,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #fbc ,,new ,,york1 ,,december #aj1 #ahhg ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xxiv41 ,no4 #fbc4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,i4 ,,architecture4--,notes on the ,construction of a ,distillery ,chimney--,a new method of building lofty shafts1 including a metallic frame and brick lining--#c illustrations4 #iidi ,the ,commercial ,exchange1 ,paris--,the new ,paris exchange now in process of erection4--,present state of operations--#a illustration4 #iied ,,ii4 ,,astronomy4--,the ,yale ,college ,measurement of the ,pleiades4-- ,dr4 ,elkin's work with the ,repsold heliometer at ,yale ,college4 #iieg ,,iii4 ,,chemistry--,new ,method for the ,quantitative ,determination of ,starch4--,by ,a4,n4 ,,asboth--,determination of starch by its barium compound4 #iief ,synthesis of the ,alkaloids--,a retrospect of the field of work so far traveled over by synthetical chemists1 and future prospects4 #iief ,the ,chemical ,basis of ,plant ,forms--,by ,,helen ,c4 ,,de ,s4 ,,abbott --,continuation of this important contribution to plant chemistry1 one of the most valuable of recent chemical monographs4 #iiee ,,iv4 ,,electricity4--,an ,electrical ,governor--,a new apparatus for preserving a constant electromotive force with varying dynamo speed--#a illustration4 #iieb ,electric ,launch--,a ,french government launch with ,krebs electric motor4 #iied ,the electric current as a means of increasing the tractive adhesion of railway motors and other rolling contacts4--,by ,,elias ,e4 ,,ries--,a full review of this important subject1 with accounts of its experimental examination4 #iiec ,v4 ,,engineering--,benier's ,hot ,air ,engine--,a new caloric engine very fully illustrated and described--#h illustrations4 #iidc ,heating ,marine ,boilers with ,liquid ,fuel--,a simple apparatus and recent experiments with the same4--#c illustrations4 #iide ,the ,change of ,gauge of ,southern ,railroads in #ahhf--;,by ,c4,h4 ,,hudson4--,the conclusion of the account of this great engineering feat1 with tables of statistics and data--#af illustrations4 #iidf ,your ,future ,problems--,by ,,chas4 ,e4 ,,emery--,an address to the graduating class of the ,stevens ,institute1 ,n4,j4--,a practical view of the engineering profession4 #iidc ,,vi4 ,,miscellaneous--,a ,group of ,hampshire ,downs--,a typical breed of sheep1 their qualities and habits4--#a illustration4 #iieg ,,vii4 ,,naval ,,engineering--,the ,spanish ,cruiser ,reina ,regente--,a further description of this celebrated vessel--#d illustrations4 #iidh ,torpedo ,boats for ,spain--,the ,azor and ,halcon1 two ,yarrow torpedo boats1 described and illustrated--#g illustrations4 #iidg ,,viii4 ,,photography--,how ,different ,tones in ,gelatino-chloride ,prints may be ,varied by ,developers4--,twenty different formul for the above purpose4 #iidi ,film ,negatives--,eastman stripping films1 their manipulation and development4 #iidi ,,ix4 ,,sanitation--,french ,disinfecting ,apparatus--,a portable apparatus for disinfecting clothes and similar objects--#a illustration4 #iieb ,x4 ,,technology4--,the ,manufacture of ,cocaine--,the extraction of cocaine with alkali and petroleum1 with statement of percentage yielded by various leaves4 #iied ,the ,production of ,oxygen by ,brin's ,process--,the commercial manufacture of oxygen by means of baryta--#c illustrations4 #iiej ,transcriber's ,note3 ,following entry not in original table of contents ,deep ,sea ,dredgings3 ,examination ,of ,sea ,bottoms4 ,by ,,thomas #iieh ,t4,p4 ,,bruce ,,warren4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,benier',s ,,hot ,,air ,,engine4 ,the hot air engine1 although theoretically recognized for some time past as the most economical means of converting heat into motive power1 has up to the present met with little success4 ,this is due to the fact that the arrangement of the motors of this class that have hitherto been constructed has been such as to render them but slightly practical4 ,in the ,benier hot air engine 7illustrated herewith71 however1 obstacles that were once considered insurmountable have been overcome1 and the motor presents many advantages over all the types that have preceded it4 ,among such advantages we shall cite the possibility of utilizing air at a high temperature 7#a1bjj or #a1ejj degrees71 while the rubbing surfaces remain at a moderate temperature 7#fj or #hj degrees74 ,the fire grate is placed in the interior of the cylinder1 and is traversed by the cold air forced by a pump4 ,the expanded hot gases fill the cylinder and act against the piston directly above the grate4 ,the type herewith illustrated is of #f horse power4 ,the motive cylinder1 ,,cc'1 is bolted to the extremity of the frame1 ,a4 ,upon this latter is fixed a column1 ,b1 which carries a working beam1 ,e4 ,this latter transmits the motion of the piston1 ,p1 to the shaft1 ,d4 ,a pump1 ,g1 placed within the frame1 forces a certain quantity of cold air at every revolution into the driving cylinder4 ,the piston of this pump is actuated by the connecting rod1 ,g'1 jointed to the lever1 ,f'1 which receives its motion from the rod1 ,f4 ,a slide valve1 b'1 actuated by a cam1 regulates the entrance of the cold air into the pump during suction1 as well as its introduction into the cylinder4 ,there is a thrust upon the piston during its upward travel1 and an escape of hot gas through the eduction valve1 h1 during the downward travel4 ,the cylinder is in two parts1 ,c and ,c'4 ,the piston1 which is very long1 rubs at its upper end against the sides of the cylinder1 ,c4 ,the lower end is of smaller diameter1 and leaves an annular space between it and the cylinder4 ,the grate is at the bottom of the cylinder1 ,c'4 ,the sides of the cylinder at the level of the fire box are protected with a lining of plumbago4 ,when the piston is at the bottom of its travel1 the eduction valve closes4 ,the slide valve1 b'1 establishes a communication between the pump chamber and the cylinder4 ,the air contained in the pump is already compressed in the latter to a pressure of nearly a kilogramme at the moment of the communication4 ,this air enters the cylinder1 and the communication between the latter and the pump continues until all the air is forced into the driving cylinder1 the piston of the pump being at the bottom of its travel1 and that of the cylinder about midway4 ,illustration3 ,,benier',s ,,hot ,,air ,,engine4 ,the air forced by the pump piston enters the cylinder through two conduits1 one of which leads a portion of it toward the top of the cylinder1 and the other toward the bottom4 ,the lower conduit debouches under the grate1 and the air that passes through it traverses the fire box1 and the hot gas fills the cylinder4 ,the conduit that runs to the top debouches in the cylinder1 ,c1 at the lower limit of the surface rubbed by the piston4 ,the air that traverses this conduit is distributed through the annular space between the piston and cylinder4 ,the hot gas derived from combustion can therefore never introduce itself into this annular space1 and consequently cannot come into contact with the rubbing surfaces of the cylinder and piston4 ,as the quantity of air introduced at every stroke is constant1 the work developed at every stroke is varied by regulating the temperature of the gas that fills the cylinder4 ,when the temperature falls1 the pressure1 and consequently the work developed1 diminishes4 ,this result is obtained by varying the respective quantities of air that pass through the fire box and around the piston4 ,in measure as less air passes through the fire box1 the quantity that passes around the piston augments by just so much1 and the pressure diminishes4 ,a valve1 n'1 in the conduit that runs to the fire box is controlled by the regulator1 ,l'1 in the interior of the column4 ,when the work to be transmitted diminishes1 the regulator closes the valve more or less1 and the work developed diminishes4 ,the coke is put by shovelfuls into a hopper1 ,i4 ,four buckets mounted upon the periphery of a wheel1 ,i'1 traverse the coke1 and1 taking up a piece of it1 let it fall upon the cover1 ,j1 of the slide valve1 j1 whence it falls into the cavity of the latter when it is uncovered1 and from thence into the conduit1 c'1 of the box1 j'1 when the cavity of the valve is opposite the conduit4 ,from the conduit1 c'1 the coke falls upon the grate4 ,a small sight hole covered with glass1 in the cover1 ,j1 permits the grate to be seen when the cavity of the valve is opposite c'4 ,as in gas engines1 a current of water is made to flow around the cylinder1 ,c'1 in order to keep the sides from getting too hot4 ,in order to set the engine in motion1 we begin by opening the bottom1 ,c1 of the cylinder1 ,c'1 to clean the grate4 ,this done1 we close ,c and introduce lighted charcoal through the conduit1 c' 7the valve being open74 ,the valve is put in place1 two or three revolutions are given to the fly wheel1 and the motor starts4 ,the feeding is afterward done with coke4 ,the parts that transmit motion operate under conditions analogous to those under which the same parts of a steam engine do4 ,the air pump sucks and forces nothing but cold air1 and nothing but cold air passes through the distributing slide valve4 ,the pump and valve are therefore rendered very durable4 ,the piston and cylinder1 at the points where friction exists1 are at a temperature of #fj or #hj degrees4 ,these surfaces are protected against hot gas charged with dust4 ,the hot gas1 which escapes from the cylinder through a valve1 has previously been cooled by contact with the sides of the cylinder and by expansion4 ,the eduction valve just mentioned works about like that of a steam engine1 and it is only necessary to polish it now and then in order to keep it in good condition4--,annales ,industrielles4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,your ,,future ,,problems4#a ,footnote #a3 ,an address to the graduating class1 ,stevens ,institute1 ,hoboken1 ,n4,j41 #ahhg4 ,by ,,charles ,e4 ,,emery4 ,mr4 ,president and ,ladies and ,gentlemen3 ,it has not been considered the duty of the speaker1 in addressing the graduating class1 to dwell on the triumphs of science or the advantage of a liberal education4 ,these subjects have already been discussed1 in connection with the regular courses of study1 better1 and more at length1 than he could do4 ,we propose rather to try and prepare the minds of the graduates for the practical problems before them4 ,all young men are impressed with the consciousness of higher powers as they increase their stores of knowledge1 and this feeling perhaps reaches its maximum with those who have made a specialty of the investigation and application of physical laws4 ,young men who have learned how to harness the powers of nature and guide them to do their will are apt to belittle the difficulties they have yet to overcome1 and have a false impression of the problems of life4 ,this feeling is shown to a minimum extent by graduates of the ,stevens ,institute1 on account of their careful practical training1 in connection with the thorough study of principles2 but it has been thought best for one from the outside world to supplement such teaching by calling to mind instances which may have a useful counteracting effect1 and1 like parables1 serve the purpose of illustrative instruction4 ,gentlemen of the ,class of '#hg3 ,it was the pleasure of the speaker to address the class of '#gi1 under the title of ,how to ,succeed1 some words of counsel and warning1 which1 if they left an impression of severity at the time1 were apparently so well received afterward that he has been tempted to continue the general subject1 with the title of ,your ,future ,problems4 ,the notation of your future problems will not be found at once among the known quantities1 but with x1 y1 and z1 at the other end of the alphabet4 ,often word symbols will be applicable1 expressing at times disappointment and pain1 at other times renewed effort1 and finally the active phases of individual thought and exertion4 ,the first serious problem with many of you will be to secure satisfactory engagements4 ,this problem cannot be illustrated by parables4 ,it needs1 in general1 patient1 unremitting1 and frequently long continued effort4 ,it may be that the fame of some of you1 that have already acquired the happy faculty of making yourselves immediately useful1 has already gone abroad and the coveted positions been already assured4 ,to be frank1 we cannot promise you even a bed of roses4 ,we have in mind an instance where a superior authority in a large business enterprise who had great respect1 as he should have1 for the attainments of young gentlemen who have had the opportunities of a technical education1 deliberately ordered out a competent mechanical engineer1 familiar with the designs required in a large repair shop1 and sent in his place a young gentleman fresh from school and flushed with hope1 but who from the very nature of the case could know little or nothing of his duties at that particular place4 ,he was practically alone in the drawing room1 and did not know where to find such drawings as were required1 and candor requires it to be said that he desired to ask many questions about those he did find4 ,the superintendent unfortunately had nothing to do with his appointment1 and rather resented it4 ,so he did not trust any of his work1 and the new comer was obliged to learn his practical experience at that establishment1 where he was known as the mechanical engineer1 by having all his work done over by the pattern maker or others1 under the eye of the superintendent or master mechanic1 and be subjected all the time to the jealousies and annoyances incident to such a method of introduction4 ,his practical experience was certainly learned under difficulties which ,i trust none of you may experience4 ,this statement is made that those of you who have not yet obtained positions may not envy those who have1 and that each and all of you may be careful not to take a position so far above your experience1 if not your capacity1 as to become unpleasantly situated in the beginning4 ,the educational facilities you have enjoyed are of such great value in some exceptional cases that the parties thus benefited may do you an injury by leading others to expect that you will be equally valuable in performing duties which require much more practical experience and knowledge of detail than it is possible that you could have obtained in the time you have been here4 ,the incident is ripe with suggestions4 ,no matter how humble a position you may take in the beginning1 you will be embarrassed in much the same way as the young gentleman in question1 though it is hoped in a less degree4 ,your course of action should be first to learn to do as you are told1 no matter what you think of it4 ,and above everything keep your eyes and ears open to obtain practical knowledge of all that is going on about you4 ,let nothing escape you of an engineering nature1 though it has connection with the business in hand4 ,it may be your business the next day1 and if you have taken advantage of the various opportunities to know all about that particular matter in every detail1 you can intelligently act in relation to it1 without embarrassment to yourself and with satisfaction to your superior4 ,above all1 avoid conflict with the practical force of the establishment into which you are introduced4 ,it is better1 as we have at another time advised1 to establish friendly relations with the workmen and practical men with whom you have to do4 ,you are to be spared this evening any direct references to the conceit of learning1 but you are asked and advised to bear with the conceit of ignorance4 ,you will find that practical men will be jealous of you on account of your opportunities1 and at the same time jealous of their own practical information and experience1 and that they may take some pains to hinder rather than aid you in your attempts to actively learn the practical details of the business4 ,the most disagreeable man about the establishment to persons like you1 who perhaps goes out of his way to insult you1 and yet should be respected for his age1 may be one who can be of greatest use to you4 ,cultivate his acquaintance4 ,a kind word will generally be the best response to an offensive remark1 though gentlemanly words of resentment may be necessary when others are present4 ,sometimes it will be sufficient to say1 ,i wish a little talk with you by yourself1 which will put the bystanders at a distance and enable you to mature your plans4 ,ascertain as soon as possible that man's tastes2 what he reads and what he delights in4 ,approach him as if you had no resentment and talk on his favorite topic4 ,if rebuffed1 tell a pleasant story1 and persist from time to time in the attempt to please1 until his hardened nature relaxes and he begins to feel and perhaps speaks to others favorably of you4 ,st4 ,paul has said3 ,for though ,i be free from all men1 yet have ,i made myself servant of all that ,i might gain the more4 ,this is the keynote of policy1 and though in humbling yourself you control and hide your true feelings1 recollect that all your faculties are given you for proper use4 ,we have referred to some who have acquired the happy faculty of making themselves immediately useful4 ,this is a much more difficult matter than the words imply4 ,if one of you should be so fortunate as to be ordered to make certain tests almost like those you have already conducted here1 or to tabulate the results of tests as you have done it here1 or to make inspections akin to those which have been fully explained here1 there is every probability the work would be done satisfactorily in the first instance4 ,but let a much simpler case arise1 for instance1 if a superior hand one of you a letter with the simple instructions1 ,get me the facts on that1 you may be very much puzzled to know what is to be done and how to do it4 ,it may be that the letter is a request for information in regard to certain work that was carried on in the past1 in which case it will be necessary for you to hunt through old records1 copy books1 engineering notes1 drawings1 and the like1 and get a list of all referring to the subject2 to make an abstract of the letters and notes if they are at all complicated2 and finally to lay the whole before the overworked superior in a business manner1 that he largely from recollection1 aided by the references and notes1 can write an intelligent answer in a very brief period4 ,the way not to do it would be to say1 ,yes1 sir1 very promptly1 go off and not more than half read the letter1 do something and be back in five minutes with some question or ill-digested answer2 then upon receiving a polite hint as to the method to be employed1 go off and repeat the operation the next five minutes2 then on receiving a short reply1 in what appeared to be an unnecessary tone of voice1 get a little flurried perhaps1 do worse next time1 and in the end feel very unpleasant without having accomplished much1 and make the gentleman seeking assistance lament the difficulty in teaching young men practical work4 ,it is possible1 on the contrary1 for a young man to exceed his instructions and volunteer advice that has not been asked4 ,if he has unfortunately gone too far for some time and been sharply spoken to1 he may fail the next in not fully doing the work intended4 ,simply putting down a column of figures would not necessarily mean tabulating facts4 ,the arrangement and rearrangement of the columns aid in classifying such facts1 so that the results shown by them will be readily seen and a great deal of labor saved in examination4 ,a good rule in a case of this kind is to try and find some work done by other parties of a similar nature1 and thereby ascertain what is needed and expected4 ,reasonable questions to ascertain1 where records are to be found and the kind of records accessible1 are always proper if made at the proper time without interrupting an immediate train of thought2 and with such information as a start1 if a young man will endeavor to imagine himself in a place like that of the one who has finally to decide1 and try to ascertain just what information will probably be required1 then patiently go to work to find and present it in condensed shape1 he from that moment really begins to be useful and his services will be rapidly appreciated4 ,it is a good rule always to keep the memoranda obtained in accomplishing a result of this kind2 so that if further information is required1 the whole investigation need not be made over4 ,this remark suggests another line of thought4 ,some young men with quick perceptions get in the way at school of trusting their memories1 and omit making complete notes of lectures or of the various tests illustrating their studies4 ,this carelessness follows them into after life1 and there are instances where young men1 who can make certain kinds of investigations much better than their fellows1 and promptly give a statement of the general nature of the results1 have1 when called on afterward for the details1 forgotten then entirely1 and their notes and memoranda1 if preserved1 being of little use1 the labor is entirely lost4 ,such men necessarily have to learn more careful ways in after life4 ,it is a good rule in this1 as in the previous case1 to make and copy complete records of everything in such shape that they may be convenient for reference and criticism afterward4 ,one of the important problems with which you will have to deal in the future is the labor question1 and it is probable that your very first experience with it may be in direct antagonism with the opinions of many with whom you have heretofore been associated4 ,it is an honor to the feelings of those who stand outside and witness this so-called struggle now in progress between capital and labor1 that they believe the whole question can be settled by kindly treatment and reasonable argument4 ,there are some cases that will yield to such treatment1 and one's whole duty is not performed till all possible1 reasonable1 and humanitarian methods are adopted4 ,there has been an excuse for the organization of labor1 and it1 to some small extent1 still exists4 ,time was that the surplus of unskilled labor was used on a mercantile basis to reduce wages to such an extent that it was almost impossible to rear a well nurtured1 much less a well educated and well dressed family1 and1 moreover1 the hours of labor in some branches of business were so long as to shorten the lives of operatives and make self-improvement impossible4 ,the natural progress of civilizing influence did much to abate many of these evils1 but the organization of labor removed sores that had not and perhaps could not have been reached in other ways4 ,having then an excuse for organization1 and supported by the success made in directions where public sympathy was with them1 is it to be wondered that they have gone too far in very many cases1 and that the leadership of such organization has in many instances been captured by designing men1 who control the masses to accomplish selfish ends8 ,whatever may have been the method of evolution1 it is certain that the manufacturing operations of the present day have to meet with elements entirely antagonistic to their interests1 and in very many ways antagonistic to the interests of the workingman4 ,the members of many organizations1 even of intelligent men1 are blindly led by chiefs of various titles1 of which perhaps the walking delegate is the most offensive one to reasonable people4 ,this class of men claim the right to intrude themselves into the establishments owned by others1 and on the most trivial grounds make demands more or less unreasonable1 and order strikes and otherwise interfere with the work of manufacturers1 much in the way that we have an idea that the agents of the barbarbous chieftains1 feudal lords1 and semi-civilized rulers collected taxes and laid burdens in earlier historical times4 ,necessarily these men must use their power so as to insure its permanency4 ,if strikes are popular1 strikes must be ordered4 ,if funds run low1 excuses for strikes1 it is believed1 in many cases are sought1 so as to stir the pulses of those who sympathize with the labor cause4 ,co-operation has been suggested as a cure for the evil1 and there are cases where it has apparently succeeded1 in connection with the earlier forms of labor organization4 ,the ambition of later labor leaders almost prevents this remedy being of effect4 ,it may be possible still with very intelligent workmen1 isolated from the large mass of workmen in the country towns1 to feel an interest in co-operation2 but such inducements1 or the higher ones of personal kindness to employes or their families1 are not of much effect in large manufacturing centers4 ,as soon as dissatisfaction exists in one mill or manufactory1 all similar employes are ordered out4 ,the final result will be that combinations of employers must follow the combination of employes1 and those who have always been strong in the past will be stronger in the future1 as has appeared to be the case in many contests that have already taken place4 ,if there are any real abuses of power by the employers1 such as requiring work for unusual hours or at less than living rates1 the first thing to do is to correct these abuses1 so that complaints will not be upon a sound foundation4 ,some men1 when the labor epidemic strikes their places1 have sufficient force of character and influence with their men to avert the blow for some time4 ,others find it is policy to compromise with the representatives until a plan of action1 conciliatory1 offensive1 or defensive1 can be determined upon4 ,the whole matter must be considered one of policy rather than of principles4 ,the class of men to be dealt with do not talk principles except as an excuse to secure their ends4 ,in spite of everything1 there will be times when no compromise is possible and you will be called upon to take part in defending your employers' interests against what is called a strike4 ,you can do so with heart when you know the employes are all well paid1 and particularly1 as is frequently the case1 when the labor organizers and walking delegates claim that some old1 tried foreman shall be dismissed because they do like him1 really because he has not been a tool in carrying out their plans1 and they defiantly acknowledge that their war is against non-union labor1 and that they have organized your men and forced a strike to require your establishment to become as it is called a union shop4 ,if your deluded employes were permitted simply to go away and let you alone1 and you were permitted to employ others at the reasonable wages you were paying1 the problem would be a simple one4 ,the principal labor organizations claim that everything they do is by peaceable methods1 but this1 like many things said1 is simply to deceive1 for if you attempt to employ other assistants and carry on your business independently1 you will surely find that well known roughs are assembled who never do anything without they are paid for it by somebody1 that your men are assaulted by such persons1 and while the labor organizers talk about peaceable methods and urge them aloud in public1 in case one of the roughs is arrested1 the loud talkers are the first to go bail for the defender1 and you will feel morally sure that the sympathizing crowd with the roughs who make the assaults are all part of or tools of the organization4 ,at such times1 you will find your old employes standing around the street corners1 persuading other men not to go to work and thus interfere with what are called the true interests of labor4 ,any new employe who has to go in the street will be first met with inducements of other employment1 with offers of money1 afterward with threats1 and1 if opportunity occurs1 with direct assault4 ,all the features of persuasion1 intimidation1 and violence will be carried out as demanded1 and strangers to everybody in the vicinity1 but well known as experienced leaders in this kind of work in other places1 be brought in to endeavor to make the strike a success4 ,then1 young men1 is the time to show your pluck1 and our experience is that educated young men will do so every time4 ,they can be depended upon to go straight ahead with duty through every danger1 bearing patiently everything that may be said1 defending themselves with nature's weapons as long as possible1 and without fear using reserve weapons in case real danger of life is imminent4 ,in carrying through a very important strike against a mere desire to control and not to correct abuses1 your speaker desires to pay the highest tribute to a number of educated young men1 mostly from the technical schools1 who fearlessly faced every danger1 and by their example stimulated others to do their duty1 and all participated in the results obtained by a great success4 ,we would not by such references fire your hearts to a desire to participate in such an unpleasant contest4 ,it is the duty of all to study this problem intelligently and earnestly1 with a view of overcoming the difficulties and permitting the prosperity of the country to go on4 ,while conciliation may be best at some times1 policy at another1 and resistance at another1 we must also be thinking of the best means to prevent further outbreaks4 ,it would seem to be true policy not to interfere with organization1 but to try and direct it into higher channels4 ,those of the humanitarians who claim that the disease will be rooted out eventually by a more general and better education are undoubtedly largely in the right1 notwithstanding that some fairly educated men have acted against their best interests in affiliating with the labor organizations4 ,it seems to the speaker that enough instances can be collected to show the utter folly of the present selfish system1 based1 as it is1 entirely on getting all that is possible1 independent of right in the matter1 and by demanding equal wages for all men1 tending to lower all to one common degradation1 instead of rewarding industry and ability and advancing the cause of civilization4 ,labor should not be organized for selfish ends1 but for its own good1 so as to secure steady and permanent employment1 rather than prevent it by impracticable schemes and unwise methods1 which will cripple manufacturers and all kinds of industry4 ,the men should organize under the general laws of the ,state1 so that their leaders will be responsible to the laws and can be indicted1 tried1 and punished in case they misappropriate funds or commit any breach of trust2 and such laws should be amended if necessary1 so that wise1 responsible leaders of the organizations can contract to furnish labor for a certain time at a fixed price1 when manufacturers can make calculations ahead as to the cost of labor the same as for the cost of material1 and have such confidence that they will use all their energies to do a larger amount of business and benefit the workingman as well as themselves by furnishing steady employment4 ,such a plan as is here outlined can readily be carried into effect by selecting better men as leaders4 ,it is well known how well the organization known as the locomotive brotherhood is conducted1 and it should be an example to others4 ,it has had its day of dissensions1 when the best counsels did not prevail1 which shows that any organization of the kind1 no matter how well conducted1 may be diverted by its leaders into improper channels4 ,when organized under the laws of the ,state and under by-laws designed to secure steady employment1 rather than any artificial condition of things in regard to pay hours1 and continuance of labor1 the true interests of the workman will be advanced4 ,it may be that some one of you will develop a talent in the direction of organization and be the means of aiding in the solution of this great problem4 ,please think of the matter seriously1 watch the law of evolution while you are advancing your professional knowledge1 and if the opportunity offers1 do all you can to aid in a cause so important and beneficent4 ,one writer has criticised the technical schools because they do not teach mechanical intuition4 ,the schools have enough to do in the time available if they teach principles and sufficient practice to enable the principles to be understood4 ,the aptitude to design1 which must be what is meant by mechanical intuition1 requires very considerable practical experience1 which you will readily learn if you do not keep yourself above it4 ,if you have used your leisure hours to study why a certain piece of mechanism was made in a certain way rather than in another2 if you have wondered why one part is thick in one place rather than in another1 apparently in defiance of all rules of the strength of material2 if you have endeavored to ascertain why a particular device is used rather than another more evident one2 if you have thought and studied why a boss is thrown in here and there in designs to receive bolts or to lengthen a journal1 and if you have in your mind1 by repeated observation1 a fair idea of how work is designed by other people1 the so-called mechanical intuition will be learned and found to be the combination of common sense and good practice4 ,you will observe that some details have been copied for years and years1 although thoughtful men would say they are not the best1 simply because they are adapted to a large amount of work already done4 ,this is particularly true of the rolling stock on railroads4 ,the cost of a change in starting in a new country might be warranted1 but it practically cannot be done when the parts must interchange with so much work done in other parts of the country4 ,you will find in other cases that the direct strain to which a piece of mechanism is subjected is only one of the strains which occur in practice4 ,a piece of metal may have been thickened where it customarily broke1 and you may possibly surmise that certain jars took place that caused such breakages1 or that particular point was where the abuse of the attendant was customarily applied4 ,wherever you go you will find matters of this kind affecting designs staring you in the face1 and you will soon see why a man who has learned his trade in the shop1 and from there worked into the drawing room with much less technical information than you have1 can get along as well as he does4 ,reserve your strength1 however4 ,your time will come4 ,whenever there is a new departure to be taken1 and matters to be worked out from the solid which require close computation of strains or the application of any principles1 your education will put you far ahead1 and if you have1 during the period of what may be called your post-graduate course1 which occurs during your early introduction into practical life1 been careful to keep your eyes and ears open so as to learn all that a man in practical life has done1 you will soon stand far ahead4 ,reference was made to the use of leisure hours4 ,leisure hours can be spent in various ways4 ,for instance1 in studying the composition and resolution of forces and the laws of elasticity in a billiard room1 the poetry of motion1 etc41 in a ball room1 and the chemical properties of various malt and vinous extracts in another room2 but the philosophical reason why certain engineering work is done in the way it is1 and the proper way in which new work shall be done of a similar character and original work of any kind carried on1 can only be learned by cultivating your powers of observation and ruminating on the facts collected in the privacy of one's own room1 away from the allurements provided for those who have nothing to do4 ,no one would recommend you to so separate yourself from the world as to sacrifice health and strength1 or to become a recluse1 even if you did learn all about a certain thing4 ,remember1 however1 that the men who have accomplished most in this world worked the longest hours1 and any one with a regular occupation must utilize his leisure hours to obtain prestige4 ,the difference between one man and another of the same natural ability lies entirely in the amount of his information and the facility with which he can use it4 ,life is short1 and you must realize that now is your opportunity4 ,if any diversion in the way of pleasure or even certain kinds of congenial work is offered1 consider it in connection with the question1 ,will this be conducive to my higher aim8 ,this implies that you have a higher aim2 and if you have it1 and weigh everything in this way1 you will find that every moment of exertion adds something to your storehouse of information and brings you nearer to the accomplishment of that higher aim4 ,in closing1 we thank the ladies and gentlemen present for their close attention to details of special interest only to those engaged in technical study or practice4 ,we congratulate you1 young gentlemen of the class of '#hg1 for the success you have thus far obtained1 and trust that you will persevere in well doing and win greater success in the future4 ,we need hardly state that all that has been said was in a spirit of kindness1 and we feel assured that much of it has been seconded by your parents1 to whom no less than to all parents here present off or on the stage1 the speaker not excepted1 a serious1 thoughtful problem has been1 still is1 and will continue to be to many1 ,what shall we do with our boys4--,stevens ,indicator4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,heating ,,marine ,,boilers ,,with ,,liquid ,,fuel4 ,we were recently witness of an experiment made at ,eragny ,conflans on the steam yacht ,flamboyante4 ,it was a question of testing a new vaporizer or burner for liquid fuel4 ,the experiment was a repetition of the one that the inventor1 ,mr4 ,g4 ,dietrich1 recently performed with success in the presence of ,admirals ,cloue and ,miot4 ,the ,flamboyante is #eh ft4 in length1 #i ft4 in width1 draws #e ft4 of water1 and has a displacement of #aj tons4 ,she is provided with a double vertical engine supplied by a ,belleville boiler that develops #bh horse power4 ,the screw makes #bjj revolutions per minute1 and gives the yacht a speed of #f knots4 ,mr4 ,dietrich's vaporizer appears to be very simple1 and has given so good results that we have thought it of interest to give our readers a succinct description of it4 ,in this apparatus1 the inventor has endeavored to obtain an easy regulation of the two essential elements--naphtha and steam4 ,fig4 #a represents the apparatus in section4 ,the steam enters through the tubulure1 ,a1 and finds its way around the periphery of a tuyere1 ,d4 ,it escapes with great velocity1 carries along the petroleum that runs from two lateral tubulures1 ,b 7,fig4 #b71 and throws it in a fine spray into the fireplace1 through the nozzle1 ,c 7,fig4 #a71 which is flattened into the shape of a fan opened out horizontally4 ,the mixture at once ignites in contact with the hot gases1 and gives a beautiful1 long1 clear flame4 ,the air necessary for the combustion is sucked through the interior of the nozzle1 ,h1 which is in front of the tuyere4 ,it will be seen that the current of steam can be regulated by moving the tuyere1 ,d1 from or toward the eduction orifice4 ,this is effected through a maneuver of the hand wheel1 ,f4 ,in the second place1 the flow of the petroleum is made regular by revolving the hand wheel1 ,g1 which gives the piston1 ,o1 a to and fro motion in the tuyere1 ,d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a--,,the ,,dietrich ,,petroleum ,,burner4 ,the regulation may be performed with the greatest ease4 ,it is possible to instantly vary1 together or separately1 the steam and the petroleum4 ,under such circumstances1 choking is not to be feared at the petroleum orifice1 where1 according to experiment1 the thickness of the substance to be vaporized should not be less than #j4jd of an inch4 ,the petroleum might evidently be made to enter at ,a and the steam at ,b2 but one of the conclusions of the experiments cited is that the performance is better when the jet of steam surrounds the petroleum4 ,it will be understood1 in fact1 that by this means not a particle of the liquid can escape vaporization and1 consequently1 combustion4 ,moreover1 as the jet of petroleum is completely surrounded by steam its flow can be increased within the widest limits1 and this1 in certain cases1 may prevent an obstruction without much diminishing the useful effect of the burner4 ,the apparatus is easily and rapidly taken apart4 ,it it is only necessary to remove the nozzle1 ,c1 in order to partially clean it4 ,it would even seem that the cleaning might be done automatically by occasionally reversing the flow of the steam and petroleum4 ,however efficacious such a method might prove1 the apparatus as we have described it can be very easily applied to any generator4 ,fig4 #b represents it as applied to the front of a furnace provided with two doors4 ,a metallic box1 with two compartments1 is placed on one side of the furnace1 and is provided with two stuffing boxes that are capable of revolving around the steam and petroleum pipes4 ,the latter thus form the pivots of the hinge that allows of the play of the vaporizers and piping4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b--,,the ,,burner ,,applied ,,to ,,the ,,furnace ,,of ,a ,,boiler4 ,it was in this way that ,mr4 ,dietrich arranged his apparatus in an experiment made upon a stationary boiler belonging to a ,mr4 ,corpet4 ,the experiment was satisfactory and led to the adoption of the arrangement shown in ,fig4 #c4 ,the fire bridge is constructed of refractory bricks1 and the majority of the grate bars are filled in with brick4 ,the few free bars permit of the firing of the boiler and of access of air to the interior of the fire box4 ,under such circumstances1 the combustion is very regular1 the furnace does not roar1 and the smoke-consuming qualities are perfect4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c--;,,application ,,of ,,the ,,burner ,,to ,a ,,return ,,flame ,,boiler4 ,in the experiment on the ,flamboyante1 the boiler was provided with but one apparatus1 and the grate remained covered with a layer of ignited coal that had been used for firing up in order to obtain the necessary pressure of steam to set the vaporizer in operation4 ,this ignited coal appeared to very advantageously replace the refractory bricks1 the role of which it exactly fulfilled4 ,it has been found well1 moreover1 to break the flames by a few piles of bricks in the furnace1 in order to obtain as intimate a mixture as possible of the inflammable gases4 ,it is to be remarked that firing up in order to obtain the necessary steam at first is a drawback that might be surmounted by using at the beginning of the operation a very small auxiliary boiler4 ,the main furnace would then be fired by means of say a wad of cotton4 ,but1 in current practice1 if a grate and fire be retained1 the firing will perhaps be simpler4 ,with but one apparatus1 the pressure in the ,flamboyante's boiler rose in a few minutes from #f to #be pounds1 and about a quarter of an hour after leaving the wharf the apparatus had been so regulated that there was no sign of smoke4 ,this property of the ,dietrich burner proceeds naturally from the use of a jet of steam to carry along the petroleum and air necessary for combustion4 ,it is1 in fact1 an ,orvis smoke consumer transformed1 and applied in a special way4 ,it must be added that the regulating requires a certain amount of practice and even a certain amount of time at every change in the boat's running4 ,so it is well to use two1 and even three1 apparatus1 of a size adapted to that of the boiler4 ,the regulation of the furnace temperature is then effected by extinguishing one or two1 or even three1 of the apparatus1 according as it is desired to slow up more or less or to come to a standstill4 ,the oil used by ,mr4 ,de ,dosme on his yacht comes from ,comaille1 near ,antun4 ,the price of it is quite low1 and1 seeing the feeble consumption 7from #cc to #de lb4 for the yacht's boiler71 it competes advantageously with the coal that ,mr4 ,de ,dosme was formerly obliged to use4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,continued from ,,supplement1 ,no4 #fbb1 page #iice4 ,,the ,,change ,,of ,,gauge ,,of ,,southern ,,railroads ,,in #ahhf4a ,footnote #a3 ,a paper read before the ,western ,society of ,engineers1 ,june #g1 #ahhg4 ,by ,c4,h4 ,,hudson4 ,many of the wheels that were still in use with the long hub were put into a lathe1 and a groove was cut an inch and a half back from the face1 leaving our cast collar1 which was easily split off as before4 7,fig4 #bd47 ,with tender wheels1 as with our car wheels1 the case was different4 ,originally1 the axle for the #e ft4 gauge was longer than for the #d ft4 #i in42 but latterly the #e ft4 roads had used a great many master car builders' axles for the #d ft4 #i in4 gauge1 namely1 #f ft4 #aa in4 over all1 thus making the width of the truck the same as for #d ft4 #i in4 gauge4 ,to do this a dished wheel1 or rather a wheel with a greater dish by #a in4 than previously used1 was needed1 so that the tread of the wheel could be at its proper place4 7,see ,fig4 #be47 ,there were1 of course1 many of the wheels with small dish and long axles still in use4 ,their treatment1 however1 when the day of change came1 did not vary from that of the short axle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd and ,,fig4 #be ,it had been the rule for some years that all axles should be turned back #a in4 further than needed2 but unfortunately the rule had not been closely followed1 and many were found not to be so turned4 ,to make the matter worse1 quite a number of the wheels were found to have been counterbored about in4 deep at the back end1 and the axle turned up to fit this counterbore2 a good idea to prevent the running in1 in case the wheel worked loose1 but bad from the standpoint of a change of gauge4 ,in such cases the wheels had to be started off before the axle could be turned back1 so that the wheels could be pushed on in their proper position4 7,fig4 #bf47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf ,if the work was done where they had a lathe large enough to swing a pair of wheels1 they were pressed off but half an inch1 the wheels swung in the lathe1 the axles turned back #a in41 and the wheels then pressed on #b in4 or #a in4 inside of their first position4 ,where no large lathe was in use1 the wheels came entirely off before the axles could be turned back4 ,the work in the former case was both the quicker and the cheaper4 ,where the large lathes were used they were either set down into the floor1 so a pair of wheels would easily roll into place1 or a raised platform was put before the lathe1 with an incline up which the wheels were rolled and then taken to the lathe4 ,these arrangements were found much quicker and cheaper than to hoist the wheels up1 as is usually done4 ,in pressing the wheels on1 where the axles had previously been turned back1 much trouble was at first experienced because of the rust that had gathered upon the turned part behind the wheel1 forming a ridge over or upon which the wheel must be pushed4 ,some of the roads1 at the start1 burst #aj or #ae per cent4 of the wheels so pressed on4 ,by saturating this surface with coal oil1 however1 it was found that the rust was easily removed and little trouble was had4 ,it was found1 sometimes1 that upon axles newly turned back a careless workman would leave a ridge at the starting point of the turning4 ,frequently also the axles were a little sprung1 so that the new turning would be a little scant upon one side when compared with the old surface1 and upon the opposite side a little full4 ,as an indication that these difficulties were overcome as they appeared1 ,i will say that upon our line only #bjb wheels burst out of nearly #bg1jjj pressed on--an exceedingly small percentage4 ,after the change upon the early roads they were troubled for weeks with hot boxes1 caused1 as we believed1 by the changing of brasses4 ,a brass once fitted to a journal will work upon it without trouble1 but when placed upon some other journal will probably not fit4 ,if the journal had been worn hollow 7and it was surprising to see how many were so worn71 the brass would be found worn down to fit it4 7,see ,fig4 #bg4 ,exaggerated1 of course47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg and ,,fig4 #bh ,the next wheel may have an axle worn little or none4 7,see ,fig4 #bh7 ,now1 if these brasses are exchanged1 we have the conditions as shown in ,figs4 #bi and #cj1 and we must expect they will heat4 ,the remedy was simply to keep each brass upon its own journal4 ,to do this the brasses were fastened to the axle by a piece of small wire1 and went with it to the lathe and press4 ,when its truck was reached1 the brass was there with its journal4 ,worn-out brasses1 of course1 could not be put in1 and new ones were substituted4 ,the little trouble from that source that followed the change showed the efficacy of the remedy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi and ,,fig4 #cj ,the manner in which the tires of engines were to be changed1 when the final day came1 was a serious question4 ,the old-fashioned fire upon the ground could not be thought of4 ,the ,m4 ,o4 had used a fire of pine under the wheel1 which was covered by a box of sheet iron1 so arranged that the flame and heat would be conveyed around the tire1 and out at an aperture at the top4 7,fig4 #ca47 ,many thought this perfect1 while others were not satisfied1 and began experiments for something better4 ,a device for using gas had been patented1 but it was somewhat complicated1 as well as expensive1 and did not meet with general favor4 ,a very simple device was soon hit upon4 ,a two inch pipe was bent around in a circle a little larger than the outer rim of the wheel4 ,holes #a_/aj in4 in diameter and #c or #d in4 apart were drilled through the pipe on the inside of the circle4 ,to this pipe was fastened another with a branch or fork upon it4 ,to one branch or fork was connected a gas pipe from the meter1 while to the other was connected a pipe from an air pump4 ,with the ordinary pressure of city gas upon this pipe it was found that the air pump must keep an air pressure of #dj pounds1 that the air and gas might mix properly at the branch or fork1 so we could get the best combustion and most heat from our blowpipe1 for such it was4 7,fig4 #cb47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca and ,,fig4 #cb ,we were able to heat a tire so it could be moved in ten to twenty minutes1 and the machine may be said to have been satisfactory4 ,gas1 however1 was not to be had at all places where it would be necessary to change tires1 and the item of cost was considerable4 ,to reach a result as good1 if possible1 experiments were begun with coal oil 7headlight oil74 ,they were crude and unsatisfactory at first1 but soon success was reached4 ,a pipe was bent to fit the lower half of a wheel pretty closely and then turned back under itself about the diameter of the pipe distant from it4 ,this under part had holes #a_/aj in4 diameter and #c or #d in4 apart drilled upon its upper side or under the upper pipe4 ,connected with the upper pipe at its center was a pipe which ran to one side and up to the can containing the kerosene4 ,between the can and the pipe under the wheel was a stop cock1 by which the flow of oil could be controlled4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc ,to use the device1 open the cock and let a small amount of oil flow2 apply fire to the pipe under the wheel1 and the oil in the upper pipe is converted into gas1 which flows out of the small holes in the lower pipe1 takes fire1 and heats not only the tire1 but the upper pipe1 thus converting more oil into gas4 ,we had here a lot of blue flame jets and the same result as with gas1 but at less cost4 ,we had also a machine that was inexpensive and easily handled anywhere4 ,boxes were placed over the upper parts of the wheels1 that the heat might pass closely to the tire4 ,this device was extensively used by our people1 and with great satisfaction4 ,in one way care had to be taken1 viz43 ,that in starting the fire it did not smoke and cover the tire with carbon or lampblack1 which is a non-conductor of heat4 ,experiments were made with air forced through gasoline1 and with oil heated in a can to form gas4 ,there was more danger in either of these than with our blowpipe device1 and no better results were obtained1 though the cost was greater4 ,with the change of the wheels1 the brakes had to be changed the same amount1 that is1 each one set in #a in4 ,this it was thought would either require new hangers or a change in the head or shoe in some way4 ,we found that the hangers could easily be bent without removal4 ,fig4 #cd shows three hangers after passing through the bending process4 ,a short lever arranged to clasp the hanger just below the point1 ,a1 was the instrument2 a forked shore is now placed1 with the fork1 against the point1 ,a1 and the other end against the car sill2 press down on the lever and you bend the hanger at ,a2 lower the lever to a point just below ,b1 reverse the process1 and you have the bend at ,b2 the whole thing taking less than two minutes per hanger4 ,a new bolt hole1 of course1 has been bored in the brake beam #a in4 inside the old hole4 ,it takes but a short time after this to change the position of the head and shoe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd ,before the day of change1 a portion of the spikes were drawn from the inside of the rail to be moved1 and spike set #c in4 inside of the rail4 ,as a rule two spikes were drawn and the third left4 ,at least every third spike was set for the new gauge1 and in some cases every other one4 ,there were several devices with which to set the spike4 ,a small piece of iron #c in4 wide was common1 and answered the purpose well4 ,this had a handle1 sometimes small1 just large enough for the hand to clasp1 while others had a handle long enough for a man to use it without stooping down4 7,see ,figs4 #ce and #cf47 ,another device is shown in ,fig4 #cg1 so arranged that the measurements were made from the head of the other rail4 ,this was liked best1 and1 it is thought1 gave the best results1 as the moved rail was more likely to be in good line than when the measurements were taken from the flange4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce1 ,,fig4 #cf and ,,fig4 #cg ,it was intended that great care should be taken in driving the spikes1 that they were in the proper place1 square with the rail1 and left sticking up about an inch4 ,the ties1 of course1 were all adzed down before the day of change4 ,handspikes were originally used to throw the rails1 as were lining bars4 ,we found1 however1 that small cant hooks were more easily handled and did better work4 ,the first were made like ,fig4 #ch1 with a spike in the end of a stick1 while the hook was fastened with a bolt about #aj or #ab inches above the foot4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch and ,,fig4 #ci ,we afterward made them of a #a in4 rod1 #c ft4 long1 pointed at one end1 with a ring shrunk on #a ft4 from the bottom4 ,then the hook was made with an eye1 as shown in ,fig4 #ci1 which slipped down over the top of the main rod4 ,this was simple and cheap1 and the iron was to be used for repair purposes when this work was done4 ,upon the system with which the writer was connected we had some branches where we could experiment upon the moving of the rail4 ,between ,selma and ,lauderdale the traffic was light1 and at ,lauderdale it connected with the ,mobile ,ohio ,railroad1 which was narrow1 and to which all freight had to be transferred1 either by hoisting the cars or by handling through the house4 ,by changing our gauge we would simply change the point of transfer to ,selma4 ,here was a chance to experiment upon one hundred miles and cause little trouble to traffic4 ,we could see the practical workings of our plans1 and1 at the same time1 leave less to do on the final day4 ,upon the #bjth of ,april we did this work4 ,it had been our plan to do it somewhat earlier1 but floods prevented4 ,most of the rail was old chair iron1 short1 and consequently more time was used in making the change than would have been required had our work been on fishplate rail4 ,our sections here were about eight miles long1 and we arranged our men on the basis blocked out by the committee1 viz41 #bd to #bf men to the section1 consisting of #f spike pullers1 #d throwing rails1 #ab spikers1 #b to push the cars and carry water4 ,we soon found #e ft4 cars useless1 and threw them into the ditch to be picked up at some future time4 ,the men were spread out so as not to be in each other's way1 and when the organization was understood and conformed to1 it worked well4 ,one gang changed #e miles in #e hours and #aj minutes1 including a number of switches4 ,we found1 however1 and it was demonstrated still more strongly on later work1 that after #e or #f miles the men began to lag4 ,we believed we had the best results when we had sections of about that length4 ,it was arranged that two sections1 alternately1 commenced work together at one point1 working from each other and continuing until the force of another section was met1 working from the opposite direction4 ,the foreman in charge was expected to examine the work and know that all was right4 ,the push car which followed was a good test as to gauge4 ,a work train was started from each end with a small force 7#bj or #be men7 to run over the changed track4 ,this train1 of course1 had been changed on a previous day to be ready for this work4 ,if a force was overtaken by this train with its work not done1 the men on the train were at once spread out to aid in its completion4 ,this done1 the train ran on4 ,not until this was done was a traffic train allowed to pass over the track4 ,the same rule was followed upon all the work4 ,upon the final day it was required that upon all high trestles and in tunnels the track should be full-spiked before being left or a train let over4 ,this took extra time and labor1 and possibly was not necessary2 but it was a precaution on the side of safety4 ,upon the day of the change of the ,alabama ,central ,division 7,selma to ,lauderdale71 superintendents of other divisions1 with their road masters1 supervisors1 master mechanics and many section foremen1 were sent over to see the organization and work and the preparations that had been made4 ,many of them lent a helping hand in the work4 ,they saw here in practice what had only been theory before4 ,about a week before the general change that portion of the road between ,rome1 ,ga41 and ,selma1 ,ala41 about #bjj miles1 was changed1 and again men from other divisions were sent to see and aid in the work4 ,so when the final day came1 the largest possible number of men were able to work understandingly4 ,on the last day of ,may the ,memphis ,charleston1 ,knoxville ,ohio1 and ,north ,carolina branch were changed1 and on ,june #a the line from ,bristol to ,chattanooga and ,brunswick4 ,other roads changed their branch lines a day or two before the #ast of ,june2 but the main lines1 as a rule1 were changed on that day4 ,it was a small matter to take care of the cars and arrange the train service so there should be no hitches4 ,it was not expected that connections would move freight during the #dh hours prior to the change1 and these days were spent in clearing the road of everything1 and taking the cars to the points of rendezvous4 ,all scheduled freight trains were abandoned on the day prior to the change1 and only trains run to such points4 ,upon the ,east ,tennessee system these points were ,knoxville1 ,rome1 ,atlanta1 ,macon1 ,huntsville1 and ,memphis1 and to these points all cars must go1 loaded or empty1 and there they were parked upon the tracks prepared for the purpose4 ,passenger trains were run to points where it had been arranged to change them1 generally to the general changing point4 ,most of the ,southern roads have double daily passenger service4 ,upon all roads one of these trains1 upon the day of change1 was abandoned1 and upon some all4 ,some1 even1 did not run till next day4 ,we were able to start the day trains out by #aj or #aa o'clock ,a4,m41 and put them through in fair time4 ,of course1 no freights were run that day1 and the next day was used in getting the cars which had been changed out of the parks and into line4 ,so our freight traffic over the entire ,south was suspended practically three days4 ,the work of changing was to commence at #c3cj ,a4,m41 but many of the men were in position at an earlier hour1 and did commence work as soon as the last train was over1 or an hour or so before the fixed time4 ,half-past three ,a4,m41 however1 can be set down as the general hour of commencement4 ,for five or six hours in the cool morning the work went on briskly1 the men working with much more than ordinary enthusiasm4 ,but the day was warm1 and after #i or #aj ,a4,m4 it began to lag4 ,all was done1 however1 before the day was over1 and safe1 so that trains could pass at full speed4 ,the men all received #a4ej for the work1 whether it was finished early or late in the day1 and were paid that afternoon as soon as the work was done4 ,tickets were given the men1 which the nearest agent paid1 remitting as cash to the treasurer4 ,on some lines it was deemed best to offer prizes to those who got through first4 ,reports showed some very early finishes4 ,but the facts seem to have been that under such encouragement the men were apt to pull too many spikes before the change and put too few in while changing4 ,they were thus reported through early1 but their work was not done1 and they took great chances4 ,it was by most considered unwise to offer such prizes1 preferring to have a little more time taken and be sure that all was safe4 ,such lines seemed to get their trains in motion with as much promptness as others4 ,this1 with freedom from accident1 was the end sought4 ,it was found after the work had been done that there had been little inaccuracies in driving the gauge spike1 to which the rail was thrown1 probably from various causes4 ,the rail to be moved may not always have been exactly in its proper place1 and then the template in the hurry may not have been accurately placed1 or the spike may have turned or twisted4 ,whatever was the cause1 it was found that frequently the line on the moved side was not perfect1 and1 of course1 many spikes had to be drawn and the rail lined up and respiked4 ,the more careful the work had been done1 the less of this there was to do afterward4 ,with rough track this was least seen4 ,the nearer perfect1 the more noticeable it was4 ,of course1 we all planned to get foreign cars home and have ours sent to us4 ,but when the interchange stopped1 we found we had many foreign cars1 which1 of course1 had to be changed4 ,this subject had come up in convention and it had been voted to charge three dollars per car when axles did not need turning1 and five dollars where they did4 ,by comparison with the cost of changing1 as shown in this paper1 it will be seen that to our company1 at least1 there was no loss at these figures4 ,the following tables will explain the work done upon the ,louisville ,nashville and ,east ,tennessee1 ,virginia ,georgia systems4 ,it is to be regretted that the writer has not at hand information regarding other roads1 that fuller statements and comparisons might be made and the showings be of greater value4 ,the figures of the ,mobile ,ohio are added1 having been compiled from the annual report of that road4 ,,mobile ,,ohio ,,railroad4 7,compiled from ,annual ,report47 ,number ,cost of ,cost of ,total ,average ,changed4 ,labor4 ,material ,cost4 ,cost4 ,engines and tenders4 #dg #h1jca4db #g1bgf4hfae1cjh4bhcbe4gj ,pass41 bag41 ex4 cars4 #ee #dci4cg #ajd4be #edb4fb #i4hg ,freight cars1 #a1cfa4 #a1dfh #e1gai4jc #gci4eg #f1deh4fj #d4dj ,freight trucks1 #ajg4 ,lever and push cars4 #adc #a1dbg4ee #dgf4ic #a1ijd4dh #ac4cb ,miles4 ,track 7inc4 sidings74 #ehc4e #ag1aji4ec #g1bge4ad #bd1chd4hg #da4gi ,bridges4 #ehc4e #a1hif4fj #aij4jj #b1jhf4fj #c4eh ,track tools4 #ehc4e #agj4gb #a1dje4gd #a1egf4df #b4gj ,shop tools4 #ehc4e #dai4gj #b1ihb4ij #c1djb4fj #e4hc ,temp4 side tracks4 #ab4ji #a1ieh4id #cgb4cg #b1cca4ca #aib4hc ,switching cars4 #a1cih4ah #af4ej #a1dad4fh ,car hoists4 #b1dii4ch #d1dai4cd #f1iah4gb ,total cost4 #da1jfi4dbbe1bei4fjff1cbi4jb ,total average cost per mile4 #aac4fh ,,louisville ,,nashville ,,railroad4 7,compiled from ,annual ,report47 ,miles of track--,main line #a1hic4g --,side track #aif4c ------- #b1jij4j ,cost ,track4 ,total4 per ,mile4 ,section labor--,before day of change #bh1ajf4fj --,on day of change #bj1jij4db --,after day of change #ai1gac4ai ---------- #fg1iaj4ba #cb4di ,carpenter labor #c1gii4ai #a4hb ,spikes #bj1hgc4gj #i4ii ,switches #f1cca4he #c4jc ,tools #b1gdi4ej #a4ca ,hand cars and sundries #e1fia4ci #b4gb ----------- ------ ,total #ajg1hee4hd #ea4cf ,equipment4 ,average ,number4 ,total4 ,cost4 ,locomotives #bfd #ec1dhj4ih #bjb4eh ,cars 7#cjj of these passenger--#c4e7 #h1ecg #di1egg4bj #e4ha ----------- -------- ,total cost #baj1dad4jb ,total average cost per mile #ajj4fg ,,east ,,tennessee1 ,,virginia ,,georgia ,,system4 ,number ,cost of ,cost of ,total ,average ,changed4 ,labor4 ,material ,cost4 ,cost4 ,engines and tenders4 #ahj #h1bbg4dg #b1ijd4cj #aa1aca4gg #fa4hb ,pass41 bag41 and mail cars4 #afh #gcd4ic #ei4fg #gid4fj #d4gc ,freight cars and cabooses4 #e1age #ag1dbe4eg #a1bbd4jh #ah1fdi4fe #c4fj ,m4 of ,w4 cars4 #dci #b1jch4dd #edi4dg #b1ehg4ia #e4hi ,miles ,track4 ,track 7inc4 sidings74 #a1ecb4g #bg1gah4ag #dj1iab4ji #fh1fcj4bf #dd4gh ,bridges4 #a1ecb4g #a1hjh4eg #bjj4jj #b1jjh4eg #a4ca ,track tools4 #a1ecb4g #aid4dh #b1egc4hc #b1gfh4ca #a4hj ,storage tracks1 inc4 taking up4 #cg4jb #i1hbe4da #a1dha4ei #aa1cjg4jj #cje4dd ,shop tools4 #dgb4bj #b1gbh4cj #c1bjj4ej ,total cost4 #fh1dde4bdeb4fcc4ccaba1jgh4eg ,total average cost per mile4 #gi4jf ,axles condemned #egg ,wheels condemned #ged ,wheels burst #bjb ,new axles used #a1ajb ,new wheels used #b1ghc ,axles turned back #h1caf ,wheels pressed on without turning axle #bc1ieb ,new brasses used #aj1gbc ,cars narrowed 7not including lever or push cars7 #e1cdc ,engines narrowed #ahj ,average cost of new centers and crank pins1 etc #bfd4df ,average cost of cutting off hub and pressing wheels and new pins #acj4fg ,average cost of pressing old tires on old centers #bi4jh ,average cost of pressing old tires on broad centers #ca4hc ,average cost of labor putting on new tires #bb4id ,,comparative ,,statement ,,of ,,average ,,cost ,,of ,,various ,,items ,,of ,,work4 ,m4 ,l4 ,e4,t41 ,v4,average4 ,o4 ,r4,r4 ,n4 ,r4,r4 ,g4 ,r4,r4 ,engines and tenders--per engine #cbe4gj #bjb4eh #fa4hb #aif4gj ,pass41 bag41 and ex4 cars--per car #i4hg #b #e4ha #d4gc #f4hj ,freight cars1 per car #d4dj #c #e4ha #c4fj #d4fj ,m4 of ,w4 cars1 per car #ac4cb #b4gb #e4hi #g4ca ,track 7inc4 sidings bridges1 etc471 per mile #de4cg #dg4hc #df4ji #df4bf ,track tools1 per mile #b4gj #a4ca #a4hj #a4id ,temporary side tracks1 per mile #aib4hc #cje4dd #bdi4ac ,total per mile of track1 inc4 sidings #aac4fh #ajj4fg #gi4jf #ig4hj ,footnote #b3 ,expense not divided as between passenger and freight cars4 ,footnote #c3 #c4e per cent4 passenger1 baggage1 and express cars1 #if4e per cent4 freight cars4 ,,note--,since the preparation of this paper the general manager of the ,norfolk ,western ,railroad has kindly furnished the following items of expense for that line3 ,no4 ,cost4 ,average ,cost4 ,engines and tenders #ie #cg1gcj4jj #cig4af ,cars 7all kinds7 #c1fae #cg1iid4fe #aj4ea ,track1 miles 7including sidings7 #eig4e ,labor #be1bif4if ,tools and supplies #c1eca4ab ,changing ,m4 of ,w4 equipment #hac4ac ,switches #ega4fg ,spikes #h1ejh4bb ---------- ,total track #ch1gba1aj #fd4hj ,total #aad1dde4ge --------- ,total average cost per mile #aia4ec ,and the superintendent of the ,s4,f4 ,w4 ,r4,r4 has also furnished the expenses for that road3 ,no4 ,average ,cost4 ,engines and tenders #ge #gf4ca ,cars 7passenger7 #ie #d4fg ,cars 7freight7 #a1acc #c4hh ,track1 including sidings #fja4gf #dd4di ,nothing was said about shop or other tools1 storage tracks1 or changing of maintenance of way equipment4 ,,comparative ,,statement ,,of ,,average ,,cost ,,of ,,labor ,,of ,,various ,,items ,,of ,,work4 ,m4 ,l4 ,e4,t41 ,v4 ,o4 ,r4,r4 ,n4 ,r4,r4 ,g4 ,r4,r4 ,average ,engines and tenders4 #agj4hh #de4ga #ajh4bi ,pass41 bag41 and ex cars #g4ig ,not #d4ch #f4ag ,freight cars #c4hi divided #c4cf #c4fb ,m4 of ,w4 cars #i4ih #d4fd #g4ca ,miles track 7including sidings1 bridges1 etc47 #cb4eg #cd4ca #ai4bf #bh4ga ,track tools1 per mile 4#cj ,not 4#ac 4#ba ,temporary tracks #afb4jc divided #bfe4dj #bac4ga ,not ,total per mile of track #gj4ch divided #dd4gb #eg4ee ,,comparative ,,statement ,,of ,,average ,,cost ,,of ,,material ,,of ,,various ,,items ,,of ,,work4 ,m4 ,l4 ,e4,t41 ,v4 ,o4 ,r4,r4 ,n4 ,r4,r4 ,g4 ,r4,r4 ,average ,engines and tenders4 #aed4hb #af4aa #he4df ,pass41 bag41 and ex cars #a4ij ,not 4#ce #a4ab ,freight cars 4#ea divided 4#bd 4#cg ,m4 of ,w4 cars #c4cd #a4be #b4cj ,miles track 7including sidings1 bridges1 etc47 #ab4hj #ac4jb #bf4hh #ag4ee ,track tools1 per mile #b4dj ,not #a4fg #b4jc ,temporary tracks #afb4jc divided #dj4jd #aja4jc ,not ,total per mile of track #dc4cj divided #cd4cd #ch4hb ,,summary ,,of ,,statements ,,of ,l4 ,n4 ,,and ,e4,t41 ,v4 ,g4 ,,railways4 ,the mileage changed of the ,l,n4 and ,e4,t41 ,v4 ,g4 systems combined aggregates #c1fbb miles4 ,the total cost of these two roads4 #cca1dib4ei ,or an average per mile of #ia4eb ,total miles changed was about #ad1ejj miles4 ,which would give total cost1 at same rate4 #a1cbg1jdj ,we should really add to this a large sum for the great number of new locomotives which were purchased to replace old ones1 that could not be changed1 except at large cost1 and which1 when done1 would have been light and undesirable4 ,upon the basis of the work done upon the ,l4 ,n4 and ,e4,t41 ,v4 ,g4 systems1 which1 combined1 cover about one-fourth the mileage changed1 we have made the following estimates1 which will1 perhaps1 convey a better idea of the extent of the work than can be obtained in any other way3 ,miles of track changed1 about #ad1ejj ,locomotives changed1 about #a1hjj ,cars 7pass1 and freight7 changed1 about #de1jjj ,new axles used1 about #i1jjj ,new wheels used1 about #bj1jjj ,axles turned back1 about #ge1jjj ,wheels pressed on without turning axles1 about #bbj1jjj ,new brasses used1 about #ij1jjj ,kegs of spikes used1 about #ej1jjj ,cost of material used1 about #fjj1jjj ,cost of labor1 about #gcj1jjj ,total cost of work1 about #a1ccj1jjj ,amount expended on equipment1 about #fej1jjj ,amount expended on track1 about #fhj1jjj ,amount expended on track on day of change in labor1 about #adj1jjj ,the work was done economically1 and so quietly that the public hardly realized it was in progress4 ,to the casual observer it was an every day transaction4 ,it was1 however1 a work of great magnitude1 requiring much thought and mechanical ability4 ,that it was ably handled is evidenced by the uniform success attained1 the prompt changing at the agreed time1 and the trifling inconvenience to the public4--,jour4 ,assn4 ,engineering ,societies4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,torpedo ,,boats ,,for ,,spain4 ,in our present issue1 on page #iidh1 we give illustrations of two torpedo boats1 the ,azor and ,halcon1 which have lately been constructed by ,messrs ,yarrow ,co41 of ,poplar1 for the ,spanish government4 ,they are #ace ft4 in length by #ad ft4 beam1 being of the same dimensions as ,no4 #hj torpedo boat1 lately completed by the above firm for the ,admiralty1 which is the largest and fastest torpedo-boat in the ,british navy4 ,illustration3 ,,torpedo ,,boats ,,for ,,the ,,spanish ,,government4 ,the general arrangement of these torpedo boats is sufficiently clear from the illustrations to need but little description4 ,suffice it to say that the engines are of the triple compound type1 capable of indicating #a1eej horse power1 steam being supplied by one large locomotive boiler1 which our readers are already aware is in accordance with the usual practice of the makers1 as1 by using a single boiler1 great simplification of the machinery takes place1 and considerably less room is occupied than if two boilers were adopted4 ,it is worthy of record that although in some torpedo boats1 and indeed in a great number of them1 trouble has been found with the locomotive type of boiler1 still we have no hesitation in saying that this is due either to defective design or bad workmanship1 and that1 if properly designed and constructed1 such difficulty does not occur4 ,and it is a fact that ,messrs4 ,yarrow ,co4 have already constructed a great number of locomotive boilers of the exceptional size adopted in these two ,spanish boats1 and they have turned out in every respect1 after actual service1 perfectly satisfactory4 ,the forward part of the boat is provided with two torpedo-ejecting tubes1 as usual1 and near the stern1 on deck1 it is proposed to place turntables1 with two torpedo guns for firing over the sides1 as already adopted by several governments4 ,the trials of the ,azor took place about two months since1 giving a speed during a run of two hours and three quarters1 carrying a load of #ag tons1 of #bd knots 7over #bg miles7 per hour4 ,since her trial she has steamed out to ,spain1 having encountered1 during a portion of the voyage very bad weather1 when her sea going qualities were found to be admirable4 ,the ,halcon1 whose official trials took place lately1 obtained a speed of #bc4e knots1 carrying a load of #ag tons4 ,it may be remarked that a speed of #bd knots1 in a boat only #ace ft in length1 under the ,spanish conditions of trial1 is by far the best result that has ever been obtained in a vessel of these dimensions ,there is1 however1 no doubt that had the length of the boat been greater1 a still higher speed would have been obtained ,but it was desired by the authorities to keep within the smallest possible dimensions1 so as to expose as little area as practicable to the fire of the enemy1 it being clearly evident that this is a consideration of the first importance in an unprotected war vessel4 ,in conclusion1 we would add that the hulls of these two ,spanish boats are of much greater strength of construction than is usually adopted in torpedo boats1 it having been found that for the sake of obtaining exceptional speeds1 strength sufficient for actual service has often been injudiciously sacrificed ,and1 judging from the numerous accidents which took place at the recent trials off ,portland1 we have no doubt that in the future naval authorities will be quite ready and willing to sacrifice a little speed so as to obtain vessels which are more trustworthy4 ,the necessity for this1 we feel convinced1 will be conclusively shown if ever torpedo boats are engaged in actual warfare1 and this not only as regards strength of hull1 but also as regards the machinery1 which at present is only capable of being handled successfully by men of exceptional training1 who in times of war would not be readily procured--,the ,engineer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,spanish ,,cruiser ,,reina ,,regente ,in our ,,supplement1 ,no4 #fbj we gave an illustration of this ship1 with some particulars4 ,the interest expressed in naval circles for further information induces us to give still further engravings of this remarkable vessel1 with additional information1 for which we are indebted to the ,engineer4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,new ,,spanish ,,war ,,ship ,,reina ,,regente4 ,we gave recently a short account of two of the trials of this vessel1 and we are1 by the courtesy of the builders--,messrs4 ,thomson1 of ,clydebank--enabled to lay further particulars before our readers this week4 ,we give herewith engravings of the vessel1 which will illustrate her salient points4 ,the principal dimensions are as follows4 ,length on water line1 #cag ft41 breadth1 #ej ft4 #g in41 depth moulded1 #cb ft4 #f in41 normal displacement1 #d1hjj tons1 deep load displacement1 #e1fjj tons4 ,we have before informed our readers that this vessel was designed by ,messrs4 ,thomson1 in competition with several other shipbuilding firms of this and other countries1 in reply to an invitation of the ,spanish government for a cruiser of the first class4 ,the design submitted by the builders of the ,reina ,regente was accepted1 and the vessel was contracted to be built in ,june of last year4 ,the principal conditions of the contract were as follows4 ,the ship to steam at a speed of #bj knots for four runs on the mile and for two hours continuously afterward4 ,she was further to be capable of steaming for six hours continuously at a speed of #ah knots1 without any artificial means of producing draught4 ,she was also to be capable of steaming a distance of at least #e1gjj knots for #ejj tons of coal1 at some speed over #aj knots1 to be chosen by the builders4 ,over the length of her machinery and magazine spaces she was to have a sloping deck extending to #f ft4 below the water line at the side1 and formed of plates #d in4 thick4 ,this deck was to extend to about #a ft4 above the water line1 and the flat part to be #c-a_/h in4 thick4 ,beyond the machinery and magazine spaces1 the deck was to be gradually reduced to #c in4 thick at the ends4 ,this deck is intended to protect the vitals of the ship1 such as boilers1 engines1 powder magazines1 steering gear1 etc41 from the effects of shot and shell1 but the floating and stability maintaining power of the ship was to be dependent upon a similar structure raised above this protective deck to a height of about #e ft4 above the water4 ,this structure is covered by a water tight deck known as the main deck of the ship1 on which the cabins and living spaces are arranged4 ,the space between the main and protective deck is divided1 as may be seen by reference to the protective deck plan1 into many strong1 water tight spaces1 most of which are not more than about #ejj cubic feet capacity4 ,the spaces next to the ship's side are principally coal bunkers1 and may1 therefore1 exclude largely any water that should enter4 ,the first line of defense is formed inside these coal bunkers by a complete girdle of coffer dams1 which can be worked from the main deck4 ,these it is intended to fill with water and cellulose material1 and as they are also minutely subdivided1 the effects of damage by shot and consequent flooding may be localized to a considerable extent4 ,the guns of the ship are to consist of four #bj centimeter ,hontorio breech loading guns on ,vavasseur carriages1 six #ab centimeter guns1 eight #f pounder rapid firing1 and eight or ten small guns for boats and mitrailleuse purposes1 four of which are in the crow's nests at the top of the two masts of the ship4 ,we may remark in passing that the builders saw their way at an early period of the construction to suggest an addition to the weight of the large sized guns1 and there will actually be on the ship four #bd centimeter guns1 instead of four #bj centimeter4 ,the vessel was to carry five torpedo tubes1 two forward in the bow1 one in each broadside1 and one aft4 ,all these tubes to be fixed4 ,to fulfill the speed condition1 four boilers were necessary and two sets of triple expansion engines1 capable of developing in all #ab1jjj horse power4 ,illustration3 ,,protective ,,deck ,,plan4 ,now that the vessel has been completely tried1 the promises by the builders may be compared with the results determined by the commission of ,spanish officers appointed by the government of ,spain to say whether the vessel fulfilled in all respects the conditions laid down in the contract4 ,the mean speed attained for the two hours' run was #bj4f knots1 as compared with #bj4e guaranteed1 but this speed was obtained with #aa1ejj horse power instead of the #ab1jjj which the machinery is capable of developing4 ,the officers of the ,spanish commission were anxious not to have the vessel's machinery pressed beyond what was necessary to fulfill the speed conditions of the contract2 but they saw enough to warrant them in expressing their belief that the vessel can easily do twenty-one knots when required1 and she actually did this for some time during the trial4 ,during the natural draught trial the vessel obtained a mean speed of #ah4fh knots1 on an average of #id revolutions--the forced draught having been done on an average of #aje revolutions4 ,the consumption trial1 which lasted twelve hours1 was made to determine the radius of action1 when the ship showed that at a speed of #aa4f knots she could steam a distance of #e1ijj knots4 ,further trials took place to test the evolutionary powers of the vessel1 though these trials were not specified in the contract4 ,the vessel1 as may be seen from the engravings1 is fitted with a rudder of a new type1 known as ,thomson ,biles' rudder1 with which it is claimed that all the advantage of a balanced rudder is obtained1 while the ship loses the length due to the adoption of such a rudder4 ,it is formed in the shape of the hull of the vessel1 and as the partial balance of the lower foreside gradually reduces the strains1 the rudder head may be made of very great service4 ,as a matter of fact1 this rudder is #bcj ft4 in area1 and is probably the largest rudder fitted to a warship4 ,the efficiency of it was shown in the turning trials1 by its being able to bring the vessel round1 when going at about nineteen knots1 in half a circle in one minute twenty-three seconds1 and a complete circle in two minutes fifty-eight seconds1 the diameter of the circle being #cej yards4 ,this result1 we believe1 is unrivaled1 and makes this vessel equal in turning capabilities to many recent warships not much more than half her length4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,film ,,negatives4#a ,footnote #a3 ,a communication to the ,birmingham ,photographic ,society4 ,having had a certain measure of success with ,eastman stripping films1 ,i have been requested by your council to give a paper this evening dealing with the subject1 and particularly with the method of working which my experience has found most successful4 ,in according to their request1 ,i feel ,i have imposed upon myself a somewhat difficult task4 ,there is1 undoubtedly1 a strong prejudice in the minds of most photographers1 both amateur and professional1 against a negative in which paper is used as a permanent support1 on account of the inseparable grain and lack of brilliancy in the resulting prints2 and the idea of the paper being used only as a temporary support does not seem to convey to their mind a correct impression of the true position of the matter4 ,it may be as well before entering into the technical details of the manipulation to consider briefly the advantages to be derived--which will be better appreciated after an actual trial4 ,my experience 7which is at present limited7 is that they are far superior to glass for all purposes except portraiture of the human form or instantaneous pictures where extreme rapidity is necessary1 but for all ordinary cases of rapid exposure they are sufficiently quick4 ,the first advantage1 which ,i soon discovered1 is their entire freedom from halation4 ,this1 with glass plates1 is inseparable1 and even when much labor has been bestowed on backing them1 the halation is painfully apparent4 ,these films never frill1 being made of emulsion which has been made insoluble4 ,compare the respective weights of the two substances--one plate weighing more than a dozen films of the same size4 ,again1 on comparing a stripping film negative with one on glass of the same exposure and subject1 it will be found there is a greater sharpness or clearness in the detail1 owing1 ,i am of opinion1 to the paper absorbing the light immediately it has penetrated the emulsion1 the result being a brilliant negative4 ,landscapes on stripped films can be retouched or printed from on either side1 and the advantage in this respect for carbon or mechanical printing is enormous4 ,now1 imagine the tourist working with glass1 and compare him to another working with films4 ,the one works in harness1 tugging1 probably1 a half hundredweight of glass with him from place to place1 paying extra carriage1 extra tips1 and in a continual state of anxiety as to possible breakage1 difficulty of packing1 and having to be continually on the lookout for a dark place to change the plates1 and1 perhaps1 on his return finds numbers of his plates damaged owing to friction on the surface2 while the disciple of films1 lightly burdened with only camera and slide1 and his 7say two hundred7 films in his pockets1 for they lie so compact together4 ,then the advantages to the tourists abroad1 their name is legion1 not the least being the ease of guarding your exposed pictures from the custom house officials1 who almost always seek to make matters disagreeable in this respect1 and lastly1 though not least1 the ease with which the negatives can be stowed away in envelopes or albums1 etc41 when reference to them is easy in the extreme4 ,now1 having come 7rightly1 ,i think1 you will admit7 to the conclusion that films have these advantages1 you naturally ask1 ,what are their disadvantages8 ,remembering1 then1 that ,i am only advocating stripping films1 ,i consider they have but two disadvantages3 ,first1 they entail some additional outlay in the way of apparatus1 etc4 ,second1 they are a little more trouble to finish than the glass negatives1 which sink into insignificance when the manifold advantages are considered4 ,in order to deal effectively with the second objection ,i mentioned1 viz41 the extra trouble and perseverance1 ,i propose1 with your permission1 to carry a negative through the different stages from exposure to completion1 and in so doing ,i shall endeavor to make the process clear to you1 and hope to enlist your attention4 ,the developer ,i use is slightly different to that of the ,eastman company1 and is as follows3 ,a4 ,sulphite of soda4 #d ounces4 ,to be dissolved in #h ounces of hot distilled water1 then rendered slightly acid with citric acid1 then add-- ,pyrogallic acid4 #a ounce4 ,water to make up to #aj ounces4 ,b4 ,pure carbonate of soda4 #a ounce4 ,water to make up in all to #aj ounces4 ,c4 ,pure carbonate of potash4 #a ounce4 ,water to make up to #aj ounces4 ,d4 ,bromide of potassium4 #a ounce4 ,water to make up to #aj ounces4 ,i have here two half-plate films exposed at #h3cj ,a4,m4 to-day1 one with five and one with six seconds' exposure1 subject chiefly middle distance4 ,i take #ij minims ,a1 #aj minims ,d1 and #ij minims ,b1 and make up to #b ounces water4 ,i do not soak the films in water4 ,there is no need for it4 ,in fact1 it is prejudicial to do so4 ,i place the films face uppermost in the dish1 and pour on the developer on the center of the films4 ,you will observe they lie perfectly flat1 and are free from air bubbles4 ,rock the dish continually during development1 and when the high lights are out add from #aj to #ij minims ,c1 and finish development and fix4 ,the negatives being complete1 ,i ask you to observe that both are of equal quality1 proving the latitude of exposure permissible4 ,i now coat a piece of glass half an inch larger all round than the negative with ,india rubber solution 7see ,eastman formula71 and squeegee the negative face downward upon the rubber1 interposing a sheet of blotting paper and oilskin between the negative and squeegee to prevent injury to the exposed rubber surface1 and then place the negative under pressure with blotting paper interposed until moderately dry only4 ,i then pour hot water upon it1 and1 gently rocking the dish1 you see the paper floats from the film without the necessity for pulling it with a pin1 leaving the film negative on the glass4 ,now1 the instructions say remove the remaining soluble gelatine with camel's hair brush1 but1 unless it requires intensifying1 which no properly developed negative should require1 you need not do so1 but simply pour on the gelatine solution 7see ,eastman formula71 well covering the edges of the film1 and put on a level shelf to dry4 ,i will now take up a negative in this state on the glass1 but dry1 and carefully cut round the edges of the film1 and you see ,i can readily pull off the film with its gelatine support4 ,having now passed through the whole of the process1 it behooves us to consider for a few minutes the causes of failure in the hands of beginners and their remedies3 #a4 ,the rubber will not flow over glass8 ,solution too thick1 glass greasy4 #b4 ,rubber peels off on drying8 ,dirty glass4 #c4 ,negative not dense enough8 ,use more bromide and longer development4 #d4 ,gelatine cracks on being pulled off8 ,add more glycerine4 #e4 ,gelatine not thick enough8 ,gelatine varnish too thin1 not strong enough4 #f4 ,does not dry sufficiently hard8 ,too much glycerine4--,e4,h4 ,jaques1 ,reported in ,br4 ,jour4 of ,photography4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,how ,,different ,,tones ,,in ,,gelatino-,,chloride ,,prints ,,may ,,be ,,varied ,,by ,,developers4 ,the following formul are for use with gelatino-chloride paper or plates4 ,the quantities are in each case calculated for one ounce1 three parts of each of the following solutions being employed and added to one part of solution of protosulphate of iron4 ,strength1 #adj grains to the ounce4 ,slaty ,blue4 #a4--,one part of the above solution to three parts of a solution of citrate of ammonia4 ,greenish ,brown4 #b4--;,citric acid4 #ahj grains ,carbonate of ammonia4 #ej #c4--;,citrate of ammonia4 #bej grains4 ,chloride of sodium4 #b #d4--;,citrate of ammonia4 #bej grains4 ,chloride of sodium4 #d ,sepia ,brown4 #e4--;,citrate of ammonia4 #bej grains4 ,chloride of sodium4 #h ,clear ,red ,brown4 #f4--;,citric acid4 #abj grains4 ,carbonate of magnesia4 #gf ,warm ,gray ,brown4 #g4--;,citric acid4 #abj grains4 ,carbonate of soda4 #bje ,deep ,red ,brown4 #h4--;,citric acid4 #abj grains4 ,carbonate of potash4 #aag ,green ,blue4 #i4--;,citric acid4 #ij grains4 ,carbonate of soda4 #aed ,citrate of potash4 #bd ,oxalate of potash4 #f ,sepia ,red4 #aj4--;,citric acid4 #hj grains4 ,carbonate of soda4 #ace ,citrate of potash4 #ab ,oxalate of potash4 #c #aa4--;,citric acid4 #ajh grains4 ,carbonate of magnesia4 #fh ,carbonate of potash4 #ab ,oxalate of potash4 #c ,sepia ,yellow4 #ab4--;,citric acid4 #dj grains4 ,carbonate of magnesia4 #be ,citrate of ammonia4 #aff #ac4--;,citric acid4 #abj grains4 ,carbonate of magnesia4 #gb ,carbonate of ammonia4 #gb ,chloride of sodium4 #h ,blue ,black4 #ad4--;,citric acid4 #abj grains4 ,carbonate of ammonia4 #gj ,carbonate of magnesia4 #ae #ae4--;,citric acid4 #abj grains4 ,carbonate of magnesia4 #ch ,carbonate of ammonia4 #dd #af4--;,citric acid4 #ij grains4 ,carbonate of magnesia4 #eg ,citrate of potash4 #ed ,oxlate of potash4 #ah #ag4--;,citric acid4 #gb grains4 ,carbonate of magnesia4 #de ,citrate of potash4 #ed ,oxalate of potash4 #ah #ah4--;,citric acid4 #fj grains4 ,carbonate of magnesia4 #ch ,citrate of potash4 #fh ,oxalate of potash4 #bb ,a more ,intense ,blue ,black4 #ai4--;,citric acid4 #cj grains4 ,carbonate of magnesia4 #ah ,citrate of potash4 #ajj ,oxalate of potash4 #cc ,a ,clearer ,blue4 #bj4--;,citrate of potash4 #acf grains4 ,oxalate of potash4 #dd ,in the photographic exhibition at ,florence1 the firm of ,corvan#a places on view a frame containing twenty proofs produced by the foregoing twenty formul1 in such a way that the observer can compare the value of each tone and select that which pleases him best4--,le ,moniteur de la ,photographie1 translated by ,british ,jour4 of ,photo4 ,footnote #a3 ,does this mean ,mr4 ,a4 ,cowan8--,translator4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,note ,,on ,,the ,,construction ,,of ,a ,,distillery ,,chimney4 ,at a recent meeting of the ,industrial ,society of ,amiens1 ,mr4 ,schmidt1 engineer of the ,steam ,users' ,association1 read a paper in which he described the process employed in the construction of a large chimney of peculiar character for the ,rocourt distillery1 at ,st4 ,quentin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a--;,,elevation4 ,this chimney1 which is cylindrical in form1 is #adj feet in height1 and has an internal diameter of #h feet from base to summit4 ,the coal consumed for the nine generators varies between #hfj and #a1bjj pounds per hour and per #aj square feet of section4 ,the ground that was to support this chimney consisted of very aquiferous1 cracked beds of marl1 disintegrated by infiltrations of water from the distillery1 and alternating with strata of clay4 ,it became necessary1 therefore1 to build as light a chimney as possible4 ,the problem was solved as follows1 by ,mr4 ,guendt1 who was then superintendent of the ,rocourt establishment4 ,upon a wide concrete foundation a pedestal was built1 in which were united the various smoke conduits1 and upon this pedestal were erected four lattice girders1 ,c1 connected with each other by ,st4 ,andrew's crosses4 ,the internal surface of these girders is vertical and the external is inclined4 ,within the framework there was built a five-inch thick masonry wall of bricks1 made especially for the purpose4 ,the masonry was then strengthened and its contact with the girders assured by numerous hoops1 especially at the lower part2 some of them internal1 others external1 to the surface of the girders1 and others of angle irons1 all in four parts4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b--;,,horizontal ,,section4 ,the anchors rest upon a cast iron foundation plate connected1 through strong bolts embedded in the pedestal1 with a second plate resting upon the concrete4 ,as the metallic framework was calculated for resisting the wind1 the brick lining does not rest against it permanently above4 ,the weight of the chimney is #a1aab1bjj pounds1 and the foundation is about #eae square feet in area2 and1 consequently1 the pressure upon the ground is about #ijj pounds to the square inch4 ,the cost was #c1hdj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c--,,vertical ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,chimney4 ,the chimney was built six years ago1 and has withstood the most violent hurricanes4 ,the mounting of the iron framework was effected by means of a motor and two men1 and took a month4 ,the brick lining was built up in eight days by a mason and his assistant4 ,a chimney of the same size1 all of brick1 erected on the same foundation1 would have weighed #b1dei1fjj pounds 7say a load of #c1jgj pounds to the square inch71 and would have cost about #b1hfj4 ,the chimney of the ,rocourt distillery is1 therefore1 lighter by half1 and cost about a third more1 than one of brick2 but1 at the present price of metal1 the difference would be slight4--,annales ,industrielles4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,production ,,of ,,oxygen ,,by ,,brin',s ,,process4 ,considerable interest has been aroused lately in scientific and industrial circles by a report that separation of the oxygen and nitrogen of the air was being effected on a large scale in ,london by a process which promises to render the gases available for general application in the arts4 ,the cheap manufacture of the compounds of nitrogen from the gas itself is still a dream of chemical enthusiasts2 and though the pure gas is now available1 the methods of making its compounds have yet to be devised4 ,but the industrial processes which already depend directly or indirectly on the chemical union of bodies with atmospheric oxygen are innumerable4 ,in all these processes the action of the gas is impeded by the bulky presence of its fellow constituent of air1 nitrogen4 ,we may say1 for instance1 in homely phrase1 that whenever a fire burns there are four volumes of nitrogen tending to extinguish it for every volume of oxygen supporting its combustion1 and to the same degree the nitrogen interferes with all other processes of atmospheric oxidation1 of which most metallurgical operations may be given as instances4 ,if1 then1 it has become possible to remove this diluent gas simply and cheaply in order to give the oxygen free play in its various applications1 we are doubtless on the eve of a revolution among some of the most extensive and familiar of the world's industries4 ,a series of chemical reactions has long been known by means of which oxygen could be separated out of air in the laboratory1 and at various times processes based on these reactions have been patented for the production of oxygen on a large scale4 ,until recently1 however1 none of these methods gave sufficiently satisfactory results4 ,the simplest and perhaps the best of them was based on the fact first noticed by ,boussingault1 that when baryta 7,ba,o7 is heated to low redness in a current of air1 it takes up oxygen and becomes barium dioxide 7,ba,o#b71 and that this dioxide at a higher temperature is reconverted into free oxygen and baryta1 the latter being ready for use again4 ,for many years it was assumed1 however1 by chemists that this ideally simple reaction was inapplicable on a commercial scale1 owing to the gradual loss of power to absorb oxygen which was always found to take place in the baryta after a certain number of operations4 ,about eight years ago ,messrs4 ,a4 ,l4 ,brin1 who had studied chemistry under ,boussingault1 undertook experiments with the view of determining why the baryta lost its power of absorbing oxygen4 ,they found that it was owing to molecular and physical changes caused in it by impurities in the air used and by the high temperature employed for decomposing the dioxide4 ,they discovered that by heating the dioxide in a partial vacuum the temperature necessary to drive off its oxygen was much reduced4 ,they also found that by supplying the air to the baryta under a moderate pressure1 its absorption of oxygen was greatly assisted4 ,under these conditions1 and by carefully purifying the air before use1 they found that it became possible to use the baryta an indefinite number of times4 ,thus the process became practically1 as it was theoretically1 continuous4 ,after securing patent protection for their process1 ,messrs4 ,brin erected a small producer in ,paris1 and successfully worked it for nearly three years without finding a renewal of the original charge of baryta once necessary4 ,this producer was exhibited at the ,inventions ,exhibition in ,london1 in #ahhe4 ,subsequently an ,english company was formed1 and in the autumn of last year ,brin's ,oxygen ,company began operations in ,horseferry ,road1 ,westminster1 where a large and complete demonstration plant was erected1 and the work commenced of developing the production and application of oxygen in the industrial world4 ,illustration3 ,,apparatus ,,for ,,making ,,oxygen4 ,we give herewith details of the plant now working at ,westminster4 ,it is exceedingly simple4 ,on the left of the side elevation and plan are shown the retorts1 on the right is an arrangement of pumps for alternately supplying air under pressure and exhausting the oxygen from the retorts4 ,as is shown in the plan1 two sets of apparatus are worked side by side at ,westminster1 the seventy-two retorts shown in the drawings being divided into two systems of thirty-six4 ,each system is fed by the two pumps on the corresponding side of the boiler4 ,each set of retorts consists of six rows of six retorts each1 one row above the other4 ,they are heated by a small ,wilson's producer1 so that the attendant can easily regulate the supply of heat and obtain complete control over the temperature of the retorts4 ,the retorts1 ,a1 are made of wrought iron and are about #aj ft long and #h in4 diameter4 ,experience1 however1 goes to prove that there is a limit to the diameter of the retorts beyond which the results become less satisfactory4 ,this limit is probably somewhat under #h in4 ,each retort is closely packed with baryta in lumps about the size of a walnut4 ,the baryta is a heavy grayish porous substance prepared by carefully igniting the nitrate of barium2 and of this each retort having the above dimensions holds about #abe lb4 ,the retorts so charged are closed at each end by a gun metal lid riveted on so as to be air tight4 ,from the center of each lid a bent gun metal pipe1 ,b1 connects each retort with the next of its series1 so that air introduced into the end retort of any row may pass through the whole series of six retorts4 ,suppose now that the operations are to commence4 ,the retorts are first heated to a temperature of about #fjj ,c4 or faint redness1 then the air pumps1 ,c ,c1 are started4 ,air is drawn by them through the purifier1 ,d1 where it is freed from carbon dioxide and moisture by the layers of quicklime and caustic soda with which the purifier is charged4 ,the air is then forced along the pipe1 ,e1 into the small air vessel1 ,f1 which acts as a sort of cushion to prevent the baryta in the retorts being disturbed by the pulsation of the pumps4 ,from this vessel the air passes by the pipe1 ,g1 and is distributed in the retorts as rapidly as possible at such a pressure that the nitrogen which passes out unabsorbed at the outlet registers about #ae lb4 to the square inch4 ,with the baryta so disposed in the retorts as to present as large a superficies as possible to the action of the air1 it is found that in #a to #b hours--during which time about #ab1jjj cub4 ft of air have been passed through the retorts--the gas at the outlet fails to extinguish a glowing chip1 indicating that oxygen is no longer being absorbed4 ,the pumping now ceases1 and the temperature of the retorts is raised to about #hjj ,c4 ,the workman is able to judge the temperature with sufficient accuracy by means of the small inspection holes1 ,h1 fitted with panes of mica1 through which the color of the heat in the furnace can be distinguished4 ,the pumps are now reversed and the process of exhaustion begins4 ,at ,westminster the pressure in the retorts is reduced to about #a in4 of mercury4 ,in this partial vacuum the oxygen is given off rapidly1 and if forced by the pumps through another pipe and away into an ordinary gas holder1 where it is stored for use4 ,with powerful pumps such as are used in the plant under notice the whole of the oxygen can be drawn off in an hour1 and from one charge a yield of about #b1jjj cub4 ft4 is obtained4 ,with a less perfect vacuum the time is longer--even as much as four hours4 ,the whole operation of charging and exhausting the retorts can be completed in from three to four hours4 ,as soon as the evolution of oxygen is finished1 the doors1 ,k1 and ventilators1 ,l1 may be opened and the retorts cooled for recharging4 ,the cost of producing oxygen at ,westminster1 under specially expensive conditions1 is high--about #abs4 per #a1jjj cub4 ft4 ,when we consider1 however1 that the cost should only embrace attendance1 fuel1 wear and tear1 and a little lime and soda for the purifiers1 that the consumption of fuel is small1 the wear and tear light1 and that the raw material--air--is obtained for nothing1 it ought to be possible to produce the gas for a third or fourth of this amount in most of our great manufacturing centers1 where the price of fuel is but a third of that demanded in ,london1 and where provision could be made for economizing the waste heat1 which is entirely lost in the ,westminster installation4 ,moreover1 in estimating this cost all the charges are thrown on the oxygen2 were there any means of utilizing the #d1jjj cub4 ft4 of nitrogen at present blown away as waste for every thousand cubic feet of oxygen produced1 the nitrogen would of course bear its share of the cost4 ,the question of the application of the oxygen is one which must be determined in its manifold bearings mainly by the experiments of chemists and scientific men engaged in industrial work4 ,having ascertained the method by which and the limit of cost within which it is possible to use oxygen in their work1 it can be seen whether by ,brin's process the gas can be obtained within that limit4 ,mr4 ,s4,r4 ,ogden1 the manager of the corporation gasworks at ,blackburn1 has already made interesting experiments on the application of oxygen in the manufacture of illuminating gas4 ,in order to purify coal gas from compounds of sulphur1 it is passed through purifiers charged with layers of oxide of iron4 ,when the oxide of iron has absorbed as much sulphur as it can combine with1 it is described as foul4 ,it is then discharged and spread out in the open air1 when1 under the influence of the atmospheric oxygen1 it is rapidly decomposed1 the sulphur is separated out in the free state1 and oxide of iron is reformed ready for use again in the purifiers4 ,this process is called revivification1 and it is repeated until the accumulation of sulphur in the oxide is so great 7#de to #ee per cent47 that it can be profitably sold to the vitriol maker4 ,hawkins discovered that by introducing about #c per cent4 of air into the gas before passing it through the purifiers1 the oxygen of the air introduced set free the sulphur from the iron as fast as it was absorbed4 ,thus the process of revivification could be carried on in the purifiers themselves simultaneously with the absorption of the sulphur impurities in the gas4 ,a great saving of labor was thus effected1 and also an economy in the use of the iron oxide1 which in this way could be left in the purifiers until charged with #ge per cent4 of sulphur4 ,unfortunately it was found that this introduction of air for the sake of its oxygen meant also the introduction of much useless nitrogen1 which materially reduced the illuminating power of the gas4 ,to restore this illuminating power the gas had to be recarbureted1 and this again meant cost in labor and material4 ,now1 ,mr4 ,ogden has found by a series of conclusive experiments made during a period of seventy-eight days upon a quantity of about #d1jjj1jjj cub4 ft4 of gas1 that by introducing #a per cent4 of oxygen into the gas instead of #c per cent4 of air1 not only is the revivification in situ effected more satisfactorily than with air1 but at the same time the illuminating power of the gas1 so far from being decreased1 is actually increased by one candle unit4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,production ,,of ,,oxygen ,,by ,,brin',s ,,process4 ,so satisfied is he with his results that he has recommended the corporation to erect a plant for the production of oxygen at the ,blackburn gas works1 by which he estimates that the saving to the town on the year's make of gas will be something like #b1ejj4 ,the practical observations of ,mr4 ,ogden are being followed up by a series of exhaustive experiments by ,mr4 ,valon1 ,a4,m4 ,inst4 ,c4,e41 also a gas engineer4 ,the make of an entire works at ,westgate is being treated by him with oxygen4 ,mr4 ,valon has not yet published his report1 as the experiments are not quite complete2 but we understand that his results are even more satisfactory than those obtained at ,blackburn4 ,in conclusion we may indicate a few other of the numerous possible applications of cheap oxygen which might be realized in the near future4 ,the greatest illuminating effect from a given bulk of gas is obtained by mixing it with the requisite proportion of oxygen1 and holding in the flame of the burning mixture a piece of some solid infusible and non-volatile substance1 such as lime4 ,this becomes heated to whiteness1 and emits an intense light know as the ,drummond light1 used already for special purposes of illumination4 ,by supplying oxygen in pipes laid by the side of the ordinary gas mains1 it would be possible to fix small ,drummond lights in place of the gas burners now used in houses2 this would greatly reduce the consumption of gas and increase the light obtained1 or even render possible the employment of cheap non-illuminating combustible gases other than coal gas for the purpose4 ,two obstacles at present lie in the way of this consummation--the cost of the oxygen and the want of a convenient and completely refractory material to take the place of the lime4 ,messrs4 ,brin believe they have overcome the first obstacle1 and are addressing themselves1 we believe1 to the removal of the second4 ,again1 the intense heat which the combustion of carbon in cheap oxygen will place at the disposal of the metallurgist cannot fail to play an important part in his operations4 ,there are many processes1 too1 of metal refining which ought to be facilitated by the use of the gas4 ,then the production of pure metallic oxides for the manufacture of paints1 the bleaching of oils and fats1 the reduction of refractory ores of the precious metals on a large scale1 the conversion of iron into steel1 and numberless other processes familiar to the specialists whose walk is in the byways of applied chemistry1 should all profit by the employment of this energetic agent4 ,doubtless1 too1 the investigation into methods of producing the compounds of nitrogen so indispensable as plant foods1 and for which we are now dependent on the supplies of the mineral world1 may be stimulated by the fact that there is available by ,brin's process a cheap and inexhaustible supply of pure nitrogen4--,industries4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,french ,,disinfecting ,,apparatus4 ,illustration3 ,,improved ,,disinfecting ,,apparatus4 ,we represent herewith a sanitary train that was very successfully used during the prevalence of an epidemic of sudor ,anglicus in ,poitou this year4 ,it consisted of a movable stove and a boiler4 ,in reality1 to save time1 such agricultural locomotives as could be found were utilized2 but hereafter1 apparatus like those shown in the engraving1 and which are specially constructed to accompany the stoves1 will be employed4 ,we shall quote from a communication made by ,prof4 ,brouardel to the ,academy of ,medicine on this subject1 at its session of ,september #ac3 ,in the country we can never think of disinfecting houses with sulphurous acid1 as the peasants often have but a single room1 in which the beds of the entire family are congregated4 ,every one knows that the agglomerations that compose the same department are often distant from each other and the chief town by from two to three miles or more4 ,this is usually the case in the departments of ,vienne1 ,haute ,vienne1 ,indre1 etc4 ,to find a disinfecting place in the chief town of the department is still difficult1 and to find one in each of the hamlets is absolutely impossible4 ,families in which there are invalids are obliged to carry clothing and bedding to the chief town to be disinfected1 and to go after them after the expiration of twenty-four hours4 ,this is not an easy thing to do4 ,it is easy to understand what difficulties must be met with in many cases1 and so one has to be content to prescribe merely washing1 and bleaching with lime--something that is simple and everywhere accepted1 but insufficient4 ,so1 then1 disinfection with sulphurous acid1 which is easy in large cities1 as was taught by the cholera epidemics of last year1 is often difficult in the country4 ,the objection has always be made to it1 too1 that it is of doubtful efficacy4 ,it is not for us to examine this question here1 but there is no doubt that damp steam alone1 under pressure1 effects a perfect disinfection1 and that if this mode of disinfection could be applied in the rural districts 7as it can be easily done in cities71 the public health would be better protected in case of an epidemic4 ,in cities one or more stationary steam stoves can always be arranged2 but in the country movable ones are necessary4 ,from instructions given by ,prof4 ,brouardel1 ,messrs4 ,geneste ,herscher have solved the problem of constructing such stoves in a few days1 and four have been put at the disposal of the mission4 ,dr4 ,thoinot1 who directed this mission1 in order to make an experiment with these apparatus1 selected two points in which cases of sudor were still numerous1 and in which the conditions were entirely different1 and permitted of studying the working of the service and apparatus under various phases4 ,one of these points was ,dorat1 chief town of ,haute ,vienne1 a locality with a crowded population and presenting every desirable resource2 and the other was the commune of ,mauvieres1 in ,indre1 where the population was scattered through several hamlets4 ,the first stove was operated at ,dorat1 on the #bith of ,june1 and the second at ,mauvieres1 on the #ast of ,july4 ,a gendarme accompanied the stove in all its movements and remained with it during the disinfecting experiments4 ,the ,dorat stove was operated on the #bith of ,june and the #ast1 #b;d1 and #c;d of ,july4 ,on the #cjth of ,june it proceeded to disinfect the commune of ,darnac4 ,the ,mauvieres stove1 in the first place1 disinfected the chief town of this commune on the #ast of ,july1 and on the next day it was taken to ,poulets1 a small hamlet1 and a dependent of the commune of ,mauvieres4 ,all the linen and all the clothing of the sick of this locality1 which had been the seat of sudor1 especially infantile1 was disinfected4 ,on the #dth of ,july1 the stove went to ,concremiers1 a commune about three miles distant1 and there finished up the disinfection that until then had been performed in the ordinary way4 ,the epidemic was almost everywhere on the wane at this epoch2 but we judge that the test of the stoves was sufficient4 ,we are able to advance the following statement boldly3 ,for the application of disinfection in the rural districts1 the movable stove is the most practical thing that we know of4 ,it is easily used1 can be taken to the smallest hamlets1 and can be transported over the roughest roads4 ,it inspires peasants with no distrust4 ,the first repugnance is easily overcome1 and every one1 upon seeing that objects come from the stove unharmed1 soon hastens to bring to it all the contaminated linen1 etc41 that he has in the house4 ,further1 we may add that the disinfection is accomplished in a quarter of an hour1 and that it therefore keeps the peasant but a very short time from his work--an advantage that is greatly appreciated4 ,finally1 a day well employed suffices to disinfect a small settlement completely4 ,upon the whole1 disinfection by the stove under consideration is the only method that can always and everywhere be carried out4 ,we believe that it is called upon to render the greatest services in the future4 ,the movable stove1 regarding which ,prof4 ,brouardel expresses himself in the above terms1 consists of a cylindrical chamber1 #c feet in internal diameter and #e feet in length1 closed in front by a hermetically jointed door4 ,this cylinder1 which constitutes the disinfection chamber1 is mounted upon wheels and is provided with shafts1 so that it can easily be hauled by a horse or mule4 ,the cylinder is of riveted iron plate1 and is covered with a wooden jacket4 ,the door is provided with a flange that enters a rubber lined groove in the cylinder1 and to it are riveted wrought iron forks that receive the nuts of hinged bolts fixed upon the cylinder4 ,the nuts are screwed up tight1 and the flange of the door1 compressing the rubber lining1 renders the joint hermetical4 ,the door1 which is hinged1 is provided with a handle1 which1 when the stove is closed1 slides over an inclined plane fixed to the cylinder4 ,the steam enters a cast iron box in the stove through a rubber tube provided with a threaded coupling4 ,the entrance of the steam is regulated by a cock4 ,the box is provided with a safety and pressure gauge and a small pinge cock4 ,in the interior of the stove the entrance of the steam is masked by a large tinned copper screen1 which is situated at the upper part and preserves the objects under treatment from drops of water of condensation4 ,these latter fall here and there from the screen1 follow the sides of the cylinder1 and collect at the bottom1 from whence they are drawn off through a cock placed in the rear4 ,the sides are lined internally with wood1 which prevents the objects to be infected from coming into contact with the metal4 ,the objects to be treated are placed upon wire cloth shelves4 ,the pinge cock likewise serves for drawing off the air or steam contained in the apparatus4 ,the stove is supported upon an axle through the intermedium of two angle irons riveted longitudinally upon the cylinder4 ,the axle is cranked1 and its wheels1 which are of wood1 are #d feet in diameter4 ,the shafts are fixed to the angle irons4 ,the apparatus is1 in addition1 provided with a seat1 a brake1 and prop rods before and behind to keep it horizontal when in operation4 ,the boiler that supplies this stove is vertical and is mounted upon four wheels4 ,it is jacketed with wood1 and is provided with a water level1 two gauge cocks1 a pressure gauge1 two spring safety valves1 a steam cock provided with a rubber tube that connects with that of the stove1 an ash pan1 and a smoke stack4 ,in the rear there are two cylindrical water reservoirs that communicate with each other1 and are designed to feed the boiler through an injector4 ,beneath these reservoirs there is a fuel box4 ,in front there is a seat whose box serves to hold tools and various other objects4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,an ,,electrical ,,governor4 ,we abstract the following from a paper on electric lighting by ,prof4 ,j4,a4 ,fleeming1 read before the ,iron and ,steel ,institute1 ,manchester4 ,the illustration is from ,engineering4 ,illustration3 ,,electrical ,,governor4 ,one of the questions which most frequently occurs in reference to mill and factory lighting is whether the factory engines can be used to run the dynamo4 ,as a broad1 general rule1 there can be no question that the best results are obtained by using a separate dynamo engine1 controlled by a good governor1 set apart for that purpose4 ,with an ordinary shunt dynamo1 the speed ought not to vary more than #b or #c per cent4 of its normal value on either side of that value4 ,hence1 if a dynamo has a normal speed of #a1jjj1 it should certainly not vary over a greater range than from #igj to #ihj to #a1jbj to #a1jcj4 ,in many cases there may be shafting from which the necessary power can be taken1 and of which the speed is variable only within these limits4 ,there are several devices by which it has been found possible to enable a dynamo to maintain a constant electromotive force1 even if the speed of rotation varies over considerable limits4 ,one of these is that 7see illustration7 due to ,messrs4 ,trotter ,ravenshaw1 and applicable to shunt or series machines4 ,in the circuit of the field magnet is placed a variable resistance4 ,this resistance is thrown in or out by means of a motor device actuated by an electromotive force indicator4 ,a plunger of soft iron is suspended from a spring1 and hangs within a solenoid of wire1 which solenoid is in connection with the terminals of the dynamo4 ,any increase or diminution of the electromotive force causes this iron to move in or out of the core1 and its movement is made to connect or disconnect the gearing which throws in the field magnet resistance with a shaft driven by the engine itself4 ,the principle of the apparatus is therefore that small variations of electromotive force are made to vary inversely the strength of the magnetic field through the intervention of a relay mechanism in which the power required to effect the movement is tapped from the engine4 ,with the aid of such a governor it is possible to drive a dynamo from a mill shaft providing the requisite power1 but of which the speed of rotation is not sufficiently uniform to secure alone efficient regulation of electromotive force4 ,another device1 patented by ,mr4 ,crompton1 is a modification of that method of field magnet winding commonly known as compound winding4 ,the field magnets are wound over with two wires1 one of which has a high resistance and is arranged as a shunt1 and the other of which has a low resistance and is arranged in series4 ,instead1 however1 of the magnetizing powers of these coils being united in the same direction as an ordinary compound winding1 they are opposed to one another4 ,that is to say1 the current in the shunt wire tends to magnetize the iron of the field magnets in an opposite direction to that of the series wire4 ,it results from this that any slight increase of speed diminishes the strength of the magnetic field1 and vice versa4 ,accordingly1 within certain limits1 the electromotive force of the dynamo is independent of the speed of rotation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,electric ,,current ,,as ,a ,,means ,,of ,,increasing ,,the ,,tractive ,,adhesion ,,of ,,railway ,,motors ,,and ,,other ,,rolling ,,contacts4#a ,footnote #a3 ,read before the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science4 ,new ,york meeting1 #ahhg4 ,by ,,elias ,e4 ,,ries4 ,the object of this paper is to lay before you the results of some recent experiments in a comparatively new field of operation1 but one that1 judging from the results already attained1 is destined to become of great importance and value in its practical application to various branches of industry4 ,i say comparatively new because the underlying principles involved in the experiments referred to have1 to a certain extent1 been employed 7in1 however1 a somewhat restricted sense7 for purposes analogous to those that form the basis of this communication4 ,as indicated by the title1 the subject that will now occupy our attention is the use of the electric current as a means of increasing and varying the frictional adhesion of rolling contacts and other rubbing surfaces1 and it is proposed to show how this effect may be produced1 both by means of the direct action of the current itself and by its indirect action through the agency of electro-magnetism4 ,probably the first instance in which the electric current was directly employed to vary the amount of friction between two rubbing surfaces was exemplified in ,edison's electro-motograph1 in which the variations in the strength of a telephonic current caused corresponding variations in friction between a revolving cylinder of moistened chalk and the free end of an adjustable contact arm whose opposite extremity was attached to the diaphragm of the receiving telephone4 ,this device was extremely sensitive to the least changes in current strength1 and if it were not for the complication introduced by the revolving cylinder1 it is very likely that it would to-day be more generally used4 ,it has also been discovered more recently that in the operation of electric railways in which the track rails form part of the circuit1 a considerable increase in the tractive adhesion of the driving wheels is manifested1 due to the passage of the return current from the wheels into the track4 ,in the ,baltimore and ,hampden electric railway1 using the ,daft third rail system1 this increased tractive adhesion enables the motors to ascend without slipping a long grade of #cej feet to the mile1 drawing two heavily loaded cars1 which result1 it is claimed1 is not attainable by steam or other self-propelling motors of similar weight4 ,in the two instances just cited the conditions are widely different1 as regards the nature of the current employed1 the mechanical properties of the surfaces in contact1 and the electrical resistance and the working conditions of the respective circuits4 ,in both1 however1 as clearly demonstrated by the experiments hereinafter referred to1 the cause of the increased friction is substantially the same4 ,in order to ascertain the practical value of the electric current as a means of increasing mechanical friction1 and1 if possible1 render it commercially and practically useful wherever such additional friction might be desirable1 as for example in the transmission of power1 etc41 a series of experiments were entered into by the author1 which1 though not yet fully completed1 are sufficiently advanced to show that an electric current1 when properly applied1 is capable of very materially increasing the mechanical friction of rotating bodies1 in some cases as much as from #ej to #ajj per cent41 with a very economical expenditure of current2 this increase depending upon the nature of the substances in contact and being capable of being raised by an increased flow of current4 ,before entering into a description of the means by which this result is produced1 and how it is proposed to apply this method practically to railway and other purposes1 it may be well to give a general outline of what has so far been determined4 ,these experiments have shown that the coefficient of friction between two conducting surfaces is very much increased by the passage therethrough of an electric current of low electromotive force and large volume1 and this is especially noticeable between two rolling surfaces in peripheral contact with each other1 or between a rolling and a stationary surface1 as in the case of a driving wheel running upon a railway rail4 ,this effect increases with the number of amperes of current flowing through the circuit1 of which the two surfaces form part1 and is not materially affected by the electromotive force1 so long as the latter is sufficient to overcome the electrical resistance of the circuit4 ,this increase in frictional adhesion is principally noticeable in iron1 steel1 and other metallic bodies1 and is due to a molecular change in the conducting substances at their point of contact 7which is also the point of greatest resistance in the circuit71 caused by the heat developed at that point4 ,this heat is ordinarily imperceptible1 and becomes apparent only when the current strength is largely augmented4 ,it is therefore probable that a portion of this increased tractive adhesion is due directly to the current itself aside from its heating effect1 although ,i have not as yet been able to ascertain this definitely4 ,the most economical and efficient results have been obtained by the employment of a transformed current of extremely low electromotive force 7between and #a volt71 but of very large volume or quantity1 this latter being variable at will1 so as to obtain different degrees of frictional resistance in the substances under observation4 ,these experiments were originally directed mainly toward an endeavor to increase the tractive adhesion of the driving wheels of locomotives and other vehicles1 and to utilize the electric current for this purpose in such a manner as to render it entirely safe1 practical1 and economical4 ,it will be apparent at once that a method of increasing the tractive power of the present steam locomotives by more than #ej per cent4 without adding to their weight and without injury to the roadbed and wheel tires1 such as is caused by the sand now commonly used1 would prove of considerable value1 and the same holds true with respect to electrically propelled street cars1 especially as it has been found exceedingly difficult to secure sufficient tractive adhesion on street railways during the winter season1 as well as at other times1 on roads having grades of more than ordinary steepness4 ,as this1 therefore1 is probably the most important use for this application of the electric current1 it has been selected for illustrating this paper4 ,i have here a model car and track arranged to show the equipment and operation of the system as applied to railway motors4 ,the current in the present instance is one of alternating polarity which is converted by this transformer into one having the required volume4 ,the electromotive force of this secondary current is somewhat higher than is necessary4 ,in practice it would be about half a volt4 ,you will notice upon a closer inspection that one of the forward driving wheels is insulated from its axle1 and the transformed current1 after passing to a regulating switch under the control of the engineer or driver1 goes to this insulated wheel1 from which it enters the track rail1 then through the rear pair of driving wheels and axles to the opposite rail1 and then flows up through the forward uninsulated wheel1 from the axle of which it returns by way of a contact brush to the opposite terminal of the secondary coil of the transformer4 ,thus the current is made to flow seriatim through all four of the driving wheels1 completing its circuit through that portion of the rails lying between the two axles1 and generating a sufficient amount of heat at each point of contact to produce the molecular change before referred to4 ,by means of the regulating switch the engineer can control the amount of current flowing at any time1 and can even increase its strength to such an extent1 in wet or slippery weather1 as to evaporate any moisture that may adhere to the surface of the rails at the point of contact with the wheels while the locomotive or motor car is under full speed4 ,it will be apparent that inasmuch as the traction circuit moves along with the locomotive1 and is complete through its driving wheel base1 the track rails in front and rear of the same are at all times entirely free from current1 and no danger whatever can occur by coming in contact with the rails between successive motors4 ,moreover1 the potential used in the present arrangement1 while sufficient to overcome the extremely low resistance of the moving circuit1 is too small to cause an appreciable loss of current from that portion of the rails in circuit1 even under the most unfavorable conditions of the weather4 ,in practice the primary current necessary is preferably generated by a small high speed alternating dynamo on the locomotive1 the current being converted by means of an inductional transformer4 ,to avoid the necessity for electrically bridging the rail joints1 a modified arrangement may be employed1 in which the electrical connection is made directly with a fixed collar on the forward and rear driving axles1 the current dividing itself in parallel between the two rails in such a manner that1 if a defective joint exists in the rail at one side1 the circuit is still complete through the rail on the other2 and as the rails usually break joints on opposite sides1 this arrangement is found very effective4 ,the insulation of the driving wheels is very easily effected in either case4 ,as the amount of additional tractive adhesion produced depends upon the quantity of current flowing rather than upon its pressure1 the reason for transforming the current as described will be apparent1 and its advantages over a direct current of higher tension and less quantity1 both from an economical and practical standpoint1 will for this reason be clear4 ,the amount of heat produced at the point of contact between the wheels and rails is never large enough to injure or otherwise affect them1 although it may be quite possible to increase the current sufficiently to produce a very considerable heating effect4 ,the amount of current sent through the traction circuit will of course vary with the requirements1 and as the extent to which the resistance to slipping may be increased is very great1 this method is likely to prove of considerable value4 ,while in some cases the use of such a method of increasing the tractive power of locomotives would be confined to ascending gradients and the movement of exceptionally heavy loads1 in others it would prove useful as a constant factor in the work of transportation4 ,in cases like that of the ,new ,york elevated railway system1 where the traffic during certain hours is much beyond the capacity of the trains1 and the structure unable to support the weight of heavier engines1 a system like that just described would prove of very great benefit1 as it would easily enable the present engines to draw two or three additional cars with far less slipping and lost motion than is the case with mechanical friction alone1 at a cost for tractive current that is insignificant compared to the advantages gained4 ,other cases may be cited in which this method of increasing friction will probably be found useful1 aside from its application to railway purposes1 but these will naturally suggest themselves and need not be further dwelt upon4 ,in the course of the experiments above described1 another and somewhat different method of increasing the traction of railway motors has been devised1 which is more particularly adapted to electric motors for street railways1 and is intended to be used in connection with a system of electric street railways now being developed by the author4 ,in this system electro-magnetism provides the means whereby the increase in tractive adhesion is produced1 and this result is attained in an entirely novel manner4 ,several attempts have heretofore been made to utilize magnetism for this purpose1 but apparently without success1 chiefly because of the crude and imperfect manner in which most of these attempts have been carried out4 ,the present system owes its efficiency to the formation of a complete and constantly closed magnetic circuit1 moving with the vehicle and completed through the two driving axles1 wheels1 and that portion of the track rails lying between the two pairs of wheels1 in a manner similar to that employed in the electrical method before shown4 ,we have here a model of a second motor car equipped with the apparatus1 mounted on a section of track and provided with means for measuring the amount of tractive force exerted both with and without the passage of the current4 ,you will notice that each axle of the motor car is wound with a helix of insulated wire1 the helices in the present instance being divided to permit the attachment to the axles of the motor connections4 ,the helices on both axles are so connected that1 when energized1 they induce magnetic lines of force that flow in the same direction through the magnetic circuit4 ,there are1 therefore1 four points at which the circuit is maintained closed by the rolling wheels1 and as the resistance to the flow of the lines of force is greatest at these points1 the magnetic saturation there is more intense1 and produces the most effective result just where it is most required4 ,now1 when the battery circuit is closed through the helices1 it will be observed that the torque1 or pull1 exerted by the motor car is fully twice that exerted by the motor with the traction circuit open1 and1 by increasing the battery current until the saturation point of the iron is reached1 the tractive force is increased nearly #bjj per cent41 as shown by the dynamometer4 ,a large portion of this resistance to the slipping or skidding of the driving wheels is undoubtedly due to direct magnetic attraction between the wheels and track1 this attraction depending upon the degree of magnetic saturation and the relative mass of metal involved4 ,but by far the greatest proportion of the increased friction is purely the result of the change in position of the iron molecules due to the well known action of magnetism1 which causes a direct and close interlocking action1 so to speak1 between the molecules of the two surfaces in contact4 ,this may be illustrated by drawing a very thin knife blade over the poles of an ordinary electro-magnet1 first with the current on and then off4 ,in the model before you1 the helices are fixed firmly to1 and revolve with1 the axles1 the connections being maintained by brushes bearing upon contact rings at each end of the helices4 ,if desired1 however1 the axles may revolve loosely within the helices1 and instead of the latter being connected for cumulative effects1 they may be arranged in other ways so as to produce either subsequent or opposing magnetic forces1 leaving certain portions of the circuit neutral and concentrating the lines of force wherever they maybe most desirable4 ,such a disposition will prove of advantage in some cases4 ,the amount of current required to obtain this increased adhesion in practice is extremely small1 and may be entirely neglected when compared to the great benefits derived4 ,the system is very simple and inexpensive1 and the amount of traction secured is entirely within the control of the motor man1 as in the electric system4 ,it will be seen that the car here will not1 with the traction circuit open1 propel itself up hill when one end of the track is raised more than #e inches above the table2 but with the circuit energized it will readily ascend the track as you now see it1 with one end about #ac1 inches above the other in a length of three feet1 or the equivalent of a #dj per cent4 grade2 and this could be increased still further if the motor had power enough to propel itself against the force of gravity on a steeper incline4 ,as you will notice1 the motor adheres very firmly to the track and requires a considerable push to force it down this #dj per cent4 grade1 whereas with the traction circuit open it slips down in very short order1 notwithstanding the efforts of the driving mechanism to propel it up4 ,the resistance of the helices on this model is less than two ohms1 and this will scarcely be exceeded when applied to a full sized car1 the current from two or three cells of secondary batteries being probably sufficient to energize them4 ,the revolution of the driving axles and wheels is not interfered with in the slightest1 because in the former the axle boxes are outside the path of the lines of force1 and in the case of the latter because each wheel practically forms a single pole piece1 and in revolving presents continuously a new point of contact1 of the same polarity1 to the rail2 the flow of the lines of force being most intense through the lower half of the wheels1 and on a perpendicular line connecting the center of the axle with the rail4 ,in winter all that is necessary is to provide each motor car with a suitable brush for cleaning the track rails sufficiently to enable the wheels to make good contact therewith1 and any tendency to slipping or skidding may be effectually checked4 ,by this means it is easily possible to increase the tractive adhesion of an ordinary railway motor from #ej to #ajj per cent41 without any increase in the load or weight upon the track2 for it must be remembered that even that portion of the increased friction due to direct attraction does not increase the weight upon the roadbed1 as this attraction is mutual between the wheels and track rails2 and if this car and track were placed upon a scale and the circuit closed1 it would not weigh a single ounce more than with the circuit open4 ,it is obvious that this increase in friction between two moving surfaces can also be applied to check1 as well as augment1 the tractive power of a car or train of cars1 and ,i have shown in connection with this model a system of braking that is intended to be used in conjunction with the electro-magnetic traction system just described4 ,you will have noticed that in the experiments with the traction circuit the brake shoes here have remained idle2 that is to say1 they have not been attracted to the magnetized wheels4 ,this is because a portion of the traction current has been circulating around this coil on the iron brake beam1 inducing in the brake shoes magnetism of like polarity to that in the wheels to which they apply4 ,they have therefore been repelled from the wheel tires instead of being attracted to them4 ,suppose now that it is desired to stop the motor car2 instead of opening the traction circuit1 the current flowing through the helices is simply reversed by means of this pole changing switch1 whereupon the axles are magnetized in the opposite direction and the brake shoes are instantly drawn to the wheels with a very great pressure1 as the current in the helices and brake coil now assist each other in setting up a very strong magnetic flow1 sufficient to bring the motor car almost to an instant stop1 if desired4 ,the same tractive force that has previously been applied to increase the tractive adhesion now exercises its influence upon the brake shoes and wheels1 with the result of not only causing a very powerful pressure between the two surfaces due to the magnetic attraction1 but offering an extremely large frictional resistance in virtue of the molecular interlocking action before referred to4 ,as shown in the present instance1 a portion of the current still flows through the traction circuit and prevents the skidding of the wheels4 ,the method thus described is equally applicable to increase the coefficient of friction in apparatus for the transmission of power1 its chief advantage for this purpose being the ease and facility with which the amount of friction between the wheels can be varied to suit different requirements1 or increased and diminished 7either automatically or manually7 according to the nature of the work being done4 ,with soft iron contact surfaces the variation in friction is very rapid and sensitive to slight changes in current strength1 and this fact may prove of value in connection with its application to regulating and measuring apparatus4 ,in all cases the point to be observed is to maintain a closed magnetic circuit of low resistance through the two or more surfaces the friction of which it is desired to increase1 and the same rule holds good with respect to the electric system1 except that in the latter case the best effects are obtained when the area of surface in contact is smallest4 ,for large contact areas the magnetic system is found to be most economical1 and this system might possibly be used to advantage to prevent slipping of short wire ropes and belts upon their driving pulleys1 in cases where longer belts are inapplicable as in the driving of dynamos and other machinery4 ,experiments have also been1 and are still being1 made with the object of increasing friction by means of permanent magnetism1 and also with a view to diminishing the friction of revolving and other moving surfaces1 the results of which will probably form the subject matter of a subsequent paper4 ,enough has been said to indicate that the development of these two methods of increasing mechanical friction opens up a new and extensive field of operation1 and enables electricity to score another important point in the present age of progress4 ,the great range and flexibility of this method peculiarly adapt it to the purposes we have considered and to numerous others that will doubtless suggest themselves to you4 ,its application to the increase of the tractive adhesion of railway motors is probably its most prominent and valuable feature at present1 and is calculated to act as an important stimulus to the practical introduction of electric railways on our city streets1 inasmuch as the claims heretofore made for cable traction in this respect are now no longer exclusively its own4 ,on trunk line railways the use of sand and other objectionable traction-increasing appliances will be entirely dispensed with1 and locomotives will be enabled to run at greater speed with less slipping of the wheels and less danger of derailment4 ,their tractive power can be nearly doubled without any increase in weight1 enabling them to draw heavier trains and surmount steeper grades without imposing additional weight or strain upon bridges and other parts of the roadbed4 ,inertia of heavy trains can be more readily overcome1 loss of time due to slippery tracks obviated1 and the momentum of the train at full speed almost instantly checked by one and the same means4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,electric ,,launch4 ,trials have been made at ,havre with an electric launch built to the order of the ,french government by the ,forges et ,chantiers de la ,mediterrane4 ,the vessel1 which has rather full lines1 measures #bh ft4 between perpendiculars and #i ft4 beam1 and is #e tons register4 ,the electromotor is the invention of ,captain ,krebs1 who is already well known on account of his experiments in connection with navigable balloons1 and of ,m4 ,de ,zd1 naval architect4 ,the propeller shaft is not directly coupled with the spindle of the motor1 but is geared to it by spur wheels in the ratio of #a to #c1 in order to allow of the employment of a light high-speed motor4 ,the latter makes #hej revolutions per minute1 and develops #ab horse power when driving the screw at #bhj revolutions4 ,current is supplied by a new type of accumulators made by ,messrs4 ,commelin ,desmazures4 ,one hundred and thirty two of these accumulators are fitted in the bottom of the boat1 the total weight being about #b tons4 ,in ordering this boat the ,french government stipulated a speed of #f knots to be maintained during three hours with an expenditure of #aj horse power4 ,the result of the trials gave a speed of #f knots during five hours with #ab horse power1 and sufficient charge was left in the accumulators to allow the boat to travel on the following day for four hours4 ,this performance is exceedingly good1 since it shows that one horse power hour has been obtained with less than #fj lb4 of total weight of battery4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,commercial ,,exchange1 ,,paris4 ,leveling the ground1 pulling down old buildings1 and distributing light and air through her wide streets1 ,paris is slowly and continuously pursuing her transformation4 ,at this moment it is an entire district1 and not one of the least curious ones1 that is disappearing1 leaving no other trace of its existence than the circular walls that once inclosed the wheat market4 ,it is this building that1 metamorphosed1 is to become the ,commercial ,exchange that has been so earnestly demanded since #ahhj by the commerce of ,paris4 ,the question1 which was simple in the first place1 and consisted in the conversion of the wheat market into a commercial exchange1 became complicated by a project of enlarging the markets4 ,it therefore became necessary to take possession1 on the one hand1 of sixty seven estates1 of a total area of #aaf1gae square feet1 to clear the exchange1 and1 on the other1 of #di1ife square feet to clear the central markets4 ,in other words1 out of #e1jjj1jjj voted by the common council for this work1 #b1hjj1jjj are devoted to the dispossessions necessitated by the new exchange1 #a1hjj1jjj to those necessitated by the markets1 and #djj1jjj are appropriated to the wheat market4 ,the work of demolition began last spring1 and the odd number side of ,orleans street1 ,deux-,ecus street1 from this latter to ,j4,j4 ,rousseau street1 ,babille street1 ,mercier street1 and ,sortine street1 now no longer exist4 ,all this part is to-day but a desert1 in whose center stands the iron trussing of the wheat market cupola4 ,it is on these grounds that will be laid out the prolongation of ,louvre street in a straight line to ,coquilliere street4 ,our engraving shows the present state of the work4 ,what is seen of the wheat market will be preserved and utilized by ,mr4 ,blondeau1 the architect1 who has obtained a grant from the commercial exchange to construct two edifices on two plots of an area of #cb1bbj square feet1 fronting on ,louvre street1 and which will bring the city an annual rent of #fj1jjj4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,new ,,commercial ,,exchange1 ,,paris4 ,around the rotunda that still exists there was a circular wall #f feet in thickness4 ,mr4 ,blondeau has torn this down1 and is now building another one appropriate to the new destination of the acquired estates4 ,as for the trussing of the cupola1 that is considered as a work of art1 and care has been taken not to touch it4 ,it was constructed at the beginning of this century1 at an epoch when nothing but rudimentary tools were to be had for working iron1 and it was1 so to speak1 forged4 ,all the pieces were made with the hammer and were added one to the other in succession4 ,this cupola will be glazed at the upper part1 while the lower part will be covered with zinc4 ,in the interior this part will be decorated with allegorical paintings representing the five divisions of the globe1 with their commercial and industrial attributes4 ,it was feared at one time that the hall1 to which admission will be free1 would not afford sufficient space1 and the halls of the ,bordeaux and ,havre exchanges were cited4 ,it is true that the hall of the wheat market has an area of but #aa1hbe square feet1 but on utilizing the #e1jjj feet of the circular gallery1 which will not be occupied1 it will reach #af1hbe feet4 ,as for the tower which stands at one side of the edifice1 that was built by ,marie de ,medici for the astrologer whom she brought with her to ,paris from ,florence4 ,on account of its historic interest1 this structure will be preserved4 ,on either side of this tower1 overlooking the roofs of the neighboring dwellings1 are perceived the summit of a tower of ,st4 ,eustache church and a campanile of a pavilion of the markets4--,l',illustration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,cocaine4 ,cocaine is manufactured from the dry leaves of the ,erythroxylon coca1 which grows in the valleys of the ,east ,cordilleras of ,south ,america--i4e41 in the interior of ,peru and ,bolivia4 ,the fresh leaves contain #j4jjc to #j4jjf per cent of cocaine1 which percentage decreases considerably if the leaves are stored any length of time before being worked up4 ,on the other hand1 the alkaloid can be transported and kept without decomposition4 ,this circumstance caused the author to devise a simple process for the manufacture of crude cocaine on the spot1 neither ,peru nor ,bolivia being suitable countries for complicated chemical operations4 ,after many experiments1 he hit upon the following plan3 ,the disintegrated coca leaves are digested at #gj ,c4 in closed vessels for two hours1 with a very weak solution of sodium hydrate and petroleum 7boiling between #bjj and #bej ,c74 ,the mass is filtered1 pressed while still tepid1 and the filtrate allowed to stand until the oil has completely separated from the aqueous solution4 ,the oil is drawn off and carefully neutralized with very weak hydrochloric acid4 ,a white bulky precipitate of cocaine hydrochloride is obtained1 together with an aqueous solution of the same compound1 while the petroleum is free from the alkaloid and may be used for the extraction of a fresh batch of leaves4 ,the precipitate is dried1 and by concentrating the aqueous solution a further quantity of the hydrochloride is obtained4 ,both can be shipped without risk of decomposition4 ,the product is not quite pure1 but contains some hygrine1 traces of gum and other matters4 ,its percentage of alkaloid is #ge per cent41 while chemically pure cocaine hydrochloride 7,c#ag;,h#ba,,no#d4b;,h,cl7 contains #hj4f per cent4 of the alkaloid4 ,the sodium hydrate solution cannot be replaced by milk of lime1 nor can any other acid be used for neutralization4 ,alcohol or ether are not suitable for extraction4 ,a repetition of the process with once-extracted coca leaves gave no further quantity of cocaine1 proving that all the cocaine goes into solution by one treatment4 ,the same process serves on the small scale for the valuation of coca leaves4 #ajj grms4 of coca leaves are digested in a flask with #djj c4c4 of water1 #ej c4c4 of #a_/aj ,na,o,h 7#aj grms4 of ,na,o,h in #ajj c4c47 and #bej c4c4 of petroleum4 ,the flask is loosely covered and warmed on the water bath for two hours1 shaking it from to time4 ,the mass is then filtered1 the residue pressed1 and the filtrate allowed to separate in two layers4 ,the oil layer is run into a bottle and titrated back with #a_/ajj ,h,cl 7#a grm4 of ,h,cl in #ajj c4c47 until exactly neutral4 ,the number of c4c4 of hydrochloric acid required for titrating back multiplied by #j4db gives the percentage of cocaine in the sample4 ,the following are some of the results with different samples of coca leaves of various age3 ,contained per cent4 of ,cocaine4 ,coca leaves from ,mapiri1 #a month old #j4e ,yungas #j4e ,mapiri and ,yungas #f months old #j4d ,of the ,cuzco 7,peru7 weight of #f months old #j4c the dry ,mapiri and ,yungas leaves4 #a year old #j4c ,cuzco #j4b ,mapiri and ,yungas #b years old #j4ae_/ ,coca leaves from ,yungas and ,cuzco1 three years old1 contained no trace of the alkaloid1 whereas fresh green leaves from ,yungas contained #j4g per cent4 of the weight of the dry leaves4 ,the same process is also applicable for the manufacture of quinine from poor quinine bark1 with the single alteration that weak sulphuric acid must be used for the neutralization of the alkaline petroleum extract4--,h4,t4 ,pfeiffer1 ,chem4 ,zeit4 #aa4 99 99 99 99 99 ,continued from ,,supplement1 ,no4 #fbb1 page #iida4 ,,the ,,chemical ,,basis ,,of ,,plant ,,forms4#a ,by ,,helen ,c4 ,,de ,s4 ,,abbott4 ,the succession of plants from the lower to the higher forms will be reviewed superficially1 and chemical compounds noted where they appear4 ,when the germinating spores of the fungi1 myxomycetes1 rupture their walls and become masses of naked protoplasm1 they are known as plasmodia4 ,the plasmodium thalium septicum occurs in moist places1 on heaps of tan or decaying barks4 ,it is a soft1 gelatinous mass of yellowish color1 sometimes measuring several inches in length4 ,the plasmodium#b has been chemically analyzed1 though not in a state of absolute purity4 ,the table of ,reinke and ,rodewold gives an idea of its proximate constitution4 ,many of the constituents given are always present in the living cells of higher plants4 ,it cannot be too emphatically stated that where biotic force is manifested1 these colloidal or albuminous compounds are found4 ,the simplest form of plant life is an undifferentiated individual1 all of its functions being performed indifferently by all parts of its protoplasm4 ,the chemical basis of plasmodium is almost entirely composed of complex albuminous substances1 and correlated with this structureless body are other compounds derived from them4 ,aside from the chemical substances which are always present in living matter1 and are essential properties of protoplasm1 we find no other compounds4 ,in the higher organisms1 where these functions are not performed indifferently1 specialization of tissues is accompanied by many other kinds of bodies4 ,the alg are a stage higher in the evolutionary scale than the undifferentiated noncellular plasmodium4 ,the simple ,alga protococcus#c may be regarded as a simple cell4 ,all higher plants are masses of cells1 varying in form1 function1 and chemical composition4 ,a typical living cell may be described as composed of a cell wall and contents4 ,the cell wall is a firm1 elastic membrane closed on all sides1 and consists mainly of cellulose1 water1 and inorganic constituents4 ,the contents consist of a semi-fluid colloidal substance1 lying in contact with the inner surface of the membrane1 and1 like it1 closed on all sides4 ,this always is composed of albuminous substances4 ,in the higher plants1 at least1 a nucleus occurs embedded in it2 a watery liquid holding salts and saccharine substances in solution fills the space called the vacuole1 inclosed by the protoplasm4 ,these simple plants may be seen as actively moving cells or as non-motile cells4 ,the former consist of a minute mass of protoplasm1 granular and mostly colored green1 but clear and colorless at the more pointed end1 and where it is prolonged into two delicate filaments called cilia4 ,after moving actively for a time they come to rest1 acquire a spherical form1 and invest themselves with a firm membrane of cellulose4 ,this firm1 outer membrane of the ,protococcus accompanies a higher differentiation of tissue and localization of function than is found in the plasmodium4 ,hatococcus and plasmodium come under the classes alg and fungi of the ,thallothyta group4 ,the division#d of this group into two classes is based upon the presence of chlorophyl in alg and its absence in fungi4 ,gelatinous starch is found in the alg2 the fungi contain a starchy substance called glycogen1 which also occurs in the liver and muscles of animals4 ,structureless bodies1 as thalium1 contain no true sugar4 ,stratified starch#e first appears in the phanerogams4 ,alkaloids have been found in fungi1 and owe their presence doubtless to the richness of these plants in nitrogenous bodies4 ,in addition to the green coloring matter in alg are found other coloring matters4#f ,the nature#g of these coloring matters is usually the same through whole families1 which also resemble each other in their modes of reproduction4 ,in form1 the alg differ greatly from filaments or masses of cells2 they live in the water and cover damp surfaces of rocks and wood4 ,in these they are remarkable for their ramifications and colors and grow to a gigantic size4 ,the physiological functions of alg and fungi depend upon their chemical differences4 ,these facts have been offered1 simple as they are1 as striking examples of chemical and structural opposition4 ,the fungi include very simple organisms1 as well as others of tolerably high development1 of most varied form1 from the simple bacillus and yeast to the truffle1 lichens1 and mushrooms4 ,the cell membrane of this class contains no pure cellulose1 but a modification called fungus cellulose4 ,the membrane also contains an amyloid substance1 amylomycin4#h ,many of the chemical constituents found in the entire class are given in ,die ,pflanzenstoffe4#i ,under the ,schizomycetes to which the ,micrococcus and ,bacterium#aj belong are found minute organisms differing much in form and in the coloring#aa matters they produce1 as that causing the red color of mouldy bread4 ,the class of lichens#ab contains a number of different coloring substances1 whose chemical composition has been examined4 ,these substances are found separately in individuals differing in form4 ,in the ,polyporus#ac an acid has been found peculiar to it1 as in many plants special compounds are found4 ,in the agarice the different kinds of vellum distinguish between species1 and the color of the conidia is also of differential importance4 ,in all cases of distinct characteristic habits of reproduction and form1 one or more different chemical compounds is found4 ,in the next group of the musice1 or mosses1 is an absence of some chemical compounds that were characteristic of the classes just described4 ,many of the albuminous substances are present4 ,starch#ad is found often in large quantities1 and also oily fats1 which are contained in the oil bodies of the liverworts2 wax1#ae organic acids1 including aconitic acid1 and tannin1 which is found for the first time at this evolutionary stage of the plant kingdom4 ,the vascular cryptogams are especially characterized by their mineral composition4#af ,the ash is extraordinarily rich in silicic acid and alumina4 ,equisetum#ag4444444444silicic acid #fj per cent4 ,aspidium444444444444444 #ac ,asplenium44444444444444 #ce ,osmunda4444444444444444 #ec ,lycopodium#ah444444444 #ad 44444444 alumina #bf to #bg 44444444 manganese #b to #b4e ,these various plants contain acids and compounds peculiar to themselves4 ,as we ascend in the plant scale1 we reach the phanerogams4 ,these plants are characterized by the production of true seeds1 and many chemical compounds not found in lower plants4 ,it will be convenient in speaking of these higher groups to follow ,m4 ,heckel's#ai scheme of plant evolution4 ,all these plants are grouped under three main divisions3 apetalous1 monocotyledonous1 and dicotyledonous2 and these main divisions are further subdivided4 ,it will be observed that these three main parallel columns are divided into three general horizontal planes4 ,on plane #a are all plants of simplicity of floral elements1 or parts2 for example1 the black walnut1 with the simple flower contained in a catkin4 ,on plane #b plants which have a multiplicity of floral elements1 as the many petals and stamens of the rose2 and finally1 the higher plants1 the orchids among the monocotyledons and the composite among the dicotyledonous plants1 come under the third division of condensation of floral elements4 ,it will be impossible to take up in order for chemical consideration all these groups1 and ,i shall restrict myself to pointing out the occurrence of certain constituents4 ,i desire now to call attention to chemical groups under the apetalous plants having simplicity of floral elements4 ,cassuarina equisetifolia#bj possibly contains tannin1 since it is used for curing hides4 ,the bark contains a dye4 ,it is said to resemble ,equisetum#ba in appearance1 and in this latter plant a yellow dye is found4 ,the ,myrica#bb contains ethereal oil1 wax1 resin1 balsam1 in all parts of the plant4 ,the root contains in addition fats1 tannin1 and starch1 also myricinic acid4 ,in the willow and poplar1#bc a crystalline1 bitter substance1 salicin or populin1 is found4 ,this may be considered as the first appearance of a real glucoside1 if tannin be excluded from the list4 ,the oak1 walnut1 beech1 alder1 and birch contain tannin in large quantities2 in the case of the oak1 ten to twelve per cent4 ,oak galls yield as much as seventy per cent4#bd ,the numerous genera of pine and fir trees are remarkable for ethereal oil1 resin1 and camphor4 ,the plane#be trees contain caoutchouc and gum2 peppers1#bf ethereal oils1 alkaloids1 piperin1 white resin1 and malic acid4 ,datisca cannabina#bg contains a coloring matter and another substance peculiar to itself1 datiscin1 a kind of starch1 or allied to the glucosides4 ,upon the same evolutionary plane among the monocotyledons1 the dates and palms#bh contain in large quantities special starches1 and this is in harmony with the principles of the theory4 ,alkaloids and glucosides have not yet been discovered in them4 ,other monocotyledonous groups with simplicity of floral elements1 such as the typhace1 contain large quantities of starch2 in the case of ,typha latifolia#bi #ab4e per cent41 and #a4e per cent4 gum4 ,in the pollen of this same plant1 #b4jh per cent4 starch has been found4 ,under the dicotyledonous groups1 there are no plants with simplicity of floral elements4 ,returning1 now1 to apetalous plants of multiplicity and simplification of floral elements1 we find that the urticace#cj contain free formic acid2 the hemp#ca contains alkaloids2 the hop1#cb ethereal oil and resin2 the rhubarb1#cc crysophonic acid2 and the begonias1#cd chicarin and lapacho dyes4 ,the highest apetalous plants contain camphors and oils2 the highest of the monocotyledons contain a mucilage and oils2 and the highest dicotyledons contain oils and special acids4 ,the trees yielding common camphor and borneol are from genera of the laurace family2 also sassafras camphor is from the same family4 ,small quantities of stereoptenes are widely distributed through the plant kingdom4 ,the gramine1 or grasses1 are especially characterized by the large quantities of sugar and silica they contain4 ,the ash of the rice hull1 for example1 contains ninety eight per cent4 silica4 ,the ranunculace contain many plants which yield alkaloids1 as ,hydrastia canadensis1 or ,indian hemp1 ,helleborus1 ,delphinum1 ,aconitum1 and the alkaloid berberine has been obtained from genera of this family4 ,the alkaloid#ce furnishing families belong1 with few exceptions1 to the dicotyledons4 ,the colchice1 from which is obtained veratrine1 form an exception among the monocotyledons4 ,the alkaloids of the fungus have already been noted4 #cf;,among the greater number of plant families1 no alkaloids have been found4 ,in the labiat none has been discovered1 nor in the composit among the highest plants4 ,one alkaloid is found in many genera of the loganiace2 berberine in genera of the berberidace1 ranunculace1 menispermace1 rutace1 papaverace1 anonace4 ,waxes are widely distributed in plants4 ,they occur in quantities in some closely related families4 ,ethereal oils occur in many families1 in the bark1 root1 wood1 leaf1 flower1 and fruit2 particularly in myrtace1 laurine1 cyperace1 crucifere1 aurantiace1 labiat1 and umbellifer4 ,resins are found in most of the higher plants4 ,tropical plants are richer in resins than those of cold climates4 ,chemical resemblance between groups1 as indicating morphological relations1 has been well shown4 ,for example3 the similarity#cg of the viscid juices1 and a like taste and smell1 among cactace and portulace1 indicate a closer relationship between these two orders than botanical classification would perhaps allow4 ,this fact was corroborated by the discovery of irritable stamens in ,portulaca and ,opuntia1 and other genera of cactace4 ,darwin#ch states that in the composit the ray florets are more poisonous than the disk florets1 in the ratio of about #c to #b4 ,comparing the cycade and palm1 the former are differently placed by different botanists1 but the general resemblance is remarkable1 and they both yield sago4 ,chemical constituents of plants are found in varying quantities during stated periods of the year4 ,certain compounds present at one stage of growth are absent at another4 ,many facts could be brought forward to show the different chemical composition of plants in different stages of growth4 ,the ,thuja occidentalis#ci in the juvenescent and adult form1 offers an example where morphological and chemical differences go hand in hand4 ,analyses of this plant under both conditions show a striking difference4 ,different parts of plants may contain distinct chemical compounds1 and the comparative chemical study of plant orders comprises the analysis of all parts of plants of different species4 ,for example2 four portions of the ,yucca angustifolia#dj were examined chemically2 the bark and wood of the root and the base and blades of the leaves4 ,fixed oils were separated from each part4 ,these were not identical2 two were fluid at ordinary temperature1 and two were solid4 ,their melting and solidifying points were not the same4 ,this difference in the physical character and chemical reaction of these fixed oils may be due to the presence of free fatty acid and glycerides in varying proportions in the four parts of the plants4 ,it is of interest to note that1 in the subterranean part of the ,yucca1 the oil extracted from the bark is solid at the ordinary temperature2 from the wood it was of a less solid consistency2 while the yellow base of the leaf contained an oil quite soft1 and in the green leaf the oil is almost fluid4 ,two new resins were extracted from the yellow and green parts of the leaf4 ,it was proposed to name them yuccal and pyrophal ,an examination of the contents of each extract showed a different quantitative and qualitative result4 ,saponin was found in all parts of the plant4 ,many of the above facts have been collected from the investigations of others4 ,i have introduced these statements1 selected from a mass of material1 as evidences in favor of the view stated at the beginning of this paper4#da ,my own study has been directed toward the discovery of saponin in those plants where it was presumably to be found4 ,the practical use of this theory in plant analysis will lead the chemists at once to a search for those compounds which morphology shows are probably present4 ,i have discovered saponin in all parts of the ,yucca angustifolia1 in the ,y4 filimentosa and ,y4 gloriosa1 in several species of agav1 and in plants belonging to the leguminos family4 ,the list#db of plants in which saponin has been discovered is given in the note4 ,all these plants are contained in the middle plane of ,heckel's scheme4 ,no plants containing saponin have been found among apetalous groups4 ,no plants have been found containing saponin among the lower monocotyledons4 ,the plane of saponin passes from the liliace and allied groups to the rosales and higher dicotyledons4 ,saponin belongs to a class of substances called glucosides4 ,under the action of dilute acids1 it is split up into two substances1 glucose and sopogenin4 ,the chemical nature of this substance is not thoroughly understood4 ,the commercial#dc product is probably a mixture of several substances4 ,this complexity of chemical composition of saponin is admirably adapted for the nutrition of the plant1 and it is associated with the corresponding complexity of the morphological elements of the plant's organs4 ,according to ,m4 ,perrey1#dd it seems that the power of a plant to direct the distribution of its carbon1 hydrogen1 and oxygen to form complex glucosides is indicative of its higher functions and developments4 ,the solvent action of saponin on resins has been already discussed4 ,saponin likewise acts as a solvent upon barium#de sulphate and calcium#df oxalate1 and as a solvent of insoluble or slightly soluble salts would assist the plant in obtaining food1 otherwise difficult of access4 ,the botanical classifications based upon morphology are so frequently ,saponin is found in endogens and exogens4 ,the line dividing these two groups is not always clearly defined4 ,statements pointing to this are found in the works of ,haeckel1 ,bentham1 and others4 ,smilax belongs to a transition class1 partaking somewhat of the nature of endogen and of exogen4 ,it is worthy of note that this intermediate group of the sarsaparillas should contain saponin4 ,it is a significant fact that all the groups above named containing saponin belong to ,heckel's middle division4 ,it may be suggested that saponin is thus a constructive element in developing the plant from the multiplicity of floral elements to the cephalization of those organs4 ,it has been observed that the composite occurs where the materials for growth are supplied in greatest abundance1 and the more simple forms arise where sources of nutrition are remote4 ,we may gather from this fact that the simpler organs of plants low in the evolutionary scale contain simpler non-nitrogenous chemical compounds for their nutrition4 ,the presence of saponin seems essential to the life of the plant where it is found1 and it is an indispensable principle in the progression of certain lines of plants1 passing from their lower to their higher stages4 ,saponin is invariably absent where the floral elements are simple2 it is invariably absent where the floral elements are condensed to their greatest extent4 ,its position is plainly that of a factor in the great middle realm of vegetable life1 where the elements of the individual are striving to condense1 and thus increase their physiological action and the economy of parts4 ,it may be suggested as a line of research to study what are the conditions which control the synthesis and gradual formation of saponin in plants4 ,the simpler compounds of which this complex substance is built up1 if located as compounds of lower plants1 would indicate the lines of progression from the lower to the saponin groups4 ,in my paper#dg read in ,buffalo at the last meeting of the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 various suggestions were offered why chemical compounds should be used as a means of botanical classification4 ,the botanical classifications based upon morphology are so frequently unsatisfactory1 that efforts in some directions have been made to introduce other methods4#dh ,there has been comparatively little study of the chemical principles of plants from a purely botanical view4 ,it promises to become a new field of research4 ,the leguminos are conspicuous as furnishing us with important dyes1 e4g41 indigo1 logwood1 catechin4 ,the former is obtained principally from different species of the genus ,indigofera1 and logwood from the ,hmatoxylon and ,saraca indica4 ,the discovery#di of hmatoxylin in the ,saraca indica illustrates very well how this plant in its chemical1 as well as botanical1 character is related to the ,hmatoxylon campechianum2 also1 ,i found a substance like catechin in the ,saraca4 ,this compound is found in the acacias1 to which class ,saraca is related by its chemical position1 as well as botanically4 ,saponin is found in both of these plants1 as well as in many other plants of the leguminos4 ,the leguminos come under the middle plane or multiplicity of floral elements1 and the presence of saponin in these plants was to be expected4 ,from many of the facts above stated1 it may be inferred that the chemical compounds of plants do not occur at random4 ,each stage of growth and development has its own particular chemistry4 ,it is said that many of the constituents found in plants are the result of destructive metabolism1 and are of no further use in the plant's economy4 ,this subject is by no means settled1 and even should we be forced to accept that ground1 it is a significant fact that certain cells1 tissues1 or organs peculiar to a plant secrete or excrete chemical compounds peculiar to them1 which are to be found in one family1 or in species closely allied to it4 ,it is a fact that the chemical compounds are there1 no matter why or whence they came4 ,they will serve our purposes of study and classification4 ,the result of experiment shows that the presence of certain compounds is essential to the vigor and development of all plants and particular compounds to the development of certain plants4 ,plant chemistry and morphology are related4 ,future investigations will demonstrate this relation4 ,in general terms1 we may say that amides and carbohydrates are utilized in the manufacture of proteids4 ,organic acids cause a turgescence of cells4 ,glucosides may be a form of reserve food material4 ,resins and waxes may serve only as protection to the surfaces of plants2 coloring matters1 as screens to shut off or admit certain of the sun's rays2 but we are still far from penetrating the mystery of life4 ,a simple plant does what animals more highly endowed cannot do4 ,from simplest substances they manufacture the most complex4 ,we owe our existence to plants1 as they do theirs to the air and soil4 ,the elements carbon1 oxygen1 hydrogen1 and nitrogen pass through a cycle of changes from simple inorganic substances to the complex compounds of the living cell4 ,upon the decomposition of these bodies the elements return to their original state4 ,during this transition those properties of protoplasm which were mentioned at the beginning1 in turn1 follow their path4 ,from germination to death this course appears like a crescent1 the other half of the circle closed from view4 ,where chemistry begins and ends it is difficult to say4--,jour4 ,fr4 ,inst4 ,footnote #a3 ,a lecture delivered before the ,franklin ,institute1 ,january #bd1 #ahhg4 ,footnote #b3 ,studien uber das ,protoplasm1 #ahha4 ,footnote #c3 ,vines1 p4 #a4 ,rostafinski3 ,mem4 de la ,soc4 des ,sc4 ,nat4 de ,cherbourg1 #ahge4 ,strasburger3 ,zeitschr41 xii1 #ahgh4 ,footnote #d3 ,botany3 ,prantl and ,vines4 ,london1 #ahhf1 p4 #aaj4 ,footnote #e3 ,for the literature of starch1 see p4 #aae1 ,die ,pflanzenstoffe1 von ,hilger and ,husemann4 ,footnote #f3 ,kutzing3 ,arch4 ,pharm41 xli1 #ch4 ,kraus and ,millardet3 ,bul4 ,soc4 ,sciences ,nat41 ,strasbourg1 #ahfh1 #bb4 ,sorby3 ,jour4 ,lin4 ,soc41 xv1 #cd4 ,j4 ,reinke3 ,jahrb4 ,wissenscht4 ,botan41 x1 ,b4 #cii4 ,phipson3 ,phar4 ,jour4 ,trans41 clxii1 #dgi4 ,footnote #g3 ,prantl and ,vines1 p4 #aaa4 ,footnote #h3 ,l4 ,crie3 ,compt4 ,rend41 lxxxviii1 #gei and #ihe4 ,j4 ,de ,seynes1 #hbj1 #ajdc4 ,footnote #i3 ,page #bgi4 ,footnote #aj3 ,m4 ,nencki and ,f4 ,schaffer4 ,n4 ,sieher3 ,jour4 ,pract4 ,chem41 #bc1 #dab4 ,footnote #aa3 ,e4 ,klein3 ,quar4 ,jour4 ,micros4 ,science1 #ahge1 #cha4 ,o4 ,helm3 ,arch4 ,pharm41 #ahge1 #ai-bd4 ,g4 ,gugini3 ,gaz4 ,chem41 #g1 #d4 ,w4 ,thorner3 ,bul4 ,ber1 xi1 #ecc4 ,footnote #ab3 ,handbook of ,dyeing4 ,by ,w4 ,crookes1 ,london1 #ahgd4 p4 #cfg4 ,schunck3 ,ann4 ,chem4 ,pharm41 #da1 #aeg2 #ed1 #bfa2 #fa1 #gb2 #fa1 #fd2 #fa1 #gh4 ,rochelder and ,heldt1 ibid41 #dh1 #b2 #dh1 #i4 ,stenhouse1 ibid41 #fh1 #eg2 #fh1 #gb2 #fh1 #ig1 #ajd2 #abe1 #cec4 ,see also researches of ,strecker1 ,o4 ,hesse1 ,reymann1 ,liebermann1 ,lamparter1 ,knop1 and ,schnedermann4 ,footnote #ac3 ,stahlschmidt4 ,footnote #ad3 ,e4 ,treffner3 ,inaugur4 ,diss4 ,dorpat1 #ahhj4 ,footnote #ae3 ,w4 ,pfeffer3 ,flora1 #ahgd4 ,footnote #af3 ,die ,pflanzenstoffe1 p4 #cbc ,w4 ,lange3 ,bul4 ,ber41 xi1 #hbb4 ,footnote #ag3 ,ann4 ,chim4 ,phys41 #da1 #fb1 #bjh2 ,ann4 ,chim4 ,pharm41 #gg1 #bie4 ,footnote #ah3 ,fluckiger3 ,pharmakognosie4 ,kamp3 ,ann4 ,chim4 ,pharm41 #ajj1 #cjj4 ,footnote #ai3 ,revue ,scientifiqe1 #ac ,mars1 #ahhf4 ,footnote #bj3 ,dictionary of ,economic ,plants4 ,by ,j4 ,smith4 ,london1 #ahhb1 p4 #bid4 ,footnote #ba3 ,ibid41 p4 #afj4 ,pharmakognosie des ,pflanzenreichs1 ,wittstein1 p4 #gcf4 ,ann4 ,chem4 ,pharm41 #gg1 #bie4 ,footnote #bb3 ,rabenhorst3 ,repert4 ,pharm41 lx1 #bad4 ,moore3 ,chem4 ,centralbl41 #ahfb1 #ggi1 ,dana4 ,footnote #bc3 ,johansen3 ,arch4 ,pharm41 #c1 ix1 #baj4 ,ibid41 #c1 ix #ajc4 ,bente3 ,berl4 ,ber41 viii1 #dgf4 ,braconnot3 ,ann4 ,chim4 ,phys41 #b1 #dd1 #bif4 ,footnote #bd3 ,wittstein2 ,pharm4 des ,pflanzenreichs1 p4 #bdi4 ,footnote #be3 ,john2 ,ibid41 p4 #fea4 ,footnote #bf3 ,dulong4 ,oersted1 ,lucas1 ,pontet2 ,ibid41 p4 #fdj4 ,footnote #bg3 ,braconnot3 ,ann4 ,chim4 ,phys41 #b1 #c4 #bgg4 ,stenhouse3 ,ann4 ,chim4 ,phann41 #aih1 #aff4 ,footnote #bh3 #c ,pflanzenstoffe1 p4 #dab4 ,footnote #bi3 ,lecocq3 ,braconnot3 ,pharmacog4 ,pflan1 p4 #fic4 ,footnote #cj3 ,gorup-,besanez4 ,footnote #ca3 ,siebold and ,brodbury3 ,phar4 ,jour4 ,trans41 #c1 #eij1 #ahha1 #cbf4 ,footnote #cb3 ,wagner3 ,jour4 ,prakt4 ,chem41 #eh1 #ceb4 ,b4 ,peters1 v4 ,gohren3 ,jahresb4 ,agric41 viii1 #aad2 ix1 #aje2 v4 #eh4 ,ann4 ,jour4 ,pharm41 #d1 #di4 ,footnote #cc3 ,dragendorff3 ,pharm4 ,zeitschr4 ,russ41 xvii1 #fe-ig4 ,footnote #cd3 ,bonssingault3 ,ann4 ,chim4 ,phys41 #b1 #bg1 #cae4 ,erdmann3 ,jour4 ,pract4 ,chem41 #ga1 #aih4 ,footnote #ce3 ,die ,pflanzenstoffe1 p4 #ba4 ,footnote #cf3 ,ibid4 ,footnote #cg3 ,meehan3 ,proc4 ,acad4 ,nat4 ,sciences4 ,footnote #ch3 ,different forms of flowers on plants of the same species4 ,introduction4 ,footnote #ci3 ,meehan3 ,proc4 ,acad4 ,nat4 ,sciences4 ,footnote #dj3 ,h4,c4 ,de ,s4 ,abbott3 ,trans4 ,amer4 ,philos4 ,soc41 #ahhf4 ,footnote #da3 ,for further facts confirming this theory1 see ,comparative ,chemistry of ,higher and ,lower ,plants4 ,by ,h4,c4 ,de ,s4 ,abbott4 ,amer4 ,naturalist1 ,august1 #ahhg4 ,footnote #db3 ,different genera and species of the following3 ,ranunculace1 ,berberidace1 ,carophyllace1 ,polygalace1 ,bromeliace1 ,liliace1 ,smilace1 ,yuccas1 ,amaryllide1 ,leguminos1 ,primulace1 ,rosace1 ,sapindace1 ,sapotace ,footnote #dc3 ,kobert3 ,chem ,ztg4 ,footnote #dd3 ,compt4 ,rend41 xciv1 p4 #aabd4 ,footnote #de3 ,bul4 de la ,soc4 ,chim4 ,footnote #df3 ,yucca angus4 ,trans4 ,am4 ,philos4 ,soc41 ,dec41 #ahhe4 ,footnote #dg3 ,botanical ,gazette1 ,october1 #ahhf4 ,footnote #dh3 ,borodin3 ,pharm4 ,jour4 ,trans41 xvi1 #cfi4 ,pax4 ,firemy3 ,ann4 ,sci4 ,nat41 xiii4 ,footnote #di3 ,h4,c4 ,de ,s4 ,abbott1 ,proc4 ,acad4 ,nat4 ,sciences1 ,nov4 #cj1 #ahhf4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,new ,,method ,,for ,,the ,,quantitative ,,determination ,,of ,,starch4 ,a4,v4 ,,asboth4 ,the author maintains that unsatisfactory results are obtained in determinations of starch when the method employed is based upon the inversion of sugar1 formed as an intermediate product1 since maltose1 dextrose1 and levulose are partly decomposed by boiling with dilute acids4 ,he proposes to replace the methods hitherto employed by one which depends upon the formation of a barium salt of starch1 to which he assigns the formula ,ba,o4,c#bd;,h#dj,o#bj4 ,this salt is sparingly soluble in water and insoluble in dilute alcohol4 ,in making a determination a weighed quantity of starch is saccharified with water1 then mixed with an excess of normal baryta solution1 dilute alcohol added to make up to a certain volume1 and1 after the precipitate has settled1 the excess of baryta is titrated back with acid4 ,illustration3 ,titrating apparatus ,the author also describes the apparatus he employs for storing and titrating with baryta solution4 ,the latter is contained in the bottle1 ,a1 and the drying tube attached to the neck of the same is filled with quicklime4 ,the burette1 ,b1 which is in direct connection with the bottle1 may be filled with the solution by opening the stop cock1 and the small drying tube1 n1 is filled with dry ,,koh1 thus preventing the entrance of any ,,co#b4 ,numbers are appended which seem to testify to the excellence of the method employed4 ,the author finally gives a detailed account of the entire analysis of various cereals4--,a4,r4 in ,jour4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,indus4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,synthesis ,,of ,,the ,,alkaloids4 ,in the note on the constitution of alkaloids in a recent issue1 we referred more especially to what we may term the less highly organized bases4 ,most of our knowledge1 as we now have it1 regarding such alkaloids as muscarine and choline has been acquired during the past dozen years4 ,this is not exactly the case with the higher groups of alkaloids--the derivatives of pyridine and quinoline4 ,it so happens that the oldest alkaloids are in these groups4 ,they have1 almost necessarily1 been subjected to a longer period of attack1 but the extreme complexity of their molecules1 and the infinite number of differing parts or substances into which these molecules split up when attacked1 are the main cause of the small progress which has been made in this department4 ,all1 however1 yield one or more bodies or bases in common1 while each has its distinctive and peculiar decomposition product4 ,for example1 cinchonine and quinine both afford the basic quinoline under certain conditions1 but on oxidation of cinchonine1 an acid--cinchoninic acid 7,c#aj;,h#g,,no#b7--;is the principal body formed1 while in the case of quinine1 quininic acid 7,c#aj;,h#i,,no#c7 is the principal product4 ,the acquirement through experiment of such knowledge as that is1 however1 so much gained4 ,we find1 indeed1 that obstacles are gradually being cleared away1 and the actual synthetic formation of such alkaloids as piperidine and coniine is a proof that the chemist is on the right track in studying the decomposition products1 and building up from them1 theoretically1 bodies of similar constitution4 ,it is noteworthy that the synthesis of the alkaloids has led to some of the most brilliant discoveries of the present day1 especially in the discovery of dye stuffs4 ,many of our quinine substitutes1 such as thalline1 for example1 are the result of endeavors to make quinine artificially4 ,if there is romance in chemistry at all1 it is to be found certainly in this branch of it1 which is generally considered the most uninteresting and unfathomable4 ,we may take piperidine and coniine as examples of the methods followed in alkaloidal synthesis2 these are pyridine bases4 ,pyridine has the formula ,c#e;,h#e,n1 that is1 it is benzene with ,,ch replaced by ,n4 ,the relationship between these and piperidine is seen in the following formul3 ,,ch ,n ,,nh _/ _/ _/ ,,hc ,,ch ,,hc ,,ch ,h#b;,c ,,ch#b ,,hc ,,ch ,,hc ,,ch ,h#b;,c ,,ch#b _/ _/ _/ ,,ch ,,ch ,,ch#b 7,benzene17 7,pyridine17 7,piperidine17 7,c#f;,h#f7 7,c#e;,h#e,n7 7,c#e;,h#aa,n7 ,if we introduce six hydrogen atoms into pyridine1 we convert it into piperidine4 ,ladenburg succeeded in so hydrogenizing pyridine by acting upon an alcoholic solution with sodium1 and from the base which was formed he obtained a platinochloride which agreed with the similar double salt of piperidine4 ,he has also prepared it from trimethyline cyanide by the action of sodium4 ,pentamethylinediamine is the principal intermediary product1 and this gives piperidine when distilled with superheated steam4 ,he has proved that the alkaloid so obtained is identical with that prepared from piperine4 ,another curious point which ,ladenburg has lately proved is that cadaverine 7one of the products of flesh decomposition7 is identical with pentamethylinediamine1 and that its imine is the same as piperidine4 ,the synthesis of coniine by ,ladenburg is one of the most notable achievements of modern chemistry4 ,he at first supposed that this alkaloid was piperidine in which two hydrogen atoms were replaced by the isopropyl radical 7,c#c;,h#g71 its formula being taken as ,c#e;,h#i7;,c#c;,h#g7,,nh4 ,but he has since changed his view1 as will be seen from what follows4 ,in its synthesis #a1jjj grammes of picoline were first converted into alphapicoline1 #chj grammes being obtained4 ,this was heated with paraldehyde1 whereby it was converted into allylpyridine 7#dh grammes71 and this by reduction with sodium yielded alpha-propylpyridine1 a body in almost every respect identical with coniine4 ,the more important difference was its optical inactivity1 but he succeeded in splitting up a solution of the acid tartrate of the base by means of ,penicillium glaucum4 ,crystals separated which had a dextro-rotatory power of a,d #ca #hg' as compared with the a,d #ac #gi' of natural coniine4 ,this brief account conveys but a faint idea of the difficulties which were encountered in these researches4 ,optical methods of examination have proved of great value1 and are destined to play an important part in such work4 ,among the most complex alkaloids are those of the quinine group4 ,as yet chemists have got no further with these than the oxidation products2 but the study has afforded us several new antipyretics and many interesting facts4 ,it has been found1 for example1 that artificial quinine-like bodies1 which fluoresce and give the green color with chlorine water and ammonia1 have antipyretic properties like quinine1 but their secondary effects are so pernicious as to prevent their use4 ,if1 however1 such bodies are hydrogenized or methylated they lose their fluorescing property1 do not give the green color1 and their secondary effects are removed4 ,knowledge of these facts led to the discovery of thalline4 ,it is prepared from paraquinanisol1 one of the objectionable bodies1 by reduction with tin and hydrochloric acid4 ,the following formul show the constitutional relationship of these compounds3 ,,ch ,,ch ,,ch ,,ch#b _/ _/ _/ _/ 7,,ch#c,o7,c ,c ,,ch 7,,ch#c,o7,c ,c ,,ch#b ,,hc ,c ,,ch ,,hc ,c ,,ch#b _/ _/ _/ _/ ,,ch ,n ,,ch ,,nh ,paraquinanisol ,thalline ,c#i;,h#f4;,,ch#c4,,no4 ,c#i;,h#aj4;,,ch#c4,,no4 ,it is evident from the difficulties which have been encountered in this department of chemistry1 and more especially from the costly nature of the work1 that it will be many years before it will influence the manufacture of alkaloids from the drugs which yield them4 ,ladenburg has synthetized coniine1 but he has not yet ventured to assert that his product will replace the natural alkaloid4--,chem4 and ,druggist4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,southern ,california ,advocate reports another magnificent donation of lands to the ,university of ,southern ,california by ,mr4 ,d4 ,freeman1 the owner of the ,centinella ranch near ,los ,angeles--six hundred thousand dollars in all given to found a school of applied sciences1 #ajj1jjj for building and apparatus and #ejj1jjj for endowment4 ,the buildings will be in the vicinity of ,inglewood1 the new and beautiful town on the ,ballona branch of the ,california ,central4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,group ,,of ,,hampshire ,,downs4 ,illustration ,the ,hampshire ,down breed of sheep originated about #hj years ago by a cross of ,south ,downs on the horned1 white-faced sheep which had for ages been native of the open1 untilled1 hilly stretch of land known as the ,hampshire ,downs1 in the county of that name bordering on the ,english ,channel1 in the ,south of ,england4 ,from time immemorial the ,south ,downs had dark brown or black legs1 matured early1 produced the best of mutton and a fine quality of medium wool4 ,the original ,hampshire was larger1 coarser1 but hardier1 slower to mature1 with inferior flesh1 and a longer but coarser wool4 ,the ,south ,down has always been remarkable for its power of transmitting its special characteristics to its progeny by other kinds of sheep1 and hence it soon impressed its own characteristics on its progeny by the ,hampshire4 ,the horns of the original breed have disappeared2 the face and legs have become dark1 the frame has become more compact1 the bones smaller1 the back broader and straighter1 the legs shorter1 and the flesh and wool of better quality1 while the superior hardiness and greater size1 as well as the large head and ,roman nose of the old breed1 still remain4 ,the ,hampshires of to-day mature early and fatten readily4 ,they clip from six to seven pounds of wool1 suitable for combing1 which is longer than ,south ,down wool1 but less fine4 ,the mutton has a desirable proportion of fat and lean1 and is juicy and fine flavored4 ,the lambs are of large size and are usually dropped early and fed for market4 ,indeed1 the ,hampshire may be considered a larger and trifle coarser and hardier ,south ,down4 ,the breed is occasionally crossed with ,cotswolds1 when it produces a wool more valuable for worsted manufacturers than the pure ,cotswold4 ,indeed1 there is little doubt that in addition to ,south ,down1 the ,hampshire has a dash of ,cotswold blood in its composition4 ,considerable importations of the breed have been made into this country1 but it has not become so popular as the ,south ,down and some other ,english breeds4 ,the excellent group shown is owned by ,mr4 ,james ,wood1 of ,mount ,kisco1 ,new ,york4--,rural ,new-,yorker4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,yale ,,college ,,measurement ,,of ,,the ,,pleiades4#a ,footnote #a3 ,determination of the ,relative ,positions of the ,principal ,stars in the ,group of the ,pleiades4 ,by ,william ,l4 ,elkin4 ,transactions of the ,astronomical ,observatory of ,yale ,university1 ,vol4 ,i41 ,part ,i4 7,new ,haven3 #ahhg47 ,the ,messrs4 ,repsold have established1 and for the present seem likely to maintain1 a practical monopoly in the construction of heliometers4 ,that completed by them for the observatory of ,yale ,college in #ahhb leaves so little to be desired as to show excellence not to be the exclusive result of competition4 ,in mere size it does not indeed take the highest rank4 ,its aperture is of only six inches1 while that of the ,oxford heliometer is of seven and a half2 but the perfection of the arrangements adapting it to the twofold function of equatorial and micrometer stamps it as a model not easy to be surpassed4 ,steel has been almost exclusively used in the mounting4 ,recommended as the material for the objective cell by its quality of changing volume under variations of temperature nearly paripassu with glass1 its employment was extended to the telescope tube and other portions of the mechanism4 ,the optical part of the work was done by ,merz1 ,alvan ,clark having declined the responsibility of dividing the object lens4 ,its segments are separable to the extent of #b1 and through the contrivance of cylindrical slides 7originally suggested by ,bessel7 perfect definition is preserved in all positions1 giving a range of accurate measurement just six times that with a filar micrometer4 7,gill1 ,encyc4 ,brit41 vol4 xvi41 p4 #bec2 ,fischer1 ,sirius1 vol4 xvii41 p4 #ade47 ,this beautiful engine of research was in #ahhc placed in the already practiced and skillful hands of ,dr4 ,elkin4 ,he lost no time in fixing upon a task suited both to test the powers of the new instrument and to employ them to the highest advantage4 ,the stars of the ,pleiades have1 from the earliest times1 attracted the special notice of observers1 whether savage or civilized4 ,hence1 on the one hand1 their prominence in stellar mythology all over the world2 on the other1 their unique interest for purposes of scientific study and comparison4 ,they constitute an undoubted cluster2 that is to say1 they are really1 and not simply in appearance1 grouped together in space1 so as to fall under the sway of prevailing mutual influences4 ,and since there is1 perhaps1 no other stellar cluster so near the sun1 the chance of perceptible displacements among them in a moderate lapse of time is greater than in any other similar case4 ,authentic data regarding them1 besides1 have now been so long garnered that their fruit may confidently be expected at least to begin to ripen4 ,dr4 ,elkin determined1 accordingly1 to repeat the survey of the ,pleiades executed by ,bessel at ,konigsberg during about twelve years previous to #ahda4 ,wolf and ,pritchard had1 it is true1 been beforehand with him2 but the wide scattering of the grouped stars puts the filar micrometer at a disadvantage in measuring them1 producing minute errors which the arduous conditions of the problem render of serious account4 ,the heliometer1 there can be no doubt1 is the special instrument for the purpose1 and it was1 moreover1 that employed by ,bessel2 so that the ,konigsberg and ,yale results are comparable in a stricter sense than any others so far obtained4 ,one of ,bessel's fifty-three stars was omitted by ,dr4 ,elkin as too faint for accurate determination4 ,he added1 however1 seventeen stars from the ,bonn ,durchmusterung1 so that his list comprised sixty-nine1 down to #i4b magnitude4 ,two independent triangulations were executed by him in #ahhd-he4 ,for the first1 four stars situated near the outskirts of the group1 and marking the angles of quadrilateral by which it was inclosed1 were chosen as reference points4 ,the second rested upon measures of distance and position angle outward from ,alcyone 7eta ,tauri74 ,thus1 two wholly unconnected sets of positions were secured1 the close accordance of which testified strongly to the high quality of the entire work4 ,they were combined1 with nearly equal weights1 in the final results4 ,a fresh reduction of the ,konigsberg observations1 necessitated by recent improvements in the value of some of the corrections employed1 was the preliminary to their comparison with those made1 after an interval of forty-five years1 at ,yale ,college4 ,the conclusions thus laboriously arrived at are not devoid of significance1 and appear perfectly secure1 so far as they go4 ,it has been known for some time that the stars of the ,pleiades possess a small identical proper motion4 ,its direction1 as ascertained by ,newcomb in #ahgh1 is about south-southeast2 its amount is somewhat less than six seconds of arc in a century4 ,the double star #fa ,cygni1 in fact1 is displaced very nearly as much in one year as ,alcyone with its train in one hundred4 ,nor is there much probability that this slow secular shifting is other than apparent2 since it pretty accurately reverses the course of the sun's translation through space1 it may be presumed that the backward current of movement in which the ,pleiades seem to float is purely an effect of our own onward traveling4 ,now the curious fact emerges from ,dr4 ,elkin's inquiries that six of ,bessel's stars are exempt from the general drift of the group4 ,they are being progressively left behind4 ,the inference is obvious that they do not in reality belong to1 but are merely accidentally projected upon1 it2 or1 rather1 that it is projected upon them2 for their apparent immobility 7which1 in two of the six1 may be called absolute7 shows them with tolerable certainty to be indefinitely more remote--so remote that the path1 moderately estimated at #ba1jjj1jjj1jjj miles in length1 traversed by the solar system during the forty-five years elapsed since the ,konigsberg measures dwindles into visual insensibility when beheld from them4 ,the brightest of these six far-off stars is just above the eighth 7#g4i7 magnitude2 the others range from #h4e down to below the ninth4 ,a chart of the relative displacements indicated for ,bessel's stars by the differences in their inter-mutual positions as determined at ,konigsberg and ,yale accompanies the paper before us4 ,divergences exceeding #j4dj 7taken as the limit of probable error7 are regarded as due to real motion2 and this is the case with twenty-six stars besides the half dozen already mentioned as destined deserters from the group4 ,with these last may be associated two stars surmised1 for an opposite reason1 to stand aloof from it4 ,instead of tarrying behind1 they are hurrying on in front4 ,an excess of the proper movement of their companions belongs to them2 and since that movement is presumably an effect of secular parallax1 we are justified in inferring their possession of an extra share of it to signify their greater proximity to the sun4 ,hence1 of all the stars in the ,pleiades these are the most likely to have a measurable annual parallax4 ,one is a star a little above the seventh magnitude1 distinguished as s ,pleiadum2 the other1 of about the eighth1 is numbered #be in ,bessel's list4 ,dr4 ,elkin has not omitted to remark that the conjecture of their disconnection from the cluster is confirmed by the circumstance that its typical spectrum 7as shown on ,prof4 ,pickering's plates7 is varied in s by the marked character of the ,k line4 ,the spectrum of its fellow traveler 7,no4 #be7 is still undetermined4 ,it is improbable1 however1 that even these nearer stars are practicable subjects for the direct determination of annual parallax4 ,by indirect means1 however1 we can obtain some idea of their distance4 ,all that we want to know for the purpose is the rate of the sun's motion2 its direction we may consider as given with approximate accuracy by ,airy's investigation4 ,now1 spectroscopic measurements of stellar movements of approach and recession will eventually afford ample materials from which to deduce the solar1 velocity2 though they are as yet not accurate or numerous enough to found any definitive conclusion upon4 ,nevertheless1 ,m4 ,homann's preliminary result of fifteen miles a second as the speed with which our system travels in its vast orbit inspires confidence both from the trustworthiness of the determinations 7,mr4 ,seabroke's7 serving as its basis and from its intrinsic probability4 ,accepting it provisionally1 we find the parallax of ,alcyone about #j4jb'1 implying a distance of #ied1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj miles and a light journey of #afc years4 ,it is assumed that the whole of its proper motion of #b4fa' in forty-five years is the visual projection of oar own movement toward a point in ,r4,a4 #bfa1 ,decl4 #be4 ,thus the parallax of the two stars which we suspect to lie between us and the stars forming the genuine group of the ,pleiades1 at perhaps two-thirds of their distance1 can hardly exceed #j4jc'4 ,this is just half that found by ,dr4 ,gill for xi ,toucani1 which may be regarded as1 up to this1 the smallest annual displacement at all satisfactorily determined4 ,and the error of the present estimate is more likely to be on the side of excess than of defect4 ,that is1 the stars in question can hardly be much nearer to us than is implied by an annual parallax of #j4jc1 and they may be considerably more remote4 ,dr4 ,elkin concludes1 from the minuteness of the detected changes of position among the ,pleiades1 that the hopes of obtaining any clew to the internal mechanism of this cluster seem not likely to be realized in an immediate future2 remarking further3 ,the bright stars in especial seem to form an almost rigid system1 as for only one is there really much evidence of motion1 and in this case the total amount is barely #a per century4 ,this one mobile member of the naked eye group is ,electra2 and it is noticeable that the apparent direction of its displacement favors the hypothesis of leisurely orbital circulation round the leading star4 ,the larger movements1 however1 ascribed to some of the fainter associated stars are far from harmonizing with this preconceived notion of what they ought to be4 ,on the contrary1 so far as they are known at present1 they force upon our minds the idea that the cluster may be undergoing some slow process of disintegration4 ,m4 ,wolf's impression of incipient centrifugal tendencies among its components certainly derives some confirmation from ,dr4 ,elkin's chart4 ,divergent movements are the most strongly marked2 and the region round ,alcyone suggests1 at the first glance1 rather a very confused area of radiation for a flight of meteors than the central seat of attraction of a revolving throng of suns4 ,there are many signs1 however1 that adjacent stars in the cluster do not pursue independent courses4 ,community of drift is visible in many distinct sets2 while there is as yet no perceptible evidence1 from orbital motion1 of association into subordinate systems4 ,the three eighth-magnitude stars1 for instance1 arranged in a small isosceles triangle near ,alcyone1 do not1 as might have been expected a priori1 constitute a real ternary group4 ,they are all apparently traveling directly away from the large star close by them1 in straight lines which may1 of course1 be the projections of closed curves2 but their rates of travel are so different as to involve certain progressive separation4 ,obviously1 the order and method of such movements as are just beginning to develop to our apprehension among the ,pleiades will not prove easy to divine4--,a4,m4 ,clerke1 in ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,deep ,,sea ,,dredgings3 ,,examination ,,of ,,sea ,,bottoms4 ,by ,,thomas ,t4,p4 ,,bruce ,,warren4 ,i believe ,prof4 ,ehrenberg was one of the first to examine1 microscopically1 deep sea dredgings1 some of which were undertaken for the ,atlantic cable expedition1 #aheg4 ,i propose to deal with the bottoms brought up from tropical waters of the ,atlantic1 a few years ago1 during certain telegraph cable operations4 ,these soundings were made for survey purposes1 and not for any biological or chemical investigations4 ,still ,i think that this imperfect record may be a useful contribution to chemical science1 bearing especially on marine operations4 ,although there is little to be added to the chemistry of this subject1 still ,i think there are few chemists who could successfully make an analysis of a deep sea bottom without some sacrifice of time and patience1 to say nothing of the risk of wasting a valuable specimen4 ,the muds1 clays1 oozes1 etc41 from deep water are so very fine that they pass readily through the best kinds of filters1 and it is necessary to wash out all traces of sea water as a preliminary4 ,the specimen must be repeatedly washed by decantation1 until the washings are perfectly free from chlorine1 when the whole may be thrown onto a filter merely to drain4 ,the turbid water which passes through is allowed to stand so that the suspended matter may settle1 and after decanting the clear supernatant water1 the residuum is again thrown on to the filter4 ,the washing and getting ready for the drying oven will1 in some cases1 require days to carry out1 if we wish to avoid losing anything4 ,so far the proceeding is exactly the same1 except draining on a filter1 which would be adopted for preparing for the microscope4 ,on no account should the opportunity be missed of mounting several slides permanently for microscopic examination4 ,drawings or photographic enlargements will render us independent of direct microscopic appeal1 which is not at all times convenient4 ,the substance1 if drained and allowed to dry on the filter1 will adhere most tenaciously to it1 so that it is better to complete the drying in a porcelain or platinum capsule1 either by swilling the filter with a jet of water or by carefully removing with a spatula4 ,the most strenuous care must be used not to contaminate the specimen with loose fibers from the filter4 ,the perfectly dried matter is best treated in exactly the same way as a residuum in water analysis4 ,it is a common thing to ignite the residuum1 and to put the loss down1 if any1 to water4 ,this ought not to satisfy an accurate observer1 since organic matter1 carbonates--especially in presence of silica--will easily add to the loss4 ,the best plan is to heat a small portion very cautiously1 and note if any smell or alteration in color1 due to carbon1 etc41 is perceptible1 and to proceed accordingly4 ,i have seen some very satisfactory analyses made on board ship by a skillful use of the blowpipe1 where liquid reagents would be very inconvenient to employ4 ,it will be necessary to say a few words as to the way in which soundings are made at sea4 ,when the bottom consists of sand1 mud1 or other loose matter1 it is easy enough to bring specimens to the surface1 and1 of course1 we know in such a case that the bottom has been reached1 but1 in the event of the bottom being hard and rocky1 it is not easy to say that our sounding has been successful3 and here we meet with a difficulty which unfortunately is most unsatisfactorily provided for4 ,the lead is cast1 as the saying goes1 armed for this emergency4 ,an iron sinker is made with a hollow recess in the bottom2 this is filled in with tallow1 and on striking the bottom any loose matter may adhere by being pressed into the tallow4 ,if the bottom is rocky or hard we get simply an imprint in the arming1 and when such a result is obtained the usual construction is that the bottom is rocky or hard4 ,now1 this seems to me a point on which chemistry may give some very valuable help1 for ,i am convinced that no sounding should be accepted unless evidence of the bottom itself is obtained4 ,a few considerations will show that when we are working in very deep water1 where there is a difficulty of knowing for certain that we have an up and down sounding1 and the hardening of the arming by the cold and pressure1 unless we bring up something we cannot be sure that we have touched the bottom2 leaving the doubt on this point on one side1 unless we use a very heavy sinker1 so as to get an indication of the released strain when it touches the bottom1 we encounter another complication4 ,sir ,william ,thomson's sounding wire has added the element of reliability to our soundings in this latter case4 ,the note given out by the wire when the bottom is reached is perceptibly different when under strain1 even if the dynamometer should give an unreliable indication4 ,it has been found that when a bottom has been recovered by the arming with tallow1 the adherent grease seriously detracts from the value of the specimen for scientific purposes4 ,washing with perfectly pure bisulphide carbon will save the sounding1 but of course any living organism is destroyed4 ,as we have plenty of contrivances for bringing up loose bottoms without arming1 we have nothing to fear on this score4 ,there is a great difficulty to explain the vast accumulations of clay deposits on the ocean bed1 and it has been suggested that some minute organisms may produce these deposits1 as others give us carbonate of lime4 ,is there not a very great probability of some of the apparently insoluble rocky formations being answerable for these accumulations8 ,we must not forget the peculiar changes which such an apparently stable substance as feldspar undergoes when disintegrated and exposed to the chemical action of sea water4 ,as these deposits contain both sodium and potassium1 our chemical operations must provide for the analytical results2 in other respects the analysis can be proceeded with according to the operator's analytical knowledge4 ,few operators are aware of the usefulness of an ordinary deep sea grapnel rope1 as used for cable work1 in recovering specimens of the fauna of any locality4 ,the grapnel rope should be left down for a few months1 so that the denizens of the deep may get used to it and make it their place of residence and attachment4 ,the stench caused by their decomposition1 unless the rope be kept in water1 when hauled up will be in a few days intolerable1 even to an individual with a sea-going stomach4 ,i tried several chemical solutions for preserving specimens thus recovered1 but nothing answered so well as the water itself drawn up from the same depth as the rope was recovered from4--,chem4 ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,,architects ,,and ,,builders ,,edition #b4ej a ,year4 ,single ,copies1 #be cts4 ,this is a ,special ,edition of the ,,scientific ,,american1 issued monthly--on the first day of the month4 ,each number contains about forty large quarto pages1 equal to about two hundred ordinary book pages1 forming1 practically1 a large and splendid ,,magazine ,,of ,,architecture1 richly adorned with elegant plates in colors and with fine engravings1 illustrating the most interesting examples of modern ,architectural ,construction and allied subjects4 ,a special feature is the presentation in each number of a variety of the latest and best plans for private residences1 city and country1 including those of very moderate cost as well as the more expensive4 ,drawings in perspective and in color are given1 together with full ,plans1 ,specifications1 ,costs1 ,bills of ,estimate1 and ,sheets of ,details4 ,no other building paper contains so many plans1 details1 and specifications regularly presented as the ,,scientific ,,american4 ,hundreds of dwellings have already been erected on the various plans we have issued during the past year1 and many others are in process of construction4 ,architects1 ,builders1 and ,owners will find this work valuable in furnishing fresh and useful suggestions4 ,all who contemplate building or improving homes1 or erecting structures of any kind1 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