,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #fbj ,,new ,,york1 ,,november #ah1 #aiig ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xxiv41 ,no4 #fbj4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,i4 ,,architecture--,bristol ,cathedral--,the history and description of this ancient building1 with large illustration4--#a illustration4 #iijd ,,ii4 ,,biography--,oliver ,evans and the ,steam ,engine4--,the work of this early pioneer1 hitherto but slightly recognized at his true worth as an inventor4 #ihif ,,iii4 ,,chemistry--,the ,chemistry of the ,cotton ,fiber--,by ,dr4 ,,bowman--,an interesting investigation1 showing the variation in composition in different cottons4 #iiji ,synthesis of ,styrolene4 #iiaj ,notes on ,saccharin4 #iiaj ,alcohol and ,turpentine4 #iiaj ,,iv4 ,,engineering--,auguste's ,endless ,stone ,saw--,a valuable improvement1 introducing the principle of the band saw1 and producing a horizontal cut--#aj illustrations4 #ihif ,v4 ,,electricity4--,a ,current ,meter--,the ,jehl ,rupp meter for electricity described--#a illustration4 #iijc ,mix ,genest's ,microphone ,telephone--,the new telephone recently adopted by the imperial post office department of ,germany--#c illustrations4 #iijb ,storage ,batteries for ,electric ,locomotion--,by ,a4 ,,reckenzaun--,a valuable paper on this subject1 giving historical facts and working figures of expense1 etc4 #iijc ,the ,telemeter ,system--,by ,r4,f4 ,,upton--,the system of 4,l4 ,clarke1 of ,new ,york1 as described before the ,british ,association--,a valuable tribute to an ,american inventor--#a illustration4 #iijj ,,vi4 ,,metallurgy4--,the ,newbery-,vautin ,chlorination ,process--,a new process of extracting gold from its ores1 with details of the management of the process and apparatus--#a illustration4 #iijg ,,vii4 ,,miscellaneous4--,a ,gigantic ,load of ,lumber--,the largest barge load of lumber ever shipped--,the barge ,wahnapit and her appearance as loaded at ,duluth--#a illustration4 #iijg ,apparatus for ,exercising the ,muscles--,an appliance for use by invalids requiring to exercise atrophied limbs--#a illustration4 #iijh ,practical ,education4--,a plea for the support of manual training schools4 #iijf ,waves--,the subject of ocean waves fully treated--,an interesting resume of our present knowledge of this phenomenon of fluids4 #iijf ,,viii4 ,,naval ,,engineering--,the ,new ,spanish ,armored ,cruiser ,reina ,regente4--,illustration and full description of this recent addition to the ,spanish navy4--#a illustration4 #ihie ,the ,spanish ,torpedo ,boat ,azor--,illustration and note of speed1 etc41 of this new vessel--#a illustration4 #ihie ,,ix4 ,,ophthalmology--,the ,bull ,optometer--,an apparatus for testing the eyesight4--,the invention of ,dr ,george ,j4 ,bull4--#c illustrations4 #iijh ,x4 ,,sanitation ,,and ,,hygiene--,the ,sanitation of ,towns--,by ,j4 ,,gordon1 ,c4,e4--,a presidential address before the ,leicester meeting of the ,society of ,municipal and ,sanitary ,engineers and ,surveyors of ,england4 #iiji ,,xi4 ,,technology--,a ,new ,monster ,revolving ,black ,ash ,furnace and the ,work ,done with ,it--,by ,,watson ,,smith--,the great furnace of the ,widnes ,alkali ,company described1 with results and features of its working--#d illustrations4 #iijj ,apparatus ,used for ,making ,alcohol for ,hospital ,use during the ,civil ,war between the ,states--,by ,,charles ,k4 ,,gallagher--,a curiosity of war times described and illustrated4--#a illustration4 #iijj ,confederate ,apparatus for ,manufacturing ,saltpeter for ,ammunition --,by ,,charles ,k4 ,,gallagher--,primitive process for extracting saltpeter from earth and other material--#a illustration4 #iijj ,electrolysis and ,refining of ,sugar--,a method of bleaching sugar said to be due to ozone produced by electric currents acting on the solution--#a illustration4 #iijc ,improvements in the ,manufacture of ,portland ,cement--,by ,,frederick ,,ransome1 ,a4,i4,c4,e4--,an important paper recently read before the ,british ,association1 giving the last and most advanced methods of manufacture4 #iija ,roburite1 the ,new ,explosive--,practical tests of this substance1 with special application to coal mining4 #ihig ,the ,mechanical ,reeling of ,silk4--,an advanced method of treating silk cocoons1 designed to dispense with the old hand winding of the raw silk4--#c illustrations4 #ihih 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,spanish ,,torpedo ,,boat ,,azor4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,spanish ,,torpedo ,,boat ,,azor4 ,the ,azor was built by ,yarrow ,co41 ,london1 is of the larger class1 having a displacement of #abj tons1 and is one of the fastest boats afloat4 ,her speed is #bd miles per hour4 ,she has two tubes for launching torpedoes and three rapid firing ,nordenfelt guns4 ,she lately arrived in ,santander1 ,spain1 after the very rapid passage of forty hours from ,england4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,new ,,spanish ,,armored ,,cruiser ,,reina ,,regente4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,new ,,spanish ,,armored ,,cruiser ,,reina ,,regente4 ,the new armored cruiser ,reina ,regente1 which has been built and engined by ,messrs4 ,james ,george ,thomson1 of ,clydebank1 for the ,spanish government1 has recently completed her official speed trials on the ,clyde1 the results attained being sufficient to justify the statement made on her behalf that she is the fastest war cruiser in the world4 ,she is a vessel of considerable size1 the following being her measurements3 ,length over all1 #ccj ft41 and #cjg ft4 between perpendiculars2 breadth1 #ej ft42 and her draught is #bj ft41 giving a displacement of #e1jjj tons1 which will be increased to #e1fjj tons when she is fully equipped4 ,this vessel belongs to the internally protected type of war cruisers1 a type of recent origin1 and of which she is the largest example yet built4 ,the internal protection includes an armored deck which consists of steel plates ranging from #c-a_/h in4 in thickness in the flat center to #d in4 at the sloping sides of the deck4 ,this protective deck covers the vitals of the ship1 the machinery1 boilers1 etc4 ,then there is a very minute subdivision in the hull of the ship1 there being1 in all1 #aef water-tight compartments1 #hc of which are between the armored deck and the one immediately above it1 or between wind and water4 ,most of these compartments are used as coal bunkers4 ,of the remainder of the water-tight compartments1 #fj are beneath the armor4 ,throughout her whole length the ,reina ,regente has a double bottom1 which also extends from side to side of the ship4 ,in order to keep the vessel as free of water as possible1 there have been fitted on board four #ad in4 centrifugal pumps1 all of which are connected to a main pipe running right fore and aft in the ship1 and into which branches are received from every compartment4 ,these pumps are of the ,bon ,accord type1 and were supplied by ,messrs4 ,drysdale ,co41 ,glasgow4 ,not being weighted by massive external armor1 the ,reina ,regente is unusually light in proportion to her bulk1 and in consequence it has been rendered possible to supply her with engines of extraordinary power4 ,they are of the horizontal triple expansion type1 driving twin screws1 and placed in separate water-tight compartments4 ,the boilers1 four in number1 are also in separate compartments4 ,well above the water line there are two auxiliary boilers1 which were supplied by ,messrs4 ,merryweather1 ,london1 and are intended for raising steam rapidly in cases of emergency4 ,these boilers are connected with all the auxiliary engines of the ship1 numbering no fewer than forty-three4 ,the engines have been designed to indicate #ab1jjj horse power1 and on the trial1 when they were making #aaj revolutions per minute1 they indicated considerably upward of #aa1jjj horse power1 the bearings all the while keeping wonderfully cool1 and the temperature of the engine and boiler rooms being never excessive4 ,the boilers are fitted with a forced draught arrangement giving a pressure of #a in4 of water4 ,in the official run she attained a speed equal to #ba knots 7over #bd miles7 per hour1 and over a period of four hours an average speed of #bj4gb knots per hour was developed1 without the full power of the engines being attained4 ,the average steam pressure in the boilers was #adj lb4 per square inch4 ,in the course of some private trials made by the builders1 the consumption of coal was tested1 with the result that while the vessel was going at a moderate speed the very low consumption of #ad lb4 of coal per indicated horse power per hour was reached4 ,the vessel is capable of steaming #f1jjj knots when there is a normal supply of coal in her bunkers1 and when they are full there is sufficient to enable her to steam #ac1jjj knots4 ,the ,reina ,regente will be manned by #ej officers and a crew of #cej men1 all of whom will have their quarters on the main deck4 ,among her fittings and equipment there are three steam lifeboats and eight other boats1 five of ,sir ,william ,thomson's patent compasses1 and a complete electric light installation1 the latter including two powerful search lights1 which are placed on the bridge4 ,all parts of the vessel are in communication by means of speaking tubes4 ,in order to enable the vessel to turn speedily1 she is fitted with the sternway rudder of ,messrs4 ,thomson ,biles4 ,this contrivance is a combination of a partially balanced rudder with a rudder formed as a continuation of the after lines of a ship4 ,the partial balance tends to reduce the strains on the steering gear1 and thereby enables the rudder area to be increased without unduly straining the gear4 ,when fitted out for actual service1 this novel war cruiser will have a most formidable armament1 consisting of four #bd centimeter ,hontorio guns 7each of #ba tons71 six #ab centimeter guns 7also of the ,hontorio type71 six #f pounder ,nordenfelt guns1 fourteen small guns1 and five torpedo tubes--one at the stern1 two amidships1 and two at the bow of the ship4 ,it is worthy of note that this war cruiser was constructed in fifteen months1 or three months under the stipulated contract time2 in fact1 the official trial of the vessel took place exactly eighteen months from the signing of the contract4 ,not only is this the fastest war cruiser afloat1 but her owners also possess in the ,el ,destructor what is probably the simplest torpedo catcher afloat1 a vessel which has attained a speed of #bb knots1 or over #bf miles1 per hour4 --,engineering4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,oliver ,,evans ,,and ,,the ,,steam ,,engine4 ,a correspondent of the ,new ,york ,times1 deeming that far too much credit has been given to foreigners for the practical development of the steam engine1 contributes the following interesting resume3 ,of all the inventions of ancient or modern times none have more importantly and beneficently influenced the affairs of mankind than the double acting high pressure steam engine1 the locomotive1 the steam railway system1 and the steamboat1 all of which inventions are of ,american origin4 ,the first three are directly and the last indirectly associated with a patent that was granted by the ,state of ,maryland1 in #aghg1 being the very year of the framing of the ,constitution of the ,united ,states4 ,in view of the momentous nature of the services which these four inventions have rendered to the material and national interests of the people of the ,united ,states1 it is to be hoped that neither they nor their origin will be forgotten in the coming celebration of the centennial of the framing of the ,constitution4 ,the high pressure steam engine in its stationary form is almost ubiquitous in ,america4 ,in all great iron and steel works1 in all factories1 in all plants for lighting cities with electricity1 in brief1 wherever in the ,united ,states great power in compact form is wanted1 there will be found the high pressure steam engine furnishing all the power that is required1 and more1 too1 if more is demanded1 because it appears to be equal to every human requisition4 ,but go beyond ,america4 ,go to ,great ,britain1 and the ,american steam engine--although it is not termed ,american in ,great ,britain--will be found fast superseding the ,english engine--in other words1 ,james ,watt's condensing engine4 ,it is the same the world over4 ,on all the earth there is not a steam locomotive that could turn a wheel but for the fact that1 in common with every locomotive from the earliest introduction of that invention1 it is simply the ,american steam engine put on wheels1 and it was first put on wheels by its ,american inventor1 ,oliver ,evans1 being the same ,oliver ,evans to whom the ,state of ,maryland granted the before mentioned patent of #aghg4 ,he is the same ,oliver ,evans whom ,elijah ,galloway1 the ,british writer on the steam engine1 compared with ,james ,watt as to the authorship of the locomotive1 or rather steam carriage1 as the locomotive was in those days termed4 ,after showing the unfitness of ,mr4 ,watt's low pressure steam engine for locomotive purposes1 ,mr4 ,galloway1 more than fifty years ago1 wrote3 ,we have made these remarks in this place in order to set at rest the title of ,mr4 ,watt to the invention of steam carriages4 ,and1 taking for our rule that the party who first attempted them in practice by mechanical arrangements of his own is entitled to the reputation of being their inventor1 ,mr4 ,oliver ,evans1 of ,america1 appears to us to be the person to whom that honor is due4 ,he is the same ,oliver ,evans whom the ,mechanics' ,magazine1 of ,london1 the leading journal of its kind at that period1 had in mind when1 in its number of ,september1 #ahcj1 it published the official report of the competitive trial between the steam carriages ,rocket1 ,san ,pariel1 ,novelty1 and others on the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway4 ,in that trial the company's engines developed about #ae miles in an hour1 and spurts of still higher speed4 ,the ,magazine points to the results of the trial1 and then1 under the heading of ,the ,first ,projector of ,steam ,traveling1 it declares that all that had been accomplished had been anticipated and its feasibility practically exemplified over a quarter of a century before by ,oliver ,evans1 an ,american citizen4 ,the ,magazine showed that many years before the trial ,mr4 ,evans had offered to furnish steam carriages that1 on level railways1 should run at the rate of #cjj miles in a day1 or he would not ask pay therefor4 ,the writer will state that this offer by ,mr4 ,evans was made in ,november1 #ahab1 at which date not a ,british steam carriage had yet accomplished seven miles in an hour4 ,in #ahji ,mr4 ,evans endeavored to establish a steam railway both for freight and passenger traffic between ,new ,york and ,philadelphia1 offering to invest #ejj per mile in the enterprise4 ,at the date of his effort there was not a railway in the world over ten miles long1 nor does there appear to have been another human being who up to that date had entertained even the thought of a steam railway for passenger and freight traffic4 ,in view of all this1 is it at all surprising that the ,british ,mechanics' ,magazine declared ,oliver ,evans1 an ,american1 to be the first projector of steam railway traveling8 ,in #ahjd ,mr4 ,evans made a most noteworthy demonstration1 his object being to practically exemplify that locomotion could be imparted by his high pressure steam engine to both carriages and boats1 and the reader will see that the date of the demonstration was three years before ,fulton moved a boat by means of ,watt's low pressure steam engine4 ,the machine used involved the original double acting high pressure steam engine1 the original steam locomotive1 and the original high pressure steamboat4 ,the whole mass weighed over twenty tons4 ,notwithstanding there was no railway1 except a temporary one laid over a slough in the path1 ,mr4 ,evans' engine moved this great weight with ease from the southeast corner of ,ninth and ,market streets1 in the city of ,philadelphia1 one and a half miles1 to the ,river ,schuylkill4 ,there the machine was launched into the river1 and the land wheels being taken off and a paddle wheel attached to the stern and connected with the engine1 the now steamboat sped away down the river until it emptied into the ,delaware1 whence it turned upward until it reached ,philadelphia4 ,although this strange craft was square both at bow and stern1 it nevertheless passed all the up-bound ships and other sailing vessels in the river1 the wind being to them ahead4 ,the writer repeats that this thorough demonstration by ,oliver ,evans of the possibility of navigation by steam was made three years before ,fulton4 ,but for more than a quarter of a century prior to this demonstration ,mr4 ,evans had time and again asserted that vessels could be thus navigated4 ,he did not contend with ,john ,fitch1 but on the contrary tried to aid him and advised him to use other means than oars to propel his boat4 ,but ,fitch was wedded to his own methods4 ,in #ahje ,mr4 ,evans published a book on the steam engine1 mainly devoted to his form thereof4 ,in this book he gives directions how to propel boats by means of his engine against the current of the ,mississippi4 ,prior to this publication he associated himself with some citizens of ,kentucky--one of whom was the grandfather of the present ,gen4 ,chauncey ,mc,keever1 ,united ,states ,army--the purpose being to build a steamboat to run on the ,mississippi4 ,the boat was actually built in ,kentucky and floated to ,new ,orleans4 ,the engine was actually built in ,philadelphia by ,mr4 ,evans and sent to ,new ,orleans1 but before the engine arrived out the boat was destroyed by fire or hurricane4 ,the engine was then put to sawing timber1 and it operated so successfully that ,mr4 ,stackhouse1 the engineer who went out with it1 reported on his return from the ,south that for the #ac months prior to his leaving the engine had been constantly at work1 not having lost a single day6 ,the reader can thus see the high stage of efficiency which ,oliver ,evans had imparted to his engine full #hj years ago4 ,on this point ,dr4 ,ernst ,alban1 the ,german writer on the steam engine1 when speaking of the high pressure steam engine1 writes3 ,indeed1 to such perfection did he ,evans bring it1 that ,trevithick and ,vivian1 who came after him1 followed but clumsily in his wake1 and do not deserve the title of either inventors or improvers of the high pressure engine1 which the ,english are so anxious to award to them4444 ,when it is considered under what unfavorable circumstances ,oliver ,evans worked1 his merit must be much enhanced2 and all attempts made to lessen his fame only show that he is neither understood nor equaled by his detractors4 ,the writer has already shown that there are bright exceptions to this general charge brought by ,dr4 ,alban against ,british writers1 but the overwhelming mass of them have acted more like envious children than like men when speaking of the authorship of the double acting high pressure steam engine1 the locomotive1 and the steam railway system4 ,speaking of this class of ,british writers1 ,prof4 ,renwick1 when alluding to their treatment of ,oliver ,evans1 writes3 ,conflicting national pride comes in aid of individual jealousy1 and the writers of one nation often claim for their own vain and inefficient projectors the honors due to the successful enterprise of a foreigner4 ,many of these writers totally ignore the very existence of ,oliver ,evans1 and all of them attribute to ,trevithick and ,vivian the authorship of the high pressure steam engine and the locomotive4 ,yet1 when doing so1 all of them substantially acknowledge the ,american origin of both inventions1 because it is morally certain that ,trevithick and ,vivian got possession of the plans and specifications of his engine4 ,oliver ,evans sent them to ,england in #agid-e by ,mr4 ,joseph ,stacy ,sampson1 of ,boston1 with the hope that some ,british engineer would approve and conjointly with him take out patents for the inventions4 ,mr4 ,sampson died in ,england1 but not until after he had extensively exhibited ,mr4 ,evans' plans1 apparently1 however1 without success4 ,after ,mr4 ,sampson's death ,trevithick and ,vivian took out a patent for a high pressure steam engine4 ,this could happen and yet the invention be original with them4 ,but they introduced into ,cornwall a form of boiler hitherto unknown in ,great ,britain1 namely1 the cylindrical flue boiler1 which ,oliver ,evans had invented and used in ,america years before the names of ,trevithick and ,vivian were associated with the steam engine4 ,hence1 they were charged over fifty years ago with having stolen the invention of ,mr4 ,evans1 and the charge has never been refuted4 ,hence when ,british writers ignore the just claims of ,oliver ,evans and assert for ,trevithick and ,vivian the authorship of the high pressure steam engine and the locomotive1 they thereby substantially acknowledge the ,american origin of both inventions4 ,they are not only of ,american origin1 but their author1 although born in #agee1 was nevertheless an ,american of the second generation1 seeing that he was descended from the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,evans ,evans1 who in the earlier days of the colony of ,pennsylvania came out to take charge of the affairs of the ,episcopal ,church in ,pennsylvania4 ,the writer has thus shown that with the patent granted by the ,state of ,maryland to ,oliver ,evans in #aghg were associated--first1 the double acting high pressure steam engine1 which to-day is the standard steam engine of the world2 second1 the locomotive1 that is in worldwide use2 third1 the steam railway system1 which pervades the world2 fourth1 the high pressure steamboat1 which term embraces all the great ocean steamships that are actuated by the compound steam engine1 as well as all the steamships on the ,mississippi and its branches4 ,the time and opportunity has now arrived to assert before all the world the ,american origin of these universally beneficent inventions4 ,such a demonstration should be made1 if only for the instruction of the rising generation4 ,not a school book has fallen into the hands of the writer that correctly sets forth the origin of the subject matter of this paper4 ,he apprehends that it is the same with the books used in colleges and universities1 for otherwise how could that parody on the history of the locomotive1 called ,the ,life of ,george ,stephenson1 ,railway ,engineer1 by ,samuel ,smiles1 have met such unbounded success8 ,to the amazement of the writer1 a learned professor in one of the most important institutions of learning in the country did1 in a lecture1 quote ,smiles as authority on a point bearing on the history of the locomotive6 ,it is true that he made amends by adding1 when his lecture was published1 a counter statement2 but that such a man should have seriously cited such a work shows the widespread mischief done among people not versed in engineering lore by the admirably written romance of ,smiles1 who as ,edward ,c4 ,knight1 in his ,mechanical ,dictionary1 truly declares1 has pettifogged the whole case4 ,if1 as ,prof4 ,renwick intimates1 conflicting national pride has led the major part of ,british writers to suppress the truth as to the origin of the high pressure steam engine1 the locomotive1 and the steam railway system1 surely true national pride should induce the countrymen of ,oliver ,evans to assert it4 ,in closing this paper the writer will say1 for the information of the so-called practical men of the country1 or1 in other words1 those men whose judgment of an invention is mainly guided by its money value1 that ,poor's ,manual of ,railroads in the ,united ,states for #ahhf puts their capital stock and their debts at over #h1afb1jjj1jjj4 ,the value of the steamships and steamboats actuated by the high pressure steam engine the writer has no means of ascertaining4 ,neither can he appraise the factories and other plants in the ,united ,states--to say nothing of the rest of the world--in which the high pressure steam engine forms the motive power4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,auguste',s ,,endless ,,stone ,,saw4 ,it does not seem as if the band or endless saw should render the same services in sawing stone as in working wood and metals1 for the reason that quite a great stress is necessary to cause the advance of the stone 7which is in most cases very heavy7 against the blade4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,auguste1 however1 has not stopped at such a consideration1 or1 better1 he has got round the difficulty by holding the block stationary and making the blade act horizontally4 ,fig4 #a gives a general view of the apparatus2 ,fig4 #b gives a plan view2 ,fig4 #c is a transverse section2 ,fig4 #d is an end view2 ,figs4 #e1 #f1 and #g show details of the water and sand distributer2 and ,figs4 #h1 #i1 and #aj show the pulleys arranged for obtaining several slabs at once4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a ,,auguste',s ,,stone ,,saw4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b ,,auguste',s ,,stone ,,saw4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #c and #d ,,auguste',s ,,stone ,,saw4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #e through #aj ,,auguste',s ,,stone ,,saw4 ,the machine is wholly of cast iron4 ,the frame consists of four columns1 ,a1 bolted to a rectangular bed plate1 ,a'1 and connected above by a frame1 ,b1 that forms a table for the support of the transmission pieces1 as well as the iron ladders1 a1 and the platform1 b1 that supports the water reservoirs1 ,c1 and sand receptacles1 ,c'4 ,between the two columns at the ends of the machine there are two crosspieces1 ,d and ,d'1 so arranged that they can move vertically1 like carriages4 ,these pieces carry the axles of the pulleys1 ,p and ,p'1 around which the band saw1 ,s1 passes4 ,in the center of the bed plate1 ,a'1 which is cast in two pieces connected by bolts1 there are ties to which are screwed iron rails1 e1 which form a railway over which the platform car1 ,e1 carrying the stone is made to advance beneath the saw4 ,the saw consists of an endless band of steel1 either smooth or provided with teeth that are spaced according to the nature of the material to be worked4 ,it passes around the pulleys1 ,p and ,p'1 which are each encircled by a wide and stout band of rubber to cause the blade to adhere1 and which are likewise provided with two flanges4 ,of the latter1 the upper one is cast in a piece with the pulley1 and the lower one is formed of sections of a circle connected by screws4 ,the pulley1 ,p1 is fast1 and carries along the saw2 the other1 ,p'1 is loose1 and its hub is provided with a bronze socket 7,figs4 #a and #d74 ,it is through this second pulley that the blade is given the desired tension1 and to this effect its axle is forged with a small disk adjusted in a frame and traversed by a screw1 d'1 which is maneuvered through a hand wheel4 ,the extremities of the crosspieces1 ,d and ,d'1 are provided with brass sockets through which the pieces slide up and down the columns1 with slight friction1 under the action of the vertical screws1 g and g'1 within the columns4 ,a rotary motion is communicated to the four screws simultaneously by the transmission arranged upon the frame4 ,to this effect1 the pulley1 ,p1 which receives the motion and transmits it to the saw1 has its axle1 f1 prolonged1 and grooved throughout its length in order that it may always be carried along1 whatever be the place it occupies1 by the hollow shaft1 ,f1 which is provided at the upper extremity with a bevel wheel and two keys placed at the level of the bronze collars of its support1 ,g4 ,the slider1 ,d1 is cast in a piece with the pillow block that supports the shaft1 f1 and the bronze bushing of this pillow block is arranged to receive a shoulder and an annular projection1 both forged with the shaft and designed to carry it1 as well as the pulley1 ,p1 keyed to its extremity4 ,now the latter1 by its weight1 exerts a pressure which determines a sensible friction upon the bushing through this shoulder and projection1 and1 in order to diminish the same1 the bushing is continuously moistened with a solution of soap and water through the pipe1 g1 which runs from the reservoir1 ,g'4 ,the saw is kept from deviating from its course by movable guides placed on the sliders1 ,d and ,d'4 ,these guides1 ,h and ,h'1 each consist of a cast iron box fixed by a nut to the extremity of the arms1 h and h'1 and coupled by crosspieces1 j and j'1 which keep them apart and give the guides the necessary rigidity4 ,the shaft1 m1 mounted in pillow blocks fixed to the left extremity of the frame1 receives motion from the motor through the pulley1 p1 at the side of which is mounted the loose pulley1 p4 ,this motion is transmitted by the drum1 ,m1 and the pulley1 ,l1 to the shaft1 l1 at the other extremity4 ,this latter is provided with a pinion1 l'1 which1 through the wheel1 ,f'1 gives motion to the saw4 ,the shaft1 m1 likewise controls the upward or downward motion of the saw through the small drums1 ,n and n1 and the two pairs of fast and loose pulleys1 ,n' and n'4 ,this shaft1 too1 transmits motion 7a very slow one7 to the four screws1 g and g'1 in the interior of the columns1 and the nuts of which are affixed to the sliders1 ,d and ,d'4 ,to this effect1 the shaft1 q1 is provided at its extremities with endless screws that gear with two wheels1 q'1 with helicoidal teeth fixed near the middle of two parallel axes1 r1 running above the table1 ,b1 and terminating in bevel wheels1 r'1 that engage with similar wheels fixed at the end of the screws1 g and g'4 ,the car that carries the block to the saw consists of a strong frame1 ,e1 mounted upon four wheels4 ,this frame is provided with a pivot and a circular track for the reception of the cast iron platform1 ,e'1 which rests thereon through the intermedium of rollers4 ,between the rails1 e1 and parallel with them1 are fixed two strong screws1 e'1 held by supports that raise them to the bottom of the car frame1 so that they can be affixed thereto4 ,when once the car is fastened in this way1 the screws are revolved by means of winches1 and the block is thus made to advance or recede a sufficient distance to make the lines marked on its surface come exactly opposite the saw blade4 ,in sawing hard stones1 it is necessary1 as well known1 to keep up a flow of water and fine sand upon the blade in order to increase its friction4 ,upon two platforms1 b1 at the extremities of the machine1 are fixed the water reservoir1 ,c1 and the receptacles1 ,c'1 containing fine sand or dry pulverized grit stone4 ,as may be seen from ,figs4 #e and #f1 the bottom of the sand box1 ,c'1 is conical and terminates in a hopper1 ,t1 beneath which is adjusted a slide valve1 t1 connected with a screw that carries a pulley1 ,t'4 ,by means of this valve1 the bottom of the hopper may be opened or closed in such a way as to regulate the flow of the sand at will by acting upon the pulley1 ,t'1 through a chain1 t'1 passing over the guide pulley1 t4 ,a rubber tube1 u1 which starts from the hopper1 runs into a metal pipe1 ,u1 that descends to the guide1 ,h1 with which it is connected by a collar4 ,under the latter1 this pipe terminates in a sphere containing a small aperture to allow the sand to escape upon an inclined board provided with a flange4 ,at the same time1 through the rubber tube1 c1 coming from the reservoir1 ,c1 a stream of water is directed upon the board in order to wet the sand4 ,as the apparatus with but a single endless saw makes but two kerfs at once1 ,mr4 ,auguste has devised an arrangement by means of which several blades may be used1 and the work thus be expedited4 ,without changing the general arrangements1 he replaces the pulleys1 ,p and ,p'1 by two half drums1 ,v and ,v' 7,figs4 #h1 #i1 and #aj71 which are each cast in a piece with the crosspieces1 ,d and ,d1 designed to replace ,d and ,d'1 and1 like them1 sliding up and down the columns1 ,a1 of the frame4 ,motion is transmitted to all the saw blades by a cog wheel1 ,x1 keyed to the vertical shaft1 f1 and gearing with small pinions1 x1 which are equally distant all around1 and which themselves gear with similar pinions forming the radii of a succession of circles concentric with the first4 ,all these pinions are mounted upon axles traversing bronze bearings within the drum1 which1 to this effect1 is provided with slots4 ,the axles of the pinions are prolonged in order to receive rollers1 x'1 surrounded with rubber so as to facilitate1 through friction1 the motion of all the blades running between them4 ,the other drum1 ,v'1 is arranged in the same way1 except that it is not cast in a piece with the carriage1 ,d1 but is so adjusted to it that a tension may be exerted upon the blades by means of the screw1 d1 and its hand wheel4 ,through this combination1 all the blades are carried along at once in opposite directions and at the same speed4--,publication ,industrielle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,roburite1 ,,the ,,new ,,explosive4 ,a series of experiments of great interest and vital importance to colliery owners and all those engaged in mining coal has been carried out during the last ten days in the ,south ,yorkshire coal field4 ,the new mines regulation act provides that any explosible used in coal mines shall either be fired in a water cartridge or be of such a nature that it cannot inflame firedamp4 ,this indeed is the problem which has puzzled many able chemists during the last few years1 and which ,dr4 ,roth1 of ,berlin1 claims to have solved with his explosive roburite4 ,we recently gave a detailed account of trials carried out at the ,school of ,military ,engineering1 ,chatham1 to test the safety and strength of roburite1 as compared with gun cotton1 dynamite1 and blasting gelatine4 ,the results were conclusive of the great power of the new explosive1 and so far fully confirmed the reports of the able mining engineer and the chemical experts who had been sent to ,germany to make full inquiries4 ,these gentlemen had ample opportunity of seeing roburite used in the coal mines of ,westphalia1 and it was mainly upon their testimony that the patents for the ,british empire were acquired by the ,roburite ,explosive ,company4 ,it has1 however1 been deemed advisable to give practical proof to those who would have to use it1 that roburite possesses all the high qualities claimed for it1 and hence separate and independent trials have been arranged in such representative collieries as the ,wharncliffe ,silkstone1 near ,sheffield1 ,monk ,bretton1 near ,barnsley1 and1 further north1 in the ,durham coal field1 at ,lord ,londonderry's ,seaham and ,silksworth collieries4 ,mr4 ,g4,b4 ,walker1 resident manager of the ,wharncliffe ,colliery ,company1 had gone to ,germany as an independent observer--provided with a letter of introduction from the ,under ,secretary of ,state for ,foreign ,affairs--and had seen the director of the government mines at ,saarbruck1 who gave it as his opinion that1 so far as his experience had gone1 the new explosive was a most valuable invention4 ,mr4 ,walker was so impressed with the great advantages of roburite that he desired to introduce it into his own colliery1 where he gladly arranged with the company to make the first coal mining experiments in this country4 ,these were recently carried out in the ,parkgate seam of the ,wharncliffe ,silkstone colliery1 under the personal superintendence of the inventor1 ,dr4 ,roth1 and in the presence of a number of colliery managers and other practical men4 ,in all six shots were fired1 five of which were for the purpose of winning coal1 while the sixth was expressly arranged as a blowout shot4 ,the roburite--which resembles nothing so much as a common yellow sugar--is packed in cartridges of about #d in4 in length and #a in4 in diameter1 each containing about #fe grammes 7one-seventh of a pound7 inclosed in a waterproof envelope4 ,by dividing a cartridge1 any desired strength of charge can be obtained4 ,the first shot had a charge of #ij grammes 7one-fifth of a pound7 placed in a hole drilled to a depth of about #d ft4 #f in41 and #a in4 in diameter4 ,all the safety lamps were carefully covered1 so that complete darkness was produced1 but there was no visible sign of an explosion in the shape of flame--not even a spark--only the dull1 heavy report and the noise made by the displaced coal4 ,a large quantity of coal was brought down1 but it was considered by most of the practical men present to be rather too much broken4 ,the second shot was fired with a single cartridge of #fe grammes1 and this gave the same remarkable results as regards absence of flame1 and1 in each case1 there were no noxious fumes perceivable1 even the moment after the shot was fired4 ,this reduced charge gave excellent results as regards coal winning1 and one of the subsequent shots1 with the same weight of roburite1 produced from #aj to #aa tons of coal in almost a solid mass4 ,it has been found that a fertile cause of accidents in coal mines is insufficient tamping1 or stemming1 as it is called in ,yorkshire4 ,therefore a hole was bored into a strong wall of coal1 and a charge of #de grammes inserted1 and very slightly tamped1 with the view of producing a flame if such were possible4 ,this blowout shot is so termed from the fact of its being easier for the explosion to blow out the tamping1 like the shot from a gun1 than to split or displace the coal4 ,the result was most successful1 as there was no flash to relieve the utter darkness4 ,the second set of experiments took place on ,october #bd last1 in the ,monk ,bretton colliery1 near ,barnsley1 of which ,mr4 ,w4 ,pepper1 of ,leeds1 is owner4 ,this gentleman determined to give the new explosive a fair and exhaustive trial1 and the following programme was carried out in the presence of a very large gathering of gentlemen interested in coal mining4 ,the chief inspector of mines for ,yorkshire and ,lincolnshire1 ,mr4 ,f4,n4 ,wardell1 was also present1 and the ,roburite ,explosives ,company was represented by ,lieut4-,general ,sir ,john ,stokes1 ,k4,c4,b41 ,r4,e41 chairman1 and several of the directors4 #a4 ,surface ,experiments4--,a shot fired on the ground1 exposed4 ,this gave no perceptible flame 7#gj grammes of roburite was the charge in these experiments74 #b4 ,a shot fired on the ground1 bedded in fine coal dust4 ,no flame nor ignition of the coal dust was perceptible4 #c4 ,a shot fired suspended in a case into which gas was conducted1 and the atmospheric air allowed to enter so as to form an explosive mixture4 ,the gas was not fired4 #d4 ,a shot fired in a boiler flue #af ft4 by #b ft4 #h in41 placed horizontally1 in which was a quantity of fine coal dust kept suspended in the air by the action of a fan4 ,no flame nor ignition of the coal dust took place4 #e4 ,a shot fired as above1 except that an explosive mixture of gas and air was flowing into the boiler tube in addition to the coal dust4 ,that this mixture was firedamp was proved by the introduction of a safety lamp1 the flame of which was elongated1 showing what miners call the blue cap4 ,there was no explosion of the gas or sign of flames4 #f4 ,a shot of roburite fired in the boiler tube without any gas or suspended coal dust4 ,the report was quite as loud as in the preceding case2 indeed1 to several present it seemed more distinct4 #g4 ,a shot of lb4 gunpowder was fired under the same condition as ,no4 #e1 i4e41 in an explosive mixture of gas and air with coal dust4 ,the result was most striking1 and appeared to carry conviction of the great comparative safety of roburite to all present4 ,not only was there an unmistakable explosion of the firedamp1 with very loud report1 and a vivid sheet of flame1 but the gas flowing into the far end of the boiler tube was ignited and remained burning until turned off4 ,in the ,pit4--#a4 ,a #b in4 hole was drilled #d ft4 #f in4 deep into coal1 having a face #g yards wide1 fast at both ends1 and holed under for a depth of #h ft41 end on1 thickness of front of coal to be blown down #b ft4 #aj in41 plus #i in4 of dirt4 ,this represented a most difficult shot1 having regard to the natural lines of cleavage of the coal--a heavy job as it was locally termed4 ,the charge was #fe grammes of roburite1 which brought down a large quantity of coal1 not at all too small in size4 ,no flame was perceptible1 although all the lamps were carefully covered4 #b4 ,a #b in4 hole drilled #d ft4 #f in4 into the side of the coal about #aj in4 from the top1 fast ends not holed under1 width of space #aj ft4 ,this was purposely a blowout shot4 ,the result was again most satisfactory1 the charge exploding in perfect darkness4 #c4 ,a breaking up shot placed in the stone roof for ripping1 the hole being drilled at an angle of #ce deg4 or #dj deg4 ,this is intended to open a cavity in the perfectly smooth roof1 the ripping being continued by means of the lip thus formed4 ,the charge was #aje grammes 7nearly #d oz71 and it brought down large quantities of stone4 #d4 ,a ripping shot in the stone roof1 hole #d ft4 #f in4 deep1 width of place #ae ft4 with a lip of #b ft4 #f in4 ,this is a strong stone bind1 and very difficult to get down4 ,the trial was most successful1 a large heap of stone being brought down and more loosened4 #e4 ,a second blowout shot1 under the conditions most likely to produce an accident in a fiery mine4 ,a #b in4 hole1 #d ft4 #f in4 deep1 was drilled in the face of the coal near the roof1 and charged with #aje grammes of roburite4 ,a space of #f in4 or #h in4 was purposely left between the charge and the tamping4 ,the hole was then strongly tamped for a distance of nearly #b ft4 ,the report was very loud1 and a trumpet-shaped orifice was formed at the mouth of the hole1 but no flame or spark could be perceived1 nor was any inconvenience caused by the fumes1 even the instant after the explosion4 ,further ,experiments at ,wharncliffe ,colliery4--,on ,tuesday1 ,october #be1 some very interesting surface trials were arranged with great care by ,mr4 ,walker4 ,an old boiler flue was placed vertically1 and closed at top by means of a removable wooden cover1 the interior space being about #gb cubic feet4 ,a temporary gasometer had been arranged at a suitable distance by means of a paraffin cask having a capacity of #f cubic feet suspended inside a larger cask1 and by this means the boiler was charged with a highly explosive mixture of gas and air in the proportion of #a to #ab4 #a4 ,a charge of gunpowder was placed in the closed end of a piece of gas pipe1 and strongly tamped1 so as to give the conditions most unfavorable to the ignition of the firedamp4 ,it was1 however1 ignited1 and a loud explosion produced1 which blew off the wooden cover and filled the boiler tube with flame4 #b4 ,under the same conditions as to firedamp1 a charge of roburite was placed on a block of wood inside the boiler1 totally unconfined except by a thin covering of coal dust4 ,when exploded by electricity1 as in the previous case1 no flame was produced1 nor was the firedamp ignited4 #c4 ,the preceding experiment was repeated with the same results4 #d4 ,a charge of blasting gelatine1 inserted in one of ,settle's water cartridges1 was suspended in the boiler tube and fired with a fulminate of mercury detonator in the usual manner4 ,the gelatine did not1 however1 explode1 the only report being that of the detonator4 ,after a safe interval the unexploded cartridge was recovered1 or so much of it as had not been scattered by the detonator1 and the gelatine was found to be frozen4 ,this fact was also evident from an inspection of other gelatine dynamite cartridges which had been stored in the same magazine during the night4 ,this result1 although not that intended1 was most instructive as regards the danger of using explosives which are liable to freeze at such a moderate temperature1 and the thawing of which is undoubtedly attended with great risk unless most carefully performed4 ,also1 the small pieces of the gelatine or dynamite1 when scattered by the explosion of the detonator1 might cause serious accident if trodden upon4--,engineering4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,mechanical ,,reeling ,,of ,,silk4 ,when automatic machinery for thread spinning was invented1 ,english intelligence and enterprise were quick to utilize and develop it1 and thus gained that supremacy in textile manufacture which has remained up to the present time1 and which will doubtless long continue4 ,the making of the primary thread is the foundation of all textile processes1 and it is on the possibility of doing this by automatic machinery that ,england's great textile industries depend4 ,the use of highly developed machinery for spinning cotton1 wool1 and flax has grown to be so much a part of our conception of modern life1 as contrasted with the times of our grandfathers1 as often to lead to the feeling that a complete and universal change has occurred in all the textile industries4 ,this is1 however1 not the case4 ,there is one great textile industry--one of the most staple and valuable--still in the primitive condition of former times1 and employing processes and apparatus essentially the same as those known and employed before such development had taken place4 ,we mean the art of silk reeling4 ,the improvements made in the production of threads of all other materials have only been applied to silk in the minor processes for utilizing waste2 but the whole silk trade and manufacture of the world has1 up to this time1 been dependent for its raw silk threads upon apparatus which1 mechanically speaking1 is nearly or quite as primitive as the ancient spinning wheels4 ,thousands of operatives are constantly employed in forming up these threads by hand1 adding filament by filament to the thread as required1 while watching the unwinding from the cocoon of many miles of filament in order to produce a single pound of the raw silk thread1 making up the thread unaided by any mechanical device beyond a simple reel on which the thread is wound as finished1 and a basin of heated water in which the cocoons are placed4 ,viewed from any standpoint to which we are accustomed1 this state of things is so remarkable that we are naturally led to the belief that there must be some special causes which tended to retard the introduction of automatic machinery1 and these are not far to seek4 ,the spinning machinery employed for the production of threads1 other than those of raw silk1 may be broadly described as consisting of devices capable of taking a mass of confused and comparatively short fibers1 laying them parallel with one another1 and twisting them into a cylindrical thread1 depending for its strength upon the friction and interlocking of these constituent fibers4 ,this process is radically different from that employed to make a thread of raw silk1 which consists of filaments1 each several thousand feet long1 laid side by side1 almost without twist1 and glued together into a solid thread by means of the gum or glue with which each filament is naturally coated4 ,if this radical difference be borne in mind1 but very little mechanical knowledge is required to make it evident that the principle of spinning machinery in general is utterly unsuited to the making up of the threads of raw silk4 ,since spinning machinery1 as usually constructed for other fibers1 could not be employed in the manufacture of raw silk1 and as the countries where silk is produced are1 generally speaking1 not the seat of great mechanical industries1 where the need of special machinery would be quickly recognized and supplied1 silk reeling 7the making of raw silk7 has been passed by1 and has never become an industrial art4 ,it remained one of the few manual handicrafts1 while yet serving as the base of a great and staple industry of worldwide importance4 ,there is every reason to suppose that we are about to witness a transformation in the art of silk reeling1 a change similar to that which has already been brought about in the spinning of other threads1 and of which the consequences will be of the highest importance4 ,for some years past work has been done in ,france in developing an automatic silk-reeling machine1 and incomplete notes concerning it have from time to time been published4 ,that the accounts which were allowed to reach the outer world were incomplete will cause no surprise to those who know what experimental work is--how easily and often an inventor or pioneer finds himself hampered by premature publication4 ,the process in question has now1 however1 emerged from the experimental state1 and is practically complete4 ,by the courtesy of the inventor we are in a position to lay before our readers an exact analysis of the principles1 essential parts1 and method of operation of the new silk-reeling machine4 ,as silk reeling is not widely known in ,england1 it will1 however1 be well to preface our remarks by some details concerning the cocoon and the manner in which it is at present manufactured into raw silk1 promising that if these seem tedious1 the labor of reading them will be amply repaid by the clearer understanding of the new mechanical process which will be the result4 ,the silkworm1 when ready to make its cocoon1 seeks a suitable support4 ,this is usually found among the twigs of brush placed for the purpose over the trays in which the worms have been grown4 ,at first the worm proceeds by stretching filaments backward and forward from one twig to another in such manner as to include a space large enough for the future cocoon4 ,when sufficient support has thus been obtained1 the worm incloses itself in a layer of filaments adhering to the support and following the shape of the new cocoon1 of which it forms the outermost stratum4 ,after having thus provided a support and outlined the cocoon1 the worm begins the serious work of constrution4 ,the filament from its silk receiver issues from two small spinnarets situated near its jaws4 ,each filament1 as it comes out1 is coated with a layer of exceedingly tenacious natural gum1 and they at once unite to form a single flattened thread1 the two parts lying side by side4 ,it is this flat thread1 called the baye or brin1 which serves as the material for making the cocoon1 and which1 when subsequently unwound1 is the filament used in making up the raw silk4 ,while spinning1 the worm moves its head continually from right to left1 laying on the filament in a succession of lines somewhat resembling the shape of the figure eight4 ,as the worm continues the work of making its cocoon1 the filament expressed from its body in the manner described is deposited in nearly even layers all over the interior of the wall of the cocoon1 which gradually becomes thicker and harder4 ,the filament issuing from the spinnarets is immediately attached to that already in place by means of the gum which has been mentioned4 ,when the store of silk in the body of the worm is exhausted1 the cocoon is finished1 and the worm1 once more shedding its skin1 becomes dormant and begins to undergo its change into a moth4 ,it is at this point that its labors in the production of silk terminate and those of man begin4 ,a certain number of the cocoons are set aside for reproduction4 ,in southern countries the reproduction of silkworms is a vast industry to which great attention is given1 and which receives important and regular aid from the government4 ,it is1 however1 quite distinct from the manufacturing industry with which at present we have to do4 ,the cocoons to be used for reeling1 i4e41 all but those which are reserved for reproduction1 are in the first place stifled1 that is to say1 they are put into a steam or other oven and the insect is killed4 ,the cocoons are then ready for reeling1 but those not to be used at once are allowed to dry4 ,in this process1 which is carried on for about two months1 they lose about two-thirds of their weight1 representing the water in the fresh chrysalis4 ,the standard and dried cocoons form the raw material of the reeling mills1 or filatures1 as they are called on the ,continent4 ,each filature endeavors as far as possible to collect1 stifle1 and dry the cocoons in its own neighborhood2 but dried cocoons1 nevertheless1 give rise to an important commerce1 having its center at ,marseilles4 ,the appearance of the cocoon is probably well known to most of our readers4 ,industrially considered1 the cocoon may be divided into three parts3 7#a7 ,the floss1 which consists of the remains of the filaments used for supporting the cocoon on the twigs of the brush among which it was built and the outside layer of the cocoon1 together with such ends and parts of the thread forming the main part of the shell as have become broken in detaching and handling the cocoon2 7#b7 the shell of the cocoon1 which is formed1 as has been described1 of a long continuous filament1 which it is the object of the reeler to unwind and to form up into threads of raw silk2 and 7#c7 the dried body of the chrysalis4 ,we shall first describe the usual practice of reeling1 which is as follows3 ,the cocoons are put into a basin of boiling water1 on the surface of which they float4 ,they are stirred about so as to be as uniformly acted upon as possible4 ,the hot water softens the gum1 and allows the floss to become partially detached4 ,this process is called cooking the cocoons4 ,when the cocoons are sufficiently cooked1 they are subjected to a process called beating1 or brushing1 the object of which is to remove the floss4 ,as heretofore carried on1 this brushing is a most rudimentary and wasteful operation4 ,it consists of passing a brush of heather or broom twigs over the floating cocoons in such manner that the ends of the brush come in contact with the softened cocoons1 catch the floss1 and drag it off4 ,in practice it happens that the brush catches the sound filaments on the surface of the cocoon as well as the floss1 and1 as a consequence1 the sound filament is broken1 dragged off1 and wasted4 ,in treating some kinds of cocoons as much as a third of the silk is wasted in this manner1 and even in the best reeling1 as at present practiced1 there is an excessive loss from this cause4 ,at the present low price of cocoons this waste is not as important as it was some time ago1 when cocoons were much dearer2 but even at present it amounts to between fifteen and twenty millions of francs per annum in the silk districts of ,france and ,italy alone4 ,in ,france the cooking and brushing are usually done by the same women who reel1 and in the same basins4 ,in ,italy the brushing is usually done by girls1 and often with the aid of mechanically rotated brushes1 an apparatus which is of doubtful utility1 as1 in imitating the movement of hand brushing1 the same waste is occasioned4 ,after the cocoons are brushed they are1 in the ordinary process1 cleaned by hand1 which is another tedious and wasteful operation performed by the reeler1 and concerning which we shall have more to say further on4 ,whatever may be the preparatory operations1 they result in furnishing the reeler with a quantity of cocoons1 each having its floss removed1 and the end of the filament ready to be unwound4 ,each reeler is provided with a basin containing water1 which may be heated either by a furnace or by steam1 and a reel1 upon which the silk is wound when put in motion by hand or by power4 ,in civilized countries heating by steam and the use of motive power is nearly universal4 ,the reeler is ordinarily seated before the reel and the basin4 ,the reeler begins operations by assembling the cocoons in the basin1 and attaching all the ends to a peg at its side4 ,she then introduces the ends of the filaments from several cocoons into small dies of agate or porcelain1 which are held over the basin by a support4 ,the ends so brought in contact stick together1 owing to the adhesive substance they naturally contain1 and form a thread4 ,to wring out the water which is brought up with the ends1 and further consolidate the thread1 it is so arranged as to twist round either itself or another similar thread during its passage from the basin to the reel4 ,this process is called croisure1 and is facilitated by guides or small pulleys4 ,having made the croisure1 which consists of about two hundred turns1 the operator attaches the end of a thread to the reel1 previously passing it through a guide fixed in a bar1 which moves backward and forward1 so as to distribute the thread on the reel1 forming a hank about three inches wide4 ,the reel is now put into movement1 and winds the thread formed by the union of the filaments4 ,it is at this moment that the real difficulties of the reeler begin4 ,she has now to maintain the size and regularity of the thread as nearly as possible by adding new filaments at the proper moment4 ,the operation of adding an end of a filament consists of throwing it in a peculiar manner on the other filaments already being reeled1 so that it sticks to them1 and is carried up with them4 ,we may mention here that this process of silk reeling can be seen in operation at the ,manchester exhibition4 ,it is only after a long apprenticeship that a reeler succeeds in throwing the end properly4 ,the thread produced by the several filaments is itself so fine that its size cannot readily be judged by the eye1 and the speed with which it is being wound renders this even more difficult4 ,but1 in order to have an idea of the size1 the reeler watches the cocoons as they unwind1 counts them1 and1 on the hypothesis that the filament of one cocoon is of the same diameter as that of another1 gets an approximate idea of the size of the thread that she is reeling4 ,but this hypothesis is not exact1 and the filament being largest at the end which is first unwound1 and tapering throughout its whole length1 the result is that the reeler has not only to keep going a certain number of cocoons1 but also to appreciate how much has been unwound from each4 ,if the cocoons are but slightly unwound1 there must be fewer than if a certain quantity of silk has been unwound from them4 ,consequently their number must be constantly varying in accordance with their condition4 ,these facts show that the difficulty of maintaining regularity in a thread is very great4 ,nevertheless1 this regularity is one of the principal factors of the value of a thread of grege1 and this to such an extent that badly reeled silks are sold at from twenty to twenty-five francs a kilogramme less than those which are satisfactorily regular4 ,the difficulty of this hand labor can be still better understood if it be remembered that the reeler being obliged to watch at every moment the unwinding of each cocoon1 in order to obtain one pound of well reeled silk1 she must incessantly watch1 and without a moment of distraction1 the unwinding of about two thousand seven hundred miles of silk filaments4 ,for nine pounds of silk1 she reels a length of filament sufficient to girdle the earth4 ,the manufacturer1 therefore1 cannot and must not depend only on the constant attention that each reeler should give to the work confided to her care4 ,he is obliged to have overseers who constantly watch the reelers1 so that the defects in the work of any single reeler1 who otherwise might not give the attention required by her work1 will not greatly diminish the value either of her own work or that of several other reelers whose silk is often combined to form a single lot4 ,in addition to the ordinary hand labor1 considerable expense is thus necessitated for the watching of the reelers4 ,enough has now been said1 we think1 to give a good idea of silk reeling1 as usually practiced1 and to show how much it is behind other textile arts from a mechanical point of view4 ,to any one at all familiar with industrial work1 or possessing the least power of analysis or calculation1 it is evident that a process carried on in so primitive a manner is entirely unsuitable for use in any country in which the conditions of labor are such as to demand its most advantageous employment4 ,in the ,united ,states1 for instance1 or in ,england1 silk reeling1 as a great national industry1 would be out of the question unless more mechanical means for doing it could be devised4 ,the ,english climate is not suitable for the raising of cocoons1 and in consequence the matter has not attracted very much attention in this country4 ,but ,america is very differently situated4 ,previous to #ahgf it had been abundantly demonstrated that cocoons could be raised to great advantage in many parts of that country4 ,the only question was whether they could be reeled4 ,in fact1 it was stated at the time that the question of reeling silk presented a striking analogy to the question of cotton before the invention of the gin4 ,it will be remembered that cotton raising was several times tried in the ,united ,states1 and abandoned because the fiber could not be profitably prepared for the market4 ,the impossibility of competing with ,india and other cheap labor countries in this work became at least a fact fully demonstrated1 and any hope that cotton would ever be produced in ,america was confined to the breasts of a few enthusiasts4 ,as soon1 however1 as it was shown that the machine invented by ,eli ,whitney would make it possible to do this work mechanically1 the conditions were changed2 cotton raising become not only possible1 but the staple industry of a great part of the country2 the population was rapidly increased1 the value of real estate multiplied1 and within a comparatively short time the ,united ,states became the leading cotton country of the world4 ,for many years much more cotton has been grown in ,america than in all the other countries of the world combined2 and it is interesting to note that both the immense agricultural wealth of ,america and the supply required for the cotton industry of ,england flow directly from the invention of the cotton gin4 ,attention was turned in #ahgf to silk raising1 and it was found that all the conditions for producing cocoons of good quality and at low cost were most favorable4 ,it was1 however1 useless to raise cocoons unless they could be utilized2 in a word1 it was seen that the country needed silk-reeling machinery in #ahgf1 as it had needed cotton-ginning machinery in #agij4 ,under these conditions1 ,mr4 ,edward ,w4 ,serrell1 ,jr41 an engineer of ,new ,york1 undertook the study of the matter1 and soon became convinced that the production of such machinery was feasible4 ,he devoted his time to this work1 and by #ahhj had pushed his investigations as far as was possible in a country where silk reeling was not commercially carried on4 ,he then went to ,france1 where he has since been incessantly engaged in the heart of the silk-reeling district in perfecting1 reducing to practice1 and applying his improvements and inventions4 ,the success obtained was such that ,mr4 ,serrell has been enabled to interest many of the principal silk producers of the ,continent in his work1 and a revolution in silk reeling is being gradually brought about1 for1 strangely enough1 he found that the work which he had undertaken solely for ,america was of equal importance for all silk-producing countries4 ,we have described the processes by which cocoons are ordinarily cooked and brushed1 these being the first processes of the filature4 ,instead of first softening the gum of the cocoons and then attacking the floss with the points of a brush1 ,mr4 ,serrell places the cocoons in a receptacle full of boiling water1 in which by various means violent reciprocating or vortex currents are produced4 ,the result is that by the action of the water itself and the rubbing of the cocoons one against the other the floss is removed1 carrying with it the end of the continuous filament without unduly softening the cocoon or exposing any of the more delicate filament to the rough action of the brush1 as has hitherto been the case4 ,the advantages of this process will be readily understood4 ,in brushing after the ordinary manner1 the point of the brush is almost sure to come into contact with and to break some of the filament forming the body of the cocoon4 ,when this occurs1 and the cocoon is sent to be reeled1 it naturally becomes detached when the unwinding reaches the point at which the break exists4 ,it then has to be sent back1 and the end of the filament detached by brushing over again1 when several layers of filament are inevitably caught by the brush and wasted1 and very probably some other part of the filament is cut4 ,this accounts for the enormous waste which occurs in silk reeling1 and to which we have referred4 ,its importance will be appreciated when it is remembered that every pound of fiber thus dragged off by the brush represents a net loss of about #ais4 at the present low prices4 ,the mechanical details by which ,mr4 ,serrell carries out this process vary somewhat according to the nature of the different cocoons to be treated4 ,in one type of machine the water is caused to surge in and out of a metal vessel with perforated sides2 in another a vertical brush is rapidly raised and lowered1 agitating the water in a basin1 without1 however1 actually touching the cocoons4 ,after a certain number of strokes the brush is automatically raised1 when the ends of the filaments are found to adhere to it1 having been swept against it by the scouring action of the water4 ,the cleaning of the cocoons is performed by means of a mechanism also entirely new4 ,in the brushing machinery the floss is loosened and partially detached from the cocoon4 ,the object of the cleaning machine is to thoroughly complete the operation4 ,to this end the cocoons are floated under a plate1 and the floss passed up through a slot in the latter4 ,a rapid to and fro horizontal movement is given to the plate1 and those cocoons from which the floss has been entirely removed easily give off a few inches of their filament1 and allow themselves to be pushed on one side1 which is accomplished by the cocoons which still have some floss adhering to them2 because these latter1 not being free to pay off1 are drawn up to the slot in the plate1 and by its motion are rapidly washed backward and forward in the water4 ,this washing soon causes all the cocoons to be freed from the last vestiges of floss without breaking the filament1 and after about twenty seconds of movement they are all free and clean1 ready for reeling4 ,we have now to explain the operation of the machine by which the thread is formed from the prepared cocoon4 ,at the risk of some repetition1 however1 it seems necessary to call attention to the character of the work itself4 ,in each prepared cocoon are about a thousand yards of filament ready to pay off1 but this filament is nearly as fine as a cobweb and is tapering4 ,the object is to form a thread by laying these filaments side by side in sufficient number to obtain the desired size4 ,for the threads of raw silk used in commerce1 the sizes vary1 so that while some require but an average of three filaments1 the coarsest sizes require twenty-five or thirty4 ,it being necessary keep the thread at as near the same size as possible1 the work required is1 in effect1 to add an additional cocoon filament to the thread which is being wound whenever this latter has tapered down to a given size1 or whenever one of the filaments going to form it has become detached4 ,those familiar with cotton spinning will understand what is meant when it is said that the reeling is effectively a doubling operation1 but performed with a variable number of ends1 so as to compensate for the taper of the filaments4 ,in reeling by hand1 as has been said1 the size of the silk is judged1 as nearly as possible1 by a complex mental operation1 taking into account the number1 size1 and state of unwinding of the cocoons4 ,it is impossible to do this mechanically1 if for no other reason than this1 that the cocoons must be left free to float and roll about in the water in order to give off their ends without breaking1 and any mechanical device which touched them would defeat the object of the machine4 ,the only way in which the thread can be mechanically regulated in silk reeling is by some kind of actual measurement performed after the thread has left the cocoons4 ,the conditions are such that no direct measurement of size can be made1 even with very delicate and expensive apparatus2 but ,mr4 ,serrell discovered that1 owing to the great tenacity of the thread in proportion to its size1 its almost absolute elastic uniformity1 and from the fact that it could be stretched1 two or three per cent4 without injury1 it was possible to measure its size indirectly1 but as accurately as could be desired4 ,as this fact is the starting point of an entirely new and important class of machinery1 we may explain with considerable detail the method in which this measurement is performed4 ,bearing in mind that the thread is of uniform quality1 it is evident that it will require more force to stretch a coarse thread by a given percentage of its length than it will to stretch one that is finer4 ,supposing the thread is uniform in quality but varying in size1 the force required to stretch it varies directly with the size or sectional area of the thread itself4 ,in the automatic reeling machine this stretch is obtained by causing the thread to take a turn round a pulley of a given winding speed1 and then1 after leaving this pulley1 to take a turn around a second pulley having a somewhat greater winding speed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,,the ,,mechanical ,,reeling ,,of ,,silk4 ,by this means the thread which is passing from one pulley to the other is stretched by an amount equal to the difference of the winding speed of the two pulleys4 ,in the diagram 7,fig4 #b7 the thread passes1 as shown by the arrows1 over the pulley1 ,p1 and then over the pulley1 ,p1 the latter having a slightly greater winding speed4 ,between these pulleys it passes over the guide pulley1 ,g4 ,this latter is supported by a lever hinged at ,s1 and movable between the stops1 ,,tt4 ,w is an adjustable counterweight4 ,when the thread is passed over the pulleys and guided in this manner1 the stretch to which it is subjected tends to raise the guide and lever1 so that the latter will be drawn up against the stop1 ,t1 when the thread is so coarse that the effort required to stretch it is sufficient to overcome the weight of the guide pulley and the adjustable counterweight4 ,but as the thread becomes finer1 which1 in the case of reeling silk1 happens either from the tapering of the filaments or the dropping off of a cocoon1 a moment arrives when it is no longer strong enough to keep up the lever and counterweight4 ,these then descend1 and the lever touches the lower stop1 ,t4 ,it will be readily seen that the up and down movements of the lever can be made to take place when the thread has reached any desired maximum or minimum of size1 the limits being fixed by suitably adjusting the counterweight4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,in the automatic reeling machine this is the method employed for regulating the supply of cocoons4 ,the counterweight being suitably adjusted1 the lever falls when the thread has become fine enough to need another cocoon4 ,the stop1 ,t1 and the lever serve as two parts of an electric contact1 so that when they touch each other a circuit is completed1 which trips a trigger and sets in motion the feed apparatus by which a new cocoon is added4 ,in practice the two drums or pulleys are mounted on the same shaft1 ,d 7,fig4 #a71 difference of winding speed being obtained by making them of slightly different diameters4 ,the lever is mounted as a horizontal pendulum1 and the less or greater stress required according to the size to be reeled is obtained by inclining its axis to a less or greater degree from the vertical4 ,an arrangement is also adopted by which the strains existing in the thread when it arrives at the first drum are neutralized1 so far as their effect upon the lever is concerned4 ,this is accomplished by simply placing upon the lever an extra guide pulley1 ,l1 upon the side opposite to that which corresponds to the guide shown in the diagram1 ,fig4 #b4 ,an electric contact is closed by a slight movement of the lever whenever the thread requires a new filament of cocoon1 and broken again when the thread has been properly strengthened4 ,it is evident that a delicate faller movement might be employed to set the feed mechanism in motion instead of the electric circuit1 but1 under the circumstances1 as the motion is very slight and without force1 being1 in fact1 comparable to the swinging of the beam of a balance through the space of about the sixteenth of an inch1 it is simpler to use a contact4 ,the actual work of supplying the cocoons to the running thread is performed as follows3 ,the cleaned cocoons are put into what is called the feeding basin1 ,b#a 7,fig4 #a71 a receptacle placed alongside of the ordinary reeling basin1 ,b1 of a filature4 ,a circular elevator1 ,e1 into which the cocoons are charged by a slight current of water1 lifts them over one corner of the reeling basin and drops them one by one through an aperture in a plate about six inches above the water of the reeling basin4 ,the end of the filament having been attached to a peg above the elevator1 it happens that when a cocoon has been brought into the corner of the reeling basin1 the filament is strung from it to the edge of the hole in the plate in such a position as to be readily seized by a mechanical finger1 ,k 7,fig4 #c71 attached to a truck arranged to run backward and forward along one side of the basin4 ,this finger is mounted on an axis1 and has a tang projecting at right angles to the side of the basin1 so that the whole is in the form of a bell crank mounted on the truck4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,there are usually four threads to each basin4 ,when neither one of them needs an additional cocoon1 the finger of the distributing apparatus remains1 holding the filament of the cocoon at the corner of the basin where it has been dropped4 ,when a circuit is closed by the weakening of any one of the threads1 an electromagnetic catch is released1 and the truck with its finger is drawn across the basin by a weight4 ,at the same time the stop shown dotted in ,fig4 #c is thrown out opposite to the thread that needs strengthening4 ,this stop strikes the tang of the finger1 and causes the latter to be thrown out near to the point at which the filaments going to make up the weakened thread are being drawn from the cocoons4 ,here the new filament is attached to the new running thread by a kind of revolving finger1 ,j1 called in ,france a lance-bout4 ,this contrivance takes the place of the agate of the ordinary filature1 and is made up1 essentially1 of the following parts3 7#a7 ,a hollow axis1 through the inside of which the thread passes instead of going through the hole of an agate4 ,this hollow axis is furnished1 near its lower end1 with a ridge which serves to support a movable portion turning constantly round the axis4 7#b7 ,a movable portion turning constantly round the axis4 7#c7 ,a finger or hook fastened on the side of the movable portion and revolving with it4 ,this hook1 in revolving1 catches the filament brought up by the finger and serves it on to the thread4 ,such are the principal parts of the automatic reeling machine4 ,although the fact that this machine is entirely a new invention has necessitated a somewhat long explanation1 its principal organs can nevertheless be summed up in a few words3 7#a7 ,a controlling drum which serves to give the thread a constant elongation2 7#b7 a pulley mounted on a pivot which closes an electric current every time that the thread becomes too fine1 and attains1 in consequence1 its minimum strength1 in other words1 every time that a fresh cocoon is needed2 7#c7 electromagnets with the necessary conducting wires2 7#d7 the feeding basin2 7#e7 distributing finger and stops2 and 7#f7 the lance-bout4 ,our illustration1 ,fig4 #a1 shows diagrammatically a section through the cocoon frame and reel4 ,the thread is composed of three1 four1 or more filaments1 and after passing through the lance-bout1 it travels as shown by the arrows4 ,at first it is wound round itself about two hundred times1 then passed over a fixed guide pulley1 and over a second guide pulley lower down fixed to the frames which carry the lance-bouts1 then up through the twist and over the smaller of the pulleys1 ,d4 ,taking one complete turn1 it is led round the guide pulley1 ,l1 from there round the larger of the pulleys1 ,d1 round the second guide pulley1 ,l1 then back to the large wheel1 and over a fixed guide pulley across to the reeling frame4 ,power is supplied to the latter by means of a friction clutch1 and to insure even winding the usual reciprocating motion of a guide is employed4 ,the measuring apparatus is pivoted at ,f1 and by raising or lowering the nuts at the end of the bar the required inclination is given4 ,we had recently an opportunity of examining the whole of this machinery in detail1 and seeing the process of silk reeling in actual operation1 ,mr4 ,serrell having put up a complete set of his machines in ,queen ,victoria ,street1 ,london4 ,regarded simply as a piece of ingenious mechanism1 the performance of these machines cannot fail to be of the highest interest to engineers1 the reeling machine proper seeming almost endowed with human intelligence1 so perfectly does it work4 ,but1 apart from the technical perfection1 ,mr4 ,serrell's improvements are of great importance as calculated to introduce the silk-reeling industry in this country on a large scale1 while at the same time its effect upon ,india as a silk-growing country will be of equal importance4--,industries4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,apparatus ,,used ,,for ,,making ,,alcohol ,,for ,,hospital ,,use ,,during ,,the ,,civil ,,war ,,between ,,the ,,states4#a ,footnote #a3 ,read at the ,cincinnati meeting of the ,american ,pharmaceutical ,association4 ,by ,,charles ,k4 ,,gallagher1 ,washington1 ,n4,c4 ,a is an ordinary farm boiler or kettle1 with an iron lid securely bolted on2 ,b1 a steam pipe ending in a coil within a trough1 ,d4 ,c1 ,d1 two troughs made of gum logs1 one inverted over the other1 securely luted and fastened together by clamps and wedges4 ,the beer to be distilled was introduced at ,e and the opening closed with a plug4 ,the distillate--low wine--was collected at ,f1 and redistilled from a set of similar troughs not shown in above figure1 and heated by a continuation of the steam coil from ,d4 ,illustration 99 99 99 99 99 ,,confederate ,,apparatus ,,for ,,manufacturing ,,saltpeter ,,for ,,ammunition4 ,by ,,charles ,k4 ,,gallagher1 ,washington1 ,n4,c4 ,any convenient number of percolators1 made of rough boards1 arranged over a trough after the style of the old fashioned lye stand1 similar to the figure4 ,into these was placed the earth scraped from around old tobacco barns1 from under kitchens and smokehouses4 ,then water or water and urine was poured upon it until the mass was thoroughly leached or exhausted4 ,the percolate was collected in a receptacle and evaporated1 the salt redissolved1 filtered1 again evaporated1 and crystallized from the mother water4 ,illustration 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,telemeter ,,system4 ,by ,f4,r4 ,,upton4 ,in this paper1 read before the ,british ,association1 the author explained that the ,telemeter ,system1 invented by ,c4,l4 ,clarke1 of ,new ,york1 is a method by which the slow movement of a revolving hand of any indicating instrument may be reproduced by the movement of a similar hand at a distant place1 using electricity to convey the impulse4 ,the primary hand moves until it makes electrical contact1 thus sending an impulse4 ,it is here that all previous methods have failed4 ,this contact should be absolute and positive1 for if it is not1 the receiver will not work in unison4 ,the contact could often be doubled by the jarring of the instrument1 thus making the receiver jump twice4 ,clarke has overcome this defect by so arranging his mechanism that the faintest contact in the primary instrument closes two platinum points in multiple arc with it1 thus making a firm and positive contact1 which is not disturbed by any jar on the primary contact4 ,this gives the instruments a positive start for the series of operations1 instead of the faint contact which would be given1 for example1 by the light and slowly moving hand of a metallic thermometer4 ,the other trouble with previous methods was that the contact points would corrode1 and1 in consequence of such corrosion1 the instrument would fail to send impulses4 ,corrosion of the contacts is due to breaking the circuit slowly on a small surface4 ,this is entirely remedied by breaking the circuit elsewhere than at the primary contact1 using a quick motion1 and also by giving this breaking contact large surface and making it firm4 ,the instrument1 as applied to a thermometer1 is made as follows3 ,from the free end of the light spiral of a metallic thermometer fixed at the other end1 an arm1 ,c1 is attached1 the end of which moves over an arc of a circle when the temperature varies4 ,this end carries on either side of its extremity platinum contacts which1 when the thermometer is at rest1 lie between two other platinum points1 ,a ,b1 carried on radial arms4 ,any variation in temperature brings a point on the thermometer arm in contact with one of these points1 and thus gives the initial start to the series of operations without opposing any friction to the free motion of the instrument4 ,the first result is the closing of a short circuit round the initial point of contact1 so that no current flows through it4 ,then the magnets which operate one set of pawls come into play4 ,the two contact points are attached to a toothed wheel in which the pawls play1 and these pawls are so arranged that they drive the wheel whenever moved by their magnets2 thus the primary contact is broken4 ,illustration ,in the receiver there is a similar toothed wheel carrying the hand of the indicating instrument1 and actuated at the same moment as the transmitter4 ,the primary contacts are so arranged that the contact is made for each degree of temperature to be indicated4 ,this series of operations leaves the instruments closed and the pawls home in the toothed wheel4 ,to break the circuit another wire and separate set of contacts are employed4 ,these are arranged on the arms carrying the pawls1 and so adjusted that no contact is made until after the toothed wheel has moved a degree1 when a circuit is closed and a magnet attracts an armature attached to a pendulum4 ,this pendulum1 after starting1 breaks the circuit of the magnets which hold the pawls down1 as well as of the short-circuiting device4 ,as the pendulum takes an appreciable time to vibrate1 this allows all the magnets to drop back1 and breaks all circuits1 leaving the primary contacts in the same relation as at first4 ,the many details of the instruments are carefully worked out4 ,all the contacts are of a rubbing nature1 thus avoiding danger from dirt1 and they are made with springs1 so as not to be affected by jar4 ,the receiving instruments can be made recorders also by simple devices4 ,thus1 having only a most delicate pressure in the primary instrument1 a distinct ink record may be made in the receiver1 even though the paper be rough and soft4 ,the method is applicable to steam gauges1 water indicators1 clocks1 barometers1 etc41 in fact1 to any measuring instrument where a moving hand can be employed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,new ,,monster ,,revolving ,,black ,,ash ,,furnace ,,and ,,the ,,work ,,done ,,with ,,it4 ,by ,,watson ,,smith1 ,lecturer in ,chemical ,technology in the ,victoria ,university1 etc4 ,the ,widnes ,alkali ,company1 limited1 to which ,i am indebted for permission to describe this latest addition to a family of revolving black ash furnaces1 of late not only increasing in number1 but also individual size1 has kindly allowed my friend1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,baker1 to photograph the great revolver in question1 and ,i have pleasure now in throwing on the screen a picture of it1 and also one of a revolver of ordinary size1 so as to render a comparison possible4 ,the revolver of ordinary size measures at most #ah ft4 long1 with a diameter of #ab ft4 ,the boiling down pans connected with such a furnace measure #fj ft4 in length4 ,each charge contains four tons of salt cake1 and some of these revolvers get through #ah tons of salt cake per day and consume #ac cwt4 of coal per ton of cake decomposed4 ,with regard to the larger revolver1 it may be just said that the ,widnes ,alkali ,company has not at once sprung to the adoption of a furnace of the immense size to be presently given1 but in #ahhd it erected a revolver only about #c ft4 to #d ft4 short of the length of that one1 and having two discharging holes4 ,the giant revolving furnace to be described measures in length #cj ft4 and has a diameter of #ab ft4 #f in4 ,inside length is #bh ft4 #f in41 with a diameter of #aa ft4 #d in4 ,it is lined with #af1jjj fire bricks and #abj fire-clay blocks or breakers1 weighing each #a cwt4 ,the bricks weigh per #a1jjj about four tons4 ,the weight of salt cake per charge 7i4e41 contained in each charge of salt cake1 limestone1 mud1 and slack7 is #h tons #ab cwt4 ,for #ajj tons of salt cake charged1 there are also charged about #aaj tons of lime mud and limestone and #ee tons of mixing slack4 ,in a week of seven days about #dh charges are worked through1 weighing of raw materials about #be tons per charge4 ,the total amount of salt cake decomposed weekly is about #djj tons1 and may be reckoned as yielding #bdj tons of #fj per cent4 caustic soda4 ,as regards fuel used for firing1 this may be put down as #bjj tons per week1 or about #aj cwt4 per ton of salt cake decomposed4 ,also with regard to the concentration of liquor from #bj ,tw4 to #ej ,tw41 there is sufficient of such concentrated liquor evaporated down to keep three self-fired caustic pots working1 which are boiled at a strength of #hj ,tw4 ,were it not for this liquor1 no less than seven self-fired pots would be required to do this work1 showing a difference of #hj tons of fuel4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,new ,,monster ,,revolving ,,black ,,ash ,,furnace4 7#b ,figures47 ,the question may be asked1 ,why increase the size of these huge pieces of apparatus8 ,the answer1 ,i apprehend1 is that owing to competition and reduction of prices1 greater efforts are necessary to reduce costs4 ,with automatic apparatus like the black ash revolver1 we may consider no very sensible addition of man power would be needed1 in passing from the smallest sized to the largest sized revolver4 ,then1 again1 we may1 reckoning a certain constant amount of heat lost per each revolver furnace of the small size1 consider that if we doubled the size of such revolver1 we should lose by no means double the amount of heat lost with the small apparatus2 but only the same as that lost in the small furnace plus a certain fraction of that quantity1 which will be smaller the better and more efficient the arrangements are4 ,then1 again1 there is an economy in iron plate for such a large revolver2 there is economy in expense on the engine power and on fuel consumed1 as well as in wear and tear4 ,just to mention fuel alone1 we saw that with an ordinary large sized revolver1 the coal consumption was #ac cwt4 per ton of salt cake decomposed in the black ash process2 but with the giant revolver we have been describing1 that consumption is reduced to #aj cwt4 per ton of cake decomposed4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,new ,,monster ,,revolving ,,black ,,ash ,,furnace4 7#b ,figures47 ,the question will be probably asked1 ,how is it possible to get a flame from one furnace to carry through such a long revolver and do its work in fusing the black ash mixture effectively from one end to the other8 ,the furnace employed viewed in front looks very like an ordinary revolver fireplace1 but at the side thereof1 in line with the front of the revolver1 at which the discharge of the crude soda takes place1 there are observed to be three charging holes1 rather than doors1 through which fuel is charged from a platform directly into the furnace through those holes4 ,the furnace is of course a larger one than furnaces adjusted to revolvers of the usual size4 ,but the effect of one charging door in front and three at the side1 which after charging are banked up with coal1 with the exception of a small aperture above for admission of air1 is very similar to that sometimes adopted in the laboratory for increasing heating effect by joining several ,bunsen lamps together to produce one large1 powerful flame4 ,in this case1 the four charging holes represent1 as it were1 the air apertures of the several ,bunsen lamps4 ,of course the one firing door at front would be totally inadequate to supply and feed a fire capable of yielding a flame that would be adequate for the working of so huge a revolver4 ,as an effort of chemical engineering1 it is a very interesting example of what skill and enterprise in that direction alone will do in reducing costs1 without in the least modifying the chemical reactions taking place4--,journal ,soc4 ,chem4 ,industry4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improvements ,,in ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,portland ,,cement4#a ,footnote #a3 ,a paper recently read before the ,british ,association4 ,by ,,frederick ,,ransoms1 ,a4,i4,c4,e4 ,so much has been said and written on and in relation to ,portland cement that further communications upon the subject may appear to many of the present company to be superfluous4 ,but is this really so8 ,the author thinks not1 and he hopes by the following communication1 to place before this meeting and the community at large some facts which have up to the present time1 or until within a very recent date1 been practically disregarded or overlooked in the production of this very important and valuable material1 so essential in carrying out the great and important works of the present day1 whether of docks and harbors1 our coast defenses1 or our more numerous operations on land1 including the construction of our railways1 tunnels1 and bridges1 aqueducts1 viaducts1 foundations1 etc4 ,the author does not propose to occupy the time of this meeting by referring to the origin or the circumstances attendant upon the early history of this material1 the manufacture of which has now assumed such gigantic proportions--these matters have already been fully dealt with by other more competent authorities2 but rather to direct the attention of those interested therein to certain modifications1 which he considers improvements1 by means of which a large proportion of capital unnecessarily involved in its manufacture may be set free in the future1 the method of manufacture simplified1 the cost of manipulation reduced1 and stronger and more uniformly reliable cement be placed within the reach of those upon whom devolves the duty and responsibility of constructing works of a substantial and permanent character2 but in order to do this it will be necessary to allude to certain palpable errors and defects which1 in the author's opinion1 are perpetuated1 and are in general practice at the present day4 ,portland cement is1 as is well known1 composed of a mixture of chalk1 or other carbonate of lime1 and clay--such as is obtained on the banks of the ,thames or the ,medway--intimately mixed and then subjected to heat in a kiln1 producing incipient fusion1 and thereby forming a chemical combination of lime with silica and alumina1 or practically of lime with dehydrated clay4 ,in order to effect this1 the usual method is to place the mechanically mixed chalk and clay 7technically called slurry71 in lumps varying in size1 say1 from #d to #aj lb41 in kilns with alternate layers of coke1 and raise the mass to a glowing heat sufficient to effect the required combination1 in the form of very hard clinker4 ,these kilns differ in capacity1 but perhaps a fair average size would be capable of producing about #cj tons of clinker1 requiring for the operation1 say1 from #fj to #gj tons of dried slurry1 with from #ab to #ae tons of coke or other fuel4 ,the kiln1 after being thus loaded1 is lighted by means of wood and shavings at the base1 and1 as a matter of course1 the lumps of slurry at the lower part of the kiln are burned first1 but the moisture and sulphurous gases liberated by the heat are condensed by the cooler layers above1 and remain until the heat from combustion1 gradually ascending1 raises the temperature to a sufficient degree to drive them further upward1 until at length they escape at the top of the kiln4 ,the time occupied in loading1 burning1 and drawing a kiln of #cj tons of clinker averages about seven days4 ,it will be readily understood that the outside of the clinker so produced must have been subjected to a much greater amount of heat then was necessary1 before the center of such clinker could have received sufficient to have produced the incipient fusion necessary to effect the chemical combination of its ingredients2 and the result is not only a considerable waste of heat1 but1 as always occurs1 the clinker is not uniformly burnt1 a portion of the outer part has to be discarded as overburnt and useless1 while the inner part is not sufficiently burnt1 and has to be reburned afterward4 ,moreover1 the clinker1 which is of excessively hard character1 has to be reduced by means of a crusher to particles sufficiently small to be admitted by the millstones1 where it is ground into a fine powder1 and becomes the ,portland cement of commerce4 ,this process of manufacture is almost identical in principle and in practice with that described and patented by ,mr4 ,joseph ,aspden in the year #ahbd2 and though various methods have been patented for utilizing the waste heat of the kilns in drying the slurry previous to calcination1 still the main feature of burning the material in mass in large and expensive kilns remained the same1 and is continued in practice to the present day4 ,the attention of the author was directed to this subject some time since in consequence of the failure of a structure in which ,portland cement formed an essential element1 and he had not proceeded far in his investigation of the cause of the failure when he was struck with what appeared to him to be the unscientific method adopted in its manufacture1 and the uncertain results that must necessarily accrue therefrom4 ,admitting1 in the first place1 that the materials employed were considered the best and most economical for the purpose readily accessible1 viz41 chalk and an alluvial deposit found in abundance on the banks of the ,thames and the ,medway1 and being intimately mixed together in suitable proportions1 was it necessary1 in order to effect the chemical combination of the ingredients at an intense heat1 to employ such massive and expensive structures of masonry1 occupying such an enormous space of valuable ground1 with tall chimney stacks for the purpose of discharging the objectionable gases1 etc41 at such a height1 in order to reduce the nuisance to the surrounding neighborhood8 ,again1 was it possible to effect the perfect calcination of the interior of the lumps alluded to without bestowing upon the outer portions a greater heat than was necessary for the purpose1 causing a wasteful expenditure of both time and fuel8 ,and further1 as cement is required to be used in the state of powder1 could not the mixture of the raw materials be calcined in powder1 thereby avoiding the production of such a hard clinker1 which has afterward to be broken up and reduced to a fine powder by grinding in an ordinary mill8 ,the foregoing are some of the defects which the author applied himself to remove1 and he now desires to draw attention to the way in which the object has been attained by the substitution of a revolving furnace for the massive cement kilns now in general use1 and by the application of gaseous products to effect calcination1 in the place of coke or other solid fuel4 ,the revolving furnace consists of a cylindrical casing of steel or boiler plate supported upon steel rollers 7and rotated by means of a worm and wheel1 driven by a pulley upon the shaft carrying the worm71 lined with good refractory fire brick1 so arranged that certain courses are set so as to form three or more radial projecting fins or ledges4 ,the cylindrical casing is provided with two circular rails or pathways1 turned perfectly true1 to revolve upon the steel rollers1 mounted on suitable brickwork1 with regenerative flues1 by passing through which the gas and air severally become heated1 before they meet in the combustion chamber1 at the mouth of the revolving furnace4 ,the gas may be supplied from slack coal or other hydrocarbon burnt in any suitable gas producer 7such1 for instance1 as those for which patents have been obtained by ,messrs4 ,brook ,wilson1 of ,middlesbrough1 or by ,mr4 ,thwaite1 of ,liverpool71 which producer may be placed in any convenient situation4 ,the cement mixture or slurry1 instead of being burnt in lumps1 is passed between rollers or any suitable mill1 when1 it readily falls into coarse dry powder1 which powder is thence conveyed by an elevator and fed into the revolving furnace by means of a hopper and pipe1 which1 being set at an angle with the horizon1 as it turns gradually conveys the cement material in a tortuous path toward the lower and hotter end1 where it is discharged properly calcined4 ,the material having been fed into the upper end of the cylinder falls through the flame to the lower side of it2 the cylinder being in motion lifts it on its advancing side1 where it rests against one of its projecting fins or ledges until it has reached such an angle that it shoots off in a shower through the flame and falls once more on the lower side4 ,this again causes it to travel in a similar path1 and every rotation of the cylinder produces a like effect1 so that by the time it arrives at the lower and hotter end it has pursued a roughly helical path1 during which it has been constantly lifted and shot through the flame1 occupying about half an hour in its transit4 ,to some who have been accustomed to the more tedious process of kiln burning1 the time thus occupied may appear insufficient to effect the combinations necessary to produce the required result2 but it will be seen that the conditions here attained are1 in fact1 those best suited to carry out effectively the chemical changes necessary for the production of cement4 ,the raw material being in powder offers every facility for the speedy liberation of water and carbonic acid1 the operation being greatly hastened by the velocity of the furnace gases through which the particles pass4 ,that such is practically the case is shown by the following analysis of cement so burnt in the revolving furnace or cylinder3 ,per cent4 ,carbonic acid1 anhydrous #j4d ,sulphuric acid1 anhydrous #j4bf ,silica soluble #bd4fh ,silica insoluble #j4f ,alumina and oxide of iron #aj4ef ,lime #fa4dh ,magnesia1 water1 and alkalies #b4jb ------ #ajj ,again1 fineness of the particles results in their being speedily heated to a uniform temperature1 so that they do not serve as nuclei for the condensation of the moisture existing in the furnace gas4 ,the calcined material1 on reaching the lower end of the furnace1 is discharged on to the floor or on to a suitable conveyer1 and removed to a convenient locality for cooling and subsequent grinding or finishing4 ,it1 however1 is not in the condition of hard1 heavy clinkers1 such as are produced in the ordinary cement kiln1 which require special machinery for breaking up into smaller pieces before being admitted between the millstones for the final process of grinding2 nor does it consist of an overburnt exterior and an underburnt core or center portion2 but it issues from the cylindrical furnace in a condition resembling in appearance coarse gunpowder1 with occasional agglutinations of small friable particles readily reduced to fine powder in an ordinary mill1 requiring but small power to work1 and producing but little wear and tear upon the millstones4 ,the operation is continuous4 ,the revolver or furnace1 once started1 works on night and day1 receiving the adjusted quantity of powdered material at the upper or feed end1 and delivering its equivalent in properly burnt cement at the opposite end1 thus effecting a great saving of time1 and preventing the enormous waste of heat and serious injury to the brickwork1 etc41 incidental to the cooling down1 withdrawing the charge1 and reloading the ordinary kiln4 ,cement1 when taken from the furnace1 weighed #aaj lb4 per bushel4 ,cement1 when ground1 leaving #aj percent4 on sieve with #b1ejj holes to the inch1 weighed #aba lb4 per bushel1 and when cold #aah lb4 per bushel4 ,when made into briquettes1 the tensile breaking strain upon the square inch3 ,at #d days was #daj lb4 per square inch4 ,at #f days #faj ,at #ad days #haj ,at #di days #ijj ,at #gf days #a1jdj ,a cylindrical furnace1 such as the author has described1 is capable of turning out at least #bj tons of good cement per day of twenty-four hours1 with a consumption of about #c tons of slack coal4 ,it will be readily understood that these furnaces can be worked more economically in pairs than singly1 as they can be so arranged that one producer may furnish a sufficient quantity of gas for the supply of two cylinders1 and the same labor will suffice2 but in order to provide for possible contingencies the author advises that a spare gas producer and an extra furnace should be in readiness1 so that by a simple arrangement of valves1 etc41 two cylinders may always be in operation1 while from any cause one may be undergoing temporary repairs1 and by this means any diminution in the output may be avoided4 ,the author considers it unnecessary here to discuss either the advantages or the economy of fuel effected by the employment of gas producers for such a purpose4 ,these have been abundantly proved in steel and glass making industries1 where a saving of from #ej to #gj per cent4 of the fuel formerly employed has been made4 ,their cost is small1 they occupy little room1 they can be placed at any reasonable distance from the place where the gas is to be burnt2 any laborer can shovel the slack into them1 and they do not require constant skilled supervision4 ,it is claimed by the author of this paper that the following are among the many advantages derivable from the adoption of this method of manufacturing ,portland cement1 as compared with the old system3 7#a7 ,economy of space--the furnaces1 with their appurtenances1 requiring only about one-fourth the space of what would be occupied by the ordinary kilns for producing the same quantity of finished cement4 7#b7 ,continuous working1 and consequent economy of fuel lost by cooling and subsequent reheating of the kiln walls4 7#c7 ,economy of repairs1 which are of a simple and comparatively inexpensive character1 and of much less frequent occurrence1 as the continuous heat avoids the racking occasioned by the alternate heating and cooling4 7#d7 ,economy in first cost4 7#e7 ,economy in grinding1 a friable granular substance being produced instead of a hard clinker1 whereby crushers are quite abolished1 and the wear and tear of millstones greatly reduced4 7#f7 ,economy of labor1 the conveyance to and removal from1 the revolving furnace being conducted automatically by mechanical elevators and conveyers4 7#g7 ,improved quality of the cement1 from non-mixture with fuel1 ash1 or other impurities1 and no overburning or underburning of the material4 7#h7 ,thorough control1 from the facility of increasing or diminishing the flow of crushed slurry and of regulating the heat in the furnace as desirable4 7#i7 ,absence of smoke and deleterious gases4 ,it is well known that in some localities the materials from which ,portland cement is made are of such a powdery character that they have to be combined or moulded into balls or bricks previous to calcination in the ordinary way1 thus entailing expense which would be entirely obviated by the adoption of the patent revolving furnace1 as has been proved by the author in producing excellent cement with a mixture of slag sand from the blast furnaces of the ,cleveland iron district1 with a proper proportion of chalk or limestone1 which1 in consequence of the friable nature of the compound1 he was unable to burn in the ordinary cement kiln1 but which1 when burnt in the revolving furnace1 gave the most satisfactory results4 ,the cement so made possessed extraordinary strength and hardness1 and it has been a matter of surprise that iron masters and others have not adopted such a means of converting a waste material--which at the present time entails upon its producers constant heavy outlay for its removal--into a remunerative branch of industry by the expenditure of a comparatively small amount of capital4 ,the demand for ,portland cement has increased and is still increasing at a rapid ratio4 ,it is being manufactured upon a gigantic scale4 ,great interests are involved2 large sums of money are being expended in the erection and maintenance of expensive plant for its production2 and the author submits that the development of any method which will improve the quality and at the same time reduce the cost of manufacture of this valuable material will tend to increase the prosperity of one of our great national industries1 and stimulate commercial enterprise4 ,works are in progress for manufacturing cement by this improved process1 and the author trusts the time is not far distant when the unsightly structures which now disfigure the banks of some of our rivers will be abolished--the present cement kilns1 like the windmills once such a common feature of our country1 being regarded as curiosities of the past1 and cement manufacturers cease to be complained of as causing nuisances to their neighbors4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,mix ,,and ,,genest',s ,,microphone ,,telephone4 ,we illustrate in the annexed engraving the microphone-telephone constructed by ,messrs4 ,mix ,genest1 of ,berlin1 which1 after extended trials1 has been adopted in preference to others by the imperial postal department of ,germany4 ,there are now more than #e1jjj of these instruments in use1 and we need scarcely mention that the invention has been patented in many countries4 ,in some microphones a rattling noise is frequently occasioned1 which borne along with the sound of the human voice causes an audible disturbance in the telephone4 ,the chief cause of these disturbances may be ascribed to the fact that the carbon rollers in their journals1 rest loose in the flutings of the beam1 which is fastened to the sound plate4 ,owing to the shocks given to the entire apparatus1 and independent of the oscillations of the sound plate1 they are set in motion and roll to and fro in their bearings4 ,in microphones in which the sound plates are arranged vertically 7as shown in ,fig4 #b71 these disturbances assume such a character that there is no possibility of understanding the speaker1 for in this case the horizontally directed oscillations of the sound plate1 m1 cause themselves a backward and forward motion on the part of the carbon rollers without increasing or decreasing at the same time the lying-on pressure of the roller journals1 and by doing so bring the places of contact one on the other1 and thus occasion a conducting resistance of greater or less force4 ,this circumstance serves as an explanation of the reason why the sound plates in ,ader's microphones are not arranged vertically1 although this way of arranging them offers many advantages over a horizontal or slightly inclined arrangement of the sound plates4 ,speaking is more convenient in the vertical arrangement1 and moreover the plates can be fitted on to instruments better in this way4 ,all the drawbacks just enumerated and found in ,ader's microphones are avoided in the apparatus made by ,messrs4 ,mix ,genest4 ,a sort of braking contrivance operates on the carbon rollers in such a way as to prevent their journals from lying on the lower points in the flutings of the beams4 ,thus1 for instance1 if in a microphone with a horizontal sound plate1 as illustrated in ,fig4 #c1 the carbon rollers are pressed upward by outward force1 it is evident that only a very trifling rolling and disturbing motion can occur1 and only small pieces of carbon can be knocked off1 which would act injuriously as a secondary contact4 ,the same may be said of the journals of microphones with vertical sound plates1 as represented in ,fig4 #b1 when the carbon rollers are pressed in the direction of the arrow1 p1 that is to say1 against the sound plate4 ,in this case the journals1 a1 are fixed in the flutings of the beams1 b1 in a direction given them by the power and gravity operating on them1 which is clearly represented in the accompanying design1 ,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,the ,,mix ,,and ,,genest ,,telephone ,in all such cases the regulating contrivance applied to brake the carbon rollers in their motion has the result that only the oscillations transmitted from the sound plate on to the contacts come in operation1 whereas disturbing mechanical shocks resulting from any outward influences occasion very insignificant vibrations1 which are not perceptible in the telephone4 ,the separate contacts thus form a firm system with the sound plate1 so that the former are influenced in their motions and effects solely and alone by the shocks and oscillations which operate direct on these sound plates4 ,the roller motion of the carbon is thus removed1 and the distinctness of the words spoken is greatly augmented4 ,the above ,figs4 #a and #b show the microphone in side view and in cross section4 ,a metal ring1 ,r 7see ,fig4 #a71 is fastened by means of the four screws1 r#a r#b r#c r#d1 on a wooden mouthpiece4 ,in a recess of the above ring is the diaphragm1 ,m1 which is provided on its outer edge with an ,india rubber band and is held in position by the two clamps1 a and a#a4 ,the diaphragm is cut out of finely fibered firwood and is well lacquered to preserve it against dampness4 ,on it there are two carbon beams1 b1 and in the perforations of the latter are the journals of the carbon rollers1 k4 ,the alterations in contact take place in the touching points4 ,the cross piece1 f1 that runs straight across the carbon rollers serves as a braking contrivance1 which is regulated as may be necessary by the large projecting screws4 ,fig4 #c shows the apparatus in cross section4 ,t is the mouth piece1 ,r the metal ring1 ,m the diaphragm1 f the breaking cross piece4 ,on the latter is a metal block fastened by means of two screws4 ,on this metal block is a soft elastic strip 7d7 of felt or similar material4 ,the letters s and s indicate the regulating screws for the braking contrivance4 ,the excellent qualities of other microphones1 in particular their extreme sensibility for the very least impressions1 are undeniable2 but it is just this sensibility that is the cause of the complaints made by the public4 ,in practical use this overgreat sensibility proves to be a fault4 ,in the apparatus constructed by ,messrs4 ,mix and ,genest the well-known deficiencies of other systems are avoided4 ,the effect of the sound and the distinctness of the human voice are clearer and far more intelligible4 ,one simple regulation of the microphone suffices for the installation1 for there is no danger of its getting out of order4 ,owing to its peculiar construction1 this new microphone is very firm and solid1 and for this very reason offers another advantage1 namely1 the possibility of transmitting sound over very long distances4 ,in the competitive trials instituted by order of the imperial postal department1 apparatus of various systems and constructions were subjected to tests1 and the apparatus we are speaking of showed the favorable results just mentioned4 ,this microphone has overcome in particular the difficulties connected with the using of combined lines above and below ground1 and with the aid of it the excellent telephonic communication is carried on in ,berlin1 in which city the telephone net is most extensive and complicated4 ,at the same time this microphone transmits the sound over long distances 7up to #bjj kilom4 even7 in the most satisfactory manner4 ,another peculiar advantage of this construction is that it exercises a very small inductive effect on cables and free lines1 and consequently the simultaneous speaking on parallel lines causes but little disturbance4 ,after repeated trials made by the ,german imperial postal department with the microphones constructed by ,messrs4 ,mix and ,genest1 these apparatus have been introduced in the place of the telephones and ,bell-,blake microphones hitherto used in the telephone service4 ,at present we understand there are about #h1jjj of these apparatus in use4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,electrolysis ,,and ,,refining ,,of ,,sugar4 ,mr4 ,g4 ,fahrig1 of ,eccles1 ,lancashire1 has invented a new process of refining sugar through electrolysis4 ,the brown sugar is decolorized by means of ozone produced by electric currents of high tension from a dynamo4 ,the electrodes consist of metal grills covered with platinum or some other inoxidizable metal1 and are placed in a vat with the intervention of perforated earthenware plates4 ,after being ground and dried in hot air1 the crude sugar is placed between the plate and the grills1 and the discharges passing between the electrodes produce ozone1 which separates the sugar from the coloring matter4 ,to purify the sugar still further1 ,mr4 ,fahrig dries it and places it in another vat1 with carbon or platinum conducting plates separated by a porous partition4 ,the sugar is placed on one side of this partition1 and water circulates on the other side4 ,the current from a dynamo of feeble tension is sent through the vat between the plates4 ,the water carries along the impurities separated by the current1 and the sugar is further whitened and refined4 ,illustration ,the accompanying figure shows a series of four vats arranged one above another1 in order to permit the water to circulate4 ,here i and h represent the plates connected with the poles of the dynamo through the conductors1 f and g2 m represents the porous partition2 ,l1 the spaces filled with sugar2 and l1 the compartments in which the water circulates4--,la ,lumiere ,electrique4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,electrician4 ,a ,,current ,,meter4 ,we give a description of a meter we made in ,june1 #ahhc4 ,you will find a cross section of the meter and also a printed dial we had made at the time4 ,we called it an ampere register1 but no doubt we would give it a better name to-day4 ,the meter consisted of a glass tube1 c1 both ends of which were fitted into two bent pieces of piping1 ,d and ,f1 as shown4 ,through these bent tubes1 ,d and ,f1 passed the wires1 a and b1 which were connected to the binding posts1 ,a and ,b4 ,the part of the wire where it passed into the tubes was well insulated4 ,at the ends1 a' and b'1 was connected the coil1 ,r1 which consisted simply of a few turns of copper wire whose diameter was less than the leading wires1 a and b4 ,to the tube1 ,d1 was attached a square tube1 ,e1 which had a little opening at the top so as to permit a small undershot wheel1 ,i1 to revolve freely4 ,this undershot wheel was well pivoted and constructed very light4 ,to the axis of this wheel was connected another system of wheels with indicators1 as shown1 ,j4 ,now the tubes1 ,e and ,f1 were connected to a reservoir1 ,g4 ,this reservoir consisted of a square tank1 in the inside of which were soldered in an alternating manner square sheets of copper as shown in the drawing1 g g' g'' g''' 444 ,these sheets acted as diffusers4 ,these plates or sheets presented a very large surface4 ,on the outside of the tank1 ,g1 were also diffusers1 h h' 444 arranged all round and presenting an appearance as if two books were open so as to form a square with their covers1 the leaves being the diffusers4 ,the diffusers on the outside were at right angles to those inside4 ,illustration3 ,,cross ,,section ,,of ,,jehl ,,and ,,rupp',s ,,current ,,meter4 ,the action of the meter was thus3 ,when a current passes through the coil1 ,r1 it heats the liquid at the place1 thus causing a circulation1 the warm liquid ascending while the cold liquid descends as shown by the arrows4 ,this circulation causes the undershot wheel to revolve1 and its revolutions are registered by the clockwork4 ,the stronger the current1 the more the heat1 and thus the more rapid the circulation4 ,the warm liquid once in the tank1 which is of a reasonable size1 will impart its heat to all the diffusers4 ,the surface of the glass tube1 etc41 is very small in comparison to the surface of the tank4 ,it will be seen that the function of this apparatus is independent of the outward temperature1 for the motion of the liquid is due only to that heat which is generated by the current4 ,when the current does not pass1 it is evident that the liquid1 at whatever temperature it may be1 does not circulate1 as all parts are of the same temperature2 but the moment the current passes1 a difference is produced1 which causes a circulation in proportion to the current4 ,we may mention that we tried various liquids1 and give preference to pure olive oil4 ,it will also be seen that this meter is good for alternating currents4 ,in conclusion1 we may remark that the tests we made gave satisfaction1 and we wanted to publish them1 but that ,mr4 ,jehl was called away to fit up the ,edison exhibit in the ,vienna exhibition for the ,societe ,electrique ,edison of ,paris4 ,after the exhibition we began our work upon our disk machine1 and had almost forgotten our meter4 ,the whole apparatus is mounted on a base1 ,k4 ,illustration3 ,,dial ,,face4 ,,jehl ,,and ,,rupp4 ,brnn1 ,sept4 #bf1 #ahhg4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,storage ,,batteries ,,for ,,electric ,,locomotion4#a ,footnote #a3 ,from a paper read before the ,national ,electric ,light ,association1 ,new ,york1 ,august1 #ahhg4 ,by ,a4 ,,reckenzaun4 ,the idea of employing secondary batteries for propelling vehicles is almost contemporaneous with the discovery of this method of storing energy4 ,to ,mr4 ,plante1 more than to any other investigator1 much of our knowledge in this branch of electrical science is due4 ,he was the first to take advantage of the action of secondary currents in voltaic batteries4 ,plante is a scientist of the first grade1 and he is a wonderfully exact experimenter4 ,he examined the whole question of polarization of electrodes1 using all kinds of metal as electrodes and many different liquids as electrolytes1 and during his endless researches he found that the greatest useful effect was produced when dilute sulphuric acid was electrolyzed between electrodes of metallic lead4 ,a set of ,plante's original cells was exhibited for the first time in ,march1 #ahfj1 before the ,paris ,academy of ,sciences4 ,scientists admired and praised it1 but the general public knew nothing of this great discovery thus brought to notice4 ,indeed1 at that period little commercial value could be attached to such apparatus1 since the accumulator had to be charged by means of primary batteries1 and it was then well known that electrical energy1 when produced by chemical means in voltaic cells1 was far too expensive for any purpose outside the physical laboratory or the telegraph office4 ,it was twenty years after this exhibition at the ,academy of ,sciences in ,paris that public attention was drawn to the importance of storage batteries1 and that ,mr4 ,faure conceived the idea of constructing plates consisting of lead and oxides of lead4 ,at that time the advantages accruing through a system of electrical storage could be fully appreciated1 since electrical energy was already being produced by mechanical means through the medium of dynamo-electric machines4 ,it was the dynamo machine which created the demand for the storage battery1 and the latter was introduced anew to the public at large and to the capitalist with great pomp and enthusiasm4 ,one of ,faure's accumulators was sent to ,sir ,william ,thomson1 and this eminent scientist in the course of experiments ascertained that a single cell1 weighing #afe lb41 can store two million foot-pounds of energy1 or one horse power for one hour1 and that the loss of energy in charging did not exceed #ae per cent4 ,these results appeared highly encouraging4 ,there we had a method of storing that could give out the greater part of the energy put in4 ,the immense development which the electric transmission of energy was even at that early day expected to undergo pointed to the fact that a convenient method of receiving large quantities of transmitted energy1 and of holding it in readiness until wanted1 must be of the highest importance4 ,numerous applications of the ,faure battery were at once suggested1 and the public jumped to the conclusion that a thing for which so many uses could be instantly found must necessarily be a profitable investment1 and plenty of money was provided forthwith1 not with the idea of commencing careful experiments and developing the then crude invention1 which would have been the correct thing1 but for manufacturing tons of accumulators in their first and immature form4 ,i need not describe the disappointments which followed the first unfulfilled hopes1 nor repeat the criticism that was heaped upon the heads of the early promoters4 ,those early hopes were untimely and unreasonable4 ,a thousand difficulties had to be overcome--scientific difficulties and manufacturing difficulties4 ,this invention1 like most others1 had to go through steady historical developments and evolution1 and follow the recognized laws of nature1 which are against abnormal and instantaneous maturity4 ,the period of maturity has also been retarded by injudicious treatment1 but the ultimate success was inevitable4 ,great advances have been made within the last few years1 and ,i propose now to offer a few facts and figures relating to the present state of the subject with reference to the application of storage batteries to locomotive purposes4 ,it is not within the province of this paper to discuss all the different inventions of secondary batteries nor to offer any suggestions with regard to priority1 therefore ,i will confine myself to general statements4 ,i am aware of the good work that was done in the ,united ,states by ,kirchhoff twenty-six years ago1 and of the more recent work of ,mr4 ,brush1 of ,cleveland1 ,mr4 ,julien and others1 but ,i am more particularly acquainted with the recent achievements of the ,electrical ,accumulator ,company1 who own the rights of the ,electrical ,power ,storage ,company1 of ,london4 ,i have used the batteries of the latter company for propelling electric boats and electric street cars4 ,the first of the boats was the ,electricity1 which was launched in ,september1 #ahhb1 and which attained a speed of seven miles an hour for six consecutive hours4 ,since then a dozen electric boats of various sizes have been fitted up and worked successfully by means of storage batteries and motors of my design4 ,the most important of these were the launch ,volta and another similar craft1 which is used by the ,italian government for torpedo work in the harbor of ,spezia4 ,on the measured mile trial trips the ,italian launch gave an average speed of #h4dc miles an hour with and against the tide4 ,the hull of this vessel was built by ,messrs4 ,yarrow ,co41 and the motors were manufactured by ,messrs4 ,stephens1 ,smith ,co41 of ,london4 ,the ,volta1 which was entirely fitted by the latter firm1 is #cg feet long and #g feet beam4 ,she draws #b'f of water when carrying #dj persons1 for whom there is ample sitting accommodation4 ,there are #fd cells in this boat4 ,these are placed as ballast under the floor1 and actuate a pair of motors and a screw coupled direct to the armature shaft running at #gjj revolutions a minute4 ,we crossed the ,english ,channel with this boat in ,september of last year1 leaving ,dover at #aj3dj in the morning1 arriving at ,calais at #b3cj ,p4,m42 stayed about an hour in the ,french harbor for luncheon and floated into ,dover docks the same evening1 at #f3cj1 with full speed4 ,the actual distance traversed without entirely discharging the cells was #ed miles4 ,the current remained constant at #bh amperes until #e ,p4,m41 and it only dropped to #be amperes at the completion of the double voyage between ,england and ,france4 ,several electric launches are now being constructed in ,london1 and one in ,new ,york by the ,electrical ,accumulator ,company4 ,m4 ,trouve exhibited a small boat and a tricycle1 both worked by ,plante accumulators1 at ,paris1 in #ahha4 ,the first locomotive actuated by storage batteries was used at a bleaching works in ,france in #ahhb4 ,during the same year ,i designed an electric street car for the storage company1 and this was tried on the lines of the ,west ,metropolitan ,tramways in ,march1 #ahhc4 ,it had accommodation for #df passengers4 ,this car had many defects1 and ,i reconstructed it entirely1 and ran it afterward in its improved form on the ,south ,london ,tramways1 and also on a private track at ,millwall1 where it is now in good condition1 and ,i have a similar car in ,berlin4 ,m4 ,phillippart exhibited a car in ,paris and ,m4 ,julien made successful experiments in ,brussels1 ,antwerp1 and ,hamburg4 ,mr4 ,elieson is running storage battery locomotives in ,london4 ,mr4 ,julien has also been experimenting with a car in ,new ,york1 and ,i believe one is in course of construction for a line in the city of ,boston4 ,messrs4 ,w4 ,wharton1 ,jr4 ,co4 have a storage battery car running at ,philadelphia on ,spruce and ,pine streets1 and this energetic firm is now fitting up another car with two trucks1 each carrying an independent motor1 similar to my ,european cars4 ,i have mentioned all these facts in order to show that there is a considerable amount of activity displayed in the matter of storage batteries for street cars1 and that continued and substantial progress is being made in each successive case4 ,the prejudices against the application of secondary batteries are being rapidly dispelled1 and there are indications everywhere that this method of propulsion will soon take a recognized place among the great transit facilities in the ,united ,states4 ,i feel convinced that this country will also in this respect be far ahead of ,europe before another year has passed over our heads4 ,there are several popular and ,i may say serious objections to the employment of storage batteries for propelling street cars4 ,these objections ,i will now enumerate1 and endeavor to show how far they are true1 and in what measure they interfere with the economical side of the question4 ,first objection3 ,the loss of energy1 which amounts in practice to #bj and sometimes #cj per cent4 ,now1 every method of storing or transmitting energy involves some waste1 but in saying this we need not condemn the system1 for after all the term efficiency is only a relative one4 ,for instance1 a #aj horse power steam engine consumes three times as much fuel per horse power hour as a #a1jjj horse power engine does1 yet this small engine must be1 and is regarded as1 one of the most economical labor-saving appliances known to us4 ,considered as a heat engine1 the efficiency of the most economical steam motor is but ten per cent4--#ij per cent of the available units of heat contained in coal being lost during its transformation into mechanical energy4 ,thus1 if we find that the storage battery does not return more than #gj per cent1 of the work expended in charging it1 we ought not to condemn it on that account until we have ascertained whether this low efficiency renders the system unfit for any or all commercial purposes4 ,it is needless to go into figures in order to show that1 when compared with animal power1 this objection drops into insignificance4 ,the second1 more formidable1 objection relates to the weight of storage batteries--and this involves two disadvantages1 viz41 waste of power in propelling the accumulator along with the car1 and increased pressure upon the street rails1 which are only fitted to carry a maximum of #e tons distributed over #d points1 so that each wheel of an ordinary car produces a pressure of #a tons upon a point of the rail immediately under it4 ,the last mentioned objection is easily overcome by distributing the weight of the car with its electrical apparatus over #h wheels or #b small trucks1 whereby the pressure per unit of section on the rails is reduced to a minimum4 ,with regard to the weight of the storage batteries1 relatively to the amount of energy the same are capable of holding and transmitting1 ,i beg to offer a few practical figures4 ,theoretically1 the energy manifested in the separation of one pound of lead from its oxide is equivalent to #cfj1jjj foot pounds1 but these chemical equivalents1 though interesting in themselves1 gives us no tangible idea of the actual capacity of a battery4 ,repeated experiments have shown me that the capacity of a secondary battery cell varies with the rate at which it is charged and discharged4 ,for instance1 a cell such as we use on street cars gave a useful capacity of #acg4c ampere hours when discharged at the average rate of #de4gf amperes1 and this same cell yielded #aef4ch ampere hours when worked at the rate of #bb4cd amperes4 ,at the commencement of the discharge the ,e4,m4,f of the battery was #b4a volts1 and this was allowed to drop to #a4hg volts when the experiment was concluded4 ,the entire active material contained in the plates of one cell weighed #aa4e lb41 therefore the energy given off per pound of active substance at the above high rate of discharge was #fb4bbe foot pounds1 and when discharging at the lower rate of #bb4cd amperes the available useful energy was #gb4cac foot pounds1 or nearly #b4b electrical horse power per pound of active matter4 ,but this active substance has to be supported1 and the strength or weight of the support has to be made sufficiently great to give the plate a definite strength and durability4 ,the support of the plates inclusive of the terminals above referred to weighs more than the active material1 which consists of peroxide of lead and spongy lead2 so that the plates of one cell weigh actually #bf4e pounds4 ,add to this the weight of the receptacle and acid1 and you get a total of about #da pounds per cell when in working order4 ,seventy of these cells will propel an ordinary street car for four hours and a half1 while consuming the stored energy at the rate of #cj amperes1 or over #e4f electrical horse power4 ,the whole set of seventy cells weighs #b1hgj lb41 which is barely one-fifth of the entire weight of the car when it carries forty adult passengers4 ,therefore the energy wasted in propelling the accumulator along with a ear does not amount to more than #bj per cent4 of the total power1 and this we can easily afford to lose so long as animal power is our only competitor4 ,from numerous and exhaustive tests with accumulators on cars in this country and abroad1 ,i have come to the conclusion that the motive power for hauling a full-sized street car for fifteen hours a day does not exceed #a4ge1 and this includes fuel1 water1 oil1 attendance1 and repairs to engine1 boiler1 and dynamo4 ,we have thus an immense margin left between the cost of electric traction and horse traction1 and the last objection1 that relating to the depreciation of the battery plates1 can be most liberally met1 and yet leave ample profits over the old method of propulsion by means of animals4 ,the advantages of storage battery street cars for city traffic are self-evident1 so that ,i need not trouble you with further details in this respect1 but ,i would beg those who take an interest in the progress of the electric locomotive to give this subject all the consideration it deserves1 and ,i would assure them that the system which ,i have advocated in this brief but very incomplete sketch is worthy of an extended trial1 and ready for the purposes set forth4 ,there is no reason why those connected with electric lighting interests in the various cities and towns should not give the matter their special attention1 as they are the best informed on electrical engineering and already have a local control of the supply of current needed for charging4 ,in the car which we use in ,philadelphia there are actually #hj cells1 because there are considerable gradients to go over4 ,each cell weighs #dj pounds and the average horse power of each battery is six4 ,sometimes we only use two horse power and sometimes1 going up grades of #e per cent41 we use as much as #ab horse power1 but the average rate is #f electrical horse power4 ,with reference to the weight of passengers on the cars1 we have never carried more than #ej passengers on that car1 because it is impossible to put more than #ej men into it4 ,there are seats for #bd1 and the rest have to stand on the platforms or in the aisle4 ,the changing of the batteries takes three minutes with proper appliances4 ,one set of cells is drawn out by means of a small winch and a freshly charged set is put in4 ,it takes the same time to charge the battery as it does to discharge it in the working of the cars1 so one reserve set would be sufficient to keep the car continually moving4 ,the loss of energy from standing about is probably nothing4 ,if a battery were to stand charged for three months in a dry case1 the loss of energy might be in three months #aj per cent4 ,i purposely had a set of cells standing for two years charged and never used them4 ,after two years there was still a small amount of energy left4 ,so as regards the loss of energy in a battery standing idle1 it is practically nothing1 because no one would think of charging a battery and letting it stand for three months or a year4 ,i have had them stand three or four months and ,i could hardly appreciate the loss going on1 provided always that the cells are standing on a dry floor4 ,if the exterior of the box be moist1 or if it stands on a moist floor1 there will naturally be a surface leakage going on3 but where there is no surface leakage the mere local action between the oxides and metallic lead will not discharge the battery for a very considerable time4 ,i have made experiments in ,london with a loaded car pulled by two horses4 ,i put a dynamometer between the attachment of the horse and the car1 so as to ascertain exactly the amount of pull1 measured in pounds multiplied by the distance traversed in a minute4 ,you will be surprised to know that two horses1 when doing their easiest work1 drawing a loaded car on a perfectly level road1 exert from two to three horse power4 ,i have mentioned a car in ,philadelphia where we use between two and twelve horse power4 ,a horse is capable of exerting eight horse power for a few minutes1 and when a car is being driven up grades1 such as ,i see in ,boston1 for instance1 pulling a load of passengers up these grades1 the horses must be exerting from #ab to #af horse power1 mechanical horse power4 ,that is the reason that street car horses cannot run more than three or four hours out of the twenty-four4 ,if they were to run longer1 they would be dead in a few weeks4 ,if they run two hours a day1 they will last three or four years4 ,the life of the cells must be expressed upon the principle of ampere hours or the amount of energy given off by them4 ,street car service requires that the cells work their hardest for fifteen or sixteen hours a day4 ,the life of the cells has to be divided2 first1 into the life of the box which contains the plates4 ,this box1 if appropriately constructed of the best materials1 will last many years1 because there is no actual wear on it4 ,the life of the negative plates will be very considerable1 because no chemical action is going on in the negative plate4 ,the negative plate consists almost entirely of spongy lead1 and the hydrogen is mechanically occluded in that spongy lead4 ,therefore the depreciation of the battery is almost entirely due to the oxidation of the positive plates4 ,if we were to make a lead battery of plates inch thick1 it would last many years2 but for street car work that would be far too heavy4 ,therefore we make the positive plates a little more than one-eighth of an inch thick4 ,i find that the plates get sufficiently brittle to almost fall to pieces after the car has run fifteen hours a day for six months4 ,the plates then have to be renewed4 ,but this renewal does not mean the throwing away of the plates4 ,the weight is the same as before1 because no consumption of material takes place4 ,we take out peroxide of lead instead of red lead4 ,that peroxide1 if converted1 produces #gj per cent4 of metallic lead1 so that there is a loss of #cj per cent4 in value4 ,then comes the question of the manufacture of these positive plates1 which1 ,i believe1 at the present day are rather expensive4 ,but ,i believe the time will come when battery plates will be manufactured like shoe nails1 and the process of renewing the positive plates will be a very cheap one4 ,i ascertained in ,europe that the motive power costs #b cents per car mile2 that is1 the steam power and attendance for charging the batteries4 ,we have to allow twice as much for the depreciation of a battery at the present high rate at which we have to pay for the battery--#ab for each cell4 ,but ,i believe that as soon as the storage battery industry is sufficiently extended1 the total cost for propelling these cars will not be more than six cents a mile1 or about one half the cost of the cheapest horse traction4 ,i have made some very careful observations on the cable tramway in ,philadelphia1 which is quite an extensive system4 ,i have never been able to ascertain the exact amount of waste in pulling the cable itself2 but ,i have it on the authority of certain technical papers that there is a waste of about eighty per cent4 ,i do not intend to depreciate cable or any other tramways1 but there is a difficulty about introducing cable tramways4 ,it is necessary to dig up the streets and interfere with the roadways4 ,i have been told that the cable arrangements in ,philadelphia cost #ajj1jjj a mile1 and that the cable road in ,san ,francisco cost more than that4 ,one of the directors of the cable company in ,philadelphia told me that if he had seen the battery system before the introduction of the cable1 he would probably have made up his mind in favor of the former4 ,the wear and tear in the case of the storage system is also considerable4 ,there is a waste of energy in the dynamo2 secondly1 in the accumulator charged by that dynamo2 thirdly1 in the motor which is driven by the accumulator2 and fourthly1 in the gearing that reduces the speed of the motor to the speed required by the car axles4 ,it would be difficult to make a motor run at the rate of eighty revolutions per minute1 which is the number of revolutions of the street car axle when running at the rate of ten miles an hour4 ,take all these wastes1 and you find in practice that you do not utilize more than #dj per cent4 of the energy given by the steam engine4 ,but this is quite sufficient to make this system much cheaper than horse traction4 ,it is well known that we can discharge the storage battery ad libitum at the rate of #b amperes or #bjj amperes4 ,i can get out of a storage battery almost any horse power ,i like for a short space of time4 ,i have not the least objection to the direct system4 ,but when you come to run twenty or thirty or fifty cars on one line1 you will require very large conductors or dangerously high electromotive force4 ,the overhead system is applicable to its own particular purposes4 ,where there are only five or ten1 or even twenty1 cars running on one line1 and that line runs through a suburb or a part of a city where there are not many houses1 that system is to be preferred4 ,the objection to the overhead system is not so much the want of beauty1 but the want of practicability4 ,you have to put your posts very high indeed1 so as to let great wagon loads of hay and all sorts of things pass underneath4 ,most of the trouble comes in winter1 and when it is snowing hard a great many difficulties arise4 ,as regards the loss1 suppose that the resistance of the overhead lines is one ohm4 ,to draw one car it will take an average of #bj amperes1 and the only loss will be #bj multiplied by #bj1 that is1 #djj watts through line resistance4 ,but if there are ten cars on that line1 you get #dj1jjj watts loss of energy1 unless you increase the conductor in proportion to the number of cars4 ,if you do that1 you get an enormous conductor1 and have a sort of elevated railroad instead of a telegraph wire1 as most people imagine an overhead conductor to be4 ,the current required to run a street car is about thirty amperes1 and an electromotive force of about #ahj volts4 ,if cars are run in connection with an incandescent light station1 we can arrange our apparatus so that we can use an ,e4,m4,f4 say of #aaj volts1 and then we can put in a smaller number of cells with a larger capacity that will give a corresponding horse power4 ,we can charge such larger cells with #ej or #fj amperes instead of thirty4 ,in regard to arc lighting machinery1 the arc lighting dynamo should not be used to charge the accumulators4 ,they can be used1 but they require such constant attention as to make them impracticable4 ,we can only use shunt-wound dynamos conveniently for that purpose4 ,in regard to using two motors on a car1 there are several advantages in it4 ,i use two motors on all my cars in ,europe1 and always have done so from the beginning4 ,one of the advantages is that in case of an accident to one motor the other will bring the car home2 secondly1 with two motors we can vary the speed without changing the ,e4,m4,f4 of the battery4 ,if ,i want very much power1 ,i put two motors in parallel1 getting four times the power that ,i do with one machine1 and an intermediate power of two motors4 ,there is another advantage of having two motors1 and that is that we can use two driving axles instead of one1 and we can go up grades with almost double the facility that way1 because the adhesion would be double4 ,these are the main advantages arising from the use of two or more motors4 ,mr4 ,mailloux asked if ,i would give my experience in regard to the mechanical transmission between the motor and the car axle4 ,i have used almost everything that was known at the time1 but in order to give you a full and detailed account of the various modes of transmission which ,i have used ,i should have to give you figures to bear out certain experiments4 ,i should only be able to do that in a lecture of at least five hours' duration1 so ,i hope that you will kindly excuse me on that point4 ,with regard to the durability of plates1 ,i have taken into consideration fifteen hours a day4 ,in regard to the application of electrical brakes1 ,i will say that that was one of the first ideas that entered my head when ,i began to use electric motors1 and other people had that idea long before me4 ,i have used an electric brake1 using the motor itself as a brake--that is1 as the car runs down a grade by momentum1 it generates a current1 but this current cannot be used for recharging a battery4 ,it is utter nonsense to talk about that unless we have a steady grade four or five miles long4 ,the advantages are very small indeed1 and the complications which would be introduced by employing automatic cut-outs1 governors1 and so on1 would counterbalance anything that might be gained4 ,as regards going up an incline1 of course stopping and starting again has to be done often1 and anybody who at any time works cars by electricity1 whether they have storage batteries or not1 has to allow for sufficient motive power to overcome all the difficulties that any line might present4 ,one of the great mistakes which some of the pioneers in this direction made was that they did not put sufficient power upon the cars4 ,you always ought to put on the cars power capable of exerting perhaps #bj to #dj per cent4 more than is necessary in the ordinary street service1 so that in case of the road being snowed up1 or in the case of any other accident which is liable to occur1 you ought to have plenty of power to get out of the scrape4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,bristol ,,cathedral4 ,illustration3 ,,bristol ,,cathedral4 ,an ,augustinian monastery1 founded by ,robert ,fitzhardinge in #aadb1 had its church1 of ,norman architecture1 to which additions were made in the early ,english period4 ,when ,edmund ,knowle was abbot1 from #acjf to #accb1 the ,norman choir was replaced by that which now exists4 ,his successor1 ,abbot ,snow1 built the chapels on the south side of the choir4 ,abbot ,newland1 between #adha and #aeae1 enriched the transepts with a groined roof and with ornamental work of the decorated ,gothic style1 and erected the central tower4 ,abbot ,elliott1 who followed ,newland1 removed the ,norman nave and aisles1 intending to rebuild them2 but this was prevented by his death in #aebf and by the dissolution of the monastery a few years afterward2 he completed1 however1 the vaulting of the south transept4 ,the church remained with a nave1 and otherwise incomplete1 until the modern restorations2 after which1 in #ahgg1 it was reopened with a special service4 ,messrs4 ,pope ,bindon1 of ,bristol1 were the architects employed4 ,the exterior1 of which we give an illustration1 viewed from ,st4 ,augustine's ,green1 or ,upper ,college ,green1 is not very imposing2 from the ,lower ,green there is a good view of the central tower and the transept4 ,the height of the tower is but #abg ft4 ,it is of perpendicular ,gothic architecture1 but the piers supporting it are ,norman4 ,the interior presents many features of interest4 ,the clustered triple shafts of the piers in the choir1 with their capitals of graceful foliage1 the lofty pointed arches between them1 and the groined vaulting1 have much beauty4 ,the chancel is decorated with tracery of a peculiar pattern4 ,the ,abbey of ,st4 ,augustine at ,bristol was surrendered to ,king ,henry ,,viii4 in #aech1 and became1 in #aedb1 the cathedral of the new ,episcopal see then created4 ,the first ,bishop of ,bristol1 ,paul ,bush1 was deprived of his see by ,queen ,mary1 being a married clergyman and refusing to part with his wife4 ,bishop ,fletcher1 in ,queen ,elizabeth's time1 afterward ,bishop of ,worcester and of ,london1 was twice married1 at which this queen likewise expressed her displeasure4 ,he was father of ,fletcher1 the dramatic poet2 and he is said to have been one of the first ,english smokers of tobacco4 ,among noted ,bishops of ,bristol were ,bishop ,lake1 afterward of ,chichester1 and ,bishop ,trelawny 7,sir ,jonathan ,trelawny1 ,bart41 of ,cornwall71 two of the seven bishops2 imprisoned for disobeying an illegal order of ,james ,,ii4 ,and shall ,trelawny die8 ,then twenty thousand ,cornishmen will know the reason why4 ,but the most eminent was ,bishop ,joseph ,butler1 the author of ,the ,analogy of ,natural and ,revealed ,religion and of the ,sermons on ,human ,nature4 ,he was born at ,wantage1 in ,berkshire1 and was educated as a ,nonconformist4 ,he was ,bishop of ,bristol from #agch to #agej1 when he was translated to ,durham4 ,in #ahcf1 the see of ,bristol was joined with that of ,gloucester2 and the ,right ,rev4 ,drs4 ,j4,h4 ,monk1 ,o4 ,baring1 ,w4 ,thomson 7now ,archbishop of ,york71 and ,c4,j4 ,ellicott have been ,bishops of ,gloucester and ,bristol4--,illustrated ,london ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,waves4 ,in the first days of ,august1 two startling announcements reached us from the ,united ,states4 ,they were as follows3 7#a47 ,the commander of the ,cunarder ,umbria reports that at #c o'clock on ,july #bg1 about #a1ejj miles from ,sandy ,hook1 the vessel was struck by a tidal wave #ej ft4 high1 which swept the decks1 carried away a portion of the bridge and the forward hatch1 and flooded the cabins and steerage4 7#b47 ,the captain of the ,wilson line steamer ,martello reports that at half-past #h on the evening of ,july #be1 when in lat4 #di #c' ,n41 long4 #ca ,w41 an enormous wave struck the vessel1 completely submerging the decks4 ,in view of these reports1 and inasmuch as questions were asked on the subject in ,parliament1 though it is quite possible that1 as regards the tidal character of the waves1 there may be something of newspaper gobemoucherie in the announcements1 we offer a few remarks on waves in general1 which may be useful to some of our readers4 ,tidal phenomena present themselves under two aspects3 as alternate elevations and depressions of the sea and as recurrent inflows and outflows of streams4 ,careful writers1 however1 use the word tide in strict reference to the changes of elevation in the water1 while they distinguish the recurrent streams as tidal currents4 ,hence1 also1 rise and fall appertain to the tide1 while flood and ebb refer to the tidal current4 ,the cause of the tides is the combined action of the sun and moon4 ,the relative effects of these two bodies on the oceanic waters are directly as their mass and inversely as the square of their distance2 but the moon1 though small in comparison with the sun1 is so much nearer to the earth that she exerts the greater influence in the production of the great tide wave4 ,thus the mean force of the moon1 as compared with that of the sun1 is as #b to #a4 ,the attractive force of the moon is most strongly felt by those parts of the ocean over which she is vertical1 and they are1 consequently1 drawn toward her4 ,in the same manner1 the influence of the luminary being less powerfully exerted on the waters furthest from her than on the earth itself1 they must remain behind4 ,by these means1 at the two opposite sides of the earth1 in the direction of the straight line between the centers of the earth and moon1 the waters are simultaneously raised above their mean level2 and the moon1 in her progressive westerly motion1 as she comes to each meridian in succession1 causes two uprisings of the water--two high tides--the one when she passes the meridian above1 the other when she crosses it below2 and this is done1 not by drawing after her the water first raised1 but by raising continually that under her at the time2 this is the tide wave4 ,in a similar manner 7from causes already referred to7 the sun produces two tides of much smaller dimensions1 and the joint effect of the action of the two luminaries is this1 that instead of four separate tides resulting from their separate influence1 the sun merely alters the form of the wave raised by the moon2 or1 in other words1 the greater of the two waves 7which is due to the moon7 is modified in its height by the smaller 7sun's7 wave4 ,when the summit of the two happens to coincide1 the summit of the combined wave will be at the highest4 ,when the hollow of the smaller wave coincides with the summit of the larger1 the summit of the combined wave will be at the lowest4 ,it is necessary to have a clear and distinct conception of the difference between the motion of a wave and that of a current4 ,in the current there is a transfer of water2 in the wave the transfer is no more than would be brought about by a particle of water impinging on another where that particle has a motion perpendicular to the surface1 and a rising and falling results4 ,the onward movement of the wave itself is always perceptible enough4 ,that the water is not moving with the same velocity is also evident from watching the progress of any light body floating on its surface4 ,this fact may be practically illustrated in the case of a ship at sea1 sailing before the wind in the same direction as the waves are moving4 ,when the crest of a wave is near the stern1 drop a piece of wood on it4 ,almost instantly the wave will be seen shooting ahead of the vessel1 while the wood is scarcely removed from the position where it fell on the water4 ,the wave has moved onward1 preserving its identity as a wave1 the water of which it is formed being constantly changed2 and thus the motion of the wave is one thing1 that of the water in which the waves are formed is quite another thing4 ,again1 waves are formed by a force acting horizontally2 but in the case of the tide wave1 that force acts uniformly from the surface to the lowest depths of the ocean1 and the breadth of the wave is that curved surface which1 commencing at low water1 passes over the summit of the tide down to the next low water--this is a wave of the first order4 ,in waves of the second order1 the force raising them acts only on the surface1 and there the effect is greatest 7as in the wind waves7--where one assists in giving to the water oscillating motion which maintains the next1 and gradually puts the whole surface in commotion2 but at a short distance down that effect entirely disappears4 ,if the earth presented a uniform globe1 with a belt of sea of great and uniform depth encircling it round the equator1 the tide wave would be perfectly regular and uniform4 ,its velocity1 where the water was deep and free to follow the two luminaries1 would be #a1jjj miles an hour1 and the height of tide inconsiderable4 ,but even the ,atlantic is not broad enough for the formation of a powerful tide wave4 ,the continents1 the variation in the direction of the coast line1 the different depths of the ocean1 the narrowness of channels1 all interfere to modify it4 ,at first it is affected with only a slight current motion toward the west--a motion which only acquires strength when the wave is heaped up1 as it were1 by obstacles to its progress1 as happens to it over the shallow parts of the sea1 on the coasts1 in gulfs1 and in the mouths of rivers4 ,thus the first wave advancing meets in its course with resistance on the two sides of a narrow channel1 it is forced to rise by the pressure of the following waves1 whose motion is not at all retarded1 or certainly less so than that of the first wave4 ,thus an actual current of water is produced in straits and narrow channels2 and it is always important to distinguish between the tide wave1 as bringing high water1 and the tidal stream--between the rise and fall of the tide and the flow and ebb4 ,in the open ocean1 and at a distance from the land1 the tide wave is imperceptible1 and the rise and fall of the water is small4 ,among the islands of the ,pacific four to six feet is the usual spring rise4 ,but the range is considerably affected by local causes1 as by the shoaling of the water and the narrowing of the channel1 or by the channel opening to the free entrance of the tide wave4 ,in such cases the range of tide is #dj to #ej feet or more1 and the tidal stream is one of great velocity4 ,it may under such circumstances even present the peculiar phenomenon called the bore--a wave that comes rolling in with the first of flood1 and1 with a foaming crest1 rushes onward1 threatening destruction to shipping1 and sweeping away all impediments lying in its course4 ,it is certain that in the open ocean the great tide wave could not be recognized as a wave1 since it is merely a temporary alteration of the sea level4 ,waves which have their origin in the action of the wind striking the surface of the water commence as a series of small and slow undulations or wavelets--a mere ripple4 ,as the strength1 and consequently the pressure1 of the wind increases1 waves are formed2 and a numerical relation exists between the length of a wave1 its velocity of progress1 and the depth of the water in which it travels4 ,the height of a wave is measured from trough to crest2 and though waves as seen from the deck of a small vessel appear to be enormous and overwhelming1 their height1 in an ordinary gale1 in deep water1 does not exceed #ae to #bj feet4 ,in a very heavy gale of some days' continuance they will1 of course1 be much higher4 ,scoresby has observed them #cj ft4 high in the ,north ,atlantic2 and ,ross measured waves of #bb ft4 in the ,south ,atlantic4 ,wilkes records #cb ft4 in the ,pacific4 ,but the highest waves have been reported off the ,cape of ,good ,hope and ,cape ,horn1 where they have been observed1 on rare occasions1 from #cj to #dj ft high2 and #cf ft4 has been given as the admeasurement in the ,bay of ,biscay1 under very exceptional circumstances4 ,in the voyage round the world the ,venus and ,bonite record a maximum of #bg ft41 while the ,novara found the maximum to be #ce ft4 ,but waves of #ab to #ad ft4 in shallow seas are often more trying than those of larger dimensions in deeper water4 ,it is generally assumed that a distance from crest to crest of #aej to #cej ft4 in the storm wave gives a velocity 7in the change of form7 of from #ag to #bh miles per hour4 ,but what is required in the computation of the velocity is the period of passage between two crests4 ,thus a distance of #ejj to #fjj ft4 between two crests1 and a period of #aj to #aa seconds1 indicates a velocity of #cd miles per hour4 ,the following table1 by ,sir ,g4,b4 ,airy 7late ,astronomer ,royal71 shows the velocities with which waves of given lengths travel in water of certain depth3 ,depth of ,length of the ,wave in ,feet4#a the ,water in ,feet4 #aj #ajj #a1jjj #aj1jjj #ajj1jjj #a1jjj1jjj #aj1jjj1jjj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,corresponding ,velocity of ,wave per ,hour in ,nautical ,miles4 #a #c4b #c4d #c4d #c4d #c4d #c4d #c4d #aj #d4c #aj4a #aj4g #aj4h #aj4h #aj4h #aj4h #ajj #d4c #ac4e #cb4j #cd4j #cd4j #cd4j #cd4j #a1jjj #d4c #ac4e #db4i #aja4h #ajg4e #ajg4e #ajg4e #aj1jjj #d4c #ac4e #db4i #ace4g #cbj4c #cdj4j #cdj4c #ajj1jjj #d4c #ac4e #db4i #ace4g #dbi4c #ajac4j #ajge4c ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,footnote #a3 ,as an example1 this table shows that waves #a1jjj feet in length travel #dc nautical miles per hour in water #a1jjj feet deep4 ,the length is measured from crest to crest4 ,from these numbers it appears that-- #a4 ,when the length of the wave is not greater than the depth of the water1 the velocity of the wave depends 7sensibly7 only on its length1 and is proportional to the square root of its length4 #b4 ,when the length of the wave is not less than a thousand times the depth of the water1 the velocity of the wave depends 7sensibly7 only on the depth1 and is proportional to the square root of the depth4 ,it is1 in fact1 the same as the velocity which a free body would acquire by falling from rest under the action of gravity through a height equal to half the depth of the water4 ,rollers are of the nature of a violent ground swell1 and possibly the worst of them may be due to the propagation of an earthquake wave4 ,they come with little notice1 and rarely last long4 ,all the small islands in the ,mid-,atlantic experience them1 and they are frequent on the ,african coast in the calm season4 ,they are also not unknown in the other oceans4 ,in discussing the meteorology of the equatorial district of the ,atlantic1 extending from lat4 #bj to #aj ,s1 ,captain ,toynbee observes that swells of the sea are not always caused by the prevailing wind of the neighborhood4 ,for instance1 during the northern winter and spring months1 northwesterly swells abound4 ,they are sometimes long and heavy1 and extend to the most southern limit of the district4 ,again1 during the southern winter and spring months1 southerly and southwesterly swells abound1 extending at times to the most northern limit of the district4 ,they are frequently very heavy and long4 ,the great forced sea waves1 due to earthquakes1 and generally to subterranean and volcanic action1 have been known to attain the enormous height of #fj feet or more1 and sweep to destruction whole towns situated on the shores where they have broken--as for example ,lisbon and places on the west coast of ,america and in the island of ,java4 ,though so destructive when they come in toward the land1 and begin to feel the shelving sea bottom1 it is not probable that1 in the open ocean1 this wave would do more than appear as a long rolling swell4 ,it has1 however1 been observed that a wave with a gentle front has probably been produced by gentle rise or fall of a part of the sea bottom1 while a wave with a steep front has probably been due to a somewhat sudden elevation or depression4 ,waves of complicated surface form again would indicate violent oscillations of the bottom4 ,the altitude and volume of the great sea wave resulting from an earthquake depend upon the suddenness and extent of the originating disturbance and upon the depth of water at its origin4 ,its velocity of translation at the surface of the sea varies with the depth of the sea at any given point1 and its form and dimensions depend upon this also1 as well as upon the sort of sea room it has to move in4 ,in deep ocean water1 one of these waves may be so long and low as to pass under a ship without being observed1 but1 as it approaches a sloping shore1 its advancing slope becomes steeper1 and when the depth of water becomes less than the altitude of the wave1 it topples over1 and comes ashore as an enormous and overwhelming breaker4 ,lastly1 there is the storm wave--the result of the cyclone or hurricane--and1 perhaps1 the greatest terror to seamen1 for it almost always appears in the character of a heavy cross sea1 the period of which is irregular and uncertain4 ,the disturbance within the area of the cyclone is not confined to the air1 but extends also to the ocean1 producing first a rolling swell1 which eventually culminates in a tremendous pyramidal sea and a series of storm waves1 the undulations of which are propagated to an extraordinary distance1 behind1 before1 and on each side of the storm field4 ,enough has now been said to show that whatever the character of the waves encountered by the ,umbria and ,martello in ,july last1 they were in no sense tidal1 but1 if approximating to the dimensions stated1 they were either due to storm or earthquake1 or1 possibly1 to a combination of both the last agents4 ,for those of our readers who may be interested in wave observations1 we conclude by introducing ,prof4 ,stokes' summary of the method of observing the phenomenon3 ,for a ,ship at ,sea4 7#a47 ,the apparent periodic time1#b observed as if the ship were at rest4 7#b47 ,the true direction from which the waves come1 also the ship's true course and speed per hour4 7#c47 ,a measure or estimate of the height of the waves4 7#d47 ,the depth of the sea if it is known1 but1 at any rate1 the position of the ship as near as possible1 either by cross bearings of land or any other method1 so that the depth may be got from charts or other sources4 ,for a ,ship at ,anchor4 7#a47 ,the periodic time4 7#b47 ,the true direction from which the waves come4 7#c47 ,a measure or estimate of the height of the waves4 7#d47 ,the depth of water where she is anchored4 ,footnote #b3 ,the period of a wave is the interval of time which elapses between the transits of two successive wave crests past a stationary floating body1 the wave crest being the highest line along the ridge4 ,it is the opinion of scientists that when the period of oscillation of the ship and the period of the wave are nearly the same1 the turning over of the ship is an approximate consequence1 and thus the wave to such a ship would appear more formidable than to another ship with a different period of oscillation4--,nautical ,magazine4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,practical ,,education4 ,it is now recognized that one of the elements in which the public school systems of the ,united ,states are most lacking is in the practical branches in teaching trades and industry4 ,there is too much book learning1 too little practical education4 ,throughout the continent of ,europe there are trade and industrial schools which have accomplished much in turning out skilled workmen for the various branches of industry4 ,here we have one4 ,our deficiency in this matter was recognized by the late commissioner of education1 and attention called to it in several of his reports1 and a number of the ,state superintendents of education have also urged the establishment of manual or training schools as a part of the ,state systems4 ,we have such an institution here in the ,tulane ,manual ,school4 ,in ,philadelphia1 ,cleveland1 and ,chicago1 the system has been adopted on a large scale1 and made part of the high school course4 ,another city which has inaugurated the manual training school as a part of its public schools is ,toledo1 ,o4 ,a rich citizen of that town1 who recently died1 left a large sum for the establishment of a university of arts and trades4 ,instead of founding a separate university1 however1 the money was applied to the establishment of manual schools in connection with the public schools1 for both boys and girls4 ,the course of girls' work given will afford some idea of what it is proposed to do4 ,this begins with the senior grammar school grade and continues three years in high school4 ,it includes free hand1 mechanical1 and architectural drawing1 light carpentry1 wood carving1 designing for wood carving1 wood turning1 clay moulding1 decorative designing1 etc4 ,but more practical than these things are the lessons in cooking1 sewing1 and household management4 ,the course in domestic economy is arranged with special reference to giving young women such a liberal and practical education as will inspire them with a belief in the dignity and nobleness of an earnest womanhood1 and incite them to a faithful performance of the every day duties of life4 ,it is based upon the assumption that a pleasant home is an essential element of broad culture1 and one of the surest safeguards of morality and virtue4 ,the report of the school also remarks that the design of this course is to furnish thorough instruction in applied housekeeping1 and the sciences related thereto1 and students will receive practical drill in all branches of housework2 in the purchase and care of family supplies1 and in general household management2 but will not be expected to perform more labor than is actually necessary for the desired instruction4 ,a special branch which will be well received is that which proposes to teach the girls how to cook4 ,the curriculum is one that every housekeeper ought to go through4 ,boiling--,practical illustrations of boiling and steaming1 and treatment of vegetables1 meats1 fish1 and cereals1 soup making1 etc4 ,broiling--,lessons and practice in meat1 chicken1 fish1 oysters1 etc4 ,bread ,making--,chemical and mechanical action of materials used4 ,manipulations in bread making in its various departments4 ,yeasts and their substitutes4 ,baking--,heat in its action on different materials in the process of baking4 ,practical experiments in baking bread1 pastry1 puddings1 cakes1 meat1 fish1 etc4 ,frying--,chemical and mechanical principles involved and illustrated in the frying of vegetables1 meats1 fish1 oysters1 etc4 ,mixing--,the art of making combinations1 as in soups1 salads1 puddings1 pies1 cakes1 sauces1 dressings1 flavorings1 condiments1 etc4 ,in marketing1 economy1 etc41 the course comprises general teaching on the following subjects3 ,the selection and purchase of household supplies4 ,general instructions in systematizing and economizing the household work and expenses4 ,the anatomy of animals used as food1 and how to choose the several parts4 ,lessons on the qualities of water and steam2 the construction of stoves and ranges2 the properties of different fuels4 ,again1 there is a dressmaking and millinery department1 where the girls are taught how to cut and make dresses and other garments1 and the economical and tasteful use of materials4 ,so much for the girls4 ,the courses in the boys' schools are somewhat similar1 turning1 however1 on the more practical instruction in trades and industries1 in carpentering1 wood and iron work1 etc4 ,the ,toledo experiment has been tried there but one year1 and has given general satisfaction4 ,the board of school directors has interested the public in its efforts1 and advisory committees of ladies and gentlemen have been appointed to assist in managing these schools4 ,it is to be hoped that other and larger cities will imitate ,toledo in the matter4 ,those philanthropists who are giving money so liberally for the establishment of institutions of higher learning might do much good in providing for manual training schools of this kind that will assure the country good housewives and skilled mechanics in the future4--,trustees' ,t4 ,jour4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,gigantic ,,load ,,of ,,lumber4 ,when it was announced in the ,lumberman that the barge ,wahnapit had carried a cargo of #b1aha1jjj feet of lumber1 letters were received asking if it was not a typographical error4 ,it was thought by many that no boat could carry such a load4 ,for the purpose of showing the barge on paper1 a photograph was obtained of her when loaded at ,duluth1 which is herewith reproduced4 ,the freight rate obtained to ,tonawanda was #c4ge a thousand1 which footed up to a total of #h1agh4ge ,the owners of the boat1 however1 were not satisfied with such a record1 and proceeded to break it by loading at ,duluth #b1dji1hjj feet of lumber1 which also went to ,tonawanda1 and which is put down as the biggest cargo of lumber on record4 ,at the latter place the cargo was unloaded on ,saturday afternoon and ,monday forenoon--one working day4 ,it will be readily understood that the money-making capacity of the barge is of the ,jumbo order also4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,barge ,,wahnapit1 ,,loaded ,,with #b1aha1jjj ,,feet ,,of ,,lumber4 ,the barge is owned by the ,saginaw ,lumber and ,salt ,company and the ,emery ,lumber ,company1 and cost #cj1jjj4 ,she is #bge feet long and #ea feet beam4 ,the lumber on her was piled #bb feet high and she drew #aa feet of water4 ,had she been #aj inches wider1 she could not have passed through the ,soo canal4 ,the boat was built on the ,saginaw river a year ago last winter1 and was designed for carrying logs from the ,georgian bay to the ,saginaw river and ,tawas mills4 ,the ,canadian government1 however1 increased the export duty on logs1 and the barge was put into the lumber-carrying trade--,n4,w4 ,lumberman4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,newbery-,,vautin ,,chlorination ,,process4 ,the process of extracting gold from ores by absorption of the precious metal in chlorine gas1 from which it is reduced to a metallic state1 is not a very new discovery4 ,it was first introduced by ,plattner many years ago1 and at that time promised to revolutionize the processes for gold extraction4 ,by degrees it was found that only a very clever chemist could work this process with practically perfect results1 for many reasons4 ,lime and magnesia might be contained in the quartz1 and would be attacked by the chlorine4 ,these consume the reagents without producing any results1 earthy particles would settle and surround the small gold and prevent chlorination1 then lead and zinc or other metals in combination with the gold would also be absorbed by the chlorine2 or1 again1 from some locally chemical peculiarity in the water or the ore1 gold held in solution by the water might be again precipitated in the tailings before filtration was complete1 and thus be lost4 ,henderson1 ,clark1 ,de ,lacy1 ,mears1 and ,deacon1 all introduced improvements1 or what were claimed to be improvements1 on ,plattner1 but these chiefly failed because they did not cover every particular variety of case which gold extraction presented4 ,therefore1 where delicate chemical operations were necessary for success1 practice generally failed from want of knowledge on the part of the operator1 and many times extensive plants have been pronounced useless from this cause alone4 ,hence it is not to be wondered that processes requiring such care and uncommon knowledge are not greatly in favor4 ,mr4 ,claude ,vautin1 a gentleman possessed of much practical experience of gold mining and extraction in ,queensland1 together with ,mr4 ,j4 ,cosmo ,newbery1 analytical chemist to the government of ,victoria1 have developed a process which they claim to combine all the advantages of the foregoing methods1 and by the addition of certain improvements in the machinery and mode of treatment to overcome the difficulties which have hitherto prevented the general adoption of the chlorination process4 ,by reference to the illustrations of the plant below1 the system by which the ore is treated can be readily understood4 ,the materials for treatment--crushed and roasted ore1 or tailings1 as the case may be--are put into the hopper above the revolving barrel1 or chlorinator4 ,this latter is made of iron1 lined with wood and lead1 and sufficiently strong to bear a pressure of #ajj lb4 to the square inch1 its capacity being about #cj cwt of ore4 ,the charge falls from the hopper into the chlorinator4 ,water and chlorine-producing chemicals are added--generally sulphuric acid and chloride of lime--the manhole cover is replaced and screwed down so as to be gas tight4 ,on the opposite side of the barrel there is a valve connected with an air pump1 through which air to about the pressure of four atmospheres is pumped in1 to liquefy the chlorine gas that is generated1 after which the valve is screwed down4 ,the barrel is then set revolving at about ten revolutions a minute1 the power being transmitted by a friction wheel4 ,according to the nature of the ore1 or the size of the grains of gold1 this movement is continued from one to four hours1 during which time the gold1 from combination with the chlorine gas1 has formed a soluble gold chloride1 which has all been taken up by the water in the barrel4 ,the chlorinator is then stopped1 and the gas and compressed air allowed to escape from the valve through a rubber hose into a vat of lime water4 ,this is to prevent the inhalation of any chlorine gas by the workmen4 ,the manhole cover is now removed and the barrel again set revolving1 by which means the contents are thrown automatically into the filter below4 ,this filter is an iron vat lined with lead4 ,it has a false bottom1 to which is connected a pipe from a vacuum pump working intermittently4 ,as soon as all the ore has fallen from the chlorinator into the filter1 the pump is set going1 a partial vacuum is produced in the chamber below the false bottom in the filter1 and very rapid filtration results4 ,by this means all the gold chlorides contained in the wet ore may be washed out1 a continual stream being passed through it while filtration is going on4 ,the solution running from the filter is continually tested1 and when found free from gold1 the stream of water is stopped1 as is also the vacuum pump4 ,the filter is then tipped up into a truck below1 and the tailings run out to the waste heap4 ,the process of washing and filtration occupies about an hour1 during which time another charge may be in process of treatment in the chlorinator above4 ,the discharge from the filter and the washings are run into a vat1 and from this they are allowed to pass slowly through a tap into a charcoal filter4 ,during the passage of the liquid through the charcoal filter1 the chloride of gold is decomposed and the gold is deposited on the charcoal1 which1 when fully charged1 is burnt1 the ashes are fused with borax in a crucible1 and the gold is obtained4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,newbery-,,vautin ,,chlorination ,,process4 ,we have specified above the objections to the old processes of chlorination1 so it may be fairly asked in what way the ,newbery-,vautin process avoids the various chemical actions which have hitherto proved so difficult to contend with4 ,for any system of chlorination yet introduced it is necessary to free the ore from sulphides4 ,this is done by roasting according to any of the well-known systems in vogue4 ,it is a matter which requires great care and considerable skill4 ,the heat must be applied and increased slowly and steadily4 ,if1 through any neglect on the part of the roaster1 the ore is allowed to fuse1 in most cases it is best to throw the charge away1 as waste4 ,this roasting applies equally to the ,vautin process as to any others4 ,so on this head there is no alteration4 ,one of the most important advantages is not a chemical one1 but is the rapidity with which the charge can be treated4 ,in the older styles of treatment the time varied from thirty six to ninety hours4 ,now this is accomplished in from three to six hours with a practically perfect result4 ,the older processes required a careful damping of the ore1 which1 to get good results1 must leave the ore neither too wet nor too dry4 ,now damping is entirely done away with1 and in its place water is poured into the barrel4 ,pressure to the extent of four atmospheres causes chlorine gas to leave its vaporous form4 ,thus the pressure applied not only enables a strong solution of chlorine to be formed with the water in the barrel1 but forces this into contact with the gold through every crevice in the ore4 ,chlorine gas also takes up any silver which may exist in association with the gold4 ,in the older processes this is deposited as a film of chloride of silver around the fine gold grains1 and from its insolubility in water prevents the absorption of the gold4 ,the rotary motion of the barrel in the ,newbery-,vautin method counteracts this by continually rubbing the particles together2 this frees the particles from any accumulations1 so that they always present fresh surfaces for the action of the solvent4 ,again1 the short time the ore is in contact with the chlorine does not allow of the formation of hydrochloric acid1 which has a tendency to precipitate the gold from its soluble form in the water before being withdrawn from the chlorinator4 ,hitherto1 when the ore was very fine or contained slimes1 the difficulty of filtration was increased1 sometimes in extreme cases to such an extent that chlorination became impracticable4 ,by the introduction of the vacuum pump this is greatly facilitated2 then by making the action intermittent a jigging motion is given to the material in the filter which prevents any clogging except in cases of extreme fineness4 ,the advantage of using charcoal as a decomposing agent for chloride of gold was pointed out by ,mr4 ,newbery some twenty years ago2 four or five years since the idea was patented in the ,united ,states1 but as this was given gratis to the world years before1 the patent did not hold good4 ,the form of precipitation generally adopted was to add sulphate of iron to the liquid drawn from the filter4 ,this not only threw down the gold it contained1 but also the lime and magnesia4 ,then very great care was necessary1 and a tedious process had to be gone through to divide the gold from these4 ,now1 by filtration through charcoal everything that is soluble in hydrochloric acid passes away with the water2 for instance1 lime and magnesia1 which before gave such great trouble4 ,in passing through the charcoal1 the chloride of gold is decomposed and all fine gold particles are taken up by the charcoal1 so that it is coated by what appears to be a purple film4 ,should copper be associated with the gold1 the water1 after running through the charcoal filter1 is passed over scrap iron1 upon which the copper is precipitated by a natural chemical action4 ,if silver is contained in the ore1 it is found among the tailings in the filter1 in a chloride which is insoluble in water4 ,should the quantity prove sufficiently large1 it may be leached out in the usual way by hyposulphites4 ,one of the great advantages common to all systems of chlorination is that ores may be crushed dry and treated1 so that the loss from float gold may be avoided4 ,of this loss1 which is most serious1 we shall have something to say on another occasion4 ,an advantage in amalgamation with chlorine gas instead of amalgamation with quicksilver in the wet way1 is that the ore need not be crushed so finely4 ,roasting takes the place of fine crushing1 as the ore from the roasting furnace is either found somewhat spongy in texture or the grains of silica in which fine gold may be incased are split or flawed by the fire4 ,for quicksilver amalgamation very fine crushing is necessary to bring all gold particles in contact with it4 ,quicksilver being so thick in substance1 it will not find its way readily in and out of a microscopically fine spongy body or through very fine flaws in grains of silica1 whereas chlorine gas or a solution of liquefied chlorine does this1 and absorbs the gold far more readily4 ,there are cases when gold is contained in ores in what is known as a perfectly free form--that is1 there is an absence of all sulphides1 arsenides1 etc4--when it is not practicable to extract it either with the ordinary forms of quicksilver amalgamation of or any process of chlorination1 without first roasting4 ,this is because the finer gold is locked up inside fine grains of silica and hydrated oxide of iron4 ,no ordinary crushing will bring this fine enough1 but when roasting is resorted to by drawing it rapidly through a furnace heated to a cherry red1 these grains are split up so that chlorine gas is enabled to penetrate to the gold4 ,it may be said that an equally clever chemist will be required to work this improved process as compared with those that have1 one by one1 fallen into disuse1 mainly from want of knowledge among the operators4 ,to a certain extent this is so4 ,the natural chemical actions are not so delicate1 but an ignorant operator would spoil this process1 as he does nearly every other4 ,when a reef is discovered1 practice shows that its strongest characteristics are consistently carried throughout it wherever it bears gold4 ,before ,messrs4 ,newbery and ,vautin leave a purchaser to deal himself with their process1 they get large samples of his ore to their works and there experiment continually until a practically perfect result is obtained2 then any one with a moderate amount of knowledge can work with the formula supplied4 ,it has been their experience that the ore from any two mines rarely presents the same characteristics4 ,experiments are begun by treating very coarse crushings4 ,these1 if not satisfactory1 are gradually reduced until the desired result is obtained4 ,to treat the whole body of ore from a mine1 dry crushing is strongly recommended4 ,to accomplish this in the most efficient manner1 a stone breaker which will reduce to about in4 cubes is necessary4 ,for subsequent crushing ,kroms rolls have1 up to the present time1 proved most satisfactory4 ,they will crush with considerable evenness to a thirty mesh1 which is generally sufficient4 ,the crushings are then roasted in the ordinary way in a reverberatory furnace and the whole of the roastings are passed through the machine we have just described4 ,by this it is claimed that over #ij per cent4 of the gold can be extracted at very much the same cost as the processes now in general use in gold producing countries1 which on the average barely return #ej per cent4 ,if so1 the gentlemen who have brought forward these improvements deserve all the success their process promises4--,engineering4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,apparatus ,,for ,,exercising ,,the ,,muscles4 ,the apparatus herewith illustrated consists of a wooden base1 which may be bolted to the floor1 and which supports two wooden uprights1 to which is affixed the apparatus designed to exercise the legs4 ,the apparatus for exercising the arms is mounted upon a second frame that slides up and down the wooden supports4 ,it is fixed in position at any height by means of two screws4 ,illustration3 ,,apparatus ,,for ,,exercising ,,the ,,muscles4 ,the apparatus for exercising the legs1 as well as the one for the arms1 consists essentially of a fly wheel mounted upon an axle extending to the second upright and bent into the form of a crank in the center4 ,the fly wheel is provided with a winch whose arm is capable of elongation in order to accommodate it to the reach of the sound limb4 ,the apparatus for the legs is arranged in a contrary direction1 that is to say1 the wheel is on the opposite side of the frame1 and upon the fixed uprights4 ,it is really a velocipede1 one of the pedals of which is movable upon the winch1 and is capable of running from the axle to the extremity1 as in the upper apparatus4 ,this pedal has the form of a shoe1 and is provided with two straps to keep the foot in place and cause it to follow the pedal in its rotary motion4 ,a movable seat1 capable of rising and descending and moving backward and forward1 according to the leg that needs treatment1 is fixed back of the apparatus4 ,the operation is as follows3 ,suppose that the atrophied arm is the left one4 ,the invalid1 facing the apparatus1 grasps the movable handle on the crank with his left hand1 and revolves the winch with his right4 ,the left hand being thus carried along1 the arm is submitted to a motion that obliges it to elongate and contract alternately1 and the result is an extension of the muscles which strengthens them4 ,the apparatus1 which is as simple as it is ingenious1 can1 it is true1 be applied only when one of the two limbs1 arm or leg1 is diseased1 the other being always necessary to set the apparatus in motion2 but1 even reduced to such conditions1 it is destined to render numerous services in cases of paralysis1 atrophy1 contusions1 etc4--,moniteur des ,inventions ,industrielles4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,bull ,,optometer4 ,dr4 ,javal has just presented to the ,academy of ,medicine a very ingenious and practical optometer devised by ,george ,j4 ,bull1 a young ,american doctor1 after a number of researches made at the laboratory of ophthalmology at the ,sorbonne4 ,among other applications that can be made of it1 there is one that is quite original and that will insure it some success in the world4 ,it permits1 in fact1 of approximately deducing the age of a person from certain data that it furnishes as to his or her sight4 ,as well known1 the organs become weak with age1 their functions are accomplished with less regularity and precision1 and1 according to the expression of the poet1 ,en marchant a la mort1 on meurt a chaque pas1 the senses become blunted1 the hearing becomes dull1 the eyes lose their luster1 vivacity1 and strength1 and vision becomes in general shorter1 less piercing1 and less powerful4 ,the various parts of the eye1 but more particularly the crystalline lens1 undergo modifications in form and structure4 ,accommodation is effected with more and more difficulty1 and1 toward the age of sixty1 it can hardly be effected at all4 ,these changes occur in emmetropics as well as in hypermetropics and myopics4 ,as will be seen1 then1 there is a relation between the age of a person and the amplitude of the accommodation of his eyes4 ,if we cannot express a law1 we can at least1 through statistics1 find out1 approximately1 the age of a person if we know the extent of the accommodation of his eyes4 ,a ,dutch oculist1 ,donders1 has got up a table in which1 opposite the amplitudes1 the corresponding ages are found4 ,now1 the ,javal-,bull optometer permits of a quick determination of the value of the amplitude of accommodation in dioptries4 7,a dioptrie is the power of a lens whose focal distance is one meter47 ,the first idea of this apparatus is due to the illustrious physicist ,thomas ,young1 who flourished about a century ago4 ,the ,young apparatus is now a scarcely known scientific curiosity that ,messrs4 ,javal and ,bull have resuscitated and transformed and completed4 ,it consists of a light wooden rule about #bd inches long by #a inch wide that can easily be held in the hand by means of a handle fixed at right angles with the flat part 7,fig4 #a74 ,at one extremity there is a square thin piece of metal of the width of the rule1 and at right angles with the latter1 but on the side opposite the handle4 ,this piece of metal contains a circular aperture a few hundredths of an inch in diameter 7,fig4 #c74 ,toward this aperture there may be moved either a converging lens of five dioptries or a diverging lens of the same diameter1 but of six dioptries4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #a4--,,mode ,,of ,,using ,,the ,,bull ,,optometer ,on holding the apparatus by the handle and putting the eye to the aperture1 provided or not with a lens1 we see a series of dominoes extending along the rule1 from the double ace1 which occupies the extremity most distant from the eye1 to the double six1 which is very near the eye 7,fig4 #b74 ,the numbers from two to twelve1 simply1 are indicated1 but this original means of representing them has been chosen in order to call attention to them better4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #b4--,,the ,,rule1 ,,with ,,the ,,dominoes 7 ,actual ,size47 ,figures are characters without physiognomy1 if we may so express ourselves1 while the spots on the dominoes take particular arrangements according to the number represented1 and differentiate themselves more clearly from each other than figures do4 ,they are at the same time more easily read than figures or regularly spaced dots4 ,now1 it is very important to fix the attention upon the numbers1 since they are arranged at distances expressed in dioptries and indicated by the number of the spots4 ,on looking through the aperture1 we see in the first place one of the dominoes more distinctly than the rest4 ,then1 on endeavoring to see those that are nearer or farther off1 we succeed in accommodating the eye and in seeing the numbers that express the extreme terms of the accommodation1 and consequently the amplitude4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,,details ,,of ,,eye ,,piece4 ,let us now take some examples3 ,if we wish to express in dioptries the myopia of a person1 we put the apparatus in his hand1 and ask him to place his eye very near the aperture and note the number of spots on the most distant domino that he sees distinctly4 ,this is the number sought4 ,if the observation be made through the upper lens1 it will be necessary to subtract five from the number obtained2 if1 on the contrary1 the other lens is used1 it will be necessary to add six4 ,if it is a question of a presbyope1 let him look with his spectacles1 and note the nearest domino seen distinctly4 ,this will be the number of dioptries expressing the nearest point at which he can read4 ,this number permits us to know whether it is necessary to add or subtract dioptries in order to allow him to read nearer by or farther off4 ,if1 for example1 he sees the deuce and the ace distinctly1 say #c dioptries or #j4cc meter1 and we want to allow him to read at #j4be meter1 corresponding to four dioptries1 it will be necessary to increase the power of his spectacles by one dioptrie4 ,upon the whole1 ,dr4 ,bull's optometer permits of measuring the amplitude of accommodation1 and1 consequently1 of obtaining the approximate age of people1 of knowing the extreme distances of the accommodation1 and of quickly finding the number of the glass necessary for each one4 ,it reveals the defects in the accommodation1 and serves for the quick determination of refraction4 ,so1 in saying that this little instrument is very ingenious and very practical1 ,dr4 ,javal has used no exaggeration4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,sanitation ,,of ,,towns4#a ,footnote #a3 ,abstract from the presidential address delivered before the ,association of ,municipal and ,sanitary ,engineers and ,surveyors1 at the annual meeting in ,leicester1 ,july #ah1 #ahhg4 ,by ,mr4 ,j4 ,,gordon1 ,c4,e4 ,the average mortality for ,england and ,wales was #bb4d in #ahch1 and in #ahhf #ai4c1 which shows a saving on last year's population of ,england and ,wales of #hf1djj lives annually1 and a saving in suffering from an estimated number of about #a1gbh1jjj cases of sickness4 ,to accomplish all this1 vast sums of money have been expended1 probably not always wisely1 inasmuch as there have been mistakes made in this direction1 as in all new developments of science when applied in practice1 and evils have arisen which1 if foreseen at all at the outset1 were underrated4 ,the great object of the public health act1 #ahdh1 was to enable local authorities by its adoption to properly sewer1 drain1 and cleanse their towns1 and to provide efficient supplies of water1 free from contamination and impurities dangerous to health4 ,the raising of money by loans repayable in a series of years1 which the act empowered1 enabled all these objects to be accomplished1 and1 while the first duty of local authorities was undoubtedly the provision of a good supply of water and proper sewerage for the removal of liquid filth from the immediate vicinity of inhabited dwellings1 the carrying out of proper works for the latter object has been of much slower growth than the former4 ,private companies led the way1 in fact1 in providing supplies of water1 inasmuch as there was a prospect of the works becoming remunerative to shareholders investing their money in them2 and in nearly every instance where local authorities have eventually found it to be in the interests of the inhabitants of their districts to purchase the work1 they have had to pay high prices for the undertaking4 ,this has generally led to a great deal of dissatisfaction with companies holding such works1 but it must not be forgotten that the companies would1 in most instances1 never have had any existence if the local authorities had taken the initiative1 and that but for the companies this great boon of a pure supply of water would most probably have been long delayed to many large as well as small communities4 ,the evils which have arisen from the sewering and draining of towns have been of a twofold character4 ,first1 in the increased pollution of rivers and streams into which the sewage1 in the earlier stages of these works1 was poured without any previous treatment2 and secondly1 in the production of sewer gas1 which up to the present moment seems so difficult to deal with4 ,these concomitant evils and difficulties attending the execution of sanitary works are in no way to be underrated1 but it still remains the first duty of town authorities to remove1 as quickly as possible1 all liquid and other refuse from the midst and immediate vicinity of large populations1 before putrefaction has had time to take place4 ,there are some minds whose course of reasoning seems to lead them to the conclusion that the evils attending the introduction of modern systems of sewerage are greater than those of the old methods of dealing with town sewage and refuse1 but the facts are against them to such an extent that it would be difficult to point to a responsible medical officer in the kingdom who would be courageous enough to advocate a return to the old regime of cesspools1 privy ashpits1 open ditches1 and flat bottomed culverts4 ,the introduction of earth closets as one of the safeguards against sewer gas has made no headway for large populations1 and is beset with practical difficulties4 ,in the ,midland and ,lancashire towns the system known as the pail or tub system has been much more largely introduced as a substitute for the water closet1 and it has1 from a landlord's point of view1 many attractions4 ,in the first place1 the first cost1 as compared with that of a water closet1 is very small1 and the landlord is relieved for ever afterward ,i believe1 in most towns1 of all future costs and maintenance2 whereas1 in the case of water closets1 there is undoubtedly great difficulty in cottage property in keeping them in good working order1 especially during the frosts of winter4 ,there are1 however1 many objections to the pail system1 which it is not proposed to touch upon in this address1 beyond this1 that it appears to be a costly appendage to the water carriage system1 without the expected corresponding advantage of relieving the municipal authorities of any of the difficulties of river pollution1 inasmuch as the remaining liquid refuse of the town has still to be dealt with by the modern systems of precipitation or irrigation1 at practically the same cost as would have been the case if the water carriage system had been adopted in its entirety4 ,the rivers pollution act gave an impetus to works for the treatment of sewage1 although much had been done prior to that1 and ,leicester was one of those towns which led the way so early as #ahed in precipitating the solids of the sewage before allowing it to enter the river4 ,the innumerable methods which have since then been tried1 and after large expenditures of money have proved to be failures1 show the difficulties of the question4 ,on the whole1 however1 sewage farms1 or a combination of the chemical system with irrigation or intermittent filtration1 have been the most successful1 so that the first evil to which the cleansing of towns by the increased pollution of rivers gave rise may now be said to be capable of satisfactory solution1 notwithstanding that the old battle of the systems of precipitation versus application of sewage to land still wages whenever opportunity occurs4 ,the second evil to which ,i have made reference1 viz41 that of sewer ventilation1 seems still unsolved1 and ,i would earnestly entreat members1 all of whom have more or less opportunities of experimenting and making observations of the behavior of sewer gas under certain conditions1 to direct their attention to this subject4 ,it is admitted on all hands that the sewers must be ventilated--that is1 that there must be a means of escape for the polluted air of the sewers2 for it is well known that the conditions prevailing within the sewers during the twenty-four hours of the day are very varying1 and on this subject the early observations of the late medical officer for the ,city of ,london 7,dr4 ,letheby71 and the present engineer for the ,city of ,london 7,lieutenant-,colonel ,heywood71 and the still more recent investigations of ,professor ,pettenkofer1 of ,munich1 ,professor ,soyka1 of ,prague1 and our own members1 ,mr4 ,mc,kie1 of ,carlisle1 ,mr4 ,read1 of ,gloucester1 and others1 are worthy of attention4 ,it does not1 however1 seem to be so readily or universally conceded that a plentiful supply of fresh air is of equal importance1 and that the great aim and object of sewer ventilation should be the introduction of atmospheric air for the purpose of diluting and oxidizing the air of the sewers1 and the creation of a current to some exit1 which shall1 if possible1 either be above the roofs of the houses1 or1 still better1 to some point where the sewer gas can be cremated4 ,the most recent contribution to this subject1 in direct opposition to these views1 is to be found in the address of ,professor ,attfield to the ,hertfordshire ,natural ,history ,society and ,field ,club1 in which it is laid down that all that is necessary is a vent at an elevation above the ground1 and that1 therefore1 the surface ventilators1 or other openings for the introduction of fresh air1 are not only not necessary1 but are1 on the contrary1 injurious1 even when acting as downcast shafts4 ,these aims and objects are beset with difficulties1 and the most scientific minds of the country have failed so far to devise a method of ventilation which shall at the same time be within the range of practical application as regards cost and universally satisfactory4 ,the report of last year of a committee of the metropolitan board of works is worth attention1 as showing the opinion of metropolitan surveyors4 ,out of forty districts1 the opinions of whose surveyors were taken1 thirty-five were in favor of open ventilation1 two were doubtful1 two against1 and one had no experience in this matter4 ,the average distances of the ventilators were from #cj to #bjj yards1 and the committee came to the conclusion that pipe ventilators of large section can be used with great advantage in addition to1 and not in substitution for1 surface ventilators4 ,to supplement the street openings as much as possible with vertical cast iron or other shafts up the house sides would seem to be the first thing to do1 for there can be no doubt that the more this is done1 the more perfect will be the ventilation of the sewers4 ,it must also not be forgotten that the anxiety1 of late years1 of ,english sanitarians to protect each house from the possible dangers of sewer gas from the street sewer has led to a system of so-called disconnection of the house drains by a water seal or siphon trap1 and that1 consequently1 the soil pipes of the houses1 which1 when carried through the roofs1 acted as ventilators to the public sewers1 have been lost for this purpose1 and thus the difficulty of sewer ventilation has been greatly increased4 ,in ,leicester we have been fortunate enough to secure the co-operation of factory owners1 who have allowed us to connect no fewer than fifty-two chimneys2 while we have already carried out1 at a cost of about #a1bej1 #adf special shafts up the house sides1 with a locked opening upon a large number of them1 by means of which we can test the velocity of the current as well as the temperature of the outflowing air4 ,the connections with the high factory chimneys are all of too small a caliber to be of great use1 being generally only six inches1 with a few exceptionally of nine inches in diameter4 ,the radius of effect of specially erected chimneys1 as shown by the experiments of ,sir ,joseph ,bazalgette1 and as experienced with the special ventilating towers erected at ,frankfurt1 is disappointing and discouraging when the cost is taken into consideration4 ,it can not be expected1 however1 that manufacturers will admit larger connections to be made with their chimney2 otherwise1 of course1 much more satisfactory results would be obtained4 ,to fall back upon special shafts up the house sides means1 in my opinion1 that there should be probably as many in number as are represented by the soil pipes of the houses1 for in this we have a tested example at ,frankfurt1 which1 so far as ,i know1 has up to the present moment proved eminently satisfactory4 ,the distance apart of such shafts would largely depend on the size of them1 but as a rule it will be found that house owners object to large pipes1 in which case the number must be increased1 and if we take a distance of about #cj yards1 we should require about #e1jjj such shafts in ,leicester4 ,whether some artificial means of inducing currents in sewers by drawing down fresh air from shafts above the eaves of the houses1 and sending forth the diluted sewer gas to still higher levels1 or burning it in an outcast shaft1 will take the place of natural ventilation1 and prove to be less costly and more certain in its action1 remains to be seen4 ,but it is quite certain that notwithstanding the patents which have already been taken out and failed1 and those now before the public1 there is still a wide field of research before this question is satisfactorily solved1 so that no cause whatever shall remain of complaint on the part of the most fastidious4 ,one other important question common to all towns is that of the collection and disposal of the ashes and refuse of the households4 ,it is one which is becoming daily more difficult to deal with1 especially in those large communities where the old privy and ashpit system has not been entirely abolished4 ,the removal of such ashes is at all times a source of nuisance1 and if they cannot be disposed of to the agriculturists of the district1 they become a source of difficulty4 ,in purely water-closeted towns the so-called dry ashpits cannot be kept in such a condition as to be entirely free from nuisance1 especially in the summer months1 inasmuch as the refuse of vegetable and animal matter finds its way into them1 and they are1 in close and inhabited districts1 necessarily too close to the living apartments of the dwellings4 ,the tendency therefore now is rather to discourage the establishment of ashpits by the substitution of ashbins1 to be collected daily or weekly as the case may be1 and ,i think there can be no doubt that from a sanitary point of view this is by far the best system1 harmonizing as it does with the general principle applicable to town sanitation of removing all refuse1 likely by decomposition to become dangerous to health1 as quickly as possible from the precincts of human habitations4 ,the difficulty of disposing of the ashes1 mixed as they must necessarily be with animal and vegetable matter1 is one that is forcing itself upon the attention of all town authorities1 and the days of the rich dust contractors of the metropolis are practically numbered4 ,destruction by fire seems to be the ultimate end to be aimed at1 and in this respect several towns have led the way4 ,but as this is a subject which will be fully dealt with by a paper to be read during the meeting1 ,i will not anticipate the information which will be brought before you1 further than to say that the great end to be aimed at in this method of disposing of the ashes and refuse of towns is greater economy in cost of construction of destructors1 as well as in cost of working them4 ,the progress in sanitation on the ,continent1 ,america1 and the colonies has not been coincident with the progress in ,england1 but these countries have largely benefited by the experience of the ,united ,kingdom1 and in some respects their specialists take more extreme views than those of this country in matters of detail4 ,this is1 perhaps1 more particularly the case with the ,americans1 who have devised all sorts of exceptional details in connection with private drainage1 in order to protect the interior of the houses from sewer gas1 and to perfect its ventilation4 ,in plumbing matters they seem also to be very advanced1 and to have established examinations for plumbers and far-reaching regulations for house drainage4 ,time will not permit me to examine into the works of a sanitary character which have been undertaken in the several countries after the example of ,england1 but they have been attended with similar beneficial results and saving in life and sickness as in this country1 although the ,continental towns which have led the way with such works cannot as yet point to the low rates of mortality for large towns which have been attained in ,england1 with the exception of the ,german towns of ,carlsruhe1 ,frankfurt1 ,wiesbaden1 and ,stuttgart1 which show death rates of #bj4ee1 #bj4fd1 #bb1 and #ba4d respectively4 ,the greatest reduction of the mortality by the execution of proper sewerage and water works took place in ,danzig1 on the ,baltic1 and ,linz1 on the ,danube1 where after the execution of the works the mortality was reduced by #g4he and #aj4ag per #a1jjj respectively1 and in the case of ,danzig this reduction is almost exclusively in zymotic diseases4 ,berlin is also a remarkable example of the enterprise of ,german sanitarians1 for there they are demonstrating to the world the practicability of dealing with the sewage from a population of over #a million upon #af1jjj acres of land1 of which about #aj1jjj acres are already under irrigation4 ,in taking this chair1 it has been usual1 when meetings have been held out of ,london1 for your president to give some account of the works of his own town4 ,in the present instance ,i feel that ,i can dispense with this course1 in so far as that ,i need not do more than generally indicate what has been the course of events since ,i read to a largely attended district meeting in ,may1 #ahhd1 a paper on ,the ,public ,works of ,leicester4 ,at that time large flood prevention works were in course of construction1 under an act obtained in #ahha1 for continuing the river improvement works executed under previous acts4 ,the works then under contract extended from the ,north ,mill ,lock and the ,north ,bridge on the north to the ,west ,bridge and ,bramstone ,gate ,bridge on the south1 along the river and canal1 and included bridges1 weirs1 retaining walls1 and some heavy underpinning works in connection with the widening and deepening of the river and canal4 ,these works were duly completed1 as well as a further length of works on the ,river ,soar up to what is known as the old grass weir1 including the ,braunstone ,gate ,bridge1 added to one of the then running contracts1 at a total cost1 excluding land and compensation1 of #gg1jjj4 ,at this point a halt was made in consequence of the incompleteness of the negotiations with the land owners on the upper reach of the river1 and this1 together with various other circumstances1 has contributed to greater delay in again resuming the works4 ,in the interval1 a question of whether there should be only one channel for both river and canal instead of two1 as authorized by the act1 has necessarily added considerably to the delay4 ,but as that has now been settled in favor of the original parliamentary scheme1 the authority of the council has been given to proceed with the whole of the works4 ,one contract1 now in progress1 which members will have an opportunity of inspecting1 was let to ,mr4 ,evans1 of ,birmingham1 in ,march last1 for about #ah1jjj4 ,it consists of a stone and concrete weir1 #ejj feet in length1 with a lock of #g feet #f inches lift and large flood basins1 retaining and towing path walls1 including a sunk weir parallel with the ,midland ,railway viaduct4 ,this contract is to be completed by ,march next4 ,the remainder of the works about to be entered upon include a new canal and flood channel about #a1ddg yards long1 and the deepening and widening of the ,river ,soar for a length of about #ibj yards1 with two or three bridges4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,chemistry ,,of ,,the ,,cotton ,,fiber4 ,by ,dr4 ,,bowman4 ,every chemist knows that cotton is chiefly composed of cellulose1 ,c#f;,h#aj,o#e1 with some other substances in smaller quantities4 ,this1 although the usual opinion1 is only true in a partial sense1 as the author found on investigating samples of cotton from various sources4 ,thus1 while mere cellulose contains carbon #dd4dd per cent4 and hydrogen #f4agc1 he found in ,surat cotton #g4f per cent4 of hydrogen1 in ,american cotton #f4c per cent41 and in ,egyptian cotton #g4b per cent4 ,the fact is that along with cellulose in ordinary cotton there are a number of celluloid bodies derived from the inspissated juices of the cotton plant4 ,in order to gain information on this subject1 the author has grown cotton under glass1 and analyzed it at various stages of its life history4 ,in the early stage of unripeness he has found an astringent substance in the fiber4 ,this substance disappears as the plant ripens1 and seems to closely resemble some forms of tannin4 ,doubtless the presence of this body in cotton put upon the market in an unripe condition may account for certain dark stains sometimes appearing in the finished calicoes4 ,the tannin matter forms dark stains with any compound or salt of iron1 and is a great bugbear to the manufacturer4 ,some years ago there was quite a panic because of the prevalence of these stains1 and people in ,yorkshire began to think the spinners were using some new or inferior kind of oil4 ,dr4 ,bowman made inquiries1 and found that in ,egypt during that year the season had been very foggy and unfavorable to the ripening of the cotton1 and it seemed probable that these tannin-like matters were present in the fiber1 and led to the disastrous results4 ,although the hydrogen and oxygen present in pure cellulose are in the same relative proportions as in water1 they do not exist as water in the compound4 ,there is1 however1 in cotton a certain amount of water present in a state of loose combination with the cellulose1 and the celluloid bodies previously referred to appear to contain water similarly combined1 but in greater proportion4 ,oxycellulose is another body present in the cotton fiber4 ,it is a triple cellulose1 in which four atoms of hydrogen are replaced by one atom of oxygen1 and like cellulose forms nitro compounds analogous to nitro glycerine4 ,it is probable that the presence of this oxycellulose has a marked influence upon the behavior of cotton1 especially with dye matters4 ,the earthy substances in cotton are also of importance4 ,these are potassium carbonate1 chloride1 and sulphate1 with similar sodium salts1 and these vary in different samples of cotton1 and possibly influence its properties to some extent4 ,then there are oily matters in the young fiber which1 upon its ripening1 become the waxy matter which ,dr4 ,schunk has investigated4 ,resin also is present1 and having a high melting point is not removed by the manipulative processes that cotton is subjected to4 ,when this is in excessive amount1 it comes to the surface of the goods after dyeing4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,synthesis ,,of ,,styrolene4 ,,mm4 ,vabet and ,vienne1 in a recent number of ,comptes ,rendus1 state that by passing a current of acetylene through #bjj grammes of benzene containing #ej grammes of aluminum chloride for #cj hours the oily liquid remaining after removal of the unaltered aluminum chloride by washing was found to yield1 on fractional distillation1 three distinct products4 ,the first1 which came over between #adc and #ade1 and which amounted to #hj per cent4 of the whole1 consisted of pure cinnamene or styrolene 7,c#f;,h#e4;,,ch4,,ch#b71 which is one of the principal constituents of liquid storax1 and was synthetized by ,m4 ,berthelot by passing acetylene and benzene vapor through a tube heated to redness4 ,the second fraction1 coming over at #bfe-bgj1 consisted of diphenyl ethane 77,c#f;,h#e7b ,,ch4,,ch#c72 and the third fraction1 boiling at #bhj-bhf1 was found to consist entirely of dibenzyl 7,c#f;,h#e4;,,ch#b4;,,ch#b4;,c#f;,h#e71 a solid substance isomeric with diphenyl ethane4 ,these syntheses afford another instance of the singular action of aluminum chloride in attacking the benzene nucleus4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,notes ,,on ,,saccharin4 ,by ,,edward ,d4 ,,gravill1 ,f4,c4,s41 ,f4,r4,m4,s4 ,now that a supply of this reputed substitute for sugar has been placed upon the ,london market1 it will doubtless have attracted the attention of many pharmacists1 and as information having reference to its characters and properties is as yet somewhat scarce1 the following notes may be of interest4 ,the sample to which these notes refer represents1 ,i believe1 a portion of the first supply that has been offered to us as a commercial article1 and may therefore be taken to represent the same as it at present occurs in commerce4 ,i think it desirable to call attention to this fact1 because of the wide difference ,i have seen in other samples obtained1 ,i think1 by special request some weeks ago1 and which do not favorably correspond with the sample under consideration1 being much more highly colored1 and in comparison having a very strong odor4 ,saccharin now occurs as a very pale yellow1 nearly white1 amorphous powder1 free from grittiness1 but giving a distinct sensation of roughness when rubbed between the fingers4 ,it is not entirely free from odor1 but this is very slight1 and not at all objectionable1 reminding one of a very slight flavor of essential oils of almonds4 ,its taste is intensely sweet and persistent1 which in the raw state is followed by a slight harshness upon the tongue and palate4 ,the sweetness is very distinct when diluted to #a in #aj1jjj4 ,under the microscope it presents no definite form of crystallization4 ,a temperature of #ajj ,c1 even if continued for some time1 has no perceptible effect upon saccharin2 it loses no weight1 and undergoes no physical change4 ,it fuses at a temperature of from #aah to #abj ,c41 and at #aej ,c4 forms a clear light yellow liquid1 which boils a few degrees higher4 ,at the latter temperature dense white fumes appear1 and a condensation of tufts of acicular crystals 7some well defined7 is found upon the cool surface of the apparatus4 ,these crystals1 except for a slight sweetness of taste1 correspond in characters and tests to benzoic acid4 ,the sweet flavor1 ,i think1 may be due to the presence of a very small quantity of undecomposed saccharin1 carried mechanically with the fumes4 ,the escaping vapors1 which are very irritable1 and give a more decided odor of hydride of benzole than the powder itself1 also communicate a very distinct sensation of sweetness to the back part of the palate4 ,heated over the flame1 with free access of air1 saccharin carbonizes and burns with a dull yellow smoky flame1 leaving a residue amounting to #j4fe per cent4 of sodium salts4 ,it does not reduce an alkaline copper solution1 but1 like glycerine1 liberates boracic acid from borax1 the latter salt dissolving saccharin readily in aqueous solution1 due no doubt to a displacement of the boracic acid4 ,the strong acids1 either hot or cold1 show no characteristic color reaction2 the compound enters solution at the boiling point of the acid1 and in the case of hydrochloric shows a white granular separation on cooling4 ,sulphuric acid develops an uncharacteristic light brown color4 ,the compound1 like most of the organic acids1 shows a characteristic reaction with ferro and ferrid cyanide of potassium4 ,in the former case no change is perceptible until boiled when a greenish white turbidity appears1 with the liberation of small quantities of hydrocyanic acid4 ,in the latter case a trace also of this acid is set free1 with the formation of a very distinct green solution1 the latter reaction being very perceptible with a few drops of a #a in #a1jjj solution of saccharin in water4 ,heated with lime1 very distinct odors of benzoic aldehyde are developed4 ,saccharin possesses very decided acid properties1 and combines readily with alkalies or alkaline carbonates1 forming anhydro-ortho sulphamine-benzoates of the same1 in the latter case at the expense of the carbonic anhydride1 causing strong effervescence4 ,these combinations are very soluble in water1 the alkaline carbonate thus forming a ready medium for the solution of this acid1 which alone is so sparingly soluble4 ,another advantage of some importance is that1 while the harshness of flavor perceptible in a simple solution of the acid is destroyed1 the great sweetness appears to be distinctly intensified and refined4 ,the following shows the solubility of saccharin in the various liquids quoted1 all1 with the exception of the boiling water1 being taken at #fj ,f43 ,boiling water #j4fj parts per #ajj by volume4 ,cold water #j4bj ,alcohol #j4hjj #d4be ,rectified spirit #j4hch #c4bj ,ether #j4gag #a4jj ,chloroform #a4di #j4bj ,benzene #j4dj ,petroleum ether insoluble4 ,it is also sparingly soluble in glycerin and fixed oils1 and to a greater or less extent in volatile oils4 ,benzoic aldehyde dissolves saccharin in large quantities4 ,i was somewhat disappointed at the slight solubility of saccharin in ether1 as it has been repeatedly stated to be very soluble in that liquid4 ,the quantity of saccharin required to communicate an agreeable degree of sweetness1 like sugar1 differs with the material to be sweetened2 but from half to one and half grains1 according to taste1 will be found sufficient for an ordinary breakfast cup full of tea or coffee infusion4--,pharm4 ,jour4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,alcohol ,,and ,,turpentine4 ,in a paper entitled ,the ,oxidation of ,ethyl ,alcohol in the ,presence of ,turpentine1 communicated to the ,chemical ,society by ,mr4 ,c4,e4 ,steedman1 ,williamstown1 ,victoria1 the author states that dilute ethyl alcohol in the presence of air and turpentine becomes oxidized to acetic acid4 ,he placed in a clear glass #af oz4 bottle a mixture of #b drachms of alcohol1 #a drachm of turpentine1 and #a oz4 of water4 ,the bottle was securely corked and left exposed to a varying temperature averaging about #hj ,f4 for three months4 ,at the end of that time the liquid was strongly acid from the presence of acetic acid4 ,one curious fact appears to have light thrown upon it by this observation4 ,mr4 ,mc,alpine1 ,professor of ,biology at ,ormond ,college1 ,melbourne ,university1 has a method of preserving biological specimens by abstracting their moisture with alcohol after hardening in chromic acid1 and then placing the specimen in turpentine for some time2 great discrepancies arise1 however1 according as the alcohol is allowed or not to evaporate from the specimen before dipping it into turpentine4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,,architects ,,and ,,builders ,,edition4 #b4ej a ,year4 ,single ,copies1 #be cts4 ,this is a ,special ,edition of the ,,scientific ,,american1 issued monthly--on the first day of the month4 ,each number contains about forty large quarto pages1 equal to about two hundred ordinary book pages1 forming1 practically1 a large and splendid ,,magazine ,,of ,,architecture1 richly adorned with elegant plates in colors and with fine engravings1 illustrating the most interesting examples of modern ,architectural ,construction and allied subjects4 ,a special feature is the presentation in each number of a variety of the latest and best plans for private residences1 city and country1 including those of very moderate cost as well as the more expensive4 ,drawings in perspective and in color are given1 together with full ,plans1 ,specifications1 ,costs1 ,bills of ,estimate1 and ,sheets of ,details4 ,no other building paper contains so many plans1 details1 and specifications regularly presented as the ,,scientific ,,american4 ,hundreds of dwellings have already been erected on the various plans we have issued during the past year1 and many others are in process of construction4 ,architects1 ,builders1 and ,owners will find this work valuable in furnishing fresh and useful suggestions4 ,all who contemplate building or improving homes1 or erecting structures of any kind1 have before them in this work an almost endless series of the latest and best examples from which to make selections1 thus saving time and money4 ,many other subjects1 including ,sewerage1 ,piping1 ,lighting1 ,warming1 ,ventilating1 ,decorating1 ,laying out of ,grounds1 etc41 are illustrated4 ,an extensive ,compendium of ,manufacturers' ,announcements is also given1 in which the most reliable and approved ,building ,materials1 ,goods1 ,machines1 ,tools1 and ,appliances are described and illustrated1 with addresses of the makers1 etc4 ,the fullness1 richness1 cheapness1 and convenience of this work have won for it the ,,largest ,,circulation of any ,architectural publication in the world4 ,,munn ,,co41 ,,publishers1 #cfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,catalogue of valuable books on ,architecture1 ,building1 ,carpentry1 ,masonry1 ,heating1 ,warming1 ,lighting1 ,ventilation1 and all branches of industry pertaining to the art of ,building1 is supplied free of charge1 sent to any address4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,building ,,plans ,,and ,,specifications4 ,in connection with the publication of the ,,building ,,edition of the ,,scientific ,,american1 ,messrs4 ,munn ,co4 furnish plans and specifications for buildings of every kind1 including ,churches1 ,schools1 ,stores1 ,dwellings1 ,carriage ,houses1 ,barns1 etc4 ,in this work they are assisted by able and experienced architects4 ,full plans1 details1 and specifications for the various buildings illustrated in this paper can be supplied4 ,those who contemplate building1 or who wish to alter1 improve1 extend1 or add to existing buildings1 whether wings1 porches1 bay windows1 or attic rooms1 are invited to communicate with the undersigned4 ,our work extends to all parts of the country4 ,estimates1 plans1 and drawings promptly prepared4 ,terms moderate4 ,address ,,munn ,,co41 #cfa ,,broadway4 ,,new ,,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement4 ,,published ,,weekly4 ,terms of ,subscription1 #e a year4 ,sent by mail1 postage prepaid1 to subscribers in any part of the ,united ,states or ,canada4 ,six dollars a year1 sent1 prepaid1 to any foreign country4 ,all the back numbers of ,,the ,,supplement1 from the commencement1 ,january #a1 #ahgf1 can be had4 ,price1 #aj cents each4 ,all the back volumes of ,,the ,,supplement can likewise be supplied4 ,two volumes are issued yearly4 ,price of each volume1 #b4ej stitched in paper1 or #c4ej bound in stiff covers4 ,,combined ,,rates4--,one copy of ,,scientific ,,american and one copy of ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement1 one year1 postpaid1 #g4jj4 ,a liberal discount to booksellers1 news agents1 and canvassers4 ,,munn ,,co41 ,,publishers1 #cfa ,broadway1 ,new ,york1 ,n4,y4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,patents4 ,in connection with the ,,scientific ,,american1 ,messrs4 ,,munn ,,co4 are solicitors of ,american and ,foreign ,patents1 have had #db years' experience1 and now have the largest establishment in the world4 ,patents are obtained on the best terms4 ,a special notice is made in the ,,scientific ,,american of all inventions patented through this ,agency1 with the name and residence of the ,patentee4 ,by the immense circulation thus given1 public attention is directed to the merits of the new patent1 and sales or introduction often easily effected4 ,any person who has made a new discovery or invention can ascertain1 free of charge1 whether a patent can probably be obtained1 by writing to ,,munn ,co4 ,we also send free our ,hand ,book about the ,patent ,laws1 ,patents1 ,caveats1 ,trade ,marks1 their costs1 and how procured4 ,address ,,munn ,,co41 #cfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york4 ,branch ,office1 #fbb and #fbd ,f ,st41 ,washington1 ,d4,c4