,transcriber's ,note3 ,link to ,volume ,one3 https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#a_/e _/b_/e_/aebee_/ ,excerpts from the ,preface to the book from ,volume #a1 regarding the method of transcription used4 8,in the following pages ,i have occasion to transcribe words belonging to many oriental languages in ,latin characters4 ,unfortunately a uniform system of transcription1 applicable to all tongues1 seems not to be practical at present4 ,it was attempted in the ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 but that system has fallen into disuse and is liable to be misunderstood4 ,it therefore seems best to use for each language the method of transcription adopted by standard works in ,english dealing with each1 for ,french and ,german transcriptions1 whatever their merits may be as representations of the original sounds1 are often misleading to ,english readers1 especially in ,chinese4 ,for ,chinese ,i have adopted ,wade's system as used in ,giles's ,dictionary1 for ,tibetan the system of ,sarat ,chandra ,das1 for ,pali that of the ,pali ,text ,society and for ,sanskrit that of ,monier-,williams's ,sanskrit ,dictionary1 except that ,i write instead of s4 ,indian languages however offer many difficulties3 it is often hard to decide whether ,sanskrit or vernacular forms are more suitable and in dealing with ,buddhist subjects whether ,sanskrit or ,pali words should be used4 ,i have found it convenient to vary the form of proper names according as my remarks are based on ,sanskrit or on ,pali literature1 but this obliges me to write the same word differently in different places1 e4g4 sometimes ,ajtaatru and sometimes ,ajtasattu1 just as in a book dealing with ,greek and ,latin mythology one might employ both ,herakles and ,hercules4 ,also many ,indian names such as ,ramayana1 ,krishna1 nirvana have become ,europeanized or at least are familiar to all ,europeans interested in ,indian literature4 ,it seems pedantic to write them with their full and accurate complement of accents and dots and my general practice is to give such words in their accurate spelling 7,rmyana1 etc47 when they are first mentioned and also in the notes but usually to print them in their simpler and unaccented forms4 ,i fear however that my practice in this matter is not entirely consistent since different parts of the book were written at different times40 ,,list ,,of ,,abbreviations ,from ,volume #a ,the following are the principal abbreviations used3 ,ep4 ,ind4 ,epigraphia ,india4 ,e4,r4,e4 ,encyclopedia of ,religion and ,ethics 7edited by ,hastings74 ,i4,a4 ,indian ,antiquary4 ,j4,a4 ,journal ,asiatique4 ,j4,a4,o4,s4 ,journal of the ,american ,oriental ,society4 ,j4,r4,a4,s4 ,journal of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society4 ,p4,t4,s4 ,pali ,text ,society4 ,s4,b4,e4 ,sacred ,books of the ,east 7,clarendon ,press74 ,,hinduism ,,and ,,buddhism ,,an ,,historical ,,sketch ,,by ,,sir ,,charles ,,eliot ,in three volumes ,,volume ,,ii ,,routledge ,,kegan ,,paul ,,ltd ,broadway ,house1 #fh-gd ,carter ,lane1 ,london1 ,e4,c4#d4 ,first published #aiba ,reprinted #aied ,reprinted #aieg ,reprinted #aifb ,,printed ,,in ,,great ,,britain ,,by ,,lund ,,humphries ,,london - ,,bradford ,,contents ,,book ,,iv ,,the ,,mahayana ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,main ,,features ,,of ,,the ,,mahayana ,,xvii4 ,,bodhisattvas ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,buddhas or ,,mahayanism ,,xix4 ,,mahayanist ,,metaphysics ,,xx4 ,,mahayanist ,,scriptures ,,xxi4 ,,chronology ,,of ,,the ,,mahayana ,,xxii4 ,,from ,,kanishka ,,to ,,vasubandhu ,,xxiii4 ,,indian ,,buddhism ,,as ,,seen ,,by ,,the ,,chinese ,,pilgrims ,,xxiv4 ,,decadence ,,of ,,buddhism ,,in ,,india ,,book ,v ,,hinduism ,,xxv4 ,,iva ,,and ,,vishnu ,,xxvi4 ,,features ,,of ,,hinduism3 ,,ritual1 ,,caste1 ,,sect1 ,,faith ,,xxvii4 ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,hinduism4 ,,bh,,gavatas ,,and ,p,,upatas ,,xxviii4 ,,ankara4 ,,ivaism ,,in ,,southern ,,india4 ,,kashmir4 ,ll,n,g,,yats ,,xxix4 ,,vishnuism ,,in ,,south ,,india ,,xxx4 ,,later ,,vishnuism ,,in ,,north ,,india ,,xxxi4 ,,amalgamation ,,of ,,hinduism ,,and ,,islam4 ,,kabir ,,and ,,the ,,sikhs ,,xxxii4 ,,ktism ,,xxxiii4 ,,hindu ,,philosophy ,,book ,,iv ,,the ,,mahayana ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,main ,,features ,,of ,,the ,,mahayana ,the obscurest period in the history of ,buddhism is that which follows the reign of ,asoka1 but the enquirer cannot grope for long in these dark ages without stumbling upon the word ,mahayana4 ,this is the name given to a movement which in its various phases may be regarded as a philosophical school1 a sect and a church1 and though it is not always easy to define its relationship to other schools and sects it certainly became a prominent aspect of ,buddhism in ,india about the beginning of our era besides achieving enduring triumphs in the ,far ,east4 ,the word#a signifies ,great ,vehicle or ,carriage1 that is a means of conveyance to salvation1 and is contrasted with ,hinayana1 the ,little ,vehicle1 a name bestowed on the more conservative party though not willingly accepted by them4 ,the simplest description of the two ,vehicles is that given by the ,chinese traveller ,i-,ching 7#fce-gac ,a4,d47 who saw them both as living realities in ,india4 ,he says#b ,those who worship ,bodhisattvas and read ,mahayana ,sutras are called ,mahayanists1 while those who do not do this are called ,hinayanists4 ,in other words1 the ,mahayanists have scriptures of their own1 not included in the ,hinayanist ,canon and adore superhuman beings in the stage of existence immediately below ,buddhahood and practically differing little from ,indian deities4 ,many characteristics could be added to ,i-,ching's description but they might not prove universally true of the ,mahayana nor entirely absent from the ,hinayana1 for however divergent the two ,vehicles may have become when separated geographically1 for instance in ,ceylon and ,japan1 it is clear that when they were in contact1 as in ,india and ,china1 the distinction was not always sharp4 ,but in general the ,mahayana was more popular1 not in the sense of being simpler1 for parts of its teaching were exceedingly abstruse1 but in the sense of striving to invent or include doctrines agreeable to the masses4 ,it was less monastic than the older ,buddhism1 and more emotional2 warmer in charity1 more personal in devotion1 more ornate in art1 literature and ritual1 more disposed to evolution and development1 whereas the ,hinayana was conservative and rigid1 secluded in its cloisters and open to the plausible if unjust accusation of selfishness4 ,the two sections are sometimes described as northern and southern ,buddhism1 but except as a rough description of their distribution at the present day1 this distinction is not accurate1 for the ,mahayana penetrated to ,java1 while the ,hinayana reached ,central ,asia and ,china4 ,but it is true that the development of the ,mahayana was due to influences prevalent in northern ,india and not equally prevalent in the ,south4 ,the terms ,pali and ,sanskrit ,buddhism are convenient and as accurate as can be expected of any nomenclature covering so large a field4 ,though ,european writers usually talk of two ,ynas or ,vehicles--the great and the little--and though this is clearly the important distinction for historical purposes1 yet ,indian and ,chinese ,buddhists frequently enumerate three4 ,these are the rvakayna1 the vehicle of the ordinary ,bhikshu who hopes to become an ,arhat1 the ,pratyekabuddhayna for the rare beings who are able to become ,buddhas but do not preach the law to others1 and in contrast to both of these the ,mahayana or vehicle of ,buddhas and ,bodhisattvas4 ,as a rule these three ,vehicles are not regarded as hostile or even incompatible4 ,thus the ,lotus sutra1#c maintains that there is really but one vehicle though by a wise concession to human weakness the ,buddha lets it appear that there are three to suit divers tastes4 ,and the ,mahayana is not a single vehicle but rather a train comprising many carriages of different classes4 ,it has an unfortunate but distinct later phase known in ,sanskrit as ,mantrayna and ,vajrayna but generally described by ,europeans as ,tantrism4 ,this phase took some of the worst features in ,hinduism1 such as spells1 charms1 and the worship of goddesses1 and with misplaced ingenuity fitted them into ,buddhism4 ,i shall treat of it in a subsequent chapter1 for it is chronologically late4 ,the silence of ,hsan ,chuang and ,i-,ching implies that in the seventh century it was not a noticeable aspect of ,indian ,buddhism4 ,although the record of the ,mahayana in literature and art is clear and even brilliant1 it is not easy either to trace its rise or connect its development with other events in ,india4 ,its annals are an interminable list of names and doctrines1 but bring before us few living personalities and hence are dull4 ,they are like a record of the ,christian ,church's fight against ,arians1 ,monophysites and ,nestorians with all the great figures of ,byzantine history omitted or called in question4 ,hence ,i fear that my readers 7if ,i have any7 may find these chapters repellent1 a mist of hypotheses and a catalogue of ancient paradoxes4 ,i can only urge that if the history of the ,mahayana is uncertain1 its teaching fanciful and its scriptures tedious1 yet it has been a force of the first magnitude in the secular history and art of ,china1 ,japan and ,tibet and even to-day the most metaphysical of its sacred books1 the ,diamond ,cutter1 has probably more readers than ,kant and ,hegel4 ,since the early history of the ,mahayana is a matter for argument rather than precise statement1 it will perhaps be best to begin with some account of its doctrines and literature and proceed afterwards to chronology4 ,i may1 however1 mention that general tradition connects it with ,king ,kanishka and asserts that the great doctors ,avaghosha and ,ngrjuna lived in and immediately after his reign4 ,the attitude of ,kanishka and of the ,council which he summoned towards the ,mahayana is far from clear and ,i shall say something about this difficult subject below4 ,unfortunately his date is not beyond dispute for while a considerable consensus of opinion fixes his accession at about #gh ,a4,d41 some scholars place it earlier and others in the second century ,a4,d4#d ,apart from this1 it appears established that the ,sukhvat-vyha which is definitely ,mahayanist was translated into ,chinese between #adg and #ahf ,a4,d4 ,we may assume that it was then already well known and had been composed some time before1 so that1 whatever ,kanishka's date may have been1 ,mahayanist doctrines must have been in existence about the time of the ,christian era1 and perhaps considerably earlier4 ,naturally no one date like a reign or a council can be selected to mark the beginning of a great school4 ,such a body of doctrine must have existed piecemeal and unauthorized before it was collected and recognized and some tenets are older than others4 ,enlarging ,i-,ching's definition we may find in the ,mahayana seven lines of thought or practice4 ,all are not found in all sects and some are shared with the ,hinayana but probably none are found fully developed outside the ,mahayana4 ,many of them have parallels in the contemporary phases of ,hinduism4 #a4 ,a belief in ,bodhisattvas and in the power of human beings to become ,bodhisattvas4 #b4 ,a code of altruistic ethics which teaches that everyone must do good in the interest of the whole world and make over to others any merit he may acquire by his virtues4 ,the aim of the religious life is to become a ,bodhisattva1 not to become an ,arhat4 #c4 ,a doctrine that ,buddhas are supernatural beings1 distributed through infinite space and time1 and innumerable4 ,in the language of later theology a ,buddha has three bodies and still later there is a group of five ,buddhas4 #d4 ,various systems of idealist metaphysics1 which tend to regard the ,buddha essence or ,nirvana much as ,brahman is regarded in the ,vedanta4 #e4 ,a canon composed in ,sanskrit and apparently later than the ,pali ,canon4 #f4 ,habitual worship of images and elaboration of ritual4 ,there is a dangerous tendency to rely on formul and charms4 #g4 ,a special doctrine of salvation by faith in a ,buddha1 usually ,amitbha1 and invocation of his name4 ,mahayanism can exist without this doctrine but it is tolerated by most sects and considered essential by some4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,sanskrit1 ,mahyna2 ,chinese1 ,ta ,ch'ng 7pronounced ,tai ,shng in many southern provinces72 ,japanese1 ,dai-j2 ,tibetan1 ,theg-pa-chen-po2 ,mongolian1 ,yk-klgn2 ,sanskrit1 ,hnayna2 ,chinese1 ,hsiao-,ch'ng2 ,japanese1 ,sh-j2 ,tibetan1 ,theg-dman2 ,mongolian tkn-klgn4 ,in ,sanskrit the synonyms agrayna and uttama-yna are also found4 ,footnote #b3 ,record of ,buddhist practices4 ,transl4 ,takakusu1 #ahif1 p4 #ad4 ,hsan ,chuang seems to have thought that acceptance of the ,yogcryabhmi 7,nanjio1 #aagj7 was essential for a ,mahayanist4 ,see his life1 transl4 by ,beal1 p4 #ci1 transl4 by ,julien1 p4 #ej4 ,footnote #c3 ,saddharma-,pundarka1 chap4 ,,iii4 ,for brevity1 ,i usually cite this work by the title of ,the ,lotus4 ,footnote #d3 ,the date #eh ,b4,c4 has probably few supporters among scholars now1 especially after ,marshall's discoveries4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,bodhisattvas ,let us now consider these doctrines and take first the worship of ,bodhisattvas4 ,this word means one whose essence is knowledge but is used in the technical sense of a being who is in process of obtaining but has not yet obtained ,buddhahood4 ,the ,pali ,canon shows little interest in the personality of ,bodhisattvas and regards them simply as the preliminary or larval form of a ,buddha1 either kyamuni#e or some of his predecessors4 ,it was incredible that a being so superior to ordinary humanity as a ,buddha should be suddenly produced in a human family nor could he be regarded as an incarnation in the strict sense4 ,but it was both logical and edifying to suppose that he was the product of a long evolution of virtue1 of good deeds and noble resolutions extending through countless ages and culminating in a being superior to the ,devas4 ,such a being awaited in the ,tushita heaven the time fixed for his appearance on earth as a ,buddha and his birth was accompanied by marvels4 ,but though the ,pali ,canon thus recognizes the ,bodhisattva as a type which1 if rare1 yet makes its appearance at certain intervals1 it leaves the matter there4 ,it is not suggested that saints should try to become ,bodhisattvas and ,buddhas1 or that ,bodhisattvas can be helpers of mankind4#f ,but both these trains of thought are natural developments of the older ideas and soon made themselves prominent4 ,it is a characteristic doctrine of ,mahayanism that men can try and should try to become ,bodhisattvas4 ,in the ,pali ,canon we hear of ,arhats1 ,pacceka ,buddhas1 and perfect ,buddhas4 ,for all three the ultimate goal is the same1 namely ,nirvana1 but a ,pacceka ,buddha is greater than an ,arhat1 because he has greater intellectual powers though he is not omniscient1 and a perfect ,buddha is greater still1 partly because he is omniscient and partly because he saves others4 ,but if we admit that the career of the ,buddha is better and nobler1 and also that it is1 as the ,introduction to the ,jtaka recounts1 simply the result of an earnest resolution to school himself and help others1 kept firmly through the long chain of existences1 there is nothing illogical or presumptuous in making our goal not the quest of personal salvation1 but the attainment of ,bodhisattvaship1 that is the state of those who may aspire to become ,buddhas4 ,in fact the ,arhat1 engrossed in his own salvation1 is excused only by his humility and is open to the charge of selfish desire1 since the passion for ,nirvana is an ambition like any other and the quest for salvation can be best followed by devoting oneself entirely to others4 ,but though my object here is to render intelligible the ,mahayanist point of view including its objections to ,hinayanism1 ,i must defend the latter from the accusation of selfishness4 ,the vigorous and authoritative character of ,gotama led him to regard all mankind as patients requiring treatment and to emphasize the truth that they could cure themselves if they would try4 ,but the ,buddhism of the ,pali ,canon does not ignore the duties of loving and instructing others2#g it merely insists on man's power to save himself if properly instructed and bids him do it at once3 sell all that thou hast and follow me4 ,and the ,mahayana1 if less self-centred1 has also less self-reliance1 and self-discipline4 ,it is more human and charitable1 but also more easygoing3 it teaches the believer to lean on external supports which if well chosen may be a help1 but if trusted without discrimination become paralyzing abuses4 ,and if we look at the abuses of both systems the fossilized monk of the ,hinayana will compare favourably with the tantric adept4 ,it was to the corruptions of the ,mahayana rather than of the ,hinayana that the decay of ,buddhism in ,india was due4 ,the career of the ,bodhisattva was early divided into stages 7bhmi7 each marked by the acquisition of some virtue in his triumphant course4 ,the stages are variously reckoned as five1 seven and ten4 ,the ,mahvastu1#h which is the earliest work where the progress is described1 enumerates ten without distinguishing them very clearly4 ,later writers commonly look at the ,bodhisattva's task from the humbler point of view of the beginner who wishes to learn the initiatory stages4 ,for them the ,bodhisattva is primarily not a supernatural being or even a saint but simply a religious person who wishes to perform the duties and enjoy the privileges of the ,church to the full1 much like a communicant in the language of contemporary ,christianity4 ,we have a manual for those who would follow this path1 in the ,bodhicaryvatra of ntideva1 which in its humility1 sweetness and fervent piety has been rightly compared with the ,de ,imitatione ,christi4 ,in many respects the virtues of the ,bodhisattva are those of the ,arhat4 ,his will must be strenuous and concentrated2 he must cultivate the strictest morality1 patience1 energy1 meditation and knowledge4 ,but he is also a devotee1 a bhakta3 he adores all the ,buddhas of the past1 present and future as well as sundry superhuman ,bodhisattvas1 and he confesses his sins1 not after the fashion of the ,ptimokkha1 but by accusing himself before these heavenly ,protectors and vowing to sin no more4 ntideva lived in the seventh century#i but tells us that he follows the scriptures and has nothing new to say4 ,this seems to be true for1 though his book being a manual of devotion presents its subject-matter in a dogmatic form1 its main ideas are stated and even elaborated in the ,lotus4 ,not only are eminent figures in the ,church1 such as ,sriputra and nanda1 there designated as future ,buddhas1 but the same dignity is predicted wholesale for five hundred and again for two thousand monks while in ,chapter ,x is sketched the course to be followed by young men or young ladies of good family who wish to become ,bodhisattvas4#aj ,the chief difference is that the ,bodhicaryvatra portrays a more spiritual life1 it speaks more of devotion1 less of the million shapes that compose the heavenly host3 more of love and wisdom1 less of the merits of reading particular stras4 ,while rendering to it and the faith that produced it all honour1 we must remember that it is typical of the ,mahayana only in the sense that the ,de ,imitatione ,christi is typical of ,roman ,catholicism1 for both faiths have other sides4 ntideva's ,bodhisattva1 when conceiving the thought of ,bodhi or eventual supreme enlightenment to be obtained1 it may be1 only after numberless births1 feels first a sympathetic joy in the good actions of all living beings4 ,he addresses to the ,buddhas a prayer which is not a mere act of commemoration1 but a request to preach the law and to defer their entrance into ,nirvana4 ,he then makes over to others whatever merit he may possess or acquire and offers himself and all his possessions1 moral and material1 as a sacrifice for the salvation of all beings4 ,this on the one hand does not much exceed the limits of dnam or the virtue of giving as practised by kyamuni in previous births according to the ,pali scriptures1 but on the other it contains in embryo the doctrine of vicarious merit and salvation through a saviour4 ,the older tradition admits that the future ,buddha 7e4g4 in the ,vessantara birth-story7 gives all that is asked from him including life1 wife and children4 ,to consider the surrender and transfer of merit 7pattidna in ,pali7 as parallel is a natural though perhaps false analogy4 ,but the transfer of ,karma is not altogether foreign to ,brahmanic thought1 for it is held that a wife may share in her husband's ,karma nor is it wholly unknown to ,sinhalese ,buddhism4#aa ,after thus deliberately rejecting all personal success and selfish aims1 the neophyte makes a vow 7pranidhna7 to acquire enlightenment for the good of all beings and not to swerve from the rules of life and faith requisite for this end4 ,he is then a son of ,buddha1 a phrase which is merely a natural metaphor for saying that he is one of the household of faith#ab but still paves the way to later ideas which make the celestial ,bodhisattva an emanation or spiritual son of a celestial ,buddha4 ,asanga gives#ac a more technical and scholastic description of the ten bhmis or stages which mark the ,bodhisattva's progress towards complete enlightenment and culminate in a phase bearing the remarkable but ancient name of ,dharmamegha known also to the ,yoga philosophy4 ,the other stages are called3 mudit 7joyful73 vimal 7immaculate73 prabhkar 7light giving73 arcismat 7radiant73 durjaya 7hard to gain73 abhimukh 7facing1 because it faces both transmigration and ,nirvana73 dramgam 7far-going73 acal 7immovable73 sdhumat 7good minded74 ,the incarnate ,buddhas and ,bodhisattvas of ,tibet are a travesty of the ,mahayana which on ,indian soil adhered to the sound doctrine that saints are known by their achievements as men and cannot be selected among infant prodigies4#ad ,it was the general though not universal opinion that one who had entered on the career of a ,bodhisattva could not fall so low as to be reborn in any state of punishment1 but the spirit of humility and self-effacement which has always marked the ,buddhist ideal tended to represent his triumph as incalculably distant4 ,meanwhile1 although in the whirl of births he was on the upward grade1 he yet had his ups and downs and there is no evidence that ,indian or ,far ,eastern ,buddhists arrogated to themselves special claims and powers on the ground that they were well advanced in the career of ,buddhahood4 ,the vow to suppress self and follow the light not only in this life but in all future births contains an element of faith or fantasy1 but has any religion formed a nobler or even equivalent picture of the soul's destiny or built a better staircase from the world of men to the immeasurable spheres of the superhuman8 ,one aspect of the story of ,skyamuni and his antecedent births thus led to the idea that all may become ,buddhas4 ,an equally natural development in another direction created celestial and superhuman ,bodhisattvas4 ,the ,hinayana held that ,gotama1 before his last birth1 dwelt in the ,tushita heaven enjoying the power and splendour of an ,indian god and it looked forward to the advent of ,maitreya4 ,but it admitted no other ,bodhisattvas1 a consequence apparently of the doctrine that there can only be one ,buddha at a time4 ,but the luxuriant fancy of ,india1 which loves to multiply divinities1 soon broke through this restriction and fashioned for itself beautiful images of benevolent beings who refuse the bliss of ,nirvana that they may alleviate the sufferings of others4#ae ,so far as we can judge1 the figures of these ,bodhisattvas took shape just about the same time that the personalities of ,vishnu and iva were acquiring consistency4 ,the impulse in both cases is the same1 namely the desire to express in a form accessible to human prayer and sympathetic to human emotion the forces which rule the universe4 ,but in this work of portraiture the ,buddhists laid more emphasis on moral and spiritual law than did the ,brahmans3 they isolated in personification qualities not found isolated in nature4 iva is the law of change1 of death and rebirth1 with all the riot of slaughter and priapism which it entails3 ,vishnu is the protector and preserver1 the type of good energy warring against evil1 but the unity of the figure is smothered by mythology and broken up into various incarnations4 ,but ,avalokita and ,majur1 though they had not such strong roots in ,indian humanity as iva and ,vishnu1 are genii of purer and brighter presence4 ,they are the personifications of kindness and knowledge4 ,though manifold in shape1 they have little to do with mythology1 and are analogous to the archangels of ,christian and ,jewish tradition and to the ,amesha ,spentas of ,zoroastrianism4 ,with these latter they may have some historical connection1 for ,persian ideas may well have influenced ,buddhism about the time of the ,christian era4 ,however difficult it may be to prove the foreign origin of ,bodhisattvas1 few of them have a clear origin in ,india and all of them are much better known in ,central ,asia and ,china4 ,but they are represented with the appearance and attributes of ,indian ,devas1 as is natural1 since even in the ,pali ,canon ,devas form the ,buddha's retinue4 ,the early ,buddhists considered that these spirits1 whether called ,bodhisattvas or ,devas1 had attained their high position in the same way as kyamuni himself1 that is by the practice of moral and intellectual virtues through countless existences1 but subsequently they came to be regarded as emanations or sons of superhuman ,buddhas4 ,thus the ,kranda-vyha relates how the original di-,buddha produced ,avalokita by meditation and how he in his turn produced the universe with its gods4 ,millions of unnamed ,bodhisattvas are freely mentioned and even in the older books copious lists of names are found1#af but two1 ,avalokita and ,majur1 tower above the rest1 among whom only few have a definite personality4 ,the tantric school counts eight of the first rank4 ,maitreya 7who does not stand on the same footing as the others71 ,samantabhadra1 ,mahsthna-prpta and above all ,kshitigarbha1 have some importance1 especially in ,china and ,japan4 ,avalokita#ag in many forms and in many ages has been one of the principal deities of ,asia but his origin is obscure4 ,his main attributes are plain4 ,he is the personification of divine mercy and pity but even the meaning of his name is doubtful4 ,in its full form it is ,avalokitevara1 often rendered the ,lord who looks down 7from heaven74 ,this is an appropriate title for the ,god of ,mercy1 but the obvious meaning of the participle avalokita in ,sanskrit is passive1 the ,lord who is looked at4 ,kern#ah thinks it may mean the ,lord who is everywhere visible as a very present help in trouble1 or else the ,lord of ,view1 like the epithet ,drishtiguru applied to iva4 ,another form of the name is ,lokevara or ,lord of the world and this suggests that avalokita may be a synonym of loka1 meaning the visible universe4 ,it has also been suggested that the name may refer to the small image of ,amitbha which is set in his diadem and thus looks down on him4 ,but such small images set in the head of a larger figure are not distinctive of ,avalokita3 they are found in other ,buddhist statues and paintings and also outside ,india1 for instance at ,palmyra4 ,the ,tibetan translation of the name#ai means he who sees with bright eyes4 ,hsan ,chuang's rendering ,kwan-tz-tsai#bj expresses the same idea1 but the more usual ,chinese translation ,kuan-yin or ,kuan-shih-yin1 the deity who looks upon voices or the region of voices1 seems to imply a verbal misunderstanding4 ,for the use of ,yin or voice makes us suspect that the translator identified the last part of ,avalokitevara not with vara lord but with svara sound4#ba ,avalokitevara is unknown to the ,pali ,canon and the ,milinda ,paha4 ,so far as ,i can discover he is not mentioned in the ,divyvadna1 ,jtakaml or any work attributed to ,avaghosha4 ,his name does not occur in the ,lalita-vistara but a list of ,bodhisattvas in its introductory chapter includes ,mahkaruncandin1 suggesting ,mahkaruna1 the ,great ,compassionate1 which is one of his epithets4 ,in the ,lotus#bb he is placed second in the introductory list of ,bodhisattvas after ,majur4 ,but ,chapter ,,xxiv1 which is probably a later addition1 is dedicated to his praises as ,samantamukha1 he who looks every way or the omnipresent4 ,in this section his character as the all-merciful saviour is fully developed4 ,he saves those who call on him from shipwreck1 and execution1 from robbers and all violence and distress4 ,he saves too from moral evils1 such as passion1 hatred and folly4 ,he grants children to women who worship him4 ,this power1 which is commonly exercised by female deities1 is worth remarking as a hint of his subsequent transformation into a goddess4 ,for the better achievement of his merciful deeds1 he assumes all manner of forms1 and appears in the guise of a ,buddha1 a ,bodhisattva1 a ,hindu deity1 a goblin1 or a ,brahman and in fact in any shape4 ,this chapter was translated into ,chinese before #dag ,a4,d4 and therefore can hardly be later than #cej4 ,he is also mentioned in the ,sukhvat-vyha4 ,the records of the ,chinese pilgrims ,fa-,hsien and ,hsan ,chuang#bc indicate that his worship prevailed in ,india from the fourth till the seventh century and we are perhaps justified in dating its beginnings at least two centuries earlier4 ,but the absence of any mention of it in the writings of ,avaghosha is remarkable4#bd ,avalokita is connected with a mountain called ,potala or ,potalaka4 ,the name is borne by the palace of the ,grand ,lama at ,lhassa and by another ,lamaistic establishment at ,jehol in north ,china4 ,it reappears in the sacred island of ,pu-to near ,ningpo4 ,in all these cases the name of ,avalokita's ,indian residence has been transferred to foreign shrines4 ,in ,india there were at least two places called ,potala or ,potalaka--one at the mouth of the ,indus and one in the south4 ,no certain connection has been traced between the former and the ,bodhisattva but in the seventh century the latter was regarded as his abode4 ,our information about it comes mainly from ,hsan ,chuang#be who describes it when speaking of the ,malakuta country and as near the ,mo-lo-ya 7,malaya7 mountain4 ,but apparently he did not visit it and this makes it probable that it was not a religious centre but a mountain in the south of which ,buddhists in the north wrote with little precision4#bf ,there is no evidence that ,avalokita was first worshipped on this ,potalaka1 though he is often associated with mountains such as ,kapota in ,magadha and ,valavat in ,katha4#bg ,in fact the connection of ,potala with ,avalokita remains a mystery4 ,avalokita has1 like most ,bodhisattvas1 many names4 ,among the principal are ,mahkaruna1 the ,great ,compassionate one1 ,lokantha or ,lokevara1 the ,lord of the world1 and ,padmapni1 or lotus-handed4 ,this last refers to his appearance as portrayed in statues and miniatures4 ,in the older works of art his figure is human1 without redundant limbs1 and represents a youth in the costume of an ,indian prince with a high jewelled chignon1 or sometimes a crown4 ,the head-dress is usually surmounted by a small figure of ,amitbha4 ,his right hand is extended in the position known as the gesture of charity4#bh ,in his left he carries a red lotus and he often stands on a larger blossom4 ,his complexion is white or red4 ,sometimes he has four arms and in later images a great number4 ,he then carries besides the lotus such objects as a book1 a rosary and a jug of nectar4#bi ,the images with many eyes and arms seem an attempt to represent him as looking after the unhappy in all quarters and stretching out his hands in help4#cj ,it is doubtful if the ,bodhisattvas of the ,gandhara sculptures1 though approaching the type of ,avalokita1 represent him rather than any other1 but nearly all the ,buddhist sites of ,india contain representations of him which date from the early centuries of our era#ca and others are preserved in the miniatures of manuscripts4#cb ,he is not a mere adaptation of any one ,hindu god4 ,some of his attributes are also those of ,brahm4 ,though in some late texts he is said to have evolved the world from himself1 his characteristic function is not to create but1 like ,vishnu1 to save and like ,vishnu he holds a lotus4 ,but also he has the title of vara1 which is specially applied to iva4 ,thus he does not issue from any local cult and has no single mythological pedigree but is the idea of divine compassion represented with such materials as the art and mythology of the day offered4 ,he is often accompanied by a female figure ,tr4#cc ,in the tantric period she is recognized as his spouse and her images1 common in northern ,india from the seventh century onwards1 show that she was adored as a female ,bodhisattva4 ,in ,tibet ,tr is an important deity who assumes many forms and even before the tantric influence had become prominent she seems to have been associated with ,avalokita4 ,in the ,dharmasangraha she is named as one of the four ,devs1 and she is mentioned twice under the name of ,to-lo ,pu-sa by ,hsan ,chuang1 who saw a statue of her in ,vaisali and another at ,tiladhaka in ,magadha4 ,this last stood on the right of a gigantic figure of ,buddha1 ,avalokita being on his left4#cd ,hsan ,chuang distinguishes ,to-lo 7,tr7 and ,kuan-tz-tsai4 ,the latter under the name of ,kuan-yin or ,kwannon has become the most popular goddess of ,china and ,japan1 but is apparently a form of ,avalokita4 ,the god in his desire to help mankind assumes many shapes and1 among these1 divine womanhood has by the suffrage of millions been judged the most appropriate4 ,but ,tr was not originally the same as ,kuan-yin1 though the fact that she accompanies ,avalokita and shares his attributes may have made it easier to think of him in female form4#ce ,the circumstances in which ,avalokita became a goddess are obscure4 ,the ,indian images of him are not feminine1 although his sex is hardly noticed before the tantric period4 ,he is not a male deity like ,krishna1 but a strong1 bright spirit and like the ,christian archangels above sexual distinctions4 ,no female form of him is reported from ,tibet and this confirms the idea that none was known in ,india1#cf and that the change was made in ,china4 ,it was probably facilitated by the worship of ,tr and of ,hrit1 an ogress who was converted by the ,buddha and is frequently represented in her regenerate state caressing a child4 ,she is mentioned by ,hsan ,chuang and by ,i-,ching who adds that her image was already known in ,china4 ,the ,chinese also worshipped a native goddess called ,t'ien-hou or ,t'ou-mu4 ,kuan-yin was also identified with an ancient ,chinese heroine called ,miao-shn4#cg ,this is parallel to the legend of ,ti-tsang 7,kshitigarbha7 who1 though a male ,bodhisattva1 was a virtuous maiden in two of his previous existences4 ,evidently ,chinese religious sentiment required a ,madonna and it is not unnatural if the god of mercy1 who was reputed to assume many shapes and to give sons to the childless1 came to be thought of chiefly in a feminine form4 ,the artists of the ,t'ang dynasty usually represented ,avalokita as a youth with a slight moustache and the evidence as to early female figures does not seem to me strong1#ch though a priori ,i see no reason for doubting their existence4 ,in #aajb a ,chinese monk named ,p'u-ming published a romantic legend of ,kuan-yin's earthly life which helped to popularize her worship4 ,in this and many other cases the later developments of ,buddhism are due to ,chinese fancy and have no connection with ,indian tradition4 ,tr is a goddess of north ,india1 ,nepal and the ,lamaist ,church and almost unknown in ,china and ,japan4 ,her name means she who causes to cross1 that is who saves1 life and its troubles being by a common metaphor described as a sea4 ,tr also means a star and in ,puranic mythology is the name given to the mother of ,buddha1 the planet ,mercury4 ,whether the name was first used by ,buddhists or ,brahmans is unknown1 but after the seventh century there was a decided tendency to give ,tr the epithets bestowed on the aktis of iva and assimilate her to those goddesses4 ,thus in the list of her #ajh names#ci she is described among other more amiable attributes as terrible1 furious1 the slayer of evil beings1 the destroyer1 and ,kl3 also as carrying skulls and being the mother of the ,vedas4 ,here we have if not the borrowing by ,buddhists of a aiva deity1 at least the grafting of aiva conceptions on a ,bodhisattva4 ,the second great ,bodhisattva ,majur#dj has other similar names1 such as ,majuntha and ,majughosha1 the word ,maju meaning sweet or pleasant4 ,he is also ,vagvara1 the ,lord of ,speech1 and ,kumrabhta1 the ,prince1 which possibly implies that he is the ,buddha's eldest son1 charged with the government under his direction4 ,he has much the same literary history as ,avalokita1 not being mentioned in the ,pali ,canon nor in the earlier ,sanskrit works such as the ,lalita-vistara and ,divyvadna4 ,but his name occurs in the ,sukhvat-vyha3 he is the principal interlocutor in the ,lankvatra stra and is extolled in the ,ratna-karandaka-vyha-stra4#da ,in the greater part of the ,lotus he is the principal ,bodhisattva and instructs ,maitreya1 because1 though his youth is eternal1 he has known many ,buddhas through innumerable ages4 ,the ,lotus#db also recounts how he visited the depths of the sea and converted the inhabitants thereof and how the ,lord taught him what are the duties of a ,bodhisattva after the ,buddha has entered finally into ,nirvana4 ,as a rule he has no consort and appears as a male ,athene1 all intellect and chastity1 but sometimes ,lakshm or ,sarasvat or both are described as his consorts4#dc ,his worship prevailed not only in ,india but in ,nepal1 ,tibet1 ,china1 ,japan and ,java4 ,fa-,hsien states that he was honoured in ,central ,india1 and ,hsan ,chuang that there were stupas dedicated to him at ,muttra4#dd ,he is also said to have been incarnate in ,atsa1 the ,tibetan reformer1 and in ,vairocana who introduced ,buddhism to ,khotan1 but1 great as is his benevolence1 he is not so much the helper of human beings1 which is ,avalokita's special function1 as the personification of thought1 knowledge1 and meditation4 ,it is for this that he has in his hands the sword of knowledge and a book4 ,a beautiful figure from ,java bearing these emblems is in the ,berlin ,museum4#de ,miniatures represent him as of a yellow colour with the hands 7when they do not carry emblems7 set in the position known as teaching the law4#df ,other signs which distinguish his images are the blue lotus and the lion on which he sits4 ,an interesting fact about ,majur is his association with ,china1#dg not only in ,chinese but in late ,indian legends4 ,the mountain ,wu-t'ai-shan in the province of ,shan-si is sacred to him and is covered with temples erected in his honour4#dh ,the name 7mountain of five terraces7 is rendered in ,sanskrit as ,pancarsha1 or ,pancaikha1 and occurs both in the ,svayambh ,purna and in the text appended to miniatures representing ,majur4 ,the principal temple is said to have been erected between #dga and #ejj ,a4,d4 ,i have not seen any statement that the locality was sacred in pre-,buddhist times1 but it was probably regarded as the haunt of deities1 one of whom--perhaps some spirit of divination--was identified with the wise ,majur4 ,it is possible that during the various inroads of ,grco-,bactrians1 ,yeh-,chih1 and other ,central ,asian tribes into ,india1 ,majur was somehow imported into the pantheon of the ,mahayana from ,china or ,central ,asia1 and he has1 especially in the earlier descriptions1 a certain pure and abstract quality which recalls the ,amesha-,spentas of ,persia4 ,but still his attributes are ,indian1 and there is little positive evidence of a foreign origin4 ,i-,ching is the first to tell us that the ,hindus believed he came from ,china4#di ,hsan ,chuang does not mention this belief1 and probably did not hear of it1 for it is an interesting detail which no one writing for a ,chinese audience would have omitted4 ,we may therefore suppose that the idea arose in ,india about #fej ,a4,d4 ,by that date the temples of ,wu-t'ai-,shan would have had time to become celebrated1 and the visits paid to ,india by distinguished ,chinese ,buddhists would be likely to create the impression that ,china was a centre of the faith and frequented by ,bodhisattvas4#ej ,we hear that ,vajrabodhi 7about #gjj7 and ,praja 7#ghb7 both went to ,china to adore ,majur4 ,in #hbd a ,tibetan envoy arrived at the ,chinese ,court to ask for an image of ,majur1 and later the ,grand ,lamas officially recognized that he was incarnate in the ,emperor4#ea ,another legend relates that ,majur came from ,wu-t'ai-,shan to adore a miraculous lotus#eb that appeared on the lake which then filled ,nepal4 ,with a blow of his sword he cleft the mountain barrier and thus drained the valley and introduced civilization4 ,there may be hidden in this some tradition of the introduction of culture into ,nepal but the ,nepalese legends are late and in their collected form do not go back beyond the sixteenth century4 ,after ,avalokita and ,majur the most important ,bodhisattva is ,maitreya1#ec also called ,ajita or unconquered1 who is the only one recognized by the ,pali ,canon4#ed ,this is because he does not stand on the same footing as the others4 ,they are superhuman in their origin as well as in their career1 whereas ,maitreya is simply a being who like ,gotama has lived innumerable lives and ultimately made himself worthy of ,buddhahood which he awaits in heaven4 ,there is no reason to doubt that ,gotama regarded himself as one in a series of ,buddhas3 the ,pali scriptures relate that he mentioned his predecessors by name1 and also spoke of unnumbered ,buddhas to come4#ee ,nevertheless ,maitreya or ,metteyya is rarely mentioned in the ,pali ,canon4#ef ,he is1 however1 frequently alluded to in the exegetical ,pali literature1 in the ,angata-vamsa and in the earlier ,sanskrit works such as the ,lalita-vistara1 the ,divyvadna and ,mahvastu4 ,in the ,lotus he plays a prominent part1 but still is subordinate to ,majur4 ,ultimately he was eclipsed by the two great ,bodhisattvas but in the early centuries of our era he received much respect4 ,his images are frequent in all parts of the ,buddhist world3 he was believed to watch over the propagation of the ,faith1#eg and to have made special revelations to ,asanga4#eh ,in paintings he is usually of a golden colour3 his statues1 which are often gigantic1 show him standing or sitting in the ,european fashion and not cross-legged4 ,he appears to be represented in the earliest ,gandharan sculptures and there was a famous image of him in ,udyna of which ,fa-,hsien 7#cii-dad ,a4,d47 speaks as if it were already ancient4#ei ,hsan ,chuang describes it as well as a stupa erected#fj to commemorate ,skyamuni's prediction that ,maitreya would be his successor4 ,on attaining ,buddhahood he will become lord of a terrestrial paradise and hold three assemblies under a dragon flower tree1#fa at which all who have been good ,buddhists in previous births will become ,arhats4 ,i-,ching speaks of meditating on the advent of ,maitreya in language like that which ,christian piety uses of the second coming of ,christ and concludes a poem which is incorporated in his work with the aspiration ,deep as the depth of a lake be my pure and calm meditation4 ,let me look for the first meeting under the ,tree of the ,dragon ,flower when ,i hear the deep rippling voice of the ,buddha ,maitreya4#fb ,but messianic ideas were not much developed in either ,buddhism or ,hinduism and perhaps the figures of both ,maitreya and ,kalk owe something to ,persian legends about ,saoshyant the ,saviour4 ,the other ,bodhisattvas1 though lauded in special treatises1 have left little impression on ,indian ,buddhism and have obtained in the ,far ,east most of whatever importance they possess4 ,the makers of images and miniatures assign to each his proper shape and colour1 but when we read about them we feel that we are dealing not with the objects of real worship or even the products of a lively imagination1 but with names and figures which have a value for picturesque but conventional art4 ,among the best known is ,samantabhadra1 the all gracious1#fc who is still a popular deity in ,tibet and the patron saint of the sacred mountain ,omei in ,china1 with which he is associated as ,majur with ,wu-tai-shan4 ,he is represented as green and riding on an elephant4 ,in ,indian ,buddhism he has a moderately prominent position4 ,he is mentioned in the ,dharmasangraha and in one chapter of the ,lotus he is charged with the special duty of protecting those who follow the law4 ,but the ,chinese pilgrims do not mention his worship4 ,mahsthmaprpta#fd is a somewhat similar figure4 ,a chapter of the ,lotus 7,,xix7 is dedicated to him without however giving any clear idea of his personality and he is extolled in several descriptions of ,sukhvat or ,paradise1 especially in the ,amityurdhyna-stra4 ,together with ,amitbha and ,avalokita he forms a triad who rule this ,happy ,land and are often represented by three images in ,chinese temples4 ,vajrapni is mentioned in many lists of ,bodhisattvas 7e4g4 in the ,dharmasangraha7 but is of somewhat doubtful position as ,hsan ,chuang calls him a deva4#fe ,historically his recognition as a ,bodhisattva is interesting for he is merely ,indra transformed into a ,buddhist4 ,the mysterious personages called ,vajradhara and ,vajrasattva1 who in later times are even identified with the original ,buddha spirit1 are further developments of ,vajrapni4 ,he owes his elevation to the fact that ,vajra1 originally meaning simply thunderbolt1 came to be used as a mystical expression for the highest truth4 ,more important than these is ,kshitigarbha1 ,ti-tsang or ,jiz#ff who in ,china and ,japan ranks second only to ,kuan-yin4 ,visser has consecrated to him an interesting monograph#fg which shows what strange changes and chances may attend spirits and how ideal figures may alter as century after century they travel from land to land4 ,we know little about the origin of ,kshitigarbha4 ,the name seems to mean ,earth-womb and he has a shadowy counterpart in ,akagarbha1 a similar deity of the air1 who it seems never had a hold on human hearts4 ,the ,earth is generally personified as a goddess#fh and ,kshitigarbha has some slight feminine traits1 though on the whole decidedly masculine4 ,the stories of his previous births relate how he was twice a woman3 in ,japan he was identified with the mountain goddess of ,kamado1 and he helps women in labour1 a boon generally accorded by goddesses4 ,in the pantheon of ,india he played an inconspicuous part1#fi though reckoned one of the eight great ,bodhisattvas1 but met with more general esteem in ,turkestan1 where he began to collect the attributes afterwards defined in the ,far ,east4 ,it is there that his history and transformations become clear4 ,he is primarily a deity of the nether world1 but like ,amitbha and ,avalokita he made a vow to help all living creatures and specially to deliver them from hell4 ,the ,taoists pictured hell as divided into ten departments ruled over by as many kings1 and ,chinese fancy made ,ti-tsang the superintendent of these functionaries4 ,he thus becomes not so much a ,saviour as the kindly superintendent of a prison who preaches to the inmates and willingly procures their release4 ,then we hear of six ,ti-tsangs1 corresponding to the six worlds of sentient beings1 the gracious spirit being supposed to multiply his personality in order to minister to the wants of all4 ,he is often represented as a monk1 staff in hand and with shaven head4 ,the origin of this guise is not clear and it perhaps refers to his previous births4 ,but in the eighth century a monk of ,chiu ,hua#gj was regarded as an incarnation of ,ti-tsang and after death his body was gilded and enshrined as an object of worship4 ,in later times the ,bodhisattva was confused with the incarnation1 in the same way as the portly figure of ,pu-tai1 commonly known as the laughing ,buddha1 has been substituted for ,maitreya in ,chinese iconography4 ,in ,japan the cult of the six ,jizs became very popular4 ,they were regarded as the deities of roads#ga and their effigies ultimately superseded the ancient phallic gods of the crossways4 ,in this martial country the ,bodhisattva assumed yet another character as ,shgun ,jiz1 a militant priest riding on horseback#gb and wearing a helmet who became the patron saint of warriors and was even identified with the ,japanese war god1 ,hachiman4 ,until the seventeenth century ,jiz was worshipped principally by soldiers and priests1 but subsequently his cult spread among all classes and in all districts4 ,his benevolent activities as a guide and saviour were more and more emphasized3 he heals sickness1 he lengthens life1 he leads to heaven1 he saves from hell3 he even suffers as a substitute in hell and is the special protector of the souls of children amid the perils of the underworld4 ,though this modern figure of ,jiz is wrought with ancient materials1 it is in the main a work of ,japanese sentiment4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #e3 ,in dealing with the ,mahayanists1 ,i use the expression kyamuni in preference to ,gotama4 ,it is their own title for the teacher and it seems incongruous to use the purely human name of ,gotama in describing doctrines which represent him as superhuman4 ,footnote #f3 ,but ,kings ,hsin-byu-shin of ,burma and r ,sryavamsa ,rma of ,siam have left inscriptions recording their desire to become ,buddhas4 ,see my chapters on ,burma and ,siam below4 ,mahayanist ideas may easily have entered these countries from ,china1 but even in ,ceylon the idea of becoming a ,buddha or ,bodhisattva is not unknown4 ,see ,manual of a ,mystic 7,p4,t4,s4 #aiaf71 pp4 xviii and #adj4 ,footnote #g3 ,e4g4 in ,itivuttakam #ge1 there is a description of the man who is like a drought and gives nothing1 the man who is like rain in a certain district and the man who is ,sabbabhtnukampako1 compassionate to all creatures1 and like rain falling everywhere4 ,similarly ,ib4 #hd1 and elsewhere1 we have descriptions of persons 7ordinary disciples as well as ,buddhas7 who are born for the welfare of gods and men bahujanahitya1 bahujanasukhya1 loknukampya1 atthya1 hitya1 sukhya devamanussnam4 ,footnote #h3 ,ed4 ,senart1 vol4 ,i4 p4 #adb4 ,footnote #i3 ,the ,bodhicaryvatra was edited by ,minayeff1 #ahhi and also in the ,journal of the ,buddhist ,text ,society and the ,bibliotheca ,indica4 ,de la ,valle ,poussin published parts of the text and commentary in his ,bouddhisme and also a translation in #aijg4 ,footnote #aj3 ,the career of the ,bodhisattva is also discussed in detail in the ,avatamsaka stra and in works attributed to ,ngrjuna and ,sthiramati1 the ,lakshana-vimukta-hridaya-stra and the ,mahyna-dharma-dhtvavieshata-stra4 ,i only know of these works as quoted by ,teitaro ,suzuki4 ,footnote #aa3 ,see ,childers1 ,pali ,dict4 s4v4 ,patti1 ,pattianuppadnam and ,puo4 ,footnote #ab3 ,it occurs in the ,pali ,canon1 e4g4 ,itivuttakam #ajj4 ,tassa me tumhe putt oras1 mukhato jt1 dhammaj4 ,footnote #ac3 ,see ,sylvain ,lvi1 ,mahyna-strlankra3 introduction and passim4 ,for much additional information about the ,bhmis see ,de la ,valle ,poussin's article ,bodhisattva in ,e4,r4,e4 ,footnote #ad3 ,eminent doctors such as ,ngrjuna and ,asanga are often described as ,bodhisattvas just as eminent ,hindu teachers1 e4g4 ,caitanya1 are described as ,avatras4 ,footnote #ae3 ,the idea that ,arhats may postpone their entry into ,nirvana for the good of the world is not unknown to the ,pali ,canon4 ,according to the ,maha ,parin-,sutta the ,buddha himself might have done so4 ,legends which cannot be called definitely ,mahayanist relate how ,pindola and others are to tarry until ,maitreya come and how ,kyapa in a less active role awaits him in a cave or tomb1 ready to revive at his advent4 ,see ,j4,a4 #aiaf1 ,,ii4 pp4 #aif1 #bgj4 ,footnote #af3 ,e4g4 ,lotus1 chap4 ,i4 ,footnote #ag3 ,de la ,valle ,poussin's article ,avalokita in ,e4,r4,e4 may be consulted4 ,footnote #ah3 ,lotus1 ,s4,b4,e4 ,,xxi4 p4 #djg4 ,footnote #ai3 s,pyan-ras-gzigs rendered in ,mongol by ,nidbr-dzkci4 ,the other common ,mongol name ,ariobalo appears to be a corruption of ryvalokita4 ,footnote #bj3 ,meaning apparently the seeing and self-existent one4 ,cf4 ,ta-tz-tsai as a name of iva4 ,footnote #ba3 ,a maidservant in the drama ,mlatmdhava is called ,avalokita4 ,it is not clear whether it is a feminine form of the divine name or an adjective meaning looked-at1 or admirable4 ,footnote #bb3 ,s4,b4,e4 ,,xxi4 pp4 #d and #djf ff4 ,it was translated in ,chinese between ,a4,d4 #bfe and #caf and chap4 ,,xxiv was separately translated between ,a4,d4 #chd and #dag4 ,see ,nanjio1 ,catalogue ,nos4 #acf1 #acg1 #ach4 ,footnote #bc3 ,hsan ,chuang 7,watters1 ,,ii4 #bae1 #bbd7 relates how an ,indian sage recited the ,sui-hsin dhrani before ,kuan-tz-tsai's image for three years4 ,footnote #bd3 ,as will be noticed from time to time in these pages1 the sudden appearance of new deities in ,indian literature often seems strange4 ,the fact is that until deities are generally recognized1 standard works pay no attention to them4 ,footnote #be3 ,watters1 vol4 ,,ii4 pp4 #bbh ff4 ,it is said that ,potalaka is also mentioned in the ,hwa-yen-ching or ,avatamsaka stra4 ,tibetan tradition connects it with the kya family4 ,see ,csoma de ,krs1 ,tibetan studies reprinted #aiab1 pp4 #cb-cd4 ,footnote #bf3 ,just as the ,lankvatra stra purports to have been delivered at ,lankapura-samudra-malaya-ikhara rendered in the ,chinese translation as in the city of ,lanka on the summit of the ,malaya mountain on the border of the sea4 ,footnote #bg3 ,see ,foucher1 ,iconographie bouddhique1 #aijj1 pp4 #ajj1 #ajb4 ,footnote #bh3 ,varamudra4 ,footnote #bi3 ,these as well as the red colour are attributes of the ,hindu deity ,brahm4 ,footnote #cj3 ,a temple on the north side of the lake in the ,imperial ,city at ,peking contains a gigantic image of him which has literally a thousand heads and a thousand hands4 ,this monstrous figure is a warning against an attempt to represent metaphors literally4 ,footnote #ca3 ,waddell on the ,cult of ,avalokita1 ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #ahid1 pp4 #ea ff4 thinks they are not earlier than the fifth century4 ,footnote #cb3 ,see especially ,foucher1 ,iconographie ,bouddhique1 ,paris1 #aijj4 ,footnote #cc3 ,see especially de ,blonay1 ,etudes pour servir a l'histoire de la desse bouddhique ,tr1 ,paris1 #ahie4 ,tr continued to be worshipped as a ,hindu goddess after ,buddhism had disappeared and several works were written in her honour4 ,see ,raj4 ,mitra1 ,search for ,sk4 ,,mss4 ,,iv4 #afh1 #aga1 ,x4 #fg4 ,footnote #cd3 ,about the time of ,hsan ,chuang's travels ,sarvajmitra wrote a hymn to ,tr which has been preserved and published by de ,blonay1 #ahid4 ,footnote #ce3 ,chinese ,buddhists say ,tr and ,kuan-,yin are the same but the difference between them is this4 ,tr is an ,indian and ,lamaist goddess associated with ,avalokita and in origin analogous to the ,saktis of ,tantrism4 ,kuan-yin is a female form of ,avalokita who can assume all shapes4 ,the original ,kuan-yin was a male deity3 male ,kuan-yins are not unknown in ,china and are said to be the rule in ,korea4 ,but ,tr and ,kuan-yin may justly be described as the same in so far as they are attempts to embody the idea of divine pity in a ,madonna4 ,footnote #cf3 ,but many scholars think that the formula ,om manipadme hum1 which is supposed to be addressed to ,avalokita1 is really an invocation to a form of akti called ,manipadm4 ,a ,nepalese inscription says that ,the ktas call him akti 7,e4,r4,e4 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #bfj and ,j4,a4 ,,ix4 #aib71 but this may be merely a way of saying that he is identical with the great gods of all sects4 ,footnote #cg3 ,harlez1 ,livre des esprits et des immortels1 p4 #aie1 and ,dor1 ,recherches sur les superstitions en ,chine1 pp4 #id-ach4 ,footnote #ch3 ,see ,fenollosa1 ,epochs of ,chinese and ,japanese ,art ,i4 pp4 #aje and #abd2 ,johnston1 ,buddhist ,china1 #bge ff4 ,several ,chinese deities appear to be of uncertain or varying sex4 ,thus ,chun-ti is sometimes described as a deified ,chinese ,general and sometimes identified with the ,indian goddess ,marc4 ,y-ti1 generally masculine1 is sometimes feminine4 ,see ,dor1 l4c4 #bab4 ,still more strangely the ,patriarch ,avaghosha 7,ma ,ming7 is represented by a female figure4 ,on the other hand the monk ,ta ,shng 7c4 #gje ,a4,d47 is said to have been an incarnation of the female ,kuan ,yin4 ,majur is said to be worshipped in ,nepal sometimes as a male1 sometimes as a female4 ,see ,bendall and ,haraprasad1 ,nepalese ,,mss4 p4 lxvii4 ,footnote #ci3 de ,blonay1 l4c4 pp4 #dh-eg4 ,footnote #dj3 ,chinese1 ,man-chu-shih-li1 or ,wn-shu2 ,japanese1 ,monju2 ,tibetan1 h,jam-pahi-dbyans 7pronounced ,jam-yang74 ,maju is good ,sanskrit1 but it must be confessed that the name has a ,central-,asian ring4 ,footnote #da3 ,translated into ,chinese #bgj ,a4,d4 ,footnote #db3 ,chaps4 ,,xi4 and ,,xiii4 ,footnote #dc3 ,a special work ,majurvikrdita 7,nanjio1 #ahd1 #ahe7 translated into ,chinese #cac ,a4,d4 is quoted as describing ,majur's transformations and exploits4 ,footnote #dd3 ,hsan ,chuang also relates how he assisted a philosopher called ,ch'en-na 7,dinnga7 and bade him study ,mahayanist books4 ,footnote #de3 ,it is reproduced in ,grnwedel's ,buddhist ,art in ,india4 ,translated by ,gibson1 #aija1 p4 #bjj4 ,footnote #df3 ,dharmacakramudra4 ,footnote #dg3 ,for the ,nepalese legends see ,s4 ,levi1 ,le ,nepal1 #aije-i4 ,footnote #dh3 ,for an account of this sacred mountain see ,edkins1 ,religion in ,china1 chaps4 ,,xvii to ,,xix4 ,footnote #di3 ,see ,i-tsing1 trans4 ,takakusu1 #ahif1 p4 #acf4 ,for some further remarks on the possible foreign origin of ,majur see below1 chapter on ,central ,asia4 ,the verses attributed to ,king ,harsha 7,nanjio1 #ajga7 praise the reliquaries of ,china but without details4 ,footnote #ej3 ,some of the ,tantras1 e4g4 the ,mahcnakramcra1 though they do not connect ,majur with ,china1 represent some of their most surprising novelties as having been brought thence by ancient sages like ,vasishtha4 ,footnote #ea3 ,j4,r4,a4,s4 new series1 ,,xii4 #ebb and ,j4,a4,s4,b4 #ahhb1 p4 #da4 ,the name ,manchu perhaps contributed to this belief4 ,footnote #eb3 ,it is described as a ,svayambh or spontaneous manifestation of the di-,buddha4 ,footnote #ec3 ,sanskrit1 ,maitreya2 ,pali1 ,metteyya2 ,chinese1 ,mi-li2 ,japanese1 ,miroku2 ,mongol1 ,maidari2 ,tibetan1 ,byams-pa 7pronounced ,jampa74 ,for the history of the ,maitreya idea see especially ,pri1 ,b4,e4,f4,e4,o4 #aiaa1 pp4 #dci-deg4 ,footnote #ed3 ,but a ,siamese inscription of about #acfa1 possibly influenced by ,chinese ,mahayanism1 speaks of the ten ,bodhisattvas headed by ,metteyya4 ,see ,b4,e4,f4,e4,o4 #aiag1 ,no4 #b1 pp4 #cj1 #ca4 ,footnote #ee3 ,e4g4 in the ,mahparinibbna ,stra4 ,footnote #ef3 ,dig4 ,nik4 ,,xxvi4 #be and ,buddhavamsa1 ,,xxvii4 #ai1 and even this last verse is said to be an addition4 ,footnote #eg3 ,see e4g4 ,watters1 ,yan ,chwang1 ,i4 #bci4 ,footnote #eh3 ,see ,watters and ,pri in ,b4,e4,f4,e4,o4 #aiaa1 #dci4 ,a temple of ,maitreya has been found at ,turfan in ,central ,asia with a ,chinese inscription which speaks of him as an active and benevolent deity manifesting himself in many forms4 ,footnote #ei3 ,he has not fared well in ,chinese iconography which represents him as an enormously fat smiling monk4 ,in the ,liang dynasty there was a monk called ,pu-tai 7,jap4 ,hotei7 who was regarded as an incarnation of ,maitreya and became a popular subject for caricature4 ,it would appear that the ,bodhisattva himself has become superseded by this cheerful but undignified incarnation4 ,footnote #fj3 ,the stupa was apparently at ,benares but ,hsan ,chuang's narrative is not clear and other versions make ,rjagriha or ,srvasti the scene of the prediction4 ,footnote #fa3 ,campa4 ,this is his bodhi tree under which he will obtain enlightenment as ,skyamuni under the ,ficus religiosa4 ,each ,buddha has his own special kind of bodhi tree4 ,footnote #fb3 ,record of the ,buddhist religion1 ,trans4 ,takakusu1 p4 #bac4 ,see too ,watters1 ,yan ,chwang1 ,,ii4 #eg1 #add1 #baj1 #bae4 ,footnote #fc3 ,chinese ,p'u-hsien4 ,see ,johnston1 ,from ,peking to ,mandalay1 for an interesting account of ,mt4 ,omei4 ,footnote #fd3 ,or ,mahsthna4 ,chinese1 ,tai-shih-chih4 ,he appears to be the ,arhat ,maudgalyyana deified4 ,in ,china and ,japan there is a marked tendency to regard all ,bodhisattvas as ancient worthies who by their vows and virtues have risen to their present high position4 ,but these euhemeristic explanations are common in the ,far ,east and the real origin of the ,bodhisattvas may be quite different4 ,footnote #fe3 ,e4g4 ,watters1 ,i4 p4 #bbi1 ,,ii4 #bae4 ,footnote #ff3 ,kshitigarbha is translated into ,chinese as ,ti-tsang and ,jiz is the ,japanese pronunciation of the same two characters4 ,footnote #fg3 ,in ,ostasiat4 ,ztsft4 #aiac-ae4 ,see too ,johnston1 ,buddhist ,china1 chap4 ,,viii4 ,footnote #fh3 ,the ,earth goddess is known to the earliest ,buddhist legends4 ,the ,buddha called her to witness when sitting under the ,bo tree4 ,footnote #fi3 ,three ,stras1 analysed by ,visser1 treat of ,kshitigarbha4 ,they are ,nanjio1 ,nos4 #fd1 #fe1 #fg4 ,footnote #gj3 ,a celebrated monastery in the portion of ,an-hui which lies to the south of the ,yang-tse4 ,see ,johnston1 ,buddhist ,china1 chaps1 ,,viii1 ,,ix and ,x4 ,footnote #ga3 ,there is some reason to think that even in ,turkestan ,kshitigarbha was a god of roads4 ,footnote #gb3 ,in ,annam too ,jiz is represented on horseback4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,the ,,buddhas ,,of ,,mahayanism ,this mythology did not grow up around the ,buddha without affecting the central figure4 ,to understand the extraordinary changes of meaning both mythological and metaphysical which the word ,buddha undergoes in ,mahayanist theology we must keep in mind not the personality of ,gotama but the idea that he is one of several successive ,buddhas who for convenience may be counted as four1 seven or twenty-four but who really form an infinite series extending without limit backwards into the past and forwards into the future4#gc ,this belief in a series of ,buddhas produced a plentiful crop of imaginary personalities and also of speculations as to their connection with one another1 with the phenomena of the world and with the human soul4 ,in the ,pali ,canon the ,buddhas antecedent to ,gotama are introduced much like ancient kings as part of the legendary history of this world4 ,but in the ,lalita-vistara 7,chap4 ,,xx7 and the ,lotus 7,chap4 ,,vii7 we hear of ,buddhas1 usually described as ,tathgatas1 who apparently do not belong to this world at all1 but rule various points of the compass1 or regions described as ,buddha-fields 7,buddha-kshetra74 ,their names are not the same in the different accounts and we remain dazzled by an endless panorama of an infinity of universes with an infinity of shining ,buddhas1 illuminating infinite space4 ,somewhat later five of these unearthly ,buddhas were formed into a pentad and described as ,jinas#gd or ,dhyni ,buddhas 7,buddhas of contemplation71 namely1 ,vairocana1 ,akshobhya1 ,ratnasambhava1 ,amitbha and ,amoghasiddhi4 ,in the fully developed form of this doctrine these five personages are produced by contemplation from the di-,buddha or original ,buddha spirit and themselves produce various reflexes1 including ,bodhisattvas1 human ,buddhas and goddesses like ,tr4 ,the date when these beliefs first became part of the accepted ,mahayana creed cannot be fixed but probably the symmetrical arrangement of five ,buddhas is not anterior to the tantric period#ge of ,buddhism4 ,the most important of the five are ,vairocana and ,amitbha4 ,akshobhya is mentioned in both the ,lotus and ,smaller ,sukhvat-vyha as the chief ,buddha of the eastern quarter1 and a work purporting to be a description of his paradise still extant in ,chinese#gf is said to have been translated in the time of the ,eastern ,han dynasty4 ,but even in the ,far ,east he did not find many worshippers4 ,more enduring has been the glory of ,vairocana who is the chief deity of the ,shingon sect in ,japan and is represented by the gigantic image in the temple at ,nara4 ,in ,java he seems to have been regarded as the principal and supreme ,buddha4 ,the name occurs in the ,mahvastu as the designation of an otherwise unknown ,buddha of luminous attributes and in the ,lotus we hear of a distant ,buddha-world called ,vairocana-rasmi-pratimandita1 embellished by the rays of the sun4#gg ,vairocana is clearly a derivative of ,virocana1 a recognized title of the sun in ,sanskrit1 and is rendered in ,chinese by ,ta-jih meaning great ,sun4 ,how this solar deity first came to be regarded as a ,buddha is not known but the connection between a ,buddha and light has always been recognized4 ,even the ,pali texts represent ,gotama as being luminous on some occasions and in the ,mahayanist scriptures ,buddhas are radiant and light-giving beings1 surrounded by halos of prodigious extent and emitting flashes which illuminate the depths of space4 ,the visions of innumerable paradises in all quarters containing jewelled stupas and lighted by refulgent ,buddhas which are frequent in these works seem founded on astronomy vaporized under the influence of the idea that there are millions of universes all equally transitory and unsubstantial4 ,there is no reason1 so far as ,i see1 to regard ,gotama as a mythical solar hero1 but the celestial ,buddhas#gh clearly have many solar attributes4 ,this is natural4 ,solar deities are so abundant in ,vedic mythology that it is hardly possible to be a benevolent god without having something of the character of the sun4 ,the stream of foreign religions which flowed into ,india from ,bactria and ,persia about the time of the ,christian era brought new aspects of sun worship such as ,mithra1 ,helios and ,apollo and strengthened the tendency to connect divinity and light4 ,and this connection was peculiarly appropriate and obvious in the case of a ,buddha1 for ,buddhas are clearly revealers and light-givers1 conquerors of darkness and dispellers of ignorance4 ,amitbha 7or the ,buddha of measureless light71 rising suddenly from an obscure origin1 has like ,avalokita and ,vishnu become one of the great gods of ,asia4 ,he is also known as ,amityus or measureless life1 and is therefore a god of light and immortality4 ,according to both the ,lotus and the ,smaller ,sukhvat-vyha he is the lord of the western quarter but he is unknown to the ,lalita-vistara4 ,it gives the ruler of the west a lengthy title1#gi which suggests a land of gardens4 ,now ,paradise1 which has biblical authority as a name for the place of departed spirits1 appears to mean in ,persian a park or enclosed garden and the ,avesta speaks of four heavens1 the good thought ,paradise1 the good word ,paradise1 the good deed ,paradise and the ,endless ,lights4#hj ,this last expression bears a remarkable resemblance to the name of ,amitbha and we can understand that he should rule the west1 because it is the home to which the sun and departed spirits go4 ,amitbha's ,paradise is called ,sukhvat or ,happy ,land4 ,in the ,puranas the city of ,varuna 7who is suspected of having a non-,indian origin7 is said to be situated in the west and is called ,sukha 7,linga ,p4 and ,vayu ,p47 or ,mukhya 7so ,vishnu ,p4 and others74 ,the name ,amitbha also occurs in the ,vishnu ,purana as the name of a class of gods and it is curious that they are in one place#ha associated with other deities called the ,mukhyas4 ,the worship of ,amitbha1 so far as its history can be traced1 goes back to ,saraha1 the teacher of ,ngrjuna4 ,he is said to have been a ,sudra and his name seems un-,indian4 ,this supports the theory that this worship was foreign and imported into ,india4#hb ,this worship and the doctrine on which it is based are an almost complete contradiction of ,gotama's teaching1 for they amount to this1 that religion consists in faith in ,amitbha and prayer to him1 in return for which he will receive his followers after death in his paradise4 ,yet this is not a late travesty of ,buddhism but a relatively early development which must have begun about the ,christian era4 ,the principal works in which it is preached are the ,greater ,sukhvat-vyha or ,description of the ,happy ,land1 translated into ,chinese between #adg and #ahf ,a4,d41 the lesser work of the same name translated in #djb ,a4,d4 and the ,stra of meditation on ,amityus#hc translated in #dbd4 ,the first of these works purports to be a discourse of kyamuni himself1 delivered on the ,vulture's ,peak in answer to the questions of nanda4 ,he relates how innumerable ages ago there was a monk called ,dharmkara who1 with the help of the ,buddha of that period1 made a vow or vows#hd to become a ,buddha but on conditions4 ,that is to say he rejected the ,buddhahood to which he might become entitled unless his merits obtained certain advantages for others1 and having obtained ,buddhahood on these conditions he can now cause them to be fulfilled4 ,in other words he can apportion his vast store of accumulated merit to such persons and in such manner as he chooses4 ,the gist of the conditions is that he should when he obtained ,buddhahood be lord of a paradise whose inhabitants live in unbroken happiness until they obtain ,nirvana4 ,all who have thought of this paradise ten times are to be admitted therein1 unless they have committed grievous sin1 and ,amitbha will appear to them at the moment of death so that their thoughts may not be troubled4 ,the ,buddha shows nanda a miraculous vision of this paradise and its joys are described in language recalling the account of the ,new ,jerusalem in the book of ,revelation and1 though coarser pleasures are excluded1 all the delights of the eye and ear1 such as jewels1 gardens1 flowers1 rivers and the songs of birds await the faithful4 ,the smaller ,sukhvat-vyha1 represented as preached by kyamuni at rvasti1 is occupied almost entirely with a description of the paradise4 ,it marks a new departure in definitely preaching salvation by faith only1 not by works1 whereas the previous treatise1 though dwelling on the efficacy of faith1 also makes merit a requisite for life in heaven4 ,but the shorter discourse says dogmatically ,beings are not born in that ,buddha country as a reward and result of good works performed in this present life4 ,no1 all men or women who hear and bear in mind for one1 two1 three1 four1 five1 six or seven nights the name of ,amityus1 when they come to die1 ,amityus will stand before them in the hour of death1 they will depart this life with quiet minds and after death they will be born in ,paradise4 ,the ,amityur-dhyna-stra also purports to be the teaching of kyamuni and has an historical introduction connecting it with ,queen ,vaideh and ,king ,bimbisra4 ,in theology it is more advanced than the other treatises3 it is familiar with the doctrine of ,dharma-kya 7which will be discussed below7 and it represents the rulers of paradise as a triad1 ,amityus being assisted by ,avalokita and ,mahasthmaprpta4#he ,admission to the paradise can be obtained in various ways1 but the method recommended is the practice of a series of meditations which are described in detail4 ,the system is comprehensive1 for salvation can be obtained by mere virtue with little or no prayer but also by a single invocation of ,amityus1 which suffices to free from deadly sins4 ,strange as such doctrines appear when set beside the ,pali texts1 it is clear that in their origin and even in the form which they assume in the larger ,sukhvat-vyha they are simply an exaggeration of ordinary ,mahayanist teaching4#hf ,amitbha is merely a monk who devotes himself to the religious life1 namely seeking bodhi for the good of others4 ,he differs from every day devotees only in the degree of sanctity and success obtained by his exertions4 ,the operations which he performs are nothing but examples on a stupendous scale of parinman or the assignment of one's own merits to others4 ,his paradise1 though in popular esteem equivalent to the ,persian or ,christian heaven1 is not really so3 strictly speaking it is not an ultimate ideal but a blessed region in which ,nirvana may be obtained without toil or care4 ,though this teaching had brilliant success in ,china and ,japan1 where it still flourishes1 the worship of ,amitbha was never predominant in ,india4 ,in ,nepal and ,tibet he is one among many deities3 the ,chinese pilgrims hardly mention him3 his figure is not particularly frequent in ,indian iconography#hg and1 except in the works composed specially in his honour1 he appears as an incidental rather than as a necessary figure4 ,the whole doctrine is hardly strenuous enough for ,indians4 ,to pray to the ,buddha at the end of a sinful life1 enter his paradise and obtain ultimate ,nirvana in comfort is not only open to the same charge of egoism as the ,hinayana scheme of salvation but is much easier and may lead to the abandonment of religious effort4 ,and the ,hindu1 who above all things likes to busy himself with his own salvation1 does not take kindly to these expedients4 ,numerous deities promise a long spell of heaven as a reward for the mere utterance of their names1#hh yet the believer continues to labour earnestly in ceremonies or meditation4 ,it would be interesting to know whether this doctrine of salvation by the utterance of a single name or prayer originated among ,buddhists or ,brahmans4 ,in any case it is closely related to old ideas about the magic power of ,vedic verses4 ,the five ,jinas and other supernatural personages are often regarded as manifestations of a single ,buddha-force and at last this force is personified as di-,buddha4#hi ,this admittedly theistic form of ,buddhism is late and is recorded from ,nepal1 ,tibet 7in the ,klacakra system7 and ,java1 a distribution which implies that it was exported from ,bengal4#ij ,but another form in which the ,buddha-force is impersonal and analogous to the ,parabrahma of the ,vednta is much older4 ,yet when this philosophic idea is expressed in popular language it comes very near to ,theism4 ,as ,kern has pointed out1 ,buddha is not called ,deva or vara in the ,lotus simply because he is above such beings4 ,he declares that he has existed and will exist for incalculable ages and has preached and will preach in innumerable millions of worlds4 ,his birth here and his nirvana are illusory1 kindly devices which may help weak disciples but do not mark the real beginning and end of his activity4 ,this implies a view of ,buddha's personality which is more precisely defined in the doctrine known as ,trikya or the three bodies#ia and expounded in the ,mahyna-strlankra1 the ,awakening of ,faith1 the ,suvarna-prabhsa stra#ib and many other works4 ,it may be stated dogmatically as follows1 but it assumes somewhat divergent forms according as it is treated theologically or metaphysically4 ,a ,buddha has three bodies or forms of existence4 ,the first is the ,dharma-kya1 which is the essence of all ,buddhas4 ,it is true knowledge or ,bodhi4 ,it may also be described as ,nirvana and also as the one permanent reality underlying all phenomena and all individuals4 ,the second is the ,sambhoga-kya1 or body of enjoyment1 that is to say the radiant and superhuman form in which ,buddhas appear in their paradises or when otherwise manifesting themselves in celestial splendour4 ,the third is the ,nirmna-kya1 or the body of transformation1 that is to say the human form worn by kyamuni or any other ,buddha and regarded as a transformation of his true nature and almost a distortion1 because it is so partial and inadequate an expression of it4 ,later theology regards ,amitbha1 ,amityus and kyamuni as a series corresponding to the three bodies4 ,amitbha does not really express the whole ,dharma-kya1 which is incapable of personification1 but when he is accurately distinguished from ,amityus 7and frequently they are regarded as synonyms7 he is made the more remote and ethereal of the two4 ,amityus with his rich ornaments and his flask containing the water of eternal life is the ideal of a splendidly beneficent saviour and represents the ,sambhoga-kya4#ic kyamuni is the same beneficent being shrunk into human form4 ,but this is only one aspect1 and not the most important1 of the doctrine of the three bodies4 ,we can easily understand the ,sambhoga-kya and ,nirmna-kya3 they correspond to a deity such as ,vishnu and his incarnation ,krishna1 and they are puzzling in ,buddhism simply because we think naturally of the older view 7not entirely discarded by the ,mahayana7 which makes the human ,buddha the crown and apex of a series of lives that find in him their fulfilment4 ,but it is less easy to understand the ,dharma-kya4 ,the word should perhaps be translated as body of the law and the thought originally underlying it may have been that the essential nature of a ,buddha1 that which makes him a ,buddha1 is the law which he preaches4 ,as we might say1 the teacher lives in his teaching3 while it survives1 he is active and not dead4 ,the change from metaphor to theology is illustrated by ,hsan ,chuang when he states#id 7no doubt quoting from his edition of the ,pitakas7 that ,gotama when dying said to those around him ,say not that the ,tathgata is undergoing final extinction3 his spiritual presence abides for ever unchangeable4 ,this apparently corresponds to the passage in the ,pali ,canon1#ie which runs ,it may be that in some of you the thought may arise1 the word of the ,master is ended3 we have no more a teacher4 ,but it is not thus that you should regard it4 ,the truths and the rules which ,i have set forth1 let them1 after ,i am gone1 be the ,teacher to you4 ,but in ,buddhist writings1 including the oldest ,pali texts1 ,dharma or ,dhamma has another important meaning4 ,it signifies phenomenon or mental state 7the two being identical for an idealistic philosophy7 and comprises both the external and the internal world4 ,now the ,dharma-kya is emphatically not a phenomenon but it may be regarded as the substratum or totality of phenomena or as that which gives phenomena whatever reality they possess and the double use of the word dharma rendered such divagations of meaning easier4#if ,hindus have a tendency to identify being and knowledge4 ,according to the ,vednta philosophy he who knows ,brahman1 knows that he himself is ,brahman and therefore he actually is ,brahman4 ,in the same way the true body of the ,buddha is praj or knowledge4#ig ,by this is meant a knowledge which transcends the distinction between subject and object and which sees that neither animate beings nor inanimate things have individuality or separate existence4 ,thus the ,dharma-kya being an intelligence which sees the illusory quality of the world and also how the illusion originates#ih may be regarded as the origin and ground of all phenomena4 ,as such it is also called ,tathgatagarbha and ,dharma-dhtu1 the matrix or store-house of all phenomena4 ,on the other hand1 inasmuch as it is beyond them and implies their unreality1 it may also be regarded as the annihilation of all phenomena1 in other words as ,nirvana4 ,in fact the ,dharma-kya 7or ,bhta-tathat7 is sometimes#ii defined in words similar to those which the ,pali ,canon makes the ,buddha use when asked if the ,perfect ,saint exists after death--it is neither that which is existence nor that which is non-existence1 nor that which is at once existence and non-existence nor that which is neither existence nor non-existence4 ,in more theological language it may be said that according to the general opinion of the ,mahayanists a ,buddha attains to ,nirvana by the very act of becoming a ,buddha and is therefore beyond everything which we call existence4 ,yet the compassion which he feels for mankind and the good ,karma which he has accumulated cause a human image of him 7,nirmna-kya7 to appear among men for their instruction and a superhuman image1 perceptible yet not material1 to appear in ,paradise4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #gc3 ,in ,mahparinib4 ,sut4 ,i4 #af the ,buddha is made to speak of all the other ,buddhas who have been in the long ages of the past and will be in the long ages of the future4 ,footnote #gd3 ,though ,dhyni ,buddha is the title most frequently used in ,european works it would appear that ,jina is more usual in ,sanskrit works1 and in fact ,dhyni ,buddha is hardly known outside ,nepalese literature4 ,ratnasambhava and ,amoghasiddhi are rarely mentioned apart from the others4 ,according to ,getty 7,gods of ,northern ,buddhism1 pp4 #bf1 #bg7 a group of six1 including the di-,buddha himself under the name of ,vajrasattva1 is sometimes worshipped4 ,footnote #ge3 ,about the same period iva and ,vishnu were worshipped in five forms4 ,see below1 ,book ,v4 chap4 ,,iii4 sec4 #c ad fin4 ,footnote #gf3 ,nanjio1 ,cat4 ,no4 #bh4 ,footnote #gg3 ,virocana also occurs in the ,chndogya ,up4 ,,viii4 #g and #h as the name of an ,asura who misunderstood the teaching of ,prajpati4 ,verocana is the name of an ,asura in ,sam4 ,nik4 ,i4 xi4 #a4 #h4 ,footnote #gh3 ,the names of many of these ,buddhas1 perhaps the majority1 contain some word expressive of light such as ditya1 prabh or tejas4 ,footnote #gi3 ,chap4 ,,xx4 ,pushpavalivanrajikusumitbhija4 ,footnote #hj3 ,e4g4 ,yashts4 ,,xxii4 and ,,xxiv4 ,s4,b4,e4 vol4 ,,xxiii4 pp4 #cag and #cdd4 ,the title ,pure ,land 7,chinese ,ch'ing-t'u1 ,japanese ,jo-do7 has also a ,persian ring about it4 ,see further in the chapter on ,central ,asia4 ,footnote #ha3 ,vishnu ,p41 ,book ,,iii4 chap4 ,,ii4 ,footnote #hb3 ,see below3 ,section on ,central ,asia1 and ,grnwedel1 ,mythologie1 #ca1 #cf and notes3 ,taranatha 7,shiefner71 p4 #ic and notes4 ,footnote #hc3 ,amityur-dhyna-stra4 ,all three works are translated in ,s4,b4,e4 vol4 ,,xlix4 ,footnote #hd3 ,pranidhna4 ,not only ,amitbha but all ,bodhisattvas 7especially ,avalokita and ,kshitigarbha7 are supposed to have made such vows4 ,this idea is very common in ,china and ,japan but goes back to ,indian sources4 ,see e4g4 ,lotus1 ,,xxiv4 verse #c4 ,footnote #he3 ,these ,bodhisattvas are also mentioned but without much emphasis in the ,greater ,sukhvat-vyha4 ,footnote #hf3 ,even in ,hinayanist works such as the ,nidnakath ,sumedha's resolution to become a ,buddha1 formed as he lies on the ground before ,dipankara1 has a resemblance to ,amda's vow4 ,he resolves to attain the truth1 to enable mankind to cross the sea of the world and only then to attain ,nirvana4 ,footnote #hg3 ,see ,foucher1 ,iconographie ,bouddhique dans l',inde4 ,footnote #hh3 ,the ,bhagavad-gt states quite clearly the doctrine of the deathbed prayer 7,,viii4 ad init474 ,he who leaves this body and departs remembering me in his last moments comes to my essence4 ,whatever form 7of deity7 he remembers when he finally leaves this body1 to that he goes having been used to ponder on it4 ,footnote #hi3 ,see art4 di-,buddha in ,e4,r4,e4 ,asanga in the ,strlankra 7,,ix4 #gg7 condemns the doctrine of di-,buddha1 showing that the term was known then1 even if it had not the precise dogmatic sense which it acquired later4 ,his argument is that no one can become a ,buddha without an equipment 7,sambhra7 of merit and knowledge4 ,such an equipment can only be obtained from a previous ,buddha and therefore the series of ,buddhas must extend infinitely backwards4 ,footnote #ij3 ,for the prevalence of the doctrine in medival ,bengal see ,b4,k4 ,sarkar1 ,folklore ,element in ,hindu ,culture1 which is however sparing of precise references4 ,the ,dharma or ,nirajana of the nya ,purna seems to be equivalent to di-,buddha4 ,sometimes the di-,buddha is identified with ,vajrasattva or ,samantabhadra1 although these beings are otherwise classified as ,bodhisattvas4 ,this appears analogous to the procedure common in ,hinduism by which a devotee declares that his special deity is all the gods and the supreme spirit4 ,footnote #ia3 ,it would appear that some of the ,tantras treat of five bodies1 adding to the three here given others such as the nandakya1 ,vajrakya and ,svabhvakya4 ,for this doctrine see especially ,de la ,valle ,poussin1 ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aijf1 pp4 #idc-iig and ,muson1 #aiac1 pp4 #beg ff4 ,jigs-med nam-mk1 the historian of ,tibetan ,buddhism1 describes four4 ,see ,huth1 ,ges4 d4 ,bud4 in d4 ,mongolei1 vol4 ,,ii4 pp4 #hc-hi4 ,hinduism also assigns to living beings three bodies1 the ,krana-arra1 linga4 and sthla4 ,footnote #ib3 ,translated into ,chinese by ,dharmaraksha between #cig and #dci ,a4,d4 ,footnote #ic3 ,the prototype of the ,sambhoga-kya is found in the ,pali ,canon1 for the ,buddha says 7,mahparinib4 ,sut4 ,,iii4 #bb7 that when he appears among the different classes of gods his form and voice are similar to theirs4 ,footnote #id3 ,watters1 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #ch4 ,spiritual essence is ,fa-shn in ,chinese1 i4e4 ,dharma-kya4 ,another passage is quoted to the effect that henceforth the observances of all my disciples constitute the ,tathgata's ,fa-shn1 eternal and imperishable4 ,footnote #ie3 ,mahparinib4 ,sut4 ,,vi4 i4 ,footnote #if3 ,something similar might happen in ,english if think and thing were pronounced in the same way and a thing were believed to be that which we can think4 ,footnote #ig3 ,see ,ashtashasrik ,praj-pramit1 chap4 ,,iv1 near beginning4 ,footnote #ih3 ,it is in this last point that no inferior intelligence can follow the thought of a ,buddha4 ,footnote #ii3 ,the ,awakening of ,faith1 ,teitaro ,suzuki1 p4 #ei4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,mahayanist ,,metaphysics ,thus the theory of the three bodies1 especially of the ,dharma-kya1 is bound up with a theory of ontology4 ,metaphysics became a passion among the travellers of the ,great ,vehicle as psychology had been in earlier times4 ,they may indeed be reproached with being bad ,buddhists since they insisted on speculating on those questions which ,gotama had declared to be unprofitable and incapable of an answer in human language4 ,he refused to pronounce on the whence1 the whither and the nature of things1 but bade his disciples walk in the eightfold path and analyse the human mind1 because such analysis conduces to spiritual progress4 ,india was the last country in the world where such restrictions were likely to be observed4 ,much ,mahayanist literature is not religious at all but simply metaphysics treated in an authoritative and ecclesiastical manner4 ,the nature and origin of the world are discussed as freely as in the ,vednta and with similar results3 the old ethics and psychology receive scant attention4 ,yet the difference is less than might be supposed4 ,anyone who reads these treatises and notices the number of apparently eternal beings and the talk about the universal mind is likely to think the old doctrine that nothing has an tman or soul1 has been forgotten4 ,but this impression is not correct2 the doctrine of ,nairtmyam is asserted so uncompromisingly that from one point of view it may be said that even ,buddhas do not exist4 ,the meaning of this doctrine is that no being or object contains an unchangeable permanent self1 which lives unaltered in the same or in different bodies4 ,on the contrary individual existences consist of nothing but a collection of skandhas or a santna1 a succession or series of mental phenomena4 ,in the ,pali books this doctrine is applied chiefly to the soul and psychological enquiries4 ,the ,mahayana applied it to the external world and proved by ingenious arguments that nothing at all exists4 ,similarly the doctrine of ,karma is maintained1 though it is seriously modified by the admission that merit can be transferred from one personality to another4 ,the ,mahayana continued to teach that an act once performed affects a particular series of mental states until its effect is exhausted1 or in popular language that an individual enjoys or suffers through a series of births the consequences of previous acts4 ,even the instance of ,amitbha's paradise1 though it strains the doctrine of ,karma to the utmost1 does not repudiate it4 ,for the believer performs an act--to wit1 the invocation of ,amitbha--to which has been attached the wonderful result that the performer is reborn in a blessed state4 ,this is not essentially different from the idea found in the ,pali ,canon that attentions paid to a ,buddha may be rewarded by a happy rebirth in heaven4#ajj ,mahayanist metaphysics1 like all other departments of this theology1 are beset by the difficulty that the authorities who treat of them are not always in accord and do not pretend to be in accord4 ,the idea that variety is permissible in belief and conduct is deeply rooted in later ,buddhism3 there are many vehicles1 some better than others no doubt and some very ramshackle1 but all are capable of conveying their passengers to salvation4 ,nominally the ,mahayana was divided into only two schools of philosophy3 practically every important treatise propounds a system with features of its own4 ,the two schools are the ,yogcras and ,mdhyamikas4#aja ,both are idealists and deny the reality of the external world1 but whereas the ,yogcras 7also called ,vijnavdins7 admit that ,vijna or consciousness and the series of states of which it consists are real1 the ,mdhyamikas refuse the title of reality to both the subjective and the objective world and hence gained a reputation of being complete nihilists4 ,probably the ,mdhyamikas are the older school4 ,both schools attach importance to the distinction between relative and absolute knowledge4 ,relative knowledge is true for human beings living in the world3 that is to say it is not more false than the world of appearance in which they live4 ,the ,hinayanist doctrines are true in this sense4 ,absolute knowledge rises above the world of appearance and is altogether true but difficult to express in words4 ,the ,yogcra makes three divisions1 dividing the inferior knowledge into two4 ,it distinguishes first illusory knowledge 7parikalpita7 such as mistaking a piece of rope for a snake or belief in the existence of individual souls4 ,secondly knowledge which depends on the relations of things 7paratantra7 and which though not absolutely wrong is necessarily limited1 such as belief in the real existence of ropes and snakes4 ,and thirdly absolute knowledge 7parinishpanna71 which understands all things as the manifestation of an underlying principle4 ,the ,mdhyamikas more simply divide knowledge into samvriti-satya and paramrtha-satya1 that is the truth of every-day life and transcendental truth4 ,the world and ordinary religion with its doctrines and injunctions about good works are real and true as samvriti but in absolute truth 7paramrtham7 we attain ,nirvana and then the world with its human ,buddhas and its gods exists no more4 ,the word nyam or nyat1 that is void1 is often used as the equivalent of paramrtham4 ,void must be understood as meaning not an abyss of nothingness but that which is found to be devoid of all the attributes which we try to ascribe to it4 ,the world of ordinary experience is not void1 for a great number of statements can be made about it1 but absolute truth is void1 because nothing whatever can be predicated of it4 ,yet even this colourless designation is not perfectly accurate1#ajb because neither being nor not-being can be predicated of absolute truth4 ,it is for this reason1 namely that they admit neither being nor not-being but something between the two1 that the followers of ,ngrjuna are known as the ,mdhyamikas or school of the middle doctrine1 though the ,european reader is tempted to say that their theories are extreme to the point of being a reductio ad absurdum of the whole system4 ,yet though much of their logic seems late and useless sophistry1 its affinity to early ,buddhism cannot be denied4 ,the fourfold proposition that the answer to certain questions cannot be any of the statements is1 is not1 both is and is not1 neither is nor is not1 is part of the earliest known stratum of ,buddhism4 ,the ,buddha himself is represented as saying#ajc that most people hold either to a belief in being or to a belief in not being4 ,but neither belief is possible for one who considers the question with full knowledge4 ,that things have being is one extreme3 that things have no being is the other extreme4 ,these extremes have been avoided by the ,tathgata and it is a middle doctrine that he teaches1 namely1 dependent origination as explained in the chain of twelve links4 ,the ,mdhyamika theory that objects have no absolute and independent existence but appear to exist in virtue of their relations is a restatement of this ancient dictum4 ,the ,mahayanist doctors find an ethical meaning in their negations4 ,if things possessed svabhva1 real1 absolute1 self-determined existence1 then the four truths and especially the cessation of suffering and attainment of sanctity would be impossible4 ,for if things were due not to causation but to their own self-determining nature 7and the ,hindus always seem to understand real existence in this sense7 cessation of evil and attainment of the good would be alike impossible3 the four ,noble ,truths imply a world which is in a state of constant becoming1 that is a world which is not really existent4 ,but for all that the doctrine of nyat as stated in the ,mdhyamika aphorisms ascribed to ,ngrjuna leaves an impression of audacious and ingenious sophistry4 ,after laying down that every object in the world exists only in relation to every other object and has no self-existence1 the treatise proceeds to prove that rest and motion are alike impossible4 ,we speak about the path along which we are passing but there is really no such thing1 for if we divide the path accurately1 it always proves separable into the part which has been passed over and the part which will be passed over4 ,there is no part which is being passed over4 ,this of course amounts to a denial of the existence of present time4 ,time consists of past and future separated by an indivisible and immeasurable instant4 ,the minimum of time which has any meaning for us implies a change1 and two elements1 a former and a subsequent4 ,the present minute or the present hour are fallacious expressions4#ajd ,therefore no one ever is passing along a path4 ,again you cannot logically say that the passer is passing1 for the sentence is redundant3 the verb adds nothing to the noun and vice versa3 but on the other hand you clearly cannot say that the non-passer is passing4 ,again if you say that the passer and the passing are identical1 you overlook the distinction between the agent and the act and both become unreal4 ,but you cannot maintain that the passer is different from the passing1 for a passer as distinct from passing and passing as distinct from a passer have no meaning4 ,but how can two entities exist at all1 if they exist neither as identical with one another nor as different from one another8 ,the above1 though much abridged1 gives an idea of the logic of these stras4 ,they proceed to show that all manner of things1 such as the five skandhas1 the elements1 contact1 attachment1 fire and fuel1 origination1 continuation and extinction have no real existence4 ,similar reasoning is then applied to religious topics3 the world of transmigration as well as bondage and liberation are declared non-existent4 ,in reality no soul is in bondage and none is released4#aje ,similarly ,karma1 the ,buddha himself1 the four truths1 ,nirvana and the twelve links in the chain of causation are all unreal4 ,this is not a declaration of scepticism4 ,it means that the ,buddha as a human or celestial being and ,nirvana as a state attainable in this world are conceivable only in connection with this world and therefore1 like the world1 unreal4 ,no religious idea can enter into the unreal 7that is the practical7 life of the world unless it is itself unreal4 ,this sounds a topsy turvy argument but it is really the same as the ,advaita doctrine4 ,the ,vednta is on the one hand a scheme of salvation for liberating souls which transmigrate unceasingly in a world ruled by a personal ,god4 ,but when true knowledge is attained1 the soul sees that it is identical with the ,highest ,brahman and that souls which are in bondage and ,god who rules the world are illusions like the world itself4 ,but the ,advaita has at least a verbal superiority over the ,mdhyamika philosophy1 for in its terminology ,brahman is the real and the existent contrasted with the world of illusion4 ,the result of giving to what the ,advaita calls the real and existent the name of nyat or void is disconcerting4 ,to say that everything without distinction is non-existent is much the same as saying that everything is existent4 ,it only means that a wrong sense is habitually given to the word exist1 as if it meant to be self-contained and without relation to other objects4 ,unless we can make a verbal contrast and assert that there is something which does exist1 it seems futile to insist on the unreality of the world4 ,yet this mode of thought is not confined to text-books on logic4 ,it invades the scriptures1 and appears 7for instance7 in the ,diamond ,cutter#ajf which is still one of the most venerated books of devotion in ,china and ,japan4 ,in this work the ,buddha explains that a ,bodhisattva must resolve to deliver all living beings and yet must understand that after he has thus delivered innumerable beings1 no one has been delivered4 ,and why8 ,because no one is to be called a ,bodhisattva for whom there exists the idea of a being1 or person4 ,similarly a saint does not think that he is a saint1 for if he did so think1 he would believe in a self1 and a person4 ,there occur continually in this work phrases cast in the following form3 what was preached as a store of merit1 that was preached as no store of merit#ajg by the ,tathgata and therefore it is called a store of merit4 ,if there existed a store of merit1 the ,tathgata would not have preached a store of merit4 ,that is to say1 if ,i understand this dark language rightly1 accumulated merit is part of the world of illusion which we live in and by speaking of it as he did the ,buddha implied that it1 like everything else in the world1 is really non-existent4 ,did it belong to the sphere of absolute truth1 he would not have spoken of it as if it were one of the things commonly but erroneously supposed to exist4 ,finally we are told of the highest knowledge ,even the smallest thing is not known or perceived there2 therefore it is called the highest perfect knowledge4 ,that is to say perfect knowledge transcends all distinctions2 it recognises the illusory nature of all individuality and the truth of sameness1 the never-changing one behind the ever-changing many4 ,in this sense it is said to perceive nothing and know nothing4 ,one might expect that a philosophy thus prone to use the language of extreme nihilism would slip into a destructive1 or at least negative system4 ,but ,mahayanism was pulled equally strongly in the opposite direction by the popular and mythological elements which it contained and was on the whole inclined to theism and even polytheism quite as much as to atheism and acosmism4 ,a modern ,japanese writer#ajh says that ,dharma-kya may be considered to be equivalent to the ,christian conception of the ,godhead4 ,this is excessive as a historical statement of the view current in ,india during the early centuries of our era1 but it does seem true that ,dharma-kya was made the equivalent of the ,hindu conception of ,param ,brahma and also that it is very nearly equivalent to the ,chinese ,tao4#aji ,the work called ,awakening of ,faith#aaj and ascribed to ,avaghosha is not extant in ,sanskrit but was translated into ,chinese in #eec ,a4,d4 ,its doctrine is practically that of the ,yogcra school and this makes the ascription doubtful1 but it is a most important treatise4 ,it is regarded as authoritative in ,china and ,japan at the present day and it illustrates the triple tendency of the ,mahayana towards metaphysics1 mythology1 and devotional piety4 ,it declares that faith has four aspects4 ,three of these are the three ,jewels1 or ,buddha1 the ,law and the ,church1 and cover between them the whole field of religion and morality as generally understood4 ,the exposition is tinged with a fine unselfish emotion and tells the believer that though he should strive not for his own emancipation but for the salvation of others yet he himself receives unselfish and supernatural assistance4 ,he is remembered and guarded by ,buddhas and ,bodhisattvas in all quarters of the ,universe who are eternally trying to liberate mankind by various expedients 7upya74 ,by expedient is meant a modified presentment of the truth1 which is easier of comprehension and1 if not the goal1 at least on the road to it1 such as the ,paradise of ,amitbha4#aaa ,but the remaining aspect of faith1 which is the one that the author puts first in his enumeration1 and treats at great length1 is to believe in the fundamental truth1 that is to think joyfully of suchness4 ,by suchness 7in ,sanskrit bhta-tathat1 in ,chinese ,chn ju7 is meant absolute truth as contrasted with the relative truth of ordinary experience4#aab ,the word is not illuminating nor likely to excite religious emotion and the most that can be said for it is that it is less dreary than the void of ,ngrjuna4 ,another and more positive synonym is dharma-dhtu1 the all-embracing totality of things4 ,it is only through our ignorance and subjectivity that things appear distinct and individuate4 ,could we transcend this subjectivity1 isolated objects would cease to exist4 ,things in their fundamental nature cannot be named or explained3 they are beyond the range of language and perception3 they have no signs of distinction but possess absolute sameness 7samat74 ,from this totality of things nothing can be excluded and to it nothing can be added4 ,yet it is also nyat1 negation or the void1 because it cannot be said to possess any of the attributes of the world we live in3 neither existence nor non-existence1 nor unity nor plurality can be predicted of it4 ,according to the celebrated formula of ,ngrjuna known as the eight ,nos there is in it neither production 7utpda7 nor destruction 7uccheda7 nor annihilation 7nirodha7 nor persistence 7sasvat7 nor unity 7ekrtha7 nor plurality 7nnrtha7 nor coming in 7gamana7 nor going out 7nirgama74 ,but when we perceive that both subject and object are unreal we also see that suchness is the one reality and from that point of view it may be regarded as the ,dharma-kya of all ,buddhas4 ,it is also called ,tathgatagarbha1 the womb or store-house of the ,buddha1 from which all individual existences are evolved under the law of causation1 but this aspect of it is already affected by ignorance1 for in ,bhta-tathat as known in the light of the highest truth there is neither causation nor production4 ,the ,yogcra employs the word nyat 7void71 though not so much as its sister school1 but it makes special use of the term laya-vijna1 the receptacle or store of consciousness4 ,this in so far as it is superindividual is an aspect of suchness1 but when it affirms and particularises itself it becomes citta1 that is the human mind1 or to be more accurate the substratum of the human mind from which is developed manas1 or the principle of will1 self-consciousness and self-affirmation4 ,similarly the ,vednta philosophy1 though it has no term corresponding to laya-vijna1 is familiar with the idea that ,brahman is in one aspect immeasurable and all-embracing but in another is infinitesimal and dwells in the human heart3 or that ,brahman after creating the world entered into it4 ,again another aspect of suchness is enlightenment 7bodhi71 that is absolute knowledge free from the limitations of subject and object4 ,this is the universal ,dharma-kya of the ,tathgatas and on account of this all ,tathgatas are spoken of as abiding in enlightenment a priori4 ,this enlightenment may be negative 7as nyata7 in the sense that it transcends all relations but it may also be affirmative and then it transforms and unfolds itself1 whenever conditions are favourable1 in the form of a ,tathgata or some other form in order that all beings may be induced to bring their store of merit to maturity4#aac ,it will be seen from the above that the absolute truth of the ,mahayanists varies from a severely metaphysical conception1 the indescribable thing in itself1 to something very like an all-pervading benevolent essence which from time to time takes shape in a ,buddha4 ,and here we see how easy is the transition from the old ,buddhism to a form of pantheism4 ,for if we admit that the ,buddha is a superhuman intelligence appearing from time to time according to a certain law1 we add little to this statement by saying that the essence or spirit of the cosmos manifests itself from time to time as a ,buddha4 ,only1 such words as essence or spirit are not really correct4 ,the world of individuals is the same as the highest truth1 the same as the ,dharma-kya1 the same as ,nirvana4 ,it is only through ignorance that it appears to be different and particularized4 ,ignorance1 the essence of which consists in believing in the distinction between subject and object1 is also called defilement and the highest truth passes through various stages of defilement ending with that where under the influence of egoism and passion the external world of particulars is believed to be everything4 ,but the various stages may influence one another#aad so that under a higher influence the mind which is involved in subjectivity begins to long for ,nirvana4 ,yet ,nirvana is not something different from or beyond the world of experience2 it does not really involve annihilation of the skandhas4 ,just as in the ,advaita he who has the true knowledge sees that he himself and everything else is ,brahman1 so for the ,mahayanist all things are seen to be ,nirvana1 to be the ,dharma-kya4 ,it is sometimes#aae said that there are four kinds of ,nirvana 7a7 absolute ,nirvana1 which is a synonym of the ,dharma-kya and in that sense universally present in all beings1 7b7 upadhiesha-nirvna1 the state of enlightenment which can be attained during life1 while the body with its limitations still remains1 7c7 anupadhiesha-nirvna1 a higher degree of the same state attained after death when the hindrances of the body are removed1 7d7 ,nirvana without abode or apratishthita-nirvna4 ,those who attain to this understand that there is no real antithesis between ,samsra and ,nirvana3#aaf they do not seek for rest or emancipation but devote themselves to beneficent activity and to leading their fellows to salvation4 ,although these statements that ,nirvana and ,samsra are the same are not at all in the manner of the older ,buddhism1 yet this ideal of disinterested activity combined with ,nirvana is not inconsistent with the portrait of ,gotama preserved in the ,pali ,canon4 ,the ,mahayanist ,buddhism of the ,far ,east makes free use of such phrases as the ,buddha in the heart1 the ,buddha mind and the ,buddha nature4 ,these seem to represent such ,sanskrit terms as ,buddhatva and ,bodhicitta which can receive either an ethical or a metaphysical emphasis4 ,the former line of thought is well shown in ntideva#aag who treats ,bodhicitta as the initial impulse and motive power of the religious life1 combining intellectual illumination and unselfish devotion to the good of others4 ,thus regarded it is a guiding and stimulating principle somewhat analogous to the ,holy ,spirit in ,christianity4 ,but the ,bodhicitta is also the essential quality of a ,buddha 7and the ,holy ,spirit too is a member of the ,trinity7 and in so far as a man has the ,bodhicitta he is one with all ,buddhas4 ,this conception is perhaps secondary in ,buddhism but it is also as old as the ,upanishads and only another form of the doctrine that the spirit in every man 7antarymin7 is identical with the ,supreme ,spirit4 ,it is developed in many works still popular in the ,far ,east#aah and was the fundamental thesis of ,bodhidharma1 the founder of the ,zen school4 ,but the practical character of the ,chinese and ,japanese has led them to attach more importance to the moral and intellectual side of this doctrine than to the metaphysical and pantheistic side4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ajj3 ,e4g4 in ,mahparinib4 ,sut4 ,,iv4 #eg1 the ,buddha says ,there has been laid up by ,cunda the smith 7who had given him his last meal7 a karma1 redounding to length of life1 to good fortune1 to good fame1 to the inheritance of heaven1 and of sovereign power4 ,footnote #aja3 ,strictly speaking ,madhyamaka is the name of the school ,mdhyamika of its adherents4 ,both forms are used1 e4g4 ,madhyamakakriks and ,mdhyamikastra4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,ngrjuna says nyam iti na vaktavyam anyam iti va bhavet ,ubhayam nobhayam ceti prjptyartham tu kathyate1 ,it cannot be called void or not void or both or neither but in order to somehow indicate it1 it is called nyat4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,sam4 ,nik4 ,,xxii4 #ij4 #af4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,gotama1 the founder of the ,nyya philosophy1 also admitted the force of the arguments against the existence of present time but regarded them as a reductio ad absurdum4 ,shadworth ,hodgson in his ,philosophy of ,reflection1 vol4 ,i4 p4 #bec also treats of the question4 ,footnote #aje3 ,the ,snkhya philosophy makes a similar statement1 though for different reasons4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,vajracchedik4 ,see ,s4,b4,e4 vol4 ,,xlix4 ,it was translated into ,chinese by ,kumrajva 7#chd-dag ,a4,d474 ,footnote #ajg3 ,or in other repetitions of the same formula1 beings1 ideas1 good things1 signs1 etc41 etc4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,soyen ,shaku1 ,sermons of a ,buddhist ,abbot1 p4 #dg4 ,footnote #aji3 ,see for a simple and persuasive statement of these abstruse doctrines a charming little book called ,wu-,wei by ,h4 ,borel4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,translated from the ,chinese by ,teitaro ,suzuki1 #aijj4 ,the translation must be used with care1 as its frequent use of the word soul may lead to misunderstanding4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,asanga's work ,mahyna-strlankra 7edited and translated by ,s4 ,lvi7 which covers much of the same ground is extant in ,sanskrit as well as in ,chinese and ,tibetan translations4 ,it is a lucid and authoritative treatise but does not appear to have ever been popular1 or to be read now in the ,far ,east4 ,for ,yogcra see also ,muson1 #aijd1 p4 #cgj4 ,footnote #aab3 ,the discussion of tathat in ,kathvatthu1 ,,xix4 #e seems to record an early phase of these speculations4 ,footnote #aac3 ,awakening of ,faith1 ,teitaro ,suzuki1 pp4 #fb and #gj4 ,footnote #aad3 ,the process is generally called ,vsana or perfuming4 ,footnote #aae3 ,vijnamtra stra4 ,chinese version quoted by ,teitaro ,suzuki1 ,outlines of ,mahyna ,buddhism1 p4 #cdc4 ,apparently both updhi and upadhi are used in ,buddhist ,sanskrit4 ,updi is the ,pali form4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,so the ,mdhyamika stra 7,,xxv4 #ai7 states that there is no difference between ,samsra and ,nirvna4 ,cf4 ,rabindranath ,tagore1 ,sadhana1 pp4 #afj-afd4 ,footnote #aag3 ,e4g4 ,bodhicaryvatra1 chap4 ,i1 called praise of the ,bodhicitta4 ,footnote #aah3 ,e4g4 the ,pu-ti-hsin-li-hsiang-lun 7,nanjio1 #acjd71 translated from ,ngrjuna1 and the ,ta-,ch'ng-fa-chieh-wu-cha-pieh-lun1 translated from ,sthiramati 7,nanjio1 #abeh74 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,mahayanist ,,scriptures ,in a previous chapter ,i have discussed the ,pali ,canon and ,i shall subsequently have something to say about the ,chinese and ,tibetan ,canons1 which are libraries of religious and edifying works rather than sacred books similar to the ,vedas or the ,bible4 ,my present object is to speak of the ,sanskrit literature1 chiefly sutras1 which appeared contemporaneously with the rise of ,mahayanism in ,india4 ,the ,mahayanist scriptures are the largest body of sacred writings extant in the world1 but it is not easy either to define the limits of the ,canon or to say when it was put together4 ,according to a common tradition ,kanishka played for the ,church of the ,great ,vehicle much the same part as ,asoka for the ,theravdins and summoned a ,council which wrote commentaries on the ,tripitaka4 ,this may be reasonably held to include a recension of the text commented on but we do not know what that text was1 and the brief and perplexing accounts of the ,council which we possess indicate not that it gave its imprimatur to ,mahayanist sutras but that it was specially concerned with the ,abhidharma works of the ,sarvstivdin school4 ,in any case no ,canon formed in the time of ,kanishka can have been equivalent to the collections of writings accepted to-day in ,china and ,tibet1 for they contain works later than any date which can be assigned to his reign1 as do also the nine sacred books revered in ,nepal4 ,it was agreed among ,indian ,buddhists that the scriptures were divided among the three ,pitakas or baskets1 but we may surmise that there was no unanimity as to the precise contents of each basket4 ,in ,india the need for unanimity in such matters is not felt4 ,the ,brahmans always recognized that the most holy and most jealously preserved scriptures could exist in various recensions and the ,mahabharata shows how generations of respectful and uncritical hearers may allow adventitious matter of all sorts to be incorporated in a work4 ,something of the same kind happened with the ,pitakas4 ,we know that the ,pali recension which we possess was not the only one1 for fragments of a ,sanskrit version have been discovered4 ,there was probably a large floating literature of sutras1 often presenting several recensions of the same document worked up in different ways4 ,just as additions were made to the list of ,upanishads up to the middle ages1 although the character of the later works was different from that of the earlier1 so new sutras1 modern in date and in tone1 were received in the capacious basket4 ,and just as the ,puranas were accepted as sacred books without undermining the authority of the ,vedas1 so new ,buddhist scriptures superseded without condemning the old ones4 ,various ,mahayanist schools had their own versions of the ,vinaya which apparently contain the same rules as the ,pali text but also much additional narrative1 and ,asanga quotes from works corresponding to the ,pali ,nikyas1 though his doctrine belongs to another age4#aai ,the ,abhidharma section of the ,pali ,canon seems however to have been peculiar to the ,theravda school4 ,the ,sarvstivdin ,pitaka of the same name was entirely different and1 judging from the ,chinese ,canon1 the ,mahayanists gave the title to philosophic works by such authors as ,asanga and ,vasubandhu1 some of which were described as revelations from ,maitreya4 ,specially characteristic of ,mahayanist ,buddhism are the ,vaipulya#abj sutras1 that is sutras of great extension or development4 ,these works1 of which the ,lotus is an example1 follow the same scheme as the older sutras but are of wider scope and on a much larger scale1 for they often consist of twenty or more chapters4 ,they usually attempt to give a general exposition of the whole ,dharma1 or at least of some aspect of it which is extolled as sufficient for the right conduct of life4 ,the chief speaker is usually the ,buddha1 who is introduced as teaching on the ,vulture ,peak1 or some other well-known locality1 and surrounded by a great assemblage many of whom are superhuman beings4 ,the occasion of the discourse is commonly signalized by his sending forth rays of light which illuminate the universe until the scene includes other worlds4 ,as early as the ,anguttara ,nikya#aba we find references to the danger of a taste for ornate and poetic sutras and these compositions seem to be the outcome of that taste4 ,the literary ideas and methods which produced them are illustrated by the ,strlankra of ,avaghosha1 a collection of edifying tales1 many of which use the materials supplied by the ,pali ,nikyas and ,vinaya but present them in a more effective and artistic form4 ,it was thought a pious task to amplify and embellish the simple narratives handed down by tradition4 ,the ,mahayanist scriptures are composed in ,sanskrit not in ,pali1 but it is only rarely--for instance in the works of ,avaghosha--that ,buddhist ,sanskrit conforms to the rules of the classical language4 ,usually the words deviate from this standard both in form and meaning and often suggest that the text as we have it is a ,sanskritized version of an older work in some popular dialect1 brought into partial conformity with literary usage4 ,in the poetical portions1 this process of sanskritization encountered greater difficulties than in prose1 because metre and prosody often refused to admit the changes required by grammar1 so that this poetical dialect cannot be called either ,sanskrit1 ,pali or ,magadhi but remains a mixture of learned and popular speech4 ,but ,sanskrit did not become a sacred language for the ,mahayanists like ,latin for ,roman ,catholics4 ,it is rather ,pali which has assumed this position among the ,hinayanists1 for ,burmese and ,sinhalese translations of the ,pitakas acquired no authority4 ,but in the north the principle#abb that every man might read the ,buddha's word in his own vernacular was usually respected3 and the populations of ,central ,asia1 the ,chinese1 the ,tibetans1 and the ,mongols translated the scriptures into their own languages without attaching any superstitious importance to the original words1 unless they were ,dhrans or spells4 ,about the time of the ,christian era or perhaps rather earlier1 greater use began to be made of writing for religious purposes4 ,the old practice of reciting the scriptures was not discontinued but no objection was made to preserving and reading them in written copies4 ,according to tradition1 the ,pali scriptures were committed to writing in ,ceylon during the reign of ,vattagmani1 that is according to the most recent chronology about #bj ,b4,c41 and ,kanishka caused to be engraved on copper plates the commentaries composed by the council which he summoned4 ,in ,avaghosha#abc we find the story of a ,brahman who casually taking up a book to pass the time lights on a copy of the ,sutra of the ,twelve ,causes and is converted4 ,but though the ,buddhists remained on the whole true to the old view that the important thing was to understand and disseminate the substance of the ,master's teaching and not merely to preserve the text as if it were a sacred formula1 still we see growing up in ,mahayanist works ideas about the sanctity and efficacy of scripture which are foreign to the ,pali ,canon4 ,many sutras 7for instance the ,diamond ,cutter7 extol themselves as all-sufficient for salvation3 the ,praj-pramit commences with a salutation addressed not as usual to the ,buddha but to the work itself1 as if it were a deity1 and ,hodgson states that the ,buddhists of ,nepal worship their nine sacred books4 ,nor was the idea excluded that certain words1 especially formul or spells called ,dhran1 have in themselves a mysterious efficacy and potency4#abd ,some of these are cited and recommended in the ,lotus4#abe ,in so far as the repetition of sacred words or spells is regarded as an integral part of the religious life1 the doctrine has no warrant in the earlier teaching4 ,it obviously becomes more and more prominent in later works4 ,but the idea itself is old1 for it is clearly the same that produced a belief in the ,brahmanic mantras1 particularly the mantras of the ,atharva ,veda1 and early ,buddhism did not reject mantras in their proper place4 ,thus#abf the deities present themselves to the ,buddha and offer to teach him a formula which will protect his disciples from the attacks of evil spirits4 ,hsan ,chuang even states that the council which sat at ,rjagriha after the ,buddha's death compiled five ,pitakas1 one of which consisted of ,dhrans1#abg and it may be that the collection of such texts was begun as early as the collection of discourses and rules4 ,but for many centuries there is no evidence that they were in any way confounded with the ,dharma4 ,the ,mahayanist scriptures are so voluminous that not even the clergy were expected to master any considerable part of them4#abh ,indeed they make no claim to be a connected whole4 ,the theory was rather that there were many vehicles plying on the road to salvation and many guide books4 ,no traveller thought of taking the whole library but only a few volumes which suited him4 ,most of the ,chinese and ,japanese sects avowedly base themselves upon three sutras1 selected according to the taste of each school from the hundreds quoted in catalogues4 ,thus the ,t'ien-t'ai sect has for its scriptures the ,lotus1 the ,nirvna-stra and the ,praj-pramit1 while the ,shin-shu sect admits only the three ,amidist sutras4 ,the following are the names of some of the principal ,mahayanist scriptures4 ,comparatively few of them have been published in ,europe and some exist only in ,chinese or ,japanese translations4 #a4 ,praj-pramit or transcendental knowledge#abi is a generic name given to a whole literature consisting of treatises on the doctrine of nyat1 which vary greatly in length4 ,they are classed as sutras1 being described as discourses delivered by the ,buddha on the ,vulture ,peak4 ,at least ten are known1 besides excerpts which are sometimes described as substantive works4 ,the great collection translated into ,chinese by ,hsan ,chuang is said to consist of #bjj1jjj verses and to comprise sixteen different sutras4#acj ,the earliest translation of one of these treatises into ,chinese 7,nanjio1 #e7 was made about #agj ,a4,d4 and everything indicates that portions of the ,praj-pramit are among the earliest ,mahayanist works and date from about the first century of our era4 ,praj not only means knowledge of the absolute truth1 that is to say of nyat or the void1 but is regarded as an ontological principle synonymous with ,bodhi and ,dharma-kya4 ,thus ,buddhas not only possess this knowledge in the ordinary sense but they are the knowledge manifest in human form1 and ,praj is often personified as a goddess4 ,all these works lay great stress on the doctrine of nyat1 and the non-existence of the world of experience4 ,the longest recension is said to contain a polemic against the ,hinayana4 ,the ,diamond ,cutter is one of the best known of these transcendental treatises and the two short works called ,heart of the ,praj-pramit1 which are widely read in ,japan1 appear to be brief abstracts of the essence of this teaching4 #b4 ,the ,saddharma-,pundarka1 or ,lotus of the ,good ,law1#aca is one of the best known ,mahayanist sutras and is highly esteemed in ,china and ,japan4 ,it purports to be a discourse delivered by kyamuni on the ,vulture ,peak to an assemblage of ,bodhisattvas4 ,the ,lotus clearly affirms the multiplicity of vehicles1 or various ways of teaching the law1 and also the eternity of the ,buddha1 but it does not emphasize1 although it mentions1 the doctrine of nyat4 ,the work consists of two parts of which the second 7chaps4 ,,xxi-,,xxvi7 is a later addition4 ,this second part contains spells and many mythological narratives1 including one of an ancient ,bodhisattva who burnt himself alive in honour of a former ,buddha4 ,portions of the ,lotus were translated into ,chinese under the ,western ,tsin ,dynasty #bfe-caf ,a4,d4 and it is quoted in the ,mah-praj-pramit-stra ascribed to ,ngrjuna4#acb ,the first part is probably not later than the first century ,a4,d4 ,the ,lotus is unfortunately accessible to ,english readers only in a most unpoetic translation by the late ,professor ,kern1 but it is a great religious poem which starting from humanity regards religion as cosmic and universal1 rather than something mainly concerned with our earth4 ,the discourses of kyamuni are accompanied in it by stupendous miracles culminating in a grand cosmic phantasmagoria in which is evoked the stupa containing the body of a departed ,buddha1 that is a shrine containing the eternal truth4 #c4 ,the ,lalita-vistara#acc is a life of kyamuni up to the commencement of his mission4 ,though the setting of the story is miraculous and ,buddhas and ,bodhisattvas innumerable are freely spoken of1 yet the work does not enunciate the characteristic ,mahayanist doctrines so definitely as the other treatises here enumerated4 ,it is said to have originally belonged to the school of the ,sarvstivdins and to have been subsequently accepted by the ,mahayanists1 and though it is not an epic but a collection of ballads and legends1 yet it often reads as if it were a preliminary study for ,avaghosha's ,buddhacarita4 ,it contains ,sanskrit versions of old legends1 which are almost verbal renderings of the ,pali text1 but also new material and seems to be conscious of relating novelties which may arouse scepticism for it interrupts the narrative to anathematize those who do not believe in the miracles of the ,nativity and to extol the merits of faith 7raddh not bhakti74 ,it is probably coeval with the earlier ,gandharan art but there are no facts to fix its date4#acd #d4 ,the ,lankvatra#ace gives an account of the revelation of the good ,law by kyamuni when visiting ,lanka4 ,it is presumably subsequent to the period when ,ceylon had become a centre of ,buddhism1 but the story is pure fancy and unconnected with history or with older legends4 ,it relates how the ,buddha alighted on ,mt4 ,malaya in ,lanka4 ,ravana came to pay his respects and asked for definitions of virtue and vice which were given4 ,the ,bodhisattva ,mahmati 7apparently ,majur7 proceeded to propound a series of more abstruse questions which are answered at considerable length4 ,the ,lankvatra represents a mature phase of speculation and not only criticizes the ,snkhya1 ,psupata and other ,hindu schools1 but is conscious of the growing resemblance of ,mahayanism to ,brahmanic philosophy and tries to explain it4 ,it contains a prophecy about ,ngrjuna and another which mentions the ,guptas1 and it appears to allude to the domination of the ,huns4 ,this allusion would make its date as late as the sixth century but a translation into ,chinese which is said to correspond with the ,sanskrit text was made in #eac4 ,if so the barbarians referred to cannot be the ,huns4 ,an earlier translation made in #ddc does not agree with our ,sanskrit text and perhaps the work existed in several recensions4 #e4 ,the ,suvarna-prabhsa or ,glitter of ,gold#acf is a ,vaipulya stra in many ways resembling the ,lotus4 ,it insists on the supernatural character of the ,buddha4 ,he was never really born nor entered into ,nirvana but is the ,dharma-kya4 ,the scene is laid at ,rjagriha and many ,brahmanic deities are among the interlocutors4 ,it was translated into ,chinese about #dbj ,a4,d4 and fragments of a translation into ,uigur have been discovered in ,turkestan4#acg ,the contents comprise philosophy1 legends and spells4 #f4 ,ganda-vyha#ach or the ,structure of the ,world1 which is compared to a bubble4 ,the name is not found in the catalogue of the ,chinese ,tripitaka but the work is said to be the same as the ,avatamsaka stra which is popular in the ,far ,east under the name of ,hua-yn in ,china or ,ke-gon in ,japan4 ,the identity of the two books could not have been guessed from the extracts and analyses which have been published but is guaranteed by high authorities4#aci ,it is possible however that the ,ganda-vyha is only a portion of the larger work called ,avatamsaka4 ,so far as can be judged from the extracts1 this text preaches in a fully developed form1 the doctrines of nyat1 ,dharma-kya1 the omnipresence of the ,buddha and the redemption of the world by the exertions of ,bodhisattvas4 ,yet it seems to be early1 for a portion of it was translated into ,chinese about #agj ,a4,d4 7,nanjio1 #ajb7 and about #dje ,kumrajva translated a commentary on it ascribed to ,ngrjuna 7,nanjio1 #aahj74 #g4 ,tathgata-guhyaka4 ,this work is known by the analysis of ,rajendralala ,mitra from which it appears to be a ,tantra of the worst class and probably late4 ,its proper title is said to be rguhyasamaja4 ,watanabe states that the work catalogued by ,nanjio under ,no4 #ajbg and translated into ,chinese about #ajjj ,a4,d4 is an expurgated version of it4 ,the ikshsamuccaya cites the ,tathgata-guhya-stra several times4 ,the relations of these works to one another are not quite clear4 #h4 ,samdhirja#adj is a ,vykarana or narrative describing different forms of meditation of which the ,samdhirja is the greatest and best4 ,the scene is laid on the ,vulture's ,peak and the principal interlocutors are kyamuni and ,candraprabha1 a rich man of ,rjagriha4 ,it appears to be the same as the ,candrapradpa-stra and is a complete and copious treatise1 which not only expounds the topic from which it takes its name but incidentally enumerates the chief principles of ,mahayanism4 ,watanabe#ada states that it is the ,yeh-tng-san-mei-ching 7,nanjio1 #aia7 translated about #dej and again in #eeg ,a4,d4 #i4 ,daabhmvara4#adb ,an account of the ten stages in the career of a ,bodhisattva before he can attain to ,buddhahood4 ,the scene is laid in the paradise of ,indra where kyamuni was temporarily sojourning and the principal interlocutor is a ,bodhisattva named ,vajragarbha4 ,it is said to be the same as the ,daabhmika-stra first translated into ,chinese about #cjj ,a4,d4 7,nanjio1 #aje and #aaj7 but this work appears to be merely a portion of the ,ganda-vyha or ,avatamsaka mentioned above4 ,these nine works are all extant in ,sanskrit and are known in ,nepal as the nine ,dharmas1 the word ,dharma being an abbreviation for ,dharmaparyya1 revolution or exposition of the law1 a term frequently used in the works themselves to describe a comprehensive discourse delivered by the ,buddha4 ,they are all quoted in the ikshsamuccaya1 supposed to have been written about #fej ,a4,d4 ,no similar collection of nine seems to be known in ,tibet or the ,far ,east and the origin of the selection is obscure4 ,as however the list does not include the ,svayambh ,purna1 the principal indigenous scripture of ,nepal1 it may go back to an ,indian source and represent an old tradition4 ,besides the nine ,dharmas1 numerous other stras exist in ,sanskrit1 ,chinese1 ,tibetan and the languages of ,central ,asia4 ,few have been edited or translated and even when something is known of their character detailed information as to their contents is usually wanting4 ,among the better known are the following4 #aj4 ,one of the stras most read in ,china and admired because its style has a literary quality unusual in ,buddhist works is commonly known as the ,lng-yen-ching4 ,the full title is ,shou-lng-yen-san-mei-ching which is the ,chinese transliteration of rangama ,samdhi4#adc ,this sutra is quoted by name in the ikshsamuccaya and fragments of the ,sanskrit text have been found in ,turkestan4#add ,the rangama-,samdhi ,stra has been conjectured to be the same as the ,samdhirja1 but the accounts of ,rajendralala ,mitra and ,beal do not support this theory4 ,beal's translation leaves the impression that it resembles a ,pali sutta4 ,the scene is laid in the ,jetavana with few miraculous accessories4 ,the ,buddha discusses with nanda the location of the soul and after confuting his theories expounds the doctrine of the ,dharma-kya4 ,the fragments found in ,turkestan recommend a particular form of meditation4 #aa4 ,trantha informs us that among the many ,mahayanist works which appeared in the reign of ,kanishka's son was the ,ratnakta-dharma-paryya in #ajjj sections and the ,ratnakta is cited not only by the ikshsamuccaya but by ,asanga4#ade ,the ,tibetan and ,chinese canons contain sections with this name comprising forty-eight or forty-nine items among which are the three important treatises about ,amitbha's paradise and many dialogues called ,paripricch1 that is1 questions put by some personage1 human or superhuman1 and furnished with appropriate replies4#adf ,the ,chinese ,ratnakta is said to have been compiled by ,bodhiruchi 7#fic-gac ,a4,d47 but of course he is responsible only for the selection not for the composition of the works included4 ,section #ad of this ,ratnakta is said to be identical with chapters #aa and #ab of the ,mlasarvstivdin ,vinaya4#adg #ab4 ,the ,guna-kranda-vyha and ,kranda-vyha are said to be two recensions of the same work1 the first in verse the second in prose4 ,both are devoted to the praise of ,avalokita who is represented as the presiding deity of the universe4 ,he has refused to enter ,buddhahood himself until all living creatures attain to true knowledge and is specially occupied in procuring the release of those who suffer in hell4 ,the ,guna-kranda-vyha contains a remarkable account of the origin of the world which is said to be absent from the prose version4 ,the primeval ,buddha spirit1 di-,buddha or ,svayambh1 produces ,avalokita by meditation1 and ,avalokita produces the material world and the gods of ,hinduism from his body1 iva from his forehead1 ,nryana from his heart and so on4 ,as such doctrines are not known to have appeared in ,indian ,buddhism before the tenth century it seems probable that the versified edition is late4 ,but a work with the title ,ratna-krandaka-vyha-stra was translated into ,chinese in #bgj and the ,kranda-vyha is said to have been the first work translated into ,tibetan4#adh #ac4 ,the ,karuna-pundarka#adi or ,lotus of ,compassion is mainly occupied with the description of an imaginary continent called ,padmadhtu1 its ,buddha and its many splendours4 ,it exists in ,sanskrit and was translated into ,chinese about #djj ,a4,d4 7,nanjio1 ,no4 #adb74 #ad4 ,the ,mahvairocanbhisambhodhi called in ,chinese ,ta-jih-ching or ,great ,sun sutra should perhaps be mentioned as it is the principal scripture of the ,chn-yen 7,japanese ,shingon7 school4 ,it is a late work of unknown origin4 ,it was translated into ,chinese in #gbd ,a4,d4 but the ,sanskrit text has not been found4 ,there are a great number of other sutras which are important for the history of literature1 although little attention is paid to them by ,buddhists at the present day4 ,such are the ,mahayanist version of the ,mahparinirvna recounting the death and burial of the ,buddha and the ,mahsannipta-stra1 which apparently includes the ,sryagarbha and ,candragarbha sutras4 ,all these works were translated into ,chinese about #dbj ,a4,d4 and must therefore be of respectable antiquity4 ,besides the sutras1 there are many compositions styled ,avadnas or pious legends4#aej ,these1 though recognized by ,mahayanists1 do not as a rule contain expositions of the ,snyat and ,dharma-kya and are not sharply distinguished from the more imaginative of the ,hinayanist scriptures4#aea ,but they introduce a multiplicity of ,buddhas and ,bodhisattvas and represent ,skyamuni as a superhuman worker of miracles4 ,they correspond in many respects to the ,pali ,vinaya but teach right conduct not so much by precept as by edifying stories and1 like most ,mahayanist works they lay less stress upon monastic discipline than on unselfish virtue exercised throughout successive existences4 ,there are a dozen or more collections of ,avadnas of which the most important are the ,mahvastu and the ,divyvadna4 ,the former#aeb is an encyclopdic work which contains inter alia a life of ,skyamuni4 ,it describes itself as belonging to the ,lokottaravdins1 a section of the ryamah-sanghikas4 ,the ,lokottaravdins were an ancient sect1 precursors of the ,mahayana rather than a branch of it1 and much of the ,mahvastu is parallel to the ,pali ,canon and may have been composed a century or two before our era4 ,but other parts seem to belong to the ,gandharan period and the mention of ,chinese and ,hunnish writing points to a much later date4#aec ,if it was originally a ,vinaya treatise1 it has been distended out of all recognition by the addition of legends and anecdotes but it still retains a certain amount of matter found also in the ,pali and ,tibetan ,vinayas4 ,there were probably several recensions in which successive additions were made to the original nucleus4 ,one interpolation is the lengthy and important section called ,daabhmika1 describing the career of a ,bodhisattva4 ,it is the only part of the ,mahvastu which can be called definitely ,mahayanist4 ,the rest of the work marks a transitional stage in doctrine1 just as its language is neither ,prakrit or ,sanskrit but some ancient vernacular brought into partial conformity with ,sanskrit grammar4 ,no ,chinese translation is known4 ,the ,divyvadna#aed is a collection of legends1 part of which is known as the ,asokvadna and gives an edifying life of that pious monarch4 ,this portion was translated into ,chinese ,a4,d4 #cag-dbj and the work probably dates from the third century of our era4 ,it is loosely constructed3 considerable portions of it seem to be identical with the ,vinaya of the ,sarvstivdins and others with passages in the works of ,avaghosha4 ,the ,avadnas lie on the borderland between scripture and pious literature which uses human argument and refers to scripture for its authority4 ,of this literature the ,mahayanist church has a goodly collection and the works ascribed to such doctors as ,avaghosha1 ,ngrjuna1 ,asanga and ,vasubandhu hold a high place in general esteem4 ,the ,chinese ,canon places many of them in the ,pitakas 7especially in the ,abhidharma ,pitaka7 and not among the works of miscellaneous writers4 ,the ,mahayanist scriptures are still a living force4 ,in ,nepal the nine ,dharmas receive superstitious homage rather than intelligent study1 but in ,tibet and the ,far ,east the ,praj-pramit1 the ,lotus and the sutras about ,amitbha are in daily use for public worship and private reading4 ,i have heard the first-named work as well as the ,lng-yen-ching expounded1 that is1 read aloud with an extempore paraphrase1 to lay congregations in ,china1 and the section of it called the ,diamond ,cutter is the book which is most commonly in the hands of religious ,tibetans4 ,the ,lotus is the special scripture of the ,nichiren sect in ,japan but is universally respected4 ,the twenty-fourth chapter which contains the praises of ,avalokita is often printed separately4 ,the ,amitbha stras take the place of the ,new ,testament for the ,jd and ,shin sects and copies of them may also be found in almost every monastery throughout ,china and ,annam4 ,the ,suvarna-prabhsa is said to be specially popular among the ,mongols4 ,i know ,chinese ,buddhists who read the ,hua-yen 7,avatamsaka7 every day4 ,modern ,japanese writers quote frequently from the ,lankvatra and ,kyapa-parivarta but ,i have not met with any instance of these works being in popular use4 ,i have mentioned already the obscurity surrounding the history of the ,mahayanist ,canon in ,india and it may seem to throw doubt on the authenticity of these scriptures4 ,unauthentic they certainly are in the sense that ,european criticism is not likely to accept as historical the discourses which they attribute to the ,buddha and others1 but there is no reason to doubt that they are treatises composed in ,india early in our era and representing the doctrines then prevalent4 ,the religious public of ,india has never felt any difficulty in accepting works of merit--and often only very moderate merit--as revelations1 whether called ,upanishads1 ,puranas1 ,sutras or what not4 ,only rarely have such works received any formal approbation1 such as recognition by a council4 ,indeed it is rather in ,ceylon1 ,burma1 ,tibet and ,china than in ,india itself that authoritative lists of scriptures have been compiled4 ,the natural instinct of the ,hindus was not to close the ,canon but to leave it open for any additions which might be vouchsafed4 ,two sketches of an elastic ,mahayanist ,canon of this kind are preserved1 one in the ikshsamuccaya#aee attributed to ntideva1 who probably flourished in the seventh century1 and the other in a little work called the ,duration of the ,law1 reporting a discourse by an otherwise unknown ,nandimitra1 said to have lived in ,ceylon #hjj years after the ,buddha's death4#aef ,the former is a compendium of doctrine illustrated by quotations from what the author regarded as scripture4 ,he cites about a hundred ,mahayanist sutras1 refers to the ,vinaya and ,divyvadna but not apparently to the ,abhidharma4 ,he mentions no ,tantras#aeg and not many ,dhrans4 ,the second work was translated by ,hsan ,chuang and was therefore probably written before #fjj ,a4,d4#aeh ,otherwise there is no external evidence for fixing its date4 ,it represents ,nandimitra as explaining on his deathbed the steps taken by the ,buddha to protect the ,true ,law and in what works that ,law is to be found4 ,like the ,chinese ,tripitaka it recognizes both ,mahayanist and ,hinayanist works1 but evidently prefers the former and styles them collectively ,bodhisattva-,pitaka4 ,it enumerates about fifty sutras by name1 beginning with the ,praj-pramit1 the ,lotus and other well-known texts4 ,then comes a list of works with titles ending in ,samdhi1 followed by others called ,paripricch#aei or questions4 ,a new category seems to be formed by the ,buddhvatamsaka-stra with which the sutras about ,amitbha's ,paradise are associated4 ,then comes the ,mahsannipta-stra associated with works which may correspond to the ,ratnakta division of the ,chinese ,canon4#afj ,the writer adds that there are hundreds of myriads of similar sutras classified in groups and categories4 ,he mentions the ,vinaya and ,abhidharma without further particulars1 whereas in describing the ,hinayanist versions of these two ,pitakas he gives many details4 ,the importance of this list lies in the fact that it is ,indian rather than in its date1 for the earliest catalogue of the ,chinese ,tripitaka compiled about#afa #eaj is perhaps older and certainly ampler4 ,but if the catalogue stood alone1 it might be hard to say how far the selection of works in it was due to ,chinese taste4 ,but taking the ,indian and ,chinese evidence together1 it is clear that in the sixth century ,indian ,mahayanists 7a7 tolerated ,hinayanist scriptures while preferring their own1 7b7 made little use of the ,vinaya or ,abhidharma for argument or edification1 though the former was very important as a code1 7c7 recognized extremely numerous sutras1 grouped in various classes such as ,mahsannipta and ,buddhvatamsaka1 7d7 and did not use works called ,tantras4 ,probably much the same is true of the fourth century and even earlier1 for ,asanga in one work#afb quotes both ,maha-and ,hinayanist scriptures and among the former cites by name seventeen sutras1 including one called ,paripricch or questions4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #aai3 ,in the ,mahyna-strlankra he quotes frequently from the ,samyukta and ,ekottara gamas1 corresponding to the ,samyutta and ,anguttara ,nikyas of the ,pali4 ,footnote #abj3 ,a reading ,vaitulya has also been found in some manuscripts of the ,lotus discovered at ,kashgar and it is suggested that the word may refer to the sect of ,vetullas or ,vetulyakas mentioned in the ,commentary on the ,kathvatthu as holding that the ,buddha really remained in the ,tushita heaven and sent a phantom to represent him in the world and that it was nanda1 not the ,buddha1 who preached the law4 ,see ,kern1 ,vers4 en ,med4 der ,k4 ,ak4 v4 ,wetenschappen1 ,letterk41 ,r4 #d ,d4 ,,viii4 pp4 #cab-i1 ,amsterdam1 #aijg1 and ,de la ,valle ,poussin's notice of this article in ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aijg1 pp4 #dcd-f4 ,but this interpretation does not seem very probable4 ,footnote #aba3 ,,iv4 #afj4 #e4 ,footnote #abb3 ,see ,cullavagga1 ,v4 #cc4 ,the meaning evidently is that the ,buddha's words are not to be enshrined in an artificial literary form which will prevent them from being popular4 ,footnote #abc3 ,strlankra1 ,i4 #b4 ,footnote #abd3 ,see ,waddell1 ,the ,dhran cult in ,ostasiat4 ,ztsft4 #aiab1 pp4 #aee ff4 ,footnote #abe3 ,chap4 ,,xxi1 which is however a later addition4 ,footnote #abf3 ,dig4 ,nik4 #cb4 ,footnote #abg3 ,watters1 ,yan ,chwang1 ,,ii4 p4 #afj4 ,footnote #abh3 ,the ,mahvyutpatti 7#fe7 gives a list of #aje stras4 ,footnote #abi3 ,the word pram-it means as an adjective gone to the further shore or transcendent4 ,as a feminine substantive it means a transcendent virtue or perfection4 ,footnote #acj3 ,see ,walleser1 ,praj-pramit in ,quellen der ,religionsgeschichte1 pp4 #ae ff4 ,s4,b4,e4 ,,xlix4 ,nanjio1 ,catalogue ,nos4 #a-bj and ,rajendralala ,mitra's ,nepalese ,buddhist ,literature1 pp4 #agg ff4 ,versions are mentioned consisting of #abe1jjj verses1 #ajj1jjj verses1 #be1jjj verses1 #aj1jjj verses and #h1jjj verses respectively4 7,similarly at the beginning of the ,mahbhrata we are told that the ,epic consists of #h1hjj verses1 of #bd1jjj and of #ajj1jjj47 ,of these the last or ,ashtashasrik has been published in the ,bibliotheca ,indica and the second or atashasrik is in process of publication4 ,it is in prose1 so that the expression verses appears not to mean that the works are ,gths4 ,a ,khotanese version of the ,vajracchedik is edited in ,hoernle's ,manuscript ,remains by ,sten ,konow4 ,the ,sanskrit text was edited by ,max ,mller in ,anecdota ,oxoniensia4 ,footnote #aca3 ,the ,sanskrit text has been edited by ,kern and ,nanjio in ,bibliotheca ,buddhica2 translated by ,burnouf 7,le ,lotus de la bonne ,loi71 #aheb and by ,kern 7,saddharma-,pundarka7 in ,s4,b4,e4 vol4 ,,xxi4 ,footnote #acb3 ,there appears to have been an earlier ,chinese version of #bee ,a4,d4 but it has been lost4 ,see ,nanjio1 p4 #cij4 ,one of the later ,chinese versions alludes to the existence of two recensions 7,nanjio1 ,no4 #aci74 ,see ,b4,e4,f4,e4,o4 #aiaa1 p4 #dec4 ,fragments of a shorter and apparently earlier recension of the ,lotus have been discovered in ,e4 ,turkestan4 ,see ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aiaf1 pp4 #bfi-bgg4 ,footnote #acc3 ,edited by ,rajendralala ,mitra in the ,bibliotheca ,indica and partially translated in the same series4 ,a later critical edition by ,lefmann1 #aijb-h4 ,footnote #acd3 ,the early ,chinese translations seem doubtful4 ,one said to have been made under the later ,han has been lost4 ,see ,nanjio1 ,no4 #aei4 ,footnote #ace3 ,see ,burnouf1 ,introduction1 pp4 #deh ff4 and ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aije1 pp4 #hca ff4 ,rajendralala ,mitra1 ,nepalese ,buddhist ,literature1 p4 #aac4 ,a brief analysis is given in ,j4,a4,s4,b4 ,june1 #aije according to which the stra professes to be the work of a human author1 ,jina of the clan of ,ktyyana born at ,camp4 ,an edition of the ,sanskrit text published by the ,buddhist ,text ,society is cited but ,i have not seen it4 ,chinese translations were made in #ddc and #eae but the first is incomplete and does not correspond with our ,sanskrit text4 ,footnote #acf3 ,abstract by ,rajendralala ,mitra1 ,nepalese ,buddhist ,lit4 p4 #bda4 ,footnote #acg3 ,see ,nanjio1 ,no4 #abg and ,f4,w4,k4 ,muller in ,abhandl4 der ,k4 ,preuss4 ,akad4 der ,wissenschaften1 #aijh4 ,the ,uigur text is published in ,bibliotheca ,buddhica1 #aiad4 ,fragments of the ,sanskrit text have also been found in ,turkestan4 ,footnote #ach3 ,abstract by ,raj4 ,mitra1 ,nepalese ,buddhist ,lit4 pp4 #ij ff4 ,the ikshsamuccaya cites the ,ganda-vyha several times and does not mention the ,avatamsaka4 ,footnote #aci3 ,the statement was first made on the authority of ,takakusu quoted by ,winternitz in ,ges4 ,ind4 ,lit4 ,,ii4 i4 p4 #bdb4 ,watanabe in ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aiaa1 #ffc makes an equally definite statement as to the identity of the two works4 ,the identity is confirmed by ,pelliot in ,j4,a4 #aiad1 ,,ii4 pp4 #aah-aba4 ,footnote #adj3 ,abstract by ,raj4 ,mitra1 ,nepalese ,buddhist ,lit4 pp4 #ha ff4 ,quoted in ntideva's ,bodhicaryvatra1 ,,viii4 #ajf4 ,footnote #ada3 ,see ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aiaa1 #ffc4 ,footnote #adb3 ,abstract by ,raj4 ,mitra1 ,nepalese ,buddhist ,lit4 pp4 #ha ff4 ,footnote #adc3 ,translated in part by ,beal1 ,catena of ,buddhist ,scriptures1 pp4 #bhf-cfi4 ,see also ,teitaro ,suzuki1 ,outlines of ,mahyna1 p4 #aeg4 ,for notices of the text see ,nanjio1 ,nos4 #cii1 #ddf1 #aehh4 ,fa-,hsien1 ,chap4 ,,xxix4 ,for the equivalence of ,shou-lng-yen and rangama see ,nanjio's note to ,no4 #cii and ,julien1 ,mthode1 #ajjg and ,vasilief1 p4 #age4 ,footnote #add3 ,see ikshs1 ed4 ,bendall1 pp4 #h1ia and ,hoernle1 ,manuscript remains1 ,i4 pp4 #abe ff4 ,footnote #ade3 ,mahyna-strlankra1 ,,xix4 #bi4 ,footnote #adf3 ,e4g4 the ,rshtra-pla-paripricch edited in ,sanskrit by ,finot1 ,biblioth4 ,buddhica1 #aija4 ,the ,sanskrit text seems to agree with the ,chinese version4 ,the real number of stras in the ,ratnakta seems to be #dh1 two being practically the same but represented as uttered on different occasions4 ,footnote #adg3 ,there is another somewhat similar collection of stras in the ,chinese ,canon called ,ta ,tsi or ,mahsannipta but unlike the ,ratnakta it seems to contain few well-known or popular works4 ,footnote #adh3 ,i know of these works only by ,raj4 ,mitra's abstracts1 ,nepal4 ,bud4 ,lit4 pp4 #ie and #aja4 ,the prose text is said to have been published in ,sanskrit at ,calcutta1 #ahgc4 ,footnote #adi3 ,raj4 ,mitra1 ,nepalese ,buddhist ,lit4 pp4 #bhe ff4 ,the ,sanskrit text was published for the ,buddhist ,text ,society1 ,calcutta1 #ahih4 ,footnote #aej3 ,avadna is primarily a great and glorious act3 hence an account of such an act4 ,footnote #aea3 ,the ,avadna-ataka 7,feer1 ,annales du ,muse ,guimet1 ,,xviii7 seems to be entirely ,hinayanist4 ,footnote #aeb3 ,edited by ,senart1 #c vols4 #ahhb-ahig4 ,windisch1 ,die ,komposition des ,mahvastu1 #aiji4 ,article ,mahavstu in ,e4,r4,e4 ,footnote #aec3 ,so too do the words ,horpthaka 7astrologer71 ,ujjhebhaka 78 ,uzbek71 ,peliyaksha 78 ,felix74 ,the word ,yogcra 7,i4 #abj7 may refer simply to the practice of ,yoga and not to the school which bore this name4 ,footnote #aed3 ,edited by ,cowell and ,neil1 #ahhf4 ,see ,nanjio1 #acdd4 ,footnote #aee3 ,edited by ,bendall in ,bibl4 ,buddhica4 ,footnote #aef3 ,nanjio1 ,no4 #adff4 ,for a learned discussion of this work see ,lvi and ,chavannes in ,j4,a4 #aiaf1 ,nos4 ,i and ,,ii4 ,footnote #aeg3 ,it is not likely that the ,tathgata-guhya-stra which it quotes is the same as the ,tantra with a similar name analysed by ,rajendralal ,mitra4 ,footnote #aeh3 ,watters1 ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #ahih1 p4 #cca says there seems to have been an earlier translation4 ,footnote #aei3 ,many works with this title will be found in ,nanjio4 ,footnote #afj3 ,but the ,chinese title seems rather to represent ,ratnarsi4 ,footnote #afa3 ,see ,nanjio1 pp4 xiii-xvii4 ,footnote #afb3 ,mahyna-strlankra4 ,see ,lvi's introduction1 p4 #ad4 ,the ,questions sutra is ,brahma-paripricch4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,chronology ,,of ,,the ,,mahayana ,in the previous chapters ,i have enumerated some features of ,mahayanism1 such as the worship of ,bodhisattvas leading to mythology1 the deification of ,buddhas1 entailing a theology as complicated as the ,christian creeds1 the combination of metaphysics with religion1 and the rise of new scriptures consecrating all these innovations4 ,i will now essay the more difficult task of arranging these phenomena in some sort of chronological setting4 ,the voluminous ,chinese literature concerning ,buddhism offers valuable assistance1 for the ,chinese1 unlike the ,hindus1 have a natural disposition to write simple narratives recording facts and dates4 ,but they are diarists and chroniclers rather than historians4 ,the ,chinese pilgrims to ,india give a good account of their itinerary and experiences1 but they have little idea of investigating and arranging past events and merely recount traditions connected with the places which they visited4 ,in spite of this their statements have considerable historical value and on the whole harmonize with the literary and archlogical data furnished by ,india4 ,the ,tibetan ,lama ,trantha who completed his ,history of ,indian ,buddhism#afc in #afjh is a less satisfactory authority4 ,he merits attention but also scepticism and caution4 ,his work is a compilation but is not to be despised on that ground1 for the ,tibetan translations of ,sanskrit works offer a rich mine of information about the history of the ,mahayana4 ,unfortunately few of these works take the historical point of view and ,trantha's own method is as uncritical as his materials4 ,dire confusion prevails as to chronology and even as to names1#afd so that the work is almost useless as a connected account1 though it contains many interesting details4 ,two epochs are of special importance for the development of later ,indian ,buddhism1 that of ,kanishka and that of ,vasubandhu and his brother ,asanga4 ,the reader may expect me to discuss at length the date of ,kanishka's accession1 but ,i do not propose to do so for it may be hoped that in the next few years archlogical research in ,india or ,central ,asia will fix the chronology of the ,kushans and meanwhile it is waste of time to argue about probabilities or at any rate it can be done profitably only in special articles4 ,at present the majority of scholars place his accession at about #gh ,a4,d41 others put it back to #eh ,b4,c4 and arrange the ,kushan kings in a different order1#afe while still others#aff think that he did not come to the throne until the second century was well advanced4 ,the evidence of art1 particularly of numismatics1 indicates that ,kanishka reigned towards the end of his dynasty rather than at the beginning1 but the use of ,greek on his coins and his traditional connection with the beginnings of the ,mahayana are arguments against a very late date4 ,if the date #gh ,a4,d4 is accepted1 the conversion of the ,yeh-chih to ,buddhism and its diffusion in ,central ,asia cannot have been the work of ,kanishka1 for ,buddhism began to reach ,china by land about the time of the ,christian era4#afg ,there is however no reason to assume that they were his work4 ,kanishka1 like ,constantine1 probably favoured a winning cause1 and ,buddhism may have been gradually making its way among the ,kushans and their neighbours for a couple of centuries before his time4 ,in any case1 however important his reign may have been for the ,buddhist ,church1 ,i do not think that the history of the ,mahayana should be made to depend on his date4 ,chinese translations1 supported by other evidence1 indicate that the ,mahayanist movement had begun about the time of our era4 ,if it is proved that ,kanishka lived considerably later1 we should not argue that ,mahayanism is later than was supposed but rather that his relation towards it has been misunderstood4#afh ,the date of ,vasubandhu has also been much discussed and scholars have generally placed him in the fourth or fifth century but ,pri#afi appears to have proved that he lived from about #bhj to #cfj ,a4,d4 and ,i shall adopt this view4 ,this chronology makes a reasonable setting for the development of ,buddhism4 ,if ,kanishka reigned from about #gh to #abc ,a4,d4 or even later1 there is no difficulty in supposing that ,avaghosha flourished in his reign and was followed by ,ngrjuna4 ,the collapse of the ,kushan ,empire was probably accompanied by raids from ,iranian tribes1 for ,persian influence appears to have been strong in ,india during the confused interval between the ,kushans and ,guptas 7#bbe-cbj74 ,the latter inaugurated the revival of ,hinduism but still showed favour to individual ,buddhists1 and we know from ,fa-,hsien that ,buddhism was fairly flourishing during his visit to ,india 7#cii-dae74 ,there is nothing improbable in supposing that ,vasubandhu1 who is stated to have lived at ,court1 was patronized by the early ,guptas4 ,the blank in ,buddhist history which follows his career can be explained first by the progress of ,hinduism at the expense of ,buddhism and secondly by the invasions of the ,huns4 ,the ,chinese pilgrim ,sung-,yn has left us an account of ,india in this distressful period and for the seventh century the works of ,hsan ,chuang and ,i-,ching give copious information4 ,in investigating the beginnings of the ,mahayana we may start from the epoch of ,asoka1 who is regarded by tradition as the patron and consolidator of the ,hinayanist ,church4 ,and the tradition seems on the whole correct3 the united evidence of texts and inscriptions goes to show that the ,buddhists of ,asoka's time held the chief doctrines subsequently professed by the ,sinhalese ,church and did not hold the other set of doctrines known as ,mahayanist4 ,that these latter are posterior in time is practically admitted by the books that teach them1 for they are constantly described as the crown and completion of a progressive revelation4 ,thus the ,lotus#agj illustrates the evolution of doctrine by a story which curiously resembles the parable of the prodigal son except that the returned penitent does not recognize his father1 who proceeds to reveal gradually his name and position1 keeping back the full truth to the last4 ,similarly it is held in the ,far ,east that there were five periods in kyamuni's teaching which after passing through the stage of the ,hinayana culminated in the ,praj-pramit and ,amitbha sutras shortly before his death4 ,such statements admit the historical priority of the ,hinayana3 it is rudimentary 7that is early7 truth which needs completion and expansion4 ,many critics demur to the assumption that primitive ,buddhism was a system of ethics purged of superstition and mythology4 ,and in a way they are right4 ,could we get hold of a primitive ,buddhist1 we should probably find that miracles1 magic1 and superhuman beings played a large part in his mind and that the ,buddha did not appear to him as what we call a human teacher4 ,in that sense the germs of the ,mahayana existed in the life-time of ,gotama4 ,but the difference between early and later ,buddhism lies in this1 that the deities who surround the ,buddha in the ,pali ,pitakas are mere accessories3 his teaching would not be affected if they were all removed4 ,but the ,bodhisattvas in the ,lotus or the ,sutra of the ,happy ,land have a doctrinal significance4 ,though in ,india old ideas persist with unusual vitality1 still even there they can live only if they either develop or gather round them new accretions4 ,as one of the religions of ,india1 ,buddhism was sensitive to the general movement of ,indian thought1 or rather it was a part of that movement4 ,we see as clearly in ,buddhist as in non-,buddhist ,india that there was a tendency to construct philosophic systems and another tendency to create deities satisfying to the emotions as well as to the intellect and yet another tendency to compose new scriptures4 ,but apart from this parallel development1 it becomes clear after the ,christian era that ,buddhism is becoming surrounded by ,hinduism4 ,the influence is not indeed one-sided3 there is interdependence and interpenetration but the net result is that the general ,indian features of each religious period overpower the specially ,buddhist features and in the end we find that while ,hinduism has only been profoundly modified ,buddhism has vanished4 ,if we examine the ,pali ,pitakas1 including the heresies mentioned in the ,kathvatthu1 we find that they contain the germs of many ,mahayanist ideas4 ,thus side by side with the human portrait of the ,buddha there is the doctrine that he is one in a series of supernatural teachers1 each with the same life-history1 and this life is connected with the whole course of nature1 as is shown by the sympathetic earthquakes which mark its crises4 ,his birth is supernatural and had he willed it he could have lived until the end of the present ,kalpa4#aga ,so1 too1 the nature of a ,buddha when he is released from form1 that is after death1 is deep and unfathomable as the ocean4#agb ,the ,kathvatthu condemns the ideas 7thus showing that they existed7 that ,buddhas are born in all quarters of the universe1 that the ,buddha was superhuman in the ordinary affairs of life1 that he was not really born in the world of men and that he did not preach the ,law himself4 ,these last two heresies are attributed by the commentary to the ,vetulyakas who are said to have believed that he remained in the ,tushita heaven and sent a phantom to preach on earth4 ,here we have the rudiments of the doctrine afterwards systematized under the name of the three bodies of ,buddha4 ,similarly though ,nirvana is regarded as primarily an ethical state1 the ,pali ,canon contains the expression ,nirvnadhtu and the idea#agc that ,nirvana is a sphere or realm 7yatanam7 which transcends the transitory world and in which such antitheses are coming and going1 birth and death1 cease to exist4 ,this foreshadows the doctrine of ,bhta-tathat and we seem to hear a prelude to the dialectic of ,ngrjuna when the ,kathvatthu discusses whether ,suat or the void is predicable of the ,skandhas and when it condemns the views that anything now existing existed in the past3 and that knowledge of the present is possible 7whereas the moment anything is known it is really past74 ,the ,kathvatthu also condemns the proposition that a ,bodhisattva can be reborn in realms of woe or fall into error1 and this proposition hints that the career of a ,bodhisattva was considered of general interest4 ,the ,mahayana grows out of the ,hinayana and in many respects the ,hinayana passes into it and is preserved unchanged4 ,it is true that in reading the ,lotus we wonder how this marvellous cosmic vision can represent itself as the teaching of ,gotama1 but the ,buddhacarita of ,avaghosha1 though embellished with literary mythology1 hardly advances in doctrine beyond the ,pali sutras describing the marvels of the ,buddha's nativity#agd and the greater part of ,ngrjuna's ,friendly ,epistle1 which purports to contain an epitome of the faith1 is in phraseology as well as thought perfectly in harmony with the ,pali ,canon4 ,whence comes this difference of tone in works accepted by the same school8 ,one difficulty of the historian who essays to account for the later phases of ,buddhism is to apportion duly the influence of ,indian and foreign elements4 ,on the one hand1 the ,mahayana1 whether we call it a development or perversion1 is a product of ,indian thought4 ,to explain its trinities1 its saviours1 its doctrine of self sacrifice it is not necessary to seek abroad4 ,new schools1 anxious to claim continuity and antiquity1 gladly retained as much of the old doctrine as they could4 ,but on the other hand1 ,indian ,buddhism came into contact with foreign1 especially ,iranian1 ideas and undoubtedly assimilated some of them4 ,from time to time ,i have drawn attention to such cases in this work1 but as a rule the foreign ideas are so thoroughly mastered and indianized that they cease to be obvious4 ,they merely open up to ,indian thought a new path wherein it can move in its own way4 ,in the period following ,asoka's death ,buddhism suffered a temporary eclipse4 ,pushyamitra who in #ahd ,b4,c4 overthrew the ,mauryas and established the ,sunga dynasty was a patron of the ,brahmans4 ,trantha describes him#age as a ferocious persecutor1 and the ,divyvadna supports the story4 ,but the persecution1 if it really occurred1 was probably local and did not seriously check the spread of ,buddhism1 which before the time of ,kanishka had extended northwards to ,bactria and ,kashmir4 ,the latter territory became the special home of the ,sarvstivdins4 ,it was in the reign of ,pushyamitra that the ,grco-,bactrian king ,menander or ,milinda invaded ,india 7#aee-c ,b4,c47 and there were many other invasions and settlements of tribes coming from the north-west and variously described as ,sakas1 ,pahlavas1 ,parthians and ,yavanas1 culminating in the conquests of the ,kushans4 ,the whole period was disturbed and confused but some general statements can be made with considerable confidence4 ,from about #cjj ,b4,c4 to #ajj ,a4,d4 we find inscriptions1 buildings and statues testifying to the piety of ,buddhist and ,jain donors but hardly any indications of a similar liberality to ,brahmans4 ,in the second and third centuries ,a4,d4 grants of land to ,brahmans and their temples begin to be recorded and in the fourth century 7that is with the rise of the ,gupta ,dynasty7 such grants become frequent4 ,these facts can hardly be interpreted otherwise than as meaning that from #cjj ,b4,c4 to #ajj ,a4,d4 the upper classes of ,india favoured ,buddhism and ,jainism and did not favour the ,brahmans in the same way or to the same extent4 ,but it must be remembered that the religion of the ,brahmans continued throughout this period and produced a copious literature1 and also that the absence of works of art may be due to the fact that their worship was performed in sacrificial enclosures and that they had not yet begun to use temples and statues4 ,after the first century ,a4,d4 we have first a gradual and then a rapid rise in ,brahmanic influence4 ,inscriptions as well as books indicate that a linguistic change occurred in the same period4 ,at first popular dialects were regarded as sufficiently dignified and current to be the medium for both scripture and official records4 ,sanskrit remained a thing apart--the peculiar possession of the ,brahman literati4 ,then the popular language was ,sanskritized1 the rules of ,sanskrit grammar being accepted as the standard to which it ought to conform1 though perfect conformity was impracticable4 ,in much the same way the modern ,greeks try to bring ,romaic into line with classical ,greek4 ,finally ,sanskrit was recognized as the proper language for literature1 government and religion4 ,the earliest inscriptions#agf in correct ,sanskrit seem to date from the second century ,a4,d4 ,further1 the invaders who entered ,india from the north-west favoured ,buddhism on the whole4 ,coins indicate that some of them worshipped iva#agg but the number and beauty of ,buddhist monuments erected under their rule can hardly be interpreted except as a sign of their patronage4 ,and their conversion was natural for they had no strong religious convictions of their own and the ,brahmans with their pride of caste shrank from foreigners4 ,but ,buddhism had no prejudice of race or class3 it was animated by a missionary spirit and it was probably the stronger creed at this period4 ,it not only met the invaders on their entry into ,india but it sent missionaries to them in ,bactria and ,afghanistan1 so that to some extent they brought ,buddhism with them4 ,but it was a ,buddhism combined with the most varied elements4 ,hellenic art and religion had made the figures of ,apollo1 ,herakles and ,helios familiar in ,bactria1 and both ,bactria and northern ,india were in touch with ,zoroastrians4 ,the mixed cults of these borderlands readily professed allegiance to the ,buddha but1 not understanding ,indian ideas1 simply made him into a deity and having done this were not likely to repudiate other ,indian deities4 ,thus in its outward form the ,buddhism of the invaders tended to be a compound of ,indian1 ,greek and ,persian ideas in which ,sun worship played a large part1 for not only ,indian myths1 but ,apollo and ,helios and the ,persian ,mithra all entered into it4 ,persian influence in art is discernible as early as the architecture of ,asoka3 in doctrine it has something to do with such figures as ,vairocana and ,amitbha4 ,grco-,roman influence also was powerful in art and through art affected religion4 ,in ,asoka's time likenesses of the ,buddha were unknown and the adoration of images1 if not entirely due to the art of ,gandhara1 was at least encouraged by it4 ,but though coins and sculpture bring clearly before us a medley of deities corresponding to a medley of human races1 they do not help us much in tracing the growth of thought1 phases of which are preserved in a literature sufficiently copious though the record sometimes fails at the points of transition where it would be of most interest4 ,it is natural that sacred books should record accepted results rather than tentative innovations and even disguise the latter4 ,but we can fix a few dates which enable us to judge what shape ,buddhism was taking about the time of the ,christian era4 ,the ,tibetan historian ,trantha is not of much help1 for his chronology is most confused1 but still he definitely connects the appearance of ,mahayanist texts with the reign of ,kanishka and the period immediately following it#agh and regards them as a new phenomenon4 ,greater assistance is furnished by the ,chinese translators1 whose dates are known with some exactitude4 ,thus the earliest ,buddhist work rendered into ,chinese is said to be the sutra of forty-two sections1 translated by ,kyapa ,mtanga in #fg ,a4,d4 ,it consists of extracts or resums of the ,buddha's teaching mostly prefaced by the words ,the ,buddha said1 doubtless in imitation of the ,confucian ,analects where the introductory formula ,the master said plays a similar part4 ,its ideas and precepts are ,hinayanist3#agi the ,arhat is held up as the ideal and in a remarkable passage#ahj where the degrees of sanctity are graded and compared no mention is made of ,bodhisattvas4 ,this first translation was followed by a long series of others1 principally from the ,stra-,pitaka1 for very little of the ,vinaya was translated before the fifth century4 ,a great number of ,hinayanist sutras were translated before #cjj ,a4,d4 but very few after #dej4 ,on the other hand portions of the sutra about ,amda's ,paradise1 of the ,praj-pramit1 and of the ,avatamsaka were translated about #aej ,a4,d4 and translations of the ,lotus and ,lalita-vistara appeared about #cjj4 ,great caution is necessary in using these data and the circumstances of ,china as well as of ,india must be taken into account4 ,if translations of the ,vinaya and complete collections of sutras are late in appearing1 it does not follow that the corresponding ,indian texts are late1 for the need of the ,vinaya was not felt until monasteries began to spring up4 ,most of the translations made before the fifth century are extracts and of indifferent workmanship4 ,some are retained in the ,chinese ,tripitaka but are superseded by later versions4 ,but however inaccurate and incomplete these older translations may be1 if any of them can be identified with a part of an extant ,sanskrit work it follows that at least that part of the work and the doctrines contained in it were current in ,india or ,central ,asia some time before the translation was made4 ,applying this principle we may conclude that the ,hinayana and ,mahayana were flourishing side by side in ,india and ,central ,asia in the first century ,a4,d4 and that the ,happy ,land sutras and portions of the ,praj-pramit already existed4 ,from that time onwards ,mahayanist literature as represented by ,chinese translations steadily increases1 and after #djj ,a4,d4 ,hinayanist literature declines1 with two exceptions1 the ,vinaya and the ,abhidharma books of the ,sarvstivdins4 ,the ,vinaya was evidently regarded as a rule of life independent of theology1 but it is remarkable that ,hsan ,chuang after his return from ,india in #fde should have thought it worth while to translate the philosophy of the ,sarvstivdins4 ,other considerations render this chronology probable4 ,two conspicuous features of the ,mahayana are the worship of ,bodhisattvas and idealist philosophy4 ,these are obviously parallel to the worship of iva and ,vishnu1 and to the rise of the ,vedanta4 ,now the worship of these deities was probably not prevalent before #cjj ,b4,c41 for they are almost unknown to the ,pali ,pitakas1 and it was fully developed about the time of the ,bhagavad-gt which perhaps assumed its present form a little before the ,christian era4 ,not only is the combination of devotion and metaphysics found in this work similar to the tone of many ,mahayanist sutras but the manifestation of ,krishna in his divine form is like the transformation scenes of the ,lotus4#aha ,the chief moral principle of the ,bhagavad-gt is substantially the same as that prescribed for ,bodhisattvas4 ,it teaches that action is superior to inaction1 but that action should be wholly disinterested and not directed to any selfish object4 ,this is precisely the attitude of the ,bodhisattva who avoids the inaction of those who are engrossed in self-culture as much as the pursuit of wealth or pleasure4 ,both the ,gt and ,mahayanist treatises lay stress on faith4 ,he who thinks on ,krishna when dying goes to ,krishna#ahb just as he who thinks on ,amitbha goes to the ,happy ,land and the idea is not unknown to the ,pali texts1 for it finds complete expression in the story of ,matthakundali4#ahc ,the idea of a benevolent deity to be worshipped with devotion and faith and not with ceremonies is strange to old ,buddhism and old ,brahmanism alike4 ,it was a popular idea which became so strong that neither priests nor ,bhikshus could ignore it and in its ultimate result it is hard to say whether ,buddhist or ,brahmanic elements are more prominent4 ,both ,avalokita and ,krishna are ,devas4 ,the former has the beauty of holiness and the strength which it gives1 but also the weakness of a somewhat abstract figure3 the latter is very personal and springs from the heart of ,india but to those who are not ,hindus seems wanting in purity and simplicity4 ,the divine character of both figures is due to ,brahmanism rather than ,buddhism1 but the new form of worship which laid stress on a frame of mind rather than on ceremonial and the idea of ,avatras or the periodic appearance of superhuman saviours and teachers indicate the influence of ,buddhism on ,brahmanism4 ,there is a similar parallel between the newer ,buddhist philosophy and the ,vedantist school represented by ankara1 and ,indian critics detected it4 ankara was called a ,pracchanna-bauddha or crypto-buddhist by his theological opponents#ahd and the resemblance between the two systems in thought1 if not in word1 is striking4 ,both distinguish relative and absolute truth3 for both the relative truth is practically theism1 for both absolute truth is beyond description and whether it is called ,brahman1 ,dharma-kya or nyat is not equivalent to ,god in the ,christian or ,mohammedan sense4 ,just as for the ,vedantist there exist in the light of the highest knowledge neither a personal ,god nor an individual soul1 so the ,mdhyamika ,stra can declare that the ,buddha does not really exist4 ,the ,mahayanist philosophers do not use the word ,my but they state the same theory in a more subjective form by ascribing the appearance of the phenomenal world to ignorance1 a nomenclature which is derived from the ,buddha's phrase1 ,from ignorance come the ,sankhras4 ,here1 as elsewhere1 ,buddhist and ,brahmanic ideas acted and reacted in such complex interrelations that it is hard to say which has borrowed from the other4 ,as to dates1 the older ,upanishads which contain the foundations but not the complete edifice of ,vedantism1 seem a little earlier than the ,buddha4 ,now we know that within the ,vedantist school there were divergences of opinion which later received classic expression in the hands of ankara and ,rmnuja4 ,the latter rejected the doctrines of ,my and of the difference between relative and absolute truth4 ,the germs of both schools are to be found in the ,upanishads but it seems probable that the ideas of ankara were originally worked out among ,buddhists rather than among ,brahmans and were rightly described by their opponents as disguised ,buddhism4 ,as early as #ebj ,a4,d4 ,bodhidharma preached in ,china a doctrine which is practically the same as the ,advaita4 ,the earliest known work in which the theory of ,my and the ,advaita philosophy are clearly formulated is the metrical treatise known as the ,krik of ,gaudapda4 ,this name was borne by the teacher of ankara's teacher1 who must have lived about #gjj ,a4,d41 but the high position accorded to the work1 which is usually printed with the ,mndkya ,upanishad and is practically regarded as#ahe a part of it1 make an earlier date probable4 ,both in language and thought it bears a striking resemblance to ,buddhist writings of the ,mdhyamika school and also contains many ideas and similes which reappear in the works of ankara4#ahf ,on the other hand the ,lankvatra ,stra which was translated into ,chinese in #eac and therefore can hardly have been composed later than #dej1 is conscious that its doctrines resemble ,brahmanic philosophy1 for an interlocutor objects that the language used in it by the ,buddha about the ,tathgatagarbha is very like the ,brahmanic doctrine of the tman4 ,to which the ,buddha replies that his language is a concession to those who cannot stomach the doctrine of the negation of reality in all its austerity4 ,some of the best known verses of ,gaudapda compare the world of appearance to the apparent circle of fire produced by whirling a lighted torch4 ,this striking image occurs first in the ,maitryana ,upanishad 7,,vi4 #bd71 which shows other indications of an acquaintance with ,buddhism1 and also in the ,lankvatra ,stra4 ,a real affinity unites the doctrine of ankara to the teaching of ,gotama himself4 ,that teaching as presented in the ,pali ,pitakas is marked by its negative and deliberately circumscribed character4 ,its rule is silence when strict accuracy of expression is impossible1 whereas later philosophy does not shrink from phrases which are suggestive1 if not exact4 ,gotama refuses to admit that the human soul is a fixed entity or tman1 but he does not condemn 7though he also does not discuss7 the idea that the whole world of change and becoming1 including human souls1 is the expression or disguise of some one ineffable principle4 ,he teaches too that the human mind can grow until it develops new faculties and powers and becomes the ,buddha mind1 which sees the whole chain of births1 the order of the world1 and the reality of emancipation4 ,as the object of the whole system is practical1 ,nirvana is always regarded as a terminus ad quem or an escape 7nissaranam7 from this transitory world1 and this view is more accurate as well as more edifying than the view which treats ,brahman or nyat as the origin of the universe4 ,when the ,vedanta teaches that this changing troubled world is merely the disguise of that unchanging and untroubled state into which saints can pass1 it is1 ,i believe1 following ,gotama's thought1 but giving it an expression which he would have considered imperfect4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #afc3 ,translated by ,schiefner1 #ahfi4 ,trantha informs us 7p4 #bha7 that his chief authorities were the history of ,kshemendrabhadra1 the ,buddhapurna of ,indradatta and ,bhataghat's history of the succession of the cryas4 ,footnote #afd3 ,the ,tibetans generally translate instead of transliterating ,indian names4 ,it is as if an ,english history of ,greece were to speak of ,leader of the ,people instead of ,agesilaus4 ,footnote #afe3 ,they place ,kanishka1 ,vsishka1 ,huvishka and ,vasudeva before ,kadphises ,i and ,kadphises ,,ii4 ,footnote #aff3 ,e4g4 ,stal ,holstein who also thinks that ,kanishka's tribe should be called ,kusha not ,kushan4 ,vincent ,smith in his latest work 7,oxford ,history of ,india1 p4 #acj7 gives #abj ,a4,d4 as the most probable date4 ,footnote #afg3 ,my chief difficulty in accepting #gh-abc ,a4,d4 as the reign of ,kanishka is that the ,chinese ,annals record the doings of ,pan ,ch'ao between #gc and #ajb in ,central ,asia1 with which region ,kanishka is believed to have had relations1 and yet do not mention his name4 ,this silence makes it prim facie probable that he lived either before or after ,pan ,ch'ao's career4 ,the catalogues of the ,chinese ,tripitaka state that ,an-,shih-,kao 7#adh-agj ,a4,d47 translated the ,mrgabhmi-stra of ,sangharaksha1 who was the chaplain of ,kanishka4 ,but this unfortunately proves nothing except that ,kanishka cannot have been very late4 ,the work is not a scripture for whose recognition some lapse of time must be postulated4 ,an-,shih-,kao1 who came from the west1 may very well have translated a recent and popular treatise4 ,footnote #afh3 ,in this connection we may remember ,trantha's statement that ,kanishka's ,council put an end to dissentions which had lasted about a century4 ,but he also states that it was after the ,council that ,mahayanist texts began to appear4 ,if ,kanishka flourished about #ej ,a4,d4 this would fit in with ,trantha's statements and what we know of the history of ,buddhism4 ,footnote #afi3 ,b4,e4,f4,e4,o4 #aiaa1 #cci-cij4 ,satichandra ,vidybhshana arrived at the same conclusion in ,j4,a4,s4,b4 #aije1 p4 #bbg4 ,footnote #agj3 ,chap4 ,,iv4 ,footnote #aga3 ,mahparinib4 ,sut4 ,,iii4 ,footnote #agb3 ,majj4 ,nik4 #gb4 ,footnote #agc3 ,udna4 ,,viii4 #a-d4 ,footnote #agd3 ,accariyabbhutasuttam4 ,majj4 ,nik4 #abc4 ,footnote #age3 ,chap4 ,,xvi4 ,footnote #agf3 ,that of ,rudradaman at ,girnar1 dated #gb in the ,saka ,era1 has hitherto been considered the oldest1 but it is now said that one discovered at ,isapur near ,muttra is older4 ,see ,j4,r4,a4,s #aiab1 p4 #aad4 ,footnote #agg3 ,e4g4 ,kadphises ,,ii and ,vasudeva4 ,footnote #agh3 ,chaps4 ,,xii1 ,,xiii4 ,footnote #agi3 ,the last section 7#db7 as translated by ,teitaro ,suzuki in the ,sermons of a ,buddhist ,abbot may seem an exception1 for it contains such statements as ,i consider the doctrine of sameness as the absolute ground of reality4 ,but the translation seems to me doubtful4 ,footnote #ahj3 ,sec4 #aa4 ,footnote #aha3 ,just as all gods and worlds are seen within ,krishna's body1 so we are told in the ,kranda-vyha 7which is however a later work7 that in the pores of ,avalokita's skin are woods and mountains where dwell saints and gods4 ,footnote #ahb3 ,bhag4 ,g4 ,,viii4 #e4 ,footnote #ahc3 ,commentary on ,dhammapada1 ,p4,t4,s4 edition1 pp4 #be ff4 especially p4 #cc4 ,footnote #ahd3 ,see ,rmnuja1 rbhshya1 ,,ii4 #b1 #bg and ,padma-,purna uttarakanda #dc 7quoted by ,suhtankar in ,vienna ,oriental ,journ4 vol4 ,,xxii4 #aijh74 ,myvdam asacchstrm pracchannam bauddham ucyate4 ,the ,mdhvas were specially bitter in their denunciation of ankara4 ,footnote #ahe3 ,or as itself forming four separate ,upanishads4 ,for other arguments in favour of an early date see ,walleser1 lterer ,vednta1 pp4 #ad ff4 ,he states that the ,krik is quoted in the ,tibetan translations of ,bhavaviveka's ,trkajvl4 ,bhavaviveka was certainly anterior to the travels of ,hsan ,chuang and perhaps was much earlier4 ,but if he died about #fjj ,a4,d4 a work quoted by him can hardly have been later than #eej and may be much earlier4 ,but see also ,jacobi in ,j4,a4,o4,s4 ,april1 #aiac1 p4 #ea4 ,footnote #ahf3 ,for the resemblances to ,ngrjuna see ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aiaj1 pp4 #acf ff4 ,especially remarkable are ,,ii4 #cb na nirodho na cotpattir1 etc41 and ,,iv4 #ei and the whole argument that causation is impossible4 ,noticeable too is the use of ,buddhist terms like upya1 nirvna1 buddha and dibuddha1 though not always in the ,buddhist sense4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,from ,,kanishka ,,to ,,vasubandhu ,tradition1 as mentioned above1 connects the rise of the ,mahayana with the reign of ,kanishka4 ,materials for forming a picture of ,indian life under his rule are not plentiful but it was clearly an age of fusion4 ,his hereditary dominions were ample and he had no need to spend his reign in conquests1 but he probably subdued ,kashmir as well as ,khotan1 ,yarkand and ,kashgar4#ahg ,hostages from one of these states were sent to reside in ,india and all accounts agree that they were treated with generosity and that their sojourn improved the relations of ,kanishka with the northern tribes4 ,his capital was ,purushapura or ,peshawar1 and the locality1 like many other features of his reign1 indicates a tendency to amalgamate ,india with ,persia and ,central ,asia4 ,it was embellished with masterpieces of ,gandharan sculpture and its chief ornament was a great stpa built by the king for the reception of the relics of the ,buddha which he collected4 ,this building is described by several ,chinese pilgrims#ahh and its proportions1 though variously stated1 were sufficient to render it celebrated in all the ,buddhist world4 ,it is said to have been several times burnt1 and rebuilt1 but so solid a structure can hardly have been totally destroyed by fire and the greater part of the monument discovered in #aijh probably dates from the time of ,kanishka4 ,the base is a square measuring #bhe feet on each side1 with massive towers at the corners1 and on each of the four faces projections bearing staircases4 ,the sides were ornamented with stucco figures of the ,buddha and according to the ,chinese pilgrims the super-structure was crowned with an iron pillar on which were set twenty-five gilded disks4 ,inside was found a metal casket1 still containing the sacred bones1 and bearing an inscription which presents two points of great interest4 ,firstly it mentions ,agiala the overseer of works at ,kanishka's vihra1 that is1 probably ,agesilaus1 a foreigner in the king's service4 ,secondly it states that the casket was made for the acceptance of the teachers of the ,sarvstivdin sect1#ahi and the idea that ,kanishka was the special patron of the ,mahayana must be reconsidered in the light of this statement4 ,legends ascribe ,kanishka's fervour for the ,buddhist faith not to education but to conversion4 ,his coinage1 of which abundant specimens have been preserved1 confirms this for it presents images of ,greek1 ,persian1 ,indian and perhaps ,babylonian deities showing how varied was the mythology which may have mingled with ,gandharan ,buddhism4 ,the coins bearing figures of the ,buddha are not numerous and1 as he undoubtedly left behind him the reputation of a pious ,buddhist1 it is probable that they were struck late in his reign and represent his last religious phase4#aij ,hsan ,chuang#aia repeats some legends which relate that he was originally anti-,buddhist1 and that after his conversion he summoned a council and built a stupa4 ,the substance of these legends is probable4 ,kanishka as a barbarian but docile conqueror was likely to adopt ,buddhism if he wished to keep abreast of the thought and civilisation of his subjects1 for at that time it undoubtedly inspired the intellect and art of north-western ,india4 ,both as a statesman and as an enquirer after truth he would wish to promote harmony and stop sectarian squabbles4 ,his action resembles that of ,constantine who after his conversion to ,christianity proceeded to summon the ,council of ,nica in order to stop the dissensions of the ,church and settle what were the tenets of the religion which he had embraced1 a point about which both he and ,kanishka seem to have felt some uncertainty4 ,our knowledge of ,kanishka's ,council depends chiefly on the traditions reported by ,hsan ,chuang#aib which present many difficulties4 ,he tells us that the king1 acting in consultation with ,parva1 issued summonses to all the learned doctors of his realm4 ,they came in such crowds that a severe test was imposed and only #dii ,arhats were selected4 ,there was some discussion as to the place of meeting but finally ,kashmir#aic was selected and the king built a monastery for the ,brethren4 ,when the ,council met1 there arose a question as to whether ,vasumitra 7who is not further described7 should be admitted seeing that he was not an ,arhat but aspired to the career of a ,bodhisattva4 ,but owing to the interposition of spirits he was not only admitted but made president4 ,the texts of the ,tripitaka were collected and the ,council composed #ajj1jjj stanzas of ,upadea stras explanatory of the canonical stras1 #ajj1jjj stanzas of ,vinaya-vibhsh stras explanatory of the ,vinaya and #ajj1jjj of ,abhidharma-vibhsh stras explanatory of the ,abhidharma4 ,for this exposition of the ,tripitaka all learning from remote antiquity was thoroughly examined2 the general sense and the terse language 7of the ,buddhist scriptures7 was again and again made clear and distinct1 and learning was widely diffused for the safe-guiding of disciples4 ,king ,kanishka caused the treatises when finished to be written out on copper plates and enclosed these in stone boxes which he deposited in a tope made for the purpose4 ,he then ordered spirits to keep and guard the texts and not to allow any to be taken out of the country by heretics2 those who wished to study them could do so in the country4 ,when leaving to return to his own country1 ,kanishka renewed ,asoka's gift of all ,kashmir to the ,buddhist ,church4#aid ,paramrtha 7#dii-efi ,a4,d47 in his ,life of ,vasubandhu#aie gives an account of a council generally considered to be the same as that described by ,hsan ,chuang1 though the differences in the two versions are considerable4 ,he says that about five hundred years#aif after the ,buddha's death 7i4e4 between #hg ,b4,c4 and #ac ,a4,d4 if the ,buddha died #dhg ,b4,c47 an ,indian ,arhat called ,katyyan-putra1 who was a monk of the ,sarvstivdin school1 went to ,kipin or ,kashmir4 ,there with #ejj other ,arhats and #ejj ,bodhisattvas he collected the ,abhidharma of the ,sarvstivdins and arranged it in eight books called ,ka-lan-ta 7,sanskrit ,grantha7 or ,kan-tu 7,pali ,gantho74 ,this compilation was also called ,jna-prasthna4 ,he then made a proclamation inviting all who had heard the ,buddha preach to communicate what they remembered4 ,many spirits responded and contributed their reminiscences which were examined by the ,council and1 when they did not contradict the stras and the ,vinaya1 were accepted1 but otherwise were rejected4 ,the selected pieces were grouped according to their subject-matter4 ,those about wisdom formed the ,praj ,grantha1 and those about meditation the ,dhyna ,grantha and so on4 ,after finishing the eight books they proceeded to the composition of a commentary or ,vibhsh and invited the assistance of ,avaghosha4 ,when he came to ,kashmir1 ,katyyan-putra expounded the eight books to him and ,avaghosha put them into literary form4 ,at the end of twelve years the composition of the commentary was finished4 ,it consisted of #a1jjj1jjj verses4444 ,katyyan-putra set up a stone inscribed with this proclamation4 ,those who hereafter learn this law must not go out of ,kashmir4 ,no sentence of the eight books1 or of the ,vibhsh must pass out of the land1 lest other schools or the ,mahayana should corrupt the true law4 ,this proclamation was reported to the king who approved it4 ,the sages of ,kashmir had power over demons and set them to guard the entrance to the country1 but we are told that anyone desirous of learning the law could come to ,kashmir and was in no way interrupted4 ,there follows a story telling how1 despite this prohibition1 a native of ,ayodhya succeeded in learning the law in ,kashmir and subsequently teaching it in his native land4 ,paramrtha's account seems exaggerated1 whereas the prohibition described by ,hsan ,chuang is intelligible4 ,it was forbidden to take the official copies of the law out of ,kashmir1 lest heretics should tamper with them4 ,trantha#aig gives a singularly confused account of the meeting1 which he expressly calls the third council1 but makes some important statements about it4 ,he says that it put an end to the dissensions which had been distracting the ,buddhist ,church for nearly a century and that it recognized all the eighteen sects as holding the true doctrine3 that it put the ,vinaya in writing as well as such parts of the ,stra-pitaka and ,abhidharma as were still unwritten and corrected those which already existed as written texts3 that all kinds of ,mahayanist writings appeared at this time but that the rvakas raised no opposition4 ,it is hard to say how much history can be extracted from these vague and discrepant stories4 ,they seem to refer to one assembly regarded 7at least in ,tibet7 as the third council of the ,church and held under ,kanishka four or five hundred years#aih after the ,buddha's death4 ,as to what happened at the council tradition seems to justify the following deductions1 though as the tradition is certainly jumbled it may also be incorrect in details4 7a7 ,the council is recognized only by the northern ,church and is unknown to the ,churches of ,ceylon1 ,burma and ,siam4 ,it seems to have regarded ,kashmir as sacred land outside which the true doctrine was exposed to danger4 7b7 ,but it was not a specially ,mahayanist meeting but rather a conference of peace and compromise4 ,trantha says this clearly3 in ,hsan ,chuang's account an assembly of ,arhats 7which at this time must have meant ,hinayanists7 elect a president who was not an ,arhat and according to ,paramrtha the assembly consisted of #ejj ,arhats and #ejj ,bodhisattvas who were convened by a leader of the ,sarvstivdin school and ended by requesting ,avaghosha to revise their work4 7c7 ,the literary result of the council was the composition of commentaries on the three ,pitakas4 ,one of these1 the ,abhidharma-mahvibhsh-stra1 translated into ,chinese in #dcg-i and still extant1 is said to be a work of encyclopdic character1 hardly a commentary in the strict sense4 ,paramrtha perhaps made a confusion in saying that the ,jna-prasthna itself was composed at the council4 ,the traditions indicate that the council to some extent sifted and revised the ,tripitaka and perhaps it accepted the seven ,abhidharma books of the ,sarvstivdins4#aii ,but it is not stated or implied that it composed or sanctioned ,mahayanist books4 ,trantha merely says that such books appeared at this time and that the ,hinayanists raised no active objection4 ,but if the above is the gist of the traditions1 the position described is not clear4 ,the council is recognized by ,mahayanists yet it appears to have resulted in the composition of a ,sarvstivdin treatise1 and the tradition connecting the ,sarvstivdins with the council is not likely to be wrong1 for they are recognized in the inscription on ,kanishka's casket1 and ,gandhara and ,kashmir were their headquarters4 ,the decisions of councils are often politic rather than logical and it may be that the doctors summoned by ,kanishka1 while compiling ,sarvstivdin treatises1 admitted the principle that there is more than one vehicle which can take mankind to salvation4 ,perhaps some compromise based on geography was arranged1 such as that ,kashmir should be left to the ,sarvstivdin school which had long flourished there1 but that no opposition should be offered to the ,mahayanists elsewhere4 ,the relations of the ,sarvstivdins to ,mahayanism are exceedingly difficult to define and there are hardly sufficient materials for a connected account of this once important sect1 but ,i will state some facts about it which seem certain4 ,it is ancient1 for the ,kathvatthu alludes to its doctrines4#bjj ,it flourished in ,gandhara1 ,kashmir and ,central ,asia1 and ,kanishka's casket shows that he patronized it4#bja ,but it appears to have been hardly known in ,ceylon or ,southern ,india4 ,it was the principal northern form of ,hinayanism1 just as the ,theravda was the southern form4 ,i-,ching however says that it prevailed in the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,its doctrines1 so far as known1 were ,hinayanist but it was distinguished from cognate schools by holding that the external world can be said to exist and is not merely a continual process of becoming4 ,it had its own version of the ,abhidharma and of the ,vinaya4 ,in the time of ,fa-,hsien the latter was still preserved orally and was not written4 ,the adherents of this school were also called ,vaibhshikas1 and ,vibhsh was a name given to their exegetical literature4 ,but the association of the ,sarvstivdins with ,mahayanists is clear from the council of ,kanishka onwards4 ,many eminent ,buddhists began by being ,sarvstivdins and became ,mahayanists1 their earlier belief being regarded as preliminary rather than erroneous4 ,hsan ,chuang translated the ,sarvstivdin scriptures in his old age and ,i-,ching belonged to the ,mlasarvstivdin school2#bjb yet both authors write as if they were devout ,mahayanists4 ,the ,tibetan ,church is generally regarded as an extreme form of ,mahayanism but its ,vinaya is that of the ,sarvstivdins4 ,though the ,sarvstivdins can hardly have accepted idealist metaphysics1 yet the evidence of art and their own version of the ,vinaya make it probable that they tolerated a moderate amount of mythology1 and the ,mahayanists1 who like all philosophers were obliged to admit the provisional validity of the external world1 may also have admitted their analysis of the same as provisionally valid4 ,the strength of the ,hinayanist schools lay in the ,vinaya4 ,the ,mahayanists showed a tendency to replace it by legends and vague if noble aspirations4 ,but a code of discipline was necessary for large monasteries and the code of the ,sarvstivdins enjoyed general esteem in ,central ,asia and ,china4 ,three stages in the history of ,indian ,buddhism are marked by the names of ,avaghosha1 ,ngrjuna and the two brothers ,asanga and ,vasubandhu4 ,it would be easier to give a precise description of its development if we were sure which of the works ascribed to these worthies are authentic1 but it seems that ,avaghosha represents an ornate and transitional phase of the older schools leading to ,mahayanism1 whereas ,ngrjuna is connected with the ,praj-pramit and the nihilistic philosophy described in the preceding chapter4 ,asanga was the founder of the later and more scholastic system called ,yogcra and is also associated with a series of revelations said to have been made by ,maitreya4 ,as mentioned above1 tradition makes ,avaghosha1#bjc one of the most brilliant among ,sanskrit writers1 live at the court of ,kanishka#bjd and according to some accounts he was given to the ,kushans as part of a war indemnity4 ,the tradition#bje is confirmed by the style and contents of his poems and it has been noted by ,foucher that his treatment of legends is in remarkable accord with their artistic presentment in the ,gandharan sculptures4 ,also fragmentary manuscripts of his dramas discovered in ,central ,asia appear to date from the ,kushan epoch4 ,avaghosha's rank as a poet depends chiefly on his ,buddhacarita1 or life of the ,buddha up to the time of his enlightenment4 ,it is the earliest example of a ,kvya1 usually translated as artificial epic1 but here literary skill is subservient to the theme and does not1 as too often in later works1 overwhelm it4 ,the ,buddha is its hero1 as ,rma of the ,rmyana1 and it sings the events of his earlier life in a fine flow of elaborate but impassioned language4 ,another of his poems1#bjf discovered only a few years ago1 treats of the conversion of ,nanda1 the ,buddha's half-brother4 ,various other works are ascribed to ,avaghosha and for the history of ,buddhism it is of great interest to decide whether he was really the author of ,the ,awakening of ,faith4 ,this skilful exposition of a difficult theme is worthy of the writer of the ,buddhacarita but other reasons make his authorship doubtful1 for the theology of the work may be described as the full-blown flower of ,mahayanism untainted by ,tantrism4 ,it includes the doctrines of ,bhta-tathat1 laya-vijna1 ,tathgatagarbha and the three bodies of ,buddha4 ,it would be dangerous to say that these ideas did not exist in the time of ,kanishka1 but what is known of the development of doctrine leads us to expect their full expression not then but a century or two later and other circumstances raise suspicions as to ,avaghosha's authorship4 ,his undoubted works were translated into ,chinese about #djj ,a4,d4 but ,the ,awakening of ,faith a century and a half later4#bjg ,yet if this concise and authoritative compendium had existed in #djj1 it is strange that the earlier translators neglected it4 ,it is also stated that an old ,chinese catalogue of the ,tripitaka does not name ,avaghosha as the author4#bjh ,the undoubted works of ,avaghosha treat the ,buddha with ornate but grave rhetoric as the hero of an epic4 ,his progress is attended by miracles such as ,indian taste demands1 but they hardly exceed the marvels recounted in the ,pali scriptures and there is no sign that the hero is identified1 as in the ,ramayana of ,tulsi ,das or the ,gospel according to ,st4 ,john1 with the divine spirit4 ,the poet clearly feels personal devotion to a ,saviour4 ,he dwells on the duty of teaching others and not selfishly seeking one's own salvation1 but he does not formulate dogmas4 ,the name most definitely connected with the early promulgation of ,mahayanism is ,ngrjuna4#bji ,a preponderance of ,chinese tradition makes him the second patriarch after ,avaghosha#baj and this agrees with the ,kashmir chronicle which implies that he lived soon after ,kanishka4#baa ,he probably flourished in the latter half of the second century4 ,but his biographies extant in ,chinese and ,tibetan are almost wholly mythical1 even crediting him with a life of several centuries1 and the most that can be hoped is to extract a few grains of history from them4 ,he is said to have been by birth a ,brahman of ,vidarbha 7,berar7 and to have had as teacher a ,sudra named ,saraha or ,rhulabhadra4 ,when the legend states that he visited the ,ngas in the depths of the sea and obtained books from them1 it seems to admit that he preached new doctrines4 ,it is noticeable that he is represented not only as a philosopher but as a great magician1 builder1 physician1 and maker of images4 ,many works are attributed to him but they have not the same authenticity as the poems of ,avaghosha4 ,some schools make him the author of the ,praj-pramit but it is more usually regarded as a revelation4 ,the commentary on it known as ,mah-praj-pramit-stra is generally accepted as his work4 ,a consensus of tradition makes him the author of the ,mdhyamika#bab aphorisms of which some account has been given above4 ,it is the principal authority of its school and is provided with a commentary attributed to the author himself and with a later one by ,candrakrti4#bac ,there is also ascribed to him a work called the ,suhrillekha or friendly letter1 a compendium of ,buddhist doctrines1 addressed to an ,indian king4#bad ,this work is old for it was translated into ,chinese in #dcd ,a4,d4 and is a homily for laymen4 ,it says nothing of the ,mdhyamika philosophy and most of it deals with the need of good conduct and the terrors of future punishment1 quite in the manner of the ,hinayana4 ,but it also commends the use of images and incense in worship1 it mentions ,avalokita and ,amitbha and it holds up the ideal of attaining ,buddhahood4 ,ngrjuna's authorship is not beyond dispute but these ideas may well represent a type of popular ,buddhism slightly posterior to ,avaghosha4#bae ,in most lists of patriarchs ,ngrjuna is followed by ,deva1 also called ryadeva1 ,knadeva or ,nlanetra4 ,i-,ching mentions him among the older teachers and a commentary on his principal work1 the atastra1 is attributed to ,vasubandhu4#baf ,little is known of his special teaching but he is regarded as an important doctor and his pupil ,dharmatrta is also important if not as an author at least as a compiler1 for ,sanskrit collections of verses corresponding to the ,pali ,dhammapada are ascribed to him4 ryadeva was a native of southern ,india4#bag ,the next epoch in the history of ,buddhism is marked by the names of ,asanga and ,vasubandhu4 ,the interval between them and ,deva produced no teacher of importance1 but ,kumralabdha1 the founder of the ,sautrntika school and perhaps identical with ,kumrata the eighteenth ,patriarch of the ,chinese lists1 may be mentioned4 ,hsan ,chuang says#bah that he was carried off in captivity by a king who reigned somewhere in the east of the ,pamirs and that he1 ,avaghosha1 ,ngrjuna and ,deva were styled the four shining suns4 ,asanga and ,vasubandhu were brothers1 sons of a ,brahman who lived at ,peshawar4 ,they were both converted from the ,sarvstivdin school to ,mahayanism1 but the third brother ,virincivatsa never changed his convictions4 ,tradition connects their career with ,ayodhya as well as with ,peshawar and ,vasubandhu enjoyed the confidence of the reigning monarch1 who was probably ,candragupta ,i4 ,this identification depends on the hypothesis that ,vasubandhu lived from about #bhj to #cfj ,a4,d4 which1 as already mentioned1 seems to me to have been proved by ,m4 ,pri4#bai ,the earlier ,gupta kings though not ,buddhists were tolerant1 as is shown by the fact that the king of ,ceylon#bbj was allowed to erect a magnificent monastery at ,nlanda in the reign of ,samudragupta 7c4 #ccj-cge ,a4,d474 ,asanga founded the school known as ,yogcra and many authorities ascribe to him the introduction of magical practices and ,tantrism4 ,but though he is a considerable figure in the history of ,buddhism1 ,i doubt if his importance or culpability is so great as this4 ,for if tradition can be trusted1 earlier teachers especially ,ngrjuna dealt in spells and invocations and the works of ,asanga#bba known to us are characterized by a somewhat scholastic piety and are chiefly occupied in defining and describing the various stages in the spiritual development of a ,bodhisattva4 ,it is true that he admits the use of magical formul#bbb as an aid in this evolution but they form only a slight part of his system and it does not appear that the ,chn-yen or ,shingon sect of the ,far ,east 7the ,sanskrit ,mantrayna7 traced its lineage back to him4 ,our estimate of his position in the history of ,buddhism must depend on our opinion as to the authorship of ,the ,awakening of ,faith4 ,if this treatise was composed by ,avaghosha then doctrines respecting the three bodies of ,buddha1 the ,tathgatagarbha and the laya-vijna were not only known but scientifically formulated considerably before ,asanga4 ,the conclusion cannot be rejected as absurd--for ,avaghosha might speak differently in poems and in philosophical treatises--but it is surprising1 and it is probable that the treatise is not his4 ,if so1 ,asanga may have been the first to elaborate systematically 7though not to originate7 the idea that thought is the one and only reality4 ,ngrjuna's nihilism was probably the older theory4 ,it sounds late and elaborate but still it follows easily if the dialectic of ,gotama is applied uncompromisingly not only to our mental processes but to the external world4 ,yet even in ,india the result was felt to be fantastic and sophistical and it is not surprising if after the lapse of a few generations a new system of idealism became fashionable which1 although none too intelligible1 was abstruse rather than paradoxical4 ,asanga was alleged to have received revelations from ,maitreya and five of his works are attributed to this ,bodhisattva who enjoyed considerable honour at this period4 ,it may be that the veneration for the ,buddha of the future1 the ,messiah who would reign over his saints in a pure land1 owed something to ,persian influence which was strong in ,india during the decadence of the ,kushans4#bbc ,both ,mithraism and ,manichism classified their adepts in various ranks1 and the ,yogcra doctors who delight in grading the progress of the ,bodhisattva may have borrowed something from them4#bbd ,asanga's doctrine of defilement 7klea7 and purification may also owe something to ,mani1 as suggested by ,s4 ,lvi4 ,in spite of his literary merits ,asanga remains a doctor rather than a saint or poet4#bbe ,his speculations have little to do with either ,gotama or ,amitbha and he was thus not in living touch with either the old or new schools4 ,his brother ,vasubandhu had perhaps a greater position4 ,he is reckoned as the twentieth ,patriarch and ,tibetan tradition connects him with the worship of ,amitbha4#bbf ,paramrtha's life of ,vasubandhu represents him as having frequented the court of ,vikramditya 7to be identified with ,candragupta ,i71 who at first favoured the ,snkhya philosophy but accorded some patronage to ,buddhism4 ,during this period ,vasubandhu was a ,sarvstivdin but of liberal views#bbg and while in this phase wrote the ,abhidharma-koa1 a general exposition of the ,abhidharma1 mainly according to the views of the ,vaibhshikas but not without criticism4 ,this celebrated work is not well known in ,europe#bbh but is still a text-book amongst ,japanese ,buddhist students4 ,it gained the esteem of all schools and we are given to understand that it presupposed the philosophy of the ,vibhsh and of the ,jna-prasthna4 ,according to ,paramrtha the original work consisted of #fjj aphorisms in verse which were sent by the author to the monks of ,kashmir4 ,they approved of the composition but1 as the aphorisms were concise1 asked for fuller explanations4 ,vasubandhu then expanded his verses into a prose commentary1 but meanwhile his views had undergone a change and when he disapproved of any ,vaibhshika doctrine1 he criticized it4 ,this enlarged edition by no means pleased the brethren of ,kashmir and called forth polemics4 ,he also wrote a controversial work against the ,snkhya philosophy4 ,late in life ,vasubandhu1 moved by the entreaties of his brother ,asanga1 became a devout ,mahayanist and wrote in his old age ,mahayanist treatises and commentaries4#bbi ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ahg3 ,the uncertainty as to the date of ,kanishka naturally makes it uncertain whether he was the hero of these conquests4 ,kashmir was certainly included in the dominions of the ,kushans and was a favourite residence of ,kanishka4 ,about #ij ,a4,d4 a ,kushan king attacked ,central ,asia but was repulsed by the ,chinese general ,pan-,ch'ao4 ,later1 after the death of ,pan-,ch'ao 7perhaps about #ajc ,a4,d471 he renewed the attempt and conquered ,kashgar1 ,yarkand and ,khotan4 ,see ,vincent ,smith1 ,early ,history of ,india1 #crd ed4 pp4 #bec ff4 ,footnote #ahh3 ,see ,fa-,hsien1 ed4 ,legge1 p4 #cc1 ,b4,e4,f4,e4,o4 #aijc 7,sung ,yn71 pp4 #dbj ff4 ,watters1 ,yan ,chwang1 ,i4 pp4 #bjd ff4 ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aiji1 p4 #ajef1 #aiab1 p4 #aad4 ,for the general structure of these stpas see ,foucher1 ,l'art ,grco-,bouddhique du ,gandhara1 pp4 #de ff4 ,footnote #ahi3 ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aiji1 p4 #ajeh4 ,acaryanam ,sarvastivadinam pratigrah4 ,footnote #aij3 ,similarly ,harsha became a ,buddhist late in life4 ,footnote #aia3 ,watters1 vol4 ,i4 p4 #bjc4 ,he places ,kanishka's accession #djj years after the death of the ,buddha1 which is one of the arguments for supposing ,kanishka to have reigned about #ej ,b4,c41 but in another passage 7,watters1 ,i4 #bbb1 #bbd7 he appears to place it #ejj years after the death4 ,footnote #aib3 ,watters1 vol4 ,i4 #bgj-a4 ,footnote #aic3 ,but ,trantha says some authorities held that it met at ,jalandhara4 ,some ,chinese works say it was held at ,kandahar4 ,footnote #aid3 ,walters1 l4c4 ,footnote #aie3 ,translated by ,takakusu in ,t'oung ,pao1 #aijd1 pp4 #bfi ff4 ,paramrtha was a native of ,ujjain who arrived at ,nanking in #edh and made many translations1 but it is quite possible that this life of ,vasubandhu is not a translation but original notes of his own4 ,footnote #aif3 ,chinese expressions like in the five hundred years after the ,buddha's death probably mean the period #djj-ejj of the era commencing with the ,buddha's death and not the period #ejj-fjj4 ,the period #a-ajj is the one hundred years1 #aja-bjj the two hundred years and so on4 ,see ,b4,e4,f4,e4,o4 #aiaa1 #cef4 ,but it must be remembered that the date of the ,buddha's death is not yet certain4 ,the latest theory 7,vincent ,smith1 #aiai7 places it in #eed ,b4,c4 ,footnote #aig3 ,chap4 ,,xii4 ,footnote #aih3 ,see ,watters1 ,i4 pp4 #bbb1 #bbd and #bgj4 ,it is worth noting that ,hsan ,chuang says ,asoka lived one hundred years after the ,buddha's death4 ,see ,watters1 ,i4 p4 #bfg4 ,see also the note of ,s4 ,lvi in ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aiad1 pp4 #ajaf-ajai1 citing traditions to the effect that there were #cjj years between ,upagupta1 the teacher of ,asoka1 and ,kanishka1 who is thus made to reign about #ca ,a4,d4 ,on the other hand ,kanishka's chaplain ,sangharaksha is said to have lived #gjj years after the ,buddha4 ,footnote #aii3 ,see ,takakusu in ,j4,p4,t4,s4 #aije1 pp4 #fg ff4 ,for the ,sarvstivdin ,canon1 see my chapter on the ,chinese ,tripitaka4 ,footnote #bjj3 ,see above1 vol4 ,i4 p4 #bfb4 ,for an account of the doctrines see also ,vasilief1 #bde ff4 ,rockhill1 ,life of the ,buddha1 pp4 #aij ff4 ,footnote #bja3 ,its connection with ,gandhara and ,kashmir is plainly indicated in its own scriptures4 ,see ,przyluski's article on ,le ,nord-,ouest de l',inde dans le ,vinaya des ,mla-sarvstivdins1 ,j4,a4 #aiad1 ,,ii4 pp4 #dic ft4 ,this ,vinaya must have received considerable additions as time went on and in its present form is posterior to ,kanishka4 ,footnote #bjb3 ,the distinction between ,sarvstivdin and ,mlasarvstivdin is not clear to me4 ,i can only suggest that when a section of the school accepted the ,mahvibhsh and were known as ,vaibhshikas others who approved of the school chiefly on account of its excellent ,vinaya called themselves ,primitive ,sarvstivdins4 ,footnote #bjc3 ,see ,sylvain ,lvi1 ,j4,a4 #aijh1 ,,xii4 #eg ff41 and ,winternitz1 ,ges4 ,ind4 ,lit4 ,,ii4 i4 pp4 #bja ff4 ,footnote #bjd3 ,the only reason for doubting it is that two stories 7,nos4 #ad and #ca7 in the ,strlankra 7which appears to be a genuine work7 refer to ,kanishka as if he had reigned in the past4 ,this may be a poetic artifice or it may be that the stories are interpolations4 ,see for the traditions ,watters on ,yan ,chwang1 ,,ii4 #ajb-d and ,takakusu in ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aije1 p4 #ec who quotes the ,chinese ,samyukta-ratna-pitaka-stra and the ,record of ,indian ,patriarchs4 ,the ,chinese list of ,patriarchs is compatible with the view that ,avaghosha was alive about #abe ,a4,d4 for he was the twelfth ,patriarch and ,bodhidharma the twenty-eighth visited ,china in #ebj4 ,this gives about #djj years for sixteen ,patriarchs1 which is possible1 for these worthies were long-lived4 ,but the list has little authority4 ,footnote #bje3 ,the traditions are conveniently collected in the introduction to ,teitaro ,suzuki's translation of ,the ,awakening of ,faith4 ,footnote #bjf3 ,the ,saundarnandakvya4 ,footnote #bjg3 ,see ,nanjio1 ,nos4 #aahb1 #acea1 #abej1 #abii4 ,it is noticeable that the translator ,paramrtha shows a special interest in the life and works of ,asanga and ,vasubandhu4 ,footnote #bjh3 ,see ,winternitz1 ,ges4 ,ind4 ,lit4 ,,ii4 i4 p4 #baa4 ,it is also noticeable that ,the ,awakening of ,faith appears to quote the ,lankvatra stra which is not generally regarded as an early ,mahayanist work4 ,footnote #bji3 ,ngrjuna cannot have been the founder of the ,mahayana for in his ,mah-praj-pramit-stra 7,nanjio1 #aafi1 translation by ,kumrajiva7 he cites inter alia the ,lotus1 the ,vimalakirti-stra1 and a work called ,mahyna-stra4 ,see ,b4,e4,f4,e4,o4 #aiaa1 p4 #dec4 ,for ,ngrjuna see especially ,grnwedel1 ,mythologie1 pp4 #bi ff4 and the bibliography given in the notes4 ,jour4 ,budd4 ,text4 ,soc4 ,v4 part iv4 pp4 #g ff4 ,watters1 ,yan ,chwang1 pp4 #bjj ff4 ,trantha1 chap4 ,,xv and ,winternitz1 ,ges4 ,ind4 ,lit4 ,,ii4 i4 pp4 #bej ff4 ,footnote #baj3 ,he is omitted from the list of ,buddhabhadra1 giving the succession according to the ,sarvstivdins1 to which school he did not belong4 ,i-,ching classes him with ,avaghosha and ,aryadeva as belonging to the early period4 ,footnote #baa3 ,rjatarangin1 i4 #agc1 #agg4 ,footnote #bab3 ,edited in the ,bibliotheca ,buddhica by ,de la ,valle ,poussin and 7in part7 in the ,journal of the ,buddhist ,text ,soc4 ,see too ,walleser1 ,die ,mittlere ,lehre des ,ngrjuna nach der ,tibetischen ,version bertragen1 #aiaa3 nach der ,chinesischen ,version bertragen1 #aiab4 ,footnote #bac3 ,the ascription of these works to ,ngrjuna is probably correct for they were translated by ,kumrajva who was sufficiently near him in date to be in touch with good tradition4 ,footnote #bad3 ,the name of this king1 variously given as ,udayana1 ,jetaka and tavhana1 has not been identified with certainty from the various transcriptions and translations in the ,chinese and ,tibetan versions4 ,see ,j4 ,pali ,text ,soc4 for #ahhf and ,i-,ching ,records of the ,buddhist ,religion 7trans4 ,takakusu71 pp4 #aeh ff4 ,the ,andhra kings who reigned from about #bdj ,b4,c4 to #bbe ,a4,d4 all claimed to belong to the tavhana dynasty4 ,the stupa of ,amarvati in the ,andhra territory is surrounded by a stone railing ascribed to the period #afj-bjj ,a4,d4 and ,ngrjuna may have addressed a pious king living about that time4 ,footnote #bae3 ,for other works attributed to ,ngrjuna see ,nanjio1 ,nos4 #aafi1 #aagi1 #aahj1 #aahf and ,walleser's introduction to ,mittlere ,lehre nach der ,chinesischen ,version ,the ,dharmasangraha1 a ,sanskrit theological glossary1 is also attributed to ,ngrjuna as well as the tantric work ,pancakrama4 ,but it is not likely that the latter dates from his epoch4 ,footnote #baf3 ,nanjio1 ,no4 #aahh4 ,footnote #bag3 ,the very confused legends about him suggest a comparison with the ,dravidian legend of a devotee who tore out one of his eyes and offered it to iva4 ,see ,grnwedel1 ,mythologie1 p4 #cd and notes4 ,polemics against various ,hinayanist sects are ascribed to him4 ,see ,nanjio1 ,nos4 #abei1 #abfj4 ,footnote #bah3 ,watters1 ,yan ,chwang1 ,,ii4 p4 #bhf4 ,hsan ,chuang does not say that the four were contemporary but that in the time of ,kumralabdha they were called the four ,suns4 ,footnote #bai3 ,for ,asanga and ,vasubandhu see ,pri in ,b4,e4,f4,e4,o4 #aiaa1 pp4 #cci-cij4 ,vincent ,smith in ,early ,history of ,india1 third edition1 pp4 #cbh-ccd4 ,winternitz1 ,ges4 ,ind4 ,lit4 ,,ii4 i4 p4 #bef4 ,watters1 ,yan ,chwang1 ,i4 pp4 #baj1 #cee-cei4 ,tarantha1 chap4 ,,xxii4 ,grnwedel1 ,mythologie1 p4 #ce4 ,footnote #bbj3 ,meghavarman4 ,see ,v4 ,smith1 l4c4 #bhg4 ,footnote #bba3 ,two have been preserved in ,sanskrit3 the ,mahyna-strlankra 7,ed4 ,v4 ,transl41 ,s4 ,lvi1 #aijg-aiaa7 and the ,bodhisattva-bhmi 7,english summary in ,muson1 #aije-f74 ,a brief analysis of the literature of the ,yogcra school according to ,tibetan authorities is given by ,stcherbatskoi in ,muson1 #aije1 pp4 #add-aee4 ,footnote #bbb3 ,mahyna-strl4 ,,xviii4 #ga-gc4 ,the ominous word maithuna also occurs in this work1 ,,xviii4 #df4 ,footnote #bbc3 ,vincent ,smith1 l4c4 p4 #bge4 ,footnote #bbd3 ,but there are of course abundant ,indian precedents1 ,brahmanical as well as ,buddhist1 for describing various degrees of sanctity or knowledge4 ,footnote #bbe3 ,the wooden statues of ,asanga and ,vasubandhu preserved in the ,kfukaji at ,nara are masterpieces of art but can hardly claim to be other than works of imagination4 ,they date from about #hjj ,a4,d4 ,see for an excellent reproduction ,tajima's ,select ,relics1 ,,ii4 ,x4 ,footnote #bbf3 ,see ,eitel and ,grnwedel1 but ,i do not know in what texts this tradition is found4 ,it is remarkable that ,paramrtha's life 7,t'oung ,pao1 #aijd1 pp4 #bfi-bif7 does not say either that he was twentieth patriarch or that he worshipped ,amida4 ,footnote #bbg3 ,on receiving a large donation he built three monasteries1 one for ,hinayanists1 one for ,mahayanists and one for nuns4 ,footnote #bbh3 ,the work consists of #fjj verses 7,krik7 with a lengthy prose commentary 7,bhshya7 by the author4 ,the ,sanskrit original is lost but translations have been preserved in ,chinese 7,nanjio1 ,nos4 #abfg1 #abfi1 #abgj7 and ,tibetan 7see ,cordier1 ,cat4 du ,fonds tibtain de la ,bib4 ,nat4 #aiad1 pp4 #cid1 #dii74 ,but the commentary on the ,bhshya called ,abhidharma-koa-vykhy1 or ,sphutrtha1 by ,ysomitra has been preserved in ,sanskrit in ,nepal and frequently cites the verses as well as the ,bhshya in the original ,sanskrit4 ,a number of ,european savants are at present occupied with this literature and ,sir ,denison ,ross 7to whom ,i am indebted for much information7 contemplates the publication of an ,uigur text of ,book ,i found in ,central ,asia4 ,at present 7#aibj71 so far as ,i know1 the only portion of the ,abhidharma-koa in print is ,de la ,valle ,poussin's edition and translation of ,book ,,iii1 containing the ,tibetan and ,sanskrit texts but not the ,chinese 7,de la ,valle ,poussin--,vasubandhu et ,yaomitra1 ,london1 #aiad-ah74 ,this chapter deals with such topics as the structure of the universe1 the manner and place of rebirth1 the chain of causation1 the geography of the world1 the duration and characteristics of ,kalpas1 and the appearance of ,buddhas and ,cakravartins4 ,footnote #bbi3 ,see ,nanjio1 pp4 #cga-b1 for a list of his works translated into ,chinese4 ,hsan ,chuang's account differs from the above 7which is taken from ,paramrtha7 in details4 ,he also tells a curious story that ,vasubandhu promised to appear to his friends after death and ultimately did so1 though he forgot his promise until people began to say he had gone to hell4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,indian ,,buddhism ,,as ,,seen ,,by ,,the ,,chinese ,,pilgrims ,about the time of ,vasubandhu there existed four schools of ,indian ,buddhism called ,vaibhshika1 ,sautrntika1 ,mdhyamika and ,yoga or ,yogcra4#bcj ,they were specially concerned with philosophy and apparently cut across the older division into eighteen sects1 which at this period seem to have differed mainly on points of discipline4 ,though not of great practical importance1 they long continued to play a certain part in controversial works both ,buddhist and ,brahmanic4 ,the first two which were the older seem to have belonged to the ,hinayana and the other two even more definitely to the ,mahayana4 ,i-,ching#bca is quite clear as to this4 ,there are but two kinds of the so-called ,mahayana he says1 first the ,mdhyamika1 second the ,yoga4444 ,these two systems are perfectly in accordance with the noble doctrine4 ,can we say which of the two is right8 ,both equally conform to truth and lead us to ,nirvana and so on4 ,but he does not say that the other two systems are also aspects of the truth4 ,this is the more remarkable because he himself followed the ,mla-sarvstivdins4 ,apparently ,sarvstivdin and ,vaibhshika were different names for the same school1 the latter being applied to them because they identified themselves with the commentary 7,vibhsh7 already mentioned whereas the former and older designation came to be used chiefly with reference to their disciplinary rules4 ,also there were two groups of ,sarvstivdins1 those of ,gandhara and those of ,kashmir4 ,the name of ,vaibhshika was applied chiefly to the latter who1 if we may find a kernel of truth in legends which are certainly exaggerated1 endeavoured to make ,kashmir a holy land with a monopoly of the pure doctrine4 ,vasubandhu and ,asanga appear to have broken up this isolation for they first preached the ,vaibhshika doctrines in a liberal and eclectic form outside ,kashmir and then by a natural transition and development went over to the ,mahayana4 ,but the ,vaibhshikas did not disappear and were in existence even in the fourteenth century4#bcb ,their chief tenet was the real existence of external objects4 ,in matters of doctrine they regarded their own ,abhidharma as the highest authority4#bcc ,they also held that ,gotama had an ordinary human body and passed first into a preliminary form of ,nirvana when he attained ,buddhahood and secondly into complete ,nirvana at his death4 ,he was superhuman only in the sense that he had intuitive knowledge and no need to learn4 ,their contempt for sutras may have been due to the fact that many of them discountenance the ,vaibhshika views and also to a knowledge that new ones were continually being composed4 ,i-,ching1 who ends his work by asserting that all his statements are according to the rya-mla-sarvstivda-nikya and no other1 gives an interesting summary of doctrine4 ,again ,i say3 the most important are only one or two out of eighty thousand doctrines of the ,buddha3 one should conform to the worldly path but inwardly strive to secure true wisdom4 ,now what is the worldly path8 ,it is obeying prohibitive laws and avoiding any crime4 ,what is the true wisdom8 ,it is to obliterate the distinction between subject and object1 to follow the excellent truth and to free oneself from worldly attachments3 to do away with the trammels of the chain of causality3 further to obtain merit by accumulating good works and finally to realize the excellent meaning of perfect reality4 ,such a statement enables us to understand the remark which he makes elsewhere that the same school may belong to the ,hinayana and ,mahayana in different places1 for1 whatever may be meant by wisdom which aims at obliterating the difference between subject and object1 it is clearly not out of sympathy with ,yogcra doctrines4 ,in another place where he describes the curriculum followed by monks he says that they learn the ,yogcrya-stra first and then eight compositions of ,asanga and ,vasubandhu4 ,among the works prescribed for logic is the ,nyyadvra-stra attributed to ,ngrjuna4 ,the monk should learn not only the ,abhidharma of the ,sarvstivdins but also the gamas1 equivalent to the ,stra-pitaka4 ,so the study of the stras and the works of ,asanga and ,vasubandhu is approved by a ,sarvstivdin4 ,the ,sautrntikas1#bcd though accounted ,hinayanists1 mark a step in the direction of the ,mahayana4 ,the founder of the school was ,kumarlabdha1 mentioned above4 ,in their estimation of scripture they reversed the views of the ,vaibhshikas1 for they rejected the ,abhidharma and accepted only the stras1 arguing that the ,abhidharma was practically an extract from them4 ,as literary criticism this is correct1 if it means that the more ancient stras are older than the oldest ,abhidharma books4 ,but the indiscriminate acceptance of stras led to a creed in which the supernatural played a larger part4 ,the ,sautrntikas not only ascribed superhuman powers to the ,buddha1 but believed in the doctrine of three bodies4 ,in philosophy1 though they were realists1 they held that external objects are not perceived directly but that their existence is inferred4#bce ,something has already been said of the two other schools1 both of which denied the reality of the external world4 ,the differences between them were concerned with metaphysics rather than theology and led to no popular controversies4 ,up to this point the history of ,indian ,buddhism has proved singularly nebulous4 ,the most important dates are a matter of argument1 the chief personages half mythical4 ,but when the records of the ,chinese pilgrims commence we are in touch with something more solid4 ,they record dates and facts1 though we must regret that they only repeat what they heard and make no attempt to criticize ,indian traditions or even to weave them into a connected chronicle4 ,fa-,hsien1 the first of these interesting men1 left ,china in #cii and resided in ,india from #dje to #daa1 spending three years at ,pataliputra and two at ,tamralipti4 ,he visited the ,panjab1 ,hindustan and ,bengal and his narrative leaves the impression that all these were in the main ,buddhist countries3 of the ,deccan which he did not visit he heard that its inhabitants were barbarous and not ,buddhists1 though it contained some ,buddhist shrines4 ,of the ,middle ,kingdom 7which according to his reckoning begins with ,muttra7 he says that the people are free and happy and neither kill any living creature nor drink intoxicating liquor4#bcf ,he does not hint at persecution though he once or twice mentions that the ,brahmans were jealous of the ,buddhists4 ,neither does he indicate that any strong animosity prevailed between ,maha and ,hinayanists4 ,but the two parties were distinct and he notes which prevailed in each locality4 ,he left ,china by land and found the ,hinayana prevalent at ,shen-shen and ,wu-i 7apparently localities not far from ,lob-,nor7 but the ,mahayana at ,khotan4 ,nearer ,india1 in countries apparently corresponding to parts of ,kashmir and ,gilgit1 the monks were numerous and all ,hinayanist4 ,the same was the case in ,udyana1 and in ,gandhara the ,hinayanists were still in the majority4 ,in the ,panjab both schools were prevalent but the ,hinayana evidently strong4 ,in the district of ,muttra the ,law was still more flourishing1 monasteries and topes were numerous and ample alms were given to the monks4 ,he states that the professors of the ,abhidharma and ,vinaya made offerings to those works1 and the ,mahayanists to the book ,praj-pramit1 as well as to ,majur and ,kwan-shih-yin4 ,he found the country in which are the sacred sites of rvasti1 ,kapilavastu and ,kusinr sparsely inhabited and desolate1 but this seems to have been due to general causes1 not specially to the decay of religion4 ,he mentions that ninety-six#bcg varieties of erroneous views are found among the ,buddhists1 which points to the existence of numerous but not acutely hostile sects and says that there still existed1 apparently in ,koala1 followers of ,devadatta who recognized three previous ,buddhas but not kyamuni4 ,he visited the birth-places of these three ,buddhas which contained topes erected in their honour4 ,he found ,magadha prosperous and pious4 ,of its capital1 ,patna1 he says by the side of the topes of ,asoka has been made a ,mahayana monastery very grand and beautiful1 there is also a ,hinayana one1 the two together containing #fjj or #gjj monks4 ,it is probable that this was typical of the religious condition of ,magadha and ,bengal4 ,both schools existed but the ,mahayana was the more flourishing4 ,many of the old sites1 such as ,rjagriha and ,gaya1 were deserted but there were new towns near them and ,bodh ,gaya was a place of pilgrimage with three monasteries4 ,in the district of ,tamralipti 7,tamluk7 on the coast of ,bengal were #bb monasteries4 ,as his principal object was to obtain copies of the ,vinaya1 he stayed three years in ,patna seeking and copying manuscripts4 ,in this he found some difficulty1 for the various schools of the ,vinaya1 which he says were divided by trivial differences only1 handed down their respective versions orally4 ,he found in the ,mahayanist monastery one manuscript of the ,mahsnghika rules and considered it the most complete1 but also took down the ,sarvstivdin rules4 ,after the death of ,vasubandhu few names of even moderate magnitude stand out in the history of ,indian ,buddhism4 ,the changes which occurred were great but gradual and due not to the initiative of innovators but to the assimilative power of ,hinduism and to the attractions of magical and emotional rites4 ,but this tendency1 though it doubtless existed1 did not become conspicuous until about #gjj ,a4,d4 ,the accounts of the ,chinese pilgrims and the literature which has been preserved suggest that in the intervening centuries the monks were chiefly occupied with scholastic and exegetical work4 ,the most distinguished successors of ,asanga were logicians1 among whom ,dinnga was pre-eminent4 ,sthiramati#bch and ,gunamati appear to have belonged to the same school and perhaps ,bhavaviveka#bci too4 ,the statements as to his date are inconsistent but the interesting fact is recorded that he utilized the terminology of the ,snkhya for the purposes of the ,mahayana4 ,throughout the middle ages the study of logic was pursued but ,buddhists and ,jains rather than by ,brahmans4#bdj ,vasubandhu composed some treatises dealing exclusively with logic but it was his disciple ,dinnga who separated it definitely from philosophy and theology4 ,as in idealist philosophy1 so in pure logic there was a parallel movement in the ,buddhist and ,brahmanic schools1 but if we may trust the statements of ,vcaspatimira 7about #aajj ,a4,d47 ,dinnga interpreted the aphorisms of the ,nyya philosophy in a heterodox or ,buddhist sense4 ,this traces the beginnings of ,indian logic to a ,brahmanic source but subsequently it flourished greatly in the hands of ,buddhists1 especially ,dinnga and ,dharmakrti4 ,the former appears to have been a native of ,conjevaram and a contemporary of ,klidsa4 ,both the logician and the poet were probably alive in the reign of ,kumragupta 7#dac-dee74 ,dinnga spent much time in ,nlanda1 and though the ,sanskrit originals of his works are lost the ,tibetan translations#bda are preserved4 ,the ,buddhist schools of logic continued for many centuries4 ,one flourished in ,kashmir and another1 founded by ,candragomin1 in ,bengal4 ,both lasted almost until the ,mohammedan conquest of the two countries4 ,from about #dgj to #ecj ,a4,d4 northern ,india groaned under the tyranny of the ,huns4 ,their ,king ,mihiragula is represented as a determined enemy of ,buddhism and a systematic destroyer of monasteries4 ,he is said to have been a worshipper of iva but his fury was probably inspired less by religious animosity than by love of pillage and slaughter4 ,about #ecj ,a4,d4 he was defeated by a coalition of ,indian princes and died ten years later amid storms and portents which were believed to signify the descent of his wicked soul into hell4 ,it must have been about this time that ,bodhidharma left ,india for he arrived in ,canton about #ebj4 ,according to the ,chinese he was the son of a king of a country called ,hsiang-,chih in southern ,india#bdb and the twenty-eighth patriarch and he became an important figure in the religion and art of the ,far ,east4 ,but no allusion to him or to any of the ,patriarchs after ,vasubandhu has been found in ,indian literature nor in the works of ,hsan ,chuang and ,i-,ching4 ,the inference is that he was of no importance in ,india and that his reputation in ,china was not great before the eighth century3 also that the ,chinese lists of patriarchs do not represent the traditions of northern ,india4 ,religious feeling often ran high in southern ,india4 ,buddhists1 ,jains and ,hindus engaged in violent disputes1 and persecution was more frequent than in the north4 ,it is easy to suppose that ,bodhidharma being the head of some heretical sect had to fly and followed the example of many monks in going to ,china4 ,but if so1 no record of his school is forthcoming from his native land1 though the possibility that he was more than an individual thinker and represented some movement unknown to us cannot be denied4 ,we might suppose too that since ,ngrjuna and ryadeva were southerners1 their peculiar doctrines were coloured by ,dravidian ideas4 ,but our available documents indicate that the ,buddhism of southern ,india was almost entirely ,hinayanist1 analogous to that of ,ceylon and not very sympathetic to the ,tamils4 ,the pilgrims ,sung-,yn and ,hui-,shng#bdc visited ,udyana and ,gandhara during the time of the ,hun domination 7#eah-eba74 ,they found the king of the former a pious ,buddhist but the latter was governed by an ,ephthalite chieftain1 perhaps ,mihiragula himself1 who was a worshipper of demons4 ,of the ,yetha or ,ephthalites they make the general observation that their rules of politeness are very defective4 ,but they also say that the population of ,gandhara had a great respect for ,buddhism and as they took back to ,china #agj volumes1 all standard works belonging to the ,great ,vehicle1 the ,ephthalite persecution cannot have destroyed the faith in north-western ,india4 ,but the evil days of decay were beginning4 ,henceforward we have no more pictures of untroubled piety and prosperity4 ,at best ,buddhism receives royal patronage in company with other religions2 sectarian conflicts increase and sometimes we hear of persecution4 ,about #fjj ,a4,d4 a king of ,central ,bengal named ,sanka who worshipped iva attempted to extirpate ,buddhism in his dominions and destroyed the ,bo tree at ,bodh ,gaya4#bdd ,on the other hand we hear of the pious ,prnavarman1 king of ,magadha1 who made amends for these sacrileges1 and of lditya1 king of the country called ,mo-lo-po by the ,chinese1 who was so careful of animal life1 that he even strained the water drunk by his horses and elephants1 lest they should consume minute insects4 ,we know more of ,indian ,buddhism in the seventh century than in the periods which precede or follow it4 ,the epoch was marked by the reign of the great king1 or rather emperor1 ,harsha-,vardhana 7#fjf-fdh ,a4,d471 and the works written by ,bna1 ,bhartrihari and others who frequented his court have come down to us4 ,also we are fortunate in possessing the copious narrative of ,hsan ,chuang1 the greatest of the ,chinese pilgrims1 who spent sixteen years 7#fbi-fde7 in ,india as well as the work known as the ,record of the ,buddhist religion as practised in ,india and the ,malay ,archipelago1 composed by ,i-,ching who travelled in those countries from #fga to #fie4 ,i-,ching also wrote the lives of sixty ,chinese pilgrims who visited ,india during the seventh century and probably there were many others of whom we have no record4 ,the reign of ,harsha is thus illustrated by a number of contemporary dateable works unusual in ,india4 ,the king himself wrote some ,buddhist hymns1#bde and three dramas are ascribed to him but were probably composed by some of the literary men whom he patronized4 ,for all that1 the religious ideas which they contain must have had his approval4 ,the ,ratnval and ,priyadarik are secular pieces and so far as they have any religious atmosphere it is ,brahmanic1 but the ,ngnanda is a ,buddhist religious drama which opens with an invocation of the ,buddha and has a ,jtaka story for its plot4#bdf ,bna was himself a devout ,brahman but his historical romance ,harshacarita and his novel called ,kdambar both describe a mixture of religions founded on observation of contemporary life4 ,in an interesting passage#bdg he recounts the king's visit to a ,buddhist ascetic4 ,the influence of the holy man causes the more intelligent animals in his neighbourhood1 such as parrots1 to devote themselves to ,buddhist lore1 but he is surrounded by devotees of the most diverse sects1 ,jains1 ,bhgavatas1 ,pncartras1 ,lokyatikas with followers of ,kapila1 ,kanda and many other teachers4 ,mayra1 another literary protg of ,harsha's1 was like ,bna a ,brahman1 and ,subandhu1 who flourished a little before them1 ignores ,buddhism in his romance called ,vsavadatt4 ,but ,bhartrihari1 the still popular gnomic poet1 was a ,buddhist4 ,it is true that he oscillated between the court and the cloister no less than seven times1 but this vacillation seems to have been due to the weakness of the flesh1 not to any change of convictions4 ,for our purpose the gist of this literature is that ,hinduism in many forms1 some of them very unorthodox1 was becoming the normal religion of ,india but that there were still many eminent ,buddhists and that ,buddhism had sufficient prestige to attract ,harsha and sufficient life to respond to his patronage4 ,about #fjj ,a4,d4 ,india was exhausted by her struggle with the ,huns4 ,after it there remained only a multitude of small states and obscure dynasties1 but there was evidently a readiness to accept any form of unifying and tranquillizing rule and for nearly half a century this was provided by ,harsha4 ,he conquered northern ,india from the ,panjab to ,bengal but failed to subdue the ,deccan4 ,though a great part of his reign was spent in war1 learning and education flourished4 ,hsan ,chuang1 who was his honoured guest1 gives a good account of his administration but also makes it plain that brigandage prevailed and that travelling was dangerous4 ,after #fdc ,harsha1 who was growing elderly1 devoted much attention to religion and may be said to have become a ,buddhist1 while allowing himself a certain eclectic freedom4 ,several creeds were represented among his immediate relatives4 ,devotion to iva was traditional in the family3 his father had been a zealous worshipper of the ,sun and his brother and sister were ,buddhists of the ,sammitya sect4 ,harsha by no means disowned ,brahmanic worship1 but in his latter years his proclivity to ,buddhism became more marked and he endeavoured to emulate the piety of ,asoka4 ,he founded rest houses and hospitals1 as well as monasteries and thousands of stupas4 ,he prohibited the taking of life and the use of animal food1 and of the three periods into which his day was divided two were devoted to religion and one to business4 ,he also exercised a surveillance over the whole ,buddhist order and advanced meritorious members4 ,hsan ,chuang has left an interesting account of the religious ftes and spectacles organized by ,harsha4 ,at ,kanauj he attended a great assembly during which a solemn procession took place every day4 ,a golden image of ,buddha was borne on an elephant and ,harsha1 dressed as ,indra1 held a canopy over it1 while his ally ,raja ,kumara1#bdh dressed as ,brahm1 waved a fly-whisk4 ,it was subsequently washed by the king's own hands and in the evening his ,majesty1 who like ,akbar had a taste for religious discussion1 listened to the arguments of his ,chinese guest4 ,but the royal instructions that no one was to speak against the ,master of the ,law were so peremptory that even his biographer admits there was no real discussion4 ,these edifying pageants were interrupted by disagreeable incidents which show that ,harsha's tolerance had not produced complete harmony4 ,a temporary monastery erected for the ftes caught fire and a fanatic attempted to stab the king4 ,he confessed under examination that he had been instigated to the crime by ,brahmans who were jealous of the favours which the ,buddhists received4 ,it was also established that the incendiaries were ,brahmans and1 after the ringleaders had been punished1 five hundred were exiled4 ,harsha then proceeded to ,allahabad to superintend a quinquennial distribution of alms4 ,it was his custom to let treasure accumulate for five years and then to divide it among holy men and the poor4 ,the proceedings lasted seventy-five days and the concourse which collected to gaze and receive must have resembled the fair still held on the same spot4 ,buddhists1 ,brahmans and ,jains all partook of the royal bounty and the images of ,buddha1 ,srya and iva were worshipped on successive days1 though greater honour was shown to the ,buddha4 ,the king gave away everything that he had1 even his robes and jewels1 and finally1 arrayed in clothes borrowed from his sister1 rejoiced saying all ,i have has entered into incorruptible and imperishable treasuries4 ,after this1 adds ,hsan ,chuang1 the king's vassals offered him jewels and robes so that the treasury was replenished4 ,this was the sixth quinquennial distribution which ,harsha had held and the last1 for he died in #fdh4 ,he at first favoured the ,hinayana but subsequently went over to the ,mahayana1 being moved in part by the exhortations of ,hsan ,chuang4 ,yet the substance of ,hsan ,chuang's account is that though ,buddhism was prospering in the ,far ,east it was decaying in ,india4 ,against this can be set instances of royal piety like those described1 the fame enjoyed by the shrines and schools of ,magadha and the conversion of the king of ,tibet in #fch ,a4,d4 ,this event was due to ,chinese as well as ,indian influence1 but would hardly have occurred unless in north-eastern ,india ,buddhism had been esteemed the religion of civilization4 ,still ,hsan ,chuang's long catalogue of deserted monasteries#bdi has an unmistakable significance4 ,the decay was most pronounced in the north-west and south4 ,in ,gandhara there were only a few ,buddhists3 more than a thousand monasteries stood untenanted and the ,buddha's sacred bowl had vanished4 ,in ,takshala the monasteries were numerous but desolate3 in ,kashmir the people followed a mixed faith4 ,only in ,udyna was ,buddhism held in high esteem4 ,in ,sind the monks were numerous but indolent4 ,no doubt this desolation was largely due to the depredations of ,mihiragula4 ,in the ,deccan and the extreme south there was also a special cause1 namely the prevalence of ,jainism1 which somewhat later became the state religion in several kingdoms4 ,in ,kalinga1 ,andhra and the kingdom of the ,colas the pilgrim reports that ,jains were very numerous but counts ,buddhist monasteries only by tens and twenties4 ,in ,dravida there were also #aj1jjj monks of the ,sthavira school but in ,malakuta among many ruined monasteries only a few were still inhabited and here again ,jains were numerous4 ,for all ,central ,india and ,bengal the pilgrim's statistics tell the same tale1 namely that though ,buddhism was represented both by monasteries and monks1 the ,deva-temples and unbelievers were also numerous4 ,the most favourable accounts are those given of ,kanauj1 ,ayodhya and ,magadha where the sacred sites naturally caused the devout to congregate4 ,the statistics which he gives as to sects are interesting4#bej ,the total number of monks amounted to about #ahc1jjj4 ,of these only #cb1jjj belonged definitely to the ,mahayana3 more than #if1jjj to the ,hinayana1 and #ed1ejj studied both systems or at any rate resided in monasteries which tolerated either course of study4 ,some writers speak as if after our era ,mahayanism was predominant in ,india and the ,hinayana banished to its extreme confines such as ,ceylon and ,kashmir4 ,yet about ,a4,d4 #fdj this zealous ,mahayanist#bea states that half the monks of ,india were definitely ,hinayanist while less than a fifth had equally definite ,mahayanist convictions4 ,the ,mahayana laid less stress on monasticism than the ,hinayana and therefore its strength may have lain among the laity1 but even so the admitted strength of the ,hinayana is remarkable4 ,three ,hinayanist schools are frequently mentioned1 the ,sthaviras1 ,sarvstivdins and ,sammityas4 ,the first are the well-known ,sinhalese sect and were found chiefly in the south 7,conjeevaram7 and in ,east ,bengal1 besides the monks of the ,sinhalese monastery at ,gaya4 ,the ,sarvstivdins were found1 as their history would lead us to expect1 chiefly in the north and beyond the frontiers of ,india proper4 ,but both were outnumbered by the ,sammityas1 who amounted to nearly #dd1jjj monks4 ,the chief doctrine#beb of this sect is said to have been that individuals 7puggalo7 exist as such in the truest sense4 ,this doctrine was supported by reference to the sutra known as the ,burden and the ,burden bearer4#bec ,it does not assert that there is a permanent and unchangeable soul 7att7 but it emphasizes the reality and importance of that personality which all accept as true for practical purposes4 ,it is probable that in practice this belief differed little from the ordinary ,brahmanic doctrine of metempsychosis and this may be one reason for the prevalence of the sect4 ,i-,ching1 though he does not furnish statistics1 gives a clear conspectus of ,buddhist sects as they existed in his time4 ,he starts from the ancient eighteen sects but divides them into four groups or ,nikayas4 7a7 ,the rya-,mahsanghika-nikya4 ,this comprised seven subdivisions but was apparently the least influential school as it was not predominant anywhere1 though it coexisted with other schools in most parts4 ,the ,lokottaravdins mentioned by ,hsan ,chuang as existing at ,bamiyan belonged to it4 ,they held that the ,buddha was not subject to the laws of nature4 7b7 rya-,sthavira-nikya4 ,this is the school to which our ,pali ,canon belongs4 ,it was predominant in southern ,india and ,ceylon and was also found in eastern ,bengal4 7c7 ,the rya-,mla-sarvstivda-nikya with four subdivisions4 ,almost all belonged to this school in northern ,india and it was nourishing in ,magadha4 7d7 ,the rya-,sammitya-nikya with four subdivisions flourished in ,lta and ,sindhu4 ,thus the last three schools were preponderant in southern1 northern and western ,india respectively4 ,all were followed in ,magadha1 no doubt because the holy places and the ,university of ,nland attracted all shades of opinion1 and ,bengal seems to have been similarly catholic4 ,this is substantially the same as ,hsan ,chuang's statement except that ,i-,ching takes a more favourable view of the position of the ,sarvstivda1 either because it was his own school or because its position had really improved4 ,it would seem that in the estimation of both pilgrims the ,maha-and ,hinayana are not schools but modes in which any school can be studied4 ,the ,nikya#bed or school appears to have been chiefly1 though not exclusively1 concerned with the rule of discipline which naturally had more importance for ,buddhist monks than it has for ,european scholars4 ,the observances of each ,nikya were laid down in its own recension of the scriptures which was sometimes oral and sometimes in writing4 ,probably all the eighteen schools had separate ,vinayas1 and to some extent they had different editions of the other ,pitakas1 for the ,sarvstivdins had an ,abhidharma of their own4 ,but there was no objection to combining the study of ,sarvstivdin literature with the reading of treatises by ,asanga and ,vasubandhu#bee or sutras such as the ,lotus1 which ,i-,ching's master read once a day for sixty years4 ,i-,ching himself seems to regard the two ,vehicles as alternative forms of religion1 both excellent in their way1 much as a ,catholic theologian might impartially explain the respective advantages of the active and contemplative lives4 ,with resolutions rightly formed he says we should look forward to meeting the coming ,buddha ,maitreya4 ,if we wish to gain the lesser fruition 7of the ,hinayana7 we may pursue it through the eight grades of sanctification4 ,but if we learn to follow the course of the greater fruition 7of the ,mahayana7 we must try to accomplish our work through long ages4#bef ,i-,ching observes that both ,vehicles agree in prescribing the same discipline1 in prohibiting the same offences and enjoining the practice of the noble truths4 ,his views1 which are substantially those of ,hsan ,chuang1#beg must be those current in the seventh century when the ,hinayana was allowing the ,mahayana to overgrow it without resistance1 but the relations of the two creeds are sometimes stated differently4 ,for instance the ,angulimliya sutra1#beh known only in a ,tibetan translation1 states that whereas for the ,hinayana such formul as the four truths and the eightfold path are of cardinal importance1 the ,mahayana does not recognize them1 and it is undoubtedly true that the ,vaipulya sutras frequently ignore the familiar doctrines of early ,buddhism and hint that they belong to a rudimentary stage of instruction4 ,i-,ching makes no mention of persecution but he deplores the decay of the faith4 ,the teaching of the ,buddha is becoming less prevalent in the world from day to day he says4 ,when ,i compare what ,i have witnessed in my younger days and what ,i see to-day in my old age1 the state is altogether different and we are bearing witness to this and it is hoped we shall be more attentive in future4 ,though he speaks regretfully of lax or incorrect discipline1 he does not complain of the corruption of the faith by ,tantrism and magical practices4 ,he does however deprecate in an exceedingly curious passage the prevalence of religious suicide4#bei ,except for progressive decay1 the condition of ,indian ,buddhism as described by the two pilgrims is much the same4 ,meals were supplied to monks in the monasteries and it was no longer usual to beg for food in the streets1 since the practice is mentioned by ,i-,ching as exceptional4 ,on ,upavasatha days it was the custom for the pious laity to entertain the monks and the meal was sometimes preceded by a religious service performed before an image and accompanied by music4 ,i-,ching describes the musical services with devout enthusiasm4 ,the priests perform the ordinary service late in the afternoon or in the evening twilight4 ,they come out of the monastery and walk three times round a stupa1 offering incense and flowers4 ,then they all kneel down and one of them who sings well begins to chant hymns describing the virtues of the great ,teacher and continues to sing ten or twenty lokas4 ,they then return to the place in the monastery where they usually assemble and1 when all have sat down1 a reciter mounting the lion-seat 7which is near the head priest7 reads a short sutra4 ,among the scriptures for such an occasion the ',service in three parts' is often used4 ,this is a selection of ,avaghosha4 ,the first part contains ten lokas of a hymn4 ,the second part is a selection from some scripture consisting of the ,buddha's words4 ,then there is an additional hymn as the third part of the service1 of more than ten lokas1 being prayers that express the wish to bring one's merits to maturity4 ,after the singing the assembled ,bhikshus exclaim ,subhshita or ,sdhu1 that is well-said or bravo4 ,the reader descends and the ,bhikshus in order salute the lion-seat1 the seats of ,bodhisattvas and ,arhats1 and the superior of the monastery4#bfj ,i-,ching also tells us of the ceremonial bathing of images and prefaces his description by the remark that the meaning of the ,truths is so profound that it is a matter beyond the comprehension of vulgar minds while the ablution of the holy images is practicable for all4 ,though the ,great ,teacher has entered ,nirvana yet his image exists and we should worship it with zeal as though in his presence4 ,those who constantly offer incense and flowers to it are enabled to purify their thoughts and those who perpetually bathe his image are enabled to overcome the sins that involve them in darkness4#bfa ,he appears to contemplate chiefly the veneration of images of ,skyamuni but figures of ,bodhisattvas were also conspicuous features in temples1 as we know not only from archology but from the biography of ,hsan ,chuang1 where it is said that worshippers used to throw flowers and silk scarves at the image of ,avalokita and draw auguries from the way they fell4 ,monasteries were liberally decorated with statues1 carvings and pictures4#bfb ,they often comprised several courts and temples4 ,hsan ,chuang says that a monastery in ,magadha which he calls ,ti-lo-shi-ka had four courts with three storeyed halls1 lofty terraces and a succession of open passages4444 ,at the head of the road through the middle gate were three temples with disks on the roof and hung with small bells2 the bases were surrounded by balustrades1 and doors1 windows1 beams1 walls1 and stairs were ornamented with gilt work in relief4 ,in the three temples were large images representing the ,buddha1 ,tr and ,avalokita4 ,the great centres of ,buddhist learning and monastic life1 mentioned by both pilgrims1 were ,valabh or ,balabhi in ,gujarat and ,nalanda4 ,the former was a district rather than a single locality and contained #ajj monasteries with #fjjj monks of the ,sammitya school4 ,nalanda was in ,magadha not far from ,gaya4 ,the date of its foundation is unknown but a great temple 7though apparently not the first7 was built about #dhe ,a4,d4#bfc ,fa-,hsien mentions a village called ,nala but without indicating that it was a seat of learning4 ,hence it is probable that the ,university was not then in existence or at least not celebrated4 ,hsan ,chuang describes it as containing six monasteries built by various kings and surrounded by an enclosing wall in which there was only one gate4 ,i-,ching writing later says that the establishment owned #bjj villages and contained eight halls with more than #cjjj monks4 ,in the neighbourhood of the monastery were a hundred sacred spots1 several marked by temples and topes4 ,it was a resort for ,buddhists from all countries and an educational as well as a religious centre4 ,i-,ching says that students spent two or three years there in learning and disputing after which they went to the king's court in search of a government appointment4 ,successful merit was rewarded not only by rank but by grants of land4 ,both pilgrims mention the names of several celebrities connected with ,nalanda4 ,but the worthies of the seventh century did not attain to more than scholastic eminence4 ,the most important literary figure of the age is ntideva of whose life nothing is known4 ,his writings however prove that the ,buddhism of this period was not a corrupt superstition1 but could inspire and nourish some of the most beautiful thoughts which the creed has produced4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #bcj3 ,see ,vasilief1 ,le ,bouddhisme1 ,troisime supplment1 pp4 #bfb ff4 ,kppen1 ,rel4 des ,buddha1 ,i4 #aea4 ,takakusu in ,j4 ,pali ,text ,society1 #aije1 pp4 #fg-adf4 ,footnote #bca3 ,records1 translated by ,takakusu1 p4 #ae4 ,footnote #bcb3 ,they are mentioned in the ,sarva-darana-sangraha4 ,footnote #bcc3 ,kern 7,indian ,buddhism1 p4 #abf7 says they rejected the authority of the ,stras altogether but gives no reference4 ,footnote #bcd3 ,see ,vasilief1 pp4 #cja ff4 and various notices in ,hsan ,chuang and ,watters4 ,also de la ,valle ,poussin's article in ,e4,r4,e4 ,footnote #bce3 ,hsan ,chuang informs us that when he was in rughna he studied the ,vibhsh of the ,sautrntikas1 but the precise significance of this term is not plain4 ,footnote #bcf3 ,fa-,hsien's ,travels1 chap4 ,,xvi4 ,footnote #bcg3 ,this figure is probably deduced from some artificial calculation of possible heresies like the #fb wrong views enumerated in the ,brahma-,jala stra4 ,footnote #bch3 ,he must have lived in the fourth century as one of his works 7,nanjio1 #abdc7 was translated between #cig and #dci4 ,footnote #bci3 ,watters1 ,yan ,chwang1 ,,ii4 #bba-bbd4 ,nanjio1 #abcg4 ,the works of ,gunamati also are said to show a deep knowledge of the ,snkhya philosophy4 ,footnote #bdj3 ,for the history of logic in ,india1 see ,vidybhusana's interesting work ,medival ,school of ,indian ,logic1 #aiji4 ,but ,i cannot accept all his dates4 ,footnote #bda3 ,dinnga's principal works are the ,pramna-samuccaya and the ,nyya-pravea4 ,hsan ,chuang calls him ,ch'en-na4 ,see ,watters1 ,,ii4 #bji4 ,see ,stcherbatskoi in ,muson1 #aijd1 pp4 #abi-aga for ,dinnga's influence on the development of the ,naiyyika and ,vaieshika schools4 ,footnote #bdb3 ,his personal name is said to have been ,p'u-ti-to-lo and his surname ,ch'a-ti-li4 ,the latter is probably a corruption of ,kshatriya4 ,hsiang-,chih possibly represents a name beginning with ,gandha1 but ,i can neither find nor suggest any identification4 ,footnote #bdc3 ,see ,b4,e4,f4,e4,o4 #aijc1 pp4 #cgi ff4 ,footnote #bdd3 ,his evil deeds are several times mentioned by ,hsan ,chuang4 ,it required a miracle to restore the ,bo tree4 ,footnote #bde3 ,see ,ettinghausen1 ,harshavardhana1 ,appendix ,,iii4 ,footnote #bdf3 ,the appearance of ,gaur as a dea ex machina at the end hardly shows that ,harsha's ,buddhism had a ktist tinge but it does show that ,buddhists of that period turned naturally to ivaite mythology4 ,footnote #bdg3 ,harshacarita1 chap4 ,,vii4 ,the parrots were expounding ,vasubandhu's ,abhidharma-koa4 ,bna frequently describes troops of holy men apparently living in harmony but including followers of most diverse sects4 ,see ,kdambari1 #aic and #cid3 ,harshacar4 #fg4 ,footnote #bdh3 ,it is curious that ,bna 7,harshacarita1 ,,vii47 says of this prince that from childhood he resolved never to worship anyone but iva4 ,footnote #bdi3 ,the ,rshtra-pla-paripricch 7,ed4 ,finot1 pp4 ix-xi1 #bh-cc7 inveighs against the moral degeneration of the ,buddhist clergy4 ,this work was translated into ,chinese between #ehi and #fah1 so that demoralisation must have begun in the sixth century4 ,footnote #bej3 ,see ,rhys ,davids in ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #ahia1 pp4 #dah ff4 ,footnote #bea3 ,hsan ,chuang was not disposed to underrate the numbers of the ,mahayana for he says that the monks of ,ceylon were ,mahayanists4 ,footnote #beb3 ,see the beginning of the ,kathvatthu4 ,the doctrine is formulated in the words ,puggalo upalabbhati saccikatthaparamatthenti1 and there follows a discussion between a member of the orthodox school and a ,puggalavdin1 that is one who believes in the existence of a person1 soul or entity which transmigrates from this world to another4 ,footnote #bec3 ,sam4 ,nik4 ,,xxii4 #bba4 ,footnote #bed3 ,this use of ,nikya must not be confused with its other use to denote a division of the ,stra-,pitaka4 ,it means a group or collection and hence can be used to denote either a body of men or a collection of treatises4 ,these ,nikyas are also not the same as the four schools 7,vaibhshikas1 etc471 mentioned above1 which were speculative4 ,similarly in ,europe a ,presbyterian may be a ,calvinist1 but ,presbyterianism has reference to ,church government and ,calvinism to doctrine4 ,there were in ,india at this time 7#a7 two vehicles1 ,maha-and ,hinayana1 7#b7 four speculative schools1 ,vaibhshikas1 etc41 7#c7 four disciplinary schools1 ,mla-sarvstivdins1 etc4 ,these three classes are obviously not mutually exclusive4 ,thus ,i-,ching approved of 7a7 the ,mahayana1 7b7 the ,mdhyamika and ,yogcra1 which he did not consider inconsistent and 7c7 the ,mla-sarvstivda4 ,footnote #bee3 ,i-,ching1 transl4 ,takakusu1 p4 #ahf4 ,footnote #bef3 ,three ,asankhya ,kalpas4 ,i-,ching1 ,takakusu's transl4 pp4 #aif-g4 ,he seems to regard the ,mahayana as the better way4 ,he quotes ,ngrjuna's allusions to ,avalokita and ,amityus with apparent approval2 he tells us how one of his teachers worshipped ,amityus and strove to prepare himself for ,sukhvat and how the ,lotus was the favourite scripture of another4 ,he further tells us that the ,mdhyamika and the ,yoga systems are both perfectly correct4 ,footnote #beg3 ,hsan ,chuang speaks of ,mahayanists belonging to the ,sthavira school4 ,footnote #beh3 ,quoted by ,rockhill1 ,life of the ,buddha1 pp4 #aif ff4 ,footnote #bei3 ,chaps4 ,,xxxviii and ,,xxxix4 ,he seems to say that it is right for the laity to make an offering of their bodies by burning but not for ,bhikshus4 ,the practice is recognized and commended in the ,lotus1 chap4 ,,xxii1 which however is a later addition to the original work4 ,footnote #bfj3 ,i-,ching1 transl4 ,takakusu1 pp4 #aec-d somewhat abridged4 ,i-,ching 7pp4 #aef-g7 speaks of ,mtricheta as the principal hymn writer and does not identify him with ,avaghosha4 ,footnote #bfa3 ,i believe the golden image in the ,arakan ,pagoda at ,mandalay is still washed with a ceremonial resembling that described by ,i-,ching4 ,footnote #bfb3 ,i-,ching says that monasteries commonly had a statue of ,mahkla as a guardian deity4 ,footnote #bfc3 ,by the ,gupta king1 ,narasinha ,gupta ,blditya4 ,much information about ,nland will be found in ,satis ,chandra ,vidyabhusana's ,medival ,school of ,indian ,logic1 pp4 #ade-adg4 ,hsan ,chuang 7,life1 transl4 ,beal1 p4 #aaa7 says that it was built #gjj years before his time1 that is1 in the first century ,b4,c4 ,he dwells on the beauty of the buildings1 ponds and flowers4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,decadence ,,of ,,buddhism ,,in ,,india ,the theme of this chapter is sad for it is the decadence1 degradation and ultimate disappearance of ,buddhism in ,india4 ,the other great religions offer no precise parallel to this phenomenon but they also do not offer a parallel to the circumstances of ,buddhism at the time when it flourished in its native land4 ,mohammedanism has been able to maintain itself in comparative isolation3 up to the present day ,moslims and ,christians share the same cities rather than the same thoughts1 especially when 7as often7 they belong to different races4 ,european ,christianity after a few centuries of existence had to contend with no rival of approximately equal strength1 for the struggle with ,mohammedanism was chiefly military and hardly concerned the merits of the faiths4 ,but ,buddhism never had a similarly paramount and unchallenged position4 ,it never attempted to extirpate its rivals4 ,it coexisted with a mass of popular superstition which it only gently reprobated and with a powerful hereditary priesthood1 both intellectual and pliant1 tenacious of their own ideas and yet ready to countenance almost any other ideas as the price of ruling4 ,neither ,islam nor ,christianity had such an adversary1 and both of them and even ,judaism resemble ,buddhism in having won greater success outside their native lands than in them4 ,jerusalem is not an altogether satisfactory spectacle to either ,christians or ,jews4#bfd ,still all this does not completely explain the disappearance of ,buddhism from ,india4 ,before attempting to assign reasons1 we shall do well to review some facts and dates relating to the period of decadence4 ,if we take all ,india into consideration the period is long1 but in many1 indeed in most1 districts the process of decay was rapid4 ,in the preceding chapter ,i have mentioned the accounts of ,indian ,buddhism which we owe to the ,chinese travellers1 ,hsan ,chuang and ,i-,ching4 ,the latter frankly deplores the decay of the faith which he had witnessed in his own life 7i4e4 about #fej-gjj ,a4,d47 but his travels in ,india were of relatively small extent and he gives less local information than previous pilgrims4 ,hsan ,chuang describing ,india in #fbi-fde ,a4,d4 is unwilling to admit the decay but his truthful narrative lets it be seen4 ,it is only of ,bengal and the present ,united ,provinces that he can be said to give a favourable account1 and the prosperity of ,buddhism there was largely due to the personal influence of ,harsha4#bfe ,in central and southern ,india1 he tells us of little but deserted monasteries4 ,it is clear that ,buddhism was dying out but it is not so clear that it had ever been the real religion of this region4 ,in many parts it did not conquer the population but so to speak built fortresses and left garrisons4 ,it is probable that the ,buddhism of ,andhra1 ,kalinga and the south was represented by little more than such outposts4 ,they included ,amarvati1 where portions of the ruins seem assignable to about #aej ,a4,d41 and ,ajant1 where some of the cave paintings are thought to be as late as the sixth century4 ,but of neither site can we give any continuous history4 ,in southern ,india the introduction of ,buddhism took place under the auspices of ,asoka himself1 though his inscriptions have as yet been found only in northern ,mysore and not in the ,tamil country4 ,the ,tamil poems ,manimgalei and ,silappadigaram1 especially the former1 represent it as prevalent and still preserving much of its ancient simplicity4 ,even in later times when it had almost completely disappeared from southern ,india1 occasional ,buddhist temples were founded4 ,rajaraja endowed one at ,negapatam about #ajjj ,a4,d4 ,in #ajee a monastery was erected at ,belgami in ,mysore and a ,buddhist town named ,kalavati is mentioned as existing in that state in #aecc4bff ,but in spite of such survivals1 even in the sixth century ,buddhism could not compete in southern ,india with either ,jainism or ,hinduism and there are no traces of its existence in the ,deccan after #aaej4 ,for the ,konkan1 ,maharashtra and ,gujarat1 ,hsan ,chuang's statistics are fairly satisfactory4 ,but in all this region the ,sammitya sect which apparently was nearer to ,hinduism than the others was the most important4 ,in ,ujjain ,buddhism was almost extinct but in many of the western states it lingered on1 perhaps only in isolated monasteries1 until the twelfth century4 ,inscriptions found at ,kanheri 7#hdc and #hea ,a4,d471 ,dambal 7#ajie ,a4,d47 and in ,miraj 7#aaaj ,a4,d47 testify that grants were made to monasteries at these late dates4#bfg ,but further north the faith had to endure the violence of strangers4 ,sind was conquered by the ,arabs in #gab2 ,gujarat and the surrounding country were invaded by northern tribes and such invasions were always inimical to the prosperity of monasteries4 ,this is even more true of the ,panjab1 the frontier provinces and ,kashmir4 ,the older invaders such as the ,yeh-chih had been favourably disposed to ,buddhism1 but those who came later1 such as the ,huns1 were predaceous barbarians with little religion of any sort4 ,in ,hsan ,chuang's time it was only in ,udyana that ,buddhism could be said to be the religion of the people and the torrent of ,mohammedan invasion which swept continuously through these countries during the middle ages overwhelmed all earlier religions1 and even ,hinduism had to yield4 ,in ,kashmir ,buddhism soon became corrupt and according to the ,rjatarangin#bfh the monks began to marry as early as the sixth century4 ,king ,llitditya 7#gcc-gfi7 is credited with having built monasteries as well as temples to the ,sun1 but his successors were ,sivaites4 ,bengal1 especially western ,bengal and ,bihar1 was the stronghold of decadent ,buddhism1 though even here hostile influences were not absent4 ,but about #gcj ,a4,d4 a pious ,buddhist named ,gopla founded the ,pla dynasty and extended his power over ,magadha4 ,the ,plas ruled for about #dej years and supplied a long and devout line of defenders of the faith4 ,but to the east of their dominions lay the principality of ,kanauj1 a state of varying size and fortunes and from the eighth century onwards a stronghold of ,brahmanic learning4 ,the revolution in ,hinduism which definitely defeated1 though it did not annihilate ,buddhism1 is generally connected with the names of ,kumrila ,bhatta 7c4 #gej7 and ankara 7c4 #hjj74 ,we know the doctrines of these teachers1 for many of their works have come down to us1 but when we enquire what was their political importance1 or the scope and extent of the movement which they championed we are conscious 7as so often7 of the extraordinary vagueness of ,indian records even when the subject might appeal to religious and philosophic minds4#bfi ,kumrila is said to have been a ,brahman of ,bihar who abjured ,buddhism for ,hinduism and raged with the ardour of a proselyte against his ancient faith4 ,tradition#bgj represents him as instigating ,king ,sudhanvan to exterminate the ,buddhists4 ,but nothing is known of this king and he cannot have had the extensive empire with which he is credited4 ankara was a ,brahman of the south who in a short life found time to write numerous works1 to wander over ,india1 to found a monastic order and build four monasteries4 ,in doctrine and discipline he was more pliant than ,kumrila and he assimilated many strong points of ,buddhism4 ,both these teachers are depicted as the successful heroes of public disputations in which the interest at stake was considerable4 ,the vanquished had to become a disciple of the vanquisher or to forfeit his life and1 if he was the head of an institution1 to surrender its property4 ,these accounts1 though exaggerated1 are probably a florid version of what occurred and we may surmise that the popular faith of the day was generally victorious4 ,what violence the rising tide of ,hinduism may have wrought1 it is hard to say4 ,there is no evidence of any general persecution of ,buddhism in the sense in which one ,christian sect persecuted another in ,europe4 ,but at a rather later date we hear that ,jains were persecuted and tortured by aiva princes both in southern ,india and ,gujarat1 and if there were any detailed account1 epigraphic or literary1 of such persecutions in the eighth and ninth centuries1 there would be no reason for doubting it4 ,but no details are forthcoming4 ,without resorting to massacre1 an anti-,buddhist king had in his power many effective methods of hostility4 ,he might confiscate or transfer monastic property1 or forbid his subjects to support monks4 ,considering the state of ,buddhism as represented by ,hsan ,chuang and ,i-,ching it is probable that such measures would suffice to ensure the triumph of the ,brahmans in most parts of ,india4 ,after the epoch of ankara1 the history of ,indian ,buddhism is confined to the ,pla kingdom4 ,elsewhere we hear only of isolated grants to monasteries and similar acts of piety1 often striking but hardly worthy of mention in comparison with the enormous number of ,brahmanic inscriptions4 ,but in the ,pla kingdom#bga ,buddhism1 though corrupt1 was flourishing so far as the number of its adherents and royal favour were concerned4 ,gopla founded the monastery of ,odontapuri or ,udandapura1 which according to some authorities was in the town of ,bihar4 ,dharmapla the second king of the dynasty 7c4 #hjj ,a4,d47 built on the north bank of the ,ganges the even more celebrated ,university of ,vikramaila1#bgb where many commentaries were composed4 ,it was a centre not only of tantric learning but of logic and grammar1 and is interesting as showing the connection between ,bengal and ,tibet4 ,tibetans studied there and ,sanskrit books were translated into ,tibetan within its cloisters4 ,dharmapla is said to have reigned sixty-four years and to have held his court at ,patna1 which had fallen into decay but now began to revive4 ,according to ,trantha his successor ,devapla built ,somapuri1 conquered ,orissa and waged war with the unbelievers who had become numerous1 no doubt as a result of the preaching of ankara4 ,but as a rule the ,plas1 though they favoured ,buddhism1 did not actively discourage ,hinduism4 ,they even gave grants to ,hindu temples and their prime ministers were generally ,brahmans who#bgc used to erect non-,buddhist images in ,buddhist shrines4 ,the dynasty continued through the eleventh century and in this period some information as to the condition of ,indian ,buddhism is afforded by the relations between ,bengal and ,tibet4 ,after the persecution of the tenth century ,tibetan ,buddhism was revived by the preaching of monks from ,bengal4 ,mahpla then occupied the throne 7c4 #igh-ajcj7 and during his reign various learned men accepted invitations to ,tibet4 ,more celebrated is the mission of ,atsa1 a monk of the ,vikramaila monastery1 which took place about #ajch4 ,that these two missions should have been invited and despatched shows that in the eleventh century ,bengal was a centre of ,buddhist learning4 ,probably the numerous ,sanskrit works preserved in ,tibetan translations then existed in its monasteries4 ,but about the same time the power of the ,pla dynasty1 and with it the influence of ,buddhism1 were curtailed by the establishment of the rival ,sena dynasty in the eastern provinces4 ,still1 under ,rmapla1 who reigned about #aajj1 the great teacher ,abhayakara was an ornament of the ,mahayana4 ,trantha#bgd says that he corrected the text of the scriptures and that in his time there were many ,pandits and resident ,bhikshus in the monasteries of ,vikramasla1 ,bodh-,gaya and ,odontapuri4 ,there is thus every reason to suppose that in the twelfth century ,buddhism still nourished in ,bihar1 that its clergy numbered several thousands and its learning was held in esteem4 ,the blow which destroyed its power was struck by a ,mohammedan invasion in #aaic4 ,in that year ,ikhtiyar-ud-,din ,muhammad1#bge a general of ,kutb-ud-,din1 invaded ,bihar with a band of only two hundred men and with amazing audacity seized the capital1 which1 consisting chiefly of palaces and monasteries1 collapsed without a blow4 ,the monks were massacred to a man1 and when the victors1 who appear not to have understood what manner of place they had captured1 asked the meaning of the libraries which they saw1 no one was found capable of reading the books4#bgf ,it was in #aaic also that ,benares was conquered by the ,mohammedans4 ,i have found no record of the sack of the monastery at ,sarnath but the ruins are said to show traces of fire and other indications that it was overwhelmed by some sudden disaster4 ,the ,mohammedans had no special animus against ,buddhism4 ,they were iconoclasts who saw merit in the destruction of images and the slaughter of idolaters4 ,but whereas ,hinduism was spread over the country1 ,buddhism was concentrated in the great monasteries and when these were destroyed there remained nothing outside them capable of withstanding either the violence of the ,moslims or the assimilative influence of the ,brahmans4 ,hence ,buddhism suffered far more from these invasions than ,hinduism but still vestiges of it lingered long#bgg and exist even now in ,orissa4 ,trantha says that the immediate result of the ,moslim conquest was the dispersal of the surviving teachers and this may explain the sporadic occurrence of late ,buddhist inscriptions in other parts of ,india4 ,he also tells us that a king named ,cangalarja restored the ruined ,buddhist temples of ,bengal about #adej4 ,elsewhere#bgh he gives a not discouraging picture of ,buddhism in the ,deccan1 ,gujarat and ,rajputana after the ,moslim conquest of ,magadha but adds that the study of magic became more and more prevalent4 ,in the life of ,caitanya it is stated that when travelling in southern ,india 7about #aeaj ,a4,d47 he argued with ,buddhists and confuted them1 apparently somewhere in ,arcot4#bgi ,manuscripts preserved in ,nepal indicate that as late as the fifteenth or sixteenth century ,bengali copyists wrote out ,buddhist works1 and there is evidence that ,bodh-,gaya continued to be a place of pilgrimage4 ,in #aehe it was visited by a ,nepalese named ,abhaya ,rj who on his return erected in ,patan a monastery imitated from what he had seen in ,bengal1 and in #aggg the ,tashi ,lama sent an embassy4 ,but such instances prove little as to the religion of the surrounding ,hindu population1 for at the present day numerous ,buddhist pilgrims1 especially ,burmese1 frequent the shrine4 ,the control of the temple passed into the hands of the ,brahmans and for the ordinary ,bengali ,buddha became a member of ,india's numerous pantheon4 ,pandit ,harapraad ,sastri mentions a singular poem called ,buddhacaritra1 completed in #agaa and celebrating an incarnation of ,buddha which apparently commenced in #afii and was to end in the reappearance of the golden age4 ,but the being called ,buddha is a form of ,vishnu and the work is as strange a jumble of religion as it is of languages1 being written in a curious medley of bad ,sanskrit1 bad ,hindi and bad ,bihari4 ,it is chiefly in ,orissa that traces of ,buddhism can still be found within the limits of ,india proper4 ,the ,saraks of ,baramba1 ,tigaria and the adjoining parts of ,cuttack describe themselves as ,buddhists4#bhj ,their name is the modern equivalent of rvaka and they apparently represent an ancient ,buddhist community which has become a sectarian caste4 ,they have little knowledge of their religion but meet once a year in the cave temples of ,khandagiri1 to worship a deity called ,buddhadeva or ,caturbhuja4 ,all their ceremonies commence with the formula ,ahims parama dharma and they respect the temple of ,puri1 which is suspected of having a ,buddhist origin4 ,nagendranth ,vasu has published some interesting details as to the survival of ,buddhist ideas in ,orissa4#bha ,he traces the origin of this hardy though degraded form of ,mahayanism to ,rmi ,pandit1#bhb a tantric crya of ,magadha who wrote a work called nya ,purna which became popular4 ,orissa was one of the regions which offered the longest resistance to ,islam1 for it did not succumb until #aefh4 ,a period of ivaism in the tenth and eleventh centuries is indicated by the temples of ,bhuvaneshwar and other monuments4 ,but in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the reigning dynasty were worshippers of ,vishnu and built the great temples at ,puri and ,konrak1 dedicated to ,jaganntha and ,srya-nryana respectively4 ,we do not however hear that they persecuted ,buddhism and there are reasons for thinking that ,jaganntha is a form of the ,buddha#bhc and that the temple at ,puri was originally a ,buddhist site4 ,it is said that it contains a gigantic statue of the ,buddha before which a wall has been built and also that the image of ,jaganntha1 which is little more than a log of wood1 is really a case enclosing a ,buddhist relic4 ,king ,pratparudra 7 #aebi7 persecuted ,buddhism1 which implies that at this late date its adherents were sufficiently numerous to attract attention4 ,either at the beginning of his reign or before it there flourished a group of six poets of whom the principal were ,acyutnanda ,dsa and ,caitanya ,dsa4#bhd ,their works are nominally devoted to the celebration of ,krishna's praises and form the chief vernacular scripture of the ,vaishnavas in ,orissa but in them ,krishna1 or the highest form of the deity by whatever name he is called1 is constantly identified with nya or the ,void1 that favourite term of ,mahayanist philosophy4 ,passages from them are also quoted stating that in the ,kali age the followers of the ,buddha must disguise themselves2 that there are #cjjj crypto-,buddhists hidden in various parts of ,orissa1 that ,hari has been incarnate in many ,buddhas and that the ,buddha will appear again on earth4 ,the phrase ,i take refuge in the ,buddha1 in ,mt diakti 7 ,dharma7 and in the ,sangha is also quoted from these works and ,caitanya ,dsa describes five ,vishnus1 who are apparently identical with the five ,dhyni ,buddhas4#bhe ,trantha states that the last king of ,orissa1 ,mukunda ,deva1 who was overthrown by the ,mohammedans in #aefh1 was a ,buddhist and founded some temples and monasteries4 ,in the seventeenth century1 there flourished a ,buddhist poet named ,mahdevadsa1#bhf and the ,tibetan pilgrim ,buddhagupta visited among other sites the old capital of ,mayurabhanja and saw a stupa there4 ,it is claimed that the tribe known as ,bthuris or ,buris have always been crypto-,buddhists and have preserved their ancient customs4 ,they are however no credit to their religion1 for one of their principal ceremonies is hook-swinging4#bhg ,the doctrine of the ,bthuris is called ,mahim ,dharma and experienced an interesting revival in #ahge4bhh ,a blind man named ,bhma ,bhoi had a vision of the ,buddha who restored his sight and bade him preach the law4 ,he attracted some thousands of adherents and led a band to ,puri proclaiming that his mission was to bring to light the statue of ,buddha concealed in the temple4 ,the ,raja resisted the attempt and the followers of ,bhma ,bhoi were worsted in a sanguinary encounter4 ,since that time they have retired to the more remote districts of ,orissa and are said to hold that the ,buddha will appear again in a new incarnation4 ,they are also called ,kumbhipatias and according to the last census of ,india 7#aiaa7 are hostile to ,brahmans and probably number about #be1jjj4 ,traces of ,buddhism also survive in the worship of a deity called ,dharma-,rj or ,dharma-,thakur which still prevails in western and southern ,bengal4#bhi ,priests of this worship are usually not ,brahmans but of low caste1 and ,haraprasad thinks that the laity who follow it may number several millions4 ,though ,dharma has come to be associated with the goddess of smallpox and is believed even by his adorers to be a form of ,vishnu or of iva1 yet ,dhyna1 or meditation1 forms a part of his worship and the prayers and literature of the sect retain some traces of his origin4 ,thus he is said to be highly honoured in ,ceylon and receives the epithet nyamrti4 ,a corrupt form of ,buddhism still exists in ,nepal4#bij ,this country when first heard of was in the hands of the ,nevars who have preserved some traditions of a migration from the north and are akin to the ,tibetans in race and language1 though like many non-,aryan tribes they have endeavoured to invent for themselves a ,hindu pedigree4 ,buddhism was introduced under ,asoka4 ,as ,indian influence was strong and communication with ,tirhut and ,bengal easy1 it is probable that ,buddhism in ,nepal reflected the phases which it underwent in ,bengal4 ,a ,nepalese inscription of the seventh century gives a list of shrines of which seven are ivaite1 six ,buddhist and four ,vishnuite4#bia ,after that date it was more successful in maintaining itself1 for it did not suffer from ,mohammedan attacks and was less exposed to the assimilative influence of ,brahmanism4 ,that influence however1 though operating in a foreign country and on people not bred among ,brahmanic traditions1 was nevertheless strong4 ,in #acbd the king of ,tirhut1 being expelled thence by ,mohammedans1 seized the throne of ,nepal and brought with him many learned ,brahmans4 ,his dynasty was not permanent but later in the fourteenth century a subsequent ruler1 ,jayasthiti1 organized society and religion in consultation with the ,brahman immigrants4 ,the followers of the two religions were arranged in parallel divisions1 a group of ,buddhists classified according to occupation corresponding to each ,hindu caste1 and appropriate rules and ceremonies were prescribed for the different sections4 ,the code then established is still in force in essentials and ,nepal1 being intellectually the pupil of ,india1 has continued to receive such new ideas as appeared in the plains of ,bengal4 ,when these ascended to the mountain valleys they were adopted1 with free modification of old and new material alike1 by both ,buddhists and ,hindus1 but as both sects were geographically isolated1 each tended to resemble the other more than either resembled normal ,buddhism or ,hinduism4 ,naturally the new ideas were mainly ,brahmanic and ,buddhism had no chance of being fortified by an importation of even moderately orthodox doctrine4 ,in the fourteenth century arose the community of wandering ascetics called ,nthas who were reverenced by ,hindus and ,buddhists alike4 ,they rejected the observances of both creeds but often combined their doctrines and1 though disavowed by the ,brahmans1 exercised a considerable influence among the lower castes4 ,some of the peculiar deities of ,nepal1 such as ,matsyendranth1 have attributes traceable to these wanderers4 ,in #agfi ,nepal was conquered by the ,gurkhas4 ,this tribe seems related to the ,tibetan stock1 as are the ,nevars1 but it had long been ,hinduized and claimed a ,rajput ancestry4 ,thus ,gurkha rule has favoured and accelerated the hinduizing of ,nepalese ,buddhism4 ,since the time of ,hodgson the worship of the di-,buddha1 or an original divine ,buddha practically equivalent to ,god1 has been often described as characteristic of ,nepalese religion and such a worship undoubtedly exists4 ,but recent accounts indicate that it is not prominent and also that it can hardly be considered a distinct type of monotheistic ,buddhism4 ,the idea that the five ,dhyni-,buddhas are emanations or manifestations of a single primordial ,buddha-spirit is a natural development of ,mahayanist ideas1 but no definite statement of it earlier than the ,klacakra literature is forthcoming1 though many earlier works point towards it4#bib ,in modern ,nepal the chief temple of the di-,buddha is on the hill of ,svayambh 7the self-existent7 near ,katmandu4 ,according to a legend preserved in the ,svayambh ,purna1 a special divine manifestation occurred in ancient times on an adjoining lake2 a miraculous lotus arose on its surface1 bearing an image1 over which a ,caitya was subsequently erected4 ,the shrine is greatly venerated but this di-,buddha1 or ,svayambh1 does not differ essentially from other miraculous images in ,india which are said not to consist of ordinary matter but to embody in some special way the nature of a deity4 ,the religion of ,nepal is less remarkable for new developments of ,buddhism than for the singular fusion of ,buddhism with ,hinduism which it presents and which helps us to understand what must have been the last phase in ,bengal4 ,the ,nepalese ,brahmans tolerate ,buddhism4 ,the ,nepla-mhtmya says that to worship ,buddha is to worship iva1 and the ,svayambh ,purna returns the compliment by recommending the worship of ,paupati4#bic ,the official itinerary of the ,hindu pilgrim includes ,svayambh1 where he adores ,buddha under that name4 ,more often the two religions adore the same image under different names3 what is ,avalokita to the one is ,mahkla to the other4 ,durg is explained as being the incarnation of the ,praj-pramit and she is even identified with the di-,buddha4 ,the ,nepalese pantheon like the ,tibetan contains three elements1 often united in modern legends3 firstly aboriginal deities1 such as ,nagas and other nature spirits3 secondly definitely ,buddhist deities or ,bodhisattvas of whom ,majur receives the most honour3 thirdly ,hindu deities such as ,ganea and ,krishna4 ,the popular deity ,matsyendranath appears to combine all three elements in his own person4 ,modern accounts of ,nepal leave the impression that even corrupt ,buddhism is in a bad way1 yet the number of religious establishments is considerable4 ,celibacy is not observed by their inmates1 who are called banras 7bandyas74 ,on entering the order the novice takes the ancient vows but after four days he returns to his tutor1 confesses that they are too hard for him and is absolved from his obligations4 ,the classes known as ,bhikshus and ,gubhrjus officiate as priests1 the latter being the higher order4 ,the principal ceremony is the offering of melted butter4 ,the more learned ,gubhrjus receive the title of ,vajrcrya#bid and have the sole right of officiating at marriages and funerals4 ,there is little learning4 ,the oldest scriptures in use are the so-called nine ,dharmas4#bie ,hodgson describes these works as much venerated and ,rajendralal ,mitra has analysed them1 but ,sylvain ,lvi heard little of them in #ahih1 though he mentions the recitation of the ,praj-pramit4 ,the ,svayambh ,purna is an account of the manifestation of the di-,buddha written in the style of those portions of the ,brahmanic ,purnas which treat of the glories of some sacred place4 ,in its present form it can hardly be earlier than the sixteenth century ,a4,d4 ,the ,nepla-mhtmya is a similar work which1 though of ,brahmanic origin1 puts ,buddha1 ,vishnu and iva on the same footing and identifies the first with ,krishna4 ,the ,vgvat-mhtmya#bif on the other hand is strictly ivaite and ignores ,buddha's claims to worship4 ,the ,vmvali1 or ,chronicle of ,nepal1 written in the ,gurkha language 7,parbatiya7 is also largely occupied with an account of sacred sites and buildings and exists in two versions1 one ,buddhist1 the other ,brahmanical4 ,but let us return to the decadence of ,buddhism in ,india4 ,it is plain that persecution was not its main cause nor even very important among the accessory causes4 ,the available records contain clearer statements about the persecution of ,jainism than of ,buddhism but no doubt the latter came in for some rough handling1 though not enough to annihilate a vigorous sect4 ,great numbers of monasteries in the north were demolished by the ,huns and a similar catastrophe brought about the collapse of the ,church in ,bihar4 ,but this last incident cannot be called religious persecution1 for ,muhammad did not even know what he was destroying4 ,buddhism did not arouse more animosity than other ,indian religions3 the significant feature is that when its temples and monasteries were demolished it did not live on in the hearts of the people1 as did ,hinduism with all its faults4 ,the relation between the laity and the ,church in ,buddhism is curious and has had serious consequences for both good and evil4 ,the layman takes refuge in the ,buddha1 his law and his church but does not swear exclusive allegiance3 to follow supplementary observances is not treasonable1 provided they are not in themselves objectionable4 ,the ,buddha prescribed no ceremonies for births1 deaths and marriages and apparently expected the laity to continue in the observance of such rites as were in use4 ,to-day in ,china and ,japan the good layman is little more than one who pays more attention to ,buddhism than to other faiths4 ,this charitable pliancy had much to do with the victories of ,buddhism in the ,far ,east1 where it had to struggle against strong prejudices and could hardly have made its way if it had been intolerant of local deities4 ,but in ,india we see the disadvantages of the omission to make the laity members of a special corporation and the survival of the ,jains1 who do form such a corporation1 is a clear object lesson4 ,social life in ,india tends to combine men in castes or in communities which if not castes in the technical sense have much the same character4 ,such communities have great vitality so long as they maintain their peculiar usages1 but when they cease to do so they soon disintegrate and are reabsorbed4 ,buddhism from the first never took the form of a corporation4 ,the special community which it instituted was the sangha or body of monks4 ,otherwise1 it aimed not at founding a sect but at including all the world as lay believers on easy terms4 ,this principle worked well so long as the faith was in the ascendent but its effect was disastrous when decline began4 ,the line dividing ,buddhist laymen from ordinary ,hindus became less and less marked3 distinctive teaching was found only in the monasteries3 these became poorly recruited and as they were gradually deserted or destroyed by ,mohammedans the religion of the ,buddha disappeared from his native land4 ,even in the monasteries the doctrine taught bore a closer resemblance to ,hinduism than to the preaching of ,gotama and it is this absence of the protestant spirit1 this pliant adaptability to the ideas of each age1 which caused ,indian ,buddhism to lose its individuality and separate existence4 ,in some localities its disappearance and absorption were preceded by a monstrous phase1 known as ,tantrism or ktism1 in which the worst elements of ,hinduism1 those which would have been most repulsive to ,gotama1 made an unnatural alliance with his church4 ,i treat of ,tantrism and ktism in another chapter4 ,the original meaning of ,tantra as applied to literary compositions is a simplified manual4#big ,thus we hear of ,vishnuite ,tantras and in this sense there is a real similarity between ,buddhist and tantric teaching1 for both set aside ,brahmanic tradition as needlessly complicated and both profess to preach a simple and practical road to salvation4 ,but in ,hinduism and ,buddhism alike such words as ,tantra and tantric acquire a special sense and imply the worship of the divine energy in a female form called by many names such as ,kl in the former1 ,tr in the latter4 ,this worship which in my opinion should be called ktism rather than ,tantrism combines many elements3 ancient1 savage superstitions as well as ingenious but fanciful speculation1 but its essence is always magic4 ,it attempts to attain by magical or sacramental formul and acts not only prosperity and power but salvation1 nirvana and union with the supreme spirit4 ,some of its sects practise secret immoral rites4 ,it is sad to confess that degenerate ,buddhism did not remain uncorrupted by such abuses4 ,it is always a difficult and speculative task to trace the early stages of new movements in ,indian religion1 but it is clear that by the eighth century and perhaps earlier the ,buddhism of ,bihar and ,bengal had fallen a prey to this influence4 ,apparently the public ritual in the ,vihras remained unchanged and the usual language about nirvna and nyat was not discarded1 but it was taught that those who followed a certain curriculum could obtain salvation by magical methods4 ,to enter this curriculum it was necessary to have a qualified teacher and to receive from him initiation or baptism 7abhisheka74 ,of the subsequent rites the most important is to evoke one of the many ,buddhas or ,bodhisattvas recognized by the ,mahayana and identify oneself with him4#bih ,he who wishes to do this is often called a sdhaka or magician but his achievements1 like many ,indian miracles1 are due to self-hypnotization4 ,he is directed to repair to a lonely place and offer worship there with flowers and prayers4 ,to this office succeed prolonged exercises in meditation which do not depart much from the ancient canon since they include the four ,brahm-vihras4 ,their object is to suppress thought and leave the mind empty4 ,then the sdhaka fills this void with the image of some ,bodhisattva1 for instance ,avalokita4 ,this he does by uttering mystic syllables called bja or seed1 because they are supposed to germinate and grow into the figures which he wishes to produce4 ,in this way he imagines that he sees the emblems of the ,bodhisattva spring up round him one by one and finally he himself assumes the shape of ,avalokita and becomes one with him4 ,something similar still exists in ,tibet where every ,lama chooses a tutelary deity or ,yi-dam whom he summons in visible form after meditation and fasting4#bii ,though this procedure when set forth methodically in a medival manual seems an absurd travesty of ,buddhism1 yet it has links with the early faith4 ,it is admitted in the ,pitakas that certain forms of meditation#cjj lead to union with ,brahm and it is no great change to make them lead to union with other supernatural beings4 ,still we are not here breathing the atmosphere of the ,pitakas4 ,the object is not to share ,brahm's heaven but to become temporarily identified with a deity1 and this is not a byway of religion but the high road4 ,but there is a further stage of degradation4 ,i have already mentioned that various ,bodhisattvas are represented as accompanied by a female deity1 particularly ,avalokita by ,tr4 ,the mythological and metaphysical ideas which have grown up round iva and ,durg also attached themselves to these couples4 ,the ,buddha or ,bodhisattva is represented as enjoying nirvana because he is united to his spouse1 and to the three bodies already enumerated is added a fourth1 the body of perfect bliss4#cja ,sometimes this idea merely leads to further developments of the practices described above4 ,thus the devotee may imagine that he enters into ,tr as an embryo and is born of her as a ,buddha4#cjb ,more often the argument is that since the bliss of the ,buddha consists in union with ,tr1 nirvana can be obtained by sexual union here1 and we find many of the tantric wizards represented as accompanied by female companions4 ,the adept should avoid all action but he is beyond good and evil and the dangerous doctrine that he can do evil with impunity1 which the more respectable sects repudiate1 is expressly taught4 ,the sage is not defiled by passion but conquers passion by passion3 he should commit every infamy3 he should rob1 lie and kill ,buddhas4#cjc ,these crazy precepts are probably little more than a speculative application to the moral sphere of the doctrine that all things are non-existent and hence equivalent4 ,but though tantrists did not go about robbing and murdering so freely as their principles allowed1 there is some evidence that in the period of decadence the morality of the ,bhikshus had fallen into great discredit4 ,thus in the allegorical ,vishnuite drama called ,prabodhacandrodaya and written at ,kalanjar near the end of the eleventh century ,buddhists and ,jains are represented as succumbing to the temptations of inebriety and voluptuousness4 ,it is necessary to mention this phase of decadence but no good purpose would be served by dwelling further on the absurd and often disgusting prescriptions of such works as the ,tathgata-guhyaka4 ,if the ,european reader is inclined to condemn unreservedly a religion which even in decrepitude could find place for such monstrosities1 he should remember that the aberrations of ,indian religion are due not to its inherent depravity1 but to its universality4 ,in ,europe those who follow disreputable occupations rarely suppose that they have anything to do with the ,church4 ,in ,india1 robbers1 murderers1 gamblers1 prostitutes1 and maniacs all have their appropriate gods1 and had the ,marquis de ,sade been a ,hindu he would probably have founded a new tantric sect4 ,but though the details of ktism are an unprofitable study1 it is of some importance to ascertain when it first invaded ,buddhism and to what extent it superseded older ideas4 ,some critics#cjd seem to imply--for their statements are not very explicit--that ktism formed part if not of the teaching of the ,buddha1 at least of the medley of beliefs held by his disciples4 ,but ,i see no proof that ktist beliefs--that is to say erotic mysticism founded on the worship of goddesses--were prevalent in ,magadha or ,kosala before the ,christian era4 ,although ,siri1 the goddess of luck1 is mentioned in the ,pitakas1 the popular deities whom they bring on the scene are almost exclusively masculine4#cje ,and though in the older ,brahmanic books there are passages which might easily become tantric1 yet the transition is not made and the important truths of religion are kept distinct from unclean rites and thoughts4 ,the ,brihad-ranyaka contains a chapter which hardly admits of translation but the object of the practices inculcated is simply to ensure the birth of a son4 ,the same work 7not without analogies in the ecstatic utterances of ,christian saints7 boldly compares union with the tman to the bliss of one who is embraced by a beloved wife1 but this is a mere illustration and there is no hint of the doctrine that the goal of the religious life is obtainable by maithuna4 ,still such passages1 though innocent in themselves1 make it easy to see how degrading superstitions found an easy entrance into the noblest edifices of ,indian thought and possibly some heresies condemned in the ,kathvatthu#cjf indicate that even at this early date the ,buddhist ,church was contaminated by erotic fancies4 ,but1 if so1 there is no evidence that such malpractices were widespread4 ,the appendices to the ,lotus#cjg show that the worship of a many-named goddess1 invoked as a defender of the faith1 was beginning to be a recognized feature of ,buddhism4 ,but they contain no indications of left-handed ,tantrism and the best proof that it did not become prevalent until much later is afforded by the narratives of the three ,chinese pilgrims who all describe the condition of religion in ,india and notice anything which they thought singular or reprehensible4 ,fa-,hsien does not mention the worship of any female deity1#cjh nor does the ,life of ,vasubandhu1 but ,asanga appears to allude to ktism in one passage4#cji ,hsan ,chuang mentions images of ,tr but without hinting at tantric ritual1 nor does ,i-,ching allude to it1 nor does the evidence of art and inscriptions attest its existence4 ,it may have been known as a form of popular superstition and even have been practised by individual ,bhikshus1 but the silence of ,i-,ching makes it improbable that it was then countenanced in the schools of ,magadha4 ,he complains#caj of those who neglect the ,vinaya and devote their whole attention to the doctrine of nothingness1 but he says not a word about tantric abuses4#caa ,the change probably occurred in the next half century#cab for ,padma-,sambhava1 the founder of ,lamaism who is said to have resided in ,gaya and ,nalanda and to have arrived in ,tibet in #gdg ,a4,d41 is represented by tradition as a tantric wizard1 and about the same time translations of ,tantras begin to appear in ,chinese4 ,the translations of the sixth and seventh centuries1 including those of ,i-,ching1 comprise a considerable though not preponderant number of ,dhrans4 ,after the seventh century these became very numerous and several ,tantras were also translated4#cac ,the inference seems to be that early in the eighth century ,indian ,buddhists officially recognized ,tantrism4 ,tantric ,buddhism was due to the mixture of ,mahayanist teaching with aboriginal superstitions absorbed through the medium of ,hinduism1 though in some cases there may have been direct contact and mutual influence between ,mahayanism and aboriginal beliefs4 ,but as a rule what happened was that aboriginal deities were identified with ,hindu deities and ,buddhism had not sufficient independence to keep its own pantheon distinct1 so that ,vairocana and ,tr received most of the attributes1 brahmanic or barbarous1 given to iva or ,kli4 ,the worship of the goddesses1 described in their ,hinduized form as ,durg1 ,kl1 etc41 though found in most parts of ,india was specially prevalent in the sub-himalayan districts both east and west4 ,now ,padma-,sambhava was a native of ,udyna or ,swat and ,trantha represents the chief ,tantrists#cad as coming from there or visiting it4 ,hsan ,chuang#cae tells us that the inhabitants were devout ,mahayanists but specially expert in magic and exorcism4 ,he also describes no less than four sacred places in it where the ,buddha in previous births gave his flesh1 blood or bones for the good of others4 ,have we here in a ,buddhist form some ancient legend of dismemberment like that told of ,sat in ,assam8 ,of ,kashmir he says that its religion was a mixture of ,buddhism with other beliefs4#caf ,these are precisely the conditions most favourable to the growth of ,tantrism and though the bulk of the population are now ,mohammedans1 witchcraft and sorcery are still rampant4 ,among the ,hindu ,kashmris#cag the most prevalent religion has always been the worship of iva1 especially in the form representing him as half male1 half female4 ,this cult is not far from ktism and many allusions#cah in the ,rjatarangin indicate that left-hand worship was known1 though the author satirizes it as a corruption4 ,he also several times mentions#cai ,mtri-cakras1 that is circles sacred to the ,mothers or tantric goddesses4 ,in ,nepal and ,tibet tantric ,buddhism is fully developed but these countries have received so much from ,india that they exhibit not a parallel growth1 but late ,indian ,tantrism as imported ready-made from ,bengal4 ,it is here that we come nearest to the origins of ,tantrism1 for though the same beliefs may have flourished in ,udyna and ,kashmir they did not spread much in the ,panjab or ,hindustan1 where their progress was hindered at first by a healthy and vigorous ,hinduism and subsequently by ,mohammedan invasions4 ,but from #gjj to #aaig ,a4,d4 ,bengal was remote alike from the main currents of ,indian religion and from foreign raids3 little ,aryan thought or learning leavened the local superstitions which were infecting and stifling decadent ,buddhism4 ,hsan ,chuang informs us that ,bhaskaravarma king of ,kmarpa#cbj attended the ftes celebrated by ,harsha in #fdd ,a4,d4 and inscriptions found at ,tezpur indicate that kings with ,hindu names reigned in ,assam about #hjj ,a4,d4 ,this is agreeable to the supposition that an amalgamation of ivaism and aboriginal religion may have been in formation about #gjj ,a4,d4 and have influenced ,buddhism4 ,in ,bihar from the eighth century onwards the influence of ,tantrism was powerful and disastrous4 ,the best information about this epoch is still to be found in ,trantha1 in spite of his defects4 ,he makes the interesting statement that in the reign of ,gopla who was a ,buddhist1 although his ministers were not 7#gcj-gdj ,a4,d471 the ,buddhists wished their religious buildings to be kept separate from ,hindu temples but that1 in spite of protests1 life-sized images of ,hindu deities were erected in them4#cba ,the ritual too was affected1 for we hear several times of burnt offerings#cbb and how ,bodhibhadra1 one of the later professors of ,vikramaila1 was learned in the mystic lore of both ,buddhists and ,brahmans4 ,nalanda and the other viharas continued to be seats of learning and not merely monasteries1 and for some time there was a regular succession of teachers4 ,trantha gives us to understand that there were many students and authors but that sorcery occupied an increasingly important position4 ,of most teachers we are told that they saw some deity1 such as ,avalokita or ,tr4 ,the deity was summoned by the rites already described#cbc and the object of the performer was to obtain magical powers or siddhi4 ,the successful sorcerer was known as siddha1 and we hear of #hd mahsiddhas1 still celebrated in ,tibet1 who extend from ,rahulabhadra ,ngrjuna to the thirteenth century4 ,many of them bear names which appear not to be ,indian4 ,the topics treated of in the ,tantras are divided into ,kriy 7ritual71 ,cary 7apparently corresponding to ,vinaya71 ,yoga1 and ,anuttara-yoga4 ,sometimes the first three are contrasted with the fourth and sometimes the first two are described as lower1 the third and fourth as higher4 ,but the ,anuttara-yoga is always considered the highest and most mysterious4#cbd ,trantha says#cbe that the ,tantras began to appear simultaneously with the ,mahayana stras but adds that the ,anuttara-yoga tantras appeared gradually4#cbf ,he also observes that the crya nanda-garbha#cbg did much to spread them in ,magadha4 ,it is not until a late period of the ,pla dynasty that he mentions the ,klacakra which is the most extravagant form of ,buddhist ,tantrism4 ,this accords with other statements to the effect that the ,klacakra tantra was introduced in #ife ,a4,d4 from ambhala1 a mysterious country in ,central ,asia4 ,this system is said to be ,vishnuite rather than ivaite4 ,it specially patronizes the cult of the mystic ,buddhas such as ,klacakra and ,heruka1 all of whom appear to be regarded as forms of di-,buddha or the primordial ,buddha essence4 ,the ,siddha named ,pito is also described as the author of this doctrine1#cbh which had less importance in ,india than in ,tibet4 ,on the other hand ,trantha gives us the names of several doctors of the ,vinaya who flourished under the ,pla dynasty4 ,even as late as the reign of ,rmapla 78 #ajhj-aabj7 we hear that the ,hinayanists were numerous4 ,in the reign of ,dharmapla 7c4 #hjj ,a4,d47 some of them broke up the great silver image of ,heruka at ,bodh-,gaya and burnt the books of ,mantras4#cbi ,these instances show that the older ,buddhism was not entirely overwhelmed by ,tantrism#ccj though perhaps it was kept alive more by pilgrims than by local sentiment4 ,thus the ,chinese inscriptions of ,bodh-,gaya though they speak at length of the three bodies of ,buddha show no signs of ,tantrism4 ,it would appear that the worship celebrated in the holy places of ,magadha preserved a respectable side until the end4 ,in the same way although ,tantrism is strong in the literature of the ,lamas1 none of the many descriptions of ,tibet indicate that there is anything scandalous in the externals of religion4 ,probably in ,tibet1 ,nepal and medival ,magadha alike the existence of disgraceful tantric literature does not indicate such widespread depravity as might be supposed4 ,but of its putrefying influence in corrupting the minds of those who ought to have preserved the pure faith there can be no doubt4 ,more than any other form of mixed belief it obliterated essential differences1 for ,buddhist ,tantrism and ivaite ,tantrism are merely two varieties of ,tantrism4 ,what is happening at ,bodh-,gaya at present#cca illustrates how ,buddhism disappeared from ,india4 ,the abbot of a neighbouring ivaite monastery who claims the temple and grounds does not wish1 as a ,mohammedan might1 to destroy the building or even to efface ,buddhist emblems4 ,he wishes to supervise the whole establishment and the visits of pilgrims1 as well as to place on the images of ,buddha ,hindu sectarian marks and other ornaments4 ,hindu pilgrims are still taken by their guides to venerate the ,bodhi tree and1 but for the presence of foreign pilgrims1 no casual observer would suppose the spot to be anything but a ,hindu temple of unusual construction4 ,the same process went a step further in many shrines which had not the same celebrity and effaced all traces and memory of ,buddhism4 ,at the present day the ,buddha is recognized by the ,brahmans as an incarnation of ,vishnu1#ccb though the recognition is often qualified by the statement that ,vishnu assumed this form in order to mislead the wicked who threatened to become too powerful if they knew the true method of attaining superhuman powers4 ,but he is rarely worshipped in propri person4#ccc ,as a rule ,buddhist images and emblems are ascribed to ,vishnu or iva1 according to sectarian preferences1 but in spite of fusion some lingering sense of original animosity prevents ,gotama from receiving even such respect as is accorded to incarnations like ,parau-rma4 ,at ,bodh-,gaya ,i have been told that ,hindu pilgrims are taken by their guides to venerate the ,bodhi-tree but not the images of ,buddha4 ,yet in reviewing the disappearance of ,buddhism from ,india we must remember that it was absorbed not expelled4 ,the result of the mixture is justly called ,hinduism1 yet both in usages and beliefs it has taken over much that is ,buddhist and without ,buddhism it would never have assumed its present shape4 ,to ,buddhist influence are due for instance the rejection by most sects of animal sacrifices3 the doctrine of the sanctity of animal life3 monastic institutions and the ecclesiastical discipline found in the ,dravidian regions4 ,we may trace the same influence with more or less certainty in the philosophy of ankara and outside the purely religious sphere in the development of ,indian logic4 ,these and similar points are dealt with in more detail in other parts of this work and ,i need not dwell on them here4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #bfd3 ,written before the war4 ,footnote #bfe3 ,even at ,kanauj1 the scene of ,harsha's pious festivities1 there were #ajj ,buddhist monasteries but #bjj ,deva temples4 ,footnote #bff3 ,rice1 ,mysore and ,coorg from the ,inscriptions1 p4 #bjc4 ,footnote #bfg3 ,see the note by ,bhler in ,journ4 ,pali ,text ,soc4 #ahif1 p4 #ajh4 ,footnote #bfh3 ,rjatarangin1 ,,iii4 #ab4 ,footnote #bfi3 ,see for the supposed persecution of ,buddhism in ,india1 ,j4,p4,t4,s4 #ahif1 pp4 #hg-ib and #ajg-aaa and ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #ahih1 pp4 #bjh-i4 ,footnote #bgj3 ,as contained in the ankara-dig-vijaya ascribed to ,mdhava and the ankara-vijaya ascribed to nandagiri4 ,footnote #bga3 ,trantha in his twenty-eighth and following chapters gives an account1 unfortunately very confused1 of the condition of ,buddhism under the ,pla dynasty4 ,see also ,b4,k4 ,sarkar1 ,folklore ,element in ,hindu ,culture1 chap4 ,,xii1 in which there are many interesting statements but not sufficient references4 ,footnote #bgb3 ,see ,vidyabhusana's ,medival ,school of ,indian ,logic1 p4 #aej1 for an account of this monastery which was perhaps at the modern ,prthaghta4 ,i have found no account of what happened to ,nalanda in this period but it seems to have disappeared as a seat of learning4 ,footnote #bgc3 ,see ,trantha1 chap4 ,,xxviii4 ,footnote #bgd3 ,chap4 ,,xxxvi4 ,it is interesting to notice that even at this late period he speaks of ,hinayanists in ,bengal4 ,footnote #bge3 ,often called ,muhammad ,bakhtyar but ,bakhtyar seems to have been really his father's name4 ,footnote #bgf3 ,raverty1 ,tabat-i-,nasiri1 p4 #eeb4 ,it was discovered that the whole of that fortress and city was a college and in the ,hindi tongue they call a college ,bihar4 ,footnote #bgg3 ,many of them have been collected by ,pandit ,haraprasad ,sastri in ,jour4 ,as4 ,soc4 ,bengal1 #ahie1 pp4 #ee ff4 and in his ,discovery of living ,buddhism in ,bengal1 ,calcutta1 #ahig4 ,footnote #bgh3 ,chap4 ,,xl ad fin4 ,is the ,rmacandra whom he mentions the last ,yadava ,king 7about #acad78 ,trantha speaks of his son4 ,footnote #bgi3 ,caitanya-caritamrita1 chap4 ,,vii1 transl4 by ,jadunath ,sarkar1 p4 #he4 ,this biography was written in #aehb by ,krishnadas4 ,caitanya died in #aecc4 ,footnote #bhj3 ,census of ,india1 #aija3 vol4 ,,vi4 ,bengal1 pp4 #dbg-dcj4 ,footnote #bha3 ,the ,archological ,survey of ,mayurabhanj 7no date8 #aiaa71 vol4 ,i4 pp4 cv-cclxiii4 ,the part containing an account of ,buddhism in ,orissa is also printed separately with the title ,modern ,buddhism1 #aiaa4 ,footnote #bhb3 ,for ,rmi ,pandit see ,dinesh ,chandra ,sen1 ,hist4 ,bengali ,language and ,lit4 pp4 #cj-cg1 and also ,b4,k4 ,sarkar1 ,folklore ,element in ,hindu ,culture1 p4 #aib1 and elsewhere4 ,he appears to have been born at the end of the tenth century and though the nya ,purna has been re-edited and interpolated parts of it are said to be in very old ,bengali4 ,footnote #bhc3 ,nagendranth ,vasu quotes a couplet from the ,mahbhrata of the poet ,saraladasa3 ,i pay my humble respects to the incarnation of ,buddha who in the form of ,buddha dwells in the ,nlcala1 i4e4 ,puri4 ,the ,imperial ,gazetteer of ,india 7s4v4 ,puri ,town7 states that in modern representations of ,vishnu's ten avatras1 the ninth1 or ,buddhvatra1 is sometimes represented by ,jaganntha4 ,footnote #bhd3 ,i give the dates or the authority of ,narandra ,nth while thinking that they may be somewhat too early4 ,the two authors named wrote the nya ,samhit and ,nirguna ,mhtmya respectively4 ,footnote #bhe3 l4c4 clxxvi ff41 ccxix-ccxxiii1 ccxxxi4 ,footnote #bhf3 ,author of a poem called ,dharmagt4 ,footnote #bhg3 l4c4 cxvi ff4 and ccxxxii4 ,footnote #bhh3 l4c4 ccxxxiv ff4 ,footnote #bhi3 ,see ,haraprasad ,sastri1 l4c4 ,he gives a curious account of one of his temples in ,calcutta4 ,see also ,b4,k4 ,sarkar1 ,folklore ,element in ,hindu ,culture for the decadence of ,buddhism in ,bengal and its survival in degenerate forms4 ,footnote #bij3 ,see ,b4,h4 ,hodgson1 ,essays on the languages1 literature and religion of ,nepal and ,tibet1 #ahgd4 ,for the religion of ,nepal see also ,wright1 ,history of ,nepal1 #ahgg2 ,c4 ,bendall1 ,journal of ,literary and ,archological ,research in ,nepal1 #ahhf2 ,rajendralal ,mitra1 ,sanskrit ,buddhist literature of ,nepal2 and especially ,s4 ,lvi1 ,le ,nepal1 #c vols4 #aije-h4 ,footnote #bia3 ,s4 ,lvi in ,j4,a4 ,,ii4 #aijd1 p4 #bbe4 ,he gives the date as #fbg4 ,footnote #bib3 ,the doctrine of the di-,buddha is fully stated in the metrical version of the ,kranda-vyha which appears to be a later paraphrase of the prose edition4 ,see ,winternitz1 ,gesch4 ,ind4 ,lit4 ,,ii4 i4 #bch4 ,footnote #bic3 ,compare the fusion of ivaism and ,buddhism in ,java4 ,footnote #bid3 ,or ,vajrcrya-arhat-bhikshu-buddha1 which in itself shows what a medley ,nepalese ,buddhism has become4 ,footnote #bie3 ,see above chap4 ,,xx4 for some account of these works4 ,footnote #bif3 ,dedicated to the sacred river ,vgvat or ,bagmati4 ,footnote #big3 ,hardly any ,buddhist ,tantras have been edited in ,europe4 ,see ,bendall1 ,subhshita-sangraha for a collection of extracts 7also published in ,muson1 #aije71 and ,de la ,valle ,poussin1 ,bouddhisme1 tudes el ,matriaux4 ,id4 ,pancakrama1 #ahif4 ,while this book was going through the press ,i received the ,tibetan ,tantra called ,shrichakrasambhara 7,avalon's ,tantric ,texts1 vol4 ,,vii7 with introduction by ,a4 ,avalon1 but have not been able to make use of it4 ,footnote #bih3 ,see ,foucher1 ,iconographie bouddhique1 pp4 #h ff4 ,de la ,valle ,poussin1 ,bouddhisme1 tudes et ,matriaux1 pp4 #bac ff4 ,for ,japanese tantric ceremonies see the ,si-,do-,in-,dzon in the ,annales du ,muse ,guimet1 vol4 ,,viii4 ,footnote #bii3 ,in ancient ,egypt also the ,kher heb or magician-priest claimed the power of becoming various gods4 ,see ,budge1 ,osiris1 ,,ii4 #agj and ,wiedemann1 ,magic im alten ,aegypten1 #ac ff4 ,footnote #cjj3 ,the ,brahm-vihras4 ,e4g4 ,dig4 ,nik4 ,,xiii4 ,footnote #cja3 ,mahsukhakya or vajrakya4 ,footnote #cjb3 ,de la ,valle ,poussin1 ,bouddhisme1 tudes et ,matriaux1 p4 #aec4 ,footnote #cjc3 ,see ,subhshita-sangraha edited by ,bendall4 ,part ,,ii4 pp4 #bi ff4 especially p4 #da4 ,parasvaharanam kryam paradrnishevanam ,vaktavyam cnritam nityam sarvabuddhmca ghtayet4 ,see also ,tathgata-guhyaka in ,rajendralal ,mitra's ,sanskrit ,literature in ,nepal1 pp4 #bfa-bfd4 ,footnote #cjd3 ,for instance ,de la ,valle ,poussin in his ,bouddhisme1 tudes et ,matriaux1 #ahif4 ,in his later work1 ,bouddhisme1 ,opinions sur l'histoire de la dogmatique1 he modifies his earlier views4 ,footnote #cje3 ,see ,dig4 ,nik4 ,,xx4 and ,,xxxii4 ,footnote #cjf3 ,kathv4 ,,xxiii4 #a and #b4 ,footnote #cjg3 ,these appendices are later additions to the original text but they were translated into ,chinese in the third century4 ,among the oldest ,sanskrit ,,mss4 from ,japan is the ,ushnisha-vijaya-dhran and there is a goddess with a similar name4 ,but the ,dhran is not ktist4 ,see text in ,anec4 ,oxon4 ,aryan series4 ,footnote #cjh3 ,he speaks of ,kwan-shih-yin but this is probably the male ,avalokita4 ,footnote #cji3 ,mahyna-strlankra1 ,,ix4 #df4 ,of course there may be many other allusions in yet unedited works of ,asanga but it is noticeable that this allusion to maithuna is only made in passing and is not connected with the essence of his teaching4 ,footnote #caj3 ,transl4 ,takakusu1 p4 #ea4 ,footnote #caa3 ,trantha1 chap4 ,,xxii seems also to assign a late origin to the ,tantras though his remarks are neither clear nor consistent with what he says in other passages4 ,he is doubtless right in suggesting that tantric rites were practised surreptitiously before they were recognized openly4 ,footnote #cab3 ,it is about this time too that we hear of ,tantrism in ,hinduism4 ,in the drama ,mlat and ,mdhava 7c4 #gcj ,a4,d47 the heroine is kidnapped and is about to be sacrificed to the goddess ,cand when she is rescued4 ,footnote #cac3 ,see the latter part of ,appendix ,,ii in ,nanjio's ,catalogue4 ,footnote #cad3 ,e4g4 ,lalitavajra1 ,llvajra1 ,buddhanti1 ,ratnavajra4 ,trantha also 7tr4 ,schiefner1 p4 #bfd7 speaks of ,tantras ,welche aus ,udyana gebracht und nie in ,indien gewesen sind4 ,it is also noticeable1 as ,grnwedel has pointed out1 that many of the siddhas or sorcerers bear names which have no meaning in ,aryan languages3 ,bir-va-pa1 ,na-ro-pa1 ,lui-pa1 etc4 ,a curious late tradition represents ktism as coming from ,china4 ,see a quotation from the ,mahcnatantra in the ,archological ,survey of ,mayurabhanj1 p4 xiv4 ,either ,china is here used loosely for some country north of the ,himalayas or the story is pure fancy1 for with rare exceptions 7for instance the ,lamaism of the ,yan dynasty7 the ,chinese seem to have rejected ktist works or even to have expurgated them1 e4g4 the ,tathgata-guhyaka4 ,footnote #cae3 ,his account of ,udyna and ,kashmir will be found in ,watters1 chapters ,,vii and ,,viii4 ,footnote #caf3 ,traces of ,buddhism still exist1 for according to ,bhler the ,nilamata ,purna orders the image of ,buddha to be worshipped on ,vaisakha #ae to the accompaniment of recitations by ,buddhist ascetics4 ,footnote #cag3 ,for notices of ,kashmirian religion see ,stein's translation of the ,rjatarangin and ,bhler1 ,tour in ,search of ,sanskrit manuscripts4 ,j4 ,bomb4 ,a4,s4 #ahgg4 ,footnote #cah3 ,,vi4 #aa-ac1 ,,vii4 #bgh-bhj1 #bie1 #ebc4 ,footnote #cai3 ,i4 #abb1 #cce1 #cdh3 ,,iii4 #ii1 ,v4 #ee4 ,footnote #cbj3 ,also called ,kumra4 ,footnote #cba3 ,similarly statues of ,mahdev are found in ,jain temples now1 i4e4 in ,gujarat4 ,footnote #cbb3 ,this very unbuddhist practice seems to have penetrated even to ,japan4 ,burnt offerings form part of the ritual in the temple of ,narita4 ,footnote #cbc3 ,see for instance the account of how ,kamalarakshita summoned ,yamri4 ,footnote #cbd3 ,so too the ,samhits of the ,vaishnavas and the gamas of the aivas are said to consist of four quarters teaching ,jna1 ,yoga1 ,kriy and ,cary respectively4 ,see ,schrader1 ,introd4 to ,pncartra1 p4 #bb4 ,sometimes five classes of ,tantras are enumerated which are perhaps all subdivisions of the ,anuttara-yoga1 namely ,guhyasamja1 ,myjla1 ,buddhasammyoga1 ,candraguhyatilaka1 ,manjurkrodha4 ,see ,trantha 7,schiefner71 p4 #bba4 ,footnote #cbe3 ,chap4 ,,xliii4 ,but this seems hardly consistent with his other statements4 ,footnote #cbf3 ,the ,lamas in ,tibet have a similar theory of progressive tantric revelation4 ,see ,waddell1 ,buddhism of ,tibet1 pp4 #ef1 #eg4 ,footnote #cbg3 ,in the reign of ,mahpla1 #igh-ajcj ,a4,d4 ,footnote #cbh3 ,trantha1 p4 #bge4 ,for the whole subject see ,grnwedel1 ,mythologie des ,buddhismus1 pp4 #da-b and my chapters on ,tibet below4 ,footnote #cbi3 ,schiefner 7transl4 ,trantha1 p4 #bba7 describes these rvakas or ,hinayanists as ,saindhavas welche rvakas aus ,simhala u4s4w4 waren4 ,they are apparently the same as the ,saindhava-rvakas often mentioned by ,trantha4 ,are they ,hinayanists from ,sindh where the ,sammitiya school was prevalent8 ,see also ,pag ,sam ,jon ,zang1 pp4 cxix1 #aad and #acd where ,sarat ,chandra ,das explains ,sendha-pa as a brahmanical sect4 ,footnote #ccj3 ,the curious story 7,trantha1 p4 #bjf7 in which a ,buddhist at first refuses on religious grounds to take part in the evocation of a demon seems also to hint at a disapproval of magic4 ,footnote #cca3 ,this passage was written about #aiaj4 ,in the curious temple at ,gaya called ,bishnupad the chief object of veneration is a foot-like mark4 ,such impressions are venerated in many parts of the world as ,buddha's feet and it seems probable1 considering the locality1 that this footprint was attributed to ,buddha before it was transferred to ,vishnu4 ,footnote #ccb3 ,there are no very early references to this ,avatra4 ,it is mentioned in some of the ,puranas 7e4g4 ,bhgavata and ,agni7 and by ,kshemendra4 ,footnote #ccc3 ,but see the instances quoted above from ,kashmir and ,nepal4 ,,book ,v ,,hinduism ,the present book deals with ,hinduism and includes the period just treated in ,book ,,iv4 ,in many epochs the same mythological and metaphysical ideas appear in a double form1 ,brahmanic and ,buddhist1 and it is hard to say which form is the earlier4 ,any work which like the present adopts a geographical and historical treatment is bound to make ,buddhism seem more important than ,hinduism and rightly1 for the conversion and transformation of ,china1 ,japan and many other countries are a series of exploits of great moment for the history not merely of religion but of civilization4 ,yet when ,i think of the antiquity1 variety and vitality of ,hinduism in ,india--no small sphere--the nine chapters which follow seem very inadequate4 ,i can only urge that though it would be easy to fill an encyclopdia with accounts of ,indian beliefs and practices1 yet there is often great similarity under superficial differences3 the main lines of thought are less numerous than they seem to be at first sight and they tend to converge4 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,iva ,,and ,,vishn,u #a ,the striking difference between the earlier and later phases of ,indian religious belief1 between the ,vedic hymns1 ,brhmanas1 ,upanishads and their accessory treatises on the one hand1 and the epics1 ,purnas1 ,tantras and later literature on the other1 is due chiefly to the predominance in the latter of the great gods iva and ,vishnu1 with the attendant features of sectarian worship and personal devotion to a particular deity4 ,the difference is not wholly chronological1 for late writers sometimes take the ,vedic standpoint and ignore the worship of these deities1 but still their prominence in literature1 and probably in popular mythology1 is posterior to the ,vedic period4 ,the change created by their appearance is not merely the addition of two imposing figures to an already ample pantheon2 it is a revolution which might be described as the introduction of a new religion1 except that it does not come as the enemy or destroyer of the old4 ,the worship of the new deities grows up peacefully in the midst of the ancient rites2 they receive the homage of the same population and the ministrations of the same priests4 ,the transition is obscured but also was facilitated by the strength of ,buddhism during the period when it occurred4 ,the ,brahmans1 confronted by this formidable adversary1 were disposed to favour any popular religious movement which they could adapt to their interests4 ,when the ,hindu revival sets in under the ,guptas1 and ,buddhism begins to decline1 we find that a change has taken place which must have begun several centuries before1 though our imperfect chronology does not permit us to date it4 ,whereas the ,vedic sacrificers propitiated all the gods impartially and regarded ritual as a sacred science giving power over nature1 the worshipper of the later deities is generally sectarian and often emotional4 ,he selects one for his adoration1 and this selected deity becomes not merely a great god among others but a gigantic cosmical figure in whom centre the philosophy1 poetry and passion of his devotees4 ,he is almost ,god in the ,european sense1 but still ,indian deities1 though they may have a monopoly of adoration in their own sects1 are never entirely similar to ,jehovah or ,allah4 ,they are at once more mythical1 more human and more philosophical1 since they are conceived of not as creators and rulers external to the world1 but as forces manifesting themselves in nature4 ,an exuberant mythology bestows on them monstrous forms1 celestial residences1 wives and offspring3 they make occasional appearances in this world as men and animals2 they act under the influence of passions which if titanic1 are but human feelings magnified4 ,the philosopher accommodates them to his system by saying that ,vishnu or iva is the form which the ,supreme ,spirit assumes as ,lord of the visible universe1 a form which is real only in the same sense that the visible world itself is real4 ,vishnu and ,rudra are known even to the ,rig ,veda but as deities of no special eminence4 ,it is only after the ,vedic age that they became1 each for his own worshippers1 undisputed ,lords of the ,universe4 ,a limiting date to the antiquity of ivaism and ,vishnuism1 as their cults may be called1 is furnished by ,buddhist literature1 at any rate for north-eastern ,india4 ,the ,pali ,pitakas frequently#ccd introduce popular deities1 but give no prominence to ,vishnu and iva4 ,they are apparently mentioned under the names of ,venhu and ,isna1 but are not differentiated from a host of spirits now forgotten4 ,the ,pitakas have no prejudices in the matter of deities and their object is to represent the most powerful of them as admitting their inferiority to the ,buddha4 ,if iva and ,vishnu are not put forward in the same way as ,brahm and ,indra1 the inference seems clear3 it had not occurred to anyone that they were particularly important4 ,the suttas of the ,dgha ,nikya in which these lists of deities occur were perhaps composed before #cjj ,b4,c4#cce ,about that date ,megasthenes1 the ,greek envoy at ,pataliputra1 describes two ,indian deities under the names of ,dionysus and ,herakles4 ,they are generally identified with ,krishna and iva4 ,it might be difficult to deduce this identity from an analysis of each description and different authorities have identified both iva and ,krishna with ,dionysus1 but the fact remains that a somewhat superficial foreign observer was impressed with the idea that the ,hindus worshipped two great gods4 ,he would hardly have derived this idea from the ,vedic pantheon1 and it is not clear to what gods he can refer if not to iva and ,vishnu4 ,it thus seems probable that these two cults took shape about the fourth century ,b4,c4 ,their apparently sudden appearance is due to their popular character and to the absence of any record in art4 ,the statuary and carving of the ,asokan period and immediately succeeding centuries is exclusively ,buddhist4 ,no temples or images remain to illustrate the first growth of ,hinduism 7as the later form of ,indian religion is commonly styled7 out of the earlier ,brahmanism4 ,literature 7on which we are dependent for our information7 takes little account of the early career of popular gods before they win the recognition of the priesthood and aristocracy1 but when that recognition is once obtained they appear in all their majesty and without any hint that their honours are recent4 ,as already mentioned1 we have evidence that in the fifth or sixth century before ,christ the ,vedic or ,brahmanic religion was not the only form of worship and philosophy in ,india4 ,there were popular deities and rites to which the ,brahmans were not opposed and which they countenanced when it suited them4 ,what takes place in ,india to-day took place then4 ,when some aboriginal deity becomes important owing to the prosperity of the tribe or locality with which he is connected1 he is recognized by the ,brahmans and admitted to their pantheon1 perhaps as the son or incarnation of some personage more generally accepted as divine4 ,the prestige of the ,brahmans is sufficient to make such recognition an honour1 but it is also their interest and millennial habit to secure control of every important religious movement and to incorporate rather than suppress4 ,and this incorporation is more than mere recognition3 the parvenu god borrows something from the manners and attributes of the olympian society to which he is introduced4 ,the greater he grows1 the more considerable is the process of fusion and borrowing4 ,hindu philosophy ever seeks for the one amongst the many and popular thought1 in a more confused way1 pursues the same goal4 ,it combines and identifies its deities1 feeling dimly that taken singly they are too partial to be truly divine1 or it piles attributes upon them striving to make each an adequate divine whole4 ,among the processes which have contributed to form ,vishnu and iva we must reckon the invasions which entered ,india from the north-west4#ccf ,in ,bactria and ,sogdiana there met and were combined the art and religious ideas of ,greece and ,persia1 and whatever elements were imported by the ,yeh-chih and other tribes who came from the ,chinese frontier4 ,the personalities of ,vishnu and iva need not be ascribed to foreign influence4 ,the ruder invaders took kindly to the worship of iva1 but there is no proof that they introduced it4 ,but ,persian and ,grco-,bactrian influence favoured the creation of more definite deities1 more personal and more pictorial4 ,the gods of the ,vedic hymns are vague and indistinct3 the ,supreme ,being of the ,upanishads altogether impersonal1 but ,mithra and ,apollo1 though divine in their majesty1 are human in their persons and in the appeal they make to humanity4 ,the influence of these foreign conceptions and especially of their representation in art is best seen in ,indian ,buddhism4 ,hinduism has not so ancient an artistic record and therefore the ,grco-,bactrian influence on it is less obvious1 for the sculpture of the ,gupta period does not seem due to this inspiration4 ,neither in outward form nor in character do ,vishnu and iva show much more resemblance to ,apollo and ,mithra than to the ,vedic gods4 ,their exuberant1 fantastic shapes1 their many heads and arms1 are a symbol of their complex and multiple attributes4 ,they are not restricted by the limits of personality but are great polymorphic forces1 not to be indicated by the limits of one human shape4#ccg #b ,though alike in their grandeur and multiplicity1 ,vishnu and iva are not otherwise similar4 ,in their completely developed forms they represent two ways of looking at the world4 ,the main ideas of the ,vaishnavas are human and emotional4 ,the deity saves and loves3 he asks for a worship of love4 ,he appears in human incarnations and is known as well or better by these incarnations than in his original form4 ,but in ivaism the main current of thought is scientific and philosophic rather than emotional4#cch ,this statement may seem strange if one thinks of the wild rites and legends connected with iva and his spouse4 ,nevertheless the fundamental conception of ivaism1 the cosmic force which changes and in changing both destroys and reproduces1 is strictly scientific and contrasts with the human1 pathetic1 loving sentiments of ,vishnuism4 ,and scandalous as the worship of the generative principle may become1 the potency of this impulse in the world scheme cannot be denied4 ,agreeably to his character of a force rather than an emotion iva does not become incarnate#cci as a popular hero and saviour like ,rma or ,krishna1 but he assumes various supernatural forms for special purposes4 ,both worships1 despite their differences1 show characteristics which are common to most phases of ,indian religion4 ,both seek for deliverance from transmigration and are penetrated with a sense of the sorrow inherent in human and animal life3 both develop or adopt philosophical doctrines which rise high above the level usually attained by popular beliefs1 and both have erotic aspects in which they fall below the standard of morality usually professed by important sects whether in ,asia or ,europe4 ,the name iva is euphemistic4 ,it means propitious and1 like ,eumenides1 is used as a deprecating and complimentary title for the god of terrors4 ,it is not his earliest designation and does not occur as a proper name in the ,rig ,veda where he is known as ,rudra1 a word of disputed derivation1 but probably meaning the roarer4 ,comparatively few hymns are addressed to ,rudra1 but he is clearly distinguished from the other ,vedic gods4 ,whereas they are cheerful and benevolent figures1 he is maleficent and terrible3 they are gods of the heaven but he is a god of the earth4 ,he is the man-slayer and the sender of disease1 but if he restrains these activities he can give safety and health4 ,slay us not1 for thou art gracious1 and so the ,destroyer comes to be the ,gracious ,one4#cdj ,it has been suggested that the name iva is connected with the ,tamil word ivappu red and also that ,rudra means not the roarer but the red or shining one4 ,these etymologies seem to me possible but not proved4 ,but ,rudra is different in character from the other gods of the ,rig ,veda4 ,it would be rash to say that the ,aryan invaders of ,india brought with them no god of this sort but it is probable that this element in their pantheon increased as they gradually united in blood and ideas with the ,dravidian population4 ,but we know nothing of the beliefs of the ,dravidians at this remote period4 ,we only know that in later ages emotional religion1 finding expression as so-called devil-dancing in its lower and as mystical poetry in its higher phases1 was prevalent among them4 ,the ,white ,yajur ,veda#cda contains a celebrated prayer known as the atarudrya addressed to ,rudra or the ,rudras1 for the power invoked seems to be now many and now one4 ,this deity1 who is described by a long string of epithets1 receives the name of ankara 7afterwards a well-known epithet of iva7 and is blue-necked4 ,he is begged to be iva or propitious1 but the word is an epithet1 not a proper name4 ,he haunts mountains and deserted1 uncanny places3 he is the patron of violent and lawless men1 of soldiers and robbers 7the two are evidently considered much the same71 of thieves1 cheats and pilferers1#cdb but also of craftsmen and huntsmen and is himself an observant merchant3 he is the lord of hosts of spirits1 ill-formed and of all forms4 ,but he is also a great cosmic force who dwells in flowing streams and in billows and in tranquil waters and in rivers and on islands 444 and at the roots of trees 4443 who exists in incantations1 in punishments1 in prosperity1 in the soil1 in the threshing-floor 444 in the woods and in the bushes1 in sound and in echo 444 in young grass and in foam 444 in gravel and in streams 444 in green things and in dry things4444 ,reverence to the leaf and to him who is in the fall of the leaf1 the threatener1 the slayer1 the vexer and the afflicter4 ,here we see how an evil and disreputable god1 the patron of low castes and violent occupations1 becomes associated with the uncanny forces of nature and is on the way to become an ,all-,god4#cdc ,rudra is frequently mentioned in the ,atharva ,veda4 ,he is conceived much as in the atarudrya1 and is the lord of spirits and of animals4 ,for thee the beasts of the wood1 the deer1 swans and various winged birds are placed in the forest3 thy living creatures exist in the waters3 for thee the celestial waters flow4 ,thou shootest at the monsters of the ocean1 and there is to thee nothing far or near4#cdd ,these passages show that the main conceptions out of which the character of the later iva is built existed in ,vedic times4 ,the ,rudra of the ,yajur and ,atharva ,vedas is not ,brahmanic3 he is not the god of priests and orderly ritual1 but of wild people and places4 ,but he is not a petty provincial demon who afflicts rustics and their cattle4 ,though there is some hesitation between one ,rudra and many ,rudras1 the destructive forces are unified in thought and the destroyer is not opposed to creation as a devil or as the principle of evil1 but with profounder insight is recognized as the ,lord and ,law of all living things4 ,but though the outline of iva is found in ,vedic writings1 later centuries added new features to his cult4 ,chief among these is the worship of a column known as the ,linga1 the emblem under which he is now most commonly adored4 ,it is a phallic symbol though usually decent in appearance4 ,the ,vedas do not countenance this worship and it is not clear that it was even known to them4#cde ,it is first enjoined in the ,mahbhrata and there only in two passages#cdf which appear to be late additions4 ,the inference seems to be that it was accepted as part of ,hinduism just about the time that our edition of the ,mahbhrata was compiled4#cdg ,the old theory that it was borrowed from aboriginal and especially from ,dravidian tribes#cdh is now discredited4 ,in the first place the instances cited of phallic worship among aboriginal tribes are not particularly numerous or striking4 ,secondly1 linga worship1 though prevalent in the south1 is not confined to it1 but flourishes in all parts of ,india1 even in ,assam and ,nepal4 ,thirdly1 it is not connected with low castes1 with orgies1 with obscene or bloodthirsty rites or with anything which can be called un-,aryan4 ,it forms part of the private devotions of the strictest ,brahmans1 and despite the significance of the emblem1 the worship offered to it is perfectly decorous4#cdi ,the evidence thus suggests that this cultus grew up among ,brahmanical ,hindus in the early centuries of our era4 ,the idea that there was something divine in virility and generation already existed4 ,the choice of the symbol--the stone pillar--may have been influenced by two circumstances4 ,firstly1 the ,buddhist veneration of stpas1 especially miniature stpas1 must have made familiar the idea that a cone or column is a religious emblem1#cej and secondly the linga may be compared to the carved pillars or stone standards erected in honour of ,vishnu4 ,some lingas are carved and bear one or four faces1 thus entirely losing any phallic appearance4 ,the wide extension of this cult1 though its origin seems late1 is remarkable4 ,something similar may be seen in the worship of ,ganea3 the first records of it are even later1 but it is now universal in ,india4 ,it may seem strange that a religion whose outward ceremonies though unassuming and modest consist chiefly of the worship of the linga1 should draw its adherents largely from the educated classes and be under no moral or social stigma4 ,yet as an idea1 as a philosophy1 ivaism possesses truth and force4 ,it gives the best picture which humanity has drawn of the ,lord of this world1 not indeed of the ideal to which the saint aspires1 nor of the fancies with which hope and emotion people the spheres behind the veil1 but of the force which rules the ,universe as it is1 which reproduces and destroys1 and in performing one of these acts necessarily performs the other1 seeing that both are but aspects of change4 ,for all animal and human existence#cea is the product of sexual desire3 it is but the temporary and transitory form of a force having neither beginning nor end but continually manifesting itself in individuals who must have a beginning and an end4 ,this force1 to which ,european taste bids us refer with such reticence1 is the true creator of the world4 ,not only is it unceasingly performing the central miracle of producing new lives but it accompanies it by unnumbered accessory miracles1 which provide the new born child with nourishment and make lowly organisms care for their young as if they were gifted with human intelligence4 ,but the ,creator is also the ,destroyer1 not in anger but by the very nature of his activity4 ,when the series of changes culminates in a crisis and an individual breaks up1 we see death and destruction1 but in reality they occur throughout the process of growth4 ,the egg is destroyed when the chicken is hatched3 the embryo ceases to exist when the child is born2 when the man comes into being1 the child is no more4 ,and for change1 improvement and progress death is as necessary as birth4 ,a world of immortals would be a static world4 ,when once the figure of iva has taken definite shape1 attributes and epithets are lavished on it in profusion4 ,he is the great ascetic1 for asceticism in ,india means power1 and iva is the personification of the powers of nature4 ,he may alternate strangely between austerities and wild debauch1 but the sentimentality of some ,krishnaite sects is alien to him4 ,he is a magician1 the lord of troops of spirits1 and thus draws into his circle all the old animistic worship4 ,but he is also identified with ,time 7,mahkla7 and ,death 7,mrityu7 and as presiding over procreation he is ,ardhanarevara1 half man1 half woman4 ,stories are invented or adapted to account for his various attributes1 and he is provided with a divine family4 ,he dwells on ,mount ,kailsa3 he has three eyes3 above the central one is the crescent of the moon and the stream of the ,ganges descends from his braided hair3 his throat is blue and encircled by a serpent and a necklace of skulls4 ,in his hands he carries a three-pronged trident and a drum4 ,but the effigy or description varies1 for iva is adored under many forms4 ,he is ,mahdeva1 the ,great ,god1 ,hara the ,seizer1 ,bhairava the terrible one1 ,paupati1 the ,lord of cattle1 that is of human souls who are compared to beasts4 ,local gods and heroes are identified with him4 ,thus ,gor ,bba1#ceb said to be a deified ghost of the aboriginal races1 reappears as ,gorevara and is counted a form of iva1 as is also ,khandoba or ,khande ,rao1 a deity connected with dogs4 ,ganea1 the ,lord of ,hosts1 the ,god who removes obstacles and is represented with an elephant's head and accompanied by a rat1 is recognized as iva's son4 ,another son is ,skanda or ,krtikeya1 the ,god of ,war1 a great deity in ,ceylon and southern ,india4 ,but more important both for the absorption of aboriginal cults and for its influence on speculation and morality is the part played by iva's wife or female counterpart4 ,the worship of goddesses1 though found in many sects1 is specially connected with ivaism4 ,a figure analogous to the ,madonna1 the kind and compassionate goddess who helps and pities all1 appears in later ,buddhism but for some reason this train of thought has not been usual in ,india4 ,lakshm1 ,sarasvat and ,st are benevolent1 but they hold no great position in popular esteem1#cec and the being who attracts millions of worshippers under such names as ,kl1 ,durg1 or ,mahdev1 though she has many forms and aspects1 is most commonly represented as a terrible goddess who demands offerings of blood4 ,the worship of this goddess or goddesses1 for it is hard to say if she is one or many1 is treated of in a separate chapter4 ,though in shrines dedicated to iva his female counterpart or energy 7akti7 also receives recognition1 yet she is revered as the spouse of her lord to whom honour is primarily due4 ,but in ktist worship adoration is offered to the akti as being the form in which his power is made manifest or even as the essential ,godhead4 #c ,let us now pass on to ,vishnu4 ,though not one of the great gods of the ,veda1 he is mentioned fairly often and with respect4 ,indian commentators and comparative mythologists agree that he is a solar deity4 ,his chief exploit is that he took 7or perhaps in the earlier version habitually takes7 three strides4 ,this was originally a description of the sun's progress across the firmament but grew into a myth which relates that when the earth was conquered by demons1 ,vishnu became incarnate as a dwarf and induced the demon king to promise him as much space as he could measure in three steps4 ,then1 appearing in his true form1 he strode across earth and heaven and recovered the world for mankind4 ,his special character as the ,preserver is already outlined in the ,veda4 ,he is always benevolent3 he took his three steps for the good of men3 he established and preserves the heavens and earth4 ,but he is not the principal solar deity of the ,rig ,veda3 ,srya1 ,savitri and ,pushan receive more invocations4 ,though one hymn says that no one knows the limits of his greatness1 other passages show that he has no pre-eminence1 and even in the ,mahbhrata and the ,vishnu-,purna itself he is numbered among the dityas or sons of ,aditi4 ,in the ,brhmanas1 he is somewhat more important than in the ,rig ,veda1#ced though he has not yet attained to any position like that which he afterwards occupies4 ,just as for iva1 so for ,vishnu we have no clear record of the steps by which he advanced from a modest rank to the position of having but one rival in the popular esteem4 ,but the lines on which the change took place are clear4 ,even in his own ,church1 ,vishnu himself claims comparatively little attention4 ,he is not a force like iva that makes and mars1 but a benevolent and retiring personality who keeps things as they are4 ,his worship1 as distinguished from that of his incarnations1 is not conspicuous in modern ,india1 especially in the north4 ,in the south he is less overshadowed by ,krishna1 and many great temples have been erected in his honour4 ,in ,travancore1 which is formally dedicated to him as his special domain1 he is adored under the name of ,padmanabha4 ,but his real claim to reverence1 his appeal to the ,indian heart1 is due to the fact that certain deified human heroes1 particularly ,rma and ,krishna1 are identified with him4 ,deification is common in ,india4#cee ,it exists to the present day and even defunct ,europeans do not escape its operation4 ,in modern times1 when the idea of reincarnation had become familiar1 eminent men like ,caitanya or ,vallabhcrya were declared after their death to be embodiments of ,krishna without more ado1 but in earlier ages the process was probably double4 ,first of all the departed hero became a powerful ghost or deity in his own right1 and then this deity was identified with a ,brahmanic god4 ,many examples prove that a remarkable man receives worship after death quite apart from any idea of incarnation4 ,the incarnations of ,vishnu are most commonly given as ten#cef but are not all of the same character4 ,the first five1 namely1 the ,fish1 ,tortoise1 ,boar1 ,man-,lion and ,dwarf1 are mythical1 and due to his identification with supernatural creatures playing a benevolent role in legends with which he had originally no connection4 ,the sixth1 however1 ,parau-rma or ,rma with the axe1 may contain historical elements4 ,he is represented as a militant ,brahman who in the second age of the world exterminated the ,kshatriyas1 and after reclaiming ,malabar from the sea1 settled it with ,brahmans4 ,this legend clearly refers to a struggle for supremacy between the two upper castes1 though we may doubt if the triumphs attributed to the priestly champion have any foundation in fact4 ,the ,rmyana#ceg contains a singular account of a contest between this ,rma and the greater hero of the same name in which ,parau-rma admits the other's superiority4 ,that is to say an epic edited under priestly supervision relates how the hero-god of the warriors vanquishes the hero-god of the priests1 and this hero-god of the warriors is then worshipped by common consent as the greater divinity1 but under priestly patronage4 ,the tenacity and vitality of the ,brahmans enabled them ultimately to lead the conqueror captive1 and ,rmacandra became a champion of ,brahmanism as much as ,parau-rma4 ,very interesting too is the ninth avatra 7to leave for a moment the strict numerical order7 or ,buddha4#ceh ,the reason assigned in ,brahmanic literature for ,vishnu's appearance in this character is that he wished to mislead the enemies of the gods by false teaching1 or that out of compassion for animals he preached the abolition of ,vedic sacrifices4 ,neither explanation is very plausible and it is pretty clear that in the period when degenerate ,buddhism offered no objection to deification and mythology1 the ,brahmans sanctioned the worship of the ,buddha under their auspices4 ,but they did so only in a half-hearted way4 ,the ,buddha was so important a personage that he had to be explained by the intervention1 kindly or hostile1 of a deity4#cei ,in his tenth incarnation or ,kalk1#cfj which has yet to take place1 ,vishnu will appear as a ,messiah1 a conception possibly influenced by ,persian ideas4 ,here1 where we are in the realm of pure imagination1 we see clearly what the signs of his avatras are supposed to be4 ,his mission is to sweep away the wicked and to ensure the triumph of the pious1 but he comes as a warrior and a horseman1 not as a teacher1 and if he protects the good he does so by destroying evil4 ,he has thus all the attributes of a ,kshatriya hero1 and that is as a matter of fact the real character of the two most important avatras to which we now turn1 ,rma and ,krishna4 ,rma1 often distinguished as ,rmacandra1 is usually treated as the seventh incarnation and anterior to ,krishna1 for he was born in the second age of this rapidly deteriorating world1 whereas ,krishna did not appear until the third4 ,but his deification is later than that of ,krishna and probably an imitation of it4 ,he was the son of ,daaratha1 ,king of ,ayodhya or ,oudh1 but was driven into banishment by a palace intrigue4 ,he married ,st1 daughter of the ,king of ,mithil4 ,she was carried off by ,rvana1 the demon tyrant of ,ceylon1 and ,rma re-captured her with the aid of ,hanuman1 ,king of the ,monkeys1 and his hosts4#cfa ,is there any kernel of history in this story8 ,an examination of ,hindu legends suggests that they usually preserve names and genealogies correctly but distort facts1 and fantastically combine independent narratives4 ,rma was a semi-divine hero in the tales of ancient ,oudh1 based on a real personality1 and ,ceylon was colonized by ,indians of ,aryan speech4#cfb ,but can we assume that a king of ,oudh really led an expedition to the far south1 with the aid of ape-like aborigines8 ,it is doubtful1 and the narrative of the ,rmyana reads like poetic invention rather than distorted history4 ,and yet1 what can have prompted the legend except the occurrence of some such expedition8 ,in ,rma's wife ,st1 seem to be combined an agricultural goddess and a heroine of ancient romance1 embodying the ,hindu ideal of the true wife4 ,we have no record of the steps by which ,rma and ,krishna were deified1 although in different parts of the epic they are presented in very different aspects1 sometimes as little more than human1 sometimes as nothing less than the ,supreme ,deity4 ,but it can hardly be doubted that this deification owes something to the example of ,buddhism4 ,it may be said that the development of both ,buddhism and ,hinduism in the centuries immediately preceding and following our era gives parallel manifestations of the same popular tendency to deify great men4 ,this is true1 but the non-,buddhist forms of ,indian religion while not objecting to deification did not particularly encourage it4 ,but in this period1 ,buddhism and ,jainism were powerful3 both of them sanctioned the veneration of great teachers and1 as they did not recognize sacrifice or adoration of gods1 this veneration became the basis of their ceremonies and easily passed into worship4 ,the ,buddhists are not responsible for the introduction of deification1 but the fact that it was to some extent the basis of their public ceremonies must have gone far to make the worship of ,rma and ,krishna seem natural4 ,it is commonly said that whereas the whole divine nature of ,vishnu was embodied in ,krishna1 ,rma was only a partial incarnation4 ,half the god's essence took human form in him1 the other half being distributed among his brothers4 ,krishna is a greater figure in popular esteem and receives the exclusive devotion of more worshippers4 ,the name of ,rma commands the reverence of most ,hindus1 and has a place in their prayers1 but his figure has not been invested with the attributes 7often of dubious moral value7 which most attract sectarian devotion4 ,his worship combines easily with the adoration of other deities4 ,the great temple of ,ramesvaram on ,adam's ,bridge is dedicated not to ,rma himself but to the linga which he erected there1 and ,tulsi ,das1 the author of the ,hindi ,rmyana1 while invoking ,rma as the ,supreme ,lord and redeemer of the world1 emphatically states#cfc that his worship is not antagonistic to that of iva4 ,no inscriptions nor ancient references testify to the worship of ,rma before our era and in the subsequent centuries two phases can be distinguished4 ,first1 ,rma is a great hero1 an incarnation of ,vishnu for a particular purpose and analogous to the ,vmana or any other avatra3 deserving as such of all respect but still not the object of any special cult4 ,this is the view taken of ,rma in the ,mahbhrata1 the ,purnas1 the ,raghuvamsa1 and those parts of the ,rmyana which go beyond it are probably late additions4#cfd ,but secondly ,rma becomes for his worshippers the supreme deity4 ,rmnuja 7on the ,vednta stras1 ,,ii4 #db7 mentions him and ,krishna as two great incarnations in which the supreme being became manifest1 and since ,krishna was certainly worshipped at this period as identical with the ,all-,god1 it would appear that ,rma held the same position4 ,yet it was not until the fourteenth or fifteenth century that he became for many sects the central and ultimate divine figure4 ,in the more liberal sects the worship of ,rma passes easily into theism and it is the direct parent of the ,kabirpanth and ,sikhism1 but unlike ,krishnaism it does not lead to erotic excess4 ,rma personifies the ideal of chivalry1 ,st of chastity4 ,less edifying forms of worship may attract more attention1 but it must not be supposed that ,rma is relegated to the penumbra of philosophic thought4 ,if anything so multiplex as ,hinduism can be said to have a watchword1 it is the cry1 ,rm1 ,rm4 ,the story of his adventures has travelled even further than the hero himself1 and is known not only from ,kashmir to ,cape ,comorin but from ,bombay to ,java and ,indo-,china where it is a common subject of art4 ,in ,india the ,rmyana is a favourite recitation among all classes1 and dramatized versions of various episodes are performed as religious plays4 ,though two late ,upanishads1 the ,rmaprvatpanya and ,rmauttaratpaniya extol ,rma as the ,supreme ,being1 there is no ,rmapurna4 ,the fact is significant1 as showing that his worship did not possess precisely those features of priestly sectarianism which mark the ,purnas and perhaps that it is later than the ,purnas4 ,but it has inspired a large literature1 more truly popular than anything that the ,purnas contain4 ,thus we have the ,sanskrit ,rmyana itself1 the ,hindi ,rmyana1 the ,tamil ,rmyana of ,kamban1 and works like the ,adhytma-,rmyana and ,yoga-,vasishtha-,rmyana4#cfe ,of all these1 the ,rmyana of ,tulsi ,das is specially remarkable and ,i shall speak of it later at some length4 #d ,krishna1 the other great incarnation of ,vishnu1 is one of the most conspicuous figures in the ,indian pantheon1 but his historical origin remains obscure4 ,the word which means black or dark blue occurs in the ,rig ,veda as the name of an otherwise unknown person4 ,in the ,chndogya ,upanishad1#cff ,krishna1 the son of ,devak1 is mentioned as having been instructed by the sage ,ghora of the ngirasa clan1 and it is probably implied that ,krishna too belonged to that clan4#cfg ,later sectarian writers never quote this verse1 but their silence may be due to the fact that the ,upanishad does not refer to ,krishna as if he were a deity1 and merely says that he received from ,ghora instruction after which he never thirsted again4 ,the purport of it was that the sacrifice may be performed without rites1 the various parts being typified by ordinary human actions1 such as hunger1 eating1 laughter1 liberality1 righteousness1 etc4 ,this doctrine has some resemblance to ,buddhist language#cfh and if this ,krishna is really the ancient hero out of whom the later deity was evolved1 there may be an allusion to some simple form of worship which rejected ceremonial and was practised by the tribes to whom ,krishna belonged4 ,i shall recur to the question of these tribes and the ,bhgavata sect below1 but in this section ,i am concerned with the personality of ,krishna4 ,vsudeva is a well-known name of ,krishna and a stra of ,pnini1#cfi especially if taken in conjunction with the comment of ,patanjali1 appears to assert that it is not a clan name but the name of a god4 ,if so ,vsudeva must have been recognized as a god in the fourth century ,b4,c4 ,he is mentioned in inscriptions which appear to date from about the second century ,b4,c4#cgj and in the last book of the ,taittirya ranyaka1#cga which however is a later addition of uncertain date4 ,the name ,krishna occurs in ,buddhist writings in the form ,kanha1 phonetically equivalent to ,krishna4 ,in the ,dgha ,nikya#cgb we hear of the clan of the ,kanhyanas 7 ,krshnyanas7 and of one ,kanha who became a great sage4 ,this person may be the ,krishna of the ,rig ,veda1 but there is no proof that he is the same as our ,krishna4 ,the ,ghata-,jtaka 7,no4 #ded7 gives an account of ,krishna's childhood and subsequent exploits which in many points corresponds with the ,brahmanic legends of his life and contains several familiar incidents and names1 such as ,vsudeva1 ,baladeva1 ,kamsa4 ,yet it presents many peculiarities and is either an independent version or a misrepresentation of a popular story that had wandered far from its home4 ,jain tradition also shows that these tales were popular and were worked up into different forms1 for the ,jains have an elaborate system of ancient patriarchs which includes ,vsudevas and ,baladevas4 ,krishna is the ninth of the ,black ,vsudevas#cgc and is connected with ,dvravat or ,dvrak4 ,he will become the twelfth trthankara of the next world-period and a similar position will be attained by ,devak1 ,rohin1 ,baladeva and ,javakumra1 all members of his family4 ,this is a striking proof of the popularity of the ,krishna legend outside the ,brahmanic religion4 ,no references to ,krishna except the above have been found in the earlier ,upanishads and ,stras4 ,he is not mentioned in ,manu but in one aspect or another he is the principal figure in the ,mahbhrata1 yet not exactly the hero4 ,the ,rmyana would have no plot without ,rma1 but the story of the ,mahbhrata would not lose its unity if ,krishna were omitted4 ,he takes the side of the ,pndavas1 and is sometimes a chief sometimes a god but he is not essential to the action of the epic4 ,the legend represents him as the son of ,vasudeva1 who belonged to the ,sttvata sept#cgd of the ,ydava tribe1 and of his wife ,devak4 ,it had been predicted to ,kamsa1 king of ,mathura 7,muttra71 that one of her sons would kill him4 ,he therefore slew her first six children3 the seventh1 ,balarma1 who is often counted as an incarnation of ,vishnu1 was transferred by divine intervention to the womb of ,rohin4 ,krishna1 the eighth1 escaped by more natural methods4 ,his father was able to give him into the charge of ,nanda1 a herdsman1 and his wife ,ysod who brought him up at ,gokula and ,vrindvana4 ,here his youth was passed in sporting with the ,gops or milk-maids1 of whom he is said to have married a thousand4 ,he had time1 however1 to perform acts of heroism1 and after killing ,kamsa1 he transported the inhabitants of ,mathura to the city of ,dvrak which he had built on the coast of ,gujarat4 ,he became king of the ,ydavas and continued his mission of clearing the earth of tyrants and monsters4 ,in the struggle between the ,pndavas and the sons of ,dhritarshtra he championed the cause of the former1 and after the conclusion of the war retired to ,dvrak4 ,internecine conflict broke out among the ,ydavas and annihilated the race4 ,krishna himself withdrew to the forest and was killed by a hunter called ,jaras 7old age7 who shot him supposing him to be a deer4 ,in the ,mahbhrata and several ,purnas this bare outline is distended with a plethora of miraculous incident remarkable even in ,indian literature1 and almost all possible forms of divine and human activity are attributed to this many-sided figure4 ,we may indeed suspect that his personality is dual even in the simplest form of the legend for the scene changes from ,mathur to ,dvrak1 and his character is not quite the same in the two regions4 ,it is probable that an ancient military hero of the west has been combined with a deity or perhaps more than one deity4 ,the pile of story1 sentiment and theology which ages have heaped up round ,krishna's name1 represents him in three principal aspects4 ,firstly1 he is a warrior who destroys the powers of evil4 ,secondly1 he is associated with love in all its forms1 ranging from amorous sport to the love of ,god in the most spiritual and mystical sense4 ,thirdly1 he is not only a deity1 but he actually becomes ,god in the ,european and also in the pantheistic acceptation of the word1 and is the centre of a philosophic theology4 ,the first of these aspects is clearly the oldest and it is here1 if anywhere1 that we may hope to find some fragments of history4 ,but the embellishments of poets and story-tellers have been so many that we can only point to features which may indicate a substratum of fact4 ,in the legend1 ,krishna assists the ,pndavas against the ,kauravas4 ,now many think that the ,pndavas represent a second and later immigration of ,aryans into ,india1 composed of tribes who had halted in the ,himalayas and perhaps acquired some of the customs of the inhabitants1 including polyandry1 for the five ,pndavas had one wife in common between them4 ,also1 the meaning of the name ,krishna1 black1 suggests that he was a chief of some non-,aryan tribe4 ,it is1 therefore1 possible that one source of the ,krishna myth is that a body of invading ,aryans1 described in the legend as the ,pndavas1 who had not exactly the same laws and beliefs as those already established in ,hindustan1 were aided by a powerful aboriginal chief1 just as the ,sisodias in ,rajputana were aided by the ,bhls4 ,it is possible too that ,krishna's tribe may have come from ,kabul or other mountainous districts of the north west1 although one of the most definite points in the legend is his connection with the coast town of ,dvrak4 ,the fortifications of this town and the fruitless efforts of the demon king1 ,salva1 to conquer it by seige are described in the ,mahbhrata1#cge but the narrative is surrounded by an atmosphere of magic and miracle rather than of history4#cgf ,though it would not be reasonable to pick out the less fantastic parts of the ,krishna legend and interpret them as history1 yet we may fairly attach significance to the fact that many episodes represent him as in conflict with ,brahmanic institutions and hardly maintaining the position of ,vishnu incarnate4#cgg ,thus he plunders ,indra's garden and defeats the gods who attempt to resist him4 ,he fights with iva and ,skanda4 ,he burns ,benares and all its inhabitants4 ,yet he is called ,upendra1 which1 whatever other explanations sectarian ingenuity may invent1 can hardly mean anything but the ,lesser ,indra1 and he fills the humble post of ,arjuna's charioteer4 ,his kinsmen seem to have been of little repute1 for part of his mission was to destroy his own clan and after presiding over its annihilation in internecine strife1 he was slain himself4 ,in all this we see dimly the figure of some aboriginal hero who1 though ultimately canonized1 represented a force not in complete harmony with ,brahmanic civilization4 ,the figure has also many solar attributes but these need not mean that its origin is to be sought in a sun myth1 but rather that1 as many early deities were forms of the sun1 solar attributes came to be a natural part of divinity and were ascribed to the deified ,krishna just as they were to the deified ,buddha4#cgh ,some authors hold that the historical ,krishna was a teacher1 similar to ,zarathustra1 and that though of the military class he was chiefly occupied in founding or supporting what was afterwards known as the religion of the ,bhgavatas1 a theistic system inculcating the worship of one ,god1 called ,bhgavat1 and perhaps identical with the ,sun4 ,it is probable that ,krishna the hero was connected with the worship of a special deity1 but ,i see no evidence that he was primarily a teacher4#cgi ,in the earlier legends he is a man of arms3 in the later he is not one who devotes his life to teaching but a forceful personage who explains the nature of ,god and the universe at the most unexpected moments4 ,now the founders of religions such as ,mahvra and ,buddha preserve their character as teachers even in legend and do not accumulate miscellaneous heroic exploits4 ,similarly modern founders of sects1 like ,caitanya1 though revered as incarnations1 still retain their historical attributes4 ,but on the other hand many men of action have been deified not because they taught anything but because they seemed to be more than human forces4 ,rma is a classical example of such deification and many local deities can be shown to be warriors1 bandits and hunters whose powers inspired respect4 ,it is said that there is a disposition in the ,bombay ,presidency to deify the ,maratha leader ivaji4#chj ,in his second aspect1 ,krishna is a pastoral deity1 sporting among nymphs and cattle4 ,it is possible that this ,krishna is in his origin distinct from the violent and tragic hero of ,dvrak4 ,the two characters have little in common1 except their lawlessness1 and the date and locality of the two cycles of legend are different4 ,but the death of ,kamsa which is one of the oldest incidents in the story 7for it is mentioned in the ,mahbhshya#cha7 belongs to both and ,kamsa is consistently connected with ,muttra4 ,the ,mahbhrata is mainly concerned with ,krishna the warrior3 the few allusions in it to the freaks of the pastoral ,krishna occur in passages suspected of being late interpolations and1 even if they are genuine1 show that little attention was paid to his youth4 ,but in later works1 the relative importance is reversed and the figure of the amorous herdsman almost banishes the warrior4 ,we can trace the growth of this figure in the sculptures of the sixth century1 in the ,vishnu and ,bhgavata ,purnas and the ,gt-govinda 7written about #aagj74 ,even later is the worship of ,rdh1 ,krishna's mistress1 as a portion of the deity1 who is supposed to have divided himself into male and female halves4#chb ,the birth and adventures of the pastoral ,krishna are located in the land of ,braj1 the district round ,muttra and among the tribe of the bhras1 but the warlike ,krishna is connected with the west1 although his exploits extend to the ,ganges valley4#chc ,the bhras1 now called ,ahirs1 were nomadic herdsmen who came from the west and their movements between ,kathiawar and ,muttra may have something to do with the double location of the ,krishna legend4 ,both archology and historical notices tell us something of the history of ,muttra4 ,it was a great ,buddhist and ,jain centre1 as the statues and vihras found there attest4 ,ptolemy calls it the city of the gods4 ,fa-,hsien 7#djj ,a4,d47 describes it as ,buddhist1 but that faith was declining at the time of ,hsan ,chuang's visit 7c4 #fcj ,a4,d474 ,the sculptural remains also indicate the presence of ,grco-,bactrian influence4 ,we need not therefore feel surprise if we find in the religious thought of ,muttra elements traceable to ,greece1 ,persia or ,central ,asia4 ,some claim that ,christianity should be reckoned among these elements and ,i shall discuss the question elsewhere4 ,here ,i will only say that such ideas as were common to ,christianity and to the religions of ,greece and western ,asia probably did penetrate to ,india by the northern route1 but of specifically ,christian ideas ,i see no proof4 ,it is true that the pastoral ,krishna is unlike all earlier ,indian deities1 but then no close parallel to him can be adduced from elsewhere1 and1 take him as a whole1 he is a decidedly un-christian figure4 ,the resemblance to ,christianity consists in the worship of a divine child1 together with his mother4 ,but this feature is absent in the ,new ,testament and seems to have been borrowed from paganism by ,christianity4 ,the legends of ,muttra show even clearer traces than those already quoted of hostility between ,krishna and ,brahmanism4 ,he forbids the worship of ,indra1#chd and when ,indra in anger sends down a deluge of rain1 he protects the country by holding up over it the hill of ,goburdhan1 which is still one of the great centres of pilgrimage4#che ,the language which the ,vishnu ,purna attributes to him is extremely remarkable4 ,he interrupts a sacrifice which his fosterfather is offering to ,indra and says1 ,we have neither fields nor houses3 we wander about happily wherever we list1 travelling in our waggons4 ,what have we to do with ,indra8 ,cattle and mountains are 7our7 gods4 ,brahmans offer worship with prayer3 cultivators of the earth adore their landmarks but we who tend our herds in the forests and mountains should worship them and our kine4 ,this passage suggests that ,krishna represents a tribe of highland nomads who worshipped mountains and cattle and came to terms with the ,brahmanic ritual only after a struggle4 ,the worship of mountain spirits is common in ,central ,asia1 but ,i do not know of any evidence for cattle-worship in those regions4 ,clemens of ,alexandria1#chf writing at the end of the second century ,a4,d41 tells us that the ,indians worshipped ,herakles and ,pan4 ,the pastoral ,krishna has considerable resemblance to ,pan or a ,faun1 but no representations of such beings are recorded from ,grco-,indian sculptures4 ,several ,bacchic groups have however been discovered in ,gandhara and also at ,muttra#chg and ,megasthenes recognized ,dionysus in some ,indian deity4 ,though the ,bacchic revels and mysteries do not explain the pastoral element in the ,krishna legend1 they offer a parallel to some of its other features1 such as the dancing and the crowd of women1 and ,i am inclined to think that such ,greek ideas may have germinated and proved fruitful in ,muttra4 ,the ,greek king ,menander is said to have occupied the city 7c4 #aee ,b4,c471 and the sculptures found there indicate that ,greek artistic forms were used to express ,indian ideas4 ,there may have been a similar fusion in religion4 ,in any case1 ,buddhism was predominant in ,muttra for several centuries4 ,it no doubt forbade the animal sacrifices of the ,brahmans and favoured milder rites4 ,it may even offer some explanation for the frivolous character of much in the ,krishna legend4#chh ,most ,brahmanic deities1 extraordinary as their conduct often is1 are serious and imposing4 ,but ,buddhism claimed for itself the serious side of religion and while it tolerated local godlings treated them as fairies or elves4 ,it was perhaps while ,krishna was a humble rustic deity of this sort1 with no claim to represent the ,almighty1 that there first gathered round him the cycle of light love-stories which has clung to him ever since4 ,in the hands of the ,brahmans his worship has undergone the strangest variations which touch the highest and lowest planes of ,hinduism1 but the ,muttra legend still retains its special note of pastoral romance1 and exhibits ,krishna in two principal characters1 as the divine child and as the divine lover4 ,the mysteries of birth and of sexual union are congenial topics to ,hindu theology1 but in the cult of ,muttra we are not concerned with reproduction as a world force1 but simply with childhood and love as emotional manifestations of the deity4 ,the same ideas occur in ,christianity1 and even in the ,gospels ,christ is compared to a bridegroom1 but the ,krishna legend is far more gross and nave4 ,the infant ,krishna is commonly adored in the form known as ,makhan ,chor or the ,butter ,thief4#chi ,this represents him as a crawling child holding out one hand full of curds or butter which he has stolen4 ,we speak of idolizing a child1 and when ,hindu women worship this image they are unconsciously generalizing the process and worshipping childhood1 its wayward pranks as well as its loveable simplicity1 and though it is hard for a man to think of the freaks of the butter thief as a manifestation of divinity1 yet clearly there is an analogy between these childish escapades and the caprices of mature deities1 which are respectfully described as mysteries4 ,if one admits the worship of the ,bambino1 it is not unreasonable to include in it admiration of his rogueries1 and the tender playfulness which is permitted to enter into this cult appeals profoundly to ,indian women4 ,images of the ,makhan ,chor are sold by thousands in the streets of ,muttra4 ,even more popular is the image known as ,kanhaya1 which represents the god as a young man playing the flute as he stands in a careless attitude1 which has something of ,hellenic grace4 ,krishna in this form is the beloved of the ,gops1 or milk-maids1 of the land of ,braj1 and the spouse of ,rdh1 though she had no monopoly of him4 ,the stories of his frolics with these damsels and the rites instituted in memory thereof have brought his worship into merited discredit4 ,krishnaism offers the most extensive manifestation to be found in the world of what ,w4 ,james calls the theopathic condition as illustrated by nuns like ,margurite ,marie ,alacoque1 ,saint ,gertrude and the more distinguished ,saint ,theresa4 ,to be loved by ,god and loved by him to distraction 7jusqu' la folie71 ,margaret melted away with love at the thought of such a thing4444 ,she said to ,god1 ',hold back1 my ,god1 these torrents which overwhelm me or else enlarge my capacity for their reception'4#cij ,these are not the words of the ,gt-govinda or the ,prem ,sagar1 as might be supposed1 but of a ,catholic ,bishop describing the transports of ,sister ,margurite ,marie1 and they illustrate the temper of ,krishna's worshippers4 ,but the verses of the ,marathi poet1 ,tukaram1 who lived about #afjj ,a4,d4 and sang the praises of ,krishna1 rise above this sentimentality though he uses the language of love4 ,in a letter to ,sivaji1 who desired to see him1 he wrote1 ,as a chaste wife longs only to see her lord1 such am ,i to ,vitthala4#cia ,all the world is to me ,vitthala and nothing else3 thee also ,i behold in him4 ,he also wrote elsewhere1 he that taketh the unprotected to his heart and doeth to a servant the same kindness as to his own children1 is assuredly the image of ,god4 ,more recently ,rmakrishna1 whose sayings breathe a wide intelligence as well as a wide charity1 has given this religion of love an expression which1 if somewhat too sexual to be perfectly in accordance with western taste1 is nearly related to emotional ,christianity4 ,a true lover sees his god as his nearest and dearest relative he writes1 just as the shepherd women of ,vrindvana saw in ,krishna not the ,lord of the ,universe but their own beloved4444 ,the knowledge of ,god may be likened to a man1 while the love of ,god is like a woman4 ,knowledge has entry only up to the outer rooms of ,god1 and no one can enter into the inner mysteries of ,god save a lover4444 ,knowledge and love of ,god are ultimately one and the same4 ,there is no difference between pure knowledge and pure love4#cib ,these extracts show how ,krishna as the object of the soul's desire assumes the place of the ,supreme ,being or ,god4 ,but this surprising transformation#cic is not specially connected with the pastoral and erotic ,krishna3 the best known and most thorough-going exposition of his divinity is found in the ,bhagavad-gt1 which represents him as being in his human aspect1 a warrior and the charioteer of ,arjuna4 ,probably some seventy-five millions to-day worship ,krishna1 especially under the name of ,hari1 as ,god in the pantheistic sense and naturally the more his identity with the supreme spirit is emphasized1 the dimmer grow the legendary features which mark the hero of ,muttra and ,dvrak1 and the human element in him is reduced to this very important point that the tie uniting him to his worshippers is one of sentiment and affection4 ,in the following chapters ,i shall treat of this worship when describing the various sects which practise it4 ,a question of some importance for the history of ,krishna's deification is the meaning of the name ,vsudeva4 ,one explanation makes it a patronymic1 son of ,vasudeva1 and supposes that when this prince ,vsudeva was deified his name1 like ,rma1 was transferred to the deity4 ,the other regards ,vsudeva as a name for the deity used by the ,sttvata clan and supposes that when ,krishna was deified this already well-known divine name was bestowed on him4 ,there is much to be said for this latter theory4 ,as we have seen the ,jains give the title ,vsudeva to a series of supermen1 and a remarkable legend states#cid that a king called ,paundraka who pretended to be a deity used the title ,vsudeva and ordered ,krishna to cease using it1 for which impertinence he was slain4 ,this clearly implies that the title was something which could be detached from ,krishna and not a mere patronymic4 ,indian writings countenance both etymologies of the word4 ,as the name of the deity they derive it from vas to dwell1 he in whom all things abide and who abides in all4#cie #e iva and ,vishnu are not in their nature different from other ,indian ideas1 high or low4 ,they are the offspring of philosophic and poetic minds playing with a luxuriant popular mythology4 ,but even in the epics they have already become fixed points in a flux of changing fancies and serve as receptacles in which the most diverse notions are collected and stored4 ,nearly all philosophy and superstition finds its place in ,hinduism by being connected with one or both of them4 ,the two worships are not characteristic of different periods3 they coexist when they first become known to us as they do at the present day and in essential doctrines they are much alike4 ,we have no name for this curious double theism in which each party describes its own deity as the supreme god or ,all-god1 yet without denying the god of the other4 ,something similar might be produced in ,christianity if different ,churches were avowedly to worship different persons of the ,trinity4 iva and ,vishnu are sometimes contrasted and occasionally their worshippers quarrel4#cif ,but the general inclination is rather to make the two figures approximate by bestowing the same attributes on both4 ,a deity must be able to satisfy emotional devotion3 hence the ,tamil ivaite says of iva the destroyer1 one should worship in supreme love him who does kindness to the soul4 ,but then the feature in the world which most impresses the ,hindu is the constant change and destruction1 and this must find a place in the ,all-god4 ,hence the sportive kindly ,krishna comes to be declared the destroyer of the worlds4#cig ,it is as if in some vast ,dravidian temple one wandered through two corridors differently ornamented and assigned to the priests of different rites but both leading to the same image4 ,hence it is not surprising to find that there is actually a deity--if indeed the term is suitable1 but ,european vocabularies hardly provide one which meets the case--called ,harihara 7or ankara-,nryana71 that is iva and ,vishnu combined4 ,the ,harivamsa contains a hymn addressed to him3 fairly ancient sculptures attest the prevalence of his worship in the ,deccan1 especially at ,badmi1 he was once the chief deity of ,camboja and he is still popular in south ,india4 ,here besides being worshipped under his own name he has undergone a singular transformation and has probably been amalgamated with some aboriginal deity4 ,under the designation of ,ayenr 7said to be a corruption of ,harihara7 he is extensively worshipped as a village god and reputed to be the son of iva and ,vishnu1 the latter having kindly assumed the form of a woman to effect his birth4 ,another form of this inclination to combine and unite the various manifestations of the ,divine is the tendency to worship groups of gods1 a practice as old as the ,vedas4 ,thus many temples are dedicated to a group of five1 namely1 iva1 ,vishnu1 ,durg1 ,ganea and the ,sun and it is stated that every ,hindu worships these five deities in his daily prayers4#cih ,the ,trimrti1 or figure of ,brahm1 iva and ,vishnu1 illustrates the worship of groups4 ,its importance has sometimes been over-estimated by ,europeans from an idea that it corresponded to the ,christian ,trinity1 but in reality this triad is late and has little significance4 ,no stress is laid on the idea of three in one and the number of persons can be increased4 ,the ,brahma-vaivarta ,purna for instance adds ,krishna to ,brahm1 iva and ,vishnu4 ,the union of three personalities is merely a way of summing up the chief attributes of the ,all-,god4 ,thus the ,vishnu ,purna#cii extols ,vishnu as being ,hiranyagarbha1 ,hari and ankara 7i4e4 ,brahm1 ,vishnu and iva71 the creator1 preserver and destroyer1 but in another passage as him who is ,brahma1 vara and spirit 7,pums71 who with the three ,gunas 7qualities of matter7 is the cause of creation1 preservation and destruction4444 ,the origin of the triad1 so far as it has any doctrinal or philosophical meaning1 is probably to be sought in the personification of the three ,gunas4#djj ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ccd3 ,see especially ,dig4 ,nik4 ,,xx4 and ,,xxxii4 ,footnote #cce3 ,but the lists may be pieces of folk-lore older than the suttas in which they are incorporated4 ,footnote #ccf3 ,the ,dionysus of ,megasthenes is a deity who comes from the west with an army that suffers from the heat of the plains4 ,if we could be certain that he meant iva by ,dionysus this would be valuable evidence4 ,but he clearly misunderstood many things in ,indian religion4 ,greek legends connected ,dionysus with ,india and the ,east4 ,footnote #ccg3 ,macdonell seems to me correct in saying 7,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aiae1 p4 #abe7 that one reason why ,indian deities have many arms is that they may be able to carry the various symbols by which they are characterized4 ,another reason is that worship is usually accompanied by dhyna1 that is forming a mental image of the deity as described in a particular text4 ,e4g4 the worshipper repeats a mantra which describes a deity in language which was originally metaphorical as having many heads and arms and at the same time he ought to make a mental image of such a figure4 ,footnote #cch3 ,but some forms of ivaism in southern ,india come even nearer to emotional ,christianity than does ,vishnuism4 ,footnote #cci3 ,i cannot discover that any alleged avatra of iva has now or has had formerly any importance1 but the ,vyu1 ,linga and ,krma ,purna give lists of such incarnations1 as does also the ,catechism of the ,shaiva religion translated by ,foulkes4 ,but ,indian sects have a strong tendency to ascribe all possible achievements and attributes to their gods4 ,the mere fact that ,vishnu becomes incarnate incites the ardent ivaite to say that his god can do the same4 ,a curious instance of this rivalry is found in the story that iva manifested himself as arabha-mrti in order to curb the ferocity of ,vishnu when incarnate in the ,man ,lion 7see ,gopintha ,rao1 ,hindu ,icon4 p4 #de74 iva often appears in a special form1 not necessarily human1 for a special purpose 7e4g4 ,vrabhadra7 and some tantric ,buddhas seem to be imitations of these apparitions4 ,there is a strong element of ivaism borrowed from ,bengal in the mythology of ,tibet and ,mongolia1 where such personages as ,hevajra1 ,samvara1 and ,mahkla have a considerable importance under the strange title of ,buddhas4 ,footnote #cdj3 ,the passage from one epithet to the other is very plain in ,r4,v4 ,i4 #aad4 ,footnote #cda3 ,book ,,xvi4 ,footnote #cdb3 ,in the play ,mricchakatik or ,the ,clay ,cart 7probably of the sixth century ,a4,d47 a burglar invokes ,krtikeya1 the son of iva1 who is said to have taught different styles of house-breaking4 ,footnote #cdc3 ,a similarly strange collocation of attributes is found in ,daksha's hymn to iva4 ,mahbhrata1 ,,xii4 ,sec4 #bhe4 ,footnote #cdd3 ,atharva1 ,v4 xi4 #b4 #bd4 ,footnote #cde3 ,it is not certain if the isnadevh whom ,indra is asked to destroy in ,rig4 ,v4 ,,vii4 #ba4 #e and ,x4 #ii4 #c are priapic demons or worshippers of the phallus4 ,footnote #cdf3 ,,vii4 secs4 #bjb1 #bjc1 and ,,xiii4 sec4 #ad4 ,footnote #cdg3 ,the inscriptions of ,camboja and ,champa seem to be the best proof of the antiquity of ,linga worship4 ,a ,cambojan inscription of about #eej ,a4,d4 records the dedication of a linga and the worship must have taken some time to reach ,camboja from ,india4 ,some lingas discovered in ,india are said to be anterior to the ,christian era4 ,footnote #cdh3 ,see ,f4 ,kittel1 ,ueber den ,ursprung der ,linga ,kultus1 and ,barth1 ,religions of ,india1 p4 #bfa4 ,footnote #cdi3 ,as is also its appearance1 as a rule4 ,but there are exceptions to this4 ,some ,hindus deny that the ,linga is a phallic emblem4 ,it is hardly possible to maintain this thesis in view of such passages as ,mahbh4 ,,xiii4 #ad and the innumerable figures in which there are both a linga and a ,yoni4 ,but it is true that in its later forms the worship is purged of all grossness and that in its earlier forms the symbol adored was often a stpa-like column or a pillar with figures on it4 ,footnote #cej3 ,such scenes as the relief from ,amarvati figured in ,grnwedel1 ,buddhist art in ,india1 p4 #bi1 fig4 #h1 might easily be supposed to represent the worship of the linga1 and some of ,aoka's pillars have been worshipped as lingas in later times4 ,footnote #cea3 ,but not of course the soul which1 according to the general ,indian idea1 exists before and continues after the life of the body4 ,footnote #ceb3 ,crooke1 ,popular ,religion and ,folklore of ,northern ,india1 ,i4 #hd2 ,,ii4 #bai4 ,footnote #cec3 ,they are however of some importance in ,vishnuite theology4 ,for instance according to the school of ,rmnuja it is the akti 7r7 who reveals the true doctrine to mankind4 ,vishnu is often said to have three consorts1 r1 ,bh and ,ll4 ,footnote #ced3 ,e4g4 at4 ,brh4 ,i4 #b4 #e4 ,see also the strange legend ,ib4 ,,xi4 #a4 #a where ,vishnu is described as the best of the gods but is eaten by ,indra4 ,he is frequently 7e4g4 in the ata ,brh7 stated to be identical with the sacrifice1 and this was probably one of the reasons for his becoming prominent4 ,footnote #cee3 ,see many modern examples in ,crooke1 ,popular ,religion and ,folk ,lore of ,northern ,india1 chap4 ,,iv4 and ,census of ,india1 #aija1 vol4 ,,vi4 ,bengal1 pp4 #aif-h1 where are described various deified heroes who are adored in ,bengal1 such as ,goveiy 7a bandit71 ,sailesh1 ,karikh1 ,lrik1 ,amar ,singh1 and ,gobind ,raut 7a slayer of tigers74 ,compare too the worship of ,gopi ,nath and ,zinda ,kaliana in the ,panjb as described in ,census of ,india1 #aija1 vol4 ,,xvii4 pp4 #aah-i4 ,footnote #cef3 ,the ,bhgavata ,purna 7,i4 iii47 and the ,bhaktaml 7see ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aiji1 pp4 #fba ff47 give longer lists of #bb and #bf1 and the ,pncartra gives #ci4 ,see ,ahirbudhnya ,samhit1 ,v4 #ej-ee4 ,footnote #ceg3 ,book ,i1 cantos #gd-gf4 ,footnote #ceh3 ,a parallel phenomenon is the belief found in ,bali1 that ,buddha is iva's brother4 ,footnote #cei3 ,for ,brahmanic ideas about ,buddha see ,vishnu ,purna1 ,,iii4 #ah4 ,the ,bhgavata ,purna1 ,i4 #c4 #bd seems to make the ,buddha incarnation future4 ,it also counts ,kapila and ,rishabha1 apparently identical with the founder of the ,snkhya and the first ,jain saint1 as incarnations4 ,the ,padma ,purna seems to ascribe not only ,buddhism but the ,my doctrine of ankara to delusions deliberately inspired by gods4 ,i have not been able to find the passage in the printed edition of the ,purna but it is quoted in ,sanskrit by ,aufrecht1 ,cat4 ,cod4 ,bib4 ,bodl4 p4 #ad1 and ,muir1 ,original ,sanskrit ,texts1 p4 #aih4 ,footnote #cfj3 ,see ,norman in ,trans4 ,third ,int4 ,congress of ,religions1 ,,ii4 p4 #he4 ,in the ,ind4 ,ant4 #aiah1 p4 #ade ,jayaswal tries to prove that ,kalk is a historical personage and identical with ,king ,yaodharman of ,central ,india 7about ,a4,d4 #ejj7 and that the idea of his being a future saviour is late4 ,this theory offers difficulties1 for firstly there is no proof that the passages of the ,mahabharata which mention ,kalk 7,,iii4 #aij1 #acaja2 ,,iii4 #aia1 #acaaa3 ,,xii4 #cdj1 #abifh7 are additions later than ,yaodharman and secondly if ,kalk was first a historical figure and then projected into the future we should expect to hear that he will come again1 but such language is not quoted4 ,on the other hand it seems quite likely 7#a7 that there was an old tradition about a future saviour called ,kalk1 7#b7 that ,yaodharman after defeating the ,huns assumed the rle1 7#c7 and that when it was found that the golden age had not recommenced he was forgotten 7as many pseudo-,messiahs have been7 and ,kalk again became a hope for the future4 ,vincent ,smith 7,hist4 of ,india1 ed4 ,,iii4 p4 #cbj7 intimates that ,yaodharman performed considerable exploits but was inordinately boastful4 ,footnote #cfa3 ,another version of the story which omits the expedition to ,lanka and makes ,st the sister of ,rma is found in the ,dasaratha ,jtaka 7#fda74 ,footnote #cfb3 ,but this colonization is attributed by tradition to ,vijaya1 not ,rma4 ,footnote #cfc3 ,see especially book ,,vi4 p4 #fg1 in ,growse's ,translation4 ,footnote #cfd3 ,see ,muir's ,sanskrit ,texts1 vol4 ,,iv4 especially pp4 #dda-dia4 ,footnote #cfe3 ,ekantha1 who lived in the sixteenth century1 calls the ,adhytma ,r4 a modern work4 ,see ,bhandarkar1 ,vaishn4 and ,saivism1 page #dh4 ,the ,yoga-,vasishtha ,r4 purports to be instruction given by ,vasishtha to ,rma who wishes to abandon the world4 ,its date is uncertain but it is quoted by authors of the fourteenth century4 ,it is very popular1 especially in south ,india1 where an abridgment in ,tamil called ,jna-,vasishtha is much read4 ,its doctrine appears to be ,vedntist with a good deal of ,buddhist philosophy4 ,salvation is never to think that pleasures and pains are mine4 ,footnote #cff3 ,chnd4 ,up4 ,,iii4 #ag4f ,footnote #cfg3 ,the ,kaush4 ,brhm4 says that ,krishna was an ngirasa ,,xxx4 g4 ,the ,anukraman says that the ,krishna of ,rig ,veda1 ,,viii4 #gd was an ngirasa4 ,for ,ghora ngirasa the dread descendent of the ,angirases see ,macdonell and ,keith1 ,vedic ,index1 s4v4 ,footnote #cfh3 ,e4g4 ,dig4 ,nik4 ,v4 ,the ,pncartra expressly states that ,yoga is worship of the heart and self-sacrifice1 being thus a counterpart of the external sacrifice 7bhyayga74 ,footnote #cfi3 ,pn4 ,,iv4 #c4 #ih1 ,vsudevrjunbhym vun4 ,see ,bhandarkar1 ,vaishnavism and aivism1 p4 #c and ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aiaj1 p4 #afh4 ,stra #ie1 just above1 appears to point to bhakti1 faith or devotion1 felt for this ,vsudeva4 ,footnote #cgj3 ,especially the ,besnagar column4 ,see ,rapson1 ,ancient ,india1 p4 #aef and various articles in ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aiji-aj4 ,footnote #cga3 ,x4 i1 vi4 ,footnote #cgb3 ,,iii4 i4 #bc1 ,ulro so ,kanho isi ahosi4 ,but this may refer to the ,rishi mentioned in ,r4,v4 ,,viii4 #gd who has not necessarily anything to do with the god ,krishna4 ,footnote #cgc3 ,see ,hemacandra ,abhidhnacintmani1 ,ed4 ,boehtlingk and ,rien1 p4 #abh1 and ,barnett's translation of the ,antagada ,daso1 pp4 #ac-ae and #fg-hb4 ,footnote #cgd3 ,apparently the same as the ,vrishnis4 ,footnote #cge3 ,,iii4 ,,xv4 ,footnote #cgf3 ,it would seem that the temple of ,dvrak was built between the composition of the narrative in the ,mahbhrata and of the ,vishnu ,purna1 for while the former says the whole town was destroyed by the sea1 the latter excepts the temple and says that whoever visits it is freed from all his sins4 ,see ,wilson1 ,vishnu ,purna1 ,v4 p4 #aee4 ,footnote #cgg3 ,a most curious chapter of the ,vishnu ,purna 7,,iv4 #ac7 contains a vindication of ,krishna's character and a picture of old tribal life4 ,footnote #cgh3 ,neither can ,i agree with some scholars that ,krishna is mainly and primarily a deity of vegetation4 ,all ,indian ideas about the ,universe and ,god emphasize the interaction of life and death1 growth and decay1 spring and winter4 ,krishna is undoubtedly associated with life1 growth and generation1 but so is iva the destroyer1 or rather the transmuter4 ,the account in the ,mahbhshya 7on ,pn4 ,,iii4 #a4 #bf7 of the masque representing the slaughter of ,kamsa by ,krishna is surely a slight foundation for the theory that ,krishna was a nature god4 ,it might be easily argued that ,christ is a vegetation spirit1 for not only is ,easter a spring festival but there are numerous allusions to sowing and harvest in the ,gospels and ,paul illustrates the resurrection by the germination of corn4 ,it is a mistake to seek for uniformity in the history of religion4 ,there were in ancient times different types of mind which invented different kinds of gods1 just as now professors invent different theories about gods4 ,footnote #cgi3 ,the ,krishna of the ,chndogya ,upanishad receives instruction but it is not said that he was himself a teacher4 ,footnote #chj3 ,hopkins1 ,india ,old and ,new1 p4 #aje4 ,footnote #cha3 ,bhandarkar4 ,allusions to ,krishna in ,mahbhshya1 ,ind4 ,ant4 #ahgd1 p4 #ad4 ,for the pastoral ,krishna see ,bhandarkar1 ,vaishnavism and aivism1 chap4 ,,ix4 ,footnote #chb3 ,the divinity of ,rdh is taught specially in the ,brahma-vaivarta ,purna and the ,nrada pncartra1 also called ,jnmritasra4 ,she is also described in the ,gopla-tpanya ,upanishad of unknown date4 ,footnote #chc3 ,but ,kamsa appears in both series of legends1 i4e41 in the ,ghata-,jtaka which contains no hint of the pastoral legends but is a variant of the story of the warlike ,krishna4 ,footnote #chd3 ,vishnu ,purna1 ,v4 #aj1 #aa from which the quotations in the text are taken4 ,much of it is repeated in the ,harivamsa4 ,see for instance ,h4 #chjh4 ,footnote #che3 ,the ,muttra cycle of legends cannot be very late for the inscription of ,glai ,lomor in ,champa 7#haa ,a4,d47 speaks of ,nryana holding up ,goburdhan and a ,cambojan inscription of ,prea ,eynkosey 7#igj ,a4,d47 speaks of the banks of the ,yamun where ,krishna sported4 ,these legends must have been prevalent in ,india some time before they travelled so far4 ,some of them are depicted on a pillar found at ,mandor and possibly referable to the fourth century ,a4,d4 ,see ,arch4 ,survey ,ind4 #aije-aijf1 p4 #ace4 ,footnote #chf3 ,strom1 ,,iii4 #aid4 ,see ,m',crindle1 ,ancient ,india1 p4 #ahc4 ,footnote #chg3 ,vincent ,smith1 ,fine ,art in ,india1 pp4 #acd-ach4 ,footnote #chh3 ,in the ,sutta-nipta ,mra1 the ,evil ,one is called ,kanha1 the phonetic equivalent of ,krishna in ,prkrit4 ,can it be that ,mra and his daughters have anything to do with ,krishna and the ,gops8 ,footnote #chi3 ,compare the ,greek stories of the infant ,hermes who steals ,apollo's cattle and invents the lyre4 ,compare too1 as having a general resemblance to fantastic ,indian legends1 the story of young ,hephstus4 ,footnote #cij3 ,mgr4 ,bongard1 ,histoire de la ,bienheureuse ,margurite ,marie4 ,quoted by ,w4 ,james1 ,varieties of ,religious ,experience1 p4 #cdc4 ,footnote #cia3 ,vitthal or ,vittoba is a local deity of ,pandharpur in the ,deccan 7perhaps a deified ,brahman of the place7 now identified with ,krishna4 ,footnote #cib3 ,life and ,sayings of ,rmakrishna4 ,trans4 ,f4 ,max ,mller1 pp4 #acg-h4 ,the ,english poet ,crashaw makes free use of religious metaphors drawn from love and even ,francis ,thompson represents ,god as the lover of the ,soul1 e4g4 in his poem ,any ,saint4 ,footnote #cic3 ,though surprising1 it can be paralleled in modern times for ,kabir 7c4 #adjj7 was identified by his later followers with the supreme spirit4 ,footnote #cid3 ,mahbhr4 ,sabhp4 ,,xiv4 ,vishnu ,pur4 v4 xxxiv4 ,the name also occurs in the ,taittirya ranyaka 7i4 #ca7 a work of moderate if not great antiquity ,nzyanya vidmahe ,vasudevya dhmahi4 ,footnote #cie3 ,see4 ,vishnu ,pur4 ,,vi4 ,v4 ,see also ,wilson1 ,vishnu ,purna1 ,i4 pp4 #b and #ag4 ,footnote #cif3 ,thus the ,saura ,purna inveighs against the ,mdhva sect 7,,xxxviii4-,,xl47 and calls ,vishnu the servant of iva3 a ,purnic legal work called the ,vriddha-,harita-,samhit is said to contain a polemic against iva4 ,occasionally we hear of collisions between the followers of ,vishnu and iva or the desecration of temples by hostile fanatics4 ,but such conflicts take place most often not between widely different sects but between subdivisions of the same sect1 e4g41 ,tengalais and ,vadagalais4 ,it would seem too that at present most ,hindus of the higher castes avoid ostentatious membership of the modern sects1 and though they may practise special devotion to either ,vishnu or iva1 yet they visit the temples of both deities when they go on pilgrimages4 ,jogendra ,nath ,bhattacharya in his ,hindu ,castes and ,sects says 7p4 #cfd7 that aristocratic ,brahmans usually keep in their private chapels both a salgram representing ,vishnu and emblems representing iva and his spouse4 ,hence different observers vary in their estimates of the importance of sectarian divisions1 some holding that sect is the essence of modern ,hinduism and others that most educated ,hindus do not worship a sectarian deity4 ,the ,krma ,purna1 ,part ,i4 chap4 ,,xxii4 contains some curious rules as to what deities should be worshipped by the various classes of men and spirits4 ,footnote #cig3 ,bhag4-gt1 ,,xl4 #bc-cd4 ,footnote #cih3 ,see ,srisa ,chandra ,vasu1 ,daily practice of the ,hindus1 p4 #aah4 ,footnote #cii3 ,,ii4 #a and ,i4 #a4 ,footnote #djj3 ,see ,maitryana ,up4 ,v4 #b4 ,it is highly probable that the celebrated image at ,elephanta is not a ,trimrti at all but a ,maheamrti of iva4 ,see ,gopintha ,rao1 ,hindu ,iconog4 ,,ii4 #chb4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,features ,,of ,,hinduism3 ,,ritual1 ,,caste1 ,,sect1 ,,faith #a ,in the last chapter ,i traced the growth of the great gods iva and ,vishnu4 ,the prominence of these figures is one of the marks which distinguish the later phase of ,indian religion from the earlier4 ,but it is also distinguished by various practices1 institutions and beliefs1 which are more or less connected with the new deities4 ,such are a new ritual1 the elaboration of the caste system1 the growth of sects1 and the tendency to make devotion to a particular deity the essence of religion4 ,in the present chapter ,i shall say something of these phenomena4 ,hinduism has often and justly been compared to a jungle4 ,as in the jungle every particle of soil seems to put forth its spirit in vegetable life and plants grow on plants1 creepers and parasites on their more stalwart brethren1 so in ,india art1 commerce1 warfare and crime1 every human interest and aspiration seek for a manifestation in religion1 and since men and women of all classes and occupations1 all stages of education and civilization1 have contributed to ,hinduism1 much of it seems low1 foolish and even immoral4 ,the jungle is not a park or garden4 ,whatever can grow in it1 does grow4 ,the ,brahmans are not gardeners but forest officers4 ,to attempt a history or description of ,indian creeds seems an enterprise as vast1 hopeless and pathless as a general account of ,european politics4 ,as for many centuries the life of ,europe has expressed itself in politics1 so for even longer ages the life of ,india1 which has more inhabitants than western ,europe1#dja has found expression in religion1 speculation and philosophy1 and has left of all this thought a voluminous record1 mighty in bulk if wanting in dates and events4 ,and why should it chronicle them8 ,the truly religious mind does not care for the history of religion1 just as among us the scientific mind does not dwell on the history of science4 ,yet in spite of their exuberance ,hinduism and the jungle have considerable uniformity4 ,here and there in a tropical forest some well-grown tree or brilliant flower attracts attention1 but the general impression left on the traveller by the vegetation as he passes through it mile after mile is infinite repetition as well as infinite luxuriance4 ,and so in ,hinduism4 ,a monograph on one god or one teacher is an interesting study4 ,but if we continue the experiment1 different gods and different teachers are found to be much the same4 ,we can write about ,vishnuism and ivaism as if they were different religions and this1 though incomplete1 is not incorrect4 ,but in their higher phases both show much the same excellences and when degraded both lead to much the same abuses1 except that the worship of ,vishnu does not allow animal sacrifices4 ,this is true even of externals4 ,in the temples of ,madura1 ,poona and ,benares1 the deities1 the rites1 the doctrines1 the race of the worshippers and the architecture are all different1 yet the impression of uniformity is strong4 ,in spite of divergences the religion is the same in all three places3 it smacks of the soil and nothing like it can be found outside ,india4 ,hinduism is an unusual combination of animism and pantheism1 which are commonly regarded as the extremes of savage and of philosophic belief4 ,in ,india both may be found separately but frequently they are combined in startling juxtaposition4 ,the same person who worships ,vishnu as identical with the universe also worships him in the form of a pebble or plant4#djb ,the average ,hindu1 who cannot live permanently in the altitudes of pantheistic thought1 regards his gods as great natural forces1 akin to the mighty rivers which he also worships1 irresistible and often beneficent but also capricious and destructive4 ,whereas ,judaism1 ,christianity and ,islam all identify the moral law with the will and conduct of the deity1 in ,hinduism this is not completely admitted in practice1 though a library might be filled with the beautiful things that have been said about man and ,god4 ,the outward forms of ,indian religion are pagan after the fashion of the ancient world1 a fashion which has in most lands passed away4 ,but whereas in the fourth century ,a4,d4 ,european paganism1 despite the efforts of anti-,christian eclectics1 proved inelastic and incapable of satisfying new religious cravings1 this did not happen in ,india4 ,the bottles of ,hinduism have always proved capable of holding all the wine poured into them4 ,when a new sentiment takes possession of men's souls1 such as love1 repentance1 or the sense of sin1 some deity of many shapes and sympathies straightway adapts himself to the needs of his worshippers4 ,and yet in so doing the deity1 though he enlarges himself1 does not change1 and the result is that we often meet with strange anachronisms1 as if ,jephthah should listen appreciatively to the ,sermon on the ,mount and then sacrifice his daughter to ,christ4 ,many ,hindu temples are served by dancing girls who are admittedly prostitutes1#djc an institution which takes us back to the cultus of ,corinth and ,babylon and is without parallel in any nation on approximately the same level of civilization4 ,only ,british law prevents widows from being burned with their dead husbands1 though even in the ,vedic age the custom had been discontinued as barbarous4#djd ,but for the same legislation1 human sacrifice would probably be common4 ,what the gods do and what their worshippers do in their service cannot according to ,hindu opinion be judged by ordinary laws of right and wrong4 ,the god is supra-moral3 the worshipper when he enters the temple leaves conventionality outside4 ,yet it is unfair to represent ,hinduism as characterized by licence and cruelty4 ,such tendencies are counterbalanced by the strength and prevalence of ideas based on renunciation and self-effacement4 ,all desire1 all attachment to the world is an evil2 all self-assertion is wrong4 ,hinduism is constantly in extremes3 sometimes it exults in the dances of ,krishna or the destructive fury of ,kl3 more often it struggles for release from the transitory and for union with the permanent and real by self-denial or rather self-negation1 which aims at the total suppression of both pleasure and pain4 ,this is on the whole its dominant note4 ,in the records accessible to us the transition from ,brahmanism--that is1 the religion of the ,vedas and ,brhmanas--to ,hinduism does not appear as direct but as masked by ,buddhism4 ,we see ,buddhism grow at the expense of ,brahmanism4 ,we are then conscious that it becomes profoundly modified under the influence of new ideas4 ,we see it decay and the religion of the ,brahmans emerge victorious4 ,but that religion is not what it was when ,buddhism first arose1 and is henceforth generally known as ,hinduism4 ,the materials for studying the period in which the change occurred--say #djj ,b4,c4 to #djj ,a4,d4--are not scanty1 but they do not facilitate chronological investigation4 ,art and architecture are mainly ,buddhist until the ,gupta period 7c4 #cbj ,a4,d47 and literature1 though plentiful1 is undated4 ,the ,mahbhrata and ,rmyana must have been edited in the course of these #hjj years1 but they consist of different strata and it is not easy to separate and arrange them without assuming what we want to prove4 ,from #djj ,b4,c4 7if not from an earlier date7 onwards there grew up a great volume of epic poetry1 founded on popular ballads1 telling the stories of ,rma and the ,pndavas4#dje ,it was distinct from the canonical literatures of both ,brahmans and ,buddhists1 but though it was not in its essential character religious1 yet so general in ,india is the interest in religion that whole theological treatises were incorporated in these stories without loss1 in ,indian opinion1 to the interest of the narrative4 ,if at the present day a congregation is seen in a ,hindu temple listening to a recitation1 the text which is being chanted will often prove to be part of the ,mahbhrata4 ,such a ceremony is not due to forgetfulness of the ,veda but is a repetition of what happened long before our era when rhapsodists strung together popular narratives and popular theology4 ,such theology cannot be rigidly separated from ,brahmanism and ,buddhism4 ,it grew up under their influence and accepted their simpler ideas4 ,but it brought with it popular beliefs which did not strictly speaking belong to either system4 ,by attacking the main ,brahmanic doctrines the ,buddhists gave the popular religion its opportunity4 ,for instance1 they condemned animal sacrifices and derided the idea that trained priests and complicated rites are necessary4 ,this did not destroy the influence of the ,brahmans but it disposed them to admit that the ,vedic sacrifices are not the only means of salvation and to authorize other rites and beliefs4 ,it was about this time1 too1 that a series of invasions began to pour into ,india from the north-west4 ,it may be hard to distinguish between the foreign beliefs which they introduced and the ,indian beliefs which they accepted and modified4 ,but it is clear that their general effect was to upset traditional ideas associated with a ritual and learning which required lifelong study4 #b ,it has been well said#djf that ,buddhism did not waste away in ,india until rival sects had appropriated from it everything they could make use of4 ,perhaps ,hinduism had an even stronger doctrinal influence on ,buddhism4 ,the deification of the ,buddha1 the invention of ,bodhisattvas who are equivalent to gods and the extraordinary alliance between late ,buddhism and ivaism1 are all instances of the general ,indian view overcoming the special ,buddhist view4 ,but ,buddhism is closely connected with the theory of incarnations and the development of the ,advaita philosophy1 and in the externals of religion1 in rites1 ceremonies and institutions1 its influence was great and lasting4 ,we may take first the doctrine of ,ahims1 non-injury1 or in other words the sanctity of animal life4 ,this beautiful doctrine1 the glory of ,india1 if not invented by the ,buddha at least arose in schools which were not ,brahmanic and were related to the ,jain and ,buddhist movements4 ,it formed no part of the ,vedic religion in which sacrifice often meant butchery4 ,but in ,hinduism1 it meets with extensive though not universal acceptance4 ,with the ,vaishnavas it is an article of faith nor do the worshippers of iva usually propitiate him with animal sacrifices1 though these are offered by the ktas and also by the small class of ,brahmans who still preserve the ,vedic ritual4#djg ,hardly any ,hindus habitually eat meat and most abhor it1 especially beef4 ,yet beef-eating seems to have been permitted in ,vedic times and even when parts of the ,mahbhrata were composed4 ,apart from animal sacrifices ,buddhism was the main agent in effecting a mighty revolution in worship and ritual4 ,one is tempted to regard the change as total and complete1 but such wide assertions are rarely true in ,india3 customs and institutions are not swept away by reformers but are cut down like the grass and like the grass grow up again4 ,they sometimes die out but they are rarely destroyed4 ,the ,vedic sacrifices are still occasionally offered1#djh but for many centuries have been almost entirely superseded by another form of worship associated with temples and the veneration of images4 ,this must have become the dominant form of ,hindu cultus in the first few centuries of our era and probably earlier4 ,it is one of the ironies of fate that the ,buddha and his followers should be responsible for the growth of image worship1 but it seems to be true4 ,he laughed at sacrifices and left to his disciples only two forms of religious exercise1 sermons and meditation4 ,for ,indian monks1 this was perhaps sufficient1 but the laity craved for some outward form of worship4 ,this was soon found in the respect shown to the memory of the ,buddha and the relics of his body1 although ,hinduism never took kindly to relic worship4 ,we hear too of ,cetiyas4 ,in the ,pitakas this word means a popular shrine unconnected with either ,buddhist or ,brahmanic ceremonial1 sometimes perhaps merely a sacred tree or stone1 probably honoured by such simple rites as decorating it with paint or flowers4 ,a little later1 in ,buddhist times1 the ,cetiya became a cenotaph or reliquary1 generally located near a monastery and surrounded by a passage for reverential circumambulation4 ,allusions in the ,pitakas also indicate that then as now there were fairs4 ,the early ,buddhists thought that though such gatherings were not edifying they might be made so4 ,they erected sacred buildings near a monastery1 and held festivals so that people might collect together1 visit a holy place1 and hear sermons4 ,in the earliest known sanctuaries1 the funeral monument 7for we can scarcely doubt that this is the origin of the stpa7#dji has already assumed the conventional form known as ,dagoba1 consisting of a dome and chest of relics1 with a spire at the top1 the whole surrounded by railings or a colonnade1 but though the carving is lavish1 no figure of the ,buddha himself is to be seen4 ,he is represented by a symbol such as a footprint1 wheel1 or tree4 ,but in the later school of sculpture known as ,gandhara or ,grco-,buddhist he is frequently shown in a full length portrait4 ,this difference is remarkable4 ,it is easy to say that in the older school the ,buddha was not depicted out of reverence1 but less easy to see why such delineation should have shocked an ,indian4 ,but at any rate there is no difficulty in understanding that ,greeks or artists influenced by ,greeks would think it obvious and proper to make an effigy of their principal hero4 ,in these shrines we have if not the origin of the ,hindu temple1 at any rate a parallel development more nearly allied to it than anything in the ,vedic religion4#daj ,for the ,buddhist shrine was a monument built over a receptacle containing relics and the essential feature of ,hindu temples is a cell containing an image or emblem and generally surmounted by a tower4 ,the surrounding courts and corridors may assume gigantic proportions1 but the central shrine is never large4 ,images had no place in the ,vedic sacrifices and those now worshipped in temples are generally small and rude1 and sometimes 7as at ,bhuvaneshwar and ,srirangam7 the deity is represented by a block or carved stone which cannot be moved1 and may have been honoured as a sacred rock long before the name of ,vishnu or iva was known in those regions4#daa ,the conspicuous statues often found outside the shrine are not generally worshipped and are merely ornaments4 ,buddhism did not create the type of ritual now used in ,hindu temples1 yet it contributed towards it1 for it attacked the old ,brahmanic sacrifices1 it countenanced the idea that particular places and objects are holy1 and it encouraged the use of images4 ,it is strange that these widespread ideas should find no place in the ,vedic religion1 but even now-a-days whenever the old ,vedic sacrifices are celebrated they are uncontaminated by the temple ceremonial4 ,more than this1 the priests or ,pujris who officiate in temples are not always ,brahmans and they rarely enjoy much consideration4#dab ,this curious and marked feature may be connected with the inveterate ,indian feeling that1 though it is well to multiply rites and rules for neophytes1 no great respect is due to men occupied with mere ceremonial4 ,but it also testifies to a dim consciousness that modern temples and their ceremonies have little to do with the thoughts and mode of life which made the ,brahmans a force in ,india4 ,in many ways the ,brahmans dissociate themselves from popular religion4 ,those of good family will not perform religious rites for dras and treat the ,brahmans who do so as inferiors4#dac ,the simplest ceremonial in use at the present day is that employed in some ivaite temples4 ,it consists in placing leaves on the linga and pouring holy water over it4 ,these rites1 which may be descended from prehistoric stone worship1 are generally accompanied by the reading of a ,purna4 ,but the commonest form of temple ritual consists in treating the image or symbol as an honoured human being4#dad ,it is awakened1 bathed1 dressed and put to bed at the close of day4 ,meals are served to it at the usual hours4 ,the food thus offered is called prasd 7or favour7 and is eaten by the devout4 ,once or twice a day the god holds a levee and on festivals he is carried in procession4 ,these ceremonies are specially characteristic of the worship of ,krishna whose images receive all the endearments lavished on a pet child4 ,but they are also used in the temples of iva and ,parvat1 and no less than twenty-two of them are performed in the course of the day at the temple of ,bhuvaneshwar in ,orissa4 ,it is clear that the spirit of these rites is very different from that which inspires public worship in other civilized countries at the present day4 ,they are not congregational or didactic1 though if any of the faithful are in the temple at the time of the god's levee it is proper for them to enter and salute him4 ,neither do they recall the magical ceremonies of the ,vedic sacrifices4#dae ,the waving of lights 7arati7 before the god and the burning of incense are almost the only acts suggestive of ecclesiastical ritual4 ,the rest consists in treating a symbol or image as if it were a living thing capable of enjoying simple physical pleasures4 ,here there are two strata4 ,we have really ancient rites1 such as the anointing or ornamenting of stones and offerings of food in sacred places4 ,in this class too we may reckon the sacrifice of goats 7and formerly of human beings7 to ,kl4#daf ,but on the other hand the growing idea of ,bhakti1 that is faith or devotion1 imported a sentimental element and the worshipper endeavoured to pet1 caress and amuse the deity4 ,it is hard to see anything either healthy or artistic in this emotional ritual4 ,the low and foolish character of many temple ceremonies disgusts even appreciative foreigners1 but these services are not the whole of ,hindu worship4 ,all ,hindus perform in the course of the day numerous acts of private devotion varying according to sect1 and a pious man is not dependent on the temple like a ,catholic on his church4 ,indian life is largely occupied with these private1 intimate1 individual observances1 hardly noticeable as ceremonies and concerned with such things as dressing1 ablution and the preparation of food4 ,the monastic institutions of ,india seem due to ,buddhism4 ,there were wandering monks before the ,buddha's time1 but the practice of founding establishments where they could reside permanently1 originated in his order4 ,there appears to be no record of ,hindu 7as opposed to ,buddhist7 monasteries before the time of ankara in the ninth century1 though there must have been places where the learned congregated or where wandering ascetics could lodge4 ankara perceived the advantage of the cenobitic life for organizing religion and founded a number of maths or colleges4 ,subsequent religious leaders imitated him4 ,at the present day these institutions are common1 yet it is clear that the wandering spirit is strong in ,hindus and that they do not take to monastic discipline and fixed residence as readily as ,tibetans and ,burmese4 ,a math is not so much a convent as the abode of a teacher4 ,his pupils frequent it and may become semi-resident3 aged pilgrims may make it their last home1 but the inmates are not a permanent body following a fixed rule like the monks of a ,vihra4 ,the ,sattras of ,assam1 however1 are true monasteries 7though even there vows and monastic costume are unknown7 and so are the establishments of the ,swminryana sect at ,ahmedabad and ,wartl4 #c ,the vast and complicated organization of caste is mainly a post-,vedic growth and in the ,buddha's time was only in the making4#dag ,his order was open to all classes alike1 but this does not imply that he was adverse to caste1 so far as it then prevailed1 or denied that men are divided into categories determined by their deeds in other births4 ,but on the whole the influence of ,buddhism was unfavourable to caste1 especially to the pretensions of the ,brahmans1 and an extant polemic against caste is ascribed 7though doubtfully7 to ,avaghosha4#dah ,on the other hand1 though caste is in its origin the expression of a social rather than of a religious tendency1 the whole institution and mechanism have long been supported and exploited by the ,brahmans4 ,few of them would dispute the proposition that a man cannot be a ,hindu unless he belongs to a caste4 ,the reason of this support is undisguised1 namely1 that they are the first and chief caste4 ,they make their own position a matter of religion and claim the power of purifying and rehabilitating those who have lost caste but they do not usually interfere with the rules of other castes or excommunicate those who break them4#dai ,that is the business of the ,pancayat or caste council4 ,sometimes religion and caste are in opposition1 for many modern religious leaders have begun by declaring that among believers there are no social distinctions4 ,this is true not only of teachers whose orthodoxy is dubious1 such as ,nnak1 the founder of the ,sikhs1 and ,basava1 the founder of the ,lingyats1#dbj but also of ,vallabhcrya and ,caitanya4 ,but in nearly all cases caste reasserts itself4 ,the religious teachers of the sect receive extravagant respect and form a body apart4 ,this phenomenon1 which recurs in nearly all communities1 shows how the ,brahmans established their position4 ,at the same time social distinctions make themselves felt among the laity1 and those who claim to be of good position dissociate themselves from those of lower birth4 ,the sect ends by observing caste on ordinary occasions1 and it is only in some temples 7such as that of ,jagannath at ,puri7#dba that the worshippers mix and eat a sacred meal together4 ,sometimes1 however1 the sect which renounces caste becomes itself a caste4 ,thus1 the ,sikhs have become almost a nation and other modern castes arising out of sects are the ,atiths1 who are ivaites1 the ,saraks1 who appear to have been originally ,buddhists1 and the ,baishnabs 7,vaishnavas71 a name commonly given in ,bengal to those followers of ,caitanya who persist in the original rule of disregarding caste regulations within the sect1 and hence now form a separate community4 ,but as a rule sect and caste are not co-extensive and the caste is not a religious corporation4 ,thus the different subdivisions of the ,baniyas belong to different sects and even in the same subdivision there is no religious uniformity4#dbb ,caste in its later developments is so complex and irregular1 that it is impossible to summarize it in a formula or explain it as the development of one principle4 ,in the earliest form known two principles are already in operation4 ,we have first racial distinction4 ,the three upper castes represent the invading ,aryans1 the fourth the races whom they found in ,india4 ,in the modern system of caste1 race is not a strong factor4 ,many who claim to be ,brahmans and ,kshatriyas have no ,aryan blood1 but still the ,aryan element is strongest in the highest castes and decreases as we descend the social scale and also decreases in the higher castes in proportion as we move from the north-west to the east and south4 ,but secondly in the three upper castes the dividing principle1 as reported in the earliest accounts1 is not race but occupation4 ,we find in most ,aryan countries a division into nobles and people1 but in ,india these two classes become three1 the priests having been able to assume a prominence unknown elsewhere and to stamp on literature their claim to the highest rank4 ,this claim was probably never admitted in practice so completely as the priests desired4 ,it was certainly disputed in ,buddhist times and ,i have myself heard a young ,rajput say that the ,brahmans falsified the ,epics so as to give themselves the first place4 ,it is not necessary for our purpose to describe the details of the modern caste system4 ,its effect on ,indian religion has been considerable1 for it created the social atmosphere in which the various beliefs grew up and it has furnished the ,brahmans with the means of establishing their authority4 ,but many religious reformers preached that in religion caste does not exist--that there is neither ,jew nor ,gentile in the language of another creed--and though the application of this theory is never complete1 the imperfection is the result not of religious opposition but of social pressure4 ,hindu life is permeated by the instinct that society must be divided into communities having some common interest and refusing to intermarry or eat with other communities4 ,the long list of modern castes hardly bears even a theoretical relation to the four classes of ,vedic times4#dbc ,numerous subdivisions with exclusive rules as to intermarriage and eating have arisen among the ,brahmans and the strength of this fissiparous instinct is seen among the ,mohammedans who nominally have no caste but yet are divided into groups with much the same restrictions4 ,this remarkable tendency to form exclusive corporations is perhaps correlated with the absence of political life in ,india4 ,such ideas as nationality1 citizenship1 allegiance to a certain prince1 patriotic feelings for a certain territory are rarer and vaguer than elsewhere1 and yet the ,hindu is dependent on his fellows and does not like to stand alone4 ,so finding little satisfaction in the city or state he clings the more tenaciously to smaller corporations4 ,these have no one character3 they are not founded on any one logical principle but merely on the need felt by people who have something in common to associate together4 ,many are based on tribal divisions2 some1 such as the ,marathas and ,newars1 may be said to be nationalities4 ,in many the bond of union is occupation1 in a few it is sectarian religion4 ,we can still observe how members of a caste who migrate from their original residence tend to form an entirely new caste1 and how intertribal marriages among the aborigines create new tribes4 #d ,sect#dbd must not be confounded with caste4 ,hindu sects are of many kinds2 some1 if not militant1 are at least exceedingly self-confident4 ,others are so gentle in stating their views that they might be called schools rather than sects1 were the word not too intellectual4 ,the notion that any creed or code can be quod semper1 quod ubique1 quod ab omnibus1 is less prevalent than in ,europe and even the ,veda1 though it is the eternal word1 is admitted to exist in several recensions4 ,hinduism is possible as a creed only to those who select4 ,in its literal sense it means simply all the beliefs and rites recognized in ,india1 too multifarious and inconsistent for the most hospitable and addled brain to hold4 ,but the ,hindus1 who are as loth to abolish queer beliefs and practices as they are to take animal life1 are also the most determined seekers after a satisfying form of religion4 ,brahmanic ritual and ,buddhist monasticism demand the dedication of a life4 ,not everyone can afford that1 but the sect is open to all4 ,it attempts to sort out of the chaos of mythology and superstition something which all can understand and all may find useful4 ,it selects some aspect of ,hinduism and makes the best of it4 ,sects usually start by preaching theism and equality in the sight of ,god1 but in a few generations mythology and social distinctions creep in4 ,hence though the prevalence of sect is undoubtedly a feature of modern ,hinduism it is also intelligible that some observers should assert that most ,hindus belong to the same general religion and that only the minority are definitely sectarian4 ,the sectarian tendency is stronger in ,vishnuism than in ivaism4 ,the latter has produced some definite sects1 as1 for instance1 ,lingyats1 but is not like ,vishnuism split up into a number of ,churches each founded by a human teacher and provided by him with a special creed4 ,most ,indian sects are in their origin theistic1 that is to say1 they take a particular deity and identify him with the ,supreme ,being4 ,but the pantheistic tendency does not disappear4 ,popular religion naturally desires a personal deity4 ,but it is significant that the personal deity frequently assumes pantheistic attributes and is declared to be both the world and the human soul4 ,the best known sects arose after ,islam had entered ,india and some of them1 such as the ,sikhs1 show a blending of ,hindu and ,moslem ideas4 ,but if ,mohammedan influence favoured the formation of corporations pledged to worship one particular deity1 it acted less by introducing something new than by quickening a line of thought already existing4 ,the ,bhagavad-gt is as complete an exposition of sectarian pantheism as any utterances posterior to ,mohammedanism4 ,the characteristic doctrine of sectarian ,hinduism is bhakti1 faith or devotion4 ,the older word raddh1 which is found in the ,vedas1 is less emotional for it means simply belief in the existence of a deity1 whereas bhakti can often be rendered by love4 ,it is passionate1 self-oblivious devotion to a deity who in return 7though many would say there is no bartering7 bestows his grace 7prasda or anugraha74 ,st4 ,augustine in defining faith says3 ,quid est credere in ,deum8 credendo amare1 credendo diligere1 credendo in eum ire1 et ejus membris incorporari4#dbe ,this is an excellent paraphrase of bhakti and the words have an oriental ring which is not quite that of the ,new ,testament4 ,though the doctrine of bhakti marks the beginning of a new epoch in ,hinduism it is not necessary to regard it as an importation or due to ,christianity4 ,about the time of the ,christian era there was felt in many countries a craving for a gentler and more emotional worship and though the history of ,bhaktism is obscure1 ,indian literature shows plainly how it may be a development of native ideas4 ,its first great text-book is the ,bhagavad-gt1 but it is also mentioned in the last verse of the vetvatara ,upanishad and ,pnini appears to allude to bhakti felt for#dbf ,vsudeva4 ,the ,kath ,upanishad#dbg contains the following passage3 ,that tman cannot be gained by the ,veda1 nor by understanding nor by much learning4 ,he whom the tman chooses1 by him the tman can be gained4 ,the tman chooses him as his own4 ,here we have not the idea of faith or love1 but we have the negative statement that the tman is not won by knowledge and the positive statement that this tman chooses his own4 ,in the ,rig ,veda#dbh there is a poem put into the mouth of ,vac or speech1 containing such sentiments as ,i give wealth to him who gives sacrifice4444 ,i am that through which one eats1 breathes1 sees1 and hears4444 ,him that ,i love ,i make strong1 to be a priest1 a seer1 a sage4 ,this reads like an ancient preliminary study for the ,bhagavad-gt4 ,like ,krishna the deity claims to be in all and1 like him1 to reward her votaries4 ,it is true that the ,come unto me is not distinctly expressed1 but it is surely struggling for expression4#dbi ,again1 in the ,kaushtaki ,upanishad 7,,iii4 #a and #b7 ,indra says to ,pratardana1 who had asked him for a boon1 ,know me only3 that is1 what ,i deem most beneficial to man1 that he should know me4444 ,he who meditates on me as life and immortality gains his full life in this world and in heaven immortality4 ,here the relation of the devotee to the deity is purely intellectual not emotional1 but the idea that intellectual devotion directed to a particular deity will be rewarded is clearly present4 ,in the ,rig ,veda this same ,indra is called a deliverer and advocate2 a friend1 a brother and a father2 even a father and mother in one4 ,here the worshipper does not talk of bhakti because he does not analyze his feelings1 but clearly these phrases are inspired by affectionate devotion4 ,nor is the spirit of bhakti absent from ,buddhism4 ,the severe doctrine of the older schools declares that the ,buddha is simply a teacher and that every man must save himself4 ,but since the teacher is the source of the knowledge which saves1 it is natural to feel for him grateful and affectionate devotion4 ,this sentiment permeates the two books of poems called ,thera and ,thergth and sometimes finds clear expression4#dcj ,in the commentary on the ,dhammapada#dca the doctrine of salvation by devotion is affirmed in its extreme form1 namely that a dying man who has faith in the ,buddha will be reborn in heaven4 ,but this commentary is not of early date and the doctrine quoted is probably an instance of the ,hinayana borrowing the attractive features of the ,mahayana4 ,the sutras about ,amitbha's paradise1 which were composed about the time of the ,christian era and owe something to ,persian though not to ,christian influence1 preach faith in ,amitbha as the whole of religion4 ,they who believe in him and call on his name will go to heaven4 ,when bhakti was once accepted as a part of ,indian religion1 it was erected into a principle1 analogous or superior to knowledge and was defined in ,stras#dcb similar to those of the ,snkhya and ,vednta4 ,but its importance in philosophy is small1 whereas its power as an impulse in popular religion has been enormous4 ,to estimate its moral and intellectual value is difficult1 for like so much in ,hinduism it offers the sharpest contrasts4 ,its obvious manifestations may seem to be acts of devotion which cannot be commended ethically and belief in puerile stories3 yet we find that this offensive trash continually turns into gems of religious thought unsurpassed in the annals of ,buddhism and ,christianity4 ,the doctrine of bhakti is common to both ,vishnuites and ivaites4 ,it is perhaps in general estimation associated with the former more than with the latter1 but this is because the ,bhagavad-gt and various forms of devotion to ,krishna are well known1 whereas the ,tamil literature of ,dravidian ivaism is ignored by many ,european scholars4 ,one might be inclined to suppose that the emotional faith sprang up first in the worship of ,vishnu1 for the milder god seems a natural object for love1 whereas iva has to undergo a certain transformation before he can evoke such feelings4 ,but there is no evidence that this is the historical development of the bhakti sentiment1 and if the ,bhagavad-gt is emphatic in enjoining the worship of ,krishna only1 the vetvatara and ,maitryanya ,upanishads favour iva1 and he is abundantly extolled in many parts of the ,mahbhrata4 ,here1 as so often1 exact chronology fails us in the early history of these sects1 but it is clear that the practice of worshipping iva and ,vishnu1 as being each by himself all-sufficient1 cannot have begun much later than the ,christian era and may have begun considerably earlier1 even though people did not call themselves aivas or ,vaishnavas4 ,bhakti is often associated with the doctrine of the playfulness of ,god4 ,this idea--so strange to ,europe#dcc--may have its roots partly in the odd non-moral attributes of some early deities4 ,thus the ,rudra of the atarudrya hymn is a queer character and a trickster4 ,but it soon takes a philosophical tinge and is used to explain the creation and working of the universe which is regarded not as an example of capricious1 ironical1 inscrutable action1 but rather as manifesting easy1 joyous movement and the exuberant rhythm of a dance executed for its own sake4 ,the ,european can hardly imagine a sensible person doing anything without an object3 he thinks it almost profane to ascribe motiveless action to the ,creator3 he racks his brain to discover any purpose in creation which is morally worthy and moderately in accord with the facts of experience4 ,but he can find none4 ,the ,hindu1 on the contrary1 argues that ,god being complete and perfect cannot be actuated by aims or motives1 for all such impulses imply a desire to obtain something1 whereas a perfect and complete being is one which by its very definition needs neither change nor addition4 ,therefore1 whatever activity is ascribed to the creator must not be thought of as calculating1 purposeful endeavour1 but as spontaneous1 exultant movement1 needing and admitting no explanation1 and analogous to sport and play rather than to the proceedings of prudent people4 ,this view of the divine activity is expounded by so serious a writer as ankara in his commentary on the ,vednta ,stras1 and it also finds mythological expression in numerous popular legends4 ,the ,tamil ,purnas describe the sixty-four miracles of iva as his amusements3 his laughter and joyous movements brighten all things1 and the street minstrels sing ,he sports in the world4 ,he sports in the soul4#dcd ,he is supposed to dance in the ,golden ,hall of the temple at ,chidambaram and something of the old legends of the atarudrya hangs about such popular titles as the ,deceiver and the ,maniac 7,kalvar7 and the stories of his going about disguised and visiting his worshippers in the form of a mendicant4 ,the idea of sport and playfulness is also prominent in ,vishnuism4 ,it is a striking feature in the cultus of both the infant and the youthful ,krishna1 but ,i have not found it recorded in the severer worship of ,rma4 ,another feature of ,hindu sects is the extravagant respect paid to ,gurus or teachers4 ,the sanctity of the ,guru is an old conviction in ,india4 ,by common consent he is entitled to absolute obedience and offences against him are heinous crimes4 ,but in sectarian literature there appears a new claim1 namely1 that the ,guru in some way is or represents the god whose worship he teaches4 ,if the deity is thought of primarily as a saviour1 the ,guru is said to deliver from suffering and hell3 if he requires surrender and sacrifice1 then person and possessions must be dedicated to the ,guru4 ,membership of a sect can be attained only by initiation at the hands of a ,guru who can teach a special mantra or formula of which each sect has its own4 ,in some of the more modern sects the ,guru need not be a ,brahman1 but if he cannot be venerated for his caste1 the deficiency is compensated by the respect which he receives as a repository of oral teaching4 ,the scriptural basis of many sects is dubious and even when it exists1 many of the devout 7especially women7 have not the inclination or ability to read and therefore take their religion from the lips of the ,guru1 who thus becomes an oracle and source of truth4 ,in ,bengal1 the family ,guru is a regular institution in respectable castes4 ,in many sects the founder or other prominent saint is described as an incarnation and receives veneration after death4#dce ,this veneration or deification of the ,guru is found in most sects and assumes as extreme a form among the aivas as among the ,vaishnavas4 ,the aiva ,siddhnta teaches that divine instruction can be received only from one who is both god and man1 and that the true ,guru is an incarnation of iva4 ,thus the works of ,mnikka-,vagar and ,umpati speak of iva coming to his devotees in the form of the ,guru4 ,in the sects that worship ,krishna the ,gurus are frequently called ,gosain 7,goswami74#dcf ,sometimes they are members of a particular family1 as among the ,vallabhcryas4 ,in other sects there is no hereditary principle and even a ,sudra is eligible as ,guru4 ,one other feature of ,sectarian ,hinduism must be mentioned4 ,it may be described as ,tantrism or1 in one of its aspects1 as the later ,yoga and is a combination of practices and theories which have their roots in the old literature and began to form a connected doctrine at least as early as the eighth century ,a4,d4 ,some of its principal ideas are as follows3 7i7 ,letters and syllables 7and also their written forms and diagrams7 have a potent influence both for the human organism and for the universe4 ,this idea is found in the early ,upanishads#dcg and is fully developed in the later ,sectarian ,upanishads4 7ii7 ,the human organism is a miniature copy of the universe4#dch ,it contains many lines or channels 7nd7 along which the nerve force moves and also nervous centres distributed from the hips to the head1 7iii7 ,in the lowest centre resides a force identical with the force which creates the universe4#dci ,when by processes which are partly physical it is roused and made to ascend to the highest centre1 emancipation and bliss are obtained4 7iv7 ,there is a mysterious connection between the process of cosmic evolution and sound1 especially the sacred sound ,om4 ,these ideas are developed most thoroughly in ktist works1 but are by no means peculiar to them4 ,they are found in the ,pncartra and the later ,puranas and have influenced almost all modern sects1 although those which are based on emotional devotion are naturally less inclined to favour physical and magical means of obtaining salvation4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #dja3 ,the population of ,india 7about #cae millions7 is larger than that of ,europe without ,russia4 ,footnote #djb3 ,but compare the ,english poet ,flower in the crannied wall1 ,i pluck you out of the crannies1 444 but if ,i could understand ,what you are1 root and all1 and all in all ,i should know what ,god and man is4 ,footnote #djc3 ,efforts are now being made by ,hindus to suppress this institution4 ,footnote #djd3 ,in the ,vedic funeral ceremonies the wife lies down by her dead husband and is called back to the world of the living which points to an earlier form of the rite where she died with him4 ,but even at this period1 those who did not follow the ,vedic customs may have killed widows with their husbands 7see too ,ath4 ,veda1 ,,xii4 #c71 and later1 the invaders from ,central ,asia probably reinforced the usage4 ,the much-abused ,tantras forbid it4 ,footnote #dje3 ,for the history of the ,rmyana and ,mahbhrata and the dates assignable to the different periods of growth1 see ,winternitz1 ,gesch4 ,ind4 ,lit4 vol4 ,i4 p4 #djc and p4 #dci4 ,also ,hopkins' ,great ,epic of ,india1 p4 #cig4 ,the two poems had assumed something like their present form in the second and fourth centuries ,a4,d4 respectively4 ,these are probably the latest dates for any substantial additions or alterations and there is considerable evidence that poems called ,bhrata and ,rmyana were well known early in the ,christian era4 ,thus in ,avaghosha's ,strlankra 7story ,,xxiv7 they are mentioned as warlike poems inculcating unbuddhist views4 ,the ,rmyana is mentioned in the ,mahvibhsh and was known to ,vasubandhu 7,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aijg1 p4 #ii74 ,a ,cambojan inscription dating from the first years of the seventh century records arrangements made for the recitation of the ,rmyana1 ,purna and complete 7aesha7 ,bhrata1 which implies that they were known in ,india considerably earlier4 ,see ,barth1 ,inscrip4 ,sanscrites de ,cambodge1 pp4 #bi-ca4 ,the ,mahabharata itself admits that it is the result of gradual growth for in the opening section it says that the ,bhrata consists of #h1hjj verses1 #bd1jjj verses and #ajj1jjj verses4 ,footnote #djf3 ,hardy1 ,indische ,religionsgeschichte1 p4 #aja4 ,footnote #djg3 ,but some of these latter sacrifice images made of dough instead of living animals4 ,footnote #djh3 ,it is said that the ,agnishtoma was performed in ,benares in #ahih1 and in the last few years ,i am told that one or two ,vedic sacrifices have been offered annually in various parts of southern ,india4 ,i have myself seen the sites where such sacrifices were offered in #aijh-i in ,mysore city and in ,chidambaram1 and in #aiab at ,wei near ,poona4 ,the most usual form of sacrifice now-a-days is said to be the ,vjapeya4 ,much ,vedic ritual is still preserved in the domestic life of the ,nambathiri and other ,brahmans of southern ,india4 ,see ,cochin1 ,tribes and ,castes1 and ,thurston1 ,castes and ,tribes of southern ,india4 ,footnote #dji3 ,the outline of a stpa may be due to imitation of houses constructed with curved bamboos as ,vincent ,smith contends 7,history of ,fine ,art1 p4 #ag74 ,but this is compatible with the view that stone buildings with this curved outline had come to be used specially as funeral monuments before ,buddhism popularized in ,india and all ,eastern ,asia the architectural form called stpa4 ,footnote #daj3 ,the temple of ,aihole near ,badami seems to be a connecting link between a ,buddhist stpa with a pradakshina path and a ,hindu shrine4 ,footnote #daa3 ,in most temples 7at least in southern ,india7 there are two images3 the mla-vigraha which is of stone and fixed in the sanctuary1 and the utsava-vigraha which is smaller1 made of metal and carried in processions4 ,footnote #dab3 ,thus ,bhattchrya 7,hindu ,castes and ,sects1 p4 #abg7 enumerates eleven classes of ,brahmans1 who have a very low status on account of their being connected with the great public shrines1 and adds that mere residence in a place of pilgrimage for a few generations tends to lower the status of a ,brahmanic family4 ,footnote #dac3 ,thus in ,bengal there is a special class1 the ,barna ,brahmans1 who perform religious rites for the lower castes1 and are divided into six classes according to the castes to whom they minister4 ,other ,brahmans will not eat or intermarry with them or even take water from them4 ,footnote #dad3 ,this is extraordinarily like the temple ritual of the ancient ,egyptians4 ,for some account of the construction and ritual of south ,indian temples see ,richards in ,j4 of ,mythic ,soc4 #aiai1 pp4 #aeh-ajg4 ,footnote #dae3 ,but ,vedic mantras are used in these ceremonies4 ,the libations of water or other liquids are said to be accompanied by the mantras recited at the ,soma sacrifice4 ,footnote #daf3 ,at these sacrifices there is no elaborate ritual or suggestion of symbolism4 ,the animal is beheaded and the inference is that ,kl likes it4 ,similarly simple is the offering of coco-nuts to ,kl4 ,the worshipper gives a nut to the pujri who splits it in two with an axe1 spills the milk and hands back half the nut to the worshipper4 ,this is the sort of primitive offering that might be made to an ,african fetish4 ,footnote #dag3 ,see especially the ,ambattha ,stta 7,dig4 ,nik4 #c7 and ,rhys ,davids's introduction4 ,footnote #dah3 ,see ,weber1 ,die ,vajrasuchi and ,nanjio1 ,catal4 ,no4 #acjc4 ,in ,ceylon at the present day only members of the higher castes can become ,bhikkhus4 ,footnote #dai3 ,but it is said that in ,southern ,india serious questions of caste are reported to the abbot of the ,sringeri monastery for his decision4 ,footnote #dbj3 ,the modern ,lingyats demur to the statement that their founder rejected caste4 ,footnote #dba3 ,so too in the cakras of the ktists all castes are equal during the performance of the ceremony4 ,footnote #dbb3 ,some 7,khandelwals1 ,dasa ,srimalis and ,palliwals7 include both ,jains and ,vaishnavas3 the ,agarwals are mostly ,vaishnavas but some of them are ,jains and some worship iva and ,kl4 ,jogendra ,nath ,bhattacharya1 ,hindu ,castes and ,sects1 pp4 #bje ff4 ,footnote #dbc3 ,the names used are not the same4 ,the four ,vedic castes are called ,varna3 the hundreds of modern castes are called ,jti4 ,footnote #dbd3 ,sampradya seems to be the ordinary ,sanskrit word for sectarian doctrine4 ,it means traditional teaching transmitted from one teacher to another4 ,footnote #dbe3 ,i am discussing elsewhere the possible debt which ,christianity and ,hinduism may owe to one another4 ,footnote #dbf3 ,pnini1 ,,iv4 #c4 #ie-ih4 ,footnote #dbg3 ,kath ,up4 ,i4 #a4 #b1 #bc4 ,footnote #dbh3 ,r4,v4 ,x4 #abe4 ,footnote #dbi3 ,compare too the hymns of the ,r4,v4 to ,varuna as a rudimentary expression of ,bhakti from the worshipper's point of view4 ,footnote #dcj3 ,e4g4 ,theragth1 #hah-hda and #abca-abde4 ,footnote #dca3 ,i4 #b4 ,footnote #dcb3 ,they are called the ndilya ,stras and appear to be not older than about the twelfth century ,a4,d41 but the tradition which connects them with the ,school of ndilya may be just1 for the teaching of this sage 7,chndog4 ,up4 ,,iii4 #ad7 lays stress on will and belief4 ,rmnuja 7rbhshya1 ,,ii4 #b4 #dc7 refers to ndilya as the alleged author of the ,pncartra4 ,there are other ,bhakti stras called ,nradiya and ascribed to ,nrada1 published and translated in ,the ,sacred ,books of the ,hindus1 ,no4 #bc4 ,they consist of #hd short aphorisms4 ,raj4 ,mitra in his notices of ,sanskrit ,,mss4 describes a great number of modern works dealing with ,bhakti4 ,footnote #dcc3 ,yet it is found in ,francis ,thompson's poem called ,any ,saint ,so best ,god loves to jest ,with children small1 a freak ,of heavenly hide and seek ,fit ,for thy wayward wit4 ,footnote #dcd3 ,pope1 ,the ,history of ,manikka-,vaagar1 p4 #bc4 ,for the #fd sports of iva see ,siddhanta ,dipika1 vol4 ,,ix4 ,footnote #dce3 ,e4g4 ,rmnuja1 ,nammrvr1 ,basava4 ,footnote #dcf3 ,apparently meaning possessor of cows1 and originally a title of the youthful ,krishna4 ,it is also interpreted as meaning ,lord of the ,vedas or ,lord of his own senses4 ,footnote #dcg3 ,e4g4 the beginning of the ,chnd4 ,up4 about the syllable ,om4 ,see too the last section of the ,aitareya ran4 ,the ,yoga ,upanishads analyse and explain ,om and some ,vishnuite ,upanishads 7,nrisimha and ,rmat-panya7 enlarge on the subject of letters and diagrams4 ,footnote #dch3 ,the same idea pervades the old literature in a slightly different form4 ,the parts of the sacrifice are constantly identified with parts of the universe or of the human body4 ,footnote #dci3 ,the cakras are mentioned in ,act ,v of ,mlat and ,mdhava written early in the eighth century4 ,the doctrine of the nds occurs in the older ,upanishads 7e4g4 ,chnd4 and ,maitryana7 in a rudimentary form4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,hinduism4 ,,bh,,gavatas ,,and ,p,,upatas #a ,india is a literary country and naturally so great a change as the transformation of the old religion into theistic sects preaching salvation by devotion to a particular deity found expression in a long and copious literature4 ,this literature supplements and supersedes the ,vedic treatises but without impairing their theoretical authority1 and1 since it cannot compare with them in antiquity and has not the same historic interest1 it has received little attention from ,indianists until the present century4 ,but in spite of its defects it is of the highest importance for an understanding of medieval and contemporary ,hinduism4 ,much of it is avowedly based on the principle that in this degenerate age the ,veda is difficult to understand1#ddj and that therefore ,god in ,his mercy has revealed other texts containing a clear compendium of doctrine4 ,thus the great ,vishnuite doctor ,rmnuja states authoritatively ,the incontrovertible fact then is as follows3 ,the ,lord who is known from the ,vednta texts 444 recognising that the ,vedas are difficult to fathom by all beings other than himself 444 with a view to enable his devotees to grasp the true meaning of the ,vedas1 himself composed the ,pncartra-,sstra4#dda ,this later sectarian literature falls into several divisions4 ,a4 ,certain episodes of the ,mahbhrata4 ,the most celebrated of these is the ,bhagavad-gt1 which is probably anterior to the ,christian era4 ,though it is incorporated in the ,epic it is frequently spoken of as an independent work4 ,later and less celebrated but greatly esteemed by ,vishnuites is the latter part of book ,,xii1 commonly known as ,nryanya4#ddb ,both these episodes and others#ddc are closely analogous to metrical ,upanishads4 ,the ,mahbhrata even styles itself 7,i4 #bfa7 the ,veda of ,krishna 7,krshna74 ,the ,rmyana does not contain religious episodes comparable to those mentioned but the story has more than once been re-written in a religious and philosophic form4 ,of such versions the ,adhytma-,rmyana#ddd and ,yoga-vaishtha-,rmyana are very popular4 ,b4 ,though the ,purnas#dde are not at all alike1 most of them show clear affinity both as literature and as religious thought to the various strata of the ,mahbhrata1 and to the ,law ,books1 especially the metrical code of ,manu4 ,these all represent a form of orthodoxy which while admitting much that is not found in the ,veda is still ,brahmanic and traditionalist4 ,the older ,purnas 7e4g4 ,matsya1 ,vyu1 ,mrkandeya1 ,vishnu71 or at least the older parts of them1 are the literary expression of that ,hindu reaction which gained political power with the accession of the ,gupta dynasty4 ,they are less definitely sectarian than later works such as the ,nrada and ,linga ,purnas1 yet all are more or less sectarian4 ,the most influential ,purna is the ,bhgavata1 one of the great scriptures for all sects which worship ,krishna4 ,it is said to have been translated into every language of ,india and forty versions in ,bengali alone are mentioned4#ddf ,it was probably composed in the eighth or ninth century4#ddg ,a free translation of the tenth book into ,hindi1 called the ,prem ,sagar or ,ocean of ,love1 is greatly revered in northern ,india4#ddh ,other sectarian ,purnas are frequently read at temple services4 ,besides the eighteen great ,purnas there are many others1 and in south ,india at any rate they were sometimes composed in the vernacular1 as for instance the ,periya ,purna 7c4 #aajj ,a4,d474 ,these vernacular ,purnas seem to be collections of strangely fantastic fairy tales4 ,c4 ,the word ,tantra originally meant a manual giving the essentials of a subject but later usage tends to restrict it to works1 whether ,hindu or ,buddhist1 inculcating the worship of iva's spouse4 ,but there are exceptions to this restriction3 the ,panca-tantra is a collection of stories and the ,lakshm-tantra is a ,vishnuite work4#ddi ,the fact is that a whole class of ,sanskrit religious literature is described by the titles ,tantra1 gama and ,samhit1#dej which taken in a wide sense are practically synonymous1 though usage is inclined to apply the first specially to ktist works1 the second to ivaite and the third to ,vishnuite4 ,the common character of all these productions is that they do not attempt to combine ,vedic rites and ideas with sectarian worship1 but boldly state that1 since the prescriptions of the ,veda are too hard for this age1 some generous deity has revealed an easier teaching4 ,this teaching naturally varies in detail1 but it usually comprises devotion to some special form of the godhead and also a special ceremonial1 which commences with initiation and includes the use of mystic formul1 letters and diagrams4 ,tantras1 gamas and ,samhits all treat of their subject-matter in four divisions#dea the first of which relates to the great problems of philosophy1 the second to the discipline necessary for uniting the self and ,god2 the third and fourth to ceremonial4 ,these works have another feature in common1 namely that they are little known except to those ,hindus who use them for religious purposes and are probably not very anxious to see them published4 ,though they are numerous1 few of them have been printed and those few have not been much studied by ,european scholars4 ,i shall say something more about them below in treating of the various sects4 ,some are of respectable antiquity but it is also clear that modern texts pass under ancient names4 ,the ,pncartram and ,pupatam which are ,vishnuite and ivaite ,samhits are mentioned in the ,mahbhrata1 and some extant ,vishnuite ,samhits were perhaps composed in the fourth century ,a4,d4#deb ,rmnuja as quoted above states that the ,pncartra-stra 7apparently the same as the ,pncartra-tantra which he also mentions7 was composed by ,vsudeva himself and also cites as scripture the ttvata1 ,paushkara and ,parama ,samhits4 ,in the same context he speaks of the ,mahbhrata as ,bhrata-,samhit and the whole passage is interesting as being a statement by a high authority of the reasons for accepting a non-,vedic work like the ,pncartra as revealed scripture4 ,as already indicated ,european usage makes the words ,tantra1 ,tantrism and tantric refer to the worship of goddesses4 ,it would be better to describe this literature and worship as ,sktism and to use ,tantrism for a tendency in doctrine and ceremonial which otherwise has no special name4 ,i have been informed by ,tamil ,pandits that at the present day the ritual in some temples is smrta or according to ,smriti1 but in the majority according to the gamas or tantric4 ,the former which is followed by many well-known shrines 7for instance in ,benares and in the great temples of south ,india7 conforms to the precepts of the ,purnas1 especially on festival days4 ,the officiants require no special initiation and burnt offerings are presented4 ,but the gamic ritual can be performed only by priests who have received initiation1 burnt offerings rarely form part of the ceremony and vernacular hymns are freely used4#dec ,such hymns however as well as processions and other forms of worship which appeal directly to the religious emotions are certainly not tantric4 ,tantrism is a species of religious magic1 differing from the ,vedic sacrifices in method rather than principle4#ded ,for all that1 it sets aside the old rites and announces itself as the new dispensation for this age4 ,among its principal features are the following4 ,the ,tantras are a scripture for all1 and lay little stress on caste3 the texts and the ritual which they teach can be understood only after initiation and with the aid of a teacher3 the ritual consists largely in the correct use of spells1 magical or sacramental syllables and letters1 diagrams and gestures3 its object is less to beseech than to compel the god to come to the worshipper3 another object is to unite the worshipper to the god and in fact transform him into the god3 man is a microcosm corresponding to the macrocosm or universe3 the spheres and currents of the universe are copied in miniature in the human body and the same powers rule the same parts in the greater and the lesser scheme4 ,such ideas are widely disseminated in almost all modern sects1#dee though without forming their essential doctrine1 but ,i must repeat that to say all sects are tantric does not mean that they are all ktist4 ,but ktist sects are fundamentally and thoroughly tantric in their theory and practice4 ,d4 ,besides the ,sanskrit books mentioned above numerous vernacular works1 especially collections of hymns1 are accepted as authoritative by various sects1 and almost every language has scriptures of its own4 ,in the south two ,tamil hymnals1 the ,devaram of the ivaites and ,nlyira ,prabandham of the ,vishnuites1 are recited in temples and are boldly stated to be revelations equivalent to the ,veda4 ,in northern ,india may be mentioned the ,hindi ,ramayana of ,tulsi ,das1 which is almost universally venerated1 the ,bhaktaml of ,nbh ,das1#def the ,sur-sagar of ,surdas and the ,prem ,sagar4 ,in ,assam the ,nam ,gosha of ,madhab ,deb is honoured with the same homage as a sacred image4 ,the awkwardness of admitting direct inspiration in late times is avoided by the theory of spiritual descent1 that is to say of doctrinal transmission from teacher to teacher1 the divine revelation having been made to the original teacher at a discreetly remote epoch4 #b ,in considering the evolution of modern ,hinduism out of the old ,vedic religion1 three of the many factors responsible for this huge and complicated result deserve special attention4 ,the first is the unusual intensity and prevalence of the religious temperament4 ,this has a double effect1 both conservative and alterative3 ancient customs receive an unreasonable respect3 they are not abolished for their immorality or absurdity2 but since real interest implies some measure of constructive power1 there is a constant growth of new ideas and reinterpretations resulting in inconsistent combinations4 ,the second is the absence of hierarchy and discipline4 ,the guiding principle of the ,brahmans has always been not so much that they have a particular creed to enforce1 as that whatever is the creed of ,india they must be its ministers4 ,naturally every priest is the champion of his own god or rite1 and such zeal may lead to occasional conflicts4 ,but though the antithesis between the ritualism of the older ,brahmanism and the faith or philosophy of ivaism and ,vishnuism may remind us of the differences between the ,catholic ,church and ,protestant reformers1 yet historically there is no resemblance in the development of the antithesis4 ,to some extent ,hinduism showed a united front against ,buddhism1 but the older ,brahmanism had no organization which enabled it to stand as a separate ,church in opposition to movements which it disliked4 ,the third factor is the deeply rooted idea1 which reappears at frequent intervals from the time of the ,upanishads until to-day1 that rules and rites and even creeds are somehow part of the lower and temporal order of things which the soul should transcend and leave behind4 ,this idea tinges the whole of ,indian philosophy and continually crops up in practice4 ,the founder of a strange sect who declares that nothing is necessary but faith in a particular deity and that all ceremonies and caste observances are superfluous is not in the popular esteem a subverter of ,hinduism4 ,the history of both ivaism and ,vishnuism illustrates these features4 iva begins as a wild deity of non-moral attributes4 ,as the religious sense develops he is not rejected like the less reputable deities of the ,jews and ,arabs but remains and collects round himself other strange wild ideas which in time are made philosophical but not ethical4 ,the rites of the new religion are1 if not antagonistic1 at least alternative to the ancient sacrifices1 yet far from being forbidden they are performed by ,brahmans and modern ,indian writers describe iva as peculiarly the ,brahman's god4 ,finally the ivaite schools of the ,tamil country reject in successive stages the grosser and more formal elements until there remains nothing but an ecstatic and mystical monotheism4 ,similarly among the ,vishnuites ,krishna is the centre of legends which have even less of conventional morality4 ,yet out of them arises a doctrine that the love of ,god is the one thing needful so similar to ,christian teaching that many have supposed it must be borrowed4 ,the first clear accounts of the worship of iva and ,vishnu are contained in the epics and indicate the existence of sectarian religion1 that is to say of exclusive devotion to one or other deity4 ,but there is also a tendency to find a place for both1 a tendency which culminates in the composite deity ankara ,nryana already mentioned4 ,many of the ,purnas#deg reflect this view and praise the two deities impartially4 ,the ,mahbhrata not unfrequently does the same but the general impression left by this poem is that the various parts of which it consists have been composed or revised in a sectarian spirit4 ,the body of the work is a narrative of exploits in which the hero ,krishna plays a great part but revised so as to make him appear often as a deity and sometimes as the ,supreme ,spirit4 ,but much of the didactic matter which has been added1 particularly books ,,xii and ,,xiii1 breathes an equally distinct ivaite spirit and in the parts where ,krishna is treated as a mere hero1 the principal god appears to be not ,vishnu but iva4 ,the ,mahabharata and ,puranas contain legends which1 though obscure1 refer to conflicts of the worshippers of iva with those who offered ,vedic sacrifices as well as with the votaries of ,vishnu1 and to a subsequent reconciliation and blending of the various cults4 ,among these is the well-known story of ,daksha's sacrifice to which iva was not invited4 ,enraged at the omission he violently breaks up the sacrifice either in person or through a being whom he creates for the purpose1 assaults the officiants and the gods who are present1 and is pacified by receiving a share4 ,similarly we hear#deh that he once seized a victim at a sacrifice and that the gods in fear allotted to him the choicest portion of the offerings4 ,these stories indicate that at one time ,brahmans did not countenance his worship and he is even represented as saying to his wife that according to rule 7dharmatah7 he has no share in the sacrifice4#dei ,possibly human victims were immolated in his honour1 as they were in ,kl's until recently1 for in the ,mahabharata#dfj it is related how ,krishna expostulated with ,jarsandha who proposed to offer to iva a sacrifice of captive kings4 ,in the ,vishnu-,purna1 ,krishna fights with iva and burns ,benares4 ,but by the time that the ,mahabharata was put together these quarrels were not in an acute stage4 ,in several passages#dfa ,krishna is made to worship iva as the ,supreme ,spirit and in others#dfb vice versa iva celebrates the glory of ,krishna4 ,vishnuites do not disbelieve in iva but they regard him as a god of this world1 whereas their own deity is cosmic and universal4 ,many ,vishnuite works#dfc are said to be revealed by iva who acts as an intermediary between us and higher spheres4 #c ,in the following sections ,i shall endeavour to relate the beginnings of sectarianism4 ,the sects which are now most important are relatively modern and arose in the twelfth century or later1 but the sectarian spirit can be traced back several centuries before our era4 ,by sectarians ,i mean worshippers of iva or ,vishnu who were neither in complete sympathy with the ancient ,brahmanism nor yet excommunicated by it and who had new texts and rites to replace or at least supplement the ,vedas and the ,vedic sacrifices4 ,it is probable that the different types of early ,indian religion had originally different geographical spheres4 ,brahmanism flourished in what we call the ,united ,provinces3 ,buddhism arose in the regions to the east of this district and both ,vishnuism and ivaism are first heard of in the west4 ,the earliest sect of which we have any record is that of the ,bhgavatas1 who were or became ,vishnuite4 ,at a date which it is impossible to fix but considerably before the epoch of ,pnini1 a tribe named the ,ydavas occupied the country between ,muttra and the shores of ,gujarat4 ,sects of this tribe were called ,vrishni and ,sttvata4 ,the latter name has passed into theology4 ,krishna belonged to this sect and it is probable that this name ,vsudeva was not originally a patronymic but the name of a deity worshipped by it4 ,the hero ,krishna was identified with this god and subsequently when the ,brahmans wished to bring this powerful sect within the pale of orthodoxy both were identified with ,vishnu4 ,in the ,mahabharata#dfd the rule or ritual 7vidhi7 of the ,sttvatas is treated as equivalent to that of the ,bhgavatas and a work called the ,sttvata ,samhit is still extant4 ,bhgavata appears to be the most general name of the sect or sects and means simply of the ,lord 7,bhgavat71 that is worshippers of the one ,lord4#dfe ,their religion is also called ,ekntika dharma1 or the religion with one object1 that is monotheism4#dff ,a considerable literature grew up in this school and the principal treatise is often spoken of as ,pncartra because it was revealed by ,nryana during five nights4#dfg ,the name however appears to be strictly speaking applicable to a system or body of doctrine and the usual term for the books in which this system is expounded is ,samhit4 ,all previous discussions and speculations about these works1 of which little was known until recently1 are superseded by ,schrader's publication of the ,ahirbudhnya ,samhit1 which appears to be representative of its class4#dfh ,the names of over two hundred are cited and of these more than thirty are known to be extant in ,,ms4#dfi ,the majority were composed in north-western ,india but the ,pncartra doctrine spread to the ,dravidian countries and new ,samhits were produced there1 the chief of which1 the vara ,samhit1 can hardly be later than #hjj ,a4,d4#dgj ,of the older works ,schrader thinks that the ,ahirbudhnya was written in ,kashmir#dga between #cjj and #hjj ,a4,d4 and perhaps as early as the fourth century4 ,it mentions the ttvata and ,jaykhya1 which must therefore be older4 ,the most remarkable feature of this literature is its elaborate doctrine of evolution and emanation from the ,deity1 the world process being conceived in the usual ,hindu fashion as an alternation of production and destruction4 ,a distinction is drawn between pure and gross creation4 ,what we commonly call the ,universe is bounded by the shell of the cosmic egg and there are innumerable such eggs1 each with its own heavens and its own tutelary deities such as ,brahm and iva who are sharply distinguished from ,vishnu4 ,but beyond this multitude of worlds are more mysterious and spiritual spheres1 the highest heaven or ,vaikuntha wherein dwells ,god in his highest form 7,para7 with his aktis1#dgb certain archangels and liberated souls4 ,evolution commences when at the end of the cosmic night the akti of ,vishnu#dgc is differentiated from her ,lord and assumes the two forms of ,force and ,matter4#dgd ,he as differentiated from her is ,vsudeva a personal deity with six attributes#dge and is the first emanation1 or ,vyha1 of the ineffable godhead4 ,from him proceeds ,sankarshana1 from ,sankarshana ,pradyumna1 and from ,pradyumna ,aniruddha4 ,these three ,vyhas take part in creation but also correspond to or preside over certain aspects of human personality1 namely ,sankarshana to the soul that animates all beings1 ,pradyumna to intelligence and ,aniruddha to individuality4 ,strange to say these seem to be the names of distinguished personages in the ttvata or ,vrishni clan4#dgf ,mere deification occurs in many countries but the transformation of heroes into metaphysical or psychological terms could hardly have happened outside ,india4 ,next to the ,vyhas come twelve sub-,vyhas1 among whom is ,nryana1#dgg and thirty-nine ,avatras4 ,all these beings are outside the cosmic eggs and our gross creation4 ,as a prelude to this last there takes place the evolution of the aggregates or sources from which individual souls and matter are drawn1 of space and of time1 and finally of the elements1 the process as described seeming to follow an older form of the ,snkhya philosophy than that known to us4 ,the task of human souls is to attain liberation1 but though the language of the ,samhits is not entirely consistent1 the older view is that they become like to ,god1 not that they are absorbed in him4#dgh ,thus it is not incorrect to say that the ,bhgavata religion is monotheistic and recognizes a creator of souls4 ,indeed ankara#dgi condemns it on the very ground that it makes individual souls originate from ,vsudeva1 in which case since they have an origin they must also have an end4 ,but ,rmnuja in replying to this criticism seems to depart from the older view1 for he says that the ,supreme ,being voluntarily abides in four forms which include the soul1 mind and the principle of individuality4 ,this1 if not ,pantheism1 is very different from ,european monotheism4#dhj ,the history of these ,bhgavatas1 ,pncartras or worshippers of ,vishnu must have begun several centuries before our era1 for there are allusions to them in ,pnini and the ,niddesa4#dha ,the names of ,vsudeva and ,sankarshana occur in old inscriptions#dhb and the ,greek ,heliodoros calls himself a ,bhgavata on the column found at ,besnagar and supposed to date from the first part of the second century ,b4,c4 ,the ,pncartra was not ,brahmanic in origin#dhc and the form of the ,snkhya philosophy from which it borrowed was also un-,brahmanic4 ,it seems to have grown up in north-western ,india in the centuries when ,iranian influence was strong and may owe to ,zoroastrianism the doctrine of the ,vyhas which finds a parallel in the relation of ,ahura ,mazda to ,spenta ,mainyu1 his ,holy ,spirit1 and in the ,fravashis4 ,it is also remarkable that ,god is credited with six attributes comparable with the six ,amesha ,spentas4 ,in other ways the ,pncartra seems to have some connection with late ,buddhism4 ,though it lays little stress on the worship of goddesses1 yet all the ,vyhas and ,avatras are provided with aktis1 like the ,buddhas and ,bodhisattvas of tantric ,buddhism1 and in the period of quiescence which follows on the dissolution of the ,universe ,vishnu is described under the name of nya or the void4 ,it attaches great importance to the ,cakra1 the wheel or discus which denotes ,vishnu's will to be1#dhd to evolve and maintain the universe1 and it may have contributed some ideas to the very late form of ,buddhism called ,klacakra4 ,this very word is used in the ,ahirbudhnya ,samhit as the name of one of the many wheels engaged in the work of evolution4 ,though the ,pncartra is connected with ,krishna in its origin1 it gives no prominence to devotion to him under that name as do modern sects and it knows nothing of the pastoral ,krishna4#dhe ,it recommends the worship of the four ,vyhas#dhf presiding over the four quarters in much the same way that late ,buddhism adores the four ,jinas depicted in somewhat similar forms4 ,similarly the ivaites say that iva has five faces1 namely na or ,sadiva 7the highest1 undifferentiated form of the deity7 at the top and below ,vmadeva1 ,aghora1 ,tatpurusha1 and ,sadyojta1 presiding respectively over the north1 south1 east and west4 ,it is thus clear that in the early centuries of our era 7or perhaps even before it7 there was a tendency in ,vishnuism1 ivaism and ,mahayanist ,buddhism alike to represent the ineffable godhead as manifested in four aspects somewhat more intelligible to human minds and producing in their turn many inferior manifestations4 ,possibly the theory originated among the ,vishnuites1#dhg but as often happened in ,india it was adopted by their opponents4 ,none of these theories are of much importance as living beliefs at the present day but their influence can be seen in iconography4 ,as a sect the ,pncartras seem to have been a subdivision of the ,bhgavatas and probably at the present day many ,vishnuites would accept the second name but not the first4 ,the ,pncartra is studied at only a few places in southern ,india but its doctrines permeate the popular work called ,bhaktaml and in view of the express approbation of ,rmnuja and other authorities it can hardly be repudiated by the r-,vaishnavas4 ,bhgavata is sometimes used in the south as a name for ,smrtas who practise ,vedic rites and worship both iva and ,vishnu4#dhh #d ,in these early times there were strenuous theological struggles now forgotten1 though they have left their traces in the legends which tell how the title of ,krishna and others to divine honours was challenged4 ,amalgamation was the usual method of conciliation4 ,several gods grew sufficiently important to become in the eyes of their worshippers the supreme spirit and at least four were united in the deity of the ,bhgavatas1 namely1 ,vsudeva1 ,krishna1 ,vishnu and ,nryana4 ,of the first three ,i have spoken already4 ,nryana never became like ,vishnu and ,krishna a great mythological figure1 but in the late ,vedic period he is a personification of the primval waters from which all things sprang or of the spirit which moved in them4#dhi ,from this he easily became the supreme spirit who animates all the universe and the name was probably acceptable to those who desired a purer and simpler worship because it was connected with comparatively few legends4 ,but there is some confusion in its use1 for it is applied not only to the supreme being but to a double incarnation of him called ,nara-,nryana1 and images of the pair may still be seen in ,vishnuite temples4 ,they are said to have revealed the true doctrine to ,nrada and are invoked at the beginning of each book of the ,mahbhrata4#dij ,one of the main theses of the ,nryanya#dia is the identity of ,nryana and ,vsudeva1 the former being a ,brahmanic1 the latter a non-,brahmanic name for the ,deity4 ,the celebrated ,bhagavad-gt#dib which is still held in such respect that1 like the ,new ,testament or ,koran1 it is used in law courts for the administration of oaths1 is an early scripture of the ,bhgavata sect4 ,in it the doctrines of ,krishna's divinity1 the power of faith and the efficacy of grace are fully established4 ,it is declared to be too hard for flesh and blood to find by meditation their way to the eternal imperceptible spirit1 whereas ,krishna comes straightway to those who make him their sole desire4 ,set thy heart on me1 become my devotee1 sacrifice to me and worship thou me4 ,then shalt thou come to me4 ,truly ,i declare to thee thou art dear to me4 ,leave all 7other7 religious duties and come to me as thy sole refuge4 ,i will deliver thee from thy sins4 ,sorrow not4 ,but the evolution of ,sankarshana1 etc41 is not mentioned4 ,the poem has perhaps been re-edited and interpolated several times but the strata can hardly be distinguished1 for the whole work1 if not exactly paradoxical1 is eclectic and continually argues that what is apparently highest is not best for a particular person4 ,the ,hindus generally regard the contemplative life as the highest1 but the ,bhagavad-gt is insistent in enjoining unselfish action3 it admits that the supreme reality cannot be grasped by the mind or expressed in speech1 but it recommends the worship of a personal deity4 ,even the older parts of the poem appear to be considerably later than ,buddhism4 ,but its mythology1 if not ,vedic1 is also hardly ,puranic and it knows nothing of the legends about the pastoral ,krishna4 ,it presupposes the ,snkhya and ,yoga1 though in what stage of development it is hard to say1 and in many respects its style resembles the later ,upanishads4 ,i should suppose that it assumed its present form about the time of the ,christian era1 rather before than after1 and ,i do not think it owes anything to direct ,christian influence4 ,in its original form it may have been considerably older4 ,the ,bhagavad-gt identifies ,krishna with ,vsudeva and with ,vishnu but does not mention ,nryana and from its general style ,i should imagine the ,nryaniya to be a later poem4 ,if so1 the evolution of ,bhgavata theology will be that ,krishna1 a great hero in a tribe lying outside the sphere of ,brahmanism1 is first identified with ,vsudeva1 the god of that tribe1 and then both of them with ,vishnu4 ,at this stage the ,bhagavad-gt was composed4 ,a later current of speculation added ,nryana to the already complex figure1 and a still later one1 not accepted by all sects1 brought the pastoral and amorous legends of ,krishna4 ,thus the history of the ,bhgavatas illustrates the ,indian disposition to combine gods and to see in each of them only an aspect of the one4 ,but until a later period the types of divinity known as ,vishnu and iva resisted combination4 ,the worshippers of iva have in all periods shown less inclination than the ,vishnuites to form distinct and separate bodies and the earliest ivaite sect of which we know anything1 the ,pupatas1#dic arose slightly later than the ,bhgavatas4 #e ,patajali the grammarian 7c4 #aej ,b4,c47 mentions devotees of iva#did and also images of iva and ,skanda4 ,there is thus no reason to doubt that worshippers of iva were recognized as a sect from at least #bjj ,b4,c4 onwards4 ,further it seems probable that the founder or an early teacher of the sect was an ascetic called ,lakulin or ,lakula1 the club-bearer4 ,the ,vyu ,purna#die makes iva say that he will enter an unowned corpse and become incarnate in this form at ,kyrohana1 which has been identified with ,krvn in ,baroda4 ,now the ,vyu is believed to be the oldest of the ,purnas1 and it is probable that this ,lakulin whom it mentions lived before rather than after our era and was especially connected with the ,pupata sect4 ,this word is derived from ,paupati1 the ,lord of cattle1 an old title of ,rudra afterwards explained to mean the ,lord of human souls4 ,in the ,sntiparvan#dif five systems of knowledge are mentioned4 ,snkhya1 ,yoga1 the ,vedas1 ,pupatam and ,pncartram1 promulgated respectively by ,kapila1 ,hiranyagarbha1 ,apntaratamas1 iva the ,lord of spirits and son of ,brahm1 and ,the ,lord 7,bhagavn7 himself4 ,the author of these verses1 who evidently supported the ,pncartra1 considered that these five names represented the chief existing or permissible varieties of religious thought4 ,the omission of the ,vednta is remarkable but perhaps it is included under ,veda4 ,hence we may conclude that when this passage was written 7that is probably before #djj ,a4,d4 and perhaps about the beginning of our era7 there were two popular religions ranking in public esteem with the philosophic and ritual doctrines of the ,brahmans4 ,the ,mahbhrata contains a hymn#dig which praises iva under #ajjh names and is not without resemblance to the ,bhagavad-gt4 ,it contains a larger number of strange epithets1 but iva is also extolled as the ,all-,god1 who asks for devotion and grants grace4 ,at the close of the hymn iva says that he has introduced the ,pupata religion which partly contradicts and partly agrees with the institutions of caste and the ramas1 but is blamed by fools4#dih ,these last words hint that the ,pupatas laid themselves open to criticism by their extravagant practices1 such as strange sounds and gestures4#dii ,but in such matters they were outdone by other sects called ,kplikas or ,klmukhas4 ,these carried skulls and ate the flesh of corpses1 and were the fore-runners of the filthy ,aghoris1 who were frequent in northern ,india especially near ,mount ,abu and ,girnar a century ago and perhaps are not yet quite extinct4 ,the biographers of ankara#ejj represent him as contending with these demoniac fanatics not merely with the weapons of controversy but as urging the princes who favoured him to exterminate them4 ,hindu authorities treat the ,pupatas as distinct from the aivas1 or ivaites1 and the distinction was kept up in ,camboja in the fourteenth century4 ,the aivas appear to be simply worshippers of iva1 who practice a sane ritual4 ,in different parts of ,india they have peculiarities of their own but whereas the ,vaishnavas have split up into many sects each revering its own founder and his teaching1 the aivas1 if not a united body1 present few well-marked divisions4 ,such as exist ,i shall notice below in their geographical or historical connection4#eja ,most of them accept a system of theology or philosophy#ejb which starts with three principles1 all without beginning or end4 ,these are ,pati or the ,lord1 that is iva3 ,pau1 or the individual soul3 ,pa or the fetter1 that is matter or ,karma4#ejc ,the task of the soul is to get free of its fetters and attain to the state of iva4 ,but this final deliverance is not quite the same as the identity with ,brahman taught by the ,vednta3 the soul becomes a iva1 equal to the deity in power and knowledge but still dependent on him rather than identical with him4#ejd ,peculiar to aiva theology is the doctrine of the five kacukas#eje or envelopes which limit the soul4 ,spirit in itself is free3 it is timeless and knows no restrictions of space1 enjoyment1 knowledge and power4 ,but when spirit is contracted to individual experience1 it can apprehend the universe only as a series of changes in time and place3 its enjoyment1 knowledge and power are cramped and curtailed by the limits of personality4 ,the terminology of the aivas is original but the theory appears to be an elaboration of the ,pncartra thesis that the soul is surrounded by the sheath of ,my4 ,the early literature of the worshippers of iva 7corresponding to the ,samhits of the ,pncartras7 appears to have consisted of twenty-eight works composed in ,sanskrit and called gamas4#ejf ,there is fairly good evidence for their antiquity4 ,tirumular1 one of the earliest ,tamil poets who is believed to have lived in the first centuries of our era1 speaks of them with enthusiasm and the ,buddhist ,sanskrit works called gamas 7corresponding to the ,pali ,nikyas7 cannot be later than that period4 ,it is highly probable that the same word was in use among both ,hindus and ,buddhists at the same time4 ,and since the ,mahbhrata mentions the ,pupatam1 there is no difficulty in supposing that expositions of ivaite doctrine were current in the first century ,a4,d4 or even ,b4,c4 ,but unless more texts of the gamas come to light the question of their age has little practical importance1 for it is said by native scholars that of the twenty-eight primary books there survive only fragments of twenty1 which treat of ritual1 besides the verses which form the text expounded at length in the ivanabotham4#ejg ,there are also said to be #abj ,upgamas of which only two or three have been preserved entire4 ,of these two have been printed in part1 the ,mrigendra and ,paushkara4#ejh ,the former is cited in the ,sarva-darana-sangraha 7about #accj7 but does not show any signs of great antiquity4 ,it is thus clear that the gamas are not much studied by modern ivaites but it is unhesitatingly stated that they are a revelation direct from iva and equal to the ,veda#eji and this affirmation is important1 even though the texts so praised are little known1 for it testifies to the general feeling that there are other revelations than the ,veda4 ,but the ,vedas1 and the ,vednta ,stras are not ignored4 ,the latter are read in the light of ,nlakantha's#eaj commentary which is considered by south ,indian ,pandits to be prior to ankara4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ddj3 ,an attempt was made to adapt the ,veda to modern ideas by composing new ,upanishads4 ,the inspiration of such works is not denied but they have not the same influence as the literature mentioned below4 ,footnote #dda3 ri ,bhshya1 ,,ii4 #b4 #dc4 ,so too the ,vishnu ,purna1 ,i4 #a describes itself as equal in sanctity to the ,vedas4 ankara on ,brah4 ,stras1 ,i4 #c4 #cc says that the ,purnas are authoritative4 ,footnote #ddb3 ,see ,grierson in ,ind4 ,ant4 #aijh1 p4 #bea and p4 #cgc4 ,footnote #ddc3 ,e4g4 the ,sanatsujatya and ,anugt 7both in ,s4,b4,e4 ,,viii474 ,see ,deussen1 ,vier philosophische ,texte des ,mahbhratam4 ,footnote #ddd3 ,forming part of the ,brahmnda ,purna4 ,footnote #dde3 ,see for a summary of them ,winternitz1 ,gesch4 ,ind4 ,lit4 ,i4 pp4 #dej-dhc4 ,for the dates see ,pargiter ,dynasties of the ,kali age4 ,he holds that the historical portions of the older ,purnas were compiled in ,prakrit about #bej ,a4,d4 and re-edited in ,sanskrit about #cej4 ,see also ,vincent ,smith1 ,early ,history1 p4 #ba and1 against ,pargiter1 ,keith in ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aiad1 p4 #ajba4 ,alberuni 7who wrote in #ajcj7 mentions eighteen ,purnas and gives two lists of them4 ,bna 7c4 #fbj ,a4,d47 mentions the recitation of the ,vyu ,purna4 ,the commentary on the vetvatara ,upan4 ascribed to ankara quotes the ,brahma ,p41 ,linga ,p4 and ,vishnu ,p4 as authorities as well as ,puranic texts described as ,vishnudharma and ivadharmottara4 ,but the authorship of this commentary is doubtful4 ,the ,puranic literature as we know it probably began with the ,gupta dynasty or a century before it1 but the word ,purna in the sense of an ancient legend which ought to be learnt occurs as early as the atapatha ,brhmana 7,,xi4 #e4 #f4 #h7 and even in ,a4,v4 ,,xi4 #g4 #bd4 ,footnote #ddf3 ,see ,dinesh ,chandra ,sen1 ,hist4 ,bengali ,language and ,lit4 pp4 #bbj-bbe4 ,footnote #ddg3 ,pargiter1 l4c4 pp4 xvii1 xxviii4 ,it does not belong to the latest class of ,purnas for it seems to contemplate the performance of ,smrta rites not temple ceremonial1 but it is not quoted by ,rmnuja 7twelfth century7 though he cites the ,vishnu ,purna4 ,probably he disapproved of it4 ,footnote #ddh3 ,it was made as late as #ahjc by ,lall ,j ,ll1 but is a rendering into ,hindi of a version in the ,braj dialect1 probably made in the sixteenth century4 ,footnote #ddi3 ,another ,vishnuite work is cited indifferently as ,padma-tantra or ,padma-samht1 and the ,bhgavata ,purna 7,i4 #c4 #h7 speaks of the ,sttvatam ,tantram1 which is apparently the ,sttvata-samhit4 ,the work edited by ,schrader is described as the ,ahirbudhnya ,samhit of the ,pncartra gama4 ,footnote #dej3 ,see for some notices of these works ,a4 ,avalon's various publications about ,tantra4 ,srinivasa ,iyengar1 ,outlines of ,indian ,philosophy1 #aah-aia4 ,govndacarya ,svmi on the ,vaishnava ,samhits1 ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aiaa1 pp4 #ice ff4 ,schomerus1 aiva-,siddhnta1 pp4 #g ff4 and ,schrader's ,introduction to the ,pncartra4 ,whereas these works claim to be independent of the ,veda1 the ,sectarian ,upanishads 7see vol4 ,i4 p4 #gf7 are an attempt to connect post-,vedic sects with the ,veda4 ,footnote #dea3 ,jna1 ,yoga1 ,cary1 ,kriy4 ,the same names are used of ,buddhist ,tantras1 except that ,anuttara replaces ,jna4 ,footnote #deb3 ,see ,schrader1 ,introd4 to the ,pncartra1 p4 #ih4 ,in the ,raghuvamsa1 ,x4 #bg4 gamas are not only mentioned but said to be extremely numerous4 ,but in such passages it is hard to say whether gama means the books now so-called or merely tradition4 ,alberuni seems not to have known of this literature and a ,tantra for him is merely a minor treatise on astronomy4 ,he evidently regards the ,vedas1 ,purnas1 philosophical ,daranas and ,epics as constituting the religious literature of ,india4 ,footnote #dec3 ,rjagopala ,chariar 7,vaishnavite ,reformers1 p4 #d7 says that in ,vishnu temples two rituals are used called ,pncartra and ,vaikhnasa4 ,the latter is apparently consistent with ,smrta usage whereas the ,pncartra is not4 ,from ,gopintha ,rao's ,elements of ,hindu ,iconography1 pp4 #ef1 #gg1 #gh it appears that there is a ,vaikhnasgama parallel to the ,pncartrgama4 ,it is frequently quoted by this author1 though as yet unpublished4 ,it seems to be the ritual of those ,bhgavatas who worship both iva and ,vishnu4 ,it is said to exist in two recensions1 prose and metrical1 of which the former is perhaps the oldest of the ,vaishnava gamas4 ,the ,vaikhnasa ritual was once followed at rrangam but ,rmnuja substituted the ,pncartra for it4 ,footnote #ded3 ,avalon1 ,principles of ,tantra1 p4 xxvii describes it as that development of the ,vaidika ,karmaknda which under the name of the ,tantra ,shstra is the scripture of the ,kali age4 ,this seems to me a correct statement of the tantric theory4 ,footnote #dee3 ,thus the ,gautamya ,tantra which is held in high estimation by ,vishnuite householders in ,bengal1 though not by ascetics1 is a complete application of kta worship to the cult of ,krishna4 ,the ,vrhi ,tantra is also ,vishnuite4 ,see ,raj4 ,mitra1 ,sanskrit ,,mss4 of ,bikaner1 p4 #ehc and ,notices of ,sk4 ,,mss4 ,,iii4 7#ahgf71 p4 #ii1 and ,i4 cclxxxvii4 ,see too the usages of the ,nambuthiri ,brahmans as described in ,cochin ,tribes and ,castes1 ,,ii4 pp4 #bbi-bcc4 ,in many ways the ,nambuthiris preserve the ancient ,vedic practices4 ,footnote #def3 ,see ,grierson's articles ,gleanings from the ,bhaktaml in ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aiji-aiaj4 ,footnote #deg3 ,e4g4 ,mrkandeya1 ,vmana and ,varha4 ,also the ,skanda ,upanishad4 ,footnote #deh3 ,mahbh4 ,vanaparvan1 #aajja ff4 ,the ,bhgavata ,purna1 ,book ,,iv4 sec4 #b-g emphasizes more clearly the objections of the ,rishis to iva as an enemy of ,vedic sacrifices and a patron of unhallowed rites4 ,footnote #dei3 ,mahbh4 ,,xii4 sec4 #bhc4 ,in the same way the worship of ,dionysus was once a novelty in ,greece and not countenanced by the more conservative and respectable party4 ,see ,eur4 ,bacchae1 #de4 ,the ,varha-,purna relates that the ivaite scriptures were revealed for the benefit of certain ,brahmans whose sins had rendered them incapable of performing ,vedic rites4 ,there is probably some truth in this legend in so far as it means that ,brahmans who were excommunicated for some fault were disposed to become the ministers of non-,vedic cults4 ,footnote #dfj3 ,mahbh4 ,,ii4 secs4 #af1 #bb ff4 ,footnote #dfa3 ,drona-p41 #bhfb ff4 ,anussana-p41 #eij ff4 ,footnote #dfb3 ,e4g4 ,anussana ,p41 #fhjf ff4 ,footnote #dfc3 ,e4g4 the ,ahirbudhnya ,samhit and ,adhytma ,rmyana4 ,footnote #dfd3 ntipar4 cccxxxvii1 #abgaa ff4 ,in the ,bhagavad-gt ,krishna says that he is ,vsudeva of the ,vrishnis1 ,,xi4 #cg4 ,footnote #dfe3 ,cf4 the title ,bhgavata ,purna4 ,footnote #dff3 ,ekyana is mentioned several times in the ,chndogya ,up4 7,,vii4 #a1 #b and afterwards7 as a branch of religious or literary knowledge and in connection with ,nrada4 ,but it is not represented as the highest or satisfying knowledge4 ,footnote #dfg3 ,even in the atapatha ,br4 ,nryana is mentioned in connection with a sacrifice lasting five days1 ,,xiii4 #f4 #a4 ,footnote #dfh3 ,the ,samhits hitherto best known to orientalists appear to be late and spurious4 ,the ,brihadbrahma ,samhit published by the ,anandasrama ,press mentions ,rmnuja4 ,the work printed in the ,bibliotheca ,indica as ,nrada ,pncartra 7although its proper title apparently is ,jnamritasra7 has been analyzed by ,roussel in ,mlanges ,harlez and is apparently a late liturgical compilation of little originality4 ,schrader's work was published by the ,adyar ,library in ,madras1 #aiaf4 ,apparently the two forms ,pncartra and ,pncartra are both found1 but that with the long vowel is the more usual4 ,govindcrya's article in ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aiaa1 p4 #iea may also be consulted4 ,footnote #dfi3 ,the oldest are apparently the ,paushkara1 ,vrha1 ,brahma1 ,sttvata1 ,jaya and ,ahirbudhnya ,samhits1 all quoted as authoritative by either ,rmnuja or ,vednta ,deika4 ,footnote #dgj3 ,it is quoted as equal to the ,vedas by ,ymuncrya1 so it must then have been in existence some centuries4 ,footnote #dga3 ,the story of vetadvpa or ,white ,island in the nti-parvan of the ,mahbhrata states definitely that ,nrada received the ,pncartra there4 ,footnote #dgb3 ,there is much diversity of statement as to whether there are one or many aktis4 ,footnote #dgc3 ,vishnu is the name of ,god in all his aspects1 but especially ,god as the absolute4 ,vsudeva is used both of ,god as the absolute and also as the first emanation 7,vyha74 ,footnote #dgd3 ,kriyakti and ,bhtiakti4 ,footnote #dge3 ,jna1 aivarya1 akti1 bala1 vrya1 tejas4 ,these are called gunas but are not to be confounded with the three ordinary gunas4 ,footnote #dgf3 ,the words seem to have been originally proper names4 ,see the articles in the ,petersburg ,lexicon4 ,footnote #dgg3 ,nryana like ,vishnu is used to designate more than one aspect of ,god4 ,sometimes it denotes the ,absolute4 ,footnote #dgh3 ,the above brief sketch is based on ,schrader's ,int4 to the ,pncartra where the reader can find full details4 ,footnote #dgi3 ,comment on ,vednta stras1 ,,ii4 #b4 #db4 ,footnote #dhj3 ,and1 as ,schrader observes1 the evolutionary system of the ,pncartra is practically concerned with only one force1 the akti1 which under the name ,bhti is manifested as the ,universe and as ,kriy vitalizes and governs it 7p4 #ca74 ,footnote #dha3 ,on ,sutta-nipta1 #gij1 #gib4 ,the doctrine of the ,vyhas is expounded in the ,mahbhrata ntip4 ,,cccxl4 #cf ff41 #gj ff42 ,,cccxli4 #bf ff4 ,footnote #dhb3 ,lder's ,list of ,brahmi inscriptions1 ,no4 #f1 supposed not to be later than #bjj ,b4,c4 and ,no4 #aaab supposed to be of the first century ,b4,c4 ,sankarshana is also mentioned in the ,kautilya ,arthastra1 ,,xiii4 #c4 ,footnote #dhc3 ,some ,samhits emphasize the distinction between the followers of the ,veda and the enlightened ones who worship the ,lord4 ,see ,schrader1 ,pncartra1 p4 #ig4 ,footnote #dhd3 ,sym iti ,sankalpa1 ,ahirbudh4 ,sam4 ,,ii4 #g4 ,in some late ,upanishads 7e4g4 ,nradaparivrjaka and ,brihatsannysa7 ,cakr is used as a synonym for a ,pncartra4 ,footnote #dhe3 ,the same is true of ,rmnuja1 who never quotes the ,bhgavata ,purna4 ,footnote #dhf3 ,see the quotations from the ,sttvata ,samhit in ,schrader1 pp4 #aej-aed4 ,as in the ,pncartra there is the ,para above the four ,vyhas1 so some late forms of ,buddhism regard ,vairocana as the source of four ,jinas4 ,footnote #dhg3 ,the ,manicheans also had groups of five deities 7see ,chavannes and ,pelliot in ,j4,a4 #aiac1 ,i4 pp4 #ccc-cch7 but they are just as likely to have borrowed from ,buddhism as vice vers4 ,footnote #dhh3 ,see ,bhattacharya1 ,hindu ,castes and ,sects1 p4 #efe4 ,footnote #dhi3 ,manu1 ,i4 #aj-aa1 identifies him with ,brahm and says1 ,the waters are called ,nrah because they are produced from ,nara1 and he is called ,nryana because they were his place of movement 7ayana74 ,the same statement occurs in the ,nryanya4 ,footnote #dij3 ,they are said to have been the sons of ,dharma 7religion or righteousness7 and ,ahims 7not-injuring74 ,this is obvious allegory indicating that the ,bhgavata religion rejected animal sacrifices4 ,at the beginning of the ,nryanya 7ntip4 cccxxxv47 it is said that ,nryana the soul of the universe took birth in a quadruple form as the offspring of ,dharma1 viz4 ,nara1 ,nryana1 ,hari and ,krishna4 ,nara and ,nryana are often identified with ,arjuna and ,vsudeva4 e4g4 ,udyogap4 xxlx4 #ai4 ,footnote #dia3 ,mahbhr4 ,,xii4 ,footnote #dib3 ,it is an episode in ,mahbhr4 ,,vi4 and in its present form was doubtless elaborated apart from the rest4 ,but we may surmise that the incident of ,krishna's removing ,arjuna's scruples by a discourse appeared in the early versions of the story and also that the discourse was longer and profounder than would seem appropriate to the ,european reader of a tale of battles4 ,but as the ,vednta philosophy and the doctrine of ,krishna's godhead developed1 the discourse may have been amplified and made to include later theological views4 ,garbe in his ,german translation attempts to distinguish the different strata and his explanation of the inconsistencies as due to successive redactions and additions may contain some truth4 ,but these inconsistencies in theology are common to all sectarian writings and ,i think the main cause for them must be sought not so much in the alteration and combination of documents1 as in a mixed and eclectic mode of thought4 ,even in ,european books of the first rank inconsistencies are not unknown and they need not cause surprise in works which were not written down but committed to memory4 ,a poet composing a long religious poem in this way and feeling1 as many ,hindus feel1 both that ,god is everything and also that he is a very present personal help1 may very well express himself differently in different parts4 ,on the other hand the editors of such poems are undoubtedly tempted to insert in them later popular doctrines4 ,footnote #dic3 ,the name appears not to be in common use now1 but the ,pupata school is reviewed in the ,sarva-darana-sangraha 7c4 #accj74 ,footnote #did3 ivabhgavata1 see his comment on ,pnini1 ,v4 #c4 #ii and ,v4 #b4 #gf4 ,the name is remarkable and suggests that the ivaites may have imitated the ,bhgavatas4 ,footnote #die3 ,i4 xxiii4 #bji4 ,the ,bibliotheca ,ind4 edition reads ,nakul4 ,aufrecht 7,bodl4 ,,mss47 has ,lakul4 ,the same story is found in ,linga ,p4 chap4 ,,xxiv4 ,lakul is said to have had four pupils who founded four branches4 ,lakulin does not play an important part in modern ivaism but is mentioned in inscriptions from the tenth till the thirteenth centuries4 ,the ,sarva-darana-sangraha describes the ,nakula-,pupata system and quotes ,nakula who is clearly the same as ,lakulin4 ,the figures on ,kushan coins representing iva as holding a club may be meant for ,lakulin but also may be influenced by ,greek figures of ,herakles4 ,see for ,lakulin ,fleet in ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aijg1 pp4 #dai ff4 and ,bhandarkar ,vaishnavism and aivism1 pp4 #aae ff4 ,the coins of ,wema ,kadphises bear the title ,mahivara1 apparently meaning worshipper of the ,great ,lord4 ,temples in south ,india seem to have been named after ,kyrohana in the seventh century ,a4,d4 ,see ,gopintha ,rao1 ,hindu ,iconography1 ,,ii4 p4 #ai4 ,footnote #dif3 ,mahbhr4 ,,xii4 ,footnote #dig3 ,mahbhr4 ,,xii4 #acgjb ff4 ,it is recited by ,daksha when he recognizes the might of iva after the unfortunate incident of his sacrifice4 ,footnote #dih3 nti-parvan1 section cclxxxv especially line #aj1 #dgj ff4 ,footnote #dii3 ,see ,sarva-darana-sangraha1 chap4 ,,vi4 and the comments of ,rmnuja and ankara on ,vednta ,stras1 ,,ii4 #b4 #cf4 ,footnote #ejj3 ,e4g4 ankara-dig-vijaya4 ,the first notice of these sects appears to be an inscription at ,igatpuri in the ,nsik district of about #fbj ,a4,d4 recording a grant for the worship of ,kapalevara and the maintenance of ,mahvrtins 7 ,kpliks7 in his temple4 ,but doubtless the sects are much older4 ,footnote #eja3 ,the principal are1 the ,pupatas1 the aivasiddhntam of southern ,india and the ivaism of ,kashmir4 ,footnote #ejb3 ,the ,sarva-darana-sangraha1 chap4 ,,vii4 gives a summary of it4 ,footnote #ejc3 ,the ,pupatas seem to attach less importance to this triad1 though as they speak of ,pati1 ,pau and the impurities of the soul there is not much difference4 ,in their views of causation and free will they differed slightly from the aivas1 since they held that iva is the universal and absolute cause1 the actions of individuals being effective only in so far as they are in conformity with the will of iva4 ,the aiva siddhnta however holds that iva's will is not irrespective of individual ,karma1 although his independence is not thereby diminished4 ,he is like a man holding a magnet and directing the movements of needles4 ,footnote #ejd3 ,there is some difference of language and perhaps of doctrine on this point in various ivaite works4 ,both ivaites and ,pncartrins sometimes employ the language of the ,advaita4 ,but see ,schrader1 ,int4 to ,pncartra1 pp4 #ia ff4 ,footnote #eje3 ,the five ,kacukas 7or six including ,my7 are strictly speaking tattvas of which the aivas enumerate #cf and are kla1 niyati1 rga1 vidy and kal contrasted with nityatva1 vypakatva1 prnatva1 sarvajnatva1 sarvakartritva which are qualities of spirit4 ,see ,chatterji1 ,kashmir aivism1 #ge ff41 #afj1 where he points out that the ,kacukas are essentially equivalent to ,kant's forms of perception and conception4 ,see too ,schrader1 ,int4 to ,pncartra1 #fd1 #ij1 #aae4 ,footnote #ejf3 ,see for names and other details ,schomerus1 ,der aiva-,siddhnta1 pp4 #g1 #bc3 also many articles in the ,siddhnta-,dipika4 ,footnote #ejg3 ,they are taken from the gama called ,raurava4 ,the ivaites of ,kashmir appear to have regarded the extant iva-stras as an gama4 ,footnote #ejh3 ,the ,sanskrit text and translation of the ,mrigendra are published in the ,siddhnta-,dipika1 vol4 ,,iv4 #aija ff4 ,it is sometimes described as an ,upgama and sometimes as the ,jnapda of the ,kmika gama4 ,footnote #eji3 ,so ,tirumlar4 ,nlakantha in his commentary on the ,vednta ,stras says3 ,i see no difference between the ,veda and the aivgama4 ,footnote #eaj3 ,or rkantha4 ,the commentary is translated in ,siddhnta-,dipika1 vol4 ,i4 ff4 ,in spite of sectarian views as to its early date1 it seems to be influenced by the views and language of ,rmnuja4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,,ankara4 ,,sivaism ,,in ,,southern ,,india4 ,,kashmir4 ,,ling,,yats #a ,about the sixth century ,a4,d4 the decadence of ,buddhism and the invigoration of ,brahmanism were both well advanced4 ,the ,mahabharata existed as a great collection of epic and religious poetry and the older ,puranas were already composed4 ,even at the present day authorities differ as to whether iva or ,vishnu commands the allegiance of the majority and naturally it is hard to describe the distribution of sects in earlier times4 ,the monuments of the ,guptas 7for instance the ruins at ,eran7 suggest that they were ,vishnuites but a little later the cult of iva becomes more prominent4 ,the ,emperor ,harsha 7#fab-fdh7 and his family were eclectic1 honouring iva1 the ,sun and the ,buddha1 but it is not recorded that they worshipped ,vishnu4 ,bna who lived at his court indicates#eaa that ivaism was the predominant form of worship1 but also mentions ,buddhists and ,bhgavatas4 ,hsan ,chuang on the other hand holds him up as a devout ,buddhist4 ,great ivaite shrines in different parts of ,india such as the temple of ,bhuvaneshwar in ,orissa and the ,kailas at ,ellora were probably constructed in the seventh century and it is likely that in the defeat of ,buddhism the worshippers of iva played an active part4 ,this conflict is connected with the names of ,kumrila ,bhatta 7c4 #gbe ,a4,d47 and ankara crya 7c4 #hjj ,a4,d474 ,it clearly represents forces which cannot be restricted to the character of individuals or the span of human lives4 ,the elements which compose ,hinduism had been vigorous long before the eighth century and ,buddhism1 though decadent1 continued to exist in ,india later4 ,but probably the careers of these two men are the best record of the decisive turn of the tide4 ,it is often said that they revived ,hinduism1 but however much they insisted on the authority of ancient tradition1 the real result of their labours was not to re-establish the order of things which prevailed before the rise of ,buddhism1 but to give authority and solidity to the mixture of ,brahmanism1 ,buddhism and popular beliefs which had grown up4 ,kumrila is said to have been a ,brahman of ,bihar who was a ,buddhist monk but became a worshipper of iva and so zealous a persecutor of his former faith that he persuaded a king of his time named ,sudhanvan to exterminate it from the ,himalaya to ,cape ,comorin4 ,this is a monstrous exaggeration but he was doubtless a determined enemy of the ,buddhists1 as can be seen from his philosophical works4#eab ,he taught little about metaphysics or the nature of ,god1 but he insisted on the necessity and efficacy of ,vedic rites4 ,more important both as a thinker and an organizer was ankara4 ,there is some discrepancy in the traditions of his birth1 but he was probably born about #ghh ,a4,d4#eac in a family of ,nambuthiri ,brahmans at ,kaladi#ead in the ,cochin state4 ,kaladi occupies a healthy position at some height above the sea level and the neighbourhood is now used as a sanatorium4 ,the cocoanut trees and towered temples which mark many south ,indian landscapes are absent1 and paddy fields alternate with a jungle of flowering plants studded with clumps of bamboos4 ,a broad river broken by sandbanks winds through the district and near the villages there are often beautiful avenues of great trees4 ,not far distant is ,trichur which possesses a ,vedic college and a large temple1 forbidden to ,europeans but like most edifices in ,malabar modest in architecture4 ,this is not the land of giant gopurams and multitudinous sculpture1 but of lives dedicated to the acquisition of traditional learning and the daily performance of complicated but inconspicuous rites4 ,the accounts of ankara's life are little but a collection of legends1 in which1 however1 the following facts stand out4 ,he was the pupil of ,govinda1 who was himself the pupil of ,gaudapda and this connection would be important could we be certain that this ,gaudapda was the author of the metrical treatise on philosophy bearing his name4 ,he wrote popular hymns as well as commentaries on the ,upanishads1 ,vednta ,sutras and ,bhagavad-gt1 thus recognizing both ,vedic and post-,vedic literature3 he resided for some time on the ,narbudda and at ,benares1 and in the course of the journeys in which like ,paul he gave vent to his activity1 he founded four maths or monasteries1 at ,sringeri1 ,puri1 ,dwrak and ,badrinath in the ,himalaya4 ,near the latter he died before he was an old man4 ,on his deathbed he is said to have asked forgiveness for going on pilgrimages and frequenting temples1 because by so doing he had seemed to forget that ,god is everywhere4 ,it is clear that his work both as an author and organizer was considerable and permanent1 and that much of his career was spent outside ,dravidian lands4 ,his greatest achievement was his exposition of the ,vednta1 of which ,i treat elsewhere4 ,he based his arguments unreservedly on the ,vedic texts and aimed at being merely conservative1 but those texts and even the ancient commentaries are obscure and inconsistent1 and it was reserved for his genius to produce from them a system which in consistency1 thoroughness and profundity holds the first place in ,indian philosophy4 ,his work did not consist1 as he himself supposed1 in harmonizing the ,upanishads4 ,in this department of interpretation he is as uncritical as other orthodox commentators1 but he took the most profound thoughts of the old literature and boldly constructed with them a great edifice of speculation4 ,since his time the ,vednta has been regarded as the principal philosophy of ,india--a position which it does not seem to have held before--and his interpretation of it1 though often contested and not suited to popular religion1 still commands the respect and to some extent the adherence of most educated ,hindus4 ,in practical religion he clearly felt1 as every ,indian reformer still must feel1 the want of discipline and a common standard1 ,though the ,buddhism of his day had ceased to satisfy the needs of ,india1 he saw that its strength lay in its morality1 its relative freedom from superstition and its ecclesiastical organization4 ,accordingly he denounced extravagant sects#eae and forbade such practices as branding4 ,he also instituted an order of ascetics4#eaf ,in doing this he was not only trying to obtain for ,hinduism the disciplinary advantages of the ,buddhist church but also to break through the rule prescribing that a ,brahman must first be a householder and only late in life devote himself entirely to religion4 ,this rule did the ,brahmans good service in insuring the continuity and respectability of their class but it tended to drive enthusiasts to other creeds4 ,it does not seem that any sect can plausibly claim ankara as founder or adherent4 ,his real religion was ,vedntism and this1 though not incompatible with sectarian worship1 is predisposed to be impartial4 ,the legend says that when summoned to his mother's deathbed1 he spoke to her first of the ,vednta philosophy4 ,but she bade him give her some consolation which she could understand4 ,so he recited a hymn to iva1 but when the attendants of that god appeared she was frightened4 ankara then recited a hymn to ,vishnu and when his gentler messengers came to her bedside1 she gave her son her blessing and allowed them to take her willing soul4 ,this story implies that he was ready to sanction any form of reputable worship with a slight bias towards ,vishnuism4#eag ,at the present day the ,smrtas1 who consider themselves his followers1 have a preference for the worship of iva4 ,but the basis of their faith is not ivaism but the recognition of the great body of ,indian traditions known as ,smriti4 ,and that1 next to ,vedntism1 was the essence of ankara's teaching3 he wished to regard tradition as a coherent whole1 based on the eternal ,veda but including authoritative ,smriti to be interpreted in the light of the ,veda1 and thus he hoped to correct extravagant and partial views and to lead to those heights whence it is seen that all is one1 without difference4 ,the results of ankara's labours may still be seen in the organization of southern ,hinduism which is more complete than in the north4 ,it is even said that the head of the ringeri monastery in ,mysore exercises an authority over ,smrta ,brahmans similar to that of the ,pope4#eah ,this is probably an exaggeration but his decision is accepted as settling caste disputes1 and even to-day the ringeri math#eai is one of the most important religious institutions in ,india4 ,the abbot1 who is known as ,jagadguru1 is head of the ,smrta ,brahmans4 ,the present occupant is said to be thirty-third in succession from ankara and numbers among his predecessors ,syancrya1 the celebrated ,vedic commentator who lived in the fourteenth century4 ,the continued prosperity of this establishment and of other religious corporations in the ,dravidian country1 whereas the ,mohammedans destroyed all monasteries whether ,hindu or ,buddhist in the north1 is one of the reasons for certain differences in northern and southern ,hinduism4 ,for instance in northern ,india any ,brahman1 whatever his avocation may be1 is allowed to perform religious ceremonies1 whereas in the ,deccan and south ,india ,brahmans are divided into ,laukikas or secular and ,bhikshus or religious4 ,the latter are householders1 the name having lost its monastic sense1 but they have the exclusive right of officiating and acting as ,gurus and thus form a married clergy4 ,it is possible that the influence of ankara may have had a puritanical side which partly accounts for the degeneration of later ,indian art4 ,his higher teaching inculcated a spiritual creed which needed no shrines1 while for those who required rites he recommended the old ,brahmanic ritual rather than the modern temple cultus4 ,the result of this may have been that piety and learning were diverted from art1 so that architecture and sculpture ceased to be in touch with the best religious intelligence4 ,the debt of ankara to ,buddhism is an interesting question4 ,he indited polemics against it and contributed materially to its downfall1 but yet if the success of creeds is to be measured by the permanence of ideas1 there is some reason for thinking that the vanquished led the conqueror captive4 ankara's approval both in theory and in practice of the monastic life is ,buddhistic rather than ,brahmanical4#ebj ,the doctrines of ,my and the distinction between higher and lower truth1 which are of cardinal importance in his philosophy1 receive only dubious support from the ,upanishads and from ,bdaryana1 but are practically identical with the teachings of the ,mdhyamika ,school of ,buddhism and it was towards this line of thought rather than towards the theism of the ,pupatas or ,bhgavatas that he was drawn4 ,the affinity was recognized in ,india1 for ankara and his school were stigmatized by their opponents as ,buddhists in disguise4#eba #b ,the reader will perhaps have noticed that up to the career of ankara we have been concerned exclusively with northern ,india1 and even ankara1 though a native of the south1 lived much in the north and it was the traditional sacred lore of the north which he desired to establish as orthodoxy4 ,not only the older literature1 ,brahmanic as well as ,buddhist1 but most of the ,purnas ignore the great stretch of ,dravidian country which forms the southern portion of the peninsula and if the ,rmyana sings of ,rma's bridge and the conquest of ,lanka this is clearly an excursion into the realms of fancy4 ,yet the ,dravidian districts are ample in extent1 their monuments are remarkable1 their languages are cultivated1 and ,tamil literature possesses considerable interest1 antiquity and originality4 ,unfortunately in dealing with these countries we experience in an unusually acute form the difficulties which beset every attempt to trace the history of ideas in ,india1 namely1 the absence of chronology4 ,before #ajjj ,a4,d4 materials for a connected history are hardly accessible4 ,there are1 however1 many inscriptions and a mass of literature 7itself of disputable date7 containing historical allusions1 and from these may be put together not so much a skeleton or framework as pictures of ancient life and thought which may be arranged in a plausible order4 ,it may be said that where everything is so vague1 it would be better to dismiss the whole subject of southern ,india and its religion1 pending the acquisition of more certain information1 and this is what many writers have done4 ,but such wide regions1 so many centuries1 such important phases of literature and thought are involved1 that it is better to run the risk of presenting them in false sequence than to ignore them4 ,briefly it may be regarded as certain that in the early centuries of our era ,buddhism1 ,jainism and ,brahmanism all flourished in ,dravidian lands4 ,the first two gradually decayed and made way for the last1 although ,jainism remained powerful until the tenth century4 ,at a fairly early date there were influential ivaite and ,vishnuite sects1 each with a devotional literature in the vernacular4 ,somewhat later this literature takes a more philosophic and ecclesiastical tinge and both sects produce a succession of teachers4 ,tamil ivaism1 though important for the south1 has not spread much beyond its own province1 but the ,vishnuism associated with such eminent names as ,rmnuja and ,rmnand has influenced all ,india1 and the latter teacher is the spiritual ancestor of the ,kabirpanthis1 ,sikhs and various unorthodox sects4 ,political circumstances too tended to increase the importance of the south in religion1 for when nearly all the north was in ,moslim hands the kingdom of ,vijayanagar was for more than two centuries 7c4 #accj-aefe7 the bulwark of ,hinduism4 ,but in filling up this outline the possibilities of error must be remembered4 ,the poems of ,manikka-,vaagar have such individuality of thought and style that one would suppose them to mark a conspicuous religious movement4 ,yet some authorities refer them to the third century and others to the eleventh1 nor has any standard been formulated for distinguishing earlier and later varieties of ,tamil4 ,i have already mentioned the view that the worship of iva and the ,linga is ,dravidian in origin and borrowed by the ,aryans4 ,there is no proof that this worship had its first home in the south and spread northwards1 for the ,vedic and epic literature provides a sufficient pedigree for iva4 ,but this deity always collected round himself attributes and epithets which are not those of the ,vedic gods but correspond with what we know of non-,aryan ,indian mythology4 ,it is possible that these un-,aryan cults attained in ,dravidian lands fuller and more independent development than in the countries colonized by the ,aryans1 so that the portrait of iva1 especially as drawn by ,tamil writers1 does retain the features of some old ,dravidian deity1 a deity who dances1 who sports among men and bewilders them by his puzzling disguises and transformations4#ebb ,but it is not proved that iva was the chief god of the early ,tamils4 ,an ancient poem1 the ,purra-,porul ,venb-,mlai1#ebc which contains hardly any allusions to him mentions as the principal objects of worship the goddess ,kottavai 7,victorious7 and her son ,muruvan4 ,popular legends#ebd clearly indicate a former struggle between the old religion and ,hinduism ending as usual in the recognition by the ,brahmans of the ancient gods in a slightly modified form4 ,we have no records whatever of the introduction of ,brahmanism into southern ,india but it may reasonably be supposed to have made its appearance there several centuries before our era1 though in what form or with what strength we cannot say4 ,tradition credits ,agastya and ,parau-rma with having established colonies of ,brahmans in the south at undated but remote epochs4 ,but whatever colonization occurred was not on a large scale4 ,an inscription found in ,mysore#ebe states that ,mukkanna ,kadamba 7who probably lived in the third century ,a4,d47 imported a number of ,brahman families from the north1 because he could find none in the south4 ,though this language may be exaggerated1 it is evidence that ,brahmans cannot have been numerous at that time and it is probable that ,buddhism and ,jainism were better represented4 ,three of ,asoka's inscriptions have been found in ,mysore and in his last edict describing his missionary efforts he includes the kings of the ,pndyas and ,colas in the south among the conquests of ,buddhism4 ,mahinda founded a monastery in the ,tanjore district and probably established ,buddhism at various points of the ,tamil country on his way to ,ceylon4#ebf ,there is therefore no reason to be doubtful of ,buddhist activity1 literary or other1 if evidence for it is forthcoming4 ,hsan ,chuang in #fdj ,a4,d4 deplores the decay of ,buddhism and speaks of the ruins of many old monasteries4 ,according to ,jain tradition1 which some think is supported by inscriptions at ravana-,belgola1#ebg ,bhadrabhu accompanied by ,candra ,gupta 7identified with the ,maurya king of that name7 led a migration of ,jains from the north to ,mysore about #cjj ,b4,c4 ,the authenticity of this tradition has been much criticized but it can hardly be disputed that ,jainism came to southern ,india about the same time as ,buddhism and had there an equally vigorous and even longer existence4 ,most ,tamil scholars are agreed in referring the oldest ,tamil literature to the first three centuries of our era and ,i see nothing improbable in this4 ,we know that ,asoka introduced ,buddhism into south ,india4 ,about the time of the ,christian era there are many indications that it was a civilized country#ebh which maintained commercial relations with ,rome and it is reasonable to suppose that it had a literature4 ,according to native tradition there were three successive ,sanghams1 or ,academies1 at ,madura4 ,the two earlier appear to be mythical1 but the third has some historical basis1 although it is probable that poems belonging to several centuries have been associated with it4 ,among those which have been plausibly referred to the second century ,a4,d4 are the two narrative poems ilappadhikaram and ,manimkhalai as well as the celebrated collection of didactic verses known as the ,kural4 ,the first two poems1 especially the ,manimkhalai1 are ,buddhist in tone4 ,the ,kural is ethical rather than religious1 it hardly mentions the deity1#ebi shows no interest in ,brahmanic philosophy or ritual and extols a householder's life above an ascetic's4 ,the ,nladiyr is an anthology of somewhat similar ,jain poems which as a collection is said to date from the eighth century1 though verses in it may be older4 ,this ,jain and ,buddhist literature does not appear to have attained any religious importance or to have been regarded as even quasi-canonical1 but the ,dravidian ,hindus produced two large collections of sacred works1 one ivaite the other ,vishnuite1 which in popular esteem rival the sanctity of the ,vedas4 ,both consist of hymns1 attributed to a succession of saints and still sung in the temple worship1 and in both sects the saints are followed by a series of teachers and philosophers4 ,we will take the ivaites first4 #c ,their collection of hymns is known as ,tirumurai1 and was compiled by ,nambi-,andar-,nambi said to have lived under ,king ,rjarja 7c4 #ajjj ,a4,d474 ,the first portion of it1 known as ,devram1 contains the hymns of ,sambandha1 ,appar and ,sundara4 ,these persons are the most eminent of the sixty-three saints#ecj of the southern ivaites and are credited with many miracles4 ,tamil scholars#eca consider that ,sambandha cannot have lived later than the beginning of the seventh century4 ,he was an adversary of the ,jains and ,appar is said to have been persecuted by the ,buddhists4 ,of the other works comprised in the ,tirumurai the most important is the ,tiruvagam of ,mnikka-,vagar1#ecb one of the finest devotional poems which ,india can show4 ,it is not1 like the ,bhagavad-gt1 an exposition by the deity1 but an outpouring of the soul to the deity4 ,it only incidentally explains the poet's views3 its main purpose is to tell of his emotions1 experiences and aspirations4 ,this characteristic seems not to be personal but to mark the whole school of ,tamil aiva writers4 ,this school1 which is often called the ,siddhnta1#ecc though perhaps that term is better restricted to later philosophical writers1 is clearly akin to the ,pupata but alike in thought1 sentiment and ritual far more refined4 ,it is in fact one of the most powerful and interesting forms which ,hinduism has assumed and it has even attracted the sympathetic interest of ,christians4 ,the fervour of its utterances1 the appeals to ,god as a loving father1 seem due to the temperament of the ,tamils1 since such sentiments do not find so clear an expression in other parts of ,india4 ,but still the whole system1 though heated in the furnace of ,dravidian emotion1 has not been recast in a new mould4 ,its dogmas are those common to ivaism in other parts and it accepts as its ultimate authority the twenty-eight aiva gamas4 ,this however does not detract from the beauty of the special note and tone which sound in its ,tamil hymns and prayers4 ,whatever the teaching of the little known gamas may be1 the aiva-,siddhnta is closely allied to the ,yoga and theistic forms of the ,snkhya4 ,it accepts the three ultimates1 ,pati the ,lord1 ,pau his flock or souls1 and ,pa the fetter or matter4 ,so high is the first of these three entities exalted1 so earnestly supplicated1 that he seems to attain a position like that of ,allah in ,mohammedanism1 as ,creator and ,disposer4 ,but in spite of occasional phrases1 the view of the ,yoga that all three--,god1 souls and matter--are eternal is maintained4#ecd ,between the world periods there are pauses of quiescence and at the end of these iva evolves the universe and souls4 ,that he may act in them he also evolves from himself his energy or ,paraatti 7,sk4 akti74 ,but this does not prevent the god himself in a personal and often visible form from being for his devotees the one central and living reality4 ,the akti1 often called ,um1 is merely iva's reflex and hardly an independent existence4 ,the remarkable feature of this religion1 best seen in the ,tiruvaagam1 is the personal tie which connects the soul with ,god4 ,in no literature with which ,i am acquainted has the individual religious life--its struggles and dejection1 its hopes and fears1 its confidence and its triumph--received a delineation more frank and more profound4 ,despite the strangely exotic colouring of much in the picture1 not only its outline but its details strikingly resemble the records of devout ,christian lives in ,europe4 iva is addressed not only as ,lord but as ,father4 ,he loves and desires human souls4 ,hard though it is for ,brahm and ,vishnu to reach thee1 yet thou did'st desire me4 ,what the soul desires is deliverance from matter and life with iva1 and this he grants by bestowing grace 7,arul74 ,with mother love he came in grace and made me his2 ,o thou who art to thy true servants true2 ,to thee1 ,o ,father1 may ,i attain1 may ,i yet dwell with thee4 ,sometimes#ece the poet feels that his sins have shut him off from communion with ,god4 ,he lies like a worm in the midst of ants1 gnawed by the senses and troubled sore ejaculating in utter misery ,thou hast forsaken me4 ,but more often he seems on the point of expressing a thought commoner in ,christianity than in ,indian religion1 namely that the troubles of this life are only a preparation for future beatitude4 ,the idea that matter and suffering are not altogether evil is found in the later ,snkhya where ,prakriti 7which in some respects corresponds to akti7 is represented as a generous female power working in the interests of the soul4 ,among the many beauties of the ,tiruvagam is one which reminds us of the works of ,st4 ,francis and other ,christian poetry1 namely the love of nature and animals1 especially birds and insects4 ,there are constant allusions to plants and flowers2 the refrain of one poem calls on a dragon fly to sing the praises of ,god and another bids the bird known as ,kuyil call him to come4 ,in another ode the poet says he looks for the grace of ,god like a patient heron watching night and day4 ,the first perusal of these poems impresses on the reader their resemblance to ,christian literature4 ,they seem to be a tropical version of ,hymns ,ancient and ,modern and to ascribe to the deity and his worshippers precisely those sentiments which missionaries tell us are wanting among pagans--fatherly love1 yearning devotion and the bliss of assured salvation4 ,it is not surprising if many have seen in this tone the result of ,christian influence4 ,yet ,i do not think that the hypothesis is probable4 ,for striking as is the likeness the contrast is often equally striking4 ,the deity described in words which almost literally render ,sun of my soul1 ,thou ,saviour dear is also the spouse of ,um with the white breasts and curled locks2 he dances in the halls of ,tillai2 and the line ,bid thou in grace my fears begone is followed by two others indicated by dots as being not translateable4#ecf ,nor can we say that emotional religion here uses the language of a mythology which it has outgrown4 ,the emotion itself while charged with the love of god1 the sense of sin and contrition1 has in it another strain which jars on ,europeans4 iva sports with the world and his worshippers treat him with an affectionate intimacy which may be paralleled in the religion of ,krishna but hardly in ,christianity4#ecg ,thus several hymns have reference to a game1 such as tossing about a ball 7hymn vii71 battledore and shuttlecock 7xiv7 or some form of wrestling in which the opponents place their hands on each other's shoulders 7xv74 ,the worshipper can even scold the deity4 ,if thou forsake me1 ,i will make people smile at thee4 ,i shall abuse thee sore3 madman clad in elephant skin3 madman that ate the poison3 madman1 who chose even me as thy own4#ech ,again1 though in part the tone of these poems is ,christian1 yet they contain little that suggests ,christian doctrine4 ,there is nothing about redemption or a suffering god1#eci and many ideas common to ,christianity and ,hinduism--such as the incarnation1#edj the ,trinity1 and the divine child and his mother--are absent4 ,it is possible that in some of the later works of the ,sittars ,christian influence#eda may have supervened but most of this ,tamil poetry is explicable as the development of the ideas expressed in the ,bhagavad-gt and the vetvatara ,upanishad4 ,chronologically ,christian influence is not impossible and there is a tradition that ,mnikka-,vagar reconverted to ,hinduism some natives of ,malabar who had become ,christians#edb but the uncertainty of his date makes it hard to fix his place in the history of doctrine4 ,recent ,hindu scholars are disposed to assign him to the second or third century4#edc ,in support of this1 it is plausibly urged that he was an active adversary of the ,buddhists1 that tradition is unanimous in regarding him as earlier than the writers of the ,devram#edd who make references 7not however indisputable7 to his poem1 and that ,perisiriyar1 who commented on it1 lived about #gjj ,a4,d4 ,i confess that the tone and sentiments of the poem seem to me what one would expect in the eleventh rather than in the third century3 it has something of the same emotional quality as the ,gt-govinda and the ,bhgavata-purna1 though it differs from them in doctrine and in its more masculine devotion4 ,but the ,dravidians are not of the same race as the northern ,hindus and since this ecstatic monotheism is clearly characteristic of their literature1 it may have made its appearance in the south earlier than elsewhere4 ,the ,tiruvaagam is not unorthodox but it deals direct with ,god and is somewhat heedless of priests4 ,this feature becomes more noticeable in other authors such as ,pattanattu ,pillai1 ,kapilar and the ,telugu poet ,vmana4 ,the first named appears to have lived in the tenth century4 ,the other two are legendary figures to whom anthologies of popular gnomic verses are ascribed and some of those attributed to ,kapilar are probably ancient4 ,in all this poetry there rings out a note of almost defiant monotheism1 iconoclasm and antisacerdotalism4 ,it may be partly explained by the fact that in the south ,brahmanism was preceded1 or at least from early times accompanied1 by ,buddhism and ,jainism4 ,these creeds did not make a conquest1 for the ,dravidian temperament obviously needed a god who could receive and reward passionate devotion1 but they cleared the air and spread such ideas as the superiority of good deeds to rites and the uselessness of priests4 ,even now verses expressing these thoughts are popular in the ,madras ,presidency1 but the sect which produced them1 known as the ,sittars1#ede is entirely extinct4 ,caldwell attributes its literature to the seventeenth century1 but the evidence available is small and it is clear that this theistic anti-brahmanic school had a long life4 ,as in other cases1 the ,brahmans did not suppress so much as adapt it4 ,the collection which goes by the name of iva-vkyam contains poems of different ages and styles4 ,some are orthodox1 others have no trace of ,brahmanism except the use of iva as the name of the deity4 ,yet it would seem that the anthology as a whole has not fallen under sacerdotal censure4#edf ,the important sect of the ,lingyats should perhaps be regarded as an offshoot of this anti-brahmanic school1 but before describing it1 it may be well briefly to review the history of orthodox ivaism in the south4 ,by this phrase is not meant the sect or school which had the support of ankara but that which developed out of the poems mentioned above without parting company with ,brahmanism4 ankara disapproved of their doctrine that the ,lord is the efficient cause of the world1 nor would the substitution of vernacular for ,sanskrit literature and temple ceremonies for ,vedic sacrifices have found favour with him4 ,but these were evidently strong tendencies in popular religion4 ,an important portion of the ,devram and the ,kanda ,purna of ,kachiyappar1 a ,tamil adaptation of the ,skanda ,purna1 were probably written between #fjj and #gej ,a4,d4#edg ,about #ajjj ,a4,d4 the ,tirumurai 7including the ,devram7 was arranged as a collection in eleven parts1 and about a century later ,sekkilar composed the ,periya ,purna1 a poetical hagiology1 giving the legends of ivaite saints and shrines4 ,many important temples were dedicated to iva during the eleventh and twelfth centuries4 ,there followed a period of scholasticism in which the body of doctrine called the aiva ,siddhnta was elaborated by four cryas1 namely ,mey-,kanda-,devar#edh 7#abbc71 ,arunandi1 ,maraina-,sambandhar and ,umpati 7#acac74 ,it will thus be seen that the foundation of ivaite philosophy in ,tamil is later than ,rmnuja and the first ,vishnuite movements1 and perhaps it was influenced by them but the methodical exposition of the aiva-,siddhntam#edi does not differ materially from the more poetic utterances of the ,tiruvaagam4 ,it recognizes the three entities1 the ,lord1 the soul and matter as separate1 but it shows a tendency 7doubtless due to the influence of the ,vednta7 both to explain away the existence of matter and to identify the soul with the ,lord more closely than its original formul allow4 ,matter is described as ,my and is potentially contained in the ,lord who manifests it in the creative process which begins each kalpa4 ,the ,lord is also said to be one with our souls and yet other4 ,the soul is by nature ignorant1 in bondage to the illusion of ,my and of ,karma1 but by the grace of the ,lord it attains to union 7not identity7 with him1 in which it sees that its actions are his actions4 ,in modern times aiva theology is represented among ,dravidians by the works of ivanar 7#aghe7 and his disciple ,kachiyappar3 also by the poems of ,rma-linga4 ivaism in ,madras and other parts of southern ,india is still a vigorous and progressive ,church which does not neglect ,european methods4 ,its principal organ is an interesting magazine called ,siddhanta-,dipika or the ,light of ,truth4 ,in northern ,india the ivaites are less distinct as a body and have less organization1 but temples to iva are numerous and perhaps the majority of ,brahmans and ascetics regard him as their special deity and read ivaite rather than ,vishnuite texts4 ,but it is probably also true that they are not sectarian in the same sense as the worshippers of ,krishna4 ,it is not easy to estimate the relative numbers of ivaites and ,vishnuites in south ,india1 and good authorities hold opposite views4 ,the ivaites are more united than the ,vishnuites 7whose many divisions and conspicuous sectarian marks attract attention7 and are found chiefly among the upper classes and among ascetics1 but perhaps there is much truth in an opinion which ,i once heard expressed by a ,tamil ,brahman1 that the real division is not between the worshippers of iva and of ,vishnu1 but between ,smrtas1 those who follow more or less strictly the ancient ritual observances and those who seek for salvation by devotion and in practice neglect the ,sanskrit scriptures4 ,there is little hostility4 ,the worship of both gods is sometimes performed in the same building as at ,chidambaram or in neighbouring shrines1 as at rrangam4 ,in south ,kanara and ,travancore it is generally held that the two deities are of equal greatness and in many places are found images representing them united in one figure4 ,but the great temples at ,madura1 ,tinnevelly and ,tanjore are all dedicated to iva or members of his family4 ,if in the philosophical literature of the ,siddhnta the purity of the theism taught is noticeable1 in these buildings it is rather the rich symbolism surrounding the god which attracts attention4 ,in his company are worshipped ,parvat1 ,ganea1 ,subrahmanya1 the bull ,nandi and minor attendants3 he is shown leaping in the ecstacy of the dance and on temple walls are often depicted his sixty-four sports or miracles 7ll74 ,for the imagination of the ,dravidians he is a great rhythmic force1 throbbing and exulting in all the works of nature and exhibiting in kindly playfulness a thousand antics and a thousand shapes4 #d ,another school of ivaite philosophy flourished in ,kashmir#eej from the ninth century onwards and is not yet extinct among ,pandits4 ,it bases itself on the gamas and includes among them the still extant iva-stras said to have been discovered as revelation by ,vasugupta4 ,he lived about #hjj ,a4,d4 and abandoned ,buddhism for ivaism4 ,the school produced a distinguished line of literary men who flourished from the ninth to the eleventh centuries4#eea ,the most recent authorities state that the ,kashmir school is one and that there is no real opposition between the ,spanda and ,pratyabhij sections4#eeb ,the word ,spanda1 equivalent to the godhead and ultimate reality1 is interesting for it means vibration accompanied by consciousness or1 so to speak1 self-conscious ether4 ,the term ,pratyabhij or recognition is more frequent in the later writings4 ,its meaning is as follows4 iva is the only reality and the soul is iva1 but ,my#eec forces on the soul a continuous stream of sensations4 ,by the practice of meditation it is possible to interrupt the stream and in those moments light illuminates the darkness of the soul and it recognizes that it is iva1 which it had forgotten4 ,also the world is wholly unreal apart from iva4 ,it exists by his will and in his mind4 ,what seems to the soul to be cognition is really recognition1 for the soul 7which is identical with the divine mind but blinded and obstructed7 recognizes that which exists only in the divine mind4 ,it has been held that ,kashmirian ivaism is the parent of the ,dravidian aiva ,siddhnta and spread from ,kashmir southwards by way of ,kalyan in the eleventh century1 and this hypothesis certainly receives support from the mention of ,kashmiri ,brahmans in south ,indian inscriptions of the fourteenth century4#eed ,yet ,i doubt if it is necessary to assume that south ,indian ivaism was derived from ,kashmir1 for the worship of iva must have been general long before the eleventh century#eee and ,kashmiri ,brahmans1 far from introducing ivaism to the south1 are more likely to have gone thither because they were sure of a good reception1 whereas they were exposed to ,moslim persecution in their own country4 ,also the forms which ivaism assumed in these two outlying provinces present differences3 in ,kashmir it was chiefly philosophic1 in the ,dravidian countries chiefly religious4 ,in the south it calls on ,god to help the sinner out of the mire1 whereas the school of ,kashmir1 especially in its later developments1 resembles the doctrine of ankara1 though its terminology is its own4 ,before the advent of ,islam1 ,kashmir was a secluded but cultured land4 ,its pleasant climate and beautiful scenery1 said to have been praised by ,gotama himself1#eef attracted and stimulated thinkers and it had some importance in the history of ,buddhism and of the ,pncartra as well as for ivaism4 ,it is connected with the ,buddhist sect called ,sarvstivdins and in this case the circumstances seem clear4 ,the sect did not originate in ,kashmir but its adherents settled there after attending the ,council of ,kanishka and made it into a holy land4 ,subsequently1 first ,vishnuism and then ivaism#eeg entered the mountain valleys and flourished there4 ,kashmirian thinkers may have left an individual impress on either system but they dealt with questions which had already been treated of by others and their contributions1 though interesting1 do not seem to have touched the foundations of belief or to have inspired popular movements4 ,the essential similarity of all ivaite schools is so great that coincidences even in details do not prove descent or borrowing and the special terms of ,kashmirian philosophy1 such as spanda and pratyabhija1 seem not to be used in the south4 ,the iva-stras consist of three sections1 describing three methods of attaining svacchanda or independence4 ,one 7the gist of which has been given above7 displays some though not great originality3 the second is ktist1 the third follows the ordinary prescriptions of the ,yoga4 ,all ivaite philosophy is really based on this last and teaches the existence of matter1 souls and a deity1 manifested in a series of phases4 ,the relations of these three ultimates are variously defined1 and they may be identified with one another1 for the ,snkhya-,yoga doctrine may be combined 7though not very consistently7 with the teaching of the ,vednta4 ,in ,kashmirian ivaism ,vedntist influences seem strong and it even calls itself ,advaita4 ,it is noteworthy that ,vasugupta1 who discovered the iva-stras1 also wrote a commentary on the ,bhagavad-gt4 ,the gist of the matter is that1 since a taste for speculation is far more prevalent in ,india than in ,europe1 there exist many systems of popular philosophy which1 being a mixture of religion and metaphysics1 involve two mental attitudes4 ,the ordinary worshipper implores the ,lord to deliver him from the bondage of sin and matter3 the philosopher and saint wish to show that thought is one and such ideas as sin and matter partial and illusory4 ,the originality of the aiva ,siddhnta lies less in its dogmas than in its devotional character3 in the feeling that the soul is immersed in darkness and struggles upwards by the grace of the ,lord1 so that the whole process of ,karma and ,my is really beneficent4 #e ,as already mentioned ivaism has an important though unorthodox offshoot in the ,lingyats#eeh or ,lingavants4 ,it appears that they originated at ,kalyan 7now in the ,nizam's dominions7 at the time when a usurper named ,bijjala 7#aaef-aafg7 had seized the throne of the ,chalukyas4 ,their founder was ,basava 7the vernacular form of ,vrishabha7 assisted by his nephew ,channabasava1#eei whose exploits and miracles are recorded in two ,purnas composed in ,kanarese and bearing their respective names4 ,according to one story ,bijjala1 who was a ,jain1 persecuted the ,lingyats and was assassinated by them4 ,but there are other versions and the early legends of the sect merit little credence4 ,the ,lingyats are ,puritans4 ,they reject caste1 the supremacy of the ,brahmans1 sacrifices and other rites1 and all the later ,brahmanic literature4 ,in theory they reverence the ,vedas but practically the two ,purnas mentioned are their sacred books4#efj ,they are strict vegetarians and teetotallers3 they do not insist on child marriages nor object to the remarriage of widows4 ,their only object of worship is iva in the form of a lingam and they always carry one suspended round the neck or arm4 ,it is remarkable that an exceptionally severe and puritanical sect should choose this emblem as its object of worship1 but1 as already observed1 the lingam is merely a symbol of the creative force and its worship is not accomplished by indecent rites4#efa ,they hold that true ,lingyats are not liable to be defiled by births or deaths1 that they cannot be injured by sorcery and that when they die their souls do not transmigrate but go straight to iva4 ,no prayers for the dead are needed4 ,though trustworthy details about the rise of the ,lingyats are scarce1 we can trace their spiritual ancestry4 ,they present in an organized form the creed which inspired ,pattanattu ,pillai in the tenth century4 ,about a hundred years later came ,rmnuja who founded a great ,vishnuite ,church and it is not surprising if the ivaites followed this example1 nor if the least orthodox party became the most definitely sectarian4 ,the sectarian impulse which is conspicuous after the eleventh century was perhaps stimulated by the example of ,mohammedanism4 ,there was little direct doctrinal influence1 but a religious people like the ,hindus can hardly have failed to notice the strength possessed by an association worshipping one god of its own and united by one discipline4 ,syrian ,christianity also might have helped to familiarize the ,lingyats with the idea of a god not to be represented by images or propitiated by sacrifices1 but there is no proof that it was prevalent in the part of the ,deccan where they first appeared4 ,the ,lingyats spread rapidly after ,basava's death4#efb ,they still number about two millions and are to be found in most ,kanarese-speaking districts4 ,they are easily recognizable for all carry the lingam1 which is commonly enclosed in a red scarf worn round the neck or among the richer classes in a silver-box4 ,it is made of grey soapstone and a ,lingyat must on no account part with it for a moment4 ,they are divided into the laity and the ,jangams or priests4 ,some of these marry but others are itinerant ascetics who wander over ,india frequenting especially the five ,simhsanas or ,lingyat sees4#efc ,they are treated with extreme respect by the laity and sometimes wear fantastic costumes such as plates resembling armour or little bells which announce their approach as they walk4 ,in doctrine the ,lingyats remain faithful to their original tenets and do not worship any god or goddess except iva in the form of the ,lingam1 though they show respect to ,ganea1 and other deities as also to the founder of their sect4 ,but in social matters it is agreed by all observers that they show a tendency to reintroduce caste and to minimize the differences separating them from more orthodox sects4 ,according to ,basava's teaching all members of the community both men and women are equal4 ,but though converts from all castes are still accepted1 it was found at the last census that well-to-do ,lingyats were anxious to be entered under the name of ,vraaiva ,brahmans1 ,kshatriyas1 etc41 and did not admit that caste distinctions are obliterated among them4 ,similarly though the remarriage of widows is not forbidden there is a growing tendency to look at it askance4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #eaa3 ,in various allusions to be found in the ,kdambar and ,harshacarita4 ,footnote #eab3 ,the best known of these is the ,tantravrttika1 a commentary on the ,prva-mmms4 ,footnote #eac3 ,this is the generally accepted date and does not appear to conflict with anything else that is at present known of ankara4 ,an alternative suggestion is some date between #eij and #fej 7see ,telang1 ,i4,a4 ,,xiii4 #ahhd1 p4 #ie and ,fleet1 ,i4,a4 ,,xvi4 #ahhg1 p4 #da74 ,but in this case1 it is very strange that ,i-,ching does not mention so conspicuous an enemy of the ,buddhists4 ,it does not seem to me that the use of ,prnavarman's name by ankara in an illustration 7,comm4 on ,vedanta ,sut4 ,,ii4 i4 #ag7 necessarily implies they were contemporaries1 but it does prove that he cannot have lived before ,prnavarman4 ,footnote #ead3 ,another tradition says he was born at ,chidambaram1 but the temple at ,badrinath in the ,himalayas said to have been founded by him has always been served by ,nambuthiri ,brahmans from ,malabar4 ,in #aiaj a great temple erected in his honour was consecrated at ,kaladi4 ,footnote #eae3 ,his conflicts with them are described in works called ankara-vijaya of which at least four are extant4 ,footnote #eaf3 ,they are called ,daanmis which merely means that each ascetic bears one or other of ten surnames 7,sarswati1 ,bharati1 ,tirtha1 etc474 ,see for a further account of them ,jogendra ,nath ,bhattacharya1 ,hindu ,castes and ,sects1 pp4 #cgd-cgi4 ,the order in all its branches seems to have strong pantheistic inclinations4 ,they mutter the formula ,sivo'ham1 ,i am iva4 ,footnote #eag3 ,i have been told by south ,indian ,pandits that they think ankara was bom in a ,bhgavata family and that there is some evidence his kinsmen were trustees of a temple of ,krishna4 ,the ktas also claim him1 but the tradition that he opposed the ktas is strong and probable4 ,many hymns addressed to ,vishnu1 iva and various forms of ,durg are attributed to him4 ,i have not been able to discover what is the external evidence for their authenticity but hymns must have been popular in south ,india before the time of ankara and it is eminently probable that he did not neglect this important branch of composition4 ,footnote #eah3 ,see ,bhattacharya1 ,hindu ,castes and ,sects1 p4 #af4 ,footnote #eai3 ,this math has an endowment of about #ejjj a year1 instituted by the kings of ,vijayanagar4 ,the ,guru is treated with great respect4 ,his palankin is carried crossways to prevent anyone from passing him and he wears a jewelled head-dress1 not unlike a papal tiara1 and wooden shoes covered with silver4 ,see an interesting account of ringeri in ,j4 ,mythic ,society 7,bangalore71 vol4 ,,viii4 pp4 #ah-cc4 ,schrader in his catalogue of the ,sanskrit ,,mss4 in the ,adyar ,library1 #aijh1 notices an ,upanishad called ,mahmyopanishad1 ascribed to ankara himself1 which deals with the special qualities of the four maths4 ,each is described as possessing one ,veda1 one ,mahvkyam1 etc4 ,the second part deals with the three ideal maths1 ,sumeru1 ,paramtman and strthajnna4 ,footnote #ebj3 ,there is some reason to suppose that the ,math of ,sringeri was founded on the site of a ,buddhist monastery4 ,see ,journal of ,mythic ,society1 ,bangalore1 #aiaf1 p4 #aea4 ,footnote #eba3 ,pracchanna-bauddha4 ,see for further details ,book ,,iv4 chap4 ,,xxi4 ad fin4 ,footnote #ebb3 ,the old folk-lore of ,bengal gives a picture of iva1 the peasant's god1 which is neither ,vedic nor ,dravidian4 ,see ,dinesh ,chandra ,sen1 ,bengali ,lang4 and ,lit4 pp4 #fh ff4 and #bci ff4 ,footnote #ebc3 ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #ahii1 p4 #bdb4 ,footnote #ebd3 ,see some curious examples in ,whitehead's ,village ,gods of ,south ,india4 ,footnote #ebe3 ,rice1 ,mysore and ,coorg from the ,inscriptions1 pp4 #bg and #bjd4 ,footnote #ebf3 ,the early ,brahmi inscriptions of southern ,india are said to be written in a ,dravidian language with an admixture not of ,sanskrit but of ,pali words4 ,see ,arch4 ,survey ,india1 #aiaa-ab1 ,part ,i4 p4 #bc4 ,footnote #ebg3 ,see ,rice1 ,mysore and ,coorg1 pp4 #c-e and ,fleet's criticisms1 ,i4,a44 ,,xxi4 #ahib1 p4 #bhg4 ,footnote #ebh3 ,the various notices in ,european classical authors as well as in the ,sinhalese chronicles prove this4 ,footnote #ebi3 ,except in the first chapter4 ,footnote #ecj3 ,a complete list of them is given in ,foulkes1 ,catechism of the ,shaiva religion1 #ahfc1 p4 #ba4 ,footnote #eca3 ,tamilian ,antiquary1 #c1 #aiji1 pp4 #a-fe4 ,footnote #ecb3 ,edited and translated by ,pope1 #aijj4 ,footnote #ecc3 ,established opinion or doctrine4 ,used by the ,jains as a name for their canon4 ,footnote #ecd3 ,thus the catechism of the aiva religion by ,sabhapati ,mudaliyar 7transl4 ,foulkes1 #ahfc7 after stating emphatically that the world is created also says that the soul and the world are both eternal4 ,also just as in the ,bhagavad-gt the ideas of the ,vedanta and ,snkhya are incongruously combined1 so in the ,tiruvaagam 7e4g4 ,pope's edition1 pp4 #di and #ach7 iva is occasionally pantheized4 ,he is the body and the soul1 existence and non-existence1 the false and the true1 the bond and the release4 ,footnote #ece3 ,e4g4 ,hymn vi4 ,footnote #ecf3 ,pope's ,tiruvaagam1 p4 #beg4 ,footnote #ecg3 ,yet ,i have read that ,american revivalists describe how you play base ball 7an ,american game7 with ,jesus4 ,footnote #ech3 ,pope's ,tiruvaagam1 p4 #aja4 ,footnote #eci3 ,it does not seem to me that the legend of iva's drinking the hala-hala poison is really parallel to the sufferings of the ,christian redeemer4 ,at the most it is a benevolent exploit like many performed by ,vishnu4 ,footnote #edj3 ,although iva is said to have been many times incarnate 7see for instance ,catechism of the ,shaiva religion1 p4 #bj7 he seems to have merely appeared in human form on special occasions and not to have been like ,christ or ,krishna a god living as a man from birth to death4 ,footnote #eda3 ,the lines which seem most clearly to reflect ,christian influence are those quoted by ,caldwell from the ,nana nuru in the introduction to his ,comparative ,grammar of the ,dravidian languages1 p4 #abg1 but neither the date of the work nor the original of the quotation is given4 ,this part of the introduction is omitted in the third edition4 ,footnote #edb3 ,tamilian ,antiquary1 #d1 #aiji1 pp4 #eg-hb4 ,footnote #edc3 ,ib4 pp4 #a-eg2 ,sesha ,aiyer gives #bge ,a4,d4 as the probable date1 and #cge as the latest date4 ,footnote #edd3 ,the aiva catechism translated by ,foulkes says 7p4 #bg7 that iva revealed the ,tiruvaagam twice1 first to ,manikka-,vaagar and later to ,tiru-,kovaiyar4 ,footnote #ede3 ,sanskrit1 ,siddha4 ,footnote #edf3 ,space forbids me to quote the iva-vkyam and ,pattanattu ,pillai1 interesting as they are4 ,the reader is referred to ,gover1 ,folk-,songs of southern ,india1 #ahga1 a work which is well worth reading4 ,footnote #edg3 ,the date of the ,skanda ,purna creates no difficulty for ,bendall considered a ,,ms4 of it found in ,nepal to be anterior to #fei ,a4,d4 ,footnote #edh3 ,one of his maxims was adu1 adu dal1 that is the mind becomes that 7spiritual or material7 with which it identifies itself most completely4 ,footnote #edi3 ,it is contained in fourteen stras1 most of which are attributed to the four teachers mentioned above4 ,footnote #eej3 ,for the ,kashmir school see ,barnett in ,muson1 #aiji1 pp4 #bga-bgg4 ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aiaj1 pp4 #gjg-gdg4 ,kashmir ,sanskrit series1 particularly vol4 ,,ii4 entitled ,kashmir aivism4 ,the iva stras and the commentary ,vimar'sin translated in ,indian ,thought1 #aiaa-ab4 ,also ,srinivasa ,iyengar1 ,outlines of ,indian ,philosophy1 pp4 #afh-age and ,sarva-darana-sangraha1 chap4 ,,viii4 ,footnote #eea3 ,among them may be mentioned ,kallata1 author of the ,spanda ,kriks and ,somnanda of the ivadrishti1 who both flourished about #hej-ijj4 ,utpala1 who composed the ,pratyabhij-kriks1 lived some fifty years later1 and in the eleventh century ,abhinava ,gupta and ,kshemarja composed numerous commentaries4 ,footnote #eeb3 ,kashmirian aivism is often called ,trika1 that is tripartite1 because1 like other varieties1 it treats of three ultimates iva1 akti1 ,anu or ,pati1 ,pau1 ,pa4 ,but it has a decided tendency towards monism4 ,footnote #eec3 ,also called the akti or ,mtrik4 ,footnote #eed3 ,see ,epig4 ,carn4 ,,vii4 ,sk4 #aad4 #ai1 #bj and ,jour4 ,mythic ,society1 #aiag1 pp4 #agf1 #ahj4 ,footnote #eee3 ,to say nothing of ivaite temples like the ,kailas at ,ellora1 the chief doctrines and even the terminology of ivaite philosophy are mentioned by ankara on ,ved4 ,sutras1 ,,ii4 #b4 #cg4 ,footnote #eef3 ,in the ,samyuktavastu1 chap4 ,,xl4 7transl4 in ,j4,a4 #aiad1 ,,ii4 pp4 #ecd1 etc47 the ,buddha is represented as saying that ,kashmir is the best land for meditation and leading a religious life4 ,footnote #eeg3 ,chatterji1 ,kashmir aivism1 p4 #aa1 thinks that ,abhinava ,gupta's ,paramrthasra1 published by ,barnett1 was an adaptation of older verses current in ,india and called the dhra ,kriks4 ,footnote #eeh3 ,see ,thurston1 ,castes and ,tribes of southern ,india1 s4v4 vol4 ,,iv4 pp4 #bcf-bia and ,gazetteer of the ,bombay ,presidency1 vol4 ,,xxiii4 article ,bijapur1 pp4 #bai-ahhd4 ,footnote #eei3 ,an inscription found at ,ablur in ,dharwar also mentions ,ramayya as a champion of ivaite monotheism4 ,he is perhaps the same as ,channabasava4 ,the ,lingyats maintain that ,basava merely revived the old true religion of iva and founded nothing new4 ,footnote #efj3 ,they have also a book called ,prabhuling-lila1 which is said to teach that the deity ought to live in the believer's soul as he lives in the lingam1 and collections of early ,kanarese sermons which are said to date from the thirteenth century4 ,footnote #efa3 ,the use of the ,linga by this sect supports the view that even in its origin the symbol is not exclusively phallic4 ,footnote #efb3 ,their creed is said to have been the state religion of the ,wodeyars of ,mysore 7#acii-afjj7 and of the ,nayaks of ,keladi1 ,ikken or ,bednur 7#aeej-agfc74 ,footnote #efc3 ,at ,kadur1 ,ujjeni1 ,benares1 rsailam and ,kedarnth in the ,himalayas4 ,in every ,lingyat village there is a monastery affiliated to one of these five establishments4 ,the great importance attached to monastic institutions is perhaps due to ,jain influence4 ,,chapter ,,xxix ,,vishnuism ,,in ,,south ,,india #a ,though ivaism can boast of an imposing array of temples1 teachers and scriptures in the north as well as in the south1 yet ,vishnuism was equally strong and after #ajjj ,a4,d4 perhaps stronger4 ,thus ,alberuni writing about north-western ,india in #ajcj ,a4,d4 mentions iva and ,durg several times incidentally but devotes separate chapters to ,nryana and ,vsudeva2 he quotes copiously from ,vishnuite works#efd but not from sectarian ivaite books4 ,he mentions that the worshippers of ,vishnu are called ,bhgavatas and he frequently refers to ,rma4 ,it is clear that in giving an account of ,vishnuism he considered that he had for all practical purposes described the religion of the parts of ,india which he knew4 ,in their main outlines the histories of ,vishnuism and ivaism are the same4 ,both faiths first assumed a definite form in northern ,india1 but both flourished exceedingly when transplanted to the south and produced first a school of emotional hymn writers and then in a maturer stage a goodly array of theologians and philosophers as well as offshoots in the form of eccentric sects which broke loose from ,brahmanism altogether4 ,but ,vishnuism having first spread from the north to the south returned from the south to the north in great force1 whereas the history of ivaism shows no such reflux4#efe ivaism remained comparatively homogeneous1 but ,vishnuism gave birth from the eleventh century onwards to a series of sects or ,churches still extant and forming exclusive though not mutually hostile associations4 ,the chief ,churches or ,sampradyas bear the names of ,sanakdi1 r1 ,brahm and ,rudra4 ,the first three were founded by ,nimbditya1 ,rmnuja and ,madhva respectively4 ,the ,rudra-sampradya was rendered celebrated by ,vallabha1 though he was not its founder4 ,the belief and practice of all ,vishnuite sects alike is a modified monotheism1 the worship of the ,supreme ,being under some such name as ,rma or ,vsudeva4 ,but the monotheism is not perfect4 ,on the one hand it passes into pantheism3 on the other it is not completely disengaged from mythology and in all sects the consort and attendants of the deity receive great respect1 even if this respect is theoretically distinguished from adoration4 ,nearly all sects reject sacrifice in toto and make the basis of salvation emotional--namely devotion to the deity1 and as a counterpart to this the chief characteristic of the deity is loving condescension or grace4 ,the theological philosophy of each sect is nearly always1 whatever name it may bear1 a variety of the system known as ,viishtdvaita1 or qualified monism1 which is not unlike the ,snkhya-,yoga4#eff ,for ,vishnuites as for ivaites there exist ,god1 the soul and matter1 but most sects shrink from regarding them as entirely separate and bridge over the differences with various theories of emanations and successive manifestations of the deity4 ,but for practical religion the soul is entangled in matter and1 with the help of ,god1 struggles towards union with him4 ,the precise nature and intimacy of this union has given rise to as many subtle theories and phrases as the sacraments in ,europe4 ,vishnuite sects in all parts of ,india show a tendency to recognize vernacular works as their scriptures1 but they also attach great importance to the ,upanishads1 the ,bhagavad-gt1 the ,nryanya and the ,vednta ,stras4 ,each has a special interpretation of these last which becomes to some extent its motto4 ,but these books belong to the relatively older literature4 ,many ,vishnuite1 or rather ,krishnaite1 works composed from the eighth century onwards differ from them in tone and give prominence to the god's amorous adventures with the ,gopis and 7still later7 to the personality of ,rdh4 ,this ecstatic and sentimental theology1 though found in all parts of ,india1 is more prevalent in the north than in the south4 ,its great text-book is the ,bhgavata ,purna4 ,the same spirit is found in ,jayadeva's ,gt-govinda1 apparently composed in ,bengal about #aagj ,a4,d4 and reproducing in a polished form the religious dramas or ,ytras in which the life of ,krishna is still represented4 #b ,the sect#efg founded by ,nimbrka or ,nimbditya has some connection with this poem4 ,its chief doctrine is known as dvaitdvaitamata1 or dualistic non-duality1 which is explained as meaning that1 though the soul and matter are distinct from ,god1 they are yet as intimately connected with him as waves with water or the coils of a rope with the rope itself4 ,this doctrine is referred to in the religious drama called ,prabodhacandrodaya1 probably composed at the end of the eleventh century4 ,the ,nimvats1 as the adherents of the sect are called1 are found near ,muttra and in ,bengal4 ,it is noticeable that this sect1 which had its origin in northern ,india1 is said to have been persecuted by the ,jains#efh and to have been subsequently revived by a teacher called ,nivsa4 ,this may explain why in the twelfth century ,vishnuism flourished in the south rather than in the north4#efi ,less is known of the ,nimbrkas than of the other sects4 ,they worship ,krishna and ,rdh and faith in ,krishna is said to be the only way to salvation4 ,krishna was the deity of the earliest bhakti-sects4 ,then in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries there was a reaction in favour of ,rma as a more spiritual deity1 but subsequently ,vallabha and ,caitanya again made the worship of ,krishna popular4 ,nimbrka expressed his views in a short commentary on the ,vednta ,stras and also in ten verses containing a compendium of doctrine4#egj #c ,as among the ivaites1 so among the ,vishnuites of the south1 history begins with poet-saints4 ,they are called the twelve rvrs4#ega ,for the three earliest no historical basis has been found1 but the later ones seem to be real personalities4 ,the most revered of them is ,namm'rvr also called ,sathagopa1 whose images and pictures may be seen everywhere in south ,india and receive the same reverence as figures of the gods4#egb ,he may have lived in the seventh or eighth century ,a4,d4#egc ,the chronology of the rvrs is exceedingly vague but if the praises of iva were sung by poet-saints in the seventh century1 it is probable that the ,vishnu worshippers were not behindhand4 ,two circumstances argue a fairly early date4 ,first ,nthamuni is said to have arranged the hymns of the rvrs and he probably lived about #ajjj ,a4,d4 ,therefore the rvrs must have become classics by this date4 ,secondly the ,bhgavata ,purna#egd says that in the ,kali age the worshippers of ,nryana will be numerous in the ,dravidian country1 though in other parts found only here and there1 and that those who drink the water of the ,kaveri and other southern rivers will mostly be devotees of ,vsudeva4 ,this passage must have been written after a ,vishnuite movement had begun in the ,dravidian country4#ege ,the hymns attributed to the rvrs are commonly known by the name of ,prabandham or ,nlyiram and are accepted by the ,tengalai ,vishnuites as their canonical scriptures4 ,the whole collection contains #djjj verses arranged in four parts#egf and an extract consisting of #fjb verses selected for use in daily worship is in part accessible4#egg ,this poetry shows the same ecstatic devotion and love of nature as the ,tiruvaagam4 ,it contemplates the worship of images and a temple ritual consisting in awakening the god at morning and attending on him during the day4 ,it quotes the ,upanishads and ,bhagavad-gt1 assumes as a metaphysical basis a vedantized form of the ,snkhya philosophy1 and also accepts the legends of the pastoral ,krishna but without giving much detail4 ,jains1 ,buddhists and aivas are blamed and the repetition of the name ,govinda is enjoined4 ,though the hymns are not anti-brahmanic they decidedly do not contemplate a life spent in orthodox observances and their reputed authors include several dras1 a king and a woman4 ,after the poet-saints came the doctors and theologians4 ,accounts of them1 which seem historical in the main though full of miraculous details1 are found in the ,tamil biographies#egh illustrating the apostolic succession of teachers4 ,it appears fairly certain that ,rmnuja1 the fourth in succession1 was alive in #aaah3 the first1 known as ,nthamuni1 may therefore have lived #ajj-aej years earlier4 ,none of his works are extant but he is said to have arranged the poems of the rvrs for recitation in temple services4 ,he went on a pilgrimage to northern ,india and according to tradition was an adept in ,yoga1 being one of the last to practise it in the south4 ,third in succession was his grandson ,yamunrcrya 7known as lavandr or victor71 who spent the first part of his life as a wealthy layman but was converted and resided at rrangam4 ,here he composed several important works in ,sanskrit including one written to establish the orthodoxy of the ,pncartra and its ritual4#egi #d ,he was succeeded by ,rmnuja1 a great name in ,indian theology both as the organizer of a most important sect and1 if not the founder1#ehj at least the accepted exponent of the ,viishtdvaita philosophy4 ,rmnuja was born at rperum-budur#eha near ,madras1 where he is still commemorated by a celebrated shrine4 ,as a youth he studied ivaite philosophy at ,conjeevaram but abandoned it for ,vishnuism4 ,he appears to have been a good administrator4 ,he made the definitive collection of the hymns of the rvrs and is said to have founded #gjj maths and #hi hereditary abbotships1 for he allowed the members of his order to marry4 ,he visited northern ,india1 including ,kashmir if tradition may be believed1 but his chief residence was rrangam4 ,towards the end of the eleventh century however1 the hostility of the ,chola ,king ,kulottunga1 who was an intolerant ivaite1 forced him to retire to ,mysore4 ,here he was protected by ,king ,vittala ,deva whom he converted from ,jainism and on the death of ,kulottunga in #aaah he returned to rrangam where he ended his days4 ,in the temple there his tomb and a shrine where his image receives divine honours may still be seen4 ,his best known work#ehb is the r ,bhshya or commentary on the ,vednta stras4 ,the sect which he founded is known as the r ,sampradya and its members as the r ,vaishnavas4 ,as among the ivaites revelation is often supposed to be made by iva through akti1 so here the ,lord is said to have revealed the truth to his consort r or ,lakshm1 she to a demigod called ,visvaksena1 and he to ,namm'rvr1 from whom ,rmnuja was eighth in spiritual descent4 ,though the members of the sect are sometimes called ,ramaites the personality of ,rma plays a small part in their faith1 especially as expounded by ,rmnuja4 ,as names for the deity he uses ,nryana and ,vsudeva and he quotes freely from the ,bhagavad-gt and the ,vishnu ,purna4 ,compared with the emotional deism of ,caitanya this faith seems somewhat philosophic and reticent4 ,rmnuja clearly indicates its principal points in the first words of his r ,bhshya4 ,may my mind be filled with devotion towards the highest ,brahman1 the abode of ,lakshm2 who is luminously revealed in the ,upanishads3 who in sport produces1 sustains and reabsorbs the entire universe3 whose only aim is to foster the manifold classes of beings that humbly worship him4#ehc ,he goes on to say that his teaching is that of the ,upanishads1 which was obscured by the mutual conflict of manifold opinions1 and that he follows the commentary of ,bodhyana and other teachers who have abridged it4 ,that is to say1 the form of ,vishnuism which ,rmnuja made one of the principal religions of ,india claims to be the teaching of the ,upanishads1 although he also affiliates himself to the ,bhgavatas4 ,he interprets the part of the ,vednta ,stras which treats of this sect#ehd as meaning that the author states and ultimately disallows the objections raised to their teaching and he definitely approves it4 ,as it is thus settled that the highest ,brahman or ,nryana himself is the promulgator of the entire ,pncartra and that this system teaches the nature of ,nryana and the proper way of worshipping him1 none can disestablish the view that in the ,pncartra all the other doctrines are comprised4#ehe ,the true tradition of the ,upanishads he contends has been distorted by manifold opinions1 among which the doctrine of ankara was no doubt the chief4 ,that doctrine was naturally distasteful to devotional poets1 and from the time of ,nthamuni onwards a philosophic reaction against it grew up in rrangam4 ,rmnuja preaches the worship of a loving ,god1 though when we read that ,god produces and reabsorbs the universe in sport1 we find that we are farther from ,christianity than we at first supposed4 ,there is a touch of mythology in the mention of ,lakshm#ehf but it is clear that ,rmnuja himself had little liking for mythology4 ,he barely mentions ,rma and ,krishna in the ri ,bhshya nor does he pay much attention to the consort of the deity4 ,on the other hand he shows no sign of rejecting the ritual and regulations of the ,brahmans4 ,he apparently wished to prove that the doctrine of salvation by devotion to a personal god is compatible with a system as strictly orthodox as ankara's own4 ,i shall treat elsewhere of his philosophy1 known as the ,viishtdvaita or non-duality1 which yet recognizes a distinction between ,god and individual souls4 ,the line of thought is old and at all periods is clearly a compromise1 unwilling to deny that ,god is everything and yet dissatisfied with the idea that a personal deity and our individual transmigrating souls are all merely illusion4 ,devotional theism was growing in ,rmnuja's time4 ,he could not break with the ,upanishads and ,vedantic tradition but he adapted them to the needs of his day4 ,he taught firstly that the material world and human souls are not illusion but so to speak the body of ,god who comprises and pervades them3 secondly this ,god is omniscient1 omnipresent1 almighty and all-merciful1 and salvation 7that is mukti or deliverance from transmigration7 is obtained by those souls who1 assisted by his grace1 meditate on him and know him2 thirdly this salvation consists not in absorption into ,god but in blissful existence near him and in participation of his glorious qualities4 ,he further held#ehg that ,god exists in five modes1 namely3 7a7 ,para1 the entire supreme spirit1 7b7 the fourfold manifestation as ,vsudeva1 ,sankarshana1 ,pradyumna and ,aniruddha1 7c7 incarnations such as ,rma and ,krishna1 7d7 the internal controller or ,antarymin according to the text#ehh who abiding in the soul rules the soul within1 7e7 duly consecrated images4 ,the followers of ,rmnuja are at present divided into two schools known as ,tengalais and ,vadagalais1 or southern and northern4#ehi ,the double residence of the founder is one reason for the division1 since both ,mysore and ,trichinopoly could claim to have personal knowledge of his teaching4 ,the really important difference seems to be that the ,tengalai or southern school is inclined to break away from ,sanskrit tradition1 to ignore the ,vedas in practice and to regard the ,tamil ,nlyiram as an all-sufficient scripture1 whereas the ,vadagalais1 though not rejecting the ,nlyiram1 insist on the authority of the ,vedas4 ,but both divisions are scrupulous about caste observances and the ceremonial purity of their food4 ,they are separated by nice questions of doctrine1 especially as to the nature of prapatti1 resignation or self-surrender to the deity1 a sentiment slightly different from bhakti which is active faith or devotion4 ,the northerners hold that the soul lays hold of the ,lord1 as the young monkey hangs on to its mother1 whereas the southerners say that the ,lord picks up the helpless and passive soul as a cat picks up a kitten4#eij ,according to the northerners1 the consort of ,vishnu is1 like him1 uncreated and equally to be worshipped as a bestower of grace3 according to the southerners she is created and1 though divine1 merely a mediator or channel of the ,lord's grace4 ,even more important in popular esteem is the fact that the ,vadagalai sectarian mark ends between the eyebrows whereas the ,tengalais prolong it to the tip of the nose4 ,odium theologicum is often bitterest between the sects which are most nearly related and accordingly we find that the ,tengalais and ,vadagalais frequently quarrel4 ,they use the same temples but in many places both claim the exclusive right to recite the hymns of the rvrs4 ,the chief difference in their recitation lies in the opening verse in which each party celebrates the names of its special teachers1 and disputes as to the legality of a particular verse in a particular shrine sometimes give rise to free fights and subsequent lawsuits4 ,the two schools reckon the apostolic succession differently and appear to have separated in the thirteenth century1 in which they were represented by ,pillai ,lokcrya and ,vednta ,desika#eia respectively4 ,the ,tengalai1 of which the first-named teacher was the practical founder1 must be regarded as innovators1 for in their use of ,tamil as the language of religion they do not follow the example of ,rmnuja4 ,lokcrya teaches that the grace of ,god is irresistible and should be met not merely by active faith1 but by self-surrender1#eib and entire submission to the guidance of the spiritual teacher4 ,he was the author of eighteen works called ,rahasyas or secrets#eic but though he appears to have been the first to formulate the ,tengalai doctrines1 ,manavala ,mahmuni 7#acgj-addc ,a4,d47 is regarded by the sect as its chief saint4 ,his images and pictures are frequent in south ,india and he wrote numerous commentaries and poems4 ,vednta ,desika1 the founder of the ,vadagalai1 was a native of ,conjeevaram but spent much of his life at rrangam4 ,he was a voluminous author and composed inter alia an allegorical play in ten acts1 portraying the liberation of the soul under the auspices of ,king ,viveka 7discrimination7 and ,queen ,sumati 7,wisdom74 ,at the present day the two sects recognize as their respective heads two cryas who are married1 whereas all ,smrta cryas are celibates4#eid ,the ,tengalai crya resides near ,tinnevelly1 the ,vadagalai in the district of ,kurnool4 ,they both make periodical visitations in their districts and have considerable ecclesiastical power4 ,in the south rrangam near ,trichinopoly is their principal shrine3 in the north ,melucote in the ,seringapatam district is esteemed very sacred4 #e ,it was only natural that ,rmnuja's advocacy of qualified non-duality should lead some more uncompromising spirit to affirm the doctrine of ,dvaita or duality4 ,this step was taken by ,madhva crya1 a ,kanarese ,brahman who was probably born in #aaii ,a4,d4#eie ,in the previous year the great temple of ,jagannatha at ,puri had been completed and the ,vishnuite movement was at its height4 ,madhva though educated as a aiva became a ,vaishnava4 ,he denied absolutely the identity of the ,supreme ,being with the individual soul and held that the world is not a modification of the ,lord but that he is like a father who begets a son4 ,yet in practice1 rigid monotheism is not more prevalent among ,madhva's followers than in other sects4 ,they are said to tolerate the worship of ivaite deities and of the lingam in their temples#eif and their ascetics dress like aivas4 ,madhva travelled in both northern and southern ,india and had a somewhat troubled life1 for his doctrine1 being the flat contradiction of the ,advaita1 involved him in continual conflicts with the followers of ankara who are said to have even stolen his library4 ,at any rate they anathematized his teaching with a violence unusual in ,indian theology4#eig ,in spite of such lively controversy he found time to write thirty-seven works1 including commentaries on the ,upanishads1 ,bhagavad-gt and ,vednta ,stras4 ,the obvious meaning of these texts is not that required by his system1 but they are recognized by all ,vaishnavas as the three ,prasthnas or starting-points of philosophy and he had to show that they supported his views4 ,hence his interpretation often seems forced and perverse4 ,the most extraordinary instance of this is his explanation of the celebrated phrase in the ,chndogya ,upanishad ,sa tm tat tvam asi4 ,he reads ,sa tm atat tvam asi and considers that it means ,you are not that ,god4 ,why be so conceited as to suppose that you are8#eih ,monotheistic texts have often received a mystical and pantheistic interpretation4 ,the ,old ,testament and the ,koran have been so treated by ,kabbalists and ,sufis4 ,but in ,madhva's commentaries we see the opposite and probably rarer method4 ,pantheistic texts are twisted until they are made to express uncompromising monotheism4 ,the sect is often called ,brahma-sampradya1 because it claims that its doctrine was revealed by ,brahm from whom ,madhva was the sixth teacher in spiritual descent4 ,its members are known as ,mdhvas but prefer to call themselves ,sad-,vaishnavas4 ,its teaching seems more rigid and less emotional than that of other ,vishnuites and is based on the ,pancabheda or five eternal distinctions between 7a7 ,god and the soul1 7b7 ,god and matter1 7c7 the soul and matter1 7d7 individual souls1 7e7 individual atoms of matter4 ,god is generally called ,vishnu or ,nryana rather than ,vsudeva4 ,krishna is adored but not in his pastoral aspect4 ,vishnu and his spouse ,lakshm are real though superhuman personalities and their sons are ,brahm the creator and ,vyu4#eii ,peculiar to this sect is the doctrine that except through ,vyu1 the son of ,vishnu1 salvation is impossible4 ,vyu has been three times incarnate as ,hanumat1 the helper of ,rma1 as ,bhma and as ,madhva himself4#fjj ,souls are separate1 innumerable and related to ,god as subjects to a king4 ,they are of three classes3 those who are destined to eternal bliss in the presence of ,god3 those who revolve eternally in the maze of transmigration3 and those who tending ever downwards are doomed to eternal suffering4 ,this last doctrine1 as well as the doctrine of salvation through ,vyu1 the wind or spirit1 has led many to suspect that ,madhva was influenced by ,christian ideas1 but it is more probable that he owed something to ,islam4 ,such influence would no doubt be distant and indirect1 for a ,brahman would not come into contact with ,moslim doctors1 though it is said that ,madhva could speak ,persian4#fja ,but some ,moslim ideas such as the absolute separation of ,god from the world and the predestination of souls to eternal happiness and misery may have entered ,brahman minds4 ,still1 nearly all ,madhva's views 7with the possible exception of eternal punishment7 have ,indian analogies4 ,the ,yoga teaches that there are innumerable souls distinct from one another and from ,god and though salvation through the spirit sounds ,christian1 yet the ,upanishads constantly celebrate ,vyu 7wind7 and ,prna 7breath7 as the pervading principle of the world and the home of the self4 ,by the wind 7,vyu7 as thread1 ,o ,gautama1 this world and the other world and all creatures are bound together4#fjb ,thus the idea that the wind is the universal mediator is old and it does not seem that ,madhva regarded ,vyu as a redeemer or expiation for sin like ,christ4 ,the ,mdhvas are still an energetic and important sect4 ,their headquarters are at ,udipi in ,south ,kanara and they also hold an annual conference at ,tirupati at which examinations in theology are held and prizes given4 ,at ,udipi are eight maths and a very sacred temple1 dedicated by ,madhva himself to ,krishna4 ,the head of each math is charged in turn with the supervision of this temple during two years and the change of office is celebrated by a great biennial festival in ,january4 ,the worship is more puritanical than in the temples of other sects1 dancing girls for instance not being allowed1 but great importance is attached to the practice of branding the body with the emblems of ,vishnu4 ,the sect1 like the r ,vaishnavas1 is divided into two parties1 the ,vyasakutas who are conservative and use ,sanskrit scriptures1#fjc and the ,dasakutas who have more popular tendencies and use sacred books written in ,kanarese4 ,neither the r ,vaishnavas nor the ,mdhvas are numerous in northern ,india4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #efd3 ,such as the ,vishnu ,purna1 ,vishnu ,dharma1 said to be a section of the ,garuda ,purna and the ,bhagavad-gt4 ,footnote #efe3 ,the ,hindus are well aware that the doctrine of ,bhakti spread from the south to the north4 ,see the allegory quoted in ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aiaa1 p4 #hjj4 ,footnote #eff3 ,thus ,rmnuja says 7ri ,bhshya1 ,,ii4 #b4 #dc7 that the ,vednta ,stras do not refute the ,snkhya and ,yoga but merely certain erroneous views as to ,brahman not being the self4 ,footnote #efg3 ,it has been described as the earliest of the ,vishnuite ,churches and it would be so if we could be sure that the existence of the doctrine called ,dvaitdvaita was equivalent to the existence of the sect4 ,but ,bhandarkar has shown some reason for thinking that ,nimbditya lived after ,rmnuja4 ,it must be admitted that the worship of ,rdh and the doctrine of self-surrender or prapatti1 both found in the ,daaloki1 are probably late4 ,footnote #efh3 ,see ,grierson in ,e4,r4,e4 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #deg4 ,footnote #efi3 ,the ,church of the ,nimavats is also called ,sanakdi-sampradya because it professes to derive its doctrine from ,sanaka and his brethren who taught ,nrada1 who taught ,nimbrka4 ,at least one sub-sect founded by ,harivamsa 7born #aeei7 adopts a doctrine analogous to ,saktism and worships ,rdh as the manifestation of ,krishna's energy4 ,footnote #egj3 ,called the ,daaloki4 ,it is translated in ,bhandarkar's ,vaishn and aivism1 pp4 #fc-e4 ,footnote #ega3 ,also spelt ,alvar and ,azhvar4 ,the ,tamil pronunciation of this difficult letter varies in different districts4 ,the word apparently means one who is drowned or immersed in the divine love4 ,cf4 ,azhi1 the deep sea2 ,azhal1 being deep or being immersed4 ,footnote #egb3 ,an educated ,vaishnava told me at rrangam that devas and saints receive the same homage4 ,footnote #egc3 ,it is possible that the poems attributed to ,namm'rvr and other saints are really later compositions4 ,see ,epig4 ,ind4 vol4 ,,viii4 p4 #bid4 ,footnote #egd3 ,,xi4 #e4 #ch-dj4 ,footnote #ege3 ,bhandarkar 7,vaishn4 and aivism1 p4 #ej7 thinks it probable that ,kulaekhara1 one of the middle rvrs1 lived about #aacj4 ,but the argument is not conclusive and it seems to me improbable that he lived after ,nthamuni4 ,footnote #egf3 ,the first called ,mudal-yiram consists of nine hymns ascribed to various saints such as ,periyrvar and ,andal4 ,the second and third each consist of a single work the ,periya-tiru-mori and the ,tiru-vay-mori ascribed to ,tiru-mangai and ,namm'rvr respectively4 ,the fourth part or ,iyar-pa is like the first a miscellany containing further compositions by these two as well as by others4 ,footnote #egg3 ,nitynusandhnam series3 edited with ,telugu paraphrase and ,english translation by ,m4,b4 ,srinivasa ,aiyangar1 ,madras1 #ahih4 ,footnote #egh3 ,the best known is the ,guru-parampar-prabhvam of ,brahmatantra-svatantra-swmi4 ,for an ,english account of these doctors see ,t4 ,rjagopala ,chariar1 ,the ,vaishnavite ,reformers of ,india1 ,madras1 #aiji4 ,footnote #egi3 gamaprmnya4 ,he also wrote a well-known hymn called lavandr-,stotram and a philosophical treatise called ,siddhi-traya4 ,footnote #ehj3 ,he states himself that he followed ,boddhyana1 a commentator on the ,stras of unknown date but anterior to ankara4 ,he quotes several other commentators particularly ,dramida1 so that his school must have had a long line of teachers4 ,footnote #eha3 ,see ,gazetteer of ,india1 vol4 ,,xxiii4 s4v4 ,there is a ,kanarese account of his life called ,dibya-caritra4 ,for his life and teaching see also ,bhandarkar in ,berichte ,v,i,ith ,int4 ,orient4 ,congress1 #ahhf1 pp4 #aja ff4 ,lives in ,english have been published at ,madras by ,alkondaville ,govindcrya 7#aijf7 and ,krishnaswami ,aiyangar 78 #aiji74 ,footnote #ehb3 ,he also wrote the ,vedrtha ,sangraha1 ,vedrtha ,pradpa1 ,vednta ,sra and a commentary on the ,bhagavad-gt4 ,footnote #ehc3 ,s4,b4,e4 ,,xlviii4 p4 #c4 ,footnote #ehd3 ,,ii4 #b4 #cf-ci4 ,footnote #ehe3 ,,ii4 #b4 #dc ad fin4 ,footnote #ehf3 ,rmnuja's introduction to the ,bhagavad-gt is more ornate but does not go much further in doctrine than the passage here quoted4 ,footnote #ehg3 ,this fivefold manifestation of the deity is a characteristic ,pncartra doctrine4 ,see ,schrader1 ,int4 pp4 #be1 #ea and r ,bhshya1 ,,ii4 #bdb4 ,footnote #ehh3 ,see ,br4 ,ar4 ,up ,,iii4 #g4 ,the r ,vaishnavas attach great importance to this chapter4 ,footnote #ehi3 ,only relatively northern and southern4 ,neither flourish in what we call northern ,india4 ,footnote #eij3 ,hence the two doctrines are called markata-nyya and marjra-nyya1 monkey theory and cat theory4 ,the latter gave rise to the dangerous doctrine of ,doshabhogya1 that ,god enjoys sin1 since it gives a larger scope for the display of ,his grace4 ,cf4 ,oscar ,wilde in ,de ,profundis1 ,christ1 through some divine instinct in him1 seems to have always loved the sinner as being the nearest possible approach to perfection in man4444 ,in a manner not yet understood of the world1 he regarded sin and suffering as being in themselves beautiful holy things and modes of perfection4444 ,christ1 had he been asked1 would have said--,i feel quite certain about it--that the moment the prodigal son fell on his knees and wept1 he made his having wasted his substance with harlots1 his swine herding and hungering for the husks they ate beautiful and holy moments in his life4 ,footnote #eia3 ,also called ,venkatantha4 ,for some rather elaborate studies in the history of the r-,vaishnavas see ,v4 ,rangacharis' articles in ,j4 ,bombay ,r4,a4,s4 #aiae and #aiaf and ,j4 ,mythic ,society1 #aiag1 ,nos4 #b ff4 ,footnote #eib3 ,prapatti and cryabhimna4--,the word prapatti seems not to occur in the r ,bhshya and it is clear that ,rmnuja's temperament was inclined to active and intelligent devotion4 ,but prapatti is said to have been taught by ,nathamuni and ,sathagopa 7,rjagopala ,chariar1 ,vaishnavite ,reformers1 p4 #f74 ,the word means literally approaching4 ,footnote #eic3 ,the ,artha-pacaka and ,tattva-traya are the best known4 ,see text and translation of the first in ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aiaj1 pp4 #efe-fjg4 ,footnote #eid3 ,rmnuja set less store than ankara on asceticism and renunciation of the world4 ,he held the doctrine called samucchaya 7or combination7 namely that good works as well as knowledge are efficacious for salvation4 ,footnote #eie3 ,also called nandatrtha and ,prnapraja4 ,according to others he was born in #abch ,a4,d4 ,see for his doctrines ,grierson's article ,madhvas in ,e4,r4,e4 and his own commentaries on the ,chndogya and ,brihad ,ar4 ,upanishads published in ,sacred ,books of the ,hindus1 vols4 ,,iii4 and ,,xiv4 ,for his date ,bhandarkar1 ,vaishn4 and aivism1 pp4 #eh-ei and ,i4,a44 #aiad1 pp4 #bcc ff4 and #bfb ff4 ,accounts of his life and teaching have been written by ,padmanabha ,char4 and ,krishna ,svami ,aiyer 7,madras1 #aiji74 ,his followers maintain that he is not dead but still alive at ,badar in the ,himalayas4 ,footnote #eif3 ,see ,padmanabha ,char4 l4c4 page #ab4 ,madhva condemned the worship of inanimate objects 7e4g4 com4 ,chnd4 ,up4 ,,vii4 #ad4 #b7 but not the worship of ,brahman in inanimate objects4 ,footnote #eig3 ,in a work called the ,pshanda capetik or ,a ,slap for ,heretics1 all the adherents of ,madhva are consigned to hell and the ,saurapurna1 chaps4 ,,xxxviii4-,,xl4 contains a violent polemic against them4 ,see ,jahn's ,analysis1 pp4 #ij-ajf and ,barth in ,mlanges ,harlez1 pp4 #ab-be4 ,it is curious that the ,madhvas should have been selected for attack1 for in many ways they are less opposed to ivaites than are other ,vishnuite sects but the author was clearly badly informed about the doctrines which he attacks and he was probably an old-fashioned ivaite of the north who regarded ,madhvism as a new-fangled version of objectionable doctrines4 ,the ,madhvas are equally violent in denouncing ankara and his followers4 ,they miswrite the name ,samkara1 giving it the sense of mongrel or dirt and hold that he was an incarnation of a demon called ,manimat sent by evil spirits to corrupt the world4 ,footnote #eih3 ,see his comment on ,chnd4 ,up4 ,,vi4 #h4 #g4 ,compare ,bhag4-g4 ,,xv4 #g4 ,the text appears to say that the soul 7,jva7 is a part 7amsa7 of the ,lord4 ,madhva says it is so-called because it bears some reduced similitude to the ,lord1 though quite distinct from him4 ,madhva's exegesis is supported by a system of tantric or cabalistic interpretation in which every letter has a special meaning4 ,thus in the passage of the ,chnd4 ,up4 mentioned above the simple words sa ya eshah are explained as equivalent to ,sra essence1 yama the controller1 and ishta the desired one4 ,the reading atat tvam asi is said not to have originated with ,madhva but to be found in a ,bhgavata work called the ,smasamhit4 ,footnote #eii3 ,in his commentary on the opening of the ,chnd4 ,up4 ,madhva seems to imply a ,trinity consisting of ,vishnu1 ,ram 7,lakshm7 and ,vyu4 ,footnote #fjj3 ,this is expressly stated at the end of the commentary on the ,brih4 ,ar4 ,upan4 ,footnote #fja3 ,life and teachings of r-,madhvacharyar by ,padmanabha ,char4 #aiji1 p4 #aei4 ,some have suspected a connection between ,madhva's teaching and ,manicheism1 because he attached much importance to an obscure demon called ,manimat 7see ,mahbh4 ,,iii4 #aa1 #ffa7 whom he considered incarnate in ankara4 ,it is conceivable that in his ,persian studies he may have heard of ,mani as an arch-heretic and have identified him with this demon but this does not imply any connection between his own system 7or ankara's either7 and ,manicheism4 ,footnote #fjb3 ,brih4 ,ar4 ,upan4 ,,iii4 #g4 #b4 ,footnote #fjc3 ,among them are the ,manimanjar1 the ,madhvavijaya and the ,vyustuti1 all attributed to a disciple of ,madhva and his son4 ,,chapter ,,xxx ,,later ,,vishnuism ,,in ,,north ,,india #a ,with the fifteenth century ,hinduism enters on a new phase4 ,sects arise which show the influence of ,mohammedanism1 sometimes to such an extent that it is hard to say whether they should be classed as ,hindu or ,moslim1 and many teachers repudiate caste4 ,also1 whereas in the previous centuries the centre of religious feeling lay in the south1 it now shifts to the north4 ,hinduism had been buffeted but not seriously menaced there3 the teachers of the south had not failed to recognize by their pilgrimages the sanctity and authority of the northern seats of learning3 such works as the ,gt-govinda testify to the existence there of fervent ,vishnuism4 ,but the country had been harassed by ,moslim invasions and unsettled by the vicissitudes of transitory dynasties4 ,the ,jains were powerful in ,gujarat and ,rajputna4 ,in ,bengal ktism and moribund ,buddhism were not likely to engender new enthusiasms4 ,but in a few centuries the movements inaugurated in the south increased in extension and strength4 ,hindus and ,mohammedans began to know more of each other1 and in the sixteenth century under the tolerant rule of ,akbar and his successors the new sects which had been growing were able to consolidate themselves4 ,after ,rmnuja and ,madhva1 the next great name in the history of ,vishnuism1 and indeed of ,hinduism1 is ,rmnand4 ,his date is uncertain4#fjd ,he was posterior to ,rmnuja1 from whose sect he detached himself1 and ,kabir was his disciple1 apparently his immediate disciple4 ,some traditions give ,prayaga as his birthplace1 others ,melucote1 but the north was the scene of his activity4 ,he went on a lengthy pilgrimage1 and on his return was accused of having infringed the rules of his sect as to eating1 etc41 and was excommunicated1 but received permission from his ,guru to found a new sect4 ,he then settled in ,benares and taught there4 ,he wrote no treatise but various hymns ascribed to him are still popular4#fje ,though he is not associated with any special dogma1 yet his teaching is of great importance as marking the origin of a popular religious movement characterized by the use of the vernacular languages instead of ,sanskrit1 and by a laxity in caste rules culminating in a readiness to admit as equals all worshippers of the true ,god4#fjf ,this ,god is ,rma rather than ,krishna4 ,i have already pointed out that the worship of ,rma as the ,supreme ,being 7to be distinguished from respect for him as a hero7 is not early3 in fact it appears to begin in the period which we are considering4 ,of the human forms of the deity ,krishna was clearly the most popular but the school of ,rmnuja1 while admitting both ,rma and ,krishna as incarnations1 preferred to adore ,god under less mythological and more philosophic names such as ,nryana4 ,rmnand1 who addressed himself to all classes and not merely to the ,brahman aristocracy1 selected as the divine name ,rma4 ,it was more human than ,nryana1 less sensuous than ,krishna4 ,every ,hindu was familiar with the poetry which sings of ,rma as a chivalrous and godlike hero4 ,but he was not1 like ,krishna1 the lover of the soul1 and when ,rmaism was divested of mythology by successive reformers it became a monotheism in which ,hindu and ,moslim elements could blend4 ,rmnand had twelve disciples1 among whom were ,kabir1 a ,raja called ,pp1 ,rai ,das1 a leather-seller 7and therefore an outcast according to ,hindu ideas7 as well as ,brahmans4 ,the ,rmats1 as his followers were called1 are a numerous and respectable body in north ,india1 using the same sectarian mark as the ,vadagalais from whom they do not differ materially1 although a ,hindu might consider that their small regard for caste is a vital distinction4 ,they often call themselves ,avadhtas1 that is1 those who have shaken off worldly restrictions1 and the more devout among them belong to an order divided into four classes of which only the highest is reserved to ,brahmans and the others are open to all castes4 ,they own numerous and wealthy maths1 but it is said that in some of these celibacy is not required and that monks and nuns live openly as man and wife4#fjg ,an important aspect of the ,rmat movement is its effect on the popular literature of ,hindustan which in the fifteenth and even more in the sixteenth century blossoms into flowers of religious poetry4 ,many of these writings possess real merit and are still a moral and spiritual force4 ,european scholars are only beginning to pay sufficient attention to this mighty flood of hymns which gushed forth in nearly all the vernaculars of ,india#fjh and appealed directly to the people4 ,the phenomenon was not really new4 ,the psalms of the ,buddhists and even the hymns of the ,rig ,veda were vernacular literature in their day1 and in the south the songs of the ,devaram and ,nlyiram are of some antiquity4 ,but in the north1 though some ,prkrit literature has been preserved1 ,sanskrit was long considered the only proper language for religion4 ,we can hardly doubt that vernacular hymns existed1 but they did not receive the imprimatur of any teacher1 and have not survived4 ,but about #adjj all this changes4 ,though ,rmnand was not much of a writer he gave his authority to the use of the vernacular3 he did not1 like ,rmnuja1 either employ or enjoin ,sanskrit and the meagre details which we have of his circle lead us to imagine him surrounded by men of homely speech4 ,one current in this sea of poetry was ,krishnaite and as such not directly connected with ,rmnand4 ,vidypati#fji sang of the loves of ,krishna and ,rdh in the ,maithili dialect and also in a form of ,bengali4 ,in the early fifteenth century 7c4 #adbj7 we have the poetess ,mir ,bai1 wife of the ,raja of ,chitore who gained celebrity and domestic unhappiness by her passionate devotion to the form of ,krishna known as ,ranchor4 ,according to one legend the image came to life in answer to her fervent prayers1 and throwing his arms round her allowed her to meet a rapturous death in his embrace4 ,this is precisely the sentiment which we find later in the teaching of ,vallabhcrya and ,caitanya4 ,the hymns of the ,bengali poets have been collected in the ,padakalpataru1 one of the chief sacred books of the ,bengali ,vaishnavas4 ,from ,vallabhcrya spring the group of poets who adorned ,braj or the ,muttra district4 ,pre-eminent among them is the blind ,sur ,das who flourished about #aeej and wrote such sweet lyrics that ,krishna himself came down and acted as his amanuensis4 ,a somewhat later member of the same group is ,nbh ,das1 the author of the ,bhakta ,ml or ,legends of the ,saints1 which is still one of the most popular religious works of northern ,india4#faj ,almost contemporary with ,sur ,das was the great ,tulsi ,das and ,grierson#faa enumerated thirteen subsequent writers who composed ,rmyanas in some dialect of ,hindi4 ,a little later came the ,mahratta poet ,tukarm 7born about #afjj7 who gave utterance to ,krishnaism in another language4 ,tulsi ,das is too important to be merely mentioned as one in a list of poets4 ,he is a great figure in ,indian religion1 and the saying that his ,rmyana is more popular and more honoured in the ,north-western ,provinces than the ,bible in ,england is no exaggeration4#fab ,he came into the world in #aecb but was exposed by his parents as born under an unlucky star and was adopted by a wandering ,sdhu4 ,he married but his son died and after this loss he himself became a ,sdhu4 ,he began to write his ,rmyana in ,oudh at the age of forty-three1 but moved to ,benares where he completed it and died in #afbc4 ,on the ,tulsi ,ghat1 near the river ,asi1 may still be seen the rooms which he occupied4 ,they are at the top of a lofty building and command a beautiful view over the river#d4 ,his ,rmyana which is an original composition and not a translation of ,vlmki's work is one of the great religious poems of the world and not unworthy to be set beside ,paradise ,lost4 ,the sustained majesty of diction and exuberance of ornament are accompanied by a spontaneity and vigour rare in any literature1 especially in ,asia4 ,the poet is not embellishing a laboured theme3 he goes on and on because his emotion bursts forth again and again1 diversifying the same topic with an inexhaustible variety of style and metaphor4 ,as in some forest a stream flows among flowers and trees1 but pours forth a flood of pure water uncoloured by the plants on its bank1 so in the heart of ,tulsi ,das the love of ,god welled up in a mighty fountain ornamented by the mythology and legends with which he bedecked it1 yet unaffected by them4 ,he founded no sect1 which is one reason of his popularity1 for nearly all sects can read him with edification1 and he is primarily a poet not a theologian4 ,but though he allows himself a poet's licence to state great truths in various ways1 he still enunciates a definite belief4 ,this is theism1 connected with the name ,rma4 ,since in the north he is the author most esteemed by the ,vishnuites1 it would be a paradox to refuse him that designation1 but his teaching is not so much that ,vishnu is the ,supreme ,being who becomes incarnate in ,rma1 as that ,rma1 and more rarely ,hari and ,vsudeva1 are names of the ,all-,god who manifests himself in human form4 ,vishnu is mentioned as a celestial being in the company of ,brahm1#fac and so far as any god other than ,rma receives attention it is iva1 not indeed as ,rma's equal1 but as a being at once very powerful and very devout1 who acts as a mediator or guide4 ,without prayer to iva no one can attain to the faith which ,i require4#fad ,rma is ,god1 the totality of good1 imperishable1 invisible1 uncreated1 incomparable1 void of all change1 indivisible1 whom the ,veda declares that it cannot define4#fae ,and yet1 ,he whom scripture and philosophy have sung and whom the saints love to contemplate1 even the ,lord ,god1 he is the son of ,dasarath1 ,king of ,kosala4#faf ,by the power of ,rma exist ,brahm1 ,vishnu and iva1 as also ,my1 the illusion which brings about the world4 ,his delusive power is a vast fig-tree1 its clustering fruit the countless multitude of worlds1 while all things animate and inanimate are like the insects that dwell inside and think their own particular fig the only one in existence4#fag ,god has made all things3 pain and pleasure1 sin and merit1 saints and sinners1 ,brahmans and butchers1 passion and asceticism4 ,it is the ,veda that distinguishes good and evil among them4#fah ,the love of ,god and faith are the only road to happiness4 ,the worship of ,hari is real and all the world is a dream4#fai ,tulsi ,das often uses the language of the ,advaita philosophy and even calls ,god the annihilator of duality1 but though he admits the possibility of absorption and identification with the deity1 he holds that the double relation of a loving ,god and a loving soul constitutes greater bliss4 ,the saint was not absorbed into the divinity for this reason that he had already received the gift of faith4#fbj ,and in a similar spirit he says1 ,let those preach in their wisdom who contemplate ,thee as the supreme spirit1 the uncreate1 inseparable from the universe1 recognizable only by inference and beyond the understanding2 but we1 ,o ,lord1 will ever hymn the glories of thy incarnation4 ,like most ,hindus he is little disposed to enquire what is the purpose of creation1 but he comes very near to saying that ,god has evolved the world by the power of ,my because the bliss which ,god and his beloved feel is greater than the bliss of impersonal undifferentiated divinity4 ,it will be seen that ,tulsi ,das is thoroughly ,hindu3 neither his fundamental ideas nor his mythological embellishments owe anything to ,islam or ,christianity4 ,he accepts unreservedly such principles as ,my1 transmigration1 ,karma and release4 ,but his sentiments1 more than those of any other ,indian writer1 bear a striking resemblance to the ,new ,testament4 ,though he holds that the whole world is of ,god1 he none the less bids men shun evil and choose the good1 and the singular purity of his thoughts and style contrasts strongly with other ,vishnuite works4 ,he does not conceive of the love which may exist between the soul and ,god as a form of sexual passion4 #b ,the beginning of the sixteenth century was a time of religious upheaval in ,india for it witnessed the careers not only of ,vallabhcrya and ,caitanya1 but also of ,nnak1 the founder of the ,sikhs4 ,in the west it was the epoch of ,luther and as in ,europe so in ,india no great religious movement has taken place since that time4 ,the sects then founded have swollen into extravagance and been reformed3 other sects have arisen from a mixture of ,hinduism with ,moslem and ,christian elements1 but no new and original current of thought or devotion has been started4 ,though the two great sects associated with the names of ,caitanya and ,vallabhcrya have different geographical spheres and also present some differences in doctrinal details1 both are emotional and even erotic and both adore ,krishna as a child or young man4 ,their almost simultaneous appearance in eastern and western ,india and their rapid growth show that they represent an unusually potent current of ideas and sentiments4 ,but the worship of ,krishna was1 as we have seen1 nothing new in northern ,india4 ,even that relatively late phase in which the sports of the divine herdsman are made to typify the love of ,god for human souls is at least as early as the ,gt-govinda written about #aagj4 ,in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries1 the history of ,krishna worship is not clear1#fba but it persisted and about #adjj found speech in ,bengal and in ,rajputna4 ,according to ,vaishnava theologians the followers of ,vallabhcrya#fbb are a section of the ,rudra-sampradya founded in the early part of the fifteenth century by ,vishnusvmi1 an emigrant from southern ,india1 who preached chiefly in ,gujarat4 ,the doctrines of the sect are supposed to have been delivered by the ,almighty to iva from whom ,vishnusvmi was fifteenth in spiritual descent1 and are known by the name of uddhdvaita or pure non-duality4 ,they teach that ,god has three attributes--sac-cid-nanda--existence1 consciousness and bliss4 ,in the human or animal soul bliss is suppressed and in matter consciousness is suppressed too4 ,but when the soul attains release it recovers bliss and becomes identical in nature with ,god4 ,for practical purposes the ,vallabhcris may be regarded as a sect founded by ,vallabha1 said to have been born in #adgj4 ,he was the son of a ,telinga ,brahman1 who had migrated with ,vishnusvmi to the north4 ,such was the pious precocity of ,vallabha that at the age of twelve he had already discovered a new religion and started on a pilgrimage to preach it4 ,he was well received at the ,court of ,vijayanagar1 and was so successful in disputation that he was recognized as chief doctor of the ,vaishnava school4 ,he subsequently spent nine years in travelling twice round ,india and at ,brindaban received a visit from ,krishna in person1 who bade him promulgate his worship in the form of the divine child known as ,bla ,gopla4 ,vallabha settled in ,benares and is said to have composed a number of works which are still extant4#fbc ,he gained further victories as a successful disputant and also married and became the father of two sons4 ,at the age of fifty-two he took to the life of a ,sannysi1 but died forty-two days afterwards4 ,though ,vallabha died as an ascetic1 his doctrines are currently known as the ,pushti ,mrga1 the road of well-being or comfort4 ,his philosophy was more decidedly monistic than is usual among ,vishnuites1 and ,indian monism has generally taught that1 as the soul and ,god are one in essence1 the soul should realize this identity and renounce the pleasures of the senses4 ,but with ,vallabhcrya it may be said that the vision which is generally directed godwards and forgets the flesh1 turned earthwards and forgot ,god1 for his teaching is that since the individual and the deity are one1 the body should be reverenced and indulged4 ,pushti#fbd or well-being is the special grace of ,god and the elect are called ,pushti-jva4 ,they depend entirely on ,god's grace and are contrasted with ,maryd-jvas1 or those who submit to moral discipline4 ,the highest felicity is not mukti or liberation but the eternal service of ,krishna and eternal participation in his sports4 ,these doctrines have led to deplorable results1 but so strong is the ,indian instinct towards self-denial and asceticism that it is the priests rather than the worshippers who profit by this permission to indulge the body1 and the chief feature of the sect is the extravagant respect paid to the descendants of ,vallabhcrya4 ,they are known as ,maharajas or ,great ,kings and their followers1 especially women1 dedicate to them tan1 dhan1 man3 body1 purse and spirit1 for it is a condition of the road of well-being that before the devotee enjoys anything himself he must dedicate it to the deity and the ,maharaj represents the deity4 ,the daily prayer of the sect is ,om4 ,krishna is my refuge4 ,i who suffer the infinite pain and torment of enduring for a thousand years separation from ,krishna1 consecrate to ,krishna my body1 senses1 life1 heart and faculties1 my wife1 house1 family1 property and my own self4 ,i am thy slave1 ,o ,krishna4#fbe ,this formula is recited to the ,maharaj with peculiar solemnity by each male as he comes of age and is admitted as a full member of the sect4 ,the words in which this dedication of self and family is made are not in themselves open to criticism and a parallel may be found in ,christian hymns4 ,but the literature of the ,vallabhis unequivocally states that the ,guru is the same as the deity#fbf and there can be little doubt that even now the ,maharajas are adored by their followers1 especially by the women1 as representatives of ,krishna in his character of the lover of the ,gopis and that the worship is often licentious4#fbg ,many ,hindus denounce the sect and in #ahfb one of the ,maharajas brought an action for libel in the supreme court of ,bombay on account of the serious charges of immorality brought against him in the native press4 ,the trial became a cause clbre4 ,judgment was delivered against the ,maharaj1 the ,judge declaring the charges to be fully substantiated4 ,yet in spite of these proceedings the sect still flourishes1 apparently unchanged in doctrine and practice1 and has a large following among the mercantile castes of western ,india4 ,the ,rdh-,vallabhis1 an analogous sect founded by ,harivamsa in the sixteenth century1 give the pre-eminence to ,rdh1 the wife of ,krishna1 and in their secret ceremonies are said to dress as women4 ,the worship of ,rdh is a late phase of ,vishnuism and is not known even to the ,bhgavata ,purna4#fbh ,vallabhism owes much of its success to the family of the founder4 ,they had evidently a strong dynastic sentiment as well as a love of missionary conquest--a powerful combination4 ,vallabhcrya left behind him eighty-four principal disciples whose lives are recorded in the work called the ,stories of the ,eighty-four ,vaishnavas1 and his authority descended to his son ,vithalnath4 ,like his father1 ,vithalnath was active as a proselytizer and pilgrim and propagated his doctrines extensively in many parts of western ,india such as ,cutch1 ,malwa1 and ,bijapur4 ,his converts came chiefly from the mercantile classes but also included some ,brahmans and ,mussulmans4 ,he is said to have abolished caste distinctions but the sect has not preserved this feature4 ,in his later years he resided at ,muttra or the neighbouring town of ,gokul1 whence he is known as ,gokul ,gosainji4 ,this title of ,gosain1 which is still borne by his male descendants1 is derived from ,krishna's name ,gosvmin1 the lord of cattle4#fbi ,he had seven sons1 in each of whom ,krishna is said to have been incarnate for five years4 ,they exercised spiritual authority in separate districts--as we might say in different dioceses--but the fourth son1 ,gokulnathji and his descendants claimed and still claim a special pre-eminence4 ,the family is at present represented by about a hundred males who are accepted as incarnations and receive the title of ,maharaja4 ,about twenty reside at ,gokul#fcj or near ,muttra3 there are a few in ,bombay and in all the great cities of western ,india1 but the ,maharaj of ,nath ,dwara in ,rajputna is esteemed the chief4 ,this place is not an ancient seat of ,krishna worship1 but during the persecution of ,aurungzeb a peculiarly holy image was brought thither from ,muttra and placed in the shrine where it still remains4 ,a protest against the immorality of the ,vallabhi sect was made by ,swminryana1 a ,brahman who was born in the district of ,lucknow about #aghj4fca ,he settled in ,ahmedabad and gained so large a following that the authorities became alarmed and imprisoned him4 ,but his popularity only increased3 he became the centre of a great religious movement3 hymns descriptive of his virtues and sufferings were sung by his followers and when he was released he found himself at the head of a band which was almost an army4 ,he erected a temple in the village of ,wartal in ,baroda1 which he made the centre of his sect1 and recruited followers by means of periodical tours throughout ,gujarat4 ,his doctrines are embodied in an anthology called the ikshpatr consisting of #bab precepts1 some borrowed from accepted ,hindu scriptures and some original and in a catechism called ,vacanmritam4 ,his teaching was summed up in the phrase ,devotion to ,krishna with observance of duty and purity of life and in practice took the form of a laudable polemic against the licentiousness of the ,vallabhis4 ,as in most of the purer sects of ,vishnuism1 ,krishna is regarded merely as a name of the ,supreme ,deity4 ,thus the ikshpatr says ,nryana and iva should be equally recognized as parts of one and the same supreme spirit1 since both have been declared in the ,vedas to be forms of ,brahma4 ,on no account let it be thought that difference in form or name makes any difference in the identity of the deity4 ,the followers of ,swminryana still number about #bjj1jjj in western ,india and are divided into the laity and a body of celibate clergy4 ,i have visited their religious establishments in ,ahmedabad4 ,it consists of a temple with a large and well-kept monastery in which are housed about #cjj monks who wear costumes of reddish grey4 ,except in ,assam ,i have not seen in ,india any parallel to this monastery either in size or discipline4 ,it is provided with a library and hospital4 ,in the temple are images of ,nara and ,nryana 7explained as ,krishna and ,arjuna71 ,krishna and ,rdh1 ,ganea and ,hanuman4#fcb #c ,the sect founded by ,caitanya is connected with eastern ,india as the ,vallabhis are with the west4 ,bengal is perhaps the native land of the worship of ,krishna as the god of love4 ,it was there that ,jayadeva flourished in the last days of the ,sena dynasty and the lyrical poet ,chandds at the end of the fourteenth century4 ,about the same time the still greater poet ,vidypati was singing in ,durbhanga4 ,for these writers1 as for ,caitanya1 religion is the bond of love which unites the soul and ,god1 as typified by the passion#fcc that drew together ,rdh and ,krishna4 ,the idea that ,god loves and seeks out human souls is familiar to ,christianity and receives very emotional expression in well-known hymns1 but the bold humanity of these ,indian lyrics seems to ,europeans unsuitable4 ,i will let a distinguished ,indian apologize for it in his own words3 ,the paradox that has to be understood is that ,krishna means ,god4 ,yet he is represented as a youth1 standing at a gate1 trying to waylay the beloved maiden1 attempting to entrap the soul1 as it were1 into a clandestine meeting4 ,this1 which is so inconceivable to a purely modern mind1 presents no difficulty at all to the ,vaishnava devotee4 ,to him ,god is the lover himself3 the sweet flowers1 the fresh grass1 the gay sound heard in the woods are direct messages and tokens of love to his soul1 bringing to his mind at every instant that loving ,god whom he pictures as ever anxious to win the human heart4#fcd ,caitanya#fce was born at ,nadia in #adhe and came under the influence of the ,mdhva sect4 ,in youth he was a prodigy of learning1#fcf but at the age of about seventeen while on a pilgrimage to ,gaya began to display that emotional and even hysterical religious feeling which marked all his teaching4 ,he swooned at the mention of ,krishna's name and passed his time in dancing and singing hymns4 ,at twenty-five he became a ,sannys1 and at the request of his mother1 who did not wish him to wander too far1 settled in ,puri near the temple of ,jagannath4 ,here he spent the rest of his life in preaching1 worship and ecstatic meditation1 but found time to make a tour in southern ,india and another to ,brindaban and ,benares4 ,he appears to have left the management of his sect largely to his disciples1 ,advaita1 ,nitynanda and ,haridas1 and to have written nothing himself4 ,but he evidently possessed a gift of religious magnetism and exercised an extraordinary influence on those who heard him preach or sing4 ,he died or disappeared before the age of fifty but apparently none of the stories about his end merit credence4 ,although the teaching of ,caitanya is not so objectionable morally as the doctrines of the ,vallabhis1 it follows the same line of making religion easy and emotional and it is not difficult to understand how his preaching1 set forth with the eloquence which he possessed1 won converts from the lower classes by thousands4 ,he laid no stress on asceticism1 approved of marriage and rejected all difficult rites and ceremonies4 ,the form of worship which he specially enjoined was the singing of ,krtans or hymns consisting chiefly in a repetition of the divine names accompanied by music and dancing4 ,swaying the body and repetition of the same formula or hymn are features of emotional religion found in the most diverse regions1 for instance among the ,rufais or ,howling ,dervishes1 at ,welsh revival meetings and in negro churches in the ,southern ,states4 ,it is therefore unnecessary to seek any special explanation in ,india but perhaps there is some connection between the religious ecstasies of ,vaishnavas and ,dervishes4 ,within ,caitanya's sect1 caste was not observed4 ,he is said to have admitted many ,moslims to membership and to have regarded all worshippers of ,krishna as equal4 ,though caste has grown up again1 yet the old regulation is still in force inside the temple of ,jagannath at ,puri4 ,within the sacred enclosure all are treated as of one caste and eat the same sacred food4 ,in ,caitanya's words the mercy of ,god regards neither tribe nor family4 ,his theology#fcg shows little originality4 ,the deity is called ,bhagavn or more frequently ,hari4 ,his majesty and omnipotence are personified as ,nryana1 his beauty and ecstasy as ,krishna4 ,the material world is defined as bhedbhedapraka1 a manifestation of the deity as separate and yet not separate from him1 and the soul is vibhinnma or a detached portion of him4 ,some souls are in bondage to ,prakriti or ,my1 others through faith and love attain deliverance4 ,reason is useless in religious matters1 but ruci or spiritual feeling has a quick intuition of the divine4 ,salvation is obtained by ,bhakti1 faith or devotion1 which embraces and supersedes all other duties4 ,this devotion means absolute self-surrender to the deity and love for him which asks for no return but is its own reward4 ,he who expects remuneration for his love acts as a trader4 ,in this devotion there are five degrees3 7a7 snti1 calm meditation1 7b7 dsya1 servitude1 7c7 skhya1 friendship1 7d7 vtsalya1 love like that of a child for its parent1 7e7 mdhurya1 love like that of a woman for a lover4 ,all these sentiments are found in ,god and this combined ecstasy is an eternal principle identified with ,hari himself1 just as in the language of the ,gospels1 ,god is love4 ,though ,caitanya makes love the crown and culmination of religion1 the worship of his followers is not licentious1 and it is held that the right frame of mind is best attained by the recitation of ,krishna's names especially ,hari4 ,the earlier centre of ,caitanya's sect was his birthplace1 ,nadia1 but both during his life and afterwards his disciples frequented ,brindaban and sought out the old sacred sites which were at that time neglected4 ,at the beginning of the nineteenth century ,lala ,baba1 a wealthy ,bengali merchant1 became a mendicant and visited ,muttra4 ,though he had renounced the world1 he still retained his business instincts and bought up the villages which contained the most celebrated shrines and were most frequented by pilgrims4 ,the result was a most profitable speculation and the establishment of ,caitanya's ,church in the district of ,braj1 which thus became the holy land of both the great ,krishnaite sects4 ,the followers of ,caitanya at the present day are said to be divided into ,gosains1 or ecclesiastics1 who are the descendants of the founder's original disciples1 the ,vrikats or celibates1 and the laity4 ,besides the celibates there are several semi-monastic orders who adopt the dress of monks but marry4 ,they have numerous maths at ,nadia and elsewhere4 ,like the ,vallabhis1 this sect deifies its leaders4 ,caitanya1 ,nitynanda and ,advaita are called the three masters 7,prabh7 and believed to be a joint incarnation of ,krishna1 though according to some only the first two shared the divine essence4 ,six of ,caitanya's disciples known as the six ,gosains are also greatly venerated and even ordinary religious teachers still receive an almost idolatrous respect4 ,though ,caitanya was not a writer himself he exercised a great influence on the literature of ,bengal4 ,in the opinion of so competent a judge as ,dinesh ,chandra ,sen1 ,bengali was raised to the status of a literary language by the ,vishnuite hymn-writers just as ,pali was by the ,buddhists4 ,such hymns were written before the time of ,caitanya but after him they became extremely numerous#fch and their tone and style are said to change4 ,the ecstasies and visions of which they tell are those described in his biographies and this emotional poetry has profoundly influenced all classes in ,bengal4 ,but there was and still is a considerable hostility between the ktas and ,vishnuites4 #d ,a form of ,vishnuism1 possessing a special local flavour1 is connected with the ,maratha country and with the names of ,nmdev1 ,tukrm#fci and ,rmds1 the spiritual preceptor of ivaji4 ,the centre of this worship is the town of ,pandharpur and ,i have not found it described as a branch of any of the four ,vishnuite ,churches3 but the facts that ,nmdev wrote in ,hindi as well as in ,marathi1 that many of his hymns are included in the ,granth1 and that his sentiments show affinities to the teaching of ,nnak1 suggest that he belonged to the school of ,rmnand4 ,there is however a difficulty about his date4 ,native tradition gives #abgj as the year of his birth but the language of his poems both in ,marathi and ,hindi is said to be too modern for this period and to indicate that he lived about #adjj1fdj when he might easily have felt the influence of ,rmnand1 for he travelled in the north4 ,most of his poetry however has for its centre the temple of ,pandharpur where was worshipped a deity called ,vitthala1 ,vittoba or ,pndurang4 ,it is said that the first two names are dialectic variations of ,vishnu1 but that ,pndurang is an epithet of iva4#fda ,there is no doubt that the deity of ,pandharpur has for many centuries been identified with ,krishna1 who1 as in ,bengal1 is god the lover of the soul4 ,but the hymns of the ,marathas are less sensuous and ,krishna is coupled not with his mistress ,rdh1 but with his wife ,rukmin4 ,in fact ,rukminpati or husband of ,rukmin is one of his commonest titles4 ,nmdev's opinions varied at different times and perhaps in different moods3 like most religious poets he cannot be judged by logic or theology4 ,sometimes he inveighs against idolatry--understood as an attempt to limit ,god to an image--but in other verses he sings the praises of ,pndurang1 the local deity1 as the lord and creator of all4 ,his great message is that ,god--by whatever name he is called--is everywhere and accessible to all1 accessible without ceremonial or philosophy4 ,vows1 fasts and austerities are not needful1 nor need you go on pilgrimage4 ,be watchful in your heart and always sing the name of ,hari4 ,yoga1 sacrifices and renunciation are not needful4 ,love the feet of ,hari4 ,neither need you contemplate the absolute4 ,hold fast to the love of ,hari's name4 ,says ,nm1 be steadfast in singing the name and then ,hari will appear to you4#fdb ,tukrm is better known than ,nmdev and his poetry which was part of the intellectual awakening that accompanied the rise of the ,maratha power is still a living force wherever ,marathi is spoken4 ,he lived from #afjg to #afdi and was born in a family of merchants near ,poona4 ,but he was too generous to succeed in trade and a famine1 in which one of his two wives died1 brought him to poverty4 ,thenceforth he devoted himself to praying and preaching4 ,he developed a great aptitude for composing rhyming songs in irregular metre1#fdc and like ,caitanya he held services consisting of discourses interspersed with such songs1 prepared or extempore4 ,in spite of persecution by the ,brahmans1 these meetings became very popular and were even attended by the great ivaji4 ,his creed is the same as that of ,nmdev and finds expression in verses such as these4 ,this thy nature is beyond the grasp of mind or words1 and therefore ,i have made love a measure4 ,i measure the ,endless by the measure of love3 he is not to be truly measured otherwise4 ,thou art not to be found by ,yoga1 sacrifice1 fasting1 bodily exertions or knowledge4 ,o ,keava1 accept the service which we render4 ,but if he had no use for asceticism he also feared the passions4 ,the ,endless is beyond2 between him and me are the lofty mountains of desire and anger4 ,i cannot ascend them and find no pass4 ,in poems which are apparently later1 his tone is more peaceful4 ,he speaks much of the death of self1 of purity of heart1 and of self-dedication to ,god4 ,dedicate all you do to ,god and have done with it3 ,tuk says1 do not ask me again and again3 nothing else is to be taught but this4 ,maratha critics have discussed whether ,tukrm followed the monistic philosophy of ankara or not and it must be confessed that his utterances are contradictory4 ,but the gist of the matter is that he disliked not so much monism as philosophy4 ,hence he says ,for me there is no use in the ,advaita4 ,sweet to me is the service of thy feet4 ,the relation between ,god and his devotee is a source of high joy4 ,make me feel this1 keeping me distinct from thee4 ,but he can also say almost in the language of the ,upanishads4 ,when salt is dissolved in water1 what remains distinct8 ,i have thus become one in joy with thee and have lost myself in thee4 ,when fire and camphor are brought together1 is there any black remnant8 ,tuk says1 thou and ,i were one light4 #e ,there are interesting ,vishnuite sects in ,assam4#fdd ,until the sixteenth century ,hinduism was represented in those regions by ktism1 which was strong among the upper classes1 though the mass of the people still adhered to their old tribal worships4 ,the first apostle of ,vishnuism was ankar ,deb in the sixteenth century4 ,he preached first in the ,ahom kingdom but was driven out by the opposition of ktist ,brahmans1 and found a refuge at ,barpeta4 ,he appears to have inculcated the worship of ,krishna as the sole divine being and to have denounced idolatry1 sacrifices and caste4 ,these views were held even more strictly by his successor1 ,madhab ,deb1 a writer of repute whose works1 such as the ,nmghosha and ,ratnval1 are regarded as scripture by his followers4 ,though the ,brahmans of ,assam were opposed to the introduction of ,vishnuism and a section of them continued to instigate persecutions for two centuries or more1 yet when it became clear that the new teaching had a great popular following another section were anxious that it should not pass out of sacerdotal control and organized it as a legitimate branch of ,hinduism4 ,while fully recognizing the doctrine of justification by faith1 they also made provision for due respect to caste and ,brahmanic authority4 ,according to the last census of ,india#fde the common view that ankar ,deb drew his inspiration from ,caitanya meets with criticism in ,assam4 ,his biographies say that he lived #abj years and died in #aefi4 ,it has been generally assumed that his age has been exaggerated but that the date of his death is correct4 ,if it can be proved1 as contended1 that he was preaching in #aeje1 there would be no difficulty in admitting that he was independent of ,caitanya and belonged to an earlier phase of the ,vishnuite movement which produced the activity of ,vallabha and the poetry of ,vidypati4 ,it is a further argument for this independence that he taught the worship of ,vishnu only and not of ,rdh and discountenanced the use of images4 ,on the other hand it is stated that he sojourned in ,bengal and it appears that soon after his death his connection with the teaching of ,caitanya was recognized in ,assam4 ,at present there are three sects in ,assam4 ,firstly1 the ,mahpurushias1 who follow more or less faithfully the doctrines of ankar and ,madhab4 ,they admit dras as religious teachers and abbots1 and lay little stress on caste while not entirely rejecting it4 ,they abstain almost entirely from the use of images in worship1 the only exception being that a small figure of ,krishna in the form of ,vaikuntha ,ntha is found in their temples4 ,it is not the principal object of veneration but stands to the left of a throne on which lies a copy of the ,nmghosha4#fdf ,this1 together with the foot-prints of ankar and ,madhab1 receives the homage of the faithful4 ,the chief centre of the ,mahpurushias is ,barpeta1 but they have also monasteries on the ,majuli ,island and elsewhere4 ,secondly1 the ,bamunia monasteries1 with a large lay following1 represent a brahmanized form of the ,mahpurushia faith4 ,this movement began in the life-time of ,madhab4 ,many of his ,brahman disciples seceded from him and founded separate communities which insisted on the observance of caste 7especially on the necessity of religious teachers being ,brahmans7 but tolerated image-worship and the use of some kinds of flesh as food4 ,though this sect was persecuted by the ,ahom kings1#fdg they were strong enough to maintain themselves4 ,a compromise was effected in the reign of ,rudra ,singh 7#afif-agad71 by which their abbots were shown all honour but were assigned the ,majuli ,island in the upper ,brahmaputra as their chief1 if not only1 residence4 ,this island is still studded with numerous ,sattras or monasteries1 the largest of which contain three or four hundred monks1 known as ,bhakats 7,bhaktas74 ,they take no vows and wear no special costume but are obliged to be celibate while they remain in the sattra4 ,the ,mahpurushia and ,bamunia monasteries are of similar appearance1 and in externals 7though not in doctrine7 seem to have been influenced by the ,lamaism of the neighbouring regions of ,sikhim and ,tibet4 ,the temples are long1 low1 wooden buildings1 covered by roofs of corrugated iron or thatched1 and containing inside a nave with two rows of wooden pillars which leads to a sanctuary divided from it by a screen4 ,the third sect are the ,moamarias1 of political rather than religious importance4 ,they represent a democratic element1 recruited from non-,hindu tribes1 which seceded even in the life-time of ankar ,deb4 ,they appear to reject nearly all ,hindu observances and to worship aboriginal deities as well as ,krishna4 ,little is known of their religious teaching1 if indeed they have anything worthy of the name1 but in the latter half of the eighteenth century they distracted the kingdom of ,assam with a series of rebellions which were suppressed with atrocious cruelty4 ,caitanya is said to have admitted some ,mohammedans as members of his sect4 ,the precedent has not been followed among most branches of his later adherents but a curious half-secret sect1 found throughout ,bengal in considerable numbers and called ,kartbhajas1#fdh appears to represent an eccentric development of his teaching in combination with ,mohammedan elements4 ,both ,moslims and ,hindus belong to this sect4 ,they observe the ordinary social customs of the class to which they belong1 but it is said that those who are nominal ,moslims neither circumcize themselves nor frequent mosques4 ,the founder1 called ,ram ,smaran ,pal1 was born in the ,nadia district about #agjj1 and his chief doctrine is said to have been that there is only one ,god who is incarnate in the ,head of the sect or ,kart4#fdi ,for the first few generations the headship was invested in the founder and his descendants but dissensions occurred and there is now no one head3 the faithful can select any male member of the founder's family as the object of their devotion4 ,the ,kart claims to be the owner of every human body and is said to exact rent for the soul's tenancy thereof4 ,no distinction of caste or creed is recognized and hardly any ceremonies are prescribed but meat and wine are forbidden1 the mantra of the sect is to be repeated five times a day and ,friday is held sacred4 ,these observances seem an imitation of ,mohammedanism4#fej ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #fjd3 ,see ,bhandarkar1 ,vaishn4 and aivism1 pp4 #ff ff41 ,grierson in ,ind4 ,ant4 #ahic1 p4 #bbf1 and also in article ,ramanandi in ,e4,r4,e42 ,farquhar1 ,j4,r4,a4,s4#aibj1 pp4 #ahe ff4 ,though ,indian tradition seems to be unanimous in giving #abii ,a4,d4 7#ddjj ,kali7 as the date of ,rmnand's birth1 all that we know about himself and his disciples makes it more probable that he was born nearly a century later4 ,the history of ideas1 too1 becomes clear and intelligible if we suppose that ,rmnand1 ,kabir and ,nanak flourished about #adjj1 #adej and #aejj respectively4 ,one should be cautious in allowing such arguments to outweigh unanimous tradition1 but tradition also assigns to ,rmnand an improbably long life1 thus indicating a feeling that he influenced the fifteenth century4 ,also the traditions as to the number of teachers between ,rmnuja and ,rmnand differ greatly4 ,footnote #fje3 ,one of them is found in the ,granth of the ,sikhs4 ,footnote #fjf3 ,rmnand's maxim was ,jti pti puchai nahikoi3 ,hari-ku bhajai so ,hari-kau ho4 ,let no one ask a man's caste or sect4 ,whoever adores ,god1 he is ,god's own4 ,footnote #fjg3 ,bhattacharya1 ,hindu ,castes and ,sects1 p4 #dde4 ,footnote #fjh3 ,thus we have the poems of ,kabir1 ,nnak and others contained in the ,granth of the ,sikhs and tending to ,mohammedanism3 the hymns wherein ,mir ,bai1 ,vallabha and his disciples praised ,krishna in ,rjputna and ,braj3 the poets inspired by ,caitanya in ,bengal3 ankar ,deb and ,madhab ,deb in ,assam3 ,namdev and ,tukrm in the ,maratha country4 ,footnote #fji3 ,see ,beames1 ,j4,a4 #ahgc1 pp4 #cg ff41 and ,grierson1 ,maithili ,christomathy1 pp4 #cd ff41 in extra ,no4 to ,journ4 ,as4 ,soc4 ,bengal1 ,part ,i4 for #ahhb and ,coomaraswamy's illustrated translation of ,vidypati1 #aiae4 ,it is said that a land grant proves he was a celebrated ,pandit in #adjj4 ,the ,bengali ,vaishnava poet ,chand ,ds was his contemporary4 ,footnote #faj3 ,see ,grierson1 ,gleanings from the ,bhaktaml1 ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aiji and #aiaj4 ,footnote #faa3 ,modern ,vernacular ,literature of ,hindustan1 #ahhi1 p4 #eg4 ,footnote #fab3 ,similarly ,dinesh ,chandra ,sen 7,lang1 and ,lit4 of ,bengal1 p4 #agj7 says that ,krittivsa's translation of the ,rmyana is the ,bible of the people of the ,gangetic ,valley and it is for the most part the peasants who read it4 ,krittivsa was born in #acdf and roughly contemporary with ,rmnand4 ,thus the popular interest in ,rma was roused in different provinces at the same time4 ,he also wrote several other poems1 among which may be mentioned the ,gtval and ,kavittval1 dedicated respectively to the infancy and the heroic deeds of ,rma1 and the ,vinaya ,pattrik or petition1 a volume of hymns and prayers4 ,footnote #fac3 ,see ,growse's ,translation1 vol4 ,i4 pp4 #fj1 #fb4 ,footnote #fad3 ,ib4 vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #aij1 cf4 vol4 ,i4 p4 #hh and vol4 ,,iii4 pp4 #ff-fg4 ,footnote #fae3 ,ib4 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #ed4 ,footnote #faf3 ,ib4 vol4 ,i4 p4 #gg4 ,footnote #fag3 ,growse1 l4c4 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #bjj1 cf4 p4 #bjd4 ,my who sets the whole world dancing and whose actions no one can understand is herself set dancing with all her troupe1 like an actress on the stage1 by the play of the ,lord's eyebrows4 ,cf4 too1 for the infinity of worlds1 pp4 #baj1 #baa4 ,footnote #fah3 ,growse aptly compares ,st4 ,paul1 ,i had not known evil but by the law4 ,footnote #fai3 ,ib4 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #bbc4 ,footnote #fbj3 ,ib4 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #aif4 ,footnote #fba3 ,the ,vishnuite sect called ,nimvat is said to have been exterminated by ,jains 7,grierson in ,e4,r4,e4 sub4 ,v4 ,bhakti-mrga1 p4 #ede74 ,this may point to persecution during this period4 ,footnote #fbb3 ,for ,vallabhcrya and his sect1 see especially ,growse1 ,mathur1 a district memoir1 #ahgd2 ,history of the sect of the ,mahrjas in western ,india 7anonymous71 #ahfe4 ,also ,bhandarkar1 ,vaishn4 and ,saivism1 pp4 #gf-hb and ,farquhar1 ,outlines of ,relig4 ,lit4 of ,india1 pp4 #cab-cag4 ,footnote #fbc3 ,the principal of them are the ,siddhnta-,rahasya and the ,bhgavata-,tka-,subodhini1 a commentary on the ,bhgavata ,purna4 ,this is a short poem of only seventeen lines printed in ,growse's ,mathur1 p4 #aef4 ,it professes to be a revelation from the deity to the effect that sin can be done away with by union with ,brahma 7,brahma-sambandha-karant74 ,other authoritative works of the sect are the uddhdvaita mrtanda1 ,sakalcryamatasangraha and ,prameyaratnrnava1 all edited in the ,chowkhamba ,sanskrit series4 ,footnote #fbd3 ,cf4 the use of the word poshanam in the ,bhgavata ,purna1 ,,ii4 ,x4 ,footnote #fbe3 ,growse1 ,mathur1 p4 #aeg1 says this formula is based on the ,nradapancartra4 ,it is called ,samarpana1 dedication1 or ,brahma-sambandha1 connecting oneself with the ,supreme ,being4 ,footnote #fbf3 ,for instance ,whoever holds his ,guru and ,krishna to be distinct and different shall be born again as a bird4 ,harirayaji #cb4 ,quoted in ,history of the ,sect of the ,mahrjas1 p4 #hb4 ,footnote #fbg3 ,in the ordinary ceremonial the ,maharaj stands beside the image of ,krishna and acknowledges the worship offered4 ,sometimes he is swung in a swing with or without the image4 ,the hymns sung on these occasions are frequently immoral4 ,even more licentious are the meetings or dances known as ,ras ,mandali and ,ras ,ll4 ,a meal of hot food seasoned with aphrodisiacs is also said to be provided in the temples4 ,the water in which the ,maharaj's linen or feet have been washed is sold for a high price and actually drunk by devotees4 ,footnote #fbh3 ,strictly speaking the ,rdh-,vallabhis are not an offshoot of ,vallabha's school1 but of the ,nimvats or of the ,mdhva-sampradya4 ,the theory underlying their strange practices seems to be that ,krishna is the only male and that all mankind should cultivate sentiments of female love for him4 ,see ,macnicol1 ,indian ,theism1 p4 #acd4 ,footnote #fbi3 ,but other explanations are current such as ,lord of the senses or ,lord of the ,vedas4 ,footnote #fcj3 ,see ,growse1 ,mathur1 p4 #aec4 ,i can entirely confirm what he says4 ,this mean1 inartistic1 dirty place certainly suggests moral depravity4 ,footnote #fca3 ,his real name was ,sahajnanda4 ,footnote #fcb3 ,caran ,das 7#agjc-aghb7 founded a somewhat similar sect which professed to abolish idolatry and laid great stress on ethics4 ,see ,grierson's article ,caran ,das in ,e4,r4,e4 ,footnote #fcc3 ,but ,vishnuite writers distinguish kma desire and prema love1 just as and are distinguished in ,greek4 ,see ,dinesh ,chandra ,sen1 l4c4 p4 #dhe4 ,footnote #fcd3 ,dinesh ,chandra ,sen1 ,history of ,bengali ,language and ,literature1 pp4 #acd-e4 ,footnote #fce3 ,for ,caitanya see ,dinesh ,chandra ,sen1 ,history of ,bengali ,language and ,lit4 chap4 ,v4 and ,jadunath ,sarkar1 ,chaitanya's ,pilgrimages and teachings from the ,caitanya-,caritmrita of ,krishna ,das 7#aeij7 founded on the earlier ,caitanya-,caritra of ,brindavan4 ,several of ,caitanya's followers were also voluminous writers4 ,footnote #fcf3 ,he married the daughter of a certain ,vallabha who apparently was not the founder of the ,sect1 as is often stated4 ,footnote #fcg3 ,the theology of the sect may be studied in ,baladeva's commentary on the ,vednta stras and his ,prameya ,ratnval1 both contained in vol4 ,v4 of the ,sacred ,books of the ,hindus4 ,it would appear that the sect regards itself as a continuation of the ,brahma-sampradya but its tenets have more resemblance to those of ,vallabha4 ,footnote #fch3 ,no less than #aei padakarts or religious poets are enumerated by ,dinesh ,chandra ,sen4 ,several collections of these poems have been published of which the principal is called ,padakalpataru4 ,footnote #fci3 ,see ,bhandarkar1 ,vaishn4 and aivism1 pp4 #hg-ij1 and ,nicol1 ,psalms of ,maratha ,saints which gives a bibliography4 ,for ,nmdev see also ,macauliffe1 ,the ,sikh ,religion1 vol4 ,,vi4 pp4 #ag-gf4 ,for ,ramdas see ,rawlinson1 ,sivaji the ,maratha1 pp4 #aaf ff4 ,footnote #fdj3 ,bhandarkar1 l4c4 p4 #ib4 ,an earlier poet of this country was ,jnevara who wrote a paraphrase of the ,bhagavad-gt in #abij4 ,his writings are said to be the first great landmark in ,marathi literature4 ,footnote #fda3 ,there is no necessary hostility between the worship of iva and of ,vishnu4 ,at ,pandharpur pilgrims visit first a temple of iva and then the principal shrine4 ,this latter1 like the temple of ,jagannath at ,puri1 is suspected of having been a ,buddhist shrine4 ,it is called ,vihra1 the principal festival is in the ,buddhist ,lent and caste is not observed within its precincts4 ,footnote #fdb3 ,quoted by ,bhandarkar1 p4 #ij4 ,the subsequent quotations are from the same source but ,i have sometimes slightly modified them and compared them with the original1 though ,i have no pretension to be a ,marathi scholar4 ,footnote #fdc3 ,called ,abhangs4 ,footnote #fdd3 ,see ,eliot1 ,hinduism in ,assam1 ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aiaj1 pp4 #aafh-aahf4 ,footnote #fde3 ,census of ,india1 #aiaa1 ,assam1 p4 #da4 ,footnote #fdf3 ,some authorities state that the sacred book thus venerated is the ,bhagavad-gt1 but at ,kamalabari ,i made careful enquiries and was assured it was the ,nmghosha4 ,footnote #fdg3 ,especially ,gadadhar ,singh1 #afha-if4 ,footnote #fdh3 ,see ,census of ,india1 #aija1 ,bengal1 pp4 #ahc-d and ,bhattacharya1 ,hindu ,castes and ,sects1 pp4 #dhe-dhh4 ,footnote #fdi3 ,karta1 literally doer1 is the name given to the executive head of a joint family in ,bengal4 ,the sect prefer to call themselves ,bhabajanas or ,bhagawanis4 ,footnote #fej3 ,another mixed sect is that of the ,dhmis in the ,panna state of ,bundelkhand1 founded by one ,prannth in the reign of ,aurungzeb4 ,their doctrine is a combination of ,hinduism and ,islam1 tending towards ,krishnaism4 ,see ,russell1 ,tribes and ,castes of ,central ,provinces1 p4 #bag4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi ,,amalgamation ,,of ,,hinduism ,,and ,,islam4 ,,kabir ,,and ,,the ,,sikhs #a ,the ,kartbhajas mentioned at the end of the last chapter show a mixture of ,hinduism and ,mohammedanism1 and the mixture#fea is found in other sects some of which are of considerable importance4 ,a group of these sects1 including the ,sikhs and followers of ,kabir1 arose in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries4 ,their origin can be traced to ,rmnand but they cannot be called ,vaishnavas and they are clearly distinguished from all the religious bodies that we have hitherto passed in review4 ,the tone of their writings is more restrained and severe3 the worshipper approaches the deity as a servant rather than a lover3 caste is rejected as useless3 ,hindu mythology is eschewed or used sparingly4 ,yet in spite of these differences the essential doctrines of ,tulsi ,das1 ,kabir and ,nnak show a great resemblance4 ,they all believe in one deity whom they call by various names1 but this deity1 though personal1 remains of the ,indian not of the ,semitic type4 ,he somehow brings the world of transmigration into being by his power of illusion1 and the business of the soul is to free itself from the illusion and return to him4 ,almost all these teachers1 whether orthodox or heterodox1 had a singular facility for composing hymns1 often of high literary merit1 and it is in these emotional utterances1 rather than in dogmatic treatises1 that they addressed themselves to the peoples of northern ,india4 ,the earliest of these mixed sects is that founded by ,kabir4#feb ,he appears to have been a ,mohammedan weaver by birth1 though tradition is not unanimous on this point4#fec ,it is admitted1 however1 that he was brought up among ,moslims at ,benares but became a disciple of ,rmnand4 ,this suggests that he lived early in the fifteenth century4#fed ,another tradition says that he was summoned before ,sikander ,lodi 7#adhi-aeag71 but the details of his life are evidently legendary4 ,we only know that he was married and had a son1 that he taught in northern and perhaps central ,india and died at ,maghar in the district of ,gorakhpur4 ,there is significance1 however1 in the legend which relates that after his decease ,hindus and ,mohammedans disputed as to whether his body should be burned or buried4 ,but when they raised the cloth which covered the corpse1 they found underneath it only a heap of flowers4 ,so the ,hindus took part and burnt them at ,benares and the ,moslims buried the rest at ,maghar4 ,his grave there is still in ,moslim keeping4 ,in teaching ,kabir stands midway between the two religions1 but leaning to the side of ,hinduism4 ,it is clear that this ,hindu bias became stronger in his followers1 but it is not easy to separate his own teaching from subsequent embellishments1 for the numerous hymns and sayings attributed to him are collected in compilations made after his death1 such as the ,bijak and the di-granth of the ,sikhs4 ,in hymns which sound authentic he puts ,hindus and ,moslims on the same footing4 ,kabir is a child of ,ram and ,allah1 he says1 and accepteth all ,gurus and ,pirs4 ,o ,god1 whether ,allah or ,ram1 ,i live by thy name4 ,make thy mind thy ,kaaba1 thy body its enclosing temple1 ,conscience its prime teacher4 ,then1 ,o priest1 call men to pray to that mosque ,which hath five gates4 ,the ,hindus and ,mussulmans have the same ,lord4 ,but the formalities of both creeds are impartially condemned4 ,they are good riders who keep aloof from the ,veda and ,koran4#fee ,caste1 circumcision and idolatry are reprobated4 ,the ,hindu deities and their incarnations are all dead3 ,god was not in any of them4#fef ,ram1 it would seem1 should be understood not as ,rmacandra but as a name of ,god4 ,yet the general outlook is ,hindu rather than ,mohammedan4 ,god is the magician who brings about this illusory world in which the soul wanders4#feg ,i was in immobile and mobile creatures1 in worms and in moths2 ,i passed through many various births4 ,but when ,i assumed a human body1 ,i was a ,yogi1 a ,yati1 a penitent1 a ,brahmacri3 sometimes an ,emperor and sometimes a beggar4 ,unlike the ,sikhs1 ,kabir teaches the sanctity of life1 even of plants4 ,thou cuttest leaves1 ,o flower girl3 in every leaf there is life4 ,release1 as for all ,hindus1 consists in escaping from the round of births and deaths4 ,of this he speaks almost in the language of the ,buddha4#feh ,though ,i have assumed many shapes1 this is my last4 ,the strings and wires of the musical instrument are all worn out3 ,i am now in the power of ,god's name4 ,i shall not again have to dance to the tune of birth and death4 ,nor shall my heart accompany on the drum4 ,this deliverance is accomplished by the union or identification of the soul with ,god4 ,remove the difference between thyself and ,god and thou shalt be united with him4444 ,him whom ,i sought without me1 now ,i find within me4444 ,know ,god3 by knowing him thou shalt become as he4 ,when the soul and ,god are blended no one can distinguish them4#fei ,but if he sometimes writes like ankara1 he also has the note of the ,psalms and ,gospels4 ,he has the sense of sin3 he thinks of ,god in vivid personal metaphors1 as a lord1 a bridegroom1 a parent1 both father and mother4 ,save me1 ,o ,god1 though ,i have offended thee4444 ,i forgot him who made me and did cleave unto strangers4 ,sing1 sing1 the marriage song4 ,the sovereign ,god hath come to my house as my husband4444 ,i obtained ,god as my bridegroom2 so great has been my good fortune4 ,a mother beareth not in mind ,all the faults her son committeth4 ,o1 ,god1 ,i am thy child3 ,why blottest thou not out my sins8 444 ,my ,father is the great ,lord of the ,earth2 ,to that ,father how shall ,i go8#ffj ,the writings of ,kabir's disciples such as the ,sukh ,nidhan attributed to ,srut ,gopal 7and written according to ,westcott about #agbi7 and the still later ,amar ,mul1 which is said to be representative of the modern ,kabirpanth1 show a greater inclination to ,pantheism1 though caste and idolatry are still condemned4 ,in these works1 which relate the conversion of ,dharm ,das afterwards one of ,kabir's principal followers1 ,kabir is identified with the ,creator and then made a pantheistic deity much as ,krishna in the ,bhagavad-gt4#ffa ,he is also the true ,guru whose help is necessary for salvation4 ,stress is further laid on the doctrine of abda1 or the divine word4 ,hindu theology was familiar with this expression as signifying the eternal self-existent revelation contained in the ,vedas4 ,kabir appears to have held that articulate sound is an expression of the ,deity and that every letter1 as a constituent of such sound1 has a meaning4 ,but these letters are due to ,my3 in reality there is no plurality of sound4 ,ram seems to have been selected as the divine name1 because its brevity is an approach to this unity1 but true knowledge is to understand the ,letterless ,one1 that is the real name or essence of ,god from which all differentiation of letters has vanished4 ,apart from some special metaphors the whole doctrine set forth in the ,sukh ,nidhan and ,amar ,mul is little more than a loose ,vedantism1 somewhat reminiscent of ,sufiism4#ffb ,the teaching of ,kabir is known as the ,kabirpanth4 ,at present there are both ,hindus and ,mohammedans among his followers and both have monasteries at ,maghar where he is buried4 ,the sect numbers in all about a million4#ffc ,it is said that the two divisions have little in common except veneration of ,kabir and do not intermix1 but they both observe the practice of partaking of sacred meals1 holy water1#ffd and consecrated betel nut4 ,the ,hindu section is again divided into two branches known as ,father 7,bap7 and ,mother 7,mai74 ,though there is not much that is original in the doctrines of ,kabir1 he is a considerable figure in ,hindi literature and may justly be called epoch-making as marking the first fusion of ,hinduism and ,islam which culminates and attains political importance in the ,sikhs4 ,other offshoots of his teaching are the ,satnms1 ,rdh-swmis and ,ddupanthis4 ,the first were founded or reorganized in #agej by a certain ,jag-jivan-das4 ,they do not observe caste and in theory adore only the ,true ,name of ,god but in practice admit ordinary ,hindu worship4 ,the ,rdh-swmis1 founded in #ahfa1 profess a combination of the ,kabirpanth with ,christian ideas4 ,the ,ddupanthis show the influence of the military spirit of ,islam4 ,they were founded by ,ddu1 a cotton weaver of ,ahmedabad who flourished in ,akbar's reign and died about #afjc4 ,he insisted on the equality of mankind1 vegetarianism1 abstinence from alcohol and strict celibacy4 ,hence the sect is recruited by adopting boys1 most of whom are trained as soldiers4 ,in such conditions the ,ddupanthis cannot increase greatly but they number about nine thousand and are found chiefly in the state of ,jaipur1 especially in the town of ,naraina4#ffe #b ,the ,sikh religion#fff is of special interest since it has created not only a political society but also customs so distinctive that those who profess it rank in common esteem as a separate race4 ,the founder ,nnak lived from #adfi to #aech and was born near ,lahore4 ,he was a ,hindu by birth but came under ,mohammedan influence and conceived the idea of reconciling the two faiths4 ,he was attracted by the doctrines of ,kabir and did not at first claim to teach a new religion4 ,he wished to unite ,hindus and ,moslims and described himself simply as ,guru or teacher and his adherents as ,sikhs or disciples4 ,he spent the greater part of his life wandering about ,india and is said to have reached ,mecca4 ,a beautiful story relates that he fell asleep with his feet turned towards the ,kaaba4 ,a mollah kicked him and asked how he dared to turn his feet and not his head towards ,god4 ,but he answered1 ,turn my feet in a direction where ,god is not4 ,he was attended on his wanderings by ,mardna1 a lute-player1 who accompanied the hymns which he never failed to compose when a thought or adventure occurred to him4 ,these compositions are similar to those of ,kabir1 but seem to me of inferior merit4 ,they are diffuse and inordinately long2 the ,japji for instance1 which every ,sikh ought to recite as his daily prayer1 fills not less than twenty octavo pages4 ,yet beautiful and incisive passages are not wanting4 ,when at the temple of ,jagannath1 he was asked to take part in the evening worship at which lights were waved before the god while flowers and incense were presented on golden salvers studded with pearls4 ,but he burst out into song4#ffg ,the sun and moon1 ,o ,lord1 are thy lamps1 the firmament thy salver and the orbs of the stars the pearls set therein4 ,the perfume of the sandal tree is thy incense2 the wind is thy fan2 all the forests are thy flowers1 ,o ,lord of light4 ,though ,nnak is full of ,hindu allusions he is more ,mohammedan in tone than ,kabir1 and the ritual of ,sikh temples is modelled on the ,mohammedan rather than on the ,hindu pattern4 ,the opening words of the ,japji are3 ,there is but one ,god1 whose name is true1 the ,creator#ffh and he is regarded rather as the ruler of the world than as a spirit finding expression in it4 ,by his order all things happen4 ,by obeying him man obtains happiness and salvation4 ,there is no limit to his mercy and his praises4 ,in the presence of ,god man has no power and no strength4 ,such sentiments have a smack of ,mohammed and ,nnak sometimes uses the very words of the ,koran as when he says that ,god has no companion4 ,and though the penetrating spirit of the ,vednta infects this regal monotheism1 yet the doctrine of ,my is set forth in unusual phraseology3 ,god himself created the world and himself gave names to things4 ,he made ,my by his power3 seated1 he beheld his work with delight4 ,in other compositions attributed to ,nnak greater prominence is given to ,my and to the common ,hindu idea that creation is a self-expansion of the deity4 ,metempsychosis is taught and the divine name is ,hari4 ,this is characteristic of the age1 for ,nnak was nearly a contemporary of ,caitanya and ,vallabhcrya4 ,for ,kabir1 the disciple of ,rmnanda1 the name was ,ram4 ,nnak was sufficiently conscious of his position as head of a sect to leave a successor as ,guru1#ffi but there is no indication that at this time the ,sikhs differed materially from many other religious bodies who reprobated caste and idolatry4 ,under the fourth ,guru1 ,ram ,das1 the beginnings of a change appear4 ,his strong personality collected many wealthy adherents and with their offerings he purchased the tank of ,amritsar#fgj and built in its midst the celebrated ,golden ,temple4 ,he appointed his son ,arjun as ,guru in #aeha1 just before his death3 the succession was made hereditary and henceforth the ,gurus became chiefs rather than spiritual teachers4 ,arjun assumed some of the insignia of royalty3 a town grew up round the sacred tank and became the centre of a community2 a tax was collected from all ,sikhs and they were subjected to special and often salutary legislation4 ,infanticide1 for instance1 was strictly forbidden4 ,with a view of providing a code and standard ,arjun compiled the ,granth or ,sikh scriptures1 for though hymns and prayers composed by ,nnak and others were in use there was as yet no authorized collection of them4 ,the example of ,mohammedanism no doubt stimulated the desire to possess a sacred book and the veneration of the scriptures increased with time4 ,the ,granth now receives the same kind of respect as the ,koran and the first sight of a ,sikh temple with a large open volume on a reading-desk cannot fail to recall a mosque4 ,arjun's compilation is called the di-granth1 or original book1 to distinguish it from the later additions made by ,guru ,govind4 ,it comprises hymns and prayers by ,nnak and the four ,gurus who followed him 7including ,arjun himself71 ,rmnand1 ,kabir and others1 amounting to thirty-five writers in all4 ,the list is interesting as testifying to the existence of a great body of oral poetry by various authors ranging from ,rmnand1 who had not separated himself from orthodox ,vishnuism1 to ,arjun1 the chief of the ,sikh national community4 ,it was evidently felt that all these men had one inspiration coming from one truth and even now unwritten poems of ,nnak are current in ,bihar4 ,the ,granth is written in a special alphabet known as ,gurmukhi#fga and contains both prose and poetical pieces in several languages3 most are in old western ,hindi#fgb but some are in ,panjabi and ,marathi4 ,but though in compiling a sacred book and in uniting the temporal and spiritual power ,arjun was influenced by the spirit of ,mohammedanism1 this is not the sort of imitation which makes for peace4 ,the combination of ,hinduism and ,islam resulted in the production of a special type of ,hindu peculiarly distasteful to ,moslims and not much loved by other ,hindus4 ,much of ,arjun's activity took place in the later years of the ,emperor ,akbar4 ,this most philosophic and tolerant of princes abandoned ,mohammedanism after #aegi1 remitted the special taxes payable by non-,moslims and adopted many ,hindu observances4 ,towards the end of his life he promulgated a new creed known as the ,din-i-ilahi or divine faith4 ,this eclectic and composite religion bears testimony to his vanity as well as to his large sympathies1 for it recognized him as the viceregent or even an incarnation of ,god4 ,it would appear that the singular little work called the ,allopanishad or ,allah ,upanishad#fgc was written in connection with this movement4 ,it purports to be an ,upanishad of the ,atharva ,veda and can hardly be described as other than a forgery4 ,it declares that the ,allah of the prophet ,muhammad ,akbar#fgd is the ,god of ,gods and identifies him with ,mitra1 ,varuna1 the sun1 moon1 water1 ,indra1 etc4 ,akbar's religion did not long survive his death and never flourished far from the imperial court1 but somewhat later 7#afef7 ,muhammad ,dara ,shukoh1 the son of ,shah ,jehan1 caused a ,persian translation of about fifty ,upanishads1 known as the ,oupnekhat1#fge to be prepared4 ,the general temper of the period was propitious to the growth and immunity of mixed forms of belief1 but the warlike and semi-political character of the ,sikh community brought trouble on it4 ,arjun attracted the unfavourable attention of ,akbar's successor1 ,jehangir1#fgf and was cast into prison where he died4 ,the ,sikhs took up arms and henceforth regarded themselves as the enemies of the government1 but their strength was wasted by internal dissensions4 ,the ninth ,guru1 ,teg-,bahadur1 was executed by ,aurungzeb4 ,desire to avenge this martyrdom and the strenuous character of the tenth ,guru1 ,govind ,singh 7#afge-agjh71 completed the transformation of the ,sikhs into a church militant devoted to a holy war4 ,though the most aggressive and uncompromising features of ,sikhism are due to the innovations of ,govind1 he was so far from being a theological bigot that he worshipped ,durg and was even said to have offered human sacrifices4 ,but the aim of all his ordinances was to make his followers an independent body of fighting men4 ,they were to return the salutation of no ,hindu and to put to death every ,mohammedan4 ,the community was called ,khalsa3#fgg within it there was perfect equality3 every man was to carry a sword and wear long hair but short trousers4 ,converts1 or recruits1 came chiefly from the fighting tribes of the ,jats1 but in theory admission was free4 ,the initiatory ceremony1 which resembled baptism1 was performed with sugar and water stirred with a sword1 and the neophyte vowed not to worship idols1 to bow to none except a ,sikh ,guru1 and never to turn his back on the enemy4 ,to give these institutions better religious sanction1 ,govind composed a supplement to the ,granth1 called ,daama ,pdshh ka ,granth or book of the tenth prince4 ,it consists of four parts1 all in verse1 and is said to inculcate war as persistently as ,nnak had inculcated meekness and peace4 ,to give his institutions greater permanence and prevent future alterations ,govind refused to appoint any human successor and bade the ,sikhs consider the ,granth as their ,guru4 ,whatsoever ye shall ask of it1 it will show you he said1 and in obedience to his command the book is still invested with a kind of personality and known as ,granth ,sahib4 ,govind spent most of his time in wars with ,aurungzeb marked by indomitable perseverance rather than success4 ,towards the end of his life he retired into ,malwa and resided at a place called ,damdama4 ,the accounts of his latter days are somewhat divergent4 ,according to one story he made his peace with the ,mughals and accepted a military command under the successor of ,aurungzeb but it is more commonly asserted that he was assassinated by a private enemy4 ,even more troublous were the days of his successor ,banda4 ,since ,govind had abolished the ,guruship1 he could not claim to be more than a temporal chief1 but what he lacked in spiritual authority he made amends for in fanaticism4 ,the eight years of his leadership were spent in a war of mutual extermination waged with the ,moslims of the ,panjab and diversified only by internal dissensions4 ,at last he was captured and the sect was nearly annihilated by the ,emperor ,farukhsyar4 ,according to the ordinary account this victory was followed by an orgy of torture and ,banda was barbarously executed after witnessing during seven days the torments of his followers and kinsmen4 ,we read with pleasure but incredulity that one division of the ,sikhs believe that he escaped and promulgated his peculiar doctrines in ,sind4 ,asiatics do not relish the idea that the chosen of ,god can suffer violent death4 ,the further history of the ,sikhs is political rather than religious1 and need not detain us here4 ,despite the efforts of the ,mughals to exterminate them1 they were favoured by the disturbed state of the country in the early decades of the eighteenth century1 for the raids of ,afghans and ,persians convulsed and paralyzed the empire of ,delhi4 ,the government of the ,khalsa passed into the hands of a body of fanatics1 called ,aklis1 but the decision of grave matters rested with a council of the whole community which occasionally met at ,amritsar4 ,every ,sikh claimed to have joined the confederacy as an independent soldier1 bound to fight under his military leaders but otherwise exempt from control1 and entitled to a share of land4 ,this absolute independence1 being unworkable in practice1 was modified by the formation of ,misals or voluntary associations1 of which there were at one time twelve4 ,from the middle of the eighteenth century onwards the ,sikhs were masters of the ,panjab and their great chief ,ranjit ,singh 7#agig-ahci7 succeeded in converting the confederacy into a despotic monarchy4 ,their power did not last long after his death and the ,panjab was conquered by the ,british in the two wars of #ahdf and #ahdi4 ,with the loss of political independence1 the differences between the ,sikhs and other ,hindus tended to decrease4 ,this was natural1 for nearly all their strictly religious tenets can be paralleled in ,hinduism4 ,guru ,govind waged no war against polytheism but wished to found a religious commonwealth equally independent of ,hindu castes and ,mohammedan sultans4 ,for some time his ordinances were successful in creating a tribe1 almost a nation4 ,with the collapse of the ,sikh state1 the old hatred of ,mohammedanism remained1 but the ,sikhs differed from normal ,hindus hardly more than such sects as the ,lingyats1 and1 as happened with decadent ,buddhism1 the unobtrusive pressure of ,hindu beliefs and observances tended to obliterate those differences4 ,the ,census of ,india1#fgh #aija1 enumerated three degrees of ,sikhism4 ,the first comprises a few zealots called ,aklis who observe all the precepts of ,govind4 ,the second class are the ,guru ,govind ,sikhs1 who observe the ,guru's main commands1 especially the prohibition to smoke and cut the hair4 ,lastly1 there are a considerable number who profess a respect for the ,guru but follow ,hindu beliefs and usages wholly or in part4 ,sikhism indeed reproduces on a small scale the changeableness and complexity of ,hinduism1 and includes associations called ,sabh1 whose members aim at restoring or maintaining what they consider to be the true faith4 ,in #aija there was a tendency for ,sikhs to give up their peculiarities and describe themselves as ordinary ,hindus1 but in the next decade a change of sentiment among these waverers caused the ,sikh community as registered to increase by thirty-seven per cent4 and a period of religious zeal is reported4#fgi ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #fea3 ,it is exemplified by the curious word an-had limitless1 being the ,indian negative prefix added to the arabic word had used in the ,sikh ,granth and by ,caran ,das as a name of ,god4 ,footnote #feb3 ,see especially ,g4,h4 ,westcott1 ,kabir and the ,kabir ,panth1 and ,macauliffe1 ,sikh ,religion1 vol4 vi4 pp4 #abb-caf4 ,also ,wilson1 ,essays on the religion of the ,hindus1 vol4 ,i4 pp4 #fh-ih4 ,garcin de ,tassy1 ,histoire de la ,littrature ,hindoue1 ,,ii4 pp4 #abj-acd4 ,bhandarkar1 ,vaishn4 and aivism1 pp4 #fg-gc4 ,footnote #fec3 ,the name ,kabir seems to me decisive4 ,footnote #fed3 ,dadu who died about #afjc is said to have been fifth in spiritual descent from ,kabir4 ,footnote #fee3 ,from a hymn in which the spiritual life is represented as a ride4 ,macauliffe1 ,,vi4 p4 #aef4 ,footnote #fef3 ,but ,hari is sometimes used by ,kabir1 especially in the hymns incorporated in the ,granth1 as a name of ,god4 ,footnote #feg3 ,though ,kabir writes as a poet rather than as a philosopher he evidently leaned to the doctrine of illusion 7vivartavda7 rather than to the doctrine of manifestation or development 7,parinmavda74 ,he regards ,my as something evil1 a trick1 a thief1 a force which leads men captive1 but which disappears with the knowledge of ,god4 ,the illusion vanished when ,i recognized him 7,,xxxix474 ,footnote #feh3 ,he even uses the word nirvna4 ,footnote #fei3 ,from ,kabir's acrostic4 ,macauliffe1 ,,vi4 pp4 #ahf and #ahh4 ,it is possible that this is a later composition4 ,footnote #ffj3 ,macauliffe1 vi4 pp4 #bcj4 #bji1 #bjb1 #aig4 ,footnote #ffa3 ,westcott1 l4c4 p4 #add1 ,i am the creator of this world4444 ,i am the seed and the tree 444 all are contained in me--,i live within all and all live within me and much to the same effect4 ,even in the hymns of the di ,granth we find such phrases as ,now thou and ,i have become one4 7,macauliffe1 vi4 p4 #ahj47 ,this identification of ,kabir with the deity is interesting as being a modern example of what probably happened in the case of ,krishna4 ,similarly those who collected the hymns which form the sacred books of the ,sikhs and ,kabirpanthis repeated the process which in earlier ages produced the ,rig ,veda4 ,footnote #ffb3 ,the tm mingles with ,paramtm1 as the rivers flow into the ocean4 ,only in this way can ,paramtm be found4 ,the tm without abda is blind and cannot find the path4 ,he who sees tm-,rm is present everywhere4 ,all he sees is like himself4 ,there is nought except ,brahm4 ,i am he1 ,i am the true ,kabir4 ,westcott1 p4 #afh4 ,footnote #ffc3 ,the ,census of #aija gives #hdc1aga but there is reason to think the real numbers are larger4 ,footnote #ffd3 ,consecrated by washing in it wooden sandals supposed to represent the feet of ,kabir4 ,it is stated that they believe they eat the body of ,kabir at their sacred meal which perhaps points to ,christian influence4 ,see ,russell1 l4c4 pp4 #bci-bdj4 ,footnote #ffe3 ,see ,russell1 ,tribes and ,castes of ,central ,provinces1 p4 #bag1 where it is said that some of them are householders4 ,footnote #fff3 ,see especially ,macauliffe1 ,the ,sikh ,religion1 six volumes4 ,footnote #ffg3 ,macauliffe1 ,i4 p4 #hb4 ,footnote #ffh3 ,the original is ,kart purukh 7purusha71 the creative male4 ,this phrase shows how ,hindu habits of thought clung to ,nnak4 ,footnote #ffi3 ,the ,guru of the ,sikhs are3 7a7 ,nnak1 #adfi-aech1 7b7 ,angada1 #aech-aeeb1 7c7 ,amardas1 #aeeb-aege1 7d7 ,ramdas1 #aege-aeha1 7e7 ,arjun1 #aeha-afjf1 7f7 ,har-,govind1 #afjf-afci1 7g7 ,har-,rai1 #afci-affc1 7h7 ,har-,kisan1 #affc-afff1 7i7 ,teg-,bahadur1 #afff-afge1 7j7 ,govind ,singh1 #afge-agjh4 ,footnote #fgj3 ,amritasaras the lake of nectar4 ,footnote #fga3 ,it appears to be an arbitrary adaptation of the ,deva-ngari characters4 ,the shape of the letters is mostly the same but new values are assigned to them4 ,footnote #fgb3 ,this is the description of the dialect given by ,grierson1 the highest authority in such matters4 ,footnote #fgc3 ,see ,rajendrala ,mitra's article in ,j4,a4,s4,b4 ,,xl4 #ahga1 pp4 #agj-agf1 which gives the ,sanskrit text of the ,upanishad4 ,also ,schrader1 ,catalogue of ,adyar ,library1 #aijh1 pp4 #acf-g4 ,schrader states that in the north of ,india the ,allopanishad is recited by ,brahmans at the ,vasantotsava and on other occasions3 also that in southern ,india it is generally believed that ,moslims are skilled in the ,atharva ,veda4 ,footnote #fgd3 ,i4e41 not the ,allah of the ,koran4 ,footnote #fge3 ,this ,persian translation was rendered word for word into very strange ,latin by ,anquetil ,duperron 7#ahja-b7 and this ,latin version was used by ,schopenhauer4 ,footnote #fgf3 ,he is said to have prayed for the success of the ,emperor's rebellious son4 ,footnote #fgg3 ,this ,arabic word is interpreted in this context as meaning the special portion 7of ,god74 ,footnote #fgh3 ,census of ,india1 #aija1 ,panjab report1 p4 #abb4 ,footnote #fgi3 ,provincial ,geographies of ,india1 ,panjab1 ,douie1 #aiaf1 p4 #aag4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii ,,ktism#fhj ,among the principal subdivisions of ,hinduism must be reckoned the remarkable religion known as ktism1 that is the worship of akti or iva's spouse under various names1 of which ,dev1 ,durg and ,kl are the best known4 ,it differs from most sects in not being due to the creative or reforming energy of any one human founder4 ,it claims to be a revelation from iva himself1 but considered historically it appears to be a compound of ,hinduism with un-,aryan beliefs4 ,it acquired great influence both in the courts and among the people of north-eastern ,india but without producing personalities of much eminence as teachers or writers4 ,it would be convenient to distinguish ktism and ,tantrism1 as ,i have already suggested4 ,the former means the worship of a goddess or goddesses1 especially those who are regarded as forms of iva's consort4 ,vishnuites sometimes worship female deities1 but though the worship of ,lakshm1 ,rdh and others may be coloured by imitation of ktist practices1 it is less conspicuous and seems to have a different origin4 ,tantrism is a system of magical or sacramental ritual1 which professes to attain the highest aims of religion by such methods as spells1 diagrams1 gestures and other physical exercises4 ,one of its bases is the assumption that man and the universe correspond as microcosm and macrocosm and that both are subject to the mysterious power of words and letters4 ,these ideas are not modern nor peculiar to any ,indian sect4 ,they are present in the ,vedic ceremonial1 in the practices of the ,yoga and even in the teaching of the quasi-mussulman sect of ,kabir1 which attaches great importance to the letters of the divine name4 ,they harmonize with the common ,indian view that some form of discipline or physical training is essential to the religious life4 ,they are found in a highly developed form among the ,nambuthiris and other ,brahmans of southern ,india who try to observe the ,vedic rules and in the ,far ,east among ,buddhists of the ,shingon or ,chn-yen sect4#fha ,as a rule they receive the name of ,tantrism only when they are elaborated into a system which claims to be a special dispensation for this age and to supersede more arduous methods which are politely set aside as practicable only for the hero-saints of happier times4 ,tantrism1 like salvation by faith1 is a simplification of religion but on mechanical rather than emotional lines1 though its deficiency in emotion often finds strange compensations4 ,but ,tantrism is analogous not so much to justification by faith as to sacramental ritual4 ,the parallel may seem shocking1 but most tantric ceremonies are similar in idea to ,christian sacraments and may be called sacramental as correctly as magical4 ,even in the ,anglican ,church baptism includes sprinkling with water 7abhisheka71 the sign of the cross 7nysa7 and a formula 7mantra71 and if any one supposes that a child so treated is sure of heaven whereas the future of the unbaptized is dubious1 he holds like the ,tantrists that spiritual ends can be attained by physical means4 ,and in the ,roman ,church where the rite includes exorcism and the use of salt1 oil and lights1 the parallel is still closer4 ,christian mysticism has had much to do with symbolism and even with alchemy1#fhb and ,zoroastrianism1 which is generally regarded as a reasonable religion1 attaches extraordinary importance to holy spells4#fhc ,so ,indian religions are not singular in this respect1 though the uncompromising thoroughness with which they work out this like other ideas leads to startling results4 ,the worship of female deities becomes prominent somewhat late in ,indian literature and it does not represent--not to the same extent as the ,chinese cult of ,kwan-yin for example--the better ideals of the period when it appears4 ,the goddesses of the ,rig ,veda are insignificant3 they are little more than names1 and grammatically often the feminine forms of their consorts4 ,but this ,veda is evidently a special manual of prayer from which many departments of popular religion were excluded4 ,in the ,atharva ,veda many spirits with feminine names are invoked and there is an inclination to personify bad qualities and disasters as goddesses4 ,but we do not find any goddess who has attained a position comparable with that held by ,durg1 ,cybele or ,astarte1 though there are some remarkable hymns#fhd addressed to the ,earth4 ,but there is no doubt that the worship of goddesses 7especially goddesses of fertility7 as great powers is both ancient and widespread4 ,we find it among the ,egyptians and ,semites1 in ,asia ,minor1 in ,greece1 ,italy1 and among the ,kelts4 ,the goddess ,anahit1 who was worshipped with immoral rites in ,bactria1 is figured on the coins of the ,kushans and must at one time have been known on the north-western borders of ,india4 ,at the present day tal and in south ,india ,mariamman are goddesses of smallpox who require propitiation1 and one of the earliest deities known to have been worshipped by the ,tamils is the goddess ,kottavai4#fhe ,somewhat obscure but widely worshipped are the powers known as the ,mothers1 a title which also occurs in ,keltic mythology4 ,they are groups of goddesses varying in number and often malevolent4 ,as many as a hundred and forty are said to be worshipped in ,gujarat4 ,the census of ,bengal 7#aija7 records the worship of the earth1 sun and rivers as females1 of the snake goddesses ,manas and ,jagat ,gaur and of numerous female demons who send disease1 such as the seven sisters1 ,ola ,bibi1 ,jogini and the ,churels1 or spirits of women who have died in childbirth4 ,the rites celebrated in honour of these deities are often of a questionable character and include dances by naked women and offerings of spirituous liquors and blood4 ,similar features are found in other countries4 ,prostitution formed part of the worship of ,astarte and ,anahit3 the ,tauric ,artemis was adored with human sacrifices and ,cybele with self-inflicted mutilations4 ,similarly offerings of blood drawn from the sacrificer's own body are enjoined in the ,klik ,purna4 ,two stages can be distinguished in the relations between these cults and ,hinduism4 ,in the later stage which can be witnessed even at the present day an aboriginal goddess or demon is identified with one of the aspects 7generally a black or fierce aspect7 of iva's spouse4#fhf ,but such identification is facilitated by the fact that goddesses like ,kl1 ,bhairav1 ,chinnamastak are not products of purely ,hindu imagination but represent earlier stages of amalgamation in which ,hindu and aboriginal ideas are already compounded4 ,when the smallpox goddess is identified with ,kl1 the procedure is correct1 for some popular forms of ,kl are little more than an aboriginal deity of pestilence draped with ,hindu imagery and philosophy4 ,some ,hindu scholars demur to this derivation of ktism from lower cults4 ,they point to its refined and philosophic aspects2 they see in it the worship of a goddess1 who can be as merciful as the ,madonna1 but yet1 since she is the goddess of nature1 combines in one shape life and death4 ,may not the grosser forms of ktism be perversions and corruptions of an ancient and higher faith8 ,in support of this it may be urged that the ,buddhist goddess ,tr is as a rule a beautiful and benevolent figure1 though she can be terrible as the enemy of evil and has clear affinities to ,durg4 ,yet the history of ,indian thought does not support this view1 but rather the view that ,hinduism incorporated certain ancient ideas1 true and striking as ancient ideas often are1 but without purging them sufficiently to make them acceptable to the majority of educated ,indians4 ,the ,yajur ,veda#fhg associates ,rudra with a female deity called ,ambik or mother1 who is however his sister1 not his spouse4 ,the earliest forms of the latter seem to connect her with mountains4 ,she is ,um ,haimavat1 the daughter of the ,himalayas1 and ,prvat1 she of the mountains1 and was perhaps originally a sacred peak4 ,in an interesting but brief passage of the ,kena ,upanishad 7,,iii4 #ab and ,,iv4 #a7 ,um ,haimavat explains to the gods that a being whom they do not know is ,brahman4 ,in later times we hear of a similar goddess in the ,vindhyas1 ,mahrn ,vindhyevar1 who was connected with human sacrifices and ,thugs4#fhh iva's consort1 like her ,lord1 has many forms classified as white or benignant and black or terrible4 ,um belongs to the former class but the latter 7such as ,kl1 ,durg1 ,cmund1 ,cand and ,karal7 are more important4#fhi ,female deities bearing names like these are worshipped in most parts of ,india1 literally from the ,himalaya to ,cape ,comorin1 for the latter name is derived from ,kumr1 the ,virgin goddess4#fij ,but the names kta and ktism are usually restricted to those sects in ,bengal and ,assam who worship the ,consort of iva with the rites prescribed in the ,tantras4 ktism regards the goddess as the active manifestation of the godhead4 ,as such she is styled akti1 or energy 7whence the name kta71 and is also identified with ,my1 the power which is associated with ,brahman and brings the phenomenal world into being4 ,similar ideas appear in a philosophic form in the ,snkhya teaching4 ,here the soul is masculine and passive3 its task is to extricate and isolate itself4 ,but ,prakriti or ,nature is feminine and active3 to her is due the evolution of the universe3 she involves the soul in actions which cause pain but she also helps the work of liberation4#fia ,in its fully developed form the doctrine of the ,tantras teaches that akti is not an emanation or aspect of the deity4 ,there is no distinction between ,brahman and akti4 ,she is ,parabrahman and partpar1 ,supreme of the ,supreme4 ,the birthplace of ktism as a definite sect seems to have been north-eastern ,india#fib and though it is said to be extending in the ,united ,provinces1 its present sphere of influence is still chiefly ,bengal and ,assam4#fic ,the population of these countries is not ,aryan 7though the ,bengali language bears witness to the strong ,aryan influence which has prevailed there7 and is largely composed of immigrants from the north belonging to the ,tibeto-,burman1 ,mon-,khmer and ,shan families4 ,these tribes remain distinct in ,assam but the ,bengali represents the fusion of such invaders with a ,munda or ,dravidian race1 leavened by a little ,aryan blood in the higher castes4 ,in all this region we hear of no ancient ,brahmanic settlements1 no ancient centres of ,vedic or even ,puranic learning#fid and when ,buddhism decayed no body of ,brahmanic tradition such as existed in other parts of ,india imposed its authority on the writers of the ,tantras4 ,even at the present day the worship of female spirits1 only half acknowledged by the ,brahmans1 prevails among these people1 and in the past the national deities of many tribes were goddesses who were propitiated with human sacrifices4 ,thus the ,chutiyas of ,sadiya used to adore a goddess1 called ,kesai ,khati--the eater of raw flesh4 ,the rites of these deities were originally performed by tribal priests1 but as ,hindu influence spread1 the ,brahmans gradually took charge of them without modifying their character in essentials4 ,popular ,bengali poetry represents these goddesses as desiring worship and feeling that they are slighted3 they persecute those who ignore them1 but shower blessings on their worshippers1 even on the obdurate who are at last compelled to do them homage4 ,the language of mythology could not describe more clearly the endeavours of a plebeian cult to obtain recognition4#fie ,the ,mahbhrata contains hymns to ,durg in which she is said to love offerings of flesh and wine1#fif but it is not likely that ktism or ,tantrism--that is a system with special scriptures and doctrines--was prevalent before the seventh century ,a4,d4 for the ,tantras are not mentioned by the ,chinese pilgrims and the lexicon ,amara ,kosha 7perhaps c4 #ejj ,a4,d47 does not recognize the word as a designation of religious books4 ,bna 7c4 #fcj7 gives more than once in his romances lists of sectaries but though he mentions ,bhgavatas and ,pupatas1 he does not speak of aktas4#fig ,on the other hand ,tantrism infected ,buddhism soon after this period4 ,the earlier ,tibetan translations of the ,tantras are attributed to the ninth century4 ,,mss4 of the ,kubjikmata and other ,tantras are said to date from the ninth and even from the seventh century and tradition represents ,sankarcrya as having contests with ktas4#fih ,but many ,tantras were written in the fifteenth century and even later1 for the ,yogini ,tantra alludes to the ,koch king ,bishwa ,singh 7#aeae-aedj7 and the ,meru ,tantra mentions ,london and the ,english4 ,from the twelfth to the sixteenth century1 when ,buddhism1 itself deeply infected with ,tantrism1 was disappearing1 ktism was probably the most powerful religion in ,bengal1 but ,vishnuism was gaining strength and after the time of ,caitanya proved a formidable rival to it4 ,at the beginning of the fifteenth century we hear that the king of the ,ahoms summoned ,brahmans to his ,court and adopted many ,hindu rites and beliefs1 and from this time onward ktism was patronized by most of the ,assamese ,rajas although after #aeej ,vishnuism became the religion of the mass of the people4 ktism never inspired any popular or missionary movement1 but it was powerful among the aristocracy and instigated persecutions against the ,vishnuites4 ,the more respectable ,tantras#fii show considerable resemblance to the later ,upanishads such as the ,nrisinhatpanya and ,rmat-panya1 which mention akti in the sense of creative energy4#gjj ,both classes of works treat of magical formul 7mantras7 and the construction of mystic diagrams or yantras4 ,this resemblance does not give us much assistance in chronology1 for the dates of the later ,upanishads are very uncertain1 but it shows how the ,tantras are connected with other branches of ,hindu thought4 ,the distinction between ,tantras and ,purnas is not always well-marked4 ,the ,bhgavata ,purna countenances tantric rites#gja and the ,agni ,purna 7from chapter ,,xxi onwards7 bears a strong resemblance to a ,tantra4 ,as a rule the ,tantras contain less historical and legendary matter than the ,purnas and more directions as to ritual4 ,but whereas the ,purnas approve of both ,vedic rites and others1 the ,tantras insist that ceremonies other than those which they prescribe are now useless4 ,they maintain that each age of the world has its own special revelation and that in this age the ,tantra-stra is the only scripture4 ,thus in the ,mahnirvna ,tantra iva says3#gjb ,the fool who would follow other doctrines heedless of mine is as great a sinner as a parricide or the murderer of a ,brahman or of a woman4444 ,the ,vedic rites and mantras which were efficacious in the first age have ceased to have power in this4 ,they are now as powerless as snakes whose fangs have been drawn and are like dead things4 ,the ,kulrnava ,tantra 7,i4 #gi ff47 inveighs against those who think they will obtain salvation by ,vedic sacrifices or asceticism or reading sacred books1 whereas it can be won only by tantric rites4 ,various lists of ,tantras are given and it is generally admitted that many have been lost4 ,the most complete1 but somewhat theoretical enumeration#gjc divides ,india and the adjoining lands into three regions to each of which sixty-four ,tantras are assigned4 ,the best known names are perhaps ,mahnirvna1#gjd ,sradtilaka1#gje ,yogin1 ,kulrnava#gjf and ,rudra-,ymala4 ,a ,tantra is generally cast in the form of a dialogue in which iva instructs his consort but sometimes vice vers4 ,it is said that the former class are correctly described as gamas and the works where the akti addresses iva as ,nigamas4#gjg ,some are also called ,ymalas and ,dmaras but ,i have found no definition of the meaning of these words4 ,the ,prapacasra ,tantra#gjh professes to be a revelation from ,nryana4 ktism and the ,tantras which teach it are generally condemned by ,hindus of other sects4#gji ,it is arguable that this condemnation is unjust1 for like other forms of ,hinduism the ,tantras make the liberation of the soul their object and prescribe a life of religious observances including asceticism and meditation1 after which the adept becomes released even in this life4 ,but however much new tantric literature may be made accessible in future1 ,i doubt if impartial criticism will come to any opinion except that ktism and ,tantrism collect and emphasize what is superficial1 trivial and even bad in ,indian religion1 omitting or neglecting its higher sides4 ,if for instance the ,mahnirvna ,tantra which is a good specimen of these works be compared with ankara's commentary on the ,vednta ,stras1 or the poems of ,tulsi ,das1 it will be seen that it is woefully deficient in the excellences of either4 ,but many tantric treatises are chiefly concerned with charms1 spells1 amulets and other magical methods of obtaining wealth1 causing or averting disease and destroying enemies1 processes which even if efficacious have nothing to do with the better side of religion4#gaj ,the religious life prescribed in the ,tantras#gaa commences with initiation and requires the supervision of the ,guru4 ,the object of it is ,siddhi or success1 the highest form of which is spiritual perfection4 ,siddhi is produced by ,sdhana1 or that method of training the physical and psychic faculties which realizes their potentialities4 ,tantric training assumes a certain constitution of the universe and the repetition in miniature of this constitution in the human body which contains various nervous centres and subtle channels for the passage of energy unknown to vulgar anatomy4 ,thus the akti who pervades the universe is also present in the body as ,kundalin1 a serpentine coil of energy1 and it is part of ,sdhana to arouse this energy and make it mount from the lower to the higher centres4 ,kundalin is also present in sounds and in letters4 ,hence if different parts of the body are touched to the accompaniment of appropriate mantras 7which rite is called nysa7 the various aktis are made to dwell in the human frame in suitable positions4 ,the ,tantras recognize that human beings are not equal and that codes and rituals must vary according to temperament and capacity4 ,three conditions of men1 called the animal1 heroic and divine1#gab are often mentioned and are said to characterize three periods of life--youth1 manhood and age1 or three classes of mankind1 non-tantrists1 ordinary tantrists1 and adepts4 ,these three conditions clearly correspond to the three ,gunas4 ,also men1 or rather ,hindus1 belong to one of seven groups1 or stages1 according to the religious practices which it is best for them to follow4 ktists apparently demur#gac to the statement commonly made by ,indians as well as by ,europeans that they are divided into two sects the ,dakshincrins1 or right-hand worshippers1 whose ritual is public and decent1 and the ,vmcrins who meet to engage in secret but admittedly immoral orgies4 ,but for practical purposes the division is just1 although it must not be supposed that ,dakshincrins necessarily condemn the secret worship4 ,they may consider it as good for others but not for themselves4 ktists apparently would prefer to state the matter thus4 ,there are seven stages of religion4 ,first come ,vedic1 ,vishnuite and ivaite worship1 all three inferior1 and then ,dakshincra1 interpreted as meaning favourable worship1 that is favourable to the accomplishment of higher purposes1 because the worshipper now begins to understand the nature of ,dev1 the great goddess4 ,these four kinds of worship are all said to belong to pravritti or active life4 ,the other three1 considered to be higher1 require a special initiation and belong to nivritti1 the path of return in which passion and activity are suppressed4#gad ,and here is propounded the doctrine that passion can be destroyed and exhausted by passion1#gae that is to say that the impulses of eating1 drinking and sexual intercourse are best subjugated by indulging them4 ,the fifth stage1 in which this method is first adopted1 is called ,vmcra4#gaf ,in the sixth1 or ,siddhntcra1#gag the adept becomes more and more free from passion and prejudice and is finally able to enter ,kaulcra1 the highest stage of all4 ,a ,kaula is one who has passed beyond all sects and belongs to none1 since he has the knowledge of ,brahman4 ,possessing merely the form of man1 he moves about this earth for the salvation of the world and the instruction of men4#gah ,these are aspirations common to all ,indian religion4 ,the peculiarity of the ,tantras is to suppose that a ritual which is shocking to most ,hindus is an indispensable preliminary to their attainment4#gai ,its essential feature is known as pancatattva1 the five elements1 or pancamakra the five m's1 because they all begin with that letter1 namely1 madya1 mmsa1 matsya1 mudr1 and maithuna1 wine1 meat1 fish1 parched grain and copulation4 ,the celebration of this ritual takes place at midnight1 and is called cakra or circle4 ,the proceedings begin by the devotees seating themselves in a circle and are said to terminate in an indiscriminate orgy4 ,it is only fair to say that some ,tantras inveigh against drunkenness and authorize only moderate drinking4#gbj ,in all cases it is essential that the wine1 flesh1 etc41 should be formally dedicated to the goddess3 without this preliminary indulgence in these pleasures is sinful4 ,indeed it may be said that apart from the ceremonial which they inculcate1 the general principles of the ,tantras breathe a liberal and intelligent spirit4 ,caste restrictions are minimized3 travelling is permitted4 ,women are honoured3 they can act as teachers3 the burning of widows is forbidden3#gba girl widows may remarry#gbb and the murder of a woman is peculiarly heinous4 ,prostitution is denounced4 ,whereas ,christianity is sometimes accused of restricting its higher code to ,church and ,sundays1 the opposite may be said of ,tantrism4 ,outside the temple its morality is excellent4 ,a work like the ,mahnirvna ,tantra presents a refined form of ktism modified1 so far as may be1 in conformity with ordinary ,hindu usage4#gbc ,but other features indubitably connect it with aboriginal cults4 ,for instance there is a legend which relates how the body of the akti was cut into pieces and scattered over ,assam and ,bengal4 ,this story has an uncouth and barbarous air and seems out of place even in ,puranic mythology4 ,it recalls the tales told of ,osiris1 ,orpheus and ,halfdan the ,black#gbd and may be ultimately traceable to the idea that the dismemberment of a deity or a human representative ensures fertility4 ,until recently the ,khonds of ,bengal used to hack human victims in pieces as a sacrifice to the ,earth ,goddess and throw the shreds of flesh on the fields to secure a good harvest4#gbe ,in ,sanskrit literature ,i have not found any authority for the dismemberment of ,sat earlier than the ,tantras or ,upapurnas 7e4g4 ,klik71 but this late appearance does not mean that the legend is late in itself but merely that it was not countenanced by ,sanskrit writers until medieval times4 ,various reasons for the dismemberment are given and the incident is rather awkwardly tacked on to other stories4 ,one common version relates that when ,sat 7one of the many forms of akti7 died of vexation because her husband iva was insulted by her father ,daksha1 iva took up her corpse and wandered distractedly carrying it on his shoulder4#gbf ,in order to stop this penance ,vishnu followed him and cut off pieces from the corpse with his quoit until the whole had fallen to earth in fifty-one pieces4 ,the spots where these pieces touched the ground are held sacred and called pths4 ,at most of them are shown a rock supposed to represent some portion of the goddess's body and some object called a bhairabi1 left by iva as a guardian to protect her and often taking the form of a lingam4 ,the most important of these pths are ,kmkhy near ,gauhati1 ,faljur in the ,jaintia ,parganas1 and ,kalighat in ,calcutta4#gbg ,though the akti of iva is theoretically one1 yet since she assumes many forms she becomes in practice many deities or rather she is many deities combined in one or sometimes a sovereign attended by a retinue of similar female spirits4 ,among such forms we find the ten ,mahvidys1 or personifications of her supernatural knowledge2 the ,mahmtris1 ,mtriks or the ,great ,mothers1 allied to the aboriginal goddesses already mentioned2 the ,nyakas or mistresses2 the ,yogins or sorceresses1 and fiends called ,dkins4 ,but the most popular of her manifestations are ,durg and ,kl4 ,the sects which revere these goddesses are the most important religious bodies in ,bengal1 where they number thirty-five million adherents4 ,the ,durgpja is the greatest festival of the year in north-eastern ,india#gbh and in the temple of ,kalighat at ,calcutta may be seen the singular spectacle of educated ,hindus decapitating goats before the image of ,kl4 ,it is a black female figure with gaping mouth and protruded tongue dancing on a prostrate body1#gbi and adorned with skulls and horrid emblems of destruction4 ,of her four hands two carry a sword and a severed head but the other two are extended to give blessing and protection to her worshippers4 ,so great is the crowd of enthusiastic suppliants that it is often hard to approach the shrine and the nationalist party in ,bengal who clamour for parliamentary institutions are among the goddess's devotees4 ,it is easy to criticize and condemn this worship4 ,its outward signs are repulsive to ,europeans and its inner meaning strange1 for even those who pray to the ,madonna are startled by the idea that the divine nature is essentially feminine4#gcj ,yet this idea has deep roots in the heart of ,bengal and with it another idea3 the terrors of death1 plague and storm are half but only half revelations of the goddess-mother who can be smiling and tender as well4 ,whatever may be the origin of ,kl and of the strange images which represent her1 she is now no she-devil who needs to be propitiated1 but a reminder that birth and death are twins1 that the horrors of the world come from the same source as its grace and beauty and that cheerful acceptance of the deity's terrible manifestations is an essential part of the higher spiritual life4#gca ,these ideas are best expressed in the songs of ,rma ,prasda ,sen 7#agah-agge7 which still reign supreme in the villages of ,bengal and show that this strange worship has really a hold on millions of ,indian rustics4#gcb ,the directness and childlike simplicity of his poems have caused an ,indian critic to compare him to ,blake4 ,though the mother beat the child1 he sings1 the child cries mother1 mother1 and clings still tighter to her garment4 ,true1 ,i cannot see thee1 yet ,i am not a lost child4 ,i still cry mother1 mother4 ,all the miseries that ,i have suffered and am suffering1 ,i know1 ,o mother1 to be your mercy alone4 ,i must confess that ,i cannot fully sympathize with this worship1 even when it is sung in the hymns of ,rma ,prasda1 but it is clear that he makes it tolerable just because he throws aside all the magic and ritual of the ,tantras and deals straight with what are for him elemental and emotional facts4 ,he makes even sceptics feel that he has really seen ,god in this strange guise4 ,the chief sanctuary of ktism is at ,kmkhy 7or ,kmksh7 on a hill which stands on the banks of the ,brahmaputra1 about two miles below ,gauhati4 ,it is mentioned in the ,padma ,purna4 ,the temples have been rebuilt several times1 and in the eighteenth century were munificently endowed by an ,ahom king1 and placed under the management of a ,brahman from ,nadia in ,bengal1 with reversion to his descendants who bear the title of ,parbatiya ,gosains4 ,considerable estates are still assigned to their upkeep4 ,there are ten#gcc shrines on the hill dedicated to various forms of the akti4 ,the situation is magnificent1 commanding an extensive prospect over the ,brahmaputra and the plains on either bank1 but none of the buildings are of much architectural merit4 ,the largest and best is the temple dedicated to ,kmkhy herself1 the goddess of sexual desire4 ,it is of the style usual in northern ,india1 an unlighted shrine surmounted by a dome1 and approached by a rather ample vestibule1 which is also imperfectly lighted4 ,an inscription has been preserved recording the restoration of the temple about #aeej but only the present basement dates from that time1 most of the super-structure being recent4 ,europeans may not enter but an image of the goddess can be seen from a side door4 ,in the depths of the shrine is said to be a cleft in the rock1 adored as the ,yoni of akti4 ,in front of the temple are two posts to which a goat is tied1 and decapitated daily at noon4 ,below the principal shrine is the temple of ,bhairav4 ,human sacrifices were offered here in comparatively recent times1 and it is not denied that they would be offered now if the law allowed4 ,also it is not denied that the rites of the five m's already mentioned are frequently performed in these temples1 and that ,aghoris may be found in them4 ,the spot attracts a considerable number of pilgrims from ,bengal1 and a wealthy devotee has built a villa on the hill and pays visits to it for the purpose of taking part in the rites4 ,i was informed that the most esteemed scriptures of the sect are the ,yogin ,tantra1 the ,mahnirvna ,tantra1 and the ,klik ,purna4 ,this last work contains a section or chapter on blood1#gcd which gives rules for the performance of human sacrifices4 ,it states however that they should not be performed by the first three castes1 which is perhaps a way of saying that though they may be performed by non-,aryans under ,brahmanic auspices they form no part of the ,aryan religion4 ,but they are recommended to princes and ministers and should not be performed without the consent of princes4 ,the ritual bears little resemblance to the ,vedic sacrifices and the essence of the ceremony is the presentation to the goddess of the victim's severed head in a vessel of gold1 silver1 copper1 brass or wood but not of iron4 ,the axe with which the decapitation is to be performed is solemnly consecrated to ,kl and the victim is worshipped before immolation4 ,the sacrificer first thinks of ,brahm and the other gods as being present in the victim's body1 and then prays to him directly as being all the gods in one4 ,when this has been done says iva1 who is represented as himself revealing these rules1 the victim is even as myself4 ,this identification of the human victim with the god has many analogies elsewhere1 particularly among the ,khonds4#gce ,it is remarkable that this barbarous and immoral worship1 though looked at askance except in its own holy places1 is by no means confined to the lower castes4 ,a series of apologies composed in excellent ,english 7but sometimes anonymous7 attest the sympathy of the educated4 ,so far as theology and metaphysics are concerned1 these defences are plausible4 ,the akti is identified with ,prakriti or with the ,my of the ,advaita philosophy and defined as the energy1 coexistent with ,brahman1 which creates the world4 ,but attempts to palliate the ceremonial1 such as the argument that it is a consecration and limitation of the appetites because they may be gratified only in the service of the goddess1 are not convincing4 ,nor do the ktas1 when able to profess their faith openly1 deny the nature of their rites or the importance attached to them4 ,an oft-quoted tantric verse represents iva as saying ,maithunena mahyog mama tulyo na samayah4 ,and for practical purposes that is the gist of ktist teaching4 ,the temples of ,kmkhy leave a disagreeable impression--an impression of dark evil haunts of lust and bloodshed1 akin to madness and unrelieved by any grace or vigour of art4 ,for there is no attempt in them to represent the terrible or voluptuous aspects of ,hinduism1 such as find expression in sculpture elsewhere4 ,all the buildings1 and especially the modern temple of ,kl1 which was in process of construction when ,i saw the place1 testify to the atrophy and paralysis produced by erotic forms of religion in the artistic and intellectual spheres1 a phenomenon which finds another sad illustration in quite different theological surroundings among the ,vallabhcrya sect at ,gokul near ,muttra4 ,it would be a poor service to ,india to palliate the evils and extravagances of ktism1 but still it must be made clear that it is not a mere survival of barbaric practices4 ,the writers of the ,tantras are good ,hindus and declare that their object is to teach liberation and union with the ,supreme ,spirit4 ,the ecstasies induced by tantric rites produce this here in a preliminary form to be made perfect in the liberated soul4 ,this is not the craze of a few hysterical devotees1 but the faith of millions among whom many are well educated4 ,in some aspects ktism is similar to the erotic ,vishnuite sects1 but there is little real analogy in their ways of thinking4 ,for the essence of ,vishnuism is passionate devotion and self-surrender to a deity and this idea is not prominent in the ,tantras4 ,the strange inconsistencies of ktism are of the kind which are characteristic of ,hinduism as a whole1 but the contrasts are more violent and the monstrosities more conspicuous than elsewhere2 wild legends and metaphysics are mixed together1 and the peace that passes all understanding is to be obtained by orgies and offerings of blood4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #fhj3 ,see also chap4 ,,xxiv4 as to ktism and ,tantrism in ,buddhism4 ,copious materials for the study of ktism and ,tantrism are being made available in the series of tantric texts edited in ,sanskrit and ,tibetan1 and in some cases translated by the author who uses the pseudonym ,a4 ,avalon4 ,footnote #fha3 ,see ,annales du ,muse ,guimet1 ,tome ,,viii4 ,si-,do-,in-,dzon4 ,gestes de l'officiant dans les crmonies mystiques des sectes ,tendai et ,singon1 #ahii4 ,footnote #fhb3 ,see ,underhill1 ,mysticism1 chaps4 ,,vi4 and ,,vii4 ,footnote #fhc3 ,see ,dhalla1 ,zoroastrian ,theology1 p4 #aaf4 ,footnote #fhd3 ,specially ,ath4 ,veda1 ,,xii4 #a4 ,footnote #fhe3 ,village deities in south ,india at the present day are usually female4 ,see ,whitehead1 ,village ,gods1 p4 #ba4 ,footnote #fhf3 ,thus ,cnd is considered as identical with the wood goddess ,bsul1 worshipped in the jungles of ,bengal and ,orissa4 ,see ,j4,a4 #ahgc1 p4 #ahg4 ,footnote #fhg3 ,vaj4 ,sanh4 #c4 #eg and ,taittir4 ,br4 ,i4 #f4 #aj4 #d4 ,footnote #fhh3 ,crooke1 ,popular ,religion of ,northern ,india1 ,i4 #fc4 ,monier ,williams1 ,brahm4 and ,hinduism1 p4 #eg gives an interesting account of the shrine of ,kl at ,vindhycal said to have been formerly frequented by ,thugs4 ,footnote #fhi3 ,this idea that deities have different aspects in which they practically become different persons is very prevalent in ,tibetan mythology which is borrowed from medieval ,bengal4 ,footnote #fij3 ,though there are great temples erected to goddesses in ,s4 ,india1 there are also some signs of hostility to ktism4 ,see the curious legends about an attendant of iva called ,bhringi who would not worship ,prvat4 ,hultzsch1 ,south ,indian ,inscriptions1 ,,ii4 ii4 p4 #aij4 ,footnote #fia3 ,there is a curious tendency in ,india to regard the male principle as quiescent1 the female as active and stimulating4 ,the ,chinese1 who are equally fond of using these two principles in their cosmological speculations1 adopt the opposite view4 ,the ,yang 7male7 is positive and active4 ,the ,yin 7female7 is negative and passive4 ,footnote #fib3 ,the ,mahnirvna ,tantra seems to have been composed in ,bengal since it recommends for sacrificial purposes 7,,vi4 #g7 three kinds of fish said to be characteristic of that region4 ,on the other hand ,buddhist works called ,tantras are said to have been composed in north-western ,india4 ,udyna had an old reputation for magic and even in modern times ktism exists in western ,tibet and ,leh4 ,it is highly probable that in all these districts the practice of magic and the worship of mountain goddesses were prevalent1 but ,i find little evidence that a definite kta sect arose elsewhere than in ,bengal and ,assam or that the ktist corruption of ,buddhism prevailed elsewhere than in ,magadha and ,bengal4 ,footnote #fic3 ,but the ,brahmans of isolated localities1 like ,satara in the ,bombay ,presidency1 are said to be ktas and the ,knculiyas of ,s4 ,india are described as a ktist sect4 ,footnote #fid3 ,the law-giver ,baudhyana seems to have regarded ,anga and ,vanga with suspicion1 ,i4 #a4ac1 #ad4 ,footnote #fie3 ,see especially the story of ,manas ,devi in ,dinesh ,chandra ,sen 7,beng4 ,lang4 and ,lit4 #beg71 who says the earliest literary version dates from the twelfth century4 ,but doubtless the story is much older4 ,footnote #fif3 ,virtap4 chap4 ,,vi4 7not in all ,,mss474 ,bhishmap4 chap4 ,,xxiii4 ,also in the ,harivamsa1 vv4 #cbcf ff4 ,pargiter considers that the ,dev-,mhtmya was probably composed in the fifth or sixth century4 ,chap4 ,,xxi4 of the ,lotus ,stra contains a spell invoking a goddess under many names4 ,though this chapter is an addition to the original work1 it was translated into ,chinese between #bfe and #caf4 ,footnote #fig3 ,but he does mention the worship of the ,divine ,mothers4 ,harshacar4 ,,vii4 #bej and ,kdamb4 #acd4 ,footnote #fih3 ,hymns to the ,dev are also attributed to him but ,i do not know what evidence there is for his authorship4 ,footnote #fii3 ,as pointed out elsewhere1 though this word is most commonly used of the kta scriptures it is not restricted to them and we hear of both ,buddhist and ,vaishnava ,tantras4 ,footnote #gjj3 ,the ,adhytma ,rmyana is an instance of ktist ideas in another theological setting4 ,it is a ,vishnuite work but ,sit is made to say that she is ,prakriti who does all the deeds related in the poem1 whereas ,rma is ,purusha1 inactive and a witness of her deeds4 ,footnote #gja3 ,,xi4 iii4 #dg-h2 ,,xi4 ,v4 #bh and #ca4 ,probably ,vishnuite not ktist ,tantras are meant but the ,purana distinguishes between ,vedic revelation meant for previous ages and tantric revelation meant for the present day4 ,so too ,kullka ,bhatta the commentator on ,manu who was a ,bengali and probably lived in the fifteenth century says 7on ,manu ,,ii4 i47 that ruti is twofold1 ,vedic and tantric4 rutisca dvividh vaidik tntrikca4 ,footnote #gjb3 ,,ii4 #ae4 ,footnote #gjc3 ,see for full list ,avalon1 ,principles of ,tantra1 pp4 lxv-lxvii4 ,a collection of thirty-seven ,tantras has been published at ,calcutta by ,babu ,rasik ,mohun ,chatterjee and a few have been published separately4 ,footnote #gjd3 ,translated by ,avalon1 #aiac1 also by ,manmatha ,nath ,dutt1 #aijj4 ,footnote #gje3 ,analysed in ,j4,a4,o4,s4 ,,xxiii4 i4 #aijb4 ,footnote #gjf3 ,edited by ,trantha ,vidyratna1 with introduction by ,a4 ,avalon1 #aiag4 ,footnote #gjg3 ,see ,avalon1 ,principles of ,tantra1 p4 lxi4 ,but these are probably special meanings attached to the words by tantric schools4 ,nigama is found pretty frequently1 e4g4 ,manu1 ,,iv4 #ai and ,lalita-vistara1 ,,xii4 ,but it is not likely that it is used there in this special sense4 ,footnote #gjh3 ,edited by ,avalon1 #aiad4 ,footnote #gji3 ,satirical descriptions of ktism are fairly ancient1 e4g4 ,karpura ,majar1 ,harvard edition1 pp4 #be and #bcc4 ,footnote #gaj3 ,tantrism has some analogy to the ,fng-shui or geomancy of the ,chinese4 ,both take ancient superstitions which seem incompatible with science and systematize them into pseudo-sciences1 remaining blind to the fact that the subject-matter is wholly imaginary4 ,footnote #gaa3 ,for what follows as for much else in this chapter1 ,i am indebted to ,avalon's translation of the ,mahnirvna ,tantra and introduction4 ,footnote #gab3 ,pau-1 vra-1 divya-bhva4 ,footnote #gac3 ,avalon1 ,mahn4 ,tan4 pp4 lxxix1 lxxx4 ,footnote #gad3 ,the eternal rhythm of ,divine ,breath is outwards from spirit to matter and inwards from matter to spirit4 ,dev as ,my evolves the world4 ,as ,mahmy she recalls it to herself4444 ,each of these movements is divine4 ,enjoyment and liberation are each her gifts4 ,avalon1 ,mahn4 ,tan4 p4 cxl4 ,footnote #gae3 ,yair eva patanam dravyaih siddhis tair eva codit--,kulrnava ,tantra1 ,v4 #dh4 ,there is probably something similar in ,taoism4 ,see ,wieger1 ,histoire des ,croyances religieuses en ,chine1 p4 #dji4 ,the ,indian ,tantrists were aware of the dangers of their system and said it was as difficult as walking on the edge of a sword or holding a tiger4 ,footnote #gaf3 ,vmcra is said not to mean left-hand worship but woman 7vm7 worship4 ,this interpretation of ,dakshina and ,vmcra is probably fanciful4 ,footnote #gag3 ,sometimes two extra stages ,aghora and ,yogcra are inserted here4 ,footnote #gah3 ,mahn4 ,tan4 ,x4 #ajh4 ,a ,kaula may pretend to be a ,vaishnava or a aiva4 ,footnote #gai3 ,although the ,tantras occasionally say that mere ritual is not sufficient for the highest religions1 yet indispensable preliminary is often understood as meaning sure means4 ,thus the ,mahnirvna ,tantra 7,x4 #bjb1 ,avalon's transl47 says ,those who worship the ,kaulas with panca tattva and with heart uplifted1 cause the salvation of their ancestors and themselves attain the highest end4 ,footnote #gbj3 ,but on the other hand some ,tantras or tantric treatises recommend crazy abominations4 ,footnote #gba3 ,mahnir4 ,tant4 ,x4 #gi4 ,bhartr saha kuleni na dahet kulakminim4 ,footnote #gbb3 ,ib4 ,,xi4 #fg4 ,footnote #gbc3 ,e4g4 ,it does not prescribe human sacrifices and counsels moderation in the use of wine and maithuna4 ,footnote #gbd3 ,see ,frazer's ,adonis1 ,attis and ,osiris1 pp4 #bfi-bgc for these and other stories of dismemberment4 ,footnote #gbe3 ,see ,frazer1 ,golden ,bough3 ,spirits of the ,corn1 vol4 ,i4 #bde and authorities quoted4 ,footnote #gbf3 ,images representing this are common in ,assam4 ,footnote #gbg3 ,hsan ,chuang 7,walters1 vol4 ,i4 chap4 ,,vii7 mentions several sacred places in ,n4,w4 ,india where the ,buddha in a previous birth was dismembered or gave his flesh to feed mankind4 ,can these places have been similar to the pths of ,assam and were the original heroes of the legend deities who were dismembered like ,sat and subsequently accommodated to ,buddhist theology as ,bodhisattvas8 ,footnote #gbh3 ,it is an autumnal festival4 ,a special image of the goddess is made which is worshipped for nine days and then thrown into the river4 ,for an account of the festival which makes its tantric character very clear see ,durg ,puja by ,pratapachandra ,ghosha1 ,calcutta1 #ahga4 ,footnote #gbi3 ,one explanation given is that she was so elated with her victories over giants that she began to dance which shook the ,universe4 iva in order to save the world placed himself beneath her feet and when she saw she was trampling on her husband1 she stopped4 ,but there are other explanations4 ,another of the strangely barbaric legends which cluster round the akti is illustrated by the figure called ,chinnamastak4 ,it represents the goddess as carrying her own head which she has just cut off1 while from the neck spout fountains of blood which are drunk by her attendants and by the severed head itself4 ,footnote #gcj3 ,yet the ,english mystic ,julian1 the anchoress of ,norwich 7c4 #adjj71 insists on the motherhood as well as the fatherhood of ,god4 ,god is our mother1 brother and ,saviour4 ,as verily ,god is our father1 so verily ,god is our mother4 ,so too in an inscription found at ,capua 7,c4,i4,n4 #cehj7 ,isis is addressed as una quae es omnia4 ,the ,power addressed in ,swinburne's poems ,mater ,triumphalis1 ,hertha1 ,the ,pilgrims and ,dolores is really a conception very similar to akti4 ,footnote #gca3 ,these ideas find frequent expression in the works of ,bunkim ,chandra ,chatterjee1 ,dinesh ,chandra ,sen and ,sister ,nivedita4 ,footnote #gcb3 ,see ,dinesh ,chandra ,sen1 ,hist4 ,beng4 ,lang1 and ,lit4 pp4 #gab-gba4 ,even the iconoclast ,devendranath ,tagore speaks of the ,universal ,mother4 ,see ,autobiog4 p4 #bdj4 ,footnote #gcc3 ,so ,i was told1 but ,i saw only six1 when ,i visited the place in #aiaj4 ,footnote #gcd3 ,rudhirdhyya4 ,translated in ,as4 ,researches1 ,v4 #agih1 pp4 #cga-cia4 ,footnote #gce3 ,see ,frazer1 op4 cit4 p4 #bdf4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii ,,hindu ,,philosophy ,philosophy is more closely connected with religion in ,india than in ,europe4 ,it is not a dispassionate scientific investigation but a practical religious quest4 ,even the ,nyya school1 which is concerned chiefly with formal logic1 promises that by the removal of false knowledge it can emancipate the soul and give the bliss of salvation4 ,nor are the expressions system or school of philosophy1 commonly used to render darana1 altogether happy4 ,the word is derived from the root dri1 to see1 and means a way of looking at things4 ,as such a way of looking is supposed to be both comprehensive and orderly1 it is more or less what we call philosophical1 but the points of view are so special and so various that the result is not always what we call a philosophical system4 ,mdhava's#gcf list of ,daranas includes ,buddhism and ,jainism1 which are commonly regarded as separate religions1 as well as the ,pupata and aiva1 which are sects of ,hinduism4 ,the ,darana of ,jaimini is merely a discussion of general questions relating to sacrifices3 the ,nyya ,darana examines logic and rhetoric3 the ,pniniya ,darana treats of grammar and the nature of language1 but claims that it ought to be studied as the means for attaining the chief end of man4#gcg ,six of the ,daranas have received special prominence and are often called the six ,orthodox ,schools4 ,they are the ,nyya and ,vaieshika1 ,snkhya and ,yoga1 ,prva and ,uttara ,mmms1 or ,vednta4 ,the rest are either comparatively unimportant or are more conveniently treated of as religious sects4 ,the six placed on the select list are sufficiently miscellaneous and one wonders what principle of classification can have brought them together4 ,the first two have little connection with religion1 though they put forward the emancipation of the soul as their object1 and ,i have no space to discuss them4 ,they are however important as showing that realism has a place in ,indian thought in spite of its marked tendency to idealism4#gch ,they are concerned chiefly with an examination of human faculties and the objects of knowledge1 and are related to one another4 ,the special doctrine of the ,vaieshika is the theory of atoms ascribed to ,kanda4 ,it teaches that matter consists of atoms 7anu7 which are eternal in themselves though all combinations of them are liable to decompose4 ,the ,snkhya and ,yoga are also related and represent two aspects of the same system which is of great antiquity and allied to ,buddhism and ,jainism4 ,the two ,mmmss are consecutive expositions of the teaching scattered throughout the ,vedic texts respecting ceremonial and the knowledge of ,god respectively4 ,the second ,mmms1 commonly called the ,vednta1 is by far the more interesting and important4 ,the common feature in these six systems which constitutes their orthodoxy is that they all admit the authority of the ,veda4 ,this implies more than our phrases revelation or inspiration of the ,bible4 ,most of the ,daranas attach importance to the pramnas1 sources or standards of knowledge4 ,they are variously enumerated1 but one of the oldest definitions makes them three3 perception 7pratyaksha71 inference 7anumna7 and scripture 7abda74 ,the ,veda is thus formally acknowledged to have the same authority as the evidence of the senses4 ,with this is generally coupled the doctrine that it is eternal4 ,it was not composed by human authors1 but is a body of sound existing from eternity as part of ,brahman and breathed out by him when he causes the whole creation to evolve at the beginning of a world period4 ,the reputed authors are simply those who have1 in ,indian language1 seen portions of this self-existent teaching4 ,this doctrine sounds more reasonable if restated in the form that words are the expression of thought1 and that if thought is the eternal essence of both ,brahman and the soul1 a similar eternity may attach to words4 ,some such idea is the origin of the ,christian doctrine of the ,logos1 and in many religions we find such notions as that words have a creative efficacy1#gci or that he who knows the name of a thing has power over it4 ,among ,mohammedans the ,koran is supposed to be not merely an inspired composition but a pre-existing book1 revealed to ,mohammed piecemeal4 ,it is curious that both the sacred texts--the ,veda and the ,koran--to which this supernatural position is ascribed should be collections of obviously human1 incongruous1 and often insignificant documents connected with particular occasions1 and in no way suggesting or claiming that they are anterior to the ordinary life of man on earth4 ,it is still more extraordinary that systems of philosophy should profess to base themselves on such works4 ,but in reality ,hindu metaphysicians are not more bound by the past than their colleagues in other lands4 ,they do not take scripture and ask what it means1 but evolve their own systems and state that they are in accordance with it4 ,sometimes scripture is ignored in the details of argument4 ,more often the metaphysician writes a commentary on it and boldly proves that it supports his views1 though its apparent meaning may be hostile4 ,it is clear that many philosophic commentaries have been written not because the authors really drew their inspiration from the ,upanishads or ,bhagavad-gt but because they dared not neglect such important texts4 ,all the ,vedntist schools labour to prove that they are in harmony not only with the ,upanishads but with the ,brahma-stras4 ,the philosophers of the ,snkhya are more detached from literature but though they ignore the existence of the deity1 they acknowledge the ,veda as a source of knowledge4 ,their recognition1 however1 has the air of a concession to ,brahmanic sentiment4 ,isolated theories of the ,snkhya can be supported by isolated passages of the ,upanishads1 but no impartial critic can maintain that the general doctrines of the two are compatible4 ,that the ,brahmans should have been willing to admit the ,snkhya as a possible form of orthodoxy is a testimony both to its importance and to their liberality4 ,it is remarkable that the test of orthodoxy should have been the acceptance of the authority of the ,veda and not a confession of some sort of theism4 ,but on this the ,brahmans did not insist4 ,the ,vednta is truly and intensely pantheistic or theistic1 but in the other philosophies the ,supreme ,being is either eliminated or plays a small part4 ,thus while works which seem to be merely scientific treatises 7like the ,nyya7 set before themselves a religious object1 other treatises1 seemingly religious in scope1 ignore the deity4 ,there is a strong and ancient line of thought in ,india which1 basing itself on the doctrine of ,karma1 or the inevitable consequences of the deed once done1 lays stress on the efficacy of ceremonies or of asceticism or of knowledge without reference to a ,supreme ,being because1 if he exists1 he does not interfere with the workings of ,karma1 or with the power of knowledge to release from them4 ,even the ,vednta1 although in a way the quintessence of ,indian orthodoxy1 is not a scholastic philosophy designed to support recognized dogma and ritual4 ,it is rather the orthodox method of soaring above these things4 ,it contemplates from a higher level the life of religious observances 7which is the subject of the ,prva ,mmms7 and recognizes its value as a preliminary1 but yet rejects it as inadequate4 ,the ,sannysi or adept follows no caste observances1 performs no sacrifices1 reads no scriptures4 ,his religion is to realize in meditation the true nature1 and it may be the identity1 of the soul and ,god4 ,good works are of no more importance for him than rites1 though he does well to employ his time in teaching4 ,but ,karma has ceased to exist for him3 the acts of a ,yogi are neither black nor white1 they have no moral quality nor consequences4 ,this is dangerous language and the doctrine has sometimes been abused4 ,but the point of the teaching is not that a ,sannysi may do what he likes but that he is perfectly emancipated from material bondage4 ,most men are bound by their deeds2 every new act brings consequences which attach the doer to the world of transmigration and create for him new existences4 ,but the deeds of the man who is really free have no such trammelling effects1 for they are not prompted by desire nor directed to an object4 ,but since to become free he must have suppressed all desire1 it is hardly conceivable that he should do anything which could be called a sin4 ,but this conviction that the task of the sage is not to perfect any form of good conduct but to rise above both good and evil1 imparts to the ,daranas and even to the ,upanishads a singularly non-ethical and detached tone4 ,the ,yogi does no harm but he has less benevolence and active sympathy than the ,buddhist monk4 ,it was a feeling that such an attitude has its dangers and is only for the few who have fought their way to the heights where it can safely be adopted1 that led the ,brahmans in all ages to lay stress on the householder's life as the proper preparation for a philosophic old age4 ,despite utterances to the contrary1 they never as a body approved the ideal of a life entirely devoted to asceticism and not occupied with social duties during one period4 ,the extraordinary ease with which the higher phases of ,indian thought shake off all formalities1 social1 religious and ethical1 was counterbalanced by the multitudinous regulations devised to keep the majority in a law-abiding life4 ,none of the six ,daranas concern themselves with ethics4 ,the more important deal with the transcendental progress of sages who have avowedly abandoned the life of works1 and even those which treat of that lower life are occupied with ritual and logic rather than with anything which can be termed moral science4 ,we must not infer that ,indian literature is altogether unmoral4 ,the doctrine of ,karma is intensely ethical and ethical discussions are more prominent in the ,epics than in ,homer1 besides being the subject of much gnomic and didactic poetry4 ,but there is no mistaking the fact that the ,hindu seeks for salvation by knowledge4 ,he feels the power of deeds1 but it is only the lower happiness which lies in doing good works and enjoying their fruits4 ,the higher bliss consists in being entirely free from the bondage of deeds and ,karma4 ,all the ,daranas have as a common principle this idea of ,karma with the attendant doctrines that rebirth is a consequence of action and that salvation is an escape from rebirth4 ,they all treat more or less of the sources and standards of knowledge1 and all recognize the ,veda as one of them4 ,there is not much more that can be said of them all in common1 for the ,vednta ignores matter and the ,snkhya ignores ,god1 but they all share a conviction which presents difficulties to ,europeans4 ,it is that the state in which the mind ceases to think discursively and is concentrated on itself is not only desirable but the summum bonum4 ,the ,european is inclined to say that such a state is distinguished from non-existence only by not being permanent4 ,but the ,hindu will have none of this4 ,he holds that mind and thought are material though composed of the subtlest matter1 and that when thought ceases1 the immaterial soul 7purusha or tman7 far from being practically non-existent is more truly existent than before and enjoys untroubled its own existence and its own nature4 ,of the three most important systems1 the ,snkhya1 ,yoga and ,vednta1 the first and last are on most points opposed3 both are ancient1 but perhaps the products of different intellectual centres4 ,in one sense the ,yoga may be described as a theistic modification of the ,snkhya3 from another and perhaps juster point of view it appears rather as a very ancient science of asceticism and contemplation1 susceptible of combination with various metaphysical theories4 #b ,we may consider first of all the ,snkhya4#gdj ,tradition ascribes its invention to ,kapila1 but he is a mere name unconnected with any date or other circumstance4 ,it is probable that the principal ideas of the ,snkhya germinated several centuries before our era but we have no evidence whatever as to when they were first formulated in ,stras4 ,the name was current as the designation of a philosophical system fairly early#gda but the accepted text-books are all late4 ,the most respected is the ,snkhya-pravacana1#gdb attributed to ,kapila but generally assigned by ,european critics to the fourteenth century ,a4,d4 ,considerably more ancient1 but still clearly a metrical epitome of a system already existing1 is the ,snkhya-,krik1 a poem of seventy verses which was translated into ,chinese about #efj ,a4,d4 and may be a few centuries older4 ,max ,mller regarded the ,tattva-samsa1 a short tract consisting chiefly of an enumeration of topics1 as the most ancient ,snkhya formulary1 but the opinion of scholars as to its age is not unanimous4 ,the name ,snkhya is best interpreted as signifying enumeration in allusion to the predilection of the school for numbered lists1 a predilection equally noticeable in early ,buddhism4 ,the object of the system set forth in these works is strictly practical4 ,in the first words of the ,snkhya-pravacana1 the complete cessation of suffering is the end of man1 and the ,snkhya is devised to enable him to attain it4 ,another formula divides the contents of the ,snkhya into four topics--7a7 that from which man must liberate himself1 or suffering1 7b7 liberation1 or the cessation of suffering1 7c7 the cause of suffering1 or the failure to discriminate between the soul and matter1 7d7 the means of liberation1 or discriminating knowledge4 ,this division obviously resembles the four ,truths of ,buddhism4 ,the object proposed is the same and the method analogous1 though not identical1 for ,buddhism speaks as a religion and lays greater stress on conduct4 ,the theory of the ,snkhya1 briefly stated1 is this4 ,there exist1 uncreated and from all eternity1 on the one side matter and on the other individual souls4 ,the world1 as we know it1 is due entirely to the evolution of matter4 ,suffering is the result of souls being in bondage to matter1 but this bondage does not affect the nature of the soul and in one sense is not real1 for when souls acquire discriminating knowledge and see that they are not matter1 then the bondage ceases and they attain to eternal peace4 ,the system is thus founded on dualism1 the eternal antithesis between matter and soul4 ,many of its details are comprised in the simple enumeration of the twenty-five ,tattvas or principles#gdc as given in the ,tattva-samsa and other works4 ,of these1 one is ,purusha1 the soul or self1 which is neither produced nor productive1 and the other twenty-four are all modifications of ,prakriti or matter1 which is unproduced but productive4 ,prakriti means the original ground form of external existence 7as distinguished from ,vikriti1 modified form74 ,it is uncreated and indestructible1 but it has a tendency to variation or evolution4 ,the ,snkhya holds in the strictest sense that ex nihilo nihil fit4 ,substance can only be produced from substance and properly speaking there is no such thing as origination but only manifestation4 ,causality is regarded solely from the point of view of material causes1 that is to say the cause of a pot is clay and not the action of the potter4 ,thus the effect or product is nothing else than the cause in another shape3 production is only manifestation and destruction is the resolution of a product into its cause4 ,instead of holding like the ,buddhists that there is no such thing as existence but only becoming1 the ,snkhya rather affirms that there is nothing but successive manifestations of real existence4 ,if clay is made into a pot and the pot is then broken and ground into clay again1 the essential fact is not that a pot has come into existence and disappeared but that the clay continuously existing has undergone certain changes4 ,the tendency to evolution inherent in matter is due to the three gunas4 ,they are sattva1 explained as goodness and happiness2 rajas1 as passion and movement2 and tamas1 as darkness1 heaviness and ignorance4 ,the word ,guna is not easy to translate1 for it seems to mean more than quality or mode and to signify the constituents of matter4 ,hence one cannot help feeling that the whole theory is an attempt to explain the unity and diversity of matter by a phrase1 but all ,hinduism is permeated by this phrase and theory4 ,when the three gunas are in equilibrium then matter--,prakriti--is quiescent1 undifferentiated and unmanifested4 ,but as soon as the equilibrium is disturbed and one of the gunas becomes preponderant1 then the process of differentiation and manifestation begins4 ,the disturbance of equilibrium is due to the action of the individual ,purushas or souls on ,prakriti1 but this action is mechanical and due to proximity not to the volition of the souls and may be compared to the attraction of a magnet for iron4#gdd ,thus at the beginning of the evolutionary process we have quiescent matter in equilibrium3 over against this are souls innumerable1 equally quiescent but exerting on matter a mechanical force4 ,this upsets the equilibrium and creates a movement which takes at first the form of development and later of decay and collapse4 ,then matter returns to its quiescent state to be again excited by the ,purushas and commence its world-making evolution anew4 ,the doctrine that evolution1 dissolution and quiescence succeed one another periodically is an integral part of the ,snkhya4#gde ,the unmodified ,prakriti stands first on the list of twenty-five principles4 ,when evolution begins it produces first ,buddhi or intellect1 secondly ,ahamkra1 which is perhaps best rendered by individuality1 and next the five ,tanmtras or subtle elements4 ,buddhi1 though meaning intellect1 is used rather in the sense of ascertaining or perception4 ,it is the faculty by which we distinguish objects and perceive what they are4 ,it differs also from our conception of intellect in being1 like ,ahamkra and all the subsequent developments of ,prakriti1 material1 and must not be confused with the immaterial ,purusha or soul4 ,it is in fact the organ of thought1 not in the sense of the brain or anything tangible1 but a subtle substratum of all mental processes4 ,but in what sense is it possible to say that this ,buddhi exists apart from individuals1 who have not come into being at this stage of cosmic evolution8 ,this difficulty is not met by talking1 as some commentators do1 of cosmic as well as individual ,buddhi1 for even if all ,prakriti is illuminated by ,buddhi at this stage it is difficult to see what result can occur4 ,to make the process of development coherent we must think of it not as a series of chronologically successive stages but rather as a logically connected series and an analysis of completely evolved beings1 just as we might say that bones are covered with flesh and flesh with skin1 without affirming that the bones have a separate and prior existence4 ,ahamkra1 which is1 like ,buddhi1 strictly speaking a physical organ1 means ,ego-maker and denotes the sense of personality and individuality1 almost the will4 ,in the language of ,indian philosophy it is the delusion or misconception which makes the soul imagine itself a personal agent and think1 ,i see1 ,i hear1 ,i slay1 ,i am slain1 whereas the soul is really incapable of action and the acts are those of ,prakriti4 ,the five subtle elements are the essences of sound1 touch1 colour1 savour and odour conceived as physical principles1 imperceptible to ordinary beings1 though gods and ,yogis can perceive them4 ,the name ,tanmtra which signifies that only indicates that they are concerned exclusively with one sense4 ,thus whereas the gross elements1 such as earth1 appeal to more than one sense and can be seen1 felt and smelt1 the subtle element of sound is restricted to the sense of hearing4 ,it exists in all things audible but has nothing to do with their tangibility or visibility4 ,there remain sixteen further modifications to make up the full list of twenty-four4 ,they are the five organs of sense1#gdf the five organs of action1#gdg ,manas or mind1 regarded as a sixth and central sense1 and also as the seat of will1 and the five gross elements--earth1 water1 light1 air and ether4 ,the ,snkhya distinguishes between the gross and the subtle body4 ,the latter1 called lingaarra1 is defined in more than one way1 but it is expressly stated in the ,kriks#gdh that it is composed of ,buddhi and the rest1 down to the subtle elements4 ,it practically corresponds to what we call the soul1 though totally distinct from ,purusha or soul in the ,snkhya sense4 ,it constitutes the character and essential being of a person4 ,it is the part which transmigrates from one gross body to another1 and is responsible for the acts committed in each existence4 ,its union with a gross body constitutes birth1 its departure death4 ,except in the case of those who attain emancipation1 its existence and transmigration last for a whole world-period at the end of which come quiescence and equilibrium4 ,in it are imprinted the ,samskras1#gdi the predispositions which pass on from one existence to another and are latent in the new-born mind like seeds in a field4 ,by following the evolution of matter we have now accounted for intellect1 individuality1 the senses1 the moral character1 will1 and a principle which survives death and transmigrates4 ,it might therefore be supposed that we have exhaustively analysed the constitution of a human being4 ,but that is not the view of the ,snkhya4 ,the evolution of ,buddhi1 ,ahamkra1 the subtle body and the gross body is a physical process and the result is also physical1 though parts of it are of so fine a substance that ordinary senses cannot perceive them4 ,this physical organism becomes a living being 7which term includes gods and animals7 when it is connected with a soul 7purusha7 and consciousness depends on this connection1 for neither is matter when isolated conscious1 nor is the soul1 at least not in our sense of the word4 ,though the soul is neither the life which ends at death 7for that is the gross body7 nor yet the life which passes from existence to existence 7for that is the subtle body7 yet it is the vitalizing element which renders life possible4 ,the ,snkhya like ,jainism regards souls as innumerable and distinct from one another4 ,the word ,purusha must have originally referred to the manikin supposed to inhabit the body1 and there is some reason to think that the earliest teachers of the ,snkhya held that it was infinitely small4 ,but in the existing text-books it is described as infinitely large4 ,it is immaterial and without beginning1 end1 parts1 dimensions1 or qualities1 incapable of change1 motion1 or action4 ,these definitions may be partly due to the influence of the ,vednta and1 though we know little about the historical development of the ,snkhya1 there are traces of a compromise between the old teaching of a soul held in bondage and struggling for release and later conceptions of a soul which1 being infinite and passionless1 hardly seems capable of submitting to bondage4 ,though the soul cannot be said to transmigrate1 to act1 or to suffer1 still through consciousness it makes the suffering of the world felt and though in its essence it remains eternally unchanged and unaffected1 yet it experiences the reflection of the suffering which goes on4 ,just as a crystal 7to use the ,indian simile7 allows a red flower to be seen through it and remains unchanged1 although it seems to become red1 so does the soul remain unchanged by sorrow or joy1 although the illusion that it suffers or rejoices may be present in the consciousness4 ,the task of the soul is to free itself from illusion1 and thus from bondage4 ,for strictly speaking the bondage does not exist3 it is caused by want of discrimination4 ,like the ,vednta1 the ,snkhya regards all this troubled life as being1 so far as the soul is concerned1 mere illusion4 ,but while the ,vednta bids the soul know its identity with ,brahman1 the ,snkhya bids it isolate itself and know that the acts and feelings which seem to be its own have really nothing to do with it4 ,they are for the soul nothing but a spectacle or play originating in its connection with ,prakriti1 and it is actually said1#gej ,wherefore no soul is bound1 or is liberated or transmigrates4 ,it is ,prakriti1 which has many bodily forms1 which is bound1 liberated and transmigrates4 ,it is in ,buddhi or intellect1 which is a manifestation of ,prakriti1 that the knowledge of the difference between the soul and ,prakriti must arise4 ,thus though the ,snkhya reposes on a fundamental dualism1 it is not the dualism of good and evil4 ,soul and matter differ not because the first is good and the second bad1 but because the first is unchangeable and the second constantly changing4 ,matter is often personified as a woman4 ,her motives are unselfish and she works for the liberation of the soul4 ,as a dancer after showing herself on the stage ceases to dance1 so does ,prakriti cease when she has made herself manifest to the soul4 ,that is to say1 when a soul once understands that it is distinct from the material world1 that world ceases to exist for that particular soul1 though of course the play continues for others4 ,generous ,prakriti1 endowed with ,gunas1 causes by manifold means without benefit to herself1 the benefit of the soul1 which is devoid of ,gunas and makes no return4#gea ,the condition of the liberated soul1 corresponding to the mokska and nirvna of other systems1 is described as ,kaivalya1 that is1 complete separation from the material world1 but1 as among ,buddhists and ,vedntists1 he who has learnt the truth is liberated even before death1 and can teach others4 ,he goes on living1 just as the wheel continues to revolve for some time after the potter has ceased to turn it4 ,after death1 complete liberation without the possibility of rebirth is attained4 ,the ,snkhya manuals do not dwell further on the character of this liberation3 we only know that the eternal soul is then completely isolated and aloof from all suffering and material things4 ,liberation is compared to profound sleep1 the difference being that in dreamless sleep there is a seed1 that is1 the possibility of return to ordinary life1 whereas when liberation is once attained there is no such return4 ,both in its account of the world process and in its scheme of salvation the ,snkhya ignores theism in the same way as did the ,buddha4 ,indeed the text-books go beyond this and practically deny the existence of a personal supreme deity4 ,we are told#geb that the existence of ,god cannot be proved1 for whatever exists must be either bound or free and ,god can be neither4 ,we cannot think of him as bound and yet he cannot be free like an emancipated soul1 for freedom implies the absence of desire and hence of the impulse to create4 ,similarly#gec the consequences of good and evil deeds are due to ,karma and not to the government of ,god4 ,such a ruler is inconceivable1 for if he governs the world according to the action of ,karma his existence is superfluous1 and if he is affected by selfish motives or desire1 then he cannot be free4 ,it is true that these passages speak of there being no proof of ,god's existence and hence commentators both ,indian and ,european who shrink from atheism represent the ,snkhya as suspending judgment4 ,but if a republican constitution duly describes the ,president and other authorities in whom the powers of government are vested1 can we argue that it is not unmonarchical because it does not expressly say there is no king8 ,in the ,snkhya there is no more place for a deity than for a king in a republican constitution4 ,moreover1 the ,stras endeavour to prove that the idea of ,god is inconceivable and self-contradictory and some commentaries speak plainly on this subject4#ged ,thus the ,snkhya-tattva-kaumudi commenting on ,krik #eg argues that the world cannot have been created by ,god1 whether we suppose him to have been impelled by selfishness or kindness4 ,for if ,god is perfect he can have no need to create a world4 ,and if his motive is kindness1 is it reasonable to call into existence beings who while non-existent had no suffering1 simply in order to show kindness in relieving them from suffering8 ,a benevolent deity ought to create only happy creatures1 not a mixed world like the one we see4#gee ,arguments like this were not condemned by the ,brahmans so strongly as we should expect1 but they did not like them and though they did not excommunicate the ,snkhya in the same way as ,buddhism1 they greatly preferred a theistic variety of it called ,yoga4 ,the ,yoga and ,snkhya are mentioned together in the vetvatara ,upanishad1#gef and the ,bhagavad-gt#geg says that he sees truly who sees them as one4 ,the difference lies in treatment rather than in substance4 ,whereas the ,snkhya is mainly theoretical1 the principal topic of the ,yoga is the cultivation of that frame of mind which leads to emancipation and the methods and exercises proper to this end4 ,further1 the ,yoga recognizes a deity4 ,this distinction may seem of capital importance but the god of the ,yoga 7called vara or the ,lord7 is not its foundation and essence as ,brahman is of the ,vednta4#geh ,devotion to ,god is recognized as one among other methods for attaining emancipation and if this particular procedure1 which is mentioned in relatively few passages1 were omitted1 the rest of the system would be unaffected4 ,it is therefore probable that the theistic portions of the ,yoga are an addition made under ,brahmanic influence4 ,but taking the existing ,stras of the two philosophies1 together with their commentaries1 it may be said that the ,yoga implies most of the ,snkhya theory and the ,snkhya most of the ,yoga practice1 for though it does not go into details it prescribes meditation which is to be perfected by regulating the breathing and by adopting certain postures4 ,i have already spoken of the methods and discipline prescribed by the ,yoga and need not dwell further on the topic now4 ,that ,buddhism has some connection with the ,snkhya and ,yoga has often been noticed4#gei ,some of the ideas found in the ,snkhya and some of the practices prescribed by the ,yoga are clearly anterior to ,gotama and may have contributed to his mental development1 but circumspection is necessary in the use of words like ,yoga1 ,snkhya and ,vednta4 ,if we take them to mean the doctrinal systems contained in certain stras1 they are clearly all later than ,buddhism4 ,but if we assume1 as we may safely do1 that the doctrine is much older than the manuals in which we now study it1 we must also remember that when we leave the texts we are not justified in thinking of a system but merely of a line of thought4 ,in this sense it is clear that many ideas of the ,snkhya appear among the ,jains1 but the ,jains know nothing of the evolution of matter described by the ,snkhya manuals and think of the relation of the soul to matter in a more materialistic way4 ,the notion of the separate eternal soul was the object of the ,buddha's persistent polemics and was apparently a popular doctrine when he began preaching4 ,the ascetic and meditative exercises prescribed by the ,yoga were also known before his time and the ,pitakas do not hide the fact that he received instruction from two ,yogs4 ,but though he was acquainted with the theories and practices which grew into the ,yoga and ,snkhya1 he did not found his religion on them for he rejected the idea of a soul which has to be delivered and did not make salvation dependent on the attainment of trances4 ,if there was in his time a systematic ,snkhya philosophy explaining the nature of suffering and the way of release1 it is strange that the ,pitakas contain no criticism of it1 for though to us who see these ancient sects in perspective the resemblance of ,buddhism to the ,snkhya is clear1 there can be little doubt that the ,buddha would have regarded it as a most erroneous heresy1 because it proposes to attain the same objects as his own teaching but by different methods4 ,snkhya ideas are not found in the oldest ,upanishads1 but they appear 7though not in a connected form7 in those of the second stratum1 such as the vetvatara and ,kath4 ,it therefore seems probable1 though not proven1 that the origin of these ideas is to be sought not in the early ,brahmanic schools but in the intellectual atmosphere non-theistic1 non-sacerdotal1 but audaciously speculative which prevailed in the central and eastern part of northern ,india in the sixth century ,b4,c4 ,the ,snkhya recognizes no merit in sacrifices or indeed in good works of any kind1 even as a preliminary discipline1 and in many details is un-,brahmanic4 ,unlike the ,vednta ,stras1 it does not exclude dras from higher studies1 but states that there are eight classes of gods and five of animals but only one of men4 ,a teacher must have himself attained emancipation1 but there is no provision that he must be a ,brahman4 ,perhaps the fables and parables which form the basis of the fourth book of the ,snkhya ,stras point to some more popular form of instruction similar to the discourses of the ,buddha4 ,we may suppose that this ancient un-,brahmanic school took shape in several sects1 especially ,jainism and ,buddhism1 and used the ,yoga discipline4 ,but the value and efficacy of that discipline were admitted almost universally and several centuries later it was formulated in the ,stras which bear the name of ,patajali in a shape acceptable to ,brahmans1 not to ,buddhists4 ,if1 as some scholars think1 the ,yoga stras are not earlier than #dej ,a4,d4#gfj it seems probable that it was ,buddhism which stimulated the ,brahmans to codify the principles and practice of ,yoga1 for the ,yogcra school of ,buddhism arose before the fifth century4 ,the ,snkhya is perhaps a somewhat similar brahmanization of the purely speculative ideas which may have prevailed in ,magadha and ,kosala4#gfa ,though these districts were not strongholds of ,brahmanism1 yet it is clear from the ,pitakas that they contained a considerable ,brahman population who must have been influenced by the ideas current around them but also must have wished to keep in touch with other ,brahmans4 ,the ,snkhya of our manuals represents such an attempt at conciliation4 ,it is an elaboration in a different shape of some of the ideas out of which ,buddhism sprung but in its later history it is connected with ,brahmanism rather than ,buddhism4 ,when it is set forth in ,stras in a succinct and isolated form1 its divergence from ordinary ,brahmanic thought is striking and in this form it does not seem to have ever been influential and now is professed by only a few ,pandits1 but1 when combined in a literary and eclectic spirit with other ideas which may be incompatible with it in strict logic1 it has been a mighty influence in ,indian religion1 orthodox as well as unorthodox4 ,such conceptions as ,prakriti and the ,gunas colour most of the post-,vedic religious literature4 ,their working may be plainly traced in the ,mahbhrata1 ,manu and the ,purnas1#gfb and the ,tantras identify with ,prakriti the goddesses whose worship they teach4 ,the unethical character of the ,snkhya enabled it to form the strangest alliances with aboriginal beliefs4 ,unlike the ,snkhya1 the ,vednta is seen in its most influential and perhaps most advantageous aspect when stated in its most abstract form4 ,we need not enquire into its place of origin for it is clearly the final intellectual product of the schools which produced the ,upanishads and the literature which preceded them1 and though it may be difficult to say at what point we are justified in applying the name ,vednta to growing ,brahmanic thought1 the growth is continuous4 ,the name means simply ,end of the ,veda4 ,in its ideas the ,vednta shows great breadth and freedom1 yet it respects the prejudices and proprieties of ,brahmanism4 ,it teaches that ,god is all things1 but interdicts this knowledge to the lower castes3 it treats rites as a merely preliminary discipline1 but it does not deny their value for certain states of life4 ,the ,vednta is the boldest and the most characteristic form of ,indian thought4 ,for ,asia1 and perhaps for the world at large1 ,buddhism is more important but on ,indian soil it has been vanquished by the ,vednta1 especially that form of it known as the ,advaita4 ,in all ages the main idea of this philosophy has been the same and may be summed up in the formula that the soul is ,god and that ,god is everything4 ,if this formula is not completely accurate#gfc--;and a sentence which both translates and epitomizes alien metaphysics can hardly aspire to complete accuracy--the error lies in the fact to which ,i have called attention elsewhere that our words1 ,god and soul1 do not cover quite the same ground as the ,indian words which they are used to translate4 ,many scholars1 both ,indian and ,european1 will demur to the high place here assigned to the ,advaita philosophy4 ,i am far from claiming that the doctrine of ankara is either primitive or unchallenged4 ,other forms of the ,vednta existed before him and became very strong after him4 ,but so far as a synthesis of opinions which are divergent in details can be just1 he gives a just synthesis and elaboration of the ,upanishads4 ,it is true that his teaching as to the higher and lower ,brahman and as to ,my has affinities to ,mahayanist ,buddhism1 and that later sects were repelled by the severe and impersonal character of his philosophy1 but the doctrine of which he is the most thorough and eminent exponent1 namely that ,god or spirit is the only reality and one with the human soul1 asserts itself in almost all ,hindu sects1 even though their other doctrines may seem to contradict it4 ,this line of thought is so persistent and has so many ramifications1 that it is hard to say what is and what is not ,vednta4 ,if we take literature as our best guide we may distinguish four points of importance marked by the ,upanishads1 the ,brahma-,stras1 ankara and ,rmnuja4 ,i have said something elsewhere of the ,upanishads4 ,these works do not profess to form a systematic whole 7though later ,hinduism regards them as such7 and when ,european scholars speak of them collectively1 they generally mean the older members of the collection4 ,these may justly be regarded as the ancestors of the ,vednta1 inasmuch as the tone of thought prevalent in them is incipient ,vedntism4 ,it rejects dualism and regards the universe as a unity not as plurality1 as something which has issued from ,brahman or is pervaded by ,brahman and in any case depends on ,brahman for its significance and existence4 ,brahman is ,god in the pantheistic sense1 totally disconnected with mythology and in most passages impersonal4 ,the knowledge of ,brahman is salvation3 he who has it1 goes to ,brahman or becomes ,brahman4 ,more rarely we find statements of absolute identity such as ,being ,brahman1 he goes to ,brahman4#gfd ,but though the ,upanishads say that the soul goes to or is ,brahman1 that the world comes from or is ,brahman1 that the soul is the whole universe and that a knowledge of these truths is the one thing of importance1 these ideas are not combined into a system4 ,they are simply the thoughts of the wise1 not always agreeing in detail1 and presented as independent utterances1 each with its own value4 ,one of the most important of these wise men is ,yjavalkya1#gfe the hero of the ,brihad ranyaka ,upanishad and a great name1 to whom are ascribed doctrines of which he probably never heard4 ,the ,upanishad represents him as developing and completing the views of ndilya and ,uddlaka runi4 ,the former taught#gff that the tman or ,self within the heart1 smaller than a grain of mustard seed1 is also greater than all worlds4 ,the brief exposition of his doctrine which we possess starts from and emphasizes the human self4 ,this self is ,brahman4 ,the doctrine of ,uddlaka#gfg takes the other side of the equation3 he starts with ,brahman and then asserts that ,brahman is the soul4 ,but though he teaches that in the beginning there was one only without a second1 yet he seems to regard the subsequent products of this ,being as external to it and permeated by it4 ,but to ,yjavalkya is ascribed an important modification of these doctrines1 namely1 that the tman is unknowable and transcendental4#gfh ,it is unknowable because since it is essentially the knowing subject it can be known only by itself3 it can never become the object of knowledge and language is inadequate to describe it4 ,all that can be said of it is neti1 neti1 that is no1 no3 it is not anything which we try to predicate of it4 ,but he who knows that the individual soul is the tman1 becomes tman2 being it1 he knows it and knows all the world3 he perceives that in all the world there is no plurality4 ,here the later doctrine of ,my is adumbrated1 though not formulated4 ,any system which holds that in reality there is no plurality or1 like some forms of ,mahayanist ,buddhism1 that nothing really exists implies the operation of this ,my or illusion which makes us see the world as it appears to us4 ,it may be thought of as mere ignorance1 as a failure to see the universe as it really is3 but no doubt the later view of ,my as a creative energy which fashions the world of phenomena is closely connected with the half-mythological conceptions found in the ,pncartra and aiva philosophy which regard this creative illusion as a female force--a goddess in fact--inseparably associated with the deity4 ,the philosophy of the ,upanishads1 like all religious thought in ,india1 is avowedly a quest of happiness and this happiness is found in some form of union with ,brahman4 ,he is perfect bliss1 and whatever is distinct from him is full of suffering4#gfi ,but this sense of the suffering inherent in existence is less marked in the older ,upanishads and in the ,vednta than in ,buddhism and the ,snkhya4 ,those systems make it their basis and first principle3 in the ,vednta the temperament is the same but the emphasis and direction of the thought are different4 ,the ,snkhya looks at the world and says that salvation lies in escape into something which has nothing in common with it4 ,but the ,vedntist looks towards ,brahman1 and his pessimism is merely the feeling that everything which is not wholly and really ,brahman is unsatisfactory4 ,in the later developments of the system1 pessimism almost disappears1 for the existence of suffering is not the first ,truth but an illusion3 the soul1 did it but know it1 is ,brahman and ,brahman is bliss4 ,so far as the ,vednta has any definite practical teaching1 it does not wholly despise action4 ,action is indeed inferior to knowledge and when knowledge is once obtained works are useless accessories1 but the four stages of a ,brahman's career1 including household life1 are approved in the ,vednta ,stras1 though there is a disposition to say that he who has the necessary religious aptitudes can adopt the ascetic life at any time4 ,the occupations of this ascetic life are meditation and absorption or samdhi1 the state in which the meditating soul becomes so completely blended with ,god on whom it meditates1 that it has no consciousness of its separate existence4#ggj ,as indicated above the so-called books of ruti or ,vedic literature are not consecutive treatises1 but rather responsa prudentium1 utterances respecting ritual and theology ascribed to poets1 sacrificers and philosophers who were accepted as authorities4 ,when these works came to be regarded as an orderly revelation1 even orthodoxy could not shut its eyes to their divergences1 and a comprehensive exegesis became necessary to give a conspectus of the whole body of truth4 ,this investigation of the meaning of the ,veda as a connected whole is called ,mmms1 and is divided into two branches1 the earlier 7prva7 and the later 7uttara74 ,the first is represented by the ,prva-mmms-stras of ,jaimini#gga which are called earlier 7prva7 not in the chronological sense but because they deal with rites which come before knowledge1 as a preparatory stage4 ,it is interesting to find that ,jaimini was accused of atheism and defended by ,kumrila ,bhatta4 ,the defence is probably just1 for ,jaimini does not so much deny ,god as ignore him4 ,but what is truly extraordinary1 though characteristic of much ,indian literature about ritual1 is that a work dealing with the general theory of religious worship should treat the deity as an irrelevant topic4 ,the ,prva-mmms discusses ceremonies prescribed by an eternal self-existing ,veda4 ,the reward of sacrifice is not given by ,god4 ,when the result of an act does not appear at once1 ,jaimini teaches that there is all the same produced a supersensuous principle called aprva1 which bears fruit at a later time1 and thus a sacrifice leads the offerer to heaven4 ,this theory is really tantamount to placing magic on a philosophic basis4 ,bdaryana's stras1 which represent the other branch of the ,mmms1 show a type of thought more advanced and profound than ,jaimini's4 ,they consist of #eee aphorisms--less than a fifth of ,jaimini's voluminous work--and represent the outcome of considerable discussion posterior to the ,upanishads1 for they cite the opinions of seven other teachers and also refer to ,bdaryana himself by name4 ,hence they may be a compendium of his teaching made by his pupils4 ,their date is unknown but ankara evidently regards them as ancient and there were several commentators before him4#ggb ,like most stras these aphorisms are often obscure and are hardly intended to be more than a mnemotechnic summary of the doctrine1 to be supplemented by oral instruction or a commentary4 ,hence it is difficult to define the teaching of ,bdaryana as distinguished from that of the ,upanishads on the one hand1 and that of his commentators on the other1 or to say exactly what stage he marks in the development of thought1 except that it is the stage of attempted synthesis4#ggc ,he teaches that ,brahman is the origin of the world and that with him should all knowledge1 religion and effort be concerned4 ,by meditation on him1 the soul is released and somehow associated with him4 ,but it is not clear that we have any warrant for finding in the stras 7as does ankara7 the distinction between the higher and lower ,brahman1 or the doctrine of the unreality of the world 7,my7 or the absolute identity of the individual soul with ,brahman4 ,we are told that the state of the released soul is non-separation 7avibhga7 from ,brahman1 but this is variously explained by the commentators according to their views4 ,though the stras are the acknowledged text-book of ,vedntism1 their utterances are in practice less important than subsequent explanations of them4 ,as often happens in ,india1 the comment has overgrown and superseded the text4 ,the most important of these commentators is ankarcarya4#ggd ,had he been a ,european philosopher anxious that his ideas should bear his name1 or a reformer like the ,buddha with little respect for antiquity1 he would doubtless have taken his place in history as one of the most original teachers of ,asia4 ,but since his whole object was to revive the traditions of the past and suppress his originality by attempting to prove that his ideas are those of ,bdaryana and the ,upanishads1 the magnitude of his contribution to ,indian thought is often under-rated4 ,we need not suppose that he was the inventor of all the ideas in his works of which we find no previous expression4 ,he doubtless 7like the ,buddha7 summarized and stereotyped an existing mode of thought but his summary bears the unmistakeable mark of his own personality4 ankara's teaching is known as ,advaita or absolute monism4 ,nothing exists except the one existence called ,brahman or ,paramtman1 the ,highest ,self4 ,brahman is pure being and thought 7the two being regarded as identical71 without qualities4 ,brahman is not intelligent but is intelligence itself4 ,the human soul 7jva7 is identical with the ,highest ,self1 not merely as a part of it1 but as being itself the whole universal indivisible ,brahman4 ,this must not be misunderstood as a blasphemous assertion that man is equal to ,god4 ,the soul is identical with ,brahman only in so far as it forgets its separate human existence1 and all that we call self and individuality4 ,a man who has any pride in himself is ipso facto differentiated from ,brahman as much as is possible4 ,yet in the world in which we move we see not only differentiation and multiplicity but also a plurality of individual souls apparently distinct from one another and from ,brahman4 ,this appearance is due to the principle of ,my which is associated with ,brahman and is the cause of the phenomenal world4 ,if ,my is translated by illusion it must be remembered that its meaning is not so much that the world and individual existences are illusory in the strict sense of the word1 as phenomenal4 ,the only true reality is self-conscious thought without an object4 ,when the mind attains to that1 it ceases to be human and individual3 it is ,brahman4 ,but whenever it thinks of particular objects neither the thoughts nor the objects of the thoughts are real in the same sense4 ,they are appearances1 phenomena4 ,this universe of phenomena includes not only all our emotions and all our perceptions of the external world1 but also what might be supposed to be the deepest truths of religion1 such as the personality of the ,creator and the wanderings of the soul in the maze of transmigration4 ,in the same sense that we suffer pain and pleasure1 it is true that there is a personal ,god 7vara7 who emits and reabsorbs the world at regular intervals1 and that the soul is a limited existence passing from body to body4 ,in this sense the soul1 as in the ,snkhya philosophy1 is surrounded by the updhis1 certain limiting conditions or disguises1 which form a permanent psychical equipment with which it remains invested in all its innumerable bodies4 ,but though these doctrines may be true for those who are in the world1 for those souls who are agents1 enjoyers and sufferers1 they cease to be true for the soul which takes the path of knowledge and sees its own identity with ,brahman4 ,it is by this means only that emancipation is attained1 for good works bring a reward in kind1 and hence inevitably lead to new embodiments1 new creations of ,my4 ,and even in knowledge we must distinguish between the knowledge of the lower ,brahman or personal ,deity 7vara7 and of the higher indescribable ,brahman4#gge ,for the orthodox ,hindu this distinction is of great importance1 for it enables him to reconcile passages in the scriptures which otherwise are contradictory4 ,worship and meditation which make vara their object do not lead directly to emancipation4 ,they lead to the heavenly world of vara1 in which the soul1 though glorified1 is still a separate individual existence4 ,but for him who meditates on the ,highest ,brahman and knows that his true self is that ,brahman1 ,my and its works cease to exist4 ,when he dies nothing differentiates him from that ,brahman who alone is bliss and no new individual existence arises4 ,the crux of this doctrine is in the theory of ,my4 ,if ,my appertains to ,brahman1 if it exists by his will1 then why is it an evil1 why is release to be desired8 ,ought not the individual souls to serve ,brahman's purpose1 and would not it be better served by living gladly in the phenomenal world than by passing beyond it8 ,but such an idea has rarely satisfied ,indian thinkers4 ,if1 on the other hand1 ,my is an evil or at least an imperfection1 if it is like rust on a blade or dimness in a mirror1 if1 so to speak1 the edges of ,brahman are weak and break into fragments which are prevented by their own feebleness from realizing the unity of the whole1 then the mind wonders uneasily if1 in spite of all assurances to the contrary1 this does not imply that ,brahman is subject to some external law1 to some even more mysterious ,beyond4 ,but ankara and the ,brahma-stras will not tolerate such doubts4 ,according to them1 ,brahman in making the world is not actuated by a motive in the ordinary sense1 for that would imply human action and passion1 but by a sportive impulse3#ggf ,we see in every-day life1 says ankara1 that certain doings of princes1 who have no desires left unfulfilled1 have no reference to any extraneous purpose but proceed from mere sportfulness4 ,we further see that the process of inhalation and exhalation is going on without reference to any extraneous purpose1 merely following the law of its own nature4 ,analogously1 the activity of the ,lord also may be supposed to be mere sport1 proceeding from his own nature without reference to any purpose4#ggg ,this is no worse than many other explanations of the scheme of things and the origin of evil but it is not really an explanation4 ,it means that the ,advaita is so engrossed in ecstatic contemplation of the omnipresent ,brahman that it pays no attention to a mere by-product like the physical universe4 ,how or why that universe with all its imperfections comes to exist1 it does not explain4 ,yet the boldness and ample sweep of ankara's thought have in them something greater than logic1#ggh something recalling the grandeur of plains and seas limited only by the horizon1 nay rather those abysses of space wherein on clear nights worlds and suns innumerable are scattered like sparks by what he would call ,god's playfulness4 ,european thought attains to these altitudes but cannot live in them for long3 it demands and fancies for itself just what ankara will not grant1 the motive of ,brahman1 the idea that he is working for some consummation1 not that he was1 is and will be eternally complete1 unaffected by the drama of the universe and yet identical with souls that know him4 ,even in ,india the austere and impersonal character of ankara's system provoked dissent3 ,he was accused of being a ,buddhist in disguise and the accusation raises an interesting question#ggi in the history of ,indian philosophy to which ,i have referred in a previous chapter4 ,the affinity existing between the ,mdhyamika form of ,buddhist metaphysics and the earlier ,vednta can hardly be disputed and the only question is which borrowed from the other4 ,such questions are exceedingly difficult to decide1 for from time to time new ideas arose in ,india1 permeated the common intellectual atmosphere1 and were worked up by all sects into the forms that suited each best4 ,in the present instance all that can be said is that certain ideas about the unreality of the world and about absolute and relative truth appear in several treatises both ,brahmanic and ,buddhist1 such as the works of ankara and ,ngrjuna and the ,gauda-pdakriks1 and of these the works attributed to ,ngrjuna seem to be the oldest4 ,it must also be remembered that according to ,chinese accounts ,bodhidharma preached at ,nanking in #ebj a doctrine very similar to the advaita of ankara though expressed in ,buddhist phraseology4 ,of other forms of ,vedntism1 the best known is the system of ,rmnuja generally called ,viishtdvaita4#ghj ,it is an evidence of the position held by the ,vednta philosophy that religious leaders made a commentary on the ,stras of ,bdaryana the vehicle of their most important views4 ,unlike ankara1 ,rmnuja is sectarian and identifies his supreme deity with ,vishnu or ,nryana1 but this is little more than a matter of nomenclature4 ,his interpretation is modern in the sense that it pursues the line of thought which leads up to the modern sects4 ,but that line of thought has ancient roots4 ,rmnuja followed a commentator named ,bodhyana who was anterior to ankara1 and in the opinion of so competent a judge as ,thibaut he gives the meaning of ,bdaryana in many points more exactly than his great rival4 ,on the other hand his interpretation often strains the most important utterances of the ,upanishads4 ,rmnuja admits no distinction between ,brahman and vara1 but the distinction is abolished at the expense of abolishing the idea of the ,higher ,brahman1 for his ,brahman is practically the vara of ankara4 ,brahman is not without attributes but possessed of all imaginable good attributes1 and though nothing exists apart from him1 like the antithesis of ,purusha and ,prakriti in the ,snkhya1 yet the world is not as in ankara's system merely ,my4 ,matter and souls 7cit and acit7 form the body of ,brahman who both comprises and pervades all things1 which are merely modes of his existence4#gha ,he is the inner ruler 7antarymin7 who is in all elements and all human souls4#ghb ,the texts which speak of ,brahman as being one only without a second are explained as referring to the state of pralaya or absorption which occurs at the end of each ,kalpa4 ,at the conclusion of the period of pralaya he re-emits the world and individual souls by an act of volition and the souls begin the round of transmigration4 ,salvation or release from this round is obtained not by good works but by knowledge and meditation on the ,lord assisted by his grace4 ,the released soul is not identified with the ,lord but enjoys near him a personal existence of eternal bliss and peace4 ,this is more like ,european theism than the other doctrines which we have been considering4 ,the difference is that ,god is not regarded as the creator of matter and souls4 ,matter and souls consist of his substance4 ,but for all that he is a personal deity who can be loved and worshipped and whereas ankara was a religious philosopher1 ,rmnuja was rather a philosophic theologian and founder of a church4 ,i have already spoken of his activity in this sphere4 #d ,the epics and ,purnas contain philosophical discussions of considerable length which make little attempt at consistency4 ,yet the line of thought in them all is the same4 ,the chief tenets of the theistic ,snkhya-,yoga are assumed3 matter1 soul and ,god are separate existences3 the soul wishes to move towards ,god and away from matter4 ,yet when ,indian writers glorify the deity they rarely abstain from identifying him with the universe4 ,in the ,bhagavad-gt and other philosophical cantos of the ,mahbhrata the contradiction is usually left without an attempt at solution4 ,thus it is stated categorically#ghc that the world consists of the perishable and imperishable1 i4e41 matter and soul1 but that the supreme spirit is distinct from both4 ,yet in the same poem we pass from this antithesis to the monism which declares that the deity is all things and the self seated in the heart of man4 ,we have then attained the ,vedantist point of view4 ,nearly all the modern sects1 whether ivaite or ,vishnuite1 admit the same contradiction into their teaching1 for they reject both the atheism of the ,snkhya and the immaterialism of the ,advaita 7since it is impossible for a practical religion to deny the existence of either ,god or the world71 while the irresistible tendency of ,indian thought makes them describe their deity in pantheistic language4 ,all strive to find some metaphysical or theological formula which will reconcile these discrepant ideas1 and nearly all ,vishnuites profess some special variety of the ,vednta called by such names as ,viishtdvaita1 ,dvaitdvaita1 uddhdvaita and so on4 ,they differ chiefly in their definition of the relation existing between the soul and ,god4 ,only the ,mdhvas entirely discard monism and profess duality 7,dvaita7 and even ,madhva thought it necessary to write a commentary on the ,brahma-stras to prove that they support his doctrine and the ivaites too have a commentator1 ,nlakantha1 who interprets them in harmony with the aiva ,siddhnta4 ,there is also a modern commentary by ,somanaradittyar which expounds this much twisted text agreeably to the doctrines of the ,lingyat sect4 ,in most fundamental principles the ivaite and ktist schools agree with the ,viishtdvaita but their nomenclature is different and their scope is theological rather than philosophical4 ,in all of them are felt the two tendencies1 one wishing to distinguish ,god1 soul and matter and to adjust their relations for the purposes of practical religion1 the other holding more or less that ,god is all or at least that all things come from ,god and return to him4 ,but there is one difference between the schools of sectarian philosophy and the ,advaita of ankara which goes to the root of the matter4 ankara holds that the world and individual existences are due to illusion1 ignorance and misconception3 they vanish in the light of true knowledge4 ,other schools1 while agreeing that in some sense ,god is all1 yet hold that the universe is not an illusion or false presentment of him but a process of manifestation or of evolution starting from him4#ghd ,it is not precisely evolution in the ,european sense1 but rather a rhythmic movement1 of duration and extent inexpressible in figures1 in which the ,supreme ,spirit alternately emits and reabsorbs the universe4 ,as a rule the higher religious life aims at some form of union or close association with the deity1 beyond the sphere of this process4 ,in the evolutionary process the ,vaishnavas interpolate between the ,supreme ,spirit and the phenomenal world the phases of conditioned spirit known as ,sankarshana1 etc42 in the same way the ivaite schools increase the twenty-four tattvas of the ,snkhya to thirty-six4#ghe ,the first of these tattvas or principles is iva1 corresponding to the highest ,brahman4 ,the next phase is ,sadiva in which differentiation commences owing to the movement of akti1 the active or female principle4 iva in this phase is thought of as having a body composed of mantras4 akti1 also known as ,bindu or uddhamy1 is sometimes regarded as a separate tattva but more generally as inseparably united with iva4 ,the third tattva is vara1 or iva in the form of a lord or personal deity1 and the fourth is uddhavidy or true knowledge1 explained as the principle of correlation between the experiencer and that which is experienced4 ,it is only after these that we come to ,my1 meaning not so much illusion as the substratum in which ,karma inheres or the protoplasm from which all things grow4 ,between ,my and ,purusha come five more tattvas1 called envelopes4 ,their effect is to enclose and limit1 thus turning the divine spirit into a human soul4 ktist accounts of the evolutionary process give greater prominence to the part played by akti and are usually metaphysiological1 if the word may be pardoned1 inasmuch as they regard the cosmic process as the growth of an embryo1 an idea which is as old as the ,vedas4#ghf ,it is impossible to describe even in outline these manifold cosmologies but they generally speak of akti1 who in one sense is identical with iva and merely his active form but in another sense is identified with ,prakriti1 coming into contact with the form of iva called ,praka or light and then solidifying into a drop 7,bindu7 or germ which divides4 ,at some point in this process arise ,nda or sound1 and abda-brahman1 the sound-,brahman1 which manifests itself in various energies and assumes in the human body the form of the mysterious coiled force called ,kundalin4#ghg ,some of the older ,vishnuite writings use similar language of akti1 under the name of ,lakshm1 but in the ,viishtdvaita of ,rmnuja and subsequent teachers there is little disposition to dwell on any feminine energy in discussing the process of evolution4 ,of all the ,daranas the most extraordinary is that called ,rasevara or the mercurial system4#ghh ,according to it quicksilver1 if eaten or otherwise applied1 not only preserves the body from decay but delivers from transmigration the soul which inhabits this glorified body4 ,quicksilver is even asserted to be identical with the supreme self4 ,this curious ,darana is represented as revealed by iva to akti and it is only an extreme example of the tantric doctrine that spiritual results can be obtained by physical means4 ,the practice of taking mercury to secure health and long life must have been prevalent in medieval ,india for it is mentioned by both ,marco ,polo and ,bernier4#ghi #e ,a people among whom the ,vednta could obtain a large following must have been prone to think little of the things which we see compared with the unseen of which they are the manifestation4 ,it is1 therefore1 not surprising if materialism met with small sympathy or success among them4 ,in ,india the extravagances of asceticism and of mystic sensualism alike find devotees1 but the simple philosophy of ,let us eat and drink for to-morrow we die1 does not commend itself4 ,nevertheless it is not wholly absent and was known as the doctrine of ,brihaspati4 ,those who professed it were also called ,crvkas and ,lokyatikas4#gij ,brihaspati was the preceptor of the gods and his connection with this sensualistic philosophy goes back to a legend found in the ,upanishads#gia that he taught the demons false knowledge whose reward lasts only as long as the pleasure lasts in order to compass their destruction4 ,this is similar to the legend found in the ,purnas that ,vishnu became incarnate as ,buddha in order to lead astray the ,daityas4 ,but though such words as rvka and ,nstika are used in later literature as terms of learned abuse1 the former seems to denote a definite school1 although we cannot connect its history with dates1 places or personalities4 ,the ,crvkas are the first system examined in the ,sarva-darana-sangraha1 which is written from the ,vedntist standpoint1 and beginning from the worst systems of philosophy ascends to those which are relatively correct4 ,this account contains most of what we know about their doctrines1#gib but is obviously biassed3 it represents them as cynical voluptuaries holding that the only end of man is sensual enjoyment4 ,we are told that they admitted only one source of knowledge1 namely perception1 and four elements1 earth1 water1 fire and air1 and that they held the soul to be identical with the body4 ,such a phrase as my body they considered to be metaphorical1 as apart from the body there was no ego who owned it4 ,the soul was supposed to be a physical product of the four elements1 just as sugar combined with a ferment and other ingredients produces an intoxicating liquor4 ,among verses described as said by ,brihaspati occur the following remarkable lines3 ,there is no heaven1 no liberation1 nor any soul in another world1 ,nor do the acts of the ramas or castes produce any reward4 ,if the animal slain in the ,jyotishtoma sacrifice will go to heaven1 ,why does not the sacrificer immolate his own father8 ,while life remains let a man live happily3 let him feed on butter even if he runs into debt4 ,when once the body becomes ashes1 how can it ever return8 ,the author of the ,dabistn1 who lived in the seventeenth century1 also mentions the ,crvkas in somewhat similar terms4#gic ,brahmanical authors often couple the ,crvkas and ,buddhists4 ,this lumping together of offensively heretical sects may be merely theological animus1 but still it is possible that there may be a connection between the ,crvkas and the extreme forms of ,mahayanist nihilism4 ,schrader#gid in analysing a singular work1 called the ,svasamvedyopanishad1 says it is inspired by the ,mahayanist doctrine of vacuity 7nya-vda7 and proclaims a most radical agnosticism by asserting in four chapters 7a7 that there is no reincarnation 7existence being bubble-like71 no ,god1 no world3 that all traditional literature 7ruti and ,smriti7 is the work of conceited fools2 7b7 that ,time the destroyer and ,nature the originator are the rulers of all existence and not good and bad deeds1 and that there is neither hell nor heaven2 7c7 that people deluded by flowery speech cling to gods1 sacred places1 teachers1 though there is in reality no difference at all between ,vishnu and a dog2 7d7 that though all words are untrue and all ideas mere illusions1 yet liberation is possible by a thorough realization of ,bhvdvaita4 ,but for this rather sudden concession to ,hindu sentiment1 namely that deliverance is possible1 this doctrine resembles the tenets attributed to the ,crvkas4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #gcf3 ,in the ,sarva-darana-sangraha1 the best known compendium of ,indian philosophy4 ,footnote #gcg3 ,j4,c4 ,chatterji's definition of ,indian philosophy 7in his ,indian ,realism1 p4 #a7 is interesting4 ,by ,hindu philosophy ,i mean that branch of the ancient learning of the ,hindus which demonstrates by reasoning propositions with regard to 7a7 what a man ought to do in order to gain true happiness 444 or 7b7 what he ought to realize by direct experience in order to be radically and absolutely freed from suffering and to be absolutely independent1 such propositions being already given and lines of reasoning in their support being established by duly qualified authorities4 ,footnote #gch3 ,see ,chatterji's work above cited4 ,footnote #gci3 ,it is this idea which disposes educated ,hindus to believe in the magical or sacramental power of mystic syllables and letters1 though the use of such spells seems to ,europeans incredible folly4 ,footnote #gdj3 ,see especially ,garbe1 ,die ,snkhya ,philosophie1 #ahid2 and ,keith1 ,the ,snkhya ,system1 #aiai1 which however reached me too late for me to make any use of it4 ,footnote #gda3 ,e4g4 in the ,bhagavad-gt and vetvatara ,upanishads4 ,according to tradition ,kapila taught ,asuri and he1 ,pacaikha1 who made the system celebrated4 ,garbe thinks ,pacaikha may be assigned to the first century ,a4,d4 ,footnote #gdb3 ,this appears to be the real title of the ,stras edited and translated by ,ballantyne as ,the ,snkhya ,aphorisms of ,kapila4 ,footnote #gdc3 ,or topics4 ,it is difficult to find any one ,english word which covers the twenty-five tattvas1 for they include both general and special ideas1 mind and matter on the one hand2 special organs on the other4 ,footnote #gdd3 ,snkh4 ,pravac4 ,i4 #if4 ,footnote #gde3 ,garbe1 ,die ,snkhya ,philosophie1 p4 #bbb4 ,he considers that it spread thence to other schools4 ,this involves the assumption that the ,snkhya is prior to ,buddhism and ,jainism4 ,footnote #gdf3 ,ears1 skin1 eyes1 tongue and nose4 ,footnote #gdg3 ,voice1 hands1 feet1 organs of excretion and generation4 ,footnote #gdh3 ,verse #dj4 ,footnote #gdi3 ,cf4 the ,buddhist ,sankhras4 ,footnote #gej3 ,snkh4 ,kr4 #fb4 ,footnote #gea3 ,snkh4 ,kr4 #ei-fa4 ,footnote #geb3 ,snkh4 ,pravac4 ,i4 #ib-ie4 ,footnote #gec3 ,snkh4 ,pravac4 ,v4 #b-ab4 ,footnote #ged3 ,thus ,snkh4 ,pravac4 ,v4 #df1 says ,tatkartuh purushasybhvt and the commentary explains vara-pratishedhd iti eshah supply the words1 because we deny that there is a supreme ,god4 ,footnote #gee3 ,nevertheless the commentator ,vijna-,bhikshu 7c4 #aejj7 tries to explain away this atheism and to reconcile the ,snkhya with the ,vednta4 ,see ,garbe's preface to his edition of the ,snkhya-pravacana-bhshya4 ,footnote #gef3 ,,vi4 #ac4 ,footnote #geg3 ,v4 #e4 ,footnote #geh3 vara is apparently a purusha like others but greater in glory and untouched by human infirmities4 ,yoga stras1 ,i4 #bd-bf4 ,footnote #gei3 ,it is a singular fact that both the ,snkhya-krik-bhshya and a treatise on the ,vaieshika philosophy are included in the ,chinese ,tripitaka 7,nanjio1 ,cat4 ,nos4 #acjj and #abie74 ,a warning is however added that they are not the law of the ,buddha4 ,footnote #gfj3 ,see ,jacobi1 ,j4,a4,o4,s4 ,dec4 #aiaj1 p4 #bd4 ,but if ,vasubandhu lived about #bhj-cfj1 as is now generally believed1 allusions to the ,yogcra school in the ,yoga stras do not oblige us to place the stras much later than #cjj ,a4,d4 since the ,yogcra was founded by ,asanga1 the brother of ,vasubandhu4 ,footnote #gfa3 ,i find it hard to accept ,deussen's view 7,philosophy of the ,upanishads1 chap4 ,x7 that the ,snkhya has grown out of the ,vednta4 ,footnote #gfb3 ,see e4g4 ,vishnu ,purna1 ,i4 chaps4 #b1 #d1 #e4 ,the ,bhagavad-gt1 though almost the ,new ,testament of ,vedantists1 uses the words ,snkhya and ,yoga in several passages as meaning speculative truth and the religious life and is concerned to show that they are the same4 ,see ,,ii4 #ci2 ,,iii4 #c2 ,v4 #d1 #e4 ,footnote #gfc3 ,it is perhaps hardly necessary to add that there has been endless discussion as to the sense and manner in which the soul is ,god4 ,footnote #gfd3 ,brihad ran4 ,,iv4 #d4 #f2 ,ib4 ,i4 iv4 #aj4 ,i am ,brahman4 ,footnote #gfe3 ,see above ,book ,,ii4 chaps4 ,v and ,,vi4 ,footnote #gff3 ,chnd4 ,up4 ,,iii4 #ad4 ,footnote #gfg3 ,chnd4 ,up4 ,,vi4 ,footnote #gfh3 ,see ,deussen1 ,philosophy of the ,upanishads4 ,footnote #gfi3 ,ato'nyad rtam4 ,brihad r4 ,,iii4 several times4 ,footnote #ggj3 ,maitryana4 ,brh4 ,upanishad1 ,,vi4 #bj4 ,having seen his own self as ,the ,self he becomes selfless1 and because he is selfless he is without limit1 without cause1 absorbed in thought4 ,footnote #gga3 ,there is nothing to fix the date of this work except that ,kumrila in commenting on it in the eighth century treats it as old and authoritative4 ,it was perhaps composed in the early ,gupta period4 ,footnote #ggb3 ,keith in ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aijg1 p4 #dib says it is becoming more and more probable that ,bdaryana cannot be dated after the ,christian era4 ,jacobi in ,j4,a4,o4,s4 #aiaa1 p4 #bi concludes that the ,brahma-stras were composed between #bjj and #dej ,a4,d4 ,footnote #ggc3 ,such attempts must have begun early4 ,the ,maitryana ,upanishad 7,,ii4 #c7 talks of ,sarvopanishadvidy1 the science of all the ,upanishads4 ,footnote #ggd3 ,see above1 p4 #bjg ff4 ,footnote #gge3 ,the same distinction occurs in the works of ,meister ,eckhart 7 #acbg ,a4,d47 who in many ways approximates to ,indian thought1 both ,buddhist and ,vedntist4 ,he makes a distinction between the ,godhead and ,god4 ,the ,godhead is the revealer but unrevealed3 it is described as wordless 7,yjnavalkya's neti1 neti71 the nameless nothing1 the immoveable rest4 ,but ,god is the manifestation of the ,godhead1 the uttered word4 ,all that is in the ,godhead is one4 ,therefore we can say nothing4 ,he is above all names1 above all nature4 ,god works1 so doeth not the ,godhead4 ,therein are they distinguished1 in working and in not working4 ,the end of all things is the hidden darkness of the eternal ,godhead1 unknown and never to be known4 7,quoted by ,rufus ,jones1 ,studies in ,mystical ,religion1 p4 #bbe47 ,it may be doubted if ankara's distinction between the ,higher and ,lower ,brahman is to be found in the ,upanishads but it is probably the best means of harmonizing the discrepancies in those works which ,indian theologians feel bound to explain away4 ,footnote #ggf3 ,vednta stras1 ,,ii4 #a4 #cb-c1 and ankara's commentary1 ,s4,b4,e4 vol4 ,,xxxiv4 pp4 #cef-g4 ,rmnuja holds a similar view and it is very common in ,india1 e4g4 ,vishnu ,pur4 ,i4 chap4 #b4 ,footnote #ggg3 ,see too a remarkable passage in his comment on ,brahma-stras1 ,,ii4 #a4 #bc4 ,as soon as the consciousness of non-difference arises in us1 the transmigratory state of the individual soul and the creative quality of ,brahman vanish at once1 the whole phenomenon of plurality which springs from wrong knowledge being sublated by perfect knowledge and what becomes then of the creation and the faults of not doing what is beneficial and the like8 ,footnote #ggh3 ,although ankara's commentary is a piece of severe ratiocination1 especially in its controversial parts1 yet he holds that the knowledge of ,brahman depends not on reasoning but on scripture and intuition4 ,the presentation before the mind of the ,highest ,self is effected by meditation and devotion4 ,brah4 ,sut4 ,,iii4 #b4 #bd4 ,see too his comments on ,i4 #a4 #b and ,,ii4 #a4 #aa4 ,footnote #ggi3 ,see ,sukhtankar1 ,teachings of ,vednta according to ,rmnuja1 pp4 #ag-ai4 ,walleser1 ,der aeltere ,vednta1 and ,de la ,valle ,poussin in ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aiaj1 p4 #abi4 ,footnote #ghj3 ,this term is generally rendered by qualified1 that is not absolute1 ,monism4 ,but ,south ,indian scholars give a slightly different explanation and maintain that it is equivalent to ,viishtayor advaitam or the identity of the two qualified 7viishta7 conditions of ,brahman4 ,brahman is qualified by cit and acit1 souls and matter1 which stand to him in the relation of attributes4 ,the two conditions are ,kryvasth or period of cosmic manifestation in which cit and acit are manifest and ,karanvasth or period of cosmic dissolution1 when they exist only in a subtle state within ,brahman4 ,these two conditions are not different 7advaitam74 ,see ,srinivas ,iyengar1 ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aiab1 p4 #ajgc and also ,sri ,rmnujcrya3 ,his ,philosophy by ,rajagopalacharyar4 ,footnote #gha3 ,compare the phrase of ,keats in a letter quoted by ,bosanquet1 ,gifford ,lectures for #aiab1 p4 #ff4 ,as various as the lives of men are1 so various become their souls and thus does ,god make individual beings1 souls1 identical souls of the sparks of his own essence4 ,footnote #ghb3 ,this tenet is justified by ,brihad ,aran4 ,up4 ,,iii4 #c ff4 which is a great text for ,rmnuja's school4 ,he who dwells in the earth 7water1 etc47 and within the earth 7or1 is different from the earth7 whom the earth knows not1 whose body the earth is1 who rules the earth within1 he is thyself1 the ruler within1 the immortal4 ,footnote #ghc3 ,bhag4-gt1 ,,xv4 #af1 #ag4 ,footnote #ghd3 ,the two doctrines are called ,vivartavda and ,parinmavda4 ,footnote #ghe3 ,these are only the more subtle tattvas4 ,there are also #fj gross ones4 ,see for the whole subject ,schomerus ,der aiva-,siddhnta1 p4 #abi4 ,footnote #ghf3 ,it also finds expression in myths about the division of the deity into male and female halves1 the cosmic egg1 etc41 which are found in all strata of ,indian literature4 ,footnote #ghg3 ,an account of tantric cosmology can be found in ,avalon1 ,mahn4 ,tantra1 pp xix-xxxi4 ,see also ,avalon1 ,prapancasra ,tantra1 pp4 #e ff42 ,srinivsa ,iyengar1 ,indian ,philosophy1 pp4 #adc and #bie ff42 ,bhandarkar1 ,vaishn4 and aivism1 pp4 #ade ff4 ,footnote #ghh3 ,sarva-darana-sangraha1 chap4 ,,ix4 ,for this doctrine in ,china see ,wieger ,histoire des ,croyances religieuses en ,chine1 p4 #daa4 ,footnote #ghi3 ,see ,yule's ,marco ,polo1 ,,ii4 pp4 #cfe1 #cfi4 ,footnote #gij3 ,see ,rhys ,davids' note in his ,dialogues of the ,buddha on ,dgha ,nikya1 ,sutta ,v4 pp4 #aff ff4 ,he seems to show that ,lokyata meant originally natural philosophy as a part of a ,brahman's education and only gradually acquired a bad meaning4 ,the ,arthastra also recommends the ,snkhya1 ,yoga and ,lokyata systems4 ,footnote #gia3 ,maitr4 ,up4 ,,vii4 #h4 ,footnote #gib3 ,see also ,suali in ,muson1 #aijh1 pp4 #bgg ff4 and the article ,materialism 7,indian7 in ,e4,r4,e4 ,for another instance of ancient materialism see the views of ,pysi set forth in ,dig4 ,nik4 ,,xxiii4 ,the ,brihad ,ar4 ,up4 ,,iii4 #b4 #ac implies that the idea of body and spirit being disintegrated at death was known though perhaps not relished4 ,footnote #gic3 ,translation by ,shea and ,troyer1 vol4 ,,ii4 pp4 #bja-b4 ,footnote #gid3 ,sanskrit ,manuscripts in the ,adyar ,library1 #aijh1 pp4 #cjj-a4