,,cratylus ,by ,plato ,translat$ by ,b5jam9 ,j[ett ,cont5ts ,,introduction ,,cratylus ,,introduction ,! ,cratylus has always be5 a s\rce ( p]plexity to ! /ud5t ( ,plato4 ,:ile 9 fancy & hum\r1 & p]fection ( /yle & metaphysical orig9ality1 ?is dialogue may be rank$ ) ! be/ ( ! ,platonic writ+s1 !re has be5 an unc]ta9ty ab\t ! motive ( ! piece1 :i* int]pret]s h hi!rto n succe$$ 9 dispell+4 ,we ne$ n suppose t ,plato us$ words 9 ord] to conceal 8 ?\ghts1 or t he w\ld h be5 un9telligible to an educat$ contempor>y4 ,9 ! ,pha$rus & ,eu?ydemus we also f9d a difficulty 9 det]m9+ ! precise aim ( ! au?or4 ,plato wrote satires 9 ! =m ( dialogues1 & 8 mean+1 l t ( o!r satirical writ]s1 has (t5 slept 9 ! e> ( po/]ity4 ,two causes may be assign$ = ?is obscurity3 #a/1 ! subtlety & allusiv5ess ( ?is species ( composition2 #bnd1 ! difficulty ( reproduc+ a /ate ( life & lit]ature :i* has pass$ away4 ,a satire is unmean+ unless we c place ourselves back among ! p]sons & ?\ghts ( ! age 9 :i* x 0 writt54 ,_h ! treatise ( ,anti/h5es ^u words1 or ! speculations ( ,cratylus1 or "s o!r ,h]acleitean ( ! f\r? c5tury ,b4,c41 on ! nature ( language be5 pres]v$ to u2 or if we _h liv$ at ! "t1 & be5 8ri* en\gh to att5d ! fifty-dra*ma c\rse ( ,prodicus10 we %\ld h und]/ood ,plato bett]1 & _m po9ts :i* are n[ attribut$ to ! extravagance ( ,socrates' hum\r w\ld h be5 f\nd1 l ! allusions ( ,ari/ophanes 9 ! ,cl\ds1 to h gone home to ! sophi/s & gramm>ians ( ! day4 ,= ! age 0 v busy ) philological speculation2 & _m que/ions 7 beg9n+ to be ask$ ab\t language :i* 7 p>allel to o!r que/ions ab\t ju/ice1 virtue1 k1 & 7 illu/rat$ 9 a simil> mann] by ! analogy ( ! arts4 ,0 !re a correctness 9 words1 & 7 !y giv5 by nature or conv5tion8 ,9 ! presocratic philosophy mank9d _h be5 /riv+ to atta9 an expression ( _! ideas1 & n[ !y 7 beg9n+ to ask !mselves :e!r ! expression might n be di/+ui%$ f ! idea8 ,!y 7 also seek+ to di/+ui% ! p>ts ( spee* & to enquire into ! relation ( subject & pr$icate4 ,gramm> & logic 7 mov+ ab\t some:]e 9 ! dep?s ( ! human s\l1 b !y 7 n yet awak5$ into consci\sness & _h n f\nd names = !mselves1 or t]ms by :i* !y might be express$4 ,( ^! beg9n+s ( ! /udy ( language we "k little1 & !re necess>ily arises an obscurity :5 ! surr\nd+s ( su* a "w z ! ,cratylus are tak5 away4 ,moreov]1 9 ?is1 z 9 mo/ ( ! dialogues ( ,plato1 all[ance has to be made = ! "* ( ,socrates4 ,= ! !ory ( language c only be prop\nd$ by him 9 a mann] :i* is consi/5t ) 8 own pr(ession ( ignorance4 ,h5ce 8 ridicule ( ! new s*ool ( etymology is int]sp]s$ ) _m decl>ations 8t he kn[s no?+10 8t he has le>n$ f ,eu?yphro10 & ! l4 ,ev5 ! true/ ?+s :i* he says are depreciat$ by himself4 ,he pr(esses to be guess+1 b ! guesses ( ,plato are bett] ?an all ! o!r !ories ( ! anci5ts respect+ language put toge!r4 ,! dialogue h>dly d]ives any light f ,plato's o!r writ+s1 & /ill less f ,s*olia/s & ,neoplatoni/ writ]s4 ,socrates mu/ be int]pret$ f himself1 & on fir/ read+ we c]ta9ly h a difficulty 9 und]/&+ 8 drift1 or 8 relation to ! two o!r int]locutors 9 ! dialogue4 ,does he agree ) ,cratylus or ) ,h]mog5es1 & is he s]i\s 9 ^? fanciful etymologies1 ext5d+ ov] m ?an half ! dialogue1 :i* he seems s greatly to reli%8 ,or is he s]i\s 9 "p only2 & c we sep>ate 8 je/ f 8 e>ne/8--,sunt bona1 sunt qua$um m$iocria1 sunt mala plura4 ,mo/ ( !m are ridicul\sly bad1 & yet among !m are f\nd1 z if by accid5t1 pr9ciples ( philology :i* are unsurpass$ 9 any anci5t writ]1 & ev5 9 advance ( any philolog] ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,may we suppose t ,plato1 l ,lucian1 has be5 amus+ 8 fancy by writ+ a com$y 9 ! =m ( a prose dialogue8 ,& :at is ! f9al result ( ! enquiry8 ,is ,plato an uphold] ( ! conv5tional !ory ( language1 :i* he ackn[l$ges to be imp]fect8 or does he mean to imply t a p]fect language c only be bas$ on 8 own !ory ( ideas8 ,or if ?is latt] explanation is refut$ by 8 sil5ce1 !n 9 :at relation does 8 acc\nt ( language /& to ! re/ ( 8 philosophy8 ,or may we be s bold z to d5y ! connexion betwe5 !m8 7,= ! allusion to ! ideas at ! end ( ! dialogue is m]ely int5d$ to %[ t we mu/ n put words 9 ! place ( ?+s or realities1 :i* is a !sis /rongly insi/$ on by ,plato 9 _m o!r passages7444,^! are "s ( ! fir/ ?\ghts :i* arise 9 ! m9d ( ! read] ( ! ,cratylus4 ,& ! consid]ation ( !m may =m a conv5i5t introduction to ! g5]al subject ( ! dialogue4 ,we mu/ n expect all ! p>ts ( a dialogue ( ,plato to t5d equally to "s cle>ly-def9$ end4 ,8 idea ( lit]>y art is n ! absolute proportion ( ! :ole1 su* z we appe> to f9d 9 a ,greek temple or /atue2 nor %\ld 8 works be tri$ by any su* /&>d4 ,!y h (t5 ! beauty ( poetry1 b !y h also ! fre$om ( conv]sation4 8,words are m pla/ic ?an wax0 7,rep471 & may be m\ld$ into any =m4 ,he w&]s on f "o topic to ano!r1 c>eless ( ! unity ( 8 "w1 n fe>+ any 8judge1 or spectator1 :o may recall him to ! po9t0 7,!at471 8:i!r ! argum5t bl[s we foll[0 7,rep474 ,to h det]m9$ be=eh&1 z 9 a mod]n didactic treatise1 ! nature & limits ( ! subject1 w\ld h be5 fatal to ! _s ( enquiry or discov]y1 :i* is ! s\l ( ! dialogue444,^! rem>ks are applicable to ne>ly all ! works ( ,plato1 b to ! ,cratylus & ,pha$rus m ?an any o!rs4 ,see ,pha$rus1 ,introduction4 ,!re is ano!r aspect "u :i* "s ( ! dialogues ( ,plato may be m truly view$3--!y are dramatic sket*es ( an argum5t4 ,we h f\nd t 9 ! ,lysis1 ,*>mides1 ,la*es1 ,protagoras1 ,m5o1 we arriv$ at no conclusion--! diff]5t sides ( ! argum5t 7 p]sonifi$ 9 ! diff]5t speak]s2 b ! victory 0 n di/9ctly attribut$ to any ( !m1 nor ! tru? :olly ! prop]ty ( any4 ,& 9 ! ,cratylus we h no reason to assume t ,socrates is ei!r :olly "r or :olly wrong1 or t ,plato1 ?\gh he evid5tly incl9es to him1 _h any o!r aim ?an t ( p]sonify+1 9 ! *>act]s ( ,h]mog5es1 ,socrates1 & ,cratylus1 ! ?ree !ories ( language :i* are respectively ma9ta9$ by !m4 ,! two subord9ate p]sons ( ! dialogue1 ,h]mog5es & ,cratylus1 are at ! opposite poles ( ! argum5t4 ,b aft] a :ile ! disciple ( ! ,sophi/ & ! foll[] ( ,h]acleitus are f\nd to be n s f> remov$ f "o ano!r z at fir/ sight appe>$2 & bo? %[ an incl9ation to accept ! ?ird view :i* ,socrates int]poses betwe5 !m4 ,fir/1 ,h]mog5es1 ! poor bro!r ( ! ri* ,callias1 exp\nds ! doctr9e t names are conv5tional2 l ! names ( slaves1 !y may be giv5 & alt]$ at pleasure4 ,?is is "o ( ^? pr9ciples :i*1 :e!r appli$ to society or language1 expla9s ev]y?+ & no?+4 ,= 9 all ?+s !re is an elem5t ( conv5tion2 b ! admission ( ?is does n help u to und]/& ! rational gr\nd or basis 9 human nature on :i* ! conv5tion proce$s4 ,socrates fir/ ( all intimates to ,h]mog5es t 8 view ( language is only a "p ( a sophi/ical :ole1 & ultimately t5ds to aboli% ! di/9ction betwe5 tru? & falsehood4 ,h]mog5es is v ready to ?r[ aside ! sophi/ical t5et1 & li/5s ) a sort ( half admiration1 half belief1 to ! speculations ( ,socrates4 ,cratylus is ( op9ion t a "n is ei!r a true "n or n a "n at all4 ,he is unable to conceive ( degrees ( imitation2 a ^w is ei!r ! p]fect expression ( a ?+1 or a m]e in>ticulate s\nd 7a fallacy :i* is /ill preval5t among !oriz]s ab\t ! orig9 ( language74 ,he is at once a philosoph] & a sophi/2 = :ile want+ to re/ language on an immutable basis1 he w\ld d5y ! possibility ( falsehood4 ,he is incl9$ to d]ive all tru? f language1 & 9 language he sees reflect$ ! philosophy ( ,h]acleitus4 ,8 views are n l ^? ( ,h]mog5es1 ha/ily tak5 up1 b are said to be ! result ( mature consid]ation1 al?\gh he is describ$ z /ill a "y man4 ,) a t5acity *>act]i/ic ( ! ,h]acleitean philosoph]s1 he cl+s to ! doctr9e ( ! flux4 7,comp>e ,!aet47 ,( ! real ,cratylus we "k no?+1 except t he is record$ by ,ari/otle to h be5 ! fri5d or tea*] ( ,plato2 nor h we any pro( t he resembl$ ! lik5ess ( him 9 ,plato any m ?an ! ,critias ( ,plato is l ! real ,critias1 or ! ,eu?yphro 9 ?is dialogue l ! o!r ,eu?yphro1 ! div9]1 9 ! dialogue :i* is call$ aft] him4 ,betwe5 ^! two extremes1 :i* h bo? ( !m a sophi/ical "*1 ! view ( ,socrates is introduc$1 :i* is 9 a mann] ! union ( ! two4 ,language is conv5tional & also natural1 & ! true conv5tional-natural is ! rational4 ,x is a "w n ( *ance1 b ( art2 ! dialectician is ! artific] ( words1 & ! legislator gives au?ority to !m4 ,!y are ! expressions or imitations 9 s\nd ( ?+s4 ,9 a s5se1 ,cratylus is "r 9 say+ t ?+s h by nature names2 = nature is n oppos$ ei!r to art or to law4 ,b vocal imitation1 l any o!r copy1 may be imp]fectly execut$2 & 9 ?is way an elem5t ( *ance or conv5tion ent]s 94 ,!re is mu* :i* is accid5tal or exceptional 9 language4 ,"s words h _h _! orig9al mean+ s obscur$1 t !y require to be help$ out by conv5tion4 ,b /ill ! true "n is t :i* has a natural mean+4 ,?us nature1 art1 *ance1 all comb9e 9 ! =mation ( language4 ,& ! ?ree views respectively prop\nd$ by ,h]mog5es1 ,socrates1 ,cratylus1 may be describ$ z ! conv5tional1 ! artificial or rational1 & ! natural4 ,! view ( ,socrates is ! meet+-po9t ( ! o!r two1 j z conceptualism is ! meet+-po9t ( nom9alism & realism4 ,we c h>dly say t ,plato 0 aw>e ( ! tru?1 t 8languages are n made1 b gr[40 ,b /ill1 :5 he says t 8! legislator made language ) ! dialectician /&+ on 8 "r h&10 we ne$ n inf] f ?is t he conceiv$ words1 l co9s1 to be issu$ f ! m9t ( ! ,/ate4 ,! creator ( laws & ( social life is naturally reg>d$ z ! creator ( language1 accord+ to ,hell5ic notions1 & ! philosoph] is 8 natural advisor4 ,we are n to suppose t ! legislator is p]=m+ any extraord9>y function2 he is m]ely ! ,eponymus ( ! ,/ate1 :o prescribes rules = ! dialectician & = all o!r arti/s4 ,accord+ to a truly ,platonic mode ( approa*+ ! subject1 language1 l virtue 9 ! ,republic1 is exam9$ by ! analogy ( ! arts4 ,words are works ( art :i* may be equally made 9 diff]5t mat]ials1 & are well made :5 !y h a mean+4 ,( ! process :i* he ?us describes1 ,plato _h probably no v def9ite notion4 ,b he means to express g5]ally t language is ! product ( intellig5ce1 & t languages belong to ,/ates & n to individuals4 ,a bett] conception ( language c\ld n h be5 =m$ 9 ,plato's age1 ?an t :i* he attributes to ,socrates4 ,yet _m p]sons h ?\ght t ! m9d ( ,plato is m truly se5 9 ! vague realism ( ,cratylus4 ,?is misconception has probably aris5 f two causes3 fir/1 ! desire to br+ ,plato's !ory ( language into accordance ) ! receiv$ doctr9e ( ! ,platonic ideas2 secondly1 ! impression creat$ by ,socrates himself1 t he is n 9 e>ne/1 & is only indulg+ ! fancy ( ! h\r4 #a4 ,we %all h occasion to %[ m at l5g?1 9 ! ,introduction to future dialogues1 t ! s-call$ ,platonic ideas are only a semi-my?ical =m1 9 :i* he attempts to realize ab/ractions1 & t !y are replac$ 9 8 lat] writ+s by a rational !ory ( psy*ology4 7,see introductions to ! ,m5o & ! ,sophi/47 ,& 9 ! ,cratylus he gives a g5]al acc\nt ( ! nature & orig9 ( language1 9 :i* ,adam ,smi?1 ,r\sseau1 & o!r writ]s ( ! la/ c5tury1 w\ld h sub/antially agre$4 ,at ! end ( ! dialogue1 he speaks z 9 ! ,symposium & ,republic ( absolute beauty & good2 b he nev] suppos$ t !y 7 capable ( be+ embodi$ 9 words4 ,( ! names ( ! ideas1 he w\ld h said1 z he says ( ! names ( ! ,gods1 t we "k no?+4 ,ev5 ! realism ( ,cratylus is n bas$ ^u ! ideas ( ,plato1 b ^u ! flux ( ,h]acleitus4 ,"h1 z 9 ! ,sophi/ & ,politicus1 ,plato expressly draws att5tion to ! want ( agreem5t 9 words & ?+s4 ,h5ce we are l$ to inf]1 t ! view ( ,socrates is n ! less ,plato's own1 because n bas$ ^u ! ideas2 #bnd1 t ,plato's !ory ( language is n inconsi/5t ) ! re/ ( 8 philosophy4 #b4 ,we d n d5y t ,socrates is p>tly 9 je/ & p>tly 9 e>ne/4 ,he is disc\rs+ 9 a high-fl[n ve91 :i* may be comp>$ to ! 8di?yrambics ( ! ,pha$rus40 ,!y are my/]ies ( :i* he is speak+1 & he pr(esses a k9d ( ludicr\s fe> ( 8 imag9>y wisdom4 ,:5 he is argu+ out ( ,hom]1 ab\t ! names ( ,hector's son1 or :5 he describes himself z inspir$ or madd5$ by ,eu?yphro1 ) :om he has be5 sitt+ f ! e>ly dawn 7comp>e ,pha$rus & ,lysias2 ,pha$r47 & expresses 8 int5tion ( yield+ to ! illusion to-day1 & to-morr[ he w g to a prie/ & be purifi$1 we easily see t 8 words are n to be tak5 s]i\sly4 ,9 ?is "p ( ! dialogue 8 dread ( committ+ impiety1 ! pret5d$ d]ivation ( 8 wisdom f ano!r1 ! extravagance ( "s ( 8 etymologies1 &1 9 g5]al1 ! mann] 9 :i* ! fun1 fa/ & furi\s1 vires acquirit eundo1 rem9d u /rongly ( ! ,pha$rus4 ,! je/ is a long "o1 ext5d+ ov] m ?an half ! dialogue4 ,b !n1 we rememb] t ! ,eu?ydemus is a /ill long] je/1 9 :i* ! irony is pres]v$ to ! v end4 ,!re he is p>ody+ ! +5i\s follies ( e>ly logic2 9 ! ,cratylus he is ridicul+ ! fancies ( a new s*ool ( sophi/s & gramm>ians4 ,! fallacies ( ! ,eu?ydemus are /ill reta9$ at ! end ( our logic books2 & ! etymologies ( ! ,cratylus h also f\nd _! way into lat] writ]s4 ,"s ( ^! are n mu* worse ?an ! conjectures ( ,hem/]huis1 & o!r critics ( ! la/ c5tury2 b ?is does n prove t !y are s]i\s4 ,= ,plato is 9 advance ( 8 age 9 8 conception ( language1 z mu* z he is 9 8 conception ( my?ology4 7,comp>e ,pha$rus47 ,:5 ! f]v\r ( 8 etymological en?usiasm has abat$1 ,socrates ends1 z he has begun1 ) a rational explanation ( language4 ,/ill he pres]ves 8 8"k no?+0 disguise1 & himself decl>es 8 fir/ notions ab\t names to be reckless & ridicul\s4 ,hav+ expla9$ comp\nd words by resolv+ !m into _! orig9al elem5ts1 he n[ proce$s to analyse simple words into ! lett]s ( :i* !y are compos$4 ,! ,socrates :o 8kn[s no?+10 "h passes into ! tea*]1 ! dialectician1 ! arrang] ( species4 ,!re is no?+ 9 ?is "p ( ! dialogue :i* is ei!r weak or extravagant4 ,plato is a support] ( ! ,onomatopoetic !ory ( language2 t is to say1 he supposes words to be =m$ by ! imitation ( ideas 9 s\nds2 he also recognises ! effect ( "t1 ! influ5ce ( =eign languages1 ! desire ( euphony1 to be =mative pr9ciples2 & he admits a c]ta9 elem5t ( *ance4 ,b he gives no imitation 9 all ?is t he is prep>+ ! way = ! con/ruction ( an ideal language4 ,or t he has any ,eleatic speculation to oppose to ! ,h]acleiteanism ( ,cratylus4 ,! !ory ( language :i* is prop\nd$ 9 ! ,cratylus is 9 accordance ) ! lat] phase ( ! philosophy ( ,plato1 & w\ld h be5 reg>d$ by him z 9 ! ma9 true4 ,! dialogue is also a satire on ! philological fancies ( ! day4 ,socrates 9 pursuit ( 8 vocation z a detector ( false k1 lights by accid5t on ! tru?4 ,he is guess+1 he is dream+2 he has he>d1 z he says 9 ! ,pha$rus1 f ano!r3 no "o is m surpris$ ?an himself at 8 own discov]ies4 ,& yet "s ( 8 be/ rem>ks1 z = example 8 view ( ! d]ivation ( ,greek words f o!r languages1 or ( ! p]mutations ( lett]s1 or aga91 8 obs]vation t 9 speak+ ( ! ,gods we are only speak+ ( our names ( !m1 occur among ^! flights ( hum\r4 ,we c imag9e a "* hav+ a pr(\nd insight into ! nature ( m5 & ?+s1 & yet h>dly dwell+ ^u !m s]i\sly2 bl5d+ inextricably s5se & nons5se2 sometimes envelop+ 9 a blaze ( je/s ! mo/ s]i\s matt]s1 & !n aga9 all[+ ! tru? to pe] ?r\gh2 enjoy+ ! fl[ ( 8 own hum\r1 & puzzl+ mank9d by an ironical exagg]ation ( _! absurdities4 ,su* 7 ,ari/ophanes & ,rabelais2 su*1 9 a diff]5t /yle1 7 ,/]ne1 ,jean ,paul1 ,hamann1--writ]s :o sometimes become un9telligible ?r\gh ! extravagance ( _! fancies4 ,su* is ! "* :i* ,plato int5ds to depict 9 "s ( 8 dialogues z ! ,sil5us ,socrates2 & ?r\gh ?is m$ium we h to receive our !ory ( language4 ,!re rema9s a difficulty :i* seems to dem& a m exact answ]3 ,9 :at relation does ! satirical or etymological portion ( ! dialogue /& to ! s]i\s8 ,grant+ all t c be said ab\t ! provok+ irony ( ,socrates1 ab\t ! p>ody ( ,eu?yphro1 or ,prodicus1 or ,anti/h5es1 h[ does ! long catalogue ( etymologies furni% any answ] to ! "q ( ,h]mog5es1 :i* is evid5tly ! ma9 !sis ( ! dialogue3 ,:at is ! tru?1 or correctness1 or pr9ciple ( names8 ,aft] illu/rat+ ! nature ( correctness by ! analogy ( ! arts1 & !n1 z 9 ! ,republic1 ironically appeal+ to ! au?ority ( ! ,hom]ic poems1 ,socrates %[s t ! tru? or correctness ( names c only be asc]ta9$ by an appeal to etymology4 ,! tru? ( names is to be f\nd 9 ! analysis ( _! elem5ts4 ,b :y does he admit etymologies :i* are absurd1 bas$ on ,h]acleitean fancies1 f\rfold int]pretations ( words1 impossible unions & sep>ations ( syllables & lett]s8 #a4 ,! answ] to ?is difficulty has be5 already anticipat$ 9 "p3 ,socrates is n a dogmatic tea*]1 & !re=e he puts on ?is wild & fanciful disguise1 9 ord] t ! tru? may be p]mitt$ to appe>3 #b4 z ,b5fey rem>ks1 an errone\s example may illu/rate a pr9ciple ( language z well z a true "o3 #c4 _m ( ^! etymologies1 z1 = example1 t ( dikaion1 are indicat$1 by ! mann] 9 :i* ,socrates speaks ( !m1 to h be5 curr5t 9 8 own age3 #d4 ! philosophy ( language _h n made su* progress z w\ld h ju/ifi$ ,plato 9 prop\nd+ real d]ivations4 ,l 8 ma/] ,socrates1 he saw ?r\gh ! holl[ness ( ! incipi5t sci5ces ( ! day1 & tries to move 9 a circle ap>t f !m1 lay+ d[n ! conditions "u :i* !y are to be pursu$1 b1 z 9 ! ,timaeus1 cauti\s & t5tative1 :5 he is speak+ ( actual ph5om5a4 ,to h made etymologies s]i\sly1 w\ld h seem$ to him l ! int]pretation ( ! my?s 9 ! ,pha$rus1 ! task 8( a n v =tunate individual1 :o _h a great deal ( "t on 8 h&s40 ,! irony ( ,socrates places him above & beyond ! errors ( 8 contempor>ies4 ,! ,cratylus is full ( hum\r & satirical t\*es3 ! inspiration :i* comes f ,eu?yphro1 & 8 pranc+ /e$s1 ! light admixture ( quotations f ,hom]1 & ! spuri\s dialectic :i* is appli$ to !m2 ! je/ ab\t ! fifty-dra*ma c\rse ( ,prodicus1 :i* is decl>$ on ! be/ au?ority1 viz4 8 own1 to be a complete education 9 gramm> & rhetoric2 ! d\ble explanation ( ! "n ,h]mog5es1 ei!r z 8n be+ 9 luck10 or 8be+ no speak]20 ! de>ly-b\ght wisdom ( ,callias1 ! ,lac$aemonian ^: "n 0 8,ru%10 &1 above all1 ! pleasure :i* ,socrates expresses 9 8 own dang]\s discov]ies1 :i* 8to-morr[ he w purge away10 are truly humor\s4 ,:ile deliv]+ a lecture on ! philosophy ( language1 ,socrates is also satiriz+ ! endless f]tility ( ! human m9d 9 sp9n+ argum5ts out ( no?+1 & employ+ ! mo/ trifl+ & fanciful analogies 9 support ( a !ory4 ,etymology 9 anci5t z 9 mod]n times 0 a fav\rite recreation2 & ,socrates makes m]ry at ! exp5se ( ! etymologi/s4 ,! simplicity ( ,h]mog5es1 :o is ready to believe any?+ t he is told1 height5s ! effect4 ,socrates 9 8 g5ial & ironical mood hits "r & left at 8 adv]s>ies3 ,ouranos is s call$ apo t\ oran ta ano1 :i*1 z "s philosoph]s say1 is ! way to h a pure m9d2 ! sophi/s are by a fanciful explanation conv]t$ into h]oes2 8! giv]s ( names 7 l "s philosoph]s :o fancy t ! e>? goes r\nd because _! heads are always go+ r\nd40 ,!re is a great deal ( 8mis*ief0 lurk+ 9 ! foll[+3 8,i f\nd myself 9 great] p]plexity ab\t ju/ice ?an ,i 0 be=e ,i began to le>n20 8,! rho 9 katoptron mu/ be ! addition ( "s "o :o c>es no?+ ab\t tru?1 b ?9ks only ( putt+ ! m\? into %ape20 8,tales & falsehoods h g5]ally to d ) ! ,tragic & goati% life1 & trag$y is ! place ( !m40 ,sev]al philosoph]s & sophi/s are m5tion$ by "n3 fir/1 ,protagoras & ,eu?ydemus are assail$2 !n ! int]pret]s ( ,hom]1 oi palaioi ,om]ikoi 7comp>e ,ari/4 ,met47 & ! ,orphic poets are allud$ to by ! way2 !n he discov]s a hive ( wisdom 9 ! philosophy ( ,h]acleitus2--! doctr9e ( ! flux is conta9$ 9 ! ^w ousia 7 osia ! pu%+ pr9ciple71 an anticipation ( ,anaxagoras is f\nd 9 psu*e & sel5e4 ,aga91 he ridicules ! arbitr>y me?ods ( pull+ out & putt+ 9 lett]s :i* 7 9 vogue among ! philolog]s ( 8 "t2 or slightly sc(fs at contempor>y religi\s beliefs4 ,la/ly1 he is impati5t ( he>+ f ! half-conv]t$ ,cratylus ! doctr9e t falsehood c nei!r be spok51 nor utt]$1 nor address$2 a piece ( sophi/ry attribut$ to ,gorgias1 :i* reappe>s 9 ! ,sophi/4 ,& he proce$s to demoli%1 ) no less delight ?an he _h set up1 ! ,h]acleitean !ory ( language4 ,9 ! latt] "p ( ! dialogue ,socrates becomes m s]i\s1 ?\gh he does n lay aside b r aggravates 8 bant] ( ! ,h]acleiteans1 :om "h1 z 9 ! ,!aetetus1 he delights to ridicule4 ,:at 0 ! orig9 ( ?is enmity we c h>dly det]m9e3--0 x due to ! natural dislike :i* may be suppos$ to exi/ betwe5 ! 8patrons ( ! flux0 & ! 8fri5ds ( ! ideas0 7,soph478 or is x to be attribut$ to ! indignation :i* ,plato felt at hav+ wa/$ 8 "t ^u 8,cratylus & ! doctr9es ( ,h]acleitus0 9 ! days ( 8 y\?8 ,socrates1 t\*+ on "s ( ! *>act]i/ic difficulties ( e>ly ,greek philosophy1 endeav\rs to %[ ,cratylus t imitation may be p>tial or imp]fect1 t a k ( ?+s is high] ?an a k ( names1 & t !re c be no k if all ?+s are 9 a /ate ( transition4 ,b ,cratylus1 :o does n easily appreh5d ! argum5t f common s5se1 rema9s unconv9c$1 & on ! :ole incl9es to 8 =m] op9ion4 ,"s pr(\nd philosophical rem>ks are scatt]$ up & d[n1 admitt+ ( an application n only to language b to k g5]ally2 su* z ! ass]tion t 8consi/5cy is no te/ ( tru?30 or aga91 8,if we are ov]-precise ab\t words1 tru? w say #8too late' to u z to ! belat$ travell] 9 ,aeg9a40 ,! place ( ! dialogue 9 ! s]ies _c be det]m9$ ) c]ta9ty4 ,! /yle & subject1 & ! treatm5t ( ! "* ( ,socrates1 h a close resemblance to ! e>li] dialogues1 especially to ! ,pha$rus & ,eu?ydemus4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ! ideas are spok5 ( at ! end ( ! dialogue1 also indicates a comp>atively e>ly date4 ,! imag9ative elem5t is /ill 9 full vig\r2 ! ,socrates ( ! ,cratylus is ! ,socrates ( ! ,apology & ,symposium1 n yet ,platoniz$2 & he describes1 z 9 ! ,!aetetus1 ! philosophy ( ,h]acleitus by 8unsav\ry0 similes--he _c believe t ! _w is l 8a leaky vessel10 or 8a man :o has a runn+ at ! nose02 he attributes ! flux ( ! _w to ! swimm+ 9 "s folks' heads4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! relation ( ?\ght to language is omitt$ "h1 b is treat$ ( 9 ! ,sophi/4 ,^! gr\nds are n suffici5t to enable u to arrive at a precise conclusion4 ,b we %all n be f> wrong 9 plac+ ! ,cratylus ab\t ! middle1 or at any rate 9 ! fir/ half1 ( ! s]ies4 ,cratylus1 ! ,h]acleitean philosoph]1 & ,h]mog5es1 ! bro!r ( ,callias1 h be5 argu+ ab\t names2 ! =m] ma9ta9+ t !y are natural1 ! latt] t !y are conv5tional4 ,cratylus affirms t 8 own is a true "n1 b w n all[ t ! "n ( ,h]mog5es is equally true4 ,h]mog5es asks ,socrates to expla9 to him :at ,cratylus means2 or1 f> r1 he w\ld l to "k1 ,:at ,socrates himself ?9ks ab\t ! tru? or correctness ( names8 ,socrates replies1 t h>d is k1 & ! nature ( names is a consid]able "p ( k3 he has nev] be5 to he> ! fifty-dra*ma c\rse ( ,prodicus2 & hav+ only att5d$ ! s+le-dra*ma c\rse1 he is n compet5t to give an op9ion on su* matt]s4 ,:5 ,cratylus d5ies t ,h]mog5es is a true "n1 he supposes him to mean t he is n a true son ( ,h]mes1 because he is nev] 9 luck4 ,b he w\ld l to h an op5 c\ncil & to he> bo? sides4 ,h]mog5es is ( op9ion t !re is no pr9ciple 9 names2 !y may be *ang$1 z we *ange ! names ( slaves1 :5ev] we please1 & ! alt]$ "n is z good z ! orig9al "o4 ,y mean to say1 = in/ance1 rejo9s ,socrates1 t if ,i agree to call a man a horse1 !n a man w be rightly call$ a horse by me1 & a man by ! re/ ( ! _w8 ,b1 surely1 !re is 9 words a true & a false1 z !re are true & false propositions4 ,if a :ole proposition be true or false1 !n ! p>ts ( a proposition may be true or false1 & ! lea/ p>ts z well z ! greate/2 & ! lea/ p>ts are names1 & !re=e names may be true or false4 ,w\ld ,h]mog5es ma9ta9 t anybody may give a "n to any?+1 & z _m names z he pleases2 & w\ld all ^! names be always true at ! "t ( giv+ !m8 ,h]mog5es replies t ?is is ! only way 9 :i* he c conceive t names are correct2 & he appeals to ! practice ( diff]5t nations1 & ( ! diff]5t ,hell5ic tribes1 9 confirmation ( 8 view4 ,socrates asks1 :e!r ! ?+s diff] z ! words :i* repres5t !m diff]3--,are we to ma9ta9 ) ,protagoras1 t :at appe>s is8 ,h]mog5es has always be5 puzzl$ ab\t ?is1 b ackn[l$ges1 :5 he is press$ by ,socrates1 t !re are a few v good m5 9 ! _w1 & a great _m v bad2 & ! v good are ! wise1 & ! v bad are ! fooli%2 & ?is is n m]e appe>ance b reality4 ,nor is he dispos$ to say ) ,eu?ydemus1 t all ?+s equally & always belong to all m52 9 t case1 aga91 !re w\ld be no di/9ction betwe5 bad & good m54 ,b !n1 ! only rema9+ possibility is1 t all ?+s h _! sev]al di/9ct natures1 & are indep5d5t ( our notions ab\t !m4 ,& n only ?+s1 b actions1 h di/9ct natures1 & are done by diff]5t processes4 ,!re is a natural way ( cutt+ or burn+1 & a natural in/rum5t ) :i* m5 cut or burn1 & any o!r way w fail2--?is is true ( all actions4 ,& speak+ is a k9d ( action1 & nam+ is a k9d ( speak+1 & we mu/ "n accord+ to a natural process1 & ) a prop] in/rum5t4 ,we cut ) a knife1 we pi]ce ) an awl1 we weave ) a %uttle1 we "n ) a "n4 ,& z a %uttle sep>ates ! w>p f ! wo(1 s a "n di/+ui%es ! natures ( ?+s4 ,! weav] w use ! %uttle well1--t is1 l a weav]2 & ! tea*] w use ! "n well1--t is1 l a tea*]4 ,! %uttle w be made by ! c>p5t]2 ! awl by ! smi? or skill$ p]son4 ,b :o makes a "n8 ,does n ! law give names1 & does n ! tea*] receive !m f ! legislator8 ,he is ! skill$ p]son :o makes !m1 & ( all skill$ workm5 he is ! r>e/4 ,b h[ does ! c>p5t] make or repair ! %uttle1 & to :at w he look8 ,w he n look at ! ideal :i* he has 9 8 m9d8 ,& z ! diff]5t k9ds ( "w diff]1 s ought ! in/rum5ts :i* make !m to diff]4 ,! sev]al k9ds ( %uttles ought to answ] 9 mat]ial & =m to ! sev]al k9ds ( webs4 ,& ! legislator ought to "k ! diff]5t mat]ials & =ms ( :i* names are made 9 ,hellas & o!r c\ntries4 ,b :o is to be ! judge ( ! prop] =m8 ,! judge ( %uttles is ! weav] :o uses !m2 ! judge ( lyres is ! play] ( ! lyre2 ! judge ( %ips is ! pilot4 ,& w n ! judge :o is able to direct ! legislator 9 8 "w ( nam+1 be he :o kn[s h[ to use ! names--he :o c ask & answ] que/ions--9 %ort1 ! dialectician8 ,! pilot directs ! c>p5t] h[ to make ! rudd]1 & ! dialectician directs ! legislator h[ he is to impose names2 = to express ! ideal =ms ( ?+s 9 syllables & lett]s is n ! easy task1 ,h]mog5es1 :i* y imag9e4 8,i %\ld be m readily p]suad$1 if y w\ld %[ me ?is natural correctness ( names40 ,inde$ ,i _c2 b ,i see t y h advanc$2 = y n[ admit t !re is a correctness ( names1 & t n e "o c give a "n4 ,b :at is ! nature ( ?is correctness or tru?1 y mu/ le>n f ! ,sophi/s1 ( :om y\r bro!r ,callias has b\ght 8 reputation = wisdom r de>ly2 & s9ce !y require to be paid1 y1 hav+ no money1 _h bett] le>n f him at second-h&4 8,well1 b ,i h j giv5 up ,protagoras1 & ,i %\ld be inconsi/5t 9 go+ to le>n ( him40 ,!n if y reject him y may le>n ( ! poets1 & 9 p>ticul> ( ,hom]1 :o di/+ui%es ! names giv5 by ,gods & m5 to ! same ?+s1 z 9 ! v]se ab\t ! riv] ,god :o f\ght ) ,hephae/us1 8:om ! ,gods call ,xan?us1 & m5 call ,scam&]20 or 9 ! l9es 9 :i* he m5tions ! bird :i* ! ,gods call 8,*alcis10 & m5 8,cym9dis20 or ! hill :i* m5 call 8,batieia10 & ! ,gods 8,myr9na's ,tomb40 ,"h is an important lesson2 = ! ,gods mu/ ( c\rse be "r 9 _! use ( names4 ,& ?is is n ! only tru? ab\t philology :i* may be le>nt f ,hom]4 ,does he n say t ,hector's son _h two names-- 8,hector call$ him ,scam&rius1 b ! o!rs ,a/yanax08 ,n[1 if ! m5 call$ him ,a/yanax1 is x n probable t ! o!r "n 0 conf]r$ by ! wom58 ,& :i* are m likely to be "r--! wis] or ! less wise1 ! m5 or ! wom58 ,hom] evid5tly agre$ ) ! m53 & ( ! "n giv5 by !m he (f]s an explanation2--! boy 0 call$ ,a/yanax 78k+ ( ! city071 because 8 fa!r sav$ ! city4 ,! names ,a/yanax & ,hector1 moreov]1 are really ! same1--! "o means a k+1 & ! o!r is 8a hold] or possessor40 ,= z ! lion's :elp may be call$ a lion1 or ! horse's foal a foal1 s ! son ( a k+ may be call$ a k+4 ,b if ! horse _h produc$ a calf1 !n t w\ld be call$ a calf4 ,:e!r ! syllables ( a "n are ! same or n makes no diff]5ce1 provid$ ! mean+ is reta9$4 ,= example2 ! names ( lett]s1 :e!r v[els or consonants1 d n correspond to _! s\nds1 ) ! exception ( epsilon1 upsilon1 omicron1 omega4 ,! "n ,beta has ?ree lett]s add$ to ! s\nd--& yet ?is does n alt] ! s5se ( ! ^w1 or prev5t ! :ole "n hav+ ! value :i* ! legislator int5d$4 ,& ! same may be said ( a k+ & ! son ( a k+1 :o l o!r animals resemble ea* o!r 9 ! c\rse ( nature2 ! words by :i* !y are signifi$ may be disguis$1 & yet amid diff]5ces ( s\nd ! etymologi/ may recognise ! same notion1 j z ! physician recognises ! p[] ( ! same drugs "u diff]5t disguises ( col\r & smell4 ,hector & ,a/yanax h only "o lett] alike1 b !y h ! same mean+2 & ,agis 7lead]7 is altoge!r diff]5t 9 s\nd f ,polem>*us 7*ief 9 w>71 or ,eupolemus 7good w>rior72 b ! two words pres5t ! same idea ( lead] or g5]al1 l ! words ,iatrocles & ,acesimbrotus1 :i* equally d5ote a physician4 ,! son succe$s ! fa!r z ! foal succe$s ! horse1 b :51 out ( ! c\rse ( nature1 a prodigy occurs1 & ! (fspr+ no long] resembles ! p>5t1 !n ! names no long] agree4 ,?is may be illu/rat$ by ! case ( ,agamemnon & 8 son ,ore/es1 ( :om ! =m] has a "n significant ( 8 pati5ce at ! siege ( ,troy2 :ile ! "n ( ! latt] indicates 8 savage1 man-(-!-m\nta9 nature4 ,atreus aga91 = 8 murd] ( ,*rysippus1 & 8 cruelty to ,?ye/es1 is rightly nam$ ,atreus1 :i*1 to ! eye ( ! etymologi/1 is at]os 7de/ructive71 ateires 7/ubborn71 atreotos 7fe>less72 & ,pelops is o ta pelas oron 7he :o sees :at is ne> only71 because 9 8 eag]ness to w9 ,hippodamia1 he 0 unconsci\s ( ! remot] consequ5ces :i* ! murd] ( ,myrtilus w\ld entail ^u 8 race4 ,! "n ,tantalus1 if slightly *ang$1 (f]s two etymologies2 ei!r apo tes t\ li?\ talanteias1 or apo t\ talantaton e9ai1 signify+ at once ! hang+ ( ! /one ov] 8 head 9 ! _w bel[1 & ! mis]y :i* he br\ght ^u 8 c\ntry4 ,& ! "n ( 8 fa!r1 ,zeus1 ,dios1 ,z5os1 has an excell5t mean+1 ?\gh h>d to be und]/ood1 because really a s5t5ce :i* is divid$ into two p>ts 7,zeus1 ,dios74 ,= he1 be+ ! "l & k+ ( all1 is ! au?or ( our be+1 & 9 him all live3 ?is is impli$ 9 ! d\ble =m1 ,dios1 ,z5os1 :i* be+ put toge!r & int]pret$ is di on ze panta4 ,!re may1 at fir/ sight1 appe> to be "s irrev]5ce 9 call+ him ! son ( ,cronos1 :o is a prov]b = /upidity2 b ! mean+ is t ,zeus himself is ! son ( a mighty intellect2 ,kronos1 quasi koros1 n 9 ! s5se ( a y\?1 b quasi to ka?>on kai ak]aton t\ n\--! pure & g>ni%$ m9d1 :i* 9 turn is begott5 ( ,uranus1 :o is s call$ apo t\ oran ta ano1 f look+ upw>ds2 :i*1 z philosoph]s say1 is ! way to h a pure m9d4 ,! e>li] portion ( ,hesiod's g5ealogy has escap$ my memory1 or ,i w\ld try m conclusions ( ! same sort4 8,y talk l an oracle40 ,i caught ! infection f ,eu?yphro1 :o gave me a long lecture :i* began at dawn1 & has n only ent]$ into my e>s1 b fill$ my s\l1 & my int5tion is to yield to ! inspiration to-day2 & to-morr[ ,i w be exorcis$ by "s prie/ or sophi/4 8,g on2 ,i am anxi\s to he> ! re/40 ,n[ t we h a g5]al notion1 h[ %all we proce$8 ,:at names w af=d ! mo/ crucial te/ ( natural fitness8 ,^? ( h]oes & ord9>y m5 are (t5 deceptive1 because !y are patronymics or expressions ( a wi%2 let u try gods & demi-gods4 ,gods are s call$1 apo t\ !91 f ! v]b 8to run20 because ! sun1 moon1 & />s run ab\t ! heav52 & !y be+ ! orig9al gods ( ! ,hell5es1 z !y /ill are ( ! ,b>b>ians1 _! "n is giv5 to all ,gods4 ,! demons are ! gold5 race ( ,hesiod1 & by gold5 he means n lit]ally gold51 b good2 & !y are call$ demons1 quasi daemones1 :i* 9 old ,attic 0 us$ = daimones--good m5 are well said to become daimones :5 !y die1 because !y are kn[+4 ,eros 7) an epsilon7 is ! same ^w z eros 7) an eta73 8! sons ( ,god saw ! daught]s ( m5 t !y 7 fair20 or p]haps !y 7 a species ( sophi/s or rhetoricians1 & s call$ apo t\ erotan1 or eire91 f _! habit ( sp9n+ que/ions2 = eire9 is equival5t to lege94 ,i get all ?is f ,eu?yphro2 & n[ a new & +5i\s idea comes into my m9d1 &1 if ,i am n c>eful1 ,i %all be wis] ?an ,i ought to be by to-morr['s dawn4 ,my idea is1 t we may put 9 & pull out lett]s at pleasure & alt] ! acc5ts 7z1 = example1 ,dii philos may be turn$ into ,diphilos71 & we may make words into s5t5ces & s5t5ces into words4 ,! "n an?rotos is a case 9 po9t1 = a lett] has be5 omitt$ & ! acc5t *ang$2 ! orig9al mean+ be+ o ana?ron a opop5--he :o looks up at :at he sees4 ,psu*e may be ?\ght to be ! reviv+1 or refre%+1 or animat+ pr9ciple--e anapsu*\sa to soma2 b ,i am afraid t ,eu?yphro & 8 disciples w scorn ?is d]ivation1 & ,i mu/ f9d ano!r3 %all we id5tify ! s\l ) ! 8ord]+ m9d0 ( ,anaxagoras1 & say t psu*e1 quasi phuse*e e phus9 e*ei or o*ei8--?is might easily be ref9$ into psy*e4 8,t is a m arti/ic etymology40 ,aft] psu*e foll[s soma2 ?is1 by a slight p]mutation1 may be ei!r 7#a7 ! 8grave0 ( ! s\l1 or 7#b7 may mean 8t by :i* ! s\l signifies 7sema9ei7 h] wi%es40 ,b m probably1 ! ^w is ,orphic1 & simply d5otes t ! body is ! place ( w>d 9 :i* ! s\l suff]s ! p5alty ( s91--en o sozetai4 8,i %\ld l to he> "s m explanations ( ! names ( ! ,gods1 l t excell5t "o ( ,zeus40 ,! true/ names ( ! ,gods are ^? :i* !y give !mselves2 b ^! are unkn[n to u4 ,less true are ^? by :i* we propitiate !m1 z m5 say 9 pray]s1 8,may he graci\sly receive any "n by :i* ,i call him40 ,& to avoid (f5ce1 ,i %\ld l to let !m "k be=eh& t we are n presum+ to enquire ab\t !m1 b only ab\t ! names :i* !y usually be>4 ,let u beg9 ) ,he/ia4 ,:at did he mean :o gave ! "n ,he/ia8 8,t is a v difficult "q40 ,o1 my de> ,h]mog5es1 ,i believe t !re 0 a p[] ( philosophy & talk among ! fir/ inv5tors ( names1 bo? 9 our own & 9 o!r languages2 = ev5 9 =eign words a pr9ciple is disc]nible4 ,he/ia is ! same ) esia1 :i* is an old =m ( ousia1 & means ! fir/ pr9ciple ( ?+s3 ?is agrees ) ! fact t to ,he/ia ! fir/ sacrifices are (f]$4 ,!re is also ano!r read+--osia1 :i* implies t 8pu%+0 7o?\n7 is ! fir/ pr9ciple ( all ?+s4 ,& "h ,i seem to discov] a delicate allusion to ! flux ( ,h]acleitus--t ant$iluvian philosoph] :o _c walk twice 9 ! same /ream2 & ?is flux ( 8 may accompli% yet great] m>vels4 ,= ! names ,cronos & ,rhea _c h be5 accid5tal2 ! giv] ( !m mu/ h kn[n some?+ ab\t ! doctr9e ( ,h]acleitus4 ,moreov]1 !re is a rem>kable co9cid5ce 9 ! words ( ,hesiod1 :5 he speaks ( ,oceanus1 8! orig9 ( ,gods20 & 9 ! v]se ( ,orpheus1 9 :i* he describes ,oceanus esp\s+ 8 si/] ,te?ys4 ,te?ys is no?+ m ?an ! "n ( a spr+--to diattom5on kai e?\m5on4 ,poseidon is posidesmos1 ! *a9 ( ! feet1 because y _c walk on ! sea--! epsilon is ins]t$ by way ( ornam5t2 or p]haps ! "n may h be5 orig9ally polleidon1 mean+1 t ! ,god knew _m ?+s 7polla eidos73 he may also be ! %ak]1 apo t\ seie91--9 ?is case1 pi & delta h be5 add$4 ,pluto is connect$ ) pl\tos1 because weal? comes out ( ! e>?2 or ! ^w may be a euphemism = ,hades1 :i* is usually d]iv$ apo t\ aeid\s1 because ! ,god is conc]n$ ) ! invisible4 ,b ! "n ,hades 0 really giv5 him f 8 kn[+ 7eid5ai7 all good ?+s4 ,m5 9 g5]al are fooli%ly afraid ( him1 & talk ) horror ( ! _w bel[ f :i* no "o may return4 ,! reason :y 8 subjects nev] wi% to come back1 ev5 if !y c\ld1 is t ! ,god en*a9s !m by ! /ronge/ ( spells1 namely by ! desire ( virtue1 :i* !y hope to obta9 by con/ant association ) him4 ,he is ! p]fect & accompli%$ ,sophi/ & ! great b5efactor ( ! o!r _w2 = he has mu* m ?an he wants !re1 & h5ce he is call$ ,pluto or ! ri*4 ,he w h no?+ to d ) ! s\ls ( m5 :ile 9 ! body1 because he _c "w 8 w ) !m s long z !y are confus$ & entangl$ by fle%ly lu/s4 ,demet] is ! "m & giv] ( food--e did\sa met] tes edodes4 ,"h is erate tis1 or p]haps ! legislator may h be5 ?9k+ ( ! wea!r1 & has m]ely transpos$ ! lett]s ( ! ^w a]4 ,ph]ephatta1 t ^w ( awe1 is ph]etapha1 :i* is only an euphoni\s contraction ( e t\ ph]om5\ ephaptom5e1--all ?+s are 9 motion1 & %e 9 h] wisdom moves ) !m1 & ! wise ,god ,hades consorts ) h]--!re is no?+ v t]rible 9 ?is1 any m ?an 9 ! h] o!r appellation ,p]sephone1 :i* is also significant ( h] wisdom 7sophe74 ,apollo is ano!r "n1 :i* is suppos$ to h "s dreadful mean+1 b is susceptible ( at lea/ f\r p]fectly innoc5t explanations4 ,fir/1 he is ! purifi] or purg] or absolv] 7apol\on72 secondly1 he is ! true div9]1 ,aplos1 z he is call$ 9 ! ,!ssalian dialect 7aplos apl\s1 s9c]e72 ?irdly1 he is ! ar*] 7aei ballon71 always %oot+2 or aga91 suppos+ alpha to mean ama or om\1 ,apollo becomes equival5t to ama polon1 :i* po9ts to bo? 8 musical & 8 heav5ly attributes2 = !re is a 8mov+ toge!r0 alike 9 music & 9 ! h>mony ( ! sph]es4 ,! second lambda is ins]t$ 9 ord] to avoid ! ill-om5$ s\nd ( de/ruction4 ,! ,muses are s call$--apo t\ mo/hai4 ,! g5tle ,leto or ,le?o is nam$ f h] will+ness 7e!lemon71 or because %e is ready to =give & =get 7le!74 ,artemis is s call$ f h] heal?y well-balanc$ nature1 dia to artemes1 or z aretes i/or2 or z a lov] ( virg9ity1 aroton misesasa4 ,"o ( ^! explanations is probably true1--p]haps all ( !m4 ,dionysus is o did\s ton o9on1 & o9os is quasi oion\s because w9e makes ^? ?9k 7oie/hai7 t !y h a m9d 7n\s7 :o h none4 ,! e/abli%$ d]ivation ( ,aphrodite dia t5 t\ a?r\ g5es9 may be accept$ on ! au?ority ( ,hesiod4 ,aga91 !re is ! "n ( ,pallas1 or ,a!ne1 :i* we1 :o are ,a!nians1 mu/ n =get4 ,pallas is d]iv$ f arm$ dances--apo t\ palle9 ta opla4 ,= ,a!ne we mu/ turn to ! allegorical int]pret]s ( ,hom]1 :o make ! "n equival5t to !onoe1 or possibly ! ^w 0 orig9ally e?onoe & signifi$ moral intellig5ce 7en e!i noesis74 ,hephae/us1 aga91 is ! "l ( light--o t\ phaeos i/or4 ,?is is a good notion2 &1 to prev5t any o!r gett+ into our heads1 let u g on to ,ares4 ,he is ! manly "o 7arr571 or ! un*angeable "o 7arratos74 ,en\gh ( ! ,gods2 =1 by ! ,gods1 ,i am afraid ( !m2 b if y sugge/ o!r words1 y w see h[ ! horses ( ,eu?yphro prance4 8,only "o m ,god2 tell me ab\t my godfa!r ,h]mes40 ,he is erm5eus1 ! mess5g] or *eat] or ?ief or b>ga9]2 or o eire9 mom5os1 t is1 eiremes or ermes--! speak] or contriv] ( spee*es4 8,well said ,cratylus1 !n1 t ,i am no son ( ,h]mes40 ,pan1 z ! son ( ,h]mes1 is spee* or ! bro!r ( spee*1 & is call$ ,pan because spee* indicates ev]y?+--o pan m5uon4 ,he has two =ms1 a true & a false2 & is 9 ! upp] "p smoo?1 & 9 ! l[] "p %aggy4 ,he is ! goat ( ,trag$y1 9 :i* !re are pl5ty ( falsehoods4 8,w y g on to ! elem5ts--sun1 moon1 />s1 e>?1 ae!r1 air1 fire1 wat]1 seasons1 ye>s80 ,v good3 & :i* %all ,i take fir/8 ,let u beg9 ) elios1 or ! sun4 ,! ,doric =m elios helps u to see t he is s call$ because at 8 ris+ he ga!rs 7alizei7 m5 toge!r1 or because he rolls ab\t 7eilei7 ! e>?1 or because he v>iegates 7aiolei poikillei7 ! e>?4 ,sel5e is an anticipation ( ,anaxagoras1 be+ a contraction ( sela5oneoaeia1 ! light 7selas7 :i* is ev] old & new1 & :i*1 z ,anaxagoras says1 is borr[$ f ! sun2 ! "n 0 h>moniz$ into selanaia1 a =m :i* is /ill 9 use4 8,t is a true di?yrambic "n40 ,meis is s call$ apo t\ mei\/hai1 f suff]+ dim9ution1 & a/ron is f a/rape 7lightn+71 :i* is an improvem5t ( ana/rope1 t :i* turns ! eyes inside out4 8,h[ d y expla9 pur n udor80 ,i suspect t pur1 :i*1 l udor n kuon1 is f\nd 9 ,phrygian1 is a =eign ^w2 = ! ,hell5es h borr[$ mu* f ! b>b>ians1 & ,i always resort to ?is !ory ( a =eign orig9 :5 ,i am at a loss4 ,a] may be expla9$1 oti airei ta apo tes ges2 or1 oti aei rei2 or1 oti pneuma ex aut\ g9etai 7comp>e ! poetic ^w aetai74 ,s ai!r quasi aei!] oti aei !i p]i ton a]a3 ge1 gaia quasi g5neteira 7comp>e ! ,hom]ic =m gegaasi72 ora 7) an omega71 or1 accord+ to ! old ,attic =m ora 7) an omicron71 is d]iv$ apo t\ orize91 because x divides ! ye>2 eniautos & etos are ! same ?\ght--o en eauto etazon1 cut into two p>ts1 en eauto & etazon1 l di on ze into ,dios & ,z5os4 8,y make surpris+ progress40 ,true2 ,i am run away )1 & am n ev5 yet at my utmo/ spe$4 8,i %\ld l v mu* to he> y\r acc\nt ( ! virtues4 ,:at pr9ciple ( correctness is !re 9 ^? *>m+ words1 wisdom1 und]/&+1 ju/ice1 & ! re/80 ,to expla9 all t w be a s]i\s bus9ess2 /ill1 z ,i h put on ! lion's sk91 appe>ances mu/ be ma9ta9$4 ,my op9ion is1 t primitive m5 7 l "s mod]n philosoph]s1 :o1 by always go+ r\nd 9 _! se>* aft] ! nature ( ?+s1 become dizzy2 & ?is ph5om5on1 :i* 0 really 9 !mselves1 !y imag9$ to take place 9 ! ext]nal _w4 ,y h no d\bt rem>k$1 t ! doctr9e ( ! univ]sal flux1 or g5]ation ( ?+s1 is indicat$ 9 names4 8,no1 ,i nev] did40 ,phronesis is only phoras kai r\ noesis1 or p]haps phoras onesis1 & 9 any case is connect$ ) ph]e/hai2 gnome is gones skepsis kai nomesis2 noesis is ne\ or gignom5on esis2 ! ^w neos implies t creation is always go+ on--! orig9al =m 0 neoesis2 sophrosune is sot]ia phroneseos2 epi/eme is e epom5e tois pragmas9--! faculty :i* keeps close1 nei!r anticipat+ nor lagg+ beh9d2 sunesis is equival5t to suni5ai1 sumporeue/hai t5 psu*e1 & is a k9d ( conclusion--sullogismos tis1 ak9 !re=e 9 idea to epi/eme2 sophia is v difficult1 & has a =eign look--! mean+ is1 t\*+ ! motion or /ream ( ?+s1 & may be illu/rat$ by ! poetical esu! & ! ,lac$aemonian prop] "n ,s\s1 or ,ru%2 aga?on is ro aga/on en te ta*uteti1--= all ?+s are 9 motion1 & "s are swift] ?an o!rs3 dikaiosune is cle>ly e t\ dikai\ sunesis4 ,! ^w dikaion is m tr\blesome1 & appe>s to mean ! subtle p5etrat+ p[] :i*1 z ! lov]s ( motion say1 pres]ves all ?+s1 & is ! cause ( all ?+s1 quasi diaion go+ ?r\gh--! lett] kappa be+ ins]t$ = ! sake ( euphony4 ,?is is a great my/]y :i* has be5 confid$ to me2 b :5 ,i ask = an explanation ,i am ?\ght obtrusive1 & ano!r d]ivation is propos$ to me4 ,ju/ice is said to be o kaion1 or ! sun2 & :5 ,i joyfully repeat ?is beautiful notion1 ,i am answ]$1 8,:at1 is !re no ju/ice :5 ! sun is d[n80 ,& :5 ,i entreat my que/ion] to tell me 8 own op9ion1 he replies1 t ju/ice is fire 9 ! ab/ract1 or heat 9 ! ab/ract2 :i* is n v intelligible4 ,o!rs laugh at su* notions1 & say ) ,anaxagoras1 t ju/ice is ! ord]+ m9d4 8,i ?9k t "s "o mu/ h told y ?is40 ,& n ! re/8 ,let me proce$ !n1 9 ! hope ( prov+ to y my orig9ality4 ,&reia is quasi anpeia quasi e ano roe1 ! /ream :i* fl[s upw>ds1 & is oppos$ to inju/ice1 :i* cle>ly h9d]s ! pr9ciple ( p5etration2 arr5 & an] h a simil> d]ivation2 gune is ! same z gone2 !lu is d]iv$ apo tes !les1 because ! teat makes ?+s fl\ri% 7te!l5ai71 & ! ^w ?alle9 itself implies increase ( y\?1 :i* is swift & sudd5 ev] 7!9 & alle/hai74 ,i am gett+ ov] ! gr\nd fa/3 b mu* has /ill to be expla9$4 ,!re is te*ne1 = in/ance4 ,?is1 by an apha]esis ( tau & an ep5!sis ( omicron 9 two places1 may be id5tifi$ ) e*onoe1 & signifies 8t :i* has m9d40 8,a v poor etymology40 ,yes2 b y mu/ rememb] t all language is 9 process ( *ange2 lett]s are tak5 9 & put out = ! sake ( euphony1 & "t is also a great alt]] ( words4 ,= example1 :at bus9ess has ! lett] rho 9 ! ^w katoptron1 or ! lett] sigma 9 ! ^w sphigx8 ,! additions are (t5 su* t x is impossible to make out ! orig9al ^w2 & yet1 if y may put 9 & pull out1 z y l1 any "n is equally good = any object4 ,! fact is1 t great dictators ( lit]ature l y\rself %\ld obs]ve ! rules ( mod]ation4 8,i w d my be/40 ,b d n be too mu* ( a precisian1 or y w p>alyze me4 ,if y w let me add me*ane1 apo t\ mek\s1 :i* means polu1 & ane91 ,i %all be at ! summit ( my p[]s1 f :i* elevation ,i w exam9e ! two words kakia & arete4 ,! fir/ is easily expla9$ 9 accordance ) :at has prec$$2 = all ?+s be+ 9 a flux1 kakia is to kakos ion4 ,?is d]ivation is illu/rat$ by ! ^w deilia1 :i* ought to h come aft] &reia1 & may be reg>d$ z o lian desmos tes psu*es1 j z aporia signifies an imp$im5t to motion 7f alpha n1 & poreue/hai to g71 & arete is euporia1 :i* is ! opposite ( ?is--! ev]fl[+ 7aei re\sa or aeireite71 or ! eligible1 quasi airete4 ,y w ?9k t ,i am inv5t+1 b ,i say t if kakia is "r1 !n arete is also "r4 ,b :at is kakon8 ,t is a v obscure ^w1 to :i* ,i c only apply my old notion & decl>e t kakon is a =eign ^w4 ,next1 let u proce$ to kalon1 ais*ron4 ,! latt] is d\btless contract$ f aeis*or\n1 quasi aei is*on r\n4 ,! inv5tor ( words be+ a patron ( ! flux1 0 a great enemy to /agnation4 ,kalon is to kal\n ta pragmata--?is is m9d 7n\s or dianoia72 :i* is also ! pr9ciple ( beauty2 & :i* do+ ! works ( beauty1 is !re=e rightly call$ ! beautiful4 ,! mean+ ( sumph]on is expla9$ by previ\s examples2--l epi/eme1 signify+ t ! s\l moves 9 h>mony ) ! _w 7sumphora1 sumph]onta74 ,k]dos is to pasi k]annum5on--t :i* m+les ) all ?+s3 lusitel\n is equival5t to to tes phoras luon to telos1 & is n to be tak5 9 ! vulg> s5se ( ga9ful1 b r 9 t ( swift1 be+ ! pr9ciple :i* makes motion immortal & unceas+2 ophelimon is apo t\ ophelle9--t :i* gives increase3 ?is ^w1 :i* is ,hom]ic1 is ( =eign orig94 ,blab]on is to blamton or b\lom5on apte9 t\ r\--t :i* injures or seeks to b9d ! /ream4 ,! prop] ^w w\ld be b\lapt]\n1 b ?is is too mu* ( a m\?ful--l a prelude on ! flute 9 hon\r ( ,a!ne4 ,! ^w zemiodes is difficult2 great *anges1 z ,i 0 say+1 h be5 made 9 words1 & ev5 a small *ange w alt] _! mean+ v mu*4 ,! ^w deon is "o ( ^! disguis$ words4 ,y "k t accord+ to ! old pronunciation1 :i* is especially affect$ by ! wom51 :o are great cons]vatives1 iota & delta 7 us$ :]e we %\ld n[ use eta & zeta3 = example1 :at we n[ call em]a 0 =m]ly call$ im]a2 & ?is %[s ! mean+ ( ! ^w to h be5 8! desir$ "o com+ aft] night10 & n1 z is (t5 suppos$1 8t :i* makes ?+s g5tle0 7em]a74 ,s aga91 zugon is duogon1 quasi desis due9 eis agog5--7! b9d+ ( two toge!r = ! purpose ( draw+47 ,deon1 z ord9>ily writt51 has an evil s5se1 signify+ ! *a9 7desmos7 or h9drance ( motion2 b 9 its anci5t =m dion is expressive ( good1 quasi diion1 t :i* p5etrates or goes ?r\gh all4 ,zemiodes is really demiodes1 & means t :i* b9ds motion 7d\nti to ion73 edone is e pros t5 onrs9 te9\sa praxis--! delta is an ins]tion3 lupe is d]iv$ apo tes dialuseos t\ somatos3 ania is f alpha & i5ai1 to g3 alg$on is a =eign ^w1 & is s call$ apo t\ alge9\3 odune is apo tes enduseos tes lupes3 a*!don is 9 its v s\nd a burd53 *apa expresses ! fl[ ( s\l3 t]psis is apo t\ t]pn\1 & t]pnon is prop]ly erpnon1 because ! s5sation ( pleasure is lik5$ to a brea? 7pnoe7 :i* creeps 7erpei7 ?r\gh ! s\l3 euphrosune is nam$ f ph]e/hai1 because ! s\l moves 9 h>mony ) nature3 epi?umia is e epi ton ?umon i\sa dunamis3 ?umos is apo tes ?useos tes psu*es3 im]os--oti eim5os pei e psu*e3 po?os1 ! desire :i* is 9 ano!r place1 allo?i p\3 eros 0 anci5tly esros1 & s call$ because x fl[s into 7esrei7 ! s\l f )\t3 doxa is e dioxis t\ eid5ai1 or expresses ! %oot+ f a b[ 7toxon74 ,! latt] etymology is confirm$ by ! words b\le/hai1 b\le1 ab\lia1 :i* all h to d ) %oot+ 7bole73 & simil>ly oiesis is no?+ b ! movem5t 7oisis7 ( ! s\l t[>ds ess5ce4 ,ek\sion is to eikon--! yield+--anagke is e an agke i\sa1 ! passage ?r\gh rav9es :i* imp$e motion3 ale!ia is !ia ale1 div9e motion4 ,pseudos is ! opposite ( ?is1 imply+ ! pr9ciple ( con/ra9t & =c$ repose1 :i* is express$ "u ! figure ( sleep1 to eudon2 ! psi is an addition4 ,onoma1 a "n1 affirms ! real exi/5ce ( t :i* is s\ght aft]--on ou masma e/94 ,on & ousia are only ion ) an iota brok5 (f2 & ouk on is ouk ion4 8,& :at are ion1 reon1 d\n80 ,"o way ( expla9+ !m has be5 already sugge/$--!y may be ( =eign orig92 & possibly ?is is ! true answ]4 ,b m]e antiquity may (t5 prev5t our recogniz+ words1 aft] all ! complications :i* !y h und]gone2 & we mu/ rememb] t h[ev] f> we c>ry back our analysis "s ultimate elem5ts or roots w rema9 :i* c be no fur!r analyz$4 ,= example2 ! ^w aga?os 0 suppos$ by u to be a comp\nd ( aga/os & ?oos1 & probably ?oos may be fur!r resolvable4 ,b if we take a ^w ( :i* no fur!r resolution seems atta9able1 we may fairly conclude t we h rea*$ "o ( ^! orig9al elem5ts1 & ! tru? ( su* a ^w mu/ be te/$ by "s new me?od4 ,w y help me 9 ! se>*8 ,all names1 :e!r prim>y or second>y1 are int5d$ to %[ ! nature ( ?+s2 & ! second>y1 z ,i conceive1 d]ive _! significance f ! prim>y4 ,b !n1 h[ d ! prim>y names indicate any?+8 ,& let me ask ano!r "q1--,if we _h no faculty ( spee*1 h[ %\ld we communicate ) "o ano!r8 ,%\ld we n use signs1 l ! deaf & dumb8 ,! elevation ( our h&s w\ld mean lightness--heav9ess w\ld be express$ by lett+ !m drop4 ,! runn+ ( any animal w\ld be describ$ by a simil> movem5t ( our own frames4 ,! body c only express any?+ by imitation2 & ! tongue or m\? c imitate z well z ! re/ ( ! body4 ,b ?is imitation ( ! tongue or voice is n yet a "n1 because p may imitate %eep or goats )\t nam+ !m4 ,:at1 !n1 is a "n8 ,9 ! fir/ place1 a "n is n a musical1 or1 secondly1 a pictorial imitation1 b an imitation ( t k9d :i* expresses ! nature ( a ?+2 & is ! inv5tion n ( a musician1 or ( a pa9t]1 b ( a nam]4 ,& n[1 ,i ?9k t we may consid] ! names ab\t :i* y 7 ask+4 ,! way to analyze !m w be by go+ back to ! lett]s1 or prim>y elem5ts ( :i* !y are compos$4 ,fir/1 we sep>ate ! alphabet into classes ( lett]s1 di/+ui%+ ! consonants1 mutes1 v[els1 & semiv[els2 & :5 we h le>nt !m s+ly1 we %all le>n to "k !m 9 _! v>i\s comb9ations ( two or m lett]s2 j z ! pa9t] kn[s h[ to use ei!r a s+le col\r1 or a comb9ation ( col\rs4 ,& l ! pa9t]1 we may apply lett]s to ! expression ( objects1 & =m !m into syllables2 & ^! aga9 into words1 until ! picture or figure--t is1 language--is complet$4 ,n t ,i am lit]ally speak+ ( ourselves1 b ,i mean to say t ?is 0 ! way 9 :i* ! anci5ts fram$ language4 ,& ?is leads me to consid] :e!r ! prim>y z well z ! second>y elem5ts are rightly giv54 ,i may rem>k1 z ,i 0 say+ ab\t ! ,gods1 t we c only atta9 to conjecture ( !m4 ,b /ill we insi/ t ours is ! true & only me?od ( discov]y2 o!rwise we mu/ h rec\rse1 l ! tragic poets1 to a ,deus ex ma*9a1 & say t ,god gave ! fir/ names1 & !re=e !y are "r2 or t ! b>b>ians are old] ?an we are1 & t we le>nt ( !m2 or t antiquity has ca/ a veil ov] ! tru?4 ,yet all ^! are n reasons2 !y are only +5i\s excuses = hav+ no reasons4 ,i w freely imp>t to y my own notions1 ?\gh !y are some:at crude3--! lett] rho appe>s to me to be ! g5]al in/rum5t :i* ! legislator has employ$ to express all motion or k9esis4 7,i ought to expla9 t k9esis is j iesis 7go+71 = ! lett] eta 0 unkn[n to ! anci5ts2 & ! root1 kie91 is a =eign =m ( i5ai3 ( k9esis or eisis1 ! opposite is /asis74 ,?is use ( rho is evid5t 9 ! words tremble1 break1 cru%1 crumble1 & ! l2 ! impos] ( names p]ceiv$ t ! tongue is mo/ agitat$ 9 ! pronunciation ( ?is lett]1 j z he us$ iota to express ! subtle p[] :i* p5etrates ?r\gh all ?+s4 ,! lett]s phi1 psi1 sigma1 zeta1 :i* require a great deal ( w9d1 are employ$ 9 ! imitation ( su* notions z %iv]+1 see?+1 %ak+1 & 9 g5]al ( :at is w9dy4 ,! lett]s delta & tau convey ! idea ( b9d+ & re/ 9 a place3 ! lambda d5otes smoo?ness1 z 9 ! words slip1 sleek1 sleep1 & ! l4 ,b :5 ! slipp+ tongue is deta9$ by ! heavi] s\nd ( gamma1 !n arises ! notion ( a glut9\s clammy nature3 nu is s\nd$ f )91 & has a notion ( inw>dness3 alpha is ! expression ( size2 eta ( l5g?2 omicron ( r\ndness1 & !re=e !re is pl5ty ( omicron 9 ! ^w goggulon4 ,t is my view1 ,h]mog5es1 ( ! correctness ( names2 & ,i %\ld l to he> :at ,cratylus w\ld say4 8,b1 ,socrates1 z ,i 0 tell+ y1 ,cratylus my/ifies me2 ,i %\ld l to ask him1 9 y\r pres5ce1 :at he means by ! fitness ( names80 ,to ?is appeal1 ,cratylus replies 8t he _c expla9 s important a subject all 9 a mom5t40 8,no1 b y may #8add little to little1' z ,hesiod says40 ,socrates "h int]poses 8 own reque/1 t ,cratylus w give "s acc\nt ( 8 !ory4 ,h]mog5es & himself are m]e scioli/s1 b ,cratylus has reflect$ on ^! matt]s1 & has _h tea*]s4 ,cratylus replies 9 ! words ( ,a*illes3 8#8,illu/ri\s ,ajax1 y h spok5 9 all ?+s mu* to my m9d1' :e!r ,eu?yphro1 or "s ,muse inhabit+ y\r own brea/1 0 ! inspir]40 ,socrates replies1 t he is afraid ( be+ self-deceiv$1 & !re=e he mu/ 8look =e & aft10 z ,hom] rem>ks4 ,does n ,cratylus agree ) him t names tea* u ! nature ( ?+s8 8,yes40 ,& nam+ is an art1 & ! arti/s are legislators1 & l arti/s 9 g5]al1 "s ( !m are bett] & "s ( !m are worse ?an o!rs1 & give bett] or worse laws1 & make bett] or worse names4 ,cratylus _c admit t "o "n is bett] ?an ano!r2 !y are ei!r true names1 or !y are n names at all2 & :5 he is ask$ ab\t ! "n ( ,h]mog5es1 :o is ackn[l$g$ to h no luck 9 him1 he affirms ?is to be ! "n ( somebody else4 ,socrates supposes him to mean t falsehood is impossible1 to :i* 8 own answ] w\ld be1 t !re has nev] be5 a lack ( li>s4 ,cratylus presses him ) ! old sophi/ical argum5t1 t falsehood is say+ t :i* is n1 & !re=e say+ no?+2--y _c utt] ! ^w :i* is n4 ,socrates compla9s t ?is argum5t is too subtle = an old man to und]/&3 ,suppose a p]son address+ ,cratylus 7 to say1 ,hail1 ,a!nian ,/rang]1 ,h]mog5es6 w\ld ^! words be true or false8 8,i %\ld say t !y w\ld be m]e unmean+ s\nds1 l ! hamm]+ ( a brass pot40 ,b y w\ld ackn[l$ge t names1 z well z pictures1 are imitations1 & also t pictures may give a "r or wrong repres5tation ( a man or woman3--:y may n names !n equally give a repres5tation true & "r or false & wrong8 ,cratylus admits t pictures may give a true or false repres5tation1 b d5ies t names c4 ,socrates argues1 t he may g up to a man & say 8?is is ye> picture10 & aga91 he may g & say to him 8?is is y\r "n0--9 ! "o case appeal+ to 8 s5se ( sight1 & 9 ! o!r to 8 s5se ( he>+2--may he n8 8,yes40 ,!n y w admit t !re is a "r or a wrong assignm5t ( names1 & if ( names1 !n ( v]bs & n\ns2 & if ( v]bs & n\ns1 !n ( ! s5t5ces :i* are made up ( !m2 & comp>+ n\ns to pictures1 y may give !m all ! appropriate s\nds1 or only "s ( !m4 ,& z he :o gives all ! col\rs makes a good picture1 & he :o gives only "s ( !m1 a bad or imp]fect "o1 b /ill a picture2 s he :o gives all ! s\nds makes a good "n1 & he :o gives only "s ( !m1 a bad or imp]fect "o1 b a "n /ill4 ,! arti/ ( names1 t is1 ! legislator1 may be a good or he may be a bad arti/4 8,yes1 ,socrates1 b ! cases are n p>allel2 = if y subtract or misplace a lett]1 ! "n ceases to be a "n40 ,socrates admits t ! numb] #aj1 if an unit is subtract$1 w\ld cease to be #aj1 b d5ies t names are ( ?is purely quantitative nature4 ,suppose t !re are two objects--,cratylus & ! image ( ,cratylus2 & let u imag9e t "s ,god makes !m p]fectly alike1 bo? 9 _! outw>d =m & 9 _! inn] nature & qualities3 !n !re w be two ,cratyluses1 & n m]ely ,cratylus & ! image ( ,cratylus4 ,b an image 9 fact always falls %ort 9 "s degree ( ! orig9al1 & if images are n exact c\nt]p>ts1 :y %\ld names be8 if !y 71 !y w\ld be ! d\bles ( _! orig9als1 & indi/+ui%able f !m2 & h[ ridicul\s w\ld ?is be6 ,cratylus admits ! tru? ( ,socrates' rem>k4 ,b !n ,socrates rejo9s1 he %\ld h ! c\rage to ackn[l$ge t lett]s may be wrongly ins]t$ 9 a n\n1 or a n\n 9 a s5t5ce2 & yet ! n\n or ! s5t5ce may reta9 a mean+4 ,bett] to admit ?is1 t we may n be puni%$ l ! travell] 9 ,eg9a :o goes ab\t at night1 & t ,tru? h]self may n say to u1 8,too late40 ,&1 errors except$1 we may /ill affirm t a "n to be correct mu/ h prop] lett]s1 :i* be> a resemblance to ! ?+ signifi$4 ,i mu/ rem9d y ( :at ,h]mog5es & ,i 7 say+ ab\t ! lett] rho acc5t1 :i* 0 held to be expressive ( motion & h>dness1 z lambda is ( smoo?ness2--& ?is y w admit to be _! natural mean+4 ,b !n1 :y d ! ,eritreans call t skl]ot] :i* we call skl]otes8 ,we c und]/& "o ano!r1 al?\gh ! lett] rho acc5t is n equival5t to ! lett] s3 :y is ?is8 ,y reply1 because ! two lett]s are suffici5tly alike = ! purpose ( express+ motion4 ,well1 !n1 !re is ! lett] lambda2 :at bus9ess has ?is 9 a ^w mean+ h>dness8 8,:y1 ,socrates1 ,i retort ^u y1 t we put 9 & pull out lett]s at pleasure40 ,& ! explanation ( ?is is cu/om or agreem5t3 we h made a conv5tion t ! rho %all mean s & a conv5tion may indicate by ! unlike z well z by ! l4 ,h[ c\ld !re be names = all ! numb]s unless y all[ t conv5tion is us$8 ,imitation is a poor ?+1 & has to be supplem5t$ by conv5tion1 :i* is ano!r poor ?+2 al?\gh ,i agree ) y 9 ?9k+ t ! mo/ p]fect =m ( language is f\nd only :]e !re is a p]fect correspond5ce ( s\nd & mean+4 ,b let me ask y :at is ! use & =ce ( names8 8,! use ( names1 ,socrates1 is to in=m1 & he :o kn[s names kn[s ?+s40 ,d y mean t ! discov]y ( names is ! same z ! discov]y ( ?+s8 8,yes40 ,b d y n see t !re is a degree ( deception ab\t names8 ,he :o fir/ gave names1 gave !m accord+ to 8 conception1 & t may h be5 errone\s4 8,b !n1 :y1 ,socrates1 is language s consi/5t8 all words h ! same laws40 ,m]e consi/5cy is no te/ ( tru?4 ,9 geometrical problems1 = example1 !re may be a flaw at ! beg9n+1 & yet ! conclusion may foll[ consi/5tly4 ,&1 !re=e1 a wise man w take especial c>e ( fir/ pr9ciples4 ,b are words really consi/5t2 are !re n z _m t]ms ( praise :i* signify re/ z :i* signify motion8 ,!re is epi/eme1 :i* is connect$ ) /asis1 z mneme is ) m5o4 ,bebaion1 aga91 is ! expression ( /ation & position2 i/oria is cle>ly descriptive ( ! /opp+ i/anai ( ! /ream2 pi/on indicates ! cessation ( motion2 & !re are _m words hav+ a bad s5se1 :i* are connect$ ) ideas ( motion1 su* z sumphora1 am>tia1 etc43 ama?ia1 aga91 might be expla9$1 z e ama !o iontos poreia1 & akolasia z e akol\?ia tois pragmas94 ,?us ! bad names are fram$ on ! same pr9ciple z ! good1 & o!r examples might be giv51 :i* w\ld fav\r a !ory ( re/ r ?an ( motion4 8,yes2 b ! great] numb] ( words express motion40 ,are we to c\nt !m1 ,cratylus2 & is correctness ( names to be det]m9$ by ! voice ( a majority8 ,"h is ano!r po9t3 we 7 say+ t ! legislator gives names2 & !re=e we mu/ suppose t he kn[s ! ?+s :i* he names3 b h[ c he h le>nt ?+s f names be=e !re 7 any names8 8,i believe1 ,socrates1 t "s p[] m ?an human fir/ gave ?+s _! names1 & t ^! 7 necess>ily true names40 ,!n h[ came ! giv] ( names to contradict himself1 & to make "s names expressive ( re/1 & o!rs ( motion8 8,i d n suppose t he did make !m bo?40 ,!n :i* did he make--^? :i* are expressive ( re/1 or ^? :i* are expressive ( motion8444,b if "s names are true & o!rs false1 we c only decide betwe5 !m1 n by c\nt+ words1 b by appeal+ to ?+s4 ,&1 if s1 we mu/ all[ t ?+s may be kn[n )\t names2 = names1 z we h sev]al times admitt$1 are ! images ( ?+s2 & ! high] k is ( ?+s1 & is n to be d]iv$ f names2 & ?\gh ,i d n d\bt t ! inv5tors ( language gave names1 "u ! idea t all ?+s are 9 a /ate ( motion & flux1 ,i believe t !y 7 mi/ak52 & t hav+ fall5 into a :irlpool !mselves1 !y are try+ to drag u aft] !m4 ,= is !re n a true beauty & a true good1 :i* is always beautiful & always good8 ,c ! ?+ beauty be vani%+ away f u :ile ! words are yet 9 our m\?s8 ,& !y c\ld n be kn[n by any "o if !y are always pass+ away--= if !y are always pass+ away1 ! obs]v] has no opportunity ( obs]v+ _! /ate4 ,:e!r ! doctr9e ( ! flux or ( ! et]nal nature be ! tru]1 is h>d to det]m9e4 ,b no man ( s5se w put himself1 or ! education ( 8 m9d1 9 ! p[] ( names3 he w n condemn himself to be an unreal ?+1 nor w he believe t ev]y?+ is 9 a flux l ! wat] 9 a leaky vessel1 or t ! _w is a man :o has a runn+ at ! nose4 ,?is doctr9e may be true1 ,cratylus1 b is also v likely to be untrue2 & !re=e ,i w\ld h y reflect :ile y are "y1 & f9d out ! tru?1 & :5 y "k come & tell me4 8,i h ?\ght1 ,socrates1 & aft] a good deal ( ?9k+ ,i incl9e to ,h]acleitus40 ,!n ano!r day1 my fri5d1 y %all give me a lesson4 8,v good1 ,socrates1 & ,i hope t y w cont9ue to /udy ^! ?+s y\rself40 ,we may n[ consid] 7,i7 h[ f> ,plato 9 ! ,cratylus has discov]$ ! true pr9ciples ( language1 & !n 7,,ii7 proce$ to comp>e mod]n speculations respect+ ! orig9 & nature ( language ) ! anticipations ( 8 g5ius4 ,i4 7#a7 ,plato is aw>e t language is n ! "w ( *ance2 nor does he d5y t !re is a natural fitness 9 names4 ,he only insi/s t ?is natural fitness %all be intelligibly expla9$4 ,b he has no idea t language is a natural organism4 ,he w\ld h he>d ) surprise t languages are ! common "w ( :ole nations 9 a primitive or semi-b>b>\s age4 ,h[1 he w\ld probably h argu$1 c\ld m5 devoid ( art h contriv$ a /ructure ( su* complexity8 ,no answ] c\ld h be5 giv5 to ?is "q1 ei!r 9 anci5t or 9 mod]n times1 until ! nature ( primitive antiquity _h be5 ?or\ghly /udi$1 & ! in/9cts ( man _h be5 %[n to exi/ 9 great] =ce1 :5 8 /ate approa*es m ne>ly to t ( *ildr5 or animals4 ,! philosoph]s ( ! la/ c5tury1 aft] _! mann]1 w\ld h va9ly endeav\r$ to trace ! process by :i* prop] names 7 conv]t$ into common1 & w\ld h %[n h[ ! la/ ef=t ( ab/raction inv5t$ prepositions & auxili>ies4 ,! !ologian w\ld h prov$ t language mu/ h _h a div9e orig91 because 9 *ildhood1 :ile ! organs are pliable1 ! intellig5ce is want+1 & :5 ! intellig5ce is able to frame conceptions1 ! organs are no long] able to express !m4 ,or1 z o!rs h said3 ,man is man because he has ! gift ( spee*2 & he c\ld n h inv5t$ t :i* he is4 ,b ?is w\ld h be5 an 8argum5t too subtle0 = ,socrates1 :o rejects ! !ological acc\nt ( ! orig9 ( language 8z an excuse = n giv+ a reason10 :i* he comp>es to ! introduction ( ! 8,deus ex ma*9a0 by ! tragic poets :5 !y h to solve a difficulty2 ?us anticipat+ _m mod]n controv]sies 9 :i* ! prim>y ag5cy ( ! div9e ,be+ is confus$ ) ! second>y cause2 & ,god is assum$ to h work$ a miracle 9 ord] to fill up a lacuna 9 human k4 7,comp>e ,timaeus47 ,nei!r is ,plato wrong 9 suppos+ t an elem5t ( design & art ent]s into language4 ,! creative p[] abat+ is supplem5t$ by a me*anical process4 8,languages are n made b gr[10 b !y are made z well z gr[2 bur/+ into life l a plant or a fl[]1 !y are also capable ( be+ tra9$ & improv$ & engraft$ ^u "o ano!r4 ,! *ange 9 !m is effect$ 9 e>li] ages by musical & euphonic improvem5ts1 at a lat] /age by ! influ5ce ( gramm> & logic1 & by ! poetical & lit]>y use ( words4 ,!y develope rapidly 9 *ildhood1 & :5 !y are full gr[n & set !y may /ill put =? intellectual p[]s1 l ! m9d 9 ! body1 or r we may say t ! nobl] use ( language only beg9s :5 ! frame-"w is complete4 ,! savage or primitive man1 9 :om ! natural in/9ct is /ronge/1 is also ! greate/ improv] ( ! =ms ( language4 ,he is ! poet or mak] ( words1 z 9 civilis$ ages ! dialectician is ! def9] or di/+ui%] ( !m4 ,! latt] calls ! second _w ( ab/ract t]ms into exi/5ce1 z ! =m] has creat$ ! picture s\nds :i* repres5t natural objects or processes4 ,poetry & philosophy--^! two1 are ! two great =mative pr9ciples ( language1 :5 !y h pass$ _! fir/ /age1 ( :i*1 z ( ! fir/ inv5tion ( ! arts 9 g5]al1 we only ent]ta9 conjecture4 ,& my?ology is a l9k betwe5 !m1 connect+ ! visible & invisible1 until at l5g? ! s5su\s ext]ior falls away1 & ! sev]ance ( ! inn] & out] _w1 ( ! idea & ! object ( s5se1 becomes complete4 ,at a lat] p]iod1 logic & gramm>1 si/] arts1 pres]ve & enl>ge ! decay+ in/9ct ( language1 by rule & me?od1 :i* !y ga!r f analysis & obs]vation4 7#b7 ,!re is no trace 9 any ( ,plato's writ+s t he 0 acqua9t$ ) any language b ,greek4 ,yet he has conceiv$ v truly ! relation ( ,greek to =eign languages1 :i* he is l$ to consid]1 because he f9ds t _m ,greek words are incapable ( explanation4 ,all[+ a good deal = accid5t1 & also = ! fancies ( ! conditores l+uae ,graecae1 !re is an elem5t ( :i* he is unable to give an acc\nt4 ,^! un9telligible words he supposes to be ( =eign orig91 & to h be5 d]iv$ f a "t :5 ! ,greeks 7 ei!r b>b>ians1 or 9 close relations to ! b>b>ians4 ,socrates is aw>e t ?is pr9ciple is liable to great abuse2 &1 l ! 8,deus ex ma*9a10 expla9s no?+4 ,h5ce he excuses himself = ! employm5t ( su* a device1 & rem>ks t 9 =eign words !re is /ill a pr9ciple ( correctness1 :i* applies equally bo? to ,greeks & b>b>ians4 7#c7 ,b ! great] numb] ( prim>y words d n admit ( d]ivation f =eign languages2 !y mu/ be resolv$ into ! lett]s out ( :i* !y are compos$1 & !re=e ! lett]s mu/ h a mean+4 ,! fram]s ( language 7 aw>e ( ?is2 !y obs]v$ t alpha 0 adapt$ to express size2 eta l5g?2 omicron r\ndness2 nu inw>dness2 rho acc5t ru% or ro>2 lambda liquidity2 gamma lambda ! det5tion ( ! liquid or slipp]y elem5t2 delta & tau b9d+2 phi1 psi1 sigma1 xi1 w9d & cold1 & s on4 ,plato's analysis ( ! lett]s ( ! alphabet %[s a wond]ful insight into ! nature ( language4 ,he does n expressively di/+ui% betwe5 m]e imitation & ! symbolical use ( s\nd to express ?\ght1 b he recognises 9 ! examples :i* he gives bo? modes ( imitation4 ,ge/ure is ! mode :i* a deaf & dumb p]son w\ld take ( indicat+ 8 mean+4 ,& language is ! ge/ure ( ! tongue2 9 ! use ( ! lett] rho acc5t1 to express a ru%+ or ro>+1 or ( omicron to express r\ndness1 !re is a direct imitation2 :ile 9 ! use ( ! lett] alpha to express size1 or ( eta to express l5g?1 ! imitation is symbolical4 ,! use ( analog\s or simil> s\nds1 9 ord] to express simil> analog\s ideas1 seems to h escap$ him4 ,9 pass+ f ! ge/ure ( ! body to ! movem5t ( ! tongue1 ,plato makes a great /ep 9 ! physiology ( language4 ,he 0 probably ! fir/ :o said t 8language is imitative s\nd10 :i* is ! greate/ & deepe/ tru? ( philology2 al?\gh he is n aw>e ( ! laws ( euphony & association by :i* imitation mu/ be regulat$4 ,he 0 probably also ! fir/ :o made a di/9ction betwe5 simple & comp\nd words1 a tru? second only 9 importance to t :i* has j be5 m5tion$4 ,8 great insight 9 "o direction curi\sly contra/s ) 8 bl9dness 9 ano!r2 = he appe>s to be :olly unaw>e 7comp>e 8 d]ivation ( aga?os f aga/os & ?oos7 ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! root & t]m9ation4 ,b we mu/ recollect t he 0 necess>ily m ignorant ?an any s*oolboy ( ,greek gramm>1 & _h no table ( ! inflexions ( v]bs & n\ns be=e 8 eyes1 :i* might h sugge/$ to him ! di/9ction4 7#d7 ,plato di/9ctly affirms t language is n tru?1 or 8philosophie une langue bi5 faite40 ,at fir/1 ,socrates has delight$ himself ) discov]+ ! flux ( ,h]acleitus 9 language4 ,b he is cov]tly satiris+ ! pret5ce ( t or any o!r age to f9d philosophy 9 words2 & he aft]w>ds corrects any errone\s inf]5ce :i* might be ga!r$ f 8 exp]im5t4 ,= he f9ds z _m1 or almo/ z _m1 words expressive ( re/1 z he _h previ\sly f\nd expressive ( motion4 ,& ev5 if ?is _h be5 o!rwise1 :o w\ld le>n ( words :5 he might le>n ( ?+s8 ,!re is a great controv]sy & high argum5t betwe5 ,h]acleiteans & ,eleatics1 b no man ( s5se w\ld commit 8 s\l 9 su* enquiries to ! impos]s ( names444,9 ?is & o!r passages ,plato %[s t he is z completely emancipat$ f ! influ5ce ( 8,idols ( ! tribe0 z ,bacon himself4 ,! lesson :i* may be ga!r$ f words is n metaphysical or moral1 b hi/orical4 ,!y tea* u ! aff9ity ( races1 !y tell u some?+ ab\t ! association ( ideas1 !y occasionally pres]ve ! memory ( a disus$ cu/om2 b we _c safely argue f !m ab\t "r & wrong1 matt] & m9d1 fre$om & necessity1 or ! o!r problems ( moral & metaphysical philosophy4 ,= ! use ( words on su* subjects may (t5 be metaphorical1 accid5tal1 d]iv$ f o!r languages1 & may h no relation to ! contempor>y /ate ( ?\ght & feel+4 ,nor 9 any case is ! inv5tion ( !m ! result ( philosophical reflection2 !y h be5 commonly transf]r$ f matt] to m9d1 & _! mean+ is ! v rev]se ( _! etymology4 ,because !re is or is n a "n = a ?+1 we _c argue t ! ?+ has or has n an actual exi/5ce2 or t ! anti!ses1 p>allels1 conjugates1 correlatives ( language h any?+ correspond+ to !m 9 nature4 ,!re are too _m words z well z too few2 & !y g5]alize ! objects or ideas :i* !y repres5t4 ,! greate/ lesson :i* ! philosophical analysis ( language tea*es u is1 t we %\ld be above language1 mak+ words our s]vants1 & n all[+ !m to be our ma/]s4 ,plato does n add ! fur!r obs]vation1 t ! etymological mean+ ( words is 9 process ( be+ lo/4 ,if at fir/ fram$ on a pr9ciple ( intelligibility1 !y w\ld gradually cease to be intelligible1 l ^? ( a =eign language1 he is will+ to admit t !y are subject to _m *anges1 & put on _m disguises4 ,he ackn[l$ges t ! 8poor creature0 imitation is supplem5t$ by ano!r 8poor creature10--conv5tion4 ,b he does n see t 8habit & repute10 & _! relation to o!r words1 are always ex]cis+ an influ5ce ov] !m4 ,words appe> to be isolat$1 b !y are really ! p>ts ( an organism :i* is always be+ reproduc$4 ,!y are ref9$ by civilization1 h>moniz$ by poetry1 emphasiz$ by lit]ature1 te*nically appli$ 9 philosophy & art2 !y are us$ z symbols on ! bord]-gr\nd ( human k2 !y receive a fre% impress f individual g5ius1 & come ) a new =ce & association to e lively-m9d$ p]son4 ,!y are fix$ by ! simultane\s utt]ance ( millions1 & yet are always imp]ceptibly *ang+2--n ! inv5tors ( language1 b writ+ & speak+1 & p>ticul>ly great writ]s1 or works :i* pass into ! he>ts ( nations1 ,hom]1 ,%akespe>1 ,dante1 ! ,g]man or ,engli% ,bible1 ,kant & ,hegel1 are ! mak]s ( !m 9 lat] ages4 ,!y c>ry ) !m ! fad$ recollection ( _! own pa/ hi/ory2 ! use ( a ^w 9 a /rik+ & famili> passage gives a complexion to its use ev]y:]e else1 & ! new use ( an old & famili> phrase has also a peculi> p[] ov] u4 ,b ^! & o!r subtleties ( language escap$ ! obs]vation ( ,plato4 ,he is n aw>e t ! languages ( ! _w are organic /ructures1 & t e ^w 9 !m is relat$ to e o!r2 nor does he conceive ( language z ! jo9t "w ( ! speak] & ! he>]1 requir+ 9 man a faculty n only ( express+ 8 ?\ghts b ( und]/&+ ^? ( o!rs4 ,on ! o!r h&1 he _c be ju/ly *>g$ ) a desire to frame language on artificial pr9ciples4 ,philosoph]s h sometimes dream$ ( a te*nical or sci5tific language1 9 words :i* %\ld h fix$ mean+s1 & /& 9 ! same relation to "o ano!r z ! sub/ances :i* !y d5ote4 ,b !re is no m trace ( ?is 9 ,plato ?an !re is ( a language correspond+ to ! ideas2 nor1 inde$1 c\ld ! want ( su* a language be felt until ! sci5ces 7 f> m develop$4 ,^? :o w\ld ext5d ! use ( te*nical phraseology beyond ! limits ( sci5ce or ( cu/om1 seem to =get t fre$om & sugge/iv5ess & ! play ( association are ess5tial *>act]i/ics ( language4 ,! great ma/] has %[n h[ he reg>d$ p$antic di/9ctions ( words or attempts to conf9e _! mean+ 9 ! satire on ,prodicus 9 ! ,protagoras4 7#e7 ,9 addition to ^! anticipations ( ! g5]al pr9ciples ( philology1 we may note also a few curi\s obs]vations on words & s\nds4 8,! ,eretrians say skl]otes = skl]ot]20 8! ,!ssalians call ,apollo ,amlos20 8,! ,phrygians h ! words pur1 udor1 kunes slightly *ang$20 8!re is an old ,hom]ic ^w emesato1 mean+ #8he contriv$'20 8our =efa!rs1 & especially ! wom51 :o are mo/ cons]vative ( ! anci5t language1 lov$ ! lett]s iota & delta2 b n[ iota is *ang$ into eta & epsilon1 & delta into zeta2 ?is is suppos$ to increase ! gr&eur ( ! s\nd40 ,plato 0 v will+ to use inductive argum5ts1 s f> z !y 7 )9 8 rea*2 b he w\ld also h assign$ a l>ge influ5ce to *ance4 ,nor inde$ is induction applicable to philology 9 ! same degree z to mo/ ( ! physical sci5ces4 ,= aft] we h pu%$ our rese>*es to ! fur!/ po9t1 9 language z 9 all ! o!r creations ( ! human m9d1 !re w always rema9 an elem5t ( exception or accid5t or free-w1 :i* _c be elim9at$4 ,! "q1 8:e!r falsehood is impossible10 :i* ,socrates *>act]i/ically sets aside z too subtle = an old man 7comp>e ,eu?yd471 c\ld only h aris5 9 an age ( imp]fect consci\sness1 :i* _h n yet le>n$ to di/+ui% words f ?+s4 ,socrates replies 9 effect t words h an indep5d5t exi/5ce2 ?us anticipat+ ! solution ( ! m$iaeval controv]sy ( ,nom9alism & ,realism4 ,he is aw>e too t languages exi/ 9 v>i\s degrees ( p]fection1 & t ! analysis ( !m c only be c>ri$ to a c]ta9 po9t4 8,if we c\ld always1 or almo/ always1 use lik5esses1 :i* are ! appropriate expressions1 t w\ld be ! mo/ p]fect /ate ( language40 ,^! words sugge/ a "q ( deep] int]e/ ?an ! orig9 ( language2 viz4 :at is ! ideal ( language1 h[ f> by any correction ( _! usages exi/+ languages might become cle>] & m expressive ?an !y are1 m poetical1 & also m logical2 or :e!r !y are n[ f9ally fix$ & h receiv$ _! la/ impress f "t & au?ority4 ,on ! :ole1 ! ,cratylus seems to conta9 deep] tru?s ab\t language ?an any o!r anci5t writ+4 ,b feel+ ! unc]ta9 gr\nd ^u :i* he is walk+1 & p>tly 9 ord] to pres]ve ! "* ( ,socrates1 ,plato envelopes ! :ole subject 9 a robe ( fancy1 & all[s 8 pr9ciples to drop out z if by accid5t4 ,,ii4 ,:at is ! result ( rec5t speculations ab\t ! orig9 & nature ( language8 ,l o!r mod]n metaphysical enquiries1 !y end at la/ 9 a /atem5t ( facts4 ,b1 9 ord] to /ate or und]/& ! facts1 a metaphysical insight seems to be requir$4 ,!re are m ?+s 9 language ?an ! human m9d easily conceives4 ,& _m fallacies h to be dispell$1 z well z obs]vations made4 ,! true _s ( philosophy or metaphysics c alone *>m away metaphysical illusions1 :i* are always reappe>+1 =m]ly 9 ! fancies ( neoplatoni/ writ]s1 n[ 9 ! disguise ( exp]i5ce & common s5se4 ,an analogy1 a figure ( spee*1 an intelligible !ory1 a sup]ficial obs]vation ( ! individual1 h (t5 be5 mi/ak5 = a true acc\nt ( ! orig9 ( language4 ,speak+ is "o ( ! simple/ natural op]ations1 & also ! mo/ complex4 ,no?+ w\ld seem to be easi] or m trivial ?an a few words utt]$ by a *ild 9 any language4 ,yet into ! =mation ( ^? words h ent]$ causes :i* ! human m9d is n capable ( calculat+4 ,!y are a drop or two ( ! great /ream or ocean ( spee* :i* has be5 fl[+ 9 all ages4 ,!y h be5 transmitt$ f "o language to ano!r2 l ! *ild himself1 !y g back to ! beg9n+s ( ! human race4 ,h[ !y orig9at$1 :o c tell8 ,nev]!less we c imag9e a /age ( human society 9 :i* ! circle ( m5's m9ds 0 n>r[] & _! sympa?ies & in/9cts /rong]2 9 :i* _! organs ( spee* 7 m flexible1 & ! s5se ( he>+ f9] & m disc]n+2 9 :i* !y liv$ m 9 company1 & aft] ! mann] ( *ildr5 7 m giv5 to express _! feel+s2 9 :i* 8!y mov$ all toge!r10 l a h]d ( wild animals1 8:5 !y mov$ at all40 ,among !m1 z 9 e society1 a p>ticul> p]son w\ld be m s5sitive & intellig5t ?an ! re/4 ,sudd5ly1 on "s occasion ( int]e/ 7at ! approa* ( a wild bea/1 %all we say871 he fir/1 !y foll[+ him1 utt] a cry :i* res\nds ?r\gh ! =e/4 ,! cry is almo/ or q involunt>y1 & may be an imitation ( ! ro> ( ! animal4 ,?us f> we h n spee*1 b only ! in>ticulate expression ( feel+ or emotion 9 no respect diff]+ f ! cries ( animals2 = !y too call to "o ano!r & are answ]$4 ,b n[ suppose t "s "o at a di/ance n only he>s ! s\nd1 b appreh5ds ! mean+3 or we may imag9e t ! cry is repeat$ to a memb] ( ! society :o _h be5 abs5t2 ! o!rs act ! sc5e ov] aga9 :5 he returns home 9 ! ev5+4 ,& s ! cry becomes a ^w4 ,! he>] 9 turn gives back ! ^w to ! speak]1 :o is n[ aw>e t he has acquir$ a new p[]4 ,_m ?\s& times he ex]cises ?is p[]2 l a *ild le>n+ to talk1 he repeats ! same cry aga91 & aga9 he is answ]$2 he tries exp]im5ts ) a l result1 & ! speak] & ! he>] rejoice toge!r 9 _! newly-discov]$ faculty4 ,at fir/ !re w\ld be few su* cries1 & little dang] ( mi/ak+ or confus+ !m4 ,= ! m9d ( primitive man _h a n>r[ range ( p]ceptions & feel+s2 8 s5ses 7 microscopic2 tw5ty or ?irty s\nds or ge/ures w\ld be en\gh = him1 nor w\ld he h any difficulty 9 f9d+ !m4 ,naturally he broke out into spee*--l ! "y infant he laugh$ & babbl$2 b n until !re 7 he>]s z well z speak]s did language beg94 ,n ! int]jection or ! vocal imitation ( ! object1 b ! int]jection or ! vocal imitation ( ! object und]/ood1 is ! fir/ rudim5t ( human spee*4 ,aft] a :ile ! ^w ga!rs associations1 & has an indep5d5t exi/5ce4 ,! imitation ( ! lion's ro> calls up ! fe>s & hopes ( ! *ase1 :i* are excit$ by 8 appe>ance4 ,9 ! mom5t ( he>+ ! s\nd1 )\t any appreciable int]val1 ^! & o!r lat5t exp]i5ces wake up 9 ! m9d ( ! he>]4 ,n only does he receive an impression1 b he br+s previ\s k to be> ^u t impression4 ,necess>ily ! pictorial image becomes less vivid1 :ile ! association ( ! nature & habits ( ! animal is m di/9ctly p]ceiv$4 ,! picture passes into a symbol1 = !re w\ld be too _m ( !m & !y w\ld cr[d ! m9d2 ! vocal imitation1 too1 is always 9 process ( be+ lo/ & be+ r5ew$1 j z ! picture is br\ght back aga9 9 ! description ( ! poet4 ,words n[ c be us$ m freely because !re are m ( !m4 ,:at 0 once an involunt>y expression becomes volunt>y4 ,n only c m5 utt] a cry or call1 b !y c communicate & conv]se2 !y c n only use words1 b !y c ev5 play ) !m4 ,! ^w is sep>at$ bo? f ! object & f ! m9d2 & sl[ly nations & individuals atta9 to a full] consci\sness ( !mselves4 ,p>allel ) ?is m5tal process ! articulation ( s\nds is gradually becom+ p]fect$4 ,! f9] s5se detects ! diff]5ces ( !m1 & beg9s1 fir/ to agglom]ate1 !n to di/+ui% !m4 ,times1 p]sons1 places1 relations ( all k9ds1 are express$ by modifications ( !m4 ,! e>lie/ p>ts ( spee*1 z we may call !m by anticipation1 l ! fir/ utt]ances ( *ildr51 probably p>took ( ! nature ( int]jections & n\ns2 !n came v]bs2 at l5g? ! :ole s5t5ce appe>$1 & rhy?m & metre foll[$4 ,ea* /age 9 ! progress ( language 0 accompani$ by "s correspond+ /age 9 ! m9d & civilisation ( man4 ,9 "t1 :5 ! family became a nation1 ! wild gr[? ( dialects pass$ into a language4 ,!n arose poetry & lit]ature4 ,we c h>dly realize to ourselves h[ mu* ) ea* improvem5t ( language ! p[]s ( ! human m9d 7 enl>g$2 h[ ! inn] _w took ! place ( out]2 h[ ! pictorial or symbolical or analogical ^w 0 ref9$ into a notion2 h[ language1 fair & l>ge & free1 0 at la/ complete4 ,s we may imag9e ! spee* ( man to h begun z ) ! cries ( animals1 or ! /amm]+ lips ( *ildr51 & to h atta9$ by degrees ! p]fection ( ,hom] & ,plato4 ,yet we are f> f say+ t ?is or any o!r !ory ( language is prov$ by facts4 ,x is n difficult to =m an hypo!sis :i* by a s]ies ( imag9>y transitions w bridge ov] ! *asm :i* sep>ates man f ! animals4 ,diff]5ces ( k9d may (t5 be ?us resolv$ into diff]5ces ( degree4 ,b we mu/ n assume t we h 9 ?is way discov]$ ! true acc\nt ( !m4 ,?r\gh :at /ruggles ! h>moni\s use ( ! organs ( spee* 0 acquir$2 to :at ext5t ! conditions ( human life 7 diff]5t2 h[ f> ! g5ius ( individuals may h contribut$ to ! discov]y ( ?is z ( ! o!r arts1 we _c say3 ,only we seem to see t language is z mu* ! creation ( ! e> z ( ! tongue1 & ! expression ( a movem5t /irr+ ! he>ts n ( "o man only b ( _m1 8z ! trees ( ! wood are /irr$ by ! w9d40 ,! !ory is consi/5t or n inconsi/5t ) our own m5tal exp]i5ce1 & ?r[s "s degree ( light ^u a d>k corn] ( ! human m9d4 ,9 ! lat] analysis ( language1 we trace ! opposite & contra/$ elem5ts ( ! individual & nation1 ( ! pa/ & pres5t1 ( ! inw>d & outw>d1 ( ! subject & object1 ( ! notional & relational1 ( ! root or un*ang+ "p ( ! ^w & ( ! *ang+ inflexion1 if su* a di/9ction be admitt$1 ( ! v[el & ! consonant1 ( quantity & acc5t1 ( spee* & writ+1 ( poetry & prose4 ,we obs]ve also ! reciprocal influ5ce ( s\nds & conceptions on ea* o!r1 l ! connexion ( body & m9d2 & fur!r rem>k t al?\gh ! names ( objects 7 orig9ally prop] names1 z ! gramm>ian or logician might call !m1 yet at a lat] /age !y become univ]sal notions1 :i* comb9e into p>ticul>s & individuals1 & are tak5 out ( ! fir/ rude agglom]ation ( s\nds t !y may be replac$ 9 a high] & m logical ord]4 ,we see t 9 ! simple/ s5t5ces are conta9$ gramm> & logic--! p>ts ( spee*1 ! ,eleatic philosophy & ! ,kantian categories4 ,s complex is language1 & s expressive n only ( ! meane/ wants ( man1 b ( 8 highe/ ?\ghts2 s v>i\s are ! aspects 9 :i* x is reg>d$ by u4 ,!n aga91 :5 we foll[ ! hi/ory ( languages1 we obs]ve t !y are always sl[ly mov+1 half dead1 half alive1 half solid1 half fluid2 ! brea? ( a mom5t1 yet l ! air1 cont9u\s 9 all ages & c\ntries1--l ! glaci]1 too1 conta9+ )9 !m a trickl+ /ream :i* deposits debris ( ! rocks ov] :i* x passes4 ,!re 7 happy mom5ts1 z we may conjecture1 9 ! lives ( nations1 at :i* !y came to ! bir?--z 9 ! gold5 age ( lit]ature1 ! man & ! "t seem to conspire2 ! eloqu5ce ( ! b>d or *ief1 z 9 lat] times ! creations ( ! great writ] :o is ! expression ( 8 age1 became impress$ on ! m9ds ( _! c\ntrym51 p]haps 9 ! h\r ( "s crisis ( national developm5t--a migration1 a conque/1 or ! l4 ,! picture ( ! ^w :i* 0 beg9n+ to be lo/1 is n[ reviv$2 ! s\nd aga9 e*oes to ! s5se2 m5 f9d !mselves capable n only ( express+ m feel+s1 & describ+ m objects1 b ( express+ & describ+ !m bett]4 ,! _w be=e ! flood1 t is to say1 ! _w ( t51 tw5ty1 a hundr$ ?\s& ye>s ago1 has pass$ away & left no sign4 ,b ! be/ conception t we c =m ( x1 ?\gh imp]fect & unc]ta91 is ga9$ f ! analogy ( causes /ill 9 action1 "s p[]ful & sudd51 o!rs work+ sl[ly 9 ! c\rse ( inf9ite ages4 ,some?+ too may be all[$ to 8! p]si/5cy ( ! /ronge/10 to 8! survival ( ! fitte/10 9 ?is z 9 ! o!r realms ( nature4 ,^! are "s ( ! reflections :i* ! mod]n philosophy ( language sugge/s to u ab\t ! p[]s ( ! human m9d & ! =ces & influ5ces by :i* ! ef=ts ( m5 to utt] articulate s\nds 7 inspir$4 ,yet 9 mak+ ^! & simil> g5]alizations we may note also dang]s to :i* we are expos$4 7#a7 ,!re is ! confusion ( ideas ) facts--( m]e possibilities1 & g5]alities1 & modes ( conception ) actual & def9ite k4 ,! words 8evolution10 8bir?10 8law10 developm5t10 8in/9ct10 8implicit10 8explicit10 & ! l1 h a false cle>ness or compreh5siv5ess1 :i* adds no?+ to our k4 ,! metaphor ( a fl[] or a tree1 or "s o!r "w ( nature or art1 is (t5 9 l mann] only a pleas+ picture4 7#b7 ,!re is ! fallacy ( resolv+ ! languages :i* we "k into _! p>ts1 & !n imag9+ t we c discov] ! nature ( language by recon/ruct+ !m4 7#c7 ,!re is ! dang] ( id5tify+ language1 n ) ?\ghts b ) ideas4 7#d7 ,!re is ! error ( suppos+ t ! analysis ( gramm> & logic has always exi/$1 or t _! di/9ctions 7 famili> to ,socrates & ,plato4 7#e7 ,!re is ! fallacy ( exagg]at+1 & also ( dim9i%+ ! int]val :i* sep>ates articulate f in>ticulate language--! cries ( animals f ! spee* ( man--! in/9cts ( animals f ! reason ( man4 7#f7 ,!re is ! dang] :i* besets all enquiries into ! e>ly hi/ory ( man--( int]pret+ ! pa/ by ! pres5t1 & ( sub/itut+ ! def9ite & intelligible = ! true b dim outl9e :i* is ! horizon ( human k4 ,! greate/ light is ?r[n ^u ! nature ( language by analogy4 ,we h ! analogy ( ! cries ( animals1 ( ! songs ( birds 78man1 l ! night+ale1 is a s++ bird1 b is ev] b9d+ up ?\ghts ) musical notes071 ( music1 ( *ildr5 le>n+ to speak1 ( b>b>\s nations 9 :i* ! l+ui/ic in/9ct is /ill undecay$1 ( ourselves le>n+ to ?9k & speak a new language1 ( ! deaf & dumb :o h words )\t s\nds1 ( ! v>i\s disord]s ( spee*2 & we h ! aft]-gr[? ( my?ology1 :i*1 l language1 is an unconsci\s creation ( ! human m9d4 ,we c obs]ve ! social & collective in/9cts ( animals1 & may rem>k h[1 :5 dome/icat$1 !y h ! p[] ( und]/&+ b n ( speak+1 :ile on ! o!r h&1 "s birds :i* are comp>atively devoid ( intellig5ce1 make a ne>] approa* to articulate spee*4 ,we may note h[ 9 ! animals !re is a want ( t sympa?y ) "o ano!r :i* appe>s to be ! s\l ( language4 ,we c comp>e ! use ( spee* ) o!r m5tal & bodily op]ations2 = spee* too is a k9d ( ge/ure1 & 9 ! *ild or savage accompani$ ) ge/ure4 ,we may obs]ve t ! *ild le>ns to speak1 z he le>ns to walk or to eat1 by a natural impulse2 yet 9 ei!r case n )\t a p[] ( imitation :i* is also natural to him--he is taught to read1 b he breaks =? spontane\sly 9 spee*4 ,we c trace ! impulse to b9d toge!r ! _w 9 ideas beg9n+ 9 ! fir/ ef=ts to speak & culm9at+ 9 philosophy4 ,b !re rema9s an elem5t :i* _c be expla9$1 or ev5 adequately describ$4 ,we c und]/& h[ man creates or con/ructs consci\sly & by design2 & see1 if we d n und]/&1 h[ nature1 by a law1 calls into be+ an organis$ /ructure4 ,b ! int]m$iate organism :i* /&s betwe5 man & nature1 :i* is ! "w ( m9d yet unconsci\s1 & 9 :i* m9d & matt] seem to meet1 & m9d unp]ceiv$ to h]self is really limit$ by all o!r m9ds1 is nei!r und]/ood nor se5 by u1 & is ) reluctance admitt$ to be a fact4 ,language is an aspect ( man1 ( nature1 & ( nations1 ! transfiguration ( ! _w 9 ?\ght1 ! meet+-po9t ( ! physical & m5tal sci5ces1 & also ! mirror 9 :i* !y are reflect$1 pres5t at e mom5t to ! individual1 & yet hav+ a sort ( et]nal or univ]sal nature4 ,:5 we analyze our own m5tal processes1 we f9d words ev]y:]e 9 e degree ( cle>ness & consi/5cy1 fad+ away 9 dreams & m l pictures1 rapidly succe$+ "o ano!r 9 our wak+ ?\ghts1 atta9+ a great] di/9ctness & consecutiv5ess 9 spee*1 & a great] /ill 9 writ+1 tak+ ! place ( "o ano!r :5 we try to become emancipat$ f _! influ5ce4 ,= 9 all processes ( ! m9d :i* are consci\s we are talk+ to ourselves2 ! attempt to ?9k )\t words is a m]e illusion1--!y are always reappe>+ :5 we fix our ?\ghts4 ,& spee* is n a sep>ate faculty1 b ! expression ( all our faculties1 to :i* all our o!r p[]s ( expression1 signs1 looks1 ge/ures1 l5d _! aid1 ( :i* ! in/rum5t is n ! tongue only1 b m ?an half ! human frame4 ,! m9ds ( m5 are sometimes c>ri$ on to ?9k ( _! lives & ( _! actions z l9ks 9 a *a9 ( causes & effects go+ back to ! beg9n+ ( "t4 ,a few h seem$ to lose ! s5se ( _! own individuality 9 ! univ]sal cause or nature4 ,9 l mann] we might ?9k ( ! words :i* we daily use1 z d]iv$ f ! fir/ spee* ( man1 & ( all ! languages 9 ! _w1 z ! expressions or v>ieties ( a s+le =ce or life ( language ( :i* ! ?\ghts ( m5 are ! accid5t4 ,su* a conception enables u to grasp ! p[] & wond] ( languages1 & is v natural to ! sci5tific philologi/4 ,= he1 l ! metaphysician1 believes 9 ! reality ( t :i* absorbs 8 own m9d4 ,nor d we d5y ! enorm\s influ5ce :i* language has ex]cis$ ov] ?\ght4 ,fix$ words1 l fix$ ideas1 h (t5 gov]n$ ! _w4 ,b 9 su* repres5tations we attribute to language too mu* ! nature ( a cause1 & too little ( an effect1--too mu* ( an absolute1 too little ( a relative "*1--too mu* ( an ideal1 too little ( a matt]-(-fact exi/5ce4 ,or aga91 we may frame a s+le ab/ract notion ( language ( :i* all exi/5t languages may be suppos$ to be ! p]v]sion4 ,b we mu/ n conceive t ?is logical figm5t _h ev] a real exi/5ce1 or is any?+ m ?an an ef=t ( ! m9d to give unity to inf9itely v>i\s ph5om5a4 ,!re is no ab/ract language 89 r]um natura10 any m ?an !re is an ab/ract tree1 b only languages 9 v>i\s /ages ( gr[?1 maturity1 & decay4 ,nor d o!r logical di/9ctions or ev5 grammatical exactly correspond to ! facts ( language2 = !y too are attempts to give unity & regul>ity to a subject :i* is p>tly irregul>4 ,we f9d1 h[ev]1 t !re are di/9ctions ( ano!r k9d by :i* ?is va/ field ( language admits ( be+ mapp$ out4 ,!re is ! di/9ction betwe5 bilit]al & trilit]al roots1 & ! v>i\s inflexions :i* accompany !m2 betwe5 ! m]e me*anical cohesion ( s\nds or words1 & ! 8*emical0 comb9ation ( !m into a new ^w2 !re is ! di/9ction betwe5 languages :i* h _h a free & full developm5t ( _! organisms1 & languages :i* h be5 /unt$ 9 _! gr[?1--lam$ 9 _! h&s or feet1 & nev] able to acquire aft]w>ds ! p[]s 9 :i* !y are defici5t2 !re is ! di/9ction betwe5 syn!tical languages l ,greek & ,lat91 :i* h reta9$ _! inflexions1 & analytical languages l ,engli% or ,fr5*1 :i* h lo/ !m4 ,innum]able z are ! languages & dialects ( mank9d1 !re are comp>atively few classes to :i* !y c be ref]r$4 ,ano!r road ?r\gh ?is *aos is provid$ by ! physiology ( spee*4 ,! organs ( language are ! same 9 all mank9d1 & are only capable ( utt]+ a c]ta9 numb] ( s\nds4 ,e man has tongue1 tee?1 lips1 palate1 ?roat1 m\?1 :i* he may close or op51 & adapt 9 v>i\s ways2 mak+1 fir/1 v[els & consonants2 & secondly1 o!r classes ( lett]s4 ,! elem5ts ( all spee*1 l ! elem5ts ( ! musical scale1 are few & simple1 ?\gh admitt+ ( inf9ite gradations & comb9ations4 ,:atev] slight diff]5ces exi/ 9 ! use or =mation ( ^! organs1 ow+ to climate or ! s5se ( euphony or o!r causes1 !y are z no?+ comp>$ ) _! agreem5t4 ,"h !n is a real basis ( unity 9 ! /udy ( philology1 unlike t imag9>y ab/ract unity ( :i* we 7 j n[ speak+4 ,:e!r we reg>d language f ! psy*ological1 or hi/orical1 or physiological po9t ( view1 ! mat]ials ( our k are inexhau/ible4 ,! comp>isons ( *ildr5 le>n+ to speak1 ( b>b>\s nations1 ( musical notes1 ( ! cries ( animals1 ( ! song ( birds1 increase our insight into ! nature ( human spee*4 ,_m obs]vations :i* w\ld o!rwise h escap$ u are sugge/$ by !m4 ,b !y d n expla9 :y1 9 man & 9 man only1 ! speak] met ) a response f ! he>]1 & ! half articulate s\nd gradually develop$ into ,sanscrit & ,greek4 ,!y h>dly enable u to approa* any ne>] ! secret ( ! orig9 ( language1 :i*1 l "s ( ! o!r great secrets ( nature1--! orig9 ( bir? & dea?1 or ( animal life1--rema9s inviolable4 ,t problem is indissolubly b\nd up ) ! orig9 ( man2 & if we ev] "k m ( ! "o1 we may expect to "k m ( ! o!r4#a #a ,comp>e ,w4 ,humboldt1 ,ueb] die ,v]s*i$5heit des m5s*li*5 ,spra*baues1 & ,m4 ,mll]1 ,lectures on ! ,sci5ce ( ,language4 ,x is m ?an sixte5 ye>s s9ce ! prec$+ rem>ks 7 writt51 :i* ) a few alt]ations h n[ be5 repr9t$4 ,dur+ ! int]val ! progress ( philology has be5 v great4 ,m languages h be5 comp>$2 ! inn] /ructure ( language has be5 laid b>e2 ! relations ( s\nds h be5 m accurately discrim9at$2 ! mann] 9 :i* dialects affect or are affect$ by ! lit]>y or pr9cipal =m ( a language is bett] und]/ood4 ,_m m]ely v]bal que/ions h be5 elim9at$2 ! rema9s ( ! old traditional me?ods h di$ away4 ,! /udy has pass$ f ! metaphysical into an hi/orical /age4 ,gramm> is no long] confus$ ) language1 nor ! anatomy ( words & s5t5ces ) _! life & use4 ,figures ( spee*1 by :i* ! vagu5ess ( !ories is (t5 conceal$1 h be5 /ripp$ (f2 & we see language m z x truly 04 ,! imm5sity ( ! subject is gradually reveal$ to u1 & ! reign ( law becomes app>5t4 ,yet ! law is b p>tially se52 ! traces ( x are (t5 lo/ 9 ! di/ance4 ,= languages h a natural b n a p]fect gr[?2 l o!r creations ( nature into :i* ! w ( man ent]s1 !y are full ( :at we t]m accid5t & irregul>ity4 ,& ! difficulties ( ! subject become n less1 b great]1 z we proce$--x is "o ( ^? /udies 9 :i* we seem to "k less z we "k m2 p>tly because we are no long] satisfi$ ) ! vague & sup]ficial ideas ( x :i* prevail$ fifty ye>s ago2 p>tly also because ! rema9s ( ! languages ) :i* we are acqua9t$ always 71 & if !y are /ill liv+1 are1 9 a /ate ( transition2 & ?irdly1 because !re are lacunae 9 our k ( !m :i* c nev] be fill$ up4 ,n a t5?1 n a hundr$? "p ( !m has be5 pres]v$4 ,yet ! mat]ials at our disposal are f> great] ?an any individual c use4 ,su* are a few ( ! g5]al reflections :i* ! pres5t /ate ( philology calls up4 7#a7 ,language seems to be composite1 b into its fir/ elem5ts ! philolog] has nev] be5 able to p5etrate4 ,h[ev] f> he goes back1 he nev] arrives at ! beg9n+2 or r1 z 9 ,geology or 9 ,a/ronomy1 !re is no beg9n+4 ,he is too apt to suppose t by break+ up ! exi/+ =ms ( language into _! p>ts he w arrive at a previ\s /age ( x1 b he is m]ely analyz+ :at nev] exi/$1 or is nev] kn[n to h exi/$1 except 9 a composite =m4 ,he may divide n\ns & v]bs into roots & inflexions1 b he has no evid5ce :i* w %[ t ! omega ( tupto or ! mu ( ti!mi1 ?\gh analog\s to ego1 me1 ei!r became pron\ns or 7 g5]at$ out ( pron\ns4 ,to say t 8pron\ns1 l ripe fruit1 dropp$ out ( v]bs10 is a mislead+ figure ( spee*4 ,al?\gh all languages h "s common pr9ciples1 !re is no primitive =m or =ms ( language kn[n to u1 or to be reasonably imag9$1 f :i* !y are all desc5d$4 ,no inf]5ce c be drawn f language1 ei!r = or aga9/ ! unity ( ! human race4 ,nor is !re any pro( t words 7 ev] us$ )\t any relation to ea* o!r4 ,:atev] may be ! mean+ ( a s5t5ce or a ^w :5 appli$ to primitive language1 x is probable t ! s5t5ce is m ak9 to ! orig9al =m ?an ! ^w1 & t ! lat] /age ( language is ! result r ( analysis ?an ( syn!sis1 or possibly is a comb9ation ( ! two4 ,nor1 aga91 are we sure t ! orig9al process ( le>n+ to speak 0 ! same 9 diff]5t places or among diff]5t races ( m54 ,x may h be5 sl[] ) "s1 quick] ) o!rs4 ,"s tribes may h us$ %ort]1 o!rs long] words or cries3 !y may h be5 m or less incl9$ to agglut9ate or to decompose !m3 !y may h modifi$ !m by ! use ( prefixes1 suffixes1 infixes2 by ! l5g!n+ & /r5g!n+ ( v[els or by ! %ort5+ & weak5+ ( !m1 by ! cond5sation or r>efaction ( consonants4 ,b :o gave to language ^! primeval laws2 or :y "o race has trilit]al1 ano!r bilit]al roots2 or :y 9 "s memb]s ( a gr\p ( languages b becomes p1 or d1 t1 or *1 k2 or :y two languages resemble "o ano!r 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( _! /ructure & diff] 9 o!rs2 or :y 9 "o language !re is a great] developm5t ( v[els1 9 ano!r ( consonants1 & ! l--are que/ions ( :i* we only 8ent]ta9 conjecture40 ,we mu/ rememb] ! l5g? ( "t t has elaps$ s9ce man fir/ walk$ ^u ! e>?1 & t 9 ?is va/ b unkn[n p]iod e v>iety ( language may h be5 9 process ( =mation & decay1 _m times ov]4 7,comp>e ,plato1 ,laws73-- 8,,a!nian ,,/rang]3 ,& :at !n is to be reg>d$ z ! orig9 ( gov]nm5t8 ,w n a man be able to judge be/ f a po9t ( view 9 :i* he may behold ! progress ( /ates & _! transitions to good & evil8 ,,cle9ias3 ,:at d y mean8 ,,a!nian ,,/rang]3 ,i mean t he might wat* !m f ! po9t ( view ( "t1 & obs]ve ! *anges :i* take place 9 !m dur+ inf9ite ages4 ,,cle9ias3 ,h[ s8 ,,a!nian ,,/rang]3 ,:y1 d y ?9k t y c reckon ! "t :i* has elaps$ s9ce cities fir/ exi/$ & m5 7 citiz5s ( !m8 ,,cle9ias3 ,h>dly4 ,,a!nian ,,/rang]3 ,b y are q sure t x mu/ be va/ & incalculable8 ,,cle9ias3 ,no d\bt4 ,,a!nian ,,/rang]3 ,& h !re n be5 ?\s&s & ?\s&s ( cities :i* h come into be+ & p]i%$ dur+ ?is p]iod8 ,& has n e place _h endless =ms ( gov]nm5t1 & be5 sometimes ris+1 & at o!r times fall+1 & aga9 improv+ or wan+80 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph43-- 8,& if a p]son %\ld conceive ! tales ( my?ology to mean only t m5 ?\ght ! gods to be ! fir/ ess5ces ( ?+s1 he w\ld deem ! reflection to h be5 inspir$ & w\ld consid] t1 :]eas probably e art & "p ( wisdom _h be5 ,,discov]$ ,,& ,,lo/ ,,_m ,,times ,,ov]1 su* notions 7 b a remnant ( ! pa/ :i* has surviv$ to our day407 ,x c h>dly be suppos$ t any traces ( an orig9al language /ill survive1 any m ?an ( ! fir/ huts or build+s :i* 7 con/ruct$ by man4 ,nor are we at all c]ta9 ( ! relation1 if any1 9 :i* ! great] families ( languages /& to ea* o!r4 ,! influ5ce ( individuals mu/ always h be5 a di/urb+ elem5t4 ,l great writ]s 9 lat] times1 !re may h be5 _m a b>b>ic g5ius :o taught ! m5 ( 8 tribe to s+ or speak1 %[+ !m by example h[ to cont9ue or divide _! words1 *>m+ _! s\ls ) rhy?m & acc5t & intonation1 f9d+ 9 famili> objects ! expression ( _! confus$ fancies--to :om ! :ole ( language might 9 tru? be said to be a figure ( spee*4 ,"o p]son may h introduc$ a new cu/om into ! =mation or pronunciation ( a ^w2 he may h be5 imitat$ by o!rs1 & ! cu/om1 or =m1 or acc5t1 or quantity1 or rhyme :i* he introduc$ 9 a s+le ^w may h become ! type on :i* _m o!r words or inflexions ( words 7 fram$1 & may h quickly ran ?r\gh a :ole language4 ,= l ! o!r gifts :i* nature has be/[$ ^u man1 t ( spee* has be5 convey$ to him ?r\gh ! m$ium1 n ( ! _m1 b ( ! few1 :o 7 8 8law-giv]s0--8! legislator ) ! dialectician /&+ on 8 "r h&10 9 ,plato's /rik+ image1 :o =m$ ! mann]s ( m5 & gave !m cu/oms1 ^: voice & look & behavi\r1 ^: ge/iculations & o!r peculi>ities 7 in/9ctively imitat$ by !m1--! 8k+ ( m50 :o 0 _! prie/1 almo/ _! ,god444,b ^! are conjectures only3 s little d we "k ( ! orig9 ( language t ! real s*ol> is indispos$ to t\* ! subject at all4 7#b7 ,!re are o!r errors besides ! figm5t ( a primitive or orig9al language :i* x is "t to leave beh9d u4 ,we no long] divide languages into syn!tical & analytical1 or suppose simil>ity ( /ructure to be ! safe or only guide to ! aff9ities ( !m4 ,we d n confuse ! p>ts ( spee* ) ! categories ( ,logic4 ,nor d we conceive languages any m ?an civilisations to be 9 a /ate ( dissolution2 !y d n easily pass away1 b are f> m t5aci\s ( life ?an ! tribes by :om !y are spok54 8,:]e two or ?ree are ga!r$ toge!r10 !y survive4 ,z 9 ! human frame1 z 9 ! /ate1 !re is a pr9ciple ( r5ovation z well z ( decay :i* is at "w 9 all ( !m4 ,nei!r d we suppose !m to be inv5t$ by ! wit ( man4 ,) few exceptions1 e4g4 te*nical words or words newly import$ f a =eign language1 & ! l1 9 :i* art has imitat$ nature1 8words are n made b gr[40 ,nor d we attribute to !m a sup]natural orig94 ,! law :i* regulates !m is l ! law :i* gov]ns ! circulation ( ! blood1 or ! ris+ ( ! sap 9 trees2 ! action ( x is uni=m1 b ! result1 :i* appe>s 9 ! sup]ficial =ms ( m5 & animals or 9 ! leaves ( trees1 is an endless pr(usion & v>iety4 ,! laws ( vegetation are inv>iable1 b no two plants1 no two leaves ( ! =e/ are precisely ! same4 ,! laws ( language are inv>iable1 b no two languages are alike1 no two words h exactly ! same mean+4 ,no two s\nds are exactly ( ! same quality1 or give precisely ! same impression4 ,x w\ld be well if !re 7 a simil> cons5sus ab\t "s o!r po9ts :i* appe> to be /ill 9 dispute4 ,is language consci\s or unconsci\s8 ,9 speak+ or writ+ h we pres5t to our m9ds ! mean+ or ! s\nd or ! con/ruction ( ! words :i* we are us+8--,no m ?an ! sep>ate drops ( wat] ) :i* we qu5* our ?ir/ are pres5t3 ! :ole draught may be consci\s1 b n ! m9ute p>ticles ( :i* x is made up3 ,s ! :ole s5t5ce may be consci\s1 b ! sev]al words1 syllables1 lett]s are n ?\ght ( sep>ately :5 we are utt]+ !m4 ,l o!r natural op]ations1 ! process ( spee*1 :5 mo/ p]fect1 is lea/ obs]v$ by u4 ,we d n pause at ea* m\?ful to dwell ^u ! ta/e ( x3 nor has ! speak] "t to ask himself ! comp>ative m]its ( diff]5t modes ( expression :ile he is utt]+ !m4 ,!re are _m ?+s 9 ! use ( language :i* may be obs]v$ f )\t1 b :i* _c be expla9$ f )94 ,consci\sness c>ries u b a little way 9 ! inve/igation ( ! m9d2 x is n ! faculty ( int]nal obs]vation1 b only ! dim light :i* makes su* obs]vation possible4 ,:at is suppos$ to be our consci\sness ( language is really only ! analysis ( x1 & ?is analysis admits ( innum]able degrees4 ,b w\ld x n be bett] if ?is t]m1 :i* is s mislead+1 & yet has play$ s great a "p 9 m5tal sci5ce1 7 ei!r bani%$ or us$ only ) ! di/9ct mean+ ( 8att5tion to our own m9ds10 su* z is call$ =?1 n by famili> m5tal processes1 b by ! int]ruption ( !m8 ,n[ 9 ?is s5se we may truly say t we are n consci\s ( ord9>y spee*1 ?\gh we are commonly r\s$ to att5tion by ! misuse or mispronunciation ( a ^w4 ,/ill less1 ev5 9 s*ools & academies1 d we ev] attempt to inv5t new words or to alt] ! mean+ ( old ones1 except 9 ! case1 m5tion$ above1 ( te*nical or borr[$ words :i* are artificially made or import$ because a ne$ ( !m is felt4 ,nei!r 9 our own nor 9 any o!r age has ! consci\s ef=t ( reflection 9 man contribut$ 9 an appreciable degree to ! =mation ( language4 8,:i* ( u by tak+ ?\ght0 c make new words or con/ructions8 ,reflection is ! lea/ ( ! causes by :i* language is affect$1 & is likely to h ! lea/ p[]1 :5 ! l+ui/ic in/9ct is greate/1 z 9 "y *ildr5 & 9 ! infancy ( nations4 ,a k9dr$ error is ! sep>ation ( ! phonetic f ! m5tal elem5t ( language2 !y are really insep>able--no def9ite l9e c be drawn betwe5 !m1 any m ?an 9 any o!r common act ( m9d & body4 ,x is true t )9 c]ta9 limits we possess ! p[] ( v>y+ s\nds by op5+ & clos+ ! m\?1 by t\*+ ! palate or ! tee? ) ! tongue1 by l5g!n+ or %ort5+ ! vocal in/rum5t1 by great] or less /ress1 by a high] or l[] pit* ( ! voice1 & we c sub/itute "o note or acc5t = ano!r4 ,b beh9d ! organs ( spee* & _! action !re rema9s ! in=m+ m9d1 :i* sets !m 9 motion & works toge!r ) !m4 ,& beh9d ! great /ructure ( human spee* & ! less] v>ieties ( language :i* arise out ( ! _m degrees & k9ds ( human int]c\rse1 !re is also ! unkn[n or ov]-rul+ law ( ,god or nature :i* gives ord] to x 9 its inf9ite greatness1 & v>iety 9 its inf9itesimal m9ut5ess--bo? equally inscrutable to u4 ,we ne$ no long] discuss :e!r philology is to be class$ ) ! ,natural or ! ,m5tal sci5ces1 if we frankly recognize t1 l all ! sci5ces :i* are conc]n$ ) man1 x has a d\ble aspect1--inw>d & outw>d2 & t ! inw>d c only be kn[n ?r\gh ! outw>d4 ,nei!r ne$ we raise ! "q :e!r ! laws ( language1 l ! o!r laws ( human action1 admit ( exceptions4 ,! answ] 9 all cases is ! same--t ! laws ( nature are uni=m1 ?\gh ! consi/5cy or cont9uity ( !m is n always p]ceptible to u4 ,! sup]ficial appe>ances ( language1 z ( nature1 are irregul>1 b we d n !re=e d5y _! deep] uni=mity4 ,! comp>ison ( ! gr[? ( language 9 ! individual & 9 ! nation _c be :olly disc>d$1 = nations are made up ( individuals4 ,b 9 ?is1 z 9 ! o!r political sci5ces1 we mu/ di/+ui% betwe5 collective & individual actions or processes1 & n attribute to ! "o :at belongs to ! o!r4 ,aga91 :5 we speak ( ! h]$it>y or pat]nity ( a language1 we mu/ rememb] t ! p>5ts are alive z well z ! *ildr51 & t all ! prec$+ g5]ations survive 7aft] a mann]7 9 ! late/ =m ( x4 ,& :51 = ! purposes ( comp>ison1 we =m into gr\ps ! roots or t]m9ations ( words1 we %\ld n =get h[ casual is ! mann] 9 :i* _! resemblances h aris5--!y 7 n fir/ writt5 d[n by a gramm>ian 9 ! p>adigms ( a gramm> & le>n$ out ( a book1 b 7 due to _m *ance attractions ( s\nd or ( mean+1 or ( bo? comb9$4 ,s _m cautions h to be borne 9 m9d1 & s _m fir/ ?\ghts to be dismiss$1 be=e we c proce$ safely 9 ! pa? ( philological enquiry4 ,x might be well sometimes to lay aside figures ( spee*1 su* z ! 8root0 & ! 8bran*es10 ! 8/em10 ! 8/rata0 ( ,geology1 ! 8comp\nds0 ( ,*emi/ry1 8! ripe fruit ( pron\ns dropp+ f v]bs0 7see above71 & ! l1 :i* are always int]e/+1 b are apt to be delusive4 ,yet su* figures ( spee* are f> ne>] ! tru? ?an ! !ories :i* attribute ! inv5tion & improvem5t ( language to ! consci\s action ( ! human m9d444,la/ly1 x is d\bt$ by rec5t philologians :e!r climate c be suppos$ to h ex]cis$ any influ5ce wor? speak+ ( on a language3 su* a view is said to be unprov53 x _h bett] !re=e n be sil5tly assum$4 8,natural selection0 & ! 8survival ( ! fitte/0 h be5 appli$ 9 ! field ( philology1 z well z 9 ! o!r sci5ces :i* are conc]n$ ) animal & vegetable life4 ,& a ,d>w9ian s*ool ( philologi/s has sprung up1 :o are sometimes accus$ ( putt+ words 9 ! place ( ?+s4 ,x seems to be true1 t :e!r appli$ to language or to o!r bran*es ( k1 ! ,d>w9ian !ory1 unless v precisely def9$1 h>dly escapes f be+ a truism4 ,if by 8! natural selection0 ( words or mean+s ( words or by ! 8p]si/5ce & survival ( ! fitte/0 ! ma9ta9] ( ! !ory int5ds to affirm no?+ m ?an ?is--t ! ^w 8fitte/ to survive0 survives1 he adds n mu* to ! k ( language4 ,b if he means t ! ^w or ! mean+ ( ! ^w or "s portion ( ! ^w :i* comes into use or drops out ( use is select$ or reject$ on ! gr\nd ( economy or p>simony or ease to ! speak] or cle>ness or euphony or expressiv5ess1 or great] or less dem& = x1 or any?+ ( ?is sort1 he is affirm+ a proposition :i* has sev]al s5ses1 & 9 none ( ^! s5ses c be assi/$ to be uni=mly true4 ,= ! laws ( language are prec>i\s1 & c only act uni=mly :5 !re is su* frequ5cy ( int]c\rse among neighb\rs z is suffici5t to en=ce !m4 ,& !re are _m reasons :y a man %\ld pref] 8 own way ( speak+ to t ( o!rs1 unless by s do+ he becomes un9telligible4 ,! /ruggle = exi/5ce among words is n ( t fi]ce & irresi/ible k9d 9 :i* birds1 bea/s & fi%es dev\r "o ano!r1 b ( a mild] sort1 all[+ "o usage to be sub/itut$ = ano!r1 n by =ce1 b by ! p]suasion1 or r by ! prevail+ habit1 ( a majority4 ,! fav\rite figure1 9 ?is1 z 9 "s o!r uses ( x1 has t5d$ r to obscure ?an expla9 ! subject to :i* x has be5 appli$4 ,nor 9 any case c ! /ruggle = exi/5ce be deem$ to be ! sole or pr9cipal cause ( *anges 9 language1 b only "o among _m1 & "o ( :i* we _c easily measure ! importance4 ,!re is a fur!r objection :i* may be urg$ equally aga9/ all applications ( ! ,d>w9ian !ory4 ,z 9 animal life & likewise 9 vegetable1 s 9 languages1 ! process ( *ange is said to be ins5sible3 s\nds1 l animals1 are suppos$ to pass into "o ano!r by imp]ceptible gradation4 ,b 9 bo? cases ! newly-creat$ =ms soon become fix$2 !re are few if any ve/iges ( ! int]m$iate l9ks1 & s ! bett] half ( ! evid5ce ( ! *ange is want+4 7#c7 ,among ! incumbrances or illusions ( language may be reckon$ _m ( ! rules & traditions ( gramm>1 :e!r anci5t gramm> or ! corrections ( x :i* mod]n philology has introduc$4 ,gramm>1 l law1 delights 9 def9ition3 human spee*1 l human action1 ?\gh v f> f be+ a m]e *aos1 is indef9ite1 admits ( degrees1 & is always 9 a /ate ( *ange or transition4 ,gramm> gives an errone\s conception ( language3 = x r$uces to a sy/em t :i* is n a sy/em4 ,its figures ( spee*1 pleonasms1 ellipses1 anacolu?a1 pros to sema9om5on1 & ! l h no reality2 !y d n ei!r make consci\s expressions m intelligible or %[ ! way 9 :i* !y h aris52 !y are *iefly design$ to br+ an e>li] use ( language into con=mity ) ! lat]4 ,(t5 !y seem int5d$ only to rem9d u t great poets l ,aes*ylus or ,sophocles or ,p9d> or a great prose writ] l ,?ucydides are guilty ( tak+ unw>rantable lib]ties ) grammatical rules2 x appe>s nev] to h occurr$ to ! inv5tors ( !m t ^! real 8conditores l+uae ,graecae0 liv$ 9 an age be=e gramm>1 :5 8,greece also 0 liv+ ,greece40 ,x is ! anatomy1 n ! physiology ( language1 :i* gramm> seeks to describe3 into ! idiom & high] life ( words x does n ent]4 ,! ord9>y ,greek gramm> gives a complete p>adigm ( ! v]b1 )\t sugge/+ t ! d\ble or treble =ms ( ,p]fects1 ,aori/s1 etc4 are h>dly ev] contemporane\s4 ,x di/+ui%es ,moods & ,t5ses1 )\t obs]v+ h[ mu* ( ! nature ( "o passes into ! o!r4 ,x makes ?ree ,voices1 ,active1 ,passive1 & ,middle1 b takes no notice ( ! prec>i\s exi/5ce & unc]ta9 "* ( ! la/ ( ! ?ree4 ,language is a ?+ ( degrees & relations & associations & exceptions3 gramm> ties x up 9 fix$ rules4 ,language has _m v>ieties ( usage3 gramm> tries to r$uce !m to a s+le "o4 ,gramm> divides v]bs into regul> & irregul>3 x does n recognize t ! irregul>1 equally ) ! regul>1 are subject to law1 & t a language :i* _h no exceptions w\ld n be a natural gr[?3 = x c\ld n h be5 subject$ to ! influ5ces by :i* language is ord9>ily affect$4 ,x is always want+ to describe anci5t languages 9 ! t]ms ( a mod]n "o4 ,x has a fav\rite fiction t "o ^w is put 9 ! place ( ano!r2 ! tru? is t no ^w is ev] put = ano!r4 ,x has ano!r fiction1 t a ^w has be5 omitt$3 words are omitt$ because !y are no long] ne$$2 & ! omission has ceas$ to be obs]v$4 ,! common explanation ( kata or "s o!r preposition 8be+ und]/ood0 9 a ,greek s5t5ce is ano!r fiction ( ! same k9d1 :i* t5ds to disguise ! fact t "u cases 7 compreh5d$ orig9ally _m m relations1 & t prepositions are us$ only to def9e ! mean+ ( !m ) great] precision4 ,^! in/ances are suffici5t to %[ ! sort ( errors :i* gramm> introduces into language4 ,we are n consid]+ ! "q ( its utility to ! beg9n] 9 ! /udy4 ,ev5 to him ! be/ gramm> is ! %orte/ & t 9 :i* he w h lea/ to unle>n4 ,x may be said t ! explanations "h ref]r$ to are already out ( date1 & t ! /udy ( ,greek gramm> has receiv$ a new "* f comp>ative philology4 ,?is is true2 b x is also true t ! traditional gramm> has /ill a great hold on ! m9d ( ! /ud5t4 ,metaphysics are ev5 m tr\blesome ?an ! figm5ts ( gramm>1 because !y we> ! appe>ance ( philosophy & !re is no te/ to :i* !y c be subject$4 ,!y are useful 9 s f> z !y give u an insight into ! hi/ory ( ! human m9d & ! modes ( ?\ght :i* h exi/$ 9 =m] ages2 or 9 s f> z !y furni% wid] conceptions ( ! diff]5t bran*es ( k & ( _! relation to "o ano!r4 ,b !y are worse ?an useless :5 !y outrun exp]i5ce & ab/ract ! m9d f ! obs]vation ( facts1 only to envelope x 9 a mi/ ( words4 ,"s philolog]s1 l ,s*lei*]1 h be5 greatly influ5c$ by ! philosophy ( ,hegel2 ne>ly all ( !m to a c]ta9 ext5t h fall5 "u ! dom9ion ( physical sci5ce4 ,ev5 ,kant himself ?\ght t ! fir/ pr9ciples ( philosophy c\ld be elicit$ f ! analysis ( ! proposition1 9 ?is respect fall+ %ort ( ,plato4 ,we/phal holds t !re are ?ree /ages ( language3 7#a7 9 :i* ?+s 7 *>act]iz$ indep5d5tly1 7#b7 9 :i* !y 7 reg>d$ 9 relation to human ?\ght1 & 7#c7 9 relation to "o ano!r4 ,b are n su* di/9ctions an ana*ronism8 = !y imply a gr[? ( ab/ract ideas :i* nev] exi/$ 9 e>ly times4 ,language _c be expla9$ by ,metaphysics2 = x is prior to !m & mu* m ne>ly alli$ to s5se4 ,x is n likely t ! mean+ ( ! cases is ultimately resolvable into relations ( space & "t4 ,nor c we suppose ! conception ( cause & effect or ( ! f9ite & inf9ite or ( ! same & o!r to be lat5t 9 language at a "t :5 9 _! ab/ract =m !y _h nev] ent]$ into ! m9d ( man444,if ! sci5ce ( ,comp>ative ,philology _h possess$ 8en\gh ( ,metaphysics to get rid ( ,metaphysics10 x w\ld h made f> great] progress4 7#d7 ,our k ( language is almo/ conf9$ to languages :i* are fully develop$4 ,!y are ( sev]al patt]ns2 & ^! become alt]$ by admixture 9 v>i\s degrees1--!y may only borr[ a few words f "o ano!r & reta9 _! life comp>atively unalt]$1 or !y may meet 9 a /ruggle = exi/5ce until "o ( ! two is ov]p[]$ & retires f ! field4 ,!y atta9 ! full rights & dignity ( language :5 !y acquire ! use ( writ+ & h a lit]ature ( _! own2 !y pass into dialects & gr[ out ( !m1 9 proportion z m5 are isolat$ or unit$ by locality or occupation4 ,! common language sometimes reacts ^u ! dialects & imp>ts to !m also a lit]>y "*4 ,! laws ( language c be be/ disc]n$ 9 ! great crises ( language1 especially 9 ! transitions f anci5t to mod]n =ms ( !m1 :e!r 9 ,europe or ,asia4 ,su* *anges are ! sil5t notes ( ! _w's hi/ory2 !y m>k p]iods ( unkn[n l5g? 9 :i* w> & conque/ 7 runn+ riot ov] :ole cont95ts1 times ( suff]+ too great to be endur$ by ! human race1 9 :i* ! ma/]s became subjects & ! subject races ma/]s1 9 :i* driv5 by necessity or impell$ by "s in/9ct1 tribes or nations left _! orig9al homes & b sl[ly f\nd a re/+-place4 ,language w\ld be ! greate/ ( all hi/orical monum5ts1 if x c\ld only tell u ! hi/ory ( itself4 7#e7 ,!re are _m ways 9 :i* we may approa* ?is /udy4 ,! simple/ ( all is to obs]ve our own use ( language 9 conv]sation or 9 writ+1 h[ we put words toge!r1 h[ we con/ruct & connect s5t5ces1 :at are ! rules ( acc5t & rhy?m 9 v]se or prose1 ! =mation & composition ( words1 ! laws ( euphony & s\nd1 ! aff9ities ( lett]s1 ! mi/akes to :i* we are ourselves mo/ liable ( spell+ or pronunciation4 ,we may comp>e ) our own language "s o!r1 ev5 :5 we h only a slight k ( x1 su* z ,fr5* or ,g]man4 ,ev5 a little ,lat9 w enable u to appreciate ! gr& diff]5ce betwe5 anci5t & mod]n ,european languages4 ,9 ! *ild le>n+ to speak we may note ! inh]5t /r5g? ( language1 :i* l 8a m\nta9 riv]0 is always =c+ its way out4 ,we may witness ! delight 9 imitation & repetition1 & "s ( ! laws by :i* s\nds pass into "o ano!r4 ,we may le>n some?+ also f ! falt]+s ( old age1 ! se>*+ = words1 & ! confusion ( !m ) "o ano!r1 ! =getfulness ( prop] names 7m commonly ?an ( o!r words because !y are m isolat$71 aphasia1 & ! l4 ,!re are philological lessons also to be ga!r$ f nicknames1 f prov9cialisms1 f ! slang ( great cities1 f ! argot ( ,p>is 7t language ( suff]+ & crime1 s pa!tically describ$ by ,victor ,hugo71 f ! imp]fect articulation ( ! deaf & dumb1 f ! jabb]+ ( animals1 f ! analysis ( s\nds 9 relation to ! organs ( spee*4 ,! phonograph af=ds a visible evid5ce ( ! nature & divisions ( s\nd2 we may be truly said to "k :at we c manufacture4 ,artificial languages1 su* z t ( ,bi%op ,wilk9s1 are *iefly useful 9 %[+ :at language is n4 ,! /udy ( any =eign language may be made also a /udy ( ,comp>ative ,philology4 ,!re are sev]al po9ts1 su* z ! nature ( irregul> v]bs1 ( indecl9able p>ts ( spee*1 ! influ5ce ( euphony1 ! decay or loss ( inflections1 ! elem5ts ( syntax1 :i* may be exam9$ z well 9 ! hi/ory ( our own language z ( any o!r4 ,a few well-select$ que/ions may lead ! /ud5t at once into ! he>t ( ! my/]y3 su* z1 ,:y are ! pron\ns & ! v]b ( exi/5ce g5]ally m irregul> ?an any o!r p>ts ( spee*8 ,:y is ! numb] ( words s small 9 :i* ! s\nd is an e*o ( ! s5se8 ,:y does ! mean+ ( words dep>t s widely f _! etymology8 ,:y d sub/antives (t5 diff] 9 mean+ f ! v]bs to :i* !y are relat$1 adv]bs f adjectives8 ,:y d words diff]+ 9 orig9 coalesce 9 ! same s\nd ?\gh reta9+ _! diff]5ces ( mean+8 ,:y are "s v]bs imp]sonal8 ,:y are !re only s _m p>ts ( spee*1 & on :at pr9ciple are !y divid$8 ,^! are a few crucial que/ions :i* give u an insight f diff]5t po9ts ( view into ! true nature ( language4 7#f7 ,?us f> we h be5 endeav\r+ to /rip (f f language ! false appe>ances 9 :i* gramm> & philology1 or ! love ( sy/em g5]ally1 h clo!d x4 ,we h also s\ght to indicate ! s\rces ( our k ( x & ! _s 9 :i* we %\ld approa* x1 we may n[ proce$ to consid] "s ( ! pr9ciples or natural laws :i* h creat$ or modifi$ x4 i4 ,! fir/ & simple/ ( all ! pr9ciples ( language1 common also to ! animals1 is imitation4 ,! lion ro>s1 ! wolf h[ls 9 ! solitude ( ! =e/3 !y are answ]$ by simil> cries he>d f a di/ance4 ,! bird1 too1 mimics ! voice ( man & makes answ] to him4 ,man tells to man ! secret place 9 :i* he is hid+ himself2 he rememb]s & repeats ! s\nd :i* he has he>d4 ,! love ( imitation becomes a passion & an in/9ct to him4 ,primitive m5 le>nt to speak f "o ano!r1 l a *ild f its "m or nurse4 ,!y le>nt ( c\rse a rudim5t>y1 half-articulate language1 ! cry or song or spee* :i* 0 ! expression ( :at we n[ call human ?\ghts & feel+s4 ,we may /ill rem>k h[ mu* great] & m natural ! ex]cise ( ! p[] is 9 ! use ( language ?an 9 any o!r process or action ( ! human m9d4 ii4 ,imitation provid$ ! fir/ mat]ial ( language3 b x 0 8)\t =m & void40 ,dur+ h[ _m ye>s or hundr$s or ?\s&s ( ye>s ! imitative or half-articulate /age cont9u$ !re is no possibility ( det]m9+4 ,b we may reasonably conjecture t !re 0 a "t :5 ! vocal utt]ance ( man 0 int]m$iate betwe5 :at we n[ call language & ! cry ( a bird or animal4 ,spee* be=e language 0 a rudis indige/aque mat]ies1 n yet di/ribut$ into words & s5t5ces1 9 :i* ! cry ( fe> or joy m+l$ ) m def9ite s\nds recogniz$ by cu/om z ! expressions ( ?+s or ev5ts4 ,x 0 ! pr9ciple ( analogy :i* introduc$ into ?is 8indige/a moles0 ord] & measure4 ,x 0 ,anaxagoras' om\ panta *remata1 eita n\s el?on diekosmese3 ! light ( reason light$ up all ?+s & at once began to arrange !m4 ,9 e s5t5ce1 9 e ^w & e t]m9ation ( a ^w1 ?is p[] ( =m+ relations to "o ano!r 0 conta9$4 ,!re 0 a proportion ( s\nd to s\nd1 ( mean+ to mean+1 ( mean+ to s\nd4 ,! cases & numb]s ( n\ns1 ! p]sons1 t5ses1 numb]s ( v]bs1 7 g5]ally on ! same or ne>ly ! same patt]n & _h ! same mean+4 ,! s\nds by :i* !y 7 express$ 7 r\gh-hewn at fir/2 aft] a :ile !y grew m ref9$--! natural laws ( euphony began to affect !m4 ,! rules ( syntax are likewise bas$ ^u analogy4 ,"t has an analogy ) space1 ari?metic ) geometry4 ,n only 9 musical notes1 b 9 ! quantity1 quality1 acc5t1 rhy?m ( human spee*1 trivial or s]i\s1 !re is a law ( proportion4 ,z 9 ?+s ( beauty1 z 9 all nature1 9 ! composition z well z 9 ! motion ( all ?+s1 !re is a simil>ity ( relations by :i* !y are held toge!r4 ,x w\ld be a mi/ake to suppose t ! analogies ( language are always uni=m3 !re may be (t5 a *oice betwe5 sev]al1 & sometimes "o & sometimes ano!r w prevail4 ,9 ,greek !re are ?ree decl5sions ( n\ns2 ! =ms ( cases 9 "o ( !m may intrude ^u ano!r4 ,simil>ly v]bs 9 -omega & -mu iota int]*ange =ms ( t5ses1 & ! complet$ p>adigm ( ! v]b is (t5 made up ( bo?4 ,! same n\ns may be p>tly decl9able & p>tly indecl9able1 & 9 "s ( _! cases may h fall5 out ( use4 ,"h are rules ) exceptions2 !y are n h[ev] really exceptions1 b conta9 9 !mselves indications ( o!r rules4 ,_m ( ^! int]ruptions or v>iations ( analogy occur 9 pron\ns or 9 ! v]b ( exi/5ce ( :i* ! =ms 7 too common & !re=e too deeply imb$d$ 9 language entirely to drop out4 ,! same v]bs 9 ! same mean+ may sometimes take "o case1 sometimes ano!r4 ,! p>ticiple may also h ! "* ( an adjective1 ! adv]b ei!r ( an adjective or ( a preposition4 ,^! exceptions are z regul> z ! rules1 b ! causes ( !m are seldom kn[n to u4 ,language1 l ! animal & vegetable worlds1 is ev]y:]e int]sect$ by ! l9es ( analogy4 ,l numb] f :i* x seems to be d]iv$1 ! pr9ciple ( analogy op5s ! eyes ( m5 to disc]n ! simil>ities & diff]5ces ( ?+s1 & _! relations to "o ano!r4 ,at fir/ ^! are su* z lie on ! surface only2 aft] a "t !y are se5 by m5 to rea* f>!r d[n into ! nature ( ?+s4 ,gradually 9 language !y arrange !mselves into a sort ( imp]fect sy/em2 gr\ps ( p]sonal & case end+s are plac$ side by side4 ,! f]tility ( language produces _m m ?an are want$2 & ! sup]flu\s ones are utiliz$ by ! assignm5t to !m ( new mean+s4 ,! vacuity & ! sup]fluity are ?us p>tially comp5sat$ by ea* o!r4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t 9 all ! languages :i* h a lit]ature1 c]ta9ly 9 ,sanskrit1 ,greek1 ,lat91 we are n at ! beg9n+ b almo/ at ! end ( ! l+ui/ic process2 we h rea*$ a "t :5 ! v]b & ! n\n are ne>ly p]fect$1 ?\gh 9 no language did !y completely p]fect !mselves1 because = "s unkn[n reason ! motive p[]s ( languages seem to h ceas$ :5 !y 7 on ! eve ( completion3 !y became fix$ or cry/alliz$ 9 an imp]fect =m ei!r f ! influ5ce ( writ+ & lit]ature1 or because no fur!r diff]5tiation ( !m 0 requir$ = ! intelligibility ( language4 ,s n )\t admixture & confusion & displacem5t & contam9ation ( s\nds & ! mean+s ( words1 a l[] /age ( language passes into a high]4 ,?us f> we c see & no fur!r4 ,:5 we ask ! reason :y ?is pr9ciple ( analogy prevails 9 all ! va/ doma9 ( language1 !re is no answ] to ! "q2 or no o!r answ] b ?is1 t !re are innum]able ways 9 :i*1 l numb]1 analogy p]meates1 n only language1 b ! :ole _w1 bo? visible & intellectual4 ,we "k f exp]i5ce t x does n 7a7 arise f any consci\s act ( reflection t ! accusative ( a ,lat9 n\n 9 8u0 %\ld end 9 8um20 nor 7b7 f any necessity ( be+ und]/ood1--mu* less articulation w\ld suffice = ?is2 nor 7c7 f great] conv5i5ce or expressiv5ess ( p>ticul> s\nds4 ,su* notions 7 c]ta9ly f> en\gh away f ! m9d ( primitive man4 ,we may speak ( a lat5t in/9ct1 ( a survival ( ! fitte/1 easie/1 mo/ euphonic1 mo/ economical ( brea?1 9 ! case ( "o ( two compet+ s\nds2 b ^! expressions d n add any?+ to our k4 ,we may try to grasp ! inf9ity ( language ei!r "u ! figure ( a limitless pla9 divid$ into c\ntries & di/ricts by natural b\nd>ies1 or ( a va/ riv] et]nally fl[+ ^: orig9 is conceal$ f u2 we may appreh5d p>tially ! laws by :i* spee* is regulat$3 b we d n "k1 & we seem z if we %\ld nev] "k1 any m ?an 9 ! p>allel case ( ! orig9 ( species1 h[ vocal s\nds receiv$ life & grew1 & 9 ! =m ( languages came to be di/ribut$ ov] ! e>?4 iii4 ,next 9 ord] to analogy 9 ! =mation ( language or ev5 prior to x comes ! pr9ciple ( onomatopea1 :i* is itself a k9d ( analogy or simil>ity ( s\nd & mean+4 ,9 by f> ! great] numb] ( words x has become disguis$ & has disappe>$2 b 9 no /age ( language is x entirely lo/4 ,x belongs *iefly to e>ly language1 9 :i* words 7 few2 & its influ5ce grew less & less z "t w5t on4 ,to ! e> :i* _h a s5se ( h>mony x became a b>b>ism :i* di/urb$ ! fl[ & equilibrium ( disc\rse2 x 0 an excresc5ce :i* _h to be cut out1 a survival :i* ne$$ to be got rid (1 because x 0 out ( keep+ ) ! re/4 ,x rema9$ = ! mo/ "p only z a =mative pr9ciple1 :i* us$ words & lett]s n z crude imitations ( o!r natural s\nds1 b z symbols ( ideas :i* 7 naturally associat$ ) !m4 ,x receiv$ 9 ano!r way a new "*2 x affect$ n s mu* s+le words1 z l>g] portions ( human spee*4 ,x regulat$ ! juxtaposition ( s\nds & ! cad5ce ( s5t5ces4 ,x 0 ! music1 n ( song1 b ( spee*1 9 prose z well z v]se4 ,! old onomatopea ( primitive language 0 ref9$ into an onomatopea ( a high] k9d1 9 :i* x is no long] true to say t a p>ticul> s\nd corresponds to a motion or action ( man or bea/ or movem5t ( nature1 b t 9 all ! high] uses ( language ! s\nd is ! e*o ( ! s5se1 especially 9 poetry1 9 :i* beauty & expressiv5ess are giv5 to human ?\ghts by ! h>moni\s composition ( ! words1 syllables1 lett]s1 acc5ts1 quantities1 rhy?ms1 rhymes1 v>ieties & contra/s ( all sorts4 ,! poet ) 8 8,break1 break1 break0 or 8 e pas9 nekuessi kataph?im5ois9 anasse9 or 8 8longius ex altoque s9um trahit10 c produce a f> f9] music ?an any crude imitations ( ?+s or actions 9 s\nd1 al?\gh a lett] or two hav+ ?is imitative p[] may be a less] elem5t ( beauty 9 su* passages4 ,! same subtle s5sibility1 :i* adapts ! ^w to ! ?+1 adapts ! s5t5ce or cad5ce to ! g5]al mean+ or _s ( ! passage4 ,?is is ! high] onomatopea :i* has bani%$ ! crud] sort z unwor?y to h a place 9 great languages & lit]atures4 ,we c see cle>ly en\gh t lett]s or collocations ( lett]s d by v>i\s degrees ( /r5g? or weakness1 l5g? or %ortness1 emphasis or pit*1 become ! natural expressions ( ! f9] p>ts ( human feel+ or ?\ght4 ,& n only s1 b lett]s !mselves h a significance2 z ,plato obs]ves t ! lett] rho acc5t is expressive ( motion1 ! lett]s delta & tau ( b9d+ & re/1 ! lett] lambda ( smoo?ness1 nu ( inw>dness1 ! lett] eta ( l5g?1 ! lett] omicron ( r\ndness4 ,^! 7 (t5 comb9$ s z to =m composite notions1 z = example 9 tromos 7trembl+71 tra*us 7rugg$71 ?raue9 7cru%71 kr\e9 7/rike71 ?rupte9 7break71 pumbe9 7:irl71--9 all :i* words we notice a p>allel composition ( s\nds 9 _! ,engli% equival5ts4 ,plato also rem>ks1 z we rem>k1 t ! onomatopoetic pr9ciple is f> f prevail+ uni=mly1 & fur!r t no explanation ( language consi/5tly corresponds ) any sy/em ( philosophy1 h[ev] great may be ! light :i* language ?r[s ^u ! nature ( ! m9d4 ,bo? 9 ,greek & ,engli% we f9d gr\ps ( words su* z /r+1 sw+1 sl+1 spr+1 /+1 :i* are p>allel to "o ano!r & may be said to d]ive _! vocal effect p>tly f contra/ ( lett]s1 b 9 :i* x is impossible to assign a precise am\nt ( mean+ to ea* ( ! expressive & onomatopoetic lett]s4 ,a few ( !m are directly imitative1 z = example ! omega 9 oon1 :i* repres5ts ! r\nd =m ( ! egg by ! figure ( ! m\?3 or bronte 7?und]71 9 :i* ! fulness ( ! s\nd ( ! ^w corresponds to ! ?+ signifi$ by x2 or bombos 7buzz+71 ( :i* ! fir/ syllable1 z 9 its ,engli% equival5t1 has ! mean+ ( a deep s\nd4 ,we may obs]ve also 7z we see 9 ! case ( ! poor /amm]]7 t spee* has ! co-op]ation ( ! :ole body & may be (t5 assi/$ or half express$ by ge/iculation4 ,a s\nd or ^w is n ! "w ( ! vocal organs only2 ne>ly ! :ole ( ! upp] "p ( ! human frame1 includ+ head1 *e/1 lungs1 h a %>e 9 creat+ x2 & x may be accompani$ by a movem5t ( ! eyes1 nose1 f+]s1 h&s1 feet :i* contributes to ! effect ( x4 ,! pr9ciple ( onomatopea has fall5 into discr$it1 p>tly because x has be5 suppos$ to imply an actual manufacture ( words out ( syllables & lett]s1 l a piece ( jo9]'s "w1--a !ory ( language :i* is m & m refut$ by facts1 & m & m go+ out ( fa%ion ) philologians2 & p>tly also because ! traces ( onomatopea 9 sep>ate words become almo/ oblit]at$ 9 ! c\rse ( ages4 ,! poet ( language _c put 9 & pull out lett]s1 z a pa9t] might ins]t or blot out a %ade ( col\r to give effect to 8 picture4 ,x w\ld be ridicul\s = him to alt] any receiv$ =m ( a ^w 9 ord] to r5d] x m expressive ( ! s5se4 ,he c only select1 p]haps out ( "s dialect1 ! =m :i* is already be/ adapt$ to 8 purpose4 ,! true onomatopea is n a creative1 b a =mative pr9ciple1 :i* 9 ! lat] /age ( ! hi/ory ( language ceases to act ^u individual words2 b /ill works ?r\gh ! collocation ( !m 9 ! s5t5ce or p>agraph1 & ! adaptation ( e ^w1 syllable1 lett] to "o ano!r & to ! rhy?m ( ! :ole passage4 iv4 ,next1 "u a di/9ct head1 al?\gh n sep>able f ! prec$+1 may be consid]$ ! diff]5tiation ( languages1 i4e4 ! mann] 9 :i* diff]5ces ( mean+ & =m h aris5 9 !m4 ,into _! fir/ creation we h ceas$ to enquire3 x is _! aft]gr[? ) :i* we are n[ conc]n$4 ,h[ did ! roots or sub/antial portions ( words become modifi$ or inflect$8 & h[ did !y receive sep>ate mean+s8 ,fir/ we rem>k t words are attract$ by ! s\nds & s5ses ( o!r words1 s t !y =m gr\ps ( n\ns & v]bs analog\s 9 s\nd & s5se to "o ano!r1 ea* n\n or v]b putt+ =? inflexions1 g5]ally ( two or ?ree patt]ns1 & ) exceptions4 ,we d n say t we "k h[ s5se became fir/ alli$ to s\nd2 b we h no difficulty 9 asc]ta9+ h[ ! s\nds & mean+s ( words 7 9 "t p>t$ (f or diff]5tiat$4 7#a7 ,! *ief causes :i* regulate ! v>iations ( s\nd are 7a7 d\ble or diff]+ analogies1 :i* lead sometimes to "o =m1 sometimes to ano!r 7b7 euphony1 by :i* is meant *iefly ! great] pleasure to ! e> & ! great] facility to ! organs ( spee* :i* is giv5 by a new =mation or pronunciation ( a ^w 7c7 ! necessity ( f9d+ new expressions = new classes or processes ( ?+s4 ,we are told t *anges ( s\nd take place by innum]able gradations until a :ole tribe or community or society f9d !mselves acquiesc+ 9 a new pronunciation or use ( language4 ,yet no "o obs]ves ! *ange1 or is at all aw>e t 9 ! c\rse ( a lifetime he & 8 contempor>ies h appreciably v>i$ _! intonation or use ( words4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! necessities ( language seem to require t ! int]m$iate s\nds or mean+s ( words %\ld quickly become fix$ or set & n cont9ue 9 a /ate ( transition4 ,! process ( settl+ d[n is aid$ by ! organs ( spee* & by ! use ( writ+ & pr9t+4 7#b7 ,! mean+ ( words v>ies because ideas v>y or ! numb] ( ?+s :i* is includ$ "u !m or ) :i* !y are associat$ is increas$4 ,a s+le ^w is ?us made to d duty = _m m ?+s ?an 7 =m]ly express$ by x2 & x p>ts into diff]5t s5ses :5 ! classes ( ?+s or ideas :i* are repres5t$ by x are !mselves diff]5t & di/9ct4 ,a figurative use ( a ^w may easily pass into a new s5se3 a new mean+ caught up by association may become m important ?an all ! re/4 ,! good or neutral s5se ( a ^w1 su* z ,jesuit1 ,puritan1 ,me?odi/1 ,h]etic1 has be5 (t5 conv]t$ into a bad "o by ! malevol5ce ( p>ty _s4 ,d\ble =ms sugge/ diff]5t mean+s & are (t5 us$ to express !m2 & ! =m or acc5t ( a ^w has be5 n unfrequ5tly alt]$ :5 !re is a diff]5ce ( mean+4 ,! diff]5ce ( g5d] 9 n\ns is utiliz$ = ! same reason4 ,new mean+s ( words pu% !mselves into ! vacant spaces ( language & retire :5 !y are no long] ne$$4 ,language equally abhors vacancy & sup]fluity4 ,b ! rem$ial measures by :i* bo? are elim9at$ are n due to any consci\s action ( ! human m9d2 nor is ! =ce ex]t$ by !m con/ra9+ or necess>y4 7#g7 ,we h %[n t language1 al?\gh subject to laws1 is f> f be+ ( an exact & uni=m nature4 ,we may n[ speak briefly ( ! faults ( language4 ,!y may be comp>$ to ! faults ( ,geology1 9 :i* diff]5t /rata cross "o ano!r or meet at an angle1 or mix ) "o ano!r ei!r by sl[ transitions or by viol5t convulsions1 leav+ _m lacunae :i* c be no long] fill$ up1 & (t5 becom+ s complex t no true explanation ( !m c be giv54 ,s 9 language !re are ! cross influ5ces ( mean+ & s\nd1 ( logic & gramm>1 ( diff]+ analogies1 ( words & ! inflexions ( words1 :i* (t5 come into conflict ) ea* o!r4 ,! gramm>ian1 if he 7 to =m new words1 w\ld make !m all ( ! same patt]n accord+ to :at he conceives to be ! rule1 t is1 ! m common usage ( language4 ,! subtlety ( nature goes f> beyond art1 & x is complicat$ by irregul>ity1 s t (t5 we c h>dly say t !re is a "r or wrong 9 ! =mation ( words4 ,= almo/ any =mation :i* is n at v>iance ) ! fir/ pr9ciples ( language is possible & may be def5d$4 ,! imp]fection ( language is really due to ! =mation & correlation ( words by accid5t1 t is to say1 by pr9ciples :i* are unkn[n to u4 ,h5ce we see :y ,plato1 l ourselves unable to compreh5d ! :ole ( language1 0 con/ra9$ to 8supplem5t ! poor creature imitation by ano!r poor creature conv5tion40 ,b ! poor creature conv5tion 9 ! end proves too mu* = all ! re/3 = we d n ask :at is ! orig9 ( words or :e!r !y are =m$ accord+ to a correct analogy1 b :at is ! usage ( !m2 & we are compell$ to admit ) ,h]mog5es 9 ,plato & ) ,horace t usage is ! rul+ pr9ciple1 8quem p5es arbitrium e/1 et jus et norma loqu5di40 7#h7 ,!re are two ways 9 :i* a language may atta9 p]man5ce or fixity4 ,fir/1 x may h be5 embodi$ 9 poems or hymns or laws1 :i* may be repeat$ = hundr$s1 p]haps = ?\s&s ( ye>s ) a religi\s accuracy1 s t to ! prie/s or rhapsodi/s ( a nation ! :ole or ! great] "p ( a language is lit]ally pres]v$2 secondly1 x may be writt5 d[n & 9 a writt5 =m di/ribut$ m or less widely among ! :ole nation4 ,9 ei!r case ! language :i* is famili>ly spok5 may h gr[n up :olly or 9 a great measure indep5d5tly ( !m4 7#a7 ,! fir/ ( ^! processes has be5 sometimes att5d$ by ! result t ! s\nd ( ! words has be5 c>efully pres]v$ & t ! mean+ ( !m has ei!r p]i%$ :olly1 or is only d\btfully recov]$ by ! ef=ts ( mod]n philology4 ,! v]ses h be5 repeat$ z a *ant or "p ( a ritual1 b !y h _h no relation to ord9>y life or spee*4 7#b7 ,! inv5tion ( writ+ aga9 is commonly attribut$ to a p>ticul> epo*1 & we are apt to ?9k t su* an ine/imable gift w\ld h imm$iately be5 diffus$ ov] a :ole c\ntry4 ,b x may h tak5 a long "t to p]fect ! art ( writ+1 & ano!r long p]iod may h elaps$ be=e x came into common use4 ,its influ5ce on language has be5 increas$ t51 tw5ty or "o hundr$ fold by ! inv5tion ( pr9t+4 ,be=e ! gr[? ( poetry or ! inv5tion ( writ+1 languages 7 only dialects4 ,s !y cont9u$ to be 9 p>ts ( ! c\ntry 9 :i* writ+ 0 n us$ or 9 :i* !re 0 no diffusion ( lit]ature4 ,9 mo/ ( ! c\nties ( ,engl& !re is /ill a prov9cial /yle1 :i* has be5 sometimes made by a great poet ! vehicle ( 8 fancies4 ,:5 a book s9ks into ! m9d ( a nation1 su* z ,lu!r's ,bible or ! ,au?oriz$ ,engli% ,translation ( ! ,bible1 or aga9 great classical works l ,%aksp]e or ,milton1 n only h new p[]s ( expression be5 diffus$ ?r\gh a :ole nation1 b a great /ep t[>ds uni=mity has be5 made4 ,! in/9ct ( language dem&s regul> gramm> & correct spell+3 ^! are impr9t$ deeply on ! tablets ( a nation's memory by a common use ( classical & popul> writ]s4 ,9 our own day we h atta9$ to a po9t at :i* ne>ly e pr9t$ book is spelt correctly & writt5 grammatically4 7#i7 ,proce$+ fur!r to trace ! influ5ce ( lit]ature on language we note "s o!r causes :i* h affect$ ! high] use ( x3 su* z 7#a7 ! necessity ( cle>ness & connexion2 7#b7 ! fe> ( tautology2 7#c7 ! influ5ce ( metre1 rhy?m1 rhyme1 & ( ! language ( prose & v]se ^u "o ano!r2 7#d7 ! p[] ( idiom & quotation2 7#e7 ! relativ5ess ( words to "o ano!r4 ,x has be5 usual to depreciate mod]n languages :5 comp>$ ) anci5t4 ,! latt] are reg>d$ z furni%+ a type ( excell5ce to :i* ! =m] _c atta94 ,b ! tru? seems to be t mod]n languages1 if ?r\gh ! loss ( inflections & g5d]s !y lack "s p[] or beauty or expressiv5ess or precision :i* is possess$ by ! anci5t1 are 9 _m o!r respects sup]ior to !m3 ! ?\ght is g5]ally cle>]1 ! connexion clos]1 ! s5t5ce & p>agraph are bett] di/ribut$4 ,! be/ mod]n languages1 = example ,engli% or ,fr5*1 possess z great a p[] ( self-improvem5t z ! ,lat91 if n z ! ,greek4 ,nor does !re seem to be any reason :y !y %\ld ev] decl9e or decay4 ,x is a popul> rem>k t our great writ]s are beg9n+ to disappe>3 x may also be rem>k$ t :5ev] a great writ] appe>s 9 ! future he w f9d ! ,engli% language z p]fect & z ready = use z 9 ! days ( ,%aksp]e or ,milton4 ,!re is no reason to suppose t ,engli% or ,fr5* w ev] be r$uc$ to ! l[ level ( ,mod]n ,greek or ( ,m$iaeval ,lat94 ,! wide diffusion ( great au?ors w\ld make su* a decl9e impossible4 ,nor w mod]n languages be easily brok5 up by amalgamation ) ea* o!r4 ,! di/ance betwe5 !m is too wide to be spann$1 ! diff]5ces are too great to be ov]come1 & ! use ( pr9t+ makes x impossible t "o ( !m %\ld ev] be lo/ 9 ano!r4 ,! /ructure ( ! ,engli% language diff]s greatly f t ( ei!r ,lat9 or ,greek4 ,9 ! two latt]1 especially 9 ,greek1 s5t5ces are jo9$ toge!r by connect+ p>ticles4 ,!y are di/ribut$ on ! "r h& & on ! left by m51 de1 alla1 kaitoi1 kai de & ! l1 or d$uc$ f "o ano!r by ara1 de1 oun1 to9un & ! l4 ,9 ,engli% ! majority ( s5t5ces are indep5d5t & 9 apposition to "o ano!r2 !y are laid side by side or slightly connect$ by ! copula4 ,b )9 ! s5t5ce ! expression ( ! logical relations ( ! clauses is clos] & m exact3 !re is less ( apposition & p>ticipial /ructure4 ,! s5t5ces ?us laid side by side are also con/ruct$ into p>agraphs2 ^! aga9 are less di/9ctly m>k$ 9 ,greek & ,lat9 ?an 9 ,engli%4 ,g5]ally ,fr5*1 ,g]man1 & ,engli% h an advantage ov] ! classical languages 9 po9t ( accuracy4 ,! ?ree concords are m accurately obs]v$ 9 ,engli% ?an 9 ei!r ,greek or ,lat94 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ext5sion ( ! famili> use ( ! mascul9e & fem99e g5d] to objects ( s5se & ab/ract ideas z well z to m5 & animals no d\bt l5ds a nameless grace to /yle :i* we h a difficulty 9 appreciat+1 & ! possible v>iety 9 ! ord] ( words gives m flexibility & also a k9d ( dignity to ! p]iod4 ,( ! comp>ative effect ( acc5t & quantity & ( ! relation betwe5 !m 9 anci5t & mod]n languages we are n able to judge4 ,ano!r quality 9 :i* mod]n are sup]ior to anci5t languages is fre$om f tautology4 ,no ,engli% /yle is ?\ght tol]able 9 :i*1 except = ! sake ( emphasis1 ! same words are repeat$ at %ort int]vals4 ,( c\rse ! l5g? ( ! int]val mu/ dep5d on ! "* ( ! ^w4 ,/rik+ words & expressions _c be all[$ to reappe>1 if at all1 except at ! di/ance ( a page or m4 ,pron\ns1 prepositions1 conjunctions may or r mu/ recur 9 successive l9es4 ,x seems to be a k9d ( imp]t95ce to ! read] & /rikes unpleasantly bo? on ! m9d & on ! e> t ! same s\nds %\ld be us$ twice ov]1 :5 ano!r ^w or turn ( expression w\ld h giv5 a new %ade ( mean+ to ! ?\ght & w\ld h add$ a pleas+ v>iety to ! s\nd4 ,& ! m9d equally rejects ! repetition ( ! ^w & ! use ( a m]e synonym = x1--e4g4 felicity & happ9ess4 ,! cultivat$ m9d desires some?+ m1 :i* a skilful writ] is easily able to supply out ( 8 treasure-h\se4 ,! fe> ( tautology has d\btless l$ to ! multiplications ( words & ! mean+s ( words1 & g5]ally to an enl>gem5t ( ! vocabul>y4 ,x is a v e>ly in/9ct ( language2 = anci5t poetry is almo/ z free f tautology z ! be/ mod]n writ+s4 ,! spee* ( "y *ildr51 except 9 s f> z !y are compell$ to repeat !mselves by ! fewness ( _! words1 also escapes f x4 ,:5 !y gr[ up & h ideas :i* are beyond _! p[]s ( expression1 especially 9 writ+1 tautology beg9s to appe>4 ,9 l mann] :5 language is 8contam9at$0 by philosophy x is apt to become awkw>d1 to /amm] & repeat itself1 to lose its fl[ & fre$om4 ,no philosophical writ] ) ! exception ( ,plato1 :o is himself n free f tautology1 & p]haps ,bacon1 has atta9$ to any high degree ( lit]>y excell5ce4 ,to poetry ! =m & poli% ( language is *iefly to be attribut$2 & ! mo/ critical p]iod 9 ! hi/ory ( language is ! transition f v]se to prose4 ,at fir/ mank9d 7 cont5t$ to express _! ?\ghts 9 a set =m ( words hav+ a k9d ( rhy?m2 to :i* regul>ity 0 giv5 by acc5t & quantity4 ,b aft] a "t !y dem&$ a great] degree ( fre$om1 & to ^? :o _h all _! life be5 he>+ poetry ! fir/ introduction ( prose _h ! *>m ( novelty4 ,! prose romances into :i* ! ,hom]ic ,poems 7 conv]t$1 = a :ile probably gave m delight to ! he>]s or read]s ( !m ?an ! ,poems !mselves1 & 9 "t ! relation ( ! two 0 rev]s$3 ! poems :i* _h once be5 a necessity ( ! human m9d became a luxury3 !y 7 n[ sup]s$$ by prose1 :i* 9 all succe$+ ages became ! natural vehicle ( expression to all mank9d4 ,h5ce=w>d prose & poetry =m$ ea* o!r4 ,a comp>atively sl5d] l9k betwe5 !m 0 also furni%$ by prov]bs4 ,we may trace 9 poetry h[ ! simple succession ( l9es1 n )\t monotony1 has pass$ into a complicat$ p]iod1 & h[ 9 prose1 rhy?m & acc5t & ! ord] ( words & ! balance ( clauses1 sometimes n )\t a slight admixture ( rhyme1 make up a new k9d ( h>mony1 swell+ into /ra9s n less maje/ic ?an ^? ( ,hom]1 ,virgil1 or ,dante4 ,"o ( ! mo/ curi\s & *>act]i/ic features ( language1 affect+ bo? syntax & /yle1 is idiom4 ,! mean+ ( ! ^w 8idiom0 is t :i* is peculi>1 t :i* is famili>1 ! ^w or expression :i* /rikes u or comes home to u1 :i* is m readily und]/ood or m easily rememb]$4 ,x is a quality :i* really exi/s 9 inf9ite degrees1 :i* we turn into diff]5ces ( k9d by apply+ ! t]m only to conspicu\s & /rik+ examples ( words or phrases :i* h ?is quality4 ,x (t5 sup]s$es ! laws ( language or ! rules ( gramm>1 or r is to be reg>d$ z ano!r law ( language :i* is natural & necess>y4 ,! ^w or phrase :i* has be5 repeat$ _m times ov] is m intelligible & famili> to u ?an "o :i* is r>e1 & our famili>ity ) x m ?an comp5sates = incorrectness or inaccuracy 9 ! use ( x4 ,/rik+ expressions also :i* h mov$ ! he>ts ( nations or are ! preci\s /ones & jewels ( great au?ors p>take ( ! nature ( idioms3 !y are tak5 out ( ! sph]e ( gramm> & are exempt f ! proprieties ( language4 ,e "o kn[s t we (t5 put words toge!r 9 a mann] :i* w\ld be intol]able if x 7 n idiomatic4 ,we _c argue ei!r ab\t ! mean+ ( words or ! use ( con/ructions t because !y are us$ 9 "o connexion !y w be legitimate 9 ano!r1 unless we all[ = ?is pr9ciple4 ,we c be> to h words & s5t5ces us$ 9 new s5ses or 9 a new ord] or ev5 a little p]v]t$ 9 mean+ :5 we are q famili> ) !m4 ,quotations are z (t5 appli$ 9 a s5se :i* ! au?or did n int5d z 9 t :i* he did4 ,! p>ody ( ! words ( ,%aksp]e or ( ! ,bible1 :i* has 9 x some?+ ( ! nature ( a lie1 is f> f unpleas+ to u4 ,! bett] kn[n words1 ev5 if _! mean+ be p]v]t$1 are m agreeable to u & h a great] p[] ov] u4 ,mo/ ( u h exp]i5c$ a sort ( delight & feel+ ( curiosity :5 we fir/ came across or :5 we fir/ us$ = ourselves a new ^w or phrase or figure ( spee*4 ,!re are associations ( s\nd & ( s5se by :i* e ^w is l9k$ to e o!r4 ,"o lett] h>monizes ) ano!r2 e v]b or n\n d]ives its mean+1 n only f itself1 b f ! words ) :i* x is associat$4 ,"s reflection ( !m ne> or di/ant is embodi$ 9 x4 ,9 any new use ( a ^w all ! exi/+ uses ( x h to be consid]$4 ,^u ^! dep5ds ! "q :e!r x w be> ! propos$ ext5sion ( mean+ or n4 ,accord+ to ! fam\s expression ( ,lu!r1 8,words are liv+ creatures1 hav+ h&s & feet40 ,:5 !y cease to reta9 ?is liv+ p[] ( adaptation1 :5 !y are only put toge!r l ! p>ts ( a piece ( furniture1 language becomes unpoetical1 inexpressive1 dead4 ,gramm>s w\ld lead u to suppose t words h a fix$ =m & s\nd4 ,lexicons assign to ea* ^w a def9ite mean+ or mean+s4 ,!y bo? t5d to obscure ! fact t ! s5t5ce prec$es ! ^w & t all language is relative4 7#a7 ,x is relative to its own context4 ,its mean+ is modifi$ by :at has be5 said be=e & aft] 9 ! same or 9 "s o!r passage3 )\t comp>+ ! context we are n sure :e!r x is us$ 9 ! same s5se ev5 9 two successive s5t5ces4 7#b7 ,x is relative to facts1 to "t1 place1 & occasion3 :5 !y are already kn[n to ! he>] or read]1 !y may be presuppos$2 !re is no ne$ to allude to !m fur!r4 7#c7 ,x is relative to ! k ( ! writ] & read] or ( ! speak] & he>]4 ,except = ! sake ( ord] & consecutiv5ess no?+ ought to be express$ :i* is already commonly or univ]sally kn[n4 ,a ^w or two may be suffici5t to give an intimation to a fri5d2 a long or elaborate spee* or composition is requir$ to expla9 "s new idea to a popul> audi5ce or to ! ord9>y read] or to a "y pupil4 ,gramm>s & diction>ies are n to be despis$2 = 9 tea*+ we ne$ cle>ness r ?an subtlety4 ,b we mu/ n !re=e =get t !re is also a high] ideal ( language 9 :i* all is relative--s\nds to s\nds1 words to words1 ! p>ts to ! :ole--9 :i* besides ! less] context ( ! book or spee*1 !re is also ! l>g] context ( hi/ory & circum/ances4 ,! /udy ( ,comp>ative ,philology has introduc$ into ! _w a new sci5ce :i* m ?an any o!r b9ds up man ) nature1 & di/ant ages & c\ntries ) "o ano!r4 ,x may be said to h ?r[n a light ^u all o!r sci5ces & ^u ! nature ( ! human m9d itself4 ,! true conception ( x dispels _m errors1 n only ( metaphysics & !ology1 b also ( natural k4 ,yet x is f> f c]ta9 t ?is newly-f\nd sci5ce w cont9ue to progress 9 ! same surpris+ mann] z h]et(ore2 or t ev5 if our mat]ials are l>gely increas$1 we %all arrive at mu* m def9ite conclusions ?an at pres5t4 ,l "s o!r bran*es ( k1 x may be approa*+ a po9t at :i* x c no long] be pr(itably /udi$4 ,b at any rate x has br\ght back ! philosophy ( language f !ory to fact2 x has pass$ out ( ! region ( guesses & hypo!ses1 & has atta9$ ! dignity ( an ,inductive ,sci5ce4 ,& x is n )\t practical & political importance4 ,x gives a new int]e/ to di/ant & subject c\ntries2 x br+s back ! dawn+ light f "o end ( ! e>? to ! o!r4 ,nations1 l individuals1 are bett] und]/ood by u :5 we "k some?+ ( _! e>ly life2 & :5 !y are bett] und]/ood by u1 we feel m k9dly t[>ds !m4 ,la/ly1 we may rememb] t all k is valuable = its own sake2 & we may also hope t a deep] insight into ! nature ( human spee* w give u a great] comm& ( x & enable u to make a nobl] use ( x4#b #b ,comp>e aga9 ,w4 ,humboldt1 ,ueb] die ,v]s*i$5heit des m5s*li*5 ,spra*baues2 ,m4 ,mll]1 ,lectures on ! ,sci5ce ( ,language2 ,/e9?al1 ,e9leitung 9 die ,psy*ologie und ,spra*wiss5s*aft3 & = ! latt] "p ( ! ,essay1 ,delbruck1 ,/udy ( ,language2 ,paul's ,pr9ciples ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,language3 to ! latt] "w ! au?or ( ?is ,essay is l>gely indebt$4 ,,cratylus ,by ,plato ,translat$ by ,b5jam9 ,j[ett ,,p]sons ,,( ,,! ,,dialogue3 ,socrates1 ,h]mog5es1 ,cratylus4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,suppose t we make ,socrates a p>ty to ! argum5t8 ,,cratylus3 ,if y please4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i %\ld expla9 to y1 ,socrates1 t our fri5d ,cratylus has be5 argu+ ab\t names2 he says t !y are natural & n conv5tional2 n a portion ( ! human voice :i* m5 agree to use2 b t !re is a tru? or correctness 9 !m1 :i* is ! same = ,hell5es z = b>b>ians4 ,:]eupon ,i ask him1 :e!r 8 own "n ( ,cratylus is a true "n or n1 & he answ]s 8,yes40 ,& ,socrates8 8,yes40 ,!n e man's "n1 z ,i tell him1 is t :i* he is call$4 ,to ?is he replies--8,if all ! _w 7 to call y ,h]mog5es1 t w\ld n be y\r "n40 ,& :5 ,i am anxi\s to h a fur!r explanation he is ironical & my/]i\s1 & seems to imply t he has a notion ( 8 own ab\t ! matt]1 if he w\ld only tell1 & c\ld entirely conv9ce me1 if he *ose to be intelligible4 ,tell me1 ,socrates1 :at ?is oracle means2 or r tell me1 if y w be s good1 :at is y\r own view ( ! tru? or correctness ( names1 :i* ,i w\ld f> soon] he>4 ,,socrates3 ,son ( ,hipponicus1 !re is an anci5t say+1 t 8h>d is ! k ( ! good40 ,& ! k ( names is a great "p ( k4 ,if ,i _h n be5 poor1 ,i might h he>d ! fifty-dra*ma c\rse ( ! great ,prodicus1 :i* is a complete education 9 gramm> & language--^! are 8 own words--& !n ,i %\ld h be5 at once able to answ] y\r "q ab\t ! correctness ( names4 ,b1 inde$1 ,i h only he>d ! s+le-dra*ma c\rse1 & !re=e1 ,i d n "k ! tru? ab\t su* matt]s2 ,i w1 h[ev]1 gladly assi/ y & ,cratylus 9 ! inve/igation ( !m4 ,:5 he decl>es t y\r "n is n really ,h]mog5es1 ,i suspect t he is only mak+ fun ( y2--he means to say t y are no true son ( ,h]mes1 because y are always look+ aft] a =tune & nev] 9 luck4 ,b1 z ,i 0 say+1 !re is a good deal ( difficulty 9 ?is sort ( k1 & !re=e we _h bett] leave ! "q op5 until we h he>d bo? sides4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i h (t5 talk$ ov] ?is matt]1 bo? ) ,cratylus & o!rs1 & _c conv9ce myself t !re is any pr9ciple ( correctness 9 names o!r ?an conv5tion & agreem5t2 any "n :i* y give1 9 my op9ion1 is ! "r "o1 & if y *ange t & give ano!r1 ! new "n is z correct z ! old--we frequ5tly *ange ! names ( our slaves1 & ! newly-impos$ "n is z good z ! old3 = !re is no "n giv5 to any?+ by nature2 all is conv5tion & habit ( ! us]s2--su* is my view4 ,b if ,i am mi/ak5 ,i %all be happy to he> & le>n ( ,cratylus1 or ( any "o else4 ,,socrates3 ,i d>e say t y may be "r1 ,h]mog5es3 let u see2--,y\r mean+ is1 t ! "n ( ea* ?+ is only t :i* anybody agrees to call x8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,t is my notion4 ,,socrates3 ,:e!r ! giv] ( ! "n be an individual or a city8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,well1 n[1 let me take an in/ance2--suppose t ,i call a man a horse or a horse a man1 y mean to say t a man w be rightly call$ a horse by me individually1 & rightly call$ a man by ! re/ ( ! _w2 & a horse aga9 w\ld be rightly call$ a man by me & a horse by ! _w3--t is y\r mean+8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,he w\ld1 accord+ to my view4 ,,socrates3 ,b h[ ab\t tru?1 !n8 y w\ld ackn[l$ge t !re is 9 words a true & a false8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,c]ta9ly4 ,,socrates3 ,& !re are true & false propositions8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,to be sure4 ,,socrates3 ,& a true proposition says t :i* is1 & a false proposition says t :i* is n8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes2 :at o!r answ] is possible8 ,,socrates3 ,!n 9 a proposition !re is a true & false8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,c]ta9ly4 ,,socrates3 ,b is a proposition true z a :ole only1 & are ! p>ts untrue8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,no2 ! p>ts are true z well z ! :ole4 ,,socrates3 ,w\ld y say ! l>ge p>ts & n ! small] ones1 or e "p8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i %\ld say t e "p is true4 ,,socrates3 ,is a proposition resolvable into any "p small] ?an a "n8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,no2 t is ! smalle/4 ,,socrates3 ,!n ! "n is a "p ( ! true proposition8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,yes1 & a true "p1 z y say4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,& is n ! "p ( a falsehood also a falsehood8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,!n1 if propositions may be true & false1 names may be true & false8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,s we mu/ inf]4 ,,socrates3 ,& ! "n ( any?+ is t :i* any "o affirms to be ! "n8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,& w !re be s _m names ( ea* ?+ z ev]ybody says t !re are8 & w !y be true names at ! "t ( utt]+ !m8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes1 ,socrates1 ,i c conceive no correctness ( names o!r ?an ?is2 y give "o "n1 & ,i ano!r2 & 9 diff]5t cities & c\ntries !re are diff]5t names = ! same ?+s2 ,hell5es diff] f b>b>ians 9 _! use ( names1 & ! sev]al ,hell5ic tribes f "o ano!r4 ,,socrates3 ,b w\ld y say1 ,h]mog5es1 t ! ?+s diff] z ! names diff]8 & are !y relative to individuals1 z ,protagoras tells u8 ,= he says t man is ! measure ( all ?+s1 & t ?+s are to me z !y appe> to me1 & t !y are to y z !y appe> to y4 ,d y agree ) him1 or w\ld y say t ?+s h a p]man5t ess5ce ( _! own8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,!re h be5 times1 ,socrates1 :5 ,i h be5 driv5 9 my p]plexity to take refuge ) ,protagoras2 n t ,i agree ) him at all4 ,,socrates3 ,:at6 h y ev] be5 driv5 to admit t !re 0 no su* ?+ z a bad man8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,no1 inde$2 b ,i h (t5 _h reason to ?9k t !re are v bad m51 & a good _m ( !m4 ,,socrates3 ,well1 & h y ev] f\nd any v good ones8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,n _m4 ,,socrates3 ,/ill y h f\nd !m8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,& w\ld y hold t ! v good 7 ! v wise1 & ! v evil v fooli%8 ,w\ld t be y\r view8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,x w\ld4 ,,socrates3 ,b if ,protagoras is "r1 & ! tru? is t ?+s are z !y appe> to any "o1 h[ c "s ( u be wise & "s ( u fooli%8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,impossible4 ,,socrates3 ,& if1 on ! o!r h&1 wisdom & folly are really di/+ui%able1 y w all[1 ,i ?9k1 t ! ass]tion ( ,protagoras c h>dly be correct4 ,= if :at appe>s to ea* man is true to him1 "o man _c 9 reality be wis] ?an ano!r4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,he _c4 ,,socrates3 ,nor w y be dispos$ to say ) ,eu?ydemus1 t all ?+s equally belong to all m5 at ! same mom5t & always2 = nei!r on 8 view c !re be "s good & o!rs bad1 if virtue & vice are always equally to be attribut$ to all4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,!re _c4 ,,socrates3 ,b if nei!r is "r1 & ?+s are n relative to individuals1 & all ?+s d n equally belong to all at ! same mom5t & always1 !y mu/ be suppos$ to h _! own prop] & p]man5t ess5ce3 !y are n 9 relation to u1 or influ5c$ by u1 fluctuat+ accord+ to our fancy1 b !y are indep5d5t1 & ma9ta9 to _! own ess5ce ! relation prescrib$ by nature4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i ?9k1 ,socrates1 t y h said ! tru?4 ,,socrates3 ,does :at ,i am say+ apply only to ! ?+s !mselves1 or equally to ! actions :i* proce$ f !m8 ,are n actions also a class ( be+8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes1 ! actions are real z well z ! ?+s4 ,,socrates3 ,!n ! actions also are done accord+ to _! prop] nature1 & n accord+ to our op9ion ( !m8 ,9 cutt+1 = example1 we d n cut z we please1 & ) any *ance in/rum5t2 b we cut ) ! prop] in/rum5t only1 & accord+ to ! natural process ( cutt+2 & ! natural process is "r & w succe$1 b any o!r w fail & be ( no use at all4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i %\ld say t ! natural way is ! "r way4 ,,socrates3 ,aga91 9 burn+1 n e way is ! "r way2 b ! "r way is ! natural way1 & ! "r in/rum5t ! natural in/rum5t4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,true4 ,,socrates3 ,& ?is holds good ( all actions8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,& spee* is a k9d ( action8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,true4 ,,socrates3 ,& w a man speak correctly :o speaks z he pleases8 ,w n ! successful speak] r be he :o speaks 9 ! natural way ( speak+1 & z ?+s ought to be spok51 & ) ! natural in/rum5t8 ,any o!r mode ( speak+ w result 9 error & failure4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i q agree ) y4 ,,socrates3 ,& is n nam+ a "p ( speak+8 = 9 giv+ names m5 speak4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,t is true4 ,,socrates3 ,& if speak+ is a sort ( action & has a relation to acts1 is n nam+ also a sort ( action8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,true4 ,,socrates3 ,& we saw t actions 7 n relative to ourselves1 b _h a special nature ( _! own8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,precisely4 ,,socrates3 ,!n ! argum5t w\ld lead u to inf] t names ought to be giv5 accord+ to a natural process1 & ) a prop] in/rum5t1 & n at our pleasure3 9 ?is & no o!r way %all we "n ) success4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i agree4 ,,socrates3 ,b aga91 t :i* has to be cut has to be cut ) some?+8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,& t :i* has to be wov5 or pi]c$ has to be wov5 or pi]c$ ) some?+8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,c]ta9ly4 ,,socrates3 ,& t :i* has to be nam$ has to be nam$ ) some?+8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,true4 ,,socrates3 ,:at is t ) :i* we pi]ce8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,an awl4 ,,socrates3 ,& ) :i* we weave8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,a %uttle4 ,,socrates3 ,& ) :i* we "n8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,a "n4 ,,socrates3 ,v good3 !n a "n is an in/rum5t8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,c]ta9ly4 ,,socrates3 ,suppose t ,i ask1 8,:at sort ( in/rum5t is a %uttle80 ,& y answ]1 8,a weav+ in/rum5t40 ,,h]mog5es3 ,well4 ,,socrates3 ,& ,i ask aga91 8,:at d we d :5 we weave80--,! answ] is1 t we sep>ate or dis5gage ! w>p f ! wo(4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,v true4 ,,socrates3 ,& may n a simil> description be giv5 ( an awl1 & ( in/rum5ts 9 g5]al8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,to be sure4 ,,socrates3 ,& n[ suppose t ,i ask a simil> "q ab\t names3 w y answ] me8 ,reg>d+ ! "n z an in/rum5t1 :at d we d :5 we "n8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i _c say4 ,,socrates3 ,d we n give in=mation to "o ano!r1 & di/+ui% ?+s accord+ to _! natures8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,c]ta9ly we d4 ,,socrates3 ,!n a "n is an in/rum5t ( tea*+ & ( di/+ui%+ natures1 z ! %uttle is ( di/+ui%+ ! ?reads ( ! web4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,& ! %uttle is ! in/rum5t ( ! weav]8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,assur$ly4 ,,socrates3 ,!n ! weav] w use ! %uttle well--& well means l a weav]8 & ! tea*] w use ! "n well--& well means l a tea*]8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,& :5 ! weav] uses ! %uttle1 ^: "w w he be us+ well8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,t ( ! c>p5t]4 ,,socrates3 ,& is e man a c>p5t]1 or ! skill$ only8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,only ! skill$4 ,,socrates3 ,& :5 ! pi]c] uses ! awl1 ^: "w w he be us+ well8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,t ( ! smi?4 ,,socrates3 ,& is e man a smi?1 or only ! skill$8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,! skill$ only4 ,,socrates3 ,& :5 ! tea*] uses ! "n1 ^: "w w he be us+8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,!re aga9 ,i am puzzl$4 ,,socrates3 ,_c y at lea/ say :o gives u ! names :i* we use8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,inde$ ,i _c4 ,,socrates3 ,does n ! law seem to y to give u !m8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes1 ,i suppose s4 ,,socrates3 ,!n ! tea*]1 :5 he gives u a "n1 uses ! "w ( ! legislator8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i agree4 ,,socrates3 ,& is e man a legislator1 or ! skill$ only8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,! skill$ only4 ,,socrates3 ,!n1 ,h]mog5es1 n e man is able to give a "n1 b only a mak] ( names2 & ?is is ! legislator1 :o ( all skill$ artisans 9 ! _w is ! r>e/4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,true4 ,,socrates3 ,& h[ does ! legislator make names8 & to :at does he look8 ,consid] ?is 9 ! light ( ! previ\s in/ances3 to :at does ! c>p5t] look 9 mak+ ! %uttle8 ,does he n look to t :i* is naturally fitt$ to act z a %uttle8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,c]ta9ly4 ,,socrates3 ,& suppose ! %uttle to be brok5 9 mak+1 w he make ano!r1 look+ to ! brok5 "o8 or w he look to ! =m accord+ to :i* he made ! o!r8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,to ! latt]1 ,i %\ld imag9e4 ,,socrates3 ,might n t be ju/ly call$ ! true or ideal %uttle8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i ?9k s4 ,,socrates3 ,& :atev] %uttles are want$1 = ! manufacture ( g>m5ts1 ?9 or ?ick1 ( flax51 wooll51 or o!r mat]ial1 ought all ( !m to h ! true =m ( ! %uttle2 & :atev] is ! %uttle be/ adapt$ to ea* k9d ( "w1 t ought to be ! =m :i* ! mak] produces 9 ea* case4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,& ! same holds ( o!r in/rum5ts3 :5 a man has discov]$ ! in/rum5t :i* is naturally adapt$ to ea* "w1 he mu/ express ?is natural =m1 & n o!rs :i* he fancies1 9 ! mat]ial1 :atev] x may be1 :i* he employs2 = example1 he ought to "k h[ to put into iron ! =ms ( awls adapt$ by nature to _! sev]al uses8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,c]ta9ly4 ,,socrates3 ,& h[ to put into wood =ms ( %uttles adapt$ by nature to _! uses8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,true4 ,,socrates3 ,= ! sev]al =ms ( %uttles naturally answ] to ! sev]al k9ds ( webs2 & ?is is true ( in/rum5ts 9 g5]al4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,!n1 z to names3 ought n our legislator also to "k h[ to put ! true natural "n ( ea* ?+ into s\nds & syllables1 & to make & give all names ) a view to ! ideal "n1 if he is to be a nam] 9 any true s5se8 ,& we mu/ rememb] t diff]5t legislators w n use ! same syllables4 ,= nei!r does e smi?1 al?\gh he may be mak+ ! same in/rum5t = ! same purpose1 make !m all ( ! same iron4 ,! =m mu/ be ! same1 b ! mat]ial may v>y1 & /ill ! in/rum5t may be equally good ( :atev] iron made1 :e!r 9 ,hellas or 9 a =eign c\ntry2--!re is no diff]5ce4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,v true4 ,,socrates3 ,& ! legislator1 :e!r he be ,hell5e or b>b>ian1 is n !re=e to be deem$ by y a worse legislator1 provid$ he gives ! true & prop] =m ( ! "n 9 :atev] syllables2 ?is or t c\ntry makes no matt]4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,q true4 ,,socrates3 ,b :o !n is to det]m9e :e!r ! prop] =m is giv5 to ! %uttle1 :atev] sort ( wood may be us$8 ! c>p5t] :o makes1 or ! weav] :o is to use !m8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i %\ld say1 he :o is to use !m1 ,socrates4 ,,socrates3 ,& :o uses ! "w ( ! lyre-mak]8 ,w n he be ! man :o kn[s h[ to direct :at is be+ done1 & :o w "k also :e!r ! "w is be+ well done or n8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,c]ta9ly4 ,,socrates3 ,& :o is he8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,! play] ( ! lyre4 ,,socrates3 ,& :o w direct ! %ipwright8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,! pilot4 ,,socrates3 ,& :o w be be/ able to direct ! legislator 9 8 "w1 & w "k :e!r ! "w is well done1 9 ?is or any o!r c\ntry8 ,w n ! us] be ! man8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,& ?is is he :o kn[s h[ to ask que/ions8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,& h[ to answ] !m8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,& him :o kn[s h[ to ask & answ] y w\ld call a dialectician8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes2 t w\ld be 8 "n4 ,,socrates3 ,!n ! "w ( ! c>p5t] is to make a rudd]1 & ! pilot has to direct him1 if ! rudd] is to be well made4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,true4 ,,socrates3 ,& ! "w ( ! legislator is to give names1 & ! dialectician mu/ be 8 director if ! names are to be rightly giv58 ,,h]mog5es3 ,t is true4 ,,socrates3 ,!n1 ,h]mog5es1 ,i %\ld say t ?is giv+ ( names c be no su* light matt] z y fancy1 or ! "w ( light or *ance p]sons2 & ,cratylus is "r 9 say+ t ?+s h names by nature1 & t n e man is an artific] ( names1 b he only :o looks to ! "n :i* ea* ?+ by nature has1 & is able to express ! true =ms ( ?+s 9 lett]s & syllables4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i _c answ] y1 ,socrates2 b ,i f9d a difficulty 9 *ang+ my op9ion all 9 a mom5t1 & ,i ?9k t ,i %\ld be m readily p]suad$1 if y w\ld %[ me :at ?is is :i* y t]m ! natural fitness ( names4 ,,socrates3 ,my good ,h]mog5es1 ,i h none to %[4 ,0 ,i n tell+ y j n[ 7b y h =gott571 t ,i knew no?+1 & propos+ to %>e ! enquiry ) y8 ,b n[ t y & ,i h talk$ ov] ! matt]1 a /ep has be5 ga9$2 = we h discov]$ t names h by nature a tru?1 & t n e man kn[s h[ to give a ?+ a "n4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,v good4 ,,socrates3 ,& :at is ! nature ( ?is tru? or correctness ( names8 ,t1 if y c>e to "k1 is ! next "q4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,c]ta9ly1 ,i c>e to "k4 ,,socrates3 ,!n reflect4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,h[ %all ,i reflect8 ,,socrates3 ,! true way is to h ! assi/ance ( ^? :o "k1 & y mu/ pay !m well bo? 9 money & 9 ?anks2 ^! are ! ,sophi/s1 ( :om y\r bro!r1 ,callias1 has--r de>ly--b\ght ! reputation ( wisdom4 ,b y h n yet come into y\r inh]itance1 & !re=e y _h bett] g to him1 & beg & entreat him to tell y :at he has le>nt f ,protagoras ab\t ! fitness ( names4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,b h[ inconsi/5t %\ld ,i be1 if1 :il/ repudiat+ ,protagoras & 8 tru? 78,tru?0 0 ! title ( ! book ( ,protagoras2 comp>e ,!aet471 ,i 7 to atta* any value to :at he & 8 book affirm6 ,,socrates3 ,!n if y despise him1 y mu/ le>n ( ,hom] & ! poets4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,& :]e does ,hom] say any?+ ab\t names1 & :at does he say8 ,,socrates3 ,he (t5 speaks ( !m2 notably & nobly 9 ! places :]e he di/+ui%es ! diff]5t names :i* ,gods & m5 give to ! same ?+s4 ,does he n 9 ^! passages make a rem>kable /atem5t ab\t ! correctness ( names8 ,= ! ,gods mu/ cle>ly be suppos$ to call ?+s by _! "r & natural names2 d y n ?9k s8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,:y1 ( c\rse !y call !m rightly1 if !y call !m at all4 ,b to :at are y ref]r+8 ,,socrates3 ,d y n "k :at he says ab\t ! riv] 9 ,troy :o _h a s+le combat ) ,hephae/us8 8,:om10 z he says1 8! ,gods call ,xan?us1 & m5 call ,scam&]40 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i rememb]4 ,,socrates3 ,well1 & ab\t ?is riv]--to "k t he ought to be call$ ,xan?us & n ,scam&]--is n t a solemn lesson8 ,or ab\t ! bird :i*1 z he says1 8,! ,gods call ,*alcis1 & m5 ,cym9dis30 to be taught h[ mu* m correct ! "n ,*alcis is ?an ! "n ,cym9dis--d y deem t a light matt]8 ,or ab\t ,batieia & ,myr9a8 7,comp>e ,il4 8,! hill :i* m5 call ,batieia & ! immortals ! tomb ( ! sportive ,myr9a407 ,& !re are _m o!r obs]vations ( ! same k9d 9 ,hom] & o!r poets4 ,n[1 ,i ?9k t ?is is beyond ! und]/&+ ( y & me2 b ! names ( ,scam&rius & ,a/yanax1 :i* he affirms to h be5 ! names ( ,hector's son1 are m )9 ! range ( human faculties1 z ,i am dispos$ to ?9k2 & :at ! poet means by correctness may be m readily appreh5d$ 9 t in/ance3 y w rememb] ,i d>e say ! l9es to :i* ,i ref]8 7,il47 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i d4 ,,socrates3 ,let me ask y1 !n1 :i* did ,hom] ?9k ! m correct ( ! names giv5 to ,hector's son--,a/yanax or ,scam&rius8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i d n "k4 ,,socrates3 ,h[ w\ld y answ]1 if y 7 ask$ :e!r ! wise or ! unwise are m likely to give correct names8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i %\ld say ! wise1 ( c\rse4 ,,socrates3 ,& are ! m5 or ! wom5 ( a city1 tak5 z a class1 ! wis]8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i %\ld say1 ! m54 ,,socrates3 ,& ,hom]1 z y "k1 says t ! ,trojan m5 call$ him ,a/yanax 7k+ ( ! city72 b if ! m5 call$ him ,a/yanax1 ! o!r "n ( ,scam&rius c\ld only h be5 giv5 to him by ! wom54 ,,h]mog5es3 ,t may be inf]r$4 ,,socrates3 ,& mu/ n ,hom] h imag9$ ! ,trojans to be wis] ?an _! wives8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,to be sure4 ,,socrates3 ,!n he mu/ h ?\ght ,a/yanax to be a m correct "n = ! boy ?an ,scam&rius8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,cle>ly4 ,,socrates3 ,& :at is ! reason ( ?is8 ,let u consid]3--does he n himself sugge/ a v good reason1 :5 he says1 8,= he alone def5d$ _! city & long walls08 ,?is appe>s to be a good reason = call+ ! son ( ! savi\r k+ ( ! city :i* 8 fa!r 0 sav+1 z ,hom] obs]ves4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i see4 ,,socrates3 ,:y1 ,h]mog5es1 ,i d n z yet see myself2 & d y8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,no1 inde$2 n ,i4 ,,socrates3 ,b tell me1 fri5d1 did n ,hom] himself also give ,hector 8 "n8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,:at ( t8 ,,socrates3 ,! "n appe>s to me to be v ne>ly ! same z ! "n ( ,a/yanax--bo? are ,hell5ic2 & a k+ 7anax7 & a hold] 7ektor7 h ne>ly ! same mean+1 & are bo? descriptive ( a k+2 = a man is cle>ly ! hold] ( t ( :i* he is k+2 he rules1 & owns1 & holds x4 ,b1 p]haps1 y may ?9k t ,i am talk+ nons5se2 & inde$ ,i believe t ,i myself did n "k :at ,i meant :5 ,i imag9$ t ,i _h f\nd "s indication ( ! op9ion ( ,hom] ab\t ! correctness ( names4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i assure y t ,i ?9k o!rwise1 & ,i believe y to be on ! "r track4 ,,socrates3 ,!re is reason1 ,i ?9k1 9 call+ ! lion's :elp a lion1 & ! foal ( a horse a horse2 ,i am speak+ only ( ! ord9>y c\rse ( nature1 :5 an animal produces aft] 8 k9d1 & n ( extraord9>y bir?s2--if contr>y to nature a horse h a calf1 !n ,i %\ld n call t a foal b a calf2 nor d ,i call any inhuman bir? a man1 b only a natural bir?4 ,& ! same may be said ( trees & o!r ?+s4 ,d y agree ) me8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes1 ,i agree4 ,,socrates3 ,v good4 ,b y _h bett] wat* me & see t ,i d n play tricks ) y4 ,= on ! same pr9ciple ! son ( a k+ is to be call$ a k+4 ,& :e!r ! syllables ( ! "n are ! same or n ! same1 makes no diff]5ce1 provid$ ! mean+ is reta9$2 nor does ! addition or subtraction ( a lett] make any diff]5ce s long z ! ess5ce ( ! ?+ rema9s 9 possession ( ! "n & appe>s 9 x4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,:at d y mean8 ,,socrates3 ,a v simple matt]4 ,i may illu/rate my mean+ by ! names ( lett]s1 :i* y "k are n ! same z ! lett]s !mselves ) ! exception ( ! f\r epsilon1 upsilon1 omicron1 omega2 ! names ( ! re/1 :e!r v[els or consonants1 are made up ( o!r lett]s :i* we add to !m2 b s long z we introduce ! mean+1 & !re c be no mi/ake1 ! "n ( ! lett] is q correct4 ,take1 = example1 ! lett] beta--! addition ( eta1 tau1 alpha1 gives no (f5ce1 & does n prev5t ! :ole "n f hav+ ! value :i* ! legislator int5d$--s well did he "k h[ to give ! lett]s names4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i believe y are "r4 ,,socrates3 ,& may n ! same be said ( a k+8 a k+ w (t5 be ! son ( a k+1 ! good son or ! noble son ( a good or noble sire2 & simil>ly ! (fspr+ ( e k9d1 9 ! regul> c\rse ( nature1 is l ! p>5t1 & !re=e has ! same "n4 ,yet ! syllables may be disguis$ until !y appe> diff]5t to ! ignorant p]son1 & he may n recognize !m1 al?\gh !y are ! same1 j z any "o ( u w\ld n recognize ! same drugs "u diff]5t disguises ( col\r & smell1 al?\gh to ! physician1 :o reg>ds ! p[] ( !m1 !y are ! same1 & he is n put out by ! addition2 & 9 l mann] ! etymologi/ is n put out by ! addition or transposition or subtraction ( a lett] or two1 or inde$ by ! *ange ( all ! lett]s1 = ?is ne$ n int]f]e ) ! mean+4 ,z 0 j n[ said1 ! names ( ,hector & ,a/yanax h only "o lett] alike1 :i* is tau1 & yet !y h ! same mean+4 ,& h[ little 9 common ) ! lett]s ( _! names has ,ar*epolis 7rul] ( ! city7--& yet ! mean+ is ! same4 ,& !re are _m o!r names :i* j mean 8k+40 ,aga91 !re are sev]al names = a g5]al1 z1 = example1 ,agis 7lead]7 & ,polem>*us 7*ief 9 w>7 & ,eupolemus 7good w>rior72 & o!rs :i* d5ote a physician1 z ,iatrocles 7fam\s heal]7 & ,acesimbrotus 7cur] ( mortals72 & !re are _m o!rs :i* might be cit$1 diff]+ 9 _! syllables & lett]s1 b hav+ ! same mean+4 ,w\ld y n say s8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,! same names1 !n1 ought to be assign$ to ^? :o foll[ 9 ! c\rse ( nature8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,& :at ( ^? :o foll[ out ( ! c\rse ( nature1 & are prodigies8 = example1 :5 a good & religi\s man has an irreligi\s son1 he ought to be> ! "n n ( 8 fa!r1 b ( ! class to :i* he belongs1 j z 9 ! case :i* 0 be=e suppos$ ( a horse foal+ a calf4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,q true4 ,,socrates3 ,!n ! irreligi\s son ( a religi\s fa!r %\ld be call$ irreligi\s8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,c]ta9ly4 ,,socrates3 ,he %\ld n be call$ ,!ophilus 7belov$ ( ,god7 or ,mnesi!us 7m9dful ( ,god71 or any ( ^! names3 if names are correctly giv51 8 %\ld h an opposite mean+4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,c]ta9ly1 ,socrates4 ,,socrates3 ,aga91 ,h]mog5es1 !re is ,ore/es 7! man ( ! m\nta9s7 :o appe>s to be rightly call$2 :e!r *ance gave ! "n1 or p]haps "s poet :o meant to express ! brutality & fi]c5ess & m\nta9 wildness ( 8 h]o's nature4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,t is v likely1 ,socrates4 ,,socrates3 ,& 8 fa!r's "n is also accord+ to nature4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,cle>ly4 ,,socrates3 ,yes1 = z 8 "n1 s also is 8 nature2 ,agamemnon 7admirable = rema9+7 is "o :o is pati5t & p]sev]+ 9 ! accompli%m5t ( 8 resolves1 & by 8 virtue cr[ns !m2 & 8 cont9uance at ,troy ) all ! va/ army is a pro( ( t admirable endurance 9 him :i* is signifi$ by ! "n ,agamemnon4 ,i also ?9k t ,atreus is rightly call$2 = 8 murd] ( ,*rysippus & 8 exce$+ cruelty to ,?ye/es are damag+ & de/ructive to 8 reputation--! "n is a little alt]$ & disguis$ s z n to be intelligible to e "o1 b to ! etymologi/ !re is no difficulty 9 see+ ! mean+1 = :e!r y ?9k ( him z ateires ! /ubborn1 or z atre/os ! fe>less1 or z at]os ! de/ructive "o1 ! "n is p]fectly correct 9 e po9t ( view4 ,& ,i ?9k t ,pelops is also nam$ appropriately2 =1 z ! "n implies1 he is rightly call$ ,pelops :o sees :at is ne> only 7o ta pelas oron74 ,,h]mog5es3 ,h[ s8 ,,socrates3 ,because1 accord+ to ! tradition1 he _h no =e?\ght or =esight ( all ! evil :i* ! murd] ( ,myrtilus w\ld entail ^u 8 :ole race 9 remote ages2 he saw only :at 0 at h& & imm$iate1--or 9 o!r words1 pelas 7ne>71 9 8 eag]ness to w9 ,hippodamia by all means = 8 bride4 ,e "o w\ld agree t ! "n ( ,tantalus is rightly giv5 & 9 accordance ) nature1 if ! traditions ab\t him are true4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,& :at are ! traditions8 ,,socrates3 ,_m t]rible mis=tunes are said to h happ5$ to him 9 8 life--la/ ( all1 came ! utt] ru9 ( 8 c\ntry2 & aft] 8 dea? he _h ! /one susp5d$ 7talanteia7 ov] 8 head 9 ! _w bel[--all ?is agrees wond]fully well ) 8 "n4 ,y might imag9e t "s p]son :o want$ to call him ,talantatos 7! mo/ weight$ d[n by mis=tune71 disguis$ ! "n by alt]+ x into ,tantalus2 & into ?is =m1 by "s accid5t ( tradition1 x has actually be5 transmut$4 ,! "n ( ,zeus1 :o is 8 alleg$ fa!r1 has also an excell5t mean+1 al?\gh h>d to be und]/ood1 because really l a s5t5ce1 :i* is divid$ into two p>ts1 = "s call him ,z5a1 & use ! "o half1 & o!rs :o use ! o!r half call him ,dia2 ! two toge!r signify ! nature ( ! ,god1 & ! bus9ess ( a "n1 z we 7 say+1 is to express ! nature4 ,= !re is none :o is m ! au?or ( life to u & to all1 ?an ! "l & k+ ( all4 ,:]e=e we are "r 9 call+ him ,z5a & ,dia1 :i* are "o "n1 al?\gh divid$1 mean+ ! ,god ?r\gh :om all creatures always h life 7di on z5 aei pasi tois zos9 up>*ei74 ,!re is an irrev]5ce1 at fir/ sight1 9 call+ him son ( ,cronos 7:o is a prov]b = /upidity71 & we might r expect ,zeus to be ! *ild ( a mighty intellect4 ,:i* is ! fact2 = ?is is ! mean+ ( 8 fa!r's "n3 ,kronos quasi ,koros 7,*oreo1 to sweep71 n 9 ! s5se ( a y\?1 b signify+ to *a?>on *ai a*]aton t\ n\1 ! pure & g>ni%$ m9d 7sc4 apo t\ *ore974 ,he1 z we are in=m$ by tradition1 0 begott5 ( ,uranus1 rightly s call$ 7apo t\ oran ta ano7 f look+ upw>ds2 :i*1 z philosoph]s tell u1 is ! way to h a pure m9d1 & ! "n ,uranus is !re=e correct4 ,if ,i c\ld rememb] ! g5ealogy ( ,hesiod1 ,i w\ld h gone on & tri$ m conclusions ( ! same sort on ! remot] ance/ors ( ! ,gods1--!n ,i might h se5 :e!r ?is wisdom1 :i* has come to me all 9 an in/ant1 ,i "k n :5ce1 w or w n hold good to ! end4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,y seem to me1 ,socrates1 to be q l a prophet newly inspir$1 & to be utt]+ oracles4 ,,socrates3 ,yes1 ,h]mog5es1 & ,i believe t ,i caught ! inspiration f ! great ,eu?yphro ( ! ,prospaltian deme1 :o gave me a long lecture :i* comm5c$ at dawn3 he talk$ & ,i li/5$1 & 8 wisdom & en*ant+ ravi%m5t has n only fill$ my e>s b tak5 possession ( my s\l1 & to-day ,i %all let 8 sup]human p[] "w & f9i% ! inve/igation ( names--t w be ! way2 b to-morr[1 if y are s dispos$1 we w conjure him away1 & make a purgation ( him1 if we c only f9d "s prie/ or sophi/ :o is skill$ 9 purifications ( ?is sort4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,) all my he>t2 = am v curi\s to he> ! re/ ( ! enquiry ab\t names4 ,,socrates3 ,!n let u proce$2 & :]e w\ld y h u beg91 n[ t we h got a sort ( outl9e ( ! enquiry8 ,are !re any names :i* witness ( !mselves t !y are n giv5 arbitr>ily1 b h a natural fitness8 ,! names ( h]oes & ( m5 9 g5]al are apt to be deceptive because !y are (t5 call$ aft] ance/ors ) ^: names1 z we 7 say+1 !y may h no bus9ess2 or !y are ! expression ( a wi% l ,euty*ides 7! son ( good =tune71 or ,sosias 7! ,savi\r71 or ,!ophilus 7! belov$ ( ,god71 & o!rs4 ,b ,i ?9k t we _h bett] leave ^!1 = !re w be m *ance ( f9d+ correctness 9 ! names ( immutable ess5ces2--!re ought to h be5 m c>e tak5 ab\t !m :5 !y 7 nam$1 & p]haps !re may h be5 "s m ?an human p[] at "w occasionally 9 giv+ !m names4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i ?9k s1 ,socrates4 ,,socrates3 ,ought we n to beg9 ) ! consid]ation ( ! ,gods1 & %[ t !y are rightly nam$ ,gods8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes1 t w be well4 ,,socrates3 ,my notion w\ld be some?+ ( ?is sort3--,i suspect t ! sun1 moon1 e>?1 />s1 & heav51 :i* are /ill ! ,gods ( _m b>b>ians1 7 ! only ,gods kn[n to ! aborig9al ,hell5es4 ,see+ t !y 7 always mov+ & runn+1 f _! runn+ nature !y 7 call$ ,gods or runn]s 7,!\s1 ,!ontas72 & :5 m5 became acqua9t$ ) ! o!r ,gods1 !y proce$$ to apply ! same "n to !m all4 ,d y ?9k t likely8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i ?9k x v likely inde$4 ,,socrates3 ,:at %all foll[ ! ,gods8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,mu/ n demons & h]oes & m5 come next8 ,,socrates3 ,demons6 ,& :at d y consid] to be ! mean+ ( ?is ^w8 ,tell me if my view is "r4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,let me he>4 ,,socrates3 ,y "k h[ ,hesiod uses ! ^w8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i d n4 ,,socrates3 ,d y n rememb] t he speaks ( a gold5 race ( m5 :o came fir/8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes1 ,i d4 ,,socrates3 ,he says ( !m-- 8,b n[ t fate has clos$ ov] ?is race ,!y are holy demons ^u ! e>?1 ,b5efic5t1 av]t]s ( ills1 gu>dians ( mortal m540 7,hesiod1 ,works & ,days47 ,,h]mog5es3 ,:at is ! inf]5ce8 ,,socrates3 ,:at is ! inf]5ce6 ,:y1 ,i suppose t he means by ! gold5 m51 n m5 lit]ally made ( gold1 b good & noble2 & ,i am conv9c$ ( ?is1 because he fur!r says t we are ! iron race4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,t is true4 ,,socrates3 ,& d y n suppose t good m5 ( our own day w\ld by him be said to be ( gold5 race8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,v likely4 ,,socrates3 ,& are n ! good wise8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes1 !y are wise4 ,,socrates3 ,& !re=e ,i h ! mo/ entire conviction t he call$ !m demons1 because !y 7 daemones 7kn[+ or wise71 & 9 our old] ,attic dialect ! ^w itself occurs4 ,n[ he & o!r poets say truly1 t :5 a good man dies he has hon\r & a mighty portion among ! dead1 & becomes a demon2 :i* is a "n giv5 to him signify+ wisdom4 ,& ,i say too1 t e wise man :o happ5s to be a good man is m ?an human 7daimonion7 bo? 9 life & dea?1 & is rightly call$ a demon4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,!n ,i r ?9k t ,i am ( "o m9d ) y2 b :at is ! mean+ ( ! ^w 8h]o08 7,eros ) an eta1 9 ! old writ+ eros ) an epsilon47 ,,socrates3 ,i ?9k t !re is no difficulty 9 expla9+1 = ! "n is n mu* alt]$1 & signifies t !y 7 born ( love4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,:at d y mean8 ,,socrates3 ,d y n "k t ! h]oes are demigods8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,:at !n8 ,,socrates3 ,all ( !m sprang ei!r f ! love ( a ,god = a mortal woman1 or ( a mortal man = a ,goddess2 ?9k ( ! ^w 9 ! old ,attic1 & y w see bett] t ! "n h]os is only a slight alt]ation ( ,eros1 f :om ! h]oes sprang3 ei!r ?is is ! mean+1 or1 if n ?is1 !n !y mu/ h be5 skilful z rhetoricians & dialecticians1 & able to put ! "q 7erotan71 = eire9 is equival5t to lege94 ,& !re=e1 z ,i 0 say+1 9 ! ,attic dialect ! h]oes turn out to be rhetoricians & que/ion]s4 ,all ?is is easy en\gh2 ! noble bre$ ( h]oes are a tribe ( sophi/s & rhetors4 ,b c y tell me :y m5 are call$ an?ropoi8--t is m difficult4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,no1 ,i _c2 & ,i w\ld n try ev5 if ,i c\ld1 because ,i ?9k t y are ! m likely to succe$4 ,,socrates3 ,t is to say1 y tru/ to ! inspiration ( ,eu?yphro4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,( c\rse4 ,,socrates3 ,y\r fai? is n va92 = at ?is v mom5t a new & +5i\s ?\ght /rikes me1 &1 if ,i am n c>eful1 be=e to-morr['s dawn ,i %all be wis] ?an ,i ought to be4 ,n[1 att5d to me2 & fir/1 rememb] t we (t5 put 9 & pull out lett]s 9 words1 & give names z we please & *ange ! acc5ts4 ,take1 = example1 ! ^w ,dii ,philos2 9 ord] to conv]t ?is f a s5t5ce into a n\n1 we omit "o ( ! iotas & s\nd ! middle syllable grave in/ead ( acute2 z1 on ! o!r h&1 lett]s are sometimes ins]t$ 9 words in/ead ( be+ omitt$1 & ! acute takes ! place ( ! grave4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,t is true4 ,,socrates3 ,! "n an?ropos1 :i* 0 once a s5t5ce1 & is n[ a n\n1 appe>s to be a case j ( ?is sort1 = "o lett]1 :i* is ! alpha1 has be5 omitt$1 & ! acute on ! la/ syllable has be5 *ang$ to a grave4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,:at d y mean8 ,,socrates3 ,i mean to say t ! ^w 8man0 implies t o!r animals nev] exam9e1 or consid]1 or look up at :at !y see1 b t man n only sees 7opope7 b consid]s & looks up at t :i* he sees1 & h5ce he alone ( all animals is rightly an?ropos1 mean+ ana?ron a opop54 ,,h]mog5es3 ,may ,i ask y to exam9e ano!r ^w ab\t :i* ,i am curi\s8 ,,socrates3 ,c]ta9ly4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i w take t :i* appe>s to me to foll[ next 9 ord]4 ,y "k ! di/9ction ( s\l & body8 ,,socrates3 ,( c\rse4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,let u endeav\r to analyze !m l ! previ\s words4 ,,socrates3 ,y want me fir/ ( all to exam9e ! natural fitness ( ! ^w psu*e 7s\l71 & !n ( ! ^w soma 7body78 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,if ,i am to say :at occurs to me at ! mom5t1 ,i %\ld imag9e t ^? :o fir/ us$ ! "n psu*e meant to express t ! s\l :5 9 ! body is ! s\rce ( life1 & gives ! p[] ( brea? & revival 7anapsu*on71 & :5 ?is reviv+ p[] fails !n ! body p]i%es & dies1 & ?is1 if ,i am n mi/ak51 !y call$ psy*e4 ,b please /ay a mom5t2 ,i fancy t ,i c discov] some?+ :i* w be m acceptable to ! disciples ( ,eu?yphro1 = ,i am afraid t !y w scorn ?is explanation4 ,:at d y say to ano!r8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,let me he>4 ,,socrates3 ,:at is t :i* holds & c>ries & gives life & motion to ! entire nature ( ! body8 ,:at else b ! s\l8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,j t4 ,,socrates3 ,& d y n believe ) ,anaxagoras1 t m9d or s\l is ! ord]+ & conta9+ pr9ciple ( all ?+s8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes2 ,i d4 ,,socrates3 ,!n y may well call t p[] phuse*e :i* c>ries & holds nature 7e phus9 okei1 kai ekei71 & ?is may be ref9$ away into psu*e4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,c]ta9ly2 & ?is d]ivation is1 ,i ?9k1 m sci5tific ?an ! o!r4 ,,socrates3 ,x is s2 b ,i _c help laugh+1 if ,i am to suppose t ?is 0 ! true mean+ ( ! "n4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,b :at %all we say ( ! next ^w8 ,,socrates3 ,y mean soma 7! body74 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,t may be v>i\sly int]pret$2 & yet m v>i\sly if a little p]mutation is all[$4 ,= "s say t ! body is ! grave 7sema7 ( ! s\l :i* may be ?\ght to be buri$ 9 our pres5t life2 or aga9 ! index ( ! s\l1 because ! s\l gives indications to 7sema9ei7 ! body2 probably ! ,orphic poets 7 ! inv5tors ( ! "n1 & !y 7 "u ! impression t ! s\l is suff]+ ! puni%m5t ( s91 & t ! body is an enclosure or prison 9 :i* ! s\l is inc>c]at$1 kept safe 7soma1 sozetai71 z ! "n soma implies1 until ! p5alty is paid2 accord+ to ?is view1 n ev5 a lett] ( ! ^w ne$ be *ang$4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i ?9k1 ,socrates1 t we h said en\gh ( ?is class ( words4 ,b h we any m explanations ( ! names ( ! ,gods1 l t :i* y 7 giv+ ( ,zeus8 ,i %\ld l to "k :e!r any simil> pr9ciple ( correctness is to be appli$ to !m4 ,,socrates3 ,yes1 inde$1 ,h]mog5es2 & !re is "o excell5t pr9ciple :i*1 z m5 ( s5se1 we mu/ ackn[l$ge1--t ( ! ,gods we "k no?+1 ei!r ( _! natures or ( ! names :i* !y give !mselves2 b we are sure t ! names by :i* !y call !mselves1 :atev] !y may be1 are true4 ,& ?is is ! be/ ( all pr9ciples2 & ! next be/ is to say1 z 9 pray]s1 t we w call !m by any sort or k9d ( names or patronymics :i* !y l1 because we d n "k ( any o!r4 ,t also1 ,i ?9k1 is a v good cu/om1 & "o :i* ,i %\ld mu* wi% to obs]ve4 ,let u1 !n1 if y please1 9 ! fir/ place ann\nce to !m t we are n enquir+ ab\t !m2 we d n presume t we are able to d s2 b we are enquir+ ab\t ! mean+ ( m5 9 giv+ !m ^! names1--9 ?is !re c be small blame4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i ?9k1 ,socrates1 t y are q "r1 & ,i w\ld l to d z y say4 ,,socrates3 ,%all we beg91 !n1 ) ,he/ia1 accord+ to cu/om8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes1 t w be v prop]4 ,,socrates3 ,:at may we suppose him to h meant :o gave ! "n ,he/ia8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,t is ano!r & c]ta9ly a mo/ difficult "q4 ,,socrates3 ,my de> ,h]mog5es1 ! fir/ impos]s ( names mu/ surely h be5 consid]able p]sons2 !y 7 philosoph]s1 & _h a good deal to say4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,well1 & :at ( !m8 ,,socrates3 ,!y are ! m5 to :om ,i %\ld attribute ! imposition ( names4 ,ev5 9 =eign names1 if y analyze !m1 a mean+ is /ill disc]nible4 ,= example1 t :i* we t]m ousia is by "s call$ esia1 & by o!rs aga9 osia4 ,n[ t ! ess5ce ( ?+s %\ld be call$ e/ia1 :i* is ak9 to ! fir/ ( ^! 7esia e/ia71 is rational en\gh4 ,& !re is reason 9 ! ,a!nians call+ t e/ia :i* p>ticipates 9 ousia4 ,= 9 anci5t times we too seem to h said esia = ousia1 & ?is y may note to h be5 ! idea ( ^? :o appo9t$ t sacrifices %\ld be fir/ (f]$ to e/ia1 :i* 0 natural en\gh if !y meant t e/ia 0 ! ess5ce ( ?+s4 ,^? aga9 :o read osia seem to h incl9$ to ! op9ion ( ,h]acleitus1 t all ?+s fl[ & no?+ /&s2 ) !m ! pu%+ pr9ciple 7o?\n7 is ! cause & rul+ p[] ( all ?+s1 & is !re=e rightly call$ osia4 ,en\gh ( ?is1 :i* is all t we :o "k no?+ c affirm4 ,next 9 ord] aft] ,he/ia we ought to consid] ,rhea & ,cronos1 al?\gh ! "n ( ,cronos has be5 already discuss$4 ,b ,i d>e say t ,i am talk+ great nons5se4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,:y1 ,socrates8 ,,socrates3 ,my good fri5d1 ,i h discov]$ a hive ( wisdom4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,( :at nature8 ,,socrates3 ,well1 r ridicul\s1 & yet plausible4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,h[ plausible8 ,,socrates3 ,i fancy to myself ,h]acleitus repeat+ wise traditions ( antiquity z old z ! days ( ,cronos & ,rhea1 & ( :i* ,hom] also spoke4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,h[ d y mean8 ,,socrates3 ,h]acleitus is suppos$ to say t all ?+s are 9 motion & no?+ at re/2 he comp>es !m to ! /ream ( a riv]1 & says t y _c g into ! same wat] twice4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,t is true4 ,,socrates3 ,well1 !n1 h[ c we avoid inf]r+ t he :o gave ! names ( ,cronos & ,rhea to ! ance/ors ( ! ,gods1 agre$ pretty mu* 9 ! doctr9e ( ,h]acleitus8 ,is ! giv+ ( ! names ( /reams to bo? ( !m purely accid5tal8 ,comp>e ! l9e 9 :i* ,hom]1 &1 z ,i believe1 ,hesiod also1 tells ( 8,ocean1 ! orig9 ( ,gods1 & "m ,te?ys 7,il4--! l9e is n f\nd 9 ! extant works ( ,hesiod4740 ,& aga91 ,orpheus says1 t 8,! fair riv] ( ,ocean 0 ! fir/ to m>ry1 & he esp\s$ 8 si/] ,te?ys1 :o 0 8 "m's daught]40 ,y see t ?is is a rem>kable co9cid5ce1 & all 9 ! direction ( ,h]acleitus4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i ?9k t !re is some?+ 9 :at y say1 ,socrates2 b ,i d n und]/& ! mean+ ( ! "n ,te?ys4 ,,socrates3 ,well1 t is almo/ self-expla9$1 be+ only ! "n ( a spr+1 a little disguis$2 = t :i* is /ra9$ & filt]$ 7diattom5on1 e?\m5on7 may be lik5$ to a spr+1 & ! "n ,te?ys is made up ( ^! two words4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,! idea is +5i\s1 ,socrates4 ,,socrates3 ,to be sure4 ,b :at comes next8--( ,zeus we h spok54 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,!n let u next take 8 two bro!rs1 ,poseidon & ,pluto1 :e!r ! latt] is call$ by t or by 8 o!r "n4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,by all means4 ,,socrates3 ,poseidon is ,posidesmos1 ! *a9 ( ! feet2 ! orig9al inv5tor ( ! "n _h be5 /opp$ by ! wat]y elem5t 9 8 walks1 & n all[$ to g on1 & !re=e he call$ ! rul] ( ?is elem5t ,poseidon2 ! epsilon 0 probably ins]t$ z an ornam5t4 ,yet1 p]haps1 n s2 b ! "n may h be5 orig9ally writt5 ) a d\ble lamda & n ) a sigma1 mean+ t ! ,god knew _m ?+s 7,polla eidos74 ,& p]haps also he be+ ! %ak] ( ! e>?1 has be5 nam$ f %ak+ 7seie971 & !n pi & delta h be5 add$4 ,pluto gives weal? 7,pl\tos71 & 8 "n means ! giv] ( weal?1 :i* comes out ( ! e>? b5ea?4 ,p 9 g5]al appe> to imag9e t ! t]m ,hades is connect$ ) ! invisible 7aeides7 & s !y are l$ by _! fe>s to call ! ,god ,pluto in/ead4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,& :at is ! true d]ivation8 ,,socrates3 ,9 spite ( ! mi/akes :i* are made ab\t ! p[] ( ?is deity1 & ! fooli% fe>s :i* p h ( him1 su* z ! fe> ( always be+ ) him aft] dea?1 & ( ! s\l d5ud$ ( ! body go+ to him 7comp>e ,rep471 my belief is t all is q consi/5t1 & t ! (fice & "n ( ! ,god really correspond4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,:y1 h[ is t8 ,,socrates3 ,i w tell y my own op9ion2 b fir/1 ,i %\ld l to ask y :i* *a9 does any animal feel to be ! /rong]8 & :i* conf9es him m to ! same spot1--desire or necessity8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,desire1 ,socrates1 is /rong] f>4 ,,socrates3 ,& d y n ?9k t _m a "o w\ld escape f ,hades1 if he did n b9d ^? :o dep>t to him by ! /ronge/ ( *a9s8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,assur$ly !y w\ld4 ,,socrates3 ,& if by ! greate/ ( *a9s1 !n by "s desire1 z ,i %\ld c]ta9ly inf]1 & n by necessity8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,t is cle>4 ,,socrates3 ,& !re are _m desires8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,& !re=e by ! greate/ desire1 if ! *a9 is to be ! greate/8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,& is any desire /rong] ?an ! ?\ght t y w be made bett] by associat+ ) ano!r8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,c]ta9ly n4 ,,socrates3 ,& is n t ! reason1 ,h]mog5es1 :y no "o1 :o has be5 to him1 is will+ to come back to u8 ,ev5 ! ,sir5s1 l all ! re/ ( ! _w1 h be5 laid "u 8 spells4 ,su* a *>m1 z ,i imag9e1 is ! ,god able to infuse into 8 words4 ,&1 accord+ to ?is view1 he is ! p]fect & accompli%$ ,sophi/1 & ! great b5efactor ( ! inhabitants ( ! o!r _w2 & ev5 to u :o are ^u e>? he s5ds f bel[ exce$+ bless+s4 ,= he has mu* m ?an he wants d[n !re2 :]e=e he is call$ ,pluto 7or ! ri*74 ,note also1 t he w h no?+ to d ) m5 :ile !y are 9 ! body1 b only :5 ! s\l is lib]at$ f ! desires & evils ( ! body4 ,n[ !re is a great deal ( philosophy & reflection 9 t2 = 9 _! lib]at$ /ate he c b9d !m ) ! desire ( virtue1 b :ile !y are flu/]$ & madd5$ by ! body1 n ev5 fa!r ,cronos himself w\ld suffice to keep !m ) him 9 8 own f>-fam$ *a9s4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,!re is a deal ( tru? 9 :at y say4 ,,socrates3 ,yes1 ,h]mog5es1 & ! legislator call$ him ,hades1 n f ! unse5 7aeides7--f> o!rwise1 b f 8 k 7eid5ai7 ( all noble ?+s4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,v good2 & :at d we say ( ,demet]1 & ,"h1 & ,apollo1 & ,a!ne1 & ,hephae/us1 & ,ares1 & ! o!r deities8 ,,socrates3 ,demet] is e did\sa met]1 :o gives food l a "m2 ,"h is ! lovely "o 7erate7--= ,zeus1 accord+ to tradition1 lov$ & m>ri$ h]2 possibly also ! "n may h be5 giv5 :5 ! legislator 0 ?9k+ ( ! heav5s1 & may be only a disguise ( ! air 7a]71 putt+ ! end 9 ! place ( ! beg9n+4 ,y w recognize ! tru? ( ?is if y repeat ! lett]s ( ,"h sev]al times ov]4 ,p dread ! "n ( ,ph]ephatta z !y dread ! "n ( ,apollo1--& ) z little reason2 ! fe>1 if ,i am n mi/ak51 only arises f _! ignorance ( ! nature ( names4 ,b !y g *ang+ ! "n into ,ph]sephone1 & !y are t]rifi$ at ?is2 :]eas ! new "n means only t ! ,goddess is wise 7sophe72 = see+ t all ?+s 9 ! _w are 9 motion 7ph]om5on71 t pr9ciple :i* embraces & t\*es & is able to foll[ !m1 is wisdom4 ,& !re=e ! ,goddess may be truly call$ ,ph]epaphe 7,ph]epapha71 or "s "n l x1 because %e t\*es t :i* is 9 motion 7t\ ph]om5on ephaptom5e71 h]e9 %[+ h] wisdom4 ,& ,hades1 :o is wise1 consorts ) h]1 because %e is wise4 ,!y alt] h] "n into ,ph]ephatta n[-a-days1 because ! pres5t g5]ation c>e = euphony m ?an tru?4 ,!re is ! o!r "n1 ,apollo1 :i*1 z ,i 0 say+1 is g5]ally suppos$ to h "s t]rible signification4 ,h y rem>k$ ?is fact8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,to be sure ,i h1 & :at y say is true4 ,,socrates3 ,b ! "n1 9 my op9ion1 is really mo/ expressive ( ! p[] ( ! ,god4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,h[ s8 ,,socrates3 ,i w endeav\r to expla91 = ,i d n believe t any s+le "n c\ld h be5 bett] adapt$ to express ! attributes ( ! ,god1 embrac+ & 9 a mann] signify+ all f\r ( !m1--music1 & prophecy1 & m$ic9e1 & ar*]y4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,t mu/ be a /range "n1 & ,i %\ld l to he> ! explanation4 ,,socrates3 ,say r an h>moni\s "n1 z beseems ! ,god ( ,h>mony4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! purgations & purifications :i* doctors & div9]s use1 & _! fumigations ) drugs magical or m$ic9al1 z well z _! wa%+s & lu/ral spr9kl+s1 h all "o & ! same object1 :i* is to make a man pure bo? 9 body & s\l4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,v true4 ,,socrates3 ,& is n ,apollo ! purifi]1 & ! wa%]1 & ! absolv] f all impurities8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,v true4 ,,socrates3 ,!n 9 ref]5ce to 8 ablutions & absolutions1 z be+ ! physician :o ord]s !m1 he may be rightly call$ ,apol\on 7purifi]72 or 9 respect ( 8 p[]s ( div9ation1 & 8 tru? & s9c]ity1 :i* is ! same z tru?1 he may be mo/ fitly call$ ,aplos1 f apl\s 7s9c]e71 z 9 ! ,!ssalian dialect1 = all ! ,!ssalians call him ,aplos2 also he is aei ,ballon 7always %oot+71 because he is a ma/] ar*] :o nev] misses2 or aga91 ! "n may ref] to 8 musical attributes1 & !n1 z 9 akol\?os1 & akoitis1 & 9 _m o!r words ! alpha is suppos$ to mean 8toge!r10 s ! mean+ ( ! "n ,apollo w be 8mov+ toge!r10 :e!r 9 ! poles ( heav5 z !y are call$1 or 9 ! h>mony ( song1 :i* is t]m$ concord1 because he moves all toge!r by an h>moni\s p[]1 z a/ronom]s & musicians +5i\sly decl>e4 ,& he is ! ,god :o presides ov] h>mony1 & makes all ?+s move toge!r1 bo? among ,gods & among m54 ,& z 9 ! words akol\?os & akoitis ! alpha is sub/itut$ = an omicron1 s ! "n ,apollon is equival5t to omopolon2 only ! second lambda is add$ 9 ord] to avoid ! ill-om5$ s\nd ( de/ruction 7apolon74 ,n[ ! suspicion ( ?is de/ructive p[] /ill haunts ! m9ds ( "s :o d n consid] ! true value ( ! "n1 :i*1 z ,i 0 say+ j n[1 has ref]5ce to all ! p[]s ( ! ,god1 :o is ! s+le "o1 ! ev]d>t+1 ! purifi]1 ! mov] toge!r 7apl\s1 aei ,ballon1 apol\on1 omopolon74 ,! "n ( ! ,muses & ( music w\ld seem to be d]iv$ f _! mak+ philosophical enquiries 7mo/hai72 & ,leto is call$ by ?is "n1 because %e is su* a g5tle ,goddess1 & s will+ 7e!lemon7 to grant our reque/s2 or h] "n may be ,le?o1 z %e is (t5 call$ by /rang]s--!y seem to imply by x h] amiability1 & h] smoo? & easy-go+ way ( behav+4 ,artemis is nam$ f h] heal?y 7artemes71 well-ord]$ nature1 & because ( h] love ( virg9ity1 p]haps because %e is a pr(ici5t 9 virtue 7arete71 & p]haps also z hat+ int]c\rse ( ! sexes 7ton aroton misesasa74 ,he :o gave ! ,goddess h] "n may h _h any or all ( ^! reasons4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,:at is ! mean+ ( ,dionysus & ,aphrodite8 ,,socrates3 ,son ( ,hipponicus1 y ask a solemn "q2 !re is a s]i\s & also a faceti\s explanation ( bo? ^! names2 ! s]i\s explanation is n to be _h f me1 b !re is no objection to y\r he>+ ! faceti\s "o2 = ! ,gods too love a joke4 ,dionusos is simply did\s o9on 7giv] ( w9e71 ,dido9usos1 z he might be call$ 9 fun1--& o9os is prop]ly oion\s1 because w9e makes ^? :o dr9k1 ?9k 7oie/hai7 t !y h a m9d 7n\n7 :5 !y h none4 ,! d]ivation ( ,aphrodite1 born ( ! foam 7aphros71 may be fairly accept$ on ! au?ority ( ,hesiod4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,/ill !re rema9s ,a!ne1 :om y1 ,socrates1 z an ,a!nian1 w surely n =get2 !re are also ,hephae/us & ,ares4 ,,socrates3 ,i am n likely to =get !m4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,no1 inde$4 ,,socrates3 ,!re is no difficulty 9 expla9+ ! o!r appellation ( ,a!ne4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,:at o!r appellation8 ,,socrates3 ,we call h] ,pallas4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,to be sure4 ,,socrates3 ,& we _c be wrong 9 suppos+ t ?is is d]iv$ f arm$ dances4 ,= ! elevation ( oneself or any?+ else above ! e>?1 or by ! use ( ! h&s1 we call %ak+ 7palle971 or danc+4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,t is q true4 ,,socrates3 ,!n t is ! explanation ( ! "n ,pallas8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes2 b :at d y say ( ! o!r "n8 ,,socrates3 ,a!ne8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,t is a grav] matt]1 & !re1 my fri5d1 ! mod]n int]pret]s ( ,hom] may1 ,i ?9k1 assi/ 9 expla9+ ! view ( ! anci5ts4 ,= mo/ ( ^! 9 _! explanations ( ! poet1 ass]t t he meant by ,a!ne 8m9d0 7n\s7 & 8intellig5ce0 7dianoia71 & ! mak] ( names appe>s to h _h a s+ul> notion ab\t h]2 & inde$ calls h] by a /ill high] title1 8div9e intellig5ce0 7,?\ noesis71 z ?\gh he w\ld say3 ,?is is %e :o has ! m9d ( ,god 7,!onoa72--us+ alpha z a dialectical v>iety = eta1 & tak+ away iota & sigma 7,!re seems to be "s error 9 ! ,,mss4 ,! mean+ is t ! ^w !onoa !\noa is a curtail$ =m ( !\ noesis1 b ! omitt$ lett]s d n agree474 ,p]haps1 h[ev]1 ! "n ,!onoe may mean 8%e :o kn[s div9e ?+s0 7,!ia no\sa7 bett] ?an o!rs4 ,nor %all we be f> wrong 9 suppos+ t ! au?or ( x wi%$ to id5tify ?is ,goddess ) moral intellig5ce 7en e!i noes971 & !re=e gave h] ! "n e?onoe2 :i*1 h[ev]1 ei!r he or 8 successors h alt]$ into :at !y ?\ght a nic] =m1 & call$ h] ,a!ne4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,b :at d y say ( ,hephae/us8 ,,socrates3 ,speak y ( ! pr9cely "l ( light 7,phaeos i/ora78 ,,h]mog5es3 ,surely4 ,,socrates3 ,ephai/os is ,phai/os1 & has add$ ! eta by attraction2 t is obvi\s to anybody4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,t is v probable1 until "s m probable notion gets into y\r head4 ,,socrates3 ,to prev5t t1 y _h bett] ask :at is ! d]ivation ( ,ares4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,:at is ,ares8 ,,socrates3 ,ares may be call$1 if y w1 f 8 manhood 7arr57 & manl9ess1 or if y please1 f 8 h>d & un*angeable nature1 :i* is ! mean+ ( arratos3 ! latt] is a d]ivation 9 e way appropriate to ! ,god ( w>4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,v true4 ,,socrates3 ,& n[1 by ! ,gods1 let u h no m ( ! ,gods1 = ,i am afraid ( !m2 ask ab\t any?+ b !m1 & ?\ %alt see h[ ! /e$s ( ,eu?yphro c prance4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,only "o m ,god6 ,i %\ld l to "k ab\t ,h]mes1 ( :om ,i am said n to be a true son4 ,let u make him out1 & !n ,i %all "k :e!r !re is any mean+ 9 :at ,cratylus says4 ,,socrates3 ,i %\ld imag9e t ! "n ,h]mes has to d ) spee*1 & signifies t he is ! int]pret] 7erm5eus71 or mess5g]1 or ?ief1 or li>1 or b>ga9]2 all t sort ( ?+ has a great deal to d ) language2 z ,i 0 tell+ y1 ! ^w eire9 is expressive ( ! use ( spee*1 & !re is an (t5-recurr+ ,hom]ic ^w emesato1 :i* means 8he contriv$0--out ( ^! two words1 eire9 & mesa/hai1 ! legislator =m$ ! "n ( ! ,god :o inv5t$ language & spee*2 & we may imag9e him dictat+ to u ! use ( ?is "n3 8,o my fri5ds10 says he to u1 8see+ t he is ! contriv] ( tales or spee*es1 y may rightly call him ,eirhemes40 ,& ?is has be5 improv$ by u1 z we ?9k1 into ,h]mes4 ,iris also appe>s to h be5 call$ f ! v]b 8to tell0 7eire971 because %e 0 a mess5g]4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,!n ,i am v sure t ,cratylus 0 q "r 9 say+ t ,i 0 no true son ( ,h]mes 7,ermog5es71 = ,i am n a good h& at spee*es4 ,,socrates3 ,!re is also reason1 my fri5d1 9 ,pan be+ ! d\ble-=m$ son ( ,h]mes4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,h[ d y make t out8 ,,socrates3 ,y are aw>e t spee* signifies all ?+s 7pan71 & is always turn+ !m r\nd & r\nd1 & has two =ms1 true & false8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,c]ta9ly4 ,,socrates3 ,is n ! tru? t is 9 him ! smoo? or sacr$ =m :i* dwells above among ! ,gods1 :]eas falsehood dwells among m5 bel[1 & is r\gh l ! goat ( trag$y2 = tales & falsehoods h g5]ally to d ) ! tragic or goati% life1 & trag$y is ! place ( !m8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,v true4 ,,socrates3 ,!n surely ,pan1 :o is ! decl>] ( all ?+s 7pan7 & ! p]petual mov] 7aei polon7 ( all ?+s1 is rightly call$ aipolos 7goat-h]d71 he be+ ! two-=m$ son ( ,h]mes1 smoo? 9 8 upp] "p1 & r\gh & goatlike 9 8 l[] regions4 ,&1 z ! son ( ,h]mes1 he is spee* or ! bro!r ( spee*1 & t bro!r %\ld be l bro!r is no m>vel4 ,b1 z ,i 0 say+1 my de> ,h]mog5es1 let u get away f ! ,gods4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,f ^! sort ( ,gods1 by all means1 ,socrates4 ,b :y %\ld we n discuss ano!r k9d ( ,gods--! sun1 moon1 />s1 e>?1 ae!r1 air1 fire1 wat]1 ! seasons1 & ! ye>8 ,,socrates3 ,y impose a great _m tasks ^u me4 ,/ill1 if y wi%1 ,i w n refuse4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,y w oblige me4 ,,socrates3 ,h[ w\ld y h me beg98 ,%all ,i take fir/ ( all him :om y m5tion$ fir/--! sun8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,v good4 ,,socrates3 ,! orig9 ( ! sun w probably be cle>] 9 ! ,doric =m1 = ! ,dorians call him alios1 & ?is "n is giv5 to him because :5 he rises he ga!rs 7alizoi7 m5 toge!r or because he is always roll+ 9 8 c\rse 7aei eile9 ion7 ab\t ! e>?2 or f aiole91 ( :i* ! mean+ is ! same z poikille9 7to v>iegate71 because he v>iegates ! productions ( ! e>?4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,b :at is sel5e 7! moon78 ,,socrates3 ,t "n is r un=tunate = ,anaxagoras4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,h[ s8 ,,socrates3 ,! ^w seems to =e/all 8 rec5t discov]y1 t ! moon receives h] light f ! sun4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,:y d y say s8 ,,socrates3 ,! two words selas 7brightness7 & phos 7light7 h mu* ! same mean+8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,?is light ab\t ! moon is always new 7neon7 & always old 7enon71 if ! disciples ( ,anaxagoras say truly4 ,= ! sun 9 8 revolution always adds new light1 & !re is ! old light ( ! previ\s mon?4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,v true4 ,,socrates3 ,! moon is n unfrequ5tly call$ selanaia4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,true4 ,,socrates3 ,& z %e has a light :i* is always old & always new 7enon neon aei7 %e may v prop]ly h ! "n sela5oneoaeia2 & ?is :5 hamm]$ into %ape becomes selanaia4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,a real di?yrambic sort ( "n t1 ,socrates4 ,b :at d y say ( ! mon? & ! />s8 ,,socrates3 ,meis 7mon?7 is call$ f mei\/hai 7to less571 because suff]+ dim9ution2 ! "n ( a/ra 7/>s7 seems to be d]iv$ f a/rape1 :i* is an improvem5t on ana/rope1 signify+ ! upsett+ ( ! eyes 7ana/rephe9 opa74 ,,h]mog5es3 ,:at d y say ( pur 7fire7 & udor 7wat]78 ,,socrates3 ,i am at a loss h[ to expla9 pur2 ei!r ! muse ( ,eu?yphro has des]t$ me1 or !re is "s v great difficulty 9 ! ^w4 ,please1 h[ev]1 to note ! contrivance :i* ,i adopt :5ev] ,i am 9 a difficulty ( ?is sort4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,:at is x8 ,,socrates3 ,i w tell y2 b ,i %\ld l to "k fir/ :e!r y c tell me :at is ! mean+ ( ! pur8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,inde$ ,i _c4 ,,socrates3 ,%all ,i tell y :at ,i suspect to be ! true explanation ( ?is & sev]al o!r words8--,my belief is t !y are ( =eign orig94 ,= ! ,hell5es1 especially ^? :o 7 "u ! dom9ion ( ! b>b>ians1 (t5 borr[$ f !m4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,:at is ! inf]5ce8 ,,socrates3 ,:y1 y "k t any "o :o seeks to demon/rate ! fitness ( ^! names accord+ to ! ,hell5ic language1 & n accord+ to ! language f :i* ! words are d]iv$1 is r likely to be at fault4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes1 c]ta9ly4 ,,socrates3 ,well !n1 consid] :e!r ?is pur is n =eign2 = ! ^w is n easily br\ght into relation ) ! ,hell5ic tongue1 & ! ,phrygians may be obs]v$ to h ! same ^w slightly *ang$1 j z !y h udor 7wat]7 & kunes 7dogs71 & _m o!r words4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,t is true4 ,,socrates3 ,any viol5t int]pretations ( ! words %\ld be avoid$2 = some?+ to say ab\t !m may easily be f\nd4 ,& ?us ,i get rid ( pur & udor4 ,a] 7air71 ,h]mog5es1 may be expla9$ z ! elem5t :i* raises 7airei7 ?+s f ! e>?1 or z ev] fl[+ 7aei rei71 or because ! flux ( ! air is w9d1 & ! poets call ! w9ds 8air-bla/s10 7aetai72 he :o uses ! t]m may mean1 s to speak1 air-flux 7aetorr\n71 9 ! s5se ( w9d-flux 7pneumatorr\n72 & because ?is mov+ w9d may be express$ by ei!r t]m he employs ! ^w air 7a] aetes rheo74 ,ai!r 7ae!r7 ,i %\ld int]pret z aei!]2 ?is may be correctly said1 because ?is elem5t is always runn+ 9 a flux ab\t ! air 7aei !i p]i t\ a]a reon74 ,! mean+ ( ! ^w ge 7e>?7 comes out bett] :5 9 ! =m ( gaia1 = ! e>? may be truly call$ 8"m0 7gaia1 g5neteira71 z 9 ! language ( ,hom] 7,od47 gegaasi means geg5ne/hai4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,good4 ,,socrates3 ,:at %all we take next8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,!re are orai 7! seasons71 & ! two names ( ! ye>1 eniautos & etos4 ,,socrates3 ,! orai %\ld be spelt 9 ! old ,attic way1 if y desire to "k ! probable tru? ab\t !m2 !y are rightly call$ ! orai because !y divide 7oriz\s97 ! summ]s & w9t]s & w9ds & ! fruits ( ! e>?4 ,! words eniautos & etos appe> to be ! same1--8t :i* br+s to light ! plants & gr[?s ( ! e>? 9 _! turn1 & passes !m 9 review )9 itself 7en eauto exetazei703 ?is is brok5 up into two words1 eniautos f en eauto1 & etos f etazei1 j z ! orig9al "n ( ,zeus 0 divid$ into ,z5a & ,dia2 & ! :ole proposition means t 8 p[] ( review+ f )9 is "o1 b has two names1 two words etos & eniautos be+ ?us =m$ out ( a s+le proposition4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,inde$1 ,socrates1 y make surpris+ progress4 ,,socrates3 ,i am run away )4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,v true4 ,,socrates3 ,b am n yet at my utmo/ spe$4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i %\ld l v mu* to "k1 9 ! next place1 h[ y w\ld expla9 ! virtues4 ,:at pr9ciple ( correctness is !re 9 ^? *>m+ words--wisdom1 und]/&+1 ju/ice1 & ! re/ ( !m8 ,,socrates3 ,t is a trem5d\s class ( names :i* y are dis9t]r+2 /ill1 z ,i h put on ! lion's sk91 ,i mu/ n be fa9t ( he>t2 & ,i suppose t ,i mu/ consid] ! mean+ ( wisdom 7phronesis7 & und]/&+ 7sunesis71 & judgm5t 7gnome71 & k 7epi/eme71 & all ^? o!r *>m+ words1 z y call !m8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,surely1 we mu/ n leave (f until we f9d out _! mean+4 ,,socrates3 ,by ! dog ( ,egypt ,i h a n bad notion :i* came into my head only ?is mom5t3 ,i believe t ! primeval giv]s ( names 7 und\bt$ly l too _m ( our mod]n philosoph]s1 :o1 9 _! se>* aft] ! nature ( ?+s1 are always gett+ dizzy f con/antly go+ r\nd & r\nd1 & !n !y imag9e t ! _w is go+ r\nd & r\nd & mov+ 9 all directions2 & ?is appe>ance1 :i* arises out ( _! own int]nal condition1 !y suppose to be a reality ( nature2 !y ?9k t !re is no?+ /able or p]man5t1 b only flux & motion1 & t ! _w is always full ( e sort ( motion & *ange4 ,! consid]ation ( ! names :i* ,i m5tion$ has l$ me into mak+ ?is reflection4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,h[ is t1 ,socrates8 ,,socrates3 ,p]haps y did n obs]ve t 9 ! names :i* h be5 j cit$1 ! motion or flux or g5]ation ( ?+s is mo/ surely indicat$4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,no1 inde$1 ,i nev] ?\ght ( x4 ,,socrates3 ,take ! fir/ ( ^? :i* y m5tion$2 cle>ly t is a "n indicative ( motion4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,:at 0 ! "n8 ,,socrates3 ,phronesis 7wisdom71 :i* may signify phoras kai rh\ noesis 7p]ception ( motion & flux71 or p]haps phoras onesis 7! bless+ ( motion71 b is at any rate connect$ ) ph]e/hai 7motion72 gnome 7judgm5t71 aga91 c]ta9ly implies ! pond]ation or consid]ation 7nomesis7 ( g5]ation1 = to pond] is ! same z to consid]2 or1 if y w\ld r1 "h is noesis1 ! v ^w j n[ m5tion$1 :i* is ne\ esis 7! desire ( ! new72 ! ^w neos implies t ! _w is always 9 process ( creation4 ,! giv] ( ! "n want$ to express ?is long+ ( ! s\l1 = ! orig9al "n 0 neoesis1 & n noesis2 b eta took ! place ( a d\ble epsilon4 ,! ^w sophrosune is ! salvation 7sot]ia7 ( t wisdom 7phronesis7 :i* we 7 j n[ consid]+4 ,epioteme 7k7 is ak9 to ?is1 & indicates t ! s\l :i* is good = any?+ foll[s 7epetai7 ! motion ( ?+s1 nei!r anticipat+ !m nor fall+ beh9d !m2 :]e=e ! ^w %\ld r be read z epi/em5e1 ins]t+ epsilon nu4 ,sunesis 7und]/&+7 may be reg>d$ 9 l mann] z a k9d ( conclusion2 ! ^w is d]iv$ f suni5ai 7to g along )71 &1 l epi/a/hai 7to "k71 implies ! progression ( ! s\l 9 company ) ! nature ( ?+s4 ,sophia 7wisdom7 is v d>k1 & appe>s n to be ( native gr[?2 ! mean+ is1 t\*+ ! motion or /ream ( ?+s4 ,y mu/ rememb] t ! poets1 :5 !y speak ( ! comm5cem5t ( any rapid motion1 (t5 use ! ^w esu! 7he ru%$72 & !re 0 a fam\s ,lac$aemonian :o 0 nam$ ,s\s 7,ru%71 = by ?is ^w ! ,lac$aemonians signify rapid motion1 & ! t\*+ 7epaphe7 ( motion is express$ by sophia1 = all ?+s are suppos$ to be 9 motion4 ,good 7aga?on7 is ! "n :i* is giv5 to ! admirable 7aga/o7 9 nature2 =1 al?\gh all ?+s move1 /ill !re are degrees ( motion2 "s are swift]1 "s sl[]2 b !re are "s ?+s :i* are admirable = _! swiftness1 & ?is admirable "p ( nature is call$ aga?on4 ,dikaiosune 7ju/ice7 is cle>ly dikai\ sunesis 7und]/&+ ( ! j72 b ! actual ^w dikaion is m difficult3 m5 are only agre$ to a c]ta9 ext5t ab\t ju/ice1 & !n !y beg9 to disagree4 ,= ^? :o suppose all ?+s to be 9 motion conceive ! great] "p ( nature to be a m]e receptacle2 & !y say t !re is a p5etrat+ p[] :i* passes ?r\gh all ?is1 & is ! in/rum5t ( creation 9 all1 & is ! subtle/ & swifte/ elem5t2 = if x 7 n ! subtle/1 & a p[] :i* none c keep out1 & also ! swifte/1 pass+ by o!r ?+s z if !y 7 /&+ /ill1 x c\ld n p5etrate ?r\gh ! mov+ univ]se4 ,& ?is elem5t1 :i* sup]9t5ds all ?+s & pi]ces 7diaion7 all1 is rightly call$ dikaion2 ! lett] k is only add$ = ! sake ( euphony4 ,?us f>1 z ,i 0 say+1 !re is a g5]al agreem5t ab\t ! nature ( ju/ice2 b ,i1 ,h]mog5es1 be+ an en?usia/ic disciple1 h be5 told 9 a my/]y t ! ju/ice ( :i* ,i am speak+ is also ! cause ( ! _w3 n[ a cause is t because ( :i* any?+ is creat$2 & "s "o comes & :isp]s 9 my e> t ju/ice is rightly s call$ because p>tak+ ( ! nature ( ! cause1 & ,i beg91 aft] he>+ :at he has said1 to int]rogate him g5tly3 8,well1 my excell5t fri5d10 say ,i1 8b if all ?is be true1 ,i /ill want to "k :at is ju/ice40 ,!reupon !y ?9k t ,i ask tiresome que/ions1 & am leap+ ov] ! b>ri]s1 & h be5 already suffici5tly answ]$1 & !y try to satisfy me ) "o d]ivation aft] ano!r1 & at l5g? !y qu>rel4 ,= "o ( !m says t ju/ice is ! sun1 & t he only is ! pi]c+ 7diaionta7 & burn+ 7kaonta7 elem5t :i* is ! gu>dian ( nature4 ,& :5 ,i joyfully repeat ?is beautiful notion1 ,i am answ]$ by ! satirical rem>k1 8,:at1 is !re no ju/ice 9 ! _w :5 ! sun is d[n80 ,& :5 ,i e>ne/ly beg my que/ion] to tell me 8 own hone/ op9ion1 he says1 8,fire 9 ! ab/ract02 b ?is is n v intelligible4 ,ano!r says1 8,no1 n fire 9 ! ab/ract1 b ! ab/raction ( heat 9 ! fire40 ,ano!r man pr(esses to laugh at all ?is1 & says1 z ,anaxagoras says1 t ju/ice is m9d1 = m9d1 z !y say1 has absolute p[]1 & mixes ) no?+1 & ord]s all ?+s1 & passes ?r\gh all ?+s4 ,at la/1 my fri5d1 ,i f9d myself 9 f> great] p]plexity ab\t ! nature ( ju/ice ?an ,i 0 be=e ,i began to le>n4 ,b /ill ,i am ( op9ion t ! "n1 :i* has l$ me into ?is digression1 0 giv5 to ju/ice = ! reasons :i* ,i h m5tion$4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i ?9k1 ,socrates1 t y are n improvis+ n[2 y mu/ h he>d ?is f "s "o else4 ,,socrates3 ,& n ! re/8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,h>dly4 ,,socrates3 ,well1 !n1 let me g on 9 ! hope ( mak+ y believe 9 ! orig9ality ( ! re/4 ,:at rema9s aft] ju/ice8 ,i d n ?9k t we h z yet discuss$ c\rage 7&reia71--inju/ice 7adikia71 :i* is obvi\sly no?+ m ?an a h9drance to ! p5etrat+ pr9ciple 7diaiontos71 ne$ n be consid]$4 ,well1 !n1 ! "n ( &reia seems to imply a battle2--?is battle is 9 ! _w ( exi/5ce1 & accord+ to ! doctr9e ( flux is only ! c\nt]flux 7enantia rhon73 if y extract ! delta f &reia1 ! "n at once signifies ! ?+1 & y may cle>ly und]/& t &reia is n ! /ream oppos$ to e /ream1 b only to t :i* is contr>y to ju/ice1 = o!rwise c\rage w\ld n h be5 prais$4 ,! words arr5 7male7 & an] 7man7 also conta9 a simil> allusion to ! same pr9ciple ( ! upw>d flux 7te ano rhon74 ,gune 7woman7 ,i suspect to be ! same ^w z g\n 7bir?73 !lu 7female7 appe>s to be p>tly d]iv$ f !le 7! teat71 because ! teat is l ra91 & makes ?+s fl\ri% 7te!l5ai74 ,,h]mog5es3 ,t is surely probable4 ,,socrates3 ,yes2 & ! v ^w ?alle9 7to fl\ri%7 seems to figure ! gr[? ( y\?1 :i* is swift & sudd5 ev]4 ,& ?is is express$ by ! legislator 9 ! "n1 :i* is a comp\nd ( !9 7runn+71 & alle/hai 7leap+74 ,pray obs]ve h[ ,i gallop away :5 ,i get on smoo? gr\nd4 ,!re are a good _m names g5]ally ?\ght to be ( importance1 :i* h /ill to be expla9$4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,true4 ,,socrates3 ,!re is ! mean+ ( ! ^w te*ne 7art71 = example4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,v true4 ,,socrates3 ,t may be id5tifi$ ) e*onoe1 & expresses ! possession ( m9d3 y h only to take away ! tau & ins]t two omi*rons1 "o betwe5 ! *i & nu1 & ano!r betwe5 ! nu & eta4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,t is a v %abby etymology4 ,,socrates3 ,yes1 my de> fri5d2 b !n y "k t ! orig9al names h be5 long ago buri$ & disguis$ by p /ick+ on & /ripp+ (f lett]s = ! sake ( euphony1 & twi/+ & b$iz5+ !m 9 all sorts ( ways3 & "t too may h _h a %>e 9 ! *ange4 ,take1 = example1 ! ^w katoptron2 :y is ! lett] rho ins]t$8 ,?is mu/ surely be ! addition ( "s "o :o c>es no?+ ab\t ! tru?1 b ?9ks only ( putt+ ! m\? into %ape4 ,& ! additions are (t5 su* t at la/ no human be+ c possibly make out ! orig9al mean+ ( ! ^w4 ,ano!r example is ! ^w sphigx1 sphiggos1 :i* ought prop]ly to be phigx1 phiggos1 & !re are o!r examples4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,t is q true1 ,socrates4 ,,socrates3 ,& yet1 if y are p]mitt$ to put 9 & pull out any lett]s :i* y please1 names w be too easily made1 & any "n may be adapt$ to any object4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,true4 ,,socrates3 ,yes1 t is true4 ,& !re=e a wise dictator1 l y\rself1 %\ld obs]ve ! laws ( mod]ation & probability4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,su* is my desire4 ,,socrates3 ,& m9e1 too1 ,h]mog5es4 ,b d n be too mu* ( a precisian1 or 8y w unn]ve me ( my /r5g? 7,iliad4740 ,:5 y h all[$ me to add me*ane 7contrivance7 to te*ne 7art7 ,i %all be at ! top ( my b5t1 = ,i conceive me*ane to be a sign ( great accompli%m5t--ane92 = mekos has ! mean+ ( greatness1 & ^! two1 mekos & ane91 make up ! ^w me*ane4 ,b1 z ,i 0 say+1 be+ n[ at ! top ( my b5t1 ,i %\ld l to consid] ! mean+ ( ! two words arete 7virtue7 & kakia 7vice72 arete ,i d n z yet und]/&1 b kakia is transp>5t1 & agrees ) ! pr9ciples :i* prec$$1 = all ?+s be+ 9 a flux 7ionton71 kakia is kakos ion 7go+ badly72 & ?is evil motion :5 exi/+ 9 ! s\l has ! g5]al "n ( kakia1 or vice1 specially appropriat$ to x4 ,! mean+ ( kakos i5ai may be fur!r illu/rat$ by ! use ( deilia 7c[>dice71 :i* ought to h come aft] &reia1 b 0 =gott51 &1 z ,i fe>1 is n ! only ^w :i* has be5 pass$ ov]4 ,deilia signifies t ! s\l is b\nd ) a /rong *a9 7desmos71 = lian means /r5g?1 & !re=e deilia expresses ! greate/ & /ronge/ bond ( ! s\l2 & aporia 7difficulty7 is an evil ( ! same nature 7f a 7alpha7 n1 & poreue/hai to g71 l any?+ else :i* is an imp$im5t to motion & movem5t4 ,!n ! ^w kakia appe>s to mean kakos i5ai1 or go+ badly1 or limp+ & halt+2 ( :i* ! consequ5ce is1 t ! s\l becomes fill$ ) vice4 ,& if kakia is ! "n ( ?is sort ( ?+1 arete w be ! opposite ( x1 signify+ 9 ! fir/ place ease ( motion1 !n t ! /ream ( ! good s\l is unimp$$1 & has !re=e ! attribute ( ev] fl[+ )\t let or h9drance1 & is !re=e call$ arete1 or1 m correctly1 aeireite 7ev]-fl[+71 & may p]haps h _h ano!r =m1 airete 7eligible71 indicat+ t no?+ is m eligible ?an virtue1 & ?is has be5 hamm]$ into arete4 ,i d>esay t y w deem ?is to be ano!r inv5tion ( m9e1 b ,i ?9k t if ! previ\s ^w kakia 0 "r1 !n arete is also "r4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,b :at is ! mean+ ( kakon1 :i* has play$ s great a "p 9 y\r previ\s disc\rse8 ,,socrates3 ,t is a v s+ul> ^w ab\t :i* ,i c h>dly =m an op9ion1 & !re=e ,i mu/ h rec\rse to my +5i\s device4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,:at device8 ,,socrates3 ,! device ( a =eign orig91 :i* ,i %all give to ?is ^w also4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,v likely y are "r2 b suppose t we leave ^! words & endeav\r to see ! rationale ( kalon & ais*ron4 ,,socrates3 ,! mean+ ( ais*ron is evid5t1 be+ only aei is*on roes 7always prev5t+ f fl[+71 & ?is is 9 accordance ) our =m] d]ivations4 ,= ! "n-giv] 0 a great enemy to /agnation ( all sorts1 & h5ce he gave ! "n aeis*or\n to t :i* h9d]$ ! flux 7aei is*on r\n71 & t is n[ beat5 toge!r into ais*ron4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,b :at d y say ( kalon8 ,,socrates3 ,t is m obscure2 yet ! =m is only due to ! quantity1 & has be5 *ang$ by alt]+ omicron upsilon into omicron4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,:at d y mean8 ,,socrates3 ,?is "n appe>s to d5ote m9d4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,h[ s8 ,,socrates3 ,let me ask y :at is ! cause :y any?+ has a "n2 is n ! pr9ciple :i* imposes ! "n ! cause8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,c]ta9ly4 ,,socrates3 ,& mu/ n ?is be ! m9d ( ,gods1 or ( m51 or ( bo?8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,is n m9d t :i* call$ 7kalesan7 ?+s by _! names1 & is n m9d ! beautiful 7kalon78 ,,h]mog5es3 ,t is evid5t4 ,,socrates3 ,& are n ! works ( intellig5ce & m9d wor?y ( praise1 & are n o!r works wor?y ( blame8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,c]ta9ly4 ,,socrates3 ,physic does ! "w ( a physician1 & c>p5t]+ does ! works ( a c>p5t]8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,exactly4 ,,socrates3 ,& ! pr9ciple ( beauty does ! works ( beauty8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,( c\rse4 ,,socrates3 ,& t pr9ciple we affirm to be m9d8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,v true4 ,,socrates3 ,!n m9d is rightly call$ beauty because %e does ! works :i* we recognize & speak ( z ! beautiful8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,t is evid5t4 ,,socrates3 ,:at m names rema9 to u8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,!re are ! words :i* are connect$ ) aga?on & kalon1 su* z sumph]on & lusitel\n1 ophelimon1 k]daleon1 & _! opposites4 ,,socrates3 ,! mean+ ( sumph]on 7exp$i5t7 ,i ?9k t y may discov] = y\rself by ! light ( ! previ\s examples1--= x is a si/] ^w to epi/eme1 mean+ j ! motion 7pora7 ( ! s\l accompany+ ! _w1 & ?+s :i* are done ^u ?is pr9ciple are call$ sumphora or sumph]onta1 because !y are c>ri$ r\nd ) ! _w4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,t is probable4 ,,socrates3 ,aga91 *]daleon 7ga9ful7 is call$ f *]dos 7ga971 b y mu/ alt] ! delta into nu if y want to get at ! mean+2 = ?is ^w also signifies good1 b 9 ano!r way2 he :o gave ! "n int5d$ to express ! p[] ( admixture 7k]annum5on7 & univ]sal p5etration 9 ! good2 9 =m+ ! ^w1 h[ev]1 he ins]t$ a delta in/ead ( a nu1 & s made k]dos4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,well1 b :at is lusitel\n 7pr(itable78 ,,socrates3 ,i suppose1 ,h]mog5es1 t p d n mean by ! pr(itable ! ga9ful or t :i* pays 7luei7 ! retail]1 b !y use ! ^w 9 ! s5se ( swift4 ,y reg>d ! pr(itable 7lusitel\n71 z t :i* be+ ! swifte/ ?+ 9 exi/5ce1 all[s ( no /ay 9 ?+s & no pause or end ( motion1 b always1 if !re beg9s to be any end1 lets ?+s g aga9 7luei71 & makes motion immortal & unceas+3 & 9 ?is po9t ( view1 z appe>s to me1 ! good is happily d5om9at$ lusitel\n--be+ t :i* looses 7luon7 ! end 7telos7 ( motion4 ,ophelimon 7! advantage\s7 is d]iv$ f ophelle91 mean+ t :i* creates & increases2 ?is latt] is a common ,hom]ic ^w1 & has a =eign "*4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,& :at d y say ( _! opposites8 ,,socrates3 ,( su* z are m]e negatives ,i h>dly ?9k t ,i ne$ speak4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,:i* are !y8 ,,socrates3 ,! words axumphoron 7inexp$i5t71 anopheles 7unpr(itable71 alusiteles 7unadvantage\s71 ak]des 7unga9ful74 ,,h]mog5es3 ,true4 ,,socrates3 ,i w\ld r take ! words blab]on 7h>mful71 zemiodes 7hurtful74 ,,h]mog5es3 ,good4 ,,socrates3 ,! ^w blab]on is t :i* is said to h9d] or h>m 7blapte97 ! /ream 7r\n72 blapton is b\lom5on apte9 7seek+ to hold or b9d72 = apte9 is ! same z de91 & de9 is always a t]m ( c5sure2 b\lom5on apte9 r\n 7want+ to b9d ! /ream7 w\ld prop]ly be b\lapt]\n1 & ?is1 z ,i imag9e1 is improv$ into blab]on4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,y br+ out curi\s results1 ,socrates1 9 ! use ( names2 & :5 ,i he> ! ^w b\lapt]\n ,i _c help imag9+ t y are mak+ y\r m\? into a flute1 & puff+ away at "s prelude to ,a!ne4 ,,socrates3 ,t is ! fault ( ! mak]s ( ! "n1 ,h]mog5es2 n m9e4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,v true2 b :at is ! d]ivation ( zemiodes8 ,,socrates3 ,:at is ! mean+ ( zemiodes8--let me rem>k1 ,h]mog5es1 h[ "r ,i 0 9 say+ t great *anges are made 9 ! mean+ ( words by putt+ 9 & pull+ out lett]s2 ev5 a v slight p]mutation w sometimes give an entirely opposite s5se2 ,i may in/ance ! ^w deon1 :i* occurs to me at ! mom5t1 & rem9ds me ( :at ,i 0 go+ to say to y1 t ! f9e fa%ionable language ( mod]n times has twi/$ & disguis$ & entirely alt]$ ! orig9al mean+ bo? ( deon1 & also ( zemiodes1 :i* 9 ! old language is cle>ly indicat$4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,:at d y mean8 ,,socrates3 ,i w try to expla94 ,y are aw>e t our =efa!rs lov$ ! s\nds iota & delta1 especially ! wom51 :o are mo/ cons]vative ( ! anci5t language1 b n[ !y *ange iota into eta or epsilon1 & delta into zeta2 ?is is suppos$ to increase ! gr&eur ( ! s\nd4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,h[ d y mean8 ,,socrates3 ,= example1 9 v anci5t times !y call$ ! day ei!r im]a or em]a 7%ort e71 :i* is call$ by u em]a 7long e74 ,,h]mog5es3 ,t is true4 ,,socrates3 ,d y obs]ve t only ! anci5t =m %[s ! int5tion ( ! giv] ( ! "n8 ( :i* ! reason is1 t m5 long = 7imeir\si7 & love ! light :i* comes aft] ! d>kness1 & is !re=e call$ im]a1 f im]os1 desire4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,cle>ly4 ,,socrates3 ,b n[ ! "n is s trave/i$ t y _c tell ! mean+1 al?\gh !re are "s :o imag9e ! day to be call$ em]a because x makes ?+s g5tle 7em]a diff]5t acc5ts74 ,,h]mog5es3 ,su* is my view4 ,,socrates3 ,& d y "k t ! anci5ts said duogon & n zugon8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,!y did s4 ,,socrates3 ,& zugon 7yoke7 has no mean+1--x ought to be duogon1 :i* ^w expresses ! b9d+ ( two toge!r 7due9 agoge7 = ! purpose ( draw+2--?is has be5 *ang$ into zugon1 & !re are _m o!r examples ( simil> *anges4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,!re are4 ,,socrates3 ,proce$+ 9 ! same tra9 ( ?\ght ,i may rem>k t ! ^w deon 7obligation7 has a mean+ :i* is ! opposite ( all ! o!r appellations ( good2 = deon is "h a species ( good1 & is1 nev]!less1 ! *a9 7desmos7 or h9d]] ( motion1 & !re=e own bro!r ( blab]on4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes1 ,socrates2 t is q pla94 ,,socrates3 ,n if y re/ore ! anci5t =m1 :i* is m likely to be ! correct "o1 & read dion in/ead ( deon2 if y conv]t ! epsilon into an iota aft] ! old fa%ion1 ?is ^w w !n agree ) o!r words mean+ good2 = dion1 n deon1 signifies ! good1 & is a t]m ( praise2 & ! au?or ( names has n contradict$ himself1 b 9 all ^! v>i\s appellations1 deon 7obligatory71 ophelimon 7advantage\s71 lusitel\n 7pr(itable71 k]daleon 7ga9ful71 aga?on 7good71 sumph]on 7exp$i5t71 euporon 7pl5te\s71 ! same conception is impli$ ( ! ord]+ or all-p]vad+ pr9ciple :i* is prais$1 & ! re/ra9+ & b9d+ pr9ciple :i* is c5sur$4 ,& ?is is fur!r illu/rat$ by ! ^w zemiodes 7hurtful71 :i* if ! zeta is only *ang$ into delta z 9 ! anci5t language1 becomes demiodes2 & ?is "n1 z y w p]ceive1 is giv5 to t :i* b9ds motion 7d\nti ion74 ,,h]mog5es3 ,:at d y say ( edone 7pleasure71 lupe 7pa971 epi?umia 7desire71 & ! l1 ,socrates8 ,,socrates3 ,i d n ?9k1 ,h]mog5es1 t !re is any great difficulty ab\t !m--edone is e 7eta7 onesis1 ! action :i* t5ds to advantage2 & ! orig9al =m may be suppos$ to h be5 eone1 b ?is has be5 alt]$ by ! ins]tion ( ! delta4 ,lupe appe>s to be d]iv$ f ! relaxation 7lue97 :i* ! body feels :5 9 sorr[2 ania 7tr\ble7 is ! h9drance ( motion 7alpha & i5ai72 alg$on 7di/ress71 if ,i am n mi/ak51 is a =eign ^w1 :i* is d]iv$ f ale9os 7griev\s72 odune 7grief7 is call$ f ! putt+ on 7endusis7 sorr[2 9 a*!don 7vexation7 8! ^w too lab\rs10 z any "o may see2 *>a 7joy7 is ! v expression ( ! flu5cy & diffusion ( ! s\l 7*eo72 t]psis 7delight7 is s call$ f ! pleasure creep+ 7erpon7 ?r\gh ! s\l1 :i* may be lik5$ to a brea? 7pnoe7 & is prop]ly erpn\n1 b has be5 alt]$ by "t into t]pnon2 euph]osune 7*e]fulness7 & epi?umia expla9 !mselves2 ! =m]1 :i* ought to be euph]osune & has be5 *ang$ euphrosune1 is nam$1 z e "o may see1 f ! s\l mov+ 7ph]e/hai7 9 h>mony ) nature2 epi?umia is really e epi ton ?umon i\sa dunamis1 ! p[] :i* ent]s into ! s\l2 ?umos 7passion7 is call$ f ! ru%+ 7?useos7 & boil+ ( ! s\l2 im]os 7desire7 d5otes ! /ream 7r\s7 :i* mo/ draws ! s\l dia t5 es9 tes roes--because fl[+ ) desire 7iem5os71 & expresses a long+ aft] ?+s & viol5t attraction ( ! s\l to !m1 & is t]m$ im]os f possess+ ?is p[]2 po?os 7long+7 is expressive ( ! desire ( t :i* is n pres5t b abs5t1 & 9 ano!r place 7p\72 ?is is ! reason :y ! "n po?os is appli$ to ?+s abs5t1 z im]os is to ?+s pres5t2 eros 7love7 is s call$ because fl[+ 9 7esron7 f )\t2 ! /ream is n inh]5t1 b is an influ5ce introduc$ ?r\gh ! eyes1 & f fl[+ 9 0 call$ esros 7influx7 9 ! old "t :5 !y us$ omicron = omega1 & is call$ eros1 n[ t omega is sub/itut$ = omicron4 ,b :y d y n give me ano!r ^w8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,:at d y ?9k ( doxa 7op9ion71 & t class ( words8 ,,socrates3 ,doxa is ei!r d]iv$ f dioxis 7pursuit71 & expresses ! m>* ( ! s\l 9 ! pursuit ( k1 or f ! %oot+ ( a b[ 7toxon72 ! latt] is m likely1 & is confirm$ by oiesis 7?9k+71 :i* is only oisis 7mov+71 & implies ! movem5t ( ! s\l to ! ess5tial nature ( ea* ?+--j z b\le 7c\nsel7 has to d ) %oot+ 7bole72 & b\le/hai 7to wi%7 comb9es ! notion ( aim+ & delib]at+--all ^! words seem to foll[ doxa1 & all involve ! idea ( %oot+1 j z ab\lia1 abs5ce ( c\nsel1 on ! o!r h&1 is a mi%ap1 or miss+1 or mi/ak+ ( ! m>k1 or aim1 or proposal1 or object4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,y are quick5+ y\r pace n[1 ,socrates4 ,,socrates3 ,:y yes1 ! end ,i n[ d$icate to ,god1 n1 h[ev]1 until ,i h expla9$ anagke 7necessity71 :i* ought to come next1 & ek\sion 7! volunt>y74 ,ek\sion is c]ta9ly ! yield+ 7eikon7 & unresi/+--! notion impli$ is yield+ & n oppos+1 yield+1 z ,i 0 j n[ say+1 to t motion :i* is 9 accordance ) our w2 b ! necess>y & resi/ant be+ contr>y to our w1 implies error & ignorance2 ! idea is tak5 f walk+ ?r\gh a rav9e :i* is impassable1 & rugg$1 & ov]gr[n1 & imp$es motion--& ?is is ! d]ivation ( ! ^w anagkaion 7necess>y7 an agke ion1 go+ ?r\gh a rav9e4 ,b :ile my /r5g? la/s let u p]sev]e1 & ,i hope t y w p]sev]e ) y\r que/ions4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,well1 !n1 let me ask ab\t ! greate/ & noble/1 su* z ale!ia 7tru?7 & pseudos 7falsehood7 & on 7be+71 n =gett+ to enquire :y ! ^w onoma 7"n71 :i* is ! !me ( our discussion1 has ?is "n ( onoma4 ,,socrates3 ,y "k ! ^w maie/hai 7to seek78 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes2--mean+ ! same z zete9 7to enquire74 ,,socrates3 ,! ^w onoma seems to be a compress$ s5t5ce1 signify+ on ou zetema 7be+ = :i* !re is a se>*72 z is /ill m obvi\s 9 onoma/on 7notable71 :i* /ates 9 s _m words t real exi/5ce is t = :i* !re is a seek+ 7on ou masma72 ale!ia is also an agglom]ation ( !ia ale 7div9e w&]+71 imply+ ! div9e motion ( exi/5ce2 pseudos 7falsehood7 is ! opposite ( motion2 "h is ano!r ill "n giv5 by ! legislator to /agnation & =c$ inaction1 :i* he comp>es to sleep 7eude972 b ! orig9al mean+ ( ! ^w is disguis$ by ! addition ( psi2 on & ousia are ion ) an iota brok5 (f2 ?is agrees ) ! true pr9ciple1 = be+ 7on7 is also mov+ 7ion71 & ! same may be said ( n be+1 :i* is likewise call$ n go+ 7oukion or ouki on ouk ion74 ,,h]mog5es3 ,y h hamm]$ away at !m manfully2 b suppose t "s "o 7 to say to y1 :at is ! ^w ion1 & :at are reon & d\n8--%[ me _! fitness4 ,,socrates3 ,y mean to say1 h[ %\ld ,i answ] him8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,"o way ( giv+ ! appe>ance ( an answ] has be5 already sugge/$4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,:at way8 ,,socrates3 ,to say t names :i* we d n und]/& are ( =eign orig92 & ?is is v likely ! "r answ]1 & some?+ ( ?is k9d may be true ( !m2 b also ! orig9al =ms ( words may h be5 lo/ 9 ! lapse ( ages2 names h be5 s twi/$ 9 all mann] ( ways1 t ,i %\ld n be surpris$ if ! old language :5 comp>$ ) t n[ 9 use w\ld appe> to u to be a b>b>\s tongue4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,v likely4 ,,socrates3 ,yes1 v likely4 ,b /ill ! enquiry dem&s our e>ne/ att5tion & we mu/ n fl9*4 ,= we %\ld rememb]1 t if a p]son g on analys+ names into words1 & enquir+ also into ! elem5ts out ( :i* ! words are =m$1 & keeps on always repeat+ ?is process1 he :o has to answ] him mu/ at la/ give up ! enquiry 9 despair4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,v true4 ,,socrates3 ,& at :at po9t ought he to lose he>t & give up ! enquiry8 ,mu/ he n /op :5 he comes to ! names :i* are ! elem5ts ( all o!r names & s5t5ces2 = ^! _c be suppos$ to be made up ( o!r names8 ,! ^w aga?on 7good71 = example1 is1 z we 7 say+1 a comp\nd ( aga/os 7admirable7 & ?oos 7swift74 ,& probably ?oos is made up ( o!r elem5ts1 & ^! aga9 ( o!rs4 ,b if we take a ^w :i* is incapable ( fur!r resolution1 !n we %all be "r 9 say+ t we h at la/ rea*$ a prim>y elem5t1 :i* ne$ n be resolv$ any fur!r4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i believe y to be 9 ! "r4 ,,socrates3 ,& suppose ! names ab\t :i* y are n[ ask+ %\ld turn out to be prim>y elem5ts1 mu/ n _! tru? or law be exam9$ accord+ to "s new me?od8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,v likely4 ,,socrates3 ,q s1 ,h]mog5es2 all t has prec$$ w\ld lead to ?is conclusion4 ,& if1 z ,i ?9k1 ! conclusion is true1 !n ,i %all aga9 say to y1 come & help me1 t ,i may n fall into "s absurdity 9 /at+ ! pr9ciple ( prim>y names4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,let me he>1 & ,i w d my be/ to assi/ y4 ,,socrates3 ,i ?9k t y w ackn[l$ge ) me1 t "o pr9ciple is applicable to all names1 prim>y z well z second>y--:5 !y are reg>d$ simply z names1 !re is no diff]5ce 9 !m4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,c]ta9ly n4 ,,socrates3 ,all ! names t we h be5 expla9+ 7 int5d$ to indicate ! nature ( ?+s4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,( c\rse4 ,,socrates3 ,& t ?is is true ( ! prim>y q z mu* z ( ! second>y names1 is impli$ 9 _! be+ names4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,surely4 ,,socrates3 ,b ! second>y1 z ,i conceive1 d]ive _! significance f ! prim>y4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,t is evid5t4 ,,socrates3 ,v good2 b !n h[ d ! prim>y names :i* prec$e analysis %[ ! natures ( ?+s1 z f> z !y c be %[n2 :i* !y mu/ d1 if !y are to be real names8 ,& "h ,i w ask y a "q3 ,suppose t we _h no voice or tongue1 & want$ to communicate ) "o ano!r1 %\ld we n1 l ! deaf & dumb1 make signs ) ! h&s & head & ! re/ ( ! body8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,!re w\ld be no *oice1 ,socrates4 ,,socrates3 ,we %\ld imitate ! nature ( ! ?+2 ! elevation ( our h&s to heav5 w\ld mean lightness & upw>dness2 heav9ess & d[nw>dness w\ld be express$ by lett+ !m drop to ! gr\nd2 if we 7 describ+ ! runn+ ( a horse1 or any o!r animal1 we %\ld make our bodies & _! ge/ures z l z we c\ld to !m4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i d n see t we c\ld d any?+ else4 ,,socrates3 ,we c\ld n2 = by bodily imitation only c ! body ev] express any?+4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,v true4 ,,socrates3 ,& :5 we want to express ourselves1 ei!r ) ! voice1 or tongue1 or m\?1 ! expression is simply _! imitation ( t :i* we want to express4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,x mu/ be s1 ,i ?9k4 ,,socrates3 ,!n a "n is a vocal imitation ( t :i* ! vocal imitator names or imitates8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i ?9k s4 ,,socrates3 ,nay1 my fri5d1 ,i am dispos$ to ?9k t we h n rea*$ ! tru? z yet4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,:y n8 ,,socrates3 ,because if we h we %all be oblig$ to admit t ! p :o imitate %eep1 or cocks1 or o!r animals1 "n t :i* !y imitate4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,q true4 ,,socrates3 ,!n c\ld ,i h be5 "r 9 :at ,i 0 say+8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,9 my op9ion1 no4 ,b ,i wi% t y w\ld tell me1 ,socrates1 :at sort ( an imitation is a "n8 ,,socrates3 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ,i %\ld reply1 n a musical imitation1 al?\gh t is also vocal2 nor1 aga91 an imitation ( :at music imitates2 ^!1 9 my judgm5t1 w\ld n be nam+4 ,let me put ! matt] z foll[s3 ,all objects h s\nd & figure1 & _m h col\r8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,c]ta9ly4 ,,socrates3 ,b ! art ( nam+ appe>s n to be conc]n$ ) imitations ( ?is k9d2 ! arts :i* h to d ) !m are music & draw+8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,true4 ,,socrates3 ,aga91 is !re n an ess5ce ( ea* ?+1 j z !re is a col\r1 or s\nd8 ,& is !re n an ess5ce ( col\r & s\nd z well z ( any?+ else :i* may be said to h an ess5ce8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i %\ld ?9k s4 ,,socrates3 ,well1 & if any "o c\ld express ! ess5ce ( ea* ?+ 9 lett]s & syllables1 w\ld he n express ! nature ( ea* ?+8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,q s4 ,,socrates3 ,! musician & ! pa9t] 7 ! two names :i* y gave to ! two o!r imitators4 ,:at w ?is imitator be call$8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i imag9e1 ,socrates1 t he mu/ be ! nam]1 or "n-giv]1 ( :om we are 9 se>*4 ,,socrates3 ,if ?is is true1 !n ,i ?9k t we are 9 a condition to consid] ! names ron 7/ream71 i5ai 7to g71 s*esis 7ret5tion71 ab\t :i* y 7 ask+2 & we may see :e!r ! nam] has grasp$ ! nature ( !m 9 lett]s & syllables 9 su* a mann] z to imitate ! ess5ce or n4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,v good4 ,,socrates3 ,b are ^! ! only prim>y names1 or are !re o!rs8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,!re mu/ be o!rs4 ,,socrates3 ,s ,i %\ld expect4 ,b h[ %all we fur!r analyse !m1 & :]e does ! imitator beg98 ,imitation ( ! ess5ce is made by syllables & lett]s2 ought we n1 !re=e1 fir/ to sep>ate ! lett]s1 j z ^? :o are beg9n+ rhy?m fir/ di/+ui% ! p[]s ( elem5t>y1 & !n ( comp\nd s\nds1 & :5 !y h done s1 b n be=e1 !y proce$ to ! consid]ation ( rhy?ms8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,mu/ we n beg9 9 ! same way ) lett]s2 fir/ sep>at+ ! v[els1 & !n ! consonants & mutes 7lett]s :i* are nei!r v[els nor semiv[els71 into classes1 accord+ to ! receiv$ di/9ctions ( ! le>n$2 also ! semiv[els1 :i* are nei!r v[els1 nor yet mutes2 & di/+ui%+ into classes ! v[els !mselves8 ,& :5 we h p]fect$ ! classification ( ?+s1 we %all give !m names1 & see :e!r1 z 9 ! case ( lett]s1 !re are any classes to :i* !y may be all ref]r$ 7cf4 ,pha$rus72 & h5ce we %all see _! natures1 & see1 too1 :e!r !y h 9 !m classes z !re are 9 ! lett]s2 & :5 we h well consid]$ all ?is1 we %all "k h[ to apply !m to :at !y resemble--:e!r "o lett] is us$ to d5ote "o ?+1 or :e!r !re is to be an admixture ( sev]al ( !m2 j1 z 9 pa9t+1 ! pa9t] :o wants to depict any?+ sometimes uses purple only1 or any o!r col\r1 & sometimes mixes up sev]al col\rs1 z 8 me?od is :5 he has to pa9t fle% col\r or any?+ ( t k9d--he uses 8 col\rs z 8 figures appe> to require !m2 & s1 too1 we %all apply lett]s to ! expression ( objects1 ei!r s+le lett]s :5 requir$1 or sev]al lett]s2 & s we %all =m syllables1 z !y are call$1 & f syllables make n\ns & v]bs2 & ?us1 at la/1 f ! comb9ations ( n\ns & v]bs arrive at language1 l>ge & fair & :ole2 & z ! pa9t] made a figure1 ev5 s %all we make spee* by ! art ( ! nam] or ! rhetorician1 or by "s o!r art4 ,n t ,i am lit]ally speak+ ( ourselves1 b ,i 0 c>ri$ away--mean+ to say t ?is 0 ! way 9 :i* 7n we b7 ! anci5ts =m$ language1 & :at !y put toge!r we mu/ take to pieces 9 l mann]1 if we are to atta9 a sci5tific view ( ! :ole subject1 & we mu/ see :e!r ! prim>y1 & also :e!r ! second>y elem5ts are rightly giv5 or n1 = if !y are n1 ! composition ( !m1 my de> ,h]mog5es1 w be a sorry piece ( "w1 & 9 ! wrong direction4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,t1 ,socrates1 ,i c q believe4 ,,socrates3 ,well1 b d y suppose t y w be able to analyse !m 9 ?is way8 = ,i am c]ta9 t ,i %\ld n4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,mu* less am ,i likely to be able4 ,,socrates3 ,%all we leave !m1 !n8 or %all we seek to discov]1 if we c1 some?+ ab\t !m1 accord+ to ! measure ( our ability1 say+ by way ( preface1 z ,i said be=e ( ! ,gods1 t ( ! tru? ab\t !m we "k no?+1 & d b ent]ta9 human notions ( !m4 ,& 9 ?is pres5t enquiry1 let u say to ourselves1 be=e we proce$1 t ! high] me?od is ! "o :i* we or o!rs :o w\ld analyse language to any good purpose mu/ foll[2 b "u ! circum/ances1 z m5 say1 we mu/ d z well z we c4 ,:at d y ?9k8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,i v mu* approve4 ,,socrates3 ,t objects %\ld be imitat$ 9 lett]s & syllables1 & s f9d expression1 may appe> ridicul\s1 ,h]mog5es1 b x _c be avoid$--!re is no bett] pr9ciple to :i* we c look = ! tru? ( fir/ names4 ,depriv$ ( ?is1 we mu/ h rec\rse to div9e help1 l ! tragic poets1 :o 9 any p]plexity h _! gods wait+ 9 ! air2 & mu/ get out ( our difficulty 9 l fa%ion1 by say+ t 8! ,gods gave ! fir/ names1 & !re=e !y are "r40 ,?is w be ! be/ contrivance1 or p]haps t o!r notion may be ev5 bett] /ill1 ( d]iv+ !m f "s b>b>\s p1 = ! b>b>ians are old] ?an we are2 or we may say t antiquity has ca/ a veil ov] !m1 :i* is ! same sort ( excuse z ! la/2 = all ^! are n reasons b only +5i\s excuses = hav+ no reasons conc]n+ ! tru? ( words4 ,& yet any sort ( ignorance ( fir/ or primitive names involves an ignorance ( second>y words2 = !y c only be expla9$ by ! prim>y4 ,cle>ly !n ! pr(essor ( languages %\ld be able to give a v lucid explanation ( fir/ names1 or let him be assur$ he w only talk nons5se ab\t ! re/4 ,d y n suppose ?is to be true8 ,,h]mog5es3 ,c]ta9ly1 ,socrates4 ,,socrates3 ,my fir/ notions ( orig9al names are truly wild & ridicul\s1 ?\gh ,i h no objection to imp>t !m to y if y desire1 & ,i hope t y w communicate to me 9 return any?+ bett] :i* y may h4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,fe> n2 ,i w d my be/4 ,,socrates3 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! lett] rho appe>s to me to be ! g5]al in/rum5t express+ all motion 7k9esis74 ,b ,i h n yet expla9$ ! mean+ ( ?is latt] ^w1 :i* is j iesis 7go+72 = ! lett] eta 0 n 9 use among ! anci5ts1 :o only employ$ epsilon2 & ! root is kie91 :i* is a =eign =m1 ! same z i5ai4 ,& ! old ^w k9esis w be correctly giv5 z iesis 9 correspond+ mod]n lett]s4 ,assum+ ?is =eign root kie91 & all[+ = ! *ange ( ! eta & ! ins]tion ( ! nu1 we h k9esis1 :i* %\ld h be5 kie9sis or eisis2 & /asis is ! negative ( i5ai 7or eisis71 & has be5 improv$ into /asis4 ,n[ ! lett] rho1 z ,i 0 say+1 appe>$ to ! impos] ( names an excell5t in/rum5t = ! expression ( motion2 & he frequ5tly uses ! lett] = ?is purpose3 = example1 9 ! actual words re9 & roe he repres5ts motion by rho2 also 9 ! words tromos 7trembl+71 tra*us 7rugg$72 & aga91 9 words su* z kr\e9 7/rike71 ?raue9 7cru%71 ereike9 7bruise71 ?rupte9 7break71 k]matixe9 7crumble71 rumbe9 7:irl73 ( all ^! sorts ( movem5ts he g5]ally f9ds an expression 9 ! lett] ,r1 because1 z ,i imag9e1 he _h obs]v$ t ! tongue 0 mo/ agitat$ & lea/ at re/ 9 ! pronunciation ( ?is lett]1 :i* he !re=e us$ 9 ord] to express motion1 j z by ! lett] iota he expresses ! subtle elem5ts :i* pass ?r\gh all ?+s4 ,?is is :y he uses ! lett] iota z imitative ( motion1 i5ai1 ie/hai4 ,& !re is ano!r class ( lett]s1 phi1 psi1 sigma1 & xi1 ( :i* ! pronunciation is accompani$ by great exp5diture ( brea?2 ^! are us$ 9 ! imitation ( su* notions z psu*ron 7%iv]+71 xeon 7see?+71 seie/hai1 7to be %ak571 seismos 7%ock71 & are always introduc$ by ! giv] ( names :5 he wants to imitate :at is phusodes 7w9dy74 ,he seems to h ?\ght t ! clos+ & pressure ( ! tongue 9 ! utt]ance ( delta & tau 0 expressive ( b9d+ & re/ 9 a place3 he fur!r obs]v$ ! liquid movem5t ( lambda1 9 ! pronunciation ( :i* ! tongue slips1 & 9 ?is he f\nd ! expression ( smoo?ness1 z 9 leios 7level71 & 9 ! ^w olio?ane9 7to slip7 itself1 lip>on 7sleek71 9 ! ^w kollodes 7gluey71 & ! l3 ! heavi] s\nd ( gamma deta9$ ! slipp+ tongue1 & ! union ( ! two gave ! notion ( a glut9\s clammy nature1 z 9 glis*ros1 glukus1 gloiodes4 ,! nu he obs]v$ to be s\nd$ f )91 & !re=e to h a notion ( inw>dness2 h5ce he introduc$ ! s\nd 9 endos & entos3 alpha he assign$ to ! expression ( size1 & nu ( l5g?1 because !y are great lett]s3 omicron 0 ! sign ( r\ndness1 & !re=e !re is pl5ty ( omicron mix$ up 9 ! ^w goggulon 7r\nd74 ,?us did ! legislator1 r$uc+ all ?+s into lett]s & syllables1 & impress+ on !m names & signs1 & out ( !m by imitation comp\nd+ o!r signs4 ,t is my view1 ,h]mog5es1 ( ! tru? ( names2 b ,i %\ld l to he> :at ,cratylus has m to say4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,b1 ,socrates1 z ,i 0 tell+ y be=e1 ,cratylus my/ifies me2 he says t !re is a fitness ( names1 b he nev] expla9s :at is ?is fitness1 s t ,i _c tell :e!r 8 obscurity is int5d$ or n4 ,tell me n[1 ,cratylus1 "h 9 ! pres5ce ( ,socrates1 d y agree 9 :at ,socrates has be5 say+ ab\t names1 or h y some?+ bett] ( y\r own8 & if y h1 tell me :at y\r view is1 & !n y w ei!r le>n ( ,socrates1 or ,socrates & ,i w le>n ( y4 ,,cratylus3 ,well1 b surely1 ,h]mog5es1 y d n suppose t y c le>n1 or ,i expla91 any subject ( importance all 9 a mom5t2 at any rate1 n su* a subject z language1 :i* is1 p]haps1 ! v greate/ ( all4 ,,h]mog5es3 ,no1 inde$2 b1 z ,hesiod says1 & ,i agree ) him1 8to add little to little0 is wor? :ile4 ,&1 !re=e1 if y ?9k t y c add any?+ at all1 h[ev] small1 to our k1 take a little tr\ble & oblige ,socrates1 & me too1 :o c]ta9ly h a claim ^u y4 ,,socrates3 ,i am by no means positive1 ,cratylus1 9 ! view :i* ,h]mog5es & myself h work$ out2 & !re=e d n hesitate to say :at y ?9k1 :i* if x be bett] ?an my own view ,i %all gladly accept4 ,& ,i %\ld n be at all surpriz$ to f9d t y h f\nd "s bett] notion4 ,= y h evid5tly reflect$ on ^! matt]s & h _h tea*]s1 & if y h really a bett] !ory ( ! tru? ( names1 y may c\nt me 9 ! numb] ( y\r disciples4 ,,cratylus3 ,y are "r1 ,socrates1 9 say+ t ,i h made a /udy ( ^! matt]s1 & ,i might possibly conv]t y into a disciple4 ,b ,i fe> t ! opposite is m probable1 & ,i already f9d myself mov$ to say to y :at ,a*illes 9 ! 8,pray]s0 says to ,ajax1-- 8,illu/ri\s ,ajax1 son ( ,telamon1 "l ( ! p1 ,y appe> to h spok5 9 all ?+s mu* to my m9d40 ,& y1 ,socrates1 appe> to me to be an oracle1 & to give answ]s mu* to my m9d1 :e!r y are inspir$ by ,eu?yphro1 or :e!r "s ,muse may h long be5 an inhabitant ( y\r brea/1 unconsci\sly to y\rself4 ,,socrates3 ,excell5t ,cratylus1 ,i h long be5 wond]+ at my own wisdom2 ,i _c tru/ myself4 ,& ,i ?9k t ,i ought to /op & ask myself ,:at am ,i say+8 = !re is no?+ worse ?an self-deception--:5 ! deceiv] is always at home & always ) y--x is q t]rible1 & !re=e ,i ought (t5 to retrace my /eps & endeav\r to 8look =e & aft10 9 ! words ( ! a=esaid ,hom]4 ,& n[ let me see2 :]e are we8 ,h we n be5 say+ t ! correct "n indicates ! nature ( ! ?+3--has ?is proposition be5 suffici5tly prov58 ,,cratylus3 ,yes1 ,socrates1 :at y say1 z ,i am dispos$ to ?9k1 is q true4 ,,socrates3 ,names1 !n1 are giv5 9 ord] to in/ruct8 ,,cratylus3 ,c]ta9ly4 ,,socrates3 ,& nam+ is an art1 & has artific]s8 ,,cratylus3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,& :o are !y8 ,,cratylus3 ,! legislators1 ( :om y spoke at fir/4 ,,socrates3 ,& does ?is art gr[ up among m5 l o!r arts8 ,let me expla9 :at ,i mean3 ( pa9t]s1 "s are bett] & "s worse8 ,,cratylus3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,! bett] pa9t]s execute _! works1 ,i mean _! figures1 bett]1 & ! worse execute !m worse2 & ( build]s also1 ! bett] sort build fair] h\ses1 & ! worse build !m worse4 ,,cratylus3 ,true4 ,,socrates3 ,& among legislators1 !re are "s :o d _! "w bett] & "s worse8 ,,cratylus3 ,no2 !re ,i d n agree ) y4 ,,socrates3 ,!n y d n ?9k t "s laws are bett] & o!rs worse8 ,,cratylus3 ,no1 inde$4 ,,socrates3 ,or t "o "n is bett] ?an ano!r8 ,,cratylus3 ,c]ta9ly n4 ,,socrates3 ,!n all names are rightly impos$8 ,,cratylus3 ,yes1 if !y are names at all4 ,,socrates3 ,well1 :at d y say to ! "n ( our fri5d ,h]mog5es1 :i* 0 m5tion$ be=e3--assum+ t he has no?+ ( ! nature ( ,h]mes 9 him1 %all we say t ?is is a wrong "n1 or n 8 "n at all8 ,,cratylus3 ,i %\ld reply t ,h]mog5es is n 8 "n at all1 b only appe>s to be 81 & is really ! "n ( somebody else1 :o has ! nature :i* corresponds to x4 ,,socrates3 ,& if a man 7 to call him ,h]mog5es1 w\ld he n be ev5 speak+ falsely8 ,= !re may be a d\bt :e!r y c call him ,h]mog5es1 if he is n4 ,,cratylus3 ,:at d y mean8 ,,socrates3 ,are y ma9ta9+ t falsehood is impossible8 ,= if ?is is y\r mean+ ,i %\ld answ]1 t !re h be5 pl5ty ( li>s 9 all ages4 ,,cratylus3 ,:y1 ,socrates1 h[ c a man say t :i* is n8--say some?+ & yet say no?+8 ,= is n falsehood say+ ! ?+ :i* is n8 ,,socrates3 ,y\r argum5t1 fri5d1 is too subtle = a man ( my age4 ,b ,i %\ld l to "k :e!r y are "o ( ^? philosoph]s :o ?9k t falsehood may be spok5 b n said8 ,,cratylus3 ,nei!r spok5 nor said4 ,,socrates3 ,nor utt]$ nor address$8 ,= example3 ,if a p]son1 salut+ y 9 a =eign c\ntry1 7 to take y\r h& & say3 8,hail1 ,a!nian /rang]1 ,h]mog5es1 son ( ,smicrion0--^! words1 :e!r spok51 said1 utt]$1 or address$1 w\ld h no application to y b only to our fri5d ,h]mog5es1 or p]haps to nobody at all8 ,,cratylus3 ,9 my op9ion1 ,socrates1 ! speak] w\ld only be talk+ nons5se4 ,,socrates3 ,well1 b t w be q en\gh = me1 if y w tell me :e!r ! nons5se w\ld be true or false1 or p>tly true & p>tly false3--:i* is all t ,i want to "k4 ,,cratylus3 ,i %\ld say t he w\ld be putt+ himself 9 motion to no purpose2 & t 8 words w\ld be an unmean+ s\nd l ! noise ( hamm]+ at a braz5 pot4 ,,socrates3 ,b let u see1 ,cratylus1 :e!r we _c f9d a meet+-po9t1 = y w\ld admit t ! "n is n ! same ) ! ?+ nam$8 ,,cratylus3 ,i %\ld4 ,,socrates3 ,& w\ld y fur!r ackn[l$ge t ! "n is an imitation ( ! ?+8 ,,cratylus3 ,c]ta9ly4 ,,socrates3 ,& y w\ld say t pictures are also imitations ( ?+s1 b 9 ano!r way8 ,,cratylus3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,i believe y may be "r1 b ,i d n rightly und]/& y4 ,please to say1 !n1 :e!r bo? sorts ( imitation 7,i mean bo? pictures or words7 are n equally attributable & applicable to ! ?+s ( :i* !y are ! imitation4 ,,cratylus3 ,!y are4 ,,socrates3 ,fir/ look at ! matt] ?us3 y may attribute ! lik5ess ( ! man to ! man1 & ( ! woman to ! woman2 & s on8 ,,cratylus3 ,c]ta9ly4 ,,socrates3 ,& conv]sely y may attribute ! lik5ess ( ! man to ! woman1 & ( ! woman to ! man8 ,,cratylus3 ,v true4 ,,socrates3 ,& are bo? modes ( assign+ !m "r1 or only ! fir/8 ,,cratylus3 ,only ! fir/4 ,,socrates3 ,t is to say1 ! mode ( assignm5t :i* attributes to ea* t :i* belongs to !m & is l !m8 ,,cratylus3 ,t is my view4 ,,socrates3 ,n[ !n1 z ,i am desir\s t we be+ fri5ds %\ld h a good und]/&+ ab\t ! argum5t1 let me /ate my view to y3 ! fir/ mode ( assignm5t1 :e!r appli$ to figures or to names1 ,i call "r1 & :5 appli$ to names only1 true z well z "r2 & ! o!r mode ( giv+ & assign+ ! "n :i* is unlike1 ,i call wrong1 & 9 ! case ( names1 false z well z wrong4 ,,cratylus3 ,t may be true1 ,socrates1 9 ! case ( pictures2 !y may be wrongly assign$2 b n 9 ! case ( names--!y mu/ be always "r4 ,,socrates3 ,:y1 :at is ! diff]5ce8 ,may ,i n g to a man & say to him1 8,?is is y\r picture10 %[+ him 8 own lik5ess1 or p]haps ! lik5ess ( a woman2 & :5 ,i say 8%[10 ,i mean br+ be=e ! s5se ( sight4 ,,cratylus3 ,c]ta9ly4 ,,socrates3 ,& may ,i n g to him aga91 & say1 8,?is is y\r "n08--= ! "n1 l ! picture1 is an imitation4 ,may ,i n say to him--8,?is is y\r "n08 & may ,i n !n br+ to 8 s5se ( he>+ ! imitation ( himself1 :5 ,i say1 8,?is is a man02 or ( a female ( ! human species1 :5 ,i say1 8,?is is a woman10 z ! case may be8 ,is n all t q possible8 ,,cratylus3 ,i w\ld fa9 agree ) y1 ,socrates2 & !re=e ,i say1 ,grant$4 ,,socrates3 ,t is v good ( y1 if ,i am "r1 :i* ne$ h>dly be disput$ at pres5t4 ,b if ,i c assign names z well z pictures to objects1 ! "r assignm5t ( !m we may call tru?1 & ! wrong assignm5t ( !m falsehood4 ,n[ if !re be su* a wrong assignm5t ( names1 !re may also be a wrong or inappropriate assignm5t ( v]bs2 & if ( names & v]bs !n ( ! s5t5ces1 :i* are made up ( !m4 ,:at d y say1 ,cratylus8 ,,cratylus3 ,i agree2 & ?9k t :at y say is v true4 ,,socrates3 ,& fur!r1 primitive n\ns may be comp>$ to pictures1 & 9 pictures y may ei!r give all ! appropriate col\rs & figures1 or y may n give !m all--"s may be want+2 or !re may be too _m or too mu* ( !m--may !re n8 ,,cratylus3 ,v true4 ,,socrates3 ,& he :o gives all gives a p]fect picture or figure2 & he :o takes away or adds also gives a picture or figure1 b n a good "o4 ,,cratylus3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,9 l mann]1 he :o by syllables & lett]s imitates ! nature ( ?+s1 if he gives all t is appropriate w produce a good image1 or 9 o!r words a "n2 b if he subtracts or p]haps adds a little1 he w make an image b n a good "o2 :5ce ,i inf] t "s names are well & o!rs ill made4 ,,cratylus3 ,t is true4 ,,socrates3 ,!n ! arti/ ( names may be sometimes good1 or he may be bad8 ,,cratylus3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,& ?is arti/ ( names is call$ ! legislator8 ,,cratylus3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,!n l o!r arti/s ! legislator may be good or he may be bad2 x mu/ surely be s if our =m] admissions hold good8 ,,cratylus3 ,v true1 ,socrates2 b ! case ( language1 y see1 is diff]5t2 = :5 by ! help ( gramm> we assign ! lett]s alpha or beta1 or any o!r lett]s to a c]ta9 "n1 !n1 if we add1 or subtract1 or misplace a lett]1 ! "n :i* is writt5 is n only writt5 wrongly1 b n writt5 at all2 & 9 any ( ^! cases becomes o!r ?an a "n4 ,,socrates3 ,b ,i d\bt :e!r y\r view is altoge!r correct1 ,cratylus4 ,,cratylus3 ,h[ s8 ,,socrates3 ,i believe t :at y say may be true ab\t numb]s1 :i* mu/ be j :at !y are1 or n be at all2 = example1 ! numb] t5 at once becomes o!r ?an t5 if a unit be add$ or subtract$1 & s ( any o!r numb]3 b ?is does n apply to t :i* is qualitative or to any?+ :i* is repres5t$ "u an image4 ,i %\ld say r t ! image1 if express+ 9 e po9t ! entire reality1 w\ld no long] be an image4 ,let u suppose ! exi/5ce ( two objects3 "o ( !m %all be ,cratylus1 & ! o!r ! image ( ,cratylus2 & we w suppose1 fur!r1 t "s ,god makes n only a repres5tation su* z a pa9t] w\ld make ( y\r outw>d =m & col\r1 b also creates an inw>d organization l y\rs1 hav+ ! same w>m? & s(tness2 & into ?is infuses motion1 & s\l1 & m9d1 su* z y h1 & 9 a ^w copies all y\r qualities1 & places !m by y 9 ano!r =m2 w\ld y say t ?is 0 ,cratylus & ! image ( ,cratylus1 or t !re 7 two ,cratyluses8 ,,cratylus3 ,i %\ld say t !re 7 two ,cratyluses4 ,,socrates3 ,!n y see1 my fri5d1 t we mu/ f9d "s o!r pr9ciple ( tru? 9 images1 & also 9 names2 & n insi/ t an image is no long] an image :5 some?+ is add$ or subtract$4 ,d y n p]ceive t images are v f> f hav+ qualities :i* are ! exact c\nt]p>t ( ! realities :i* !y repres5t8 ,,cratylus3 ,yes1 ,i see4 ,,socrates3 ,b !n h[ ridicul\s w\ld be ! effect ( names on ?+s1 if !y 7 exactly ! same ) !m6 ,= !y w\ld be ! d\bles ( !m1 & no "o w\ld be able to det]m9e :i* 7 ! names & :i* 7 ! realities4 ,,cratylus3 ,q true4 ,,socrates3 ,!n fe> n1 b h ! c\rage to admit t "o "n may be correctly & ano!r incorrectly giv52 & d n insi/ t ! "n %all be exactly ! same ) ! ?+2 b all[ ! occasional sub/itution ( a wrong lett]1 & if ( a lett] also ( a n\n 9 a s5t5ce1 & if ( a n\n 9 a s5t5ce also ( a s5t5ce :i* is n appropriate to ! matt]1 & ackn[l$ge t ! ?+ may be nam$1 & describ$1 s long z ! g5]al "* ( ! ?+ :i* y are describ+ is reta9$2 & ?is1 z y w rememb]1 0 rem>k$ by ,h]mog5es & myself 9 ! p>ticul> in/ance ( ! names ( ! lett]s4 ,,cratylus3 ,yes1 ,i rememb]4 ,,socrates3 ,good2 & :5 ! g5]al "* is pres]v$1 ev5 if "s ( ! prop] lett]s are want+1 /ill ! ?+ is signifi$2--well1 if all ! lett]s are giv52 n well1 :5 only a few ( !m are giv54 ,i ?9k t we _h bett] admit ?is1 le/ we be puni%$ l travell]s 9 ,aeg9a :o w&] ab\t ! /reet late at night3 & be likewise told by tru? h]self t we h arriv$ too late2 or if n1 y mu/ f9d out "s new notion ( correctness ( names1 & no long] ma9ta9 t a "n is ! expression ( a ?+ 9 lett]s or syllables2 = if y say bo?1 y w be inconsi/5t ) y\rself4 ,,cratylus3 ,i q ackn[l$ge1 ,socrates1 :at y say to be v reasonable4 ,,socrates3 ,!n z we are agre$ ?us f>1 let u ask ourselves :e!r a "n rightly impos$ ought n to h ! prop] lett]s4 ,,cratylus3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,& ! prop] lett]s are ^? :i* are l ! ?+s8 ,,cratylus3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,en\gh !n ( names :i* are rightly giv54 ,& 9 names :i* are incorrectly giv51 ! great] "p may be suppos$ to be made up ( prop] & simil> lett]s1 or !re w\ld be no lik5ess2 b !re w be likewise a "p :i* is improp] & spoils ! beauty & =mation ( ! ^w3 y w\ld admit t8 ,,cratylus3 ,!re w\ld be no use1 ,socrates1 9 my qu>rell+ ) y1 s9ce ,i _c be satisfi$ t a "n :i* is incorrectly giv5 is a "n at all4 ,,socrates3 ,d y admit a "n to be ! repres5tation ( a ?+8 ,,cratylus3 ,yes1 ,i d4 ,,socrates3 ,b d y n all[ t "s n\ns are primitive1 & "s d]iv$8 ,,cratylus3 ,yes1 ,i d4 ,,socrates3 ,!n if y admit t primitive or fir/ n\ns are repres5tations ( ?+s1 is !re any bett] way ( fram+ repres5tations ?an by assimilat+ !m to ! objects z mu* z y c2 or d y pref] ! notion ( ,h]mog5es & ( _m o!rs1 :o say t names are conv5tional1 & h a mean+ to ^? :o h agre$ ab\t !m1 & :o h previ\s k ( ! ?+s int5d$ by !m1 & t conv5tion is ! only pr9ciple2 & :e!r y abide by our pres5t conv5tion1 or make a new & opposite "o1 accord+ to :i* y call small great & great small--t1 !y w\ld say1 makes no diff]5ce1 if y are only agre$4 ,:i* ( ^! two notions d y pref]8 ,,cratylus3 ,repres5tation by lik5ess1 ,socrates1 is inf9itely bett] ?an repres5tation by any *ance sign4 ,,socrates3 ,v good3 b if ! "n is to be l ! ?+1 ! lett]s out ( :i* ! fir/ names are compos$ mu/ also be l ?+s4 ,return+ to ! image ( ! picture1 ,i w\ld ask1 ,h[ c\ld any "o ev] compose a picture :i* w\ld be l any?+ at all1 if !re 7 n pigm5ts 9 nature :i* resembl$ ! ?+s imitat$1 & out ( :i* ! picture is compos$8 ,,cratylus3 ,impossible4 ,,socrates3 ,no m c\ld names ev] resemble any actually exi/+ ?+1 unless ! orig9al elem5ts ( :i* !y are comp\nd$ bore "s degree ( resemblance to ! objects ( :i* ! names are ! imitation3 ,& ! orig9al elem5ts are lett]s8 ,,cratylus3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,let me n[ invite y to consid] :at ,h]mog5es & ,i 7 say+ ab\t s\nds4 ,d y agree ) me t ! lett] rho is expressive ( rapidity1 motion1 & h>dness8 ,7 we "r or wrong 9 say+ s8 ,,cratylus3 ,i %\ld say t y 7 "r4 ,,socrates3 ,& t lamda 0 expressive ( smoo?ness1 & s(tness1 & ! l8 ,,cratylus3 ,!re aga9 y 7 "r4 ,,socrates3 ,& yet1 z y are aw>e1 t :i* is call$ by u skl]otes1 is by ! ,eretrians call$ skl]ot]4 ,,cratylus3 ,v true4 ,,socrates3 ,b are ! lett]s rho & sigma equival5ts2 & is !re ! same significance to !m 9 ! t]m9ation rho1 :i* !re is to u 9 sigma1 or is !re no significance to "o ( u8 ,,cratylus3 ,nay1 surely !re is a significance to bo? ( u4 ,,socrates3 ,9 z f> z !y are l1 or 9 z f> z !y are unlike8 ,,cratylus3 ,9 z f> z !y are l4 ,,socrates3 ,are !y altoge!r alike8 ,,cratylus3 ,yes2 = ! purpose ( express+ motion4 ,,socrates3 ,& :at d y say ( ! ins]tion ( ! lamda8 = t is expressive n ( h>dness b ( s(tness4 ,,cratylus3 ,:y1 p]haps ! lett] lamda is wrongly ins]t$1 ,socrates1 & %\ld be alt]$ into rho1 z y 7 say+ to ,h]mog5es & 9 my op9ion rightly1 :5 y spoke ( add+ & subtract+ lett]s ^u occasion4 ,,socrates3 ,good4 ,b /ill ! ^w is intelligible to bo? ( u2 :5 ,i say skl]os 7h>d71 y "k :at ,i mean4 ,,cratylus3 ,yes1 my de> fri5d1 & ! explanation ( t is cu/om4 ,,socrates3 ,& :at is cu/om b conv5tion8 ,i utt] a s\nd :i* ,i und]/&1 & y "k t ,i und]/& ! mean+ ( ! s\nd3 ?is is :at y are say+8 ,,cratylus3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,& if :5 ,i speak y "k my mean+1 !re is an indication giv5 by me to y8 ,,cratylus3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,?is indication ( my mean+ may proce$ f unlike z well z f l1 = example 9 ! lamda ( skl]otes4 ,b if ?is is true1 !n y h made a conv5tion ) y\rself1 & ! correctness ( a "n turns out to be conv5tion1 s9ce lett]s :i* are unlike are indicative equally ) ^? :i* are l1 if !y are sanction$ by cu/om & conv5tion4 ,& ev5 suppos+ t y di/+ui% cu/om f conv5tion ev] s mu*1 /ill y mu/ say t ! signification ( words is giv5 by cu/om & n by lik5ess1 = cu/om may indicate by ! unlike z well z by ! l4 ,b z we are agre$ ?us f>1 ,cratylus 7= ,i %all assume t y\r sil5ce gives cons5t71 !n cu/om & conv5tion mu/ be suppos$ to contribute to ! indication ( our ?\ghts2 = suppose we take ! in/ance ( numb]1 h[ c y ev] imag9e1 my good fri5d1 t y w f9d names resembl+ e individual numb]1 unless y all[ t :i* y t]m conv5tion & agreem5t to h au?ority 9 det]m9+ ! correctness ( names8 ,i q agree ) y t words %\ld z f> z possible resemble ?+s2 b ,i fe> t ?is dragg+ 9 ( resemblance1 z ,h]mog5es says1 is a %abby ?+1 :i* has to be supplem5t$ by ! me*anical aid ( conv5tion ) a view to correctness2 = ,i believe t if we c\ld always1 or almo/ always1 use lik5esses1 :i* are p]fectly appropriate1 ?is w\ld be ! mo/ p]fect /ate ( language2 z ! opposite is ! mo/ imp]fect4 ,b let me ask y1 :at is ! =ce ( names1 & :at is ! use ( !m8 ,,cratylus3 ,! use ( names1 ,socrates1 z ,i %\ld imag9e1 is to in=m3 ! simple tru? is1 t he :o kn[s names kn[s also ! ?+s :i* are express$ by !m4 ,,socrates3 ,i suppose y mean to say1 ,cratylus1 t z ! "n is1 s also is ! ?+2 & t he :o kn[s ! "o w also "k ! o!r1 because !y are simil>s1 & all simil>s fall "u ! same art or sci5ce2 & !re=e y w\ld say t he :o kn[s names w also "k ?+s4 ,,cratylus3 ,t is precisely :at ,i mean4 ,,socrates3 ,b let u consid] :at is ! nature ( ?is in=mation ab\t ?+s :i*1 accord+ to y1 is giv5 u by names4 ,is x ! be/ sort ( in=mation8 or is !re any o!r8 ,:at d y say8 ,,cratylus3 ,i believe t to be bo? ! only & ! be/ sort ( in=mation ab\t !m2 !re c be no o!r4 ,,socrates3 ,b d y believe t 9 ! discov]y ( !m1 he :o discov]s ! names discov]s also ! ?+s2 or is ?is only ! me?od ( in/ruction1 & is !re "s o!r me?od ( enquiry & discov]y4 ,,cratylus3 ,i c]ta9ly believe t ! me?ods ( enquiry & discov]y are ( ! same nature z in/ruction4 ,,socrates3 ,well1 b d y n see1 ,cratylus1 t he :o foll[s names 9 ! se>* aft] ?+s1 & analyses _! mean+1 is 9 great dang] ( be+ deceiv$8 ,,cratylus3 ,h[ s8 ,,socrates3 ,:y cle>ly he :o fir/ gave names gave !m accord+ to 8 conception ( ! ?+s :i* !y signifi$--did he n8 ,,cratylus3 ,true4 ,,socrates3 ,& if 8 conception 0 errone\s1 & he gave names accord+ to 8 conception1 9 :at position %all we :o are 8 foll[]s f9d ourselves8 ,%all we n be deceiv$ by him8 ,,cratylus3 ,b1 ,socrates1 am ,i n "r 9 ?9k+ t he mu/ surely h kn[n2 or else1 z ,i 0 say+1 8 names w\ld n be names at all8 ,& y h a cle> pro( t he has n miss$ ! tru?1 & ! pro( is--t he is p]fectly consi/5t4 ,did y ev] obs]ve 9 speak+ t all ! words :i* y utt] h a common "* & purpose8 ,,socrates3 ,b t1 fri5d ,cratylus1 is no answ]4 ,= if he did beg9 9 error1 he may h =c$ ! rema9d] into agreem5t ) ! orig9al error & ) himself2 !re w\ld be no?+ /range 9 ?is1 any m ?an 9 geometrical diagrams1 :i* h (t5 a slight & invisible flaw 9 ! fir/ "p ( ! process1 & are consi/5tly mi/ak5 9 ! long d$uctions :i* foll[4 ,& ?is is ! reason :y e man %\ld exp5d 8 *ief ?\ght & att5tion on ! consid]ation ( 8 fir/ pr9ciples3--are !y or are !y n rightly laid d[n8 & :5 he has duly sift$ !m1 all ! re/ w foll[4 ,n[ ,i %\ld be a/oni%$ to f9d t names are really consi/5t4 ,& "h let u rev]t to our =m] discussion3 ,7 we n say+ t all ?+s are 9 motion & progress & flux1 & t ?is idea ( motion is express$ by names8 ,d y n conceive t to be ! mean+ ( !m8 ,,cratylus3 ,yes2 t is assur$ly _! mean+1 & ! true mean+4 ,,socrates3 ,let u rev]t to epi/eme 7k7 & obs]ve h[ ambigu\s ?is ^w is1 seem+ r to signify /opp+ ! s\l at ?+s ?an go+ r\nd ) !m2 & !re=e we %\ld leave ! beg9n+ z at pres5t1 & n reject ! epsilon1 b make an ins]tion ( an iota in/ead ( an epsilon 7n pioteme1 b epii/eme74 ,take ano!r example3 bebaion 7sure7 is cle>ly ! expression ( /ation & position1 & n ( motion4 ,aga91 ! ^w i/oria 7enquiry7 be>s ^u ! face ( x ! /opp+ 7i/anai7 ( ! /ream2 & ! ^w pi/on 7fai?ful7 c]ta9ly indicates cessation ( motion2 !n1 aga91 mneme 7memory71 z any "o may see1 expresses re/ 9 ! s\l1 & n motion4 ,moreov]1 words su* z am>tia & sumphora1 :i* h a bad s5se1 view$ 9 ! light ( _! etymologies w be ! same z sunesis & epi/eme & o!r words :i* h a good s5se 7comp>e om>te91 suni5ai1 epe/hai1 sumph]e/hai72 & mu* ! same may be said ( ama?ia & akolasia1 = ama?ia may be expla9$ z e ama !o iontos poreia1 & akolasia z e akol\?ia tois pragmas94 ,?us ! names :i* 9 ^! in/ances we f9d to h ! wor/ s5se1 w turn out to be fram$ on ! same pr9ciple z ^? :i* h ! be/4 ,& any "o ,i believe :o w\ld take ! tr\ble might f9d _m o!r examples 9 :i* ! giv] ( names indicates1 n t ?+s are 9 motion or progress1 b t !y are at re/2 :i* is ! opposite ( motion4 ,,cratylus3 ,yes1 ,socrates1 b obs]ve2 ! great] numb] express motion4 ,,socrates3 ,:at ( t1 ,cratylus8 ,are we to c\nt !m l votes8 & is correctness ( names ! voice ( ! majority8 ,are we to say ( :i*ev] sort !re are mo/1 ^? are ! true ones8 ,,cratylus3 ,no2 t is n reasonable4 ,,socrates3 ,c]ta9ly n4 ,b let u h done ) ?is "q & proce$ to ano!r1 ab\t :i* ,i %\ld l to "k :e!r y ?9k ) me4 ,7 we n lately ackn[l$g+ t ! fir/ giv]s ( names 9 /ates1 bo? ,hell5ic & b>b>\s1 7 ! legislators1 & t ! art :i* gave names 0 ! art ( ! legislator8 ,,cratylus3 ,q true4 ,,socrates3 ,tell me1 !n1 did ! fir/ legislators1 :o 7 ! giv]s ( ! fir/ names1 "k or n "k ! ?+s :i* !y nam$8 ,,cratylus3 ,!y mu/ h kn[n1 ,socrates4 ,,socrates3 ,:y1 yes1 fri5d ,cratylus1 !y c\ld h>dly h be5 ignorant4 ,,cratylus3 ,i %\ld say n4 ,,socrates3 ,let u return to ! po9t f :i* we digress$4 ,y 7 say+1 if y rememb]1 t he :o gave names mu/ h kn[n ! ?+s :i* he nam$2 are y /ill ( t op9ion8 ,,cratylus3 ,i am4 ,,socrates3 ,& w\ld y say t ! giv] ( ! fir/ names _h also a k ( ! ?+s :i* he nam$8 ,,cratylus3 ,i %\ld4 ,,socrates3 ,b h[ c\ld he h le>n$ or discov]$ ?+s f names if ! primitive names 7 n yet giv58 ,=1 if we are correct 9 our view1 ! only way ( le>n+ & discov]+ ?+s1 is ei!r to discov] names = ourselves or to le>n !m f o!rs4 ,,cratylus3 ,i ?9k t !re is a good deal 9 :at y say1 ,socrates4 ,,socrates3 ,b if ?+s are only to be kn[n ?r\gh names1 h[ c we suppose t ! giv]s ( names _h k1 or 7 legislators be=e !re 7 names at all1 & !re=e be=e !y c\ld h kn[n !m8 ,,cratylus3 ,i believe1 ,socrates1 ! true acc\nt ( ! matt] to be1 t a p[] m ?an human gave ?+s _! fir/ names1 & t ! names :i* are ?us giv5 are necess>ily _! true names4 ,,socrates3 ,!n h[ came ! giv] ( ! names1 if he 0 an inspir$ be+ or ,god1 to contradict himself8 ,= 7 we n say+ j n[ t he made "s names expressive ( re/ & o!rs ( motion8 ,7 we mi/ak58 ,,cratylus3 ,b ,i suppose "o ( ! two n to be names at all4 ,,socrates3 ,& :i*1 !n1 did he make1 my good fri5d2 ^? :i* are expressive ( re/1 or ^? :i* are expressive ( motion8 ,?is is a po9t :i*1 z ,i said be=e1 _c be det]m9$ by c\nt+ !m4 ,,cratylus3 ,no2 n 9 t way1 ,socrates4 ,,socrates3 ,b if ?is is a battle ( names1 "s ( !m ass]t+ t !y are l ! tru?1 o!rs cont5d+ t ,,!y are1 h[ or by :at crit]ion are we to decide betwe5 !m8 ,= !re are no o!r names to :i* appeal c be made1 b obvi\sly rec\rse mu/ be _h to ano!r /&>d :i*1 )\t employ+ names1 w make cle> :i* ( ! two are "r2 & ?is mu/ be a /&>d :i* %[s ! tru? ( ?+s4 ,,cratylus3 ,i agree4 ,,socrates3 ,b if t is true1 ,cratylus1 !n ,i suppose t ?+s may be kn[n )\t names8 ,,cratylus3 ,cle>ly4 ,,socrates3 ,b h[ w\ld y expect to "k !m8 ,:at o!r way c !re be ( kn[+ !m1 except ! true & natural way1 ?r\gh _! aff9ities1 :5 !y are ak9 to ea* o!r1 & ?r\gh !mselves8 ,= t :i* is o!r & diff]5t f !m mu/ signify some?+ o!r & diff]5t f !m4 ,,cratylus3 ,:at y are say+ is1 ,i ?9k1 true4 ,,socrates3 ,well1 b reflect2 h we n sev]al times ackn[l$g$ t names rightly giv5 are ! lik5esses & images ( ! ?+s :i* !y "n8 ,,cratylus3 ,yes4 ,,socrates3 ,let u suppose t to any ext5t y please y c le>n ?+s ?r\gh ! m$ium ( names1 & suppose also t y c le>n !m f ! ?+s !mselves--:i* is likely to be ! nobl] & cle>] way2 to le>n ( ! image1 :e!r ! image & ! tru? ( :i* ! image is ! expression h be5 rightly conceiv$1 or to le>n ( ! tru? :e!r ! tru? & ! image ( x h be5 duly execut$8 ,,cratylus3 ,i %\ld say t we mu/ le>n ( ! tru?4 ,,socrates3 ,h[ real exi/5ce is to be /udi$ or discov]$ is1 ,i suspect1 beyond y & me4 ,b we may admit s mu*1 t ! k ( ?+s is n to be d]iv$ f names4 ,no2 !y mu/ be /udi$ & inve/igat$ 9 !mselves4 ,,cratylus3 ,cle>ly1 ,socrates4 ,,socrates3 ,!re is ano!r po9t4 ,i %\ld n l u to be impos$ ^u by ! appe>ance ( su* a multitude ( names1 all t5d+ 9 ! same direction4 ,i myself d n d5y t ! giv]s ( names did really give !m "u ! idea t all ?+s 7 9 motion & flux2 :i* 0 _! s9c]e b1 ,i ?9k1 mi/ak5 op9ion4 ,& hav+ fall5 into a k9d ( :irlpool !mselves1 !y are c>ri$ r\nd1 & want to drag u 9 aft] !m4 ,!re is a matt]1 ma/] ,cratylus1 ab\t :i* ,i (t5 dream1 & %\ld l to ask y\r op9ion3 ,tell me1 :e!r !re is or is n any absolute beauty or good1 or any o!r absolute exi/5ce8 ,,cratylus3 ,c]ta9ly1 ,socrates1 ,i ?9k s4 ,,socrates3 ,!n let u seek ! true beauty3 n ask+ :e!r a face is fair1 or any?+ ( t sort1 = all su* ?+s appe> to be 9 a flux2 b let u ask :e!r ! true beauty is n always beautiful4 ,,cratylus3 ,c]ta9ly4 ,,socrates3 ,& c we rightly speak ( a beauty :i* is always pass+ away1 & is fir/ ?is & !n t2 mu/ n ! same ?+ be born & retire & vani% :ile ! ^w is 9 our m\?s8 ,,cratylus3 ,und\bt$ly4 ,,socrates3 ,!n h[ c t be a real ?+ :i* is nev] 9 ! same /ate8 = obvi\sly ?+s :i* are ! same _c *ange :ile !y rema9 ! same2 & if !y are always ! same & 9 ! same /ate1 & nev] dep>t f _! orig9al =m1 !y c nev] *ange or be mov$4 ,,cratylus3 ,c]ta9ly !y _c4 ,,socrates3 ,nor yet c !y be kn[n by any "o2 = at ! mom5t t ! obs]v] approa*es1 !n !y become o!r & ( ano!r nature1 s t y _c get any fur!r 9 kn[+ _! nature or /ate1 = y _c "k t :i* has no /ate4 ,,cratylus3 ,true4 ,,socrates3 ,nor c we reasonably say1 ,cratylus1 t !re is k at all1 if ev]y?+ is 9 a /ate ( transition & !re is no?+ abid+2 = k too _c cont9ue to be k unless cont9u+ always to abide & exi/4 ,b if ! v nature ( k *anges1 at ! "t :5 ! *ange occurs !re w be no k2 & if ! transition is always go+ on1 !re w always be no k1 &1 accord+ to ?is view1 !re w be no "o to "k & no?+ to be kn[n3 b if t :i* kn[s & t :i* is kn[n exi/s ev]1 & ! beautiful & ! good & e o!r ?+ also exi/1 !n ,i d n ?9k t !y c resemble a process or flux1 z we 7 j n[ suppos+4 ,:e!r !re is ?is et]nal nature 9 ?+s1 or :e!r ! tru? is :at ,h]acleitus & 8 foll[]s & _m o!rs say1 is a "q h>d to det]m9e2 & no man ( s5se w l to put himself or ! education ( 8 m9d 9 ! p[] ( names3 nei!r w he s f> tru/ names or ! giv]s ( names z to be confid5t 9 any k :i* condemns himself & o!r exi/5ces to an unheal?y /ate ( unreality2 he w n believe t all ?+s leak l a pot1 or imag9e t ! _w is a man :o has a runn+ at ! nose4 ,?is may be true1 ,cratylus1 b is also v likely to be untrue2 & !re=e ,i w\ld n h y be too easily p]suad$ ( x4 ,reflect well & l a man1 & d n easily accept su* a doctr9e2 = y are "y & ( an age to le>n4 ,& :5 y h f\nd ! tru?1 come & tell me4 ,,cratylus3 ,i w d z y say1 ?\gh ,i c assure y1 ,socrates1 t ,i h be5 consid]+ ! matt] already1 & ! result ( a great deal ( tr\ble & consid]ation is t ,i incl9e to ,h]acleitus4 ,,socrates3 ,!n1 ano!r day1 my fri5d1 :5 y come back1 y %all give me a lesson2 b at pres5t1 g into ! c\ntry1 z y are int5d+1 & ,h]mog5es %all set y on y\r way4 ,,cratylus3 ,v good1 ,socrates2 ,i hope1 h[ev]1 t y w cont9ue to ?9k ab\t ^! ?+s y\rself4