,,everyman1 ,i will go with thee1 and be
 thy guide1 ,in thy most need to go by  
thy side     ,,herbert ,,spencer   ,born
 at ,derby in #ahbj1 the son of a       
teacher1 from whom he received most of  
his education4 ,obtained employment on  
the ,london and ,birmingham ,railway4   
,after the strike of #ahdf he devoted   
himself to journalism1 and in #ahdh was 
sub-editor of ,the ,economist4  ,he died
 in #aijc4     ,,herbert ,,spencer      
,essays on ,education ,,and ,,kindred   
,,subjects  ,,introduction ,,by         
,,charles ,w4 ,,eliot  ,,dent3 ,,london 
,,everyman',s ,,library ,,dutton3 ,,new 
,,york     ,made in ,great ,britain at  
the ,aldine ,press 4 ,letchworth 4      
,herts for ,j4,m4 ,,dent  ,,sons ,,ltd  
,aldine ,house 4 ,bedford ,street 4     
,london ,first published in ,everyman's 
,library #aiaa ,last reprinted #aifc    
,,no4 #ejd     ,,introduction   ,the    
four essays on education which ,herbert 
,spencer published in a single volume in
 #ahfa were all written and separately  

published between #ahed and #ahei4      
,their tone was aggressive and their    
proposals revolutionary2 although all   
the doctrines--with one important       
exception--had already been vigorously  
preached by earlier writers on          
education1 as ,spencer himself was at   
pains to point out4 ,the doctrine which 
was comparatively new ran through all   
four essays2 but was most amply stated  
in the essay first published in #ahei   
under the title ,what ,knowledge is of  
,most ,worth8 ,in this essay ,spencer   
divided the leading kinds of human      
activity into those which minister to   
self-preservation1 those which secure   
the necessaries of life1 those whose end
 is the care of offspring1 those which  
make good citizens1 and those which     
prepare adults to enjoy nature1         
literature1 and the fine arts2 and he   
then maintained that in each of these   
several classes1 knowledge of science   
was worth more than any other knowledge4
 ,he argued that everywhere throughout  

creation faculties are developed through
 the performance of the appropriate     
functions2 so that it would be contrary 
to the whole harmony of nature if one   
kind of culture were needed for the     
gaining of information1 and another kind
 were needed as a mental gymnastic4 ,he 
then maintained that the sciences are   
superior in all respects to languages as
 educational material2 they train the   
memory better1 and a superior kind of   
memory2 they cultivate the judgment1 and
 they impart an admirable moral and     
religious discipline4 ,he concluded that
 for discipline1 as well as for         
guidance1 science is of chiefest value4 
,in all its effects1 learning the       
meaning of things is better than        
learning the meaning of words4 ,he      
answered the question what knowledge is 
of most worth8 with the one             
word--science4  ,this doctrine was      
extremely repulsive to the established  
profession of education in ,england1    
where ,latin1 ,greek1 and mathematics   

had been the staples of education for   
many generations1 and were believed to  
afford the only suitable preparation for
 the learned professions1 public life1  
and cultivated society4 ,in proclaiming 
this doctrine with ample illustration1  
ingenious argument1 and forcible        
reiteration1 ,spencer was a true        
educational pioneer1 although some of   
his scientific contemporaries were      
really preaching similar doctrines1 each
 in his own field4  ,the profession of  
teaching has long been characterised by 
certain habitual convictions1 which     
,spencer undertook to shake rudely1 and 
even to deride4 ,the first of these     
convictions is that all education1      
physical1 intellectual1 and moral1 must 
be authoritative1 and need take no      
account of the natural wishes1          
tendencies1 and motives of the ignorant 
and undeveloped child4 ,the second      
dominating conviction is that to teach  
means to tell1 or show1 children what   
they ought to see1 believe1 and utter4  

,expositions by the teacher and books   
are therefore the true means of         
education4 ,the third and supreme       
conviction is that the method of        
education which produced the teacher    
himself and the contemporary or earlier 
scholars1 authors1 and publicists1 must 
be the righteous and sufficient method4 
,its fruits demonstrate its soundness1  
and make it sacred4 ,herbert ,spencer1  
in the essays included in the present   
volume1 assaulted all three of these    
firm convictions4 ,accordingly1 the     
ideas on education which he put forth   
more than fifty years ago have          
penetrated educational practice very    
slowly--particularly in ,england2 but   
they are now coming to prevail in most  
civilised countries1 and they will      
prevail more and more4 ,through him1 the
 thoughts on education of ,comenius1    
,montaigne1 ,locke1 ,milton1 ,rousseau1 
,pestalozzi1 and other noted writers on 
this neglected subject are at last      
winning their way into practice1 with   

the modifications or adaptations which  
the immense gains of the human race in  
knowledge and power since the nineteenth
 century opened have shown to be wise4  
,for teachers and educational           
administrators it is interesting to     
observe the steps by which ,spencer's   
doctrines--and especially his doctrine  
of the supreme value of science--have   
advanced towards acceptance in practice4
 ,in general1 the advance has been      
brought about through the indirect      
effects of the enormous industrial1     
social1 and political changes of the    
last fifty years4 ,the first practical  
step was the introduction of laboratory 
teaching of one or more of the sciences 
into the secondary schools and colleges4
 ,chemistry and physics were the        
commonest subjects selected4 ,these two 
subjects had been taught from books even
 earlier2 but memorising science out of 
books is far less useful as training    
than memorising grammars and            
vocabularies4 ,the characteristic       

discipline of science can be imparted   
only through the laboratory method4 ,the
 schoolmasters and college faculties who
 took this step by no means admitted    
,spencer's contention that science      
should be the universal staple at all   
stages of child development4 ,on the    
contrary1 they believed1 as most people 
do to-day1 that the mind of the young   
child cannot grasp the processes and    
generalisations of science1 and that    
science is no more universally fitted to
 develop mental power than the classics 
or mathematics4 ,indeed1 experience     
during the past fifty years seems to    
have proved that fewer minds are        
naturally inclined to scientific study  
than to linguistic or historical study2 
so that if some science is to be learnt 
by everybody1 the amount of such study  
should be limited to acquiring in one or
 two sciences knowledge of the          
scientific method in general4 ,so much  
scientific training is indeed           
universally desirable2 because good     

training of the senses to observe       
accurately is universally desirable1 and
 the collecting1 comparing1 and grouping
 of many facts teach orderliness in     
thinking1 and lead up to something which
 ,spencer valued highly in education--a 
rational explanation of phenomena4      
,science having obtained a foothold in  
secondary schools and colleges1 an      
adequate development of science-teaching
 resulted from the introduction of      
options or elections for the pupils     
among numerous different courses1 in    
place of a curriculum prescribed for    
all4 ,the elaborate teaching of many    
sciences was thus introduced4 ,the pupil
 or student saw and recorded for        
himself2 used books only as helps and   
guides in seeing1 recording1 and        
generalising2 proceeded from the known  
to the unknown2 and in short1 made      
numerous applications of the doctrines  
which pervade all ,spencer's writings on
 education4 ,in the ,united ,states     
these methods were introduced earlier   

and have been carried farther than in   
,england2 but within the last few years 
the changes made in education have been 
more extensive and rapid in ,england    
than in any other country2--witness the 
announcements of the new high schools   
and the re-organised grammar schools1 of
 such colleges as ,south ,kensington1   
,armstrong1 ,king's1 the ,university    
,college 7,london71 and ,goldsmiths'1   
and of the new municipal universities   
such as ,victoria1 ,bristol1 ,sheffield1
 ,birmingham1 ,liverpool1 and ,leeds4   
,the new technical schools also         
illustrate the advent of instruction in 
applied science as an important element 
in advanced education4 ,such            
institutions as the ,seafield ,park     
,engineering ,college1 the ,city ,guilds
 of ,london ,institute1 the ,city of    
,london ,college1 and the ,battersea    
,polytechnic are instances of the same  
development4 ,some endowed institutions 
for girls illustrate the same           
tendencies1 as1 for example1 the        

,bedford ,college for ,women and the    
,royal ,holloway ,college4 ,all these   
institutions teach sciences in          
considerable variety1 and in the way    
that ,spencer advocated1--not so much   
because they have distinctly accepted   
his views1 as because modern industrial 
and social conditions compel the        
preparation in science of young people  
destined for various occupations and    
services indispensable to modern        
society4 ,the method of the preparation 
is essentially that which he advocated4 
,spencer's propositions to the effect   
that the study of science was desirable 
for artisans1 artists1 and1 in general1 
for people who were to get their livings
 through various skills of hand and eye1
 were received with great incredulity1  
not to say derision--particularly when  
he maintained that some knowledge of the
 theory which underlies an art was      
desirable for manual practitioners of   
the art2 but the changes of the last    
fifty years in the practice of the arts 

and trades may be said to have          
demonstrated that his views were        
thoroughly sound4 ,the applications of  
science in the arts and trades have been
 so numerous and productive1 that       
widespread training in science has      
become indispensable to any nation which
 means to excel in the manufacturing    
industries1 whether of large scale or   
small scale4 ,the extraordinary         
popularity of evening schools and       
correspondence schools in the ,united   
,states rests on the need which young   
people employed in the various          
industries of the country feel of       
obtaining more theoretical knowledge    
about the physical or chemical processes
 through which they are earning a       
livelihood4 ,the ,young ,men's          
,christian ,associations in the         
,american cities have become great      
centres of evening instruction for just 
such young persons4 ,the correspondence 
schools are teaching hundreds of        
thousands of young people at work in    

machine-shops1 mills1 mines1 and        
factories1 who believe that they can    
advance themselves in their several     
occupations by supplementing their      
elementary education with correspondence
 courses1 taken while they are at work  
earning a livelihood in industries that 
rest ultimately on applications of      
science4  ,spencer's objection to the   
constant exercise of authority and      
compulsion in schools1 families1 and the
 ,state is felt to-day much more widely 
than it was in #aheh1 when he wrote his 
essay on moral education4 ,his proposal 
that children should be allowed to      
suffer the natural consequences of their
 foolish or wrong acts does not seem to 
the present generation--any more than it
 did to him--to be applicable to very   
young children1 who need protection from
 the undue severity of many natural     
penalties2 but the soundness of his     
general doctrine that it is the true    
function of parents and teachers to see 
that children habitually experience the 

normal consequences of their conduct1   
without putting artificial consequences 
in place of them1 now commands the      
assent of most persons whose minds have 
been freed from the theological dogmas  
of original sin and total depravity4    
,spencer did not expect the immediate   
adoption of this principle2 because     
society as a whole was not yet humane   
enough4 ,he admitted that the           
uncontrollable child of ill-controlled  
adults might sometimes have to be       
scolded or beaten1 and that these       
barbarous methods might be perhaps the  
best preparation such children can have 
for the barbarous society in which they 
are presently to play a part4 ,he hoped1
 however1 that the civilised members of 
society would by and by spontaneously   
use milder measures2 and this hope has  
been realised in good degree1 with the  
result that happiness in childhood is   
much commoner and more constant than it 
used to be4 ,parents and teachers are   
beginning to realise that self-control  

is a prime object in moral education1   
and that this self-control cannot be    
practised under a regime of constant    
supervision1 unexplained commands1 and  
painful punishments1 but must be gained 
in freedom4 ,some large-scale experience
 with ,american secondary schools which 
prepare boys for admission to college   
has been edifying in this respect4 ,the 
,american colleges1 as a rule1 do not   
undertake to exercise much supervision  
over their students1 but leave them free
 to regulate their own lives in regard  
to both work and play4 ,now it is the   
boys who come from the secondary schools
 where the closest supervision is       
maintained that are in most danger of   
falling into evil ways when they first  
go to college4  ,spencer put very       
forcibly a valuable doctrine for which  
many earlier writers on the theory of   
education had failed to get a           
hearing--the doctrine1 namely1 that all 
instruction should be pleasurable and   
interesting4 ,fifty years ago almost all

 teachers believed that it was          
impossible to make school-work          
interesting1 or life-work either2 so    
that the child must be forced to grind  
without pleasure1 in preparation for    
life's grind2 and the forcing was to be 
done by experience of the teacher's     
displeasure and the infliction of pain4 
,through the slow effects of ,spencer's 
teaching and of the experience of       
practical teachers who have demonstrated
 that instruction can be made           
pleasurable1 and that the very hardest  
work is done by interested pupils       
because they are interested1 it has     
gradually come to pass that his heresy  
has become the prevailing judgment among
 sensible and humane teachers4 ,the     
experience of many adults1 hard at work 
in the modern industrial1 commercial1   
and financial world1 has taught them    
that human beings can make their        
intensest application only to problems  
in which they are personally interested 
for one reason or another1 and that     

freemen work much harder than slaves1   
because they feel within themselves     
strong motives for exertion which slaves
 cannot possibly feel4 ,so1 many        
intelligent adults1 including many      
parents and teachers1 have come to      
believe it possible that children will  
learn to do hard work1 both in school   
and in after life1 through the free play
 of interior motives which appeal to    
them1 and prompt them to persistent     
exertion4  ,the justice of ,spencer's   
views about training through pleasurable
 sensation and achievement in freedom   
rather than through uninterested work   
and pain inflicted by despotic          
government1 is well illustrated by the  
recent improvements in the discipline of
 reformatories for boys and girls and   
young men and women4 ,it has been       
demonstrated that the only useful       
reformatories are those which diminish  
the criminal's liberty of action as     
little as possible1 require him to      
perform productive labour1 educate him  

for a trade or other useful occupation1 
and offer him the reward of an          
abridgment of sentence in return for    
industry and self-control4 ,repression  
and compulsion under penalties however  
severe fail to reform1 and often make   
bad moral conditions worse4             
,instruction1 as much freedom as is     
consistent with the safety of society1  
and an appeal to the ordinary motives of
 emulation1 satisfaction in achievement1
 and the desire to win credit1 can1 and 
do1 reform4  ,many schools1 both public 
and private1 have now adopted--in most  
cases unconsciously--many of ,spencer's 
more detailed suggestions4 ,the         
laboratory method of instruction1 for   
example1 now common for scientific      
subjects in good schools1 is an         
application of his doctrines of concrete
 illustration1 training in the accurate 
use of the senses1 and subordination of 
book-work4 ,many schools realise1 too1  
that learning by heart and1 in general1 
memorising from books are not the only  

means of storing the mind of a child4   
,they should make parts of a sound      
education1 but should not be used to the
 exclusion of learning through eye1 ear1
 and hand4 ,spencer pointed out with    
much elaboration that children acquire  
in their early years a vast amount of   
information exclusively through the     
incessant use of their senses4 ,to-day  
teachers know this fact1 and realise    
much better than the teachers of fifty  
years ago did1 that all through the     
school and college period the pupils    
should be getting a large part of their 
new knowledge through the careful       
application of their own powers of      
observation1 aided1 indeed1 by books and
 pictures which record the observations1
 old and new1 of other people4 ,the     
young human being1 unlike the puppy or  
the kitten1 is not confined to the use  
of his own senses as sources of         
information and discovery2 but can enjoy
 the fruits of a prodigious width and   
depth of observation acquired by        

preceding generations and adult members 
of his own generation4 ,a recent        
illustration of this extension of the   
method of observation in teaching to    
observations made by other people is the
 new method of giving moral instruction 
to school children through photographs  
of actual scenes which illustrate both  
good morals and bad1 the exhibition of  
the photographs being accompanied by a  
running oral comment from the teacher4  
,in this kind of moral instruction it   
seems to be possible to interest all    
kinds of children1 both civilised and   
barbarous1 both ill-bred and well-bred4 
,the teaching comes through the eye1 for
 the children themselves observe        
intently the pictures which the lantern 
throws on the screen2 but the striking  
scenes thus put before them probably lie
 in most instances quite outside the    
region of their own experiences4  ,the  
essay on ,what ,knowledge is of ,most   
,worth8 contains a hot denunciation of  
that kind of information which in most  

schools used to usurp the name of       
history4 ,it is enough to say of this   
part of ,spencer's educational doctrine 
that all the best historical writers    
since the middle of the nineteenth      
century seem to have adopted the        
principles which he declared should     
govern the writing of history4 ,as a    
result1 the teaching of history in      
schools and colleges has undergone a    
profound change4 ,it now deals with the 
nature and action of government1        
central1 local1 and ecclesiastical1 with
 social observances1 industrial systems1
 and the customs which regulate popular 
life1 out-of-doors and indoors4 ,it     
depicts also the intellectual condition 
of the nation and the progress it has   
made in applied science1 the fine arts1 
and legislation1 and includes           
descriptions of the peoples' food1      
shelters1 and amusements4 ,to this      
result many authors and teachers have   
contributed2 but ,spencer's violent     
denunciation of history as it was taught

 in his time has greatly promoted this  
important reform4  ,many                
twentieth-century teachers are sure to  
put in practice ,spencer's exhortation  
to teach children to draw with pen and  
pencil1 and to use paints and brush4 ,he
 maintained that the common omission of 
drawing as an important element in the  
training of children was in contempt of 
some of the most obvious of nature's    
suggestions with regard to the natural  
development of human faculties2 and the 
better recent practice in some ,english 
and ,american schools verifies his      
statement2 nevertheless some of the best
 secondary schools in both countries    
still fail to recognise drawing and     
painting as important elements in       
liberal education4  ,modern society as  
yet hardly approaches the putting into  
effective practice of the sound views   
which ,spencer set forth with great     
detail in his essay on ,physical        
,education4 ,the instruction given in   
schools and colleges on the care of the 

body and the laws of health is still    
very meagre2 and in certain subjects of 
the utmost importance no instruction    
whatever is given1 as1 for example1 in  
the normal methods of reproduction in   
plants and animals1 in eugenics1 and in 
the ruinous consequences of disregarding
 sexual purity and honour4 ,in one      
respect his fundamental doctrine of     
freedom1 carried into the domain of     
physical exercise1 has been extensively 
adopted in ,england1 on the ,continent1 
and in ,america4 ,he taught that        
although gymnastics1 military drill1 and
 formal exercises of the limbs are      
better than nothing1 they can never     
serve in place of the plays prompted by 
nature4 ,he maintained that for girls as
 well as boys the sportive activities to
 which the instincts impel are essential
 to bodily welfare4 ,this principle is  
now being carried into practice not only
 for school-children1 but for operatives
 in factories1 clerks1 and other young  
persons whose occupations are sedentary 

and monotonous4 ,for all such persons1  
free plays are vastly better than formal
 exercises of any sort4  ,the wide      
adoption of ,spencer's educational ideas
 has had to await the advent of the new 
educational administration and the new  
public interest therein4 ,it awaited the
 coming of the state university in the  
,united ,states and of the city         
university in ,england1 the             
establishment of numerous technical     
schools1 the profound modifications made
 in grammar schools and academies1 and  
the multiplication in both countries of 
the secondary schools called high       
schools4 ,in other words1 his ideas     
gradually gained admission to a vast    
number of new institutions of education1
 which were created and maintained      
because both the governments and the    
nations felt a new sense of             
responsibility for the training of the  
future generations4 ,these new agencies 
have been created in great variety1 and 
the introduction of ,spencer's ideas has

 been much facilitated by this variety4 
,these institutions were national1      
state1 or municipal4 ,they were         
tax-supported or endowed4 ,they charged 
tuition fees1 or were open to competent 
children or adults without fee4 ,they   
undertook to meet alike the needs of the
 individual and the needs of the        
community2 and this undertaking involved
 the introduction of many new subjects  
of instruction and many new methods4    
,through their variety they could be    
sympathetic with both individualism and 
collectivism4 ,the variety of           
instruction offered is best illustrated 
in the strongest ,american universities1
 some of which are tax-supported and    
some endowed4 ,these universities       
maintain a great variety of courses of  
instruction in subjects none of which   
was taught with the faintest approach to
 adequacy in ,american universities     
sixty years ago2 but in making these    
extensions the universities have not    
found it necessary to reduce the        

instruction offered in the classics and 
mathematics4 ,the traditional cultural  
studies are still provided2 but they    
represent only one programme among many1
 and no one is compelled to follow it4  
,the domination of the classics is at an
 end2 but any student who prefers the   
traditional path to culture1 or whose   
parents choose that path for him1 will  
find in several ,american universities  
much richer provisions of classical     
instruction than any university in the  
country offered sixty years ago4 ,the   
present proposals to widen the influence
 of ,oxford ,university do not mean1    
therefore1 that the classics1 history1  
and philosophy are to be taught less    
there1 but only that other subjects are 
to be taught more1 and that a greater   
number and variety of young men will be 
prepared there for the service of the   
nation4  ,the new public interest in    
education as a necessary of modern      
industrial and political life has       
gradually brought about a great increase

 in the proportional number of young men
 and women whose education is prolonged 
beyond the period of primary or         
elementary instruction2 and this        
multitude of young people is preparing  
for a great variety of callings1 many of
 which are new within sixty years1      
having been brought into being by the   
extraordinary advances of applied       
science4 ,the advent of these new       
callings has favoured the spread of     
,spencer's educational ideas4 ,the      
recent agitation in favour of what is   
called vocational training is a vivid   
illustration of the wide acceptance of  
his arguments4 ,even the farmers1 their 
farm-hands1 and their children must     
nowadays be offered free instruction in 
agriculture2 because the public1 and    
especially the urban public1 believes   
that by disseminating better methods of 
tillage1 better seed1 and appropriate   
manures1 the yield of the farms can be  
improved in quality and multiplied in   
quantity4 ,in regard to all material    

interests1 the free peoples are acting  
on the principle that science is the    
knowledge of most worth4 ,spencer's     
doctrine of natural consequences in     
place of artificial penalties1 his view 
that all young people should be taught  
how to be wise parents and good         
citizens1 and his advocacy of           
instruction in public and private       
hygiene1 lie at the roots of many of the
 philanthropic and reformatory movements
 of the day4  ,on the whole1 ,herbert   
,spencer has been fortunate among       
educational philosophers4 ,he has not   
had to wait so long for the acceptance  
of his teachings as ,comenius1          
,montaigne1 or ,rousseau waited4 ,his   
ideas have been floated on a prodigious 
tide of industrial and social change1   
which necessarily involved wide-spread  
and profound educational reform4  ,this 
introduction deals with ,spencer's four 
essays on education2 but in the present 
volume are included three other famous  
essays written by him during the same   

period 7#ahed-ei7 which produced the    
essays on education4 ,all three are     
germane to the educational essays1      
because they deal with the general law  
of human progress1 with the genesis of  
that science which ,spencer thought to  
be the knowledge of most worth1 and with
 the origin and function of music1 a    
subject which he maintained should play 
an important part in any scheme of      
education4                              
,,charles ,w4 ,,eliot4     ,,select     
,,bibliography  ,,works4 ,the ,proper   
,sphere of ,government1 #ahdc2 ,social  
,statics1 #ahej2 ,theory of ,population 
7,westminster ,review71 ,april #aheb2   
,the ,development of ,hypothesis 7,the  
,leader71 #bjth ,march #aheb2 ,the      
,ultimate ,laws of ,physiology          
7,national ,review71 ,april #aheg2      
,essays1 ,scientific1 ,political and    
,speculative1 #b vols41 #aheh-fc2       
,education1 #ahfa2 ,a ,system of        
,synthetic ,philosophy 7#ab vols41      
#ahfb-if71 made up as follows3 ,first   

,principles1 #ahfb2 ,principles of      
,biology1 #b vols41 #ahfd-g2 ,principles
 of ,psychology1 #b vols41 #ahgj-b2     
,principles of ,sociology1 #c vols41    
#ahgf-if2 ,ceremonial ,institutions1    
#ahgi2 ,principles of ,morality1 #b     
vols41 #ahgi-ic 7vol4 i1 part ,i        
published as ,data of ,ethics1 #ahgi2   
part #d as ,justice1 #ahia72 ,political 
,institutions1 #ahhb4 ,meanwhile the    
following works were also published3    
,the ,classification of the ,sciences1  
#ahfd2 ,the ,study of ,sociology1 #ahgb2
 ,descriptive ,sociology1 #ahgc2 ,the   
,man versus the ,state1 #ahhd2 ,the     
,factors of ,organic ,evolution1 #ahhg2 
,the ,inadequacy of ,natural ,selection1
 #ahic4 ,spencer's ,autobiography       
appeared posthumously1 #b vols41 #aijd4 
,,collected ,,edition4 ,nineteen        
volumes1 #ahfa-aijb4  ,,biography ,,and 
,,criticism4 ,t4 ,funk-,brentano1 ,les  
,sophistes grecs et les ,sophistes      
contemporains 7,mill and ,spencer71     
#ahgi2 ,f4,h4 ,collins1 ,an ,epitome of 

the ,synthetic ,philosophy1 #ahhi2 ,h4  
,sidgwick1 ,lectures on the ,ethics of  
,green1 ,spencer and ,martineau1 #aijb2 
',the ,philosophy of ,herbert ,spencer' 
7in ,the ,philosophy of ,kant and ,other
 ,lectures1 #aije72 ,d4 ,duncan1 ,an    
,introduction to the ,philosophy of     
,spencer1 #aijd2 ,life and ,letters of  
,herbert ,spencer1 #aijh2 ,j4 ,royce1   
,herbert ,spencer4 ,an ,estimate and a  
,review1 #aijd2 ,j4,a4 ,thomson1        
,herbert ,spencer1 #aijf2 ,w4,h4        
,hudson1 ,herbert ,spencer1 #aiaf2 ,j4  
,rumney1 ,herbert ,spencer's ,sociology1
 #aicd2 ,r4,c4,k4 ,ensor1 ,some         
,reflections on ,herbert ,spencer's     
,doctrine1 #aidf4     ,,contents        
,,page ,introduction by ,charles ,w4    
,eliot                                  
vii  ,,part ,i  ,,education3            
,,intellectual1 ,,moral1 ,,and          
,,physical  ,,what ,,knowledge ,,is ,,of
 ,,most ,,worth8                        
#a  ,,intellectual ,,education          
#de  ,,moral ,,education                

#hd  ,,physical ,,education             
#aaf  ,,part ,,ii  ,,essays ,,on        
,,kindred ,,subjects  ,,progress3 ,,its 
,,law ,,and ,,cause                     
#aec  ,,on ,,manners ,,and ,,fashion    
#aih  ,,on ,,the ,,genesis ,,of         
,,science                               
#bci  ,,on ,,the ,,physiology ,,of      
,,laughter                              
#bih  ,,on ,,the ,,origin ,,and         
,,function ,,of ,,music                 
#caj     ,,original ,,preface  ,,to     
,,education3 ,,intellectual1 ,,moral1   
,,and ,,physical   ,the four chapters of
 which this work consists1 originally   
appeared as four ,review-articles3 the  
first in the ,westminster ,review for   
,july #ahei2 the second in the ,north   
,british ,review for ,may #ahed2 and the
 remaining two in the ,british          
,quarterly ,review for ,april #aheh and 
for ,april #ahei4 ,severally treating   
different divisions of the subject1 but 
together forming a tolerably complete   
whole1 ,i originally wrote them with a  

view to their republication in a united 
form2 and they would some time since    
have thus been issued1 had not a legal  
difficulty stood in the way4 ,this      
difficulty being now removed1 ,i hasten 
to fulfil the intention with which they 
were written4  ,that in their first     
shape these chapters were severally     
independent1 is the reason to be        
assigned for some slight repetitions    
which occur in them3 one leading idea1  
more especially1 reappearing twice4 ,as1
 however1 this idea is on each occasion 
presented under a new form1 and as it   
can scarcely be too much enforced1 ,i   
have not thought well to omit any of the
 passages embodying it4  ,some additions
 of importance will be found in the     
chapter on ,intellectual ,education2 and
 in the one on ,physical ,education     
there are a few minor alterations4 ,but 
the chief changes which have been made1 
are changes of expression3 all of the   
essays having undergone a careful verbal
 revision4                              

,h4,s4 ,,london1 ,may #ahfa             
,,spencer',s ,,essays     ,,part        
,i--,,on ,,education  ,,what ,,knowledge
 ,,is ,,of ,,most ,,worth8   ,it has    
been truly remarked that1 in order of   
time1 decoration precedes dress4 ,among 
people who submit to great physical     
suffering that they may have themselves 
handsomely tattooed1 extremes of        
temperature are borne with but little   
attempt at mitigation4 ,humboldt tells  
us that an ,orinoco ,indian1 though     
quite regardless of bodily comfort1 will
 yet labour for a fortnight to purchase 
pigment wherewith to make himself       
admired2 and that the same woman who    
would not hesitate to leave her hut     
without a fragment of clothing on1 would
 not dare to commit such a breach of    
decorum as to go out unpainted4         
,voyagers find that coloured beads and  
trinkets are much more prized by wild   
tribes than are calicoes or broadcloths4
 ,and the anecdotes we have of the ways 
in which1 when shirts and coats are     

given1 savages turn them to some        
ludicrous display1 show how completely  
the idea of ornament predominates over  
that of use4 ,nay1 there are still more 
extreme illustrations3 witness the fact 
narrated by ,capt4 ,speke of his        
,african attendants1 who strutted about 
in their goat-skin mantles when the     
weather was fine1 but when it was wet1  
took them off1 folded them up1 and went 
about naked1 shivering in the rain6     
,indeed1 the facts of aboriginal life   
seem to indicate that dress is developed
 out of decorations4 ,and when we       
remember that even among ourselves most 
think more about the fineness of the    
fabric than its warmth1 and more about  
the cut than the convenience--when we   
see that the function is still in great 
measure subordinated to the             
appearance--we have further reason for  
inferring such an origin4  ,it is       
curious that the like relations hold    
with the mind4 ,among mental as among   
bodily acquisitions1 the ornamental     

comes before the useful4 ,not only in   
times past1 but almost as much in our   
own era1 that knowledge which conduces  
to personal well-being has been         
postponed to that which brings applause4
 ,in the ,greek schools1 music1 poetry1 
rhetoric1 and a philosophy which1 until 
,socrates taught1 had but little bearing
 upon action1 were the dominant         
subjects2 while knowledge aiding the    
arts of life had a very subordinate     
place4 ,and in our own universities and 
schools at the present moment1 the like 
antithesis holds4 ,we are guilty of     
something like a platitude when we say  
that throughout his after-career1 a boy1
 in nine cases out of ten1 applies his  
,latin and ,greek to no practical       
purposes4 ,the remark is trite that in  
his shop1 or his office1 in managing his
 estate or his family1 in playing his   
part as director of a bank or a railway1
 he is very little aided by this        
knowledge he took so many years to      
acquire--so little1 that generally the  

greater part of it drops out of his     
memory2 and if he occasionally vents a  
,latin quotation1 or alludes to some    
,greek myth1 it is less to throw light  
on the topic in hand than for the sake  
of effect4 ,if we inquire what is the   
real motive for giving boys a classical 
education1 we find it to be simply      
conformity to public opinion4 ,men dress
 their children's minds as they do their
 bodies1 in the prevailing fashion4 ,as 
the ,orinoco ,indian puts on paint      
before leaving his hut1 not with a view 
to any direct benefit1 but because he   
would be ashamed to be seen without it2 
so1 a boy's drilling in ,latin and      
,greek is insisted on1 not because of   
their intrinsic value1 but that he may  
not be disgraced by being found ignorant
 of them--that he may have the education
 of a gentleman--the badge marking a    
certain social position1 and bringing a 
consequent respect4  ,this parallel is  
still more clearly displayed in the case
 of the other sex4 ,in the treatment of 

both mind and body1 the decorative      
element has continued to predominate in 
a greater degree among women than among 
men4 ,originally1 personal adornment    
occupied the attention of both sexes    
equally4 ,in these latter days of       
civilisation1 however1 we see that in   
the dress of men the regard for         
appearance has in a considerable degree 
yielded to the regard for comfort2 while
 in their education the useful has of   
late been trenching on the ornamental4  
,in neither direction has this change   
gone so far with women4 ,the wearing of 
earrings1 finger-rings1 bracelets2 the  
elaborate dressings of the hair2 the    
still occasional use of paint2 the      
immense labour bestowed in making       
habiliments sufficiently attractive2 and
 the great discomfort that will be      
submitted to for the sake of conformity2
 show how greatly1 in the attiring of   
women1 the desire of approbation        
overrides the desire for warmth and     
convenience4 ,and similarly in their    

education1 the immense preponderance of 
accomplishments proves how here1 too1   
use is subordinated to display4         
,dancing1 deportment1 the piano1        
singing1 drawing--what a large space do 
these occupy6 ,if you ask why ,italian  
and ,german are learnt1 you will find   
that1 under all the sham reasons given1 
the real reason is1 that a knowledge of 
those tongues is thought ladylike4 ,it  
is not that the books written in them   
may be utilised1 which they scarcely    
ever are2 but that ,italian and ,german 
songs may be sung1 and that the extent  
of attainment may bring whispered       
admiration4 ,the births1 deaths1 and    
marriages of kings1 and other like      
historic trivialities1 are committed to 
memory1 not because of any direct       
benefits that can possibly result from  
knowing them3 but because society       
considers them parts of a good          
education--because the absence of such  
knowledge may bring the contempt of     
others4 ,when we have named reading1    

writing1 spelling1 grammar1 arithmetic1 
and sewing1 we have named about all the 
things a girl is taught with a view to  
their actual uses in life2 and even some
 of these have more reference to the    
good opinion of others than to immediate
 personal welfare4  ,thoroughly to      
realise the truth that with the mind as 
with the body the ornamental precedes   
the useful1 it is requisite to glance at
 its rationale4 ,this lies in the fact  
that1 from the far past down even to the
 present1 social needs have subordinated
 individual needs1 and that the chief   
social need has been the control of     
individuals4 ,it is not1 as we commonly 
suppose1 that there are no governments  
but those of monarchs1 and parliaments1 
and constituted authorities4 ,these     
acknowledged governments are            
supplemented by other unacknowledged    
ones1 that grow up in all circles1 in   
which every man or woman strives to be  
king or queen or lesser dignitary4 ,to  
get above some and be reverenced by     

them1 and to propitiate those who are   
above us1 is the universal struggle in  
which the chief energies of life are    
expended4 ,by the accumulation of       
wealth1 by style of living1 by beauty of
 dress1 by display of knowledge or      
intellect1 each tries to subjugate      
others2 and so aids in weaving that     
ramified network of restraints by which 
society is kept in order4 ,it is not the
 savage chief only1 who1 in formidable  
war-paint1 with scalps at his belt1 aims
 to strike awe into his inferiors2 it is
 not only the belle who1 by elaborate   
toilet1 polished manners1 and numerous  
accomplishments1 strives to make        
conquests2 but the scholar1 the         
historian1 the philosopher1 use their   
acquirements to the same end4 ,we are   
none of us content with quietly         
unfolding our own individualities to the
 full in all directions2 but have a     
restless craving to impress our         
individualities upon others1 and in some
 way subordinate them4 ,and this it is  

which determines the character of our   
education4 ,not what knowledge is of    
most real worth1 is the consideration2  
but what will bring most applause1      
honour1 respect--what will most conduce 
to social position and influence--what  
will be most imposing4 ,as1 throughout  
life1 not what we are1 but what we shall
 be thought1 is the question2 so in     
education1 the question is1 not the     
intrinsic value of knowledge1 so much as
 its extrinsic effects on others4 ,and  
this being our dominant idea1 direct    
utility is scarcely more regarded than  
by the barbarian when filing his teeth  
and staining his nails4         99      
99       99       99       99  ,if there
 requires further evidence of the rude1 
undeveloped character of our education1 
we have it in the fact that the         
comparative worths of different kinds of
 knowledge have been as yet scarcely    
even discussed--much less discussed in a
 methodic way with definite results4    
,not only is it that no standard of     

relative values has yet been agreed     
upon2 but the existence of any such     
standard has not been conceived in a    
clear manner4 ,and not only is it that  
the existence of such a standard has not
 been clearly conceived2 but the need   
for it seems to have been scarcely even 
felt4 ,men read books on this topic1 and
 attend lectures on that2 decide that   
their children shall be instructed in   
these branches of knowledge1 and shall  
not be instructed in those2 and all     
under the guidance of mere custom1 or   
liking1 or prejudice2 without ever      
considering the enormous importance of  
determining in some rational way what   
things are really most worth learning4  
,it is true that in all circles we hear 
occasional remarks on the importance of 
this or the other order of information4 
,but whether the degree of its          
importance justifies the expenditure of 
the time needed to acquire it2 and      
whether there are not things of more    
importance to which such time might be  

better devoted2 are queries which1 if   
raised at all1 are disposed of quite    
summarily1 according to personal        
predilections4 ,it is true also1 that   
now and then1 we hear revived the       
standing controversy respecting the     
comparative merits of classics and      
mathematics4 ,this controversy1 however1
 is carried on in an empirical manner1  
with no reference to an ascertained     
criterion2 and the question at issue is 
insignificant when compared with the    
general question of which it is part4   
,to suppose that deciding whether a     
mathematical or a classical education is
 the best is deciding what is the proper
 curriculum1 is much the same thing as  
to suppose that the whole of dietetics  
lies in ascertaining whether or not     
bread is more nutritive than potatoes6  
,the question which we contend is of    
such transcendent moment1 is1 not       
whether such or such knowledge is of    
worth but what is its relative worth8   
,when they have named certain advantages

 which a given course of study has      
secured them1 persons are apt to assume 
that they have justified themselves2    
quite forgetting that the adequateness  
of the advantages is the point to be    
judged4 ,there is1 perhaps1 not a       
subject to which men devote attention   
that has not some value4 ,a year        
diligently spent in getting up heraldry1
 would very possibly give a little      
further insight into ancient manners and
 morals4 ,any one who should learn the  
distances between all the towns in      
,england1 might1 in the course of his   
life1 find one or two of the thousand   
facts he had acquired of some slight    
service when arranging a journey4       
,gathering together all the small gossip
 of a county1 profitless occupation as  
it would be1 might yet occasionally help
 to establish some useful fact--say1 a  
good example of hereditary transmission4
 ,but in these cases1 every one would   
admit that there was no proportion      
between the required labour and the     

probable benefit4 ,no one would tolerate
 the proposal to devote some years of a 
boy's time to getting such information1 
at the cost of much more valuable       
information which he might else have    
got4 ,and if here the test of relative  
value is appealed to and held           
conclusive1 then should it be appealed  
to and held conclusive throughout4 ,had 
we time to master all subjects we need  
not be particular4 ,to quote the old    
song3--    ,could a man be secure       
,that his day would endure   ,as of old1
 for a thousand long years1   ,what     
things might he know6   ,what deeds     
might he do6   ,and all without hurry or
 care4  ,but we that have but span-long 
lives must ever bear in mind our limited
 time for acquisition4 ,and remembering 
how narrowly this time is limited1 not  
only by the shortness of life1 but also 
still more by the business of life1 we  
ought to be especially solicitous to    
employ what time we have to the greatest
 advantage4 ,before devoting years to   

some subject which fashion or fancy     
suggests1 it is surely wise to weigh    
with great care the worth of the        
results1 as compared with the worth of  
various alternative results which the   
same years might bring if otherwise     
applied4  ,in education1 then1 this is  
the question of questions1 which it is  
high time we discussed in some methodic 
way4 ,the first in importance1 though   
the last to be considered1 is the       
problem--how to decide among the        
conflicting claims of various subjects  
on our attention4 ,before there can be a
 rational curriculum1 we must settle    
which things it most concerns us to     
know2 or1 to use a word of ,bacon's1 now
 unfortunately obsolete--we must        
determine the relative values of        
knowledges4         99       99       99
       99       99  ,to this end1 a     
measure of value is the first requisite4
 ,and happily1 respecting the true      
measure of value1 as expressed in       
general terms1 there can be no dispute4 

,every one in contending for the worth  
of any particular order of information1 
does so by showing its bearing upon some
 part of life4 ,in reply to the         
question--,of what use is it8 the       
mathematician1 linguist1 naturalist1 or 
philosopher1 explains the way in which  
his learning beneficially influences    
action--saves from evil or secures      
good--conduces to happiness4 ,when the  
teacher of writing has pointed out how  
great an aid writing is to success in   
business--that is1 to the obtainment of 
sustenance--that is1 to satisfactory    
living2 he is held to have proved his   
case4 ,and when the collector of dead   
facts 7say a numismatist7 fails to make 
clear any appreciable effects which     
these facts can produce on human        
welfare1 he is obliged to admit that    
they are comparatively valueless4 ,all  
then1 either directly or by implication1
 appeal to this as the ultimate test4   
,how to live8--that is the essential    
question for us4 ,not how to live in the

 mere material sense only1 but in the   
widest sense4 ,the general problem which
 comprehends every special problem      
is--the right ruling of conduct in all  
directions under all circumstances4 ,in 
what way to treat the body2 in what way 
to treat the mind2 in what way to manage
 our affairs2 in what way to bring up a 
family2 in what way to behave as a      
citizen2 in what way to utilise those   
sources of happiness which nature       
supplies--how to use all our faculties  
to the greatest advantage of ourselves  
and others--how to live completely8 ,and
 this being the great thing needful for 
us to learn1 is1 by consequence1 the    
great thing which education has to      
teach4 ,to prepare us for complete      
living is the function which education  
has to discharge2 and the only rational 
mode of judging of an educational course
 is1 to judge in what degree it         
discharges such function4  ,this test1  
never used in its entirety1 but rarely  
even partially used1 and used then in a 

vague1 half conscious way1 has to be    
applied consciously1 methodically1 and  
throughout all cases4 ,it behoves us to 
set before ourselves1 and ever to keep  
clearly in view1 complete living as the 
end to be achieved2 so that in bringing 
up our children we may choose subjects  
and methods of instruction1 with        
deliberate reference to this end4 ,not  
only ought we to cease from the mere    
unthinking adoption of the current      
fashion in education1 which has no      
better warrant than any other fashion2  
but we must also rise above that rude1  
empirical style of judging displayed by 
those more intelligent people who do    
bestow some care in overseeing the      
cultivation of their children's minds4  
,it must not suffice simply to think    
that such or such information will be   
useful in after life1 or that this kind 
of knowledge is of more practical value 
than that2 but we must seek out some    
process of estimating their respective  
values1 so that as far as possible we   

may positively know which are most      
deserving of attention4  ,doubtless the 
task is difficult--perhaps never to be  
more than approximately achieved4 ,but1 
considering the vastness of the         
interests at stake1 its difficulty is no
 reason for pusillanimously passing it  
by2 but rather for devoting every energy
 to its mastery4 ,and if we only proceed
 systematically1 we may very soon get at
 results of no small moment4  ,our first
 step must obviously be to classify1 in 
the order of their importance1 the      
leading kinds of activity which         
constitute human life4 ,they may be     
naturally arranged into3--#a4 those     
activities which directly minister to   
self-preservation2 #b4 those activities 
which1 by securing the necessaries of   
life1 indirectly minister to            
self-preservation2 #c4 those activities 
which have for their end the rearing and
 discipline of offspring2 #d4 those     
activities which are involved in the    
maintenance of proper social and        

political relations2 #e4 those          
miscellaneous activities which fill up  
the leisure part of life1 devoted to the
 gratification of the tastes and        
feelings4  ,that these stand in         
something like their true order of      
subordination1 it needs no long         
consideration to show4 ,the actions and 
precautions by which1 from moment to    
moment1 we secure personal safety1 must 
clearly take precedence of all others4  
,could there be a man1 ignorant as an   
infant of surrounding objects and       
movements1 or how to guide himself among
 them1 he would pretty certainly lose   
his life the first time he went into the
 street2 notwithstanding any amount of  
learning he might have on other matters4
 ,and as entire ignorance in all other  
directions would be less promptly fatal 
than entire ignorance in this direction1
 it must be admitted that knowledge     
immediately conducive to                
self-preservation is of primary         
importance4  ,that next after direct    

self-preservation comes the indirect    
self-preservation which consists in     
acquiring the means of living1 none will
 question4 ,that a man's industrial     
functions must be considered before his 
parental ones1 is manifest from the fact
 that1 speaking generally1 the discharge
 of the parental functions is made      
possible only by the previous discharge 
of the industrial ones4 ,the power of   
self-maintenance necessarily preceding  
the power of maintaining offspring1 it  
follows that knowledge needful for      
self-maintenance has stronger claims    
than knowledge needful for family       
welfare--is second in value to none save
 knowledge needful for immediate        
self-preservation4  ,as the family comes
 before the ,state in order of time--as 
the bringing up of children is possible 
before the ,state exists1 or when it has
 ceased to be1 whereas the ,state is    
rendered possible only by the bringing  
up of children2 it follows that the     
duties of the parent demand closer      

attention than those of the citizen4    
,or1 to use a further argument--since   
the goodness of a society ultimately    
depends on the nature of its citizens2  
and since the nature of its citizens is 
more modifiable by early training than  
by anything else2 we must conclude that 
the welfare of the family underlies the 
welfare of society4 ,and hence knowledge
 directly conducing to the first1 must  
take precedence of knowledge directly   
conducing to the last4  ,those various  
forms of pleasurable occupation which   
fill up the leisure left by graver      
occupations--the enjoyments of music1   
poetry1 painting1 etc4--manifestly imply
 a pre-existing society4 ,not only is a 
considerable development of them        
impossible without a long-established   
social union2 but their very            
subject-matter consists in great part of
 social sentiments and sympathies4 ,not 
only does society supply the conditions 
to their growth2 but also the ideas and 
sentiments they express4 ,and1          

consequently1 that part of human conduct
 which constitutes good citizenship1 is 
of more moment than that which goes out 
in accomplishments or exercise of the   
tastes2 and1 in education1 preparation  
for the one must rank before preparation
 for the other4  ,such then1 we repeat1 
is something like the rational order of 
subordination3--,that education which   
prepares for direct self-preservation2  
that which prepares for indirect        
self-preservation2 that which prepares  
for parenthood2 that which prepares for 
citizenship2 that which prepares for the
 miscellaneous refinements of life4 ,we 
do not mean to say that these divisions 
are definitely separable4 ,we do not    
deny that they are intricately entangled
 with each other1 in such way that there
 can be no training for any that is not 
in some measure a training for all4 ,nor
 do we question that of each division   
there are portions more important than  
certain portions of the preceding       
divisions3 that1 for instance1 a man of 

much skill in business but little other 
faculty1 may fall further below the     
standard of complete living than one of 
but moderate ability in money-getting   
but great judgment as a parent2 or that 
exhaustive information bearing on right 
social action1 joined with entire want  
of general culture in literature and the
 fine arts1 is less desirable than a    
more moderate share of the one joined   
with some of the other4 ,but1 after     
making due qualifications1 there still  
remain these broadly-marked divisions2  
and it still continues substantially    
true that these divisions subordinate   
one another in the foregoing order1     
because the corresponding divisions of  
life make one another possible in that  
order4  ,of course the ideal of         
education is--complete preparation in   
all these divisions4 ,but failing this  
ideal1 as in our phase of civilisation  
every one must do more or less1 the aim 
should be to maintain a due proportion  
between the degrees of preparation in   

each4 ,not exhaustive cultivation in any
 one1 supremely important though it may 
be--not even an exclusive attention to  
the two1 three1 or four divisions of    
greatest importance2 but an attention to
 all3--greatest where the value is      
greatest2 less where the value is less2 
least where the value is least4 ,for the
 average man 7not to forget the cases in
 which peculiar aptitude for some one   
department of knowledge1 rightly makes  
pursuit of that one the bread-winning   
occupation7--for the average man1 we    
say1 the desideratum is1 a training that
 approaches nearest to perfection in the
 things which most subserve complete    
living1 and falls more and more below   
perfection in the things that have more 
and more remote bearings on complete    
living4  ,in regulating education by    
this standard1 there are some general   
considerations that should be ever      
present to us4 ,the worth of any kind of
 culture1 as aiding complete living1 may
 be either necessary or more or less    

contingent4 ,there is knowledge of      
intrinsic value2 knowledge of           
quasi-intrinsic value2 and knowledge of 
conventional value4 ,such facts as that 
sensations of numbness and tingling     
commonly precede paralysis1 that the    
resistance of water to a body moving    
through it varies as the square of the  
velocity1 that chlorine is a            
disinfectant1--these1 and the truths of 
,science in general1 are of intrinsic   
value3 they will bear on human conduct  
ten thousand years hence as they do now4
 ,the extra knowledge of our own        
language1 which is given by an          
acquaintance with ,latin and ,greek1 may
 be considered to have a value that is  
quasi-intrinsic3 it must exist for us   
and for other races whose languages owe 
much to these sources2 but will last    
only as long as our languages last4     
,while that kind of information which1  
in our schools1 usurps the name         
,history--the mere tissue of names and  
dates and dead unmeaning events--has a  

conventional value only3 it has not the 
remotest bearing on any of our actions2 
and is of use only for the avoidance of 
those unpleasant criticisms which       
current opinion passes upon its absence4
 ,of course1 as those facts which       
concern all mankind throughout all time 
must be held of greater moment than     
those which concern only a portion of   
them during a limited era1 and of far   
greater moment than those which concern 
only a portion of them during the       
continuance of a fashion2 it follows    
that in a rational estimate1 knowledge  
of intrinsic worth must1 other things   
equal1 take precedence of knowledge that
 is of quasi-intrinsic or conventional  
worth4  ,one further preliminary4       
,acquirement of every kind has two      
values--value as knowledge and value as 
discipline4 ,besides its use for guiding
 conduct1 the acquisition of each order 
of facts has also its use as mental     
exercise2 and its effects as a          
preparative for complete living have to 

be considered under both these heads4   
,these1 then1 are the general ideas with
 which we must set out in discussing a  
curriculum3--,life as divided into      
several kinds of activity of            
successively decreasing importance2 the 
worth of each order of facts as         
regulating these several kinds of       
activity1 intrinsically1                
quasi-intrinsically1 and conventionally2
 and their regulative influences        
estimated both as knowledge and         
discipline4         99       99       99
       99       99  ,happily1 that      
all-important part of education which   
goes to secure direct self-preservation1
 is in great part already provided for4 
,too momentous to be left to our        
blundering1 ,nature takes it into her   
own hands4 ,while yet in its nurse's    
arms1 the infant1 by hiding its face and
 crying at the sight of a stranger1     
shows the dawning instinct to attain    
safety by flying from that which is     
unknown and may be dangerous2 and when  

it can walk1 the terror it manifests if 
an unfamiliar dog comes near1 or the    
screams with which it runs to its mother
 after any startling sight or sound1    
shows this instinct further developed4  
,moreover1 knowledge subserving direct  
self-preservation is that which it is   
chiefly busied in acquiring from hour to
 hour4 ,how to balance its body2 how to 
control its movements so as to avoid    
collisions2 what objects are hard1 and  
will hurt if struck2 what objects are   
heavy1 and injure if they fall on the   
limbs2 which things will bear the weight
 of the body1 and which not2 the pains  
inflicted by fire1 by missiles1 by sharp
 instruments--these1 and various other  
pieces of information needful for the   
avoidance of death or accident1 it is   
ever learning4 ,and when1 a few years   
later1 the energies go out in running1  
climbing1 and jumping1 in games of      
strength and games of skill1 we see in  
all these actions by which the muscles  
are developed1 the perceptions          

sharpened1 and the judgment quickened1 a
 preparation for the safe conduct of the
 body among surrounding objects and     
movements2 and for meeting those greater
 dangers that occasionally occur in the 
lives of all4 ,being thus1 as we say1 so
 well cared for by ,nature1 this        
fundamental education needs             
comparatively little care from us4 ,what
 we are chiefly called upon to see1 is1 
that there shall be free scope for      
gaining this experience and receiving   
this discipline--that there shall be no 
such thwarting of ,nature as that by    
which stupid schoolmistresses commonly  
prevent the girls in their charge from  
the spontaneous physical activities they
 would indulge in2 and so render them   
comparatively incapable of taking care  
of themselves in circumstances of peril4
  ,this1 however1 is by no means all    
that is comprehended in the education   
that prepares for direct                
self-preservation4 ,besides guarding the
 body against mechanical damage or      

destruction1 it has to be guarded       
against injury from other               
causes--against the disease and death   
that follow breaches of physiologic law4
 ,for complete living it is necessary1  
not only that sudden annihilations of   
life shall be warded off2 but also that 
there shall be escaped the incapacities 
and the slow annihilation which unwise  
habits entail4 ,as1 without health and  
energy1 the industrial1 the parental1   
the social1 and all other activities    
become more or less impossible2 it is   
clear that this secondary kind of direct
 self-preservation is only less         
important than the primary kind2 and    
that knowledge tending to secure it     
should rank very high4  ,it is true that
 here1 too1 guidance is in some measure 
ready supplied4 ,by our various physical
 sensations and desires1 ,nature has    
insured a tolerable conformity to the   
chief requirements4 ,fortunately for us1
 want of food1 great heat1 extreme cold1
 produce promptings too peremptory to be

 disregarded4 ,and would men habitually 
obey these and all like promptings when 
less strong1 comparatively few evils    
would arise4 ,if fatigue of body or     
brain were in every case followed by    
desistance2 if the oppression produced  
by a close atmosphere always led to     
ventilation2 if there were no eating    
without hunger1 or drinking without     
thirst2 then would the system be but    
seldom out of working order4 ,but so    
profound an ignorance is there of the   
laws of life1 that men do not even know 
that their sensations are their natural 
guides1 and 7when not rendered morbid by
 long--continued disobedience7 their    
trustworthy guides4 ,so that though1 to 
speak teleologically1 ,nature has       
provided efficient safeguards to health1
 lack of knowledge makes them in a great
 measure useless4  ,if any one doubts   
the importance of an acquaintance with  
the principles of physiology1 as a means
 to complete living1 let him look around
 and see how many men and women he can  

find in middle or later life who are    
thoroughly well4 ,only occasionally do  
we meet with an example of vigorous     
health continued to old age2 hourly do  
we meet with examples of acute disorder1
 chronic ailment1 general debility1     
premature decrepitude4 ,scarcely is     
there one to whom you put the question1 
who has not1 in the course of his life1 
brought upon himself illnesses which a  
little information would have saved him 
from4 ,here is a case of heart-disease  
consequent on a rheumatic fever that    
followed reckless exposure4 ,there is a 
case of eyes spoiled for life by        
over-study4 ,yesterday the account was  
of one whose long-enduring lameness was 
brought on by continuing1 spite of the  
pain1 to use a knee after it had been   
slightly injured4 ,and to-day we are    
told of another who has had to lie by   
for years1 because he did not know that 
the palpitation he suffered under       
resulted from overtaxed brain4 ,now we  
hear of an irremediable injury which    

followed some silly feat of strength2   
and1 again1 of a constitution that has  
never recovered from the effects of     
excessive work needlessly undertaken4   
,while on every side we see the         
perpetual minor ailments which accompany
 feebleness4 ,not to dwell on the pain1 
the weariness1 the gloom1 the waste of  
time and money thus entailed1 only      
consider how greatly ill-health hinders 
the discharge of all duties--makes      
business often impossible1 and always   
more difficult2 produces an irritability
 fatal to the right management of       
children2 puts the functions of         
citizenship out of the question2 and    
makes amusement a bore4 ,is it not clear
 that the physical sins--partly our     
forefathers' and partly our own--which  
produce this ill-health1 deduct more    
from complete living than anything else8
 and to a great extent make life a      
failure and a burden instead of a       
benefaction and a pleasure8  ,nor is    
this all4 ,life1 besides being thus     

immensely deteriorated1 is also cut     
short4 ,it is not true1 as we commonly  
suppose1 that after a disorder or       
disease from which we have recovered1 we
 are as before4 ,no disturbance of the  
normal course of the functions can pass 
away and leave things exactly as they   
were4 ,a permanent damage is done--not  
immediately appreciable1 it may be1 but 
still there2 and along with other such  
items which ,nature in her strict       
account-keeping never drops1 it will    
tell against us to the inevitable       
shortening of our days4 ,through the    
accumulation of small injuries it is    
that constitutions are commonly         
undermined1 and break down1 long before 
their time4 ,and if we call to mind how 
far the average duration of life falls  
below the possible duration1 we see how 
immense is the loss4 ,when1 to the      
numerous partial deductions which bad   
health entails1 we add this great final 
deduction1 it results that ordinarily   
one-half of life is thrown away4        

,hence1 knowledge which subserves direct
 self-preservation by preventing this   
loss of health1 is of primary           
importance4 ,we do not contend that     
possession of such knowledge would by   
any means wholly remedy the evil4 ,it is
 clear that in our present phase of     
civilisation1 men's necessities often   
compel them to transgress4 ,and it is   
further clear that1 even in the absence 
of such compulsion1 their inclinations  
would frequently lead them1 spite of    
their convictions1 to sacrifice future  
good to present gratification4 ,but we  
do contend that the right knowledge     
impressed in the right way would effect 
much2 and we further contend that as the
 laws of health must be recognised      
before they can be fully conformed to1  
the imparting of such knowledge must    
precede a more rational living--come    
when that may4 ,we infer that as        
vigorous health and its accompanying    
high spirits are larger elements of     
happiness than any other things         

whatever1 the teaching how to maintain  
them is a teaching that yields in moment
 to no other whatever4 ,and therefore we
 assert that such a course of physiology
 as is needful for the comprehension of 
its general truths1 and their bearings  
on daily conduct1 is an all-essential   
part of a rational education4  ,strange 
that the assertion should need making6  
,stranger still that it should need     
defending6 ,yet are there not a few by  
whom such a proposition will be received
 with something approaching to derision4
 ,men who would blush if caught saying  
,iphigenia instead of ,iphigenia1 or    
would resent as an insult any imputation
 of ignorance respecting the fabled     
labours of a fabled demi-god1 show not  
the slightest shame in confessing that  
they do not know where the ,eustachian  
tubes are1 what are the actions of the  
spinal cord1 what is the normal rate of 
pulsation1 or how the lungs are         
inflated4 ,while anxious that their sons
 should be well up in the superstitions 

of two thousand years ago1 they care not
 that they should be taught anything    
about the structure and functions of    
their own bodies--nay1 even wish them   
not to be so taught4 ,so overwhelming is
 the influence of established routine6  
,so terribly in our education does the  
ornamental over-ride the useful6        
99       99       99       99       99  
,we need not insist on the value of that
 knowledge which aids indirect          
self-preservation by facilitating the   
gaining of a livelihood4 ,this is       
admitted by all2 and1 indeed1 by the    
mass is perhaps too exclusively regarded
 as the end of education4 ,but while    
every one is ready to endorse the       
abstract proposition that instruction   
fitting youths for the business of life 
is of high importance1 or even to       
consider it of supreme importance2 yet  
scarcely any inquire what instruction   
will so fit them4 ,it is true that      
reading1 writing1 and arithmetic are    
taught with an intelligent appreciation 

of their uses4 ,but when we have said   
this we have said nearly all4 ,while the
 great bulk of what else is acquired has
 no bearing on the industrial           
activities1 an immensity of information 
that has a direct bearing on the        
industrial activities is entirely passed
 over4  ,for1 leaving out only some very
 small classes1 what are all men        
employed in8 ,they are employed in the  
production1 preparation1 and            
distribution of commodities4 ,and on    
what does efficiency in the production1 
preparation1 and distribution of        
commodities depend8 ,it depends on the  
use of methods fitted to the respective 
natures of these commodities2 it depends
 on an adequate acquaintance with their 
physical1 chemical1 or vital properties1
 as the case may be2 that is1 it depends
 on ,science4 ,this order of knowledge  
which is in great part ignored in our   
school-courses1 is the order of         
knowledge underlying the right          
performance of those processes by which 

civilised life is made possible4        
,undeniable as is this truth1 there     
seems to be no living consciousness of  
it3 its very familiarity makes it       
unregarded4 ,to give due weight to our  
argument1 we must1 therefore1 realise   
this truth to the reader by a rapid     
review of the facts4  ,passing over the 
most abstract science1 ,logic1 on the   
due guidance by which1 however1 the     
large producer or distributor depends1  
knowingly or unknowingly1 for success in
 his business-forecasts1 we come first  
to ,mathematics4 ,of this1 the most     
general division1 dealing with number1  
guides all industrial activities2 be    
they those by which processes are       
adjusted1 or estimates framed1 or       
commodities bought and sold1 or accounts
 kept4 ,no one needs to have the value  
of this division of abstract science    
insisted upon4  ,for the higher arts of 
construction1 some acquaintance with the
 more special division of ,mathematics  
is indispensable4 ,the village          

carpenter1 who lays out his work by     
empirical rules1 equally with the       
builder of a ,britannia ,bridge1 makes  
hourly reference to the laws of         
space-relations4 ,the surveyor who      
measures the land purchased2 the        
architect in designing a mansion to be  
built on it2 the builder when laying out
 the foundations2 the masons in cutting 
the stones2 and the various artizans who
 put up the fittings2 are all guided by 
geometrical truths4 ,railway-making is  
regulated from beginning to end by      
geometry3 alike in the preparation of   
plans and sections2 in staking out the  
line2 in the mensuration of cuttings and
 embankments2 in the designing and      
building of bridges1 culverts1 viaducts1
 tunnels1 stations4 ,similarly with the 
harbours1 docks1 piers1 and various     
engineering and architectural works that
 fringe the coasts and overspread the   
country1 as well as the mines that run  
underneath it4 ,and now-a-days1 even the
 farmer1 for the correct laying-out of  

his drains1 has recourse to the         
level--that is1 to geometrical          
principles4  ,turn next to the          
,abstract-,concrete sciences4 ,on the   
application of the simplest of these1   
,mechanics1 depends the success of      
modern manufactures4 ,the properties of 
the lever1 the wheel-and-axle1 etc41 are
 recognised in every machine1 and to    
machinery in these times we owe all     
production4 ,trace the history of the   
breakfast-roll4 ,the soil out of which  
it came was drained with machine-made   
tiles2 the surface was turned over by a 
machine2 the wheat was reaped1 thrashed1
 and winnowed by machines2 by machinery 
it was ground and bolted2 and had the   
flour been sent to ,gosport1 it might   
have been made into biscuits by a       
machine4 ,look round the room in which  
you sit4 ,if modern1 probably the bricks
 in its walls were machine-made2 and by 
machinery the flooring was sawn and     
planed1 the mantel-shelf sawn and       
polished1 the paper-hangings made and   

printed4 ,the veneer on the table1 the  
turned legs of the chairs1 the carpet1  
the curtains1 are all products of       
machinery4 ,your clothing--plain1       
figured1 or printed--is it not wholly   
woven1 nay1 perhaps even sewed1 by      
machinery8 ,and the volume you are      
reading--are not its leaves fabricated  
by one machine and covered with these   
words by another8 ,add to which that for
 the means of distribution over both    
land and sea1 we are similarly indebted4
 ,and then observe that according as    
knowledge of mechanics is well or ill   
applied to these ends1 comes success or 
failure4 ,the engineer who miscalculates
 the strength of materials1 builds a    
bridge that breaks down4 ,the           
manufacturer who uses a bad machine     
cannot compete with another whose       
machine wastes less in friction and     
inertia4 ,the ship-builder adhering to  
the old model is out-sailed by one who  
builds on the mechanically-justified    
wave-line principle4 ,and as the ability

 of a nation to hold its own against    
other nations1 depends on the skilled   
activity of its units1 we see that on   
mechanical knowledge may turn the       
national fate4  ,on ascending from the  
divisions of ,abstract-,concrete science
 dealing with molar forces1 to those    
divisions of it which deal with         
molecular forces1 we come to another    
vast series of applications4 ,to this   
group of sciences joined with the       
preceding groups we owe the             
steam-engine1 which does the work of    
millions of labourers4 ,that section of 
physics which formulates the laws of    
heat1 has taught us how to economise    
fuel in various industries2 how to      
increase the produce of smelting        
furnaces by substituting the hot for the
 cold blast2 how to ventilate mines2 how
 to prevent explosions by using the     
safety-lamp2 and1 through the           
thermometer1 how to regulate innumerable
 processes4 ,that section which has the 
phenomena of light for its subject1     

gives eyes to the old and the myopic2   
aids through the microscope in detecting
 diseases and adulterations2 and1 by    
improved lighthouses1 prevents          
shipwrecks4 ,researches in electricity  
and magnetism have saved innumerable    
lives and incalculable property through 
the compass2 have subserved many arts by
 the electrotype2 and now1 in the       
telegraph1 have supplied us with an     
agency by which for the future1         
mercantile transactions will be         
regulated and political intercourse     
carried on4 ,while in the details of    
in-door life1 from the improved         
kitchen-range up to the stereoscope on  
the drawing-room table1 the applications
 of advanced physics underlie our       
comforts and gratifications4  ,still    
more numerous are the applications of   
,chemistry4 ,the bleacher1 the dyer1 the
 calico-printer1 are severally occupied 
in processes that are well or ill done  
according as they do or do not conform  
to chemical laws4 ,smelting of copper1  

tin1 zinc1 lead1 silver1 iron1 must be  
guided by chemistry4 ,sugar-refining1   
gas-making1 soap-boiling1               
gunpowder-manufacture1 are operations   
all partly chemical2 as are likewise    
those which produce glass and porcelain4
 ,whether the distiller's wort stops at 
the alcoholic fermentation or passes    
into the acetous1 is a chemical question
 on which hangs his profit or loss2 and 
the brewer1 if his business is          
extensive1 finds it pay to keep a       
chemist on his premises4 ,indeed1 there 
is now scarcely any manufacture over    
some part of which chemistry does not   
preside4 ,nay1 in these times even      
agriculture1 to be profitably carried   
on1 must have like guidance4 ,the       
analysis of manures and soils2 the      
disclosure of their respective          
adaptations2 the use of gypsum or other 
substance for fixing ammonia2 the       
utilisation of coprolites2 the          
production of artificial manures--all   
these are boons of chemistry which it   

behoves the farmer to acquaint himself  
with4 ,be it in the lucifer match1 or in
 disinfected sewage1 or in              
photographs--in bread made without      
fermentation1 or perfumes extracted from
 refuse1 we may perceive that chemistry 
affects all our industries2 and that1   
therefore1 knowledge of it concerns     
every one who is directly or indirectly 
connected with our industries4  ,of the 
,concrete sciences1 we come first to    
,astronomy4 ,out of this has grown that 
art of navigation which has made        
possible the enormous foreign commerce  
that supports a large part of our       
population1 while supplying us with many
 necessaries and most of our luxuries4  
,geology1 again1 is a science knowledge 
of which greatly aids industrial        
success4 ,now that iron ores are so     
large a source of wealth2 now that the  
duration of our coal-supply has become a
 question of great interest2 now that we
 have a ,college of ,mines and a        
,geological ,survey2 it is scarcely     

needful to enlarge on the truth that the
 study of the ,earth's crust is         
important to our material welfare4  ,and
 then the science of life--,biology3    
does not this1 too1 bear fundamentally  
on these processes of indirect          
self-preservation8 ,with what we        
ordinarily call manufactures1 it has1   
indeed1 little connection2 but with the 
all-essential manufacture--that of      
food--it is inseparably connected4 ,as  
agriculture must conform its methods to 
the phenomena of vegetal and animal     
life1 it follows that the science of    
these phenomena is the rational basis of
 agriculture4 ,various biological truths
 have indeed been empirically           
established and acted upon by farmers1  
while yet there has been no conception  
of them as science2 such as that        
particular manures are suited to        
particular plants2 that crops of certain
 kinds unfit the soil for other crops2  
that horses cannot do good work on poor 
food2 that such and such diseases of    

cattle and sheep are caused by such and 
such conditions4 ,these1 and the        
every-day knowledge which the           
agriculturist gains by experience       
respecting the management of plants and 
animals1 constitute his stock of        
biological facts2 on the largeness of   
which greatly depends his success4 ,and 
as these biological facts1 scanty1      
indefinite1 rudimentary1 though they    
are1 aid him so essentially2 judge what 
must be the value to him of such facts  
when they become positive1 definite1 and
 exhaustive4 ,indeed1 even now we may   
see the benefits that rational biology  
is conferring on him4 ,the truth that   
the production of animal heat implies   
waste of substance1 and that1 therefore1
 preventing loss of heat prevents the   
need for extra food--a purely           
theoretical conclusion--now guides the  
fattening of cattle3 it is found that by
 keeping cattle warm1 fodder is saved4  
,similarly with respect to variety of   
food4 ,the experiments of physiologists 

have shown that not only is change of   
diet beneficial1 but that digestion is  
facilitated by a mixture of ingredients 
in each meal4 ,the discovery that a     
disorder known as the staggers1 of which
 many thousands of sheep have died      
annually1 is caused by an entozoon which
 presses on the brain1 and that if the  
creature is extracted through the       
softened place in the skull which marks 
its position1 the sheep usually         
recovers1 is another debt which         
agriculture owes to biology4  ,yet one  
more science have we to note as bearing 
directly on industrial success--the     
,science of ,society4 ,men who daily    
look at the state of the money-market   
glance over prices current2 discuss the 
probable crops of corn1 cotton1 sugar1  
wool1 silk2 weigh the chances of war2   
and from these data decide on their     
mercantile operations2 are students of  
social science3 empirical and blundering
 students it may be2 but still1 students
 who gain the prizes or are plucked of  

their profits1 according as they do or  
do not reach the right conclusion4 ,not 
only the manufacturer and the merchant  
must guide their transactions by        
calculations of supply and demand1 based
 on numerous facts1 and tacitly         
recognising sundry general principles of
 social action2 but even the retailer   
must do the like3 his prosperity very   
greatly depending upon the correctness  
of his judgments respecting the future  
wholesale prices and the future rates of
 consumption4 ,manifestly1 whoever takes
 part in the entangled commercial       
activities of a community1 is vitally   
interested in understanding the laws    
according to which those activities     
vary4  ,thus1 to all such as are        
occupied in the production1 exchange1 or
 distribution of commodities1           
acquaintance with ,science in some of   
its departments1 is of fundamental      
importance4 ,each man who is immediately
 or remotely implicated in any form of  
industry 7and few are not7 has in some  

way to deal with the mathematical1      
physical1 and chemical properties of    
things2 perhaps1 also1 has a direct     
interest in biology2 and certainly has  
in sociology4 ,whether he does or does  
not succeed well in that indirect       
self-preservation which we call getting 
a good livelihood1 depends in a great   
degree on his knowledge of one or more  
of these sciences3 not1 it may be1 a    
rational knowledge2 but still a         
knowledge1 though empirical4 ,for what  
we call learning a business1 really     
implies learning the science involved in
 it2 though not perhaps under the name  
of science4 ,and hence a grounding in   
science is of great importance1 both    
because it prepares for all this1 and   
because rational knowledge has an       
immense superiority over empirical      
knowledge4 ,moreover1 not only is       
scientific culture requisite for each1  
that he may understand the how and the  
why of the things and processes with    
which he is concerned as maker or       

distributor2 but it is often of much    
moment that he should understand the how
 and the why of various other things and
 processes4 ,in this age of joint-stock 
undertakings1 nearly every man above the
 labourer is interested as capitalist in
 some other occupation than his own2    
and1 as thus interested1 his profit or  
loss often depends on his knowledge of  
the sciences bearing on this other      
occupation4 ,here is a mine1 in the     
sinking of which many shareholders      
ruined themselves1 from not knowing that
 a certain fossil belonged to the old   
red sandstone1 below which no coal is   
found4 ,numerous attempts have been made
 to construct electromagnetic engines1  
in the hope of superseding steam2 but   
had those who supplied the money        
understood the general law of the       
correlation and equivalence of forces1  
they might have had better balances at  
their bankers4 ,daily are men induced to
 aid in carrying out inventions which a 
mere tyro in science could show to be   

futile4 ,scarcely a locality but has its
 history of fortunes thrown away over   
some impossible project4  ,and if       
already the loss from want of science is
 so frequent and so great1 still greater
 and more frequent will it be to those  
who hereafter lack science4 ,just as    
fast as productive processes become more
 scientific1 which competition will     
inevitably make them do2 and just as    
fast as joint-stock undertakings spread1
 which they certainly will2 so fast must
 scientific knowledge grow necessary to 
every one4  ,that which our             
school-courses leave almost entirely    
out1 we thus find to be that which most 
nearly concerns the business of life4   
,our industries would cease1 were it not
 for the information which men begin to 
acquire1 as they best may1 after their  
education is said to be finished4 ,and  
were it not for this information1 from  
age to age accumulated and spread by    
unofficial means1 these industries would
 never have existed4 ,had there been no 

teaching but such as goes on in our     
public schools1 ,england would now be   
what it was in feudal times4 ,that      
increasing acquaintance with the laws of
 phenomena1 which has through successive
 ages enabled us to subjugate ,nature to
 our needs1 and in these days gives the 
common labourer comforts which a few    
centuries ago kings could not purchase1 
is scarcely in any degree owed to the   
appointed means of instructing our      
youth4 ,the vital knowledge--that by    
which we have grown as a nation to what 
we are1 and which now underlies our     
whole existence1 is a knowledge that has
 got itself taught in nooks and corners2
 while the ordained agencies for        
teaching have been mumbling little else 
but dead formulas4         99       99  
99       99       99  ,we come now to   
the third great division of human       
activities--a division for which no     
preparation whatever is made4 ,if by    
some strange chance not a vestige of us 
descended to the remote future save a   

pile of our school-books or some college
 examination papers1 we may imagine how 
puzzled an antiquary of the period would
 be on finding in them no sign that the 
learners were ever likely to be parents4
 ,this must have been the curriculum for
 their celibates1 we may fancy him      
concluding4 ,i perceive here an         
elaborate preparation for many things2  
especially for reading the books of     
extinct nations and of co-existing      
nations 7from which indeed it seems     
clear that these people had very little 
worth reading in their own tongue72 but 
,i find no reference whatever to the    
bringing up of children4 ,they could not
 have been so absurd as to omit all     
training for this gravest of            
responsibilities4 ,evidently then1 this 
was the school-course of one of their   
monastic orders4  ,seriously1 is it not 
an astonishing fact1 that though on the 
treatment of offspring depend their     
lives or deaths1 and their moral welfare
 or ruin2 yet not one word of           

instruction on the treatment of         
offspring is ever given to those who    
will by and by be parents8 ,is it not   
monstrous that the fate of a new        
generation should be left to the chances
 of unreasoning custom1 impulse1        
fancy--joined with the suggestions of   
ignorant nurses and the prejudiced      
counsel of grandmothers8 ,if a merchant 
commenced business without any knowledge
 of arithmetic and book-keeping1 we     
should exclaim at his folly1 and look   
for disastrous consequences4 ,or if1    
before studying anatomy1 a man set up as
 a surgical operator1 we should wonder  
at his audacity and pity his patients4  
,but that parents should begin the      
difficult task of rearing children1     
without ever having given a thought to  
the principles--physical1 moral1 or     
intellectual--which ought to guide them1
 excites neither surprise at the actors 
nor pity for their victims4  ,to tens of
 thousands that are killed1 add hundreds
 of thousand that survive with feeble   

constitutions1 and millions that grow up
 with constitutions not so strong as    
they should be2 and you will have some  
idea of the curse inflicted on their    
offspring by parents ignorant of the    
laws of life4 ,do but consider for a    
moment that the regimen to which        
children are subject1 is hourly telling 
upon them to their life-long injury or  
benefit2 and that there are twenty ways 
of going wrong to one way of going      
right2 and you will get some idea of the
 enormous mischief that is almost       
everywhere inflicted by the thoughtless1
 haphazard system in common use4 ,is it 
decided that a boy shall be clothed in  
some flimsy short dress1 and be allowed 
to go playing about with limbs reddened 
by cold8 ,the decision will tell on his 
whole future existence--either in       
illnesses2 or in stunted growth2 or in  
deficient energy2 or in a maturity less 
vigorous than it ought to have been1 and
 in consequent hindrances to success and
 happiness4 ,are children doomed to a   

monotonous dietary1 or a dietary that is
 deficient in nutritiveness8 ,their     
ultimate physical power1 and their      
efficiency as men and women1 will       
inevitably be more or less diminished by
 it4 ,are they forbidden vociferous     
play1 or 7being too ill-clothed to bear 
exposure7 are they kept indoors in cold 
weather8 ,they are certain to fall below
 that measure of health and strength to 
which they would else have attained4    
,when sons and daughters grow up sickly 
and feeble1 parents commonly regard the 
event as a misfortune--as a visitation  
of ,providence4 ,thinking after the     
prevalent chaotic fashion1 they assume  
that these evils come without causes2 or
 that the causes are supernatural4      
,nothing of the kind4 ,in some cases the
 causes are doubtless inherited2 but in 
most cases foolish regulations are the  
causes4 ,very generally1 parents        
themselves are responsible for all this 
pain1 this debility1 this depression1   
this misery4 ,they have undertaken to   

control the lives of their offspring    
from hour to hour2 with cruel           
carelessness they have neglected to     
learn anything about these vital        
processes which they are unceasingly    
affecting by their commands and         
prohibitions2 in utter ignorance of the 
simplest physiologic laws1 they have    
been year by year undermining the       
constitutions of their children2 and    
have so inflicted disease and premature 
death1 not only on them but on their    
descendants4  ,equally great are the    
ignorance and the consequent injury1    
when we turn from physical training to  
moral training4 ,consider the young     
mother and her nursery-legislation4 ,but
 a few years ago she was at school1     
where her memory was crammed with words1
 and names1 and dates1 and her          
reflective faculties scarcely in the    
slightest degree exercised--where not   
one idea was given her respecting the   
methods of dealing with the opening mind
 of childhood2 and where her discipline 

did not in the least fit her for        
thinking out methods of her own4 ,the   
intervening years have been passed in   
practising music1 in fancy-work1 in     
novel-reading1 and in party-going3 no   
thought having yet been given to the    
grave responsibilities of maternity2 and
 scarcely any of that solid intellectual
 culture obtained which would be some   
preparation for such responsibilities4  
,and now see her with an unfolding human
 character committed to her charge--see 
her profoundly ignorant of the phenomena
 with which she has to deal1 undertaking
 to do that which can be done but       
imperfectly even with the aid of the    
profoundest knowledge4 ,she knows       
nothing about the nature of the         
emotions1 their order of evolution1     
their functions1 or where use ends and  
abuse begins4 ,she is under the         
impression that some of the feelings are
 wholly bad1 which is not true of any   
one of them2 and that others are good   
however far they may be carried1 which  

is also not true of any one of them4    
,and then1 ignorant as she is of the    
structure she has to deal with1 she is  
equally ignorant of the effects produced
 on it by this or that treatment4 ,what 
can be more inevitable than the         
disastrous results we see hourly        
arising8 ,lacking knowledge of mental   
phenomena1 with their cause and         
consequences1 her interference is       
frequently more mischievous than        
absolute passivity would have been4     
,this and that kind of action1 which are
 quite normal and beneficial1 she       
perpetually thwarts2 and so diminishes  
the child's happiness and profit1       
injures its temper and her own1 and     
produces estrangement4 ,deeds which she 
thinks it desirable to encourage1 she   
gets performed by threats and bribes1 or
 by exciting a desire for applause3     
considering little what the inward      
motive may be1 so long as the outward   
conduct conforms2 and thus cultivating  
hypocrisy1 and fear1 and selfishness1 in

 place of good feeling4 ,while insisting
 on truthfulness1 she constantly sets an
 example of untruth by threatening      
penalties which she does not inflict4   
,while inculcating self-control1 she    
hourly visits on her little ones angry  
scoldings for acts undeserving of them4 
,she has not the remotest idea that in  
the nursery1 as in the world1 that alone
 is the truly salutary discipline which 
visits on all conduct1 good and bad1 the
 natural consequences--the consequences1
 pleasurable or painful1 which in the   
nature of things such conduct tends to  
bring4 ,being thus without theoretic    
guidance1 and quite incapable of guiding
 herself by tracing the mental processes
 going on in her children1 her rule is  
impulsive1 inconsistent1 mischievous2   
and would indeed be generally ruinous   
were it not that the overwhelming       
tendency of the growing mind to assume  
the moral type of the race usually      
subordinates all minor influences4  ,and
 then the culture of the intellect--is  

not this1 too1 mismanaged in a similar  
manner8 ,grant that the phenomena of    
intelligence conform to laws2 grant that
 the evolution of intelligence in a     
child also conforms to laws2 and it     
follows inevitably that education cannot
 be rightly guided without a knowledge  
of these laws4 ,to suppose that you can 
properly regulate this process of       
forming and accumulating ideas1 without 
understanding the nature of the process1
 is absurd4 ,how widely1 then1 must     
teaching as it is differ from teaching  
as it should be2 when hardly any        
parents1 and but few tutors1 know       
anything about psychology4 ,as might be 
expected1 the established system is     
grievously at fault1 alike in matter and
 in manner4 ,while the right class of   
facts is withheld1 the wrong class is   
forcibly administered in the wrong way  
and in the wrong order4 ,under that     
common limited idea of education which  
confines it to knowledge gained from    
books1 parents thrust primers into the  

hands of their little ones years too    
soon1 to their great injury4 ,not       
recognising the truth that the function 
of books is supplementary--that they    
form an indirect means to knowledge when
 direct means fail--a means of seeing   
through other men what you cannot see   
for yourself2 teachers are eager to give
 second-hand facts in place of          
first-hand facts4 ,not perceiving the   
enormous value of that spontaneous      
education which goes on in early        
years--not perceiving that a child's    
restless observation1 instead of being  
ignored or checked1 should be diligently
 ministered to1 and made as accurate and
 complete as possible2 they insist on   
occupying its eyes and thoughts with    
things that are1 for the time being1    
incomprehensible and repugnant4         
,possessed by a superstition which      
worships the symbols of knowledge       
instead of the knowledge itself1 they do
 not see that only when his acquaintance
 with the objects and processes of the  

household1 the streets1 and the fields1 
is becoming tolerably exhaustive--only  
then should a child be introduced to the
 new sources of information which books 
supply3 and this1 not only because      
immediate cognition is of far greater   
value than mediate cognition2 but also1 
because the words contained in books can
 be rightly interpreted into ideas1 only
 in proportion to the antecedent        
experience of things4 ,observe next1    
that this formal instruction1 far too   
soon commenced1 is carried on with but  
little reference to the laws of mental  
development4 ,intellectual progress is  
of necessity from the concrete to the   
abstract4 ,but regardless of this1      
highly abstract studies1 such as        
grammar1 which should come quite late1  
are begun quite early4 ,political       
geography1 dead and uninteresting to a  
child1 and which should be an appendage 
of sociological studies1 is commenced   
betimes2 while physical geography1      
comprehensible and comparatively        

attractive to a child1 is in great part 
passed over4 ,nearly every subject dealt
 with is arranged in abnormal order3    
definitions and rules and principles    
being put first1 instead of being       
disclosed1 as they are in the order of  
nature1 through the study of cases4 ,and
 then1 pervading the whole1 is the      
vicious system of rote learning--a      
system of sacrificing the spirit to the 
letter4 ,see the results4 ,what with    
perceptions unnaturally dulled by early 
thwarting1 and a coerced attention to   
books--what with the mental confusion   
produced by teaching subjects before    
they can be understood1 and in each of  
them giving generalisations before the  
facts of which they are the             
generalisations--what with making the   
pupil a mere passive recipient of       
other's ideas1 and not in the least     
leading him to be an active inquirer or 
self-instructor--and what with taxing   
the faculties to excess2 there are very 
few minds that become as efficient as   

they might be4 ,examinations being once 
passed1 books are laid aside2 the       
greater part of what has been acquired1 
being unorganised1 soon drops out of    
recollection2 what remains is mostly    
inert--the art of applying knowledge not
 having been cultivated2 and there is   
but little power either of accurate     
observation or independent thinking4 ,to
 all which add1 that while much of the  
information gained is of relatively     
small value1 an immense mass of         
information of transcendent value is    
entirely passed over4  ,thus we find the
 facts to be such as might have been    
inferred a priori4 ,the training of     
children--physical1 moral1 and          
intellectual--is dreadfully defective4  
,and in great measure it is so because  
parents are devoid of that knowledge by 
which this training can alone be rightly
 guided4 ,what is to be expected when   
one of the most intricate of problems is
 undertaken by those who have given     
scarcely a thought to the principles on 

which its solution depends8 ,for        
shoe-making or house-building1 for the  
management of a ship or a locomotive    
engine1 a long apprenticeship is        
needful4 ,is it1 then1 that the         
unfolding of a human being in body and  
mind is so comparatively simple a       
process that any one may superintend and
 regulate it with no preparation        
whatever8 ,if not--if the process is1   
with one exception1 more complex than   
any in ,nature1 and the task of         
ministering to it one of surpassing     
difficulty2 is it not madness to make no
 provision for such a task8 ,better     
sacrifice accomplishments than omit this
 all-essential instruction4 ,when a     
father1 acting on false dogmas adopted  
without examination1 has alienated his  
sons1 driven them into rebellion by his 
harsh treatment1 ruined them1 and made  
himself miserable2 he might reflect that
 the study of ,ethology would have been 
worth pursuing1 even at the cost of     
knowing nothing about ,a,eschylus4 ,when

 a mother is mourning over a first-born 
that has sunk under the sequelae of     
scarlet-fever--when perhaps a candid    
medical man has confirmed her suspicion 
that her child would have recovered had 
not its system been enfeebled by        
over-study--when she is prostrate under 
the pangs of combined grief and remorse2
 it is but a small consolation that she 
can read ,dante in the original4  ,thus 
we see that for regulating the third    
great division of human activities1 a   
knowledge of the laws of life is the one
 thing needful4 ,some acquaintance with 
the first principles of physiology and  
the elementary truths of psychology1 is 
indispensable for the right bringing up 
of children4 ,we doubt not that many    
will read this assertion with a smile4  
,that parents in general should be      
expected to acquire a knowledge of      
subjects so abstruse will seem to them  
an absurdity4 ,and if we proposed that  
an exhaustive knowledge of these        
subjects should be obtained by all      

fathers and mothers1 the absurdity would
 indeed be glaring enough4 ,but we do   
not4 ,general principles only1          
accompanied by such illustrations as may
 be needed to make them understood1     
would suffice4 ,and these might be      
readily taught--if not rationally1 then 
dogmatically4 ,be this as it may1       
however1 here are the indisputable      
facts3--that the development of children
 in mind and body follows certain laws2 
that unless these laws are in some      
degree conformed to by parents1 death is
 inevitable2 that unless they are in a  
great degree conformed to1 there must   
result serious physical and mental      
defects2 and that only when they are    
completely conformed to1 can a perfect  
maturity be reached4 ,judge1 then1      
whether all who may one day be parents1 
should not strive with some anxiety to  
learn what these laws are4         99   
99       99       99       99  ,from the
 parental functions let us pass now to  
the functions of the citizen4 ,we have  

here to inquire what knowledge fits a   
man for the discharge of these          
functions4 ,it cannot be alleged that   
the need for knowledge fitting him for  
these functions is wholly overlooked2   
for our school-courses contain certain  
studies1 which1 nominally at least1 bear
 upon political and social duties4 ,of  
these the only one that occupies a      
prominent place is ,history4  ,but1 as  
already hinted1 the information commonly
 given under this head1 is almost       
valueless for purposes of guidance4     
,scarcely any of the facts set down in  
our school-histories1 and very few of   
those contained in the more elaborate   
works written for adults1 illustrate the
 right principles of political action4  
,the biographies of monarchs 7and our   
children learn little else7 throw       
scarcely any light upon the science of  
society4 ,familiarity with court        
intrigues1 plots1 usurpations1 or the   
like1 and with all the personalities    
accompanying them1 aids very little in  

elucidating the causes of national      
progress4 ,we read of some squabble for 
power1 that it led to a pitched battle2 
that such and such were the names of the
 generals and their leading             
subordinates2 that they had each so many
 thousand infantry and cavalry1 and so  
many cannon2 that they arranged their   
forces in this and that order2 that they
 manoeuvred1 attacked1 and fell back in 
certain ways2 that at this part of the  
day such disasters were sustained1 and  
at that such advantages gained2 that in 
one particular movement some leading    
officer fell1 while in another a certain
 regiment was decimated2 that after all 
the changing fortunes of the fight1 the 
victory was gained by this or that army2
 and that so many were killed and       
wounded on each side1 and so many       
captured by the conquerors4 ,and now1   
out of the accumulated details making up
 the narrative1 say which it is that    
helps you in deciding on your conduct as
 a citizen4 ,supposing even that you had

 diligently read1 not only ,the ,fifteen
 ,decisive ,battles of the ,world1 but  
accounts of all other battles that      
history mentions2 how much more         
judicious would your vote be at the next
 election8 ,but these are               
facts--interesting facts1 you say4      
,without doubt they are facts 7such1 at 
least1 as are not wholly or partially   
fictions72 and to many they may be      
interesting facts4 ,but this by no means
 implies that they are valuable4        
,factitious or morbid opinion often     
gives seeming value to things that have 
scarcely any4 ,a tulipomaniac will not  
part with a choice bulb for its weight  
in gold4 ,to another man an ugly piece  
of cracked old china seems his most     
desirable possession4 ,and there are    
those who give high prices for the      
relics of celebrated murderers4 ,will it
 be contended that these tastes are any 
measures of value in the things that    
gratify them8 ,if not1 then it must be  
admitted that the liking felt for       

certain classes of historical facts is  
no proof of their worth2 and that we    
must test their worth1 as we test the   
worth of other facts1 by asking to what 
uses they are applicable4 ,were some one
 to tell you that your neighbour's cat  
kittened yesterday1 you would say the   
information was valueless4 ,fact though 
it might be1 you would call it an       
utterly useless fact--a fact that could 
in no way influence your actions in     
life--a fact that would not help you in 
learning how to live completely4 ,well1 
apply the same test to the great mass of
 historical facts1 and you will get the 
same result4 ,they are facts from which 
no conclusions can be                   
drawn--unorganisable facts2 and         
therefore facts of no service in        
establishing principles of conduct1     
which is the chief use of facts4 ,read  
them1 if you like1 for amusement2 but do
 not flatter your self they are         
instructive4  ,that which constitutes   
,history1 properly so called1 is in     

great part omitted from works on the    
subject4 ,only of late years have       
historians commenced giving us1 in any  
considerable quantity1 the truly        
valuable information4 ,as in past ages  
the king was everything and the people  
nothing2 so1 in past histories the      
doings of the king fill the entire      
picture1 to which the national life     
forms but an obscure background4 ,while 
only now1 when the welfare of nations   
rather than of rulers is becoming the   
dominant idea1 are historians beginning 
to occupy themselves with the phenomena 
of social progress4 ,the thing it really
 concerns us to know is the natural     
history of society4 ,we want all facts  
which help us to understand how a nation
 has grown and organised itself4 ,among 
these1 let us of course have an account 
of its government2 with as little as may
 be of gossip about the men who         
officered it1 and as much as possible   
about the structure1 principles1        
methods1 prejudices1 corruptions1 etc41 

which it exhibited3 and let this account
 include not only the nature and actions
 of the central government1 but also    
those of local governments1 down to     
their minutest ramifications4 ,let us of
 course also have a parallel description
 of the ecclesiastical government--its  
organisation1 its conduct1 its power1   
its relations to the ,state2 and        
accompanying this1 the ceremonial1      
creed1 and religious ideas--not only    
those nominally believed1 but those     
really believed and acted upon4 ,let us 
at the same time be informed of the     
control exercised by class over class1  
as displayed in social observances--in  
titles1 salutations1 and forms of       
address4 ,let us know1 too1 what were   
all the other customs which regulated   
the popular life out of doors and       
in-doors3 including those concerning the
 relations of the sexes1 and the        
relations of parents to children4 ,the  
superstitions1 also1 from the more      
important myths down to the charms in   

common use1 should be indicated4 ,next  
should come a delineation of the        
industrial system3 showing to what      
extent the division of labour was       
carried2 how trades were regulated1     
whether by caste1 guilds1 or otherwise2 
what was the connection between         
employers and employed2 what were the   
agencies for distributing commodities2  
what were the means of communication2   
what was the circulating medium4        
,accompanying all which should be given 
an account of the industrial arts       
technically considered3 stating the     
processes in use1 and the quality of the
 products4 ,further1 the intellectual   
condition of the nation in its various  
grades should be depicted2 not only with
 respect to the kind and amount of      
education1 but with respect to the      
progress made in science1 and the       
prevailing manner of thinking4 ,the     
degree of aesthetic culture1 as         
displayed in architecture1 sculpture1   
painting1 dress1 music1 poetry1 and     

fiction1 should be described4 ,nor      
should there be omitted a sketch of the 
daily lives of the people--their food1  
their homes1 and their amusements4 ,and 
lastly1 to connect the whole1 should be 
exhibited the morals1 theoretical and   
practical1 of all classes3 as indicated 
in their laws1 habits1 proverbs1 deeds4 
,these facts1 given with as much brevity
 as consists with clearness and         
accuracy1 should be so grouped and      
arranged that they may be comprehended  
in their ensemble1 and contemplated as  
mutually-dependent parts of one great   
whole4 ,the aim should be so to present 
them that men may readily trace the     
consensus subsisting among them2 with   
the view of learning what social        
phenomena co-exist with what other4 ,and
 then the corresponding delineations of 
succeeding ages should be so managed as 
to show how each belief1 institution1   
custom1 and arrangement was modified2   
and how the consensus of preceding      
structures and functions was developed  

into the consensus of succeeding ones4  
,such alone is the kind of information  
respecting past times which can be of   
service to the citizen for the          
regulation of his conduct4 ,the only    
history that is of practical value is   
what may be called ,descriptive         
,sociology4 ,and the highest office     
which the historian can discharge1 is   
that of so narrating the lives of       
nations1 as to furnish materials for a  
,comparative ,sociology2 and for the    
subsequent determination of the ultimate
 laws to which social phenomena conform4
  ,but now mark1 that even supposing an 
adequate stock of this truly valuable   
historical knowledge has been acquired1 
it is of comparatively little use       
without the key4 ,and the key is to be  
found only in ,science4 ,in the absence 
of the generalisations of biology and   
psychology1 rational interpretation of  
social phenomena is impossible4 ,only in
 proportion as men draw certain rude1   
empirical inferences respecting human   

nature1 are they enabled to understand  
even the simplest facts of social life3 
as1 for instance1 the relation between  
supply and demand4 ,and if the most     
elementary truths of sociology cannot be
 reached until some knowledge is        
obtained of how men generally think1    
feel1 and act under given circumstances2
 then it is manifest that there can be  
nothing like a wide comprehension of    
sociology1 unless through a competent   
acquaintance with man in all his        
faculties1 bodily1 and mental4 ,consider
 the matter in the abstract1 and this   
conclusion is self-evident4             
,thus3--,society is made up of          
individuals2 all that is done in society
 is done by the combined actions of     
individuals2 and therefore1 in          
individual actions only can be found the
 solutions of social phenomena4 ,but the
 actions of individuals depend on the   
laws of their natures2 and their actions
 cannot be understood until these laws  
are understood4 ,these laws1 however1   

when reduced to their simplest          
expressions1 prove to be corollaries    
from the laws of body and mind in       
general4 ,hence it follows1 that biology
 and psychology are indispensable as    
interpreters of sociology4 ,or1 to state
 the conclusions still more simply3--all
 social phenomena are phenomena of      
life--are the most complex              
manifestations of life--must conform to 
the laws of life--and can be understood 
only when the laws of life are          
understood4 ,thus1 then1 for the        
regulation of this fourth division of   
human activities1 we are1 as before1    
dependent on ,science4 ,of the knowledge
 commonly imparted in educational       
courses1 very little is of service for  
guiding a man in his conduct as a       
citizen4 ,only a small part of the      
history he reads is of practical value2 
and of this small part he is not        
prepared to make proper use4 ,he lacks  
not only the materials for1 but the very
 conception of1 descriptive sociology2  

and he also lacks those generalisations 
of the organic sciences1 without which  
even descriptive sociology can give him 
but small aid4         99       99      
99       99       99  ,and now we come  
to that remaining division of human life
 which includes the relaxations and     
amusements filling leisure hours4 ,after
 considering what training best fits for
 self-preservation1 for the obtainment  
of sustenance1 for the discharge of     
parental duties1 and for the regulation 
of social and political conduct2 we have
 now to consider what training best fits
 for the miscellaneous ends not included
 in these--for the enjoyment of ,nature1
 of ,literature1 and of the ,fine ,arts1
 in all their forms4 ,postponing them as
 we do to things that bear more vitally 
upon human welfare2 and bringing        
everything1 as we have1 to the test of  
actual value2 it will perhaps be        
inferred that we are inclined to slight 
these less essential things4 ,no greater
 mistake could be made1 however4 ,we    

yield to none in the value we attach to 
aesthetic culture and its pleasures4    
,without painting1 sculpture1 music1    
poetry1 and the emotions produced by    
natural beauty of every kind1 life would
 lose half its charm4 ,so far from      
regarding the training and gratification
 of the tastes as unimportant1 we       
believe that in time to come they will  
occupy a much larger share of human life
 than now4 ,when the forces of ,nature  
have been fully conquered to man's      
use--when the means of production have  
been brought to perfection--when labour 
has been economised to the highest      
degree--when education has been so      
systematised that a preparation for the 
more essential activities may be made   
with comparative rapidity--and when1    
consequently1 there is a great increase 
of spare time2 then will the beautiful1 
both in ,art and ,nature1 rightly fill a
 large space in the minds of all4  ,but 
it is one thing to approve of aesthetic 
culture as largely conducive to human   

happiness2 and another thing to admit   
that it is a fundamental requisite to   
human happiness4 ,however important it  
may be1 it must yield precedence to     
those kinds of culture which bear       
directly upon daily duties4 ,as before  
hinted1 literature and the fine arts are
 made possible by those activities which
 make individual and social life        
possible2 and manifestly1 that which is 
made possible1 must be postponed to that
 which makes it possible4 ,a florist    
cultivates a plant for the sake of its  
flower2 and regards the roots and leaves
 as of value1 chiefly because they are  
instrumental in producing the flower4   
,but while1 as an ultimate product1 the 
flower is the thing to which everything 
else is subordinate1 the florist has    
learnt that the root and leaves are     
intrinsically of greater importance2    
because on them the evolution of the    
flower depends4 ,he bestows every care  
in rearing a healthy plant2 and knows it
 would be folly if1 in his anxiety to   

obtain the flower1 he were to neglect   
the plant4 ,similarly in the case before
 us4 ,architecture1 sculpture1 painting1
 music1 and poetry1 may truly be called 
the efflorescence of civilised life4    
,but even supposing they are of such    
transcendent worth as to subordinate the
 civilised life out of which they grow  
7which can hardly be asserted71 it will 
still be admitted that the production of
 a healthy civilised life must be the   
first consideration2 and that culture   
subserving this must occupy the highest 
place4  ,and here we see most distinctly
 the vice of our educational system4 ,it
 neglects the plant for the sake of the 
flower4 ,in anxiety for elegance1 it    
forgets substance4 ,while it gives no   
knowledge conducive to                  
self-preservation--while of knowledge   
that facilitates gaining a livelihood it
 gives but the rudiments1 and leaves the
 greater part to be picked up any how in
 after life--while for the discharge of 
parental functions it makes not the     

slightest provision--and while for the  
duties of citizenship it prepares by    
imparting a mass of facts1 most of which
 are irrelevant1 and the rest without a 
key2 it is diligent in teaching whatever
 adds to refinement1 polish1 eclat4     
,fully as we may admit that extensive   
acquaintance with modern languages is a 
valuable accomplishment1 which1 through 
reading1 conversation1 and travel1 aids 
in giving a certain finish2 it by no    
means follows that this result is       
rightly purchased at the cost of the    
vitally important knowledge sacrificed  
to it4 ,supposing it true that classical
 education conduces to elegance and     
correctness of style2 it cannot be said 
that elegance and correctness of style  
are comparable in importance to a       
familiarity with the principles that    
should guide the rearing of children4   
,grant that the taste may be improved by
 reading the poetry written in extinct  
languages2 yet it is not to be inferred 
that such improvement of taste is       

equivalent in value to an acquaintance  
with the laws of health4                
,accomplishments1 the fine arts1        
belles-lettres1 and all those things    
which1 as we say1 constitute the        
efflorescence of civilisation1 should be
 wholly subordinate to that instruction 
and discipline in which civilisation    
rests4 ,as they occupy the leisure part 
of life1 so should they occupy the      
leisure part of education4  ,recognising
 thus the true position of aesthetics1  
and holding that while the cultivation  
of them should form a part of education 
from its commencement1 such cultivation 
should be subsidiary2 we have now to    
inquire what knowledge is of most use to
 this end--what knowledge best fits for 
this remaining sphere of activity8 ,to  
this question the answer is still the   
same as heretofore4 ,unexpected though  
the assertion may be1 it is nevertheless
 true1 that the highest ,art of every   
kind is based on ,science--that without 
,science there can be neither perfect   

production nor full appreciation4       
,science1 in that limited acceptation   
current in society1 may not have been   
possessed by various artists of high    
repute2 but acute observers as such     
artists have been1 they have always     
possessed a stock of those empirical    
generalisations which constitute science
 in its lowest phase2 and they have     
habitually fallen far below perfection1 
partly because their generalisations    
were comparatively few and inaccurate4  
,that science necessarily underlies the 
fine arts1 becomes manifest1 a priori1  
when we remember that art-products are  
all more or less representative of      
objective or subjective phenomena2 that 
they can be good only in proportion as  
they conform to the laws of these       
phenomena2 and that before they can thus
 conform1 the artist must know what     
these laws are4 ,that this a priori     
conclusion tallies with experience1 we  
shall soon see4  ,youths preparing for  
the practice of sculpture have to       

acquaint themselves with the bones and  
muscles of the human frame in their     
distribution1 attachments1 and          
movements4 ,this is a portion of        
science2 and it has been found needful  
to impart it for the prevention of those
 many errors which sculptors who do not 
possess it commit4 ,a knowledge of      
mechanical principles is also requisite2
 and such knowledge not being usually   
possessed1 grave mechanical mistakes are
 frequently made4 ,take an instance4    
,for the stability of a figure it is    
needful that the perpendicular from the 
centre of gravity--the line of          
direction1 as it is called--should fall 
within the base of support2 and hence it
 happens1 that when a man assumes the   
attitude known as standing at ease1 in  
which one leg is straightened and the   
other relaxed1 the line of direction    
falls within the foot of the            
straightened leg4 ,but sculptors        
unfamiliar with the theory of           
equilibrium1 not uncommonly so represent

 this attitude1 that the line of        
direction falls midway between the feet4
 ,ignorance of the law of momentum leads
 to analogous blunders3 as witness the  
admired ,discobolus1 which1 as it is    
posed1 must inevitably fall forward the 
moment the quoit is delivered4  ,in     
painting1 the necessity for scientific  
information1 empirical if not rational1 
is still more conspicuous4 ,what gives  
the grotesqueness of ,chinese pictures1 
unless their utter disregard of the laws
 of appearances--their absurd linear    
perspective1 and their want of aerial   
perspective8 ,in what are the drawings  
of a child so faulty1 if not in a       
similar absence of truth--an absence    
arising1 in great part1 from ignorance  
of the way in which the aspects of      
things vary with the conditions8 ,do but
 remember the books and lectures by     
which students are instructed2 or       
consider the criticisms of ,ruskin2 or  
look at the doings of the               
,pre-,raffaelites2 and you will see that

 progress in painting implies increasing
 knowledge of how effects in ,nature are
 produced4 ,the most diligent           
observation1 if unaided by science1     
fails to preserve from error4 ,every    
painter will endorse the assertion that 
unless it is known what appearances must
 exist under given circumstances1 they  
often will not be perceived2 and to know
 what appearances must exist1 is1 in so 
far1 to understand the science of       
appearances4 ,from want of science ,mr4 
,j4 ,lewis1 careful painter as he is1   
casts the shadow of a lattice-window in 
sharply-defined lines upon an opposite  
wall2 which he would not have done1 had 
he been familiar with the phenomena of  
penumbrae4 ,from want of science1 ,mr4  
,rosetti1 catching sight of a peculiar  
iridescence displayed by certain hairy  
surfaces under particular lights 7an    
iridescence caused by the diffraction of
 light in passing the hairs71 commits   
the error of showing this iridescence on
 surfaces and in positions where it     

could not occur4  ,to say that music1   
too1 has need of scientific aid will    
cause still more surprise4 ,yet it may  
be shown that music is but an           
idealisation of the natural language of 
emotion2 and that consequently1 music   
must be good or bad according as it     
conforms to the laws of this natural    
language4 ,the various inflections of   
voice which accompany feelings of       
different kinds and intensities1 are the
 germs out of which music is developed4 
,it is demonstrable that these          
inflections and cadences are not        
accidental or arbitrary2 but that they  
are determined by certain general       
principles of vital action2 and that    
their expressiveness depends on this4   
,whence it follows that musical phrases 
and the melodies built of them1 can be  
effective only when they are in harmony 
with these general principles4 ,it is   
difficult here properly to illustrate   
this position4 ,but perhaps it will     
suffice to instance the swarms of       

worthless ballads that infest           
drawing-rooms1 as compositions which    
science would forbid4 ,they sin against 
science by setting to music ideas that  
are not emotional enough to prompt      
musical expression2 and they also sin   
against science by using musical phrases
 that have no natural relations to the  
ideas expressed3 even where these are   
emotional4 ,they are bad because they   
are untrue4 ,and to say they are untrue1
 is to say they are unscientific4  ,even
 in poetry the same thing holds4 ,like  
music1 poetry has its root in those     
natural modes of expression which       
accompany deep feeling4 ,its rhythm1 its
 strong and numerous metaphors1 its     
hyperboles1 its violent inversions1 are 
simply exaggerations of the traits of   
excited speech4 ,to be good1 therefore1 
poetry must pay attention to those laws 
of nervous action which excited speech  
obeys4 ,in intensifying and combining   
the traits of excited speech1 it must   
have due regard to proportion--must not 

use its appliances without restriction2 
but1 where the ideas are least          
emotional1 must use the forms of        
poetical expression sparingly2 must use 
them more freely as the emotion rises2  
and must carry them to their greatest   
extent1 only where the emotion reaches a
 climax4 ,the entire contravention of   
these principles results in bombast or  
doggerel4 ,the insufficient respect for 
them is seen in didactic poetry4 ,and it
 is because they are rarely fully       
obeyed1 that so much poetry is          
inartistic4  ,not only is it that the   
artist1 of whatever kind1 cannot produce
 a truthful work without he understands 
the laws of the phenomena he represents2
 but it is that he must also understand 
how the minds of spectators or listeners
 will be affected by the several        
peculiarities of his work--a question in
 psychology4 ,what impression any       
art-product generates1 manifestly       
depends upon the mental natures of those
 to whom it is presented2 and as all    

mental natures have certain             
characteristics in common1 there must   
result certain corresponding general    
principles on which alone art-products  
can be successfully framed4 ,these      
general principles cannot be fully      
understood and applied1 unless the      
artist sees how they follow from the    
laws of mind4 ,to ask whether the       
composition of a picture is good is     
really to ask how the perceptions and   
feelings of observers will be affected  
by it4 ,to ask whether a drama is well  
constructed1 is to ask whether its      
situations are so arranged as duly to   
consult the power of attention of an    
audience1 and duly to avoid overtaxing  
any one class of feelings4 ,equally in  
arranging the leading divisions of a    
poem or fiction1 and in combining the   
words of a single sentence1 the goodness
 of the effect depends upon the skill   
with which the mental energies and      
susceptibilities of the reader are      
economised4 ,every artist1 in the course

 of his education and after-life1       
accumulates a stock of maxims by which  
his practice is regulated4 ,trace such  
maxims to their roots1 and they         
inevitably lead you down to             
psychological principles4 ,and only when
 the artist understands these           
psychological principles and their      
various corollaries can he work in      
harmony with them4  ,we do not for a    
moment believe that science will make an
 artist4 ,while we contend that the     
leading laws both of objective and      
subjective phenomena must be understood 
by him1 we by no means contend that     
knowledge of such laws will serve in    
place of natural perception4 ,not the   
poet only1 but the artist of every type1
 is born1 not made4 ,what we assert is1 
that innate faculty cannot dispense with
 the aid of organised knowledge4        
,intuition will do much1 but it will not
 do all4 ,only when ,genius is married  
to ,science can the highest results be  
produced4  ,as we have above asserted1  

,science is necessary not only for the  
most successful production1 but also for
 the full appreciation1 of the fine     
arts4 ,in what consists the greater     
ability of a man than of a child to     
perceive the beauties of a picture2     
unless it is in his more extended       
knowledge of those truths in nature or  
life which the picture renders8 ,how    
happens the cultivated gentleman to     
enjoy a fine poem so much more than a   
boor does2 if it is not because his     
wider acquaintance with objects and     
actions enables him to see in the poem  
much that the boor cannot see8 ,and if1 
as is here so obvious1 there must be    
some familiarity with the things        
represented1 before the representation  
can be appreciated1 then1 the           
representation can be completely        
appreciated only when the things        
represented are completely understood4  
,the fact is1 that every additional     
truth which a word of art expresses1    
gives an additional pleasure to the     

percipient mind--a pleasure that is     
missed by those ignorant of this truth4 
,the more realities an artist indicates 
in any given amount of work1 the more   
faculties does he appeal to2 the more   
numerous ideas does he suggest2 the more
 gratification does he afford4 ,but to  
receive this gratification the          
spectator1 listener1 or reader1 must    
know the realities which the artist has 
indicated2 and to know these realities  
is to have that much science4  ,and now 
let us not overlook the further great   
fact1 that not only does science        
underlie sculpture1 painting1 music1    
poetry1 but that science is itself      
poetic4 ,the current opinion that       
science and poetry are opposed1 is a    
delusion4 ,it is doubtless true that as 
states of consciousness1 cognition and  
emotion tend to exclude each other4 ,and
 it is doubtless also true that an      
extreme activity of the reflective      
powers tends to deaden the feelings2    
while an extreme activity of the        

feelings tends to deaden the reflective 
powers3 in which sense1 indeed1 all     
orders of activity are antagonistic to  
each other4 ,but it is not true that the
 facts of science are unpoetical2 or    
that the cultivation of science is      
necessarily unfriendly to the exercise  
of imagination and the love of the      
beautiful4 ,on the contrary1 science    
opens up realms of poetry where to the  
unscientific all is a blank4 ,those     
engaged in scientific researches        
constantly show us that they realise not
 less vividly1 but more vividly1 than   
others1 the poetry of their subjects4   
,whoso will dip into ,hugh ,miller's    
works of geology1 or read ,mr4 ,lewes's 
,sea-side ,studies1 will perceive that  
science excites poetry rather than      
extinguishes it4 ,and he who            
contemplates the life of ,goethe1 must  
see that the poet and the man of science
 can co-exist in equal activity4 ,is it 
not1 indeed1 an absurd and almost a     
sacrilegious belief1 that the more a man

 studies ,nature the less he reveres it8
 ,think you that a drop of water1 which 
to the vulgar eye is but a drop of      
water1 loses anything in the eye of the 
physicist who knows that its elements   
are held together by a force which1 if  
suddenly liberated1 would produce a     
flash of lightning8 ,think you that what
 is carelessly looked upon by the       
uninitiated as a mere snow-flake1 does  
not suggest higher associations to one  
who had seen through a microscope the   
wondrously-varied and elegant forms of  
snow-crystals8 ,think you that the      
rounded rock marked with parallel       
scratches1 calls up as much poetry in an
 ignorant mind as in the mind of a      
geologist1 who knows that over this rock
 a glacier slid a million years ago8    
,the truth is1 that those who have never
 entered upon scientific pursuits are   
blind to most of the poetry by which    
they are surrounded4 ,whoever has not in
 youth collected plants and insects1    
knows not half the halo of interest     

which lanes and hedge-rows can assume4  
,whoever has not sought for fossils1 has
 little idea of the poetical            
associations that surround the places   
where imbedded treasures were found4    
,whoever at the sea-side has not had a  
microscope and aquarium1 has yet to     
learn what the highest pleasures of the 
sea-side are4 ,sad1 indeed1 is it to see
 how men occupy themselves with         
trivialities1 and are indifferent to the
 grandest phenomena--care not to        
understand the architecture of the      
,heavens1 but are deeply interested in  
some contemptible controversy about the 
intrigues of ,mary ,queen of            
,scots6--are learnedly critical over a  
,greek ode1 and pass by without a glance
 that grand epic written by the finger  
of ,god upon the strata of the ,earth6  
,we find1 then1 that even for this      
remaining division of human activities1 
scientific culture is the proper        
preparation4 ,we find that aesthetics in
 general are necessarily based upon     

scientific principles2 and can be       
pursued with complete success only      
through an acquaintance with these      
principles4 ,we find that for the       
criticism and due appreciation of works 
of art1 a knowledge of the constitution 
of things1 or in other words1 a         
knowledge of science1 is requisite4 ,and
 we not only find that science is the   
handmaid to all forms of art and poetry1
 but that1 rightly regarded1 science is 
itself poetic4         99       99      
99       99       99  ,thus far our     
question has been1 the worth of         
knowledge of this or that kind for      
purposes of guidance4 ,we have now to   
judge the relative value of different   
kinds of knowledge for purposes of      
discipline4 ,this division of our       
subject we are obliged to treat with    
comparative brevity2 and happily1 no    
very lengthened treatment of it is      
needed4 ,having found what is best for  
the one end1 we have by implication     
found what is best for the other4 ,we   

may be quite sure that the acquirement  
of those classes of facts which are most
 useful for regulating conduct1 involves
 a mental exercise best fitted for      
strengthening the faculties4 ,it would  
be utterly contrary to the beautiful    
economy of ,nature1 if one kind of      
culture were needed for the gaining of  
information and another kind were needed
 as a mental gymnastic4 ,everywhere     
throughout creation we find faculties   
developed through the performance of    
those functions which it is their office
 to perform2 not through the performance
 of artificial exercises devised to fit 
them for those functions4 ,the ,red     
,indian acquires the swiftness and      
agility which make him a successful     
hunter1 by the actual pursuit of        
animals2 and through the miscellaneous  
activities of his life1 he gains a      
better balance of physical powers than  
gymnastics ever give4 ,that skill in    
tracking enemies and prey which he had  
reached after long practice1 implies a  

subtlety of perception far exceeding    
anything produced by artificial         
training4 ,and similarly in all cases4  
,from the ,bushman whose eye1 habitually
 employed in identifying distant objects
 that are to be pursued or fled from1   
has acquired a telescopic range1 to the 
accountant whose daily practice enables 
him to add up several columns of figures
 simultaneously2 we find that the       
highest power of a faculty results from 
the discharge of those duties which the 
conditions of life require it to        
discharge4 ,and we may be certain1 a    
priori1 that the same law holds         
throughout education4 ,the education of 
most value for guidance1 must at the    
same time be the education of most value
 for discipline4 ,let us consider the   
evidence4  ,one advantage claimed for   
that devotion to language-learning which
 forms so prominent a feature in the    
ordinary curriculum1 is1 that the memory
 is thereby strengthened4 ,this is      
assumed to be an advantage peculiar to  

the study of words4 ,but the truth is1  
that the sciences afford far wider      
fields for the exercise of memory4 ,it  
is no slight task to remember everything
 about our solar system2 much more to   
remember all that is known concerning   
the structure of our galaxy4 ,the number
 of compound substances1 to which       
chemistry daily adds1 is so great that  
few1 save professors1 can enumerate     
them2 and to recollect the atomic       
constitutions and affinities of all     
these compounds1 is scarcely possible   
without making chemistry the occupation 
of life4 ,in the enormous mass of       
phenomena presented by the ,earth's     
crust1 and in the still more enormous   
mass of phenomena presented by the      
fossils it contains1 there is matter    
which it takes the geological student   
years of application to master4 ,each   
leading division of physics--sound1     
heat1 light1 electricity--includes facts
 numerous enough to alarm any one       
proposing to learn them all4 ,and when  

we pass to the organic sciences1 the    
effort of memory required becomes still 
greater4 ,in human anatomy alone1 the   
quantity of detail is so great1 that the
 young surgeon has commonly to get it up
 half-a-dozen times before he can       
permanently retain it4 ,the number of   
species of plants which botanists       
distinguish1 amounts to some #cbj1jjj2  
while the varied forms of animal life   
with which the zoologist deals1 are     
estimated at some #b1jjj1jjj4 ,so vast  
is the accumulation of facts which men  
of science have before them1 that only  
by dividing and subdividing their       
labours can they deal with it4 ,to a    
detailed knowledge of his own division1 
each adds but a general knowledge of the
 allied ones2 joined perhaps to a       
rudimentary acquaintance with some      
others4 ,surely1 then1 science1         
cultivated even to a very moderate      
extent1 affords adequate exercise for   
memory4 ,to say the very least1 it      
involves quite as good a discipline for 

this faculty as language does4  ,but now
 mark that while1 for the training of   
mere memory1 science is as good as1 if  
not better than1 language2 it has an    
immense superiority in the kind of      
memory it trains4 ,in the acquirement of
 a language1 the connections of ideas to
 be established in the mind correspond  
to facts that are in great measure      
accidental2 whereas1 in the acquirement 
of science1 the connections of ideas to 
be established in the mind correspond to
 facts that are mostly necessary4 ,it is
 true that the relations of words to    
their meanings are in one sense natural2
 that the genesis of these relations may
 be traced back a certain distance1     
though rarely to the beginning2 and that
 the laws of this genesis form a branch 
of mental science--the science of       
philology4 ,but since it will not be    
contended that in the acquisition of    
languages1 as ordinarily carried on1    
these natural relations between words   
and their meanings are habitually       

traced1 and their laws explained2 it    
must be admitted that they are commonly 
learned as fortuitous relations4 ,on the
 other hand1 the relations which science
 presents are causal relations2 and1    
when properly taught1 are understood as 
such4 ,while language familiarises with 
non-rational relations1 science         
familiarises with rational relations4   
,while the one exercises memory only1   
the other exercises both memory and     
understanding4  ,observe next1 that a   
great superiority of science over       
language as a means of discipline1 is1  
that it cultivates the judgment4 ,as1 in
 a lecture on mental education delivered
 at the ,royal ,institution1 ,professor 
,faraday well remarks1 the most common  
intellectual fault is deficiency of     
judgment4 ,society1 speaking generally1 
he says1 is not only ignorant as        
respects education of the judgment1 but 
it is also ignorant of its ignorance4   
,and the cause to which he ascribes this
 state1 is want of scientific culture4  

,the truth of his conclusion is obvious4
 ,correct judgment with regard to       
surrounding objects1 events1 and        
consequences1 becomes possible only     
through knowledge of the way in which   
surrounding phenomena depend on each    
other4 ,no extent of acquaintance with  
the meanings of words1 will guarantee   
correct inferences respecting causes and
 effects4 ,the habit of drawing         
conclusions from data1 and then of      
verifying those conclusions by          
observation and experiment1 can alone   
give the power of judging correctly4    
,and that it necessitates this habit is 
one of the immense advantages of        
science4  ,not only1 however1 for       
intellectual discipline is science the  
best2 but also for moral discipline4    
,the learning of languages tends1 if    
anything1 further to increase the       
already undue respect for authority4    
,such and such are the meanings of these
 words1 says the teacher of the         
dictionary4 ,so and so is the rule in   

this case1 says the grammar4 ,by the    
pupil these dicta are received as       
unquestionable4 ,his constant attitude  
of mind is that of submission to        
dogmatic teaching4 ,and a necessary     
result is a tendency to accept without  
inquiry whatever is established4 ,quite 
opposite is the mental tone generated by
 the cultivation of science4 ,science   
makes constant appeal to individual     
reason4 ,its truths are not accepted on 
authority alone2 but all are at liberty 
to test them--nay1 in many cases1 the   
pupil is required to think out his own  
conclusions4 ,every step in a scientific
 investigation is submitted to his      
judgment4 ,he is not asked to admit it  
without seeing it to be true4 ,and the  
trust in his own powers thus produced is
 further increased by the uniformity    
with which ,nature justifies his        
inferences when they are correctly      
drawn4 ,from all which there flows that 
independence which is a most valuable   
element in character4 ,nor is this the  

only moral benefit bequeathed by        
scientific culture4 ,when carried on1 as
 it should always be1 as much as        
possible under the form of original     
research1 it exercises perseverance and 
sincerity4 ,as says ,professor ,tyndall 
of inductive inquiry1 ,it requires      
patient industry1 and an humble and     
conscientious acceptance of what ,nature
 reveals4 ,the first condition of       
success is an honest receptivity and a  
willingness to abandon all preconceived 
notions1 however cherished1 if they be  
found to contradict the truth4 ,believe 
me1 a self-renunciation which has       
something noble in it1 and of which the 
world never hears1 is often enacted in  
the private experience of the true      
votary of science4  ,lastly we have to  
assert--and the assertion will1 we doubt
 not1 cause extreme surprise--that the  
discipline of science is superior to    
that of our ordinary education1 because 
of the religious culture that it gives4 
,of course we do not here use the words 

scientific and religious in their       
ordinary limited acceptations2 but in   
their widest and highest acceptations4  
,doubtless1 to the superstitions that   
pass under the name of religion1 science
 is antagonistic2 but not to the        
essential religion which these          
superstitions merely hide4 ,doubtless1  
too1 in much of the science that is     
current1 there is a pervading spirit of 
irreligion2 but not in that true science
 which had passed beyond the superficial
 into the profound4       ,true science 
and true religion1 says ,professor      
,huxley at the      close of a recent   
course of lectures1 are twin-sisters1   
and the      separation of either from  
the other is sure to prove the death of 
both4 ,science prospers exactly in      
proportion as it is religious2      and 
religion flourishes in exact proportion 
to the scientific depth      and        
firmness of its basis4 ,the great deeds 
of philosophers have      been less the 
fruit of their intellect than of the    

direction of      that intellect by an  
eminently religious tone of mind4 ,truth
 has      yielded herself rather to     
their patience1 their love1 their       
single-heartedness1 and their           
self-denial1 than to their logical      
acumen4  ,so far from science being     
irreligious1 as many think1 it is the   
neglect of science that is              
irreligious--it is the refusal to study 
the surrounding creation that is        
irreligious4 ,take a humble simile4     
,suppose a writer were daily saluted    
with praises couched in superlative     
language4 ,suppose the wisdom1 the      
grandeur1 the beauty of his works1 were 
the constant topics of the eulogies     
addressed to him4 ,suppose those who    
unceasingly uttered these eulogies on   
his works were content with looking at  
the outsides of them2 and had never     
opened them1 much less tried to         
understand them4 ,what value should we  
put upon their praises8 ,what should we 
think of their sincerity8 ,yet1         

comparing small things to great1 such is
 the conduct of mankind in general1 in  
reference to the ,universe and its      
,cause4 ,nay1 it is worse4 ,not only do 
they pass by without study1 these things
 which they daily proclaim to be so     
wonderful2 but very frequently they     
condemn as mere triflers those who give 
time to the observation of ,nature--they
 actually scorn those who show any      
active interest in these marvels4 ,we   
repeat1 then1 that not science1 but the 
neglect of science1 is irreligious4     
,devotion to science1 is a tacit        
worship--a tacit recognition of worth in
 the things studied2 and by implication 
in their ,cause4 ,it is not a mere      
lip-homage1 but a homage expressed in   
actions--not a mere professed respect1  
but a respect proved by the sacrifice of
 time1 thought1 and labour4  ,nor is it 
thus only that true science is          
essentially religious4 ,it is religious1
 too1 inasmuch as it generates a        
profound respect for1 and an implicit   

faith in1 those uniformities of action  
which all things disclose4 ,by          
accumulated experiences the man of      
science acquires a thorough belief in   
the unchanging relations of             
phenomena--in the invariable connection 
of cause and consequence--in the        
necessity of good or evil results4      
,instead of the rewards and punishments 
of traditional belief1 which people     
vaguely hope they may gain1 or escape1  
spite of their disobedience2 he finds   
that there are rewards and punishments  
in the ordained constitution of things2 
and that the evil results of            
disobedience are inevitable4 ,he sees   
that the laws to which we must submit   
are both inexorable and beneficent4 ,he 
sees that in conforming to them1 the    
process of things is ever towards a     
greater perfection and a higher         
happiness4 ,hence he is led constantly  
to insist on them1 and is indignant when
 they are disregarded4 ,and thus does   
he1 by asserting the eternal principles 

of things and the necessity of obeying  
them1 prove himself intrinsically       
religious4  ,add lastly the further     
religious aspect of science1 that it    
alone can give us true conceptions of   
ourselves and our relation to the       
mysteries of existence4 ,at the same    
time that it shows us all which can be  
known1 it shows us the limits beyond    
which we can know nothing4 ,not by      
dogmatic assertion1 does it teach the   
impossibility of comprehending the      
,ultimate ,cause of things2 but it leads
 us clearly to recognise this           
impossibility by bringing us in every   
direction to boundaries we cannot cross4
 ,it realises to us in a way which      
nothing else can1 the littleness of     
human intelligence in the face of that  
which transcends human intelligence4    
,while towards the traditions and       
authorities of men its attitude may be  
proud1 before the impenetrable veil     
which hides the ,absolute its attitude  
is humble--a true pride and a true      

humility4 ,only the sincere man of      
science 7and by this title we do not    
mean the mere calculator of distances1  
or analyser of compounds1 or labeller of
 species2 but him who through lower     
truths seeks higher1 and eventually the 
highest7--only the genuine man of       
science1 we say1 can truly know how     
utterly beyond1 not only human knowledge
 but human conception1 is the ,universal
 ,power of which ,nature1 and ,life1 and
 ,thought are manifestations4  ,we      
conclude1 then1 that for discipline1 as 
well as for guidance1 science is of     
chiefest value4 ,in all its effects1    
learning the meanings of things1 is     
better than learning the meanings of    
words4 ,whether for intellectual1 moral1
 or religious training1 the study of    
surrounding phenomena is immensely      
superior to the study of grammars and   
lexicons4         99       99       99  
99       99  ,thus to the question we   
set out with--,what knowledge is of most
 worth8--the uniform reply is--,science4

 ,this is the verdict on all the counts4
 ,for direct self-preservation1 or the  
maintenance of life and health1 the     
all-important knowledge is--,science4   
,for that indirect self-preservation    
which we call gaining a livelihood1 the 
knowledge of greatest value             
is--,science4 ,for the due discharge of 
parental functions1 the proper guidance 
is to be found only in--,science4 ,for  
that interpretation of national life1   
past and present1 without which the     
citizen cannot rightly regulate his     
conduct1 the indispensable key          
is--,science4 ,alike for the most       
perfect production and highest enjoyment
 of art in all its forms1 the needful   
preparation is still--,science4 ,and for
 purposes of discipline--intellectual1  
moral1 religious--the most efficient    
study is1 once more--,science4 ,the     
question which at first seemed so       
perplexed1 has become1 in the course of 
our inquiry1 comparatively simple4 ,we  
have not to estimate the degrees of     

importance of different orders of human 
activity1 and different studies as      
severally fitting us for them2 since we 
find that the study of ,science1 in its 
most comprehensive meaning1 is the best 
preparation for all these orders of     
activity4 ,we have not to decide between
 the claims of knowledge of great though
 conventional value1 and knowledge of   
less though intrinsic value2 seeing that
 the knowledge which proves to be of    
most value in all other respects1 is    
intrinsically most valuable3 its worth  
is not dependent upon opinion1 but is as
 fixed as is the relation of man to the 
surrounding world4 ,necessary and       
eternal as are its truths1 all ,science 
concerns all mankind for all time4      
,equally at present and in the remotest 
future1 must it be of incalculable      
importance for the regulation of their  
conduct1 that men should understand the 
science of life1 physical1 mental1 and  
social2 and that they should understand 
all other science as a key to the       

science of life4  ,and yet this study1  
immensely transcending all other in     
importance1 is that which1 in an age of 
boasted education1 receives the least   
attention4 ,while what we call          
civilisation could never have arisen had
 it not been for science1 science forms 
scarcely an appreciable element in our  
so-called civilised training4 ,though to
 the progress of science we owe it1 that
 millions find support where once there 
was food only for thousands2 yet of     
these millions but a few thousands pay  
any respect to that which has made their
 existence possible4 ,though increasing 
knowledge of the properties and         
relations of things has not only enabled
 wandering tribes to grow into populous 
nations1 but has given to the countless 
members of these populous nations1      
comforts and pleasures which their few  
naked ancestors never even conceived1 or
 could have believed1 yet is this kind  
of knowledge only now receiving a       
grudging recognition in our highest     

educational institutions4 ,to the slowly
 growing acquaintance with the uniform  
co-existences and sequences of          
phenomena--to the establishment of      
invariable laws1 we owe our emancipation
 from the grossest superstitions4 ,but  
for science we should be still          
worshipping fetishes2 or1 with hecatombs
 of victims1 propitiating diabolical    
deities4 ,and yet this science1 which1  
in place of the most degrading          
conceptions of things1 has given us some
 insight into the grandeurs of creation1
 is written against in our theologies   
and frowned upon from our pulpits4      
,paraphrasing an ,eastern fable1 we may 
say that in the family of knowledges1   
,science is the household drudge1 who1  
in obscurity1 hides unrecognised        
perfections4 ,to her has been committed 
all the works2 by her skill1            
intelligence1 and devotion1 have all    
conveniences and gratifications been    
obtained2 and while ceaselessly         
ministering to the rest1 she has been   

kept in the background1 that her haughty
 sisters might flaunt their fripperies  
in the eyes of the world4 ,the parallel 
holds yet further4 ,for we are fast     
coming to the denouement1 when the      
positions will be changed2 and while    
these haughty sisters sink into merited 
neglect1 ,science1 proclaimed as highest
 alike in worth and beauty1 will reign  
supreme4     ,,intellectual ,,education 
,there cannot fail to be a relationship 
between the successive systems of       
education1 and the successive social    
states with which they have co-existed4 
,having a common origin in the national 
mind1 the institutions of each epoch1   
whatever be their special functions1    
must have a family likeness4 ,when men  
received their creed and its            
interpretations from an infallible      
authority deigning no explanations1 it  
was natural that the teaching of        
children should be purely dogmatic4     
,while believe and ask no questions was 
the maxim of the ,church1 it was fitly  

the maxim of the school4 ,conversely1   
now that ,protestantism has gained for  
adults a right of private judgment and  
established the practice of appealing to
 reason1 there is harmony in the change 
that has made juvenile instruction a    
process of exposition addressed to the  
understanding4 ,along with political    
despotism1 stern in its commands1 ruling
 by force of terror1 visiting trifling  
crimes with death1 and implacable in its
 vengeance on the disloyal1 there       
necessarily grew up an academic         
discipline similarly harsh--a discipline
 of multiplied injunctions and blows for
 every breach of them--a discipline of  
unlimited autocracy upheld by rods1 and 
ferules1 and the black-hole4 ,on the    
other hand1 the increase of political   
liberty1 the abolition of laws          
restricting individual action1 and the  
amelioration of the criminal code1 have 
been accompanied by a kindred progress  
towards non-coercive education3 the     
pupil is hampered by fewer restraints1  

and other means than punishments are    
used to govern him4 ,in those ascetic   
days when men1 acting on the            
greatest-misery principle1 held that the
 more gratifications they denied        
themselves the more virtuous they were1 
they1 as a matter of course1 considered 
that the best education which most      
thwarted the wishes of their children1  
and cut short all spontaneous activity  
with--,you mustn't do so4 ,while1 on the
 contrary1 now that happiness is coming 
to be regarded as a legitimate aim--now 
that hours of labour are being shortened
 and popular recreations                
provided--parents and teachers are      
beginning to see that most childish     
desires may rightly be gratified1 that  
childish sports should be encouraged1   
and that the tendencies of the growing  
mind are not altogether so diabolical as
 was supposed4 ,the age in which all    
believed that trades must be established
 by bounties and prohibitions2 that     
manufacturers needed their materials and

 qualities and prices to be prescribed2 
and that the value of money could be    
determined by law2 was an age which     
unavoidably cherished the notions that a
 child's mind could be made to order2   
that its powers were to be imparted by  
the schoolmaster2 that it was a         
receptacle into which knowledge was to  
be put1 and there built up after the    
teacher's ideal4 ,in this free-trade    
era1 however1 when we are learning that 
there is much more self-regulation in   
things than was supposed2 that labour1  
and commerce1 and agriculture1 and      
navigation1 can do better without       
management than with it2 that political 
governments1 to be efficient1 must grow 
up from within and not be imposed from  
without2 we are also being taught that  
there is a natural process of mental    
evolution which is not to be disturbed  
without injury2 that we may not force on
 the unfolding mind our artificial      
forms2 but that psychology1 also1       
discloses to us a law of supply and     

demand to which1 if we would not do     
harm1 we must conform4 ,thus1 alike in  
its oracular dogmatism1 in its harsh    
discipline1 in its multiplied           
restrictions1 in its professed          
asceticism1 and in its faith in the     
devices of men1 the old educational     
regime was akin to the social systems   
with which it was contemporaneous2 and  
similarly1 in the reverse of these      
characteristics1 our modern modes of    
culture correspond to our more liberal  
religious and political institutions4   
,but there remain further parallelisms  
to which we have not yet adverted3 that1
 namely1 between the processes by which 
these respective changes have been      
wrought out2 and that between the       
several states of heterogeneous opinion 
to which they have led4 ,some centuries 
ago there was uniformity of             
belief--religious1 political1 and       
educational4 ,all men were ,romanists1  
all were ,monarchists1 all were         
disciples of ,aristotle2 and no one     

thought of calling in question that     
grammar-school routine under which all  
were brought up4 ,the same agency has in
 each case replaced this uniformity by a
 constantly-increasing diversity4 ,that 
tendency towards assertion of the       
individuality1 which1 after contributing
 to produce the great ,protestant       
movement1 has since gone on to produce  
an ever-increasing number of sects--that
 tendency which initiated political     
parties1 and out of the two primary ones
 has1 in these modern days1 evolved a   
multiplicity to which every year        
adds--that tendency which led to the    
,baconian rebellion against the schools1
 and has since originated here and      
abroad1 sundry new systems of           
thought--is a tendency which1 in        
education also1 has caused divisions and
 the accumulation of methods4 ,as       
external consequences of the same       
internal change1 these processes have   
necessarily been more or less           
simultaneous4 ,the decline of authority1

 whether papal1 philosophic1 kingly1 or 
tutorial1 is essentially one phenomenon2
 in each of its aspects a leaning       
towards free action is seen alike in the
 working out of the change itself1 and  
in the new forms of theory and practice 
to which the change has given birth4    
,while many will regret this            
multiplication of schemes of juvenile   
culture1 the catholic observer will     
discern in it a means of ensuring the   
final establishment of a rational       
system4 ,whatever may be thought of     
theological dissent1 it is clear that   
dissent in education results in         
facilitating inquiry by the division in 
labour4 ,were we in possession of the   
true method1 divergence from it would1  
of course1 be prejudicial2 but the true 
method having to be found1 the efforts  
of numerous independent seekers carrying
 out their researches in different      
directions1 constitute a better agency  
for finding it than any that could be   
devised4 ,each of them struck by some   

new thought which probably contains more
 or less of basis in facts--each of them
 zealous on behalf of his plan1 fertile 
in expedients to test its correctness1  
and untiring in his efforts to make     
known its success--each of them         
merciless in his criticism on the rest2 
there cannot fail1 by composition of    
forces1 to be a gradual approximation of
 all towards the right course4 ,whatever
 portion of the normal method any one   
has discovered1 must1 by the constant   
exhibition of its results1 force itself 
into adoption2 whatever wrong practices 
he has joined with it must1 by repeated 
experiment and failure1 be exploded4    
,and by this aggregation of truths and  
elimination of errors1 there must       
eventually be developed a correct and   
complete body of doctrine4 ,of the three
 phases through which human opinion     
passes--the unanimity of the ignorant1  
the disagreement of the inquiring1 and  
the unanimity of the wise--it is        
manifest that the second is the parent  

of the third4 ,they are not sequences in
 time only1 they are sequences in       
causation4 ,however impatiently1        
therefore1 we may witness the present   
conflict of educational systems1 and    
however much we may regret its          
accompanying evils1 we must recognise it
 as a transition stage needful to be    
passed through1 and beneficent in its   
ultimate effects4  ,meanwhile1 may we   
not advantageously take stock of our    
progress8 ,after fifty years of         
discussion1 experiment1 and comparison  
of results1 may we not expect a few     
steps towards the goal to be already    
made good8 ,some old methods must by    
this time have fallen out of use2 some  
new ones must have become established2  
and many others must be in process of   
general abandonment or adoption4        
,probably we may see in these various   
changes1 when put side by side1 similar 
characteristics--may find in them a     
common tendency2 and so1 by inference1  
may get a clue to the direction in which

 experience is leading us1 and gather   
hints how we may achieve yet further    
improvements4 ,let us then1 as a        
preliminary to a deeper consideration of
 the matter1 glance at the leading      
contrasts between the education of the  
past and that of the present4         99
       99       99       99       99    
,the suppression of every error is      
commonly followed by a temporary        
ascendency of the contrary one2 and so  
it happened1 that after the ages when   
physical development alone was aimed at1
 there came an age when culture of the  
mind was the sole solicitude--when      
children had lesson-books put before    
them at between two and three years old1
 and the getting of knowledge was       
thought the one thing needful4 ,as1     
further1 it usually happens that after  
one of these reactions the next advance 
is achieved by co-ordinating the        
antagonist errors1 and perceiving that  
they are opposite sides of one truth2   
so1 we are now coming to the conviction 

that body and mind must both be cared   
for1 and the whole thing being unfolded4
 ,the forcing-system has been1 by many1 
given up2 and precocity is discouraged4 
,people are beginning to see that the   
first requisite to success in life1 is  
to be a good animal4 ,the best brain is 
found of little service1 if there be not
 enough vital energy to work it2 and    
hence to obtain the one by sacrificing  
the source of the other1 is now         
considered a folly--a folly which the   
eventual failure of juvenile prodigies  
constantly illustrates4 ,thus we are    
discovering the wisdom of the saying1   
that one secret in education is to know 
how wisely to lose time4  ,the once     
universal practice of learning by rote1 
is daily falling more into discredit4   
,all modern authorities condemn the old 
mechanical way of teaching the alphabet4
 ,the multiplication table is now       
frequently taught experimentally4 ,in   
the acquirement of languages1 the       
grammar-school plan is being superseded 

by plans based on the spontaneous       
process followed by the child in gaining
 its mother tongue4 ,describing the     
methods there used1 the ,reports on the 
,training ,school at ,battersea         
say3--,the instruction in the whole     
preparatory course is chiefly oral1 and 
is illustrated as much as possible by   
appeals to nature4 ,and so throughout4  
,the rote-system1 like ether systems of 
its age1 made more of the forms and     
symbols than of the things symbolised4  
,to repeat the words correctly was      
everything2 to understand their meaning 
nothing2 and thus the spirit was        
sacrificed to the letter4 ,it is at     
length perceived that1 in this case as  
in others1 such a result is not         
accidental but necessary--that in       
proportion as there is attention to the 
signs1 there must be inattention to the 
things signified2 or that1 as ,montaigne
 long ago said--,scavoir par coeur n'est
 pas scavoir4  ,along with              
rote-teaching1 is declining also the    

nearly-allied teaching by rules4 ,the   
particulars first1 and then the         
generalisation1 is the new method--a    
method1 as the ,battersea ,school       
,reports remarks1 which1 though the     
reverse of the method usually followed1 
which consists in giving the pupil the  
rule first1 is yet proved by experience 
to be the right one4 ,rule-teaching is  
now condemned as imparting a merely     
empirical knowledge--as producing an    
appearance of understanding without the 
reality4 ,to give the net product of    
inquiry1 without the inquiry that leads 
to it1 is found to be both enervating   
and inefficient4 ,general truths to be  
of due and permanent use1 must be       
earned4 ,easy come easy go1 is a saying 
as applicable to knowledge as to wealth4
 ,while rules1 lying isolated in the    
mind--not joined to its other contents  
as out-growths from them--are           
continually forgotten2 the principles   
which those rules express piecemeal1    
become1 when once reached by the        

understanding1 enduring possessions4    
,while the rule-taught youth is at sea  
when beyond his rules1 the youth        
instructed in principles solves a new   
case as readily as an old one4 ,between 
a mind of rules and a mind of           
principles1 there exists a difference   
such as that between a confused heap of 
materials1 and the same materials       
organised into a complete whole1 with   
all its parts bound together4 ,of which 
types this last has not only the        
advantage that its constituent parts are
 better retained1 but the much greater  
advantage that it forms an efficient    
agent for inquiry1 for independent      
thought1 for discovery--ends for which  
the first is useless4 ,nor let it be    
supposed that this is a simile only3 it 
is the literal truth4 ,the union of     
facts into generalisations is the       
organisation of knowledge1 whether      
considered as an objective phenomenon or
 a subjective one2 and the mental grasp 
may be measured by the extent to which  

this organisation is carried4  ,from the
 substitution of principles for rules1  
and the necessarily co-ordinate practice
 of leaving abstractions untaught till  
the mind has been familiarised with the 
facts from which they are abstracted1   
has resulted the postponement of some   
once early studies to a late period4    
,this is exemplified in the abandonment 
of that intensely stupid custom1 the    
teaching of grammar to children4 ,as ,m4
 ,marcel says3--,it may without         
hesitation be affirmed that grammar is  
not the stepping-stone1 but the         
finishing instrument4 ,as ,mr4 ,wyse    
argues3--,grammar and ,syntax are a     
collection of laws and rules4 ,rules are
 gathered from practice2 they are the   
results of induction to which we come by
 long observation and comparison of     
facts4 ,it is1 in fine1 the science1 the
 philosophy of language4 ,in following  
the process of nature1 neither          
individuals nor nations ever arrive at  
the science first4 ,a language is       

spoken1 and poetry written1 many years  
before either a grammar or prosody is   
even thought of4 ,men did not wait till 
,aristotle had constructed his logic1 to
 reason4 ,in short1 as grammar was made 
after language1 so ought it to be taught
 after language3 an inference which all 
who recognise the relationship between  
the evolution of the race and that of   
the individual1 will see to be          
unavoidable4  ,of new practices that    
have grown up during the decline of     
these old ones1 the most important is   
the systematic culture of the powers of 
observation4 ,after long ages of        
blindness1 men are at last seeing that  
the spontaneous activity of the         
observing faculties in children has a   
meaning and a use4 ,what was once       
thought mere purposeless action1 or     
play1 or mischief1 as the case might be1
 is now recognised as the process of    
acquiring a knowledge on which all      
after-knowledge is based4 ,hence the    
well-conceived but ill-conducted system 

of object-lessons4 ,the saying of       
,bacon1 that physics is the mother of   
the sciences1 has come to have a meaning
 in education4 ,without an accurate     
acquaintance with the visible and       
tangible properties of things1 our      
conceptions must be erroneous1 our      
inferences fallacious1 and our          
operations unsuccessful4 ,the education 
of the senses neglected1 all after      
education partakes of a drowsiness1 a   
haziness1 an insufficiency1 which it is 
impossible to cure4 ,indeed1 if we      
consider it1 we shall find that         
exhaustive observation is an element in 
all great success4 ,it is not to        
artists1 naturalists1 and men of science
 only1 that it is needful2 it is not    
only that the physician depends on it   
for the correctness of his diagnosis1   
and that to the engineer it is so       
important that some years in the        
workshop are prescribed for him2 but we 
may see that the philosopher1 also1 is  
fundamentally one who observes          

relationships of things which others had
 overlooked1 and that the poet1 too1 is 
one who sees the fine facts in nature   
which all recognise when pointed out1   
but did not before remark4 ,nothing     
requires more to be insisted on than    
that vivid and complete impressions are 
all-essential4 ,no sound fabric of      
wisdom can be woven out of a rotten     
raw-material4  ,while the old method of 
presenting truths in the abstract has   
been falling out of use1 there has been 
a corresponding adoption of the new     
method of presenting them in the        
concrete4 ,the rudimentary facts of     
exact science are now being learnt by   
direct intuition1 as textures1 and      
tastes1 and colours are learnt4         
,employing the ball-frame for first     
lessons in arithmetic exemplifies this4 
,it is well illustrated1 too1 in        
,professor ,de ,morgan's mode of        
explaining the decimal notation4 ,m4    
,marcel1 rightly repudiating the old    
system of tables1 teaches weights and   

measures by referring to the actual yard
 and foot1 pound and ounce1 gallon and  
quart2 and lets the discovery of their  
relationships be experimental4 ,the use 
of geographical models and models of the
 regular bodies1 etc41 as introductory  
to geography and geometry respectively1 
are facts of the same class4            
,manifestly1 a common trait of these    
methods is1 that they carry each child's
 mind through a process like that which 
the mind of humanity at large has gone  
through4 ,the truths of number1 of form1
 of relationship in position1 were all  
originally drawn from objects2 and to   
present these truths to the child in the
 concrete is to let him learn them as   
the race learnt them4 ,by and by1       
perhaps1 it will be seen that he cannot 
possibly learn them in any other way2   
for that if he is made to repeat them as
 abstractions1 the abstractions can have
 no meaning for him1 until he finds that
 they are simply statements of what he  
intuitively discerns4  ,but of all the  

changes taking place1 the most          
significant is the growing desire to    
make the acquirement of knowledge       
pleasurable rather than painful--a      
desire based on the more or less        
distinct perception1 that at each age   
the intellectual action which a child   
likes is a healthful one for it2 and    
conversely4 ,there is a spreading       
opinion that the rise of an appetite for
 any kind of information implies that   
the unfolding mind has become fit to    
assimilate it1 and needs it for purposes
 of growth2 and that1 on the other hand1
 the disgust felt towards such          
information is a sign either that it is 
prematurely presented1 or that it is    
presented in an indigestible form4      
,hence the efforts to make early        
education amusing1 and all education    
interesting4 ,hence the lectures on the 
value of play4 ,hence the defence of    
nursery rhymes and fairy tales4 ,daily  
we more and more conform our plans to   
juvenile opinion4 ,does the child like  

this or that kind of teaching8--does he 
take to it8 we constantly ask4 ,his     
natural desire of variety should be     
indulged1 says ,m4 ,marcel2 and the     
gratification of his curiosity should be
 combined with his improvement4         
,lessons1 he again remarks1 should cease
 before the child evinces symptoms of   
weariness4 ,and so with later education4
 ,short breaks during school-hours1     
excursions into the country1 amusing    
lectures1 choral songs--in these and    
many like traits the change may be      
discerned4 ,asceticism is disappearing  
out of education as out of life2 and the
 usual test of political                
legislation--its tendency to promote    
happiness--is beginning to be1 in a     
great degree1 the test of legislation   
for the school and the nursery4  ,what  
now is the common characteristic of     
these several changes8 ,is it not an    
increasing conformity to the methods of 
,nature8 ,the relinquishment of early   
forcing1 against which ,nature rebels1  

and the leaving of the first years for  
exercise of the limbs and senses1 show  
this4 ,the superseding of rote-learnt   
lessons by lessons orally and           
experimentally given1 like those of the 
field and play-ground1 shows this4 ,the 
disuse of rule-teaching1 and the        
adoption of teaching by principles--that
 is1 the leaving of generalisations     
until there are particulars to base them
 on--show this4 ,the system of          
object-lessons shows this4 ,the teaching
 of the rudiments of science in the     
concrete instead of the abstract1 shows 
this4 ,and above all1 this tendency is  
shown in the variously-directed efforts 
to present knowledge in attractive      
forms1 and so to make the acquirement of
 it pleasurable4 ,for1 as it is the     
order of ,nature in all creatures that  
the gratification accompanying the      
fulfilment of needful functions serves  
as a stimulus to their fulfilment--as1  
during the self-education of the young  
child1 the delight taken in the biting  

of corals and the pulling to pieces of  
toys1 becomes the prompter to actions   
which teach it the properties of matter2
 it follows that1 in choosing the       
succession of subjects and the modes of 
instruction which most interest the     
pupil1 we are fulfilling ,nature's      
behests1 and adjusting our proceedings  
to the laws of life4  ,thus1 then1 we   
are on the highway towards the doctrine 
long ago enunciated by ,pestalozzi1 that
 alike in its order and its methods1    
education must conform to the natural   
process of mental evolution--that there 
is a certain sequence in which the      
faculties spontaneously develop1 and a  
certain kind of knowledge which each    
requires during its development2 and    
that it is for us to ascertain this     
sequence1 and supply this knowledge4    
,all the improvements above alluded to  
are partial applications of this general
 principle4 ,a nebulous perception of it
 now prevails among teachers2 and it is 
daily more insisted on in educational   

works4 ,the method of nature is the     
archetype of all methods1 says ,m4      
,marcel4 ,the vital principle in the    
pursuit is to enable the pupil rightly  
to instruct himself1 writes ,mr4 ,wyse4 
,the more science familiarises us with  
the constitution of things1 the more do 
we see in them an inherent              
self-sufficingness4 ,a higher knowledge 
tends continually to limit our          
interference with the processes of life4
 ,as in medicine the old heroic         
treatment has given place to mild       
treatment1 and often no treatment save a
 normal regimen--as we have found that  
it is not needful to mould the bodies of
 babes by bandaging them in             
papoose-fashion or otherwise--as in     
gaols it is being discovered that no    
cunningly-devised discipline of ours is 
so efficient in producing reformation as
 the natural discipline of              
self-maintenance by productive labour2  
so in education1 we are finding that    
success is to be achieved only by making

 our measures subservient to that       
spontaneous unfolding which all minds go
 through in their progress to maturity4 
,of course1 this fundamental principle  
of tuition1 that the arrangement of     
matter and method must correspond with  
the order of evolution and mode of      
activity of the faculties--a principle  
so obviously true1 that once stated it  
seems almost self-evident--has never    
been wholly disregarded4 ,teachers have 
unavoidably made their school-courses   
coincide with it in some degree1 for the
 simple reason that education is        
possible only on that condition4 ,boys  
were never taught the rule-of-three     
until after they had learnt addition4   
,they were not set to write exercises   
before they had got into their          
copybooks4 ,conic sections have always  
been preceded by ,euclid4 ,but the error
 of the old methods consists in this1   
that they do not recognise in detail    
what they are obliged to recognise in   
general4 ,yet the principle applies     

throughout4 ,if from the time when a    
child is able to conceive two things as 
related in position1 years must elapse  
before it can form a true concept of the
 ,earth1 as a sphere made up of land and
 sea1 covered with mountains1 forests1  
rivers1 and cities1 revolving on its    
axis1 and sweeping round the ,sun--if it
 gets from the one concept to the other 
by degrees--if the intermediate concepts
 which it forms are consecutively larger
 and more complicated2 is it not        
manifest that there is a general        
succession through which alone it can   
pass2 that each larger concept is made  
by the combination of smaller ones1 and 
presupposes them2 and that to present   
any of these compound concepts before   
the child is in possession of its       
constituent ones1 is only less absurd   
than to present the final concept of the
 series before the initial one8 ,in the 
mastering of every subject some course  
of increasingly complex ideas has to be 
gone through4 ,the evolution of the     

corresponding faculties consists in the 
assimilation of these2 which1 in any    
true sense1 is impossible without they  
are put into the mind in the normal     
order4 ,and when this order is not      
followed1 the result is1 that they are  
received with apathy or disgust2 and    
that unless the pupil is intelligent    
enough eventually to fill up the gaps   
himself1 they lie in his memory as dead 
facts1 capable of being turned to little
 or no use4  ,but why trouble ourselves 
about any curriculum at all8 it may be  
asked4 ,if it be true that the mind like
 the body has a predetermined course of 
evolution--if it unfolds                
spontaneously--if its successive desires
 for this or that kind of information   
arise when these are severally required 
for its nutrition--if there thus exists 
in itself a prompter to the right       
species of activity at the right time2  
why interfere in any way8 ,why not leave
 children wholly to the discipline of   
nature8--why not remain quite passive   

and let them get knowledge as they best 
can8--why not be consistent throughout8 
,this is an awkward-looking question4   
,plausibly implying as it does1 that a  
system of complete laissez-faire is the 
logical outcome of the doctrines set    
forth1 it seems to furnish a disproof of
 them by reductio ad absurdum4 ,in      
truth1 however1 they do not1 when       
rightly understood1 commit us to any    
such untenable position4 ,a glance at   
the physical analogies will clearly show
 this4 ,it is a general law of life that
 the more complex the organism to be    
produced1 the longer the period during  
which it is dependent on a parent       
organism for food and protection4 ,the  
difference between the minute1          
rapidly-formed1 and self-moving spore of
 a conferva1 and the slowly-developed   
seed of a tree1 with its multiplied     
envelopes and large stock of nutriment  
laid by to nourish the germ during its  
first stages of growth1 illustrates this
 law in its application to the vegetal  

world4 ,among animals we may trace it in
 a series of contrasts from the monad   
whose spontaneously-divided halves are  
as self-sufficing the moment after their
 separation as was the original whole2  
up to man1 whose offspring not only     
passes through a protracted gestation1  
and subsequently long depends on the    
breast for sustenance2 but after that   
must have its food artificially         
administered2 must1 when it has learned 
to feed itself1 continue to have bread1 
clothing1 and shelter provided2 and does
 not acquire the power of complete      
self-support until a time varying from  
fifteen to twenty years after its birth4
 ,now this law applies to the mind as to
 the body4 ,for mental pabulum also1    
every higher creature1 and especially   
man1 is at first dependent on adult aid4
 ,lacking the ability to move about1 the
 babe is almost as powerless to get     
materials on which to exercise its      
perceptions as it is to get supplies for
 its stomach4 ,unable to prepare its own

 food1 it is in like manner unable to   
reduce many kinds of knowledge to a fit 
form for assimilation4 ,the language    
through which all higher truths are to  
be gained1 it wholly derives from those 
surrounding it4 ,and we see in such an  
example as the ,wild ,boy of ,aveyron1  
the arrest of development that results  
when no help is received from parents   
and nurses4 ,thus1 in providing from day
 to day the right kind of facts1        
prepared in the right manner1 and giving
 them in due abundance at appropriate   
intervals1 there is as much scope for   
active ministration to a child's mind as
 to its body4 ,in either case1 it is the
 chief function of parents to see that  
the conditions requisite to growth are  
maintained4 ,and as1 in supplying       
aliment1 and clothing1 and shelter1 they
 may fulfil this function without at all
 interfering with the spontaneous       
development of the limbs and viscera1   
either in their order or mode2 so1 they 
may supply sounds for imitation1 objects

 for examination1 books for reading1    
problems for solution1 and1 if they use 
neither direct nor indirect coercion1   
may do this without in any way          
disturbing the normal process of mental 
evolution2 or rather1 may greatly       
facilitate that process4 ,hence the     
admission of the doctrines enunciated   
does not1 as some might argue1 involve  
the abandonment of teaching2 but leaves 
ample room for an active and elaborate  
course of culture4         99       99  
99       99       99  ,passing from     
generalities to special considerations1 
it is to be remarked that in practice   
the ,pestalozzian system seems scarcely 
to have fulfilled the promise of its    
theory4 ,we hear of children not at all 
interested in its lessons1--disgusted   
with them rather2 and1 so far as we can 
gather1 the ,pestalozzian school have   
not turned out any unusual proportion of
 distinguished men3 if even they have   
reached the average4 ,we are not        
surprised at this4 ,the success of every

 appliance depends mainly upon the      
intelligence with which it is used4 ,it 
is a trite remark that1 having the      
choicest tools1 an unskilful artisan    
will botch his work2 and bad teachers   
will fail even with the best methods4   
,indeed1 the goodness of the method     
becomes in such case a cause of failure2
 as1 to continue the simile1 the        
perfection of the tool becomes in       
undisciplined hands a source of         
imperfection in results4 ,a simple1     
unchanging1 almost mechanical routine of
 tuition1 may be carried out by the     
commonest intellects1 with such small   
beneficial effect as it is capable of   
producing2 but a complete system--a     
system as heterogeneous in its          
appliances as the mind in its           
faculties--a system proposing a special 
means for each special end1 demands for 
its right employment powers such as few 
teachers possess4 ,the mistress of a    
dame-school can hear spelling-lessons2  
and any hedge-schoolmaster can drill    

boys in the multiplication-table4 ,but  
to teach spelling rightly by using the  
powers of the letters instead of their  
names1 or to instruct in numerical      
combinations by experimental synthesis1 
a modicum of understanding is needful2  
and to pursue a like rational course    
throughout the entire range of studies1 
asks an amount of judgment1 of          
invention1 of intellectual sympathy1 of 
analytical faculty1 which we shall never
 see applied to it while the tutorial   
official is held in such small esteem4  
,true education is practicable only by a
 true philosopher4 ,judge1 then1 what   
prospect a philosophical method now has 
of being acted out6 ,knowing so little  
as we yet do of psychology1 and ignorant
 as our teachers are of that little1    
what chance has a system which requires 
psychology for its basis8  ,further     
hindrance and discouragement has arisen 
from confounding the ,pestalozzian      
principle with the forms in which it has
 been embodied4 ,because particular     

plans have not answered expectation1    
discredit has been cast upon the        
doctrine associated with them3 no       
inquiry being made whether these plans  
truly conform to the doctrine4 ,judging 
as usual by the concrete rather than the
 abstract1 men have blamed the theory   
for the bunglings of the practice4 ,it  
is as though the first futile attempt to
 construct a steam-engine had been held 
to prove that steam could not be used as
 a motive power4 ,let it be constantly  
borne in mind that while right in his   
fundamental ideas1 ,pestalozzi was not  
therefore right in all his applications 
of them4 ,as described even by his      
admirers1 ,pestalozzi was a man of      
partial intuitions--a man who had       
occasional flashes of insight rather    
than a man of systematic thought4 ,his  
first great success at ,stantz was      
achieved when he had no books or        
appliances of ordinary teaching1 and    
when the only object of his attention   
was to find out at each moment what     

instruction his children stood          
peculiarly in need of1 and what was the 
best manner of connecting it with the   
knowledge they already possessed4 ,much 
of his power was due1 not to calmly     
reasoned-out plans of culture1 but to   
his profound sympathy1 which gave him a 
quick perception of childish needs and  
difficulties4 ,he lacked the ability    
logically to co-ordinate and develop the
 truths which he thus from time to time 
laid hold of2 and had in great measure  
to leave this to his assistants1        
,kruesi1 ,tobler1 ,buss1 ,niederer1 and 
,schmid4 ,the result is1 that in their  
details his own plans1 and those        
vicariously devised1 contain numerous   
crudities and inconsistencies4 ,his     
nursery-method1 described in ,the       
,mother's ,manual1 beginning as it does 
with a nomenclature of the different    
parts of the body1 and proceeding next  
to specify their relative positions1 and
 next their connections1 may be proved  
not at all in accordance with the       

initial stages of mental evolution4 ,his
 process of teaching the mother-tongue  
by formal exercises in the meanings of  
words and in the construction of        
sentences1 is quite needless1 and must  
entail on the pupil loss of time1       
labour1 and happiness4 ,his proposed    
lessons in geography are utterly        
unpestalozzian4 ,and often where his    
plans are essentially sound1 they are   
either incomplete or vitiated by some   
remnant of the old regime4 ,while1      
therefore1 we would defend in its entire
 extent the general doctrine which      
,pestalozzi inaugurated1 we think great 
evil likely to result from an uncritical
 reception of his specific methods4     
,that tendency1 constantly exhibited by 
mankind1 to canonise the forms and      
practices along with which any great    
truth has been bequeathed to them--their
 liability to prostrate their intellects
 before the prophet1 and swear by his   
every word--their proneness to mistake  
the clothing of the idea for the idea   

itself2 renders it needful to insist    
strongly upon the distinction between   
the fundamental principle of the        
,pestalozzian system1 and the set of    
expedients devised for its practice2 and
 to suggest that while the one may be   
considered as established1 the other is 
probably nothing but an adumbration of  
the normal course4 ,indeed1 on looking  
at the state of our knowledge1 we may be
 quite sure that is the case4 ,before   
educational methods can be made to      
harmonise in character and arrangement  
with the faculties in their mode and    
order of unfolding1 it is first needful 
that we ascertain with some completeness
 how the faculties do unfold4 ,at       
present we have acquired1 on this point1
 only a few general notions4 ,these     
general notions must be developed in    
detail--must be transformed into a      
multitude of specific propositions1     
before we can be said to possess that   
science on which the art of education   
must be based4 ,and then1 when we have  

definitely made out in what succession  
and in what combinations the mental     
powers become active1 it remains to     
choose out of the many possible ways of 
exercising each of them1 that which best
 conforms to its natural mode of action4
 ,evidently1 therefore1 it is not to be 
supposed that even our most advanced    
modes of teaching are the right ones1 or
 nearly the right ones4  ,bearing in    
mind then this distinction between the  
principle and the practice of           
,pestalozzi1 and inferring from the     
grounds assigned that the last must     
necessarily be very defective1 the      
reader will rate at its true worth the  
dissatisfaction with the system which   
some have expressed2 and will see that  
the realisation of the ,pestalozzian    
idea remains to be achieved4 ,should he 
argue1 however1 from what has just been 
said1 that no such realisation is at    
present practicable1 and that all effort
 ought to be devoted to the preliminary 
inquiry2 we reply1 that though it is not

 possible for a scheme of culture to be 
perfected either in matter or form until
 a rational psychology has been         
established1 it is possible1 with the   
aid of certain guiding principles1 to   
make empirical approximations towards a 
perfect scheme4 ,to prepare the way for 
further research we will now specify    
these principles4 ,some of them have    
been more or less distinctly implied in 
the foregoing pages2 but it will be well
 here to state them all in logical      
order4  #a4 ,that in education we should
 proceed from the simple to the complex1
 is a truth which has always been to    
some extent acted upon3 not professedly1
 indeed1 nor by any means consistently4 
,the mind develops4 ,like all things    
that develop it progresses from the     
homogeneous to the heterogeneous2 and a 
normal training system1 being an        
objective counterpart of this subjective
 process1 must exhibit a like           
progression4 ,moreover1 thus            
interpreting it1 we may see that this   

formula has much wider application than 
at first appears4 ,for its rationale    
involves1 not only that we should       
proceed from the single to the combined 
in the teaching of each branch of       
knowledge2 but that we should do the    
like with knowledge as a whole4 ,as the 
mind1 consisting at first of but few    
active faculties1 has its               
later-completed faculties successively  
brought into play1 and ultimately comes 
to have all its faculties in            
simultaneous action2 it follows that our
 teaching should begin with but few     
subjects at once1 and successively      
adding to these1 should finally carry on
 all subjects abreast4 ,not only in its 
details should education proceed from   
the simple to the complex1 but in its   
ensemble also4  #b4 ,the development of 
the mind1 as all other development1 is  
an advance from the indefinite to the   
definite4 ,in common with the rest of   
the organism1 the brain reaches its     
finished structure only at maturity2 and

 in proportion as its structure is      
unfinished1 its actions are wanting in  
precision4 ,hence like the first        
movements and the first attempts at     
speech1 the first perceptions and       
thoughts are extremely vague4 ,as from a
 rudimentary eye1 discerning only the   
difference between light and darkness1  
the progress is to an eye that          
distinguishes kinds and gradations of   
colour1 and details of form1 with the   
greatest exactness2 so1 the intellect as
 a whole and in each faculty1 beginning 
with the rudest discriminations among   
objects and actions1 advances towards   
discriminations of increasing nicety and
 distinctness4 ,to this general law our 
educational course and methods must     
conform4 ,it is not practicable1 nor    
would it be desirable if practicable1 to
 put precise ideas into the undeveloped 
mind4 ,we may indeed at an early age    
communicate the verbal forms in which   
such ideas are wrapped up2 and teachers1
 who habitually do this1 suppose that   

when the verbal forms have been         
correctly learnt1 the ideas which should
 fill them have been acquired4 ,but a   
brief cross-examination of the pupil    
proves the contrary4 ,it turns out      
either that the words have been         
committed to memory with little or no   
thought about their meaning1 or else    
that the perception of their meaning    
which has been gained is a very cloudy  
one4 ,only as the multiplication of     
experiences gives materials for definite
 conceptions--only as observation year  
by year discloses the less conspicuous  
attributes which distinguish things and 
processes previously confounded         
together--only as each class of         
co-existences and sequences becomes     
familiar through the recurrence of cases
 coming under it--only as the various   
classes of relations get accurately     
marked off from each other by mutual    
limitation1 can the exact definitions of
 advanced knowledge become truly        
comprehensible4 ,thus in education we   

must be content to set out with crude   
notions4 ,these we must aim to make     
gradually clearer by facilitating the   
acquisition of experiences such as will 
correct1 first their greatest errors1   
and afterwards their successively less  
marked errors4 ,and the scientific      
formulae must be given only as fast as  
the conceptions are perfected4  #c4 ,to 
say that our lessons ought to start from
 the concrete and end in the abstract1  
may be considered as in part a          
repetition of the first of the foregoing
 principles4 ,nevertheless it is a maxim
 that must be stated3 if with no other  
view1 then with the view of showing in  
certain cases what are truly the simple 
and the complex4 ,for unfortunately     
there has been much misunderstanding on 
this point4 ,general formulas which men 
have devised to express groups of       
details1 and which have severally       
simplified their conceptions by uniting 
many facts into one fact1 they have     
supposed must simplify the conceptions  

of a child also4 ,they have forgotten   
that a generalisation is simple only in 
comparison with the whole mass of       
particular truths it comprehends--that  
it is more complex than any one of these
 truths taken singly--that only after   
many of these single truths have been   
acquired does the generalisation ease   
the memory and help the reason--and that
 to a mind not possessing these single  
truths it is necessarily a mystery4     
,thus confounding two kinds of          
simplification1 teachers have constantly
 erred by setting out with first        
principles3 a proceeding essentially1   
though not apparently1 at variance with 
the primary rule2 which implies that the
 mind should be introduced to principles
 through the medium of examples1 and so 
should be led from the particular to the
 general--from the concrete to the      
abstract4  #d4 ,the education of the    
child must accord both in mode and      
arrangement with the education of       
mankind1 considered historically4 ,in   

other words1 the genesis of knowledge in
 the individual must follow the same    
course as the genesis of knowledge in   
the race4 ,in strictness1 this principle
 may be considered as already expressed 
by implication2 since both1 being       
processes of evolution1 must conform to 
those same general laws of evolution    
above insisted on1 and must therefore   
agree with each other4 ,nevertheless    
this particular parallelism is of value 
for the specific guidance it affords4   
,to ,m4 ,comte we believe society owes  
the enunciation of it2 and we may accept
 this item of his philosophy without at 
all committing ourselves to the rest4   
,this doctrine may be upheld by two     
reasons1 quite independent of any       
abstract theory2 and either of them     
sufficient to establish it4 ,one is     
deducible from the law of hereditary    
transmission as considered in its wider 
consequences4 ,for if it be true that   
men exhibit likeness to ancestry1 both  
in aspect and character--if it be true  

that certain mental manifestations1 as  
insanity1 occur in successive members of
 the same family at the same age--if1   
passing from individual cases in which  
the traits of many dead ancestors mixing
 with those of a few living ones greatly
 obscure the law1 we turn to national   
types1 and remark how the contrasts     
between them are persistent from age to 
age--if we remember that these          
respective types came from a common     
stock1 and that hence the present marked
 differences between them must have     
arisen from the action of modifying     
circumstances upon successive           
generations who severally transmitted   
the accumulated effects to their        
descendants--if we find the differences 
to be now organic1 so that a ,french    
child grows into a ,french man even when
 brought up among strangers--and if the 
general fact thus illustrated is true of
 the whole nature1 intellect inclusive2 
then it follows that if there be an     
order in which the human race has       

mastered its various kinds of knowledge1
 there will arise in every child an     
aptitude to acquire these kinds of      
knowledge in the same order4 ,so that   
even were the order intrinsically       
indifferent1 it would facilitate        
education to lead the individual mind   
through the steps traversed by the      
general mind4 ,but the order is not     
intrinsically indifferent2 and hence the
 fundamental reason why education should
 be a repetition of civilisation in     
little4 ,it is provable both that the   
historical sequence was1 in its main    
outlines1 a necessary one2 and that the 
causes which determined it apply to the 
child as to the race4 ,not to specify   
these causes in detail1 it will suffice 
here to point out that as the mind of   
humanity placed in the midst of         
phenomena and striving to comprehend    
them1 has1 after endless comparisons1   
speculations1 experiments1 and theories1
 reached its present knowledge of each  
subject by a specific route2 it may     

rationally be inferred that the         
relationship between mind and phenomena 
is such as to prevent this knowledge    
from being reached by any other route2  
and that as each child's mind stands in 
this same relationship to phenomena1    
they can be accessible to it only       
through the same route4 ,hence in       
deciding upon the right method of       
education1 an inquiry into the method of
 civilisation will help to guide us4    
#e4 ,one of the conclusions to which    
such an inquiry leads1 is1 that in each 
branch of instruction we should proceed 
from the empirical to the rational4     
,during human progress1 every science is
 evolved out of its corresponding art4  
,it results from the necessity we are   
under1 both individually and as a race1 
of reaching the abstract by way of the  
concrete1 that there must be practice   
and an accruing experience with its     
empirical generalisation1 before there  
can be science4 ,science is organised   
knowledge2 and before knowledge can be  

organised1 some of it must be possessed4
 ,every study1 therefore1 should have a 
purely experimental introduction2 and   
only after an ample fund of observations
 has been accumulated1 should reasoning 
begin4 ,as illustrative applications of 
this rule1 we may instance the modern   
course of placing grammar1 not before   
language1 but after it2 or the ordinary 
custom of prefacing perspective by      
practical drawing4 ,by and by further   
applications of it will be indicated4   
#f4 ,a second corollary from the        
foregoing general principle1 and one    
which cannot be too strenuously insisted
 on1 is1 that in education the process  
of self-development should be encouraged
 to the uttermost4 ,children should be  
led to make their own investigations1   
and to draw their own inferences4 ,they 
should be told as little as possible1   
and induced to discover as much as      
possible4 ,humanity has progressed      
solely by self-instruction2 and that to 
achieve the best results1 each mind must

 progress somewhat after the same       
fashion1 is continually proved by the   
marked success of self-made men4 ,those 
who have been brought up under the      
ordinary school-drill1 and have carried 
away with them the idea that education  
is practicable only in that style1 will 
think it hopeless to make children their
 own teachers4 ,if1 however1 they will  
consider that the all-important         
knowledge of surrounding objects which a
 child gets in its early years is got   
without help--if they will remember that
 the child is self-taught in the use of 
its mother tongue--if they will estimate
 the amount of that experience of life1 
that out-of-school wisdom1 which every  
boy gathers for himself--if they will   
mark the unusual intelligence of the    
uncared-for ,london gamin1 as shown in  
whatever directions his faculties have  
been tasked--if1 further1 they will     
think how many minds have struggled up  
unaided1 not only through the mysteries 
of our irrationally-planned curriculum1 

but through hosts of other obstacles    
besides2 they will find it a not        
unreasonable conclusion that if the     
subjects be put before him in right     
order and right form1 any pupil of      
ordinary capacity will surmount his     
successive difficulties with but little 
assistance4 ,who indeed can watch the   
ceaseless observation1 and inquiry1 and 
inference going on in a child's mind1 or
 listen to its acute remarks on matters 
within the range of its faculties1      
without perceiving that these powers it 
manifests1 if brought to bear           
systematically upon studies within the  
same range1 would readily master them   
without help8 ,this need for perpetual  
telling results from our stupidity1 not 
from the child's4 ,we drag it away from 
the facts in which it is interested1 and
 which it is actively assimilating of   
itself4 ,we put before it facts far too 
complex for it to understand2 and       
therefore distasteful to it4 ,finding   
that it will not voluntarily acquire    

these facts1 we thrust them into its    
mind by force of threats and punishment4
 ,by thus denying the knowledge it      
craves1 and cramming it with knowledge  
it cannot digest1 we produce a morbid   
state of its faculties2 and a consequent
 disgust for knowledge in general4 ,and 
when1 as a result partly of the stolid  
indolence we have brought on1 and partly
 of still-continued unfitness in its    
studies1 the child can understand       
nothing without explanation1 and becomes
 a mere passive recipient of our        
instruction1 we infer that education    
must necessarily be carried on thus4    
,having by our method induced           
helplessness1 we make the helplessness a
 reason for our method4 ,clearly then1  
the experience of pedagogues cannot     
rationally be quoted against the system 
we are advocating4 ,and whoever sees    
this1 will see that we may safely follow
 the discipline of ,nature              
throughout--may1 by a skilful           
ministration1 make the mind as          

self-developing in its later stages as  
it is in its earlier ones2 and that only
 by doing this can we produce the       
highest power and activity4  #g4 ,as a  
final test by which to judge any plan of
 culture1 should come the               
question1--,does it create a pleasurable
 excitement in the pupils8 ,when in     
doubt whether a particular mode or      
arrangement is or is not more in harmony
 with the foregoing principles than some
 other1 we may safely abide by this     
criterion4 ,even when1 as considered    
theoretically1 the proposed course seems
 the best1 yet if it produces no        
interest1 or less interest than some    
other course1 we should relinquish it2  
for a child's intellectual instincts are
 more trustworthy than our reasonings4  
,in respect to the knowing-faculties1 we
 may confidently trust in the general   
law1 that under normal conditions1      
healthful action is pleasurable1 while  
action which gives pain is not          
healthful4 ,though at present very      

incompletely conformed to by the        
emotional nature1 yet by the            
intellectual nature1 or at least by     
those parts of it which the child       
exhibits1 this law is almost wholly     
conformed to4 ,the repugnances to this  
and that study which vex the ordinary   
teacher1 are not innate1 but result from
 his unwise system4 ,fellenberg says1   
,experience has taught me that indolence
 in young persons is so directly        
opposite to their natural disposition to
 activity1 that unless it is the        
consequence of bad education1 it is     
almost invariably connected with some   
constitutional defect4 ,and the         
spontaneous activity to which children  
are thus prone1 is simply the pursuit of
 those pleasures which the healthful    
exercise of the faculties gives4 ,it is 
true that some of the higher mental     
powers1 as yet but little developed in  
the race1 and congenitally possessed in 
any considerable degree only by the most
 advanced1 are indisposed to the amount 

of exertion required of them4 ,but      
these1 in virtue of their very          
complexity1 will1 in a normal course of 
culture1 come last into exercise2 and   
will therefore have no demands made on  
them until the pupil has arrived at an  
age when ulterior motives can be brought
 into play1 and an indirect pleasure    
made to counterbalance a direct         
displeasure4 ,with all faculties lower  
than these1 however1 the immediate      
gratification consequent on activity1 is
 the normal stimulus2 and under good    
management the only needful stimulus4   
,when we have to fall back on some      
other1 we must take the fact as evidence
 that we are on the wrong track4        
,experience is daily showing with       
greater clearness1 that there is always 
a method to be found productive of      
interest--even of delight2 and it ever  
turns out that this is the method proved
 by all other tests to be the right one4
  ,with most1 these guiding principles  
will weigh but little if left in this   

abstract form4 ,partly1 therefore1 to   
exemplify their application1 and partly 
with a view of making sundry specific   
suggestions1 we propose now to pass from
 the theory of education to the practice
 of it4         99       99       99    
99       99  ,it was the opinion of     
,pestalozzi1 and one which has ever     
since his day been gaining ground1 that 
education of some kind should begin from
 the cradle4 ,whoever has watched1 with 
any discernment1 the wide-eyed gaze of  
the infant at surrounding objects knows 
very well that education does begin thus
 early1 whether we intend it or not2 and
 that these fingerings and suckings of  
everything it can lay hold of1 these    
open-mouthed listenings to every sound1 
are first steps in the series which ends
 in the discovery of unseen planets1 the
 invention of calculating engines1 the  
production of great paintings1 or the   
composition of symphonies and operas4   
,this activity of the faculties from the
 very first1 being spontaneous and      

inevitable1 the question is whether we  
shall supply in due variety the         
materials on which they may exercise    
themselves2 and to the question so put1 
none but an affirmative answer can be   
given4 ,as before said1 however1        
agreement with ,pestalozzi's theory does
 not involve agreement with his         
practice2 and here occurs a case in     
point4 ,treating of instruction in      
spelling he says3--       ,the          
spelling-book ought1 therefore1 to      
contain all the sounds of      the      
language1 and these ought to be taught  
in every family from the      earliest  
infancy4 ,the child who learns his      
spelling book ought to      repeat them 
to the infant in the cradle1 before it  
is able to      pronounce even one of   
them1 so that they may be deeply        
impressed      upon its mind by frequent
 repetition4  ,joining this with the    
suggestions for a nursery method1 set   
down in his ,mother's ,manual1 in which 
he makes the names1 positions1          

connections1 numbers1 properties1 and   
uses of the limbs and body his first    
lessons1 it becomes clear that          
,pestalozzi's notions on early mental   
development were too crude to enable him
 to devise judicious plans4 ,let us     
consider the course which ,psychology   
dictates4  ,the earliest impressions    
which the mind can assimilate are the   
undecomposable sensations produced by   
resistance1 light1 sound1 etc4          
,manifestly1 decomposable states of     
consciousness cannot exist before the   
states of consciousness out of which    
they are composed4 ,there can be no idea
 of form until some familiarity with    
light in its gradations and qualities1  
or resistance in its different          
intensities1 has been acquired2 for1 as 
has been long known1 we recognise       
visible form by means of varieties of   
light1 and tangible form by means of    
varieties of resistance4 ,similarly1 no 
articulate sound is cognisable until the
 inarticulate sounds which go to make it

 up have been learned4 ,and thus must it
 be in every other case4 ,following1    
therefore1 the necessary law of         
progression from the simple to the      
complex1 we should provide for the      
infant a sufficiency of objects         
presenting different degrees and kinds  
of resistance1 a sufficiency of objects 
reflecting different amounts and        
qualities of light1 and a sufficiency of
 sounds contrasted in their loudness1   
their pitch and their timbre4 ,how fully
 this a priori conclusion is confirmed  
by infantile instincts1 all will see on 
being reminded of the delight which     
every young child has in biting its     
toys1 in feeling its brother's bright   
jacket-buttons1 and pulling papa's      
whiskers--how absorbed it becomes in    
gazing at any gaudily-painted object1 to
 which it applies the word pretty1 when 
it can pronounce it1 wholly because of  
the bright colours--and how its face    
broadens into a laugh at the tattlings  
of its nurse1 the snapping of a         

visitor's fingers1 or any sound which it
 has not before heard4 ,fortunately1 the
 ordinary practices of the nursery      
fulfil these early requirements of      
education to a considerable degree4     
,much1 however1 remains to be done2 and 
it is of more importance that it should 
be done than at first appears4 ,every   
faculty during that spontaneous activity
 which accompanies its evolution is     
capable of receiving more vivid         
impressions than at any other period4   
,moreover1 as these simplest elements   
have to be mastered1 and as the mastery 
of them whenever achieved must take     
time1 it becomes an economy of time to  
occupy this first stage of childhood1   
during which no other intellectual      
action is possible1 in gaining a        
complete familiarity with them in all   
their modifications4 ,nor let us omit   
the fact1 that both temper and health   
will be improved by the continual       
gratification resulting from a due      
supply of these impressions which every 

child so greedily assimilates4 ,space1  
could it be spared1 might here be well  
filled by some suggestions towards a    
more systematic ministration to these   
simplest of the perceptions4 ,but it    
must suffice to point out that any such 
ministration1 recognising the general   
law of evolution from the indefinite to 
the definite1 should proceed upon the   
corollary that in the development of    
every faculty1 markedly contrasted      
impressions are the first to be         
distinguished2 that hence sounds greatly
 differing in loudness and pitch1       
colours very remote from each other1 and
 substances widely unlike in hardness or
 texture1 should be the first supplied2 
and that in each case the progression   
must be by slow degrees to impressions  
more nearly allied4  ,passing on to     
object-lessons1 which manifestly form a 
natural continuation of this primary    
culture of the senses1 it is to be      
remarked1 that the system commonly      
pursued is wholly at variance with the  

method of ,nature1 as exhibited alike in
 infancy1 in adult life1 and in the     
course of civilisation4 ,the child1 says
 ,m4 ,marcel1 must be shown how all the 
parts of an object are connected1 etc42 
and the various manuals of these        
object-lessons severally contain lists  
of the facts which the child is to be   
told respecting each of the things put  
before it4 ,now it needs but a glance at
 the daily life of the infant to see    
that all the knowledge of things which  
is gained before the acquirement of     
speech1 is self-gained--that the        
qualities of hardness and weight        
associated with certain appearances1 the
 possession of particular forms and     
colours by particular persons1 the      
production of special sounds by animals 
of special aspects1 are phenomena which 
it observes for itself4 ,in manhood too1
 when there are no longer teachers at   
hand1 the observations and inferences   
hourly required for guidance must be    
made unhelped2 and success in life      

depends upon the accuracy and           
completeness with which they are made4  
,is it probable1 then1 that while the   
process displayed in the evolution of   
humanity at large is repeated alike by  
the infant and the man1 a reverse       
process must be followed during the     
period between infancy and manhood8 and 
that too1 even in so simple a thing as  
learning the properties of objects8 ,is 
it not obvious1 on the contrary1 that   
one method must be pursued throughout8  
,and is not ,nature perpetually         
thrusting this method upon us1 if we had
 but the wit to see it1 and the humility
 to adopt it8 ,what can be more manifest
 than the desire of children for        
intellectual sympathy8 ,mark how the    
infant sitting on your knee thrusts into
 your face the toy it holds1 that you   
too may look at it4 ,see when it makes a
 creak with its wet finger on the table1
 how it turns and looks at you2 does it 
again1 and again looks at you2 thus     
saying as clearly as it can--,hear this 

new sound4 ,watch the elder children    
coming into the room exclaiming--,mamma1
 see what a curious thing1 ,mamma1 look 
at this1 ,mamma1 look at that3 a habit  
which they would continue1 did not the  
silly mamma tell them not to tease her4 
,observe that1 when out with the        
nurse-maid1 each little one runs up to  
her with the new flower it has gathered1
 to show her how pretty it is1 and to   
get her also to say it is pretty4       
,listen to the eager volubility with    
which every urchin describes any novelty
 he has been to see1 if only he can find
 some one who will attend with any      
interest4 ,does not the induction lie on
 the surface8 ,is it not clear that we  
must conform our course to these        
intellectual instincts--that we must    
just systematise the natural            
process--that we must listen to all the 
child has to tell us about each object2 
must induce it to say everything it can 
think of about such object2 must        
occasionally draw its attention to facts

 it has not yet observed1 with the view 
of leading it to notice them itself     
whenever they recur2 and must go on by  
and by to indicate or supply new series 
of things for a like exhaustive         
examination8 ,note the way in which1 on 
this method1 the intelligent mother     
conducts her lessons4 ,step by step she 
familiarises her little boy with the    
names of the simpler attributes1        
hardness1 softness1 colour1 taste1 size3
 in doing which she finds him eagerly   
help by bringing this to show her that  
it is red1 and the other to make her    
feel that it is hard1 as fast as she    
gives him words for these properties4   
,each additional property1 as she draws 
his attention to it in some fresh thing 
which he brings her1 she takes care to  
mention in connection with those he     
already knows2 so that by the natural   
tendency to imitate1 he may get into the
 habit of repeating them one after      
another4 ,gradually as there occur cases
 in which he omits to name one or more  

of the properties he has become         
acquainted with1 she introduces the     
practice of asking him whether there is 
not something more that he can tell her 
about the thing he has got4 ,probably he
 does not understand4 ,after letting him
 puzzle awhile she tells him2 perhaps   
laughing at him a little for his        
failure4 ,a few recurrences of this and 
he perceives what is to be done4 ,when  
next she says she knows something more  
about the object than he has told her1  
his pride is roused2 he looks at it     
intently2 he thinks over all that he has
 heard2 and the problem being easy1     
presently finds it out4 ,he is full of  
glee at his success1 and she sympathises
 with him4 ,in common with every child1 
he delights in the discovery of his     
powers4 ,he wishes for more victories1  
and goes in quest of more things about  
which to tell her4 ,as his faculties    
unfold she adds quality after quality to
 his list3 progressing from hardness and
 softness to roughness and smoothness1  

from colour to polish1 from simple      
bodies to composite ones--thus          
constantly complicating the problem as  
he gains competence1 constantly taxing  
his attention and memory to a greater   
extent1 constantly maintaining his      
interest by supplying him with new      
impressions such as his mind can        
assimilate1 and constantly gratifying   
him by conquests over such small        
difficulties as he can master4 ,in doing
 this she is manifestly but following   
out that spontaneous process which was  
going on during a still earlier         
period--simply aiding self-evolution2   
and is aiding it in the mode suggested  
by the boy's instinctive behaviour to   
her4 ,manifestly1 too1 the course she is
 adopting is the one best calculated to 
establish a habit of exhaustive         
observation2 which is the professed aim 
of these lessons4 ,to tell a child this 
and to show it the other1 is not to     
teach it how to observe1 but to make it 
a mere recipient of another's           

observations3 a proceeding which weakens
 rather than strengthens its powers of  
self-instruction--which deprives it of  
the pleasures resulting from successful 
activity--which presents this           
all-attractive knowledge under the      
aspect of formal tuition--and which thus
 generates that indifference and even   
disgust not unfrequently felt towards   
these object-lessons4 ,on the other     
hand1 to pursue the course above        
described is simply to guide the        
intellect to its appropriate food2 to   
join with the intellectual appetites    
their natural adjuncts--amour propre and
 the desire for sympathy2 to induce by  
the union of all these an intensity of  
attention which insures perceptions both
 vivid and complete2 and to habituate   
the mind from the beginning to that     
practice of self-help which it must     
ultimately follow4  ,object-lessons     
should not only be carried on after     
quite a different fashion from that     
commonly pursued1 but should be extended

 to a range of things far wider1 and    
continued to a period far later1 than   
now4 ,they should not be limited to the 
contents of the house2 but should       
include those of the fields and the     
hedges1 the quarry and the sea-shore4   
,they should not cease with early       
childhood2 but should be so kept up     
during youth1 as insensibly to merge    
into the investigations of the          
naturalist and the man of science4 ,here
 again we have but to follow ,nature's  
leadings4 ,where can be seen an intenser
 delight than that of children picking  
up new flowers and watching new insects2
 or hoarding pebbles and shells8 ,and   
who is there but perceives that by      
sympathising with them they may be led  
on to any extent of inquiry into the    
qualities and structures of these       
things8 ,every botanist who has had     
children with him in the woods and lanes
 must have noticed how eagerly they     
joined in his pursuits1 how keenly they 
searched out plants for him1 how        

intently they watched while he examined 
them1 how they overwhelmed him with     
questions4 ,the consistent follower of  
,bacon--the servant and interpreter of  
nature1 will see that we ought modestly 
to adopt the course of culture thus     
indicated4 ,having become familiar with 
the simpler properties of inorganic     
objects1 the child should by the same   
process be led on to an exhaustive      
examination of the things it picks up in
 its daily walks--the less complex facts
 they present being alone noticed at    
first3 in plants1 the colours1 numbers1 
and forms of the petals1 and shapes of  
the stalks and leaves2 in insects1 the  
numbers of the wings1 legs1 and         
antennae1 and their colours4 ,as these  
become fully appreciated and invariably 
observed1 further facts may be          
successively introduced3 in the one     
case1 the numbers of stamens and        
pistils1 the forms of the flowers1      
whether radial or bilateral in symmetry1
 the arrangement and character of the   

leaves1 whether opposite or alternate1  
stalked or sessile1 smooth or hairy1    
serrated1 toothed1 or crenate2 in the   
other1 the divisions of the body1 the   
segments of the abdomen1 the markings of
 the wings1 the number of joints in the 
legs1 and the forms of the smaller      
organs--the system pursued throughout   
being that of making it the child's     
ambition to say respecting everything it
 finds all that can be said4 ,then when 
a fit age has been reached1 the means of
 preserving these plants1 which have    
become so interesting in virtue of the  
knowledge obtained of them1 may as a    
great favour be supplied2 and           
eventually1 as a still greater favour1  
may also be supplied the apparatus      
needful for keeping the larvae of our   
common butterflies and moths through    
their transformations--a practice which1
 as we can personally testify1 yields   
the highest gratification2 is continued 
with ardour for years2 when joined with 
the formation of an entomological       

collection1 adds immense interest to    
,saturday-afternoon rambles2 and forms  
an admirable introduction to the study  
of physiology4  ,we are quite prepared  
to hear from many that all this is      
throwing away time and energy2 and that 
children would be much better occupied  
in writing their copies or learning     
their pence-tables1 and so fitting      
themselves for the business of life4 ,we
 regret that such crude ideas of what   
constitutes education1 and such a narrow
 conception of utility1 should still be 
prevalent4 ,saying nothing on the need  
for a systematic culture of the         
perceptions and the value of the        
practices above inculcated as subserving
 that need1 we are prepared to defend   
them even on the score of the knowledge 
gained4 ,if men are to be mere cits1    
mere porers over ledgers1 with no ideas 
beyond their trades--if it is well that 
they should be as the cockney whose     
conception of rural pleasures extends no
 further than sitting in a tea-garden   

smoking pipes and drinking porter2 or as
 the squire who thinks of woods as      
places for shooting in1 of uncultivated 
plants as nothing but weeds1 and who    
classifies animals into game1 vermin1   
and stock--then indeed it is needless to
 learn anything that does not directly  
help to replenish the till and fill the 
larder4 ,but if there is a more worthy  
aim for us than to be drudges--if there 
are other uses in the things around than
 their power to bring money--if there   
are higher faculties to be exercised    
than acquisitive and sensual ones--if   
the pleasures which poetry and art and  
science and philosophy can bring are of 
any moment2 then is it desirable that   
the instinctive inclination which every 
child shows to observe natural beauties 
and investigate natural phenomena1      
should be encouraged4 ,but this gross   
utilitarianism which is content to come 
into the world and quit it again without
 knowing what kind of a world it is or  
what it contains1 may be met on its own 

ground4 ,it will by and by be found that
 a knowledge of the laws of life is more
 important than any other knowledge     
whatever--that the laws of life underlie
 not only all bodily and mental         
processes1 but by implication all the   
transactions of the house and the       
street1 all commerce1 all politics1 all 
morals--and that therefore without a    
comprehension of them1 neither personal 
nor social conduct can be rightly       
regulated4 ,it will eventually be seen  
too1 that the laws of life are          
essentially the same throughout the     
whole organic creation2 and further1    
that they cannot be properly understood 
in their complex manifestations until   
they have been studied in their simpler 
ones4 ,and when this is seen1 it will be
 also seen that in aiding the child to  
acquire the out-of-door information for 
which it shows so great an avidity1 and 
in encouraging the acquisition of such  
information throughout youth1 we are    
simply inducing it to store up the raw  

material for future organisation--the   
facts that will one day bring home to it
 with due force1 those great            
generalisations of science by which     
actions may be rightly guided4  ,the    
spreading recognition of drawing as an  
element of education is one among many  
signs of the more rational views on     
mental culture now beginning to prevail4
 ,once more it may be remarked that     
teachers are at length adopting the     
course which ,nature has perpetually    
been pressing on their notice4 ,the     
spontaneous attempts made by children to
 represent the men1 houses1 trees1 and  
animals around them--on a slate if they 
can get nothing better1 or with         
lead-pencil on paper if they can beg    
them--are familiar to all4 ,to be shown 
through a picture-book is one of their  
highest gratifications2 and as usual1   
their strong imitative tendency         
presently generates in them the ambition
 to make pictures themselves also4 ,this
 effort to depict the striking things   

they see is a further instinctive       
exercise of the perceptions--a means    
whereby still greater accuracy and      
completeness of observation are induced4
 ,and alike by trying to interest us in 
their discoveries of the sensible       
properties of things1 and by their      
endeavours to draw1 they solicit from us
 just that kind of culture which they   
most need4  ,had teachers been guided by
 ,nature's hints1 not only in making    
drawing a part of education but in      
choosing modes of teaching it1 they     
would have done still better than they  
have done4 ,what is that the child first
 tries to represent8 ,things that are   
large1 things that are attractive in    
colour1 things round which its          
pleasurable associations most           
cluster--human beings from whom it has  
received so many emotions2 cows and dogs
 which interest by the many phenomena   
they present2 houses that are hourly    
visible and strike by their size and    
contrast of parts4 ,and which of the    

processes of representation gives it    
most delight8 ,colouring4 ,paper and    
pencil are good in default of something 
better2 but a box of paints and a       
brush--these are the treasures4 ,the    
drawing of outlines immediately becomes 
secondary to colouring--is gone through 
mainly with a view to the colouring2 and
 if leave can be got to colour a book of
 prints1 how great is the favour6 ,now1 
ridiculous as such a position will seem 
to drawing-masters who postpone         
colouring and who teach form by a dreary
 discipline of copying lines1 we believe
 that the course of culture thus        
indicated is the right one4 ,the        
priority of colour to form1 which1 as   
already pointed out1 has a psychological
 basis1 should be recognised from the   
beginning2 and from the beginning also1 
the things imitated should be real4     
,that greater delight in colour which is
 not only conspicuous in children but   
persists in most persons throughout     
life1 should be continuously employed as

 the natural stimulus to the mastery of 
the comparatively difficult and         
unattractive form3 the pleasure of the  
subsequent tinting should be the        
prospective reward for the labour of    
delineation4 ,and these efforts to      
represent interesting actualities should
 be encouraged2 in the conviction that  
as1 by a widening experience1 simpler   
and more practicable objects become     
interesting1 they too will be attempted2
 and that so a gradual approximation    
will be made towards imitations having  
some resemblance to the realities4 ,the 
extreme indefiniteness which1 in        
conformity with the law of evolution1   
these first attempts exhibit1 is        
anything but a reason for ignoring them4
 ,no matter how grotesque the shapes    
produced2 no matter how daubed and      
glaring the colours4 ,the question is   
not whether the child is producing good 
drawings4 ,the question is1 whether it  
is developing its faculties4 ,it has    
first to gain some command over its     

fingers1 some crude notions of likeness2
 and this practice is better than any   
other for these ends1 since it is the   
spontaneous and interesting one4 ,during
 early childhood no formal              
drawing-lessons are possible4 ,shall we 
therefore repress1 or neglect to aid1   
these efforts at self-culture8 or shall 
we encourage and guide them as normal   
exercises of the perceptions and the    
powers of manipulation8 ,if by          
furnishing cheap woodcuts to be painted1
 and simple contour-maps to have their  
boundary lines tinted1 we can not only  
pleasurably draw out the faculty of     
colour1 but can incidentally produce    
some familiarity with the outlines of   
things and countries1 and some ability  
to move the brush steadily2 and if by   
the supply of tempting objects we can   
keep up the instinctive practice of     
making representations1 however rough2  
it must happen that when the age for    
lessons in drawing is reached1 there    
will exist a facility that would else   

have been absent4 ,time will have been  
gained2 and trouble1 both to teacher and
 pupil1 saved4  ,from what has been     
said1 it may be readily inferred that we
 condemn the practice of drawing from   
copies2 and still more so that formal   
discipline in making straight lines and 
curved lines and compound lines1 with   
which it is the fashion of some teachers
 to begin4 ,we regret that the ,society 
of ,arts has recently1 in its series of 
manuals on ,rudimentary ,art            
,instruction1 given its countenance to  
an elementary drawing-book1 which is the
 most vicious in principle that we have 
seen4 ,we refer to the ,outline from    
,outline1 or from the ,flat1 by ,john   
,bell1 sculptor4 ,as explained in the   
prefatory note1 this publication        
proposes to place before the student a  
simple1 yet logical mode of instruction2
 and to this end sets out with a number 
of definitions thus3--       ,a simple  
line in drawing is a thin mark drawn    
from one point to      another4         

,lines may be divided1 as to their      
nature in drawing1 into two             
classes3--       #a4 ,straight1 which   
are marks that go the shortest road     
between      two points1 as ,a ,b4      
#b4 ,or ,curved1 which are marks which  
do not go the shortest road      between
 two points1 as ,c ,d4  ,and so the     
introduction progresses to horizontal   
lines1 perpendicular lines1 oblique     
lines1 angles of the several kinds1 and 
the various figures which lines and     
angles make up4 ,the work is1 in short1 
a grammar of form1 with exercises4 ,and 
thus the system of commencing with a dry
 analysis of elements1 which1 in the    
teaching of language1 has been exploded1
 is to be re-instituted in the teaching 
of drawing4 ,we are to set out with the 
definite1 instead of with the           
indefinite4 ,the abstract is to be      
preliminary to the concrete4 ,scientific
 conceptions are to precede empirical   
experiences4 ,that this is an inversion 
of the normal order1 we need scarcely   

repeat4 ,it has been well said          
concerning the custom of prefacing the  
art of speaking any tongue by a drilling
 in the parts of speech and their       
functions1 that it is about as          
reasonable as prefacing the art of      
walking by a course of lessons on the   
bones1 muscles1 and nerves of the legs2 
and much the same thing may be said of  
the proposal to preface the art of      
representing objects1 by a nomenclature 
and definitions of the lines which they 
yield on analysis4 ,these technicalities
 are alike repulsive and needless4 ,they
 render the study distasteful at the    
very outset2 and all with the view of   
teaching that which1 in the course of   
practice1 will be learnt unconsciously4 
,just as the child incidentally gathers 
the meanings of ordinary words from the 
conversations going on around it1       
without the help of dictionaries2 so1   
from the remarks on objects1 pictures1  
and its own drawings1 will it presently 
acquire1 not only without effort but    

even pleasurably1 those same scientific 
terms which1 when taught at first1 are a
 mystery and a weariness4  ,if any      
dependence is to be placed on the       
general principles of education that    
have been laid down1 the process of     
learning to draw should be throughout   
continuous with those efforts of early  
childhood1 described above as so worthy 
of encouragement4 ,by the time that the 
voluntary practice thus initiated has   
given some steadiness of hand1 and some 
tolerable ideas of proportion1 there    
will have arisen a vague notion of body 
as presenting its three dimensions in   
perspective4 ,and when1 after sundry    
abortive1 ,chinese-like attempts to     
render this appearance on paper1 there  
has grown up a pretty clear perception  
of the thing to be done1 and a desire to
 do it1 a first lesson in empirical     
perspective may be given by means of the
 apparatus occasionally used in         
explaining perspective as a science4    
,this sounds alarming2 but the          

experiment is both comprehensible and   
interesting to any boy or girl of       
ordinary intelligence4 ,a plate of glass
 so framed as to stand vertically on the
 table1 being placed before the pupil1  
and a book or like simple object laid on
 the other side of it1 he is requested1 
while keeping the eye in one position1  
to make ink-dots on the glass so that   
they may coincide with1 or hide1 the    
corners of this object4 ,he is next told
 to join these dots by lines2 on doing  
which he perceives that the lines he    
makes hide1 or coincide with1 the       
outlines of the object4 ,and then by    
putting a sheet of paper on the other   
side of the glass1 it is made manifest  
to him that the lines he has thus drawn 
represent the object as he saw it4 ,they
 not only look like it1 but he perceives
 that they must be like it1 because he  
made them agree with its outlines2 and  
by removing the paper he can convince   
himself that they do agree with its     
outlines4 ,the fact is new and striking2

 and serves him as an experimental      
demonstration1 that lines of certain    
lengths1 placed in certain directions on
 a plane1 can represent lines of other  
lengths1 and having other directions1 in
 space4 ,by gradually changing the      
position of the object1 he may be led to
 observe how some lines shorten and     
disappear1 while others come into sight 
and lengthen4 ,the convergence of       
parallel lines1 and1 indeed1 all the    
leading facts of perspective1 may1 from 
time to time1 be similarly illustrated  
to him4 ,if he has been duly accustomed 
to self-help1 he will gladly1 when it is
 suggested1 attempt to draw one of these
 outlines on paper1 by the eye only2 and
 it may soon be made an exciting aim to 
produce1 unassisted1 a representation as
 like as he can to one subsequently     
sketched on the glass4 ,thus1 without   
the unintelligent1 mechanical practice  
of copying other drawings1 but by a     
method at once simple and               
attractive--rational1 yet not           

abstract--a familiarity with the linear 
appearances of things1 and a faculty of 
rendering them1 may be step by step     
acquired4 ,to which advantages add      
these3--that even thus early the pupil  
learns1 almost unconsciously1 the true  
theory of a picture 7namely1 that it is 
a delineation of objects as they appear 
when projected on a plane placed between
 them and the eye72 and that when he    
reaches a fit age for commencing        
scientific perspective1 he is already   
thoroughly acquainted with the facts    
which form its logical basis4  ,as      
exhibiting a rational mode of conveying 
primary conceptions in geometry1 we     
cannot do better than quote the         
following passage from ,mr4 ,wyse3--    
,a child has been in the habit of using 
cubes for arithmetic2 let      him use  
them also for the elements of geometry4 
,i would begin with      solids1 the    
reverse of the usual plan4 ,it saves all
 the difficulty      of absurd          
definitions1 and bad explanations on    

points1 lines1 and      surfaces1 which 
are nothing but abstractions4444 ,a cube
 presents      many of the principal    
elements of geometry2 it at once        
exhibits      points1 straight lines1   
parallel lines1 angles1 parallelograms1 
etc41 etc4 ,these cubes are divisible   
into various parts4 ,the pupil      has 
already been familiarised with such     
divisions in numeration1      and he now
 proceeds to a comparison of their      
several parts1 and of      the relation 
of these parts to each other4444 ,from  
thence he      advances to globes1 which
 furnish him with elementary notions of 
the circle1 of curves generally1 etc41  
etc4       ,being tolerably familiar    
with solids1 he may now substitute      
planes4 ,the transition may be made very
 easy4 ,let the cube1 for      instance1
 be cut into thin divisions1 and placed 
on paper2 he will      then see as many 
plane rectangles as he has divisions2 so
 with all      the others4 ,globes may  
be treated in the same manner2 he will  

thus      see how surfaces really are   
generated1 and be enabled to abstract   
them with facility in every solid4      
,he has thus acquired the alphabet and  
reading of geometry4 ,he now            
proceeds to write it4       ,the        
simplest operation1 and therefore the   
first1 is merely to      place these    
planes on a piece of paper1 and pass the
 pencil round      them4 ,when this has 
been frequently done1 the plane may be  
put at a      little distance1 and the  
child required to copy it1 and so on4   
,a stock of geometrical conceptions     
having been obtained1 in some such      
manner as this recommended by ,mr4      
,wyse1 a further step may be taken1 by  
introducing the practice of testing the 
correctness of figures drawn by eye3    
thus both exciting an ambition to make  
them exact1 and continually illustrating
 the difficulty of fulfilling that      
ambition4 ,there can be little doubt    
that geometry had its origin 7as1       
indeed1 the word implies7 in the methods

 discovered by artizans and others1 of  
making accurate measurements for the    
foundations of buildings1 areas of      
inclosures1 and the like2 and that its  
truths came to be treasured up1 merely  
with a view to their immediate utility4 
,they would be introduced to the pupil  
under analogous relationships4 ,in      
cutting out pieces for his card-houses1 
in drawing ornamental diagrams for      
colouring1 and in those various         
instructive occupations which an        
inventive teacher will lead him into1 he
 may for a length of time be            
advantageously left1 like the primitive 
builder1 to tentative processes2 and so 
will learn through experience the       
difficulty of achieving his aims by the 
unaided senses4 ,when1 having meanwhile 
undergone a valuable discipline of the  
perceptions1 he has reached a fit age   
for using a pair of compasses1 he will1 
while duly appreciating these as        
enabling him to verify his ocular       
guesses1 be still hindered by the       

imperfections of the approximative      
method4 ,in this stage he may be left   
for a further period3 partly as being   
yet too young for anything higher2      
partly because it is desirable that he  
should be made to feel still more       
strongly the want of systematic         
contrivances4 ,if the acquisition of    
knowledge is to be made continuously    
interesting2 and if1 in the early       
civilisation of the child1 as in the    
early civilisation of the race1 science 
is valued only as ministering to art2 it
 is manifest that the proper preliminary
 to geometry1 is a long practice in     
those constructive processes which      
geometry will facilitate4 ,observe that 
here1 too1 ,nature points the way4      
,children show a strong propensity to   
cut out things in paper1 to make1 to    
build--a propensity which1 if encouraged
 and directed1 will not only prepare the
 way for scientific conceptions1 but    
will develop those powers of            
manipulation in which most people are so

 deficient4  ,when the observing and    
inventive faculties have attained the   
requisite power1 the pupil may be       
introduced to empirical geometry2 that  
is--geometry dealing with methodical    
solutions1 but not with the             
demonstrations of them4 ,like all other 
transitions in education1 this should be
 made not formally but incidentally2 and
 the relationship to constructive art   
should still be maintained4 ,to make1   
out of cardboard1 a tetrahedron like one
 given to him1 is a problem which will  
interest the pupil and serve as a       
convenient starting-point4 ,in          
attempting this1 he finds it needful to 
draw four equilateral triangles arranged
 in special positions4 ,being unable in 
the absence of an exact method to do    
this accurately1 he discovers on putting
 the triangles into their respective    
positions1 that he cannot make their    
sides fit2 and that their angles do not 
meet at the apex4 ,he may now be shown  
how1 by describing a couple of circles1 

each of these triangles may be drawn    
with perfect correctness and without    
guessing2 and after his failure he will 
value the information4 ,having thus     
helped him to the solution of his first 
problem1 with the view of illustrating  
the nature of geometrical methods1 he is
 in future to be left to solve the      
questions put to him as best he can4 ,to
 bisect a line1 to erect a              
perpendicular1 to describe a square1 to 
bisect an angle1 to draw a line parallel
 to a given line1 to describe a hexagon1
 are problems which a little patience   
will enable him to find out4 ,and from  
these he may be led on step by step to  
more complex questions3 all of which1   
under judicious management1 he will     
puzzle through unhelped4 ,doubtless1    
many of those brought up under the old  
regime1 will look upon this assertion   
sceptically4 ,we speak from facts1      
however2 and those neither few nor      
special4 ,we have seen a class of boys  
become so interested in making out      

solutions to such problems1 as to look  
forward to their geometry-lesson as a   
chief event of the week4 ,within the    
last month1 we have heard of one girl's 
school1 in which some of the young      
ladies voluntarily occupy themselves    
with geometrical questions out of       
school-hours2 and of another1 where they
 not only do this1 but where one of them
 is begging for problems to find out    
during the holidays3 both which facts we
 state on the authority of the teacher4 
,strong proofs1 these1 of the           
practicability and the immense advantage
 of self-development6 ,a branch of      
knowledge which1 as commonly taught1 is 
dry and even repulsive1 is thus1 by     
following the method of ,nature1 made   
extremely interesting and profoundly    
beneficial4 ,we say profoundly          
beneficial1 because the effects are not 
confined to the gaining of geometrical  
facts1 but often revolutionise the whole
 state of mind4 ,it has repeatedly      
occurred that those who have been       

stupefied by the ordinary               
school-drill--by its abstract formulas1 
its wearisome tasks1 its cramming--have 
suddenly had their intellects roused by 
thus ceasing to make them passive       
recipients1 and inducing them to become 
active discoverers4 ,the discouragement 
caused by bad teaching having been      
diminished by a little sympathy1 and    
sufficient perseverance excited to      
achieve a first success1 there arises a 
revulsion of feeling affecting the whole
 nature4 ,they no longer find themselves
 incompetent2 they1 too1 can do         
something4 ,and gradually as success    
follows success1 the incubus of despair 
disappears1 and they attack the         
difficulties of their other studies with
 a courage insuring conquest4  ,a few   
weeks after the foregoing remarks were  
originally published1 ,professor        
,tyndall in a lecture at the ,royal     
,institution ,on the ,importance of the 
,study of ,physics as a ,branch of      
,education1 gave some conclusive        

evidence to the same effect4 ,his       
testimony1 based on personal            
observation1 is of such great value that
 we cannot refrain from quoting it4     
,here it is4       ,one of the duties   
which fell to my share1 during the      
period to      which ,i have referred1  
was the instruction of a class in       
mathematics1 and ,i usually found that  
,euclid and the ancient      geometry   
generally1 when addressed to the        
understanding1 formed a      very       
attractive study for youth4 ,but it was 
my habitual practice to      withdraw   
the boys from the routine of the book1  
and to appeal to      their self-power  
in the treatment of questions not       
comprehended in      that routine4 ,at  
first1 the change from the beaten track 
usually      excited a little aversion3 
the youth felt like a child amid        
strangers2 but in no single instance    
have ,i found this aversion to          
continue4 ,when utterly disheartened1 ,i
 have encouraged the boy by      that   

anecdote of ,newton1 where he attributes
 the difference between      him and    
other men1 mainly to his own patience2  
or of ,mirabeau1 when      he ordered   
his servant1 who had stated something to
 be impossible1      never to use that  
stupid word again4 ,thus cheered1 he has
 returned      to his task with a smile1
 which perhaps had something of doubt in
      it1 but which1 nevertheless1      
evinced a resolution to try again4 ,i   
have seen the boy's eye brighten1 and at
 length1 with a pleasure of      which  
the ecstasy of ,archimedes was but a    
simple expansion1 heard      him        
exclaim1 ',i have it1 sir4' ,the        
consciousness of self-power1      thus  
awakened1 was of immense value2 and     
animated by it1 the      progress of the
 class was truly astonishing4 ,it was   
often my custom      to give the boys   
their choice of pursuing their          
propositions in the      book1 or of    
trying their strength at others not to  
be found there4      ,never in a single 

instance have ,i known the book to be   
chosen4 ,i      was ever ready to assist
 when ,i deemed help needful1 but my    
offers      of assistance were          
habitually declined4 ,the boys had      
tasted the      sweets of intellectual  
conquest and demanded victories of their
      own4 ,i have seen their diagrams  
scratched on the walls1 cut into        
the beams upon the play ground1 and     
numberless other illustrations      of  
the living interest they took in the    
subject4 ,for my own part1      as far  
as experience in teaching goes1 ,i was a
 mere fledgling3 ,i      knew nothing of
 the rules of pedagogics1 as the        
,germans name it2      but ,i adhered to
 the spirit indicated at the            
commencement of this      discourse1 and
 endeavoured to make geometry a means   
and not a      branch of education4 ,the
 experiment was successful1 and some of 
the most delightful hours of my         
existence have been spent in            
marking the vigorous and cheerful       

expansion of mental power1 when         
appealed to in the manner ,i have       
described4  ,this empirical geometry    
which presents an endless series of     
problems1 should be continued along with
 other studies for years2 and may       
throughout be advantageously accompanied
 by those concrete applications of its  
principles which serve as its           
preliminary4 ,after the cube1 the       
octahedron1 and the various forms of    
pyramid and prism have been mastered1   
may come the more complex regular       
bodies--the dodecahedron and            
icosahedron--to construct which out of  
single pieces of cardboard1 requires    
considerable ingenuity4 ,from these1 the
 transition may naturally be made to    
such modified forms of the regular      
bodies as are met with in crystals--the 
truncated cube1 the cube with its       
dihedral as well as its solid angles    
truncated1 the octahedron and the       
various prisms as similarly modified3 in
 imitating which numerous forms assumed 

by different metals and salts1 an       
acquaintance with the leading facts of  
mineralogy will be incidentally         
gained4#a  ,after long continuance in   
exercises of this kind1 rational        
geometry1 as may be supposed1 presents  
no obstacles4 ,habituated to contemplate
 relationships of form and quantity1 and
 vaguely perceiving from time to time   
the necessity of certain results as     
reached by certain means1 the pupil     
comes to regard the demonstrations of   
,euclid as the missing supplements to   
his familiar problems4 ,his             
well-disciplined faculties enable him   
easily to master its successive         
propositions1 and to appreciate their   
value2 and he has the occasional        
gratification of finding some of his own
 methods proved to be true4 ,thus he    
enjoys what is to the unprepared a      
dreary task4 ,it only remains to add1   
that his mind will presently arrive at a
 fit condition for that most valuable of
 all exercises for the reflective       

faculties--the making of original       
demonstrations4 ,such theorems as those 
appended to the successive books of the 
,messrs4 ,chambers's ,euclid1 will soon 
become practicable to him2 and in       
proving them1 the process of            
self-development will be not            
intellectual only1 but moral4  ,to      
continue these suggestions much further1
 would be to write a detailed treatise  
on education1 which we do not purpose4  
,the foregoing outlines of plans for    
exercising the perceptions in early     
childhood1 for conducting               
object-lessons1 for teaching drawing and
 geometry1 must be considered simply as 
illustrations of the method dictated by 
the general principles previously       
specified4 ,we believe that on          
examination they will be found not only 
to progress from the simple to the      
complex1 from the indefinite to the     
definite1 from the concrete to the      
abstract1 from the empirical to the     
rational2 but to satisfy the further    

requirements1 that education shall be a 
repetition of civilisation in little1   
that it shall be as much as possible a  
process of self-evolution1 and that it  
shall be pleasurable4 ,the fulfilment of
 all these conditions by one type of    
method1 tends alike to verify the       
conditions1 and to prove that type of   
the method the right one4 ,mark too1    
that this method is the logical outcome 
of the tendency characterising all      
modern improvements in tuition--that it 
is but an adoption in full of the       
natural system which they adopt         
partially--that it displays this        
complete adoption of the natural system1
 both by conforming to the above        
principles1 and by following the        
suggestions which the unfolding mind    
itself gives3 facilitating its          
spontaneous activities1 and so aiding   
the developments which ,nature is busy  
with4 ,thus there seems abundant reason 
to conclude1 that the mode of procedure 
above exemplified1 closely approximates 

to the true one4         99       99    
99       99       99  ,a few paragraphs 
must be added in further inculcation of 
the two general principles1 that are    
alike the most important and the least  
attended to2 namely1 the principle that 
throughout youth1 as in early childhood 
and in maturity1 the process shall be   
one of self-instruction2 and the obverse
 principle1 that the mental action      
induced shall be throughout             
intrinsically grateful4 ,if progression 
from simple to complex1 from indefinite 
to definite1 and from concrete to       
abstract1 be considered the essential   
requirements as dictated by abstract    
psychology2 then do the requirements    
that knowledge shall be self-mastered1  
and pleasurably mastered1 become tests  
by which we may judge whether the       
dictates of abstract psychology are     
being obeyed4 ,if the first embody the  
leading generalisations of the science  
of mental growth1 the last are the chief
 canons of the art of fostering mental  

growth4 ,for manifestly1 if the steps in
 our curriculum are so arranged that    
they can be successively ascended by the
 pupil himself with little or no help1  
they must correspond with the stages of 
evolution in his faculties2 and         
manifestly1 if the successive           
achievements of these steps are         
intrinsically gratifying to him1 it     
follows that they require no more than a
 normal exercise of his powers4  ,but   
making education a process of           
self-evolution1 has other advantages    
than this of keeping our lessons in the 
right order4 ,in the first place1 it    
guarantees a vividness and permanency of
 impression which the usual methods can 
never produce4 ,any piece of knowledge  
which the pupil has himself             
acquired--any problem which he has      
himself solved1 becomes1 by virtue of   
the conquest1 much more thoroughly his  
than it could else be4 ,the preliminary 
activity of mind which his success      
implies1 the concentration of thought   

necessary to it1 and the excitement     
consequent on his triumph1 conspire to  
register the facts in his memory in a   
way that no mere information heard from 
a teacher1 or read in a school-book1 can
 be registered4 ,even if he fails1 the  
tension to which his faculties have been
 wound up1 insures his remembrance of   
the solution when given to him1 better  
than half-a-dozen repetitions would4    
,observe1 again1 that this discipline   
necessitates a continuous organisation  
of the knowledge he acquires4 ,it is in 
the very nature of facts and inferences 
assimilated in this normal manner1 that 
they successively become the premises of
 further conclusions--the means of      
solving further questions4 ,the solution
 of yesterday's problem helps the pupil 
in mastering to-day's4 ,thus the        
knowledge is turned into faculty as soon
 as it is taken in1 and forthwith aids  
in the general function of              
thinking--does not lie merely written on
 the pages of an internal library1 as   

when rote-learnt4 ,mark further1 the    
moral culture which this constant       
self-help involves4 ,courage in         
attacking difficulties1 patient         
concentration of the attention1         
perseverance through failures--these are
 characteristics which after-life       
specially requires2 and these are       
characteristics which this system of    
making the mind work for its food       
specially produces4 ,that it is         
thoroughly practicable to carry out     
instruction after this fashion1 we can  
ourselves testify2 having been in youth 
thus led to solve the comparatively     
complex problems of perspective4 ,and   
that leading teachers have been tending 
in this direction1 is indicated alike in
 the saying of ,fellenberg1 that the    
individual1 independent activity of the 
pupil is of much greater importance than
 the ordinary busy officiousness of many
 who assume the office of educators2 in 
the opinion of ,horace ,mann1 that      
unfortunately education amongst us at   

present consists too much in telling1   
not in training2 and in the remark of   
,m4 ,marcel1 that what the learner      
discovers by mental exertion is better  
known than what is told to him4         
,similarly with the correlative         
requirement1 that the method of culture 
pursued shall be one productive of an   
intrinsically happy activity1--an       
activity not happy because of extrinsic 
rewards to be obtained1 but because of  
its own healthfulness4 ,conformity to   
this requirement1 besides preventing us 
from thwarting the normal process of    
evolution1 incidentally secures positive
 benefits of importance4 ,unless we are 
to return to an ascetic morality 7or    
rather im-morality7 the maintenance of  
youthful happiness must be considered as
 in itself a worthy aim4 ,not to dwell  
upon this1 however1 we go on to remark  
that a pleasurable state of feeling is  
far more favourable to intellectual     
action than a state of indifference or  
disgust4 ,every one knows that things   

read1 heard1 or seen with interest1 are 
better remembered than things read1     
heard1 or seen with apathy4 ,in the one 
case the faculties appealed to are      
actively occupied with the subject      
presented2 in the other they are        
inactively occupied with it1 and the    
attention is continually drawn away by  
more attractive thoughts4 ,hence the    
impressions are respectively strong and 
weak4 ,moreover1 to the intellectual    
listlessness which a pupil's lack of    
interest in any study involves1 must be 
added the paralysing fear of            
consequences4 ,this1 by distracting his 
attention1 increases the difficulty he  
finds in bringing his faculties to bear 
upon facts that are repugnant to them4  
,clearly1 therefore1 the efficiency of  
tuition will1 other things equal1 be    
proportionate to the gratification with 
which tasks are performed4  ,it should  
be considered also1 that grave moral    
consequences depend upon the habitual   
pleasure or pain which daily lessons    

produce4 ,no one can compare the faces  
and manners of two boys--the one made   
happy by mastering interesting subjects1
 and the other made miserable by disgust
 with his studies1 by consequent        
inability1 by cold looks1 by threats1 by
 punishment--without seeing that the    
disposition of the one is being         
benefited and that of the other injured4
 ,whoever has marked the effects of     
success and failure upon the mind1 and  
the power of the mind over the body1    
will see that in the one case both      
temper and health are favourably        
affected1 while in the other there is   
danger of permanent moroseness1 or      
permanent timidity1 and even of         
permanent constitutional depression4    
,there remains yet another indirect     
result of no small moment4 ,the         
relationship between teachers and their 
pupils is1 other things equal1 rendered 
friendly and influential1 or            
antagonistic and powerless1 according as
 the system of culture produces         

happiness or misery4 ,human beings are  
at the mercy of their associated ideas4 
,a daily minister of pain cannot fail to
 be regarded with secret dislike2 and if
 he causes no emotions but painful ones1
 will inevitably be hated4 ,conversely1 
he who constantly aids children to their
 ends1 hourly provides them with the    
satisfactions of conquest1 hourly       
encourages them through their           
difficulties and sympathises in their   
successes1 will be liked2 nay1 if his   
behaviour is consistent throughout1 must
 be loved4 ,and when we remember how    
efficient and benign is the control of a
 master who is felt to be a friend1 when
 compared with the control of one who is
 looked upon with aversion1 or at best  
indifference1 we may infer that the     
indirect advantages of conducting       
education on the happiness principle do 
not fall far short of the direct ones4  
,to all who question the possibility of 
acting out the system here advocated1 we
 reply as before1 that not only does    

theory point to it1 but experience      
commends it4 ,to the many verdicts of   
distinguished teachers who since        
,pestalozzi's time have testified this1 
may be here added that of ,professor    
,pillans1 who asserts that where young  
people are taught as they ought to be1  
they are quite as happy in school as at 
play1 seldom less delighted1 nay1 often 
more1 with the well-directed exercise of
 their mental energies than with that of
 their muscular powers4  ,as suggesting 
a final reason for making education a   
process of self-instruction1 and by     
consequence a process of pleasurable    
instruction1 we may advert to the fact  
that1 in proportion as it is made so1 is
 there a probability that it will not   
cease when schooldays end4 ,as long as  
the acquisition of knowledge is rendered
 habitually repugnant1 so long will     
there be a prevailing tendency to       
discontinue it when free from the       
coercion of parents and masters4 ,and   
when the acquisition of knowledge has   

been rendered habitually gratifying1    
then will there be as prevailing a      
tendency to continue1 without           
superintendence1 that self-culture      
previously carried on under             
superintendence4 ,these results are     
inevitable4 ,while the laws of mental   
association remain true--while men      
dislike the things and places that      
suggest painful recollections1 and      
delight in those which call to mind     
by-gone pleasures--painful lessons will 
make knowledge repulsive1 and           
pleasurable lessons will make it        
attractive4 ,the men to whom in boyhood 
information came in dreary tasks along  
with threats of punishment1 and who were
 never led into habits of independent   
inquiry1 are unlikely to be students in 
after years2 while those to whom it came
 in the natural forms1 at the proper    
times1 and who remember its facts as not
 only interesting in themselves1 but as 
the occasions of a long series of       
gratifying successes1 are likely to     

continue through life that              
self-instruction commenced in youth4  #a
 ,those who seek aid in carrying out the
 system of culture above described1 will
 find it in a little work entitled      
,inventional ,geometry2 published by ,j4
 and ,c4 ,mozley1 ,paternoster ,row1    
,london4      ,,moral ,,education   ,the
 greatest defect in our programmes of   
education is entirely overlooked4 ,while
 much is being done in the detailed     
improvement of our systems in respect   
both of matter and manner1 the most     
pressing desideratum has not yet been   
even recognised as a desideratum4 ,to   
prepare the young for the duties of life
 is tacitly admitted to be the end which
 parents and schoolmasters should have  
in view2 and happily1 the value of the  
things taught1 and the goodness of the  
methods followed in teaching them1 are  
now ostensibly judged by their fitness  
to this end4 ,the propriety of          
substituting for an exclusively         
classical training1 a training in which 

the modern languages shall have a share1
 is argued on this ground4 ,the         
necessity of increasing the amount of   
science is urged for like reasons4 ,but 
though some care is taken to fit youth  
of both sexes for society and           
citizenship1 no care whatever is taken  
to fit them for the position of parents4
 ,while it is seen that for the purpose 
of gaining a livelihood1 an elaborate   
preparation is needed1 it appears to be 
thought that for the bringing up of     
children1 no preparation whatever is    
needed4 ,while many years are spent by a
 boy in gaining knowledge of which the  
chief value is that it constitutes the  
education of a gentleman2 and while many
 years are spent by a girl in those     
decorative acquirements which fit her   
for evening parties2 not an hour is     
spent by either in preparation for that 
gravest of all responsibilities--the    
management of a family4 ,is it that this
 responsibility is but a remote         
contingency8 ,on the contrary1 it is    

sure to devolve on nine out of ten4 ,is 
it that the discharge of it is easy8    
,certainly not3 of all functions which  
the adult has to fulfil1 this is the    
most difficult4 ,is it that each may be 
trusted by self-instruction to fit      
himself1 or herself1 for the office of  
parent8 ,no3 not only is the need for   
such self-instruction unrecognised1 but 
the complexity of the subject renders it
 the one of all others in which         
self-instruction is least likely to     
succeed4 ,no rational plea can be put   
forward for leaving the ,art of         
,education out of our curriculum4       
,whether as bearing on the happiness of 
parents themselves1 or whether as       
affecting the characters and lives of   
their children and remote descendants1  
we must admit that a knowledge of the   
right methods of juvenile culture1      
physical1 intellectual1 and moral1 is a 
knowledge of extreme importance4 ,this  
topic should be the final one in the    
course of instruction passed through by 

each man and woman4 ,as physical        
maturity is marked by the ability to    
produce offspring1 so mental maturity is
 marked by the ability to train those   
offspring4 ,the subject which involves  
all other subjects1 and therefore the   
subject in which education should       
culminate1 is the ,theory and ,practice 
of ,education4  ,in the absence of this 
preparation1 the management of children1
 and more especially the moral          
management1 is lamentably bad4 ,parents 
either never think about the matter at  
all1 or else their conclusions are crude
 and inconsistent4 ,in most cases1 and  
especially on the part of mothers1 the  
treatment adopted on every occasion is  
that which the impulse of the moment    
prompts3 it springs not from any        
reasoned-out conviction as to what will 
most benefit the child1 but merely      
expresses the dominant parental         
feelings1 whether good or ill2 and      
varies from hour to hour as these       
feelings vary4 ,or if the dictates of   

passion are supplemented by any definite
 doctrines and methods1 they are those  
handed down from the past1 or those     
suggested by the remembrances of        
childhood1 or those adopted from nurses 
and servants--methods devised not by the
 enlightenment1 but by the ignorance1 of
 the time4 ,commenting on the chaotic   
state of opinion and practice relative  
to family government1 ,richter writes3--
       ,if the secret variances of a    
large class of ordinary fathers were    
brought to light1 and laid down as a    
plan of studies and reading1            
catalogued for a moral education1 they  
would run somewhat after      this      
fashion3--,in the first hour 'pure      
morality must be read to the      child1
 either by myself or the tutor2' in the 
second1 'mixed      morality1 or that   
which may be applied to one's own       
advantage2' in      the third1 'do you  
not see that your father does so and    
so8' in the      fourth1 'you are       
little1 and this is only fit for        

grown-up people2'      in the fifth1    
'the chief matter is that you should    
succeed in the      world1 and become   
something in the state2' in the sixth1  
'not the      temporary1 but the        
eternal1 determines the worth of a man2'
 in the      seventh1 'therefore rather 
suffer injustice1 and be kind2' in the  
eighth1 'but defend yourself bravely if 
any one attack you2' in the      ninth1 
'do not make a noise1 dear child2' in   
the tenth1 'a boy must      not sit so  
quiet2' in the eleventh1 'you must obey 
your parents      better2' in the       
twelfth1 'and educate yourself4' ,so by 
the hourly      change of his           
principles1 the father conceals their   
untenableness      and onesidedness4 ,as
 for his wife1 she is neither like him1 
nor yet      like that harlequin who    
came on to the stage with a bundle of   
papers under each arm1 and answered to  
the inquiry1 what he had      under his 
right arm1 'orders1' and to what he had 
under his left      arm1                

'counter-orders4' ,but the mother might 
be much better compared      to a giant 
,briareus1 who had a hundred arms1 and a
 bundle of papers      under each4      
,this state of things is not to be      
readily changed4 ,generations must pass 
before a great amelioration of it can be
 expected4 ,like political              
constitutions1 educational systems are  
not made1 but grow2 and within brief    
periods growth is insensible4 ,slow1    
however1 as must be any improvement1    
even that improvement implies the use of
 means2 and among the means is          
discussion4         99       99       99
       99       99  ,we are not among   
those who believe in ,lord ,palmerston's
 dogma1 that all children are born good4
 ,on the whole1 the opposite dogma1     
untenable as it is1 seems to us less    
wide of the truth4 ,nor do we agree with
 those who think that1 by skilful       
discipline1 children may be made        
altogether what they should be4         
,contrariwise1 we are satisfied that    

though imperfections of nature may be   
diminished by wise management1 they     
cannot be removed by it4 ,the notion    
that an ideal humanity might be         
forthwith produced by a perfect system  
of education1 is near akin to that      
implied in the poems of ,shelley1 that  
would mankind give up their old         
institutions and prejudices1 all the    
evils in the world would at once        
disappear3 neither notion being         
acceptable to such as have              
dispassionately studied human affairs4  
,nevertheless1 we may fitly sympathise  
with those who entertain these too      
sanguine hopes4 ,enthusiasm1 pushed even
 to fanaticism1 is a useful             
motive-power--perhaps an indispensable  
one4 ,it is clear that the ardent       
politician would never undergo the      
labours and make the sacrifices he does1
 did he not believe that the reform he  
fights for is the one thing needful4    
,but for his conviction that drunkenness
 is the root of all social evils1 the   

teetotaler would agitate far less       
energetically4 ,in philanthropy1 as in  
other things1 great advantage results   
from division of labour2 and that there 
may be division of labour1 each class of
 philanthropists must be more or less   
subordinated to its function--must have 
an exaggerated faith in its work4       
,hence1 of those who regard education1  
intellectual or moral1 as the panacea1  
we may say that their undue expectations
 are not without use2 and that perhaps  
it is part of the beneficent order of   
things that their confidence cannot be  
shaken4  ,even were it true1 however1   
that by some possible system of moral   
control1 children could be moulded into 
the desired form2 and even could every  
parent be indoctrinated with this       
system1 we should still be far from     
achieving the object in view4 ,it is    
forgotten that the carrying out of any  
such system presupposes1 on the part of 
adults1 a degree of intelligence1 of    
goodness1 of self-control1 possessed by 

no one4 ,the error made by those who    
discuss questions of domestic           
discipline1 lies in ascribing all the   
faults and difficulties to the children1
 and none to the parents4 ,the current  
assumption respecting family government1
 as respecting national government1 is1 
that the virtues are with the rulers and
 the vices with the ruled4 ,judging by  
educational theories1 men and women are 
entirely transfigured in their relations
 to offspring4 ,the citizens we do      
business with1 the people we meet in the
 world1 we know to be very imperfect    
creatures4 ,in the daily scandals1 in   
the quarrels of friends1 in bankruptcy  
disclosures1 in lawsuits1 in police     
reports1 we have constantly thrust      
before us the pervading selfishness1    
dishonesty1 brutality4 ,yet when we     
criticise nursery-management and canvass
 the misbehaviour of juveniles1 we      
habitually take for granted that these  
culpable persons are free from moral    
delinquency in the treatment of their   

boys and girls6 ,so far is this from the
 truth1 that we do not hesitate to blame
 parental misconduct for a great part of
 the domestic disorder commonly ascribed
 to the perversity of children4 ,we do  
not assert this of the more sympathetic 
and self-restrained1 among whom we hope 
most of our readers may be classed2 but 
we assert it of the mass4 ,what kind of 
moral culture is to be expected from a  
mother who1 time after time1 angrily    
shakes her infant because it will not   
suck2 which we once saw a mother do8    
,how much sense of justice is likely to 
be instilled by a father who1 on having 
his attention drawn by a scream to the  
fact that his child's finger is jammed  
between the window-sash and sill1 begins
 to beat the child instead of releasing 
it8 ,yet that there are such fathers is 
testified to us by an eye-witness4 ,or1 
to take a still stronger case1 also     
vouched for by direct testimony--what   
are the educational prospects of the boy
 who1 on being taken home with a        

dislocated thigh1 is saluted with a     
castigation8 ,it is true that these are 
extreme instances--instances exhibiting 
in human beings that blind instinct     
which impels brutes to destroy the      
weakly and injured of their own race4   
,but extreme though they are1 they      
typify feelings and conduct daily       
observable in many families4 ,who has   
not repeatedly seen a child slapped by  
nurse or parent for a fretfulness       
probably resulting from bodily          
derangement8 ,who1 when watching a      
mother snatch up a fallen little one1   
has not often traced1 both in the rough 
manner and in the sharply-uttered       
exclamation--,you stupid little         
thing6--an irascibility foretelling     
endless future squabbles8 ,is there not 
in the harsh tones in which a father    
bids his children be quiet1 evidence of 
a deficient fellow-feeling with them8   
,are not the constant1 and often quite  
needless1 thwartings that the young     
experience--the injunctions to sit      

still1 which an active child cannot obey
 without suffering great nervous        
irritation1 the commands not to look out
 of the window when travelling by       
railway1 which on a child of any        
intelligence entails serious            
deprivation--are not these thwartings1  
we ask1 signs of a terrible lack of     
sympathy8 ,the truth is1 that the       
difficulties of moral education are     
necessarily of dual origin--necessarily 
result from the combined faults of      
parents and children4 ,if hereditary    
transmission is a law of nature1 as     
every naturalist knows it to be1 and as 
our daily remarks and current proverbs  
admit it to be2 then1 on the average of 
cases1 the defects of children mirror   
the defects of their parents2--on the   
average of cases1 we say1 because1      
complicated as the results are by the   
transmitted traits of remoter ancestors1
 the correspondence is not special but  
only general4 ,and if1 on the average of
 cases1 this inheritance of defects     

exists1 then the evil passions which    
parents have to check in their children1
 imply like evil passions in themselves3
 hidden1 it may be1 from the public eye1
 or perhaps obscured by other feelings1 
but still there4 ,evidently1 therefore1 
the general practice of any ideal system
 of discipline is hopeless3 parents are 
not good enough4  ,moreover1 even were  
there methods by which the desired end  
could be at once effected2 and even had 
fathers and mothers sufficient insight1 
sympathy1 and self-command to employ    
these methods consistently2 it might    
still be contended that it would be of  
no use to reform family-government      
faster than other things are reformed4  
,what is it that we aim to do8 ,is it   
not that education of whatever kind has 
for its proximate end to prepare a child
 for the business of life--to produce a 
citizen who1 while he is well conducted1
 is also able to make his way in the    
world8 ,and does not making his way in  
the world 7by which we mean1 not the    

acquirement of wealth1 but of the funds 
requisite for bringing up a             
family7--does not this imply a certain  
fitness for the world as it now is8 ,and
 if by any system of culture an ideal   
human being could be produced1 is it not
 doubtful whether he would be fit for   
the world as it now is8 ,may we not1 on 
the contrary1 suspect that his too keen 
sense of rectitude1 and too elevated    
standard of conduct1 would make life    
intolerable or even impossible8 ,and    
however admirable the result might be1  
considered individually1 would it not be
 self-defeating in so far as society and
 posterity are concerned8 ,there is much
 reason for thinking that as in a nation
 so in a family1 the kind of government 
is1 on the whole1 about as good as the  
general state of human nature permits it
 to be4 ,we may argue that in the one   
case1 as in the other1 the average      
character of the people determines the  
quality of the control exercised4 ,in   
both cases it may be inferred that      

amelioration of the average character   
leads to an amelioration of system2 and 
further1 that were it possible to       
ameliorate the system without the       
average character being first           
ameliorated1 evil rather than good would
 follow4 ,such degree of harshness as   
children now experience from their      
parents and teachers1 may be regarded as
 but a preparation for that greater     
harshness which they will meet on       
entering the world4 ,and it may be urged
 that were it possible for parents and  
teachers to treat them with perfect     
equity and entire sympathy1 it would but
 intensify the sufferings which the     
selfishness of men must1 in after life1 
inflict on them4#a  ,but does not this  
prove too much8 some one will ask4 ,if  
no system of moral training can         
forthwith make children what they should
 be2 if1 even were there a system that  
would do this1 existing parents are too 
imperfect to carry it out2 and if even  
could such a system be successfully     

carried out1 its results would be       
disastrously incongruous with the       
present state of society2 does it not   
follow that to reform the system now in 
use is neither practicable nor          
desirable8 ,no4 ,it merely follows that 
reform in domestic government must go   
on1 pari passu1 with other reforms4 ,it 
merely follows that methods of          
discipline neither can be nor should be 
ameliorated1 except by instalments4 ,it 
merely follows that the dictates of     
abstract rectitude will1 in practice1   
inevitably be subordinated by the       
present state of human nature--by the   
imperfections alike of children1 of     
parents1 and of society2 and can only be
 better fulfilled as the general        
character becomes better4  ,at any rate1
 then1 may rejoin our critic1 it is     
clearly useless to set up any ideal     
standard of family discipline4 ,there   
can be no advantage in elaborating and  
recommending methods that are in advance
 of the time4 ,again we contend for the 

contrary4 ,just as in the case of       
political government1 though pure       
rectitude may be at present             
impracticable1 it is requisite to know  
where the right lies1 in order that the 
changes we make may be towards the right
 instead of away from it2 so1 in the    
case of domestic government1 an ideal   
must be upheld1 that there may be       
gradual approximations to it4 ,we need  
fear no evil consequences from the      
maintenance of such an ideal4 ,on the   
average the constitutional conservatism 
of mankind is strong enough to prevent  
too rapid a change4 ,things are so      
organised that until men have grown up  
to the level of a higher belief1 they   
cannot receive it3 nominally1 they may  
hold it1 but not virtually4 ,and even   
when the truth gets recognised1 the     
obstacles to conformity with it are so  
persistent as to outlive the patience of
 philanthropists and even of            
philosophers4 ,we may be sure1          
therefore1 that the difficulties in the 

way of a normal government of children1 
will always put an adequate check upon  
the efforts to realise it4  ,with these 
preliminary explanations1 let us go on  
to consider the true aims and methods of
 moral education4 ,after a few pages    
devoted to the settlement of general    
principles1 during the perusal of which 
we bespeak the reader's patience1 we    
shall aim by illustrations to make clear
 the right methods of parental behaviour
 in the hourly occurring difficulties of
 family government4         99       99 
99       99       99  ,when a child     
falls1 or runs its head against the     
table1 it suffers a pain1 the           
remembrance of which tends to make it   
more careful2 and by repetition of such 
experiences1 it is eventually           
disciplined into proper guidance of its 
movements4 ,if it lays hold of the      
fire-bars1 thrusts its hand into a      
candle-flame1 or spills boiling water on
 any part of its skin1 the resulting    
burn or scald is a lesson not easily    

forgotten4 ,so deep an impression is    
produced by one or two events of this   
kind1 that no persuasion will afterwards
 induce it thus to disregard the laws of
 its constitution4  ,now in these cases1
 ,nature illustrates to us in the       
simplest way1 the true theory and       
practice of moral discipline--a theory  
and practice which1 however much they   
may seem to the superficial like those  
commonly received1 we shall find on     
examination to differ from them very    
widely4  ,observe1 first1 that in bodily
 injuries and their penalties we have   
misconduct and its consequences reduced 
to their simplest forms4 ,though1       
according to their popular acceptations1
 right and wrong are words scarcely     
applicable to actions that have none but
 direct bodily effects2 yet whoever     
considers the matter will see that such 
actions must be as much classifiable    
under these heads as any other actions4 
,from whatever assumption they start1   
all theories of morality agree that     

conduct whose total results1 immediate  
and remote1 are beneficial1 is good     
conduct2 while conduct whose total      
results1 immediate and remote1 are      
injurious1 is bad conduct4 ,the ultimate
 standards by which all men judge of    
behaviour1 are the resulting happiness  
or misery4 ,we consider drunkenness     
wrong because of the physical degeneracy
 and accompanying moral evils entailed  
on the drunkard and his dependents4 ,did
 theft give pleasure both to taker and  
loser1 we should not find it in our     
catalogue of sins4 ,were it conceivable 
that kind actions multiplied human      
sufferings1 we should condemn           
them--should not consider them kind4 ,it
 needs but to read the first            
newspaper-leader1 or listen to any      
conversation on social affairs1 to see  
that acts of parliament1 political      
movements1 philanthropic agitations1 in 
common with the doings of individuals   
are judged by their anticipated results 
in augmenting the pleasures or pains of 

men4 ,and if on analysing all secondary 
superinduced ideas1 we find these to be 
our final tests of right and wrong1 we  
cannot refuse to class bodily conduct as
 right or wrong according to the        
beneficial or detrimental results       
produced4  ,note1 in the second place1  
the character of the punishments by     
which these physical transgressions are 
prevented4 ,punishments1 we call them1  
in the absence of a better word2 for    
they are not punishments in the literal 
sense4 ,they are not artificial and     
unnecessary inflictions of pain2 but are
 simply the beneficent checks to actions
 that are essentially at variance with  
bodily welfare--checks in the absence of
 which life would be quickly destroyed  
by bodily injuries4 ,it is the          
peculiarity of these penalties1 if we   
must so call them1 that they are simply 
the unavoidable consequences of the     
deeds which they follow3 they are       
nothing more than the inevitable        
reactions entailed by the child's       

actions4  ,let it be further borne in   
mind that these painful reactions are   
proportionate to the transgressions4 ,a 
slight accident brings a slight pain2 a 
more serious one1 a severer pain4 ,it is
 not ordained that an urchin who tumbles
 over the doorstep1 shall suffer in     
excess of the amount necessary2 with the
 view of making it still more cautious  
than the necessary suffering will make  
it4 ,but from its daily experience it is
 left to learn the greater or less      
penalties of greater or less errors2 and
 to behave accordingly4  ,and then mark1
 lastly1 that these natural reactions   
which follow the child's wrong actions1 
are constant1 direct1 unhesitating1 and 
not to be escaped4 ,no threats2 but a   
silent1 rigorous performance4 ,if a     
child runs a pin into its finger1 pain  
follows4 ,if it does it again1 there is 
again the same result3 and so on        
perpetually4 ,in all its dealing with   
inorganic ,nature it finds this         
unswerving persistence1 which listens to

 no excuse1 and from which there is no  
appeal2 and very soon recognising this  
stern though beneficent discipline1 it  
becomes extremely careful not to        
transgress4  ,still more significant    
will these general truths appear1 when  
we remember that they hold throughout   
adult life as well as throughout        
infantine life4 ,it is by an            
experimentally-gained knowledge of the  
natural consequences1 that men and women
 are checked when they go wrong4 ,after 
home-education has ceased1 and when     
there are no longer parents and teachers
 to forbid this or that kind of conduct1
 there comes into play a discipline like
 that by which the young child is       
trained to self-guidance4 ,if the youth 
entering on the business of life idles  
away his time and fulfils slowly or     
unskilfully the duties entrusted to him1
 there by and by follows the natural    
penalty3 he is discharged1 and left to  
suffer for awhile the evils of a        
relative poverty4 ,on the unpunctual    

man1 ever missing his appointments of   
business and pleasure1 there continually
 fall the consequent inconveniences1    
losses1 and deprivations4 ,the tradesmen
 who charges too high a rate of profit1 
loses his customers1 and so is checked  
in his greediness4 ,diminishing practice
 teaches the inattentive doctor to      
bestow more trouble on his patients4    
,the too credulous creditor and the     
over-sanguine speculator1 alike learn by
 the difficulties which rashness entails
 on them1 the necessity of being more   
cautious in their engagements4 ,and so  
throughout the life of every citizen4   
,in the quotation so often made apropos 
of such cases--,the burnt child dreads  
the fire--we see not only that the      
analogy between this social discipline  
and ,nature's early discipline of       
infants is universally recognised2 but  
we also see an implied conviction that  
this discipline is of the most efficient
 kind4 ,nay indeed1 this conviction is  
more than implied2 it is distinctly     

stated4 ,every one has heard others     
confess that only by dearly bought      
experience had they been induced to give
 up some bad or foolish course of       
conduct formerly pursued4 ,every one has
 heard1 in the criticism passed on the  
doings of this spendthrift or the other 
schemer1 the remark that advice was     
useless1 and that nothing but bitter    
experience would produce any effect3    
nothing1 that is1 but suffering the     
unavoidable consequences4 ,and if       
further proof be needed that the natural
 reaction is not only the most efficient
 penalty1 but that no humanly-devised   
penalty can replace it1 we have such    
further proof in the notorious          
ill-success of our various penal        
systems4 ,out of the many methods of    
criminal discipline that have been      
proposed and legally enforced1 none have
 answered the expectations of their     
advocates4 ,artificial punishments have 
failed to produce reformation2 and have 
in many cases increased the criminality4

 ,the only successful reformatories are 
those privately-established ones which  
approximate their regime to the method  
of ,nature--which do little more than   
administer the natural consequences of  
criminal conduct3 diminishing the       
criminal's liberty of action as much as 
is needful for the safety of society1   
and requiring him to maintain himself   
while living under this restraint4 ,thus
 we see1 both that the discipline by    
which the young child is taught to      
regulate its movements is the discipline
 by which the great mass of adults are  
kept in order1 and more or less         
improved2 and that the discipline       
humanly-devised for the worst adults1   
fails when it diverges from this        
divinely-ordained discipline1 and begins
 to succeed on approximating to it4     
99       99       99       99       99  
,have we not here1 then1 the guiding    
principle of moral education8 ,must we  
not infer that the system so beneficent 
in its effects during infancy and       

maturity1 will be equally beneficent    
throughout youth8 ,can any one believe  
that the method which answers so well in
 the first and the last divisions of    
life1 will not answer in the            
intermediate division8 ,is it not       
manifest that as ministers and          
interpreters of ,nature it is the       
function of parents to see that their   
children habitually experience the true 
consequences of their conduct--the      
natural reactions3 neither warding them 
off1 nor intensifying them1 nor putting 
artificial consequences in place of     
them8 ,no unprejudiced reader will      
hesitate in his assent4  ,probably1     
however1 not a few will contend that    
already most parents do this--that the  
punishments they inflict are1 in the    
majority of cases1 the true consequences
 of ill-conduct--that parental anger1   
venting itself in harsh words and deeds1
 is the result of a child's             
transgression--and that1 in the         
suffering1 physical or moral1 which the 

child is subject to1 it experiences the 
natural reaction of its misbehaviour4   
,along with much error this assertion   
contains some truth4 ,it is             
unquestionable that the displeasure of  
fathers and mothers is a true           
consequence of juvenile delinquency2 and
 that the manifestation of it is a      
normal check upon such delinquency4 ,the
 scoldings1 and threats1 and blows1     
which a passionate parent visits on     
offending little ones1 are doubtless    
effects actually drawn from such a      
parent by their offences2 and so are1 in
 some sort1 to be considered as among   
the natural reactions of their wrong    
actions4 ,nor are we prepared to say    
that these modes of treatment are not   
relatively right--right1 that is1 in    
relation to the uncontrollable children 
of ill-controlled adults2 and right in  
relation to a state of society in which 
such ill-controlled adults make up the  
mass of the people4 ,as already         
suggested1 educational systems1 like    

political and other institutions1 are   
generally as good as the state of human 
nature permits4 ,the barbarous children 
of barbarous parents are probably only  
to be restrained by the barbarous       
methods which such parents spontaneously
 employ2 while submission to these      
barbarous methods is perhaps the best   
preparation such children can have for  
the barbarous society in which they are 
presently to play a part4 ,conversely1  
the civilised members of a civilised    
society will spontaneously manifest     
their displeasure in less violent       
ways--will spontaneously use milder     
measures--measures strong enough for    
their better-natured children4 ,thus it 
is true that1 in so far as the          
expression of parental feeling is       
concerned1 the principle of the natural 
reaction is always more or less         
followed4 ,the system of domestic       
government ever gravitates towards its  
right form4  ,but now observe two       
important facts4 ,the first fact is     

that1 in states of rapid transition like
 ours1 which witness a continuous battle
 between old and new theories and old   
and new practices1 the educational      
methods in use are apt to be            
considerably out of harmony with the    
times4 ,in deference to dogmas fit only 
for the ages that uttered them1 many    
parents inflict punishments that do     
violence to their own feelings1 and so  
visit on their children unnatural       
reactions2 while other parents1         
enthusiastic in their hopes of immediate
 perfection1 rush to the opposite       
extreme4 ,the second fact is1 that the  
discipline of chief value is not the    
experience of parental approbation or   
disapprobation2 but it is the experience
 of those results which would ultimately
 flow from the conduct in the absence of
 parental opinion or interference4 ,the 
truly instructive and salutary          
consequences are not those inflicted by 
parents when they take upon themselves  
to be ,nature's proxies2 but they are   

those inflicted by ,nature herself4 ,we 
will endeavour to make this distinction 
clear by a few illustrations1 which1    
while they show what we mean by natural 
reactions as contrasted with artificial 
ones1 will afford some practical        
suggestions4  ,in every family where    
there are young children there daily    
occur cases of what mothers and servants
 call making a litter4 ,a child has had 
out its box of toys1 and leaves them    
scattered about the floor4 ,or a handful
 of flowers1 brought in from a morning  
walk1 is presently seen dispersed over  
tables and chairs4 ,or a little girl1   
making doll's-clothes1 disfigures the   
room with shreds4 ,in most cases the    
trouble of rectifying this disorder     
falls anywhere but where it should4     
,occurring in the nursery1 the nurse    
herself1 with many grumblings about     
tiresome little things1 undertakes the  
task2 if below-stairs1 the task usually 
devolves either on one of the elder     
children or on the housemaid3 the       

transgressor being visited with nothing 
more than a scolding4 ,in this very     
simple case1 however1 there are many    
parents wise enough to follow out1 more 
or less consistently1 the normal        
course--that of making the child itself 
collect the toys or shreds4 ,the labour 
of putting things in order is the true  
consequence of having put them in       
disorder4 ,every trader in his office1  
every wife in her household1 has daily  
experience of this fact4 ,and if        
education be a preparation for the      
business of life1 then every child      
should also1 from the beginning1 have   
daily experience of this fact4 ,if the  
natural penalty be met by refractory    
behaviour 7which it may perhaps be where
 the system of moral discipline         
previously pursued has been bad71 then  
the proper course is to let the child   
feel the ulterior reaction caused by its
 disobedience4 ,having refused or       
neglected to pick up and put away the   
things it has scattered about1 and      

having thereby entailed the trouble of  
doing this on some one else1 the child  
should1 on subsequent occasions1 be     
denied the means of giving this trouble4
 ,when next it petitions for its        
toy-box1 the reply of its mamma should  
be--,the last time you had your toys you
 left them lying on the floor1 and ,jane
 had to pick them up4 ,jane is too busy 
to pick up every day the things you     
leave about2 and ,i cannot do it myself4
 ,so that1 as you will not put away your
 toys when you have done with them1 ,i  
cannot let you have them4 ,this is      
obviously a natural consequence1 neither
 increased nor lessened2 and must be so 
recognised by a child4 ,the penalty     
comes1 too1 at the moment when it is    
most keenly felt4 ,a new-born desire is 
balked at the moment of anticipated     
gratification2 and the strong impression
 so produced can scarcely fail to have  
an effect on the future conduct3 an     
effect which1 by consistent repetition1 
will do whatever can be done in curing  

the fault4 ,add to which1 that1 by this 
method1 a child is early taught the     
lesson which cannot be learnt too soon1 
that in this world of ours pleasures are
 rightly to be obtained only by labour4 
,take another case4 ,not long since we  
had frequently to hear the reprimands   
visited on a little girl who was        
scarcely ever ready in time for the     
daily walk4 ,of eager disposition1 and  
apt to become absorbed in the occupation
 of the moment1 ,constance never thought
 of putting on her things till the rest 
were ready4 ,the governess and the other
 children had almost invariably to wait2
 and from the mamma there almost        
invariably came the same scolding4      
,utterly as this system failed1 it never
 occurred to the mamma to let ,constance
 experience the natural penalty4 ,nor1  
indeed1 would she try it when it was    
suggested to her4 ,in the world1        
unreadiness entails the loss of some    
advantage that would else have been     
gained3 the train is gone2 or the       

steam-boat is just leaving its moorings2
 or the best things in the market are   
sold2 or all the good seats in the      
concert-room are filled4 ,and every one1
 in cases perpetually occurring1 may see
 that it is the prospective deprivations
 which prevent people from being too    
late4 ,is not the inference obvious8    
,should not the prospective deprivations
 control a child's conduct also8 ,if    
,constance is not ready at the appointed
 time1 the natural result is that of    
being left behind1 and losing her walk4 
,and after having once or twice remained
 at home while the rest were enjoying   
themselves in the fields--after having  
felt that this loss of a much-prized    
gratification was solely due to want of 
promptitude2 amendment would in all     
probability take place4 ,at any rate1   
the measure would be more effective than
 that perpetual scolding which ends only
 in producing callousness4  ,again1 when
 children1 with more than usual         
carelessness1 break or lose the things  

given to them1 the natural penalty--the 
penalty which makes grown-up persons    
more careful--is the consequent         
inconvenience4 ,the lack of the lost or 
damaged article1 and the cost of        
replacing it1 are the experiences by    
which men and women are disciplined in  
these matters2 and the experiences of   
children should be as much as possible  
assimilated to theirs4 ,we do not refer 
to that early period at which toys are  
pulled to pieces in the process of      
learning their physical properties1 and 
at which the results of carelessness    
cannot be understood2 but to a later    
period1 when the meaning and advantages 
of property are perceived4 ,when a boy1 
old enough to possess a penknife1 uses  
it so roughly as to snap the blade1 or  
leaves it in the grass by some          
hedge-side where he was cutting a stick1
 a thoughtless parent1 or some indulgent
 relative1 will commonly forthwith buy  
him another1 not seeing that1 by doing  
this1 a valuable lesson is prevented4   

,in such a case1 a father may properly  
explain that penknives cost money1 and  
that to get money requires labour2 that 
he cannot afford to purchase new        
penknives for one who loses or breaks   
them2 and that until he sees evidence of
 greater carefulness he must decline to 
make good the loss4 ,a parallel         
discipline will serve to check          
extravagance4  ,these few familiar      
instances1 here chosen because of the   
simplicity with which they illustrate   
our point1 will make clear to every one 
the distinction between those natural   
penalties which we contend are the truly
 efficient ones1 and those artificial   
penalties commonly substituted for them4
 ,before going on to exhibit the higher 
and subtler applications of the         
principle exemplified1 let us note its  
many and great superiorities over the   
principle1 or rather the empirical      
practice1 which prevails in most        
families4  ,one superiority is that the 
pursuance of it generates right         

conceptions of cause and effect2 which  
by frequent and consistent experience   
are eventually rendered definite and    
complete4 ,proper conduct in life is    
much better guaranteed when the good and
 evil consequences of actions are       
understood1 than when they are merely   
believed on authority4 ,a child who     
finds that disorderliness entails the   
trouble of putting things in order1 or  
who misses a gratification from         
dilatoriness1 or whose carelessness is  
followed by the want of some much-prized
 possession1 not only suffers a         
keenly-felt consequence1 but gains a    
knowledge of causation3 both the one and
 the other being just like those which  
adult life will bring4 ,whereas a child 
who in such cases receives a reprimand1 
or some factitious penalty1 not only    
experiences a consequence for which it  
often cares very little1 but misses that
 instruction respecting the essential   
natures of good and evil conduct1 which 
it would else have gathered4 ,it is a   

vice of the common system of artificial 
rewards and punishments1 long since     
noticed by the clear-sighted1 that by   
substituting for the natural results of 
misbehaviour certain tasks or           
castigations1 it produces a radically   
wrong moral standard4 ,having throughout
 infancy and boyhood always regarded    
parental or tutorial displeasure as the 
chief result of a forbidden action1 the 
youth has gained an established         
association of ideas between such action
 and such displeasure1 as cause and     
effect4 ,hence when parents and tutors  
have abdicated1 and their displeasure is
 not to be feared1 the restraints on    
forbidden actions are in great measure  
removed3 the true restraints1 the       
natural reactions1 having yet to be     
learnt by sad experience4 ,as writes one
 who has had personal knowledge of this 
short-sighted system3--,young men let   
loose from school1 particularly those   
whose parents have neglected to exert   
their influence1 plunge into every      

description of extravagance2 they know  
no rule of action--they are ignorant of 
the reasons for moral conduct--they have
 no foundation to rest upon--and until  
they have been severely disciplined by  
the world are extremely dangerous       
members of society4  ,another great     
advantage of this natural discipline is1
 that it is a discipline of pure        
justice2 and will be recognised as such 
by every child4 ,whoso suffers nothing  
more than the evil which in the order of
 nature results from his own            
misbehaviour1 is much less likely to    
think himself wrongly treated than if he
 suffers an artificially inflicted evil2
 and this will hold of children as of   
men4 ,take the case of a boy who is     
habitually reckless of his              
clothes--scrambles through hedges       
without caution1 or is utterly          
regardless of mud4 ,if he is beaten1 or 
sent to bed1 he is apt to consider      
himself ill-used2 and is more likely to 
brood over his injuries than to repent  

of his transgressions4 ,but suppose he  
is required to rectify as far as        
possible the harm he has done--to clean 
off the mud with which he has covered   
himself1 or to mend the tear as well as 
he can4 ,will he not feel that the evil 
is one of his own producing8 ,will he   
not while paying this penalty be        
continuously conscious of the connection
 between it and its cause8 ,and will he 
not1 spite his irritation1 recognise    
more or less clearly the justice of the 
arrangement8 ,if several lessons of this
 kind fail to produce amendment--if     
suits of clothes are prematurely        
spoiled--if the father1 pursuing this   
same system of discipline1 declines to  
spend money for new ones until the      
ordinary time has elapsed--and if       
meanwhile1 there occur occasions on     
which1 having no decent clothes to go   
in1 the boy is debarred from joining the
 rest of the family on holiday          
excursions and fete days1 it is manifest
 that while he will keenly feel the     

punishment1 he can scarcely fail to     
trace the chain of causation1 and to    
perceive that his own carelessness is   
the origin of it4 ,and seeing this1 he  
will not have any such sense of         
injustice as if there were no obvious   
connection between the transgression and
 its penalty4  ,again1 the tempers both 
of parents and children are much less   
liable to be ruffled under this system  
than under the ordinary system4 ,when   
instead of letting children experience  
the painful results which naturally     
follow from wrong conduct1 parents      
themselves inflict certain other painful
 results1 they produce double mischief4 
,making1 as they do1 multiplied family  
laws2 and identifying their own         
supremacy and dignity with the          
maintenance of these laws2 every        
transgression is regarded as an offence 
against themselves1 and a cause of anger
 on their part4 ,and then come the      
further vexations which result from     
taking upon themselves1 in the shape of 

extra labour or cost1 those evil        
consequences which should have been     
allowed to fall on the wrong-doers4     
,similarly with the children4 ,penalties
 which the necessary reaction of things 
brings round upon them--penalties which 
are inflicted by impersonal agency1     
produce an irritation that is           
comparatively slight and transient2     
whereas1 penalties voluntarily inflicted
 by a parent1 and afterwards thought of 
as caused by him or her1 produce an     
irritation both greater and more        
continued4 ,just consider how disastrous
 would be the result if this empirical  
method were pursued from the beginning4 
,suppose it were possible for parents to
 take upon themselves the physical      
sufferings entailed on their children by
 ignorance and awkwardness2 and that    
while bearing these evil consequences   
they visited on their children certain  
other evil consequences1 with the view  
of teaching them the impropriety of     
their conduct4 ,suppose that when a     

child1 who had been forbidden to meddle 
with the kettle1 spilt boiling water on 
its foot1 the mother vicariously assumed
 the scald and gave a blow in place of  
it2 and similarly in all other cases4   
,would not the daily mishaps be sources 
of far more anger than now8 ,would there
 not be chronic ill-temper on both      
sides8 ,yet an exactly parallel policy  
is pursued in after-years4 ,a father who
 beats his boy for carelessly or        
wilfully breaking a sister's toy1 and   
then himself pays for a new toy1 does   
substantially this same thing--inflicts 
an artificial penalty on the            
transgressor1 and takes the natural     
penalty on himself3 his own feelings and
 those of the transgressor being alike  
needlessly irritated4 ,did he simply    
require restitution to be made1 he would
 produce far less heart-burning4 ,if he 
told the boy that a new toy must be     
bought at his1 the boy's1 cost2 and that
 his supply of pocket-money must be     
withheld to the needful extent2 there   

would be much less disturbance of temper
 on either side3 while in the           
deprivation afterwards felt1 the boy    
would experience the equitable and      
salutary consequence4 ,in brief1 the    
system of discipline by natural         
reactions is less injurious to temper1  
both because it is perceived to be      
nothing more than pure justice1 and     
because it in great part substitutes the
 impersonal agency of ,nature for the   
personal agency of parents4  ,whence    
also follows the manifest corollary1    
that under this system the parental and 
filial relation1 being a more friendly1 
will be a more influential one4 ,whether
 in parent or child1 anger1 however     
caused1 and to whomsoever directed1 is  
detrimental4 ,but anger in a parent     
towards a child1 and in a child towards 
a parent1 is especially detrimental2    
because it weakens that bond of sympathy
 which is essential to beneficent       
control4 ,from the law of association of
 ideas1 it inevitably results1 both in  

young and old1 that dislike is          
contracted towards things which in      
experience are habitually connected with
 disagreeable feelings4 ,or where       
attachment originally existed1 it is    
diminished1 or turned into repugnance1  
according to the quantity of painful    
impressions received4 ,parental wrath1  
venting itself in reprimands and        
castigations1 cannot fail1 if often     
repeated1 to produce filial alienation2 
while the resentment and sulkiness of   
children cannot fail to weaken the      
affection felt for them1 and may even   
end in destroying it4 ,hence the        
numerous cases in which parents 7and    
especially fathers1 who are commonly    
deputed to inflict the punishment7 are  
regarded with indifference1 if not with 
aversion2 and hence the equally numerous
 cases in which children are looked upon
 as inflictions4 ,seeing then1 as all   
must do1 that estrangement of this kind 
is fatal to a salutary moral culture1 it
 follows that parents cannot be too     

solicitous in avoiding occasions of     
direct antagonism with their children4  
,and therefore they cannot too anxiously
 avail themselves of this discipline of 
natural consequences2 which1 by         
relieving them from penal functions1    
prevents mutual exasperations and       
estrangements4  ,the method of moral    
culture by experience of the normal     
reactions1 which is the                 
divinely-ordained method alike for      
infancy and for adult life1 we thus find
 to be equally applicable during the    
intermediate childhood and youth4 ,among
 the advantages of this method we       
see3--,first3 that it gives that        
rational knowledge of right and wrong   
conduct which results from personal     
experience of their good and bad        
consequences4 ,second3 that the child1  
suffering nothing more than the painful 
effects of its own wrong actions1 must  
recognise more or less clearly the      
justice of the penalties4 ,third3 that  
recognising the justice of the          

penalties1 and receiving them through   
the working of things rather than at the
 hands of an individual1 its temper is  
less disturbed2 while the parent        
fulfilling the comparatively passive    
duty of letting the natural penalties be
 felt1 preserves a comparative          
equanimity4 ,fourth3 that mutual        
exasperations being thus prevented1 a   
much happier1 and a more influential    
relation1 will exist between parent and 
child4         99       99       99     
99       99  ,but what is to be done in 
cases of more serious misconduct8 some  
will ask4 ,how is this plan to be       
carried out when a petty theft has been 
committed8 or when a lie has been told8 
or when some younger brother or sister  
has been ill-used8  ,before replying to 
these questions1 let us consider the    
bearings of a few illustrative facts4   
,living in the family of his            
brother-in-law1 a friend of ours had    
undertaken the education of his little  
nephew and niece4 ,this he had          

conducted1 more perhaps from natural    
sympathy than from reasoned-out         
conclusions1 in the spirit of the method
 above set forth4 ,the two children were
 in doors his pupils and out of doors   
his companions4 ,they daily joined him  
in walks and botanising excursions1     
eagerly sought plants for him1 looked on
 while he examined and identified them1 
and in this and other ways were ever    
gaining pleasure and instruction in his 
society4 ,in short1 morally considered1 
he stood to them much more in the       
position of parent than either their    
father or mother did4 ,describing to us 
the results of this policy1 he gave1    
among other instances1 the following4   
,one evening1 having need for some      
article lying in another part of the    
house1 he asked his nephew to fetch it4 
,interested as the boy was in some      
amusement of the moment1 he1 contrary to
 his wont1 either exhibited great       
reluctance or refused1 we forget which4 
,his uncle1 disapproving of a coercive  

course1 went himself for that which he  
wanted3 merely exhibiting by his manner 
the annoyance this ill-behaviour gave   
him4 ,and when1 later in the evening1   
the boy made overtures for the usual    
play1 they were gravely repelled--the   
uncle manifested just that coldness     
naturally produced in him2 and so let   
the boy feel the necessary consequences 
of his conduct4 ,next morning at the    
usual time for rising1 our friend heard 
a new voice outside the door1 and in    
walked his little nephew with the hot   
water4 ,peering about the room to see   
what else could be done1 the boy then   
exclaimed1 ,oh6 you want your boots2 and
 forthwith rushed downstairs to fetch   
them4 ,in this and other ways he showed 
a true penitence for his misconduct4 ,he
 endeavoured by unusual services to make
 up for the service he had refused4 ,his
 better feelings had made a real        
conquest over his lower ones2 and       
acquired strength by the victory4 ,and  
having felt what it was to be without   

it1 he valued more than before the      
friendship he thus regained4  ,this     
gentleman is now himself a father2 acts 
on the same system2 and finds it answer 
completely4 ,he makes himself thoroughly
 his children's friend4 ,the evening is 
longed for by them because he will be at
 home2 and they especially enjoy ,sunday
 because he is with them all day4 ,thus 
possessing their perfect confidence and 
affection1 he finds that the simple     
display of his approbation or           
disapprobation gives him abundant power 
of control4 ,if1 on his return home1 he 
hears that one of his boys has been     
naughty1 he behaves towards him with    
that coolness which the consciousness of
 the boy's misconduct naturally         
produces2 and he finds this a most      
efficient punishment4 ,the mere         
withholding of the usual caresses1 is a 
source of much distress--produces a more
 prolonged fit of crying than a beating 
would do4 ,and the dread of this purely 
moral penalty is1 he says1 ever present 

during his absence3 so much so1 that    
frequently during the day his children  
ask their mamma how they have behaved1  
and whether the report will be good4    
,recently1 the eldest1 an active urchin 
of five1 in one of those bursts of      
animal spirits common in healthy        
children1 committed sundry extravagances
 during his mamma's absence--cut off    
part of his brother's hair and wounded  
himself with a razor taken from his     
father's dressing-case4 ,hearing of     
these occurrences on his return1 the    
father did not speak to the boy either  
that night or next morning4 ,besides the
 immediate tribulation the effect was1  
that when1 a few days after1 the mamma  
was about to go out1 she was entreated  
by the boy not to do so2 and on inquiry1
 it appeared his fear was that he might 
again transgress in her absence4  ,we   
have introduced these facts before      
replying to the question--,what is to be
 done with the graver offences8 for the 
purpose of first exhibiting the relation

 that may and ought to be established   
between parents and children2 for on the
 existence of this relation depends the 
successful treatment of these graver    
offences4 ,and as a further preliminary1
 we must now point out that the         
establishment of this relation will     
result from adopting the system here    
advocated4 ,already we have shown that  
by simply letting a child experience the
 painful reactions of its own wrong     
actions1 a parent avoids antagonism and 
escapes being regarded as an enemy2 but 
it remains to be shown that where this  
course has been consistently pursued    
from the beginning1 a feeling of active 
friendship will be generated4  ,at      
present1 mothers and fathers are mostly 
considered by their offspring as friend 
enemies4 ,determined as the impressions 
of children inevitably are by the       
treatment they receive2 and oscillating 
as that treatment does between bribery  
and thwarting1 between petting and      
scolding1 between gentleness and        

castigation2 they necessarily acquire   
conflicting beliefs respecting the      
parental character4 ,a mother commonly  
thinks it sufficient to tell her little 
boy that she is his best friend2 and    
assuming that he ought to believe her1  
concludes that he will do so4 ,it is all
 for your good2 ,i know what is proper  
for you better than you do yourself2    
,you are not old enough to understand it
 now1 but when you grow up you will     
thank me for doing what ,i do2--these1  
and like assertions1 are daily          
reiterated4 ,meanwhile the boy is daily 
suffering positive penalties2 and is    
hourly forbidden to do this1 that1 and  
the other1 which he wishes to do4 ,by   
words he hears that his happiness is the
 end in view2 but from the accompanying 
deeds he habitually receives more or    
less pain4 ,incompetent as he is to     
understand that future which his mother 
has in view1 or how this treatment      
conduces to the happiness of that       
future1 he judges by the results he     

feels2 and finding such results anything
 but pleasurable1 he becomes sceptical  
respecting her professions of           
friendship4 ,and is it not folly to     
expect any other issue8 ,must not the   
child reason from the evidence he has   
got8 and does not this evidence seem to 
warrant his conclusion8 ,the mother     
would reason in just the same way if    
similarly placed4 ,if1 among her        
acquaintance1 she found some one who was
 constantly thwarting her wishes1       
uttering sharp reprimands1 and          
occasionally inflicting actual penalties
 on her1 she would pay small attention  
to any professions of anxiety for her   
welfare which accompanied these acts4   
,why1 then1 does she suppose that her   
boy will do otherwise8  ,but now observe
 how different will be the results if   
the system we contend for be            
consistently pursued--if the mother not 
only avoids becoming the instrument of  
punishment1 but plays the part of a     
friend1 by warning her boy of the       

punishments which ,nature will inflict4 
,take a case2 and that it may illustrate
 the mode in which this policy is to be 
early initiated1 let it be one of the   
simplest cases4 ,suppose that1 prompted 
by the experimental spirit so           
conspicuous in children1 whose          
proceedings instinctively conform to the
 inductive method of inquiry--suppose   
that so prompted1 the boy is amusing    
himself by lighting pieces of paper in  
the candle and watching them burn4 ,a   
mother of the ordinary unreflective     
stamp1 will either1 on the plea of      
keeping him out of mischief1 or from    
fear that he will burn himself1 command 
him to desist2 and in case of           
non-compliance will snatch the paper    
from him4 ,but1 should he be fortunate  
enough to have a mother of some         
rationality1 who knows that this        
interest with which he is watching the  
paper burn1 results from a healthy      
inquisitiveness1 and who has also the   
wisdom to consider the results of       

interference1 she will reason thus3--,if
 ,i put a stop to this ,i shall prevent 
the acquirement of a certain amount of  
knowledge4 ,it is true that ,i may save 
the child from a burn2 but what then8   
,he is sure to burn himself sometime2   
and it is quite essential to his safety 
in life that he should learn by         
experience the properties of flame4 ,if 
,i forbid him from running this present 
risk1 he will certainly hereafter run   
the same or a greater risk when no one  
is present to prevent him2 whereas1     
should he have an accident now that ,i  
am by1 ,i can save him from any great   
injury4 ,moreover1 were ,i to make him  
desist1 ,i should thwart him in the     
pursuit of what is in itself a purely   
harmless1 and indeed1 instructive       
gratification2 and he would regard me   
with more or less ill-feeling4 ,ignorant
 as he is of the pain from which ,i     
would save him1 and feeling only the    
pain of a balked desire1 he could not   
fail to look on me as the cause of that 

pain4 ,to save him from a hurt which he 
cannot conceive1 and which has therefore
 no existence for him1 ,i hurt him in a 
way which he feels keenly enough2 and so
 become1 from his point of view1 a      
minister of evil4 ,my best course then1 
is simply to warn him of the danger1 and
 to be ready to prevent any serious     
damage4 ,and following out this         
conclusion1 she says to the child--,i   
fear you will hurt yourself if you do   
that4 ,suppose1 now1 that the boy1      
persevering as he will probably do1 ends
 by burning his hand4 ,what are the     
results8 ,in the first place he has     
gained an experience which he must gain 
eventually1 and which1 for his own      
safety1 he cannot gain too soon4 ,and in
 the second place1 he has found that his
 mother's disapproval or warning was    
meant for his welfare3 he has a further 
positive experience of her              
benevolence--a further reason for       
placing confidence in her judgment and  
kindness--a further reason for loving   

her4  ,of course1 in those occasional   
hazards where there is a risk of broken 
limbs or other serious injury1 forcible 
prevention is called for4 ,but leaving  
out extreme cases1 the system pursued   
should be1 not that of guarding a child 
from the small risks which it daily     
runs1 but that of advising and warning  
it against them4 ,and by pursuing this  
course1 a much stronger filial affection
 will be generated than commonly exists4
 ,if here1 as elsewhere1 the discipline 
of the natural reactions is allowed to  
come into play--if in those out-door    
scramblings and in-door experiments1 by 
which children are liable to injure     
themselves1 they are allowed to persist1
 subject only to dissuasion more or less
 earnest according to the danger1 there 
cannot fail to arise an ever-increasing 
faith in the parental friendship and    
guidance4 ,not only1 as before shown1   
does the adoption of this course enable 
fathers and mothers to avoid the odium  
which attaches to the infliction of     

positive punishment2 but1 as we here    
see1 it enables them to avoid the odium 
which attaches to constant thwartings2  
and even to turn those incidents that   
commonly cause squabbles1 into a means  
of strengthening the mutual good        
feeling4 ,instead of being told in      
words1 which deeds seem to contradict1  
that their parents are their best       
friends1 children will learn this truth 
by a consistent daily experience2 and so
 learning it1 will acquire a degree of  
trust and attachment which nothing else 
can give4  ,and now1 having indicated   
the more sympathetic relation which must
 result from the habitual use of this   
method1 let us return to the question   
above put--,how is this method to be    
applied to the graver offences8  ,note1 
in the first place1 that these graver   
offences are likely to be both less     
frequent and less grave under the regime
 we have described than under the       
ordinary regime4 ,the ill-behaviour of  
many children is itself a consequence of

 that chronic irritation in which they  
are kept by bad management4 ,the state  
of isolation and antagonism produced by 
frequent punishment1 necessarily deadens
 the sympathies2 necessarily1 therefore1
 opens the way to those transgressions  
which the sympathies check4 ,that harsh 
treatment which children of the same    
family inflict on each other1 is often1 
in great measure1 a reflex of the harsh 
treatment they receive from             
adults--partly suggested by direct      
example1 and partly generated by the    
ill-temper and the tendency to vicarious
 retaliation1 which follow chastisements
 and scoldings4 ,it cannot be questioned
 that the greater activity of the       
affections and happier state of feeling1
 maintained in children by the          
discipline we have described1 must      
prevent them from sinning against each  
other so gravely and so frequently4 ,the
 still more reprehensible offences1 as  
lies and petty thefts1 will1 by the same
 causes1 be diminished4 ,domestic       

estrangement is a fruitful source of    
such transgressions4 ,it is a law of    
human nature1 visible enough to all who 
observe1 that those who are debarred the
 higher gratifications fall back upon   
the lower2 those who have no sympathetic
 pleasures seek selfish ones2 and hence1
 conversely1 the maintenance of happier 
relations between parents and children  
is calculated to diminish the number of 
those offences of which selfishness is  
the origin4  ,when1 however1 such       
offences are committed1 as they will    
occasionally be even under the best     
system1 the discipline of consequences  
may still be resorted to2 and if there  
exists that bond of confidence and      
affection above described1 this         
discipline will be efficient4 ,for what 
are the natural consequences1 say1 of a 
theft8 ,they are of two kinds--direct   
and indirect4 ,the direct consequence1  
as dictated by pure equity1 is that of  
making restitution4 ,a just ruler 7and  
every parent should aim to be one7 will 

demand that1 when possible1 a wrong act 
shall be undone by a right one2 and in  
the case of theft this implies either   
the restoration of the thing stolen1 or1
 if it is consumed1 the giving of an    
equivalent3 which1 in the case of a     
child1 may be effected out of its       
pocket-money4 ,the indirect and more    
serious consequence is the grave        
displeasure of parents--a consequence   
which inevitably follows among all      
peoples civilised enough to regard theft
 as a crime4 ,but1 it will be said1 the 
manifestation of parental displeasure1  
either in words or blows1 is the        
ordinary course in these cases3 the     
method leads here to nothing new4 ,very 
true4 ,already we have admitted that1 in
 some directions1 this method is        
spontaneously pursued4 ,already we have 
shown that there is a tendency for      
educational systems to gravitate towards
 the true system4 ,and here we may      
remark1 as before1 that the intensity of
 this natural reaction will1 in the     

beneficent order of things1 adjust      
itself to the requirements--that this   
parental displeasure will vent itself in
 violent measures during comparatively  
barbarous times1 when children are also 
comparatively barbarous2 and will       
express itself less cruelly in those    
more advanced social states in which1 by
 implication1 the children are amenable 
to milder treatment4 ,but what it       
chiefly concerns us here to observe is1 
that the manifestation of strong        
parental displeasure1 produced by one of
 these graver offences1 will be potent  
for good1 just in proportion to the     
warmth of the attachment existing       
between parent and child4 ,just in      
proportion as the discipline of natural 
consequences has been consistently      
pursued in other cases1 will it be      
efficient in this case4 ,proof is within
 the experience of all1 if they will    
look for it4  ,for does not every one   
know that when he has offended another1 
the amount of regret he feels 7of       

course1 leaving worldly considerations  
out of the question7 varies with the    
degree of sympathy he has for that      
other8 ,is he not conscious that when   
the person offended is an enemy1 the    
having given him annoyance is apt to be 
a source rather of secret satisfaction  
than of sorrow8 ,does he not remember   
that where umbrage has been taken by    
some total stranger1 he has felt much   
less concern than he would have done had
 such umbrage been taken by one with    
whom he was intimate8 ,while1           
conversely1 has not the anger of an     
admired and cherished friend been       
regarded by him as a serious misfortune1
 long and keenly regretted8 ,well1 the  
effects of parental displeasure on      
children must similarly vary with the   
pre-existing relationship4 ,where there 
is an established alienation1 the       
feeling of a child who has transgressed 
is a purely selfish fear of the         
impending physical penalties or         
deprivations2 and after these have been 

inflicted1 the injurious antagonism and 
dislike which result1 add to the        
alienation4 ,on the contrary1 where     
there exists a warm filial affection    
produced by a consistent parental       
friendship1 the state of mind caused by 
parental displeasure is not only a      
salutary check to future misconduct of  
like kind1 but is intrinsically         
salutary4 ,the moral pain consequent on 
having1 for the time being1 lost so     
loved a friend1 stands in place of the  
physical pain usually inflicted2 and    
proves equally1 if not more1 efficient4 
,while instead of the fear and          
vindictiveness excited by the one       
course1 there are excited by the other a
 sympathy with parental sorrow1 a       
genuine regret for having caused it1 and
 a desire1 by some atonement1 to        
reestablish the friendly relationship4  
,instead of bringing into play those    
egotistic feelings whose predominance is
 the cause of criminal acts1 there are  
brought into play those altruistic      

feelings which check criminal acts4     
,thus the discipline of natural         
consequences is applicable to grave as  
well as trivial faults2 and the practice
 of it conduces not simply to the       
repression1 but to the eradication of   
such faults4  ,in brief1 the truth is   
that savageness begets savageness1 and  
gentleness begets gentleness4 ,children 
who are unsympathetically treated become
 unsympathetic2 whereas treating them   
with due fellow-feeling is a means of   
cultivating their fellow-feeling4 ,with 
family governments as with political    
ones1 a harsh despotism itself generates
 a great part of the crimes it has to   
repress2 while on the other hand a mild 
and liberal rule both avoids many causes
 of dissension1 and so ameliorates the  
tone of feeling as to diminish the      
tendency to transgression4 ,as ,john    
,locke long since remarked1 ,great      
severity of punishment does but very    
little good1 nay1 great harm1 in        
education2 and ,i believe it will be    

found that1 caeteris paribus1 those     
children who have been most chastised   
seldom make the best men4 ,in           
confirmation of which opinion we may    
cite the fact not long since made public
 by ,mr4 ,rogers1 ,chaplain of the      
,pentonville ,prison1 that those        
juvenile criminals who have been whipped
 are those who most frequently return to
 prison4 ,conversely1 the beneficial    
effects of a kinder treatment are well  
illustrated in a fact stated to us by a 
,french lady1 in whose house we recently
 stayed in ,paris4 ,apologising for the 
disturbance daily caused by a little boy
 who was unmanageable both at home and  
at school1 she expressed her fear that  
there was no remedy save that which had 
succeeded in the case of an elder       
brother2 namely1 sending him to an      
,english school4 ,she explained that at 
various schools in ,paris this elder    
brother had proved utterly untractable2 
that in despair they had followed the   
advice to send him to ,england2 and that

 on his return home he was as good as he
 had before been bad4 ,this remarkable  
change she ascribed entirely to the     
comparative mildness of the ,english    
discipline4         99       99       99
       99       99  ,after the foregoing
 exposition of principles1 our remaining
 space may best be occupied by a few of 
the chief maxims and rules deducible    
from them2 and with a view to brevity we
 will put these in a hortatory form4    
,do not expect from a child any great   
amount of moral goodness4 ,during early 
years every civilised man passes through
 that phase of character exhibited by   
the barbarous race from which he is     
descended4 ,as the child's              
features--flat nose1 forward-opening    
nostrils1 large lips1 wide-apart eyes1  
absent frontal sinus1 etc4--resemble for
 a time those of the savage1 so1 too1 do
 his instincts4 ,hence the tendencies to
 cruelty1 to thieving1 to lying1 so     
general among children--tendencies      
which1 even without the aid of          

discipline1 will become more or less    
modified just as the features do4 ,the  
popular idea that children are innocent1
 while it is true with respect to evil  
knowledge1 is totally false with respect
 to evil impulses2 as half an hour's    
observation in the nursery will prove to
 any one4 ,boys when left to themselves1
 as at public schools1 treat each other 
more brutally than men do2 and were they
 left to themselves at an earlier age   
their brutality would be still more     
conspicuous4  ,not only is it unwise to 
set up a high standard of good conduct  
for children1 but it is even unwise to  
use very urgent incitements to good     
conduct4 ,already most people recognise 
the detrimental results of intellectual 
precocity2 but there remains to be      
recognised the fact that moral precocity
 also has detrimental results4 ,our     
higher moral faculties1 like our higher 
intellectual ones1 are comparatively    
complex4 ,by consequence1 both are      
comparatively late in their evolution4  

,and with the one as with the other1 an 
early activity produced by stimulation  
will be at the expense of the future    
character4 ,hence the not uncommon      
anomaly that those who during childhood 
were models of juvenile goodness1 by and
 by undergo a seemingly inexplicable    
change for the worse1 and end by being  
not above but below par2 while          
relatively exemplary men are often the  
issue of a childhood by no means        
promising4  ,be content1 therefore1 with
 moderate measures and moderate results4
 ,bear in mind that a higher morality1  
like a higher intelligence1 must be     
reached by slow growth2 and you will    
then have patience with those           
imperfections which your child hourly   
displays4 ,you will be less prone to    
that constant scolding1 and threatening1
 and forbidding1 by which many parents  
induce a chronic domestic irritation1 in
 the foolish hope that they will thus   
make their children what they should be4
  ,this liberal form of domestic        

government1 which does not seek         
despotically to regulate all the details
 of a child's conduct1 necessarily      
results from the system we advocate4    
,satisfy yourself with seeing that your 
child always suffers the natural        
consequences of his actions1 and you    
will avoid that excess of control in    
which so many parents err4 ,leave him   
wherever you can to the discipline of   
experience1 and you will save him from  
that hot-house virtue which             
over-regulation produces in yielding    
natures1 or that demoralising antagonism
 which it produces in independent ones4 
,by aiming in all cases to insure the   
natural reactions to your child's       
actions1 you will put an advantageous   
check on your own temper4 ,the method of
 moral education pursued by many1 we    
fear by most1 parents1 is little else   
than that of venting their anger in the 
way that first suggests itself4 ,the    
slaps1 and rough shakings and sharp     
words1 with which a mother commonly     

visits her offspring's small offences   
7many of them not offences considered   
intrinsically71 are generally but the   
manifestations of her ill-controlled    
feelings--result much more from the     
promptings of those feelings than from a
 wish to benefit the offenders4 ,but by 
pausing in each case of transgression to
 consider what is the normal            
consequence1 and how it may best be     
brought home to the transgressor1 some  
little time is obtained for the mastery 
of yourself2 the mere blind anger first 
aroused settles down into a less        
vehement feeling1 and one not so likely 
to mislead you4  ,do not1 however1 seek 
to behave as a passionless instrument4  
,remember that besides the natural      
reactions to your child's actions which 
the working of things tends to bring    
round on him1 your own approbation or   
disapprobation is also a natural        
reaction1 and one of the ordained       
agencies for guiding him4 ,the error we 
have been combating is that of          

substituting parental displeasure and   
its artificial penalties1 for the       
penalties which ,nature has established4
 ,but while it should not be substituted
 for these natural penalties1 we by no  
means argue that it should not1 in some 
form1 accompany them4 ,though the       
secondary kind of punishment should not 
usurp the place of the primary kind2 it 
may1 in moderation1 rightly supplement  
the primary kind4 ,such amount of sorrow
 or indignation as you feel1 should be  
expressed in words or manner2 subject1  
of course1 to the approval of your      
judgment4 ,the kind and degree of       
feeling produced in you will necessarily
 depend on your own character2 and it is
 therefore useless to say it should be  
this or that4 ,nevertheless1 you may    
endeavour to modify the feeling into    
that which you believe ought to be      
entertained4 ,beware1 however1 of the   
two extremes2 not only in respect of the
 intensity1 but in respect of the       
duration1 of your displeasure4 ,on the  

one hand1 avoid that weak impulsiveness1
 so general among mothers1 which scolds 
and forgives almost in the same breath4 
,on the other hand1 do not unduly       
continue to show estrangement of        
feeling1 lest you accustom your child to
 do without your friendship1 and so lose
 your influence over him4 ,the moral    
reactions called forth from you by your 
child's actions1 you should as much as  
possible assimilate to those which you  
conceive would be called forth from a   
parent of perfect nature4  ,be sparing  
of commands4 ,command only when other   
means are inapplicable1 or have failed4 
,in frequent orders the parents'        
advantage is more considered than the   
child's1 says ,richter4 ,as in primitive
 societies a breach of law is punished1 
not so much because it is intrinsically 
wrong as because it is a disregard of   
the king's authority--a rebellion       
against him2 so in many families1 the   
penalty visited on a transgressor is    
prompted less by reprobation of the     

offence than by anger at the            
disobedience4 ,listen to the ordinary   
speeches--,how dare you disobey me8 ,i  
tell you ,i'll make you do it1 sir4     
,i'll soon teach you who is master--and 
then consider what the words1 the tone1 
and the manner imply4 ,a determination  
to subjugate is far more conspicuous in 
them1 than anxiety for the child's      
welfare4 ,for the time being the        
attitude of mind differs but little from
 that of a despot bent on punishing a   
recalcitrant subject4 ,the right-feeling
 parent1 however1 like the philanthropic
 legislator1 will rejoice not in        
coercion1 but in dispensing with        
coercion4 ,he will do without law       
wherever other modes of regulating      
conduct can be successfully employed2   
and he will regret the having recourse  
to law when law is necessary4 ,as       
,richter remarks--,the best rule in     
politics is said to be 'pas trop        
gouverner3' it is also true in          
education4 ,and in spontaneous          

conformity with this maxim1 parents     
whose lust of dominion is restrained by 
a true sense of duty1 will aim to make  
their children control themselves as    
much as possible1 and will fall back    
upon absolutism only as a last resort4  
,but whenever you do command1 command   
with decision and consistency4 ,if the  
case is one which really cannot be      
otherwise dealt with1 then issue your   
fiat1 and having issued it1 never       
afterwards swerve from it4 ,consider    
well what you are going to do2 weigh all
 the consequences2 think whether you    
have adequate firmness of purpose2 and  
then1 if you finally make the law1      
enforce obedience at whatever cost4 ,let
 your penalties be like the penalties   
inflicted by inanimate                  
,nature--inevitable4 ,the hot cinder    
burns a child the first time he seizes  
it2 it burns him the second time2 it    
burns him the third time2 it burns him  
every time2 and he very soon learns not 
to touch the hot cinder4 ,if you are    

equally consistent--if the consequences 
which you tell your child will follow   
specified acts1 follow with like        
uniformity1 he will soon come to respect
 your laws as he does those of ,nature4 
,and this respect once established1 will
 prevent endless domestic evils4 ,of    
errors in education one of the worst is 
inconsistency4 ,as in a community1      
crimes multiply when there is no certain
 administration of justice2 so in a     
family1 an immense increase of          
transgressions results from a hesitating
 or irregular infliction of punishments4
 ,a weak mother1 who perpetually        
threatens and rarely performs--who makes
 rules in haste and repents of them at  
leisure--who treats the same offence now
 with severity and now with leniency1 as
 the passing humour dictates1 is laying 
up miseries for herself and her         
children4 ,she is making herself        
contemptible in their eyes2 she is      
setting them an example of uncontrolled 
feelings2 she is encouraging them to    

transgress by the prospect of probable  
impunity3 she is entailing endless      
squabbles and accompanying damage to her
 own temper and the tempers of her      
little ones2 she is reducing their minds
 to a moral chaos1 which after years of 
bitter experience will with difficulty  
bring into order4 ,better even a        
barbarous form of domestic government   
carried out consistently1 than a humane 
one inconsistently carried out4 ,again  
we say1 avoid coercive measures whenever
 it is possible to do so2 but when you  
find despotism really necessary1 be     
despotic in good earnest4  ,remember    
that the aim of your discipline should  
be to produce a self-governing being2   
not to produce a being to be governed by
 others4 ,were your children fated to   
pass their lives as slaves1 you could   
not too much accustom them to slavery   
during their childhood2 but as they are 
by and by to be free men1 with no one to
 control their daily conduct1 you cannot
 too much accustom them to self-control 

while they are still under your eye4    
,this it is which makes the system of   
discipline by natural consequences so   
especially appropriate to the social    
state which we in ,england have now     
reached4 ,in feudal times1 when one of  
the chief evils the citizen had to fear 
was the anger of his superiors1 it was  
well that during childhood1 parental    
vengeance should be a chief means of    
government4 ,but now that the citizen   
has little to fear from any one--now    
that the good or evil which he          
experiences is mainly that which in the 
order of things results from his own    
conduct1 he should from his first years 
begin to learn1 experimentally1 the good
 or evil consequences which naturally   
follow this or that conduct4 ,aim1      
therefore1 to diminish the parental     
government1 as fast as you can          
substitute for it in your child's mind  
that self-government arising from a     
foresight of results4 ,during infancy a 
considerable amount of absolutism is    

necessary4 ,a three-year old urchin     
playing with an open razor1 cannot be   
allowed to learn by this discipline of  
consequences2 for the consequences may  
be too serious4 ,but as intelligence    
increases1 the number of peremptory     
interferences may be1 and should be1    
diminished1 with the view of gradually  
ending them as maturity is approached4  
,all transitions are dangerous2 and the 
most dangerous is the transition from   
the restraint of the family circle to   
the non-restraint of the world4 ,hence  
the importance of pursuing the policy we
 advocate2 which1 by cultivating a boy's
 faculty of self-restraint1 by          
continually increasing the degree in    
which he is left to his self-restraint1 
and by so bringing him1 step by step1 to
 a state of unaided self-restraint1     
obliterates the ordinary sudden and     
hazardous change from                   
externally-governed youth to            
internally-governed maturity4 ,let the  
history of your domestic rule typify1 in

 little1 the history of our political   
rule3 at the outset1 autocratic control1
 where control is really needful2 by and
 by an incipient constitutionalism1 in  
which the liberty of the subject gains  
some express recognition2 successive    
extensions of this liberty of the       
subject2 gradually ending in parental   
abdication4  ,do not regret the display 
of considerable self-will on the part of
 your children4 ,it is the correlative  
of that diminished coerciveness so      
conspicuous in modern education4 ,the   
greater tendency to assert freedom of   
action on the one side1 corresponds to  
the smaller tendency to tyrannise on the
 other4 ,they both indicate an approach 
to the system of discipline we contend  
for1 under which children will be more  
and more led to rule themselves by the  
experience of natural consequences2 and 
they are both accompaniments of our more
 advanced social state4 ,the independent
 ,english boy is the father of the      
independent ,english man2 and you cannot

 have the last without the first4       
,german teachers say that they had      
rather manage a dozen ,german boys than 
one ,english one4 ,shall we1 therefore1 
wish that our boys had the              
manageableness of ,german ones1 and with
 it the submissiveness and political    
serfdom of adult ,germans8 ,or shall we 
not rather tolerate in our boys those   
feelings which make them free men1 and  
modify our methods accordingly8         
,lastly1 always recollect that to       
educate rightly is not a simple and easy
 thing1 but a complex and extremely     
difficult thing1 the hardest task which 
devolves on adult life4 ,the            
rough-and-ready style of domestic       
government is indeed practicable by the 
meanest and most uncultivated           
intellects4 ,slaps and sharp words are  
penalties that suggest themselves alike 
to the least reclaimed barbarian and the
 stolidest peasant4 ,even brutes can use
 this method of discipline2 as you may  
see in the growl and half-bite with     

which a bitch will check a too-exigeant 
puppy4 ,but if you would carry out with 
success a rational and civilised system1
 you must be prepared for considerable  
mental exertion--for some study1 some   
ingenuity1 some patience1 some          
self-control4 ,you will have habitually 
to consider what are the results which  
in adult life follow certain kinds of   
acts2 and you must then devise methods  
by which parallel results shall be      
entailed on the parallel acts of your   
children4 ,it will daily be needful to  
analyse the motives of juvenile         
conduct--to distinguish between acts    
that are really good and those which1   
though simulating them1 proceed from    
inferior impulses2 while you will have  
to be ever on your guard against the    
cruel mistake not unfrequently made1 of 
translating neutral acts into           
transgressions1 or ascribing worse      
feelings than were entertained4 ,you    
must more or less modify your method to 
suit the disposition of each child2 and 

must be prepared to make further        
modifications as each child's           
disposition enters on a new phase4 ,your
 faith will often be taxed to maintain  
the requisite perseverance in a course  
which seems to produce little or no     
effect4 ,especially if you are dealing  
with children who have been wrongly     
treated1 you must be prepared for a     
lengthened trial of patience before     
succeeding with better methods2 since   
that which is not easy even where a     
right state of feeling has been         
established from the beginning1 becomes 
doubly difficult when a wrong state of  
feeling has to be set right4 ,not only  
will you have constantly to analyse the 
motives of your children1 but you will  
have to analyse your own motives--to    
discriminate between those internal     
suggestions springing from a true       
parental solicitude and those which     
spring from your own selfishness1 your  
love of ease1 your lust of dominion4    
,and then1 more trying still1 you will  

have not only to detect1 but to curb    
these baser impulses4 ,in brief1 you    
will have to carry on your own higher   
education at the same time that you are 
educating your children4 ,intellectually
 you must cultivate to good purpose that
 most complex of subjects--human nature 
and its laws1 as exhibited in your      
children1 in yourself1 and in the world4
 ,morally1 you must keep in constant    
exercise your higher feelings1 and      
restrain your lower4 ,it is a truth yet 
remaining to be recognised1 that the    
last stage in the mental development of 
each man and woman is to be reached only
 through a proper discharge of the      
parental duties4 ,and when this truth is
 recognised1 it will be seen how        
admirable is the arrangement through    
which human beings are led by their     
strongest affections to subject         
themselves to a discipline that they    
would else elude4  ,while some will     
regard this conception of education as  
it should be with doubt and             

discouragement1 others will1 we think1  
perceive in the exalted ideal which it  
involves1 evidence of its truth4 ,that  
it cannot be realised by the impulsive1 
the unsympathetic1 and the              
short-sighted1 but demands the higher   
attributes of human nature1 they will   
see to be evidence of its fitness for   
the more advanced states of humanity4   
,though it calls for much labour and    
self-sacrifice1 they will see that it   
promises an abundant return of          
happiness1 immediate and remote4 ,they  
will see that while in its injurious    
effects on both parent and child a bad  
system is twice cursed1 a good system is
 twice blessed--it blesses him that     
trains and him that's trained4  #a ,of  
this nature is the plea put in by some  
for the rough treatment experienced by  
boys at our public schools2 where1 as it
 is said1 they are introduced to a      
miniature world whose hardships prepare 
them for those of the real world4 ,it   
must be admitted that the plea has some 

force2 but it is a very insufficient    
plea4 ,for whereas domestic and school  
discipline1 though they should not be   
much better than the discipline of adult
 life1 should be somewhat better2 the   
discipline which boys meet with at      
,eton1 ,winchester1 ,harrow1 etc41 is   
worse than that of adult life--more     
unjust and cruel4 ,instead of being an  
aid to human progress1 which all culture
 should be1 the culture of our public   
schools1 by accustoming boys to a       
despotic form of government and an      
intercourse regulated by brute force1   
tends to fit them for a lower state of  
society than that which exists4 ,and    
chiefly recruited as our legislature is 
from among those who are brought up at  
such schools1 this barbarising influence
 becomes a hindrance to national        
progress4     ,,physical ,,education    
,equally at the squire's table after the
 withdrawal of the ladies1 at the       
farmers' market-ordinary1 and at the    
village ale-house1 the topic which1     

after the political question of the day1
 excites the most general interest1 is  
the management of animals4 ,riding home 
from hunting1 the conversation usually  
gravitates towards horse-breeding1 and  
pedigrees1 and comments on this or that 
good point2 while a day on the moors is 
very unlikely to end without something  
being said on the treatment of dogs4    
,when crossing the fields together from 
church1 the tenants of adjacent farms   
are apt to pass from criticisms on the  
sermon to criticisms on the weather1 the
 crops1 and the stock2 and thence to    
slide into discussions on the various   
kinds of fodder and their feeding       
qualities4 ,hodge and ,giles1 after     
comparing notes over their respective   
pig-styes1 show by their remarks that   
they have been observant of their       
masters' beasts and sheep2 and of the   
effects produced on them by this or that
 kind of treatment4 ,nor is it only     
among the rural population that the     
regulations of the kennel1 the stable1  

the cow-shed1 and the sheep-pen1 are    
favourite subjects4 ,in towns1 too1 the 
numerous artisans who keep dogs1 the    
young men who are rich enough to now and
 then indulge their sporting tendencies1
 and their more staid seniors who talk  
over agricultural progress or read ,mr4 
,mechi's annual reports and ,mr4        
,caird's letters to the ,times1 form1   
when added together1 a large portion of 
the inhabitants4 ,take the adult males  
throughout the kingdom1 and a great     
majority will be found to show some     
interest in the breeding1 rearing1 or   
training of animals1 of one kind or     
other4  ,but1 during after-dinner       
conversations1 or at other times of like
 intercourse1 who hears anything said   
about the rearing of children8 ,when the
 country gentleman has paid his daily   
visit to the stable1 and personally     
inspected the condition and treatment of
 his horses2 when he has glanced at his 
minor live stock1 and given directions  
about them2 how often does he go up to  

the nursery and examine into its        
dietary1 its hours1 its ventilation8 ,on
 his library-shelves may be found       
,white's ,farriery1 ,stephens's ,book of
 the ,farm1 ,nimrod on the ,condition of
 ,hunters2 and with the contents of     
these he is more or less familiar2 but  
how many books has he read on the       
management of infancy and childhood8    
,the fattening properties of oil-cake1  
the relative values of hay and chopped  
straw1 the dangers of unlimited clover1 
are points on which every landlord1     
farmer1 and peasant has some knowledge2 
but what percentage of them inquire     
whether the food they give their        
children is adapted to the              
constitutional needs of growing boys and
 girls8 ,perhaps the business-interests 
of these classes will be assigned as    
accounting for this anomaly4 ,the       
explanation is inadequate1 however2     
seeing that the same contrast holds     
among other classes4 ,of a score of     
townspeople1 few1 if any1 would prove   

ignorant of the fact that it is         
undesirable to work a horse soon after  
it has eaten2 and yet1 of this same     
score1 supposing them all to be fathers1
 probably not one would be found who had
 considered whether the time elapsing   
between his children's dinner and their 
resumption of lessons was sufficient4   
,indeed1 on cross-examination1 nearly   
every man would disclose the latent     
opinion that the regimen of the nursery 
was no concern of his4 ,oh1 ,i leave all
 those things to the women1 would       
probably be the reply4 ,and in most     
cases the tone of this reply would      
convey the implication1 that such cares 
are not consistent with masculine       
dignity4  ,regarded from any but a      
conventional point of view1 the fact    
seems strange that while the raising of 
first-rate bullocks is an occupation on 
which educated men willingly bestow much
 time and thought1 the bringing up of   
fine human beings is an occupation      
tacitly voted unworthy of their         

attention4 ,mammas who have been taught 
little but languages1 music1 and        
accomplishments1 aided by nurses full of
 antiquated prejudices1 are held        
competent regulators of the food1       
clothing1 and exercise of children4     
,meanwhile the fathers read books and   
periodicals1 attend agricultural        
meetings1 try experiments1 and engage in
 discussions1 all with the view of      
discovering how to fatten prize pigs6   
,we see infinite pains taken to produce 
a racer that shall win the ,derby3 none 
to produce a modern athlete4 ,had       
,gulliver narrated of the ,laputans that
 the men vied with each other in        
learning how best to rear the offspring 
of other creatures1 and were careless of
 learning how best to rear their own    
offspring1 he would have paralleled any 
of the other absurdities he ascribes to 
them4  ,the matter is a serious one1    
however4 ,ludicrous as is the           
antithesis1 the fact it expresses is not
 less disastrous4 ,as remarks a         

suggestive writer1 the first requisite  
to success in life is to be a good      
animal2 and to be a nation of good      
animals is the first condition to       
national prosperity4 ,not only is it    
that the event of a war often turns on  
the strength and hardiness of soldiers2 
but it is that the contests of commerce 
are in part determined by the bodily    
endurance of producers4 ,thus far we    
have found no reason to fear trials of  
strength with other races in either of  
these fields4 ,but there are not wanting
 signs that our powers will presently be
 taxed to the uttermost4 ,the           
competition of modern life is so keen1  
that few can bear the required          
application without injury4 ,already    
thousands break down under the high     
pressure they are subject to4 ,if this  
pressure continues to increase1 as it   
seems likely to do1 it will try severely
 even the soundest constitutions4 ,hence
 it is becoming of especial importance  
that the training of children should be 

so carried on1 as not only to fit them  
mentally for the struggle before them1  
but also to make them physically fit to 
bear its excessive wear and tear4       
,happily the matter is beginning to     
attract attention4 ,the writings of ,mr4
 ,kingsley indicate a reaction against  
over-culture2 carried perhaps1 as       
reactions usually are1 somewhat too far4
 ,occasional letters and leaders in the 
newspapers have shown an awakening      
interest in physical training4 ,and the 
formation of a school1 significantly    
nicknamed that of muscular              
,christianity1 implies a growing opinion
 that our present methods of bringing up
 children do not sufficiently regard the
 welfare of the body4 ,the topic is     
evidently ripe for discussion4  ,to     
conform the regimen of the nursery and  
the school to the established truths of 
modern science--this is the desideratum4
 ,it is time that the benefits which our
 sheep and oxen are deriving from the   
investigations of the laboratory1 should

 be participated in by our children4    
,without calling in question the great  
importance of horse-training and        
pig-feeding1 we would suggest that1 as  
the rearing of well-grown men and women 
is also of some moment1 these           
conclusions which theory indicates and  
practice indorses1 ought to be acted on 
in the last case as in the first4       
,probably not a few will be             
startled--perhaps offended--by this     
collocation of ideas4 ,but it is a fact 
not to be disputed1 and to which we must
 reconcile ourselves1 that man is       
subject to the same organic laws as     
inferior creatures4 ,no anatomist1 no   
physiologist1 no chemist1 will for a    
moment hesitate to assert1 that the     
general principles which are true of the
 vital processes in animals are equally 
true of the vital processes in man4 ,and
 a candid admission of this fact is not 
without its reward3 namely1 that the    
generalisations established by          
observation and experiment on brutes1   

become available for human guidance4    
,rudimentary as is the ,science of      
,life1 it has already attained to       
certain fundamental principles          
underlying the development of all       
organisms1 the human included4 ,that    
which has now to be done1 and that which
 we shall endeavour in some measure to  
do1 is to trace the bearings of these   
fundamental principles on the physical  
training of childhood and youth4        
99       99       99       99       99  
,the rhythmical tendency which is       
traceable in all departments of social  
life--which is illustrated in the access
 of despotism after revolution1 or1     
among ourselves1 in the alternation of  
reforming epochs and conservative       
epochs--which1 after a dissolute age1   
brings an age of asceticism1 and        
conversely1--which1 in commerce1        
produces the recurring inflations and   
panics--which carries the devotees of   
fashion from one absurd extreme to the  
opposite one2--this rhythmical tendency 

affects also our table-habits1 and by   
implication1 the dietary of the young4  
,after a period distinguished by hard   
drinking and hard eating1 has come a    
period of comparative sobriety1 which1  
in teetotalism and vegetarianism1       
exhibits extreme forms of protest       
against the riotous living of the past4 
,and along with this change in the      
regimen of adults1 has come a parallel  
change in the regimen for boys and      
girls4 ,in past generations the belief  
was1 that the more a child could be     
induced to eat1 the better2 and even    
now1 among farmers and in remote        
districts1 where traditional ideas most 
linger1 parents may be found who tempt  
their children into repletion4 ,but     
among the educated classes1 who chiefly 
display this reaction towards           
abstemiousness1 there may be seen a     
decided leaning to the under-feeding1   
rather than the over-feeding1 of        
children4 ,indeed their disgust for     
by-gone animalism1 is more clearly shown

 in the treatment of their offspring    
than in the treatment of themselves2 for
 while their disguised asceticism is1 in
 so far as their personal conduct is    
concerned1 kept in check by their       
appetites1 it has full play in          
legislating for juveniles4  ,that       
over-feeding and under-feeding are both 
bad1 is a truism4 ,of the two1 however1 
the last is the worst4 ,as writes a high
 authority1 the effects of casual       
repletion are less prejudicial1 and more
 easily corrected1 than those of        
inanition4#a ,besides1 where there has  
been no injudicious interference1       
repletion seldom occurs4 ,excess is the 
vice rather of adults than of the young1
 who are rarely either gourmands or     
epicures1 unless through the fault of   
those who rear them4#b ,this system of  
restriction which many parents think so 
necessary1 is based upon inadequate     
observation1 and erroneous reasoning4   
,there is an over-legislation in the    
nursery1 as well as an over-legislation 

in the ,state2 and one of the most      
injurious forms of it is this limitation
 in the quantity of food4  ,but are     
children to be allowed to surfeit       
themselves8 ,shall they be suffered to  
take their fill of dainties and make    
themselves ill1 as they certainly will  
do8 ,as thus put1 the question admits of
 but one reply4 ,but as thus put1 it    
assumes the point at issue4 ,we contend 
that1 as appetite is a good guide to all
 the lower creation--as it is a good    
guide to the infant--as it is a good    
guide to the invalid--as it is a good   
guide to the differently-placed races of
 men--and as it is a good guide for     
every adult who leads a healthful life2 
it may safely be inferred that it is a  
good guide for childhood4 ,it would be  
strange indeed were it here alone       
untrustworthy4  ,perhaps some will read 
this reply with impatience2 being able1 
as they think1 to cite facts totally at 
variance with it4 ,it may appear absurd 
if we deny the relevancy of these facts4

 ,and yet the paradox is quite          
defensible4 ,the truth is1 that the     
instances of excess which such persons  
have in mind1 are usually the           
consequences of the restrictive system  
they seem to justify4 ,they are the     
sensual reactions caused by an ascetic  
regimen4 ,they illustrate on a small    
scale that commonly-remarked truth1 that
 those who during youth have been       
subject to the most rigorous discipline1
 are apt afterwards to rush into the    
wildest extravagances4 ,they are        
analogous to those frightful phenomena1 
once not uncommon in convents1 where    
nuns suddenly lapsed from the extremest 
austerities into an almost demoniac     
wickedness4 ,they simply exhibit the    
uncontrollable vehemence of long-denied 
desires4 ,consider the ordinary tastes  
and the ordinary treatment of children4 
,the love of sweets is conspicuous and  
almost universal among them4 ,probably  
ninety-nine people in a hundred presume 
that there is nothing more in this than 

gratification of the palate2 and that1  
in common with other sensual desires1 it
 should be discouraged4 ,the            
physiologist1 however1 whose discoveries
 lead him to an ever-increasing         
reverence for the arrangements of       
things1 suspects something more in this 
love of sweets than is currently        
supposed2 and inquiry confirms the      
suspicion4 ,he finds that sugar plays an
 important part in the vital processes4 
,both saccharine and fatty matters are  
eventually oxidised in the body2 and    
there is an accompanying evolution of   
heat4 ,sugar is the form to which sundry
 other compounds have to be reduced     
before they are available as heat-making
 food2 and this formation of sugar is   
carried on in the body4 ,not only is    
starch changed into sugar in the course 
of digestion1 but it has been proved by 
,m4 ,claude ,bernard that the liver is a
 factory in which other constituents of 
food are transformed into sugar3 the    
need for sugar being so imperative that 

it is even thus produced from           
nitrogenous substances when no others   
are given4 ,now1 when to the fact that  
children have a marked desire for this  
valuable heat-food1 we join the fact    
that they have usually a marked dislike 
to that food which gives out the        
greatest amount of heat during oxidation
 7namely1 fat71 we have reason for      
thinking that excess of the one         
compensates for defect of the           
other--that the organism demands more   
sugar because it cannot deal with much  
fat4 ,again1 children are fond of       
vegetable acids4 ,fruits of all kinds   
are their delight2 and1 in the absence  
of anything better1 they will devour    
unripe gooseberries and the sourest of  
crabs4 ,now not only are vegetable      
acids1 in common with mineral ones1 very
 good tonics1 and beneficial as such    
when taken in moderation2 but they have1
 when administered in their natural     
forms1 other advantages4 ,ripe fruit1   
says ,dr4 ,andrew ,combe1 is more freely

 given on the ,continent than in this   
country2 and1 particularly when the     
bowels act imperfectly1 it is often very
 useful4 ,see1 then1 the discord between
 the instinctive wants of children and  
their habitual treatment4 ,here are two 
dominant desires1 which in all          
probability express certain needs of the
 child's constitution2 and not only are 
they ignored in the nursery-regimen1 but
 there is a general tendency to forbid  
the gratification of them4              
,bread-and-milk in the morning1 tea and 
bread-and-butter at night1 or some      
dietary equally insipid1 is rigidly     
adhered to2 and any ministration to the 
palate is thought needless1 or rather1  
wrong4 ,what is the consequence8 ,when1 
on fete-days1 there is unlimited access 
to good things--when a gift of          
pocket-money brings the contents of the 
confectioner's window within reach1 or  
when by some accident the free run of a 
fruit-garden is obtained2 then the      
long-denied1 and therefore intense1     

desires lead to great excesses4 ,there  
is an impromptu carnival1 due partly to 
release from past restraints1 and partly
 to the consciousness that a long ,lent 
will begin on the morrow4 ,and then1    
when the evils of repletion display     
themselves1 it is argued that children  
must not be left to the guidance of     
their appetites6 ,these disastrous      
results of artificial restrictions1 are 
themselves cited as proving the need for
 further restrictions6 ,we contend1     
therefore1 that the reasoning used to   
justify this system of interference is  
vicious4 ,we contend that1 were children
 allowed daily to partake of these more 
sapid edibles1 for which there is a     
physiological requirement1 they would   
rarely exceed1 as they now mostly do    
when they have the opportunity3 were    
fruit1 as ,dr4 ,combe recommends1 to    
constitute a part of the regular food   
7given1 as he advises1 not between      
meals1 but along with them71 there would
 be none of that craving which prompts  

the devouring of crabs and sloes4 ,and  
similarly in other cases4  ,not only is 
it that the a priori reasons for        
trusting the appetites of children are  
strong2 and that the reasons assigned   
for distrusting them are invalid2 but it
 is that no other guidance is worthy of 
confidence4 ,what is the value of this  
parental judgment1 set up as an         
alternative regulator8 ,when to ,oliver 
asking for more1 the mamma or governess 
says ,no1 on what data does she proceed8
 ,she thinks he has had enough4 ,but    
where are her grounds for so thinking8  
,has she some secret understanding with 
the boy's stomach--some clairvoyant     
power enabling her to discern the needs 
of his body8 ,if not1 how can she safely
 decide8 ,does she not know that the    
demand of the system for food is        
determined by numerous and involved     
causes--varies with the temperature1    
with the hygrometric state of the air1  
with the electric state of the          
air--varies also according to the       

exercise taken1 according to the kind   
and quantity of food eaten at the last  
meal1 and according to the rapidity with
 which the last meal was digested8 ,how 
can she calculate the result of such a  
combination of causes8 ,as we heard said
 by the father of a five-years-old boy1 
who stands a head taller than most of   
his age1 and is proportionately robust1 
rosy1 and active3--,i can see no        
artificial standard by which to mete out
 his food4 ,if ,i say1 'this much is    
enough1' it is a mere guess2 and the    
guess is as likely to be wrong as right4
 ,consequently1 having no faith in      
guesses1 ,i let him eat his fill4 ,and  
certainly1 any one judging of his policy
 by its effects1 would be constrained to
 admit its wisdom4 ,in truth1 this      
confidence1 with which most parents     
legislate for the stomachs of their     
children1 proves their unacquaintance   
with physiology3 if they knew more1 they
 would be more modest4 ,the pride of    
science is humble when compared with the

 pride of ignorance4 ,if any one would  
learn how little faith is to be placed  
in human judgments1 and how much in the 
pre-established arrangements of things1 
let him compare the rashness of the     
inexperienced physician with the caution
 of the most advanced2 or let him dip   
into ,sir ,john ,forbes's work1 ,on     
,nature and ,art in the ,cure of        
,disease2 and he will see that1 in      
proportion as men gain knowledge of the 
laws of life1 they come to have less    
confidence in themselves1 and more in   
,nature4  ,turning from the question of 
quantity of food to that of quality1 we 
may discern the same ascetic tendency4  
,not simply a restricted diet1 but a    
comparatively low diet1 is thought      
proper for children4 ,the current       
opinion is1 that they should have but   
little animal food4 ,among the less     
wealthy classes1 economy seems to have  
dictated this opinion--the wish has been
 father to the thought4 ,parents not    
affording to buy much meat1 answer the  

petitions of juveniles with--,meat is   
not good for little boys and girls2 and 
this1 at first probably nothing but a   
convenient excuse1 has by repetition    
grown into an article of faith4 ,while  
the classes with whom cost is no        
consideration1 have been swayed partly  
by the example of the majority1 partly  
by the influence of nurses drawn from   
the lower classes1 and in some measure  
by the reaction against past animalism4 
,if1 however1 we inquire for the basis  
of this opinion1 we find little or none4
 ,it is a dogma repeated and received   
without proof1 like that which1 for     
thousands of years1 insisted on         
swaddling-clothes4 ,very probably for   
the infant's stomach1 not yet endowed   
with much muscular power1 meat1 which   
requires considerable trituration before
 it can be made into chyme1 is an unfit 
aliment4 ,but this objection does not   
tell against animal food from which the 
fibrous part has been extracted2 nor    
does it apply when1 after the lapse of  

two or three years1 considerable        
muscular vigour has been acquired4 ,and 
while the evidence in support of this   
dogma1 partially valid in the case of   
very young children1 is not valid in the
 case of older children1 who are1       
nevertheless1 ordinarily treated in     
conformity with it1 the adverse evidence
 is abundant and conclusive4 ,the       
verdict of science is exactly opposite  
to the popular opinion4 ,we have put the
 question to two of our leading         
physicians1 and to several of the most  
distinguished physiologists1 and they   
uniformly agree in the conclusion1 that 
children should have a diet not less    
nutritive1 but1 if anything1 more       
nutritive than that of adults4  ,the    
grounds for this conclusion are obvious1
 and the reasoning simple4 ,it needs but
 to compare the vital processes of a man
 with those of a boy1 to see that the   
demand for sustenance is relatively     
greater in the boy than in the man4     
,what are the ends for which a man      

requires food8 ,each day his body       
undergoes more or less wear--wear       
through muscular exertion1 wear of the  
nervous system through mental actions1  
wear of the viscera in carrying on the  
functions of life2 and the tissue thus  
wasted has to be renewed4 ,each day1    
too1 by radiation1 his body loses a     
large amount of heat2 and as1 for the   
continuance of the vital actions1 the   
temperature of the body must be         
maintained1 this loss has to be         
compensated by a constant production of 
heat3 to which end certain constituents 
of the body are ever undergoing         
oxidation4 ,to make up for the day's    
waste1 and to supply fuel for the day's 
expenditure of heat1 are1 then1 the sole
 purposes for which the adult requires  
food4 ,consider now the case of the boy4
 ,he1 too1 wastes the substance of his  
body by action2 and it needs but to note
 his restless activity to see that1 in  
proportion to his bulk1 he probably     
wastes as much as a man4 ,he1 too1 loses

 heat by radiation2 and1 as his body    
exposes a greater surface in proportion 
to its mass than does that of a man1 and
 therefore loses heat more rapidly1 the 
quantity of heat-food he requires is1   
bulk for bulk1 greater than that        
required by a man4 ,so that even had the
 boy no other vital processes to carry  
on than the man has1 he would need1     
relatively to his size1 a somewhat      
larger supply of nutriment4 ,but1       
besides repairing his body and          
maintaining its heat1 the boy has to    
make new tissue--to grow4 ,after waste  
and thermal loss have been provided for1
 such surplus of nutriment as remains   
goes to the further building up of the  
frame2 and only in virtue of this       
surplus is normal growth possible2 the  
growth that sometimes takes place in the
 absence of it1 causing a manifest      
prostration consequent upon defective   
repair4 ,it is true that because of a   
certain mechanical law which cannot be  
here explained1 a small organism has an 

advantage over a large one in the ratio 
between the sustaining and destroying   
forces--an advantage1 indeed1 to which  
the very possibility of growth is owing4
 ,but this admission only makes it the  
more obvious that though much adverse   
treatment may be borne without this     
excess of vitality being quite          
out-balanced2 yet any adverse treatment1
 by diminishing it1 must diminish the   
size or structural perfection reached4  
,how peremptory is the demand of the    
unfolding organism for materials1 is    
seen alike in that schoolboy hunger1    
which after-life rarely parallels in    
intensity1 and in the comparatively     
quick return of appetite4 ,and if there 
needs further evidence of this extra    
necessity for nutriment1 we have it in  
the fact that1 during the famines       
following shipwrecks and other          
disasters1 the children are the first to
 die4  ,this relatively greater need for
 nutriment being admitted1 as it must   
be1 the question that remains is--shall 

we meet it by giving an excessive       
quantity of what may be called dilute   
food1 or a more moderate quantity of    
concentrated food8 ,the nutriment       
obtainable from a given weight of meat  
is obtainable only from a larger weight 
of bread1 or from a still larger weight 
of potatoes1 and so on4 ,to fulfil the  
requirement1 the quantity must be       
increased as the nutritiveness is       
diminished4 ,shall1 we1 then1 respond to
 the extra wants of the growing child by
 giving an adequate quantity of food as 
good as that of adults8 ,or1 regardless 
of the fact that its stomach has to     
dispose of a relatively larger quantity 
even of this good food1 shall we further
 tax it by giving an inferior food in   
still greater quantity8  ,the answer is 
tolerably obvious4 ,the more the labour 
of digestion is economised1 the more    
energy is left for the purposes of      
growth and action4 ,the functions of the
 stomach and intestines cannot be       
performed without a large supply of     

blood and nervous power2 and in the     
comparative lassitude that follows a    
hearty meal1 every adult has proof that 
this supply of blood and nervous power  
is at the expense of the system at      
large4 ,if the requisite nutriment is   
obtained from a great quantity of       
innutritious food1 more work is entailed
 on the viscera than when it is obtained
 from a moderate quantity of nutritious 
food4 ,this extra work is so much       
loss--a loss which in children shows    
itself either in diminished energy1 or  
in smaller growth1 or in both4 ,the     
inference is1 then1 that they should    
have a diet which combines1 as much as  
possible1 nutritiveness and             
digestibility4  ,it is doubtless true   
that boys and girls may be reared upon  
an exclusively1 or almost exclusively1  
vegetable diet4 ,among the upper classes
 are to be found children to whom       
comparatively little meat is given2 and 
who1 nevertheless1 grow and appear in   
good health4 ,animal food is scarcely   

tasted by the offspring of labouring    
people2 and yet they reach a healthy    
maturity4 ,but these seemingly adverse  
facts have by no means the weight       
commonly supposed4 ,in the first place1 
it does not follow that those who in    
early years flourish on bread and       
potatoes1 will eventually reach a fine  
development2 and a comparison between   
the agricultural labourers and the      
gentry1 in ,england1 or between the     
middle and lower classes in ,france is  
by no means in favour of vegetable      
feeders4 ,in the second place1 the      
question is not simply a question of    
bulk1 but also a question of quality4 ,a
 soft1 flabby flesh makes as good a show
 as a firm one2 but though to the       
careless eye1 a child of full1 flaccid  
tissue may appear the equal of one whose
 fibres are well toned1 a trial of      
strength will prove the difference4     
,obesity in adults is often a sign of   
feebleness4 ,men lose weight in         
training4 ,hence the appearance of these

 low-fed children is far from           
conclusive4 ,in the third place1 besides
 size1 we have to consider energy4      
,between children of the meat-eating    
classes and those of the                
bread-and-potato-eating classes1 there  
is a marked contrast in this respect4   
,both in mental and physical vivacity   
the peasant-boy is greatly inferior to  
the son of a gentleman4  ,if we compare 
different kinds of animals1 or different
 races of men1 or the same animals or   
men when differently fed1 we find still 
more distinct proof that the degree of  
energy essentially depends on the       
nutritiveness of the food4  ,in a cow1  
subsisting on so innutritive a food as  
grass1 we see that the immense quantity 
required necessitates an enormous       
digestive system2 that the limbs1 small 
in comparison with the body1 are        
burdened by its weight2 that in carrying
 about this heavy body and digesting    
this excessive quantity of food1 much   
force is expended2 and that1 having but 

little remaining1 the creature is       
sluggish4 ,compare with the cow a       
horse--an animal of nearly allied       
structure1 but habituated to a more     
concentrated diet4 ,here the body1 and  
more especially its abdominal region1   
bears a smaller ratio to the limbs2 the 
powers are not taxed by the support of  
such massive viscera1 nor the digestion 
of so bulky a food2 and1 as a           
consequence1 there is greater locomotive
 energy and considerable vivacity4 ,if1 
again1 we contrast the stolid inactivity
 of the graminivorous sheep with the    
liveliness of the dog1 subsisting on    
flesh or farinaceous matters1 or a      
mixture of the two1 we see a difference 
similar in kind1 but still greater in   
degree4 ,and after walking through the  
,zoological ,gardens1 and noting the    
restlessness with which the carnivorous 
animals pace up and down their cages1 it
 needs but to remember that none of the 
herbivorous animals habitually display  
this superfluous energy1 to see how     

clear is the relation between           
concentration of food and degree of     
activity4  ,that these differences are  
not directly consequent on differences  
of constitution1 as some may argue2 but 
are directly consequent on differences  
in the food which the creatures are     
constituted to subsist on2 is proved by 
the fact1 that they are observable      
between different divisions of the same 
species4 ,the varieties of the horse    
furnish an illustration4 ,compare the   
big-bellied1 inactive1 spiritless       
cart-horse with a racer or hunter1 small
 in the flanks and full of energy2 and  
then call to mind how much less         
nutritive is the diet of the one than   
that of the other4 ,or take the case of 
mankind4 ,australians1 ,bushmen1 and    
others of the lowest savages who live on
 roots and berries1 varied by larvae of 
insects and the like meagre fare1 are   
comparatively puny in stature1 have     
large abdomens1 soft and undeveloped    
muscles1 and are quite unable to cope   

with ,europeans1 either in a struggle or
 in prolonged exertion4 ,count up the   
wild races who are well grown1 strong   
and active1 as the ,kaffirs1            
,north-,american ,indians1 and          
,patagonians1 and you find them large   
consumers of flesh4 ,the ill-fed ,hindoo
 goes down before the ,englishman fed on
 more nutritive food2 to whom he is as  
inferior in mental as in physical       
energy4 ,and generally1 we think1 the   
history of the world shows that the     
well-fed races have been the energetic  
and dominant races4  ,still stronger1   
however1 becomes the argument1 when we  
find that the same individual animal is 
capable of more or less exertion        
according as its food is more or less   
nutritious4 ,this has been demonstrated 
in the case of the horse4 ,though flesh 
may be gained by a grazing horse1       
strength is lost2 as putting him to hard
 work proves4 ,the consequence of       
turning horses out to grass is          
relaxation of the muscular system4      

,grass is a very good preparation for a 
bullock for ,smithfield market1 but a   
very bad one for a hunter4 ,it was well 
known of old that1 after passing the    
summer in the fields1 hunters required  
some months of stable-feeding before    
becoming able to follow the hounds2 and 
that they did not get into good         
condition till the beginning of the next
 spring4 ,and the modern practice is    
that insisted on by ,mr4                
,apperley--,never to give a hunter what 
is called 'a summer's run at grass1'    
and1 except under particular and very   
favourable circumstances1 never to turn 
him out at all4 ,that is to say1 never  
give him poor food3 great energy and    
endurance are to be obtained only by the
 continued use of nutritive food4 ,so   
true is this that1 as proved by ,mr4    
,apperley1 prolonged high-feeding       
enables a middling horse to equal1 in   
his performances1 a first-rate horse fed
 in the ordinary way4 ,to which various 
evidences add the familiar fact that1   

when a horse is required to do double   
duty1 it is the practice to give him    
beans--a food containing a larger       
proportion of nitrogenous1 or           
flesh-making material1 than his habitual
 oats4  ,once more1 in the case of      
individual men the truth has been       
illustrated with equal1 or still        
greater1 clearness4 ,we do not refer to 
men in training for feats of strength1  
whose regimen1 however1 thoroughly      
conforms to the doctrine4 ,we refer to  
the experience of railway-contractors   
and their labourers4 ,it has been for   
years a well-established fact that an   
,english navvy1 eating largely of flesh1
 is far more efficient than a           
,continental navvy living on farinaceous
 food3 so much more efficient1 that     
,english contractors for ,continental   
railways found it pay to take their     
labourers with them4 ,that difference of
 diet and not difference of race caused 
this superiority1 has been of late      
distinctly shown4 ,for it has turned    

out1 that when the ,continental navvies 
live in the same style as their ,english
 competitors1 they presently rise1 more 
or less nearly1 to a par with them in   
efficiency4 ,and to this fact let us    
here add the converse one1 to which we  
can give personal testimony based upon  
six months' experience of vegetarianism1
 that abstinence from meat entails      
diminished energy of both body and mind4
  ,do not these various evidences       
endorse our argument respecting the     
feeding of children8 ,do they not imply 
that1 even supposing the same stature   
and bulk to be attained on an           
innutritive as on a nutritive diet1 the 
quality of tissue is greatly inferior8  
,do they not establish the position     
that1 where energy as well as growth has
 to be maintained1 it can only be done  
by high feeding8 ,do they not confirm   
the a priori conclusion that1 though a  
child of whom little is expected in the 
way of bodily or mental activity1 may   
thrive tolerably well on farinaceous    

substances1 a child who is daily        
required1 not only to form the due      
amount of new tissue1 but to supply the 
waste consequent on great muscular      
action1 and the further waste consequent
 on hard exercise of brain1 must live on
 substances containing a larger ratio of
 nutritive matter8 ,and is it not an    
obvious corollary1 that denial of this  
better food will be at the expense      
either of growth1 or of bodily activity1
 or of mental activity2 as constitution 
and circumstances determine8 ,we believe
 no logical intellect will question it4 
,to think otherwise is to entertain in a
 disguised form the old fallacy of the  
perpetual-motion schemers--that it is   
possible to get power out of nothing4   
,before leaving the question of food1 a 
few words must be said on another       
requisite--variety4 ,in this respect the
 dietary of the young is very faulty4   
,if not1 like our soldiers1 condemned to
 twenty years of boiled beef1 our       
children have mostly to bear a monotony 

which1 though less extreme and less     
lasting1 is quite as clearly at variance
 with the laws of health4 ,at dinner1 it
 is true1 they usually have food that is
 more or less mixed1 and that is changed
 day by day4 ,but week after week1 month
 after month1 year after year1 comes the
 same breakfast of bread-and-milk1 or1  
it may be1 oatmeal-porridge4 ,and with  
like persistence the day is closed1     
perhaps with a second edition of the    
bread-and-milk1 perhaps with tea and    
bread-and-butter4  ,this practice is    
opposed to the dictates of physiology4  
,the satiety produced by an             
often-repeated dish1 and the            
gratification caused by one long a      
stranger to the palate1 are not         
meaningless1 as people carelessly       
assume2 but they are the incentives to a
 wholesome diversity of diet4 ,it is a  
fact1 established by numerous           
experiments1 that there is scarcely any 
one food1 however good1 which supplies  
in due proportions or right forms all   

the elements required for carrying on   
the vital processes in a normal manner3 
whence it follows that frequent change  
of food is desirable to balance the     
supplies of all the elements4 ,it is a  
further fact1 known to physiologists1   
that the enjoyment given by a much-liked
 food is a nervous stimulus1 which1 by  
increasing the action of the heart and  
so propelling the blood with increased  
vigour1 aids in the subsequent          
digestion4 ,and these truths are in     
harmony with the maxims of modern       
cattle-feeding1 which dictate a rotation
 of diet4  ,not only1 however1 is       
periodic change of food very desirable2 
but1 for the same reasons1 it is very   
desirable that a mixture of food should 
be taken at each meal4 ,the better      
balance of ingredients1 and the greater 
nervous stimulation1 are advantages     
which hold here as before4 ,if facts are
 asked for1 we may name as one1 the     
comparative ease with which the stomach 
disposes of a ,french dinner1 enormous  

in quantity but extremely varied in     
materials4 ,few will contend that an    
equal weight of one kind of food1       
however well cooked1 could be digested  
with as much facility4 ,if any desire   
further facts1 they may find them in    
every modern book on the management of  
animals4 ,animals thrive best when each 
meal is made up of several things4 ,the 
experiments of ,goss and ,stark afford  
the most decisive proof of the          
advantage1 or rather the necessity1 of a
 mixture of substances1 in order to     
produce the compound which is the best  
adapted for the action of the stomach4#c
  ,should any object1 as probably many  
will1 that a rotating dietary for       
children1 and one which also requires a 
mixture of food at each meal1 would     
entail too much trouble2 we reply1 that 
no trouble is thought too great which   
conduces to the mental development of   
children1 and that for their future     
welfare1 good bodily development is of  
still higher importance4 ,moreover1 it  

seems alike sad and strange that a      
trouble which is cheerfully taken in the
 fattening of pigs1 should be thought   
too great in the rearing of children4   
,one more paragraph1 with the view of   
warning those who may propose to adopt  
the regimen indicated4 ,the change must 
not be made suddenly2 for continued     
low-feeding so enfeebles the system1 as 
to disable it from at once dealing with 
a high diet4 ,deficient nutrition is    
itself a cause of dyspepsia4 ,this is   
true even of animals4 ,when calves are  
fed with skimmed milk1 or whey1 or other
 poor food1 they are liable to          
indigestion4#d ,hence1 therefore1 where 
the energies are low1 the transition to 
a generous diet must be gradual3 each   
increment of strength gained1 justifying
 a fresh addition of nutriment4         
,further1 it should be borne in mind    
that the concentration of nutriment may 
be carried too far4 ,a bulk sufficient  
to fill the stomach is one requisite of 
a proper meal2 and this requisite       

negatives a diet deficient in those     
matters which give adequate mass4       
,though the size of the digestive organs
 is less in the well-fed civilised races
 than in the ill-fed savage ones1 and   
though their size may eventually        
diminish still further1 yet1 for the    
time being1 the bulk of the ingesta must
 be determined by the existing capacity4
 ,but1 paying due regard to these two   
qualifications1 our conclusions         
are--that the food of children should be
 highly nutritive2 that it should be    
varied at each meal and at successive   
meals2 and that it should be abundant4  
99       99       99       99       99  
,with clothing as with food1 the usual  
tendency is towards an improper         
scantiness4 ,here1 too1 asceticism peeps
 out4 ,there is a current theory1       
vaguely entertained if not put into a   
definite formula1 that the sensations   
are to be disregarded4 ,they do not     
exist for our guidance1 but to mislead  
us1 seems to be the prevalent belief    

reduced to its naked form4 ,it is a     
grave error3 we are much more           
beneficently constituted4 ,it is not    
obedience to the sensations1 but        
disobedience to them1 which is the      
habitual cause of bodily evils4 ,it is  
not the eating when hungry1 but the     
eating in the absence of hunger1 which  
is bad4 ,it is not drinking when        
thirsty1 but continuing to drink when   
thirst has ceased1 that is the vice4    
,harm does not result from breathing    
that fresh air which every healthy      
person enjoys2 but from breathing foul  
air1 spite of the protest of the lungs4 
,harm does not result from taking that  
active exercise which1 as every child   
shows us1 ,nature strongly prompts2 but 
from a persistent disregard of ,nature's
 promptings4 ,not that mental activity  
which is spontaneous and enjoyable does 
the mischief2 but that which is         
persevered in after a hot or aching head
 commands desistance4 ,not that bodily  
exertion which is pleasant or           

indifferent1 does injury2 but that which
 is continued when exhaustion forbids4  
,it is true that1 in those who have long
 led unhealthy lives1 the sensations are
 not trustworthy guides4 ,people who    
have for years been almost constantly   
in-doors1 who have exercised their      
brains very much and their bodies       
scarcely at all1 who in eating have     
obeyed their clocks without consulting  
their stomachs1 may very likely be      
misled by their vitiated feelings4 ,but 
their abnormal state is itself the      
result of transgressing their feelings4 
,had they from childhood never disobeyed
 what we may term the physical          
conscience1 it would not have been      
seared1 but would have remained a       
faithful monitor4  ,among the sensations
 serving for our guidance are those of  
heat and cold2 and a clothing for       
children which does not carefully       
consult these sensations1 is to be      
condemned4 ,the common notion about     
hardening is a grievous delusion4 ,not a

 few children are hardened out of the   
world2 and those who survive1           
permanently suffer either in growth or  
constitution4 ,their delicate appearance
 furnishes ample indication of the      
mischief thus produced1 and their       
frequent attacks of illness might prove 
a warning even to unreflecting parents1 
says ,dr4 ,combe4 ,the reasoning on     
which this hardening-theory rests is    
extremely superficial4 ,wealthy parents1
 seeing little peasant boys and girls   
playing about in the open air only      
half-clothed1 and joining with this fact
 the general healthiness of labouring   
people1 draw the unwarrantable          
conclusion that the healthiness is the  
result of the exposure1 and resolve to  
keep their own offspring scantily       
covered6 ,it is forgotten that these    
urchins who gambol upon village-greens  
are in many respects favourably         
circumstanced--that their lives are     
spent in almost perpetual play2 that    
they are all day breathing fresh air2   

and that their systems are not disturbed
 by over-taxed brains4 ,for aught that  
appears to the contrary1 their good     
health may be maintained1 not in        
consequence of1 but in spite of1 their  
deficient clothing4 ,this alternative   
conclusion we believe to be the true    
one2 and that an inevitable detriment   
results from the loss of animal heat to 
which they are subject4  ,for when1 the 
constitution being sound enough to bear 
it1 exposure does produce hardness1 it  
does so at the expense of growth4 ,this 
truth is displayed alike in animals and 
in man4 ,shetland ponies bear greater   
inclemencies than the horses of the     
south1 but are dwarfed4 ,highland sheep 
and cattle1 living in a colder climate1 
are stunted in comparison with ,english 
breeds4 ,in both the arctic and         
antarctic regions the human race falls  
much below its ordinary height3 the     
,laplander and ,esquimaux are very      
short2 and the ,terra del ,fuegians1 who
 go naked in a wintry land1 are         

described by ,darwin as so stunted and  
hideous1 that one can hardly make       
one's-self believe they are             
fellow-creatures4  ,science explains    
this dwarfishness produced by great     
abstraction of heat2 showing that1 food 
and other things being equal1 it        
unavoidably results4 ,for1 as before    
pointed out1 to make up for that cooling
 by radiation which the body is ever    
undergoing1 there must be a constant    
oxidation of certain matters forming    
part of the food4 ,and in proportion as 
the thermal loss is great1 must the     
quantity of these matters required for  
oxidation be great4 ,but the power of   
the digestive organs is limited4        
,consequently1 when they have to prepare
 a large quantity of this material      
needful for maintaining the temperature1
 they can prepare but a small quantity  
of the material which goes to build up  
the frame4 ,excessive expenditure for   
fuel entails diminished means for other 
purposes4 ,wherefore there necessarily  

results a body small in size1 or        
inferior in texture1 or both4  ,hence   
the great importance of clothing4 ,as   
,liebig says3--,our clothing is1 in     
reference to the temperature of the     
body1 merely an equivalent for a certain
 amount of food4 ,by diminishing the    
loss of heat1 it diminishes the amount  
of fuel needful for maintaining the     
heat2 and when the stomach has less to  
do in preparing fuel1 it can do more in 
preparing other materials4 ,this        
deduction is confirmed by the experience
 of those who manage animals4 ,cold can 
be borne by animals only at an expense  
of fat1 or muscle1 or growth1 as the    
case may be4 ,if fattening cattle are   
exposed to a low temperature1 either    
their progress must be retarded1 or a   
great additional expenditure of food    
incurred4#e ,mr4 ,apperley insists      
strongly that1 to bring hunters into    
good condition1 it is necessary that the
 stable should be kept warm4 ,and among 
those who rear racers1 it is an         

established doctrine that exposure is to
 be avoided4  ,the scientific truth thus
 illustrated by ethnology1 and          
recognised by agriculturists and        
sportsmen1 applies with double force to 
children4 ,in proportion to their       
smallness and the rapidity of their     
growth is the injury from cold great4   
,in ,france1 new-born infants often die 
in winter from being carried to the     
office of the maire for registration4   
,m4 ,quetelet has pointed out1 that in  
,belgium two infants die in ,january for
 one that dies in ,july4 ,and in ,russia
 the infant mortality is something      
enormous4 ,even when near maturity1 the 
undeveloped frame is comparatively      
unable to bear exposure3 as witness the 
quickness with which young soldiers     
succumb in a trying campaign4 ,the      
rationale is obvious4 ,we have already  
adverted to the fact that1 in           
consequence of the varying relation     
between surface and bulk1 a child loses 
a relatively larger amount of heat than 

an adult2 and here we must point out    
that the disadvantage under which the   
child thus labours is very great4       
,lehmann says3--,if the carbonic acid   
excreted by children or young animals is
 calculated for an equal bodily weight1 
it results that children produce nearly 
twice as much acid as adults4 ,now the  
quantity of carbonic acid given off     
varies with tolerable accuracy as the   
quantity of heat produced4 ,and thus we 
see that in children the system1 even   
when not placed at a disadvantage1 is   
called upon to provide nearly double the
 proportion of material for generating  
heat4  ,see1 then1 the extreme folly of 
clothing the young scantily4 ,what      
father1 full-grown though he is1 losing 
heat less rapidly as he does1 and having
 no physiological necessity but to      
supply the waste of each day--what      
father1 we ask1 would think it salutary 
to go about with bare legs1 bare arms1  
and bare neck8 ,yet this tax on the     
system1 from which he would shrink1 he  

inflicts on his little ones1 who are so 
much less able to bear it6 or1 if he    
does not inflict it1 sees it inflicted  
without protest4 ,let him remember that 
every ounce of nutriment needlessly     
expended for the maintenance of         
temperature1 is so much deducted from   
the nutriment going to build up the     
frame2 and that even when colds1        
congestions1 or other consequent        
disorders are escaped1 diminished growth
 or less perfect structure is           
inevitable4  ,the rule is1 therefore1   
not to dress in an invariable way in all
 cases1 but to put on clothing in kind  
and quantity sufficient in the          
individual case to protect the body     
effectually from an abiding sensation of
 cold1 however slight4 ,this rule1 the  
importance of which ,dr4 ,combe         
indicates by the italics1 is one in     
which men of science and practitioners  
agree4 ,we have met with none competent 
to form a judgment on the matter1 who do
 not strongly condemn the exposure of   

children's limbs4 ,if there is one point
 above others in which pestilent custom 
should be ignored1 it is this4          
,lamentable1 indeed1 is it to see       
mothers seriously damaging the          
constitutions of their children out of  
compliance with an irrational fashion4  
,it is bad enough that they should      
themselves conform to every folly which 
our ,gallic neighbours please to        
initiate2 but that they should clothe   
their children in any mountebank dress  
which ,le petit ,courrier des ,dames    
indicates1 regardless of its            
insufficiency and unfitness1 is         
monstrous4 ,discomfort1 more or less    
great1 is inflicted2 frequent disorders 
are entailed2 growth is checked or      
stamina undermined2 premature death not 
uncommonly caused2 and all because it is
 thought needful to make frocks of a    
size and material dictated by ,french   
caprice4 ,not only is it that for the   
sake of conformity1 mothers thus punish 
and injure their little ones by         

scantiness of covering2 but it is that  
from an allied motive they impose a     
style of dress which forbids healthful  
activity4 ,to please the eye1 colours   
and fabrics are chosen totally unfit to 
bear that rough usage which unrestrained
 play involves2 and then to prevent     
damage the unrestrained play is         
interdicted4 ,get up this moment3 you   
will soil your clean frock1 is the      
mandate issued to some urchin creeping  
about on the floor4 ,come back3 you will
 dirty your stockings1 calls out the    
governess to one of her charges1 who has
 left the footpath to scramble up a     
bank4 ,thus is the evil doubled4 ,that  
they may come up to their mamma's       
standard of prettiness1 and be admired  
by her visitors1 children must have     
habiliments deficient in quantity and   
unfit in texture2 and that these        
easily-damaged habiliments may be kept  
clean and uninjured1 the restless       
activity so natural and needful for the 
young is restrained4 ,the exercise which

 becomes doubly requisite when the      
clothing is insufficient1 is cut short1 
lest it should deface the clothing4     
,would that the terrible cruelty of this
 system could be seen by those who      
maintain it6 ,we do not hesitate to say 
that1 through enfeebled health1         
defective energies1 and consequent      
non-success in life1 thousands are      
annually doomed to unhappiness by this  
unscrupulous regard for appearances3    
even when they are not1 by early death1 
literally sacrificed to the ,moloch of  
maternal vanity4 ,we are reluctant to   
counsel strong measures1 but really the 
evils are so great as to justify1 or    
even to demand1 a peremptory            
interference on the part of fathers4    
,our conclusions are1 then--that1 while 
the clothing of children should never be
 in such excess as to create oppressive 
warmth1 it should always be sufficient  
to prevent any general feeling of       
cold2#f that1 instead of the flimsy     
cotton1 linen1 or mixed fabrics commonly

 used1 it should be made of some good   
non-conductor1 such as coarse woollen   
cloth2 that it should be so strong as to
 receive little damage from the hard    
wear and tear which childish sports will
 give it2 and that its colours should be
 such as will not soon suffer from use  
and exposure4         99       99       
99       99       99  ,to the importance
 of bodily exercise most people are in  
some degree awake4 ,perhaps less needs  
saying on this requisite of physical    
education than on most others3 at any   
rate1 in so far as boys are concerned4  
,public schools and private schools     
alike furnish tolerably adequate        
play-grounds2 and there is usually a    
fair share of time for out-door games1  
and a recognition of them as needful4   
,in this1 if in no other direction1 it  
seems admitted that the promptings of   
boyish instinct may advantageously be   
followed2 and1 indeed1 in the modern    
practice of breaking the prolonged      
morning's and afternoon's lessons by a  

few minutes' open-air recreation1 we see
 an increasing tendency to conform      
school-regulations to the bodily        
sensations of the pupils4 ,here1 then1  
little needs be said in the way of      
expostulation or suggestion4  ,but we   
have been obliged to qualify this       
admission by inserting the clause in so 
far as boys are concerned4              
,unfortunately the fact is quite        
otherwise with girls4 ,it chances1      
somewhat strangely1 that we have daily  
opportunity of drawing a comparison4 ,we
 have both a boys' school and a girls'  
school within view2 and the contrast    
between them is remarkable4 ,in the one 
case1 nearly the whole of a large garden
 is turned into an open1 gravelled      
space1 affording ample scope for games1 
and supplied with poles and horizontal  
bars for gymnastic exercises4 ,every day
 before breakfast1 again towards eleven 
o'clock1 again at mid-day1 again in the 
afternoon1 and once more after school is
 over1 the neighbourhood is awakened by 

a chorus of shouts and laughter as the  
boys rush out to play2 and for as long  
as they remain1 both eyes and ears give 
proof that they are absorbed in that    
enjoyable activity which makes the pulse
 bound and ensures the healthful        
activity of every organ4 ,how unlike is 
the picture offered by the              
,establishment for ,young ,ladies6      
,until the fact was pointed out1 we     
actually did not know that we had a     
girl's school as close to us as the     
school for boys4 ,the garden1 equally   
large with the other1 affords no sign   
whatever of any provision for juvenile  
recreation2 but is entirely laid out    
with prim grass-plots1 gravel-walks1    
shrubs1 and flowers1 after the usual    
suburban style4 ,during five months we  
have not once had our attention drawn to
 the premises by a shout or a laugh4    
,occasionally girls may be observed     
sauntering along the paths with         
lesson-books in their hands1 or else    
walking arm-in-arm4 ,once indeed1 we saw

 one chase another round the garden2    
but1 with this exception1 nothing like  
vigorous exertion has been visible4     
,why this astounding difference8 ,is it 
that the constitution of a girl differs 
so entirely from that of a boy as not to
 need these active exercises8 ,is it    
that a girl has none of the promptings  
to vociferous play by which boys are    
impelled8 ,or is it that1 while in boys 
these promptings are to be regarded as  
stimuli to a bodily activity without    
which there cannot be adequate          
development1 to their sisters1 ,nature  
has given them for no purpose           
whatever--unless it be for the vexation 
of school-mistresses8 ,perhaps1 however1
 we mistake the aim of those who train  
the gentler sex4 ,we have a vague       
suspicion that to produce a robust      
physique is thought undesirable2 that   
rude health and abundant vigour are     
considered somewhat plebeian2 that a    
certain delicacy1 a strength not        
competent to more than a mile or two's  

walk1 an appetite fastidious and easily 
satisfied1 joined with that timidity    
which commonly accompanies feebleness1  
are held more lady-like4 ,we do not     
expect that any would distinctly avow   
this2 but we fancy the governess-mind is
 haunted by an ideal young lady bearing 
not a little resemblance to this type4  
,if so1 it must be admitted that the    
established system is admirably         
calculated to realise this ideal4 ,but  
to suppose that such is the ideal of the
 opposite sex is a profound mistake4    
,that men are not commonly drawn towards
 masculine women1 is doubtless true4    
,that such relative weakness as asks the
 protection of superior strength1 is an 
element of attraction1 we quite admit4  
,but the difference thus responded to by
 the feelings of men1 is the natural1   
pre-established difference1 which will  
assert itself without artificial        
appliances4 ,and when1 by artificial    
appliances1 the degree of this          
difference is increased1 it becomes an  

element of repulsion rather than of     
attraction4  ,then girls should be      
allowed to run wild--to become as rude  
as boys1 and grow up into romps and     
hoydens6 exclaims some defender of the  
proprieties4 ,this1 we presume1 is the  
ever-present dread of school-mistresses4
 ,it appears1 on inquiry1 that at       
,establishments for ,young ,ladies noisy
 play like that daily indulged in by    
boys1 is a punishable offence2 and we   
infer that it is forbidden1 lest        
unlady-like habits should be formed4    
,the fear is quite groundless1 however4 
,for if the sportive activity allowed to
 boys does not prevent them from growing
 up into gentlemen2 why should a like   
sportive activity prevent girls from    
growing up into ladies8 ,rough as may   
have been their play-ground frolics1    
youths who have left school do not      
indulge in leap-frog in the street1 or  
marbles in the drawing-room4 ,abandoning
 their jackets1 they abandon at the same
 time boyish games2 and display an      

anxiety--often a ludicrous anxiety--to  
avoid whatever is not manly4 ,if now1 on
 arriving at the due age1 this feeling  
of masculine dignity puts so efficient a
 restraint on the sports of boyhood1    
will not the feeling of feminine        
modesty1 gradually strengthening as     
maturity is approached1 put an efficient
 restraint on the like sports of        
girlhood8 ,have not women even a greater
 regard for appearances than men8 and   
will there not consequently arise in    
them even a stronger check to whatever  
is rough or boisterous8 ,how absurd is  
the supposition that the womanly        
instincts would not assert themselves   
but for the rigorous discipline of      
school-mistresses6  ,in this1 as in     
other cases1 to remedy the evils of one 
artificiality1 another artificiality has
 been introduced4 ,the natural1         
spontaneous exercise having been        
forbidden1 and the bad consequences of  
no exercise having become conspicuous1  
there has been adopted a system of      

factitious exercise--gymnastics4 ,that  
this is better than nothing we admit2   
but that it is an adequate substitute   
for play we deny4 ,the defects are both 
positive and negative4 ,in the first    
place1 these formal1 muscular motions1  
necessarily less varied than those      
accompanying juvenile sports1 do not    
secure so equable a distribution of     
action to all parts of the body2 whence 
it results that the exertion1 falling on
 special parts1 produces fatigue sooner 
than it would else have done3 to which1 
in passing1 let us add1 that1 if        
constantly repeated1 this exertion of   
special parts leads to a                
disproportionate development4 ,again1   
the quantity of exercise thus taken will
 be deficient1 not only in consequence  
of uneven distribution2 but there will  
be a further deficiency in consequence  
of lack of interest4 ,even when not made
 repulsive1 as they sometimes are by    
assuming the shape of appointed lessons1
 these monotonous movements are sure to 

become wearisome from the absence of    
amusement4 ,competition1 it is true1    
serves as a stimulus2 but it is not a   
lasting stimulus1 like that enjoyment   
which accompanies varied play4 ,the     
weightiest objection1 however1 still    
remains4 ,besides being inferior in     
respect of the quantity of muscular     
exertion which they secure1 gymnastics  
are still more inferior in respect of   
the quality4 ,this comparative want of  
enjoyment which we have named as a cause
 of early desistance from artificial    
exercises1 is also a cause of           
inferiority in the effects they produce 
on the system4 ,the common assumption   
that1 so long as the amount of bodily   
action is the same1 it matters not      
whether it be pleasurable or otherwise1 
is a grave mistake4 ,an agreeable mental
 excitement has a highly invigorating   
influence4 ,see the effect produced upon
 an invalid by good news1 or by the     
visit of an old friend4 ,mark how       
careful medical men are to recommend    

lively society to debilitated patients4 
,remember how beneficial to health is   
the gratification produced by change of 
scene4 ,the truth is that happiness is  
the most powerful of tonics4 ,by        
accelerating the circulation of the     
blood1 it facilitates the performance of
 every function2 and so tends alike to  
increase health when it exists1 and to  
restore it when it has been lost4 ,hence
 the intrinsic superiority of play to   
gymnastics4 ,the extreme interest felt  
by children in their games1 and the     
riotous glee with which they carry on   
their rougher frolics1 are of as much   
importance as the accompanying exertion4
 ,and as not supplying these mental     
stimuli1 gymnastics must be radically   
defective4  ,granting then1 as we do1   
that formal exercises of the limbs are  
better than nothing--granting1 further1 
that they may be used with advantage as 
supplementary aids2 we yet contend that 
they can never serve in place of the    
exercises prompted by ,nature4 ,for     

girls1 as well as boys1 the sportive    
activities to which the instincts impel1
 are essential to bodily welfare4       
,whoever forbids them1 forbids the      
divinely-appointed means to physical    
development4         99       99        
99       99       99  ,a topic still    
remains--one perhaps more urgently      
demanding consideration than any of the 
foregoing4 ,it is asserted by not a few1
 that among the educated classes the    
younger adults and those who are verging
 on maturity1 are neither so well grown 
nor so strong as their seniors4 ,on     
first hearing this assertion1 we were   
inclined to class it as one of the many 
manifestations of the old tendency to   
exalt the past at the expense of the    
present4 ,calling to mind the facts     
that1 as measured by ancient armour1    
modern men are proved to be larger than 
ancient men2 and that the tables of     
mortality show no diminution1 but rather
 an increase1 in the duration of life1  
we paid little attention to what seemed 

a groundless belief4 ,detailed          
observation1 however1 has shaken our    
opinion4 ,omitting from the comparison  
the labouring classes1 we have noticed a
 majority of cases in which the children
 do not reach the stature of their      
parents2 and1 in massiveness1 making due
 allowance for difference of age1 there 
seems a like inferiority4 ,medical men  
say that now-a-days people cannot bear  
nearly so much depletion as in times    
gone by4 ,premature baldness is far more
 common than it used to be4 ,and an     
early decay of teeth occurs in the      
rising generation with startling        
frequency4 ,in general vigour the       
contrast appears equally striking4 ,men 
of past generations1 living riotously as
 they did1 could bear more than men of  
the present generation1 who live        
soberly1 can bear4 ,though they drank   
hard1 kept irregular hours1 were        
regardless of fresh air1 and thought    
little of cleanliness1 our recent       
ancestors were capable of prolonged     

application without injury1 even to a   
ripe old age3 witness the annals of the 
bench and the bar4 ,yet we who think    
much about our bodily welfare2 who eat  
with moderation1 and do not drink to    
excess2 who attend to ventilation1 and  
use frequent ablutions2 who make annual 
excursions1 and have the benefit of     
greater medical knowledge2--we are      
continually breaking down under our     
work4 ,paying considerable attention to 
the laws of health1 we seem to be weaker
 than our grandfathers who1 in many     
respects1 defied the laws of health4    
,and1 judging from the appearance and   
frequent ailments of the rising         
generation1 they are likely to be even  
less robust than ourselves4  ,what is   
the meaning of this8 ,is it that past   
over-feeding1 alike of adults and       
children1 was less injurious than the   
under-feeding to which we have adverted 
as now so general8 ,is it that the      
deficient clothing which this delusive  
hardening-theory has encouraged1 is to  

blame8 ,is it that the greater or less  
discouragement of juvenile sports1 in   
deference to a false refinement is the  
cause8 ,from our reasonings it may be   
inferred that each of these has probably
 had a share in producing the evil4#g   
,but there has been yet another         
detrimental influence at work1 perhaps  
more potent than any of the others3 we  
mean--excess of mental application4  ,on
 old and young1 the pressure of modern  
life puts a still-increasing strain4 ,in
 all businesses and professions1        
intenser competition taxes the energies 
and abilities of every adult2 and1 to   
fit the young to hold their places under
 this intenser competition1 they are    
subject to severer discipline than      
heretofore4 ,the damage is thus doubled4
 ,fathers1 who find themselves run hard 
by their multiplying competitors1 and1  
while labouring under this disadvantage1
 have to maintain a more expensive style
 of living1 are all the year round      
obliged to work early and late1 taking  

little exercise and getting but short   
holidays4 ,the constitutions shaken by  
this continued over-application1 they   
bequeath to their children4 ,and then   
these comparatively feeble children1    
predisposed to break down even under    
ordinary strains on their energies1 are 
required to go through a curriculum much
 more extended than that prescribed for 
the unenfeebled children of past        
generations4  ,the disastrous           
consequences that might be anticipated1 
are everywhere visible4 ,go where you   
will1 and before long there come under  
your notice cases of children or youths1
 of either sex1 more or less injured by 
undue study4 ,here1 to recover from a   
state of debility thus produced1 a      
year's rustication has been found       
necessary4 ,there you find a chronic    
congestion of the brain1 that has       
already lasted many months1 and         
threatens to last much longer4 ,now you 
hear of a fever that resulted from the  
over-excitement in some way brought on  

at school4 ,and again1 the instance is  
that of a youth who has already had once
 to desist from his studies1 and who1   
since his return to them1 is frequently 
taken out of his class in a fainting    
fit4 ,we state facts--facts not sought  
for1 but which have been thrust on our  
observation during the last two years2  
and that1 too1 within a very limited    
range4 ,nor have we by any means        
exhausted the list4 ,quite recently we  
had the opportunity of marking how the  
evil becomes hereditary3 the case being 
that of a lady of robust parentage1     
whose system was so injured by the      
regime of a ,scotch boarding-school1    
where she was under-fed and over-worked1
 that she invariably suffers from       
vertigo on rising in the morning2 and   
whose children1 inheriting this         
enfeebled brain1 are several of them    
unable to bear even a moderate amount of
 study without headache or giddiness4   
,at the present time we have daily under
 our eyes1 a young lady whose system has

 been damaged for life by the           
college-course through which she has    
passed4 ,taxed as she was to such an    
extent that she had no energy left for  
exercise1 she is1 now that she has      
finished her education1 a constant      
complainant4 ,appetite small and very   
capricious1 mostly refusing meat2       
extremities perpetually cold1 even when 
the weather is warm2 a feebleness which 
forbids anything but the slowest        
walking1 and that only for a short time2
 palpitation on going upstairs2 greatly 
impaired vision--these1 joined with     
checked growth and lax tissue1 are among
 the results entailed4 ,and to her case 
we may add that of her friend and       
fellow-student2 who is similarly weak2  
who is liable to faint even under the   
excitement of a quiet party of friends2 
and who has at length been obliged by   
her medical attendant to desist from    
study entirely4  ,if injuries so        
conspicuous are thus frequent1 how very 
general must be the smaller1 and        

inconspicuous injuries6 ,to one case    
where positive illness is traceable to  
over-application1 there are probably at 
least half-a-dozen cases where the evil 
is unobtrusive and slowly               
accumulating--cases where there is      
frequent derangement of the functions1  
attributed to this or that special      
cause1 or to constitutional delicacy2   
cases where there is retardation and    
premature arrest of bodily growth2 cases
 where a latent tendency to consumption 
is brought out and established2 cases   
where a predisposition is given to that 
now common cerebral disorder brought on 
by the labour of adult life4 ,how       
commonly health is thus undermined1 will
 be clear to all who1 after noting the  
frequent ailments of hard-worked        
professional and mercantile men1 will   
reflect on the much worse effects which 
undue application must produce on the   
undeveloped systems of children4 ,the   
young can bear neither so much hardship1
 nor so much physical exertion1 nor so  

much mental exertion1 as the full grown4
 ,judge1 then1 if the full grown        
manifestly suffer from the excessive    
mental exertion required of them1 how   
great must be the damage which a mental 
exertion1 often equally excessive1      
inflicts on the young6  ,indeed1 when we
 examine the merciless school drill     
frequently enforced1 the wonder is1 not 
that it does extreme injury1 but that it
 can be borne at all4 ,take the instance
 given by ,sir ,john ,forbes1 from      
personal knowledge2 and which he        
asserts1 after much inquiry1 to be an   
average sample of the middle-class      
girls'-school system throughout         
,england4 ,omitting detailed divisions  
of time1 we quote the summary of the    
twenty-four hours4  ,in bed             
#i hours 7the younger #aj7 ,in school1  
at their studies and tasks           #i 
,in school1 or in the house1 the elder  
at     optional studies or work1 the    
younger at     play                     
#ca_/b      7the younger #ba_/b7 ,at    

meals                                   
#aa_/b    ,exercise in the open air1 in 
the shape of a     formal walk1 often   
with lesson-books in     hand1 and even 
this only when the weather     is fine  
at the appointed time4             #a   
----                                    
#bd  ,and what are the results of this  
astounding regimen1 as ,sir ,john       
,forbes terms it8 ,of course feebleness1
 pallor1 want of spirits1 general       
ill-health4 ,but he describes something 
more4 ,this utter disregard of physical 
welfare1 out of extreme anxiety to      
cultivate the mind--this prolonged      
exercise of brain and deficient exercise
 of limbs1--he found to be habitually   
followed1 not only by disordered        
functions but by malformation4 ,he      
says3--,we lately visited1 in a large   
town1 a boarding-school containing forty
 girls2 and we learnt1 on close and     
accurate inquiry1 that there was not one
 of the girl who had been at the school 
two years 7and the majority had been as 

long7 that was not more or less         
crooked6#h  ,it may be that since #ahcc1
 when this was written1 some improvement
 has taken place4 ,we hope it has4 ,but 
that the system is still common--nay1   
that it is in some cases carried to a   
greater extreme than ever2 we can       
personally testify4 ,we recently went   
over a training-college for young men3  
one of those instituted of late years   
for the purpose of supplying schools    
with well-disciplined teachers4 ,here1  
under official supervision1 where       
something better than the judgment of   
private school-mistresses might have    
been looked for1 we found the daily     
routine to be as follows3--  ,at #f     
o'clock the students are called1   #g to
 #h studies1   #h to #i                 
scripture-reading1 prayers1 and         
breakfast1   #i to #ab studies1   #ab to
 #aa_/d leisure1 nominally devoted to   
walking or other exercise1 but          
often spent in study1   #aa_/d to #b    
dinner1 the meal commonly occupying     

twenty minutes1   #b to #e studies1   #e
 to #f tea and relaxation1   #f to      
#ha_/b studies1   #ha_/b to #ia_/b      
private studies in preparing lessons for
 the next day1   #aj to bed4  ,thus1 out
 of the twenty-four hours1 eight are    
devoted to sleep2 four and a quarter are
 occupied in dressing1 prayers1 meals1  
and the brief periods of rest           
accompanying them2 ten and a half are   
given to study2 and one and a quarter to
 exercise1 which is optional and often  
avoided4 ,not only1 however1 are the    
ten-and-a-half hours of recognised study
 frequently increased to                
eleven-and-a-half by devoting to books  
the time set apart for exercise2 but    
some of the students get up at four     
o'clock in the morning to prepare their 
lessons2 and are actually encouraged by 
their teachers to do this6 ,the course  
to be passed through in a given time is 
so extensive1 and the teachers1 whose   
credit is at stake in getting their     
pupils well through the examinations1   

are so urgent1 that pupils are not      
uncommonly induced to spend twelve and  
thirteen hours a day in mental labour6  
,it needs no prophet to see that the    
bodily injury inflicted must be great4  
,as we were told by one of the inmates1 
those who arrive with fresh complexions 
quickly become blanched4 ,illness is    
frequent3 there are always some on the  
sick-list4 ,failure of appetite and     
indigestion are very common4 ,diarrhoea 
is a prevalent disorder3 not uncommonly 
a third of the whole number of students 
suffering under it at the same time4    
,headache is generally complained of2   
and by some is borne almost daily for   
months4 ,while a certain percentage     
break down entirely and go away4  ,that 
this should be the regimen of what is in
 some sort a model institution1         
established and superintended by the    
embodied enlightenment of the age1 is a 
startling fact4 ,that the severe        
examinations1 joined with the short     
period assigned for preparation1 should 

compel recourse to a system which       
inevitably undermines the health of all 
who pass through it1 is proof1 if not of
 cruelty1 then of woeful ignorance4     
,the case is no doubt in a great degree 
exceptional--perhaps to be paralleled   
only in other institutions of the same  
class4 ,but that cases so extreme should
 exist at all1 goes far to show that the
 minds of the rising generation are     
greatly over-tasked4 ,expressing as they
 do the ideas of the educated community1
 the requirements of these training     
colleges1 even in the absence of other  
evidence1 would imply a prevailing      
tendency to an unduly urgent system of  
culture4  ,it seems strange that there  
should be so little consciousness of the
 dangers of over-education during youth1
 when there is so general a             
consciousness of the dangers of         
over-education during childhood4 ,most  
parents are partially aware of the evil 
consequences that follow                
infant-precocity4 ,in every society may 

be heard reprobation of those who too   
early stimulate the minds of their      
little ones4 ,and the dread of this     
early stimulation is great in proportion
 as there is adequate knowledge of the  
effects3 witness the implied opinion of 
one of our most distinguished professors
 of physiology1 who told us that he did 
not intend his little boy to learn any  
lessons until he was eight years old4   
,but while to all it is a familiar truth
 that a forced development of           
intelligence in childhood1 entails      
either physical feebleness1 or ultimate 
stupidity1 or early death2 it appears   
not to be perceived that throughout     
youth the same truth holds4 ,yet it     
unquestionably does so4 ,there is a     
given order in which1 and a given rate  
at which1 the faculties unfold4 ,if the 
course of education conforms itself to  
that order and rate1 well4 ,if not--if  
the higher faculties are early taxed by 
presenting an order of knowledge more   
complex and abstract than can be readily

 assimilated2 or if1 by excess of       
culture1 the intellect in general is    
developed to a degree beyond that which 
is natural to its age2 the abnormal     
advantage gained will inevitably be     
accompanied by some equivalent1 or more 
than equivalent1 evil4  ,for ,nature is 
a strict accountant2 and if you demand  
of her in one direction more than she is
 prepared to lay out1 she balances the  
account by making a deduction elsewhere4
 ,if you will let her follow her own    
course1 taking care to supply1 in right 
quantities and kinds1 the raw materials 
of bodily and mental growth required at 
each age1 she will eventually produce an
 individual more or less evenly         
developed4 ,if1 however1 you insist on  
premature or undue growth of any one    
part1 she will1 with more or less       
protest1 concede the point2 but that she
 may do your extra work1 she must leave 
some of her more important work undone4 
,let it never be forgotten that the     
amount of vital energy which the body at

 any moment possesses1 is limited2 and  
that1 being limited1 it is impossible to
 get from it more than a fixed quantity 
of results4 ,in a child or youth the    
demands upon this vital energy are      
various and urgent4 ,as before pointed  
out1 the waste consequent on the day's  
bodily exercise has to be met2 the wear 
of brain entailed by the day's study has
 to be made good2 a certain additional  
growth of body has to be provided for2  
and also a certain additional growth of 
brain3 to which must be added the amount
 of energy absorbed in digesting the    
large quantity of food required for     
meeting these many demands4 ,now1 that  
to divert an excess of energy into any  
one of these channels is to abstract it 
from the others1 is both manifest a     
priori1 and proved a posteriori1 by the 
experience of every one4 ,every one     
knows1 for instance1 that the digestion 
of a heavy meal makes such a demand on  
the system as to produce lassitude of   
mind and body1 frequently ending in     

sleep4 ,every one knows1 too1 that      
excess of bodily exercise diminishes the
 power of thought--that the temporary   
prostration following any sudden        
exertion1 or the fatigue produced by a  
thirty miles' walk1 is accompanied by a 
disinclination to mental effort2 that1  
after a month's pedestrian tour1 the    
mental inertia is such that some days   
are required to overcome it2 and that in
 peasants who spend their lives in      
muscular labour the activity of mind is 
very small4 ,again1 it is a familiar    
truth that during those fits of rapid   
growth which sometimes occur in         
childhood1 the great abstraction of     
energy is shown in an attendant         
prostration1 bodily and mental4 ,once   
more1 the facts that violent muscular   
exertion after eating1 will stop        
digestion2 and that children who are    
early put to hard labour become stunted2
 similarly exhibit the                  
antagonism--similarly imply that excess 
of activity in one direction involves   

deficiency of it in other directions4   
,now1 the law which is thus manifest in 
extreme cases1 holds in all cases4      
,these injurious abstractions of energy 
as certainly take place when the undue  
demands are slight and constant1 as when
 they are great and sudden4 ,hence1 if  
during youth the expenditure in mental  
labour exceeds that which ,nature has   
provided for2 the expenditure for other 
purposes falls below what it should have
 been2 and evils of one kind or other   
are inevitably entailed4 ,let us briefly
 consider these evils4  ,supposing the  
over-activity of brain to exceed the    
normal activity only in a moderate      
degree1 there will be nothing more than 
some slight reaction on the development 
of the body3 the stature falling a      
little below that which it would else   
have reached2 or the bulk being less    
than it would have been2 or the quality 
of tissue not being so good4 ,one or    
more of these effects must necessarily  
occur4 ,the extra quantity of blood     

supplied to the brain during mental     
exertion1 and during the subsequent     
period in which the waste of cerebral   
substance is being made good1 is blood  
that would else have been circulating   
through the limbs and viscera2 and the  
growth or repair for which that blood   
would have supplied materials1 is lost4 
,the physical reaction being certain1   
the question is1 whether the gain       
resulting from the extra culture is     
equivalent to the loss8--whether defect 
of bodily growth1 or the want of that   
structural perfection which gives vigour
 and endurance1 is compensated by the   
additional knowledge acquired8  ,when   
the excess of mental exertion is        
greater1 there follow results far more  
serious2 telling not only against bodily
 perfection1 but against the perfection 
of the brain itself4 ,it is a           
physiological law1 first pointed out by 
,m4 ,isidore ,st4 ,hilaire1 and to which
 attention has been drawn by ,mr4 ,lewes
 in his essay on ,dwarfs and ,giants1   

that there is an antagonism between     
growth and development4 ,by growth1 as  
used in this antithetical sense1 is to  
be understood increase of size2 by      
development1 increase of structure4 ,and
 the law is1 that great activity in     
either of these processes involves      
retardation or arrest of the other4 ,a  
familiar example is furnished by the    
cases of the caterpillar and the        
chrysalis4 ,in the caterpillar there is 
extremely rapid augmentation of bulk2   
but the structure is scarcely at all    
more complex when the caterpillar is    
full-grown than when it is small4 ,in   
the chrysalis the bulk does not         
increase2 on the contrary1 weight is    
lost during this stage of the creature's
 life2 but the elaboration of a more    
complex structure goes on with great    
activity4 ,the antagonism1 here so      
clear1 is less traceable in higher      
creatures1 because the two processes are
 carried on together4 ,but we see it    
pretty well illustrated among ourselves 

when we contrast the sexes4 ,a girl     
develops in body and mind rapidly1 and  
ceases to grow comparatively early4 ,a  
boy's bodily and mental development is  
slower1 and his growth greater4 ,at the 
age when the one is mature1 finished1   
and having all faculties in full play1  
the other1 whose vital energies have    
been more directed towards increase of  
size1 is relatively incomplete in       
structure2 and shows it in a comparative
 awkwardness1 bodily and mental4 ,now   
this law is true of each separate part  
of the organism1 as well as of the      
whole4 ,the abnormally rapid advance of 
any organ in respect of structure1      
involves premature arrest of its growth2
 and this happens with the organ of the 
mind as certainly as with any other     
organ4 ,the brain1 which during early   
years is relatively large in mass but   
imperfect in structure1 will1 if        
required to perform its functions with  
undue activity1 undergo a structural    
advance greater than is appropriate to  

its age2 but the ultimate effect will be
 a falling short of the size and power  
that would else have been attained4 ,and
 this is a part-cause--probably the     
chief cause--why precocious children1   
and youths who up to a certain time were
 carrying all before them1 so often stop
 short and disappoint the high hopes of 
their parents4  ,but these results of   
over-education1 disastrous as they are1 
are perhaps less disastrous than the    
effects produced on the health--the     
undermined constitution1 the enfeebled  
energies1 the morbid feelings4 ,recent  
discoveries in physiology have shown how
 immense is the influence of the brain  
over the functions of the body4         
,digestion1 circulation1 and through    
these all other organic processes1 are  
profoundly affected by cerebral         
excitement4 ,whoever has seen repeated1 
as we have1 the experiment first        
performed by ,weber1 showing the        
consequence of irritating the vagus     
nerve1 which connects the brain with the

 viscera--whoever has seen the action of
 the heart suddenly arrested by         
irritating this nerve2 slowly           
recommencing when the irritation is     
suspended2 and again arrested the moment
 it is renewed2 will have a vivid       
conception of the depressing influence  
which an over-wrought brain exercises on
 the body4 ,the effects thus            
physiologically explained1 are indeed   
exemplified in ordinary experience4     
,there is no one but has felt the       
palpitation accompanying hope1 fear1    
anger1 joy--no one but has observed how 
laboured becomes the action of the heart
 when these feelings are violent4 ,and  
though there are many who have never    
suffered that extreme emotional         
excitement which is followed by arrest  
of the heart's action and fainting2 yet 
every one knows these to be cause and   
effect4 ,it is a familiar fact1 too1    
that disturbance of the stomach results 
from mental excitement exceeding a      
certain intensity4 ,loss of appetite is 

a common consequence alike of very      
pleasurable and very painful states of  
mind4 ,when the event producing a       
pleasurable or painful state of mind    
occurs shortly after a meal1 it not     
unfrequently happens either that the    
stomach rejects what has been eaten1 or 
digests it with great difficulty and    
under protest4 ,and as every one who    
taxes his brain much can testify1 even  
purely intellectual action will1 when   
excessive1 produce analogous effects4   
,now the relation between brain and body
 which is so manifest in these extreme  
cases1 holds equally in ordinary1       
less-marked cases4 ,just as these       
violent but temporary cerebral          
excitements produce violent but         
temporary disturbances of the viscera2  
so do the less violent but chronic      
cerebral excitements produce less       
violent but chronic visceral            
disturbances4 ,this is not simply an    
inference3--it is a truth to which every
 medical man can bear witness2 and it is

 one to which a long and sad experience 
enables us to give personal testimony4  
,various degrees and forms of bodily    
derangement1 often taking years of      
enforced idleness to set partially      
right1 result from this prolonged       
over-exertion of mind4 ,sometimes the   
heart is chiefly affected3 habitual     
palpitations2 a pulse much enfeebled2   
and very generally a diminution in the  
number of beats from seventy-two to     
sixty1 or even fewer4 ,sometimes the    
conspicuous disorder is of the stomach3 
a dyspepsia which makes life a burden1  
and is amenable to no remedy but time4  
,in many cases both heart and stomach   
are implicated4 ,mostly the sleep is    
short and broken4 ,and very generally   
there is more or less mental depression4
  ,consider1 then1 how great must be the
 damage inflicted by undue mental       
excitement on children and youths4 ,more
 or less of this constitutional         
disturbance will inevitably follow an   
exertion of brain beyond the normal     

amount2 and when not so excessive as to 
produce absolute illness1 is sure to    
entail a slowly accumulating degeneracy 
of physique4 ,with a small and          
fastidious appetite1 an imperfect       
digestion1 and an enfeebled circulation1
 how can the developing body flourish8  
,the due performance of every vital     
process depends on an adequate supply of
 good blood4 ,without enough good blood1
 no gland can secrete properly1 no      
viscus can fully discharge its office4  
,without enough good blood1 no nerve1   
muscle1 membrane1 or other tissue can be
 efficiently repaired4 ,without enough  
good blood1 growth will neither be sound
 nor sufficient4 ,judge1 then1 how bad  
must be the consequences when to a      
growing body the weakened stomach       
supplies blood that is deficient in     
quantity and poor in quality2 while the 
debilitated heart propels this poor and 
scanty blood with unnatural slowness4   
,and if1 as all who investigate the     
matter must admit1 physical degeneracy  

is a consequence of excessive study1 how
 grave is the condemnation to be passed 
on this cramming-system above           
exemplified4 ,it is a terrible mistake1 
from whatever point of view regarded4   
,it is a mistake in so far as the mere  
acquirement of knowledge is concerned4  
,for the mind1 like the body1 cannot    
assimilate beyond a certain rate2 and if
 you ply it with facts faster than it   
can assimilate them1 they are soon      
rejected again3 instead of being built  
into the intellectual fabric1 they fall 
out of recollection after the passing of
 the examination for which they were got
 up4 ,it is a mistake1 too1 because it  
tends to make study distasteful4 ,either
 through the painful associations       
produced by ceaseless mental toil1 or   
through the abnormal state of brain it  
leaves behind1 it often generates an    
aversion to books2 and1 instead of that 
subsequent self-culture induced by      
rational education1 there comes         
continued retrogression4 ,it is a       

mistake1 also1 inasmuch as it assumes   
that the acquisition of knowledge is    
everything2 and forgets that a much more
 important thing is the organisation of 
knowledge1 for which time and           
spontaneous thinking are requisite4 ,as 
,humboldt remarks respecting the        
progress of intelligence in general1    
that the interpretation of ,nature is   
obscured when the description languishes
 under too great an accumulation of     
insulated facts2 so1 it may be remarked 
respecting the progress of individual   
intelligence1 that the mind is          
over-burdened and hampered by an excess 
of ill-digested information4 ,it is not 
the knowledge stored up as intellectual 
fat which is of value2 but that which is
 turned into intellectual muscle4 ,the  
mistake goes still deeper however4 ,even
 were the system good as producing      
intellectual efficiency1 which it is    
not1 it would still be bad1 because1 as 
we have shown1 it is fatal to that      
vigour of physique needful to make      

intellectual training available in the  
struggle of life4 ,those who1 in        
eagerness to cultivate their pupils'    
minds1 are reckless of their bodies1 do 
not remember that success in the world  
depends more on energy than on          
information2 and that a policy which in 
cramming with information undermines    
energy1 is self-defeating4 ,the strong  
will and untiring activity due to       
abundant animal vigour1 go far to       
compensate even great defects of        
education2 and when joined with that    
quite adequate education which may be   
obtained without sacrificing health1    
they ensure an easy victory over        
competitors enfeebled by excessive      
study3 prodigies of learning though they
 may be4 ,a comparatively small and     
ill-made engine1 worked at high         
pressure1 will do more than a large and 
well-finished one worked at             
low-pressure4 ,what folly is it1 then1  
while finishing the engine1 so to damage
 the boiler that it will not generate   

steam6 ,once more1 the system is a      
mistake1 as involving a false estimate  
of welfare in life4 ,even supposing it  
were a means to worldly success1 instead
 of a means to worldly failure1 yet1 in 
the entailed ill-health1 it would       
inflict a more than equivalent curse4   
,what boots it to have attained wealth1 
if the wealth is accompanied by         
ceaseless ailments8 ,what is the worth  
of distinction1 if it has brought       
hypochondria with it8 ,surely no one    
needs telling that a good digestion1 a  
bounding pulse1 and high spirits1 are   
elements of happiness which no external 
advantages can out-balance4 ,chronic    
bodily disorder casts a gloom over the  
brightest prospects2 while the vivacity 
of strong health gilds even misfortune4 
,we contend1 then1 that this            
over-education is vicious in every      
way--vicious1 as giving knowledge that  
will soon be forgotten2 vicious1 as     
producing a disgust for knowledge2      
vicious1 as neglecting that organisation

 of knowledge which is more important   
than its acquisition2 vicious1 as       
weakening or destroying that energy     
without which a trained intellect is    
useless2 vicious1 as entailing that     
ill-health for which even success would 
not compensate1 and which makes failure 
doubly bitter4 ,on women the effects of 
this forcing system are1 if possible1   
even more injurious than on men4 ,being 
in great measure debarred from those    
vigorous and enjoyable exercises of body
 by which boys mitigate the evils of    
excessive study1 girls feel these evils 
in their full intensity4 ,hence1 the    
much smaller proportion of them who grow
 up well-made and healthy4 ,in the pale1
 angular1 flat-chested young ladies1 so 
abundant in ,london drawing-rooms1 we   
see the effect of merciless application1
 unrelieved by youthful sports2 and this
 physical degeneracy hinders their      
welfare far more than their many        
accomplishments aid it4 ,mammas anxious 
to make their daughters attractive1     

could scarcely choose a course more     
fatal than this1 which sacrifices the   
body to the mind4 ,either they disregard
 the tastes of the opposite sex1 or else
 their conception of those tastes is    
erroneous4 ,men care little for         
erudition in women2 but very much for   
physical beauty1 good nature1 and sound 
sense4 ,how many conquests does the     
blue-stocking make through her extensive
 knowledge of history8 ,what man ever   
fell in love with a woman because she   
understood ,italian8 ,where is the      
,edwin who was brought to ,angelina's   
feet by her ,german8 ,but rosy cheeks   
and laughing eyes are great attractions4
 ,a finely rounded figure draws admiring
 glances4 ,the liveliness and good      
humour that overflowing health produces1
 go a great way towards establishing    
attachments4 ,every one knows cases     
where bodily perfections1 in the absence
 of all other recommendations1 have     
incited a passion that carried all      
before it2 but scarcely any one can     

point to a case where intellectual      
acquirements1 apart from moral or       
physical attributes1 have aroused such a
 feeling4 ,the truth is that1 out of the
 many elements uniting in various       
proportions to produce in a man's breast
 the complex emotion we call love1 the  
strongest are those produced by physical
 attractions2 the next in order of      
strength are those produced by moral    
attractions2 the weakest are those      
produced by intellectual attractions2   
and even these are dependent less on    
acquired knowledge than on natural      
faculty--quickness1 wit1 insight4 ,if   
any think the assertion a derogatory    
one1 and inveigh against the masculine  
character for being thus swayed2 we     
reply that they little know what they   
say when they thus call in question the 
,divine ordinations4 ,even were there no
 obvious meaning in the arrangement1 we 
might be sure that some important end   
was subserved4 ,but the meaning is quite
 obvious to those who examine4 ,when we 

remember that one of ,nature's ends1 or 
rather her supreme end1 is the welfare  
of posterity2 further that1 in so far as
 posterity are concerned1 a cultivated  
intelligence based on a bad physique is 
of little worth1 since its descendants  
will die out in a generation or two2 and
 conversely that a good physique1       
however poor the accompanying mental    
endowments1 is worth preserving1        
because1 throughout future generations1 
the mental endowments may be            
indefinitely developed2 we perceive how 
important is the balance of instincts   
above described4 ,but1 advantage apart1 
the instincts being thus balanced1 it is
 folly to persist in a system which     
undermines a girl's constitution that it
 may overload her memory4 ,educate as   
highly as possible--the higher the      
better--providing no bodily injury is   
entailed 7and we may remark1 in passing1
 that a sufficiently high standard might
 be reached were the parrot-faculty     
cultivated less1 and the human faculty  

more1 and were the discipline extended  
over that now wasted period between     
leaving school and being married74 ,but 
to educate in such manner1 or to such   
extent1 as to produce physical          
degeneracy1 is to defeat the chief end  
for which the toil and cost and anxiety 
are submitted to4 ,by subjecting their  
daughters to this high-pressure system1 
parents frequently ruin their prospects 
in life4 ,besides inflicting on them    
enfeebled health1 with all its pains and
 disabilities and gloom2 they not       
unfrequently doom them to celibacy4     
99       99       99       99       99  
,the physical education of children is  
thus1 in various ways1 seriously faulty4
 ,it errs in deficient feeding2 in      
deficient clothing2 in deficient        
exercise 7among girls at least72 and in 
excessive mental application4           
,considering the regime as a whole1 its 
tendency is too exacting3 it asks too   
much and gives too little4 ,in the      
extent to which it taxes the vital      

energies1 it makes the juvenile life far
 more like the adult life than it should
 be4 ,it overlooks the truth that1 as in
 the foetus the entire vitality is      
expended in growth--as in the infant1   
the expenditure of vitality in growth is
 so great as to leave extremely little  
for either physical or mental action2 so
 throughout childhood and youth1 growth 
is the dominant requirement to which all
 others must be subordinated3 a         
requirement which dictates the giving of
 much and the taking away of little--a  
requirement which1 therefore1 restricts 
the exertion of body and mind in        
proportion to the rapidity of growth--a 
requirement which permits the mental and
 physical activities to increase only as
 fast as the rate of growth diminishes4 
,the rationale of this high-pressure    
education is that it results from our   
passing phase of civilisation4 ,in      
primitive times1 when aggression and    
defence were the leading social         
activities1 bodily vigour with its      

accompanying courage were the           
desiderata2 and then education was      
almost wholly physical3 mental          
cultivation was little cared for1 and   
indeed1 as in feudal ages1 was often    
treated with contempt4 ,but now that our
 state is relatively peaceful--now that 
muscular power is of use for little else
 than manual labour1 while social       
success of nearly every kind depends    
very much on mental power2 our education
 has become almost exclusively mental4  
,instead of respecting the body and     
ignoring the mind1 we now respect the   
mind and ignore the body4 ,both these   
attitudes are wrong4 ,we do not yet     
realise the truth that as1 in this life 
of ours1 the physical underlies the     
mental1 the mental must not be developed
 at the expense of the physical4 ,the   
ancient and modern conceptions must be  
combined4  ,perhaps nothing will so much
 hasten the time when body and mind will
 both be adequately cared for1 as a     
diffusion of the belief that the        

preservation of health is a duty4 ,few  
seem conscious that there is such a     
thing as physical morality4 ,men's      
habitual words and acts imply the idea  
that they are at liberty to treat their 
bodies as they please4 ,disorders       
entailed by disobedience to ,nature's   
dictates1 they regard simply as         
grievances3 not as the effects of a     
conduct more or less flagitious4 ,though
 the evil consequences inflicted on     
their dependents1 and on future         
generations1 are often as great as those
 caused by crime2 yet they do not think 
themselves in any degree criminal4 ,it  
is true that1 in the case of            
drunkenness1 the viciousness of a bodily
 transgression is recognised2 but none  
appear to infer that1 if this bodily    
transgression is vicious1 so too is     
every bodily transgression4 ,the fact   
is1 that all breaches of the laws of    
health are physical sins4 ,when this is 
generally seen1 then1 and perhaps not   
till then1 will the physical training of

 the young receive the attention it     
deserves4  #a ,cyclopaedia of ,practical
 ,medicine4  #b ,cyclopaedia of         
,practical ,medicine4  #c ,cyclopaedia  
of ,anatomy and ,physiology4  #d        
,morton's ,cyclopaedia of ,agriculture4 
#e ,morton's ,cyclopaedia of            
,agriculture4  #f ,it is needful to     
remark that children whose legs and arms
 have been from the beginning habitually
 without covering1 cease to be conscious
 that the exposed surfaces are cold2    
just as by use we have all ceased to be 
conscious that our faces are cold1 even 
when out of doors4 ,but though in such  
children the sensations no longer       
protest1 it does not follow that the    
system escapes injury1 any more than it 
follows that the ,fuegian is undamaged  
by exposure1 because he bears with      
indifference the melting of the falling 
snow on his naked body4  #g ,we are not 
certain that the propagation of subdued 
forms of constitutional disease through 
the agency of vaccination is not a part 

cause4 ,sundry facts in pathology       
suggest the inference1 that when the    
system of a vaccinated child is         
excreting the vaccine virus by means of 
pustules1 it will tend also to excrete  
through such pustules other morbific    
matters2 especially if these morbific   
matters are of a kind ordinarily got rid
 of by the skin1 as are some of the     
worst of them4 ,hence it is very        
possible--probable even--that a child   
with a constitutional taint1 too slight 
to show itself in visible disease1 may1 
through the medium of vitiated vaccine  
lymph taken from it1 convey a like      
constitutional taint to other children1 
and these to others4  #h ,cyclopaedia of
 ,practical ,medicine1 vol4 i4 pp4 #fig1
 #fih4     ,,part ,,ii     ,,progress3  
,,its ,,law ,,and ,,cause#a   ,the      
current conception of ,progress is      
somewhat shifting and indefinite4       
,sometimes it comprehends little more   
than simple growth--as of a nation in   
the number of its members and the extent

 of territory over which it has spread4 
,sometimes it has reference to quantity 
of material products--as when the       
advance of agriculture and manufactures 
is the topic4 ,sometimes the superior   
quality of these products is            
contemplated3 and sometimes the new or  
improved appliances by which they are   
produced4 ,when1 again1 we speak of     
moral or intellectual progress1 we refer
 to the state of the individual or      
people exhibiting it2 while1 when the   
progress of ,knowledge1 of ,science1 of 
,art1 is commented upon1 we have in view
 certain abstract results of human      
thought and action4 ,not only1 however1 
is the current conception of ,progress  
more or less vague1 but it is in great  
measure erroneous4 ,it takes in not so  
much the reality of ,progress as its    
accompaniments--not so much the         
substance as the shadow4 ,that progress 
in intelligence seen during the growth  
of the child into the man1 or the savage
 into the philosopher1 is commonly      

regarded as consisting in the greater   
number of facts known and laws          
understood3 whereas the actual progress 
consists in those internal modifications
 of which this increased knowledge is   
the expression4 ,social progress is     
supposed to consist in the produce of a 
greater quantity and variety of the     
articles required for satisfying men's  
wants2 in the increasing security of    
person and property2 in widening freedom
 of action3 whereas1 rightly understood1
 social progress consists in those      
changes of structure in the social      
organism which have entailed these      
consequences4 ,the current conception is
 a teleological one4 ,the phenomena are 
contemplated solely as bearing on human 
happiness4 ,only those changes are held 
to constitute progress which directly or
 indirectly tend to heighten human      
happiness4 ,and they are thought to     
constitute progress simply because they 
tend to heighten human happiness4 ,but  
rightly to understand progress1 we must 

inquire what is the nature of these     
changes1 considered apart from our      
interests4 ,ceasing1 for example1 to    
regard the successive geological        
modifications that have taken place in  
the ,earth1 as modifications that have  
gradually fitted it for the habitation  
of ,man1 and as therefore a geological  
progress1 we must seek to determine the 
character common to the                 
modifications--the law to which they all
 conform4 ,and similarly in every other 
case4 ,leaving out of sight concomitants
 and beneficial consequences1 let us ask
 what ,progress is in itself4  ,in      
respect to that progress which          
individual organisms display in the     
course of their evolution1 this question
 has been answered by the ,germans4 ,the
 investigations of ,wolff1 ,goethe1 and 
,von ,baer1 have established the truth  
that the series of changes gone through 
during the development of a seed into a 
tree1 or an ovum into an animal1        
constitute an advance from homogeneity  

of structure to heterogeneity of        
structure4 ,in its primary stage1 every 
germ consists of a substance that is    
uniform throughout1 both in texture and 
chemical composition4 ,the first step is
 the appearance of a difference between 
two parts of this substance2 or1 as the 
phenomenon is called in physiological   
language1 a differentiation4 ,each of   
these differentiated divisions presently
 begins itself to exhibit some contrast 
of parts2 and by and by these secondary 
differentiations become as definite as  
the original one4 ,this process is      
continuously repeated--is simultaneously
 going on in all parts of the growing   
embryo2 and by endless such             
differentiations there is finally       
produced that complex combination of    
tissues and organs constituting the     
adult animal or plant4 ,this is the     
history of all organisms whatever4 ,it  
is settled beyond dispute that organic  
progress consists in a change from the  
homogeneous to the heterogeneous4  ,now1

 we propose in the first place to show1 
that this law of organic progress is the
 law of all progress4 ,whether it be in 
the development of the ,earth1 in the   
development of ,life upon its surface1  
in the development of ,society1 of      
,government1 of ,manufactures1 of       
,commerce1 of ,language1 ,literature1   
,science1 ,art1 this same evolution of  
the simple into the complex1 through    
successive differentiations1 holds      
throughout4 ,from the earliest traceable
 cosmical changes down to the latest    
results of civilisation1 we shall find  
that the transformation of the          
homogeneous into the heterogeneous1 is  
that in which ,progress essentially     
consists4  ,with the view of showing    
that if the ,nebular ,hypothesis be     
true1 the genesis of the solar system   
supplies one illustration of this law1  
let us assume that the matter of which  
the sun and planets consist was once in 
a diffused form2 and that from the      
gravitation of its atoms there resulted 

a gradual concentration4 ,by the        
hypothesis1 the solar system in its     
nascent state existed as an indefinitely
 extended and nearly homogeneous        
medium--a medium almost homogeneous in  
density1 in temperature1 and in other   
physical attributes4 ,the first advance 
towards consolidation resulted in a     
differentiation between the occupied    
space which the nebulous mass still     
filled1 and the unoccupied space which  
it previously filled4 ,there            
simultaneously resulted a contrast in   
density and a contrast in temperature1  
between the interior and the exterior of
 this mass4 ,and at the same time there 
arose throughout it rotatory movements1 
whose velocities varied according to    
their distances from its centre4 ,these 
differentiations increased in number and
 degree until there was the organised   
group of sun1 planets1 and satellites1  
which we now know--a group which        
represents numerous contrasts of        
structure and action among its members4 

,there are the immense contrasts between
 the sun and planets1 in bulk and in    
weight2 as well as the subordinate      
contrasts between one planet and        
another1 and between the planets and    
their satellites4 ,there is the         
similarly marked contrast between the   
sun as almost stationary1 and the       
planets as moving round him with great  
velocity2 while there are the secondary 
contrasts between the velocities and    
periods of the several planets1 and     
between their simple revolutions and the
 double ones of their satellites1 which 
have to move round their primaries while
 moving round the sun4 ,there is the yet
 further strong contrast between the sun
 and the planets in respect of          
temperature2 and there is reason to     
suppose that the planets and satellites 
differ from each other in their proper  
heat1 as well as in the heat they       
receive from the sun4  ,when we bear in 
mind that1 in addition to these various 
contrasts1 the planets and satellites   

also differ in respect to their         
distances from each other and their     
primary2 in respect to the inclinations 
of their orbits1 the inclinations of    
their axes1 their times of rotation on  
their axes1 their specific gravities1   
and their physical constitutions2 we see
 what a high degree of heterogeneity the
 solar system exhibits1 when compared   
with the almost complete homogeneity of 
the nebulous mass out of which it is    
supposed to have originated4  ,passing  
from this hypothetical illustration1    
which must be taken for what it is      
worth1 without prejudice to the general 
argument1 let us descend to a more      
certain order of evidence4 ,it is now   
generally agreed among geologists that  
the ,earth was at first a mass of molten
 matter2 and that it is still fluid and 
incandescent at the distance of a few   
miles beneath its surface4 ,originally1 
then1 it was homogeneous in consistence1
 and1 in virtue of the circulation that 
takes place in heated fluids1 must have 

been comparatively homogeneous in       
temperature2 and it must have been      
surrounded by an atmosphere consisting  
partly of the elements of air and water1
 and partly of those various other      
elements which assume a gaseous form at 
high temperatures4 ,that slow cooling by
 radiation which is still going on at an
 inappreciable rate1 and which1 though  
originally far more rapid than now1     
necessarily required an immense time to 
produce any decided change1 must        
ultimately have resulted in the         
solidification of the portion most able 
to part with its heat--namely1 the      
surface4 ,in the thin crust thus formed 
we have the first marked                
differentiation4 ,a still further       
cooling1 a consequent thickening of this
 crust1 and an accompanying deposition  
of all solidifiable elements contained  
in the atmosphere1 must finally have    
been followed by the condensation of the
 water previously existing as vapour4 ,a
 second marked differentiation must thus

 have arisen3 and as the condensation   
must have taken place on the coolest    
parts of the surface--namely1 about the 
poles--there must thus have resulted the
 first geographical distinction of      
parts4 ,to these illustrations of       
growing heterogeneity1 which1 though    
deduced from the known laws of matter1  
may be regarded as more or less         
hypothetical1 ,geology adds an extensive
 series that have been inductively      
established4 ,its investigations show   
that the ,earth has been continually    
becoming more heterogeneous in virtue of
 the multiplication of the strata which 
form its crust2 further1 that it has    
been becoming more heterogeneous in     
respect of the composition of these     
strata1 the latter of which1 being made 
from the detritus of the older ones1 are
 many of them rendered highly complex by
 the mixture of materials they contain2 
and that this heterogeneity has been    
vastly increased by the action of the   
,earth's still molten nucleus upon its  

envelope1 whence have resulted not only 
a great variety of igneous rocks1 but   
the tilting up of sedimentary strata at 
all angles1 the formation of faults and 
metallic veins1 the production of       
endless dislocations and irregularities4
 ,yet again1 geologists teach us that   
the ,earth's surface has been growing   
more varied in elevation--that the most 
ancient mountain systems are the        
smallest1 and the ,andes and ,himalayas 
the most modern2 while in all           
probability there have been             
corresponding changes in the bed of the 
ocean4 ,as a consequence of these       
ceaseless differentiations1 we now find 
that no considerable portion of the     
,earth's exposed surface is like any    
other portion1 either in contour1 in    
geologic structure1 or in chemical      
composition2 and that in most parts it  
changes from mile to mile in all these  
characteristics4  ,moreover1 it must not
 be forgotten that there has been       
simultaneously going on a gradual       

differentiation of climates4 ,as fast as
 the ,earth cooled and its crust        
solidified1 there arose appreciable     
differences in temperature between those
 parts of its surface most exposed to   
the sun and those less exposed4         
,gradually1 as the cooling progressed1  
these differences became more           
pronounced2 until there finally resulted
 those marked contrasts between regions 
of perpetual ice and snow1 regions where
 winter and summer alternately reign for
 periods varying according to the       
latitude1 and regions where summer      
follows summer with scarcely an         
appreciable variation4 ,at the same time
 the successive elevations and          
subsidences of different portions of the
 ,earth's crust1 tending as they have   
done to the present irregular           
distribution of land and sea1 have      
entailed various modifications of       
climate beyond those dependent on       
latitude2 while a yet further series of 
such modifications have been produced by

 increasing differences of elevation in 
the land1 which have in sundry places   
brought arctic1 temperate1 and tropical 
climates to within a few miles of each  
other4 ,and the general result of these 
changes is1 that not only has every     
extensive region its own meteorologic   
conditions1 but that every locality in  
each region differs more or less from   
others in those conditions1 as in its   
structure1 its contour1 its soil4 ,thus1
 between our existing ,earth1 the       
phenomena of whose varied crust neither 
geographers1 geologists1 mineralogists1 
nor meteorologists have yet enumerated1 
and the molten globe out of which it was
 evolved1 the contrast in heterogeneity 
is sufficiently striking4  ,when from   
the ,earth itself we turn to the plants 
and animals that have lived1 or still   
live1 upon its surface1 we find         
ourselves in some difficulty from lack  
of facts4 ,that every existing organism 
has been developed out of the simple    
into the complex1 is indeed the first   

established truth of all2 and that every
 organism that has existed was similarly
 developed1 is an inference which no    
physiologist will hesitate to draw4 ,but
 when we pass from individual forms of  
life to ,life in general1 and inquire   
whether the same law is seen in the     
ensemble of its manifestations1--whether
 modern plants and animals are of more  
heterogeneous structure than ancient    
ones1 and whether the earth's present   
,flora and ,fauna are more heterogeneous
 than the ,flora and ,fauna of the      
past1--we find the evidence so          
fragmentary1 that every conclusion is   
open to dispute4 ,two-thirds of the     
,earth's surface being covered by water2
 a great part of the exposed land being 
inaccessible to1 or untravelled by1 the 
geologist2 the greater part of the      
remainder having been scarcely more than
 glanced at2 and even the most familiar 
portions1 as ,england1 having been so   
imperfectly explored that a new series  
of strata has been added within these   

four years1--it is manifestly impossible
 for us to say with any certainty what  
creatures have1 and what have not1      
existed at any particular period4       
,considering the perishable nature of   
many of the lower organic forms1 the    
metamorphosis of many sedimentary       
strata1 and the gaps that occur among   
the rest1 we shall see further reason   
for distrusting our deductions4 ,on the 
one hand1 the repeated discovery of     
vertebrate remains in strata previously 
supposed to contain none1--of reptiles  
where only fish were thought to         
exist1--of mammals where it was believed
 there were no creatures higher than    
reptiles1--renders it daily more        
manifest how small is the value of      
negative evidence4  ,on the other hand1 
the worthlessness of the assumption that
 we have discovered the earliest1 or    
anything like the earliest1 organic     
remains1 is becoming equally clear4     
,that the oldest known sedimentary rocks
 have been greatly changed by igneous   

action1 and that still older ones have  
been totally transformed by it1 is      
becoming undeniable4 ,and the fact that 
sedimentary strata earlier than any we  
know1 have been melted up1 being        
admitted1 it must also be admitted that 
we cannot say how far back in time this 
destruction of sedimentary strata has   
been going on4 ,thus it is manifest that
 the title1 ,palaeozoic1 as applied to  
the earliest known fossiliferous strata1
 involves a petitio principii2 and that1
 for aught we know to the contrary1 only
 the last few chapters of the ,earth's  
biological history may have come down to
 us4 ,on neither side1 therefore1 is the
 evidence conclusive4 ,nevertheless we  
cannot but think that1 scanty as they   
are1 the facts1 taken altogether1 tend  
to show both that the more heterogeneous
 organisms have been evolved in the     
later geologic periods1 and that ,life  
in general has been more heterogeneously
 manifested as time has advanced4 ,let  
us cite1 in illustration1 the one case  

of the vertebrata4 ,the earliest known  
vertebrate remains are those of ,fishes2
 and ,fishes are the most homogeneous of
 the vertebrata4 ,later and more        
heterogeneous are ,reptiles4 ,later     
still1 and more heterogeneous still1 are
 ,mammals and ,birds4 ,if it be said1 as
 it may fairly be said1 that the        
,palaeozoic deposits1 not being estuary 
deposits1 are not likely to contain the 
remains of terrestrial vertebrata1 which
 may nevertheless have existed at that  
era1 we reply that we are merely        
pointing to the leading facts1 such as  
they are4  ,but to avoid any such       
criticism1 let us take the mammalian    
subdivision only4 ,the earliest known   
remains of mammals are those of small   
marsupials1 which are the lowest of the 
mammalian type2 while1 conversely1 the  
highest of the mammalian type--,man--is 
the most recent4 ,the evidence that the 
vertebrate fauna1 as a whole1 has become
 more heterogeneous1 is considerably    
stronger4 ,to the argument that the     

vertebrate fauna of the ,palaeozoic     
period1 consisting1 so far as we know1  
entirely of ,fishes1 was less           
heterogeneous than the modern vertebrate
 fauna1 which includes ,reptiles1       
,birds1 and ,mammals1 of multitudinous  
genera1 it may be replied1 as before1   
that estuary deposits of the ,palaeozoic
 period1 could we find them1 might      
contain other orders of vertebrata4 ,but
 no such reply can be made to the       
argument that whereas the marine        
vertebrata of the ,palaeozoic period    
consisted entirely of cartilaginous     
fishes1 the marine vertebrata of later  
periods include numerous genera of      
osseous fishes2 and that1 therefore1 the
 later marine vertebrate faunas are more
 heterogeneous than the oldest known    
one4 ,nor1 again1 can any such reply be 
made to the fact that there are far more
 numerous orders and genera of mammalian
 remains in the tertiary formations than
 in the secondary formations4 ,did we   
wish merely to make out the best case1  

we might dwell upon the opinion of ,dr4 
,carpenter1 who says that the general   
facts of ,palaeontology appear to       
sanction the belief1 that the same plan 
may be traced out in what may be called 
the general life of the globe1 as in the
 individual life of every one of the    
forms of organised being which now      
people it4 ,or we might quote1 as       
decisive1 the judgment of ,professor    
,owen1 who holds that the earlier       
examples of each group of creatures     
severally departed less widely from     
archetypal generality than the later    
ones--were severally less unlike the    
fundamental form common to the group as 
a whole2 that is to say--constituted a  
less heterogeneous group of creatures2  
and who further upholds the doctrine of 
a biological progression4 ,but in       
deference to an authority for whom we   
have the highest respect1 who considers 
that the evidence at present obtained   
does not justify a verdict either way1  
we are content to leave the question    

open4  ,whether an advance from the     
homogeneous to the heterogeneous is or  
is not displayed in the biological      
history of the globe1 it is clearly     
enough displayed in the progress of the 
latest and most heterogeneous           
creature--,man4 ,it is alike true that1 
during the period in which the ,earth   
has been peopled1 the human organism has
 grown more heterogeneous among the     
civilised divisions of the species2 and 
that the species1 as a whole1 has been  
growing more heterogeneous in virtue of 
the multiplication of races and the     
differentiation of these races from each
 other4  ,in proof of the first of these
 positions1 we may cite the fact that1  
in the relative development of the      
limbs1 the civilised man departs more   
widely from the general type of the     
placental mammalia than do the lower    
human races4 ,while often possessing    
well-developed body and arms1 the       
,papuan has extremely small legs3 thus  
reminding us of the quadrumana1 in which

 there is no great contrast in size     
between the hind and fore limbs4 ,but in
 the ,european1 the greater length and  
massiveness of the legs has become very 
marked--the fore and hind limbs are     
relatively more heterogeneous4 ,again1  
the greater ratio which the cranial     
bones bear to the facial bones          
illustrates the same truth4 ,among the  
vertebrata in general1 progress is      
marked by an increasing heterogeneity in
 the vertebral column1 and more         
especially in the vertebrae constituting
 the skull3 the higher forms being      
distinguished by the relatively larger  
size of the bones which cover the brain1
 and the relatively smaller size of     
those which form the jaw1 etc4 ,now1    
this characteristic1 which is stronger  
in ,man than in any other creature1 is  
stronger in the ,european than in the   
savage4 ,moreover1 judging from the     
greater extent and variety of faculty he
 exhibits1 we may infer that the        
civilised man has also a more complex or

 heterogeneous nervous system than the  
uncivilised man3 and indeed the fact is 
in part visible in the increased ratio  
which his cerebrum bears to the         
subjacent ganglia4  ,if further         
elucidation be needed1 we may find it in
 every nursery4 ,the infant ,european   
has sundry marked points of resemblance 
to the lower human races2 as in the     
flatness of the alae of the nose1 the   
depression of its bridge1 the divergence
 and forward opening of the nostrils1   
the form of the lips1 the absence of a  
frontal sinus1 the width between the    
eyes1 the smallness of the legs4 ,now1  
as the development process by which     
these traits are turned into those of   
the adult ,european1 is a continuation  
of that change from the homogeneous to  
the heterogeneous displayed during the  
previous evolution of the embryo1 which 
every physiologist will admit2 it       
follows that the parallel developmental 
process by which the like traits of the 
barbarous races have been turned into   

those of the civilised races1 has also  
been a continuation of the change from  
the homogeneous to the heterogeneous4   
,the truth of the second position--that 
,mankind1 as a whole1 have become more  
heterogeneous--is so obvious as scarcely
 to need illustration4 ,every work on   
,ethnology1 by its divisions and        
subdivisions of races1 bears testimony  
to it4 ,even were we to admit the       
hypothesis that ,mankind originated from
 several separate stocks1 it would still
 remain true1 that as1 from each of     
these stocks1 there have sprung many now
 widely different tribes1 which are     
proved by philological evidence to have 
had a common origin1 the race as a whole
 is far less homogeneous than it once   
was4 ,add to which1 that we have1 in the
 ,anglo-,americans1 an example of a new 
variety arising within these few        
generations2 and that1 if we may trust  
to the description of observers1 we are 
likely soon to have another such example
 in ,australia4  ,on passing from       

,humanity under its individual form1 to 
,humanity as socially embodied1 we find 
the general law still more variously    
exemplified4 ,the change from the       
homogeneous to the heterogeneous is     
displayed equally in the progress of    
civilisation as a whole1 and in the     
progress of every tribe or nation2 and  
is still going on with increasing       
rapidity4 ,as we see in existing        
barbarous tribes1 society in its first  
and lowest form is a homogeneous        
aggregation of individuals having like  
powers and like functions3 the only     
marked difference of function being that
 which accompanies difference of sex4   
,every man is warrior1 hunter1          
fisherman1 tool-maker1 builder2 every   
woman performs the same drudgeries2     
every family is self-sufficing1 and save
 for purposes of aggression and defence1
 might as well live apart from the rest4
 ,very early1 however1 in the process of
 social evolution1 we find an incipient 
differentiation between the governing   

and the governed4 ,some kind of         
chieftainship seems coeval with the     
first advance from the state of separate
 wandering families to that of a nomadic
 tribe4 ,the authority of the strongest 
makes itself felt among a body of       
savages as in a herd of animals1 or a   
posse of schoolboys4 ,at first1 however1
 it is indefinite1 uncertain2 is shared 
by others of scarcely inferior power2   
and is unaccompanied by any difference  
in occupation or style of living3 the   
first ruler kills his own game1 makes   
his own weapons1 builds his own hut1 and
 economically considered1 does not      
differ from others of his tribe4        
,gradually1 as the tribe progresses1 the
 contrast between the governing and the 
governed grows more decided4 ,supreme   
power becomes hereditary in one family2 
the head of that family1 ceasing to     
provide for his own wants1 is served by 
others2 and he begins to assume the sole
 office of ruling4  ,at the same time   
there has been arising a co-ordinate    

species of government--that of          
,religion4 ,as all ancient records and  
traditions prove1 the earliest rulers   
are regarded as divine personages4 ,the 
maxims and commands they uttered during 
their lives are held sacred after their 
deaths1 and are enforced by their       
divinely-descended successors2 who in   
their turns are promoted to the pantheon
 of the race1 there to be worshipped and
 propitiated along with their           
predecessors3 the most ancient of whom  
is the supreme god1 and the rest        
subordinate gods4 ,for a long time these
 connate forms of government--civil and 
religious--continue closely associated4 
,for many generations the king continues
 to be the chief priest1 and the        
priesthood to be members of the royal   
race4 ,for many ages religious law      
continues to contain more or less of    
civil regulation1 and civil law to      
possess more or less of religious       
sanction2 and even among the most       
advanced nations these two controlling  

agencies are by no means completely     
differentiated from each other4  ,having
 a common root with these1 and gradually
 diverging from them1 we find yet       
another controlling agency--that of     
,manners or ceremonial usages4 ,all     
titles of honour are originally the     
names of the god-king2 afterwards of    
,god and the king2 still later of       
persons of high rank2 and finally come1 
some of them1 to be used between man and
 man4 ,all forms of complimentary       
address were at first the expressions of
 submission from prisoners to their     
conqueror1 or from subjects to their    
ruler1 either human or                  
divine--expressions that were afterwards
 used to propitiate subordinate         
authorities1 and slowly descended into  
ordinary intercourse4 ,all modes of     
salutation were once obeisances made    
before the monarch and used in worship  
of him after his death4 ,presently      
others of the god-descended race were   
similarly saluted2 and by degrees some  

of the salutations have become the due  
of all4#b ,thus1 no sooner does the     
originally homogeneous social mass      
differentiate into the governed and the 
governing parts1 than this last exhibits
 an incipient differentiation into      
religious and secular--,church and      
,state2 while at the same time there    
begins to be differentiated from both1  
that less definite species of government
 which rules our daily intercourse--a   
species of government which1 as we may  
see in heralds' colleges1 in books of   
the peerage1 in masters of ceremonies1  
is not without a certain embodiment of  
its own4 ,each of these is itself       
subject to successive differentiations4 
,in the course of ages1 there arises1 as
 among ourselves1 a highly complex      
political organisation of monarch1      
ministers1 lords and commons1 with their
 subordinate administrative departments1
 courts of justice1 revenue offices1    
etc41 supplemented in the provinces by  
municipal governments1 county           

governments1 parish or union            
governments--all of them more or less   
elaborated4 ,by its side there grows up 
a highly complex religious organisation1
 with its various grades of officials1  
from archbishops down to sextons1 its   
colleges1 convocations1 ecclesiastical  
courts1 etc42 to all which must be added
 the ever multiplying independent sects1
 each with its general and local        
authorities4 ,and at the same time there
 is developed a highly complex          
aggregation of customs1 manners1 and    
temporary fashions1 enforced by society 
at large1 and serving to control those  
minor transactions between man and man  
which are not regulated by civil and    
religious law4 ,moreover it is to be    
observed that this ever increasing      
heterogeneity in the governmental       
appliances of each nation1 has been     
accompanied by an increasing            
heterogeneity in the governmental       
appliances of different nations2 all of 
which are more or less unlike in their  

political systems and legislation1 in   
their creeds and religious institutions1
 in their customs and ceremonial usages4
  ,simultaneously there has been going  
on a second differentiation of a more   
familiar kind2 that1 namely1 by which   
the mass of the community has been      
segregated into distinct classes and    
orders of workers4 ,while the governing 
part has undergone the complex          
development above detailed1 the governed
 part has undergone an equally complex  
development1 which has resulted in that 
minute division of labour characterising
 advanced nations4 ,it is needless to   
trace out this progress from its first  
stages1 up through the caste divisions  
of the ,east and the incorporated guilds
 of ,europe1 to the elaborate producing 
and distributing organisation existing  
among ourselves4 ,political economists  
have long since described the evolution 
which1 beginning with a tribe whose     
members severally perform the same      
actions each for himself1 ends with a   

civilised community whose members       
severally perform different actions for 
each other2 and they have further       
pointed out the changes through which   
the solitary producer of any one        
commodity is transformed into a         
combination of producers who1 united    
under a master1 take separate parts in  
the manufacture of such commodity4 ,but 
there are yet other and higher phases of
 this advance from the homogeneous to   
the heterogeneous in the industrial     
organisation of society4  ,long after   
considerable progress has been made in  
the division of labour among different  
classes of workers1 there is still      
little or no division of labour among   
the widely separated parts of the       
community2 the nation continues         
comparatively homogeneous in the respect
 that in each district the same         
occupations are pursued4 ,but when roads
 and other means of transit become      
numerous and good1 the different        
districts begin to assume different     

functions1 and to become mutually       
dependent4 ,the calico manufacture      
locates itself in this county1 the      
woollen-cloth manufacture in that2 silks
 are produced here1 lace there2         
stockings in one place1 shoes in        
another2 pottery1 hardware1 cutlery1    
come to have their special towns2 and   
ultimately every locality becomes more  
or less distinguished from the rest by  
the leading occupation carried on in it4
 ,nay1 more1 this subdivision of        
functions shows itself not only among   
the different parts of the same nation1 
but among different nations4 ,that      
exchange of commodities which free-trade
 promises so greatly to increase1 will  
ultimately have the effect of           
specialising1 in a greater or less      
degree1 the industry of each people4 ,so
 that beginning with a barbarous tribe1 
almost if not quite homogeneous in the  
functions of its members1 the progress  
has been1 and still is1 towards an      
economic aggregation of the whole human 

race2 growing ever more heterogeneous in
 respect of the separate functions      
assumed by separate nations1 the        
separate functions assumed by the local 
sections of each nation1 the separate   
functions assumed by the many kinds of  
makers and traders in each town1 and the
 separate functions assumed by the      
workers united in producing each        
commodity4  ,not only is the law thus   
clearly exemplified in the evolution of 
the social organism1 but it is          
exemplified with equal clearness in the 
evolution of all products of human      
thought and action1 whether concrete or 
abstract1 real or ideal4 ,let us take   
,language as our first illustration4    
,the lowest form of language is the     
exclamation1 by which an entire idea is 
vaguely conveyed through a single sound2
 as among the lower animals4 ,that human
 language ever consisted solely of      
exclamations1 and so was strictly       
homogeneous in respect of its parts of  
speech1 we have no evidence4 ,but that  

language can be traced down to a form in
 which nouns and verbs are its only     
elements1 is an established fact4 ,in   
the gradual multiplication of parts of  
speech out of these primary ones--in the
 differentiation of verbs into active   
and passive1 of nouns into abstract and 
concrete--in the rise of distinctions of
 mood1 tense1 person1 of number and     
case--in the formation of auxiliary     
verbs1 of adjectives1 adverbs1 pronouns1
 prepositions1 articles--in the         
divergence of those orders1 genera1     
species1 and varieties of parts of      
speech by which civilised races express 
minute modifications of meaning--we see 
a change from the homogeneous to the    
heterogeneous4 ,and it may be remarked1 
in passing1 that it is more especially  
in virtue of having carried this        
subdivision of function to a greater    
extent and completeness1 that the       
,english language is superior to all    
others4  ,another aspect under which we 
may trace the development of language is

 the differentiation of words of allied 
meanings4 ,philology early disclosed the
 truth that in all languages words may  
be grouped into families having a common
 ancestry4 ,an aboriginal name applied  
indiscriminately to each of an extensive
 and ill-defined class of things or     
actions1 presently undergoes            
modifications by which the chief        
divisions of the class are expressed4   
,these several names springing from the 
primitive root1 themselves become the   
parents of other names still further    
modified4 ,and by the aid of those      
systematic modes which presently arise1 
of making derivations and forming       
compound terms expressing still smaller 
distinctions1 there is finally developed
 a tribe of words so heterogeneous in   
sound and meaning1 that to the          
uninitiated it seems incredible that    
they should have had a common origin4   
,meanwhile from other roots there are   
being evolved other such tribes1 until  
there results a language of some sixty  

thousand or more unlike words1          
signifying as many unlike objects1      
qualities1 acts4  ,yet another way in   
which language in general advances from 
the homogeneous to the heterogeneous1 is
 in the multiplication of languages4    
,whether as ,max ,mueller and ,bunsen   
think1 all languages have grown from one
 stock1 or whether1 as some philologists
 say1 they have grown from two or more  
stocks1 it is clear that since large    
families of languages1 as the           
,indo-,european1 are of one parentage1  
they have become distinct through a     
process of continuous divergence4 ,the  
same diffusion over the ,earth's surface
 which has led to the differentiation of
 the race1 has simultaneously led to a  
differentiation of their speech3 a truth
 which we see further illustrated in    
each nation by the peculiarities of     
dialect found in several districts4     
,thus the progress of ,language conforms
 to the general law1 alike in the       
evolution of languages1 in the evolution

 of families of words1 and in the       
evolution of parts of speech4  ,on      
passing from spoken to written language1
 we come upon several classes of facts1 
all having similar implications4        
,written language is connate with       
,painting and ,sculpture2 and at first  
all three are appendages of             
,architecture1 and have a direct        
connection with the primary form of all 
,government--the theocratic4 ,merely    
noting by the way the fact that sundry  
wild races1 as for example the          
,australians and the tribes of ,south   
,africa1 are given to depicting         
personages and events upon the walls of 
caves1 which are probably regarded as   
sacred places1 let us pass to the case  
of the ,egyptians4 ,among them1 as also 
among the ,assyrians1 we find mural     
paintings used to decorate the temple of
 the god and the palace of the king     
7which were1 indeed1 originally         
identical72 and as such they were       
governmental appliances in the same     

sense that state-pageants and religious 
feasts were4 ,further1 they were        
governmental appliances in virtue of    
representing the worship of the god1 the
 triumphs of the god-king1 the          
submission of his subjects1 and the     
punishment of the rebellious4 ,and yet  
again they were governmental1 as being  
the products of an art reverenced by the
 people as a sacred mystery4 ,from the  
habitual use of this pictorial          
representations there naturally grew up 
the but slightly-modified practice of   
picture-writing--a practice which was   
found still extant among the ,mexicans  
at the time they were discovered4 ,by   
abbreviations analogous to those still  
going on in our own written and spoken  
language1 the most familiar of these    
pictured figures were successively      
simplified2 and ultimately there grew up
 a system of symbols1 most of which had 
but a distant resemblance to the things 
for which they stood4 ,the inference    
that the hieroglyphics of the ,egyptians

 were thus produced1 is confirmed by the
 fact that the picture-writing of the   
,mexicans was found to have given birth 
to a like family of ideographic forms2  
and among them1 as among the ,egyptians1
 these had been partially differentiated
 into the kuriological or imitative1 and
 the tropical or symbolic3 which were1  
however1 used together in the same      
record4 ,in ,egypt1 written language    
underwent a further differentiation3    
whence resulted the hieratic and the    
epistolographic or enchorial3 both of   
which are derived from the original     
hieroglyphic4 ,at the same time we find 
that for the expression of proper names 
which could not be otherwise conveyed1  
phonetic symbols were employed2 and     
though it is alleged that the ,egyptians
 never actually achieved complete       
alphabetic writing1 yet it can scarcely 
be doubted that these phonetic symbols  
occasionally used in aid of their       
ideographic ones1 were the germs out of 
which alphabetic writing grew4 ,once    

having become separate from             
hieroglyphics1 alphabetic writing itself
 underwent numerous                     
differentiations--multiplied alphabets  
were produced2 between most of which1   
however1 more or less connection can    
still be traced4 ,and in each civilised 
nation there has now grown up1 for the  
representation of one set of sounds1    
several sets of written signs used for  
distinct purposes4 ,finally1 through a  
yet more important differentiation came 
printing2 which1 uniform in kind as it  
was at first1 has since become          
multiform4  ,while written language was 
passing through its earlier stages of   
development1 the mural decoration which 
formed its root was being differentiated
 into ,painting and ,sculpture4 ,the    
gods1 kings1 men1 and animals           
represented1 were originally marked by  
indented outlines and coloured4 ,in most
 cases these outlines were of such      
depth1 and the object they circumscribed
 so far rounded and marked out in its   

leading parts1 as to form a species of  
work intermediate between intaglio and  
bas-relief4 ,in other cases we see an   
advance upon this3 the raised spaces    
between the figures being chiselled off1
 and the figures themselves             
appropriately tinted1 a painted         
bas-relief was produced4 ,the restored  
,assyrian architecture at ,sydenham     
exhibits this style of art carried to   
greater perfection--the persons and     
things represented1 though still        
barbarously coloured1 are carved out    
with more truth and in greater detail3  
and in the winged lions and bulls used  
for the angles of gateways1 we may see a
 considerable advance towards a         
completely sculptured figure2 which1    
nevertheless1 is still coloured1 and    
still forms part of the building4 ,but  
while in ,assyria the production of a   
statue proper seems to have been little1
 if at all1 attempted1 we may trace in  
,egyptian art the gradual separation of 
the sculptured figure from the wall4 ,a 

walk through the collection in the      
,british ,museum will clearly show this2
 while it will at the same time afford  
an opportunity of observing the evident 
traces which the independent statues    
bear of their derivation from           
bas-relief3 seeing that nearly all of   
them not only display that union of the 
limbs with the body which is the        
characteristic of bas-relief1 but have  
the back of the statue united from head 
to foot with a block which stands in    
place of the original wall4 ,greece     
repeated the leading stages of this     
progress4 ,as in ,egypt and ,assyria1   
these twin arts were at first united    
with each other and with their parent1  
,architecture1 and were the aids of     
,religion and ,government4 ,on the      
friezes of ,greek temples1 we see       
coloured bas-reliefs representing       
sacrifices1 battles1 processions1       
games--all in some sort religious4 ,on  
the pediments we see painted sculptures 
more or less united with the tympanum1  

and having for subjects the triumphs of 
gods or heroes4 ,even when we come to   
statues that are definitely separated   
from the buildings to which they        
pertain1 we still find them coloured2   
and only in the later periods of ,greek 
civilisation does the differentiation of
 sculpture from painting appear to have 
become complete4  ,in ,christian art we 
may clearly trace a parallel re-genesis4
 ,all early paintings and sculptures    
throughout ,europe were religious in    
subject--represented ,christs1          
crucifixions1 virgins1 holy families1   
apostles1 saints4 ,they formed integral 
parts of church architecture1 and were  
among the means of exciting worship2 as 
in ,roman ,catholic countries they still
 are4 ,moreover1 the early sculptures of
 ,christ on the cross1 of virgins1 of   
saints1 were coloured3 and it needs but 
to call to mind the painted madonnas and
 crucifixes still abundant in           
continental churches and highways1 to   
perceive the significant fact that      

painting and sculpture continue in      
closest connection with each other where
 they continue in closest connection    
with their parent4 ,even when ,christian
 sculpture was pretty clearly           
differentiated from painting1 it was    
still religious and governmental in its 
subjects--was used for tombs in churches
 and statues of kings3 while1 at the    
same time1 painting1 where not purely   
ecclesiastical1 was applied to the      
decoration of palaces1 and besides      
representing royal personages1 was      
almost wholly devoted to sacred legends4
 ,only in quite recent times have       
painting and sculpture become entirely  
secular arts4 ,only within these few    
centuries has painting been divided into
 historical1 landscape1 marine1         
architectural1 genre1 animal1           
still-life1 etc41 and sculpture grown   
heterogeneous in respect of the variety 
of real and ideal subjects with which it
 occupies itself4  ,strange as it seems 
then1 we find it no less true1 that all 

forms of written language1 of painting1 
and of sculpture1 have a common root in 
the politico-religious decorations of   
ancient temples and palaces4 ,little    
resemblance as they now have1 the bust  
that stands on the console1 the         
landscape that hangs against the wall1  
and the copy of the ,times lying upon   
the table1 are remotely akin2 not only  
in nature1 but by extraction4 ,the      
brazen face of the knocker which the    
postman has just lifted1 is related not 
only to the woodcuts of the ,illustrated
 ,london ,news which he is delivering1  
but to the characters of the billet-doux
 which accompanies it4 ,between the     
painted window1 the prayer-book on which
 its light falls1 and the adjacent      
monument1 there is consanguinity4 ,the  
effigies on our coins1 the signs over   
shops1 the figures that fill every      
ledger1 the coats of arms outside the   
carriage panel1 and the placards inside 
the omnibus1 are1 in common with dolls1 
blue-books1 paper-hangings1 lineally    

descended from the rude                 
sculpture-paintings in which the        
,egyptians represented the triumphs and 
worship of their god-kings4 ,perhaps no 
example can be given which more vividly 
illustrates the multiplicity and        
heterogeneity of the products that in   
course of time may arise by successive  
differentiations from a common stock4   
,before passing to other classes of     
facts1 it should be observed that the   
evolution of the homogeneous into the   
heterogeneous is displayed not only in  
the separation of ,painting and         
,sculpture from ,architecture and from  
each other1 and in the greater variety  
of subjects they embody1 but it is      
further shown in the structure of each  
work4 ,a modern picture or statue is of 
far more heterogeneous nature than an   
ancient one4 ,an ,egyptian              
sculpture-fresco represents all its     
figures as on one plane--that is1 at the
 same distance from the eye2 and so is  
less heterogeneous than a painting that 

represents them as at various distances 
from the eye4 ,it exhibits all objects  
as exposed to the same degree of light2 
and so is less heterogeneous than a     
painting which exhibits different       
objects and different parts of each     
object as in different degrees of light4
 ,it uses scarcely any but the primary  
colours1 and these in their full        
intensity2 and so is less heterogeneous 
than a painting which1 introducing the  
primary colours but sparingly1 employs  
an endless variety of intermediate      
tints1 each of heterogeneous            
composition1 and differing from the rest
 not only in quality but in intensity4  
,moreover1 we see in these earliest     
works a great uniformity of conception4 
,the same arrangement of figures is     
perpetually reproduced--the same        
actions1 attitudes1 faces1 dresses4 ,in 
,egypt the modes of representation were 
so fixed that it was sacrilege to       
introduce a novelty2 and indeed it could
 have been only in consequence of a     

fixed mode of representation that a     
system of hieroglyphics became possible4
 ,the ,assyrian bas-reliefs display     
parallel characters4 ,deities1 kings1   
attendants1 winged figures and animals1 
are severally depicted in like          
positions1 holding like implements1     
doing like things1 and with like        
expression or non-expression of face4   
,if a palm-grove is introduced1 all the 
trees are of the same height1 have the  
same number of leaves1 and are          
equidistant4 ,when water is imitated1   
each wave is a counterpart of the rest2 
and the fish1 almost always of one kind1
 are evenly distributed over the        
surface4 ,the beards of the kings1 the  
gods1 and the winged figures1 are every 
where similar3 as are the names of the  
lions1 and equally so those of the      
horses4 ,hair is represented throughout 
by one form of curl4 ,the king's beard  
is quite architecturally built up of    
compound tiers of uniform curls1        
alternating with twisted tiers placed in

 a transverse direction1 and arranged   
with perfect regularity2 and the        
terminal tufts of the bulls' tails are  
represented in exactly the same manner4 
,without tracing out analogous facts in 
early ,christian art1 in which1 though  
less striking1 they are still visible1  
the advance in heterogeneity will be    
sufficiently manifest on remembering    
that in the pictures of our own day the 
composition is endlessly varied2 the    
attitudes1 faces1 expressions1 unlike2  
the subordinate objects different in    
size1 form1 position1 texture2 and more 
or less of contrast even in the smallest
 details4 ,or1 if we compare an         
,egyptian statue1 seated bolt upright on
 a block with hands on knees1 fingers   
outspread and parallel1 eyes looking    
straight forward1 and the two sides     
perfectly symmetrical in every          
particular1 with a statue of the        
advanced ,greek or the modern school1   
which is asymmetrical in respect of the 
position of the head1 the body1 the     

limbs1 the arrangement of the hair1     
dress1 appendages1 and in its relations 
to neighbouring objects1 we shall see   
the change from the homogeneous to the  
heterogeneous clearly manifested4  ,in  
the co-ordinate origin and gradual      
differentiation of ,poetry1 ,music and  
,dancing1 we have another series of     
illustrations4 ,rhythm in speech1 rhythm
 in sound1 and rhythm in motion1 were in
 the beginning parts of the same thing1 
and have only in process of time become 
separate things4 ,among various existing
 barbarous tribes we find them still    
united4 ,the dances of savages are      
accompanied by some kind of monotonous  
chant1 the clapping of hands1 the       
striking of rude instruments3 there are 
measured movements1 measured words1 and 
measured tones2 and the whole ceremony1 
usually having reference to war or      
sacrifice1 is of governmental character4
 ,in the early records of the historic  
races we similarly find these three     
forms of metrical action united in      

religious festivals4 ,in the ,hebrew    
writings we read that the triumphal ode 
composed by ,moses on the defeat of the 
,egyptians1 was sung to an accompaniment
 of dancing and timbrels4 ,the          
,israelites danced and sung at the      
inauguration of the golden calf4 ,and as
 it is generally agreed that this       
representation of the ,deity was        
borrowed from the mysteries of ,apis1 it
 is probable that the dancing was copied
 from that of the ,egyptians on those   
occasions4 ,there was an annual dance in
 ,shiloh on the sacred festival2 and    
,david danced before the ark4 ,again1 in
 ,greece the like relation is everywhere
 seen2 the original type being there1 as
 probably in other cases1 a simultaneous
 chanting and mimetic representation of 
the life and adventures of the god4 ,the
 ,spartan dances were accompanied by    
hymns and songs2 and in general the     
,greeks had no festivals or religious   
assemblies but what were accompanied    
with songs and dances--both of them     

being forms of worship used before      
altars4 ,among the ,romans1 too1 there  
were sacred dances3 the ,salian and     
,lupercalian being named as of that     
kind4 ,and even in ,christian countries1
 as at ,limoges1 in comparatively recent
 times1 the people have danced in the   
choir in honour of a saint4 ,the        
incipient separation of these once      
united arts from each other and from    
religion1 was early visible in ,greece4 
,probably diverging from dances partly  
religious1 partly warlike1 as the       
,corybantian1 came the war dances       
proper1 of which there were various     
kinds2 and from these resulted secular  
dances4 ,meanwhile ,music and ,poetry1  
though still united1 came to have an    
existence separate from dancing4 ,the   
aboriginal ,greek poems1 religious in   
subject1 were not recited1 but chanted2 
and though at first the chant of the    
poet was accompanied by the dance of the
 chorus1 it ultimately grew into        
independence4 ,later still1 when the    

poem had been differentiated into epic  
and lyric--when it became the custom to 
sing the lyric and recite the           
epic--poetry proper was born4 ,as during
 the same period musical instruments    
were being multiplied1 we may presume   
that music came to have an existence    
apart from words4 ,and both of them were
 beginning to assume other forms besides
 the religious4 ,facts having like      
implications might be cited from the    
histories of later times and people3 as 
the practices of our own early          
minstrels1 who sang to the harp heroic  
narratives versified by themselves to   
music of their own composition3 thus    
uniting the now separate offices of     
poet1 composer1 vocalist1 and           
instrumentalist4 ,but1 without further  
illustration1 the common origin and     
gradual differentiation of ,dancing1    
,poetry1 and ,music will be sufficiently
 manifest4  ,the advance from the       
homogeneous to the heterogeneous is     
displayed not only in the separation of 

these arts from each other and from     
religion1 but also in the multiplied    
differentiations which each of them     
afterwards undergoes4 ,not to dwell upon
 the numberless kinds of dancing that   
have1 in course of time1 come into use2 
and not to occupy space in detaining the
 progress of poetry1 as seen in the     
development of the various forms of     
metre1 of rhyme1 and of general         
organisation2 let us confine our        
attention to music as a type of the     
group4 ,as argued by ,dr4 ,burney1 and  
as implied by the customs of still      
extant barbarous races1 the first       
musical instruments were1 without doubt1
 percussive--sticks1 calabashes1        
tom-toms--and were used simply to mark  
the time of the dance2 and in this      
constant repetition of the same sound1  
we see music in its most homogeneous    
form4  ,the ,egyptians had a lyre with  
three strings4 ,the early lyre of the   
,greeks had four1 constituting their    
tetrachord4 ,in course of some centuries

 lyres of seven and eight strings were  
employed4 ,and1 by the expiration of a  
thousand years1 they had advanced to    
their great system of the double octave4
 ,through all which changes there of    
course arose a greater heterogeneity of 
melody4 ,simultaneously there came into 
use the different modes--,dorian1       
,ionian1 ,phrygian1 ,a,eolian1 and      
,lydian--answering to our keys2 and of  
these there were ultimately fifteen4 ,as
 yet1 however1 there was but little     
heterogeneity in the time of their      
music4  ,instrumental music during this 
period being merely the accompaniment of
 vocal music1 and vocal music being     
completely subordinated to words1 the   
singer being also the poet1 chanting his
 own compositions and making the lengths
 of his notes agree with the feet of his
 verses1--there unavoidably arose a     
tiresome uniformity of measure1 which1  
as ,dr4 ,burney says1 no resources of   
melody could disguise4 ,lacking the     
complex rhythm obtained by our equal    

bars and unequal notes the only rhythm  
was that produced by the quantity of the
 syllables and was of necessity         
comparatively monotonous4 ,and further1 
it may be observed that the chant thus  
resulting1 being like recitative1 was   
much less clearly differentiated from   
ordinary speech than is our modern song4
  ,nevertheless1 in virtue of the       
extended range of notes in use1 the     
variety of modes1 the occasional        
variations of time consequent on changes
 of metre1 and the multiplication of    
instruments1 music had1 towards the     
close of ,greek civilisation1 attained  
to considerable heterogeneity--not      
indeed as compared with our music1 but  
as compared with that which preceded it4
 ,as yet1 however1 there existed nothing
 but melody3 harmony was unknown4 ,it   
was not until ,christian church-music   
had reached some development1 that music
 in parts was evolved2 and then it came 
into existence through a very           
unobtrusive differentiation4 ,difficult 

as it may be to conceive a priori how   
the advance from melody to harmony could
 take place without a sudden leap1 it is
 none the less true that it did so4 ,the
 circumstance which prepared the way for
 it was the employment of two choirs    
singing alternately the same air4       
,afterwards it became the practice--very
 possibly first suggested by a          
mistake--for the second choir to        
commence before the first had ceased2   
thus producing a fugue4  ,with the      
simple airs then in use1 a partially    
harmonious fugue might not improbably   
thus result3 and a very partially       
harmonious fugue satisfied the ears of  
that age1 as we know from still         
preserved examples4 ,the idea having    
once been given1 the composing of airs  
productive of fugal harmony would       
naturally grow up2 as in some way it did
 grow up out of this alternate          
choir-singing4 ,and from the fugue to   
concerted music of two1 three1 four1 and
 more parts1 the transition was easy4   

,without pointing out in detail the     
increasing complexity that resulted from
 introducing notes of various lengths1  
from the multiplication of keys1 from   
the use of accidentals1 from varieties  
of time1 and so forth1 it needs but to  
contrast music as it is1 with music as  
it was1 to see how immense is the       
increase of heterogeneity4 ,we see this 
if1 looking at music in its ensemble1 we
 enumerate its many different genera and
 species--if we consider the divisions  
into vocal1 instrumental1 and mixed2 and
 their subdivisions into music for      
different voices and different          
instruments--if we observe the many     
forms of sacred music1 from the simple  
hymn1 the chant1 the canon1 motet1      
anthem1 etc41 up to the oratorio2 and   
the still more numerous forms of secular
 music1 from the ballad up to the       
serenata1 from the instrumental solo up 
to the symphony4  ,again1 the same truth
 is seen on comparing any one sample of 
aboriginal music with a sample of modern

 music--even an ordinary song for the   
piano2 which we find to be relatively   
highly heterogeneous1 not only in       
respect of the varieties in the pitch   
and in the length of the notes1 the     
number of different notes sounding at   
the same instant in company with the    
voice1 and the variations of strength   
with which they are sounded and sung1   
but in respect of the changes of key1   
the changes of time1 the changes of     
timbre of the voice1 and the many other 
modifications of expression4 ,while     
between the old monotonous dance-chant  
and a grand opera of our own day1 with  
its endless orchestral complexities and 
vocal combinations1 the contrast in     
heterogeneity is so extreme that it     
seems scarcely credible that the one    
should have been the ancestor of the    
other4  ,were they needed1 many further 
illustrations might be cited4 ,going    
back to the early time when the deeds of
 the god-king1 chanted and mimetically  
represented in dances round his altar1  

were further narrated in                
picture-writings on the walls of temples
 and palaces1 and so constituted a rude 
literature1 we might trace the          
development of ,literature through      
phases in which1 as in the ,hebrew      
,scriptures1 it presents in one work    
theology1 cosmogony1 history1 biography1
 civil law1 ethics1 poetry2 through     
other phases in which1 as in the ,iliad1
 the religious1 martial1 historical1 the
 epic1 dramatic1 and lyric elements are 
similarly commingled2 down to its       
present heterogeneous development1 in   
which its divisions and subdivisions are
 so numerous and varied as to defy      
complete classification4 ,or we might   
trace out the evolution of ,science2    
beginning with the era in which it was  
not yet differentiated from ,art1 and   
was1 in union with ,art1 the handmaid of
 ,religion2 passing through the era in  
which the sciences were so few and      
rudimentary1 as to be simultaneously    
cultivated by the same philosophers2 and

 ending with the era in which the genera
 and species are so numerous that few   
can enumerate them1 and no one can      
adequately grasp even one genus4 ,or we 
might do the like with ,architecture1   
with the ,drama1 with ,dress4  ,but     
doubtless the reader is already weary of
 illustrations2 and our promise has been
 amply fulfilled4 ,we believe we have   
shown beyond question1 that that which  
the ,german physiologists have found to 
be the law of organic development1 is   
the law of all development4 ,the advance
 from the simple to the complex1 through
 a process of successive                
differentiations1 is seen alike in the  
earliest changes of the ,universe to    
which we can reason our way back2 and in
 the earliest changes which we can      
inductively establish2 it is seen in the
 geologic and climatic evolution of the 
,earth1 and of every single organism on 
its surface2 it is seen in the evolution
 of ,humanity1 whether contemplated in  
the civilised individual1 or in the     

aggregation of races2 it is seen in the 
evolution of ,society in respect alike  
of its political1 its religious1 and its
 economical organisation2 and it is seen
 in the evolution of all those endless  
concrete and abstract products of human 
activity which constitute the           
environment of our daily life4 ,from the
 remotest past which ,science can       
fathom1 up to the novelties of          
yesterday1 that in which ,progress      
essentially consists1 is the            
transformation of the homogeneous into  
the heterogeneous4         99       99  
99       99       99  ,and now1 from    
this uniformity of procedure1 may we not
 infer some fundamental necessity whence
 it results8 ,may we not rationally seek
 for some all-pervading principle which 
determines this all-pervading process of
 things8 ,does not the universality of  
the law imply a universal cause8  ,that 
we can fathom such cause1 noumenally    
considered1 is not to be supposed4 ,to  
do this would be to solve that ultimate 

mystery which must ever transcend human 
intelligence4 ,but it still may be      
possible for us to reduce the law of all
 ,progress1 above established1 from the 
condition of an empirical               
generalisation1 to the condition of a   
rational generalisation4 ,just as it was
 possible to interpret ,kepler's laws as
 necessary consequences of the law of   
gravitation2 so it may be possible to   
interpret this law of ,progress1 in its 
multiform manifestations1 as the        
necessary consequence of some similarly 
universal principle4 ,as gravitation was
 assignable as the cause of each of the 
groups of phenomena which ,kepler       
formulated2 so may some equally simple  
attribute of things be assignable as the
 cause of each of the groups of         
phenomena formulated in the foregoing   
pages4 ,we may be able to affiliate all 
these varied and complex evolutions of  
the homogeneous into the heterogeneous1 
upon certain simple facts of immediate  
experience1 which1 in virtue of endless 

repetition1 we regard as necessary4     
,the probability of a common cause1 and 
the possibility of formulating it1 being
 granted1 it will be well1 before going 
further1 to consider what must be the   
general characteristics of such cause1  
and in what direction we ought to look  
for it4 ,we can with certainty predict  
that it has a high degree of generality2
 seeing that it is common to such       
infinitely varied phenomena3 just in    
proportion to the universality of its   
application must be the abstractness of 
its character4 ,we need not expect to   
see in it an obvious solution of this or
 that form of ,progress2 because it     
equally refers to forms of ,progress    
bearing little apparent resemblance to  
them3 its association with multiform    
orders of facts1 involves its           
dissociation from any particular order  
of facts4 ,being that which determines  
,progress of every kind--astronomic1    
geologic1 organic1 ethnologic1 social1  
economic1 artistic1 etc4--it must be    

concerned with some fundamental         
attribute possessed in common by these2 
and must be expressible in terms of this
 fundamental attribute4 ,the only       
obvious respect in which all kinds of   
,progress are alike1 is1 that they are  
modes of change2 and hence1 in some     
characteristic of changes in general1   
the desired solution will probably be   
found4 ,we may suspect a priori that in 
some law of change lies the explanation 
of this universal transformation of the 
homogeneous into the heterogeneous4     
,thus much premised1 we pass at once to 
the statement of the law1 which is      
this3--,every active force produces more
 than one change--every cause produces  
more than one effect4  ,before this law 
can be duly comprehended1 a few examples
 must be looked at4 ,when one body is   
struck against another1 that which we   
usually regard as the effect1 is a      
change of position or motion in one or  
both bodies4 ,but a moment's thought    
shows us that this is a careless and    

very incomplete view of the matter4     
,besides the visible mechanical result1 
sound is produced2 or1 to speak         
accurately1 a vibration in one or both  
bodies1 and in the surrounding air3 and 
under some circumstances we call this   
the effect4 ,moreover1 the air has not  
only been made to vibrate1 but has had  
sundry currents caused in it by the     
transit of the bodies4 ,further1 there  
is a disarrangement of the particles of 
the two bodies in the neighbourhood of  
their point of collision2 amounting in  
some cases to a visible condensation4   
,yet more1 this condensation is         
accompanied by the disengagement of     
heat4 ,in some cases a spark--that is1  
light--results1 from the incandescence  
of a portion struck off2 and sometimes  
this incandescence is associated with   
chemical combination4  ,thus1 by the    
original mechanical force expended in   
the collision1 at least five1 and often 
more1 different kinds of changes have   
been produced4 ,take1 again1 the        

lighting of a candle4 ,primarily this is
 a chemical change consequent on a rise 
of temperature4 ,the process of         
combination having once been set going  
by extraneous heat1 there is a continued
 formation of carbonic acid1 water1     
etc4--in itself a result more complex   
than the extraneous heat that first     
caused it4 ,but accompanying this       
process of combination there is a       
production of heat2 there is a          
production of light2 there is an        
ascending column of hot gases generated2
 there are currents established in the  
surrounding air4 ,moreover the          
decomposition of one force into many    
forces does not end here3 each of the   
several changes produced becomes the    
parent of further changes4 ,the carbonic
 acid given off will by and by combine  
with some base2 or under the influence  
of sunshine give up its carbon to the   
leaf of a plant4 ,the water will modify 
the hygrometric state of the air around2
 or1 if the current of hot gases        

containing it come against a cold body1 
will be condensed3 altering the         
temperature1 and perhaps the chemical   
state1 of the surface it covers4 ,the   
heat given out melts the subjacent      
tallow1 and expands whatever it warms4  
,the light1 falling on various          
substances1 calls forth from them       
reactions by which it is modified2 and  
so divers colours are produced4         
,similarly even with these secondary    
actions1 which may be traced out into   
ever-multiplying ramifications1 until   
they become too minute to be            
appreciated4 ,and thus it is with all   
changes whatever4 ,no case can be named 
in which an active force does not evolve
 forces of several kinds1 and each of   
these1 other groups of forces4          
,universally the effect is more complex 
than the cause4  ,doubtless the reader  
already foresees the course of our      
argument4 ,this multiplication of       
results1 which is displayed in every    
event of to-day1 has been going on from 

the beginning2 and is true of the       
grandest phenomena of the universe as of
 the most insignificant4 ,from the law  
that every active force produces more   
than one change1 it is an inevitable    
corollary that through all time there   
has been an ever-growing complication of
 things4 ,starting with the ultimate    
fact that every cause produces more than
 one effect1 we may readily see that    
throughout creation there must have gone
 on1 and must still go on1 a            
never-ceasing transformation of the     
homogeneous into the heterogeneous4 ,but
 let us trace out this truth in detail4 
,without committing ourselves to it as  
more than a speculation1 though a highly
 probable one1 let us again commence    
with the evolution of the solar system  
out of a nebulous medium4#c ,from the   
mutual attraction of the atoms of a     
diffused mass whose form is             
unsymmetrical1 there results not only   
condensation but rotation3 gravitation  
simultaneously generates both the       

centripetal and the centrifugal forces4 
,while the condensation and the rate of 
rotation are progressively increasing1  
the approach of the atoms necessarily   
generates a progressively increasing    
temperature4 ,as this temperature rises1
 light begins to be evolved2 and        
ultimately there results a revolving    
sphere of fluid matter radiating intense
 heat and light--a sun4  ,there are good
 reasons for believing that1 in         
consequence of the high tangential      
velocity1 and consequent centrifugal    
force1 acquired by the outer parts of   
the condensing nebulous mass1 there must
 be a periodical detachment of rotating 
rings2 and that1 from the breaking up of
 these nebulous rings1 there must arise 
masses which in the course of their     
condensation repeat the actions of the  
parent mass1 and so produce planets and 
their satellites--an inference strongly 
supported by the still extant rings of  
,saturn4  ,should it hereafter be       
satisfactorily shown that planets and   

satellites were thus generated1 a       
striking illustration will be afforded  
of the highly heterogeneous effects     
produced by the primary homogeneous     
cause2 but it will serve our present    
purpose to point to the fact that from  
the mutual attraction of the particles  
of an irregular nebulous mass there     
result condensation1 rotation1 heat1 and
 light4  ,it follows as a corollary from
 the ,nebular ,hypothesis1 that the     
,earth must at first have been          
incandescent2 and whether the ,nebular  
,hypothesis be true or not1 this        
original incandescence of the ,earth is 
now inductively established--or1 if not 
established1 at least rendered so highly
 probable that it is a generally        
admitted geological doctrine4 ,let us   
look first at the astronomical          
attributes of this once molten globe4   
,from its rotation there result the     
oblateness of its form1 the alternations
 of day and night1 and 7under the       
influence of the moon7 the tides1       

aqueous and atmospheric4 ,from the      
inclination of its axis1 there result   
the precession of the equinoxes and the 
many differences of the seasons1 both   
simultaneous and successive1 that       
pervade its surface4 ,thus the          
multiplication of effects is obvious4   
,several of the differentiations due to 
the gradual cooling of the ,earth have  
been already noticed--as the formation  
of a crust1 the solidification of       
sublimed elements1 the precipitation of 
water1 etc41--and we here again refer to
 them merely to point out that they are 
simultaneous effects of the one cause1  
diminishing heat4  ,let us now1 however1
 observe the multiplied changes         
afterwards arising from the continuance 
of this one cause4 ,the cooling of the  
,earth involves its contraction4 ,hence 
the solid crust first formed is         
presently too large for the shrinking   
nucleus2 and as it cannot support       
itself1 inevitably follows the nucleus4 
,but a spheroidal envelope cannot sink  

down into contact with a smaller        
internal spheroid1 without disruption2  
it must run into wrinkles as the rind of
 an apple does when the bulk of its     
interior decreases from evaporation4 ,as
 the cooling progresses and the envelope
 thickens1 the ridges consequent on     
these contractions must become greater1 
rising ultimately into hills and        
mountains2 and the later systems of     
mountains thus produced must not only be
 higher1 as we find them to be1 but they
 must be longer1 as we also find them to
 be4 ,thus1 leaving out of view other   
modifying forces1 we see what immense   
heterogeneity of surface has arisen from
 the one cause1 loss of heat--a         
heterogeneity which the telescope shows 
us to be paralleled on the face of the  
moon1 where aqueous and atmospheric     
agencies have been absent4  ,but we have
 yet to notice another kind of          
heterogeneity of surface similarly and  
simultaneously caused4 ,while the       
,earth's crust was still thin1 the      

ridges produced by its contraction must 
not only have been small1 but the spaces
 between these ridges must have rested  
with great evenness upon the subjacent  
liquid spheroid2 and the water in those 
arctic and antarctic regions in which it
 first condensed1 must have been evenly 
distributed4 ,but as fast as the crust  
grew thicker and gained corresponding   
strength1 the lines of fracture from    
time to time caused in it1 must have    
occurred at greater distances apart2 the
 intermediate surfaces must have        
followed the contracting nucleus with   
less uniformity2 and there must have    
resulted larger areas of land and water4
 ,if any one1 after wrapping up an      
orange in wet tissue paper1 and         
observing not only how small are the    
wrinkles1 but how evenly the intervening
 spaces lie upon the surface of the     
orange1 will then wrap it up in thick   
cartridge-paper1 and note both the      
greater height of the ridges and the    
much larger spaces throughout which the 

paper does not touch the orange1 he will
 realise the fact1 that as the ,earth's 
solid envelope grew thicker1 the areas  
of elevation and depression must have   
become greater4 ,in place of islands    
more or less homogeneously scattered    
over an all-embracing sea1 there must   
have gradually arisen heterogeneous     
arrangements of continent and ocean1    
such as we now know4  ,once more1 this  
double change in the extent and in the  
elevation of the lands1 involved yet    
another species of heterogeneity1 that  
of coast-line4 ,a tolerably even surface
 raised out of the ocean1 must have a   
simple1 regular sea-margin2 but a       
surface varied by table-lands and       
intersected by mountain-chains must1    
when raised out of the ocean1 have an   
outline extremely irregular both in its 
leading features and in its details4    
,thus endless is the accumulation of    
geological and geographical results     
slowly brought about by this one        
cause--the contraction of the ,earth4   

,when we pass from the agency which     
geologists term igneous1 to aqueous and 
atmospheric agencies1 we see the like   
ever growing complications of effects4  
,the denuding actions of air and water  
have1 from the beginning1 been modifying
 every exposed surface2 everywhere      
causing many different changes4         
,oxidation1 heat1 wind1 frost1 rain1    
glaciers1 rivers1 tides1 waves1 have    
been unceasingly producing              
disintegration2 varying in kind and     
amount according to local circumstances4
 ,acting upon a tract of granite1 they  
here work scarcely an appreciable       
effect2 there cause exfoliations of the 
surface1 and a resulting heap of debris 
and boulders2 and elsewhere1 after      
decomposing the feldspar into a white   
clay1 carry away this and the           
accompanying quartz and mica1 and       
deposit them in separate beds1          
fluviatile and marine4 ,when the exposed
 land consists of several unlike        
formations1 sedimentary and igneous1 the

 denudation produces changes            
proportionably more heterogeneous4 ,the 
formations being disintegrable in       
different degrees1 there follows an     
increased irregularity of surface4 ,the 
areas drained by different rivers being 
differently constituted1 these rivers   
carry down to the sea different         
combinations of ingredients2 and so     
sundry new strata of distinct           
composition are formed4  ,and here      
indeed we may see very simply           
illustrated1 the truth1 which we shall  
presently have to trace out in more     
involved cases1 that in proportion to   
the heterogeneity of the object or      
objects on which any force expends      
itself1 is the heterogeneity of the     
results4 ,a continent of complex        
structure1 exposing many strata         
irregularly distributed1 raised to      
various levels1 tilted up at all angles1
 must1 under the same denuding agencies1
 give origin to immensely multiplied    
results2 each district must be          

differently modified2 each river must   
carry down a different kind of detritus2
 each deposit must be differently       
distributed by the entangled currents1  
tidal and other1 which wash the         
contorted shores2 and this              
multiplication of results must          
manifestly be greatest where the        
complexity of the surface is greatest4  
,it is out of the question here to trace
 in detail the genesis of those endless 
complications described by ,geology and 
,physical ,geography3 else we might show
 how the general truth1 that every      
active force produces more than one     
change1 is exemplified in the highly    
involved flow of the tides1 in the ocean
 currents1 in the winds1 in the         
distribution of rain1 in the            
distribution of heat1 and so forth4 ,but
 not to dwell upon these1 let us1 for   
the fuller elucidation of this truth in 
relation to the inorganic world1        
consider what would be the consequences 
of some extensive cosmical              

revolution--say the subsidence of       
,central ,america4  ,the immediate      
results of the disturbance would        
themselves be sufficiently complex4     
,besides the numberless dislocations of 
strata1 the ejections of igneous matter1
 the propagation of earthquake          
vibrations thousands of miles around1   
the loud explosions1 and the escape of  
gases2 there would be the rush of the   
,atlantic and ,pacific ,oceans to supply
 the vacant space1 the subsequent recoil
 of enormous waves1 which would traverse
 both these oceans and produce myriads  
of changes along their shores1 the      
corresponding atmospheric waves         
complicated by the currents surrounding 
each volcanic vent1 and the electrical  
discharges with which such disturbances 
are accompanied4 ,but these temporary   
effects would be insignificant compared 
with the permanent ones4 ,the complex   
currents of the ,atlantic and ,pacific  
would be altered in direction and       
amount4 ,the distribution of heat       

achieved by these ocean currents would  
be different from what it is4 ,the      
arrangement of the isothermal lines1 not
 even on the neighbouring continents1   
but even throughout ,europe1 would be   
changed4 ,the tides would flow          
differently from what they do now4      
,there would be more or less            
modification of the winds in their      
periods1 strengths1 directions1         
qualities4 ,rain would fall scarcely    
anywhere at the same times and in the   
same quantities as at present4 ,in      
short1 the meteorological conditions    
thousands of miles off1 on all sides1   
would be more or less revolutionised4   
,thus1 without taking into account the  
infinitude of modifications which these 
changes of climate would produce upon   
the flora and fauna1 both of land and   
sea1 the reader will see the immense    
heterogeneity of the results wrought out
 by one force1 when that force expends  
itself upon a previously complicated    
area2 and he will readily draw the      

corollary that from the beginning the   
complication has advanced at an         
increasing rate4  ,before going on to   
show how organic progress also depends  
upon the universal law that every force 
produces more than one change1 we have  
to notice the manifestation of this law 
in yet another species of inorganic     
progress--namely1 chemical4 ,the same   
general causes that have wrought out the
 heterogeneity of the ,earth1 physically
 considered1 have simultaneously wrought
 out its chemical heterogeneity4        
,without dwelling upon the general fact 
that the forces which have been         
increasing the variety and complexity of
 geological formations1 have1 at the    
same time1 been bringing into contact   
elements not previously exposed to each 
other under conditions favourable to    
union1 and so have been adding to the   
number of chemical compounds1 let us    
pass to the more important complications
 that have resulted from the cooling of 
the ,earth4  ,there is every reason to  

believe that at an extreme heat the     
elements cannot combine4 ,even under    
such heat as can be artificially        
produced1 some very strong affinities   
yield1 as for instance1 that of oxygen  
for hydrogen2 and the great majority of 
chemical compounds are decomposed at    
much lower temperatures4 ,but without   
insisting upon the highly probable      
inference1 that when the ,earth was in  
its first state of incandescence there  
were no chemical combinations at all1 it
 will suffice our purpose to point to   
the unquestionable fact that the        
compounds that can exist at the highest 
temperatures1 and which must1 therefore1
 have been the first that were formed as
 the ,earth cooled1 are those of the    
simplest constitutions4 ,the            
protoxides--including under that head   
the alkalies1 earths1 etc4--are1 as a   
class1 the most stable compounds we     
know3 most of them resisting            
decomposition by any heat we can        
generate4 ,these1 consisting severally  

of one atom of each component element1  
are combinations of the simplest        
order--are but one degree less          
homogeneous than the elements           
themselves4 ,more heterogeneous than    
these1 less stable1 and therefore later 
in the ,earth's history1 are the        
deutoxides1 tritoxides1 peroxides1 etc42
 in which two1 three1 four1 or more     
atoms of oxygen are united with one atom
 of metal or other element4 ,higher than
 these in heterogeneity are the         
hydrates2 in which an oxide of hydrogen1
 united with an oxide of some other     
element1 forms a substance whose atoms  
severally contain at least four ultimate
 atoms of three different kinds4 ,yet   
more heterogeneous and less stable still
 are the salts2 which present us with   
compound atoms each made up of five1    
six1 seven1 eight1 ten1 twelve1 or more 
atoms1 of three1 if not more1 kinds4    
,then there are the hydrated salts1 of a
 yet greater heterogeneity1 which       
undergo partial decomposition at much   

lower temperatures4 ,after them come the
 further-complicated supersalts and     
double salts1 having a stability again  
decreased2 and so throughout4 ,without  
entering into qualifications for which  
we lack space1 we believe no chemist    
will deny it to be a general law of     
these inorganic combinations that1 other
 things equal1 the stability decreases  
as the complexity increases4  ,and then 
when we pass to the compounds of organic
 chemistry1 we find this general law    
still further exemplified3 we find much 
greater complexity and much less        
stability4 ,an atom of albumen1 for     
instance1 consists of #dhb ultimate     
atoms of five different kinds4 ,fibrine1
 still more intricate in constitution1  
contains in each atom1 #bih atoms of    
carbon1 #dj of nitrogen1 #b of sulphur1 
#bbh of hydrogen1 and #ib of oxygen--in 
all1 #ffj atoms2 or1 more strictly      
speaking--equivalents4 ,and these two   
substances are so unstable as to        
decompose at quite ordinary             

temperatures2 as that to which the      
outside of a joint of roast meat is     
exposed4 ,thus it is manifest that the  
present chemical heterogeneity of the   
,earth's surface has arisen by degrees1 
as the decrease of heat has permitted2  
and that it has shown itself in three   
forms--first1 in the multiplication of  
chemical compounds2 second1 in the      
greater number of different elements    
contained in the more modern of these   
compounds3 and third1 in the higher and 
more varied multiples in which these    
more numerous elements combine4  ,to say
 that this advance in chemical          
heterogeneity is due to the one cause1  
diminution of the ,earth's temperature1 
would be to say too much2 for it is     
clear that aqueous and atmospheric      
agencies have been concerned2 and1      
further1 that the affinities of the     
elements themselves are implied4 ,the   
cause has all along been a composite    
one3 the cooling of the ,earth having   
been simply the most general of the     

concurrent causes1 or assemblage of     
conditions4 ,and here1 indeed1 it may be
 remarked that in the several classes of
 facts already dealt with 7excepting1   
perhaps1 the first71 and still more in  
those with which we shall presently     
deal1 the causes are more or less       
compound2 as indeed are nearly all      
causes with which we are acquainted4    
,scarcely any change can with logical   
accuracy be wholly ascribed to one      
agency1 to the neglect of the permanent 
or temporary conditions under which only
 this agency produces the change4 ,but  
as it does not materially affect our    
argument1 we prefer1 for simplicity's   
sake1 to use throughout the popular mode
 of expression4  ,perhaps it will be    
further objected1 that to assign loss of
 heat as the cause of any changes1 is to
 attribute these changes not to a force1
 but to the absence of a force4 ,and    
this is true4 ,strictly speaking1 the   
changes should be attributed to those   
forces which come into action when the  

antagonist force is withdrawn4 ,but     
though there is an inaccuracy in saying 
that the freezing of water is due to the
 loss of its heat1 no practical error   
arises from it2 nor will a parallel     
laxity of expression vitiate our        
statements respecting the multiplication
 of effects4 ,indeed1 the objection     
serves but to draw attention to the     
fact1 that not only does the exertion of
 a force produce more than one change1  
but the withdrawal of a force produces  
more than one change4 ,and this suggests
 that perhaps the most correct statement
 of our general principle would be its  
most abstract statement--every change is
 followed by more than one other change4
  ,returning to the thread of our       
exposition1 we have next to trace out1  
in organic progress1 this same          
all-pervading principle4 ,and here1     
where the evolution of the homogeneous  
into the heterogeneous was first        
observed1 the production of many changes
 by one cause is least easy to          

demonstrate4 ,the development of a seed 
into a plant1 or an ovum into an animal1
 is so gradual1 while the forces which  
determine it are so involved1 and at the
 same time so unobtrusive1 that it is   
difficult to detect the multiplication  
of effects which is elsewhere so        
obvious4 ,nevertheless1 guided by       
indirect evidence1 we may pretty safely 
reach the conclusion that here too the  
law holds4  ,observe1 first1 how        
numerous are the effects which any      
marked change works upon an adult       
organism--a human being1 for instance4  
,an alarming sound or sigh1 besides the 
impressions on the organs of sense and  
the nerves1 may produce a start1 a      
scream1 a distortion of the face1 a     
trembling consequent upon a general     
muscular relaxation1 a burst of         
perspiration1 an excited action of the  
heart1 a rush of blood to the brain1    
followed possibly by arrest of the      
heart's action and by syncope3 and if   
the system be feeble1 an indisposition  

with its long train of complicated      
symptoms may set in4 ,similarly in cases
 of disease4 ,a minute portion of the   
small-pox virus introduced into the     
system1 will1 in a severe case1 cause1  
during the first stage1 rigors1 heat of 
skin1 accelerated pulse1 furred tongue1 
loss of appetite1 thirst1 epigastric    
uneasiness1 vomiting1 headache1 pains in
 the back and limbs1 muscular weakness1 
convulsions1 delirium1 etc42 in the     
second stage1 cutaneous eruption1       
itching1 tingling1 sore throat1 swelled 
fauces1 salivation1 cough1 hoarseness1  
dyspnoea1 etc42 and in the third stage1 
oedematous inflammations1 pneumonia1    
pleurisy1 diarrhoea1 inflammation of the
 brain1 ophthalmia1 erysipelas1 etc42   
each of which enumerated symptoms is    
itself more or less complex4 ,medicines1
 special foods1 better air1 might in    
like manner be instanced as producing   
multiplied results4  ,now it needs only 
to consider that the many changes thus  
wrought by one force upon an adult      

organism1 will be in part paralleled in 
an embryo organism1 to understand how   
here also1 the evolution of the         
homogeneous into the heterogeneous may  
be due to the production of many effects
 by one cause4 ,the external heat and   
other agencies which determine the first
 complications of the germ1 may1 by     
acting upon these1 superinduce further  
complications2 upon these still higher  
and more numerous ones2 and so on       
continually3 each organ as it is        
developed serving1 by its actions and   
reactions upon the rest1 to initiate new
 complexities4 ,the first pulsations of 
the foetal heart must simultaneously aid
 the unfolding of every part4 ,the      
growth of each tissue1 by taking from   
the blood special proportions of        
elements1 must modify the constitution  
of the blood2 and so must modify the    
nutrition of all the other tissues4 ,the
 heart's action1 implying as it does a  
certain waste1 necessitates an addition 
to the blood of effete matters1 which   

must influence the rest of the system1  
and perhaps1 as some think1 cause the   
formation of excretory organs4 ,the     
nervous connections established among   
the viscera must further multiply their 
mutual influences3 and so continually4  
,still stronger becomes the probability 
of this view when we call to mind the   
fact1 that the same germ may be evolved 
into different forms according to       
circumstances4 ,thus1 during its earlier
 stages1 every embryo is                
sexless--becomes either male or female  
as the balance of forces acting upon it 
determines4 ,again1 it is a             
well-established fact that the larva of 
a working-bee will develop into a       
queen-bee1 if1 before it is too late1   
its food be changed to that on which the
 larvae of queen-bees are fed4 ,even    
more remarkable is the case of certain  
entozoa4 ,the ovum of a tape-worm1      
getting into its natural habitat1 the   
intestine1 unfolds into the well-known  
form of its parent2 but if carried1 as  

it frequently is1 into other parts of   
the system1 it becomes a sac-like       
creature1 called by naturalists the     
,echinococcus--a creature so extremely  
different from the tape-worm in aspect  
and structure1 that only after careful  
investigations has it been proved to    
have the same origin4 ,all which        
instances imply that each advance in    
embryonic complication results from the 
action of incident forces upon the      
complication previously existing4       
,indeed1 we may find a priori reason to 
think that the evolution proceeds after 
this manner4 ,for since it is now known 
that no germ1 animal or vegetable1      
contains the slightest rudiment1 trace1 
or indication of the future             
organism--now that the microscope has   
shown us that the first process set up  
in every fertilised germ1 is a process  
of repeated spontaneous fissions ending 
in the production of a mass of cells1   
not one of which exhibits any special   
character3 there seems no alternative   

but to suppose that the partial         
organisation at any moment subsisting in
 a growing embryo1 is transformed by the
 agencies acting upon it into the       
succeeding phase of organisation1 and   
this into the next1 until1 through      
ever-increasing complexities1 the       
ultimate form is reached4 ,thus1 though 
the subtilty of the forces and the      
slowness of the results1 prevent us from
 directly showing that the stages of    
increasing heterogeneity through which  
every embryo passes1 severally arise    
from the production of many changes by  
one force1 yet1 indirectly1 we have     
strong evidence that they do so4  ,we   
have marked how multitudinous are the   
effects which one cause may generate in 
an adult organism2 that a like          
multiplication of effects must happen in
 the unfolding organism1 we have        
observed in sundry illustrative cases2  
further1 it has been pointed out that   
the ability which like germs have to    
originate unlike forms1 implies that the

 successive transformations result from 
the new changes superinduced on previous
 changes2 and we have seen that         
structureless as every germ originally  
is1 the development of an organism out  
of it is otherwise incomprehensible4    
,not indeed that we can thus really     
explain the production of any plant or  
animal4 ,we are still in the dark       
respecting those mysterious properties  
in virtue of which the germ1 when       
subject to fit influences1 undergoes the
 special changes that begin the series  
of transformations4 ,all we aim to show1
 is1 that given a germ possessing these 
mysterious properties1 the evolution of 
an organism from it1 probably depends   
upon that multiplication of effects     
which we have seen to be the cause of   
progress in general1 so far as we have  
yet traced it4  ,when1 leaving the      
development of single plants and        
animals1 we pass to that of the ,earth's
 flora and fauna1 the course of our     
argument again becomes clear and simple4

 ,though1 as was admitted in the first  
part of this article1 the fragmentary   
facts ,palaeontology has accumulated1 do
 not clearly warrant us in saying that1 
in the lapse of geologic time1 there    
have been evolved more heterogeneous    
organisms1 and more heterogeneous       
assemblages of organisms1 yet we shall  
now see that there must ever have been a
 tendency towards these results4 ,we    
shall find that the production of many  
effects by one cause1 which1 as already 
shown1 has been all along increasing the
 physical heterogeneity of the ,earth1  
has further involved an increasing      
heterogeneity in its flora and fauna1   
individually and collectively4 ,an      
illustration will make this clear4      
,suppose that by a series of upheavals1 
occurring1 as they are now known to do1 
at long intervals1 the ,east ,indian    
,archipelago were to be1 step by step1  
raised into a continent1 and a chain of 
mountains formed along the axis of      
elevation4 ,by the first of these       

upheavals1 the plants and animals       
inhabiting ,borneo1 ,sumatra1 ,new      
,guinea1 and the rest1 would be         
subjected to slightly modified sets of  
conditions4 ,the climate in general     
would be altered in temperature1 in     
humidity1 and in its periodical         
variations2 while the local differences 
would be multiplied4 ,these             
modifications would affect1 perhaps     
inappreciably1 the entire flora and     
fauna of the region4 ,the change of     
level would produce additional          
modifications3 varying in different     
species1 and also in different members  
of the same species1 according to their 
distance from the axis of elevation4    
,plants1 growing only on the sea-shore  
in special localities1 might become     
extinct4 ,others1 living only in swamps 
of a certain humidity1 would1 if they   
survived at all1 probably undergo       
visible changes of appearance4 ,while   
still greater alterations would occur in
 the plants gradually spreading over the

 lands newly raised above the sea4 ,the 
animals and insects living on these     
modified plants1 would themselves be in 
some degree modified by change of food1 
as well as by change of climate2 and the
 modification would be more marked      
where1 from the dwindling or            
disappearance of one kind of plant1 an  
allied kind was eaten4 ,in the lapse of 
the many generations arising before the 
next upheaval1 the sensible or          
insensible alterations thus produced in 
each species would become               
organised--there would be a more or less
 complete adaptation to the new         
conditions4 ,the next upheaval would    
superinduce further organic changes1    
implying wider divergences from the     
primary forms2 and so repeatedly4  ,but 
now let it be observed that the         
revolution thus resulting would not be a
 substitution of a thousand more or less
 modified species for the thousand      
original species2 but in place of the   
thousand original species there would   

arise several thousand species1 or      
varieties1 or changed forms4 ,each      
species being distributed over an area  
of some extent1 and tending continually 
to colonise the new area exposed1 its   
different members would be subject to   
different sets of changes4 ,plants and  
animals spreading towards the equator   
would not be affected in the same way   
with others spreading from it4 ,those   
spreading towards the new shores would  
undergo changes unlike the changes      
undergone by those spreading into the   
mountains4 ,thus1 each original race of 
organisms1 would become the root from   
which diverged several races differing  
more or less from it and from each      
other2 and while some of these might    
subsequently disappear1 probably more   
than one would survive in the next      
geologic period3 the very dispersion    
itself increasing the chances of        
survival4 ,not only would there be      
certain modifications thus caused by    
change of physical conditions and food1 

but also in some cases other            
modifications caused by change of habit4
 ,the fauna of each island1 peopling1   
step by step1 the newly-raised tracts1  
would eventually come in contact with   
the faunas of other islands2 and some   
members of these other faunas would be  
unlike any creatures before seen4       
,herbivores meeting with new beasts of  
prey1 would1 in some cases1 be led into 
modes of defence or escape differing    
from those previously used2 and         
simultaneously the beasts of prey would 
modify their modes of pursuit and       
attack4 ,we know that when circumstances
 demand it1 such changes of habit do    
take place in animals2 and we know that 
if the new habits become the dominant   
ones1 they must eventually in some      
degree alter the organisation4          
,observe1 now1 however1 a further       
consequence4 ,there must arise not      
simply a tendency towards the           
differentiation of each race of         
organisms into several races2 but also a

 tendency to the occasional production  
of a somewhat higher organism4 ,taken in
 the mass1 these divergent varieties    
which have been caused by fresh physical
 conditions and habits of life1 will    
exhibit changes quite indefinite in kind
 and degree2 and changes that do not    
necessarily constitute an advance4      
,probably in most cases the modified    
type will be neither more nor less      
heterogeneous than the original one4 ,in
 some cases the habits of life adopted  
being simpler than before1 a less       
heterogeneous structure will result3    
there will be a retrogradation4 ,but it 
must now and then occur1 that some      
division of a species1 falling into     
circumstances which give it rather more 
complex experiences1 and demand actions 
somewhat more involved1 will have       
certain of its organs further           
differentiated in proportionately small 
degrees1--will become slightly more     
heterogeneous4  ,thus1 in the natural   
course of things1 there will from time  

to time arise an increased heterogeneity
 both of the ,earth's flora and fauna1  
and of individual races included in     
them4 ,omitting detailed explanations1  
and allowing for the qualifications     
which cannot here be specified1 we think
 it is clear that geological mutations  
have all along tended to complicate the 
forms of life1 whether regarded         
separately or collectively4 ,the same   
causes which have led to the evolution  
of the ,earth's crust from the simple   
into the complex1 have simultaneously   
led to a parallel evolution of the ,life
 upon its surface4 ,in this case1 as in 
previous ones1 we see that the          
transformation of the homogeneous into  
the heterogeneous is consequent upon the
 universal principle1 that every active 
force produces more than one change4    
,the deduction here drawn from the      
established truths of geology and the   
general laws of life1 gains immensely in
 weight on finding it to be in harmony  
with an induction drawn from direct     

experience4 ,just that divergence of    
many races from one race1 which we      
inferred must have been continually     
occurring during geologic time1 we know 
to have occurred during the pre-historic
 and historic periods1 in man and       
domestic animals4 ,and just that        
multiplication of effects which we      
concluded must have produced the first1 
we see has produced the last4 ,single   
causes1 as famine1 pressure of          
population1 war1 have periodically led  
to further dispersions of mankind and of
 dependent creatures3 each such         
dispersion initiating new modifications1
 new varieties of type4 ,whether all the
 human races be or be not derived from  
one stock1 philology makes it clear that
 whole groups of races now easily       
distinguishable from each other1 were   
originally one race1--that the diffusion
 of one race into different climates and
 conditions of existence1 has produced  
many modified forms of it4  ,similarly  
with domestic animals4 ,though in some  

cases--as that of dogs--community of    
origin will perhaps be disputed1 yet in 
other cases--as that of the sheep or the
 cattle of our own country--it will not 
be questioned that local differences of 
climate1 food1 and treatment1 have      
transformed one original breed into     
numerous breeds now become so far       
distinct as to produce unstable hybrids4
 ,moreover1 through the complications of
 effects flowing from single causes1 we 
here find1 what we before inferred1 not 
only an increase of general             
heterogeneity1 but also of special      
heterogeneity4 ,while of the divergent  
divisions and subdivisions of the human 
race1 many have undergone changes not   
constituting an advance2 while in some  
the type may have degraded2 in others it
 has become decidedly more              
heterogeneous4 ,the civilised ,european 
departs more widely from the vertebrate 
archetype than does the savage4 ,thus1  
both the law and the cause of progress1 
which1 from lack of evidence1 can be but

 hypothetically substantiated in respect
 of the earlier forms of life on our    
globe1 can be actually substantiated in 
respect of the latest forms4  ,if the   
advance of ,man towards greater         
heterogeneity is traceable to the       
production of many effects by one cause1
 still more clearly may the advance of  
,society towards greater heterogeneity  
be so explained4 ,consider the growth of
 an industrial organisation4 ,when1 as  
must occasionally happen1 some          
individual of a tribe displays unusual  
aptitude for making an article of       
general use--a weapon1 for              
instance--which was before made by each 
man for himself1 there arises a tendency
 towards the differentiation of that    
individual into a maker of such weapon4 
,his companions--warriors and hunters   
all of them1--severally feel the        
importance of having the best weapons   
that can be made2 and are therefore     
certain to offer strong inducements to  
this skilled individual to make weapons 

for them4 ,he1 on the other hand1 having
 not only an unusual faculty1 but an    
unusual liking1 for making such weapons 
7the talent and the desire for any      
occupation being commonly associated71  
is predisposed to fulfil these          
commissions on the offer of an adequate 
reward3 especially as his love of       
distinction is also gratified4 ,this    
first specialisation of function1 once  
commenced1 tends ever to become more    
decided4 ,on the side of the            
weapon-maker continued practice gives   
increased skill--increased superiority  
to his products3 on the side of his     
clients1 cessation of practice entails  
decreased skill4 ,thus the influences   
that determine this division of labour  
grow stronger in both ways2 and the     
incipient heterogeneity is1 on the      
average of cases1 likely to become      
permanent for that generation1 if no    
longer4  ,observe now1 however1 that    
this process not only differentiates the
 social mass into two parts1 the one    

monopolising1 or almost monopolising1   
the performance of a certain function1  
and the other having lost the habit1 and
 in some measure the power1 of          
performing that function2 but it tends  
to imitate other differentiations4 ,the 
advance we have described implies the   
introduction of barter1--the maker of   
weapons has1 on each occasion1 to be    
paid in such other articles as he agrees
 to take in exchange4 ,but he will not  
habitually take in exchange one kind of 
article1 but many kinds4 ,he does not   
want mats only1 or skins1 or fishing    
gear1 but he wants all these2 and on    
each occasion will bargain for the      
particular things he most needs4 ,what  
follows8 ,if among the members of the   
tribe there exist any slight differences
 of skill in the manufacture of these   
various things1 as there are almost sure
 to do1 the weapon-maker will take from 
each one the thing which that one excels
 in making3 he will exchange for mats   
with him whose mats are superior1 and   

will bargain for the fishing gear of    
whoever has the best4 ,but he who has   
bartered away his mats or his fishing   
gear1 must make other mats or fishing   
gear for himself2 and in so doing must1 
in some degree1 further develop his     
aptitude4 ,thus it results that the     
small specialities of faculty possessed 
by various members of the tribe1 will   
tend to grow more decided4 ,if such     
transactions are from time to time      
repeated1 these specialisations may     
become appreciable4 ,and whether or not 
there ensue distinct differentiations of
 other individuals into makers of       
particular articles1 it is clear that   
incipient differentiations take place   
throughout the tribe3 the one original  
cause produces not only the first dual  
effect1 but a number of secondary dual  
effects1 like in kind1 but minor in     
degree4 ,this process1 of which traces  
may be seen among groups of schoolboys1 
cannot well produce any lasting effects 
in an unsettled tribe2 but where there  

grows up a fixed and multiplying        
community1 these differentiations become
 permanent1 and increase with each      
generation4 ,a larger population1       
involving a greater demand for every    
commodity1 intensifies the functional   
activity of each specialised person or  
class2 and this renders the             
specialisation more definite where it   
already exists1 and establishes it where
 it is nascent4 ,by increasing the      
pressure on the means of subsistence1 a 
larger population again augments these  
results2 seeing that each person is     
forced more and more to confine himself 
to that which he can do best1 and by    
which he can gain most4 ,this industrial
 progress1 by aiding future production1 
opens the way for a further growth of   
population1 which reacts as before3 in  
all which the multiplication of effects 
is manifest4 ,presently1 under these    
same stimuli1 new occupations arise4    
,competing workers1 ever aiming to      
produce improved articles1 occasionally 

discover better processes or raw        
materials4 ,in weapons and cutting      
tools1 the substitution of bronze for   
stone entails upon him who first makes  
it a great increase of demand--so great 
an increase that he presently finds all 
his time occupied in making the bronze  
for the articles he sells1 and is       
obliged to depute the fashioning of     
these to others3 and1 eventually1 the   
making of bronze1 thus gradually        
differentiated from a pre-existing      
occupation1 becomes an occupation by    
itself4  ,but now mark the ramified     
changes which follow this change4       
,bronze soon replaces stone1 not only in
 the articles it was first used for1 but
 in many others--in arms1 tools1 and    
utensils of various kinds2 and so       
affects the manufacture of these things4
 ,further1 it affects the processes     
which these utensils subserve1 and the  
resulting products--modifies buildings1 
carvings1 dress1 personal decorations4  
,yet again1 it sets going sundry        

manufactures which were before          
impossible1 from lack of a material fit 
for the requisite tools4 ,and all these 
changes react on the people--increase   
their manipulative skill1 their         
intelligence1 their comfort1--refine    
their habits and tastes4 ,thus the      
evolution of a homogeneous society into 
a heterogeneous one1 is clearly         
consequent on the general principle1    
that many effects are produced by one   
cause4  ,our limits will not allow us to
 follow out this process in its higher  
complications3 else might we show how   
the localisation of special industries  
in special parts of a kingdom1 as well  
as the minute subdivision of labour in  
the making of each commodity1 are       
similarly determined4 ,or1 turning to a 
somewhat different order of             
illustrations1 we might dwell on the    
multitudinous changes--material1        
intellectual1 moral--caused by printing2
 or the further extensive series of     
changes wrought by gunpowder4 ,but      

leaving the intermediate phases of      
social development1 let us take a few   
illustrations from its most recent and  
its passing phases4 ,to trace the       
effects of steam-power1 in its manifold 
applications to mining1 navigation1 and 
manufactures of all kinds1 would carry  
us into unmanageable detail4 ,let us    
confine ourselves to the latest         
embodiment of steam-power--the          
locomotive engine4  ,this1 as the       
proximate cause of our railway system1  
has changed the face of the country1 the
 course of trade1 and the habits of the 
people4 ,consider1 first1 the           
complicated sets of changes that precede
 the making of every railway--the       
provisional arrangements1 the meetings1 
the registration1 the trial section1 the
 parliamentary survey1 the lithographed 
plans1 the books of reference1 the local
 deposits and notices1 the application  
to ,parliament1 the passing             
,standing-,orders ,committee1 the first1
 second1 and third readings3 each of    

which brief heads indicates a           
multiplicity of transactions1 and the   
development of sundry occupations--as   
those of engineers1 surveyors1          
lithographers1 parliamentary agents1    
share-brokers2 and the creation of      
sundry others--as those of              
traffic-takers1 reference-takers4       
,consider1 next1 the yet more marked    
changes implied in railway              
construction--the cuttings1 embankings1 
tunnellings1 diversions of roads2 the   
building of bridges1 and stations2 the  
laying down of ballast1 sleepers1 and   
rails2 the making of engines1 tenders1  
carriages1 and waggons3 which processes1
 acting upon numerous trades1 increase  
the importation of timber1 the quarrying
 of stone1 the manufacture of iron1 the 
mining of coal1 the burning of bricks3  
institute a variety of special          
manufactures weekly advertised in the   
,railway ,times2 and1 finally1 open the 
way to sundry new occupations1 as those 
of drivers1 stokers1 cleaners1          

plate-layers1 etc41 etc4 ,and then      
consider the changes1 more numerous and 
involved still1 which railways in action
 produce on the community at large4 ,the
 organisation of every business is more 
or less modified3 ease of communication 
makes it better to do directly what was 
before done by proxy2 agencies are      
established where previously they would 
not have paid2 goods are obtained from  
remote wholesale houses instead of near 
retail ones2 and commodities are used   
which distance once rendered            
inaccessible4 ,again1 the rapidity and  
small cost of carriage tend to          
specialise more than ever the industries
 of different districts--to confine each
 manufacture to the parts in which1 from
 local advantages1 it can be best       
carried on4 ,further1 the diminished    
cost of carriage1 facilitating          
distribution1 equalises prices1 and     
also1 on the average1 lowers prices3    
thus bringing divers articles within the
 means of those before unable to buy    

them1 and so increasing their comforts  
and improving their habits4 ,at the same
 time the practice of travelling is     
immensely extended4 ,classes who never  
before thought of it1 take annual trips 
to the sea2 visit their distant         
relations2 make tours2 and so we are    
benefited in body1 feelings1 and        
intellect4 ,moreover1 the more prompt   
transmission of letters and of news     
produces further changes--makes the     
pulse of the nation faster4 ,yet more1  
there arises a wide dissemination of    
cheap literature through railway        
book-stalls1 and of advertisements in   
railway carriages3 both of them aiding  
ulterior progress4  ,and all the        
innumerable changes here briefly        
indicated are consequent on the         
invention of the locomotive engine4 ,the
 social organism has been rendered more 
heterogeneous in virtue of the many new 
occupations introduced1 and the many old
 ones further specialised2 prices in    
every place have been altered2 each     

trader has1 more or less1 modified his  
way of doing business2 and almost every 
person has been affected in his actions1
 thoughts1 emotions4  ,illustrations to 
the same effect might be indefinitely   
accumulated4 ,that every influence      
brought to bear upon society works      
multiplied effects2 and that increase of
 heterogeneity is due to this           
multiplication of effects2 may be seen  
in the history of every trade1 every    
custom1 every belief4 ,but it is        
needless to give additional evidence of 
this4 ,the only further fact demanding  
notice1 is1 that we here see still more 
clearly than ever1 the truth before     
pointed out1 that in proportion as the  
area on which any force expends itself  
becomes heterogeneous1 the results are  
in a yet higher degree multiplied in    
number and kind4 ,while among the       
primitive tribes to whom it was first   
known1 caoutchouc caused but a few      
changes1 among ourselves the changes    
have been so many and varied that the   

history of them occupies a volume4#d    
,upon the small1 homogeneous community  
inhabiting one of the ,hebrides1 the    
electric telegraph would produce1 were  
it used1 scarcely any results2 but in   
,england the results it produces are    
multitudinous4 ,the comparatively simple
 organisation under which our ancestors 
lived five centuries ago1 could have    
undergone but few modifications from an 
event like the recent one at ,canton2   
but now the legislative decision        
respecting it sets up many hundreds of  
complex modifications1 each of which    
will be the parent of numerous future   
ones4  ,space permitting1 we could      
willingly have pursued the argument in  
relation to all the subtler results of  
civilisation4 ,as before1 we showed that
 the law of ,progress to which the      
organic and inorganic worlds conform1 is
 also conformed to by ,language1        
,sculpture1 ,music1 etc42 so might we   
here show that the cause which we have  
hitherto found to determine ,progress   

holds in these cases also4 ,we might    
demonstrate in detail how1 in ,science1 
an advance of one division presently    
advances other divisions--how ,astronomy
 has been immensely forwarded by        
discoveries in ,optics1 while other     
optical discoveries have initiated      
,microscopic ,anatomy1 and greatly aided
 the growth of ,physiology--how         
,chemistry has indirectly increased our 
knowledge of ,electricity1 ,magnetism1  
,biology1 ,geology--how ,electricity has
 reacted on ,chemistry and ,magnetism1  
developed our views of ,light and ,heat1
 and disclosed sundry laws of nervous   
action4  ,in ,literature the same truth 
might be exhibited in the manifold      
effects of the primitive mystery-play1  
not only as originating the modern      
drama1 but as affecting through it other
 kinds of poetry and fiction2 or in the 
still multiplying forms of periodical   
literature that have descended from the 
first newspaper1 and which have         
severally acted and reacted on other    

forms of literature and on each other4  
,the influence which a new school of    
,painting--as that of the               
pre-,raffaelites--exercises upon other  
schools2 the hints which all kinds of   
pictorial art are deriving from         
,photography2 the complex results of new
 critical doctrines1 as those of ,mr4   
,ruskin1 might severally be dwelt upon  
as displaying the like multiplication of
 effects4 ,but it would needlessly tax  
the reader's patience to pursue1 in     
their many ramifications1 these various 
changes3 here become so involved and    
subtle as to be followed with some      
difficulty4  ,without further evidence1 
we venture to think our case is made    
out4 ,the imperfections of statement    
which brevity has necessitated1 do not1 
we believe1 militate against the        
propositions laid down4 ,the            
qualifications here and there demanded  
would not1 if made1 affect the          
inferences4 ,though in one instance1    
where sufficient evidence is not        

attainable1 we have been unable to show 
that the law of ,progress applies2 yet  
there is high probability that the same 
generalisation holds which holds        
throughout the rest of creation4        
,though1 in tracing the genesis of      
,progress1 we have frequently spoken of 
complex causes as if they were simple   
ones2 it still remains true that such   
causes are far less complex than their  
results4 ,detailed criticisms cannot    
affect our main position4 ,endless facts
 go to show that every kind of progress 
is from the homogeneous to the          
heterogeneous2 and that it is so because
 each change is followed by many        
changes4 ,and it is significant that    
where the facts are most accessible and 
abundant1 there are these truths most   
manifest4  ,however1 to avoid committing
 ourselves to more than is yet proved1  
we must be content with saying that such
 are the law and the cause of all       
progress that is known to us4 ,should   
the ,nebular ,hypothesis ever be        

established1 then it will become        
manifest that the ,universe at large1   
like every organism1 was once           
homogeneous2 that as a whole1 and in    
every detail1 it has unceasingly        
advanced towards greater heterogeneity2 
and that its heterogeneity is still     
increasing4 ,it will be seen that as in 
each event of to-day1 so from the       
beginning1 the decomposition of every   
expended force into several forces has  
been perpetually producing a higher     
complication2 that the increase of      
heterogeneity so brought about is still 
going on1 and must continue to go on2   
and that thus ,progress is not an       
accident1 not a thing within human      
control1 but a beneficent necessity4  ,a
 few words must be added on the         
ontological bearings of our argument4   
,probably not a few will conclude that  
here is an attempted solution of the    
great questions with which ,philosophy  
in all ages has perplexed itself4 ,let  
none thus deceive themselves4 ,only such

 as know not the scope and the limits of
 ,science can fall into so grave an     
error4 ,the foregoing generalisations   
apply1 not to the genesis of things in  
themselves1 but to their genesis as     
manifested to the human consciousness4  
,after all that has been said1 the      
ultimate mystery remains just as it was4
 ,the explanation of that which is      
explicable1 does but bring out into     
greater clearness the inexplicableness  
of that which remains behind4 ,however  
we may succeed in reducing the equation 
to its lowest terms1 we are not thereby 
enabled to determine the unknown        
quantity3 on the contrary1 it only      
becomes more manifest that the unknown  
quantity can never be found4  ,little as
 it seems to do so1 fearless inquiry    
tends continually to give a firmer basis
 to all true ,religion4 ,the timid      
sectarian1 alarmed at the progress of   
knowledge1 obliged to abandon one by one
 the superstitions of his ancestors1 and
 daily finding his cherished beliefs    

more and more shaken1 secretly fears    
that all things may some day be         
explained2 and has a corresponding dread
 of ,science3 thus evincing the         
profoundest of all infidelity--the fear 
lest the truth be bad4 ,on the other    
hand1 the sincere man of science1       
content to follow wherever the evidence 
leads him1 becomes by each new inquiry  
more profoundly convinced that the      
,universe is an insoluble problem4      
,alike in the external and the internal 
worlds1 he sees himself in the midst of 
perpetual changes1 of which he can      
discover neither the beginning nor the  
end4 ,if1 tracing back the evolution of 
things1 he allows himself to entertain  
the hypothesis that all matter once     
existed in a diffused form1 he finds it 
utterly impossible to conceive how this 
came to be so2 and equally1 if he       
speculates on the future1 he can assign 
no limit to the grand succession of     
phenomena ever unfolding themselves     
before him4 ,on the other hand1 if he   

looks inward1 he perceives that both    
terminations of the thread of           
consciousness are beyond his grasp3 he  
cannot remember when or how             
consciousness commenced1 and he cannot  
examine the consciousness that at any   
moment exists2 for only a state of      
consciousness that is already past can  
become the object of thought1 and never 
one which is passing4  ,when1 again1 he 
turns from the succession of phenomena1 
external or internal1 to their essential
 nature1 he is equally at fault4 ,though
 he may succeed in resolving all        
properties of objects into              
manifestations of force1 he is not      
thereby enabled to realise what force   
is2 but finds1 on the contrary1 that the
 more he thinks about it1 the more he is
 baffled4 ,similarly1 though analysis of
 mental actions may finally bring him   
down to sensations as the original      
materials out of which all thought is   
woven1 he is none the forwarder2 for he 
cannot in the least comprehend          

sensation--cannot even conceive how     
sensation is possible4 ,inward and      
outward things he thus discovers to be  
alike inscrutable in their ultimate     
genesis and nature4 ,he sees that the   
,materialist and ,spiritualist          
controversy is a mere war of words2 the 
disputants being equally absurd--each   
believing he understands that which it  
is impossible for any man to understand4
 ,in all directions his investigations  
eventually bring him face to face with  
the unknowable2 and he ever more clearly
 perceives it to be the unknowable4 ,he 
learns at once the greatness and the    
littleness of human intellect--its power
 in dealing with all that comes within  
the range of experience2 its impotence  
in dealing with all that transcends     
experience4 ,he feels1 with a vividness 
which no others can1 the utter          
incomprehensibleness of the simplest    
fact1 considered in itself4 ,he alone   
truly sees that absolute knowledge is   
impossible4 ,he alone knows that under  

all things there lies an impenetrable   
mystery4  #a ,westminster ,review1      
,april #aheg4  #b ,for detailed proof of
 these assertions see essay on ,manners 
and ,fashion4  #c ,the idea that the    
,nebular ,hypothesis has been disproved 
because what were thought to be existing
 nebulae have been resolved into        
clusters of stars is almost beneath     
notice4 ,a priori it was highly         
improbable1 if not impossible1 that     
nebulous masses should still remain     
uncondensed1 while others have been     
condensed millions of years ago4  #d    
,personal ,narrative of the ,origin of  
the ,caoutchouc1 or ,india-,rubber      
,manufacture in ,england4 ,by ,thomas   
,hancock4     ,,on ,,manners ,,and      
,,fashion#a   ,whoever has studied the  
physiognomy of political meetings1      
cannot fail to have remarked a          
connection between democratic opinions  
and peculiarities of costume4 ,at a     
,chartist demonstration1 a lecture on   
,socialism1 or a soiree of the ,friends 

of ,italy1 there will be seen many among
 the audience1 and a still larger ratio 
among the speakers1 who get themselves  
up in a style more or less unusual4 ,one
 gentleman on the platform divides his  
hair down the centre1 instead of on one 
side2 another brushes it back off the   
forehead1 in the fashion known as       
bringing out the intellect2 a third has 
so long forsworn the scissors1 that his 
locks sweep his shoulders4 ,a           
considerable sprinkling of moustaches   
may be observed2 here and there an      
imperial2 and occasionally some         
courageous breaker of conventions       
exhibits a full-grown beard4#b ,this    
nonconformity in hair is countenanced by
 various nonconformities in dress1 shown
 by others of the assemblage4 ,bare     
necks1 shirt-collars a la ,byron1       
waistcoats cut ,quaker fashion1         
wonderfully shaggy great coats1 numerous
 oddities in form and colour1 destroy   
the monotony usual in crowds4 ,even     
those exhibiting no conspicuous         

peculiarity1 frequently indicate by     
something in the pattern or make-up of  
their clothes1 that they pay small      
regard to what their tailors tell them  
about the prevailing taste4 ,and when   
the gathering breaks up1 the varieties  
of head-gear displayed--the number of   
caps1 and the abundance of felt         
hats--suffice to prove that were the    
world at large like-minded1 the black   
cylinders which tyrannise over us would 
soon be deposed4  ,the foreign          
correspondence of our daily press shows 
that this relationship between political
 discontent and the disregard of customs
 exists on the ,continent also4 ,red    
republicanism has always been           
distinguished by its hirsuteness4 ,the  
authorities of ,prussia1 ,austria1 and  
,italy1 alike recognise certain forms of
 hat as indicative of disaffection1 and 
fulminate against them accordingly4 ,in 
some places the wearer of a blouse runs 
a risk of being classed among the       
suspects2 and in others1 he who would   

avoid the bureau of police1 must beware 
how he goes out in any but the ordinary 
colours4 ,thus1 democracy abroad1 as at 
home1 tends towards personal            
singularity4  ,nor is this association  
of characteristics peculiar to modern   
times1 or to reformers of the ,state4   
,it has always existed2 and it has been 
manifested as much in religious         
agitations as in political ones4 ,along 
with dissent from the chief established 
opinions and arrangements1 there has    
ever been some dissent from the         
customary social practices4 ,the        
,puritans1 disapproving of the long     
curls of the ,cavaliers1 as of their    
principles1 cut their own hair short1   
and so gained the name of ,roundheads4  
,the marked religious nonconformity of  
the ,quakers was accompanied by an      
equally-marked nonconformity of         
manners--in attire1 in speech1 in       
salutation4 ,the early ,moravians not   
only believed differently1 but at the   
same time dressed differently1 and lived

 differently1 from their fellow         
,christians4  ,that the association     
between political independence and      
independence of personal conduct1 is not
 a phenomenon of to-day only1 we may see
 alike in the appearance of ,franklin at
 the ,french court in plain clothes1 and
 in the white hats worn by the last     
generation of radicals4 ,originality of 
nature is sure to show itself in more   
ways than one4 ,the mention of ,george  
,fox's suit of leather1 or ,pestalozzi's
 school name1 ,harry ,oddity1 will at   
once suggest the remembrance that men   
who have in great things diverged from  
the beaten track1 have frequently done  
so in small things likewise4 ,minor     
illustrations of this truth may be      
gathered in almost every circle4 ,we    
believe that whoever will number up his 
reforming and rationalist acquaintances1
 will find among them more than the     
usual proportion of those who in dress  
or behaviour exhibit some degree of what
 the world calls eccentricity4  ,if it  

be a fact that men of revolutionary aims
 in politics or religion1 are commonly  
revolutionists in custom also1 it is not
 less a fact that those whose office it 
is to uphold established arrangements in
 ,state and ,church1 are also those who 
most adhere to the social forms and     
observances bequeathed to us by past    
generations4 ,practices elsewhere       
extinct still linger about the          
headquarters of government4 ,the monarch
 still gives assent to ,acts of         
,parliament in the old ,french of the   
,normans2 and ,norman ,french terms are 
still used in law4 ,wigs1 such as those 
we see depicted in old portraits1 may   
yet be found on the heads of judges and 
barristers4 ,the ,beefeaters at the     
,tower wear the costume of ,henry       
,v,i,ith's bodyguard4 ,the ,university  
dress of the present year varies but    
little from that worn soon after the    
,reformation4 ,the claret-coloured coat1
 knee-breeches1 lace shirt frills1      
ruffles1 white silk stockings1 and      

buckled shoes1 which once formed the    
usual attire of a gentleman1 still      
survive as the court-dress4 ,and it need
 scarcely be said that at levees and    
drawing-rooms1 the ceremonies are       
prescribed with an exactness1 and       
enforced with a rigour1 not elsewhere to
 be found4  ,can we consider these two  
series of coincidences as accidental and
 unmeaning8 ,must we not rather conclude
 that some necessary relationship       
obtains between them8 ,are there not    
such things as a constitutional         
conservatism1 and a constitutional      
tendency to change8 ,is there not a     
class which clings to the old in all    
things2 and another class so in love    
with progress as often to mistake       
novelty for improvement8 ,do we not find
 some men ready to bow to established   
authority of whatever kind2 while others
 demand of every such authority its     
reason1 and reject it if it fails to    
justify itself8 ,and must not the minds 
thus contrasted tend to become          

respectively conformist and             
nonconformist1 not only in politics and 
religion1 but in other things8          
,submission1 whether to a government1 to
 the dogmas of ecclesiastics1 or to that
 code of behaviour which society at     
large has set up1 is essentially of the 
same nature2 and the sentiment which    
induces resistance to the despotism of  
rulers1 civil or spiritual1 likewise    
induces resistance to the despotism of  
the world's opinion4 ,look at them      
fundamentally1 and all enactments1 alike
 of the legislature1 the consistory1 and
 the saloon--all regulations1 formal or 
virtual1 have a common character3 they  
are all limitations of men's freedom4   
,do this--,refrain from that1 are the   
blank formulas into which they may all  
be written3 and in each case the        
understanding is that obedience will    
bring approbation here and paradise     
hereafter2 while disobedience will      
entail imprisonment1 or sending to      
,coventry1 or eternal torments1 as the  

case may be4 ,and if restraints1 however
 named1 and through whatever apparatus  
of means exercised1 are one in their    
action upon men1 it must happen that    
those who are patient under one kind of 
restraint1 are likely to be patient     
under another2 and conversely1 that     
those impatient of restraint in general1
 will1 on the average1 tend to show     
their impatience in all directions4     
,that ,law1 ,religion1 and ,manners are 
thus related--that their respective     
kinds of operation come under one       
generalisation--that they have in       
certain contrasted characteristics of   
men a common support and a common       
danger--will1 however1 be most clearly  
seen on discovering that they have a    
common origin4 ,little as from present  
appearances we should suppose it1 we    
shall yet find that at first1 the       
control of religion1 the control of laws
 and the control of manners1 were all   
one control4 ,however incredible it may 
now seem1 we believe it to be           

demonstrable that the rules of          
etiquette1 the provisions of the        
statute-book1 and the commands of the   
decalogue1 have grown from the same     
root4 ,if we go far enough back into the
 ages of primeval ,fetishism1 it becomes
 manifest that originally ,deity1       
,chief1 and ,master of the ceremonies   
were identical4 ,to make good these     
positions1 and to show their bearing on 
what is to follow1 it will be necessary 
here to traverse ground that is in part 
somewhat beaten1 and at first sight     
irrelevant to our topic4 ,we will pass  
over it as quickly as consists with the 
exigencies of the argument4         99  
99       99       99       99  ,that the
 earliest social aggregations were ruled
 solely by the will of the strong man1  
few dispute4 ,that from the strong man  
proceeded not only ,monarchy1 but the   
conception of a ,god1 few admit3 much as
 ,carlyle and others have said in       
evidence of it4 ,if1 however1 those who 
are unable to believe this1 will lay    

aside the ideas of ,god and man in which
 they have been educated1 and study the 
aboriginal ideas of them1 they will at  
least see some probability in the       
hypothesis4 ,let them remember that     
before experience had yet taught men to 
distinguish between the possible and the
 impossible2 and while they were ready  
on the slightest suggestion to ascribe  
unknown powers to any object and make a 
fetish of it2 their conceptions of      
humanity and its capacities were        
necessarily vague1 and without specific 
limits4 ,the man who by unusual         
strength1 or cunning1 achieved something
 that others had failed to achieve1 or  
something which they did not understand1
 was considered by them as differing    
from themselves2 and1 as we see in the  
belief of some ,polynesians that only   
their chiefs have souls1 or in that of  
the ancient ,peruvians that their nobles
 were divine by birth1 the ascribed     
difference was apt to be not one of     
degree only1 but one of kind4  ,let them

 remember next1 how gross were the      
notions of ,god1 or rather of gods1     
prevalent during the same era and       
afterwards--how concretely gods were    
conceived as men of specific aspects    
dressed in specific ways--how their     
names were literally the strong1 the    
destroyer1 the powerful one1--how1      
according to the ,scandinavian          
mythology1 the sacred duty of           
blood-revenge was acted on by the gods  
themselves1--and how they were not only 
human in their vindictiveness1 their    
cruelty1 and their quarrels with each   
other1 but were supposed to have amours 
on earth1 and to consume the viands     
placed on their altars4 ,add to which1  
that in various mythologies1 ,greek1    
,scandinavian1 and others1 the oldest   
beings are giants2 that according to a  
traditional genealogy the gods1         
demi-gods1 and in some cases men1 are   
descended from these after the human    
fashion2 and that while in the ,east we 
hear of sons of ,god who saw the        

daughters of men that they were fair1   
the ,teutonic myths tell of unions      
between the sons of men and the         
daughters of the gods4  ,let them       
remember1 too1 that at first the idea of
 death differed widely from that which  
we have2 that there are still tribes    
who1 on the decease of one of their     
number1 attempt to make the corpse      
stand1 and put food into his mouth2 that
 the ,peruvians had feasts at which the 
mummies of their dead ,incas presided1  
when1 as ,prescott says1 they paid      
attention to these insensible remains as
 if they were instinct with life2 that  
among the ,fejees it is believed that   
every enemy has to be killed twice2 that
 the ,eastern ,pagans give extension and
 figure to the soul1 and attribute to it
 all the same substances1 both solid and
 liquid1 of which our bodies are        
composed2 and that it is the custom     
among most barbarous races to bury food1
 weapons1 and trinkets along with the   
dead body1 under the manifest belief    

that it will presently need them4       
,lastly1 let them remember that the     
other world1 as originally conceived1 is
 simply some distant part of this       
world--some ,elysian fields1 some happy 
hunting-ground1 accessible even to the  
living1 and to which1 after death1 men  
travel in anticipation of a life        
analogous in general character to that  
which they led before4 ,then1           
co-ordinating these general facts--the  
ascription of unknown powers to chiefs  
and medicine men2 the belief in deities 
having human forms1 passions1 and       
behaviour2 the imperfect comprehension  
of death as distinguished from life2 and
 the proximity of the future abode to   
the present1 both in position and       
character--let them reflect whether they
 do not almost unavoidably suggest the  
conclusion that the aboriginal god is   
the dead chief2 the chief not dead in   
our sense1 but gone away carrying with  
him food and weapons to some rumoured   
region of plenty1 some promised land1   

whither he had long intended to lead his
 followers1 and whence he will presently
 return to fetch them4  ,this hypothesis
 once entertained1 is seen to harmonise 
with all primitive ideas and practices4 
,the sons of the deified chief reigning 
after him1 it necessarily happens that  
all early kings are held descendants of 
the gods2 and the fact that alike in    
,assyria1 ,egypt1 among the ,jews1      
,phoenicians1 and ancient ,britons1     
kings' names were formed out of the     
names of the gods1 is fully explained4  
,the genesis of ,polytheism out of      
,fetishism1 by the successive migrations
 of the race of god-kings to the other  
world--a genesis illustrated in the     
,greek mythology1 alike by the precise  
genealogy of the deities1 and by the    
specifically asserted apotheosis of the 
later ones--tends further to bear it    
out4 ,it explains the fact that in the  
old creeds1 as in the still extant creed
 of the ,otaheitans1 every family has   
its guardian spirit1 who is supposed to 

be one of their departed relatives2 and 
that they sacrifice to these as minor   
gods--a practice still pursued by the   
,chinese and even by the ,russians4 ,it 
is perfectly congruous with the ,grecian
 myths concerning the wars of the ,gods 
with the ,titans and their final        
usurpation2 and it similarly agrees with
 the fact that among the ,teutonic gods 
proper was one ,freir who came among    
them by adoption1 but was born among the
 ,vanes1 a somewhat mysterious other    
dynasty of gods1 who had been conquered 
and superseded by the stronger and more 
warlike ,odin dynasty4 ,it harmonises1  
too1 with the belief that there are     
different gods to different territories 
and nations1 as there were different    
chiefs2 that these gods contend for     
supremacy as chiefs do2 and it gives    
meaning to the boast of neighbouring    
tribes--,our god is greater than your   
god4 ,it is confirmed by the notion     
universally current in early times1 that
 the gods come from this other abode1 in

 which they commonly live1 and appear   
among men--speak to them1 help them1    
punish them4 ,and remembering this1 it  
becomes manifest that the prayers put up
 by primitive peoples to their gods for 
aid in battle1 are meant literally--that
 their gods are expected to come back   
from the other kingdom they are reigning
 over1 and once more fight the old      
enemies they had before warred against  
so implacably2 and it needs but to name 
the ,iliad1 to remind every one how     
thoroughly they believed the expectation
 fulfilled4  ,all government1 then1     
being originally that of the strong man 
who has become a fetish by some         
manifestation of superiority1 there     
arises1 at his death--his supposed      
departure on a long projected           
expedition1 in which he is accompanied  
by his slaves and concubines sacrificed 
at his tomb--their arises1 then1 the    
incipient division of religious from    
political control1 of civil rule from   
spiritual4 ,his son becomes deputed     

chief during his absence2 his authority 
is cited as that by which his son acts2 
his vengeance is invoked on all who     
disobey his son2 and his commands1 as   
previously known or as asserted by his  
son1 become the germ of a moral code2 a 
fact we shall the more clearly perceive 
if we remember1 that early moral codes  
inculcate mainly the virtues of the     
warrior1 and the duty of exterminating  
some neighbouring tribe whose existence 
is an offence to the deity4  ,from this 
point onwards1 these two kinds of       
authority1 at first complicated together
 as those of principal and agent1 become
 slowly more and more distinct4 ,as     
experience accumulates1 and ideas of    
causation grow more precise1 kings lose 
their supernatural attributes2 and1     
instead of ,god-king1 become            
,god-descended king1 ,god-appointed     
king1 the ,lord's anointed1 the         
vicegerent of heaven1 ruler reigning by 
,divine right4 ,the old theory1 however1
 long clings to men in feeling1 after it

 has disappeared in name2 and such      
divinity doth hedge a king1 that even   
now1 many1 on first seeing one1 feel a  
secret surprise at finding him an       
ordinary sample of humanity4 ,the       
sacredness attaching to royalty attaches
 afterwards to its appended             
institutions--to legislatures1 to laws4 
,legal and illegal are synonymous with  
right and wrong2 the authority of       
,parliament is held unlimited2 and a    
lingering faith in governmental power   
continually generates unfounded hopes   
from its enactments4 ,political         
scepticism1 however1 having destroyed   
the divine prestige of royalty1 goes on 
ever increasing1 and promises ultimately
 to reduce the ,state to a purely       
secular institution1 whose regulations  
are limited in their sphere1 and have no
 other authority than the general will4 
,meanwhile1 the religious control has   
been little by little separating itself 
from the civil1 both in its essence and 
in its forms4 ,while from the ,god-king 

of the savage have arisen in one        
direction1 secular rulers who1 age by   
age1 have been losing the sacred        
attributes men ascribed to them2 there  
has arisen in another direction1 the    
conception of a deity1 who1 at first    
human in all things1 has been gradually 
losing human materiality1 human form1   
human passions1 human modes of action3  
until now1 anthropomorphism has become a
 reproach4  ,along with this wide       
divergence in men's ideas of the divine 
and civil ruler has been taking place a 
corresponding divergence in the codes of
 conduct respectively proceeding from   
them4 ,while the king was a             
deputy-god--a governor such as the ,jews
 looked for in the ,messiah--a governor 
considered1 as the ,czar still is1 our  
,god upon ,earth1--it1 of course1       
followed that his commands were the     
supreme rules4 ,but as men ceased to    
believe in his supernatural origin and  
nature1 his commands ceased to be the   
highest2 and there arose a distinction  

between the regulations made by him1 and
 the regulations handed down from the   
old god-kings1 who were rendered ever   
more sacred by time and the accumulation
 of myths4 ,hence came respectively1    
,law and ,morality3 the one growing ever
 more concrete1 the other more abstract2
 the authority of the one ever on the   
decrease1 that of the other ever on the 
increase2 originally the same1 but now  
placed daily in more marked antagonism4 
,simultaneously there has been going on 
a separation of the institutions        
administering these two codes of        
conduct4 ,while they were yet one1 of   
course ,church and ,state were one3 the 
king was arch-priest1 not nominally1 but
 really--alike the giver of new commands
 and the chief interpreter of the old   
commands2 and the deputy-priests coming 
out of his family were thus simply      
expounders of the dictates of their     
ancestry3 at first as recollected1 and  
afterwards as ascertained by professed  
interviews with them4 ,this union--which

 still existed practically during the   
middle ages1 when the authority of kings
 was mixed up with the authority of the 
pope1 when there were bishop-rulers     
having all the powers of feudal lords1  
and when priests punished by            
penances--has been1 step by step1       
becoming less close4 ,though monarchs   
are still defenders of the faith1 and   
ecclesiastical chiefs1 they are but     
nominally such4 ,though bishops still   
have civil power1 it is not what they   
once had4 ,protestantism shook loose the
 bonds of union2 ,dissent has long been 
busy in organising a mechanism for the  
exercise of religious control1 wholly   
independent of law2 in ,america1 a      
separate organisation for that purpose  
already exists2 and if anything is to be
 hoped from the ,anti-,state-,church    
,association--or1 as it has been newly  
named1 ,the ,society for the ,liberation
 of ,religion from ,state ,patronage and
 ,control--we shall presently have a    
separate organisation here also4  ,thus 

alike in authority1 in essence1 and in  
form1 political and spiritual rule have 
been ever more widely diverging from the
 same root4 ,that increasing division of
 labour which marks the progress of     
society in other things1 marks it also  
in this separation of government into   
civil and religious2 and if we observe  
how the morality which forms the        
substance of religions in general1 is   
beginning to be purified from the       
associated creeds1 we may anticipate    
that this division will be ultimately   
carried much further4  ,passing now to  
the third species of control--that of   
,manners--we shall find that this1 too1 
while it had a common genesis with the  
others1 has gradually come to have a    
distinct sphere and a special           
embodiment4 ,among early aggregations of
 men before yet social observances      
existed1 the sole forms of courtesy     
known were the signs of submission to   
the strong man2 as the sole law was his 
will1 and the sole religion the awe of  

his supposed supernaturalness4          
,originally1 ceremonies were modes of   
behaviour to the god-king4 ,our         
commonest titles have been derived from 
his names4 ,and all salutations were    
primarily worship paid to him4 ,let us  
trace out these truths in detail1       
beginning with titles4  ,the fact       
already noticed1 that the names of early
 kings among divers races are formed by 
the addition of certain syllables to the
 names of their gods--which certain     
syllables1 like our ,mac and ,fitz1     
probably mean son of1 or descended      
from--at once gives meaning to the term 
,father as a divine title4 ,and when we 
read1 in ,selden1 that the composition  
out of these names of ,deities was not  
only proper to ,kings3 their ,grandes   
and more honourable ,subjects 7no doubt 
members of the royal race7 had sometimes
 the like2 we see how the term ,father1 
properly used by these also1 and by     
their multiplying descendants1 came to  
be a title used by the people in        

general4 ,and it is significant as      
bearing on this point1 that among the   
most barbarous nation in ,europe1 where 
belief in the divine nature of the ruler
 still lingers1 ,father in this higher  
sense is still a regal distinction4     
,when1 again1 we remember how the       
divinity at first ascribed to kings was 
not a complimentary fiction but a       
supposed fact2 and how1 further1 under  
the ,fetish philosophy the celestial    
bodies are believed to be personages who
 once lived among men2 we see that the  
appellations of oriental rulers1        
,brother to the ,sun1 etc41 were        
probably once expressive of a genuine   
belief2 and have simply1 like many other
 things1 continued in use after all     
meaning has gone out of them4 ,we way   
infer1 too1 that the titles1 ,god1      
,lord1 ,divinity1 were given to         
primitive rulers literally--that the    
nostra divinitas applied to the ,roman  
emperors1 and the various sacred        
designations that have been borne by    

monarchs1 down to the still extant      
phrase1 ,our ,lord the ,king1 are the   
dead and dying forms of what were once  
living facts4 ,from these names1 ,god1  
,father1 ,lord1 ,divinity1 originally   
belonging to the ,god-king1 and         
afterwards to ,god and the king1 the    
derivation of our commonest titles of   
respect is clearly traceable4  ,there is
 reason to think that these titles were 
originally proper names4 ,not only do we
 see among the ,egyptians1 where        
,pharaoh was synonymous with king1 and  
among the ,romans1 where to be ,caesar  
meant to be ,emperor1 that the proper   
names of the greatest men were          
transferred to their successors1 and so 
became class names2 but in the          
,scandinavian mythology we may trace a  
human title of honour up to the proper  
name of a divine personage4 ,in         
,anglo-,saxon bealdor1 or baldor1 means 
,lord2 and ,balder is the name of the   
favourite of ,odin's sons--the gods who 
with him constitute the ,teutonic       

,pantheon4 ,how these names of honour   
became general is easily understood4    
,the relatives of the primitive         
kings--the grandees described by ,selden
 as having names formed on those of the 
gods1 and shown by this to be members of
 the divine race--necessarily shared in 
the epithets1 such as ,lord1 descriptive
 of superhuman relationships and nature4
 ,their ever-multiplying offspring      
inheriting these1 gradually rendered    
them comparatively common4 ,and then    
they came to be applied to every man of 
power3 partly from the fact that1 in    
these early days when men conceived     
divinity simply as a stronger kind of   
humanity1 great persons could be called 
by divine epithets with but little      
exaggeration2 partly from the fact that 
the unusually potent were apt to be     
considered as unrecognised or           
illegitimate descendants of the strong1 
the destroyer1 the powerful one2 and    
partly1 also1 from compliment and the   
desire to propitiate4  ,progressively as

 superstition diminished1 this last     
became the sole cause4 ,and if we       
remember that it is the nature of       
compliment1 as we daily hear it1 to     
attribute more than is due--that in the 
constantly widening application of      
esquire1 in the perpetual repetition of 
your honour by the fawning ,irishman1   
and in the use of the name gentleman to 
any coalheaver or dustman by the lower  
classes of ,london1 we have current     
examples of the depreciation of titles  
consequent on compliment--and that in   
barbarous times1 when the wish to       
propitiate was stronger than now1 this  
effect must have been greater2 we shall 
see that there naturally arose an       
extensive misuse of all early           
distinctions4 ,hence the facts1 that the
 ,jews called ,herod a god2 that        
,father1 in its higher sense1 was a term
 used among them by servants to masters2
 that ,lord was applicable to any person
 of worth and power4 ,hence1 too1 the   
fact that1 in the later periods of the  

,roman ,empire1 every man saluted his   
neighbour as ,dominus and ,rex4  ,but it
 is in the titles of the middle ages1   
and in the growth of our modern ones out
 of them1 that the process is most      
clearly seen4 ,herr1 ,don1 ,signior1    
,seigneur1 ,sennor1 were all originally 
names of rulers--of feudal lords4 ,by   
the complimentary use of these names to 
all who could1 on any pretence1 be      
supposed to merit them1 and by          
successive degradations of them from    
each step in the descent to a still     
lower one1 they have come to be common  
forms of address4 ,at first the phrase  
in which a serf accosted his despotic   
chief1 mein herr is now familiarly      
applied in ,germany to ordinary people4 
,the ,spanish title ,don1 once proper to
 noblemen and gentlemen only1 is now    
accorded to all classes4 ,so1 too1 is it
 with ,signior in ,italy4 ,seigneur and 
,monseigneur1 by contraction in ,sieur  
and ,monsieur1 have produced the term of
 respect claimed by every ,frenchman4   

,and whether ,sire be or be not a like  
contraction of ,signior1 it is clear    
that1 as it was borne by sundry of the  
ancient feudal lords of ,france1 who1 as
 ,selden says1 affected rather to bee   
stiled by the name of ,sire than ,baron1
 as ,le ,sire de ,montmorencie1 ,le     
,sire de ,beauieu1 and the like1 and as 
it has been commonly used to monarchs1  
our word ,sir1 which is derived from it1
 originally meant lord or king4 ,thus1  
too1 is it with feminine titles4 ,lady1 
which1 according to ,horne ,tooke1 means
 exalted1 and was at first given only to
 the few1 is now given to all women of  
education4 ,dame1 once an honourable    
name to which1 in old books1 we find the
 epithets of high-born and stately      
affixed1 has now1 by repeated widenings 
of its application1 become relatively a 
term of contempt4 ,and if we trace the  
compound of this1 ma ,dame1 through its 
contractions--,madam1 ma'am1 mam1 mum1  
we find that the ,yes'm of ,sally to her
 mistress is originally equivalent to   

,yes1 my exalted1 or ,yes1 your         
highness4 ,throughout1 therefore1 the   
genesis of words of honour has been the 
same4 ,just as with the ,jews and with  
the ,romans1 has it been with the modern
 ,europeans4 ,tracing these everyday    
names to their primitive significations 
of lord and king1 and remembering that  
in aboriginal societies these were      
applied only to the gods and their      
descendants1 we arrive at the conclusion
 that our familiar ,sir and ,monsieur   
are1 in their primary and expanded      
meanings1 terms of adoration4  ,further 
to illustrate this gradual depreciation 
of titles and to confirm the inference  
drawn1 it may be well to notice in      
passing1 that the oldest of them have1  
as might be expected1 been depreciated  
to the greatest extent4 ,thus1          
,master--a word proved by its derivation
 and by the similarity of the connate   
words in other languages 7,fr41 maitre  
for master2 ,russ41 master3 ,dan41      
meester2 ,ger41 meister7 to have been   

one of the earliest in use for          
expressing lordship--has now become     
applicable to children only1 and under  
the modification of ,mister1 to persons 
next above the labourer4 ,again1        
knighthood1 the oldest kind of dignity1 
is also the lowest2 and ,knight         
,bachelor1 which is the lowest order of 
knighthood1 is more ancient than any    
other of the orders4 ,similarly1 too1   
with the peerage1 ,baron is alike the   
earliest and least elevated of its      
divisions4 ,this continual degradation  
of all names of honour has1 from time to
 time1 made it requisite to introduce   
new ones having that distinguishing     
effect which the originals had lost by  
generality of use2 just as our habit of 
misapplying superlatives has1 by        
gradually destroying their force1       
entailed the need for fresh ones4 ,and  
if1 within the last thousand years1 this
 process has produced effects thus      
marked1 we may readily conceive how1    
during previous thousands1 the titles of

 gods and demi-gods came to be used to  
all persons exercising power2 as they   
have since come to be used to persons of
 respectability4  ,if from names of     
honour we turn to phrases of honour1 we 
find similar facts4 ,the ,oriental      
styles of address1 applied to ordinary  
people--,i am your slave1 ,all ,i have  
is yours1 ,i am your                    
sacrifice--attribute to the individual  
spoken to the same greatness that       
,monsieur and ,my ,lord do3 they ascribe
 to him the character of an all-powerful
 ruler1 so immeasurably superior to the 
speaker as to be his owner4 ,so1        
likewise1 with the ,polish expressions  
of respect--,i throw myself under your  
feet1 ,i kiss your feet4 ,in our now    
meaningless subscription to a formal    
letter--,your most obedient             
servant1--the same thing is visible4    
,nay1 even in the familiar signature    
,yours faithfully1 the yours1 if        
interpreted as originally meant1 is the 
expression of a slave to his master4    

,all these dead forms were once living  
embodiments of fact--were primarily the 
genuine indications of that submission  
to authority which they verbally assert2
 were afterwards naturally used by the  
weak and cowardly to propitiate those   
above them2 gradually grew to be        
considered the due of such2 and1 by a   
continually wider misuse1 have lost     
their meanings1 as ,sir and ,master have
 done4 ,that1 like titles1 they were in 
the beginning used only to the          
,god-king1 is indicated by the fact     
that1 like titles1 they were            
subsequently used in common to ,god and 
the king4 ,religious worship has ever   
largely consisted of professions of     
obedience1 of being ,god's servants1 of 
belonging to him to do what he will     
with4 ,like titles1 therefore1 these    
common phrases of honour had a          
devotional origin4  ,perhaps1 however1  
it is in the use of the word you as a   
singular pronoun that the popularising  
of what were once supreme distinctions  

is most markedly illustrated4 ,this     
speaking of a single individual in the  
plural was originally an honour given   
only to the highest--was the reciprocal 
of the imperial we assumed by such4 ,yet
 now1 by being applied to successively  
lower and lower classes1 it has become  
all but universal4 ,only by one sect of 
,christians1 and in a few secluded      
districts1 is the primitive thou still  
used4 ,and the you1 in becoming common  
to all ranks1 has simultaneously lost   
every vestige of the honour once        
attaching to it4  ,but the genesis of   
,manners out of forms of allegiance and 
worship is above all shown in men's     
modes of salutation4 ,note first the    
significance of the word4 ,among the    
,romans1 the salutatio was a daily      
homage paid by clients and inferiors to 
superiors4 ,this was alike the case with
 civilians and in the army4 ,the very   
derivation of our word1 therefore1 is   
suggestive of submission4 ,passing to   
particular forms of obeisance 7mark the 

word again71 let us begin with the      
,eastern one of baring the feet4 ,this  
was1 primarily1 a mark of reverence1    
alike to a god and a king4 ,the act of  
,moses before the burning bush1 and the 
practice of ,mahometans1 who are sworn  
on the ,koran with their shoes off1     
exemplify the one employment of it2 the 
custom of the ,persians1 who remove     
their shoes on entering the presence of 
their monarch1 exemplifies the other4   
,as usual1 however1 this homage1 paid   
next to inferior rulers1 has descended  
from grade to grade4 ,in ,india1 it is a
 common mark of respect2 a polite man in
 ,turkey always leaves his shoes at the 
door1 while the lower orders of ,turks  
never enter the presence of their       
superiors but in their stockings2 and in
 ,japan1 this baring of the feet is an  
ordinary salutation of man to man4      
,take another case4 ,selden1 describing 
the ceremonies of the ,romans1          
says3--,for whereas it was usual either 
to kiss the ,images of their ,gods1 or  

adoring them1 to stand somewhat off     
before them1 solemnly moving the right  
hand to the lips1 and then1 casting it  
as if they had cast kisses1 to turne the
 body on the same hand 7which was the   
right forme of ,adoration71 it grew also
 by custom1 first that the emperors1    
being next to ,deities1 and by some     
accounted as ,deities1 had the like done
 to them in acknowledgment of their     
,greatness4 ,if1 now1 we call to mind   
the awkward salute of a village         
school-boy1 made by putting his open    
hand up to his face and describing a    
semicircle with his forearm2 and if we  
remember that the salute thus used as a 
form of reverence in country districts1 
is most likely a remnant of the feudal  
times2 we shall see reason for thinking 
that our common wave of the hand to a   
friend across the street1 represents    
what was primarily a devotional act4    
,similarly have originated all forms of 
respect depending upon inclinations of  
the body4 ,entire prostration is the    

aboriginal sign of submission4 ,the     
passage of ,scripture1 ,thou hast put   
all under his feet1 and that other one1 
so suggestive in its anthropomorphism1  
,the ,lord said unto my ,lord1 sit thou 
at my right hand1 until ,i make thine   
enemies thy footstool1 imply1 what the  
,assyrian sculptures fully bear out1    
that it was the practice of the ancient 
god-kings of the ,east to trample upon  
the conquered4 ,and when we bear in mind
 that there are existing savages who    
signify submission by placing the neck  
under the foot of the person submitted  
to1 it becomes obvious that all         
prostration1 especially when accompanied
 by kissing the foot1 expressed a       
willingness to be trodden upon--was an  
attempt to mitigate wrath by saying1 in 
signs1 ,tread on me if you will4        
,remembering1 further1 that kissing the 
foot1 as of the ,pope and of a saint's  
statue1 still continues in ,europe to be
 a mark of extreme reverence2 that      
prostration to feudal lords was once    

general2 and that its disappearance must
 have taken place1 not abruptly1 but by 
gradual modification into something     
else2 we have ground for deriving from  
these deepest of humiliations all       
inclinations of respect2 especially as  
the transition is traceable4 ,the       
reverence of a ,russian serf1 who bends 
his head to the ground1 and the salaam  
of the ,hindoo1 are abridged            
prostrations2 a bow is a short salaam2 a
 nod is a short bow4  ,should any       
hesitate to admit this conclusion1 then 
perhaps1 on being reminded that the     
lowest of these obeisances are common   
where the submission is most abject2    
that among ourselves the profundity of  
the bow marks the amount of respect2 and
 lastly1 that the bow is even now used  
devotionally in our churches--by        
,catholics to their altars1 and by      
,protestants at the name of             
,christ--they will see sufficient       
evidence for thinking that this         
salutation also was originally worship4 

,the same may be said1 too1 of the      
curtsy1 or courtesy1 as it is otherwise 
written4 ,its derivation from           
courtoisie1 courteousness1 that is1     
behaviour like that at court1 at once   
shows that it was primarily the         
reverence paid to a monarch4 ,and if we 
call to mind that falling upon the      
knees1 or upon one knee1 has been a     
common obeisance of subjects to rulers2 
that in ancient manuscripts and         
tapestries1 servants are depicted as    
assuming this attitude while offering   
the dishes to their masters at table2   
and that this same attitude is assumed  
towards our own queen at every          
presentation2 we may infer1 what the    
character of the curtsy itself suggests1
 that it is an abridged act of kneeling4
 ,as the word has been contracted from  
courtoisie into curtsy1 so the motion   
has been contracted from a placing of   
the knee on the floor1 to a lowering of 
the knee towards the floor4 ,moreover1  
when we compare the curtsy of a lady    

with the awkward one a peasant girl     
makes1 which1 if continued1 would bring 
her down on both knees1 we may see in   
this last a remnant of that greater     
reverence required of serfs4 ,and when1 
from considering that simple kneeling of
 the ,west1 still represented by the    
curtsy1 we pass ,eastward1 and note the 
attitude of the ,mahometan worshipper1  
who not only kneels but bows his head to
 the ground1 we may infer that the      
curtsy also is an evanescent form of the
 aboriginal prostration4  ,in further   
evidence of this it may be remarked1    
that there has but recently disappeared 
from the salutations of men1 an action  
having the same proximate derivation    
with the curtsy4 ,that backward sweep of
 the foot with which the conventional   
stage-sailor accompanies his bow--a     
movement which prevailed generally in   
past generations1 when a bow and a      
scrape went together1 and which1 within 
the memory of living persons1 was made  
by boys to their schoolmaster with the  

effect of wearing a hole in the         
floor--is pretty clearly a preliminary  
to going on one knee4 ,a motion so      
ungainly could never have been          
intentionally introduced2 even if the   
artificial introduction of obeisances   
were possible4 ,hence we must regard it 
as the remnant of something antecedent3 
and that this something antecedent was  
humiliating may be inferred from the    
phrase1 scraping an acquaintance2 which1
 being used to denote the gaining of    
favour by obsequiousness1 implies that  
the scrape was considered a mark of     
servility--that is1 of serf-ility4      
,consider1 again1 the uncovering of the 
head4 ,almost everywhere this has been a
 sign of reverence1 alike in temples and
 before potentates2 and it yet preserves
 among us some of its original meaning4 
,whether it rains1 hails1 or shines1 you
 must keep your head bare while speaking
 to the monarch2 and on no plea may you 
remain covered in a place of worship4   
,as usual1 however1 this ceremony1 at   

first a submission to gods and kings1   
has become in process of time a common  
civility4 ,once an acknowledgment of    
another's unlimited supremacy1 the      
removal of the hat is now a salute      
accorded to very ordinary persons1 and  
that uncovering1 originally reserved for
 entrance into the house of ,god1 good  
manners now dictates on entrance into   
the house of a common labourer4         
,standing1 too1 as a mark of respect1   
has undergone like extensions in its    
application4 ,shown1 by the practice in 
our churches1 to be intermediate between
 the humiliation signified by kneeling  
and the self-respect which sitting      
implies1 and used at courts as a form of
 homage when more active demonstrations 
of it have been made1 this posture is   
now employed in daily life to show      
consideration2 as seen alike in the     
attitude of a servant before a master1  
and in that rising which politeness     
prescribes on the entrance of a visitor4
  ,many other threads of evidence might 

have been woven into our argument4 ,as1 
for example1 the significant fact1 that 
if we trace back our still existing law 
of primogeniture--if we consider it as  
displayed by ,scottish clans1 in which  
not only ownership but government       
devolved from the beginning on the      
eldest son of the eldest--if we look    
further back1 and observe that the old  
titles of lordship1 ,signor1 ,seigneur1 
,sennor1 ,sire1 ,sieur1 all originally  
mean1 senior1 or elder--if we go        
,eastward1 and find that ,sheick has a  
like derivation1 and that the ,oriental 
names for priests1 as ,pir1 for         
instance1 are literally interpreted old 
man--if we note in ,hebrew records how  
primeval is the ascribed superiority of 
the first-born1 how great the authority 
of elders1 and how sacred the memory of 
patriarchs--and if1 then1 we remember   
that among divine titles are ,ancient of
 ,days1 and ,father of ,gods and        
men2--we see how completely these facts 
harmonise with the hypothesis1 that the 

aboriginal god is the first man         
sufficiently great to become a          
tradition1 the earliest whose power and 
deeds made him remembered2 that hence   
antiquity unavoidably became associated 
with superiority1 and age with nearness 
in blood to the powerful one2 that so   
there naturally arose that domination of
 the eldest which characterises all     
history1 and that theory of human       
degeneracy which even yet survives4  ,we
 might further dwell on the facts1 that 
,lord signifies high-born1 or1 as the   
same root gives a word meaning heaven1  
possibly heaven-born2 that1 before it   
became common1 ,sir or ,sire1 as well as
 ,father1 was the distinction of a      
priest2 that worship1 originally        
worth-ship--a term of respect that has  
been used commonly1 as well as to       
magistrates--is also our term for the   
act of attributing greatness or worth to
 the ,deity2 so that to ascribe         
worth-ship to a man is to worship him4  
,we might make much of the evidence that

 all early governments are more or less 
distinctly theocratic2 and that among   
ancient ,eastern nations even the       
commonest forms and customs appear to   
have been influenced by religion4 ,we   
might enforce our argument respecting   
the derivation of ceremonies1 by tracing
 out the aboriginal obeisance made by   
putting dust on the head1 which probably
 symbolises putting the head in the     
dust3 by affiliating the practice       
prevailing among certain tribes1 of     
doing another honour by presenting him  
with a portion of hair torn from the    
head--an act which seems tantamount to  
saying1 ,i am your slave2 by            
investigating the ,oriental custom of   
giving to a visitor any object he speaks
 of admiringly1 which is pretty clearly 
a carrying out of the compliment1 ,all  
,i have is yours4  ,without enlarging1  
however1 on these and many minor facts1 
we venture to think that the evidence   
already assigned is sufficient to       
justify our position4 ,had the proofs   

been few or of one kind1 little faith   
could have been placed in the inference4
 ,but numerous as they are1 alike in the
 case of titles1 in that of             
complimentary phrases1 and in that of   
salutes--similar and simultaneous1 too1 
as the process of depreciation has been 
in all of these2 the evidences become   
strong by mutual confirmation4 ,and when
 we recollect1 also1 that not only have 
the results of this process been visible
 in various nations and in all times1   
but that they are occurring among       
ourselves at the present moment1 and    
that the causes assigned for previous   
depreciations may be seen daily working 
out other ones--when we recollect this1 
it becomes scarcely possible to doubt   
that the process has been as alleged2   
and that our ordinary words1 acts1 and  
phrases of civility were originally     
acknowledgments of submission to        
another's omnipotence4  ,thus the       
general doctrine1 that all kinds of     
government exercised over men were at   

first one government--that the          
political1 the religious1 and the       
ceremonial forms of control are         
divergent branches of a general and once
 indivisible control--begins to look    
tenable4 ,when1 with the above facts    
fresh in mind1 we read primitive        
records1 and find that there were giants
 in those days--when we remember that in
 ,eastern traditions ,nimrod1 among     
others1 figures in all the characters of
 giant king1 and divinity--when we turn 
to the sculptures exhumed by ,mr4       
,layard1 and contemplating in them the  
effigies of kings driving over enemies1 
trampling on prisoners1 and adored by   
prostrate slaves1 then observe how their
 actions correspond to the primitive    
names for the divinity1 the strong1 the 
destroyer1 the powerful one--when we    
find that the earliest temples were also
 the residences of the kings--and when1 
lastly1 we discover that among races of 
men still living there are current      
superstitions analogous to those which  

old records and old buildings indicate2 
we begin to realise the probability of  
the hypothesis that has been set forth4 
,going back1 in imagination1 to the     
remote era when men's theories of things
 were yet unformed2 and conceiving to   
ourselves the conquering chief as dimly 
figured in ancient myths1 and poems1 and
 ruins2 we may see that all rules of    
conduct whatever spring from his will4  
,alike legislator and judge1 all        
quarrels among his subjects are decided 
by him2 and his words become the ,law4  
,awe of him is the incipient ,religion2 
and his maxims furnish its first        
precepts4 ,submission is made to him in 
the forms he prescribes2 and these give 
birth to ,manners4 ,from the first1 time
 develops political allegiance and the  
administration of justice2 from the     
second1 the worship of a being whose    
personality becomes ever more vague1 and
 the inculcation of precepts ever more  
abstract2 from the third1 forms of      
honour and the rules of etiquette4  ,in 

conformity with the law of evolution of 
all organised bodies1 that general      
functions are gradually separated into  
the special functions constituting them1
 there have grown up in the social      
organism for the better performance of  
the governmental office1 an apparatus of
 law-courts1 judges1 and barristers2 a  
national church1 with its bishops and   
priests2 and a system of caste1 titles1 
and ceremonies1 administered by society 
at large4 ,by the first1 overt          
aggressions are cognised and punished2  
by the second1 the disposition to commit
 such aggressions is in some degree     
checked2 by the third1 those minor      
breaches of good conduct1 which the     
others do not notice1 are denounced and 
chastised4 ,law and ,religion control   
behaviour in its essentials3 ,manners   
control it in its details4 ,for         
regulating those daily actions which are
 too numerous and too unimportant to be 
officially directed1 there comes into   
play this subtler set of restraints4    

,and when we consider what these        
restraints are--when we analyse the     
words1 and phrases1 and salutes         
employed1 we see that in origin as in   
effect1 the system is a setting up of   
temporary governments between all men   
who come in contact1 for the purpose of 
better managing the intercourse between 
them4         99       99       99      
99       99  ,from the proposition1 that
 these several kinds of government are  
essentially one1 both in genesis and    
function1 may be deduced several        
important corollaries1 directly bearing 
on our special topic4  ,let us first    
notice1 that there is not only a common 
origin and office for all forms of rule1
 but a common necessity for them4 ,the  
aboriginal man1 coming fresh from the   
killing of bears and from lying in      
ambush for his enemy1 has1 by the       
necessities of his condition1 a nature  
requiring to be curbed in its every     
impulse4 ,alike in war and in the chase1
 his daily discipline has been that of  

sacrificing other creatures to his own  
needs and passions4 ,his character1     
bequeathed to him by ancestors who led  
similar lives1 is moulded by this       
discipline--is fitted to this existence4
 ,the unlimited selfishness1 the love of
 inflicting pain1 the blood-thirstiness1
 thus kept active1 he brings with him   
into the social state4 ,these           
dispositions put him in constant danger 
of conflict with his equally savage     
neighbour4 ,in small things as in great1
 in words as in deeds1 he is aggressive2
 and is hourly liable to the aggressions
 of others like natured4 ,only1         
therefore1 by the most rigorous control 
exercised over all actions1 can the     
primitive unions of men be maintained4  
,there must be a ruler strong1          
remorseless1 and of indomitable will2   
there must be a creed terrible in its   
threats to the disobedient2 and there   
must be the most servile submission of  
all inferiors to superiors4 ,the law    
must be cruel2 the religion must be     

stern2 the ceremonies must be strict4   
,the co-ordinate necessity for these    
several kinds of restraint might be     
largely illustrated from history were   
there space4 ,suffice it to point out1  
that where the civil power has been     
weak1 the multiplication of thieves1    
assassins1 and banditti1 has indicated  
the approach of social dissolution2 that
 when1 from the corruptness of its      
ministry1 religion has lost its         
influence1 as it did just before the    
,flagellants appeared1 the ,state has   
been endangered2 and that the disregard 
of established social observances has   
ever been an accompaniment of political 
revolutions4 ,whoever doubts the        
necessity for a government of manners   
proportionate in strength to the        
co-existing political and religious     
governments1 will be convinced on       
calling to mind that until recently even
 elaborate codes of behaviour failed to 
keep gentlemen from quarrelling in the  
streets and fighting duels in taverns2  

and on remembering further1 that even   
now people exhibit at the doors of a    
theatre1 where there is no ceremonial   
law to rule them1 a degree of           
aggressiveness which would produce      
confusion if carried into social        
intercourse4  ,as might be expected1 we 
find that1 having a common origin and   
like general functions1 these several   
controlling agencies act during each era
 with similar degrees of vigour4 ,under 
the ,chinese despotism1 stringent and   
multitudinous in its edicts and harsh in
 the enforcement of them1 and associated
 with which there is an equally stern   
domestic despotism exercised by the     
eldest surviving male of the family1    
there exists a system of observances    
alike complicated and rigid4 ,there is a
 tribunal of ceremonies4 ,previous to   
presentation at court1 ambassadors pass 
many days in practising the required    
forms4 ,social intercourse is cumbered  
by endless compliments and obeisances4  
,class distinctions are strongly marked 

by badges4 ,the chief regret on losing  
an only son is1 that there will be no   
one to perform the sepulchral rites4    
,and if there wants a definite measure  
of the respect paid to social           
ordinances1 we have it in the torture to
 which ladies submit in having their    
feet crushed4 ,in ,india1 and indeed    
throughout the ,east1 there exists a    
like connection between the pitiless    
tyranny of rulers1 the dread terrors of 
immemorial creeds1 and the rigid        
restraint of unchangeable customs3 the  
caste regulations continue still        
unalterable2 the fashions of clothes and
 furniture have remained the same for   
ages2 suttees are so ancient as to be   
mentioned by ,strabo and ,diodorus      
,siculus2 justice is still administered 
at the palace-gates as of old2 in short1
 every usage is a precept of religion   
and a maxim of jurisprudence4  ,a       
similar relationship of phenomena was   
exhibited in ,europe during the ,middle 
,ages4 ,while all its governments were  

autocratic1 while feudalism held sway1  
while the ,church was unshorn of its    
power1 while the criminal code was full 
of horrors and the hell of the popular  
creed full of terrors1 the rules of     
behaviour were both more numerous and   
more carefully conformed to than now4   
,differences of dress marked divisions  
of rank4 ,men were limited by law to a  
certain width of shoe-toes2 and no one  
below a specified degree might wear a   
cloak less than so many inches long4    
,the symbols on banners and shields were
 carefully attended to4 ,heraldry was an
 important branch of knowledge4         
,precedence was strictly insisted on4   
,and those various salutes of which we  
now use the abridgments were gone       
through in full4 ,even during our own   
last century1 with its corrupt ,house of
 ,commons and little-curbed monarchs1 we
 may mark a correspondence of social    
formalities4 ,gentlemen were still      
distinguished from lower classes by     
dress2 people sacrificed themselves to  

inconvenient requirements--as powder1   
hooped petticoats1 and towering         
head-dresses2 and children addressed    
their parents as ,sir and ,madam4  ,a   
further corollary naturally following   
this last1 and almost1 indeed1 forming  
part of it1 is1 that these several kinds
 of government decrease in stringency at
 the same rate4 ,simultaneously with the
 decline in the influence of            
priesthoods1 and in the fear of eternal 
torments--simultaneously with the       
mitigation of political tyranny1 the    
growth of popular power1 and the        
amelioration of criminal codes2 has     
taken place that diminution of          
formalities and that fading of          
distinctive marks1 now so observable4   
,looking at home1 we may note that there
 is less attention to precedence than   
there used to be4 ,no one in our day    
ends an interview with the phrase your  
humble servant4 ,the employment of the  
word ,sir1 once general in social       
intercourse1 is at present considered   

bad breeding2 and on the occasions      
calling for them1 it is held vulgar to  
use the words ,your ,majesty1 or ,your  
,royal ,highness1 more than once in a   
conversation4 ,people no longer formally
 drink each other's healths2 and even   
the taking wine with each other at      
dinner has ceased to be fashionable4    
,the taking-off of hats between         
gentlemen has been gradually falling    
into disuse4 ,even when the hat is      
removed1 it is no longer swept out at   
arm's length1 but is simply lifted4     
,hence the remark made upon us by       
foreigners1 that we take off our hats   
less than any other nation in ,europe--a
 remark that should be coupled with the 
other1 that we are the freest nation in 
,europe4  ,as already implied1 this     
association of facts is not accidental4 
,these titles of address and modes of   
salutation1 bearing about them1 as they 
all do1 something of that servility     
which marks their origin1 become        
distasteful in proportion as men become 

more independent themselves1 and        
sympathise more with the independence of
 others4 ,the feeling which makes the   
modern gentleman tell the labourer      
standing bareheaded before him to put on
 his hat--the feeling which gives us a  
dislike to those who cringe and         
fawn--the feeling which makes us alike  
assert our own dignity and respect that 
of others--the feeling which thus leads 
us more and more to discountenance all  
forms and names which confess           
inferiority and submission2 is the same 
feeling which resists despotic power and
 inaugurates popular government1 denies 
the authority of the ,church and        
establishes the right of private        
judgment4  ,a fourth fact1 akin to the  
foregoing1 is1 that these several kinds 
of government not only decline together1
 but corrupt together4 ,by the same     
process that a ,court of ,chancery      
becomes a place not for the             
administration of justice1 but for the  
withholding of it--by the same process  

that a national church1 from being an   
agency for moral control1 comes to be   
merely a thing of formulas and tithes   
and bishoprics--by this same process do 
titles and ceremonies that once had a   
meaning and a power become empty forms4 
,coats of arms which served to          
distinguish men in battle1 now figure on
 the carriage panels of retired grocers4
 ,once a badge of high military rank1   
the shoulder-knot has become1 on the    
modern footman1 a mark of servitude4    
,the name ,banneret1 which once marked a
 partially-created ,baron--a ,baron who 
had passed his military little go--is   
now1 under the modification of ,baronet1
 applicable to any one favoured by      
wealth or interest or party feeling4    
,knighthood has so far ceased to be an  
honour1 that men now honour themselves  
by declining it4 ,the military dignity  
,escuyer has1 in the modern ,esquire1   
become a wholly unmilitary affix4 ,not  
only do titles1 and phrases1 and salutes
 cease to fulfil their original         

functions1 but the whole apparatus of   
social forms tends to become useless for
 its original purpose--the facilitation 
of social intercourse4 ,those most      
learned in ceremonies1 and most precise 
in the observance of them1 are not      
always the best behaved2 as those       
deepest read in creeds and scriptures   
are not therefore the most religious2   
nor those who have the clearest notions 
of legality and illegality1 the most    
honest4 ,just as lawyers are of all men 
the least noted for probity2 as         
cathedral towns have a lower moral      
character than most others2 so1 if      
,swift is to be believed1 courtiers are 
the most insignificant race of people   
that the island can afford1 and with the
 smallest tincture of good manners4     
,but perhaps it is in that class of     
social observances comprehended under   
the term ,fashion1 which we must here   
discuss parenthetically1 that this      
process of corruption is seen with the  
greatest distinctness4 ,as contrasted   

with ,manners1 which dictate our minor  
acts in relation to other persons1      
,fashion dictates our minor acts in     
relation to ourselves4 ,while the one   
prescribes that part of our deportment  
which directly affects our neighbours2  
the other prescribes that part of our   
deportment which is primarily personal1 
and in which our neighbours are         
concerned only as spectators4 ,thus     
distinguished as they are1 however1 the 
two have a common source4 ,for while1 as
 we have shown1 ,manners originate by   
imitation of the behaviour pursued      
towards the great2 ,fashion originates  
by imitation of the behaviour of the    
great4 ,while the one has its derivation
 in the titles1 phrases1 and salutes    
used to those in power2 the other is    
derived from the habits and appearances 
exhibited by those in power4  ,the      
,carrib mother who squeezes her child's 
head into a shape like that of the      
chief2 the young savage who makes marks 
on himself similar to the scars carried 

by the warriors of his tribe 7which is  
probably the origin of tattooing72 the  
,highlander who adopts the plaid worn by
 the head of his clan2 the courtiers who
 affect greyness1 or limp1 or cover     
their necks1 in imitation of their king2
 and the people who ape the courtiers2  
are alike acting under a kind of        
government connate with that of         
,manners1 and1 like it too1 primarily   
beneficial4 ,for notwithstanding the    
numberless absurdities into which this  
copyism has led the people1 from        
nose-rings to ear-rings1 from painted   
faces to beauty-spots1 from shaven heads
 to powdered wigs1 from filed teeth and 
stained nails to bell-girdles1 peaked   
shoes1 and breeches stuffed with        
bran1--it must yet be concluded1 that as
 the strong men1 the successful men1 the
 men of will1 intelligence1 and         
originality1 who have got to the top1   
are1 on the average1 more likely to show
 judgment in their habits and tastes    
than the mass1 the imitation of such is 

advantageous4  ,by and by1 however1     
,fashion1 corrupting like these other   
forms of rule1 almost wholly ceases to  
be an imitation of the best1 and becomes
 an imitation of quite other than the   
best4 ,as those who take orders are not 
those having a special fitness for the  
priestly office1 but those who see their
 way to a living by it2 as legislators  
and public functionaries do not become  
such by virtue of their political       
insight and power to rule1 but by virtue
 of birth1 acreage1 and class influence2
 so1 the self-elected clique who set the
 fashion1 gain this prerogative1 not by 
their force of nature1 their intellect1 
their higher worth or better taste1 but 
gain it solely by their unchecked       
assumption4 ,among the initiated are to 
be found neither the noblest in rank1   
the chief in power1 the best cultured1  
the most refined1 nor those of greatest 
genius1 wit1 or beauty2 and their       
reunions1 so far from being superior to 
others1 are noted for their inanity4    

,yet1 by the example of these sham      
great1 and not by that of the truly     
great1 does society at large now        
regulate its goings and comings1 its    
hours1 its dress1 its small usages4 ,as 
a natural consequence1 these have       
generally little or none of that        
suitableness which the theory of fashion
 implies they should have4 ,but instead 
of a continual progress towards greater 
elegance and convenience1 which might be
 expected to occur did people copy the  
ways of the really best1 or follow their
 own ideas of propriety1 we have a reign
 of mere whim1 of unreason1 of change   
for the sake of change1 of wanton       
oscillations from either extreme to the 
other--a reign of usages without        
meaning1 times without fitness1 dress   
without taste4 ,and thus life a la mode1
 instead of being life conducted in the 
most rational manner1 is life regulated 
by spendthrifts and idlers1 milliners   
and tailors1 dandies and silly women4   
,to these several corollaries--that the 

various orders of control exercised over
 men have a common origin and a common  
function1 are called out by co-ordinate 
necessities and co-exist in like        
stringency1 decline together and corrupt
 together--it now only remains to add   
that they become needless together4     
,consequent as all kinds of government  
are upon the unfitness of the aboriginal
 man for social life2 and diminishing in
 coerciveness as they all do in         
proportion as this unfitness diminishes2
 they must one and all come to an end as
 humanity acquires complete adaptation  
to its new conditions4 ,that discipline 
of circumstances which has already      
wrought out such great changes in us1   
must go on eventually to work out yet   
greater ones4 ,that daily curbing of the
 lower nature and culture of the higher1
 which out of cannibals and devil       
worshippers has evolved philanthropists1
 lovers of peace1 and haters of         
superstition1 cannot fail to evolve out 
of these1 men as much superior to them  

as they are to their progenitors4 ,the  
causes that have produced past          
modifications are still in action2 must 
continue in action as long as there     
exists any incongruity between man's    
desires and the requirements of the     
social state2 and must eventually make  
him organically fit for the social      
state4 ,as it is now needless to forbid 
man-eating and ,fetishism1 so will it   
ultimately become needless to forbid    
murder1 theft1 and the minor offences of
 our criminal code4 ,when human nature  
has grown into conformity with the moral
 law1 there will need no judges and     
statute-books2 when it spontaneously    
takes the right course in all things1 as
 in some things it does already1        
prospects of future reward or punishment
 will not be wanted as incentives2 and  
when fit behaviour has become           
instinctive1 there will need no code of 
ceremonies to say how behaviour shall be
 regulated4  ,thus1 then1 may be        
recognised the meaning1 the naturalness1

 the necessity of those various         
eccentricities of reformers which we set
 out by describing4 ,they are not       
accidental2 they are not mere personal  
caprices1 as people are apt to suppose4 
,on the contrary1 they are inevitable   
results of the law of relationship above
 illustrated4 ,that community of        
genesis1 function1 and decay which all  
forms of restraint exhibit1 is simply   
the obverse of the fact at first pointed
 out1 that they have in two sentiments  
of human nature a common preserver and a
 common destroyer4 ,awe of power        
originates and cherishes them all3 love 
of freedom undermines and periodically  
weakens them all4 ,the one defends      
despotism and asserts the supremacy of  
laws1 adheres to old creeds and supports
 ecclesiastical authority1 pays respect 
to titles and conserves forms2 the      
other1 putting rectitude above legality1
 achieves periodical instalments of     
political liberty1 inaugurates          
,protestantism and works out its        

consequences1 ignores the senseless     
dictates of ,fashion and emancipates men
 from dead customs4  ,to the true       
reformer no institution is sacred1 no   
belief above criticism4 ,everything     
shall conform itself to equity and      
reason2 nothing shall be saved by its   
prestige4 ,conceding to each man liberty
 to pursue his own ends and satisfy his 
own tastes1 he demands for himself like 
liberty2 and consents to no restrictions
 on this1 save those which other men's  
equal claims involve4 ,no matter whether
 it be an ordinance of one man1 or an   
ordinance of all men1 if it trenches on 
his legitimate sphere of action1 he     
denies its validity4 ,the tyranny that  
would impose on him a particular style  
of dress and a set mode of behaviour1 he
 resists equally with the tyranny that  
would limit his buyings and sellings1 or
 dictate his creed4 ,whether the        
regulation be formally made by a        
legislature1 or informally made by      
society at large--whether the penalty   

for disobedience be imprisonment1 or    
frowns and social ostracism1 he sees to 
be a question of no moment4 ,he will    
utter his belief notwithstanding the    
threatened punishment2 he will break    
conventions spite of the petty          
persecutions that will be visited on    
him4 ,show him that his actions are     
inimical to his fellow-men1 and he will 
pause4 ,prove that he is disregarding   
their legitimate claims--that he is     
doing what in the nature of things must 
produce unhappiness2 and he will alter  
his course4 ,but until you do           
this--until you demonstrate that his    
proceedings are essentially inconvenient
 or inelegant1 essentially irrational1  
unjust1 or ungenerous1 he will          
persevere4  ,some1 indeed1 argue that   
his conduct is unjust and ungenerous4   
,they say that he has no right to annoy 
other people by his whims2 that the     
gentleman to whom his letter comes with 
no ,esq4 appended to the address1 and   
the lady whose evening party he enters  

with gloveless hands1 are vexed at what 
they consider his want of respect1 or   
want of breeding2 that thus his         
eccentricities cannot be indulged save  
at the expense of his neighbours'       
feelings2 and that hence his            
nonconformity is in plain terms         
selfishness4  ,he answers that this     
position1 if logically developed1 would 
deprive men of all liberty whatever4    
,each must conform all his acts to the  
public taste1 and not his own4 ,the     
public taste on every point having been 
once ascertained1 men's habits must     
thenceforth remain for ever fixed2      
seeing that no man can adopt other      
habits without sinning against the      
public taste1 and giving people         
disagreeable feelings4 ,consequently1 be
 it an era of pig-tails or high-heeled  
shoes1 of starched ruffs or trunk-hose1 
all must continue to wear pig-tails1    
high-heeled shoes1 starched ruffs1 or   
trunk-hose to the crack of doom4  ,if it
 be still urged that he is not justified

 in breaking through others' forms that 
he may establish his own1 and so        
sacrificing the wishes of many to the   
wishes of one1 he replies that all      
religious and political changes might be
 negatived on like grounds4 ,he asks    
whether ,luther's sayings and doings    
were not extremely offensive to the mass
 of his contemporaries2 whether the     
resistance of ,hampden was not          
disgusting to the time-servers around   
him2 whether every reformer has not     
shocked men's prejudices1 and given     
immense displeasure by the opinions he  
uttered4 ,the affirmative answer he     
follows up by demanding what right the  
reformer has1 then1 to utter these      
opinions2 whether he is not sacrificing 
the feelings of many to the feelings of 
one2 and so proves that1 to be          
consistent1 his antagonists must condemn
 not only all nonconformity in actions1 
but all nonconformity in thoughts4  ,his
 antagonists rejoin that his position1  
too1 may be pushed to an absurdity4     

,they argue that if a man may offend by 
the disregard of some forms1 he may as  
legitimately do so by the disregard of  
all2 and they inquire--,why should he   
not go out to dinner in a dirty shirt1  
and with an unshorn chin8 ,why should he
 not spit on the drawing-room carpet1   
and stretch his heels up to the         
mantle-shelf8  ,the convention-breaker  
answers1 that to ask this1 implies a    
confounding of two widely-different     
classes of actions--the actions that are
 essentially displeasurable to those    
around1 with the actions that are but   
incidentally displeasurable to them4 ,he
 whose skin is so unclean as to offend  
the nostrils of his neighbours1 or he   
who talks so loudly as to disturb a     
whole room1 may be justly complained of1
 and rightly excluded by society from   
its assemblies4 ,but he who presents    
himself in a surtout in place of a      
dress-coat1 or in brown trousers instead
 of black1 gives offence not to men's   
senses1 or their innate tastes1 but     

merely to their prejudices1 their       
bigotry of convention4 ,it cannot be    
said that his costume is less elegant or
 less intrinsically appropriate than the
 one prescribed2 seeing that a few hours
 earlier in the day it is admired4 ,it  
is the implied rebellion1 therefore1    
that annoys4 ,how little the cause of   
quarrel has to do with the dress itself1
 is seen in the fact that a century ago 
black clothes would have been thought   
preposterous for hours of recreation1   
and that a few years hence some now     
forbidden style may be nearer the       
requirements of ,fashion than the       
present one4 ,thus the reformer explains
 that it is not against the natural     
restraints1 but against the artificial  
ones1 that he protests2 and that        
manifestly the fire of sneers and angry 
glances which he has to bear1 is poured 
upon him because he will not bow down to
 the idol which society has set up4     
,should he be asked how we are to       
distinguish between conduct that is     

absolutely disagreeable to others1 and  
conduct that is relatively so1 he       
answers1 that they will distinguish     
themselves if men will let them4        
,actions intrinsically repugnant will   
ever be frowned upon1 and must ever     
remain as exceptional as now4 ,actions  
not intrinsically repugnant will        
establish themselves as proper4 ,no     
relaxation of customs will introduce the
 practice of going to a party in muddy  
boots1 and with unwashed hands2 for the 
dislike of dirt would continue were     
,fashion abolished to-morrow4 ,that love
 of approbation which now makes people  
so solicitous to be en regle would still
 exist--would still make them careful of
 their personal appearance--would still 
induce them to seek admiration by making
 themselves ornamental--would still     
cause them to respect the natural laws  
of good behaviour1 as they now do the   
artificial ones4 ,the change would      
simply be from a repulsive monotony to a
 picturesque variety4 ,and if there be  

any regulations respecting which it is  
uncertain whether they are based on     
reality or on convention1 experiment    
will soon decide1 if due scope be       
allowed4  ,when at length the           
controversy comes round1 as             
controversies often do1 to the point    
whence it started1 and the party of     
order repeat their charge against the   
rebel1 that he is sacrificing the       
feelings of others to the gratification 
of his own wilfulness1 he replies once  
for all that they cheat themselves by   
misstatements4 ,he accuses them of being
 so despotic1 that1 not content with    
being masters over their own ways and   
habits1 they would be masters over his  
also2 and grumble because he will not   
let them4 ,he merely asks the same      
freedom which they exercise2 they1      
however1 propose to regulate his course 
as well as their own--to cut and clip   
his mode of life into agreement with    
their approved pattern2 and then charge 
him with wilfulness and selfishness1    

because he does not quietly submit6 ,he 
warns them that he shall resist1        
nevertheless2 and that he shall do so1  
not only for the assertion of his own   
independence1 but for their good4 ,he   
tells them that they are slaves1 and    
know it not2 that they are shackled1 and
 kiss their chains2 that they have lived
 all their days in prison1 and complain 
at the walls being broken down4 ,he says
 he must persevere1 however1 with a view
 to his own release2 and in spite of    
their present expostulations1 he        
prophesies that when they have recovered
 from the fright which the prospect of  
freedom produces1 they will thank him   
for aiding in their emancipation4       
,unamiable as seems this find-fault     
mood1 offensive as is this defiant      
attitude1 we must beware of overlooking 
the truths enunciated1 in dislike of the
 advocacy4 ,it is an unfortunate        
hindrance to all innovation1 that in    
virtue of their very function1 the      
innovators stand in a position of       

antagonism2 and the disagreeable        
manners1 and sayings1 and doings1 which 
this antagonism generates1 are commonly 
associated with the doctrines           
promulgated4 ,quite forgetting that     
whether the thing attacked be good or   
bad1 the combative spirit is necessarily
 repulsive2 and quite forgetting that   
the toleration of abuses seems amiable  
merely from its passivity2 the mass of  
men contract a bias against advanced    
views1 and in favour of stationary ones1
 from intercourse with their respective 
adherents4 ,conservatism1 as ,emerson   
says1 is debonnair and social2 reform is
 individual and imperious4 ,and this    
remains true1 however vicious the system
 conserved1 however righteous the reform
 to be effected4 ,nay1 the indignation  
of the purists is usually extreme in    
proportion as the evils to be got rid of
 are great4 ,the more urgent the        
required change1 the more intemperate is
 the vehemence of its promoters4 ,let no
 one1 then1 confound with the principles

 of this social nonconformity the       
acerbity and the disagreeable           
self-assertion of those who first       
display it4         99       99       99
       99       99  ,the most plausible 
objection raised against resistance to  
conventions1 is grounded on its         
impolicy1 considered even from the      
progressist's point of view4 ,it is     
urged by many of the more liberal and   
intelligent--usually those who have     
themselves shown some independence of   
behaviour in earlier days--that to rebel
 in these small matters is to destroy   
your own power of helping on reform in  
greater matters4 ,if you show yourself  
eccentric in manners or dress1 the      
world1 they say1 will not listen to you4
 ,you will be considered as crotchety1  
and impracticable4 ,the opinions you    
express on important subjects1 which    
might have been treated with respect had
 you conformed on minor points1 will now
 inevitably be put down among your      
singularities2 and thus1 by dissenting  

in trifles1 you disable yourself from   
spreading dissent in essentials4  ,only 
noting1 as we pass1 that this is one of 
those anticipations which bring about   
their own fulfilment--that it is because
 most who disapprove these conventions  
do not show their disapproval1 that the 
few who do show it look eccentric--and  
that did all act out their convictions1 
no such inference as the above would be 
drawn1 and no such evil would           
result2--noting this as we pass1 we go  
on to reply that these social           
restraints1 and forms1 and requirements1
 are not small evils1 but among the     
greatest4 ,estimate their sum total1 and
 we doubt whether they would not exceed 
most others4 ,could we add up the       
trouble1 the cost1 the jealousies1      
vexations1 misunderstandings1 the loss  
of time and the loss of pleasure1 which 
these conventions entail--could we      
clearly realise the extent to which we  
are all daily hampered by them1 daily   
enslaved by them2 we should perhaps come

 to the conclusion that the tyranny of  
,mrs4 ,grundy is worse than any other   
tyranny we suffer under4 ,let us look at
 a few of its hurtful results2 beginning
 with those of minor importance4  ,it   
produces extravagance4 ,the desire to be
 comme il faut1 which underlies all     
conformities1 whether of manners1 dress1
 or styles of entertainment1 is the     
desire which makes many a spendthrift   
and many a bankrupt4 ,to keep up        
appearances1 to have a house in an      
approved quarter furnished in the latest
 taste1 to give expensive dinners and   
crowded soirees1 is an ambition forming 
the natural outcome of the conformist   
spirit4 ,it is needless to enlarge on   
these follies3 they have been satirised 
by hosts of writers1 and in every       
drawing-room4 ,all that here concerns   
us1 is to point out that the respect for
 social observances1 which men think so 
praiseworthy1 has the same root with    
this effort to be fashionable in mode of
 living2 and that1 other things equal1  

the last cannot be diminished without   
the first being diminished also4 ,if1   
now1 we consider all that this          
extravagance entails--if we count up the
 robbed tradesmen1 the stinted          
governesses1 the ill-educated children1 
the fleeced relatives1 who have to      
suffer from it--if we mark the anxiety  
and the many moral delinquencies which  
its perpetrators involve themselves in2 
we shall see that this regard for       
conventions is not quite so innocent as 
it looks4  ,again1 it decreases the     
amount of social intercourse4 ,passing  
over the reckless1 and those who make a 
great display on speculation with the   
occasional result of getting on in the  
world to the exclusion of much better   
men1 we come to the far larger class    
who1 being prudent and honest enough not
 to exceed their means1 and yet having a
 strong wish to be respectable1 are     
obliged to limit their entertainments to
 the smallest possible number2 and that 
each of these may be turned to the      

greatest advantage in meeting the claims
 upon their hospitality1 are induced to 
issue their invitations with little or  
no regard to the comfort or mutual      
fitness of their guests4 ,a few         
inconveniently-large assemblies1 made up
 of people mostly strange to each other 
or but distantly acquainted1 and having 
scarcely any tastes in common1 are made 
to serve in place of many small parties 
of friends intimate enough to have some 
bond of thought and sympathy4 ,thus the 
quantity of intercourse is diminished1  
and the quality deteriorated4 ,because  
it is the custom to make costly         
preparations and provide costly         
refreshments2 and because it entails    
both less expense and less trouble to do
 this for many persons on a few         
occasions than for few persons on many  
occasions2 the reunions of our less     
wealthy classes are rendered alike      
infrequent and tedious4  ,let it be     
further observed1 that the existing     
formalities of social intercourse drive 

away many who most need its refining    
influence3 and drive them into injurious
 habits and associations4 ,not a few    
men1 and not the least sensible men     
either1 give up in disgust this going   
out to stately dinners1 and stiff       
evening-parties2 and instead1 seek      
society in clubs1 and cigar-divans1 and 
taverns4 ,i'm sick of this standing     
about in drawing-rooms1 talking         
nonsense1 and trying to look happy1 will
 answer one of them when taxed with his 
desertion4 ,why should ,i any longer    
waste time and money1 and temper8 ,once 
,i was ready enough to rush home from   
the office to dress2 ,i sported         
embroidered shirts1 submitted to tight  
boots1 and cared nothing for tailors'   
and haberdashers' bills4 ,i know better 
now4 ,my patience lasted a good while2  
for though ,i found each night pass     
stupidly1 ,i always hoped the next would
 make amends4 ,but ,i'm undeceived4     
,cab-hire and kid gloves cost more than 
any evening party pays for2 or          

rather--it is worth the cost of them to 
avoid the party4 ,no1 no2 ,i'll no more 
of it4 ,why should ,i pay five shillings
 a time for the privilege of being      
bored8  ,if1 now1 we consider that this 
very common mood tends towards          
billiard-rooms1 towards long sittings   
over cigars and brandy-and-water1       
towards ,evans's and the ,coal ,hole1   
towards every place where amusement may 
be had2 it becomes a question whether   
these precise observances which hamper  
our set meetings1 have not to answer for
 much of the prevalent dissoluteness4   
,men must have excitements of some kind 
or other2 and if debarred from higher   
ones will fall back upon lower4 ,it is  
not that those who thus take to         
irregular habits are essentially those  
of low tastes4 ,often it is quite the   
reverse4 ,among half a dozen intimate   
friends1 abandoning formalities and     
sitting at ease round the fire1 none    
will enter with greater enjoyment into  
the highest kind of social              

intercourse--the genuine communion of   
thought and feeling2 and if the circle  
includes women of intelligence and      
refinement1 so much the greater is their
 pleasure4 ,it is because they will no  
longer be choked with the mere dry husks
 of conversation which society offers   
them1 that they fly its assemblies1 and 
seek those with whom they may have      
discourse that is at least real1 though 
unpolished4 ,the men who thus long for  
substantial mental sympathy1 and will go
 where they can get it1 are often1      
indeed1 much better at the core than the
 men who are content with the inanities 
of gloved and scented party-goers--men  
who feel no need to come morally nearer 
to their fellow creatures than they can 
come while standing1 tea-cup in hand1   
answering trifles with trifles2 and who1
 by feeling no such need1 prove         
themselves shallow-thoughted and        
cold-hearted4  ,it is true1 that some   
who shun drawing-rooms do so from       
inability to bear the restraints        

prescribed by a genuine refinement1 and 
that they would be greatly improved by  
being kept under these restraints4 ,but 
it is not less true that1 by adding to  
the legitimate restraints1 which are    
based on convenience and a regard for   
others1 a host of factitious restraints 
based only on convention1 the refining  
discipline1 which would else have been  
borne with benefit1 is rendered         
unbearable1 and so misses its end4      
,excess of government invariably defeats
 itself by driving away those to be     
governed4 ,and if over all who desert   
its entertainments in disgust either at 
their emptiness or their formality1     
society thus loses its salutary         
influence--if such not only fail to     
receive that moral culture which the    
company of ladies1 when rationally      
regulated1 would give them1 but1 in     
default of other relaxation1 are driven 
into habits and companionships which    
often end in gambling and drunkenness2  
must we not say that here1 too1 is an   

evil not to be passed over as           
insignificant8  ,then consider what a   
blighting effect these multitudinous    
preparations and ceremonies have upon   
the pleasures they profess to subserve4 
,who1 on calling to mind the occasions  
of his highest social enjoyments1 does  
not find them to have been wholly       
informal1 perhaps impromptu8 ,how       
delightful a picnic of friends1 who     
forget all observances save those       
dictated by good nature6 ,how pleasant  
the little unpretended gatherings of    
book-societies1 and the like2 or those  
purely accidental meetings of a few     
people well known to each other6 ,then1 
indeed1 we may see that a man sharpeneth
 the countenance of his friend4 ,cheeks 
flush1 and eyes sparkle4 ,the witty grow
 brilliant1 and even the dull are       
excited into saying good things4 ,there 
is an overflow of topics2 and the right 
thought1 and the right words to put it  
in1 spring up unsought4 ,grave          
alternates with gay3 now serious        

converse1 and now jokes1 anecdotes1 and 
playful raillery4 ,every one's best     
nature is shown1 every one's best       
feelings are in pleasurable activity2   
and1 for the time1 life seems well worth
 having4  ,go now and dress for some    
half-past eight dinner1 or some ten     
o'clock at home2 and present yourself in
 spotless attire1 with every hair       
arranged to perfection4 ,how great the  
difference6 ,the enjoyment seems in the 
inverse ratio of the preparation4 ,these
 figures1 got up with such finish and   
precision1 appear but half alive4 ,they 
have frozen each other by their         
primness2 and your faculties feel the   
numbing effects of the atmosphere the   
moment you enter it4 ,all those         
thoughts1 so nimble and so apt awhile   
since1 have disappeared--have suddenly  
acquired a preternatural power of       
eluding you4 ,if you venture a remark to
 your neighbour1 there comes a trite    
rejoinder1 and there it ends4 ,no       
subject you can hit upon outlives half a

 dozen sentences4 ,nothing that is said 
excites any real interest in you2 and   
you feel that all you say is listened to
 with apathy4 ,by some strange magic1   
things that usually give pleasure seem  
to have lost all charm4  ,you have a    
taste for art4 ,weary of frivolous talk1
 you turn to the table1 and find that   
the book of engravings and the portfolio
 of photographs are as flat as the      
conversation4 ,you are fond of music4   
,yet the singing1 good as it is1 you    
hear with utter indifference2 and say   
,thank you with a sense of being a      
profound hypocrite4 ,wholly at ease     
though you could be1 for your own part1 
you find that your sympathies will not  
let you4 ,you see young gentlemen       
feeling whether their ties are properly 
adjusted1 looking vacantly round1 and   
considering what they shall do next4    
,you see ladies sitting disconsolately1 
waiting for some one to speak to them1  
and wishing they had the wherewith to   
occupy their fingers4 ,you see the      

hostess standing about the doorway1     
keeping a factitious smile on her face1 
and racking her brain to find the       
requisite nothings with which to greet  
her guests as they enter4 ,you see      
numberless traits of weariness and      
embarrassment2 and1 if you have any     
fellow-feeling1 these cannot fail to    
produce a feeling of discomfort4 ,the   
disorder is catching2 and do what you   
will you cannot resist the general      
infection4 ,you struggle against it2 you
 make spasmodic efforts to be lively2   
but none of your sallies or your good   
stories do more than raise a simper or a
 forced laugh3 intellect and feeling are
 alike asphyxiated4 ,and when1 at       
length1 yielding to your disgust1 you   
rush away1 how great is the relief when 
you get into the fresh air1 and see the 
stars6 ,how you ,thank ,god1 that's     
over6 and half resolve to avoid all such
 boredom for the future6  ,what1 now1 is
 the secret of this perpetual           
miscarriage and disappointment8 ,does   

not the fault lie with all these        
needless adjuncts--these elaborate      
dressings1 these set forms1 these       
expensive preparations1 these many      
devices and arrangements that imply     
trouble and raise expectation8 ,who that
 has lived thirty years in the world has
 not discovered that ,pleasure is coy2  
and must not be too directly pursued1   
but must be caught unawares8 ,an air    
from a street-piano1 heard while at     
work1 will often gratify more than the  
choicest music played at a concert by   
the most accomplished musicians4 ,a     
single good picture seen in a dealer's  
window1 may give keener enjoyment than a
 whole exhibition gone through with     
catalogue and pencil4 ,by the time we   
have got ready our elaborate apparatus  
by which to secure happiness1 the       
happiness is gone4 ,it is too subtle to 
be contained in these receivers1        
garnished with compliments1 and fenced  
round with etiquette4 ,the more we      
multiply and complicate appliances1 the 

more certain are we to drive it away4   
,the reason is patent enough4 ,these    
higher emotions to which social         
intercourse ministers1 are of extremely 
complex nature2 they consequently depend
 for their production upon very numerous
 conditions2 the more numerous the      
conditions1 the greater the liability   
that one or other of them will be       
disturbed1 and the emotions consequently
 prevented4 ,it takes a considerable    
misfortune to destroy appetite2 but     
cordial sympathy with those around may  
be extinguished by a look or a word4    
,hence it follows1 that the more        
multiplied the unnecessary requirements 
with which social intercourse is        
surrounded1 the less likely are its     
pleasures to be achieved4 ,it is        
difficult enough to fulfil continuously 
all the essentials to a pleasurable     
communion with others3 how much more    
difficult1 then1 must it be continuously
 to fulfil a host of non-essentials     
also6 ,it is1 indeed1 impossible4 ,the  

attempt inevitably ends in the sacrifice
 of the first to the last--the          
essentials to the non-essentials4 ,what 
chance is there of getting any genuine  
response from the lady who is thinking  
of your stupidity in taking her in to   
dinner on the wrong arm8 ,how are you   
likely to have agreeable converse with  
the gentleman who is fuming internally  
because he is not placed next to the    
hostess8 ,formalities1 familiar as they 
may become1 necessarily occupy          
attention--necessarily multiply the     
occasions for mistake1 misunderstanding1
 and jealousy1 on the part of one or    
other--necessarily distract all minds   
from the thoughts and feelings that     
should occupy them--necessarily1        
therefore1 subvert those conditions     
under which only any sterling           
intercourse is to be had4  ,and this    
indeed is the fatal mischief which these
 conventions entail--a mischief to which
 every other is secondary4 ,they destroy
 those highest of our pleasures which   

they profess to subserve4 ,all          
institutions are alike in this1 that    
however useful1 and needful even1 they  
originally were1 they not only in the   
end cease to be so1 but become          
detrimental4 ,while humanity is growing1
 they continue fixed2 daily get more    
mechanical and unvital2 and by and by   
tend to strangle what they before       
preserved4 ,it is not simply that they  
become corrupt and fail to act3 they    
become obstructions4 ,old forms of      
government finally grow so oppressive1  
that they must be thrown off even at the
 risk of reigns of terror4 ,old creeds  
end in being dead formulas1 which no    
longer aid but distort and arrest the   
general mind2 while the ,state-churches 
administering them1 come to be          
instruments for subsidising conservatism
 and repressing progress4 ,old schemes  
of education1 incarnated in public      
schools and colleges1 continue filling  
the heads of new generations with what  
has become relatively useless knowledge1

 and1 by consequence1 excluding         
knowledge which is useful4 ,not an      
organisation of any kind--political1    
religious1 literary1 philanthropic--but 
what1 by its ever-multiplying           
regulations1 its accumulating wealth1   
its yearly addition of officers1 and the
 creeping into it of patronage and party
 feeling1 eventually loses its original 
spirit1 and sinks into a mere lifeless  
mechanism1 worked with a view to private
 ends--a mechanism which not merely     
fails of its first purpose1 but is a    
positive hindrance to it4  ,thus is it1 
too1 with social usages4 ,we read of the
 ,chinese that they have ponderous      
ceremonies transmitted from time        
immemorial1 which make social           
intercourse a burden4 ,the court forms  
prescribed by monarchs for their own    
exaltation1 have1 in all times and      
places1 ended in consuming the comfort  
of their lives4 ,and so the artificial  
observances of the dining-room and      
saloon1 in proportion as they are many  

and strict1 extinguish that agreeable   
communion which they were originally    
intended to secure4 ,the dislike with   
which people commonly speak of society  
that is formal1 and stiff1 and          
ceremonious1 implies the general        
recognition of this fact2 and this      
recognition1 logically developed1       
involves that all usages of behaviour   
which are not based on natural          
requirements1 are injurious4 ,that these
 conventions defeat their own ends is no
 new assertion4 ,swift1 criticising the 
manners of his day1 says--,wise men are 
often more uneasy at the over-civility  
of these refiners than they could       
possibly be in the conversation of      
peasants and mechanics4  ,but it is not 
only in these details that the          
self-defeating action of our            
arrangements is traceable3 it is        
traceable in the very substance and     
nature of them4 ,our social intercourse1
 as commonly managed1 is a mere         
semblance of the reality sought4 ,what  

is it that we want8 ,some sympathetic   
converse with our fellow-creatures3 some
 converse that shall not be mere dead   
words1 but the vehicle of living        
thoughts and feelings--converse in which
 the eyes and the face shall speak1 and 
the tones of the voice be full of       
meaning--converse which shall make us   
feel no longer alone1 but shall draw us 
closer to another1 and double our own   
emotions by adding another's to them4   
,who is there that has not1 from time to
 time1 felt how cold and flat is all    
this talk about politics and science1   
and the new books and the new men1 and  
how a genuine utterance of              
fellow-feeling outweighs the whole of   
it8 ,mark the words of ,bacon3--,for a  
crowd is not a company1 and faces are   
but a gallery of pictures1 and talk but 
a tinkling cymbal1 where there is no    
love4  ,if this be true1 then it is only
 after acquaintance has grown into      
intimacy1 and intimacy has ripened into 
friendship1 that the real communion     

which men need becomes possible4 ,a     
rationally-formed circle must consist   
almost wholly of those on terms of      
familiarity and regard1 with but one or 
two strangers4 ,what folly1 then1       
underlies the whole system of our grand 
dinners1 our at homes1 our evening      
parties--assemblages made up of many who
 never met before1 many others who just 
bow to each other1 many others who      
though familiar feel mutual             
indifference1 with just a few real      
friends lost in the general mass6 ,you  
need but look round at the artificial   
expressions of face1 to see at once how 
it is4 ,all have their disguises on2 and
 how can there be sympathy between      
masks8 ,no wonder that in private every 
one exclaims against the stupidity of   
these gatherings4 ,no wonder that       
hostesses get them up rather because    
they must than because they wish4 ,no   
wonder that the invited go less from the
 expectation of pleasure than from fear 
of giving offence4 ,the whole thing is a

 gigantic mistake--an organised         
disappointment4  ,and then note1 lastly1
 that in this case1 as in all others1   
when an organisation has become effete  
and inoperative for its legitimate      
purpose1 it is employed for quite other 
ones--quite opposite ones4 ,what is the 
usual plea put in for giving and        
attending these tedious assemblies8 ,i  
admit that they are stupid and frivolous
 enough1 replies every man to your      
criticisms2 but then1 you know1 one must
 keep up one's connections4 ,and could  
you get from his wife a sincere answer1 
it would be--,like you1 ,i am sick of   
these frivolities2 but then1 we must get
 our daughters married4 ,the one knows  
that there is a profession to push1 a   
practice to gain1 a business to extend3 
or parliamentary influence1 or county   
patronage1 or votes1 or office1 to be   
got3 position1 berths1 favours1 profit4 
,the other's thoughts run upon husbands 
and settlements1 wives and dowries4     
,worthless for their ostensible purpose 

of daily bringing human beings into     
pleasurable relations with each other1  
these cumbrous appliances of our social 
intercourse are now perseveringly kept  
in action with a view to the pecuniary  
and matrimonial results which they      
indirectly produce4  ,who then shall say
 that the reform of our system of       
observances is unimportant8 ,when we see
 how this system induces fashionable    
extravagance1 with its entailed         
bankruptcy and ruin--when we mark how   
greatly it limits the amount of social  
intercourse among the less wealthy      
classes--when we find that many who most
 need to be disciplined by mixing with  
the refined are driven away by it1 and  
led into dangerous and often fatal      
courses--when we count up the many minor
 evils it inflicts1 the extra work which
 its costliness entails on all          
professional and mercantile men1 the    
damage to public taste in dress and     
decoration by the setting up of its     
absurdities as standards for imitation1 

the injury to health indicated in the   
faces of its devotees at the close of   
the ,london season1 the mortality of    
milliners and the like1 which its sudden
 exigencies yearly involve2--and when to
 all these we add its fatal sin1 that it
 blights1 withers up1 and kills1 that   
high enjoyment it professedly ministers 
to--that enjoyment which is a chief end 
of our hard struggling in life to       
obtain--shall we not conclude that to   
reform our system of etiquette and      
fashion1 is an aim yielding to few in   
urgency8         99       99       99   
99       99  ,there needs1 then1 a      
protestantism in social usages4 ,forms  
that have ceased to facilitate and have 
become obstructive--whether political1  
religious1 or other--have ever to be    
swept away2 and eventually are so swept 
away in all cases4 ,signs are not       
wanting that some change is at hand4 ,a 
host of satirists1 led on by ,thackeray1
 have been for years engaged in bringing
 our sham-festivities1 and our          

fashionable follies1 into contempt2 and 
in their candid moods1 most men laugh at
 the frivolities with which they and the
 world in general are deluded4 ,ridicule
 has always been a revolutionary agent4 
,that which is habitually assailed with 
sneers and sarcasms cannot long survive4
 ,institutions that have lost their     
roots in men's respect and faith are    
doomed2 and the day of their dissolution
 is not far off4 ,the time is           
approaching1 then1 when our system of   
social observances must pass through    
some crisis1 out of which it will come  
purified and comparatively simple4  ,how
 this crisis will be brought about1 no  
one can with any certainty say4 ,whether
 by the continuance and increase of     
individual protests1 or whether by the  
union of many persons for the practice  
and propagation of some better system1  
the future alone can decide4 ,the       
influence of dissentients acting without
 co-operation1 seems1 under the present 
state of things1 inadequate4 ,standing  

severally alone1 and having no          
well-defined views2 frowned on by       
conformists1 and expostulated with even 
by those who secretly sympathise with   
them2 subject to petty persecutions1 and
 unable to trace any benefit produced by
 their example2 they are apt1 one by    
one1 to give up their attempts as       
hopeless4 ,the young convention-breaker 
eventually finds that he pays too       
heavily for his nonconformity4 ,hating1 
for example1 everything that bears about
 it any remnant of servility1 he        
determines1 in the ardour of his        
independence1 that he will uncover to no
 one4 ,but what he means simply as a    
general protest1 he finds that ladies   
interpret into a personal disrespect4   
,though he sees that1 from the days of  
chivalry downwards1 these marks of      
supreme consideration paid to the other 
sex have been but a hypocritical        
counterpart to the actual subjection in 
which men have held them--a pretended   
submission to compensate for a real     

domination2 and though he sees that when
 the true dignity of women is           
recognised1 the mock dignities given to 
them will be abolished2 yet he does not 
like to be thus misunderstood1 and so   
hesitates in his practice4  ,in other   
cases1 again1 his courage fails him4    
,such of his unconventionalities as can 
be attributed only to eccentricity1 he  
has no qualms about3 for1 on the whole1 
he feels rather complimented than       
otherwise in being considered a         
disregarder of public opinion4 ,but when
 they are liable to be put down to      
ignorance1 to ill-breeding1 or to       
poverty1 he becomes a coward4 ,however  
clearly the recent innovation of eating 
some kinds of fish with knife and fork  
proves the fork-and-bread practice to   
have had little but caprice for its     
basis1 yet he dares not wholly ignore   
that practice while fashion partially   
maintains it4 ,though he thinks that a  
silk handkerchief is quite as           
appropriate for drawing-room use as a   

white cambric one1 he is not altogether 
at ease in acting out his opinion4      
,then1 too1 he begins to perceive that  
his resistance to prescription brings   
round disadvantageous results which he  
had not calculated upon4 ,he had        
expected that it would save him from a  
great deal of social intercourse of a   
frivolous kind--that it would offend the
 fools1 but not the sensible people2 and
 so would serve as a self-acting test by
 which those worth knowing would be     
separated from those not worth knowing4 
,but the fools prove to be so greatly in
 the majority that1 by offending them1  
he closes against himself nearly all the
 avenues though which the sensible      
people are to be reached4 ,thus he      
finds1 that his nonconformity is        
frequently misinterpreted2 that there   
are but few directions in which he dares
 to carry it consistently out2 that the 
annoyances and disadvantages which it   
brings upon him are greater than he     
anticipated2 and that the chances of his

 doing any good are very remote4 ,hence 
he gradually loses resolution1 and      
lapses1 step by step1 into the ordinary 
routine of observances4  ,abortive as   
individual protests thus generally turn 
out1 it may possibly be that nothing    
effectual will be done until there      
arises some organised resistance to this
 invisible despotism1 by which our modes
 and habits are dictated4 ,it may       
happen1 that the government of ,manners 
and ,fashion will be rendered less      
tyrannical1 as the political and        
religious governments have been1 by some
 antagonistic union4 ,alike in ,church  
and ,state1 men's first emancipations   
from excess of restriction were achieved
 by numbers1 bound together by a common 
creed or a common political faith4 ,what
 remained undone while there were but   
individual schismatics or rebels1 was   
effected when there came to be many     
acting in concert4 ,it is tolerably     
clear that these earliest instalments of
 freedom could not have been obtained in

 any other way2 for so long as the      
feeling of personal independence was    
weak and the rule strong1 there could   
never have been a sufficient number of  
separate dissentients to produce the    
desired results4 ,only in these later   
times1 during which the secular and     
spiritual controls have been growing    
less coercive1 and the tendency towards 
individual liberty greater1 has it      
become possible for smaller and smaller 
sects and parties to fight against      
established creeds and laws2 until now  
men may safely stand even alone in their
 antagonism4  ,the failure of individual
 nonconformity to customs1 as above     
illustrated1 suggests that an analogous 
series of changes may have to be gone   
through in this case also4 ,it is true  
that the lex non scripta differs from   
the lex scripta in this1 that1 being    
unwritten1 it is more readily altered2  
and that it has1 from time to time1 been
 quietly ameliorated4 ,nevertheless1 we 
shall find that the analogy holds       

substantially good4 ,for in this case1  
as in the others1 the essential         
revolution is not the substituting of   
any one set of restraints for any other1
 but the limiting or abolishing the     
authority which prescribes restraints4  
,just as the fundamental change         
inaugurated by the ,reformation was not 
a superseding of one creed by another1  
but an ignoring of the arbiter who      
before dictated creeds--just as the     
fundamental change which ,democracy long
 ago commenced1 was not from this       
particular law to that1 but from the    
despotism of one to the freedom of all2 
so1 the parallel change yet to be       
wrought out in this supplementary       
government of which we are treating1 is 
not the replacing of absurd usages by   
sensible ones1 but the dethronement of  
that secret1 irresponsible power which  
now imposes our usages1 and the         
assertion of the right of all           
individuals to choose their own usages4 
,in rules of living1 a ,west-end clique 

is our ,pope2 and we are all papists1   
with but a mere sprinkling of heretics4 
,on all who decisively rebel1 comes down
 the penalty of excommunication1 with   
its long catalogue of disagreeable and1 
indeed1 serious consequences4  ,the     
liberty of the subject asserted in our  
constitution1 and ever on the increase1 
has yet to be wrested from this subtler 
tyranny4 ,the right of private judgment1
 which our ancestors wrung from the     
church1 remains to be claimed from this 
dictator of our habits4 ,or1 as before  
said1 to free us from these idolatries  
and superstitious conformities1 there   
has still to come a protestanism in     
social usages4 ,parallel1 therefore1 as 
is the change to be wrought out1 it     
seems not improbable that it may be     
wrought out in an analogous way4 ,that  
influence which solitary dissentients   
fail to gain1 and that perseverance     
which they lack1 may come into existence
 when they unite4 ,that persecution     
which the world now visits upon them    

from mistaking their nonconformity for  
ignorance or disrespect1 may diminish   
when it is seen to result from          
principle4 ,the penalty which exclusion 
now entails may disappear when they     
become numerous enough to form visiting 
circles of their own4 ,and when a       
successful stand has been made1 and the 
brunt of the opposition has passed1 that
 large amount of secret dislike to our  
observances which now pervades society1 
may manifest itself with sufficient     
power to effect the desired             
emancipation4  ,whether such will be the
 process1 time alone can decide4 ,that  
community of origin1 growth1 supremacy1 
and decadence1 which we have found among
 all kinds of government1 suggests a    
community in modes of change also4 ,on  
the other hand1 ,nature often performs  
substantially similar operations1 in    
ways apparently different4 ,hence these 
details can never be foretold4          
99       99       99       99       99  
,meanwhile1 let us glance at the        

conclusions that have been reached4 ,on 
the one side1 government1 originally    
one1 and afterwards subdivided for the  
better fulfilment of its function1 must 
be considered as having ever been1 in   
all its branches--political1 religious1 
and ceremonial--beneficial2 and1 indeed1
 absolutely necessary4 ,on the other    
side1 government1 under all its forms1  
must be regarded as subserving a        
temporary office1 made needful by the   
unfitness of aboriginal humanity for    
social life2 and the successive         
diminutions of its coerciveness in      
,state1 in ,church1 and in ,custom1 must
 be looked upon as steps towards its    
final disappearance4 ,to complete the   
conception1 there requires to be borne  
in mind the third fact1 that the        
genesis1 the maintenance1 and the       
decline of all governments1 however     
named1 are alike brought about by the   
humanity to be controlled3 from which   
may be drawn the inference that1 on the 
average1 restrictions of every kind     

cannot last much longer than they are   
wanted1 and cannot be destroyed much    
faster than they ought to be4  ,society1
 in all its developments1 undergoes the 
process of exuviation4 ,these old forms 
which it successively throws off1 have  
all been once vitally united with       
it--have severally served as the        
protective envelopes within which a     
higher humanity was being evolved4 ,they
 are cast aside only when they become   
hindrances--only when some inner and    
better envelope has been formed2 and    
they bequeath to us all that there was  
in them good4 ,the periodical abolitions
 of tyrannical laws have left the       
administration of justice not only      
uninjured1 but purified4 ,dead and      
buried creeds have not carried with them
 the essential morality they contained1 
which still exists1 uncontaminated by   
the sloughs of superstition4 ,and all   
that there is of justice and kindness   
and beauty1 embodied in our cumbrous    
forms of etiquette1 will live           

perennially when the forms themselves   
have been forgotten4  #a ,westminster   
,review1 ,april #ahed4  #b ,this was    
written before moustaches and beards had
 become common4     ,,on ,,the ,,genesis
 ,,of ,,science#a   ,there has ever     
prevailed among men a vague notion that 
scientific knowledge differs in nature  
from ordinary knowledge4 ,by the        
,greeks1 with whom                      
,mathematics--literally things          
learnt--was alone considered as         
knowledge proper1 the distinction must  
have been strongly felt2 and it has ever
 since maintained itself in the general 
mind4 ,though1 considering the contrast 
between the achievements of science and 
those of daily unmethodic thinking1 it  
is not surprising that such a           
distinction has been assumed2 yet it    
needs but to rise a little above the    
common point of view1 to see that no    
such distinction can really exist3 or   
that at best1 it is but a superficial   
distinction4 ,the same faculties are    

employed in both cases2 and in both     
cases their mode of operation is        
fundamentally the same4  ,if we say that
 science is organised knowledge1 we are 
met by the truth that all knowledge is  
organised in a greater or less          
degree--that the commonest actions of   
the household and the field presuppose  
facts colligated1 inferences drawn1     
results expected2 and that the general  
success of these actions proves the data
 by which they were guided to have been 
correctly put together4 ,if1 again1 we  
say that science is prevision--is a     
seeing beforehand--is a knowing in what 
times1 places1 combinations1 or         
sequences1 specified phenomena will be  
found2 we are yet obliged to confess    
that the definition includes much that  
is utterly foreign to science in its    
ordinary acceptation4 ,for example1 a   
child's knowledge of an apple4 ,this1 as
 far as it goes1 consists in previsions4
 ,when a child sees a certain form and  
colours1 it knows that if it puts out   

its hand it will have certain           
impressions of resistance1 and          
roundness1 and smoothness2 and if it    
bites1 a certain taste4 ,and manifestly 
its general acquaintance with           
surrounding objects is of like          
nature--is made up of facts concerning  
them1 so grouped as that any part of a  
group being perceived1 the existence of 
the other facts included in it is       
foreseen4  ,if1 once more1 we say that  
science is exact prevision1 we still    
fail to establish the supposed          
difference4 ,not only do we find that   
much of what we call science is not     
exact1 and that some of it1 as          
physiology1 can never become exact2 but 
we find further1 that many of the       
previsions constituting the common stock
 alike of wise and ignorant1 are exact4 
,that an unsupported body will fall2    
that a lighted candle will go out when  
immersed in water2 that ice will melt   
when thrown on the fire--these1 and many
 like predictions relating to the       

familiar properties of things have as   
high a degree of accuracy as predictions
 are capable of4 ,it is true that the   
results predicated are of a very general
 character2 but it is none the less true
 that they are rigorously correct as far
 as they go3 and this is all that is    
requisite to fulfil the definition4     
,there is perfect accordance between the
 anticipated phenomena and the actual   
ones2 and no more than this can be said 
of the highest achievements of the      
sciences specially characterised as     
exact4  ,seeing thus that the assumed   
distinction between scientific knowledge
 and common knowledge is not logically  
justifiable2 and yet feeling1 as we     
must1 that however impossible it may be 
to draw a line between them1 the two are
 not practically identical2 there arises
 the question--,what is the relationship
 that exists between them8 ,a partial   
answer to this question may be drawn    
from the illustrations just given4 ,on  
reconsidering them1 it will be observed 

that those portions of ordinary         
knowledge which are identical in        
character with scientific knowledge1    
comprehend only such combinations of    
phenomena as are directly cognisable by 
the senses1 and are of simple1          
invariable nature4 ,that the smoke from 
a fire which she is lighting will       
ascend1 and that the fire will presently
 boil water1 are previsions which the   
servant-girl makes equally well with the
 most learned physicist2 they are       
equally certain1 equally exact with his2
 but they are previsions concerning     
phenomena in constant and direct        
relation--phenomena that follow visibly 
and immediately after their             
antecedents--phenomena of which the     
causation is neither remote nor         
obscure--phenomena which may be         
predicted by the simplest possible act  
of reasoning4  ,if1 now1 we pass to the 
previsions constituting what is commonly
 known as science--that an eclipse of   
the moon will happen at a specified     

time2 and when a barometer is taken to  
the top of a mountain of known height1  
the mercurial column will descend a     
stated number of inches2 that the poles 
of a galvanic battery immersed in water 
will give off1 the one an inflammable   
and the other an inflaming gas1 in      
definite ratio--we perceive that the    
relations involved are not of a kind    
habitually presented to our senses2 that
 they depend1 some of them1 upon special
 combinations of causes2 and that in    
some of them the connection between     
antecedents and consequents is          
established only by an elaborate series 
of inferences4 ,the broad distinction1  
therefore1 between the two orders of    
knowledge1 is not in their nature1 but  
in their remoteness from perception4    
,if we regard the cases in their most   
general aspect1 we see that the         
labourer1 who1 on hearing certain notes 
in the adjacent hedge1 can describe the 
particular form and colours of the bird 
making them2 and the astronomer1 who1   

having calculated a transit of ,venus1  
can delineate the black spot entering on
 the sun's disc1 as it will appear      
through the telescope1 at a specified   
hour2 do essentially the same thing4    
,each knows that on fulfilling the      
requisite conditions1 he shall have a   
preconceived impression--that after a   
definite series of actions will come a  
group of sensations of a foreknown kind4
 ,the difference1 then1 is not in the   
fundamental character of the mental     
acts2 or in the correctness of the      
previsions accomplished by them2 but in 
the complexity of the processes required
 to achieve the previsions4 ,much of our
 commonest knowledge is1 as far as it   
goes1 rigorously precise4 ,science does 
not increase this precision2 cannot     
transcend it4 ,what then does it do8 ,it
 reduces other knowledge to the same    
degree of precision4 ,that certainty    
which direct perception gives us        
respecting coexistences and sequences of
 the simplest and most accessible kind1 

science gives us respecting coexistences
 and sequences1 complex in their        
dependencies or inaccessible to         
immediate observation4 ,in brief1       
regarded from this point of view1       
science may be called an extension of   
the perceptions by means of reasoning4  
,on further considering the matter1     
however1 it will perhaps be felt that   
this definition does not express the    
whole fact--that inseparable as science 
may be from common knowledge1 and       
completely as we may fill up the gap    
between the simplest previsions of the  
child and the most recondite ones of the
 natural philosopher1 by interposing a  
series of previsions in which the       
complexity of reasoning involved is     
greater and greater1 there is yet a     
difference between the two beyond that  
which is here described4 ,and this is   
true4 ,but the difference is still not  
such as enables us to draw the assumed  
line of demarcation4 ,it is a difference
 not between common knowledge and       

scientific knowledge2 but between the   
successive phases of science itself1 or 
knowledge itself--whichever we choose to
 call it4 ,in its earlier phases science
 attains only to certainty of           
foreknowledge2 in its later phases it   
further attains to completeness4 ,we    
begin by discovering a relation3 we end 
by discovering the relation4 ,our first 
achievement is to foretell the kind of  
phenomenon which will occur under       
specific conditions3 our last           
achievement is to foretell not only the 
kind but the amount4 ,or1 to reduce the 
proposition to its most definite        
form--undeveloped science is qualitative
 prevision3 developed science is        
quantitative prevision4  ,this will at  
once be perceived to express the        
remaining distinction between the lower 
and the higher stages of positive       
knowledge4 ,the prediction that a piece 
of lead will take more force to lift it 
than a piece of wood of equal size1     
exhibits certainty1 but not             

completeness1 of foresight4 ,the kind of
 effect in which the one body will      
exceed the other is foreseen2 but not   
the amount by which it will exceed4     
,there is qualitative prevision only4   
,on the other hand1 the prediction that 
at a stated time two particular planets 
will be in conjunction2 that by means of
 a lever having arms in a given ratio1 a
 known force will raise just so many    
pounds2 that to decompose a specified   
quantity of sulphate of iron by         
carbonate of soda will require so many  
grains--these predictions exhibit       
foreknowledge1 not only of the nature of
 the effects to be produced1 but of the 
magnitude1 either of the effects        
themselves1 of the agencies producing   
them1 or of the distance in time or     
space at which they will be produced4   
,there is not only qualitative but      
quantitative prevision4  ,and this is   
the unexpressed difference which leads  
us to consider certain orders of        
knowledge as especially scientific when 

contrasted with knowledge in general4   
,are the phenomena measurable8 is the   
test which we unconsciously employ4     
,space is measurable3 hence ,geometry4  
,force and space are measureable3 hence 
,statics4 ,time1 force1 and space are   
measureable3 hence ,dynamics4 ,the      
invention of the barometer enabled men  
to extend the principles of mechanics to
 the atmosphere2 and ,aerostatics       
existed4 ,when a thermometer was devised
 there arose a science of heat1 which   
was before impossible4 ,such of our     
sensations as we have not yet found     
modes of measuring do not originate     
sciences4 ,we have no science of smells2
 nor have we one of tastes4 ,we have a  
science of the relations of sounds      
differing in pitch1 because we have     
discovered a way to measure them2 but we
 have no science of sounds in respect to
 their loudness or their timbre1 because
 we have got no measures of loudness and
 timbre4  ,obviously it is this         
reduction of the sensible phenomena it  

represents1 to relations of magnitude1  
which gives to any division of knowledge
 its especially scientific character4   
,originally men's knowledge of weights  
and forces was in the same condition as 
their knowledge of smells and tastes is 
now--a knowledge not extending beyond   
that given by the unaided sensations2   
and it remained so until weighing       
instruments and dynamometers were       
invented4 ,before there were            
hour-glasses and clepsydras1 most       
phenomena could be estimated as to their
 durations and intervals1 with no       
greater precision than degrees of       
hardness can be estimated by the        
fingers4 ,until a thermometric scale was
 contrived1 men's judgments respecting  
relative amounts of heat stood on the   
same footing with their present         
judgments respecting relative amounts of
 sound4 ,and as in these initial stages1
 with no aids to observation1 only the  
roughest comparisons of cases could be  
made1 and only the most marked          

differences perceived2 it is obvious    
that only the most simple laws of       
dependence could be ascertained--only   
those laws which1 being uncomplicated   
with others1 and not disturbed in their 
manifestations1 required no niceties of 
observation to disentangle them4 ,whence
 it appears not only that in proportion 
as knowledge becomes quantitative do its
 previsions become complete as well as  
certain1 but that until its assumption  
of a quantitative character it is       
necessarily confined to the most        
elementary relations4  ,moreover it is  
to be remarked that while1 on the one   
hand1 we can discover the laws of the   
greater proportion of phenomena only by 
investigating them quantitatively2 on   
the other hand we can extend the range  
of our quantitative previsions only as  
fast as we detect the laws of the       
results we predict4 ,for clearly the    
ability to specify the magnitude of a   
result inaccessible to direct           
measurement1 implies knowledge of its   

mode of dependence on something which   
can be measured--implies that we know   
the particular fact dealt with to be an 
instance of some more general fact4     
,thus the extent to which our           
quantitative previsions have been       
carried in any direction1 indicates the 
depth to which our knowledge reaches in 
that direction4 ,and here1 as another   
aspect of the same fact1 we may further 
observe that as we pass from qualitative
 to quantitative prevision1 we pass from
 inductive science to deductive science4
 ,science while purely inductive is     
purely qualitative3 when inaccurately   
quantitative it usually consists of part
 induction1 part deduction3 and it      
becomes accurately quantitative only    
when wholly deductive4 ,we do not mean  
that the deductive and the quantitative 
are coextensive2 for there is manifestly
 much deduction that is qualitative     
only4 ,we mean that all quantitative    
prevision is reached deductively2 and   
that induction can achieve only         

qualitative prevision4  ,still1 however1
 it must not be supposed that these     
distinctions enable us to separate      
ordinary knowledge from science1 much as
 they seem to do so4 ,while they show in
 what consists the broad contrast       
between the extreme forms of the two1   
they yet lead us to recognise their     
essential identity2 and once more prove 
the difference to be one of degree only4
 ,for1 on the one hand1 the commonest   
positive knowledge is to some extent    
quantitative2 seeing that the amount of 
the foreseen result is known within     
certain wide limits4 ,and1 on the other 
hand1 the highest quantitative prevision
 does not reach the exact truth1 but    
only a very near approximation to it4   
,without clocks the savage knows that   
the day is longer in the summer than in 
the winter2 without scales he knows that
 stone is heavier than flesh3 that is1  
he can foresee respecting certain       
results that their amounts will exceed  
these1 and be less than those--he knows 

about what they will be4 ,and1 with his 
most delicate instruments and most      
elaborate calculations1 all that the man
 of science can do1 is to reduce the    
difference between the foreseen and the 
actual results to an unimportant        
quantity4  ,moreover1 it must be borne  
in mind not only that all the sciences  
are qualitative in their first          
stages1--not only that some of them1 as 
,chemistry1 have but recently reached   
the quantitative stage--but that the    
most advanced sciences have attained to 
their present power of determining      
quantities not present to the senses1 or
 not directly measurable1 by a slow     
process of improvement extending through
 thousands of years4 ,so that science   
and the knowledge of the uncultured are 
alike in the nature of their previsions1
 widely as they differ in range2 they   
possess a common imperfection1 though   
this is immensely greater in the last   
than in the first2 and the transition   
from the one to the other has been      

through a series of steps by which the  
imperfection has been rendered          
continually less1 and the range         
continually wider4  ,these facts1 that  
science and the positive knowledge of   
the uncultured cannot be separated in   
nature1 and that the one is but a       
perfected and extended form of the      
other1 must necessarily underlie the    
whole theory of science1 its progress1  
and the relations of its parts to each  
other4 ,there must be serious           
incompleteness in any history of the    
sciences1 which1 leaving out of view the
 first steps of their genesis1 commences
 with them only when they assume        
definite forms4 ,there must be grave    
defects1 if not a general untruth1 in a 
philosophy of the sciences considered in
 their interdependence and development1 
which neglects the inquiry how they came
 to be distinct sciences1 and how they  
were severally evolved out of the chaos 
of primitive ideas4  ,not only a direct 
consideration of the matter1 but all    

analogy1 goes to show that in the       
earlier and simpler stages must be      
sought the key to all subsequent        
intricacies4 ,the time was when the     
anatomy and physiology of the human     
being were studied by themselves--when  
the adult man was analysed and the      
relations of parts and of functions     
investigated1 without reference either  
to the relations exhibited in the embryo
 or to the homologous relations existing
 in other creatures4 ,now1 however1 it  
has become manifest that no true        
conceptions1 no true generalisations1   
are possible under such conditions4     
,anatomists and physiologists now find  
that the real natures of organs and     
tissues can be ascertained only by      
tracing their early evolution2 and that 
the affinities between existing genera  
can be satisfactorily made out only by  
examining the fossil genera to which    
they are allied4 ,well1 is it not clear 
that the like must be true concerning   
all things that undergo development8 ,is

 not science a growth8 ,has not science1
 too1 its embryology8 ,and must not the 
neglect of its embryology lead to a     
misunderstanding of the principles of   
its evolution and of its existing       
organisation8  ,there are a priori      
reasons1 therefore1 for doubting the    
truth of all philosophies of the        
sciences which tacitly proceed upon the 
common notion that scientific knowledge 
and ordinary knowledge are separate2    
instead of commencing1 as they should1  
by affiliating the one upon the other1  
and showing how it gradually came to be 
distinguishable from the other4 ,we may 
expect to find their generalisations    
essentially artificial2 and we shall not
 be deceived4 ,some illustrations of    
this may here be fitly introduced1 by   
way of preliminary to a brief sketch of 
the genesis of science from the point of
 view indicated4 ,and we cannot more    
readily find such illustrations than by 
glancing at a few of the various        
classifications of the sciences that    

have from time to time been proposed4   
,to consider all of them would take too 
much space3 we must content ourselves   
with some of the latest4         99     
99       99       99       99           
,commencing with those which may be     
soonest disposed of1 let us notice first
 the arrangement propounded by ,oken4   
,an abstract of it runs thus3--         
,part ,i4   ,,mathesis4--,pneumatogeny3 
,primary ,art1 ,primary                 
,consciousness1 ,god1 ,primary ,rest1   
,time1 ,polarity1 ,motion1              
,man1 ,space1 ,point4 ,line1 ,surface1  
,globe1                                 
,rotation4--,hylogeny3 ,gravity1        
,matter1 ,ether1 ,heavenly              
,bodies1 ,light1 ,heat1 ,fire4          
7,he explains that ,,mathesis is the    
doctrine of the whole2                  
,pneumatogeny being the doctrine of     
immaterial totalities1 and              
,hylogeny that of material totalities47 
,part ,,ii4  ,,ontology4--,cosmogeny3   
,rest1 ,centre1 ,motion1 ,line1         

,planets1 ,form1 ,planetary ,system1    
,comets4--,stoechiogeny3                
,condensation1 ,simple ,matter1         
,elements1 ,air1 ,water1                
,earth--,stoechiology3 ,functions of the
 ,elements1 etc41                       
etc4--,kingdoms of ,nature3             
,individuals4          7,he says in     
explanation that ,,ontology teaches us  
the phenomena         of matter4 ,the   
first of these are the heavenly bodies  
comprehended by ,cosmogeny4 ,these      
divide into                             
elements--,stoechiogeny4 ,the earth     
element divides into                    
minerals--,mineralogy4 ,these unite into
 one collective         body--,geogeny4 
,the whole in singulars is the living1  
or         ,organic1 which again divides
 into plants and animals4               
,biology1 therefore1 divides into       
,organogeny1 ,phytosophy1               
,zoosophy47                 ,,first     
,,kingdom4--,,minerals4 ,mineralogy1    
,geology4       ,part ,,iii4            

,,biology4--,organosophy1 ,phytogeny1   
,phyto-physiology1                      
,phytology1 ,zoogeny1 ,physiology1      
,zoology1                ,psychology4   
,a glance over this confused scheme     
shows that it is an attempt to classify 
knowledge1 not after the order in which 
it has been1 or may be1 built up in the 
human consciousness2 but after an       
assumed order of creation4 ,it is a     
pseudo-scientific cosmogony1 akin to    
those which men have enunciated from the
 earliest times downwards2 and only a   
little more respectable4 ,as such it    
will not be thought worthy of much      
consideration by those who1 like        
ourselves1 hold that experience is the  
sole origin of knowledge4 ,otherwise1 it
 might have been needful to dwell on the
 incongruities of the arrangements--to  
ask how motion can be treated of before 
space8 how there can be rotation without
 matter to rotate8 how polarity can be  
dealt with without involving points and 
lines8 ,but it will serve our present   

purpose just to point out a few of the  
extreme absurdities resulting from the  
doctrine which ,oken seems to hold in   
common with ,hegel1 that to philosophise
 on ,nature is to re-think the great    
thought of ,creation4 ,here is a        
sample3--  ,mathematics is the universal
 science2 so also is ,physio-philosophy1
 although it is only a part1 or rather  
but a condition of the universe2 both   
are one1 or mutually congruent4         
,mathematics is1 however1 a science of  
mere forms without substance4           
,physio-philosophy is1 therefore1       
mathematics endowed with substance4     
,from the ,english point of view it is  
sufficiently amusing to find such a     
dogma not only gravely stated1 but      
stated as an unquestionable truth4 ,here
 we see the experiences of quantitative 
relations which men have gathered from  
surrounding bodies and generalised      
7experiences which had been scarcely at 
all generalised at the beginning of the 
historic period7--we find these         

generalised experiences1 these          
intellectual abstractions1 elevated into
 concrete actualities1 projected back   
into ,nature1 and considered as the     
internal framework of things--the       
skeleton by which matter is sustained4  
,but this new form of the old realism is
 by no means the most startling of the  
physio-philosophic principles4 ,we      
presently read that1  ,the highest      
mathematical idea1 or the fundamental   
principle of all mathematics is the zero
  #j44444  ,zero is in itself nothing4  
,mathematics is based upon nothing1 and1
 consequently1 arises out of nothing4   
,out of nothing1 therefore1 it is       
possible for something to arise2 for    
mathematics1 consisting of propositions1
 is something1 in relation to #j4  ,by  
such consequentlys and therefores it is1
 that men philosophise when they        
re-think the great thought of ,creation4
 ,by dogmas that pretend to be reasons1 
nothing is made to generate mathematics2
 and by clothing mathematics with       

matter1 we have the universe6 ,if now we
 deny1 as we do deny1 that the highest  
mathematical idea is the zero2--if1 on  
the other hand1 we assert1 as we do     
assert1 that the fundamental idea       
underlying all mathematics1 is that of  
equality2 the whole of ,oken's cosmogony
 disappears4 ,and here1 indeed1 we may  
see illustrated1 the distinctive        
peculiarity of the ,german method of    
procedure in these matters--the bastard 
a priori method1 as it may be termed4   
,the legitimate a priori method sets out
 with propositions of which the negation
 is inconceivable2 the a priori method  
as illegitimately applied1 sets out     
either with propositions of which the   
negation is not inconceivable1 or with  
propositions like ,oken's1 of which the 
affirmation is inconceivable4  ,it is   
needless to proceed further with the    
analysis2 else might we detail the steps
 by which ,oken arrives at the          
conclusions that the planets are        
coagulated colours1 for they are        

coagulated light2 that the sphere is the
 expanded nothing2 that gravity is a    
weighty nothing1 a heavy essence1       
striving towards a centre2 that the     
earth is the identical1 water the       
indifferent1 air the different2 or the  
first the centre1 the second the radius1
 the last the periphery of the general  
globe or of fire4 ,to comment on them   
would be nearly as absurd as are the    
propositions themselves4 ,let us pass on
 to another of the ,german systems of   
knowledge--that of ,hegel4  ,the simple 
fact that ,hegel puts ,jacob ,boehme on 
a par with ,bacon1 suffices alone to    
show that his standpoint is far remote  
from the one usually regarded as        
scientific3 so far remote1 indeed1 that 
it is not easy to find any common basis 
on which to found a criticism4 ,those   
who hold that the mind is moulded into  
conformity with surrounding things by   
the agency of surrounding things1 are   
necessarily at a loss how to deal with  
those1 who1 like ,schelling and ,hegel1 

assert that surrounding things are      
solidified mind--that ,nature is        
petrified intelligence4 ,however1 let us
 briefly glance at ,hegel's             
classification4 ,he divides philosophy  
into three parts3--  #a4 ,logic1 or the 
science of the idea in itself1 the pure 
idea4  #b4 ,the ,philosophy of ,nature1 
or the science of the idea considered   
under its other form--of the idea as    
,nature4  #c4 ,the ,philosophy of the   
,mind1 or the science of the idea in its
 return to itself4  ,of these1 the      
second is divided into the natural      
sciences1 commonly so called2 so that in
 its more detailed form the series runs 
thus3--,logic1 ,mechanics1 ,physics1    
,organic ,physics1 ,psychology4  ,now1  
if we believe with ,hegel1 first1 that  
thought is the true essence of man2     
second1 that thought is the essence of  
the world2 and that1 therefore1 there is
 nothing but thought2 his               
classification1 beginning with the      
science of pure thought1 may be         

acceptable4 ,but otherwise1 it is an    
obvious objection to his arrangement1   
that thought implies things thought     
of--that there can be no logical forms  
without the substance of                
experience--that the science of ideas   
and the science of things must have a   
simultaneous origin4 ,hegel1 however1   
anticipates this objection1 and1 in his 
obstinate idealism1 replies1 that the   
contrary is true2 that all contained in 
the forms1 to become something1 requires
 to be thought3 and that logical forms  
are the foundations of all things4  ,it 
is not surprising that1 starting from   
such premises1 and reasoning after this 
fashion1 ,hegel finds his way to strange
 conclusions4 ,out of space and time he 
proceeds to build up motion1 matter1    
repulsion1 attraction1 weight1 and      
inertia4 ,he then goes on to logically  
evolve the solar system4 ,in doing this 
he widely diverges from the ,newtonian  
theory2 reaches by syllogism the        
conviction that the planets are the most

 perfect celestial bodies2 and1 not     
being able to bring the stars within his
 theory1 says that they are mere formal 
existences and not living matter1 and   
that as compared with the solar system  
they are as little admirable as a       
cutaneous eruption or a swarm of        
flies4#b  ,results so outrageous might  
be left as self-disproved1 were it not  
that speculators of this class are not  
alarmed by any amount of incongruity    
with established beliefs4 ,the only     
efficient mode of treating systems like 
this of ,hegel1 is to show that they are
 self-destructive--that by their first  
steps they ignore that authority on     
which all their subsequent steps depend4
 ,if ,hegel professes1 as he manifestly 
does1 to develop his scheme by          
reasoning--if he presents successive    
inferences as necessarily following from
 certain premises2 he implies the       
postulate that a belief which           
necessarily follows after certain       
antecedents is a true belief3 and1 did  

an opponent reply to one of his         
inferences1 that1 though it was         
impossible to think the opposite1 yet   
the opposite was true1 he would consider
 the reply irrational4 ,the procedure1  
however1 which he would thus condemn as 
destructive of all thinking whatever1 is
 just the procedure exhibited in the    
enunciation of his own first principles4
  ,mankind find themselves unable to    
conceive that there can be thought      
without things thought of4 ,hegel1      
however1 asserts that there can be      
thought without things thought of4 ,that
 ultimate test of a true                
proposition--the inability of the human 
mind to conceive the negation of        
it--which in all other cases he         
considers valid1 he considers invalid   
where it suits his convenience to do so2
 and yet at the same time denies the    
right of an opponent to follow his      
example4 ,if it is competent for him to 
posit dogmas1 which are the direct      
negations of what human consciousness   

recognises2 then is it also competent   
for his antagonists to stop him at every
 step in his argument by saying1 that   
though the particular inference he is   
drawing seems to his mind1 and to all   
minds1 necessarily to follow from the   
premises1 yet it is not true1 but the   
contrary inference is true4 ,or1 to     
state the dilemma in another form3--,if 
he sets out with inconceivable          
propositions1 then may he with equal    
propriety make all his succeeding       
propositions inconceivable ones--may at 
every step throughout his reasoning draw
 exactly the opposite conclusion to that
 which seems involved4  ,hegel's mode of
 procedure being thus essentially       
suicidal1 the ,hegelian classification  
which depends upon it falls to the      
ground4 ,let us consider next that of   
,m4 ,comte4  ,as all his readers must   
admit1 ,m4 ,comte presents us with a    
scheme of the sciences which1 unlike the
 foregoing ones1 demands respectful     
consideration4 ,widely as we differ from

 him1 we cheerfully bear witness to the 
largeness of his views1 the clearness of
 his reasoning1 and the value of his    
speculations as contributing to         
intellectual progress4 ,did we believe a
 serial arrangement of the sciences to  
be possible1 that of ,m4 ,comte would   
certainly be the one we should adopt4   
,his fundamental propositions are       
thoroughly intelligible2 and if not     
true1 have a great semblance of truth4  
,his successive steps are logically     
co-ordinated2 and he supports his       
conclusions by a considerable amount of 
evidence--evidence which1 so long as it 
is not critically examined1 or not met  
by counter evidence1 seems to           
substantiate his positions4 ,but it only
 needs to assume that antagonistic      
attitude which ought to be assumed      
towards new doctrines1 in the belief    
that1 if true1 they will prosper by     
conquering objectors--it needs but to   
test his leading doctrines either by    
other facts than those he cites1 or by  

his own facts differently applied1 to at
 once show that they will not stand4 ,we
 will proceed thus to deal with the     
general principle on which he bases his 
hierarchy of the sciences4  ,in the     
second chapter of his ,cours de         
,philosophic ,positive1 ,m4 ,comte      
says3--,our problem is1 then1 to find   
the one rational order1 amongst a host  
of possible systems4 444 ,this order is 
determined by the degree of simplicity1 
or1 what comes to the same thing1 of    
generality of their phenomena4 ,and the 
arrangement he deduces runs thus3       
,mathematics1 ,astronomy1 ,physics1     
,chemistry1 ,physiology1 ,social        
,physics4 ,this he asserts to be the    
true filiation of the sciences4 ,he     
asserts further1 that the principle of  
progression from a greater to a less    
degree of generality1 which gives this  
order to the whole body of science1     
arranges the parts of each science4     
,and1 finally1 he asserts that the      
gradations thus established a priori    

among the sciences1 and the parts of    
each science1 is in essential conformity
 with the order which has spontaneously 
taken place among the branches of       
natural philosophy2 or1 in other        
words--corresponds with the order of    
historic development4  ,let us compare  
these assertions with the facts4 ,that  
there may be perfect fairness1 let us   
make no choice1 but take as the field   
for our comparison1 the succeeding      
section treating of the first           
science--,mathematics2 and let us use   
none but ,m4 ,comte's own facts1 and his
 own admissions4 ,confining ourselves to
 this one science1 of course our        
comparisons must be between its several 
parts4 ,m4 ,comte says1 that the parts  
of each science must be arranged in the 
order of their decreasing generality2   
and that this order of decreasing       
generality agrees with the order of     
historical development4 ,our inquiry    
must be1 then1 whether the history of   
mathematics confirms this statement4    

,carrying out his principle1 ,m4 ,comte 
divides ,mathematics into ,abstract     
,mathematics1 or the ,calculus 7taking  
the word in its most extended sense7 and
 ,concrete ,mathematics1 which is       
composed of ,general ,geometry and of   
,rational ,mechanics4 ,the              
subject-matter of the first of these is 
number2 the subject-matter of the second
 includes space1 time1 motion1 force4   
,the one possesses the highest possible 
degree of generality2 for all things    
whatever admit of enumeration4 ,the     
others are less general2 seeing that    
there are endless phenomena that are not
 cognisable either by general geometry  
or rational mechanics4 ,in conformity   
with the alleged law1 therefore1 the    
evolution of the calculus must          
throughout have preceded the evolution  
of the concrete sub-sciences4 ,now      
somewhat awkwardly for him1 the first   
remark ,m4 ,comte makes bearing upon    
this point is1 that from an historical  
point of view1 mathematical analysis    

appears to have risen out of the        
contemplation of geometrical and        
mechanical facts4 ,true1 he goes on to  
say that1 it is not the less independent
 of these sciences logically speaking2  
for that analytical ideas are1 above all
 others1 universal1 abstract1 and       
simple2 and geometrical conceptions are 
necessarily founded on them4  ,we will  
not take advantage of this last passage 
to charge ,m4 ,comte with teaching1     
after the fashion of ,hegel1 that there 
can be thought without things thought   
of4 ,we are content simply to compare   
the two assertions1 that analysis arose 
out of the contemplation of geometrical 
and mechanical facts1 and that          
geometrical conceptions are founded upon
 analytical ones4 ,literally interpreted
 they exactly cancel each other4        
,interpreted1 however1 in a liberal     
sense1 they imply1 what we believe to be
 demonstrable1 that the two had a       
simultaneous origin4 ,the passage is    
either nonsense1 or it is an admission  

that abstract and concrete mathematics  
are coeval4 ,thus1 at the very first    
step1 the alleged congruity between the 
order of generality and the order of    
evolution does not hold good4  ,but may 
it not be that though abstract and      
concrete mathematics took their rise at 
the same time1 the one afterwards       
developed more rapidly than the other2  
and has ever since remained in advance  
of it8 ,no3 and again we call ,m4 ,comte
 himself as witness4 ,fortunately for   
his argument he has said nothing        
respecting the early stages of the      
concrete and abstract divisions after   
their divergence from a common root2    
otherwise the advent of ,algebra long   
after the ,greek geometry had reached a 
high development1 would have been an    
inconvenient fact for him to deal with4 
,but passing over this1 and limiting    
ourselves to his own statements1 we     
find1 at the opening of the next        
chapter1 the admission1 that the        
historical development of the abstract  

portion of mathematical science has1    
since the time of ,descartes1 been for  
the most part determined by that of the 
concrete4 ,further on we read respecting
 algebraic functions that most functions
 were concrete in their origin--even    
those which are at present the most     
purely abstract2 and the ancients       
discovered only through geometrical     
definitions elementary algebraic        
properties of functions to which a      
numerical value was not attached till   
long afterwards1 rendering abstract to  
us what was concrete to the old         
geometers4 ,how do these statements     
tally with his doctrine8 ,again1 having 
divided the calculus into algebraic and 
arithmetical1 ,m4 ,comte admits1 as     
perforce he must1 that the algebraic is 
more general than the arithmetical2 yet 
he will not say that algebra preceded   
arithmetic in point of time4 ,and again1
 having divided the calculus of         
functions into the calculus of direct   
functions 7common algebra7 and the      

calculus of indirect functions          
7transcendental analysis71 he is obliged
 to speak of this last as possessing a  
higher generality than the first2 yet it
 is far more modern4 ,indeed1 by        
implication1 ,m4 ,comte himself         
confesses this incongruity2 for he      
says3--,it might seem that the          
transcendental analysis ought to be     
studied before the ordinary1 as it      
provides the equations which the other  
has to resolve2 but though the          
transcendental is logically independent 
of the ordinary1 it is best to follow   
the usual method of study1 taking the   
ordinary first4 ,in all these cases1    
then1 as well as at the close of the    
section where he predicts that          
mathematicians will in time create      
procedures of a wider generality1 ,m4   
,comte makes admissions that are        
diametrically opposed to the alleged    
law4  ,in the succeeding chapters       
treating of the concrete department of  
mathematics1 we find similar            

contradictions ,m4 ,comte himself names 
the geometry of the ancients special    
geometry1 and that of moderns the       
general geometry4 ,he admits that while 
the ancients studied geometry with      
reference to the bodies under notice1 or
 specially2 the moderns study it with   
reference to the phenomena to be        
considered1 or generally4 ,he admits    
that while the ancients extracted all   
they could out of one line or surface   
before passing to another1 the moderns1 
since ,descartes1 employ themselves on  
questions which relate to any figure    
whatever4 ,these facts are the reverse  
of what1 according to his theory1 they  
should be4 ,so1 too1 in mechanics4      
,before dividing it into statics and    
dynamics1 ,m4 ,comte treats of the three
 laws of motion1 and is obliged to do   
so2 for statics1 the more general of the
 two divisions1 though it does not      
involve motion1 is impossible as a      
science until the laws of motion are    
ascertained4 ,yet the laws of motion    

pertain to dynamics1 the more special of
 the divisions4 ,further on he points   
out that after ,archimedes1 who         
discovered the law of equilibrium of the
 lever1 statics made no progress until  
the establishment of dynamics enabled us
 to seek the conditions of equilibrium  
through the laws of the composition of  
forces4 ,and he adds--,at this day this 
is the method universally employed4 ,at 
the first glance it does not appear the 
most rational--dynamics being more      
complicated than statics1 and precedence
 being natural to the simpler4 ,it      
would1 in fact1 be more philosophical to
 refer dynamics to statics1 as has since
 been done4 ,sundry discoveries are     
afterwards detailed1 showing how        
completely the development of statics   
has been achieved by considering its    
problems dynamically2 and before the    
close of the section ,m4 ,comte remarks 
that before hydrostatics could be       
comprehended under statics1 it was      
necessary that the abstract theory of   

equilibrium should be made so general as
 to apply directly to fluids as well as 
solids4 ,this was accomplished when     
,lagrange supplied1 as the basis of the 
whole of rational mechanics1 the single 
principle of virtual velocities4 ,in    
which statement we have two facts       
directly at variance3 with ,m4 ,comte's 
doctrine2 first1 that the simpler       
science1 statics1 reached its present   
development only by the aid of the      
principle of virtual velocities1 which  
belongs to the more complex science1    
dynamics2 and that this single principle
 underlying all rational mechanics--this
 most general form which includes alike 
the relations of statical1              
hydro-statical1 and dynamical           
forces--was reached so late as the time 
of ,lagrange4  ,thus it is not true that
 the historical succession of the       
divisions of mathematics has            
corresponded with the order of          
decreasing generality4 ,it is not true  
that abstract mathematics was evolved   

antecedently to1 and independently of   
concrete mathematics4 ,it is not true   
that of the subdivisions of abstract    
mathematics1 the more general came      
before the more special4 ,and it is not 
true that concrete mathematics1 in      
either of its two sections1 began with  
the most abstract and advanced to the   
less abstract truths4  ,it may be well  
to mention1 parenthetically1 that in    
defending his alleged law of progression
 from the general to the special1 ,m4   
,comte somewhere comments upon the two  
meanings of the word general1 and the   
resulting liability to confusion4       
,without now discussing whether the     
asserted distinction can be maintained  
in other cases1 it is manifest that it  
does not exist here4 ,in sundry of the  
instances above quoted1 the endeavours  
made by ,m4 ,comte himself to disguise1 
or to explain away1 the precedence of   
the special over the general1 clearly   
indicate that the generality spoken of  
is of the kind meant by his formula4    

,and it needs but a brief consideration 
of the matter to show that1 even did he 
attempt it1 he could not distinguish    
this generality1 which1 as above proved1
 frequently comes last1 from the        
generality which he says always comes   
first4 ,for what is the nature of that  
mental process by which objects1        
dimensions1 weights1 times1 and the     
rest1 are found capable of having their 
relations expressed numerically8 ,it is 
the formation of certain abstract       
conceptions of unity1 duality and       
multiplicity1 which are applicable to   
all things alike4 ,it is the invention  
of general symbols serving to express   
the numerical relations of entities1    
whatever be their special characters4   
,and what is the nature of the mental   
process by which numbers are found      
capable of having their relations       
expressed algebraically8 ,it is just the
 same4 ,it is the formation of certain  
abstract conceptions of numerical       
functions which are the same whatever be

 the magnitudes of the numbers4 ,it is  
the invention of general symbols serving
 to express the relations between       
numbers1 as numbers express the         
relations between things4 ,and          
transcendental analysis stands to       
algebra in the same position that       
algebra stands in to arithmetic4  ,to   
briefly illustrate their respective     
powers--arithmetic can express in one   
formula the value of a particular       
tangent to a particular curve2 algebra  
can express in one formula the values of
 all tangents to a particular curve2    
transcendental analysis can express in  
one formula the values of all tangents  
to all curves4 ,just as arithmetic deals
 with the common properties of lines1   
areas1 bulks1 forces1 periods2 so does  
algebra deal with the common properties 
of the numbers which arithmetic         
presents2 so does transcendental        
analysis deal with the common properties
 of the equations exhibited by algebra4 
,thus1 the generality of the higher     

branches of the calculus1 when compared 
with the lower1 is the same kind of     
generality as that of the lower branches
 when compared with geometry or         
mechanics4 ,and on examination it will  
be found that the like relation exists  
in the various other cases above given4 
,having shown that ,m4 ,comte's alleged 
law of progression does not hold among  
the several parts of the same science1  
let us see how it agrees with the facts 
when applied to separate sciences4      
,astronomy1 says ,m4 ,comte1 at the     
opening of ,book ,,iii41 was a positive 
science1 in its geometrical aspect1 from
 the earliest days of the school of     
,alexandria2 but ,physics1 which we are 
now to consider1 had no positive        
character at all till ,galileo made his 
great discoveries on the fall of heavy  
bodies4 ,on this1 our comment is simply 
that it is a misrepresentation based    
upon an arbitrary misuse of words--a    
mere verbal artifice4 ,by choosing to   
exclude from terrestrial physics those  

laws of magnitude1 motion1 and position1
 which he includes in celestial physics1
 ,m4 ,comte makes it appear that the one
 owes nothing to the other4 ,not only is
 this altogether unwarrantable1 but it  
is radically inconsistent with his own  
scheme of divisions4 ,at the outset he  
says--and as the point is important we  
quote from the original--,pour la       
physique inorganique nous voyons        
d'abord1 en nous conformant toujours a  
l'ordre de generalite et de dependance  
des phenomenes1 qu'elle doit etre       
partagee en deux sections distinctes1   
suivant qu'elle considere les phenomenes
 generaux de l'univers1 ou1 en          
particulier1 ceux que presentent les    
corps terrestres4 ,d'ou la physique     
celeste1 ou l'astronomie1 soit          
geometrique1 soit mechanique2 et la     
physique terrestre4  ,here then we have 
inorganic physics clearly divided into  
celestial physics and terrestrial       
physics--the phenomena presented by the 
universe1 and the phenomena presented by

 earthly bodies4 ,if now celestial      
bodies and terrestrial bodies exhibit   
sundry leading phenomena in common1 as  
they do1 how can the generalisation of  
these common phenomena be considered as 
pertaining to the one class rather than 
to the other8 ,if inorganic physics     
includes geometry 7which ,m4 ,comte has 
made it do by comprehending geometrical 
astronomy in its sub-section--celestial 
physics72 and if its                    
sub-section--terrestrial physics1 treats
 of things having geometrical           
properties2 how can the laws of         
geometrical relations be excluded from  
terrestrial physics8 ,clearly if        
celestial physics includes the geometry 
of objects in the heavens1 terrestrial  
physics includes the geometry of objects
 on the earth4 ,and if terrestrial      
physics includes terrestrial geometry1  
while celestial physics includes        
celestial geometry1 then the geometrical
 part of terrestrial physics precedes   
the geometrical part of celestial       

physics2 seeing that geometry gained its
 first ideas from surrounding objects4  
,until men had learnt geometrical       
relations from bodies on the earth1 it  
was impossible for them to understand   
the geometrical relations of bodies in  
the heavens4  ,so1 too1 with celestial  
mechanics1 which had terrestrial        
mechanics for its parent4 ,the very     
conception of force1 which underlies the
 whole of mechanical astronomy1 is      
borrowed from our earthly experiences2  
and the leading laws of mechanical      
action as exhibited in scales1 levers1  
projectiles1 etc41 had to be ascertained
 before the dynamics of the solar system
 could be entered upon4 ,what were the  
laws made use of by ,newton in working  
out his grand discovery8 ,the law of    
falling bodies disclosed by ,galileo2   
that of the composition of forces also  
disclosed by ,galileo2 and that of      
centrifugal force found out by          
,huyghens--all of them generalisations  
of terrestrial physics4 ,yet1 with facts

 like these before him1 ,m4 ,comte      
places astronomy before physics in order
 of evolution6 ,he does not compare the 
geometrical parts of the two together1  
and the mechanical parts of the two     
together2 for this would by no means    
suit his hypothesis4 ,but he compares   
the geometrical part of the one with the
 mechanical part of the other1 and so   
gives a semblance of truth to his       
position4 ,he is led away by a verbal   
delusion4 ,had he confined his attention
 to the things and disregarded the      
words1 he would have seen that before   
mankind scientifically co-ordinated any 
one class of phenomena displayed in the 
heavens1 they had previously            
co-ordinated a parallel class of        
phenomena displayed upon the surface of 
the earth4  ,were it needful we could   
fill a score pages with the             
incongruities of ,m4 ,comte's scheme4   
,but the foregoing samples will suffice4
 ,so far is his law of evolution of the 
sciences from being tenable1 that1 by   

following his example1 and arbitrarily  
ignoring one class of facts1 it would be
 possible to present1 with great        
plausibility1 just the opposite         
generalisation to that which he         
enunciates4 ,while he asserts that the  
rational order of the sciences1 like the
 order of their historic development1 is
 determined by the degree of simplicity1
 or1 what comes to the same thing1 of   
generality of their phenomena2 it might 
contrariwise be asserted1 that1         
commencing with the complex and the     
special1 mankind have progressed step by
 step to a knowledge of greater         
simplicity and wider generality4 ,so    
much evidence is there of this as to    
have drawn from ,whewell1 in his        
,history of the ,inductive ,sciences1   
the general remark that the reader has  
already seen repeatedly in the course of
 this history1 complex and derivative   
principles presenting themselves to     
men's minds before simple and elementary
 ones4  ,even from ,m4 ,comte's own     

work1 numerous facts1 admissions1 and   
arguments1 might be picked out1 tending 
to show this4 ,we have already quoted   
his words in proof that both abstract   
and concrete mathematics have progressed
 towards a higher degree of generality1 
and that he looks forward to a higher   
generality still4 ,just to strengthen   
this adverse hypothesis1 let us take a  
further instance4 ,from the particular  
case of the scales1 the law of          
equilibrium of which was familiar to the
 earliest nations known1 ,archimedes    
advanced to the more general case of the
 unequal lever with unequal weights2 the
 law of equilibrium of which includes   
that of the scales4 ,by the help of     
,galileo's discovery concerning the     
composition of forces1 ,d',alembert     
established1 for the first time1 the    
equations of equilibrium of any system  
of forces applied to the different      
points of a solid body--equations which 
include all cases of levers and an      
infinity of cases besides4 ,clearly this

 is progress towards a higher           
generality--towards a knowledge more    
independent of special                  
circumstances--towards a study of       
phenomena the most disengaged from the  
incidents of particular cases2 which is 
,m4 ,comte's definition of the most     
simple phenomena4 ,does it not indeed   
follow from the familiarly admitted     
fact1 that mental advance is from the   
concrete to the abstract1 from the      
particular to the general1 that the     
universal and therefore most simple     
truths are the last to be discovered8   
,is not the government of the solar     
system by a force varying inversely as  
the square of the distance1 a simpler   
conception than any that preceded it8   
,should we ever succeed in reducing all 
orders of phenomena to some single      
law--say of atomic action1 as ,m4 ,comte
 suggests--must not that law answer to  
his test of being independent of all    
others1 and therefore most simple8 ,and 
would not such a law generalise the     

phenomena of gravity1 cohesion1 atomic  
affinity1 and electric repulsion1 just  
as the laws of number generalise the    
quantitative phenomena of space1 time1  
and force8  ,the possibility of saying  
so much in support of an hypothesis the 
very reverse of ,m4 ,comte's1 at once   
proves that his generalisation is only a
 half-truth4 ,the fact is1 that neither 
proposition is correct by itself2 and   
the actuality is expressed only by      
putting the two together4 ,the progress 
of science is duplex3 it is at once from
 the special to the general1 and from   
the general to the special3 it is       
analytical and synthetical at the same  
time4  ,m4 ,comte himself observes that 
the evolution of science has been       
accomplished by the division of labour2 
but he quite misstates the mode in which
 this division of labour has operated4  
,as he describes it1 it has simply been 
an arrangement of phenomena into        
classes1 and the study of each class by 
itself4 ,he does not recognise the      

constant effect of progress in each     
class upon all other classes2 but only  
on the class succeeding it in his       
hierarchical scale4 ,or if he           
occasionally admits collateral          
influences and intercommunications1 he  
does it so grudgingly1 and so quickly   
puts the admissions out of sight and    
forgets them1 as to leave the impression
 that1 with but trifling exceptions1 the
 sciences aid each other only in the    
order of their alleged succession4 ,the 
fact is1 however1 that the division of  
labour in science1 like the division of 
labour in society1 and like the         
physiological division of labour in     
individual organisms1 has been not only 
a specialisation of functions1 but a    
continuous helping of each division by  
all the others1 and of all by each4     
,every particular class of inquirers    
has1 as it were1 secreted its own       
particular order of truths from the     
general mass of material which          
observation accumulates2 and all other  

classes of inquirers have made use of   
these truths as fast as they were       
elaborated1 with the effect of enabling 
them the better to elaborate each its   
own order of truths4  ,it was thus in   
sundry of the cases we have quoted as at
 variance with ,m4 ,comte's doctrine4   
,it was thus with the application of    
,huyghens's optical discovery to        
astronomical observation by ,galileo4   
,it was thus with the application of the
 isochronism of the pendulum to the     
making of instruments for measuring     
intervals1 astronomical and other4 ,it  
was thus when the discovery that the    
refraction and dispersion of light did  
not follow the same law of variation1   
affected both astronomy and physiology  
by giving us achromatic telescopes and  
microscopes4 ,it was thus when          
,bradley's discovery of the aberration  
of light enabled him to make the first  
step towards ascertaining the motions of
 the stars4 ,it was thus when           
,cavendish's torsion-balance experiment 

determined the specific gravity of the  
earth1 and so gave a datum for          
calculating the specific gravities of   
the sun and planets4 ,it was thus when  
tables of atmospheric refraction enabled
 observers to write down the real places
 of the heavenly bodies instead of their
 apparent places4 ,it was thus when the 
discovery of the different              
expansibilities of metals by heat1 gave 
us the means of correcting our          
chronometrical measurements of          
astronomical periods4 ,it was thus when 
the lines of the prismatic spectrum were
 used to distinguish the heavenly bodies
 that are of like nature with the sun   
from those which are not4 ,it was thus  
when1 as recently1 an                   
electro-telegraphic instrument was      
invented for the more accurate          
registration of meridional transits4 ,it
 was thus when the difference in the    
rates of a clock at the equator1 and    
nearer the poles1 gave data for         
calculating the oblateness of the earth1

 and accounting for the precession of   
the equinoxes4 ,it was thus--but it is  
needless to continue4  ,here1 within our
 own limited knowledge of its history1  
we have named ten additional cases in   
which the single science of astronomy   
has owed its advance to sciences coming 
after it in ,m4 ,comte's series4 ,not   
only its secondary steps1 but its       
greatest revolutions have been thus     
determined4 ,kepler could not have      
discovered his celebrated laws had it   
not been for ,tycho ,brahe's accurate   
observations2 and it was only after some
 progress in physical and chemical      
science that the improved instruments   
with which those observations were made1
 became possible4 ,the heliocentric     
theory of the solar system had to wait  
until the invention of the telescope    
before it could be finally established4 
,nay1 even the grand discovery of       
all--the law of gravitation--depended   
for its proof upon an operation of      
physical science1 the measurement of a  

degree on the ,earth's surface4 ,so     
completely indeed did it thus depend1   
that ,newton had actually abandoned his 
hypothesis because the length of a      
degree1 as then stated1 brought out     
wrong results2 and it was only after    
,picart's more exact measurement was    
published1 that he returned to his      
calculations and proved his great       
generalisation4 ,now this constant      
intercommunion1 which1 for brevity's    
sake1 we have illustrated in the case of
 one science only1 has been taking place
 with all the sciences4 ,throughout the 
whole course of their evolution there   
has been a continuous consensus of the  
sciences--a consensus exhibiting a      
general correspondence with the         
consensus of faculties in each phase of 
mental development2 the one being an    
objective registry of the subjective    
state of the other4  ,from our present  
point of view1 then1 it becomes obvious 
that the conception of a serial         
arrangement of the sciences is a vicious

 one4 ,it is not simply that the schemes
 we have examined are untenable2 but it 
is that the sciences cannot be rightly  
placed in any linear order whatever4 ,it
 is not simply that1 as ,m4 ,comte      
admits1 a classification will always    
involve something1 if not arbitrary1 at 
least artificial2 it is not1 as he would
 have us believe1 that1 neglecting minor
 imperfections a classification may be  
substantially true2 but it is that any  
grouping of the sciences in a succession
 gives a radically erroneous idea of    
their genesis and their dependencies4   
,there is no one rational order among a 
host of possible systems4 ,there is no  
true filiation of the sciences4 ,the    
whole hypothesis is fundamentally false4
 ,indeed1 it needs but a glance at its  
origin to see at once how baseless it   
is4 ,why a series8 ,what reason have we 
to suppose that the sciences admit of a 
linear arrangement8 ,where is our       
warrant for assuming that there is some 
succession in which they can be placed8 

,there is no reason2 no warrant4 ,whence
 then has arisen the supposition8 ,to   
use ,m4 ,comte's own phraseology1 we    
should say1 it is a metaphysical        
conception4 ,it adds another to the     
cases constantly occurring1 of the human
 mind being made the measure of ,nature4
 ,we are obliged to think in sequence2  
it is the law of our minds that we must 
consider subjects separately1 one after 
another3 therefore ,nature must be      
serial--therefore the sciences must be  
classifiable in a succession4 ,see here 
the birth of the notion1 and the sole   
evidence of its truth4 ,men have been   
obliged when arranging in books their   
schemes of education and systems of     
knowledge1 to choose some order or      
other4 ,and from inquiring what is the  
best order1 have naturally fallen into  
the belief that there is an order which 
truly represents the facts--have        
persevered in seeking such an order2    
quite overlooking the previous question 
whether it is likely that ,nature has   

consulted the convenience of            
book-making4  ,for ,german philosophers1
 who hold that ,nature is petrified     
intelligence1 and that logical forms are
 the foundations of all things1 it is a 
consistent hypothesis that as thought is
 serial1 ,nature is serial2 but that ,m4
 ,comte1 who is so bitter an opponent of
 all anthropomorphism1 even in its most 
evanescent shapes1 should have committed
 the mistake of imposing upon the       
external world an arrangement which so  
obviously springs from a limitation of  
the human consciousness1 is somewhat    
strange4 ,and it is the more strange    
when we call to mind how1 at the outset1
 ,m4 ,comte remarks that in the         
beginning toutes les sciences sont      
cultivees simultanement par les memes   
esprits2 that this is inevitable et meme
 indispensable2 and how he further      
remarks that the different sciences are 
comme les diverses branches d'un tronc  
unique4 ,were it not accounted for by   
the distorting influence of a cherished 

hypothesis1 it would be scarcely        
possible to understand how1 after       
recognising truths like these1 ,m4      
,comte should have persisted in         
attempting to construct une echelle     
encyclopedique4  ,the metaphor which ,m4
 ,comte has here so inconsistently used 
to express the relations of the         
sciences--branches of one trunk--is an  
approximation to the truth1 though not  
the truth itself4 ,it suggests the facts
 that the sciences had a common origin2 
that they have been developing          
simultaneously2 and that they have been 
from time to time dividing and          
subdividing4 ,but it does not suggest   
the yet more important fact1 that the   
divisions and subdivisions thus arising 
do not remain separate1 but now and     
again reunite in direct and indirect    
ways4 ,they inosculate2 they severally  
send off and receive connecting growths2
 and the intercommunion has been ever   
becoming more frequent1 more intricate1 
more widely ramified4 ,there has all    

along been higher specialisation1 that  
there might be a larger generalisation2 
and a deeper analysis1 that there might 
be a better synthesis4 ,each larger     
generalisation has lifted sundry        
specialisations still higher2 and each  
better synthesis has prepared the way   
for still deeper analysis4  ,and here we
 may fitly enter upon the task awhile   
since indicated--a sketch of the        
,genesis of ,science1 regarded as a     
gradual outgrowth from common           
knowledge--an extension of the          
perceptions by the aid of the reason4   
,we propose to treat it as a            
psychological process historically      
displayed2 tracing at the same time the 
advance from qualitative to quantitative
 prevision2 the progress from concrete  
facts to abstract facts1 and the        
application of such abstract facts to   
the analysis of new orders of concrete  
facts2 the simultaneous advance in      
generalisation and specialisation2 the  
continually increasing subdivision and  

reunion of the sciences2 and their      
constantly improving consensus4  ,to    
trace out scientific evolution from its 
deepest roots would1 of course1 involve 
a complete analysis of the mind4 ,for as
 science is a development of that common
 knowledge acquired by the unaided      
senses and uncultured reason1 so is that
 common knowledge itself gradually built
 up out of the simplest perceptions4 ,we
 must1 therefore1 begin somewhere       
abruptly2 and the most appropriate stage
 to take for our point of departure will
 be the adult mind of the savage4       
,commencing thus1 without a proper      
preliminary analysis1 we are naturally  
somewhat at a loss how to present1 in a 
satisfactory manner1 those fundamental  
processes of thought out of which       
science ultimately originates4 ,perhaps 
our argument may be best initiated by   
the proposition1 that all intelligent   
action whatever depends upon the        
discerning of distinctions among        
surrounding things4 ,the condition under

 which only it is possible for any      
creature to obtain food and avoid danger
 is1 that it shall be differently       
affected by different objects--that it  
shall be led to act in one way by one   
object1 and in another way by another4  
,in the lower orders of creatures this  
condition is fulfilled by means of an   
apparatus which acts automatically4 ,in 
the higher orders the actions are partly
 automatic1 partly conscious4 ,and in   
man they are almost wholly conscious4   
,throughout1 however1 there must        
necessarily exist a certain             
classification of things according to   
their properties--a classification which
 is either organically registered in the
 system1 as in the inferior creation1 or
 is formed by experience1 as in         
ourselves4 ,and it may be further       
remarked1 that the extent to which this 
classification is carried1 roughly      
indicates the height of                 
intelligence--that while the lowest     
organisms are able to do little more    

than discriminate organic from inorganic
 matter2 while the generality of animals
 carry their classifications no further 
than to a limited number of plants or   
creatures serving for food1 a limited   
number of beasts of prey1 and a limited 
number of places and materials2 the most
 degraded of the human race possess a   
knowledge of the distinctive natures of 
a great variety of substances1 plants1  
animals1 tools1 persons1 etc41 not only 
as classes but as individuals4  ,what   
now is the mental process by which      
classification is effected8 ,manifestly 
it is a recognition of the likeness or  
unlikeness of things1 either in respect 
of their sizes1 colours1 forms1 weights1
 textures1 tastes1 etc41 or in respect  
of their modes of action4 ,by some      
special mark1 sound1 or motion1 the     
savage identifies a certain four-legged 
creature he sees1 as one that is good   
for food1 and to be caught in a         
particular way2 or as one that is       
dangerous2 and acts accordingly4 ,he has

 classed together all the creatures that
 are alike in this particular4 ,and     
manifestly in choosing the wood out of  
which to form his bow1 the plant with   
which to poison his arrows1 the bone    
from which to make his fish-hooks1 he   
identifies them through their chief     
sensible properties as belonging to the 
general classes1 wood1 plant1 and bone1 
but distinguishes them as belonging to  
sub-classes by virtue of certain        
properties in which they are unlike the 
rest of the general classes they belong 
to2 and so forms genera and species4    
,and here it becomes manifest that not  
only is classification carried on by    
grouping together in the mind things    
that are like2 but that classes and     
sub-classes are formed and arranged     
according to the degrees of unlikeness4 
,things widely contrasted are alone     
distinguished in the lower stages of    
mental evolution2 as may be any day     
observed in an infant4 ,and gradually as
 the powers of discrimination increase1 

the widely contrasted classes at first  
distinguished1 come to be each divided  
into sub-classes1 differing from each   
other less than the classes differ2 and 
these sub-classes are again divided     
after the same manner4 ,by the          
continuance of which process1 things are
 gradually arranged into groups1 the    
members of which are less and less      
unlike2 ending1 finally1 in groups whose
 members differ only as individuals1 and
 not specifically4 ,and thus there tends
 ultimately to arise the notion of      
complete likeness4 ,for1 manifestly1 it 
is impossible that groups should        
continue to be subdivided in virtue of  
smaller and smaller differences1 without
 there being a simultaneous             
approximation to the notion of no       
difference4  ,let us next notice that   
the recognition of likeness and         
unlikeness1 which underlies             
classification1 and out of which        
continued classification evolves the    
idea of complete likeness--let us next  

notice that it also underlies the       
process of naming1 and by consequence   
language4 ,for all language consists1 at
 the beginning1 of symbols which are as 
like to the things symbolised as it is  
practicable to make them4 ,the language 
of signs is a means of conveying ideas  
by mimicking the actions or             
peculiarities of the things referred to4
 ,verbal language is also1 at the       
beginning1 a mode of suggesting objects 
or acts by imitating the sounds which   
the objects make1 or with which the acts
 are accompanied4 ,originally these two 
languages were used simultaneously4 ,it 
needs but to watch the gesticulations   
with which the savage accompanies his   
speech--to see a ,bushman or a ,kaffir  
dramatising before an audience his mode 
of catching game--or to note the extreme
 paucity of words in all primitive      
vocabularies2 to infer that at first1   
attitudes1 gestures1 and sounds1 were   
all combined to produce as good a       
likeness as possible1 of the things1    

animals1 persons1 or events described2  
and that as the sounds came to be       
understood by themselves the gestures   
fell into disuse3 leaving traces1       
however1 in the manners of the more     
excitable civilised races4 ,but be this 
as it may1 it suffices simply to        
observe1 how many of the words current  
among barbarous peoples are like the    
sounds appertaining to the things       
signified2 how many of our own oldest   
and simplest words have the same        
peculiarity2 how children tend to invent
 imitative words2 and how the           
sign-language spontaneously formed by   
deaf mutes is invariably based upon     
imitative actions--to at once see that  
the nation of likeness is that from     
which the nomenclature of objects takes 
its rise4  ,were there space we might go
 on to point out how this law of life is
 traceable1 not only in the origin but  
in the development of language2 how in  
primitive tongues the plural is made by 
a duplication of the singular1 which is 

a multiplication of the word to make it 
like the multiplicity of the things2 how
 the use of metaphor--that prolific     
source of new words--is a suggesting of 
ideas that are like the ideas to be     
conveyed in some respect or other2 and  
how1 in the copious use of simile1      
fable1 and allegory among uncivilised   
races1 we see that complex conceptions1 
which there is yet no direct language   
for1 are rendered1 by presenting known  
conceptions more or less like them4     
,this view is further confirmed1 and the
 predominance of this notion of likeness
 in primitive times further illustrated1
 by the fact that our system of         
presenting ideas to the eye originated  
after the same fashion4 ,writing and    
printing have descended from            
picture-language4 ,the earliest mode of 
permanently registering a fact was by   
depicting it on a wall2 that is--by     
exhibiting something as like to the     
thing to be remembered as it could be   
made4 ,gradually as the practice grew   

habitual and extensive1 the most        
frequently repeated forms became fixed1 
and presently abbreviated2 and1 passing 
through the hieroglyphic and ideographic
 phases1 the symbols lost all apparent  
relations to the things signified3 just 
as the majority of our spoken words have
 done4  ,observe again1 that the same   
thing is true respecting the genesis of 
reasoning4 ,the likeness that is        
perceived to exist between cases1 is the
 essence of all early reasoning and of  
much of our present reasoning4 ,the     
savage1 having by experience discovered 
a relation between a certain object and 
a certain act1 infers that the like     
relation will be found in future cases4 
,and the expressions we constantly use  
in our arguments--analogy implies1 the  
cases are not parallel1 by parity of    
reasoning1 there is no similarity1--show
 how constantly the idea of likeness    
underlies our ratiocinative processes4  
,still more clearly will this be seen on
 recognising the fact that there is a   

certain parallelism between reasoning   
and classification2 that the two have a 
common root2 and that neither can go on 
without the other4 ,for on the one hand1
 it is a familiar truth that the        
attributing to a body in consequence of 
some of its properties1 all those other 
properties in virtue of which it is     
referred to a particular class1 is an   
act of inference4 ,and1 on the other    
hand1 the forming of a generalisation is
 the putting together in one class all  
those cases which present like          
relations2 while the drawing a deduction
 is essentially the perception that a   
particular case belongs to a certain    
class of cases previously generalised4  
,so that as classification is a grouping
 together of like things2 reasoning is a
 grouping together of like relations    
among things4 ,add to which1 that while 
the perfection gradually achieved in    
classification consists in the formation
 of groups of objects which are         
completely alike2 the perfection        

gradually achieved in reasoning consists
 in the formation of groups of cases    
which are completely alike4  ,once more 
we may contemplate this dominant idea of
 likeness as exhibited in art4 ,all art1
 civilised as well as savage1 consists  
almost wholly in the making of objects  
like other objects2 either as found in  
,nature1 or as produced by previous art4
 ,if we trace back the varied           
art-products now existing1 we find that 
at each stage the divergence from       
previous patterns is but small when     
compared with the agreement2 and in the 
earliest art the persistency of         
imitation is yet more conspicuous4 ,the 
old forms and ornaments and symbols were
 held sacred1 and perpetually copied4   
,indeed1 the strong imitative tendency  
notoriously displayed by the lowest     
human races1 ensures among them a       
constant reproducing of likeness of     
things1 forms1 signs1 sounds1 actions1  
and whatever else is imitable2 and we   
may even suspect that this aboriginal   

peculiarity is in some way connected    
with the culture and development of this
 general conception1 which we have found
 so deep and widespread in its          
applications4  ,and now let us go on to 
consider how1 by a further unfolding of 
this same fundamental notion1 there is a
 gradual formation of the first germs of
 science4 ,this idea of likeness which  
underlies classification1 nomenclature1 
language spoken and written1 reasoning1 
and art2 and which plays so important a 
part because all acts of intelligence   
are made possible only by distinguishing
 among surrounding things1 or grouping  
them into like and unlike2--this idea we
 shall find to be the one of which      
science is the especial product4        
,already during the stage we have been  
describing1 there has existed           
qualitative prevision in respect to the 
commoner phenomena with which savage    
life is familiar2 and we have now to    
inquire how the elements of quantitative
 prevision are evolved4 ,we shall find  

that they originate by the perfecting of
 this same idea of likeness2 that they  
have their rise in that conception of   
complete likeness which1 as we have     
seen1 necessarily results from the      
continued process of classification4    
,for when the process of classification 
has been carried as far as it is        
possible for the uncivilised to carry   
it--when the animal kingdom has been    
grouped not merely into quadrupeds1     
birds1 fishes1 and insects1 but each of 
these divided into kinds--when there    
come to be sub-classes1 in each of which
 the members differ only as individuals1
 and not specifically2 it is clear that 
there must occur a frequent observation 
of objects which differ so little as to 
be indistinguishable4 ,among several    
creatures which the savage has killed   
and carried home1 it must often happen  
that some one1 which he wished to       
identify1 is so exactly like another    
that he cannot tell which is which4     
,thus1 then1 there originates the notion

 of equality4 ,the things which among   
ourselves are called equal--whether     
lines1 angles1 weights1 temperatures1   
sounds or colours--are things which     
produce in us sensations that cannot be 
distinguished from each other4 ,it is   
true we now apply the word equal chiefly
 to the separate phenomena which objects
 exhibit1 and not to groups of          
phenomena2 but this limitation of the   
idea has evidently arisen by subsequent 
analysis4 ,and that the notion of       
equality did thus originate1 will1 we   
think1 become obvious on remembering    
that as there were no artificial objects
 from which it could have been          
abstracted1 it must have been abstracted
 from natural objects2 and that the     
various families of the animal kingdom  
chiefly furnish those natural objects   
which display the requisite exactitude  
of likeness4  ,the same order of        
experiences out of which this general   
idea of equality is evolved1 gives birth
 at the same time to a more complex idea

 of equality2 or1 rather1 the process   
just described generates an idea of     
equality which further experience       
separates into two ideas--equality of   
things and equality of relations4 ,while
 organic1 and more especially animal    
forms1 occasionally exhibit this        
perfection of likeness out of which the 
notion of simple equality arises1 they  
more frequently exhibit only that kind  
of likeness which we call similarity2   
and which is really compound equality4  
,for the similarity of two creatures of 
the same species but of different sizes1
 is of the same nature as the similarity
 of two geometrical figures4 ,in either 
case1 any two parts of the one bear the 
same ratio to one another as the        
homologous parts of the other4 ,given in
 any species1 the proportions found to  
exist among the bones1 and we may1 and  
zoologists do1 predict from any one1 the
 dimensions of the rest2 just as1 when  
knowing the proportions subsisting among
 the parts of a geometrical figure1 we  

may1 from the length of one1 calculate  
the others4 ,and if1 in the case of     
similar geometrical figures1 the        
similarity can be established only by   
proving exactness of proportion among   
the homologous parts2 if we express this
 relation between two parts in the one1 
and the corresponding parts in the      
other1 by the formula ,a is to ,b as a  
is to b2 if we otherwise write this1 ,a 
to ,b  a to b2 if1 consequently1 the    
fact we prove is that the relation of ,a
 to ,b equals the relation of a to b2   
then it is manifest that the fundamental
 conception of similarity is equality of
 relations4  ,with this explanation we  
shall be understood when we say that the
 notion of equality of relations is the 
basis of all exact reasoning4 ,already  
it has been shown that reasoning in     
general is a recognition of likeness of 
relations2 and here we further find that
 while the notion of likeness of things 
ultimately evolves the idea of simple   
equality1 the notion of likeness of     

relations evolves the idea of equality  
of relations3 of which the one is the   
concrete germ of exact science1 while   
the other is its abstract germ4  ,those 
who cannot understand how the           
recognition of similarity in creatures  
of the same kind can have any alliance  
with reasoning1 will get over the       
difficulty on remembering that the      
phenomena among which equality of       
relations is thus perceived1 are        
phenomena of the same order and are     
present to the senses at the same time2 
while those among which developed reason
 perceives relations1 are generally     
neither of the same order1 nor          
simultaneously present4 ,and if further1
 they will call to mind how ,cuvier and 
,owen1 from a single part of a creature1
 as a tooth1 construct the rest by a    
process of reasoning based on this      
equality of relations1 they will see    
that the two things are intimately      
connected1 remote as they at first seem4
 ,but we anticipate4 ,what it concerns  

us here to observe is1 that from        
familiarity with organic forms there    
simultaneously arose the ideas of simple
 equality1 and equality of relations4   
,at the same time1 too1 and out of the  
same mental processes1 came the first   
distinct ideas of number4 ,in the       
earliest stages1 the presentation of    
several like objects produced merely an 
indefinite conception of multiplicity2  
as it still does among ,australians1 and
 ,bushmen1 and ,damaras1 when the number
 presented exceeds three or four4 ,with 
such a fact before us we may safely     
infer that the first clear numerical    
conception was that of duality as       
contrasted with unity4 ,and this notion 
of duality must necessarily have grown  
up side by side with those of likeness  
and equality2 seeing that it is         
impossible to recognise the likeness of 
two things without also perceiving that 
there are two4 ,from the very beginning 
the conception of number must have been 
as it is still1 associated with the     

likeness or equality of the things      
numbered4 ,if we analyse it1 we find    
that simple enumeration is a            
registration of repeated impressions of 
any kind4 ,that these may be capable of 
enumeration it is needful that they be  
more or less alike2 and before any      
absolutely true numerical results can be
 reached1 it is requisite that the units
 be absolutely equal4 ,the only way in  
which we can establish a numerical      
relationship between things that do not 
yield us like impressions1 is to divide 
them into parts that do yield us like   
impressions4 ,two unlike magnitudes of  
extension1 force1 time1 weight1 or what 
not1 can have their relative amounts    
estimated only by means of some small   
unit that is contained many times in    
both2 and even if we finally write down 
the greater one as a unit and the other 
as a fraction of it1 we state1 in the   
denominator of the fraction1 the number 
of parts into which the unit must be    
divided to be comparable with the       

fraction4  ,it is1 indeed1 true1 that by
 an evidently modern process of         
abstraction1 we occasionally apply      
numbers to unequal units1 as the        
furniture at a sale or the various      
animals on a farm1 simply as so many    
separate entities2 but no true result   
can be brought out by calculation with  
units of this order4 ,and1 indeed1 it is
 the distinctive peculiarity of the     
calculus in general1 that it proceeds on
 the hypothesis of that absolute        
equality of its abstract units1 which no
 real units possess2 and that the       
exactness of its results holds only in  
virtue of this hypothesis4 ,the first   
ideas of number must necessarily then   
have been derived from like or equal    
magnitudes as seen chiefly in organic   
objects2 and as the like magnitudes most
 frequently observed magnitudes of      
extension1 it follows that geometry and 
arithmetic had a simultaneous origin4   
,not only are the first distinct ideas  
of number co-ordinate with ideas of     

likeness and equality1 but the first    
efforts at numeration displayed the same
 relationship4 ,on reading the accounts 
of various savage tribes1 we find that  
the method of counting by the fingers1  
still followed by many children1 is the 
aboriginal method4 ,neglecting the      
several cases in which the ability to   
enumerate does not reach even to the    
number of fingers on one hand1 there are
 many cases in which it does not extend 
beyond ten--the limit of the simple     
finger notation4 ,the fact that in so   
many instances1 remote1 and seemingly   
unrelated nations1 have adopted ten as  
their basic number2 together with the   
fact that in the remaining instances the
 basic number is either five 7the       
fingers of one hand7 or twenty 7the     
fingers and toes72 almost of themselves 
show that the fingers were the original 
units of numeration4 ,the still         
surviving use of the word digit1 as the 
general name for a figure in arithmetic1
 is significant2 and it is even said    

that our word ten 7,sax4 tyn2 ,dutch1   
tien2 ,german1 zehn7 means in its       
primitive expanded form two hands4 ,so  
that originally1 to say there were ten  
things1 was to say there were two hands 
of them4  ,from all which evidence it is
 tolerably clear that the earliest mode 
of conveying the idea of any number of  
things1 was by holding up as many       
fingers as there were things2 that      
is--using a symbol which was equal1 in  
respect of multiplicity1 to the group   
symbolised4 ,for which inference there  
is1 indeed1 strong confirmation in the  
recent statement that our own soldiers  
are even now spontaneously adopting this
 device in their dealings with the      
,turks4 ,and here it should be remarked 
that in this recombination of the notion
 of equality with that of multiplicity1 
by which the first steps in numeration  
are effected1 we may see one of the     
earliest of those inosculations between 
the diverging branches of science1 which
 are afterwards of perpetual occurrence4

  ,indeed1 as this observation suggests1
 it will be well1 before tracing the    
mode in which exact science finally     
emerges from the merely approximate     
judgments of the senses1 and showing the
 non-serial evolution of its divisions1 
to note the non-serial character of     
those preliminary processes of which all
 after development is a continuation4   
,on reconsidering them it will be seen  
that not only are they divergent growths
 from a common root1 not only are they  
simultaneous in their progress2 but that
 they are mutual aids2 and that none can
 advance without the rest4 ,that        
completeness of classification for which
 the unfolding of the perceptions paves 
the way1 is impossible without a        
corresponding progress in language1 by  
which greater varieties of objects are  
thinkable and expressible4 ,on the one  
hand it is impossible to carry          
classification far without names by     
which to designate the classes2 and on  
the other hand it is impossible to make 

language faster than things are         
classified4  ,again1 the multiplication 
of classes and the consequent narrowing 
of each class1 itself involves a greater
 likeness among the things classed      
together2 and the consequent approach   
towards the notion of complete likeness 
itself allows classification to be      
carried higher4 ,moreover1              
classification necessarily advances pari
 passu with rationality--the            
classification of things with the       
classification of relations4 ,for things
 that belong to the same class are1 by  
implication1 things of which the        
properties and modes of behaviour--the  
co-existences and sequences--are more or
 less the same2 and the recognition of  
this sameness of co-existences and      
sequences is reasoning4 ,whence it      
follows that the advance of             
classification is necessarily           
proportionate to the advance of         
generalisations4 ,yet further1 the      
notion of likeness1 both in things and  

relations1 simultaneously evolves by one
 process of culture the ideas of        
equality of things and equality of      
relations2 which are the respective     
bases of exact concrete reasoning and   
exact abstract reasoning--,mathematics  
and ,logic4 ,and once more1 this idea of
 equality1 in the very process of being 
formed1 necessarily gives origin to two 
series of relations--those of magnitude 
and those of number3 from which arise   
geometry and the calculus4 ,thus the    
process throughout is one of perpetual  
subdivision and perpetual               
intercommunication of the divisions4    
,from the very first there has been that
 consensus of different kinds of        
knowledge1 answering to the consensus of
 the intellectual faculties1 which1 as  
already said1 must exist among the      
sciences4  ,let us now go on to observe 
how1 out of the notions of equality and 
number1 as arrived at in the manner     
described1 there gradually arose the    
elements of quantitative prevision4     

,equality1 once having come to be       
definitely conceived1 was readily       
applicable to other phenomena than those
 of magnitude4 ,being predicable of all 
things producing indistinguishable      
impressions1 there naturally grew up    
ideas of equality in weights1 sounds1   
colours1 etc42 and indeed it can        
scarcely be doubted that the occasional 
experience of equal weights1 sounds1 and
 colours1 had a share in developing the 
abstract conception of equality--that   
the ideas of equality in size1          
relations1 forces1 resistances1 and     
sensible properties in general1 were    
evolved during the same period4 ,but    
however this may be1 it is clear that as
 fast as the notion of equality gained  
definiteness1 so fast did that lowest   
kind of quantitative prevision which is 
achieved without any instrumental aid1  
become possible4  ,the ability to       
estimate1 however roughly1 the amount of
 a foreseen result1 implies the         
conception that it will be equal to a   

certain imagined quantity2 and the      
correctness of the estimate will        
manifestly depend upon the accuracy at  
which the perceptions of sensible       
equality have arrived4 ,a savage with a 
piece of stone in his hand1 and another 
piece lying before him of greater bulk  
of the same kind 7a fact which he infers
 from the equality of the two in colour 
and texture7 knows about what effort he 
must put forth to raise this other      
piece2 and he judges accurately in      
proportion to the accuracy with which he
 perceives that the one is twice1 three 
times1 four times1 etc41 as large as the
 other2 that is--in proportion to the   
precision of his ideas of equality and  
number4 ,and here let us not omit to    
notice that even in these vaguest of    
quantitative previsions1 the conception 
of equality of relations is also        
involved4 ,for it is only in virtue of  
an undefined perception that the        
relation between bulk and weight in the 
one stone is equal to the relation      

between bulk and weight in the other1   
that even the roughest approximation can
 be made4  ,but how came the transition 
from those uncertain perceptions of     
equality which the unaided senses give1 
to the certain ones with which science  
deals8 ,it came by placing the things   
compared in juxtaposition4 ,equality    
being predicated of things which give us
 indistinguishable impressions1 and no  
accurate comparison of impressions being
 possible unless they occur in immediate
 succession1 it results that exactness  
of equality is ascertainable in         
proportion to the closeness of the      
compared things4 ,hence the fact that   
when we wish to judge of two shades of  
colour whether they are alike or not1 we
 place them side by side2 hence the fact
 that we cannot1 with any precision1 say
 which of two allied sounds is the      
louder1 or the higher in pitch1 unless  
we hear the one immediately after the   
other2 hence the fact that to estimate  
the ratio of weights1 we take one in    

each hand1 that we may compare their    
pressures by rapidly alternating in     
thought from the one to the other2 hence
 the fact1 that in a piece of music we  
can continue to make equal beats when   
the first beat has been given1 but      
cannot ensure commencing with the same  
length of beat on a future occasion2 and
 hence1 lastly1 the fact1 that of all   
magnitudes1 those of linear extension   
are those of which the equality is most 
accurately ascertainable1 and those to  
which by consequence all others have to 
be reduced4 ,for it is the peculiarity  
of linear extension that it alone allows
 its magnitudes to be placed in absolute
 juxtaposition1 or1 rather1 in          
coincident position2 it alone can test  
the equality of two magnitudes by       
observing whether they will coalesce1 as
 two equal mathematical lines do1 when  
placed between the same points2 it alone
 can test equality by trying whether it 
will become identity4 ,hence1 then1 the 
fact1 that all exact science is         

reducible1 by an ultimate analysis1 to  
results measured in equal units of      
linear extension4  ,still it remains to 
be noticed in what manner this          
determination of equality by comparison 
of linear magnitudes originated4 ,once  
more may we perceive that surrounding   
natural objects supplied the needful    
lessons4 ,from the beginning there must 
have been a constant experience of like 
things placed side by side--men standing
 and walking together2 animals from the 
same herd2 fish from the same shoal4    
,and the ceaseless repetition of these  
experiences could not fail to suggest   
the observation1 that the nearer        
together any objects were1 the more     
visible became any inequality between   
them4 ,hence the obvious device of      
putting in apposition things of which it
 was desired to ascertain the relative  
magnitudes4 ,hence the idea of measure4 
,and here we suddenly come upon a group 
of facts which afford a solid basis to  
the remainder of our argument2 while    

they also furnish strong evidence in    
support of the foregoing speculations4  
,those who look sceptically on this     
attempted rehabilitation of the earliest
 epochs of mental development1 and who  
more especially think that the          
derivation of so many primary notions   
from organic forms is somewhat strained1
 will perhaps see more probability in   
the several hypotheses that have been   
ventured1 on discovering that all       
measures of extension and force         
originated from the lengths and weights 
of organic bodies2 and all measures of  
time from the periodic phenomena of     
either organic or inorganic bodies4     
,thus1 among linear measures1 the cubit 
of the ,hebrews was the length of the   
forearm from the elbow to the end of the
 middle finger2 and the smaller         
scriptural dimensions are expressed in  
hand-breadths and spans4 ,the ,egyptian 
cubit1 which was similarly derived1 was 
divided into digits1 which were         
finger-breadths2 and each finger-breadth

 was more definitely expressed as being 
equal to four grains of barley placed   
breadthwise4 ,other ancient measures    
were the orgyia or stretch of the arms1 
the pace1 and the palm4 ,so persistent  
has been the use of these natural units 
of length in the ,east1 that even now   
some of the ,arabs mete out cloth by the
 forearm4 ,so1 too1 is it with ,european
 measures4 ,the foot prevails as a      
dimension throughout ,europe1 and has   
done since the time of the ,romans1 by  
whom1 also1 it was used3 its lengths in 
different places varying not much more  
than men's feet vary4 ,the heights of   
horses are still expressed in hands4    
,the inch is the length of the terminal 
joint of the thumb2 as is clearly shown 
in ,france1 where pouce means both thumb
 and inch4 ,then we have the inch       
divided into three barley-corns4  ,so   
completely1 indeed1 have these organic  
dimensions served as the substrata of   
all mensuration1 that it is only by     
means of them that we can form any      

estimate of some of the ancient         
distances4 ,for example1 the length of a
 degree on the ,earth's surface1 as     
determined by the ,arabian astronomers  
shortly after the death of              
,haroun-al-,raschid1 was fifty-six of   
their miles4 ,we know nothing of their  
mile further than that it was #djjj     
cubits2 and whether these were sacred   
cubits or common cubits1 would remain   
doubtful1 but that the length of the    
cubit is given as twenty-seven inches1  
and each inch defined as the thickness  
of six barley-grains4 ,thus one of the  
earliest measurements of a degree comes 
down to us in barley-grains4 ,not only  
did organic lengths furnish those       
approximate measures which satisfied    
men's needs in ruder ages1 but they     
furnished also the standard measures    
required in later times4 ,one instance  
occurs in our own history4 ,to remedy   
the irregularities then prevailing1     
,henry ,i4 commanded that the ulna1 or  
ancient ell1 which answers to the modern

 yard1 should be made of the exact      
length of his own arm4  ,measures of    
weight again had a like derivation4     
,seeds seem commonly to have supplied   
the unit4 ,the original of the carat    
used for weighing in ,india is a small  
bean4 ,our own systems1 both troy and   
avoirdupois1 are derived primarily from 
wheat-corns4 ,our smallest weight1 the  
grain1 is a grain of wheat4 ,this is not
 a speculation2 it is an historically   
registered fact4 ,henry ,,iii4 enacted  
that an ounce should be the weight of   
#fdj dry grains of wheat from the middle
 of the ear4 ,and as all the other      
weights are multiples or sub-multiples  
of this1 it follows that the grain of   
wheat is the basis of our scale4 ,so    
natural is it to use organic bodies as  
weights1 before artificial weights have 
been established1 or where they are not 
to be had1 that in some of the remoter  
parts of ,ireland the people are said to
 be in the habit1 even now1 of putting a
 man into the scales to serve as a      

measure for heavy commodities4          
,similarly with time4 ,astronomical     
periodicity1 and the periodicity of     
animal and vegetable life1 are          
simultaneously used in the first stages 
of progress for estimating epochs4 ,the 
simplest unit of time1 the day1 nature  
supplies ready made4 ,the next simplest 
period1 the mooneth or month1 is also   
thrust upon men's notice by the         
conspicuous changes constituting a      
lunation4 ,for larger divisions than    
these1 the phenomena of the seasons1 and
 the chief events from time to time     
occurring1 have been used by early and  
uncivilised races4 ,among the ,egyptians
 the rising of the ,nile served as a    
mark4 ,the ,new ,zealanders were found  
to begin their year from the            
reappearance of the ,pleiades above the 
sea4 ,one of the uses ascribed to birds1
 by the ,greeks1 was to indicate the    
seasons by their migrations4 ,barrow    
describes the aboriginal ,hottentot as  
denoting periods by the number of moons 

before or after the ripening of one of  
his chief articles of food4 ,he further 
states that the ,kaffir chronology is   
kept by the moon1 and is registered by  
notches on sticks--the death of a       
favourite chief1 or the gaining of a    
victory1 serving for a new era4 ,by     
which last fact1 we are at once reminded
 that in early history1 events are      
commonly recorded as occurring in       
certain reigns1 and in certain years of 
certain reigns3 a proceeding which      
practically made a king's reign a       
measure of duration4  ,and1 as further  
illustrating the tendency to divide time
 by natural phenomena and natural       
events1 it may be noticed that even by  
our own peasantry the definite divisions
 of months and years are but little     
used2 and that they habitually refer to 
occurrences as before sheep-shearing1 or
 after harvest1 or about the time when  
the squire died4 ,it is manifest1       
therefore1 that the more or less equal  
periods perceived in ,nature gave the   

first units of measure for time2 as did 
,nature's more or less equal lengths and
 weights give the first units of measure
 for space and force4  ,it remains only 
to observe1 as further illustrating the 
evolution of quantitative ideas after   
this manner1 that measures of value were
 similarly derived4 ,barter1 in one form
 or other1 is found among all but the   
very lowest human races4 ,it is         
obviously based upon the notion of      
equality of worth4 ,and as it gradually 
merges into trade by the introduction of
 some kind of currency1 we find that the
 measures of worth1 constituting this   
currency1 are organic bodies2 in some   
cases cowries1 in others cocoa-nuts1 in 
others cattle1 in others pigs2 among the
 ,american ,indians peltry or skins1 and
 in ,iceland dried fish4  ,notions of   
exact equality and of measure having    
been reached1 there came to be definite 
ideas of relative magnitudes as being   
multiples one of another2 whence the    
practice of measurement by direct       

apposition of a measure4 ,the           
determination of linear extensions by   
this process can scarcely be called     
science1 though it is a step towards it2
 but the determination of lengths of    
time by an analogous process may be     
considered as one of the earliest       
samples of quantitative prevision4 ,for 
when it is first ascertained that the   
moon completes the cycle of her changes 
in about thirty days--a fact known to   
most uncivilised tribes that can count  
beyond the number of their fingers--it  
is manifest that it becomes possible to 
say in what number of days any specified
 phase of the moon will recur2 and it is
 also manifest that this prevision is   
effected by an opposition of two times1 
after the same manner that linear space 
is measured by the opposition of two    
lines4 ,for to express the moon's period
 in days1 is to say how many of these   
units of measure are contained in the   
period to be measured--is to ascertain  
the distance between two points in time 

by means of a scale of days1 just as we 
ascertain the distance between two      
points in space by a scale of feet or   
inches3 and in each case the scale      
coincides with the thing                
measured--mentally in the one2 visibly  
in the other4 ,so that in this simplest1
 and perhaps earliest case of           
quantitative prevision1 the phenomena   
are not only thrust daily upon men's    
notice1 but ,nature is1 as it were1     
perpetually repeating that process of   
measurement by observing which the      
prevision is effected4 ,and thus there  
may be significance in the remark which 
some have made1 that alike in ,hebrew1  
,greek1 and ,latin1 there is an affinity
 between the word meaning moon1 and that
 meaning measure4  ,this fact1 that in  
very early stages of social progress it 
is known that the moon goes through her 
changes in about thirty days1 and that  
in about twelve moons the seasons       
return--this fact that chronological    
astronomy assumes a certain scientific  

character even before geometry does2    
while it is partly due to the           
circumstance that the astronomical      
divisions1 day1 month1 and year1 are    
ready made for us1 is partly due to the 
further circumstances that agricultural 
and other operations were at first      
regulated astronomically1 and that from 
the supposed divine nature of the       
heavenly bodies their motions determined
 the periodical religious festivals4 ,as
 instances of the one we have the       
observation of the ,egyptians1 that the 
rising of the ,nile corresponded with   
the heliacal rising of ,sirius2 the     
directions given by ,hesiod for reaping 
and ploughing1 according to the         
positions of the ,pleiades2 and his     
maxim that fifty days after the turning 
of the sun is a seasonable time for     
beginning a voyage4 ,as instances of the
 other1 we have the naming of the days  
after the sun1 moon1 and planets2 the   
early attempts among ,eastern nations to
 regulate the calendar so that the gods 

might not be offended by the            
displacement of their sacrifices2 and   
the fixing of the great annual festival 
of the ,peruvians by the position of the
 sun4 ,in all which facts we see that1  
at first1 science was simply an         
appliance of religion and industry4     
,after the discoveries that a lunation  
occupies nearly thirty days1 and that   
some twelve lunations occupy a          
year--discoveries of which there is no  
historical account1 but which may be    
inferred as the earliest1 from the fact 
that existing uncivilised races have    
made them--we come to the first known   
astronomical records1 which are those of
 eclipses4 ,the ,chaldeans were able to 
predict these4 ,this they did1 probably1
 says ,dr4 ,whewell in his useful       
history1 from which most of the         
materials we are about to use will be   
drawn1 by means of their cycle of #bbc  
months1 or about eighteen years2 for at 
the end of this time1 the eclipses of   
the moon begin to return1 at the same   

intervals and in the same order as at   
the beginning4 ,now this method of      
calculating eclipses by means of a      
recurring cycle1--the ,saros as they    
called it--is a more complex case of    
prevision by means of coincidence of    
measures4 ,for by what observations must
 the ,chaldeans have discovered this    
cycle8 ,obviously1 as ,delambre infers1 
by inspecting their registers2 by       
comparing the successive intervals2 by  
finding that some of the intervals were 
alike2 by seeing that these equal       
intervals were eighteen years apart2 by 
discovering that all the intervals that 
were eighteen years apart were equal2 by
 ascertaining that the intervals formed 
a series which repeated itself1 so that 
if one of the cycles of intervals were  
superposed on another the divisions     
would fit4 ,this once perceived1 and it 
manifestly became possible to use the   
cycle as a scale of time by which to    
measure out future periods4 ,seeing thus
 that the process of so predicting      

eclipses is in essence the same as that 
of predicting the moon's monthly        
changes1 by observing the number of days
 after which they repeat--seeing that   
the two differ only in the extent and   
irregularity of the intervals1 it is not
 difficult to understand how such an    
amount of knowledge should so early have
 been reached4 ,and we shall be less    
surprised1 on remembering that the only 
things involved in these previsions were
 time and number2 and that the time was 
in a manner self-numbered4  ,still1 the 
ability to predict events recurring only
 after so long a period as eighteen     
years1 implies a considerable advance in
 civilisation--a considerable           
development of general knowledge2 and we
 have now to inquire what progress in   
other sciences accompanied1 and was     
necessary to1 these astronomical        
previsions4 ,in the first place1 there  
must clearly have been a tolerably      
efficient system of calculation4 ,mere  
finger-counting1 mere head-reckoning1   

even with the aid of a regular decimal  
notation1 could not have sufficed for   
numbering the days in a year2 much less 
the years1 months1 and days between     
eclipses4 ,consequently there must have 
been a mode of registering numbers2     
probably even a system of numerals4 ,the
 earliest numerical records1 if we may  
judge by the practices of the less      
civilised races now existing1 were      
probably kept by notches cut on sticks1 
or strokes marked on walls2 much as     
public-house scores are kept now4 ,and  
there seems reason to believe that the  
first numerals used were simply groups  
of straight strokes1 as some of the     
still-extant ,roman ones are2 leading us
 to suspect that these groups of strokes
 were used to represent groups of       
fingers1 as the groups of fingers had   
been used to represent groups of        
objects--a supposition quite in         
conformity with the aboriginal system of
 picture writing and its subsequent     
modifications4 ,be this so or not1      

however1 it is manifest that before the 
,chaldeans discovered their ,saros1     
there must have been both a set of      
written symbols serving for an extensive
 numeration1 and a familiarity with the 
simpler rules of arithmetic4  ,not only 
must abstract mathematics have made some
 progress1 but concrete mathematics     
also4 ,it is scarcely possible that the 
buildings belonging to this era should  
have been laid out and erected without  
any knowledge of geometry4 ,at any rate1
 there must have existed that elementary
 geometry which deals with direct       
measurement--with the apposition of     
lines2 and it seems that only after the 
discovery of those simple proceedings1  
by which right angles are drawn1 and    
relative positions fixed1 could so      
regular an architecture be executed4 ,in
 the case of the other division of      
concrete mathematics--mechanics1 we have
 definite evidence of progress4 ,we know
 that the lever and the inclined plane  
were employed during this period3       

implying that there was a qualitative   
prevision of their effects1 though not a
 quantitative one4 ,but we know more4   
,we read of weights in the earliest     
records2 and we find weights in ruins of
 the highest antiquity4 ,weights imply  
scales1 of which we have also mention2  
and scales involve the primary theorem  
of mechanics in its least complicated   
form--involve not a qualitative but a   
quantitative prevision of mechanical    
effects4 ,and here we may notice how    
mechanics1 in common with the other     
exact sciences1 took its rise from the  
simplest application of the idea of     
equality4 ,for the mechanical           
proposition which the scales involve1   
is1 that if a lever with equal arms1    
have equal weights suspended from them1 
the weights will remain at equal        
altitudes4 ,and we may further notice   
how1 in this first step of rational     
mechanics1 we see illustrated that truth
 awhile since referred to1 that as      
magnitudes of linear extension are the  

only ones of which the equality is      
exactly ascertainable1 the equalities of
 other magnitudes have at the outset to 
be determined by means of them4 ,for the
 equality of the weights which balance  
each other in scales1 wholly depends    
upon the equality of the arms3 we can   
know that the weights are equal only by 
proving that the arms are equal4 ,and   
when by this means we have obtained a   
system of weights1--a set of equal units
 of force1 then does a science of       
mechanics become possible4 ,whence1     
indeed1 it follows1 that rational       
mechanics could not possibly have any   
other starting-point than the scales4   
,let us further remember1 that during   
this same period there was a limited    
knowledge of chemistry4 ,the many arts  
which we know to have been carried on   
must have been impossible without a     
generalised experience of the modes in  
which certain bodies affect each other  
under special conditions4 ,in           
metallurgy1 which was extensively       

practised1 this is abundantly           
illustrated4 ,and we even have evidence 
that in some cases the knowledge        
possessed was1 in a sense1 quantitative4
 ,for1 as we find by analysis that the  
hard alloy of which the ,egyptians made 
their cutting tools1 was composed of    
copper and tin in fixed proportions1    
there must have been an established     
prevision that such an alloy was to be  
obtained only by mixing them in these   
proportions4 ,it is true1 this was but a
 simple empirical generalisation2 but so
 was the generalisation respecting the  
recurrence of eclipses2 so are the first
 generalisations of every science4      
,respecting the simultaneous advance of 
the sciences during this early epoch1 it
 only remains to remark that even the   
most complex of them must have made some
 progress--perhaps even a greater       
relative progress than any of the rest4 
,for under what conditions only were the
 foregoing developments possible8 ,there
 first required an established and      

organised social system4 ,a long        
continued registry of eclipses2 the     
building of palaces2 the use of scales2 
the practice of metallurgy--alike imply 
a fixed and populous nation4 ,the       
existence of such a nation not only     
presupposes laws1 and some              
administration of justice1 which we know
 existed1 but it presupposes successful 
laws--laws conforming in some degree to 
the conditions of social stability--laws
 enacted because it was seen that the   
actions forbidden by them were dangerous
 to the ,state4 ,we do not by any means 
say that all1 or even the greater part1 
of the laws were of this nature2 but we 
do say1 that the fundamental ones were4 
,it cannot be denied that the laws      
affecting life and property were such4  
,it cannot be denied that1 however      
little these were enforced between class
 and class1 they were to a considerable 
extent enforced between members of the  
same class4 ,it can scarcely be         
questioned1 that the administration of  

them between members of the same class  
was seen by rulers to be necessary for  
keeping their subjects together4 ,and   
knowing1 as we do1 that1 other things   
equal1 nations prosper in proportion to 
the justness of their arrangements1 we  
may fairly infer that the very cause of 
the advance of these earliest nations   
out of aboriginal barbarism was the     
greater recognition among them of the   
claims to life and property4  ,but      
supposition aside1 it is clear that the 
habitual recognition of these claims in 
their laws implied some prevision of    
social phenomena4 ,even thus early there
 was a certain amount of social science4
 ,nay1 it may even be shown that there  
was a vague recognition of that         
fundamental principle on which all the  
true social science is based--the equal 
rights of all to the free exercise of   
their faculties4 ,that same idea of     
equality which1 as we have seen1        
underlies all other science1 underlies  
also morals and sociology4 ,the         

conception of justice1 which is the     
primary one in morals2 and the          
administration of justice1 which is the 
vital condition of social existence2 are
 impossible without the recognition of a
 certain likeness in men's claims in    
virtue of their common humanity4 ,equity
 literally means equalness2 and if it be
 admitted that there were even the      
vaguest ideas of equity in these        
primitive eras1 it must be admitted that
 there was some appreciation of the     
equalness of men's liberties to pursue  
the objects of life--some appreciation1 
therefore1 of the essential principle of
 national equilibrium4  ,thus in this   
initial stage of the positive sciences1 
before geometry had yet done more than  
evolve a few empirical rules--before    
mechanics had passed beyond its first   
theorem--before astronomy had advanced  
from its merely chronological phase into
 the geometrical2 the most involved of  
the sciences had reached a certain      
degree of development--a development    

without which no progress in other      
sciences was possible4  ,only noting as 
we pass1 how1 thus early1 we may see    
that the progress of exact science was  
not only towards an increasing number of
 previsions1 but towards previsions more
 accurately quantitative--how1 in       
astronomy1 the recurring period of the  
moon's motions was by and by more       
correctly ascertained to be nineteen    
years1 or two hundred and thirty-five   
lunations2 how ,callipus further        
corrected this ,metonic cycle1 by       
leaving out a day at the end of every   
seventy-six years2 and how these        
successive advances implied a longer    
continued registry of observations1 and 
the co-ordination of a greater number of
 facts--let us go on to inquire how     
geometrical astronomy took its rise4    
,the first astronomical instrument was  
the gnomon4 ,this was not only early in 
use in the ,east1 but it was found also 
among the ,mexicans2 the sole           
astronomical observations of the        

,peruvians were made by it2 and we read 
that #aajj ,b4,c41 the ,chinese found   
that1 at a certain place1 the length of 
the sun's shadow1 at the summer         
solstice1 was to the height of the      
gnomon as one and a half to eight4 ,here
 again it is observable1 not only that  
the instrument is found ready made1 but 
that ,nature is perpetually performing  
the process of measurement4 ,any fixed1 
erect object--a column1 a dead palm1 a  
pole1 the angle of a building--serves   
for a gnomon2 and it needs but to notice
 the changing position of the shadow it 
daily throws to make the first step in  
geometrical astronomy4 ,how small this  
first step was1 may be seen in the fact 
that the only things ascertained at the 
outset were the periods of the summer   
and winter solstices1 which corresponded
 with the least and greatest lengths of 
the mid-shadow2 and to fix which1 it was
 needful merely to mark the point to    
which each day's shadow reached4  ,and  
now let it not be overlooked that in the

 observing at what time during the next 
year this extreme limit of the shadow   
was again reached1 and in the inference 
that the sun had then arrived at the    
same turning point in his annual course1
 we have one of the simplest instances  
of that combined use of equal magnitudes
 and equal relations1 by which all exact
 science1 all quantitative prevision1 is
 reached4 ,for the relation observed was
 between the length of the sun's shadow 
and his position in the heavens2 and the
 inference drawn was that when1 next    
year1 the extremity of his shadow came  
to the same point1 he occupied the same 
place4 ,that is1 the ideas involved     
were1 the equality of the shadows1 and  
the equality of the relations between   
shadow and sun in successive years4 ,as 
in the case of the scales1 the equality 
of relations here recognised is of the  
simplest order4 ,it is not as those     
habitually dealt with in the higher     
kinds of scientific reasoning1 which    
answer to the general type--the relation

 between two and three equals the       
relation between six and nine2 but it   
follows the type--the relation between  
two and three1 equals the relation      
between two and three2 it is a case of  
not simply equal relations1 but         
coinciding relations4 ,and here1 indeed1
 we may see beautifully illustrated how 
the idea of equal relations takes its   
rise after the same manner that that of 
equal magnitude does4 ,as already shown1
 the idea of equal magnitudes arose from
 the observed coincidence of two lengths
 placed together2 and in this case we   
have not only two coincident lengths of 
shadows1 but two coincident relations   
between sun and shadows4  ,from the use 
of the gnomon there naturally grew up   
the conception of angular measurements2 
and with the advance of geometrical     
conceptions there came the hemisphere of
 ,berosus1 the equinoctial armil1 the   
solstitial armil1 and the quadrant of   
,ptolemy--all of them employing shadows 
as indices of the sun's position1 but in

 combination with angular divisions4 ,it
 is obviously out of the question for us
 here to trace these details of         
progress4 ,it must suffice to remark    
that in all of them we may see that     
notion of equality of relations of a    
more complex kind1 which is best        
illustrated in the astrolabe1 an        
instrument which consisted of circular  
rims1 movable one within the other1 or  
about poles1 and contained circles which
 were to be brought into the position of
 the ecliptic1 and of a plane passing   
through the sun and the poles of the    
ecliptic--an instrument1 therefore1     
which represented1 as by a model1 the   
relative positions of certain imaginary 
lines and planes in the heavens2 which  
was adjusted by putting these           
representative lines and planes into    
parallelism and coincidence with the    
celestial ones2 and which depended for  
its use upon the perception that the    
relations between these representative  
lines and planes were equal to the      

relations between those represented4    
,were there space1 we might go on to    
point out how the conception of the     
heavens as a revolving hollow sphere1   
the discovery of the globular form of   
the earth1 the explanation of the moon's
 phases1 and indeed all the successive  
steps taken1 involved this same mental  
process4 ,but we must content ourselves 
with referring to the theory of         
eccentrics and epicycles1 as a further  
marked illustration of it4 ,as first    
suggested1 and as proved by ,hipparchus 
to afford an explanation of the leading 
irregularities in the celestial motions1
 this theory involved the perception    
that the progressions1 retrogressions1  
and variations of velocity seen in the  
heavenly bodies1 might be reconciled    
with their assumed uniform movement in  
circles1 by supposing that the earth was
 not in the centre of their orbits2 or  
by supposing that they revolved in      
circles whose centres revolved round the
 earth2 or by both4 ,the discovery that 

this would account for the appearances1 
was the discovery that in certain       
geometrical diagrams the relations were 
such1 that the uniform motion of a point
 would1 when looked at from a particular
 position1 present analogous            
irregularities2 and the calculations of 
,hipparchus involved the belief that the
 relations subsisting among these       
geometrical curves were equal to the    
relations subsisting among the celestial
 orbits4  ,leaving here these details of
 astronomical progress1 and the         
philosophy of it1 let us observe how the
 relatively concrete science of         
geometrical astronomy1 having been thus 
far helped forward by the development of
 geometry in general1 reacted upon      
geometry1 caused it also to advance1 and
 was again assisted by it4 ,hipparchus1 
before making his solar and lunar       
tables1 had to discover rules for       
calculating the relations between the   
sides and angles of                     
triangles--trigonometry a subdivision of

 pure mathematics4 ,further1 the        
reduction of the doctrine of the sphere 
to the quantitative form needed for     
astronomical purposes1 required the     
formation of a spherical trigonometry1  
which was also achieved by ,hipparchus4 
,thus both plane and spherical          
trigonometry1 which are parts of the    
highly abstract and simple science of   
extension1 remained undeveloped until   
the less abstract and more complex      
science of the celestial motions had    
need of them4 ,the fact admitted by ,m4 
,comte1 that since ,descartes the       
progress of the abstract division of    
mathematics has been determined by that 
of the concrete division1 is paralleled 
by the still more significant fact that 
even thus early the progress of         
mathematics was determined by that of   
astronomy4  ,and here1 indeed1 we may   
see exemplified the truth1 which the    
subsequent history of science frequently
 illustrates1 that before any more      
abstract division makes a further       

advance1 some more concrete division    
must suggest the necessity for that     
advance--must present the new order of  
questions to be solved4 ,before         
astronomy presented ,hipparchus with the
 problem of solar tables1 there was     
nothing to raise the question of the    
relations between lines and angles2 the 
subject-matter of trigonometry had not  
been conceived4 ,and as there must be   
subject-matter before there can be      
investigation1 it follows that the      
progress of the concrete divisions is as
 necessary to that of the abstract1 as  
the progress of the abstract to that of 
the concrete4  ,just incidentally       
noticing the circumstance that the epoch
 we are describing witnessed the        
evolution of algebra1 a comparatively   
abstract division of mathematics1 by the
 union of its less abstract divisions1  
geometry and arithmetic--a fact proved  
by the earliest extant samples of       
algebra1 which are half algebraic1 half 
geometric--we go on to observe that     

during the era in which mathematics and 
astronomy were thus advancing1 rational 
mechanics made its second step2 and     
something was done towards giving a     
quantitative form to hydrostatics1      
optics1 and harmonics4 ,in each case we 
shall see1 as before1 how the idea of   
equality underlies all quantitative     
prevision2 and in what simple forms this
 idea is first applied4  ,as already    
shown1 the first theorem established in 
mechanics was1 that equal weights       
suspended from a lever with equal arms  
would remain in equilibrium4 ,archimedes
 discovered that a lever with unequal   
arms was in equilibrium when one weight 
was to its arm as the other arm to its  
weight2 that is--when the numerical     
relation between one weight and its arm 
was equal to the numerical relation     
between the other arm and its weight4   
,the first advance made in hydrostatics1
 which we also owe to ,archimedes1 was  
the discovery that fluids press equally 
in all directions2 and from this        

followed the solution of the problem of 
floating bodies3 namely1 that they are  
in equilibrium when the upward and      
downward pressures are equal4  ,in      
optics1 again1 the ,greeks found that   
the angle of incidence is equal to the  
angle of reflection2 and their knowledge
 reached no further than to such simple 
deductions from this as their geometry  
sufficed for4 ,in harmonics they        
ascertained the fact that three strings 
of equal lengths would yield the octave1
 fifth and fourth1 when strained by     
weights having certain definite ratios2 
and they did not progress much beyond   
this4 ,in the one of which cases we see 
geometry used in elucidation of the laws
 of light2 and in the other1 geometry   
and arithmetic made to measure the      
phenomena of sound4  ,did space permit1 
it would be desirable here to describe  
the state of the less advanced          
sciences--to point out how1 while a few 
had thus reached the first stages of    
quantitative prevision1 the rest were   

progressing in qualitative              
prevision--how some small               
generalisations were made respecting    
evaporation1 and heat1 and electricity1 
and magnetism1 which1 empirical as they 
were1 did not in that respect differ    
from the first generalisations of every 
science--how the ,greek physicians had  
made advances in physiology and         
pathology1 which1 considering the great 
imperfection of our present knowledge1  
are by no means to be despised--how     
zoology had been so far systematised by 
,aristotle1 as1 to some extent1 enabled 
him from the presence of certain organs 
to predict the presence of others--how  
in ,aristotle's ,politics there is some 
progress towards a scientific conception
 of social phenomena1 and sundry        
previsions respecting them--and how in  
the state of the ,greek societies1 as   
well as in the writings of ,greek       
philosophers1 we may recognise not only 
an increasing clearness in that         
conception of equity on which the social

 science is based1 but also some        
appreciation of the fact that social    
stability depends upon the maintenance  
of equitable regulations4 ,we might     
dwell at length upon the causes which   
retarded the development of some of the 
sciences1 as1 for example1 chemistry2   
showing that relative complexity had    
nothing to do with it--that the         
oxidation of a piece of iron is a       
simpler phenomenon than the recurrence  
of eclipses1 and the discovery of       
carbonic acid less difficult than that  
of the precession of the equinoxes--but 
that the relatively slow advance of     
chemical knowledge was due1 partly to   
the fact that its phenomena were not    
daily thrust on men's notice as those of
 astronomy were2 partly to the fact that
 ,nature does not habitually supply the 
means1 and suggest the modes of         
investigation1 as in the sciences       
dealing with time1 extension1 and force2
 and partly to the fact that the great  
majority of the materials with which    

chemistry deals1 instead of being ready 
to hand1 are made known only by the arts
 in their slow growth2 and partly to the
 fact that even when known1 their       
chemical properties are not             
self-exhibited1 but have to be sought   
out by experiment4  ,merely indicating  
all these considerations1 however1 let  
us go on to contemplate the progress and
 mutual influence of the sciences in    
modern days2 only parenthetically       
noticing how1 on the revival of the     
scientific spirit1 the successive stages
 achieved exhibit the dominance of the  
same law hitherto traced--how the       
primary idea in dynamics1 a uniform     
force1 was defined by ,galileo to be a  
force which generates equal velocities  
in equal successive times--how the      
uniform action of gravity was first     
experimentally determined by showing    
that the time elapsing before a body    
thrown up1 stopped1 was equal to the    
time it took to fall--how the first fact
 in compound motion which ,galileo      

ascertained was1 that a body projected  
horizontally will have a uniform motion 
onwards and a uniformly accelerated     
motion downwards2 that is1 will describe
 equal horizontal spaces in equal times1
 compounded with equal vertical         
increments in equal times--how his      
discovery respecting the pendulum was1  
that its oscillations occupy equal      
intervals of time whatever their        
length--how the principle of virtual    
velocities which he established is1 that
 in any machine the weights that balance
 each other are reciprocally as their   
virtual velocities2 that is1 the        
relation of one set of weights to their 
velocities equals the relation of the   
other set of velocities to their        
weights2 and how thus his achievements  
consisted in showing the equalities of  
certain magnitudes and relations1 whose 
equalities had not been previously      
recognised4  ,when mechanics had reached
 the point to which ,galileo brought    
it--when the simple laws of force had   

been disentangled from the friction and 
atmospheric resistance by which all     
their earthly manifestations are        
disguised--when progressing knowledge of
 physics had given a due insight into   
these disturbing causes--when1 by an    
effort of abstraction1 it was perceived 
that all motion would be uniform and    
rectilinear unless interfered with by   
external forces--and when the various   
consequences of this perception had been
 worked out2 then it became possible1 by
 the union of geometry and mechanics1 to
 initiate physical astronomy4 ,geometry 
and mechanics having diverged from a    
common root in men's sensible           
experiences2 having1 with occasional    
inosculations1 been separately          
developed1 the one partly in connection 
with astronomy1 the other solely by     
analysing terrestrial movements2 now    
join in the investigations of ,newton to
 create a true theory of the celestial  
motions4 ,and here1 also1 we have to    
notice the important fact that1 in the  

very process of being brought jointly to
 bear upon astronomical problems1 they  
are themselves raised to a higher phase 
of development4 ,for it was in dealing  
with the questions raised by celestial  
dynamics that the then incipient        
infinitesimal calculus was unfolded by  
,newton and his continental successors2 
and it was from inquiries into the      
mechanics of the solar system that the  
general theorems of mechanics contained 
in the ,principia1--many of them of     
purely terrestrial application--took    
their rise4 ,thus1 as in the case of    
,hipparchus1 the presentation of a new  
order of concrete facts to be analysed1 
led to the discovery of new abstract    
facts2 and these abstract facts having  
been laid hold of1 gave means of access 
to endless groups of concrete facts     
before incapable of quantitative        
treatment4  ,meanwhile1 physics had been
 carrying further that progress without 
which1 as just shown1 rational mechanics
 could not be disentangled4 ,in         

hydrostatics1 ,stevinus had extended and
 applied the discovery of ,archimedes4  
,torricelli had proved atmospheric      
pressure1 by showing that this pressure 
sustained different liquids at heights  
inversely proportional to their         
densities2 and ,pascal established the  
necessary diminution of this pressure at
 increasing heights in the atmosphere3  
discoveries which in part reduced this  
branch of science to a quantitative     
form4 ,something had been done by       
,daniel ,bernouilli towards the dynamics
 of fluids4 ,the thermometer had been   
invented2 and a number of small         
generalisations reached by it4 ,huyghens
 and ,newton had made considerable      
progress in optics2 ,newton had         
approximately calculated the rate of    
transmission of sound2 and the          
continental mathematicians had succeeded
 in determining some of the laws of     
sonorous vibrations4 ,magnetism and     
electricity had been considerably       
advanced by ,gilbert4 ,chemistry had got

 as far as the mutual neutralisation of 
acids and alkalies4 ,and ,leonardo da   
,vinci had advanced in geology to the   
conception of the deposition of marine  
strata as the origin of fossils4 ,our   
present purpose does not require that we
 should give particulars4 ,all that it  
here concerns us to do is to illustrate 
the consensus subsisting in this stage  
of growth1 and afterwards4 ,let us look 
at a few cases4  ,the theoretic law of  
the velocity of sound enunciated by     
,newton on purely mechanical            
considerations1 was found wrong by      
one-sixth4 ,the error remained          
unaccounted for until the time of       
,laplace1 who1 suspecting that the heat 
disengaged by the compression of the    
undulating strata of the air1 gave      
additional elasticity1 and so produced  
the difference1 made the needful        
calculations and found he was right4    
,thus acoustics was arrested until      
thermology overtook and aided it4 ,when 
,boyle and ,marriot had discovered the  

relation between the density of gases   
and the pressures they are subject to2  
and when it thus became possible to     
calculate the rate of decreasing density
 in the upper parts of the atmosphere1  
it also became possible to make         
approximate tables of the atmospheric   
refraction of light4 ,thus optics1 and  
with it astronomy1 advanced with        
barology4 ,after the discovery of       
atmospheric pressure had led to the     
invention of the air-pump by ,otto      
,guericke2 and after it had become known
 that evaporation increases in rapidity 
as atmospheric pressure decreases2 it   
became possible for ,leslie1 by         
evaporation in a vacuum1 to produce the 
greatest cold known2 and so to extend   
our knowledge of thermology by showing  
that there is no zero within reach of   
our researches4 ,when ,fourier had      
determined the laws of conduction of    
heat1 and when the ,earth's temperature 
had been found to increase below the    
surface one degree in every forty yards1

 there were data for inferring the past 
condition of our globe2 the vast period 
it has taken to cool down to its present
 state2 and the immense age of the solar
 system--a purely astronomical          
consideration4  ,chemistry having       
advanced sufficiently to supply the     
needful materials1 and a physiological  
experiment having furnished the         
requisite hint1 there came the discovery
 of galvanic electricity4 ,galvanism    
reacting on chemistry disclosed the     
metallic bases of the alkalies1 and     
inaugurated the electro-chemical theory2
 in the hands of ,oersted and ,ampere it
 led to the laws of magnetic action2 and
 by its aid ,faraday has detected       
significant facts relative to the       
constitution of light4 ,brewster's      
discoveries respecting double refraction
 and dipolarisation proved the essential
 truth of the classification of         
crystalline forms according to the      
number of axes1 by showing that the     
molecular constitution depends upon the 

axes4 ,in these and in numerous other   
cases1 the mutual influence of the      
sciences has been quite independent of  
any supposed hierarchical order4 ,often1
 too1 their inter-actions are more      
complex than as thus instanced--involve 
more sciences than two4 ,one            
illustration of this must suffice4 ,we  
quote it in full from the ,history of   
the ,inductive ,sciences4 ,in book xi41 
chap1 ii41 on ,the ,progress of the     
,electrical ,theory1 ,dr4 ,whewell      
writes3--       ,thus at that period1   
mathematics was behind experiment1 and a
      problem was proposed1 in which    
theoretical results were wanted for     
comparison with observation1 but could  
not be accurately obtained2      as was 
the case in astronomy also1 till the    
time of the approximate      solution of
 the problem of three bodies1 and the   
consequent      formation of the tables 
of the moon and planets1 on the theory  
of      universal gravitation4 ,after   
some time1 electrical theory was        

relieved from this reproach1 mainly in  
consequence of the progress      which  
astronomy had occasioned in pure        
mathematics4 ,about #ahja      there    
appeared in the ,bulletin des ,sciences1
 an exact solution of      the problem  
of the distribution of electric fluid on
 a spheroid1      obtained by ,biot1 by 
the application of the peculiar methods 
which      ,laplace had invented for the
 problem of the figure of the planets4  
,and1 in #ahaa1 ,m4 ,poisson applied    
,laplace's artifices to the case of     
two spheres acting upon one another in  
contact1 a case to which      many of   
,coulomb's experiments were referrible2 
and the agreement of      the results of
 theory and observation1 thus extricated
 from      ,coulomb's numbers obtained  
above forty years previously1 was very  
striking and convincing4  ,not only do  
the sciences affect each other after    
this direct manner1 but they affect each
 other indirectly4 ,where there is no   
dependence1 there is yet                

analogy--equality of relations2 and the 
discovery of the relations subsisting   
among one set of phenomena1 constantly  
suggests a search for the same relations
 among another set4 ,thus the           
established fact that the force of      
gravitation varies inversely as the     
square of the distance1 being recognised
 as a necessary characteristic of all   
influences proceeding from a centre1    
raised the suspicion that heat and light
 follow the same law2 which proved to be
 the case--a suspicion and a            
confirmation which were repeated in     
respect to the electric and magnetic    
forces4 ,thus again the discovery of the
 polarisation of light led to           
experiments which ended in the discovery
 of the polarisation of heat--a         
discovery that could never have been    
made without the antecedent one4 ,thus1 
too1 the known refrangibility of light  
and heat lately produced the inquiry    
whether sound also is not refrangible2  
which on trial it turns out to be4  ,in 

some cases1 indeed1 it is only by the   
aid of conceptions derived from one     
class of phenomena that hypotheses      
respecting other classes can be formed4 
,the theory1 at one time favoured1 that 
evaporation is a solution of water in   
air1 was an assumption that the relation
 between water and air is like the      
relation between salt and water2 and    
could never have been conceived if the  
relation between salt and water had not 
been previously known4 ,similarly the   
received theory of evaporation--that it 
is a diffusion of the particles of the  
evaporating fluid in virtue of their    
atomic repulsion--could not have been   
entertained without a foregoing         
experience of magnetic and electric     
repulsions4 ,so complete in recent days 
has become this consensus among the     
sciences1 caused either by the natural  
entanglement of their phenomena1 or by  
analogies in the relations of their     
phenomena1 that scarcely any            
considerable discovery concerning one   

order of facts now takes place1 without 
very shortly leading to discoveries     
concerning other orders4  ,to produce a 
tolerably complete conception of this   
process of scientific evolution1 it     
would be needful to go back to the      
beginning1 and trace in detail the      
growth of classifications and           
nomenclatures2 and to show how1 as      
subsidiary to science1 they have acted  
upon it1 and it has reacted upon them4  
,we can only now remark that1 on the one
 hand1 classifications and nomenclatures
 have aided science by continually      
subdividing the subject-matter of       
research1 and giving fixity and         
diffusion to the truths disclosed2 and  
that on the other hand1 they have caught
 from it that increasing                
quantitativeness1 and that progress from
 considerations touching single         
phenomena to considerations touching the
 relations among many phenomena1 which  
we have been describing4  ,of this last 
influence a few illustrations must be   

given4 ,in chemistry it is seen in the  
facts1 that the dividing of matter into 
the four elements was ostensibly based  
upon the single property of weight2 that
 the first truly chemical division into 
acid and alkaline bodies1 grouped       
together bodies which had not simply one
 property in common1 but in which one   
property was constantly related to many 
others2 and that the classification now 
current1 places together in groups      
supporters of combustion1 metallic and  
non-metallic bases1 acids1 salts1 etc41 
bodies which are often quite unlike in  
sensible qualities1 but which are like  
in the majority of their relations to   
other bodies4 ,in mineralogy again1 the 
first classifications were based upon   
differences in aspect1 texture1 and     
other physical attributes4 ,berzelius   
made two attempts at a classification   
based solely on chemical constitution4  
,that now current1 recognises as far as 
possible the relations between physical 
and chemical characters4 ,in botany the 

earliest classes formed were trees1     
shrubs1 and herbs3 magnitude being the  
basis of distinction4 ,dioscorides      
divided vegetables into aromatic1       
alimentary1 medicinal1 and vinous3 a    
division of chemical character4         
,caesalpinus classified them by the     
seeds1 and seed-vessels1 which he       
preferred because of the relations found
 to subsist between the character of the
 fructification and the general         
character of the other parts4  ,while   
the natural system since developed1     
carrying out the doctrine of ,linnaeus1 
that natural orders must be formed by   
attention not to one or two1 but to all 
the parts of plants1 bases its divisions
 on like peculiarities which are found  
to be constantly related to the greatest
 number of other like peculiarities4    
,and similarly in zoology1 the          
successive classifications1 from having 
been originally determined by external  
and often subordinate characters not    
indicative of the essential nature1 have

 been gradually more and more determined
 by those internal and fundamental      
differences1 which have uniform         
relations to the greatest number of     
other differences4 ,nor shall we be     
surprised at this analogy between the   
modes of progress of positive science   
and classification1 when we bear in mind
 that both proceed by making            
generalisations2 that both enable us to 
make previsions differing only in their 
precision2 and that while the one deals 
with equal properties and relations1 the
 other deals with properties and        
relations that approximate towards      
equality in variable degrees4  ,without 
further argument1 it will1 we think1 be 
sufficiently clear that the sciences are
 none of them separately evolved--are   
none of them independent either         
logically or historically2 but that all 
of them have1 in a greater or less      
degree1 required aid and reciprocated   
it4 ,indeed1 it needs but to throw aside
 these1 and contemplate the mixed       

character of surrounding phenomena1 to  
at once see that these notions of       
division and succession in the kinds of 
knowledge are none of them actually     
true1 but are simple scientific         
fictions3 good1 if regarded merely as   
aids to study2 bad1 if regarded as      
representing realities in ,nature4      
,consider them critically1 and no facts 
whatever are presented to our senses    
uncombined with other facts--no facts   
whatever but are in some degree         
disguised by accompanying facts3        
disguised in such a manner that all must
 be partially understood before any one 
can be understood4 ,if it be said1 as by
 ,m4 ,comte1 that gravitating force     
should be treated of before other       
forces1 seeing that all things are      
subject to it1 it may on like grounds be
 said that heat should be first dealt   
with2 seeing that thermal forces are    
everywhere in action2 that the ability  
of any portion of matter to manifest    
visible gravitative phenomena depends on

 its state of aggregation1 which is     
determined by heat2 that only by the aid
 of thermology can we explain those     
apparent exceptions to the gravitating  
tendency which are presented by steam   
and smoke1 and so establish its         
universality1 and that1 indeed1 the very
 existence of the solar system in a     
solid form is just as much a question of
 heat as it is one of gravitation4      
,take other cases3--,all phenomena      
recognised by the eyes1 through which   
only are the data of exact science      
ascertainable1 are complicated with     
optical phenomena2 and cannot be        
exhaustively known until optical        
principles are known4 ,the burning of a 
candle cannot be explained without      
involving chemistry1 mechanics1         
thermology4 ,every wind that blows is   
determined by influences partly solar1  
partly lunar1 partly hygrometric2 and   
implies considerations of fluid         
equilibrium and physical geography4 ,the
 direction1 dip1 and variations of the  

magnetic needle1 are facts half         
terrestrial1 half celestial--are caused 
by earthly forces which have cycles of  
change corresponding with astronomical  
periods4 ,the flowing of the gulf-stream
 and the annual migration of icebergs   
towards the equator1 depending as they  
do on the balancing of the centripetal  
and centrifugal forces acting on the    
ocean1 involve in their explanation the 
,earth's rotation and spheroidal form1  
the laws of hydrostatics1 the relative  
densities of cold and warm water1 and   
the doctrines of evaporation4 ,it is no 
doubt true1 as ,m4 ,comte says1 that our
 position in the solar system1 and the  
motions1 form1 size1 equilibrium of the 
mass of our world among the planets1    
must be known before we can understand  
the phenomena going on at its surface4  
,but1 fatally for his hypothesis1 it is 
also true that we must understand a     
great part of the phenomena going on at 
its surface before we can know its      
position1 etc41 in the solar system4 ,it

 is not simply that1 as we have already 
shown1 those geometrical and mechanical 
principles by which celestial           
appearances are explained1 were first   
generalised from terrestrial            
experiences2 but it is that the very    
obtainment of correct data1 on which to 
base astronomical generalisations1      
implies advanced terrestrial physics4   
,until after optics had made            
considerable advance1 the ,copernican   
system remained but a speculation4 ,a   
single modern observation on a star has 
to undergo a careful analysis by the    
combined aid of various sciences--has to
 be digested by the organism of the     
sciences2 which have severally to       
assimilate their respective parts of the
 observation1 before the essential fact 
it contains is available for the further
 development of astronomy4 ,it has to be
 corrected not only for nutation of the 
earth's axis and for precession of the  
equinoxes1 but for aberration and for   
refraction2 and the formation of the    

tables by which refraction is           
calculated1 presupposes knowledge of the
 law of decreasing density in the upper 
atmospheric strata2 of the law of       
decreasing temperature1 and the         
influence of this on the density2 and of
 hygrometric laws as also affecting     
density4 ,so that1 to get materials for 
further advance1 astronomy requires not 
only the indirect aid of the sciences   
which have presided over the making of  
its improved instruments1 but the direct
 aid of an advanced optics1 of barology1
 of thermology1 of hygrometry2 and if we
 remember that these delicate           
observations are in some cases          
registered electrically1 and that they  
are further corrected for the personal  
equation--the time elapsing between     
seeing and registering1 which varies    
with different observers--we may even   
add electricity and psychology4 ,if1    
then1 so apparently simple a thing as   
ascertaining the position of a star is  
complicated with so many phenomena1 it  

is clear that this notion of the        
independence of the sciences1 or certain
 of them1 will not hold4  ,whether      
objectively independent or not1 they    
cannot be subjectively so--they cannot  
have independence as presented to our   
consciousness2 and this is the only kind
 of independence with which we are      
concerned4 ,and here1 before leaving    
these illustrations1 and especially this
 last one1 let us not omit to notice how
 clearly they exhibit that increasingly 
active consensus of the sciences which  
characterises their advancing           
development4 ,besides finding that in   
these later times a discovery in one    
science commonly causes progress in     
others2 besides finding that a great    
part of the questions with which modern 
science deals are so mixed as to require
 the co-operation of many sciences for  
their solution2 we find in this last    
case that1 to make a single good        
observation in the purest of the natural
 sciences1 requires the combined        

assistance of half a dozen other        
sciences4  ,perhaps the clearest        
comprehension of the interconnected     
growth of the sciences may be obtained  
by contemplating that of the arts1 to   
which it is strictly analogous1 and with
 which it is inseparably bound up4 ,most
 intelligent persons must have been1 at 
one time or other1 struck with the vast 
array of antecedents pre-supposed by one
 of our processes of manufacture4 ,let  
him trace the production of a printed   
cotton1 and consider all that is implied
 by it4 ,there are the many successive  
improvements through which the          
power-looms reached their present       
perfection2 there is the steam-engine   
that drives them1 having its long       
history from ,papin downwards2 there are
 the lathes in which its cylinder was   
bored1 and the string of ancestral      
lathes from which those lathes          
proceeded2 there is the steam-hammer    
under which its crank shaft was welded2 
there are the puddling-furnaces1 the    

blast-furnaces1 the coal-mines and the  
iron-mines needful for producing the raw
 material2 there are the slowly improved
 appliances by which the factory was    
built1 and lighted1 and ventilated2     
there are the printing engine1 and the  
die house1 and the colour laboratory    
with its stock of materials from all    
parts of the world1 implying            
cochineal-culture1 logwood-cutting1     
indigo-growing2 there are the implements
 used by the producers of cotton1 the   
gins by which it is cleaned1 the        
elaborate machines by which it is spun3 
there are the vessels in which cotton is
 imported1 with the building-slips1 the 
rope-yards1 the sail-cloth factories1   
the anchor-forges1 needful for making   
them2 and besides all these directly    
necessary antecedents1 each of them     
involving many others1 there are the    
institutions which have developed the   
requisite intelligence1 the printing and
 publishing arrangements which have     
spread the necessary information1 the   

social organisation which has rendered  
possible such a complex co-operation of 
agencies4  ,further analysis would show 
that the many arts thus concerned in the
 economical production of a child's     
frock1 have each of them been brought to
 its present efficiency by slow steps   
which the other arts have aided2 and    
that from the beginning this reciprocity
 has been ever on the increase4 ,it     
needs but on the one hand to consider   
how utterly impossible it is for the    
savage1 even with ore and coal ready1 to
 produce so simple a thing as an iron   
hatchet2 and then to consider1 on the   
other hand1 that it would have been     
impracticable among ourselves1 even a   
century ago1 to raise the tubes of the  
,britannia bridge from lack of the      
hydraulic press2 to at once see how     
mutually dependent are the arts1 and how
 all must advance that each may advance4
 ,well1 the sciences are involved with  
each other in just the same manner4     
,they are1 in fact1 inextricably woven  

into the same complex web of the arts2  
and are only conventionally independent 
of it4 ,originally the two were one4    
,how to fix the religious festivals2    
when to sow3 how to weigh commodities2  
and in what manner to measure ground2   
were the purely practical questions out 
of which arose astronomy1 mechanics1    
geometry4 ,since then there has been a  
perpetual inosculation of the sciences  
and the arts4 ,science has been         
supplying art with truer generalisations
 and more completely quantitative       
previsions4 ,art has been supplying     
science with better materials and more  
perfect instruments4 ,and all along the 
interdependence has been growing closer1
 not only between art and science1 but  
among the arts themselves1 and among the
 sciences themselves4  ,how completely  
the analogy holds throughout1 becomes   
yet clearer when we recognise the fact  
that the sciences are arts to each      
other4 ,if1 as occurs in almost every   
case1 the fact to be analysed by any    

science1 has first to be prepared--to be
 disentangled from disturbing facts by  
the afore discovered methods of other   
sciences2 the other sciences so used1   
stand in the position of arts4 ,if1 in  
solving a dynamical problem1 a          
parallelogram is drawn1 of which the    
sides and diagonal represent forces1 and
 by putting magnitudes of extension for 
magnitudes of force a measurable        
relation is established between         
quantities not else to be dealt with2 it
 may be fairly said that geometry plays 
towards mechanics much the same part    
that the fire of the founder plays      
towards the metal he is going to cast4  
,if1 in analysing the phenomena of the  
coloured rings surrounding the point of 
contact between two lenses1 a ,newton   
ascertains by calculation the amount of 
certain interposed spaces1 far too      
minute for actual measurement2 he       
employs the science of number for       
essentially the same purpose as that for
 which the watchmaker employs tools4    

,if1 before writing down his observation
 on a star1 the astronomer has to       
separate from it all the errors         
resulting from atmospheric and optical  
laws1 it is manifest that the           
refraction-tables1 and logarithm-books1 
and formulae1 which he successively     
uses1 serve him much as retorts1 and    
filters1 and cupels serve the assayer   
who wishes to separate the pure gold    
from all accompanying ingredients4  ,so 
close1 indeed1 is the relationship1 that
 it is impossible to say where science  
begins and art ends4 ,all the           
instruments of the natural philosopher  
are the products of art2 the adjusting  
one of them for use is an art2 there is 
art in making an observation with one of
 them2 it requires art properly to treat
 the facts ascertained2 nay1 even the   
employing established generalisations to
 open the way to new generalisations1   
may be considered as art4 ,in each of   
these cases previously organised        
knowledge becomes the implement by which

 new knowledge is got at3 and whether   
that previously organised knowledge is  
embodied in a tangible apparatus or in a
 formula1 matters not in so far as its  
essential relation to the new knowledge 
is concerned4 ,if1 as no one will deny1 
art is applied knowledge1 then such     
portion of a scientific investigation as
 consists of applied knowledge is art4  
,so that we may even say that as soon as
 any prevision in science passes out of 
its originally passive state1 and is    
employed for reaching other previsions1 
it passes from theory into              
practice--becomes science in            
action--becomes art4 ,and when we thus  
see how purely conventional is the      
ordinary distinction1 how impossible it 
is to make any real separation--when we 
see not only that science and art were  
originally one2 that the arts have      
perpetually assisted each other2 that   
there has been a constant reciprocation 
of aid between the sciences and arts2   
but that the sciences act as arts to    

each other1 and that the established    
part of each science becomes an art to  
the growing part--when we recognise the 
closeness of these associations1 we     
shall the more clearly perceive that as 
the connection of the arts with each    
other has been ever becoming more       
intimate2 as the help given by sciences 
to arts and by arts to sciences1 has    
been age by age increasing2 so the      
interdependence of the sciences         
themselves has been ever growing        
greater1 their mutual relations more    
involved1 their consensus more active4  
99       99       99       99       99  
,in here ending our sketch of the       
,genesis of ,science1 we are conscious  
of having done the subject but scant    
justice4 ,two difficulties have stood in
 our way3 one1 the having to touch on so
 many points in such small space2 the   
other1 the necessity of treating in     
serial arrangement a process which is   
not serial--a difficulty which must ever
 attend all attempts to delineate       

processes of development1 whatever their
 special nature4 ,add to which1 that to 
present in anything like completeness   
and proportion1 even the outlines of so 
vast and complex a history1 demands     
years of study4 ,nevertheless1 we       
believe that the evidence which has been
 assigned suffices to substantiate the  
leading propositions with which we set  
out4 ,inquiry into the first stages of  
science confirms the conclusion which we
 drew from the analysis of science as   
now existing1 that it is not distinct   
from common knowledge1 but an outgrowth 
from it--an extension of the perception 
by means of the reason4  ,that which we 
further found by analysis to form the   
more specific characteristic of         
scientific previsions1 as contrasted    
with the previsions of uncultured       
intelligence--their quantitativeness--we
 also see to have been the              
characteristic alike in the initial     
steps in science1 and of all the steps  
succeeding them4 ,the facts and         

admissions cited in disproof of the     
assertion that the sciences follow one  
another1 both logically and             
historically1 in the order of their     
decreasing generality1 have been        
enforced by the sundry instances we have
 met with1 in which the more general or 
abstract sciences have been advanced    
only at the instigation of the more     
special or concrete--instances serving  
to show that a more general science as  
much owes its progress to the           
presentation of new problems by a more  
special science1 as the more special    
science owes its progress to the        
solutions which the more general science
 is thus led to attempt--instances      
therefore illustrating the position that
 scientific advance is as much from the 
special to the general as from the      
general to the special4  ,quite in      
harmony with this position we find to be
 the admissions that the sciences are as
 branches of one trunk1 and that they   
were at first cultivated simultaneously2

 and this harmony becomes the more      
marked on finding1 as we have done1 not 
only that the sciences have a common    
root1 but that science in general has a 
common root with language1              
classification1 reasoning1 art2 that    
throughout civilisation these have      
advanced together1 acting and reacting  
upon each other just as the separate    
sciences have done2 and that thus the   
development of intelligence in all its  
divisions and subdivisions has conformed
 to this same law which we have shown   
that the sciences conform to4 ,from all 
which we may perceive that the sciences 
can with no greater propriety be        
arranged in a succession1 than language1
 classification1 reasoning1 art1 and    
science1 can be arranged in a           
succession2 that1 however needful a     
succession may be for the convenience of
 books and catalogues1 it must be       
recognised merely as a convention2 and  
that so far from its being the function 
of a philosophy of the sciences to      

establish a hierarchy1 it is its        
function to show that the linear        
arrangements required for literary      
purposes1 have none of them any basis   
either in ,nature or ,history4  ,there  
is one further remark we must not       
omit--a remark touching the importance  
of the question that has been discussed4
 ,unfortunately it commonly happens that
 topics of this abstract nature are     
slighted as of no practical moment2 and1
 we doubt not1 that many will think it  
of very little consequence what theory  
respecting the genesis of science may be
 entertained4 ,but the value of truths  
is often great1 in proportion as their  
generality is wide4 ,remote as they seem
 from practical application1 the highest
 generalisations are not unfrequently   
the most potent in their effects1 in    
virtue of their influence on all those  
subordinate generalisations which       
regulate practice4 ,and it must be so   
here4 ,whenever established1 a correct  
theory of the historical development of 

the sciences must have an immense effect
 upon education2 and1 through education1
 upon civilisation4 ,greatly as we      
differ from him in other respects1 we   
agree with ,m4 ,comte in the belief     
that1 rightly conducted1 the education  
of the individual must have a certain   
correspondence with the evolution of the
 race4  ,no one can contemplate the     
facts we have cited in illustration of  
the early stages of science1 without    
recognising the necessity of the        
processes through which those stages    
were reached--a necessity which1 in     
respect to the leading truths1 may      
likewise be traced in all after stages4 
,this necessity1 originating in the very
 nature of the phenomena to be analysed 
and the faculties to be employed1 more  
or less fully applies to the mind of the
 child as to that of the savage4 ,we say
 more or less fully1 because the        
correspondence is not special but       
general only4 ,were the environment the 
same in both cases1 the correspondence  

would be complete4 ,but though the      
surrounding material out of which       
science is to be organised1 is1 in many 
cases1 the same to the juvenile mind and
 the aboriginal mind1 it is not so      
throughout2 as1 for instance1 in the    
case of chemistry1 the phenomena of     
which are accessible to the one1 but    
were inaccessible to the other4 ,hence1 
in proportion as the environment        
differs1 the course of evolution must   
differ4 ,after admitting sundry         
exceptions1 however1 there remains a    
substantial parallelism2 and1 if so1 it 
becomes of great moment to ascertain    
what really has been the process of     
scientific evolution4 ,the establishment
 of an erroneous theory must be         
disastrous in its educational results2  
while the establishments of a true one  
must eventually be fertile in           
school-reforms and consequent social    
benefits4  #a ,british ,quarterly       
,review1 ,july #ahed4  #b ,it is        
somewhat curious that the author of ,the

 ,plurality of ,worlds1 with quite other
 aims1 should have persuaded himself    
into similar conclusions4     ,,on ,,the
 ,,physiology ,,of ,,laughter#a   ,why  
do we smile when a child puts on a man's
 hat8 or what induces us to laugh on    
reading that the corpulent ,gibbon was  
unable to rise from his knees after     
making a tender declaration8 ,the usual 
reply to such questions is1 that        
laughter results from a perception of   
incongruity4 ,even were there not on    
this reply the obvious criticism that   
laughter often occurs from extreme      
pleasure or from mere vivacity1 there   
would still remain the real             
problem--,how comes a sense of the      
incongruous to be followed by these     
peculiar bodily actions8 ,some have     
alleged that laughter is due to the     
pleasure of a relative self-elevation1  
which we feel on seeing the humiliation 
of others4 ,but this theory1 whatever   
portion of truth it may contain1 is1 in 
the first place1 open to the fatal      

objection1 that there are various       
humiliations to others which produce in 
us anything but laughter2 and1 in the   
second place1 it does not apply to the  
many instances in which no one's dignity
 is implicated3 as when we laugh at a   
good pun4 ,moreover1 like the other1 it 
is merely a generalisation of certain   
conditions to laughter2 and not an      
explanation of the odd movements which  
occur under these conditions4 ,why1 when
 greatly delighted1 or impressed with   
certain unexpected contrasts of ideas1  
should there be a contraction of        
particular facial muscles1 and          
particular muscles of the chest and     
abdomen8 ,such answer to this question  
as may be possible can be rendered only 
by physiology4         99       99      
99       99       99  ,every child has  
made the attempt to hold the foot still 
while it is tickled1 and has failed2 and
 probably there is scarcely any one who 
has not vainly tried to avoid winking1  
when a hand has been suddenly passed    

before the eyes4 ,these examples of     
muscular movements which occur          
independently of the will1 or in spite  
of it1 illustrate what physiologists    
call reflex-action2 as likewise do      
sneezing and coughing4 ,to this class of
 cases1 in which involuntary motions are
 accompanied by sensations1 has to be   
added another class of cases1 in which  
involuntary motions are unaccompanied by
 sensations3--instance the pulsations of
 the heart2 the contractions of the     
stomach during digestion4 ,further1 the 
great mass of seemingly-voluntary acts  
in such creatures as insects1 worms1    
molluscs1 are considered by             
physiologists to be as purely automatic 
as is the dilatation or closure of the  
iris under variations in quantity of    
light2 and similarly exemplify the law1 
that an impression on the end of an     
afferent nerve is conveyed to some      
ganglionic centre1 and is thence usually
 reflected along an efferent nerve to   
one or more muscles which it causes to  

contract4  ,in a modified form this     
principle holds with voluntary acts4    
,nervous excitation always tends to     
beget muscular motion2 and when it rises
 to a certain intensity1 always does    
beget it4 ,not only in reflex actions1  
whether with or without sensation1 do we
 see that special nerves1 when raised to
 a state of tension1 discharge          
themselves on special muscles with which
 they are indirectly connected2 but     
those external actions through which we 
read the feelings of others1 show us    
that under any considerable tension1 the
 nervous system in general discharges   
itself on the muscular system in        
general3 either with or without the     
guidance of the will4 ,the shivering    
produced by cold1 implies irregular     
muscular contractions1 which1 though at 
first only partly involuntary1 become1  
when the cold is extreme1 almost wholly 
involuntary4 ,when you have severely    
burnt your finger1 it is very difficult 
to preserve a dignified composure3      

contortion of face1 or movement of limb1
 is pretty sure to follow4 ,if a man    
receives good news with neither change  
of feature nor bodily motion1 it is     
inferred that he is not much pleased1 or
 that he has extraordinary              
self-control--either inference implying 
that joy almost universally produces    
contraction of the muscles2 and so1     
alters the expression1 or attitude1 or  
both4 ,and when we hear of the feats of 
strength which men have performed when  
their lives were at stake--when we read 
how1 in the energy of despair1 even     
paralytic patients have regained for a  
time the use of their limbs1 we see     
still more clearly the relations between
 nervous and muscular excitements4 ,it  
becomes manifest both that emotions and 
sensations tend to generate bodily      
movements and that the movements are    
vehement in proportion as the emotions  
or sensations are intense4#b  ,this1    
however1 is not the sole direction in   
which nervous excitement expends itself4

 ,viscera as well as muscles may receive
 the discharge4 ,that the heart and     
blood-vessels 7which1 indeed1 being all 
contractile1 may in a restricted sense  
be classed with the muscular system7 are
 quickly affected by pleasures and      
pains1 we have daily proved to us4      
,every sensation of any acuteness       
accelerates the pulse2 and how sensitive
 the heart is to emotions1 is testified 
by the familiar expressions which use   
heart and feeling as convertible terms4 
,similarly with the digestive organs4   
,without detailing the various ways in  
which these may be influenced by our    
mental states1 it suffices to mention   
the marked benefits derived by          
dyspeptics1 as well as other invalids1  
from cheerful society1 welcome news1    
change of scene1 to show how pleasurable
 feeling stimulates the viscera in      
general into greater activity4  ,there  
is still another direction in which any 
excited portion of the nervous system   
may discharge itself2 and a direction in

 which it usually does discharge itself 
when the excitement is not strong4 ,it  
may pass on the stimulus to some other  
portion of the nervous system4 ,this is 
what occurs in quiet thinking and       
feeling4 ,the successive states which   
constitute consciousness1 result from   
this4 ,sensations excite ideas and      
emotions2 these in their turns arouse   
other ideas and emotions2 and so1       
continuously4 ,that is to say1 the      
tension existing in particular nerves1  
or groups of nerves1 when they yield us 
certain sensations1 ideas1 or emotions1 
generates an equivalent tension in some 
other nerves1 or groups of nerves1 with 
which there is a connection3 the flow of
 energy passing on1 the one idea or     
feeling dies in producing the next4     
,thus1 then1 while we are totally unable
 to comprehend how the excitement of    
certain nerves should generate          
feeling--while1 in the production of    
consciousness by physical agents acting 
on physical structure1 we come to an    

absolute mystery never to be solved2 it 
is yet quite possible for us to know by 
observation what are the successive     
forms which this absolute mystery may   
take4 ,we see that there are three      
channels along which nerves in a state  
of tension may discharge themselves2 or 
rather1 ,i should say1 three classes of 
channels4 ,they may pass on the         
excitement to other nerves that have no 
direct connections with the bodily      
members1 and may so cause other feelings
 and ideas2 or they may pass on the     
excitement to one or more motor nerves1 
and so cause muscular contractions2 or  
they may pass on the excitement to      
nerves which supply the viscera1 and may
 so stimulate one or more of these4     
,for simplicity's sake1 ,i have         
described these as alternative routes1  
one or other of which any current of    
nerve-force must take2 thereby1 as it   
may be thought1 implying that such      
current will be exclusively confined to 
some one of them4 ,but this is by no    

means the case4 ,rarely1 if ever1 does  
it happen that a state of nervous       
tension1 present to consciousness as a  
feeling1 expends itself in one direction
 only4 ,very generally it may be        
observed to expend itself in two2 and it
 is probable that the discharge is never
 absolutely absent from any one of the  
three4 ,there is1 however1 variety in   
the proportions in which the discharge  
is divided among these different        
channels under different circumstances4 
,in a man whose fear impels him to run1 
the mental tension generated is only in 
part transformed into a muscular        
stimulus3 there is a surplus which      
causes a rapid current of ideas4 ,an    
agreeable state of feeling produced1 say
 by praise1 is not wholly used up in    
arousing the succeeding phase of the    
feeling1 and the new ideas appropriate  
to it2 but a certain portion overflows  
into the visceral nervous system1       
increasing the action of the heart1 and 
probably facilitating digestion4 ,and   

here we come upon a class of            
considerations and facts which open the 
way to a solution of our special        
problem4  ,for starting with the        
unquestionable truth1 that at any moment
 the existing quantity of liberated     
nerve-force1 which in an inscrutable way
 produces in us the state we call       
feeling1 must expend itself in some     
direction--must generate an equivalent  
manifestation of force somewhere--it    
clearly follows that1 if of the several 
channels it may take1 one is wholly or  
partially closed1 more must be taken by 
the others2 or that if two are closed1  
the discharge along the remaining one   
must be more intense2 and that1         
conversely1 should anything determine an
 unusual efflux in one direction1 there 
will be a diminished efflux in other    
directions4  ,daily experience          
illustrates these conclusions4 ,it is   
commonly remarked1 that the suppression 
of external signs of feeling1 makes     
feeling more intense4 ,the deepest grief

 is silent grief4 ,why8 ,because the    
nervous excitement not discharged in    
muscular action1 discharges itself in   
other nervous excitements--arouses more 
numerous and more remote associations of
 melancholy ideas1 and so increases the 
mass of feelings4 ,people who conceal   
their anger are habitually found to be  
more revengeful than those who explode  
in loud speech and vehement action4     
,why8 ,because1 as before1 the emotion  
is reflected back1 accumulates1 and     
intensifies4 ,similarly1 men who1 as    
proved by their powers of               
representation1 have the keenest        
appreciation of the comic1 are usually  
able to do and say the most ludicrous   
things with perfect gravity4  ,on the   
other hand1 all are familiar with the   
truth that bodily activity deadens      
emotion4 ,under great irritation we get 
relief by walking about rapidly4        
,extreme effort in the bootless attempt 
to achieve a desired end greatly        
diminishes the intensity of the desire4 

,those who are forced to exert          
themselves after misfortunes1 do not    
suffer nearly so much as those who      
remain quiescent4 ,if any one wishes to 
check intellectual excitement1 he cannot
 choose a more efficient method than    
running till he is exhausted4 ,moreover1
 these cases1 in which the production of
 feeling and thought is hindered by     
determining the nervous energy towards  
bodily movements1 have their            
counterparts in the cases in which      
bodily movements are hindered by extra  
absorption of nervous energy in sudden  
thoughts and feelings4 ,if1 when walking
 along1 there flashes on you an idea    
that creates great surprise1 hope1 or   
alarm1 you stop2 or if sitting          
cross-legged1 swinging your pendent     
foot1 the movement is at once arrested4 
,from the viscera1 too1 intense mental  
action abstracts energy4 ,joy1          
disappointment1 anxiety1 or any moral   
perturbation rising to a great height1  
will destroy appetite2 or if food has   

been taken1 will arrest digestion2 and  
even a purely intellectual activity1    
when extreme1 will do the like4  ,facts1
 then1 fully bear out these a priori    
inferences1 that the nervous excitement 
at any moment present to consciousness  
as feeling1 must expend itself in some  
way or other2 that of the three classes 
of channels open to it1 it must take    
one1 two1 or more1 according to         
circumstances2 that the closure or      
obstruction of one1 must increase the   
discharge through the others2 and       
conversely1 that if to answer some      
demand1 the efflux of nervous energy in 
one direction is unusually great1 there 
must be a corresponding decrease of the 
efflux in other directions4 ,setting out
 from these premises1 let us now see    
what interpretation is to be put on the 
phenomena of laughter4         99       
99       99       99       99  ,that    
laughter is a display of muscular       
excitement1 and so illustrates the      
general law that feeling passing a      

certain pitch habitually vents itself in
 bodily action1 scarcely needs pointing 
out4 ,it perhaps needs pointing out1    
however1 that strong feeling of almost  
any kind produces this result4 ,it is   
not a sense of the ludicrous1 only1     
which does it2 nor are the various forms
 of joyous emotion the sole additional  
causes4 ,we have1 besides1 the sardonic 
laughter and the hysterical laughter1   
which result from mental distress2 to   
which must be added certain sensations1 
as tickling1 and1 according to ,mr4     
,bain1 cold1 and some kinds of acute    
pain4  ,strong feeling1 mental or       
physical1 being1 then1 the general cause
 of laughter1 we have to note that the  
muscular actions constituting it are    
distinguished from most others by this1 
that they are purposeless4 ,in general1 
bodily motions that are prompted by     
feelings are directed to special ends2  
as when we try to escape a danger1 or   
struggle to secure a gratification4 ,but
 the movements of chest and limbs which 

we make when laughing have no object4   
,and now remark that these              
quasi-convulsive contractions of the    
muscles1 having no object1 but being    
results of an uncontrolled discharge of 
energy1 we may see whence arise their   
special characters--how it happens that 
certain classes of muscles are affected 
first1 and then certain other classes4  
,for an overflow of nerve-force1        
undirected by any motive1 will          
manifestly take first the most habitual 
routes2 and if these do not suffice1    
will next overflow into the less        
habitual ones4 ,well1 it is through the 
organs of speech that feeling passes    
into movement with the greatest         
frequency4 ,the jaws1 tongue1 and lips  
are used not only to express strong     
irritation or gratification2 but that   
very moderate flow of mental energy     
which accompanies ordinary conversation1
 finds its chief vent through this      
channel4 ,hence it happens that certain 
muscles round the mouth1 small and easy 

to move1 are the first to contract under
 pleasurable emotion4 ,the class of     
muscles which1 next after those of      
articulation1 are most constantly set in
 action 7or extra action1 we should say7
 by feelings of all kinds1 are those of 
respiration4 ,under pleasurable or      
painful sensations we breathe more      
rapidly3 possibly as a consequence of   
the increased demand for oxygenated     
blood4 ,the sensations that accompany   
exertion also bring on hard-breathing2  
which here more evidently responds to   
the physiological needs4 ,and emotions1 
too1 agreeable and disagreeable1 both1  
at first1 excite respiration2 though the
 last subsequently depress it4 ,that is 
to say1 of the bodily muscles1 the      
respiratory are more constantly         
implicated than any others in those     
various acts which our feelings impel us
 to2 and1 hence1 when there occurs an   
undirected discharge of nervous energy  
into the muscular system1 it happens    
that1 if the quantity be considerable1  

it convulses not only certain of the    
articulatory and vocal muscles1 but also
 those which expel air from the lungs4  
,should the feeling to be expended be   
still greater in amount--too great to   
find vent in these classes of           
muscles--another class comes into play4 
,the upper limbs are set in motion4     
,children frequently clap their hands in
 glee2 by some adults the hands are     
rubbed together2 and others1 under still
 greater intensity of delight1 slap     
their knees and sway their bodies       
backwards and forwards4 ,last of all1   
when the other channels for the escape  
of the surplus nerve-force have been    
filled to overflowing1 a yet further and
 less-used group of muscles is          
spasmodically affected3 the head is     
thrown back and the spine bent          
inwards--there is a slight degree of    
what medical men call opisthotonos4     
,thus1 then1 without contending that the
 phenomena of laughter in all their     
details are to be so accounted for1 we  

see that in their ensemble they conform 
to these general principles3--that      
feeling excites to muscular action2 that
 when the muscular action is unguided by
 a purpose1 the muscles first affected  
are those which feeling most habitually 
stimulates2 and that as the feeling to  
be expended increases in quantity1 it   
excites an increasing number of muscles1
 in a succession determined by the      
relative frequency with which they      
respond to the regulated dictates of    
feeling4  ,there still1 however1 remains
 the question with which we set out4    
,the explanation here given applies only
 to the laughter produced by acute      
pleasure or pain3 it does not apply to  
the laughter that follows certain       
perceptions of incongruity4 ,it is an   
insufficient explanation that1 in these 
cases1 laughter is a result of the      
pleasure we take in escaping from the   
restraint of grave feelings4 ,that this 
is a part-cause is true4 ,doubtless very
 often1 as ,mr4 ,bain says1 it is the   

coerced form of seriousness and         
solemnity without the reality that gives
 us that stiff position from which a    
contact with triviality or vulgarity    
relieves us1 to our uproarious delight4 
,and in so far as mirth is caused by the
 gush of agreeable feeling that follows 
the cessation of mental strain1 it      
further illustrates the general         
principle above set forth4 ,but no      
explanation is thus afforded of the     
mirth which ensues when the short       
silence between the andante and allegro 
in one of ,beethoven's symphonies1 is   
broken by a loud sneeze4 ,in this1 and  
hosts of like cases1 the mental tension 
is not coerced but spontaneous--not     
disagreeable but agreeable2 and the     
coming impressions to which the         
attention is directed1 promise a        
gratification that few1 if any1 desire  
to escape4 ,hence1 when the unlucky     
sneeze occurs1 it cannot be that the    
laughter of the audience is due simply  
to the release from an irksome attitude 

of mind3 some other cause must be       
sought4  ,this cause we shall arrive at 
by carrying our analysis a step further4
 ,we have but to consider the quantity  
of feeling that exists under such       
circumstances1 and then to ask what are 
the conditions that determine the       
direction of its discharge1 to at once  
reach a solution4 ,take a case4 ,you are
 sitting in a theatre1 absorbed in the  
progress of an interesting drama4 ,some 
climax has been reached which has       
aroused your sympathies--say1 a         
reconciliation between the hero and     
heroine1 after long and painful         
misunderstanding4 ,the feelings excited 
by this scene are not of a kind from    
which you seek relief2 but are1 on the  
contrary1 a grateful relief from the    
painful feelings with which you have    
witnessed the previous estrangement4    
,moreover1 the sentiments these         
fictitious personages have for the      
moment inspired you with1 are not such  
as would lead you to rejoice in any     

indignity offered to them2 but rather1  
such as would make you resent the       
indignity4 ,and now1 while you are      
contemplating the reconciliation with a 
pleasurable sympathy1 there appears from
 behind the scenes a tame kid1 which1   
having stared round at the audience1    
walks up to the lovers and sniffs at    
them4 ,you cannot help joining in the   
roar which greets this contretemps4     
,inexplicable as is this irresistible   
burst on the hypothesis of a pleasure in
 escaping from mental restraint2 or on  
the hypothesis of a pleasure from       
relative increase of self-importance1   
when witnessing the humiliation of      
others2 it is readily explicable if we  
consider what1 in such a case1 must     
become of the feeling that existed at   
the moment the incongruity arose4 ,a    
large mass of emotion had been produced2
 or1 to speak in physiological language1
 a large portion of the nervous system  
was in a state of tension4 ,there was   
also great expectation with respect to  

the further evolution of the scene--a   
quantity of vague1 nascent thought and  
emotion1 into which the existing        
quantity of thought and emotion was     
about to pass4  ,had there been no      
interruption1 the body of new ideas and 
feelings next excited would have        
sufficed to absorb the whole of the     
liberated nervous energy4 ,but now1 this
 large amount of nervous energy1 instead
 of being allowed to expend itself in   
producing an equivalent amount of the   
new thoughts and emotions which were    
nascent1 is suddenly checked in its     
flow4 ,the channels along which the     
discharge was about to take place are   
closed4 ,the new channel opened--that   
afforded by the appearance and          
proceedings of the kid--is a small one2 
the ideas and feelings suggested are not
 numerous and massive enough to carry   
off the nervous energy to be expended4  
,the excess must therefore discharge    
itself in some other direction2 and in  
the way already explained1 there results

 an efflux through the motor nerves to  
various classes of the muscles1         
producing the half-convulsive actions we
 term laughter4  ,this explanation is in
 harmony with the fact1 that when1 among
 several persons who witness the same   
ludicrous occurrence1 there are some who
 do not laugh2 it is because there has  
arisen in them an emotion not           
participated in by the rest1 and which  
is sufficiently massive to absorb all   
the nascent excitement4 ,among the      
spectators of an awkward tumble1 those  
who preserve their gravity are those in 
whom there is excited a degree of       
sympathy with the sufferer1 sufficiently
 great to serve as an outlet for the    
feeling which the occurrence had turned 
out of its previous course4 ,sometimes  
anger carries off the arrested current2 
and so prevents laughter4 ,an instance  
of this was lately furnished me by a    
friend who had been witnessing the feats
 at ,franconi's4 ,a tremendous leap had 
just been made by an acrobat over a     

number of horses4 ,the clown1 seemingly 
envious of this success1 made           
ostentatious preparations for doing the 
like2 and then1 taking the preliminary  
run with immense energy1 stopped short  
on reaching the first horse1 and        
pretended to wipe some dust from its    
haunches4 ,in the majority of the       
spectators1 merriment was excited2 but  
in my friend1 wound up by the           
expectation of the coming leap to a     
state of great nervous tension1 the     
effect of the baulk was to produce      
indignation4 ,experience thus proves    
what the theory implies3 namely1 that   
the discharge of arrested feelings into 
the muscular system1 takes place only in
 the absence of other adequate          
channels--does not take place if there  
arise other feelings equal in amount to 
those arrested4  ,evidence still more   
conclusive is at hand4 ,if we contrast  
the incongruities which produce laughter
 with those which do not1 we at once see
 that in the non-ludicrous ones the     

unexpected state of feeling aroused1    
though wholly different in kind1 is not 
less in quantity or intensity4 ,among   
incongruities that may excite anything  
but a laugh1 ,mr4 ,bain instances--,a   
decrepit man under a heavy burden1 five 
loaves and two fishes among a multitude1
 and all unfitness and gross            
disproportion2 an instrument out of     
tune1 a fly in ointment1 snow in ,may1  
,archimedes studying geometry in a      
siege1 and all discordant things2 a wolf
 in sheep's clothing1 a breach of       
bargain1 and falsehood in general2 the  
multitude taking the law in their own   
hands1 and everything of the nature of  
disorder2 a corpse at a feast1 parental 
cruelty1 filial ingratitude1 and        
whatever is unnatural2 the entire       
catalogue of the vanities given by      
,solomon1 are all incongruous1 but they 
cause feelings of pain1 anger1 sadness1 
loathing1 rather than mirth4 ,now in    
these cases1 where the totally unlike   
state of consciousness suddenly produced

 is not inferior in mass to the         
preceding one1 the conditions to        
laughter are not fulfilled4 ,as above   
shown1 laughter naturally results only  
when consciousness is unawares          
transferred from great things to        
small--only when there is what we call a
 descending incongruity4  ,and now      
observe1 finally1 the fact1 alike       
inferable a priori and illustrated in   
experience1 that an ascending           
incongruity not only fails to cause     
laughter1 but works on the muscular     
system an effect of exactly the reverse 
kind4 ,when after something very        
insignificant there arises without      
anticipation something very great1 the  
emotion we call wonder results2 and this
 emotion is accompanied not by an       
excitement of the muscles1 but by a     
relaxation of them4 ,in children and    
country people1 that falling of the jaw 
which occurs on witnessing something    
that is imposing and unexpected         
exemplifies this effect4 ,persons who   

have been wonder-struck at the          
production of very striking results by a
 seemingly inadequate cause1 are        
frequently described as unconsciously   
dropping the things they held in their  
hands4 ,such are just the effects to be 
anticipated4 ,after an average state of 
consciousness1 absorbing but a small    
quantity of nervous energy1 is aroused  
without the slightest notice1 a strong  
emotion of awe1 terror1 or admiration1  
joined with the astonishment due to an  
apparent want of adequate causation4    
,this new state of consciousness demands
 far more nervous energy than that which
 it has suddenly replaced2 and this     
increased absorption of nervous energy  
in mental changes involves a temporary  
diminution of the outflow in other      
directions3 whence the pendent jaw and  
the relaxing grasp4  ,one further       
observation is worth making4 ,among the 
several sets of channels into which     
surplus feeling might be discharged1 was
 named the nervous system of the        

viscera4 ,the sudden overflow of an     
arrested mental excitement1 which1 as we
 have seen1 results from a descending   
incongruity1 must doubtless stimulate   
not only the muscular system1 as we see 
it does1 but also the internal organs2  
the heart and stomach must come in for a
 share of the discharge4 ,and thus there
 seems to be a good physiological basis 
for the popular notion that             
mirth-creating excitement facilitates   
digestion4         99       99       99 
99       99  ,though in doing so ,i go  
beyond the boundaries of the immediate  
topic1 ,i may fitly point out that the  
method of inquiry here followed1 is one 
which enables us to understand various  
phenomena besides those of laughter4 ,to
 show the importance of pursuing it1 ,i 
will indicate the explanation it        
furnishes of another familiar class of  
facts4  ,all know how generally a large 
amount of emotion disturbs the action of
 the intellect1 and interferes with the 
power of expression4 ,a speech delivered

 with great facility to tables and      
chairs1 is by no means so easily        
delivered to an audience4 ,every        
schoolboy can testify that his          
trepidation1 when standing before a     
master1 has often disabled him from     
repeating a lesson which he had duly    
learnt4 ,in explanation of this we      
commonly say that the attention is      
distracted--that the proper train of    
ideas is broken by the intrusion of     
ideas that are irrelevant4 ,but the     
question is1 in what manner does unusual
 emotion produce this effect2 and we are
 here supplied with a tolerably obvious 
answer4 ,the repetition of a lesson1 or 
set speech previously thought out1      
implies the flow of a very moderate     
amount of nervous excitement through a  
comparatively narrow channel4 ,the thing
 to be done is simply to call up in     
succession certain previously-arranged  
ideas--a process in which no great      
amount of mental energy is expended4    
,hence1 when there is a large quantity  

of emotion1 which must be discharged in 
some direction or other2 and when1 as   
usually happens1 the restricted series  
of intellectual actions to be gone      
through1 does not suffice to carry it   
off2 there result discharges along other
 channels besides the one prescribed3   
there are aroused various ideas foreign 
to the train of thought to be pursued2  
and these tend to exclude from          
consciousness those which should occupy 
it4  ,and now observe the meaning of    
those bodily actions spontaneously set  
up under these circumstances4 ,the      
school-boy saying his lesson commonly   
has his fingers actively                
engaged--perhaps in twisting about a    
broken pen1 or perhaps squeezing the    
angle of his jacket2 and if told to keep
 his hands still1 he soon again falls   
into the same or a similar trick4 ,many 
anecdotes are current of public speakers
 having incurable automatic actions of  
this class3 barristers who perpetually  
wound and unwound pieces of tape2       

members of parliament ever putting on   
and taking off their spectacles4 ,so    
long as such movements are unconscious1 
they facilitate the mental actions4 ,at 
least this seems a fair inference from  
the fact that confusion frequently      
results from putting a stop to them3    
witness the case narrated by ,sir       
,walter ,scott of his school-fellow1 who
 became unable to say his lesson after  
the removal of the waistcoat-button that
 he habitually fingered while in class4 
,but why do they facilitate the mental  
actions8 ,clearly because they draw off 
a portion of the surplus nervous        
excitement4 ,if1 as above explained1 the
 quantity of mental energy generated is 
greater than can find vent along the    
narrow channel of thought that is open  
to it2 and if1 in consequence1 it is apt
 to produce confusion by rushing into   
other channels of thought2 then by      
allowing it an exit through the motor   
nerves into the muscular system1 the    
pressure is diminished1 and irrelevant  

ideas are less likely to intrude on     
consciousness4  ,this further           
illustration will1 ,i think1 justify the
 position that something may be achieved
 by pursuing in other cases this method 
of psychological inquiry4 ,a complete   
explanation of the phenomena1 requires  
us to trace out all the consequences of 
any given state of consciousness2 and we
 cannot do this without studying the    
effects1 bodily and mental1 as varying  
in quantity at each other's expense4 ,we
 should probably learn much if we in    
every case asked--,where is all the     
nervous energy gone8  #a ,macmillan's   
,magazine1 ,march #ahfj4  #b ,for       
numerous illustrations see essay on ,the
 ,origin and ,function of ,music4       
,,on ,,the ,,origin ,,and ,,function    
,,of ,,music#a   ,when ,carlo1 standing1
 chained to his kennel1 sees his master 
in the distance1 a slight motion of the 
tail indicates his but faint hope that  
he is about to be let out4 ,a much more 
decided wagging of the tail1 passing by 

and by into lateral undulations of the  
body1 follows his master's nearer       
approach4 ,when hands are laid on his   
collar1 and he knows that he is really  
to have an outing1 his jumping and      
wriggling are such that it is by no     
means easy to loose his fastenings4 ,and
 when he finds himself actually free1   
his joy expends itself in bounds1 in    
pirouettes1 and in scourings hither and 
thither at the top of his speed4 ,puss1 
too1 by erecting her tail1 and by every 
time raising her back to meet the       
caressing hand of her mistress1         
similarly expresses her gratification by
 certain muscular actions2 as likewise  
do the parrot by awkward dancing on his 
perch1 and the canary by hopping and    
fluttering about his cage with unwonted 
rapidity4 ,under emotions of an opposite
 kind1 animals equally display muscular 
excitement4 ,the enraged lion lashes his
 sides with his tail1 knits his brows1  
protrudes his claws4 ,the cat sets up   
her back2 the dog retracts his upper    

lip2 the horse throws back his ears4    
,and in the struggles of creatures in   
pain1 we see that the like relation     
holds between excitement of the muscles 
and excitement of the nerves of         
sensation4  ,in ourselves1 distinguished
 from lower creatures as we are by      
feelings alike more powerful and more   
varied1 parallel facts are at once more 
conspicuous and more numerous4 ,we may  
conveniently look at them in groups4 ,we
 shall find that pleasurable sensations 
and painful sensations1 pleasurable     
emotions and painful emotions1 all tend 
to produce active demonstrations in     
proportion to their intensity4  ,in     
children1 and even in adults who are not
 restrained by regard for appearances1 a
 highly agreeable taste is followed by a
 smacking of the lips4 ,an infant will  
laugh and bound in its nurse's arms at  
the sight of a brilliant colour or the  
hearing of a new sound4 ,people are apt 
to beat time with head or feet to music 
which particularly pleases them4 ,in a  

sensitive person an agreeable perfume   
will produce a smile2 and smiles will be
 seen on the faces of a crowd gazing at 
some splendid burst of fireworks ,even  
the pleasant sensation of warmth felt on
 getting to the fireside out of a       
winter's storm1 will similarly express  
itself in the face4  ,painful           
sensations1 being mostly far more       
intense than pleasurable ones1 cause    
muscular actions of a much more decided 
kind4 ,a sudden twinge produces a       
convulsive start of the whole body4 ,a  
pain less violent1 but continuous1 is   
accompanied by a knitting of the brows1 
a setting of the teeth or biting of the 
lip1 and a contraction of the features  
generally4 ,under a persistent pain of a
 severer kind1 other muscular actions   
are added3 the body is swayed to and    
fro2 the hands clench anything they can 
lay hold of2 and should the agony rise  
still higher1 the sufferer rolls about  
on the floor almost convulsed4  ,though 
more varied1 the natural language of the

 pleasurable emotions comes within the  
same generalisation4 ,a smile1 which is 
the commonest expression of gratified   
feeling1 is a contraction of certain    
facial muscles2 and when the smile      
broadens into a laugh1 we see a more    
violent and more general muscular       
excitement produced by an intenser      
gratification4 ,rubbing together of the 
hands1 and that other motion which      
,dickens somewhere describes as washing 
with impalpable soap in invisible water1
 have like implications4 ,children may  
often be seen to jump for joy4 ,even in 
adults of excitable temperament1 an     
action approaching to it is sometimes   
witnessed4 ,and dancing has all the     
world through been regarded as natural  
to an elevated state of mind4 ,many of  
the special emotions show themselves in 
special muscular actions4 ,the          
gratification resulting from success1   
raises the head and gives firmness to   
the gait4 ,a hearty grasp of the hand is
 currently taken as indicative of       

friendship4 ,under a gush of affection  
the mother clasps her child to her      
breast1 feeling as though she could     
squeeze it to death4 ,and so in sundry  
other cases4 ,even in that brightening  
of the eye with which good news is      
received we may trace the same truth2   
for this appearance of greater          
brilliancy is due to an extra           
contraction of the muscle which raises  
the eyelid1 and so allows more light to 
fall upon1 and be reflected from1 the   
wet surface of the eyeball4  ,the bodily
 indications of painful emotions are    
equally numerous1 and still more        
vehement4 ,discontent is shown by raised
 eyebrows and wrinkled forehead2 disgust
 by a curl of the lip2 offence by a     
pout4 ,the impatient man beats a tattoo 
with his fingers on the table1 swings   
his pendent leg with increasing         
rapidity1 gives needless pokings to the 
fire1 and presently paces with hasty    
strides about the room4 ,in great grief 
there is wringing of the hands1 and even

 tearing of the hair4 ,an angry child   
stamps1 or rolls on its back and kicks  
its heels in the air2 and in manhood1   
anger1 first showing itself in frowns1  
in distended nostrils1 in compressed    
lips1 goes on to produce grinding of the
 teeth1 clenching of the fingers1 blows 
of the fist on the table1 and perhaps   
ends in a violent attack on the         
offending person1 or in throwing about  
and breaking the furniture4 ,from that  
pursing of the mouth indicative of      
slight displeasure1 up to the frantic   
struggles of the maniac1 we shall find  
that mental irritation tends to vent    
itself in bodily activity4  ,all        
feelings1 then--sensations or emotions1 
pleasurable or painful--have this common
 characteristic1 that they are muscular 
stimuli4 ,not forgetting the few        
apparently exceptional cases in which   
emotions exceeding a certain intensity  
produce prostration1 we may set it down 
as a general law that1 alike in man and 
animals1 there is a direct connection   

between feeling and motion2 the last    
growing more vehement as the first grows
 more intense4 ,were it allowable here  
to treat the matter scientifically1 we  
might trace this general law down to the
 principle known among physiologists as 
that of reflex action4#b ,without doing 
this1 however1 the above numerous       
instances justify the generalisation1   
that mental excitement of all kinds ends
 in excitement of the muscles2 and that 
the two preserve a more or less constant
 ratio to each other4         99        
99       99       99       99  ,but what
 has all this to do with ,the ,origin   
and ,function of ,music8 asks the       
reader4 ,very much1 as we shall         
presently see4 ,all music is originally 
vocal4 ,all vocal sounds are produced by
 the agency of certain muscles4 ,these  
muscles1 in common with those of the    
body at large1 are excited to           
contraction by pleasurable and painful  
feelings4 ,and therefore it is that     
feelings demonstrate themselves in      

sounds as well as in movements4         
,therefore it is that ,carlo barks as   
well as leaps when he is let out--that  
puss purrs as well as erects her        
tail--that the canary chirps as well as 
flutters4 ,therefore it is that the     
angry lion roars while he lashes his    
sides1 and the dog growls while he      
retracts his lip4 ,therefore it is that 
the maimed animal not only struggles1   
but howls4 ,and it is from this cause   
that in human beings bodily suffering   
expresses itself not only in            
contortions1 but in shrieks and         
groans--that in anger1 and fear1 and    
grief1 the gesticulations are           
accompanied by shouts and screams--that 
delightful sensations are followed by   
exclamations--and that we hear screams  
of joy and shouts of exultation4  ,we   
have here1 then1 a principle underlying 
all vocal phenomena2 including those of 
vocal music1 and by consequence those of
 music in general4 ,the muscles that    
move the chest1 larynx1 and vocal       

chords1 contracting like other muscles  
in proportion to the intensity of the   
feelings2 every different contraction of
 these muscles involving1 as it does1 a 
different adjustment of the vocal       
organs2 every different adjustment of   
the vocal organs causing a change in the
 sound emitted2--it follows that        
variations of voice are the             
physiological results of variations of  
feeling2 it follows that each inflection
 or modulation is the natural outcome of
 some passing emotion or sensation2 and 
it follows that the explanation of all  
kinds of vocal expression must be sought
 in this general relation between mental
 and muscular excitements4 ,let us1     
then1 see whether we cannot thus account
 for the chief peculiarities in the     
utterance of the feelings3 grouping     
these peculiarities under the heads of  
loudness1 quality1 or timbre1 pitch1    
intervals1 and rate of variation4       
99       99       99       99       99  
,between the lungs and the organs of    

voice there is much the same relation as
 between the bellows of an organ and its
 pipes4 ,and as the loudness of the     
sound given out by an organ-pipe        
increases with the strength of the blast
 from the bellows2 so1 other things     
equal1 the loudness of a vocal sound    
increases with the strength of the blast
 from the lungs4 ,but the expulsion of  
air from the lungs is effected by       
certain muscles of the chest and        
abdomen4 ,the force with which these    
muscles contract1 is proportionate to   
the intensity of the feeling            
experienced4 ,hence1 a priori1 loud     
sounds will be the habitual results of  
strong feelings4 ,that they are so we   
have daily proof4 ,the pain which1 if   
moderate1 can be borne silently1 causes 
outcries if it becomes extreme4 ,while a
 slight vexation makes a child whimper1 
a fit of passion calls forth a howl that
 disturbs the neighbourhood4 ,when the  
voices in an adjacent room become       
unusually audible1 we infer anger1 or   

surprise1 or joy4 ,loudness of applause 
is significant of great approbation2 and
 with uproarious mirth we associate the 
idea of high enjoyment4 ,commencing with
 the silence of apathy1 we find that the
 utterances grow louder as the          
sensations or emotions1 whether         
pleasurable or painful1 grow stronger4  
,that different qualities of voice      
accompany different mental states1 and  
that under states of excitement the     
tones are more sonorous than usual1 is  
another general fact admitting of a     
parallel explanation4 ,the sounds of    
common conversation have but little     
resonance2 those of strong feeling have 
much more4 ,under rising ill temper the 
voice acquires a metallic ring4 ,in     
accordance with her constant mood1 the  
ordinary speech of a virago has a       
piercing quality quite opposite to that 
softness indicative of placidity4 ,a    
ringing laugh marks an especially joyous
 temperament4 ,grief unburdening itself 
uses tones approaching in timbre to     

those of chanting3 and in his most      
pathetic passages an eloquent speaker   
similarly falls into tones more         
vibratory than those common to him4 ,now
 any one may readily convince himself   
that resonant vocal sounds can be       
produced only by a certain muscular     
effort additional to that ordinarily    
needed4 ,if after uttering a word in his
 speaking voice1 the reader1 without    
changing the pitch or the loudness1 will
 sing this word1 he will perceive that  
before he can sing it1 he has to alter  
the adjustment of the vocal organs2 to  
do which a certain force must be used2  
and by putting his fingers on that      
external prominence marking the top of  
the larynx1 he will have further        
evidence that to produce a sonorous tone
 the organs must be drawn out of their  
usual position4 ,thus1 then1 the fact   
that the tones of excited feeling are   
more vibratory than those of common     
conversation is another instance of the 
connection between mental excitement and

 muscular excitement4 ,the speaking     
voice1 the recitative voice1 and the    
singing voice1 severally exemplify one  
general principle4  ,that the pitch of  
the voice varies according to the action
 of the vocal muscles scarcely needs    
saying4 ,all know that the middle notes1
 in which they converse1 are made       
without any appreciable effort2 and all 
know that to make either very high or   
very low notes requires a considerable  
effort4 ,in either ascending or         
descending from the pitch of ordinary   
speech1 we are conscious of an          
increasing muscular strain1 which1 at   
both extremes of the register1 becomes  
positively painful4 ,hence it follows   
from our general principle1 that while  
indifference or calmness will use the   
medium tones1 the tones used during     
excitement will be either above or below
 them2 and will rise higher and higher1 
or fall lower and lower1 as the feelings
 grow stronger4 ,this physiological     
deduction we also find to be in harmony 

with familiar facts4 ,the habitual      
sufferer utters his complaints in a     
voice raised considerably above the     
natural key2 and agonising pain vents   
itself in either shrieks or groans--in  
very high or very low notes4 ,beginning 
at his talking pitch1 the cry of the    
disappointed urchin grows more shrill as
 it grows louder4 ,the ,oh6 of          
astonishment or delight1 begins several 
notes below the middle voice1 and       
descends still lower4 ,anger expresses  
itself in high tones1 or else in curses 
not loud but deep4 ,deep tones1 too1 are
 always used in uttering strong         
reproaches4 ,such an exclamation as     
,beware6 if made dramatically--that is1 
if made with a show of feeling--must be 
many notes lower than ordinary4         
,further1 we have groans of             
disapprobation1 groans of horror1 groans
 of remorse4 ,and extreme joy and fear  
are alike accompanied by shrill         
outcries4  ,nearly allied to the subject
 of pitch1 is that of intervals2 and the

 explanation of them carries our        
argument a step further4 ,while calm    
speech is comparatively monotonous1     
emotion makes use of fifths1 octaves1   
and even wider intervals4 ,listen to any
 one narrating or repeating something in
 which he has no interest1 and his voice
 will not wander more than two or three 
notes above or below his medium note1   
and that by small steps2 but when he    
comes to some exciting event he will be 
heard not only to use the higher and    
lower notes of his register1 but to go  
from one to the other by larger leaps4  
,being unable in print to imitate these 
traits of feeling1 we feel some         
difficulty in fully realising them to   
the reader4 ,but we may suggest a few   
remembrances which will perhaps call to 
mind a sufficiency of others4 ,if two   
men living in the same place1 and       
frequently seeing one another1 meet1 say
 at a public assembly1 any phrase with  
which one may be heard to accost the    
other--as ,hallo1 are you here8--will   

have an ordinary intonation4 ,but if one
 of them1 after long absence1 has       
unexpectedly returned1 the expression of
 surprise with which his friend may     
greet him--,hallo6 how came you         
here8--will be uttered in much more     
strongly contrasted tones4 ,the two     
syllables of the word ,hallo will be1   
the one much higher and the other much  
lower than before2 and the rest of the  
sentence will similarly ascend and      
descend by longer steps4  ,again1 if1   
supposing her to be in an adjoining     
room1 the mistress of the house calls   
,mary1 the two syllables of the name    
will be spoken in an ascending interval 
of a third4 ,if ,mary does not reply1   
the call will be repeated probably in a 
descending fifth2 implying the slightest
 shade of annoyance at ,mary's          
inattention4 ,should ,mary still make no
 answer1 the increasing annoyance will  
show itself by the use of a descending  
octave on the next repetition of the    
call4 ,and supposing the silence to     

continue1 the lady1 if not of a very    
even temper1 will show her irritation at
 ,mary's seemingly intentional          
negligence by finally calling her in    
tones still more widely contrasted--the 
first syllable being higher and the last
 lower than before4  ,now1 these and    
analogous facts1 which the reader will  
readily accumulate1 clearly conform to  
the law laid down4 ,for to make large   
intervals requires more muscular action 
than to make small ones4 ,but not only  
is the extent of vocal intervals thus   
explicable as due to the relation       
between nervous and muscular excitement1
 but also in some degree their          
direction1 as ascending or descending4  
,the middle notes being those which     
demand no appreciable effort of muscular
 adjustment2 and the effort becoming    
greater as we either ascend or descend2 
it follows that a departure from the    
middle notes in either direction will   
mark increasing emotion2 while a return 
towards the middle notes will mark      

decreasing emotion4 ,hence it happens   
that an enthusiastic person uttering    
such a sentence as--,it was the most    
splendid sight ,i ever saw6 will ascend 
to the first syllable of the word       
splendid1 and thence will descend3 the  
word splendid marking the climax of the 
feeling produced by the recollection4   
,hence1 again1 it happens that1 under   
some extreme vexation produced by       
another's stupidity1 an irascible man1  
exclaiming--,what a confounded fool the 
fellow is6 will begin somewhat below his
 middle voice1 and descending to the    
word fool1 which he will utter in one of
 his deepest notes1 will then ascend    
again4 ,and it may be remarked1 that the
 word fool will not only be deeper and  
louder than the rest1 but will also have
 more emphasis of articulation--another 
mode in which muscular excitement is    
shown4  ,there is some danger1 however1 
in giving instances like this2 seeing   
that as the mode of rendering will vary 
according to the intensity of the       

feeling which the reader feigns to      
himself1 the right cadence may not be   
hit upon4 ,with single words there is   
less difficulty4 ,thus the ,indeed6 with
 which a surprising fact is received1   
mostly begins on the middle note of the 
voice1 and rises with the second        
syllable2 or1 if disapprobation as well 
as astonishment is felt1 the first      
syllable will be below the middle note1 
and the second lower still4 ,conversely1
 the word ,alas6 which marks not the    
rise of a paroxysm of grief1 but its    
decline1 is uttered in a cadence        
descending towards the middle note2 or1 
if the first syllable is in the lower   
part of the register1 the second ascends
 towards the middle note4 ,in the       
,heigh-ho6 expressive of mental and     
muscular prostration1 we may see the    
same truth2 and if the cadence          
appropriate to it be inverted1 the      
absurdity of the effect clearly shows   
how the meaning of intervals is         
dependent on the principle we have been 

illustrating4  ,the remaining           
characteristic of emotional speech which
 we have to notice is that of           
variability of pitch4 ,it is scarcely   
possible here to convey adequate ideas  
of this more complex manifestation4 ,we 
must be content with simply indicating  
some occasions on which it may be       
observed4 ,on a meeting of friends1 for 
instance--as when there arrives a party 
of much-wished-for-visitors--the voices 
of all will be heard to undergo changes 
of pitch not only greater but much more 
numerous than usual4 ,if a speaker at a 
public meeting is interrupted by some   
squabble among those he is addressing1  
his comparatively level tones will be in
 marked contrast with the rapidly       
changing one of the disputants4 ,and    
among children1 whose feelings are less 
under control than those of adults1 this
 peculiarity is still more decided4     
,during a scene of complaint and        
recrimination between two excitable     
little girls1 the voices may be heard to

 run up and down the gamut several times
 in each sentence4 ,in such cases we    
once more recognise the same law3 for   
muscular excitement is shown not only in
 strength of contraction but also in the
 rapidity with which different muscular 
adjustments succeed each other4  ,thus  
we find all the leading vocal phenomena 
to have a physiological basis4 ,they are
 so many manifestations of the general  
law that feeling is a stimulus to       
muscular action--a law conformed to     
throughout the whole economy1 not of man
 only1 but of every sensitive           
creature--a law1 therefore1 which lies  
deep in the nature of animal            
organisation4 ,the expressiveness of    
these various modifications of voice is 
therefore innate4 ,each of us1 from     
babyhood upwards1 has been spontaneously
 making them1 when under the various    
sensations and emotions by which they   
are produced4 ,having been conscious of 
each feeling at the same time that we   
heard ourselves make the consequent     

sound1 we have acquired an established  
association of ideas between such sound 
and the feeling which caused it4 ,when  
the like sound is made by another1 we   
ascribe the like feeling to him2 and by 
a further consequence we not only       
ascribe to him that feeling1 but have a 
certain degree of it aroused in         
ourselves3 for to become conscious of   
the feeling which another is            
experiencing1 is to have that feeling   
awakened in our own consciousness1 which
 is the same thing as experiencing the  
feeling4 ,thus these various            
modifications of voice become not only a
 language through which we understand   
the emotions of others1 but also the    
means of exciting our sympathy with such
 emotions4  ,have we not here1 then1    
adequate data for a theory of music8    
,these vocal peculiarities which        
indicate excited feeling are those which
 especially distinguish song from       
ordinary speech4 ,every one of the      
alterations of voice which we have found

 to be a physiological result of pain or
 pleasure1 is carried to its greatest   
extreme in vocal music4 ,for instance1  
we saw that1 in virtue of the general   
relation between mental and muscular    
excitement1 one characteristic of       
passionate utterance is loudness4 ,well1
 its comparative loudness is one of the 
distinctive marks of song as contrasted 
with the speech of daily life2 and      
further1 the forte passages of an air   
are those intended to represent the     
climax of its emotion4 ,we next saw that
 the tones in which emotion expresses   
itself are1 in conformity with this same
 law1 of a more sonorous timbre than    
those of calm conversation4 ,here1 too1 
song displays a still higher degree of  
the peculiarity2 for the singing tone is
 the most resonant we can make4 ,again1 
it was shown that1 from a like cause1   
mental excitement vents itself in the   
higher and lower notes of the register2 
using the middle notes but seldom4 ,and 
it scarcely needs saying that vocal     

music is still more distinguished by its
 comparative neglect of the notes in    
which we talk1 and its habitual use of  
those above or below them and1 moreover1
 that its most passionate effects are   
commonly produced at the two extremities
 of its scale1 but especially the upper 
one4  ,a yet further trait of strong    
feeling1 similarly accounted for1 was   
the employment of larger intervals than 
are employed in common converse4 ,this  
trait1 also1 every ballad and aria      
carries to an extent beyond that heard  
in the spontaneous utterances of        
emotion3 add to which1 that the         
direction of these intervals1 which1 as 
diverging from or converging towards the
 medium tones1 we found to be           
physiologically expressive of increasing
 or decreasing emotion1 may be observed 
to have in music like meanings4 ,once   
more1 it was pointed out that not only  
extreme but also rapid variations of    
pitch are characteristic of mental      
excitement2 and once more we see in the 

quick changes of every melody1 that song
 carries the characteristic as far1 if  
not farther4 ,thus1 in respect alike of 
loudness1 timbre1 pitch1 intervals1 and 
rate of variation1 song employs and     
exaggerates the natural language of the 
emotions2--it arises from a systematic  
combination of those vocal peculiarities
 which are the physiological effects of 
acute pleasure and pain4  ,besides these
 chief characteristics of song as       
distinguished from common speech1 there 
are sundry minor ones similarly         
explicable as due to the relation       
between mental and muscular excitement2 
and before proceeding further these     
should be briefly noticed4 ,thus1       
certain passions1 and perhaps all       
passions when pushed to an extreme1     
produce 7probably through their         
influence over the action of the heart7 
an effect the reverse of that which has 
been described3 they cause a physical   
prostration1 one symptom of which is a  
general relaxation of the muscles1 and a

 consequent trembling4 ,we have the     
trembling of anger1 of fear1 of hope1 of
 joy2 and the vocal muscles being       
implicated with the rest1 the voice too 
becomes tremulous4 ,now1 in singing1    
this tremulousness of voice is very     
effectively used by some vocalists in   
highly pathetic passages2 sometimes1    
indeed1 because of its effectiveness1   
too much used by them--as by ,tamberlik1
 for instance4  ,again1 there is a mode 
of musical execution known as the       
staccato1 appropriate to energetic      
passages--to passages expressive of     
exhilaration1 of resolution1 of         
confidence4 ,the action of the vocal    
muscles which produces this staccato    
style is analogous to the muscular      
action which produces the sharp         
decisive1 energetic movements of body   
indicating these states of mind2 and    
therefore it is that the staccato style 
has the meaning we ascribe to it4       
,conversely1 slurred intervals are      
expressive of gentler and less active   

feelings2 and are so because they imply 
the smaller muscular vivacity due to a  
lower mental energy4 ,the difference of 
effect resulting from difference of time
 in music is also attributable to the   
same law4 ,already it has been pointed  
out that the more frequent changes of   
pitch which ordinarily result from      
passion are imitated and developed in   
song2 and here we have to add1 that the 
various rates of such changes1          
appropriate to the different styles of  
music1 are further traits having the    
same derivation4 ,the slowest movements1
 largo and adagio1 are used where such  
depressing emotions as grief1 or such   
unexciting emotions as reverence1 are to
 be portrayed2 while the more rapid     
movements1 andante1 allegro1 presto1    
represent successively increasing       
degrees of mental vivacity2 and do this 
because they imply that muscular        
activity which flows from this mental   
vivacity4 ,even the rhythm1 which forms 
a remaining distinction between song and

 speech1 may not improbably have a      
kindred cause4 ,why the actions excited 
by strong feeling should tend to become 
rhythmical is not very obvious2 but that
 they do so there are divers evidences4 
,there is the swaying of the body to and
 fro under pain or grief1 of the leg    
under impatience or agitation4 ,dancing1
 too1 is a rhythmical action natural to 
elevated emotion4 ,that under excitement
 speech acquires a certain rhythm1 we   
may occasionally perceive in the highest
 efforts of an orator4 ,in poetry1 which
 is a form of speech used for the better
 expression of emotional ideas1 we have 
this rhythmical tendency developed4 ,and
 when we bear in mind that dancing1     
poetry1 and music are connate--are      
originally constituent parts of the same
 thing1 it becomes clear that the       
measured movement common to them all    
implies a rhythmical action of the whole
 system1 the vocal apparatus included2  
and that so the rhythm of music is a    
more subtle and complex result of this  

relation between mental and muscular    
excitement4  ,but it is time to end this
 analysis1 which possibly we have       
already carried too far4 ,it is not to  
be supposed that the more special       
peculiarities of musical expression are 
to be definitely explained4 ,though     
probably they may all in some way       
conform to the principle that has been  
worked out1 it is obviously             
impracticable to trace that principle in
 its more ramified applications4 ,nor is
 it needful to our argument that it     
should be so traced4 ,the foregoing     
facts sufficiently prove that what we   
regard as the distinctive traits of     
song1 are simply the traits of emotional
 speech intensified and systematised4   
,in respect of its general              
characteristics1 we think it has been   
made clear that vocal music1 and by     
consequence all music1 is an            
idealisation of the natural language of 
passion4         99       99       99   
99       99  ,as far as it goes1 the    

scanty evidence furnished by history    
confirms this conclusion4 ,note first   
the fact 7not properly an historical    
one1 but fitly grouped with such7 that  
the dance-chants of savage tribes are   
very monotonous2 and in virtue of their 
monotony are much more nearly allied to 
ordinary speech than are the songs of   
civilised races4 ,joining with this the 
fact that there are still extant among  
boatmen and others in the ,east1 ancient
 chants of a like monotonous character1 
we may infer that vocal music originally
 diverged from emotional speech in a    
gradual1 unobtrusive manner2 and this is
 the inference to which our argument    
points4 ,further evidence to the same   
effect is supplied by ,greek history4   
,the early poems of the ,greeks--which1 
be it remembered1 were sacred legends   
embodied in that rhythmical1            
metaphorical language which strong      
feeling excites--were not recited1 but  
chanted3 the tones and the cadences were
 made musical by the same influences    

which made the speech poetical4  ,by    
those who have investigated the matter1 
this chanting is believed to have been  
not what we call singing1 but nearly    
allied to our recitative 7far simpler   
indeed1 if we may judge from the fact   
that the early ,greek lyre1 which had   
but four strings1 was played in unison  
with the voice1 which was therefore     
confined to four notes71 and as such1   
much less remote from common speech than
 our own singing is4 ,for recitative1 or
 musical recitation1 is in all respects 
intermediate between speech and song4   
,its average effects are not so loud as 
those of song4 ,its tones are less      
sonorous in timbre than those of song4  
,commonly it diverges to a smaller      
extent from the middle notes--uses notes
 neither so high nor so low in pitch4   
,the intervals habitual to it are       
neither so wide nor so varied4 ,its rate
 of variation is not so rapid4 ,and at  
the same time that its primary rhythm is
 less decided1 it has none of that      

secondary rhythm produced by recurrence 
of the same or parallel musical phrases1
 which is one of the marked             
characteristics of song4 ,thus1 then1 we
 may not only infer1 from the evidence  
furnished by existing barbarous tribes1 
that the vocal music of pre-historic    
times was emotional speech very slightly
 exalted2 but we see that the earliest  
vocal music of which we have any account
 differed much less from emotional      
speech than does the vocal music of our 
days4  ,that recitative--beyond which1  
by the way1 the ,chinese and ,hindoos   
seem never to have advanced--grew       
naturally out of the modulations and    
cadences of strong feeling1 we have     
indeed still current evidence4 ,there   
are even now to be met with occasions on
 which strong feeling vents itself in   
this form4 ,whoever has been present    
when a meeting of ,quakers was addressed
 by one of their preachers 7whose       
practice it is to speak only under the  
influence of religious emotion71 must   

have been struck by the quite unusual   
tones1 like those of a subdued chant1 in
 which the address was made4 ,it is     
clear1 too1 that the intoning used in   
some churches is representative of this 
same mental state2 and has been adopted 
on account of the instinctively felt    
congruity between it and the contrition1
 supplication1 or reverence verbally    
expressed4  ,and if1 as we have good    
reason to believe1 recitative arose by  
degrees out of emotional speech1 it     
becomes manifest that by a continuance  
of the same process song has arisen out 
of recitative4 ,just as1 from the       
orations and legends of savages1        
expressed in the metaphorical1          
allegorical style natural to them1 there
 sprung epic poetry1 out of which lyric 
poetry was afterwards developed2 so1    
from the exalted tones and cadences in  
which such orations and legends were    
delivered1 came the chant or recitative 
music1 from whence lyrical music has    
since grown up4 ,and there has not only 

thus been a simultaneous and parallel   
genesis1 but there is also a parallelism
 of results4 ,for lyrical poetry differs
 from epic poetry1 just as lyrical music
 differs from recitative3 each still    
further intensifies the natural language
 of the emotions4 ,lyrical poetry is    
more metaphorical1 more hyperbolic1 more
 elliptical1 and adds the rhythm of     
lines to the rhythm of feet2 just as    
lyrical music is louder1 more sonorous1 
more extreme in its intervals1 and adds 
the rhythm of phrases to the rhythm of  
bars4 ,and the known fact that out of   
epic poetry the stronger passions       
developed lyrical poetry as their       
appropriate vehicle1 strengthens the    
inference that they similarly developed 
lyrical music out of recitative4  ,nor  
indeed are we without evidences of the  
transition4 ,it needs but to listen to  
an opera to hear the leading gradations4
 ,between the comparatively level       
recitative of ordinary dialogue1 the    
more varied recitative with wider       

intervals and higher tones used in      
exciting scenes1 the still more musical 
recitative which preludes an air1 and   
the air itself1 the successive steps are
 but small2 and the fact that among airs
 themselves gradations of like nature   
may be traced1 further confirms the     
conclusion that the highest form of     
vocal music was arrived at by degrees4  
,moreover1 we have some clue to the     
influences which have induced this      
development2 and may roughly conceive   
the process of it4 ,as the tones1       
intervals1 and cadences of strong       
emotion were the elements out of which  
song was elaborated1 so we may expect to
 find that still stronger emotion       
produced the elaboration3 and we have   
evidence implying this4 ,instances in   
abundance may be cited1 showing that    
musical composers are men of extremely  
acute sensibilities4 ,the ,life of      
,mozart depicts him as one of intensely 
active affections and highly            
impressionable temperament4 ,various    

anecdotes represent ,beethoven as very  
susceptible and very passionate4        
,mendelssohn is described by those who  
knew him to have been full of fine      
feeling4 ,and the almost incredible     
sensitiveness of ,chopin has been       
illustrated in the memoirs of ,george   
,sand4 ,an unusually emotional nature   
being thus the general characteristic of
 musical composers1 we have in it just  
the agency required for the development 
of recitative and song4 ,intenser       
feeling producing intenser              
manifestations1 any cause of excitement 
will call forth from such a nature tones
 and changes of voice more marked than  
those called forth from an ordinary     
nature--will generate just those        
exaggerations which we have found to    
distinguish the lower vocal music from  
emotional speech1 and the higher vocal  
music from the lower4 ,thus it becomes  
credible that the four-toned recitative 
of the early ,greek poets 7like all     
poets1 nearly allied to composers in the

 comparative intensity of their         
feelings71 was really nothing more than 
the slightly exaggerated emotional      
speech natural to them1 which grew by   
frequent use into an organised form4    
,and it is readily conceivable that the 
accumulated agency of subsequent        
poet-musicians1 inheriting and adding to
 the products of those who went before  
them1 sufficed1 in the course of the ten
 centuries which we know it took1 to    
develop this four-toned recitative into 
a vocal music having a range of two     
octaves4  ,not only may we so understand
 how more sonorous tones1 greater       
extremes of pitch1 and wider intervals1 
were gradually introduced2 but also how 
there arose a greater variety and       
complexity of musical expression4 ,for  
this same passionate1 enthusiastic      
temperament1 which naturally leads the  
musical composer to express the feelings
 possessed by others as well as himself1
 in extremer intervals and more marked  
cadences than they would use1 also leads

 him to give musical utterance to       
feelings which they either do not       
experience1 or experience in but slight 
degrees4 ,in virtue of this general     
susceptibility which distinguishes him1 
he regards with emotion1 events1 scenes1
 conduct1 character1 which produce upon 
most men no appreciable effect4 ,the    
emotions so generated1 compounded as    
they are of the simpler emotions1 are   
not expressible by intervals and        
cadences natural to these1 but by       
combinations of such intervals and      
cadences3 whence arise more involved    
musical phrases1 conveying more complex1
 subtle1 and unusual feelings4 ,and thus
 we may in some measure understand how  
it happens that music not only so       
strongly excites our more familiar      
feelings1 but also produces feelings we 
never had before--arouses dormant       
sentiments of which we had not conceived
 the possibility and do not know the    
meaning2 or1 as ,richter says--tells us 
of things we have not seen and shall not

 see4         99       99       99      
99       99  ,indirect evidences of     
several kinds remain to be briefly      
pointed out4 ,one of them is the        
difficulty1 not to say impossibility1 of
 otherwise accounting for the           
expressiveness of music4 ,whence comes  
it that special combinations of notes   
should have special effects upon our    
emotions8--that one should give us a    
feeling of exhilaration1 another of     
melancholy1 another of affection1       
another of reverence8 ,is it that these 
special combinations have intrinsic     
meanings apart from the human           
constitution8--that a certain number of 
aerial waves per second1 followed by a  
certain other number1 in the nature of  
things signify grief1 while in the      
reverse order they signify joy2 and     
similarly with all other intervals1     
phrases1 and cadences8 ,few will be so  
irrational as to think this4 ,is it1    
then1 that the meanings of these special
 combinations are conventional          

only8--that we learn their implications1
 as we do those of words1 by observing  
how others understand them8 ,this is an 
hypothesis not only devoid of evidence1 
but directly opposed to the experience  
of every one4 ,how1 then1 are musical   
effects to be explained8 ,if the theory 
above set forth be accepted1 the        
difficulty disappears4 ,if music1 taking
 for its raw material the various       
modifications of voice which are the    
physiological results of excited        
feelings1 intensifies1 combines1 and    
complicates them--if it exaggerates the 
loudness1 the resonance1 the pitch1 the 
intervals1 and the variability1 which1  
in virtue of an organic law1 are the    
characteristics of passionate           
speech--if1 by carrying out these       
further1 more consistently1 more        
unitedly1 and more sustainedly1 it      
produces an idealised language of       
emotion2 then its power over us becomes 
comprehensible4 ,but in the absence of  
this theory1 the expressiveness of music

 appears to be inexplicable4  ,again1   
the preference we feel for certain      
qualities of sound presents a like      
difficulty1 admitting only of a like    
solution4 ,it is generally agreed that  
the tones of the human voice are more   
pleasing than any others4 ,grant that   
music takes its rise from the           
modulations of the human voice under    
emotion1 and it becomes a natural       
consequence that the tones of that voice
 should appeal to our feelings more than
 any others2 and so should be considered
 more beautiful than any others4 ,but   
deny that music has this origin1 and the
 only alternative is the untenable      
position that the vibrations proceeding 
from a vocalist's throat are1           
objectively considered1 of a higher     
order than those from a horn or a       
violin4 ,similarly with harsh and soft  
sounds4 ,if the conclusiveness of the   
foregoing reasonings be not admitted1 it
 must be supposed that the vibrations   
causing the last are intrinsically      

better than those causing the first2 and
 that1 in virtue of some pre-established
 harmony1 the higher feelings and       
natures produce the one1 and the lower  
the other4 ,but if the foregoing        
reasonings be valid1 it follows1 as a   
matter of course1 that we shall like the
 sounds that habitually accompany       
agreeable feelings1 and dislike those   
that habitually accompany disagreeable  
feelings4  ,once more1 the              
question--,how is the expressiveness of 
music to be otherwise accounted for8 may
 be supplemented by the question--,how  
is the genesis of music to be otherwise 
accounted for8 ,that music is a product 
of civilisation is manifest2 for though 
savages have their dance-chants1 these  
are of a kind scarcely to be dignified  
by the title musical3 at most1 they     
supply but the vaguest rudiment of      
music1 properly so called4 ,and if music
 has been by slow steps developed in the
 course of civilisation1 it must have   
been developed out of something4 ,if1   

then1 its origin is not that above      
alleged1 what is its origin8  ,thus we  
find that the negative evidence confirms
 the positive1 and that1 taken together1
 they furnish strong proof4 ,we have    
seen that there is a physiological      
relation1 common to man and all animals1
 between feeling and muscular action2   
that as vocal sounds are produced by    
muscular action1 there is a consequent  
physiological relation between feeling  
and vocal sounds2 that all the          
modifications of voice expressive of    
feeling are the direct results of this  
physiological relation2 that music1     
adopting all these modifications1       
intensifies them more and more as it    
ascends to its higher and higher forms1 
and becomes music simply in virtue of   
thus intensifying them2 that1 from the  
ancient epic poet chanting his verses1  
down to the modern musical composer1 men
 of unusually strong feelings prone to  
express them in extreme forms1 have been
 naturally the agents of these          

successive intensifications2 and that so
 there has little by little arisen a    
wide divergence between this idealised  
language of emotion and its natural     
language3 to which direct evidence we   
have just added the indirect--that on no
 other tenable hypothesis can either the
 expressiveness or the genesis of music 
be explained4         99       99       
99       99       99  ,and now1 what is 
the function of music8 ,has music any   
effect beyond the immediate pleasure it 
produces8 ,analogy suggests that it has4
 ,the enjoyments of a good dinner do not
 end with themselves1 but minister to   
bodily well-being4 ,though people do not
 marry with a view to maintain the race1
 yet the passions which impel them to   
marry secure its maintenance4 ,parental 
affection is a feeling which1 while it  
conduces to parental happiness1 ensures 
the nurture of offspring4 ,men love to  
accumulate property1 often without      
thought of the benefits it produces2 but
 in pursuing the pleasure of acquisition

 they indirectly open the way to other  
pleasures4 ,the wish for public approval
 impels all of us to do many things     
which we should otherwise not do1--to   
undertake great labours1 face great     
dangers1 and habitually rule ourselves  
in a way that smooths social            
intercourse3 that is1 in gratifying our 
love of approbation we subserve divers  
ulterior purposes4 ,and1 generally1 our 
nature is such that in fulfilling each  
desire1 we in some way facilitate the   
fulfilment of the rest4 ,but the love of
 music seems to exist for its own sake4 
,the delights of melody and harmony do  
not obviously minister to the welfare   
either of the individual or of society4 
,may we not suspect1 however1 that this 
exception is apparent only8 ,is it not a
 rational inquiry--,what are the        
indirect benefits which accrue from     
music1 in addition to the direct        
pleasure it gives8  ,but that it would  
take us too far out of our track1 we    
should prelude this inquiry by          

illustrating at some length a certain   
general law of progress2--the law that  
alike in occupations1 sciences1 arts1   
the divisions that had a common root1   
but by continual divergence have become 
distinct1 and are now being separately  
developed1 are not truly independent1   
but severally act and react on each     
other to their mutual advancement4      
,merely hinting thus much1 however1 by  
way of showing that there are many      
analogies to justify us1 we go on to    
express the opinion that there exists a 
relationship of this kind between music 
and speech4  ,all speech is compounded  
of two elements1 the words and the tones
 in which they are uttered--the signs of
 ideas and the signs of feelings4 ,while
 certain articulations express the      
thought1 certain vocal sounds express   
the more or less of pain or pleasure    
which the thought gives4 ,using the word
 cadence in an unusually extended sense1
 as comprehending all modifications of  
voice1 we may say that cadence is the   

commentary of the emotions upon the     
propositions of the intellect4 ,the     
duality of spoken language1 though not  
formally recognised1 is recognised in   
practice by every one2 and every one    
knows that very often more weight       
attaches to the tones than to the words4
 ,daily experience supplies cases in    
which the same sentence of disapproval  
will be understood as meaning little or 
meaning much1 according to the          
inflections of voice which accompany it2
 and daily experience supplies still    
more striking cases in which words and  
tones are in direct contradiction--the  
first expressing consent1 while the last
 express reluctance2 and the last being 
believed rather than the first4  ,these 
two distinct but interwoven elements of 
speech have been undergoing a           
simultaneous development4 ,we know that 
in the course of civilisation words have
 been multiplied1 new parts of speech   
have been introduced1 sentences have    
grown more varied and complex2 and we   

may fairly infer that during the same   
time new modifications of voice have    
come into use1 fresh intervals have been
 adopted1 and cadences have become more 
elaborate4 ,for while1 on the one hand1 
it is absurd to suppose that1 along with
 the undeveloped verbal forms of        
barbarism1 there existed a developed    
system of vocal inflections2 it is1 on  
the other hand1 necessary to suppose    
that1 along with the higher and more    
numerous verbal forms needed to convey  
the multiplied and complicated ideas of 
civilised life1 there have grown up     
those more involved changes of voice    
which express the feelings proper to    
such ideas4 ,if intellectual language is
 a growth1 so also1 without doubt1 is   
emotional language a growth4  ,now1 the 
hypothesis which we have hinted above1  
is1 that beyond the direct pleasure     
which it gives1 music has the indirect  
effect of developing this language of   
the emotions4 ,having its root1 as we   
have endeavoured to show1 in those      

tones1 intervals1 and cadences of speech
 which express feeling--arising by the  
combination and intensifying of these1  
and coming finally to have an embodiment
 of its own--music has all along been   
reacting upon speech1 and increasing its
 power of rendering emotion4 ,the use in
 recitative and song of inflections more
 expressive than ordinary ones1 must    
from the beginning have tended to       
develop the ordinary ones4 ,familiarity 
with the more varied combinations of    
tones that occur in vocal music can     
scarcely have failed to give greater    
variety of combination to the tones in  
which we utter our impressions and      
desires4 ,the complex musical phrases by
 which composers have conveyed complex  
emotions1 may rationally be supposed to 
have influenced us in making those      
involved cadences of conversation by    
which we convey our subtler thoughts and
 feelings4  ,that the cultivation of    
music has no effect on the mind1 few    
will be absurd enough to contend4 ,and  

if it has an effect1 what more natural  
effect is there than this of developing 
our perception of the meanings of       
inflections1 qualities1 and modulations 
of voice2 and giving us a               
correspondingly increased power of using
 them8 ,just as mathematics1 taking its 
start from the phenomena of physics and 
astronomy1 and presently coming to be a 
separate science1 has since reacted on  
physics and astronomy to their immense  
advancement--just as chemistry1 first   
arising out of the processes of         
metallurgy and the industrial arts1 and 
gradually growing into an independent   
study1 has now become an aid to all     
kinds of production--just as physiology1
 originating out of medicine and once   
subordinate to it1 but latterly pursued 
for its own sake1 is in our day coming  
to be the science on which the progress 
of medicine depends2--so1 music1 having 
its root in emotional language1 and     
gradually evolved from it1 has ever been
 reacting upon and further advancing it4

 ,whoever will examine the facts will   
find this hypothesis to be in harmony   
with the method of civilisation         
everywhere displayed4  ,it will scarcely
 be expected that much direct evidence  
in support of this conclusion can be    
given4 ,the facts are of a kind which it
 is difficult to measure1 and of which  
we have no records4 ,some suggestive    
traits1 however1 may be noted4 ,may we  
not say1 for instance1 that the         
,italians1 among whom modern music was  
earliest cultivated1 and who have more  
especially practised and excelled in    
melody 7the division of music with which
 our argument is chiefly concerned7--may
 we not say that these ,italians speak  
in more varied and expressive           
inflections and cadences than any other 
nation8 ,on the other hand1 may we not  
say that1 confined almost exclusively as
 they have hitherto been to their       
national airs1 which have a marked      
family likeness1 and therefore          
accustomed to but a limited range of    

musical expression1 the ,scotch are     
unusually monotonous in the intervals   
and modulations of their speech8 ,and   
again1 do we not find among different   
classes of the same nation1 differences 
that have like implications8 ,the       
gentleman and the clown stand in a very 
decided contrast with respect to variety
 of intonation4 ,listen to the          
conversation of a servant-girl1 and then
 to that of a refined1 accomplished     
lady1 and the more delicate and complex 
changes of voice used by the latter will
 be conspicuous4 ,now1 without going so 
far as to say that out of all the       
differences of culture to which the     
upper and lower classes are subjected1  
difference of musical culture is that to
 which alone this difference of speech  
is ascribable1 yet we may fairly say    
that there seems a much more obvious    
connection of cause and effect between  
these than between any others4 ,thus1   
while the inductive evidence to which we
 can appeal is but scanty and vague1 yet

 what there is favours our position4    
99       99       99       99       99  
,probably most will think that the      
function here assigned to music is one  
of very little moment4 ,but further     
reflection may lead them to a contrary  
conviction4 ,in its bearings upon human 
happiness1 we believe that this         
emotional language which musical culture
 develops and refines is only second in 
importance to the language of the       
intellect2 perhaps not even second to   
it4 ,for these modifications of voice   
produced by feelings are the means of   
exciting like feelings in others4       
,joined with gestures and expressions of
 face1 they give life to the otherwise  
dead words in which the intellect utters
 its ideas2 and so enable the hearer not
 only to understand the state of mind   
they accompany1 but to partake of that  
state4 ,in short1 they are the chief    
media of sympathy4 ,and if we consider  
how much both our general welfare and   
our immediate pleasures depend upon     

sympathy1 we shall recognise the        
importance of whatever makes this       
sympathy greater4 ,if we bear in mind   
that by their fellow-feeling men are led
 to behave justly1 kindly1 and          
considerately to each other--that the   
difference between the cruelty of the   
barbarous and the humanity of the       
civilised1 results from the increase of 
fellow-feeling2 if we bear in mind that 
this faculty which makes us sharers in  
the joys and sorrows of others1 is the  
basis of all the higher affections--that
 in friendship1 love1 and all domestic  
pleasures1 it is an essential element2  
if we bear in mind how much our direct  
gratifications are intensified by       
sympathy1--how1 at the theatre1 the     
concert1 the picture gallery1 we lose   
half our enjoyment if we have no one to 
enjoy with us2 if1 in short1 we bear in 
mind that for all happiness beyond what 
the unfriended recluse can have1 we are 
indebted to this same sympathy2--we     
shall see that the agencies which       

communicate it can scarcely be overrated
 in value4  ,the tendency of            
civilisation is more and more to repress
 the antagonistic elements of our       
characters and to develop the social    
ones--to curb our purely selfish desires
 and exercise our unselfish ones--to    
replace private gratifications by       
gratifications resulting from1 or       
involving1 the happiness of others4 ,and
 while1 by this adaptation to the social
 state1 the sympathetic side of our     
nature is being unfolded1 there is      
simultaneously growing up a language of 
sympathetic intercourse--a language     
through which we communicate to others  
the happiness we feel1 and are made     
sharers in their happiness4  ,this      
double process1 of which the effects are
 already sufficiently appreciable1 must 
go on to an extent of which we can as   
yet have no adequate conception4 ,the   
habitual concealment of our feelings    
diminishing1 as it must1 in proportion  
as our feelings become such as do not   

demand concealment1 we may conclude that
 the exhibition of them will become much
 more vivid than we now dare allow it to
 be2 and this implies a more expressive 
emotional language4 ,at the same time1  
feelings of a higher and more complex   
kind1 as yet experienced only by the    
cultivated few1 will become general2 and
 there will be a corresponding          
development of the emotional language   
into more involved forms4 ,just as there
 has silently grown up a language of    
ideas1 which1 rude as it at first was1  
now enables us to convey with precision 
the most subtle and complicated         
thoughts2 so1 there is still silently   
growing up a language of feelings1      
which1 notwithstanding its present      
imperfection1 we may expect will        
ultimately enable men vividly and       
completely to impress on each other all 
the emotions which they experience from 
moment to moment4  ,thus if1 as we have 
endeavoured to show1 it is the function 
of music to facilitate the development  

of this emotional language1 we may      
regard music as an aid to the           
achievement of that higher happiness    
which it indistinctly shadows forth4    
,those vague feelings of unexperienced  
felicity which music arouses--those     
indefinite impressions of an unknown    
ideal life which it calls up1 may be    
considered as a prophecy1 to the        
fulfilment of which music is itself     
partly instrumental4 ,the strange       
capacity which we have for being so     
affected by melody and harmony may be   
taken to imply both that it is within   
the possibilities of our nature to      
realise those intenser delights they    
dimly suggest1 and that they are in some
 way concerned in the realisation of    
them4 ,on this supposition the power and
 the meaning of music become            
comprehensible2 but otherwise they are a
 mystery4  ,we will only add1 that if   
the probability of these corollaries be 
admitted1 then music must take rank as  
he highest of the fine arts--as the one 

which1 more than any other1 ministers to
 human welfare4 ,and thus1 even leaving 
out of view the immediate gratifications
 it is hourly giving1 we cannot too much
 applaud that progress of musical       
culture which is becoming one of the    
characteristics of our age4  #a         
,fraser's ,magazine1 ,october #aheg4  #b
 ,those who seek information on this    
point may find it in an interesting     
tract by ,mr4 ,alexander ,bain1 on      
,animal ,instinct and ,intelligence4