 ,pseudo-,clem41 ,recogn41 vii4 #be2
 ,eusebius1 ,h4,e41 iii4 #cj4  ,footnote
 #c3 ,matt4 viii4 #ad1 xvii4 #bd2 ,mark 
i4 #bi-ca2 ,luke iv4 #ch4  ,footnote #d3
 ,john i4 #dj1 and following4  ,footnote
 #e3 ,matt4 iv4 #ah2 ,mark i4 #af2 ,luke
 v4 #c2 ,john xxi4 #c4  ,footnote #f3   
,matt4 iv4 #ai2 ,mark i4 #ag2 ,luke v4  
#aj4  ,another family1 that of ,zabdia  
or ,zebedee1 a well-to-do fisherman and 
owner of several boats1#a gave ,jesus a 
welcome reception4 ,zebedee had two     
sons3 ,james1 who was the elder1 and a  
younger son1 ,john1 who later was called
 to play so prominent a part in the     
history of infant ,christianity4 ,both  
were zealous disciples4 ,salome1 wife of
 ,zebedee1 was also much attached to    
,jesus1 and accompanied him until his   
death4#b  ,footnote #a3 ,mark i4 #bj2   

,luke v4 #aj1 viii4 #c2 ,john xix4 #bg4 
,footnote #b3 ,matt4 xxvii4 #ef2 ,mark  
xv4 #dj1 xvi4 #a4  ,women1 in fact1     
received him with eagerness4 ,he        
manifested toward them those reserved   
manners which render a very sweet union 
of ideas possible between the two sexes4
 ,the separation of men from women1     
which has prevented all refined         
development among the ,semitic peoples1 
was no doubt then1 as in our days1 much 
less rigorous in the rural districts and
 villages than in the large towns4      
,three or four devoted ,galilean women  
always accompanied the young master1 and
 disputed the pleasure of listening to  
and of tending him in turn4#a ,they     
infused into the new sect an element of 
enthusiasm and of the marvellous1 the   
importance of which had already begun to
 be understood4 ,one of them1 ,mary of  
,magdala1 who has rendered the name of  
this poor town so celebrated in the     
world1 appears to have been of a very   
enthusiastic temperament4 ,according to 

the language of the time1 she had been  
possessed by seven demons4#b ,that is1  
she had been affected with nervous and  
apparently inexplicable maladies4       
,jesus1 by his pure and sweet beauty1   
calmed this troubled nature4 ,the       
,magdalene was faithful to him1 even    
unto ,golgotha1 and on the day but one  
after his death1 played a prominent     
part2 for1 as we shall see later1 she   
was the principal means by which faith  
in the resurrection was established4    
,joanna1 wife of ,chuza1 one of the     
stewards of ,antipas1 ,susanna1 and     
others who have remained unknown1       
followed him constantly and ministered  
unto him4#c ,some were rich1 and by     
their fortune enabled the young prophet 
to live without following the trade     
which he had until then practiced4#d    
,footnote #a3 ,matt4 xxvii4 #ee1 #ef2   
,mark xv4 #dj1 #da2 ,luke viii4 #b1 #c1 
xxiii4 #di4  ,footnote #b3 ,mark xvi4   
#i2 ,luke viii4 #b2 cf4 ,tobit iii4 #h1 
vi4 #ad4  ,footnote #c3 ,luke viii4 #c1 

xxiv4 #aj4  ,footnote #d3 ,luke viii4   
#c4  ,many others followed him          
habitually1 and recognized him as their 
master--a certain ,philip of ,bethsaida2
 ,nathanael1 son of ,tolmai or ,ptolemy1
 of ,cana1 perhaps a disciple of the    
first period2#a and ,matthew1 probably  
the one who was the ,xenophon of the    
infant ,christianity4 ,the latter had   
been a publican1 and1 as such1 doubtless
 handled the ,kalam more easily than the
 others4 ,perhaps it was this that      
suggested to him the idea of writing the
 ,logia1#b which are the basis of what  
we know of the teachings of ,jesus4     
,among the disciples are also mentioned 
,thomas1 or ,didymus1#c who doubted     
sometimes1 but who appears to have been 
a man of warm heart and of generous     
sympathies2#d one ,lebbaeus1 or         
,thaddeus2 ,simon ,zelotes1#e perhaps a 
disciple of ,judas the ,gaulonite1      
belonging to the party of the ,kenaim1  
which was formed about that time1 and   
which was soon to play so great a part  

in the movements of the ,jewish people4 
,lastly1 ,judas1 son of ,simon1 of the  
town of ,kerioth1 who was an exception  
in the faithful flock1 and drew upon    
himself such a terrible notoriety4 ,he  
was the only one who was not a          
,galilean4 ,kerioth was a town at the   
extreme south of the tribe of ,judah1#f 
a day's journey beyond ,hebron4         
,footnote #a3 ,john i4 #dd1 and         
following2 xxi4 #b4 ,i admit the        
identification of ,nathanael with the   
apostle who figures in the lists under  
the name of ,bartholomew4  ,footnote #b3
 ,papias1 in ,eusebius1 ,hist4 ,eccl41  
iii4 #ci4  ,footnote #c3 ,this second   
name is the ,greek translation of the   
first4  ,footnote #d3 ,john xi4 #af1 xx4
 #bd1 and following4  ,footnote #e3     
,matt4 x4 #d2 ,mark iii4 #ah2 ,luke vi4 
#ae2 ,acts i4 #ac2 ,gospel of the       
,ebionites1 in ,epiphanes1 ,adv4 ,haer41
 xxx4 #ac4  ,footnote #f3 ,now          
,kuryetein1 or ,kereitein4  ,we have    
seen that in general the family of      

,jesus were little inclined toward      
him4#a ,james and ,jude1 however1 his   
cousins by ,mary ,cleophas1 henceforth  
became his disciples1 and ,mary         
,cleophas herself was one of the women  
who followed him to ,calvary4#b ,at this
 period we do not see his mother beside 
him4 ,it was only after the death of    
,jesus that ,mary acquired great        
importance1#c and that the disciples    
sought to attach her to themselves4#d   
,it was then1 also1 that the members of 
the family of the founder1 under the    
title of brothers of of the ,lord1      
formed an influential group1 which was a
 long time at the head of the church of 
,jerusalem1 and which1 after the sack of
 the city1 took refuge in ,batanea4#e   
,the simple fact of having been familiar
 with him became a decisive advantage1  
in the same manner as1 after the death  
of ,mahomet1 the wives and daughters of 
the prophet1 who had no importance in   
his life1 became great authorities4     
,footnote #a3 ,the circumstance related 

in ,john xix4 #be-bg seems to imply that
 at no period of the public life of     
,jesus did his own brothers become      
attached to him4  ,footnote #b3 ,matt4  
xxvii4 #ef2 ,mark xv4 #dj2 ,john xix4   
#be4  ,footnote #c3 ,acts i4 #ad4       
,compare ,luke i4 #bh1 ii4 #ce1 already 
implying a great respect for ,mary4     
,footnote #d3 ,john xix4 #be1 and       
following4  ,footnote #e3 ,julius       
,africanus1 in ,eusebius1 ,h4,e41 i4 #g4
  ,in this friendly group ,jesus had    
evidently his favorites1 and1 so to     
speak1 an inner circle4 ,the two sons of
 ,zebedee1 ,james and ,john1 appear to  
have been in the first rank4 ,they were 
full of fire and passion4 ,jesus had    
aptly surnamed them sons of thunder1 on 
account of their excessive zeal1 which1 
if it could have controlled the thunder1
 would often have made use of it4#a     
,john1 especially1 appears to have been 
on very familiar terms with ,jesus4     
,perhaps the warm affection which the   
master felt for this disciple has been  

exaggerated in his ,gospel1 in which the
 personal interests of the writer are   
not sufficiently concealed4#b ,the most 
significant fact is1 that1 in the       
synoptical ,gospels1 ,simon ,bar-jona1  
or ,peter1 ,james1 son of ,zebedee1 and 
,john1 his brother1 form a sort of      
intimate council1 which ,jesus calls at 
certain times1 when he suspects the     
faith and intelligence of the others4#c 
,it seems1 moreover1 that they were all 
three associated in their fishing4#d    
,the affection of ,jesus for ,peter was 
strong4 ,the character of the           
latter--upright1 sincere1               
impulsive--pleased ,jesus1 who at times 
permitted himself to smile at his       
resolute manners4 ,peter1 little of a   
mystic1 communicated to the master his  
simple doubts1 his repugnances1 and his 
entirely human weaknesses1#e with an    
honest frankness which recalls that of  
,joinville toward ,st4 ,louis4 ,jesus   
chided him1 in a friendly manner1 full  
of confidence and esteem4 ,as to ,john1 

his youth1#f his exquisite tenderness of
 heart1#g and his lively imagination1#h 
must have had a great charm4 ,the       
personality of this extraordinary man1  
who has exerted so peculiar an influence
 on infant ,christianity1 did not       
develop itself till afterward4 ,when    
old1 he wrote that strange ,gospel1#i   
which contains such precious teaching1  
but in which1 in our opinion1 the       
character of ,jesus is falsified upon   
many points4 ,the nature of ,john was   
too powerful and too profound for him to
 bend himself to the impersonal tone of 
the first evangelists4 ,he was the      
biographer of ,jesus1 as ,plato was of  
,socrates4 ,accustomed to ponder over   
his recollections with the feverish     
restlessness of an excited mind1 he     
transformed his master in wishing to    
describe him1 and sometimes he leaves it
 to be suspected 7unless other hands    
have altered his work7 that perfect good
 faith was not invariably his rule and  
law in the composition of this singular 

writing4  ,footnote #a3 ,mark iii4 #ag1 
ix4 #cg1 and following2 x4 #ce1 and     
following2 ,luke ix4 #di1 and following2
 #ed1 and following4  ,footnote #b3     
,john xiii4 #bc1 xviii4 #ae1 and        
following1 xix4 #bf1 #bg1 xx4 #b1 #d1   
xxi4 #g1 #bj1 and following4  ,footnote 
#c3 ,matt4 xvii4 #a1 xxvi4 #cg2 ,mark v4
 #cg1 ix4 #a1 xiii4 #c1 xiv4 #cc2 ,luke 
ix4 #bh4 ,the idea that ,jesus had      
communicated to these three disciples a 
,gnosis1 or secret doctrine1 was very   
early spread4 ,it is singular that      
,john1 in his ,gospel1 does not once    
mention ,james1 his brother4  ,footnote 
#d3 ,matt4 iv4 #ah-bb2 ,luke v4 #aj2    
,john xxi4 #b1 and following4  ,footnote
 #e3 ,matt4 xiv4 #bh1 xvi4 #bb2 ,mark   
viii4 #cb1 and following4  ,footnote #f3
 ,he appears to have lived till near the
 year #ajj4 ,see his ,gospel1 xxi4      
#ae-bc1 and the ancient authorities     
collected by ,eusebius1 ,h4,e41 iii4    
#bj1 #bc4  ,footnote #g3 ,see the       
epistles attributed to him1 which are   

certainly by the same author as the     
fourth ,gospel4  ,footnote #h3          
,nevertheless we do not mean to affirm  
that the ,apocalypse is by him4         
,footnote #i3 ,the common tradition     
seems sufficiently justified to me on   
this point4 ,it is evident1 besides1    
that the school of ,john retouched his  
,gospel 7see the whole of chap4 xxi47   
,no hierarchy1 properly speaking1       
existed in the new sect4 ,they were to  
call each other brothers2 and ,jesus    
absolutely proscribed titles of         
superiority1 such as rabbi1 master1     
father--he alone being master1 and ,god 
alone being father4 ,the greatest was to
 become the servant of the others4#a    
,simon ,bar-jona1 however1 was          
distinguished amongst his fellows by a  
peculiar degree of importance4 ,jesus   
lived with him1 and taught in his       
boat2#b his house was the centre of the 
,gospel preaching4 ,in public he was    
regarded as the chief of the flock2 and 
it is to him that the overseers of the  

tolls address themselves to collect the 
taxes which were due from the           
community4#c ,he was the first who had  
recognized ,jesus as the ,messiah4#d ,in
 a moment of unpopularity1 ,jesus1      
asking of his disciples1 ,will ye also  
go away8 ,simon answered1 ,lord1 to whom
 should we go8 ,thou hast the words of  
eternal life4#e ,jesus1 at various      
times1 gave him a certain priority in   
his church2#f and gave him the ,syrian  
surname of ,kepha 7stone71 by which he  
wished to signify by that1 that he made 
him the corner-stone of the edifice4#g  
,at one time he seems even to promise   
him the keys of the kingdom of heaven1  
and to grant him the right of           
pronouncing upon earth decisions which  
should always be ratified in eternity4#h
  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 xviii4 #d1 xx4   
#be-bf1 xxiii4 #h-ab2 ,mark ix4 #cd1 x4 
#db-df4  ,footnote #b3 ,luke v4 #c4     
,footnote #c3 ,matt4 xvii4 #bc4         
,footnote #d3 ,matt4 xvi4 #af1 #ag4     
,footnote #e3 ,john vi4 #fh-gj4         

,footnote #f3 ,matt4 x4 #b2 ,luke xxii4 
#cb2 ,john xxi4 #ae1 and following2     
,acts i41 ii41 v41 etc42 ,gal4 i4 #ah1  
ii4 #g1 #h4  ,footnote #g3 ,matt4 xvi4  
#ah2 ,john i4 #db4  ,footnote #h3 ,matt4
 xvi4 #ai4 ,elsewhere1 it is true       
7,matt4 xviii4 #ah71 the same power is  
granted to all the apostles4  ,no doubt1
 this priority of ,peter excited a      
little jealousy4 ,jealousy was kindled  
especially in view of the future--and of
 this kingdom of ,god1 in which all the 
disciples would be seated upon thrones1 
on the right and on the left of the     
master1 to judge the twelve tribes of   
,israel4#a ,they asked who would then be
 nearest to the ,son of man1 and act in 
a manner as his prime minister and      
assessor4 ,the two sons of ,zebedee     
aspired to this rank4 ,preoccupied with 
such a thought1 they prompted their     
mother ,salome1 who one day took ,jesus 
aside1 and asked him for the two places 
of honor for her sons4#b ,jesus evaded  
the request by his habitual maxim that  

he who exalteth himself shall be        
humbled1 and that the kingdom of heaven 
will be possessed by the lowly4 ,this   
created some disturbance in the         
community2 there was great discontent   
against ,james and ,john4#c ,the same   
rivalry appears to show itself in the   
,gospel of ,john1 where the narrator    
unceasingly declares himself to be the  
disciple whom ,jesus loved1 to whom the 
master in dying confided his mother1 and
 seeks systematically to place himself  
near ,simon ,peter1 and at times to put 
himself before him1 in important        
circumstances where the older           
evangelists had omitted mentioning      
him4#d  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 xviii4 #a1 
and following2 ,mark ix4 #cc2 ,luke ix4 
#df1 xxii4 #cj4  ,footnote #b3 ,matt4   
xx4 #bj1 and following2 ,mark x4 #ce1   
and following4  ,footnote #c3 ,mark x4  
#da4  ,footnote #d3 ,john xviii4 #ae1   
and following1 xix4 #bf1 #bg1 xx4 #b1   
and following1 xxi4 #g1 #ba4 ,comp4 i4  
#ce1 and following1 in which the        

disciple referred to is probably ,john4 
,among the preceding personages1 all    
those of whom we know anything had begun
 by being fishermen4 ,at all events1    
none of them belonged to a socially     
elevated class4 ,only ,matthew or ,levi1
 son of ,alpheus1#a had been a publican4
 ,but those to whom they gave this name 
in ,judea were not the farmers-general  
of taxes1 men of elevated rank 7always  
,roman patricians71 who were called at  
,rome publicani4#b ,they were the agents
 of these contractors1 employes of low  
rank1 simply officers of the customs4   
,the great route from ,acre to          
,damascus1 one of the most ancient      
routes of the world1 which crossed      
,galilee1 skirting the lake1#c made this
 class of employe very numerous there4  
,capernaum1 which was perhaps on the    
road1 possessed a numerous staff of     
them4#d ,this profession is never       
popular1 but with the ,jews it was      
considered quite criminal4 ,taxation1   
new to them1 was the sign of their      

subjection2 one school1 that of ,judas  
the ,gaulonite1 maintained that to pay  
it was an act of paganism4 ,the         
customs-officers1 also1 were abhorred by
 the zealots of the law4 ,they were only
 named in company with assassins1       
highway robbers1 and men of infamous    
life4#e ,the ,jews who accepted such    
offices were excommunicated1 and became 
incapable of making a will2 their money 
was accursed1 and the casuists forbade  
the changing of money with them4#f      
,these poor men1 placed under the ban of
 society1 visited amongst themselves4   
,jesus accepted a dinner offered him by 
,levi1 at which there were1 according to
 the language of the time1 many         
publicans and sinners4 ,this gave great 
offense4#g ,in these ill-reputed houses 
there was a risk of meeting bad society4
 ,we shall often see him thus1 caring   
little to shock the prejudices of       
well-disposed persons1 seeking to       
elevate the classes humiliated by the   
orthodox1 and thus exposing himself to  

the liveliest reproaches of the zealots4
  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 ix4 #i1 x4 #c2   
,mark ii4 #ad1 iii4 #ah2 ,luke v4 #bg1  
vi4 #ae2 ,acts i4 #ac4 ,gospel of the   
,ebionites1 in ,epiph41 ,adv4 ,haer41   
xxx4 #ac4 ,we must suppose1 however     
strange it may seem1 that these two     
names were borne by the same personage4 
,the narrative1 ,matt4 ix4 #i1 conceived
 in accordance with the ordinary model  
of legends1 describing the call to      
apostleship1 is1 it is true1 somewhat   
vague1 and has certainly not been       
written by the apostle in question4 ,but
 we must remember that1 in the existing 
,gospel of ,matthew1 the only part which
 is by the apostle consists of the      
,discourses of ,jesus4 ,see ,papias1 in 
,eusebius1 ,hist4 ,eccl41 ,,iii4 #ci4   
,footnote #b3 ,cicero1 ,de ,provinc4    
,consular41 #e2 ,pro ,plancio1 #i2      
,tac41 ,ann41 ,,iv4 #f2 ,pliny1 ,hist4  
,nat41 ,,xii4 #cb2 ,appian1 ,bell4      
,civ41 ,,ii4 #ac4  ,footnote #c3 ,it    
remained celebrated1 up to the time of  

the ,crusades1 under the name of ,via   
,maris4 ,cf4 ,isaiah ix4 #a2 ,matt4 iv4 
#ac-ae2 ,tobit1 i4 #a4 ,i think that the
 road cut in the rock near ,ain-et-,tin 
formed part of it1 and that the route   
was directed from thence toward the     
,bridge of the ,daughters of ,jacob1    
just as it is now4 ,a part of the road  
from ,ain-et-,tin to this bridge is of  
ancient construction4  ,footnote #d3    
,matt4 ix4 #i1 and following4  ,footnote
 #e3 ,matt4 v4 #df1 #dg1 ix4 #aj1 #aa1  
xi4 #ai1 xviii4 #ag1 xxi4 #ca1 #cb2     
,mark ii4 #ae1 #af2 ,luke v4 #cj1 vii4  
#cd1 xv4 #a1 xviii4 #aa1 xix4 #g2       
,lucian1 ,necyomant1 ii42 ,dio          
,chrysost41 orat4 iv41 p4 #he1 orat4    
xiv41 p4 #bfi 7edit4 ,emperius72        
,mishnah1 ,nedarim1 iii4 #d4  ,footnote 
#f3 ,mishnah1 ,baba ,kama1 x4 #a2       
,talmud of ,jerusalem1 ,demai1 ii4 #c2  
,talmud of ,bab41 ,sanhedrim1 #be b4    
,footnote #g3 ,luke v4 #bi1 and         
following4  ,jesus owed these numerous  
conquests to the infinite charm of his  

person and his speech4 ,a penetrating   
word1 a look falling upon a simple      
conscience1 which only wanted awakening1
 gave him an ardent disciple4 ,sometimes
 ,jesus employed an innocent artifice1  
which ,joan of ,arc also used3 he       
affected to know something intimate     
respecting him whom he wished to gain1  
or he would perhaps recall to him some  
circumstance dear to his heart4 ,it was 
thus that he attracted ,nathanael1#a    
,peter1#b and the ,samaritan woman4#c   
,concealing the true source of his      
strength--his superiority over all that 
surrounded him--he permitted people to  
believe 7in order to satisfy the ideas  
of the time--ideas which1 moreover1     
fully coincided with his own7 that a    
revelation from on high revealed to him 
all secrets and laid bare all hearts4   
,every one thought that ,jesus lived in 
a sphere superior to that of humanity4  
,they said that he conversed on the     
mountains with ,moses and ,elias2#d they
 believed that in his moments of        

solitude the angels came to render him  
homage1 and established a supernatural  
intercourse between him and heaven4#e   
,footnote #a3 ,john i4 #dh1 and         
following4  ,footnote #b3 ,john i4 #db4 
,footnote #c3 ,john iv4 #ag1 and        
following4  ,footnote #d3 ,matt4 xvii4  
#c2 ,mark ix4 #c2 ,luke ix4 #cj-ca4     
,footnote #e3 ,matt4 iv4 #aa2 ,mark i4  
#ac4     ,,chapter ,x4  ,,the           
,,preachings ,,on ,,the ,,lake4   ,such 
was the group which1 on the borders of  
the lake of ,tiberias1 gathered around  
,jesus4 ,the aristocracy was represented
 there by a customs-officer and by the  
wife of one of ,herod's stewards4 ,the  
rest were fishermen and common people4  
,their ignorance was extreme2 their     
intelligence was feeble2 they believed  
in apparitions and spirits4#a ,not one  
element of ,greek culture had penetrated
 this first assembly of the saints4     
,they had very little ,jewish           
instruction2 but heart and good-will    
overflowed4 ,the beautiful climate of   

,galilee made the life of these honest  
fishermen a perpetual delight4 ,they    
truly preluded the kingdom of           
,god--simple1 good1 and happy--rocked   
gently on their delightful little sea1  
or at night sleeping on its shores4 ,we 
do not realize to ourselves the         
intoxication of a life which thus glides
 away in the face of heaven--the sweet  
yet strong love which this perpetual    
contact with ,nature gives1 and the     
dreams of these nights passed in the    
brightness of the stars1 under an azure 
dome of infinite expanse4 ,it was during
 such a night that ,jacob1 with his head
 resting upon a stone1 saw in the stars 
the promise of an innumerable posterity1
 and the mysterious ladder by which the 
angels of ,god came and went from heaven
 to earth4 ,at the time of ,jesus the   
heavens were not closed1 nor the earth  
grown cold4 ,the cloud still opened     
above the ,son of man2 the angels       
ascended and descended upon his head2#b 
the visions of the kingdom of ,god were 

everywhere1 for man carried them in his 
heart4 ,the clear and mild eyes of these
 simple souls contemplated the universe 
in its ideal source4 ,the world unveiled
 perhaps its secret to the divinely     
enlightened conscience of these happy   
children1 whose purity of heart deserved
 one day to behold ,god4  ,footnote #a3 
,matt4 xiv4 #bf2 ,mark vi4 #di2 ,luke   
xxiv4 #ci2 ,john vi4 #ai4  ,footnote #b3
 ,john i4 #ea4  ,jesus lived with his   
disciples almost always in the open air4
 ,sometimes he got into a boat1 and     
instructed his hearers1 who were crowded
 upon the shore4#a ,sometimes he sat    
upon the mountains which bordered the   
lake1 where the air is so pure and the  
horizon so luminous4 ,the faithful band 
led thus a joyous and wandering life1   
gathering the inspirations of the master
 in their first bloom4 ,an innocent     
doubt was sometimes raised1 a question  
slightly sceptical2 but ,jesus1 with a  
smile or a look1 silenced the objection4
 ,at each step--in the passing cloud1   

the germinating seed1 the ripening      
corn--they saw the sign of the ,kingdom 
drawing nigh1 they believed themselves  
on the eve of seeing ,god1 of being     
masters of the world2 tears were turned 
into joy2 it was the advent upon earth  
of universal consolation4  ,footnote #a3
 ,matt4 xiii4 #a1 #b2 ,mark iii4 #i1 iv4
 #a2 ,luke v4 #c4  ,blessed1 said the   
master1 are the poor in spirit3 for     
theirs is the kingdom of heaven4        
,blessed are they that mourn3 for they  
shall be comforted4  ,blessed are the   
meek3 for they shall inherit the earth4 
,blessed are they which do hunger and   
thirst after righteousness3 for they    
shall be filled4  ,blessed are the      
merciful3 for they shall obtain mercy4  
,blessed are the pure in heart3 for they
 shall see ,god4  ,blessed are the      
peacemakers3 for they shall be called   
the children of ,god4  ,blessed are they
 which are persecuted for righteousness'
 sake3 for theirs is the kingdom of     
heaven4#a  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 v4      

#c-aj2 ,luke vi4 #bj-be4  ,his preaching
 was gentle and pleasing1 breathing     
,nature and the perfume of the fields4  
,he loved the flowers1 and took from    
them his most charming lessons4 ,the    
birds of heaven1 the sea1 the mountains1
 and the games of children1 furnished in
 turn the subject of his instructions4  
,his style had nothing of the ,grecian  
in it1 but approached much more to that 
of the ,hebrew parabolists1 and         
especially of sentences from the ,jewish
 doctors1 his contemporaries1 such as we
 read them in the ,pirke ,aboth4 ,his   
teachings were not very extended1 and   
formed a species of sorites in the style
 of the ,koran1 which1 joined together1 
afterward composed those long discourses
 which were written by ,matthew4#a ,no  
transition united these diverse pieces2 
generally1 however1 the same inspiration
 penetrated them and made them one4 ,it 
was1 above all1 in parable that the     
master excelled4 ,nothing in ,judaism   
had given him the model of this         

delightful style4#b ,he created it4 ,it 
is true that we find in the ,buddhist   
books parables of exactly the same tone 
and the same character as the ,gospel   
parables2#c but it is difficult to admit
 that a ,buddhist influence has been    
exercised in these4 ,the spirit of      
gentleness and the depth of feeling     
which equally animate infant            
,christianity and ,buddhism1 suffice    
perhaps to explain these analogies4     
,footnote #a3 ,this is what the ,greek3 
,logia kuriaka were called4 ,papias1 in 
,eusebius1 ,h4,e41 iii4 #ci4  ,footnote 
#b3 ,the apologue1 as we find it in     
,judges ix4 #h1 and following1 #b ,sam4 
xii4 #a1 and following1 only resembles  
the ,gospel parable in form4 ,the       
profound originality of the latter is in
 the thought with which it is filled4   
,footnote #c3 ,see especially the ,lotus
 of the ,good ,law1 chap4 iii4 and iv4  
,a total indifference to exterior life  
and the vain appanage of the            
comfortable1 which our drearier         

countries make necessary to us1 was the 
consequence of the sweet and simple life
 lived in ,galilee4 ,cold climates1 by  
compelling man to a perpetual contest   
with external nature1 cause too much    
value to be attached to researches after
 comfort and luxury4 ,on the other hand1
 the countries which awaken few desires 
are the countries of idealism and of    
poesy4 ,the accessories of life are     
there insignificant compared with the   
pleasure of living4 ,the embellishment  
of the house is superfluous1 for it is  
frequented as little as possible4 ,the  
strong and regular food of less generous
 climates would be considered heavy and 
disagreeable4 ,and as to the luxury of  
garments1 what can rival that which ,god
 has given to the earth and the birds of
 heaven8 ,labor in climates of this kind
 appears useless2 what it gives is not  
equal to what it costs4 ,the animals of 
the field are better clothed than the   
most opulent man1 and they do nothing4  
,this contempt1 which1 when it is not   

caused by idleness1 contributes greatly 
to the elevation of the soul1 inspired  
,jesus with some charming apologues3    
,lay not up for yourselves treasures    
upon earth1 said he1 where moth and rust
 doth corrupt1 and where thieves break  
through and steal1 but lay up for       
yourselves treasures in heaven1 where   
neither moth nor rust doth corrupt1 and 
where thieves do not break through nor  
steal3 for where your treasure is1 there
 will your heart be also4#a ,no man can 
serve two masters3 for either he will   
hate the one and love the other2 or else
 he will hold to one and despise the    
other4 ,ye cannot serve ,god and        
,mammon4#b ,therefore ,i say unto you1  
take no thought for your life1 what ye  
shall eat1 or what ye shall drink2 nor  
yet for your body1 what ye shall put on4
 ,is not the life more than meat1 and   
the body than raiment8 ,behold the fowls
 of the air3 for they sow not1 neither  
do they reap1 nor gather into barns2 yet
 your heavenly ,father feedeth them4    

,are ye not much better than they8      
,which of you by taking thought can add 
one cubit unto his stature8 ,and why    
take ye thought for raiment8 ,consider  
the lilies of the field1 how they grow2 
they toil not1 neither do they spin2 and
 yet ,i say unto you1 ,that even        
,solomon in all his glory was not       
arrayed like one of these4 ,wherefore1  
if ,god so clothe the grass of the      
field1 which to-day is1 and to-morrow is
 cast into the oven1 shall he not much  
more clothe you1 ,o ye of little faith8 
,therefore take no thought1 saying1     
,what shall we eat8 or1 ,what shall we  
drink8 or1 ,wherewithal shall we be     
clothed8 ,for after all these things do 
the ,gentiles seek2 for your heavenly   
,father knoweth that ye have need of all
 these things4 ,but seek ye first the   
kingdom of ,god1#c and his              
righteousness2 and all these things     
shall be added unto you4 ,take therefore
 no thought for the morrow3 for the     
morrow shall take thought of the things 

of itself4 ,sufficient unto the day is  
the evil thereof4#d  ,footnote #a3      
,compare ,talm4 of ,bab41 ,baba ,bathra1
 #aa a4  ,footnote #b3 ,the god of      
riches and hidden treasures1 a kind of  
,plutus in the ,phoenician and ,syrian  
mythology4  ,footnote #c3 ,i here adopt 
the reading of ,lachmann and            
,tischendorf4  ,footnote #d3 ,matt4 vi4 
#ai-ba1 #bd-cd4 ,luke xii4 #bb-ca1 #cc1 
#cd1 xvi4 #ac4 ,compare the precepts in 
,luke x4 #g1 #h1 full of the same simple
 sentiment1 and ,talmud of ,babylon1    
,sota1 #dh b4  ,this essentially        
,galilean sentiment had a decisive      
influence on the destiny of the infant  
sect4 ,the happy flock1 relying on the  
heavenly ,father for the satisfaction of
 its wants1 had for its first principle 
the regarding of the cares of life as an
 evil which choked the germ of all good 
in man4#a ,each day they asked of ,god  
the bread for the morrow4#b ,why lay up 
treasure8 ,the kingdom of ,god is at    
hand4 ,sell that ye have and give alms1 

said the master4 ,provide yourselves    
bags which wax not old1 a treasure in   
the heavens that faileth not4#c ,what   
more foolish than to heap up treasures  
for heirs whom thou wilt never behold8#d
 ,as an example of human folly1 ,jesus  
loved to cite the case of a man who1    
after having enlarged his barns and     
amassed wealth for long years1 died     
before having enjoyed it6#e ,the        
brigandage which was deeply rooted in   
,galilee1#f gave much force to these    
views4 ,the poor1 who did not suffer    
from it1 would regard themselves as the 
favored of ,god2 whilst the rich1 having
 a less sure possession1 were the truly 
disinherited4 ,in our societies1        
established upon a very rigorous idea of
 property1 the position of the poor is  
horrible2 they have literally no place  
under the sun4 ,there are no flowers1 no
 grass1 no shade1 except for him who    
possesses the earth4 ,in the ,east1     
these are gifts of ,god which belong to 
no one4 ,the proprietor has but a       

slender privilege2 nature is the        
patrimony of all4  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 
xiii4 #bb2 ,mark iv4 #ai2 ,luke viii4   
#ad4  ,footnote #b3 ,matt4 vi4 #aa2     
,luke xi4 #c4 ,this is the meaning of   
the word ,greek3 epiousios4  ,footnote  
#c3 ,luke xii4 #cc1 #cd4  ,footnote #d3 
,luke xii4 #bj4  ,footnote #e3 ,luke    
xii4 #af1 and following4  ,footnote #f3 
,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xvii4 x4 #d1 and        
following3 ,vita1 #aa1 etc4  ,the infant
 ,christianity1 moreover1 in this only  
followed the footsteps of the ,essenes1 
or ,therapeutae1 and of the ,jewish     
sects founded on the monastic life4 ,a  
communistic element entered into all    
these sects1 which were equally disliked
 by ,pharisees and ,sadducees4 ,the     
,messianic doctrine1 which was entirely 
political among the orthodox ,jews1 was 
entirely social amongst them4 ,by means 
of a gentle1 regulated1 contemplative   
existence1 leaving its share to the     
liberty of the individual1 these little 
churches thought to inaugurate the      

heavenly kingdom upon earth4 ,utopias of
 a blessed life1 founded on the         
brotherhood of men and the worship of   
the true ,god1 occupied elevated souls1 
and produced from all sides bold and    
sincere1 but short-lived attempts to    
realize these doctrines4  ,jesus1 whose 
relations with the ,essenes are         
difficult to determine 7resemblances in 
history not always implying relations71 
was on this point certainly their       
brother4 ,the community of goods was for
 some time the rule in the new          
society4#a ,covetousness was the        
cardinal sin4#b ,now it must be remarked
 that the sin of covetousness1 against  
which ,christian morality has been so   
severe1 was then the simple attachment  
to property4 ,the first condition of    
becoming a disciple of ,jesus was to    
sell one's property and to give the     
price of it to the poor4 ,those who     
recoiled from this extremity were not   
admitted into the community4#c ,jesus   
often repeated that he who has found the

 kingdom of ,god ought to buy it at the 
price of all his goods1 and that in so  
doing he makes an advantageous bargain4 
,the kingdom of heaven is like unto     
treasure hid in a field2 the which when 
a man hath found1 he hideth1 and for joy
 thereof goeth and selleth all that he  
hath and buyeth that field4 ,again1 the 
kingdom of heaven is like unto a        
merchantman seeking goodly pearls2 who1 
when he had found one pearl of great    
price1 went and sold all that he had and
 bought it4#d ,alas6 the inconveniences 
of this plan were not long in making    
themselves felt4 ,a treasurer was       
wanted4 ,they chose for that office     
,judas of ,kerioth4 ,rightly or wrongly1
 they accused him of stealing from the  
common purse2#e it is certain that he   
came to a bad end4  ,footnote #a3 ,acts 
iv4 #cb1 #cd-cg2 v4 #a1 and following4  
,footnote #b3 ,matt4 xiii4 #bb2 ,luke   
xii4 #ae1 and following4  ,footnote #c3 
,matt4 xix4 #ba2 ,mark x4 #ba1 and      
following1 #bi1 #cj2 ,luke xviii4 #bb1  

#bc1 #bh4  ,footnote #d3 ,matt4 xiii4   
#dd-df4  ,footnote #e3 ,john xii4 #f4   
,sometimes the master1 more versed in   
things of heaven than those of earth1   
taught a still more singular political  
economy4 ,in a strange parable1 a       
steward is praised for having made      
himself friends among the poor at the   
expense of his master1 in order that the
 poor might in their turn introduce him 
into the kingdom of heaven4 ,the poor1  
in fact1 becoming the dispensers of this
 kingdom1 will only receive those who   
have given to them4 ,a prudent man1     
thinking of the future1 ought therefore 
to seek to gain their favor4 ,and the   
,pharisees also1 says the evangelist1   
who were covetous1 heard all these      
things3 and they derided him4#a ,did    
they also hear the formidable parable   
which follows8 ,there was a certain rich
 man1 which was clothed in purple and   
fine linen1 and fared sumptuously every 
day3 and there was a certain beggar     
named ,lazarus1 which was laid at his   

gate1 full of sores1 and desiring to be 
fed with the crumbs which fell from the 
rich man's table3 moreover the dogs came
 and licked his sores4 ,and it came to  
pass1 that the beggar died1 and was     
carried by the angels into ,abraham's   
bosom3 the rich man also died1 and was  
buried2#b and in hell he lifted up his  
eyes1 being in torments1 and seeth      
,abraham afar off1 and ,lazarus in his  
bosom4 ,and he cried and said1 ,father  
,abraham1 have mercy on me1 and send    
,lazarus that he may dip the tip of his 
finger in water1 and cool my tongue2 for
 ,i am tormented in this flame4 ,but    
,abraham said1 ,son1 remember that thou 
in thy lifetime receivedst thy good     
things2 and likewise ,lazarus evil      
things3 but now he is comforted and thou
 art tormented4#c ,what more just8      
,afterward this parable was called that 
of the wicked rich man4 ,but it is      
purely and simply the parable of the    
rich man4 ,he is in hell because he is  
rich1 because he does not give his      

wealth to the poor1 because he dines    
well1 while others at his door dine     
badly4 ,lastly1 in a less extravagant   
moment1 ,jesus does not make it         
obligatory to sell one's goods and give 
them to the poor except as a suggestion 
toward greater perfection4 ,but he still
 makes this terrible declaration3 ,it is
 easier for a camel to go through the   
eye of a needle than for a rich man to  
enter into the kingdom of ,god4#d       
,footnote #a3 ,luke xvi4 #a-ad4         
,footnote #b3 ,see the ,greek text4     
,footnote #c3 ,luke xvi4 #ai-be4 ,luke1 
,i am aware1 has a very decided         
communistic tendency 7comp4 vi4 #bj1    
#ba1 #be1 #bf71 and ,i think he has     
exaggerated this shade of the teaching  
of ,jesus4 ,but the features of the     
,greek3 ,logia of ,matthew are          
sufficiently significant4  ,footnote #d3
 ,matt4 xix4 #bd2 ,mark x4 #be2 ,luke   
xviii4 #be4 ,this proverbial phrase is  
found in the ,talmud 7,bab41 ,berakoth1 
#ee b1 ,baba metsia1 #ch b7 and in the  

,koran 7,sur41 vii4 #ch47 ,origen and   
the ,greek interpreters1 ignorant of the
 ,semitic proverb1 thought that it meant
 a cable 7,greek3 kamilos74  ,an        
admirable idea governed ,jesus in all   
this1 as well as the band of joyous     
children who accompanied him and made   
him for eternity the true creator of the
 peace of the soul1 the great consoler  
of life4 ,in disengaging man from what  
he called the cares of the world1 ,jesus
 might go to excess and injure the      
essential conditions of human society2  
but he founded that high spiritualism   
which for centuries has filled souls    
with joy in the midst of this vale of   
tears4 ,he saw with perfect clearness   
that man's inattention1 his want of     
philosophy and morality1 come mostly    
from the distractions which he permits  
himself1 the cares which besiege him1   
and which civilization multiplies beyond
 measure4#a ,the ,gospel1 in this       
manner1 has been the most efficient     
remedy for the weariness of ordinary    

life1 a perpetual sursum corda1 a       
powerful diversion from the miserable   
cares of earth1 a gentle appeal like    
that of ,jesus in the ear of            
,martha--,martha1 ,martha1 thou art     
careful and troubled about many things2 
but one thing is needful4 ,thanks to    
,jesus1 the dullest existence1 that most
 absorbed by sad or humiliating duties1 
has had its glimpse of heaven4 ,in our  
busy civilizations the remembrance of   
the free life of ,galilee has been like 
perfume from another world1 like the dew
 of ,hermon1#b which has prevented      
drought and barrenness from entirely    
invading the field of ,god4  ,footnote  
#a3 ,matt4 xiii4 #bb4  ,footnote #b3    
,psalm cxxxiii4 #c4     ,,chapter ,,xi4 
,,the ,,kingdom ,,of ,,god ,,conceived  
,,as ,,the ,,inheritance ,,of ,,the     
,,poor4   ,these maxims1 good for a     
country where life is nourished by the  
air and the light1 and this delicate    
communism of a band of children of ,god 
reposing in confidence on the bosom of  

their ,father1 might suit a simple sect 
constantly persuaded that its ,utopia   
was about to be realized4 ,but it is    
clear that they could not satisfy the   
whole of society4 ,jesus understood very
 soon1 in fact1 that the official world 
of his time would by no means adopt his 
kingdom4 ,he took his resolution with   
extreme boldness4 ,leaving the world1   
with its hard heart and narrow          
prejudices on one side1 he turned toward
 the simple4 ,a vast substitution of    
classes would take place4 ,the kingdom  
of ,god was made--#ast1 for children1   
and those who resemble them2 #b;d1 for  
the outcasts of this world1 victims of  
that social arrogance which repulses the
 good but humble man2 #c;d1 for heretics
 and schismatics1 publicans1            
,samaritans1 and ,pagans of ,tyre and   
,sidon4 ,an energetic parable explained 
this appeal to the people and justified 
it4#a ,a king has prepared a wedding    
feast1 and sends his servants to seek   
those invited4 ,each one excuses        

himself2 some ill-treat the messengers4 
,the king1 therefore1 takes a decided   
step4 ,the great people have not        
accepted his invitation4 ,be it so4 ,his
 guests shall be the first comers2 the  
people collected from the highways and  
byways1 the poor1 the beggars1 and the  
lame2 it matters not who1 the room must 
be filled4 ,for ,i say unto you1 said   
he1 that none of those men which were   
bidden shall taste of my supper4        
,footnote #a3 ,matt4 xxii4 #b1 and      
following2 ,luke xiv4 #af1 and          
following4 ,comp4 ,matt4 viii4 #aa1 #ab1
 xxi4 #cc1 and following4  ,pure        
,ebionism--that is1 the doctrine that   
the poor 7ebionim7 alone shall be saved1
 that the reign of the poor is          
approaching--was1 therefore1 the        
doctrine of ,jesus4 ,woe unto you that  
are rich1 said he1 for ye have received 
your consolation4 ,woe unto you that are
 full1 for ye shall hunger4 ,woe unto   
you that laugh now1 for ye shall mourn  
and weep4#a ,then said he also to him   

that bade him1 ,when thou makest a      
dinner or a supper1 call not thy        
friends1 nor thy brethren1 neither thy  
kinsmen1 nor thy rich neighbors1 lest   
they also bid thee again1 and a         
recompense be made thee4 ,but when thou 
makest a feast1 call the poor1 the      
maimed1 the lame1 the blind3 and thou   
shalt be blessed2 for they cannot       
recompense thee2 for thou shalt be      
recompensed at the resurrection of the  
just4#b ,it is perhaps in an analogous  
sense that he often repeated1 ,be good  
bankers#c--that is to say1 make good    
investments for the kingdom of ,god1 in 
giving your wealth to the poor1         
conformably to the old proverb1 ,he that
 hath pity upon the poor1 lendeth unto  
the ,lord4#d  ,footnote #a3 ,luke vi4   
#bd1 #be4  ,footnote #b3 ,luke xiv4 #ab1
 #ad4  ,footnote #c3 ,a saying preserved
 by very ancient tradition1 and much    
used1 ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,strom4  
i4 #bh4 ,it is also found in ,origen1   
,st4 ,jerome1 and a great number of the 

,fathers of the ,church4  ,footnote #d3 
,prov4 xix4 #ag4  ,this1 however1 was   
not a new fact4 ,the most exalted       
democratic movement of which humanity   
has preserved the remembrance 7the only 
one1 also1 which has succeeded1 for it  
alone has maintained itself in the      
domain of pure thought71 had long       
disturbed the ,jewish race4 ,the thought
 that ,god is the avenger of the poor   
and the weak1 against the rich and the  
powerful1 is found in each page of the  
writings of the ,old ,testament4 ,the   
history of ,israel is of all histories  
that in which the popular spirit has    
most constantly predominated4 ,the      
prophets1 the true1 and1 in one sense1  
the boldest tribunes1 had thundered     
incessantly against the great1 and      
established a close relation1 on the one
 hand1 between the words rich1 impious1 
violent1 wicked1 and1 on the other1     
between the words poor1 gentle1 humble1 
pious4#a ,under the ,seleucidae1 the    
aristocrats having almost all           

apostatized and gone over to ,hellenism1
 these associations of ideas only became
 stronger4 ,the ,book of ,enoch contains
 still more violent maledictions than   
those of the ,gospel against the world1 
the rich1 and the powerful4#b ,luxury is
 there depicted as a crime4 ,the ,son of
 man1 in this strange ,apocalypse1      
dethrones kings1 tears them from their  
voluptuous life1 and precipitates them  
into hell4#c ,the initiation of ,judea  
into secular life1 the recent           
introduction of an entirely worldly     
element of luxury and comfort1 provoked 
a furious reaction in favor of          
patriarchal simplicity4 ,woe unto you   
who despise the humble dwelling and     
inheritance of your fathers6 ,woe unto  
you who build your palaces with the     
sweat of others6 ,each stone1 each      
brick1 of which it is built1 is a sin4#d
 ,the name of poor 7ebion7 had become a 
synonym of saint1 of friend of ,god4    
,this was the name that the ,galilean   
disciples of ,jesus loved to give       

themselves2 it was for a long time the  
name of the ,judaizing ,christians of   
,batanea and of the ,hauran 7,nazarenes1
 ,hebrews7 who remained faithful to the 
tongue1 as well as to the primitive     
instructions of ,jesus1 and who boasted 
that they possessed amongst themselves  
the descendants of his family4#e ,at the
 end of the second century1 these good  
sectaries1 having remained beyond the   
reach of the great current which had    
carried away all the other churches1    
were treated as heretics 7,ebionites71  
and a pretended heretical leader        
7,ebion7 was invented to explain their  
name4#f  ,footnote #a3 ,see1 in         
particular1 ,amos ii4 #f2 ,isa4 lxiii4  
#i2 ,ps4 xxv4 #i1 xxxvii4 #aa1 lxix4    
#cc2 and1 in general1 the ,hebrew       
dictionaries1 at the words3             
,hebrew3 evion1 dal1 ani1 anav1 chasid1 
ashir1 holelim1      aritz4  ,footnote  
#b3 ,ch4 lxii41 lxiii41 xcvii41 c41 civ4
  ,footnote #c3 ,enoch1 ch4 xlvi4 #d-h4 
,footnote #d3 ,enoch1 xcix4 #ac1 #ad4   

,footnote #e3 ,julius ,africanus in     
,eusebius1 ,h4,e41 i4 #g2 ,eus41 ,de    
situ et nom4 loc4 hebr41 at the word    
,greek3 ,choba2 ,orig41 ,contra ,celsus1
 ii4 #a1 v4 #fa2 ,epiph41 ,adv4 ,haer41 
xxix4 #g1 #i1 xxx4 #b1 #ah4  ,footnote  
#f3 ,see especially ,origen1 ,contra    
,celsus1 ii4 #a2 ,de ,principiis1 iv4   
#bb4 ,compare ,epiph41 ,adv4 ,haer41    
xxx4 #ag4 ,irenaeus1 ,origen1 ,eusebius1
 and the apostolic ,constitutions1      
ignore the existence of such a          
personage4 ,the author of the           
,philosophumena seems to hesitate 7vii4 
#cd and #ce1 x4 #bb and #bc47 ,it is by 
,tertullian1 and especially by          
,epiphanes1 that the fable of one ,ebion
 has been spread4 ,besides1 all the     
,fathers are agreed on the etymology1   
,greek3 ,ebion  ,greek3 ptochos4  ,we   
may see1 in fact1 without difficulty1   
that this exaggerated taste for poverty 
could not be very lasting4 ,it was one  
of those ,utopian elements which always 
mingle in the origin of great movements1

 and which time rectifies4 ,thrown into 
the centre of human society1            
,christianity very easily consented to  
receive rich men into her bosom1 just as
 ,buddhism1 exclusively monkish in its  
origin1 soon began1 as conversions      
multiplied1 to admit the laity4 ,but the
 mark of origin is ever preserved4      
,although it quickly passed away and    
became forgotten1 ,ebionism left a      
leaven in the whole history of          
,christian institutions which has not   
been lost4 ,the collection of the       
,logia1 or discourses of ,jesus1 was    
formed in the ,ebionitish centre of     
,batanea4#a ,poverty remained an ideal  
from which the true followers of ,jesus 
were never after separated4 ,to possess 
nothing was the truly evangelical state2
 mendicancy became a virtue1 a holy     
condition4 ,the great ,umbrian movement 
of the thirteenth century1 which1 among 
all the attempts at religious           
construction1 most resembles the        
,galilean movement1 took place entirely 

in the name of poverty4 ,francis        
d',assisi1 the man who1 more than any   
other1 by his exquisite goodness1 by his
 delicate1 pure1 and tender intercourse 
with universal life1 most resembled     
,jesus1 was a poor man4 ,the mendicant  
orders1 the innumerable communistic     
sects of the middle ages 7,pauvres de   
,lyon1 ,begards1 ,bons-,hommes1         
,fratricelles1 ,humilies1 ,pauvres      
evangeliques1 c47 grouped under the     
banner of the ,everlasting ,gospel1     
pretended to be1 and in fact were1 the  
true disciples of ,jesus4 ,but even in  
this case the most impracticable dreams 
of the new religion were fruitful in    
results4 ,pious mendicity1 so           
impatiently borne by our industrial and 
well-organized communities1 was in its  
day1 and in a suitable climate1 full of 
charm4 ,it offered to a multitude of    
mild and contemplative souls the only   
condition suited to them4 ,to have made 
poverty an object of love and desire1 to
 have raised the beggar to the altar1   

and to have sanctified the coat of the  
poor man1 was a master-stroke which     
political economy may not appreciate1   
but in the presence of which the true   
moralist cannot remain indifferent4     
,humanity1 in order to bear its burdens1
 needs to believe that it is not paid   
entirely by wages4 ,the greatest service
 which can be rendered to it is to      
repeat often that it lives not by bread 
alone4  ,footnote #a3 ,epiph41 ,adv4    
,haer41 xix41 xxix41 and xxx41          
especially xxix4 #i4  ,like all great   
men1 ,jesus loved the people1 and felt  
himself at home with them4 ,the ,gospel1
 in his idea1 is made for the poor2 it  
is to them he brings the glad tidings of
 salvation4#a ,all the despised ones of 
orthodox ,judaism were his favorites4   
,love of the people1 and pity for its   
weakness 7the sentiment of the          
democratic chief1 who feels the spirit  
of the multitude live in him1 and       
recognize him as its natural            
interpreter71 shine forth at each moment

 in his acts and discourses4#b          
,footnote #a3 ,matt4 xi4 #e2 ,luke vi4  
#bj1 #ba4  ,footnote #b3 ,matt4 ix4 #cf2
 ,mark vi4 #cd4  ,the chosen flock      
presented1 in fact1 a very mixed        
character1 and one likely to astonish   
rigorous moralists4 ,it counted in its  
fold men with whom a ,jew1 respecting   
himself1 would not have associated4#a   
,perhaps ,jesus found in this society1  
unrestrained by ordinary rules1 more    
mind and heart than in a pedantic and   
formal middle-class1 proud of its       
apparent morality4 ,the ,pharisees1     
exaggerating the ,mosaic prescriptions1 
had come to believe themselves defiled  
by contact with men less strict than    
themselves2 in their meals they almost  
rivalled the puerile distinctions of    
caste in ,india4 ,despising these       
miserable aberrations of the religious  
sentiment1 ,jesus loved to eat with     
those who suffered from them2#b by his  
side at table were seen persons said to 
lead wicked lives1 perhaps only so      

called because they did not share the   
follies of the false devotees4 ,the     
,pharisees and the doctors protested    
against the scandal4 ,see1 said they1   
with what men he eats6 ,jesus returned  
subtle answers1 which exasperated the   
hypocrites3 ,they that be whole need not
 a physician4#c ,or again3 ,what man of 
you1 having an hundred sheep1 if he lose
 one of them1 doth not leave the ninety 
and nine in the wilderness1 and go after
 that which is lost until he find it8   
,and when he hath found it1 he layeth it
 on his shoulders rejoicing4#d ,or      
again3 ,the ,son of ,man is come to save
 that which was lost4#e ,or again3 ,i am
 not come to call the righteous1 but    
sinners4#f ,lastly1 that delightful     
parable of the prodigal son1 in which he
 who is fallen is represented as having 
a kind of privilege of love above him   
who has always been righteous4 ,weak or 
guilty women1 surprised at so much that 
was charming1 and realizing1 for the    
first time1 the attractions of contact  

with virtue1 approached him freely4     
,people were astonished that he did not 
repulse them4 ,now when the ,pharisee   
which had bidden him saw it1 he spake   
within himself1 saying1 ,this man1 if he
 were a prophet1 would have known who   
and what manner of woman this is that   
toucheth him3 for she is a sinner4      
,jesus replied by the parable of a      
creditor who forgives his debtors'      
unequal debts1 and he did not hesitate  
to prefer the lot of him to whom was    
remitted the greater debt4#g ,he        
appreciated conditions of soul only in  
proportion to the love mingled therein4 
,women1 with tearful hearts1 and        
disposed through their sins to feelings 
of humility1 were nearer to his kingdom 
than ordinary natures1 who often have   
little merit in not having fallen4 ,we  
may conceive1 on the other hand1 that   
these tender souls1 finding in their    
conversion to the sect an easy means of 
restoration1 would passionately attach  
themselves to him4  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4

 ix4 #aj1 and following2 ,luke xv4      
entirely4  ,footnote #b3 ,matt4 ix4 #aa2
 ,mark ii4 #af2 ,luke v4 #cj4  ,footnote
 #c3 ,matt4 ix4 #ab4  ,footnote #d3     
,luke xv4 #d1 and following4  ,footnote 
#e3 ,matt4 xviii4 #aa2 ,luke xix4 #aj4  
,footnote #f3 ,matt4 ix4 #ac4  ,footnote
 #g3 ,luke vii4 #cf1 and following4     
,luke1 who likes to bring out in relief 
everything that relates to the          
forgiveness of sinners 7comp4 x4 #cj1   
and following1 xv4 entirely1 xvii4 #af1 
and following1 xix4 #b1 and following1  
xxiii4 #ci-dc71 has included in this    
narrative passages from another history1
 that of the anointing of feet1 which   
took place at ,bethany some days before 
the death of ,jesus4 ,but the pardon of 
sinful women was undoubtedly one of the 
essential features of the anecdotes of  
the life of ,jesus4--,cf4 ,john viii4   
#c1 and following2 ,papias1 in          
,eusebius1 ,hist4 ,eccl41 iii4 #cj4     
,far from seeking to soothe the murmurs 
stirred up by his disdain for the social

 susceptibilities of the time1 he seemed
 to take pleasure in exciting them4     
,never did any one avow more loftily    
this contempt for the world1 which is   
the essential condition of great things 
and of great originality4 ,he pardoned a
 rich man1 but only when the rich man1  
in consequence of some prejudice1 was   
disliked by society4#a ,he greatly      
preferred men of equivocal life and of  
small consideration in the eyes of the  
orthodox leaders4 ,the publicans and the
 harlots go into the kingdom of ,god    
before you4 ,for ,john came unto you and
 ye believed him not3 but the publicans 
and the harlots believed him4#b ,we can 
understand how galling the reproach of  
not having followed the good example set
 by prostitutes must have been to men   
making a profession of seriousness and  
rigid morality4  ,footnote #a3 ,luke    
xix4 #b1 and following4  ,footnote #b3  
,matt4 xxi4 #ca1 #cb4  ,he had no       
external affectation or show of         
austerity4 ,he did not fly from         

pleasure2 he went willingly to marriage 
feasts4 ,one of his miracles was        
performed to enliven a wedding at a     
small town4 ,weddings in the ,east take 
place in the evening4 ,each one carries 
a lamp2 and the lights coming and going 
produce a very agreeable effect4 ,jesus 
liked this gay and animated aspect1 and 
drew parables from it4#a ,such conduct1 
compared with that of ,john the         
,baptist1 gave offence4#b ,one day1 when
 the disciples of ,john and the         
,pharisees were observing the fast1 it  
was asked1 ,why do the disciples of     
,john and the ,pharisees fast1 but thy  
disciples fast not8 ,and ,jesus said    
unto them1 ,can the children of the     
bridechamber fast1 while the bridegroom 
is with them8 ,as long as they have the 
bridegroom with them1 they cannot fast4 
,but the days will come when the        
bridegroom shall be taken away from     
them1 and then they shall fast in those 
days4#c ,his gentle gaiety found        
expression in lively ideas and amiable  

pleasantries4 ,but whereunto1 said he1  
shall ,i liken this generation8 ,it is  
like unto children sitting in the       
markets1 and calling unto their fellows1
 and saying1 ,we have piped unto you1   
and ye have not danced2 we have mourned 
unto you1 and ye have not lamented4#d   
,for ,john came neither eating nor      
drinking1 and they say1 ,he hath a      
devil4 ,the ,son of man came eating and 
drinking1 and they say1 ,behold a man   
gluttonous1 and a winebibber1 a friend  
of publicans and sinners4 ,but ,wisdom  
is justified of her children4#e         
,footnote #a3 ,matt4 xxv4 #a1 and       
following4  ,footnote #b3 ,mark ii4 #ah2
 ,luke v4 #cc4  ,footnote #c3 ,matt4 ix4
 #ad1 and following2 ,mark ii4 #ah1 and 
following2 ,luke v4 #cc1 and following4 
,footnote #d3 ,an allusion to some      
children's game4  ,footnote #e3 ,matt4  
xi4 #af1 and following2 ,luke vii4 #cd1 
and following4 ,a proverb which means   
,the opinion of men is blind4 ,the      
wisdom of the works of ,god is only     

proclaimed by ,his works themselves4 ,i 
read ,greek3 ergon1 with the manuscript 
,b4 of the ,vatican1 and not ,greek3    
teknon4  ,he thus traversed ,galilee in 
the midst of a continual feast4 ,he rode
 on a mule4 ,in the ,east this is a good
 and safe mode of traveling2 the large1 
black eyes of the animal1 shaded by long
 eyelashes1 give it an expression of    
gentleness4 ,his disciples sometimes    
surrounded him with a kind of rustic    
pomp1 at the expense of their garments1 
which they used as carpets4 ,they placed
 them on the mule which carried him1 or 
extended them on the earth in his       
path4#a ,his entering a house was       
considered a joy and a blessing4 ,he    
stopped in the villages and the large   
farms1 where he received an eager       
hospitality4 ,in the ,east1 the house   
into which a stranger enters becomes at 
once a public place4 ,all the village   
assembles there1 the children invade it1
 and though dispersed by the servants1  
always return4 ,jesus could not permit  

these simple auditors to be treated     
harshly2 he caused them to be brought to
 him and embraced them4#b ,the mothers1 
encouraged by such a reception1 brought 
him their children in order that he     
might touch them4#c ,women came to pour 
oil upon his head1 and perfume on his   
feet4 ,his disciples sometimes repulsed 
them as troublesome2 but ,jesus1 who    
loved the ancient usages1 and all that  
indicated simplicity of heart1 repaired 
the ill done by his too zealous friends4
 ,he protected those who wished to honor
 him4#d ,thus children and women adored 
him4 ,the reproach of alienating from   
their families these gentle creatures1  
always easily misled1 was one of the    
most frequent charges of his enemies4#e 
,footnote #a3 ,matt4 xxi4 #g1 #h4       
,footnote #b3 ,matt4 xix4 #ac1 and      
following2 ,mark ix4 #ce1 x4 #ac1 and   
following2 ,luke xviii4 #ae1 #af4       
,footnote #c3 ,ibid4  ,footnote #d3     
,matt4 xxvi4 #g1 and following2 ,mark   
xiv4 #c1 and following2 ,luke vii4 #cg1 

and following4  ,footnote #e3 ,gospel of
 ,marcion1 addition to ver4 #b of chap4 
xxiii4 of ,luke 7,epiph41 ,adv4 ,haer41 
xlii4 #aa74 ,if the suppressions of     
,marcion are without critical value1    
such is not the case with his additions1
 when they proceed1 not from a special  
view1 but from the condition of the     
manuscripts which he used4  ,the new    
religion was thus in many respects a    
movement of women and children4 ,the    
latter were like a young guard around   
,jesus for the inauguration of his      
innocent royalty1 and gave him little   
ovations which much pleased him1 calling
 him son of ,david1 crying ,hosanna1#a  
and bearing palms around him4 ,jesus1   
like ,savonarola1 perhaps made them     
serve as instruments for pious missions2
 he was very glad to see these young    
apostles1 who did not compromise him1   
rush into the front and give him titles 
which he dared not take himself4 ,he let
 them speak1 and when he was asked if he
 heard1 he replied in an evasive manner 

that the praise which comes from young  
lips is the most agreeable to ,god4#b   
,footnote #a3 ,a cry which was raised at
 the feast of tabernacles1 amidst the   
waving of palms4 ,mishnah1 ,sukka1 iii4 
#i4 ,this custom still exists among the 
,israelites4  ,footnote #b3 ,matt4 xxi4 
#ae1 #af4  ,he lost no opportunity of   
repeating that the little ones are      
sacred beings1#a that the kingdom of    
,god belongs to children1#b that we must
 become children to enter there1#c that 
we ought to receive it as a child1#d    
that the heavenly ,father hides his     
secrets from the wise and reveals them  
to the little ones4#e ,the idea of      
disciples is in his mind almost         
synonymous with that of children4#f ,on 
one occasion1 when they had one of those
 quarrels for precedence1 which were not
 uncommon1 ,jesus took a little child1  
placed him in their midst1 and said to  
them1 ,whosoever therefore shall humble 
himself as this little child1 the same  
is greatest in the kingdom of heaven4#g 

,footnote #a3 ,matt4 xviii4 #e1 #aj1    
#ad2 ,luke xvii4 #b4  ,footnote #b3     
,matt4 xix4 #ad2 ,mark x4 #ad2 ,luke    
xviii4 #af4  ,footnote #c3 ,matt4 xviii4
 #a1 and following2 ,mark ix4 #cc1 and  
following2 ,luke ix4 #df4  ,footnote #d3
 ,mark x4 #ae4  ,footnote #e3 ,matt4 xi4
 #be2 ,luke x4 #ba4  ,footnote #f3      
,matt4 x4 #db1 xviii4 #e1 #ad2 ,mark ix4
 #cf2 ,luke xvii4 #b4  ,footnote #g3    
,matt4 xviii4 #d2 ,mark ix4 #cc-cf2     
,luke ix4 #df-dh4  ,it was infancy1 in  
fact1 in its divine spontaneity1 in its 
simple bewilderments of joy1 which took 
possession of the earth4 ,every one     
believed at each moment that the kingdom
 so much desired was about to appear4   
,each one already saw himself seated on 
a throne#a beside the master4 ,they     
divided amongst themselves the positions
 of honor in the new kingdom1#b and     
strove to reckon the precise date of its
 advent4 ,this new doctrine was called  
the ,good ,tidings2 it had no other     
name4 ,an old word1 paradise1 which the 

,hebrew1 like all the languages of the  
,east1 had borrowed from the ,persian1  
and which at first designated the parks 
of the ,achaemenidae1 summed up the     
general dream2 a delightful garden1     
where the charming life which was led   
here below would be continued forever4#c
 ,how long this intoxication lasted we  
know not4 ,no one1 during the course of 
this magical apparition1 measured time  
any more than we measure a dream4       
,duration was suspended2 a week was an  
age4 ,but whether it filled years or    
months1 the dream was so beautiful that 
humanity has lived upon it ever since1  
and it is still our consolation to      
gather its weakened perfume4 ,never did 
so much joy fill the breast of man4 ,for
 a moment humanity1 in this the most    
vigorous effort she ever made to rise   
above the world1 forgot the leaden      
weight which binds her to earth and the 
sorrows of the life below4 ,happy he who
 has been able to behold this divine    
unfolding1 and to share1 were it but for

 one day1 this unexampled illusion6 ,but
 still more happy1 ,jesus would say to  
us1 is he who1 freed from all illusion1 
shall reproduce in himself the celestial
 vision1 and1 with no millenarian dream1
 no chimerical paradise1 no signs in the
 heavens1 but by the uprightness of his 
will and the poetry of his soul1 shall  
be able to create anew in his heart the 
true kingdom of ,god6  ,footnote #a3    
,luke xxii4 #cj4  ,footnote #b3 ,mark x4
 #cg1 #dj1 #da4  ,footnote #c3 ,luke    
xxiii4 #dc2 #b ,cor4 xii4 #d4 ,comp4    
,carm4 ,sibyll41 prooem1 #cf2 ,talm4 of 
,bab41 ,chagigah1 #ad b4     ,,chapter  
,,xii4  ,,embassy ,,from ,,john ,,in    
,,prison ,,to ,,jesus--,,death ,,of     
,,john--,,relations ,,of ,,his ,,school 
,,with ,,that ,,of ,,jesus4   ,whilst   
joyous ,galilee was celebrating in      
feasts the coming of the well-beloved1  
the sorrowful ,john1 in his prison of   
,machero1 was pining away with          
expectation and desire4 ,the success of 
the young master1 whom he had seen some 

months before as his auditor1 reached   
his ears4 ,it was said that the ,messiah
 predicted by the prophets1 he who was  
to re-establish the kingdom of ,israel1 
was come1 and was proving his presence  
in ,galilee by marvelous works4 ,john   
wished to inquire into the truth of this
 rumor1 and as he communicated freely   
with his disciples1 he chose two of them
 to go to ,jesus in ,galilee4#a         
,footnote #a3 ,matt4 xi4 #b1 and        
following2 ,luke vii4 #ah1 and          
following4  ,the two disciples found    
,jesus at the height of his fame4 ,the  
air of gladness which reigned around him
 surprised them4 ,accustomed to fasts1  
to persevering prayer1 and to a life of 
aspiration1 they were astonished to see 
themselves transported suddenly into the
 midst of the joys attending the welcome
 of the ,messiah4#a ,they told ,jesus   
their message3 ,art thou he that should 
come8 ,or do we look for another8       
,jesus1 who from that time hesitated no 
longer respecting his peculiar character

 as ,messiah1 enumerated the works which
 ought to characterize the coming of the
 kingdom of ,god--such as the healing of
 the sick1 and the good tidings of a    
speedy salvation preached to the poor4  
,he did all these works4 ,and blessed is
 he1 said ,jesus1 whosoever shall not be
 offended in me4 ,we know not whether   
this answer found ,john the ,baptist    
living1 or in what temper it put the    
austere ascetic4 ,did he die consoled   
and certain that he whom he had         
announced already lived1 or did he      
remain doubtful as to the mission of    
,jesus8 ,there is nothing to inform us4 
,seeing1 however1 that his school       
continued to exist a considerable time  
parallel with the ,christian churches1  
we are led to think that1               
notwithstanding his regard for ,jesus1  
,john did not look upon him as the one  
who was to realize the divine promises4 
,death came1 moreover1 to end his       
perplexities4 ,the untamable freedom of 
the ascetic was to crown his restless   

and stormy career by the only end which 
was worthy of it4  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 
ix4 #ad1 and following4  ,the leniency  
which ,antipas had at first shown toward
 ,john was not of long duration4 ,in the
 conversations which1 according to the  
,christian tradition1 ,john had had with
 the tetrarch1 he did not cease to      
declare to him that his marriage was    
unlawful1 and that he ought to send away
 ,herodias4#a ,we can easily imagine the
 hatred which the granddaughter of      
,herod the ,great must have conceived   
toward this importunate counsellor4 ,she
 only waited an opportunity to ruin him4
  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 xiv4 #d1 and     
following2 ,mark vi4 #ah1 and following2
 ,luke iii4 #ai4  ,her daughter1        
,salome1 born of her first marriage1 and
 like her ambitious and dissolute1      
entered into her designs4 ,that year    
7probably the year #cj7 ,antipas was at 
,machero on the anniversary of his      
birthday4 ,herod the ,great had         
constructed in the interior of the      

fortress a magnificent palace1 where the
 tetrarch frequently resided4#a ,he gave
 a great feast there1 during which      
,salome executed one of those dances in 
character which were not considered in  
,syria as unbecoming a distinguished    
person4 ,antipas being much pleased1    
asked the dancer what she most desired1 
and she replied1 at the instigation of  
her mother1 ,give me here ,john         
,baptist's head in a charger4#b ,antipas
 was sorry1 but he did not like to      
refuse4 ,a guard took the dish1 went and
 cut off the head of the prisoner1 and  
brought it4#c  ,footnote #a3 ,jos41 ,de 
,bello jud41 ,,vii4 vi4 #b4  ,footnote  
#b3 ,a portable dish on which liquors   
and viands are served in the ,east4     
,footnote #c3 ,matt4 xiv4 #c1 and       
following2 ,mark vi4 #ad-bi2 ,jos41     
,ant41 ,,xviii4 v4 #b4  ,the disciples  
of the ,baptist obtained his body and   
placed it in a tomb1 but the people were
 much displeased4 ,six years after1     
,hareth1 having attacked ,antipas1 in   

order to recover ,machero and avenge the
 dishonor of his daughter1 ,antipas was 
completely beaten2 and his defeat was   
generally regarded as a punishment for  
the murder of ,john4#a  ,footnote #a3   
,josephus1 ,ant41 ,,xviii4 v4 #a1 #b4   
,the news of ,john's death was brought  
to ,jesus by the disciples of the       
,baptist4#a ,john's last act toward     
,jesus had effectually united the two   
schools in the most intimate bonds4     
,jesus1 fearing an increase of ill-will 
on the part of ,antipas1 took           
precautions and retired to the desert1#b
 where many people followed him4 ,by    
exercising an extreme frugality1 the    
holy band was enabled to live there1 and
 in this there was naturally seen a     
miracle4#c ,from this time ,jesus always
 spoke of ,john with redoubled          
admiration4 ,he declared                
unhesitatingly#d that he was more than a
 prophet1 that the ,law and the ancient 
prophets had force only until he came1#e
 that he had abrogated them1 but that   

the kingdom of heaven would displace him
 in turn4 ,in fine1 he attributed to him
 a special place in the economy of the  
,christian mystery1 which constituted   
him the link of union between the ,old  
,testament and the advent of the new    
reign4  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 xiv4 #ab4  
,footnote #b3 ,matt4 xiv4 #ac4          
,footnote #c3 ,matt4 xiv4 #ae1 and      
following2 ,mark vi4 #ce1 and following2
 ,luke ix4 #aa1 and following2 ,john vi4
 #b1 and following4  ,footnote #d3      
,matt4 xi4 #g1 and following2 ,luke vii4
 #bd1 and following4  ,footnote #e3     
,matt4 xi4 #ab1 #ac2 ,luke xvi4 #af4    
,the prophet ,malachi1 whose opinion in 
this matter was soon brought to bear1#a 
had announced with much energy a        
precursor of the ,messiah1 who was to   
prepare men for the final renovation1 a 
messenger who should come to make       
straight the paths before the elected   
one of ,god4 ,this messenger was no     
other than the prophet ,elias1 who1     
according to a widely spread belief1 was

 soon to descend from heaven1 whither he
 had been carried1 in order to prepare  
men by repentance for the great advent1 
and to reconcile ,god with his people4#b
 ,sometimes they associated with ,elias1
 either the patriarch ,enoch1 to whom   
for one or two centuries they had       
attributed high sanctity2#c or          
,jeremiah1#d whom they considered as a  
sort of protecting genius of the people1
 constantly occupied in praying for them
 before the throne of ,god4#e ,this     
idea1 that two ancient prophets should  
rise again in order to serve as         
precursors to the ,messiah1 is          
discovered in so striking a form in the 
doctrine of the ,parsees that we feel   
much inclined to believe that it comes  
from that source4#f ,however this may   
be1 it formed at the time of ,jesus an  
integral portion of the ,jewish theories
 about the ,messiah4 ,it was admitted   
that the appearance of two faithful     
witnesses1 clothed in garments of       
repentance1 would be the preamble of the

 great drama about to be unfolded1 to   
the astonishment of the universe4#g     
,footnote #a3 ,malachi iii4 and iv42    
,ecclesiasticus xlviii4 #aj4 ,see ante1 
,chap4 ,,vi4  ,footnote #b3 ,matt4 xi4  
#ad1 xvii4 #aj2 ,mark vi4 #ae1 viii4    
#bh1 ix4 #aj1 and following2 ,luke ix4  
#h1 #ai4  ,footnote #c3 ,ecclesiasticus 
xliv4 #af4  ,footnote #d3 ,matt4 xvi4   
#ad4  ,footnote #e3 #b ,macc4 v4 #ac1   
and following4  ,footnote #f3 ,texts    
cited by ,anquetil-,duperron1           
,zend-,avesta1 i4 #b;d part1 p4 #df1    
corrected by ,spiegel1 in the           
,zeitschrift der deutschen              
morgenlaendischen ,gesellschaft1 i4     
#bfa1 and following2 extracts from the  
,jamasp-,nameh1 in the ,avesta of       
,spiegel1 i41 p4 #cd4 ,none of the      
,parsee texts1 which truly imply the    
idea of resuscitated prophets and of    
precursors1 are ancient2 but the ideas  
contained in them appear to be much     
anterior to the time of the compilation 
itself4  ,footnote #g3 ,rev4 xi4 #c1 and

 following4  ,it will be seen that1 with
 these ideas1 ,jesus and his disciples  
could not hesitate about the mission of 
,john the ,baptist4 ,when the scribes   
raised the objection that the ,messiah  
could not have come because ,elias had  
not yet appeared1#a they replied that   
,elias was come1 that ,john was ,elias  
raised from the dead4#b ,by his manner  
of life1 by his opposition to the       
established political authorities1 ,john
 in fact recalled that strange figure in
 the ancient history of ,israel4#c      
,jesus was not silent on the merits and 
excellencies of his forerunner4 ,he said
 that none greater was born among the   
children of men4 ,he energetically      
blamed the ,pharisees and the doctors   
for not having accepted his baptism1 and
 for not being converted at his voice4#d
  ,footnote #a3 ,mark ix4 #aj4          
,footnote #b3 ,matt4 xi4 #ad1 xvii4     
#aj-ac2 ,mark vi4 #ae1 ix4 #aj-ab2 ,luke
 ix4 #h2 ,john i4 #ba-be4  ,footnote #c3
 ,luke i4 #ag4  ,footnote #d3 ,matt4    

xxi4 #cb2 ,luke vii4 #bi1 #cj4  ,the    
disciples of ,jesus were faithful to    
these principles of their master4 ,this 
respect for ,john continued during the  
whole of the first ,christian           
generation4#a ,he was supposed to be a  
relative of ,jesus4#b ,in order to      
establish the mission of the latter upon
 testimony admitted by all1 it was      
declared that ,john1 at the first sight 
of ,jesus1 proclaimed him the ,messiah2 
that he recognized himself his inferior1
 unworthy to unloose the latchets of his
 shoes2 that he refused at first to     
baptize him1 and maintained that it was 
he who ought to be baptized by ,jesus4#c
 ,these were exaggerations1 which are   
sufficiently refuted by the doubtful    
form of ,john's last message4#d ,but1 in
 a more general sense1 ,john remains in 
the ,christian legend that which he was 
in reality--the austere forerunner1 the 
gloomy preacher of repentance before the
 joy on the arrival of the bridegroom1  
the prophet who announces the kingdom of

 ,god and dies before beholding it4     
,this giant in the early history of     
,christianity1 this eater of locusts and
 wild honey1 this rough redresser of    
wrongs1 was the bitter which prepared   
the lip for the sweetness of the kingdom
 of ,god4 ,his beheading by ,herodias   
inaugurated the era of ,christian       
martyrs2 he was the first witness for   
the new faith4 ,the worldly1 who        
recognized in him their true enemy1     
could not permit him to live2 his       
mutilated corpse1 extended on the       
threshold of ,christianity1 traced the  
bloody path in which so many others were
 to follow4  ,footnote #a3 ,acts xix4   
#d4  ,footnote #b3 ,luke i4  ,footnote  
#c3 ,matt4 iii4 #ad1 and following2     
,luke iii4 #af2 ,john i4 #ae1 and       
following1 v4 #cb1 #cc4  ,footnote #d3  
,matt4 xi4 #b1 and following2 ,luke vii4
 #ah1 and following4  ,the school of    
,john did not die with its founder4 ,it 
lived some time distinct from that of   
,jesus1 and at first a good             

understanding existed between the two4  
,many years after the death of the two  
masters1 people were baptized with the  
baptism of ,john4 ,certain persons      
belonged to the two schools at the same 
time--for example1 the celebrated       
,apollos1 the rival of ,st4 ,paul       
7toward the year #ej71 and a large      
number of the ,christians of ,ephesus4#a
 ,josephus placed himself 7year #ec7 in 
the school of an ascetic named ,banou1#b
 who presents the greatest resemblance  
to ,john the ,baptist1 and who was      
perhaps of his school4 ,this ,banou#c   
lived in the desert1 clothed with the   
leaves of trees2 he supported himself   
only on wild plants and fruits1 and     
baptized himself frequently1 both day   
and night1 in cold water1 in order to   
purify himself4 ,james1 he who was      
called the brother of the ,lord 7there  
is here perhaps some confusion of       
homonyms71 practised a similar          
asceticism4#d ,afterward1 toward the    
year #hj1 ,baptism was in strife with   

,christianity1 especially in ,asia      
,minor4 ,john the evangelist appears to 
combat it in an indirect manner4#e ,one 
of the ,sibylline#f poems seems to      
proceed from this school4 ,as to the    
sects of ,hemero-baptists1 ,baptists1   
and ,elchasaites 7,sabiens ,mogtasila of
 the ,arabian writers#g71 who1 in the   
second century1 filled ,syria1          
,palestine and ,babylonia1 and whose    
representatives still exist in our days 
among the ,mendaites1 called ,christians
 of ,st4 ,john2 they have the same      
origin as the movement of ,john the     
,baptist1 rather than an authentic      
descent from ,john4 ,the true school of 
the latter1 partly mixed with           
,christianity1 became a small ,christian
 heresy1 and died out in obscurity4     
,john had foreseen distinctly the       
destiny of the two schools4 ,if he had  
yielded to a mean rivalry1 he would     
to-day have been forgotten in the crowd 
of sectaries of his time4 ,by his       
self-abnegation he has attained a       

glorious and unique position in the     
religious pantheon of humanity4         
,footnote #a3 ,acts xviii4 #be1 xix4    
#a-e4 ,cf4 ,epiph41 ,adv4 ,haer41 xxx4  
#af4  ,footnote #b3 ,vita1 #b4          
,footnote #c3 ,would this be the ,bounai
 who is reckoned by the ,talmud 7,bab41 
,sanhedrim1 #dc a7 amongst the disciples
 of ,jesus8  ,footnote #d3 ,hegesippus1 
in ,eusebius1 ,h4,e41 ii4 #bc4          
,footnote #e3 ,gospel1 i4 #bf1 #cc1 iv4 
#b2 #ast ,epistle1 v4 #f4 ,cf4 ,acts x4 
#dg4  ,footnote #f3 ,book iv4 ,see      
especially v4 #aeg1 and following4      
,footnote #g3 ,sabiens is the ,aramean  
equivalent of the word ,baptists4       
,mogtasila has the same meaning in      
,arabic4     ,,chapter ,,xiii4  ,,first 
,,attempts ,,on ,,jerusalem4   ,jesus1  
almost every year1 went to ,jerusalem   
for the feast of the passover4 ,the     
details of these journeys are little    
known1 for the synoptics do not speak of
 them1#a and the notes of the fourth    
,gospel are very confused on this       

point4#b ,it was1 it appears1 in the    
year #ca1 and certainly after the death 
of ,john1 that the most important of the
 visits of ,jesus to ,jerusalem took    
place4 ,many of the disciples followed  
him4 ,although ,jesus attached from that
 time little value to the pilgrimage1 he
 conformed himself to it in order not to
 wound ,jewish opinion1 with which he   
had not yet broken4 ,these journeys1    
moreover1 were essential to his design2 
for he felt already that in order to    
play a leading part1 he must go from    
,galilee1 and attack ,judaism in its    
stronghold1 which was ,jerusalem4       
,footnote #a3 ,they1 however1 imply them
 obscurely 7,matt4 xxiii4 #cg2 ,luke    
xiii4 #cd74 ,they knew as well as ,john 
the relation of ,jesus with ,joseph of  
,arimathea4 ,luke even 7x4 #ch-db7 knew 
the family of ,bethany4 ,luke 7ix4      
#ea-ed7 has a vague idea of the system  
of the fourth ,gospel respecting the    
journeys of ,jesus4 ,many discourses    
against the ,pharisees and the          

,sadducees1 said by the synoptics to    
have been delivered in ,galilee1 have   
scarcely any meaning1 except as having  
been given at ,jerusalem4 ,and again1   
the lapse of eight days is much too     
short to explain all that happened      
between the arrival of ,jesus in that   
city and his death4  ,footnote #b3 ,two 
pilgrimages are clearly indicated 7,john
 ii4 #ac1 and v4 #a71 without speaking  
of his last journey 7vii4 #aj71 after   
which ,jesus returned no more to        
,galilee4 ,the first took place while   
,john was still baptizing4 ,it would    
belong consequently to the ,easter of   
the year #bi4 ,but the circumstances    
given as belonging to this journey are  
of a more advanced period4 7,comp4      
especially ,john ii4 #ad1 and following1
 and ,matt4 xxi4 #ab1 #ac2 ,mark xi4    
#ae-ag2 ,luke xix4 #de1 #df47 ,there are
 evidently transpositions of dates in   
these chapters of ,john1 or rather he   
has mixed the circumstances of different
 journeys4  ,the little ,galilean       

community were here far from being at   
home4 ,jerusalem was then nearly what it
 is to-day1 a city of pedantry1         
acrimony1 disputes1 hatreds1 and        
littleness of mind4 ,its fanaticism was 
extreme1 and religious seditions very   
frequent4 ,the ,pharisees were dominant2
 the study of the ,law1 pushed to the   
most insignificant minutiae1 and reduced
 to questions of casuistry1 was the only
 study4 ,this exclusively theological   
and canonical culture contributed in no 
respect to refine the intellect4 ,it was
 something analogous to the barren      
doctrine of the ,mussulman fakir1 to    
that empty science discussed round about
 the mosques1 and which is a great      
expenditure of time and useless         
argumentation1 by no means calculated to
 advance the right discipline of the    
mind4 ,the theological education of the 
modern clergy1 although very dry1 gives 
us no idea of this1 for the ,renaissance
 has introduced into all our teachings1 
even the most irregular1 a share of     

belles lettres and of method1 which has 
infused more or less of the humanities  
into scholasticism4 ,the science of the 
,jewish doctor1 of the sofer or scribe1 
was purely barbarous1 unmitigatedly     
absurd1 and denuded of all moral        
element4#a ,to crown the evil1 it filled
 with ridiculous pride those who had    
wearied themselves in acquiring it4 ,the
 ,jewish scribe1 proud of the pretended 
knowledge which had cost him so much    
trouble1 had the same contempt for      
,greek culture which the learned        
,mussulman of our time has for ,european
 civilization1 and which the old        
catholic theologian had for the         
knowledge of men of the world4 ,the     
tendency of this scholastic culture was 
to close the mind to all that was       
refined1 to create esteem only for those
 difficult triflings on which they had  
wasted their lives1 and which were      
regarded as the natural occupation of   
persons professing a degree of          
seriousness4#b  ,footnote #a3 ,we may   

judge of it by the ,talmud1 the echo of 
the ,jewish scholasticism of that time4 
,footnote #b3 ,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xx4 xi4   
#b4  ,this odious society could not fail
 to weigh heavily on the tender and     
susceptible minds of the north4 ,the    
contempt of the ,hierosolymites for the 
,galileans rendered the separation still
 more complete4 ,in the beautiful temple
 which was the object of all their      
desires1 they often only met with       
insult4 ,a verse of the pilgrim's       
psalm1#a ,i had rather be a doorkeeper  
in the house of my ,god1 seemed made    
expressly for them4 ,a contemptuous     
priesthood laughed at their simple      
devotion1 as formerly in ,italy the     
clergy1 familiarized with the           
sanctuaries1 witnessed coldly and almost
 jestingly the fervor of the pilgrim    
come from afar4 ,the ,galileans spoke a 
rather corrupt dialect2 their           
pronunciation was vicious2 they         
confounded the different aspirations of 
letters1 which led to mistakes which    

were much laughed at4#b ,in religion1   
they were considered as ignorant and    
somewhat heterodox2#c the expression1   
foolish ,galileans1 had become          
proverbial4#d ,it was believed 7not     
without reason7 that they were not of   
pure ,jewish blood1 and no one expected 
,galilee to produce a prophet4#e ,placed
 thus on the confines of ,judaism1 and  
almost outside of it1 the poor          
,galileans had only one badly           
interpreted passage in ,isaiah to build 
their hopes upon4#f ,land of ,zebulon1  
and land of ,naphtali1 way of the sea1  
,galilee of the nations6 ,the people    
that walked in darkness have seen a     
great light3 they that dwell in the land
 of the shadow of death1 upon them hath 
the light shined4 ,the reputation of the
 native city of ,jesus was particularly 
bad4 ,it was a popular proverb1 ,can    
there any good thing come out of        
,nazareth8#g  ,footnote #a3 ,ps4 lxxxiv4
 7,vulg4 lxxxiii47 #aa4  ,footnote #b3  
,matt4 xxvi4 #gc2 ,mark xiv4 #gj2 ,acts 

ii4 #g2 ,talm4 of ,bab41 ,erubin1 #ec a1
 and following2 ,bereschith ,rabba1 #bf 
c4  ,footnote #c3 ,passage from the     
treatise ,erubin1 loc4 cit4  ,footnote  
#d3 ,erubin1 loc4 cit41 #ec b4          
,footnote #e3 ,john vii4 #eb4  ,footnote
 #f3 ,isa4 ix4 #a1 #b2 ,matt4 iv4 #ac1  
and following4  ,footnote #g3 ,john i4  
#df4  ,the parched appearance of ,nature
 in the neighborhood of ,jerusalem must 
have added to the dislike ,jesus had for
 the place4 ,the valleys are without    
water2 the soil arid and stony4 ,looking
 into the valley of the ,dead ,sea1 the 
view is somewhat striking2 elsewhere it 
is monotonous4 ,the hill of ,mizpeh1    
around which cluster the most ancient   
historical remembrances of ,israel1     
alone relieves the eye4 ,the city       
presented1 at the time of ,jesus1 nearly
 the same form that it does now4 ,it had
 scarcely any ancient monuments1 for1   
until the time of the ,asmoneans1 the   
,jews had remained strangers to all the 
arts4 ,john ,hyrcanus had begun to      

embellish it1 and ,herod the ,great had 
made it one of the most magnificent     
cities of the ,east4 ,the ,herodian     
constructions1 by their grand character1
 perfection of execution1 and beauty of 
material1 may dispute superiority with  
the most finished works of antiquity4#a 
,a great number of superb tombs1 of     
original taste1 were raised at the same 
time in the neighborhood of             
,jerusalem4#b ,the style of these       
monuments was ,grecian1 but appropriate 
to the customs of the ,jews1 and        
considerably modified in accordance with
 their principles4 ,the ornamental      
sculptures of the human figure which the
 ,herods had sanctioned1 to the great   
discontent of the purists1 were         
banished1 and replaced by floral        
decorations4 ,the taste of the ancient  
inhabitants of ,phoenicia and ,palestine
 for monoliths in solid stone seemed to 
be revived in these singular tombs cut  
in the rock1 and in which ,grecian      
orders are so strangely applied to an   

architecture of troglodytes4 ,jesus1 who
 regarded works of art as a pompous     
display of vanity1 viewed these         
monuments with displeasure4#c ,his      
absolute spiritualism1 and his settled  
conviction that the form of the old     
world was about to pass away1 left him  
no taste except for things of the heart4
  ,footnote #a3 ,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xv4     
viii4-xi42 ,b4,j41 ,v4 v4 #f2 ,mark     
xiii4 #a1 #b4  ,footnote #b3 ,tombs1    
namely1 of the ,judges1 ,kings1         
,absalom1 ,zechariah1 ,jehoshaphat1 and 
of ,st4 ,james4 ,compare the description
 of the tomb of the ,maccabees at ,modin
 7#a ,macc4 xiii4 #bg1 and following74  
,footnote #c3 ,matt4 xxiii4 #bg1 #bi1   
xxiv4 #a1 and following2 ,mark xiii4 #a1
 and following2 ,luke xix4 #dd1 xxi4 #e1
 and following4 ,compare ,book of       
,enoch1 xcvii4 #ac1 #ad2 ,talmud of     
,babylon1 ,shabbath1 #cc b4  ,the       
temple1 at the time of ,jesus1 was quite
 new1 and the exterior works of it were 
not completed4 ,herod had begun its     

reconstruction in the year #bj or #ba   
before the ,christian era1 in order to  
make it uniform with his other edifices4
 ,the body of the temple was finished in
 eighteen months2 the porticos took     
eight years2#a and the accessory        
portions were continued slowly1 and were
 only finished a short time before the  
taking of ,jerusalem4#b ,jesus probably 
saw the work progressing1 not without a 
degree of secret vexation4 ,these hopes 
of a long future were like an insult to 
his approaching advent4 ,clearer-sighted
 than the unbelievers and the fanatics1 
he foresaw that these superb edifices   
were destined to endure but for a short 
time4#c  ,footnote #a3 ,jos41 ,ant41    
,,xv4 xi4 #e1 #f4  ,footnote #b3 ,jos41 
,ant41 ,,xx4 ix4 #g2 ,john ii4 #bj4     
,footnote #c3 ,matt4 xxiv4 #b1 xxvi4    
#fa1 xxvii4 #dj2 ,mark xiii4 #b1 xiv4   
#eh1 xv4 #bi2 ,luke xxi4 #f2 ,john ii4  
#ai1 #bj4  ,the temple formed a         
marvelously imposing whole1 of which the
 present haram1#a notwithstanding its   

beauty1 scarcely gives us any idea4 ,the
 courts and the surrounding porticos    
served as the daily rendezvous for a    
considerable number of persons--so much 
so1 that this great space was at once   
temple1 forum1 tribunal1 and university4
 ,all the religious discussions of the  
,jewish schools1 all the canonical      
instruction1 even the legal processes   
and civil causes--in a word1 all the    
activity of the nation was concentrated 
there4#b ,it was an arena where         
arguments were perpetually clashing1 a  
battlefield of disputes1 resounding with
 sophisms and subtle questions4 ,the    
temple had thus much analogy with a     
,mahometan mosque4 ,the ,romans at this 
period treated all strange religions    
with respect1 when kept within proper   
limits1#c and carefully refrained from  
entering the sanctuary2 ,greek and      
,latin inscriptions marked the point up 
to which those who were not ,jews were  
permitted to advance4#d ,but the tower  
of ,antonia1 the headquarters of the    

,roman forces1 commanded the whole      
enclosure1 and allowed all that passed  
therein to be seen4#e ,the guarding of  
the temple belonged to the ,jews2 the   
entire superintendence was committed to 
a captain1 who caused the gates to be   
opened and shut1 and prevented any one  
from crossing the enclosure with a stick
 in his hand1 or with dusty shoes1 or   
when carrying parcels1 or to shorten his
 path4#f ,they were especially          
scrupulous in watching that no one      
entered within the inner gates in a     
state of legal impurity4 ,the women had 
an entirely separate court4  ,footnote  
#a3 ,the temple and its enclosure       
doubtless occupied the site of the      
mosque of ,omar and the haram1 or       
,sacred ,court1 which surrounds the     
mosque4 ,the foundation of the haram is1
 in some parts1 especially at the place 
where the ,jews go to weep1 the exact   
base of the temple of ,herod4  ,footnote
 #b3 ,luke ii4 #df1 and following2      
,mishnah1 ,sanhedrim1 x4 #b4  ,footnote 

#c3 ,suet41 ,aug4 #ic4  ,footnote #d3   
,philo1 ,legatio ad ,caium1 ,sec4 #ca2  
,jos41 ,b4,j41 ,v4 v4 #b1 ,,vi4 ii4 #d2 
,acts xxi4 #bh4  ,footnote #e3          
,considerable traces of this tower are  
still seen in the northern part of the  
haram4  ,footnote #f3 ,mishnah1         
,berakoth1 ix4 #e2 ,talm4 of ,babyl41   
,jebamoth1 #f b2 ,mark xi4 #af4  ,it was
 in the temple that ,jesus passed his   
days1 whilst he remained at ,jerusalem4 
,the period of the feasts brought an    
extraordinary concourse of people into  
the city4 ,associated in parties of ten 
to twenty persons1 the pilgrims invaded 
everywhere1 and lived in that disordered
 state in which ,orientals delight4#a   
,jesus was lost in the crowd1 and his   
poor ,galileans grouped around him were 
of small account4 ,he probably felt that
 he was in a hostile world which would  
receive him only with disdain4          
,everything he saw set him against it4  
,the temple1 like much-frequented places
 of devotion in general1 offered a not  

very edifying spectacle4 ,the           
accessories of worship entailed a number
 of repulsive details1 especially of    
mercantile operations1 in consequence of
 which real shops were established      
within the sacred enclosure4 ,there were
 sold beasts for the sacrifices2 there  
were tables for the exchange of money2  
at times it seemed like a bazaar4 ,the  
inferior officers of the temple         
fulfilled their functions doubtless with
 the irreligious vulgarity of the       
sacristans of all ages4 ,this profane   
and heedless air in the handling of holy
 things wounded the religious sentiment 
of ,jesus1 which was at times carried   
even to a scrupulous excess4#b ,he said 
that they had made the house of prayer  
into a den of thieves4 ,one day1 it is  
even said1 that1 carried away by his    
anger1 he scourged the vendors with a   
scourge of small cords1 and overturned  
their tables4#c ,in general1 he had     
little love for the temple4 ,the worship
 which he had conceived for his ,father 

had nothing in common with scenes of    
butchery4 ,all these old ,jewish        
institutions displeased him1 and he     
suffered in being obliged to conform to 
them4 ,except among the ,judaizing      
,christians1 neither the temple nor its 
site inspired pious sentiments4 ,the    
true disciples of the new faith held    
this ancient sanctuary in aversion4     
,constantine and the first ,christian   
emperors left the pagan construction of 
,adrian existing there1#d and only the  
enemies of ,christianity1 such as       
,julian1 remembered the temple4#e ,when 
,omar entered into ,jerusalem1 he found 
the site designedly polluted in hatred  
of the ,jews4#f ,it was ,islamism1 that 
is to say1 a sort of resurrection of    
,judaism in its exclusively ,semitic    
form1 which restored its glory4 ,the    
place has always been anti-,christian4  
,footnote #a3 ,jos41 ,b4,j41 ,,ii4 xiv4 
#c1 ,,vi4 ix4 #c4 ,comp4 ,ps4 cxxxiii4  
7,vulg4 cxxxii47  ,footnote #b3 ,mark   
xi4 #af4  ,footnote #c3 ,matt4 xxi4 #ab1

 and following2 ,mark xi4 #ae1 and      
following2 ,luke xix4 #de1 and          
following2 ,john ii4 #ad1 and following4
  ,footnote #d3 ,itin4 a ,burdig4       
,hierus41 p4 #aeb 7edit4 ,schott72 ,s4  
,jerome1 in ,is4 i4 #h1 and in ,matt4   
xxiv4 #ae4  ,footnote #e3 ,ammianus     
,marcellinus1 xxiii4 #a4  ,footnote #f3 
,eutychius1 ,ann41 ,,ii4 #bhf1 and      
following 7,oxford #afei74  ,the pride  
of the ,jews completed the discontent of
 ,jesus1 and rendered his stay in       
,jerusalem painful4 ,in the degree that 
the great ideas of ,israel ripened1 the 
priesthood lost its power4 ,the         
institution of synagogues had given to  
the interpreter of the ,law1 to the     
doctor1 a great superiority over the    
priest4 ,there were no priests except at
 ,jerusalem1 and even there1 reduced to 
functions entirely ritual1 almost1 like 
our parish priests1 excluded from       
preaching1 they were surpassed by the   
orator of the synagogue1 the casuist1   
and the sofer or scribe1 although the   

latter was only a layman4 ,the          
celebrated men of the ,talmud were not  
priests2 they were learned men according
 to the ideas of the time4 ,the high    
priesthood of ,jerusalem held1 it is    
true1 a very elevated rank in the       
nation2 but it was by no means at the   
head of the religious movement4 ,the    
sovereign pontiff1 whose dignity had    
already been degraded by ,herod1#a      
became more and more a ,roman           
functionary1#b who was frequently       
removed in order to divide the profits  
of the office4 ,opposed to the          
,pharisees1 who were very warm lay      
zealots1 the priests were almost all    
,sadducees1 that is to say1 members of  
that unbelieving aristocracy which had  
been formed around the temple1 and which
 lived by the altar1 while they saw the 
vanity of it4#c ,the sacerdotal caste   
was separated to such a degree from the 
national sentiment and from the great   
religious movement which dragged the    
people along1 that the name of ,sadducee

 7sadoki71 which at first simply        
designated a member of the sacerdotal   
family of ,sadok1 had become synonymous 
with ,materialist and with ,epicurean4  
,footnote #a3 ,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xv4 iii4  
#a1 #c4  ,footnote #b3 ,ibid41 ,,xviii4 
ii4  ,footnote #c3 ,acts iv4 #a1 and    
following1 v4 #ag2 ,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xx4  
ix4 #a2 ,pirke ,aboth1 i4 #aj4  ,a still
 worse element had begun1 since the     
reign of ,herod the ,great1 to corrupt  
the high-priesthood4 ,herod having      
fallen in love with ,mariamne1 daughter 
of a certain ,simon1 son of ,boethus of 
,alexandria1 and having wished to marry 
her 7about the year #bh ,b4,c471 saw no 
other means of ennobling his            
father-in-law and raising him to his own
 rank than by making him high-priest4   
,this intriguing family remained master1
 almost without interruption1 of the    
sovereign pontificate for thirty-five   
years4#a ,closely allied to the reigning
 family1 it did not lose the office     
until after the deposition of           

,archelaus1 and recovered it 7the year  
#db of our era7 after ,herod ,agrippa   
had for some time re-enacted the work of
 ,herod the ,great4 ,under the name of  
,boethusim1#b a new sacerdotal nobility 
was formed1 very worldly1 and little    
devotional1 and closely allied to the   
,sadokites4 ,the ,boethusim1 in the     
,talmud and the rabbinical writings1 are
 depicted as a kind of unbelievers1 and 
always reproached as ,sadducees4#c ,from
 all this there resulted a miniature    
court of ,rome around the temple1 living
 on politics1 little inclined to        
excesses of zeal1 even rather fearing   
them1 not wishing to hear of holy       
personages or of innovators1 for it     
profited from the established routine4  
,these epicurean priests had not the    
violence of the ,pharisees2 they only   
wished for quietness2 it was their moral
 indifference1 their cold irreligion1   
which revolted ,jesus4 ,although very   
different1 the priests and the          
,pharisees were thus confounded in his  

antipathies4 ,but a stranger1 and       
without influence1 he was long compelled
 to restrain his discontent within      
himself1 and only to communicate his    
sentiments to the intimate friends who  
accompanied him4  ,footnote #a3 ,jos41  
,ant4 ,,xv4 ix4 #c1 ,,xvii4 vi4 #d1     
xiii4 #a1 ,,xviii4 i4 #a1 ii4 #a1 ,,xix4
 vi4 #b1 viii4 #a4  ,footnote #b3 ,this 
name is only found in the ,jewish       
documents4 ,i think that the ,herodians 
of the gospel are the ,boethusim4       
,footnote #c3 ,the treatise of ,aboth   
,nathan1 #e2 ,soferim1 iii41 hal4 #e2   
,mishnah1 ,menachoth1 x4 #c2 ,talmud of 
,babylon1 ,shabbath1 #aah a4 ,the name  
of ,boethusim is often changed in the   
,talmudic books with that of the        
,sadducees1 or with the word ,minim     
7heretics74 ,compare ,thosiphta1 ,joma1 
i41 with the ,talm4 of ,jerus41 the same
 treatise1 i4 #e1 and ,talm4 of ,bab41  
same treatise1 #ai b2 ,thos4 ,sukka1    
iii4 with the ,talm4 of ,bab41 same     
treatise1 #dc b2 ,thos4 ibid41 further  

on1 with the ,talm4 of ,bab41 same      
treatise1 #dh b2 ,thos4 ,rosh hasshana1 
i4 with ,mishnah1 same treatise ii4 #a2 
,talm4 of ,jerus41 same treatise1 ii4   
#a2 and ,talm4 of ,bab41 same treatise1 
#bb b2 ,thos4 ,menachoth1 x4 with       
,mishnah1 same treatise1 x4 #c2 ,talm4  
of ,bab41 same treatise1 #fe a2         
,mishnah1 ,chagigah1 ii4 #d2 and        
,megillath ,taanith1 i42 ,thos4 ,iadaim1
 ii4 with ,talm4 of ,jerus42 ,baba      
,bathra1 viii4 #a2 ,talm4 of ,bab41 same
 treatise1 #aae b2 and ,megillath       
,taanith1 v4  ,before his last stay1    
which was by far the longest of all that
 he made at ,jerusalem1 and which was   
terminated by his death1 ,jesus         
endeavored1 however1 to obtain a        
hearing4 ,he preached2 people spoke of  
him2 and they conversed respecting      
certain deeds of his which were looked  
upon as miraculous4 ,but from all that1 
there resulted neither an established   
church at ,jerusalem nor a group of     
,hierosolymite disciples4 ,the charming 

teacher1 who forgave every one provided 
they loved him1 could not find much     
sympathy in this sanctuary of vain      
disputes and obsolete sacrifices4 ,the  
only result was that he formed some     
valuable friendships1 the advantage of  
which he reaped afterward4 ,he does not 
appear at that time to have made the    
acquaintance of the family of ,bethany1 
which1 amidst the trials of the latter  
months of his life1 brought him so much 
consolation4 ,but very early he         
attracted the attention of a certain    
,nicodemus1 a rich ,pharisee1 a member  
of the ,sanhedrim1 and a man occupying a
 high position in ,jerusalem4#a ,this   
man1 who appears to have been upright   
and sincere1 felt himself attracted     
toward the young ,galilean4 ,not wishing
 to compromise himself1 he came to see  
,jesus by night1 and had a long         
conversation with him4#b ,he doubtless  
preserved a favorable impression of him1
 for afterward he defended ,jesus       
against the prejudices of his           

colleagues1#c and1 at the death of      
,jesus1 we shall find him tending with  
pious care the corpse of the master4#d  
,nicodemus did not become a ,christian2 
he had too much regard for his position 
to take part in a revolutionary movement
 which as yet counted no men of note    
amongst its adherents4 ,but he evidently
 felt great friendship for ,jesus1 and  
rendered him service1 though unable to  
rescue him from a death which even at   
this period was all but decreed4        
,footnote #a3 ,it seems that he is      
referred to in the ,talmud4 ,talm4 of   
,bab41 ,taanith1 #bj a2 ,gittin1 #ef a2 
,ketuboth1 #ff b2 treatise ,aboth       
,nathan1 vii42 ,midrash ,rabba1 ,eka1   
#fd a4 ,the passage ,taanith identifies 
him with ,bounai1 who1 according to     
,sanhedrim 7see ante1 p4 #bab1 note #b71
 was a disciple of ,jesus4 ,but if      
,bounai is the ,banou of ,josephus1 this
 identification will not hold good4     
,footnote #b3 ,john iii4 #a1 and        
following1 vii4 #ej4 ,we are certainly  

free to believe that the exact text of  
the conversation is but a creation of   
,john's4  ,footnote #c3 ,john vii4 #ej1 
and following4  ,footnote #d3 ,john xix4
 #ci4  ,as to the celebrated doctors of 
the time1 ,jesus does not appear to have
 had any connection with them4 ,hillel  
and ,shammai were dead2 the greatest    
authority of the time was ,gamaliel1    
grandson of ,hillel4 ,he was of a       
liberal spirit1 and a man of the world1 
not opposed to secular studies1 and     
inclined to tolerance by his intercourse
 with good society4#a ,unlike the very  
strict ,pharisees1 who walked veiled or 
with closed eyes1 he did not scruple to 
gaze even upon ,pagan women4#b ,this1 as
 well as his knowledge of ,greek1 was   
tolerated because he had access to the  
court4#c ,after the death of ,jesus1 he 
expressed very moderate views respecting
 the new sect4#d ,st4 ,paul sat at his  
feet1#e but it is not probable that     
,jesus ever entered his school4         
,footnote #a3 ,mishnah1 ,baba ,metsia1  

v4 #h2 ,talm4 of ,bab41 ,sota1 #di b4   
,footnote #b3 ,talm4 of ,jerus41        
,berakoth1 ix4 #b4  ,footnote #c3       
,passage ,sota1 before cited1 and ,baba 
,kama1 #hc a4  ,footnote #d3 ,acts v4   
#cd1 and following4  ,footnote #e3 ,acts
 xxii4 #c4  ,one idea1 at least1 which  
,jesus brought from ,jerusalem1 and     
which henceforth appears rooted in his  
mind1 was that there was no union       
possible between him and the ancient    
,jewish religion4 ,the abolition of the 
sacrifices which had caused him so much 
disgust1 the suppression of an impious  
and haughty priesthood1 and1 in a       
general sense1 the abrogation of the    
law1 appeared to him absolutely         
necessary4 ,from this time he appears no
 more as a ,jewish reformer1 but as a   
destroyer of ,judaism4 ,certain         
advocates of the ,messianic ideas had   
already admitted that the ,messiah would
 bring a new law1 which should be common
 to all the earth4#a ,the ,essenes1 who 
were scarcely ,jews1 also appear to have

 been indifferent to the temple and to  
the ,mosaic observances4 ,but these were
 only isolated or unavowed instances of 
boldness4 ,jesus was the first who dared
 to say that from his time1 or rather   
from that of ,john1#b the ,law was      
abolished4 ,if sometimes he used more   
measured terms1#c it was in order not to
 offend existing prejudices too         
violently4 ,when he was driven to       
extremities1 he lifted the veil         
entirely1 and declared that the ,law had
 no longer any force4 ,on this subject  
he used striking comparisons4 ,no man   
putteth a piece of new cloth into an old
 garment1 neither do men put new wine   
into old bottles4#d ,this was really his
 chief characteristic as teacher and    
creator4 ,the temple excluded all except
 ,jews from its enclosure by scornful   
announcements4 ,jesus had no sympathy   
with this4 ,the narrow1 hard1 and       
uncharitable ,law was only made for the 
children of ,abraham4 ,jesus maintained 
that every well-disposed man1 every man 

who received and loved him1 was a son of
 ,abraham4#e ,the pride of blood        
appeared to him the great enemy which   
was to be combated4 ,in other words1    
,jesus was no longer a ,jew4 ,he was in 
the highest degree revolutionary2 he    
called all men to a worship founded     
solely on the fact of their being       
children of ,god4 ,he proclaimed the    
rights of man1 not the rights of the    
,jew2 the religion of man1 not the      
religion of the ,jew2 the deliverance of
 man1 not the deliverance of the ,jew4#f
 ,how far removed was this from a       
,gaulonite ,judas or a ,matthias        
,margaloth1 preaching revolution in the 
name of the ,law6 ,the religion of      
humanity1 established1 not upon blood1  
but upon the heart1 was founded4 ,moses 
was superseded1 the temple was rendered 
useless1 and was irrevocably condemned4 
,footnote #a3 ,orac4 ,sib41 book iii4   
#egc1 and following1 #gae1 and          
following1 #gef-eh4 ,compare the ,targum
 of ,jonathan1 ,isa4 xii4 #c4  ,footnote

 #b3 ,luke xvi4 #af4 ,the passage in    
,matt4 xi4 #ab1 #ac1 is less clear1 but 
can have no other meaning4  ,footnote   
#c3 ,matt4 v4 #ag1 #ah 7,cf4 ,talm4 of  
,bab41 ,shabbath1 #aaf b74 ,this passage
 is not in contradiction with those in  
which the abolition of the ,law is      
implied4 ,it only signifies that in     
,jesus all the types of the ,old        
,testament are realized4 ,cf4 ,luke xvi4
 #ag4  ,footnote #d3 ,matt4 ix4 #af1    
#ag2 ,luke v4 #cf1 and following4       
,footnote #e3 ,luke xix4 #i4  ,footnote 
#f3 ,matt4 xxiv4 #ad1 xxviii4 #ai2 ,mark
 xiii4 #aj1 xvi4 #ae2 ,luke xxiv4 #dg4  
,,chapter ,,xiv4  ,,intercourse ,,of    
,,jesus ,,with ,,the ,,pagans ,,and     
,,the ,,samaritans4   ,following out    
these principles1 ,jesus despised all   
religion which was not of the heart4    
,the vain practices of the devotees1#a  
the exterior strictness1 which trusted  
to formality for salvation1 had in him a
 mortal enemy4 ,he cared little for     
fasting4#b ,he preferred forgiveness to 

sacrifice4#c ,the love of ,god1 charity 
and mutual forgiveness1 were his whole  
law4#d ,nothing could be less priestly4 
,the priest1 by his office1 ever        
advocates public sacrifice1 of which he 
is the appointed minister2 he           
discourages private prayer1 which has a 
tendency to dispense with his office4   
,footnote #a3 ,matt4 xv4 #i4  ,footnote 
#b3 ,matt4 ix4 #ad1 xi4 #ai4  ,footnote 
#c3 ,matt4 v4 #bc1 and following1 ix4   
#ac1 xii4 #g4  ,footnote #d3 ,matt4     
xxii4 #cg1 and following2 ,mark xii4    
#bh1 and following2 ,luke x4 #be1 and   
following4  ,we should seek in vain in  
the ,gospel for one religious rite      
recommended by ,jesus4 ,baptism to him  
was only of secondary importance2#a and 
with respect to prayer1 he prescribes   
nothing1 except that it should proceed  
from the heart4 ,as is always the case1 
many thought to substitute mere         
good-will for genuine love of goodness1 
and imagined they could win the kingdom 
of heaven by saying to him1 ,rabbi1     

,rabbi4 ,he rebuked them1 and proclaimed
 that his religion consisted in doing   
good4#b ,he often quoted the passage in 
,isaiah1 which says3 ,this people honor 
me with their lips1 but their heart is  
far from me4#c  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4    
iii4 #ae2 #a ,cor4 i4 #ag4  ,footnote   
#b3 ,matt4 vii4 #ba2 ,luke vi4 #df4     
,footnote #c3 ,matt4 xv4 #h2 ,mark vii4 
#f4 ,cf4 ,isaiah xxix4 #ac4  ,the       
observance of the ,sabbath was the      
principal point upon which was raised   
the whole edifice of ,pharisaic scruples
 and subtleties4 ,this ancient and      
excellent institution had become a      
pretext for the miserable disputes of   
casuists1 and a source of superstitious 
beliefs4#a ,it was believed that ,nature
 observed it2 all intermittent springs  
were accounted ,sabbatical4#b ,this was 
the point upon which ,jesus loved best  
to defy his adversaries4#c ,he openly   
violated the ,sabbath1 and only replied 
by subtle raillery to the reproaches    
that were heaped upon him4 ,he despised 

still more a multitude of modern        
observances1 which tradition had added  
to the ,law1 and which were dearer than 
any other to the devotees on that very  
account4 ,ablutions1 and the too subtle 
distinctions between pure and impure    
things1 found in him a pitiless         
opponent3 ,there is nothing from without
 a man1 said he1 that entering into him 
can defile him3 but the things which    
come out of him1 those are they that    
defile the man4 ,the ,pharisees1 who    
were the propagators of these mummeries1
 were unceasingly denounced by him4 ,he 
accused them of exceeding the ,law1 of  
inventing impossible precepts1 in order 
to create occasions of sin3 ,blind      
leaders of the blind1 said he1 take care
 lest ye also fall into the ditch4 ,o   
generation of vipers1 how can ye1 being 
evil1 speak good things8 for out of the 
abundance of the heart the mouth        
speaketh4#d  ,footnote #a3 ,see         
especially the treatise ,shabbath of the
 ,mishnah and the ,livre des ,jubiles   

7translated from the ,ethiopian in the  
,jahrbuecher of ,ewald1 years #b and    
#c71 chap4 ,i4  ,footnote #b3 ,jos41    
,b4,j41 ,,vii4 v4 #a2 ,pliny1 ,h4,n41   
xxxi4 #ah4 ,cf4 ,thomson1 ,the ,land and
 the ,book1 i4 #djf1 and following4     
,footnote #c3 ,matt4 xii4 #a-ad2 ,mark  
ii4 #bc-bh2 ,luke vi4 #a-e1 xiii4 #ad1  
and following1 xiv4 #a1 and following4  
,footnote #d3 ,matt4 xii4 #cd1 xv4 #a1  
and following1 #ab1 and following1      
xxiii4 entirely2 ,mark vii4 #a1 and     
following1 #ae1 and following2 ,luke vi4
 #de1 xi4 #ci1 and following4  ,he did  
not know the ,gentiles sufficiently to  
think of founding anything lasting upon 
their conversion4 ,galilee contained a  
great number of pagans1 but1 as it      
appears1 no public and organized worship
 of false gods4#a ,jesus could see this 
worship displayed in all its splendor in
 the country of ,tyre and ,sidon1 at    
,caesarea ,philippi and in the          
,decapolis1 but he paid little attention
 to it4 ,we never find in him the       

wearisome pedantry of the ,jews of his  
time1 those declamations against        
idolatry1 so familiar to his            
co-religionists from the time of        
,alexander1 and which fill1 for         
instance1 the book of ,wisdom4#b ,that  
which struck him in the pagans was not  
their idolatry1 but their servility4#c  
,the young ,jewish democrat agreeing on 
this point with ,judas the ,gaulonite1  
and admitting no master but ,god1 was   
hurt at the honors with which they      
surrounded the persons of sovereigns1   
and the frequently mendacious titles    
given to them4 ,with this exception1 in 
the greater number of instances in which
 he comes in contact with pagans1 he    
shows great indulgence to them2         
sometimes he professes to conceive more 
hope of them than of the ,jews4#d ,the  
kingdom of ,god would be transferred to 
them4 ,when the lord1 therefore1 of the 
vineyard cometh1 what will he do unto   
these husbandmen8 ,he will miserably    
destroy those wicked men1 and will let  

out his vineyard unto other husbandmen1 
which shall render him the fruits in    
their seasons4#e ,jesus adhered so much 
the more to this idea1 as the conversion
 of the ,gentiles was1 according to     
,jewish ideas1 one of the surest signs  
of the advent of the ,messiah4#f ,in his
 kingdom of ,god he represents1 as      
seated at a feast1 by the side of       
,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob1 men come  
from the four winds of heaven1 whilst   
the lawful heirs of the kingdom are     
rejected4#g ,sometimes1 it is true1     
there seems to be an entirely contrary  
tendency in the commands he gives to his
 disciples3 he seems to recommend them  
only to preach salvation to the orthodox
 ,jews1#h he speaks of pagans in a      
manner conformable to the prejudices of 
the ,jews4#i ,but we must remember that 
the disciples1 whose narrow minds did   
not share in this supreme indifference  
for the privileges of the sons of       
,abraham1 may have given the instruction
 of their master the bent of their own  

ideas4 ,besides1 it is very possible    
that ,jesus may have varied on this     
point1 just as ,mahomet speaks of the   
,jews in the ,koran1 sometimes in the   
most honorable manner1 sometimes with   
extreme harshness1 as he had hope of    
winning their favor or otherwise4       
,tradition1 in fact1 attributes to      
,jesus two entirely opposite rules of   
proselytism1 which he may have practised
 in turn3 ,he that is not against us is 
on our part4 ,he that is not with me1 is
 against me4#aj ,impassioned conflict   
involves almost necessarily this kind of
 contradictions4  ,footnote #a3 ,i      
believe the pagans of ,galilee were     
found especially on the frontiers--at   
,kedes1 for example2 but that the very  
heart of the country1 the city of       
,tiberias excepted1 was entirely        
,jewish4 ,the line where the ruins of   
temples end1 and those of synagogues    
begin1 is to-day plainly marked as far  
north as ,lake ,huleh 7,samachonites74  
,the traces of pagan sculpture1 which   

were thought to have been found at      
,tell-,houm1 are doubtful4 ,the         
coast--the town of ,acre1 in            
particular--did not form part of        
,galilee4  ,footnote #b3 ,chap4 ,,xiii4 
and following4  ,footnote #c3 ,matt4 xx4
 #be2 ,mark x4 #db2 ,luke xxii4 #be4    
,footnote #d3 ,matt4 viii4 #e1 and      
following1 xv4 #bb1 and following2 ,mark
 vii4 #be1 and following2 ,luke iv4 #be1
 and following4  ,footnote #e3 ,matt4   
xxi4 #da2 ,mark xii4 #i2 ,luke xx4 #af4 
,footnote #f3 ,isa4 ii4 #b1 and         
following1 lx42 ,amos ix4 #aa1 and      
following2 ,jer4 iii4 #ag2 ,mal4 i4 #aa2
 ,tobit1 xiii4 #ac1 and following2      
,orac4 ,sibyll41 iii4 #gae1 and         
following4 ,comp4 ,matt4 xxiv4 #ad2     
,acts xv4 #ae1 and following4  ,footnote
 #g3 ,matt4 viii4 #aa1 #ab1 xxi4 #cc1   
and following1 xxii4 #a1 and following4 
,footnote #h3 ,matt4 vii4 #f1 x4 #e1 #f1
 xv4 #bd1 xxi4 #dc4  ,footnote #i3      
,matt4 v4 #df1 and following1 vi4 #g1   
#cb1 xviii4 #ag2 ,luke vi4 #cb1 and     

following1 xii4 #cj4  ,footnote #aj3    
,matt4 xii4 #cj2 ,mark ix4 #ci2 ,luke   
ix4 #ej1 xi4 #bc4  ,it is certain that  
he counted among his disciples many men 
whom the ,jews called ,hellenes4#a ,this
 word had in ,palestine divers meanings4
 ,sometimes it designated the pagans2   
sometimes the ,jews1 speaking ,greek1   
and dwelling among the pagans2#b        
sometimes men of pagan origin converted 
to ,judaism4#c ,it was probably in the  
last-named category of ,hellenes that   
,jesus found sympathy4#d ,the           
affiliation with ,judaism had many      
degrees2 but the proselytes always      
remained in a state of inferiority in   
regard to the ,jew by birth4 ,those in  
question were called proselytes of the  
gate1 or men fearing ,god1 and were     
subject to the precepts of ,noah1 and   
not to those of ,moses4#e ,this very    
inferiority was doubtless the cause     
which drew them to ,jesus1 and gained   
them his favor4  ,footnote #a3 ,josephus
 confirms this 7,ant41 ,,xviii4 iii4    

#c74 ,comp4 ,john vii4 #ce1 xii4 #bj1   
#ba4  ,footnote #b3 ,talm4 of ,jerus41  
,sota1 vii4 #a4  ,footnote #c3 ,see in  
particular1 ,john vii4 #ce1 xii4 #bj2   
,acts xiv4 #a1 xvii4 #d1 xviii4 #d1 xxi4
 #bh4  ,footnote #d3 ,john xii4 #bj2    
,acts viii4 #bg4  ,footnote #e3         
,mishnah1 ,baba ,metsia1 ix4 #ab2 ,talm4
 of ,bab41 ,sanh41#ef b2 ,acts viii4    
#bg1 x4 #b1 #bb1 #ce1 xiii4 #af1 #bf1   
#dc1 #ej1 xvi4 #ad1 xvii4 #d1 #ag1      
xviii4 #g2 ,gal4 ii4 #c2 ,jos41 ,ant41  
,,xiv4 vii4 #b4  ,he treated the        
,samaritans in the same manner4 ,shut   
in1 like a small island1 between the two
 great provinces of ,judaism 7,judea and
 ,galilee71 ,samaria formed in          
,palestine a kind of enclosure in which 
was preserved the ancient worship of    
,gerizim1 closely resembling and        
rivalling that of ,jerusalem4 ,this poor
 sect1 which had neither the genius nor 
the learned organization of ,judaism1   
properly so called1 was treated by the  
,hierosolymites with extreme            

harshness4#a ,they placed them in the   
same rank as pagans1 but hated them     
more4#b ,jesus1 from a feeling of       
opposition1 was well disposed toward    
,samaria1 and often preferred the       
,samaritans to the orthodox ,jews4 ,if1 
at other times1 he seems to forbid his  
disciples preaching to them1 confining  
his gospel to the ,israelites proper1#c 
this was no doubt a precept arising from
 special circumstances1 to which the    
apostles have given too absolute a      
meaning4 ,sometimes1 in fact1 the       
,samaritans received him badly1 because 
they thought him imbued with the        
prejudices of his                       
co-religionists2#d--;in the same manner 
as in our days the ,european            
free-thinker is regarded as an enemy by 
the ,mussulman1 who always believes him 
to be a fanatical ,christian4 ,jesus    
raised himself above these              
misunderstandings4#e ,he had many       
disciples at ,shechem1 and he passed at 
least two days there4#f ,on one occasion

 he meets with gratitude and true piety 
from a ,samaritan only4#g ,one of his   
most beautiful parables is that of the  
man wounded on the way to ,jericho4 ,a  
priest passes by and sees him1 but goes 
on his way2 a ,levite also passes1 but  
does not stop2 a ,samaritan takes pity  
on him1 approaches him1 and pours oil   
into his wounds1 and bandages them4#h   
,jesus argues from this that true       
brotherhood is established among men by 
charity1 and not by creeds4 ,the        
neighbor who in ,judaism was specially  
the co-religionist1 was in his          
estimation the man who has pity on his  
kind without distinction of sect4 ,human
 brotherhood in its widest sense        
overflows in all his teaching4          
,footnote #a3 ,ecclesiasticus l4 #bg1   
#bh2 ,john viii4 #dh2 ,jos41 ,ant41     
,,ix4 xiv4 #c1 ,,xi4 viii4 #f1 ,,xii4 v4
 #e2 ,talm4 of ,jerus41 ,aboda zara1 v4 
#d2 ,pesachim1 i4 #a4  ,footnote #b3    
,matt4 x4 #e2 ,luke xvii4 #ah4 ,comp4   
,talm4 of ,bab41 ,cholin1 #f a4         

,footnote #c3 ,matt4 x4 #e1 #f4         
,footnote #d3 ,luke ix4 #ec4  ,footnote 
#e3 ,luke ix4 #ef4  ,footnote #f3 ,john 
iv4 #ci-dc4  ,footnote #g3 ,luke xvii4  
#af4  ,footnote #h3 ,luke x4 #cj1 and   
following4  ,these thoughts1 which beset
 ,jesus on his leaving ,jerusalem1 found
 their vivid expression in an anecdote  
which has been preserved respecting his 
return4 ,the road from ,jerusalem into  
,galilee passes at the distance of half 
an hour's journey from ,shechem1#a in   
front of the opening of the valley      
commanded by mounts ,ebal and ,gerizim4 
,this route was in general avoided by   
the ,jewish pilgrims1 who preferred     
making in their journeys the long detour
 through ,perea1 rather than expose     
themselves to the insults of the        
,samaritans1 or ask anything of them4   
,it was forbidden to eat and drink with 
them4#b ,it was an axiom of certain     
casuists1 that a piece of ,samaritan    
bread is the flesh of swine4#c ,when    
they followed this route1 provisions    

were always laid up beforehand2 yet they
 rarely avoided conflict and            
ill-treatment4#d ,jesus shared neither  
these scruples nor these fears4 ,having 
come to the point where the valley of   
,shechem opens on the left1 he felt     
fatigued1 and stopped near a well4 ,the 
,samaritans were then as now accustomed 
to give to all the localities of their  
valley names drawn from patriarchal     
reminiscences4 ,they regarded this well 
as having been given by ,jacob to       
,joseph2 it was probably the same which 
is now called ,bir-,iakoub4 ,the        
disciples entered the valley and went to
 the city to buy provisions4 ,jesus     
seated himself at the side of the well1 
having ,gerizim before him4  ,footnote  
#a3 ,now ,nablous4  ,footnote #b3 ,luke 
ix4 #ec2 ,john iv4 #i4  ,footnote #c3   
,mishnah1 ,shebiit1 viii4 #aj4          
,footnote #d3 ,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xx4 v4 #a2
 ,b4,j41 ,,ii4 xii4 #c2 ,vita1 #eb4  ,it
 was about noon4 ,a woman of ,shechem   
came to draw water4 ,jesus asked her to 

let him drink1 which excited great      
astonishment in the woman1 the ,jews    
generally forbidding all intercourse    
with the ,samaritans4 ,won by the       
conversation of ,jesus1 the woman       
recognized in him a prophet1 and        
expecting some reproaches about her     
worship1 she anticipated him3 ,sir1 said
 she1 our fathers worshipped in this    
mountain1 and ye say that in ,jerusalem 
is the place where men ought to worship4
 ,jesus saith unto her1 ,woman1 believe 
me1 the hour cometh when ye shall       
neither in this mountain1 nor yet at    
,jerusalem1 worship the ,father4 ,but   
the hour cometh1 and now is1 when the   
true worshippers shall worship the      
,father in spirit and in truth4#a       
,footnote #a3 ,john iv4 #ba-bc4 ,verse  
#bb1 at least the latter clause of it1  
which expresses an idea opposed to that 
of verses #ba and #bc1 appears to have  
been interpolated4 ,we must not insist  
too much on the historical reality of   
such a conversation1 since ,jesus1 or   

his interlocutor1 alone would have been 
able to relate it4 ,but the anecdote in 
chapter iv4 of ,john1 certainly         
represents one of the most intimate     
thoughts of ,jesus1 and the greater part
 of the circumstances have a striking   
appearance of truth4  ,the day on which 
he uttered this saying1 he was truly    
,son of ,god4 ,he pronounced for the    
first time the sentence upon which will 
repose the edifice of eternal religion4 
,he founded the pure worship1 of all    
ages1 of all lands1 that which all      
elevated souls will practice until the  
end of time4 ,not only was his religion 
on this day the best religion of        
humanity1 it was the absolute religion2 
and if other planets have inhabitants   
gifted with reason and morality1 their  
religion cannot be different from that  
which ,jesus proclaimed near the well of
 ,jacob4 ,man has not been able to      
maintain this position3 for the ideal is
 realized but transitorily4 ,this       
sentence of ,jesus has been a brilliant 

light amidst gross darkness2 it has     
required eighteen hundred years for the 
eyes of mankind 7what do ,i say6 for an 
infinitely small portion of mankind7 to 
become accustomed to it4 ,but the light 
will become the full day1 and1 after    
having run through all the cycles of    
error1 mankind will return to this      
sentence1 as the immortal expression of 
its faith and its hope4     ,,chapter   
,,xv4  ,,commencement ,,of ,,the        
,,legends ,,concerning ,,jesus--,,his   
,,own ,,idea ,,of ,,his ,,supernatural  
,,character4   ,jesus returned to       
,galilee1 having completely lost his    
,jewish faith1 and filled with          
revolutionary ardor4 ,his ideas are now 
expressed with perfect clearness4 ,the  
innocent aphorisms of the first part of 
his prophetic career1 in part borrowed  
from the ,jewish rabbis anterior to him1
 and the beautiful moral precepts of his
 second period1 are exchanged for a     
decided policy4 ,the ,law would be      
abolished2 and it was to be abolished by

 him4#a ,the ,messiah had come1 and he  
was the ,messiah4 ,the kingdom of ,god  
was about to be revealed2 and it was he 
who would reveal it4 ,he knew well that 
he would be the victim of his boldness2 
but the kingdom of ,god could not be    
conquered without violence2 it was by   
crises and commotions that it was to be 
established4#b ,the ,son of man would   
reappear in glory1 accompanied by       
legions of angels1 and those who had    
rejected him would be confounded4       
,footnote #a3 ,the hesitancy of the     
immediate disciples of ,jesus1 of whom a
 considerable portion remained attached 
to ,judaism1 might cause objections to  
be raised to this4 ,but the trial of    
,jesus leaves no room for doubt4 ,we    
shall see that he was there treated as a
 corrupter4 ,the ,talmud gives the      
procedure adopted against him as an     
example of that which ought to be       
followed against corrupters1 who seek to
 overturn the ,law of ,moses4 7,talm4 of
 ,jerus41 ,sanhedrim1 xiv4 #af2 ,talm4  

of ,bab41 ,sanhedrim1 #dc a1 #fg a47    
,footnote #b3 ,matt4 xi4 #ab2 ,luke xvi4
 #af4  ,the boldness of such a          
conception ought not to surprise us4    
,long before this1 ,jesus had regarded  
his relation to ,god as that of a son to
 his father4 ,that which in others would
 be an insupportable pride1 ought not in
 him to be regarded as presumption4     
,the title of ,son of ,david was the    
first which he accepted1 probably       
without being concerned in the innocent 
frauds by which it was sought to secure 
it to him4 ,the family of ,david had1 as
 it seems1 been long extinct2#a the     
,asmoneans being of priestly origin1    
could not pretend to claim such a       
descent for themselves2 neither ,herod  
nor the ,romans dreamt for a moment that
 any representative whatever of the     
ancient dynasty existed in their midst4 
,but from the close of the ,asmonean    
dynasty the dream of an unknown         
descendant of the ancient kings1 who    
should avenge the nation of its enemies1

 filled every mind4 ,the universal      
belief was1 that the ,messiah would be  
son of ,david1 and like him would be    
born at ,bethlehem4#b ,the first idea of
 ,jesus was not precisely this4 ,the    
remembrance of ,david1 which was        
uppermost in the minds of the ,jews1 had
 nothing in common with his heavenly    
reign4 ,he believed himself the ,son of 
,god1 and not the son of ,david4 ,his   
kingdom1 and the deliverance which he   
meditated1 were of quite another order4 
,but public opinion on this point made  
him do violence to himself4 ,the        
immediate consequence of the            
proposition1 ,jesus is the ,messiah1 was
 this other proposition1 ,jesus is the  
son of ,david4 ,he allowed a title to be
 given him1 without which he could not  
hope for success4 ,he ended1 it seems1  
by taking pleasure therein1 for he      
performed most willingly the miracles   
which were asked of him by those who    
used this title in addressing him4#c ,in
 this1 as in many other circumstances of

 his life1 ,jesus yielded to the ideas  
which were current in his time1 although
 they were not precisely his own4 ,he   
associated with his doctrine of the     
kingdom of ,god all that could warm the 
heart and the imagination4 ,it was thus 
that we have seen him adopt the baptism 
of ,john1 although it could not have    
been of much importance to him4         
,footnote #a3 ,it is true that certain  
doctors--such as ,hillel1 ,gamaliel--are
 mentioned as being of the race of      
,david4 ,but these are very doubtful    
allegations4 ,if the family of ,david   
still formed a distinct and prominent   
group1 how is it that we never see it   
figure1 by the side of the ,sadokites1  
,boethusians1 the ,asmoneans1 and       
,herods1 in the great struggles of the  
time8  ,footnote #b3 ,matt4 ii4 #e1 #f1 
xxii4 #db2 ,luke i4 #cb2 ,john vii4 #da1
 #db2 ,acts ii4 #cj4  ,footnote #c3     
,matt4 ix4 #bg1 xii4 #bc1 xv4 #bb1 xx4  
#cj1 #ca2 ,mark x4 #dg1 #eb2 ,luke      
xviii4 #ch4  ,one great difficulty      

presented itself--his birth at          
,nazareth1 which was of public          
notoriety4 ,we do not know whether      
,jesus strove against this objection4   
,perhaps it did not present itself in   
,galilee1 where the idea that the son of
 ,david should be a ,bethlehemite was   
less spread4 ,to the ,galilean idealist1
 moreover1 the title of son of ,david   
was sufficiently justified1 if he to    
whom it was given revived the glory of  
his race1 and brought back the great    
days of ,israel4 ,did ,jesus authorize  
by his silence the fictitious           
genealogies which his partisans invented
 in order to prove his royal descent8#a 
,did he know anything of the legends    
invented to prove that he was born at   
,bethlehem2 and particularly of the     
attempt to connect his ,bethlehemite    
origin with the census which had taken  
place by order of the imperial legate1  
,quirinus8#b ,we know not4 ,the         
inexactitude and the contradictions of  
the genealogies#c lead to the belief    

that they were the result of popular    
ideas operating at various points1 and  
that none of them were sanctioned by    
,jesus4#d ,never does he designate      
himself as son of ,david4 ,his          
disciples1 much less enlightened than   
he1 frequently magnified that which he  
said of himself2 but1 as a rule1 he had 
no knowledge of these exaggerations4    
,let us add1 that during the first three
 centuries1 considerable portions of    
,christendom#e obstinately denied the   
royal descent of ,jesus and the         
authenticity of the genealogies4        
,footnote #a3 ,matt4 i4 #a1 and         
following2 ,luke iii4 #bc1 and          
following4  ,footnote #b3 ,matt4 ii4 #a1
 and following2 ,luke ii4 #a1 and       
following4  ,footnote #c3 ,the two      
genealogies are quite contradictory1 and
 do not agree with the lists of the ,old
 ,testament4 ,the narrative of ,luke on 
the census of ,quirinus implies an      
anachronism4 ,see ante1 p4 #ha1 note #d4
 ,it is natural to suppose1 besides1    

that the legend may have laid hold of   
this circumstance4 ,the census made a   
great impression on the ,jews1          
overturned their narrow ideas1 and was  
remembered by them for a long period4   
,cf4 ,acts v4 #cg4  ,footnote #d3       
,julius ,africanus 7in ,eusebius1       
,h4,e41 i4 #g7 supposes that it was the 
relations of ,jesus1 who1 having taken  
refuge in ,batanea1 attempted to        
recompose the genealogies4  ,footnote   
#e3 ,the ,ebionites1 the ,hebrews1 the  
,nazarenes1 ,tatian1 ,marcion4 ,cf4     
,epiph41 ,adv4 ,haer41 xxix4 #i1 xxx4   
#c1 #ad1 xlvi4 #a2 ,theodoret1 ,haeret4 
fab41 i4 #bj2 ,isidore of ,pelusium1    
,epist4 i4 #cga1 ad ,pansophium4  ,the  
legends about him were thus the fruit of
 a great and entirely spontaneous       
conspiracy1 and were developed around   
him during his lifetime4 ,no great event
 in history has happened without having 
given rise to a cycle of fables2 and    
,jesus could not have put a stop to     
these popular creations1 even if he had 

wished to do so4 ,perhaps a sagacious   
observer would have recognized from this
 point the germ of the narratives which 
were to attribute to him a supernatural 
birth1 and which arose1 it may be1 from 
the idea1 very prevalent in antiquity1  
that the incomparable man could not be  
born of the ordinary relations of the   
two sexes2 or1 it may be1 in order to   
respond to an imperfectly understood    
chapter of ,isaiah1#a which was thought 
to foretell that the ,messiah should be 
born of a virgin2 or1 lastly1 it may be 
in consequence of the idea that the     
breath of ,god1 already regarded as a   
divine hypostasis1 was a principle of   
fecundity4#b ,already1 perhaps1 there   
was current more than one anecdote about
 his infancy1 conceived with the        
intention of showing in his biography   
the accomplishment of the ,messianic    
ideal2#c or1 rather1 of the prophecies  
which the allegorical exegesis of the   
time referred to the ,messiah4 ,at other
 times they connected him from his birth

 with celebrated men1 such as ,john the 
,baptist1 ,herod the ,great1 ,chaldean  
astrologers1 who1 it was said1 visited  
,jerusalem about this time1#d and two   
aged persons1 ,simeon and ,anna1 who had
 left memories of great sanctity4#e ,a  
rather loose chronology characterized   
these combinations1 which for the most  
part were founded upon real facts       
travestied4#f ,but a singular spirit of 
gentleness and goodness1 a profoundly   
popular sentiment1 permeated all these  
fables1 and made them a supplement to   
his preaching4#g ,it was especially     
after the death of ,jesus that such     
narratives became greatly developed2 we 
may1 however1 believe that they         
circulated even during his life1        
exciting only a pious credulity and     
simple admiration4  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4
 i4 #bb1 #bc4  ,footnote #b3 ,gen4 i4   
#b4 ,for the analogous idea among the   
,egyptians1 see ,herodotus1 iii4 #bh2   
,pomp4 ,mela1 i4 #i3 ,plutarch1 ,quaest4
 symp41 ,,viii4 i4 #c2 ,de ,isid4 et    

,osir41 #dc4  ,footnote #c3 ,matt4 i4   
#ae1 #bc2 ,isa4 vii4 #ad1 and following4
  ,footnote #d3 ,matt4 ii4 #a1 and      
following4  ,footnote #e3 ,luke ii4 #be1
 and following4  ,footnote #f3 ,thus the
 legend of the massacre of the          
,innocents probably refers to some      
cruelty exercised by ,herod near        
,bethlehem4 ,comp4 ,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xiv4 
ix4 #d4  ,footnote #g3 ,matt4 i41 ii42  
,luke i41 ii42 ,s4 ,justin1 ,dial4 cum  
,tryph41 #gh1 #ajf2 ,protoevang4 of     
,james 7,apoca471 #ah and following4    
,that ,jesus never dreamt of making     
himself pass for an incarnation of ,god1
 is a matter about which there can be no
 doubt4 ,such an idea was entirely      
foreign to the ,jewish mind2 and there  
is no trace of it in the synoptical     
gospels1#a we only find it indicated in 
portions of the ,gospel of ,john1 which 
cannot be accepted as expressing the    
thoughts of ,jesus4 ,sometimes ,jesus   
even seems to take precautions to put   
down such a doctrine4#b ,the accusation 

that he made himself ,god1 or the equal 
of ,god1 is presented1 even in the      
,gospel of ,john1 as a calumny of the   
,jews4#c ,in this last ,gospel he       
declares himself less than his          
,father4#d ,elsewhere he avows that the 
,father has not revealed everything to  
him4#e ,he believes himself to be more  
than an ordinary man1 but separated from
 ,god by an infinite distance4 ,he is   
,son of ,god1 but all men are1 or may   
become so1 in divers degrees4#f ,every  
one ought daily to call ,god his father2
 all who are raised again will be sons  
of ,god4#g ,the divine son-ship was     
attributed in the ,old ,testament to    
beings whom it was by no means pretended
 were equal with ,god4#h ,the word son  
has the widest meanings in the ,semitic 
language1 and in that of the ,new       
,testament4#i ,besides1 the idea ,jesus 
had of man was not that low idea which a
 cold ,deism has introduced4 ,in his    
poetic conception of ,nature1 one breath
 alone penetrates the universe2 the     

breath of man is that of ,god2 ,god     
dwells in man1 and lives by man1 the    
same as man dwells in ,god1 and lives by
 ,god4#aj ,the transcendent idealism of 
,jesus never permitted him to have a    
very clear notion of his own            
personality4 ,he is his ,father1 his    
,father is he4 ,he lives in his         
disciples2 he is everywhere with        
them2#aa his disciples are one1 as he   
and his ,father are one4#ab ,the idea to
 him is everything2 the body1 which     
makes the distinction of persons1 is    
nothing4  ,footnote #a3 ,certain        
passages1 such as ,acts ii4 #bb1        
expressly exclude this idea4  ,footnote 
#b3 ,matt4 xix4 #ag2 ,mark x4 #ah2 ,luke
 xviii4 #ai4  ,footnote #c3 ,john v4    
#ah1 and following1 x4 #cc1 and         
following4  ,footnote #d3 ,john xiv4    
#bh4  ,footnote #e3 ,mark xiii4 #ce4    
,footnote #f3 ,matt4 v4 #i1 #de2 ,luke  
iii4 #ch1 vi4 #ce1 xx4 #cf2 ,john i4    
#ab1 #ac1 x4 #cd1 #ce4 ,comp4 ,acts     
xvii4 #bh1 #bi2 ,rom4 viii4 #ad1 #ai1   

#ba1 ix4 #bf2 #b ,cor4 vi4 #ah2 ,gal4   
iii4 #bf2 and in the ,old ,testament1   
,deut4 xiv4 #a2 and especially ,wisdom1 
ii4 #ac1 #ah4  ,footnote #g3 ,luke xx4  
#cf4  ,footnote #h3 ,gen4 vi4 #b2 ,job  
i4 #f1 ii4 #a1 xxviii4 #g2 ,ps4 ii4 #g1 
lxxxii4 #f2 #b ,sam4 vii4 #ad4          
,footnote #i3 ,the child of the devil   
7,matt4 xiii4 #ch2 ,acts xiii4 #aj72 the
 children of this world 7,mark iii4 #ag2
 ,luke xvi4 #h1 xx4 #cd72 the children  
of light 7,luke xvi4 #h2 ,john xii4     
#cf72 the children of the resurrection  
7,luke xx4 #cf72 the children of the    
kingdom 7,matt4 viii4 #ab1 xiii4 #ch72  
the children of the bride-chamber       
7,matt4 ix4 #ae2 ,mark ii4 #ai2 ,luke v4
 #cd72 the children of hell 7,matt4     
xxiii4 #ae72 the children of peace      
7,luke x4 #f71 c4 ,let us remember that 
the ,jupiter of paganism is ,greek3     
pater andron te theon te4  ,footnote    
#aj3 ,comp4 ,acts xvii4 #bh4  ,footnote 
#aa3 ,matt4 xviii4 #bj1 xxviii4 #bj4    
,footnote #ab3 ,john x4 #cj1 xvii4 #ba4 

,see in general the later discourses of 
,john1 especially chap4 xvii41 which    
express one side of the psychological   
state of ,jesus1 though we cannot regard
 them as true historical documents4     
,the title ,son of ,god1 or simply      
,son1#a thus became for ,jesus a title  
analogous to ,son of man1 and1 like     
that1 synonymous with the ,messiah1 with
 the sole difference that he called     
himself ,son of man1 and does not seem  
to have made the same use of the phrase1
 ,son of ,god4#b ,the title1 ,son of    
man1 expressed his character as judge2  
that of ,son of ,god his power and his  
participation in the supreme designs4   
,this power had no limits4 ,his ,father 
had given him all power4 ,he had the    
power to alter even the ,sabbath4#c ,no 
one could know the ,father except       
through him4#d ,the ,father had         
delegated to him exclusively the right  
of judging4#e ,nature obeyed him2 but   
she obeys also all who believe and pray1
 for faith can do everything4#f ,we must

 remember that no idea of the laws of   
,nature marked the limit of the         
impossible1 either in his own mind1 or  
in that of his hearers4 ,the witnesses  
of his miracles thanked ,god for having 
given such power unto men4#g ,he        
pardoned sins2#h he was superior to     
,david1 to ,abraham1 to ,solomon1 and to
 the prophets4#i ,we do not know in what
 form1 nor to what extent1 these        
affirmations of himself were made4      
,jesus ought not to be judged by the law
 of our petty conventionalities4 ,the   
admiration of his disciples overwhelmed 
him and carried him away4 ,it is evident
 that the title of ,rabbi1 with which he
 was at first contented1 no longer      
sufficed him2 even the title of prophet 
or messenger of ,god responded no longer
 to his ideas4 ,the position which he   
attributed to himself was that of a     
superhuman being1 and he wished to be   
regarded as sustaining a higher         
relationship to ,god than other men4    
,but it must be remarked that these     

words1 superhuman and supernatural1     
borrowed from our petty theology1 had no
 meaning in the exalted religious       
consciousness of ,jesus4 ,to him ,nature
 and the development of humanity were   
not limited kingdoms apart from         
,god--paltry realities subjected to the 
laws of a hopeless empiricism4 ,there   
was no supernatural for him1 because    
there was no ,nature4 ,intoxicated with 
infinite love1 he forgot the heavy chain
 which holds the spirit captive2 he     
cleared at one bound the abyss1         
impossible to most1 which the weakness  
of the human faculties has created      
between ,god and man4  ,footnote #a3    
,the passages in support of this are too
 numerous to be referred to here4       
,footnote #b3 ,it is only in the ,gospel
 of ,john that ,jesus uses the          
expression ,son of ,god1 or ,son1 in    
speaking of himself4  ,footnote #c3     
,matt4 xii4 #h2 ,luke vi4 #e4  ,footnote
 #d3 ,matt4 xi4 #bg4  ,footnote #e3     
,john v4 #bb4  ,footnote #f3 ,matt4     

xvii4 #ah1 #ai2 ,luke xvii4 #f4         
,footnote #g3 ,matt4 ix4 #h4  ,footnote 
#h3 ,matt4 ix4 #b1 and following2 ,mark 
ii4 #e1 and following2 ,luke v4 #bj1    
vii4 #dg1 #dh4  ,footnote #i3 ,matt4    
xii4 #da1 #db2 xxii4 #dc1 and following2
 ,john viii4 #eb1 and following4  ,we   
cannot mistake in these affirmations of 
,jesus the germ of the doctrine which   
was afterward to make of him a divine   
hypostasis1#a in identifying him with   
the ,word1 or second ,god1#b or eldest  
,son of ,god1#c or ,angel               
,metathronos1#d which ,jewish theology  
created apart from him4#e ,a kind of    
necessity caused this theology1 in order
 to correct the extreme rigor of the old
 ,monotheism1 to place near ,god an     
assessor1 to whom the eternal ,father is
 supposed to delegate the government of 
the universe4 ,the belief that certain  
men are incarnations of divine faculties
 or powers1 was widespread2 the         
,samaritans possessed about the same    
time a thaumaturgus named ,simon1 whom  

they identified with the great power of 
,god4#f ,for nearly two centuries1 the  
speculative minds of ,judaism had       
yielded to the tendency to personify the
 divine attributes1 and certain         
expressions which were connected with   
the ,divinity4 ,thus1 the breath of     
,god1 which is often referred to in the 
,old ,testament1 is considered as a     
separate being1 the ,holy ,spirit4 ,in  
the same manner the ,wisdom of ,god and 
the ,word of ,god became distinct       
personages4 ,this was the germ of the   
process which has engendered the        
,sephiroth of the ,cabbala1 the ,a,eons 
of ,gnosticism1 the hypostasis of       
,christianity1 and all that dry         
mythology1 consisting of personified    
abstractions1 to which ,monotheism is   
obliged to resort when it wishes to     
pluralize the ,deity4  ,footnote #a3    
,see especially ,john xiv41 and         
following4 ,but it is doubtful whether  
we have here the authentic teaching of  
,jesus4  ,footnote #b3 ,philo1 cited in 

,eusebius1 ,praep4 ,evang41 vii4 #ac4   
,footnote #c3 ,philo1 ,de migr4         
,abraham1 ,sec4 #a2 ,quod ,deus immut41 
,sec4 #f2 ,de confus4 ling41 ,sec4 #i1  
#ad and #bh2 ,de profugis1 ,sec4 #bj2   
,de ,somniis1 i4 ,sec4 #cg2 ,de ,agric4 
,noe1 ,sec4 #ab2 ,quis rerum divin4     
haeres1 ,sec4 #be1 and following1 #dh1  
and following1 c4  ,footnote #d3 ,greek3
 ,metathronos1 that is1 sharing the     
throne of ,god2 a kind of divine        
secretary1 keeping the register of      
merits and demerits2 ,bereshith ,rabba1 
v4 #f c2 ,talm4 of ,bab41 ,sanhedr41 #ch
 b2 ,chagigah1 #ae a2 ,targum of        
,jonathan1 ,gen41 v4 #bd4  ,footnote #e3
 ,this theory of the ,greek3 ,logos     
contains no ,greek elements4 ,the       
comparisons which have been made between
 it and the ,honover of the ,parsees are
 also without foundation4 ,the          
,minokhired or ,divine ,intelligence1   
has much analogy with the ,jewish       
,greek3 ,logos4 7,see the fragments of  
the book entitled ,minokhired in        

,spiegel1 ,parsi-,grammatik1 pp4 #afa1  
#afb47 ,but the development which the   
doctrine of the ,minokhired has taken   
among the ,parsees is modern1 and may   
imply a foreign influence4 ,the ,divine 
,intelligence 7,maiyu-,khratu7 appears  
in the ,zend books2 but it does not     
there serve as basis to a theory2 it    
only enters into some invocations4 ,the 
comparisons which have been attempted   
between the ,alexandrian theory of the  
,word and certain points of ,egyptian   
theology may not be entirely without    
value4 ,but nothing indicates that1 in  
the centuries which preceded the        
,christian era1 ,palestinian ,judaism   
had borrowed anything from ,egypt4      
,footnote #f3 ,acts viii4 #aj4  ,jesus  
appears to have remained a stranger to  
these refinements of theology1 which    
were soon to fill the world with barren 
disputes4 ,the metaphysical theory of   
the ,word1 such as we find it in the    
writings of his contemporary ,philo1 in 
the ,chaldean ,targums1 and even in the 

book of ,wisdom1#a is neither seen in   
the ,logia of ,matthew1 nor in general  
in the synoptics1 the most authentic    
interpreters of the words of ,jesus4    
,the doctrine of the ,word1 in fact1 had
 nothing in common with ,messianism4    
,the ,word of ,philo1 and of the        
,targums1 is in no sense the ,messiah4  
,it was ,john the ,evangelist1 or his   
school1 who afterward endeavored to     
prove that ,jesus was the ,word1 and who
 created1 in this sense1 quite a new    
theology1 very different from that of   
the kingdom of ,god4#b ,the essential   
character of the ,word was that of      
,creator and of ,providence4 ,now1      
,jesus never pretended to have created  
the world1 nor to govern it4 ,his office
 was to judge it1 to renovate it4 ,the  
position of president at the final      
judgment of humanity was the essential  
attribute which ,jesus attached to      
himself1 and the character which all the
 first ,christians attributed to him4#c 
,until the great day1 he will sit at the

 right hand of ,god1 as his             
,metathronos1 his first minister1 and   
his future avenger4#d ,the superhuman   
,christ of the ,byzantine apsides1      
seated as judge of the world1 in the    
midst of the apostles in the same rank  
with him1 and superior to the angels who
 only assist and serve1 is the exact    
representation of that conception of the
 ,son of man1 of which we find the first
 features so strongly indicated in the  
book of ,daniel4  ,footnote #a3 ix4 #a1 
#b1 xvi4 #ab4 ,comp4 vii4 #ab1 viii4 #e1
 and following1 ix41 and in general     
ix4-xi4 ,these prosopopoeia of ,wisdom  
personified are found in much older     
books4 ,prov4 viii41 ix42 ,job xxviii42 
,rev4 xix4 #ac4  ,footnote #b3 ,john1   
,gospel1 i4 #a-ad2 #a ,epistle v4 #g2   
moreover1 it will be remarked1 that1 in 
the ,gospel of ,john1 the expression of 
the ,word does not occur except in the  
prologue1 and that the narrator never   
puts it into the mouth of ,jesus4       
,footnote #c3 ,acts x4 #db4  ,footnote  

#d3 ,matt4 xxvi4 #fd2 ,mark xvi4 #ai2   
,luke xxii4 #fi2 ,acts vii4 #ee2 ,rom4  
viii4 #cd2 ,ephes4 i4 #bj2 ,coloss4 iii4
 #a2 ,heb4 i4 #c1 #ac1 viii4 #a1 x4 #ab1
 xii4 #b2 #a ,peter iii4 #bb4 ,see the  
passages previously cited on the        
character of the ,jewish ,metathronos4  
,at all events1 the strictness of a     
studied theology by no means existed in 
such a state of society4 ,all the ideas 
we have just stated formed in the mind  
of the disciples a theological system so
 little settled1 that the ,son of ,god1 
this species of divine duplicate1 is    
made to act purely as man4 ,he is       
tempted--he is ignorant of many         
things--he corrects himself#a--;he is   
cast down1 discouraged--he asks his     
,father to spare him trials--he is      
submissive to ,god as a son4#b ,he who  
is to judge the world does not know the 
day of judgment4#c ,he takes precautions
 for his safety4#d ,soon after his      
birth1 he is obliged to be concealed to 
avoid powerful men who wish to kill     

him4#e ,in exorcisms1 the devil cheats  
him1 and does not come out at the first 
command4#f ,in his miracles we are      
sensible of painful effort--an          
exhaustion1 as if something went out of 
him4#g ,all these are simply the acts of
 a messenger of ,god1 of a man protected
 and favored by ,god4#h ,we must not    
look here for either logic or sequence4 
,the need ,jesus had of obtaining       
credence1 and the enthusiasm of his     
disciples1 heaped up contradictory      
notions4 ,to the ,messianic believers of
 the millenarian school1 and to the     
enthusiastic readers of the books of    
,daniel and of ,enoch1 he was the ,son  
of man--to the ,jews holding the        
ordinary faith1 and to the readers of   
,isaiah and ,micah1 he was the ,son of  
,david--to the disciples he was the ,son
 of ,god1 or simply the ,son4 ,others1  
without being blamed by the disciples1  
took him for ,john the ,baptist risen   
from the dead1 for ,elias1 for          
,jeremiah1 conformable to the popular   

belief that the ancient prophets were   
about to reappear1 in order to prepare  
the time of the ,messiah4#i  ,footnote  
#a3 ,matt4 x4 #e1 compared with xxviii4 
#ai4  ,footnote #b3 ,matt4 xxvi4 #ci2   
,john xii4 #bg4  ,footnote #c3 ,mark    
xiii4 #cb4  ,footnote #d3 ,matt4 xii4   
#ad-af1 xiv4 #ac2 ,mark iii4 #f1 #g1 ix4
 #bi1 #cj2 ,john vii4 #a1 and following4
  ,footnote #e3 ,matt4 ii4 #bj4         
,footnote #f3 ,matt4 xvii4 #bj2 ,mark   
ix4 #be4  ,footnote #g3 ,luke viii4 #de1
 #df2 ,john xi4 #cc1 #ch4  ,footnote #h3
 ,acts ii4 #bb4  ,footnote #i3 ,matt4   
xiv4 #b1 xvi4 #ad1 xvii4 #c1 and        
following2 ,mark vi4 #ad1 #ae1 viii4    
#bh2 ,luke ix4 #h1 and following1 #ai4  
,an absolute conviction1 or rather the  
enthusiasm1 which freed him from even   
the possibility of doubt1 shrouded all  
these boldnesses4 ,we little understand1
 with our cold and scrupulous natures1  
how any one can be so entirely possessed
 by the idea of which he has made       
himself the apostle4 ,to the deeply     

earnest races of the ,west1 conviction  
means sincerity to one's self4 ,but     
sincerity to one's self has not much    
meaning to ,oriental peoples1 little    
accustomed to the subtleties of a       
critical spirit4 ,honesty and imposture 
are words which1 in our rigid           
consciences1 are opposed as two         
irreconcilable terms4 ,in the ,east1    
they are connected by numberless subtle 
links and windings4 ,the authors of the 
,apocryphal books 7of ,daniel and of    
,enoch1 for instance71 men highly       
exalted1 in order to aid their cause1   
committed1 without a shadow of scruple1 
an act which we should term a fraud4    
,the literal truth has little value to  
the ,oriental2 he sees everything       
through the medium of his ideas1 his    
interests1 and his passions4  ,history  
is impossible1 if we do not fully admit 
that there are many standards of        
sincerity4 ,all great things are done   
through the people2 now we can only lead
 the people by adapting ourselves to its

 ideas4 ,the philosopher who1 knowing   
this1 isolates and fortifies himself in 
his integrity1 is highly praiseworthy4  
,but he who takes humanity with its     
illusions1 and seeks to act with it and 
upon it1 cannot be blamed4 ,caesar knew 
well that he was not the son of ,venus2 
,france would not be what it is1 if it  
had not for a thousand years believed in
 the ,holy ,ampulla of ,rheims4 ,it is  
easy for us1 who are so powerless1 to   
call this falsehood1 and1 proud of our  
timid honesty1 to treat with contempt   
the heroes who have accepted the battle 
of life under other conditions4 ,when we
 have effected by our scruples what they
 accomplished by their falsehoods1 we   
shall have the right to be severe upon  
them4 ,at least1 we must make a marked  
distinction between societies like our  
own1 where everything takes place in the
 full light of reflection1 and simple   
and credulous communities1 in which the 
beliefs that have governed ages have    
been born4 ,nothing great has been      

established which does not rest on a    
legend4 ,the only culprit in such cases 
is the humanity which is willing to be  
deceived4     ,,chapter ,,xvi4          
,,miracles4   ,two means of             
proof--miracles and the accomplishment  
of prophecies--could alone1 in the      
opinion of the contemporaries of ,jesus1
 establish a supernatural mission4      
,jesus1 and especially his disciples1   
employed these two processes of         
demonstration in perfect good faith4    
,for a long time1 ,jesus had been       
convinced that the prophets had written 
only in reference to him4 ,he recognized
 himself in their sacred oracles2 he    
regarded himself as the mirror in which 
all the prophetic spirit of ,israel had 
read the future4 ,the ,christian school1
 perhaps even in the lifetime of its    
founder1 endeavored to prove that ,jesus
 responded perfectly to all that the    
prophets had predicted of the           
,messiah4#a ,in many cases1 these       
comparisons were quite superficial1 and 

are scarcely appreciable by us4 ,they   
were most frequently fortuitous or      
insignificant circumstances in the life 
of the master which recalled to the     
disciples certain passages of the       
,psalms and the ,prophets1 in which1 in 
consequence of their constant           
preoccupation1 they saw images of him4#b
 ,the exegesis of the time consisted    
thus almost entirely in a play upon     
words1 and in quotations made in an     
artificial and arbitrary manner4 ,the   
synagogue had no officially settled list
 of the passages which related to the   
future reign4 ,the ,messianic references
 were very liberally created1 and       
constituted artifices of style rather   
than serious reasoning4  ,footnote #a3  
,for example1 ,matt4 i4 #bb1 ii4 #e1 #f1
 #ae1 #ah1 iv4 #ae4  ,footnote #b3      
,matt4 i4 #bc1 iv4 #f1 #ad1 xxvi4 #ca1  
#ed1 #ef1 xxvii4 #i1 #ce2 ,mark xiv4    
#bg1 xv4 #bh2 ,john xii4 #ad4 #ae1      
xviii4 #i1 xix4 #ai1 #bd1 #bh1 #cf4  ,as
 to miracles1 they were regarded at this

 period as the indispensable mark of the
 divine1 and as the sign of the         
prophetic vocation4 ,the legends of     
,elijah and ,elisha were full of them4  
,it was commonly believed that the      
,messiah would perform many4#a ,in      
,samaria1 a few leagues from where      
,jesus was1 a magician1 named ,simon1   
acquired an almost divine character by  
his illusions4#b ,afterward1 when it was
 sought to establish the reputation of  
,apollonius of ,tyana1 and to prove that
 his life had been the sojourn of a god 
upon the earth1 it was not thought      
possible to succeed therein except by   
inventing a vast cycle of miracles4#c   
,the ,alexandrian philosophers          
themselves1 ,plotinus and others1 are   
reported to have performed several4#d   
,jesus was1 therefore1 obliged to choose
 between these two alternatives--either 
to renounce his mission1 or to become a 
thaumaturgus4 ,it must be remembered    
that all antiquity1 with the exception  
of the great scientific schools of      

,greece and their ,roman disciples1     
accepted miracles2 and that ,jesus not  
only believed therein1 but had not the  
least idea of an order of ,nature       
regulated by fixed laws4 ,his knowledge 
on this point was in no way superior to 
that of his contemporaries4 ,nay1 more1 
one of his most deeply rooted opinions  
was1 that by faith and prayer man has   
entire power over ,nature4#e ,the       
faculty of performing miracles was      
regarded as a privilege frequently      
conferred by ,god upon men1#f and it had
 nothing surprising in it4  ,footnote   
#a3 ,john vii4 #cd2 ,,iv4 ,esdras1 xiii4
 #ej4  ,footnote #b3 ,acts viii4 #i1 and
 following4  ,footnote #c3 ,see his     
biography by ,philostratus4  ,footnote  
#d3 ,see the ,lives of the ,sophists1 by
 ,eunapius2 the ,life of ,plotinus1 by  
,porphyry2 that of ,proclus1 by         
,marinus2 and that of ,isidorus1        
attributed to ,damascius4  ,footnote #e3
 ,matt4 xvii4 #ai1 xxi4 #ba1 #bb2 ,mark 
xi4 #bc1 #bd4  ,footnote #f3 ,matt4 ix4 

#h4  ,the lapse of time has changed that
 which constituted the power of the     
great founder of ,christianity into     
something offensive to our ideas1 and if
 ever the worship of ,jesus loses its   
hold upon mankind1 it will be precisely 
on account of those acts which          
originally inspired belief in him4      
,criticism experiences no embarrassment 
in presence of this kind of historical  
phenomenon4 ,a thaumaturgus of our days1
 unless of an extreme simplicity1 like  
that manifested by certain stigmatists  
of ,germany1 is odious2 for he performs 
miracles without believing in them2 and 
is a mere charlatan4 ,but1 if we take a 
,francis d',assisi1 the question becomes
 altogether different2 the series of    
miracles attending the origin of the    
order of ,st4 ,francis1 far from        
offending us1 affords us real pleasure4 
,the founder of ,christianity lived in  
as complete a state of poetic ignorance 
as did ,st4 ,clair and the tres socii4  
,the disciples deemed it quite natural  

that their master should have interviews
 with ,moses and ,elias1 that he should 
command the elements1 and that he should
 heal the sick4 ,we must remember1      
besides1 that every idea loses something
 of its purity1 as soon as it aspires to
 realize itself4 ,success is never      
attained without some injury being done 
to the sensibility of the soul4 ,such is
 the feebleness of the human mind that  
the best causes are ofttimes gained only
 by bad arguments4 ,the demonstrations  
of the primitive apologists of          
,christianity are supported by very poor
 reasonings4 ,moses1 ,christopher       
,columbus1 ,mahomet1 have only triumphed
 over obstacles by constantly making    
allowance for the weakness of men1 and  
by not always giving the true reasons   
for the truth4 ,it is probable that the 
hearers of ,jesus were more struck by   
his miracles than by his eminently      
divine discourses4 ,let us add1 that    
doubtless popular rumor1 both before and
 after the death of ,jesus1 exaggerated 

enormously the number of occurrences of 
this kind4 ,the types of the gospel     
miracles1 in fact1 do not present much  
variety2 they are repetitions of each   
other and seem fashioned from a very    
small number of models1 accommodated to 
the taste of the country4  ,it is       
impossible1 amongst the miraculous      
narratives so tediously enumerated in   
the ,gospels1 to distinguish the        
miracles attributed to ,jesus by public 
opinion from those in which he consented
 to play an active part4 ,it is         
especially impossible to ascertain      
whether the offensive circumstances     
attending them1 the groanings1 the      
strugglings1 and other features savoring
 of jugglery1#a are really historical1  
or whether they are the fruit of the    
belief of the compilers1 strongly imbued
 with theurgy1 and living1 in this      
respect1 in a world analogous to that of
 the spiritualists of our times4#b      
,almost all the miracles which ,jesus   
thought he performed1 appear to have    

been miracles of healing4 ,medicine was 
at this period in ,judea1 what it still 
is in the ,east1 that is to say1 in no  
respect scientific1 but absolutely      
surrendered to individual inspiration4  
,scientific medicine1 founded by ,greece
 five centuries before1 was at the time 
of ,jesus unknown to the ,jews of       
,palestine4 ,in such a state of         
knowledge1 the presence of a superior   
man1 treating the diseased with         
gentleness1 and giving him by some      
sensible signs the assurance of his     
recovery1 is often a decisive remedy4   
,who would dare to say that in many     
cases1 always excepting certain peculiar
 injuries1 the touch of a superior being
 is not equal to all the resources of   
pharmacy8 ,the mere pleasure of seeing  
him cures4 ,he gives only a smile1 or a 
hope1 but these are not in vain4        
,footnote #a3 ,luke viii4 #de1 #df2     
,john xi4 #cc and #ch4  ,footnote #b3   
,acts ii4 #b1 and following1 iv4 #ca1   
viii4 #ae1 and following1 x4 #dd and    

following4 ,for nearly a century1 the   
apostles and their disciples dreamed    
only of miracles4 ,see the ,acts1 the   
writings of ,st4 ,paul1 the extracts    
from ,papias1 in ,eusebius1 ,hist4      
,eccl41 iii4 #ci1 c4 ,comp4 ,mark iii4  
#ae1 xvi4 #ag1 #ah1 #bj4  ,jesus had no 
more idea than his countrymen of a      
rational medical science2 he believed1  
like every one else1 that healing was to
 be effected by religious practices1 and
 such a belief was perfectly consistent4
 ,from the moment that disease was      
regarded as the punishment of sin1#a or 
as the act of a demon1#b and by no means
 as the result of physical causes1 the  
best physician was the holy man who had 
power in the supernatural world4        
,healing was considered a moral act2    
,jesus1 who felt his moral power1 would 
believe himself specially gifted to     
heal4 ,convinced that the touching of   
his robe1#c the imposition of his       
hands1#d did good to the sick1 he would 
have been unfeeling1 if he had refused  

to those who suffered1 a solace which it
 was in his power to bestow4 ,the       
healing of the sick was considered as   
one of the signs of the kingdom of ,god1
 and was always associated with the     
emancipation of the poor4#e ,both were  
the signs of the great revolution which 
was to end in the redress of all        
infirmities4  ,footnote #a3 ,john v4    
#ad1 ix4 #a1 and following1 #cd4        
,footnote #b3 ,matt4 ix4 #cb1 #cc1 xii4 
#bb2 ,luke xiii4 #aa1 #af4  ,footnote   
#c3 ,luke viii4 #de1 #df4  ,footnote #d3
 ,luke iv4 #dj4  ,footnote #e3 ,matt4   
xi4 #e1 xv4 #cj1 #ca2 ,luke ix4 #a1 #b1 
#f4  ,one of the species of cure which  
,jesus most frequently performed1 was   
exorcism1 or the expulsion of demons4 ,a
 strange disposition to believe in      
demons pervaded all minds4 ,it was a    
universal opinion1 not only in ,judea1  
but in the whole world1 that demons     
seized hold of the bodies of certain    
persons and made them act contrary to   
their will4 ,a ,persian div1 often named

 in the ,avesta1#a ,aeschma-daeva1 the  
div of concupiscence1 adopted by the    
,jews under the name of ,asmodeus1#b    
became the cause of all the hysterical  
afflictions of women4#c ,epilepsy1      
mental and nervous maladies1#d in which 
the patient seems no longer to belong to
 himself1 and infirmities1 the cause of 
which is not apparent1 as deafness1     
dumbness1#e were explained in the same  
manner4 ,the admirable treatise1 ,on    
,sacred ,disease1 by ,hippocrates1 which
 set forth the true principles of       
medicine on this subject1 four centuries
 and a half before ,jesus1 had not      
banished from the world so great an     
error4 ,it was supposed that there were 
processes more or less efficacious for  
driving away the demons2 and the        
occupation of exorcist was a regular    
profession like that of physician4#f    
,there is no doubt that ,jesus had in   
his lifetime the reputation of          
possessing the greatest secrets of this 
art4#g ,there were at that time many    

lunatics in ,judea1 doubtless in        
consequence of the great mental         
excitement4 ,these mad persons1 who were
 permitted to go at large1 as they still
 are in the same districts1 inhabited   
the abandoned sepulchral caves1 which   
were the ordinary retreat of vagrants4  
,jesus had great influence over these   
unfortunates4#h ,a thousand singular    
incidents were related in connection    
with his cures1 in which the credulity  
of the time gave itself full scope4 ,but
 still these difficulties must not be   
exaggerated4 ,the disorders which were  
explained by possessions were often very
 slight4 ,in our times1 in ,syria1 they 
regard as mad or possessed by a demon   
7these two ideas were expressed by the  
same word1 medjnoun#i7 people who are   
only somewhat eccentric4 ,a gentle word 
often suffices in such cases to drive   
away the demon4 ,such were doubtless the
 means employed by ,jesus4 ,who knows if
 his celebrity as exorcist was not      
spread almost without his own knowledge8

 ,persons who reside in the ,east are   
occasionally surprised to find          
themselves1 after some time1 in         
possession of a great reputation1 as    
doctors1 sorcerers1 or discoverers of   
treasures1 without being able to account
 to themselves for the facts which have 
given rise to these strange fancies4    
,footnote #a3 ,vendidad1 xi4 #bf2       
,yacna1 x4 #ah4  ,footnote #b3 ,tobit1  
iii4 #h1 vi4 #ad2 ,talm4 of ,bab41      
,gittin1 #fh a4  ,footnote #c3 ,comp4   
,mark xvi4 #i2 ,luke viii4 #b2 ,gospel  
of the ,infancy1 #af1 #cc2 ,syrian      
,code1 published in the ,anecdota       
,syriaca of ,m4 ,land1 i41 p4 #aeb4     
,footnote #d3 ,jos41 ,bell4 ,jud41      
,,vii4 vi4 #c2 ,lucian1 ,philopseud41   
#af2 ,philostratus1 ,life of ,apoll41   
iii4 #ch1 iv4 #bj2 ,aretus1 ,de causis  
morb4 chron41 i4 #d4  ,footnote #e3     
,matt4 ix4 #cc1 xii4 #bb2 ,mark ix4 #af1
 #bd2 ,luke xi4 #ad4  ,footnote #f3     
,tobit1 viii4 #b1 #c2 ,matt4 xii4 #bg2  
,mark ix4 #ch2 ,acts xix4 #ac2          

,josephus1 ,ant41 ,,viii4 ii4 #e2       
,justin1 ,dial4 cum ,tryph41 #he2       
,lucian1 ,epigr41 xxiii4 7xvii4         
,dindorf74  ,footnote #g3 ,matt4 xvii4  
#bj2 ,mark ix4 #bd1 and following4      
,footnote #h3 ,matt4 viii4 #bh1 ix4 #cd1
 xii4 #dc1 and following1 xvii4 #ad1 and
 following1 #bj2 ,mark v4 #a1 and       
following2 ,luke viii4 #bg1 and         
following4  ,footnote #i3 ,the phrase1  
,daemonium habes 7,matt4 xi4 #ah3 ,luke 
vii4 #cc2 ,john vii4 #bj1 viii4 #dh1 and
 following1 x4 #bj1 and following7      
should be translated by3 ,thou art mad1 
as we should say in ,arabic3 ,medjnoun  
ente4 ,the verb ,greek3 daimonan has    
also1 in all classical antiquity1 the   
meaning of to be mad4  ,many            
circumstances1 moreover1 seem to        
indicate that ,jesus only became a      
thaumaturgus late in life and against   
his inclination4 ,he often performs his 
miracles only after he has been besought
 to do so1 and with a degree of         
reluctance1 reproaching those who asked 

them for the grossness of their minds4#a
 ,one singularity1 apparently           
inexplicable1 is the care he takes to   
perform his miracles in secret1 and the 
request he addresses to those whom he   
heals to tell no one4#b ,when the demons
 wish to proclaim him the ,son of ,god1 
he forbids them to open their mouths2   
but they recognize him in spite of      
himself4#c ,these traits are especially 
characteristic in ,mark1 who is         
pre-eminently the evangelist of miracles
 and exorcisms4 ,it seems that the      
disciple1 who has furnished the         
fundamental teachings of this ,gospel1  
importuned ,jesus with his admiration of
 the wonderful1 and that the master1    
wearied of a reputation which weighed   
upon him1 had often said to him1 ,see   
thou say nothing to any man4 ,once this 
discordance evoked a singular           
outburst1#d a fit of impatience1 in     
which the annoyance these perpetual     
demands of weak minds caused ,jesus1    
breaks forth4 ,one would say1 at times1 

that the character of thaumaturgus was  
disagreeable to him1 and that he sought 
to give as little publicity as possible 
to the marvels which1 in a manner1 grew 
under his feet4 ,when his enemies asked 
a miracle of him1 especially a celestial
 miracle1 a sign from heaven1 he        
obstinately refused4#e ,we may therefore
 conclude that his reputation of        
thaumaturgus was imposed upon him1 that 
he did not resist it much1 but also that
 he did nothing to aid it1 and that1 at 
all events1 he felt the vanity of       
popular opinion on this point4          
,footnote #a3 ,matt4 xii4 #ci1 xvi4 #d1 
xvii4 #af2 ,mark viii4 #ag1 and         
following1 ix4 #ah2 ,luke ix4 #da4      
,footnote #b3 ,matt4 viii4 #d1 ix4 #cj1 
#ca1 xii4 #af1 and following2 ,mark i4  
#dd1 vii4 #bd1 and following1 viii4 #bf4
  ,footnote #c3 ,mark i4 #bd1 #be1 #cd1 
iii4 #ab2 ,luke iv4 #da4  ,footnote #d3 
,matt4 xvii4 #af2 ,mark ix4 #ah2 ,luke  
ix4 #da4  ,footnote #e3 ,matt4 xii4 #ch1
 and following1 xvi4 #a1 and following2 

,mark viii4 #aa4  ,we should neglect to 
recognize the first principles of       
history if we attached too much         
importance to our repugnances on this   
matter1 and if1 in order to avoid the   
objections which might be raised against
 the character of ,jesus1 we attempted  
to suppress facts which1 in the eyes of 
his contemporaries1 were considered of  
the greatest importance4#a ,it would be 
convenient to say that these are the    
additions of disciples much inferior to 
their ,master who1 not being able to    
conceive his true grandeur1 have sought 
to magnify him by illusions unworthy of 
him4 ,but the four narrators of the life
 of ,jesus are unanimous in extolling   
his miracles2 one of them1 ,mark1       
interpreter of the apostle ,peter1#b    
insists so much on this point1 that1 if 
we trace the character of ,christ only  
according to this ,gospel1 we should    
represent him as an exorcist in         
possession of charms of rare efficacy1  
as a very potent sorcerer1 who inspired 

fear1 and whom the people wished to get 
rid of4#c ,we will admit1 then1 without 
hesitation1 that acts which would now be
 considered as acts of illusion or      
folly1 held a large place in the life of
 ,jesus4 ,must we sacrifice to these    
uninviting features the sublimer aspect 
of such a life8 ,god forbid4 ,a mere    
sorcerer1 after the manner of ,simon the
 magician1 would not have brought about 
a moral revolution like that effected by
 ,jesus4 ,if the thaumaturgus had       
effaced in ,jesus the moralist and the  
religious reformer1 there would have    
proceeded from him a school of theurgy1 
and not ,christianity4  ,footnote #a3   
,josephus1 ,ant41 ,,xviii4 iii4 #c4     
,footnote #b3 ,papias1 in ,eusebius1    
,hist4 ,eccl41 iii4 #ci4  ,footnote #c3 
,mark iv4 #dj1 v4 #ae1 #ag1 #cc1 #cf1   
vi4 #ej1 x4 #cb2 cf4 ,matt4 viii4 #bg1  
#cd1 ix4 #h1 xiv4 #bg1 xvii4 #f1 #g1    
xxviii4 #e1 #aj2 ,luke iv4 #cf1 v4 #ag1 
viii4 #be1 #ce1 #cg1 ix4 #cd4 ,the      
,apocryphal ,gospel1 said to be by      

,thomas the ,israelite1 carries this    
feature to the most offensive absurdity4
 ,compare the ,miracles of the ,infancy1
 in ,philo1 ,cod4 ,apocr4 ,n4,t41 p4    
cx41 note4  ,the problem1 moreover1     
presents itself in the same manner with 
respect to all saints and religious     
founders4 ,things now considered morbid1
 such as epilepsy and seeing of visions1
 were formerly principles of power and  
greatness4 ,physicians can designate the
 disease which made the fortune of      
,mahomet4#a ,almost in our own day1 the 
men who have done the most for their    
kind 7the excellent ,vincent de ,paul   
himself67 were1 whether they wished it  
or not1 thaumaturgi4 ,if we set out with
 the principle that every historical    
personage to whom acts have been        
attributed1 which we in the nineteenth  
century hold to be irrational or        
savoring of quackery1 was either a      
madman or a charlatan1 all criticism is 
nullified4 ,the school of ,alexandria   
was a noble school1 but1 nevertheless1  

it gave itself up to the practices of an
 extravagant theurgy4 ,socrates and     
,pascal were not exempt from            
hallucinations4 ,facts ought to explain 
themselves by proportionate causes4 ,the
 weaknesses of the human mind only      
engender weakness2 great things have    
always great causes in the nature of    
man1 although they are often developed  
amidst a crowd of littlenesses which1 to
 superficial minds1 eclipse their       
grandeur4  ,footnote #a3 ,hysteria      
,muscularis of ,shoenlein4  ,in a       
general sense1 it is therefore true to  
say that ,jesus was only thaumaturgus   
and exorcist in spite of himself4       
,miracles are ordinarily the work of the
 public much more than of him to whom   
they are attributed4 ,jesus persistently
 shunned the performance of the wonders 
which the multitude would have created  
for him2 the greatest miracle would have
 been his refusal to perform any2 never 
would the laws of history and popular   
psychology have suffered so great a     

derogation4 ,the miracles of ,jesus were
 a violence done to him by his age1 a   
concession forced from him by a passing 
necessity4 ,the exorcist and the        
thaumaturgus have alike passed away2 but
 the religious reformer will live       
eternally4  ,even those who did not     
believe in him were struck with these   
acts1 and sought to be witnesses of     
them4#a ,the pagans1 and persons        
unacquainted with him1 experienced a    
sentiment of fear1 and sought to remove 
him from their district4#b ,many thought
 perhaps to abuse his name by connecting
 it with seditious movements4#c ,but the
 purely moral and in no respect         
political tendency of the character of  
,jesus saved him from these             
entanglements4 ,his kingdom was in the  
circle of disciples1 whom a like        
freshness of imagination and the same   
foretaste of heaven had grouped and     
retained around him4  ,footnote #a3     
,matt4 xiv4 #a1 and following2 ,mark vi4
 #ad2 ,luke ix4 #g1 xxiii4 #h4          

,footnote #b3 ,matt4 viii4 #cd2 ,mark v4
 #ag1 viii4 #cg4  ,footnote #c3 ,john   
vi4 #ad1 #ae4     ,,chapter ,,xvii4     
,,definitive ,,form ,,of ,,the ,,ideas  
,,of ,,jesus ,,respecting ,,the         
,,kingdom ,,of ,,god4   ,we suppose that
 this last phase of the activity of     
,jesus continued about eighteen months  
from the time of his return from the    
,passover of the year #ca1 until his    
journey to the feast of tabernacles of  
the year #cb4a ,during this time1 the   
mind of ,jesus does not appear to have  
been enriched by the addition of any new
 element2 but all his old ideas grew and
 developed with an ever-increasing      
degree of power and boldness4  ,footnote
 #a3 ,john v4 #a1 vii4 #b4 ,we follow   
the system of ,john1 according to whom  
the public life of ,jesus lasted three  
years4 ,the synoptics1 on the contrary1 
group all the facts within the space of 
one year4  ,the fundamental idea of     
,jesus from the beginning1 was the      
establishment of the kingdom of ,god4   

,but this kingdom of ,god1 as we have   
already said1 appears to have been      
understood by ,jesus in very different  
senses4 ,at times1 we should take him   
for a democratic leader desiring only   
the triumph of the poor and the         
disinherited4 ,at other times1 the      
kingdom of ,god is the literal          
accomplishment of the apocalyptic       
visions of ,daniel and ,enoch4 ,lastly1 
the kingdom of ,god is often a spiritual
 kingdom1 and the approaching           
deliverance is a deliverance of the     
spirit4 ,in this last sense the         
revolution desired by ,jesus was the one
 which has really taken place2 the      
establishment of a new worship1 purer   
than that of ,moses4 ,all these thoughts
 appear to have existed at the same time
 in the mind of ,jesus4 ,the first one1 
however--that of a temporal             
revolution--does not appear to have     
impressed him much2 he never regarded   
the earth or the riches of the earth1 or
 material power1 as worth caring for4   

,he had no worldly ambition4 ,sometimes 
by a natural consequence1 his great     
religious importance was in danger of   
being converted into mere social        
importance4 ,men came requesting him to 
judge and arbitrate on questions        
affecting their material interests4     
,jesus rejected these proposals with    
haughtiness1 treating them as insults4#a
 ,full of his heavenly ideal1 he never  
abandoned his disdainful poverty4 ,as to
 the other two conceptions of the       
kingdom of ,god1 ,jesus appears always  
to have held them simultaneously4 ,if he
 had been only an enthusiast1 led away  
by the apocalypses on which the popular 
imagination fed1 he would have remained 
an obscure sectary1 inferior to those   
whose ideas he followed4 ,if he had been
 only a puritan1 a sort of ,channing or 
,savoyard vicar1 he would undoubtedly   
have been unsuccessful4 ,the two parts  
of his system1 or1 rather1 his two      
conceptions of the kingdom of ,god1 rest
 one on the other1 and this mutual      

support has been the cause of his       
incomparable success4 ,the first        
,christians were dreamers1 living in a  
circle of ideas which we should term    
visionary2 but1 at the same time1 they  
were the heroes of that social war which
 has resulted in the enfranchisement of 
the conscience1 and in the establishment
 of a religion from which the pure      
worship1 proclaimed by the founder1 will
 eventually proceed4  ,footnote #a3     
,luke xii4 #ac1 #ad4  ,the apocalyptic  
ideas of ,jesus1 in their most complete 
form1 may thus be summed up4 ,the       
existing condition of humanity is       
approaching its termination4 ,this      
termination will be an immense          
revolution1 an anguish similar to the   
pains of child-birth2 a palingenesis1   
or1 in the words of ,jesus himself1 a   
new birth1#a preceded by dark calamities
 and heralded by strange phenomena4#b   
,in the great day1 there will appear in 
the heavens the sign of the ,son of man2
 it will be a startling and luminous    

vision like that of ,sinai1 a great     
storm rending the clouds1 a fiery meteor
 flashing rapidly from east to west4    
,the ,messiah will appear in the clouds1
 clothed in glory and majesty1 to the   
sound of trumpets and surrounded by     
angels4 ,his disciples will sit by his  
side upon thrones4 ,the dead will then  
arise1 and the ,messiah will proceed to 
judgment4#c  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 xix4  
#bh4  ,footnote #b3 ,matt4 xxiv4 #c1 and
 following2 ,mark xiii4 #d1 and         
following2 ,luke xvii4 #bb1 and         
following1 xxi4 #g1 and following4 ,it  
must be remarked that the picture of the
 end of time attributed to ,jesus by the
 synoptics1 contains many features which
 relate to the siege of ,jerusalem4     
,luke wrote some time after the siege   
7xxi4 #i1 #bj1 #bd74 ,the compilation of
 ,matthew1 on the contrary 7xxvi4 #ae1  
#af1 #bb1 #bi71 carries us back exactly 
to this precise period1 or very shortly 
afterward4 ,there is no doubt1 however1 
that ,jesus predicted that great terrors

 would precede his reappearance4 ,these 
terrors were an integral part of all the
 ,jewish apocalypses4 ,enoch1 xcix41 c41
 cii41 ciii4 7division of ,dillman72    
,carm4 sibyll41 iii4 #ccd1 and          
following1 #fcc1 and following1 iv4     
#afh1 and following1 v4 #eaa1 and       
following4 ,according to ,daniel also1  
the reign of the saints will only come  
after the desolation shall have reached 
its height4 ,chap4 vii4 #be1 and        
following1 viii4 #bc1 and following1 ix4
 #bf1 #bg1 xii4 #a4  ,footnote #c3      
,matt4 xvi4 #bg1 xix4 #bh1 xx4 #ba1     
xxiv4 #cj1 and following1 xxv4 #ca1 and 
following1 xxvi4 #fd2 ,mark xiv4 #fb2   
,luke xxii4 #cj2 #a ,cor4 xv4 #eb2 #a   
,thess4 iv4 #ae1 and following4  ,at    
this judgment men will be divided into  
two classes according to their deeds4#a 
,the angels will be the executors of the
 sentences4#b ,the elect will enter into
 delightful mansions1 which have been   
prepared for them from the foundation of
 the world2#c there they will be seated1

 clothed with light1 at a feast presided
 over by ,abraham1#d the patriarchs and 
the prophets4 ,they will be the smaller 
number4#e ,the rest will depart into    
,gehenna4 ,gehenna was the western      
valley of ,jerusalem4 ,there the worship
 of fire had been practised at various  
times1 and the place had become a kind  
of sewer4 ,gehenna was1 therefore1 in   
the mind of ,jesus1 a gloomy1 filthy    
valley1 full of fire4 ,those excluded   
from the kingdom will there be burnt and
 eaten by the never-dying worm1 in      
company with ,satan and his rebel       
angels4#f ,there1 there will be wailing 
and gnashing of teeth4#g ,the kingdom of
 heaven will be as a closed room1       
lighted from within1 in the midst of a  
world of darkness and torments4#h       
,footnote #a3 ,matt4 xiii4 #ch1 and     
following1 xxv4 #cc4  ,footnote #b3     
,matt4 xiii4 #ci1 #da1 #di4  ,footnote  
#c3 ,matt4 xxv4 #cd4 ,comp4 ,john xiv4  
#b4  ,footnote #d3 ,matt4 viii4 #aa1    
xiii4 #dc1 xxvi4 #bi2 ,luke xiii4 #bh1  

xvi4 #bb1 xxii4 #cj4  ,footnote #e3     
,luke xiii4 #bc1 and following4         
,footnote #f3 ,matt4 xxv4 #da4 ,the idea
 of the fall of the angels1 detailed in 
the ,book of ,enoch1 was universally    
admitted in the circle of ,jesus4       
,epistle of ,jude #f1 and following2    
#b;d ,epistle attributed to ,saint      
,peter1 ii4 #d4 #aa2 ,revelation xii4   
#i2 ,gospel of ,john viii4 #dd4         
,footnote #g3 ,matt4 v4 #bb1 viii4 #ab1 
x4 #bh1 xiii4 #dj1 #db1 #ej1 xviii4 #h1 
xxiv4 #ea1 xxv4 #cj2 ,mark ix4 #dc1 c4  
,footnote #h3 ,matt4 viii4 #ab1 xxii4   
#ac1 xxv4 #cj4 ,comp4 ,jos41 ,b4,j41    
,,iii4 viii4 #e4  ,this new order of    
things will be eternal4 ,paradise and   
,gehenna will have no end4 ,an          
impassable abyss separates the one from 
the other4#a ,the ,son of man1 seated on
 the right hand of ,god1 will preside   
over this final condition of the world  
and of humanity4#b  ,footnote #a3 ,luke 
xvi4 #bh4  ,footnote #b3 ,mark iii4 #bi2
 ,luke xxii4 #fi2 ,acts vii4 #ee4  ,that

 all this was taken literally by the    
disciples and by the master himself at  
certain moments1 appears clearly evident
 from the writings of the time4 ,if the 
first ,christian generation had one     
profound and constant belief1 it was    
that the world was near its end1#a and  
that the great revelation#b of ,christ  
was about to take place4 ,the startling 
proclamation1 ,the time is at hand1#c   
which commences and closes the          
,apocalypse2 the incessantly reiterated 
appeal1 ,he that hath ears to hear let  
him hear6#d were the cries of hope and  
encouragement for the whole apostolic   
age4 ,a ,syrian expression1 ,maran atha1
 ,our ,lord cometh6#e became a sort of  
password1 which the believers used      
amongst themselves to strengthen their  
faith and their hope4 ,the ,apocalypse1 
written in the year #fh of our era1#f   
declares that the end will come in three
 years and a half4#g ,the ,ascension of 
,isaiah#h adopts a calculation very     
similar to this4  ,footnote #a3 ,acts   

ii4 #ag1 iii4 #ai1 and following2 #a    
,cor4 xv4 #bc1 #bd1 #eb2 #a ,thess4 iii4
 #ac1 iv4 #ad1 and following1 v4 #bc2 #b
 ,thess4 ii4 #h2 #a ,tim4 vi4 #ad2 #b   
,tim4 iv4 #a2 ,tit4 ii4 #ac2 ,epistle of
 ,james v4 #c1 #h2 ,epistle of ,jude    
#ah2 #b;d ,epistle of ,peter1 iii4      
entirely2 ,revelations entirely1 and in 
particular1 i4 #a1 ii4 #e1 #af1 iii4    
#aa1 xi4 #ad1 xxii4 #f1 #g1 #ab1 #bj4   
,comp4 #dth ,book of ,esdras1 iv4 #bf4  
,footnote #b3 ,luke xvii4 #cj2 #a ,cor4 
i4 #g1 #h2 #b ,thess4 i4 #g2 #a ,peter  
i4 #g1 #ac2 ,revelations i4 #a4         
,footnote #c3 ,revelations i4 #c1 xxii4 
#aj4  ,footnote #d3 ,matt4 xi4 #ae1     
xiii4 #i1 #dc2 ,mark iv4 #i1 #bc1 vii4  
#af2 ,luke viii4 #h1 xiv4 #ce2          
,revelations ii4 #g1 #aa1 #bg1 #bi1 iii4
 #f1 #ac1 #bb1 xiii4 #i4  ,footnote #e3 
#a ,cor4 xvi4 #bb4  ,footnote #f3       
,revelations xvii4 #i1 and following4   
,the sixth emperor1 whom the author     
represents as reigning1 is ,galba4 ,the 
dead emperor1 who was to return1 is     

,nero1 whose name is given in figures   
7xiii4 #ah74  ,footnote #g3 ,revelations
 xi4 #b1 #c1 xii4 #ad4 ,comp4 ,daniel   
vii4 #be1 xii4 #g4  ,footnote #h3 ,chap4
 iv41 v4 #ab and #ad4 ,comp4 ,cedrenus1 
p4 #fh 7,paris1 #afdg74  ,jesus never   
indulged in such precise details4 ,when 
he was interrogated as to the time of   
his advent1 he always refused to reply2 
once even he declared that the date of  
this great day was known only by the    
,father1 who had revealed it neither to 
the angels nor to the ,son4#a ,he said  
that the time when the kingdom of ,god  
was most anxiously expected1 was just   
that in which it would not appear4#b ,he
 constantly repeated that it would be a 
surprise1 as in the times of ,noah and  
of ,lot2 that we must be on our guard1  
always ready to depart2 that each one   
must watch and keep his lamp trimmed as 
for a wedding procession1 which arrives 
unforeseen2#c that the ,son of man would
 come like a thief1 at an hour when he  
would not be expected2#d that he would  

appear as a flash of lightning1 running 
from one end of the heavens to the      
other4#e ,but his declarations on the   
nearness of the catastrophe leave no    
room for any equivocations4#f ,this     
generation1 said he1 shall not pass till
 all these things be fulfilled4 ,there  
be some standing here1 which shall not  
taste of death1 till they see the ,son  
of man coming in his kingdom4#g ,he     
reproaches those who do not believe in  
him1 for not being able to read the     
signs of the future kingdom4 ,when it is
 evening1 ye say1 ,it will be fair      
weather2 for the sky is red4 ,and in the
 morning1 ,it will be foul weather      
to-day2 for the sky is red and lowering4
 ,o ye hypocrites1 ye can discern the   
face of the sky2 but can ye not discern 
the signs of the times8#h ,by an        
illusion common to all great reformers1 
,jesus imagined the end to be much      
nearer than it really was2 he did not   
take into account the slowness of the   
movements of humanity2 he thought to    

realize in one day that which1 eighteen 
centuries later1 has still to be        
accomplished4  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4     
xxiv4 #cf2 ,mark xiii4 #cb4  ,footnote  
#b3 ,luke xvii4 #bj4 ,comp4 ,talmud of  
,babyl41 ,sanhedrim1 #ig a4  ,footnote  
#c3 ,matt4 xxiv4 #cf1 and following2    
,mark xiii4 #cb1 and following2 ,luke   
xii4 #ce1 and following1 xvii4 #bj1 and 
following4  ,footnote #d3 ,luke xii4    
#dj2 #b ,peter iii4 #aj4  ,footnote #e3 
,luke xvii4 #bd4  ,footnote #f3 ,matt4  
x4 #bc1 xxiv41 xxv4 entirely1 and       
especially xxiv4 #bi1 #cd2 ,mark xiii4  
#cj2 ,luke xiii4 #ce1 xxi4 #bh1 and     
following4  ,footnote #g3 ,matt4 xvi4   
#bh1 xxiii4 #cf1 #ci1 xxiv4 #cd2 ,mark  
viii4 #ci2 ,luke ix4 #bg1 xxi4 #cb4     
,footnote #h3 ,matt4 xvi4 #b-d2 ,luke   
xii4 #ed-ef4  ,these formal declarations
 preoccupied the ,christian family for  
nearly seventy years4 ,it was believed  
that some of the disciples would see the
 day of the final revelation before     
dying4 ,john1 in particular1 was        

considered as being of this number2#a   
many believed that he would never die4  
,perhaps this was a later opinion       
suggested toward the end of the first   
century1 by the advanced age which ,john
 seems to have reached2 this age having 
given rise to the belief that ,god      
wished to prolong his life indefinitely 
until the great day1 in order to realize
 the words of ,jesus4 ,however this may 
be1 at his death the faith of many was  
shaken1 and his disciples attached to   
the prediction of ,christ a more subdued
 meaning4#b  ,footnote #a3 ,john xxi4   
#bb1 #bc4  ,footnote #b3 ,john xxi4 #bb1
 #bc4 ,chapter xxi4 of the fourth       
,gospel is an addition1 as is proved by 
the final clause of the primitive       
compilation1 which concludes at verse   
#ca of chapter xx4 ,but the addition is 
almost contemporaneous with the         
publication of the ,gospel itself4  ,at 
the same time that ,jesus fully admitted
 the ,apocalyptic beliefs1 such as we   
find them in the apocryphal ,jewish     

books1 he admitted the doctrine1 which  
is the complement1 or rather the        
condition of them all1 namely1 the      
resurrection of the dead4 ,this         
doctrine1 as we have already said1 was  
still somewhat new in ,israel2 a number 
of people either did not know it1 or did
 not believe it4#a ,it was the faith of 
the ,pharisees1 and of the fervent      
adherents of the ,messianic beliefs4#b  
,jesus accepted it unreservedly1 but    
always in the most idealistic sense4    
,many imagined that in the resuscitated 
world they would eat1 drink1 and marry4 
,jesus1 indeed1 admits into his kingdom 
a new passover1 a table1 and a new      
wine2#c but he expressly excludes       
marriage from it4 ,the ,sadducees had on
 this subject an apparently coarse      
argument1 but one which was really in   
conformity with the old theology4 ,it   
will be remembered that according to the
 ancient sages1 man survived only in his
 children4 ,the ,mosaic code had        
consecrated this patriarchal theory by a

 strange institution1 the levirate law4 
,the ,sadducees drew from thence subtle 
deductions against the resurrection4    
,jesus escaped them by formally         
declaring that in the life eternal there
 would no longer exist differences of   
sex1 and that men would be like the     
angels4#d ,sometimes he seems to promise
 resurrection only to the righteous1#e  
the punishment of the wicked consisting 
in complete annihilation4#f ,oftener1   
however1 ,jesus declares that the       
resurrection shall bring eternal        
confusion to the wicked4#g  ,footnote   
#a3 ,mark ix4 #i2 ,luke xx4 #bg1 and    
following4  ,footnote #b3 ,dan4 xii4 #b1
 and following2 #b ,macc4 vii4 entirely1
 xii4 #de1 #df1 xiv4 #df2 ,acts xxiii4  
#f1 #h2 ,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xviii4 i4 #c2   
,b4,j41 ,,ii4 viii4 #ad1 ,,iii4 viii4   
#e4  ,footnote #c3 ,matt4 xxvi4 #bi2    
,luke xxii4 #cj4  ,footnote #d3 ,matt4  
xxii4 #bd1 and following2 ,luke xx4     
#cd-ch2 ,ebionite ,gospel1 entitled1 ,of
 the ,egyptians1 in ,clem4 of ,alex41   

,strom4 ii4 #i1 #ac2 ,clem4 ,rom41      
,epist4 ii4 #ab4  ,footnote #e3 ,luke   
xiv4 #ad1 xx4 #ce1 #cf4 ,this is also   
the opinion of ,st4 ,paul3 #a ,cor4 xv4 
#bc1 and following2 #a ,thess4 iv4 #ab1 
and following4  ,footnote #f3 ,comp4    
#dth book of ,esdras1 ix4 #bb4          
,footnote #g3 ,matt4 xxv4 #cb1 and      
following4  ,it will be seen that       
nothing in all these theories was       
absolutely new4 ,the ,gospels and the   
writings of the apostles scarcely       
contain anything as regards apocalyptic 
doctrines but what might be found       
already in ,daniel1#a ,enoch1#b and the 
,sibylline ,oracles1#c of ,jewish       
origin4 ,jesus accepted the ideas1 which
 were generally received among his      
contemporaries4 ,he made them his basis 
of action1 or rather one of his bases2  
for he had too profound an idea of his  
true work to establish it solely upon   
such fragile principles--principles so  
liable to be decisively refuted by      
facts4  ,footnote #a3 ,see especially   

chaps4 ii41 vi4-viii41 x4-xiii4         
,footnote #b3 ,chaps4 i41 xiv41 lii41   
lxii41 xciii4 #i1 and following4        
,footnote #c3 ,book iii4 #egc1 and      
following2 #feb1 and following2 #gff1   
and following2 #gie1 and following4  ,it
 is evident1 indeed1 that such a        
doctrine1 taken by itself in a literal  
manner1 had no future4 ,the world1 in   
continuing to exist1 caused it to       
crumble4 ,one generation of man at the  
most was the limit of its endurance4    
,the faith of the first ,christian      
generation is intelligible1 but the     
faith of the second generation is no    
longer so4 ,after the death of ,john1 or
 of the last survivor1 whoever he might 
be1 of the group which had seen the     
master1 the word of ,jesus was convicted
 of falsehood4#a ,if the doctrine of    
,jesus had been simply belief in an     
approaching end of the world1 it would  
certainly now be sleeping in oblivion4  
,what is it1 then1 which has saved it8  
,the great breadth of the ,gospel       

conceptions1 which has permitted        
doctrines suited to very different      
intellectual conditions to be found     
under the same creed4 ,the world has not
 ended1 as ,jesus announced1 and as his 
disciples believed4 ,but it has been    
renewed1 and in one sense renewed as    
,jesus desired4 ,it is because his      
thought was two-sided that it has been  
fruitful4 ,his chimera has not had the  
fate of so many others which have       
crossed the human mind1 because it      
concealed a germ of life which having   
been introduced1 thanks to a covering of
 fable1 into the bosom of humanity1 has 
thus brought forth eternal fruits4      
,footnote #a3 ,these pangs of ,christian
 conscience are rendered with simplicity
 in the second epistle attributed to    
,st4 ,peter1 iii4 #h1 and following4    
,and let us not say that this is a      
benevolent interpretation1 imagined in  
order to clear the honor of our great   
master from the cruel contradiction     
inflicted on his dreams by reality4 ,no1

 no3 this true kingdom of ,god1 this    
kingdom of the spirit1 which makes each 
one king and priest2 this kingdom which1
 like the grain of mustard-seed1 has    
become a tree which overshadows the     
world1 and amidst whose branches the    
birds have their nests1 was understood1 
wished for1 and founded by ,jesus4 ,by  
the side of the false1 cold1 and        
impossible idea of an ostentatious      
advent1 he conceived the real city of   
,god1 the true palingenesis1 the ,sermon
 on the ,mount1 the apotheosis of the   
weak1 the love of the people1 regard for
 the poor1 and the re-establishment of  
all that is humble1 true1 and simple4   
,this re-establishment he has depicted  
as an incomparable artist1 by features  
which will last eternally4 ,each of us  
owes that which is best in himself to   
him4 ,let us pardon him his hope of a   
vain apocalypse1 and of a second coming 
in great triumph upon the clouds of     
heaven4 ,perhaps these were the errors  
of others rather than his own2 and if it

 be true that he himself shared the     
general illusion1 what matters it1 since
 his dream rendered him strong against  
death1 and sustained him in a struggle1 
to which he might otherwise have been   
unequal8  ,we must1 then1 attach several
 meanings to the divine city conceived  
by ,jesus4 ,if his only thought had been
 that the end of time was near1 and that
 we must prepare for it1 he would not   
have surpassed ,john the ,baptist4 ,to  
renounce a world ready to crumble1 to   
detach one's self little by little from 
the present life1 and to aspire to the  
kingdom about to come1 would have formed
 the gist of his preaching4 ,the        
teaching of ,jesus had always a much    
larger scope4 ,he proposed to himself to
 create a new state of humanity1 and not
 merely to prepare the end of that which
 was in existence4 ,elias or ,jeremiah1 
reappearing in order to prepare men for 
the supreme crisis1 would not have      
preached as he did4 ,this is so true    
that this morality1 attributed to the   

latter days1 is found to be the eternal 
morality1 that which has saved humanity4
 ,jesus himself in many cases makes use 
of modes of speech which do not accord  
with the apocalyptic theory4 ,he often  
declares that the kingdom of ,god has   
already commenced2 that every man bears 
it within himself2 and can1 if he be    
worthy1 partake of it2 that each one    
silently creates this kingdom by the    
true conversion of the heart4#a ,the    
kingdom of ,god at such times is only   
the highest form of good4#b ,a better   
order of things than that which exists1 
the reign of justice1 which the         
faithful1 according to their ability1   
ought to help in establishing2 or1      
again1 the liberty of the soul1         
something analogous to the ,buddhist    
deliverance1 the fruit of the soul's    
separation from matter and absorption in
 the divine essence4 ,these truths1     
which are purely abstract to us1 were   
living realities to ,jesus4 ,everything 
in his mind was concrete and            

substantial4 ,jesus1 of all men1        
believed most thoroughly in the reality 
of the ideal4  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 vi4 
#aj1 #cc2 ,mark xii4 #cd2 ,luke xi4 #b1 
xii4 #ca1 xvii4 #bj1 #ba1 and following4
  ,footnote #b3 ,see especially ,mark   
xii4 #cd4  ,in accepting the ,utopias of
 his time and his race1 ,jesus thus was 
able to make high truths of them1 thanks
 to the fruitful misconceptions of their
 import4 ,his kingdom of ,god was no    
doubt the approaching apocalypse1 which 
was about to be unfolded in the heavens4
 ,but it was still1 and probably above  
all the kingdom of the soul1 founded on 
liberty and on the filial sentiment     
which the virtuous man feels when       
resting on the bosom of his ,father4 ,it
 was a pure religion1 without forms1    
without temple1 and without priest2 it  
was the moral judgment of the world1    
delegated to the conscience of the just 
man1 and to the arm of the people4 ,this
 is what was destined to live2 this is  
what has lived4 ,when1 at the end of a  

century of vain expectation1 the        
materialistic hope of a near end of the 
world was exhausted1 the true kingdom of
 ,god became apparent4 ,accommodating   
explanations threw a veil over the      
material kingdom1 which was then seen to
 be incapable of realization4 ,the      
,apocalypse of ,john1 the chief         
canonical book of the ,new ,testament1#a
 being too formally tied to the idea of 
an immediate catastrophe1 became of     
secondary importance1 was held to be    
unintelligible1 tortured in a thousand  
ways and almost rejected4 ,at least1 its
 accomplishment was adjourned to an     
indefinite future4 ,some poor benighted 
ones who1 in a fully enlightened age1   
still preserved the hopes of the first  
disciples1 became heretics 7,ebionites1 
,millenarians71 lost in the shallows of 
,christianity4 ,mankind had passed to   
another kingdom of ,god4 ,the degree of 
truth contained in the thought of ,jesus
 had prevailed over the chimera which   
obscured it4  ,footnote #a3 ,justin1    

,dial4 cum ,tryph41 #ha4  ,let us not1  
however1 despise this chimera1 which has
 been the thick rind of the sacred fruit
 on which we live4 ,this fantastic      
kingdom of heaven1 this endless pursuit 
after a city of ,god1 which has         
constantly preoccupied ,christianity    
during its long career1 has been the    
principle of that great instinct of     
futurity which has animated all         
reformers1 persistent believers in the  
,apocalypse1 from ,joachim of ,flora    
down to the ,protestant sectary of our  
days4 ,this impotent effort to establish
 a perfect society has been the source  
of the extraordinary tension which has  
always made the true ,christian an      
athlete struggling against the existing 
order of things4 ,the idea of the       
kingdom of ,god1 and the ,apocalypse1   
which is the complete image of it1 are  
thus1 in a sense1 the highest and most  
poetic expressions of human progress4   
,but they have necessarily given rise to
 great errors4 ,the end of the world1   

suspended as a perpetual menace over    
mankind1 was1 by the periodical panics  
which it caused during centuries1 a     
great hindrance to all secular          
development4 ,society being no longer   
certain of its existence1 contracted    
therefrom a degree of trepidation1 and  
those habits of servile humility1 which 
rendered the ,middle ,ages so inferior  
to ancient and modern times4#a ,a       
profound change had also taken place in 
the mode of regarding the coming of     
,christ4 ,when it was first announced to
 mankind that the end of the world was  
about to come1 like the infant which    
receives death with a smile1 it         
experienced the greatest access of joy  
that it has ever felt4 ,but in growing  
old1 the world became attached to life4 
,the day of grace1 so long expected by  
the simple souls of ,galilee1 became to 
these iron ages a day of wrath3 ,dies   
irae1 dies illa6 ,but1 even in the midst
 of barbarism1 the idea of the kingdom  
of ,god continued fruitful4 ,in spite of

 the feudal church1 of sects1 and of    
religious orders1 holy persons continued
 to protest1 in the name of the ,gospel1
 against the iniquity of the world4     
,even in our days1 troubled days1 in    
which ,jesus has no more authentic      
followers than those who seem to deny   
him1 the dreams of an ideal organization
 of society1 which have so much analogy 
with the aspirations of the primitive   
,christian sects1 are only in one sense 
the blossoming of the same idea4 ,they  
are one of the branches of that immense 
tree in which germinates all thought of 
a future1 and of which the kingdom of   
,god will be eternally the root and     
stem4 ,all the social revolutions of    
humanity will be grafted on this phrase4
 ,but1 tainted by a coarse materialism1 
and aspiring to the impossible1 that is 
to say1 to found universal happiness    
upon political and economical measures1 
the socialist attempts of our time will 
remain unfruitful until they take as    
their rule the true spirit of ,jesus1 ,i

 mean absolute idealism--the principle  
that1 in order to possess the world1 we 
must renounce it4  ,footnote #a3 ,see1  
for example1 the prologue of ,gregory of
 ,tours to his ,histoire ,ecclesiastique
 des ,francs1 and the numerous documents
 of the first half of the ,middle ,ages1
 beginning by the formula1 ,on the      
approach of the night of the world4444  
,the phrase1 kingdom of ,god1 expresses 
also1 very happily1 the want which the  
soul experiences of a supplementary     
destiny1 of a compensation for the      
present life4 ,those who do not accept  
the definition of man as a compound of  
two substances1 and who regard the      
,deistical dogma of the immortality of  
the soul as in contradiction with       
physiology1 love to fall back upon the  
hope of a final reparation1 which under 
an unknown form shall satisfy the wants 
of the heart of man4 ,who knows if the  
highest term of progress after millions 
of ages may not evoke the absolute      
conscience of the universe1 and in this 

conscience the awakening of all that has
 lived8 ,a sleep of a million of years  
is not longer than the sleep of an hour4
 ,st4 ,paul1 on this hypothesis1 was    
right in saying1 ,in ictu oculi6#a ,it  
is certain that moral and virtuous      
humanity will have its reward1 that one 
day the ideas of the poor but honest man
 will judge the world1 and that on that 
day the ideal figure of ,jesus will be  
the confusion of the frivolous who have 
not believed in virtue1 and of the      
selfish who have not been able to attain
 to it4 ,the favorite phrase of ,jesus  
continues1 therefore1 full of an eternal
 beauty4 ,a kind of exalted divination  
seems to have maintained it in a vague  
sublimity1 embracing at the same time   
various orders of truths4  ,footnote #a3
 #a ,cor4 xv4 #eb4     ,,chapter        
,,xviii4  ,,institutions ,,of ,,jesus4  
,that ,jesus was never entirely absorbed
 in his apocalyptic ideas is proved1    
moreover1 by the fact that at the very  
time he was most preoccupied with them1 

he laid with rare forethought the       
foundation of a church destined to      
endure4 ,it is scarcely possible to     
doubt that he himself chose from among  
his disciples those who were            
pre-eminently called the apostles1 or   
the twelve1 since on the day after his  
death we find them forming a distinct   
body1 and filling up by election the    
vacancies that had arisen in their      
midst4#a ,they were the two sons of     
,jonas2 the two sons of ,zebedee2       
,james1 son of ,cleophas2 ,philip2      
,nathaniel bar-,tolmai2 ,thomas2 ,levi1 
or ,matthew1 the son of ,alphaeus2      
,simon ,zelotes2 ,thaddeus or ,lebbaeus2
 and ,judas of ,kerioth4#b ,it is       
probable that the idea of the twelve    
tribes of ,israel had had some share in 
the choice of this number4#c  ,footnote 
#a3 ,acts i4 #ae1 and following2 #a     
,cor4 xv4 #e2 ,gal4 i4 #aj4  ,footnote  
#b3 ,matt4 x4 #b and following2 ,mark   
iii4 #af1 and following2 ,luke vi4 #ad1 
and following2 ,acts i4 #ac2 ,papias1 in

 ,eusebius1 ,hist4 ,eccl41 iii4 #ci4    
,footnote #c3 ,matt4 xix4 #bh2 ,luke    
xxii4 #cj4  ,the twelve1 at all events1 
formed a group of privileged disciples1 
among whom ,peter maintained a fraternal
 priority1#a and to them ,jesus confided
 the propagation of his work4 ,there was
 nothing1 however1 which presented the  
appearance of a regularly organized     
sacerdotal school4 ,the lists of the    
twelve1 which have been preserved1      
contain many uncertainties and          
contradictions2 two or three of those   
who figure in them have remained        
completely obscure4 ,two1 at least1     
,peter and ,philip1#b were married and  
had children4  ,footnote #a3 ,acts i4   
#ae1 ii4 #ad1 v4 #b1 #c1 #bi1 viii4 #ai1
 xv4 #g2 ,gal4 i4 #ah4  ,footnote #b3   
,for ,peter1 see ante1 p4 #agd2 for     
,philip1 see ,papias1 ,polycrates1 and  
,clement of ,alexandria1 quoted by      
,eusebius1 ,hist4 ,eccl41 iii4 #cj1 #ca1
 #ci1 v4 #bd4  ,jesus evidently confided
 secrets to the twelve1 which he forbade

 them to communicate to the world4#a ,it
 seems as if his plan at times was to   
surround himself with a degree of       
mystery1 to postpone the most important 
testimony respecting himself till after 
his death1 and to reveal himself        
completely only to his disciples1       
confiding to them the care of           
demonstrating him afterward to the      
world4#b ,what ,i tell you in darkness1 
that speak ye in light2 and what ye hear
 in the ear1 that preach ye upon the    
housetops4 ,this spared him the         
necessity of too precise declarations1  
and created a kind of medium between the
 public and himself4 ,it is clear that  
there were certain teachings confined to
 the apostles1 and that he explained    
many parables to them1 the meaning of   
which was ambiguous to the multitude4#c 
,an enigmatical form and a degree of    
oddness in connecting ideas were        
customary in the teachings of the       
doctors1 as may be seen in the sentences
 of the ,pirke ,aboth4 ,jesus explained 

to his intimate friends whatever was    
peculiar in his apothegms or in his     
apologues1 and showed them his meaning  
stripped of the wealth of illustration  
which sometimes obscured it4#d ,many of 
these explanations appear to have been  
carefully preserved4#e  ,footnote #a3   
,matt4 xvi4 #bj1 xvii4 #i2 ,mark viii4  
#cj1 ix4 #h4  ,footnote #b3 ,matt4 x4   
#bf1 #bg2 ,mark iv4 #ba1 and following2 
,luke viii4 #ag1 xii4 #b1 and following2
 ,john xiv4 #bb4  ,footnote #c3 ,matt4  
xiii4 #aj1 and following1 #cd and       
following2 ,mark iv4 #aj1 and following1
 #cc1 and following2 ,luke viii4 #i1 and
 following2 xii4 #da4  ,footnote #d3    
,matt4 xvi4 #f1 and following2 ,mark    
vii4 #ag-bc4  ,footnote #e3 ,matt4 xiii4
 #ah1 and following2 ,mark vii4 #ah1 and
 following4  ,during the lifetime of    
,jesus1 the apostles preached1#a but    
without ever departing far from him4    
,their preaching1 moreover1 was limited 
to the announcement of the speedy coming
 of the kingdom of ,god4#b ,they went   

from town to town1 receiving            
hospitality1 or rather taking it        
themselves1 according to the custom of  
the country4 ,the guest in the ,east has
 much authority2 he is superior to the  
master of the house1 who has the        
greatest confidence in him4 ,this       
fireside preaching is admirably adapted 
to the propagation of new doctrines4    
,the hidden treasure is communicated1   
and payment is thus made for what is    
received2 politeness and good feeling   
lend their aid2 the household is touched
 and converted4 ,remove ,oriental       
hospitality1 and it would be impossible 
to explain the propagation of           
,christianity4 ,jesus1 who adhered      
greatly to good old customs1 encouraged 
his disciples to make no scruple of     
profiting by this ancient public right1 
probably already abolished in the great 
towns where there were hostelries4#c    
,the laborer1 said he1 is worthy of his 
hire6 ,once installed in any house1 they
 were to remain there1 eating and       

drinking what was offered them1 as long 
as their mission lasted4  ,footnote #a3 
,luke ix4 #f4  ,footnote #b3 ,luke x4   
#aa4  ,footnote #c3 ,the ,greek word    
,greek3 pandokeion1 in all the languages
 of the ,semitic ,east1 designates an   
hostelry4  ,jesus desired that1 in      
imitation of his example1 the messengers
 of the glad tidings should render their
 preaching agreeable by kindly and      
polished manners4 ,he directed that1 on 
entering into a house1 they should give 
the salaam or greeting4 ,some hesitated2
 the salaam being then1 as now1 in the  
,east1 a sign of religious communion1   
which is not risked with persons of a   
doubtful faith4 ,fear nothing1 said     
,jesus2 if no one in the house is worthy
 of your salute1 it will return unto    
you4#a ,sometimes1 in fact1 the apostles
 of the kingdom of ,god were badly      
received1 and came to complain to       
,jesus1 who generally sought to soothe  
them4 ,some of them1 persuaded of the   
omnipotence of their master1 were hurt  

at this forbearance4 ,the sons of       
,zebedee wanted him to call down fire   
from heaven upon the inhospitable       
towns4#b ,jesus received these outbursts
 with a subtle irony1 and stopped them  
by saying3 ,the ,son of man is not come 
to destroy men's lives1 but to save     
them4  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 x4 #aa1 and 
following2 ,mark vi4 #aj1 and following2
 ,luke x4 #e1 and following4 ,comp4 #b  
,epistle of ,john1 #aj1 #aa4  ,footnote 
#b3 ,luke ix4 #eb1 and following4  ,he  
sought in every way to establish as a   
principle that his apostles were as     
himself4#a ,it was believed that he had 
communicated his marvellous virtues to  
them4 ,they cast out demons1 prophesied1
 and formed a school of renowned        
exorcists1#b although certain cases were
 beyond their power4#c ,they also       
wrought cures1 either by the imposition 
of hands1 or by the anointing with      
oil1#d one of the fundamental processes 
of ,oriental medicine4 ,lastly1 like the
 ,psylli1 they could handle serpents and

 could drink deadly potions with        
impunity4#e ,the further we get from    
,jesus--the more offensive does this    
theurgy become4 ,but there is no doubt  
that it was generally received by the   
primitive ,church1 and that it held an  
important place in the estimation of the
 world around4#f ,charlatans1 as        
generally happens1 took advantage of    
this movement of popular credulity4     
,even in the lifetime of ,jesus1 many1  
without being his disciples1 cast out   
demons in his name4 ,the true disciples 
were much displeased at this1 and sought
 to prevent them4 ,jesus1 who saw that  
this was really an homage paid to his   
renown1 was not very severe toward      
them4#g ,it must be observed1 moreover1 
that the exercise of these gifts had to 
some degree become a trade4 ,carrying   
the logic of absurdity to the extreme1  
certain men cast out demons by          
,beelzebub1#h the prince of demons4     
,they imagined that this sovereign of   
the infernal regions must have entire   

authority over his subordinates1 and    
that in acting through him they were    
certain to make the intruding spirit    
depart4#i ,some even sought to buy from 
the disciples of ,jesus the secret of   
the miraculous powers which had been    
conferred upon them4#aj ,the germ of a  
church from this time began to appear4  
,this fertile idea of the power of men  
in association 7ecclesia7 was doubtless 
derived from ,jesus4 ,full of the purely
 idealistic doctrine that it is the     
union of love which brings souls        
together1 he declared that whenever men 
assembled in his name1 he would be in   
their midst4 ,he confided to the ,church
 the right to bind and to unbind 7that  
is to say1 to render certain things     
lawful or unlawful71 to remit sins1 to  
reprimand1 to warn with authority1 and  
to pray with the certainty of being     
heard favorably4#aa ,it is possible that
 many of these words may have been      
attributed to the master1 in order to   
give a warrant to the collective        

authority which was afterward sought to 
be substituted for that of ,jesus4 ,at  
all events1 it was only after his death 
that particular churches were           
established1 and even this first        
constitution was made purely and simply 
on the model of the synagogue4 ,many    
personages who had loved ,jesus much1   
and had founded great hopes upon him1 as
 ,joseph of ,arimathea1 ,lazarus1 ,mary 
,magdalen1 and ,nicodemus1 did not1 it  
seems1 join these churches1 but clung to
 the tender or respectful memory which  
they had preserved of him4  ,footnote   
#a3 ,matt4 x4 #dj1 #db1 xxv4 #ce1 and   
following2 ,mark ix4 #dj2 ,luke x4 #af2 
,john xiii4 #bj4  ,footnote #b3 ,matt4  
vii4 #bb1 x4 #a2 ,mark iii4 #ae1 vi4    
#ac2 ,luke x4 #ag4  ,footnote #c3 ,matt4
 xvii4 #ah1 #ai4  ,footnote #d3 ,mark   
vi4 #ac1 xvi4 #ah2 ,epist4 ,jas4 v4 #ad4
  ,footnote #e3 ,mark xvi4 #ah2 ,luke x4
 #ai4  ,footnote #f3 ,mark xvi4 #bj4    
,footnote #g3 ,mark ix4 #cg1 #ch2 ,luke 
ix4 #di1 #ej4  ,footnote #h3 ,an ancient

 god of the ,philistines1 transformed by
 the ,jews into a demon4  ,footnote #i3 
,matt4 xii4 #bd1 and following4         
,footnote #aj3 ,acts viii4 #ah1 and     
following4  ,footnote #aa3 ,matt4 xviii4
 #ag1 and following2 ,john xx4 #bc4     
,moreover1 there is no trace1 in the    
teaching of ,jesus1 of an applied       
morality or of a canonical law1 ever so 
slightly defined4 ,once only1 respecting
 marriage1 he spoke decidedly1 and      
forbade divorce4#a ,neither was there   
any theology or creed4 ,there were      
indefinite views respecting the ,father1
 the ,son1 and the ,spirit1#b from      
which1 afterward1 were drawn the        
,trinity and the ,incarnation1 but they 
were then only in a state of            
indeterminate imagery4 ,the later books 
of the ,jewish canon recognized the     
,holy ,spirit1 a sort of divine         
hypostasis1 sometimes identified with   
,wisdom or the ,word4#c ,jesus insisted 
upon this point1#d and announced to his 
disciples a baptism by fire and by the  

spirit1#e as much preferable to that of 
,john1 a baptism which they believed    
they had received1 after the death of   
,jesus1 in the form of a great wind and 
tongues of fire4#f ,the ,holy ,spirit   
thus sent by the ,father was to teach   
them all truth1 and testify to that     
which ,jesus himself had promulgated4#g 
,in order to designate this ,spirit1    
,jesus made use of the word ,peraklit1  
which the ,syro-,chaldaic had borrowed  
from the ,greek 7,greek3 parakletos71   
and which appears to have had in his    
mind the meaning of advocate1#h         
counsellor1#i and sometimes that of     
interpreter of celestial truths1 and of 
teacher charged to reveal to men the    
hitherto hidden mysteries4#aj ,he       
regarded himself as a ,peraklit to his  
disciples1#aa and the ,spirit which was 
to come after his death would only take 
his place4 ,this was an application of  
the process which the ,jewish and       
,christian theologies would follow      
during centuries1 and which was to      

produce a whole series of divine        
assessors1 the ,metathronos1 the        
,synadelphe or ,sandalphon1 and all the 
personifications of the ,cabbala4 ,but  
in ,judaism1 these creations were to    
remain free and individual speculations1
 whilst in ,christianity1 commencing    
with the fourth century1 they were to   
form the very essence of orthodoxy and  
of the universal doctrine4  ,footnote   
#a3 ,matt4 xix4 #c1 and following4      
,footnote #b3 ,matt4 xxviii4 #ai4 ,comp4
 ,matt4 iii4 #af1 #ag2 ,john xv4 #bf4   
,footnote #c3 ,sap4 i4 #g1 vii4 #g1 ix4 
#ag1 xii4 #a2 ,eccles4 i4 #i1 xv4 #e1   
xxiv4 #bg2 xxxix4 #h2 ,judith xvi4 #ag4 
,footnote #d3 ,matt4 x4 #bj2 ,luke xii4 
#ab1 xxiv4 #di2 ,john xiv4 #bf1 xv4 #bf4
  ,footnote #e3 ,matt4 iii4 #aa2 ,mark  
i4 #h2 ,luke iii4 #af2 ,john i4 #bf1    
iii4 #e2 ,acts i4 #e1 #h1 x4 #dg4       
,footnote #f3 ,acts ii4 #a-d1 xi4 #ae1  
xix4 #f4 ,cf4 ,john vii4 #ci4  ,footnote
 #g3 ,john xv4 #bf1 xvi4 #ac4  ,footnote
 #h3 ,to ,peraklit was opposed ,katigor1

 7,greek3 kategoros71 the accuser4      
,footnote #i3 ,john xiv4 #af2 #ast      
,epistle of ,john ii4 #a4  ,footnote    
#aj3 ,john xiv4 #bf1 xv4 #bf1 xvi4 #g1  
and following4 ,comp4 ,philo1 ,de ,mundi
 opificio1 ,sec4 #f4  ,footnote #aa3    
,john xiv4 #af4 ,comp4 the epistle      
before cited1 l4c4  ,it is unnecessary  
to remark how remote from the thought of
 ,jesus was the idea of a religious     
book1 containing a code and articles of 
faith4 ,not only did he not write1 but  
it was contrary to the spirit of the    
infant sect to produce sacred books4    
,they believed themselves on the eve of 
the great final catastrophe4 ,the       
,messiah came to put the seal upon the  
,law and the ,prophets1 not to          
promulgate new ,scriptures4 ,with the   
exception of the ,apocalypse1 which was 
in one sense the only revealed book of  
the infant ,christianity1 all the other 
writings of the apostolic age were works
 evoked by existing circumstances1      
making no pretensions to furnish a      

completely dogmatic whole4 ,the ,gospels
 had at first an entirely personal      
character1 and much less authority than 
tradition4#a  ,footnote #a3 ,papias1 in 
,eusebius1 ,hist4 ,eccl41 iii4 #ci4     
,had the sect1 however1 no sacrament1 no
 rite1 no sign of union8 ,it had one    
which all tradition ascribes to ,jesus4 
,one of the favorite ideas of the master
 was that he was the new bread1 bread   
very superior to manna1 and on which    
mankind was to live4 ,this idea1 the    
germ of the ,eucharist1 was at times    
expressed by him in singularly concrete 
forms4 ,on one occasion especially1 in  
the synagogue of ,capernaum1 he took a  
decided step1 which cost him several of 
his disciples4 ,verily1 verily1 ,i say  
unto you1 ,moses gave you not that bread
 from heaven2 but my ,father giveth you 
the true bread from heaven4#a ,and he   
added1 ,i am the bread of life3 he that 
cometh to me shall never hunger1 and he 
that believeth on me shall never        
thirst4#b ,these words excited much     

murmuring4 ,the ,jews then murmured at  
him because he said1 ,i am the bread    
which came down from heaven4 ,and they  
said1 ,is not this ,jesus the son of    
,joseph1 whose father and mother we     
know8 how is it then that he saith1 ,i  
came down from heaven8 ,but ,jesus      
insisting with still more force1 said1  
,i am that bread of life2 your fathers  
did eat manna in the wilderness and are 
dead4 ,this is the bread which cometh   
down from heaven1 that a man may eat    
thereof1 and not die4 ,i am the living  
bread which came down from heaven2 if   
any man eat of this bread1 he shall live
 for ever3 and the bread that ,i will   
give is my flesh1 which ,i will give for
 the life of the world4#c ,the offence  
was now at its height3 ,how can this man
 give us his flesh to eat8 ,jesus going 
still further1 said3 ,verily1 verily1 ,i
 say unto you1 except ye eat the flesh  
of the ,son of man1 and drink his blood1
 ye have no life in you4 ,whoso eateth  
my flesh and drinketh my blood1 hath    

eternal life1 and ,i will raise him up  
at the last day4 ,for my flesh is meat  
indeed1 and my blood is drink indeed4   
,he that eateth my flesh and drinketh my
 blood dwelleth in me1 and ,i in him4   
,as the living ,father has sent me1 and 
,i live by the ,father3 so he that      
eateth me1 even he shall live by me4    
,this is that bread which came down from
 heaven3 not as your fathers did eat    
manna1 and are dead3 he that eateth of  
this bread shall live for ever4 ,several
 of his disciples were offended at such 
obstinacy in paradox1 and ceased to     
follow him4 ,jesus did not retract2 he  
only added3 ,it is the spirit that      
quickeneth2 the flesh profiteth nothing4
 ,the words that ,i speak unto you1 they
 are spirit1 and they are life4 ,the    
twelve remained faithful1               
notwithstanding this strange preaching4 
,it gave to ,cephas1 in particular1 an  
opportunity of showing his absolute     
devotion1 and of proclaiming once more1 
,thou art that ,christ1 the ,son of the 

living ,god4  ,footnote #a3 ,john vi4   
#cb1 and following4  ,footnote #b3 ,we  
find an analogous form of expression    
provoking a similar misunderstanding1 in
 ,john iv4 #aj1 and following4          
,footnote #c3 ,a#aa these discourses    
bear too strongly the imprint of the    
style peculiar to ,john1 for them to be 
regarded as exact4 ,the anecdote related
 in chapter vi4 of the fourth ,gospel   
cannot1 however1 be entirely stripped of
 historical reality4  ,it is probable   
that from that time1 in the common      
repasts of the sect1 there was          
established some custom which was       
derived from the discourse so badly     
received by the men of ,capernaum4 ,but 
the apostolic traditions on this subject
 are very diverse and probably          
intentionally incomplete4 ,the          
synoptical gospels suppose that a unique
 sacramental act served as basis to the 
mysterious rite1 and declare this to    
have been the last supper4 ,john1 who   
has preserved the incident at the       

synagogue of ,capernaum1 does not speak 
of such an act1 although he describes   
the last supper at great length4        
,elsewhere we see ,jesus recognized in  
the breaking of bread1#a as if this act 
had been to those who associated with   
him the most characteristic of his      
person4 ,when he was dead1 the form     
under which he appeared to the pious    
memory of his disciples1 was that of    
president of a mysterious banquet1      
taking the bread1 blessing it1 breaking 
and presenting it to those present4#b   
,it is probable that this was one of his
 habits1 and that at such times he was  
particularly loving and tender4 ,one    
material circumstance1 the presence of  
fish upon the table 7a striking         
indication1 which proves that the rite  
had its birth on the shore of ,lake     
,tiberias#c71 was itself almost         
sacramental1 and became a necessary part
 of the conceptions of the sacred       
feast4#d  ,footnote #a3 ,luke xxiv4 #cj1
 #ce4  ,footnote #b3 ,luke l4c42 ,john  

xxi4 #ac4  ,footnote #c3 ,comp4 ,matt4  
vii4 #aj1 xiv4 #ag1 and following1 xv4  
#cd1 and following2 ,mark vi4 #ch1 and  
following2 ,luke ix4 #ac1 and following1
 xi4 #aa1 xxiv4 #db2 ,john vi4 #i1 and  
following1 xxi4 #i1 and following4 ,the 
district round ,lake ,tiberias is the   
only place in ,palestine where fish     
forms a considerable portion of the     
diet4  ,footnote #d3 ,john xxi4 #ac2    
,luke xxiv4 #db1 #dc4 ,compare the      
oldest representations of the ,lord's   
,supper1 related or corrected by ,m4 de 
,rossi1 in his dissertation on the      
,greek3 ,,ichthys 7,spicilegium         
,solesmense de dom ,pitra1 v4 iii41 p4  
#efh1 and following74 ,the meaning of   
the anagram which the word ,greek3      
,,ichthys contains1 was probably        
combined with a more ancient tradition  
on the place of fish in the ,gospel     
repasts4  ,their repasts were among the 
sweetest moments of the infant          
community4 ,at these times they all     
assembled2 the master spoke to each one1

 and kept up a charming and lively      
conversation4 ,jesus loved these        
seasons1 and was pleased to see his     
spiritual family thus grouped around    
him4#a ,the participation of the same   
bread was considered as a kind of       
communion1 a reciprocal bond4 ,the      
master used1 in this respect1 extremely 
strong terms1 which were afterward taken
 in a very literal sense4 ,jesus was1 at
 the same time1 very idealistic in his  
conceptions1 and very materialistic in  
his expression of them4 ,wishing to     
express the thought that the believer   
only lives by him1 that altogether      
7body1 blood1 and soul7 he was the life 
of the truly faithful1 he said to his   
disciples1 ,i am your nourishment--a    
phrase which1 turned in figurative      
style1 became1 ,my flesh is your bread1 
my blood your drink4 ,added to this1 the
 modes of speech employed by ,jesus1    
always strongly subjective1 carried him 
still further4 ,at table1 pointing to   
the food1 he said1 ,i am here--holding  

the bread--this is my body2 and of the  
wine1 ,this is my blood--all modes of   
speech which were equivalent to1 ,i am  
your nourishment4  ,footnote #a3 ,luke  
xxii4 #ae4  ,this mysterious rite       
obtained great importance in the        
lifetime of ,jesus4 ,it was probably    
established some time before the last   
journey to ,jerusalem1 and it was the   
result of a general doctrine much more  
than a determinate act4 ,after the death
 of ,jesus1 it became the great symbol  
of ,christian communion1#a and it is to 
the most solemn moment of the life of   
the ,saviour that its establishment is  
referred4 ,it was wished to see1 in the 
consecration of bread and wine1 a       
farewell memorial which ,jesus1 at the  
moment of quitting life1 had left to his
 disciples4#b ,they recognized ,jesus   
himself in this sacrament4 ,the wholly  
spiritual idea of the presence of souls1
 which was one of the most familiar to  
the ,master1 which made him say1 for    
instance1 that he was personally with   

his disciples#c when they were assembled
 in his name1 rendered this easily      
admissible4 ,jesus1 we have already     
said1 never had a very defined notion of
 that which constitutes individuality4  
,in the degree of exaltation to which he
 had attained1 the ideal surpassed      
everything to such an extent that the   
body counted for nothing4 ,we are one   
when we love one another1 when we live  
in dependence on each other2 it was thus
 that he and his disciples were one4#d  
,his disciples adopted the same         
language4 ,those who for years had lived
 with him1 had seen him constantly take 
the bread and the cup between his holy  
and venerable hands1#e and thus offer   
himself to them4 ,it was he whom they   
ate and drank2 he became the true       
passover1 the former one having been    
abrogated by his blood4 ,it is          
impossible to translate into our        
essentially determined idiom1 in which a
 rigorous distinction between the       
material and the metaphorical must      

always be observed1 habits of style the 
essential character of which is to      
attribute to metaphor1 or rather to the 
idea it represents1 a complete reality4 
,footnote #a3 ,acts ii4 #db1 #df4       
,footnote #b3 #a ,cor4 xi4 #bj1 and     
following4  ,footnote #c3 ,matt4 xviii4 
#bj4  ,footnote #d3 ,john xii4 entirely4
  ,footnote #e3 ,canon of the ,greek    
,masses and the ,latin ,mass 7very      
ancient74     ,,chapter ,,xix4          
,,increasing ,,progression ,,of         
,,enthusiasm ,,and ,,of ,,exaltation4   
,it is clear that such a religious      
society1 founded solely on the          
expectation of the kingdom of ,god1 must
 be in itself very incomplete4 ,the     
first ,christian generation lived almost
 entirely upon expectations and dreams4 
,on the eve of seeing the world come to 
an end1 they regarded as useless        
everything which only served to prolong 
it4 ,possession of property was         
interdicted4#a ,everything which        
attaches man to earth1 everything which 

draws him aside from heaven1 was to be  
avoided4 ,although several of the       
disciples were married1 there was to be 
no more marriage on becoming a member of
 the sect4#b ,the celibate was greatly  
preferred2 even in marriage continence  
was recommended4#c ,at one time the     
master seems to approve of those who    
should mutilate themselves in prospect  
of the kingdom of ,god4#d ,in this he   
was consistent with his principle--,if  
thy hand or thy foot offend thee1 cut   
them off1 and cast them from thee2 it is
 better for thee to enter into life halt
 or maimed1 rather than having two hands
 or two feet to be cast into everlasting
 fire4 ,and if thine eye offend thee1   
pluck it out1 and cast it from thee2 it 
is better for thee to enter into life   
with one eye1 rather than having two    
eyes to be cast into hell-fire4#e ,the  
cessation of generation was often       
considered as the sign and condition of 
the kingdom of ,god4#f  ,footnote #a3   
,luke xiv4 #cc2 ,acts iv4 #cb1 and      

following1 v4 #a-aa4  ,footnote #b3     
,matt4 xix4 #aj1 and following2 ,luke   
xviii4 #bi1 and following4  ,footnote   
#c3 ,this is the constant doctrine of   
,paul4 ,comp4 ,rev4 xiv4 #d4  ,footnote 
#d3 ,matt4 xix4 #ab4  ,footnote #e3     
,matt4 xviii4 #h1 #i4 ,cf4 ,talmud of   
,babylon1 ,niddah1 #ac b4  ,footnote #f3
 ,matt4 xxii4 #cj2 ,mark xii4 #be2 ,luke
 xx4 #ce2 ,ebionite ,gospel1 entitled   
,of the ,egyptians1 in ,clem4 of ,alex41
 ,strom4 iii4 #i1 #ac1 and ,clem4 ,rom41
 ,epist4 ii4 #ab4  ,never1 we perceive1 
would this primitive ,church have formed
 a lasting society but for the great    
variety of germs deposited by ,jesus in 
his teaching4 ,it required more than a  
century for the true ,christian         
,church--that which has converted the   
world--to disengage itself from this    
little sect of latter-day saints1 and to
 become a framework applicable to the   
whole of human society4 ,the same thing1
 indeed1 took place in ,buddhism1 which 
at first was founded only for monks4    

,the same thing would have happened in  
the order of ,st4 ,francis1 if that     
order had succeeded in its pretension of
 becoming the rule of the whole of human
 society4 ,essentially ,utopian in their
 origin1 and succeeding by their very   
exaggeration1 the great systems of which
 we have just spoken have only laid hold
 of the world by being profoundly       
modified1 and by abandoning their       
excesses4 ,jesus did not advance beyond 
this first and entirely monachal period1
 in which it was believed that the      
impossible could be attempted with      
impunity4 ,he made no concession to     
necessity4 ,he boldly preached war      
against nature1 and total severance from
 ties of blood4 ,verily ,i say unto you1
 said he1 there is no man that hath left
 house1 or parents1 or brethren1 or     
wife1 or children1 for the kingdom of   
,god's sake1 who shall not receive      
manifold more in this present time1 and 
in the world to come life everlasting4#a
  ,footnote #a3 ,luke xviii4 #bj1 #cj4  

,the teachings which ,jesus is reputed  
to have given to his disciples breathe  
the same exaltation4#a ,he who was so   
tolerant to the world outside1 he who   
contented himself sometimes with half   
adhesions1#b exercised toward his own an
 extreme rigor4 ,he would have no all   
buts4 ,we should call it an order1      
constituted by the most austere rules4  
,faithful to his idea that the cares of 
life trouble man1 and draw him downward1
 ,jesus required from his associates a  
complete detachment from the earth1 an  
absolute devotion to his work4 ,they    
were not to carry with them either money
 or provisions for the way1 not even a  
scrip1 or change of raiment4 ,they must 
practise absolute poverty1 live on alms 
and hospitality4 ,freely ye have        
received1 freely give1#c said he1 in his
 beautiful language4 ,arrested and      
arraigned before the judges1 they were  
not to prepare their defence2 the       
,peraklit1 the heavenly advocate1 would 
inspire them with what they ought to    

say4 ,the ,father would send them his   
,spirit from on high1 which would become
 the principle of all their acts1 the   
director of their thoughts1 and their   
guide through the world4#d ,if driven   
from any town1 they were to shake the   
dust from their shoes1 declaring always 
the proximity of the kingdom of ,god1   
that none might plead ignorance4 ,ye    
shall not have gone over the cities of  
,israel1 added he1 till the ,son of man 
be come4  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 x41      
entirely1 xxiv4 #i2 ,mark vi4 #h1 and   
following1 ix4 #dj1 xiii4 #i-ac2 ,luke  
x4 #c1 and following1 x4 #a1 and        
following1 xii4 #d1 and following1 xxi4 
#ag2 ,john xv4 #ah1 and following1 xvii4
 #ad4  ,footnote #b3 ,mark ix4 #ch1 and 
following4  ,footnote #c3 ,matt4 x4 #h4 
,comp4 ,midrash ,ialkout1 ,deut41 sect4 
#hbd4  ,footnote #d3 ,matt4 x4 #bj2     
,john xiv4 #af1 and following1 #bf1 xv4 
#bf1 xvi4 #g1 #ac4  ,a strange ardor    
animates all these discourses1 which may
 in part be the creation of the         

enthusiasm of his disciples1#a but which
 even in that case came indirectly from 
,jesus1 for it was he who had inspired  
the enthusiasm4 ,he predicted for his   
followers severe persecutions and the   
hatred of mankind4 ,he sent them forth  
as lambs in the midst of wolves4 ,they  
would be scourged in the synagogues1 and
 dragged to prison4 ,brother should     
deliver up brother to death1 and the    
father his son4 ,when they were         
persecuted in one country they were to  
flee to another4 ,the disciple1 said he1
 is not above his master1 nor the       
servant above his lord4 ,fear not them  
which kill the body1 but are not able to
 kill the soul4 ,are not two sparrows   
sold for a farthing8 and one of them    
shall not fall to the ground without    
your ,father4 ,but the very hairs of    
your head are all numbered4 ,fear ye    
not1 therefore1 ye are of more value    
than many sparrows4#b ,whosoever1       
therefore1 continued he1 shall confess  
me before men1 him will ,i confess also 

before my ,father which is in heaven4   
,but whosoever shall deny me before men1
 him will ,i also deny before my ,father
 which is in heaven4#c  ,footnote #a3   
,the expressions in ,matt4 x4 #ch1 xvi4 
#bd2 ,mark viii4 #cd2 ,luke xiv4 #bg1   
can only have been conceived after the  
death of ,jesus4  ,footnote #b3 ,matt4  
x4 #bd-ca2 ,luke xii4 #d-g4  ,footnote  
#c3 ,matt4 x4 #cb1 #cc2 ,mark viii4 #ch2
 ,luke ix4 #bf1 xii4 #h1 #i4  ,in these 
fits of severity he went so far as to   
abolish all natural ties4 ,his          
requirements had no longer any bounds4  
,despising the healthy limits of man's  
nature1 he demanded that he should exist
 only for him1 that he should love him  
alone4 ,if any man come to me1 said he1 
and hate not his father1 and mother1 and
 wife1 and children1 and brethren1 and  
sisters1 and his own life also1 he      
cannot be my disciple4#a ,so likewise1  
whosoever he be of you that forsaketh   
not all that he hath1 he cannot be my   
disciple4#b ,there was1 at such times1  

something strange and more than human in
 his words2 they were like a fire       
utterly consuming life1 and reducing    
everything to a frightful wilderness4   
,the harsh and gloomy feeling of        
distaste for the world1 and of excessive
 self-abnegation which characterizes    
,christian perfection1 was originated1  
not by the refined and cheerful moralist
 of earlier days1 but by the sombre     
giant whom a kind of grand presentiment 
was withdrawing1 more and more1 out of  
the pale of humanity4 ,we should almost 
say that1 in these moments of conflict  
with the most legitimate cravings of the
 heart1 ,jesus had forgotten the        
pleasure of living1 of loving1 of       
seeing1 and of feeling4 ,employing still
 more unmeasured language1 he even said1
 ,if any man will come after me1 let him
 deny himself and follow me4 ,he that   
loveth father or mother more than me1 is
 not worthy of me2 and he that loveth   
son or daughter more than me1 is not    
worthy of me4 ,he that findeth his life 

shall lose it1 and he that loseth his   
life for my sake and the gospel's1 shall
 find it4 ,what is a man profited if he 
shall gain the whole world1 and lose his
 own soul8#c ,two anecdotes of the kind 
we cannot accept as historical1 but     
which1 although they were exaggerations1
 were intended to represent a           
characteristic feature1 clearly         
illustrate this defiance of nature4 ,he 
said to one man1 ,follow me6--,but he   
said1 ,lord1 suffer me first to go and  
bury my father4 ,jesus answered1 ,let   
the dead bury their dead3 but go thou   
and preach the kingdom of ,god4 ,another
 said to him1 ,lord1 ,i will follow     
thee2 but let me first go bid them      
farewell1 which are at home at my house4
 ,jesus replied1 ,no man1 having put his
 hand to the plough1 and looking back1  
is fit for the kingdom of ,god4#d ,an   
extraordinary confidence1 and at times  
accents of singular sweetness1 reversing
 all our ideas of him1 caused these     
exaggerations to be easily received4    

,come unto me1 cried he1 all ye that    
labor and are heavy laden1 and ,i will  
give you rest4 ,take my yoke upon you1  
and learn of me3 for ,i am meek and     
lowly in heart3 and ye shall find rest  
unto your souls4 ,for my yoke is easy1  
and my burden is light4#e  ,footnote #a3
 ,luke xiv4 #bf4 ,we must here take into
 account the exaggeration of ,luke's    
style4  ,footnote #b3 ,luke xiv4 #cc4   
,footnote #c3 ,matt4 x4 #cg-ci1 xvi4    
#bd1 #be2 ,luke ix4 #bc-be1 xiv4 #bf1   
#bg1 xvii4 #cc2 ,john xii4 #be4         
,footnote #d3 ,matt4 viii4 #ba1 #bb2    
,luke ix4 #ei-fb4  ,footnote #e3 ,matt4 
xi4 #bh-cj4  ,a great danger threatened 
the future of this exalted morality1    
thus expressed in hyperbolical language 
and with a terrible energy4 ,by         
detaching man from earth the ties of    
life were severed4 ,the ,christian would
 be praised for being a bad son1 or a   
bad patriot1 if it was for ,christ that 
he resisted his father and fought       
against his country4 ,the ancient city1 

the parent republic1 the state1 or the  
law common to all1 were thus placed in  
hostility with the kingdom of ,god4 ,a  
fatal germ of theocracy was introduced  
into the world4  ,from this point1      
another consequence may be perceived4   
,this morality1 created for a temporary 
crisis1 when introduced into a peaceful 
country1 and in the midst of a society  
assured of its own duration1 must seem  
impossible4 ,the ,gospel was thus       
destined to become a ,utopia for        
,christians1 which few would care to    
realize4 ,these terrible maxims would1  
for the greater number1 remain in       
profound oblivion1 an oblivion          
encouraged by the clergy itself2 the    
,gospel man would prove a dangerous man4
 ,the most selfish1 proud1 hard and     
worldly of all human beings1 a ,louis   
,,xiv4 for instance1 would find priests 
to persuade him1 in spite of the        
,gospel1 that he was a ,christian4 ,but1
 on the other hand1 there would always  
be found holy men who would take the    

sublime paradoxes of ,jesus literally4  
,perfection being placed beyond the     
ordinary conditions of society1 and a   
complete ,gospel life being only        
possible away from the world1 the       
principle of asceticism and of          
monasticism was established4 ,christian 
societies would have two moral rules2   
the one moderately heroic for common    
men1 the other exalted in the extreme   
for the perfect man2 and the perfect man
 would be the monk1 subjected to rules  
which professed to realize the gospel   
ideal4 ,it is certain that this ideal1  
if only on account of the celibacy and  
poverty it imposed1 could not become the
 common law4 ,the monk would be thus1 in
 one sense1 the only true ,christian4   
,common sense revolts at these excesses2
 and if we are guided by it1 to demand  
the impossible1 is a mark of weakness   
and error4 ,but common sense is a bad   
judge where great matters are in        
question4 ,to obtain little from        
humanity we must ask much4 ,the immense 

moral progress which we owe to the      
,gospel is the result of its            
exaggerations4 ,it is thus that it has  
been1 like stoicism1 but with infinitely
 greater fulness1 a living argument for 
the divine powers in man1 an exalted    
monument of the potency of the will4    
,we may easily imagine that to ,jesus1  
at this period of his life1 everything  
which was not the kingdom of ,god had   
absolutely disappeared4 ,he was1 if we  
may say so1 totally outside nature3     
family1 friendship1 country1 had no     
longer any meaning for him4 ,no doubt   
from this moment he had already         
sacrificed his life4 ,sometimes we are  
tempted to believe that1 seeing in his  
own death a means of founding his       
kingdom1 he deliberately determined to  
allow himself to be killed4#a ,at other 
times1 although such a thought only     
afterward became a doctrine1 death      
presented itself to him as a sacrifice1 
destined to appease his ,father and to  
save mankind4#b ,a singular taste for   

persecution and torments#c possessed    
him4 ,his blood appeared to him as the  
water of a second baptism with which he 
ought to be baptized1 and he seemed     
possessed by a strange haste to         
anticipate this baptism1 which alone    
could quench his thirst4#d  ,footnote   
#a3 ,matt4 xvi4 #ba-bc1 xvii4 #ab1 #ba1 
#bb4  ,footnote #b3 ,mark x4 #de4       
,footnote #c3 ,luke vi4 #bb1 and        
following4  ,footnote #d3 ,luke xii4    
#ej4  ,the grandeur of his views upon   
the future was at times surprising4 ,he 
did not conceal from himself the        
terrible storm he was about to cause in 
the world4 ,think not1 said he1 with    
much boldness and beauty1 that ,i am    
come to send peace on earth3 ,i came not
 to send peace1 but a sword4 ,there     
shall be five in one house divided1     
three against two1 and two against      
three4 ,i am come to set a man at       
variance against his father1 and the    
daughter against her mother1 and the    
daughter-in-law against her             

mother-in-law4 ,and a man's foes shall  
be they of his own household4#a ,i am   
come to send fire on the earth2 and what
 will ,i1 if it be already kindled8#b   
,they shall put you out of the          
synagogues1 he continued2 yea1 the time 
cometh1 that whosoever killeth you1 will
 think that he doeth ,god service4#c ,if
 the world hate you1 ye know that it    
hated me before it hated you4 ,remember 
the word that ,i said unto you3 ,the    
servant is not greater than his lord4   
,if they have persecuted me1 they will  
also persecute you4#d  ,footnote #a3    
,matt4 x4 #cd-cf2 ,luke xii4 #ea-ec4    
,compare ,micah vii4 #e1 #f4  ,footnote 
#b3 ,luke xii4 #di4 ,see the ,greek     
text4  ,footnote #c3 ,john xvi4 #b4     
,footnote #d3 ,john xv4 #ah-bj4         
,carried away by this fearful           
progression of enthusiasm1 and governed 
by the necessities of a preaching       
becoming daily more exalted1 ,jesus was 
no longer free2 he belonged to his      
mission1 and1 in one sense1 to mankind4 

,sometimes one would have said that his 
reason was disturbed4 ,he suffered great
 mental anguish and agitation4#a ,the   
great vision of the kingdom of ,god1    
glistening before his eyes1 bewildered  
him4 ,his disciples at times thought him
 mad4#b ,his enemies declared him to be 
possessed4#c ,his excessively           
impassioned temperament carried him     
incessantly beyond the bounds of human  
nature4 ,he laughed at all human        
systems1 and his work not being a work  
of the reason1 that which he most       
imperiously required was faith4#d ,this 
was the word most frequently repeated in
 the little guest-chamber4 ,it is the   
watchword of all popular movements4 ,it 
is clear that none of these movements   
would take place if it were necessary   
that their author should gain his       
disciples one by one by force of logic4 
,reflection leads only to doubt4 ,if the
 authors of the ,french ,revolution1 for
 instance1 had had to be previously     
convinced by lengthened meditations1    

they would all have become old without  
accomplishing anything2 ,jesus1 in like 
manner1 aimed less at convincing his    
hearers than at exciting their          
enthusiasm4 ,urgent and imperative1 he  
suffered no opposition3 men must be     
converted1 nothing less would satisfy   
him4 ,his natural gentleness seemed to  
have abandoned him2 he was sometimes    
harsh and capricious4#e ,his disciples  
at times did not understand him1 and    
experienced in his presence a feeling   
akin to fear4#f ,sometimes his          
displeasure at the slightest opposition 
led him to commit inexplicable and      
apparently absurd acts4#g  ,footnote #a3
 ,john xii4 #bg4  ,footnote #b3 ,mark   
iii4 #ba1 and following4  ,footnote #c3 
,mark iii4 #bb2 ,john vii4 #bj1 viii4   
#dh1 and following1 x4 #bj1 and         
following4  ,footnote #d3 ,matt4 viii4  
#aj1 ix4 #b1 #bb1 #bh1 #bi1 xvii4 #ai2  
,john vi4 #bi1 etc4  ,footnote #e3      
,matt4 xvii4 #af2 ,mark iii4 #e1 ix4    
#ah2 ,luke viii4 #de1 ix4 #da4          

,footnote #f3 ,it is in ,mark especially
 that this feature is visible2 iv4 #dj1 
v4 #ae1 ix4 #ca1 x4 #cb4  ,footnote #g3 
,mark xi4 #ab-ad1 #bj1 and following4   
,it was not that his virtue             
deteriorated2 but his struggle for the  
ideal against the reality became        
insupportable4 ,contact with the world  
pained and revolted him4 ,obstacles     
irritated him4 ,his idea of the ,son of 
,god became disturbed and exaggerated4  
,the fatal law which condemns an idea to
 decay as soon as it seeks to convert   
men applied to him4 ,contact with men   
degraded him to their level4 ,the tone  
he had adopted could not be sustained   
more than a few months2 it was time that
 death came to liberate him from an     
endurance strained to the utmost1 to    
remove him from the impossibilities of  
an interminable path1 and by delivering 
him from a trial in danger of being too 
prolonged1 introduce him henceforth     
sinless into celestial peace4           
,,chapter ,,xx4  ,,opposition ,,to      

,,jesus4   ,during the first period of  
his career1 it does not appear that     
,jesus met with any serious opposition4 
,his preaching1 thanks to the extreme   
liberty which was enjoyed in ,galilee1  
and to the number of teachers who arose 
on all hands1 made no noise beyond a    
restricted circle4 ,but when ,jesus     
entered upon a path brilliant with      
wonders and public successes1 the storm 
began to gather4 ,more than once he was 
obliged to conceal himself and fly4#a   
,antipas1 however1 did not interfere    
with him1 although ,jesus expressed     
himself sometimes very severely         
respecting him4#b ,at ,tiberias1 his    
usual residence1 the ,tetrarch was only 
one or two leagues distant from the     
district chosen by ,jesus for the centre
 of his activity2 he heard speak of his 
miracles1 which he doubtless took to be 
clever tricks1 and desired to see       
them4#c ,the incredulous were at that   
time very curious about this class of   
illusions4#d ,with his ordinary tact1   

,jesus refused to gratify him4 ,he took 
care not to prejudice his position by   
mingling with an irreligious world1     
which wished to draw from him an idle   
amusement2 he aspired only to gain the  
people2 he reserved for the simple1     
means suitable to them alone4  ,footnote
 #a3 ,matt4 xii4 #ad-af2 ,mark iii4 #g1 
ix4 #bi1 #cj4  ,footnote #b3 ,mark viii4
 #ae2 ,luke xiii4 #cb4  ,footnote #c3   
,luke ix4 #i1 xxiii4 #h4  ,footnote #d3 
,lucius2 attributed to ,lucian1 #d4  ,on
 one occasion the report was spread that
 ,jesus was no other than ,john the     
,baptist risen from the dead4 ,antipas  
became anxious and uneasy2#a and        
employed artifice to rid his dominions  
of the new prophet4 ,certain ,pharisees1
 under the pretence of regard for       
,jesus1 came to tell him that ,antipas  
was seeking to kill him4 ,jesus1        
notwithstanding his great simplicity1   
saw the snare1 and did not depart4#b    
,his peaceful manners1 and his          
remoteness from popular agitation1      

ultimately reassured the ,tetrarch and  
dissipated the danger4  ,footnote #a3   
,matt4 xiv4 #a1 and following2 ,mark vi4
 #ad1 and following2 ,luke ix4 #g1 and  
following4  ,footnote #b3 ,luke xiii4   
#ca1 and following4  ,the new doctrine  
was by no means received with equal     
favor in all the towns of ,galilee4 ,not
 only did incredulous ,nazareth continue
 to reject him who was to become her    
glory2 not only did his brothers persist
 in not believing in him1#a but the     
cities of the lake themselves1 in       
general well-disposed1 were not all     
converted4 ,jesus often complained of   
the incredulity and hardness of heart   
which he encountered1 and although it is
 natural that in such reproaches we make
 allowance for the exaggeration of the  
preacher1 although we are sensible of   
that kind of convicium seculi which     
,jesus affected in imitation of ,john   
the ,baptist1#b it is clear that the    
country was far from yielding itself    
entirely a second time to the kingdom of

 ,god4 ,woe unto thee1 ,chorazin6 woe   
unto thee1 ,bethsaida6 cried he2 for if 
the mighty works which were done in you 
had been done in ,tyre and ,sidon1 they 
would have repented long ago in         
sackcloth and ashes4 ,but ,i say unto   
you1 it shall be more tolerable for     
,tyre and ,sidon at the day of judgment 
than for you4 ,and thou1 ,capernaum1    
which art exalted unto heaven1 shalt be 
brought down to hell2 for if the mighty 
works which have been done in thee had  
been done in ,sodom1 it would have      
remained until this day4 ,but ,i say    
unto you1 ,that it shall be more        
tolerable for the land of ,sodom in the 
day of judgment than for thee4#c ,the   
queen of the south1 added he1 shall rise
 up in the judgment of this generation1 
and shall condemn it3 for she came from 
the uttermost parts of the earth to hear
 the wisdom of ,solomon2 and behold1 a  
greater than ,solomon is here4 ,the men 
of ,nineveh shall rise in judgment with 
this generation1 and shall condemn it3  

because they repented at the preaching  
of ,jonas2 and behold1 a greater than   
,jonas is here4#d ,his wandering life1  
at first so full of charm1 now began to 
weigh upon him4 ,the foxes1 said he1    
have holes1 and the birds of the air    
have nests2 but the ,son of man hath not
 where to lay his head4#e ,bitterness   
and reproach took more and more hold    
upon him4 ,he accused unbelievers of not
 yielding to evidence1 and said that1   
even at the moment in which the ,son of 
man should appear in his celestial      
glory1 there would still be men who     
would not believe in him4#f  ,footnote  
#a3 ,john vii4 #e4  ,footnote #b3 ,matt4
 xii4 #ci1 #de1 xiii4 #ae1 xvi4 #d2     
,luke xi4 #bi4  ,footnote #c3 ,matt4 xi4
 #ba-bd2 ,luke x4 #ab-ae4  ,footnote #d3
 ,matt4 xii4 #da1 #db2 ,luke xi4 #ca1   
#cb4  ,footnote #e3 ,matt4 viii4 #bj2   
,luke ix4 #eh4  ,footnote #f3 ,luke     
xviii4 #h4  ,jesus1 in fact1 was not    
able to receive opposition with the     
coolness of the philosopher1 who1       

understanding the reason of the various 
opinions which divide the world1 finds  
it quite natural that all should not    
agree with him4 ,one of the principal   
defects of the ,jewish race is its      
harshness in controversy1 and the       
abusive tone which it almost always     
infuses into it4 ,there never were in   
the world such bitter quarrels as those 
of the ,jews among themselves4 ,it is   
the faculty of nice discernment which   
makes the polished and moderate man4    
,now1 the lack of this faculty is one of
 the most constant features of the      
,semitic mind4 ,subtle and refined      
works1 the dialogues of ,plato1 for     
example1 are altogether unknown to these
 nations4 ,jesus1 who was exempt from   
almost all the defects of his race1 and 
whose leading quality was precisely an  
infinite delicacy1 was led in spite of  
himself to make use of the general style
 in polemics4#a ,like ,john the         
,baptist1#b he employed very harsh terms
 against his adversaries4 ,of an        

exquisite gentleness with the simple1 he
 was irritated at incredulity1 however  
little aggressive4#c ,he was no longer  
the mild teacher who delivered the      
,sermon on the ,mount1 who had met with 
neither resistance nor difficulty4 ,the 
passion that underlay his character led 
him to make use of the keenest          
invectives4 ,this singular mixture ought
 not to surprise us4 ,m4 de ,lamennais1 
a man of our own times1 has strikingly  
presented the same contrast4 ,in his    
beautiful book1 the ,words of a         
,believer1 the most immoderate anger and
 the sweetest relentings alternate1 as  
in a mirage4 ,this man1 who was         
extremely kind in the intercourse of    
life1 became madly intractable toward   
those who did not agree with him4       
,jesus1 in like manner1 applied to      
himself1 not without reason1 the passage
 from ,isaiah3#d ,he shall not strive1  
nor cry2 neither shall any man hear his 
voice in the streets4 ,a bruised reed   
shall he not break1 and smoking flax    

shall he not quench4#e ,and yet many of 
the recommendations which he addressed  
to his disciples contain the germs of a 
true fanaticism1#f germs which the      
,middle ,ages were to develop in a cruel
 manner4 ,must we reproach him for this8
 ,no revolution is effected without some
 harshness4 ,if ,luther1 or the actors  
in the ,french ,revolution1 had been    
compelled to observe the rules of       
politeness1 neither the ,reformation nor
 the ,revolution would have taken place4
 ,let us congratulate ourselves in like 
manner that ,jesus encountered no law   
which punished the invectives he uttered
 against one class of citizens4 ,had    
such a law existed1 the ,pharisees would
 have been inviolate4 ,all the great    
things of humanity have been            
accomplished in the name of absolute    
principles4 ,a critical philosopher     
would have said to his disciples3       
,respect the opinion of others2 and     
believe that no one is so completely    
right that his adversary is completely  

wrong4 ,but the action of ,jesus has    
nothing in common with the disinterested
 speculation of the philosopher4 ,to    
know that we have touched the ideal for 
a moment1 and have been deterred by the 
wickedness of a few1 is a thought       
insupportable to an ardent soul4 ,what  
must it have been for the founder of a  
new world8  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 xii4   
#cd1 xv4 #ad1 xxiii4 #cc4  ,footnote #b3
 ,matt4 iii4 #g4  ,footnote #c3 ,matt4  
xii4 #cj2 ,luke xxi4 #bc4  ,footnote #d3
 ,isa4 xlii4 #b1 #c4  ,footnote #e3     
,matt4 xii4 #ai-bj4  ,footnote #f3      
,matt4 x4 #ad1 #ae1 #ba1 and following1 
#cd1 and following2 ,luke xix4 #bg4     
,the invincible obstacle to the ideas of
 ,jesus came especially from orthodox   
,judaism1 represented by the ,pharisees4
 ,jesus became more and more alienated  
from the ancient ,law4 ,now1 the        
,pharisees were the true ,jews2 the     
nerve and sinew of ,judaism4 ,although  
this party had its centre at ,jerusalem1
 it had adherents either established in 

,galilee1 or who often came there4#a    
,they were1 in general1 men of a narrow 
mind1 caring much for externals2 their  
devoutness was haughty1 formal1 and     
self-satisfied4#b ,their manners were   
ridiculous1 and excited the smiles of   
even those who respected them4 ,the     
epithets which the people gave them1 and
 which savor of caricature1 prove this4 
,there was the bandy-legged ,pharisee   
7,nikfi71 who walked in the streets     
dragging his feet and knocking them     
against the stones2 the bloody-browed   
,pharisee 7,kizai71 who went with his   
eyes shut in order not to see the women1
 and dashed his head so much against the
 walls that it was always bloody2 the   
pestle ,pharisee 7,medinkia71 who kept  
himself bent double like the handle of a
 pestle2 the ,pharisee of strong        
shoulders 7,shikmi71 who walked with his
 back bent as if he carried on his      
shoulders the whole burden of the ,law2 
the ,what-is-there-to-do8-,i-do-it      
,pharisee1 always on the search for a   

precept to fulfil2 and1 lastly1 the dyed
 ,pharisee1 whose externals of devotion 
were but a varnish of hypocrisy4#c ,this
 strictness was1 in fact1 often only    
apparent1 and concealed in reality great
 moral laxity4#d ,the people1           
nevertheless1 were duped by it4 ,the    
people1 whose instinct is always right1 
even when it is most astray respecting  
individuals1 is very easily deceived by 
false devotees4 ,that which it loves in 
them is good and worthy of being loved2 
but it has not sufficient penetration to
 distinguish the appearance from the    
reality4  ,footnote #a3 ,mark vii4 #a2  
,luke v4 #ag1 and following1 vii4 #cf4  
,footnote #b3 ,matt4 vi4 #b1 #e1 #af1   
ix4 #aa1 #ad1 xii4 #b1 xxiii4 #e1 #ae1  
#bc2 ,luke v4 #cj1 vi4 #b1 #g1 xi4 #ci1 
and following1 xviii4 #ab2 ,john ix4    
#af2 ,pirke ,aboth1 i4 #af2 ,jos41      
,ant41 ,,xvii4 ii4 #d1 ,,xviii4 i4 #c2  
,vita1 #ch2 ,talm4 of ,bab41 ,sota1 #bb 
b4  ,footnote #c3 ,talmud of ,jerusalem1
 ,berakoth1 ix41 sub fin42 ,sota1 v4 #g2

 ,talmud of ,babylon1 ,sota1 #bb b4 ,the
 two compilations of this curious       
passage present considerable            
differences4 ,we have1 in general1      
followed the ,babylonian compilation1   
which seems most natural4 ,cf4 ,epiph41 
,adv4 ,haer41 xvi4 #a4 ,the passages in 
,epiphanes1 and several of those of the 
,talmud1 may1 besides1 relate to an     
epoch posterior to ,jesus1 an epoch in  
which ,pharisee had become synonymous   
with devotee4  ,footnote #d3 ,matt4 v4  
#bj1 xv4 #d1 xxiii4 #c1 #af1 and        
following2 ,john viii4 #g2 ,jos41 ,ant41
 ,,xii4 ix4 #a2 ,,xiii4 x4 #e4  ,it is  
easy to understand the antipathy which1 
in such an impassioned state of society1
 must necessarily break out between     
,jesus and persons of this character4   
,jesus recognized only the religion of  
the heart1 whilst that of the ,pharisees
 consisted almost exclusively in        
observances4 ,jesus sought the humble   
and outcasts of all kinds1 and the      
,pharisees saw in this an insult to     

their religion of respectability4 ,the  
,pharisee was an infallible and         
faultless man1 a pedant always right in 
his own conceit1 taking the first place 
in the synagogue1 praying in the street1
 giving alms to the sound of a trumpet1 
and caring greatly for salutations4     
,jesus maintained that each one ought to
 await the kingdom of ,god with fear and
 trembling4 ,the bad religious tendency 
represented by ,pharisaism did not reign
 without opposition4 ,many men before or
 during the time of ,jesus1 such as     
,jesus1 son of ,sirach 7one of the true 
ancestors of ,jesus of ,nazareth71      
,gamaliel1 ,antigonus of ,soco1 and     
especially the gentle and noble ,hillel1
 had taught much more elevated1 and     
almost ,gospel doctrines4 ,but these    
good seeds had been choked4 ,the        
beautiful maxims of ,hillel1 summing up 
the whole law as equity1#a those of     
,jesus1 son of ,sirach1 making worship  
consist in doing good1#b were forgotten 
or anathematized4#c ,shammai1 with his  

narrow and exclusive spirit1 had        
prevailed4 ,an enormous mass of         
traditions had stifled the ,law1#d under
 pretext of protecting and interpreting 
it4 ,doubtless these conservative       
measures had their share of usefulness2 
it is well that the ,jewish people loved
 its ,law even to excess1 since it is   
this frantic love which1 in saving      
,mosaism under ,antiochus ,epiphanes and
 under ,herod1 has preserved the leaven 
from which ,christianity was to emanate4
 ,but taken in themselves1 all these old
 precautions were only puerile4 ,the    
synagogue1 which was the depository of  
them1 was no more than a parent of      
error4 ,its reign was ended2 and yet to 
require its abdication was to require   
the impossible1 that which an           
established power has never done or been
 able to do4  ,footnote #a3 ,talm4 of   
,bab41 ,shabbath1 #ca a2 ,joma1 #ce b4  
,footnote #b3 ,eccles4 xvii4 #ba1 and   
following1 xxxv4 #a1 and following4     
,footnote #c3 ,talm4 of ,jerus41        

,sanhedrim1 xi4 #a2 ,talm4 of ,bab41    
,sanhedrim1 #ajj b4  ,footnote #d3      
,matt4 xv4 #b4  ,the conflicts of ,jesus
 with official hypocrisy were continual4
 ,the ordinary tactics of the reformers 
who appeared in the religious state     
which we have just described1 and which 
might be called traditional formalism1  
were to oppose the text of the sacred   
books to traditions4 ,religious zeal is 
always an innovator1 even when it       
pretends to be in the highest degree    
conservative4 ,just as the              
neo-,catholics of our days become more  
and more remote from the ,gospel1 so the
 ,pharisees left the ,bible at each step
 more and more4 ,this is why the        
,puritan reformer is generally          
essentially ,biblical1 taking the       
unchangeable text for his basis in      
criticising the current theology1 which 
has changed with each generation4 ,thus 
acted later the ,karaites and the       
,protestants4 ,jesus applied the axe to 
the root of the tree much more          

energetically4 ,we see him sometimes1 it
 is true1 invoke the text against the   
false ,masores or traditions of the     
,pharisees4#a ,but in general he dwelt  
little on exegesis--it was the          
conscience to which he appealed4 ,with  
one stroke he cut through both text and 
commentaries4 ,he showed1 indeed1 to the
 ,pharisees that they seriously         
perverted ,mosaism by their traditions1 
but he by no means pretended himself to 
return to ,mosaism4 ,his mission was    
concerned with the future1 not with the 
past4 ,jesus was more than the reformer 
of an obsolete religion2 he was the     
creator of the eternal religion of      
humanity4  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 xv4 #b1 
and following2 ,mark vii4 #b1 and       
following4  ,disputes broke out         
especially respecting a number of       
external practices introduced by        
tradition1 which neither ,jesus nor his 
disciples observed4#a ,the ,pharisees   
reproached him sharply for this4 ,when  
he dined with them1 he scandalized them 

much by not observing the customary     
ablutions4 ,give alms1 said he1 of such 
things as ye have2 and behold1 all      
things are clean unto you4#b ,that which
 in the highest degree hurt his refined 
feeling was the air of assurance which  
the ,pharisees carried into religious   
matters2 their paltry worship1 which    
ended in a vain seeking after precedents
 and titles1 to the utter neglect of the
 improvement of their hearts4 ,an       
admirable parable rendered this thought 
with infinite charm and justice4 ,two   
men1 said he1 went up into the temple to
 pray2 the one a ,pharisee and the other
 a publican4 ,the ,pharisee stood and   
prayed thus with himself1 ,god1 ,i thank
 thee1 that ,i am not as other men are1 
extortioners1 unjust1 adulterers1 or    
even as this publican4 ,i fast twice in 
the week1 ,i give tithes of all that ,i 
possess4 ,and the publican1 standing    
afar off1 would not lift up so much as  
his eyes unto heaven1 but smote upon his
 breast1 saying1 ,god1 be merciful to me

 a sinner4 ,i tell you1 this man went   
down to his house justified rather than 
the other4#c  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 xv4  
#b1 and following2 ,mark vii4 #d1 #h2   
,luke v4 sub fin4 and vi4 init41 xi4    
#ch1 and following4  ,footnote #b3 ,luke
 xi4 #da4  ,footnote #c3 ,luke xviii4   
#i-ad2 comp4 ibid41 xiv4 #g-aa4  ,a     
hate1 which death alone could satisfy1  
was the consequence of these struggles4 
,john the ,baptist had already provoked 
enmities of the same kind4#a ,but the   
aristocrats of ,jerusalem1 who despised 
him1 had allowed simple men to take him 
for a prophet4#b ,in the case of ,jesus1
 however1 the war was to the death4 ,a  
new spirit had appeared in the world1   
causing all that preceded to pale before
 it4 ,john the ,baptist was completely a
 ,jew2 ,jesus was scarcely one at all4  
,jesus always appealed to the delicacy  
of the moral sentiment4 ,he was only a  
disputant when he argued against the    
,pharisees1 his opponents forcing him1  
as generally happens1 to adopt their    

tone4#c ,his exquisite irony1 his arch  
and provoking remarks1 always struck    
home4 ,they were everlasting stigmas1   
and have remained festering in the      
wound4 ,this ,nessus-shirt of ridicule  
which the ,jew1 son of the ,pharisees1  
has dragged in tatters after him during 
eighteen centuries1 was woven by ,jesus 
with a divine skill4 ,masterpieces of   
fine raillery1 their features are       
written in lines of fire upon the flesh 
of the hypocrite and the false devotee4 
,incomparable traits1 worthy of a son of
 ,god6 ,a god alone knows how to kill   
after this fashion4 ,socrates and       
,moliere only touched the skin4 ,he     
carried fire and rage to the very       
marrow4  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 iii4 #g1  
and following1 xvii4 #ab1 #ac4          
,footnote #b3 ,matt4 xiv4 #e1 xxi4 #bf2 
,mark xi4 #cb2 ,luke xx4 #f4  ,footnote 
#c3 ,matt4 xii4 #c-h1 xxiii4 #af1 and   
following4  ,but it was also just that  
this great master of irony should pay   
for his triumph with his life4 ,even in 

,galilee1 the ,pharisees sought to ruin 
him1 and employed against him the       
manoeuvre which ultimately succeeded at 
,jerusalem4 ,they endeavored to interest
 in their quarrel the partisans of the  
new political faction which was         
established4#a ,the facilities ,jesus   
found for escape in ,galilee1 and the   
weakness of the government of ,antipas1 
baffled these attempts4 ,he ran into    
danger of his own free will4 ,he saw    
clearly that his action1 if he remained 
confined to ,galilee1 was necessarily   
limited4 ,judea drew him as by a charm2 
he wished to try a last effort to gain  
the rebellious city2 and seemed anxious 
to fulfill the proverb--that a prophet  
must not die outside ,jerusalem4#b      
,footnote #a3 ,mark iii4 #f4  ,footnote 
#b3 ,luke xiii4 #cc4     ,,chapter      
,,xxi4  ,,last ,,journey ,,of ,,jesus   
,,to ,,jerusalem4   ,jesus had for a    
long time been sensible of the dangers  
that surrounded him4#a ,during a period 
of time which we may estimate at        

eighteen months1 he avoided going on a  
pilgrimage to ,jerusalem4#b ,at the     
feast of ,tabernacles of the year #cb   
7according to the hypothesis we have    
adopted71 his relations1 always         
malevolent and incredulous1#c pressed   
him to go there4 ,the evangelist ,john  
seems to insinuate that there was some  
hidden project to ruin him in this      
invitation4 ,depart hence1 and go into  
,judea1 that thy disciples also may see 
the works that thou doest4 ,for there is
 no man that doeth anything in secret1  
and he himself seeketh to be known      
openly4 ,if thou do these things1 show  
thyself to the world4 ,jesus1 suspecting
 some treachery1 at first refused2 but  
when the caravan of pilgrims had set    
out1 he started on the journey1 unknown 
to every one1 and almost alone4#d ,it   
was the last farewell which he bade to  
,galilee4 ,the feast of ,tabernacles    
fell at the autumnal equinox4 ,six      
months still had to elapse before the   
fatal denouement4 ,but during this      

interval1 ,jesus saw no more his beloved
 provinces of the north4 ,the pleasant  
days had passed away2 he must now       
traverse1 step by step1 the painful path
 that will terminate only in the anguish
 of death4  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 xvi4   
#bj1 #ba2 ,mark viii4 #cj1 #ca4         
,footnote #b3 ,john vii4 #a4  ,footnote 
#c3 ,john vii4 #e4  ,footnote #d3 ,john 
vii4 #aj4  ,his disciples1 and the pious
 women who tended him1 met him again in 
,judea4#a ,but how much everything was  
changed for him there6 ,jesus was a     
stranger at ,jerusalem4 ,he felt that   
there was a wall of resistance he could 
not penetrate4 ,surrounded by snares and
 difficulties1 he was unceasingly       
pursued by the ill-will of the          
,pharisees4#b ,instead of that          
illimitable faculty of belief1 happy    
gift of youthful natures1 which he found
 in ,galilee--instead of those good and 
gentle people1 amongst whom objections  
7always the fruit of some degree of     
ill-will and indocility7 had no         

existence1 he met there at each step an 
obstinate incredulity1 upon which the   
means of action that had so well        
succeeded in the north had little       
effect4 ,his disciples were despised as 
being ,galileans4 ,nicodemus1 who1 on   
one of his former journeys1 had had a   
conversation with him by night1 almost  
compromised himself with the ,sanhedrim1
 by having wished to defend him4 ,art   
thou also of ,galilee8 they said to him4
 ,search and look3 for out of ,galilee  
ariseth no prophet4#c  ,footnote #a3    
,matt4 xxvii4 #ee2 ,mark xv4 #da2 ,luke 
xxiii4 #di1 #ee4  ,footnote #b3 ,john   
vii4 #bj1 #be1 #cj1 #cb4  ,footnote #c3 
,john vii4 #ej1 and following4  ,the    
city1 as we have already said1          
displeased ,jesus4 ,until then he had   
always avoided great centres1 preferring
 for his action the country and the     
towns of small importance4 ,many of the 
precepts which he gave to his apostles  
were absolutely inapplicable1 except in 
a simple society of humble men4#a       

,having no idea of the world1 and       
accustomed to the kindly communism of   
,galilee1 remarks continually escaped   
him1 whose simplicity would at          
,jerusalem appear very singular4#b ,his 
imagination and his love of ,nature     
found themselves constrained within     
these walls4 ,true religion does not    
proceed from the tumult of towns1 but   
from the tranquil serenity of the       
fields4  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 x4 #aa-ac2
 ,mark vi4 #aj2 ,luke x4 #e-h4          
,footnote #b3 ,matt4 xxi4 #c1 xxvi4 #ah2
 ,mark xi4 #c1 xiv4 #ac1 #ad2 ,luke xix4
 #ca1 xxii4 #aj-ab4  ,the arrogance of  
the priests rendered the courts of the  
temple disagreeable to him4 ,one day    
some of his disciples1 who knew         
,jerusalem better than he1 wished him to
 notice the beauty of the buildings of  
the temple1 the admirable choice of     
materials1 and the richness of the      
votive offerings that covered the walls4
 ,seest thou these buildings8 said he2  
there shall not be left one stone upon  

another4#a ,he refused to admire        
anything1 except it was a poor widow who
 passed at that moment1 and threw a     
small coin into the box4 ,she has cast  
in more than they all1 said he2 for all 
these have of their abundance cast in   
unto the offerings of ,god2 but she of  
her penury hath cast in all the living  
that she had4#b ,this manner of         
criticising all he observed at          
,jerusalem1 of praising the poor who    
gave little1 of slighting the rich who  
gave much1#c and of blaming the opulent 
priesthood who did nothing for the good 
of the people1 naturally exasperated the
 sacerdotal caste4 ,as the seat of a    
conservative aristocracy1 the temple1   
like the ,mussulman haram which         
succeeded it1 was the last place in the 
world where revolution could prosper4   
,imagine an innovator going in our days 
to preach the overturning of ,islamism  
round the mosque of ,omar6 ,there1      
however1 was the centre of the ,jewish  
life1 the point where it was necessary  

to conquer or die4 ,on this ,calvary1   
where certainly ,jesus suffered more    
than at ,golgotha1 his days passed away 
in disputation and bitterness1 in the   
midst of tedious controversies          
respecting canonical law and exegesis1  
for which his great moral elevation1    
instead of giving him the advantage1    
positively unfitted him4  ,footnote #a3 
,matt4 xxiv4 #a1 #b2 ,mark xiii4 #a1 #b2
 ,luke xix4 #dd1 xxi4 #e1 #f4 ,cf4 ,mark
 xi4 #aa4  ,footnote #b3 ,mark xii4 #da1
 and following2 ,luke xxi4 #a1 and      
following4  ,footnote #c3 ,mark xii4    
#da4  ,in the midst of this troubled    
life1 the sensitive and kindly heart of 
,jesus found a refuge1 where he enjoyed 
moments of sweetness4 ,after having     
passed the day disputing in the temple1 
toward evening ,jesus descended into the
 valley of ,kedron1 and rested a while  
in the orchard of a farming             
establishment 7probably for the making  
of oil7 named ,gethsemane1#a which      
served as a pleasure garden to the      

inhabitants4 ,thence he proceeded to    
pass the night upon the ,mount of       
,olives1 which limits the horizon of the
 city on the east4#b ,this side is the  
only one1 in the environs of ,jerusalem1
 which offers an aspect in any degree   
pleasing and verdant4 ,the plantations  
of olives1 figs1 and palms were numerous
 there1 and gave their names to the     
villages1 farms1 or enclosures of       
,bethphage1 ,gethsemane1 and ,bethany4#c
 ,there were upon the ,mount of ,olives 
two great cedars1 the memory of which   
was long preserved amongst the dispersed
 ,jews2 their branches served as an     
asylum to clouds of doves1 and under    
their shade were established small      
bazaars4#d ,all this precinct was in a  
manner the abode of ,jesus and his      
disciples2 they knew it field by field  
and house by house4  ,footnote #a3 ,mark
 xi4 #ai2 ,luke xxii4 #ci2 ,john xviii4 
#a1 #b4 ,this orchard could not be very 
far from the place where the piety of   
the ,catholics has surrounded some old  

olive-trees by a wall4 ,the word        
,gethsemane seems to signify oil-press4 
,footnote #b3 ,luke xxi4 #cg1 xxii4 #ci2
 ,john viii4 #a1 #b4  ,footnote #c3     
,talm4 of ,bab41 ,pesachim1 #ec a4      
,footnote #d3 ,talm4 of ,jerus41        
,taanith1 iv4 #h4  ,the village of      
,bethany1 in particular1#a situated at  
the summit of the hill1 upon the incline
 which commands the ,dead ,sea and the  
,jordan1 at a journey of an hour and a  
half from ,jerusalem1 was the place     
especially beloved by ,jesus4#b ,he     
there made the acquaintance of a family 
composed of three persons1 two sisters  
and a brother1 whose friendship had a   
great charm for him4#c ,of the two      
sisters1 the one1 named ,martha1 was an 
obliging1 kind1 and assiduous person2#d 
the other1 named ,mary1 on the contrary1
 pleased ,jesus by a sort of languor1#e 
and by her strongly developed           
speculative instincts4 ,seated at the   
feet of ,jesus1 she often forgot1 in    
listening to him1 the duties of real    

life4 ,her sister1 upon whom fell all   
the duty at such times1 gently          
complained4 ,martha1 ,martha1 said      
,jesus to her1 thou art troubled1 and   
carest about many things2 now1 one thing
 only is needful4 ,mary has chosen the  
better part1 which will not be taken    
away4#f ,her brother1 ,eleazar1 or      
,lazarus1 was also much beloved by      
,jesus4#g ,lastly1 a certain ,simon1 the
 leper1 who was the owner of the house1 
formed1 it appears1 part of the         
family4#h ,it was there1 in the         
enjoyment of a pious friendship1 that   
,jesus forgot the vexations of public   
life4 ,in this tranquil home he consoled
 himself for the bickerings with which  
the scribes and the ,pharisees          
unceasingly surrounded him4 ,he often   
sat on the ,mount of ,olives1 facing    
,mount ,moriah1#i having beneath his    
view the splendid perspective of the    
terraces of the temple1 and its roofs   
covered with glittering plates of metal4
 ,this view struck strangers with       

admiration2 at the rising of the sun1   
especially1 the sacred mountain dazzled 
the eyes1 and appeared like a mass of   
snow and of gold4#aj ,but a profound    
feeling of sadness poisoned for ,jesus  
the spectacle that filled all other     
,israelites with joy and pride4 ,he     
cried out1 in his moments of bitterness1
 ,o ,jerusalem1 ,jerusalem1 thou that   
killest the prophets1 and stonest them  
which are sent unto thee1 how often     
would ,i have gathered thy children     
together1 even as a hen gathereth her   
chickens under her wings1 and ye would  
not4#aa  ,footnote #a3 ,now ,el-,azerie 
7from ,el-,azir1 the ,arabic name of    
,lazarus72 in the ,christian texts of   
the ,middle ,ages1 ,lazarium4  ,footnote
 #b3 ,matt4 xxi4 #ag1 #ah2 ,mark xi4    
#aa1 #ab4  ,footnote #c3 ,john xi4 #e4  
,footnote #d3 ,luke x4 #ch-db2 ,john    
xii4 #b4  ,footnote #e3 ,john xi4 #bj4  
,footnote #f3 ,luke x4 #ch1 and         
following4  ,footnote #g3 ,john xi4 #ce1
 #cf4  ,footnote #h3 ,matt4 xxvi4 #f2   

,mark xiv4 #c2 ,luke vii4 #dj-dc2 ,john 
xii4 #a1 and following4  ,footnote #i3  
,mark xiii4 #c4  ,footnote #aj3         
,josephus1 ,b4,j41 ,v4 v4 #f4  ,footnote
 #aa3 ,matt4 xxiii4 #cg2 ,luke xiii4    
#cd4  ,it was not that many good people 
here1 as in ,galilee1 were not touched2 
but such was the power of the dominant  
orthodoxy1 that very few dared to       
confess it4 ,they feared to discredit   
themselves in the eyes of the           
,hierosolymites by placing themselves in
 the school of a ,galilean4 ,they would 
have risked being driven from the       
synagogue1 which1 in a mean and bigoted 
society1 was the greatest degradation4#a
 ,excommunication1 besides1 carried with
 it the confiscation of all             
possessions4#b ,by ceasing to be a ,jew1
 a man did not become a ,roman2 but     
remained without protection1 in the     
power of a theocratic legislation of the
 most atrocious severity4 ,one day1 the 
inferior officers of the temple1 who had
 been present at one of the discourses  

of ,jesus1 and had been enchanted with  
it1 came to confide their doubts to the 
priests3 ,have any of the rulers or of  
the ,pharisees believed on him8 was the 
reply to them2 but this people who      
knoweth not the ,law are cursed4#c      
,jesus remained thus at ,jerusalem1 a   
provincial admired by provincials like  
himself1 but rejected by all the        
aristocracy of the nation4 ,the chiefs  
of schools and of sects were too        
numerous for any one to be stirred by   
seeing one more appear4 ,his voice made 
little noise in ,jerusalem4 ,the        
prejudices of race and of sect1 the     
direct enemies of the spirit of the     
,gospel1 were too deeply rooted there4  
,footnote #a3 ,john vii4 #ac1 xii4 #db1 
#dc1 xix4 #ch4  ,footnote #b3 #a ,esdr4 
x4 #h2 ,epistle to ,hebrews x4 #cd2     
,talmud of ,jerus41 ,moedkaton1 iii4 #a4
  ,footnote #c3 ,john vii4 #de1 and     
following4  ,his teaching in this new   
world necessarily became much modified4 
,his beautiful discourses1 the effect of

 which was always observable upon       
youthful imaginations and consciences   
morally pure1 here fell upon stone4 ,he 
who was so much at his ease on the      
shores of his charming little lake1 felt
 constrained and not at home in the     
company of pedants4 ,his perpetual      
self-assertion appeared somewhat        
fastidious4#a ,he was obliged to become 
controversialist1 jurist1 exegetist1 and
 theologian4 ,his conversations1        
generally so full of charm1 became a    
rolling fire of disputes1#b an          
interminable train of scholastic        
battles4 ,his harmonious genius was     
wasted in insipid argumentations upon   
the ,law and the prophets1#c in which we
 should have preferred not seeing him   
sometimes play the part of aggressor4#d 
,he lent himself with a condescension we
 cannot but regret to the captious      
criticisms to which the merciless       
cavillers subjected him4#e ,in general1 
he extricated himself from difficulties 
with much skill4 ,his reasonings1 it is 

true1 were often subtle 7simplicity of  
mind and subtlety touch each other2 when
 simplicity reasons1 it is often a      
little sophistical72 we find that       
sometimes he courted misconceptions1 and
 prolonged them intentionally2#f his    
reasoning1 judged according to the rules
 of ,aristotelian logic1 was very weak4 
,but when the unequaled charm of his    
mind could be displayed1 he was         
triumphant4 ,one day it was intended to 
embarrass him by presenting to him an   
adulteress and asking him what was to be
 done to her4 ,we know the admirable    
answer of ,jesus4#g ,the fine raillery  
of a man of the world1 tempered by a    
divine goodness1 could not be expressed 
in a more exquisite manner4 ,but the wit
 which is allied to moral grandeur is   
that which fools forgive the least4 ,in 
pronouncing this sentence of so just and
 pure a taste3 ,he that is without sin  
among you1 let him first cast a stone at
 her1 ,jesus pierced hypocrisy to the   
heart1 and with the same stroke sealed  

his own death-warrant4  ,footnote #a3   
,john viii4 #ac1 and following4         
,footnote #b3 ,matt4 xxi4 #bc-cg4       
,footnote #c3 ,matt4 xxii4 #bc1 and     
following4  ,footnote #d3 ,matt4 xxii4  
#db1 and following4  ,footnote #e3      
,matt4 xxii4 #cf1 and following1 #df4   
,footnote #f3 ,see especially the       
discussions reported by ,john1 chapter  
viii41 for example2 it is true that the 
authenticity of such passages is only   
relative4  ,footnote #g3 ,john viii4 #c1
 and following4 ,this passage did not at
 first form part of the ,gospel of ,st4 
,john2 it is wanting in the more ancient
 manuscripts1 and the text is rather    
unsettled4 ,nevertheless1 it is from the
 primitive ,gospel traditions1 as is    
proved by the singular peculiarities of 
verses #f and #h1 which are not in the  
style of ,luke1 and compilers at second 
hand1 who admitted nothing that does not
 explain itself4 ,this history is found1
 as it seems1 in the ,gospel according  
to the ,hebrews4 7,papias1 quoted by    

,eusebius1 ,hist4 ,eccl41 iii4 #ci47    
,it is probable1 in fact1 that but for  
the exasperation caused by so many      
bitter shafts1 ,jesus might long have   
remained unnoticed1 and have been lost  
in the dreadful storm which was soon    
about to overwhelm the whole ,jewish    
nation4 ,the high priesthood and the    
,sadducees had rather disdained than    
hated him4 ,the great sacerdotal        
families1 the ,boethusim1 the family of 
,hanan1 were only fanatical in their    
conservatism4 ,the ,sadducees1 like     
,jesus1 rejected the traditions of the  
,pharisees4#a ,by a very strange        
singularity1 it was these unbelievers   
who1 denying the resurrection1 the oral 
,law1 and the existence of angels1 were 
the true ,jews4 ,or rather1 as the old  
,law in its simplicity no longer        
satisfied the religious wants of the    
time1 those who strictly adhered to it1 
and rejected modern inventions1 were    
regarded by the devotees as impious1    
just as an evangelical ,protestant of   

the present day is regarded as an       
unbeliever in ,catholic countries4 ,at  
all events1 from such a party no very   
strong reaction against ,jesus could    
proceed4 ,the official priesthood1 with 
its attention turned toward political   
power1 and intimately connected with it1
 did not comprehend these enthusiastic  
movements4 ,it was the middle-class     
,pharisees1 the innumerable soferim1 or 
scribes1 living on the science of       
traditions1 who took the alarm1 and     
whose prejudices and interests were in  
reality threatened by the doctrine of   
the new teacher4  ,footnote #a3 ,jos41  
,ant41 ,,xiii4 x4 #f1 ,,xviii4 i4 #d4   
,one of the most constant efforts of the
 ,pharisees was to involve ,jesus in the
 discussion of political questions1 and 
to compromise him as connected with the 
party of ,judas the ,gaulonite4 ,these  
tactics were clever2 for it required all
 the deep wisdom of ,jesus to avoid     
collision with the ,roman authority1    
whilst proclaiming the kingdom of ,god4 

,they wanted to break through this      
ambiguity1 and compel him to explain    
himself4 ,one day1 a group of           
,pharisees1 and of those politicians    
named ,herodians 7probably some of the  
,boethusim71 approached him1 and1 under 
pretense of pious zeal1 said unto him1  
,master1 we know that thou art true1 and
 teachest the way of ,god in truth1     
neither carest thou for any man4 ,tell  
us1 therefore1 what thinkest thou8 ,is  
it lawful to give tribute unto ,caesar1 
or not8 ,they hoped for an answer which 
would give them a pretext for delivering
 him up to ,pilate4 ,the reply of ,jesus
 was admirable4 ,he made them show him  
the image on the coin3 ,render1 said he1
 unto ,caesar the things which are      
,caesar's2 and unto ,god the things that
 are ,god's4#a ,profound words1 which   
have decided the future of              
,christianity6 ,words of a perfected    
spiritualism1 and of marvellous         
justness1 which have established the    
separation between the spiritual and the

 temporal1 and laid the basis of true   
liberalism and civilization6  ,footnote 
#a3 ,matt4 xxii4 #ae1 and following2    
,mark xii4 #ac1 and following2 ,luke xx4
 #bj1 and following4 ,comp4 ,talm4 of   
,jerus41 ,sanhedrim1 ii4 #c4  ,his      
gentle and penetrating genius inspired  
him when alone with his disciples1 with 
accents full of tenderness4 ,verily1    
verily1 ,i say unto you1 he that        
entereth not by the door into the       
sheepfold1 but climbeth up some other   
way1 the same is a thief and a robber4  
,but he that entereth in by the door is 
the shepherd of the sheep4 ,the sheep   
hear his voice3 and he calleth his own  
sheep by name1 and leadeth them out4 ,he
 goeth before them1 and the sheep follow
 him2 for they know his voice4 ,the     
thief cometh not1 but for to steal1 and 
to kill1 and to destroy4 ,but he that is
 an hireling1 and not the shepherd1     
whose own the sheep are not1 seeth the  
wolf coming1 and leaveth the sheep1 and 
fleeth4 ,i am the good shepherd1 and    

know my sheep1 and am known of mine2 and
 ,i lay down my life for the sheep4#a   
,the idea that the crisis of humanity   
was close at hand frequently recurred to
 him4 ,now1 said he1 learn a parable of 
the fig-tree3 ,when his branch is yet   
tender1 and putteth forth leaves1 ye    
know that summer is nigh4 ,lift up your 
eyes1 and look on the fields2 for they  
are white already to harvest4#b         
,footnote #a3 ,john x4 #a-af4  ,footnote
 #b3 ,matt4 xxiv4 #cb2 ,mark xiii4 #bh2 
,luke xxi4 #cj2 ,john iv4 #ce4  ,his    
powerful eloquence always burst forth   
when contending with hypocrisy4 ,the    
scribes and ,pharisees sit in ,moses'   
seat4 ,all1 therefore1 whatsoever they  
bid you observe1 that observe and do2   
but do not ye after their works3 for    
they say and do not4 ,for they bind     
heavy burdens and grievous to be borne1 
and lay them on men's shoulders2 but    
they themselves will not move them with 
one of their fingers4  ,but all their   
works they do to be seen of men2 they   

make broad their phylacteries1#a enlarge
 the borders of their garments1#b and   
love the uppermost rooms at feasts1 and 
the chief seats in the synagogues1 and  
greetings in the markets1 and to be     
called of men1 ,rabbi1 ,rabbi4 ,woe unto
 them6444  ,footnote #a3 ,totafoth or   
tefillin1 plates of metal or strips of  
parchment1 containing passages of the   
,law2 which the devout ,jews wore       
attached to the forehead and left arm1  
in literal fulfilment of the passages   
7,ex4 xiii4 #i2 ,deut4 vi4 #h1 xi4 #ah47
  ,footnote #b3 ,zizith1 red borders or 
fringes which the ,jews wore at the     
corner of their cloaks to distinguish   
them from the pagans 7,num4 xv4 #ch1    
#ci2 ,deut4 xxii4 #ab47  ,woe unto you1 
scribes and ,pharisees1 hypocrites6 for 
ye have taken away the key of knowledge1
 shut up the kingdom of heaven against  
men6#a for ye neither go in yourselves1 
neither suffer ye them that are entering
 to go in4 ,woe unto you1 for ye devour 
widows' houses1 and1 for a pretense1    

make long prayers3 therefore ye shall   
receive the greater damnation4 ,woe unto
 you1 for ye compass sea and land to    
make one proselyte2 and when he is made1
 ye make him twofold more the child of  
hell than yourselves6 ,woe unto you1 for
 ye are as graves which appear not2 and 
the men that walk over them are not     
aware of them4#b  ,footnote #a3 ,the    
,pharisees excluded men from the kingdom
 of ,god by their fastidious casuistry1 
which rendered entrance into it too     
difficult1 and discouraged the          
unlearned4  ,footnote #b3 ,contact with 
the tombs rendered any one impure4      
,great care was1 therefore1 taken to    
mark their extent on the ground4 ,talm4 
of ,bab41 ,baba ,bathra1 #eh a2 ,baba   
,metsia1 #de b4 ,jesus here reproached  
the ,pharisees for having invented a    
number of small precepts which might be 
violated unwittingly1 and which only    
served to multiply infringements of the 
law4  ,ye fools1 and blind6 for ye pay  
tithe of mint and anise and cummin1 and 

have omitted the weightier matters of   
the law1 judgment1 mercy1 and faith3    
these ought ye to have done1 and not to 
leave the other undone4 ,ye blind       
guides1 which strain at a gnat1 and     
swallow a camel4 ,woe unto you6  ,woe   
unto you1 scribes and ,pharisees1       
hypocrites6 for ye make clean the       
outside of the cup and of the platter2#a
 but within they are full of extortion  
and excess4 ,thou blind ,pharisee1#b    
cleanse first that which is within the  
cup and platter1 that the outside of    
them may be clean also4#c  ,footnote #a3
 ,the purification of vessels was       
subjected1 amongst the ,pharisees1 to   
the most complicated laws 7,mark vii4   
#d47  ,footnote #b3 ,this epithet1 often
 repeated 7,matt4 xxiii4 #af1 #ag1 #ai1 
#bd1 #bf71 perhaps contains an allusion 
to the custom which certain ,pharisees  
had of walking with closed eyes in      
affectation of sanctity4  ,footnote #c3 
,luke 7xi4 #cg1 and following7 supposes1
 not without reason1 that this verse was

 uttered during a repast1 in answer to  
the vain scruples of the ,pharisees4    
,woe unto you1 scribes and ,pharisees1  
hypocrites2 for ye are like unto whited 
sepulchres1#a which indeed appear       
beautiful outward1 but are within full  
of dead men's bones1 and of all         
uncleanness4 ,even so ye also outwardly 
appear righteous unto men1 but within ye
 are full of hypocrisy and iniquity4    
,footnote #a3 ,the tombs being impure1  
it was customary to whiten them with    
lime1 to warn persons not to approach   
them4 ,see p4 #cae1 note #c1 and        
,mishnah1 ,maasar hensi1 v4 #a2 ,talm4  
of ,jerus41 ,shekalim1 i4 #a2 ,maasar   
sheni1 v4 #a2 ,moed katon1 i4 #b2 ,sota1
 ix4 #a2 ,talm4 of ,bab41 ,moed katon1  
#e a4 ,perhaps there is an allusion to  
the dyed ,pharisees in this comparison  
which ,jesus uses4  ,woe unto you1      
scribes and ,pharisees1 hypocrites6     
because ye build the tombs of the       
prophets1 and garnish the sepulchres of 
the righteous1 and say1 ',if we had been

 in the days of our fathers1 we would   
not have been partakers with them in the
 blood of the prophets4' ,wherefore1 ye 
be witnesses unto yourselves1 that ye   
are the children of them which killed   
the prophets4 ,fill ye up then the      
measure of your fathers4 ',therefore1   
also1' said the ,wisdom of ,god1#a ',i  
will send unto you prophets1 and wise   
men1 and scribes2 and some of them ye   
shall kill and crucify2 and some of them
 shall ye scourge in your synagogues1   
and persecute them from city to city4   
,that upon you may come all the         
righteous blood shed upon the earth1    
from the blood of righteous ,abel unto  
the blood of ,zacharias1 son of         
,barachias1#b whom ye slew between the  
temple and the altar4' ,verily1 ,i say  
unto you1 all these things shall come   
upon this generation4#c  ,footnote #a3  
,we are ignorant from what book this    
quotation is taken4  ,footnote #b3      
,there is a slight confusion here1 which
 is also found in the ,targum of        

,jonathan 7,lament4 ii4 #bj71 between   
,zacharias1 son of ,jehoiadas1 and      
,zacharias1 son of ,barachias1 the      
prophet4 ,it is the former that is      
spoken of 7#b ,paral4 xxiv4 #ba47 ,the  
book of the ,paralipomenes1 in which the
 assassination of ,zacharias1 son of    
,jehoiadas1 is related1 closes the      
,hebrew canon4 ,this murder is the last 
in the list of murders of righteous men1
 drawn up according to the order in     
which they are presented in the ,bible4 
,that of ,abel is1 on the contrary1 the 
first4  ,footnote #c3 ,matt4 xxiii4     
#b-cf2 ,mark xii4 #ch-dj2 ,luke xi4     
#ci-eb1 xx4 #df1 #dg4  ,his terrible    
doctrine of the substitution of the     
,gentiles--the idea that the kingdom of 
,god was about to be transferred to     
others1 because those for whom it was   
destined would not receive it1#a is used
 as a fearful menace against the        
aristocracy4 ,the title ,son of ,god1   
which he openly assumed in striking     
parables1#b wherein his enemies appeared

 as murderers of the heavenly           
messengers1 was an open defiance to the 
,judaism of the ,law4 ,the bold appeal  
he addressed to the poor was still more 
seditious4 ,he declared that he had come
 that they which see not might see1 and 
that they which see might be made       
blind4#c ,one day1 his dislike of the   
temple forced from him an imprudent     
speech3 ,i will destroy this temple that
 is made with hands1 and within three   
days ,i will build another made without 
hands4#d ,his disciples found strained  
allegories in this sentence2 but we do  
not know what meaning ,jesus attached to
 it4 ,but as only a pretext was wanted1 
this sentence was quickly laid hold of4 
,it reappeared in the preamble of his   
death-warrant1 and rang in his ears     
amidst the last agonies of ,golgotha4   
,these irritating discussions always    
ended in tumult4 ,the ,pharisees threw  
stones at him2#e in doing which they    
only fulfilled an article of the ,law1  
which commanded every prophet1 even a   

thaumaturgus1 who should turn the people
 from the ancient worship1 to be stoned 
without a hearing4#f ,at other times    
they called him mad1 possessed1         
,samaritan1#g and even sought to kill   
him4#h ,these words were taken note of  
in order to invoke against him the laws 
of an intolerant theocracy1 which the   
,roman government had not yet           
abrogated4#i  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 viii4
 #aa1 #ab1 xx4 #a1 and following1 xxi4  
#bh1 and following1 #cc1 and following1 
#dc1 xxii4 #a1 and following2 ,mark xii4
 #a1 and following2 ,luke xx4 #i1 and   
following4  ,footnote #b3 ,matt4 xxi4   
#cg1 and following2 ,john x4 #cf1 and   
following4  ,footnote #c3 ,john ix4 #ci4
  ,footnote #d3 ,the most authentic form
 of this sentence appears to be in ,mark
 xiv4 #eh1 xv4 #bi4 ,cf4 ,john ii4 #ai2 
,matt4 xxvi4 #fa1 xxvii4 #dj4  ,footnote
 #e3 ,john viii4 #ci1 x4 #ca1 xi4 #h4   
,footnote #f3 ,deuter4 xiii4 #a1 and    
following4 ,comp4 ,luke xx4 #f2 ,john x4
 #cc2 #b ,cor4 xi4 #be4  ,footnote #g3  

,john x4 #bj4  ,footnote #h3 ,john v4   
#ah1 vii4 #a1 #bj1 #be1 #cj1 viii4 #cg1 
#dj4  ,footnote #i3 ,luke xi4 #ec1 #ed4 
,,chapter ,,xxii4  ,,machinations ,,of  
,,the ,,enemies ,,of ,,jesus4   ,jesus  
passed the autumn and a part of the     
winter at ,jerusalem4 ,this season is   
there rather cold4 ,the portico of      
,solomon1 with its covered aisles1 was  
the place where he habitually walked4#a 
,this portico consisted of two          
galleries1 formed by three rows of      
columns1 and covered by a ceiling of    
carved wood4#b ,it commanded the valley 
of ,kedron1 which was doubtless less    
covered with debris than it is at the   
present time4 ,the depth of the ravine  
could not be measured1 from the height  
of the portico2 and it seemed1 in       
consequence of the angle of the slopes1 
as if an abyss opened immediately       
beneath the wall4#c ,the other side of  
the valley even at that time was adorned
 with sumptuous tombs4 ,some of the     
monuments1 which may be seen at the     

present day1 were perhaps those         
cenotaphs in honor of ancient prophets#d
 which ,jesus pointed out1 when1 seated 
under the portico1 he denounced the     
official classes1 who covered their     
hypocrisy or their vanity by these      
colossal piles4#e  ,footnote #a3 ,john  
x4 #bc4  ,footnote #b3 ,jos41 ,b4,j41   
,v4 v4 #b4 ,comp4 ,ant41 ,,xv4 xi4 #e1  
,,xx4 ix4 #g4  ,footnote #c3 ,jos41     
places cited4  ,footnote #d3 ,see ante1 
p4 #caf4 ,i am led to suppose that the  
tombs called those of ,zachariah and of 
,absalom were monuments of this kind4   
,cf4 ,itin4 a ,burdig4 ,hierus41 p4 #aec
 7edit4 ,schott47  ,footnote #e3 ,matt4 
xxiii4 #bi2 ,luke xi4 #dg4  ,at the end 
of the month of ,december1 he celebrated
 at ,jerusalem the feast established by 
,judas ,maccabeus in memory of the      
purification of the temple after the    
sacrileges of ,antiochus ,epiphanes4#a  
,it was also called the ,feast of       
,lights1 because1 during the eight days 
of the feast1 lamps were kept lighted in

 the houses4#b ,jesus undertook soon    
after a journey into ,perea and to the  
banks of the ,jordan--that is to say1   
into the very country he had visited    
some years previously1 when he followed 
the school of ,john1#c and in which he  
had himself administered baptism4 ,he   
seems to have reaped consolation from   
this journey1 especially at ,jericho4   
,this city1 as the terminus of several  
important routes1 or1 it may be1 on     
account of its gardens of spices and its
 rich cultivation1#d was a customs      
station of importance4 ,the chief       
receiver1 ,zaccheus1 a rich man1 desired
 to see ,jesus4#e ,as he was of small   
stature1 he climbed a sycamore tree near
 the road which the procession had to   
pass4 ,jesus was touched with this      
simplicity in a person of consideration1
 and at the risk of giving offense1 he  
determined to stay with ,zaccheus4      
,there was much dissatisfaction at his  
honoring the house of a sinner by this  
visit4 ,in parting1 ,jesus declared his 

host to be a good son of ,abraham2 and1 
as if to add to the vexation of the     
orthodox1 ,zaccheus became a ,christian2
 he gave1 it is said1 the half of his   
goods to the poor1 and restored fourfold
 to those whom he might have wronged4   
,but this was not the only pleasure     
which ,jesus experienced there4 ,on     
leaving the town1 the beggar            
,bartimeus#f pleased him much by        
persisting in calling him son of ,david1
 although he was told to be silent4 ,the
 cycle of ,galilean miracles appeared   
for a time to recommence in this        
country1 which was in many respects     
similar to the provinces of the north4  
,the delightful oasis of ,jericho1 at   
that time well watered1 must have been  
one of the most beautiful places in     
,syria4 ,josephus speaks of it with the 
same admiration as of ,galilee1 and     
calls it1 like the latter province1 a   
divine country4#g  ,footnote #a3 ,john  
x4 #bb4 ,comp4 #a ,macc4 iv4 #eb1 and   
following2 #b ,macc4 x4 #f1 and         

following4  ,footnote #b3 ,jos41 ,ant41 
,,xii4 vii4 #g4  ,footnote #c3 ,john x4 
#dj4 ,cf4 ,matt4 xix4 #a2 ,mark x4 #a4  
,this journey is known to the synoptics4
 ,but they seem to think that ,jesus    
made it by coming from ,galilee to      
,jerusalem through ,perea4  ,footnote   
#d3 ,eccles4 xxiv4 #ah2 ,strabo1 ,,xvi4 
ii4 #da2 ,justin41 xxxvi4 #c2 ,jos41    
,ant41 ,,iv4 vi4 #a1 ,,xiv4 iv4 #a1     
,,xv4 iv4 #b4  ,footnote #e3 ,luke xix4 
#a1 and following4  ,footnote #f3 ,matt4
 xx4 #bi2 ,mark x4 #df1 and following2  
,luke xviii4 #ce4  ,footnote #g3 ,b4,j41
 ,,iv4 viii4 #c4 ,comp4 ibid41 ,i4 vi4  
#f1 ,i4 xviii4 #e1 and ,antiq41 ,,xv4   
iv4 #b4  ,after ,jesus had completed    
this kind of pilgrimage to the scenes of
 his earliest prophetic activity1 he    
returned to his beloved abode in        
,bethany1 where a singular event        
occurred1 which seems to have had a     
powerful influence on the remaining days
 of his life4#a ,tired of the cold      
reception which the kingdom of ,god     

found in the capital1 the friends of    
,jesus wished for a great miracle which 
should strike powerfully the incredulity
 of the ,hierosolymites4 ,the           
resurrection of a man known at          
,jerusalem appeared to them most likely 
to carry conviction4 ,we must bear in   
mind that the essential condition of    
true criticism is to understand the     
diversity of times1 and to rid ourselves
 of the instinctive repugnances which   
are the fruit of a purely rational      
education4 ,we must also remember that  
in this dull and impure city of         
,jerusalem1 ,jesus was no longer        
himself4 ,not by any fault of his own1  
but by that of others1 his conscience   
had lost something of its original      
purity4 ,desperate1 and driven to       
extremity1 he was no longer his own     
master4 ,his mission overwhelmed him1   
and he yielded to the torrent4 ,as      
always happens in the lives of great and
 inspired men1 he suffered the miracles 
opinion demanded of him rather than     

performed them4 ,at this distance of    
time1 and with only a single text1      
bearing evident traces of artifices of  
composition1 it is impossible to decide 
whether in this instance the whole is   
fiction1 or whether a real fact which   
happened at ,bethany has served as a    
basis to the rumors which were spread   
about it4 ,it must be acknowledged1     
however1 that the way ,john narrates the
 incident differs widely from those     
descriptions of miracles1 the offspring 
of the popular imagination1 which fill  
the synoptics4 ,let us add1 that ,john  
is the only evangelist who has a precise
 knowledge of the relations of ,jesus   
with the family of ,bethany1 and that it
 is impossible to believe that a mere   
creation of the popular mind could exist
 in a collection of remembrances so     
entirely personal4 ,it is1 then1        
probable that the miracle in question   
was not one of those purely legendary   
ones for which no one is responsible4   
,in other words1 we think that something

 really happened at ,bethany which was  
looked upon as a resurrection4          
,footnote #a3 ,john xi4 #a1 and         
following4  ,fame already attributed to 
,jesus two or three works of this       
kind4#a ,the family of ,bethany might be
 led1 almost without suspecting it1 into
 taking part in the important act which 
was desired4 ,jesus was adored by them4 
,it seems that ,lazarus was sick1 and   
that in consequence of receiving a      
message from the anxious sisters ,jesus 
left ,perea4#b ,they thought that the   
joy ,lazarus would feel at his arrival  
might restore him to life4 ,perhaps1    
also1 the ardent desire of silencing    
those who violently denied the divine   
mission of ,jesus1 carried his          
enthusiastic friends beyond all bounds4 
,it may be that ,lazarus1 still pallid  
with disease1 caused himself to be      
wrapped in bandages as if dead1 and shut
 up in the tomb of his family4 ,these   
tombs were large vaults cut in the rock1
 and were entered by a square opening1  

closed by an enormous stone4 ,martha and
 ,mary went to meet ,jesus1 and without 
allowing him to enter ,bethany1         
conducted him to the cave4 ,the emotion 
which ,jesus experienced at the tomb of 
his friend1 whom he believed to be      
dead1#c might be taken by those present 
for the agitation and trembling#d which 
accompanied miracles4 ,popular opinion  
required that the divine virtue should  
manifest itself in man as an epileptic  
and convulsive principle4 ,jesus 7if we 
follow the above hypothesis7 desired to 
see once more him whom he had loved2    
and1 the stone being removed1 ,lazarus  
came forth in his bandages1 his head    
covered with a winding-sheet4 ,this     
reappearance would naturally be regarded
 by every one as a resurrection4 ,faith 
knows no other law than the interest of 
that which it believes to be true4      
,regarding the object which it pursues  
as absolutely holy1 it makes no scruple 
of invoking bad arguments in support of 
its thesis when good ones do not        

succeed4 ,if such and such a proof be   
not sound many others are6 ,if such and 
such a wonder be not real1 many others  
have been6 ,being intimately persuaded  
that ,jesus was a thaumaturgus1 ,lazarus
 and his two sisters may have aided in  
the execution of one of his miracles1   
just as many pious men who1 convinced of
 the truth of their religion1 have      
sought to triumph over the obstinacy of 
their opponents by means of whose       
weakness they were well aware4 ,the     
state of their conscience was that of   
the stigmatists1 of the convulsionists1 
of the possessed ones in convents1      
drawn1 by the influence of the world in 
which they live1 and by their own       
belief1 into feigned acts4 ,as to       
,jesus1 he was no more able than ,st4   
,bernard or ,st4 ,francis d',assisi to  
moderate the avidity for the marvellous1
 displayed by the multitude1 and even by
 his own disciples4 ,death1 moreover1 in
 a few days would restore him his divine
 liberty1 and release him from the fatal

 necessities of a position which each   
day became more exacting1 and more      
difficult to sustain4  ,footnote #a3    
,matt4 ix4 #ah1 and following2 ,mark v4 
#bb1 and following2 ,luke vii4 #aa1 and 
following1 viii4 #da1 and following4    
,footnote #b3 ,john xi4 #c1 and         
following4  ,footnote #c3 ,john xi4 #ce1
 and following4  ,footnote #d3 ,john xi4
 #cc1 #ch4  ,everything1 in fact1 seems 
to lead us to believe that the miracle  
of ,bethany contributed sensibly to     
hasten the death of ,jesus4#a ,the      
persons who had been witnesses of it1   
were dispersed throughout the city1 and 
spoke much about it4 ,the disciples     
related the fact1 with details as to its
 performance1 prepared in expectation of
 controversy4 ,the other miracles of    
,jesus were transitory acts1            
spontaneously accepted by faith1        
exaggerated by popular fame1 and were   
not again referred to after they had    
once taken place4 ,this was a real      
event1 held to be publicly notorious1   

and one by which it was hoped to silence
 the ,pharisees4#b ,the enemies of      
,jesus were much irritated at all this  
fame4 ,they endeavored1 it is said1 to  
kill ,lazarus4#c ,it is certain1 that   
from that time a ,council of the chief  
priests#d was assembled1 and that in    
this council the question was clearly   
put3 ,can ,jesus and ,judaism exist     
together8 ,to raise the question was to 
resolve it2 and without being a prophet1
 as thought by the evangelist1 the high 
priest could easily pronounce his cruel 
axiom3 ,it is expedient that one man    
should die for the people4  ,footnote   
#a3 ,john xi4 #dj1 and following1 xii4  
#b1 #i1 and following1 #ag1 and         
following4  ,footnote #b3 ,john xii4 #i1
 #aj1 #ag1 #ah4  ,footnote #c3 ,john    
xii4 #aj4  ,footnote #d3 ,john xi4 #dg1 
and following4  ,the high priest of that
 same year1 to use an expression of the 
fourth ,gospel1 which well expresses the
 state of abasement to which the        
sovereign pontificate was reduced1 was  

,joseph ,kaiapha1 appointed by ,valerius
 ,gratus1 and entirely devoted to the   
,romans4 ,from the time that ,jerusalem 
had been under the government of        
procurators1 the office of high priest  
had been a temporary one2 changes in it 
took place nearly every year4#a         
,kaiapha1 however1 held it longer than  
any one else4 ,he had assumed his office
 in the year #be1 and he did not lose it
 till the year #cf4 ,his character is   
unknown to us1 and many circumstances   
lead to the belief that his power was   
only nominal4 ,in fact1 another         
personage is always seen in conjunction 
with1 and even superior to him1 who1 at 
the decisive moment we have now reached1
 seems to have exercised a              
preponderating power4  ,footnote #a3    
,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xv4 iii4 #a1 ,,xviii4   
ii4 #b1 v4 #c1 ,,xx4 ix4 #a1 #d4  ,this 
personage was ,hanan or ,annas1#a son of
 ,seth1 and father-in-law of ,kaiapha4  
,he was formerly the high priest1 and   
had in reality preserved amidst the     

numerous changes of the pontificate all 
the authority of the office4 ,he had    
received the high priesthood from the   
legate ,quirinius1 in the year #g of our
 era4 ,he lost his office in the year   
#ad1 on the accession of ,tiberius2 but 
he remained much respected4 ,he was     
still called high priest1 although he   
was out of office1#b and he was         
consulted upon all important matters4   
,during fifty years the pontificate     
continued in his family almost          
uninterruptedly2 five of his sons       
successively sustained this dignity1#c  
besides ,kaiapha1 who was his           
son-in-law4 ,his was called the priestly
 family1 as if the priesthood had become
 hereditary in it4#d ,the chief offices 
of the temple were almost all filled by 
them4#e ,another family1 that of        
,boethus1 alternated1 it is true1 with  
that of ,hanan's in the pontificate4#f  
,but the ,boethusim1 whose fortunes were
 of not very honorable origin1 were much
 less esteemed by the pious middle      

class4 ,hanan was then in reality the   
chief of the priestly party4 ,kaiapha   
did nothing without him2 it was         
customary to associate their names1 and 
that of ,hanan was always put first4#g  
,it will be understood1 in fact1 that   
under this regime of an annual          
pontificate1 changed according to the   
caprice of the procurators1 an old high 
priest1 who had preserved the secret of 
the traditions1 who had seen many       
younger than himself succeed each other1
 and who had retained sufficient        
influence to get the office delegated to
 persons who were subordinate to him in 
family rank1 must have been a very      
important personage4 ,like all the      
aristocracy of the temple1#h he was a   
,sadducee1 a sect1 says ,josephus1      
particularly severe in its judgments4   
,all his sons also were violent         
persecutors4#i ,one of them1 named like 
his father1 ,hanan1 caused ,james1 the  
brother of the ,lord1 to be stoned1     
under circumstances not unlike those    

which surrounded the death of ,jesus4   
,the spirit of the family was haughty1  
bold1 and cruel2#aj it had that         
particular kind of proud and sullen     
wickedness which characterizes ,jewish  
politicians4 ,therefore1 upon this      
,hanan and his family must rest the     
responsibility of all the acts which    
followed4 ,it was ,hanan 7or the party  
he represented7 who killed ,jesus4      
,hanan was the principal actor in the   
terrible drama1 and far more than       
,kaiapha1 far more than ,pilate1 ought  
to bear the weight of the maledictions  
of mankind4  ,footnote #a3 ,the ,ananus 
of ,josephus4 ,it is thus that the      
,hebrew name ,johanan became in ,greek  
,joannes or ,joannas4  ,footnote #b3    
,john xviii4 #ae-bc2 ,acts iv4 #f4      
,footnote #c3 ,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xx4 ix4   
#a4  ,footnote #d3 ,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xv4  
iii4 #a2 ,b4,j41 ,,iv4 v4 #f and #g2    
,acts iv4 #f4  ,footnote #e3 ,jos41     
,ant41 ,,xx4 ix4 #c4  ,footnote #f3     
,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xv4 ix4 #c1 ,,xix4 vi4  

#b1 viii4 #a4  ,footnote #g3 ,luke iii4 
#b4  ,footnote #h3 ,acts v4 #ag4        
,footnote #i3 ,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xx4 ix4   
#a4  ,footnote #aj3 ,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xx4 
ix4 #a4  ,it is in the mouth of ,kaiapha
 that the evangelist places the decisive
 words which led to the death of        
,jesus4#a ,it was supposed that the high
 priest possessed a certain gift of     
prophecy2 his declaration thus became an
 oracle full of profound meaning to the 
,christian community4 ,but such an      
expression1 whoever he might be that    
pronounced it1 was the feeling of the   
whole sacerdotal party4 ,this party was 
much opposed to popular seditions4 ,it  
sought to put down religious            
enthusiasts1 rightly foreseeing that by 
their excited preachings they would lead
 to the total ruin of the nation4       
,although the excitement created by     
,jesus was in nowise temporal1 the      
priests saw1 as an ultimate consequence 
of this agitation1 an aggravation of the
 ,roman yoke and the overturning of the 

temple1 the source of their riches and  
honors4#b ,certainly the causes which1  
thirty-seven years after1 were to effect
 the ruin of ,jerusalem1 did not arise  
from infant ,christianity4 ,they arose  
in ,jerusalem itself1 and not in        
,galilee4 ,we cannot1 however1 say that 
the motive alleged in this circumstance 
by the priests was so improbable that we
 must necessarily regard it as          
insincere4 ,in a general1 sense1 ,jesus1
 if he had succeeded1 would have really 
effected the ruin of the ,jewish nation4
 ,according to the principles           
universally admitted by all ancient     
polity1 ,hanan and ,kaiapha were right  
in saying3 ,better the death of one man 
than the ruin of a people6 ,in our      
opinion this reasoning is detestable4   
,but it has been that of conservative   
parties from the commencement of all    
human society4 ,the party of order 7,i  
use this expression in its mean and     
narrow sense7 has ever been the same4   
,deeming the highest duty of government 

to be the prevention of popular         
disturbances1 it believes it performs an
 act of patriotism in preventing1 by    
judicial murder1 the tumultuous effusion
 of blood4 ,little thoughtful of the    
future1 it does not dream that in       
declaring war against all innovations1  
it incurs the risk of crushing ideas    
destined one day to triumph4 ,the death 
of ,jesus was one of the thousand       
illustrations of this policy4 ,the      
movement he directed was entirely       
spiritual1 but it was still a movement2 
hence the men of order1 persuaded that  
it was essential for humanity not to be 
disturbed1 felt themselves bound to     
prevent the new spirit from extending   
itself4 ,never was seen a more striking 
example of how much such a course of    
procedure defeats its own object4 ,left 
free1 ,jesus would have exhausted       
himself in a desperate struggle with the
 impossible4 ,the unintelligent hate of 
his enemies decided the success of his  
work1 and sealed his divinity4          

,footnote #a3 ,john xi4 #di1 #ej4 ,cf4  
ibid41 xviii4 #ad4  ,footnote #b3 ,john 
xi4 #dh4  ,the death of ,jesus was thus 
resolved upon from the month of         
,february or the beginning of ,march4#a 
,but he still escaped for a short time4 
,he withdrew to an obscure town called  
,ephraim or ,ephron1 in the direction of
 ,bethel1 a short day's journey from    
,jerusalem4#b ,he spent a few days there
 with his disciples1 letting the storm  
pass over4 ,but the order to arrest him 
the moment he appeared at ,jerusalem was
 given4 ,the feast of the ,passover was 
drawing nigh1 and it was thought that   
,jesus1 according to his custom1 would  
come to celebrate it at ,jerusalem4#c   
,footnote #a3 ,john xi4 #ec4  ,footnote 
#b3 ,john xi4 #ed4 ,cf4 #b ,chron4 xiii4
 #ai2 ,jos41 ,b4,j41 ,,iv4 ix4 #i2      
,eusebius and ,st4 ,jerome1 ,de situ et 
nom4 loc4 hebr41 at the words ,greek3   
,ephron and ,greek3 ,ephraim4  ,footnote
 #c3 ,john xi4 #ee1 #ef4 ,for the order 
of the events1 in all this part we      

follow the system of ,john4 ,the        
synoptics appear to have little         
information as to the period of the life
 of ,jesus which precedes the ,passion4 
,,chapter ,,xxiii4  ,,last ,,week ,,of  
,,jesus4   ,jesus did in fact set out   
with his disciples to see once more1 and
 for the last time1 the unbelieving     
city4 ,the hopes of his companions were 
more and more exalted4 ,all believed1 in
 going up to ,jerusalem1 that the       
kingdom of ,god was about to be realized
 there4#a ,the impiety of men being at  
its height1 was regarded as a great sign
 that the consummation was at hand4 ,the
 persuasion in this respect was such1   
that they already disputed for          
precedence in the kingdom4#b ,this was1 
it is said1 the moment chosen by ,salome
 to ask1 on behalf of her sons1 the two 
seats on the right and left of the ,son 
of man4#c ,the ,master1 on the other    
hand1 was beset by grave thoughts4      
,sometimes he allowed a gloomy          
resentment against his enemies to       

appear2 he related the parable of a     
nobleman1 who went to take possession of
 a kingdom in a far country2 but no     
sooner had he gone than his             
fellow-citizens wished to get rid of    
him4 ,the king returned1 and commanded  
those who had conspired against him to  
be brought before him1 and had them all 
put to death4#d ,at other times he      
summarily destroyed the illusions of the
 disciples4 ,as they marched along the  
stony roads to the north of ,jerusalem1 
,jesus pensively preceded the group of  
his companions4 ,all regarded him in    
silence1 experiencing a feeling of fear1
 and not daring to interrogate him4     
,already1 on various occasions1 he had  
spoken to them of his future sufferings1
 and they had listened to him           
reluctantly4#e ,jesus at last spoke to  
them1 and no longer concealing his      
presentiments1 discoursed to them of his
 approaching end4#f ,there was great    
sadness in the whole company4 ,the      
disciples were expecting soon to see the

 sign appear in the clouds4 ,the        
inaugural cry of the kingdom of ,god3   
,blessed is he that cometh in the name  
of the ,lord1#g resounded already in    
joyous accents in their ears4 ,the      
fearful prospect he foreshadowed1       
troubled them4 ,at each step of the     
fatal road1 the kingdom of ,god became  
nearer or more remote in the mirage of  
their dreams4 ,as to ,jesus1 he became  
confirmed in the idea that he was about 
to die1 but that his death would save   
the world4#h ,the misunderstanding      
between him and his disciples became    
greater each moment4  ,footnote #a3     
,luke xix4 #aa4  ,footnote #b3 ,luke    
xxii4 #bd1 and following4  ,footnote #c3
 ,matt4 xx4 #bj1 and following2 ,mark x4
 #ce1 and following4  ,footnote #d3     
,luke xix4 #ab-bg4  ,footnote #e3 ,matt4
 xvi4 #ba1 and following2 ,mark viii4   
#ca1 and following4  ,footnote #f3      
,matt4 xx4 #ag1 and following2 ,mark x4 
#ca1 and following2 ,luke xviii4 #ca1   
and following4  ,footnote #g3 ,matt4    

xxiii4 #ci2 ,luke xiii4 #ce4  ,footnote 
#h3 ,matt4 xx4 #bh4  ,the custom was to 
come to ,jerusalem several days before  
the ,passover1 in order to prepare for  
it4 ,jesus arrived late1 and at one time
 his enemies thought they were          
frustrated in their hope of seizing     
him4#a ,the sixth day before the feast  
7,saturday1 #hth of ,nisan1 equal to the
 #bhth ,march#b7 he at last reached     
,bethany4 ,he entered1 according to his 
custom1 the house of ,lazarus1 ,martha  
and ,mary1 or of ,simon the leper4 ,they
 gave him a great reception4 ,there was 
a dinner at ,simon the leper's1#c where 
many persons were assembled1 drawn      
thither by the desire of seeing him1 and
 also of seeing ,lazarus1 of whom for   
some time so many things had been       
related4 ,lazarus was seated at the     
table1 and attracted much attention4    
,martha served1 according to her        
custom4#d ,it seems that they sought1 by
 an increased show of respect1 to       
overcome the coolness of the public1 and

 to assert the high dignity of their    
guest4 ,mary1 in order to give to the   
event a more festive appearance1 entered
 during dinner1 bearing a vase of       
perfume which she poured upon the feet  
of ,jesus4 ,she afterward broke the     
vase1 according to an ancient custom by 
which the vessel that had been employed 
in the entertainment of a stranger of   
distinction was broken4#e ,then1 to     
testify her worship in an extraordinary 
manner1 she prostrated herself at the   
feet of her ,master and wiped them with 
her long hair4#f ,all the house was     
filled with the odor of the perfume1 to 
the great delight of every one except   
the avaricious ,judas of ,kerioth4      
,considering the economical habits of   
the community1 this was certainly       
prodigality4 ,the greedy treasurer      
calculated immediately how much the     
perfume might have been sold for1 and   
what it would have realized for the     
poor4 ,this not very affectionate       
feeling1 which seemed to place something

 above ,jesus1 dissatisfied him4 ,he    
liked to be honored1 for honors served  
his aim and established his title of    
,son of ,david4 ,therefore1 when they   
spoke to him of the poor1 he replied    
rather sharply3 ,ye have the poor always
 with you2 but me ye have not always4   
,and1 exalting himself1 he promised     
immortality to the woman who in this    
critical moment gave him a token of     
love4#g  ,footnote #a3 ,john xi4 #ef4   
,footnote #b3 ,the ,passover was        
celebrated on the #adth of ,nisan4 ,now 
in the year #cc1 the #ast of ,nisan     
corresponded with ,saturday1 #bast of   
,march4  ,footnote #c3 ,matt4 xxvi4 #f2 
,mark xiv4 #c4 ,cf4 ,luke vii4 #dj1 #dc1
 #dd4  ,footnote #d3 ,it is customary1  
in the ,east1 for a person who is       
attached to any one by a tie of         
affection or of domesticity1 to attend  
upon him when he goes to eat at the     
house of another4  ,footnote #e3 ,i have
 seen this custom still practised at    
,sour 7,zoar47  ,footnote #f3 ,we must  

remember that the feet of the guests    
were not1 as amongst us1 concealed under
 the table1 but extended on a level with
 the body on the divan1 or triclinium4  
,footnote #g3 ,matt4 xxvi4 #f1 and      
following2 ,mark xiv4 #c1 and following2
 ,john xi4 #b1 xii4 #b1 and following4  
,compare ,luke vii4 #cf1 and following4 
,the next day 7,sunday1 #ith of ,nisan71
 ,jesus descended from ,bethany to      
,jerusalem4#a ,when1 at a bend of the   
road1 upon the summit of the ,mount of  
,olives1 he saw the city spread before  
him1 it is said he wept over it1 and    
addressed to it a last appeal4#b ,at the
 base of the mountain1 at some steps    
from the gate1 on entering the          
neighboring portion of the eastern wall 
of the city1 which was called           
,bethphage1 no doubt on account of the  
fig-trees with which it was planted1#c  
he had experienced a momentary          
pleasure4#d ,his arrival was noised     
abroad4 ,the ,galileans who had come to 
the feast were highly elated1 and       

prepared a little triumph for him4 ,an  
ass was brought to him1 followed1       
according to custom1 by its colt4 ,the  
,galileans spread their finest garments 
upon the back of this humble animal as  
saddle-cloths1 and seated him thereon4  
,others1 however1 spread their garments 
upon the road1 and strewed it with green
 branches4 ,the multitude which preceded
 and followed him1 carrying palms1      
cried3 ,hosanna to the son of ,david6   
,blessed is he that cometh in the name  
of the ,lord6 ,some persons even gave   
him the title of king of ,israel4#e     
,master1 rebuke thy disciples1 said the 
,pharisees to him4 ,if these should hold
 their peace1 the stones would          
immediately cry out1 replied ,jesus1 and
 he entered into the city4 ,the         
,hierosolymites1 who scarcely knew him1 
asked who he was4 ,it is ,jesus1 the    
prophet of ,nazareth1 in ,galilee1 was  
the reply4 ,jerusalem was a city of     
about #ej1jjj souls4#f ,a trifling      
event1 such as the entrance of a        

stranger1 however little celebrated1 or 
the arrival of a band of provincials1 or
 a movement of people to the avenues of 
the city1 could not fail1 under ordinary
 circumstances1 to be quickly noised    
about4 ,but at the time of the feast1   
the confusion was extreme4#g ,jerusalem 
at these times was taken possession of  
by strangers4 ,it was amongst the latter
 that the excitement appears to have    
been most lively4 ,some proselytes1     
speaking ,greek1 who had come to the    
feast1 had their curiosity piqued1 and  
wished to see ,jesus4 ,they addressed   
themselves to his disciples2#h but we do
 not know the result of the interview4  
,jesus1 according to his custom1 went to
 pass the night at his beloved village  
of ,bethany4#i ,the three following days
 7,monday1 ,tuesday1 and ,wednesday7 he 
descended regularly to ,jerusalem2 and1 
after the setting of the sun1 he        
returned either to ,bethany1 or to the  
farms on the western side of the ,mount 
of ,olives1 where he had many           

friends4#aj  ,footnote #a3 ,john xii4   
#ab4  ,footnote #b3 ,luke xix4 #da1 and 
following4  ,footnote #c3 ,mishnah1     
,menachoth1 xi4 #b2 ,talm4 of ,bab41    
,sanhedrim1 #ad b2 ,pesachim1 #fc b1 #ia
 a2 ,sota1 #de a2 ,baba metsia1 #he a4  
,it follows from these passages that    
,bethphage was a kind of pomaerium1     
which extended to the foot of the       
eastern basement of the temple1 and     
which had itself its wall of inclosure4 
,the passages ,matt4 xxi4 #a1 ,mark xi4 
#a1 ,luke xix4 #bi1 do not plainly imply
 that ,bethphage was a village1 as      
,eusebius and ,st4 ,jerome have         
supposed4  ,footnote #d3 ,matt4 xxi4 #a1
 and following2 ,mark xi4 #a1 and       
following2 ,luke xix4 #bi1 and          
following2 ,john xii4 #ab1 and          
following4  ,footnote #e3 ,luke xix4    
#ch2 ,john xii4 #ac4  ,footnote #f3 ,the
 number of #abj1jjj1 given by ,hecataeus
 7in ,josephus1 ,contra ,apion1 ,i4     
xxii471 appears exaggerated4 ,cicero    
speaks of ,jerusalem as of a paltry     

little town 7,ad ,atticum1 ,,ii4 ix47   
,the ancient boundaries1 whichever      
calculation we adopt1 do not allow of a 
population quadruple of that of the     
present time1 which does not reach      
#ae1jjj4 ,see ,robinson1 ,bibl4 ,res41  
i4 #dba1 #dbb 7#b;d edition72           
,fergusson1 ,topogr4 of ,jerus41 p4 #ea2
 ,forster1 ,syria and ,palestine1 p4    
#hb4  ,footnote #g3 ,jos41 ,b4,j41 ,,ii4
 xiv4 #c1 ,,vi4 ix4 #c4  ,footnote #h3  
,john xii4 #bj1 and following4          
,footnote #i3 ,matt4 xxi4 #ag2 ,mark xi4
 #aa4  ,footnote #aj3 ,matt4 xxi4 #ag1  
#ah2 ,mark xi4 #aa1 #ab1 #ai2 ,luke xxi4
 #cg1 #ch4  ,a deep melancholy appears1 
during these last days1 to have filled  
the soul of ,jesus1 who was generally so
 joyous and serene4 ,all the narratives 
agree in relating that1 before his      
arrest1 he underwent a short experience 
of doubt and trouble2 a kind of         
anticipated agony4 ,according to some1  
he suddenly exclaimed1 ,now is my soul  
troubled4 ,o ,father1 save me from this 

hour4#a ,it was believed that a voice   
from heaven was heard at this moment3   
others said that an angel came to       
console him4#b ,according to one widely 
spread version1 the incident took place 
in the garden of ,gethsemane4 ,jesus1 it
 was said1 went about a stone's throw   
from his sleeping disciples1 taking with
 him only ,peter and the two sons of    
,zebedee1 and fell on his face and      
prayed4 ,his soul was sad even unto     
death2 a terrible anguish weighed upon  
him2 but resignation to the divine will 
sustained him4#c ,this scene1 owing to  
the instinctive art which regulated the 
compilation of the synoptics1 and often 
led them in the arrangement of the      
narrative to study adaptability and     
effect1 has been given as occurring on  
the last night of the life of ,jesus1   
and at the precise moment of his arrest4
 ,if this version were the true one1 we 
should scarcely understand why ,john1   
who had been the intimate witness of so 
touching an episode1 should not mention 

it in the very circumstantial narrative 
which he has furnished of the evening of
 the ,thursday4#d ,all that we can      
safely say is1 that1 during his last    
days1 the enormous weight of the mission
 he had accepted pressed cruelly upon   
,jesus4 ,human nature asserted itself   
for a time4 ,perhaps he began to        
hesitate about his work4 ,terror and    
doubt took possession of him1 and threw 
him into a state of exhaustion worse    
than death4 ,he who has sacrificed his  
repose1 and the legitimate rewards of   
life1 to a great idea1 always           
experiences a feeling of revulsion when 
the image of death presents itself to   
him for the first time1 and seeks to    
persuade him that all has been in vain4 
,perhaps some of those touching         
reminiscences which the strongest souls 
preserve1 and which at times pierce like
 a sword1 came upon him at this moment4 
,did he remember the clear fountains of 
,galilee where he was wont to refresh   
himself2 the vine and the fig-tree under

 which he had reposed1 and the young    
maidens who1 perhaps1 would have        
consented to love him8 ,did he curse the
 hard destiny which had denied him the  
joys conceded to all others8 ,did he    
regret his too lofty nature1 and1 victim
 of his greatness1 did he mourn that he 
had not remained a simple artisan of    
,nazareth8 ,we know not4 ,for all these 
internal troubles evidently were a      
sealed letter to his disciples4 ,they   
understood nothing of them1 and supplied
 by simple conjectures that which in the
 great soul of their ,master was obscure
 to them4 ,it is certain1 at least1 that
 his divine nature soon regained the    
supremacy4 ,he might still have avoided 
death2 but he would not4 ,love for his  
work sustained him4 ,he was willing to  
drink the cup to the dregs4 ,henceforth 
we behold ,jesus entirely himself2 his  
character unclouded4 ,the subtleties of 
the polemic1 the credulity of the       
thaumaturgus and of the exorcist1 are   
forgotten4 ,there remains only the      

incomparable hero of the ,passion1 the  
founder of the rights of free           
conscience1 and the complete model which
 all suffering souls will contemplate in
 order to fortify and console           
themselves4  ,footnote #a3 ,john xii4   
#bg1 and following4 ,we can easily      
imagine that the exalted tone of ,john1 
and his exclusive preoccupation with the
 divine character of ,jesus1 may have   
effaced from the narrative the          
circumstances of natural weakness       
related by the synoptics4  ,footnote #b3
 ,luke xxii4 #dc2 ,john xii4 #bh1 #bi4  
,footnote #c3 ,matt4 xxvi4 #cf1 and     
following2 ,mark xiv4 #cb1 and          
following2 ,luke xxii4 #ci1 and         
following4  ,footnote #d3 ,this is the  
less to be understood1 as ,john is      
affectedly particular in noticing the   
circumstances which were personal to    
him1 or of which he had been the only   
witness 7xiii4 #bc1 and following1      
xviii4 #ae1 and following1 xix4 #bf1 and
 following1 #ce1 xx4 #b1 and following1 

xxi4 #bj1 and following47  ,the triumph 
of ,bethphage--that bold act of the     
provincials in celebrating at the very  
gates of ,jerusalem the advent of their 
,messiah-,king--completed the           
exasperation of the ,pharisees and the  
aristocracy of the temple4 ,a new       
council was held on the ,wednesday      
7#abth of ,nisan7 in the house of       
,joseph ,kaiapha4#a ,the immediate      
arrest of ,jesus was resolved upon4 ,a  
great idea of order and of conservative 
policy governed all their plans4 ,the   
desire was to avoid a scene4 ,as the    
feast of the ,passover1 which commenced 
that year on the ,friday evening1 was a 
time of bustle and excitement1 it was   
resolved to anticipate it4 ,jesus being 
popular1#b they feared an outbreak2 the 
arrest was therefore fixed for the next 
day1 ,thursday4 ,it was resolved1 also1 
not to seize him in the temple1 where he
 came every day1#c but to observe his   
habits1 in order to seize him in some   
retired place4 ,the agents of the       

priests sounded his disciples1 hoping to
 obtain useful information from their   
weakness or their simplicity4 ,they     
found what they sought in ,judas of     
,kerioth4 ,this wretch1 actuated by     
motives impossible to explain1 betrayed 
his ,master1 gave all the necessary     
information1 and even undertook himself 
7although such an excess of vileness is 
scarcely credible7 to guide the troop   
which was to effect his arrest4 ,the    
remembrance of horror which the folly or
 the wickedness of this man has left in 
the ,christian tradition has doubtless  
given rise to some exaggeration on this 
point4 ,judas1 until then1 had been a   
disciple like the others2 he had even   
the title of apostle2 and he had        
performed miracles and driven out       
demons4 ,legend1 which always uses      
strong and decisive language1 describes 
the occupants of the little supper-room 
as eleven saints and one reprobate4     
,reality does not proceed by such       
absolute categories4 ,avarice1 which the

 synoptics give as the motive of the    
crime in question1 does not suffice to  
explain it4 ,it would be very singular  
if a man who kept the purse1 and who    
knew what he would lose by the death of 
his chief1 were to abandon the profits  
of his occupation#d in exchange for a   
very small sum of money4#e ,had the     
self-love of ,judas been wounded by the 
rebuff which he had received at the     
dinner at ,bethany8 ,even that would not
 explain his conduct4 ,john would have  
us regard him as a thief1 an unbeliever 
from the beginning1#f for which1        
however1 there is no probability4 ,we   
would rather ascribe it to some feeling 
of jealousy or to some dissension       
amongst the disciples4 ,the peculiar    
hatred ,john manifests toward ,judas#g  
confirms this hypothesis4 ,less pure in 
heart than the others1 ,judas had1 from 
the very nature of his office1 become   
unconsciously narrow-minded4 ,by a      
caprice very common to men engaged in   
active duties1 he had come to regard the

 interests of the treasury as superior  
even to those of the work for which it  
was intended4 ,the treasurer had        
overcome the apostle4 ,the murmurings   
which escaped him at ,bethany seem to   
indicate that sometimes he thought the  
,master cost his spiritual family too   
dear4 ,no doubt this mean economy had   
caused many other collisions in the     
little society4  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4   
xxvi4 #a1 #e2 ,mark xiv4 #a1 #b2 ,luke  
xxii4 #a1 #b4  ,footnote #b3 ,matt4 xxi4
 #df4  ,footnote #c3 ,matt4 xxvi4 #ee4  
,footnote #d3 ,john xii4 #f4  ,footnote 
#e3 ,john does not even speak of a      
payment in money4  ,footnote #f3 ,john  
vi4 #fe1 xii4 #f4  ,footnote #g3 ,john  
vi4 #fe1 #ga1 #gb1 xii4 #f2 xiii4 #b1   
#bg1 and following4  ,without denying   
that ,judas of ,kerioth may have        
contributed to the arrest of his        
,master1 we still believe that the      
curses with which he is loaded are      
somewhat unjust4 ,there was1 perhaps1 in
 his deed more awkwardness than         

perversity4 ,the moral conscience of the
 man of the people is quick and correct1
 but unstable and inconsistent4 ,it is  
at the mercy of the impulse of the      
moment4 ,the secret societies of the    
republican party were characterized by  
much earnestness and sincerity1 and yet 
their denouncers were very numerous4 ,a 
trifling spite sufficed to convert a    
partisan into a traitor4 ,but if the    
foolish desire for a few pieces of      
silver turned the head of poor ,judas1  
he does not seem to have lost the moral 
sentiment completely1 since when he had 
seen the consequences of his fault he   
repented1#a and1 it is said1 killed     
himself4  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 xxvii4   
#c1 and following4  ,each moment of this
 eventful period is solemn1 and counts  
more than whole ages in the history of  
humanity4 ,we have arrived at the       
,thursday1 #acth of ,nisan 7#b;d        
,april74 ,the evening of the next day   
commenced the festival of the ,passover1
 begun by the feast in which the        

,paschal lamb was eaten4 ,the festival  
continued for seven days1 during which  
unleavened bread was eaten4 ,the first  
and the last of these seven days were   
peculiarly solemn4 ,the disciples were  
already occupied with preparations for  
the feast4#a ,as to ,jesus1 we are led  
to believe that he knew of the treachery
 of ,judas1 and that he suspected the   
fate that awaited him4 ,in the evening  
he took his last repast with his        
disciples4 ,it was not the ritual feast 
of the passover1 as was afterward       
supposed1 owing to an error of a day in 
reckoning1#b but for the primitive      
church this supper of the ,thursday was 
the true passover1 the seal of the new  
covenant4 ,each disciple connected with 
it his most cherished remembrances1 and 
numerous touching traits of the ,master 
which each one preserved were associated
 with this repast1 which became the     
corner-stone of ,christian piety1 and   
the starting-point of the most fruitful 
institutions4  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4     

xxvi4 #a1 and following2 ,mark xiv4 #ab2
 ,luke xxii4 #g2 ,john xiii4 #bi4       
,footnote #b3 ,this is the system of the
 synoptics 7,matt4 xxvi4 #ag1 and       
following2 ,mark xiv4 #ab1 and          
following2 ,luke xxii4 #g1 and          
following1 #ae47 ,but ,john1 whose      
narrative of this portion has a greater 
authority1 expressly states that ,jesus 
died the same day on which the ,paschal 
lamb was eaten 7xiii4 #a1 #b1 #bi1      
xviii4 #bh1 xix4 #ad1 #ca47 ,the ,talmud
 also makes ,jesus to die on the eve of 
the ,passover 7,talm4 of ,bab41         
,sanhedrim1 #dc a1 #fg a47  ,doubtless  
the tender love which filled the heart  
of ,jesus for the little church which   
surrounded him overflowed at this       
moment1#a and his strong and serene soul
 became buoyant1 even under the weight  
of the gloomy preoccupations that beset 
him4 ,he had a word for each of his     
friends2 two among them especially1     
,john and ,peter1 were the objects of   
tender marks of attachment4 ,john 7at   

least according to his own account7 was 
reclining on the divan1 by the side of  
,jesus1 his head resting upon the breast
 of the ,master4 ,toward the end of the 
repast1 the secret which weighed upon   
the heart of ,jesus almost escaped him3 
he said1 ,verily ,i say unto you1 that  
one of you shall betray me4#b ,to these 
simple men this was a moment of anguish2
 they looked at each other1 and each    
questioned himself4 ,judas was present2 
perhaps ,jesus1 who had for some time   
had reasons to suspect him1 sought by   
this expression to draw from his looks  
or from his embarrassed manner the      
confession of his fault4 ,but the       
unfaithful disciple did not lose        
countenance2 he even dared1 it is said1 
to ask with the others3 ,master1 is it  
,i8  ,footnote #a3 ,john xiii4 #a1 and  
following4  ,footnote #b3 ,matt4 xxvi4  
#ba1 and following2 ,mark xiv4 #ah1 and 
following2 ,luke xx4 #ba1 and following2
 ,john xiii4 #ba1 and following1 xxi4   
#bj4  ,meanwhile1 the good and upright  

soul of ,peter was in torture4 ,he made 
a sign to ,john to endeavor to ascertain
 of whom the ,master spoke4 ,john1 who  
could converse with ,jesus without being
 heard1 asked him the meaning of this   
enigma4 ,jesus having only suspicions1  
did not wish to pronounce any name2 he  
only told ,john to observe to whom he   
was going to offer a sop4 ,at the same  
time he soaked the bread and offered it 
to ,judas4 ,john and ,peter alone had   
cognizance of the fact4 ,jesus addressed
 to ,judas words which contained a      
bitter reproach1 but which were not     
understood by those present2 and he left
 the company4 ,they thought that ,jesus 
was simply giving him orders for the    
morrow's feast4#a  ,footnote #a3 ,john  
xiii4 #ba1 and following1 which shows   
the improbabilities of the narrative of 
the synoptics4  ,at the time1 this      
repast struck no one2 and apart from the
 apprehensions which the ,master        
confided to his disciples1 who only half
 understood them1 nothing extraordinary 

took place4 ,but after the death of     
,jesus1 they attached to this evening a 
singularly solemn meaning1 and the      
imagination of believers spread a       
coloring of sweet mysticism over it4    
,the last hours of a cherished friend   
are those we best remember4 ,by an      
inevitable illusion1 we attribute to the
 conversations we have then had with him
 a meaning which death alone gives to   
them2 we concentrate into a few hours   
the memories of many years4 ,the greater
 part of the disciples saw their ,master
 no more after the supper of which we   
have just spoken4 ,it was the farewell  
banquet4 ,in this repast1 as in many    
others1 ,jesus practised his mysterious 
rite of the breaking of bread4 ,as it   
was early believed that the repast in   
question took place on the day of the   
,passover1 and was the ,paschal feast1  
the idea naturally arose that the       
,eucharistic institution was established
 at this supreme moment4 ,starting from 
the hypothesis that ,jesus knew         

beforehand the precise moment of his    
death1 the disciples were led to suppose
 that he reserved a number of important 
acts for his last hours4 ,as1 moreover1 
one of the fundamental ideas of the     
first ,christians was that the death of 
,jesus had been a sacrifice1 replacing  
all those of the ancient ,law1 the ,last
 ,supper1 which was supposed to have    
taken place1 once for all1 on the eve of
 the ,passion1 became the supreme       
sacrifice--the act which constituted the
 new alliance--the sign of the blood    
shed for the salvation of all4#a ,the   
bread and wine1 placed in connection    
with death itself1 were thus the image  
of the new testament that ,jesus had    
sealed with his sufferings--the         
commemoration of the sacrifice of       
,christ until his advent4#b  ,footnote  
#a3 ,luke xxii4 #bj4  ,footnote #b3 #a  
,cor4 xi4 #bf4  ,very early this mystery
 was embodied in a small sacramental    
narrative1 which we possess under four  
forms1#a very similar to one another4   

,john1 preoccupied with the ,eucharistic
 ideas1#b and who relates the ,last     
,supper with so much prolixity1         
connecting with it so many circumstances
 and discourses#c--;and who was the only
 one of the evangelists whose testimony 
on this point has the value of an       
eye-witness--does not mention this      
narrative4 ,this is a proof that he did 
not regard the ,eucharist as a          
peculiarity of the ,lord's ,supper4 ,for
 him the special rite of the ,last      
,supper was the washing of feet4 ,it is 
probable that in certain primitive      
,christian families this latter rite    
obtained an importance which it has     
since lost4#d ,no doubt1 ,jesus1 on some
 occasions1 had practised it to give his
 disciples an example of brotherly      
humility4 ,it was connected with the eve
 of his death1 in consequence of the    
tendency to group around the ,last      
,supper all the great moral and ritual  
recommendations of ,jesus4  ,footnote   
#a3 ,matt4 xxvi4 #bf-bh2 ,mark xiv4     

#bb-bd2 ,luke xxii4 #ai-ba2 #a ,cor4 xi4
 #bc-be4  ,footnote #b3 ,chap4 vi4      
,footnote #c3 ,chaps4 xiii4-xvii4       
,footnote #d3 ,john xiii4 #ad1 #ae4 ,cf4
 ,matt4 xx4 #bf1 and following2 ,luke   
xxii4 #bf1 and following4  ,a high      
sentiment of love1 of concord1 of       
charity1 and of mutual deference1       
animated1 moreover1 the remembrances    
which were cherished of the last hours  
of ,jesus4#a ,it is always the unity of 
his ,church1 constituted by him or by   
his ,spirit1 which is the soul of the   
symbols and of the discourses which     
,christian tradition referred to this   
sacred moment3 ,a new commandment ,i    
give unto you1 said he1 that ye love one
 another2 as ,i have loved you1 that ye 
also love one another4 ,by this shall   
all men know that ye are my disciples1  
if ye have love one to another4         
,henceforth ,i call you not servants2   
for the servant knoweth not what his    
lord doeth3 but ,i have called you      
friends2 for all things that ,i have    

heard of my ,father ,i have made known  
unto you4 ,these things ,i command you1 
that ye love one another4#b ,at this    
last moment there were again evoked     
rivalries and struggles for             
precedence4#c ,jesus remarked1 that if  
he1 the ,master1 had been in the midst  
of his disciples as their servant1 how  
much more ought they to submit          
themselves to one another4 ,according to
 some1 in drinking the wine1 he said1 ,i
 will not drink henceforth of this fruit
 of the vine until that day when ,i     
drink it new with you in my ,father's   
kingdom4#d ,according to others1 he     
promised them soon a celestial feast1   
where they would be seated on thrones at
 his side4#e  ,footnote #a3 ,john xiii4 
#a1 and following4 ,the discourses      
placed by ,john after the narrative of  
the ,last ,supper cannot be taken as    
historical4 ,they are full of           
peculiarities and of expressions which  
are not in the style of the discourses  
of ,jesus2 and which1 on the contrary1  

are very similar to the habitual        
language of ,john4 ,thus the expression 
little children in the vocative 7,john  
xiii4 #cc7 is very frequent in the      
,first ,epistle of ,john4 ,it does not  
appear to have been familiar to ,jesus4 
,footnote #b3 ,john xiii4 #cc-ce1 xv4   
#ab-ag4  ,footnote #c3 ,luke xxii4      
#bd-bg4 ,cf4 ,john xiii4 #d1 and        
following4  ,footnote #d3 ,matt4 xxvi4  
#bi2 ,mark xiv4 #be2 ,luke xxii4 #ah4   
,footnote #e3 ,luke xxii4 #bi1 #cj4  ,it
 seems that1 toward the end of the      
evening1 the presentiments of ,jesus    
took hold of the disciples4 ,all felt   
that a very serious danger threatened   
the ,master1 and that they were         
approaching a crisis4 ,at one time      
,jesus thought of precautions1 and spoke
 of swords4 ,there were two in the      
company4 ,it is enough1 said he4#a ,he  
did not1 however1 follow out this idea2 
he saw clearly that timid provincials   
would not stand before the armed force  
of the great powers of ,jerusalem4      

,peter1 full of zeal1 and feeling sure  
of himself1 swore that he would go with 
him to prison and to death4 ,jesus1 with
 his usual acuteness1 expressed doubts  
about him4 ,according to a tradition1   
which probably came from ,peter himself1
 ,jesus declared that ,peter would deny 
him before the crowing of the cock4     
,all1 like ,peter1 swore that they would
 remain faithful to him4#b  ,footnote   
#a3 ,luke xxii4 #cf-ch4  ,footnote #b3  
,matt4 xxvi4 #ca1 and following2 ,mark  
xiv4 #bi1 and following2 ,luke xxii4    
#cc1 and following2 ,john xiii4 #cf1 and
 following4     ,,chapter ,,xxiv4       
,,arrest ,,and ,,trial ,,of ,,jesus4    
,it was nightfall#a when they left the  
room4#b ,jesus1 according to his custom1
 passed through the valley of ,kedron2  
and1 accompanied by his disciples1 went 
to the garden of ,gethsemane1 at the    
foot of the ,mount of ,olives1#c and sat
 down there4 ,overawing his friends by  
his inherent greatness1 he watched and  
prayed4 ,they were sleeping near him1   

when all at once an armed troop appeared
 bearing lighted torches4 ,it was the   
guards of the temple1 armed with staves1
 a kind of police under the control of  
the priests4 ,they were supported by a  
detachment of ,roman soldiers with their
 swords4 ,the order for the arrest      
emanated from the high priest and the   
,sanhedrim4#d ,judas1 knowing the habits
 of ,jesus1 had indicated this place as 
the one where he might most easily be   
surprised4 ,judas1 according to the     
unanimous tradition of the earliest     
times1 accompanied the detachment       
himself2#e and according to some1#f he  
carried his hateful conduct even to     
betraying him by a kiss4 ,however this  
may be1 it is certain that there was    
some show of resistance on the part of  
the disciples4#g ,one of them 7,peter1  
according to eye-witnesses#h7 drew his  
sword1 and wounded the ear of one of the
 servants of the high priest1 named     
,malchus4 ,jesus restrained this        
opposition1 and gave himself up to the  

soldiers4 ,weak and incapable of        
effectual resistance1 especially against
 authorities who had so much prestige1  
the disciples took flight1 and became   
dispersed2 ,peter and ,john alone did   
not lose sight of their ,master4        
,another unknown young man followed him1
 covered with a light garment4 ,they    
sought to arrest him1 but the young man 
fled1 leaving his tunic in the hands of 
the guards4#i  ,footnote #a3 ,john xiii4
 #cj4  ,footnote #b3 ,the singing of a  
religious hymn1 related by ,matt4 xxvi4 
#cj1 and ,mark xiv4 #bf1 proceeds from  
the opinion entertained by these two    
evangelists that the last repast of     
,jesus was the ,paschal feast4 ,before  
and after the ,paschal feast1 psalms    
were sung4 ,talm4 of ,bab41 ,pesachim1  
cap4 ix4 hal4 #c1 and fol4 #aah a1 etc4 
,footnote #c3 ,matt4 xxvi4 #cf2 ,mark   
xiv4 #cb2 ,luke xxii4 #ci2 ,john xviii4 
#a1 #b4  ,footnote #d3 ,matt4 xxvi4 #dg2
 ,mark xiv4 #dc2 ,john xviii4 #c1 #ab4  
,footnote #e3 ,matt4 xxvi4 #dg2 ,mark   

xiv4 #dc2 ,luke xxii4 #dg2 ,john xviii4 
#c2 ,acts i4 #af4  ,footnote #f3 ,this  
is the tradition of the synoptics4 ,in  
the narrative of ,john1 ,jesus declares 
himself4  ,footnote #g3 ,the two        
traditions are agreed on this point4    
,footnote #h3 ,john xviii4 #aj4         
,footnote #i3 ,mark xiv4 #ea1 #eb4  ,the
 course which the priests had resolved  
to take against ,jesus was quite in     
conformity with the established law4    
,the procedure against the corrupter    
7mesith71 who sought to injure the      
purity of religion1 is explained in the 
,talmud1 with details1 the naive        
impudence of which provokes a smile4 ,a 
judicial ambush is there made an        
essential part of the examination of    
criminals4 ,when a man was accused of   
being a corrupter1 two witnesses were   
suborned who were concealed behind a    
partition4 ,it was arranged to bring the
 accused into a contiguous room1 where  
he could be heard by these two without  
his perceiving them4 ,two candles were  

lighted near him1 in order that it might
 be satisfactorily proved that the      
witnesses saw him4#a ,he was then made  
to repeat his blasphemy1 and urged to   
retract it4 ,if he persisted1 the       
witnesses who had heard him conducted   
him to the tribunal1 and he was stoned  
to death4 ,the ,talmud adds1 that this  
was the manner in which they treated    
,jesus2 that he was condemned on the    
faith of two witnesses who had been     
suborned1 and that the crime of         
corruption is1 moreover1 the only one   
for which the witnesses are thus        
prepared4#b  ,footnote #a3 ,in criminal 
matters1 eye-witnesses alone were       
admitted4 ,mishnah1 ,sanhedrim1 iv4 #e4 
,footnote #b3 ,talm4 of ,jerus41        
,sanhedrim1 xiv4 #af2 ,talm4 of ,bab41  
same treatise1 #dc a1 #fg a4 ,cf4       
,shabbath1 #ajd b4  ,we learn from the  
disciples of ,jesus themselves that the 
crime with which their ,master was      
charged was that of corruption2#a and   
apart from some minutiae1 the fruit of  

the rabbinical imagination1 the         
narrative of the ,gospels corresponds   
exactly with the procedure described by 
the ,talmud4 ,the plan of the enemies of
 ,jesus was to convict him1 by the      
testimony of witnesses and by his own   
avowals1 of blasphemy1 and of outrage   
against the ,mosaic religion1 to condemn
 him to death according to law1 and then
 to get the condemnation sanctioned by  
,pilate4 ,the priestly authority1 as we 
have already seen1 was in reality       
entirely in the hands of ,hanan4 ,the   
order for the arrest probably came from 
him4 ,it was before this powerful       
personage that ,jesus was first         
brought4#b ,hanan questioned him as to  
his doctrine and his disciples4 ,jesus1 
with proper pride1 refused to enter into
 long explanations4 ,he referred ,hanan 
to his teachings1 which had been public2
 he declared he had never held any      
secret doctrine2 and desired the ex-high
 priest to interrogate those who had    
listened to him4 ,this answer was       

perfectly natural2 but the exaggerated  
respect with which the old priest was   
surrounded made it appear audacious2 and
 one of those present replied to it1 it 
is said1 by a blow4  ,footnote #a3      
,matt4 xxvii4 #fc2 ,john vii4 #ab1 #dg4 
,footnote #b3 ,john xviii4 #ac1 and     
following4 ,this circumstance1 which we 
only find in ,john1 is the strongest    
proof of the historic value of the      
fourth ,gospel4  ,peter and ,john had   
followed their ,master to the dwelling  
of ,hanan4 ,john1 who was known in the  
house1 was admitted without difficulty2 
but ,peter was stopped at the entrance1 
and ,john was obliged to beg the porter 
to let him pass4 ,the night was cold4   
,peter stopped in the antechamber1 and  
approached a brasier1 around which the  
servants were warming themselves4 ,he   
was soon recognized as a disciple of the
 accused4 ,the unfortunate man1 betrayed
 by his ,galilean accent1 and pestered  
by questions from the servants1 one of  
whom1 a kinsman of ,malchus1 had seen   

him at ,gethsemane1 denied thrice that  
he had ever had the least connection    
with ,jesus4 ,he thought that ,jesus    
could not hear him1 and never imagined  
that this cowardice1 which he sought to 
hide by his dissimulation1 was          
exceedingly dishonorable4 ,but his      
better nature soon revealed to him the  
fault he had committed4 ,a fortuitous   
circumstance1 the crowing of the cock1  
recalled to him a remark that ,jesus had
 made4 ,touched to the heart1 he went   
out and wept bitterly4#a  ,footnote #a3 
,matt4 xxvi4 #fi1 and following2 ,mark  
xiv4 #ff1 and following2 ,luke xxii4    
#ed1 and following2 ,john xviii4 #ae1   
and following1 #be1 and following4      
,hanan1 although the true author of the 
judicial murder about to be             
accomplished1 had not power to pronounce
 the sentence upon ,jesus2 he sent him  
to his son-in-law1 ,kaiapha1 who bore   
the official title4 ,this man1 the blind
 instrument of his father-in-law1 would 
naturally ratify everything that had    

been done4 ,the ,sanhedrim was assembled
 at his house4#a ,the inquiry commenced2
 and several witnesses1 prepared        
beforehand according to the             
inquisitorial process described in the  
,talmud1 appeared before the tribunal4  
,the fatal sentence which ,jesus had    
really uttered3 ,i am able to destroy   
the temple of ,god and to build it in   
three days1 was cited by two witnesses4 
,to blaspheme the temple of ,god was1   
according to the ,jewish law1 to        
blaspheme ,god himself4#b ,jesus        
remained silent1 and refused to explain 
the incriminated speech4 ,if we may     
believe one version1 the high priest    
then adjured him to say if he were the  
,messiah2 ,jesus confessed it1 and      
proclaimed before the assembly the near 
approach of his heavenly reign4#c ,the  
courage of ,jesus1 who had resolved to  
die1 renders this narrative superfluous4
 ,it is probable that here1 as when     
before ,hanan1 he remained silent4 ,this
 was in general his rule of conduct     

during his last moments4 ,the sentence  
was settled2 and they only sought for   
pretexts4 ,jesus felt this1 and did not 
undertake a useless defense4 ,in the    
light of orthodox ,judaism1 he was truly
 a blasphemer1 a destroyer of the       
established worship4 ,now1 these crimes 
were punished by the law with death4#d  
,with one voice1 the assembly declared  
him guilty of a capital crime4 ,the     
members of the council who secretly     
leaned to him1 were absent or did not   
vote4#e ,the frivolity which            
characterizes old established           
aristocracies1 did not permit the judges
 to reflect long upon the consequences  
of the sentence they had passed4 ,human 
life was at that time very lightly      
sacrificed2 doubtless the members of the
 ,sanhedrim did not dream that their    
sons would have to render account to an 
angry posterity for the sentence        
pronounced with such careless disdain4  
,footnote #a3 ,matt4 xvi4 #eg2 ,mark    
xiv4 #ec2 ,luke xxii4 #ff4  ,footnote   

#b3 ,matt4 xxiii4 #af1 and following4   
,footnote #c3 ,matt4 xxvi4 #fd2 ,mark   
xiv4 #fb2 ,luke xxii4 #fi4 ,john knows  
nothing of this scene4  ,footnote #d3   
,levit4 xxiv4 #ad1 and following2 ,deut4
 xiii4 #a1 and following4  ,footnote #e3
 ,luke xxiii4 #ej1 #ea4  ,the ,sanhedrim
 had not the right to execute a sentence
 of death4#a ,but in the confusion of   
powers which then reigned in ,judea1    
,jesus was1 from that moment1 none the  
less condemned4 ,he remained the rest of
 the night exposed to the ill-treatment 
of an infamous pack of servants1 who    
spared him no indignity4#b  ,footnote   
#a3 ,john xviii4 #ca2 ,jos41 ,ant41     
,,xx4 ix4 #a4  ,footnote #b3 ,matt4     
xxvi4 #fg1 #fh2 ,mark xiv4 #fe2 ,luke   
xxii4 #fc-fe4  ,in the morning the chief
 priests and the elders again           
assembled4#a ,the point was1 to get     
,pilate to ratify the condemnation      
pronounced by the ,sanhedrim1 which1    
since the occupation of the ,romans1 was
 no longer sufficient4 ,the procurator  

was not invested1 like the imperial     
legate1 with the disposal of life and   
death4 ,but ,jesus was not a ,roman     
citizen2 it only required the           
authorization of the governor in order  
that the sentence pronounced against him
 should take its course4 ,as always     
happens1 when a political people        
subjects a nation in which the civil and
 the religious laws are confounded1 the 
,romans had been brought to give to the 
,jewish law a sort of official support4 
,the ,roman law did not apply to ,jews4 
,the latter remained under the canonical
 law which we find recorded in the      
,talmud1 just as the ,arabs in ,algeria 
are still governed by the code of       
,islamism4 ,although neutral in         
religion1 the ,romans thus very often   
sanctioned penalties inflicted for      
religious faults4 ,the situation was    
nearly that of the sacred cities of     
,india under the ,english dominion1 or  
rather that which would be the state of 
,damascus if ,syria were conquered by a 

,european nation4 ,josephus asserts1    
though this may be doubted1 that if a   
,roman trespassed beyond the pillars    
which bore inscriptions forbidding      
pagans to advance1 the ,romans          
themselves would have delivered him to  
the ,jews to be put to death4#b         
,footnote #a3 ,matt4 xxvii4 #a2 ,mark   
xv4 #a2 ,luke xxii4 #ff1 xxiii4 #a2     
,john xviii #bh4  ,footnote #b3 ,jos41  
,ant41 ,,xv4 xi4 #e2 ,b4,j41 ,,vi4 ii4  
#d4  ,the agents of the priests         
therefore bound ,jesus and led him to   
the judgment-hall1 which was the former 
palace of ,herod1#a adjoining the ,tower
 of ,antonia4#b ,it was the morning of  
the day on which the ,paschal lamb was  
to be eaten 7,friday the #adth of       
,nisan1 our #c;d of ,april74 ,the ,jews 
would have been defiled by entering the 
judgment-hall1 and would not have been  
able to share in the sacred feast4 ,they
 therefore remained without4#c ,pilate  
being informed of their presence1       
ascended the bima#d or tribunal1        

situated in the open air1#e at the place
 named ,gabbatha1 or in ,greek1         
,lithostrotos1 on account of the        
pavement which covered the ground4      
,footnote #a3 ,philo1 ,legatio ad       
,caium1 ,sec4 #ch4 ,jos41 ,b4,j41 ,,ii4 
xiv4 #h4  ,footnote #b3 ,the exact place
 now occupied by the seraglio of the    
,pacha of ,jerusalem4  ,footnote #c3    
,john xviii4 #bh4  ,footnote #d3 ,the   
,greek word ,greek3 ,bema had passed    
into the ,syro-,chaldaic4  ,footnote #e3
 ,jos41 ,b4,j41 ,,ii4 ix4 #c1 xiv4 #h2  
,matt4 xxvii4 #bg2 ,john xviii4 #cc4    
,he had scarcely been informed of the   
accusation1 before he displayed his     
annoyance at being mixed up with this   
affair4#a ,he then shut himself up in   
the judgment-hall with ,jesus4 ,there a 
conversation took place1 the precise    
details of which are lost1 no witness   
having been able to repeat it to the    
disciples1 but the tenor of which       
appears to have been well divined by    
,john4 ,his narrative1 in fact1         

perfectly accords with what history     
teaches us of the mutual position of the
 two interlocutors4  ,footnote #a3 ,john
 xviii4 #bi4  ,the procurator1 ,pontius1
 surnamed ,pilate1 doubtless on account 
of the pilum or javelin of honor with   
which he or one of his ancestors was    
decorated1#a had hitherto had no        
relation with the new sect4 ,indifferent
 to the internal quarrels of the ,jews1 
he only saw in all these movements of   
sectaries1 the results of intemperate   
imaginations and disordered brains4 ,in 
general1 he did not like the ,jews1 but 
the ,jews detested him still more4 ,they
 thought him hard1 scornful1 and        
passionate1 and accused him of          
improbable crimes4#b  ,footnote #a3     
,virg41 ,a,en41 ,,xii4 #aba2 ,martial1  
,epigr41 ,i4 xxxii41 ,x4 xlviii42       
,plutarch1 ,life of ,romulus1 #bi4      
,compare the hasta pura1 a military     
decoration4 ,orelli and ,henzen1 ,inscr4
 ,lat41 ,nos4 #cegd1 #fheb1 etc4        
,pilatus is1 on this hypothesis1 a word 

of the same form as ,torquatus4         
,footnote #b3 ,philo1 ,leg4 ad ,caium1  
,sec4 #ch4  ,jerusalem1 the centre of a 
great national fermentation1 was a very 
seditious city1 and an insupportable    
abode for a foreigner4 ,the enthusiasts 
pretended that it was a fixed design of 
the new procurator to abolish the       
,jewish law4#a ,their narrow fanaticism1
 and their religious hatreds1 disgusted 
that broad sentiment of justice and     
civil government which the humblest     
,roman carried everywhere with him4 ,all
 the acts of ,pilate which are known to 
us1 show him to have been a good        
administrator4#b ,in the earlier period 
of the exercise of his office1 he had   
difficulties with those subject to him  
which he had solved in a very brutal    
manner2 but it seems that essentially he
 was right4 ,the ,jews must have        
appeared to him a people behind the age2
 he doubtless judged them as a liberal  
prefect formerly judged the             
,bas-,bretons1 who rebelled for such    

trifling matters as a new road1 or the  
establishment of a school4 ,in his best 
projects for the good of the country1   
notably in those relating to public     
works1 he had encountered an impassable 
obstacle in the ,law4 ,the ,law         
restricted life to such a degree that it
 opposed all change1 and all            
amelioration4 ,the ,roman structures1   
even the most useful ones1 were objects 
of great antipathy on the part of       
zealous ,jews4#c ,two votive escutcheons
 with inscriptions1 which he had set up 
at his residence near the sacred        
precincts1 provoked a still more violent
 storm4#d ,pilate at first cared little 
for these susceptibilities2 and he was  
soon involved in sanguinary suppressions
 of revolt1#e which afterward ended in  
his removal4#f ,the experience of so    
many conflicts had rendered him very    
prudent in his relations with this      
intractable people1 which avenged itself
 upon its governors by compelling them  
to use toward it hateful severities4    

,the procurator saw himself1 with       
extreme displeasure1 led to play a cruel
 part in this new affair1 for the sake  
of a law he hated4#g ,he knew that      
religious fanaticism1 when it has       
obtained the sanction of civil          
governments to some act of violence1 is 
afterward the first to throw the        
responsibility upon the government1 and 
almost accuses them of being the author 
of it4 ,supreme injustice2 for the true 
culprit is1 in such cases1 the          
instigator6  ,footnote #a3 ,jos41 ,ant41
 ,,xviii4 iii4 #a1 init4  ,footnote #b3 
,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xviii4 ii4-iv4          
,footnote #c3 ,talm4 of ,bab41          
,shabbath1 #cc b4  ,footnote #d3 ,philo1
 ,leg4 ad ,caium1 ,sec4 #ch4  ,footnote 
#e3 ,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xviii4 iii4 #a and  
#b2 ,luke xiii4 #a4  ,footnote #f3      
,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xviii4 iv4 #a1 #b4      
,footnote #g3 ,john xviii4 #ce4         
,pilate1 then1 would have liked to save 
,jesus4 ,perhaps the dignified and calm 
attitude of the accused made an         

impression upon him4 ,according to a    
tradition1#a ,jesus found a supporter in
 the wife of the procurator himself4    
,she may have seen the gentle ,galilean 
from some window of the palace1         
overlooking the courts of the temple4   
,perhaps she had seen him again in her  
dreams2 and the idea that the blood of  
this beautiful young man was about to be
 spilt1 weighed upon her mind4 ,certain 
it is that ,jesus found ,pilate         
prepossessed in his favor4 ,the governor
 questioned him with kindness1 and with 
the desire to find an excuse for sending
 him away pardoned4  ,footnote #a3      
,matt4 xxvii4 #ai4  ,the title of ,king 
of the ,jews1 which ,jesus had never    
taken upon himself1 but which his       
enemies represented as the sum and      
substance of his acts and pretensions1  
was naturally that by which it was      
sought to excite the suspicions of the  
,roman authority4 ,they accused him on  
this ground of sedition1 and of treason 
against the government4 ,nothing could  

be more unjust2 for ,jesus had always   
recognized the ,roman government as the 
established power4 ,but conservative    
religious bodies do not generally shrink
 from calumny4 ,notwithstanding his own 
explanation1 they drew certain          
conclusions from his teaching2 they     
transformed him into a disciple of      
,judas the ,gaulonite2 they pretended   
that he forbade the payment of tribute  
to ,caesar4#a ,pilate asked him if he   
was really the king of the ,jews4#b     
,jesus concealed nothing of what he     
thought4 ,but the great ambiguity of    
speech which had been the source of his 
strength1 and which1 after his death1   
was to establish his kingship1 injured  
him on this occasion4 ,an idealist that 
is to say1 not distinguishing the spirit
 from the substance1 ,jesus1 whose      
words1 to use the image of the          
,apocalypse1 were as a two-edged sword1 
never completely satisfied the powers of
 earth4 ,if we may believe ,john1 he    
avowed his royalty1 but uttered at the  

same time this profound sentence3 ,my   
kingdom is not of this world4 ,he       
explained the nature of his kingdom1    
declaring that it consisted entirely in 
the possession and proclamation of      
truth4 ,pilate understood nothing of    
this grand idealism4#c ,jesus doubtless 
impressed him as being an inoffensive   
dreamer4 ,the total absence of religious
 and philosophical proselytism among the
 ,romans of this epoch made them regard 
devotion to truth as a chimera4 ,such   
discussions annoyed them1 and appeared  
to them devoid of meaning4 ,not         
perceiving the element of danger to the 
empire that lay hidden in these new     
speculations1 they had no reason to     
employ violence against them4 ,all their
 displeasure fell upon those who asked  
them to inflict punishment for what     
appeared to them to be vain subtleties4 
,twenty years after1 ,gallio still      
adopted the same course toward the      
,jews4#d ,until the fall of ,jerusalem1 
the rule which the ,romans adopted in   

administration1 was to remain completely
 indifferent to these sectarian         
quarrels4#e  ,footnote #a3 ,luke xxiii4 
#b1 #e4  ,footnote #b3 ,matt4 xxvii4    
#aa2 ,mark xv4 #b2 ,luke xxiii4 #c2     
,john xviii4 #cc4  ,footnote #c3 ,john  
xviii4 #ch4  ,footnote #d3 ,acts xviii4 
#ad1 #ae4  ,footnote #e3 ,tacitus       
7,ann41 xv4 #dd7 describes the death of 
,jesus as a political execution by      
,pontius ,pilate4 ,but at the epoch in  
which ,tacitus wrote1 the ,roman policy 
toward the ,christians was changed2 they
 were held guilty of secretly conspiring
 against the state4 ,it was natural that
 the ,latin historian should believe    
that ,pilate1 in putting ,jesus to      
death1 had been actuated by a desire for
 the public safety4 ,josephus is much   
more exact 7,ant41 ,,xviii4 iii4 #c47   
,an expedient suggested itself to the   
mind of the governor by which he could  
reconcile his own feelings with the     
demands of the fanatical people1 whose  
pressure he had already so often felt4  

,it was the custom to deliver a prisoner
 to the people at the time of the       
,passover4 ,pilate1 knowing that ,jesus 
had only been arrested in consequence of
 the jealousy of the priests1#a tried to
 obtain for him the benefit of this     
custom4 ,he appeared again upon the     
bima1 and proposed to the multitude to  
release the ,king of the ,jews4 ,the    
proposition made in these terms1 though 
ironical1 was characterized by a degree 
of liberality4 ,the priests saw the     
danger of it4 ,they acted promptly1#b   
and in order to combat the proposition  
of ,pilate1 they suggested to the crowd 
the name of a prisoner who enjoyed great
 popularity in ,jerusalem4 ,by a        
singular coincidence1 he also was called
 ,jesus1#c and bore the surname of      
,bar-,abba1 or ,bar-,rabban4#d ,he was a
 well-known personage1#e and had been   
arrested for taking part in an uproar in
 which murder had been committed4#f ,a  
general clamor was raised1 ,not this    
man2 but ,jesus ,bar-,rabban2 and       

,pilate was obliged to release ,jesus   
,bar-,rabban4  ,footnote #a3 ,mark xv4  
#aj4  ,footnote #b3 ,matt4 xxvii4 #bj2  
,mark xv4 #aa4  ,footnote #c3 ,the name 
of ,jesus has disappeared in the greater
 part of the manuscripts4 ,this reading 
has1 nevertheless1 very great           
authorities in its favor4  ,footnote #d3
 ,matt4 xxvii4 #af4  ,footnote #e3 ,cf4 
,st4 ,jerome4 ,in ,matt4 xxvii4 #af4    
,footnote #f3 ,mark xv4 #g2 ,luke xxiii4
 #ai4 ,john 7xviii4 #dj71 who makes him 
a robber1 appears here too much further 
from the truth than ,mark4  ,his        
embarrassment increased4 ,he feared that
 too much indulgence shown to a         
prisoner1 to whom was given the title of
 ,king of the ,jews1 might compromise   
him4 ,fanaticism1 moreover1 compels all 
powers to make terms with it4 ,pilate   
thought himself obliged to make some    
concession2 but still hesitating to shed
 blood1 in order to satisfy men whom he 
hated1 wished to turn the thing into a  
jest4 ,affecting to laugh at the pompous

 title they had given to ,jesus1 he     
caused him to be scourged4#a ,scourging 
was the general preliminary of          
crucifixion4#b ,perhaps ,pilate wished  
it to be believed that this sentence had
 already been pronounced1 hoping that   
the preliminary would suffice4 ,then    
took place 7according to all the        
narratives7 a revolting scene4 ,the     
soldiers put a scarlet robe on his back1
 a crown formed of branches of thorns   
upon his head1 and a reed in his hand4  
,thus attired1 he was led to the        
tribunal in front of the people4 ,the   
soldiers defiled before him1 striking   
him in turn1 and knelt to him1 saying1  
,hail6 ,king of the ,jews4#c ,others1 it
 is said1 spit upon him1 and struck his 
head with the reed4 ,it is difficult to 
understand how ,roman dignity could     
stoop to acts so shameful4 ,it is true  
that ,pilate1 in the capacity of        
procurator1 had under his command       
scarcely any but auxiliary troops4#d    
,roman citizens1 as the legionaries     

were1 would not have degraded themselves
 by such conduct4  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 
xxvii4 #bf2 ,mark xv4 #ae2 ,john xix4   
#a4  ,footnote #b3 ,jos41 ,b4,j41 ,,ii4 
xiv4 #i1 ,v4 xi4 #a1 ,,vii4 vi4 #d2     
,titus-,livy1 ,,xxxiii4 #cf2 ,quintus   
,curtius1 ,,vii4 xi4 #bh4  ,footnote #c3
 ,matt4 xxvii4 #bg1 and following2 ,mark
 xv4 #af1 and following2 ,luke xxiii4   
#aa2 ,john xix4 #b1 and following4      
,footnote #d3 ,see ,inscript4 ,rom4 of  
,algeria1 ,no4 #e1 fragm4 ,b4  ,did     
,pilate think by this display that he   
freed himself from responsibility8 ,did 
he hope to turn aside the blow which    
threatened ,jesus by conceding something
 to the hatred of the ,jews1#a and by   
substituting for the tragic denouement a
 grotesque termination1 to make it      
appear that the affair merited no other 
issue8 ,if such were his idea1 it was   
unsuccessful4 ,the tumult increased1 and
 became an open riot4 ,the cry ,crucify 
him6 crucify him6 resounded from all    
sides4 ,the priests becoming            

increasingly urgent1 declared the law in
 peril if the corrupter were not        
punished with death4#b ,pilate saw      
clearly that to save ,jesus he would    
have to put down a terrible disturbance4
 ,he still tried1 however1 to gain time4
 ,he returned to the judgment-hall1 and 
ascertained from what country ,jesus    
came1 with the hope of finding a pretext
 for declaring his inability to         
adjudicate4#c ,according to one         
tradition1 he even sent ,jesus to       
,antipas1 who1 it is said1 was then at  
,jerusalem4#d ,jesus took no part in    
these well-meant efforts2 he maintained1
 as he had done before ,kaiapha1 a grave
 and dignified silence1 which astonished
 ,pilate4 ,the cries from without became
 more and more menacing4 ,the people had
 already begun to denounce the lack of  
zeal in the functionary who protected an
 enemy of ,caesar4 ,the greatest        
adversaries of the ,roman rule were     
suddenly transformed into loyal subjects
 of ,tiberius1 that they might have the 

right of accusing the too tolerant      
procurator of treason4 ,we have no king1
 said they1 but ,caesar4 ,if thou let   
this man go1 thou art not ,caesar's     
friend3 whosoever maketh himself a king 
speaketh against ,caesar4#e ,the feeble 
,pilate yielded2 he foresaw the report  
that his enemies would send to ,rome1 in
 which they would accuse him of having  
protected a rival of ,tiberius4 ,once   
before1 in the matter of the votive     
escutcheons1#f the ,jews had written to 
the emperor1 and had received           
satisfaction4 ,he feared for his office4
 ,by a compliance1 which was to deliver 
his name to the scorn of history1 he    
yielded1 throwing1 it is said1 upon the 
,jews all the responsibility of what was
 about to happen4 ,the latter1 according
 to the ,christians1 fully accepted it1 
by exclaiming1 ,his blood be on us and  
on our children6#g  ,footnote #a3 ,luke 
xxiii4 #af1 #bb4  ,footnote #b3 ,john   
xix4 #g4  ,footnote #c3 ,john xix4 #i4  
,cf4 ,luke xxiii4 #f1 and following4    

,footnote #d3 ,it is probable that this 
is a first attempt at a ,harmony of the 
,gospels4 ,luke must have had before him
 a narrative in which the death of      
,jesus was erroneously attributed to    
,herod4 ,in order not to sacrifice this 
version entirely he must have combined  
the two traditions4 ,what makes this    
more likely is1 that he probably had a  
vague knowledge that ,jesus 7as ,john   
teaches us7 appeared before three       
authorities4 ,in many other cases1 ,luke
 seems to have a remote idea of the     
facts which are peculiar to the         
narration of ,john4 ,moreover1 the third
 ,gospel contains in its history of the 
,crucifixion a series of additions which
 the author appears to have drawn from a
 more recent document1 and which had    
evidently been arranged with a special  
view to edification4  ,footnote #e3     
,john xix4 #ab1 #ae4 ,cf4 ,luke xxiii4  
#b4 ,in order to appreciate the         
exactitude of the description of this   
scene in the evangelists1 see ,philo1   

,leg4 ad ,caium1 ,sec4 #ch4  ,footnote  
#f3 ,see ante1 p4 #cea4  ,footnote #g3  
,matt4 xxvii4 #bd1 #be4  ,were these    
words really uttered8 ,we may doubt it4 
,but they are the expression of a       
profound historical truth4 ,considering 
the attitude which the ,romans had taken
 in ,judea1 ,pilate could scarcely have 
acted otherwise4 ,how many sentences of 
death dictated by religious intolerance 
have been extorted from the civil power6
 ,the king of ,spain1 who1 in order to  
please a fanatical clergy1 delivered    
hundreds of his subjects to the stake1  
was more blameable than ,pilate1 for he 
represented a more absolute power than  
that of the ,romans at ,jerusalem4 ,when
 the civil power becomes persecuting or 
meddlesome at the solicitation of the   
priesthood1 it proves its weakness4 ,but
 let the government that is without sin 
in this respect throw the first stone at
 ,pilate4 ,the secular arm1 behind which
 clerical cruelty shelters itself1 is   
not the culprit4 ,no one has a right to 

say that he has a horror of blood when  
he causes it to be shed by his servants4
  ,it was1 then1 neither ,tiberius nor  
,pilate who condemned ,jesus4 ,it was   
the old ,jewish party2 it was the       
,mosaic ,law4 ,according to our modern  
ideas1 there is no transmission of moral
 demerit from father to son2 no one is  
accountable to human or divine justice  
except for that which he himself has    
done4 ,consequently1 every ,jew who     
suffers to-day for the murder of ,jesus 
has a right to complain1 for he might   
have acted as did ,simon the ,cyrenean2 
at any rate1 he might not have been with
 those who cried ,crucify him6 ,but     
nations1 like individuals1 have their   
responsibilities1 and if ever crime was 
the crime of a nation1 it was the death 
of ,jesus4 ,this death was legal in the 
sense that it was primarily caused by a 
law which was the very soul of the      
nation4 ,the ,mosaic law1 in its modern1
 but still in its accepted form1        
pronounced the penalty of death against 

all attempts to change the established  
worship4 ,now1 there is no doubt that   
,jesus attacked this worship1 and       
aspired to destroy it4 ,the ,jews       
expressed this to ,pilate with a        
truthful simplicity3 ,we have a law1 and
 by our law he ought to die2 because he 
has made himself the ,son of ,god4#a    
,the law was detestable1 but it was the 
law of ancient ferocity2 and the hero   
who offered himself in order to abrogate
 it1 had first of all to endure its     
penalty4  ,footnote #a3 ,john xix4 #g4  
,alas6 it has required more than        
eighteen hundred years for the blood    
that he shed to bear its fruits4        
,tortures and death have been inflicted 
for ages in the name of ,jesus1 on      
thinkers as noble as himself4 ,even at  
the present time1 in countries which    
call themselves ,christian1 penalties   
are pronounced for religious offences4  
,jesus is not responsible for these     
errors4 ,he could not foresee that      
people1 with mistaken imaginations1     

would one day imagine him as a frightful
 ,moloch1 greedy of burnt flesh4        
,christianity has been intolerant1 but  
intolerance is not essentially a        
,christian fact4 ,it is a ,jewish fact  
in the sense that it was ,judaism which 
first introduced the theory of the      
absolute in religion1 and laid down the 
principle that every innovator1 even if 
he brings miracles to support his       
doctrine1 ought to be stoned without    
trial4#a ,the pagan world has also had  
its religious violences4 ,but if it had 
had this law1 how would it have become  
,christian8 ,the ,pentateuch has thus   
been in the world the first code of     
religious terrorism4 ,judaism has given 
the example of an immutable dogma armed 
with the sword4 ,if1 instead of pursuing
 the ,jews with a blind hatred1         
,christianity had abolished the regime  
which killed its founder1 how much more 
consistent would it have been6--how much
 better would it have deserved of the   
human race6  ,footnote #a3 ,deut4 xiii4 

#a1 and following4     ,,chapter ,,xxv4 
,,death ,,of ,,jesus4   ,although the   
real motive for the death of ,jesus was 
entirely religious1 his enemies had     
succeeded1 in the judgment-hall1 in     
representing him as guilty of treason   
against the state2 they could not have  
obtained from the sceptical ,pilate a   
condemnation simply on the ground of    
heterodoxy4 ,consistently with this     
idea1 the priests demanded1 through the 
people1 the crucifixion of ,jesus4 ,this
 punishment was not ,jewish in its      
origin2 if the condemnation of ,jesus   
had been purely ,mosaic1 he would have  
been stoned4#a ,crucifixion was a ,roman
 punishment1 reserved for slaves1 and   
for cases in which it was wished to add 
to death the aggravation of ignominy4   
,in applying it to ,jesus1 they treated 
him as they treated highway robbers1    
brigands1 bandits1 or those enemies of  
inferior rank to whom the ,romans did   
not grant the honor of death by the     
sword4#b ,it was the chimerical ,king of

 the ,jews1 not the heterodox dogmatist1
 who was punished4 ,following out the   
same idea1 the execution was left to the
 ,romans4 ,we know that amongst the     
,romans1 the soldiers1 their profession 
being to kill1 performed the office of  
executioners4 ,jesus was therefore      
delivered to a cohort of auxiliary      
troops1 and all the most hateful        
features of executions introduced by the
 cruel habits of the new conquerors1    
were exhibited toward him4 ,it was about
 noon4#c ,they re-clothed him with the  
garments which they had removed for the 
farce enacted at the tribunal1 and as   
the cohort had already in reserve two   
thieves who were to be executed1 the    
three prisoners were taken together1 and
 the procession set out for the place of
 execution4  ,footnote #a3 ,jos41 ,ant41
 ,,xx4 ix4 #a4 ,the ,talmud1 which      
represents the condemnation of ,jesus as
 entirely religious1 declares1 in fact1 
that he was stoned2 or1 at least1 that  
after having been hanged1 he was stoned1

 as often happened 7,mishnah1           
,sanhedrim1 vi4 #d47 ,talmud of         
,jerusalem1 ,sanhedrim1 xiv4 #af4 ,talm4
 of ,bab41 same treatise1 #dc a1 #fg a4 
,footnote #b3 ,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xvii4 x4  
#aj1 ,,xx4 vi4 #b2 ,b4,j41 ,v4 xi4 #a2  
,apuleius1 ,metam41 iii4 #i2 ,suetonius1
 ,galba1 #i2 ,lampridius1 ,alex4 ,sev41 
#bc4  ,footnote #c3 ,john xix4 #ad4     
,according to ,mark xv4 #be1 it could   
scarcely have been eight o'clock in the 
morning1 since that evangelist relates  
that ,jesus was crucified at nine       
o'clock4  ,the scene of the execution   
was at a place called ,golgotha1        
situated outside ,jerusalem1 but near   
the walls of the city4#a ,the name      
,golgotha signifies a skull2 it         
corresponds with the ,french word       
,chaumont1 and probably designated a    
bare hill or rising ground1 having the  
form of a bald skull4 ,the situation of 
this hill is not precisely known4 ,it   
was certainly on the north or northwest 
of the city1 in the high1 irregular     

plain which extends between the walls   
and the two valleys of ,kedron and      
,hinnom1#b a rather uninteresting       
region1 and made still worse by the     
objectionable circumstances arising from
 the neighborhood of a great city4 ,it  
is difficult to identify ,golgotha as   
the precise place which1 since          
,constantine1 has been venerated by     
entire ,christendom4#c ,this place is   
too much in the interior of the city1   
and we are led to believe that1 in the  
time of ,jesus1 it was comprised within 
the circuit of the walls4#d  ,footnote  
#a3 ,matt4 xxvii4 #cc2 ,mark xv4 #bb2   
,john xix4 #bj2 ,heb4 xiii4 #ab4        
,footnote #b3 ,golgotha1 in fact1 seems 
not entirely unconnected with the hill  
of ,gareb and the locality of ,goath1   
mentioned in ,jeremiah xxxi4 #ci4 ,now1 
these two places appear to have been at 
the northwest of the city4 ,i should    
incline to fix the place where ,jesus   
was crucified near the extreme corner   
which the existing wall makes toward the

 west1 or perhaps upon the mounds which 
command the valley of ,hinnom1 above    
,birket-,mamilla4  ,footnote #c3 ,the   
proofs by which it has been attempted to
 establish that the ,holy ,sepulchre has
 been displaced since ,constantine are  
not very strong4  ,footnote #d3 ,m4 de  
,voguee has discovered1 about #hc yards 
to the east of the traditional site of  
,calvary1 a fragment of a ,jewish wall  
analogous to that of ,hebron1 which1 if 
it belongs to the inclosure of the time 
of ,jesus1 would leave the              
above-mentioned site outside the city4  
,the existence of a sepulchral cave     
7that which is called ,tomb of ,joseph  
of ,arimathea71 under the wall of the   
cupola of the ,holy ,sepulchre1 would   
also lead to the supposition that this  
place was outside the walls4 ,two       
historical considerations1 one of which 
is rather strong1 may1 moreover1 be     
invoked in favor of the tradition4 ,the 
first is1 that it would be singular if  
those1 who1 under ,constantine1 sought  

to determine the topography of the      
,gospels1 had not hesitated in the      
presence of the objection which results 
from ,john xix4 #bj1 and from ,heb4     
xiii4 #ab4 ,why1 being free to choose1  
should they have wantonly exposed       
themselves to so grave a difficulty8    
,the second consideration is1 that they 
might have had to guide them1 in the    
time of ,constantine1 the remains of an 
edifice1 the temple of ,venus on        
,golgotha1 erected by ,adrian4 ,we are1 
then1 at times led to believe that the  
work of the devout topographers of the  
time of ,constantine was earnest and    
sincere1 that they sought for           
indications1 and that1 though they might
 not refrain from certain pious frauds1 
they were guided by analogies4 ,if they 
had merely followed a vain caprice1 they
 might have placed ,golgotha in a more  
conspicuous situation1 at the summit of 
some of the neighboring hills about     
,jerusalem1 in accordance with the      
,christian imagination1 which very early

 thought that the death of ,christ had  
taken place on a mountain4 ,but the     
difficulty of the inclosures is very    
serious4 ,let us add1 that the erection 
of a temple of ,venus on ,golgotha      
proves little4 ,eusebius 7,vita ,const41
 iii4 #bf71 ,socrates 7,h4,e41 i4 #ag71 
,sozomen 7,h4,e41 ii4 #a71 ,st4 ,jerome 
7,epist4 xlix41 ad ,paulin471 say1      
indeed1 that there was a sanctuary of   
,venus on the site which they imagined  
to be that of the holy tomb2 but it is  
not certain that ,adrian had erected it2
 or that he had erected it in a place   
which was in his time called ,golgotha2 
or that he had intended to erect it at  
the place where ,jesus had suffered     
death4  ,he who was condemned to the    
cross1 had himself to carry the         
instrument of his execution4#a ,but     
,jesus1 physically weaker than his two  
companions1 could not carry his4 ,the   
troop met a certain ,simon of ,cyrene1  
who was returning from the country1 and 
the soldiers1 with the off-hand         

procedure of foreign garrisons1 forced  
him to carry the fatal tree4 ,perhaps   
they made use of a recognized right of  
forcing labor1 the ,romans not being    
allowed to carry the infamous wood4 ,it 
seems that ,simon was afterward of the  
,christian community4 ,his two sons1    
,alexander and ,rufus1#b were well known
 in it4 ,he related perhaps more than   
one circumstance of which he had been   
witness4 ,no disciple was at this moment
 near to ,jesus4#c  ,footnote #a3       
,plutarch1 ,de ,sera ,num4 ,vind41 #ai2 
,artemidorus1 ,onirocrit41 ii4 #ef4     
,footnote #b3 ,mark xv4 #ba4  ,footnote 
#c3 ,the circumstance1 ,luke xxiii4     
#bg-ca1 is one of those in which we are 
sensible of the work of a pious and     
loving imagination4 ,the words which are
 there attributed to ,jesus could only  
have been written after the siege of    
,jerusalem4  ,the place of execution was
 at last reached4 ,according to ,jewish 
custom1 the sufferers were offered a    
strong aromatic wine1 an intoxicating   

drink1 which1 through a sentiment of    
pity1 was given to the condemned in     
order to stupefy him4#a ,it appears that
 the ladies of ,jerusalem often brought 
this kind of wine to the unfortunates   
who were led to execution2 when none was
 presented by them1 it was purchased    
from the public treasury4#b ,jesus1     
after having touched the edge of the cup
 with his lips1 refused to drink4#c     
,this mournful consolation of ordinary  
sufferers did not accord with his       
exalted nature4 ,he preferred to quit   
life with perfect clearness of mind1 and
 to await in full consciousness the     
death he had willed and brought upon    
himself4 ,he was then divested of his   
garments1#d and fastened to the cross4  
,the cross was composed of two beams1   
tied in the form of the letter ,t4#e ,it
 was not much elevated1 so that the feet
 of the condemned almost touched the    
earth4 ,they commenced by fixing it1#f  
then they fastened the sufferer to it by
 driving nails into his hands2 the feet 

were often nailed1 though sometimes only
 bound with cords4#g ,a piece of wood   
was fastened to the upright portion of  
the cross1 toward the middle1 and passed
 between the legs of the condemned1 who 
rested upon it4#h ,without that1 the    
hands would have been torn and the body 
would have sunk down4 ,at other times1 a
 small horizontal rest was fixed beneath
 the feet1 and sustained them4#i        
,footnote #a3 ,talm4 of ,bab41          
,sanhedrim1 fol4 #dc a4 ,comp4 ,prov4   
xxi4 #f4  ,footnote #b3 ,talm4 of ,bab41
 ,sanhedrim1 l4c4  ,footnote #c3 ,mark  
xv4 #bc2 ,matt4 xxvii4 #cd1 falsifies   
this detail1 in order to create a       
,messianic allusion from ,ps4 lxix4 #bj4
  ,footnote #d3 ,matt4 xxvii4 #ce2 ,mark
 xv4 #bd2 ,john xix4 #bc4 ,cf4          
,artemidorus1 ,onirocr41 ii4 #ec4       
,footnote #e3 ,lucian1 ,jud4 ,voc41 #ab4
 ,compare the grotesque crucifix traced 
at ,rome on a wall of ,mount ,palatine4 
,civilta ,cattolica1 fasc4 clxi4 p4     
#ebi1 and following4  ,footnote #f3     

,jos41 ,b4,j41 ,,vii4 vi4 #d2 ,cic41 ,in
 ,verr41 v4 #ff2 ,xenoph4 ,ephes41      
,ephesiaca1 iv4 #b4  ,footnote #g3 ,luke
 xxiv4 #ci2 ,john xx4 #be-bg2 ,plautus1 
,mostellaria1 ,,ii4 i4 #ac2 ,lucan41    
,phars41 vi4 #edc1 and following1 #edg2 
,justin1 ,dial4 cum ,tryph41 #ig2       
,tertullian1 ,adv4 ,marcionem1 iii4 #ai4
  ,footnote #h3 ,irenaeus1 ,adv4 ,haer41
 ii4 #bd2 ,justin1 ,dial4 cum ,tryphone1
 #ia4  ,footnote #i3 ,see the graffito  
quoted before4  ,jesus tasted these     
horrors in all their atrocity4 ,a       
burning thirst1 one of the tortures of  
crucifixion1#a devoured him1 and he     
asked to drink4 ,there stood near1 a cup
 of the ordinary drink of the ,roman    
soldiers1 a mixture of vinegar and      
water1 called posca4 ,the soldiers had  
to carry with them their posca on all   
their expeditions1#b of which an        
execution was considered one4 ,a soldier
 dipped a sponge in this drink1 put it  
at the end of a reed1 and raised it to  
the lips of ,jesus1 who sucked it4#c    

,the two robbers were crucified1 one on 
each side4 ,the executioners1 to whom   
were usually left the small effects     
7pannicularia7 of those executed1#d drew
 lots for his garments1 and1 seated at  
the foot of the cross1 kept guard over  
him4#e ,according to one tradition1     
,jesus pronounced this sentence1 which  
was in his heart if not upon his lips3  
,father1 forgive them1 for they know not
 what they do4#f  ,footnote #a3 ,see the
 ,arab text published by ,kosegarten1   
,chrest4 ,arab41 p4 #fd4  ,footnote #b3 
,spartianus1 ,life of ,adrian1 #aj2     
,vulcatius ,gallicanus1 ,life of        
,avidius ,cassius1 #e4  ,footnote #c3   
,matt4 xxvii4 #dh2 ,mark xv4 #cf2 ,luke 
xxiii4 #cf2 ,john xix4 #bh-cj4          
,footnote #d3 ,dig41 ,,xlvii4 xx41 ,de  
bonis damnat41 #f4 ,adrian limited this 
custom4  ,footnote #e3 ,matt4 xxvii4    
#cf4 ,cf4 ,petronius1 ,satyr41 cxi41    
cxii4  ,footnote #f3 ,luke xxiii4 #cd4  
,in general1 the last words attributed  
to ,jesus1 especially such as ,luke     

records1 are open to doubt4 ,the desire 
to edify or to show the accomplishment  
of prophecies is perceptible4 ,in these 
cases1 moreover1 every one hears in his 
own way4 ,the last words of celebrated  
prisoners1 condemned to death1 are      
always collected in two or three        
entirely different shapes1 by even the  
nearest witnesses4  ,according to the   
,roman custom1 a writing was attached to
 the top of the cross1 bearing1 in three
 languages1 ,hebrew1 ,greek1 and ,latin1
 the words3 ,,the ,,king ,,of ,,the     
,,jews4 ,there was something painful and
 insulting to the nation in this        
inscription4 ,the numerous passers-by   
who read it were offended4 ,the priests 
complained to ,pilate that he ought to  
have adopted an inscription which would 
have implied simply that ,jesus had     
called himself ,king of the ,jews4 ,but 
,pilate1 already tired of the whole     
affair1 refused to make any change in   
what had been written4#a  ,footnote #a3 
,john xix4 #ai-bb4  ,his disciples had  

fled4 ,john1 nevertheless1 declares     
himself to have been present1 and to    
have remained standing at the foot of   
the cross during the whole time4#a ,it  
may be affirmed1 with more certainty1   
that the devoted women of ,galilee1 who 
had followed ,jesus to ,jerusalem and   
continued to tend him1 did not abandon  
him4 ,mary ,cleophas1 ,mary ,magdalen1  
,joanna1 wife of ,khouza1 ,salome1 and  
others1 stayed at a certain distance1#b 
and did not lose sight of him4#c ,if we 
must believe ,john1#d ,mary1 the mother 
of ,jesus1 was also at the foot of the  
cross1 and ,jesus seeing his mother and 
his beloved disciple together1 said to  
the one1 ,behold thy mother6 and to the 
other1 ,behold thy son6 ,but we do not  
understand how the synoptics1 who name  
the other women1 should have omitted her
 whose presence was so striking a       
feature4 ,perhaps even the extreme      
elevation of the character of ,jesus    
does not render such personal emotion   
probable1 at the moment when1 solely    

preoccupied by his work1 he no longer   
existed except for humanity4#e          
,footnote #a3 ,john xix4 #be1 and       
following4  ,footnote #b3 ,the synoptics
 are agreed in placing the faithful     
group afar off the cross4 ,john says1 at
 the side of1 governed by the desire    
which he has of representing himself as 
having approached very near to the cross
 of ,jesus4  ,footnote #c3 ,matt4 xxvii4
 #ee1 #ef2 ,mark xv4 #dj1 #da2 ,luke    
xxiii4 #di1 #ee2 xxiv4 #aj2 ,john xix4  
#be4 ,cf4 ,luke xxiii4 #bg-ca4          
,footnote #d3 ,john xix4 #be1 and       
following4 ,luke1 who always adopts a   
middle course between the first two     
synoptics and ,john1 mentions also1 but 
at a distance1 all his acquaintance     
7xxiii4 #di74 ,the expression1 ,greek3  
gnostoi1 may1 it is true1 mean kindred4 
,luke1 nevertheless 7ii4 #dd71          
distinguishes the ,greek3 gnostoi from  
the ,greek3 sungeneis4 ,let us add1 that
 the best manuscripts bear ,greek3 oi   
gnostoi auto1 and not ,greek3 oi gnostoi

 autou4 ,in the ,acts 7i4 #ad71 ,mary1  
mother of ,jesus1 is also placed in     
company with the ,galilean women2       
elsewhere 7,gospel1 chap4 ii4 #ce71     
,luke predicts that a sword of grief    
will pierce her soul4 ,but this renders 
his omission of her at the cross the    
less explicable4  ,footnote #e3 ,this   
is1 in my opinion1 one of those features
 in which ,john betrays his personality 
and the desire he has of giving himself 
importance4 ,john1 after the death of   
,jesus1 appears in fact to have received
 the mother of his ,master into his     
house1 and to have adopted her 7,john   
xix4 #bg47 ,the great consideration     
which ,mary enjoyed in the early church1
 doubtless led ,john to pretend that    
,jesus1 whose favorite disciple he      
wished to be regarded1 had1 when dying1 
recommended to his care all that was    
dearest to him4 ,the presence of this   
precious trust near ,john1 insured him a
 kind of precedence over the other      
apostles1 and gave his doctrine a high  

authority4  ,apart from this small group
 of women1 whose presence consoled him1 
,jesus had before him only the spectacle
 of the baseness or stupidity of        
humanity4 ,the passers-by insulted him4 
,he heard around him foolish scoffs1 and
 his greatest cries of pain turned into 
hateful jests3 ,he trusted in ,god2 let 
him deliver him now1 if he will have    
him3 for he said1 ,i am the ,son of     
,god4 ,he saved others1 they said again2
 himself he cannot save4 ,if he be the  
king of ,israel1 let him now come down  
from the cross1 and we will believe him6
 ,ah1 thou that destroyest the temple1  
and buildest it in three days1 save     
thyself4#a ,some1 vaguely acquainted    
with his apocalyptic ideas1 thought they
 heard him call ,elias1 and said1 ,let  
us see whether ,elias will come to save 
him4 ,it appears that the two crucified 
thieves at his side also insulted him4#b
 ,the sky was dark2#c and the earth1 as 
in all the environs of ,jerusalem1 dry  
and gloomy4 ,for a moment1 according to 

certain narratives1 his heart failed    
him2 a cloud hid from him the face of   
his ,father2 he endured an agony of     
despair a thousand times more acute than
 all his torture4 ,he saw only the      
ingratitude of men2 he perhaps repented 
suffering for a vile race1 and          
exclaimed3 ,my ,god1 my ,god1 why hast  
thou forsaken me8 ,but his divine       
instinct still prevailed4 ,in the degree
 that the life of the body became       
extinguished1 his soul became clear1 and
 returned by degrees to its celestial   
origin4 ,he regained the idea of his    
mission2 he saw in his death the        
salvation of the world2 he lost sight of
 the hideous spectacle spread at his    
feet1 and1 profoundly united to his     
,father1 he began upon the gibbet the   
divine life which he was to live in the 
heart of humanity through infinite ages4
  ,footnote #a3 ,matt4 xxvii4 #dj1 and  
following2 ,mark xv4 #bi1 and following4
  ,footnote #b3 ,matt4 xxvii4 #dd2 ,mark
 xv4 #cb4 ,luke has here modified the   

tradition1 in accordance with his taste 
for the conversion of sinners4          
,footnote #c3 ,matt4 xxvii4 #de2 ,mark  
xv4 #cc2 ,luke xxiii4 #dd4  ,the        
peculiar atrocity of crucifixion was    
that one might live three or four days  
in this horrible state upon the         
instrument of torture4#a ,the           
haemorrhage from the hands quickly      
stopped1 and was not mortal4 ,the true  
cause of death was the unnatural        
position of the body1 which brought on a
 frightful disturbance of the           
circulation1 terrible pains of the head 
and heart1 and1 at length1 rigidity of  
the limbs4 ,those who had a strong      
constitution only died of hunger4#b ,the
 idea which suggested this cruel        
punishment was not directly to kill the 
condemned by positive injuries1 but to  
expose the slave nailed by the hand of  
which he had not known how to make good 
use1 and to let him rot on the wood4    
,the delicate organization of ,jesus    
preserved him from this slow agony4     

,everything leads to the belief that the
 instantaneous rupture of a vessel in   
the heart brought him1 at the end of    
three hours1 to a sudden death4 ,some   
moments before yielding up his soul1 his
 voice was still strong4#c ,all at once1
 he uttered a terrible cry1#d which some
 heard as3 ,father1 into thy hands ,i   
commend my spirit6 but which others1    
more preoccupied with the accomplishment
 of prophecies1 rendered by the words1  
,it is finished6 ,his head fell upon his
 breast1 and he expired4  ,footnote #a3 
,petronius1 ,sat41 cxi41 and following2 
,origen1 ,in ,matt4 ,comment4 series1   
#adj ,arab text published in            
,kosegarten1 op4 cit41 p4 #fc1 and      
following4  ,footnote #b3 ,eusebius1    
,hist4 ,eccl41 viii4 #h4  ,footnote #c3 
,matt4 xxvii4 #df2 ,mark xv4 #cd4       
,footnote #d3 ,matt4 xxvii4 #ej2 ,mark  
xv4 #cg2 ,luke xxiii4 #df2 ,john xix4   
#cj4  ,rest now in thy glory1 noble     
initiator4 ,thy work is completed2 thy  
divinity is established4 ,fear no more  

to see the edifice of thy efforts       
crumble through a flaw4 ,henceforth1    
beyond the reach of frailty1 thou shalt 
be present1 from the height of thy      
divine peace1 in the infinite           
consequences of thy acts4 ,at the price 
of a few hours of suffering1 which have 
not even touched thy great soul1 thou   
hast purchased the most complete        
immortality4 ,for thousands of years the
 world will extol thee4 ,banner of our  
contradictions1 thou wilt be the sign   
around which will be fought the fiercest
 battles4 ,a thousand times more living1
 a thousand times more loved since thy  
death than during the days of thy       
pilgrimage here below1 thou wilt become 
to such a degree the corner-stone of    
humanity1 that to tear thy name from    
this world would be to shake it to its  
foundations4 ,between thee and ,god1 men
 will no longer distinguish4 ,complete  
conqueror of death1 take possession of  
thy kingdom1 whither1 by the royal road 
thou has traced1 ages of adorers will   

follow thee4     ,,chapter ,,xxvi4      
,,jesus ,,in ,,the ,,tomb4   ,it was    
about three o'clock in the afternoon1   
according to our manner of reckoning1#a 
when ,jesus expired4 ,a ,jewish law#b   
forbade a corpse suspended on the cross 
to be left beyond the evening of the day
 of the execution4 ,it is not probable  
that in the executions performed by the 
,romans this rule was observed2 but as  
the next day was the ,sabbath1 and a    
,sabbath of peculiar solemnity1 the     
,jews expressed to the ,roman           
authorities#c their desire that this    
holy day should not be profaned by such 
a spectacle4#d ,their request was       
granted2 orders were given to hasten the
 death of the three condemned ones1 and 
to remove them from the cross4 ,the     
soldiers executed this order by applying
 to the two thieves a second punishment 
much more speedy than that of the cross1
 the crurifragium1 or breaking of the   
legs1#e the usual punishment of slaves  
and of prisoners of war4 ,as to ,jesus1 

they found him dead1 and did not think  
it necessary to break his legs4 ,but one
 of them1 to remove all doubt as to the 
real death of the third victim1 and to  
complete it1 if any breath remained in  
him1 pierced his side with a spear4     
,they thought they saw water and blood  
flow1 which was regarded as a sign of   
the cessation of life4  ,footnote #a3   
,matt4 xxvii4 #df2 ,mark xv4 #cg2 ,luke 
xxiii4 #dd4 ,comp4 ,john xix4 #ad4      
,footnote #b3 ,deut4 xxi4 #bb1 #bc2     
,josh4 viii4 #bi1 x4 #bf1 and following4
 ,cf4 ,jos41 ,b4,j41 ,,iv4 v4 #b2       
,mishnah1 ,sanhedrim1 vi4 #e4  ,footnote
 #c3 ,john says1 ,to ,pilate2 but that  
cannot be1 for ,mark 7xv4 #dd1 #de7     
states that at night ,pilate was still  
ignorant of the death of ,jesus4        
,footnote #d3 ,compare ,philo1 ,in      
,flaccum1 ,sec4 #aj4  ,footnote #e3     
,there is no other example of the       
crurifragium applied after crucifixion4 
,but often1 in order to shorten the     
tortures of the sufferer1 a finishing   

stroke was given him4 ,see the passage  
from ,ibn-,hischam1 translated in the   
,zeitschrift fuer die ,kunde des        
,morgenlandes1 i4 p4 #ii1 #ajj4  ,john1 
who professes to have seen it1#a insists
 strongly on this circumstance4 ,it is  
evident1 in fact1 that doubts arose as  
to the reality of the death of ,jesus4  
,a few hours of suspension on the cross 
appeared to persons accustomed to see   
crucifixions entirely insufficient to   
lead to such a result4 ,they cited many 
instances of persons crucified1 who1    
removed in time1 had been brought to    
life again by powerful remedies4#b      
,origen afterward thought it needful to 
invoke miracle in order to explain so   
sudden an end4#c ,the same astonishment 
is found in the narrative of ,mark4#d   
,to speak truly1 the best guarantee that
 the historian possesses upon a point of
 this nature is the suspicious hatred of
 the enemies of ,jesus4 ,it is doubtful 
whether the ,jews were at that time     
preoccupied with the fear that ,jesus   

might pass for resuscitated2 but1 in any
 case1 they must have made sure that he 
was really dead4 ,whatever1 at certain  
periods1 may have been the neglect of   
the ancients in all that belonged to    
legal proof and the strict conduct of   
affairs1 we cannot but believe that     
those interested here had taken some    
precautions in this respect4#e          
,footnote #a3 ,john xix4 #ca-ce4        
,footnote #b3 ,herodotus1 vii4 #aid2    
,jos41 ,vita1 #ge4  ,footnote #c3 ,in   
,matt4 ,comment4 series1 #adj4          
,footnote #d3 ,mark xv4 #dd1 #de4       
,footnote #e3 ,the necessities of       
,christian controversy afterward led to 
the exaggeration of these precautions1  
especially when the ,jews had           
systematically begun to maintain that   
the body of ,jesus had been stolen4     
,matt4 xxvii4 #fb1 and following1       
xxviii4 #aa-ae4  ,according to the      
,roman custom1 the corpse of ,jesus     
ought to have remained suspended in     
order to become the prey of birds4#a    

,according to the ,jewish law1 it would 
have been removed in the evening1 and   
deposited in the place of infamy set    
apart for the burial of those who were  
executed4#b ,if ,jesus had had for      
disciples only his poor ,galileans1     
timid and without influence1 the latter 
course would have been adopted4 ,but we 
have seen that1 in spite of his small   
success at ,jerusalem1 ,jesus had gained
 the sympathy of some important persons 
who expected the kingdom of ,god1 and   
who1 without confessing themselves his  
disciples1 were strongly attached to    
him4 ,one of these persons1 ,joseph1 of 
the small town of ,arimathea            
7,ha-ramathaim#c71 went in the evening  
to ask the body from the procurator4#d  
,joseph was a rich and honorable man1 a 
member of the ,sanhedrim4 ,the ,roman   
law1 at this period1 commanded1         
moreover1 that the body of the person   
executed should be delivered to those   
who claimed it4#e ,pilate1 who was      
ignorant of the circumstance of the     

crurifragium1 was astonished that ,jesus
 was so soon dead1 and summoned the     
centurion who had superintended the     
execution1 in order to know how this    
was4 ,pilate1 after having received the 
assurances of the centurion1 granted to 
,joseph the object of his request4 ,the 
body probably had already been removed  
from the cross4 ,they delivered it to   
,joseph1 that he might do with it as he 
pleased4  ,footnote #a3 ,horace1        
,epistles1 ,i4 xvi4 #dh2 ,juvenal1 xiv4 
#gg2 ,lucan41 vii4 #edd2 ,plautus1      
,miles glor41 ,,ii4 iv4 #ai2            
,artemidorus1 ,onir41 ii4 #ec2 ,pliny1  
xxxvi4 #bd2 ,plutarch1 ,life of         
,cleomenes1 #ci2 ,petronius1 ,sat41     
cxi4-cxii4  ,footnote #b3 ,mishnah1     
,sanhedrim1 vi4 #e4  ,footnote #c3      
,probably identical with the ancient    
,rama of ,samuel1 in the tribe of       
,ephraim4  ,footnote #d3 ,matt4 xxvii4  
#eg1 and following2 ,mark xv4 #db1 and  
following2 ,luke xxiii4 #ej1 and        
following2 ,john xix4 #ch1 and          

following4  ,footnote #e3 ,dig4         
,,xlviii4 xxiv41 ,de cadaveribus        
puntorum4  ,another secret friend1      
,nicodemus1#a whom we have already seen 
employing his influence more than once  
in favor of ,jesus1 came forward at this
 moment4 ,he arrived1 bearing ample     
provision of the materials necessary for
 embalming4 ,joseph and ,nicodemus      
interred ,jesus according to the ,jewish
 custom--that is to say1 they wrapped   
him in a sheet with myrrh and aloes4    
,the ,galilean women were present1#b and
 no doubt accompanied the scene with    
piercing cries and tears4  ,footnote #a3
 ,john xix4 #ci1 and following4         
,footnote #b3 ,matt4 xxvii4 #fa2 ,mark  
xv4 #dg2 ,luke xxiii4 #ee4  ,it was     
late1 and all this was done in great    
haste4 ,the place had not yet been      
chosen where the body would be finally  
deposited4 ,the carrying of the body1   
moreover1 might have been delayed to a  
late hour1 and have involved a violation
 of the ,sabbath--now the disciples     

still conscientiously observed the      
prescriptions of the ,jewish law4 ,a    
temporary interment was determined      
upon4#a ,there was at hand1 in the      
garden1 a tomb recently dug out in the  
rock1 which had never been used4 ,it    
belonged1 probably1 to one of the       
believers4#b ,the funeral caves1 when   
they were destined for a single body1   
were composed of a small room1 at the   
bottom of which the place for the body  
was marked by a trough or couch let into
 the wall1 and surmounted by an arch4#c 
,as these caves were dug out of the     
sides of sloping rocks1 they were       
entered by the floor2 the door was shut 
by a stone very difficult to move4      
,jesus was deposited in the cave1 and   
the stone was rolled to the door1 as it 
was intended to return in order to give 
him a more complete burial4 ,but the    
next day being a solemn ,sabbath1 the   
labor was postponed till the day        
following4#d  ,footnote #a3 ,john xix4  
#da1 #db4  ,footnote #b3 ,one tradition 

7,matt4 xxvii4 #fj7 designates ,joseph  
of ,arimathea himself as owner of the   
cave4  ,footnote #c3 ,the cave which1 at
 the period of ,constantine1 was        
considered as the tomb of ,christ1 was  
of this shape1 as may be gathered from  
the description of ,arculphus 7in       
,mabillon1 ,acta ,,ss4 ,ord4 ,s4        
,bened41 sec4 iii41 pars ii41 p4 #ejd71 
and from the vague traditions which     
still exist at ,jerusalem among the     
,greek clergy on the state of the rock  
now concealed by the little chapel of   
the ,holy ,sepulchre4 ,but the          
indications by which1 under             
,constantine1 it was sought to identify 
this tomb with that of ,christ1 were    
feeble or worthless 7see especially     
,sozomen1 ,h4,e41 ii4 #a47 ,even if we  
were to admit the position of ,golgotha 
as nearly exact1 the ,holy ,sepulchre   
would still have no very reliable       
character of authenticity4 ,at all      
events1 the aspect of the places has    
been totally modified4  ,footnote #d3   

,luke xxiii4 #ef4  ,the women retired   
after having carefully noticed how the  
body was laid4 ,they employed the hours 
of the evening which remained to them in
 making new preparations for the        
embalming4 ,on the ,saturday all        
rested4#a  ,footnote #a3 ,luke xxiii4   
#ed-ef4  ,on the ,sunday morning1 the   
women1 ,mary ,magdalen the first1 came  
very early to the tomb4#a ,the stone was
 displaced from the opening1 and the    
body was no longer in the place where   
they had laid it4 ,at the same time1 the
 strangest rumors were spread in the    
,christian community4 ,the cry1 ,he is  
risen6 quickly spread amongst the       
disciples4 ,love caused it to find ready
 credence everywhere4 ,what had taken   
place8 ,in treating of the history of   
the apostles we shall have to examine   
this point and to make inquiry into the 
origin of the legends relative to the   
resurrection4 ,for the historian1 the   
life of ,jesus finishes with his last   
sigh4 ,but such was the impression he   

had left in the heart of his disciples  
and of a few devoted women1 that during 
some weeks more it was as if he were    
living and consoling them4 ,had his body
 been taken away1#b or did enthusiasm1  
always credulous1 create afterward the  
group of narratives by which it was     
sought to establish faith in the        
resurrection8 ,in the absence of        
opposing documents this can never be    
ascertained4 ,let us say1 however1 that 
the strong imagination of ,mary         
,magdalen#c played an important part in 
this circumstance4#d ,divine power of   
love6 ,sacred moments in which the      
passion of one possessed gave to the    
world a resuscitated ,god6  ,footnote   
#a3 ,matt4 xxviii4 #a2 ,mark xvi4 #a2   
,luke xxiv4 #a2 ,john xx4 #a4  ,footnote
 #b3 ,see ,matt4 xxviii4 #ae2 ,john xx4 
#b4  ,footnote #c3 ,she had been        
possessed by seven demons 7,mark xvi4   
#i2 ,luke viii4 #b47  ,footnote #d3     
,this is obvious1 especially in the     
ninth and following verses of chap4 xvi4

 of ,mark4 ,these verses form a         
conclusion of the second ,gospel1       
different from the conclusion at xvi4   
#a-h1 with which many manuscripts       
terminate4 ,in the fourth ,gospel 7xx4  
#a1 #b1 #aa1 and following1 #ah71 ,mary 
,magdalen is also the only original     
witness of the resurrection4            
,,chapter ,,xxvii4  ,,fate ,,of ,,the   
,,enemies ,,of ,,jesus4   ,according to 
the calculation we adopt1 the death of  
,jesus happened in the year #cc of our  
era4#a ,it could not1 at all events1 be 
either before the year #bi1 the         
preaching of ,john and ,jesus having    
commenced in the year #bh1b or after the
 year #ce1 since in the year #cf1 and   
probably before the passover1 ,pilate   
and ,kaiapha both lost their offices4#c 
,the death of ,jesus appears1 moreover1 
to have had no connection whatever with 
these two removals4#d ,in his           
retirement1 ,pilate probably never      
dreamt for a moment of the forgotten    
episode1 which was to transmit his      

pitiful renown to the most distant      
posterity4 ,as to ,kaiapha1 he was      
succeeded by ,jonathan1 his             
brother-in-law1 son of the same ,hanan  
who had played the principal part in the
 trial of ,jesus4 ,the ,sadducean family
 of ,hanan retained the pontificate a   
long time1 and more powerful than ever1 
continued to wage against the disciples 
and the family of ,jesus1 the implacable
 war which they had commenced against   
the ,founder4 ,christianity1 which owed 
to him the definitive act of its        
foundation1 owed to him also its first  
martyrs4 ,hanan passed for one of the   
happiest men of his age4#e ,he who was  
truly guilty of the death of ,jesus     
ended his life full of honors and       
respect1 never having doubted for an    
instant that he had rendered a great    
service to the nation4 ,his sons        
continued to reign around the temple1   
kept down with difficulty by the        
procurators1#f ofttimes dispensing with 
the consent of the latter in order to   

gratify their haughty and violent       
instincts4  ,footnote #a3 ,the year #cc 
corresponds well with one of the data of
 the problem1 namely1 that the #adth of 
,nisan was a ,friday4 ,if we reject the 
year #cc1 in order to find a year which 
fulfils the above condition1 we must at 
least go back to the year #bi1 or go    
forward to the year #cf4  ,footnote #b3 
,luke iii4 #a4  ,footnote #c3 ,jos41    
,ant41 ,,xviii4 iv4 #b and #c4          
,footnote #d3 ,the contrary assertion of
 ,tertullian and ,eusebius arises from a
 worthless apocryphal writing 7,see     
,philo1 ,cod4 ,apocr41 ,n4,t41 p4 #hac1 
and following47 ,the suicide of ,pilate 
7,eusebius1 ,h4,e41 ii4 #g2 ,chron4 ad  
annl4 ,caii7 appears also to be derived 
from legendary records4  ,footnote #e3  
,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xx4 ix4 #a4  ,footnote  
#f3 ,jos41 l4c4  ,antipas and ,herodias 
soon disappeared also from the political
 scene4 ,herod ,agrippa having been     
raised to the dignity of king by        
,caligula1 the jealous ,herodias swore  

that she also would be queen4 ,pressed  
incessantly by this ambitious woman1 who
 treated him as a coward1 because he    
suffered a superior in his family1      
,antipas overcame his natural indolence1
 and went to ,rome to solicit the title 
which his nephew had just obtained 7the 
year #ci of our era74 ,but the affair   
turned out in the worst possible manner4
 ,injured in the eyes of the emperor by 
,herod ,agrippa1 ,antipas was removed1  
and dragged out the rest of his life in 
exile at ,lyons and in ,spain4 ,herodias
 followed him in his misfortunes4#a ,a  
hundred years1 at least1 were to elapse 
before the name of their obscure        
subject1 now become deified1 should     
appear in these remote countries to     
brand upon their tombs the murder of    
,john the ,baptist4  ,footnote #a3      
,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xviii4 vii4 #a1 #b2     
,b4,j41 ,,ii4 ix4 #f4  ,as to the       
wretched ,judas of ,kerioth1 terrible   
legends were current about his death4   
,it was maintained that he had bought a 

field in the neighborhood of ,jerusalem 
with the price of his perfidy4 ,there   
was1 indeed1 on the south of ,mount     
,zion1 a place named ,hakeldama 7the    
field of blood#a74 ,it was supposed that
 this was the property acquired by the  
traitor4#b ,according to one            
tradition1#c he killed himself4         
,according to another1 he had a fall in 
his field1 in consequence of which his  
bowels gushed out4#d ,according to      
others1 he died of a kind of dropsy1    
accompanied by repulsive circumstances1 
which were regarded as a punishment from
 heaven4#e ,the desire of showing in    
,judas the accomplishment of the menaces
 which the ,psalmist pronounces against 
the perfidious friend#f may have given  
rise to these legends4 ,perhaps1 in the 
retirement of his field of ,hakeldama1  
,judas led a quiet and obscure life2    
while his former friends conquered the  
world1 and spread his infamy abroad4    
,perhaps1 also1 the terrible hatred     
which was concentrated on his head1     

drove him to violent acts1 in which were
 seen the finger of heaven4  ,footnote  
#a3 ,st4 ,jerome1 ,de situ et nom4 loc4 
hebr4 at the word ,acheldama4 ,eusebius 
7ibid47 says to the north4 ,but the     
,itineraries confirm the reading of ,st4
 ,jerome4 ,the tradition which styles   
the necropolis situated at the foot of  
the valley of ,hinnom ,haceldama1 dates 
back1 at least1 to the time of          
,constantine4  ,footnote #b3 ,acts i4   
#ah1 #ai4 ,matthew1 or rather his       
interpolator1 has here given a less     
satisfactory turn to the tradition1 in  
order to connect with it the            
circumstance of a cemetery for          
strangers1 which was found near there4  
,footnote #c3 ,matt4 xxvii4 #e4         
,footnote #d3 ,acts1 l4c42 ,papias1 in  
,oecumenius1 ,enarr4 in ,act4 ,apost41  
ii41 and in ,fr4 ,muenter1 ,fragm4      
,patrum ,graec4 7,hafniae1 #aghh71 fasc4
 i4 p4 #ag1 and following2              
,theophylactus1 in ,matt4 xxvii4 #e4    
,footnote #e3 ,papias1 in ,muenter1     

l4c42 ,theophylactus1 l4c4  ,footnote   
#f3 ,psalms lxix4 and cix4  ,the time of
 the great ,christian revenge was1      
moreover1 far distant4 ,the new sect had
 no part whatever in the catastrophe    
which ,judaism was soon to undergo4 ,the
 synagogue did not understand till much 
later to what it exposed itself in      
practising laws of intolerance4 ,the    
empire was certainly still further from 
suspecting that its future destroyer was
 born4 ,during nearly three hundred     
years it pursued its path without       
suspecting that at its side principles  
were growing destined to subject the    
world to a complete transformation4 ,at 
once theocratic and democratic1 the idea
 thrown by ,jesus into the world was1   
together with the invasion of the       
,germans1 the most active cause of the  
dissolution of the empire of the        
,caesars4 ,on the one hand1 the right of
 all men to participate in the kingdom  
of ,god was proclaimed4 ,on the other1  
religion was henceforth separated in    

principle from the state4 ,the rights of
 conscience1 withdrawn from political   
law1 resulted in the constitution of a  
new power--the spiritual power4 ,this   
power has more than once belied its     
origin4 ,for ages the bishops have been 
princes1 and the ,pope has been a king4 
,the pretended empire of souls has shown
 itself at various times as a frightful 
tyranny1 employing the rack and the     
stake in order to maintain itself4 ,but 
the day will come when the separation   
will bear its fruits1 when the domain of
 things spiritual will cease to be      
called a power1 that it may be called a 
liberty4 ,sprung from the conscience of 
a man of the people1 formed in the      
presence of the people1 beloved and     
admired first by the people1            
,christianity was impressed with an     
original character which will never be  
effaced4 ,it was the first triumph of   
revolution1 the victory of the popular  
idea1 the advent of the simple in heart1
 the inauguration of the beautiful as   

understood by the people4 ,jesus thus1  
in the aristocratic societies of        
antiquity1 opened the breach through    
which all will pass4  ,the civil power1 
in fact1 although innocent of the death 
of ,jesus 7it only countersigned the    
sentence1 and even in spite of itself71 
ought to bear a great share of the      
responsibility4 ,in presiding at the    
scene of ,calvary1 the state gave itself
 a serious blow4 ,a legend full of all  
kinds of disrespect prevailed1 and      
became universally known--a legend in   
which the constituted authorities played
 a hateful part1 in which it was the    
accused that was right1 and in which the
 judges and the guards were leagued     
against the truth4 ,seditious in the    
highest degree1 the history of the      
,passion1 spread by a thousand popular  
images1 displayed the ,roman eagles as  
sanctioning the most iniquitous of      
executions1 soldiers executing it1 and a
 prefect commanding it4 ,what a blow for
 all established powers6 ,they have     

never entirely recovered from it4 ,how  
can they assume infallibility in respect
 to poor men1 when they have on their   
conscience the great mistake of         
,gethsemane8#a  ,footnote #a3 ,this     
popular sentiment existed in ,brittany  
in the time of my childhood4 ,the       
gendarme was there regarded1 like the   
,jew elsewhere1 with a kind of pious    
aversion1 for it was he who arrested    
,jesus6     ,,chapter ,,xxviii4         
,,essential ,,character ,,of ,,the      
,,work ,,of ,,jesus4   ,jesus1 it will  
be seen1 limited his action entirely to 
the ,jews4 ,although his sympathy for   
those despised by orthodoxy led him to  
admit pagans into the kingdom of        
,god--although he had resided more than 
once in a pagan country1 and once or    
twice we surprise him in kindly         
relations with unbelievers#a--;it may be
 said that his life was passed entirely 
in the very restricted world in which he
 was born4 ,he was never heard of in    
,greek or ,roman countries2 his name    

appears only in profane authors of a    
hundred years later1 and then in an     
indirect manner1 in connection with     
seditious movements provoked by his     
doctrine1 or persecutions of which his  
disciples were the object4#b ,even on   
,judaism1 ,jesus made no very durable   
impression4 ,philo1 who died about the  
year #ej1 had not the slightest         
knowledge of him4 ,josephus1 born in the
 year #cg1 and writing in the last years
 of the century1 mentions his execution 
in a few lines1#c as an event of        
secondary importance1 and in the        
enumeration of the sects of his time1 he
 omits the ,christians altogether4#d ,in
 the ,mishnah1 also1 there is no trace  
of the new school2 the passages in the  
two ,gemaras in which the founder of    
,christianity is named1 do not go       
further back than the fourth or fifth   
century4#e ,the essential work of ,jesus
 was to create around him a circle of   
disciples1 whom he inspired with        
boundless affection1 and amongst whom he

 deposited the germ of his doctrine4 ,to
 have made himself beloved1 to the      
degree that after his death they ceased 
not to love him1 was the great work of  
,jesus1 and that which most struck his  
contemporaries4#f ,his doctrine was so  
little dogmatic1 that he never thought  
of writing it or of causing it to be    
written4 ,men did not become his        
disciples by believing this thing or    
that thing1 but in being attached to his
 person and in loving him4 ,a few       
sentences collected from memory1 and    
especially the type of character he set 
forth1 and the impression it had left1  
were what remained of him4 ,jesus was   
not a founder of dogmas1 or a maker of  
creeds2 he infused into the world a new 
spirit4 ,the least ,christian men were1 
on the one hand1 the doctors of the     
,greek ,church1 who1 beginning from the 
fourth century1 entangled ,christianity 
in a path of puerile metaphysical       
discussions1 and1 on the other1 the     
scholastics of the ,latin ,middle ,ages1

 who wished to draw from the ,gospel the
 thousands of articles of a colossal    
system4 ,to follow ,jesus in expectation
 of the kingdom of ,god1 was all that at
 first was implied by being ,christian4 
,footnote #a3 ,matt4 viii4 #e1 and      
following2 ,luke vii4 #a1 and following2
 ,john xii4 #bj1 and following4 ,comp4  
,jos41 ,ant41 ,,xviii4 iii4 #c4         
,footnote #b3 ,tacitus1 ,ann41 xv4 #de2 
,suetonius1 ,claudius1 #be4  ,footnote  
#c3 ,ant41 ,,xviii4 iii4 #c4 ,this      
passage has been altered by a ,christian
 hand4  ,footnote #d3 ,ant41 ,,xviii4   
i42 ,b4,j41 ,,ii4 viii42 ,vita1 #b4     
,footnote #e3 ,talm4 of ,jerusalem1     
,sanhedrim1 xiv4 #af2 ,aboda zara1 ii4  
#b2 ,shabbath1 xiv4 #d2 ,talm4 of       
,babylon1 ,sanhedrim1 #dc a1 #fg a2     
,shabbath1 #ajd b1 #aaf b4 ,comp4       
,chagigah1 #d b2 ,gittin1 #eg a1 #ij a4 
,the two ,gemaras derive the greater    
part of their data respecting ,jesus    
from a burlesque and obscene legend1    
invented by the adversaries of          

,christianity1 and of no historical     
value4  ,footnote #f3 ,jos41 ,ant41     
,,xviii4 iii4 #c4  ,it will thus be     
understood how1 by an exceptional       
destiny1 pure ,christianity still       
preserves1 after eighteen centuries1 the
 character of a universal and eternal   
religion4 ,it is1 in fact1 because the  
religion of ,jesus is in some respects  
the final religion4 ,produced by a      
perfectly spontaneous movement of souls1
 freed at its birth from all dogmatic   
restraint1 having struggled three       
hundred years for liberty of conscience1
 ,christianity1 in spite of its         
failures1 still reaps the results of its
 glorious origin4 ,to renew itself1 it  
has but to return to the ,gospel4 ,the  
kingdom of ,god1 as we conceive it1     
differs notably from the supernatural   
apparition which the first ,christians  
hoped to see appear in the clouds4 ,but 
the sentiment introduced by ,jesus into 
the world is indeed ours4 ,his perfect  
idealism is the highest rule of the     

unblemished and virtuous life4 ,he has  
created the heaven of pure souls1 where 
is found what we ask for in vain on     
earth1 the perfect nobility of the      
children of ,god1 absolute purity1 the  
total removal of the stains of the      
world2 in fine1 liberty1 which society  
excludes as an impossibility1 and which 
exists in all its amplitude only in the 
domain of thought4 ,the great ,master of
 those who take refuge in this ideal    
kingdom of ,god is still ,jesus4 ,he was
 the first to proclaim the royalty of   
the mind2 the first to say1 at least by 
his actions1 ,my kingdom is not of this 
world4 ,the foundation of true religion 
is indeed his work3 after him1 all that 
remains is to develop it and render it  
fruitful4  ,christianity has thus become
 almost a synonym of religion4 ,all that
 is done outside of this great and good 
,christian tradition is barren4 ,jesus  
gave religion to humanity1 as ,socrates 
gave it philosophy1 and ,aristotle      
science4 ,there was philosophy before   

,socrates and science before ,aristotle4
 ,since ,socrates and since ,aristotle1 
philosophy and science have made immense
 progress2 but all has been built upon  
the foundation which they laid4 ,in the 
same way1 before ,jesus1 religious      
thought had passed through many         
revolutions2 since ,jesus1 it has made  
great conquests3 but no one has         
improved1 and no one will improve upon  
the essential principle ,jesus has      
created2 he has fixed forever the idea  
of pure worship4 ,the religion of ,jesus
 in this sense is not limited4 ,the     
,church has had its epochs and its      
phases2 it has shut itself up in creeds 
which are1 or will be but temporary3 but
 ,jesus has founded the absolute        
religion1 excluding nothing1 and        
determining nothing unless it be the    
spirit4 ,his creeds are not fixed       
dogmas1 but images susceptible of       
indefinite interpretations4 ,we should  
seek in vain for a theological          
proposition in the ,gospel4 ,all        

confessions of faith are travesties of  
the idea of ,jesus1 just as the         
scholasticism of the ,middle ,ages1 in  
proclaiming ,aristotle the sole master  
of a completed science1 perverted the   
thought of ,aristotle4 ,aristotle1 if he
 had been present in the debates of the 
schools1 would have repudiated this     
narrow doctrine2 he would have been of  
the party of progressive science against
 the routine which shielded itself under
 his authority2 he would have applauded 
his opponents4 ,in the same way1 if     
,jesus were to return among us1 he would
 recognize as disciples1 not those who  
pretend to enclose him entirely in a few
 catechismal phrases1 but those who     
labor to carry on his work4 ,the eternal
 glory1 in all great things1 is to have 
laid the first stone4 ,it may be that in
 the ,physics1 and in the ,meteorology  
of modern times1 we may not discover a  
word of the treatises of ,aristotle     
which bear these titles2 but ,aristotle 
remains no less the founder of natural  

science4 ,whatever may be the           
transformations of dogma1 ,jesus will   
ever be the creator of the pure spirit  
of religion2 the ,sermon on the ,mount  
will never be surpassed4 ,whatever      
revolution takes place will not prevent 
us attaching ourselves in religion to   
the grand intellectual and moral line at
 the head of which shines the name of   
,jesus4 ,in this sense we are           
,christians1 even when we separate      
ourselves on almost all points from the 
,christian tradition which has preceded 
us4  ,and this great foundation was     
indeed the personal work of ,jesus4 ,in 
order to make himself adored to this    
degree1 he must have been adorable4     
,love is not enkindled except by an     
object worthy of it1 and we should know 
nothing of ,jesus1 if it were not for   
the passion he inspired in those about  
him1 which compels us still to affirm   
that he was great and pure4 ,the faith1 
the enthusiasm1 the constancy of the    
first ,christian generation is not      

explicable1 except by supposing at the  
origin of the whole movement1 a man of  
surpassing greatness4 ,at the sight of  
the marvellous creations of the ages of 
faith1 two impressions equally fatal to 
good historical criticism arise in the  
mind4 ,on the one hand we are led to    
think these creations too impersonal2 we
 attribute to a collective action1 that 
which has often been the work of one    
powerful will1 and of one superior mind4
 ,on the other hand1 we refuse to see   
men like ourselves in the authors of    
those extraordinary movements which have
 decided the fate of humanity4 ,let us  
have a larger idea of the powers which  
,nature conceals in her bosom4 ,our     
civilizations1 governed by minute       
restrictions1 cannot give us any idea of
 the power of man at periods in which   
the originality of each one had a freer 
field wherein to develop itself4 ,let us
 imagine a recluse dwelling in the      
mountains near our capitals1 coming out 
from time to time in order to present   

himself at the palaces of sovereigns1   
compelling the sentinels to stand aside1
 and1 with an imperious tone1 announcing
 to kings the approach of revolutions of
 which he had been the promoter4 ,the   
very idea provokes a smile4 ,such1      
however1 was ,elias2 but ,elias the     
,tishbite1 in our days1 would not be    
able to pass the gate of the ,tuileries4
 ,the preaching of ,jesus1 and his free 
activity in ,galilee1 do not deviate    
less completely from the social         
conditions to which we are accustomed4  
,free from our polished                 
conventionalities1 exempt from the      
uniform education which refines us1 but 
which so greatly dwarfs our             
individuality1 these mighty souls       
carried a surprising energy into action4
 ,they appear to us like the giants of  
an heroic age1 which could not have been
 real4 ,profound error6 ,those men were 
our brothers2 they were of our stature1 
felt and thought as we do4 ,but the     
breath of ,god was free in them2 with   

us1 it is restrained by the iron bonds  
of a mean society1 and condemned to an  
irremediable mediocrity4  ,let us place1
 then1 the person of ,jesus at the      
highest summit of human greatness4 ,let 
us not be misled by exaggerated doubts  
in the presence of a legend which keeps 
us always in a superhuman world4 ,the   
life of ,francis d',assisi is also but a
 tissue of miracles4 ,has any one1      
however1 doubted of the existence of    
,francis d',assisi1 and of the part     
played by him8 ,let us say no more that 
the glory of the foundation of          
,christianity belongs to the multitude  
of the first ,christians1 and not to him
 whom legend has deified4 ,the          
inequality of men is much more marked in
 the ,east than with us4 ,it is not rare
 to see arise there1 in the midst of a  
general atmosphere of wickedness1       
characters whose greatness astonishes   
us4 ,so far from ,jesus having been     
created by his disciples1 he appeared in
 everything as superior to his          

disciples4 ,the latter1 with the        
exception of ,st4 ,paul and ,st4 ,john1 
were men without either invention or    
genius4 ,st4 ,paul himself bears no     
comparison with ,jesus1 and as to ,st4  
,john1 ,i shall show hereafter1 that the
 part he played1 though very elevated in
 one sense1 was far from being in all   
respects irreproachable4 ,hence the     
immense superiority of the ,gospels     
among the writings of the ,new          
,testament4 ,hence the painful fall we  
experience in passing from the history  
of ,jesus to that of the apostles4 ,the 
evangelists themselves1 who have        
bequeathed us the image of ,jesus1 are  
so much beneath him of whom they speak1 
that they constantly disfigure him1 from
 their inability to attain to his       
height4 ,their writings are full of     
errors and misconceptions4 ,we feel in  
each line a discourse of divine beauty1 
transcribed by narrators who do not     
understand it1 and who substitute their 
own ideas for those which they have only

 half understood4 ,on the whole1 the    
character of ,jesus1 far from having    
been embellished by his biographers1 has
 been lowered by them4 ,criticism1 in   
order to find what he was1 needs to     
discard a series of misconceptions1     
arising from the inferiority of the     
disciples4 ,these painted him as they   
understood him1 and often in thinking to
 raise him1 they have in reality lowered
 him4  ,i know that our modern ideas    
have been offended more than once in    
this legend1 conceived by another race1 
under another sky1 and in the midst of  
other social wants4 ,there are virtues  
which1 in some respects1 are more       
conformable to our taste4 ,the virtuous 
and gentle ,marcus ,aurelius1 the humble
 and gentle ,spinoza1 not having        
believed in miracles1 have been free    
from some errors that ,jesus shared4    
,spinoza1 in his profound obscurity1 had
 an advantage which ,jesus did not seek4
 ,by our extreme delicacy in the use of 
means of conviction1 by our absolute    

sincerity and our disinterested love of 
the pure idea1 we have founded--all we  
who have devoted our lives to science--a
 new ideal of morality4 ,but the        
judgment of general history ought not to
 be restricted to considerations of     
personal merit4 ,marcus ,aurelius and   
his noble teachers have had no permanent
 influence on the world4 ,marcus        
,aurelius left behind him delightful    
books1 an execrable son1 and a decaying 
nation4 ,jesus remains an inexhaustible 
principle of moral regeneration for     
humanity4 ,philosophy does not suffice  
for the multitude4 ,they must have      
sanctity4 ,an ,apollonius of ,tyana1    
with his miraculous legend1 is          
necessarily more successful than a      
,socrates with his cold reason4         
,socrates1 it was said1 leaves men on   
the earth1 ,apollonius transports them  
to heaven2 ,socrates is but a sage1     
,apollonius is a god4#a ,religion1 so   
far1 has not existed without a share of 
asceticism1 of piety1 and of the        

marvellous4 ,when it was wished1 after  
the ,antonines1 to make a religion of   
philosophy1 it was requisite to         
transform the philosophers into saints1 
to write the ,edifying ,life of         
,pythagoras or ,plotinus1 to attribute  
to them a legend1 virtues of abstinence1
 contemplation1 and supernatural powers1
 without which neither credence nor     
authority were found in that age4       
,footnote #a3 ,philostratus1 ,life of   
,apollonius1 i4 #b1 vii4 #aa1 viii4 #g2 
,unapius1 ,lives of the ,sophists1 pages
 #ded1 #ejj 7edition ,didot74  ,preserve
 us1 then1 from mutilating history in   
order to satisfy our petty              
susceptibilities6 ,which of us1 pigmies 
as we are1 could do what the extravagant
 ,francis d',assisi1 or the hysterical  
saint ,theresa1 has done8 ,let medicine 
have names to express these grand errors
 of human nature2 let it maintain that  
genius is a disease of the brain2 let it
 see1 in a certain delicacy of morality1
 the commencement of consumption2 let it

 class enthusiasm and love as nervous   
accidents--it matters little4 ,the terms
 healthy and diseased are entirely      
relative4 ,who would not prefer to be   
diseased like ,pascal1 rather than      
healthy like the common herd8 ,the      
narrow ideas which are spread in our    
times respecting madness1 mislead our   
historical judgments in the most serious
 manner1 in questions of this kind4 ,a  
state in which a man says things of     
which he is not conscious1 in which     
thought is produced without the summons 
and control of the will1 exposes him to 
being confined as a lunatic4 ,formerly  
this was called prophecy and            
inspiration4 ,the most beautiful things 
in the world are done in a state of     
fever2 every great creation involves a  
breach of equilibrium1 a violent state  
of the being which draws it forth4  ,we 
acknowledge1 indeed1 that ,christianity 
is too complex to have been the work of 
a single man4 ,in one sense1 entire     
humanity has co-operated therein4 ,there

 is no one so shut in1 as not to receive
 some influence from without4 ,the      
history of the human mind is full of    
strange coincidences1 which cause very  
remote portions of the human species1   
without any communication with each     
other1 to arrive at the same time at    
almost identical ideas and imaginations4
 ,in the thirteenth century1 the        
,latins1 the ,greeks1 the ,syrians1 the 
,jews1 and the ,mussulmans1 adopted     
scholasticism1 and very nearly the same 
scholasticism from ,york to ,samarcand2 
in the fourteenth century every one in  
,italy1 ,persia1 and ,india1 yielded to 
the taste for mystical allegory2 in the 
sixteenth1 art was developed in a very  
similar manner in ,italy1 at ,mount     
,athos1 and at the court of the ,great  
,moguls1 without ,st4 ,thomas1          
,barhebraeus1 the ,rabbis of ,narbonne1 
or the ,motecallemin of ,bagdad1 having 
known each other1 without ,dante and    
,petrarch having seen any sofi1 without 
any pupil of the schools of ,perouse or 

of ,florence having been at ,delhi4 ,we 
should say there are great moral        
influences running through the world    
like epidemics1 without distinction of  
frontier and of race4 ,the interchange  
of ideas in the human species does not  
take place only by books or by direct   
instruction4 ,jesus was ignorant of the 
very name of ,buddha1 of ,zoroaster1 and
 of ,plato2 he had read no ,greek book1 
no ,buddhist ,sudra2 nevertheless1 there
 was in him more than one element1      
which1 without his suspecting it1 came  
from ,buddhism1 ,parseeism1 or from the 
,greek wisdom4 ,all this was done       
through secret channels and by that kind
 of sympathy which exists among the     
various portions of humanity4 ,the great
 man1 on the one hand1 receives         
everything from his age2 on the other1  
he governs his age4 ,to show that the   
religion founded by ,jesus was the      
natural consequence of that which had   
gone before1 does not diminish its      
excellence2 but only proves that it had 

a reason for its existence that it was  
legitimate1 that is to say1 conformable 
to the instinct and wants of the heart  
in a given age4  ,is it more just to say
 that ,jesus owes all to ,judaism1 and  
that his greatness is only that of the  
,jewish people8 ,no one is more disposed
 than myself to place high this unique  
people1 whose particular gift seems to  
have been to contain in its midst the   
extremes of good and evil4 ,no doubt1   
,jesus proceeded from ,judaism2 but he  
proceeded from it as ,socrates proceeded
 from the schools of the ,sophists1 as  
,luther proceeded from the ,middle      
,ages1 as ,lamennais from ,catholicism1 
as ,rousseau from the eighteenth        
century4 ,a man is of his age and his   
race even when he reacts against his age
 and his race4 ,far from ,jesus having  
continued ,judaism1 he represents the   
rupture with the ,jewish spirit4 ,the   
general direction of ,christianity after
 him does not permit the supposition    
that his idea in this respect could lead

 to any misunderstanding4 ,the general  
march of ,christianity has been to      
remove itself more and more from        
,judaism4 ,it will become perfect in    
returning to ,jesus1 but certainly not  
in returning to ,judaism4 ,the great    
originality of the founder remains then 
undiminished2 his glory admits no       
legitimate sharer4  ,doubtless1         
circumstances much aided the success of 
this marvellous revolution2 but         
circumstances only second that which is 
just and true4 ,each branch of the      
development of humanity has its         
privileged epoch1 in which it attains   
perfection by a sort of spontaneous     
instinct1 and without effort4 ,no labor 
of reflection would succeed in producing
 afterward the masterpieces which       
,nature creates at those moments by     
inspired geniuses4 ,that which the      
golden age of ,greece was for arts and  
literature1 the age of ,jesus was for   
religion4 ,jewish society exhibited the 
most extraordinary moral and            

intellectual state which the human      
species has ever passed through4 ,it was
 truly one of those divine hours in     
which the sublime is produced by        
combinations of a thousand hidden       
forces1 in which great souls find a     
flood of admiration and sympathy to     
sustain them4 ,the world1 delivered from
 the very narrow tyranny of small       
municipal republics1 enjoyed great      
liberty4 ,roman despotism did not make  
itself felt in a disastrous manner until
 much later1 and it was1 moreover1      
always less oppressive in those distant 
provinces than in the centre of the     
empire4 ,our petty preventive           
interferences 7far more destructive than
 death to things of the spirit7 did not 
exist4 ,jesus1 during three years1 could
 lead a life which1 in our societies1   
would have brought him twenty times     
before the magistrates4 ,our laws upon  
the illegal exercise of medicine would  
alone have sufficed to cut short his    
career4 ,the unbelieving dynasty of the 

,herods1 on the other hand1 occupied    
itself little with religious movements2 
under the ,asmoneans1 ,jesus would      
probably have been arrested at his first
 step4 ,an innovator1 in such a state of
 society1 only risked death1 and death  
is a gain to those who labor for the    
future4 ,imagine ,jesus reduced to bear 
the burden of his divinity until his    
sixtieth or seventieth year1 losing his 
celestial fire1 wearing out little by   
little under the burden of an           
unparalleled mission6 ,everything favors
 those who have a special destiny2 they 
become glorious by a sort of invincible 
impulse and command of fate4  ,this     
sublime person1 who each day still      
presides over the destiny of the world1 
we may call divine1 not in the sense    
that ,jesus has absorbed all the divine1
 or has been adequate to it 7to employ  
an expression of the schoolmen71 but in 
the sense that ,jesus is the one who has
 caused his fellow-men to make the      
greatest step toward the divine4        

,mankind in its totality offers an      
assemblage of low beings1 selfish1 and  
superior to the animal only in that its 
selfishness is more reflective4 ,from   
the midst of this uniform mediocrity1   
there are pillars that rise toward the  
sky1 and bear witness to a nobler       
destiny4 ,jesus is the highest of these 
pillars which show to man whence he     
comes1 and whither he ought to tend4 ,in
 him was condensed all that is good and 
elevated in our nature4 ,he was not     
sinless2 he has conquered the same      
passions that we combat2 no angel of    
,god comforted him1 except his good     
conscience2 no ,satan tempted him1      
except that which each one bears in his 
heart4 ,in the same way that many of his
 great qualities are lost to us1 through
 the fault of his disciples1 it is also 
probable that many of his faults have   
been concealed4 ,but never has any one  
so much as he made the interests of     
humanity predominate in his life over   
the littlenesses of self-love4          

,unreservedly devoted to his mission1 he
 subordinated everything to it to such a
 degree that1 toward the end of his     
life1 the universe no longer existed for
 him4 ,it was by this access of heroic  
will that he conquered heaven4 ,there   
never was a man1 ,cakya-,mouni perhaps  
excepted1 who has to this degree        
trampled under foot1 family1 the joys of
 this world1 and all temporal care4     
,jesus only lived for his ,father and   
the divine mission which he believed    
himself destined to fulfill4  ,as to us1
 eternal children1 powerless as we are1 
we who labor without reaping1 and who   
will never see the fruit of that which  
we have sown1 let us bow before these   
demi-gods4 ,they were able to do that   
which we cannot do3 to create1 to       
affirm1 to act4 ,will great originality 
be born again1 or will the world content
 itself henceforth by following the ways
 opened by the bold creators of the     
ancient ages8 ,we know not4 ,but        
whatever may be the unexpected phenomena

 of the future1 ,jesus will not be      
surpassed4 ,his worship will constantly 
renew its youth1 the tale of his life   
will cause ceaseless tears1 his         
sufferings will soften the best hearts2 
all the ages will proclaim that among   
the sons of men1 there is none born who 
is greater than ,jesus4   ,,the ,,end4  
,modern ,library of the ,world's ,best  
,books  ,,complete ,,list ,,of ,,titles 
,,in  ,,the ,,modern ,,library  ,for    
convenience in ordering use number at   
right of title         99       99      
99       99       99  ,,adams1 ,,henry  
,the ,education of ,henry ,adams #gf    
,,aiken1 ,,conrad              ,a       
,comprehensive ,anthology of            
,american ,poetry #aja ,,aiken1 ,,conrad
              #bjth-,century ,american  
,poetry #abg ,,anderson1 ,,sherwood     
,winesburg1 ,ohio #ajd ,,aquinas1 ,,st4 
,,thomas        ,introduction to ,st4   
,thomas ,aquinas #bei ,,aristotle       
,introduction to ,aristotle #bdh        
,,aristotle                  ,politics  

#bbh ,,balzac                     ,droll
 ,stories #aic ,,balzac                 
,pere ,goriot and ,eugenie ,grandet #bde
 ,,beerbohm1 ,,max              ,zuleika
 ,dobson #aaf ,,bellamy1 ,,edward       
,looking ,backward #bb ,,bennett1       
,,arnold            ,the ,old ,wives'   
,tale #ahd ,,bergson1 ,,henri           
,creative ,evolution #bca ,,bierce1     
,,ambrose            ,in the ,midst of  
,life #acc ,,boccaccio                  
,the ,decameron #ga ,,bronte1           
,,charlotte          ,jane ,eyre #fd    
,,bronte1 ,,emily                       
,wuthering ,heights #ajf ,,buck1 ,,pearl
                ,the ,good ,earth #ae   
,,burk1 ,,john ,n4              ,the    
,life and ,works of ,beethoven #bda     
,,burton1 ,,richard            ,the     
,arabian ,nights #bja ,,butler1 ,,samuel
             ,erewhon and ,erewhon      
,revisited #acf ,,butler1 ,,samuel      
,the ,way of ,all ,flesh #ac ,,byrne1   
,,donn                ,messer ,marco    
,polo #dc ,,caldwell1 ,,erskine         

,god's ,little ,acre #ea ,,caldwell1    
,,erskine          ,tobacco ,road #bdi  
,,canfield1 ,,dorothy          ,the     
,deepening ,stream #bjj ,,carroll1      
,,lewis             ,alice in           
,wonderland1 etc4 #gi ,,casanova1       
,,jacques          ,memoirs of ,casanova
 #afe ,,cellini1 ,,benvenuto            
,autobiography of ,cellini #aej         
,,cervantes                  ,don       
,quixote #agd ,,chaucer                 
,the ,canterbury ,tales #afa ,,commager1
 ,,henry ,,steele     ,a ,short ,history
 of the ,united ,states #bce ,,confucius
                  ,the ,wisdom of       
,confucius #g ,,conrad1 ,,joseph        
,heart of ,darkness                     
7,in ,great ,modern ,short ,stories     
#afh7 ,,conrad1 ,,joseph                
,lord ,jim #ahf ,,conrad1 ,,joseph      
,victory #ahf ,,corneille and ,,racine  
,six ,plays of ,corneille and ,racine   
#aid ,,corvo1 ,,frederick ,,baron     ,a
 ,history of the ,borgias #aib ,,crane1 
,,stephen             ,the ,red ,badge  

of ,courage #acj ,,cummings1 ,e4,e4     
,the ,enormous ,room #bad ,,dana1       
,,richard ,,henry        ,two ,years    
,before the ,mast #bcf ,,dante          
,the ,divine ,comedy #bjh ,,day1        
,,clarence              ,life with      
,father #bcj ,,defoe1 ,,daniel          
,robinson ,crusoe and ,a ,journal of the
                              ,plague   
,year #ib ,,defoe1 ,,daniel             
,moll ,flanders #abb ,,dewey1 ,,john    
,human ,nature and ,conduct #agc        
,,dickens1 ,,charles           ,a ,tale 
of ,two ,cities #ahi ,,dickens1         
,,charles           ,david ,copperfield 
#aaj ,,dickens1 ,,charles               
,pickwick ,papers #bjd ,,dickinson1     
,,emily           ,selected ,poems of   
#be ,,dinesen1 ,,isak                   
,seven ,gothic ,tales #ed ,,dos         
,,passos1 ,,john           ,three       
,soldiers #bje ,,dostoyevsky1 ,,fyodor  
,crime and ,punishment #aii             
,,dostoyevsky1 ,,fyodor        ,the     
,brothers ,karamazov #aea ,,dostoyevsky1

 ,,fyodor        ,the ,possessed #ee    
,,douglas1 ,,norman            ,south   
,wind #e ,,doyle1 ,,sir ,,arthur ,,conan
    ,the ,adventures and ,memoirs of    
,sherlock                               
,holmes #bjf ,,dreiser1 ,,theodore      
,sister ,carrie #h ,,dumas1 ,,alexandre 
,camille #fi ,,dumas1 ,,alexandre       
,the ,three ,musketeers #adc ,,du       
,,maurier1 ,,daphne         ,rebecca    
#bbg ,,du ,,maurier1 ,,george           
,peter ,ibbetson #bjg ,,edman1 ,,irwin  
,the ,philosophy of ,plato #aha ,,edman1
 ,,irwin               ,the ,philosophy 
of ,santayana #bbd ,,ellis1 ,,havelock  
,the ,dance of ,life #afj ,,emerson1    
,,ralph ,,waldo       ,essays and ,other
 ,writings #ia ,,fast1 ,,howard         
,the ,unvanquished #bci ,,faulkner1     
,,william          ,sanctuary #fa       
,,faulkner1 ,,william          ,the     
,sound and the ,fury and ,as ,i ,lay    
,dying #ahg ,,fielding1 ,,henry         
,joseph ,andrews #aag ,,fielding1       
,,henry            ,tom ,jones #ahe     

,,flaubert1 ,,gustave          ,madame  
,bovary #bh ,,forester1 ,c4,s4          
,the ,african ,queen #ajb ,,forster1    
,e4,m4              ,a ,passage to      
,india #bah ,,france1 ,,anatole         
,penguin ,island #baj ,,franklin1       
,,benjamin         ,autobiography1 etc4 
#ci ,,frost1 ,,robert              ,the 
,poems of #bdb ,,galsworthy1 ,,john     
,the ,apple ,tree                       
7,in ,great ,modern ,short ,stories     
#afh7 ,,gautier1 ,,theophile            
,mlle4 ,de ,maupin and                  
,one of ,cleopatra's ,nights #ec        
,,george1 ,,henry              ,progress
 and ,poverty #cf ,,godden1 ,,rumer     
,black ,narcissus #bef ,,goethe         
,faust #agg ,,goethe                    
,the ,sorrows of ,werther               
7,in ,collected ,german ,stories #ajh7  
,,gogol1 ,,nikolai              ,dead   
,souls #dj ,,graves1 ,,robert           
,i1 ,claudius #bj ,,hammett1 ,,dashiell 
,the ,maltese ,falcon #de ,,hamsun1     
,,knut               ,growth of the     

,soil #ab ,,hardy1 ,,thomas             
,jude the ,obscure #ace ,,hardy1        
,,thomas              ,the ,mayor of    
,casterbridge #ag ,,hardy1 ,,thomas     
,the ,return of the ,native #aba        
,,hardy1 ,,thomas              ,tess of 
the ,d',urbervilles #gb ,,hart ,,and    
,,kaufman           ,six ,plays by #bcc 
,,harte1 ,,bret                ,the     
,best ,stories of #bej ,,hawthorne1     
,,nathaniel       ,the ,scarlet ,letter 
#ic ,,hellman1 ,,lillian           ,four
 ,plays by #bbc ,,hemingway1 ,,ernest   
,a ,farewell to ,arms #ai ,,hemingway1  
,,ernest          ,the ,sun ,also ,rises
 #agj ,,hemon1 ,,louis                  
,maria ,chapdelaine #aj ,,henry1 ,o4    
,best ,short ,stones of #d ,,herodotus  
,the ,complete ,works of #bee ,,hersey1 
,,john               ,a ,bell for ,adano
 #af ,,homer                      ,the  
,iliad #aff ,,homer                     
,the ,odyssey #afg ,,horace             
,the ,complete ,works of #ada ,,hudson1 
,w4,h4               ,green ,mansions   

#hi ,,hudson1 ,w4,h4               ,the 
,purple ,land #bd ,,hughes1 ,,richard   
,a ,high ,wind in ,jamaica #aab ,,hugo1 
,,victor               ,the ,hunchback  
of ,notre ,dame #ce ,,huxley1 ,,aldous  
,antic ,hay #bji ,,huxley1 ,,aldous     
,point ,counter ,point #ahj ,,ibsen1    
,,henrik              ,a ,doll's ,house1
 ,ghosts1 etc4 #f ,,irving1 ,,washington
         ,selected ,writings of         
,washington ,irving                     
#bdj ,,jackson1 ,,charles           ,the
 ,lost ,weekend #beh ,,james1 ,,henry   
,the ,portrait of a ,lady #ajg ,,james1 
,,henry               ,the ,turn of the 
,screw #afi ,,james1 ,,henry            
,the ,wings of the ,dove #bdd ,,james1  
,,william             ,the ,philosophy  
of ,william ,james #aad ,,james1        
,,william             ,the ,varieties of
 ,religious ,experience #gj ,,jeffers1  
,,william           ,roan ,stallion2    
,tamar and ,other                       
,poems #aah ,,jefferson1 ,,thomas       
,the ,life and ,selected ,writings of   

#bcd ,,joyce1 ,,james                   
,dubliners #abd ,,joyce1 ,,james        
,a ,portrait of the ,artist as a ,young 
,man #ade ,,kaufman ,,and ,,hart        
,six ,plays by #bcc ,,koestler1 ,,arthur
           ,darkness at ,noon #gd       
,,kuprin1 ,,alexandre          ,yama    
#bjc ,,laotse                     ,the  
,wisdom of #bfb ,,lardner1 ,,ring       
,the ,collected ,short ,stories of #baa 
,,lawrence1 ,d4,h4             ,the     
,rainbow #abh ,,lawrence1 ,d4,h4        
,sons and ,lovers #aji ,,lawrence1      
,d4,h4             ,women in ,love #fh  
,,lewis1 ,,sinclair                     
,arrowsmith #db ,,lewis1 ,,sinclair     
,babbitt #afb ,,lewis1 ,,sinclair       
,dodsworth #beb ,,longfellow1 ,,henry   
,w4       ,poems #ef ,,louys1 ,,pierre  
,aphrodite #gg ,,ludwig1 ,,emil         
,napoleon #ie ,,machiavelli             
,the ,prince and ,the ,discourses of    
,machiavelli #fe ,,malraux1 ,,andre     
,man's ,fate #cc ,,mann1 ,,thomas       
,death in ,venice                       

7,in ,collected ,german ,stories #ajh7  
,,mansfield1 ,,katherine       ,the     
,garden ,party #abi ,,marquand1 ,,john  
,p4          ,the ,late ,george ,apley  
#ahb ,,marx1 ,,karl                     
,capital and ,other ,writings #bjb      
,,maugham1 ,w4 ,,somerset       ,of     
,human ,bondage #agf ,,maugham1 ,w4     
,,somerset       ,the ,moon and         
,sixpence #bg ,,maupassant1 ,,guy ,,de  
,best ,short ,stories #ih ,,maurois1    
,,andre             ,disraeli #df       
,mc,f,e,e1 ,,william                    
,casuals of the ,sea #aie ,,melville1   
,,herman           ,moby ,dick #aai     
,,meredith1 ,,george           ,diana of
 the ,crossways #ad ,,meredith1 ,,george
           ,the ,ordeal of ,richard     
,feverel #acd ,,meredith1 ,,george      
,the ,egoist #bec ,,merejkowski1        
,,dmitri        ,the ,romance of        
,leonardo da ,vinci #ach ,,milton1      
,,john               ,the ,complete     
,poetry and ,selected                   
,prose of ,john ,milton #acb            

,,miscellaneous              ,an        
,anthology of ,american ,negro          
,literature #afc                        
,an ,anthology of ,light ,verse #dh     
,best ,amer4 ,humorous ,short ,stories  
#hg                            ,best    
,russian ,short ,stories1 including     
,bunin's ,the ,gentleman from ,san      
,francisco #ah                          
,eight ,famous ,elizabethan ,plays #id  
,famous ,ghost ,stories #gc             
,five ,great ,modern ,irish ,plays #cj  
,four ,famous ,greek ,plays #aeh        
,fourteen ,great ,detective ,stories    
#add                            ,great  
,german ,short ,novels and              
,stories #ajh                           
,great ,modern ,short ,stories #afh     
,great ,tales of the ,american ,west    
#bch                            ,outline
 of ,abnormal ,psychology #aeb          
,outline of ,psychoanalysis #ff         
,the ,consolation of ,philosophy #bbf   
,the ,federalist #aci                   
,the ,making of ,man3 ,an ,outline of   

,anthropology #adi                      
,the ,making of ,society3 ,an ,outline  
of                                      
,sociology #ahc                         
,the ,poetry of ,freedom #age           
,the ,sex ,problem in ,modern ,society  
#aih                            ,the    
,short ,bible #eg                       
,three ,famous ,french ,romances #he    
,sapho1 by ,alphonse ,daudet            
,manon ,lescaut1 by ,antoine ,prevost   
,carmen1 by ,prosper ,merimee ,,moliere 
,plays #gh ,,morley1 ,,christopher      
,parnassus on ,wheels #aij ,,nash1      
,,ogden                ,the ,selected   
,verse of ,ogden ,nash #aia ,,nevins1   
,,allan              ,a ,short ,history 
of the ,united ,states #bce ,,nietzsche1
 ,,friedrich       ,thus ,spake         
,zarathustra #i ,,nostradamus           
,oracles of #ha ,,odets1 ,,clifford     
,six ,plays of #fg ,o',,neill1 ,,eugene 
,the ,emperor ,jones1 ,anna ,christie   
and                              ,the   
,hairy ,ape #adf ,o',,neill1 ,,eugene   

,the ,long ,voyage ,home and ,seven     
,plays of the ,sea #aaa ,,palgrave1     
,,francis          ,the ,golden         
,treasury #bcb ,,parker1 ,,dorothy      
,the ,collected ,short ,stories of #abc 
,,parker1 ,,dorothy            ,the     
,collected ,poetry of #bcg ,,pascal1    
,,blaise             ,pensees and ,the  
,provincial ,letters #afd ,,pater1      
,,walter              ,marius the       
,epicurean #ij ,,pater1 ,,walter        
,the ,renaissance #hf ,,paul1 ,,elliot  
,the ,life and ,death of a ,spanish     
,town #bbe ,,pearson1 ,,edmund          
,studies in ,murder #aac ,,pepys1       
,,samuel              ,samuel ,pepys'   
,diary #ajc ,,perelman1 ,s4,j4          
,the ,best of #bdg ,,petronius ,,arbiter
          ,the ,satyricon #aef ,,plato  
,the ,philosophy of ,plato #aha ,,plato 
,the ,republic #aec ,,poe1 ,,edgar      
,,allan           ,best ,tales #hb      
,,polo1 ,,marco                ,the     
,travels of ,marco ,polo #aif ,,pope1   
,,alexander            ,selected ,works 

of #beg ,,porter1 ,,katherine ,,anne    
,flowering ,judas #hh ,,proust1 ,,marcel
             ,swann's ,way #ei ,,proust1
 ,,marcel             ,within a ,budding
 ,grove #agb ,,proust1 ,,marcel         
,the ,guermantes ,way #bac ,,proust1    
,,marcel             ,cities of the     
,plain #bbj ,,proust1 ,,marcel          
,the ,captive #abj ,,proust1 ,,marcel   
,the ,sweet ,cheat ,gone #bfj           
,,rawlings1 ,,marjorie ,,kinnan  ,the   
,yearling #bdf ,,reade1 ,,charles       
,the ,cloister and the ,hearth #fb      
,,reed1 ,,john                 ,ten     
,days that ,shook the ,world #bae       
,,renan1 ,,ernest              ,the     
,life of ,jesus #adj ,,rostand1 ,,edmond
            ,cyrano de ,bergerac #aed   
,,rousseau1 ,,jean ,,jacques     ,the   
,confessions of ,jean ,jacques          
,rousseau #bdc ,,russell1 ,,bertrand    
,selected ,papers of ,bertrand ,russell 
#acg ,,schopenhauer               ,the  
,philosophy of ,schopenhauer #eb        
,,shakespeare1 ,,william                

,tragedies1 #a1 #a;,a--complete1 #b     
vols4 ,,shakespeare1 ,,william          
,comedies1 #b1 #b;,a--complete1 #b vols4
 ,,shakespeare1 ,,william               
,histories1 #c                          
,histories1 ,poems1 #c;,a  complete1 #b 
vols4 ,,sheean1 ,,vincent               
,personal ,history #cb ,,smollett1      
,,tobias           ,humphry ,clinker    
#aei ,,snow1 ,,edgar                ,red
 ,star ,over ,china #abf ,,spinoza      
,the ,philosophy of ,spinoza #fj        
,,steinbeck1 ,,john            ,in      
,dubious ,battle #aae ,,steinbeck1      
,,john            ,of ,mice and ,men #bi
 ,,steinbeck1 ,,john            ,the    
,grapes of ,wrath #adh ,,steinbeck1     
,,john            ,tortilla ,flat #baf  
,,stendhal                   ,the ,red  
and the ,black #aeg ,,sterne1 ,,laurence
           ,tristram ,shandy #adg       
,,stewart1 ,,george ,r4         ,storm  
#bed ,,stoker1 ,,bram                   
,dracula #ca ,,stone1 ,,irving          
,lust for ,life #aa ,,stowe1 ,,harriet  

,,beecher     ,uncle ,tom's ,cabin #bfa 
,,strachey1 ,,lytton           ,eminent 
,victorians #bab ,,suetonius            
,lives of the ,twelve ,caesars #ahh     
,,swift1 ,,jonathan                     
,gulliver's ,travels1 ,a ,tale of a     
,tub1 ,the                              
,battle of the ,books #ajj ,,swinburne1 
,,charles         ,poems #bc ,,symonds1 
,,john ,a4           ,the ,life of      
,michelangelo #di ,,tacitus             
,the ,complete ,works of #bbb ,,tchekov1
 ,,anton             ,short ,stories #ej
 ,,tchekov1 ,,anton             ,sea    
,gull1 ,cherry ,orchard1 ,three         
,sisters1                               
etc4 #aga ,,thackeray1 ,,william        
,henry ,esmond #hj ,,thackeray1         
,,william         ,vanity ,fair #aca    
,,thompson1 ,,francis          ,complete
 ,poems #ch ,,thoreau1 ,,henry ,,david  
,walden and ,other ,writings #aee       
,,thucydides                 ,the       
,complete ,writings of #eh ,,tolstoy1   
,,leo               ,anna ,karenina #cg 

,,tomlinson1 ,h4,m4            ,the ,sea
 and the ,jungle #ii ,,trollope1        
,,anthony          ,barchester ,towers  
and ,the ,warden #da ,,trollope1        
,,anthony          ,the ,eustace        
,diamonds #bea ,,turgenev1 ,,ivan       
,fathers and ,sons #ba ,,van ,,loon1    
,,hendrik ,w4       ,ancient ,man #aje  
,,veblen1 ,,thorstein          ,the     
,theory of the ,leisure ,class #fc      
,,virgil',s ,,works                     
,including ,the ,aeneid1 ,eclogues1 and 
,georgics #ge ,,voltaire                
,candide #dg ,,walpole1 ,,hugh          
,fortitude #agh ,,walton1 ,,izaak       
,the ,compleat ,angler #bf ,,webb1      
,,mary                 ,precious ,bane  
#bai ,,wells1 ,h4,g4                    
,tono ,bungay #aig ,,wharton1 ,,edith   
,the ,age of ,innocence #bbi ,,whitman1 
,,walt              ,leaves of ,grass   
#ig ,,wilde1 ,,oscar                    
,dorian ,gray1 ,de ,profundis #abe      
,,wilde1 ,,oscar               ,poems   
and ,fairy ,tales #hd ,,wilde1 ,,oscar  

,the ,plays of ,oscar ,wilde #hc        
,,woolf1 ,,virginia            ,mrs4    
,dalloway #if ,,woolf1 ,,virginia       
,to the ,lighthouse #bag ,,wright1      
,,richard            ,native ,son #bba  
,,yeats1 ,w4,b4                ,irish   
,fairy and ,folk ,tales #dd ,,young1    
,g4,f4                ,the ,medici #agi 
,,zola1 ,,emile                ,nana    
#adb ,,zweig1 ,,stefan                  
,amok 7,in ,collected ,german ,stories  
#ajh7     ,,modern ,,library ,,giants   
,a series of full-sized library editions
 of books that formerly were available  
only in cumbersome and expensive sets4  
,,the ,,modern ,,library ,,giants       
,,represent ,a ,,selection ,,of ,,the   
,,world',s ,,greatest ,,books  ,many are
 illustrated and some of them are over  
#abjj pages long4         99       99   
99       99       99  ,g#a4  ,,tolstoy1 
,,leo4 ,war and ,peace4 ,g#b4           
,,boswell1 ,,james4 ,life of ,samuel    
,johnson4 ,g#c4  ,,hugo1 ,,victor4 ,les 
,miserables4 ,g#d4  ,,the ,,complete    

,,poems ,,of ,,keats ,,and ,,shelley4   
,g#e4  ,,plutarch',s ,,lives 7,the      
,dryden ,translation74 ,g#f4 ,,gibbon1  
,,edward4 ,the ,decline and ,fall of the
 ,roman ,g#g4   ,empire 7,complete in   
three volumes74 ,g#h4 ,g#i4  ,,young1   
,g4,f4 ,the ,medici 7,illustrated74     
,g#aj4 ,,twelve ,,famous ,,restoration  
,,plays 7#affj-ahbj7        7,congreve1 
,wycherley1 ,gay1 ,goldsmith1 ,sheridan1
 etc47 ,g#aa4 ,,james1 ,,henry4 ,the    
,short ,stories of4 ,g#ab4 ,,the ,,most 
,,popular ,,novels ,,of ,,sir ,,walter  
,,scott 7,quentin ,durward1 ,ivanhoe and
 ,kenilworth74 ,g#ac4 ,,carlyle1        
,,thomas4 ,the ,french ,revolution4     
,g#ad4 ,,bulfinch',s ,,mythology        
7,illustrated74 ,g#ae4 ,,cervantes4 ,don
 ,quixote 7,illustrated74 ,g#af4        
,,wolfe1 ,,thomas4 ,look ,homeward1     
,angel4 ,g#ag4 ,,the ,,poems ,,and      
,,plays ,,of ,,robert ,,browning4 ,g#ah4
 ,,eleven ,,plays ,,of ,,henrik ,,ibsen4
 ,g#ai4 ,,the ,,complete ,,works ,,of   
,,homer4 ,g#bj4 ,,the ,,life ,,and      

,,writings ,,of ,,abraham ,,lincoln4    
,g#ba4 ,,sixteen ,,famous ,,american    
,,plays4 ,g#bc4 ,,tolstoy1 ,,leo4 ,anna 
,karenina4 ,g#bd4 ,,lamb1 ,,charles4    
,the ,complete ,works and ,letters of   
,charles ,lamb4 ,g#be4 ,,the ,,complete 
,,plays ,,of ,,gilbert ,,and ,,sullivan4
 ,g#bf4 ,,marx1 ,,karl4 ,capital4 ,g#bg4
 ,,darwin1 ,,charles4 ,the ,origin of   
,species and ,the ,descent        of    
,man4 ,g#bh4 ,,the ,,complete ,,works   
,,of ,,lewis ,,carroll4 ,g#bi4          
,,prescott1 ,,william ,h4 ,the ,conquest
 of ,mexico and        ,the ,conquest of
 ,peru4 ,g#cj4 ,,myers1 ,,gustavus4     
,history of the ,great ,american        
,fortunes4 ,g#ca4 ,,werfel1 ,,franz4    
,the ,forty ,days of ,musa ,dagh4 ,g#cb4
 ,,smith1 ,,adam4 ,the ,wealth of       
,nations4 ,g#cc4 ,,collins1 ,,wilkie4   
,the ,moonstone and ,the ,woman in      
,white4 ,g#cd4 ,,nietzsche1 ,,friedrich4
 ,the ,philosophy of ,nietzsche4 ,g#ce4 
,,bury1 ,j4,b4 ,a ,history of ,greece4  
,g#cf4 ,,dostoyevsky1 ,,fyodor4 ,the    

,brothers ,karamazov4 ,g#cg4 ,,the      
,,complete ,,novels ,,and ,,selected    
,,tales ,,of        ,,nathaniel         
,,hawthorne4 ,g#ch4 ,,rolland1 ,,romain4
 ,jean-,christophe4 ,g#ci4 ,,the ,,basic
 ,,writings ,,of ,,sigmund ,,freud4     
,g#dj4 ,,the ,,complete ,,tales ,,and   
,,poems ,,of ,,edgar        ,,allan     
,,poe4 ,g#da4 ,,farrell1 ,,james ,t4    
,studs ,lonigan4 ,g#db4 ,,the ,,poems   
,,and ,,plays ,,of ,,tennyson4 ,g#dc4   
,,dewey1 ,,john4 ,intelligence in the   
,modern ,world3 ,john        ,dewey's   
,philosophy4 ,g#dd4 ,,dos ,,passos1     
,,john4 ,u4,s4,a4 ,g#de4 ,,lewisohn1    
,,ludwig4 ,the ,story of ,american      
,literature4 ,g#df4 ,a ,,new ,,anthology
 ,,of ,,modern ,,poetry4 ,g#dg4 ,,the   
,,english ,,philosophers ,,from ,,bacon 
,,to        ,,mill4 ,g#dh4 ,,the        
,,metropolitan ,,opera ,,guide4 ,g#di4  
,,twain1 ,,mark4 ,tom ,sawyer and       
,huckleberry ,finn4 ,g#ej4 ,,whitman1   
,,walt4 ,leaves of ,grass4 ,g#ea4 ,,the 
,,best-,,known ,,novels ,,of ,,george   

,,eliot4 ,g#eb4 ,,joyce1 ,,james4       
,ulysses4 ,g#ec4 ,,sue1 ,,eugene4 ,the  
,wandering ,jew4 ,g#ed4 ,,fielding1     
,,henry4 ,tom ,jones4 ,g#ee4 ,o',,neill1
 ,,eugene4 ,nine ,plays by4 ,g#ef4      
,,sterne1 ,,laurence4 ,tristram ,shandy 
and ,a ,sentimental        ,journey4    
,g#eg4 ,,brooks1 ,,van ,,wyck4 ,the     
,flowering of ,new ,england4 ,g#eh4     
,,the ,,complete ,,novels ,,of ,,jane   
,,austen4 ,g#ei4 ,,hemingway1 ,,ernest4 
,the ,short ,stories of4 ,g#fj4         
,,dostoyevsky1 ,,fyodor4 ,the ,idiot4   
7,illustrated by        ,boardman       
,robinson74 ,g#fa4 ,,spaeth1 ,,sigmund4 
,a ,guide to ,great ,orchestral ,music4 
,g#fb4 ,,the ,,poems1 ,,prose ,,and     
,,plays ,,of ,,pushkin4 ,g#fc4 ,,sixteen
 ,,famous ,,british ,,plays4 ,g#fd4     
,,melville1 ,,herman4 ,moby ,dick4      
,g#fe4 ,,the ,,complete ,,works ,,of    
,,rabelais4 ,g#ff4 ,,three ,,famous     
,,murder ,,novels      ,before the      
,fact1 ,francis ,iles4      ,trent's    
,last ,case1 ,e4,c4 ,bentley4      ,the 

,house of the ,arrow1 ,a4,e4,w4 ,mason4 
,g#fg4 ,,anthology ,,of ,,famous        
,,english ,,and ,,american              
,,poetry4 ,g#fh4 ,,the ,,selected ,,work
 ,,of ,,tom ,,paine4 ,g#fi4 ,,one       
,,hundred ,,and ,,one ,,years'          
,,entertainment4 ,g#gj4 ,,the ,,complete
 ,,poetry ,,of ,,john ,,donne ,,and     
,,william ,,blake4 ,g#ga4 ,,sixteen     
,,famous ,,european ,,plays4 ,g#gb4     
,,great ,,tales ,,of ,,terror ,,and     
,,the ,,supernatural4 ,g#gc4 ,a         
,,subtreasury ,,of ,,american ,,humor4