,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,philosophy by ,,george ,,/u>t ,,full]ton ,pr(essor ( ,philosophy 9 ,columbia ,univ]sity ,new ,york ,new ,york ,! ,mac,millan ,company ,london3 ,macmillan ,co41 ,ltd4 #aiae ,norwood ,press ,j4 ,s4 ,cu%+ ,co4--,b]wick ,smi? ,co4 ,norwood1 ,mass41 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,preface ,z !re _c be said to be a beat5 pa? 9 philosophy1 & z ,introductions to ! subject diff] widely f "o ano!r1 x is prop] t ,i %\ld give an indication ( ! scope ( ! pres5t volume4 ,x und]takes3-- #a4 ,to po9t out :at ! ^w philosophy is made to cov] 9 our univ]sities & colleges at ! pres5t day1 & to %[ :y x is giv5 ?is mean+4 #b4 ,to expla9 ! nature ( reflective or philosophical ?9k+1 & to %[ h[ x diff]s f common ?\ght & f sci5ce4 #c4 ,to give a g5]al view ( ! ma9 problems ) :i* philosoph]s h felt call$ ^u to deal4 #d4 ,to give an acc\nt ( "s ( ! m important types ( philosophical doctr9e :i* h aris5 out ( ! consid]ation ( su* problems4 #e4 ,to indicate ! relation ( philosophy to ! s-call$ philosophical sci5ces1 & to ! o!r sci5ces4 #f4 ,to %[1 f9ally1 t ! /udy ( philosophy is ( value to u all1 & to give "s practical admonitions on _s & me?od4 ,_h ^! admonitions be5 impress$ ^u me at a "t :5 ,i 0 9 especial ne$ ( guidance1 ,i feel t !y w\ld h sp>$ me no little anxiety & confusion ( m9d4 ,= ?is reason1 ,i recomm5d !m to ! att5tion ( ! read]4 ,su* is ! scope ( my book4 ,x aims to tell :at philosophy is4 ,x is n its *ief object to advocate a p>ticul> type ( doctr9e4 ,at ! same "t1 z x is impossible to treat ( ! problems ( philosophy except f "s po9t ( view1 x w be f\nd t1 9 ,*apt]s ,,iii to ,,xi1 a doctr9e is pres5t$4 ,x is ! same z t pres5t$ mu* m 9 detail1 & ) a great] weal? ( ref]5ce1 9 my ,sy/em ( ,metaphysics1 :i* 0 publi%$ a %ort "t ago4 ,9 ! ,notes 9 ! back ( ?is volume1 ! read] w f9d ref]5ces to ^? p>ts ( ! l>g] "w :i* treat ( ! subjects m briefly discuss$ "h4 ,x w be helpful to ! tea*] to keep ! l>g] "w on h&1 & to use m or less ( ! mat]ial !re pres5t$ z 8 und]graduate classes discuss ! *apt]s ( ?is "o4 ,o!r ref]5ces are also giv5 9 ! ,notes1 & x may be pr(itable to direct ! att5tion ( /ud5ts to !m4 ,! pres5t book has be5 made z cle> & simple z possible1 t no unnecess>y difficulties may be plac$ 9 ! pa? ( ^? :o ent] ^u ! ?orny road ( philosophical reflection4 ,! subjects treat$ are deep en\gh to dem& ! s]i\s att5tion ( any "o2 & !y are subjects ( fasc9at+ int]e/4 ,t !y are treat$ simply & cle>ly does n mean t !y are treat$ sup]ficially4 ,inde$1 :5 a doctr9e is pres5t$ 9 outl9e & 9 a brief & simple /atem5t1 its mean+ may be m readily app>5t ?an :5 x is treat$ m exhau/ively4 ,= ?is reason1 ,i especially recomm5d1 ev5 to ^? :o are well acqua9t$ ) philosophy1 ! acc\nt ( ! ext]nal _w conta9$ 9 ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,= ! doctr9e ,i advocate ,i am incl9$ to ask especial consid]ation on ! gr\nd t x is1 on ! :ole1 a ju/ification ( ! attitude tak5 by ! pla9 man t[>d ! _w 9 :i* he f9ds himself4 ,! exp]i5ce ( ! race is n a ?+ t we may treat lightly4 ,?us1 x is ma9ta9$ t !re is a real ext]nal _w pres5t$ 9 our exp]i5ce--n a _w :i* we h a "r to reg>d z ! s5sations or ideas ( any m9d4 ,x is ma9ta9$ t we h evid5ce t !re are m9ds 9 c]ta9 relations to t _w1 & t we c1 )9 c]ta9 limits1 det]m9e ^! relations4 ,x is po9t$ out t ! pla9 man's belief 9 ! activity ( 8 m9d & 8 notion ( ! significance ( purposes & ends are n )\t ju/ification4 ,x is indicat$ t !ism is a reasonable doctr9e1 & x is held t ! human w is free 9 ! only prop] s5se ( ! ^w fre$om4 ,?r\gh\t x is tak5 = grant$ t ! philosoph] has no private sy/em ( weights & measures1 b mu/ reason z o!r m5 reason1 & mu/ prove 8 conclusions 9 ! same sob] way4 ,i h writt5 9 hopes t ! book may be ( use to und]graduate /ud5ts4 ,!y are (t5 repell$ by philosophy1 & ,i _c b ?9k t ?is is 9 "p due to ! dry & ab/ract =m 9 :i* philosoph]s h too (t5 se5 fit to express _! ?\ghts4 ,! same ?\ghts c be set =? 9 pla9 language1 & _! significance illu/rat$ by a con/ant ref]5ce to exp]i5ces :i* we all h--exp]i5ces :i* mu/ s]ve z ! f\ndation to e !ory ( ! m9d & ! _w wor?y ( s]i\s consid]ation4 ,b !re are _m p]sons :o _c att5d =mal c\rses ( in/ruction1 & :o1 nev]!less1 are int]e/$ 9 philosophy4 ,^!1 also1 ,i h _h 9 m9d2 & ,i h tri$ to be s cle> t !y c\ld read ! "w ) pr(it 9 ! abs5ce ( a tea*]4 ,la/ly1 ,i invite ! m le>n$1 if !y h f\nd my ,sy/em ( ,metaphysics difficult to und]/& 9 any "p1 to foll[ ! simple /atem5t conta9$ 9 ! *apt]s above allud$ to1 & !n to return1 if !y w1 to ! m bulky volume4 ,,george ,,/u>t ,,full]ton4 ,new ,york1 #aijf4 ,,cont5ts ,,"p ,i ,,introductory ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,mean+ ,,( ,,! ,,^w ,,philosophy ,,9 ,,! ,,pa/ ,,& ,,9 ,,! ,,pres5t #a4 ,! ,beg9n+s ( ,philosophy4 #b4 ,! ,greek ,philosophy at its ,height4 #c4 ,philosophy z a ,guide to ,life4 #d4 ,philosophy 9 ! ,middle ,ages4 #e4 ,! ,mod]n ,philosophy4 #f4 ,:at ,philosophy means 9 our ,"t4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,common ,,?\ght1 ,,sci5ce1 ,,& ,,reflective ,,?\ght #g4 ,common ,?\ght4 #h4 ,sci5tific ,k4 #i4 ,ma!matics4 #aj4 ,! ,sci5ce ( ,psy*ology4 #aa4 ,reflective ,?\ght4 ,,"p ,,ii ,,problems ,,t\*+ ,,! ,,ext]nal ,,_w ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,is ,,!re ,,an ,,ext]nal ,,_w8 #ab4 ,h[ ! ,pla9 ,man ?9ks he kn[s ! ,_w4 #ac4 ,! ,psy*ologi/ & ! ,ext]nal ,_w4 #ad4 ,! ,telephone ,ex*ange4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,s5sations ,,& ,,?+s #ae4 ,s5se & ,imag9ation4 #af4 ,may we call ,?+s ,gr\ps ( ,s5sations8 #ag4 ,! ,di/9ction betwe5 ,s5sations & ,?+s4 #ah4 ,! ,exi/5ce ( ,mat]ial ,?+s4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,appe>ances ,,& ,,realities #ai4 ,?+s & _! ,appe>ances4 #bj4 ,real ,?+s4 #ba4 ,ultimate ,real ,?+s4 #bb4 ,! ,bugbe> ( ! ,unkn[able4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,( ,,space #bc4 ,:at we are suppos$ to "k ab\t ,x4 #bd4 ,space z ,necess>y & ,space z ,inf9ite4 #be4 ,space z ,inf9itely ,divisible4 #bf4 ,:at is ,real ,space8 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,( ,,"t #bg4 ,"t z ,necess>y1 ,inf9ite1 & ,inf9itely ,divisible4 #bh4 ,! ,problem ( ,pa/1 ,pres5t1 & ,future4 #bi4 ,:at is ,real ,"t8 ,,"p ,,iii ,,problems ,,t\*+ ,,! ,,m9d ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,:at ,,is ,,! ,,m9d8 #cj4 ,primitive ,notions ( ,m9d4 #ca4 ,! ,m9d z ,immat]ial4 #cb4 ,mod]n ,common ,s5se ,notions ( ! ,m9d4 #cc4 ,! ,psy*ologi/ & ! ,m9d4 #cd4 ,! ,metaphysician & ! ,m9d4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,m9d ,,& ,,body #ce4 ,is ! ,m9d 9 ! ,body8 #cf4 ,! ,doctr9e ( ! ,int]actioni/4 #cg4 ,! ,doctr9e ( ! ,p>alleli/4 #ch4 ,9 :at ,s5se ,m5tal ,ph5om5a h a ,"t & ,place4 #ci4 ,objections to ,p>allelism4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,h[ ,,we ,,"k ,,!re ,,are ,,o!r ,,m9ds #dj4 ,is x ,c]ta9 t we "k ,x8 #da4 ,! ,argum5t = ,o!r ,m9ds4 #db4 ,:at ,o!r ,m9ds are !re8 #dc4 ,! ,doctr9e ( ,m9d-/uff4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,o!r ,,problems ,,( ,,_w ,,& ,,m9d #dd4 ,is ! ,mat]ial ,_w a ,me*anism8 #de4 ,! ,place ( ,m9d 9 ,nature4 #df4 ,! ,ord] ( ,nature & ,free-w4 #dg4 ,! ,physical ,_w & ! ,moral ,_w4 ,,"p ,,iv ,,"s ,,types ,,( ,,philosophical ,,!ory ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,_! ,,hi/orical ,,backgr\nd #dh4 ,! ,doctr9e ( ,repres5tative ,p]ception4 #di4 ,! ,/ep to ,idealism4 #ej4 ,! ,revolt ( ,common ,s5se4 #ea4 ,! ,critical ,philosophy4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,realism ,,& ,,idealism #eb4 ,realism4 #ec4 ,idealism4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,monism ,,& ,,dualism #ed4 ,! ,mean+ ( ! ,words4 #ee4 ,mat]ialism4 #ef4 ,spiritualism4 #eg4 ,! ,doctr9e ( ! ,"o ,sub/ance4 #eh4 ,dualism4 #ei4 ,s+ul>ism & ,pluralism4 ,,*apt] ,,xv ,,rationalism1 ,,empiricism1 ,,criticism1 ,,& ,,critical ,,empiricism #fj4 ,rationalism4 #fa4 ,empiricism4 #fb4 ,criticism4 #fc4 ,critical ,empiricism4 #fd4 ,pragmatism4 ,,"p ,v ,,! ,,philosophical ,,sci5ces ,,*apt] ,,xvi ,,logic #fe4 ,introductory2 ! ,philosophical ,sci5ces4 #ff4 ,! ,traditional ,logic4 #fg4 ,! ,mod]n ,logic4 #fh4 ,logic & ,philosophy4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii ,,psy*ology #fi4 ,psy*ology & ,philosophy4 #gj4 ,! ,d\ble ,affiliation ( ,psy*ology4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii ,,e?ics ,,& ,,ae/hetics #ga4 ,common ,s5se ,e?ics4 #gb4 ,e?ics & ,philosophy4 #gc4 ,ae/hetics4 ,,*apt] ,,xix ,,metaphysics #gd4 ,:at is ,metaphysics8 #ge4 ,epi/emology4 ,,*apt] ,,xx ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,religion #gf4 ,religion & ,reflection4 #gg4 ,! ,philosophy ( ,religion4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi ,,philosophy ,,& ,,! ,,o!r ,,sci5ces #gh4 ,! ,philosophical & ! ,non-philosophical ,sci5ces4 #gi4 ,! /udy ( ,sci5tific ,pr9ciples & ,me?ods4 ,,"p ,,vi ,,on ,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,,philosophy ,,*apt] ,,xxii ,,! ,,value ,,( ,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,,philosophy #hj4 ,! ,"q ( ,practical ,utility4 #ha4 ,:y ,philosophical ,/udies are ,useful4 #hb4 ,metaphysics & ! ,philosophy ( ,religion4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii ,,:y ,,we ,,%\ld ,,/udy ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,philosophy #hc4 ,! ,prom95ce giv5 to ! ,subject4 #hd4 ,! ,especial ,importance ( ,hi/orical ,/udies to ,reflective ,?\ght4 #he4 ,! ,value ( ,diff]5t ,po9ts ( ,view4 #hf4 ,philosophy z ,poetry & ,philosophy z ,sci5ce4 #hg4 ,h[ to read ! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv ,,"s ,,practical ,,admonitions #hh4 ,be prep>$ to ent] ^u a ,new ,way ( ,look+ at ,?+s4 #hi4 ,be will+ to consid] ,possibilities :i* at fir/ /rike "o z ,absurd4 #ij4 ,d n h too mu* ,respect = ,au?ority4 #ia4 ,rememb] t ,ord9>y ,rules ( ,evid5ce ,apply4 #ib4 ,aim at ,cle>ness & ,simplicity4 #ic4 ,d n ha/ily accept a ,doctr9e4 ,,notes ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,philosophy ,i4 ,,introductory ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,mean+ ,,( ,,! ,,^w ,,philosophy ,,9 ,,! ,,pa/ ,,& ,,9 ,,! ,,pres5t ,i mu/ w>n ! read] at ! outset t ! title ( ?is *apt] seems to promise a great deal m ?an he w f9d c>ri$ out 9 ! *apt] itself4 ,to tell all t philosophy has meant 9 ! pa/1 & all t x means to v>i\s classes ( m5 9 ! pres5t1 w\ld be a task ( no small magnitude1 & "o q beyond ! scope ( su* a volume z ?is4 ,b x is n impossible to give )9 small compass a brief indication1 at lea/1 ( :at ! ^w once signifi$1 to %[ h[ its signification has und]gone *anges1 & to po9t out to :at sort ( a discipl9e or gr\p ( discipl9es educat$ m5 are apt to apply ! ^w1 not)/&+ _! diff]5ces ( op9ion z to ! tru? or falsity ( ?is or t p>ticul> doctr9e4 ,:y c]ta9 subjects ( inve/igation h come to be gr\p$ toge!r & to be reg>d$ z fall+ )9 ! prov9ce ( ! philosoph]1 r ?an c]ta9 o!r subjects1 w1 ,i hope1 be made cle> 9 ! body ( ! "w4 ,only an indication c be giv5 9 ?is *apt]4 #a4 ,,! ,,beg9n+s ,,( ,,philosophy4--,! ,greek hi/orian ,h]odotus 7#dhd-dbd ,b4,c47 appe>s to h be5 ! fir/ to use ! v]b to philosophize4 ,he makes ,croesus tell ,solon h[ he has he>d t he f a desire ( k has1 philosophiz+1 j\rney$ ?r\gh _m l&s4 ,! ^w philosophiz+ seems to indicate t ,solon pursu$ k = its own sake1 & 0 :at we call an inve/igator4 ,z = ! ^w philosoph] 7etymologically1 a lov] ( wisdom71 a c]ta9 some:at unreliable tradition traces x back to ,py?agoras 7ab\t #ehb-ejj ,b4,c474 ,z told by ,cic]o1 ! /ory is t1 9 a conv]sation ) ,leon1 ! rul] ( ,phlius1 9 ! ,peloponnesus1 he describ$ himself z a philosoph]1 & said t 8 bus9ess 0 an inve/igation into ! nature ( ?+s4 ,at any rate1 bo? ! words philosoph] & philosophy are freely us$ 9 ! writ+s ( ! disciples ( ,socrates 7#dgj-cii ,b4,c471 & x is possible t he 0 ! fir/ to make use ( !m4 ,! seem+ mode/y ( ! title philosoph]--= etymologically x is a mode/ "o1 ?\gh x has manag$ to ga!r a v diff]5t signification ) ! lapse ( "t--! mode/y ( ! title w\ld naturally appeal to a man :o claim$ s mu* ignorance1 z ,socrates2 & ,plato repres5ts him z di/+ui%+ betwe5 ! lov] ( wisdom & ! wise1 on ! gr\nd t ,god alone may be call$ wise4 ,f t date to ?is ! ^w philosoph] has rema9$ ) u1 & x has meant _m ?+s to _m m54 ,b = c5turies ! philosoph] has n be5 simply ! inve/igator1 nor has he be5 simply ! lov] ( wisdom4 ,an inve/igation into ! orig9 ( words1 h[ev] int]e/+ 9 itself1 c tell u little ( ! uses to :i* words are put aft] !y h come into be+4 ,if we turn f etymology to hi/ory1 & review ! labors ( ! m5 :om ! _w has agre$ to call philosoph]s1 we are /ruck by ! fact t ^? :o head ! li/ *ronologically appe> to h be5 occupi$ ) crude physical speculations1 ) attempts to guess :at ! _w is made out (1 r ?an ) t some:at vague some?+ t we call philosophy to-day4 ,/ud5ts ( ! hi/ory ( philosophy usually beg9 _! /udies ) ! speculations ( ! ,greek philosoph] ,?ales 7b4 #fbd ,b4,c474 ,we are told t he assum$ wat] to be ! univ]sal pr9ciple out ( :i* all ?+s are made1 & t he ma9ta9$ t all ?+s are full ( gods4 ,we f9d t ,anaxim&]1 ! next 9 ! li/1 assum$ z ! s\rce out ( :i* all ?+s proce$ & t to :i* !y all return ! inf9ite & indet]m9ate2 & t ,anaxim5es1 :o 0 p]haps 8 pupil1 took z 8 pr9ciple ! all-embrac+ air4 ,?is trio con/itutes ! ,ionian s*ool ( philosophy1 ! e>lie/ ( ! ,greek s*ools2 & "o :o reads = ! fir/ "t ! few vague /atem5ts :i* seem to con/itute ! sum ( _! contributions to human k is impell$ to wond] t s mu* has be5 made ( ! m54 ,?is wond] disappe>s1 h[ev]1 :5 "o realizes t ! appe>ance ( ^! ?9k]s 0 really a mom5t\s ?+4 ,= ^! m5 turn$ _! faces away f ! poetical & my?ologic way ( acc\nt+ = ?+s1 :i* _h obta9$ up to _! "t1 & set _! faces t[>d ,sci5ce4 ,ari/otle %[s u h[ ,?ales may h be5 l$ to ! =mulation ( 8 ma9 !sis by an obs]vation ( ! ph5om5a ( nature4 ,anaxim&] saw 9 ! _w 9 :i* he liv$ ! result ( a process ( evolution4 ,anaxim5es expla9s ! com+ into be+ ( fire1 w9d1 cl\ds1 wat]1 & e>?1 z due to a cond5sation & expansion ( ! univ]sal pr9ciple1 air4 ,! boldness ( _! speculations we may expla9 z due to a c\rage born ( ignorance1 b ! explanations !y (f] are sci5tific 9 _s1 at lea/4 ,moreov]1 ^! m5 d n /& alone4 ,!y are ! advance gu>d ( an army ^: late/ repres5tatives are ! m5 :o are enlight5+ ! _w at ! pres5t day4 ,! evolution ( sci5ce--tak+ t ^w 9 ! broad s5se to mean organiz$ & sy/ematiz$ k--mu/ be trac$ 9 ! works ( ! ,greek philosoph]s f ,?ales d[n4 ,"h we h ! s\rce & ! rivulet to :i* we c trace back ! mighty /ream :i* is fl[+ pa/ our own doors4 ,app>5tly insignificant 9 its beg9n+s1 x mu/ /ill = a :ile seem insignificant to ! man :o foll[s ) an unreflective eye ! c\rse ( ! curr5t4 ,x w\ld take me too f> afield to give an acc\nt ( ! ,greek s*ools :i* imm$iately succe$$ ! ,ionic3 to tell ( ! ,py?agoreans1 :o held t all ?+s 7 con/itut$ by numb]s2 ( ! ,eleatics1 :o held t only ,be+ is1 & d5i$ ! possibility ( *ange1 !reby r$uc+ ! %ift+ panorama ( ! ?+s ab\t u to a m]e delusive _w ( appe>ances2 ( ,h]aclitus1 :o 0 s impress$ by ! con/ant flux ( ?+s t he summ$ up 8 view ( nature 9 ! words3 ,ev]y?+ fl[s2 ( ,emp$ocles1 :o f\nd 8 explanation ( ! _w 9 ! comb9ation ( ! f\r elem5ts1 s9ce become traditional1 e>?1 wat]1 fire1 & air2 ( ,democritus1 :o develop$ a mat]iali/ic atomism :i* rem9ds "o /rongly ( ! doctr9e ( atoms z x has appe>$ 9 mod]n sci5ce2 ( ,anaxagoras1 :o trac$ ! sy/em ( ?+s to ! sett+ 9 ord] ( an inf9ite multiplicity ( diff]5t elem5ts1--se$s ( ?+s1--:i* sett+ 9 ord] 0 due to ! activity ( ! f9e/ ( ?+s1 ,m9d4 ,x is a delight to discov] ! illum9at+ ?\ghts :i* came to ! m9ds ( ^! m52 &1 on ! o!r h&1 x is amus+ to see h[ recklessly !y laun*$ !mselves on b\ndless seas :5 !y 7 unprovid$ ) *>t & compass4 ,!y 7 l brilliant *ildr51 :o "k little ( ! dang]s ( ! great _w1 b are ready to und]take any?+4 ,^! philosoph]s reg>d$ all k z _! prov9ce1 & did n despair ( gov]n+ s great a realm4 ,!y 7 ready to expla9 ! :ole _w & ev]y?+ 9 x4 ,( c\rse1 ?is c only mean t !y _h little conception ( h[ mu* !re is to expla91 & ( :at is meant by sci5tific explanation4 ,x is *>act]i/ic ( ?is s]ies ( philosoph]s t _! att5tion 0 direct$ v l>gely ^u ! ext]nal _w4 ,x 0 natural t ?is %\ld be s4 ,bo? 9 ! hi/ory ( ! race & 9 t ( ! individual1 we f9d t ! att5tion is seiz$ fir/ by mat]ial ?+s1 & t x is long be=e a cle> conception ( ! m9d & ( its k is arriv$ at4 ,obs]vation prec$es reflection4 ,:5 we come to ?9k def9itely ab\t ! m9d1 we are all apt to make use ( notions :i* we h d]iv$ f our exp]i5ce ( ext]nal ?+s4 ,! v words we use to d5ote m5tal op]ations are 9 _m in/ances tak5 f ?is out] realm4 ,we direct ! att5tion2 we speak ( appreh5sion1 ( conception1 ( intuition4 ,our k is cle> or obscure2 an oration is brilliant2 an emotion is sweet or bitt]4 ,:at wond] t1 z we read ov] ! fragm5ts t h come d[n to u f ! ,pre-,socratic philosoph]s1 we %\ld be /ruck by ! fact t !y sometimes leave out altoge!r & sometimes t\* lightly ^u a numb] ( ^? ?+s t we reg>d to-day z peculi>ly )9 ! prov9ce ( ! philosoph]4 ,!y busi$ !mselves ) ! _w z !y saw x1 & c]ta9 ?+s _h h>dly z yet come def9itely )9 _! horizon4 #b4 ,,! ,,greek ,,philosophy ,,at ,,its ,,height4--,! next succe$+ p]iod sees c]ta9 classes ( que/ions em]ge into prom95ce :i* _h attract$ comp>atively little att5tion f ! m5 ( an e>li] day4 ,democritus ( ,abd]a1 to :om ref]5ce has be5 made above1 belongs *ronologically to ?is latt] p]iod1 b 8 way ( ?9k+ makes u class him ) ! e>li] philosoph]s4 ,x 0 *>act]i/ic ( ^! latt] t !y assum$ r navely t man c look ^u ! _w & c "k x1 & c by ?9k+ ab\t x succe$ 9 giv+ a reasonable acc\nt ( x4 ,t !re may be a diff]5ce betwe5 ! _w z x really is & ! _w z x appe>s to man1 & t x may be impossible = man to atta9 to a k ( ! absolute tru? ( ?+s1 does n seem to h occurr$ to !m4 ,! fif? c5tury be=e ,*ri/ 01 9 ,greece1 a "t ( int5se intellectual f]m5t4 ,"o is rem9d$1 9 read+ ( x1 ( ! spl5did ye>s ( ! ,r5aissance 9 ,italy1 ( ! awak5+ ( ! human m9d to a vigor\s life :i* ca/ (f ! bonds ( tradition & insi/$ ^u ! "r ( free & unfett]$ developm5t4 ,a!ns 0 ! c5t] ( ?is intellectual activity4 ,9 ?is c5tury arose ! ,sophi/s1 public tea*]s :o busi$ !mselves ) all dep>tm5ts ( human k1 b seem$ to lay no little emphasis ^u c]ta9 que/ions t t\*$ v ne>ly ! life ( man4 ,c man atta9 to tru? at all--to a tru? t is m ?an a m]e tru? to him1 a seem+ tru?8 ,:5ce d ! laws d]ive _! au?ority8 ,is !re su* a ?+ z ju/ice1 z "r8 ,x 0 ) su* que/ions z ^! t ! ,sophi/s occupi$ !mselves1 & su* que/ions z ^! h held ! att5tion ( mank9d ev] s9ce4 ,:5 !y make _! appe>ance 9 ! life ( a p or ( an individual man1 x means t !re has be5 a rebir?1 a bir? into ! life ( reflection4 ,:5 ,socrates1 t greate/ ( tea*]s1 felt call$ ^u to refute ! argum5ts ( ^! m51 he met !m1 s to speak1 on _! own gr\nd1 recogniz+ t ! subjects ( :i* !y disc\rs$ 71 inde$1 matt] = sci5tific inve/igation4 ,8 attitude seem$ to _m cons]vative p]sons 9 8 day a dang]\s "o2 he 0 reg>d$ z an innovator2 he taught m5 to ?9k & to raise que/ions :]e1 be=e1 ! traditions ( ! fa!rs _h seem$ a suffici5t guide to m5's actions4 ,&1 inde$1 he c\ld n d o!rwise4 ,m5 _h le>n$ to reflect1 & !re _h come into exi/5ce at lea/ ! beg9n+s ( :at we n[ sometimes r loosely call ! m5tal & moral sci5ces4 ,9 ! works ( ,socrates' disciple ,plato 7#dbh-cdg ,b4,c47 & 9 ^? ( ,plato's disciple ,ari/otle 7#chd-cbb ,b4,c471 abundant ju/ice is done to ^! fields ( human activity4 ,^! two1 ! greate/ among ! ,greek philosoph]s1 diff] f ea* o!r 9 _m ?+s1 b x is wor?y ( rem>k t !y bo? seem to reg>d ! :ole sph]e ( human k z _! prov9ce4 ,plato is mu* m int]e/$ 9 ! moral sci5ces ?an 9 ! physical1 b he1 nev]!less1 feels call$ ^u to give an acc\nt ( h[ ! _w 0 made & out ( :at sort ( elem5ts4 ,he evid5tly does n take 8 own acc\nt v s]i\sly1 & recognizes t he is on unc]ta9 gr\nd4 ,b he does n consid] ! matt] beyond 8 jurisdiction4 ,z = ,ari/otle1 t wond]ful man seems to h f\nd x possible to repres5t wor?ily e sci5ce kn[n to 8 "t1 & to h m>k$ out sev]al new fields = 8 successors to cultivate4 ,8 philosophy cov]s physics1 cosmology1 zology1 logic1 metaphysics1 e?ics1 psy*ology1 politics & economics1 rhetoric & poetics4 ,?us we see t ! task ( ! philosoph] 0 mu* ! same at ! p]iod ( ! highe/ developm5t ( ! ,greek philosophy t x _h be5 e>li]4 ,he 0 suppos$ to give an acc\nt ( ! sy/em ( ?+s4 ,b ! notion ( :at x means to give an acc\nt ( ! sy/em ( ?+s _h necess>ily und]gone "s *ange4 ,! philosoph] _h to be some?+ m ?an a natural philosoph]4 #c4 ,,philosophy ,,z ,a ,,guide ,,to ,,life4--,at ! close ( ! f\r? c5tury be=e ,*ri/ !re arose ! s*ools ( ! ,/oics1 ! ,epicureans1 & ! ,skeptics4 ,9 !m we seem to f9d a some:at new conception ( philosophy--philosophy appe>s z *iefly a guide to life4 ,! ,/oic emphasizes ! necessity ( liv+ accord+ to nature1 & dwells ^u ! "* ( ! wise man2 ! ,epicurean furni%es c]ta9 selfi% maxims = gett+ ?r\gh life z pleasantly z possible2 ! ,skeptic c\nsels apa?y1 an indiff]5ce to all ?+s1--bless$ is he :o expects no?+1 = he %all n be disappo9t$4 ,& yet1 :5 we exam9e m closely ^! sy/ems1 we f9d a conception ( philosophy n really s v diff]5t f t :i* _h obta9$ be=e4 ,we d n f9d1 x is true1 t dis9t]e/$ passion = ! atta9m5t ( tru? :i* is ! glory ( sci5ce4 ,man seems q too mu* conc]n$ ) ! problem ( 8 own happ9ess or unhapp9ess2 he has gr[n morbid4 ,nev]!less1 ! practical maxims :i* obta9 9 ea* ( ^! sy/ems are bas$ ^u a c]ta9 view ( ! sy/em ( ?+s z a :ole4 ,! ,/oic tells u ( :at ! _w consi/s2 :at 0 ! beg9n+ & :at w be ! end ( ?+s2 :at is ! relation ( ! sy/em ( ?+s to ,god4 ,he develops a physics & a logic z well z a sy/em ( e?ics4 ,! ,epicurean in=ms u t ! _w orig9at$ 9 a ra9 ( atoms ?r\gh space2 he exam9es into ! f\ndations ( human k2 & he proce$s to make himself com=table 9 a _w f :i* he has remov$ ^? di/urb+ elem5ts1 ! gods4 ,! ,skeptic decides t !re is no su* ?+ z tru?1 be=e he enunciates ! dogma t x is n wor? :ile to worry ab\t any?+4 ,! philosophy ( ea* s*ool includes a view ( ! sy/em ( ?+s z a :ole4 ,! philosoph] /ill reg>d$ ! univ]se ( k z 8 prov9ce4 #d4 ,,philosophy ,,9 ,,! ,,middle ,,ages4--,i _c d m ?an m5tion ,neo-,platonism1 t half ,greek & half ,ori5tal sy/em ( doctr9e :i* arose 9 ! ?ird c5tury aft] ,*ri/1 ! fir/ sy/em ( importance aft] ! s*ools m5tion$ above4 ,b ,i mu/ n pass x by )\t po9t+ out t ! ,neo-,platonic philosoph] und]took to give an acc\nt ( ! orig91 developm5t1 & end ( ! :ole sy/em ( ?+s4 ,9 ! ,middle ,ages !re gradually grew up r a %>p di/9ction betwe5 ^? ?+s t c be kn[n ?r\gh ! unaid$ reason & ^? ?+s t c only be kn[n ?r\gh a sup]natural revelation4 ,! t]m philosophy came to be synonym\s ) k atta9$ by ! natural light ( reason4 ,?is seems to imply "s sort ( a limitation to ! task ( ! philosoph]4 ,philosophy is n synonym\s ) all k4 ,b we mu/ n =get to take note ( ! fact t philosophy1 ev5 ) ?is limitation1 con/itutes a pretty wide field4 ,x cov]s bo? ! physical & ! moral sci5ces4 ,nor %\ld we omit to notice t ! s*ola/ic philosoph] 0 at ! same "t a !ologian4 ,alb]t ! ,great & ,/4 ,?omas ,aqu9as1 ! fam\s s*ola/ics ( ! ?irte5? c5tury1 _h to write a ,summa ,!ologiae1 or sy/em ( !ology1 z well z to treat ( ! o!r dep>tm5ts ( human k4 ,:y 7 ^! m5 n ov]:elm$ ) ! task set !m by ! tradition ( _! "t8 ,x 0 because ! task 0 n1 aft] all1 s great z a mod]n man might conceive x to be4 ,gil ,blas1 9 ,le ,sage's fam\s romance1 f9ds x possible to become a skill$ physician 9 ! tw9kl+ ( an eye1 :5 ,dr4 ,sangrado has imp>t$ to him ! secret t ! rem$y = all diseases is to be f\nd 9 ble$+ ! pati5t & 9 mak+ him dr9k copi\sly ( hot wat]4 ,:5 little is kn[n ab\t ?+s1 x does n seem impossible = "o man to le>n t little4 ,dur+ ! ,middle ,ages & ! c5turies prec$+1 ! physical sci5ces _h a long sleep4 ,m5 7 mu* m conc]n$ 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury to f9d out :at ,ari/otle _h said ?an !y 7 to address que/ions to nature4 ,! special sci5ces1 z we n[ "k !m1 _h n be5 call$ into exi/5ce4 #e4 ,,! ,,mod]n ,,philosophy4--,! submission ( m5's m9ds to ! au?ority ( ,ari/otle & ( ! *ur* gradually gave way4 ,a revival ( le>n+ set 94 ,m5 turn$ fir/ ( all to a m indep5d5t *oice ( au?orities1 & !n rose to ! conception ( a philosophy indep5d5t ( au?ority1 ( a sci5ce bas$ ^u an obs]vation ( nature1 ( a sci5ce at fir/ h&4 ,! special sci5ces came into be+4 ,b ! old tradition ( philosophy z univ]sal k rema9$4 ,if we pass ov] ! m5 ( ! transition p]iod & turn our att5tion to ,francis ,bacon 7#aefa-afbf7 & ,r5e ,desc>tes 7#aeif-afej71 ! two :o are commonly reg>d$ z head+ ! li/ ( ! mod]n philosoph]s1 we f9d bo? ( !m assign+ to ! philosoph] an almo/ unlimit$ field4 ,bacon holds t philosophy has = its objects ,god1 man1 & nature1 & he reg>ds x z )9 8 prov9ce to treat ( philosophia prima 7a sort ( metaphysics1 ?\gh he does n call x by ?is "n71 ( logic1 ( physics & a/ronomy1 ( an?ropology1 9 :i* he includes psy*ology1 ( e?ics1 & ( politics4 ,9 %ort1 he attempts to map out ! :ole field ( human k1 & to tell ^? :o "w 9 ?is corn] ( x or 9 t h[ !y %\ld set ab\t _! task4 ,z = ,desc>tes1 he writes ( ! tru/wor?9ess ( human k1 ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 ( ! exi/5ce ( an ext]nal _w1 ( ! human s\l & its nature1 ( ma!matics1 physics1 cosmology1 physiology1 &1 9 %ort1 ( ne>ly ev]y?+ discuss$ by ! m5 ( 8 day4 ,no man c accuse ?is extraord9>y ,fr5*man ( a lack ( appreciation ( ! special sci5ces :i* 7 gr[+ up4 ,no "o 9 8 "t _h a bett] "r to be call$ a sci5ti/ 9 ! mod]n s5se ( ! t]m4 ,b x 0 n en\gh = him to be a m]e ma!matician1 or ev5 a work] 9 ! physical sci5ces g5]ally4 ,he mu/ be all t has be5 m5tion$ above4 ,! conception ( philosophy z ( a some?+ t embraces all dep>tm5ts ( human k has n :olly pass$ away ev5 9 our day4 ,i %all n dwell ^u ,sp9oza 7#afcb-afgg71 :o believ$ x possible to d$uce a _w a priori ) ma!matical precision2 ^u ,*ri/ian ,wolff 7#afgi-aged71 :o def9$ philosophy z ! k ( ! causes ( :at is or comes into be+2 ^u ,fi*te 7#agfb-ahad71 :o believ$ t ! philosoph]1 by m]e ?9k+1 c\ld lay d[n ! laws ( all possible future exp]i5ce2 ^u ,s*ell+ 7#agge-ahed71 :o1 )\t kn[+ any?+ wor? m5tion+ ab\t natural sci5ce1 _h ! c\rage to develop a sy/em ( natural philosophy1 & to condemn su* inve/igators z ,boyle & ,newton2 ^u ,hegel 7#aggj-ahca71 :o und]takes to con/ruct ! :ole sy/em ( reality out ( concepts1 & :o1 ) 8 imm$iate pr$ecessors1 br\ght philosophy = a :ile into m or less disrepute ) m5 ( a sci5tific turn ( m9d4 ,i %all come d[n q to our own times1 & consid] a man ^: conception ( philosophy has _h & /ill has a good deal ( influ5ce1 especially ) ! g5]al public--) ^? to :om philosophy is a ?+ to be tak5 up 9 mom5ts ( leisure1 & _c be ! s]i\s pursuit ( a life4 ,k ( ! l[e/ k9d1 says ,h]b]t ,sp5c]1 is un-unifi$ k2 ,sci5ce is p>tially-unifi$ k2 ,philosophy is completely-unifi$ k4 #a ,sci5ce1 he argues1 means m]ely ! family ( ! ,sci5ces--/&s = no?+ m ?an ! sum ( k =m$ ( _! contributions4 ,philosophy is ! fusion ( ^! contributions into a :ole2 x is k ( ! greate/ g5]ality4 ,9 h>mony ) ?is notion ,sp5c] produc$ a sy/em ( philosophy :i* includes ! foll[+3 ,a volume entitl$ ,fir/ ,pr9ciples1 :i* und]takes to %[ :at man c & :at man _c "k2 a treatise on ! pr9ciples ( biology2 ano!r on ! pr9ciples ( psy*ology2 /ill ano!r on ! pr9ciples ( sociology2 & f9ally "o on ! pr9ciples ( morality4 ,to complete ! s*eme x w\ld h be5 necess>y to give an acc\nt ( inorganic nature be=e go+ on to ! ph5om5a ( life1 b our philosoph] f\nd ! task too great & left ?is out4 ,n[1 ,sp5c] 0 a man ( g5ius1 & "o f9ds 9 8 works _m illum9at+ ?\ghts4 ,b x is wor?y ( rem>k t ^? :o praise 8 "w 9 ?is or 9 t field are almo/ always m5 :o h !mselves work$ 9 "s o!r field & h an imp]fect acqua9tance ) ! p>ticul> field t !y happ5 to be prais+4 ,! metaphysician f9ds ! reason+s ( ! ,fir/ ,pr9ciples r loose & inconclusive2 ! biologi/ pays little he$ to ! ,pr9ciples ( ,biology2 ! sociologi/ f9ds ,sp5c] n p>ticul>ly accurate or c>eful 9 ! field ( 8 pr$ilection4 ,he has tri$ to be a pr(essor ( all ! sci5ces1 & x is too late 9 ! _w's hi/ory = him or = any man to cope ) su* a task4 ,9 ! days ( ,plato a man might h hop$ to accompli% x4 #f4 ,,:at ,,philosophy ,,means ,,9 ,,our ,,"t4--,x savors ( tem]ity to write d[n su* a title z t :i* heads ! pres5t section4 ,!re are m5 liv+ to-day to :om philosophy means little else ?an ! doctr9e ( ,kant1 or ( ,hegel1 or ( ! bro!rs ,caird1 or ( ,h]b]t ,sp5c]1 or ev5 ( ,/4 ,?omas ,aqu9as1 = we mu/ n =get t _m ( ! sem9>ies ( le>n+ 9 ,europe & "s 9 ,am]ica /ill hold to ! m$iaeval *ur* philosophy4 ,b let me ga!r up 9 a few words ! purport ( :at has be5 said above4 ,philosophy once meant ! :ole body ( sci5tific k4 ,aft]w>d x came to mean ! :ole body ( k :i* c\ld be atta9$ by ! m]e light ( human reason1 unaid$ by revelation4 ,! sev]al special sci5ces sprang up1 & a multitude ( m5 h = a long "t pa/ devot$ !mselves to def9ite limit$ fields ( inve/igation ) little att5tion to :at has be5 done 9 o!r fields4 ,nev]!less1 !re has p]si/$ ! notion ( a discipl9e :i* someh[ conc]ns itself ) ! :ole sy/em ( ?+s1 r ?an ) any limit$ division ( t broad field4 ,x is a notion n peculi> to ! disciples ( ,sp5c]4 ,!re are _m to :om philosophy is a ,weltwei%eit1 a _w-wisdom4 ,%all we say t ?is is ! mean+ ( ! ^w philosophy n[8 ,& if we d1 h[ %all we draw a l9e betwe5 philosophy & ! body ( ! special sci5ces8 ,p]haps ! mo/ j way to get a prelim9>y idea ( :at philosophy means to ! m5 ( our "t is to turn away = ! "t be+ f ! def9ition ( any "o man or gr\p ( m51 & to ask ourselves :at a pr(essor ( philosophy 9 an ,am]ican or ,european univ]sity is actually suppos$ to tea*4 ,x is q cle> t he is n suppos$ to be an ,ari/otle4 ,he does n repres5t all ! sci5ces1 & no "o expects him to lecture on ma!matics1 me*anics1 physics1 *emi/ry1 zology1 botany1 economics1 politics1 & v>i\s o!r discipl9es4 ,!re 0 a "t :5 he might h be5 expect$ to tea* all t m5 c\ld "k1 b t "t is long pa/4 ,nev]!less1 !re is q a gr\p ( sci5ces :i* are reg>d$ z belong+ especially to 8 prov9ce2 & al?\gh a man may devote a l>ge "p ( 8 att5tion to "s "o portion ( ! field1 he w\ld c]ta9ly be ?\ght remiss if he :olly neglect$ ! re/4 ,?is gr\p ( sci5ces includes logic1 psy*ology1 e?ics & ae/hetics1 metaphysics1 & ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,i h n includ$ epi/emology or ! !ory ( k z a sep>ate discipl9e1 = reasons :i* w appe> lat] 7,*apt] ,,xix72 & ,i h includ$ ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 because1 :e!r we c>e to call ?is a special sci5ce or n1 x con/itutes a v important "p ( ! "w ( ! tea*] ( philosophy 9 our day4 ,( ?is gr\p ( subjects ! /ud5t :o goes to ! univ]sity to /udy philosophy is suppos$ to "k some?+ be=e he leaves its walls1 :atev] else he may or may n "k4 ,x %\ld be rem>k$1 aga91 t !re is commonly suppos$ to be a peculi>ly close relation betwe5 philosophy & religion4 ,c]ta9ly1 if any "o ab\t a univ]sity und]takes to give a c\rse ( lectures on !ism1 x is mu* m apt to be ! pr(essor ( philosophy ?an ! pr(essor ( ma!matics or ( *emi/ry4 ,! man :o has writt5 an ,introduction to ,philosophy1 a ,psy*ology1 a ,logic1 & an ,outl9es ( ,metaphysics is v apt to reg>d x z 8 duty to add to ! li/ a ,philosophy ( ,religion4 ,! /ud5ts 9 ! !ological sem9>ies ( ,europe & ,am]ica are usually enc\rag$1 if n compell$1 to att5d c\rses 9 philosophy4 ,f9ally1 x appe>s to be def9itely accept$ t ev5 ! discipl9es t we nev] ?9k ( class+ among ! philosophical sci5ces are n :olly cut (f f a connection ) philosophy4 ,:5 we are occupi$1 n ) add+ to ! /ock ( k embrac$ )9 ! sph]e ( any special sci5ce1 b ) an exam9ation ( ! me?ods ( ! sci5ce1 )1 s to speak1 a criticism ( ! f\ndations ^u :i* ! sci5ce re/s1 our "w is g5]ally recogniz$ z philosophical4 ,x /rikes no "o z odd 9 our day t !re %\ld be e/abli%$ a ,j\rnal ( ,philosophy1 ,psy*ology1 & ,sci5tific ,me?ods1 b we %\ld ?9k x /range if "s "o ann\nc$ ! int5tion to publi% a ,j\rnal ( ,philosophy & ,comp>ative ,anatomy4 ,x is n )\t its significance t1 :5 ,ma*1 :o _h be5 pr(essor ( physics at ,prague1 0 call$ 79 #ahie7 to ! ,univ]sity ( ,vi5na to lecture on ! hi/ory & !ory ( ! inductive sci5ces1 he 0 made1 n pr(essor ( physics1 b pr(essor ( philosophy4 ,! case1 !n1 /&s ?us3 a c]ta9 gr\p ( discipl9es is reg>d$ z fall+ peculi>ly )9 ! prov9ce ( ! pr(essor ( philosophy1 & ! sci5ces :i* con/itute x are frequ5tly call$ ! philosophical sci5ces2 moreov]1 x is reg>d$ z q prop] t ! tea*] ( philosophy %\ld conc]n himself ) ! problems ( religion1 & %\ld pry into ! me?ods & fundam5tal assumptions ( special sci5ces 9 all ( :i* x is impossible t he %\ld be an adept4 ,! "q naturally arises3 ,:y has 8 task come to be circumscrib$ z x is8 ,:y %\ld he tea* j ^! ?+s & no o!rs8 ,to ?is "q c]ta9 p]sons are at once ready to give an answ]4 ,!re 0 a "t1 !y argue1 :5 x seem$ possible = "o man to embrace ! :ole field ( human k4 ,b human k grew2 ! special sci5ces 7 born2 ea* conc]n$ itself ) a def9ite class ( facts & develop$ its own me?ods4 ,x became possible & necess>y = a man to be1 n a sci5ti/ at l>ge1 b a *emi/1 a physici/1 a biologi/1 an economi/4 ,b 9 c]ta9 portions ( ! great field m5 h met ) peculi> difficulties2 "h x _c be said t we h sci5ces1 b r t we h attempts at sci5ce4 ,! philosoph] is ! man to :om is committ$ :at is left :5 we h tak5 away :at has be5 def9itely e/abli%$ or is und]go+ inve/igation accord+ to approv$ sci5tific me?ods4 ,he is ,"l ( ! ,uncle>$ ,gr\nd1 & may w&] ?r\gh x 9 8 compassless1 irresponsible way1 nev] feel+ t he is lo/1 = he has nev] _h any def9ite be>+s to lose4 ,^? :o argue 9 ?is way support _! case by po9t+ to ! lack ( a g5]al cons5sus ( op9ion :i* obta9s 9 _m p>ts ( ! field :i* ! philosoph] reg>ds z 8 own2 & also by po9t+ out t1 ev5 )9 ?is field1 !re is a gr[+ t5d5cy on ! "p ( c]ta9 sci5ces to sep>ate !mselves f philosophy & become indep5d5t4 ,?us ! psy*ologi/ & ! logician are sometimes v anxi\s to h x und]/ood t !y belong among ! sci5ti/s & n among ! philosoph]s4 ,n[1 ?is answ] to ! "q t we h rais$ und\bt$ly conta9s "s tru?4 ,z we h se5 f ! sket* conta9$ 9 ! prec$+ pages1 ! ^w philosophy 0 once a synonym = ! :ole sum ( ! sci5ces or :at /ood = su*2 gradually ! sev]al sci5ces h become indep5d5t & ! field ( ! philosoph] has be5 circumscrib$4 ,we mu/ admit1 moreov]1 t !re is to be f\nd 9 a numb] ( ! special sci5ces a body ( accept$ facts :i* is )\t its analogue 9 philosophy4 ,9 mu* ( 8 "w ! philosoph] c]ta9ly seems to be walk+ ^u m unc]ta9 gr\nd ?an 8 neighbors2 & if he is unaw>e ( t fact1 x mu/ be ei!r because he has n a v nice s5se ( :at con/itutes sci5tific evid5ce1 or because he is c>ri$ away by 8 en?usiasm = "s p>ticul> =m ( doctr9e4 ,nev]!less1 x is j to ma9ta9 t ! answ] we are discuss+ is n a satisfactory "o4 ,= "o ?+1 we f9d 9 x no indication ( ! reason :y ! p>ticul> gr\p ( discipl9es ) :i* ! philosoph] occupies himself has be5 left to him1 :5 s _m sci5ces h ann\nc$ _! indep5d5ce4 ,:y h n ^!1 also1 sep>at$ (f & set up = !mselves8 ,is x m difficult to "w 9 ^! fields ?an 9 o!rs8 &1 if s1 :at reason c be assign$ = ! fact8 ,take psy*ology z an in/ance4 ,h[ does x happ5 t ! physici/ calmly develops 8 doctr9e )\t f9d+ x necess>y to make 8 b[ to philosophy at all1 :ile ! psy*ologi/ is at pa9s to expla9 t 8 book is to treat psy*ology z a natural sci5ce1 & w avoid metaphysics z mu* z possible8 ,= c5turies m5 h be5 int]e/$ 9 ! ph5om5a ( ! human m9d4 ,c any?+ be m op5 to obs]vation ?an :at passes 9 a man's own consci\sness8 ,:y1 !n1 %\ld ! sci5ce ( psy*ology lag beh9d8 & :y ^! endless disputes z to :e!r x c really be treat$ z a natural sci5ce at all8 ,aga94 ,may we assume t1 because c]ta9 discipl9es h tak5 a position ( relative indep5d5ce1 !re=e all ! re/ ( ! field w surely come to be divid$ up 9 ! same way1 & t !re w be _m special sci5ces1 b no su* ?+ z philosophy8 ,x is ha/y to assume ?is on no bett] evid5ce ?an t :i* has s f> be5 pres5t$4 ,be=e mak+ up "o's m9d ^u ?is po9t1 "o %\ld take a c>eful look at ! problems ) :i* ! philosoph] occupies himself4 ,a complete answ] to ! que/ions rais$ above c only be giv5 9 ! c\rse ( ! book1 :]e ! ma9 problems ( philosophy are discuss$1 & ! sev]al philosophical sci5ces are tak5 up & exam9$4 ,b ,i may say1 9 anticipation1 z mu* z ?is3-- 7#a7 ,philosophy is reflective k4 ,:at is meant by reflective k w be expla9$ at l5g? 9 ! next *apt]4 7#b7 ,! sci5ces :i* are gr\p$ toge!r z philosophical are ^? 9 :i* we are =c$ back ^u ! problems ( reflective ?\ght1 & _c simply put !m aside4 7#c7 ,! peculi> difficulties ( reflective ?\ght may acc\nt = ! fact t ^! sci5ces are1 m ?an o!rs1 a field 9 :i* we may expect to f9d disputes & diff]5ces ( op9ion4 7#d7 ,we ne$ n be afraid t ! :ole field ( human k w come to be s divid$ up into special sci5ces t philosophy w disappe>4 ,! problems ) :i* ! philosoph] occupies himself are real problems1 :i* pres5t !mselves unavoidably to ! ?\ghtful m9d1 & x is n conv5i5t to divide ^! up among ! sev]al sci5ces4 ,?is w become cle>] z we proce$4 #a ,fir/ ,pr9ciples1 ,"p ,,ii1 section #cg4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,common ,,?\ght1 ,,sci5ce1 ,,& ,,reflective ,,?\ght #g4 ,,common ,,?\ght4--,^? :o h giv5 little att5tion to ! /udy ( ! human m9d are apt to suppose t1 :5 ! infant op5s its eyes ^u ! new _w ( objects surr\nd+ its small body1 x sees ?+s mu* z !y d !mselves4 ,!y are ready to admit t x does n "k mu* ab\t ?+s1 b x /rikes !m z absurd = any "o to g s f> z to say t x does n see ?+s--! ?+s out !re 9 space be=e its eyes4 ,nev]!less1 ! psy*ologi/ tells u t x requires q a c\rse ( education to enable u to see ?+s--n to h vague & unmean+ s5sations1 b to see ?+s1 ?+s t are kn[n to be t\*able z well z seeable1 ?+s t are recogniz$ z hav+ size & %ape & position 9 space4 ,& he aims a /ill sev]] bl[ at our respect = ! infant :5 he goes on to in=m u t ! little creature is z ignorant ( itself z x is ( ?+s2 t 9 its small _w ( z yet unorganiz$ exp]i5ces !re is no self t is di/+ui%$ f o!r ?+s2 t x may cry vocif]\sly )\t kn[+ :o is uncom=table1 & may /op its noise )\t kn[+ :o has be5 tak5 up into ! nurse's arms & has exp]i5c$ an agreeable *ange4 ,?is *aotic little _w ( ! dawn+ life is n our _w1 ! _w ( common ?\ght1 ! _w 9 :i* we all live & move 9 matur] ye>s2 nor c we g back to x on ! w+s ( memory4 ,we seem to ourselves to h always liv$ 9 a _w ( ?+s1--?+s 9 "t & space1 mat]ial ?+s4 ,among ^! ?+s !re is "o ( peculi> int]e/1 & :i* we h n plac$ ^u a p> ) ! re/1 our own body1 :i* sees1 ta/es1 t\*es1 o!r ?+s4 ,we _c rememb] a "t :5 we did n "k t ) ?is body are someh[ b\nd up _m exp]i5ces :i* int]e/ u acutely2 = example1 exp]i5ces ( pleasure & pa94 ,moreov]1 we seem always to h kn[n t c]ta9 ( ! bodies :i* surr\nd our own r resemble our own1 & are 9 important p>ticul>s to be di/+ui%$ f ! g5]al mass ( bodies4 ,?us1 we seem always to h be5 liv+ 9 a _w ( ?+s & to h recogniz$ 9 t _w ! exi/5ce ( ourselves & ( o!r p4 ,:5 we n[ ?9k ( ourselves & ( o!r p1 we ?9k ( ea* ( ! objects ref]r$ to z possess+ a m9d4 ,may we say t1 z f> back z we c rememb]1 we h ?\ght ( ourselves & ( o!r p]sons z possess+ m9ds8 ,h>dly4 ,! "y *ild does n seem to di/+ui% betwe5 m9d & body1 &1 9 ! vague & fragm5t>y pictures :i* come back to u f our e>ly life1 c]ta9ly ?is di/9ction does n /& out4 ,! *ild may be ! complete/ ( egoi/s1 x may be absorb$ 9 itself & all t directly conc]ns ?is p>ticul> self1 & yet x may make no consci\s di/9ction betwe5 a bodily self & a m5tal1 betwe5 m9d & body4 ,x does n explicitly recognize its _w z a _w t conta9s m9ds z well z bodies4 ,b1 h[ev] x may be ) ! *ild 9 ! e>li] /ages ( its developm5t1 we mu/ all admit t ! mature man does consci\sly recognize t ! _w 9 :i* he f9ds himself is a _w t conta9s m9ds z well z bodies4 ,x nev] occurs to him to d\bt t !re are bodies1 & x nev] occurs to him to d\bt t !re are m9ds4 ,does he n p]ceive t he has a body & a m9d8 ,has he n abundant evid5ce t 8 m9d is intimately relat$ to 8 body8 ,:5 he %uts 8 eyes1 he no long] sees1 & :5 he /ops 8 e>s1 he no long] he>s2 :5 8 body is bruis$1 he feels pa92 :5 he wills to raise 8 h&1 8 body c>ries out ! m5tal decree4 ,o!r m5 act v mu* z he does2 !y walk & !y talk1 !y laugh & !y cry1 !y "w & !y play1 j z he does4 ,9 %ort1 !y act precisely z ?\gh !y _h m9ds l 8 own4 ,:at m natural ?an to assume t1 z he himself gives expression1 by ! actions ( 8 body1 to ! ?\ghts & emotions 9 8 m9d1 s 8 neighbor does ! same8 ,we mu/ n all[ ourselves to und]rate ! pla9 man's k ei!r ( bodies or ( m9ds4 ,x seems1 :5 "o reflects ^u x1 a suffici5tly wond]ful ?+ t a few fragm5t>y s5sations %\ld automatically receive an int]pretation :i* conjures up be=e ! m9d a _w ( real ?+s2 t1 = example1 ! little pat* ( color s5sation :i* ,i exp]i5ce :5 ,i turn my eyes t[>d ! w9d[ %\ld seem to introduce me at once to a _w ( mat]ial objects ly+ 9 space1 cle>ly def9$ 9 magnitude1 di/ance1 & direction2 t an exp]i5ce no m complex %\ld be ! key :i* %\ld unlock = me ! secret /oreh\se ( ano!r m9d1 & lay be=e me a weal? ( ?\ghts & emotions n my own4 ,f ! poor1 b>e1 mean+less _w ( ! dawn+ intellig5ce to ! _w ( common ?\ght1 a _w 9 :i* real ?+s ) _! manifold prop]ties1 ?+s mat]ial & ?+s m5tal1 be> _! "p1 is inde$ a long /ep4 ,& we %\ld nev] =get t he :o w\ld g f>!r1 he :o w\ld /rive to ga9 a bett] k ( matt] & ( m9d by ! aid ( sci5ce & ( philosophical reflection1 mu/ beg9 8 labors on ?is f\ndation :i* is common to u all4 ,h[ else c he beg9 ?an by accept+ & m critically exam9+ ! _w z x seems reveal$ 9 ! exp]i5ce ( ! race8 #h4 ,,sci5tific ,,k4--,/ill1 ! k ( ! _w :i* we h be5 discuss+ is r indef9ite1 inaccurate1 & unsy/ematic4 ,x is a suffici5t guide = common life1 b its defici5cies may be made app>5t4 ,he :o wi%es to "k matt] & m9d bett] _c af=d to neglect ! sci5ces4 ,n[1 x is important to obs]ve t al?\gh1 :5 ! pla9 man gr[s sci5tific1 great *anges take place 9 8 k ( ?+s1 yet 8 way ( look+ at ! m9d & ! _w rema9s 9 g5]al mu* :at x 0 be=e4 ,to prev5t ?is /atem5t f be+ misund]/ood1 ,i mu/ expla9 x at "s l5g?4 ,let u suppose t ! man 9 "q takes up ! /udy ( botany4 ,ne$ he d any?+ v diff]5t f :at is done m imp]fectly by e intellig5t man :o int]e/s himself 9 plants8 ,!re 9 ! real mat]ial _w be=e him are ! same plants t he obs]v$ some:at c>elessly be=e4 ,he mu/ collect 8 in=mation m sy/ematically & mu/ arrange x m critically1 b 8 task is n s mu* to d some?+ diff]5t z x is to d ! same ?+ mu* bett]4 ,! same is evid5tly true ( v>i\s o!r sci5ces1 su* z geology1 zology1 physiology1 sociology4 ,"s m5 h mu* accurate in=mation reg>d+ rocks1 animals1 ! functions ( ! bodily organs1 ! developm5t ( a giv5 =m ( society1 & o!r ?+s ( ! sort1 & o!r m5 h b little2 & yet x is usually n difficult = ! man :o kn[s mu* to make ! man :o kn[s little und]/&1 at lea/1 :at he is talk+ ab\t4 ,he is busy+ himself ) ?+s--! same ?+s t int]e/ ! pla9 man1 & ( :i* ! pla9 man kn[s some?+4 ,he has collect$ in=mation t\*+ _! prop]ties1 _! *anges1 _! relation%ips2 b to him1 z to 8 less sci5tific neighbor1 !y are ! same ?+s !y always 71--?+s t he has kn[n f ! days ( *ildhood4 ,p]haps x w be admitt$ t ?is is true ( su* sci5ces z ^? above indicat$1 b d\bt$ :e!r x is true ( all ! sci5ces1 ev5 ( all ! sci5ces :i* are directly conc]n$ ) ?+s ( "s sort4 ,= example1 to ! pla9 man ! _w ( mat]ial ?+s consi/s ( ?+s t c be se5 & t\*$4 ,_m ( ^! seem to fill space cont9u\sly4 ,!y may be divid$1 b ! p>ts into :i* !y may be divid$ are conceiv$ z fragm5ts ( ! ?+s1 & z ( ! same g5]al nature z ! :oles ( :i* !y are p>ts4 ,yet ! *emi/ & ! physici/ tell u t ^! same ext5d$ ?+s are n really cont9u\s1 z !y seem to u to be1 b consi/ ( sw>ms ( imp]ceptible atoms1 9 rapid motion1 at consid]able di/ances f "o ano!r 9 space1 & gr\p$ 9 v>i\s ways4 ,:at has n[ become ( ! _w ( realities to :i* ! pla9 man p9n$ 8 fai?8 ,x has come to be look$ ^u z a _w ( appe>ances1 ( ph5om5a1 ( manife/ations1 "u :i* ! real ?+s1 !mselves imp]ceptible1 make _! pres5ce evid5t to our s5ses4 ,is ?is new1 real _w ! _w ( ?+s 9 :i* ! pla9 man f9ds himself1 & 9 :i* he has felt s mu* at home8 ,a clos] scrut9y reveals t ! _w ( atoms & molecules into :i* ! man ( sci5ce resolves ! sy/em ( mat]ial ?+s is n1 aft] all1 s v diff]5t 9 k9d f ! _w to :i* ! pla9 man is accu/om$4 ,he c und]/& )\t difficulty ! language 9 :i* x is describ$ to him1 & he c readily see h[ a man may be l$ to assume its exi/5ce4 ,! atom is n1 x is true1 directly p]ceivable by s5se1 b x is conceiv$ z ?\gh x & its motions 7 ?us p]ceivable4 ,! pla9 man has long kn[n t ?+s consi/ ( p>ts :i* rema91 "u "s circum/ances1 invisible4 ,:5 he approa*es an object f a di/ance1 he sees p>ts :i* he c\ld n see be=e2 & :at appe>s to ! nak$ eye a m]e speck )\t p]ceptible p>ts is f\nd "u ! microscope to be an insect ) its full complem5t ( memb]s4 ,moreov]1 he has (t5 obs]v$ t objects :i* appe> cont9u\s :5 se5 f a di/ance are evid5tly f> f cont9u\s :5 se5 close at h&4 ,z we walk t[>d a tree we c see ! indef9ite mass ( color break up into discont9u\s pat*es2 a fabric1 :i* pres5ts ! appe>ance ( an unbrok5 surface :5 view$ 9 c]ta9 ways may be se5 to be riddl$ ) holes :5 held betwe5 ! eye & ! light4 ,!re is no man :o has n "s acqua9tance ) ! di/9ction betwe5 appe>ance & reality1 & :o does n make use ( ! di/9ction 9 common life4 ,nor c x seem a surpris+ fact t diff]5t comb9ations ( atoms %\ld exhibit diff]5t prop]ties4 ,h we n always kn[n t ?+s 9 comb9ation are apt to h diff]5t prop]ties f ! same ?+s tak5 sep>ately8 ,he :o does n "k s mu* z ?is is n fit ev5 to be a cook4 ,no1 ! imp]ceptible _w ( atoms & molecules is n by any means totally diff]5t f ! _w ( ?+s 9 :i* ! pla9 man lives4 ,^! little objects & gr\ps ( objects are discuss$ v mu* z we discuss ! l>g] objects & gr\ps ( objects to :i* we are accu/om$4 ,we are /ill conc]n$ ) ?+s :i* exi/ 9 space & move ab\t 9 space2 & ev5 if ^! ?+s are small & are n v famili>ly kn[n1 no intellectual revolution is dem&$ to enable a man to und]/& ! words ( ! sci5ti/ :o is talk+ ab\t !m1 & to und]/& z well ! sort ( reason+s ^u :i* ! doctr9e is bas$4 #i4 ,,ma!matics4--,let u n[ turn to take a glance at ! ma!matical sci5ces4 ,( c\rse1 ^! h to d ) ?+s soon] or lat]1 = our ma!matical reason+s w\ld be absolutely useless to u if !y c\ld n be appli$ to ! _w ( ?+s2 b 9 ma!matical reason+s we ab/ract f ?+s = ! "t be+1 confid5t t we c come back to !m :5 we want to d s1 & c make use ( ! results obta9$ 9 our op]ations4 ,n[1 e civiliz$ man :o is n m5tally defici5t c p]=m ! fundam5tal op]ations ( ari?metic4 ,he c add & subtract1 multiply & divide4 ,9 o!r words1 he c use numb]s4 ,! man :o has become an accompli%$ ma!matician c use numb]s mu* bett]2 b if we are capable ( foll[+ intellig5tly ! intricate s]ies ( op]ations t he c>ries out on ! pap] be=e u1 & c see ! significance ( ! sy/em ( signs :i* he uses z an aid1 we %all realize t he is only do+ 9 m complicat$ ways :at we h be5 accu/om$ to d almo/ f our *ildhood4 ,if we are int]e/$1 n s mu* 9 p]=m+ ! op]ations1 z 9 inquir+ into :at really takes place 9 a m9d :5 sev]al units are grasp$ toge!r & made into a new unit1--= example1 :5 twelve units are ?\ght z "o doz51--! ma!matician has a "r to say3 ,i leave all t to ! psy*ologi/ or to ! metaphysician2 e "o kn[s 9 a g5]al way :at is meant by a unit1 & kn[s t units c be add$ & subtract$1 gr\p$ & sep>at$2 ,i only und]take to %[ h[ "o may avoid error 9 do+ ^! ?+s4 ,x is ) geometry z x is ) ari?metic4 ,no man is :olly ignorant ( po9ts1 l9es1 surfaces1 & solids4 ,we are all aw>e t a %ort l9e is n a po9t1 a n>r[ surface is n a l9e1 & a ?9 solid is n a m]e surface4 ,a door s ?9 z to h only "o side w\ld be repudiat$ by e man ( s5se z a mon/rosity4 ,:5 ! geometrician def9es = u ! po9t1 ! l9e1 ! surface1 & ! solid1 & :5 he sets be=e u an array ( axioms1 or self-evid5t tru?s1 we foll[ him ) confid5ce because he seems to be tell+ u ?+s t we c directly see to be reasonable2 inde$1 to be tell+ u ?+s t we h always kn[n4 ,! tru? is t ! geometrician does n introduce u to a new _w at all4 ,he m]ely gives u a full] & a m exact acc\nt ?an 0 be=e )9 our rea* ( ! space relations :i* obta9 9 ! _w ( ext]nal objects1 a _w we already "k pretty well4 ,suppose t we say to him3 ,y h sp5t _m ye>s 9 divid+ up space & 9 scrut9iz+ ! relations t are to be discov]$ 9 t realm2 n[ tell u1 :at is space8 ,is x real8 ,is x a ?+1 or a quality ( a ?+1 or m]ely a relation betwe5 ?+s8 ,& h[ c any man ?9k space1 :5 ! ideas ?r\gh :i* he mu/ ?9k x are suppos$ to be !mselves non-ext5d$8 ,! space itself is n suppos$ to be 9 ! m9d2 h[ c a collection ( non-ext5d$ ideas give any inkl+ ( :at is meant by ext5sion8 ,w\ld any tea*] ( ma!matics dream ( discuss+ ^! que/ions ) 8 class be=e proce$+ to ! pro( ( 8 propositions8 ,x is g5]ally admitt$ t1 if su* que/ions are to be answ]$ at all1 x is n ) ! aid ( geometrical reason+s t !y w be answ]$4 #aj4 ,,! ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,psy*ology4--,n[ let u come back to a sci5ce :i* has to d directly ) ?+s4 ,we h se5 t ! pla9 man has "s k ( m9ds z well z ( mat]ial ?+s4 ,e "o admits t ! psy*ologi/ kn[s m9ds bett]4 ,may we say t 8 k ( m9ds diff]s f t ( ! pla9 man ab\t z ! k ( plants possess$ by ! botani/ diff]s f t ( all intellig5t p]sons :o h c>$ to notice !m8 ,or is x a k ( a q diff]5t k9d8 ,^? :o are famili> ) ! developm5t ( ! sci5ces )9 rec5t ye>s h _h occasion to rem>k ! fact t psy*ology has be5 com+ m & m to take its place z an indep5d5t sci5ce4 ,=m]ly x 0 reg>d$ z "p ( ! duty ( ! philosoph] to treat ( ! m9d & its k2 b ! psy*ologi/ :o pret5ds to be no m ?an a psy*ologi/ is a product ( rec5t times4 ,?is t5d5cy t[>d specialization is a natural ?+1 & is q 9 l9e ) :at has tak5 place 9 o!r fields ( inve/igation4 ,:5 any sci5ce becomes an indep5d5t discipl9e1 x is recogniz$ t x is a m or less limit$ field 9 :i* "w ( a c]ta9 k9d is done 9 a c]ta9 way4 ,o!r fields & o!r k9ds ( "w are to "s ext5t ignor$4 ,b x is q to be expect$ t !re %\ld be "s dispute1 especially at fir/1 z to :at does or does n prop]ly fall )9 ! limits ( a giv5 sci5ce4 ,:]e ^! limits %all be plac$ is1 aft] all1 a matt] ( conv5i5ce2 & sometimes x is n well to be too /rict 9 m>k+ (f "o field f ano!r4 ,x is well to wat* ! actual developm5t ( a sci5ce1 & to note ! direction in/9ctively tak5 by inve/igators 9 t p>ticul> field4 ,if we comp>e ! psy*ology ( a g5]ation or s ago ) t ( ! pres5t day1 we _c b be /ruck ) ! fact t !re is an increas+ t5d5cy to treat psy*ology z a natural sci5ce4 ,by ?is is n meant1 ( c\rse1 t !re is no diff]5ce betwe5 psy*ology & ! sci5ces t conc]n !mselves ) ! _w ( mat]ial ?+s--psy*ology has to d prim>ily ) m9ds & n ) bodies4 ,b x is meant t1 z ! o!r sci5ces improve ^u ! k ( ! pla9 man )\t :olly reca/+ x1 z !y accept ! _w 9 :i* he f9ds himself & m]ely attempt to give u a bett] acc\nt ( x1 s ! psy*ologi/ may accept ! _w ( matt] & ( m9ds recogniz$ by common ?\ght1 & may devote himself to ! /udy ( m9ds1 )\t attempt+ to solve a class ( problems discuss$ by ! metaphysician4 ,= example1 he may refuse to discuss ! "q :e!r ! m9d c really "k t !re is an ext]nal _w ) :i* x /&s 9 relation1 & f :i* x receives messages along ! av5ues ( ! s5ses4 ,he may claim t x is no m 8 bus9ess to treat ( ?is ?an x is ! bus9ess ( ! ma!matician to treat ( ! ultimate nature ( space4 ,?us ! psy*ologi/ assumes )\t "q ! exi/5ce ( an ext]nal real _w1 a _w ( matt] & motion4 ,he f9ds 9 ?is _w c]ta9 organiz$ bodies t pres5t ph5om5a :i* he reg>ds z indicative ( ! pres5ce ( m9ds4 ,he accepts x z a fact t ea* m9d kn[s its own /ates directly1 & kn[s ev]y?+ else by inf]5ce f ^? /ates1 receiv+ messages f ! out] _w along "o set ( n]ves & react+ along ano!r set4 ,he conceives ( m9ds z :olly dep5d5t ^u messages ?us convey$ to !m f )\t4 ,he tells u h[ a m9d1 by ! aid ( su* messages1 gradually builds up = itself ! notion ( ! ext]nal _w & ( ! o!r m9ds :i* are connect$ ) bodies to be f\nd 9 t _w4 ,we may fairly say t all ?is is m]ely a developm5t ( & an improvem5t ^u ! pla9 man's k ( m9ds & ( bodies4 ,!re is no normal man :o does n "k t 8 m9d is m intimately relat$ to 8 body ?an x is to o!r bodies4 ,we all di/+ui% betwe5 our ideas ( ?+s & ! ext]nal ?+s !y repres5t1 & we believe t our k ( ?+s comes to u ?r\gh ! av5ues ( ! s5ses4 ,mu/ we n op5 our eyes to see1 & un/op our e>s to he>8 ,we all "k t we d n p]ceive o!r m9ds directly1 b mu/ inf] _! cont5ts f :at takes place 9 ! bodies to :i* !y are ref]r$--f words & actions4 ,moreov]1 we "k t a k ( ! out] _w & ( o!r m9ds is built up gradually1 & we nev] ?9k ( an infant z kn[+ :at a man kn[s1 mu* z we are incl9$ to ov]rate ! m9ds ( infants4 ,! fact t ! pla9 man & ! psy*ologi/ d n greatly diff] 9 _! po9t ( view mu/ impress e "o :o is *>g$ ) ! task ( introduc+ /ud5ts to ! /udy ( psy*ology & philosophy4 ,x is r an easy ?+ to make !m foll[ ! reason+s ( ! psy*ologi/1 s long z he avoids metaphysical reflections4 ,! assumptions :i* he makes seem to !m n unreasonable2 &1 z = 8 me?ods ( inve/igation1 !re is no "o ( !m :i* !y h n already employ$ !mselves 9 a m or less blund]+ way4 ,!y h _h rec\rse to introspection1 i4e4 !y h notic$ ! ph5om5a ( _! own m9ds2 !y h made use ( ! objective me?od1 i4e4 !y h obs]v$ ! signs ( m9d exhibit$ by o!r p]sons & by ! brutes2 !y h sometimes exp]im5t$--?is is done by ! s*oolgirl :o tries to f9d out h[ be/ to tease h] roommate1 & by ! boy :o cov]s & uncov]s 8 e>s 9 *ur* to make ! prea*] s+ a tune4 ,x may n be easy to make m5 good psy*ologi/s1 b x is c]ta9ly n difficult to make !m und]/& :at ! psy*ologi/ is do+ & to make !m realize ! value ( 8 "w4 ,he1 l ! work]s 9 ! o!r natural sci5ces1 takes = grant$ ! _w ( ! pla9 man1 ! _w ( mat]ial ?+s 9 space & "t & ( m9ds relat$ to ^? mat]ial ?+s4 ,b :5 x is a "q ( introduc+ ! /ud5t to ! reflections ( ! philosoph]s ! case is v diff]5t4 ,we seem to be entic+ him into a new & a /range _w1 & he is apt to be fill$ ) suspicion & di/ru/4 ,! mo/ famili> ?+s take on an unfamili> aspect1 & que/ions are rais$ :i* x /rikes ! unreflective man z highly absurd ev5 to propose4 ,( ?is _w ( reflective ?\ght ,i %all say j a ^w 9 :at foll[s4 #aa4 ,,reflective ,,?\ght4--,if we ask our neighbor to meet u some:]e at a giv5 h\r1 he has no difficulty 9 und]/&+ :at we h reque/$ him to d4 ,if he wi%es to d s1 he c be on ! spot at ! prop] mom5t4 ,he may nev] h ask$ himself 9 8 :ole life :at he means by space & by "t4 ,he may be q ignorant t ?\ghtful m5 h disput$ conc]n+ ! nature ( ^! = c5turies pa/4 ,& a man may g ?r\gh ! _w avoid+ disa/] ye> aft] ye> by di/+ui%+ ) "s success betwe5 :at is real & :at is n real1 & yet he may be q unable to tell u :at1 9 g5]al1 x means = a ?+ to be real4 ,"s ?+s are real & "s are n2 z a rule he seems to be able to discov] ! diff]5ce2 ( 8 me?od ( proc$ure he has nev] tri$ to give an acc\nt to himself4 ,t he has a m9d he _c d\bt1 & he has "s idea ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 x & c]ta9 o!r m9ds2 b ev5 ! mo/ ard5t *ampion ( ! pla9 man mu/ admit t he has ! mo/ hazy ( notions t\*+ ! nature ( 8 m9d4 ,he seems to be m d\btful conc]n+ ! nature ( ! m9d & its k ?an he is conc]n+ ! nature ( ext]nal ?+s4 ,c]ta9ly he appe>s to be m will+ to admit 8 ignorance 9 ?is realm4 ,& yet ! man c hold 8 own 9 ! _w ( real ?+s4 ,he c di/+ui% betwe5 ?is ?+ & t1 ?is place & t1 ?is "t & t4 ,he c ?9k out a plan & c>ry x into execution2 he c guess at ! cont5ts ( o!r m9ds & all[ ?is k to f9d its place 9 8 plan4 ,all ( :i* proves t our k is n necess>ily useless because x is r dim & vague4 ,x is "o ?+ to use a m5tal /ate2 x is ano!r to h a cle> compreh5sion ( j :at x is & ( :at elem5ts x may be made up4 ,! pla9 man does mu* ( 8 ?9k+ z we all tie our %oes & button our buttons4 ,x w\ld be difficult = u to describe ^! op]ations1 b we may p]=m !m v easily nev]!less4 ,:5 we say t we "k h[ to tie our %oes1 we only mean t we c tie !m4 ,n[1 en\gh has be5 said 9 ! prec$+ sections to make cle> t ! vagu5ess :i* *>act]izes _m notions :i* con/antly recur 9 common ?\ght is n :olly dispell$ by ! /udy ( ! sev]al sci5ces4 ,! man ( sci5ce1 l ! pla9 man1 may be able to use v well = c]ta9 purposes concepts :i* he is n able to analyze satisfactorily4 ,= example1 he speaks ( space & "t1 cause & effect1 sub/ance & qualities1 matt] & m9d1 reality & unreality4 ,he c]ta9ly is 9 a position to add to our k ( ! ?+s cov]$ by ^! t]ms4 ,b we %\ld nev] ov]look ! fact t ! new k :i* he gives u is a k ( ! same k9d z t :i* we _h be=e4 ,he measures = u spaces & times2 he does n tell u :at space & "t are4 ,he po9ts out ! causes ( a multitude ( occurr5ces2 he does n tell u :at we mean :5ev] we use ! ^w cause4 ,he in=ms u :at we %\ld accept z real & :at we %\ld repudiate z unreal2 he does n try to %[ u :at x is to be real & :at x is to be unreal4 ,9 o!r words1 ! man ( sci5ce ext5ds our k & makes x m accurate2 he does n analyze c]ta9 fundam5tal conceptions1 :i* we all use1 b ( :i* we c usually give a v poor acc\nt4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is ! task ( reflective ?\ght1 n 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 to ext5d ! limits ( our k ( ! _w ( matt] & ( m9ds1 b r to make u m cle>ly consci\s ( :at t k really is4 ,philosophical reflection takes up & tries to analyze complex ?\ghts t m5 use daily )\t c>+ to analyze !m1 inde$1 )\t ev5 realiz+ t !y may be subject$ to analysis4 ,x is to be expect$ t x %\ld impress _m ( ^? :o are introduc$ to x = ! fir/ "t z r a fanta/ic creation ( problems t d n pres5t !mselves naturally to ! heal?y m9d4 ,!re is no ?\ghtful man :o does n reflect sometimes & ab\t "s ?+s2 b !re are few :o feel impell$ to g ov] ! :ole edifice ( _! k & exam9e x ) a critical eye f its turrets to its f\ndations4 ,9 a s5se1 we may say t philosophical ?\ght is n natural1 = he :o is exam9+ ! assumptions ^u :i* all our ord9>y ?\ght ab\t ! _w re/s is no long] 9 ! _w ( ! pla9 man4 ,he is treat+ ?+s z m5 d n commonly treat !m1 & x is p]haps natural t x %\ld appe> to "s t1 9 ! solv5t :i* he uses1 ! real _w 9 :i* we all rejoice %\ld seem to dissolve & disappe>4 ,i h said t x is n ! task ( reflective ?\ght1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 to ext5d ! limits ( our k ( ! _w ( matt] & ( m9ds4 ,?is is true4 ,b ?is does n mean t1 z a result ( a c>eful reflective analysis1 "s errors :i* may creep into ! ?\ght bo? ( ! pla9 man & ( ! sci5ti/ may n be explod$2 nor does x mean t "s new ext5sions ( our k may n be sugge/$4 ,9 ! *apt]s to foll[ ,i %all take up & exam9e "s ( ! problems ( reflective ?\ght4 ,& ,i %all consid] fir/ ^? problems t pres5t !mselves to ^? :o try to subject to a c>eful scrut9y our k ( ! ext]nal _w4 ,x is well to beg9 ) ?is1 =1 ev5 9 our common exp]i5ce1 x seems to be reveal$ t ! k ( mat]ial ?+s is a some?+ less vague & indef9ite ?an ! k ( m9ds4 ,,ii4 ,,problems ,,t\*+ ,,! ,,ext]nal ,,_w ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,is ,,!re ,,an ,,ext]nal ,,_w8 #ab4 ,,h[ ,,! ,,pla9 ,,man ,,?9ks ,,he ,,kn[s ,,! ,,_w4--,z s*oolboys we enjoy$ ,cic]o's joke at ! exp5se ( ! m9ute philosoph]s4 ,!y d5i$ ! immortality ( ! s\l2 he affirm$ x2 & he congratulat$ himself ^u ! fact t1 if !y 7 "r1 !y w\ld n survive to discov] x & to triumph ov] him4 ,at ! close ( ! sev5te5? c5tury ! philosoph] ,john ,locke 0 guilty ( a joke ( some:at ! same k9d4 ,i ?9k1 said he1 nobody c1 9 e>ne/1 be s skeptical z to be unc]ta9 ( ! exi/5ce ( ^? ?+s :i* he sees & feels4 ,at lea/1 he t c d\bt s f> 7:atev] he may h ) 8 own ?\ghts7 w nev] h any controv]sy ) me2 s9ce he c nev] be sure ,i say any?+ contr>y to 8 own op9ion4 ,n[1 9 ?is *apt] & 9 c]ta9 *apt]s to foll[1 ,i am go+ to take up & turn ov]1 s t we may get a good look at !m1 "s ( ! problems t h pres5t$ !mselves to ^? :o h reflect$ ^u ! _w & ! m9d z !y seem giv5 9 our exp]i5ce4 ,i %all beg9 by ask+ :e!r x is n possible to d\bt t !re is an ext]nal _w at all4 ,! "q _c be/ be answ]$ by a je/4 ,x may1 ( c\rse1 be absurd to ma9ta9 t !re is no ext]nal _w2 b surely he1 too1 is 9 an absurd position :o ma9ta9s dogmatically t !re is "o1 & is yet q unable to f9d any flaw 9 ! reason+s ( ! man :o seems to be able to %[ t ?is belief has no solid f\ndation4 ,& we mu/ n =get t ! m5 :o h ?\ght x wor? :ile to raise j su* que/ions z ?is1 dur+ ! la/ tw5ty c5turies1 h be5 among ! mo/ brilliant intellects ( ! race4 ,we mu/ n assume too ha/ily t !y h occupi$ !mselves ) m]e trivialities4 ,s9ce1 !re=e1 s _m ?\ghtful m5 h f\nd x wor? :ile to ask !mselves s]i\sly :e!r !re is an ext]nal _w1 or1 at lea/1 h[ we c "k t !re is an ext]nal _w1 x is n unreasonable to expect t1 by look+ = x1 we may f9d 9 our common exp]i5ce or 9 sci5ce "s difficulty suffici5t to sugge/ ! d\bt :i* at fir/ /rikes ! av]age man z prepo/]\s4 ,9 :at c su* a d\bt take its rise8 ,let u see4 ,i ?9k x is sc>cely too mu* to say t ! pla9 man believes t he does n directly p]ceive an ext]nal _w1 & t he1 at ! same "t1 believes t he does directly p]ceive "o4 ,x is q possible to believe contradictory ?+s1 :5 "o's ?\ght ( !m is some:at vague1 & :5 "o does n consci\sly br+ !m toge!r4 ,z to ! fir/-m5tion$ belief4 ,does n ! pla9 man di/+ui% betwe5 8 ideas ( ?+s & ! ?+s !mselves8 ,does he n believe t 8 ideas come to him ?r\gh ! av5ues ( ! s5ses8 ,is he n aw>e ( ! fact t1 :5 a s5se is disord]$1 ! ?+ z he p]ceives x is n l ! ?+ z x is8 ,a bl9d man does n see ?+s :5 !y are !re2 a color-bl9d man sees !m z o!rs d n see !m2 a man suff]+ "u c]ta9 abnormal conditions ( ! n]v\s sy/em sees ?+s :5 !y are n !re at all1 i4e4 he has halluc9ations4 ,! ?+ itself1 z x seems1 is n 9 ! man's m9d2 x is ! idea t is 9 ! man's m9d1 & t repres5ts ! ?+4 ,sometimes x appe>s to give a true acc\nt ( x2 sometimes x seems to give a g>bl$ acc\nt2 sometimes x is a false repres5tative ?r\gh\t--!re is no reality beh9d x4 ,x is1 !n1 ! idea t is imm$iately kn[n1 & n ! ?+2 ! ?+ is m]ely inf]r$ to exi/4 ,i d n mean to say t ! pla9 man is consci\s ( draw+ ?is conclusion4 ,i only ma9ta9 t x seems a natural conclusion to draw f ! facts :i* he recognizes1 & t sometimes he seems to draw ! conclusion half-consci\sly4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we mu/ all admit t :5 ! pla9 man is n ?9k+ ab\t ! di/9ction betwe5 ideas & ?+s1 b is look+ at "s mat]ial object be=e him1 is t\*+ x ) 8 f+]s & turn+ x ab\t to get a good look at x1 x nev] occurs to him t he is n directly consci\s ( ! ?+ itself4 ,he seems to himself to p]ceive ! ?+ imm$iately2 to p]ceive x z x is & :]e x is2 to p]ceive x z a really ext5d$ ?+1 out !re 9 space be=e 8 body4 ,he does n ?9k ( himself z occupi$ ) m]e images1 repres5tations ( ! object4 ,he may be will+ to admit t 8 m9d is 9 8 head1 b he _c ?9k t :at he sees is 9 8 head4 ,is n ! object !re8 does he n see & feel x8 ,:y d\bt su* evid5ce z ?is8 ,he :o tells him t ! ext]nal _w does n exi/ seems to be d5y+ :at is imm$iately giv5 9 8 exp]i5ce4 ,! man :o looks at ?+s 9 ?is way assumes1 ( c\rse1 t ! ext]nal object is kn[n directly1 & is n a some?+ m]ely inf]r$ to exi/ f ! pres5ce ( a repres5tative image4 ,may "o embrace ?is belief & ab&on ! o!r "o8 ,if we elect to d ?is1 we appe> to be 9 difficulties at once4 ,all ! consid]ations :i* made u di/+ui% s c>efully betwe5 our ideas ( ?+s & ! ?+s !mselves cr[d 9 ^u u4 ,c x be t we "k ?+s indep5d5tly ( ! av5ues ( ! s5ses8 ,w\ld a man ) diff]5t s5ses "k ?+s j z we d8 ,h[ c any man suff] f an halluc9ation1 if ?+s are n inf]r$ f images1 b are kn[n indep5d5tly8 ,! difficulties enc\nt]$ appe> suffici5tly s]i\s ev5 if we keep to t k ( ?+s :i* seems to be giv5 9 common exp]i5ce4 ,b ev5 ! pla9 man has he>d ( atoms & molecules2 & if he accepts ! ext5sion ( k (f]$ him by ! man ( sci5ce1 he mu/ admit t1 :atev] ?is app>5tly imm$iately p]ceiv$ ext]nal ?+ may be1 x _c be ! ext]nal ?+ t sci5ce assures him is out !re 9 space beyond 8 body1 & :i* mu/ be a v diff]5t sort ( ?+ f ! ?+ he seems to p]ceive4 ,! ?+ he p]ceives mu/1 !n1 be appe>ance2 & :]e c t appe>ance be if n 9 8 own m9d8 ,! man :o has made no /udy ( philosophy at all does n usually ?9k ^! ?+s out2 b surely !re are int]rogation m>ks writt5 up all ov] 8 exp]i5ce1 & he misses !m only because he does n see cle>ly4 ,by judici\sly ask+ que/ions "o may (t5 lead him ei!r to affirm or to d5y t he has an imm$iate k ( ! ext]nal _w1 pretty mu* z "o pleases4 ,if he affirms x1 8 position does n seem to be a :olly satisfactory "o1 z we h se52 & if he d5ies x1 he makes ! exi/5ce ( ! ext]nal _w :olly a matt] ( inf]5ce f ! pres5ce ( ideas 9 ! m9d1 & he mu/ /& ready to ju/ify ?is inf]5ce4 ,to _m m5 x has seem$ t ! inf]5ce is n an easy "o to ju/ify4 ,"o may say3 ,we c\ld h no ideas ( ?+s1 no s5sations1 if real ?+s did n exi/ & make an impression ^u our s5ses4 ,b to ?is x may be answ]$3 ,h[ is t /atem5t to be prov$8 ,is x to be prov$ by obs]v+ t1 :5 ?+s are pres5t & affect ! s5ses1 !re come into be+ ideas :i* repres5t ! ?+s8 ,evid5tly su* a pro( z ?is is out ( ! "q1 =1 if x is true t we "k ext]nal ?+s only by inf]5ce & nev] imm$iately1 !n we c nev] prove by obs]vation t ideas & ?+s are ?us connect$4 ,& if x is n to be prov$ by obs]vation1 h[ %all x be prov$8 ,%all we j assume x dogmatically & pass on to some?+ else8 ,surely !re is en\gh 9 ! exp]i5ce ( ! pla9 man to ju/ify him 9 rais+ ! "q :e!r he c c]ta9ly "k t !re is an ext]nal _w4 #ac4 ,,! ,,psy*ologi/ ,,& ,,! ,,ext]nal ,,_w4--,we h se5 j above t ! d\bt reg>d+ ! exi/5ce ( ! _w seems to h its root 9 ! famili> di/9ction betwe5 ideas & ?+s1 appe>ances & ! realities :i* !y are suppos$ to repres5t4 ,! psy*ologi/ has mu* to say ab\t ideas2 & if %>p5+ & mak+ cle> ?is di/9ction has any?+ to d ) /irr+ up d\bts1 x is natural to suppose t !y %\ld become m insi/5t :5 "o has ex*ang$ ! ignorance ( ev]yday life = ! k ( ! psy*ologi/4 ,n[1 :5 ! psy*ologi/ asks h[ a giv5 m9d comes to h a k ( any ext]nal ?+1 he f9ds 8 answ] 9 ! messages :i* h be5 br\ght to ! m9d by means ( ! bodily s5ses4 ,he describes ! s5se-organs & ! n]v\s connections betwe5 ^! & ! bra91 & tells u t :5 c]ta9 n]v\s impulses h travel$1 let u say1 f ! eye or ! e> to ! bra91 "o has s5sations ( sight or s\nd4 ,he describes = u 9 detail h[1 out ( su* s5sations & ! memories ( su* s5sations1 we frame m5tal images ( ext]nal ?+s4 ,betwe5 ! m5tal image & ! ?+ t x repres5ts he di/+ui%es %>ply1 & he in=ms u t ! m9d kn[s no m ab\t ! ext]nal ?+ ?an is conta9$ 9 su* images4 ,t a ?+ is pres5t c be kn[n only by ! fact t a message f ! ?+ is s5t along ! n]ves1 & :at ! ?+ is mu/ be det]m9$ f ! "* ( ! message4 ,giv5 ! image 9 ! abs5ce ( ! ?+1--t is to say1 an halluc9ation1--! m9d w naturally suppose t ! ?+ is pres5t4 ,?is false supposition _c be correct$ by a direct inspection ( ! ?+1 = su* a direct inspection ( ?+s is out ( ! "q4 ,! only way 9 :i* ! m9d conc]n$ c discov] t ! ?+ is abs5t is by ref]r+ to its o!r exp]i5ces4 ,?is image is comp>$ ) o!r images & is discov]$ to be 9 "s way abnormal4 ,we decide t x is a false repres5tative & has no correspond+ reality beh9d x4 ,?is doctr9e tak5 z x /&s seems to cut ! m9d (f f ! ext]nal _w v completely2 & ! mo/ curi\s ?+ ab\t x is t x seems to be built up on ! assumption t x is n really true4 ,h[ c "o "k c]ta9ly t !re is a _w ( mat]ial ?+s1 includ+ human bodies ) _! s5se-organs & n]ves1 if no m9d has ev] be5 able to inspect directly any?+ ( ! sort8 ,h[ c we tell t a s5sation arises :5 a n]v\s impulse has be5 c>ri$ along a s5sory n]ve & has rea*$ ! bra91 if e m9d is %ut up to ! *>m$ circle ( its own ideas8 ,! anatomi/ & ! physiologi/ give u v detail$ acc\nts ( ! s5se-organs & ( ! bra92 ! physiologi/ ev5 und]takes to measure ! spe$ ) :i* ! impulse passes along a n]ve2 ! psy*ologi/ accepts & uses ! results ( _! labors4 ,b c all ?is be done 9 ! abs5ce ( any fir/-h& k ( ! ?+s ( :i* "o is talk+8 ,rememb] t1 if ! psy*ologi/ is "r1 any ext]nal object1 eye1 e>1 n]ve1 or bra91 :i* we c p]ceive directly1 is a m5tal complex1 a some?+ 9 ! m9d & n ext]nal at all4 ,h[ %all we prove t !re are objects1 e>s1 eyes1 n]ves1 & bra9s1--9 %ort1 all ! requisite me*anism = ! call+ into exi/5ce ( s5sations1--9 an out] _w :i* is n imm$iately p]ceiv$ b is only inf]r$ to exi/8 ,i d n wi% to be reg>d$ z impugn+ ! "r ( ! psy*ologi/ to make ! assumptions :i* he does1 & to "w z he does4 ,he has a "r to assume1 ) ! pla9 man1 t !re is an ext]nal _w & t we "k x4 ,b a v little reflection mu/ make x manife/ t he seems1 at lea/1 to be guilty ( an inconsi/5cy1 & t he :o wi%es to ?9k cle>ly %\ld /rive to see j :]e ! tr\ble lies4 ,s mu*1 at lea/1 is evid5t3 ! man :o is incl9$ to d\bt :e!r !re is1 aft] all1 any real ext]nal _w1 appe>s to f9d 9 ! psy*ologi/'s di/9ction betwe5 ideas & ?+s some?+ l an excuse = 8 d\bt4 ,to get to ! bottom ( ! matt] & to dissipate 8 d\bt "o has to g r deeply into metaphysics4 ,i m]ely wi% to %[ j "h t ! d\bt is n a gratuit\s "o1 b is really sugge/$ to ! ?\ghtful m9d by a reflection ^u our exp]i5ce ( ?+s4 ,&1 z we are all apt to ?9k t ! man ( sci5ce is less giv5 to busy+ himself ) useless subtleties ?an is ! philosoph]1 ,i %all1 be=e clos+ ?is *apt]1 pres5t "s p>agraphs ^u ! subject f ! p5 ( a pr(essor ( ma!matics & me*anics4 #ad4 ,,! ,,telephone ,,ex*ange4--,we are accu/om$ to talk1 writes ,pr(essor ,k>l ,pe>son1#a ( ! 'ext]nal _w1' ( ! 'reality' outside u4 ,we speak ( individual objects hav+ an exi/5ce indep5d5t ( our own4 ,! /ore ( pa/ s5se-impressions1 our ?\ghts & memories1 al?\gh mo/ probably !y h beside _! psy*ical elem5t a close correspond5ce ) "s physical *ange or impress 9 ! bra91 are yet spok5 ( z inside ourselves4 ,on ! o!r h&1 al?\gh if a s5sory n]ve be divid$ any:]e %ort ( ! bra91 we lose ! correspond+ class ( s5se impression1 we yet speak ( _m s5se-impressions1 su* z =m & texture1 z exi/+ outside ourselves4 ,h[ close !n c we actually get to ?is suppos$ _w outside ourselves8 ,j z ne> b no ne>] ?an ! bra9 t]m9als ( ! s5sory n]ves4 ,we are l ! cl]k 9 ! c5tral telephone ex*ange :o _c get ne>] to 8 cu/om]s ?an 8 end ( ! telephone wires4 ,we are inde$ worse (f ?an ! cl]k1 = to c>ry out ! analogy prop]ly we mu/ suppose him nev] to h be5 outside ! telephone ex*ange1 nev] to h se5 a cu/om] or any "o l a cu/om]--9 %ort1 nev]1 except ?r\gh ! telephone wire1 to h come 9 contact ) ! outside univ]se4 ,( t 'real' univ]se outside himself he w\ld be able to =m no direct impression2 ! real univ]se = him w\ld be ! aggregate ( 8 con/ructs f ! messages :i* 7 caus$ by ! telephone wires 9 8 (fice4 ,ab\t ^? messages & ! ideas rais$ 9 8 m9d by !m he might reason & draw 8 inf]5ces2 & 8 conclusions w\ld be correct--= :at8 ,= ! _w ( telephonic messages1 = ! type ( messages t g ?r\gh ! telephone4 ,some?+ def9ite & valuable he might "k ) reg>d to ! sph]es ( action & ( ?\ght ( 8 telephonic subscrib]s1 b outside ^? sph]es he c\ld h no exp]i5ce4 ,p5t up 9 8 (fice he c\ld nev] h se5 or t\*$ ev5 a telephonic subscrib] 9 himself4 ,v mu* 9 ! position ( su* a telephone cl]k is ! consci\s ego ( ea* "o ( u seat$ at ! bra9 t]m9als ( ! s5sory n]ves4 ,n a /ep ne>] ?an ^? t]m9als c ! ego get to ! 'out] _w1' & :at 9 & = !mselves are ! subscrib]s to its n]ve ex*ange x has no means ( asc]ta9+4 ,messages 9 ! =m ( s5se-impressions come fl[+ 9 f t 'outside _w1' & ^! we analyze1 classify1 /ore up1 & reason ab\t4 ,b ( ! nature ( '?+s-9-!mselves1' ( :at may exi/ at ! o!r end ( our sy/em ( telephone wires1 we "k no?+ at all4 ,b ! read]1 p]haps1 rem>ks1 ',i n only see an object1 b ,i c t\* x4 ,i c trace ! n]ve f ! tip ( my f+] to ! bra94 ,i am n l ! telephone cl]k1 ,i c foll[ my network ( wires to _! t]m9als & f9d :at is at ! o!r end ( !m4' ,c y1 read]8 ,?9k = a mom5t :e!r y\r ego has = "o mom5t got away f 8 bra9 ex*ange4 ,! s5se-impression t y call t\* 0 j z mu* z sight felt only at ! bra9 end ( a s5sory n]ve4 ,:at has told y also ( ! n]ve f ! tip ( y\r f+] to y\r bra98 ,:y1 s5se-impressions also1 messages convey$ along optic or tactile s5sory n]ves4 ,9 tru?1 all y h be5 do+ is to employ "o subscrib] to y\r telephone ex*ange to tell y ab\t ! wire t goes to a second1 b y are j z f> z ev] f trac+ out = y\rself ! telephone wires to ! individual subscrib] & asc]ta9+ :at 8 nature is 9 & = himself4 ,! imm$iate s5se-impression is j z f> remov$ f :at y t]m ! 'outside _w' z ! /ore ( impresses4 ,if our telephone cl]k _h record$ by aid ( a phonograph c]ta9 ( ! messages f ! outside _w on pa/ occasions1 !n if any telephonic message on its receipt set sev]al phonographs repeat+ pa/ messages1 we h an image analog\s to :at goes on 9 ! bra94 ,bo? telephone & phonograph are equally remov$ f :at ! cl]k might call ! 'real outside _w1' b !y enable him ?r\gh _! s\nds to con/ruct a univ]se2 he projects ^? s\nds1 :i* are really inside 8 (fice1 outside 8 (fice1 & speaks ( !m z ! ext]nal univ]se4 ,?is outside _w is con/ruct$ by him f ! cont5ts ( ! inside s\nds1 :i* diff] z widely f ?+s-9-!mselves z language1 ! symbol1 mu/ always diff] f ! ?+ x symbolizes4 ,= our telephone cl]k s\nds w\ld be ! real _w1 & yet we c see h[ condition$ & limit$ x w\ld be by ! range ( 8 p>ticul> telephone subscrib]s & by ! cont5ts ( _! messages4 ,s x is ) our bra92 ! s\nds f telephone & phonograph correspond to imm$iate & /or$ s5se-impressions4 ,^! s5se-impressions we project z x 7 outw>ds & t]m ! real _w outside ourselves4 ,b ! ?+s-9-!mselves :i* ! s5se-impressions symbolize1 ! 'reality1' z ! metaphysicians wi% to call x1 at ! o!r end ( ! n]ve1 rema9s unkn[n & is unkn[able4 ,reality ( ! ext]nal _w lies = sci5ce & = u 9 comb9ations ( =m & color & t\*--s5se-impressions z widely div]g5t f ! ?+ 'at ! o!r end ( ! n]ve' z ! s\nd ( ! telephone f ! subscrib] at ! o!r end ( ! wire4 ,we are cribb$ & conf9$ 9 ?is _w ( s5se-impressions l ! ex*ange cl]k 9 8 _w ( s\nds1 & n a /ep beyond c we get4 ,z 8 _w is condition$ & limit$ by 8 p>ticul> network ( wires1 s ours is condition$ by our n]v\s sy/em1 by our organs ( s5se4 ,_! peculi>ities det]m9e :at is ! nature ( ! outside _w :i* we con/ruct4 ,x is ! simil>ity 9 ! organs ( s5se & 9 ! p]ceptive faculty ( all normal human be+s :i* makes ! outside _w ! same1 or practically ! same1 = !m all4 ,to return to ! old analogy1 x is z if two telephone ex*anges _h v ne>ly id5tical gr\ps ( subscrib]s4 ,9 ?is case a wire betwe5 ! two ex*anges w\ld soon conv9ce ! imprison$ cl]ks t !y _h some?+ 9 common & peculi> to !mselves4 ,t conviction corresponds 9 our comp>ison to ! recognition ( o!r consci\sness4 ,i sugge/ t ?is extract be read ov] c>efully1 n once b sev]al times1 & t ! read] try to make q cle> to himself ! position ( ! cl]k 9 ! telephone ex*ange1 i4e4 ! position ( ! m9d 9 ! body1 z depict$ by ,pr(essor ,pe>son1 be=e rec\rse is _h to ! criticisms ( any "o else4 ,"o _c f9d any:]e bett] mat]ial = critical philosophical reflection4 ,z has be5 se51 our au?or accepts )\t "q1 ! psy*ological doctr9e t ! m9d is %ut up )9 ! circle ( ! messages t are conduct$ to x along ! s5sory n]ves1 & t x _c directly p]ceive any?+ truly ext]nal4 ,he c>ries 8 doctr9e out to ! bitt] end 9 ! conclusion t1 s9ce we h nev] _h exp]i5ce ( any?+ beyond s5se-impressions1 & h no gr\nd = an inf]5ce to any?+ beyond1 we mu/ recognize t ! only ext]nal _w ( :i* we "k any?+ is an ext]nal _w built up out ( s5se-impressions4 ,x is1 ?us1 9 ! m9d1 & is n ext]nal at all2 x is only project$ outw>ds1 ?\ght ( z ?\gh x 7 beyond u4 ,%all we leave ! inconsi/5t position ( ! pla9 man & ( ! psy*ologi/ & take our refuge 9 ?is _w ( project$ m5tal con/ructs8 ,be=e ! read] makes up 8 m9d to d ?is1 ,i beg him to consid] ! foll[+3-- 7#a7 ,if ! only ext]nal _w ( :i* we h a "r to speak at all is a con/ruct 9 ! m9d or ego1 we may c]ta9ly affirm t ! _w is 9 ! ego1 b does x s\nd s5sible to say t ! ego is some:]e 9 ! _w8 7#b7 ,if all ext]nal ?+s are really inside ! m9d1 & are only project$ outw>ds1 ( c\rse our own bodies1 s5se-organs1 n]ves1 & bra9s1 are really inside & are m]ely project$ outw>ds4 ,n[1 d ! s5se-impressions ( :i* ev]y?+ is to be con/ruct$ come fl[+ 9 along ^! n]ves t are really inside8 7#c7 ,c we say1 :5 a n]ve lies entirely )9 ! m9d or ego1 t ?is same m9d or ego is ne>] to "o end ( ! n]ve ?an x is to ! o!r8 ,h[ %all we picture to ourselves ! consci\s ego ( ea* "o ( u seat$ at ! bra9 t]m9als ( ! s5sory n]ves8 ,h[ c ! ego place ! :ole ( itself at ! end ( a n]ve :i* x has con/ruct$ )9 itself8 ,& :y is x m difficult = x to get to "o end ( a n]ve l ?is ?an x is to get to ! o!r8 7#d7 ,:y %\ld ! ?+ at ! o!r end ( ! n]ve rema9 unkn[n & unkn[able8 ,s9ce ! n]ve is entirely 9 ! m9d1 is purely a m5tal con/ruct1 c any?+ :atev] be at ! end ( x )\t be+ 9 ! m9d8 ,& if ! ?+ 9 "q is n 9 ! m9d1 h[ are we go+ to prove t x is any ne>] to "o end ( a n]ve :i* is inside ! m9d ?an x is to ! o!r8 ,if x may really be said to be at ! end ( ! n]ve1 :y may we n "k x q z well z we d ! end ( ! n]ve1 or any o!r m5tal con/ruct8 ,x mu/ be cle> to ! c>eful read] ( ,pr(essor ,pe>son's p>agraphs1 t he does n conf9e himself /rictly to ! _w ( m]e projections1 to an out] _w :i* is really inn]4 ,if he did ?is1 ! di/9ction betwe5 inn] & out] w\ld disappe>4 ,let u consid] = a mom5t ! imprison$ cl]k4 ,he is 9 a telephone ex*ange1 ab\t him are wires & subscrib]s4 ,he gets only s\nds & mu/ build up 8 :ole univ]se ( ?+s out ( s\nds4 ,n[ we are suppos+ him to be 9 a telephone ex*ange1 to be receiv+ messages1 to be build+ up a _w out ( ^! messages4 ,d we = a mom5t ?9k ( him z build+ up1 out ( ! messages :i* came along ! wires1 ^? id5tical wires :i* c>ri$ ! messages & ! subscrib]s :i* s5t !m8 ,nev]6 we di/+ui% betwe5 ! ex*ange1 ) its wires & subscrib]s1 & ! messages receiv$ & work$ up into a _w4 ,9 pictur+ to ourselves ! telephone ex*ange1 we are do+ :at ! pla9 man & ! psy*ologi/ d :5 !y di/+ui% betwe5 m9d & body1--!y nev] suppose t ! messages :i* come ?r\gh ! s5ses are id5tical ) ! s5ses ?r\gh :i* !y come4 ,b suppose we ma9ta9 t !re is no su* ?+ z a telephone ex*ange1 ) its wires & subscrib]s1 :i* is n to be f\nd )9 "s cl]k4 ,suppose ! real ext]nal _w is some?+ inn] & only project$ )\t1 mi/ak5ly suppos$ by ! un?9k+ to be )\t4 ,suppose x is nons5se to speak ( a wire :i* is n 9 ! m9d ( a cl]k4 ,may we "u su* circum/ances describe any cl]k z 9 a telephone ex*ange8 z receiv+ messages8 z no ne>] to 8 subscrib]s ?an 8 end ( ! wire8 ,may we say t s5se-impressions come fl[+ 9 to him8 ,! :ole figure ( ! telephone ex*ange becomes an absurdity :5 we h once plac$ ! ex*ange )9 ! cl]k4 ,nor c we ?9k ( two cl]ks z connect$ by a wire1 :5 x is affirm$ t e wire mu/ really be 9 "s cl]k4 ,! tru? is1 t1 9 ! extracts :i* ,i h giv5 above & 9 _m o!r passages 9 ! same volume1 ! real ext]nal _w1 ! _w :i* does n exi/ 9 ! m9d b )\t x1 is mu* discr$it$1 & is yet n actually disc>d$4 ,! ego is plac$ at ! bra9 t]m9als ( ! s5sory n]ves1 & x receives messages :i* fl[ 92 i4e4 ! cl]k is actually plac$ 9 an ex*ange4 ,t ! exi/5ce ( ! ex*ange is aft]w>d d5i$ 9 s _m words does n mean t x has n play$ & does n cont9ue to play an important "p 9 ! ?\ght ( ! au?or4 ,x is int]e/+ to see h[ a man ( sci5ce1 ^: reflections compel him to d5y ! exi/5ce ( ! ext]nal _w t we all seem to p]ceive & t we someh[ recognize z di/9ct f any?+ 9 our m9ds1 is nev]!less compell$ to admit ! exi/5ce ( ?is _w at e turn4 ,b if we d admit x1 :at %all we make ( x8 ,%all we d5y ! tru? ( :at ! psy*ologi/ has to tell u ab\t a k ( ?+s only ?r\gh ! s5sations to :i* !y give rise8 ,we _c1 surely1 d t4 ,%all we affirm t we "k ! ext]nal _w directly1 & at ! same "t t we d n "k x directly1 b only indirectly1 & ?r\gh ! images :i* arise 9 our m9ds8 ,t seems inconsi/5t4 ,c]ta9ly !re is mat]ial = reflection "h4 ,nev]!less ! m we reflect on t mat]ial1 ! m evid5t does x become t ! pla9 man _c be wrong 9 believ+ 9 ! ext]nal _w :i* seems reveal$ 9 8 exp]i5ces4 ,we f9d t all attempts to discr$it x re/ ^u ! implicit assumption ( its exi/5ce1 & fall to ! gr\nd :5 t exi/5ce is hone/ly d5i$4 ,s our problem *anges its =m4 ,we no long] ask3 ,is !re an ext]nal _w8 b r3 ,:at is ! ext]nal _w1 & h[ does x diff] f ! _w ( m]e ideas8 #a ,! ,gramm> ( ,sci5ce1 #b;d ,ed41 ,london1 #aijj1 pp4 #fj-fc4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,s5sations ,,& ,,?+s #ae4 ,,s5se ,,& ,,imag9ation4--,e "o di/+ui%es betwe5 ?+s p]ceiv$ & ?+s only imag9$4 ,) op5 eyes ,i see ! desk be=e me2 ) eyes clos$1 ,i c imag9e x4 ,i lay my h& on x & feel x2 ,i c1 )\t lay+ my h& on x1 imag9e t ,i feel x4 ,i raise my eyes1 & see ! pictures on ! wall opposite me2 ,i c sit "h & call be=e my m9d ! image ( ! door by :i* ! h\se is ent]$4 ,:at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 s5se & imag9ation8 ,x mu/ be a diff]5ce ( :i* we are all someh[ consci\s1 = we unhesitat+ly di/+ui% betwe5 ! ?+s we p]ceive & ! ?+s we m]ely imag9e4 ,x is well to rememb] at ! outset t ! two classes ( exp]i5ces are n :olly diff]5t4 ,! blue color t ,i imag9e seems blue4 ,x does n lose ?is quality because x is only imag9>y4 ,! horse t ,i imag9e seems to h f\r legs1 l a horse p]ceiv$4 ,z ,i call x be=e my m9d1 x seems z l>ge z ! real horse4 ,nei!r ! color1 nor ! size1 nor ! di/ribution ( p>ts1 nor any o!r attribute ( ! sort appe>s to be diff]5t 9 ! imag9>y object f :at x is 9 ! object z giv5 9 s5sation4 ,! two exp]i5ces are1 nev]!less1 n ! same2 & e "o kn[s t !y are n ! same4 ,"o diff]5ce t r\ghly m>ks out ! two classes ( exp]i5ces f "o ano!r is t1 z a rule1 our s5se-exp]i5ces are m vivid ?an are ! images t exi/ 9 ! imag9ation4 ,i say1 z a rule1 = we _c always rem>k ?is diff]5ce4 ,s5sations may be v cle> & unmi/akable1 b !y may also be v fa9t & indef9ite4 ,:5 a man lays 8 h& firmly on my %\ld]1 ,i may be 9 little d\bt :e!r ,i feel a s5sation or d n2 b :5 he t\*es my back v lightly1 ,i may easily be 9 d\bt1 & may ask myself 9 p]plexity :e!r ,i h really be5 t\*$ or :e!r ,i h m]ely imag9$ x4 ,z a vessel rec$es & becomes a m]e speck ^u ! horizon1 ,i may well wond]1 be=e ,i feel sure t x is really q out ( sight1 :e!r ,i /ill see ! dim little po9t1 or :e!r ,i m]ely imag9e t ,i see x4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ?+s m]ely imag9$ may sometimes be v vivid & insi/5t4 ,to "s p]sons1 :at exi/s 9 ! imag9ation is dim & indef9ite 9 ! extreme4 ,o!rs imag9e ?+s vividly1 & c describe :at is pres5t only to ! imag9ation almo/ z ?\gh x 7 some?+ se54 ,f9ally1 we "k t an image may become s vivid & insi/5t z to be mi/ak5 = an ext]nal ?+4 ,t is to say1 !re are su* ?+s z halluc9ations4 ,! crit]ion ( vividness w n1 !re=e1 always s]ve to di/+ui% betwe5 :at is giv5 9 ! s5se & :at is only imag9$4 ,&1 inde$1 x becomes evid5t1 ^u reflection1 t we d n actually make x our ultimate te/4 ,we may be q will+ to admit t fa9t s5sations may come to be confus$ ) :at is imag9$1 ) ideas1 b we always reg>d su* a confusion z somebody's error4 ,we are n ready to admit t ?+s p]ceiv$ fa9tly are ?+s imag9$1 or t vivid ideas are ?+s p]ceiv$ by s5se4 ,let u come back to ! illu/rations ) :i* we />t$4 ,h[ d ,i "k t ,i p]ceive ! desk be=e me2 & h[ d ,i "k t1 sitt+ "h1 ,i imag9e1 & d n see1 ! front door ( ! h\se8 ,my crit]ion is ?is3 :5 ,i h ! exp]i5ce ,i call see+ my desk1 ! bit ( exp]i5ce :i* pres5ts itself z my desk is 9 a c]ta9 sett+4 ,t is to say1 ! desk se5 mu/ be 9 a c]ta9 relation to my body1 & ?is body1 z ,i "k x1 also consi/s ( exp]i5ces4 ,?us1 if ,i am to "k t ,i see ! desk1 ,i mu/ realize t my eyes are op51 t ! object is 9 front ( me & n beh9d me1 etc4 ,! desk z se5 v>ies ) ! relation to ! body 9 c]ta9 ways t we reg>d z natural & explicable4 ,:5 ,i am ne> x1 ! visual exp]i5ce is n j :at x is :5 ,i rec$e f x4 ,b h[ c ,i "k t ,i am ne> ! desk or f> f x8 ,:at d ^! expressions mean8 ,_! full mean+ w become cle>] 9 ! next *apt]1 b "h ,i may say t ne>ness & remot5ess mu/ be measur$ = me 9 exp]i5ces ( "s sort1 or ,i w\ld nev] "k any?+ z ne> to or f> f my body4 ,?us1 all our s5sory exp]i5ces are exp]i5ces t fall into a c]ta9 sy/em or ord]4 ,x is a sy/em :i* we all recognize implicitly1 = we all reject z m]ely imag9>y ^? exp]i5ces :i* lack ?is sett+4 ,if my eyes are %ut--,i am speak+ n[ ( ! eyes z exp]i5c$1 z felt or p]ceiv$1 z giv5 9 s5sation--,i nev] say2 ,i see my desk1 no matt] h[ vivid ! image ( ! object4 ,^? :o believe 9 second sight sometimes talk ( see+ ?+s n 9 ?is sett+1 b ! v "n !y give to ! suppos$ exp]i5ce indicates t !re is some?+ abnormal ab\t x4 ,no "o ?9ks x rem>kable t ,i see ! desk be=e :i* ,i p]ceive myself to be sitt+ ) op5 eyes4 ,e "o w\ld ?9k x /range if ,i c\ld see & describe ! table 9 ! next room1 n[ %ut away f me4 ,:5 a man ?9ks he he>s 8 "n pron\nc$1 &1 turn+ 8 head1 seeks 9 va9 = ! speak]1 he sets 8 exp]i5ce d[n z a halluc9ation4 ,he says1 ,i did n really he> t2 ,i m]ely imag9$ x4 ,may "o n1 ) op5 eyes1 h a halluc9ation ( vision1 j z "o may seem to he> "o's "n pron\nc$ :5 no "o is by8 ,c]ta9ly4 ,b 9 ea* case ! exp]i5ce may be prov$ to be a halluc9ation1 nev]!less4 ,x may be recogniz$ t ! s5sory sett+ is incomplete1 ?\gh x may n1 at fir/1 seem s4 ,?us ! unreal object :i* seems to be se5 may be f\nd to be a ?+ t _c be t\*$4 ,or1 :5 "o has atta9$ to a relatively complete k ( ! sy/em ( exp]i5ces recogniz$ z s5sory1 "o may make use ( r\ndab\t me?ods ( asc]ta9+ t ! exp]i5ce 9 "q does n really h ! "r sett+4 ,?us1 ! gho/ :i* is se5 by ! t]rifi$ peasant at midnight1 b :i* _c be photograph$1 we may unhesitat+ly set d[n z some?+ imag9$ & n really se54 ,all our s5sations are1 !re=e1 exp]i5ces :i* take _! place 9 a c]ta9 sett+4 ,?is is our ultimate crit]ion4 ,we ne$ n take ! ^w ( ! philosoph] = x4 ,we ne$ only reflect1 & ask ourselves h[ we "k t1 9 a giv5 case1 we are see+ or he>+ or t\*+ some?+1 & are n m]ely imag9+ x4 ,9 e case1 we %all f9d t we come back to ! same te/4 ,9 common life1 we apply ! te/ in/9ctively1 & ) little realization ( :at we are do+4 ,& if we turn to ! psy*ologi/1 ^: bus9ess x is to be m exact & sci5tific1 we f9d t he gives u only a ref9em5t ( ?is same crit]ion4 ,x is important to him to di/+ui% betwe5 :at is giv5 9 s5sation & :at is furni%$ by memory or imag9ation1 & he tells u t s5sation is ! result ( a message conduct$ along a s5sory n]ve to ! bra94 ,"h we see emphasiz$ ! relation to ! body :i* has be5 m5tion$ above4 ,if we ask ! psy*ologi/ h[ he kn[s t ! body he is talk+ ab\t is a real body1 & n m]ely an imag9$ "o1 he has to fall back ^u ! te/ :i* is common to u all4 ,a real h& is "o :i* we see ) ! eyes op51 & :i* we t\* ) ! o!r h&4 ,if our exp]i5ces ( our own body _h n ! sett+ :i* m>ks all s5sory exp]i5ces1 we c\ld nev] say3 ,i p]ceive t my body is ne> ! desk4 ,:5 we call our body real1 z contra/$ ) ?+s imag9>y1 we recognize t ?is gr\p ( exp]i5ces belongs to ! class describ$2 x is giv5 9 s5sation1 & is n m]ely ?\ght (4 ,x w be obs]v$ t1 9 di/+ui%+ betwe5 s5sations & ?+s imag9>y1 we nev] g beyond ! circle ( our exp]i5ces4 ,we d n rea* out to a some?+ beyond or beh9d exp]i5ces1 & say3 ,:5 su* a reality is pres5t1 we may affirm t we h a s5sation1 & :5 x is n1 we may call ! exp]i5ce imag9>y4 ,if !re 7 su* a reality z ?is1 x w\ld d u little good1 = s9ce x is n suppos$ to be p]ceiv$ directly1 we %\ld h to dep5d ^u ! s5sations to prove ! pres5ce ( ! reality1 & c\ld n turn to ! reality & ask x :e!r we 7 or 7 n exp]i5c+ a s5sation4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 s5sations & :at is imag9>y is an obs]v$ di/9ction4 ,x c be prov$ t "s exp]i5ces are s5sory & t "s are n4 ,?is means t1 9 draw+ ! di/9ction1 we rema9 )9 ! circle ( our exp]i5ces4 ,!re has be5 mu* unnecess>y my/ification t\*+ ?is suppos$ reality beh9d exp]i5ces4 ,9 ! next *apt] we %all see 9 :at s5ses ! ^w reality may prop]ly be us$1 & 9 :at s5se x may n4 ,!re is a dang] 9 us+ x loosely & vaguely4 #af4 ,,may ,,we ,,call ,,?+s ,,gr\ps ,,( ,,s5sations8--,n[1 ! ext]nal _w seems to ! pla9 man to be directly giv5 9 8 s5se exp]i5ces4 ,he is will+ to admit t ! table 9 ! next room1 ( :i* he is m]ely ?9k+1 is kn[n at "o remove1 s to speak4 ,b ?is desk "h be=e him3 is x n kn[n directly8 ,n ! m5tal image1 ! m]e repres5tative1 b ! desk itself1 a some?+ t is physical & n m5tal8 ,& ! psy*ologi/1 :atev] 8 !ory ( ! relation betwe5 ! m9d & ! _w1 seems to support him1 at lea/1 9 s f> z to ma9ta9 t 9 s5sation ! ext]nal _w is kn[n z directly z x is possible = ! ext]nal _w to be kn[n1 & t "o c get no m ( x ?an is pres5t$ 9 s5sation4 ,if a s5se is lack+1 an aspect ( ! _w z giv5 is also lack+2 if a s5se is defective1 z 9 ! color-bl9d1 ! defect is reflect$ 9 ! _w ^u :i* "o gazes4 ,su* consid]ations1 especially :5 tak5 toge!r ) :at has be5 said at ! close ( ! la/ section ab\t ! futility ( look+ = a reality beh9d our s5sations1 may easily sugge/ r a />tl+ possibility4 ,may x n be1 if we really are %ut up to ! circle ( our exp]i5ces1 t ! physical ?+s1 :i* we h be5 accu/om$ to look ^u z non-m5tal1 are no?+ m ?an complexes ( s5sations8 ,grant$ t !re seems to be pres5t$ 9 our exp]i5ce a mat]ial _w z well z a m9d1 may x n be t ?is mat]ial _w is a m5tal ?+ ( a c]ta9 k9d--a m5tal ?+ contra/$ ) o!r m5tal ?+s1 su* z imag9>y ?+s8 ,?is "q has always be5 answ]$ 9 ! affirmative by ! ideali/s1 :o claim t all exi/5ce mu/ be reg>d$ z psy*ical exi/5ce4 ,_! doctr9e we %all consid] lat] 7sections #di & #ec74 ,x w be notic$ t we seem to be back aga9 ) ,pr(essor ,pe>son 9 ! la/ *apt]4 ,to ?is "q ,i make ! foll[+ answ]3 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ,i rem>k t ev5 ! pla9 man di/+ui%es someh[ betwe5 8 s5sations & ext]nal ?+s4 ,he ?9ks t he has reason to believe t ?+s d n cease to exi/ :5 he no long] has s5sations4 ,moreov]1 he believes t ?+s d n always appe> to 8 s5ses z !y really are4 ,if we tell him t 8 s5sations are ! ?+s1 x %ocks 8 common s5se4 ,he answ]s3 ,d y mean to tell me t complexes ( s5sation c be on a %elf or 9 a draw]8 c be cut ) a knife or brok5 ) ! h&s8 ,he feels t !re mu/ be "s real di/9ction betwe5 s5sations & ! ?+s )\t him4 ,n[1 ! notions ( ! pla9 man on su* matt]s z ^! are n v cle>1 & :at he says ab\t s5sations & ?+s is n always edify+4 ,b x is cle> t he feels /rongly t ! man :o w\ld id5tify !m is oblit]at+ a di/9ction to :i* 8 exp]i5ce te/ifies unequivocally4 ,we mu/ n ha/ily disreg>d 8 prote/4 ,he is sometimes "r 9 8 feel+ t ?+s are n id5tical1 ev5 :5 he _c prove x4 ,9 ! second place1 ,i rem>k t1 9 ?is in/ance1 ! pla9 man is 9 ! "r1 & c be %[n to be 9 ! "r4 ,?+s are n gr\ps ( s5sations4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 !m w be expla9$ 9 ! next section4 #ag4 ,,! ,,di/9ction ,,betwe5 ,,s5sations ,,& ,,?+s--,suppose t ,i /& 9 my /udy & look at ! fire 9 ! grate4 ,i am exp]i5c+ s5sations1 & am n busi$ m]ely ) an imag9>y fire4 ,b may my :ole exp]i5ce ( ! fire be summ$ up z an exp]i5ce ( s5sations & _! *anges8 ,let u see4 ,if ,i %ut my eyes1 ! fire disappe>s4 ,does any "o suppose t ! fire has be5 annihilat$8 ,no4 ,we say1 ,i no long] see x1 b no?+ has happ5$ to ! fire4 ,aga91 ,i may keep my eyes op51 & simply turn my head4 ,! fire disappe>s once m4 ,does any "o suppose t my turn+ my head has done any?+ to ! fire8 ,we say unhesitat+ly1 my s5sations h *ang$1 b ! fire has rema9$ z x 04 ,/ill1 aga91 ,i may )draw f ! fire4 ,its heat seems to be dim9i%$4 ,has ! fire really gr[n less hot8 ,& if ,i c\ld )draw to a suffici5t di/ance1 ,i "k t ! fire w\ld appe> to me small] & less bright4 ,c\ld ,i get f> en\gh away to make x seem ! fa9te/ speck 9 ! field ( vision1 w\ld ,i be tempt$ to claim t ! fire %runk & grew fa9t m]ely because ,i walk$ away f x8 ,surely n4 ,n[1 suppose t ,i /& on ! same spot & look at ! fire )\t turn+ my head4 ,! /ick at :i* ,i am gaz+ cat*es ! flame1 blazes up1 turns r$1 & f9ally falls toge!r1 a little mass ( gray a%es4 ,%all ,i describe ?is by say+ t my s5sations h *ang$1 or may ,i say t ! fire itself has *ang$8 ,! pla9 man & ! philosoph] alike use ! latt] expression 9 su* a case z ?is4 ,let u take ano!r illu/ration4 ,i walk t[>ds ! di/ant h\se on ! pla9 be=e me4 ,:at ,i see z my goal seems to gr[ l>g] & bright]4 ,x does n occur to me to ma9ta9 t ! h\se *anges z ,i advance4 ,b1 at a giv5 in/ant1 *anges ( a diff]5t sort make _! appe>ance4 ,smoke arises1 & flames bur/ f ! ro(4 ,n[ ,i h no hesitation 9 say+ t *anges are tak+ place 9 ! h\se4 ,x w\ld seem fooli% to describe ! occurr5ce z a m]e *ange 9 my s5sations4 ,be=e x 0 my s5sations t *ang$2 n[ x is ! h\se itself4 ,we are draw+ ?is di/9ction betwe5 *anges 9 our s5sations & *anges 9 ?+s at e h\r 9 ! day4 ,i _c move )\t mak+ ?+s appe> & disappe>4 ,if ,i wag my head1 ! furniture seems to dance1 & ,i reg>d x z a m]e seem+4 ,i c\nt on ! clock's go+ :5 ,i no long] look ^u its face4 ,x w\ld be absurd to hold t ! di/9ction is a m]e blund]1 & has no f\ndation 9 our exp]i5ce4 ,! rle x plays is too important = t4 ,if we oblit]ate x1 ! real _w ( mat]ial ?+s :i* seems to be reveal$ 9 our exp]i5ce melts into a *aos ( fanta/ic exp]i5ces ^: appe>ances & disappe>ances seem to be subject to no law4 ,& x is wor?y ( rem>k t x is n m]ely 9 common life t ! di/9ction is drawn4 ,e man ( sci5ce mu/ give he$ to x4 ,! psy*ologi/ does1 x is true1 pay mu* att5tion to s5sations2 b ev5 he di/+ui%es betwe5 ! s5sations :i* he is /udy+ & ! mat]ial ?+s to :i* he relates !m1 su* z bra9s & s5se-organs4 ,& ^? :o cultivate ! physical sci5ces /rive1 :5 !y give an acc\nt ( ?+s & _! behavior1 to lay be=e u a hi/ory ( *anges analog\s to ! burn+ ( ! /ick & ( ! h\se1 exclud+ m]e *anges 9 s5sations4 ,!re is no physici/ or botani/ or zologi/ :o has n our common exp]i5ce t ?+s z p]ceiv$ by u--our exp]i5ces ( ?+s--appe> or disappe> or *ange _! "* :5 we op5 or %ut our eyes or move ab\t4 ,b no?+ ( all ?is appe>s 9 _! books4 ,:at !y are conc]n$ ) is ?+s & _! *anges1 & !y d n consid] su* matt]s z ^! z fall+ )9 _! prov9ce4 ,if a botani/ c\ld n di/+ui% betwe5 ! *anges :i* take place 9 a plant1 & ! *anges :i* take place 9 8 s5sations z he is occupi$ 9 /udy+ ! plant1 b %\ld tell u t ! plant gr[s small] z "o rec$es f x1 we %\ld set him d[n z weak-m9d$4 ,t ! di/9ction is ev]y:]e drawn1 & t we mu/ n oblit]ate x1 is v evid5t4 ,b we are 9 ! pres5ce ( :at has seem$ to _m m5 a grave difficulty4 ,are n ?+s pres5t$ 9 our exp]i5ce only z we h s5sations8 :at is x to p]ceive a ?+8 is x n to h s5sations8 h[1 !n1 c we di/+ui% betwe5 s5sations & ?+s8 ,we c]ta9ly d s all ! "t1 9 spite ( ! prote/ ( ! philosoph]2 b _m ( u d s ) a haunt+ s5se t our behavior c sc>cely be ju/ifi$ by ! reason4 ,our difficulty1 h[ev]1 spr+s out ( an error ( our own4 ,grasp+ imp]fectly ! full significance ( ! ^w s5sation1 we ext5d its use beyond :at is legitimate1 & we call by t "n exp]i5ces :i* are n s5sations at all4 ,?us ! ext]nal _w comes to seem to u to be n really a some?+ contra/$ ) ! m5tal1 b a "p ( ! m5tal _w4 ,we accord to x ! attributes ( ! latt]1 & rob x ( ^? di/+ui%+ attributes :i* belong to x by "r4 ,:5 we h done ?is1 we may feel impell$ to say1 z did ,pr(essor ,pe>son1 t ?+s are n really outside ( u1 z !y seem to be1 b are m]ely project$ outside--?\ght ( z if !y 7 outside4 ,all ?is ,i mu/ expla9 at l5g?4 ,let u come back to ! fir/ ( ! illu/rations giv5 above1 ! case ( ! fire 9 my /udy4 ,z ,i /& & look at x1 :at %all ,i call ! r$ gl[ :i* ,i obs]ve8 ,%all ,i call x a quality ( a ?+1 or %all ,i call x a s5sation8 ,to ?is ,i answ]3 ,i may call x ei!r ! "o or ! o!r1 accord+ to its sett+ among o!r exp]i5ces4 ,we h se5 7section #ae7 t s5sations & ?+s m]ely imag9>y are di/+ui%$ f "o ano!r by _! sett+4 ,) op5 eyes we see ?+s2 ) our eyes clos$ we c imag9e !m3 we see :at is be=e u2 we imag9e :at lies beh9d our backs4 ,if we conf9e our att5tion to ! bit ( exp]i5ce itself1 we h no means ( det]m9+ :e!r x is s5sory or imag9>y4 ,only its sett+ c decide t po9t4 ,"h1 we h come to ano!r di/9ction ( mu* ! same sort4 ,t r$ gl[1 t bit ( exp]i5ce1 tak5 by itself & ab/ract$ f all o!r exp]i5ces1 _c be call$ ei!r a s5sation or ! quality ( a ?+4 ,only its context c give u ! "r to call x ! "o or ! o!r4 ,?is ought to become cle> :5 we reflect ^u ! illu/ration ( ! fire4 ,we h se5 t "o :ole s]ies ( *anges has be5 unhesitat+ly describ$ z a s]ies ( *anges 9 my s5sations4 ,:y 0 ?is8 ,because x 0 obs]v$ to dep5d ^u *anges 9 ! relations ( my body1 my s5ses 7a c]ta9 gr\p ( exp]i5ces71 to ! bit ( exp]i5ce ,i call ! fire4 ,ano!r s]ies 0 describ$ z a s]ies ( *anges 9 ! fire4 ,:y8 ,because1 ! relation to my s5ses rema9+ un*ang$1 *anges /ill took place1 & _h to be acc\nt$ = 9 o!r ways4 ,x is a matt] ( common k t !y c be acc\nt$ = 9 o!r ways4 ,?is is n a discov]y ( ! philosoph]4 ,he c only invite u to ?9k ov] ! matt] & see :at ! unle>n$ & ! le>n$ are do+ at e mom5t4 ,sometimes !y are notic+ t exp]i5ces *ange z !y turn _! heads or walk t[>d or away f objects2 sometimes !y ab/ract f ?is1 & consid] ! s]ies ( *anges t take place indep5d5tly ( ?is4 ,t bit ( exp]i5ce1 t r$ gl[1 is n relat$ only to my body4 ,su* exp]i5ces are relat$ also to ea* o!r2 !y /& 9 a va/ indep5d5t sy/em ( relations1 :i*1 z we h se51 ! man ( sci5ce c /udy )\t tr\bl+ himself to consid] s5sations at all4 ,?is sy/em is ! ext]nal _w--! ext]nal _w z kn[n or z kn[able1 ! only ext]nal _w t x means any?+ = u to talk ab\t4 ,z hav+ its place 9 ?is sy/em1 a bit ( exp]i5ce is n a s5sation1 b is a quality or aspect ( a ?+4 ,s5sations1 !n1 to be s5sations1 mu/ be bits ( exp]i5ce consid]$ 9 _! relation to "s organ ( s5se4 ,!y %\ld nev] be confus$ ) qualities ( ?+s1 :i* are exp]i5ces 9 a diff]5t sett+4 ,x is z unp>donable to conf\nd ! two z x is to conf\nd s5sations ) ?+s imag9>y4 ,we may n1 !re=e1 say t ?+s are gr\ps ( s5sations4 ,we may1 if we please1 describe !m z complexes ( qualities4 ,& we may n say t ! ?+s we p]ceive are really inside ( u & are m]ely project$ outside4 ,:at c inside & outside mean8 ,only ?is4 ,we recognize 9 our exp]i5ce two di/9ct ord]s1 ! objective ord]1 ! sy/em ( ph5om5a :i* con/itutes ! mat]ial _w1 & ! subjective ord]1 ! ord] ( ?+s m5tal1 to :i* belong s5sations & ideas4 ,t is outside :i* belongs to ! objective ord]4 ,! ^w has no o!r mean+ :5 us$ 9 ?is connection4 ,t is inside :i* belongs to ! subjective ord]1 & is contra/$ ) ! =m]4 ,if we d5y t !re is an objective ord]1 an ext]nal _w1 & say t ev]y?+ is inside1 we lose our di/9ction1 & ev5 ! ^w inside becomes mean+less4 ,x indicates no contra/4 ,:5 m5 fall into ! error ( talk+ 9 ?is way1 :at !y d is to keep ! ext]nal _w & ga9 ! di/9ction1 & at ! same "t to d5y ! exi/5ce ( ! _w :i* has furni%$ x4 ,9 o!r words1 !y put ! cl]k into a telephone ex*ange1 & !n tell u t ! ex*ange does n really exi/4 ,he is inside--( :at8 ,he is inside ( no?+4 ,!n1 c he really be inside8 ,we see1 ?us1 t ! pla9 man & ! man ( sci5ce are q "r 9 accept+ ! ext]nal _w4 ,! objective ord] is kn[n z directly z is ! subjective ord]4 ,bo? are ord]s ( exp]i5ces2 !y are op5 to obs]vation1 & we h1 9 g5]al1 little difficulty 9 di/+ui%+ betwe5 !m1 z ! illu/rations giv5 above amply prove4 #ah4 ,,! ,,exi/5ce ,,( ,,mat]ial ,,?+s4--,"o difficulty seems to rema9 & to call = a solution4 ,we all believe t mat]ial ?+s exi/ :5 we no long] p]ceive !m4 ,we believe t !y exi/$ be=e !y came )9 ! field ( our obs]vation4 ,9 ^! positions ! man ( sci5ce supports u4 ,! a/ronom] has no hesitation 9 say+ t ! comet1 :i* has sail$ away ?r\gh space1 exi/s1 & w return4 ,! geologi/ describes = u ! _w z x 0 9 pa/ ages1 :5 no eye 0 op5$ ^u x4 ,b has x n be5 /at$ above t ! mat]ial _w is an ord] ( exp]i5ces8 & c !re be su* a ?+ z an exp]i5ce t is n exp]i5c$ by somebody8 ,9 o!r words1 c ! _w exi/1 except z x is p]ceiv$ to exi/8 ,?is seem+ difficulty has occasion$ mu* tr\ble to philosoph]s 9 ! pa/4 ,bi%op ,b]keley 7#afhd-agec7 said1 ,to exi/ is to be p]ceiv$4 ,!re are ^? :o agree ) him at ! pres5t day4 ,_! difficulty w\ld h disappe>$ _h !y exam9$ ) suffici5t c>e ! mean+ ( ! ^w exi/4 ,we h no "r to pass ov] ! actual uses ( su* words1 & to give !m a mean+ ( our own4 ,if "o ?+ seems z c]ta9 z any o!r1 x is t mat]ial ?+s exi/ :5 we d n p]ceive !m4 ,on :at gr\nd may ! philosoph] combat ! univ]sal op9ion1 ! dictum ( common s5se & ( sci5ce8 ,:5 we look into 8 reason+s1 we f9d t he is influ5c$ by ! error discuss$ at l5g? 9 ! la/ section--he has confus$ ! ph5om5a ( ! two ord]s ( exp]i5ce4 ,i h said t1 :5 we conc]n ourselves ) ! objective ord]1 we ab/ract or %\ld ab/ract1 f ! relations :i* ?+s be> to our s5ses4 ,we acc\nt = ph5om5a by ref]r+ to o!r ph5om5a :i* we h reason to accept z _! physical conditions or causes4 ,we d n consid] t a physical cause is effective only :ile we p]ceive x4 ,:5 we come back to ?is notion ( our p]ceiv+ a ?+ or n p]ceiv+ x1 we h left ! objective ord] & pass$ ov] to ! subjective4 ,we h left ! consid]ation ( ?+s & h turn$ to s5sations4 ,!re is no reason :y we %\ld d ?is4 ,! physical ord] is an indep5d5t ord]1 z we h se54 ,! man ( sci5ce1 :5 he is endeavor+ to discov] :e!r "s ?+ or quality ( a ?+ really exi/$ at "s "t 9 ! pa/1 is n 9 ! lea/ conc]n$ to e/abli% ! fact t "s "o saw x4 ,no "o ev] saw ! primitive fire-mi/ f :i*1 z we are told1 ! _w came into be+4 ,b ! sci5ti/ c>es little = t4 ,he is conc]n$ only to prove t ! ph5om5a he is inve/igat+ really h a place 9 ! objective ord]4 ,if he decides t !y h1 he is satisfi$2 he has prov$ some?+ to exi/4 ,to belong to ! objective ord] is to exi/ z a physical ?+ or quality4 ,:5 ! pla9 man & ! man ( sci5ce ma9ta9 t a physical ?+ exi/s1 !y use ! ^w 9 precisely ! same s5se4 ,! mean+ !y give to x is ! prop] mean+ ( ! ^w4 ,x is ju/ifi$ by immemorial usage1 & x m>ks a real di/9ction4 ,%all we all[ ! philosoph] to tell u t we mu/ n use x 9 ?is s5se1 b mu/ say t only s5sations & ideas exi/8 ,surely n4 ,?is w\ld mean t we p]mit him to oblit]ate = u ! di/9ction betwe5 ! ext]nal _w & :at is m5tal4 ,b is x "r to use ! ^w exp]i5ce to indicate ! ph5om5a :i* h a place 9 ! objective ord]8 ,c an exp]i5ce be any?+ b m5tal8 ,!re c be no d\bt t ! sugge/ions ( ! ^w are un=tunate--x has :at we may call a subjective flavor4 ,x sugge/s t1 aft] all1 ! ?+s we p]ceive are s5sations or p]cepts1 & mu/1 to exi/ at all1 exi/ 9 a m9d4 ,z we h se51 ?is is an error1 & an error :i* we all avoid 9 actual practice4 ,we d n take s5sations = ?+s1 & we recognize cle>ly en\gh t x is "o ?+ = a mat]ial object to exi/ & ano!r = x to be p]ceiv$4 ,:y1 !n1 use ! ^w exp]i5ce8 ,simply because we h no bett] ^w4 ,we mu/ use x1 & n be misl$ by ! associations :i* cl+ to x4 ,! ^w has ?is great advantage3 x br+s out cle>ly ! fact t all our k ( ! ext]nal _w re/s ultimately ^u ^? ph5om5a :i*1 :5 we consid] !m 9 relation to our s5ses1 we recognize z s5sations4 ,we _c />t out f m]e imag9+s to discov] :at ! _w 0 l 9 ! ages pa/4 ,x is ?is tru? t is recogniz$ by ! pla9 man1 :5 he ma9ta9s t1 9 ! la/ resort1 we c "k ?+s only 9 s f> z we see1 t\*1 he>1 ta/e1 & smell !m2 & by ! psy*ologi/1 :5 he tells u t1 9 s5sation1 ! ext]nal _w is reveal$ z directly z x is possible t x c\ld be reveal$4 ,b x is a trave/y on ?is tru? to say t we d n "k ?+s1 b "k only our s5sations ( sight1 t\*1 ta/e1 he>+1 & ! l4#a #a ,see ! note on ?is *apt] at ! close ( ! volume4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,appe>ances ,,& ,,realities #ai4 ,,?+s ,,& ,,_! ,,appe>ances4--,we h se5 9 ! la/ *apt] t !re is an ext]nal _w & t x is giv5 9 our exp]i5ce4 ,!re is an objective ord]1 & we are all capable ( di/+ui%+ betwe5 x & ! subjective4 ,he :o says t we p]ceive only s5sations & ideas flies 9 ! face ( ! common exp]i5ce ( mank9d4 ,b we are n yet ?r\gh ) ! subject4 ,we all make a di/9ction betwe5 ?+s z !y appe> & ?+s z !y really are4 ,if we ask ! pla9 man1 ,:at is ! real ext]nal _w8 ! fir/ answ] t seems to pres5t itself to 8 m9d is ?is3 ,:atev] we c see1 he>1 t\*1 ta/e1 or smell may be reg>d$ z belong+ to ! real _w4 ,:at we m]ely imag9e does n belong to x4 ,t ?is answ] is n a v satisfactory "o occurr$ to m5's m9ds v e>ly 9 ! hi/ory ( reflective ?\ght4 ,! anci5t skeptic said to himself3 ,! colors ( objects v>y accord+ to ! light1 & accord+ to ! position & di/ance ( ! objects2 c we say t any object has a real color ( its own8 ,a /aff /uck into wat] looks b5t1 b feels /raight to ! t\*2 :y believe ! te/imony ( "o s5se r ?an t ( ano!r8 ,su* que/ion+s l$ to f>-rea*+ consequ5ces4 ,!y result$ 9 a =lorn di/ru/ ( ! te/imony ( ! s5ses1 & to a d\bt z to our ability to "k any?+ z x really is4 ,n[1 ! di/9ction betwe5 appe>ances & realities exi/s = u z well z = ! anci5t skeptic1 & )\t be+ tempt$ to make su* extravagant /atem5ts z t !re is no su* ?+ z tru?1 & t e appe>ance is z real z any o!r1 we may admit t x is n v easy to see ! full significance ( ! di/9ction1 al?\gh we are ref]r+ to x con/antly4 ,= example1 we look f our w9d[ & see1 z we say1 a tree at a di/ance4 ,:at we are consci\s ( is a small blui% pat* ( color4 ,n[1 a small blui% pat* ( color is n1 /rictly speak+1 a tree2 b = u x repres5ts ! tree4 ,suppose t we walk t[>d ! tree4 ,d we cont9ue to see :at we saw be=e8 ,( c\rse1 we say t we cont9ue to see ! same tree2 b x is pla9 t :at we imm$iately p]ceive1 :at is giv5 9 consci\sness1 does n rema9 ! same z we move4 ,our blue pat* ( color gr[s l>g] & l>g]2 x ceases to be blue & fa9t2 at ! la/ x has be5 replac$ by an expanse ( vivid gre51 & we see ! tree j be=e u4 ,dur+ our :ole walk we h be5 see+ ! tree4 ,?is appe>s to mean t we h be5 hav+ a :ole s]ies ( visual exp]i5ces1 no two ( :i* 7 j alike1 & ea* ( :i* 0 tak5 z a repres5tative ( ! tree4 ,:i* ( ^! repres5tatives is mo/ l ! tree8 ,is ! tree really a fa9t blue1 or is x really a vivid gre58 ,or is x ( "s int]m$iate color8 ,probably mo/ p]sons w be incl9$ to ma9ta9 t ! tree only seems blue at a di/ance1 b t x really is gre51 z x appe>s :5 "o is close to x4 ,9 a s5se1 ! /atem5t is j2 yet "s ( ^? :o make x w\ld be puzzl$ to tell by :at "r !y pick out ( ! :ole s]ies ( exp]i5ces1 ea* ( :i* repres5ts ! tree z se5 f "s p>ticul> position1 "o individual exp]i5ce1 :i* !y claim n only repres5ts ! tree z se5 f a giv5 po9t b also repres5ts x z x is4 ,does ?is p>ticul> exp]i5ce be> "s peculi> e>m>k :i* tells u t x is l ! real tree :ile ! o!rs are unlike x8 #bj4 ,,real ,,?+s4--,& :at is ?is real tree t we are suppos$ to see z x is :5 we are close to x8 ,ab\t two hundr$ ye>s ago ! philosoph] ,b]keley po9t$ out t ! di/9ction commonly made betwe5 ?+s z !y look1 ! app>5t1 & ?+s z !y are1 ! real1 is at bottom ! di/9ction betwe5 ?+s z pres5t$ to ! s5se ( sight & ?+s z pres5t$ to ! s5se ( t\*4 ,! acute analysis :i* he made has held its own ev] s9ce4 ,we h se5 t1 9 walk+ t[>ds ! tree1 we h a long s]ies ( visual exp]i5ces1 ea* ( :i* diff]s m or less f all ( ! o!rs4 ,nev]!less1 f ! beg9n+ ( our progress to ! end1 we say t we are look+ at ! same tree4 ,! images *ange color & gr[ l>g]4 ,we d n say t ! tree *anges color & gr[s l>g]4 ,:y d we speak z we d8 ,x is because1 all along ! l9e1 we mean by ! real tree1 n :at is giv5 to ! s5se ( sight1 b some?+ = :i* ?is /&s z a sign4 ,?is some?+ mu/ be giv5 9 our exp]i5ce some:]e1 we mu/ be able to p]ceive x "u "s circum/ances or o!r1 or x w\ld nev] occur to u to recognize ! visual exp]i5ces z signs1 & we %\ld nev] say t 9 be+ consci\s ( !m 9 succession we are look+ at ! same tree4 ,!y are c]ta9ly n ! same ) ea* o!r2 h[ c we "k t !y all /& = ! same ?+1 unless we h _h exp]i5ce ( a connection ( ! :ole s]ies ) "o ?+8 ,?is ?+ = :i* s _m diff]5t visual exp]i5ces may s]ve z signs is ! ?+ reveal$ 9 exp]i5ces ( t\*4 ,:5 we ask3 ,9 :at direction is ! tree8 ,h[ f> away is ! tree8 ,h[ big is ! tree8 we are always ref]r+ to ! tree reveal$ 9 t\*4 ,x is nons5se to say t :at we see is f> away1 if by :at we see we mean ! visual exp]i5ce itself4 ,z soon z we move we lose t visual exp]i5ce & get ano!r1 & to recov] ! "o we lo/ we mu/ g back :]e we 7 be=e4 ,:5 we say we see a tree at a di/ance1 we mu/ mean1 !n1 t we "k f c]ta9 visual exp]i5ces :i* we h t by mov+ a c]ta9 di/ance we w be able to t\* a tree4 ,& :at does x mean to move a c]ta9 di/ance8 ,9 ! la/ analysis x means to u to h a c]ta9 quantity ( movem5t s5sations4 ,?us ! real _w ( ?+s1 = :i* exp]i5ces ( sight s]ve z signs1 is a _w reveal$ 9 exp]i5ces ( t\* & movem5t1 & :5 we speak ( real positions1 di/ances1 & magnitudes1 we are always ref]r+ to ?is _w4 ,b ?is is a _w reveal$ 9 our exp]i5ce1 & x does n seem a hopeless task to discov] :at may prop]ly be call$ real & :at %\ld be describ$ z m]ely app>5t1 :5 bo? ! real & ! app>5t are op5 to our inspection4 ,c we n f9d 9 ?is analysis a satisfactory explanation ( ! pla9 man's claim t "u c]ta9 circum/ances he sees ! tree z x is & "u o!rs he does n8 ,:at he is really ass]t+ is t "o visual exp]i5ce gives him bett] in=mation reg>d+ ! real ?+1 ! t\* ?+1 ?an does ano!r4 ,b :at %all we say ( 8 claim t ! tree is really gre51 & only looks blue "u c]ta9 circum/ances8 ,is x n j z true t ! tree only looks gre5 "u c]ta9 circum/ances8 ,is color any "p ( ! t\* ?+8 ,is x ev] m ?an a sign ( ! t\* ?+8 ,h[ c "o color be m real ?an ano!r8 ,n[1 we may hold to ,b]keley's analysis & ma9ta9 t1 9 g5]al1 ! real _w1 z contra/$ ) ! app>5t1 means to u ! _w t is reveal$ 9 exp]i5ces ( t\* & movem5t2 & yet we may admit t ! ^w real is sometimes us$ 9 r diff]5t s5ses4 ,x does n seem absurd = a woman to ,say3 ,?is piece ( silk really is yell[2 x only looks :ite "u ?is light4 ,we all admit t a :ite h\se may look p9k "u ! rays ( ! sett+ sun1 & we nev] call x a p9k h\se4 ,we h se5 t x is n unnatural to say3 ,t tree is really gre52 x is only its di/ance t makes x look blue4 ,:5 "o reflects ^u ^! uses ( ! ^w real1 "o recognizes ! fact t1 among all ! exp]i5ces 9 :i* ?+s are reveal$ to u1 c]ta9 exp]i5ces impress u z be+ m prom95t or important or s]viceable ?an c]ta9 o!rs1 & !y come to be call$ real4 ,?+s are n commonly se5 by artificial light2 ! sun is n always sett+2 ! tree looks gre5 :5 x is se5 mo/ satisfactorily4 ,9 ea* case1 ! real color ( ! ?+ is ! color t x has "u circum/ances t /rike u z normal or z important4 ,we _c say t we always reg>d z mo/ real t aspect "u :i* we mo/ commonly p]ceive ?+s1 = if a m unusual exp]i5ce is m s]viceable & really gives u m in=mation ab\t ! ?+1 we give ! pref]5ce to t4 ,?us we look ) ! nak$ eye at a mov+ speck on ! table be=e u1 & we are unable to di/+ui% its p>ts4 ,we place a microscope ov] ! speck & p]ceive an insect ) all its memb]s4 ,! second exp]i5ce is ! m unusual "o1 b w\ld n e "o say3 ,n[ we p]ceive ! ?+ z x is8 #ba4 ,,ultimate ,,real ,,?+s4--,let u turn away f ! s5ses ( ! ^w real1 :i* recognize "o color or ta/e or odor z m real ?an ano!r1 & come back to ! real _w ( ?+s pres5t$ 9 s5sations ( t\*4 ,all o!r classes ( s5sations may be reg>d$ z relat$ to ?is z ! s]ies ( visual exp]i5ces above m5tion$ 0 relat$ to ! "o tree :i* 0 spok5 ( z reveal$ 9 !m all1 ! t\* tree ( :i* !y gave in=mation4 ,c we say t ?is _w is always to be reg>d$ z reality & nev] z appe>ance8 ,we h already se5 7section #h7 t sci5ce does n reg>d z any?+ m ?an appe>ance ! real ?+s :i* seem to be directly pres5t$ 9 our exp]i5ce4 ,?is p5 t ,i hold 9 my h& seems1 z ,i pass my f+]s ov] x1 to be cont9u\sly ext5d$4 ,x does n appe> to pres5t an alt]nation ( fill$ spaces & empty spaces4 ,i am told t x is compos$ ( molecules 9 rapid motion & at consid]able di/ances f "o ano!r4 ,i am fur!r told t ea* molecule is compos$ ( atoms1 & is1 9 its turn1 n a cont9u\s ?+1 b1 s to speak1 a gr\p ( little ?+s4 ,if ,i accept ?is doctr9e1 z x seems ,i mu/1 am ,i n =c$ to conclude t ! reality :i* is giv5 9 my exp]i5ce1 ! reality ) :i* ,i h contra/$ appe>ances & to :i* ,i h ref]r$ !m1 is1 aft] all1 itself only an appe>ance8 ,! t\* ?+s :i* ,i h hi!rto reg>d$ z ! real ?+s t make up ! ext]nal _w1 ! t\* ?+s = :i* all my visual exp]i5ces h s]v$ z signs1 are1 !n1 n !mselves real ext]nal ?+s1 b only ! appe>ances "u :i* real ext]nal ?+s1 !mselves imp]ceptible1 manife/ !mselves to me4 ,x seems1 !n1 t ,i d n directly p]ceive any real ?+1 or1 at lea/1 any?+ t c be reg>d$ z m ?an an appe>ance4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! ext]nal _w8 ,:at are ?+s really l8 ,c we give any true acc\nt ( !m1 or are we =c$ to say ) ! skeptics t we only "k h[ ?+s seem to u1 & mu/ ab&on ! attempt to tell :at !y are really l8 ,n[1 be=e "o sets out to answ] a "q x is well to f9d out :e!r x is a s5sible "q to ask & a s5sible "q to try to answ]4 ,he :o asks3 ,:]e is ! middle ( an inf9ite l9e8 ,:5 did all "t beg98 ,:]e is space z a :ole8 does n des]ve a s]i\s answ] to 8 que/ions4 ,& x is well to rememb] t he :o asks3 ,:at is ! ext]nal _w l8 mu/ keep 8 "q a significant "o1 if he is to reta9 8 "r to look = an answ] at all4 ,he has manife/ly no "r to ask u3 ,h[ does ! ext]nal _w look :5 no "o is look+8 ,h[ d ?+s feel :5 no "o feels !m8 ,h[ %all ,i ?9k ( ?+s1 n z ,i ?9k ( !m1 b z !y are8 ,if we are to give an acc\nt ( ! ext]nal _w at all1 x mu/ evid5tly be an acc\nt ( ! ext]nal _w2 i4e4 x mu/ be giv5 9 t]ms ( our exp]i5ce ( ?+s4 ,! only legitimate problem is to give a true acc\nt in/ead ( a false "o1 to di/+ui% betwe5 :at only appe>s & is n real & :at bo? appe>s & is real4 ,be>+ ?is 9 m9d1 let u come back to ! pla9 man's exp]i5ce ( ! _w4 ,he c]ta9ly seems to himself to p]ceive a real _w ( ?+s1 & he con/antly di/+ui%es1 9 a way v s]viceable to himself1 betwe5 ! m]ely app>5t & ! real4 ,!re is1 ( c\rse1 a s5se 9 :i* e exp]i5ce is real2 x is1 at lea/1 an exp]i5ce2 b :5 he contra/s real & app>5t he means some?+ m ?an ?is4 ,exp]i5ces are n relegat$ to ?is class or to t m]ely at r&om1 b ! f9al decision is ! outcome ( a long exp]i5ce ( ! diff]5ces :i* *>act]ize diff]5t individual exp]i5ces & is an expression ( ! relations :i* are obs]v$ to hold betwe5 !m4 ,c]ta9 exp]i5ces are accept$ z signs1 & c]ta9 o!rs come to take ! m dignifi$ position ( ?+ signifi$2 ! m9d re/s 9 !m & reg>ds !m z ! real4 ,we h se5 above t ! _w ( real ?+s 9 :i* ! pla9 man f9ds himself is a _w ( objects reveal$ 9 exp]i5ces ( t\*4 ,:5 he asks reg>d+ any?+3 ,h[ f> away is x8 ,h[ big is x8 ,9 :at direction is x8 x is always ! t\* ?+ t int]e/s him4 ,:at is giv5 to ! o!r s5ses is only a sign ( ?is4 ,we h also se5 7section #h7 t ! _w ( atoms & molecules ( :i* ! man ( sci5ce tells u is no?+ m ?an a fur!r developm5t ( ! _w ( ! pla9 man4 ,! real ?+s ) :i* sci5ce conc]ns itself are1 aft] all1 only m9ute t\* ?+s1 conceiv$ j z are ! ?+s ) :i* ! pla9 man is famili>4 ,!y exi/ 9 space & move ab\t 9 space1 z ! ?+s ab\t u are p]ceiv$ to exi/ 9 space & move ab\t 9 space4 ,!y h size & position1 & are sep>at$ by di/ances4 ,we d n p]ceive !m1 x is true2 b we conceive !m aft] ! analogy ( ! ?+s t we d p]ceive1 & x is n inconceivable t1 if our s5ses 7 va/ly m acute1 we might p]ceive !m directly4 ,n[1 :5 we conclude t ! ?+s directly p]ceptible to ! s5se ( t\* are to be reg>d$ z appe>ances1 z signs ( ! pres5ce ( ^! m9ut] ?+s1 d we draw su* a conclusion arbitr>ily8 ,by no means4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 appe>ance & reality is drawn "h j z x is drawn 9 ! _w ( our common ev]yday exp]i5ces4 ,! great majority ( ! t\* ?+s ab\t u we are n actually t\*+ at any giv5 mom5t4 ,we only see ! ?+s1 i4e4 we h c]ta9 signs ( _! pres5ce4 ,none ! less we believe t ! ?+s exi/ all ! "t4 ,& 9 ! same way ! man ( sci5ce does n d\bt ! exi/5ce ( ! real ?+s ( :i* he speaks2 he p]ceives _! signs4 ,t c]ta9 exp]i5ces are to be tak5 z signs ( su* realities he has e/abli%$ by innum]able obs]vations & c>eful d$uctions f ^? obs]vations4 ,to see ! full =ce ( 8 reason+s "o mu/ read "s "w sett+ =? ! hi/ory ( ! atomic !ory4 ,if1 !n1 we ask ! "q3 ,:at is ! real ext]nal _w8 x is cle> t we _c answ] x satisfactorily )\t tak+ into consid]ation ! some:at %ift+ s5ses ( ! ^w real4 ,:at is ! real ext]nal _w to ! pla9 man8 ,x is ! _w ( t\* ?+s1 ( objects ^u :i* he c lay 8 h&s4 ,:at is ! real ext]nal _w to ! man ( sci5ce8 ,x is ! _w ( atoms & molecules1 ( m9ut] t\* ?+s t he _c actually t\*1 b :i* he conceives z ?\gh he c\ld t\* !m4 ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t ! man ( sci5ce has no "r to d5y ! real _w :i* is reveal$ 9 ! exp]i5ce ( ! pla9 man4 ,9 all 8 deal+s ) ! ?+s :i* int]e/ him 9 common life1 he ref]s to ?is _w j z ! pla9 man does4 ,he sees a tree & walks t[>ds x1 & di/+ui%es betwe5 its real & its app>5t color1 its real & its app>5t size4 ,he talks ab\t see+ ?+s z !y are1 or n see+ ?+s z !y are4 ,^! di/9ctions 9 8 exp]i5ce ( ?+s rema9 ev5 aft] he has come to believe 9 atoms & molecules4 ,?us1 ! t\* object1 ! tree z he feels x "u 8 h&1 may come to be reg>d$ z ! sign ( ! pres5ce ( ^? entities t sci5ce seems1 at pres5t1 to reg>d z ultimate4 ,does ?is prev5t x f be+ ! object :i* has /ood z ! int]pret] ( all ^? div]se visual s5sations t we h call$ diff]5t views ( ! tree8 ,!y are /ill ! appe>ances1 & x1 relatively to !m1 is ! reality4 ,n[ we f9d t x1 9 its turn1 c be us$ z a sign ( some?+ else1 c be reg>d$ z an appe>ance ( a reality m ultimate4 ,x is cle>1 !n1 t ! same ?+ may be reg>d$ bo? z appe>ance & z reality--appe>ance z contra/$ ) "o ?+1 & reality z contra/$ ) ano!r4 ,b suppose "o says3 ,i d n want to "k :at ! real ext]nal _w is to ?is man or to t man2 ,i want to "k :at ! real ext]nal _w is4 ,:at %all we say to su* a dem&8 ,!re is a s5se 9 :i* su* a dem& is n purely mean+less1 ?\gh x may n be a v s5sible dem& to make4 ,we h se5 t an increase ( k ab\t ?+s compels a man to pass f ! real ?+s ( common life to ! real ?+s ( sci5ce1 & to look ^u ! =m] z appe>ance4 ,n[1 a man may arbitr>ily decide t he w use ! ^w reality to indicate only t :i* c nev] 9 its turn be reg>d$ z appe>ance1 a reality :i* mu/ rema9 an ultimate reality2 & he may insi/ ^u our tell+ him ab\t t4 ,h[ a man n a soo?say] c tell :5 he has come to ultimate reality1 x is n easy to see4 ,suppose1 h[ev]1 t we c\ld give any "o su* in=mation4 ,we %\ld !n be tell+ him ab\t ?+s z !y are1 x is true1 b 8 k ( ?+s w\ld n be diff]5t 9 k9d f :at x 0 be=e4 ,! only diff]5ce betwe5 su* a k ( ?+s & a k ( ?+s n kn[n to be ultimate w\ld be t1 9 ! =m] case1 x w\ld be recogniz$ t no fur!r ext5sion ( k 0 possible4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 appe>ance & reality w\ld rema9 j :at x 0 9 ! exp]i5ce ( ! pla9 man4 #bb4 ,,! ,,bugbe> ,,( ,,! ,,unkn[able4--,x is v important to recognize t we mu/ n g on talk+ ab\t appe>ance & reality1 z if our words really meant some?+1 :5 we h q turn$ our backs ^u our exp]i5ce ( appe>ances & ! realities :i* !y repres5t4 ,t appe>ances & realities are connect$ we "k v well1 = we p]ceive !m to be connect$4 ,:at we see1 we c t\*4 ,& we n only "k t appe>ances & realities are connect$1 b we "k ) mu* detail :at appe>ances are to be tak5 z signs ( :at realities4 ,! visual exp]i5ce :i* ,i call ! h\se z se5 f a di/ance ,i nev] ?9k ( tak+ = a repres5tative ( ! hat :i* ,i hold 9 my h&4 ,?is visual exp]i5ce ,i ref] to its own appropriate t\* ?+1 & n to ano!r4 ,if :at looks l a beef/eak c\ld really be a =k or a m\nta9 or a kitt5 indiff]5tly1--b ,i mu/ n ev5 f9i% ! s5t5ce1 = ! words look l & c\ld really be lose all significance :5 we loos5 ! bond betwe5 appe>ances & ! realities to :i* !y are prop]ly ref]r$4 ,ea* appe>ance1 !n1 mu/ be ref]r$ to "s p>ticul> real ?+ & n to any o!r4 ,?is is true ( ! appe>ances :i* we recognize z su* 9 common life1 & x is equally true ( ! appe>ances recogniz$ z su* 9 sci5ce4 ,! p5 :i* ,i feel betwe5 my f+]s ,i may reg>d z appe>ance & ref] to a sw>m ( mov+ atoms4 ,b x w\ld be silly = me to ref] x to atoms 9 g5]al4 ,! reality to :i* ,i ref] ! appe>ance 9 "q is a p>ticul> gr\p ( atoms exi/+ at a p>ticul> po9t 9 space4 ,! *emi/ nev] supposes t ! atoms )9 ! walls ( 8 te/-tube are id5tical ) ^? 9 ! vial on ! %elf4 ,nei!r 9 common life nor 9 sci5ce w\ld ! di/9ction betwe5 appe>ances & real ?+s be ( ! smalle/ s]vice 7 x n possible to di/+ui% betwe5 ?is appe>ance & t1 & ?is reality & t1 & to ref] ea* appe>ance to its appropriate reality4 ,inde$1 x is inconceivable t1 "u su* circum/ances1 ! di/9ction %\ld h be5 drawn at all4 ,^! po9ts ought to be /rongly insi/$ ^u1 = we f9d c]ta9 philosophic writ]s fall+ con/antly into a v curi\s abuse ( ! di/9ction & mak+ mu* capital ( x4 ,x is argu$ t :at we see1 :at we t\*1 :at we conceive z a result ( sci5tific obs]vation & reflection--all is1 9 ! la/ analysis1 mat]ial :i* is giv5 u 9 s5sation4 ,! v>i\s s5ses furni% u ) diff]5t classes ( s5sations2 we "w ^! up into c]ta9 complexes4 ,b s5sations are only ! impressions :i* some?+ outside ( u makes ^u u4 ,h5ce1 al?\gh we seem to ourselves to "k ! ext]nal _w z x is1 our k c nev] ext5d beyond ! impressions made ^u u4 ,?us1 we are absolutely %ut up to appe>ances1 & c "k no?+ ab\t ! reality to :i* !y mu/ be ref]r$4 ,t\*+ ?is matt] ,h]b]t ,sp5c] writes#a z foll[s3 ,:5 we are taught t a piece ( matt]1 reg>d$ by u z exi/+ ext]nally1 _c be really kn[n1 b t we c "k only c]ta9 impressions produc$ on u1 we are yet1 by ! relativity ( ?\ght1 compell$ to ?9k ( ^! 9 relation to a cause--! notion ( a real exi/5ce :i* g5]at$ ^! impressions becomes nasc5t4 ,if x be prov$ t e notion ( a real exi/5ce :i* we c frame is inconsi/5t ) itself1--t matt]1 h[ev] conceiv$ by u1 _c be matt] z x actually is1--our conception1 ?\gh transfigur$1 is n de/roy$3 !re rema9s ! s5se ( reality1 dissociat$ z f> z possible f ^? special =ms "u :i* x 0 be=e repres5t$ 9 ?\ght4 ,?is means1 9 pla9 language1 t we mu/ reg>d ev]y?+ we "k & c "k z appe>ance & mu/ ref] x to an unkn[n reality4 ,sometimes ,mr4 ,sp5c] calls ?is reality ! ,unkn[able1 sometimes he calls x ! ,absolute1 & sometimes he all[s x to pass by a v>iety ( o!r names1 su* z ,p[]1 ,cause1 etc4 ,he wi%es u to ?9k ( x z ly+ beh9d appe>ances or z und]ly+ appe>ances4 ,probably x has already be5 rem>k$ t ?is ,unkn[able has br\ght u ar\nd aga9 to t amus+ telephone ex*ange discuss$ 9 ! ?ird *apt]4 ,b if ! read] feels )9 himself ! lea/ weakness = ! ,unkn[able1 ,i beg him to consid] c>efully1 be=e he p9s 8 fai? to x1 ! foll[+3-- 7#a7 ,if we d p]ceive ext]nal bodies1 our own bodies & o!rs1 !n x is conceivable t we may h evid5ce f obs]vation to ! effect t o!r bodies affect+ our bodies may give rise to s5sations4 ,9 ?is case we _c say t we "k no?+ b s5sations2 we "k real bodies z well z s5sations1 & we may ref] ! s5sations to ! real bodies4 7#b7 ,if we d n p]ceive t we h bodies1 & t our bodies are act$ ^u by o!rs1 we h no evid5ce t :at we call our s5sations are due to messages :i* come f ext]nal ?+s & are conduct$ along ! n]ves4 ,x is !n1 absurd to talk ( su* ext]nal ?+s z ?\gh !y exi/$1 & to call !m ! reality to :i* s5sations1 z appe>ances1 mu/ be ref]r$1 7#c7 ,9 o!r words1 if !re is p]ceiv$ to be a telephone ex*ange ) its wires & subscrib]s1 we may ref] ! messages receiv$ to ! subscrib]s1 & call ?is1 if we *oose1 a ref]5ce ( appe>ance to reality4 ,b if !re is p]ceiv$ no telephone ex*ange1 & if x is conclud$ t any wires or subscrib]s ( :i* x means any?+ to speak mu/ be compos$ ( :at we h h]et(ore call$ messages1 !n x is palpably absurd to ref] ! messages z a :ole to subscrib]s n suppos$ to be compos$ ( messages2 & x is a blund] to g on call+ ! ?+s t we "k messages1 z ?\gh we _h evid5ce t !y came f1 & mu/ be ref]r$ to1 some?+ beyond !mselves4 ,we mu/ recognize t1 ) ! g5]al demolition ( ! ex*ange1 we lose n only kn[n subscrib]s1 b ! v notion ( a subscrib]4 ,x w n d to try to save f ?is wreck "s unkn[able subscrib]1 & /ill p9 our fai? to him4 7#d7 ,we h se5 t ! relation ( appe>ance to reality is t ( c]ta9 exp]i5ces to c]ta9 o!r exp]i5ces4 ,:5 we take ! lib]ty ( call+ ! ,unkn[able a reality1 we blund] 9 our use ( ! ^w4 ,! ,unkn[able _c be an exp]i5ce ei!r actual1 possible1 or conceiv$ z possible1 & x _c possibly hold ! relation to any ( our exp]i5ces t a real ?+ ( any k9d holds to ! appe>ances t /& z its signs4 7#e7 ,f9ally1 no man has ev] made an assumption m p]fectly useless & purposeless ?an ! assumption ( ! ,unkn[able4 ,we h se5 t ! di/9ction betwe5 appe>ance & reality is a s]viceable "o1 & x has be5 po9t$ out t x w\ld be ( no s]vice :atev] if x 7 n possible to ref] p>ticul> appe>ances to _! own appropriate realities4 ,! realities to :i* we actually ref] appe>ances s]ve to expla9 !m4 ,?us1 :5 ,i ask3 ,:y d ,i p]ceive t tree n[ z fa9t & blue & n[ z vivid & gre58 ! answ] to ! "q is f\nd 9 ! notion ( di/ance & position 9 space2 x is f\nd1 9 o!r words1 9 a ref]5ce to ! real _w ( t\* ?+s1 = :i* visual exp]i5ces s]ve z signs4 ,"u c]ta9 circum/ances1 ! m\nta9 ought to be rob$ 9 its azure hue1 &1 "u c]ta9 circum/ances1 x ought n4 ,! circum/ances 9 ea* case are op5 to inve/igation4 ,n[1 let u sub/itute = ! real _w ( t\* ?+s1 :i* furni%es ! explanation ( giv5 visual exp]i5ces1 t philosophic fiction1 t pseudo-real non5tity1 ! ,unkn[able4 ,n[ ,i p]ceive a tree z fa9t & blue1 n[ z bright & gre52 w a ref]5ce to ! ,unkn[able expla9 :y ! exp]i5ces diff]$8 ,0 ! ,unkn[able 9 ! "o in/ance f>!r (f 9 an unkn[able space1 & 9 ! o!r ne>]8 ,?is1 ev5 if x means any?+1 mu/ rema9 unkn[able4 ,& :5 ! *emi/ puts toge!r a volume ( *lor9e gas & a volume ( hydrog5 gas to get two volumes ( hydro*loric acid gas1 %all we expla9 ! *ange :i* has tak5 place by a ref]5ce to ! ,unkn[able1 or %all we turn to ! doctr9e ( atoms & _! comb9ations8 ,! fact is t no man 9 8 s5ses tries to acc\nt = any individual fact by turn+ = an explanation to ! ,unkn[able4 ,x is a life-pres]v] by :i* "s set great /ore1 b :i* no man dreams ( us+ :5 he really falls into ! wat]4 ,if1 !n1 we h any reason to believe t !re is a real ext]nal _w at all1 we h reason to believe t we "k :at x is4 ,t "s "k x imp]fectly1 t o!rs "k x bett]1 & t we may hope t "s day x w be kn[n /ill m p]fectly1 is surely no good reason = conclud+ t we d n "k x at all4 #a ,fir/ ,pr9ciples1 ,"p ,i1 ,*apt] ,,iv1 section #bf4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,( ,,space #bc4 ,,:at ,,are ,,we ,,suppos$ ,,to ,,"k ,,ab\t ,,x4--,! pla9 man may admit t he is n ready to haz>d a def9ition ( space1 b he is c]ta9ly n will+ to admit t he is :olly ignorant ( space & ( its attributes4 ,he kn[s t x is some?+ 9 :i* mat]ial objects h position & 9 :i* !y move ab\t2 he kn[s t x has n m]ely l5g?1 l a l9e1 nor l5g? & bread?1 l a surface1 b has ! ?ree dim5sions ( l5g?1 bread?1 & dep?2 he kn[s t1 except 9 ! "o circum/ance ( its position1 e "p ( space is exactly l e o!r "p1 & t1 al?\gh objects may move ab\t 9 space1 x is incr$ible t ! spaces !mselves %\ld be %ift$ ab\t4 ,^? :o are famili> ) ! lit]ature ( ! subject "k t x has long be5 cu/om>y to make reg>d+ space c]ta9 o!r /atem5ts to :i* ! pla9 man does n usually make s]i\s objection :5 he is introduc$ to !m4 ,?us x is said3-- 7#a7 ,! idea ( space is necess>y4 ,we c ?9k ( objects 9 space z annihilat$1 b we _c conceive space to be annihilat$4 ,we c cle> space ( ?+s1 b we _c cle> away space itself1 ev5 9 ?\ght4 7#b7 ,space mu/ be inf9ite4 ,we _c conceive t we %\ld come to ! end ( space4 7#c7 ,e space1 h[ev] small1 is inf9itely divisible4 ,t is to say1 ev5 ! mo/ m9ute space mu/ be compos$ ( spaces4 ,we _c1 ev5 !oretically1 split a solid into m]e surfaces1 a surface into m]e l9es1 or a l9e into m]e po9ts4 ,aga9/ su* /atem5ts ! pla9 man is n impell$ to rise 9 rebellion1 = he c see t !re seems to be "s gr\nd = mak+ !m4 ,he c conceive ( any p>ticul> mat]ial object z annihilat$1 & ( ! place :i* x occupi$ z /&+ empty2 b he _c g on & conceive ( ! annihilation ( ?is bit ( empty space4 ,its annihilation w\ld n leave a gap1 = a gap means a bit ( empty space2 nor c\ld x br+ ! surr\nd+ spaces into juxtaposition1 = "o _c %ift spaces1 &1 9 any case1 a %ift+ t is n a %ift+ ?r\gh space is an absurdity4 ,aga91 he _c conceive ( any j\rney t w\ld br+ him to ! end ( space4 ,!re is no m reason = /opp+ at "o po9t ?an at ano!r2 :y n g on8 ,:at c\ld end space8 ,z to ! inf9ite divisibility ( space1 h we n1 9 addition to ! seem+ reasonabl5ess ( ! doctr9e1 ! te/imony ( all ! ma!maticians8 ,does any "o ( !m ev] dream ( a l9e s %ort t x _c be divid$ into two %ort] l9es1 or ( an angle s small t x _c be bisect$8 #bd4 ,,space ,,z ,,necess>y ,,& ,,space ,,z ,,inf9ite4--,t ^! /atem5ts ab\t space conta9 tru? "o %\ld n be 9 ha/e to d5y4 ,x seems silly to say t space c be annihilat$1 or t "o c travel ov] ! m\nta9s ( ! moon 9 ! hope ( rea*+ ! end ( x4 ,& c]ta9ly no prud5t man wi%es to qu>rel ) t coldly rational creature ! ma!matician4 ,b x is well wor? :ile to exam9e ! /atem5ts c>efully & to see :e!r !re is n "s dang] t !y may be und]/ood 9 su* a way z to lead to error4 ,let u beg9 ) ! doctr9e t space is necess>y & _c be ?\ght away4 ,z we h se5 above1 x is manife/ly impossible to annihilate 9 ?\ght a c]ta9 portion ( space & leave ! o!r portions intact4 ,!re are _m ?+s 9 ! same case4 ,we _c annihilate 9 ?\ght "o side ( a door & leave ! o!r side2 we _c rob a man ( ! outside ( 8 hat & leave him ! inside4 ,b we c conceive ( a :ole door z annihilat$1 & ( a man z los+ a :ole hat4 ,may we or may we n conceive ( space z a :ole z nonexi/5t8 ,i d n say1 be x obs]v$1 c we conceive ( some?+ z attack+ & annihilat+ space8 ,:atev] space may be1 we none ( u ?9k ( x z a some?+ t may be ?reat5$ & demoli%$4 ,i only say1 may we n ?9k ( a sy/em ( ?+s--n a _w su* z ours1 ( c\rse1 b /ill a sy/em ( ?+s ( "s sort--9 :i* space relations h no "p8 ,may we n conceive su* to be possible8 ,x %\ld be rem>k$ t space relations are by no means ! only ones 9 :i* we ?9k ( ?+s z exi/+4 ,we attribute to !m "t relations z well4 ,n[1 :5 we ?9k ( occurr5ces z relat$ to ea* o!r 9 "t1 we d1 9 s f> z we conc5trate our att5tion ^u ^! relations1 turn our att5tion away f space & contemplate ano!r aspect ( ! sy/em ( ?+s4 ,space is n su* a necessity ( ?\ght t we mu/ keep ?9k+ ( space :5 we h turn$ our att5tion to some?+ else4 ,& is x1 inde$1 inconceivable t !re %\ld be a sy/em ( ?+s 7n ext5d$ ?+s 9 space1 ( c\rse71 *>act]iz$ by "t relations & p]haps o!r relations1 b n by space relations8 ,x goes )\t say+ t we _c g on ?9k+ ( space & at ! same "t n ?9k ( space4 ,^? :o keep insi/+ ^u space z a necessity ( ?\ght seem to set u su* a task z ?is1 & to f\nd _! conclusion ^u our failure to accompli% x4 ,we c nev] repres5t to ourselves ! nonexi/5ce ( space1 says ! ,g]man philosoph] ,kant 7#agbd-ahjd71 al?\gh we c easily conceive t !re are no objects 9 space4 ,x w\ld1 p]haps1 be fair] to translate ! fir/ half ( ?is s5t5ce z foll[s3 ,we c nev] picture to ourselves ! nonexi/5ce ( space4 ,kant says we _c make ( x a ,vor/ellung1 a repres5tation4 ,?is we may freely admit1 = :at does "o try to d :5 "o makes ! ef=t to imag9e ! nonexi/5ce ( space8 ,does n "o fir/ cle> space ( objects1 & !n try to cle> space ( space 9 mu* ! same way8 ,we try to ?9k space away1 i4e4 to remove x f ! place :]e x 0 & yet keep t place4 ,:at does x mean to imag9e or repres5t to oneself ! nonexi/5ce ( mat]ial objects8 ,is x n to repres5t to oneself ! objects z no long] 9 space1 i4e4 to imag9e ! space z empty1 z cle>$ ( ! objects8 ,x means some?+ 9 ?is case to speak ( a ,vor/ellung1 or repres5tation4 ,we c call be=e our m9ds ! empty space4 ,b if we are to ?9k ( space z nonexi/5t1 :at %all we call be=e our m9ds8 ,our proc$ure mu/ n be analog\s to :at x 0 be=e2 we mu/ n try to picture to our m9ds ! abs5ce ( space1 z ?\gh t 7 9 itself a some?+ t c\ld be pictur$2 we mu/ turn our att5tion to o!r relations1 su* z "t relations1 & ask :e!r x is n conceivable t su* %\ld be ! only relations obta9+ )9 a giv5 sy/em4 ,^? :o insi/ ^u ! fact t we _c b conceive space z inf9ite employ a v simil> argum5t to prove _! po9t4 ,!y set u a self-contradictory task1 & reg>d our failure to accompli% x z pro( ( _! position4 ,?us1 ,sir ,william ,hamilton 7#aghh-ahef7 argues3 ,we are altoge!r unable to conceive space z b\nd$--z f9ite2 t is1 z a :ole beyond :i* !re is no fur!r space4 ,& ,h]b]t ,sp5c] e*oes approv+ly3 ,we f9d ourselves totally unable to imag9e b\nds beyond :i* !re is no space4 ,n[1 :atev] "o may be incl9$ to ?9k ab\t ! inf9ity ( space1 x is cle> t ?is argum5t is an absurd "o4 ,let me write x out m at l5g?3 ,we are altoge!r unable to conceive space z b\nd$--z f9ite2 t is1 z a :ole 9 ! space beyond :i* !re is no fur!r space4 ,we f9d ourselves totally unable to imag9e b\nds1 9 ! space beyond :i* !re is no fur!r space4 ,! words :i* ,i h add$ 7 already pres5t implicitly4 ,:at c ! ^w beyond mean if x does n signify space beyond8 ,:at ,sir ,william & ,mr4 ,sp5c] h ask$ u to d is to imag9e a limit$ space ) a beyond & yet no beyond4 ,!re is und\bt$ly "s reason :y m5 are s ready to affirm t space is inf9ite1 ev5 :ile !y admit t !y d n "k t ! _w ( mat]ial ?+s is inf9ite4 ,to ?is we %all come back aga9 lat]4 ,b if "o wi%es to affirm x1 x is bett] to d s )\t giv+ a reason ?an x is to pres5t su* argum5ts z ! above4 #be4 ,,space ,,z ,,inf9itely ,,divisible4--,= m ?an two ?\s& ye>s m5 h be5 aw>e t c]ta9 v grave difficulties seem to atta* to ! idea ( motion1 :5 we once admit t space is inf9itely divisible4 ,to ma9ta9 t we c divide any portion ( space up into ultimate elem5ts :i* are n !mselves spaces1 & :i* h no ext5sion1 seems repugnant to ! idea we all h ( space4 ,& if we refuse to admit ?is possibility !re seems to be no?+ left to u b to hold t e space1 h[ev] small1 may !oretically be divid$ up into small] spaces1 & t !re is no limit :atev] to ! possible subdivision ( spaces4 ,nev]!less1 if we take ?is mo/ natural position1 we appe> to f9d ourselves plung$ into ! mo/ hopeless ( labyr9?s1 e turn ( :i* br+s u face to face ) a flat self-contradiction4 ,to br+ ! difficulties ref]r$ to cle>ly be=e our m9ds1 let u suppose a po9t to move uni=mly ov] a l9e an in* long1 & to accompli% its j\rney 9 a second4 ,at fir/ glance1 !re appe>s to be no?+ abnormal ab\t ?is proce$+4 ,b if we admit t ?is l9e is inf9itely divisible1 & reflect ^u ?is prop]ty ( ! l9e1 ! gr\nd seems to s9k f b5ea? our feet at once4 ,= x is possible to argue t1 "u ! conditions giv51 ! po9t mu/ move ov] "o half ( ! l9e 9 half a second2 ov] "o half ( ! rema9d]1 or "o f\r? ( ! l9e1 9 "o f\r? ( a second2 ov] "o eigh? ( ! l9e1 9 "o eigh? ( a second1 etc4 ,?us ! portions ( l9e mov$ ov] successively by ! po9t may be repres5t$ by ! desc5d+ s]ies3 #a_/b1 #a_/d1 #a_/h1 #a_/af1 4 4 4 ,greek omicron symbol ,n[1 x is q true t ! motion ( ! po9t c be describ$ 9 a numb] ( diff]5t ways2 b ! important ?+ to rem>k "h is t1 if ! motion really is uni=m1 & if ! l9e really is inf9itely divisible1 ?is s]ies mu/1 z satisfactorily z any o!r1 describe ! motion ( ! po9t4 ,& x w\ld be absurd to ma9ta9 t a "p ( ! s]ies c describe ! :ole motion4 ,we _c say1 = example1 t1 :5 ! po9t has mov$ ov] "o half1 "o f\r?1 & "o eigh? ( ! l9e1 x has complet$ its motion4 ,if ev5 a s+le memb] ( ! s]ies is left out1 ! :ole l9e has n be5 pass$ ov]2 & ?is is equally true :e!r ! omitt$ memb] repres5t a l>ge bit ( l9e or a small "o4 ,! :ole s]ies1 !n1 repres5ts ! :ole l9e1 z def9ite p>ts ( ! s]ies repres5t def9ite p>ts ( ! l9e4 ,! l9e c only be complet$ :5 ! s]ies is complet$4 ,b :5 & h[ c ?is s]ies be complet$8 ,9 g5]al1 a s]ies is complet$ :5 we rea* ! f9al t]m1 b "h !re appe>s to be no f9al t]m4 ,we _c make z]o ! f9al t]m1 = x does n belong to ! s]ies at all4 ,x does n obey ! law ( ! s]ies1 = x is n "o half z l>ge z ! t]m prec$+ x--:at space is s small t divid+ x by #b gives u omicron8 ,on ! o!r h&1 "s t]m j be=e z]o _c be ! f9al t]m2 = if x really repres5ts a little bit ( ! l9e1 h[ev] small1 x mu/1 by hypo!sis1 be made up ( less] bits1 & a small] t]m mu/ be conceivable4 ,!re c1 !n1 be no la/ t]m to ! s]ies2 i4e4 :at ! po9t is do+ at ! v la/ is absolutely indescribable2 x is inconceivable t !re %\ld be a v la/4 ,x 0 po9t$ out _m c5turies ago t x is equally inconceivable t !re %\ld be a v fir/4 ,h[ c a po9t ev5 beg9 to move along an inf9itely divisible l9e8 ,mu/ x n be=e x c move ov] any di/ance1 h[ev] %ort1 fir/ move ov] half t di/ance8 ,& be=e x c move ov] t half1 mu/ x n move ov] ! half ( t8 ,c x f9d some?+ to move ov] t has no halves8 ,& if n1 h[ %all x ev5 />t to move8 ,to move at all1 x mu/ beg9 some:]e2 x _c beg9 ) :at has no halves1 = !n x is n mov+ ov] any "p ( ! l9e1 z all p>ts h halves2 & x _c beg9 ) :at has halves1 = t is n ! beg9n+4 ,:at does ! po9t d fir/8 t is ! "q4 ,^? :o tell u ab\t po9ts & l9es usually leave u to call ^u g5tle e*o = an answ]4 ,! p]plexities ( ?is mov+ po9t seem to gr[ worse & worse ! long] "o reflects ^u !m4 ,!y d n h>ass x m]ely at ! beg9n+ & at ! end ( its j\rney4 ,?is is admirably br\ght out by ,pr(essor ,w4 ,k4 ,clif=d 7#ahde-ahgi71 an excell5t ma!matician1 :o nev] _h ! fa9te/ int5tion ( d5y+ ! possibility ( motion1 & :o did n desire to magnify ! p]plexities 9 ! pa? ( a mov+ po9t4 ,he writes3-- ,:5 a po9t moves along a l9e1 we "k t betwe5 any two positions ( x !re is an inf9ite numb] 4 4 4 ( int]m$iate positions4 ,t is because ! motion is cont9u\s4 ,ea* ( ^? positions is :]e ! po9t 0 at "s in/ant or o!r4 ,betwe5 ! two end positions on ! l9e1 ! po9t :]e ! motion began & ! po9t :]e x /opp$1 !re is no po9t ( ! l9e :i* does n belong to t s]ies4 ,we h ?us an inf9ite s]ies ( successive positions ( a cont9u\sly mov+ po9t1 & 9 t s]ies are includ$ all ! po9ts ( a c]ta9 piece ( l9e-room4 #a ,?us1 we are told t1 :5 a po9t moves along a l9e1 betwe5 any two positions ( x !re is an inf9ite numb] ( int]m$iate positions4 ,clif=d does n play ) ! ^w inf9ite2 he takes x s]i\sly & tells u t x means )\t any end3 ,inf9ite2 x is a dreadful ^w1 ,i "k1 until y f9d out t y are famili> ) ! ?+ :i* x expresses4 ,9 ?is place x means t betwe5 any two positions !re is "s int]m$iate position2 betwe5 t & ei!r ( ! o!rs1 aga91 !re is "s o!r int]m$iate2 & s on )\t any end4 ,inf9ite means )\t any end4 ,b really1 if ! case is z /at$1 ! po9t 9 "q mu/ be at a desp]ate pass4 ,i beg ! read] to consid] ! foll[+1 & ask himself :e!r he w\ld l to *ange places ) x3-- 7#a7 ,if ! s]ies ( positions is really endless1 ! po9t mu/ complete "o by "o ! memb]s ( an endless s]ies1 & rea* a nonexi/5t f9al t]m1 = a really endless s]ies _c h a f9al t]m4 7#b7 ,! s]ies ( positions is suppos$ to be an inf9ite s]ies ( successive positions4 ,! mov+ po9t mu/ take !m "o aft] ano!r4 ,b h[ c x8 ,betwe5 any two positions ( ! po9t !re is an inf9ite numb] ( int]m$iate positions4 ,t is to say1 no two ( ^! successive positions mu/ be reg>d$ z next to ea* o!r2 e position is sep>at$ f e o!r by an inf9ite numb] ( int]m$iate ones4 ,h[1 !n1 %all ! po9t move8 ,x _c possibly move f "o position to ! next1 = !re is no next4 ,%all x move fir/ to "s position t is n ! next8 ,or %all x 9 despair refuse to move at all8 ,evid5tly !re is ei!r some?+ wrong ) ?is doctr9e ( ! inf9ite divisibility ( space1 or !re is some?+ wrong ) our und]/&+ ( x1 if su* absurdities z ^! refuse to be cle>$ away4 ,let u see :]e ! tr\ble lies4 #bf4 ,,:at ,,is ,,real ,,space8--,x is pla9 t m5 are will+ to make a numb] ( /atem5ts ab\t space1 ! gr\nd = mak+ :i* is n at once app>5t4 ,x is a bold man :o w und]take to say t ! univ]se ( matt] is inf9ite 9 ext5t4 ,we feel t we h ! "r to ask him h[ he kn[s t x is4 ,b mo/ m5 are ready en\gh to affirm t space is & mu/ be inf9ite4 ,h[ d !y "k t x is8 ,!y c]ta9ly d n directly p]ceive all space1 & su* argum5ts z ! "o (f]$ by ,hamilton & ,sp5c] are easily se5 to be poor pro(s4 ,m5 are equally ready to affirm t space is inf9itely divisible4 ,has any man ev] look$ ^u a l9e & p]ceiv$ directly t x has an inf9ite numb] ( p>ts8 ,did any "o ev] succe$ 9 divid+ a space up inf9itely8 ,:5 we try to make cle> to ourselves h[ a po9t moves along an inf9itely divisible l9e1 d we n seem to l& 9 %e] absurdities8 ,on :at sort ( evid5ce does a man base 8 /atem5ts reg>d+ space8 ,!y are c]ta9ly v bold /atem5ts4 ,a c>eful reflection reveals ! fact t m5 d n speak z !y d ab\t space = no reason at all4 ,:5 !y are prop]ly und]/ood1 _! /atem5ts c be se5 to be ju/ifi$1 & x c be se5 also t ! difficulties :i* we h be5 consid]+ c be avoid$4 ,! subject is a deep "o1 & x c sc>cely be discuss$ exhau/ively 9 an introductory volume ( ?is sort1 b "o c1 at lea/1 indicate ! direction 9 :i* x seems mo/ reasonable to look = an answ] to ! que/ions :i* h be5 rais$4 ,h[ d we come to a k ( space1 & :at d we mean by space8 ,?is is ! problem to solve2 & if we c solve ?is1 we h ! key :i* w unlock _m doors4 ,n[1 we saw 9 ! la/ *apt] t we h reason to believe t we "k :at ! real ext]nal _w is4 ,x is a _w ( ?+s :i* we p]ceive1 or c p]ceive1 or1 n arbitr>ily b z a result ( c>eful obs]vation & d$uctions !refrom1 conceive z ?\gh we did p]ceive x--a _w1 say1 ( atoms & molecules4 ,x is n an ,unkn[able beh9d or beyond ev]y?+ t we p]ceive1 or c p]ceive1 or conceive 9 ! mann] /at$4 ,& ! space ) :i* we are conc]n$ is real space1 ! space 9 :i* real ?+s exi/ & move ab\t1 ! real ?+s :i* we c directly "k or ( :i* we c def9itely "k some?+4 ,9 "s s5se x mu/ be giv5 9 our exp]i5ce1 if ! ?+s :i* are 9 x1 & are kn[n to be 9 x1 are giv5 9 our exp]i5ce4 ,h[ mu/ we ?9k ( ?is real space8 ,suppose we look at a tree at a di/ance4 ,we are consci\s ( a c]ta9 complex ( color4 ,we c di/+ui% ! k9d ( color2 9 ?is case1 we call x blue4 ,b ! quality ( ! color is n ! only ?+ t we c di/+ui% 9 ! exp]i5ce4 ,9 two exp]i5ces ( color ! quality may be ! same1 & yet ! exp]i5ces may be diff]5t f ea* o!r4 ,9 ! "o case we may h m ( ! same color--we may1 s to speak1 be consci\s ( a l>g] pat*2 b ev5 if !re is n actually m ( x1 !re may be su* a diff]5ce t we c "k f ! visual exp]i5ce alone t ! t\* object be=e u is1 9 ! "o case1 ( ! "o %ape1 &1 9 ! o!r case1 ( ano!r4 ,?us we may di/+ui% betwe5 ! /uff giv5 9 our exp]i5ce & ! arrangem5t ( t /uff4 ,?is is ! di/9ction :i* philosoph]s h m>k$ z t betwe5 matt] & =m4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 und]/ood t bo? ( ^! words1 s us$1 h a special s5se n to be conf\nd$ ) _! usual "o4 ,?is di/9ction betwe5 matt] & =m obta9s 9 all our exp]i5ces4 ,i h spok5 j above ( ! %ape ( ! t\* object = :i* our visual exp]i5ces /& z signs4 ,:at d we mean by its %ape8 ,to ! pla9 man real ?+s are ! t\* ?+s ( :i* he has exp]i5ce1 & ^! t\* ?+s are v cle>ly di/+ui%able f "o ano!r 9 %ape1 9 size1 9 position1 nor are ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! ?+s to be conf\nd$ ) ea* o!r4 ,suppose t1 z we pass our h& ov] a table1 all ! s5sations ( t\* & movem5t :i* we exp]i5ce fus$ into an undi/+ui%able mass4 ,w\ld we h any notion ( size or %ape8 ,x is because our exp]i5ces ( t\* & movem5t d n fuse1 b rema9 di/+ui%able f ea* o!r1 & we are consci\s ( !m z arrang$1 z con/itut+ a sy/em1 t we c di/+ui% betwe5 ?is "p ( a ?+ & t1 ?is ?+ & t4 ,?is arrangem5t1 ?is ord]1 ( :at is reveal$ by t\* & movem5t1 we may call ! =m ( ! t\* _w4 ,leav+ out ( consid]ation1 = ! pres5t1 "t relations1 we may say t ! =m ( ! t\* _w is ! :ole sy/em ( actual & possible relations ( arrangem5t betwe5 ! elem5ts :i* make x up4 ,x is because !re is su* a sy/em ( relations t we c speak ( ?+s z ( ?is %ape or ( t1 z great or small1 z ne> or f>1 z "h or !re4 ,n[1 ,i ask1 is !re any reason to believe t1 :5 ! pla9 man speaks ( space1 ! ^w means to him any?+ m ?an ?is sy/em ( actual & possible relations ( arrangem5t among ! t\* ?+s t con/itute 8 real _w8 ,he may talk sometimes z ?\gh space 7 "s k9d ( a ?+1 b he does n really ?9k ( x z a ?+4 ,?is is evid5t f ! m]e fact t he is s ready to make ab\t x affirmations t he w\ld n v5ture to make ab\t ?+s4 ,x does n /rike him z inconceivable t a giv5 mat]ial object %\ld be annihilat$2 x does /rike him z inconceivable t a portion ( space %\ld be blott$ out ( exi/5ce4 ,:y ?is diff]5ce8 ,is x n expla9$ :5 we recognize t space is b a "n = all ! actual & possible relations ( arrangem5t 9 :i* ?+s 9 ! t\* _w may /&8 ,we _c drop out "s ( ^! relations & yet keep space1 i4e4 ! sy/em ( relations :i* we _h be=e4 ,t ?is is :at space means1 ! pla9 man may n recognize explicitly1 b he c]ta9ly seems to recognize x implicitly 9 :at he says ab\t space4 ,m5 are r>ely incl9$ to admit t space is a ?+ ( any k9d1 nor are !y mu* m incl9$ to reg>d x z a quality ( a ?+4 ,( :at c\ld x be ! quality8 ,& if space really 7 a ?+ ( any sort1 w\ld x n be ! height ( presumption = a man1 9 ! abs5ce ( any direct evid5ce f obs]vation1 to say h[ mu* !re is ( x--to decl>e x inf9ite8 ,m5 d n hesitate to say t space mu/ be inf9ite4 ,b :5 we realize t we d n mean by space m]ely ! actual relations :i* exi/ betwe5 ! t\* ?+s t make up ! _w1 b also ! possible relations1 i4e4 t we mean ! :ole plan ( ! _w sy/em1 we c see t x is n unreasonable to speak ( space z inf9ite4 ,! mat]ial univ]se may1 = aught we "k1 be limit$ 9 ext5t4 ,! actual space relations 9 :i* ?+s /& to ea* o!r may n be limitless4 ,b ^! actual space relations tak5 alone d n con/itute space4 ,m5 h (t5 ask$ !mselves :e!r !y %\ld conceive ( ! univ]se z limit$ & surr\nd$ by void space4 ,x is n nons5se to speak ( su* a /ate ( ?+s4 ,x w\ld1 inde$1 appe> to be nons5se to say t1 if ! univ]se is limit$1 x does n lie 9 void space4 ,:at c we mean by void space b ! sy/em ( possible relations 9 :i* ?+s1 if !y exi/1 mu/ /&8 ,to say t1 beyond a c]ta9 po9t1 no fur!r relations are possible1 seems absurd4 ,h5ce1 :5 a man has come to und]/& :at we h a "r to mean by space1 x does n imply a b\ndless conceit on 8 "p to haz>d ! /atem5t t space is inf9ite4 ,:5 he has said ?is1 he has said v little4 ,:at %all we say to ! /atem5t t space is inf9itely divisible8 ,to und]/& ! significance ( ?is /atem5t we mu/ come back to ! di/9ction betwe5 appe>ances & ! real ?+s = :i* !y /& z signs1 ! di/9ction discuss$ at l5g? 9 ! la/ *apt]4 ,:5 ,i see a tree f a di/ance1 ! visual exp]i5ce :i* ,i h is1 z we h se51 n an indivisible unit1 b is a complex exp]i5ce2 x has p>ts1 & ^! p>ts are relat$ to ea* o!r2 9 o!r words1 x has bo? matt] & =m4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 "o ?+ to say t ?is exp]i5ce has p>ts1 & x is ano!r to say t x has an inf9ite numb] ( p>ts4 ,no man is consci\s ( p]ceiv+ an inf9ite numb] ( p>ts 9 ! pat* ( color :i* repres5ts to him a tree at a di/ance2 to say t x is con/itut$ ( su* /rikes u 9 our mom5ts ( sob] reflection z a mon/r\s /atem5t4 ,n[1 ?is visual exp]i5ce is to u ! sign ( ! reality1 ! real tree2 x is n tak5 z ! tree itself4 ,:5 we speak ( ! size1 ! %ape1 ! numb] ( p>ts1 ( ! tree1 we d n h 9 m9d ! size1 ! %ape1 ! numb] ( p>ts1 ( j ?is exp]i5ce4 ,we pass f ! sign to ! ?+ signifi$1 & we may lay our h& ^u ?is ?+1 ?us ga9+ a direct exp]i5ce ( ! size & %ape ( ! t\* object4 ,we mu/ recognize1 h[ev]1 t j z no man is consci\s ( an inf9ite numb] ( p>ts 9 :at he sees1 s no man is consci\s ( an inf9ite numb] ( p>ts 9 :at he t\*es4 ,he :o tells me t1 :5 ,i pass my f+] along my pap] cutt]1 :at ,i p]ceive has an inf9ite numb] ( p>ts1 tells me :at seems palpably untrue4 ,:5 an object is v small1 ,i c see x1 & ,i _c see t x is compos$ ( p>ts2 simil>ly1 :5 an object is v small1 ,i c feel x ) my f+]1 b ,i _c di/+ui% its p>ts by ! s5se ( t\*4 ,!re seem to be limits beyond :i* ,i _c g 9 ei!r case4 ,nev]!less1 m5 (t5 speak ( ?\s&?s ( an in*1 or ( million?s ( an in*1 or ( di/ances ev5 %ort]4 ,h su* fractions ( ! magnitudes t we d "k & c p]ceive any real exi/5ce8 ,! t\* _w ( real ?+s z x is reveal$ 9 our exp]i5ce does n appe> to be divisible into su*2 x does n appe> to be divisible ev5 s f>1 & mu* less does x appe> to be inf9itely divisible4 ,b h we n se5 t ! t\* _w giv5 9 our exp]i5ce mu/ be tak5 by ! ?\ghtful man z itself ! sign or appe>ance ( a reality m ultimate8 ,! speck :i* appe>s to ! nak$ eye to h no p>ts is se5 "u ! microscope to h p>ts2 t is to say1 an exp]i5ce app>5tly n ext5d$ has become ! sign ( some?+ t is se5 to h "p out ( "p4 ,we h z yet inv5t$ no in/rum5t t w make directly p]ceptible to ! f+] tip an atom ( hydrog5 or ( oxyg51 b ! man ( sci5ce conceives ( ^! little ?+s z ?\gh !y c\ld be p]ceiv$4 ,!y & ! space 9 :i* !y move--! sy/em ( actual & possible relations betwe5 !m--seem to be relat$ to ! _w reveal$ 9 t\* v mu* z ! space reveal$ 9 ! field ( ! microscope is relat$ to ! space ( ! speck look$ at ) ! nak$ eye4 ,?us1 :5 ! ?\ghtful man speaks ( real space1 he _c mean by ! ^w only ! actual & possible relations ( arrangem5t among ! ?+s & ! p>ts ( ?+s directly reveal$ to 8 s5se ( t\*4 ,he may speak ( real ?+s too small to be ?us p]ceiv$1 & ( _! motion z ?r\gh spaces too small to be p]ceptible at all4 ,:at limit %all he set to ! possible subdivision ( real ?+s8 ,unless he c f9d an ultimate reality :i* _c 9 its turn become ! appe>ance or sign ( a fur!r reality1 x seems absurd to speak ( a limit at all4 ,we may1 !n1 say t real space is inf9itely divisible4 ,by ?is /atem5t we %\ld mean t c]ta9 exp]i5ces may be repres5t$ by o!rs1 & t we may c>ry on our division 9 ! case ( ! latt]1 :5 a fur!r subdivision ( ! =m] seems out ( ! "q4 ,b x %\ld n mean t any s+le exp]i5ce furni%$ u by any s5se1 or any?+ t we c repres5t 9 ! imag9ation1 is compos$ ( an inf9ite numb] ( p>ts4 ,:5 we realize ?is1 d we n free ourselves f ! difficulties :i* seem$ to make ! motion ( a po9t ov] a l9e an impossible absurdity8 ,! l9e z reveal$ 9 a s+le exp]i5ce ei!r ( sight or ( t\* is n compos$ ( an inf9ite numb] ( p>ts4 ,x is compos$ ( po9ts se5 or t\*$--lea/ exp]i5ces ( sight or t\*1 m9ima s5sibilia4 ,^! are next to ea* o!r1 & ! po9t1 9 mov+1 takes !m "o by "o4 ,b su* a s+le exp]i5ce is n :at we call a l9e4 ,x is b "o exp]i5ce ( a l9e4 ,?\gh ! exp]i5ce is n inf9itely divisible1 ! l9e may be4 ,?is only means t ! visual or tactual po9t ( ! s+le exp]i5ce may /& =1 may repres5t1 :at is n a m]e po9t b has p>ts1 & is1 h5ce1 divisible4 ,:o c set a limit to su* possible sub/itutions8 9 o!r words1 :o c set a limit to ! divisibility ( a real l9e8 ,x is only :5 we confuse ! s+le exp]i5ce ) ! real l9e t we fall into absurdities4 ,:at ! ma!matician tells u ab\t real po9ts & real l9es has no be>+ on ! con/itution ( ! s+le exp]i5ce & its p>ts4 ,?us1 :5 he tells u t betwe5 any two po9ts on a l9e !re are an inf9ite numb] ( o!r po9ts1 he only means t we may exp& ! l9e indef9itely by ! sy/em ( sub/itutions describ$ above4 ,we d ?is = ourselves )9 limits e "t t we approa* f a di/ance a l9e drawn on a blackbo>d4 ,! ma!matician has g5]aliz$ our exp]i5ce = u1 & t is all he has done4 ,we %\ld try to get at 8 real mean+1 & n quote him z support+ an absurdity4 #a ,see+ & ,?9k+1 p4 #adi4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,( ,,"t #bg4 ,,"t ,,z ,,necess>y1 ,,inf9ite1 ,,& ,,inf9itely ,,divisible4--,( c\rse1 we all "k some?+ ab\t "t2 we "k x z pa/1 pres5t1 & future2 we "k x z divisible into p>ts1 all ( :i* are successive2 we "k t :atev] happ5s mu/ happ5 9 "t4 ,^? :o h ?\ght a good deal ab\t ! matt] are apt to tell u t "t is a necessity ( ?\ght1 we _c b ?9k x2 t "t is & mu/ be inf9ite2 & t x is inf9itely divisible4 ,^! are ! same /atem5ts t 7 made reg>d+ space1 &1 z !y h to be criticis$ 9 j ! same way1 x is n necess>y to dwell ^u !m at great l5g?4 ,h[ev]1 we mu/ n pass !m ov] altoge!r4 ,z to ! /atem5t t "t is a necess>y idea1 we may freely admit t we _c 9 ?\ght annihilate "t1 or ?9k x away4 ,x does n seem to mean any?+ to attempt su* a task4 ,:atev] "t may be1 x does n appe> to be a some?+ ( su* a nature t we c demoli% x or cle> x away f some?+ else4 ,b is x necess>ily absurd to speak ( a sy/em ( ?+s--n1 ( c\rse1 a sy/em ( ?+s 9 :i* !re is *ange1 succession1 an e>li] & a lat]1 b /ill a sy/em ( ?+s ( "s sort--9 :i* !re obta9 no "t relations8 ,! problem is1 to be sure1 "o ( !oretical int]e/ m]ely1 = su* a sy/em ( ?+s is n ! _w we "k4 ,& z = ! inf9ity ( "t1 may we n ask on :at gr\nd any "o v5tures to ass]t t "t is inf9ite8 ,no man c say t inf9ite "t is directly giv5 9 8 exp]i5ce4 ,if "o does n directly p]ceive x to be inf9ite1 mu/ "o n seek = "s pro( ( ! fact8 ,! only pro( :i* appe>s to be (f]$ u is conta9$ 9 ! /atem5t t we _c conceive ( a "t be=e :i* !re 0 no "t1 nor ( a "t aft] :i* !re w be no "t2 a pro( :i* is no pro(1 = writt5 out at l5g? x reads z foll[s3 we _c conceive ( a "t 9 ! "t be=e :i* !re 0 no "t1 nor ( a "t 9 ! "t aft] :i* !re w be no "t4 ,z well say3 ,we _c conceive ( a numb] ! numb] be=e :i* 0 no numb]1 nor ( a numb] ! numb] aft] :i* w be no numb]4 ,:atev] may be said = ! conclusion arriv$ at1 ! argum5t is a v poor "o4 ,:5 we turn to ! consid]ation ( "t z inf9itely divisible1 we seem to f9d ourselves confront$ ) ! same difficulties :i* pres5t$ !mselves :5 we ?\ght ( space z inf9itely divisible4 ,c]ta9ly no man 0 imm$iately consci\s ( an inf9ite numb] ( p>ts 9 ! m9ute :i* j slipp$ by4 ,%all he ass]t t x did1 nev]!less1 conta9 an inf9ite numb] ( p>ts8 ,!n h[ did x succe$ 9 pass+8 h[ did x ev5 beg9 to pass away8 ,x is inf9itely divisible1 t is1 !re is no end to ! numb] ( p>ts into :i* x may be divid$2 ^? p>ts & p>ts ( p>ts are all successive1 no two c pass at once1 !y mu/ all d x 9 a c]ta9 ord]1 "o aft] ! o!r4 ,?us1 some?+ mu/ pass fir/4 ,:at c x be8 ,if t some?+ has p>ts1 is divisible1 ! :ole ( x _c pass fir/4 ,x mu/ itself pass bit by bit1 z mu/ ! :ole m9ute2 & if x is inf9itely divisible we h precisely ! problem t we _h at ! outset4 ,:atev] passes fir/ _c1 !n1 h p>ts4 ,let u assume t x has no p>ts1 & bid x ,godspe$6 ,has ! m9ute begun8 ,our m9ute is1 by hypo!sis1 inf9itely divisible2 x is compos$ ( p>ts1 & ^? p>ts ( o!r p>ts1 & s on )\t end4 ,we _c by subdivision come to any "p :i* is itself n compos$ ( small] p>ts4 ,! p>tless ?+ t pass$1 !n1 is no "p ( ! m9ute4 ,t is all /ill wait+ at ! gate1 & no memb] ( its troop c prove t x has a "r to lead ! re/4 ,9 ! same out] d>kness is wait+ ! po9t on ! l9e t misbehav$ itself 9 ! la/ *apt]4 #bh4 ,,! ,,problem ,,( ,,pa/1 ,,pres5t1 ,,& ,,future4--,x seems bad en\gh to h on our h&s a m9ute :i* mu/ pass away 9 successive bits1 & to discov] t no bit ( x c possibly pass fir/4 ,b if we foll[ ) approval ! reflections ( c]ta9 ?9k]s1 we may f9d ourselves at su* a pass t we w\ld be glad to be able to prove t we may h on our h&s a m9ute ( any sort4 ,m5 sometimes are s bold z to ma9ta9 t !y "k "t to be inf9ite2 w\ld x n be well = !m to prove fir/ t !y c "k "t at all8 ,! tr\ble is ?is2 z 0 po9t$ out long ago by ,sa9t ,augu/9e 7#ced-dcj7 9 8 fam\s ,confessions1 #a ! p>ts ( "t are successive1 & ( ! ?ree divisions1 pa/1 pres5t1 & future1 only "o c be reg>d$ z exi/+3 ,^? two times1 pa/ & future1 h[ c !y be1 :5 ! pa/ is n n[1 & ! future is n yet8 ,! pres5t is1 x seems1 ! only exi/5t2 h[ long is ! pres5t8 ,ev5 a s+le h\r passes 9 fleet+ mom5ts2 z mu* ( x z has tak5 flight is pa/1 :at rema9s is future4 ,if we c compreh5d any "t t is divisible into no p>ts at all1 or p]haps into ! m9ute/ p>ts ( mom5ts1 ?is alone let u call pres5t2 yet ?is spe$s s hurri$ly f ! future to ! pa/ t x does n endure ev5 = a little space4 ,if x has duration1 x is divid$ into a pa/ & a future2 b ! pres5t has no duration4 ,:]e1 !n1 is ! "t t we may call long8 ,is x future8 ,we d n say ( ! future3 x is long2 = z yet !re exi/s no?+ to be long4 ,we say3 x w be long4 ,b :58 ,if :ile yet future x w n be long1 = no?+ w yet exi/ to be long4 ,& if x w be long1 :51 f a future z yet nonexi/5t1 x has become a pres5t1 & has begun to be1 t x may be some?+ t is long1 !n pres5t "t cries out 9 ! words ( ! prec$+ p>agraph t x _c be long4 ,augu/9e's way ( pres5t+ ! difficulty is a qua9t "o1 b ! problem is z real at ! beg9n+ ( ! tw5tie? c5tury z x 0 at ! beg9n+ ( ! fif?4 ,pa/ "t does n exi/ n[1 future "t does n exi/ yet1 & pres5t "t1 x seems1 has no duration4 ,c a man be said to be consci\s ( "t z pa/1 pres5t1 & future8 ,:o c be consci\s ( ! nonexi/5t8 ,& ! exi/5t is n "t1 x has no duration1 !re is no be=e & aft] 9 a m]e limit+ po9t4 ,augu/9e's way out ( ! difficulty is ! sugge/ion t1 al?\gh we _c1 /rictly speak+1 measure "t1 we c measure memory & expectation4 ,be=e he beg9s to repeat a psalm1 8 expectation ext5ds ov] ! :ole ( x4 ,aft] a little a "p ( x mu/ be ref]r$ to expectation & a "p ( x to memory4 ,f9ally1 ! :ole psalm is ext5d$ along ! memory4 ,we c measure ?is1 at lea/4 ,b h[ is ! psalm 9 "q ext5d$ along ! memory or ! expectation8 ,are ! p>ts ( x successive1 or d !y ?us exi/ simultane\sly8 ,if ev]y?+ 9 ! memory image exi/s at once1 if all belongs to ! punctual pres5t1 to ! m]e po9t t divides pa/ f future1 h[ c a man get f x a consci\sness ( "t1 ( a some?+ ^: p>ts _c exi/ toge!r b mu/ foll[ ea* o!r8 ,augu/9e appe>s to ov]look ! fact t on 8 own hypo!sis1 ! pres5t1 ! only exi/5t1 ! only ?+ a man c be consci\s (1 is an indivisible in/ant4 ,9 su* !re c be no *ange2 ! man :o is %ut up to su* _c be aw>e t ! pa/ is gr[+ & ! future dim9i%+4 ,any su* *ange z ?is implies at lea/ two in/ants1 an e>li] & a lat]4 ,he :o has nev] exp]i5c$ a *ange ( any sort1 :o has nev] be5 consci\s ( ! relation ( e>li] & lat]1 ( succession1 _c ?9k ( ! v>i$ cont5t ( memory z ( t :i* has be5 pres5t4 ,x _c mean to him :at memory c]ta9ly means to u2 he _c be consci\s ( a pa/1 a pres5t1 & a future4 ,to extract ! notion ( "t1 ( pa/1 pres5t1 & future1 f an exp]i5ce :i* conta9s no elem5t ( succession1 f an indivisible in/ant1 is z hopeless a task z to extract a l9e f a ma!matical po9t4 ,x appe>s1 !n1 t1 if we are to be consci\s ( "t at all1 if we are to h ! lea/ conception ( x1 we mu/ h "s direct exp]i5ce ( *ange4 ,we _c really be %ut up to t punctual pres5t1 t m]e po9t or limit betwe5 pa/ & future1 t ! pres5t has be5 describ$ z be+4 ,b does ?is n imply t we c be directly consci\s ( :at is n pres5t1 t we c n[ p]ceive :at does n n[ exi/8 ,h[ is ?is possible8 ,x is n easy = "o ^: read+ has be5 some:at limit$ 9 any giv5 field to see ! full significance ( ! problems :i* pres5t !mselves 9 t field4 ,^? :o read mu* 9 ! hi/ory ( mod]n philosophy w see t ?is anci5t difficulty t\*+ our consci\sness ( "t has giv5 rise to "s exce$+ly curi\s speculations1 & "s /range conclusions t\*+ ! nature ( ! m9d4 ,?us1 x has be5 argu$ t1 s9ce ! exp]i5ce ( ea* mom5t is some?+ q di/9ct f ! exp]i5ce ( ! next1 a some?+ t passes away to give place to its successor1 we _c expla9 ! consci\sness ( "t1 ( a :ole 9 :i* successive mom5ts are recogniz$ z hav+ _! appropriate place1 unless we assume a some?+ t kn[s ea* mom5t & knits x1 s to speak1 to its successor4 ,?is some?+ is ! self or consci\sness1 :i* is indep5d5t ( "t1 & does n exi/ 9 "t1 z d ! v>i\s exp]i5ces t fill ! successive mom5ts4 ,x is assum$ to be timelessly pres5t at all times1 & ?us to connect ! nonexi/5t pa/ ) ! exi/5t pres5t4 ,i d n ask ! read] to try to make cle> to himself h[ any?+ c be timelessly pres5t at all times1 = ,i d n believe t ! words c be made to repres5t any cle> ?\ght :atev]4 ,nor d ,i ask him to try to conceive h[ ?is timeless some?+ c jo9 pa/ & pres5t4 ,i m]ely wi% to po9t out t ^! mod]n speculations1 :i* /ill influ5ce ! m9ds ( _m di/+ui%$ m51 h _! orig9 9 a difficulty :i* sugge/$ itself e>ly 9 ! hi/ory ( reflective ?\ght1 & are by no means to be reg>d$ z a gratuit\s & useless ex]cise ( ! +5uity4 ,!y are s]i\s attempts to solve a real problem1 ?\gh !y may be unsuccessful ones1 & !y are wor?y ( att5tion ev5 f ^? :o incl9e to a diff]5t solution4 #bi4 ,,:at ,,is ,,real ,,"t8--,f ! ?9 air ( su* speculations z we h be5 discuss+ let u come back to ! _w ( ! pla9 man1 ! _w 9 :i* we all habitually live4 ,x is f ?is t we mu/ />t out ^u all our j\rneys1 & x is good to come back to x f "t to "t to make sure ( our be>+s4 ,we h se5 7,*apt] ,v7 t we di/+ui% betwe5 ! real & ! app>5t1 & t we recognize z ! real _w ! objects reveal$ to ! s5se ( t\*4 ,^! objects /& to ea* o!r 9 c]ta9 relations ( arrangem5t2 t is to say1 !y exi/ 9 space4 ,& j z we may di/+ui% betwe5 ! object z x appe>s & ! object z x is1 s we may di/+ui% betwe5 app>5t space & real space1 i4e4 betwe5 ! relations ( arrangem5t1 actual & possible1 :i* obta9 among ! p>ts ( ! object z x appe>s1 & ^? :i* obta9 among ! p>ts ( ! object z x really is4 ,b our exp]i5ce does n pres5t u only ) objects 9 space relations2 x pres5ts u ) a succession ( *anges 9 ^? objects4 ,& if we w reason ab\t ^? *anges z we h reason$ ab\t space relations1 _m ( our difficulties reg>d+ ! nature ( "t may1 z x seems1 be made to disappe>4 ,?us we may recognize t we are directly consci\s ( duration1 ( succession1 & may yet hold t ?is crude & imm$iate exp]i5ce ( duration is n :at we mean by real "t4 ,e "o di/+ui%es betwe5 app>5t "t & real "t n[ & !n4 ,we all "k t a s]mon may seem long & n be long2 t ! t5 ye>s t we live ov] 9 a dream are n t5 real ye>s2 t ! swall[+ ( c]ta9 drugs may be foll[$ by ! illusion ( ! lapse ( va/ spaces ( "t1 :5 really v little "t has elaps$4 ,:at is ?is real "t8 ,x is no?+ else ?an ! ord] ( ! *anges :i* take place or may take place 9 real ?+s4 ,9 ! la/ *apt] ,i spoke ( space z ! =m ( ! real _w2 x w\ld be bett] to call x a =m ( ! real _w1 & to give ! same "n also to "t4 ,x is v cle> t1 :5 we inquire conc]n+ ! real "t ( any occurr5ce1 or ask h[ long a s]ies ( su* la/$1 we always look = our answ] to some?+ t has happ5$ 9 ! ext]nal _w4 ,! passage ( a /> ov] ! m]idian1 ! position ( ! sun above ! horizon1 ! arc :i* ! moon has describ$ s9ce our la/ obs]vation1 ! movem5t ( ! h&s ( a clock1 ! am\nt ( s& :i* has fall5 9 ! h\rglass1 ^! ?+s & su* z ^! are ! indicators ( real "t4 ,!re may be indicators ( a diff]5t sort2 we may decide t x is noon because we are hungry1 or midnight because we are tir$2 we may argue t ! prea*] mu/ h spok5 m ?an an h\r because he q wore out ! pati5ce ( ! congregation4 ,^! are m or less unc]ta9 signs ( ! lapse ( "t1 b !y _c be reg>d$ z exp]i5ces ( ! pass+ ( "t ei!r app>5t or real4 ,?us1 we see t real space & real "t are ! plan ( ! _w sy/em4 ,!y are n ?+s ( any sort1 & !y %\ld n be mi/ak5 = ?+s4 ,!y are n kn[n indep5d5tly ( ?+s1 ?\gh1 :5 we h once _h an exp]i5ce ( ?+s & _! *anges1 we c by ab/raction f ! ?+s !mselves fix our att5tion ^u _! arrangem5t & ^u ! ord] ( _! *anges4 ,we c divide & subdivide spaces & times )\t mu* ref]5ce to ! ?+s4 ,b we %\ld nev] =get t x w\ld nev] h occurr$ to u to d ?is1 inde$1 t ! :ole proc$ure w\ld be absolutely mean+less to u1 7 n a real _w reveal$ 9 our exp]i5ce z x is4 ,he :o has atta9$ to ?is insight into ! nature ( "t is 9 a position to (f] :at seem to be satisfactory solutions to ! problems :i* h be5 br\ght =w>d above4 7#a7 ,he c see1 ?us1 :y x is absurd to speak ( any portion ( "t z becom+ nonexi/5t4 ,"t is no?+ else ?an an ord]1 a great sy/em ( relations4 ,"o _c drop out c]ta9 ( ^! & leave ! re/ un*ang$1 = ! latt] imply ! =m]4 ,day-aft]-to-morr[ w\ld n be day-aft]-to-morr[1 if to-morr[ did n lie betwe5 x & to-day4 ,to speak ( dropp+ out to-morr[ & leav+ x ! "t x 0 conceiv$ to be is m]e nons5se4 7#b7 ,he c see :y x does n indicate a measureless conceit = a man to be will+ to say t "t is inf9ite4 ,"o :o says ?is ne$ n be suppos$ to be acqua9t$ ) ! :ole pa/ & future hi/ory ( ! real _w1 ( :i* "t is an aspect4 ,we con/antly ab/ract f ?+s1 & consid] only ! ord] ( _! *anges1 & 9 ?is ord] itself !re is no reason :y "o %\ld set a limit at "s po9t2 inde$1 to set su* a limit seems a gratuit\s absurdity4 ,he :o says t "t is inf9ite does n say mu*2 he is n affirm+ ! exi/5ce ( "s sort ( a ?+2 he is m]ely affirm+ a !oretical possibility1 & is x n a !oretical possibility t !re may be an endless succession ( real *anges 9 a real _w8 7#c7 ,x is evid5t1 fur!rmore1 t1 :5 "o has grasp$ firmly ! significance ( ! di/9ction betwe5 app>5t "t & real "t1 "o may ) a cle> consci5ce speak ( "t z inf9itely divisible4 ,( c\rse1 ! "t directly giv5 9 any s+le exp]i5ce1 ! m9ute or ! second ( :i* we are consci\s z x passes1 _c be reg>d$ z compos$ ( an inf9ite numb] ( p>ts4 ,we are n directly consci\s ( ^! subdivisions1 & x is a mon/r\s assumption to ma9ta9 t !y mu/ be pres5t 9 ! m9ute or second z p]ceiv$4 ,b no su* s+le exp]i5ce ( duration con/itutes :at we mean by real "t4 ,we h se5 t real "t is ! "t occupi$ by ! *anges 9 real ?+s1 & ! "q is1 ,h[ f> c "o g 9 ! subdivision ( ?is "t8 ,n[1 ! t\* ?+ :i* usually is = u 9 common life ! real ?+ is n ! real ?+ = sci5ce2 x is ! appe>ance "u :i* ! real _w ( atoms & molecules reveals itself4 ,! atom is n directly p]ceivable1 & we may assign to its motions a space s small t no "o c\ld possibly p]ceive x z space1 z a some?+ ) "p out ( "p1 a some?+ ) a "h & a !re4 ,b1 z has be5 be=e po9t$ out 7section #bf71 ?is does n prev5t u f believ+ ! atom & ! space 9 :i* x moves to be real1 & we c repres5t !m to ourselves z we c ! ?+s & ! spaces ) :i* we h to d 9 common life4 ,x is ) "t j z x is ) space4 ,we c p]ceive an in* to h p>ts2 we _c p]ceive a ?\s&? ( an in* to h p>ts1 if we c p]ceive x at all2 b we c repres5t x to ourselves z ext5d$1 t is1 we c let an exp]i5ce :i* is ext5d$ /& = x1 & c dwell ^u ! p>ts ( t4 ,we c p]ceive a second to h duration2 we _c p]ceive a ?\s&? ( a second to h duration2 b we c conceive x z hav+ duration1 i4e4 we c let "s exp]i5ce ( duration /& = x & s]ve z its repres5tative4 ,x is1 !n1 reasonable to speak ( ! space cov]$ by ! vibration ( an atom1 & x is equally reasonable to speak ( ! "t tak5 up by its vibration4 ,x is n necess>y to believe t ! duration t we actually exp]i5ce z a second mu/ itself be capable ( be+ divid$ up into ! numb] ( p>ts indicat$ by ! d5om9ator ( ! fraction t we use 9 indicat+ su* a "t1 & t ea* ( ^! p>ts mu/ be p]ceiv$ z duration4 ,!re is1 !n1 a s5se 9 :i* we may affirm t "t is inf9itely divisible4 ,b we mu/ rememb] t app>5t "t--! "t pres5t$ 9 any s+le exp]i5ce ( duration--is nev] inf9itely divisible2 & t real "t1 9 any save a relative s5se ( ! ^w1 is n a s+le exp]i5ce ( duration at all4 ,x is a recognition ( ! fact t exp]i5ces ( duration may be sub/itut$ = ea* o!r )\t assignable limit4 7#d7 ,b :at %all we say to ! la/ problem--to ! "q h[ we c be consci\s ( "t at all1 :5 ! p>ts ( "t are all successive8 ,h[ c we ev5 h a consci\sness ( crude "t1 ( app>5t "t1 ( duration 9 any s5se ( ! ^w1 :5 duration mu/ be made up ( mom5ts no two ( :i* c exi/ toge!r & no "o ( :i* alone c con/itute "t8 ,! pa/ is n n[1 ! future is n yet1 ! pres5t is a m]e po9t1 z we are told1 & _c h p>ts4 ,if we are consci\s ( "t z pa/1 pres5t1 & future1 mu/ we n be consci\s ( a s]ies z a s]ies :5 e memb] ( x save "o is nonexi/5t8 ,c a man be consci\s ( ! nonexi/5t8 ,! difficulty does seem a s]i\s "o1 & yet ,i v5ture to affirm t1 if we exam9e x c>efully1 we %all see t x is a difficulty ( our own devis+4 ,! argum5t quietly makes an assumption--& makes x gratuit\sly--) :i* any consci\sness ( duration is incompatible1 & !n asks u h[ !re c be su* a ?+ z a consci\sness ( duration4 ,! assumption is t we c be consci\s only ( ! exi/5t1 & ?is1 writt5 out a little m at l5g?1 reads z foll[s3 we c be consci\s only ( ! n[ exi/5t1 or1 9 o!r words ( ! pres5t4 ,( c\rse1 ?is det]m9es f ! outset t we _c be consci\s ( ! pa/ & ! future1 ( duration4 ,! pa/ & ! future are1 to be sure1 nonexi/5t f ! po9t ( view ( ! pres5t2 b x %\ld be rem>k$ z well t ! pres5t is nonexi/5t f ! po9t ( view ( ! pa/ or ! future4 ,if we are talk+ ( "t at all we are talk+ ( t no two p>ts ( :i* are simultane\s2 x w\ld be absurd to speak ( a pa/ t exi/$ simultane\sly ) ! pres5t1 j z x w\ld be absurd to speak ( a pres5t exi/+ simultane\sly ) ! pa/4 ,b we %\ld n d5y to pa/1 pres5t1 & future1 respectively1 _! appropriate exi/5ce2 nor is x by any means self-evid5t t !re _c be a consci\sness ( pa/1 pres5t1 & future z su*4 ,we fall 9 ) ! assumption1 x seems1 because we "k v well t we are n directly consci\s ( a remote pa/ & a remote future4 ,we repres5t ^! to ourselves by means ( "s proxy--we h pres5t memories ( times long pa/ & pres5t anticipations ( :at w be 9 ! "t to come4 ,moreov]1 we use ! ^w pres5t v loosely2 we say ! pres5t ye>1 ! pres5t day1 ! pres5t h\r1 ! pres5t m9ute1 or ! pres5t second4 ,:5 we use ! ^w ?us loosely1 !re seems no reason = believ+ t !re %\ld be su* a ?+ z a direct consci\sness t ext5ds beyond ! pres5t4 ,x appe>s reasonable to say3 ,no "o c be consci\s save ( ! pres5t4 ,x %\ld be rememb]$1 h[ev]1 t ! g5]\s pres5t ( common disc\rse is by no means id5tical ) ! ideal po9t betwe5 pa/ & future dealt ) 9 ! argum5t "u discussion4 ,we all say3 ,i n[ see t ! cl\d is mov+2 ,i n[ see t ! sn[ is fall+4 ,b !re c be no mov+1 no fall+1 no *ange1 9 ! timeless n[ ) :i* we h be5 conc]n$4 ,is !re any evid5ce :atev] t we are %ut up1 = all our imm$iate k1 to su* a n[8 ,!re is none :atev]4 ,! fact is t ?is timeless n[ is a product ( reflective ?\ght & n a some?+ ( :i* we are directly consci\s4 ,x is an ideal po9t 9 ! real "t ( :i* ?is *apt] has treat$1 ! "t t is 9 a c]ta9 s5se inf9itely divisible4 ,x is fir/ c\s9 to ! ideal ma!matical po9t1 ! m]e limit betwe5 two l9es1 a some?+ n p]ceptible to any s5se4 ,we h a t5d5cy to c>ry ov] to x :at we recognize to be true ( ! v diff]5t pres5t ( common disc\rse1 a pres5t :i* we di/+ui% f pa/ & future 9 a some:at loose way1 b a pres5t 9 :i* !re c]ta9ly is ! consci\sness ( *ange1 ( duration4 ,& :5 we d ?is1 we dig = ourselves a pit into :i* we proce$ to fall4 ,we may1 !n1 conclude t we are directly consci\s ( m ?an ! pres5t1 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ,augu/9e us$ ! ^w4 ,we are consci\s ( "t1 ( crude "t1 & f ?is we c pass to a k ( real "t1 & c det]m9e its p>ts ) precision4 #a ,book ,,xi1 ,*apt]s #ad & #ae4 ,,iii4 ,,problems ,,t\*+ ,,! ,,m9d ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,:at ,,is ,,! ,,m9d8 #cj4 ,,primitive ,,notions ,,( ,,m9d4--,! s\l or m9d1 t some?+ to :i* we ref] s5sations & ideas ( all sorts1 is an object t m5 d n seem to "k v cle>ly & def9itely1 ?\gh !y feel s sure ( its exi/5ce t !y reg>d x z ! height ( folly to call x 9 "q4 ,t he has a m9d1 no man d\bts2 :at 8 m9d is1 he may be q unable to say4 ,we h se5 7section #g7 t *ildr51 :5 q "y1 c h>dly be said to recognize t !y h m9ds at all4 ,?is does n mean t :at is m5tal is n giv5 9 _! exp]i5ce4 ,!y "k t !y mu/ op5 _! eyes to see ?+s1 & mu/ lay _! h&s ^u !m to feel !m2 !y h _h pa9s & pleasures1 memories & fancies4 ,9 %ort1 !y h )9 _! rea* all ! mat]ials ne$$ 9 fram+ a conception ( ! m9d1 & 9 draw+ cle>ly ! di/9ction betwe5 _! m9ds & ext]nal ?+s4 ,nev]!less1 !y are incapable ( us+ ^! mat]ials2 _! att5tion is engross$ ) :at is physical1--) _! own bodies & ! bodies ( o!rs1 ) ! ?+s t !y c eat1 ) ! toys ) :i* !y c play1 & ! l4 ,x is only lat] t !re em]ges ev5 a tol]ably cle> conception ( a self or m9d diff]5t f ! physical & contra/$ ) x4 ,primitive man is almo/ z mat]ial 9 8 ?9k+ z is ! "y *ild4 ,( ?is we h traces 9 _m ( ! words :i* h come to be appli$ to ! m9d4 ,our ^w _s is f ! ,lat9 spiritus1 orig9ally a breeze4 ,! ,lat9 ^w = ! s\l1 ! ^w us$ by ! great philosoph]s all ?r\gh ! ,middle ,ages1 anima 7,greek1 anemos71 has ! same significance4 ,9 ! ,greek ,new ,te/am5t1 ! ^w us$ = _s 7pneuma7 c>ries a simil> sugge/ion4 ,:5 we are told 9 ! ,book ( ,g5esis t man became a liv+ s\l1 we may read ! ^w lit]ally a brea?4 ,:at m natural ?an t ! man :o is j awak5+ to a consci\sness ( t elusive entity ! m9d %\ld confuse x ) t brea? :i* is ! mo/ /rik+ outw>d & visible sign t di/+ui%es a liv+ man f a dead "o8 ,t ^? :o fir/ tri$ to give "s sci5tific acc\nt ( ! s\l or m9d conceiv$ x z a mat]ial ?+1 & t x 0 suffici5tly common to id5tify x ) ! brea?1 we "k f direct evid5ce4 ,a glance at ! ,greek philosophy1 to :i* we owe s mu* t is ( value 9 our intellectual life1 is suffici5t to disclose h[ difficult x 0 = ?9k+ m5 to atta9 to a high] conception4 ,?us1 ,anaxim5es ( ,miletus1 :o liv$ 9 ! six? c5tury be=e ,*ri/1 says t our s\l1 :i* is air1 rules u4 ,a little lat]1 ,h]aclitus1 a man mu* admir$ = ! dep? ( 8 reflections1 ma9ta9s t ! s\l is a fi]y vapor1 evid5tly id5tify+ x ) ! w>m brea? ( ! liv+ creature4 ,9 ! fif? c5tury1 ,b4,c41 ,anaxagoras1 :o acc\nts = ! ord]+ ( ! elem5ts into a sy/em ( ?+s by ref]r+ to ! activity ( ,m9d or ,reason1 calls m9d ! f9e/ ( ?+s1 & x seems cle> t he did n conceive ( x z v diff]5t 9 nature f ! o!r elem5ts :i* ent] into ! con/itution ( ! _w4 ,democritus ( ,abd]a 7betwe5 #dfj & #cfj ,b4,c471 t great inve/igator ( nature & brilliant writ]1 develop$ a mat]iali/ic doctr9e t admits ! exi/5ce ( no?+ save atoms & empty space4 ,he conceiv$ ! s\l to consi/ ( f9e1 smoo?1 r\nd atoms1 :i* are also atoms ( fire4 ,^! atoms are di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! :ole body1 b function diff]5tly 9 diff]5t places--9 ! bra9 !y give u ?\ght1 9 ! he>t1 ang]1 & 9 ! liv]1 desire4 ,life la/s j s long z we brea! 9 & brea! out su* atoms4 ,! doctr9e ( ,democritus 0 tak5 up by ,epicurus1 :o f\nd$ 8 s*ool ?ree hundr$ ye>s be=e ,*ri/--a s*ool :i* liv$ & prosp]$ = a v long "t4 ,^? :o are int]e/$ 9 see+ h[ a mat]iali/ic psy*ology c be c>ri$ out 9 detail by an +5i\s m9d %\ld read ! curi\s acc\nt ( ! m9d pres5t$ 9 8 great poem1 ,on ,nature1 by ! ,roman poet ,lucretius1 an ard5t ,epicurean1 :o wrote 9 ! fir/ c5tury ,b4,c4 ,! s*ool :i* we commonly ?9k ( contra/+ ) ! ,epicurean1 & "o :i* 0 f\nd$ at ab\t ! same "t1 is t ( ! ,/oics4 ,c]ta9ly ! ,/oics diff]$ 9 _m ?+s f ! ,epicureans2 _! view ( ! _w1 & ( ! life ( man1 0 a mu* nobl] "o2 b !y 7 uncompromis+ mat]iali/s1 nev]!less1 & id5tifi$ ! s\l ) ! w>m brea? t animates man4 #ca4 ,,! ,,m9d ,,z ,,immat]ial4--,x is sc>cely too mu* to say t ! ,greek philosophy z a :ole impresses ! mod]n m9d z repres5t+ ! ?\ght ( a p to :om x 0 n unnatural to ?9k ( ! m9d z be+ a brea?1 a fire1 a collection ( atoms1 a some?+ mat]ial4 ,to be sure1 we _c accuse ^? tw9 />s t mu/ ev] rema9 ! glory ( lit]ature & sci5ce1 ,plato & ,ari/otle1 ( be+ mat]iali/s4 ,plato 7#dbg-cdg1 ,b4,c47 di/ributes1 x is true1 ! ?ree-fold s\l1 :i* he all[s man1 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! human body1 9 a way t at lea/ sugge/s ! ,democritean di/ribution ( m9d-atoms4 ,! l[e/ s\l is conf9$ b5ea? ! diaphragm2 ! "o next 9 rank has its seat 9 ! *e/2 & ! highe/1 ! rational s\l1 is en?ron$ 9 ! head4 ,h[ev]1 he has said q en\gh ab\t ?is la/ to indicate cle>ly t he conceiv$ x to be free f all ta9t ( mat]iality4 ,z = ,ari/otle 7#chd-cbb1 ,b4,c471 :o also di/+ui%$ betwe5 ! l[] psy*ical functions & ! high]1 we f9d him sometimes speak+ ( s\l & body 9 su* a way z to lead m5 to ask !mselves :e!r he is really speak+ ( two ?+s at all2 b :5 he specifically treats ( ! n\s or reason1 he insi/s ^u its complete deta*m5t f ev]y?+ mat]ial4 ,man's reason is n subject$ to ! fate ( ! l[] psy*ical functions1 :i*1 z ! =m ( ! body1 p]i% ) ! body2 x ent]s f )\t1 & x endures aft] ! body has pass$ away4 ,x is int]e/+ to note1 h[ev]1 an occasional lapse ev5 9 ,ari/otle4 ,:5 he comes to speak ( ! relation to ! _w ( ! ,div9e ,m9d1 ! ,fir/ ,cause ( ,motion1 :i* he conceives z pure ,reason1 he repres5ts x z t\*+ ! _w1 al?\gh x rema9s itself unt\*$4 ,we seem to f9d "h j a flavor--an inconsi/5t "o--( ! mat]ial4 ,su* reflections z ^? ( ,plato & ,ari/otle bore fruit 9 lat] ages4 ,:5 we come d[n to ,plot9us ! ,neo-,platoni/ 7#bjd-bfi1 ,a4,d471 we h left ! conception ( ! s\l z a w>m brea?1 or z compos$ ( f9e r\nd atoms1 f> beh9d4 ,x has become curi\sly ab/ract & incompreh5sible4 ,x is describ$ z an immat]ial sub/ance ,?is sub/ance is1 9 a s5se1 9 ! body1 or1 at lea/1 x is pres5t to ! body4 ,b x is n 9 ! body z mat]ial ?+s are 9 ?is place or 9 t4 ,x is z a :ole 9 ! :ole body1 & x is z a :ole 9 e "p ( ! body4 ,?us ! s\l may be reg>d$ z divisible1 s9ce x is di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! body2 b x mu/ also be reg>d$ z indivisible1 s9ce x is :olly 9 e "p4 ,let ! man to :om su* s5t5ces z ^! mean any?+ rejoice 9 ! mean+ t he is able to read into !m6 ,if he c g z f> z ,plot9us1 p]haps he c g z f> z ,cassiodorus 7#dgg-egj1 ,a4,d471 & ma9ta9 t ! s\l is n m]ely z a :ole 9 e "p ( ! body1 b is :olly 9 ea* ( its own p>ts4 ,^u read+ su* /atem5ts "o's fir/ impulse is to exclaim3 ,h[ is x possible t m5 ( s5se %\ld be l$ to speak 9 ?is irresponsible way8 & :5 !y d speak ?us1 is x conceivable t o!r m5 %\ld s]i\sly occupy !mselves ) :at !y say8 ,b if "o has ! hi/oric s5se1 & kn[s some?+ ( ! sett+ 9 :i* su* doctr9es come to ! bir?1 "o _c reg>d x z rem>kable t m5 ( s5se %\ld urge !m4 ,no "o co9s !m indep5d5tly out ( 8 own bra92 little by little m5 are impell$ along ! pa? t leads to su* conclusions4 ,plot9us 0 a c>eful /ud5t ( ! philosoph]s t prec$$ him4 ,he saw t m9d mu/ be di/+ui%$ f matt]1 & he saw t :at is giv5 a location 9 space1 9 ! usual s5se ( ! words1 is treat$ l a mat]ial ?+4 ,on ! o!r h&1 he _h ! common exp]i5ce t we all h ( a relation betwe5 m9d & body4 ,h[ d ju/ice to ?is relation1 & yet n mat]ialize m9d8 ,:at he tri$ to d is cle>1 & x seems equally cle> t he _h good reason = try+ to d x4 ,b x appe>s to u n[ t :at he actually did 0 to make ( ! m9d or s\l a some?+ v l an inconsi/5t bit ( matt]1 t is someh[ 9 space1 & yet n exactly 9 space1 a some?+ t c be 9 two places at once1 a logical mon/rosity4 ,t 8 doctr9e did n meet ) in/ant rejection 0 due to ! fact1 already allud$ to1 t our exp]i5ce ( ! m9d is some?+ r dim & elusive4 ,x is n easy = a man to say :at x is1 &1 h5ce1 x is n easy = a man to say :at x is n4 ,! doctr9e ( ,plot9us pass$ ov] to ,sa9t ,augu/9e1 & f him x pass$ to ! philosoph]s ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,h[ extremely difficult x has be5 = ! _w to get away f x at all1 is made cle>ly evid5t 9 ! writ+s ( t rem>kable man ,desc>tes4 ,desc>tes wrote 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,! long sleep ( ! ,middle ,ages 0 pa/1 & ! sev]al sci5ces _h sprung into a vigor\s & indep5d5t life4 ,x 0 n en\gh = ,desc>tes to describe ! relation ( m9d & body 9 ! loose t]ms t _h prevail$ up to 8 "t4 ,he _h made a c>eful /udy ( anatomy1 & he realiz$ t ! bra9 is a c5tral organ to :i* messages are c>ri$ by ! n]ves f all p>ts ( ! body4 ,he knew t an injury to ! n]ve might prev5t ! receipt ( a message1 i4e4 he knew t a consci\s s5sation did n come into be+ until some?+ happ5$ 9 ! bra94 ,nor 0 he cont5t m]ely to ref] ! m9d to ! bra9 9 a g5]al way4 ,he f\nd ! little p9eal gl& 9 ! mid/ ( ! bra9 to be 9 :at he reg>d$ z an admirable position to s]ve z ! seat ( ! s\l4 ,to ?is conv5i5t little c5tral (fice he relegat$ x2 & he describes 9 a way t may to-day well provoke a smile ! movem5ts t ! s\l imp>ts to ! p9eal gl&1 mak+ x incl9e itself 9 ?is direction & 9 t1 & mak+ x pu% ! animal spirits1 ! fluid conta9$ 9 ! cavities ( ! bra91 t[>ds v>i\s pores4 ,?us he writes3#a ,let u1 !n1 conceive ( ! s\l z hav+ h] *ief seat 9 ! little gl& t is 9 ! middle ( ! bra91 :5ce %e radiates to all ! re/ ( ! body by means ( ! spirits1 ! n]ves1 & ev5 ! blood1 :i*1 p>ticipat+ 9 ! impressions ( ! spirits1 c c>ry !m ?r\gh ! art]ies to all ! memb]s4 ,& aga93 ,?us1 :5 ! s\l wills to call any?+ to remembrance1 ?is volition br+s x ab\t t ! gl&1 incl9+ itself successively 9 diff]5t directions1 pu%es ! spirits t[>ds div]s p>ts ( ! bra91 until !y f9d ! "p :i* has ! traces t ! object :i* "o wi%es to recollect has left !re4 ,we mu/ admit t ,desc>tes' sci5tific /udies l$ him to make ?is m9d t sits 9 ! little p9eal gl& some?+ v mat]ial4 ,x is spok5 ( z ?\gh x pu%$ ! gl& ab\t2 x is affect$ by ! motions ( ! gl&1 z ?\gh x 7 a bit ( matt]4 ,x seems to be a less inconsi/5t ?+ ?an ! all 9 ! :ole body s\l ( ,plot9us2 b x appe>s to h pur*as$ its compreh5sibility at ! exp5se ( its immat]iality4 ,%all we say t ,desc>tes frankly repudiat$ ! doctr9e t _h obta9$ = s _m c5turies8 ,we _c say t2 he /ill held to x4 ,b h[ c\ld he8 ,! read] has p]haps rem>k$ above t he speaks ( ! s\l z hav+ h] *ief seat 9 ! p9eal gl&4 ,x seems odd t he %\ld d s1 b he /ill held1 ev5 aft] he _h come to 8 def9ite conclusions z to ! s\l's seat1 to ! anci5t doctr9e t ! s\l is unit$ to all ! p>ts ( ! body conjo9tly4 ,he c\ld n :olly repudiate a v5]able tradition4 ,we h se51 ?us1 t m5 fir/ conceiv$ ( ! m9d z mat]ial & lat] came to rebel aga9/ su* a conception4 ,b we h se51 also1 t ! attempt to conceive x z immat]ial 0 n :olly successful4 ,x result$ 9 a some?+ t we may describe z inconsi/5tly mat]ial r ?an z n mat]ial at all4 #cb4 ,,mod]n ,,common ,,s5se ,,notions ,,( ,,! ,,m9d4--,"u ?is head+ ,i mean to sum up ! op9ions z to ! nature ( ! m9d usually held by ! intellig5t p]sons ab\t u to-day :o make no claim to be reg>d$ z philosoph]s4 ,is x n true t a great _m ( !m believe3-- 7#a7 ,t ! m9d is 9 ! body8 7#b7 ,t x acts & reacts ) matt]8 7#c7 ,t x is a sub/ance ) attributes8 7#d7 ,t x is nonext5d$ & immat]ial8 ,i mu/ rem>k at ! outset t ?is collection ( op9ions is by no means some?+ ga!r$ by ! pla9 man f 8 own exp]i5ce4 ,^! op9ions are ! e*oes ( old philosophies4 ,!y are a h]itage f ! pa/1 & h become ! common prop]ty ( all intellig5t p]sons :o are ev5 mod]ately well-educat$4 ,_! s\rces h be5 indicat$ 9 ! prec$+ sections2 b mo/ p]sons :o *]i% !m h no idea ( _! orig94 ,m5 are apt to suppose t ^! op9ions seem reasonable to !m m]ely = ! reason t !y f9d 9 _! own exp]i5ce evid5ce ( _! tru?4 ,b ?is is n s4 ,h we n se5 above h[ long x took m5 to discov] t !y mu/ n ?9k ( ! m9d z be+ a brea?1 or a flame1 or a collection ( mat]ial atoms8 ,! m5 :o err$ 9 ?is way 7 abl] ?an mo/ ( u c pret5d to be1 & !y gave mu* ?\ght to ! matt]4 ,& :5 at la/ x came to be realiz$ t m9d mu/ n ?us be conceiv$ z mat]ial1 ^? :o endeavor$ to conceive x z some?+ else gave1 aft] _! be/ ef=ts1 a v que] acc\nt ( x inde$4 ,is x 9 ! face ( su* facts reasonable to suppose t our fri5ds & acqua9tances1 :o /rike u z hav+ reflective p[]s 9 n[ise rem>kable1 h indep5d5tly arriv$ at ! conception t ! m9d is a nonext5d$ & immat]ial sub/ance8 ,surely !y h n ?\ght all ?is out = !mselves4 ,!y h tak5 up & appropriat$ unconsci\sly notions :i* 7 9 ! air1 s to speak4 ,!y h inh]it$ _! doctr9es1 n creat$ !m4 ,x is well to rememb] ?is1 = x may make u ! m will+ to take up & exam9e imp>tially :at we h uncritically turn$ into articles ( belief4 ,! fir/ two articles1 namely1 t ! m9d is 9 ! body & t x acts ^u1 & is act$ ^u by1 mat]ial ?+s1 ,i %all discuss at l5g? 9 ! next *apt]4 ,"h ,i pause only to po9t out t ! pla9 man does n put ! m9d into ! body q unequivocally4 ,i ?9k x w\ld surprise him to be told t a l9e might be drawn ?r\gh two heads 9 su* a way z to transfix two m9ds4 ,& ,i rem>k1 fur!r1 t he has no cle> idea ( :at x means = m9d to act ^u body or body to act ^u m9d4 ,h[ does an immat]ial ?+ set a mat]ial ?+ 9 motion8 ,c x t\* x8 ,c x pu% x8 ,!n :at does x d8 ,b let u pass on to ! la/ two articles ( fai? m5tion$ above4 ,we all draw ! di/9ction betwe5 sub/ance & its attributes or qualities4 ,! di/9ction 0 rem>k$ & discuss$ _m c5turies ago1 & mu* has be5 writt5 ^u x4 ,i take up ! rul] on my desk2 x is recogniz$ at once z a bit ( wood4 ,h[8 ,x has su* & su* qualities4 ,my pap]-knife is ( silv]4 ,h[ d ,i "k x8 ,x has c]ta9 o!r qualities4 ,i speak ( my m9d4 ,h[ d ,i "k t ,i h a m9d8 ,i h s5sations & ideas4 ,if ,i exp]i5c$ no m5tal ph5om5a ( any sort1 evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( a m9d w\ld be lack+4 ,n[1 :e!r ,i am conc]n$ ) ! rul]1 ) ! pap]-knife1 or ) ! m9d1 h ,i direct evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( any?+ m ?an ! :ole gr\p ( qualities8 ,d ,i ev] p]ceive ! sub/ance8 ,9 ! old] philosophy1 ! sub/ance 7sub/antia7 0 conceiv$ to be a some?+ n directly p]ceiv$1 b only inf]r$ to exi/--a some?+ und]ly+ ! qualities ( ?+s &1 z x 71 hold+ !m toge!r4 ,x 0 believ$ 9 by philosoph]s :o 7 q ready to admit t !y c\ld n tell any?+ ab\t x4 ,= example1 ,john ,locke 7#afcb-agjd71 ! ,engli% philosoph]1 holds to x /\tly1 & yet describes x z a m]e we "k n :at1 ^: function x is to hold toge!r ! bundles ( qualities t con/itute ! ?+s we "k4 ,9 ! mod]n philosophy m5 /ill di/+ui% betwe5 sub/ance & qualities4 ,x is a useful di/9ction1 & we c\ld sc>cely get on )\t x4 ,b an increas+ numb] ( ?\ghtful p]sons repudiate ! old notion ( sub/ance altoge!r4 ,we may1 !y say1 und]/& by ! ^w sub/ance ! :ole gr\p ( qualities z a gr\p--n m]ely ! qualities t are reveal$ at a giv5 "t1 b all ^? t we h reason to believe a full] k w\ld reveal4 ,9 %ort1 we may und]/& by x j :at is left :5 ! we "k n :at ( ! ,lockian has be5 disc>d$4 ,?is notion ( sub/ance we may call ! m mod]n "o2 yet we c h>dly say t x is ! notion ( ! pla9 man4 ,he does n make v cle> to himself j :at is 9 8 ?\ght1 b ,i ?9k we d him no inju/ice 9 ma9ta9+ t he is some?+ ( a ,lockian1 ev5 if he has nev] he>d ( ,locke4 ,! ,lockian sub/ance is1 z ! read] has se51 a sort ( unkn[able4 ,& n[ = ! doctr9e t ! m9d is nonext5d$ & immat]ial4 ,) ^! affirmations we may he>tily agree2 b we mu/ admit t ! pla9 man enunciates !m )\t hav+ a v def9ite idea ( :at ! m9d is4 ,he reg>ds z 9 8 m9d all 8 s5sations & ideas1 all 8 p]ceptions & m5tal images ( ?+s4 ,n[1 suppose ,i close my eyes & picture to myself a b>b]'s pole4 ,:]e is ! image8 ,we say1 9 ! m9d4 ,is x ext5d$8 ,we feel impell$ to answ]1 ,no4 ,b x c]ta9ly seems to be ext5d$2 ! :ite & ! r$ ^u x appe> und5iably side by side4 ,may ,i ass]t t ?is m5tal image has no ext5sion :atev]8 ,mu/ ,i d5y to x p>ts1 or ass]t t its p>ts are n side by side8 ,x seems odd to ma9ta9 t a some?+ z devoid ( p>ts z is a ma!matical po9t %\ld yet appe> to h p>ts & to be ext5d$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if we all[ ! image to be ext5d$1 h[ c we ref] x to a nonext5d$ m9d8 ,to su* que/ions z ^!1 ,i d n ?9k t ! pla9 man has an answ]4 ,t !y c be answ]$1 ,i %all try to %[ 9 ! la/ section ( ?is *apt]4 ,b "o _c answ] !m until "o has atta9$ to r a cle> conception ( :at is meant by ! m9d4 ,& until "o has atta9$ to su* a conception1 ! /atem5t t ! m9d is immat]ial mu/ rema9 r vague & indef9ite4 ,z we saw above1 ev5 ! ,plot9ic s\l 0 inconsi/5tly mat]ial r ?an immat]ial4 ,x 0 n exclud$ f space2 x 0 ref]r$ to space 9 an absurd way4 ,! m9d z common s5se conceives x1 is ! successor ( ?is ,plot9ic s\l1 & seems to keep a flavor ( :at is mat]ial aft] all4 ,?is w come out 9 ! next *apt]1 :]e we %all discuss m9d & body4 #cc4 ,,! ,,psy*ologi/ ,,& ,,! ,,m9d4--,:5 we ask h[ ! psy*ologi/ conceives ( ! m9d1 we mu/ n =get t psy*ologi/s are _m & t !y diff] m or less f ea* o!r 9 _! op9ions4 ,:5 we say ! psy*ologi/ believes ?is or t1 we mean usually no m ?an t ! op9ion ref]r$ to is preval5t among m5 ( t class1 or t x is ! op9ion ( ^? :om we reg>d z its m enlight5$ memb]s4 ,tak+ ! words 9 ?is some:at loose s5se1 ,i %all ask :at ! psy*ologi/'s op9ion is t\*+ ! f\r po9ts set =? 9 ! prec$+ section4 ,h[ f> does he agree ) ! pla9 man8 7#a7 ,!re c be no d\bt t he ref]s ! m9d to ! body 9 "s way1 al?\gh he may %ake 8 head ov] ! use ( ! ^w 94 7#b7 ,z to :e!r ! m9d acts & reacts ) matt]1 9 any s5se ( ! words analog\s to t 9 :i* !y are commonly us$1 !re is a division 9 ! camp4 ,"s affirm su* int]action2 "s d5y x4 ,! matt] w be discuss$ 9 ! next *apt]4 7#c7 ,! psy*ologi/--! m mod]n "o--incl9es to repudiate any sub/ance or sub/ratum ( ! sort accept$ 9 ! ,middle ,ages & believ$ 9 by _m m5 n[4 ,to him ! m9d is ! :ole complex ( m5tal ph5om5a 9 _! int]relations4 ,9 o!r words1 ! m9d is n an unkn[n & indescribable some?+ t is m]ely inf]r$2 x is some?+ reveal$ 9 consci\sness & op5 to obs]vation4 7#d7 ,! psy*ologi/ is c]ta9ly n incl9$ to reg>d ! m9d or any idea belong+ to x z mat]ial or z ext5d$4 ,b he does recognize implicitly1 if n explicitly1 t ideas are composite4 ,to him1 z to ! pla9 man1 ! image held 9 ! memory or imag9ation seems to be ext5d$1 & he c di/+ui% its p>ts4 ,he does n d mu* t[>ds cle>+ away ! difficulty allud$ to at ! close ( ! la/ section4 ,x rema9s = ! metaphysician to d :at he c ) x1 & to him we mu/ turn if we wi% light ^u ?is obscure subject4 #cd4 ,,! ,,metaphysician ,,& ,,! ,,m9d4--,i h res]v$ = ! next *apt] ! fir/ two po9ts m5tion$ z belong+ to ! pla9 man's doctr9e ( ! m9d4 ,9 :at s5se ! m9d may be said to be 9 ! body1 & h[ x may be conceiv$ to be relat$ to ! body1 are topics t des]ve to be treat$ by !mselves 9 a *apt] on ,m9d & ,body4 ,"h ,i %all consid] :at ! metaphysician has to say ab\t ! m9d z sub/ance1 & ab\t ! m9d z nonext5d$ & immat]ial4 ,x has be5 said t ! ,lockian sub/ance is really an unkn[able4 ,no "o pret5ds to h exp]i5ce ( x2 x is reveal$ to no s5se2 x is1 inde$1 a "n = a m]e no?+1 = :5 we ab/ract f a ?+1 9 ?\ght1 e s+le quality1 we f9d t !re is left to u no?+ :atev]4 ,we _c say t ! sub/ance1 9 ?is s5se ( ! ^w1 is ! reality ( :i* ! qualities are appe>ances4 ,9 ,*apt] ,v we saw j :at we may legitimately mean by realities & appe>ances1 & x 0 made cle> t an unkn[able ( any sort _c possibly be ! reality to :i* ?is or t appe>ance is ref]r$4 ,appe>ances & realities are exp]i5ces :i* are obs]v$ to be relat$ 9 c]ta9 ways4 ,t :i* is n op5 to obs]vation at all1 t ( :i* we h1 & c h1 no exp]i5ce1 we h no reason to call ! reality ( any?+4 ,we h1 9 tru?1 no reason to talk ab\t x at all1 = we "k no?+ :atev] ab\t x2 & :5 we d talk ab\t x1 x is because we are labor+ "u a delusion4 ,?is is equally true :e!r we are conc]n$ ) ! sub/ance ( mat]ial ?+s or ) ! sub/ance ( m9ds4 ,an unkn[able is an unkn[able 9 any case1 & we may simply disc>d x4 ,we lose no?+ by s do+1 = "o _c lose :at "o has nev] _h1 & :at1 by hypo!sis1 "o c nev] h4 ,! loss ( a m]e ^w %\ld occasion u no regret4 ,n[1 we h se5 t we d n lose ! _w ( real mat]ial ?+s 9 reject+ ! ,unkn[able 7,*apt] ,v74 ,! ?+s are complexes ( qualities1 ( physical ph5om5a2 & ! m we "k ab\t ^!1 ! m d we "k ab\t real ?+s4 ,b we h also se5 7,*apt] ,,iv7 t physical ph5om5a are n ! only ph5om5a ( :i* we h exp]i5ce4 ,we are consci\s ( m5tal ph5om5a z well1 ( ! ph5om5a ( ! subjective ord]1 ( s5sations & ideas4 ,:y n admit t ^! con/itute ! m9d1 z physical ph5om5a con/itute ! ?+s :i* belong to ! ext]nal _w8 ,he :o says ?is says no m ?an t ! m9d is kn[n & is kn[able4 ,x is :at x is p]ceiv$ to be2 & ! m we "k ( m5tal ph5om5a1 ! m d we "k ( ! m9d4 ,%all we call ! m9d z ?us kn[n a sub/ance8 ,t dep5ds on ! significance :i* we give to ?is ^w4 ,x is bett]1 p]haps1 to avoid x1 = x is fatally easy to slip into ! old use ( ! ^w1 & !n to say1 z m5 h said1 t we d n "k ! m9d z x is1 b only z x appe>s to u to be--t we d n "k ! reality1 b only its appe>ances4 ,& if we keep cle>ly be=e u ! view ( ! m9d :i* ,i am advocat+1 we %all f9d an easy way out ( ! difficulties t seem to confront u :5 we consid] x z nonext5d$ & immat]ial4 ,c]ta9 complexes ( m5tal ph5om5a--= example1 ! b>b]'s pole above allud$ to--c]ta9ly appe> to be ext5d$4 ,are !y really ext5d$8 ,if ,i imag9e a tree a hundr$ feet high1 is x really a hundr$ feet high8 ,has x any real size at all8 ,our problem melts away :5 we realize :at we mean by ?is real size4 ,9 ,*apt] ,v1 ,i h di/+ui%$ betwe5 app>5t space & real space4 ,real space is1 z 0 po9t$ out1 ! plan ( ! real physical _w4 ,to occupy any portion ( real space1 a ?+ mu/ be a real ext]nal ?+2 t is1 ! exp]i5ces con/itut+ x mu/ belong to ! objective ord]1 !y mu/ n be ( ! class call$ m5tal4 ,we all recognize ?is1 9 a way4 ,we "k t a real mat]ial foot rule _c be appli$ to an imag9>y tree4 ,we say1 ,h[ big did ! tree se5 9 a dream seem2 we d n say1 ,h[ big 0 x really8 ,if we did ask su* a "q1 we %\ld be puzzl$ to "k :]e to look = an answ]4 ,& ?is = a v good reason4 ,he :o asks3 ,h[ big 0 t imag9>y tree really8 asks1 9 effect3 ,h[ mu* real space did ! unreal tree fill8 ,! "q is a fooli% "o4 ,x assumes t ph5om5a n 9 ! objective ord] are 9 ! objective ord]4 ,z well ask h[ a color smells or h[ a s\nd looks4 ,:5 we are deal+ ) ! mat]ial we are n deal+ ) ! m5tal1 & we mu/ nev] =get ?is4 ,! tree imag9$ or se5 9 a dream seems ext5d$4 ,its ext5sion is app>5t ext5sion1 & ?is app>5t ext5sion has no place 9 ! ext]nal _w :atev]4 ,b we mu/ n conf\nd ?is app>5t ext5sion ) a real ma!matical po9t1 & call ! tree nonext5d$ 9 ?is s5se4 ,if we d ?is we are /ill 9 ! old error--we h n gott5 away f real space1 b h sub/itut$ position 9 t space = ext5sion 9 t space4 ,no?+ m5tal c h ev5 a position 9 real space4 ,to d t x w\ld h to be a real ?+ 9 ! s5se indicat$4 ,let u1 !n1 agree ) ! pla9 man 9 affirm+ t ! m9d is nonext5d$1 b let u avoid misconception4 ,! m9d is con/itut$ ( exp]i5ces ( ! subjective ord]4 ,none ( ^! are 9 space--real space4 ,b "s ( !m h app>5t ext5sion1 & we mu/ n ov]look all t ?is implies4 ,n[ = ! m9d z immat]ial4 ,we ne$ n delay long ov] ?is po9t4 ,if we mean by ! m9d ! ph5om5a ( ! subjective ord]1 & by :at is mat]ial ! ph5om5a ( ! objective ord]1 surely we may & mu/ say t ! m9d is immat]ial4 ,! two classes ( ph5om5a sep>ate !mselves out at once4 #a ,! ,passions1 ,articles #cd & #db4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,m9d ,,& ,,body #ce4 ,,is ,,! ,,m9d ,,9 ,,! ,,body8--,!re 0 a "t1 z we h se5 9 ! la/ *apt] 7section #cj71 :5 x did n seem at all out ( ! way to ?9k ( ! m9d z 9 ! body1 & v lit]ally 9 ! body4 ,he :o believes ! m9d to be a brea?1 or a some?+ compos$ ( mat]ial atoms1 c conceive x z be+ 9 ! body z unequivocally z *airs c be 9 a room4 ,brea? c be inhal$ & exhal$2 atoms c be 9 ! head1 or 9 ! *e/1 or ! he>t1 or any:]e else 9 ! animal economy4 ,!re is no?+ dubi\s ab\t ?is s5se ( ! preposition 94 ,b we h also se5 7section #ca7 t1 z soon z m5 began to realize t ! m9d is n mat]ial1 ! "q ( its pres5ce 9 ! body became a s]i\s problem4 ,if ,i say t a *air is 9 a room1 ,i say :at is compreh5sible to e "o4 ,x is assum$ t x is 9 a p>ticul> place 9 ! room & is n 9 "s o!r place4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ,i say t ! *air is1 z a :ole1 9 e "p ( ! room at once1 ,i seem to talk nons5se4 ,?is is :at ,plot9us & ^? :o came aft] him said ab\t ! m9d4 ,are _! /atem5ts any ! less nons5sical because !y are talk+ ab\t m9ds8 ,:5 "o speaks ab\t ?+s m5tal1 "o mu/ n take leave ( good s5se & utt] unmean+ phrases4 ,if m9ds are en\gh l mat]ial ?+s to be 9 any?+1 !y mu/ be 9 ?+s 9 "s intelligible s5se ( ! ^w4 ,x w n d to say3 ,i use ! ^w 91 b ,i d n really mean 94 ,if ! mean+ has disappe>$1 :y cont9ue to use ! ^w8 ,x c only lead to my/ification4 ,desc>tes seem$ to come back to some?+ l an intelligible mean+ :5 he put ! m9d 9 ! p9eal gl& 9 ! bra94 ,yet1 z we h se51 he clung to ! old conception4 ,he c\ld n g back to ! frank mat]ialization ( m9d4 ,& ! pla9 man to-day labors "u ! same difficulty4 ,he puts ! m9d 9 ! body1 9 ! bra91 b he does n put x !re frankly & unequivocally4 ,x is 9 ! bra9 & yet n exactly 9 ! bra94 ,let u see if ?is is n ! case4 ,if we ask him3 ,does ! man :o wags 8 head move 8 m9d ab\t8 does he :o m\nts a /ep raise 8 m9d "s in*es8 does he :o sits d[n on a *air l[] 8 m9d8 ,i ?9k we %all f9d t he hesitates 9 8 answ]s4 ,& if we g on to say3 ,c\ld a l9e be s drawn z to pass ?r\gh y\r image ( me & my image ( y1 & to measure _! di/ance f "o ano!r8 ,i ?9k he w say1 ,no4 ,he does n reg>d m9ds & _! ideas z exi/+ 9 space 9 ?is fa%ion4 ,fur!rmore1 x w\ld n /rike ! pla9 man z absurd if we said to him3 ,7 our s5ses f> m acute ?an !y are1 x is conceivable t we %\ld be able to p]ceive e atom 9 a giv5 human body1 & all its motions4 ,b w\ld he be will+ to admit t an increase 9 ! %>pness ( s5se w\ld reveal to u directly ! m9d connect$ ) su* a body8 ,x is n1 !n1 9 ! body z ! atoms are4 ,x _c be se5 or t\*$ "u any conceivable circum/ances4 ,:at c x mean1 h5ce1 to say t x is !re8 ,evid5tly1 ! ^w is us$ 9 a peculi> s5se1 & ! pla9 man _c help u to a cle> und]/&+ ( x4 ,8 position becomes intelligible to u :5 we realize t he has inh]it$ ! doctr9e t ! m9d is immat]ial1 & t he /ruggles1 at ! same "t1 ) ! t5d5cy s natural to man to conceive x aft] ! analogy ( ?+s mat]ial4 ,he ?9ks ( x z 9 ! body1 &1 nev]!less1 tries to demat]ialize ?is 94 ,8 ?\ght is suffici5tly vague1 & is inconsi/5t1 z might be expect$4 ,if we w be> 9 m9d :at 0 said 9 ! clos+ section ( ! la/ *apt]1 we c help him ov] 8 difficulty4 ,t m9d & body are relat$ !re c be no d\bt4 ,b %\ld we use ! ^w 9 to express ?is relation8 ,! body is a c]ta9 gr\p ( ph5om5a 9 ! objective ord]2 t is1 x is a "p ( ! ext]nal _w4 ,! m9d consi/s ( exp]i5ces 9 ! subjective ord]4 ,we h se5 t no m5tal ph5om5on c occupy space--real space1 ! space ( ! ext]nal _w--& t x _c ev5 h a position 9 space 7section #cd74 ,z m5tal1 x is exclud$ f ! objective ord] altoge!r4 ,! m9d is n1 !n1 /rictly speak+1 9 ! body1 al?\gh x is relat$ to x4 ,x rema9s1 ( c\rse1 to ask ourselves h[ we ought to conceive ! relation4 ,?is we %all d lat] 9 ! pres5t *apt]4 ,b1 x may be said1 x w\ld s\nd odd to d5y t ! m9d is 9 ! body4 ,does n e "o use ! expression8 ,:at c we sub/itute = x8 ,i answ]3 ,if x is conv5i5t to use ! expression let u cont9ue to d s4 ,m5 mu/ talk s z to be und]/ood4 ,b let u n p]petuate error1 &1 z occasion dem&s x1 let u make cle> to ourselves & to o!rs :at we h a "r to und]/& by ?is 9 :5 we use x4 #cf4 ,,! ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,! ,,int]actioni/4--,!re is no man :o does n "k t 8 m9d is relat$ to 8 body z x is n to o!r mat]ial ?+s4 ,we op5 our eyes1 & we see ?+s2 we /ret* out our h&1 & we feel !m2 our body receives a bl[1 & we feel pa92 we wi% to move1 & ! muscles are set 9 motion4 ,^! ?+s are matt]s ( common exp]i5ce4 ,we all p]ceive1 9 o!r words1 t !re is an int]action1 9 "s s5se ( ! t]m1 betwe5 m9d & body4 ,b x is important to realize t "o may be q well aw>e ( all su* facts1 & yet may h v vague notions ( :at "o means by body & by m9d1 & may h no def9ite !ory at all ( ! sort ( relation t obta9s betwe5 !m4 ,! philosoph] tries to atta9 to a cle>] conception ( ^! ?+s4 ,8 task1 be x rememb]$1 is to analyze & expla91 n to d5y1 ! exp]i5ces :i* are ! common prop]ty ( mank9d4 ,9 ! pres5t day ! two !ories ( ! relation ( m9d & body t divide ! field betwe5 !m & /& oppos$ to ea* o!r are int]actionism & p>allelism4 ,i h us$ ! ^w int]action a little above 9 a loose s5se to indicate our common exp]i5ce ( ! fact t we become consci\s ( c]ta9 *anges br\ght ab\t 9 our body1 & t our purposes realize !mselves 9 action4 ,b e "o :o accepts ?is fact is n necess>ily an int]actioni/4 ,! latt] is a man :o holds a c]ta9 m or less def9ite !ory z to :at is impli$ by ! fact4 ,let u take a look at 8 doctr9e4 ,physical ?+s int]act4 ,a billi>d ball 9 motion /rikes "o :i* has be5 at re/2 ! =m] loses its motion1 ! latt] beg9s to roll away4 ,we expla9 ! occurr5ce by a ref]5ce to ! laws ( me*anics2 t is to say1 we po9t out t x is m]ely an in/ance ( ! uni=m behavior ( matt] 9 motion "u su* & su* circum/ances4 ,we di/+ui% betwe5 ! /ate ( ?+s at "o in/ant & ! /ate ( ?+s at ! next1 & we call ! =m] cause & ! latt] effect4 ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t bo? cause & effect "h belong to ! "o ord]1 ! objective ord]4 ,!y h _! place 9 ! ext]nal _w4 ,bo? ! balls are mat]ial ?+s2 _! motion1 & ! space 9 :i* !y move1 are aspects ( ! ext]nal _w4 ,if ! balls did n exi/ 9 ! same space1 if ! motion ( ! "o c\ld n be t[>ds or away f ! o!r1 if contact 7 impossible1 we w\ld manife/ly h no int]action 9 ! s5se ( ! ^w employ$ above4 ,z x is1 ! int]action ( physical ?+s is some?+ t we c describe ) a good deal ( def9it5ess4 ,?+s int]act 9 t !y /& 9 c]ta9 physical relations1 & und]go *anges ( relations accord+ to c]ta9 laws4 ,n[1 to "o :o conceives ! m9d 9 a grossly mat]ial way1 ! relation ( m9d & body c sc>cely seem to be a peculi> problem1 diff]5t f ! problem ( ! relation ( "o physical ?+ to ano!r4 ,if my m9d consi/s ( atoms dissem9at$ ?r\gh my body1 its pres5ce 9 ! body appe>s z unequivocal z ! pres5ce ( a d9n] 9 a man :o has j ris5 f ! table4 ,nor c ! int]action ( m9d & matt] pres5t any unusual difficulties1 = m9d is matt]4 ,atoms may be conceiv$ to approa* ea* o!r1 to cla%1 to re>range !mselves4 ,int]action ( m9d & body is no?+ else ?an an int]action ( bodies4 ,"o is n =c$ to give a new mean+ to ! ^w4 ,:51 h[ev]1 "o beg9s to ?9k ( ! m9d z immat]ial1 ! case is v diff]5t4 ,h[ %all we conceive an immat]ial ?+ to be relat$ to a mat]ial "o8 ,desc>tes plac$ ! m9d 9 ! p9eal gl&1 & 9 s f> he seem$ to make its relation to ! gl& simil> to t betwe5 two mat]ial ?+s4 ,:5 he tells u t ! s\l br+s x ab\t t ! gl& b5ds 9 diff]5t directions1 we incl9e to view ! occurr5ce z v natural--is n ! s\l 9 ! gl&8 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 ,desc>tes also taught t ! ess5ce ( m9d is ?\ght & ! ess5ce ( body is ext5sion4 ,he made ! two natures s diff]5t f ea* o!r t m5 began to ask !mselves h[ ! two ?+s c\ld int]act at all4 ,! m9d wills1 said "o philosoph]1 b t volition does n set matt] 9 motion2 :5 ! m9d wills1 ,god br+s ab\t ! appropriate *ange 9 mat]ial ?+s4 ,! m9d p]ceives ?+s1 said ano!r1 b t is n because !y affect x directly2 x sees ?+s 9 ,god4 ,ideas & ?+s1 said a ?ird1 con/itute two indep5d5t s]ies2 no idea c cause a *ange 9 ?+s1 & no ?+ c cause a *ange 9 ideas4 ,! int]actioni/ is a man :o refuses to take any su* turn z ^! philosoph]s4 ,8 doctr9e is mu* ne>] to t ( ,desc>tes ?an x is to any ( !irs4 ,he uses ! "o ^w int]action to describe ! relation betwe5 mat]ial ?+s & also ! relation betwe5 m9d & body1 nor does he dwell ^u ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! two4 ,he insi/s t m9d & matt] /& 9 ! "o causal nexus2 t a *ange 9 ! outside _w may be ! cause ( a p]ception com+ into be+ 9 a m9d1 & t a volition may be ! cause ( *anges 9 matt]4 ,:at %all we call ! pla9 man8 ,i ?9k we may call him an int]actioni/ 9 embryo4 ,! /ick 9 8 h& knocks an apple (f ( ! tree2 8 h& seems to him to be set 9 motion because he wills x4 ,! relation betwe5 8 volition & ! motion ( 8 h& appe>s to him to be ( mu* ! same sort z t betwe5 ! motion ( ! /ick & ! fall ( ! apple4 ,9 ea* case he ?9ks he has to d ) ! relation ( cause & effect4 ,! oppon5t ( ! int]actioni/ insi/s1 h[ev]1 t ! pla9 man is satisfi$ ) ?is view ( ! matt] only because he has n completely /ripp$ (f ! t5d5cy to conceive ! m9d z a mat]ial ?+4 ,& he accuses ! int]actioni/ ( hav+ fall5 a prey to ! same weakness4 ,c]ta9ly1 x is n difficult to %[ t ! int]actioni/s write z ?\gh ! m9d 7 mat]ial1 & c\ld be some:]e 9 space4 ,! late ,dr4 ,mc,cosh fairly repres5ts ! ?\ght ( _m1 & he 0 capable ( express+ himself z foll[s2#a ,x may be difficult to asc]ta9 ! exact po9t or surface at :i* ! m9d & body come toge!r & influ5ce ea* o!r1 9 p>ticul>1 h[ f> into ! body 7,desc>tes )\t pro( ?\ght x to be 9 ! p9eal gl&71 b x is c]ta91 t :5 !y d meet m9d kn[s body z hav+ its ess5tial prop]ties ( ext5sion & resi/+ en]gy4 ,h[ c an immat]ial ?+ be locat$ at "s po9t or surface )9 ! body8 ,h[ c a mat]ial ?+ & an immat]ial ?+ come toge!r at a po9t or surface8 ,& if !y _c come toge!r1 :at h we 9 m9d :5 we say !y int]act8 ,! p>alleli/1 = x is he :o opposes int]actionism1 insi/s t we mu/ n =get t m5tal ph5om5a d n belong to ! same ord] z physical ph5om5a4 ,he po9ts out t1 :5 we make ! ^w int]action cov] ! relations ( m5tal ph5om5a to physical ph5om5a z well z ! relations ( ! latt] to ea* o!r1 we are assimilat+ he$lessly facts ( two diff]5t k9ds & are oblit]at+ an important di/9ction4 ,he makes ! same objection to call+ ! relations betwe5 m5tal ph5om5a & physical ph5om5a causal4 ,if ! relation ( a volition to ! movem5t ( ! arm is n ! same z t ( a physical cause to its physical effect1 :y1 he argues1 d y disguise ! diff]5ce by call+ !m by ! same "n8 #cg4 ,,! ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,! ,,p>alleli/4--,?us1 ! p>alleli/ is a man :o is s impress$ by ! gulf betwe5 physical facts & m5tal facts t he refuses to reg>d !m z p>ts ( ! "o ord] ( causes & effects4 ,y _c1 he claims1 make a s+le *a9 out ( l9ks s div]se4 ,"s "p ( a human body receives a bl[2 a message is c>ri$ along a s5sory n]ve & rea*es ! bra92 f ! bra9 a message is s5t out along a motor n]ve to a gr\p ( muscles2 ! muscles contract1 & a limb is set 9 motion4 ,! imm$iate effects ( ! bl[1 ! +o+ message1 ! *anges 9 ! bra91 ! outgo+ message1 ! contraction ( ! muscles--all ^! are physical facts4 ,"o & all may be describ$ z motions 9 matt]4 ,b ! man :o receiv$ ! bl[ becomes consci\s t he 0 /ruck1 & bo? int]actioni/ & p>alleli/ reg>d him z becom+ consci\s ( x :5 ! incom+ message rea*es "s "p ( ! bra94 ,:at %all be done ) ?is consci\sness8 ,! int]actioni/ insi/s t x mu/ be reg>d$ z a l9k 9 ! physical *a9 ( causes & effects--he breaks ! *a9 to ins]t x4 ,! p>alleli/ ma9ta9s t x is inconceivable t su* an ins]tion %\ld be made4 ,he reg>ds ! physical s]ies z complete 9 itself1 & he places ! consci\sness1 z x 71 on a p>allel l9e4 ,x mu/ n be suppos$ t he takes ?is figure lit]ally4 ,x is 8 ef=t to avoid mat]ializ+ ! m9d t =ces him to hold ! position :i* he does4 ,to put ! m9d 9 ! bra9 is to make ( x a mat]ial ?+2 to make x p>allel to ! bra91 9 ! lit]al s5se ( ! ^w1 w\ld be j z bad4 ,all t we may und]/& him to mean is t m5tal ph5om5a & physical1 al?\gh !y are relat$1 _c be built into ! "o s]ies ( causes & effects4 ,he is apt to speak ( !m z concomitant4 ,we mu/ n =get t nei!r p>alleli/ nor int]actioni/ ev] dreams ( repudiat+ our common exp]i5ces ( ! relations ( m5tal ph5om5a & physical4 ,nei!r "o w1 if he is a man ( s5se1 ab&on ! usual ways ( describ+ su* exp]i5ces4 ,:atev] 8 !ory1 he w /ill say3 ,i am suff]+ because ,i /ruck my h& aga9/ t table2 ,i sat d[n because ,i *ose to d s4 ,8 doctr9e is n suppos$ to d5y ! tru? conta9$ 9 su* /atem5ts2 x is suppos$ only to give a full] und]/&+ ( x4 ,h5ce1 we _c condemn ei!r doctr9e simply by an uncritical appeal to su* /atem5ts & to ! exp]i5ces !y repres5t4 ,we mu/ look mu* deep]4 ,n[1 :at c ! p>alleli/ mean by ref]r+ s5sations & ideas to ! bra9 & yet d5y+ t !y are 9 ! bra98 ,:at is ?is ref]5ce8 ,let u come back to ! exp]i5ces ( ! physical & ! m5tal z !y pres5t !mselves to ! pla9 man4 ,!y h be5 discuss$ at l5g? 9 ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,x 0 !re po9t$ out t e "o di/+ui%es )\t difficulty betwe5 s5sations & ?+s1 & t e "o recognizes explicitly or implicitly t a s5sation is an exp]i5ce ref]r$ 9 a c]ta9 way to ! body4 ,:5 ! eyes are op51 we see2 :5 ! e>s are op51 we he>2 :5 ! h& is laid on ?+s1 we feel4 ,h[ d we "k t we are exp]i5c+ s5sations8 ,! sett+ tells u t4 ,! exp]i5ce 9 "q is giv5 toge!r ) an exp]i5ce ( ! body4 ,?is is concomitance ( ! m5tal & ! physical z x appe>s 9 ! exp]i5ce ( u all2 & f su* exp]i5ces z ^! ! philosoph] :o speaks ( ! concomitance ( physical & m5tal ph5om5a mu/ draw ! :ole mean+ ( ! ^w4 ,let u "h %>p5 a little ! di/9ction betwe5 s5sations & ?+s4 ,/&+ at "s di/ance f ! tree1 ,i see an apple fall to ! gr\nd4 ,7 ,i only half z f> away1 my exp]i5ce w\ld n be exactly ! same--,i %\ld h some:at diff]5t s5sations4 ,z we h se5 7section #ag71 ! app>5t sizes ( ?+s v>y z we move1 & ?is means t ! quantity ( s5sation1 :5 ,i obs]ve ! apple f a ne>] po9t1 is great]4 ,! man ( sci5ce tells me t ! image :i* ! object look$ at projects ^u ! ret9a ( ! eye gr[s l>g] z we approa* objects4 ,! ?+1 !n1 may rema9 un*ang$2 our s5sations w v>y accord+ to ! impression :i* is made ^u our body4 ,aga94 ,:5 ,i h le>n$ some?+ ( physics1 ,i am ready to admit t1 al?\gh light travels ) almo/ inconceivable rapidity1 /ill1 its j\rney ?r\gh space does take "t4 ,h5ce ! impression made ^u my eye by ! fall+ apple is n simultane\s ) ! fall itself2 & if ,i /& f> away x is made a little lat] ?an :5 ,i am ne>4 ,9 ! case 9 po9t ! diff]5ce is s slight z to pass unnotic$1 b !re are cases 9 :i* x seems app>5t ev5 to ! unle>n$ t s5sations arise lat] ?an ! occurr5ces ( :i* we take !m to be ! report4 ,?us1 ,i /& on a hill & wat* a labor] /rik+ ) 8 sl$ge ^u ! di/ant railway4 ,i he> ! s\nd ( ! bl[ :ile ,i see 8 tool rais$ above 8 head4 ,i acc\nt = ?is by say+ t x has tak5 "s "t = ! s\nd-waves to rea* my e>1 & ,i reg>d my s5sation z aris+ only :5 ?is has be5 accompli%$4 ,b ?is conclusion is n judg$ suffici5tly accurate by ! man ( sci5ce4 ,! inve/igations ( ! physiologi/ & ! psy*ologi/ h reveal$ t ! bra9 holds a peculi> place 9 ! economy ( ! body4 ,if ! n]ve :i* connects ! s5se organ ) ! bra9 be sev]$1 ! s5sation does n arise4 ,injuries to ! bra9 affect ! m5tal life z injuries to o!r p>ts ( ! body d n4 ,h5ce1 x is conclud$ t1 to get ! real "t ( ! em]g5ce ( a s5sation1 we mu/ n inquire m]ely :5 an impression 0 made ^u ! organ ( s5se1 b mu/ det]m9e :5 ! message s5t along ! n]ve has rea*$ "s "p ( ! bra94 ,! result+ bra9 *ange is reg>d$ z ! true concomitant ( ! s5sation4 ,if !re is a bra9 *ange ( a c]ta9 k9d1 !re is ! correspond+ s5sation4 ,x ne$ h>dly be said t no "o kn[s z yet mu* ab\t ! bra9 motions :i* are suppos$ to be concomitants ( s5sations1 al?\gh a good deal is said ab\t !m4 ,x is v important to rem>k t 9 all ?is no new mean+ has be5 giv5 to ! ^w concomitance4 ,! pla9 man rem>ks t s5sations & _! *anges mu/ be ref]r$ to ! body4 ,) ! body dispos$ 9 a c]ta9 way1 he has s5sations ( a c]ta9 k9d2 ) *anges 9 ! body1 ! s5sations *ange4 ,he does n p]ceive ! s5sations to be 9 ! body4 ,z ,i rec$e f a h\se ,i h a :ole s]ies ( visual exp]i5ces diff]+ f ea* o!r & end+ 9 a fa9t speck :i* be>s little resemblance to ! exp]i5ce ) :i* ,i />t$4 ,i h _h1 z we say1 a s]ies ( s5sations1 or gr\ps ( su*4 ,did any s+le gr\p1 did ! exp]i5ce :i* ,i _h at any s+le mom5t1 seem to me to be 9 my body8 ,surely n4 ,its relation to my body is o!r ?an t4 ,& :5 ! man ( sci5ce1 in/ead ( ref]r+ s5sations vaguely to ! body1 ref]s !m to ! bra91 ! ref]5ce is ( precisely ! same nature4 ,f our common exp]i5ce ( ! relation ( ! physical & ! m5tal he />ts out4 ,he has no o!r gr\nd on :i* to /&4 ,he c only m>k ! ref]5ce ) great] exactitude4 ,i h be5 speak+ ( ! relation ( s5sations to ! bra94 ,x is sc>cely necess>y = me to %[ t all o!r m5tal ph5om5a mu/ be ref]r$ to ! bra9 z well1 & t ! ref]5ce mu/ be ( ! same nature4 ,! consid]ations :i* lead u to ref] ideas to ! bra9 are set =? 9 our physiologies & psy*ologies4 ,! effects ( c]ebral disease1 injuries to ! bra91 etc41 are too well kn[n to ne$ m5tion2 & x is palpably z absurd to put ideas 9 ! bra9 z x is to put s5sations !re4 ,n[1 ! p>alleli/1 if he be a wise man1 w n attempt to expla9 ! ref]5ce ( m5tal ph5om5a to ! bra9--to expla9 ! relation betwe5 m9d & matt]4 ,! relation appe>s to be unique4 ,c]ta9ly x is n id5tical ) ! relation betwe5 two mat]ial ?+s4 ,we expla9 ?+s1 9 ! common acceptation ( ! ^w1 :5 we %[ t a case "u consid]ation is an exemplification ( "s g5]al law--:5 we %[1 9 o!r words1 t x does n /& alone4 ,b ?is does /& alone1 & is admitt$ to /& alone4 ,we admit z mu* :5 we say t ! m9d is immat]ial1 & yet hold t x is relat$ to ! body4 ,we _c1 !n1 ask = an explanation ( ! relation4 ,b ?is does n mean t ! ref]5ce ( m5tal ph5om5a to ! body is a mean+less expression4 ,we c po9t to ^? exp]i5ces ( concomitance t we all h1 di/+ui% !m c>efully f relations ( ano!r k9d1 & say3 ,?is is :at ! ^w means1 :e!r x be us$ by ! pla9 man or by ! man ( sci5ce4 ,i h said above3 ,if !re is a bra9 *ange ( a c]ta9 k9d1 !re is ! correspond+ s5sation4 ,p]haps ! read] w feel incl9$ to say "h3 ,if y c say z mu* z ?is1 :y c y n g a little f>!r & call ! bra9 *ange ! cause ( ! s5sation8 ,b he :o speaks ?us1 =gets :at has be5 said above ab\t ! uniqu5ess ( ! relation4 ,9 ! objective ord] ( our exp]i5ces1 9 ! ext]nal _w1 we c di/+ui% betwe5 antec$5ts & consequ5ts1 betwe5 causes & _! effects4 ,! causes & _! effects belong to ! "o ord]1 !y /& 9 ! same s]ies4 ,! relation ( ! physical to ! m5tal is1 z we h se51 a diff]5t relation4 ,h5ce1 ! p>alleli/ seems ju/ifi$ 9 object+ to ! assimilation ( ! two4 ,he pref]s ! ^w concomitance1 j because x m>ks ! diff]5ce4 ,he does n mean to indicate t ! relation is any ! less uni=m or dep5dable :5 he d5ies t x is causal4 #ch4 ,,9 ,,:at ,,s5se ,,m5tal ,,ph5om5a ,,h ,a ,,"t ,,& ,,place4--,we h se5 9 ,*apt]s ,,vi & ,,vii :at space & "t--real space & "t--are4 ,!y are ! plan ( ! real ext]nal _w & its *anges2 !y are aspects ( ! objective ord] ( exp]i5ce4 ,to ?is ord] no m5tal ph5om5on c belong4 ,x _c1 z we h se5 7section #ce71 occupy any portion ( space or ev5 h a location 9 space4 ,x is equally true t no s]ies ( m5tal *anges c occupy any portion ( "t1 real "t1 or ev5 fill a s+le mom5t 9 ! /ream ( "t4 ,!re are _m p]sons to :om ?is latt] /atem5t w seem difficult ( acceptance2 b ! relation ( m5tal ph5om5a to space & to "t is ( ! same sort1 & we c consid] ! two toge!r4 ,psy*ologi/s speak unhesitat+ly ( ! localization ( s5sations 9 ! bra91 & !y talk z readily ( ! mom5t at :i* a s5sation arises & ( ! duration ( ! s5sation4 ,:at c !y mean by su* expressions8 ,we h se5 t s5sations are n 9 ! bra91 & _! localization means only ! det]m9ation ( _! concomitant physical ph5om5a1 ( ! correspond+ bra9-*ange4 ,& x ought to be cle> ev5 f :at has be5 said above t1 9 det]m9+ ! mom5t at :i* a s5sation arises1 we are det]m9+ only ! "t ( ! concomitant bra9 process4 ,:y d we say t a s5sation arises lat] ?an ! mom5t at :i* an impression is made ^u ! organ ( s5se & e>li] ?an ! result+ movem5t ( "s gr\p ( muscles8 ,because ! *ange 9 ! bra91 to :i* we ref] ! s5sation1 occurs lat] ?an ! "o & e>li] ?an ! o!r4 ,?is has a place 9 real "t1 x belongs to t s]ies ( _w *anges ^: succession con/itutes real "t4 ,if we ask :5 any?+ happ5$1 we always ref] to ?is s]ies ( *anges4 ,we try to det]m9e its place 9 ! _w ord]4 ,?us1 we ask3 ,:5 0 ,julius ,caes> born8 ,we are giv5 a ye> & a day4 ,h[ is ! "t :i* has elaps$ s9ce measur$8 ,by *anges 9 ! physical _w1 by revolutions ( ! e>? ab\t ! sun4 ,we ask3 ,:5 did he conceive ! plan ( writ+ 8 ,comm5t>ies8 ,if we get an answ] at all1 x mu/ be an answ] ( ! same k9d--"s po9t 9 ! s]ies ( physical *anges :i* occur 9 real "t mu/ be indicat$4 ,:]e else %\ld we look = an answ]8 ,9 po9t ( fact1 we nev] d look else:]e4 ,aga94 ,we h di/+ui%$ betwe5 app>5t space & real space 7section #cd74 ,we h se5 t1 :5 we d5y t a m5tal image c occupy any portion ( space1 we ne$ n ?9k ( x z los+ its p>ts & %rivell+ to a po9t4 ,we may /ill attribute to x app>5t space2 may affirm t x seems ext5d$4 ,let u m>k ! same di/9ction :5 we consid] "t4 ,! psy*ologi/ speaks ( ! duration ( a s5sation4 ,has x real duration8 ,x is n 9 "t at all1 &1 ( c\rse1 x _c1 /rictly speak+1 occupy a portion ( "t4 ,b we c try to measure ! duration ( ! physical concomitant1 & call ?is ! real duration ( ! s5sation4 ,we all di/+ui% betwe5 ! real "t ( m5tal ph5om5a1 9 ! s5se indicat$ j above1 & ! app>5t "t4 ,we "k v well t ! "o may give u no true measure ( ! o!r4 ,a s]mon seems long2 0 x really long8 ,!re is only "o way ( measur+ its real l5g?4 ,we mu/ ref] to ! clock1 to ! sun1 to "s *ange 9 ! physical _w4 ,we seem to live ye>s 9 a dream2 0 ! dream really a long "o8 ,! real l5g? c only be det]m9$1 if at all1 by a physical ref]5ce4 ,^? app>5t ye>s ( ! dream h no place 9 ! real "t :i* is measur$ by ! clock4 ,we d n h to cut x & ins]t !m some:]e4 ,!y belong to a diff]5t ord]1 & _c be ins]t$ any m ?an ! ?\ght ( a pat* c be ins]t$ 9 a r5t 9 a real coat4 ,we see1 ?us1 :5 we reflect ^u ! matt]1 t m5tal ph5om5a _c1 /rictly speak+1 be said to h a "t & place4 ,he :o attributes ^! to !m mat]ializes !m4 ,b _! physical concomitants h a "t & place1 & m5tal ph5om5a c be ord]$ by a ref]5ce to ^!4 ,!y c be assign$ a "t & place ( exi/+ 9 a special s5se ( ! words n to be conf\nd$ ) ! s5se 9 :i* we use !m :5 we speak ( ! "t & place ( mat]ial ?+s4 ,?is makes x possible to relate e m5tal ph5om5on to ! _w sy/em 9 a def9ite way1 & to di/+ui% x cle>ly f e o!r1 h[ev] simil>4 ,we ne$ n1 :5 we come to und]/& ?is1 *ange our usual modes ( spee*4 ,we may /ill say3 ,! pa9 ,i _h two ye>s ago is l ! pa9 ,i h to-day2 my s5sation came into be+ at su* a mom5t2 my regret la/$ two days4 ,we speak t we may be und]/ood2 & su* phrases express a tru?1 ev5 if !y are r loose & inaccurate4 ,b we mu/ n be deceiv$ by su* phrases1 & assume t !y mean :at !y h no "r to mean4 #ci4 ,,objections ,,to ,,p>allelism4--,:at objections c be br\ght aga9/ p>allelism8 ,x is sometimes object$ by ! int]actioni/ t x ab&ons ! pla9 man's notion ( ! m9d z a sub/ance ) its attributes1 & makes ( x a m]e collection ( m5tal ph5om5a4 ,x mu/ be admitt$ t ! p>alleli/ usually holds a view :i* diff]s r widely f t ( ! unle>n$4 ,b ev5 suppos+ ?is objection well tak51 x c no long] be reg>d$ z an objection specifically to ! doctr9e ( p>allelism1 = ! view ( ! m9d 9 "q is becom+ increas+ly popul>1 & x is n[ held by influ5tial int]actioni/s z well z by p>alleli/s4 ,"o may believe t ! m9d consi/s ( ideas1 & may /ill hold t ideas c cause motions 9 matt]4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ano!r objection t pr$isposes _m ?\ghtful p]sons to reject p>allelism uncompromis+ly4 ,x is ?is4 ,if we admit t ! *a9 ( physical causes & effects1 f a bl[ giv5 to ! body to ! result+ muscul> movem5ts made 9 self-def5se1 is an unbrok5 "o1 :at "p c we assign to ! m9d 9 ! :ole transaction8 ,has x done any?+8 ,is x n r$uc$ to ! position ( a passive spectator8 ,mu/ we n reg>d man z a physical automaton ) p>allel psy*ical /ates8 ,su* an acc\nt ( man _c fail to /rike "o z repugnant2 & yet x is ! p>alleli/ himself :om we mu/ ?ank = introduc+ u to x4 ,! acc\nt is n a c>icature f ! p5 ( an oppon5t4 ,an automaton1 writes ,pr(essor ,clif=d1#b is a ?+ t goes by itself :5 x is w\nd up1 & we g by ourselves :5 we h _h food4 ,except+ ! fact t o!r m5 are consci\s1 !re is no reason :y we %\ld n reg>d ! human body z m]ely an exce$+ly complicat$ ma*9e :i* is w\nd up by putt+ food into ! m\?4 ,b x is n m]ely a ma*9e1 because consci\sness goes ) x4 ,! m9d1 !n1 is to be reg>d$ z a /ream ( feel+s :i* runs p>allel to1 & simultane\s )1 a c]ta9 "p ( ! action ( ! body1 t is to say1 t p>ticul> "p ( ! action ( ! bra9 9 :i* ! c]ebrum & ! s5sory tracts are excit$4 ,! sav+ /atem5t t ! body is n m]ely a ma*9e1 because consci\sness goes ) x1 does n impress "o z be+ suffici5t to r$eem ! illu/ration4 ,:o wants to be an automaton ) an accompany+ consci\sness8 ,:o c>es to reg>d 8 m9d z an epiph5om5on--a ?+ t exi/s1 b ^: exi/5ce or nonexi/5ce makes no diff]5ce to ! c\rse ( affairs8 ,! pla9 man's objection to su* an acc\nt ( himself seems to be abundantly ju/ifi$4 ,z ,i h said e>li] 9 ?is *apt]1 nei!r int]actioni/ nor p>alleli/ has ! int5tion ( repudiat+ ! exp]i5ce ( _w & m9d common to u all4 ,we surely h evid5ce en\gh to prove t m9ds c\nt = some?+4 ,no h\se 0 ev] built1 no book 0 ev] writt51 by a creature )\t a m9d2 & ! bett] ! h\se or book1 ! bett] ! m9d4 ,t !re is a fix$ & absolutely dep5dable relation betwe5 ! plann+ m9d & ! ?+ accompli%$1 no man ( any s*ool has ! "r to d5y4 ,! only legitimate "q is3 ,:at is ! nature ( ! relation8 ,is x causal1 or %\ld x be conceiv$ to be some?+ else8 ,! :ole matt] w be m fully discuss$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xi4 ,?is *apt] ,i %all close ) a brief summ>y ( ! po9ts :i* ! read] w d well to be> 9 m9d :5 he occupies himself ) p>allelism4 7#a7 ,p>allelism is a prote/ aga9/ ! int]actioni/'s t5d5cy to mat]ialize ! m9d4 7#b7 ,! "n is a figurative expression1 & mu/ n be tak5 lit]ally4 ,! true relation betwe5 m5tal ph5om5a & physical is giv5 9 c]ta9 common exp]i5ces t h be5 indicat$1 & x is a unique relation4 7#c7 ,x is a fix$ & absolutely dep5dable relation4 ,x is impossible t !re %\ld be a p>ticul> m5tal fact )\t its correspond+ physical fact2 & x is impossible t ?is physical fact %\ld occur )\t its correspond+ m5tal fact4 7#d7 ,! p>alleli/ objects to call+ ?is relation causal1 because ?is obscures ! di/9ction betwe5 x & ! relation betwe5 facts bo? ( :i* are physical4 ,he pref]s ! ^w concomitance4 7#e7 ,su* objections to p>allelism z t cit$ above assume t ! concomitance ( :i* ! p>alleli/ speaks is analog\s to physical concomitance4 ,! *emi/ puts toge!r a volume ( hydrog5 gas & a volume ( *lor9e gas1 & ! result is two volumes ( hydro*loric acid gas4 ,we reg>d x z ess5tial to ! result t !re %\ld be ! two gases & t !y %\ld be br\ght toge!r4 ,b ! fact t ! *emi/ has r$ hair we rightly look ^u z a concomitant ph5om5on ( no importance4 ,! result w\ld be ! same if he _h black hair or 7 bald4 ,b ?is is n ! concomitance t int]e/s ! p>alleli/4 ,! two sorts ( concomitance are alike only 9 ! "o po9t4 ,"s ph5om5on is reg>d$ z exclud$ f ! s]ies ( causes & effects "u discussion4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! two is all-important2 9 ! "o case1 ! concomitant ph5om5on is an accid5tal circum/ance t might j z well be abs5t2 9 ! o!r1 x is no?+ ( ! sort2 x _c be abs5t--! m5tal fact mu/ exi/ if ! bra9-*ange 9 "q exi/s4 ,x is q possible t1 on read+ ?is li/ ( po9ts1 "o may be incl9$ to make two prote/s4 ,fir/3 ,is a p>allelism s c>efully gu>d$ z ?is prop]ly call$ p>allelism at all8 ,to ?is ,i answ]3 ,! "n matt]s little4 ,i h us$ x because ,i h no bett] t]m4 ,c]ta9ly1 x is n ! p>allelism :i* is sometimes br\ght =w>d1 & :i* peeps out f ! citation f ,clif=d4 ,x is no?+ m ?an an insi/5ce ^u ! tru? t we %\ld n treat ! m9d z ?\gh x 7 a mat]ial ?+4 ,if any "o wi%es to take ! doctr9e & disc>d ! "n1 ,i h no objection4 ,z s gu>d$1 ! doctr9e is1 ,i ?9k1 true4 ,second3 ,if x is desirable to avoid ! ^w cause1 9 speak+ ( ! relation ( ! m5tal & ! physical1 on ! gr\nd t o!rwise we give ! ^w a d\ble s5se1 :y is x n desirable to avoid ! ^w concomitance8 ,h we n se5 t ! ^w is ambigu\s8 ,i admit ! inconsi/5cy & plead 9 excuse only t ,i h *os5 ! less] ( two evils4 ,x is fatally easy to slip into ! error ( ?9k+ ( ! m9d z ?\gh x 7 mat]ial & _h a place 9 ! physical _w4 ,9 us+ ! ^w concomitance ,i ent] a prote/ aga9/ ?is4 ,b ,i h1 ( c\rse1 no "r to use x )\t %[+ j :at k9d ( concomitance ,i mean4 #a ,fir/ & ,fundam5tal ,tru?s1 ,book ,i1 ,"p ,,ii1 ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,new ,york1 #ahhi4 #b ,lectures & ,essays1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #eg4 ,london1 #ahgi4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,h[ ,,we ,,"k ,,!re ,,are ,,o!r ,,m9ds #dj4 ,,is ,,x ,,c]ta9 ,,t ,,we ,,"k ,,x8--,i suppose !re is no man 9 8 sob] s5ses :o s]i\sly believes t no o!r m9d ?an 8 own exi/s4 ,!re is1 to be sure1 an imag9>y be+ m or less discuss$ by ^? int]e/$ 9 philosophy1 a creature call$ ! ,solipsi/1 :o is cr$it$ ) ?is doctr9e4 ,b m5 d n become solipsi/s1 ?\gh !y c]ta9ly say ?+s n[ & !n t o!r m5 ?9k logically lead to "s su* unnatural view ( ?+s2 & m r>ely !y say ?+s t s\nd z if ! speak]1 9 "s moods1 at lea/1 might actually h>bor su* a view4 ,?us ! philosoph] ,fi*te 7#agfb-ahad7 talks 9 c]ta9 ( 8 writ+s z ?\gh he believ$ himself to be ! univ]se1 & 8 words cause ,jean ,paul ,ri*t]1 ! inimitable1 to break out 9 8 *>act]i/ic way3 ,! v wor/ ( x all is ! lazy1 aimless1 ari/ocratic1 insul> life t a god mu/ lead2 he has no "o to g )4 ,if ,i am n to sit /ill = all "t & et]nity1 if ,i let myself d[n z well z ,i c & make myself f9ite1 t ,i may h some?+ 9 ! way ( society1 /ill ,i h1 l petty pr9ces1 only my own creatures to e*o my words4 4 4 4 ,e be+1 ev5 ! highe/ ,be+1 wi%es some?+ to love & to honor4 ,b ! ,fi*tean doctr9e t ,i am my own body-mak] leaves me ) no?+ :atev]--) n s mu* z ! begg>'s dog or ! prison]'s spid]4 4 4 4 ,truly ,i wi% t !re 7 m51 & t ,i 7 "o ( !m4 4 4 4 ,if !re exi/s1 z ,i v mu* fe>1 no "o b myself1 unlucky dog t ,i am1 !n !re is no "o at su* a pass z ,i4 ,j h[ mu* ,fi*te's words meant to ! man :o wrote !m may be a matt] = dispute4 ,c]ta9ly no "o has %[n a great] moral e>ne/ness or a great] reg>d = 8 fell[m5 ?an ?is philosoph]1 & we mu/ n ha/ily accuse any "o ( be+ a solipsi/4 ,b t to c]ta9 m51 &1 inde$1 to _m m51 !re h come ?\ghts t h seem$ to po9t 9 ?is direction--t n a few h _h d\bts z to _! ability to prove ! exi/5ce ( o!r m9ds--?is we mu/ admit4 ,x appe>s some:at easi] = a man to h d\bts ^u ?is subject :5 he has fall5 into ! ideali/ic error ( reg>d+ ! mat]ial _w1 :i* seems to be reveal$ to him1 z no?+ else ?an 8 ideas or s5sations or impressions4 ,if we w draw ! :ole telephone ex*ange into ! cl]k1 !re seems little reason = n includ+ all ! subscrib]s z well4 ,if o!r m5's bodies are my s5sations1 may n o!r m5's m9ds be my imag9+s8 ,b d\bts may be felt also by ^? :o are will+ to admit a real ext]nal _w4 ,h[ d we "k t our inf]5ce to ! exi/5ce ( o!r m9ds is a ju/ifiable inf]5ce8 ,c !re be su* a ?+ z v]ification 9 ?is field8 ,= we mu/ rememb] t no man is directly consci\s ( any m9d except 8 own4 ,m5 _c exhibit _! m9ds to _! neighbors z !y exhibit _! wigs4 ,h[ev] close may seem to u to be our int]c\rse ) ^? ab\t u1 d we ev] atta9 to any?+ m ?an our ideas ( ! cont5ts ( _! m9ds8 ,we d n exp]i5ce ^! cont5ts2 we picture !m1 we repres5t !m by c]ta9 proxies4 ,to be sure1 we believe t ! orig9als exi/1 b c we be q sure ( x8 ,c !re be a pro( ( ?is "r to make ! leap f "o consci\sness to ano!r8 ,we seem to assume t we c make x1 & !n we make x aga9 & aga92 b suppose1 aft] all1 t !re 7 no?+ !re4 ,c\ld we ev] f9d out our error8 ,& 9 a field :]e x is impossible to prove error1 mu/ x n be equally impossible to prove tru?8 ,! d\bt has seem$ by no means a gratuit\s "o to c]ta9 v s5sible practical m54 ,x is :olly impossible1 writes ,pr(essor ,huxley1#a absolutely to prove ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( consci\sness 9 any?+ b "o's own bra91 ?\gh by analogy1 we are ju/ifi$ 9 assum+ its exi/5ce 9 o!r m54 ,! exi/5ce ( my conception ( y 9 my consci\sness1 says ,clif=d1#b c>ries ) x a belief 9 ! exi/5ce ( y outside ( my consci\sness4 4 4 4 ,h[ ?is inf]5ce is ju/ifi$1 h[ consci\sness c te/ify to ! exi/5ce ( any?+ outside ( itself1 ,i d n pret5d to say3 ,i ne$ n untie a knot :i* ! _w has cut = me long ago4 ,x may v well be t ,i myself am ! only exi/5ce1 b x is simply ridicul\s to suppose t anybody else is4 ,! position ( absolute idealism may1 !re=e1 be left out ( c\nt1 al?\gh ea* individual may be unable to ju/ify 8 diss5t f x4 ,^! are writ]s belong+ to our own mod]n age1 & !y are m5 ( sci5ce4 ,bo? ( !m d5y t ! exi/5ce ( o!r m9ds is a ?+ t c be prov$2 b ! "o tells u t we are ju/ifi$ 9 assum+ _! exi/5ce1 & ! o!r in=ms u t1 al?\gh x may v well be t no o!r m9d exi/s1 we may leave t possibility out ( c\nt4 ,nei!r position seems a s5sible "o4 ,are we ju/ifi$ 9 assum+ :at _c be prov$8 or is ! argum5t f analogy really a pro( ( "s sort8 ,is x "r to close our eyes to :at may v well be1 j because we *oose to d s8 ,! fact is t bo? ( ^! writ]s _h ! conviction1 %>$ by u all1 t !re are o!r m9ds1 & t we "k some?+ ab\t !m2 & yet nei!r ( !m c\ld see t ! conviction re/$ ^u an un%akable f\ndation4 ,n[1 ,i h no desire to awake 9 ! m9d ( any "o a d\bt ( ! exi/5ce ( o!r m9ds4 ,b ,i ?9k we mu/ all admit t ! man :o recognizes t su* m9ds are n directly p]ceiv$1 & :o h>bors d\bts z to ! nature ( ! inf]5ce :i* leads to _! assumption1 may1 p]haps1 be able to say t he feels c]ta9 t !re are o!r m9ds2 b mu/ we n at ! same "t admit t he is sc>cely 9 a position to say3 x is c]ta9 t !re are o!r m9ds8 ,! "q w keep com+ back aga93 ,may !re n1 aft] all1 be a legitimate d\bt on ! subject8 ,to set ?is "q at re/ !re seems to be only "o way1 & t is ?is3 to asc]ta9 ! nature ( ! inf]5ce :i* is made1 & to see cle>ly :at c be meant by pro( :5 "o is conc]n$ ) su* matt]s z ^!4 ,if x turns out t we h pro(1 9 ! only s5se ( ! ^w 9 :i* x is reasonable to ask = pro(1 our d\bt falls away ( itself4 #da4 ,,! ,,argum5t ,,= ,,o!r ,,m9ds4--,i h said e>ly 9 ?is volume 7section #g7 t ! pla9 man p]ceives t o!r m5 act v mu* z he does1 & t he attributes to !m m9ds m or less l 8 own4 ,he reasons f l to l--o!r bodies pres5t ph5om5a :i*1 9 ! case ( 8 own body1 he p]ceives to be indicative ( m9d1 & he accepts !m z indicative ( m9d !re also4 ,! psy*ologi/ makes con/ant use ( ?is inf]5ce2 inde$1 he c\ld n develop 8 sci5ce )\t x4 ,john ,/u>t ,mill 7#ahjf-ahgc71 :om x is always a pleasure to read because he is s cle> & /raight=w>d1 pres5ts ?is argum5t 9 ! foll[+ =m3#c-- ,by :at evid5ce d ,i "k1 or by :at consid]ations am ,i l$ to believe1 t !re exi/ o!r s5ti5t creatures2 t ! walk+ & speak+ figures :i* ,i see & he>1 h s5sations & ?\ghts1 or1 9 o!r words1 possess ,m9ds8 ,! mo/ /r5u\s ,intuitioni/ does n include ?is among ! ?+s t ,i "k by direct intuition4 ,i conclude x f c]ta9 ?+s1 :i* my exp]i5ce ( my own /ates ( feel+ proves to me to be m>ks ( x4 ,^! m>ks are ( two k9ds1 antec$5t & subsequ5t2 ! previ\s conditions requisite = feel+1 & ! effects or consequ5ces ( x4 ,i conclude t o!r human be+s h feel+s l me1 because1 fir/1 !y h bodies l me1 :i* ,i "k1 9 my own case1 to be ! antec$5t condition ( feel+s2 & because1 secondly1 !y exhibit ! acts1 & o!r outw>d signs1 :i* 9 my own case ,i "k by exp]i5ce to be caus$ by feel+s4 ,i am consci\s 9 myself ( a s]ies ( facts connect$ by a uni=m sequ5ce1 ( :i* ! beg9n+ is modifications ( my body1 ! middle is feel+s1 ! end is outw>d demeanor4 ,9 ! case ( o!r human be+s ,i h ! evid5ce ( my s5ses = ! fir/ & la/ l9ks ( ! s]ies1 b n = ! int]m$iate l9k4 ,i f9d1 h[ev]1 t ! sequ5ce betwe5 ! fir/ & la/ is z regul> & con/ant 9 ^? o!r cases z x is 9 m9e4 ,9 my own case ,i "k t ! fir/ l9k produces ! la/ ?r\gh ! int]m$iate l9k1 & c\ld n produce x )\t4 ,exp]i5ce1 !re=e1 obliges me to conclude t !re mu/ be an int]m$iate l9k2 :i* mu/ ei!r be ! same 9 o!rs z 9 myself1 or a diff]5t "o4 ,i mu/ ei!r believe !m to be alive1 or to be automatons2 & by believ+ !m to be alive1 t is1 by suppos+ ! l9k to be ( ! same nature z 9 ! case ( :i* ,i h exp]i5ce1 & :i* is 9 all respects simil>1 ,i br+ o!r human be+s1 z ph5om5a1 "u ! same g5]alizations :i* ,i "k by exp]i5ce to be ! true !ory ( my own exi/5ce4 ,& 9 do+ s ,i con=m to ! legitimate rules ( exp]im5tal inquiry4 ,! process is exactly p>allel to t by :i* ,newton prov$ t ! =ce :i* keeps ! planets 9 _! orbits is id5tical ) t by :i* an apple falls to ! gr\nd4 ,x 0 n incumb5t on ,newton to prove ! impossibility ( its be+ any o!r =ce2 he 0 ?\ght to h made out 8 po9t :5 he _h simply %[n t no o!r =ce ne$ be suppos$4 ,we "k ! exi/5ce ( o!r be+s by g5]alization f ! k ( our own2 ! g5]alization m]ely po/ulates t :at exp]i5ce %[s to be a m>k ( ! exi/5ce ( some?+ )9 ! sph]e ( our consci\sness1 may be conclud$ to be a m>k ( ! same ?+ beyond t sph]e4 ,n[1 ! pla9 man accepts ! argum5t f analogy1 "h insi/$ ^u1 e day ( 8 life4 ,he is cont9ually =m+ an op9ion z to ! cont5ts ( o!r m9ds on a basis ( ! bodily manife/ations pres5t$ to 8 view4 ,! process ( inf]5ce is s natural & in/9ctive t we are tempt$ to say t x h>dly des]ves to be call$ an inf]5ce4 ,c]ta9ly ! man is n consci\s ( di/9ct /eps 9 ! process2 he p]ceives c]ta9 ph5om5a1 & !y are at once illum9at$ by _! int]pretation4 ,he reads o!r m5 z we read a book--! signs on ! pap] are sc>cely att5d$ to1 our :ole ?\ght is absorb$ 9 t = :i* !y /&4 ,z ,i h said above1 ! psy*ologi/ accepts ! argum5t1 & f\nds 8 conclusions ^u x4 ,^u :at gr\nd c "o urge t ?is inf]5ce to o!r m9ds is a d\btful "o8 ,x is made univ]sally4 ,we h se5 t ev5 ^? :o h !oretic objections aga9/ x1 d n hesitate to draw x1 z a matt] ( fact4 ,x appe>s unnatural 9 ! extreme to reject x4 ,:at c induce m5 to reg>d x ) suspicion8 ,i ?9k ! answ] to ?is "q is r cle>ly sugge/$ 9 ! s5t5ce already quot$ f ,pr(essor ,huxley3 ,x is :olly impossible absolutely to prove ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( consci\sness 9 any?+ b "o's own bra91 ?\gh1 by analogy1 we are ju/ifi$ 9 assum+ its exi/5ce 9 o!r m54 ,"h ,pr(essor ,huxley admits t we h some?+ l a pro(1 = he reg>ds ! inf]5ce z ju/ifi$4 ,b he does n ?9k t we h absolute pro(--! be/ t we c atta9 to appe>s to be a degree ( probability fall+ %ort ( ! c]ta9ty :i* we %\ld l to h4 ,n[1 x %\ld be rem>k$ t ! discr$it ca/ ^u ! argum5t = o!r m9ds has its s\rce 9 ! fact t x does n satisfy a c]ta9 assum$ /&>d4 ,:at is t /&>d8 ,x is ! /&>d ( pro( :i* we may look = & d look = :]e we are conc]n$ to e/abli% ! exi/5ce ( mat]ial ?+s ) ! highe/ degree ( c]ta9ty4 ,!re are all sorts ( indirect ways ( prov+ ! exi/5ce ( mat]ial ?+s4 ,we may read ab\t !m 9 a newspap]1 & reg>d !m z highly d\btful2 we may h ! ^w ( a man :om1 on ! :ole1 we reg>d z v]aci\s2 we may inf] _! exi/5ce1 because we p]ceive t c]ta9 o!r ?+s exi/1 & are to be acc\nt$ =4 ,"u c]ta9 circum/ances1 h[ev]1 we may h pro( ( a diff]5t k9d3 we may see & t\* ! ?+s !mselves4 ,mat]ial ?+s are op5 to direct inspection4 ,su* a direct inspection con/itutes absolute pro(1 s f> z mat]ial ?+s are conc]n$4 ,b we h no "r to set ?is up z our /&>d ( absolute pro(1 :5 we are talk+ ab\t o!r m9ds4 ,9 ?is field x is n pro( at all4 ,any?+ t c be directly inspect$ is n ano!r m9d4 ,we _c ca/ a d\bt ^u ! exi/5ce ( colors by po9t+ to ! fact t we _c smell !m4 ,if !y c\ld be smelt1 !y w\ld n be colors4 ,we mu/ 9 ea* case seek a pro( ( ! appropriate k9d4 ,:at h we a "r to reg>d z absolute pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( ano!r m9d8 ,only ?is3 ! analogy ^u :i* we dep5d 9 mak+ our inf]5ce mu/ be a v close "o4 ,z we %all see 9 ! next section1 ! analogy is sometimes v remote1 & we draw ! inf]5ce ) mu* hesitation1 or1 p]haps1 refuse to draw x at all4 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 ! k9d ( inf]5ce t makes ! tr\ble2 x is ! lack ( detail$ in=mation t may s]ve z a basis = inf]5ce4 ,our inf]5ce to o!r m9ds is unsatisfactory only 9 s f> z we are ignorant ( our own m9ds & bodies & ( o!r bodies4 ,7 our k 9 ^! fields complete1 we %\ld "k )\t fail ! signs ( m9d1 & %\ld "k :e!r an inf]5ce 7 or 7 n ju/ifi$4 ,& ju/ifi$ "h means prov$--prov$ 9 ! only s5se 9 :i* we h a "r to ask = pro(4 ,no s+le fact is kn[n t c discr$it su* a pro(4 ,our d\bt is1 !n1 gratuit\s & c be dismiss$4 ,we may claim t we h v]ification ( ! exi/5ce ( o!r m9ds4 ,su* v]ification1 h[ev]1 mu/ consi/ 9 %[+ t1 9 any giv5 in/ance1 ! signs ( m9d really are pres5t4 ,x _c consi/ 9 pres5t+ m9ds = inspection z ?\gh !y 7 mat]ial ?+s4 ,"o m matt] rema9s to be t\*$ ^u 9 ?is section4 ,x has d\btless be5 obs]v$ t ,mill1 9 ! extract giv5 above1 seems to place feel+s1 9 o!r words1 m5tal ph5om5a1 betwe5 "o set ( bodily motions & ano!r4 ,he makes !m ! middle l9k 9 a *a9 ^: fir/ & ?ird l9ks are mat]ial4 ,! p>alleli/ _c treat m9d 9 ?is way4 ,he claims t to make m5tal ph5om5a effects or causes ( bodily motions is to make !m mat]ial4 ,mu/1 !n1 ! p>alleli/ ab&on ! argum5t = o!r m9ds8 ,n at all4 ,! =ce ( ! argum5t lies 9 int]pret+ ! ph5om5a pres5t$ by o!r bodies z "o kn[s by exp]i5ce ! ph5om5a ( "o's own body mu/ be int]pret$4 ,he :o concludes t ! relation betwe5 8 own m9d & 8 own body c be/ be describ$ z a p>allelism1 mu/ judge t o!r m5's m9ds are relat$ to _! bodies 9 ! same way4 ,he mu/ treat 8 neighbor z he treats himself4 ,! argum5t f analogy rema9s ! same4 #db4 ,,:at ,,o!r ,,m9ds ,,are ,,!re8--,t o!r m5 h m9ds nobody really d\bts1 z we h se5 above4 ,!y resemble u s closely1 _! actions are s analog\s to our own1 t1 al?\gh we sometimes give ourselves a good deal ( tr\ble to asc]ta9 :at sort ( m9ds !y h1 we nev] ?9k ( ask+ ourselves :e!r !y h m9ds4 ,nor does x ev] occur to ! man :o owns a dog1 or :o drives a horse1 to ask himself :e!r ! creature has a m9d4 ,he may compla9 t x has n mu* ( a m9d1 or he may m>vel at its intellig5ce--8 attitude w dep5d ^u ! expectations :i* he has be5 l$ to =m4 ,b reg>d ! animal z he w\ld reg>d a bicycle or an automobile1 he w n4 ,! brute is n precisely l u1 b its actions be> an unmi/akable analogy to our own2 pleasure & pa91 hope & fe>1 desire & av]sion1 are s pla9ly to be read into !m t we feel t a man mu/ be high gravel bl9d n to see _! significance4 ,nev]!less1 x has be5 possible = man1 "u ! prepossession ( a mi/ak5 philosophical !ory1 to assume ! :ole brute creation to be )\t consci\sness4 ,:5 ,desc>tes _h le>n$ some?+ ( ! me*anism ( ! human body1 & _h plac$ ! human s\l--hospes comesque corporis--9 ! little p9eal gl& 9 ! mid/ ( ! bra91 ! conception 9 8 m9d 0 n unlike t :i* we h :5 we picture to ourselves a locomotive eng9e ) an eng9e] 9 its cab4 ,! man gives intellig5t direction2 b1 "u "s circum/ances1 ! ma*9e c d a good deal 9 ! abs5ce ( ! man2 if x is />t$1 x c run ( itself1 & to d ?is1 x mu/ g ?r\gh a s]ies ( complicat$ motions4 ,desc>tes knew t _m ( ! actions p]=m$ by ! human body are n ! result ( consci\s *oice1 & t "s ( !m are 9 direct contrav5tion ( ! w's comm&s4 ,! eye protects itself by dropp+ its lid1 :5 ! h& is br\ght sudd5ly be=e x2 ! foot j]ks away f ! heat$ object :i* x has accid5tally t\*$4 ,! body 0 se5 to be a me*anism relatively indep5d5t ( ! m9d1 & "o r complete 9 itself4 ,jo9$ ) a s\l1 ! circle ( its functions 0 conceiv$ to be wid5$2 b ev5 )\t ! assi/ance ( ! s\l1 x 0 ?\ght t x c\ld keep itself busy1 & c\ld d _m ?+s t ! unreflective might be incl9$ to attribute to ! effici5cy ( ! m9d4 ,! bodies ( ! brutes ,desc>tes reg>d$ z me*anisms ( ! same g5]al nature z ! human body4 ,he 0 unwill+ to all[ a s\l to any creature bel[ man1 s no?+ seem$ left to him save to ma9ta9 t ! brutes are ma*9es )\t consci\sness1 & t _! app>5tly purposive actions are to be class$ ) su* human movem5ts z ! sudd5 clos+ ( ! eye :5 x is ?reat5$ ) ! h&4 ,! melan*oly results ( ?is doctr9e made !mselves evid5t among 8 foll[]s4 ,ev5 ! mild & pi\s ,malebran*e c\ld be brutal to a dog :i* fawn$ ^u him1 "u ! mi/ak5 notion t x did n really hurt a dog to kick x4 ,all ?is reason+ m5 h long ago set aside4 ,= "o ?+1 x has come to be recogniz$ t !re may be consci\sness1 p]haps r dim1 bl9d1 & fugitive1 b /ill consci\sness1 :i* does n get itself recogniz$ z d our cle>ly consci\s purposes & volitions4 ,_m ( ! actions ( man :i* ,desc>tes 0 incl9$ to reg>d z unaccompani$ by consci\sness may n1 9 fact1 be really unconsci\s4 ,&1 9 ! second place1 x has come to be realiz$ t we h no "r to class all ! actions ( ! brutes ) ^? reflex actions 9 man :i* we are accu/om$ to reg>d z automatic4 ,! belief 9 animal automatism has pass$ away1 x is to be hop$1 nev] to return4 ,t l[] animals h m9ds we mu/ believe4 ,b :at sort ( m9ds h !y8 ,x is h>d en\gh to ga9 an accurate notion ( :at is go+ on 9 a human m9d4 ,m5 resemble ea* o!r m or less closely1 b no two are precisely alike1 & no two h _h exactly ! same tra9+4 ,i may misund]/& ev5 ! man :o lives 9 ! same h\se ) me & is ne>ly relat$ to me4 ,does he really suff] & enjoy z acutely z he seems to8 or mu/ 8 words & actions be accept$ ) a disc\nt8 ,! great] ! diff]5ce betwe5 u1 ! m dang] t ,i %all misjudge him4 ,x is to be expect$ t m5 %\ld misund]/& wom52 t m5 & wom5 %\ld misund]/& *ildr52 t ^? :o diff] 9 social /ation1 9 education1 9 traditions & habits ( life1 %\ld be 9 dang] ( read+ ea* o!r z "o reads a book 9 a tongue imp]fectly ma/]$4 ,:5 ^! diff]5ces are v great1 ! task is an extremely difficult "o4 ,:at are ! emotions1 if he has any1 ( ! ,*9aman 9 ! laundry ne> by8 ,8 face seems z difficult ( int]pretation z are ! hi]oglyphics t he has pa/$ up on 8 w9d[4 ,:5 we come to ! brutes1 ! case is di/9ctly worse4 ,we ?9k t we c atta9 to "s notion ( ! m9ds to be attribut$ to su* animals z ! ape1 ! dog1 ! cat1 ! horse1 & x is n nons5se to speak ( an animal psy*ology4 ,b :o w und]take to tell u any?+ def9ite ( ! m9d ( a fly1 a gras%opp]1 a snail1 or a cuttlefi%8 ,t !y h m9ds1 or some?+ l m9ds1 we mu/ believe2 :at _! m9ds are l1 a prud5t man sc>cely ev5 attempts to say4 ,9 our di/ribution ( m9ds may we /op %ort ( ev5 ! v l[e/ animal organisms8 ,x seems arbitr>y to d s4 ,m ?an t2 "s ?\ghtful m5 h be5 l$ by ! analogy betwe5 plant life & animal life to believe t some?+ m or less remotely l ! consci\sness :i* we attribute to animals mu/ be attribut$ also to plants4 ,^u ?is belief ,i %all n dwell1 = "h we are evid5tly at ! limit ( our k1 & are mak+ ! vague/ ( guesses4 ,no "o pret5ds t we h ev5 ! beg9n+s ( a plant psy*ology4 ,at ! same "t1 we mu/ admit t organisms ( all sorts d be> "s analogy to ea* o!r1 ev5 if x be a remote "o2 & we mu/ admit also t we _c prove plants to be :olly devoid ( a rudim5t>y consci\sness ( "s sort4 ,z we beg9 ) man & desc5d ! scale ( be+s1 we seem1 9 ! upp] "p ( ! s]ies1 to be 9 no d\bt t m9ds exi/4 ,our only "q is z to ! precise cont5ts ( ^? m9ds4 ,fur!r d[n we beg9 to ask ourselves :e!r any?+ l m9d is reveal$ at all4 ,t ?is %\ld be s is to be expect$4 ,our argum5t = o!r m9ds is ! argum5t f analogy1 & z we move d[n ! scale our analogy gr[s m & m remote until x seems to fade out altoge!r4 ,he :o h>bors d\bts z to :e!r ! plants enjoy "s sort ( psy*ic life1 may well f9d ^? d\bts int5sifi$ :5 he turns to /udy ! cry/al2 & :5 he contemplates inorganic matt] he %\ld admit t ! ?read ( 8 argum5t has become s att5uat$ t he _c f9d x at all4 #dc4 ,,! ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,m9d-,,/uff4--,nev]!less1 !re h be5 ^? :o h attribut$ some?+ l consci\sness ev5 to inorganic matt]4 ,if ! doctr9e ( evolution be true1 argues ,pr(essor ,clif=d1#d we %all h along ! l9e ( ! human p$igree a s]ies ( imp]ceptible /eps connect+ inorganic matt] ) ourselves4 ,to ! lat] memb]s ( t s]ies we mu/ und\bt$ly ascribe consci\sness1 al?\gh x mu/1 ( c\rse1 h be5 simpl] ?an our own4 ,b :]e are we to /op8 ,9 ! case ( organisms ( a c]ta9 complexity1 consci\sness is inf]r$4 ,z we g back along ! l9e1 ! complexity ( ! organism & ( its n]ve-action ins5sibly dim9i%es2 & = ! fir/ "p ( our c\rse we see reason to ?9k t ! complexity ( consci\sness ins5sibly dim9i%es also4 ,b if we make a jump1 say to ! tunicate mollusks1 we see no reason !re to inf] ! exi/5ce ( consci\sness at all4 ,yet n only is x impossible to po9t out a place :]e any sudd5 break takes place1 b x is contr>y to all ! natural tra9+ ( our m9ds to suppose a brea* ( cont9uity s great4 ,we mu/ n1 says ,clif=d1 admit any brea* ( cont9uity4 ,we mu/ assume t consci\sness is a complex ( elem5t>y feel+s1 or r ( ^? remot] elem5ts :i* _c ev5 be felt1 b ( :i* ! simple/ feel+ is built up4 ,we mu/ assume t su* elem5t>y facts g along ) ! action ( e organism1 h[ev] simple2 b we mu/ assume also t x is only :5 ! organism has rea*$ a c]ta9 complexity ( n]v\s /ructure t ! complex ( psy*ic facts rea*es ! degree ( complication t we call ,consci\sness4 ,s mu* = ! assumption ( some?+ l m9d 9 ! mollusk1 :]e ,clif=d _c f9d direct evid5ce ( m9d4 ,b ! argum5t does n /op "h3 ,z ! l9e ( asc5t is unbrok51 & mu/ end at la/ 9 inorganic matt]1 we h no *oice b to admit t e motion ( matt] is simultane\s ) "s 4 4 4 fact or ev5t :i* might be "p ( a consci\sness4 ,( ! univ]sal di/ribution ( ! elem5t>y con/itu5ts ( m9d ,clif=d writes z foll[s3 ,t elem5t ( :i*1 z we h se51 ev5 ! simple/ feel+ is a complex1 ,i %all call ,m9d-/uff4 ,a mov+ molecule ( inorganic matt] does n possess m9d or consci\sness2 b x possesses a small piece ( m9d-/uff4 ,:5 molecules are s comb9$ toge!r z to =m ! film on ! "u side ( a jellyfi%1 ! elem5ts ( m9d-/uff :i* g along ) !m are s comb9$ z to =m ! fa9t beg9n+s ( ,s5ti5ce4 ,:5 ! molecules are s comb9$ z to =m ! bra9 & n]v\s sy/em ( a v]tebrate1 ! correspond+ elem5ts ( m9d-/uff are s comb9$ z to =m "s k9d ( consci\sness2 t is to say1 *anges 9 ! complex :i* take place at ! same "t get s l9k$ toge!r t ! repetition ( "o implies ! repetition ( ! o!r4 ,:5 matt] takes ! complex =m ( a liv+ human bra91 ! correspond+ m9d-/uff takes ! =m ( a human consci\sness1 hav+ intellig5ce & volition4 ,?is is ! fam\s m9d-/uff doctr9e4 ,x is n a sci5tific doctr9e1 = x re/s on :olly unprov$ assumptions4 ,x is a play ( ! speculative fancy1 & has its s\rce 9 ! au?or's /rong desire to fit m5tal ph5om5a into "s g5]al evolution>y s*eme4 ,z he is a p>alleli/1 & _c make ( physical ph5om5a & ( m5tal "o s+le s]ies ( causes & effects1 he mu/ atta9 8 end by mak+ ! m5tal s]ies complete & indep5d5t 9 itself4 ,to d ?is1 he is =c$ to make sev]al v />tl+ assumptions3-- 7#a7 ,we h se5 t !re is evid5ce t !re is consci\sness some:]e--x is reveal$ by c]ta9 bodies4 ,clif=d assumes consci\sness1 or r its raw mat]ial1 m9d-/uff1 to be ev]y:]e4 ,= ?is assumption we h n a :it ( evid5ce4 7#b7 ,to make ( ! /uff ?us atta9$ a satisfactory evolution>y s]ies1 he is compell$ to assume t m5tal ph5om5a are relat$ to ea* o!r mu* z physical ph5om5a are relat$ to ea* o!r4 ,?is notion he _h f ,sp9oza1 :o held t1 j z all t takes place 9 ! physical _w mu/ be acc\nt$ = by a ref]5ce to physical causes1 s all happ5+s 9 ! _w ( ideas mu/ be acc\nt$ = by a ref]5ce to m5tal causes1 i4e4 to ideas4 ,= ?is assumption !re is no m evid5ce ?an = ! =m]4 7#c7 ,f9ally1 to br+ ! m5tal ph5om5a we are famili> )1 s5sations ( color1 s\nd1 t\*1 ta/e1 etc41 into ?is evolution>y s*eme1 he is =c$ to assume t all su* m5tal ph5om5a are made up ( elem5ts :i* d n belong to ^! classes at all1 ( some?+ t _c ev5 be felt4 ,= ?is assumption !re is z little evid5ce z !re is = ! o!r two4 ,! fact is t ! m9d-/uff doctr9e is a ca/le 9 ! air4 ,x is too fanciful & arbitr>y to take s]i\sly4 ,x is mu* bett] to come back to a m sob] view ( ?+s1 & to hold t !re is evid5ce t o!r m9ds exi/1 b no evid5ce t e mat]ial ?+ is animat$4 ,if we _c fit ?is into our evolution>y s*eme1 p]haps x is well to reexam9e our evolution>y s*eme1 & to see :e!r "s misconception may n atta* to t4 #a ,collect$ ,essays1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bai1 ,new ,york1 #aijb4 #b ,on ! ,nature ( ,?+s-9-,!mselves1 9 ,lectures & ,essays1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 #c ,exam9ation ( ,sir ,william ,hamilton's ,philosophy1 ,*apt] ,,xii4 #d ,on ! ,nature ( ,?+s-9-,!mselves4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,o!r ,,problems ,,( ,,_w ,,& ,,m9d #dd4 ,,is ,,! ,,mat]ial ,,_w ,a ,,me*anism8--,s f> we h conc]n$ ourselves ) c]ta9 lead+ problems t\*+ ! ext]nal _w & ! m9d1--problems :i* seem to pres5t !mselves unavoidably to ^? :o ent] ^u ! pa? ( reflection4 ,& we h se51 ,i hope1 t !re is mu* tru?1 z well z "s misconception1 conta9$ 9 ! r vague op9ions ( ! pla9 man4 ,b ! problems t we h tak5 up by no means exhau/ ! s]ies ( ^? t pres5t !mselves to "o :o ?9ks ) pati5ce & p]si/5cy4 ,:5 we h decid$ t m5 are n mi/ak5 9 believ+ t an ext]nal _w is pres5t$ 9 _! exp]i5ce2 :5 we h correct$ our fir/ crude notions ( :at ?is _w is1 & h cle>$ away "s confusions f our conceptions ( space & "t2 :5 we h atta9$ to a reasonably cle> view ( ! nature ( ! m9d1 & ( ! nature ( its connection ) ! body2 :5 we h escap$ f a tumble into ! absurd doctr9e t no m9d exi/s save our own1 & h turn$ our backs ^u ! ra% speculations ( ! adh]5ts ( m9d-/uff2 !re /ill rema9 _m po9ts ^u :i* we %\ld l to h def9ite in=mation4 ,9 ! pres5t *apt] ,i %all take up & turn ov] a few ( ^!1 b x mu/ n be suppos$ t "o c get m ?an a glimpse ( !m )9 su* n>r[ limits4 ,fir/ ( all we w raise ! "q :e!r x is p]missible to reg>d ! mat]ial _w1 :i* we accept1 z ?r\gh & ?r\gh a me*anism4 ,!re c be little d\bt t !re is a t5d5cy on ! "p ( m5 ( sci5ce at ! pres5t day s to reg>d x4 ,x %\ld1 ( c\rse1 be frankly admitt$ t no "o is 9 a position to prove t1 f ! cosmic mi/1 9 :i* we grope = ! beg9n+s ( our univ]se1 to ! organiz$ :ole 9 :i* vegetable & animal bodies h _! place1 !re is an unbrok5 s]ies ( *anges all ( :i* are explicable by a ref]5ce to me*anical laws4 ,*emi/ry1 physics1 & biology are /ill sep>ate & di/9ct realms1 & x is at pres5t impossible to f9d = !m a common basis 9 me*anics4 ,! belief ( ! man ( sci5ce mu/1 h5ce1 be reg>d$ z a fai?2 ! doctr9e ( ! me*anism ( nature is a work+ hypo!sis1 & x is unsci5tific to assume t x is any?+ m4 ,!re c be no objection to a frank admission t we are n "h walk+ 9 ! light ( e/abli%$ k4 ,b x does seem to savor ( dogmatism = a man to insi/ t no increase 9 our k c ev] reveal t ! physical _w is an ord]ly sy/em ?r\gh\t1 & t all ! *anges 9 mat]ial ?+s are explicable 9 t]ms ( ! "o unifi$ sci5ce4 ,e>ne/ objections h1 h[ev]1 be5 made to ! t5d5cy to reg>d nature z a me*anism4 ,to "o ( ! mo/ curi\s ( !m we h be5 treat$ lately by ,dr4 ,w>d 9 8 book on ,naturalism & ,agno/icism4 ,x is !re +5i\sly argu$ t1 :5 we exam9e ) c>e ! fundam5tal concepts ( ! sci5ce ( me*anics1 we f9d !m to be self-contradictory & absurd4 ,x foll[s t we are n ju/ifi$ 9 turn+ to !m = an explanation ( ! ord] ( nature4 ,! def5se ( ! concepts ( me*anics we may safely leave to ! man ( sci5ce2 rememb]+1 ( c\rse1 t1 :5 a sci5ce is 9 ! mak+1 x is to be expect$ t ! concepts ( :i* x makes use %\ld und]go revision f "t to "t4 ,b !re is "o g5]al consid]ation t x is n well to leave out ( view :5 we are contemplat+ su* an assault ^u ! notion ( ! _w z me*anism z is made by ,dr4 ,w>d4 ,x is ?is4 ,su* attacks ^u ! conception ( me*anism are n purely de/ructive 9 _! aim4 ,! man :o makes !m wi%es to de/roy "o view ( ! sy/em ( ?+s 9 ord] t he may set up ano!r4 ,if ! *anges 9 ! sy/em ( mat]ial ?+s _c be acc\nt$ = me*anically1 x is argu$1 we are compell$ to turn = our explanation to ! action & int]action ( m9ds4 ,?is seems to give m9d a v important place 9 ! univ]se1 & is believ$ to make = a view ( ?+s t gu>antees ! satisfaction ( ! highe/ hopes & aspirations ( man4 ,t a recognition ( ! me*anical ord] ( nature is incompatible ) su* a view ( ?+s z is j above indicat$1 ,i %\ld be ! la/ to admit4 ,! notion t x is s is1 ,i believe1 a dang]\s error4 ,x is an error t t5ds to put a man out ( sympa?y ) ! ef=ts ( sci5ce to discov] t ! _w is an ord]ly :ole1 & tempts him to rejoice 9 ! contemplation ( human ignorance4 ,b ! error is r a common "o2 & see to :at inju/ice x may lead "o4 ,x is conclud$ t ! conception ( matt] is an obscure "o2 t we d n "k cle>ly :at we mean :5 we speak ( ! mass ( a body2 t !re are disputes z to prop] significance to be giv5 to ! words cause & effect2 t ! laws ( motion1 z !y are at pres5t =mulat$1 d n seem to acc\nt satisfactorily = ! behavior ( all mat]ial p>ticles4 ,f ?is x is inf]r$ t we mu/ give up ! attempt to expla9 me*anically ! ord] ( physical ?+s4 ,n[1 suppose t x 7 consid]$ a dang]\s & het]odox doctr9e1 t ! *anges 9 ! sy/em ( ?+s are due to ! activities ( m9ds4 ,w\ld n ^? :o n[ love to po9t out ! %ortcom+s ( ! sci5ce ( me*anics discov] a f9e field = _! de/ructive criticism8 ,are !re no disputes z to ! ultimate nature ( m9d8 ,are m5 agre$ t\*+ ! relations ( m9d & matt]8 ,:at sci5ce ev5 attempts to tell u h[ a m9d1 by an act ( volition1 sets mat]ial p>ticles 9 motion or *anges ! direction ( _! motion8 ,h[ does "o m9d act ^u ano!r1 & :at does x mean = "o m9d to act ^u ano!r8 ,if ! sci5ce ( me*anics is n 9 all respects z complete a sci5ce z x is desirable t x %\ld be1 surely we mu/ admit t :5 we turn to ! field ( m9d we are n deal+ ) :at is cle> & free f difficulties4 ,only a /rong emotional bias c lead a man to dwell ) emphasis ^u ! difficulties to be met ) 9 ! "o field1 & to pass lightly ov] ^? ) :i* "o meets 9 ! o!r4 ,"o may1 h[ev]1 refuse to admit t ! ord] ( nature is ?r\gh\t me*anical1 )\t tak+ any su* unreasonable position z ?is4 ,"o may hold t _m ( ! *anges 9 mat]ial ?+s d n appe> to be me*anical1 & t x is too mu* ( an assumption to ma9ta9 t !y are su*1 ev5 z an article ( fai?4 ,?us1 :5 we pass f ! _w ( ! inorganic to t ( organic life1 we seem to make an imm5se /ep4 ,no "o has ev5 begun to %[ u t ! *anges t take place 9 vegetable & animal organisms are all me*anical *anges4 ,h[ c we d>e to assume t !y are8 ,) "o :o reasons ?us we may c]ta9ly feel a sympa?y4 ,! mo/ ard5t advocate ( me*anism mu/ admit t 8 doctr9e is a work+ hypo!sis1 & n prov$ to be true4 ,its acceptance w\ld1 h[ev]1 be a g5u9e conv5i5ce f ! po9t ( view ( sci5ce1 = x does introduce1 at lea/ provisionally1 a c]ta9 ord] into a va/ numb] ( facts1 & gives a direction to inve/igation4 ,p]haps ! wise/ ?+ to d is1 n to combat ! doctr9e1 b to accept x t5tatively & to exam9e c>efully :at conclusions x may seem to c>ry ) x--h[ x may affect our outlook ^u ! _w z a :ole4 #de4 ,,! ,,place ,,( ,,m9d ,,9 ,,nature4--,"o ( ! v fir/ que/ions :i* we ?9k ( ask+ :5 we contemplate ! possibility t ! physical _w is ?r\gh\t a me*anical sy/em is ?is3 ,h[ c we conceive m9ds to be relat$ to su* a sy/em8 ,t m9ds1 & _m m9ds1 d exi/1 x is n reasonable to d\bt4 ,:at %all we d ) !m8 ,"o mu/ n misund]/& ! me*anical view ( ?+s4 ,:5 we use ! ^w ma*9e1 we call be=e our m9ds c]ta9 gross & relatively simple me*anisms con/ruct$ by man4 ,betwe5 su* & a fl[]1 a butt]fly1 & a human body1 ! diff]5ce is enorm\s4 ,he :o elects to br+ ! latt] "u ! title ( me*anism _c mean t he disc]ns no diff]5ce betwe5 !m & a /eam eng9e or a pr9t+ press4 ,he c only mean t he believes he might1 c\ld he atta9 to a glimpse into _! inf9ite complexity1 f9d an explanation ( ! physical *anges :i* take place 9 !m1 by a ref]5ce to c]ta9 g5]al laws :i* describe ! behavior ( mat]ial p>ticles ev]y:]e4 ,& ! man :o1 hav+ ext5d$ 8 notion ( me*anism1 is incl9$ to ov]look ! fact t animals & m5 h m9ds1 t ?\ght & feel+1 plan & purpose1 h _! place 9 ! _w1 may ju/ly be accus$ ( a headlong & he$less en?usiasm4 ,:atev] may be our op9ion on ! subject ( ! me*anism ( nature1 we h no "r to m9imize ! significance ( ?\ght & feel+ & w4 ,betwe5 t :i* has no m9d & t :i* has a m9d !re is a diff]5ce :i* _c be oblit]at$ by br++ bo? "u ! concept ( me*anism4 ,x is a diff]5ce :i* furni%es ! mat]ial = ! sci5ces ( psy*ology & e?ics1 & gives rise to a :ole _w ( di/9ctions :i* f9d no place 9 ! realm ( ! m]ely physical4 ,!re are1 !n1 m9ds z well z bodies2 :at place %all we assign to ^! m9ds 9 ! sy/em ( nature8 ,sev]al c5turies ago x occurr$ to ! man ( sci5ce t ! mat]ial _w %\ld be reg>d$ z a sy/em 9 :i* !re is con/ant trans=mation1 b 9 :i* no?+ is creat$4 ,?is way ( look+ at ?+s express$ itself =m]ly 9 ! /atem5t t1 ?r\gh all ! *anges t take place 9 ! _w1 ! quantity ( matt] & motion rema9s ! same4 ,to-day ! same idea is bett] express$ 9 ! doctr9e ( ! et]nity ( mass & ! cons]vation ( en]gy4 ,9 pla9 language1 ?is doctr9e tea*es t e *ange 9 e "p ( ! physical _w1 e motion 9 matt]1 mu/ be prec$$ by physical conditions :i* may be reg>d$ z ! equival5t ( ! *ange 9 "q4 ,b ?is makes ! physical _w a clos$ sy/em1 a some?+ complete 9 itself4 ,:]e is !re room 9 su* a sy/em = m9ds8 ,x does inde$ seem h>d to f9d 9 su* a sy/em a place = m9ds1 if "o conceives ( m9ds z does ! int]actioni/4 ,we h se5 7section #cf7 t ! int]actioni/ makes ! m9d act ^u matt] v mu* z "o p>ticle ( matt] is suppos$ to act ^u ano!r4 ,betwe5 ! physical & ! m5tal he assumes t !re are causal relations2 i4e4 physical *anges mu/ be ref]r$ to m5tal causes sometimes1 & m5tal *anges to physical4 ,?is means t he f9ds a place = m5tal facts by ins]t+ !m z l9ks 9 ! "o *a9 ( causes & effects ) physical facts4 ,if he is n all[$ to break ! *a9 & ins]t !m1 he does n "k :at to d ) !m4 ,! p>alleli/ has n ! same difficulty to face4 ,he :o holds t m5tal ph5om5a mu/ n be built into ! "o s]ies ( causes & effects ) physical ph5om5a may freely admit t physical ph5om5a =m a clos$ s]ies1 an ord]ly sy/em ( _! own1 & he may yet f9d a place 9 ! _w = m9ds4 ,he refuses to reg>d !m z a "p ( ! _w-me*anism1 b he relates !m to physical ?+s1 conceiv+ !m z p>allel to ! physical 9 ! s5se describ$ 7sections #cg-ci74 ,he insi/s t1 ev5 if we hold t !re are gaps 9 ! physical ord] ( causes & effects1 we _c conceive ^! gaps to be fill$ by m5tal ph5om5a1 simply because !y are m5tal ph5om5a4 ,!y belong to an ord] ( _! own4 ,h5ce1 ! assumption t ! physical s]ies is unbrok5 does n seem to him to cr[d m5tal ph5om5a out ( _! place 9 ! _w at all4 ,!y mu/1 9 any case1 occupy ! place t is appropriate to !m 7section #ch74 ,x w be notic$ t ?is doctr9e t ! *a9 ( physical causes & effects is n[h]e brok51 & t m5tal ph5om5a are relat$ to x z ! p>alleli/ conceives !m to be1 makes ! _w-sy/em a v ord]ly "o4 ,e ph5om5on has its place 9 x1 & c be acc\nt$ =1 :e!r x be physical or m5tal4 ,to "s1 ! ?\ght t ! _w is su* an ord]ly ?+ is 9 ! highe/ degree repugnant4 ,!y object t1 9 su* a _w1 !re is no room = free-w2 & !y object1 fur!r1 t !re is no room = ! activity ( m9ds4 ,bo? ( ^! objections ,i %all consid] 9 ?is *apt]4 ,b fir/1 ,i mu/ say a few words ab\t a type ( doctr9e lately insi/$ ^u1#a :i* be>s "s resemblance to int]actionism z we usually meet ) x1 &1 nev]!less1 tries to hold on to ! doctr9e ( ! cons]vation ( en]gy4 ,x is ?is3-- ,! concept ( en]gy is /ret*$ 9 su* a way z to make x cov] m5tal ph5om5a z well z physical4 ,x is claim$ t m5tal ph5om5a & physical ph5om5a are alike manife/ations ( en]gy1 & t ! com+ into be+ ( a consci\sness is a m]e trans=mation1 a some?+ to be acc\nt$ = by ! disappe>ance f ! physical _w ( a c]ta9 equival5t--p]haps ( "s motion4 ,x w be notic$ t ?is is "o r subtle way ( oblit]at+ ! di/9ction betwe5 m5tal ph5om5a & physical4 ,9 s f> x resembles ! int]actioni/'s doctr9e4 ,9 criticism ( x we may say t he :o accepts x has w&]$ away f a r widely recogniz$ sci5tific hypo!sis1 & has sub/itut$ = x a v d\btful speculation = :i* !re seems to be no :it ( evid5ce4 ,x is1 moreov]1 a speculation repugnant to ! sci5tific m9d1 :5 its significance is grasp$4 ,%all we assume )\t evid5ce t1 :5 a man wakes 9 ! morn+ & enjoys a m5tal life susp5d$ or dim9i%$ dur+ ! night1 8 ?\ghts & feel+s h come into be+ at ! exp5se ( 8 body8 ,%all we assume t ! mass ( 8 body has be5 slightly dim9i%$1 or t motions h disappe>$ 9 a way t _c be acc\nt$ = by a ref]5ce to ! laws ( matt] 9 motion8 ,?is seems an extraord9>y assumption1 & "o little 9 h>mony ) ! doctr9e ( ! et]nity ( mass & ! cons]vation ( en]gy z commonly und]/ood4 ,we ne$ n take x s]i\sly s long z x is q unsupport$ by evid5ce4 #df4 ,,! ,,ord] ,,( ,,nature ,,& ,,free-,,w4--,9 a _w z ord]ly z1 9 ! previ\s section1 ?is _w is conceiv$ to be1 is !re any room = fre$om8 ,:at if ! man ( sci5ce is "r 9 suspect+ t ! s]ies ( physical causes & effects is n[h]e brok58 ,mu/ we !n conclude t we are nev] free8 ,to _m p]sons x has seem$ t we are =c$ to draw ?is conclusion1 & x is n surpris+ t !y view ! doctr9e ) dismay4 ,!y argue3 ,m5tal ph5om5a are made p>allel ) physical1 & ! ord] ( physical ph5om5a seems to be det]m9$ ?r\gh\t1 = no?+ c happ5 9 ! _w ( matt] unless !re is "s adequate cause ( its happ5+4 ,if1 !n1 ,i *oose to raise my f+]1 t movem5t mu/ be admitt$ to h physical causes1 & ^? causes o!r causes1 & s on )\t end4 ,if su* a movem5t mu/ always h its place 9 a causal s]ies ( ?is k9d1 h[ c x be reg>d$ z a free movem5t8 ,x is det]m9$1 & n free4 ,n[1 x is f> f a pleasant ?+ to wat* ! man ( sci5ce busily at "w try+ to prove t ! physical _w is an ord]ly sy/em1 & all ! :ile to feel 9 "o's he>t t ! success ( 8 ef=ts condemns "o to slav]y4 ,x c h>dly fail to make "o's attitude t[>ds sci5ce t ( al>m & antagonism4 ,f ?is ,i %all try to free ! read] by %[+ t our fre$om is n 9 ! lea/ dang]1 & t we may look on unconc]n$4 ,:5 we approa* t v5]able dispute t\*+ ! fre$om ( ! w1 :i* has inspir$ m5 to su* endless discussions1 & ^u :i* !y h writt5 ) su* w>m? & ev5 acrimony1 ! v fir/ ?+ to d is to discov] :at we h a "r to mean :5 we call a man free4 ,z long z ! mean+ ( ! ^w is 9 d\bt1 ! v subject ( ! dispute is 9 d\bt4 ,:5 may we1 !n1 prop]ly call a man free8 ,:at is ! normal application ( ! t]m8 ,i raise my f+]4 ,e man ( s5se mu/ admit t1 "u normal conditions1 ,i c raise my f+] or keep x d[n1 z ,i please4 ,!re is no gr\nd = a diff]5ce ( op9ion s f>4 ,b !re is a fur!r po9t ^u :i* m5 diff]4 ,"o holds t my pleas+ & ! bra9-*ange t corresponds to x h _! place 9 ! _w-ord]2 t is1 he ma9ta9s t e volition c be acc\nt$ =4 ,ano!r holds t1 "u precisely ! same circum/ances1 "o may please or n please2 :i* means t ! pleas+ _c be :olly acc\nt$ = by any?+ t has prec$$4 ,! fir/ man is a det]m9i/1 & ! second a free-willi/4 ,i beg ! read] to obs]ve t ! ^w free-willi/ is 9 quotation m>ks1 & n to suppose t x means simply a believ] 9 ! fre$om ( ! w4 ,:5 9 common life we speak ( a man z free1 :at d we und]/& by ! ^w8 ,usually we mean t he is free f ext]nal compulsion4 ,if my f+] is held by ano!r1 ,i am n free to raise x4 ,b ,i may be free 9 ?is s5se1 & yet "o may demur to ! /atem5t t ,i am a free man4 ,if a pi/ol be held to my head ) ! rem>k1 ,h&s up6 my f+] w m\nt v quickly1 & ! by/&]s w ma9ta9 t ,i _h no *oice4 ,we speak 9 some:at ! same way ( m5 "u ! influ5ce ( intoxicants1 ( m5 craz$ by "s passion & unable to take into consid]ation ! consequ5ces ( _! acts1 & ( m5 b\nd by ! spell ( hypnotic sugge/ion4 ,inde$1 :5ev] a man is 9 su* a condition t he is gl>+ly incapable ( lead+ a normal human life & ( be+ influ5c$ by ! motives t commonly move m51 we are incl9$ to say t he is n free4 ,b does x ev] occur to u to ma9ta9 t1 9 g5]al1 ! possession ( a "* & ! capacity ( be+ influ5c$ by consid]ations make x impossible = a man to be free8 ,surely n4 ,if ,i am a prud5t man1 ,i w inve/ my money 9 good securities4 ,is x s5sible to say t ,i _c h be5 free 9 refus+ a tw5ty p] c5t inve/m5t1 because ,i am by nature prud5t8 ,am ,i a slave because ,i eat :5 ,i am hungry1 & c ,i p>take ( a meal freely1 only :5 !re is no reason :y ,i %\ld eat at all8 ,he :o calls me free only :5 my acts d viol5ce to my nature or _c be ju/ifi$ by a ref]5ce to any?+ :atev] has /range notions ( fre$om4 ,patriots1 poets1 morali/s1 h _h mu* to say ( fre$om2 m5 h liv$ = x1 & h di$ = x2 m5 love x z !y love _! own s\ls4 ,is ! object ( all ?is adoration ! metaphysical absurdity indicat$ above8 ,to insi/ t a man is free only 9 s f> z 8 actions are unacc\ntable is to d viol5ce to ! mean+ ( a ^w 9 v common use1 & to mislead m5 by p]v]t+ x to /range & un:olesome uses4 ,yet ?is is done by ! free-willi/4 ,he keeps insi/+ t man is free1 & !n goes on to ma9ta9 t he _c be free unless he is free4 ,he does n1 un=tunately1 supply ! quotation m>ks1 & he pr(its by ! natural mi/ake 9 id5tity4 ,z he def9es fre$om x becomes fre$om1 :i* is a v diff]5t ?+4 ,:at is ?is fre$om8 ,x is n fre$om f ext]nal con/ra9t4 ,x is n fre$om f ov]p[]+ passion4 ,x is fre$om f all ! motives1 good z well z bad1 t we c conceive ( z influ5c+ man1 & fre$om also f oneself4 ,x is well to get ?is q cle>4 ,! free-willi/ ma9ta9s t1 9 s f> z a man is free1 8 actions _c be acc\nt$ = by a ref]5ce to ! ord] ( causes at all--n by a ref]5ce to 8 "*1 h]$it>y or acquir$2 n by a ref]5ce to 8 surr\nd+s4 ,free actions1 9 s f> z !y are free1 h1 s to speak1 sprung into be+ out ( ! void4 ,:at foll[s f su* a doctr9e8 ,li/53-- 7#a7 ,x foll[s t1 9 s f> z ,i am free1 ,i am n ! au?or ( :at appe> to be my acts2 :o c be ! cause ( causeless actions8 7#b7 ,x foll[s t no am\nt ( ef=t on my "p c prev5t ! appe>ance ( free acts ( ! mo/ deplorable k9d4 ,if "o c condition _! appe>ance or non-appe>ance1 !y are n free acts4 7#c7 ,x foll[s t !re is no reason to believe t !re w be any congruity betwe5 my "* & my free acts4 ,i may be a sa9t by nature1 & freely act l a sc\ndrel4 7#d7 ,x foll[s t ,i c des]ve no cr$it = free acts4 ,i am n _! au?or4 7#e7 ,x foll[s t1 9 s f> z ,i am free1 x is useless to praise me1 to blame me1 to puni% me1 to endeavor to p]suade me4 ,i mu/ be giv5 ov] to unacc\ntable sa9?ood or to a reprobate m9d1 z x happ5s to happ54 ,i am q beyond ! pale ( society1 = my neighbor _c influ5ce my free acts any m ?an ,i c4 7#f7 ,x foll[s t1 9 s f> z ,i am free1 ,i am 9 some?+ v l a /ate ( slav]y2 & yet1 curi\sly en\gh1 x is a slav]y )\t a ma/]4 ,9 ! old /ories ( ,fate1 m5 7 repres5t$ z puppets 9 ! h& ( a p[] outside !mselves4 ,"h ,i am a puppet 9 no h&2 b ,i am a puppet j ! same1 = ,i am ! passive spectator ( :at appe> to be my acts4 ,i d n d ! ?+s ,i seem to d4 ,!y are done = me or 9 me--or1 r1 !y are n done1 b j happ54 ,su* fre$om is a wret*$ ?+ to (f] to a man :o longs = fre$om2 = ! fre$om to act out 8 own impulses1 to guide 8 life accord+ to 8 own ideals4 ,x is a m]e trave/y on fre$om1 a fiction ( ! philosoph]s1 :i* inspires respect only s long z "o has n pi]c$ ! disguise ( its respectable "n4 ,true fre$om is n a ?+ to be s\ght 9 a disord]ly & *aotic _w1 9 a _w 9 :i* actions are inexplicable & "* does n c\nt4 ,let u r9se our m9ds free ( mislead+ v]bal associations1 & let u realize t a free-w neighbor w\ld c]ta9ly n be to u an object ( respect4 ,he w\ld be z (f5sive an object to h 9 our vic9ity z a free-w gun or a free-w pocketknife4 ,he w\ld n be a rational creature4 ,our only conc]n ne$ be = fre$om1 & ?is is 9 no dang] 9 an ord]ly _w4 ,we all recognize ?is tru?1 9 a way4 ,we hold t a man ( good "* freely *ooses ! good1 & a man ( evil "* freely *ooses evil4 ,is n ?is a recognition ( ! fact t ! *oice is a ?+ to be acc\nt$ =1 & is1 nev]!less1 a free *oice8 ,i h be5 consid]+ above ! _w z x is conceiv$ to be by ! p>alleli/1 b1 to ! read] :o may n incl9e t[>ds p>allelism1 ,i wi% to po9t out t ^! reason+s t\*+ ! fre$om ( ! w conc]n ! int]actioni/ j z closely4 ,!y h no necess>y connection ) p>allelism4 ,! int]actioni/1 z well z ! p>alleli/1 may be a det]m9i/1 a believ] 9 fre$om1 or he may be a free-willi/4 ,he reg>ds m5tal ph5om5a & physical ph5om5a z l9ks 9 ! "o *a9 ( causes & effects4 ,%all he hold t c]ta9 m5tal l9ks are free-w l9ks1 t !y are :olly unacc\ntable8 ,if he does1 all t has be5 said above ab\t ! free-willi/ applies to him4 ,he believes 9 a disord]ly _w1 & he %\ld accept ! consequ5ces ( 8 doctr9e4 #dg4 ,,! ,,physical ,,_w ,,& ,,! ,,moral ,,_w4--,i h said a little way back t1 :5 we ?9k ( bodies z hav+ m9ds1 we are introduc$ to a _w ( di/9ctions :i* h no place 9 ! realm ( ! m]ely physical4 ,"o ( ! objections made to ! ord]ly _w ( ! p>alleli/ 0 t 9 x !re is no room = ! activity ( m9ds4 ,be=e we pass judgm5t on ?is matt]1 we %\ld try to get "s cle> notion ( :at we may mean by ! ^w activity4 ,! sci5ce ( e?ics mu/ g by ! bo>d1 if we _c ?9k ( m5 z do+ any?+1 z act+ rightly or act+ wrongly4 ,let u conceive a billi>d ball 9 motion to come into collision ) "o at re/4 ,we commonly speak ( ! fir/ ball z active1 & ( ! second z ! passive subject ^u :i* x ex]cises its activity4 ,are we ju/ifi$ 9 ?us speak+8 ,9 "o s5se1 ( c\rse1 we are4 ,z ,i h sev]al times _h occasion to rem>k1 we are1 9 common life1 ju/ifi$ 9 us+ words r loosely1 provid$ t x is conv5i5t to d s1 & t x does n give rise to misund]/&+s4 ,b1 9 a /rict] s5se1 we are n ju/ifi$ 9 ?us speak+1 = 9 do+ s we are c>ry+ ov] into ! sph]e ( ! m]ely physical a di/9ction :i* does n prop]ly belong !re1 b has its place 9 ano!r realm4 ,! /ud5t ( me*anics tells u t ! second ball has affect$ ! fir/ q z mu* z ! fir/ has affect$ ! second4 ,we _c simply reg>d ! fir/ z cause & ! second z effect1 nor may we reg>d ! motion ( ! fir/ z cause & ! subsequ5t motion ( ! second z its effect alone4 ,! :ole situation at ! "o in/ant--bo? balls1 _! relative positions & _! motion & re/--mu/ be tak5 z ! cause ( ! :ole situation at ! next in/ant1 & 9 ?is :ole situation ! condition ( ! second ball has its place z well z t ( ! fir/4 ,if1 !n1 we insi/ t to h causal effici5cy is ! same ?+ z to be active1 we %\ld also admit t ! second ball 0 active1 & q z active z ! fir/4 ,x has c]ta9ly _h z mu* to d ) ! total result4 ,b x (f5ds u to speak ( x 9 ?is way4 ,we pref] to say t ! fir/ 0 active & ! second 0 act$ ^u4 ,:at is ! s\rce ( ?is di/9ction8 ,its orig9al s\rce is to be f\nd 9 ! judgm5ts we pass ^u consci\s be+s1 bodies ) m9ds2 & x c\ld nev] h be5 drawn if m5 _h n tak5 into consid]ation ! relations ( m9ds to ! *anges 9 ! physical _w4 ,z c>ri$ ov] to inanimate ?+s x is a transf]r$ di/9ction2 & its transf]5ce to ?is field is n /rictly ju/ifiable1 z has be5 indicat$ above4 ,i mu/ make ?is cle> by an illu/ration4 ,i hurry along a /reet t[>ds ! univ]sity1 because ! h\r = my lecture is approa*+4 ,i am /ruck d[n by a fall+ tile4 ,9 my advance up ! /reet ,i am reg>d$ z active2 9 my fall to ! gr\nd ,i am reg>d$ z passive4 ,n[1 look+ at bo? occurr5ces f ! purely physical po9t ( view1 we h no?+ be=e u b a s]ies ( *anges 9 ! space relations ( c]ta9 masses ( matt]2 & 9 all ^? *anges bo? my body & its environm5t are conc]n$4 ,z ,i advance1 my body _c be reg>d$ z ! sole cause ( ! *anges :i* are tak+ place4 ,my progress w\ld be impossible )\t ! aid ( ! gr\nd ^u :i* ,i tread4 ,nor c ,i accuse ! tile ( be+ ! sole cause ( my demolition4 ,_h ,i n be5 :at ,i 0 & :]e ,i 01 ! tile w\ld h fall5 9 va94 ,i mu/ be reg>d$ z a concurr5t cause ( my own disa/]1 & my unhappy /ate is attributable to me z truly z x is to ! tile4 ,:y1 !n1 am ,i 9 ! "o case reg>d$ z active & 9 ! o!r z passive8 ,9 ea* case ,i am a cause ( ! result4 ,h[ does x happ5 t1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 ,i seem to mo/ m5 to be ! cause1 & 9 ! second to be n a cause at all8 ,! rapidity ( my motion 9 ! fir/ in/ance _c acc\nt = ?is judgm5t4 ,he :o rides 9 ! police van & he :o is ?r[n f ! c> ( a balloon may move ) great rapidity & yet be reg>d$ z passive4 ,m5 speak z !y d because !y are n cont5t to po9t out ! physical antec$5ts ( ?is & t occurr5ce & /op ) t4 ,!y recognize t1 betwe5 my advance up ! /reet & my fall to ! gr\nd !re is "o v important diff]5ce4 ,9 ! fir/ case :at is happ5+ may be ref]r$ to an idea 9 my m9d4 ,7 ! idea n !re1 ,i %\ld n d :at ,i am do+4 ,9 ! second case1 :at has happ5$ _c be ref]r$ to an idea 9 my m9d4 ,"h we h come to ! recognition t !re are su* ?+s z purposes & ends2 t an idea & "s *ange 9 ! ext]nal _w may be relat$ z plan & accompli%m5t4 ,9 o!r words1 we h be5 br\ght face to face ) :at has be5 giv5 ! some:at mislead+ "n ( f9al cause4 ,9 s f> z t 9 ! br++ ab\t ( :i* ,i h _h a %>e is my end1 ,i am active2 9 s f> z x is n my end1 b comes ^u me z some?+ n plann$1 ,i am passive4 ,! enorm\s importance ( ! di/9ction may readily be se52 x is only 9 s f> z ,i am a creature :o c h purposes1 t desire & w1 =esight & prud5ce1 "r & wrong1 c h a significance = me4 ,i h dwelt ^u ! mean+ ( ! words activity & passivity1 & h be5 at pa9s to di/+ui% !m f cause & effect1 because ! two pairs ( t]ms h (t5 be5 conf\nd$ ) ea* o!r1 & ?is confusion has giv5 rise to a peculi>ly un=tunate error4 ,x is ?is error t lies at ! f\ndation ( ! objection ref]r$ to at ! beg9n+ ( ?is section4 ,we h se5 t c]ta9 m5 ( sci5ce are incl9$ to look ^u ! physical _w z a great sy/em1 all ! *anges 9 :i* may be acc\nt$ = by an appeal to physical causes4 ,& we h se5 t ! p>alleli/ reg>ds ideas1 n z l9ks 9 ?is *a91 b z p>allel ) physical *anges4 ,x is argu$ by "s t1 if ?is is a true view ( ?+s1 we mu/ embrace ! conclusion t ! m9d _c be active at all1 t x c accompli% no?+4 ,we mu/ look ^u ! m9d z an epiph5om5on1 a useless decoration2 & mu/ reg>d man z a physical automaton ) p>allel psy*ical /ates4 ,su* abuse ( "o's fell[-man seems un*ri/ian1 & x is :olly uncall$ = on any hypo!sis4 ,our fir/ answ] to x is t x seems to be suffici5tly refut$ by ! exp]i5ces ( common life4 ,we h abundant evid5ce t m5's m9ds d c\nt = some?+4 ,i conclude t ,i want a coat1 & ,i ord] "o ( my tailor2 he believes t ,i w pay = x1 he wants ! money1 & he makes ! coat2 8 man desires to e>n 8 wages & he deliv]s x4 ,if ,i _h n want$ ! coat1 if ! tailor _h n want$ my money1 if ! man _h n want$ to e>n 8 wages1 ! end w\ld n h be5 atta9$4 ,no philosoph] has ! "r to d5y ^! facts4 ,ah6 b1 x may be answ]$1 ^! ?ree wants are n suppos$ to be ! causes ( ! motions 9 matt] :i* result 9 my appe>+ well-dress$ on ,sunday4 ,!y are only concomitant ph5om5a4 ,to ?is ,i reply3 ,:at ( t8 ,we mu/ n =get :at is meant by su* concomitance 7section #ci74 ,we are deal+ ) a fix$ & necess>y relation1 n ) an accid5tal "o4 ,if ^! wants _h be5 lack+1 !re w\ld h be5 no coat4 ,s my second answ] to ! objector is1 t1 on ! hypo!sis ( ! p>alleli/1 ! relations betwe5 m5tal ph5om5a & physical ph5om5a are j z dep5dable z t relation betwe5 physical ph5om5a :i* we call t ( cause & effect4 ,moreov]1 s9ce activity & causality are n ! same ?+1 !re is no gr\nd = ass]t+ t ! m9d _c be active1 m]ely because x is n mat]ial &1 h5ce1 _c be1 /rictly speak+1 a cause ( motions 9 matt]4 ,! pla9 man is entirely 9 ! "r 9 ?9k+ t m9ds are active4 ,! tru? is t no?+ c be active except z x has a m9d4 ,! relation ( purpose & end is ! "o we h 9 view :5 we speak ( ! activity ( m9ds4 ,x is1 ?us1 highly unju/ to a man to tell him t he is a physical automaton ) p>allel psy*ical /ates1 & t he is w\nd up by putt+ food into 8 m\?4 ,he :o he>s ?is may be excus$ if he feels x 8 duty to emit /eam1 walk ) a j]k1 & repudiate all responsibility = 8 actions4 ,creatures t ?9k1 =m plans1 & act1 are n :at we call automata4 ,x is an abuse ( language to call !m su*1 & x misleads u into look+ ^u !m z we h no "r to look ^u !m4 ,if m5 really 7 automata 9 ! prop] s5se ( ! ^w1 we c\ld n look ^u !m z wise or unwise1 good or bad2 9 %ort1 ! :ole _w ( moral di/9ctions w\ld vani%4 ,p]haps1 9 spite ( all t has be5 said 9 ?is & 9 ! prec$+ section1 "s w feel a c]ta9 repugnance to be+ assign$ a place 9 a _w z ord]ly z our _w is 9 ?is *apt] conceiv$ to be--a _w 9 :i* e ph5om5on1 :e!r physical or m5tal1 has its def9ite place1 & all are subject to law4 ,b ,i suppose our cont5t or discont5t w n be indep5d5t ( our conception ( :at sort ( a _w we conceive ourselves to be inhabit+4 ,if we conclude t we are 9 a _w 9 :i* ,god is reveal$1 if ! ord]l9ess ( x is b ano!r "n = ,div9e ,provid5ce1 we c sc>cely feel ! same z we w\ld if we discov]$ 9 ! _w no?+ ( ! ,div9e4 ,i h 9 ! la/ few pages be5 discuss+ ! doctr9e ( purposes & ends1 teleology1 b ,i h said no?+ ( ! significance ( t doctr9e = ,!ism4 ,! read] c easily see t x lies at ! v f\ndation ( our belief 9 ,god4 ,! only argum5ts = !ism t h _h mu* weight ) mank9d h be5 ^? :i* h ma9ta9$ !re are reveal$ 9 ! _w g5]ally evid5ces ( a plan & purpose at lea/ analog\s to :at we discov] :5 we scrut9ize ! actions ( our fell[-man4 ,su* argum5ts are n at ! m]cy ( ei!r int]actioni/ or p>alleli/4 ,on ei!r hypo!sis !y /& un%ak54 ,) ?is brief survey ( "s ( ! mo/ int]e/+ problems t confront ! philosoph]1 ,i mu/ cont5t myself "h4 ,n[ let u turn & see h[ "s ( ! fundam5tal problems treat$ 9 previ\s *apt]s h be5 approa*$ by m5 belong+ to c]ta9 well-recogniz$ s*ools ( ?\ght4 ,& s9ce x is peculi>ly true 9 philosophy t1 to und]/& ! pres5t1 "o mu/ "k some?+ ( ! pa/1 we %all beg9 by tak+ a look at ! hi/orical backgr\nd ( ! types ( philosophical doctr9e to :i* ref]5ce is con/antly made 9 ! books & j\rnals ( ! day4 #a ,o/wald1 ,vorlesung5 b] ,naturphilosophie1 s4 #cif4 ,leipzig1 #aijb4 ,,iv4 ,,"s ,,types ,,( ,,philosophical ,,!ory ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,_! ,,hi/orical ,,backgr\nd #dh4 ,,! ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,repres5tative ,,p]ception4--,we h se5 9 ,*apt] ,,ii t x seems to ! pla9 man abundantly evid5t t he really is surr\nd$ by mat]ial ?+s & t he directly p]ceives su* ?+s4 ,?is has always be5 ! op9ion ( ! pla9 man & x seems probable t x always w be4 ,x is only :5 he beg9s to reflect ^u ?+s & ^u 8 k ( !m t x occurs to him to call x 9 "q4 ,v e>ly 9 ! hi/ory ( speculative ?\ght x occurr$ to m51 h[ev]1 to ask h[ x is t we "k ?+s1 & :e!r we are sure we d "k !m4 ,! problems ( reflection />t$ into life1 & v>i\s solutions 7 sugge/$4 ,to tell ov] ! :ole li/ w\ld take u f> afield1 & we ne$ n1 = ! purpose we h 9 view1 g back f>!r ?an ,desc>tes1 ) :om philosophy took a relatively new />t1 & may be said to h become1 9 _s & me?od1 at lea/1 mod]n4 ,i h said 7section #ca7 t ,desc>tes 7#aeif-afej7 0 fairly well acqua9t$ ) ! function+ ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 & has mu* to say ( ! messages :i* pass along ! n]ves to ! bra94 ,! same sort ( reason+ t leads ! mod]n psy*ologi/ to ma9ta9 t we "k only s mu* ( ! ext]nal _w z is reflect$ 9 our s5sations l$ him to ma9ta9 t ! m9d is directly aw>e ( ! ideas ?r\gh :i* an ext]nal _w is repres5t$1 b c "k ! _w itself only indirectly & ?r\gh ^! ideas4 ,desc>tes 0 put to sore /raits to prove ! exi/5ce ( an ext]nal _w1 :5 he _h once ?us plac$ x at "o remove f u4 ,if we accept 8 doctr9e1 we seem to be %ut up )9 ! circle ( our ideas1 & c f9d no door t w lead u to a _w outside4 ,! "q w keep com+ back3 ,h[ d we "k t1 correspond+ to our ideas1 !re are mat]ial ?+s1 if we h nev] p]ceiv$1 9 any s+le in/ance1 a mat]ial ?+8 ,& ! d\bt "h sugge/$ may be re9=c$ by ! reflection t ! v expression a mat]ial ?+ ought to be mean+less to a man :o1 hav+ nev] _h exp]i5ce ( "o1 is compell$ to repres5t x by ! aid ( some?+ s diff]5t f x z ideas are suppos$ to be4 ,c mat]ial ?+s really be to su* a creature any?+ m ?an "s complex ( ideas8 ,! difficulties pres5t$ by any philosophical doctr9e are n always evid5t at once4 ,desc>tes made no scruple ( accept+ ! exi/5ce ( an ext]nal _w1 & 8 example has be5 foll[$ by a v l>ge numb] ( ^? :o agree ) 8 initial assumption t ! m9d kn[s imm$iately only its own ideas4 ,prem95t among su* we mu/ reg>d ,john ,locke1 ! ,engli% philosoph] 7#afcb-agjd71 ^: classic "w1 ,an ,essay conc]n+ ,human ,und]/&+1 %\ld n be :olly unkn[n to any "o :o pret5ds to an int]e/ 9 ! ,engli% lit]ature4 ,admirably does ,locke repres5t ! position ( :at v _m h reg>d$ z ! prud5t & s5sible man1--! man :o recognizes t ideas are n ext]nal ?+s1 & t ?+s mu/ be kn[n ?r\gh ideas1 & yet holds on to ! exi/5ce ( a mat]ial _w :i* we assur$ly "k4 ,he recognizes1 x is true1 t "s "o may f9d a possible op5+ = ! expression ( a d\bt1 b he reg>ds ! d\bt z gratuit\s2 ,i ?9k nobody c1 9 e>ne/1 be s skeptical z to be unc]ta9 ( ! exi/5ce ( ^? ?+s :i* he sees & feels4 ,z we h se5 7section #ab71 he meets ! d\bt ) a je/4 ,nev]!less1 ^? :o read ) att5tion ,locke's admirably cle> pages mu/ notice t he does n succe$ 9 really sett+ to re/ ! d\bt t has sugge/$ itself4 ,x becomes cle> t ,locke felt s sure ( ! exi/5ce ( ! ext]nal _w because he n[ & !n slipp$ into ! inconsi/5t doctr9e t he p]ceiv$ x imm$iately1 & n m]ely ?r\gh 8 ideas4 ,are ^? ?+s :i* he sees & feels ext]nal ?+s8 ,does he see & feel !m directly1 or mu/ he inf] f 8 ideas t he sees & feels !m8 ,if ! latt]1 :y may "o n /ill d\bt8 ,evid5tly ! appeal is to a direct exp]i5ce ( mat]ial ?+s1 & ,locke has =gott5 t he mu/ be a ,lockian4 ,i h (t5 rem>k$1 9 _m in/ances1 writes ,desc>tes1 t !re is a great diff]5ce betwe5 an object & its idea4 ,h[ c\ld ! man possibly h rem>k$ ?is1 :5 he _h nev] 9 8 life p]ceiv$ ! object correspond+ to any idea1 b _h be5 altoge!r %ut up to ideas8 ,?us ,i see1 :il/ ,i write ?is1 says ,locke1#a ,i c *ange ! appe>ance ( ! pap]1 & by design+ ! lett]s tell be=eh& :at new idea x %all exhibit ! v next mom5t1 by b>ely draw+ my p5 ov] x1 :i* w nei!r appe> 7let me fancy z mu* z ,i w71 if my h& /&s /ill1 or ?\gh ,i move my p51 if my eyes be %ut2 nor1 :5 ^? *>act]s are once made on ! pap]1 c ,i *oose aft]w>d b see !m z !y are2 t is1 h ! ideas ( su* lett]s z ,i h made4 ,:5ce x is manife/1 t !y are n b>ely ! sport & play ( my own imag9ation1 :5 ,i f9d t ! *>act]s t 7 made at ! pleasure ( my own ?\ght d n obey !m2 nor yet cease to be1 :5ev] ,i %all fancy x2 b cont9ue to affect ! s5ses con/antly & regul>ly1 accord+ to ! figures ,i made !m4 ,locke is z bad z ,desc>tes4 ,evid5tly he reg>ds himself z able to turn to ! ext]nal _w & p]ceive ! relation t ?+s hold to ideas4 ,su* an inconsi/5cy may escape ! writ] :o has be5 guilty ( x1 b x is n likely to escape ! notice ( all ^? :o come aft] him4 ,"s "o is sure to draw ! consequ5ces ( a doctr9e m rigor\sly1 & to come to conclusions1 x may be1 v unpalatable to ! man :o prop\nd$ ! doctr9e 9 ! fir/ in/ance4 ,! type ( doctr9e repres5t$ by ,desc>tes & ,locke is t ( ,repres5tative ,p]ception4 ,x holds t we "k real ext]nal ?+s only ?r\gh _! m5tal repres5tatives4 ,x has also be5 call$ ,hypo!tical ,realism1 because x accepts ! exi/5ce ( a real _w1 b bases our k ( x ^u an inf]5ce f our s5sations or ideas4 #di4 ,,! ,,/ep ,,to ,,idealism4--,! admirable cle>ness ) :i* ,locke writes makes x ! easi] = 8 read] to detect ! unt5ability ( 8 position4 ,he uses simple language1 & he nev] takes refuge 9 vague & ambigu\s phrases4 ,:5 he tells u t ! m9d is :olly %ut up to its ideas1 & !n lat] assumes t x is n %ut up to its ideas1 b c p]ceive ext]nal ?+s1 we see pla9ly t !re mu/ be a blund] some:]e4 ,george ,b]keley 7#afhd-agec71 ,bi%op ( ,cloyne1 foll[$ out m rigor\sly ! consequ5ces to be d$uc$ f ! assumption t all our direct k is ( ideas2 & 9 a y\?ful "w ( ! highe/ g5ius entitl$ ,! ,pr9ciples ( ,human ,k1 he ma9ta9$ t !re is no mat]ial _w at all4 ,:5 we exam9e ) c>e ! objects ( s5se1 ! ?+s :i* pres5t !mselves to u1 he argues1 we f9d t !y resolve !mselves into s5sations1 or ideas ( s5se4 ,:at c we mean by ! ^w apple1 if we d n mean ! gr\p ( exp]i5ces 9 :i* alone an apple is pres5t$ to u8 ,! ^w is no?+ else ?an a "n = ?is gr\p z a gr\p4 ,take away ! color1 ! h>dness1 ! odor1 ! ta/e2 :at h we left8 ,& color1 h>dness1 odor1 ta/e1 & any?+ else t may be ref]r$ to any object z a quality1 c exi/1 he claims1 only 9 a p]ceiv+ m9d2 = su* ?+s are no?+ else ?an s5sations1 & h[ c !re be an unp]ceiv$ s5sation8 ,! ?+s :i* we p]ceive1 !n1 he calls complexes ( ideas4 ,h we any reason to believe t ^! ideas1 :i* exi/ 9 ! m9d1 are to be accept$ z repres5tatives ( ?+s ( a diff]5t k9d1 :i* are n m5tal at all8 ,n a %ad[ ( a reason1 says ,b]keley2 !re is simply no basis = inf]5ce at all1 & we _c ev5 make cle> :at x is t we are sett+ out to inf] "u ! "n ( matt]4 ,we ne$ n1 !re=e1 grieve ov] ! loss ( ! mat]ial _w1 = we h suff]$ no loss2 "o _c lose :at "o has nev] _h4 ,?us1 ! objects ( human k1 ! only ?+s ( :i* x means any?+ to speak1 are3 7#a7 ,ideas ( ,s5se2 7#b7 ,ideas ( ,memory & ,imag9ation2 7#c7 ,! ,passions & ,op]ations ( ! ,m9d2 & 7#d7 ,! ,self t p]ceives all ,^!4 ,f ,locke's position to t ( ,b]keley 0 a bold /ep1 & x 0 mu* criticis$1 z well x might be4 ,x 0 felt !n1 z x has be5 felt by _m d[n to our own "t1 t1 :5 we disc>d an ext]nal _w di/9ct f our ideas1 & admit only ! _w reveal$ 9 our ideas1 we really d lose4 ,x is legitimate to criticise ,b]keley1 b x is n legitimate to misund]/& him2 & yet ! hi/ory ( 8 doctr9e may almo/ be call$ a *ronicle ( misconceptions4 ,x has be5 assum$ t he drew no di/9ction betwe5 real ?+s & imag9>y ?+s1 t he made ! _w no bett] ?an a dream1 etc4 ,arbu?not1 ,swift1 & a ho/ ( ! great] & less] lights 9 lit]ature1 f 8 "t to ours1 h made m]ry ov] ! suppos$ unrealities 9 ! mid/ ( :i* ! ,b]keleian mu/ live4 ,b x %\ld be rememb]$ t ,b]keley tri$ h>d to d full ju/ice to ! _w ( ?+s 9 :i* we actually f9d ourselves2 n a hypo!tical1 inf]r$1 unp]ceiv$ _w1 b ! _w ( ! ?+s we actually p]ceive4 ,he di/+ui%$ c>efully betwe5 :at is real & :at is m]ely imag9>y1 ?\gh he call$ bo? ideas2 & he recogniz$ some?+ l a sy/em ( nature4 ,&1 by ! argum5t f analogy :i* we h already exam9$ 7section #da71 he inf]r$ ! exi/5ce ( o!r f9ite m9ds & ( a ,div9e ,m9d4 ,b j z ,john ,locke _h n completely ?\ght out ! consequ5ces :i* might be d$uc$ f 8 own doctr9es1 s ,b]keley left1 9 8 turn1 an op5+ = a successor4 ,x 0 possible = t acute/ ( analy/s1 ,david ,hume 7#agaa-aggf71 to treat him some:at z he _h treat$ ,locke4 ,among ! objects ( human k ,b]keley _h includ$ ! self t p]ceives ?+s4 ,he nev] succe$$ 9 mak+ at all cle> :at he meant by ?is object2 b he reg>d$ x z a sub/ance1 & believ$ x to be a cause ( *anges 9 ideas1 & q diff]5t 9 its nature f all ! ideas attribut$ to x4 ,b ,hume ma9ta9$ t :5 he tri$ to get a good look at ?is self1 to cat* x1 s to speak1 & to hold x up to inspection1 he c\ld n f9d any?+ :atev] save p]ceptions1 memories1 & o!r ?+s ( t k9d4 ,! self is1 he said1 b a bundle or collection ( diff]5t p]ceptions :i* succe$ ea* o!r ) inconceivable rapidity1 & are 9 a p]petual flux & movem5t4 ,z = ! objects ( s5se1 our own bodies1 ! *airs ^u :i* we sit1 ! tables at :i* we write1 & all ! re/--^!1 argues ,hume1 we are impell$ by nature to ?9k ( z exi/+ cont9u\sly1 b we h no evid5ce :atev] to prove t !y d ?us exi/4 ,are n ! objects ( s5se1 aft] all1 only s5sations or impressions8 ,d we n exp]i5ce ^! s5sations or impressions int]rupt$ly8 ,:o sees or feels a table cont9u\sly day aft] day8 ,if ! table is b a "n = ! exp]i5ces 9 "q1 if we h no "r to inf] mat]ial ?+s beh9d & di/9ct f su* exp]i5ces1 are we n =c$ to conclude t ! exi/5ce ( ! ?+s t we see & feel is an int]rupt$ "o8 ,hume c]ta9ly succe$$ 9 rais+ m que/ions ?an he succe$$ 9 answ]+4 ,we are compell$ to admire ! wond]ful cle>ness & simplicity ( 8 /yle1 & ! acut5ess ( 8 intellect1 9 e *apt]4 ,b we _c help feel+ t he does inju/ice to ! _w 9 :i* we live1 ev5 :5 we _c q see :at is wrong4 ,does x n seem c]ta9 to sci5ce & to common s5se t !re is an ord] ( nature 9 "s s5se indep5d5t ( our p]ceptions1 s t objects may be assum$ to exi/ :e!r we d or d n p]ceive !m8 ,:5 we read ,hume we h a s5se t we are robb$ ( our real ext]nal _w2 & 8 acc\nt ( ! m9d makes u feel z a badly ti$ %eaf ( :eat may be conceiv$ to feel--9 dang] ( fall+ ap>t at any mom5t4 ,b]keley we unhesitat+ly call an ,ideali/1 b :e!r we %all apply ! "n to ,hume dep5ds ^u ! ext5sion we are will+ to give to x4 ,8 _w is a _w ( :at we may broadly call ideas2 b ! t5d5cies ( 8 philosophy h l$ "s to call x a ,skepticism4 #ej4 ,,! ,,revolt ,,( ,,common ,,s5se4--,hume's reason+s 7 too important to be ignor$1 & 8 conclusions too unpalatable to satisfy ^? :o came aft] him4 ,x seem$ necess>y to seek a way ( escape out ( ?is _w ( m]e ideas1 :i* appe>$ to be s unsatisfactory a _w4 ,"o ( ! mo/ fam\s ( su* attempts 0 t made by ! ,scot*man ,?omas ,reid 7#agaj-agif74 ,at "o "t ,reid reg>d$ himself z ! disciple ( ,b]keley1 b ! consequ5ces :i* ,hume d$uc$ f ! pr9ciples laid d[n by ! =m] l$ ,reid to feel t he mu/ build ^u "s :olly diff]5t f\ndation4 ,he came to ! conclusion t ! l9e ( philosoph]s f ,desc>tes to ,hume _h made "o capital error 9 assum+ t no?+ is p]ceiv$ b :at is 9 ! m9d t p]ceives x4 ,once admit1 says ,reid1 t ! m9d p]ceives no?+ save ideas1 & we mu/ also admit t x is impossible to prove ! exi/5ce ei!r ( an ext]nal _w or ( a m9d diff]5t f a bundle ( p]ceptions4 ,h5ce1 ,reid ma9ta9s t we p]ceive--n inf]1 b p]ceive--?+s ext]nal to ! m9d4 ,he writes3#b-- ,let a man press 8 h& aga9/ ! table--he feels x h>d4 ,b :at is ! mean+ ( ?is8 ,! mean+ und\bt$ly is1 t he ha? a c]ta9 feel+ ( t\*1 f :i* he concludes1 )\t any reason+1 or comp>+ ideas1 t !re is some?+ ext]nal really exi/+1 ^: p>ts /ick s firmly toge!r t !y _c be displac$ )\t consid]able =ce4 ,!re is "h a feel+1 & a conclusion drawn f x1 or "s way sugge/$ by x4 ,9 ord] to comp>e ^!1 we mu/ view !m sep>ately1 & !n consid] by :at tie !y are connect$1 & :]e9 !y resemble "o ano!r4 ,! h>dness ( ! table is ! conclusion1 ! feel+ is ! m$ium by :i* we are l$ to t conclusion4 ,let a man att5d di/9ctly to ?is m$ium1 & to ! conclusion1 & he w p]ceive !m to be z unlike z any two ?+s 9 nature4 ,! "o is a s5sation ( ! m9d1 :i* c h no exi/5ce b 9 a s5ti5t be+2 nor c x exi/ "o mom5t long] ?an x is felt2 ! o!r is 9 ! table1 & we conclude1 )\t any difficulty1 t x 0 9 ! table be=e x 0 felt1 & cont9ues aft] ! feel+ is ov]4 ,! "o implies no k9d ( ext5sion1 nor p>ts1 nor cohesion2 ! o!r implies all ^!4 ,bo?1 inde$1 admit ( degrees1 & ! feel+1 beyond a c]ta9 degree1 is a species ( pa92 b adamant9e h>dness does n imply ! lea/ pa94 ,& z ! feel+ ha? no similitude to h>dness1 s nei!r c our reason p]ceive ! lea/ tie or connection betwe5 !m2 nor w ! logician ev] be able to %[ a reason :y we %\ld conclude h>dness f ?is feel+1 r ?an s(tness1 or any o!r quality :atsoev]4 ,b1 9 reality1 all mank9d are l$ by _! con/itution to conclude h>dness f ?is feel+4 ,x is well wor? :ile to read ?is extract sev]al times1 & to ask oneself :at ,reid meant to say1 & :at he actually said4 ,he is object+1 be x rememb]$1 to ! doctr9e t ! m9d p]ceives imm$iately only its own ideas or s5sations & mu/ inf] all else4 ,8 cont5tion is t we p]ceive ext]nal ?+s4 ,does he say ?is8 ,he says t we h feel+s ( t\* f :i* we conclude t !re is some?+ ext]nal2 t !re is a feel+1 & a conclusion drawn f x1 or "s way sugge/$ by x2 t ! h>dness ( ! table is ! conclusion1 & ! feel+ is ! m$ium by :i* we are l$ to ! conclusion4 ,c\ld ,desc>tes or ,locke h m pla9ly support$ ! doctr9e ( repres5tative p]ception8 ,h[ c\ld ,reid imag9e he 0 combatt+ t doctr9e :5 he wrote ?us8 ,! po9t 9 :i* he diff]s f !m is ?is3 he ma9ta9s t we draw ! conclusion 9 "q )\t any reason+1 &1 inde$1 9 ! abs5ce ( any conceivable reason :y we %\ld draw x4 ,we d x in/9ctively2 we are l$ by ! con/itution ( our nature4 ,9 effect ,reid says to u3 ,:5 y lay y\r h& on ! table1 y h a s5sation1 x is true1 b y also "k ! table is h>d4 ,h[ d y "k x8 ,i _c tell y2 y simply "k x1 & _c help kn[+ x2 & t is ! end ( ! matt]4 ,reid's doctr9e 0 n )\t its effect ^u o!r philosoph]s4 ,among !m we mu/ place ,sir ,william ,hamilton 7#aghh-ahef71 ^: writ+s _h no little influ5ce ^u ,briti% philosophy 9 ! la/ half ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,hamilton compla9$ t ,reid did n succe$ 9 be+ a v good ,natural ,reali/1 & t he slipp$ unconsci\sly into ! position he 0 conc]n$ to condemn4 ,sir ,william tri$ to elim9ate ?is error1 b ! c>eful read] ( 8 works w f9d to 8 amusem5t t ?is le>n$ au?or gets 8 feet ^u ! same slipp]y desc5t4 ,& mu* ! same ?+ may be said ( ! doctr9e ( ,h]b]t ,sp5c] 7#ahbj-aijc71 :o claims t1 :5 we h a s5sation1 we "k directly t !re is an ext]nal ?+1 & !n manages to sublimate t ext]nal ?+ into an ,unkn[able1 :i* we n only d n "k directly1 b ev5 d n "k at all4 ,all ( ^! m5 7 anxi\s to avoid :at !y reg>d$ z ! p]ils ( ,idealism1 & yet !y seem q unable to reta9 a foo?old ^u ! position :i* !y consid] ! saf] "o4 ,reid call$ 8 doctr9e ! philosophy ( ,common ,s5se1 & he ?\ght he 0 com+ back f ! subtleties ( ! metaphysicians to ! /&po9t ( ! pla9 man4 ,t he %\ld fall into difficulties & inconsi/5cies is by no means surpris+4 ,z we h se5 7section #ab71 ! ?\ght ( ! pla9 man is f> f cle>4 ,he c]ta9ly believes t we p]ceive an ext]nal _w ( ?+s1 & ! inconsi/5t way 9 :i* ,desc>tes & ,locke appeal f ideas to ! ?+s !mselves does n /rike him z unnatural4 ,:y %\ld n a man te/ 8 ideas by turn+ to ?+s & comp>+ ! =m] ) ! latt]8 ,on ! o!r h&1 he kn[s t to p]ceive ?+s we mu/ h s5se organs & s5sations1 & he _c qu>rel ) ! psy*ologi/s = say+ t we "k ?+s only 9 s f> z !y are reveal$ to u ?r\gh our s5sations4 ,h[ does he reconcile ^! two positions8 ,he does n reconcile !m4 ,he accepts !m z !y /&4 ,reid & v>i\s o!r philosoph]s h tri$ to come back to ,common ,s5se & to /ay !re4 ,n[1 x is a good position to come back to = ! purpose ( />t+ out aga94 ,! exp]i5ce ( ! pla9 man1 ! tru?s :i* he recognizes z tru?s1 ^! are n ?+s to be despis$4 ,_m a man ^: m9d has be51 z ,b]keley expresses x1 debau*$ by le>n+1 has gott5 away f !m to 8 detrim5t1 & has said v unreasonable ?+s4 ,b ,common ,s5se _c be ! ultimate refuge ( ! philosoph]2 x c only s]ve him z mat]ial = inve/igation4 ,! s*ol> ^: ?\ght is z vague & inconsi/5t z t ( ! pla9 man has little pr(it 9 ! fact t ! app>atus ( 8 le>n+ has made x possible = him to be pond]\sly & un9telligibly vague & inconsi/5t4 ,h5ce1 we may h ! utmo/ sympa?y ) ,reid's prote/ aga9/ ! doctr9e ( repres5tative p]ception1 & we may1 nev]!less1 compla9 t he has done little to expla9 h[ x is t we directly "k ext]nal ?+s & yet _c be said to "k ?+s except 9 s f> z we h s5sations or ideas4 #ea4 ,,! ,,critical ,,philosophy4--,! ,g]man philosoph]1 ,immanuel ,kant 7#agbd-ahjd71 0 mov$1 by ! skeptical conclusions to :i* ,hume's philosophy seem$ to lead1 to seek a way ( escape1 some:at z ,reid 04 ,b he did n take refuge 9 ,common ,s5se2 he develop$ an +5i\s doctr9e :i* has _h an enorm\s influ5ce 9 ! philosophical _w1 & has giv5 rise to a ,kantian lit]ature ( su* proportions t no man c hope to read all ( x1 ev5 if he devotes 8 life to x4 ,9 ,g]many & out ( x1 x has = a hundr$ ye>s & m simply ra9$ books1 pamphlets1 & articles on ,kant & 8 philosophy1 "s ( !m good1 _m ( !m f> f cle> & f> f orig9al4 ,hundr$s ( ,g]man univ]sity /ud5ts h tak5 ,kant z ! subject ( ! diss]tation by :i* !y hop$ to w9 ! degree ( ,doctor ( ,philosophy2--,i 0 lately (f]$ two hundr$ & sev5ty-f\r su* diss]tations 9 "o bun*2--& no /ud5t is suppos$ to h ev5 a mod]ate k ( philosophy :o has n an acqua9tance ) t fam\s "w1 ! ,critique ( ,pure ,reason4 ,x is to be expect$ f ! outset t1 :]e s _m h f\nd s mu* to say1 !re %\ld reign abundant diff]5ces ( op9ion4 ,!re are diff]5ces ( op9ion t\*+ ! int]pretation ( ,kant1 & t\*+ ! criticisms :i* may be made ^u1 & ! developm5t :i* %\ld be giv5 to1 8 doctr9e4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 impossible to g into all ^! ?+s "h2 & ,i %all d no m ?an indicate1 9 unte*nical language & 9 briefe/ outl9e1 :at he (f]s u 9 place ( ! philosophy ( ,hume4 ,kant did n try to refute1 z did ,reid1 ! doctr9e1 urg$ by ,desc>tes & by 8 successors1 t all ^? ?+s :i* ! m9d directly p]ceives are to be reg>d$ z complexes ( ideas4 ,on ! contr>y1 he accept$ x1 & he has made ! words ph5om5on & n\m5on h\sehold words 9 philosophy4 ,! _w :i* seems to be spread out be=e u 9 space & "t is1 he tells u1 a _w ( ?+s z !y are reveal$ to our s5ses & our intellig5ce2 x is a _w ( manife/ations1 ( ph5om5a4 ,:at ?+s-9-!mselves are l we h no means ( kn[+2 we "k only ?+s z !y appe> to u4 ,we may1 to be sure1 talk ( a some?+ di/9ct f ph5om5a1 a some?+ n reveal$ to ! s5ses1 b ?\ght (1 a n\m5on2 b we %\ld n =get t ?is is a negative conception2 !re is no?+ 9 our exp]i5ce t c give x a fill+1 = our exp]i5ce is only ( ph5om5a4 ,! read] w f9d an unmi/akable e*o ( ?is doctr9e 9 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]'s doctr9e ( ! ,unkn[able & its manife/ations4 ,n[1 ,b]keley _h call$ all ! ?+s we imm$iately p]ceive ideas4 ,z we h se51 he di/+ui%$ betwe5 ideas ( s5se & ideas ( memory & imag9ation4 ,hume pref]r$ to give to ^! two classes diff]5t names--he call$ ! fir/ impressions & ! second ideas4 ,! associations ( ! ^w impression are n to be mi/ak54 ,locke _h taught t betwe5 ideas 9 ! memory & g5u9e s5sations !re is ! diff]5ce t ! latt] are due to ! brisk act+ ( objects )\t u4 ,objects impress u1 & we h s5sations or impressions4 ,to be sure1 ,hume1 aft] employ+ ! ^w impression1 goes on to argue t we h no evid5ce t !re are ext]nal objects1 :i* cause impressions4 ,b he reta9s ! ^w impression1 nev]!less1 & 8 use ( x p]ceptibly colors 8 ?\ght4 ,9 ,kant's di/9ction betwe5 ph5om5a & n\m5a we h ! l9eal desc5dant ( ! old di/9ction betwe5 ! circle ( our ideas & ! some?+ outside ( !m t causes !m & ( :i* !y are suppos$ to give in=mation4 ,hume said we h no reason to believe su* a ?+ exi/s1 b are impell$ by our nature to believe 9 x4 ,kant is n s mu* conc]n$ to prove ! nonexi/5ce ( n\m5a1 ?+s-9-!mselves1 z he is to prove t ! v conception is an empty "o4 ,8 reason+s seem to result 9 ! conclusion t we c make no intelligible /atem5t ab\t ?+s s cut (f f our exp]i5ce z n\m5a are suppos$ to be2 & "o w\ld imag9e t he w\ld h felt impell$ to g on to ! frank decl>ation t we h no reason to believe 9 n\m5a at all1 & _h bett] ?r[ away altoge!r s mean+less & useless a notion4 ,b he 0 a cons]vative creature1 & he did n g q s f>4 ,s f> !re is little *oice betwe5 ,kant & ,hume4 ,c]ta9ly ! =m] does n appe> to h rehabilitat$ ! ext]nal _w :i* _h suff]$ f ! assaults ( 8 pr$ecessors4 ,:at important diff]5ce is !re betwe5 8 doctr9e & t ( ! man ^: skeptical t5d5cies he wi%$ to combat8 ,! diff]5ce is ?is3 ,desc>tes & ,locke _h acc\nt$ = our k ( ?+s by ma9ta9+ t ?+s act ^u u1 & make an impression or s5sation--t _! action1 s to speak1 begets ideas4 ,?is is a v anci5t doctr9e z well z a v mod]n "o2 x is ! doctr9e t mo/ m5 f9d reasonable ev5 be=e !y devote !mselves to ! /udy ( philosophy4 ,! totality ( su* impressions receiv$ f ! ext]nal _w1 !y are accu/om$ to reg>d z our exp]i5ce ( ext]nal ?+s2 & !y are incl9$ to ?9k t any k ( ext]nal ?+s n f\nd$ ^u exp]i5ce c h>dly des]ve ! "n ( k4 ,n[1 ,hume1 :5 he ca/ d\bt ^u ! exi/5ce ( ext]nal ?+s1 did n1 z ,i h said above1 dive/ himself ( ! sugge/ions ( ! ^w impression4 ,he insi/s /r5u\sly t all our k is f\nd$ ^u exp]i5ce2 & he holds t no exp]i5ce c give u k t is necess>y & univ]sal4 ,we "k ?+s z !y are reveal$ to u 9 our exp]i5ce2 b :o c gu>antee t we may n h new exp]i5ces ( a q diff]5t k9d1 & :i* flatly contradict ! notions :i* we h s f> atta9$ ( :at is possible & impossible1 true & untrue4 ,x is "h t ,kant takes issue ) ,hume4 ,a survey ( our k makes cle>1 he ?9ks1 t we are 9 ! possession ( a great deal ( in=mation t is n ( ! unsatisfactory k9d t1 accord+ to ,hume1 all our k ( ?+s mu/ be4 ,!re1 = example1 are all ! tru?s ( ma!matics4 ,:5 we enunciate a tru? reg>d+ ! relations ( ! l9es & angles ( a triangle1 we are n m]ely unfold+ 9 ! pr$icate ( our proposition :at 0 implicitly conta9$ 9 ! subject4 ,!re are propositions t d no m ?an ?is2 !y are analytical1 i4e4 !y m]ely analyze ! subject4 ,?us1 :5 we say3 ,man is a rational animal1 we may m]ely be def9+ ! ^w man--unpack+ x1 s to speak4 ,b a syn!tic judgm5t is "o 9 :i* ! pr$icate is n conta9$ 9 ! subject2 x adds to "o's in=mation4 ,! ma!matical tru?s are ( ?is "*4 ,s also is ! tru? t ev]y?+ t happ5s mu/ h a cause4 ,d we connect ?+s ) "o ano!r 9 ?is way m]ely because we h _h exp]i5ce t !y are ?us connect$8 ,is x because !y are giv5 to u connect$ 9 ?is way8 ,t _c be ! case1 ,kant argues1 = :at is tak5 up z m]e exp]i5c$ act _c be kn[n z univ]sally & necess>ily true4 ,we p]ceive t ^! ?+s mu/ be s connect$4 ,h[ %all we expla9 ?is necessity8 ,we c only expla9 x1 said ,kant1 9 ?is way3 ,we mu/ assume t :at is giv5 u f )\t is m]ely ! raw mat]ial ( s5sation1 ! matt] ( our exp]i5ce2 & t ! ord]+ ( ?is matt]1 ! arrang+ x into a _w ( ph5om5a1 ! furni%+ ( =m1 is ! "w ( ! m9d4 ,?us1 we mu/ ?9k ( space1 "t1 causality1 & ( all o!r relations :i* obta9 betwe5 ! elem5ts ( our exp]i5ce1 z due to ! nature ( ! m9d4 ,x p]ceives ! _w ( ph5om5a t x does1 because x con/ructs t _w4 ,its k ( ?+s is /able & dep5dable because x _c "k any ph5om5on :i* does n con=m to its laws4 ,! wat] p\r$ into a cup mu/ take ! %ape ( ! cup2 & ! raw mat]ials p\r$ into a m9d mu/ take ! =m ( an ord]ly _w1 spread out 9 space & "t4 ,kant ?\ght t ) ?is turn he _h plac$ human k ^u a satisfactory basis1 & _h1 at ! same "t1 indicat$ ! limitations ( human k4 ,if ! _w we p]ceive is a _w :i* we make2 if ! =ms ( ?\ght furni%$ by ! m9d h no o!r function ?an ! ord]+ ( ! mat]ials furni%$ by s5se2 !n :at c we say ( t :i* may be beyond ph5om5a8 ,:at ( n\m5a8 ,x seems cle> t1 on ,kant's pr9ciples1 we ought n to be able to say any?+ :atev] ( n\m5a4 ,to say t su* may exi/ appe>s absurd4 ,all conceivable connection betwe5 !m & exi/+ ?+s z we "k !m is cut (f4 ,we _c ?9k ( a n\m5on z a sub/ance1 = ! notions ( sub/ance & quality h be5 decl>$ to be only a s*eme = ! ord]+ ( ph5om5a4 ,nor c we ?9k ( "o z a cause ( ! s5sations t we unite into a _w1 = j ! same reason4 ,we are %ut up logically to ! _w ( ph5om5a1 & t _w ( ph5om5a is1 aft] all1 ! successor ( ! _w ( ideas advocat$ by ,b]keley4 ,?is is n ! place to discuss at l5g? ! value ( ,kant's contribution to philosophy4#c ,!re is some?+ t]rify+ 9 ! prodigi\s l5g? at :i* x seems possible = m5 to discuss x4 ,kant call$ 8 doctr9e ,criticism1 because x und]took to e/abli% ! nature & limits ( our k4 ,by "s he has be5 hail$ z a great enlight5]1 & by o!rs he has be5 accus$ ( be+ z dogmatic 9 8 assumptions z ^? :om he disapprov$4 ,b "o ?+ he c]ta9ly has accompli%$4 ,he has made ! words ph5om5a & n\m5a famili> to u all1 & he has induc$ a va/ numb] ( m5 to accept x z e/abli%$ fact t x is n wor? :ile to try to ext5d our k beyond ph5om5a4 ,"o sees 8 influ5ce 9 ! writ+s ( m5 :o diff] mo/ widely f "o ano!r4 #a ,essay1 ,book ,,iv1 ,*apt] ,,xi1 section #g4 #b ,an ,inquiry into ! ,human ,m9d1 ,*apt] ,v1 section #e4 #c ,! read] w f9d a criticism ( ! ,critical ,philosophy 9 ,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,realism ,,& ,,idealism #eb4 ,,realism4--,! pla9 man is a reali/4 ,t is to say1 he believes 9 a _w :i* is n to be id5tifi$ ) 8 own ideas or ^? ( any o!r m9d4 ,at ! same "t1 z we h se5 7section #ab71 ! di/9ction betwe5 ! m9d & ! _w is by no means cle> to him4 ,x is n difficult1 by judici\s que/ion+1 to set 8 feet ^u ! slipp]y desc5t t %oots a man into idealism4 ,! vague realism ( ! pla9 man may be call$ ,nave or ,unreflective ,realism4 ,x has be5 call$ by "s ,natural ,realism1 b ! latt] t]m is an un=tunate "o4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 natural = ! unreflective man to be unreflective1 b1 on ! o!r h&1 x is also natural = ! reflective man to be reflective4 ,besides1 9 dubb+ any doctr9e natural1 we are apt to assume t doctr9es contra/$ ) x may prop]ly be call$ unnatural or artificial4 ,x is an anci5t rhetorical device1 to obta9 sympa?y = a cause 9 :i* "o may happ5 to be int]e/$ by giv+ x a tak+ "n2 b x is a device fr[n$ ^u by logic & by good s5se4 ,"o k9d ( realism is1 !n1 nave realism4 ,x is ! position f :i* we all set out1 :5 we beg9 to reflect ^u ! sy/em ( ?+s4 ,x is ! position to :i* "s try to come back1 :5 _! reflections appe> to be lead+ !m into /range or unwelcome pa?s4 ,we h se5 h[ ,?omas ,reid 7section #ej7 recoil$ f ! conclusions to :i* ! reason+s ( ! philosoph]s _h br\ght him1 & tri$ to return to ! position ( ! pla9 man4 ,! attempt 0 a failure1 & 0 necess>ily a failure1 = ,reid tri$ to come back to ! position ( ! pla9 man & /ill be a philosoph]4 ,he tri$ to live 9 a cl\d &1 nev]!less1 to see cle>ly--a task n easy to accompli%4 ,x %\ld be rem>k$1 h[ev]1 t he tri$1 at lea/1 to insi/ t we "k ! ext]nal _w directly4 ,we may divide reali/s into two broad classes1 ^? :o hold to ?is view1 & ^? :o ma9ta9 t we "k x only indirectly & ?r\gh our ideas4 ,! pla9 man belongs1 ( c\rse1 to ! fir/ class1 if x is j to speak ( a man :o says inconsi/5t ?+s z be+ :olly 9 any "o class4 ,c]ta9ly he is will+ to ass]t t ! gr\nd ^u :i* he /&s & ! /aff 9 8 h& are p]ceiv$ by him directly4 ,b we are compell$ to recognize t !re are subdivisions 9 ?is fir/ class ( reali/s4 ,reid tri$ to place himself beside ! pla9 man & fail$ to d s4 ,hamilton 7section #ej7 tri$ also1 & he is n to be class$ precisely ei!r ) ! pla9 man or ) ,reid4 ,he in=ms u t ! object z x appe>s to u is a composite some?+ to ! build+ up ( :i* ! kn[+ m9d contributes its %>e1 ! m$ium ?r\gh :i* ! object is p]ceiv$ its %>e1 & ! object 9 itself its %>e4 ,he sugge/s1 by way ( illu/ration1 t ! ext]nal object may contribute "o ?ird4 ,?is seems to make1 at lea/1 some?+ ext]nal directly kn[n4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 he ma9ta9s t ! m9d kn[s imm$iately only :at is 9 imm$iate contact ) ! bodily organ--) ! eyes1 ) ! h&s1 etc42 & he believes x kn[s ?is imm$iately because x is actually pres5t 9 all p>ts ( ! body4 ,&1 fur!r1 9 di/+ui%+ z he does betwe5 exi/5ce z x is 9 itself & exi/5ce z x is reveal$ to u1 & 9 %utt+ u up to ! latt]1 he seems to rob u ev5 ( ! modicum ( ext]nality t he has grant$ u4 ,i h already m5tion$ ,h]b]t ,sp5c] 7section #ej7 z a man n )\t sympa?y = ! attempt to rehabilitate ! ext]nal _w4 ,he is v sev]e ) ! insanities ( idealism4 ,he is n will+ ev5 to take ! fir/ /ep t[>d x4 ,he writes3#a ,! po/ulate ) :i* metaphysical reason+ sets out is t we are prim>ily consci\s only ( our s5sations--t we c]ta9ly "k we h ^!1 & t if !re be any?+ beyond ^! s]v+ z cause = !m1 x c be kn[n only by inf]5ce f !m4 ,i %all give mu* surprise to ! metaphysical read] if ,i call 9 "q ?is po/ulate2 & ! surprise w rise into a/oni%m5t if ,i di/9ctly d5y x4 ,yet ,i mu/ d ?is4 ,limit+ ! proposition to ^? epip]iph]al feel+s produc$ 9 u by ext]nal objects 7= ^! are alone 9 "q71 ,i see no alt]native b to affirm t ! ?+ prim>ily kn[n is n t a s5sation has be5 exp]i5c$1 b t !re exi/s an out] object4 ,accord+ to ?is1 ! out] object is n kn[n ?r\gh an inf]5ce2 x is kn[n directly4 ,b d n be 9 ha/e to class ,sp5c] ) ! pla9 man1 or ) ,reid4 ,li/5 to a citation once be=e made 7section #bb71 b wor? repeat+ 9 ?is connection3 ,:5 we are taught t a piece ( matt]1 reg>d$ by u z exi/+ ext]nally1 _c be really kn[n1 b t we c "k only c]ta9 impressions produc$ on u1 we are yet1 by ! relativity ( ?\ght1 compell$ to ?9k ( ^! 9 relation to a cause--! notion ( a real exi/5ce :i* g5]at$ ^! impressions becomes nasc5t4 ,if x be prov$ t e notion ( a real exi/5ce :i* we c frame is inconsi/5t ) itself1--t matt]1 h[ev] conceiv$ by u1 _c be matt] z x actually is1--our conception1 ?\gh transfigur$1 is n de/roy$3 !re rema9s ! s5se ( reality1 dissociat$ z f> z possible f ^? special =ms "u :i* x 0 be=e repres5t$ 9 ?\ght4 ,x is int]e/+ to place ! two extracts side by side4 ,9 ! "o1 we are told t we d n "k ext]nal objects by an inf]5ce f our s5sations2 9 ! o!r we are taught t ! piece ( matt] :i* we reg>d z exi/+ ext]nally _c be really kn[n2 t we c "k only c]ta9 impressions produc$ on u1 & mu/ ref] !m to a cause2 t ?is cause _c be :at we ?9k x4 ,x is difficult = ! man :o reads su* /atem5ts n to =get t ,sp5c] reg>d$ himself z a reali/ :o held to a direct k ( some?+ ext]nal4 ,!re are1 z x is evid5t1 _m sorts ( reali/s t may be ga!r$ into ! fir/ class m5tion$ above--m5 :o1 h[ev] inconsi/5t !y may be1 try1 at lea/1 to ma9ta9 t our k ( ! ext]nal _w is a direct "o4 ,& x is equally true t !re are v>i\s sorts ( reali/s t may be put into ! second class4 ,^! m5 h be5 call$ ,hypo!tical ,reali/s4 ,9 ! la/ *apt] x 0 po9t$ out t ,desc>tes & ,locke belong to ?is class4 ,bo? ( ^! m5 believ$ 9 an ext]nal _w1 b believ$ t its exi/5ce is a ?+ to be inf]r$4 ,n[1 :5 a man has p]suad$ himself t ! m9d c "k directly only its own ideas1 & mu/ inf] ! _w :i* !y are suppos$ to repres5t1 he may conceive ( t ext]nal _w 9 ?ree diff]5t ways4 7#a7 ,he may believe t :at corresponds to 8 idea ( a mat]ial object1 = example1 an apple1 is 9 v _m respects l ! idea 9 8 m9d4 ,?us1 he may believe t ! odor1 ta/e1 color1 h>dness1 etc41 t he p]ceives directly1 or z ideas1 h correspond+ to !m real ext]nal odor1 ta/e1 color1 h>dness1 etc4 ,x is n easy = a man to hold to ?is position1 = a v little reflection seems to make x unt5able2 b x is !oretically possible = "o to take x1 & probably _m p]sons h incl9$ to ! view :5 !y h fir/ be5 tempt$ to believe t ! m9d p]ceives directly only its ideas4 7#b7 ,he may believe t su* ?+s z colors1 ta/es1 & odors _c be qualities ( ext]nal bodies at all1 b are only effects1 produc$ ^u our m9ds by some?+ v diff]5t 9 k9d4 ,we seem to p]ceive bodies1 he may argue1 to be color$1 to h ta/e1 & to be odor\s2 b :at we ?us p]ceive is n ! ext]nal ?+2 ! ext]nal ?+ t produces ^! appe>ances _c be reg>d$ z hav+ any?+ m ?an solidity1 ext5sion1 figure1 motion or re/1 & numb]4 ,?us did ,locke reason4 ,to him ! ext]nal _w z x really exi/s1 is1 s to speak1 a pal] copy ( ! ext]nal _w z we seem to p]ceive x4 ,x is a _w ) few] qualities1 b1 /ill1 a _w ) qualities ( "s k9d4 7#c7 ,b "o may g f>!r ?an ?is4 ,"o may say3 ,h[ c ,i "k t ev5 ! ext5sion1 numb]1 & motion ( ! ?+s :i* ,i directly p]ceive h correspond+ to !m ext5sion1 numb]1 & motion1 9 an out] _w8 ,if :at is n color$ c cause me to p]ceive color1 :y may n t :i* is n ext5d$ cause me to p]ceive ext5sion8 ,&1 mov$ by su* reflections1 "o may ma9ta9 t !re exi/s outside ( u t :i* we c only *>act]ize z an ,unkn[n ,cause1 a ,reality :i* we _c m ne>ly def9e4 ,?is la/ position resembles v closely "o side ( ,sp5c]'s doctr9e--t repres5t$ 9 ! la/ ( ! two citations1 z ! read] c easily see4 ,x is ! position ( ! foll[] ( ,immanuel ,kant :o has n yet repudiat$ ! n\m5on or ?+-9-itself discuss$ 9 ! la/ *apt] 7section #ea74 ,i am n conc]n$ to def5d any "o ( ! v>ieties ( ,direct or ( ,hypo!tical ,realism portray$ above4 ,b ,i wi% to po9t out t !y all h "s sort ( claim to ! title ,realism1 & to rem9d ! read] t1 :5 we call a man a reali/1 we d n d v mu* 9 ! way ( def9+ 8 position4 ,i may add t ! acc\nt ( ! ext]nal _w conta9$ 9 ,*apt] ,,iv is a sort ( realism also4 ,if ?is la/ v>iety1 :i* ,i advocate1 mu/ be classifi$1 let x be plac$ 9 ! fir/ broad class1 = x tea*es t we "k ! ext]nal _w directly4 ,b ,i s9c]ely hope t x w n be judg$ :olly by ! company x keeps1 & t no "o w assign to x ei!r virtues or defects to :i* x c lay no j claim4 ,be=e leav+ ! subject ( realism x is "r t ,i %\ld utt] a note ( w>n+ t\*+ "o v common s\rce ( error4 ,x is fatally easy = m5 to be misl$ by ! names :i* are appli$ to ?+s4 ,sir ,william ,hamilton inv5t$ = a c]ta9 type ( metaphysical doctr9e ! (f5sive epi!t nihilism4 ,x is a type :i* appeals to _m in(f5sive & pi\s m5 at ! pres5t day1 "s ( :om pref] to call !mselves ideali/s4 ,_m h be5 induc$ to become free-willi/s because ! "n has sugge/$ to !m a prop] reg>d = t fre$om :i* is ju/ly de> to all m54 ,we c sc>cely approa* ) an op5 m9d an acc\nt ( ideas & s5sations :i* we he> describ$ z s5sationalism1 or worse yet1 z s5sualism4 ,:5 a giv5 type ( philosophy is set d[n z dogmatism1 we involunt>ily feel a prejudice aga9/ x4 ,he :o reads z reflectively z he %\ld w soon f9d out t philosoph]s call names mu* z o!r m5 d1 & t "o %\ld always be on "o's gu>d4 ,e =m ( ph5om5alism1 assev]at$ a le>n$ & en]getic old g5tleman1 :o = _m ye>s occupi$ a *air 9 "o ( our lead+ in/itutions ( le>n+1 necess>ily leads to a!ism4 ,he inspir$ a consid]able numb] ( /ud5ts ) su* a horror = ph5om5alism t !y nev] took pa9s to f9d out :at x 04 ,i m5tion ^! ?+s 9 ?is connection1 because ,i suspect t n a few 9 our own day are unduly influ5c$ by ! associations :i* cl+ to ! words realism & idealism4 ,realism 9 lit]ature1 z _m p]sons und]/& x1 means ! degradation ( lit]ature to ! portrayal ( :at is co>se & degrad+1 9 a co>se & (f5sive way4 ,realism 9 pa9t+ (t5 means ! labori\s repres5tation ^u canvas ( ?+s f :i* we w\ld gladly av]t our eyes if we met !m 9 real life4 ,) ! ^w idealism1 on ! o!r h&1 we are apt to connect ! possession ( ideals1 a reg>d = :at is be/ & noble/ 9 life & lit]ature4 ,! read] mu/ h se5 t realism 9 ! philosophic s5se ( ! ^w has no?+ :atev] to d ) realism 9 ! s5ses j m5tion$4 ,! ^w is giv5 a special mean+1 & x is a weakness to all[ associations drawn f o!r s5ses ( ! ^w to color our judgm5t :5 we use x4 ,& x %\ld be c>efully held 9 view t ! ^w idealism is giv5 a special s5se :5 x is us$ to indicate a type ( doctr9e contra/$ ) ! doctr9e ( ! reali/4 ,"s =ms ( philosophical idealism h und\bt$ly be5 inspir+2 b "s h be51 & are1 f> f inspir+4 ,!y %\ld n be all[$ to po/ure z sa9ts m]ely because !y are cloak$ ) an ambigu\s "n4 #ec4 ,,idealism4--,idealism we may broadly def9e z ! doctr9e t all exi/5ce is m5tal exi/5ce4 ,s f> f reg>d+ ! ext]nal _w z beyond & indep5d5t ( m9d1 x ma9ta9s t x c h its be+ only 9 consci\sness4 ,we h se5 7section #di7 h[ m5 7 l$ to take ! /ep to idealism4 ,x is n a /ep :i* ! pla9 man is impell$ to take )\t prep>ation4 ,to say t ! real _w ( ?+s 9 :i* we p]ceive ourselves to live & move is a some?+ t exi/s only 9 ! m9d /rikes him z little bett] ?an insane4 ,he :o becomes an ideali/ usually does s1 ,i ?9k1 aft] weigh+ ! argum5ts pres5t$ by ! hypo!tical reali/1 & f9d+ t !y seem to c>ry "o f>!r ?an ! latt] appe>s to recognize4 ,! type ( idealism repres5t$ by ,b]keley has be5 call$ ,subjective ,idealism4 ,ord9>ily our use ( ! words subjective & objective is to call att5tion to ! di/9ction betwe5 :at belongs to ! m9d & :at belongs to ! ext]nal ord] ( ?+s4 ,my s5sations are subjective1 !y are ref]r$ to my m9d1 & x is assum$ t !y c h no exi/5ce except 9 my m9d2 ! qualities ( ?+s are reg>d$ z objective1 t is1 x is commonly believ$ t !y exi/ indep5d5tly ( my p]ception ( !m4 ,( c\rse1 :5 a man becomes an ideali/1 he _c keep j ?is di/9ction4 ,! "q may1 !n1 fairly be rais$3 ,h[ c he be a subjective ideali/8 ,has n ! ^w subjective lo/ its significance8 ,to ?is "o has to answ]3 ,x has1 & x has n4 ,! man :o1 ) /rict consi/5cy1 makes ! desk at :i* he sits z mu* 8 idea z is ! pa9 9 8 f+] or 8 memory ( ye/]day1 _c keep hold ( ! di/9ction ( subjective & objective4 ,b m5 are n always z consi/5t z ?is4 ,rememb] ! illu/ration ( ! telephone ex*ange 7section #ad74 ,! m9d is repres5t$ z situat$ at ! bra9 t]m9als ( ! s5sory n]ves2 & !n bra91 n]ves1 & all else are turn$ into ideas 9 ?is m9d1 :i* are m]ely project$ outw>ds4 ,n[1 9 plac+ ! m9d at a def9ite location 9 ! _w1 & contra/+ x ) ! _w1 we reta9 ! di/9ction betwe5 subjective & objective--:at is 9 ! m9d c be di/+ui%$ f :at is beyond x4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 mak+ ! :ole sy/em ( ext]nal ?+s a complex ( ideas 9 ! m9d1 we become ideali/s1 & repudiate realism4 ,! position is an inconsi/5t "o1 ( c\rse1 b x is possible = m5 to take x1 = m5 h tak5 x (t5 en\gh4 ,! idealism ( ,pr(essor ,pe>son 7section #ad7 is m palpably subjective ?an t ( ,b]keley1 = ! latt] nev] puts ! m9d 9 a telephone ex*ange4 ,nev]!less1 he names ! objects ( s5se1 :i* o!r m5 call mat]ial ?+s1 ideas1 & he evid5tly assimilates !m to :at we commonly call ideas & contra/ ) ?+s4 ,moreov]1 he holds !m 9 "s ( ! contempt :i* m5 res]ve = m]e ideas1 = he believes t idolat]s might be induc$ to give ov] wor%ip+ ! heav5ly bodies c\ld !y be p]suad$ t ^! are no?+ m ?an _! own ideas4 ,) ! v>i\s =ms ( subjective idealism x is usual to contra/ ! doctr9e ( ,objective ,idealism4 ,?is does n ma9ta9 t ! _w :i* ,i p]ceive is my idea2 x ma9ta9s t ! _w is idea4 ,x is r a nice "q1 & "o :i* no man %\ld decide )\t a c>eful exam9ation ( ! :ole matt]1 :e!r we h any "r to reta9 ! ^w idea :5 we h rubb$ out ! di/9ction :i* is usually drawn betwe5 ideas & ext]nal ?+s4 ,if we ma9ta9 t all m5 are always necess>ily selfi%1 we /ret* ! mean+ ( ! ^w q beyond :at is cu/om>y1 & selfi%ness becomes a ?+ we h no reason to disapprove1 s9ce x *>act]izes sa9t & s9n] alike4 ,simil>ly1 if we decide to "n idea1 n only :at ! pla9 man & ! reali/ admit to h a "r to t "n1 b also ! great sy/em :i* ^! m5 call an ext]nal mat]ial _w1 x seems "r to ask2 ,:y use ! ^w idea at all8 ,:at does x s]ve to indicate8 ,n a di/9ction1 surely1 = ! ^w seems to be applicable to all ?+s )\t di/9ction4 ,su* consid]ations z ^! lead me to object to ! expression objective idealism3 if ! doctr9e is really objective1 i4e4 if x recognizes a sy/em ( ?+s diff]5t & di/9ct f :at m5 commonly call ideas1 x sc>cely seems to h a "r to ! title idealism2 & if x is really idealism1 & does n rob ! ^w idea ( all significance1 x c sc>cely be objective 9 any prop] s5se ( ! ^w4 ,manife/ly1 !re is ne$ ( a v c>eful analysis ( ! mean+ ( ! ^w idea1 & ( ! prop] significance ( ! t]ms subjective & objective1 if error is to be avoid$ & language us$ sob]ly & accurately4 ,^? :o are n 9 sympa?y ) ! doctr9e ( ! objective ideali/s ?9k t 9 su* c>eful analysis & accurate /atem5t !y are r conspicu\sly lack+4 ,we ?9k ( ,hegel 7#aggj-ahca7 z ! typical objective ideali/4 ,x is n easy to give an accurate acc\nt ( 8 doctr9e1 = he is f> f a cle> writ]1 & he has made x possible = 8 _m admir]s to und]/& him 9 _m ways4 ,b he seems to h accept$ ! sy/em ( ?+s t mo/ m5 call ! real ext]nal _w1 & to h reg>d$ x z ! ,div9e ,reason 9 its self-developm5t4 ,& mo/ ( ^? :om we w\ld to-day be incl9$ to ga!r toge!r "u ! title ( objective ideali/s appe> to h be5 mu* influ5c$1 directly or indirectly1 by 8 philosophy4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 great diff]5ces ( op9ion among !m1 & no man %\ld be made responsible = ! op9ions ( ! class z a class4 ,i h said a few pages back t "s =ms ( idealism are inspir+1 & t "s are n4 ,bi%op ,b]keley call$ ! objects ( s5se ideas4 ,he reg>d$ all ideas z inactive1 & ?\ght t all *anges 9 ideas--& ?is includes all ! *anges t take place 9 nature--mu/ be ref]r$ to ! activity ( m9ds4 ,"s ( ^? *anges he c\ld ref] to f9ite m9ds1 8 own & o!rs4 ,mo/ ( !m he c\ld n1 & he felt impell$ to ref] !m to a ,div9e ,m9d4 ,h5ce1 ! _w became to him a con/ant revelation ( ,god2 & he uses ! ^w ,god 9 no equivocal s5se4 ,x does n signify to him ! sy/em ( ?+s z a :ole1 or an ,unkn[able1 or any?+ ( ! sort4 ,x signifies a _s ak9 to 8 own1 b )\t its limitations4 ,he writes3#b-- ,a human _s or p]son is n p]ceiv$ by s5se1 z n be+ an idea2 :51 !re=e1 we see ! color1 size1 figure1 & motions ( a man1 we p]ceive only c]ta9 s5sations or ideas excit$ 9 our own m9ds2 & ^! be+ exhibit$ to our view 9 sundry di/9ct collections s]ve to m>k out unto u ! exi/5ce ( f9ite & creat$ spirits l ourselves4 ,h5ce1 x is pla9 we d n see a man1--if by man is meant t :i* lives1 moves1 p]ceives1 & ?9ks z we d1--b only su* a c]ta9 collection ( ideas z directs u to ?9k !re is a di/9ct pr9ciple ( ?\ght & motion1 l to ourselves1 accompany+ & repres5t$ by x4 ,& aft] ! same mann] we see ,god2 all ! diff]5ce is t1 :]eas "s "o f9ite & n>r[ assemblage ( ideas d5otes a p>ticul> human m9d1 :i!rsoev] we direct our view1 we d at all times & 9 all places p]ceive manife/ tok5s ( ! ,div9ity--ev]y?+ we see1 he>1 feel1 or any wise p]ceive by s5se1 be+ a sign or effect ( ! p[] ( ,god2 z is our p]ception ( ^? v motions :i* are produc$ by m54 ,) ,b]keley's view ( ! _w z a con/ant revelation ( ,god1 _m m5 w sympa?ize :o h little lik+ = 8 idealism z idealism4 ,!y may criticise 9 detail 8 argum5ts to prove ! nonexi/5ce ( a g5u9ely ext]nal _w1 b !y w be ready to admit t 8 doctr9e is an inspir+ "o 9 ! view t x takes ( ! _w & ( man4 ,) ?is ,i wi% to contra/ ! doctr9e ( ano!r ideali/1 ,mr4 ,bradley1 ^: "w1 ,appe>ance & ,reality1 has be5 mu* discuss$ 9 ! la/ few ye>s1 9 ord] t ! read] may see h[ widely diff]5t =ms ( idealism may diff] f ea* o!r1 & h[ absurd x is to praise or blame a man's philosophy m]ely on ! gr\nd t x is ideali/ic4 ,mr4 ,bradley holds t ^? aspects ( our exp]i5ce :i* we are accu/om$ to reg>d z real--qualities ( ?+s1 ! relations betwe5 ?+s1 ! ?+s !mselves1 space1 "t1 motion1 causation1 activity1 ! self--turn out :5 c>efully exam9$ to be self-contradictory & absurd4 ,!y are n real2 !y are unrealities1 m]e appe>ances4 ,b ^! appe>ances exi/1 &1 h5ce1 mu/ belong to reality4 ,?is reality mu/ be s5ti5t1 = !re is no be+ or fact outside ( t :i* is commonly call$ psy*ical exi/5ce4 ,n[1 :at is ?is reality ) :i* appe>ances--! :ole _w ( ?+s :i* seem to be giv5 9 our exp]i5ce--are contra/$8 ,mr4 ,bradley calls x ! ,absolute1 & indicates t x is :at o!r m5 recognize z ! ,deity4 ,h[ %all we conceive x8 ,we are told t we are to conceive x z consi/+ ( ! cont5ts ( f9ite m9ds1 or c5t]s ( exp]i5ce1 subject$ to an all-p]vasive transfusion ) a rebl5d+ ( all mat]ial4 ,9 ! ,absolute1 f9ite ?+s are transmut$ & lose _! individual natures4 ,:at does ?is mean 9 pla9 language8 ,x means t !re are _m f9ite m9ds ( a high] & ( a l[] ord]1 c5t]s ( exp]i5ce1 & t ! cont5ts ( ^! are unreal appe>ances4 ,!re is n a ,god or ,absolute outside ( & di/9ct f ^!1 b r "o t 9 "s s5se is _! reality4 ,?is mass ( unrealities transfus$ & transmut$ s t no "o ( !m reta9s its individual nature is ! ,absolute4 ,t is to say1 "t mu/ become indi/+ui%able f space1 space f motion1 motion f ! self1 ! self f ! qualities ( ?+s1 etc41 be=e !y are fit to become con/itu5ts ( ! ,absolute & to be reg>d$ z real4 ,z ! read] has se51 ?is ,absolute has no?+ 9 common ) ! ,god 9 :i* ,b]keley believ$1 & 9 :i* ! pla9 man usually believes4 ,x is ! night 9 :i* all cats are gray1 & !re appe>s to be no reason :y any "o %\ld h>bor t[>d x ! lea/ s5tim5t ( awe or v5]ation4 ,:e!r su* reason+s z ,mr4 ,bradley's %\ld be accept$ z valid or %\ld n1 mu/ be decid$ aft] a c>eful exam9ation into ! f\ndations ^u :i* !y re/ & ! consi/5cy ) :i* inf]5ces are drawn f premises4 ,i d n wi% to prejudge ! matt]4 ,b x is wor? :ile to set =? ! conclusions at :i* he arrives1 t x may be cle>ly realiz$ t ! associations :i* (t5 hang ab\t ! ^w idealism %\ld be c>efully /ripp$ away :5 we are =m+ our e/imate ( ?is or t philosophical doctr9e4 #a ,pr9ciples ( ,psy*ology1 ,"p ,,vii1 ,*apt] ,,vi1 section #djd4 #b ,pr9ciples1 section #adh4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,monism ,,& ,,dualism #ed4 ,,! ,,mean+ ,,( ,,! ,,words4--,9 common life m5 di/+ui% betwe5 m9ds & mat]ial ?+s1 ?us divid+ ! ?+s1 :i* tak5 toge!r make up ! _w z we "k x1 into two broad classes4 ,!y ?9k ( m9ds z be+ v diff]5t f mat]ial objects1 & ( ! latt] z be+ v diff]5t f m9ds4 ,x does n occur to !m to f9d 9 ! "o class room = ! o!r1 nor does x occur to !m to ?9k ( bo? classes z manife/ations or aspects ( "s "o und]ly+ reality4 ,9 o!r words1 ! pla9 man to-day is a ,duali/4 ,9 ! la/ *apt] 7section #eb7 ,i h call$ him a ,nave ,reali/2 & "h ,i %all call him a ,nave ,duali/1 = a man may reg>d m9d & matt] z q di/9ct k9ds ( ?+s1 )\t try+ to elevate 8 op9ion1 ?r\gh reflection1 into a philosophical doctr9e4 ,! reflective man may /& by ! op9ion ( ! pla9 man1 m]ely try+ to make less vague & indef9ite ! notions ( matt] & ( m9d4 ,he !n becomes a ,philosophical ,duali/4 ,!re are sev]al v>ieties ( ?is doctr9e1 & ,i %all consid] !m a little lat] 7section #eh74 ,b x is possible = "o to be less pr(\ndly impress$ by ! diff]5ces :i* *>act]ize matt] & m9d4 ,"o may feel incl9$ to ref] m5tal ph5om5a to matt]1 & to d5y !m ! prom95ce accord$ !m by ! duali/4 ,on ! o!r h&1 "o may be l$ by "o's reflections to resolve mat]ial objects into m]e ideas1 & to claim t !y c h no exi/5ce except 9 a m9d4 ,f9ally1 x is possible to hold t bo? m9ds & mat]ial ?+s1 z we "k !m1 are only manife/ations1 ph5om5a1 & t !y mu/ be ref]r$ to an ult]ior reality or sub/ance4 ,"o may claim t !y are aspects ( ! "o reality1 :i* is nei!r matt] nor m9d4 ,^! doctr9es are diff]5t =ms ( ,monism4 ,9 :atev] else !y diff] f "o ano!r1 !y agree 9 ma9ta9+ t ! univ]se does n conta9 two k9ds ( ?+s fundam5tally diff]5t4 ,out ( ! duality ( ?+s z x seems to be reveal$ to ! pla9 man !y try to make "s k9d ( a unity4 #ce4 ,,mat]ialism4--,! fir/ ( ! =ms ( monism above m5tion$ is ,mat]ialism4 ,x is n a doctr9e to :i* ! fir/ impulse ( ! pla9 man leads him at ! pres5t "t4 ,ev5 ^? :o h done no read+ 9 philosophy h inh]it$ _m ( _! ways ( look+ at ?+s f ! ?9k]s :o liv$ 9 ! ages pa/1 & ^: op9ions h become ! common prop]ty ( civiliz$ m54 ,= m ?an two ?\s& ye>s ! _w & ! m9d h be5 discuss$1 & x is impossible = any ( u to escape f ! influ5ce ( ^? discussions & to look at ?+s ) ! primitive simplicity ( ! :olly untutor$4 ,b x 0 n always s4 ,!re 0 a "t :5 m5 :o 7 n savages1 b possess$ great intellectual vigor & mu* cultivation1 f\nd x easy & natural to be mat]iali/s4 ,?is ,i h spok5 ( be=e 7section #cj71 b x w repay u to take up aga9 a little m at l5g? ! cle>e/ ( ! anci5t =ms ( mat]ialism1 t ( ! ,atomi/s1 & to see :at may be said = & aga9/ x4 ,democritus ( ,abd]a taught t no?+ exi/s except atoms & empty space4 ,! atoms1 he ma9ta9$1 diff] f "o ano!r 9 size1 %ape1 & position4 ,9 o!r respects !y are alike4 ,!y h always be5 9 motion4 ,p]haps he conceiv$ ( t motion z orig9ally a fall ?r\gh space1 b !re seems to be unc]ta9ty ^u ?is po9t4 ,h[ev]1 ! atoms 9 motion collide ) "o ano!r1 & ^! collisions result 9 me*anical comb9ations f :i* spr+ into be+ _w-sy/ems4 ,accord+ to ?is doctr9e1 no?+ comes f no?+1 & no?+ c become nonexi/5t4 ,all ! *anges :i* h ev] tak5 place 9 ! _w are only *anges 9 ! position ( mat]ial p>ticles--!y are regr\p+s ( atoms4 ,we _c directly p]ceive !m to be su*1 = our s5ses are too dull to make su* f9e obs]vations1 b our reason tells u t su* is ! case4 ,:]e1 9 su* a _w z ?is1 is !re room = m9d1 & :at c we mean by m9d8 ,democritus f9ds a place = m9d by conceiv+ x to consi/ ( f9e1 smoo?1 r\nd atoms1 :i* are ! same z ! atoms :i* con/itute fire4 ,^! are di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! :ole body1 & lie among ! o!r atoms :i* compose x4 ,!y are inhal$ ) & exhal$ into ! out] air4 ,:ile !y are 9 ! body _! functions are diff]5t accord+ z !y are locat$ 9 ?is organ or 9 t4 ,9 ! bra9 !y give rise to ?\ght1 9 ! he>t to ang]1 & 9 ! liv] to desire4 ,i suppose no "o w\ld c>e1 at ! pres5t "t1 to become a ,democritean4 ,! ,reason1 :i* tells u t ! m9d consi/s ( f9e1 r\nd atoms1 appe>s to h no?+ b its b>e ^w to (f] u4 ,b1 ap>t f ?is1 a peculi> difficulty seems to face u2 ev5 suppos+ !re are atoms ( fire 9 ! bra91 ! he>t1 & ! liv]1 :at are ! ?\ght1 ang]1 & desire1 ( :i* m5tion is made8 ,%all we conceive ( ^! la/ z atoms1 z void space1 or z ! motion ( atoms8 ,!re really seems to be no place 9 ! _w = !m1 & ^! are ! m9d s f> z ! m9d appe>s to be reveal$--!y are m5tal ph5om5a4 ,x does n seem t !y are to be id5tifi$ ) any?+ t ! ,atomi/ic doctr9e admits z exi/+4 ,!y are simply ov]look$4 ,is ! mod]n mat]ialism m satisfactory8 ,ab\t half a c5tury ago !re 0 9 ! sci5tific _w some?+ l a revival ( mat]iali/ic ?9k+4 ,x did n occur to any "o to ma9ta9 t ! m9d consi/s ( f9e atoms dissem9at$ ?r\gh ! body1 b /atem5ts almo/ z crude 7 made4 ,x 0 said1 = example1 t ! bra9 secretes ?\ght z ! liv] secretes bile4 ,x seems a gratuit\s labor to criticise su* /atem5ts z ^! 9 detail4 ,!re are no gl&s ! secretions ( :i* are n z unequivocally mat]ial z are ! gl&s !mselves4 ,?is means t su* secretions c be captur$ & analyz$2 ! *emical elem5ts ( :i* !y are compos$ c be enum]at$4 ,!y are op5 to inspection 9 precisely ! same way z are ! gl&s :i* secrete !m4 ,does x seem reasonable to ma9ta9 t ?\ghts & feel+s are relat$ to bra9s 9 ?is way8 ,does ! *emi/ ev] dream ( collect+ !m 9 a te/ tube1 & ( draw+ up = u a li/ ( _! con/itu5t elem5ts8 ,:5 ! bra9 is active1 !re are1 to be sure1 c]ta9 mat]ial products :i* pass into ! blood & are f9ally elim9at$ f ! body2 b among ^! products no "o w\ld be m surpris$ ?an ! mat]iali/ to discov] pa9s & pleasures1 memories & anticipations1 desires & volitions4 ,?is talk ( ?\ght z a secretion we c af=d to set aside4 ,nor ne$ we take mu* m s]i\sly ! seem+ly m sob] /atem5t t ?\ght is a function ( ! bra94 ,!re is1 ( c\rse1 a s5se 9 :i* we all admit ! /atem5t2 m9ds are n disembodi$1 & we h reason to believe t m9d & bra9 are mo/ intimately relat$4 ,b ! ^w function is us$ 9 a v broad & loose s5se :5 x s]ves to indicate ?is relation2 & "o may employ x 9 ?is way )\t be+ a mat]iali/ at all4 ,9 a /rict] s5se ( ! ^w1 ! bra9 has no functions t may n be conceiv$ z me*anical *anges1--z ! motion ( atoms 9 space1--& to id5tify m5tal ph5om5a ) ^! is inexcusable4 ,x is n !oretically inconceivable t1 ) f9] s5ses1 we might directly p]ceive ! motions ( ! atoms 9 ano!r man's bra92 x is inconceivable t we %\ld ?us directly p]ceive 8 melan*oly or 8 joy2 !y belong to ano!r _w4 #ef4 ,,spiritualism4--,! "n ,spiritualism is sometimes giv5 to ! doctr9e t !re is no exi/5ce :i* we may n prop]ly call m9d or _s4 ,x errs 9 ! "o direction z mat]ialism errs 9 ! o!r4 ,"o mu/ n conf\nd ) ?is doctr9e t v diff]5t "o1 ,spiritism1 :i* tea*es t a c]ta9 favor$ class ( p]sons call$ m$iums may br+ back ! spirits ( ! dep>t$ & enable u to hold communication ) !m4 ,su* beliefs h always exi/$ among ! common p1 b !y h r>ely int]e/$ philosoph]s4 ,i %all h no?+ to say ( !m 9 ?is book4 ,!re h be5 v>i\s k9ds ( spirituali/s4 ,! "n may be appli$ to ! ideali/s1 f ,b]keley d[n to ^? ( our day2 at "s ( ! v>ieties ( _! doctr9e we h tak5 a glance 7sections #di1 #ec74 ,to ^! we ne$ n recur2 b !re is "o type ( spirituali/ic doctr9e :i* is mu* discuss$ at ! pres5t day & :i* appe>s to appeal /rongly to a numb] ( sci5tific m54 ,we mu/ consid] x = a mom5t4 ,we h exam9$ ,pr(essor ,clif=d's doctr9e ( ,m9d-/uff 7section #dc74 ,clif=d ma9ta9$ t all ! mat]ial ?+s we p]ceive are our p]ceptions--!y are 9 our consci\sness1 & are n prop]ly ext]nal at all4 ,b1 believ+1 z he did1 t all nature is animat$1 he held t e mat]ial ?+1 e p]ception1 may be tak5 z a revelation ( some?+ n 9 our consci\sness1 ( a m9d or1 at lea/1 ( a c]ta9 am\nt ( m9d-/uff4 ,h[ %all we conceive ! relation betwe5 :at is 9 our m9d & ! some?+ correspond+ to x n 9 our m9d8 ,we mu/1 says ,clif=d1 reg>d ! latt] z ! reality ( :i* ! =m] is ! appe>ance or manife/ation4 ,:at ,i p]ceive z y\r bra9 is really 9 itself y\r consci\sness1 is ,y2 b !n t :i* ,i call y\r bra91 ! mat]ial fact1 is m]ely my p]ception4 ,?is doctr9e is ,panpsy*ism1 9 ! =m 9 :i* x is usually br\ght to our att5tion4 ,x holds t ! only real exi/5ces are m9ds1 & t physical ph5om5a mu/ be reg>d$ z ! manife/ations "u :i* ^! real exi/5ces make u aw>e ( _! pres5ce4 ,! t]m panpsy*ism may1 x is true1 be us$ 9 a some:at diff]5t s5se4 ,x may be employ$ m]ely to indicate ! doctr9e t all nature is animat$1 & )\t imply+ a !ory z to ! relation betwe5 bodies p]ceiv$ & ! m9ds suppos$ to accompany !m4 ,:at %all we say to panpsy*ism ( ! type repres5t$ by ,clif=d8 ,x is1 ,i ?9k1 suffici5tly answ]$ 9 ! e>li] *apt]s ( ?is volume3-- 7#a7 ,if ,i call mat]ial facts my p]ceptions1 ,i d an inju/ice to ! di/9ction betwe5 ! physical & ! m5tal 7,*apt] ,,iv74 7#b7 ,if ,i say t all nature is animat$1 ,i ext5d illegitimately ! argum5t = o!r m9ds 7,*apt] ,x74 7#c7 ,if ,i say t m9d is ! reality ( :i* ! bra9 is ! appe>ance1 ,i misconceive :at is meant by ! di/9ction betwe5 appe>ance & reality 7,*apt] ,v74 #eg4 ,,! ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,! ,,"o ,,sub/ance4--,9 ! sev5te5? c5tury ,desc>tes ma9ta9$ t1 al?\gh m9d & matt] may ju/ly be reg>d$ z two sub/ances1 yet x %\ld be recogniz$ t !y are n really indep5d5t sub/ances 9 ! /ricte/ s5se ( ! ^w1 b t !re is only "o sub/ance1 9 ?is s5se1 & m9d & matt] are1 z x 71 its attributes4 ,8 ?\ght 0 t by attribute we mean t :i* is n indep5d5t1 b mu/ be ref]r$ to some?+ else2 by sub/ance1 we mean t :i* exi/s indep5d5tly & is n ref]r$ to any o!r ?+4 ,x seem$ to foll[ t !re c\ld be only "o sub/ance4 ,sp9oza modifi$ ,desc>tes' doctr9e 9 t he refus$ to reg>d m9d & matt] z sub/ances at all4 ,he made !m unequivocally attributes ( ! "o & only sub/ance1 :i* he call$ ,god4 ,! ?\ght :i* influ5c$ ,sp9oza _h impress$ _m m9ds be=e 8 "t1 & x has influ5c$ _m s9ce4 ,"o ne$ n foll[ him 9 nam+ ! unit>y some?+ to :i* m9d & matt] are ref]r$ sub/ance4 ,"o may call x ,be+1 or ,reality1 or ! ,unkn[able1 or ,en]gy1 or ! ,absolute1 or1 p]haps1 /ill some?+ else4 ,! doctr9e has tak5 _m =ms1 b he :o reads ) discrim9ation w see t ! v>i\s =ms h mu* 9 common4 ,!y agree 9 ma9ta9+ t matt] & m9d1 z !y are reveal$ 9 our exp]i5ce1 are n to be reg>d$ z1 9 ! la/ analysis1 two di/9ct k9ds ( ?+4 ,!y are1 r1 modes or manife/ations ( "o & ! same ?+1 & ?is is n to be conf\nd$ ) ei!r4 ,^? :o incl9e to ?is doctr9e take issue ) ! mat]iali/1 :o assimilates m5tal ph5om5a to physical2 & !y oppose ! ideali/1 :o assimilates physical ph5om5a to m5tal1 & calls mat]ial ?+s ideas4 ,we h no "r1 !y argue1 to call t ( :i* ideas & ?+s are manife/ations ei!r m9d or matt]4 ,x is to be di/+ui%$ f bo?4 ,to ?is doctr9e ! title ( ,monism is (t5 appropriat$4 ,9 ?is *apt] ,i h us$ ! t]m 9 a broad] s5se1 = bo? ! mat]iali/ & ! spirituali/ ma9ta9 t !re is 9 ! univ]se b "o k9d ( ?+4 ,nev]!less1 :5 we he> a man call$ a moni/ )\t qualification1 we may1 p]haps1 be ju/ifi$ 9 assum+1 9 ! abs5ce ( fur!r in=mation1 t he holds to "s "o ( ! =ms ( doctr9e indicat$ above4 ,!re may be no logical ju/ification = ?us n>r[+ ! use ( ! t]m1 b logical ju/ification goes = little 9 su* matt]s4 ,v>i\s consid]ations h mov$ m5 to become moni/s 9 ?is s5se ( ! ^w4 ,"s h be5 influ5c$ by ! assumption--"o :i* m5 felt impell$ to make e>ly 9 ! hi/ory ( speculative ?\ght--t ! :ole univ]se mu/ be ! expression ( "s unit>y pr9ciple4 ,a r diff]5t argum5t is well illu/rat$ 9 ! writ+s ( ,pr(essor ,hffd+1 a le>n$ & acute writ] ( our own "t4 ,x has influ5c$ s _m t x is wor? :ile to delay ^u x4 ,pr(essor ,hffd+ holds t m5tal ph5om5a & physical ph5om5a mu/ be reg>d$ z p>allel 7see ,*apt] ,,ix71 & t we mu/ n conceive ( ideas & mat]ial ?+s z int]act+4 ,he writes3#a-- ,if x is contr>y to ! doctr9e ( ! p]si/5ce ( physical en]gy to suppose a transition f ! "o prov9ce to ! o!r1 & if1 nev]!less1 ! two prov9ces exi/ 9 our exp]i5ce z di/9ct1 !n ! two sets ( ph5om5a mu/ be unfold$ simultane\sly1 ea* accord+ to its laws1 s t = e ph5om5on 9 ! _w ( consci\sness !re is a correspond+ ph5om5on 9 ! _w ( matt]1 & conv]sely 7s f> z !re is reason to suppose t consci\s life is correlat$ ) mat]ial ph5om5a74 ,! p>allels already drawn po9t directly to su* a relation2 x w\ld be an amaz+ accid5t1 if1 :ile ! *>act]i/ic m>ks repeat$ !mselves 9 ?is way1 !re 7 n at ! f\ndation an inn] connection4 ,bo? ! p>allelism & ! proportionality betwe5 ! activity ( consci\sness & c]ebral activity po9t to an id5tity at bottom4 ,! diff]5ce :i* rema9s 9 spite ( ! po9ts ( agreem5t compels u to suppose t "o & ! same pr9ciple has f\nd its expression 9 a d\ble =m4 ,we h no "r to take m9d & body = two be+s or sub/ances 9 reciprocal int]action4 ,we are1 on ! contr>y1 impell$ to conceive ! mat]ial int]action betwe5 ! elem5ts compos+ ! bra9 & n]v\s sy/em z an out] =m ( ! inn] ideal unity ( consci\sness4 ,:at we 9 our inn] exp]i5ce become consci\s ( z ?\ght1 feel+1 & resolution1 is ?us repres5t$ 9 ! mat]ial _w by c]ta9 mat]ial processes ( ! bra91 :i* z su* are subject to ! law ( ! p]si/5ce ( en]gy1 al?\gh ?is law _c be appli$ to ! relation betwe5 c]ebral & consci\s processes4 ,x is z ?\gh ! same ?+ 7 said 9 two languages4 ,"s moni/s are 9 ! habit ( speak+ ( ! "o ,be+ to :i* !y ref] ph5om5a ( all sorts z ! ,absolute4 ,! ^w is a vague "o1 & means v diff]5t ?+s 9 diff]5t philosophies4 ,x has be5 some:at broadly def9$ z ! ultimate pr9ciple ( explanation ( ! univ]se4 ,he :o turns to "o pr9ciple ( explanation w conceive ! ,absolute 9 "o way1 & he :o turns to ano!r w1 naturally1 und]/& some?+ else by ! ^w4 ,?us1 ! ideali/ may conceive ( ! ,absolute z an all-inclusive ,m9d1 ( :i* f9ite m9ds are p>ts4 ,to ,sp5c]1 x is ! ,unkn[able1 a some?+ beh9d ! veil ( ph5om5a4 ,sometimes x means to a writ] mu* ! same ?+ t ! ^w ,god means to o!r m52 sometimes x has a significance at ! f>!/ remove f ?is 7section #ec74 ,inde$1 ! ^w is s vague & ambigu\s1 & has prov$ itself ! "m ( s _m confusions1 t x w\ld seem a desirable ?+ to drop x out ( philosophy altoge!r1 & to sub/itute = x "s less ambigu\s expression4 ,x seems cle> f ! prec$+ pages1 t1 be=e "o ei!r accepts or rejects monism1 "o %\ld v c>efully det]m9e j :at "o means by ! ^w1 & %\ld scrut9ize ! consid]ations :i* may be urg$ 9 favor ( ! p>ticul> doctr9e 9 "q4 ,!re are all sorts ( monism1 & m5 embrace !m = all sorts ( reasons4 ,let me beg ! read] to be> 9 m9d2-- 7#a7 ,! moni/ may be a mat]iali/2 he may be an ideali/2 he may be nei!r4 ,9 ! la/ case1 he may1 ) ,sp9oza1 call ! "o ,sub/ance ,god2 t is1 he may be a ,pan!i/4 ,on ! o!r h&1 he may1 ) ,sp5c]1 call x ! ,unkn[able1 & be an ,agno/ic4 ,o!r %ades ( op9ion are op5 to him1 if he c>es to *oose !m4 7#b7 ,x does n seem wise to ass5t ha/ily to su* /atem5ts z2 ,! univ]se is ! manife/ation ( "o unit>y ,be+2 or3 ,m9d & matt] are ! expression ( "o & ! same pr9ciple4 ,we f9d reveal$ 9 our exp]i5ce m5tal ph5om5a & physical ph5om5a4 ,9 :at s5se !y are "o1 or :e!r !y are "o 9 any s5se1--?is is some?+ to be det]m9$ by an exam9ation ( ! ph5om5a & ( ! relations 9 :i* we f9d !m4 ,x may turn out t ! univ]se is "o only 9 ! s5se t all ph5om5a belong to ! "o ord]ly sy/em4 ,if we f9d t ?is is ! case1 we may /ill1 if we *oose1 call our doctr9e monism1 b we %\ld c>efully di/+ui% su* a monism f ^? repres5t$ by ,hffd+ & ,sp5c] & _m o!rs4 ,!re seems little reason to use ! ^w1 :5 ! doctr9e has be5 s f> modifi$4 #eh4 ,,dualism4--,! pla9 man f9ds himself 9 a _w ( physical ?+s & ( m9ds1 & x seems to him t 8 exp]i5ce directly te/ifies to ! exi/5ce ( bo?4 ,?is means t ! ?+s ( :i* he has exp]i5ce appe> to belong to two di/9ct classes4 ,x does n mean1 ( c\rse1 t he has only two k9ds ( exp]i5ces4 ,! ph5om5a :i* are reveal$ to u are indef9itely v>i$2 all physical ph5om5a are n j alike1 & all m5tal ph5om5a are n j alike4 ,nev]!less1 amid all ! bewild]+ v>iety t =ces itself ^u our att5tion1 !re /&s out "o broad di/9ction1 t ( ! physical & ! m5tal4 ,x is a di/9ction t ! man :o has done no read+ 9 ! philosoph]s is sc>cely tempt$ to oblit]ate2 to him ! _w consi/s ( two k9ds ( ?+s widely diff]5t f ea* o!r2 m9ds are n mat]ial ?+s & mat]ial ?+s are n m9ds4 ,we are ju/ifi$ 9 reg>d+ ?is z ! op9ion ( ! pla9 man ev5 :5 we recognize t1 9 8 endeavor to make cle> to himself :at he means by m9ds1 he sometimes speaks z ?\gh he 7 talk+ ab\t some?+ mat]ial or semi-mat]ial4 ,n[1 ! mat]iali/ all[s ^! two classes to run toge!r2 s does ! ideali/4 ,! "o says t ev]y?+ is matt]2 ! o!r1 t ev]y?+ is m9d4 ,x w\ld be fooli% to ma9ta9 t no?+ c be said = ei!r doctr9e1 = m5 ( ability h embrac$ ea*4 ,b "o may at lea/ say t bo? seem to be refut$ by our common exp]i5ce ( ! _w1 an exp]i5ce :i*1 s f> z x is p]mitt$ to te/ify at all1 lifts up its voice 9 favor ( ,dualism4 ,dualism is sometimes def9$ z ! doctr9e t !re are 9 ! _w two k9ds ( sub/ances1 matt] & m9d1 :i* are diff]5t 9 k9d & %\ld be kept di/9ct4 ,!re are duali/s :o pref] to avoid ! use ( ! ^w sub/ance1 & to say t ! _w ( our exp]i5ces consi/s ( physical ph5om5a & ( m5tal ph5om5a1 & t ^! two classes ( facts %\ld be kept sep>ate4 ,! duali/ may ma9ta9 t we h a direct k ( matt] & ( m9d1 & he may cont5t himself ) su* a /atem5t1 do+ little to make cle> :at we mean by matt] & by m9d4 ,9 ?is case1 8 position is little diff]5t f t ( ! pla9 man :o does n attempt to philosophize4 ,?omas ,reid 7section #ej7 belongs to ?is class4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! duali/ may attempt to make cle>1 ?r\gh philosophical reflection1 :at we mean by ! matt] & m9d :i* exp]i5ce seems to give u4 ,he may conclude3-- 7#a7 ,t he mu/ hold1 z did ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 t we p]ceive directly only physical & m5tal ph5om5a1 b are ju/ifi$ 9 inf]r+ t1 s9ce ! ph5om5a are diff]5t1 !re mu/ be two k9ds ( und]ly+ sub/ances to :i* ! ph5om5a are ref]r$4 ,?us1 he may di/+ui% betwe5 ! two sub/ances & _! manife/ations1 z "s moni/s di/+ui% betwe5 ! "o sub/ance & its manife/ations4 7#b7 ,or he may conclude t x is futile to se>* = sub/ances or realities ( any sort beh9d ph5om5a1 argu+ t su* realities are nev] reveal$ 9 exp]i5ce1 & t no s\nd reason = _! assumption c be adduc$4 ,9 ?is case1 he may try to make pla9 :at m9d & matt] are1 by simply analyz+ our exp]i5ces ( m9d & matt] & com+ to a cle>] compreh5sion ( _! nature4 ,z ! read] has probably rem>k$1 ! philosophy pres5t$ 9 ! e>li] *apt]s ( ?is book 7,*apt]s ,,iii to ,,xi7 is duali/ic z well z reali/ic4 ,t is to say1 x refuses to rub out ! di/9ction betwe5 physical ph5om5a & m5tal ph5om5a1 ei!r by dissolv+ ! mat]ial _w into ideas2 by call+ ideas secretions or functions ( ! bra92 or by decl>+ !m "o 9 a fictiti\s entity beh9d ! veil & n suppos$ to be exactly id5tical ) ei!r4 ,& z x tea*es t ! only reality t x means any?+ to talk ab\t mu/ be f\nd 9 exp]i5ce1 x is a dualism ( ! type describ$ 9 ! p>agraph :i* imm$iately prec$es4 ,su* a philosophy does n seem to d viol5ce to ! common exp]i5ce ( m9ds & ( physical ?+s %>$ by u all1 :e!r we are philosoph]s or are n4 ,x only tries to make cle> :at we all "k dimly & vaguely4 ,?is is1 ,i ?9k1 a po9t 9 its favor4 ,h[ev]1 m5 ( great ability & ( mu* le>n+ h incl9$ to doctr9es v diff]5t2 & we h no "r to make up our m9ds on su* a subject z ?is )\t try+ to give !m an att5tive & an imp>tial he>+4 #ei4 ,,s+ul>ism ,,& ,,pluralism4--,!re are ^? :o apply to ! v>i\s =ms ( monism ! title ,s+ul>ism1 & :o contra/ ) ?is ,pluralism1 a ^w :i* is meant to cov] ! v>i\s doctr9es :i* ma9ta9 t !re is m ?an "o ultimate pr9ciple or be+ 9 ! univ]se4 ,x is argu$ t we %\ld h "s ^w "u :i* we may br+ su* a doctr9e1 = example1 z t ( ! ,greek philosoph] ,emp$ocles 7born ab\t #dij ,b4,c474 ,?is ?9k] made e>?1 wat]1 fire1 & air ! f\r mat]ial pr9ciples or roots ( ?+s4 ,he 0 n a moni/1 & we c c]ta9ly n call him a duali/4 ,aga94 ,! t]m pluralism has be5 us$ to indicate ! doctr9e t individual f9ite m9ds are n p>ts or manife/ations ( "o all-embrac+ ,m9d1--( ,god or ! ,absolute1--b are relatively indep5d5t be+s4 ,?is doctr9e has be5 urg$ 9 our own "t1 ) eloqu5ce & feel+1 by ,pr(essor ,h[ison4#b ,"h we h a pluralism :i* is ideali/ic1 = x admits 9 ! univ]se b "o k9d ( ?+1 m9ds2 & yet refuses to call itself moni/ic4 ,x w readily be se5 t 9 ?is p>agraph & 9 ! "o prec$+ ! ^w is us$ 9 diff]5t s5ses4 ,i h add$ ! above s5t5ces to ?is *apt] t ! read] may h an explanation ( ! mean+ ( a ^w sometimes met )4 ,b ! title ( ! *apt] is ,monism & ,dualism1 & x is ( ?is contra/ t x is especially important to grasp ! significance4 #a ,outl9es ( ,psy*ology1 pp4 #fd-fe1 ,engli% translation1 #ahia4 #b ,! ,limits ( ,evolution1 & ,o!r ,essays1 revis$ edition4 ,new ,york1 #aije4 ,,*apt] ,,xv ,,rationalism1 ,,empiricism1 ,,criticism1 ,,& ,,critical ,,empiricism #fj4 ,,rationalism4--,z ! cont5t ( a philosophical doctr9e mu/ be det]m9$ by ! initial assumptions :i* a philosoph] makes & by ! me?od :i* he adopts 9 8 reason+s1 x is well to exam9e ) "s c>e c]ta9 broad diff]5ces 9 ?is respect :i* *>act]ize diff]5t philosoph]s1 & :i* help to expla9 h[ x is t ! results ( _! reflections are s />tl+ly diff]5t4 ,i %all fir/ speak ( ,rationalism1 :i* ,i may some:at loosely def9e z ! doctr9e t ! reason c atta9 tru?s indep5d5tly ( obs]vation--c g beyond exp]i5c$ fact & ! d$uctions :i* exp]i5ce seems to ju/ify u 9 mak+ f exp]i5c$ fact4 ,! def9ition _c mean mu* to u until x is int]pret$ by a concrete example1 & ,i %all turn to su*4 ,x mu/1 h[ev]1 be borne 9 m9d t ! ^w rationalism is meant to cov] a great v>iety ( op9ions1 & we h said comp>atively little ab\t him :5 we h call$ a man a rationali/ 9 philosophy4 ,m5 may agree 9 believ+ t ! reason c g beyond exp]i5c$ fact1 & yet may diff] reg>d+ ! p>ticul> tru?s :i* may be ?us atta9$4 ,n[1 :5 ,desc>tes f\nd himself discont5t$ ) ! philosophy t he & o!rs _h inh]it$ f ! ,middle ,ages1 & und]took a recon/ruction1 he f\nd x necess>y to ?r[ ov] a va/ am\nt ( :at _h pass$ z tru?1 if only ) a view to build+ up aga9 ^u a firm] f\ndation4 ,x appe>$ to him t mu* 0 uncritically accept$ z true 9 philosophy & 9 ! sci5ces :i* a little reflection reveal$ to be ei!r false or highly d\btful4 ,accord+ly1 he decid$ to cle> ! gr\nd by a sweep+ d\bt1 & to beg9 8 task q indep5d5tly4 ,9 accordance ) ?is pr9ciple1 he reject$ ! te/imony ( ! s5ses t\*+ ! exi/5ce ( a _w ( ext]nal ?+s4 ,d n ! s5ses sometimes deceive u8 ,&1 s9ce m5 seem to be liable to error 9 _! reason+s1 ev5 9 a field s secure z t ( ma!matical demon/ration1 he resolv$ fur!r to repudiate all ! reason+s he _h h]et(ore accept$4 ,he w\ld n ev5 assume himself to be 9 8 "r m9d & awake2 might he n be ! victim ( a diseas$ fancy1 or a man delud$ by dreams8 ,c\ld any?+ :atev] escape ?is all-dev\r+ d\bt8 ,"o tru? seem$ un%akable3 8 own exi/5ce1 at lea/1 em]g$ f ?is sea ( unc]ta9ties4 ,i may be deceiv$ 9 ?9k+ t !re is an ext]nal _w1 & t ,i am awake & really p]ceive ?+s2 b ,i surely _c be deceiv$ unless ,i exi/4 ,cogito1 ergo sum--,i ?9k1 h5ce ,i exi/2 ?is tru? ,desc>tes accept$ z ! fir/ pr9ciple ( ! new & s\nd] philosophy :i* he s\ght4 ,z we read f>!r 9 ,desc>tes we discov] t he takes back aga9 a great _m ( ^? ?+s t he _h at ! outset reject$ z unc]ta94 ,?us1 he accepts an ext]nal _w ( mat]ial ?+s4 ,h[ does he e/abli% its exi/5ce8 ,he _c d x z ! empirici/ does x1 by a ref]5ce to exp]i5c$ fact1 = he does n believe t ! ext]nal _w is directly giv5 9 our exp]i5ce4 ,he ?9ks we are directly consci\s only ( our ideas ( x1 & mu/ someh[ prove t x exi/s ov] aga9/ our ideas4 ,by 8 pr9ciples1 ,desc>tes is compell$ to fall back ^u a curi\s r\ndab\t argum5t to prove t !re is a _w4 ,he mu/ fir/ prove t ,god exi/s1 & !n argue t ,god w\ld n deceive u into ?9k+ t x exi/s :5 x does n4 ,n[1 :5 we come to exam9e ,desc>tes' reason+s 9 detail we f9d :at appe> to u "s v uncritical assumptions4 ,?us1 he proves ! exi/5ce ( ,god by ! foll[+ argum5t3-- ,i exi/1 & ,i f9d 9 me ! idea ( ,god2 ( ?is idea ,i _c be ! au?or1 = x repres5ts some?+ mu* great] ?an ,i1 & its cause mu/ be z great z ! reality x repres5ts4 ,9 o!r words1 no?+ less ?an ,god c be ! cause ( ! idea ( ,god :i* ,i f9d 9 me1 &1 h5ce1 ,i may inf] t ,god exi/s4 ,:]e did ,desc>tes get ?is notion t e idea mu/ h a cause :i* conta9s z mu* ext]nal reality z ! idea does repres5t$ reality8 ,h[ does he prove 8 assumption8 ,he simply appeals to :at he calls ! natural light1 :i* is = him a s\rce ( all sorts ( in=mation :i* _c be d]iv$ f exp]i5ce4 ,?is natural light furni%es him ) a va/ numb] ( et]nal tru?s1 ^! he has n br\ght "u ! sickle ( 8 sweep+ d\bt1 & ^! help him to build up aga9 ! _w he has ov]?r[n1 beg9n+ ) ! "o indubitable fact discuss$ above4 ,to ! m5 ( a lat] "t _m ( ,desc>tes' et]nal tru?s are simply inh]it$ philosophical prejudices1 ! results ( ! reflections ( e>li] ?9k]s1 & 9 sad ne$ ( revision4 ,i %all n criticise !m 9 detail4 ,! important po9t = u to notice is t we h "h a type ( philosophy :i* dep5ds ^u tru?s reveal$ by ! reason1 indep5d5tly ( exp]i5ce1 to c>ry "o beyond ! sph]e ( exp]i5ce4 ,i aga9 rem9d ! read] t !re are all sorts ( rationali/s1 9 ! philosophical s5se ( ! ^w4 ,"s tru/ ! p[] ( ! unaid$ reason )\t res]ve4 ,?us ,sp9oza1 ! pan!i/1 made ! magnific5t b misguid$ attempt to d$uce ! :ole sy/em ( ?+s physical & ?+s m5tal f :at he call$ ! attributes ( ,god1 ,ext5sion & ,?\ght4 ,on ! o!r h&1 "o may be a good deal ( an empirici/1 & yet some?+ ( a rationali/1 too4 ,?us ,pr(essor ,/rong1 9 8 rec5t brilliant book1 ,:y ! ,m9d has a ,body1 ma9ta9s t we "k intuitively t o!r m9ds ?an our own exi/2 "k x )\t ga!r+ our in=mation f exp]i5ce1 & )\t hav+ to e/abli% ! fact 9 any way4 ,?is seems1 at lea/1 ak9 to ! doctr9e ( ! natural light1 & yet no "o c say t ,pr(essor ,/rong does n1 9 g5]al1 believe 9 a philosophy ( obs]vation & exp]im5t4 #fa4 ,,empiricism4--,i suppose e "o :o has done "s read+ 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy w1 if 8 "m tongue be ,engli%1 ?9k ( ! "n ( ,john ,locke :5 empiricism is m5tion$4 ,locke1 9 8 ,essay conc]n+ ,human ,und]/&+1 und]takes to inquire into ! orig9al1 c]ta9ty1 & ext5t ( human k1 toge!r ) ! gr\nds & degrees ( belief1 op9ion1 & ass5t4 ,8 sob] & cauti\s "w1 :i* 0 fir/ publi%$ 9 #afij1 0 peculi>ly ,engli% 9 "*2 & ! _s :i* x exemplifies animates also ,locke's fam\s successors1 ,george ,b]keley 7#afhd-agec71 ,david ,hume 7#agaa-aggf71 & ,john ,/u>t ,mill 7#ahjf-ahgc74 ,al?\gh ,locke 0 a reali/1 ,b]keley an ideali/1 ,hume a skeptic1 & ,mill :at has be5 call$ a s5sationali/2 yet all 7 empirici/s ( a sort1 & emphasiz$ ! necessity ( f\nd+ our k ^u exp]i5ce4 ,n[1 ,locke 0 famili> ) ! writ+s ( ,desc>tes1 ^: "w he admir$1 b ^: rationalism (f5d$ him4 ,! fir/ book ( ! ,essay is devot$ to ! pro( t !re are 9 ! m9d ( man no innate ideas & no innate pr9ciples4 ,t is to say1 ,locke tries to %[ t "o mu/ n seek1 9 ! natural light to :i* ,desc>tes turn$1 a di/9ct & indep5d5t s\rce ( in=mation1 ,let u1 !n1 he cont9ues1 suppose ! m9d to be1 z we say1 :ite pap]1 void ( all *>act]s1 )\t any ideas2 h[ comes x to be furni%$8 ,:5ce comes x by t va/ /ore :i* ! busy & b\ndless fancy ( man has pa9t$ on x1 ) an almo/ endless v>iety8 ,:5ce has x all ! mat]ials ( reason & k8 ,to ?is ,i answ] 9 "o ^w1 f exp]i5ce2 9 t all our k is f\nd$1 & f t x ultimately d]ives itself4 ,our obs]vation1 employ$ ei!r ab\t ext]nal s5sible objects1 or ab\t ! int]nal op]ations ( our m9ds1 p]ceiv$ & reflect$ on by ourselves1 is t :i* supplies our und]/&+s ) all ! mat]ials ( ?9k+4 ,^! two are ! f\nta9s ( k1 f :5ce all ! ideas we h1 or c naturally h1 d spr+4 #a ,?us1 all we "k & all we ev] %all "k ( ! _w ( matt] & ( m9ds mu/ re/ ultimately ^u obs]vation1--obs]vation ( ext]nal ?+s & ( our own m9d4 ,we mu/ clip ! erratic w+ ( a reason :i* seeks to so> beyond su* k2 :i* leaves ! solid e>?1 & hangs susp5d$ 9 ! void4 ,b hold1 exclaims ! critical read]2 h we n se5 t ,locke1 z well z ,desc>tes 7section #dh71 claims to "k :at he _c prove by direct obs]vation or ev5 by a legitimate inf]5ce f :at has be5 directly obs]v$8 ,does he n ma9ta9 t ! m9d has an imm$iate k or exp]i5ce only ( its own ideas8 ,h[ c he prove t !re are mat]ial ext5d$ ?+s outside caus+ ^! ideas8 ,& if he _c prove x by an appeal to exp]i5ce1 to direct obs]vation1 is he n1 9 accept+ ! exi/5ce ( ! ext]nal _w at all1 j z truly z ,desc>tes1 a rationali/8 ,! objection is well tak54 ,on 8 own pr9ciples1 ,locke _h no "r to believe 9 an ext]nal _w4 ,he has /ol5 8 _w1 s to speak2 he has tak5 x by viol5ce4 ,nev]!less1 z ,i po9t$ out 9 ! section above ref]r$ to1 ,locke is n a rationali/ ( malice prep5se4 ,he tries to be an empirici/4 ,he believes 9 ! ext]nal _w because he ?9ks x is directly reveal$ to ! s5ses--he inconsi/5tly ref]s to exp]i5ce z evid5ce ( its exi/5ce4 ,x has (t5 be5 claim$ by ^? :o d n sympa?ize ) empiricism t ! empirici/s make assumptions mu* z o!rs d1 b h n ! grace to admit x4 ,i ?9k we mu/ frankly confess t a man may try h>d to be an empirici/ & may n be :olly successful4 ,moreov]1 reflection =ces u to ! conclusion t :5 we h def9$ empiricism z a doctr9e :i* re/s ?r\gh\t ^u an appeal to exp]i5ce we h n said any?+ v def9ite4 ,:at is exp]i5ce8 ,:at may we accept z directly reveal$ fact8 ,! answ] to su* que/ions is f> f an easy "o to give4 ,x is a h>d] matt] to discuss intellig5tly ?an any "o c at all realize until he has sp5t "s ye>s 9 foll[+ ! ef=ts ( ! philosoph]s to det]m9e :at is reveal$ fact4 ,we are suppos$ to h exp]i5ce ( our own m9ds1 ( space1 ( "t1 ( matt]4 ,:at are ^! ?+s z reveal$ 9 our exp]i5ce8 ,we h se5 9 ! e>li] *apt]s ( ?is book t "o _c answ] su* que/ions (f-h&4 #fb4 ,,criticism4--,i h 9 ano!r *apt] 7section #ea7 giv5 a brief acc\nt ( ! philosophy ( ,immanuel ,kant4 ,he call$ 8 doctr9e ,criticism1 & he di/+ui%$ x f ,dogmatism & ,empiricism4 ,e philosophy t transc5ds exp]i5ce1 )\t fir/ critically exam9+ our faculty ( k & det]m9+ its "r to spread its w+s 9 ?is way1 ,kant calls dogmatism4 ,! ^w seems r an (f5sive "o1 9 its usual signification1 at lea/2 & x is z well n to use x4 ,z ,kant us$ ! ^w1 ,desc>tes 0 a dogmati/2 b let u r call him a rationali/4 ,he c]ta9ly _h no int5tion ( proce$+ uncritically1 z we %all see a little lat]4 ,if we call him a dogmati/ we seem to condemn him 9 advance1 by apply+ to him an abusive epi!t4 ,empiricism1 accord+ to ,kant1 conf9es human k to exp]i5ce1 & ?us avoids ! errors :i* beset ! dogmati/4 ,b !n1 z ,hume seem$ to h %[n1 empiricism mu/ run out into skepticism4 ,if all our k has its f\ndations 9 exp]i5ce1 h[ c we expect to f9d 9 our possession any univ]sal or necess>y tru?s8 ,may n a lat] exp]i5ce contradict an e>li]8 ,h[ c we be sure t :at has be5 w be8 ,c we "k t !re is any?+ fix$ & c]ta9 9 our _w8 ,skepticism seem$ a =lorn doctr9e1 &1 ca/+ ab\t = a way ( escape f x1 ,kant hit ^u ! exp$i5t :i* ,i h describ$4 ,s long z we ma9ta9 t our k has no o!r s\rce ?an ! exp]i5ces :i* ! _w impr9ts ^u u1 s to speak1 f )\t1 we are )\t ! p[] ( pr$iction1 = new exp]i5ces may annihilate any g5]alizations we h f\nd$ ^u ^? already v\*saf$ u2 b if we assume t ! _w ^u :i* we gaze1 ! _w ( ph5om5a1 is made :at x is by ! m9d t p]ceives x1 are we n 9 a diff]5t position8 ,suppose1 = example1 we take ! /atem5t t !re mu/ be an adequate cause ( all ! *anges t take place 9 ! _w4 ,c a m]e exp]i5ce ( :at has be5 9 ! pa/ gu>antee t ?is law w hold good 9 ! future8 ,b1 :5 we realize t ! _w ( :i* we are speak+ is no?+ m ?an a _w ( ph5om5a1 ( exp]i5ces1 & realize fur!r t ?is :ole _w is con/ruct$ by ! m9d out ( ! raw mat]ials furni%$ by ! s5ses1 may we n h a great] confid5ce 9 our law8 ,if x is ! nature ( ! m9d to connect ! ph5om5a pres5t$ to x ) "o ano!r z cause & effect1 may we n ma9ta9 t no ph5om5on c possibly make its appe>ance t defies ! law 9 "q8 ,h[ c\ld x appe> except "u ! conditions laid ^u all ph5om5a8 ,if x is our nature to ?9k ! _w z an ord]ly "o1 & if we c "k no _w save ! "o we con/ruct ourselves1 ! ord]l9ess ( all ! ?+s we c "k seems to be gu>ante$ to u4 ,x w be notic$ t ,kant's doctr9e has a negative side4 ,he limits our k to ph5om5a1 to exp]i5ces1 & he is himself1 9 s f>1 an empirici/4 ,b 9 t he f9ds 9 exp]i5ce an ord]1 an arrangem5t ( ?+s1 n d]iv$ f exp]i5ce 9 ! usual s5se ( ! ^w1 he is n an empirici/4 ,he has paid 8 own doctr9e ! complim5t ( call+ x criticism1 z ,i h said4 ,n[1 ,i beg ! read] to be "h1 z else:]e1 on 8 gu>d aga9/ ! associations :i* atta* to words4 ,9 call+ ,kant's doctr9e ! critical philosophy1 we are 9 "s dang] ( uncritically assum+ & lead+ o!rs to believe uncritically t x is free f su* defects z may be expect$ to atta* to dogmatism & to empiricism4 ,su* a position %\ld n be tak5 until "o has made a mo/ c>eful exam9ation ( ea* ( ! ?ree types ( doctr9e1 ( ! assumptions :i* x makes1 & ( ! rigor ) :i* x draws inf]5ces ^u ! basis ( su* assumptions4 ,t we may be ! bett] able to )/& undue influ5ce1 ,i call att5tion to ! foll[+ po9ts3-- 7#a7 ,we mu/ be> 9 m9d t ! attempt to make a critical exam9ation into ! f\ndations ( our k1 & to det]m9e its scope1 is by no means a new ?+4 ,among ! ,greeks1 ,plato1 ,ari/otle1 ! ,/oics1 ! ,epicureans1 & ! ,skeptics1 all attack$ ! problem4 ,x did n1 ( c\rse1 pres5t itself to ^! m5 9 ! precise =m 9 :i* x pres5t$ itself to ,kant1 b ea* & all 7 conc]n$ to f9d an answ] to ! "q3 ,c we "k any?+ ) c]ta9ty2 &1 if s1 :at8 ,!y may h fail$ to be ?or\ghly critical1 b !y c]ta9ly made ! attempt4 ,i %all omit m5tion ( ! long s]ies ( o!rs1 :o1 s9ce t "t1 h c>ri$ on ! tradition1 & %all speak only ( ,desc>tes & ,locke1 :om ,i h above br\ght =w>d z repres5tatives ( ! two types ( doctr9e t ,kant contra/s ) 8 own4 ,to see h[ /r5u\sly ,desc>tes endeavor$ to subject 8 k to a critical scrut9y & to avoid unju/ifiable assumptions ( any sort1 "o has only to read t *>m+ little "w ( g5ius1 ! ,disc\rse on ! ,me?od ( ,rightly ,conduct+ ! ,reason4 ,9 8 y\? ,desc>tes 01 z he in=ms u1 an eag] /ud5t2 b1 :5 he _h f9i%$ ! :ole c\rse ( education usually prescrib$1 he f\nd himself s full ( d\bts & errors t he did n feel t he _h advanc$ 9 le>n+ at all4 ,yet he _h be5 well tutor$1 & 0 consid]$ z bright 9 m9d z o!rs4 ,he 0 l$ to judge 8 neighbor by himself1 & to conclude t !re exi/$ no su* c]ta9 sci5ce z he _h be5 taught to suppose4 ,hav+ rip5$ ) ye>s & exp]i5ce1 ,desc>tes set ab\t ! task ( :i* ,i h spok5 above1 ! task ( sweep+ away ! :ole body ( 8 op9ions & ( attempt+ a g5]al & sy/ematic recon/ruction4 ,s important a "w %\ld be1 he ?\ght1 approa*$ ) circumspection2 h5ce1 he =mulat$ c]ta9 ,rules ( ,me?od4 ,! fir/1 he writes1 0 nev] to accept any?+ = true :i* ,i did n cle>ly "k to be su*2 t is1 c>efully to avoid ha/e & prejudice1 & to include no?+ m 9 my judgm5ts ?an :at 0 pres5t$ to my m9d s cle>ly & di/9ctly z to exclude all reason = d\bt4 ,su* 0 our philosoph]'s design1 & su* ! _s 9 :i* he set ab\t x4 ,we h se5 ! result above4 ,x is z if ,desc>tes _h decid$ t a c]ta9 room full ( p did n appe> to be free f suspici\s *>act]s1 & _h cle>$ out e "o1 aft]w>ds po/+ himself at ! door to readmit only ^? :o prov$ !mselves wor?y4 ,:5 we exam9e ^? :o succe$$ 9 pass+ mu/]1 we discov] he has favor$ all 8 old fri5ds4 ,he simply _c d\bt !m2 are !y n v\*$ = by ! natural light8 ,nev]!less1 we mu/ n =get t ,desc>tes sift$ 8 congregation ) mu* travail ( _s4 ,he did try to be critical4 ,z = ,john ,locke1 he reveals 9 ! ,epi/le to ! ,read]1 :i* /&s z a preface to ! ,essay1 ! critical _s 9 :i* 8 "w 0 tak5 up4 ,7 x fit to tr\ble !e1 he writes1 ) ! hi/ory ( ?is ,essay1 ,i %\ld tell !e1 t five or six fri5ds meet+ at my *amb]1 & disc\rs+ on a subject v remote f ?is1 f\nd !mselves quickly at a /&1 by ! difficulties t rose on e side4 ,aft] we _h a :ile puzzl$ ourselves1 )\t com+ any ne>] a resolution ( ^? d\bts :i* p]plex$ u1 x came into my ?\ghts1 t we took a wrong c\rse2 & t be=e we set ourselves ^u inquiries ( t nature1 x 0 necess>y to exam9e our own abilities1 & to see :at objects our und]/&+s 71 or 7 n1 fitt$ to deal )4 ,?is problem1 propos$ by himself to 8 little circle ( fri5ds1 ,locke attack$ ) e>ne/ness1 & z a result he br\ght out _m ye>s lat] ! "w :i* has s9ce become s fam\s4 ,! book is lit]ally a critique ( ! reason1 al?\gh a v diff]5t critique f t work$ out by ,kant4 ,if1 by ?is inquiry into ! nature ( ! und]/&+1 says ,locke1 ,i c discov] ! p[]s !re(1 h[ f> !y rea*1 to :at ?+s !y are 9 any degree proportionate1 & :]e !y fail u2 ,i suppose x may be ( use to prevail ) ! busy m9d ( man to be m cauti\s 9 m$dl+ ) ?+s exce$+ its compreh5sion2 to /op :5 x is at ! utmo/ ext5t ( its te!r2 & to sit d[n 9 a quiet ignorance ( ^? ?+s :i* ^u exam9ation are f\nd to be beyond ! rea* ( our capacities4 #b ,to ! difficulties ( ! task our au?or is fully alive3 ,! und]/&+1 l ! eye1 :il/ x makes u see & p]ceive all o!r ?+s1 takes no notice ( itself2 & x requires art & pa9s to set x at a di/ance1 & make x its own object4 ,b :atev] be ! difficulties t lie 9 ! way ( ?is inquiry1 :atev] x be t keeps u s mu* 9 ! d>k to ourselves1 sure ,i am t all ! light we c let 9 ^u our own m9ds1 all ! acqua9tance we c make ) our own und]/&+s1 w n only be v pleasant1 b br+ u great advantage1 9 direct+ our ?\ghts 9 ! se>*1 ( o!r ?+s4 #c 7#b7 ,?us1 _m m5 h attempt$ to produce a critical philosophy1 & 9 mu* ! same s5se z t 9 :i* ,kant uses ! words4 ,^? :o h come aft] !m h decid$ t !y 7 n suffici5tly critical1 t !y h made unju/ifiable assumptions4 ,:5 we come to read ,kant1 we w1 if we h read ! hi/ory ( philosophy ) pr(it1 n =get to ask ourselves if he has n s9n$ 9 ! same way4 ,= example1 we w ask2-- 7a7 ,0 ,kant "r 9 ma9ta9+ t we f9d 9 exp]i5ce syn!tic judgm5ts 7section #ea7 t are n f\nd$ ^u exp]i5ce1 b yield su* in=mation z is beyond ! rea* ( ! empirici/8 ,!re are ^? :o ?9k t ! judgm5ts to :i* he alludes 9 evid5ce ( 8 cont5tion--! ma!matical1 = in/ance--are n ( ?is "*4 7b7 ,0 he ju/ifi$ 9 assum+ t all ! ord]+ ( our _w is due to ! activity ( m9d1 & t m]ely ! raw mat]ial is giv5 u ?r\gh ! s5ses8 ,!re are _m :o demur aga9/ su* a /atem5t1 & hold t x is1 if n 9 all s5ses untrue1 at lea/ highly mislead+1 s9ce x seems to argue t !re is no really ext]nal _w at all4 ,moreov]1 !y claim t ! doctr9e is nei!r self-evid5t nor susceptible ( prop] pro(4 7c7 ,0 ,kant ju/ifi$ 9 assum+ t1 ev5 if we attribute ! =m or arrangem5t ( ! _w we "k to ! native activity ( ! m9d1 ! necessity & univ]sality ( our k is assur$8 ,let u grant t ! proposition1 :atev] happ5s mu/ h an adequate cause1 is a =m ( ?\ght4 ,:at gu>antee h we t ! =ms ( ?\ght mu/ ev] rema9 *angeless8 ,if x is an assumption = ! empirici/ to decl>e t :at has be5 true 9 ! pa/ w be true 9 ! future1 t e>li] exp]i5ces ( ! _w w n be contradict$ by lat]2 :at is x = ! ,kantian to ma9ta9 t ! ord] :i* he f9ds 9 8 exp]i5ce w necess>ily & always be ! ord] ( all future exp]i5ces8 ,transf]r+ an assumption to ! field ( m9d does n make x less ( an assumption4 ,?us1 x does n seem unreasonable to *>ge ,kant ) be+ a good deal ( a rationali/4 ,he tri$ to conf9e our k to ! field ( exp]i5ce1 x is true2 b he made a numb] ( assumptions z to ! nature ( exp]i5ce :i* c]ta9ly d n %9e by _! own light1 & :i* _m ?\ghtful p]sons reg>d z incapable ( ju/ification4 ,kant's fam\s successors 9 ! ,g]man philosophy1 ,fi*te 7#agfb-ahad71 ,s*ell+ 7#agge-ahed71 ,hegel 7#aggj-ahca71 & ,s*op5hau] 7#aghh-ahfj71 all receiv$ _! impulse f ! critical philosophy1 & yet ea* develop$ 8 doctr9e 9 a relatively indep5d5t way4 ,i _c "h take ! space to *>act]ize ! sy/ems ( ^! m52 ,i may m]ely rem>k t all ( !m contra/ /rongly 9 doctr9e & me?od ) ! ,briti% philosoph]s m5tion$ 9 ! la/ section1 ,locke1 ,b]keley1 ,hume1 & ,mill4 ,!y are un-empirical1 if "o may use su* a ^w2 &1 to "o accu/om$ to read+ ! ,engli% philosophy1 !y seem ev] ready to spread _! w+s & haz>d ! bolde/ ( flights )\t a prop] realization ( ! ?9ness ( ! atmosph]e 9 :i* !y mu/ support !mselves4 ,h[ev]1 no matt] :at may be "o's op9ion ( ! actual results atta9$ by ^! ,g]man philosoph]s1 "o mu/ frankly admit t no "o :o wi%es to und]/& cle>ly ! developm5t ( speculative ?\ght c af=d to disp5se ) a c>eful read+ ( !m4 ,mu* ev5 ( ! ,engli% philosophy ( our own day mu/ rema9 obscure to ^? :o h n look$ into _! pages4 ,?us1 ! ?\ght ( ,kant & ,hegel mold$ ! ?\ght ( ,?omas ,hill ,gre5 7#ahcf-ahhb7 & ( ! bro!rs ,caird2 & _! influ5ce has made itself widely felt bo? 9 ,engl& & 9 ,am]ica4 ,"o _c criticise intellig5tly books writt5 f _! /&po9t1 unless "o kn[s h[ ! au?ors came by _! doctr9e & out ( :at x has be5 develop$4 #fc4 ,,critical ,,empiricism4--,we h se5 t ! tr\ble ) ! rationali/s seem$ to be t !y made an appeal to et]nal tru?s1 :i* ^? :o foll[$ !m c\ld n admit to be et]nal tru?s at all4 ,!y proce$$ on a basis ( assumptions ! validity ( :i* 0 at once call$ 9 "q4 ,locke1 ! empirici/1 repudiat$ all ?is1 & !n also made assumptions :i* o!rs c\ld n1 & _c1 approve4 ,kant did some?+ ( mu* ! same sort2 we _c reg>d 8 criticism z :olly critical4 ,h[ c we avoid su* errors8 ,h[ walk cauti\sly1 & g ar\nd ! pit into :i*1 z x seems to u1 o!rs h fall58 ,i may z well tell ! read] frankly t he sets 8 hope too high if he expects to avoid all error & to "w out = himself a philosophy 9 all respects unassailable4 ,! difficulties ( reflective ?\ght are v great1 & we %\ld c>ry ) u a consci\sness ( t fact & a will+ness to revise our mo/ *]i%$ conclusions4 ,our initial difficulty seems to be t we mu/ beg9 by assum+ some?+1 if only z mat]ial ^u :i* to "w4 ,we mu/ beg9 our philosophiz+ some:]e4 ,:]e %all we beg98 ,may we n fall into error at ! v outset8 ,! doctr9e set =? 9 ! e>li] *apt]s ( ?is volume ma9ta9s t we mu/ accept z our mat]ial ! revelation ( ! m9d & ! _w :i* seems to be made 9 our common exp]i5ce1 & :i* is ext5d$ & sy/ematiz$ 9 ! sci5ces4 ,b x insi/s t we mu/ reg>d su* an acceptance z m]ely provisional1 mu/ subject our concepts to a c>eful criticism1 & mu/ always be on our gu>d aga9/ ha/y assumptions4 ,x emphasizes ! value ( ! light :i* hi/orical /udy ca/s ^u ! real mean+ ( ! concepts :i* we all use & mu/ use1 b :i* h s (t5 prov$ to be /ones ( /umbl+ 9 ! pa? ( ^? :o h employ$ !m4 ,its wat*word is analysis1 always analysis2 & a settl$ di/ru/ ( :at h s (t5 pass$ z self-evid5t tru?s4 ,x reg>ds x z its task to analyze exp]i5ce1 :ile ma9ta9+ t only ! satisfactory c>ry+ out ( su* an analysis c reveal :at exp]i5ce really is1 & cle> our notions ( x f mis9t]pretations4 ,no su* attempt to give an acc\nt ( exp]i5ce c be reg>d$ z fundam5tally new 9 its me?od4 ,e philosoph]1 9 8 own way1 criticises exp]i5ce1 & seeks its int]pretation4 ,b "o may1 w>n$ by ! example ( "o's pr$ecessors1 lay emphasis ^u ! dang] ( half-analyses & ha/y assumptions1 & c\nsel ! obs]vance ( sobriety & caution4 ,= conv5i5ce1 ,i h call$ ! doctr9e ,critical ,empiricism4 ,i w>n ! read] aga9/ ! s$uctive title1 & advise him n to all[ x to influ5ce him unduly 9 8 judgm5t ( ! doctr9e4 #fd4 ,,pragmatism4--,x seems "r t ,i %\ld1 be=e clos+ ?is *apt]1 say a few words ab\t ,pragmatism1 :i* has be5 s mu* discuss$ 9 ! la/ few ye>s4 ,9 #ahgh ,mr4 ,*>les ,s4 ,peirce wrote an article = ! ,popul> ,sci5ce ,mon?ly 9 :i* he propos$ z a maxim = ! atta9m5t ( cle>ness ( appreh5sion ! foll[+3 ,consid] :at effects1 :i* might conceivably h practical be>+s1 we conceive ! object ( our conception to h4 ,!n1 our conception ( ^! effects is ! :ole ( our conception ( ! object4 ,?is ?\ght has be5 tak5 up by o!rs & giv5 a developm5t :i* ,mr4 ,peirce reg>ds ) "s suspicion4 ,he ref]s#d especially to ! developm5t x has receiv$ at ! h&s ( ,pr(essor ,william ,james1 9 8 two essays1 ,! ,w to ,believe & ,philosophical ,conceptions & ,practical ,results4 #e ,pr(essor ,james is (t5 reg>d$ z =emo/ among ! pragmati/s4 ,i %all n attempt to def9e pragmatism1 = ,i d n believe t ! doctr9e has yet atta9$ to t def9it5ess ( =mulation :i* w>rants a def9ition4 ,we seem to h to d n s mu* ) a cle>-cut doctr9e1 ! limits & consequ5ces ( :i* h be5 work$ out 9 detail1 z ) a t5d5cy :i* makes itself app>5t 9 ! works ( v>i\s writ]s "u some:at diff]5t =ms4 ,i may r\ghly describe x z ! t5d5cy to take t to be true :i* is useful or s]viceable4 ,x is well illu/rat$ 9 ! two essays to :i* ref]5ce is made above4 ,?us1 ,pr(essor ,james dwells ^u ! unsatisfactor9ess & unc]ta9ty ( philosophical & sci5tific k3 ,objective evid5ce & c]titude are d\btless v f9e ideals to play )1 b :]e on ?is moonlit & dream-visit$ planet are !y f\nd8 ,n[1 among ^? ?+s reg>d+ :i* x appe>s impossible to atta9 to intellectual c]titude1 !re are matt]s ( great practical mom5t1 & :i* affect deeply ! conduct ( life2 = example1 ! doctr9es ( religion4 ,"h a m]ely skeptical attitude seems intol]able4 ,9 su* cases1 argues ,pr(essor ,james1 we h ! "r to believe at our own risk any hypo!sis t is live en\gh to tempt our w4 ,x is important to notice t !re is no "q "h ( a logical "r4 ,we are conc]n$ ) matt]s reg>d+ :i*1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,james1 we _c look = intellectual evid5ce4 ,x is assum$ t we believe simply because we *oose to believe--we believe arbitr>ily4 ,x is fur!r important to notice t :at is a live hypo!sis to "o man ne$ n tempt ! w ( ano!r man at all4 ,z our au?or po9ts out1 a ,turk w\ld naturally w to believe "o ?+ & a ,*ri/ian w\ld w to believe ano!r4 ,ea* w\ld w to believe :at /ruck him z a satisfactory ?+ to believe4 ,:at %all we say to ?is doctr9e8 ,i ?9k we mu/ say t x is cle>ly n a philosophical me?od ( atta9+ to tru?4 ,h5ce1 x has n prop]ly a place 9 ?is *apt] among ! attempts :i* h be5 made to atta9 to ! tru? ( ?+s4 ,x is1 9 fact1 n conc]n$ ) tru?s1 b ) assumptions1 & ) assumptions :i* are suppos$ to be made on ! basis ( no evid5ce4 ,x is conc]n$ ) seem+s4 ,! di/9ction is a v important "o4 ,our ,turk _c1 by will+ to believe x1 make 8 hypo!sis true2 b he c make x seem true4 ,:y %\ld he wi% to make x seem true :e!r x is true or n8 ,:y %\ld he /rive to atta9 to a feel+ ( subjective c]ta9ty1 n by logically resolv+ 8 d\bts1 b by ignor+ !m8 ,! answ] is giv5 u by our au?or4 ,he :o lives 9 ! mid/ ( d\bts1 & refuses to cut 8 knot ) ! sword ( belief1 misses ! good ( life4 ,?is is a practical problem1 & "o ( no small mom5t4 ,9 ! la/ section ( ?is book ,i h tri$ to indicate :at x is wise = a man to d :5 he is confront$ by d\bts :i* he _c resolve4 ,into ! g5]al "q :e!r ev5 a false belief may n1 "u "s circum/ances1 be m s]viceable ?an no belief at all1 ,i %all n ent]4 ,! po9t ,i wi% to emphasize is t !re is all ! diff]5ce 9 ! _w betwe5 produc+ a belief & prov+ a tru?4 ,we are compell$ to accept x z a fact t m51 "u ! influ5ce ( feel+1 c believe 9 ! abs5ce ( evid5ce1 or1 = t matt]1 c believe 9 spite ( evid5ce4 ,b a tru? _c be e/abli%$ 9 ! abs5ce ( evid5ce or 9 ! face ( adv]se evid5ce4 ,& !re is a v wide field 9 :i* x is made v cle> to u t beliefs adopt$ 9 ! abs5ce ( evid5ce are 9 dang] ( be+ false beliefs4 ,! pragmati/ w\ld jo9 ) ! re/ ( u 9 condemn+ ! ,turk or ! ,*ri/ian :o w\ld simply w to believe 9 ! rise or ! fall ( /ocks1 & w\ld refuse to consult ! /ate ( ! m>ket4 ,"s hypo!ses are1 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( ev5ts1 put to ! te/ ( v]ification4 ,we are !n made pa9fully aw>e t beliefs & tru?s are q di/9ct ?+s1 & may n be 9 h>mony4 ,n[1 ! pragmati/ does n apply 8 pr9ciple to ?is field4 ,he conf9es x to :at may n inaptly be call$ ! field ( ! unv]ifiable4 ,! ,turk1 :o wills to believe 9 ! hypo!sis t appeals to him z a pi\s ,turk1 is 9 no su* dang] ( a rude awak5+ z is ! man :o wills to believe t /ocks w g up or d[n4 ,b m>k :at ?is means3 x means t he is n 9 dang] ( f9d+ out :at ! tru? really is4 ,x does n mean t he is 9 possession ( ! tru?4 ,s ,i say1 ! doctr9e :i* we are discuss+ is n a me?od ( atta9+ to tru?4 ,:at x really attempts to d is to po9t out to u h[ x is prud5t = u to act :5 we _c discov] :at ! tru? is4#f #a ,an ,essay conc]n+ ,human ,und]/&+1 ,book ,,ii1 ,*apt] ,i1 section #b4 #b ,book ,i1 ,*apt] ,i1 section #d4 #c ,book ,i1 ,*apt] ,i1 section #a4 #d ,diction>y ( ,philosophy & ,psy*ology1 article ,pragmatism4 #e ,publi%$ 9 #ahig & #ahih4 #f ,= ref]5ces to lat] developm5ts ( pragmatism1 see ! note on page #cab4 ,v4 ,,! ,,philosophical ,,sci5ces ,,*apt] ,,xvi ,,logic #fe4 ,,introductory3 ,,! ,,philosophical ,,sci5ces4--,i h said 9 ! fir/ *apt] ( ?is book 7section #f7 t !re is q a gr\p ( sci5ces t are reg>d$ z belong+ peculi>ly to ! prov9ce ( ! tea*] ( philosophy to-day4 ,hav+1 9 ! *apt]s prec$+1 giv5 "s acc\nt ( ! nature ( reflective ?\ght1 ( ! problems t\*+ ! _w & ! m9d :i* pres5t !mselves to ^? :o reflect1 & ( "s types ( philosophical !ory :i* h _! orig9 9 su* reflection1 ,i turn to a brief consid]ation ( ! philosophical sci5ces4 ,among ^! ,i includ$ logic1 psy*ology1 e?ics1 & ae/hetics1 metaphysics1 & ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,i did n include epi/emology or ! !ory ( k z a sep>ate discipl9e1 & my reasons = ?is w appe> 9 ,*apt] ,,xix4 ,i rem>k$ t1 to complete ! li/1 we %\ld h to add ! philosophy ( religion & an inve/igation into ! pr9ciples & me?ods ( ! sci5ces g5]ally4 ,:y1 x 0 ask$1 %\ld ?is gr\p ( discipl9es be reg>d$ z ! field ( ! philosoph]1 :5 o!rs are exclud$8 ,! answ] to ?is "q :i* f9ds ! explanation ( ! fact to lie 9 a m]e hi/orical accid5t 0 decl>$ unsatisfactory1 & x 0 ma9ta9$ t ! philosophical sci5ces are ^? 9 :i* we f9d ourselves c>ri$ back to ! problems ( reflective ?\ght4 ,) a view to %[+ ! tru? ( ?is op9ion1 ,i %all take up "o by "o ! philosophical sci5ces4 ,( ! hi/ory ( philosophy ,i %all n speak 9 ?is "p ( ! "w1 b %all treat ( x 9 ,*apt] ,,xxiii4 #ff4 ,,! ,,traditional ,,logic4--,mo/ ( u beg9 our acqua9tance ) logic 9 ! /udy ( "s su* elem5t>y manual z ,jevons' ,lessons 9 ,logic4 ,9 su* books we are %[n h[ t]ms repres5t ?+s & classes ( ?+s or _! attributes1 & h[ we unite !m into propositions or /atem5ts4 ,x is indicat$ at l5g? :at /atem5ts may be made on a basis ( c]ta9 o!r /atem5ts & :at may n2 & emphasis is laid ^u ! dang]s :i* arise out ( a misund]/&+ ( ! language 9 :i* we are =c$ to express our ?\ghts4 ,f9ally1 !re are describ$ = u ! exp]im5tal me?ods by :i* ! work]s 9 ! sci5ces h atta9$ to ! g5]al in=mation ab\t ! _w :i* has become our h]itage4 ,su* books are useful4 ,x is surely no small pr(it = a /ud5t to ga9 ! habit ( scrut9iz+ ! /eps by :i* he has come into ! possession ( a c]ta9 bit ( in=mation1 & to h a quick eye = loose & inconsi/5t reason+s4 ,b x is wor?y ( rem>k t "o may /udy su* a book z ?is & yet rema9 pretty consi/5tly on :at may be call$ ! plane ( ! common und]/&+4 ,"o seems to make ! assumptions made 9 all ! special sci5ces1 e4g4 ! assumption t !re is a _w ( real ?+s & t we c "k !m & reason ab\t !m4 ,we are n introduc$ to su* problems z3 ,:at is tru?8 & ,is any k valid8 ,nor does x seem at once app>5t t ! man :o is /udy+ logic 9 ?is way is busy+ himself ) a philosophical discipl9e4 #fg4 ,,! ,,mod]n ,,logic4--,x is v puzzl+ = ! /ud5t to turn f su* a text-book z ! "o above m5tion$ to c]ta9 o!rs :i* pr(ess to be occupi$ ) ! same sci5ce1 & :i*1 yet1 appe> to treat ( q diff]5t ?+s4 ,?us1 9 ,dr4 ,bosanquet's little "w on ,! ,ess5tials ( ,logic1 ! read] is at once plung$ into su* que/ions z ! nature ( k1 & :at is meant by ! real _w4 ,we seem to be deal+ ) metaphysics1 & n ) logic1 z we h le>n$ to und]/& ! t]m4 ,h[ is x t ! logician comes to reg>d ^! ?+s z )9 8 prov9ce8 ,a multitude ( writ]s at ! pres5t day are treat+ logic 9 ?is way1 & 9 "s great prom95ce is giv5 to problems :i* ! philosoph] recognizes z indisputably 8 own4 ,! t]m mod]n logic is (t5 employ$ to d5ote a logic ( ?is type2 "o :i* does n1 aft] ! fa%ion ( ! natural sci5ces g5]ally1 proce$ on ! basis ( c]ta9 assumptions1 & leave deep] que/ions to "s o!r discipl9e1 b tries to get to ! bottom ( ?+s = itself4 ,! t5d5cy to run into metaphysics is peculi>ly m>k$ 9 ^? writ]s :o h be5 influ5c$ by ! "w ( ! philosoph] ,hegel4 ,i %all n "h ask :y ^? :o belong to "o s*ool are m incl9$ to be metaphysical ?an are ^? :o belong to ano!r1 b %all approa* ! broad] "q :y ! logicians g5]ally are incl9$ to be m metaphysical ?an ^? :o "w 9 c]ta9 o!r special sci5ces1 su* z ma!matics1 = example4 ,( ! g5]al t5d5cy !re c be no "q4 ,! only problem is3 ,:y does ?is t5d5cy exi/8 #fh4 ,,logic ,,& ,,philosophy4--,let u contra/ ! sci5ce ( ari?metic ) logic2 & let u notice1 reg>d+ x1 ! foll[+ po9ts3-- ,x is1 l logic1 a g5]al sci5ce1 9 t ! ?+s treat$ ( 9 _m sci5ces may be numb]$4 ,x consid]s only a c]ta9 aspect ( ! ?+s4 ,n[1 t ?+s may be c\nt$1 add$ toge!r1 subtract$1 etc41 is gu>ante$ by ! exp]i5ce ( ! pla9 man2 & ! me?ods ( det]m9+ ! num]ical relations ( ?+s are gradually develop$ be=e 8 eyes1 beg9n+ ) op]ations ( great simplicity4 ,moreov]1 v]ification is possible1 & )9 c]ta9 limits v]ification by direct inspection4 ,to ?is we may add1 t !re has gradually be5 built up a f9e sy/em ( unambigu\s symbols1 & x is possible = a man to "k j :at he is deal+ )4 ,?us1 a c]ta9 beat5 pa? has be5 atta9$1 & a man may travel ?is v well )\t hav+ =c$ on 8 att5tion ! problems ( reflective ?\ght4 ,! k ( numb]s ) :i* he />ts is suffici5t equipm5t ) :i* to und]take ! j\rney4 ,t "o is on ! "r road is prov$ by ! results "o obta9s4 ,z a rule1 disputes c be settl$ by well-tri$ ma!matical me?ods4 ,!re is1 !n1 a common agreem5t z to initial assumptions & me?ods ( "w1 & useful results are atta9$ :i* seem to ju/ify bo?4 ,"h we h ! normal *>act]i/ics ( a special sci5ce4 ,we mu/ n =get1 h[ev]1 t1 ev5 9 ! ma!matical sci5ces1 be=e a beat5 pa? 0 atta9$1 disputes z to ! significance ( numb]s & ! cog5cy ( pro(s 7 suffici5tly common4 ,& we mu/ be> 9 m9d t ev5 to-day1 :]e ! beat5 pa? does n seem :olly satisfactory1 m5 seem to be driv5 to reflect ^u ! significance ( _! assumptions & ! nature ( _! me?od4 ,?us1 we f9d x n unnatural t a man %\ld be l$ to ask2 ,:at is a m9us quantity really8 ,c any?+ be less ?an no?+8 or t he %\ld raise ! que/ions3 ,c "o rightly speak ( an inf9ite numb]8 ,c "o inf9ite numb] be great] ?an ano!r1 &1 if s1 :at c great] mean8 ,:at are inf9itesimals8 & :at c be meant by diff]5t ord]s ( inf9itesimals8 ,he :o has int]e/$ himself 9 su* que/ions z ^! has betak5 himself to philosophical reflection4 ,!y are n answ]$ by employ+ ma!matical me?ods4 ,let u n[ turn to logic4 ,& let u notice1 to beg9 )1 t x is broad] 9 its application ?an ! ma!matical sci5ces4 ,x is conc]n$ to discov] :at con/itutes evid5ce 9 e field ( inve/igation4 ,!re is1 x is true1 a "p ( logic t may be develop$ some:at aft] ! fa%ion ( ma!matics4 ,?us1 we may exam9e ! two /atem5ts3 ,all m5 are mortal1 & ,caes> is a man2 & we may see cle>ly t1 giv5 ! tru? ( ^!1 we mu/ admit t ,caes> is mortal4 ,we may make a li/ ( possible inf]5ces ( ?is k9d1 & po9t out "u :at circum/ances ! tru? ( two /atem5ts implies ! tru? ( a ?ird1 & "u :at circum/ances ! inf]5ce _c be made4 ,our results c be set =? 9 a sy/em ( symbols4 ,z 9 ma!matics1 we may ab/ract f ! p>ticul> ?+s reason$ ab\t1 & conc]n ourselves only ) ! =ms ( reason+4 ,?is gives u ! !ory ( ! syllogism2 x is a "p ( logic 9 :i* ! ma!matician is apt to feel v mu* at home4 ,b ?is is by no means all ( logic4 ,let u consid] ! foll[+ po9ts3-- 7#a7 ,we are n conc]n$ to "k only :at /atem5ts may be made on ! basis ( c]ta9 o!r /atem5ts4 ,we want to "k :at is true & :at is false4 ,we mu/ ask3 ,has a man ! "r to set up ^! p>ticul> /atem5ts & to reason f !m8 ,t "s m5 accept z true premises :i* are repudiat$ by o!rs is an und\bt$ fact4 ,?us1 x is ma9ta9$ by c]ta9 philosoph]s t we may assume t any view ( ! univ]se :i* is repellant to our nature _c be true4 ,%all we all[ ?is to pass un*all5g$8 ,& 9 e?ics1 "s h held t x is "u all circum/ances wrong to lie2 o!rs h d5i$ ?is1 & h held t 9 c]ta9 cases--= example1 to save life or to prev5t great & unm]it$ suff]+--ly+ is p]missible4 ,%all we int]e/ ourselves only 9 ! d$uctions t ea* man makes f 8 assum$ premises1 & pay no att5tion to ! tru? ( ! premises !mselves8 7#b7 ,aga94 ,! va/ mass ( ! reason+s t int]e/ m5 are express$ 9 ! language t we all use & n 9 special symbols4 ,b language is a v imp]fect in/rum5t1 & all sorts ( misund]/&+s are possible to ^? :o express _! ?\ghts 9 x4 ,few m5 "k exactly h[ mu* is impli$ 9 :at !y are say+4 ,if ,i say3 ,all m5 are mortal1 & an angel is n a man2 !re=e1 an angel is n mortal2 x is n at once app>5t to e "o 9 :at respect my argum5t is defective4 ,he :o argues3 ,fea!rs are light2 light is contr>y to d>kness2 h5ce1 fea!rs are contr>y to d>kness2 is convict$ ( error )\t difficulty4 ,b argum5ts ( ! same k9d1 & q z bad1 are to be f\nd 9 le>n$ works on matt]s less famili> to u1 & we (t5 fail to detect ! fallacy4 ,?us1 ,h]b]t ,sp5c] argues1 9 effect1 9 ! f\r? & fif? *apt]s ( 8 ,fir/ ,pr9ciples1 z foll[s3-- ,we are consci\s ( ! ,unkn[able1 ,! ,unkn[able lies beh9d ! veil ( ph5om5a1 ,h5ce1 we are consci\s ( :at lies beh9d ! veil ( ph5om5a4 ,x is only ! critical read] :o notices t ! ,unkn[able 9 ! fir/ l9e is ! raw mat]ial ( consci\sness1 & ! ,unkn[able 9 ! second is some?+ n 9 consci\sness at all4 ,! two s5ses ( ! ^w light are n m diff]5t f "o ano!r4 ,su* app>5t argum5ts ab\nd1 & x (t5 requires mu* acut5ess to be able to detect _! fallaci\s "*4 ,:5 we take into consid]ation ! two po9ts indicat$ above1 we see t ! logician is at e turn =c$ to reflect ^u our k z m5 d n ord9>ily reflect4 ,he is l$ to ask3 ,:at is tru?8 ,he _c accept uncritically ! assumptions :i* m5 make2 & he mu/ endeavor to become v cle>ly consci\s ( ! real mean+ & ! :ole mean+ ( /atem5ts express$ 9 words4 ,ev5 9 ! simple logic ) :i* we usually beg9 our /udies1 we le>n to scrut9ize /atem5ts 9 a reflective way2 & :5 we g deep]1 we are at once 9 contact ) philosophical problems4 ,x is evid5tly our task to atta9 to a cle>] insight into ! nature ( our exp]i5ce & ! mean+ ( pro( ?an is atta9able by ! unreflective4 ,logic1 !n1 is a reflective sci5ce1 & x is n surpris+ t x has held its place z "o ( ! philosophical sci5ces4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii ,,psy*ology #fi4 ,,psy*ology ,,& ,,philosophy4--,i ?9k ,i h said en\gh 9 ,*apt] ,,ii 7section #aj7 ab\t :at we mean :5 we speak ( psy*ology z a natural sci5ce & z an indep5d5t discipl9e4 ,c]ta9ly !re are _m psy*ologi/s :o w\ld n c>e to be confus$ ) ! philosoph]s1 & !re are "s t reg>d philosophy ) suspicion4 ,nev]!less1 psy*ology is commonly reg>d$ z belong+ to ! philosophical gr\p4 ,t ?is is ! case c sc>cely be ?\ght surpris+ :5 we see h[ ! psy*ologi/ himself speaks ( ! relation ( 8 sci5ce to philosophy4 ,i h kept1 writes ,pr(essor ,james#a 9 t delightful book :i* has become ! common prop]ty ( u all1 close to ! po9t ( view ( natural sci5ce ?r\gh\t ! book4 ,e natural sci5ce assumes c]ta9 data uncritically1 & decl9es to *all5ge ! elem5ts betwe5 :i* its own 'laws' obta91 & f :i* its own d$uctions are c>ri$ on4 ,psy*ology1 ! sci5ce ( f9ite individual m9ds1 assumes z its data 7#a7 ?\ghts & feel+s1 & 7#b7 a physical _w 9 "t & space ) :i* !y coexi/1 & :i* 7#c7 !y "k4 ,( c\rse1 ^! data !mselves are discussable2 b ! discussion ( !m 7z ( o!r elem5ts7 is call$ metaphysics & falls outside ! prov9ce ( ?is book4 ,?is is an admirable /atem5t ( ! scope ( psy*ology z a natural sci5ce1 & also ( ! relations ( metaphysics to ! sci5ces4 ,b x w\ld n be fair to ,pr(essor ,james to take ?is s5t5ce alone1 & to assume t1 9 8 op9ion1 x is easy to sep>ate psy*ology altoge!r f philosophy4 ,! read]1 he tells u 9 ! next p>agraph1 w 9 va9 seek = any clos$ sy/em 9 ! book4 ,x is ma9ly a mass ( descriptive details1 runn+ out into qu]ies :i* only a metaphysics alive to ! weight ( h] task c hope successfully to deal )4 ,& 9 ! op5+ s5t5ce ( ! preface he in=ms u t "s ( 8 *apt]s are m metaphysical ?an is suitable = /ud5ts go+ ov] ! subject = ! fir/ "t4 ,t ! au?or is "r 9 ma9ta9+ t x is n easy to draw a cle> l9e betwe5 philosophy & psy*ology1 & to decl>e ! latt] :olly indep5d5t1 ,i ?9k we mu/ conc$e4 ,an indep5d5t sci5ce %\ld be sure ( ! ?+s ) :i* x is deal+4 ,:]e ^! are vague & indef9ite1 & are ! subject ( con/ant dispute1 x _c m>* =w>d ) assurance4 ,"o is r =c$ to g back & exam9e ! data !mselves4 ,! beat5 track ( ! special sci5ce has n be5 satisfactorily con/ruct$4 ,we are =c$ to admit t ! sci5ce ( psy*ology has n yet em]g$ f ! /ate 9 :i* a critical exam9ation ( its f\ndations is necess>y1 & t ! con/ruction ( ! beat5 pa? is /ill 9 progress4 ,?is ,i %all try to make cle> by illu/rations4 ,! psy*ologi/ /udies ! m9d1 & 8 ultimate appeal mu/ be to introspection1 to a direct obs]vation ( m5tal ph5om5a1 & ( _! relations to ext]nal ?+s4 ,n[1 if ! obs]vation ( m5tal ph5om5a 7 a simple & an easy ?+2 if ! m]e fact t we are consci\s ( s5sations & ideas impli$ t we are cle>ly consci\s ( !m & are 9 a position to describe !m ) accuracy1 psy*ology w\ld be a mu* m satisfactory sci5ce ?an x is4 ,b we are n ?us consci\s ( our m5tal life4 ,we c & d use our m5tal /ates )\t be+ able to describe !m accurately4 ,9 a s5se1 we are consci\s ( :at is !re1 b our consci\sness is r dim & vague1 & 9 our attempts to give an acc\nt ( x we are 9 no little dang] ( giv+ a false acc\nt4 ,?us1 ! psy*ologi/ assumes t we p]ceive bo? physical ph5om5a & m5tal--! ext]nal _w & ! m9d4 ,he takes x = grant$ t we p]ceive m5tal ph5om5a to be relat$ to physical4 ,he is h>dly 9 a position to make ?is assumption1 & !n to set x aside z a ?+ he ne$ n fur!r consid]4 ,does he n tell u1 z a result ( 8 inve/igations1 t we c "k ! ext]nal _w only z x is reflect$ 9 our s5sations1 & ?us seem to %ut ! m9d up )9 ! circle ( m5tal ph5om5a m]ely1 cutt+ (f absolutely a direct k ( :at is extra-m5tal8 ,if we c "k only m5tal ph5om5a1 ! repres5tatives ( ?+s1 at fir/ h&1 h[ c we tell t !y are repres5tatives8 & :at becomes ( ! assumption t we p]ceive t m9d is relat$ to an ext]nal _w8 ,x may be said1 ?is problem ! psy*ologi/ may leave to ! metaphysician4 ,c]ta9ly1 x is "o ( ^? problems t ! metaphysician discusses2 x has be5 treat$ 9 ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,b my cont5tion is1 t he :o has giv5 no ?\ght to ! matt] may easily fall into error z to ! v nature ( m5tal ph5om5a4 ,= example1 :5 we approa* or rec$e f a physical object we h a s]ies ( exp]i5ces :i* are recogniz$ z s5sational4 ,:5 we imag9e a tree or a h\se we are also exp]i5c+ a m5tal ph5om5on4 ,all ^! exp]i5ces seem pla9ly to h ext5sion 9 "s s5se ( ! ^w4 ,we appe> to p]ceive pla9ly "p out ( "p4 ,9 s f>1 ^! m5tal ?+s seem to resemble ! physical ?+s :i* we contra/ ) :at is m5tal4 ,%all we say t1 because ^! ?+s are m5tal & n physical1 _! app>5t ext5sion is a delusion8 ,%all we say t !y really h no p>ts8 ,su* consid]ations h impell$ psy*ologi/s ( em95ce to ma9ta91 9 flat contradiction to :at seems to be ! unequivocal te/imony ( direct introspection1 t ! total cont5t ( consci\sness at any mom5t mu/ be look$ ^u z an indivisible1 "p-less unit4 ,we _c1 !n1 dep5d m]ely on direct introspection4 ,x is too unc]ta9 9 its deliv]ances4 ,if we w\ld make cle> to ourselves :at m5tal ph5om5a really are1 & h[ !y diff] f physical ph5om5a1 we mu/ fall back ^u ! reflective analysis ( our exp]i5ce :i* occupies ! metaphysician 7section #cd74 ,until we h done ?is1 we are 9 great dang] ( error4 ,we are actually unc]ta9 ( our mat]ials4 ,aga94 ,! psy*ologi/ speaks ( ! relation ( m9d & body4 ,"s psy*ologi/s incl9e to be p>alleli/s1 "s are w>m advocates ( int]actionism4 ,n[1 any !ory ( ! relation ( m9d to body mu/ dep5d on obs]vation ultimately4 ,if we _h n direct exp]i5ce ( a relation betwe5 ! physical & ! m5tal some:]e1 no hypo!sis on ! subject w\ld ev] h em]g$4 ,b our exp]i5ces are n p]fectly cle> & unequivocal to u4 ,_! significance does n seem to be easily grasp$4 ,to compreh5d x "o is =c$ to t reflective exam9ation ( exp]i5ce :i* is *>act]i/ic ( ! philosoph] 7,*apt] ,,ix74 ,"h x may aga9 be said3 ,leave ! matt] to ! meta-physician & g on ) y\r psy*ological "w4 ,i answ]3 ,! psy*ologi/ is n 9 ! same position z ! botani/ or ! zologi/4 ,he is /udy+ m9d 9 its relation to body4 ,x _c b be unsatisfactory to him to leave t relation :olly vague2 &1 z a matt] ( fact1 he usually takes up ) "o !ory or ano!r4 ,we h se5 7section #cf7 t he may easily adopt a !ory t leads him to ov]look ! great diff]5ce betwe5 physical ph5om5a & m5tal ph5om5a1 & to treat !m z ?\gh !y 7 ! same4 ,?is "o may d 9 spite ( all t introspection has to say ab\t ! gulf t sep>ates !m4 ,psy*ology is1 !n1 v prop]ly class$ among ! philosophical sci5ces4 ,! psy*ologi/ is n suffici5tly sure ( 8 mat]ials to be able to disp5se ) reflective ?\ght1 9 _m p>ts ( 8 field4 ,"s day !re may come to be a cons5sus ( op9ion t\*+ fundam5tal facts1 & ! sci5ce may become m indep5d5t4 ,a beat5 track may be atta9$2 b t has n yet be5 done4 #gj4 ,,! ,,d\ble ,,affiliation ,,( ,,psy*ology4--,9 spite ( :at has be5 said above1 we mu/ n =get t psy*ology is a relatively indep5d5t sci5ce4 ,"o may be a useful psy*ologi/ )\t kn[+ mu* ab\t philosophy4 ,z 9 logic x is possible to write a text-book n greatly diff]5t 9 _s & me?od f text-books conc]n$ ) ! sci5ces n class$ z philosophical1 s x is possible to make a useful /udy ( m5tal ph5om5a )\t ent]+ ^u metaphysical analyses4 ,9 sci5ce1 z 9 common life1 we c use concepts )\t subject+ !m to c>eful analysis4 ,?us1 our common exp]i5ce reveals t m9d & body are connect$4 ,we may1 = a specific purpose1 leave ! nature ( ?is connection vague1 & may pay c>eful att5tion to ! physiological conditions ( m5tal ph5om5a1 /udy+ 9 detail ! s5ses & ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,we may1 fur!r1 endeavor to r5d] our k ( m5tal ph5om5a m full & accurate by exp]im5tation4 ,9 do+ ?is we may be compell$ to make use ( elaborate app>atus4 ,( su* me*anical aids to inve/igation our psy*ological laboratories are full4 ,x is to su* "w z ?is t we owe :at is call$ ! physiological & ! exp]im5tal psy*ology4 ,"o c c>ry on su* inve/igations )\t be+ a metaphysician4 ,b "o c sc>cely c>ry !m on )\t hav+ a good k ( c]ta9 sci5ces n commonly suppos$ to be closely relat$ to psy*ology at all4 ,?us1 "o %\ld be tra9$ 9 *emi/ry & physics & physiology1 & %\ld h a work+ k ( laboratory me?ods4 ,moreov]1 x is desirable to h a suffici5t k ( ma!matics to enable "o to h&le exp]im5tal data4 ,! consid]ation ( su* facts z ^! sometimes leads m5 to raise ! "q3 ,%\ld psy*ology affiliate ) philosophy or ) ! physical sci5ces8 ,! issue is an illegitimate "o4 ,psy*ology is "o ( ! philosophical sci5ces1 & _c disp5se ) reflection2 b t is no reason :y x %\ld n ackn[l$ge a close relation to c]ta9 physical sci5ces z well4 ,p>ts ( ! field c be isolat$1 & "o may "w z "o works 9 ! natural sci5ces g5]ally2 b if "o does no?+ m1 "o's concepts rema9 unanalyz$1 &1 z we h se5 9 ! previ\s section1 !re is "s dang] ( actual misconception4 #a ,psy*ology1 ,preface4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii ,,e?ics ,,& ,,ae/hetics #ga4 ,,common ,,s5se ,,e?ics4--,we may1 if we *oose1 /udy ! actions ( m5 m]ely ) a view to asc]ta9+ :at !y are & describ+ !m accurately4 ,some?+ l ?is is done by ! an?ropologi/1 :o gives u an acc\nt ( ! mann]s & cu/oms ( ! v>i\s races ( mank9d2 he tells u :at is2 he may n reg>d x z )9 8 prov9ce at all to in=m u reg>d+ :at ought to be4 ,b m5 d n m]ely act2 !y judge _! actions 9 ! light ( "s norm or /&>d1 & !y di/+ui% betwe5 !m z "r & wrong4 ,! sy/ematic /udy ( actions z "r & wrong yields u ! sci5ce ( e?ics4 ,l psy*ology1 e?ics is a special sci5ce4 ,x is conc]n$ ) a some:at limit$ field ( inve/igation1 & is n to be conf\nd$ ) o!r sci5ces4 ,x has a def9ite aim di/9ct f !irs4 ,&1 also l psy*ology1 e?ics is class$ z "o ( ! philosophical sci5ces1 & its relation to philosophy is suppos$ to be clos] ?an t ( su* sci5ces z physics & ma!matics4 ,x is fair to ask :y ?is is s4 ,:y _c e?ics proce$ on ! basis ( c]ta9 assumptions indep5d5tly1 & leave to "s o!r discipl9e ! :ole "q ( an inquiry into ! nature & validity ( ^? assumptions8 ,ab\t half a c5tury ago ,dr4 ,william ,:ewell1 "o ( ! mo/ le>n$ ( ,engli% s*ol>s1 wrote a "w entitl$ ,! ,elem5ts ( ,morality1 9 :i* he attempt$ to treat ! sci5ce ( e?ics z x is g5]ally admitt$ t "o may treat ! sci5ce ( geometry4 ,! book 0 r widely read a g5]ation s9ce1 b we meet ) few ref]5ces to x 9 our "t4 ,morality & ! philosophy ( morality1 argues ! au?or1 diff] 9 ! same mann] & 9 ! same degree z geometry & ! philosophy ( geometry4 ,( ^! two subjects1 geometry consi/s ( a s]ies ( positive & def9ite propositions1 d$uc$ "o f ano!r1 9 succession1 by rigor\s reason+1 & all re/+ ^u c]ta9 def9itions & self-evid5t axioms4 ,! philosophy ( geometry is q a diff]5t subject2 x includes su* inquiries z ^!3 ,:5ce is ! cog5cy ( geometrical pro(8 ,:at is ! evid5ce ( ! axioms & def9itions8 ,:at are ! faculties by :i* we become aw>e ( _! tru?8 & ! l4 ,! two k9ds ( speculation h be5 pursu$1 = ! mo/ "p1 by two diff]5t classes ( p]sons1--! geomet]s & ! metaphysicians2 = x has be5 f> m ! occupation ( metaphysicians ?an ( geomet]s to discuss su* que/ions z ,i h /at$1 ! nature ( geometrical pro(s1 geometrical axioms1 ! geometrical faculty1 & ! l4 ,& if we con/ruct a complete sy/em ( geometry1 x w be almo/ exactly ! same1 :atev] be ! views :i* we take on ^! metaphysical que/ions4 #a ,su* a sy/em ,dr4 ,:ewell wi%es to con/ruct 9 ! field ( e?ics4 ,8 aim is to give u a view ( morality 9 :i* moral propositions are d$uc$ f axioms1 by successive /eps ( reason+1 s f> z to =m a connect$ sy/em ( moral tru?4 ,su* a sure & connect$ k ( ! duties ( man w\ld1 he ?9ks1 be ( ! greate/ importance4 ,9 accordance ) ?is purpose1 ,dr4 ,:ewell assumes t humanity1 ju/ice1 tru?1 purity1 ord]1 e>ne/ness1 & moral purpose are fundam5tal pr9ciples ( human action2 & he ?9ks t all :o admit z mu* z ?is w be able to g on ) him 9 8 developm5t ( a sy/em ( moral rules to gov]n ! life ( man4 ,x w\ld h>dly be wor? :ile = me to speak at l5g? ( a way ( treat+ e?ics s little likely to be urg$ ^u ! att5tion ( ! read] :o busies himself ) ! books :i* are appe>+ 9 our own day1 7 x n t we h "h an admirable illu/ration ( ! attempt to tea* e?ics z ?\gh x 7 su* a sci5ce z geometry4 ,! %ortcom+s ( ! me?od become v evid5t to "o :o reads ! "w att5tively4 ,?us1 we are =c$ to ask ourselves1 h we really a collection ( ultimate moral pr9ciples :i* are analog\s to ! axioms ( geometry8 ,= example1 to take b a s+le in/ance1 ,dr4 ,:ewell =mulates ! ,pr9ciple ( ,tru? z foll[s3 ,we mu/ con=m to ! univ]sal und]/&+ among m5 :i* ! use ( language implies2#b & he rem>ks lat]2 ,! rules3 ,lie n1 ,p]=m y\r promise1 are ( univ]sal validity2 & ! conceptions ( lie & ( promise are s simple & di/9ct t1 9 g5]al1 ! rules may be directly & easily appli$4 #c ,n[1 we are /ruck by ! fact t ?is affirmation ( ! univ]sal validity ( ! pr9ciple ( tru? is made 9 a *apt] on ,cases ( ,consci5ce1 9 a *apt] conc]n$ ) :at seem to be conflicts betwe5 duties2 & ?is *apt] is foll[$ by "o :i* treats ( ,cases ( ,necessity1 i4e4 cases 9 :i* a man is to be reg>d$ z ju/ifi$ 9 violat+ common rules :5 !re seems to be urg5t reason = s do+4 ,we are told t ! morali/ _c say3 ,lie n1 except 9 great em]g5cies2 b mu/ say3 ,lie n at all4 ,b we are also told t he mu/ grant t !re are cases ( necessity 9 :i* transgressions ( moral rules are excusable2 & ?is looks v mu* z if he said3 ,g on & d ! ?+ :ile ,i close my eyes4 ,?is h>dly seems to give u a sure & connect$ k ( ! duties ( man d$uc$ f axiomatic pr9ciples4 ,on :at au?ority %all we susp5d = ! "t be+ ?is axiomatic pr9ciple or t8 ,is !re "s deep] pr9ciple :i* l5ds to ea* ( !m its au?ority1 & :i* may1 = cause1 )draw x8 ,!re is no h9t ( su* 9 ! treatm5t ( e?ics :i* we are consid]+1 & we seem to h on our h&s1 n s mu* a sci5ce1 z a collection ( practical rules1 ( ! scope ( :i* we are m or less 9 ! d>k4 ,! int]e/+ ?+ to notice is t ?is view ( e?ics is v closely ak9 to t adapt$ unconsci\sly by ! majority ( ! p]sons we meet :o h n int]e/$ !mselves mu* 9 e?ics z a sci5ce4 ,by ! "t t we h rea*$ ye>s ( discretion we are all 9 possession ( a consid]able numb] ( moral maxims4 ,we consid] x wrong to /eal1 to lie1 to injure our neighbor4 ,su* maxims lie 9 our m9ds side by side1 & we d n commonly ?9k ( criticis+ !m4 ,b n[ & !n we face a situation 9 :i* "o maxim seems to urge "o c\rse ( action & ano!r maxim a contr>y "o4 ,%all we tell ! tru? & ! :ole tru?1 :5 s do+ w br+ grave mis=tune ^u an innoc5t p]son8 ,& n[ & !n we are br\ght to ! realization t all m5 d n admit ! validity ( all our maxims4 ,judgm5ts diff] z to :at is "r & :at is wrong4 ,:o %all be ! arbit]8 ,n infrequ5tly a r\gh decision is arriv$ at 9 ! assumption t we h only to int]rogate consci5ce--9 ! assumption1 9 o!r words1 t we c>ry a wat* :i* c be c\nt$ ^u to give ! correct "t1 ev5 if ! timepieces ( our neighbors are n to be dep5d$ ^u4 ,! common s5se e?ics _c be reg>d$ z v sy/ematic & consi/5t1 or z v pr(\nd4 ,x is a collection ( work+ rules1 ( practical maxims2 &1 al?\gh x is impossible to ov]e/imate its value z a guide to life1 its defici5cies1 :5 x is look$ at critically1 become evid5t1 ,i ?9k1 ev5 to ?\ghtful p]sons :o are n sci5tific at all4 ,_m writ]s on e?ics h simply tri$ to turn ?is collection ( work+ rules into a sci5ce1 some:at z ,dr4 ,:ewell has done4 ,?is is ! peculi> weakness ( ^? :o h be5 call$ ! intuitionali/s--?\gh ,i mu/ w>n ! read] aga9/ assum+ t ?is t]m has b ! "o mean+1 & t all ^? to :om x has be5 appli$ %\ld be plac$ 9 ! same class4 ,"h x is us$ to indicate ^? :o ma9ta9 t we are directly aw>e ( ! validity ( c]ta9 moral pr9ciples1 mu/ accept !m z ultimate1 & ne$ only conc]n ourselves ) ! problem ( _! application4 #gb4 ,,e?ics ,,& ,,philosophy4--,:5 ,john ,locke ma9ta9$ t !re are no innate practical pr9ciples1 or innate moral maxims1 he po9t$ 9 evid5ce to ! enormities practic$ )\t remorse 9 diff]5t ages & by diff]5t peoples4 ,! li/ he draws up is a curi\s & an int]e/+ "o4#d ,9 our day x has pretty g5]ally come to be recogniz$ by ?\ghtful m5 t a man's judgm5ts z to "r & wrong reflect ! phase ( civilization1 or ! lack ( x1 :i* he repres5ts1 & t _! significance _c be und]/ood :5 we consid] !m ap>t f _! hi/oric sett+4 ,?is means t no man's consci5ce is set up z an ultimate /&>d1 b t e man's consci5ce is reg>d$ z furni%+ mat]ial :i* ! sci5ce ( e?ics mu/ take into acc\nt4 ,may we1 broad5+ ! basis ^u :i* we are to build1 & /udy+ ! mann]s1 cu/oms1 & moral judgm5ts ( all sorts & conditions ( m51 develop an empirical sci5ce ( e?ics :i* w be indep5d5t ( philosophy8 ,x does n seem t we c d ?is4 ,we are conc]n$ ) psy*ological ph5om5a1 & _! nature & significance are by no means beyond dispute4 ,= example1 !re is ! feel+ ( moral obligation1 ( :i* e?ics has s mu* to say4 ,:at is ?is feel+1 & :at is its au?ority8 ,is x a ?+ to be expla9$8 ,c x impel a man1 let u say1 a bigot1 to d wrong8 ,& :at c we mean by cr$it & discr$it1 by responsibility & free *oice1 & o!r concepts ( ! sort8 ,all ?is mu/ rema9 v vague to "o :o has n submitt$ 8 e?ical concepts to reflective analysis ( ! sort t we h a "r to call philosophical4 ,fur!rmore1 x does n seem possible to decide :at a man %\ld or %\ld n d1 )\t tak+ into consid]ation ! circum/ances 9 :i* he is plac$4 ,! same act may be reg>d$ z b5evol5t or ! rev]se accord+ to its context4 ,if we w b grant ! validity ( ! premises f :i* ! m$ieval *ur*man reason$1 we may well ask :e!r1 9 lay+ h&s viol5tly ^u ^? :o d>$ to =m indep5d5t judgm5ts 9 matt]s ( religion1 he 0 n consci5ti\sly do+ 8 be/ = 8 fell[-man4 ,he tri$ by all means to save "s1 & to :at he reg>d$ z a mo/ dang]\s malady he appli$ a dra/ic rem$y4 ,by :at /&>d %all we judge him8 ,!re c be no d\bt t our doctr9e ( ! :ole duty ( man mu/ be condition$ by our view ( ! nature ( ! _w 9 :i* man lives & ( man's place 9 ! _w4 ,has e?ics no?+ to d ) religion8 ,if we d n believe 9 ,god1 & if we ?9k t man's life ends ) ! dea? ( ! body1 x is q possible t we %all set = him an e?ical /&>d :i* we %\ld h to modify if we adopt$ o!r beliefs4 ,! relation ( e?ics to religion is a problem t ! /ud5t ( e?ics c sc>cely set aside4 ,x seems1 !n1 t ! /udy ( e?ics necess>ily c>ries u back to _w problems :i* _c be approa*$ except by ! pa? ( philosophical reflection4 ,we %all see 9 ,*apt] ,,xx t ! !i/ic problem c]ta9ly belongs to ?is class4 ,x is wor?y ( our consid]ation t ! va/ majority ( writ]s on e?ics h felt /rongly t _! sci5ce runs out into metaphysics4 ,we c sc>cely af=d to treat _! te/imony lightly4 ,c]ta9ly x is n possible = "o :o has no k ( philosophy to und]/& ! significance ( ! e?ical sy/ems :i* h appe>$ 9 ! pa/4 ,! hi/ory ( e?ics may be look$ ^u z a "p ( ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,only on ! basis ( "s g5]al view z to nature & man h m5 decid$ :at man ought to d4 ,z we h se5 above1 ?is appe>s suffici5tly reasonable4 #gc4 ,,ae/hetics4--,( ae/hetics1 or ! sci5ce ( ! beautiful1 ,i %all say little4 ,!re is some:at ! same reason = includ+ x among ! philosophical sci5ces t !re is = includ+ e?ics4 ,^? :o h paid little att5tion to sci5ce or to philosophy are apt to dogmatize ab\t :at is & :at is n beautiful j z !y dogmatize ab\t :at is & :at is n "r4 ,!y say unhesitat+ly2 ,?is object is beautiful1 & t "o is ugly4 ,x is z if !y said3 ,?is "o is r\nd1 & t "o squ>e4 ,(t5 x q escapes _! att5tion t :at !y n[ reg>d z beautiful /ruck !m z unattractive a %ort "t be=e2 & w1 p]haps1 :5 ! ceaseless *ange ( ! fa%ions has driv5 x out ( vogue1 seem /range & unattractive once m4 ,nor d !y reflect ^u ! fact t o!rs1 :o seem to h z good a "r to an op9ion z !y1 d n agree ) !m 9 _! judgm5ts2 nor ^u ! fur!r fact t ! /&>d ( beauty is a ?+ t has v>i$ f age to age1 diff]s widely 9 diff]5t c\ntries1 & pres5ts m9or v>iations 9 diff]5t classes ev5 9 ! same community4 ,! dogmatic utt]ances ( ^? :o are ke5ly susceptible to ! ae/hetic aspects ( ?+s b are n giv5 to reflection /& 9 /rik+ contra/ to ! epitome ( ! popul> wisdom express$ 9 ! skeptical adage t !re is no disput+ ab\t ta/es4 ,we _c int]pret ?is adage broadly & take x lit]ally1 = !n we %\ld h to admit t m5's judgm5ts z to ! beautiful _c con/itute ! mat]ial ( a sci5ce at all1 & t !re c be no su* ?+ z progress 9 ! f9e arts4 ,! notion ( progress implies a /&>d1 & an approximation to an ideal4 ,few w\ld d>e to d5y t !re has be5 progress 9 su* arts z pa9t+ & music2 & :5 "o has admitt$ s mu* z ?is1 "o has virtually admitt$ t a sci5ce ( ae/hetics is1 at lea/1 possible4 ,! sci5ce /udies ! facts ( ! ae/hetic life z e?ics /udies ! facts ( ! moral life4 ,x c take no man's ta/e z furni%+ a /&>d3 x mu/ take e man's ta/e z a fact ( significance4 ,x is driv5 to reflective analysis--to su* que/ions z1 :at is beauty8 & :at is meant by ae/hetic progress8 ,x deals ) elusive psy*ological facts ! significance ( :i* is n easily grasp$4 ,x is a philosophical sci5ce1 & is by no means 9 a position to foll[ a beat5 pa?1 disp5s+ ) a reflective analysis ( its mat]ials4 #a ,preface4 #b section #bfi4 #c section #cgf4 #d ,essay conc]n+ ,human ,und]/&+1 ,book ,i1 ,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,*apt] ,,xix ,,metaphysics #gd4 ,,:at ,,is ,,metaphysics8--,! read] has probably already rem>k$ t 9 "s ( ! prec$+ *apt]s ! adjectives metaphysical & philosophical h be5 us$ z if !y 7 int]*angeable1 9 c]ta9 connections1 at lea/4 ,?is is ju/ifi$ by common usage2 & 9 ! pres5t *apt] ,i %all be expect$ by no "o1 ,i ?9k1 to prove t metaphysics is a philosophical discipl9e4 ,my task w r be to %[ h[ f> ! words metaphysics & philosophy h a diff]5t mean+4 ,9 ,*apt]s ,,iii to ,,xi1 ,i h giv5 a g5]al view ( ! problems :i* pres5t !mselves to reflective ?\ght1 & ,i h indicat$ t !y are n problems :i* c conv5i5tly be di/ribut$ among ! sev]al special sci5ces4 ,is !re an ext]nal _w8 ,:at is x8 ,:at are space & "t8 ,:at is ! m9d8 ,h[ are m9d & body relat$8 ,h[ d we "k t !re are o!r m9ds ?an ours8 etc4 ,^! h be5 pres5t$ z philosophical problems2 & :5 we turn back to ! hi/ory ( speculative ?\ght we f9d t !y are j ! problems ) :i* ! m5 :om we agree to call philosoph]s h *iefly occupi$ !mselves4 ,b :5 we turn to our treatises on metaphysics1 we also f9d t ^! are ! problems !re discuss$4 ,su* treatises diff] mu* among !mselves1 & ! problems are n pres5t$ 9 ! same =m or 9 ! same ord]2 b "o :o c look b5ea? ! surface w f9d t ! au?ors are busi$ ) mu* ! same ?+--) "s or all ( ! problems above m5tion$4 ,h[1 !n1 does metaphysics diff] f philosophy8 ,! diff]5ce becomes cle> to u :5 we realize t ! ^w philosophy has a broad] & loos] signification1 & t metaphysics is1 s to speak1 ! core1 ! citadel1 ( philosophy4 ,we h se5 7,*apt] ,,ii7 t ! _w & ! m9d1 z !y seem to be pres5t$ 9 ! exp]i5ce ( ! pla9 man1 d n /& =? ) su* cle>ness & di/9ctness t he is able to answ] intellig5tly ! que/ions we wi% to ask him reg>d+ _! nature4 ,x is n m]ely t 8 in=mation is limit$2 x is vague & indef9ite z well4 ,& we h se51 too1 t1 h[ev] ! special sci5ces may increase & sy/ematize 8 in=mation1 !y d n cle> away su* vagu5ess4 ,! man /ill uses su* concepts z inn] & out]1 reality1 ! m9d1 space1 & "t1 ) no v def9ite notion ( :at !y mean4 ,n[1 ! attempt to cle> away ?is vagu5ess by ! sy/ematic analysis ( su* concepts--9 o!r words1 ! attempt to make a ?or\gh analysis ( our exp]i5ce--is metaphysics4 ,! metaphysician /rives to limit 8 task z well z he may1 & to avoid unnecess>y excursions into ! fields occupi$ by ! special sci5ces1 ev5 ^? :i* lie ne>e/ to 8 own1 su* z psy*ology & e?ics4 ,!re is a s5se 9 :i* he may be said to be work+ 9 ! field ( a special sci5ce1 ?\gh he is us+ z ! mat]ial = 8 inve/igations concepts :i* are employ$ 9 _m sci5ces2 b x is cle> t 8 discipl9e is n a special sci5ce 9 ! same s5se 9 :i* geometry & physics are special sci5ces4 ,nev]!less1 ! special sci5ces /&1 z we h already se5 9 ! case ( sev]al ( !m1 v ne> to 8 own4 ,if he broad5s 8 view1 & delib]ately det]m9es to take a survey ( ! field ( human k z illum9at$ by ! analyses t he has made1 he becomes some?+ m ?an a metaphysician2 he becomes a philosoph]4 ,?is does n 9 ! lea/ mean t he becomes a /oreh\se ( miscellane\s in=mation1 & an au?ority on all ! sci5ces4 ,sometimes ! philosoph]s h attempt$ to describe ! _w ( matt] & ( m9d z ?\gh !y possess$ "s my/]i\s p[] ( kn[+ ?+s t absolv$ !m f ! duty ( travel+ ! we>y road ( obs]vation & exp]im5t t has end$ 9 ! sci5ces z we h !m4 ,:5 !y h done ?is1 !y h mi/ak5 ! significance ( _! call+4 ,a philosoph] has no m "r ?an ano!r man to create in=mation out ( no?+4 ,b x is possible1 ev5 = "o :o is n acqua9t$ ) ! :ole body ( facts pres5t$ 9 a sci5ce1 to take c>eful note ( ! assumptions ^u :i* t sci5ce re/s1 to analyze ! concepts ( :i* x makes use1 to m>k ! me?ods :i* x employs1 & to ga9 a fair idea ( its scope & ( its relation to o!r sci5ces4 ,su* a reflection ^u our sci5tific k is philosophical reflection1 & x may result 9 a classification ( ! sci5ces1 & 9 a g5]al view ( human k z a :ole4 ,su* a view may be illum9at+ 9 ! extreme2 x c only be h>mful :5 its significance is misund]/ood4 ,b1 x may be argu$1 :y may n ! man ( sci5ce d all ?is = himself8 ,:y %\ld he leave x to ! philosoph]1 :o is presumably less intimately acqua9t$ ) ! sci5ces ?an he is8 ,to ?is ,i answ]3 ,! "w %\ld1 ( c\rse1 be done by ! man :o w d x be/4 ,all our subdivision ( labor %\ld be dictat$ by conv5i5ce4 ,b ,i add1 t exp]i5ce has %[n t ! work]s 9 ! special sci5ces h n z a rule be5 v successful :5 !y h tri$ to philosophize4 ,sci5ce is an imp]i\s mi/ress2 %e dem&s "o's utmo/ ef=ts2 & :5 a man turns to philosophical reflection m]ely by ! way1 & 9 ! scraps ( "t at 8 disposal aft] ! day's "w is done1 8 philosophical "w is apt to be r sup]ficial4 ,moreov]1 x does n foll[ t1 because a man is a good ma!matician or *emi/ or physici/1 he is gift$ ) ! p[] ( reflective analysis4 ,!n1 too1 su* m5 are apt to be imp]fectly acqua9t$ ) :at has be5 done 9 ! pa/2 & ^? :o are famili> ) ! hi/ory ( philosophy (t5 h occasion to rem>k t :at is laid be=e !m1 9 ignorance ( ! fact t x is nei!r new nor orig9al1 is a doctr9e :i* has already made its appe>ance 9 _m =ms & has be5 discuss$ at prodigi\s l5g? 9 ! c5turies gone by4 ,9 c]ta9 sci5ces x seems possible to ignore ! pa/1 to a great ext5t1 at lea/4 ,:at is wor? keep+ has be5 kept1 & !re is a solid f\ndation on :i* to build = ! future4 ,b ) reflective ?\ght x is n s4 ,!re is no accept$ body ( doctr9e :i* we h ! "r to reg>d z unassailable4 ,we %\ld take x z a safe maxim t ! reflections ( m5 long dead may be pr(\nd] & m wor?y ( our /udy ?an ^? urg$ ^u our att5tion by ! m5 ( our day4 ,& ?is leads me to make a rem>k ^u ! titles giv5 to works on metaphysics4 ,x seems some:at mislead+ to label !m3 ,outl9es ( ,metaphysics or ,elem5ts ( ,metaphysics4 ,su* titles sugge/ t we are deal+ ) a body ( doctr9e :i* has met ) g5]al acceptance1 & may be comp>$ ) t f\nd 9 h&books on ! special sci5ces4 ,b we %\ld realize t1 :5 we are conc]n$ ) ! pr(\nd] inve/igations into ! nature ( our exp]i5ce1 we tread ^u unc]ta9 gr\nd & _m diff]5ces ( op9ion obta94 ,we %\ld1 if possible1 avoid a false semblance ( au?ority4 #ge4 ,,epi/emology4--,we he> a great deal at ! pres5t day ( ,epi/emology1 or ! ,!ory ( ,k4 ,i h n class$ x z a di/9ct philosophical sci5ce1 = reasons :i* w appe> bel[4 ,we h se5 9 ,*apt] ,,xvi t x is possible to treat ( logic 9 a simple way )\t gr[+ v metaphysical2 b we h also se5 t :5 we g deeply into que/ions t\*+ ! nature ( evid5ce & :at is meant by tru? & falsity1 we are c>ri$ back to philosophical reflection at once4 ,we may1 = conv5i5ce1 gr\p toge!r ^! deep] que/ions reg>d+ ! nature ( k & its scope1 & call ! subject ( our /udy ,epi/emology4 ,b x %\ld be rem>k$1 9 ! fir/ place1 t1 :5 we "w 9 ?is field1 we are ex]cis+ a reflective analysis ( precisely ! type employ$ 9 mak+ ! metaphysical analyses conta9$ 9 ! e>li] *apt]s ( ?is book4 ,we are treat+ our exp]i5ce z x is n treat$ 9 common ?\ght & 9 sci5ce4 ,& x %\ld be rem>k$1 9 ! second place1 t ! inve/igation ( our k inevitably runs toge!r ) an inve/igation into ! nature ( ?+s kn[n1 ( ! m9d & ! _w4 ,suppose t ,i give ! titles ( ! *apt]s 9 ,"p ,,iii ( ,mr4 ,hobh\se's able "w on ,! ,!ory ( ,k4 ,!y are z foll[s3 ,validity2 ! ,validity ( ,k2 ! ,conception ( ,ext]nal ,reality2 ,sub/ance2 ! ,conception ( ,self2 ,reality z a ,sy/em2 ,k & ,reality2 ! ,gr\nds ( ,k & ,belief4 ,are n ^! topics metaphysical8 ,let u ask ourselves h[ x w\ld affect our views ( ! validity & ( ! limits ( our k1 if we 7 conv]t$ to ! metaphysical doctr9es ( ,john ,locke1 or ( ,bi%op ,b]keley1 or ( ,david ,hume1 or ( ,?omas ,reid1 or ( ,immanuel ,kant4 ,we may1 !n1 reg>d epi/emology z a "p ( logic--! metaphysical "p--or z a "p ( metaphysics2 x does n mu* matt] :i* we call x1 s9ce we mean ! same ?+4 ,b its relation to metaphysics is su* t x does n seem wor? :ile to call x a sep>ate discipl9e4 ,be=e leav+ ?is subject !re is "o m po9t ^u :i* ,i %\ld t\*1 if only to obviate a possible misund]/&+4 ,we f9d 9 ,pr(essor ,cornelius's cle> little book1 ,an ,introduction to ,philosophy 7,leipzig1 #aijc2 x has unhappily n yet be5 translat$ into ,engli%71 t metaphysics is repudiat$ altoge!r1 & epi/emology is set 9 its place4 ,b ?is rejection ( metaphysics does n necess>ily imply ! d5ial ( ! value ( su* an analysis ( our exp]i5ce z ,i h 9 ?is "w call$ metaphysical4 ,metaphysics is tak5 to mean1 n an analysis ( exp]i5ce1 b a grop+ beh9d ! veil ( ph5om5a = "s reality n giv5 9 exp]i5ce4 ,9 o!r words1 :at ,pr(essor ,cornelius condemns is :at _m ( ! re/ ( u also condemn "u ano!r "n4 ,:at he calls metaphysics1 we call bad metaphysics2 & :at he calls epi/emology1 we call metaphysics4 ,! dispute is really a dispute t\*+ ! prop] "n to apply to reflective analysis ( a c]ta9 k9d4 ,z x is ! fa%ion 9 c]ta9 qu>t]s to abuse metaphysics1 ,i set ! read] on 8 gu>d4 ,"s k9ds ( metaphysics c]ta9ly ought to be repudiat$ "u :atev] "n !y may be pres5t$ to u4 ,,*apt] ,,xx ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,religion #gf4 ,,religion ,,& ,,reflection4--,a man may be ?r\gh & ?r\gh e?ical 9 8 ?\ght & feel+1 & yet "k no?+ ( ! sci5ce ( e?ics4 ,he may be possess$ ( ! f9e/ ae/hetic ta/e1 & yet may "k no?+ ( ! sci5ce ( ae/hetics4 ,x is "o ?+ to be good1 & ano!r to "k cle>ly :at goodness means2 x is "o ?+ to love ! beautiful1 & ano!r to "k h[ to def9e x4 ,j s a man may be ?or\ghly religi\s1 & may1 nev]!less1 h reflect$ v little ^u 8 religi\s belief & ! f\ndations ^u :i* x re/s4 ,?is does n mean t 8 belief is )\t f\ndation4 ,x may h a firm basis or x may n4 ,b :atev] ! case may be1 he is n 9 a position to say mu* ab\t x4 ,he feels t he is "r1 b he _c prove x4 ,! man is1 ,i ?9k we mu/ admit1 r bl9d z to ! full significance ( 8 position1 & he is1 9 consequ5ce1 r helpless4 ,su* a man is m5ac$ by c]ta9 dang]s4 ,we h se5 9 ! *apt] on e?ics t m5 are by no means at "o 9 _! judgm5ts z to ! rightness or wrongness ( giv5 actions4 ,& x requires a v little reflection to tea* u t m5 are n at "o 9 _! religi\s notions4 ,god & ,8 nature1 ! relation ( ,god to man1 :at ! religi\s life %\ld be1 ^! ?+s are ! subject ( mu* dispute2 & "s m5 hold op9ions reg>d$ by o!rs z n m]ely errone\s b highly p]nici\s 9 _! influ5ce4 ,%all a man simply assume t ! op9ions :i* he happ5s to hold are correct1 & t all :o diff] ) him are 9 error8 ,he has n fram$ 8 op9ions q indep5d5tly = himself4 ,we are all influ5c$ by :at we h inh]it$ f ! pa/1 & :at we inh]it may be p>tly errone\s1 ev5 if we be "r 9 ! ma94 ,moreov]1 we are all liable to prejudices1 & he :o has no means ( di/+ui%+ su* f sob] tru?s may admit into 8 cre$ _m errors4 ,! lesson ( hi/ory is v in/ructive ^u ?is po9t4 ,! fact is t a man's religi\s notions reflect ! position :i* he occupies 9 ! developm5t ( civilization v mu* z d 8 e?ical notions4 ,aga94 ,ev5 suppos+ t a man has enlight5$ notions & is liv+ a religi\s life t ! mo/ in/ruct$ mu/ approve2 if he has nev] reflect$1 & has nev] tri$ to make cle> to himself j :at he really does believe & ^u :at gr\nds he believes x1 h[ w x be ) him :5 8 position is attack$ by ano!r8 ,m5 are1 z ,i h said1 n at "o 9 ^! matt]s1 & !re are few or none ( ! doctr9es put =w>d z religions t h n be5 attack$ aga9 & aga94 ,n[1 ^? :o dep5d only ^u an in/9ctive feel+ may be plac$ 9 ! v pa9ful position ( see+ no answ] to ! objections br\ght aga9/ !m4 ,:at is said may seem plausible2 x may ev5 seem true1 & is x "r = a man to oppose :at appe>s to be ! tru?8 ,"o may be %ock$ & pa9$1 & may feel t he :o makes ! assault _c be "r1 & yet may be =c$ to admit t a rel5tless logic1 or :at pres5ts itself z su*1 has e appe>ance ( e/abli%+ ! repell5t tru? t robs "o ( "o's de>e/ possession4 ,! situation is an un5durable "o2 x is t ( ! man :o gu>ds a treasure & recognizes t !re is no lock on ! door4 ,surely1 if !re is error mix$ ) tru? 9 our religi\s beliefs1 x is desirable t we %\ld h "s way ( di/+ui%+ betwe5 ! tru? & ! error4 ,& if our beliefs really h a f\ndation1 x is desirable t we %\ld "k :at t f\ndation is1 & %\ld n be at ! m]cy ( e pass]-by :o takes ! notion to ?r[ a /one at u4 ,b ^! desirable ends1 x seems cle>1 _c be atta9$ )\t reflection4 #gg4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,religion4--,! reflection t busies itself ) ^! ?+s results 9 :at is call$ ! philosophy ( religion4 ,to %[ t ! "n is an appropriate "o & t we are conc]n$ ) a philosophical discipl9e1 ,i %all take up = a mom5t ! idea ( ,god1 :i* mo/ m5 w admit has a v important place 9 our conception ( religion4 ,does ,god exi/8 ,we may feel v sure t ,he does1 & yet be =c$ to admit t ! evid5ce ( ,8 exi/5ce is n s cle> & und5iable z to compel ! ass5t ( e "o4 ,we d n try to prove ! exi/5ce ( ! m5 we meet & :o talk to u4 ,no "o ?9ks ( d5y+ _! exi/5ce2 x is tak5 = grant$4 ,ev5 ! metaphysician1 :5 he takes up & discusses ! "q :e!r we c prove ! exi/5ce ( any m9d beyond our own1 does n s]i\sly d\bt :e!r !re are o!r m9ds or n4 ,x is n s mu* :at we "k1 z h[ we "k x1 t int]e/s him4 ,b ) ! exi/5ce ( ,god x is diff]5t4 ,t m5 d n ?9k t an exam9ation ( ! evid5ce c be disp5s$ ) is evid5t f ! books t are writt5 & lectures t are deliv]$ ye> aft] ye>4 ,!re seem to be hone/ diff]5ces ( op9ion1 & we feel compell$ to (f] m5 pro(s--to %[ t belief is reasonable4 ,h[ %all we det]m9e :e!r ?is _w 9 :i* we live is su* a _w t we may take x z a revelation ( ,god8 ,& ( :at sort ( a ,be+ are we speak+ :5 we use ! ^w ,god8 ,! "q is n an idle "o1 = m5's conceptions h diff]$ widely4 ,!re is ! savage1 ) a conception t /rikes ! mod]n civiliz$ man z altoge!r inadequate2 !re is ! ?\ghtful man ( our day1 :o has inh]it$ ! reflections ( ^? :o h liv$ 9 ! ages gone by4 ,& !re is ! philosoph]1 or1 p]haps1 ,i %\ld r say1 !re are ! philosoph]s4 ,h !y n conceiv$ ( ,god z a gr\p ( ab/ract notions1 or z a some?+ t may be/ be describ$ z ! ,unkn[able1 or z ! ,sub/ance :i* is ! id5tity ( ?\ght & ext5sion1 or z ! ext]nal _w itself8 ,all h n s9n$ 9 ?is way1 b "s h1 & !y are n m5 :om we c ignore4 ,if we turn f all su* notions &1 9 h>mony ) ! fai? ( ! great body ( religi\s m5 9 ! ages pa/1 "s ( :om 7 philosoph]s b mo/ ( :om 7 n1 cl+ close to ! notion t ,god is a m9d or _s1 & mu/ be conceiv$ accord+ to ! analogy1 at lea/1 ( ! human m9d1 ! m9d we mo/ directly "k--if we d ?is1 we are /ill confront$ by problems to :i* ! ?\ghtful man _c refuse att5tion4 ,:at d we mean by a m9d8 ,?is is a "q to :i* "o c sc>cely give an intellig5t answ] unless "o has ex]cis$ "o's faculty ( philosophic reflection4 ,& ^u :at sort ( evid5ce does "o dep5d 9 e/abli%+ ! exi/5ce ( m9ds o!r ?an "o's own8 ,?is has be5 discuss$ at l5g? 9 ,*apt] ,x1 & ! problem is c]ta9ly a metaphysical "o4 ,& if we believe t ! ,div9e ,m9d is n subject to ! limitations :i* conf9e ! human1 h[ %all we conceive x8 ,! "q is an important "o4 ,"s ( ! philosoph]s & !ologians :o h tri$ to free ! ,div9e ,m9d f su* limitations h tak5 away e positive m>k by :i* we recognize a m9d to be su*1 & h left u a nak$ ,absolute :i* is no bett] ?an a label$ vacuum4 ,moreov]1 we _c refuse to consid] ! "q ( ,god's relation to ! _w4 ,?is seems to lead back to ! broad] "q3 ,h[ are we to conceive ( any m9d z relat$ to ! _w8 ,:at is ! relation betwe5 m9d & matt]8 ,if any subject ( inquiry may prop]ly be call$ metaphysical1 surely ?is may be4 ,we see1 !n1 t !re is little wond] t ! ?\ghtful consid]ation ( ! facts & doctr9es ( religion has tak5 its place among ! philosophical sci5ces4 ,ae/hetics has be5 call$ appli$ psy*ology2 & ,i ?9k x is sc>cely too mu* to say t we are "h conc]n$ ) appli$ metaphysics1 ) ! attempt to obta9 a cle> und]/&+ ( ! significance ( ! facts ( religion 9 ! light ( ^? ultimate analyses :i* reveal to u ! real nature ( ! _w ( matt] & ( m9ds4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi ,,philosophy ,,& ,,! ,,o!r ,,sci5ces #gh4 ,,! ,,philosophical ,,& ,,non-,,philosophical ,,sci5ces4--,we h se5 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s t c]ta9 ( ! sci5ces c sc>cely be cultivat$ successfully 9 complete sep>ation f philosophy4 ,x has also be5 indicat$ 9 v>i\s places t ! relation ( o!r sci5ces to philosophy is n s close4 ,?us1 ! sci5ces ( ari?metic1 algebra1 & geometry may be successfully prosecut$ by a man :o has reflect$ little ^u ! nature ( numb]s & :o has nev] ask$ himself s]i\sly :at he means by space4 ,! assumptions :i* he is ju/ifi$ 9 mak+1 & ! k9d ( op]ations :i* he has ! "r to p]=m1 d n seem1 z a rule1 to be 9 d\bt4 ,s x is also 9 ! sci5ces ( *emi/ry & physics4 ,!re is no?+ to prev5t ! *emi/ or ! physici/ f be+ a philosoph]1 b he is n compell$ to be "o4 ,he may pu% =w>d ! inve/igations prop] to 8 pr(ession reg>dless ( ! type ( philosophy :i* x pleases him to adopt4 ,:e!r he be a reali/ or an ideali/1 a duali/ or a moni/1 he %\ld1 z *emi/ or physici/1 treat ! same sort ( facts 9 ! same sort ( a way4 ,8 pa? appe>s to be laid out = him1 & he c d "w ! value ( :i* is undisput$ by travel+ quietly along x1 & )\t /opp+ to consid] consci\sly :at k9d ( a pa? x is4 ,!re are _m :o "w 9 ?is way1 & !y succe$ 9 mak+ important contributions to human k4 ,su* sci5ces z ^! ,i call ! non-philosophical sci5ces to di/+ui% !m f ! gr\p ( sci5ces ,i h be5 discuss+ at l5g?4 ,:at m>ks !m out is1 t ! facts ) :i* ! inve/igator has to deal are kn[n by him ) suffici5t cle>ness to leave him usually 9 little d\bt z to ! use :i* he c make ( !m4 ,8 k is cle> en\gh = ! purpose 9 h&1 & 8 "w is ju/ifi$ by its results4 ,:at is ! relation ( su* sci5ces z ^! to philosophy8 #gi4 ,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,,sci5tific ,,pr9ciples ,,& ,,me?ods4--,x is "o ?+ to h ! in/9ct ( ! inve/igator & to be able to feel "o's way along ! road t leads to new k ( a giv5 k9d1 & x is ano!r ?+ to h ! reflective turn ( m9d t makes "o cle>ly consci\s ( j :at "o has be5 do+ & h[ "o has be5 do+ x4 ,m5 reason$ be=e !re 0 a sci5ce ( logic1 & ! sci5ces made _! appe>ance be=e :at may be call$ ! logic ( ! sci5ces _h its bir?4 ,x may be truly ass]t$1 writes ,pr(essor ,jevons1#a t ! rapid progress ( ! physical sci5ces dur+ ! la/ ?ree c5turies has n be5 accompani$ by a correspond+ advance 9 ! !ory ( reason+4 ,physici/s speak famili>ly ( ,sci5tific ,me?od1 b !y c\ld n readily describe :at !y mean by t expression4 ,pr(\ndly engag$ 9 ! /udy ( p>ticul> classes ( natural ph5om5a1 !y are usually too mu* engross$ 9 ! imm5se & ev] accumulat+ details ( _! special sci5ces to g5]alize ^u ! me?ods ( reason+ :i* !y unconsci\sly employ4 ,yet few w d5y t ^! me?ods ( reason+ ought to be /udi$1 especially by ^? :o endeavor to introduce sci5tific ord] into less successful & me?odical bran*es ( k4 ,pr(essor ,jevons sugge/s t x is lack ( "t & att5tion t prev5ts ! sci5tific inve/igator f atta9+ to a cle> conception ( :at is meant by sci5tific me?od4 ,?is has some?+ to d ) x1 b ,i ?9k we may also ma9ta9 t ! "w ( ! inve/igator & t ( ! critic are some:at diff]5t 9 k9d1 & require some:at diff]5t p[]s ( m9d4 ,we f9d a p>allel to ?is else:]e4 ,bo? 9 lit]ature & 9 art m5 may be 9 ! be/ s5se productive1 & yet may be poor critics4 ,we are (t5 w(ully disappo9t$ :5 we att5d a lecture on poetry by a poet1 or "o on pa9t+ by an arti/4 ,x may be said3 ,if :at is ma9ta9$ above reg>d+ ! possibility ( prosecut+ sci5tific rese>*es )\t hav+ rec\rse to reflective ?\ght is true1 :y %\ld ! man ( sci5ce c>e :e!r ! pr9ciples & me?ods ( ! non-philosophical sci5ces are inve/igat$ or are m]ely tak5 = grant$8 ,i answ]3 ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t ! /atem5ts made 9 ! la/ section 7 some:at gu>d$4 ,i h us$ ! expressions z a rule & usually4 ,i h spok5 ?us because "o c "w 9 ! way describ$1 )\t dang] ( error1 only :]e a beat5 track has be5 atta9$ & is foll[$4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,xvi x 0 po9t$ out t ev5 9 ! ma!matical sci5ces "o may be =c$ to reflect ^u ! significance ( "o's symbols4 ,z ,i write ?is1 a pamphlet comes to h& :i* is conc]n$ to prove t e cause is pot5tially capable ( produc+ sev]al effects1 & proves x by claim+ t ! squ>e root ( f\r 7squ>e root symbol#d7 is a cause :i* may h z effect ei!r two 7#b7 or m9us two 7-#b74 ,is ?is ma!matical reason+8 ,are ma!matical relations ev] ^? ( cause & effect8 ,& may "o on ! basis ( su* reason+s claim t 9 nature ! relation ( cause & effect is n a fix$ & inv>iable "o8 ,ev5 :]e !re is a beat5 track1 !re is "s dang] t m5 may w&] f x4 ,& on ! conf9es ( our k !re are fields 9 :i* ! accept$ road is yet to be e/abli%$4 ,sci5ce makes con/ant use ( hypo!ses z an aid to inve/igation4 ,:at hypo!ses may "o frame1 & :at are inadmissible8 ,h[ important an inve/igation ( ?is "q may be to ! work] 9 c]ta9 bran*es ( sci5ce w be cle> to "o :o w read ) att5tion ,pr(essor ,po9c>'s brilliant little "w on ,sci5ce & ,hypo!sis4 #b ,!re is no field 9 art1 lit]ature1 or sci5ce 9 :i* ! "w ( ! critic is :olly sup]flu\s4 ,!re are p]iods 9 ! gr[? ( sci5ce1 writes ,pr(essor ,pe>son 9 8 des]v$ly popul> "w1 ,! ,gramm> ( ,sci5ce1 #c :5 x is well to turn our att5tion f its impos+ sup]/ructure & to exam9e c>efully its f\ndations4 ,! pres5t book is prim>ily int5d$ z a criticism ( ! fundam5tal concepts ( mod]n sci5ce1 & z su* f9ds its ju/ification 9 ! motto plac$ ^u its title-page4 ,! motto 9 "q is a quotation f ! ,fr5* philosoph] ,c\s93 ,criticism is ! life ( sci5ce4 ,we h se5 9 ,*apt] ,,xvi t a "w on logic may be a comp>atively simple ?+4 ,x may describe ! ways 9 :i* m5 reason :5 !y reason correctly1 & may n g deep into metaphysical que/ions4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x may be deeply metaphysical4 ,:5 we approa* ! "p ( logic :i* deals ) ! pr9ciples & me?ods ( ! sci5ces1 ?is diff]5ce is =c$ ^u our att5tion4 ,"o may set =? ! assumptions ^u :i* a sci5ce re/s1 & may describe ! me?ods ( inve/igation employ$1 )\t go+ mu* bel[ ! plane ( common ?\ght4 ,z a type ( su* works ,i may m5tion ! useful treatise by ,pr(essor ,jevons cit$ e>li] 9 ?is *apt]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 our inve/igations may be m pr(\nd1 & we may scrut9ize ! v f\ndations ^u :i* a sci5ce re/s4 ,bo? ! o!r works ref]r$ to illu/rate ?is me?od ( proc$ure4 ,= example1 9 ,! ,gramm> ( ,sci5ce1 we f9d our au?or discuss+1 "u ! title ,! ,facts ( ,sci5ce1 su* problems z ! foll[+3 ! ,reality ( ,?+s2 ,s5se-impressions & ,consci\sness2 ! ,nature ( ,?\ght2 ! ,ext]nal ,univ]se2 ,s5sations z ! ,ultimate ,s\rce ( ! ,mat]ials ( ,k2 & ! ,futility ( ,?+s-9-!mselves4 ,! philosophical "* ( su* discussions does n ne$ to be po9t$ out at l5g?4 #a ,! ,pr9ciples ,( ,sci5ce1 ,london1 #ahgd1 ,preface4 #b ,engli% translation1 ,new ,york1 #aije4 #c ,second edition1 ,london1 #aijj4 ,,vi4 ,,on ,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,,philosophy ,,*apt] ,,xxii ,,! ,,value ,,( ,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,,philosophy #hj4 ,,! ,,"q ,,( ,,practical ,,utility4--,:y %\ld m5 /udy philosophy8 ,! "q is a natural "o1 = man is a rational be+1 & :5 ! wor? ( a ?+ is n at once evid5t to him1 he usually calls = pro( ( its wor?4 ,our pr(essional s*ools1 ) ! exception ( s*ools ( !ology1 usually pay little att5tion to philosophical /udies2 b su* /udies occupy a /rong position 9 our colleges1 & a va/ numb] ( p]sons n /ud5ts 9 ! te*nical s5se ?9k x wor? :ile to occupy !mselves ) !m m or less4 ,:]ev] lib]al /udies are prosecut$ !y h _! place1 & x is an honor$ place4 ,is ?is z x %\ld be8 ,be=e we ask :e!r any giv5 /udy is ( practical value1 x is wise to det]m9e :at ! ^w practical %all be tak5 to mean4 ,%all we say t we may call practical only su* le>n+ z c be turn$ to direct acc\nt 9 e>n+ money lat]8 ,if we re/rict ! mean+ ( ! ^w 9 ?is way1 we seem to /rike a bl[ at lib]al /udies 9 g5]al4 ,?us1 no "o w\ld ?9k ( ma9ta9+ t ! /udy ( ma!matics is n ( practical value--sometimes & to "s p]sons4 ,! physici/ & ! eng9e] ne$ to "k a good deal ab\t ma!matics4 ,b h[ is x ) ! m]*ant1 ! lawy]1 ! cl]gyman1 ! physician8 ,h[ mu* ( _! algebra1 geometry1 & trigonometry d ^! rememb] aft] !y h become absorb$ 9 ! practice ( _! sev]al call+s1 & h[ (t5 d !y f9d x necess>y to use any?+ beyond c]ta9 simple rules ( ari?metic8 ,sometimes we are tempt$ to condemn ! /udy ( ! classics z unpractical1 & to turn in/ead to ! mod]n languages & to ! physical sci5ces4 ,n[1 x is1 ( c\rse1 a fair "q to ask :at %\ld & :at %\ld n be reg>d$ z =m+ "p ( a lib]al education1 & ,i %all make no ef=t to decide ! "q "h4 ,b x %\ld be borne well 9 m9d t "o _c decide x by det]m9+ :at /udies are practical 9 ! s5se ( ! ^w "u discussion4 ,if we keep /rictly to ?is s5se1 ! mod]n languages are to ! majority ( ,am]icans ( little m practical value ?an are ! ,lat9 & ,greek4 ,we sc>cely ne$ !m except :5 we travel abroad1 & :5 we d t we f9d t ! conci]ge & ! wait] use ,engli% ) surpris+ flu5cy4 ,z = ! sci5ces1 ^? :o expect to e>n a liv+ ?r\gh a k ( !m1 seek1 z a rule1 t k 9 a te*nical or pr(essional s*ool1 & ! re/ ( u c enjoy ! fruit ( _! labors )\t %>+ !m4 ,x is a popul> fallacy t because c]ta9 /udies h a practical value to ! _w at l>ge1 !y mu/ necess>ily h a practical value to e "o1 & c be recomm5d$ to ! individual on t acc\nt4 ,x is wor? :ile to sit d[n quietly & ask oneself h[ _m ( ! bits ( in=mation acquir$ dur+ ! c\rse ( a lib]al education are directly us$ 9 ! c>ry+ on ( a giv5 bus9ess or 9 ! practice ( a giv5 pr(ession4 ,nev]!less1 we all believe t lib]al education is a good ?+ = ! individual & = ! race4 ,"o mu/ n too mu* re/rict ! mean+ ( ! ^w practical4 ,a civiliz$ /ate compos$ ( m5 :o "k no?+ save :at has a direct be>+ ^u _! especial "w 9 life is an absurdity2 x _c exi/4 ,!re mu/ be a good deal ( g5]al enlight5m5t & !re mu/ be a consid]able numb] ( individuals :o h enjoy$ a high measure ( enlight5m5t4 ,?is becomes cle> if we consid] ! "p play$ 9 ! life ( ! /ate by ! humble/ tradesman4 ,if he is to be successful1 he mu/ be able to read1 write1 & keep 8 acc\nts1 & make1 let u say1 %oes4 ,b :5 we h said ?is1 we h summ$ him up z a workman1 b n z a man1 & he is also a man4 ,he may m>ry1 & make a good or a bad husb&1 & a good or a bad fa!r4 ,he /&s 9 relations to 8 neighborhood1 to ! s*ool1 & to ! *ur*2 & he is n )\t 8 influ5ce4 ,he may be temp]ate or intemp]ate1 frugal or extravagant1 law-abid+ or ! rev]se4 ,he has 8 %>e1 & no small %>e1 9 ! gov]nm5t ( 8 city & ( 8 /ate4 ,8 influ5ce is inde$ f>-rea*+1 & t x may be an influ5ce = good1 he is 9 ne$ ( all ! intellectual & moral enlight5m5t t we c give him4 ,x is ( ! utmo/ practical utility to ! /ate t he %\ld "k a va/ numb] ( ?+s :i* h no direct be>+ ^u ! mak+ & m5d+ ( %oes4 ,& if ?is is true 9 ! case ( ! tradesman1 x is sc>cely necess>y to po9t out t ! physician1 ! lawy]1 ! cl]gyman1 & ! :ole army ( ^? :om we reg>d z ! lead]s ( m5 & ! mold]s ( public op9ion h sph]es ( non-pr(essional activity ( great importance to ! /ate4 ,!y _c be m]e speciali/s if !y w\ld4 ,!y mu/ influ5ce society = good or ill2 & if !y are ignorant & un5light5$1 _! influ5ce _c be good4 ,:5 we consid] ! life ( man 9 a broad way1 we see h[ ess5tial x is t _m m5 %\ld be br\ght to h a %>e 9 :at has be5 ga9$ by ! long travail ( ! c5turies pa/4 ,x w n d to ask at e /ep :e!r !y c put to direct pr(essional use e bit ( in=mation ga9$4 ,lit]ature & sci5ce1 sweetness & light1 beauty & tru?1 ^! are ! h]itage ( ! mod]n _w2 & unless ^! p]meate its v be+1 society mu/ und]go deg5]ation4 ,x is ?is conviction t has l$ to ! high appreciation accord$ by intellig5t m5 to c\rses ( lib]al /udy1 & among su* c\rses ^? :i* we h recogniz$ z philosophical mu/ take _! place4 #ha4 ,,:y ,,philosophical ,,/udies ,,are ,,useful4--,b let u ask a little m specifically :at is to be ga9$ by pursu+ di/9ctively philosophical /udies4 ,:y %\ld ^? :o g to college1 or intellig5t p]sons :o _c g to college1 c>e to int]e/ !mselves 9 logic & e?ics1 psy*ology & metaphysics8 ,are n ^! /udies r dry1 9 ! fir/ place1 & r pr(itless1 9 ! second8 ,z to ! fir/ po9t1 ,i %\ld /\tly ma9ta9 t if !y are dry1 x is somebody's fault4 ,! mo/ s5sational ( novels w\ld be dry if c\*$ 9 ! language :i* "s philosoph]s h se5 fit to use 9 express+ _! ?\ghts4 ,he :o def9es exi/5ce z ! /ill & simple precipitate ( ! oscillation betwe5 beg9n+ to be & ceas+ to be has done 8 be/ to ali5ate our affections f ! subject ( 8 pr$ilection4 ,b x is n 9 ! lea/ necess>y to talk 9 ?is way ab\t matt]s philosophical4 ,he :o is n a slave to tradition c use pla9 & simple language4 ,to be sure1 !re are "s subjects1 especially 9 ! field ( metaphysics1 into :i* ! /ud5t _c expect to see v deeply at ! outset ( 8 /udies4 ,m5 d n expect to und]/& ! m difficult problems ( ma!matics )\t mak+ a good deal ( prep>ation2 b1 unhappily1 !y sometimes expect to h ! pr(\nde/ problems ( metaphysics made lum9\s to !m 9 "o or two popul> lectures4 ,philosophical /udies are n dry1 :5 m5 are prop]ly taught1 & are 9 a position to und]/& :at is said4 ,!y deal ) ! mo/ fasc9at+ ( problems4 ,x is only necess>y to pi]ce ?r\gh ! husk ( words :i* conceals ! ?\ghts ( ! philosoph]1 & we %all f9d ! k]nel palatable1 inde$4 ,nor are su* /udies pr(itless1 to take up our second po9t4 ,let u see :at we may ga9 f !m4 ,let u beg9 ) logic--! traditional logic commonly taught to beg9n]s4 ,is x wor? :ile to /udy ?is8 ,surely x is4 ,no "o :o has n tri$ to introduce ! av]age "u-graduate to logic c realize h[ bl9dly he uses 8 reason+ p[]s1 h[ unconsci\s he is ( ! full mean+ ( ! s5t5ces he employs1 h[ easily he may be entrapp$ by fallaci\s reason+s :]e he is n set on 8 gu>d by "s prepo/]\s conclusion t\*+ matt]s ) :i* he is famili>4 ,& he is n m]ely unconsci\s ( ! lapses 9 8 processes ( reason+1 & ( 8 imp]fect compreh5sion ( ! significance ( 8 /atem5ts2 he is unconsci\s also ( ! mass ( inh]it$ & acquir$ prejudices1 (t5 q indef5sible1 :i* he unque/ion+ly employs z premises4 ,he fairly repres5ts ! l>g] _w beyond ! walls ( ! college4 ,x is a _w 9 :i* prejudices are assum$ z premises1 & loose reason+s pass curr5t & are un*all5g$ until !y beget "s unpalatable conclusion4 ,x is a _w 9 :i* m5 take little pa9s to ?9k c>efully & accurately unless !y are deal+ ) some?+ t\*+ :i* x is practically inconv5i5t to make a mi/ake4 ,he :o /udies logic 9 ! prop] way is n fill+ 8 m9d ) useless facts2 he is simply turn+ ! light ^u 8 own ?9k+ m9d1 & realiz+ m cle>ly :at he has always done r bl9dly & blund]+ly4 ,he may completely =get ! ,b>b>a1 ,cel>5t1 ,d>ii1 ,f]ioque prioris1 & he may be q unable to give an acc\nt ( ! moods & figures ( ! syllogism2 b he _c lose ! critical habit if he once has acquir$ x1 & he _c b be on 8 gu>d aga9/ himself z well z aga9/ o!rs4 ,!re is a ke5 pleasure 9 ga9+ su* insight4 ,x gives a feel+ ( fre$om & p[]1 & rids "o ( t horrid s5se t1 al?\gh ?is or t bit ( reason+ is c]ta9ly bad1 x is impossible to tell j :at is ! matt] ) x4 ,& z = its practical utility1 if x is desirable to get rid ( prejudice & confusion1 & to possess a cle> & reasonable m9d1 !n any?+ t makes = ?is mu/ be ( value4 ,( ! desirability t all :o c af=d ! luxury ( a lib]al education %\ld d "s s]i\s read+ 9 e?ics1 x seems h>dly necess>y to speak4 ,! defici5cies ( ! e?ics ( ! unreflective h already be5 t\*$ ^u 9 ,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,b ,i _c =be> dwell+ ^u x aga94 ,:at ?\ghtful man is n /ruck ) ! v>iety ( e?ical /&>ds :i* obta9 9 ! same community8 ,! cl]gyman :o has a /rong s5se ( responsibility = ! welf>e ( 8 flock is sometimes accus$ ( n suffici5tly realiz+ ! importance ( a frank expression ( ! :ole tru? ab\t ?+s2 ! man ( sci5ce1 ^: duty x seems to be to pe] into ! my/]ies ( ! univ]se1 & to tell :at he sees or :at he guesses1 is accus$ ( an indiff]5ce to ! effect :i* 8 utt]ances may h ^u ! less enlight5$ :o he> him speak2 _m criticise ! lawy] = a devotion to ! int]e/s ( 8 cli5t :i* is at times 9 d\btful h>mony ) ! int]e/s ( ju/ice 9 ! l>g] s5se2 9 ! bus9ess _w comm]cial integrity is exalt$1 & lapses f ! e?ical code :i* d n assail ?is c>d9al virtue are n always reg>d$ ) equal s]i\sness4 ,x is z ?\gh m5 elect$ to wor%ip at ! %r9e ( a p>ticul> sa9t1 & 7 incl9$ to ov]look ! claims ( o!rs4 ,= all ?is !re is1 ( c\rse1 a reason2 su* ?+s are nev] to be look$ ^u z m]e accid5t4 ,b ?is does n mean t ^! m or less conflict+ /&>ds are all to be accept$ z satisfactory & z ultimate4 ,x is inevitable t ^? :o /udy e?ics s]i\sly1 :o really reflect ^u e?ical problems1 %\ld sometimes criticise ! judgm5ts ( _! fell[-m5 r unfavorably4 ,( su* indep5d5t criticism _m p]sons h a /rong di/ru/4 ,i am rem9d$ "h ( an em95t ma!matician :o ma9ta9$ t ! /udy ( e?ics has a t5d5cy to di/ort ! /ud5t's judgm5ts z to :at is "r & :at is wrong4 ,he _h obs]v$ t !re is apt to be "s div]g5ce ( op9ion betwe5 ^? :o ?9k s]i\sly ^u morals & ^? :o d n1 & he gave ! pref]5ce to ! un?9k+ majority4 ,n[1 !re is und\bt$ly dang] t ! indep5d5t ?9k] may be betray$ into ecc5tricities ( op9ion :i* are unju/ifiable & are ev5 dang]\s4 ,b x seems a /range doctr9e t x is1 on ! :ole1 saf] n to ?9k1 b r to drift on ! /ream ( public op9ion4 ,9 o!r fields we are n incl9$ to believe t ! ignorant man1 :o has giv5 no especial att5tion to a subject1 is ! "o likely to be "r4 ,:y %\ld x be s 9 morals8 ,t ! y\? :o goes to college to seek a lib]al education has a ne$ ( e?ical /udies becomes v pla9 :5 we come to a realization ( ! curi\s limitations ( 8 e?ical tra9+ z pick$ up f 8 previ\s exp]i5ce ( ! _w4 ,he has "s v def9ite notions z to "r & wrong4 ,he is z ready to ma9ta9 ! desirability ( b5evol5ce1 ju/ice1 & v]acity1 z 0 ,bi%op ,butl]1 :o wrote ! fam\s ,analogy 2 al?\gh1 to be sure1 he is mo/ in>ticulate :5 call$ ^u to expla9 :at con/itutes b5evol5ce1 ju/ice1 or v]acity4 ,b ! /range/ ?+ is1 t he seems to place "s ( ! mo/ important decisions ( 8 :ole life q outside ! realm ( "r & wrong4 ,he may admit t a man %\ld n und]take to be a cl]gyman1 unless he possesses c]ta9 qualifications ( m9d & "* :i* evid5tly qualify him = t pr(ession4 ,b he does n see :y he has n ! "r to become a we>isome pr(essor or an incompet5t physician1 if he *ooses to ent] ^u su* a c>e]4 ,is a man n free to take up :at pr(ession he pleases8 ,he mu/ take ! risk1 ( c\rse2 b if he fails1 he fails4 ,& :5 he is ask$ to consid] f ! po9t ( view ( e?ics ! "q ( m>riage & its responsibilities1 he is at fir/ incl9$ to consid] ! :ole subject z r a matt] = je/4 ,has a man n ! "r to m>ry or rema9 s+le exactly z he pleases8 ,& is he n free to m>ry any "o :om he c p]suade to accept him8 ,to be sure1 he %\ld be a little c>eful ab\t m>ry+ q out ( 8 class1 & he %\ld n be hopelessly c>eless ab\t money matt]s4 ,?us1 a decision1 :i* may affect 8 :ole life z mu* z any o!r t he c be call$ ^u to make1 :i* may practically make x or m> x1 is treat$ z ?\gh x 7 n a matt] ( grave conc]n1 b a private affair1 entail+ no s]i\s consequ5ces to any "o & call+ = no reflection4 ,i wi% x c\ld be said t ! _w outside ( ! college reg>d$ ^! matt]s 9 ano!r light4 ,b ! /ud5t fai?fully repres5ts ! op9ions curr5t 9 ! community f :i* he comes4 ,& he repres5ts1 unhappily1 ! tea*+s ( ! /age & ( ! _w ( curr5t fiction4 ,! influ5ce ( ^! is too (t5 on ! side ( inconsid]ate passion1 :i* /irs our sympa?y & :i* l5ds itself to dramatic effect4 ,) ! writ]s ( romance ! e?ical philosoph]s h an anci5t qu>rel4 ,x may be said3 ,b ! _w gets along v well z x is1 & )\t brood+ too mu* ^u e?ical problems4 ,to ?is we may answ]3 ,does ! _w get along s v well1 aft] all8 ,are !re no evils t =esight & "s firmness ( "* might h obviat$8 ,& :5 we conc]n ourselves ) ! educat$ classes1 at lea/1 ! weight ( ^: influ5ce is enorm\s1 is x too mu* to ma9ta9 t !y %\ld d "s read+ & ?9k+ 9 ! field ( e?ics8 %\ld /rive to atta9 to cle> vision & correct judgm5t on ! :ole subject ( man's duties8 ,j at ! pres5t "t1 :5 psy*ological /udies h s great a vogue1 "o sc>cely feels compell$ to make any sort ( an apology = !m4 ,x is assum$ on all h&s t x is desirable to /udy psy*ology1 & c\rses ( lectures are multipli$ 9 all qu>t]s4 ,probably "s ( ?is int]e/ has its root 9 ! fallacy t\*$ ^u e>li] 9 ?is *apt]4 ,! sci5ce ( psy*ology has revolutioniz$ educational !ory4 ,:5 ^? ( u :o h arriv$ at middle life look back & survey ! t$i\s & toilsome pa? along :i* we 7 unwill+ly driv5 9 our s*oolboy days1 & !n see h[ smoo? & pleasant x has be5 made s9ce1 we are impell$ to honor all :o h contribut$ to ?is result4 ,moreov]1 x seems v cle> t tea*]s ( all grades %\ld h "s acqua9tance ) ! nature ( ! m9ds t !y are labor+ to develop1 & t !y %\ld n be left to pick up _! in=mation = !mselves--a task suffici5tly difficult to an unobs]vant p]son4 ,^! consid]ations furni% a suffici5t gr\nd = extoll+ ! sci5ce ( psy*ology1 & = insi/+ t /udies 9 x %\ld =m "s "p ( ! education ( a tea*]4 ,b :y %\ld ! re/ ( u c>e = su* /udies8 ,to ?is "o may answ]1 9 ! fir/ place1 t ne>ly all ( u h1 or ought to h1 "s responsibility = ! education ( *ildr52 &1 9 ! second1 t we deal ) ! m9ds ( o!rs e day 9 e walk 9 life1 & x c c]ta9ly d no h>m to h our att5tion call$ to ! way 9 :i* m9ds function4 ,to be sure1 "s m5 are by nature tactful1 & in/9ctively consci\s ( h[ ?+s /rike ! m9ds ( ^? ab\t !m4 ,b ev5 su* p]sons may ga9 helpful sugge/ions1 &1 at lea/1 h ! habit ( att5tion to ! m5tal processes ( o!rs confirm$ 9 !m4 ,h[ (t5 we are impress$ at *ur*1 at ! public lecture1 & 9 private conv]sations1 ) ! fact t ! speak] lives 9 blissful unconsci\sness ( :at c be und]/ood by or c possibly int]e/ 8 he>]s6 ,= ! confirm$ bore1 !re is1 p]haps1 no cure2 b x seems z ?\gh some?+ might be done = ^? :o are afflict$ to a m9or degree4 ,& ?is br+s me to ano!r consid]ation1 :i* is t a prop] /udy ( psy*ology ought to be ( s]vice 9 reveal+ to a man 8 own nature4 ,x %\ld %[ him :at he is1 & ?is is surely a fir/ /ep t[>d becom+ some?+ bett]4 ,x is wond]ful h[ bl9d m5 may be ) reg>d to :at passes 9 _! own m9ds & ) reg>d to _! own peculi>ities4 ,:5 !y le>n to reflect1 !y come to a cle>] consci\sness ( !mselves--x is z ?\gh a lamp 7 light$ )9 !m4 ,"o may1 x is true1 /udy psy*ology )\t atta9+ to any ( ! good results sugge/$ above2 b1 = t matt]1 !re is no /udy :i* may n be pursu$ 9 a pr(itless way1 if ! tea*] be suffici5tly unskill$ & ! pupil suffici5tly ?\ghtless4 #hb4 ,,metaphysics ,,& ,,philosophy ,,( ,,religion4--,p]haps x w be said3 ,= su* philosophical /udies z ! above a good def5se may p]haps be made1 b c "o def5d 9 ! same way ! plunge into ! obscurities ( metaphysics8 ,9 ?is field no two m5 seem to be :olly agre$1 & if !y 71 :at w\ld x signify8 ,:e!r we call ourselves moni/s or duali/s1 ideali/s or reali/s1 ,lockians or ,kantians1 mu/ we n live & deal ) ! ?+s ab\t u 9 mu* ! same way8 ,^? :o h dipp$ into metaphysical /udies deeply en\gh to see :at ! problems discuss$ really are2 :o h be5 able to rea* ! ideas conceal$1 too (t51 "u a r =bidd+ t]m9ology2 :o are n ( ! dogmatic turn ( m9d :i* insi/s ^u unque/ion$ au?ority & is repell$ by ! unc]ta9ties :i* mu/ confront ^? :o give !mselves to reflective ?\ght1--^! w h>dly ne$ to be p]suad$ t x is desirable to give "s att5tion to ! "q3 ,:at sort ( a _w1 aft] all1 is ?is _w 9 :i* we live8 ,:at is its mean+8 ,to _m m5 ! impulse to pe] into ^! ?+s is ov]-p[]+1 & ! pleasure ( feel+ _! insight deep5 is extremely ke54 ,:at det]s u 9 mo/ in/ances is n ! conviction t su* inve/igations are n1 or %\ld n be1 int]e/+1 b r ! difficulty ( ! approa*4 ,x is n easy to foll[ ! pa? :i* leads f ! _w ( common ?\ght into ! _w ( philosophical reflection4 ,"o becomes bewild]$ & disc\rag$ at ! outset4 ,sometimes1 aft] li/5+ to ! directions ( guides :o disagree among !mselves1 we are tempt$ to believe t !re c be no c]ta9 pa? to ! goal :i* we h be=e u4 ,b1 :atev] ! difficulties & unc]ta9ties ( our task1 a little reflection mu/ %[ t x is n "o :i* has no significance = human life4 ,m5 c1 x is true1 eat & sleep & g ?r\gh ! r\t9e ( ! day1 )\t giv+ ?\ght to sci5ce or religion or philosophy1 b few w def5d su* an exi/5ce4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 ^? :o h atta9$ to "s measure ( intellectual & moral developm5t d assume1 consci\sly or unconsci\sly1 "s r def9ite attitude t[>d life1 & ?is is n indep5d5t ( _! conviction z to :at ! _w is & means4 ,metaphysical speculations run out into ! philosophy ( religion2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 religi\s emotions & ideals h aga9 & aga9 prompt$ m5 to metaphysical con/ruction4 ,a glance at hi/ory %[s t x is natural to man to embrace "s attitude t[>d ! sy/em ( ?+s1 & to try to ju/ify ?is by reason+4 ,vigor\s & indep5d5t m9ds h giv5 bir? to !ories1 & ^! h be5 adopt$ by o!rs4 ,! influ5ce ( su* !ories ^u ! evolution ( humanity has be5 enorm\s4 ,ideas h rul$ & /ill rule ! _w1 "s ( !m v ab/ract ideas4 ,x does n foll[ t "o is un9flu5c$ by !m1 :5 "o has no k ( _! s\rce or ( _! orig9al sett+4 ,!y become "p ( ! intellectual h]itage ( u all1 & we sometimes suppose t we are responsible = !m ourselves4 ,has n ! fact t an ideali/ic or a mat]iali/ic type ( ?\ght has be5 curr5t at a p>ticul> "t influ5c$ ! outlook on life ( _m :o h !mselves devot$ little att5tion to philosophy8 ,x w\ld be int]e/+ to "k h[ _m1 to :om ,sp5c] is b a "n1 h felt ! influ5ce ( ! agno/icism ( :i* he 0 ! apo/le4 ,i say ?is )\t mean+ to criticise "h any ( ! types ( doctr9e ref]r$ to4 ,my !sis is only t philosophy & life g h& 9 h&1 & t ! pry+ into ! deep] my/]ies ( ! univ]se _c be reg>d$ z a matt] ( no practical mom5t4 ,its importance ought to be admitt$ ev5 by ! man :o has little hope t he w himself be able to atta9 to a doctr9e :olly satisfactory & :olly un%akable4 ,=1 if ! /udy ( ! problems ( metaphysics does no?+ else = a giv5 individual1 x1 at lea/1 enables him to compreh5d & criticise intellig5tly ! doctr9es :i* are pres5t$ = 8 acceptance by o!rs4 ,x is a pa9ful ?+ to feel q helpless 9 ! face ( plausible reason+s :i* may ?reat5 to rob u ( our mo/ *]i%$ hopes1 or may t5d to p]suade u ( ! vanity ( :at we h be5 accu/om$ to reg>d z ( highe/ wor?4 ,if we are q unskill$ 9 ! exam9ation ( su* doctr9es1 we may be captur$ by ! loose/ ( argum5ts--witness ! influ5ce ( ,sp5c]'s argum5t = ! ,unkn[able1 9 ! ,fir/ ,pr9ciples2 & if we are ignorant ( ! hi/ory ( speculative ?\ght1 we may be c>ri$ away by old & explod$ notions :i* pose z mod]n & impressive only because !y h be5 giv5 a mod]n dress4 ,we c1 ( c\rse1 refuse to li/5 to ^? :o w\ld talk ) u4 ,b ?is savors ( bigotry1 & ! _w w c]ta9ly n gr[ wis]1 if m5 g5]ally cultivate a bl9d adh]5ce to ! op9ions 9 :i* !y happ5 to be br\ght up4 ,a cauti\s cons]vatism is "o ?+1 & bl9d ob/9acy is ano!r4 ,to ! educat$ man 7& x is probable t o!rs w h to dep5d on op9ions tak5 at second h&7 a bett] way ( avoid+ error is op54 ,f9ally1 x w n d to ov]look ! broad5+ influ5ce ( su* /udies z we are discuss+4 ,h[ dogmatically m5 are 9 ! habit ( express+ !mselves ^u ^? obscure & difficult problems :i* deal ) matt]s t lie on ! conf9es ( human k6 ,su* an assumption ( k _c b make u uncompreh5d+ & unsympa!tic4 ,!re are _m subjects ^u :i*1 if we hold an op9ion at all1 we %\ld hold x t5tatively1 wait+ = m light1 & reta9+ a will+ness to be enlight5$4 ,_m a bitt] & fruitless qu>rel might be avoid$1 if m p]sons f\nd x possible to ma9ta9 ?is philosophical attitude ( m9d4 ,philosophy is1 aft] all1 reflection1 & ! reflective man mu/ realize t he is probably z liable to error z are o!r m54 ,he is n infallible1 nor has ! limit ( human k be5 atta9$ 9 8 day & g5]ation4 ,he :o realizes ?is w n assume t 8 neighbor is always wrong1 & he w come to h t wide1 consci5ti\s tol]ance1 :i* is n indiff]5ce1 b :i* is at ! f>!/ remove f ! zeal ( m]e bigotry4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii ,,:y ,,we ,,%\ld ,,/udy ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,philosophy #hc4 ,,! ,,prom95ce ,,giv5 ,,to ,,! ,,subject4--,:5 "o reflects ^u ! numb] ( lecture c\rses giv5 e ye> at our univ]sities & colleges on ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 "o is /ruck by ! fact t philosophy is n treat$ z are mo/ o!r subjects ) :i* ! /ud5t is br\ght into contact4 ,if we /udy ma!matics1 or *emi/ry1 or physics1 or physiology1 or biology1 ! ef=t is made to lay be=e u 9 a conv5i5t =m ! late/ results :i* h be5 atta9$ 9 ^? sci5ces4 ,( _! hi/ory v little is said2 &1 inde$1 z we h se5 7section #f71 lectures on ! hi/ory ( ! inductive sci5ces are apt to be reg>d$ z philosophical 9 _! "* & aims r ?an z m]ely sci5tific4 ,! int]e/ 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy is c]ta9ly n a dim9i%+ "o4 ,text-books cov]+ ! :ole field or a "p ( x are multipli$2 ext5sive /udies are made & publi%$ cov]+ ! "w ( individual philosoph]s2 innum]able hi/orical discussions make _! appe>ance 9 ! pages ( curr5t philosophical j\rnals4 ,no /ud5t is reg>d$ z fairly acqua9t$ ) philosophy :o kn[s no?+ ( ,plato & ,ari/otle1 ,desc>tes & ,sp9oza1 ,b]keley & ,hume1 ,kant & ,hegel1 & ! re/4 ,we %\ld look ^u him z hav+ a v re/rict$ outlook if he _h read only ! works ( ! ?9k]s ( our own day2 inde$1 we %\ld n expect him to h a prop] compreh5sion ev5 ( ^!1 = _! *apt]s mu/ rema9 bl9d & mean+less to "o :o has no k ( :at prec$$ !m & has giv5 bir? to ! doctr9es !re set =?4 ,x is a fair "q to ask3 ,:y is philosophy s b\nd up ) ! /udy ( ! pa/8 ,:y may we n cont5t ourselves ) :at has up to ! pres5t be5 atta9$1 & omit a survey ( ! road along :i* our pr$ecessors h travel$8 #hd4 ,,! ,,especial ,,importance ,,( ,,hi/orical ,,/udies ,,to ,,reflective ,,?\ght4--,9 "s ( ! prec$+ *apt]s deal+ ) ! v>i\s philosophical sci5ces1 x has be5 indicat$ t1 9 ! sci5ces we d n reg>d z philosophical1 m5 may "w on ! basis ( c]ta9 commonly accept$ assumptions & employ me?ods :i* are g5]ally reg>d$ z tru/wor?y )9 ! giv5 field4 ,! value bo? ( ! fundam5tal assumptions & ( ! me?ods ( inve/igation appe> to be gu>ante$ by ! results atta9$4 ,!re are n m]ely obs]vation & hypo!sis2 !re is also v]ification1 & :]e ?is is lack+1 m5 ei!r ab&on _! position or res]ve _! judgm5t4 ,?us1 a c]ta9 body ( int]relat$ facts is built up1 ! significance ( :i*1 9 _m fields at lea/1 is app>5t ev5 to ! layman4 ,nor is x :olly beyond him to judge :e!r ! results ( sci5tific inve/igations c be v]ifi$4 ,an eclipse1 calculat$ by me?ods :i* he is q unable to foll[1 may occur at ! appo9t$ h\r & confirm 8 respect = ! a/ronom]4 ,! efficacy ( a s]um 9 ! cure ( diseases may conv9ce him t "w done 9 ! laboratory is n labor lo/4 ,x seems evid5t t ! sev]al sci5ces d really rise on /epp+ /ones ( _! dead selves1 & t ^? selves ( ! pa/ are really dead & sup]s$$4 ,:o w\ld n[ ?9k ( go+ back = 8 sci5ce to ,plato's ,timaeus1 or w\ld accept ! description ( ! physical _w conta9$ 9 ! works ( ,ari/otle8 ,:at *emi/ or physici/ ne$ busy himself ) ! doctr9e ( atoms & _! cla%+s pres5t$ 9 ! magnific5t poem ( ,lucretius8 ,:o c =be> a smile--a sympa!tic "o--:5 he turns ov] ! pages ( ,augu/9e's ,city ( ,god1 & sees :at sort ( a _w ?is rem>kable man believ$ himself to inhabit8 ,x is ! hi/oric & human int]e/ t c>ries u back to ^! ?+s4 ,we say3 ,:at +5uity6 :at a happy guess6 h[ well t 0 reason$ 9 ! light ( :at 0 actually kn[n ab\t ! _w 9 ^? days6 ,b we nev] =get t :at compels our admiration does s because x makes u realize t we /& 9 ! pres5ce ( a great m9d1 & n because x is a f\ndation-/one 9 ! great edifice :i* sci5ce has erect$4 ,b x is n s 9 philosophy4 ,x is n possible to reg>d ! philosophical reflections ( ,plato & ( ,ari/otle z sup]s$$ 9 ! same s5se 9 :i* we may s reg>d _! sci5ce4 ,! reason = ?is lies 9 ! diff]5ce betwe5 sci5tific ?\ght & reflective ?\ght4 ,! two h be5 contra/$ 9 ,*apt] ,,ii ( ?is volume4 ,x 0 !re po9t$ out t ! sort ( ?9k+ dem&$ 9 ! special sci5ces is n s v diff]5t f t ) :i* we are all famili> 9 common life4 ,sci5ce is m accurate & sy/ematic1 x has a broad] outlook1 & x is free f ! imp]fections :i* vitiate ! uncritical & fragm5t>y k :i* exp]i5ce ( ! _w yields ! unsci5tific4 ,b1 aft] all1 ! _w is mu* ! same sort ( a _w to ! man ( sci5ce & to 8 uncritical neighbor4 ,! latt] c1 z we h se51 und]/& :at1 9 g5]al1 ! =m] is do+1 & c appropriate _m ( 8 results4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x (t5 happ5s t ! man :o has n1 ) pa9s & labor1 le>n$ to reflect1 _c ev5 see t ! philosoph] has a g5u9e problem be=e him4 ,?us1 ! pla9 man accepts ! fact t he has a m9d & t x kn[s ! _w4 ,t bo? m5tal ph5om5a & physical ph5om5a %\ld be c>efully obs]v$ & classifi$ he may be ready to admit4 ,b t ! v conceptions ( m9d & ( :at x means to "k a _w are vague & indef9ite 9 ! extreme1 & /& 9 ne$ ( c>eful analysis1 he does n realize4 ,9 o!r words1 he sees t our k ne$s to be ext5d$ & r5d]$ m accurate & reliable1 b he does n see t1 if we are to ?9k cle>ly & consci\sly1 all our k ne$s to be gone ov] 9 a diff]5t way4 ,9 common life x is q possible to use 9 ! atta9m5t ( practical ends k :i* has n be5 analyz$ & ( ! full mean+ ( :i* we are ignorant4 ,i hope x has become evid5t 9 ! c\rse ( ?is volume t some?+ closely analog\s is true 9 ! field ( sci5ce4 ,! man ( sci5ce may measure space & "t1 & may /udy ! ph5om5a ( ! human m9d1 )\t ev5 attempt+ to answ] all ! que/ions :i* may be rais$ z to :at is meant1 9 ! la/ analysis1 by su* concepts z space1 "t1 & ! m9d4 ,t su* concepts %\ld be analyz$ has1 ,i hope1 be5 made cle>1 if only t errone\s & mislead+ notions z to ^! ?+s %\ld be avoid$4 ,b :5 a man ) a g5ius = metaphysical analysis addresses himself to ?is task1 he _c simply h& ! results atta9$ by 8 reflections ov] to 8 less reflective fell[-man4 ,8 words are n und]/ood2 he seems to be deal+ ) %ad[s1 ) unrealities2 he has pass$ f ! real _w ( common ?\ght into ano!r _w :i* appe>s to h little relation to ! =m]4 ,nor c v]ification1 indubitable pro(1 be dem&$ & furni%$ z x c 9 _m p>ts ( ! field cultivat$ by ! special sci5ces4 ,we may judge sci5ce fairly well )\t ourselves be+ sci5ti/s1 b x is n possible to judge philosophy )\t be+ to "s ext5t a philosoph]4 ,9 o!r words1 ! conclusions ( reflective ?\ght mu/ be judg$ by foll[+ ! process & discov]+ its cog5cy or ! rev]se4 ,?us1 :5 ! philosoph] lays be=e u an argum5t to prove t we mu/ reg>d ! only ultimate reality 9 ! _w z unkn[able1 & mu/ ab&on our !i/ic convictions1 h[ %all we make a decision z to :e!r he is "r or is wrong8 ,may we expect t ! day w come :5 he w be ju/ifi$ or condemn$ z is ! a/ronom] on ! day pr$ict$ = an eclipse8 ,nei!r ! philosophy ( ,locke1 nor t ( ,desc>tes1 nor t ( ,kant1 c be v9dicat$ z c a pr$iction t\*+ an eclipse ( ! sun4 ,to judge ^! m51 we mu/ le>n to ?9k ) !m1 to survey ! road by :i* !y travel2 & ?is we _c d until we h le>n$ ! art4 ,:e!r we l to admit x or n1 we mu/ admit1 if we are fair-m9d$ & intellig5t1 t philosophy _c speak ) ! same au?ority z sci5ce1 :]e sci5ce has be5 able to v]ify its results4 ,!re are1 ( c\rse1 sci5tific hypo!ses & speculations :i* %\ld be reg>d$ z be+ q z unc]ta9 z any?+ br\ght =w>d by ! philosoph]s4 ,b1 admitt+ ?is1 ! fact rema9s t !re is a diff]5ce betwe5 ! two fields z a :ole1 & t ! philosoph] %\ld le>n n to speak ) an assumption ( au?ority4 ,no f9al philosophy has be5 atta9$1 s palpably firm 9 its f\ndation1 & s admitt$ly tru/wor?y 9 its con/ruction1 t we are ju/ifi$ 9 say+3 ,n[ we ne$ nev] g back to ! pa/ unless to gratify ! hi/oric int]e/4 ,x is a weakness ( "y m51 & ( old] m5 ( p>tisan temp]1 to feel v sure ( matt]s :i*1 9 ! nature ( ?+s1 mu/ rema9 unc]ta94 ,s9ce ^! ?+s are s1 & s9ce m5 possess ! p[] ( reflection 9 v v>y+ degree1 x is n surpris+ t we f9d x wor? :ile to turn back & /udy ! ?\ghts ( ^? :o h _h a g5ius = reflection1 ev5 ?\gh !y liv$ at a "t :5 mod]n sci5ce 0 await+ its bir?4 ,"s ?+s _c be kn[n until o!r ?+s are kn[n2 (t5 !re mu/ be a va/ collection ( individual facts be=e ! g5]alizations ( sci5ce c come into be+4 ,b _m ( ! problems ) :i* reflective ?\ght is /ill /ruggl+ h n be5 fur!r$ 9 ! lea/ by in=mation :i* has be5 collect$ dur+ ! c5turies :i* h elaps$ s9ce !y 7 attack$ by ! e>ly ,greek philosoph]s4 ,?us1 we are /ill discuss+ ! di/9ction betwe5 appe>ance & reality1 & _m & v>i$ are ! op9ions at :i* philosoph]s arrive4 ,b ,?ales1 :o heads ! li/ ( ! ,greek philosoph]s1 _h q en\gh mat]ial1 giv5 9 8 own exp]i5ce1 to enable him to solve ?is problem z well z any mod]n philosoph]1 _h he be5 able to use ! mat]ial4 ,he :o is famili> ) ! hi/ory ( philosophy w recognize t1 al?\gh "o may smile at ,augu/9e's acc\nts ( ! races ( m51 & ( ! spontane\s g5]ation ( small animals1 no "o has a "r to despise 8 pr(\nd reflections ^u ! nature ( "t & ! problems :i* arise out ( its "* z pa/1 pres5t1 & future4 ,! fact is t metaphysics does n lag beh9d because ( our lack ( mat]ial to "w )4 ,! difficulties we h to face are no?+ else ?an ! difficulties ( reflective ?\ght4 ,:y c we n tell cle>ly :at we mean :5 we use ! ^w self1 or speak ( k1 or insi/ t we "k an ext]nal _w8 ,are we n conc]n$ ) ! mo/ famili> ( exp]i5ces8 ,to be sure we are--) exp]i5ces famili>ly1 b vaguely & unanalytically1 kn[n &1 h5ce1 only half kn[n4 ,all ^! exp]i5ces ! great m5 ( ! pa/ _h z well z we2 & if !y _h great] p[]s ( reflection1 p]haps !y saw m deeply into !m ?an we d4 ,at any rate1 we _c af=d to assume t !y did n4 ,"o ?+1 h[ev]1 ,i mu/ n omit to m5tion4 ,al?\gh "o man _c turn ov] bodily ! results ( 8 reflection to ano!r1 x by no means foll[s t he _c give ! o!r a help+ h&1 or w>n him ( dang]s by himself /umbl+ into pitfalls1 z ! case may be4 ,we h an indef9ite advantage ov] ! solit>y ?9k]s :o op5$ up ! pa?s ( reflection1 = we h ! b5efit ( _! tea*+4 ,& ?is br+s me to a consid]ation :i* ,i mu/ discuss 9 ! next section4 #he4 ,,! ,,value ,,( ,,diff]5t ,,po9ts ,,( ,,view4--,! man :o has n read is l ! man :o has n travel$--he is n an intellig5t critic1 = he has no?+ ) :i* to comp>e :at falls )9 ! little circle ( 8 exp]i5ces4 ,t ! prevail+ ar*itecture ( a t[n is ugly c sc>cely impress "o :o is acqua9t$ ) no o!r t[n4 ,if we live 9 a community 9 :i* m5's mann]s are n good1 & _! /&>d ( liv+ n ! highe/1 our att5tion does n dwell mu* ^u ! fact1 unless "s contra/$ exp]i5ce wakes )9 u a cle> consci\sness ( ! diff]5ce4 ,t to :i* we are accu/om$ we accept uncritically & unreflectively4 ,x is difficult = u to see x some:at z "o might see x to :om x came z a new exp]i5ce4 ,( c\rse1 !re may be 9 ! "o t[n build+s ( m & ( less ar*itectural beauty2 & !re may be 9 ! "o community diff]5ces ( op9ion t furni% intellectual /imulus & keep awake ! critical _s4 ,/ill1 !re is su* a ?+ z a preval5t type ( ar*itecture1 & !re is su* a ?+ z ! _s ( ! times4 ,he :o is c>ri$ along by ! _s ( ! age may easily conclude t :at is1 is "r1 because he he>s few raise _! voices 9 prote/4 ,to e/imate ju/ly ! type ( ?\ght 9 :i* he has be5 br\ght up1 he mu/ h some?+ ) :i* to comp>e x4 ,he mu/ /& at a di/ance1 & try to judge x z he w\ld judge a type ( doctr9e pres5t$ to him = ! fir/ rime4 ,& 9 ! accompli%m5t ( ?is task he c f9d no great] aid ?an ! /udy ( ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,x is at fir/ some?+ ( a %ock to a man to discov] t assumptions :i* he has be5 accu/om$ to make )\t "q h be5 frankly repudiat$ by m5 q z clev] z he1 &1 p]haps1 m critical4 ,x op5s ! eyes to see t 8 /&>ds ( wor? h be5 weigh$ by o!rs & h be5 f\nd want+4 ,x may well incl9e him to reexam9e reason+s 9 :i* he has detect$ no flaw1 :5 he f9ds t acute m9ds h tri$ !m be=e1 & h decl>$ !m faulty4 ,nor c x be )\t its influ5ce ^u 8 judgm5t ( ! significance ( a doctr9e1 :5 x becomes pla9 to him t ?is significance c sc>cely be fully compreh5d$ until ! hi/ory ( ! doctr9e is kn[n4 ,= example1 he ?9ks ( ! m9d z someh[ 9 ! body1 z int]act+ ) x1 z a sub/ance1 & z immat]ial4 ,9 ! c\rse ( 8 read+ x beg9s to dawn ^u 8 consci\sness t he has n ?\ght all ?is out = himself2 he has tak5 ^! notions f o!rs1 :o 9 turn h _h !m f _! pr$ecessors4 ,he beg9s to realize t he is n re/+ ^u evid5ce indep5d5tly f\nd 9 8 own exp]i5ce1 b has ^u 8 h&s a %eaf ( op9ions :i* are ! e*oes ( old philosophies1 & ^: rise & developm5t c be trac$ ov] ! /ret* ( ! c5turies4 ,c he help ask+ himself1 :5 he sees ?is1 :e!r ! op9ions 9 "q express ! tru? & ! :ole tru?8 ,is he n =c$ to take ! critical attitude t[>d !m8 ,& :5 he views ! succession ( sy/ems :i* pass 9 review be=e him1 not+ h[ a tru? may be dimly se5 by "o writ]1 d5i$ by ano!r1 tak5 up aga9 & made cle>] by a ?ird1 & s on1 h[ c he avoid ! reflection t1 z !re 0 "s error mix$ ) ! tru? pres5t$ 9 e>li] sy/ems1 s !re probably is "s error 9 :atev] may happ5 to be ! =m ( doctr9e g5]ally receiv$ 9 8 own "t8 ,! evolution ( humanity is n yet at an end2 m5 /ill /ruggle to see cle>ly1 & fall %ort ( ! ideal2 x mu/ be a good ?+ to be fre$ f ! dogmatic assumption ( f9ality natural to ! man ( limit$ outlook4 ,9 /udy+ ! hi/ory ( philosophy sympa!tically we are n m]ely call+ to our aid critics :o possess ! advantage ( see+ ?+s f a diff]5t po9t ( view1 b we are rem9d+ ourselves t we1 too1 are human & fallible4 #hf4 ,,philosophy ,,z ,,poetry1 ,,& ,,philosophy ,,z ,,sci5ce4--,! recognition ( ! tru? t ! problems ( reflection d n admit ( easy solution & t v]ification c sc>cely be expect$ z x c 9 ! fields ( ! special sci5ces1 ne$ n1 ev5 :5 x is br\ght home to u1 z x is apt to be1 by ! /udy ( ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 lead u to believe t philosophies are l ! fa%ions1 a some?+ gott5 up to suit ! ta/e ( ! day1 & to be dismiss$ )\t regret z soon z t ta/e *anges4 ,philosophy is sometimes comp>$ ) poetry4 ,x is argu$ t ea* age mu/ h its own poetry1 ev5 ?\gh x be inf]ior to t :i* x has inh]it$ f ! pa/4 ,j s1 x is said1 ea* age mu/ h its own philosophy1 & ! philosophy ( an e>li] age w n satisfy its dem&s4 ,! implication is t 9 deal+ ) philosophy we are n conc]n$ ) :at is true or untrue 9 itself consid]$1 b ) :at is satisfy+ to u or ! rev]se4 ,n[1 x w\ld s\nd absurd to say t ea* age mu/ h its own geometry or its own physics4 ,! fact t x has long be5 kn[n t ! sum ( ! int]ior angles ( a plane triangle is equal to two "r angles1 does n w>rant me 9 repudiat+ t tru?2 nor am ,i ju/ifi$ 9 do+ s1 & 9 believ+ ! opposite1 m]ely because ,i f9d ! /atem5t un9t]e/+ or di/a/eful4 ,:5 we are deal+ ) su* matt]s z ^!1 we recognize t tru? is tru?1 & t1 if we mi/ake x or refuse to recognize x1 s mu* ! worse = u4 ,is x o!rwise 9 philosophy8 ,is x a p]fectly prop] ?+ t1 9 "o age1 m5 %\ld be ideali/s1 & 9 ano!r1 mat]iali/s2 9 "o1 !i/s1 & 9 ano!r1 agno/ics8 ,is ! di/9ction betwe5 true & false no?+ else ?an ! di/9ction betwe5 :at is 9 h>mony ) ! _s ( ! times & :at is n8 ,t x is natural t !re %\ld be su* fluctuations ( op9ion1 we may freely admit4 ,_m ?+s influ5ce a man to embrace a giv5 type ( doctr9e1 &1 z we h se51 v]ification is a difficult problem4 ,b h we "h1 any m ?an 9 o!r fields1 ! "r to assume t a doctr9e 0 true at a giv5 "t m]ely because x seem$ to m5 true at t "t1 or because !y f\nd x pleas+8 ,! hi/ory ( sci5ce reveals t _m ?+s h long be5 believ$ to be true1 &1 inde$1 to be b\nd up ) :at 7 reg>d$ z ! highe/ int]e/s ( man1 & t ^! same ?+s h lat] be5 discov]$ to be false--n false m]ely = a lat] age1 b false = all "t2 z false :5 !y 7 believ$ 9 z :5 !y 7 explod$ & kn[n to be explod$4 ,no man ( s5se believes t ! ,ptolemaic sy/em 0 true = a :ile1 & t !n ! ,cop]nican became true4 ,we say t ! =m] only seem$ true1 & t ! en?usiasm ( its adh]5ts 0 a mi/ak5 en?usiasm4 ,x is well to rememb] t philosophies are br\ght =w>d because x is believ$ or hop$ t !y are true4 ,a fairy tale may be recit$ & may be approv$1 al?\gh no "o dreams ( atta*+ fai? to ! ev5ts n>rat$ 9 x4 ,b a philosophy attempts to give u "s acc\nt ( ! nature ( ! _w 9 :i* we live4 ,if ! philosoph] frankly ab&ons ! attempt to tell u :at is true1 & ) a ,celtic g5]osity addresses himself to ! task ( say+ :at w be agreeable to u1 he loses 8 "r to ! title4 ,x is n en\gh t he /irs our emotions1 & works up 8 unrealities into some?+ resembl+ a poem4 ,x is n prim>ily 8 task to please1 z x is n ! task ( ! s]i\s work] 9 sci5ce to please ^? :om he is call$ ^u to in/ruct4 ,tru? is tru?1 :e!r x be sci5tific tru? or philosophical tru?4 ,& error1 no matt] h[ agreeable or h[ nicely adju/$ to ! temp] ( ! times1 is always error4 ,if x is error 9 a field 9 :i* ! detection & exposure ( error is difficult1 x is ! m dang]\s1 & ! m %\ld we be on our gu>d aga9/ x4 ,we may1 !n1 accept ! lesson ( ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 to wit1 t we h no "r to reg>d any giv5 doctr9e z f9al 9 su* a s5se t x ne$ no long] be held t5tatively & z subject to possible revision2 b we ne$ n1 on t acc\nt1 d5y t philosophy is1 :at x has 9 ! pa/ be5 believ$ to be1 an e>ne/ se>* = tru?4 ,a philosophy t did n ev5 pr(ess to be ?is w\ld n be li/5$ to at all4 ,x w\ld be reg>d$ z too trivial to m]it s]i\s att5tion4 ,if we take ! ^w sci5ce 9 ! broad s5se to indicate a k ( ! tru? m exact & satisfactory ?an t :i* obta9s 9 common life1 we may say t e philosophy wor?y ( ! "n is1 at lea/1 an attempt at sci5tific k4 ,( c\rse1 ?is s5se ( ! ^w sci5ce %\ld n be confus$ ) t 9 :i* x has be5 us$ else:]e 9 ?is volume4 #hg4 ,,h[ ,,to ,,read ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,philosophy4--,he :o takes up ! hi/ory ( philosophy = ! fir/ "t is apt to be impress$ ) ! fact t he is read+ some?+ t might n inaptly be call$ ! hi/ory ( human error4 ,x beg9s ) crude &1 to ! sup]ficial spectator1 seem+ly *ildi% attempts 9 ! field ( physical sci5ce4 ,!re are clev] guesses at ! nature ( ! physical _w1 b ! bolde/ ( speculations are ent]$ ^u ) no app>5t recognition ( ! difficulty ( ! task und]tak51 & ) no realization ( ! ne$ = caution4 ,some:at lat] a diff]5t class ( problems makes its appe>ance--! problems :i* h to d ) ! m9d & ) ! nature ( k1 reflective problems :i* sc>cely seem to h come fairly )9 ! horizon ( ! e>lie/ ?9k]s4 ,^! problems ev5 ! beg9n] may be will+ to recognize z philosophical2 b he may consci5ti\sly h>bor a d\bt z to ! desirability ( sp5d+ "t ^u ! solutions :i* are (f]$4 ,sy/em rises aft] sy/em1 & confronts him ) :at appe> to be new que/ions & new answ]s4 ,x seems z ?\gh ea* philosoph] 7 con/ruct+ a _w = himself indep5d5tly1 & comm&+ him to accept x1 )\t fir/ conv9c+ him ( 8 "r to assume ?is tone ( au?ority & to set up = an oracle4 ,9 all ?is conflict ( op9ions :]e %all we seek = tru?8 ,:y %\ld we accept "o man z a tea*] r ?an ano!r8 ,is n ! lesson to be ga!r$ f ! :ole procession ( sy/ems be/ summ$ up 9 ! dictum ( ,protagoras3 ,man is ! measure ( all ?+s--ea* has 8 own tru?1 & ?is ne$ n be tru? to ano!r8 ,?is1 ,i say1 is a fir/ impression & a natural "o4 ,i ha/5 to add3 ?is %\ld n be ! la/ impression ( ^? :o read ) ?\ghtful att5tion4 ,"o ?+ %\ld be emphasiz$ at ! outset3 no?+ w s (t5 be> r]ead+ z ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,:5 we g ov] ! gr\nd aft] we h obta9$ a fir/ acqua9tance ) ! tea*+s ( ! diff]5t philosoph]s1 we beg9 to realize t :at we h 9 our h&s is1 9 a s5se1 a connect$ :ole4 ,we see t if ,plato & ,ari/otle _h n liv$1 we c\ld n h _h ! philosophy :i* pass$ curr5t 9 ! ,middle ,ages & furni%$ a f\ndation = ! tea*+s ( ! ,*ur*4 ,we realize t )\t ?is latt] we c\ld n h _h ,desc>tes1 & )\t ,desc>tes we c\ld n h _h ,locke & ,b]keley & ,hume4 ,& _h n ^! liv$1 we %\ld n h _h ,kant & 8 successors4 ,o!r philosophies we %\ld und\bt$ly h _h1 = ! busy m9d ( man mu/ produce some?+4 ,b :atev] glimpses at ! tru? ^! m5 h v\*saf$ u h be5 gu>ante$ by ! ord] ( developm5t 9 :i* !y h /ood4 ,!y c\ld n indep5d5tly h writt5 ! books t h come d[n to u4 ,?is %\ld be evid5t f :at has be5 said e>li] 9 ?is *apt] & else:]e 9 ?is book4 ,let u be> 9 m9d t a philosoph] draws 8 mat]ial f two s\rces4 ,fir/ ( all1 he has ! exp]i5ce ( ! m9d & ! _w :i* is ! common prop]ty ( u all4 ,b x is1 z we h se51 by no means easy to use ?is mat]ial4 ,x is va/ly difficult to reflect4 ,x is fatally easy to misconceive :at pres5ts itself 9 our exp]i5ce4 ,) ! mo/ e>ne/ ef=t to describe :at lies be=e u1 we give a false description1 & we mislead ourselves & o!rs4 ,9 ! second place1 ! philosoph] has ! int]pretations ( exp]i5ce :i* he has inh]it$ f 8 pr$ecessors4 ,! influ5ce ( ^! is enorm\s4 ,ea* age has1 to a l>ge ext5t1 its problems already =mulat$ or half =mulat$ = x4 ,e man mu/ h ance/ors1 ( "s sort1 if he is to appe> ^u ?is e>?ly /age at all2 & a :olly indep5d5t philosoph] is z impossible a creature z an ance/orless man4 ,we h se5 h[ ,desc>tes 7section #fj7 tri$ to repudiate 8 debt to ! pa/1 & h[ little successful he 0 9 do+ s4 ,n[1 we make a mi/ake if we ov]look ! g5ius ( ! individual ?9k]4 ,! hi/ory ( speculative ?\ght has _m times tak5 a turn :i* c only be acc\nt$ = by tak+ into consid]ation ! g5ius = reflective ?\ght possess$ by "s great m9d4 ,9 ! crucible ( su* an intellect1 old tru?s take on a new aspect1 famili> facts acquire a new & a ri*] mean+4 ,b we also make a mi/ake if we fail to see 9 ! writ+s ( su* a man "o ( ! /ages :i* has be5 rea*$ 9 ! gradual evolution ( human ?\ght1 if we fail to realize t ea* philosophy is to a great ext5t ! product ( ! pa/4 ,:5 "o comes to und]/& ^! ?+s1 ! hi/ory ( philosophy no long] pres5ts itself z a m]e agglom]ation ( arbitr>y & indep5d5t sy/ems4 ,& an att5tive read+ gives u a fur!r key to ! int]pretation ( :at seem$ inexplicable4 ,we f9d t !re may be di/9ct & diff]5t /reams ( ?\ght1 :i*1 = a :ile1 run p>allel )\t comm+l+ _! wat]s4 ,= c5turies ! ,epicurean foll[$ 8 own tradition1 & walk$ 9 ! foot/eps ( 8 own ma/]4 ,! ,/oic 0 ( /]n] /uff1 & he *ose to travel ano!r pa?4 ,to ?is day !re are adh]5ts ( ! old *ur* philosophy1 ,neo-,s*ola/ics1 ^: ways ( ?9k+ c only be und]/ood :5 we h "s k ( ,ari/otle & ( 8 influ5ce ^u m5 dur+ ! ,middle ,ages4 ,we ourselves may be ,kantians or ,hegelians1 & ! man at our elb[ may recognize z 8 spiritual fa!r ,comte or ,sp5c]4 ,x does n foll[ t1 because "o sy/em foll[s ano!r 9 *ronological ord]1 x is its l9eal desc5dant4 ,b "s ance/or a sy/em always has1 & if we h ! requisite le>n+ & +5uity1 we ne$ n f9d x impossible to expla9 :y ?is ?9k] or t 0 influ5c$ to give 8 ?\ght ! peculi> turn t *>act]izes x4 ,sometimes _m influ5ces h conspir$ to atta9 ! result1 & x is no small pleasure to address oneself to ! task ( dis5tangl+ ! ?reads :i* ent] into ! fabric4 ,moreov]1 z we read ?us ) discrim9ation1 we beg9 to see t ! great m5 ( ! pa/ h n spok5 )\t appe>+ to h suffici5t reason = _! utt]ances 9 ! light ( ! times 9 :i* !y liv$4 ,we may make x a rule t1 :5 !y seem to be speak+ arbitr>ily1 to be lay+ be=e u reason+s t are n reason+s1 dogmas = :i* no excuse seems to be (f]$1 ! fault lies 9 our lack ( compreh5sion4 ,until we c und]/& h[ a man1 liv+ 9 a c]ta9 c5tury1 & brea?+ a c]ta9 moral & intellectual atmosph]e1 c\ld h said :at he did1 we %\ld assume t we h read 8 words1 b n 8 real ?\ght4 ,= ! latt] !re is always a psy*ological1 if n a logical1 ju/ification4 ,& ?is br+s me to ! "q ( ! language 9 :i* ! philosoph]s h express$ _! ?\ghts4 ,! m att5tively "o reads ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 ! cle>] x becomes t ! numb] ( problems ) :i* ! philosoph]s h occupi$ !mselves is n ov]:elm+ly great4 ,if ea* philosophy :i* confronts u seems to u q new & /range1 x is because we h n arriv$ at ! /age at :i* x is possible = u to recognize old fri5ds ) new faces4 ,! same old problems1 ! problems :i* mu/ ev] pres5t !mselves to reflective ?\ght1 recur aga9 & aga94 ,! =m is m or less *ang$1 & ! answ]s :i* are giv5 to !m are n1 ( c\rse1 always ! same4 ,ea* age expresses itself 9 a some:at diff]5t way4 ,b sometimes ! solution propos$ = a giv5 problem is almo/ ! same 9 sub/ance1 ev5 :5 ! two ?9k]s we are contra/+ belong to c5turies :i* lie f> ap>t4 ,9 ?is case1 only our own inability to /rip (f ! husk & rea* ! fruit itself prev5ts u f see+ t we h be=e u no?+ really new4 ,?us1 if we read ! hi/ory ( philosophy ) pati5ce & ) discrim9ation1 x gr[s lum9\s4 ,we come to feel ne>] to ! m5 ( ! pa/4 ,we see t we may le>n f _! successes & f _! failures2 & if we are capable ( draw+ a moral at all1 we apply ! lesson to ourselves4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv ,,"s ,,practical ,,admonitions #hh4 ,,be ,,prep>$ ,,to ,,ent] ,,^u ,a ,,new ,,way ,,( ,,look+ ,,at ,,?+s4--,we h se5 t reflective ?\ght tries to analyze exp]i5ce & to atta9 to a cle> view ( ! elem5ts t make x up--to realize vividly :at is ! v texture ( ! kn[n _w1 & :at is ! nature ( k4 ,x is possible to live to old age1 z _m d1 )\t ev5 a suspicion t !re may be su* a k z ?is1 & nev]!less to possess a l>ge measure ( r vague b v s]viceable in=mation ab\t bo? m9ds & bodies4 ,x is some?+ ( a %ock to le>n t a multitude ( que/ions may be ask$ t\*+ ! mo/ famili> ?+s 9 our exp]i5ce1 & t our compreh5sion ( ^? ?+s may be s vague t we grope 9 va9 = an answ]4 ,space1 "t1 matt]1 m9ds1 realities1--) ^! ?+s we h to d e day4 ,c x be t we d n "k :at !y are8 ,!n we mu/ be bl9d1 inde$4 ,h[ %all we set ab\t enlight5+ our ignorance8 ,n z we h enlight5$ our ignorance h]et(ore4 ,we h add$ fact to fact2 b our task n[ is to ga9 a new light on all facts1 to see !m f a diff]5t po9t ( view2 n s mu* to ext5d our k z to deep5 x4 ,x seems sc>cely necess>y to po9t out t our _w1 :5 look$ at = ! fir/ "t 9 ?is new way1 may seem to be a new & /range _w4 ,! real ?+s ( our exp]i5ce may appe> to melt away1 to be dissolv$ by reflection into m]e %ad[s & unrealities4 ,well d ,i rememb] ! con/]nation ) :i*1 :5 almo/ a s*oolboy1 ,i fir/ made my acqua9tance ) ,john ,/u>t ,mill's doctr9e t ! ?+s ab\t u are p]man5t possibilities ( s5sation4 ,to ,mill1 ( c\rse1 *airs & tables 7 /ill *airs & tables1 b to me !y became gho/s1 inhabitants ( a phantom _w1 to f9d oneself 9 :i* 0 a matt] ( ! grave/ conc]n4 ,i suspect t ?is s5se ( ! unreality ( ?+s comes (t5 to ^? :o h ent]$ ^u ! pa? ( reflection1 ,x may be a com=t to su* to realize t x is r a ?+ to be expect$4 ,h[ c "o feel at home 9 a _w :i* "o has ent]$ = ! fir/ "t8 ,"o _c become a philosoph] & rema9 exactly ! man t "o 0 be=e4 ,m5 h tri$ to d x1--,?omas ,reid is a notable in/ance 7section #ej72 b ! result is t "o simply does n become a philosoph]4 ,x is n possible to ga9 a new & a deep] insight into ! nature ( ?+s1 & yet to see ?+s j z "o saw !m be=e "o atta9$ to ?is4 ,if1 !n1 we are will+ to /udy philosophy at all1 we mu/ be will+ to embrace new views ( ! _w1 if !re seem to be good reasons = s do+4 ,& if at fir/ we suff] f a s5se ( bewild]m5t1 we mu/ h pati5ce1 & mu/ wait to see :e!r "t & practice may n d some?+ t[>d remov+ our di/ress4 ,x may be t we h only half und]/ood :at has be5 reveal$ to u4 #hi4 ,,be ,,will+ ,,to ,,consid] ,,possibilities ,,:i* ,,at ,,fir/ ,,/rike ,,"o ,,z ,,absurd4--,x mu/ be confess$ t ! philosoph]s h sometimes br\ght =w>d doctr9es :i* seem repell5t to good s5se1 & little 9 h>mony ) ! exp]i5ce ( ! _w :i* we h all our lives enjoy$4 ,%all we on ?is acc\nt turn our backs ^u !m & refuse !m an imp>tial he>+8 ,?us1 ! ideali/ ma9ta9s t !re is no exi/5ce save psy*ical exi/5ce2 t ! mat]ial ?+s ab\t u are really m5tal ?+s4 ,"o ( ! =ms tak5 by ?is doctr9e is t allud$ to above1 t ?+s are p]man5t possibilities ( s5sation4 ,i ?9k x c h>dly be d5i$ t ?is s\nds out ( h>mony ) ! common op9ion ( mank9d4 ,m5 d n hesitate to di/+ui% betwe5 m9ds & mat]ial ?+s1 nor d !y believe t mat]ial ?+s exi/ only 9 m9ds4 ,t dreams & halluc9ations exi/ only 9 m9ds !y are v will+ to admit2 b !y w n admit t ?is is true ( su* ?+s z real *airs & tables4 ,& if we ask !m :y !y take su* a position1 !y fall back ^u :at seems giv5 9 exp]i5ce4 ,n[1 z ! read] ( ! e>li] *apt]s has se51 ,i ?9k t ! pla9 man is m ne>ly "r 9 8 op9ion t\*+ ! exi/5ce ( a _w ( non-m5tal ?+s ?an is ! ideali/ic philosoph]4 ,! latt] has se5 a tru? & misconceiv$ x1 ?us los+ "s tru? t he _h be=e he began to reflect4 ,! =m] has n se5 ! tru? :i* has impress$ ! ideali/1 & he has held on to t vague recognition t !re are two ord]s ( ?+s giv5 9 our exp]i5ce1 ! physical & ! m5tal1 :i* seems to u s unmi/akable a fact until we fall into ! h&s ( ! philosoph]s4 ,b all ?is does n prove t we h a "r simply to fall back ^u common s5se1 & refuse to li/5 to ! ideali/4 ,! deliv]ances ( unreflective common s5se are vague 9 ! extreme2 & ?\gh x may seem to assure u t !re is a _w ( ?+s non-m5tal1 its acc\nt ( t _w is confus$ & incoh]5t4 ,he :o mu/ dep5d on common s5se alone c f9d no answ] to ! ideali/s2 he refuses to foll[ !m1 b he _c refute !m4 ,he is r$uc$ to dogmatic d5ial4 ,?is is 9 itself an uncom=table position4 ,& :5 we add to ?is ! reflection t su* a man loses ! tru? :i* ! ideali/ emphasizes1 ! tru? t ! ext]nal _w ( :i* we speak mu/ be1 if we are to "k x at all1 a _w reveal$ to our s5ses1 a _w giv5 9 our exp]i5ce1 we see t he :o /ops 8 e>s rema9s 9 ignorance4 ,! fact is t ! man :o has nev] weigh$ ! evid5ce t impresses ! ideali/ is n able to see cle>ly :at is meant by t ext]nal _w 9 :i* we all incl9e to put su* fai?4 ,we may say t he feels a tru? bl9dly1 b does n see x4 ,let u take ano!r illu/ration4 ,if !re is "o ?+ t we feel to be z sure z ! exi/5ce ( ! ext]nal _w1 x is t !re are o!r m9ds m or less resembl+ our own4 ,! solipsi/ may try to p]suade u t ! evid5ce = su* m9ds is untru/wor?y4 ,we may see no flaw 9 8 argum5t1 b he _c conv9ce u4 ,may we ignore him1 & refuse to consid] ! matt] at all8 ,surely n1 if we wi% to sub/itute cle> ?9k+ = vague & indef9ite op9ion4 ,we %\ld li/5 ) att5tion1 /rive to und]/& all ! reason+s laid be=e u1 & !n1 if !y seem to lead to conclusions really n 9 h>mony ) our exp]i5ce1 g c>efully ov] ! gr\nd & try to discov] ! flaw 9 !m4 ,x is only by do+ some?+ l ?is t we c come to see cle>ly :at is meant :5 we speak ( two or m m9ds & ! relation betwe5 !m4 ,! solipsi/ c help u1 & we %\ld let him d x4 ,we %\ld1 !re=e1 be will+ to consid] s]i\sly all sorts ( doctr9es :i* may at fir/ /rike u z unreasonable4 ,i h *os5 two :i* ,i believe to conta9 error4 ,b ! man :o approa*es a doctr9e :i* impresses him z /range has no "r to assume at ! outset t x conta9s error4 ,we h se5 aga9 & aga9 h[ easy x is to misappreh5d :at is giv5 9 exp]i5ce4 ,! philosoph] may be 9 ! "r1 & :at he says may repel u because we h become accu/om$ to c]ta9 errone\s notions1 & !y h come to seem self-evid5t tru?s4 #ij4 ,,d ,,n ,,h ,,too ,,mu* ,,respect ,,= ,,au?ority4--,b if x is an error to refuse to li/5 to ! philosoph]1 x is surely no less an error to accord him an au?ority above :at he has a "r to dem&4 ,be> 9 m9d :at 0 said 9 ! la/ *apt] ab\t ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! special sci5ces & philosophy4 ,!re is 9 ! latt] field no body ( doctr9e t we may ju/ly reg>d z au?oritative4 ,!re are s*ools ( philosophy1 & _! adh]5ts fall into ! v human error ( feel+ v sure t !y & ^? :o agree ) !m are "r2 & ! emphasis ) :i* !y speak is apt to mislead ^? :o are n well in=m$4 ,i %all say a few words ab\t ! dang]s ( ! s*ool4 ,if we look ab\t u1 we are impress$ by ! fact t !re are s*ools ( philosophy1 some:at z !re are religi\s sects & political p>ties4 ,an impressive tea*] sets ! m>k ( 8 p]sonality & ( 8 pref]5ces ^u ^? :o come "u 8 influ5ce4 ,!y are n at an age to be v critical1 &1 inde$1 !y h n z yet ! requisite le>n+ to enable !m to be critical4 ,!y keep ! tr5d :i* has be5 giv5 !m e>ly 9 life1 &1 :5 !y become tea*]s1 !y pass on ! type ( ?\ght ) :i* !y h be5 inoculat$1 & ! circle wid5s4 ,s*ools may arise1 ( c\rse1 9 a diff]5t way4 ,an epo*-mak+ book may sweep m5 (f ( _! feet & make ( !m passionate adh]5ts4 ,b he :o has wat*$ ! developm5t ( ! ,am]ican univ]sities dur+ ! la/ tw5ty-five ye>s mu/ be impress$ ) ! enorm\s influ5ce :i* c]ta9 tea*]s h _h 9 giv+ a direction to ! philosophic ?\ght ( ^? :o h come 9 contact ) !m4 ,we expect ! pupils ( a giv5 ma/] to h a giv5 %ade ( op9ion1 & v (t5 we are n disappo9t$ 9 our guess4 ,x is entirely natural t ?is %\ld be s4 ,^? :o betake !mselves to ! /udy ( philosophy are m5 l o!r m54 ,!y h ! same feel+s1 & ! b5d+ ( ! twig has ! same significance 9 _! case t x has 9 t ( o!rs4 ,x is no small complim5t to a tea*] t he c ?us spread 8 influ5ce1 & leave 8 proxies ev5 :5 he passes away4 ,b1 :5 we /rive to put (f humanity & to look at ! :ole matt] "u ! cold light ( reason1 we may well ask ourselves1 :e!r he :o unconsci\sly accepts 8 philosophy1 9 :ole or 9 "p1 because x has be5 ! philosophy ( 8 tea*]1 is n do+ :at is done by ^? p]sons ^: politics & ^: religion take _! color f su* accid5tal circum/ances z bir? 9 a giv5 class or family traditions8 ,i am f> f say+ t x is1 9 g5]al1 a bad ?+ = ! _w t m5 %\ld be influ5c$ 9 ?is way by "o ano!r4 ,i say only t1 :5 we look at ! facts ( ! case1 we mu/ admit t ev5 our tea*]s ( philosophy d n always become repres5tatives ( ! peculi> type ( ?\ght = :i* !y /&1 m]ely ?r\gh a delib]ate *oice f ! weal? ( mat]ial :i* ! hi/ory ( speculative ?\ght lays be=e !m4 ,!y are influ5c$ by o!rs to take :at !y d take1 & ! traces ( ?is influ5ce are apt to rema9 ) !m ?r\gh life4 ,he :o wi%es to be entirely imp>tial mu/ be on 8 gu>d aga9/ su* influ5ces z ^!1 & mu/ di/ru/ prejudices = or aga9/ c]ta9 doctr9es1 :5 he f9ds t he imbib$ !m at an uncritical age & has rema9$ "u _! influ5ce ev] s9ce4 ,"s d appe> to be able to emancipate !mselves1 & to outgr[ :at !y fir/ le>n$4 ,x is1 z ,i h said1 natural t !re %\ld be a t5d5cy to =m s*ools 9 philosophy4 ,& !re are c]ta9 ?+s t make ?is some:at uncritical acceptance ( a doctr9e v attractive4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 if we are will+ to take a sy/em ( any sort z a :ole1 x saves u a va/ am\nt ( tr\ble4 ,we seem to h a citadel1 a po9t ( vantage f :i* we c look out ^u life & int]pret x4 ,if ! h\se we live 9 is n 9 all respects ideal1 at lea/ x is a h\se1 & we are n homeless4 ,!re is no?+ m intol]able to mo/ m5 ?an ! hav+ ( no op9ions4 ,!y w *ange "o op9ion = ano!r1 b !y w r>ely cons5t to d )\t altoge!r4 ,x is some?+ to h an answ] to (f] to ^? :o p]si/ 9 ask+ que/ions2 & x is some?+ to h "s sort ( gr\nd "u "o's feet1 ev5 if x be n v solid gr\nd4 ,aga94 ,man is a social creature1 & he is greatly =tifi$ 9 8 op9ions by ! consci\sness t o!rs %>e !m ) him4 ,if we become adh]5ts ( a s*ool1 we h ! agreeable consci\sness t we are n walk+ alone ?r\gh ! maze ( speculations t confronts ^? :o reflect4 ,!re appe>s to be a travel$ way 9 :i* we may h "s confid5ce4 ,are we n foll[+ ! cr[d1 or1 at lea/1 a goodly numb] ( ! pilgrims :o are seek+ ! same goal ) ourselves8 ,"u su* circum/ances we are n s (t5 impell$ to inquire anxi\sly :e!r we are aft] all ^u ! "r road4 ,we assume t we h made no mi/ake4 ,"u su* circum/ances we are apt to =get t !re are _m su* roads1 & t ^! h be5 travel$ 9 ages pa/ by troops v mu* l our own1 :o also *]i%$ ! hope t !y 7 ^u ! "o & only highway4 ,9 o!r words1 we are apt to =get ! lesson ( ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,?is is a s]i\s mi/ake4 ,& :at int5sifies our dang]1 if we belong to a s*ool :i* happ5s to be dom9ant & to h active repres5tatives1 is t we get v little real criticism4 ,! books t we write are usually criticis$ by ^? :o view our positions sympa!tically1 & :o are m incl9$ to praise ?an to blame4 ,he :o looks back ^u ! pa/ is /ruck ) ! fact t books :i* h be5 laud$ to ! skies 9 "o age h (t5 be5 subject$ to se>*+ criticism & to a good deal ( condemnation 9 ! next4 ,some?+ v l ?is is to be expect$ ( books writt5 9 our own "t4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 a pity t we %\ld h to wait s long = imp>tial criticism4 ,?is leads me to say a ^w ( ! reviews :i* fill our philosophical j\rnals1 & :i* we mu/ read1 = x is impossible to read all ! books t come out1 & yet we wi% to "k some?+ ab\t !m4 ,to ! novice x is some?+ ( a surprise to f9d t books by m5 :om he kn[s to be em95t = _! +5uity & _! le>n+ are condemn$ 9 v (fh& fa%ion by q "y m51 :o z yet h atta9$ to little le>n+ & to no em95ce at all4 ,"o sometimes is tempt$ to wond] t m5 admitt$ly rem>kable %\ld h fa!r$ su* poor productions z we are giv5 to und]/& !m to be1 & %\ld h (f]$ !m to a public t has a "r to be indignant4 ,n[1 !re c be no d\bt t1 9 philosophy1 a cat has ! "r to look at a k+1 & has also a "r to po9t out 8 misdo+s1 if su* !re be4 ,b x seems j to indicate t1 9 ?is matt]1 c]ta9 cautions %\ld be obs]v$4 ,if a great man has be5 guilty ( an error 9 reason+1 !re is no reason :y x %\ld n be po9t$ out by any "o :o is capable ( detect+ x4 ,! au?ority ( ! critic is a matt] ( no mom5t :]e ! evid5ce is giv54 ,9 su* a case1 we take a sugge/ion & we d ! criticis+ = ourselves4 ,b :]e ! evid5ce is n giv51 :]e ! ju/ice ( ! criticism is n prov$1 ! case is diff]5t4 ,"h we mu/ take into consid]ation ! au?ority ( ! critic1 &1 if we foll[ him at all1 we mu/ foll[ him bl9dly4 ,is x safe to d ?is8 ,x is nev] safe 9 philosophy1 or1 at any rate1 x is safe s seldom t ! exceptions are n wor? tak+ into acc\nt4 ,m5 write f ! /&po9t ( "s s*ool ( op9ion2 &1 until we "k _! prepossessions1 _! /atem5ts t ?is is good1 t is bad1 ! ?ird ?+ is pr(\nd1 are ( no significance :atev]4 ,we %\ld simply set !m aside1 & try to f9d out f our review] :at is conta9$ 9 ! book "u criticism4 ,"o ( ! evils aris+ out ( ! bias ,i am discuss+ is1 t books & au?ors are prais$ or condemn$ indiscrim9ately because ( _! po9t ( view1 & little discrim9ation is made betwe5 good books & poor books4 ,!re is all ! diff]5ce 9 ! _w betwe5 a "w :i* c be condemn$ only on ! gr\nd t x is reali/ic or ideali/ic 9 its /&po9t1 & ^? feeble productions :i* are to be condemn$ f e po9t ( view4 ,if we consi/5tly c>ry out ! pr9ciple t we may condemn all ^? :o are n ( our p>ty1 we mu/ give %ort %rift to a majority ( ! great m5 ( ! pa/4 ,s ,i say1 bew>e ( au?ority 9 philosophy1 &1 above all1 bew>e ( t mo/ insidi\s =m ( au?ority1 ! _s ( ! s*ool4 ,x _c b n>r[ our sympa?ies & re/rict our outlook4 #ia4 ,,rememb] ,,t ,,ord9>y ,,rules ,,( ,,evid5ce ,,apply4--,:at ,i am go+ to say 9 ?is section is closely relat$ to :at has be5 said j above4 ,to ! dis9t]e/$ obs]v] x may seem r amus+ t "o %\ld ?9k x wor? :ile to try to %[ t we h n ! "r to use a special set ( weights & measures :5 we are deal+ ) ?+s philosophical4 ,!re 0 a "t :5 m5 held t a giv5 doctr9e c\ld be philosophically false1 &1 at ! same "t1 !ologically true2 b surely ! day ( su* twi/s & turn+s is pa/6 ,i am by no means sure t x is pa/4 ,) ! lapse ( "t1 old doctr9es take on new aspects1 & come to be c\*$ 9 a language t suits ! temp] ( ! lat] age4 ,sometimes ! doctr9e is veil$ & r5d]$ less />tl+1 b rema9s ess5tially :at x 0 be=e1 & may be criticis$ 9 mu* ! same way4 ,i suppose we may say t e "o :o is animat$ by ! p>ty _s discuss$ above1 & :o holds to a gr\p ( philosophical t5ets ) a w>m? ( conviction out ( proportion to ! au?ority ( ! actual evid5ce :i* may be claim$ = !m1 is tacitly assum+ t ! tru? or falsity ( philosophical dogmas is n :olly a matt] ( evid5ce1 b t ! desires ( ! philosoph] may also be tak5 into acc\nt4 ,?is position is (t5 tak5 unconsci\sly4 ,?us1 :51 in/ead ( prov+ to o!rs t a giv5 doctr9e is false1 we try to %[ !m t x is a dang]\s doctr9e1 & leads to unpalatable consequ5ces1 we assume t :at seems di/a/eful _c be true1 & we c\nt on ! fact t m5 incl9e to believe :at !y l to believe4 ,may we give ?is position ! dignity ( a philosophical doctr9e & hold t1 9 ! some:at nebul\s realm inhabit$ by ! philosoph]1 m5 are n b\nd by ! same rules ( evid5ce t obta9 else:]e8 ,t ?is is actually done1 ^? :o read mu* 9 ! field ( mod]n philosophy are well aw>e4 ,sev]al excell5t writ]s h ma9ta9$ t we ne$ n1 ev5 if !re seems to be evid5ce = !m1 accept views ( ! univ]se :i* d n satisfy our :ole nature4 ,we %\ld n confuse ) ?is position ! v diff]5t "o :i* ma9ta9s t we h a "r to hold t5tatively1 & ) a will+ness to ab&on !m %\ld evid5ce aga9/ !m be =?com+1 views :i* we are n able completely to e/abli%1 b :i* seem reasonable4 ,"o may d ?is ) p]fect s9c]ity1 & )\t hold+ t philosophical tru? is 9 any way diff]5t f sci5tific tru?4 ,b ! o!r position goes beyond ?is2 x assumes t man mu/ be satisfi$1 & t only t c be true :i* satisfies him4 ,i ask1 is x n significant t su* an assumption %\ld be made only 9 ! realm ( ! unv]ifiable8 ,no man dreams ( ma9ta9+ t ! rise & fall ( /ocks w be su* z to satisfy ! :ole nature ev5 ( ! elect1 or t ! future hi/ory ( man on ?is planet is a ?+ to be det]m9$ by "s philosoph] :o decides = u :at w\ld or w\ld n be desirable4 ,surely all tru?s ( election--^? tru?s t we simply *oose to h true--are some?+ mu* less augu/ ?an t ,tru? ( ,evid5ce :i* sometimes seems little to fall 9 ) our desires1 & 9 ! face ( :i* we are humble li/5]s1 n dictators4 ,be=e ! latt] we are mode/2 we obey1 le/ we be conf\nd$4 ,& if1 9 ! philosophic realm1 we believe t we may ord] ,tru? ab\t1 & make h] our slave1 is x n because we h a secret consci\sness t we are n deal+ ) ,tru? at all1 b ) ,op9ion1 & ) ,op9ion t has gr[n insol5t because %e _c be drawn f h] obscurity & be %[n to be :at %e is8 ,sometimes x is sudd5ly reveal$ to a man t he has be5 accept+ two ord]s ( tru?4 ,i once walk$ & talk$ ) a good s*ol> :o disc\rs$ ( high !mes & def5d$ w>mly c]ta9 !ses4 ,i said to him3 ,if y c\ld g into ! h\se opposite1 & discov] unmi/akably :e!r y are 9 ! "r or 9 ! wrong1--discov] x z unmi/akably z y c discov] :e!r !re is or is n furniture 9 ! draw+-room1--w\ld y g8 ,he ?\ght ov] ! matt] = a :ile1 & !n answ]$ frankly2 ,no6 ,i %\ld n g2 ,i %\ld /ay out "h & argue x out4 #ib4 ,,aim ,,at ,,cle>ness ,,& ,,simplicity4--,!re is no dep>tm5t ( inve/igation 9 :i* x is n desirable to cultivate cle>ness & simplicity 9 ?9k+1 speak+1 & writ+4 ,b !re are c]ta9 reasons :y we %\ld be especially on our gu>d 9 philosophy aga9/ ! dang] ( employ+ a tongue n und]/&$ ( ! p4 ,!re are dang]\s pitfalls conceal$ "u ! use ( te*nical words & phrases4 ,! value ( te*nical expressions 9 ! special sci5ces mu/ be conc$$4 ,!y are suppos$ to be m exact & less ambigu\s ?an t]ms 9 ord9>y use1 & !y m>k an advance 9 our k ( ! subject4 ,! di/9ctions :i* !y indicate h be5 c>efully drawn1 & appe> to be ( su* au?ority t !y %\ld be g5]ally accept$4 ,sometimes1 z1 = example1 9 ma!matics1 a conv5tional set ( symbols may q usurp ! function ( ord9>y language1 & may enorm\sly curtail ! labor ( sett+ =? ! processes & results ( inve/igation4 ,b we mu/ nev] =get t we h n 9 philosophy an au?oritative body ( tru? :i* we h ! "r to impose ^u all :o ent] t field4 ,a multitude ( di/9ctions h be5 made & are made2 b ! repres5tatives ( diff]5t s*ools ( ?\ght are n at "o t\*+ ! value & significance ( ^! di/9ctions4 ,if we co9 a ^w or a phrase to m>k su*1 !re is "s dang] t we fall into ! habit ( us+ su* words or phrases1 z we use ! co9s 9 our purse1 )\t closely exam9+ !m1 & ) ! ready assumption t !y mu/ pass curr5t ev]y:]e4 ,?us1 !re is always a possibility t our te*nical expressions may be no?+ less ?an cry/alliz$ error4 ,aga9/ ?is we %\ld surely be on our gu>d4 ,aga94 ,:5 we translate ! language ( common life into ! dialect ( ! le>n$1 !re is dang] t we may fall into ! error ( suppos+ t we are add+ to our k1 ev5 ?\gh we are do+ no?+ save to ex*ange "o set ( words = ano!r4 ,?us1 we all "k v well t "o m9d c communicate ) ano!r4 ,"o does n h to be a s*ol> to be aw>e ( ?is4 ,if we *oose to call ?is int]subjective int]c\rse1 we h giv5 ! ?+ a s\nd+ "n2 b we "k no m ab\t x ?an we did be=e4 ,! problem ( ! relation betwe5 m9ds1 & ! way 9 :i* !y are to be conceiv$ z influ5c+ ea* o!r1 rema9s j :at x 04 ,s1 also1 we recognize ! ev]yday fact t we "k bo? ourselves & :at is n ourselves4 ,%all we call ?is k ( some?+ n ourselves self-transc5d5ce8 ,we may d s if we wi%1 b we ought to realize t ?is be/[al ( a title makes no :it cle>] :at is meant by k4 ,unhappily1 m5 too (t5 believe t1 :5 !y h come into ! possession ( a new ^w or phrase1 !y h ga9$ a new ?\ght4 ,! dang] is great 9 proportion to ! bread? ( ! gulf :i* sep>ates ! new dialect f ! old language ( common life 9 :i* we are accu/om$ to e/imate ?+s4 ,_m a philosoph] w\ld be b]eft1 inde$1 7 he robb$ ( 8 vocabul>y & compell$ to express 8 ?\ghts 9 ord9>y spee*4 ,! !ories :i* are implicit 9 c]ta9 recurr+ expressions w\ld be =c$ to come out into ! op51 & /& criticism )\t disguise4 ,b c "o write philosophical books )\t us+ words :i* are n 9 common use among ! unphilosophic8 ,i d\bt x4 ,"s su* words x seems impossible to avoid4 ,h[ev]1 x does seem possible to be> 9 m9d ! dang]s ( a special philosophical t]m9ology & to r$uce su* words to a m9imum4 ,f9ally1 we may appeal to ! humanity ( ! philosoph]4 ,! pa? to reflection is a suffici5tly difficult "o z x is2 :y %\ld he roll rocks ^u x & compel ^? :o come aft] him to climb ov] !m8 ,if tru?s are no tru] = be+ express$ 9 a repell5t =m1 :y %\ld he trick !m out 9 a fanta/ic g>b8 ,:at we want is ! nak$ tru?1 & we lose "t & pati5ce 9 free+ our mummy f ! wrapp+s 9 :i* le>n$ m5 h se5 fit to encase x4 #ic4 ,,d ,,n ,,ha/ily ,,accept ,a ,,doctr9e4--,?is br+s me to ! la/ ( ! maxims :i* ,i urge ^u ! att5tion ( ! read]4 ,all t has be5 said s f> may be reg>d$ z lead+ up to x4 ,! difficulty t confronts u is ?is3 ,on ! "o h&1 we mu/ recognize ! unc]ta9ty t reigns 9 ?is field ( inve/igation4 ,we mu/ ev] weigh probabilities & possibilities2 we d n f9d ourselves 9 ! pres5ce ( indubitable tru?s :i* all compet5t p]sons /& ready to admit4 ,?is seems to argue t we %\ld le>n to susp5d judgm5t1 & %\ld be mo/ w>y 9 our acceptance ( "o philosophical doctr9e & our rejection ( ano!r4 ,on ! o!r h&1 philosophy is n a m]e matt] ( intellectual curiosity4 ,x has an intimate connection ) life4 ,z a man ?9ks1 s is he1 to a great ext5t1 at lea/4 ,h[1 !n1 c "o af=d to rema9 critical & negative8 ,to c\nsel ?is seems equival5t to advis+ t "o ab&on ! helm & cons5t to float at ! m]cy ( w9d & tide4 ,! difficulty is a v real "o4 ,x pres5ts itself insi/5tly to ^? :o h atta9$ to t degree ( intellectual developm5t at :i* "o beg9s to ask oneself que/ions & to reflect ^u ! wor? & mean+ ( life4 ,an unreflective adh]5ce to tradition no long] satisfies su* p]sons4 ,!y wi% to "k :y !y %\ld believe 9 ?is or t doctr9e1 & :y !y %\ld rule _! lives 9 h>mony ) ?is or t maxim4 ,%all we advise !m to lay hold )\t delay ( a set ( philosophical t5ets1 z we might advise a disabl$ man to aid himself ) any /aff t happ5s to come to h&8 ,or %all we urge !m to close _! eyes to ! light1 & to g back aga9 to ! old unreflective life8 ,nei!r ( ^! c\nsels seems satisfactory1 = bo? assume tacitly t x does n mu* matt] :at ! tru? is1 & t we c af=d to disreg>d x4 ,p]haps we may take a sugge/ion f t prud5t man & acute philosoph]1 ,desc>tes4 ,discont5t$ ) ! tea*+s ( ! s*ools z !y _h be5 pres5t$ to him1 he resolv$ to set out ^u an indep5d5t voyage ( discov]y1 & to look = a philosophy ( 8 own4 ,x seem$ necess>y to him to d\bt1 provisionally at lea/1 all t he _h receiv$ f ! pa/4 ,b 9 :at h\se %\ld he live :ile he 0 recon/ruct+ 8 old habitation8 ,)\t pr9ciples ( "s sort he c\ld n live1 & )\t reasonable pr9ciples he c\ld n live well4 ,s he fram$ a set ( provisional rules1 :i* %\ld guide 8 life until he _h new gr\nd b5ea? 8 feet4 ,:5 we exam9e ^! rules1 we f9d t1 on ! :ole1 !y are su* z ! exp]i5ce ( mank9d has f\nd prud5t & s]viceable4 ,9 o!r words1 we discov] t ,desc>tes1 until he 0 9 a position to see cle>ly = himself1 0 will+ to be l$ by o!rs4 ,he 0 a unit 9 ! social ord]1 & he recogniz$ t tru?4 ,x does n seem out ( place to recall ?is fact to ! consci\sness ( ^? :o are ent]+ ^u ! reflective life4 ,^? :o are r new to reflection ^u philosophical matt]s are apt to seize s+le tru?s1 :i* are too (t5 half-tru?s1 & to d$uce _! consequ5ces remorselessly4 ,!y d n always realize ! extreme complexity ( society1 or see ! full mean+ ( ! relations 9 :i* !y /& to ! /ate & to ! *ur*4 ,bread? ( view c only come ) an increase ( k & ) ! ex]cise ( reflection4 ,= ?is reason ,i advise pati5ce1 & a will+ness to accept ! e/abli%$ ord] ( ?+s until "o is v sure t "o has atta9$ to "s tru?--"s real tru?1 n a m]e tru? ( election--:i* may s]ve z ! basis ( a recon/ruction4 ,! fir/ glimpses ( tru? _c be dep5d$ ^u to furni% su* a f\ndation4 ,?us1 we may susp5d judgm5t1 &1 nev]!less1 be ready to act4 ,b is n ?is a m]e compromise8 ,c]ta9ly4 ,all life is a compromise2 & 9 ! pres5t in/ance x means only t we %\ld keep our eyes op5 to ! light1 :atev] its s\rce1 & yet %\ld n\ri% t :olesome self-di/ru/ t prev5ts a man f be+ an erratic & revolution>y creature1 unm9dful ( 8 own limitations4 ,prud5t m5 9 all walks 9 life make ?is compromise1 & ! _w is ! bett] = x4 ,,notes ,,*apt] ,i1 sections #a-e4 ,if ! /ud5t w take a good hi/ory ( philosophy1 & look ov] ! acc\nts ( ! diff]5t sy/ems ref]r$ to1 he w see ! ju/ice ( ! position tak5 9 ! text1 namely1 t philosophy 0 =m]ly synonym\s ) univ]sal k4 ,x is n necess>y1 ( c\rse1 to read ! :ole hi/ory ( philosophy to atta9 ?is end4 ,"o may take su* a text-book z ,ueb]weg's ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 & run ov] ! summ>ies conta9$ 9 ! l>ge pr9t4 ,to see h[ ! conception ( :at con/itutes univ]sal k *ang$ 9 successive ages1 comp>e ,?ales1 ! ,sophi/s1 ,ari/otle1 ! ,s*oolm51 ,bacon1 & ,desc>tes4 ,= ! anci5t philosophy "o may consult ,w9delb&'s ,hi/ory ( ! ,anci5t ,philosophy1 a cle> & ent]ta9+ little "w 7,engli% translation1 ,n4,y41 #ahii74 ,9 ,pr(essor ,pauls5's ,introduction to ,philosophy 7,engli% translation1 ,n4,y41 #ahie71 !re is an int]e/+ introductory *apt] on ,! ,nature & ,import ( ,philosophy 7pp4 #a-da74 ,! au?or pleads = ! old notion ( philosophy z univ]sal k1 ?\gh he does n1 ( c\rse1 mean t ! philosoph] mu/ be famili> ) all ! details ( all ! sci5ces4 ,section #f4 ,9 ju/ification ( ! mean+ giv5 to ! ^w philosophy 9 ?is section1 ,i ask ! read] to look ov] ! li/ ( c\rses 9 philosophy adv]tis$ 9 ! catalogues ( our lead+ univ]sities at home & abroad4 ,!re is a c]ta9 cons5sus ( op9ion z to :at prop]ly comes "u ! title1 ev5 among ^? :o diff] widely z to :at is ! prop] def9ition ( philosophy4 ,,*apt] ,,ii1 sections #g-aj4 ,read ! *apt] on ,! ,m9d & ! ,_w 9 ,common ,?\ght & 9 ,sci5ce 7,*apt] ,i7 9 my ,sy/em ( ,metaphysics1 ,n4,y41 #aijd4 ,"o c be br\ght to a vivid realization ( ! fact t ! sci5ces proce$ ^u a basis ( assumptions :i* !y d n attempt to analyze & ju/ify1 if "o w take "s elem5t>y "w on ari?metic or geometry or psy*ology & exam9e ! fir/ few *apt]s1 be>+ 9 m9d :at philosophical problems may be drawn f ! mat]ials !re treat$4 ,section #aa4 ,! task ( reflective ?\ght & its difficulties are treat$ 9 ! *apt] entitl$ ,h[ ,?+s are ,giv5 9 ,consci\sness 7,*apt] ,,iii71 9 my ,sy/em ( ,metaphysics4 ,,*apt] ,,iii1 sections #ab-ac4 ,read ,! ,inadequacy ( ! ,psy*ological ,/&po9t1 ,sy/em ( ,metaphysics1 ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,i call especial att5tion to ! illu/ration ( ! man 9 ! cell 7pp4 #ah ff474 ,x w\ld be a good ?+ to read ^! pages ) ! class1 & to impress ^u ! /ud5ts ! fact t ^? :o h d\bt$ or d5i$ ! exi/5ce ( ! ext]nal mat]ial _w h1 if !y h fall5 into error1 fall5 into a v natural error1 & are n )\t "s excuse4 ,section #ad4 ,see ,! ,metaphysics ( ! ,telephone ,ex*ange1 ,sy/em ( ,metaphysics1 ,*apt] ,,xxii1 :]e ,pr(essor ,pe>son's doctr9e is exam9$ at l5g?1 ) quotations & ref]5ces4 ,x is int]e/+ to notice t a d\bt ( ! ext]nal _w has always re/$ ^u "s sort ( a telephone ex*ange argum5t2 naturally1 x c\ld n pass by t "n be=e ! inv5tion ( ! telephone1 b ! reason+ is ! same4 ,x puts ! _w at "o remove1 %utt+ ! m9d up to ! circle ( its ideas2 & !n x d\bts or d5ies ! _w1 or1 at lea/1 holds t its exi/5ce mu/ be prov$ 9 "s r\ndab\t way4 ,comp>e ,desc>tes1 ,( ! ,exi/5ce ( ,mat]ial ,?+s1 ,m$itations1 ,,vi4 ,,*apt] ,,iv1 sections #ae-ah4 ,see ,*apt]s ,,vi & ,,vii1 ,:at we mean by ! ,ext]nal ,_w1 & ,s5sations & ',?+s1' 9 my ,sy/em ( ,metaphysics4 ,9 t "w ! discussion ( ! di/9ction betwe5 ! objective ord] ( exp]i5ce & ! subjective ord] is complet$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xxiii1 ,! ,di/9ction betwe5 ! ,_w & ! ,m9d4 ,?is 0 done t ! subjective ord] might be treat$ 9 ! "p ( ! book :i* discusses ! m9d & its relation to matt]4 ,z x is possible t ! read] may be puzzl$ by diff]5ces ( expression :i* obta9 9 ! two books1 a ^w ( explanation is n out ( place4 ,9 ! ,metaphysics1 = example1 x is said t s5sations s connect !mselves toge!r z to =m :at we call ! sy/em ( mat]ial ?+s 7p4 #aje74 ,x is intimat$ 9 a footnote t ?is is a provisional /atem5t & ! read] is ref]r$ to lat] *apt]s4 ,n[1 9 ! pres5t book 7sections #af-ag71 x is taught t we may n call mat]ial ?+s gr\ps ( s5sations4 ,! app>5t contradiction is due to ! fact t1 9 ?is volume1 ! full mean+ ( ! ^w s5sation is exhibit$ at ! outset1 & s5sations1 z ph5om5a ( ! subjective ord]1 are di/+ui%$ f ! ph5om5a ( ! objective ord] :i* con/itute ! ext]nal _w4 ,9 ! e>li] "w ! ^w s5sation 0 = a :ile us$ loosely to cov] all our exp]i5ces t d n belong to ! class call$ imag9>y1 & ! di/9ction betwe5 ! subjective & objective 9 ?is realm 0 drawn lat] 7,*apt] ,,xxiii74 ,i ?9k ! pres5t arrangem5t is ! bett] "o1 z x avoids f ! outset ! sugge/ion t ! real _w is some?+ subjective--our s5sations or ideas--& ?us escapes ! ideali/ic flavor :i* almo/ inevitably atta*es to ! o!r treatm5t1 until ! discussion is complet$1 at lea/4 ,,*apt] ,v1 sections #aj-ba4 ,see ,*apt]s ,,viii & ,,ix1 ,sy/em ( ,metaphysics1 ,! ,di/9ction betwe5 ,appe>ance & ,reality & ,! ,significance ( ! ,di/9ction4 ,section #bb4 ,see ,*apt] ,,xxvi1 ,! ,_w z ,unp]ceiv$1 & ! ',unkn[able1' :]e ,sp5c]'s doctr9e is exam9$ at l5g?1 & ref]5ces are giv54 ,i ?9k x is v important t ! /ud5t %\ld realize t ! ,unkn[able is a p]fectly useless assumption 9 philosophy1 & c s]ve no purpose :atev]4 ,,*apt] ,,vi1 sections #bc-be4 ,see ,*apt]s ,x & ,,xi1 ,sy/em ( ,metaphysics1 ,! ,kantian ,doctr9e ( ,space & ,difficulties connect$ ) ! ,kantian ,doctr9e ( ,space4 ,x w\ld be an excell5t ?+ = ! /ud5t1 aft] he has read ! above *apt]s1 to take up ,kant's ,critique ( ,pure ,reason1 & read & analyze ! argum5t ( ,ant9omies ,i & ,,ii1 ) ! ,obs]vations app5d$4 ,"o c und]/& ^! argum5ts )\t be+ famili> ) ! ,critique z a :ole2 at any rate1 ! acc\nt ( ,kant's philosophy conta9$ 9 section #ea ( ?is book w s]ve to expla9 8 use ( c]ta9 t]ms1 su* z ! laws ( our s5sibility4 ,kant's reason+s are v curi\s & int]e/+ 9 ?is "p ( 8 book4 ,x seems to be prov$ t ! _w mu/ be endless 9 space & )\t a beg9n+ or end 9 "t1 & j z plausibly prov$ t x _c be ei!r4 ,x seems to be prov$ t f9ite spaces & times are inf9itely divisible1 & at ! same "t t !y _c be inf9itely divisible4 ,! situation is an amus+ "o1 & r5d]$ n ! less amus+ by ! s]i\sness ) :i* ! mutually de/ructive argum5ts are tak54 ,:5 ! /ud5t meets su* a tangle 9 ! writ+s ( any philosoph]1 ,i ask him to believe t x is n ! human reason t is at fault--at lea/1 let him n assume t x is4 ,! fault probably lies ) a human reason4 ,section #bf4 ,see ,*apt] ,,xii1 ,! ,b]keleian ,doctr9e ( ,space1 9 my ,sy/em ( ,metaphysics4 ,! argum5t ought n to be difficult to "o :o has ma/]$ ,*apt] ,v ( ?is volume4 ,,*apt] ,,vii1 sections #bg-bi4 ,comp>e ,*apt] ,,xiii1 ,sy/em ( ,metaphysics1 ,( ,"t4 ,) ! *apt]s on ,space & ,"t x w\ld be well = ! /ud5t to read ,*apt] ,,xiv1 ,! ,real ,_w 9 ,space & ,"t1 :]e x is made cle> :y we h no hesitation 9 decl>+ space & "t to be inf9ite1 al?\gh we recognize t x seems to be an assumption ( k to decl>e ! mat]ial _w inf9ite4 ,,*apt] ,,viii1 sections #cj-cb4 ,read1 9 ! ,sy/em ( ,metaphysics1 ,*apt]s ,v & ,,xvii1 ,! ,self or ,kn[] & ,! ,atomic ,self4 ,section #cc4 ,! sugge/ions1 t\*+ ! attitude ( ! psy*ologi/ t[>d ! m9d1 conta9$ 9 ! preface to ,pr(essor ,william ,james's ,psy*ology are v int]e/+ & in/ructive4 ,,*apt] ,,ix1 sections #ce-cf4 ,= a /rong argum5t 9 favor ( int]actionism see ,james's ,psy*ology1 ,*apt] ,v4 ,i wi% ! /ud5t w\ld1 9 read+ x1 be> 9 m9d :at is said 9 my *apt] on ,! ,atomic ,self1 above ref]r$ to4 ,! subject %\ld be approa*$ ) an op5 m9d1 & "o %\ld susp5d judgm5t until bo? sides h be5 he>d f4 ,section #cg4 ,desc>tes held t ! l[] animals are automata & t _! actions are n indicative ( consci\sness2 he reg>d$ _! bodies z ma*9es lack+ ! s\l 9 ! little p9eal gl&4 ,pr(essor ,huxley reviv$ ! doctr9e ( animal automatism & ext5d$ x s z to include man4 ,he reg>d$ consci\sness z a collat]al product ( ! work+ ( ! body1 relat$ to x some:at z is ! /eam-:i/le ( a locomotive eng9e to ! work+ ( ! ma*9e4 ,he made x an effect1 b n a cause1 ( motions4 ,see ,sy/em ( ,metaphysics1 ,*apt] ,,xviii1 ,! ,automaton ,!ory3 its ,g5esis4 ,we owe ! doctr9e ( p>allelism1 9 its orig9al =m1 to ,sp9oza4 ,x 0 elaborat$ by ,w4 ,k4 ,clif=d1 & to him ! mod]n int]e/ 9 ! subject is l>gely due4 ,! :ole subject is discuss$ at l5g? 9 my ,sy/em ( ,metaphysics1 ,*apt]s ,,xix-,,xxi4 ,! titles are3 ,! ,automaton ,!ory3 ,p>allelism1 ,:at is ,p>allelism8 & ,! ,man & ! ,c&le/ick4 ,clif=d's doctr9e is pres5t$ 9 a new =m 9 ,pr(essor ,/rong's rec5t brilliant "w1 ,:y ! ,m9d has a ,body ,n4,y41 #aijc4 ,section #ch4 ,see ,sy/em ( ,metaphysics1 ,*apt] ,,xxiv1 ,! ,"t & ,place ( ,s5sations & ,ideas4 ,,*apt] ,x1 sections #dj-db4 ,see ,sy/em ( ,metaphysics1 ,*apt]s ,,xxvii & ,,xxviii1 ,! ,exi/5ce ( ,o!r ,m9ds1 & ,! ,di/ribution ( ,m9ds4 ,writ]s seem to be divid$ into ?ree camps on ?is "q ( o!r m9ds4 7#a7 ,i h treat$ our k ( o!r m9ds z due to an inf]5ce4 ,?is is ! position usually tak54 7#b7 ,we h se5 t ,huxley & ,clif=d ca/ d\bts ^u ! validity ( ! inf]5ce1 b1 nev]!less1 made x4 ,pr(essor ,/rong1 9 ! "w m5tion$ 9 ! notes to ! previ\s *apt]1 ma9ta9s t x is n an inf]5ce1 & t we d n directly p]ceive o!r m9ds1 b t we are assur$ ( _! exi/5ce j ! same4 ,he makes our k an intuition 9 ! old-fa%ion$ s5se ( ! ^w1 a some?+ to be accept$ b n to be acc\nt$ =4 7#c7 ,writ]s :o h be5 influ5c$ m or less by ! ,neo-,kantian or ,neo-,hegelian doctr9e are apt to speak z ?\gh we _h ! same direct evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( o!r m9ds t we h ( ! exi/5ce ( our own4 ,i h nev] se5 a sy/ematic & detail$ exposition ( ?is doctr9e4 ,x appe>s r 9 ! =m ( h9ts dropp$ 9 pass+4 ,a numb] ( su* are to be f\nd 9 ,taylor's ,elem5ts ( ,metaphysics4 ,section #dc4 ,! ,m9d-/uff doctr9e is exam9$ at l5g? & its orig9 discuss$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xxxi ( ! ,sy/em ( ,metaphysics1 ,m5tal ,ph5om5a & ! ,causal ,nexus4 ,x is well wor? :ile = ! /ud5t to read ! :ole ( ,clif=d's essay ,on ! ,nature ( ,?+s-9-!mselves1 ev5 if he is press$ = "t4 ,,*apt] ,,xi1 section #dd4 ,see ,sy/em ( ,metaphysics1 ,*apt] ,,xv1 ,! ,_w z ,me*anism4 ,section #de4 ,see ,*apt] ,,xxxi1 ,! ,place ( ,m9d 9 ,nature4 ,section #df4 ,= a def9ition ( ,fatalism1 & a description ( its diff]5ce f ! sci5tific doctr9e ( ,det]m9ism1 see ,*apt] ,,xxxiii1 ,fatalism1 ',freewill' & ,det]m9ism4 ,= a vigor\s def5se ( ,freewill 7:i* is n1 9 my op9ion1 free w at all1 9 ! common acceptation ( ! ^w7 see ,pr(essor ,james's ,essay on ,! ,dilemma ( ! ,det]m9i/1 9 8 volume1 ,! ,w to ,believe4 ,fatalism & ,det]m9ism are con/antly confus$1 & mu* ( ! opposition to ,det]m9ism is attributable to ?is confusion4 ,section #dg4 ,see ,*apt] ,,xxxii1 ,me*anism & ,teleology4 ,,*apt] ,,xii1 section #dh4 ,! notes to ,*apt] ,,iii 7see above7 are 9 po9t "h4 ,x is well wor? ! /ud5t's :ile to read ! :ole ( ,*apt] ,,xi1 ,book ,,iv1 ( ,locke's ,essay4 ,x is entitl$ ,( our ,k ( ! ,exi/5ce ( ,o!r ,?+s4 ,notice ! head+s ( "s ( 8 sections3-- ,section #a4 ,x is to be _h only by s5sation4 ,section #b4 ,in/ance :it5ess ( ?is pap]4 ,section #c4 ,?is1 ?\gh n s c]ta9 z demon/ration1 yet may be call$ ',k1' & proves ! exi/5ce ( ?+s )\t u4 ,locke's argum5t proce$s1 z we h se51 on ! assumption t we p]ceive ext]nal ?+s directly1--an assumption into :i* he slips unaw>es1--& yet he _c all[ t we really d p]ceive directly :at is ext]nal4 ,?is makes him uncom=tably consci\s t he has n absolute pro(1 aft] all4 ,! section t closes ! discussion is entitl$3 ,folly to expect demon/ration 9 ev]y?+4 ,section #di4 ,i wi% t ,i c\ld believe t e "o ( my read]s w\ld sometime give himself ! pleasure ( read+ ?r\gh ,b]keley's ,pr9ciples ( ,human ,k & 8 ,?ree ,dialogues betwe5 ,hylas & ,philon\s4 ,cle>ness ( ?\ght1 beauty ( /yle1 & elevation ( s5tim5t *>act]ize !m ?r\gh\t4 ,! ,pr9ciples is a sy/ematic treatise4 ,if "o has n "t to read x all1 "o c get a good idea ( ! doctr9e by runn+ ?r\gh ! fir/ =ty-"o sections4 ,= brief read+s 9 class1 to illu/rate ,b]keley's reason+1 "o may take sections #a-c1 #ad1 #ah-bj1 & #ch4 ,! ,dialogues is a m popul> "w4 ,z ! etymology ( ! names 9 ! title sugge/s1 we h 9 x a dispute betwe5 a man :o p9s 8 fai? to matt] & an ideali/4 ,! aim ( ! book is to confute skeptics & a!i/s f ! /&po9t ( idealism4 ,= ,hume's treatm5t ( ! ext]nal _w1 see 8 ,treatise ( ,human ,nature1 ,"p ,,iv1 section #b4 ,= 8 treatm5t ( ! m9d1 see ,"p ,,iv1 section #f4 ,section #ej4 ,reid repeats himself a great deal1 = he gives u assev]ation r ?an pro(4 ,"o c get ! gi/ ( 8 argum5t by read+ c>efully a few ( 8 sections4 ,x w\ld be a good ex]cise to read 9 class1 if "t p]mitt$1 ! two sections ( 8 ,inquiry entitl$ ,( ,ext5sion 7,*apt] ,v1 section #e71 & ,( ,p]ception 9 ,g5]al 7,*apt] ,,vi1 section #bj74 ,section #ea4 ,= an acc\nt ( ! critical ,philosophy1 see ,falck5b]g's ,hi/ory ( ,mod]n ,philosophy 7,engli% translation1 ,n4,y41 #ahic74 ,comp>e ) ?is ! acc\nts 9 ! hi/ories ( philosophy by ,ueb]weg & ,hffd+ 7,engli% translation ( ! latt]1 ,london1 #aijj74 ,full bibliographies are to be f\nd especially 9 ,ueb]weg4 ,x is well to look at ! philosophy ( ,kant ?r\gh m ?an "o pair ( eyes4 ,?us1 if "o reads ,morris's ,kant's ,critique ( ,pure ,reason 7,*icago1 #ahhb71 "o %\ld read also ,sidgwick's ,lectures on ! ,philosophy ( ,kant 7,n4,y41 #aije74 ,,*apt] ,,xiii1 section #eb4 ,x is difficult to see h[ ,hamilton c\ld reg>d himself z a natural reali/ 7! ^w is employ$ by him74 ,see 8 ,lectures on ,metaphysics1 ,,viii1 :]e he develops 8 doctr9e4 ,he seems to tea*1 9 spite ( himself1 t we c "k directly only ! impressions t ?+s make on u1 & mu/ inf] all else3 ,our :ole k ( m9d & matt] is1 ?us1 only relative2 ( exi/5ce1 absolutely & 9 itself1 we "k no?+4 ,:om may we reg>d z repres5t+ ! ?ree k9ds ( hypo!tical realism describ$ 9 ! text8 ,p]haps we may put ! pla9 man1 :o has n begun to reflect1 9 ! fir/ class4 ,john ,locke is a good repres5tative ( ! second2 see ! ,essay conc]n+ ,human ,und]/&+1 ,book ,,ii1 ,*apt] ,,viii4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c] belong$ to ! ?ird :ile he wrote ,*apt] ,v ( 8 ,fir/ ,pr9ciples ( ,philosophy4 ,section #ec4 ,i h said en\gh ( ! ,b]keleian idealism 9 ! notes on ,*apt] ,,xii4 ,z a good illu/ration ( objective idealism 9 "o ( its =ms ,i may take ! doctr9e ( ,pr(essor ,royce2 see 8 address1 ,! ,conception ( ,god 7,n4,y41 #aijb74 ,mr4 ,bradley's doctr9e is criticis$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xxxiv 7entitl$ ,( ,god71 ,sy/em ( ,metaphysics4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv1 section #ee4 ,see ,sy/em ( ,metaphysics1 ,*apt] ,,xvi1 ,! ,insuffici5cy ( ,mat]ialism4 ,section #ef4 ,pr(essor ,/rong's volume1 ,:y ! ,m9d has a ,body 7,n4,y41 #aijc71 advocates a panpsy*ism mu* l t ( ,clif=d4 ,x is v cle>ly writt51 & ) ,clif=d's essay on ,! ,nature ( ,?+s-9-!mselves1 ought to give "o a good idea ( ! consid]ations t impel "s able m5 to become panpsy*i/s4 ,section #eg4 ,! pan!i/ic monism ( ,sp9oza is ( su* importance hi/orically t x is desirable to obta9 a cle> notion ( its mean+4 ,i h discuss$ ?is at l5g? 9 two e>li] works3 ,! ,philosophy ( ,sp9oza 7,n4,y41 #ahid7 & ,on ,sp9ozi/ic ,immortality4 ,! /ud5t is ref]r$ to ! acc\nt ( ,sp9oza's ,god or ,sub/ance conta9$ 9 ^!4 ,see1 especially1 ! ,introductory ,note 9 ! back ( ! fir/-m5tion$ volume4 ,pr(essor ,royce is a good illu/ration ( ! ideali/ic moni/2 see ! volume ref]r$ to 9 ! note above 7section #ec74 ,8 ,absolute1 or ,god1 is conceiv$ to be an all-inclusive m9d ( :i* our f9ite m9ds are p>ts4 ,section #eh4 ,sir ,william ,hamilton's dualism is develop$ 9 8 ,lectures on ,metaphysics1 ,,viii4 ,he writes3 ,m9d & matt]1 z kn[n or kn[able1 are only two diff]5t s]ies ( ph5om5a or qualities2 z unkn[n & unkn[able1 !y are ! two sub/ances 9 :i* ^! two diff]5t s]ies ( ph5om5a or qualities are suppos$ to inh]e4 ,! exi/5ce ( an unkn[n sub/ance is only an inf]5ce we are compell$ to make1 f ! exi/5ce ( kn[n ph5om5a2 & ! di/9ction ( two sub/ances is only inf]r$ f ! seem+ incompatibility ( ! two s]ies ( ph5om5a to co9h]e 9 "o4 ,,*apt] ,,xv1 section #fj4 ,! read] w f9d ,desc>tes's pa? trac$ 9 ! ,m$itations4 ,9 ,i1 we h 8 sweep+ d\bt2 9 ,,ii1 8 doctr9e z to ! m9d2 9 ,,iii1 ! exi/5ce ( ,god is e/abli%$2 9 ,,vi1 he gets ar\nd to ! exi/5ce ( ! ext]nal _w4 ,we f9d a good deal ( ! natural light 9 ! fir/ "p ( 8 ,pr9ciples ( ,philosophy4 ,section #fa4 ,we h an excell5t illu/ration ( ,locke's inconsi/5cy 9 violat+ 8 own pr9ciples & go+ beyond exp]i5ce1 9 8 treatm5t ( ,sub/ance4 ,read1 9 8 ,essay1 ,book ,i1 ,*apt] ,,iv1 section #ah1 & ,book ,,ii1 ,*apt] ,,xxiii1 section #d4 ,^! sections are n long1 & might well be read & analyz$ 9 class4 ,section #fb4 ,see ! note to section #ea4 ,section #fd4 ,i write ?is note 79 #aijh7 to give ! read] "s idea ( lat] developm5ts ( ! doctr9e call$ pragmatism4 ,!re has be5 a va/ am\nt pr9t$ ^u ! subject 9 ! la/ two or ?ree ye>s1 b ,i am n able to say ev5 yet t we h to d ) a cle>-cut doctr9e1 ! limits & consequ5ces ( :i* h be5 work$ out 9 detail4 ,h5ce1 ,i pref] to leave section #fd z ,i fir/ wrote x1 m]ely supplem5t+ x "h4 ,we may fairly consid] ! ?ree lead]s ( ! pragmatic movem5t to be ,pr(essor ,william ,james1 ,dr4 ,f4 ,c4 ,s4 ,s*ill]1 & ,pr(essor ,john ,dewey4 ,! fir/ has develop$ 8 doctr9e at l5g? 9 8 volume entitl$ ,pragmatism 7,london1 #aijg72 ! second1 :o calls 8 doctr9e ,humanism1 b decl>es himself a pragmati/1 & 9 ess5tial agreem5t ) ,pr(essor ,james1 has publi%$ two volumes ( philosophical essays entitl$ ,humanism 7,london1 #aijc7 & ,/udies 9 ,humanism 7,london1 #aijg72 ! ?ird has develop$ 8 position 9 ! fir/ f\r *apt]s ( ! ,/udies 9 ,logical ,!ory 7,*icago1 #aijc74 ,pr(essor ,james1 9 8 ,pragmatism 7,lecture ,,ii71 says t pragmatism1 at ! outset1 at lea/1 /&s = no p>ticul> results4 ,x has no dogmas1 & no doctr9es save its me?od4 ,?is me?od means3 ,! attitude ( look+ away f fir/ ?+s1 pr9ciples1 'categories1' suppos$ necessities2 & ( look+ t[>ds la/ ?+s1 fruits1 consequ5ces1 facts4 ,he rem>ks fur!r1 h[ev]1 t pragmatism has come to be us$ also 9 a wid] s5se1 z signify+ a c]ta9 !ory ( tru? 7pp4 #ed-ee74 ,?is !ory is br\ght =w>d 9 ,lecture ,,vi4 ,! !ory ma9ta9s t3 ,true ideas are ^? t we c assimilate1 validate1 corroborate1 & v]ify4 ,false ideas are ^? t we c n 7p4 #bja74 ,?is s\nds z ?\gh ,pr(essor ,james ab&on$ 8 doctr9e t\*+ ! ,turk & ! ,*ri/ian m5tion$ 9 section #fd4 ,b :at d ! words v]ification & validation pragmatically mean8 ,we are told t !y signify c]ta9 practical consequ5ces ( ! v]ifi$ & validat$ idea4 ,our ideas may be said to agree ) reality :5 !y lead u1 ?r\gh acts & o!r ideas :i* !y in/igate1 up to or t[>ds o!r p>ts ( exp]i5ce ) :i* we feel t ! orig9al ideas rema9 9 agreem5t4 ,! connections & transitions come to u f po9t to po9t z be+ progressive1 h>moni\s1 satisfactory4 ,?is function ( agreeable lead+ is :at we mean by an idea's v]ification 7p4 #bjb74 ,?us1 we d n seem to be conc]n$ ) v]ification 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ! ^w has usually be5 employ$ h]et(ore4 ,! t5d5cy to take z true :at is useful or s]viceable has n be5 ab&on$4 ,t ,pr(essor ,james does n really leave 8 ,turk 9 ! lur* becomes cle> to any "o :o w read 8 book att5tively & note 8 reasons = tak+ ! v>i\s pragmatic attitudes :i* he does take4 ,see1 = example1 8 pragmatic argum5t = free-w4 ,! doctr9e is simply assum$ z a doctr9e ( relief 7pp4 #aaj-aba74 ,briefly /at$1 ,dr4 ,s*ill]'s doctr9e is t tru?s are man-made1 & t x is "r = man to consult 8 desires 9 mak+ !m4 ,x is 9 sub/antial h>mony ) ! pragmatism ( ,pr(essor ,james1 & ,i %all n dwell ^u x4 ,dr4 ,s*ill]'s essays are v ent]ta9+ly writt54 ,pr(essor ,dewey's pragmatism seems to me suffici5tly diff]5t f ! above to m]it ano!r title4 ,9 ! ,j\rnal ( ,philosophy1 ,psy*ology1 & ,sci5tific ,me?ods1 ,volume ,,iv1 ,no4 #d1 ,pr(essor ,dewey br+s out ! di/9ction betwe5 8 own position & t ( ,pr(essor ,james4 ,to ! p]iodical lit]ature on pragmatism ,i _c ref] 9 detail4 ,pr(essor ,james def5ds 8 position aga9/ misconceptions 9 ! ,philosophical ,review1 ,volume ,,xvii1 ,no4 #a4 ,see1 on ! o!r side1 ,pr(essor ,p]ry1 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ,philosophy1 ,psy*ology1 & ,sci5tific ,me?ods1 ,volume ,,iv1 pp4 #cfe & #dba2 ,pr(essor ,hibb51 ,philosophical ,review1 ,,xvii1 #d2 & ,dr4 ,c>us1 ,! ,moni/1 ,july1 #aijh4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi1 sections #fe-fh4 ,to see h[ ! logicians h reg>d$ _! sci5ce & its relation to philosophy1 see2 ,keynes's ,=mal ,logic 7,london1 #ahid71 ,introduction2 ,hobh\se's ,!ory ( ,k 7,london1 #ahif71 ,introduction2 ,aik9s's ,! ,pr9ciples ( ,logic 7,n4,y41 #aijb71 ,introduction2 & ,creighton's ,introductory ,logic 7,n4,y41 #ahih71 ,preface4 ,pr(essor ,aik9s writes3 ,?us1 9 s f> z logic tries to make u reason correctly by giv+ u correct conceptions ( ?+s & ! way 9 :i* _! relations involve ea* o!r1 x is a k9d ( simple metaphysics /udi$ = a practical end4 ,pr(essor ,creighton says1 ,al?\gh 9 treat+ ! syllogi/ic logic ,i h foll[$ to a l>ge ext5t ! ord9>y mode ( pres5tation1 ,i h bo? "h1 & :5 deal+ ) ! inductive me?ods1 endeavor$ to int]pret ! traditional doctr9es 9 a philosophical way1 & to prep>e = ! !oretical discussions ( ! ?ird "p ( ! book4 ,john ,/u>t ,mill tri$ n to be metaphysical2 b let ! read] exam9e1 say1 8 ?ird *apt]1 ,( ! ,?+s d5ot$ by ,names1 or look ov] ,book ,,vi1 9 8 ,sy/em ( ,logic4 ,pr(essor ,sigw>t's great "w1 ,logik 7,freiburg1 #b;d edition1 ,volume ,i1 #ahhi1 ,volume ,,ii1 #ahic71 may almo/ be call$ a philosophy ( logic4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii1 section #fi4 ,comp>e ) ,pr(essor ,james's acc\nt ( ! scope ( psy*ology ! foll[+ f ,pr(essor ,baldw93 ,! "q ( ! relation ( psy*ology to metaphysics1 ov] :i* a fi]ce w>f>e has be5 wag$ 9 rec5t ye>s1 is n[ fairly settl$ by ! adju/m5t ( mutual claims4 4 4 4 ,! t]ms ( ! adju/m5t ( :i* ,i speak are briefly ^!3 on ! "o h&1 empirical inve/igation mu/ prec$e rational int]pretation1 & ?is empirical inve/igation mu/ be absolutely unhamp]$ by fett]s ( dogmatism & preconception2 on ! o!r h&1 rational int]pretation mu/ be equally free 9 its own prov9ce1 s9ce progress f ! individual to ! g5]al1 f ! deta*$ fact to its univ]sal mean+1 c be secur$ only by ! judici\s use ( hypo!ses1 bo? metaphysical & speculative4 ,/>t+ f ! empirical we run out at e /ep into ! metempirical4 ,h&book ( ,psy*ology1 ,preface1 pp4 iii & iv4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii1 section #ga4 ,! tea*] might v pr(itably take extracts f ! two *apt]s ( ,:ewell's ,elem5ts ( ,morality ref]r$ to 9 ! text1 & read !m ) ! class4 ,x is significant ( ! weakness ( ,:ewell's position t he c give u advice z long z we d n ne$ x1 b1 :5 we come to ! cross-roads1 he is compell$ to leave ! matt] to ! individual consci5ce1 & gives u no h9t ( a g5]al pr9ciple t may guide u4 ,section #gb4 ,wundt1 9 8 volume ,! ,facts ( ! ,moral ,life 7,n4,y41 #ahig71 tries to develop an empirical sci5ce ( e?ics indep5d5t ( metaphysics2 see ! ,preface4 ,comp>e ) ?is3 ,m>t9eau's ,types ( ,e?ical ,!ory 7,london1 #ahhe71 ,preface2 ,t4 ,h4 ,gre5's ,prolegom5a to ,e?ics1 ,introduction2 ,muirhead's ,! ,elem5ts ( ,e?ics 7,n4,y41 #ahib72 ,mack5zie's ,a ,manual ( ,e?ics 7,london1 #ahic72 ,jodl's ,gesdu*te d] ,e?ik 7,/uttg>t1 #ahhb71 ,preface4 ,i give b a few ref]5ces1 b !y w s]ve to illu/rate h[ close1 9 ! op9ion ( e?ical writ]s1 is ! relation betwe5 e?ics & philosophy4 ,,*apt] ,,xix1 section #gd4 ,! /ud5t :o turns ov] ! pages ( sev]al works on metaphysics may be misl$ by a c]ta9 sup]ficial simil>ity t is apt to obta9 among !m4 ,"o sees ! field mapp$ out into ,ontology 7! sci5ce ( ,be+ or ,reality71 ,rational ,cosmology1 & ,rational ,psy*ology4 ,^! titles are m$iaeval l&m>ks :i* h be5 left /&+4 ,i may z well w>n ! read] t two m5 :o disc\rse ( ,ontology may n be talk+ ab\t ! same ?+ at all4 ,be> 9 m9d :at 0 said 9 section #eg ( ! diff]5t ways ( conceiv+ ! ,"o ,sub/ance2 & be> 9 m9d also :at 0 said 9 ,*apt] ,v ( ! prop] mean+ ( ! ^w reality4 ,i h disc>d$ ! above titles 9 my ,sy/em ( ,metaphysics1 because ,i ?9k x is bett] & less mislead+ to use pla9 & unambigu\s language4 ,section #ge4 ,see ! note to ,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,*apt] ,,xx1 sections #gf-gg4 ,"o c get an idea ( ! problems ) :i* ! philosophy ( religion has to deal by turn+ to my ,sy/em ( ,metaphysics & read+ ! two *apt]s entitl$ ,( ,god1 at ! close ( ! book4 ,x w\ld be int]e/+ to read & criticise 9 class "s ( ! !i/ic argum5ts t philosoph]s h br\ght =w>d4 ,quotations & ref]5ces are giv5 9 ,*apt] ,,xxxiv4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi1 sections #gh-gi4 ,:at is said ( ! sci5ce ( logic1 9 ,*apt] ,,xvi1 has1 ( c\rse1 a be>+ ^u ^! sections4 ,i sugge/ t ! /ud5t exam9e a few *apt]s ( ,! ,gramm> ( ,sci5ce2 ! book is v readable4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii1 sections #hj-hb4 ,! read] w f9d 9 lectures ,i & ,,ii 9 ,sir ,william ,hamilton's ,lectures on ,metaphysics a discussion ( ! utility ( philosophy4 ,x has a pleasant1 old-fa%ion$ flavor1 & conta9s "s good ?\ghts4 ,:at is said 9 ,*apt]s ,,xvi-,,xxi ( ! pres5t volume has a good deal ( be>+ ^u ! subject4 ,see especially :at is said 9 ! *apt]s on logic1 e?ics1 & ! philosophy ( religion4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii1 sections #hc-hg4 ,!re is a r brief b good & ?\ghtful discussion ( ! importance ( hi/orical /udy to ! compreh5sion ( philosophical doctr9es 9 ,falck5b]g's ,hi/ory ( ,mod]n ,philosophy 7,engli% translation1 ,n4,y41 #ahic72 see ! ,introduction4 ,we h a good illu/ration ( ! fact t !re may be p>allel /reams ( philosophic ?\ght 7section #hg7 :5 we turn to ! ,/oics & ! ,epicureans4 ,z5o & ,epicurus 7 contempor>ies1 b !y 7 m5 ( v dissimil> "*1 & ! s*ools !y f\nd$ diff]$ widely 9 _s4 ,z5o w5t back = 8 view ( ! physical _w to ,h]aclitus1 & = 8 e?ics to ! ,cynics4 ,epicurus borr[$ 8 fundam5tal ?\ghts f ,democritus4 ,on ! o!r h&1 philosoph]s may sometimes be reg>d$ z l9ks 9 ! "o *a94 ,witness ! s]ies ( ,g]man ?9k]s3 ,kant1 ,fi*te1 ,s*ell+1 ,hegel1 ,s*op5hau]2 or ! s]ies ( ,briti% ?9k]s3 ,locke1 ,b]keley1 ,hume1 ,mill4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c] repres5ts a conflu5ce ( ! /reams4 ,! _s ( 8 doctr9e is pr$om9antly ,briti%2 b he got 8 ,unkn[able f ,kant1 ?r\gh ,hamilton & ,mansel4 ,at any po9t 9 a giv5 /ream !re may be a division4 ,?us1 ,kant 0 awak5$ to 8 creative ef=t by ,hume4 ,b ,mill is also ! successor ( ,hume1 & m truly ! successor1 = he c>ries on ! traditional way ( approa*+ philosophical problems1 :ile ,kant rebels aga9/ x1 & heads a new l9e4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv1 sections #hh-ic4 ,i h>dly ?9k x is necess>y = me to comm5t ^u ?is *apt]4 ,! recomm5dations am\nt to ?is3 t a man %\ld be fair-m9d$ & reasonable1 free f p>tisan%ip1 cauti\s1 & able to susp5d judgm5t :]e ! evid5ce is n cle>2 also t :]e ! light ( reason does n seem to him to %9e brightly & to illum9e 8 pa? z he c\ld wi%1 he %\ld be influ5c$ 9 8 actions by ! reflection t he has 8 place 9 ! social ord]1 & mu/ meet ! obligations laid ^u him by ?is fact4 ,:5 ! pragmati/ emphasizes ! necessity ( accept+ ideals & liv+ by !m1 he is do+ u a s]vice4 ,b we mu/ see to x t he does n lead u into mak+ arbitr>y decisions & feel+ t we are releas$ f ! duty ( seek+ = evid5ce4 ,read toge!r sections #fd1 #ia1 & #ic4 ,,index ,absolute1 ,!3 ,sp5c]'s doctr9e (1 #gj2 ,bradley's1 #aia-aib2 mean+s ( ! ^w1 #bja2 ref]5ce1 #cab4 ,activity & ,passivity3 mean+ (1 #aei-afa2 confus$ ) cause & effect1 #aei-afa2 activity ( m9d1 #afb-afc4 ,ae/hetics3 a philosophical discipl9e1 #bdb-bdc4 ,agno/icism3 #bjb4 ,aik9s3 #cad4 ,alb]t ! ,great3 scope ( 8 labors1 #i4 ,analytical ,judgm5ts3 def9$1 #agh4 ,anaxagoras3 8 doctr9e1 #d2 on ! s\l1 #aja4 ,anaxim&]3 8 doctr9e1 #c4 ,anaxim5es3 8 doctr9e1 #c2 on ! s\l1 #aja4 ,appe>ances3 d\bt ( _! objectivity1 #ce2 realities &1 #ei ff42 app>5t & real space1 #hj-hg2 app>5t & real "t1 #ic-ii2 app>5t & real ext5sion1 #aac2 measurem5t ( app>5t "t1 #abh2 appe>ance & reality1 ,bradley's doctr9e1 #aia-aib4 ,ari/otle3 ref]5ce to ,?ales1 #c2 scope ( 8 philosophy1 #g2 au?ority 9 ! ,middle ,ages1 #i2 on ! s\l1 #ajb-ajc4 ,ari?metic3 comp>$ ) logic1 #bbe-bbf4 ,atoms3 nature ( our k (1 #bb-bc2 also1 #fe-fg2 doctr9e ( ,democritus1 #aid-aie4 ,augu/9e3 on "t z pa/1 pres5t1 & future1 #ij ff42 on s\l & body1 #ajd2 z sci5ti/ & z philosoph]1 #bgh4 ,au?ority3 9 philosophy1 #bia-bif4 ,automatism3 ! automaton !ory1 #abi-acj2 animal automatism1 #ada-adb2 activity ( m9d & automatism1 #afb2 ref]5ces1 #cjh-cji4 ,automaton3 see ,automatism4 ,bacon1 ,francis3 8 conception ( philosophy1 #aj4 ,baldw93 on psy*ology & metaphysics1 #cad4 ,b]keley3 ref]r$ to1 #ef2 on appe>ance & reality1 #fa-fc2 8 idealism1 #afh-agj2 8 !ism1 #aij-aia2 ref]5ces to 8 works1 #caj4 ,body & ,m9d3 see ,m9d & ,body4 ,bosanquet3 8 logic1 #bce4 ,bradley3 8 ,absolute1 #aia-aib2 ref]5ce giv51 #caa4 ,brea?3 m9d conceiv$ to be1 #aja4 ,cassiodorus3 on s\l & body1 #ajc-ajd4 ,cause & ,effect2 mean+ ( words1 #aah-abj2 relation ( m5tal & mat]ial n causal1 #aba-abf2 see also1 #acb2 cause & effect1 activity & passivity1 #aei ff4 ,*ild3 its k ( ! _w1 #ah-ai4 ,cic]o3 ,py?agoras' use ( ^w philosoph]1 #b2 on immortality1 #cb4 ,clif=d1 ,w4 ,k43 on inf9ite divisibility ( space1 #gi-hj2 on o!r m9ds1 #ace2 on m9d-/uff1 #add-adf2 8 panpsy*ism1 #aig-aih2 8 p>allelism1 #cjh-cji2 ref]5ces on m9d-/uff1 #cji4 ,common ,s5se3 notions ( m9d & body1 #ajf ff42 ,reid's doctr9e1 #aga-agd2 common s5se e?ics1 #bcf-bdj4 ,common ,?\ght3 :at x is1 #ah-bj4 ,concomitance3 see ,m9d & ,body4 ,cop]nican ,sy/em3 #bhb4 ,cornelius3 on metaphysics1 #bdi4 ,creighton3 #cad4 ,critical ,empiricism3 ! doctr9e1 #bah-bai4 ,critical ,philosophy3 outl9$1 #age-ahj2 criticis$1 #baa-bah2 ref]5ces1 #caa4 ,croesus3 #a4 ,democritus3 doctr9e ref]r$ to1 #d2 8 place 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 #e2 on ! s\l1 #aja-ajb2 8 mat]ialism exam9$1 #aid-aie4 ,desc>tes3 conception ( philosophy1 #aj2 on m9d & body1 #aje-ajf2 also1 #aai2 on animal automatism1 #ada-adb2 on ! ext]nal _w1 #afc-afh2 on sub/ance1 #aih2 8 rationalism1 #bjf-bji2 ! natural light1 #bjh2 8 attempt at a critical philosophy1 #bad2 8 rules ( me?od1 #bad2 provisional rules ( life1 #cja-cjb2 ref]5ce giv51 #cjf2 ref]5ce to 8 automatism1 #cjh2 ref]5ces to ! ,m$itations1 #cab4 ,det]m9ism3 #aee-aei2 ref]5ces1 #cji-caj4 ,dewey1 ,john3 #cab-cad4 ,dogmatism3 ,kant's use ( t]m1 #baa-bab4 ,dualism3 :at1 #aic2 v>ieties (1 #bjb-bjd2 ! pres5t volume duali/ic1 #bjd2 ,hamilton's1 #cab4 ,eleatics3 _! doctr9e1 #d4 ,emp$ocles3 8 doctr9e1 #d2 a plurali/1 #bje4 ,empiricism3 ! doctr9e1 #bji-baa2 ,kant on1 #bab2 critical empiricism1 #bah-bai4 ,en]gy3 cons]vation (1 #aea-aed4 ,epicureans3 _! view ( philosophy1 #g-h2 _! mat]ialism1 #ajb4 ,epiph5om5on3 ! m9d z1 #afb4 ,epi/emology3 its place among ! philosophical sci5ces1 #bdg-bdi4 ,e?ics3 & ! me*anism ( nature1 #aei-afd2 common s5se e?ics1 #bcf-bdj2 ,:ewell criticis$1 #bch-bdj2 philosophy &1 #bdj-bdb2 utility (1 #bfe-bfg2 ref]5ces1 #cae4 ,evid5ce3 9 philosophy1 #bif-bih4 ,exi/5ce3 ( mat]ial ?+s1 #ef-eh2 also1 #afe-aib4 ,exp]i5ce3 sugge/ions ( ! ^w1 #eh2 ,hume's doctr9e ( :at x yields1 #agj-aga2 ,desc>tes & ,locke1 #agh2 ,kant's view (1 #agi2 empiricism1 #bji-baa2 critical empiricism1 #bah-bai4 ,exp]im5tal ,psy*ology3 its scope1 #bcd-bce4 ,explanation3 ( relation ( m9d & body1 #abe-abf4 ,ext]nal ,_w3 its exi/5ce1 #cb ff42 pla9 man's k (1 #cb-cf2 psy*ologi/'s attitude1 #cf-ch2 ! telephone ex*ange1 #ch-dd2 :at ! ext]nal _w is1 #de-eh2 its exi/5ce discuss$1 #ef-eh2 a me*anism1 #adg-aej2 k (1 !ories1 #afe-ahj2 ,desc>tes on1 #bjg-bjh2 psy*ologi/'s attitude discuss$1 #bcj-bcd4 ,falck5b]g3 #caa1 #caf4 ,fate3 #aeh2 lit]ature on fatalism1 #cji-caj4 ,fi*te3 on philosophic me?od1 #aj2 solipsi/ic utt]ances1 #acc4 ,f9al ,cause3 :at1 #afa4 ,=m & ,matt]3 ! di/9ction betwe51 #hb-hc2 space z =m1 #hb-hd2 "t z =m1 #id2 ,kant's doctr9e ( =ms1 #agi2 ! same criticis$1 #baf-bag4 ,free-w3 & ! ord] ( nature1 #aed-aei2 det]m9ism & free-w-ism1 #aee-aei2 lit]ature ref]r$ to1 #cji-caj4 ,god3 reveal$ 9 ! _w1 #afc-afd2 ,b]keley on argum5t =1 #aij-aia2 ,sp9oza on ,god or sub/ance1 #aii2 ,desc>tes' argum5t =1 #bjh2 influ5ce ( belief on e?ics1 #bda2 conceptions (1 #beb-bec2 relation to ! _w1 #bec-bed2 moni/ic conception (1 #cab2 ref]5ces1 #cad4 ,greek ,philosophy3 ,pre-,socratic *>act]iz$1 #b-e2 conception ( philosophy f ,sophi/s to ,ari/otle1 #e-g2 ! ,/oics1 ,epicureans1 & ,skeptics1 #g-h4 ,gre51 ,t4 ,h43 #bah1 #cae4 ,hamilton1 ,sir ,w43 on space1 #gf2 on ! ext]nal _w1 #agd2 also1 #ahb2 ref]5ce1 #caa2 8 dualism1 #cab2 on utility ( philosophy1 #caf4 ,hegel3 8 conception ( philosophy1 #aa2 an objective ideali/1 #aij4 ,h]aclitus3 8 doctr9e1 #d2 on ! s\l1 #aja4 ,h]odotus3 #a-b4 ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy3 mu* /udi$1 #bgc-bgd2 its importance1 #bgd-bha2 h[ to read x1 #bha-bhg2 ref]5ces1 #caf4 ,hobh\se3 on !ory ( k1 #bdh2 ref]5ce1 #cab4 ,hffd+3 8 monism1 #bjj-bja2 8 hi/ory ( philosophy1 #caa4 ,h[ison3 on pluralism1 #bje4 ,humanism3 #cab-cac4 ,hume3 8 doctr9e1 #agj-aga2 use ( ^w impression1 #agg2 influ5ce on ,kant1 #agg-agh4 ,huxley3 on o!r m9ds1 #ace1 #ach2 on automatism1 #cjh4 ,hypo!tical ,realism3 see ,realism4 ,idealism3 9 ,b]keley & ,hume1 #afh-aga2 g5]al discussion ( ! v>ieties (1 #ahg-aib2 prop] attitude t[>d1 #bhi-bia4 ,ideas3 di/+ui%$ f ?+s1 #cc-cf2 9 psy*ology1 #cf-ch2 ,b]keley's use ( ! ^w1 #afh-agj2 ,hume's use ( ! ^w1 #agg4 ,imag9ation3 contra/$ ) s5se1 #de-di2 ext5sion ( imag9$ ?+s1 #aac4 ,immat]iality3 ( m9d1 see ,plot9us1 & ,m9d4 ,impression3 ,hume's use ( ^w1 #agg4 ,inf9ity3 inf9ity & inf9ite divisibility ( space1 #gc-hj2 ( "t1 #hh-ij2 also1 #ie-ig2 ma!matics &1 #bbf4 ,inside3 mean+ ( ^w1 #ee4 ,int]actionism3 see ,m9d & ,body4 ,intuitionali/s2 def9$1 #bdj4 ,ionian ,s*ool3 #c4 ,james1 ,w43 on pragmatism1 #bbj-bbb & #cab-cac2 on psy*ology & metaphysics1 #bcj-bca2 on int]actionism1 ref]5ce1 #cjh2 on free-w1 #cji-caj4 ,jevons3 8 logic1 #bbd2 on /udy ( sci5tific me?od1 #bef4 ,jodl3 #cae4 ,kant3 on space1 #ge2 8 critical philosophy1 #age-ahj2 8 philosophy criticis$1 #baa-bah2 ref]5ces to1 #cjg1 #caa4 ,keynes3 #cad4 ,localisation3 ( s5sations1 :at1 #abg4 ,locke1 ,john3 on d\bt ( ext]nal _w1 #cb2 on sub/ance1 #ajh2 on p]ception ( ext]nal _w1 #aff-afh2 8 empiricism1 #bji-baj2 8 attempt at a critical philosophy1 #bae-baf2 on innate moral pr9ciples1 #bdj2 ref]5ce to ,essay1 #caj2 8 hypo!tical realism1 #caa2 treatm5t ( sub/ance1 ref]5ces1 #cab4 ,logic2 ! traditional1 #bbd2 mod]n logic1 #bbd-bbe2 ,jevons & ,bosanquet ref]r$ to1 #bbd-bbe2 philosophy &1 #bbe-bbi2 comp>$ ) ari?metic1 #bbe-bbg2 deep] problems (1 #bbg2 ,sp5c] cit$1 #bbh2 utility (1 #bfd-bfe2 ref]5ces1 #cad4 ,lucretius3 8 mat]iali/ic psy*ology1 #ajb4 ,ma*3 #ad4 ,mack5zie3 #cae4 ,malebran*e3 ref]r$ to1 #adb4 ,m>t9eau3 #cae4 ,mat]ialism3 primitive man's notion ( m9d1 #ajj-aja2 mat]ialism 9 ! ,greek philosophy1 #aja-ajb2 refutation (1 #aaa-acb2 g5]al acc\nt (1 #aid-aig4 ,ma!matics3 nature ( ma!matical k1 #bc-be2 ari?metic comp>$ ) logic1 #bbe-bbf2 ma!matical relations & cause & effect1 #beg2 ma!matical me?ods1 #bef-beg4 ,matt]3 :at is meant by mat]ial ?+s1 #ea-eh2 ! mat]ial _w a me*anism1 #adg-aej4 ,matt] & ,=m3 see ,=m & ,matt]4 ,mc,cosh3 on m9d & body1 #abj4 ,me*anism3 ! mat]ial _w a1 #adg-aej2 objections to ! doctr9e1 #adh-aej2 m9d & me*anism1 #aea-aed2 me*anism & morals1 #aei-afd2 me*anism & teleology1 ref]5ce1 #caj4 ,metaphysician3 on ! m9d1 #aaa ff4 ,metaphysics3 psy*ology &1 #bcj-bcd2 di/+ui%$ f philosophy1 #bdd-bde2 unc]ta9ty (1 #bdg2 utility (1 #bfi-bgb2 traditional divisions (1 #cae4 ,me?od3 sci5tific me?od1 #bef-bei4 ,middle ,ages3 view ( philosophy 91 #h-i4 ,mill1 ,j4 ,s43 ! argum5t = o!r m9ds1 #acf-ach2 on p]man5t possibilities ( s5sation1 #bhi2 8 logic1 #cad4 ,m9d3 ! *ild's notion (1 #ajj2 reg>d$ z brea?1 #aja2 sugge/ions ( ,lat91 ,greek1 & ,hebrew words = m9d or s\l1 #aja2 mat]iali/ic views (1 9 ,greek philosophy1 #aja-ajb2 ,plato & ,ari/otle on nature (1 #ajb-ajc2 doctr9e ( ,plot9us1 #ajc2 ( ,cassiodorus1 #ajc2 ( ,augu/9e1 #ajd2 ( ,desc>tes1 #aje-ajf2 mod]n common s5se notions ( m9d1 #ajf-aaj2 m9d z sub/ance1 ,locke quot$1 #ajh-aji2 psy*ologi/'s notion (1 #aaj-aaa2 :at ! m9d is1 #aaa-aad2 place ( m9d 9 nature1 #aea-aed2 m9ds active1 #afb-afc2 see also1 ,m9d & ,body1 & ,o!r ,m9ds4 ,m9d & ,body3 is ! m9d 9 ! body1 #aae-aag2 pla9 man's notion (1 #aaf2 int]actionism1 #aag-aba2 doctr9e ( ,desc>tes & 8 successors1 #aai-abj2 pla9 man z int]actioni/1 #abj2 ,mc,cosh quot$1 #abj-aba2 objection to int]actionism1 #aba2 p>allelism1 #aba-abf2 its f\ndation 9 exp]i5ce1 #abc-abd2 mean+ ( ^w concomitance1 #abc-abe2 "t & place ( m5tal ph5om5a1 #abf-abi2 objections to p>allelism1 #abi-acb2 ,clif=d's p>allelism criticis$1 #acj2 m5tal ph5om5a & causality1 #abi2 d\ble s5se ( ^w concomitance1 #aca-acb2 m9d & ! me*anism ( ! _w1 #aea-aed2 me*anism & morals1 #aei-afd2 concomitant ph5om5a & atta9m5t ( ends1 #afb2 ref]5ces giv5 on o!r m9ds & m9d-/uff1 #cji2 see also1 ,o!r ,m9ds4 ,m9d-/uff3 see ,o!r ,m9ds4 ,m9ima ,s5sibilia3 #hg4 ,mod]n ,philosophy3 conception ( philosophy 91 #i-ab4 ,monism3 :at1 #aic-aid2 v>ieties (1 #aid-bjb2 n>r[] s5se ( ^w1 #aih-bjb4 ,moral ,di/9ctions3 _! f\ndation1 #aei-afd4 ,muirhead3 #cae4 ,nave ,realism3 #aha4 ,natural ,light3 t]m us$ by ,desc>tes1 #bjh4 ,natural ,realism3 see ,realism4 ,nature3 place ( m9d 91 #aea-aed2 ord] ( nature & free-w1 #aed-aei4 ,neo-,platonism3 ref]r$ to1 #h2 on ! s\l z immat]ial1 #ajc4 ,nihilism3 ^w us$ by ,hamilton1 #ahf4 ,n\m5a3 see ,ph5om5a4 ,objective ,idealism3 #ahi-aij2 ref]5ce to ,royce1 #caa4 ,objective ,ord]3 contra/$ ) ! subjective1 #ee4 ,ontology3 :at1 #cae4 ,ord]s ( ,exp]i5ce3 ! subjective & ! objective1 #ee2 see also1 #aad4 ,o!r ,m9ds3 _! exi/5ce1 #acc-acf2 ,fi*te ref]r$ to1 #acc2 ,ri*t] quot$1 #acc2 ,huxley & ,clif=d on pro( (1 #ace2 ! argum5t =1 #acf-adj2 ,mill quot$1 #acf-ach2 ,huxley criticis$1 #ach-adj2 :at m9ds are !re8 #adj-add2 ,desc>tes quot$1 #ada-adb2 ,malebran*e1 #adb2 ! limits ( psy*ic life1 #adb-add2 m9d-/uff1 #add-adf2 prop] attitude t[>d solipsism1 #bia4 ,outside3 mean+ ( ^w1 #ee4 ,panpsy*ism3 ! doctr9e1 #aih2 ref]5ces giv51 #caa4 ,pan!ism3 #bjb4 ,p>allelism3 see ,m9d & ,body4 ,pauls53 on nature ( philosophy1 #cje4 ,pe>son3 ! telephone ex*ange1 #ch ff42 on sci5tific pr9ciples & me?od1 #beh-bei2 ref]5ce giv51 #cjf4 ,peirce1 ,c4 ,s43 on pragmatism1 #bai-bbj4 ,p]ception3 see ,repres5tative ,p]ception4 ,ph5om5a & ,n\m5a3 ,kant's di/9ction betwe51 #agf-ahj4 ,philosophical ,sci5ces3 enum]at$1 #ac2 :y gr\p$ toge!r1 #ac-ag2 exam9$ 9 detail1 #bbc-bei4 ,philosophy3 mean+ ( ^w1 & hi/ory ( its use1 #a ff42 :at ! ^w n[ cov]s1 #ab-ag2 problems (1 #cb-afd2 hi/orical backgr\nd ( mod]n philosophy1 #afe-ahj2 types (1 #aha-bbb2 logic &1 #bbe-bbi2 psy*ology &1 #bcj-bcd2 e?ics &1 #bdj-bdb2 ae/hetics &1 #bdb-bdc2 metaphysics di/+ui%$ f1 #bdd-bde2 religion &1 #bej-bed2 ! non-philosophical sci5ces &1 #bee-bei2 utility (1 #bfc-bgb2 hi/ory (1 #bgc-bhg2 v]ification 91 #bgf-bgg2 z poetry & z sci5ce1 #bha-bhc2 h[ sy/ems arise1 #bhc-bhg2 practical admonitions1 #bhh-cjc2 au?ority 91 #bia-bif2 ord9>y rules ( evid5ce 91 #bif-bih4 ,physiological ,psy*ology3 :at x is1 #bcd4 ,p9eal ,gl&2 z seat ( ! s\l1 #aje4 ,place3 ( m5tal ph5om5a1 see ,space4 ,pla9 ,man3 8 k ( ! _w1 #ai-bj2 also1 #cb-cf2 8 k ( space1 #gc2 on m9d & body1 #ajf-aaj2 8 int]actionism1 #abj4 ,plants3 psy*ic life 91 #adc4 ,plato3 use ( ^w philosoph]1 #b2 scope ( 8 philosophy1 #f-g2 on ! s\l1 #ajb-ajc4 ,plot9us3 ! s\l z immat]ial1 #ajc4 ,pluralism & ,s+ul>ism3 describ$1 #bjd-bje4 ,poetry & ,philosophy3 #bha-bhc4 ,po9c>3 ref]r$ to1 #beh4 ,pragmatism3 ! doctr9e1 #bai-bbb2 see also1 #bif-bih1 #cjj-cjc1 & #cab-cad2 w to believe1 ref]5ces1 #caj1 #cab4 ,pres5t3 mean+ ( ! pres5t1 #ig-ii4 ,psy*ology3 psy*ological k *>act]iz$1 #be-bh2 attitude ( psy*ologi/ t[>d ext]nal _w1 #cf-ch2 t[>d m9d1 #aaj-aaa2 philosophy &1 #bcj-bcd2 d\ble affiliation (1 #bcd-bce2 utility (1 #bfh-bfi2 metaphysics &1 #cac2 rational1 #cae4 ,ptolemaic ,sy/em2 #bhb4 ,py?agoras3 ! ^w philosoph]1 #b4 ,py?agoreans3 _! doctr9e1 #d4 ,qualities ( ,?+s3 contra/$ ) s5sations1 #ea-ef4 ,rational ,cosmology3 #cae4 ,rationalism3 ! doctr9e1 #bjf-bji4 ,rational ,psy*ology3 #cae4 ,real3 see ,reality4 ,realism3 hypo!tical realism1 #afh2 natural realism1 #agd2 g5]al discussion ( realism & its v>ieties1 #aha-ahg2 ambiguity ( ! ^w1 #ahf-ahg4 ,reality3 contra/$ ) appe>ance1 #ce2 9 psy*ology1 #cf-ch2 ! telephone ex*ange &1 #ch ff42 ?+s & _! appe>ances1 #ei-fa2 real ?+s1 #fa-fc2 ultimate real ?+s1 #fc-fh2 ! ,unkn[able z ,reality1 #fh-gb2 real space1 #hj-hg2 real "t1 #ic-ii2 sub/ance z reality1 #aaa2 real & app>5t ext5sion1 #aac-aad2 measurem5t ( app>5t "t1 #abh2 ,bradley's doctr9e ( reality1 #aia-aib2 ,clif=d's panpsy*ism & reality1 #aig-aih4 ,reflective ,?\ght3 its nature1 #bh-ca4 ,reid1 ,?omas3 doctr9e ( common s5se1 #aga-agd2 ref]5ces1 #caj4 ,religion3 philosophy &1 #bej-bed2 conceptions ( ,god1 #beb-bec2 ,god & ! _w1 #bec-bed2 see ,god4 ,repres5tative ,p]ception3 pla9 man's position1 #cb-cf2 ! psy*ologi/1 #cf-ch2 telephone ex*ange doctr9e1 #ch-dd2 ! true di/9ction betwe5 s5sations & ?+s1 #de-eh2 ! doctr9e (1 #afe-afh2 ,desc>tes & ,locke quot$1 #afe-afh4 ,ri*t]1 ,jean ,paul3 on ! solipsi/1 #acc4 ,royce3 an objective ideali/1 #caa2 a moni/1 #cab4 ,s*ell+3 attitude t[>d natural philosophy1 #aj4 ,s*ill]3 on ,humanism1 #cab-cac4 ,s*ools3 9 philosophy1 #bia-bif4 ,sci5ce3 philosophy & ! special sci5ces1 #ab-ag2 ! philosophical sci5ces1 #ac ff42 nature ( sci5tific k1 #ba-bh2 comp>$ ) reflective ?\ght1 #bi-ca2 sci5ce & ! _w z me*anism1 #adh2 ! cons]vation ( en]gy1 #aea-aed2 philosophical sci5ces exam9$ 9 detail1 #bbc-bei2 sci5ce & metaphysical analysis1 #bdf-bdg2 ! non-philosophical sci5ces & philosophy1 #bee-bei2 /udy ( sci5tific pr9ciples1 #bef-bei2 v]ification 9 sci5ce & 9 philosophy1 #bge-bgg2 philosophy z sci5ce1 #bha-bhc4 ,sci5tific ,k3 see ,sci5ce4 ,s5sations3 k ( ?+s ?r\gh1 #cc-dd2 s5se & imag9ation contra/$1 #de-di2 are ?+s gr\ps (1 #di-ea2 di/9ction betwe5 ?+s &1 #ea-ef2 use ( ! ^w 9 ?is volume & 9 ! ,sy/em ( ,metaphysics1 #cjf-cjg4 ,sidgwick3 on ,kant1 #caa4 ,sigw>t3 #cad4 ,s+ul>ism & ,pluralism3 describ$1 #bjd-bje4 ,skeptics3 _! view ( philosophy1 #g-h2 _! d\bt ( reality1 #ei2 ,hume's skepticism1 #aga4 ,socrates3 use ( words philosoph] & philosophy1 #b2 attitude t[>d sophism1 #f4 ,solipsism3 see ,o!r ,m9ds4 ,solon3 #a4 ,sophi/s3 *>act]iz$1 #f4 ,s\l3 see ,m9d4 ,space3 pla9 man's k (1 #gc2 said to be necess>y1 inf9ite & inf9itely divisible1 #gc-gd2 discussion ( x z necess>y & z inf9ite1 #gd-gg2 ,kant1 ,hamilton1 & ,sp5c] quot$1 #ge-gg2 z inf9itely divisible1 ! mov+ po9t1 #gg-hj2 ,clif=d quot$1 #gi-hj2 real space & app>5t1 #hj-hg2 matt] & =m1 #hb-hd2 ext5sion ( imag9>y ?+s1 #aac2 place ( m5tal ph5om5a1 #aae-aag1 also1 #abf-abi4 ,sp5c]1 ,h]b]t3 8 def9ition ( philosophy1 #aa2 8 "w criticis$1 #aa-ab2 on ! ,unkn[able z ultimate ,reality1 #fi-gj2 ,sp5c] z natural reali/1 #agd2 influ5c$ by ,kant's doctr9e1 #agf2 8 inconsi/5t doctr9e ( ! ext]nal _w1 #ahc-ahd2 defective logic1 #bbh2 influ5ce ( agno/icism1 #bga2 ref]5ces giv51 #cjg1 #caa4 ,sp9oza3 8 a priori me?od1 #aj2 on ,god or sub/ance1 #aii2 8 rationalism1 #bjh2 8 p>allelism1 #cjh2 ref]5ces1 #caa-cab4 ,spiritualism3 ! doctr9e1 #aig-aih4 ,/oics3 _! view ( philosophy1 #g-h2 _! mat]ialism1 #ajb4 ,/rong3 on o!r m9ds1 #bji2 ref]5ces to1 #cji1 #caa4 ,subjective ,idealism3 #ahg-ahh4 ,subjective ,ord]3 contra/$ ) objective1 #ee4 ,sub/ance3 mean+ ( ^w1 #ajh2 ,locke on1 #ajh2 m9d z sub/ance1 #aaa-aab2 doctr9e ( ! ,"o ,sub/ance1 #aih-bjb4 ,syn!tic ,judgm5ts3 def9$1 #agi4 ,sy/ems ( ,philosophy3 _! relations to ea* o!r1 #bhc-bhg4 ,taylor3 on o!r m9ds1 #cji4 ,teleology3 :at1 #afc2 ref]5ce1 #caj4 ,telephone ,ex*ange3 doctr9e ( ! ext]nal _w z messages1 #ch-dd4 ,?ales3 8 doctr9e1 #c4 ,!ism3 see ,god4 ,!ory ( ,k3 see ,epi/emology4 ,?+s3 our k (1 #ah-bc2 contra/ ( ideas &1 #cc-cf2 same contra/ 9 psy*ology1 #cf-ch2 s5sations & ?+s1 #de ff42 exi/5ce (1 #ef-eh2 contra/$ ) appe>ances1 #ei ff42 real ?+s1 #fa ff42 ! space ( real ?+s1 #hj-hg4 ,?omas ,aqu9as3 scope ( 8 labors1 #i4 ,"t3 z necess>y1 inf9ite1 & inf9itely divisible1 #hh-ij2 problem ( kn[+ pa/1 pres5t1 & future1 #ij-ic2 ,augu/9e quot$1 #ij-ia2 timeless self criticis$1 #ib-ic2 real "t & app>5t1 #ic-ii2 real "t z necess>y1 inf9ite1 & inf9itely divisible1 #ie-ig2 consci\sness ( "t1 #ig-ii2 m5tal ph5om5a & "t1 #abf-abi4 ,timeless ,self3 #ib-ic4 ,t\*3 ! real _w reveal$ 9 exp]i5ces (1 #fa-fc4 ,tru?3 pragmatism &1 #bai-bbb & #cab-cad2 ,:ewell on v]acity1 #bch-bci2 crit]ion ( tru? 9 philosophy1 #bif-bih2 also1 #cjj-cjc4 ,ueb]weg3 #cje1 #caa4 ,ultimate ,reality3 see ,reality4 ,unkn[able3 z ,reality1 #fh-gb2 see ,sp5c]4 ,utility3 ( lib]al /udies1 #bfj-bfc2 ( philosophy1 #cfc-bgb4 ,v]ification3 9 sci5ce & 9 philosophy1 #bge-bgg4 ,w>d1 ,james3 on concepts ( me*anics1 #adh4 ,weltwei%eit3 philosophy z1 #ab4 ,:ewell3 8 common s5se e?ics1 #bcf-bdj2 ref]r$ to1 #cae4 ,w3 see ,free-w4 ,w to ,believe3 see ,pragmatism4 ,w9delb&3 #cje4 ,wolff1 ,*ri/ian3 def9ition ( philosophy1 #aj4 ,_w3 see ,ext]nal ,_w4 ,wundt3 e?ics ref]r$ to1 #cae4