,illu/ration3 ,frontispiece4 ,come =? into ! light ( ?+s1 ,let ,nature be y\r ,tea*]4 --,,wordswor?4 ,,/udies ,,( ,,trees ,,by ,j4,j4 ,,levison1 ,m4,f4 ,lectur] on ,ornam5tal & ,%ade ,trees1 ,yale ,univ]sity ,=e/ ,s*ool2 ,=e/] to ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,p>ks1 ,brooklyn1 ,n4,y4 ,,fir/ ,,edition ,,fir/ ,,?\s& #aiad ,,preface ,9 pres5t+ ?is volume1 ! au?or is aw>e t !re are sev]al excell5t books1 deal+ ) "o phase or ano!r ( tree life1 already be=e ! public4 ,x is believ$1 h[ev]1 t !re is /ill ne$ = an all-r\nd book1 adapt$ to ! beg9n]1 :i* gives 9 a brief & n too te*nical way ! mo/ important facts conc]n+ ! id5tification1 /ructure & uses ( our m common trees1 & :i* consid]s _! habits1 enemies & c>e bo? :5 gr[+ alone & :5 gr[+ 9 gr\ps or =e/s4 ,9 ! *apt]s on ! id5tification ( trees1 ! aim has be5 to br+ be=e ! /ud5t only su* *>act]s & facts z %all help him to di/+ui% ! tree readily dur+ all seasons ( ! ye>4 ,special /ress is laid 9 ea* case on ! mo/ /rik+ peculi>ities4 ,possible confusion ) o!r trees ( simil> appe>ance is prev5t$ z f> z possible ?r\gh comp>isons ) trees ( l =m or habit4 ,only su* in=mation is giv5 conc]n+ ! /ructure & requirem5ts ( trees z w enable ! read] bett] to und]/& ! subsequ5t *apt]s4 ,9 ! second half ( ! book1 practical application is made ( ! /ud5t's g5]al k ?us acquir$1 & he is acqua9t$ ) ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( plant+1 c>e1 =e/ry1 wood id5tification & nature /udy4 ,! au?or recognizes ! va/ness ( ! field he is attempt+ to cov] & ! impossibility ( ev5 t\*+1 9 a small h&-book ( ?is "*1 on e phase ( tree /udy4 ,he presumes no fur!r2 yet he hopes t by adh]+ to :at is sali5t & by elim9at+ ! less important1 ?\gh possibly int]e/+1 facts1 he is able to (f] a g5]al & elem5t>y resume ( ! :ole subject ( value to /ud5ts1 private own]s1 f>m]s & tea*]s4 ,9 ! prep>ation ( ,*apt] ,,viii on ,our ,common ,woods3 ,_! ,id5tification1 ,prop]ties & ,uses1 consid]able aid has be5 receiv$ f ,pr(4 ,samuel ,j4 ,record1 au?or ( ,economic ,woods ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,ackn[l$gm5t is also due to ! ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice = ! photographs us$ 9 ,figs4 #ah1 #abb to #ach inclusive & #adb2 to ,dr4 ,george ,b4 ,sudwor?1 ,d5drologi/ ( ! ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice1 = *eck+ up ! nom5clature 9 ! li/s ( trees "u ,*apt] ,v2 to ,dr4 ,e4,p4 ,felt1 ,entomologi/ ( ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york1 = sugge/ions 9 ! prep>ation ( ! section ( ! book relat+ to insects2 to ,dr4 ,w4,a4 ,murrill1 ,assi/ant ,director ( ! ,new ,york ,botanical ,g>d5s1 = ,fig4 #ajh2 & to ,mr4 ,h]mann ,w4 ,m]kel1 ,*ief ,=e/] ( ! ,new ,york ,zoological ,p>k1 = ,figs4 #bf1 #ei & #fj4 ,j4,j4 ,,levison4 ,,brooklyn1 ,n4,y4 ,june1 #aiad4 ,,cont5ts ,,*apt] ,i ,,h[ ,,to ,,id5tify ,,trees ,! ,p9es ,! ,spruce & ,hemlock ,! ,r$ ,c$> & ,arbor-vitae ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,h[ ,,to ,,id5tify ,,trees 7,cont9u$7 ,! ,l>* & ,cypress ,! ,horse*e/nut1 ,a%1 & ,maple ,trees ,told by _! ,=m ,trees ,told by _! ,b>k or ,trunk ,! ,oaks & ,*e/nut ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,h[ ,,to ,,id5tify ,,trees 7,cont9u$7 ,! ,hickories1 ,walnut1 & ,butt]nut ,tulip ,tree1 ,sweet ,gum1 ,l9d51 ,magnolia1 ,locu/1 ,catalpa1 ,dogwood1 ,mulb]ry1 & ,osage ,orange ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,/ructure ,,& ,,requirem5ts ,,( ,,trees ,,*apt] ,v ,,:at ,,trees ,,to ,,plant ,,& ,,h[ ,trees = ! ,lawn ,trees = ! ,/reet ,trees = ,woodl& ,trees = ,scre5+ ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,! ,,c>e ,,( ,,trees ,insects ,injuri\s to ,trees & ,h[ to ,combat ,!m ,important ,insects ,tree ,diseases ,prun+ ,trees ,tree ,repair ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,=e/ry ,:at ,=e/ry ,is & ,:at ,x ,does ,c>e ( ! ,woodl& ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,our ,,common ,,woods3 ,,_! ,,id5tification1 ,,prop]ties ,,& ,,uses ,woods ,)\t ,pores 7,s(t woods7 ,woods ) ,pores 7,h>d woods7 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,an ,,outdoor ,,lesson ,,on ,,trees ,,introduction ,a good _m popul> books on trees h be5 publi%$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 rec5t ye>s4 ,! cont9ually increas+ dem& = books ( ?is "* indicates ! gr[+ public int]e/ n only 9 ! trees t we pass 9 our daily walks1 b also 9 ! =e/ consid]$ z a community ( trees1 because ( its ae/hetic & protective value & its usefulness z a s\rce ( important economic products4 ,z a nation1 we are ?9k+ m ab\t trees & woods ?an we 7 wont to d 9 ! ye>s gone by4 ,we are gr[+ to love ! trees & =e/s z we turn m & m to outdoor life = recreation & sport4 ,9 our rambl+s along %ady /reets1 ?r\gh grassy p>ks1 ov] wood$ valleys1 & 9 m\nta9 wild]nesses we f9d t mu* m ?an =m]ly we are ask+ ourselves :at are ^! trees1 :at are ! leaf1 fl[]1 twig1 wood & habit *>act]i/ics :i* di/+ui% !m f o!r trees2 h[ l>ge d !y gr[2 "u :at conditions ( soil & climate d !y ?rive be/2 :at are _! enemies & h[ c !y be ov]come2 :at is _! value = wood & o!r useful products2 :at is _! protective value2 are !y useful = plant+ along /reets & 9 p>ks & 9 reg5]at+ =e/s2 h[ c ! trees ( our /reets & lawns be pres]v$ & repair$ z !y beg9 to fail f old age or o!r causes8 ,all ^! que/ions & _m m relat+ to ! important native & exotic trees commonly f\nd 9 ! /ates ea/ ( ! ,great ,lakes & nor? ( ,m>yl& ,mr4 ,levison has briefly answ]$ 9 ?is book4 ,! au?or's tra9+ z a =e/] & 8 exp]i5ce z a pr(essional arboriculturi/ has peculi>ly fitt$ him to speak 9 an au?oritative & int]e/+ way ab\t trees & woods4 ,! value ( ?is book is n 9 new k1 b 9 ! simple /atem5t ( ! mo/ important facts relat+ to "s ( our common trees1 individually & collectively consid]$4 ,a k ( trees & =e/s adds va/ly to ! pleasures ( outdoor life4 ,! m we /udy trees & ! m intimate our k ( ! =e/ z a unit ( vegetation 9 :i* ea* tree1 ea* fl[]1 ea* animal & insect has its "p to play 9 ! complete /ructure1 ! great] w be our admiration ( ! wond]ful beauty & v>iety exhibit$ 9 ! trees & woods ab\t u4 ,j4,w4 ,,t\mey1 ,director1 ,yale ,univ]sity ,=e/ ,s*ool4 ,,new ,,hav51 ,,conn41 ,june1 #aiad4 ,,/udies ,,( ,,trees ,,*apt] ,i ,,h[ ,,to ,,id5tify ,,trees ,!re are _m ways 9 :i* ! problem ( id5tify+ trees may be approa*$4 ,! majority attempt to recognize trees by _! leaf *>act]s4 ,leaf *>act]s1 h[ev]1 d n diff]5tiate ! trees dur+ ! o!r half ( ! ye> :5 !y are b>e4 ,9 ?is *apt] ! *>act]izations are bas$1 z f> z possible1 on peculi>ities t are evid5t all ye> r\nd4 ,9 almo/ e tree !re is "s "o trait t m>ks its individuality & sep>ates x1 at a glance1 f all o!r trees4 ,x may be ! g5]al =m ( ! tree1 its mode ( bran*+1 b>k1 bud or fruit4 ,x may be "s v>iation 9 color1 or1 9 case ( ! ev]gre5 trees1 x may be ! numb] & position ( ! ne$les or leaves4 ,! species includ$ 9 ! foll[+ pages h ?us be5 arrang$ 9 gr\ps bas$ on ^! p]man5t *>act]s4 ,! individual species are fur!r describ$ by a di/+ui%+ p>agraph 9 :i* ! ma9 "* ( ! tree is emphasiz$ 9 heavy type4 ,! la/ p>agraph "u ea* species is also important because x classifies all relat$ species & di/+ui%es ^? t are liable to be confus$ ) ! p>ticul> tree "u consid]ation4 ,,gr\p ,i4 ,,! ,,p9es ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,twig ( ! ,au/rian ,p9e4 ,h[ to tell !m f o!r trees3 ,! p9es belong to ! conif]\s class ( trees2 t is1 trees :i* be> cones4 ,! p9es may be told f ! o!r conif]\s trees by _! leaves1 :i* are 9 ! =m ( ne$les two in*es or m 9 l5g?4 ,^! ne$les keep gre5 ?r\gh\t ! entire ye>4 ,?is is *>act]i/ic ( all conif]\s trees1 except ! l>* & cypress1 :i* %$ _! leaves 9 w9t]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,twig ( ! ,:ite ,p9e4 ,! p9es are widely di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! ,nor!rn ,hemisph]e1 & include ab\t #hj di/9ct species ) ov] #fjj v>ieties4 ,! species enum]at$ "h are especially common 9 ! ea/]n "p ( ! ,unit$ /ates1 gr[+ ei!r native 9 ! =e/ or "u cultivation 9 ! p>ks4 ,! p9es =m a v important class ( timb] trees1 & produce beautiful effects :5 plant$ 9 gr\ps 9 ! p>ks4 ,h[ to tell !m f ea* o!r3 ,! p9e ne$les are arrang$ 9 clu/]s2 see ,fig4 #a4 ,ea* species has a c]ta9 *>act]i/ic numb] ( ne$les to ! clu/] & ?is fact g5]ally provides ! simple/ & mo/ direct way ( di/+ui%+ ! diff]5t p9es4 ,9 ! :ite p9e !re are five ne$les to ea* clu/]1 9 ! pit* p9e ?ree1 & 9 ! ,scot* p9e two4 ,! ,au/rian p9e also has two ne$les to ! clu/]1 b ! diff]5ce 9 size & "* ( ! ne$les w di/+ui% ?is species f ! ,scot* p9e4 ,,! ,,:ite ,,p9e 7,p9us /robus7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! tree c be told at close range by ! numb] ( ne$les to ea* clu/]1 ,fig4 #b4 ,!re are 99five99 ne$les to ea* clu/] ( ! :ite p9e4 ,!y are blui% gre51 sl5d]1 & ab\t f\r in*es 9 l5g?4 ,at a di/ance ! tree may be told by ! 99"r angles99 :i* ! bran*es =m ) ! ma9 trunk1 ,fig4 #c4 ,no o!r p9e %[s ?is "*4 ,=m & size3 ,a tall tree1 ! /atelie/ ( ! ev]gre5s4 ,range3 ,ea/]n ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,soil & location3 ,pref]s a deep1 s&y soil1 b w gr[ 9 almo/ any soil4 ,enemies3 ,suck+ insects =m+ :ite d[ny pat*es on ! b>k & twigs1 ! :ite p9e weevil1 a bor+ insect1 & ! :ite p9e bli/] ru/1 a fungus1 are among its pr9cipal enemies4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,! ,:ite ,p9e4 ,value = plant+3 ,aside f its value z an ornam5tal tree1 ! :ite p9e is an excell5t tree to plant on ab&on$ f>ms & = woodl&s & w9dbreaks ?r\gh\t ! ,new ,engl& ,/ates1 ,new ,york1 ,p5nsylvania1 & ! ,lake ,/ates4 ,comm]cial value3 ,! wood is easily work$1 light1 durable1 & w n w>p4 ,x is us$ = naval con/ruction1 lumb]1 %+les1 la?s1 int]ior f9i%1 wood5 w>e1 etc4 ,o!r *>act]s3 ,! fruit is a cone1 f\r to six in*es long4 ,comp>isons3 ,! tree is apt to be confus$ ) ! ,bhotan p9e 7,p9us excelsa71 :i* is commonly gr[n z an ornam5tal tree4 ,! ,bhotan p9e1 h[ev]1 has ne$les mu* long] & m droop+ 9 appe>ance4 ,,! ,,pit* ,,p9e 7,p9us rigida7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,"h !re are 99?ree99 ne$les to ea* clu/]1 ,fig4 #d4 ,!y are d>k1 yell[i%-gre5 ne$les ab\t f\r in*es long4 ,! r\gh-look+ bran*es ( ! tree may be se5 /udd$ ) cones ?r\gh\t ! ye>1 & clu/]s ( leaves may be se5 spr\t+ directly f ! trunk ( ! tree2 see ,fig4 #e4 ,! la/ two are v *>act]i/ic & w di/+ui% ! tree at a glance4 ,=m & size3 ,x is a l[ tree ( unc]ta9 habit & extremely r\gh look+ at e /age ( its life4 ,x is con/antly full ( dead bran*es & old cones :i* p]si/ on ! tree ?r\gh\t ! ye>4 ,range3 ,ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,soil & location3 ,gr[s 9 ! poore/ & s&ie/ soils :]e few o!r trees w gr[4 ,9 ,new ,j]sey & on ,long ,isl& :]e x is native1 x proves s h>dy & p]si/5t t x (t5 =ms pure /&s exclud+ o!r trees4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,twig ( ! ,pit* ,p9e4 ,enemies3 ,none ( importance4 ,value = plant+3 ,well adapt$ = ! sea coa/ & o!r expos$ places4 ,x is ( extremely unc]ta9 habit & is subject to ! loss ( ! l[] limbs4 ,x frequ5tly pres5ts a c]ta9 picturesqu5ess ( outl9e1 b x c\ld n be us$ z a specim5 tree on ! lawn4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,! ,pit* ,p9e4 ,comm]cial value3 ,! wood is co>se gra9$ & is us$ = r\gh lumb]1 fuel1 & *>coal4 ,o!r *>act]s3 ,! fruit is a cone "o to ?ree in*es long1 p]si/5t on ! tree = sev]al ye>s4 ,,! ,,scot* ,,p9e 7,p9us sylve/ris7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,!re are 99two99 ne$les to ea* clu/]1 & ^! are %ort comp>$ ) ^? ( ! :ite p9e1 & slightly twi/$2 see ,fig4 #f4 ,! b>k1 especially along ! upp] portion ( ! trunk1 is r$di% 9 color4 ,=m & size3 ,a m$ium-siz$ tree ) a %ort cr[n4 ,range3 ,europe1 ,asia1 & ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,soil & location3 ,w d be/ on a deep1 ri*1 s&y soil1 b w also gr[ on a dry1 por\s soil4 ,enemies3 ,9 ,europe ! ,scot* p9e has sev]al insect enemies1 b 9 ,am]ica x appe>s to be free f injury4 ,value = plant+3 ,suitable = w9dbreaks & woodl& plant+4 ,_m excell5t specim5s may also be f\nd 9 our p>ks4 ,comm]cial value3 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! wood is *iefly us$ = fuel1 ?\gh slightly us$ = b>rels1 boxes1 & c>p5try4 ,9 ,europe1 ! ,scot* p9e is an important timb] tree4 ,comp>isons3 ,! ,scot* p9e is apt to be confus$ ) ! ,au/rian p9e 7,p9us au/riaca71 because !y bo? h two ne$les to ea* clu/]4 ,! ne$les ( ! ,au/rian p9e1 h[ev]1 are mu* long]1 co>s]1 /raight]1 & d>k] ?an ^? ( ! ,scot* p9e2 ,fig4 #a4 ,! =m ( ! ,au/rian p9e1 too1 is m symmetrical & compact4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,twig ( ! ,scot* ,p9e4 ,! r$ p9e 7,p9us res9osa7 is ano!r tree t has two ne$les to ea* clu/]1 b ^! are mu* long] ?an ^? ( ! ,scot* p9e 7five to six in*es7 & are /raight]4 ,! b>k1 :i* is r$di% 9 color1 also diff]5tiates ! r$ p9e f ! ,au/rian p9e4 ,! position ( ! cones on ! r$ p9e1 :i* po9t outw>d & d[nw>d at maturity1 w also help to di/+ui% ?is tree f ! ,scot* & ! ,au/rian v>ieties4 ,,gr\p ,,ii4 ,,! ,,spruce ,,& ,,hemlock ,h[ to tell !m f o!r trees3 ,! spruce & hemlock belong to ! ev]gre5 class & may be told f ! o!r trees by _! leaves4 ,! *>act]i/ic leaves ( ! spruce are %[n 9 ,fig4 #i2 ^? ( ! hemlock 9 ,fig4 #aj4 ,^! are mu* %ort] ?an ! ne$les ( ! p9es b are long] ?an ! leaves ( ! r$ c$> or arbor vitae4 ,!y are nei!r arrang$ 9 clu/]s l ^? ( ! l>*1 nor 9 fea!ry lay]s l ^? ( ! cypress4 ,!y adh]e to ! tree ?r\gh\t ! ye>1 :ile ! leaves ( ! l>* & cypress %$ 9 ! fall4 ,! spruces are pyramidal-%ap$ trees1 ) tall & tap]+ trunks1 ?ickly cov]$ ) bran*es1 =m+ a compact cr[n4 ,!y are widely di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! cold & temp]ate regions ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 :]e !y (t5 =m ?ick =e/s ov] ext5d$ areas4 ,!re are eighte5 recogniz$ species ( spruce4 ,! ,norway spruce has be5 *os5 z a type = ?is gr\p because x is s commonly plant$ 9 ! nor!a/]n "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! hemlock is repres5t$ by sev5 species1 conf9$ to temp]ate ,nor? ,am]ica1 ,japan1 & ,c5tral & ,we/]n ,*9a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,! ,norway ,spruce4 ,h[ to tell !m f ea* o!r3 ,! ne$les & bran*es ( ! spruce are co>se2 ^? ( ! hemlock are flat & graceful4 ,! individual leaves ( ! spruce1 ,fig4 #i1 are f\r-sid$ & gre5 or blue on ! "u side1 :ile ^? ( ! hemlock1 ,fig4 #aj1 are flat & are m>k$ by two :ite l9es on ! "u side4 ,,! ,,norway ,,spruce 7,picea excelsa7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! *>act]i/ic appe>ance ( ! full-gr[n tree is due to ! 99droop+ bran*lets99 c>ri$ on 99ma9 bran*es :i* b5d upw>d99 7,fig4 #g74 ,leaf3 ,! leaves are d>k gre5 9 color & are arrang$ spirally1 ?us mak+ ! twigs co>s] to ! t\* ?an ! twigs ( ! hemlock or fir4 ,9 cross-section1 ! individual leaflet is quadrilat]al1 :ile t ( ! p9e is triangul>4 ,=m & size3 ,a l>ge tree ) a /raight1 undivid$ trunk & a well-%ap$1 conical cr[n 7,fig4 #g74 ,range3 ,nor!rn ,europe1 ,asia1 nor!rn ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,soil & location3 ,gr[s 9 cool1 moi/ situations4 ,enemies3 ,! foliage ( ! spruce is sometimes affect$ by r$ spid]1 b is apt to be m s]i\sly injur$ by dr\ght1 w9d1 & late fro/s4 ,value = plant+3 ,commonly plant$ z an ornam5tal tree & = h$ges4 ,x does well = ?is purpose 9 a cool nor!rn climate1 b 9 ! vic9ity ( ,new ,york ,city & fur!r s\? x does n d z well1 los+ its l[] bran*es at an e>ly age1 & becom+ g5]ally scraggly 9 appe>ance4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,a ,gr\p ( ,hemlock4 ,comm]cial value3 ,! wood is light & s(t & is us$ = con/ruction timb]1 pap] pulp1 & fuel4 ,o!r *>act]s3 ,! fruit is a l>ge sl5d] cone1 f\r to sev5 in*es long4 ,comp>isons3 ,! :ite spruce 7,picea canad5sis7 may be told f ! ,norway spruce by ! :iti% color on ! "u side ( its leaves & ! unpleasant1 pung5t odor emitt$ f ! ne$les :5 bruis$4 ,! cones ( ! :ite spruce1 ab\t two in*es long1 are %ort] ?an ^! ( ! ,norway spruce1 b are long] ?an ^? ( ! black spruce4 ,x is ess5tially a nor!rn tree gr[+ 9 all sorts ( locations along ! /reams & on rocky m\nta9 slopes z f> nor? z ! ,arctic ,sea & ,alaska4 ,x (t5 appe>s z an ornam5tal tree z f> s\? z ,new ,york & ,p5nsylvania4 ,! black spruce 7,picea m>iana7 may be told f ! o!r spruces by its small cone1 :i* is usually only ab\t "o in* 9 l5g?4 ,9 ,new ,engl& x seldom gr[s to z l>ge a size z ! o!r spruce trees4 ,x cov]s l>ge areas 9 v>i\s p>ts ( nor!rn ,nor? ,am]ica & gr[s to its l>ge/ size 9 ,manitoba4 ,! black spruce has little value z an ornam5tal tree4 ,! ,colorado blue spruce 7,picea p>ryana or ,picea pung5s7 :i* is commonly us$ z an ornam5tal tree on lawns & 9 p>ks1 c be told f ! o!r spruces by its pale-blue or sage-gre5 color & its %>p-po9t$1 co>se-feel+ twigs4 ,its small size & %>p-po9t$ conical =m are also *>act]i/ic4 ,x gr[s to a l>ge size 9 ,colorado & ! ,middle ,we/4 ,9 ! ,ea/]n ,/ates & 9 nor!rn ,europe :]e x is plant$ z an ornam5tal tree1 x is usually mu* small]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,twig ( ! ,norway ,spruce4 ,,hemlock 7,tsuga canad5sis7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,its leaves are arrang$ 9 99flat lay]s991 giv+ a flat1 horizontal & graceful appe>ance to ! :ole bran* 7,fig4 #h74 ,! individual leaves are d>k gre5 above1 light] color$ bel[1 & are 99m>k$ by two :ite l9es on ! "u side99 7,fig4 #aj74 ,! leaves are arrang$ on little /alks1 a *>act]i/ic t does n appe> 9 ! o!r ev]gre5 trees4 ,=m & size3 ,a l>ge tree ) a broad-bas$ pyramidal head1 & a trunk conspicu\sly tap]+ t[>d ! apex4 ,! bran*es ext5d almo/ to ! gr\nd4 ,range3 ,! hemlock is a nor!rn tree1 gr[+ 9 ,canada & ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,soil & location3 ,gr[s on all sorts ( soils1 9 ! deepe/ woods z well z on high m\nta9 slopes4 ,enemies3 ,none ( importance4 ,value = plant+3 ,! hemlock makes an excell5t h$ge because x reta9s its l[e/ bran*es & w /& %e>+4 ,9 ?is respect x is pref]able to ! spruce4 ,x makes a fair tree = ! lawn & is especially desirable = und]plant+ 9 woodl&s1 :]e ! %ade f ! surr\nd+ trees is heavy4 ,9 ?is respect x is l ! bee*4 ,comm]cial value3 ,! wood is s(t1 brittle1 & co>se-gra9$1 & is !re=e us$ ma9ly = co>se lumb]4 ,its b>k is s ri* 9 tann9 t x =ms "o ( ! *ief comm]cial products ( ! tree4 ,o!r *>act]s3 ,! fruit is a small cone ab\t #c_/d ( an in* long1 :i* g5]ally hangs on ! tree all w9t]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,twig ( ! ,hemlock4 ,,gr\p ,,iii4 ,,! ,,r$ ,,c$> ,,& ,,arbor-,,vitae ,h[ to tell !m f o!r trees3 ,! r$ c$> 7junip]7 & arbor-vitae may be told f o!r trees by _! leaves1 :i* rema9 on ! tree & keep gre5 ?r\gh\t ! entire ye>4 ,^! leaves diff] f ^? ( ! o!r ev]gre5s 9 be+ mu* %ort] & ( a di/9ctive %ape z %[n 9 ,figs4 #ab & #ac4 ,! trees !mselves are mu* small] ?an ! o!r ev]gre5s enum]at$ 9 ?is book4 ,altoge!r1 !re are ?irty-five species ( junip] recogniz$ & f\r ( arbor-vitae4 ,! junip]s are widely di/ribut$ ov] ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 f ! ,arctic region d[n to ,mexico 9 ! ,new ,_w1 & 9 nor!rn ,africa1 ,*9a1 & ,japan 9 ! ,old ,_w4 ,! arbor-vitae is f\nd 9 nor!a/]n & nor?we/]n ,am]ica1 ,*9a1 & ,japan4 ,! species m5tion$ "h are ^? commonly f\nd 9 ,am]ica4 ,h[ to tell !m f ea* o!r3 ,! twigs ( ! arbor-vitae are flat & fan-l z 9 ,fig4 #ac2 ! twigs ( ! r$ c$> are ne$le-%ap$ or scale-l z 9 ,fig4 #ab4 ,! foliage ( ! arbor-vitae is ( a light] color ?an t ( ! r$ c$>1 :i* is sombre gre54 ,! arbor-vitae w g5]ally be f\nd gr[+ 9 moi/ locations1 :ile ! r$ c$> w gr[ 9 dry places z well4 ,! arbor-vitae g5]ally reta9s its l[] bran*es 9 op5 places1 :ile ! bran*es ( ! r$ c$> />t at "s di/ance f ! gr\nd4 ,,r$ ,,c$> 7,junip]us virg9iana7 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,! ,r$ ,c$>4 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! tree c be/ be told at a glance by its g5]al =m1 size & leaves4 ,x is a m$ium-siz$ tree ) a symmetrical1 cone-l =m1 ,fig4 #aa1 :i*1 h[ev]1 broad5s out some:at :5 ! tree gr[s old4 ,its color ?r\gh\t ! ye> is dull gre5 ) a t+e ( br[ni% r$1 & its b>k peels 9 ?9 /rips4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab7;a74--,twig ( ,"y ,c$>4 ,,fig4 #ab7;b74--,twig ( ,c$> 7,old] ,tree74 ,leaf3 ,9 "y trees ! leaf is ne$le-%ap$1 po9t$1 & m>k$ by a :ite l9e on its "u side1 ,fig4 #ab7;a74 ,9 old] trees x is scale-l1 ,fig4 #ab7;b71 & ! :ite l9e on its "u side is indi/9ct4 ,range3 ,widely di/ribut$ ov] ne>ly all ( ea/]n & c5tral ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,soil & location3 ,gr[s on poor1 gravelly soils z well z 9 ri* bottom l&s4 ,enemies3 ,! c$> apple1 commonly f\nd on ?is tree1 repres5ts a /age ( ! apple ru/1 & = t reason x is n desirable to plant su* trees ne> or*>ds4 ,its wood is also sometimes attack$ by small bor+ insects4 ,value = plant+3 ,its *>act]i/ic sl5d] =m gives ! r$ c$> an important place z an ornam5tal tree1 b its *ief value lies 9 its comm]cial use4 ,comm]cial value3 ,! wood is durable1 light1 smoo? & fragrant1 & is !re=e us$ = mak+ lead-p5cils1 cab9ets1 boxes1 mo?-pro( *e/s1 %+les1 po/s1 & telegraph poles4 ,o!r *>act]s3 ,! fruit is small1 r\nd & b]ry-l1 ab\t ! size ( a pea1 ( d>k blue color1 & c>ries f "o to f\r bony se$s4 ,o!r common names3 ,! r$ c$> is also (t5 call$ junip] & r$ junip]4 ,comp>isons3 ,! r$ c$> is apt to be confus$ ) ! l[ junip] 7,junip]us communis7 :i* gr[s 9 op5 fields all ov] ! _w4 ,! latt]1 h[ev]1 is g5]ally ( a l[ =m ) a flat top4 ,its leaves are po9t$ & prickly1 nev] scale-l1 & !y are :iti% above & gre5 bel[4 ,its b>k %r$s & its fruit is a small r\nd b]ry ( agreeable aromatic odor4 ,,arbor-,,vitae2 ,,nor!rn ,,:ite ,,c$> 7,?uja occid5talis7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! 99bran*lets99 are extremely 99flat & fan-l991 ,fig4 #ac1 & h an agreeable aromatic odor :5 bruis$4 ,! tree is an ev]gre5 ) a n>r[ conical =m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,twig ( ! ,arbor-vitae4 ,leaf3 ,leaves ( two k9ds1 "o scale-l & flat1 ! o!r keel$1 all tightly press$ to ! twig 7see ,fig4 #ac74 ,=m & size3 ,a close1 conical head ) d5se foliage ne> ! base4 ,usually a small tree1 b 9 "s p>ts ( ! nor!a/]n ,/ates x gr[s to m$ium size ) a diamet] ( two feet4 ,range3 ,nor!rn "p ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,soil & location3 ,inhabits l[1 swampy l&s2 9 ! ,/ate ( ,ma9e (t5 =m+ ?ick =e/s4 ,enemies3 ,v seldom affect$ by insects4 ,value = plant+3 ,is h>dy 9 ,new ,engl&1 :]e x is especially us$ = h$ges4 ,x is also frequ5tly us$ z a specim5 tree on ! lawn4 ,comm]cial value3 ,! wood is durable = po/s1 ties1 & %+les4 ,! b>k conta9s consid]able tann9 & ! juices f ! tree h a m$ic9al value4 ,o!r *>act]s3 ,! fruit is a cone ab\t #a_/b in* long4 ,o!r common names3 ,arbor-vitae is sometimes call$ :ite c$> & c$>4 ,comp>isons3 ,! arbor-vitae is apt to be confus$ ) ! true :ite c$> 7,*amaecyp>is ?yoides7 b ! leaves ( ! latt] are %>p-po9t$ & n flatt5$ or fan-%ap$4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,h[ ,,to ,,id5tify ,,trees--7,cont9u$7 ,,gr\p ,,iv4 ,,! ,,l>* ,,& ,,cypress ,h[ to tell !m f o!r trees3 ,9 summ] ! l>* & cypress may easily be told f o!r trees by _! leaves4 ,^! are ne$le-%ap$ & arrang$ 9 clu/]s ) num]\s leaves to ea* clu/] 9 ! case ( ! l>*1 & fea!ry & flat 9 ! case ( ! cypress4 ,9 w9t]1 :5 _! leaves h dropp$ (f1 ! trees c be told by _! cones1 :i* adh]e to ! bran*es4 ,!re are n9e recogniz$ species ( l>* & two ( bald cypress4 ,! l>* is *>act]i/ically a nor!rn tree1 gr[+ 9 ! nor!rn & m\nta9\s regions ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e f ! ,arctic circle to ,p5nsylvania 9 ! ,new ,_w1 & 9 ,c5tral ,europe1 ,asia1 & ,japan 9 ! ,old ,_w4 ,x =ms l>ge =e/s 9 ! ,alps ( ,switz]l& & ,france4 ,! ,european l>* & n ! ,am]ican is ! pr9cipal species consid]$ "h1 because x is be+ plant$ ext5sively 9 ?is c\ntry & 9 mo/ respects is pref]able to ! ,am]ican species4 ,! bald cypress is a s\!rn tree ( anci5t orig91 ! well-kn[n cypress ( ,montezuma 9 ! g>d5s ( ,*epultepec hav+ be5 a species ( ,taxodium4 ,! tree is n[ conf9$ to ! swamps & riv] banks ( ! ,s\? ,atlantic & ,gulf ,/ates1 :]e x (t5 =ms ext5sive =e/s to ! exclusion ( all o!r trees4 ,9 ^? regions along ! riv] swamps1 ! trees are (t5 subm]g$ = sev]al mon?s ( ! ye>4 ,h[ to tell !m f ea* o!r3 ,9 summ] ! l>* may be told f ! cypress by its leaves 7comp>e ,figs4 #ad & #af74 ,9 w9t] ! two c be di/+ui%$ by _! *>act]i/ic =ms4 ,! l>* is a broad] tree z comp>$ ) ! cypress & its =m is m conical4 ,! cypress is m sl5d] & x is tall]4 ,! two h be5 gr\p$ toge!r 9 ?is /udy because !y are bo? conif]\s trees &1 unlike ! o!r ,conif]s1 are bo? decidu\s1 _! leaves fall+ 9 ,octob]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,twig ( ! ,l>* 9 ,summ]4 ,,! ,,european ,,l>* 7,l>ix europaea7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,its leaves1 :i* are ne$le-%ap$ & ab\t an in* long1 are borne 9 99clu/]s99 close to ! twig1 ,fig4 #ad4 ,!re are _m leaves to ea* clu/]4 ,?is *>act]i/ic toge!r ) ! 99spire-l99 =m ( ! cr[n w di/+ui% ! tree at a glance4 ,leaf3 ,! leaves are ( a light-gre5 color b become d>k] 9 ! spr+ & 9 ,octob] turn yell[ & drop (f4 ,! cypress1 :i* is describ$ bel[1 is ano!r cone-be>+ tree :i* %$s its leaves 9 w9t]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,twig ( ! ,l>* 9 ,w9t]4 ,=m & size3 ,a m$ium-siz$ tree ) a conical head & a /raight & tap]+ trunk4 7,see ,fig4 #ij47 ,range3 ,c5tral ,europe & ea/]n & c5tral ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,soil & location3 ,requires a deep1 fre%1 well-dra9$ soil & ne$s pl5ty ( light4 ,x fl\ri%es 9 places :]e our native species w\ld die4 ,gr[s v rapidly4 ,enemies3 ,! l>* is subject to ! attacks ( a sawfly1 :i* has kill$ _m trees ( ! ,am]ican species4 ,a fungus 7,trametes p9i7 :i* causes ! tree to break d[n ) ease is ano!r ( its enemies4 ,value = plant+3 ,a well-=m$ tree = ! lawn4 ,x is also useful = gr\p plant+ 9 ! =e/4 ,comm]cial value3 ,because its wood is /rong & durable ! l>* is valuable = poles1 po/s1 railroad ties1 & 9 %ipbuild+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,twig ( ! ,cypress4 ,o!r *>act]s3 ,! fruit is a small cone ab\t "o in* long1 adh]+ to ! tree ?r\gh\t ! w9t]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,! ,bald ,cypress4 ,comp>isons3 ,! tree is apt to be confus$ ) ! ,am]ican l>*1 also kn[n z tam>ack & hackmatack1 b diff]s f x 9 hav+ long] leaves1 cones twice z l>ge & m abundant & bran*es :i* are m p5dul\s4 ,! l>* diff]s f ! bald cypress 9 ! broad] =m ( its cr[n & ! clu/]-l arrangem5t ( its leaves4 ,! twigs ( ! bald cypress are flat & fea!ry4 ,! l>* & bald cypress h ! common *>act]i/ics ( bo? %$d+ _! leaves 9 w9t] & pref]r+ to gr[ 9 moi/ or swampy soils4 ,! l>*1 especially ! native species1 =ms ! well-kn[n tam>ack swamps ( ! nor?4 ,! bald cypress gr[s 9 a simil> way 9 gr\ps 9 ! s\!rn swamps4 ,,bald ,,cypress 7,taxodium di/i*um7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! 99fea!ry "*99 ( ! 99twigs991 ,fig4 #af1 & ! 99spire-l =m99 ( ! tree1 ,fig4 #ag1 :i* is tall] & m sl5d] ?an ! l>*1 w di/+ui% ?is species f o!rs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,cypress ,knees4 ,leaf3 ,! leaves drop (f 9 ,octob]1 ?\gh ! tree is ( ! cone-be>+ k9d4 ,9 ?is respect x is l ! l>*4 ,=m & size3 ,tall & pyramidal4 ,range3 ,! cypress is a s\!rn tree1 b is f\nd "u cultivation 9 p>ks & on lawns 9 nor!rn ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,soil & location3 ,gr[s naturally 9 swamps1 b w also d well 9 ord9>y well-dra9$1 good soil4 ,9 its natural habitat x s5ds out special roots above wat]4 ,^! are kn[n z cypress knees 7,fig4 #ah7 & s]ve to provide air to ! subm]g$ roots ( ! tree4 ,enemies3 ,none ( importance4 ,value = plant+3 ,an excell5t tree = p>k & lawn plant+4 ,comm]cial value3 ,! wood is light1 s(t1 & easily work$4 ,x is us$ = g5]al con/ruction1 int]ior f9i%1 railroad ties1 po/s & coop]age4 ,o!r *>act]s3 ,! b>k is ?9 & scaly4 ,! fruit is a cone ab\t an in* 9 diamet]4 ,! g5]al color ( ! tree is a dull1 deep gre5 :i*1 h[ev]1 turns orange br[n 9 ! fall4 ,comp>isons3 ,! cypress & ! l>* are apt to be confus$1 especially 9 ! w9t]1 :5 ! leaves ( bo? h dropp$4 ,! cypress is m sl5d] & is tall] 9 =m4 ,! leaves ( ea* are v diff]5t1 z w be se5 f ! accompany+ illu/rations4 ,,gr\p ,v4 ,,! ,,horse*e/nut1 ,,a% ,,& ,,maple ,h[ to tell !m f o!r trees3 ,! horse*e/nut1 a%1 & maple h _! bran*es & buds arrang$ on _! /ems 99opposite99 ea* o!r z %[n 9 ,figs4 #bj1 #bb & #bd4 ,9 o!r trees1 ?is arrangem5t is 99alt]nate991 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ai4 ,h[ to tell ^! ?ree f ea* o!r4 ,if ! bud is l>ge--an in* to an in* & a half long--d>k br[n1 & /icky1 x is a horse*e/nut4 ,if ! bud is n /icky1 mu* small]1 & ru/y br[n to black 9 color1 & ! ultimate twigs1 ( an olive gre5 color1 are flatt5$ at po9ts bel[ ! buds1 x is an a%4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--;,alt]nate ,bran*+ 7,bee*47 ,if x is n a horse*e/nut nor an a% & its small buds h _m scales cov]+ !m1 ! specim5 ) bran*es & buds opposite mu/ !n be a maple4 ,ea* ( ! maples has "o "* :i* di/+ui%es x f all ! o!r maples4 ,= ! sug> maple1 ?is di/+ui%+ "* is ! %>p po9t ( ! bud4 ,= ! silv] maple x is ! b5d 9 ! t]m9al twig4 ,= ! r$ maple x is ! smoo? gray-color$ b>k4 ,= ! ,norway maple x is ! r$di% br[n color ( ! full1 r\nd bud1 & = ! box eld] x is ! gre5i% color ( its t]m9al twig4 ,! =m ( ! tree & ! leaves are also *>act]i/ic 9 ea* ( ! maples1 b = ! beg9n] :o does n wi% to be burd5$ ) too _m ( ^! facts at "o "t1 ^? j enum]at$ w be f\nd mo/ c]ta9 & mo/ easily foll[$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,opposite ,bran*+ 7,horse*e/nut47 ,,! ,,horse*e/nut 7,aesculus hippoca/anum7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! 99/icky99 nature ( ! 99t]m9al bud99 & its 99l>ge size99 7ab\t an in* long74 ,! bud is d>k br[n 9 color4 ,see ,fig4 #bj4 ,leaf3 ,five to sev5 leaflets1 usually sev54 ,fig4 #ba4 ,=m & size3 ,m$ium-siz$ tree1 pyramidal head & co>se twigs4 ,range3 ,europe & ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,soil & location3 ,pref]s a deep1 ri* soil4 ,enemies3 ,! leaves are ! favorite food ( cat]pill>s & are subject to a blight :i* turns !m br[n prematurely4 ,! trunk is (t5 attack$ by a disease :i* causes ! fl[ ( a slimy sub/ance4 ,value = plant+3 ,on acc\nt ( its %[y fl[]s1 ! horse*e/nut is a favorite = ! p>k & lawn4 ,comm]cial value3 ,! wood is n durable & is n us$ comm]cially4 ,o!r *>act]s3 ,! fl[]s appe> 9 l>ge :ite clu/]s 9 ,may & ,june4 ,! fruit is l>ge1 r\nd1 & prickly4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,leaf ( ! ,horse*e/nut4 ,comp>isons3 ,! r$ horse*e/nut diff]s f ?is tree 9 hav+ r$ fl[]s4 ,! buckeye is simil> to ! horse*e/nut1 b its bud is n /icky & is ( a light] gray color1 :ile ! leaf g5]ally has only five leaflets4 ,,! ,,:ite ,,a% 7,frax9us am]icana7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! t]m9al 99twigs99 ( glossy olive gre5 color are 99flatt5$99 bel[ ! bud4 ,fig4 #bb4 ,! bud is ru/y-br[n4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,twig ( ,:ite ,a%4 ,leaf3 ,five to n9e leaflets4 ,fig4 #bc4 ,=m & size3 ,a l>ge tree ) a /raight trunk4 ,range3 ,ea/]n ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,soil & location3 ,ri*1 moi/ soil4 ,enemies3 ,9 cities x is v (t5 attack$ by suck+ insects4 ,value = plant+3 ,! :ite a% gr[s rapidly4 ,on acc\nt ( its insect enemies 9 cities1 x %\ld be us$ m = =e/ plant+ & only occasionally = ornam5t4 ,comm]cial value3 ,x has a heavy1 t\gh1 & /rong wood1 :i* is valuable 9 ! manufacture ( coop]age /ock1 agricultural implem5ts1 & c>riages4 ,x is sup]ior 9 value to ! black a%4 ,o!r *>act]s3 ,! b>k is gray4 ,! fl[]s appe> 9 ,may4 ,comp>isons3 ,! :ite a% is apt to be confus$ ) ! black a% 7,frax9us nigra71 b diff]s f ! latt] 9 hav+ a light]-color$ bud4 ,! bud ( ! black a% is black4 ,! b>k ( ! :ite a% is d>k] 9 color & ! t]m9al twigs are m flatt5$ ?an ^? ( ! black a%4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,leaf ( ,:ite ,a%4 ,,sug> ,,maple 7,ac] sac*>um7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! 99bud is %>p-po9t$991 scaly1 & r$di% br[n4 ,fig4 #bd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,twig ( ! ,sug> ,maple4 ,leaf3 ,has %>p po9ts & r\nd s9us4 ,fig4 #be4 ,=m & size3 ,! cr[n is oval :5 ! tree is "y & r\nd 9 old age4 ,fig4 #bf4 ,range3 ,ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,soil & location3 ,moi/ & deep soil1 & cool1 %ady positions4 ,enemies3 ,subject to dr\?1 especially 9 cities4 ,is attack$ by ! sug> maple bor] & ! maple ph5acoccus1 a suck+ insect4 ,value = plant+3 ,its ri* & yell[ color 9 ! fall1 & ! f9e spread ( its cr[n make x a desirable tree = ! lawn1 especially 9 ! c\ntry4 ,comm]cial value3 ,its wood is h>d & takes a good poli%2 us$ = int]ior f9i% & furniture4 ,! tree is also ! s\rce ( maple sug>4 ,fig4 #bg4 ,o!r *>act]s3 ,! b>k is smoo? 9 "y trees & 9 old trees x %ags 9 l>ge plates4 ,! fl[]s appe> 9 ! e>ly "p ( ,april4 ,o!r common names3 ,! sug> maple is sometimes call$ rock maple or h>d maple4 ,,silv] ,,maple 7,ac] sac*>9um7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! tips ( ! 99twigs curve upw>ds99 7,fig4 #bh71 ! b>k is scaly1 & ! leaves are v deeply cleft & are silv]y on ! "u side4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,leaf ( ,sug> ,maple4 ,leaf3 ,deeply cleft & silv]y "u side4 ,fig4 #bi4 ,=m & size3 ,a l>ge tree ) ! ma9 bran*es sep>at+ f ! trunk a few feet f ! gr\nd4 ,! t]m9al twigs are long1 sl5d]1 & droop+4 ,range3 ,ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,soil & location3 ,moi/ places4 ,enemies3 ,! leop>d mo?1 a wood-bor+ insect1 & ! cottony-maple scale1 a suck+ insect4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,! ,sug> ,maple4 ,value = plant+3 ,gr[s too rapidly & is too %ort-liv$ to be durable4 ,comm]cial value3 ,its wood is s(t1 weak1 & little us$4 ,o!r *>act]s3 ,! b>k is light gray1 smoo? at fir/ & scaly lat] on4 ,! scales are free at ea* end & atta*$ 9 ! c5t]4 ,! fl[]s appe> be=e ! leaves 9 ! latt] "p ( ,m>* or e>ly ,april4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,tapp+ ! ,sug> ,maple4 ,o!r common names3 ,! silv] maple is sometimes kn[n z s(t maple or :ite maple4 ,,r$ ,,maple 7,ac] rubrum7 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--,t]m9al ,twig ( ,silv] ,maple4 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! 99b>k is smoo? & light gray991 l t ( ! bee*1 on ! upp] bran*es 9 old] trees1 & 9 "y trees ov] ! :ole trunk4 ,fig4 #cj4 ,! buds are 9 clu/]s1 & ! t]m9al twigs1 ,fig4 #ca1 are q r$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,leaf ( ! ,silv] ,maple4 ,leaf3 ,:iti% und]nea? ) ?ree-po9t$ lobes4 ,fig4 #cb4 ,=m & size3 ,a m$ium-siz$ tree ) a n>r[1 r\nd head4 ,range3 ,ea/]n ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,soil & location3 ,pref]s moi/ places4 ,enemies3 ,leaf blot*es 7,rhytisma ac]9um7 :i*1 h[ev]1 are n v injuri\s4 ,value = plant+3 ,suitable z a %ade tree = suburban /reets4 ,its ri* r$ leaves 9 ! fall make x attractive = ! lawn4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--;,b>k ( ! ,r$ ,maple4 ,comm]cial value3 ,its wood is heavy1 close-gra9$1 & takes a good poli%4 ,us$ = furniture & fuel4 ,o!r *>act]s3 ,! bud is small1 r\nd1 & r$4 ,! fl[]s appe> be=e ! leaves are out 9 ! e>ly "p ( ,april4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,twig ( ! ,r$ ,maple4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,leaf ( ! ,r$ ,maple4 ,o!r common names3 ,! r$ maple is sometimes kn[n z swamp maple4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,twig ( ,norway ,maple4 ,comp>isons3 ,! r$ maple is apt to be confus$ ) ! silv] maple1 b ! latt] c be di/+ui%$ by its turn$-up twigs & scaly b>k ov] ! :ole trunk ( ! tree1 :i* pres5ts a %>p contra/ to ! /raight twig & smoo? b>k ( ! r$ maple4 ,! latt] has a b>k simil> to ! bee*1 b its bran*es are opposite1 :ile ^? ( ! bee* are alt]nate4 ,,norway ,,maple 7,ac] platanoides7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! bud1 ,fig4 #cc1 is 99oval & r$di%-br[n99 9 color2 :5 tak5 (f1 a 99milky juice exudes994 ,! b>k is close4 ,fig4 #cd ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--;,b>k ( ,norway ,maple4 ,leaf3 ,l ! leaf ( ! sug> maple b ?ick] 9 texture & d>k] 9 color4 ,fig4 #ce4 ,=m & size3 ,a tall tree ) a broad1 r\nd head4 ,range3 ,europe & ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,soil & location3 ,w gr[ 9 poor soil4 ,enemies3 ,v few4 ,value = plant+3 ,"o ( ! be/ %ade trees4 ,comm]cial value3 ,none4 ,o!r *>act]s3 ,! b>k is close l t ( ! mock]nut hickory4 ,comp>isons3 ,! ,norway maple is apt to be confus$ ) ! sycamore maple 7,ac] pseudoplatanus71 b diff]s f ! latt] 9 hav+ a r$di% bud in/ead ( a gre5 bud1 & a close b>k in/ead ( a scaly b>k4 ,,box ,,eld] 7,ac] negundo7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! t]m9al 99twigs are gre5991 & ! buds are r\nd & small4 ,fig4 #cf4 ,leaf3 ,has ?ree to sev5 leaflets4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--,leaf ( ,norway ,maple4 ,=m & size3 ,a m$ium-siz$ tree ) a %ort trunk & wide-spread+ top4 ,range3 ,ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates to ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s4 ,soil & location3 ,gr[s rapidly 9 deep1 moi/ soil & riv] valleys1 b accommodates itself to ! dry & poor soil conditions ( ! city4 ,illu/ration3 ,figure #cf4--,twig ( ! ,box ,eld]4 ,enemies3 ,few4 ,value = plant+3 ,us$ z a %ade tree 9 ! ,middle ,we/1 b ! tree is s ill =m$ & s %ort-liv$ t x is n to be recomm5d$4 ,comm]cial value3 ,none4 ,! wood is s(t4 ,o!r *>act]s3 ,! b>k ( ! trunk is smoo? & yell[i%-gre5 9 "y trees & grayi% br[n 9 old] specim5s4 ,! fl[]s appe> 9 ! e>ly "p ( ,april4 ,! fruit takes ! =m ( yell[i%-gre5 keys :i* hang on ! tree till late fall4 ,o!r common names3 ,! box eld] is also commonly kn[n z ! a%-leaf maple4 ,,gr\p ,,vi4 ,,trees ,,told ,,by ,,_! ,,=m3 ,,elm1 ,,popl>1 ,,g+ko ,,& ,,will[ ,h[ to tell !m f o!r trees3 ,! trees describ$ 9 ?is gr\p are s di/9ctive 9 _! g5]al =m t !y may1 = ! purpose ( /udy1 be gr\p$ toge!r1 & di/+ui%$ f all o!r trees by ?is *>act]i/ic4 ,h[ to tell !m f ea* o!r3 ,! ,am]ican elm is vase-l 9 %ape2 ! ,lomb>dy popl> is n>r[ & spire-l2 ! g+ko1 or maid5hair tree1 is odd 9 its mode ( bran*+2 & ! weep+ will[ is extremely p5dul\s4 ,,am]ican ,,elm 7,ulmus am]icana7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! tree c be told at a glance by its g5]al bran*+ habit4 ,! limbs ar* out into a wide-spread+ 99fan or vase-l cr[n99 :i* loses itself 9 num]\s f9e droop+ bran*lets4 ,see ,fig4 #cg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,am]ican ,elm4 ,leaf3 ,! leaves are simple1 alt]nate1 & f #b to #e in*es long4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--;,engli% ,elm 9 ,w9t]4 ,=m & size3 ,x is a tall tree ) a trunk t divides a %ort di/ance above gr\nd4 ,its g5]al cont\r1 toge!r ) ! num]\s bran*es t int]lace its massive cr[n1 give ! elm an int]e/+ & /ately appe>ance :i* is unequal$ by any o!r tree4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--,lomb>dy ,popl>4 ,range3 ,ea/]n ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,soil & location3 ,! elm pref]s a deep1 ri* & moi/ soil1 b w adapt itself ev5 to ! poor soil ( ! city /reet4 ,enemies3 ,! leop>d mo?1 a wood-bor+ insect1 & ! elm leaf beetle1 a leaf-eat+ insect1 are ! two mo/ important enemies ( ! tree4 ,_! ravages are v ext5sive4 ,value = plant+3 ,! tree has a "* ( its own :i* _c be duplicat$ = av5ue or lawn plant+4 ,comm]cial value3 ,! wood is /rong & t\gh & !re=e has a special value = coop]age1 agricultural implem5ts1 c>riages1 & %ipbuild+4 ,o!r *>act]s3 ,! buds are small1 br[n1 & smoo?1 :ile ^? ( ! ,european elms are cov]$ ) d[n4 ,! small side twigs come out at almo/ "r angles to ! l>g] t]m9al twigs1 :i* is n ! case 9 o!r species ( elm4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,leaf ( ,c>ol9a ,popl>4 ,o!r common names3 ,:ite elm4 ,comp>isons3 ,! ,engli% elm 7,ulmus campe/ris7 is also a tall1 dignifi$ tree commonly se5 "u cultivation 9 ,am]ica1 b may be told f ! ,am]ican species by ! diff]5ce 9 _! g5]al cont\r4 ,! bran*es ( ! ,engli% species spread out b d n ar* l ^? ( ! ,am]ican elm1 & ! b>k ( ! ,engli% elm is d>k] & co>s]1 ,fig4 #ch4 ,little tufts ( dead twigs along ! ma9 bran*es & trunk ( ! tree are *>act]i/ic ( ! ,engli% elm & w frequ5tly help to di/+ui% x f ! ,am]ican elm4 ,! ,camp]d[n elm may be recogniz$ readily by its dw>f size & its l[ droop+ umbrella-%ap$ cr[n4 ,,lomb>dy ,,or ,,italian ,,popl> 7,populus nigra1 v>4 italica7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,its 99tall1 sl5d]1 spire-l =m99 & rigidly 99erect bran*es991 :i* comm5ce l[ on ! trunk1 make ?is tree v di/9ct at all seasons ( ! ye>4 ,see ,fig4 #ci4 ,leaf3 ,triangul> 9 %ape1 simil> to t ( ! ,c>ol9a popl> b small]1 see ,fig4 #dj4 ,range3 ,asia1 ,europe1 & ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,soil & location3 ,! popl> is easily gr[n 9 poor soil1 9 any location1 & is v h>dy4 ,value = plant+3 ,! tree has a di/9ctive =m :i* makes x valuable = special l&scape effects4 ,x is also us$ = %elt] belts & scre5+4 ,l all popl>s x is %ort liv$ & w /& prun+ well4 ,comm]cial value3 ,none4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #da4--;,c>ol9a ,popl>4 ,comp>isons3 ,! ,c>ol9a popl>1 or ,cottonwood 7,populus deltoides7 c be told f ! ,lomb>dy popl> by its wid] cr[n & its m op5 bran*+1 ,fig4 #da4 ,x may be recogniz$ by its big t]m9al twigs1 :i* are light yell[ 9 color & co>s] ?an ^? ( ! ,lomb>dy popl>1 ,fig4 #db4 ,its b>k is smoo?1 light & yell[i%-gre5 9 "y trees1 & d>k gray & fissur$ 9 old] specim5s4 ,its l>ge1 conical1 glossy1 *e/nut-br[n bud is also *>act]i/ic1 ,fig4 #db4 ,its fl[]s1 9 ! =m ( l>ge catk9s1 a peculi>ity ( all popl>s1 appe> 9 ! e>ly spr+4 ,! ,c>ol9a popl> is commonly plant$ 9 cities because x gr[s rapidly & is able to )/& ! smoke & dr\? conditions ( ! city4 ,:]e o!r trees1 h[ev]1 c be sub/itut$ ) success1 ! popl> %\ld be avoid$4 ,its v fa/ gr[? is really a po9t aga9/ ! tree1 because x gr[s s fa/ t x becomes too tall = surr\nd+ prop]ty1 & its wood be+ extremely s(t & brittle1 ! tree frequ5tly breaks 9 w9d/orms4 ,9 _m cases x is entirely uproot$1 because x is n a deep-root$ tree4 ,its l>g] roots1 :i* spread ne> ! surface1 upset ! sidewalk or prev5t ! gr[? ( o!r vegetation on ! lawn1 :ile its f9] rootlets1 9 _! eag] se>* = moi/ure1 p5etrate & clog ! jo9ts ( neighbor+ wat] & sew] pipes4 ,! tree is commonly attack$ by ! oy/]-%ell scale1 an insect :i* sucks ! sap f its b>k & :i* readily spreads to o!r m valuable trees l ! elm4 ,! female =m ( ?is tree is ev5 m objectionable ?an ! male1 because 9 ! e>ly spr+ ! =m] produces an abundance ( cotton f its se$s :i* litt]s ! gr\nd & (t5 makes walk+ dang]\s4 ,! only ju/ification = plant+ ! ,c>ol9a popl> is 9 places :]e ! conditions = tree gr[? are s poor t no?+ else w gr[1 & 9 ^? cases ! tree %\ld be cut back p]iodically 9 ord] to keep x f becom+ too tall & scraggly4 ,x is also desirable = scre5+ 9 factory di/ricts & simil> situations4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db4--;,bud ( ! ,c>ol9a ,popl>4 ,! silv] or :ite popl> 7,populus alba7 may be told f ! o!r popl>s by its *>act]i/ic smoo?1 :iti%-gre5 b>k1 (t5 spott$ ) d>k blot*es1 ,fig4 #dc4 ,! leaves are silv]y-:ite & d[ny on ! "u side4 ,! twigs are d>k gre5 9 color & d5sely cov]$ ) a :ite d[n4 ,x gr[s to v l>ge size & =ms an irregul>1 wide-spread+1 broad head1 :i* is *>act]i/ically diff]5t f t ( any ( ! o!r popl>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--;,b>k ( ! ,silv] ,popl>4 ,! quak+ asp5 7,populus tremuloides71 ! l>ge-too!d asp5 7,populus gr&id5tata7 & ! balsam popl> or balm ( ,gilead 7,populus balsamif]a7 are o!r common memb]s ( ! popl> gr\p4 ,! quak+ asp5 may be told by its r$di%-br[n twigs1 n>r[ %>p-po9t$ buds1 & by its small f9ely too!d leaves4 ,! l>ge-too!d asp5 has ?ick] & r d[ny buds & broad] & m widely too!d leaves4 ,! balsam popl> has a l>ge bud ?ickly cov]$ ) a /icky1 pung5t1 gelat9\s sub/ance4 ,,g+ko ,,or ,,maid5hair ,,tree 7,g+ko biloba7 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--;,g+ko ,trees4 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! 99peculi> bran*es99 ( ?is tree 99em]ge upw>d99 f a /raight tap]+ trunk 99at an angle ( ab\t #de deg499 & give to ! :ole tree a /rik+1 ,ori5tal appe>ance1 :i* is q diff]5t f t ( any o!r tree1 ,fig4 #dd4 ,leaf3 ,l t ( a leaflet ( maid5hair f]n1 ,fig4 #de4 ,range3 ,a native ( nor!rn ,*9a & introduc$ into ea/]n ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,soil & location3 ,! g+ko w gr[ 9 poor soils4 ,enemies3 ,practically free f insects & disease4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #de4--,leaves ( ! ,g+ko ,tree4 ,value = plant+3 ,x makes a valuable tree = ! /reet :]e heavy %ade is n ! object & =ms an excell5t wide-spread+ specim5 tree on ! lawn4 ,o!r *>act]s3 ,! fruit consi/s ( a /one cov]$ by sweet1 ill-smell+ fle%4 ,! tree is dioeci\s1 !re be+ sep>ate male & female trees4 ,! male tree is pref]able = plant+ 9 ord] to avoid ! disagreeable odor ( ! fruit :i* appe>s on ! female trees :5 ab\t ?irty ye>s old4 ,! male tree has a n>r[] cr[n ?an ! female tree4 ,! buds 7,fig4 #df7 are v odd & are conspicu\s on ! tree ?r\gh\t ! w9t]4 ,! leaves ( ! g+ko %$ 9 ! w9t]4 ,9 ?is respect ! tree is l ! l>* & ! bald cypress4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #df4--;,bud ( ! ,g+ko ,tree4 ,! g+ko belongs to ! yew family1 :i* is ak9 to ! p9e family4 ,x is !re=e a v old tree1 ! rema9s ( ! =e/s ( ! anci5t _w4 ,! g+ko 9 its e>ly life is tall & sl5d] ) its few bran*es close to ! /em4 ,b aft] a "t ! bran*es loos5 up & =m a wide-spread+ cr[n4 ,9 ! ,ori5t x atta9s enorm\s proportions & 9 ?is c\ntry x also gr[s to a fairly l>ge size :5 plant$ on ! op5 lawn or 9 gr\ps f> ap>t f o!r trees s t x c h pl5ty ( room to spread4 ,x !n produces a picturesque effect ( unusual int]e/4 ,,weep+ ,,will[ 7,salix babylonica7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,all ! will[s h a s+le cap-l scale to ! bud1 & ?is species has an unusually 99droop+ mass ( sl5d] bran*lets99 :i* *>act]izes ! tree f all o!rs1 ,fig4 #dg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--,weep+ ,will[4 ,=m & size3 ,x gr[s to l>ge size4 ,range3 ,asia & ,europe & naturaliz$ 9 ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,soil & location3 ,pref]s moi/ places ne> /reams & ponds4 ,enemies3 ,none ( importance4 ,value = plant+3 ,! weep+ will[ has a special ornam5tal effect 9 cemet]ies & along lakes & riv] banks 9 p>ks4 ,comm]cial value3 ,x is us$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates = *>coal & = fuel4 ,comp>isons3 ,! pussy will[ 7,salix discolor7 may easily be told f ! o!r will[s by its small size2 x is (t5 no high] ?an a tall %rub4 ,its bran*es are r$di% gre5 & ! buds are d>k r$1 smoo? & glossy4 ,! pr$om9at+ color ( ! twigs & buds 9 ! pussy will[ is !re=e a %ade ( r$1 :ile 9 ! weep+ will[ x is yell[i% gre54 ,,gr\p ,,vii4 ,,trees ,,told ,,by ,,_! ,,b>k ,,or ,,trunk3 ,,sycamore1 ,,bir*1 ,,bee*1 ,,blue ,,bee*1 ,,ironwood1 ,,& ,,hackb]ry ,h[ to tell !m f o!r trees3 ,! color ( ! b>k or ! =m ( ! trunk ( ea* ( ! trees 9 ?is gr\p is di/9ct f t ( any o!r tree4 ,h[ to tell !m f ea* o!r3 ,9 ! sycamore1 ! b>k is mottl$2 9 ! :ite bir*1 x is dull :ite2 9 ! bee*1 x is smoo? & gray2 9 ! hackb]ry1 x is cov]$ ) num]\s corky w>ts2 9 ! blue bee*1 ! trunk ( ! tree is flut$1 z 9 ,fig4 #ed1 & 9 ! ironwood1 ! b>k peels 9 ?9 p]p5dicul> /rips4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--;,b>k ( ! ,sycamore ,tree4 ,,! ,,sycamore ,,or ,,plane ,,tree 7,platanus occid5talis7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! peculi> 99mottl$ appe>ance99 ( ! 99b>k99 7,fig4 #dh7 9 ! trunk & l>ge bran*es is ! /rik+ "* "h4 ,! b>k produces ?is effect by %$d+ 9 l>ge1 ?91 brittle plates4 ,! newly expos$ b>k is ( a yell[i% gre5 color :i* (t5 turns ne>ly :ite lat] on4 99,r\nd se$ balls991 ab\t an in* 9 diamet]1 may be se5 hang+ on ! tree all w9t]4 ,9 ?is species1 ! se$ balls are usually solit>y1 :ile 9 ! ,ori5tal sycamore1 a ,european tree simil> to ! native "o1 !y appe> 9 clu/]s ( two1 or occasionally ( ?ree or f\r4 ,see ,fig4 #di4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,se$-balls ( ! ,ori5tal ,sycamore4 ,note "o ,se$-ball cut 9 half4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--;,gray or ,:ite ,bir* ,trees4 ,leaf3 ,! /em ( ! leaf completely cov]s ! bud4 ,?is is a *>act]i/ic peculi> to sycamores4 ,=m & size3 ,a l>ge tree ) massive trunk & bran*es & a broad head4 ,range3 ,ea/]n & s\!rn ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,soil & location3 ,pref]s a deep ri* soil1 b w adapt itself ev5 to ! poor soil ( ! city /reet4 ,enemies3 ,! sycamore is frequ5tly attack$ by a fungus 7,gloeosporium n]visequum71 :i* curls up ! "y leaves & kills ! tips ( ! bran*es4 ,late fro/s also (t5 injure its "y twigs4 ,! ,ori5tal sycamore1 :i* is ! ,european species1 is m h>dy 9 ^! respects ?an ! native "o & is !re=e (t5 *os5 z a sub/itute4 ,value = plant+3 ,! ,occid5tal sycamore is n[ plant$ v little1 b ! ,ori5tal sycamore is us$ q ext5sively 9 its place1 especially z a %ade tree4 ,! ,ori5tal sycamore is sup]ior to ! native species 9 _m ways4 ,x is m %apely1 fa/] gr[+1 & h>di] ?an ! native "o4 ,bo? sycamores w be> transplant+ & prun+ well4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--;,b>k ( ! ,black or ,sweet ,bir*4 ,comm]cial value3 ,! wood ( ! sycamore is co>se-gra9$ & h>d to "w2 us$ occasionally = inside f9i%+ 9 build+s4 ,o!r names3 ,buttonball1 buttonwood4 ,comp>isons3 ,! ,ori5tal sycamore 7,platanus ori5talis7 an introduc$ species1 is apt to be confus$ ) ! ,occid5tal sycamore1 b may be told f ! latt] by ! numb] ( se$ balls susp5d$ f ! tree4 ,9 ! case ( ! ,ori5tal species1 ! se$ balls hang 9 pairs or 7r>ely7 ?ree or f\r toge!r4 ,9 ! ,occid5tal1 ! se$ balls are g5]ally solit>y & v r>ely 9 pairs4 ,,gray ,,or ,,:ite ,,bir* 7,betula populifolia7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! 99dull-:ite color ( ! b>k99 on ! trunk & ! d>k triangul> pat*es bel[ ! ins]tion ( ! bran*es di/+ui% ?is tree2 see ,fig4 #ej4 ,! b>k ( ! "y trunks & bran*es is r$di%-br[n 9 color & glossy4 ,! b>k adh]es closely to ! trunk ( ! tree & does n peel 9 loose1 %aggy /rips1 z 9 ! case ( ! yell[ or gold5 bir*4 ,x is m>k$ by small rais$ horizontal l9es :i* are ! l5ticels or brea?+ pores4 ,^! l5ticels are *>act]i/ic ( all bir* & *]ry trees4 ,9 addition to ! di/9ction 9 ! color ( ! b>k1 an important "* :i* di/+ui%es ! gray bir* f all o!r species ( bir*1 is f\nd 9 ! 99t]m9al twigs991 :i* are 99r\gh99 to ! t\*4 ,=m & size3 ,a small tree4 ,frequ5tly gr[s 9 clumps4 ,range3 ,ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,soil & location3 ,! gray bir* does be/ 9 a deep1 ri* soil1 b w also gr[ 9 poor soils4 ,enemies3 ,! bronze-bir* bor]1 a wood-de/roy+ insect1 & ,polyporus betul9us1 a fungus1 are its *ief enemies4 ,value = plant+3 ,its graceful habit & attractive b>k gives ! tree an important place 9 ornam5tal plant+4 ,x may be us$ to advantage ) ev]gre5s1 & produces a *>m+ effect :5 plant$ by itself 9 clumps4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--;,b>k ( ! ,bee*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--;,buds ( ! ,bee* ,tree4 ,comm]cial value3 ,! wood is s(t & n durable4 ,x is us$ 9 ! manufacture ( small articles & = wood pulp4 ,o!r *>act]s3 ,! fruit is a catk94 ,comp>isons3 ,! pap] bir* 7,betula papyrif]a7 is apt to be confus$ ) ! gray bir*1 because bo? h a :ite b>k4 ,! b>k ( ! pap] bir*1 h[ev]1 is a cle> :ite & peels (f 9 ?9 pap]y lay]s in/ead ( be+ close4 ,x v seldom %[s any d>k triangul> m>k+s on ! trunk4 ,its t]m9al twigs are n r\gh & its trunk is usually /raight] & fre] f bran*es4 ,! black or sweet bir* 7,betula l5ta7 has a b>k simil> to ! gray bir*1 except t its color is d>k gray4 ,see ,fig4 #ea4 ,! twigs h an aromatic ta/e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--,trunk ( ,blue ,bee*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--;,b>k ( ! ,ironwood4 ,! yell[ bir* 7,betula lutea7 has a yell[i% or gold5 b>k :i* con/antly peels 9 ?91 ragg$1 horizontal films4 ,! ,european :ite bir* 7,betula alba7 has a dull-:ite b>k l ! native :ite bir*1 b has smoo? t]m9al twigs in/ead ( r\gh ones4 ,x is commonly se5 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates on lawns & 9 p>ks4 ,,am]ican ,,bee* 7,fagus am]icana7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! 99close-fitt+1 smoo?1 gray b>k99 w tell ?is tree f all o!rs except ! r$ maple & yell[-wood4 ,see ,fig4 #eb4 ,! r$ maple may !n be easily elim9at$ by not+ :e!r ! bran*es are alt]nate or opposite4 ,!y are alt]nate 9 ! bee* & opposite 9 ! maple4 ,! yell[-wood may be elim9at$ by not+ ! size ( ! bud4 ,! 99bud99 9 ! yell[-wood is h>dly noticeable & ( a gold5 yell[ color1 :ile t ( ! bee* is v 99long1 sl5d]1 & %>p-po9t$991 & *e/nut br[n 9 color4 ,see ,fig4 #ec4 ,=m & size3 ,x gr[s tall 9 ! woods1 b on ! op5 lawn spreads out into a massive1 r\nd-head$ tree4 ,range3 ,ea/]n ,canada & ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,soil & location3 ,pref]s a ri*1 well-dra9$ soil1 b w gr[ 9 any good soil4 ,enemies3 ,aphides or plant lice t suck ! sap f ! leaves 9 spr+ & e>ly summ] are ! *ief enemies ( ! tree4 ,value = plant+3 ,! pleas+ color ( its b>k1 its f9e spread ( bran*es1 :i* gracefully droop d[n to ! gr\nd1 & its autumnal color+1 make ! bee* a favorite = lawn & p>k plant+4 ,! sev]al ,european species ( bee* are equally *>m+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--;,b>k ( ! ,hackb]ry4 ,comm]cial value3 ,! wood is /rong1 close-gra9$1 & t\gh4 ,x is us$ ma9ly = coop]age1 tool h&les1 %oe la/s1 *airs1 etc41 & = fuel4 ,o!r *>act]s3 ,! fruit is a prickly burr encas+ a %>ply triangul> nut :i* is sweet & edible4 ,comp>isons3 ,! ,european bee* 7,fagus sylvatica71 & its weep+1 purple-leav$1 & f]n-leav$ v>ieties1 are frequ5tly met ) 9 p>ks & may be told f ! native species by its d>k] b>k4 ,! weep+ =m may1 ( c\rse1 be told readily by its droop+ bran*es4 ,! leaves ( ! ,european bee*es are broad] & less s]rat$ ?an ^? ( ! ,am]ican bee*4 ,,blue ,,bee* ,,or ,,hornbeam 7,c>p9us c>ol9iana7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! 99flut$99 or muscul> effect ( its 99trunk99 w di/+ui% ! tree at a glance1 ,fig4 #ed4 ,leaf3 ,d\bly s]rat$2 o!rwise ! same z t ( ironwood4 ,=m & size3 ,a l[-spread+ tree ) bran*es ar*+ out at v>i\s angles1 =m+ a flatt5$ head ) a f9e1 sl5d] spray4 ,range3 ,v common 9 ! ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,soil & location3 ,gr[s 9 l[ wet woods4 ,enemies3 ,none ( importance4 ,value = plant+3 ,its arti/ic bran*+ & curi\s trunk give ! tree an important place 9 p>k plant+4 ,comm]cial value3 ,none4 ,o!r *>act]s3 ,! b>k is smoo? & blui% gray 9 color4 ,comp>isons3 ,! blue bee* or hornbeam is (t5 confus$ ) ! ironwood or hop hornbeam 7,o/rya virg9iana74 ,! ironwood1 h[ev]1 has a *>act]i/ic b>k t peels 9 p]p5dicul>1 %ort1 ?9 segm5ts1 (t5 loose at ! ends4 ,see ,fig4 #ee4 ,?is is entirely diff]5t f ! close1 smoo?1 & flut$ b>k ( ! blue bee*4 ,! color ( ! b>k 9 ! ironwood is br[ni%1 :ile t ( ! blue bee* is blui%-gray4 ,! buds ( ! ironwood are gre5i% ) br[n tips1 :ile ! bud ( ! blue bee* %[s no gre5 :atev]4 ,,hackb]ry 7,celtis occid5talis7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! tree may be told readily f o!r trees by ! 99corky tub]cles99 on ! b>k ( ! l[] portion ( ! trunk4 ,see ,fig4 #ef4 ,leaf3 ,has ?ree pr$om9at+ ve9s & is a bit m develop$ on "o side ?an on ! o!r4 ,=m & size3 ,a small or m$ium-siz$ tree ) a s+le /em & broad conical cr[n4 ,range3 ,unit$ ,/ates & ,canada4 ,soil & location3 ,gr[s naturally 9 f]tile soils1 b w adapt itself to almo/ /]ile soils z well4 ,enemies3 ,! hackb]ry is usually free f disease1 ?\gh (t5 its leaves are cov]$ ) insect galls4 ,value = plant+3 ,x is ext5sively plant$ z a %ade tree 9 ! ,middle ,we/1 & is frequ5tly se5 z an ornam5tal tree 9 ! ,ea/4 ,comm]cial value3 ,x has little economic value except = fuel4 ,o!r *>act]s3 ,! fruit is b]ry-l1 ) a h>d pit4 ,! fle%y out] "p is sweet4 ,o!r common names3 ,nettle tree2 sug>b]ry4 ,,gr\p ,,viii4 ,,! ,,oaks ,,& ,,*e/nut ,h[ to tell !m f o!r trees3 ,! oaks are r difficult to id5tify &1 9 /udy+ !m x w (t5 be necess>y to look = m ?an "o di/+ui%+ "*4 ,! oaks diff] f o!r trees 9 be>+ acorns4 ,_! leaves h _m lobes & _! upp] lat]al buds clu/] at ! top ( ! twigs4 ,! g5]al cont\r ( ea* oak pres5ts a *>act]i/ic bran*+ & /urd9ess uncommon 9 o!r trees4 ,! *e/nut diff]s f o!r trees 9 be>+ burs & its b>k is also di/9ctly *>act]i/ic4 ,h[ to tell !m f ea* o!r3 ,!re are two gr\ps ( oaks1 ! :ite oak & ! black oak4 ,! :ite oaks mature _! acorns 9 "o ye> &1 !re=e1 only acorns ( ! same ye> c be f\nd on trees ( ?is gr\p4 ,! black oaks take two ye>s 9 :i* to mature _! acorns &1 !re=e1 "y acorns ( ! pres5t ye> & mature acorns ( ! previ\s ye> may be f\nd on ! same tree at "o "t4 ,! leaves ( ! :ite oaks h r\nd$ m>g9s & r\nd$ lobes z 9 ,fig4 #eg1 :ile ^? ( ! black oaks h po9t$ m>g9s & %>p po9t$ lobes z %[n 9 ,figs4 #fj1 #fb & #fd4 ,! b>k ( ! :ite oaks is light color$ & breaks up 9 loose flakes z 9 ,fig4 #eh1 :ile t ( ! black oaks is d>k] & deeply ridg$ or tight z 9 ,figs4 #ei & #fa4 ,! :ite oak is ! type ( ! :ite oak gr\p & ! black1 r$ & p9 oaks are types ( ! o!r4 ,= ! *>act]ization ( ! individual species1 ! read] is ref]r$ to ! foll[+ pages4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--,leaf & ,fruit ( ,:ite ,oak4 7,qu]cus alba47 ,,:ite ,,oak 7,qu]cus alba7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! massive ramification ( its bran*es is *>act]i/ic ( ?is species & (t5 an easy clue to its id5tification4 ,! 99b>k99 has a 99light gray color99--light] ?an t ( ! o!r oaks--& breaks into s(t1 loose flakes z 9 ,fig4 #eh4 ,! 99leaves are deeply lob$99 z 9 ,fig4 #eg4 ,! 99buds are small1 r\nd & conge/$99 at ! end ( ! ye>'s gr[?4 ,! acorns usually h no /alks & are set 9 %all[1 r\gh cups4 ,! k]nels ( ! acorns are :ite & palatable4 ,=m & size3 ,! :ite oak gr[s into a l>ge tree ) a wide-spread+1 massive cr[n1 dissolv+ into long1 heavy1 twi/$ bran*es4 ,:5 gr[n 9 ! op5 x possesses a %ort /urdy trunk2 9 ! =e/ its trunk is tall & /\t4 ,range3 ,ea/]n ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--;,b>k ( ,:ite ,oak4 7,qu]cus alba47 ,soil & location3 ,! :ite oak ?rives 9 almo/ any well-dra9$1 good1 deep soil except 9 a v cold & wet soil4 ,x requires pl5ty ( light & atta9s great age4 ,enemies3 ,! tree is comp>atively free f insects & disease except 9 di/ricts :]e ! ,gipsy mo? is common1 9 :i* case ! leaves ( ! :ite oak are a favorite food ( its cat]pill>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--;,b>k ( ,black ,oak4 7,qu]cus velut9a74 ,value = plant+3 ,! :ite oak is "o ( ! mo/ /ately trees4 ,its massive =m & its longevity make ! tree suitable = bo? lawn & woodl& plant+ b x is n us$ mu* because x is difficult to transplant & gr[s r sl[ly4 ,comm]cial value3 ,! wood is ( great economic importance4 ,x is heavy1 h>d1 /rong & durable & is us$ 9 coop]age1 con/ruction "w1 int]ior f9i% ( build+s & = railroad ties1 furniture1 agricultural implem5ts & fuel4 ,comp>isons3 ,! swamp :ite oak 7,qu]cus platanoides7 is simil> to ! :ite oak 9 g5]al appe>ance ( ! b>k & =m & is !re=e liable to be confus$ ) x4 ,x diff]s f ! :ite oak1 h[ev]1 9 possess+ a m /raggly habit & 9 ! fact t ! b>k on ! "u side ( its bran*es %ags 9 loose1 l>ge scales4 ,its buds are small]1 light] color$ & m d[ny & its acorns are m po9t$ & ) cups m %all[ ?an ^? ( ! :ite oak4 ,! tree also gr[s 9 moi/] gr\nd1 g5]ally bord]+ swamps4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--,leaf & ,fruit ( ,black ,oak4 7,qu]cus velut9a74 ,,black ,,oak 7,qu]cus velut9a7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! 99b>k99 is black1 r\gh & cut up into firm 99ridges99 especially at ! base ( ! tree1 see ,fig4 #ei4 ,! inn] b>k has a bright yell[ color3 ! 99leaves99 h %>p po9ts & are wid] at ! base ?an at ! tip z %[n 9 ,fig4 #fj4 ,! buds are l>ge1 d[ny & %>p po9t$4 ,! acorns are small & h deep1 scaly cups ! inn] m>g9s ( :i* are d[ny4 ,! k]nels are yell[ & bitt]4 ,=m & size3 ,! tree gr[s 9 an irregul> =m to l>ge size1 ) its bran*es r sl5d] z comp>$ ) ! :ite oak & ) a m op5 & n>r[ cr[n4 ,range3 ,ea/]n ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,soil & location3 ,x w gr[ 9 poor soils b does be/ :]e ! soil is ri* & well dra9$4 ,enemies3 ,none ( importance4 ,value = plant+3 ,! black oak is ! poore/ ( ! oaks = plant+ & is r>ely (f]$ by nurs]ym54 ,comm]cial value3 ,! wood is heavy1 h>d & /rong1 b *ecks readily & is co>se gra9$4 ,x is ( little value except = fuel4 ,! b>k is us$ = tann94 ,o!r common names3 ,yell[ oak4 ,comp>isons3 ,! black oak might sometimes be confus$ ) ! r$ & sc>let oaks4 ,! yell[1 bitt] inn] b>k w di/+ui% ! black oak f ! o!r two4 ,! light-color$1 smoo? b>k ( ! r$ oak & ! d>k1 ridg$ b>k ( ! black oak w di/+ui% ! two1 :ile ! b>k ( ! sc>let oak has an appe>ance int]m$iate betwe5 ! two4 ,! buds ( ! ?ree species also %[ m>k$ diff]5ces4 ,! buds ( ! black oak are cov]$ ) hairs1 ^? ( ! sc>let oak h few] hairs & ^? ( ! r$ are practically free f hairs4 ,! leaves ( ea* ( ! ?ree species are di/9ct & ! gr[? habits are diff]5t4 ,,r$ ,,oak 7,qu]cus rubra7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! 99b>k99 is p]p5dicul>ly fissur$ into long1 smoo?1 light gray /rips giv+ ! trunk a *>act]i/ic 99pill> effect99 z 9 ,figs4 #fa & #id4 ,x has ! /raighte/ trunk ( all ! oaks4 ,! leaves possess m lobes ?an ! leaves ( any ( ! o!r species ( ! black oak gr\p1 see ,fig4 #fb4 ,! acorns1 ! l>ge/ among ! oaks1 are semisph]ical ) ! cups extremely %all[4 ,! buds are l>ge & %>p po9t$1 b n z l>ge z ^? ( ! black oak4 ,!y also h a few f9e hairs on _! scales1 b are n ne>ly z d[ny z ^? ( ! ,black oak4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fa--;,b>k ( ,r$ ,oak4 ,=m & size3 ,! r$ oak is ! l>ge/ ( ! oaks & among ! l>ge/ ( ! trees 9 ! nor!rn =e/s4 ,x has a /raight trunk1 free f bran*es to a high] po9t ?an 9 ! :ite oak1 see ,fig4 #id4 ,! bran*es are less twi/$ & em]ge at %>p] angles ?an d ^? ( ! :ite oak4 ,range3 ,x gr[s all ov] ,ea/]n ,nor? ,am]ica & rea*es nor? f>!r ?an any ( ! o!r oaks4 ,soil & location3 ,x is less fa/idi\s 9 its soil & moi/ure requirem5ts ?an ! o!r oaks & !re=e gr[s 9 a great v>iety ( soils4 ,x requires pl5ty ( light4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--,leaf & ,fruit ( ,r$ ,oak4 ,enemies3 ,l mo/ ( ! o!r oaks1 ?is species is comp>atively free f insects & disease4 ,value = plant+3 ,! r$ oak gr[s fa/] & adapts itself bett] to poor soil conditions ?an any ( ! o!r oaks & is !re=e easy to plant & easy to f9d 9 ! nurs]ies4 ,x makes an excell5t /reet tree1 is equally desirable = ! lawn & is h>dly surpass$ = woodl& plant+4 ,comm]cial value3 ,! wood is h>d & /rong b co>se gra9$1 & is us$ = con/ruction timb]1 int]ior f9i% & furniture4 ,x is inf]ior to :ite oak :]e /r5g? & durability are requir$4 ,,p9 ,,oak 7,qu]cus palu/ris7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,its me?od ( 99bran*+99 w *>act]ize ! tree at a glance4 ,x develops a well-def9$ ma9 asc5d+ /em ) num]\s droop+ side bran*es z 9 ,fig4 #fc4 ,! buds are v small & %>p po9t$ & ! leaves are small z 9 ,fig4 #fd4 ,! b>k is d>k1 firm1 smoo? & 9 close ridges4 ,! acorn is small & c>ries a light br[n1 /rip$ nut1 wid] ?an long & bitt]4 ,! cup is %all[1 enclos+ only ! base ( ! nut4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--,p9 ,oaks 9 ,w9t]4 ,=m & size3 ,! p9 oak is a m$ium-siz$ tree 9 comp>ison ) o!r oaks4 ,x develops a tall1 /raight trunk t tap]s cont9u\sly ?r\gh a pyramidal cr[n ( l[1 droop+ t5d]1 bran*es4 ,range3 ,ea/]n ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,soil & location3 ,x requires a deep1 ri*1 moi/ soil & gr[s naturally ne> swamps4 ,its roots are deep & spread+4 ,! tree gr[s rapidly & is easily transplant$4 ,enemies3 ,none ( importance4 ,value = plant+3 ,! p9 oak is an extremely graceful tree & is !re=e ext5sively us$ = plant+ on lawns & on c]ta9 /reets :]e ! tree c f9d pl5ty ( wat] & :]e conditions w p]mit its bran*es to droop l[4 ,comm]cial value3 ,! wood is heavy & h>d b co>se gra9$ & liable to *eck & w>p4 ,its pr9cipal use is 9 ! con/ruction ( h\ses & = %+les4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--,leaf & ,fruit ( ,p9 ,oak4 ,,*e/nut 7,ca/anea d5tata7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! 99b>k99 9 "y trees is smoo? & ( a m>k$ r$di%-bronze color1 b :5 ! tree gr[s old]1 ! b>k breaks up into 99diamond-%ap$ ridges991 suffici5tly *>act]i/ic to di/+ui% ! tree at a glance1 see ,fig4 #fe4 ,a close exam9ation ( ! t]m9al twig w %[ ?ree ridges & two grooves runn+ d[n along ! /em f ! base ( ea* leaf or leaf-sc>4 ,! twig has no true t]m9al bud4 ,! fruit1 a l>ge1 r\nd 99bur991 prickly )\t & hairy )9 & enclos+ ! famili> d>k br[n1 sweet edible nuts is also a di/+ui%+ m>k ( ! tree4 ,leaf3 ,! leaves are di/9ctly long & n>r[4 ,!y are f #f to #h in*es long4 ,=m & size3 ,! *e/nut is a l>ge tree ) a massive trunk & broad spread+ cr[n4 ,! *e/nut tree :5 cut1 spr\ts readily f ! /ump & !re=e 9 places :]e ! trees h once be5 cut1 a gr\p ( two to six trees may be se5 em]g+ f ! old /ump4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--,trunk ( ,*e/nut ,tree4 ,range3 ,ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,soil & location3 ,x w gr[ on rocky z well z on f]tile soils & requires pl5ty ( light4 ,enemies3 ,dur+ ! pa/ n9e ye>s ne>ly all ! *e/nut trees 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates h be5 attack$ by a fungus disease 7,diapor! p>asitica1 ,mur47 :i* /ill ?reat5s ! entire ext9ction ( ! *e/nut trees 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,no rem$y has be5 discov]$ & all affect$ trees %\ld be cut d[n & ! wood utiliz$ be=e x decays & becomes wor?less4 ,no species ( *e/nut tree is entirely immune f ?is disease1 ?\gh "s species are highly resi/ant4 ,value = plant+3 ,! *e/nut is "o ( ! mo/ rapidly gr[+ h>dwood trees b1 on acc\nt ( its disease1 :i* is n[ preval5t ev]y:]e1 x is n wise to plant *e/nut trees = ! pres5t4 ,comm]cial value3 ,! wood is light1 n v /rong & liable to w>p4 ,x is durable :5 br\ght 9 contact ) ! soil & is !re=e us$ = railroad ties1 f5ce-po/s1 poles1 & m9e timb]s4 ,x is also valuable = int]ior f9i% 9 h\ses & = fuel4 ,its b>k is us$ 9 ! manufacture ( tann+ extracts & ! nuts are sold 9 cities 9 l>ge quantities4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,h[ ,,to ,,id5tify ,,trees--7,cont9u$7 ,,gr\p ,,ix4 ,,! ,,hickories1 ,,walnut ,,& ,,butt]nut ,h[ to tell !m f o!r trees & f ea* o!r3 ,! hickory trees1 ?\gh symmetrical1 h a rugg$ appe>ance & ! bran*es are s /urdy & black z to give a special di/9ction to ?is gr\p4 ,! buds are diff]5t f ! buds ( all o!r trees & suffici5tly *>act]i/ic to di/+ui% ! v>i\s species ( ! gr\p4 ,! b>k is also a di/+ui%+ "*4 ,! walnut & butt]nut h *amb]$ pi?s :i* di/+ui% !m f all o!r trees & f ea* o!r4 ,,%agb>k ,,hickory 7,hicoria ovata7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! yell[i% br[n 99buds99 ne>ly z l>ge z ^? ( ! mock]nut hickory1 are ea* provid$ ) two long1 d>k1 out] scales :i* /& out v conspicu\sly z %[n 9 ,fig4 #fg4 ,! 99b>k99 9 old] specim5s 99%ags99 (f 9 r\gh /rips1 sometimes m ?an a foot long1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #fh4 ,^! two *>act]s w readily di/+ui% ! tree at all seasons ( ! ye>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--;,a ,%agb>k ,hickory ,tree4 ,leaf3 ,! leaf is comp\nd1 consi/+ ( #e or #g leaflets1 ! t]m9al "o g5]ally l>g]4 ,=m & size3 ,a tall1 /ately tree--! talle/ ( ! hickories--( rugg$ =m & f9e symmetry1 see ,fig4 #ff4 ,range3 ,ea/]n ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,soil & location3 ,! %agb>k hickory gr[s 9 a great v>iety ( soils1 b pref]s a deep & r moi/ soil4 ,enemies3 ,! hickory b>k bor] 7,scolytus quadrisp9osus7 is its pr9cipal enemy4 ,! insect is n[ kill+ ?\s&s ( hickory trees 9 ! vic9ity ( ,new ,york ,city & on sev]al occasions has made its appe>ance 9 l>ge numb]s 9 o!r p>ts ( ! c\ntry4 ,value = plant+3 ,x is difficult to transplant1 gr[s sl[ly & is seldom f\nd 9 nurs]ies4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--;,bud ( ! ,%agb>k ,hickory4 ,comm]cial value3 ,! wood is extremely t\gh & h>d & is us$ = agricultural implem5ts & = ! manufacture ( wagons4 ,x is excell5t = fuel & ! nuts are ( great value z a food4 ,o!r *>act]s3 ,! fruit is a nut cov]$ by a ?ick husk t sep>ates into #d or #e segm5ts4 ,! k]nel is sweet4 ,o!r common names3 ,%ellb>k hickory4 ,,mock]nut ,,hickory 7,hicoria alba7 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--;,b>k ( ! ,%agb>k ,hickory4 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! 99bud99 is ! l>ge/ among ! hickories--ne>ly half an in* long--is h>d & oval & cov]$ ) yell[i% br[n d[ny scales :i* d n project l ^? ( ! %agb>k hickory1 see ,fig4 #fi4 ,! twigs are extremely co>se4 ,! 99b>k99 is v tight on ! trunk & bran*es & has a close1 h>d1 wavy appe>ance z 9 ,fig4 #gj4 ,leaf3 ,! leaf consi/s ( #e1 #g or #i leaflets all ( :i* are l>ge & pubesc5t & possess a di/9ct res9\s odor4 ,=m & size3 ,a tall tree ) a broad spread+ head4 ,range3 ,ea/]n ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,soil & location3 ,! mock]nut hickory gr[s on a great v>iety ( soils1 b pref]s "o :i* is ri* & well-dra9$4 ,enemies3 ,! same z = ! %agb>k hickory4 ,value = plant+3 ,x is n commonly plant$4 ,comm]cial value3 ,! wood is simil> to t ( ! %agb>k hickory & is put to ! same uses4 ,o!r *>act]s3 ,! fruit is a nut1 l>g] & cov]$ ) a %ell ?ick] ?an t ( ! %agb>k4 ,! husk is also ?ick] & sep>ates into f\r segm5ts ne>ly to ! base4 ,! k]nel is small & sweet4 ,o!r common names3 ,bigbud hickory2 :itehe>t hickory4 ,comp>isons3 ,! pignut hickory 7,hicoria glabra71 sometimes call$ broom hickory or br[n hickory1 (t5 has a %aggy b>k1 b diff]s f bo? ! %agb>k & ! mock]nut hickory 9 possess+ buds v mu* small]1 twigs m sl5d] & leaflets few]4 ,! nut has a ?9n] husk :i* does n sep>ate into f\r or five segm5ts4 ,! tree pref]s dri] gr\nd ?an ! o!r hickories4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--;,bud ( ! ,mock]nut ,hickory4 ,! bitt]nut 7,hicoria m9ima7 c be told f ! mock]nut & o!r species ( hickory by its bud1 :i* has no scales at all4 ,! color ( its bud is a *>act]i/ic orange yell[4 ,! b>k is ( a light] %ade ?an ! b>k ( ! mock]nut hickory & ! leaflets are m num]\s ?an 9 any ( ! hickories1 v>y+ f #g to #aa4 ,its nuts are bitt]4 ,,black ,,walnut 7,juglans nigra7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,by cutt+ a twig l5g?wise1 x w be se5 t its 99pi?99 is divid$ into little *amb]s z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ga4 ,! bud is d>k gray & sat9y4 ,! b>k is d>k br[n & deeply ridg$ & ! fruit is ! famili> r\nd walnut4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--;,b>k ( ! ,mock]nut ,hickory4 ,=m & size3 ,a tall tree ) a spread+ cr[n compos$ ( /\t bran*es4 ,9 ! op5 x gr[s v symmetrically4 ,range3 ,ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,soil & location3 ,! black walnut pref]s a deep1 ri*1 f]tile soil & requires a great deal ( light4 ,enemies3 ,! tree is a favorite ( _m cat]pill>s4 ,value = plant+3 ,x =ms a beautiful spread+ tree on op5 gr\nd1 b is n plant$ to any ext5t because x is h>d to transplant4 ,x gr[s sl[ly unless ! soil is v deep & ri*1 develops its leaves late 9 ! spr+ & %$s !m e>ly 9 ! fall & produces its fruit 9 great pr(usion4 ,comm]cial value3 ,! wood is heavy1 /rong1 ( *ocolate br[n color & capable ( tak+ a f9e poli%4 ,x is us$ = cab9et mak+ & int]ior f9i% ( h\ses4 ,! old] ! tree1 usually1 ! bett] ! wood1 & ! consumption ( ! species 9 ! pa/ has be5 s heavy t x is becom+ r>e4 ,! ,european v>ieties :i* are frequ5tly plant$ 9 ,am]ica z sub/itutes = ! native species yield bett] nuts1 b ! ,am]ican species produces bett] wood4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--,twig ( ! ,black ,walnut4 ,note ! l>ge *amb]s 9 ! pi?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--,twig ( ! ,butt]nut4 ,note ! small *amb]s 9 ! pi?4 ,o!r *>act]s3 ,! fruit is a l>ge r\nd nut ab\t two in*es 9 diamet]1 cov]$ ) a smoo? husk :i* at fir/ is dull gre5 9 color & lat] turns br[n4 ,! husk does n sep>ate into sections4 ,! k]nel is edible & produces an oil ( comm]cial value4 ,! leaves are comp\nd & alt]nate ) #ae to #bc leaflets to ea*4 ,comp>isons3 ,! butt]nut 7,juglans c9]ea7 is ano!r tree t has ! pi? divid$ into little *amb]s1 b ! little *amb]s "h are %ort] ?an 9 ! black walnut1 z may be se5 f a comp>ison ( ,figs4 #ga & #gb4 ,! b>k ( ! butt]nut is light gray :ile t ( ! black walnut is d>k4 ,! buds 9 ! butt]nut are long] ?an ^? ( ! black walnut & are light br[n in/ead ( gray 9 color4 ,! =m ( ! tree is l[ & spread+ z comp>$ ) ! black walnut4 ,! fruit 9 ! butt]nut is elongat$ :ile t ( ! black walnut is r\nd4 ,! leaves ( ! butt]nut h few] leaflets & ^! are light] 9 color4 ,,gr\p ,x4 ,,tulip ,,tree1 ,,sweet ,,gum1 ,,l9d51 ,,magnolia1 ,,locu/1 ,,catalpa1 ,,dogwood1 ,,mulb]ry ,,& ,,osage ,,orange ,,tulip ,,tree 7,liriod5dron tulipif]a7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,!re are f\r *>act]s t /& out conspicu\sly 9 ! tulip tree--! 99bud991 ! 99trunk991 ! p]si/5t 99fruit cups99 & ! w$g$ 99leaf994 ,! bud1 ,fig4 #gd1 ab\t ?ree-qu>t]s ( an in* long1 is cov]$ by two purpli% scales :i* l5d special significance to its :ole appe>ance4 ,! trunk is extremely individual because x rises /\t & %aft-l1 away above ! gr\nd )\t a bran* z %[n 9 ,fig4 #gc4 ,! tree fl[]s 9 ! latt] "p ( ,may b ! cup t holds ! fruit p]si/s ?r\gh\t ! w9t]4 ,! leaf1 ,fig4 #ge1 has f\r lobes1 is ne>ly z broad z x is long & s not*$ at ! upp] end t x looks diff]5t f any o!r leaf4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--,! ,tulip ,tree4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--;,bud ( ! ,tulip ,tree4 ,=m & size3 ,! tulip tree is "o ( ! l>ge/1 /atelie/ & talle/ ( our trees4 ,range3 ,ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,soil & location3 ,requires a deep1 moi/ soil4 ,enemies3 ,comp>atively free f insects & disease4 ,value = plant+3 ,! tree has great value z a specim5 on ! lawn b is undesirable z a /reet tree because x requires consid]able moi/ure & transplants ) difficulty4 ,x %\ld be plant$ :ile "y & :]e x c obta9 pl5ty ( light4 ,x gr[s rapidly4 ,comm]cial value3 ,! wood is comm]cially kn[n z :itewood & yell[ popl>4 ,x is light1 s(t1 n /rong & easily work$4 ,x is us$ 9 con/ruction1 = int]ior f9i% ( h\ses1 wood5w>e & %+les4 ,x has a m$ic9al value4 ,o!r *>act]s3 ,! fl[]1 %[n 9 ,fig4 #ge1 is gre5i% yell[ 9 color1 appe>s 9 ,may & resembles a tulip2 h5ce ! "n tulip tree4 ,! fruit is a cone4 ,o!r common names3 ,:itewood2 yell[ popl>2 popl> & tulip popl>4 ,,sweet ,,gum 7,liquidamb> /yraciflua7 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--,leaf & ,fl[] ( ! ,tulip ,tree4 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! p]si/5t1 sp9y1 long-/emm$ r\nd 99fruit992 ! corky gr[?s on ! 99twigs991 ! *>act]i/ic />-%ap$ 99leaves99 7,fig4 #gf7 & ! v %9y gre5i% br[n buds & ! p]fect symmetry ( ! tree are ! *ief *>act]s by :i* to id5tify ! species4 ,=m & size3 ,! sweet gum has a beautiful symmetrical %ape1 =m+ a true monopodium4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,leaf & ,fruit ( ! ,sweet ,gum4 ,note ! corky ridges along ! twig4 ,range3 ,f ,connecticut to ,florida & we/ to ,miss\ri4 ,soil & location3 ,gr[s 9 any good soil b pref]s l[ wet gr\nd4 ,x gr[s rapidly & ne$s pl5ty ( light4 ,enemies3 ,is v (t5 a favorite ( leaf-eat+ cat]pill>s4 ,value = plant+3 ,! tree is s\ght = ! brilliant color ( its foliage 9 ! fall1 & is suitable = plant+ bo? on ! lawn & /reet4 ,9 gr[+ ! tree = ornam5tal purposes x is important t x %\ld be frequ5tly transplant$ 9 ! nurs]y & t x be transport$ ) burlap wrapp+ ar\nd its roots4 ,comm]cial value3 ,! wood is r$di% br[n 9 color1 t5ds to spl9t] & is incl9$ to w>p 9 dry+4 ,x is us$ 9 coop]age1 v5e] "w & = int]ior f9i%4 ,o!r *>act]s3 ,on ! small] bran*es !re are irregul> developm5ts ( cork z %[n 9 ,fig4 #gf1 project+ 9 "s cases to half an in* 9 ?ickness4 ,o!r common names3 ,r$ gum4 ,comp>isons3 ,! cork elm is ano!r tree t possesses corky ridges along its twigs1 b ?is diff]s f ! sweet gum 9 want+ ! sp9y fruit & its o!r di/9ctive traits4 ,,am]ican ,,l9d5 7,tilia ,am]icana7 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--;,bud ( ! ,l9d5 ,tree4 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! great di/+ui%+ feature ( any l9d5 is ! 99"o-sid$99 "* ( its 99bud99 & 99leaf994 ,! bud1 d>k r$ & conical1 c>ries a sort ( protub]ance :i* makes x extremely "o sid$ z %[n 9 ,fig4 #gg4 ,! leaf1 ,fig4 #gh1 is he>t-%ap$ ) ! side ne>e/ ! bran* l>ge/4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--,leaves & ,fl[]s ( ! ,european ,l9d54 ,=m & size3 ,! ,am]ican ,l9d5 is a m$ium-siz$ tree ) a broad r\nd head4 ,range3 ,ea/]n ,nor? ,am]ica & m common 9 ! nor? ?an 9 ! s\?4 ,soil & location3 ,requires a ri*1 moi/ soil4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--;,european ,l9d5 ,tree4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--;,bud ( ! ,umbrella ,tree4 ,enemies3 ,its leaves are a favorite food ( cat]pill>s & its wood is frequ5tly attack$ by a bor+ insect kn[n z ! l9d5 bor] 7,sap]da ve/ita74 ,value = plant+3 ,! l9d5 is easily transplant$ & gr[s rapidly4 ,x is us$ = lawn & /reet plant+ b is less desirable = ^! purposes ?an ! ,european species4 ,comm]cial value3 ,! wood is light & s(t & us$ = pap] pulp1 wood5w>e1 coop]age & furniture4 ,! tree is a favorite ) bee keep]s on acc\nt ( ! l>ge quantities ( nect> conta9$ 9 its fl[]s4 ,o!r *>act]s3 ,! fruit is l a pea1 gray & woody4 ,! fl[]s appe> 9 e>ly ,july1 are gre5i%-yell[ & v fragrant4 ,o!r common names3 ,bass-wood2 lime-tree2 :itewood4 ,comp>isons3 ,! ,european l9d5s1 ,fig4 #gi1 ( :i* !re are sev]al species "u cultivation1 diff] f ! native species 9 hav+ buds & leaves small] 9 size1 m num]\s & d>k] 9 color4 ,,! ,,magnolias ,! v>i\s species ( magnolia trees are readily di/+ui%$ by _! buds4 ,!y all pref] moi/1 ri* soil & h _! pr9cipal value z decorative trees on ! lawn4 ,!y are di/9ctly s\!rn trees2 "s species "u cultivation 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates come f ,asia1 b ! two mo/ commonly gr[n 9 ! ,ea/]n ,/ates are ! cucumb] tree & ! umbrella tree4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--;,b>k ( ! ,black ,locu/4 ,,cucumb] ,,tree 7,magnolia acum9ata7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! 99buds99 are small & sl5d] comp>$ ) ^? ( ! o!r magnolia trees & are cov]$ ) small silv]y silky hairs4 ,! 99habit99 ( ! tree is to =m a /raight axis ( great height ) a symmetrical mass ( bran*es1 produc+ a p]fect monopodial cr[n4 ,! tree is sometimes kn[n z m\nta9 magnolia4 ,,umbrella ,,tree 7,magnolia tripetala7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! buds1 ,fig4 #hj1 are extremely long1 (t5 "o & a half in*es1 h a purple color & are smoo?4 ,! tree does n gr[ to l>ge size & produces an op5 spread+ head4 ,its leaves1 twelve to eighte5 in*es long1 are l>g] ?an ^? ( ! o!r magnolia trees4 ,! tree is sometimes call$ elkwood4 ,,black ,,locu/ 7,rob9ia pseudacacia7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! 99b>k99 ( ! trunk is r\gh & deeply ridg$1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ha4 ,! 99buds99 are h>dly noticeable2 ! twigs sometimes be> small sp9es on "o side4 ,! leaves are l>ge1 comp\nd1 & f]n-l4 ,! individual leaflets are small & delicate4 ,=m & size3 ,! locu/ is a m$ium-siz$ tree develop+ a sl5d] /raight trunk :5 gr[n alongside ( o!rs2 see ,fig4 #hb4 ,range3 ,canada & ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,soil & location3 ,! locu/ w gr[ on almo/ any soil except a wet1 heavy "o4 ,x requires pl5ty ( light4 ,enemies3 ,! locu/ bor] has done s]i\s damage to ?is tree4 ,! grubs ( ?is insect burr[ 9 ! sapwood & kill ! tree or make x unfit = comm]cial use4 ,! locu/ m9] is a beetle :i* is n[ annually defoliat+ trees ( ?is species 9 l>ge numb]s4 ,value = plant+3 ,x has little value = ornam5tal plant+4 ,comm]cial value3 ,?\gh %ort-liv$1 ! locu/ gr[s v rapidly4 ,x is extremely durable 9 contact ) ! soil & possesses great /r5g?4 ,x is !re=e ext5sively gr[n = f5ce-po/s & railroad ties4 ,locu/ po/s w la/ f fifte5 to tw5ty ye>s4 ,! wood is valuable = fuel4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--;,black ,locu/ ,trees4 ,o!r *>act]s3 ,! fl[]s are %[y pea-%ap$ panicles appe>+ 9 ,may & ,june4 ,! fruit is a small pod4 ,o!r common names3 ,yell[ locu/2 common locu/2 locu/4 ,comp>isons3 ,! honey locu/ 7,gl$itsia triacan?os7 c be told f ! black locu/ by ! diff]5ces 9 _! b>k4 ,9 ! honey locu/ ! b>k is n ridg$1 has a sort ( d>k iron-gray color & is (t5 cov]$ ) clu/]s ( /\t1 %>p-po9t$ ?orns z 9 ,fig4 #hc4 ,! fruit is a l>ge pod (t5 rema9+ on ! tree ?r\gh ! w9t]4 ,?is tree has an ornam5tal1 b no comm]cial value4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--;,b>k ( ! ,honey ,locu/4 ,,h>dy ,,catalpa 7,catalpa speciosa7 ,di/+ui%+ *>act]s3 ,! tree may be told by its 99fruit991 :i* hang 9 long sl5d] pods all w9t]4 ,! leaf-sc>s appe> on ! /em 9 :orls ( ?ree & r>ely opposite ea* o!r4 ,=m & size3 ,! catalpa has a %ort1 ?ick & twi/$ trunk ) an irregul> head4 ,range3 ,c5tral & ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--;,h>dy ,catalpa ,trees4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #he4--;,b>k ( ! ,fl[]+ ,dogwood4 ,soil & location3 ,x gr[s naturally on l[ bottom-l&s b w also d well 9 poor1 dry soils4 ,enemies3 ,practically free f disease & insects4 ,value = plant+3 ,! catalpa gr[s v rapidly & is cultivat$ 9 p>ks = ornam5t & 9 groves = comm]cial purposes4 ,! h>dy catalpa is pref]able to ! common catalpa = plant+4 ,comm]cial value3 ,! wood is extremely durable 9 contact ) ! soil & is consequ5tly us$ = po/s & railroad ties4 ,o!r *>act]s3 ,! fl[]s1 :i* appe> 9 late ,june & e>ly ,july1 are l>ge1 :ite & v %[y4 ,o!r common names3 ,indian bean2 we/]n catalpa4 ,comp>isons3 ,! :ite fl[]+ dogwood 7,cornus florida7 is a small tree :i* also has its leaves 9 :orls ( ?ree or sometimes opposite4 ,x c be readily told f o!r trees1 h[ev]1 by ! small squ>e plates into :i* ! out] b>k on ! trunk divides itself1 see ,fig4 #he1 & by ! *>act]i/ic droop+ "* ( its bran*es4 ,x is "o ( ! mo/ common plants 9 our ea/]n decidu\s =e/s4 ,x is extremely beautiful bo? 9 ! spr+ & 9 ! fall & is frequ5tly plant$ = ornam5t4 ,!re are _m v>ieties ( dogwood 9 common use4 ,,:ite ,,mulb]ry 7,morus alba7 ,a small tree recogniz$ by its small r\nd r$di% br[n buds & light br[n1 f9ely furr[$ 7wavy look+7 b>k4 ,! tree1 probably a native ( ,*9a1 is gr[n "u cultivation 9 ea/]n ,canada & ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,x gr[s rapidly 9 moi/ soil & is n fa/idi\s 9 its light requirem5ts4 ,its *ief value is = scre5+ & = und]plant+ 9 woodl&s4 ,! r$ mulb]ry 7,morus rubra7 is apt to be confus$ ) ! :ite mulb]ry1 b diff]s 9 ! foll[+ *>act]s3 ,! leaves ( ! r$ mulb]ry are r\gh on ! upp] side & d[ny on ! "u side1 :]eas ! leaves ( ! :ite mulb]ry are smoo? & %9y4 ,! buds 9 ! r$ are l>g] & m %9y ?an ^? ( ! :ite4 ,! ,osage orange 7,toxylon pomif]um7 is simil> to ! mulb]ry 9 ! light1 gold5 color ( its b>k1 b diff]s f x 9 possess+ conspicu\s sp9es along ! twigs & bran*es & a m ridg$ b>k4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,/ructure ,,& ,,requirem5ts ,,( ,,trees ,to be able fully to appreciate trees1 _! mode ( life1 _! enemies & _! c>e1 "o mu/ "k some?+ ( _! /ructure & life requirem5ts4 ,/ructure ( trees3 ,among ! l[] =ms ( plants !re is v little di/9ction betwe5 ! v>i\s p>ts--no diff]5tiation into root1 /em1 or cr[n4 ,(t5 ! l[] =ms ( animal & vegetable life are s simil> t "o _c discrim9ate betwe5 !m4 ,b z we asc5d 9 ! scale1 ! v>i\s plant =ms become m & m complex until we rea* ! tree1 :i* is ! l>ge/ & highe/ =m ( all plants4 ,! tree is a liv+ organism compos$ ( cells l any o!r liv+ organism4 ,x has _m p>ts1 e "o ( :i* has a def9ite purpose4 ,! ?ree pr9cipal p>ts are3 ! /em1 ! cr[n1 & ! root4 ,! /em3 ,if we exam9e ! cross-section ( a tree1 ,fig4 #hf1 we w notice t x is made up ( num]\s r+s arrang$ 9 sections ( diff]5t color & /ructure4 ,! c5tral "p is kn[n z ! pi?4 ,ar\nd ! pi? comes a d>k1 close-gra9$ s]ies ( r+s kn[n z ! he>twood1 & outside ! he>twood comes a light] lay]1 ! sapwood4 ,! cambium lay] surr\nds ! sapwood & ! b>k cov]s all4 ,! cambium lay] is ! mo/ important tissue ( ! tree &1 toge!r ) "p ( ! sapwood1 transports ! wat] & food ( ! tree4 ,x is = ?is reason t a tree may be holl[1 )\t he>t & sapwood1 & /ill produce foliage & fruit4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--,! ,cross-,section ( a ,tree4 ,! cr[n3 ,! cr[n v>ies 9 =m 9 diff]5t species & is develop$ by ! gr[? ( new %oots f buds4 ,! bud gr[s out to a c]ta9 l5g? & =ms ! bran*4 ,aft]w>ds x ?ick5s only & does n increase 9 l5g?4 ,new bran*es w !n =m f o!r buds on ! same bran*4 ,?is expla9s 9 "p ! *>act]i/ic bran*+ ( trees1 ,fig4 #hg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--;,*>act]i/ic ,=m & ,bran*+ ( ,trees4 ,! trees 9 ! photograph are p9 oaks4 ,! leaves are ! /oma* & lungs ( ! tree4 ,_! broad blades are a device to cat* ! sunlight :i* is ne$$ 9 ! process ( dige/+ ! food ( ! tree4 ,! leaves are arrang$ on ! twigs 9 su* a way z to cat* ! mo/ sunlight4 ,! leaves take up ! c>bonic acid gas f ! air1 decompose x "u ! influ5ce ( light & comb9e x ) ! m9]als & wat] br\ght up by ! roots f ! soil4 ,! result+ *emical comb9ations are ! sug>s & />*es us$ by ! cambium lay] 9 build+ up ! body ( ! tree4 ,a gre5 pigm5t1 *lorophyll1 9 ! leaf is ! m$ium by :i*1 ) ! aid ( sunlight1 ! sug>s are manufactur$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--,roots ( a ,hemlock ,tree 9 _! ,se>* = ,wat]4 ,! *lorophyll gives ! leaf its gre5 color1 & ?is expla9s :y a tree pales :5 x is 9 a dy+ condition or :5 its life processes are int]f]$ )4 ,! o!r colors ( ! leaf--! r$s1 br[ns & yell[s ( ! fall or spr+--are due to o!r pigm5ts4 ,^! are angul> cry/als ( diff]5t hues1 :i* at c]ta9 times ( ! ye> become m conspicu\s ?an at o!rs1 a ph5om5on :i* expla9s ! v>iation 9 ! colors ( ! leaves dur+ ! diff]5t seasons4 ,x is evid5t t a tree is greatly dep5d5t ^u its leaves = ! manufacture ( food & "o c1 !re=e1 readily see :y x is important to prev5t de/ruction ( ! leaves by insects or ?r\gh ov]-trimm+4 ,! root3 ,! root develops 9 mu* ! same mann] z ! cr[n4 ,its dep? & spread w v>y ) ! species b w also dep5d some:at ^u ! condition ( ! soil ar\nd x4 ,a deep or a dry soil w t5d to develop a deep root1 :ile a %all[ or moi/ soil w produce a %all[ root1 ,fig4 #hh4 ,! num]\s f9e hairs :i* cov] ! roots s]ve ! purpose ( tak+ up food & wat] f ! soil1 :ile ! heavy roots help to support ! tree4 ,! root-hairs are extremely t5d]1 are easily dri$ out :5 expos$ to ! sun & w9d1 & are apt to become ov]heat$ :5 p]mitt$ to rema9 tightly pack$ = any l5g? ( "t4 ,^! consid]ations are ( practical importance 9 ! plant+ ( trees & 9 ! application ( f]tiliz]s4 ,x is ^! f9e rootlets f> away f ! trunk ( ! tree t h to be f$1 & all f]tiliz]s mu/1 !re=e1 be appli$ at po9ts "s di/ance f ! trunk & n close to x1 :]e m]ely ! l>ge1 support+ roots are locat$4 ,9 ! cultivation ( trees ! same pr9ciple holds true4 ,requirem5ts ( trees3 ,trees are dep5d5t ^u c]ta9 soil & atmosph]ic conditions :i* influ5ce _! gr[? & developm5t4 7#a7 ,influ5ce ( moi/ure3 ,! =m ( ! tree & its gr[? & /ructure dep5d greatly ^u ! supply ( moi/ure4 ,botani/s h tak5 ! moi/ure factor z ! basis ( classification & h subdivid$ trees into ^? t gr[ 9 moi/ places 7hydrophytes71 ^? t gr[ 9 m$ium soils 7mesophytes71 & ^? t gr[ 9 dry places 7x]ophytes74 ,wat] is tak5 up by ! roots ( ! tree f ! soil4 ,! liquid absorb$ by ! roots c>ries 9 solution ! m9]al salts--! food ( ! tree--& no food c be tak5 up unless x is 9 solution4 ,mu* ( ! wat] is us$ by ! tree & an enorm\s am\nt is giv5 (f 9 ! process ( evaporation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--;,dead ,bran*es at ! ,top ,caus$ by ,insuffici5t ,wat]4 ,^! facts w expla9 "s ( ! fundam5tal pr9ciples 9 ! c>e ( trees4 ,to a tree gr[+ on a city /reet or on a lawn :]e nature fails to supply ! requisite am\nt ( wat]1 ! latt] mu/ be suppli$ artificially1 especially dur+ ! hot summ] mon?s1 or else dead bran*es may result z se5 9 ,fig4 #hi4 ,too mu* ?9n+ out ( ! cr[n causes excessive evaporation1 & too mu* cutt+ out 9 woodl&s causes ! soil to dry & ! trees to suff] = ! want ( moi/ure4 ,?is also expla9s :y x is ess5tial1 9 wood$ areas1 to reta9 on ! gr\nd ! fall5 leaves4 ,9 decompos+ & mix+ ) ! soil1 ! fall5 leaves n only supply ! trees ) food mat]ial1 b also t5d to cons]ve moi/ure 9 ! gr\nd & to prev5t ! dry+ out ( ! soil4 ,rak+ (f ! leaves f wood$ areas1 a practice common 9 p>ks & on private e/ates--hurts ! trees s]i\sly4 ,"s soils may h pl5ty ( moi/ure1 b may also be s heavily saturat$ ) acids or salts t ! tree _c utilize ! moi/ure1 & x suff]s f dr\ght j ! same z if !re _h be5 no moi/ure at all 9 ! soil4 ,su* soils are said to be physiologically dry & ne$ treatm5t4 ,9 ! developm5t ( disease1 moi/ure is a contribut+ factor &1 !re=e1 9 cavities or und]nea? b&ages :]e !re is likely to be an accumulation ( moi/ure1 decay w d m damage ?an 9 places t are dry & expos$ to ! sun4 7#b7 ,influ5ce ( soil3 ,soil is made up ( f9e p>ticles ( s& & rock & ( vegetable matt] call$ humus4 ,a tree w require a c]ta9 soil1 & unsuitable soils c be v (t5 modifi$ to suit ! ne$s ( ! tree4 ,a deep1 mod]ately loose1 s&y loam1 h[ev]1 :i* is suffici5tly a]at$ & well suppli$ ) wat]1 w support almo/ any tree4 ,too mu* ( any "o con/itu5t w make a soil unfit = ! production ( trees4 ,if too mu* clay is pres5t ! soil becomes /iff4 ,if too mu* vegetable matt] is pres5t1 ! soil becomes s\r4 ,! physical "* ( ! soil is also important4 ,by physical "* is meant ! porosity :i* results f break+ up ! soil4 ,?is is accompli%$ by pl\gh+ or cultivation4 ,9 nature1 worms help to d ?is = ! soil1 b on /reets an occasional digg+ up ( ! soil ab\t ! base ( ! tree is ess5tial4 ,humus or ! organic matt] 9 ! soil is compos$ ( litt]1 leaves & animal +r$i5ts t h decay$ "u ! influ5ce ( bact]ia4 ,! m vegetable matt] 9 ! humus1 ! d>k] ! soil2 & !re=e a good soil su* z "o f9ds on ! upp] surface ( a well-till$ f>m has q a d>k color4 ,:51 h[ev]1 a soil conta9s an unusual quantity ( humus1 x is kn[n z muck1 & :5 !re is /ill m humus pres5t we f9d peat4 ,nei!r ( ^! two soils is suitable = prop] tree gr[?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--;,a ,tree 9 ! ,op54 ,note ! full developm5t ( ! wide cr[n ) bran*es />t+ ne> ! gr\nd4 ,! tree is ! ,european l>*4 7#c7 ,influ5ce ( light3 ,light is requir$ by ! leaves 9 ! process ( assimilation4 ,cutt+ (f "s ( ! light f a tree affects its =m4 ,?is is :y trees gr[n 9 ! op5 h wide-spread+ cr[ns ) bran*es />t+ ne> ! gr\nd z 9 ,fig4 #ij1 :ile ! same species gr[+ 9 ! =e/ produces tall1 lanky trees1 free f bran*es to b a few feet f ! top z 9 ,fig4 #ia4 ,"s trees c endure m %ade ?an o!rs1 b all w gr[ 9 full light4 ,?is expla9s :y trees l ! bee*1 hemlock1 sug> maple1 spruce1 holly & dogwood c gr[ 9 ! %ade1 :ile ! popl>1 bir* & will[ require light4 ,x also expla9s :y1 9 ! =e/1 ! l[] bran*es die & fall (f--a process kn[n 9 ,=e/ry z natural prun+1 ,! influ5ce ( light on ! =m ( trees %\ld be well und]/ood by all ^? :o plant trees & by ^? design+ l&scape effects4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--;,a ,tree 9 ,! ,=e/4 ,note ! tall /em free f bran*es & ! small1 n>r[ cr[n4 7#d7 ,influ5ce ( heat3 ,trees require a c]ta9 am\nt ( heat4 ,!y receive x p>tly f ! sun & p>tly f ! soil4 ,evaporation prev5ts ! ov]heat+ ( ! cr[n4 ,! ma9 /em ( ! tree is heat$ by wat] f ! soil2 !re=e trees 9 ! op5 beg9 gr[? 9 ! spr+ e>li] ?an trees 9 ! =e/ because ! soil 9 ! op5 is w>m]4 ,%rubs beg9 _! gr[? e>li] ?an trees because ( ! ne>ness ( _! cr[ns to _! root sy/ems4 ,?is also expla9s :y a w>m ra9 w />t vegetation quickly4 ,too mu* heat w naturally cause excessive dry+ ( ! roots or excessive evaporation f ! leaves & !re=e m wat] is ne$$ by ! tree 9 summ] ?an 9 w9t]4 7#e7 ,influ5ce ( season & fro/3 ,! life processes ( a tree are *eck$ :5 ! temp]ature s9ks bel[ a c]ta9 po9t4 ,! tree is ?us1 dur+ ! w9t]1 9 a p]iod ( re/ & only a few *emical *anges take place :i* lead up to ! />t+ ( vegetation4 ,9 ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates1 gr[? />ts 9 ,april & ceases dur+ ! latt] "p ( ,augu/ or 9 e>ly ,septemb]4 ,! diff]5t p>ts ( a tree may freeze solid dur+ ! w9t] )\t injury1 provid$ ! tree is a native "o4 ,exotic trees may suff] greatly f extreme cold4 ,?is is "o ( ! ma9 reasons :y x is always advisable to plant native trees r ?an ^? t are import$ & h n yet be5 acclimatiz$4 ,fro/s dur+ mid-w9t] are n q z injuri\s z e>ly & late fro/s &1 !re=e1 if "o is go+ to protect plants f ! w9t]'s cold1 x is well to apply ! cov]+ e>ly en\gh & to keep x on late en\gh to ov]come ?is difficulty4 ,! me*anical injuries f fro/ are also important4 ,sn[ & sleet w weigh d[n bran*es b r>ely break !m1 :ile fro/ w cause !m to become brittle & to break easily4 ,^? :o climb & prune trees %\ld be especially cauti\s on fro/y days4 7#f7 ,influ5ce ( air3 ,on ! "u side ( leaves & on o!r surfaces ( a tree little pores kn[n z /omata may be f\nd4 ,9 ! b>k ( bir* & *]ry trees ^! op5+s are v conspicu\s & are !re kn[n z l5ticels4 ,^! pores are necess>y = ! brea?+ ( ! tree 7respiration71 :]eby c>bonic acid gas is tak5 9 f ! air & oxyg5 giv5 out4 ,! process ( assimilation dep5ds ^u ?is brea?+ process & x is !re=e evid5t t :5 ! /omata are clogg$ z may occur :]e a tree is subject$ to smoke or du/1 ! life processes ( ! tree w be int]f]$ )4 ,! same injuri\s effect results :5 ! /omata ( ! roots are int]f]$ )4 ,su* int]f]5ce may occur 9 cases :]e a heavy lay] ( soil is pil$ ar\nd ! base ( a tree1 :]e ! soil ab\t ! base ( a tree is all[$ to become compact1 :]e a tree is plant$ too deep1 or :]e ! roots are subm]g$ "u wat] = any l5g? ( "t4 ,9 any case ! air _c get to ! roots & ! tree suff]s4 ,nature takes special cognizance ( ?is important requirem5t 9 ! case ( cypress trees1 :i* habitually gr[ "u wat]4 ,"h ! trees are provid$ ) special woody protub]ances kn[n z cypress knees1 :i* em]ge above wat] & take ! necess>y air4 ,see ,fig4 #ah4 ,conclusions3 ,f ! =ego+ x w be se5 t trees h c]ta9 ne$s t nature or man mu/ supply4 ,^! requirem5ts diff] ) ! diff]5t species1 & 9 all "w ( plant+ & c>e z well z 9 ! natural di/ribution ( trees x is bo? int]e/+ & necess>y to obs]ve ^! individual wants1 to select species 9 accordance ) local conditions & to c>e = trees 9 con=mity ) _! natural ne$s4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,:at ,,trees ,,to ,,plant ,,& ,,h[ ,! foll[+ classification w %[ ! value ( ! m important trees = diff]5t k9ds ( plant+4 ,! species are arrang$ 9 ! ord] ( _! m]it = ! p>ticul> object "u consid]ation & ! comm5ts accompany+ ea* tree are int5d$ to br+ out its special qualifications = t purpose4 ,conditions = tree gr[? 9 "o "p ( ! c\ntry diff] f ^? ( ano!r & ^! li/s1 especially applicable to ! ,ea/]n ,/ates1 may n at all fit "s o!r locality4 ,,trees ,,be/ ,,= ,,! ,,lawn ,,decidu\s #a4 ,am]ican elm 7,ulmus am]icana7 ,"o ( ! noble/ ( trees4 ,possesses a maje/ic1 wide-spread+1 umbrella-%ap$ cr[n2 is easily transplant$1 & is suit$ to a v>iety ( soils4 #b4 ,p9 oak 7,qu]cus palu/ris7 ,has a symmetrical cr[n ) l[-droop+ bran*es2 requires a moi/ situation4 #c4 ,european l9d5 7,tilia microphylla7 ,possesses a beautiful %ade-be>+ cr[n2 gr[s well 9 ord9>y soil4 #d4 ,r$ maple 7,ac] rubrum7 ,%[s pleas+ colors at all seasons2 gr[s be/ 9 a fairly ri*1 moi/ soil4 #e4 ,copp] bee* 7,fagus sylvatica1 alropurpurea7 ,exce$+ly beautiful 9 =m1 b>k1 & foliage & possesses great longevity & /urd9ess4 ,x is difficult to transplant & !re=e only small trees f #f to #aj feet 9 height %\ld be us$4 #f4 ,c(fee tree 7,gymnocladus dioicus7 ,a unique & int]e/+ effect is produc$ by its co>se bran*es & leaves4 ,x is free f insects & disease2 requires pl5ty ( light2 w gr[ 9 poor soils4 #g4 ,european :ite bir* 7,belula alba7 ,a graceful tree & v effective z a s+le specim5 on ! lawn1 or 9 a gr\p among ev]gre5s2 %\ld be plant$ 9 e>ly spr+1 & special c>e tak5 to protect its t5d] rootlets4 #h4 ,g+ko or ,maid5-hair tree 7,g+ko biloba7 ,:]e !re is pl5ty ( room = ! spread ( its odd bran*es1 ! g+ko makes a picturesque specim5 tree4 ,x is h>dy & free f insect pe/s & disease4 #i4 ,horse*e/nut 7,aesculus hippoca/anum7 ,c>ries beautiful1 %[y fl[]s1 & has a compact1 symmetrical l[-bran*$ cr[n2 is frequ5tly subject to insects & disease4 ,! r$ fl[]+ horse*e/nut 7,a4 rubicunda7 is equally attractive4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--;,a ,lawn ,tree4 ,european ,weep+ ,bee*4 #aj4 ,sug> maple 7,ac] sac*>um7 ,has a symmetrical cr[n & colors beautifully 9 ! fall2 requires a ri* soil & consid]able moi/ure4 #aa4 ,s\lange's magnolia 7,magnolia s\langeana7 ,extremely h>d & fl[]s 9 e>ly spr+ be=e ! leaves appe>4 #ab4 ,fl[]+ dogwood 7,cornus florida7 ,popul> = its beautiful :ite fl[]s 9 ! e>ly spr+ & ! ri* color+ ( its leaves 9 ! fall2 does n gr[ to l>ge size4 ,! r$-fl[]+ v>iety ( ?is tree1 ?\gh sometimes n q z h>dy1 is extremely beautiful4 #ac4 ,japanese maple 7,ac] polymorphum7 ,x has sev]al v>ieties ( diff]5t hues & x colors beautifully 9 ! fall2 x does n gr[ to l>ge size4 ,,conif]\s #ad4 ,ori5tal spruce 7,picea ori5talis7 ,=ms a dignifi$1 l>ge tree ) a compact cr[n & l[ bran*es2 is h>dy4 #ae4 ,au/rian p9e 7,p9us au/riaca7 ,is v h>dy2 possesses a compact cr[n2 w gr[ 9 soils ( m$ium quality4 #af4 ,bhotan p9e 7,p9us excelsa7 ,gr[s luxuriantly2 is dignifi$ & beautiful2 requires a good soil1 & 9 y\? ne$s "s protection f extreme cold4 #ag4 ,:ite p9e 7,p9us /robus7 ,bran*es gracefully & =ms a l>ge1 dignifi$ tree2 w ?rive on a v>iety ( soils4 #ah4 ,european l>* 7,l>ix europaea7 ,has a beautiful appe>ance2 ?rives be/ 9 moi/ situations4 #ai4 ,blue spruce 7,picea pung5s7 ,extremely h>dy2 =ms a p]fect specim5 plant = ! lawn4 #bj4 ,japanese umbrella p9e 7,sciadopitys v]licillata7 ,v h>dy2 reta9s a compact cr[n4 ,an excell5t specim5 plant :5 gr\p$ ) o!r ev]gre5s on ! lawn4 ,does n gr[ to l>ge size4 #ba4 ,mugho p9e 7,p9us mughus7 ,a l[-gr[+ ev]gre52 h>dy2 important 9 gr\p plant+4 #bb4 ,obtuse leaf ,japanese cypress 7,ret9ospora obtusa7 ,beautiful ev]gre5 ( small size2 h>dy2 desirable = gr\p plant+4 #bc4 ,engli% yew 7,taxus baccata7 ,an excell5t ev]gre5 usually ( l[ =m2 suitable = ! lawn1 mass$ ) o!rs or z a specim5 plant2 w gr[ 9 ! %ade ( o!r trees4 ,!re are v>i\s =ms ( ?is species ( di/9ctive value4 ,,trees ,,be/ ,,= ,,! ,,/reet #a4 ,ori5tal sycamore 7,platanus ori5talis7 ,v h>dy2 w adapt itself to city conditions2 gr[s fairly fa/ & is highly resi/ant to insects & disease4 #b4 ,norway maple 7,ac] platanoides7 ,v h>dy2 possesses a /raight trunk & symmetrical cr[n2 is comp>atively free f insects & disease & w )/& ! av]age city conditions4 #c4 ,r$ oak 7,qu]cus rubra7 ,fa/e/ gr[+ ( ! oaks2 v durable & highly resi/ant to insects & disease2 w gr[ 9 ! av]age soil ( ! city /reet4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--,/reet ,trees4 ,norway ,maples4 #d4 ,g+ko 7,g+ko biloba7 ,h>dy & absolutely free f insects & disease2 suit$ = n>r[ /reets1 & w p]mit ( close plant+4 #e4 ,european l9d5 7,tilia microphylla7 ,beautiful %ade-be>+ cr[n2 is v responsive to good soil & pl5ty ( moi/ure4 #f4 ,am]ican elm 7,ulmus am]icana7 ,:5 plant$ 9 r[s along an av5ue1 x =ms a tall maje/ic ar*way ( great beauty4 ,x is be/ suit$ = wide /reets & %\ld be plant$ fur!r ap>t ?an ! o!r trees li/$ above4 ,requires a fairly good soil & pl5ty ( moi/ure1 & is !re=e n suit$ = plant+ 9 ! he>t ( a l>ge city4 #g4 ,p9 oak 7,qu]cus palu/ris7 ,?is tree exhibits its greate/ beauty :5 its bran*es are all[$ to droop fairly l[4 ,x1 moreov]1 ne$s pl5ty ( moi/ure to ?rive & ! tree is !re=e be/ suit$ = /reets 9 suburban sections1 :]e ^! conditions c be m readily met4 #h4 ,r$ maple 7,ac] rubrum7 ,beautiful 9 all seasons ( ! ye>2 requires a ri* soil & consid]able moi/ure4 ,,trees ,,be/ ,,= ,,woodl& ,,= ,,op5 ,,places #a4 ,r$ oak 7,qu]cus rubra7 ,gr[s rapidly to l>ge size & produces valuable wood2 w gr[ 9 poor soil4 #b4 ,:ite p9e 7,p9us /robus7 ,rapid gr[]2 endures b little %ade2 wood valuable2 w d well on l>ge range ( soils4 #c4 ,r$ p9e 7,p9us res9osa7 ,v h>dy2 fairly rapid gr[+ tree4 #d4 ,tulip tree 7,liriod5dron tulipif]a7 ,gr[s rapidly into a /ately =e/ tree ) a cle> tall trunk2 wood valuable2 requires a fairly moi/ soil4 ,use a small tree1 plant 9 ! spr+1 & pay special att5tion to ! protection ( ! roots 9 plant+4 #e4 ,black locu/ 7,rob9ia pseudacacia7 ,gr[s rapidly2 adapts itself to poor1 s&y soils4 ,! wood is suitable = po/s & ties4 #f4 ,:ite a% 7,frax9us am]icana7 ,gr[s rapidly2 pref]s moi/ situations4 ,wood valuable4 #g4 ,am]ican elm 7,ulmus am]icana7 ,gr[s rapidly to great height2 w n endure too mu* %ade2 does be/ 9 a deep f]tile soil4 ,wood valuable4 #h4 ,european l>* 7,l>ix europaea7 ,gr[s rapidly2 pref]s moi/ situations4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #id4--,woodl& ,trees4 ,r$ ,oaks4 ,,= ,,plant+ ,,"u ,,! ,,%ade ,,( ,,o!r ,,trees #i4 ,bee* 7,fagus7 ,w /& heavy %ade2 holds ! soil well along banks & /eep slopes4 ,bo? ! ,am]ican & ! ,engli% species are desirable4 #aj4 ,hemlock 7,tsuga canad5sis7 ,w /& heavy %ade & look effective 9 w9t] z well z 9 summ]4 #aa4 ,dogwood 7,cornus florida7 ,w gr[ "u o!r trees2 fl[]s beautifully 9 ! spr+ & colors ri*ly 9 ! fall4 #ab4 ,blue bee* 7,c>p9us c>ol9iana7 ,native to ! woodl&s ( ! ,ea/]n ,/ates2 looks well 9 spr+ & fall4 ,,trees ,,be/ ,,= ,,scre5+ #a4 ,hemlock 7,tsuga canad5sis7 ,w /& %e>+ & w scre5 9 w9t] z well z 9 summ]4 ,plant f #b to #d feet ap>t to =m a h$ge4 #b4 ,osage orange 7,toxylon pomif]um7 ,v h>dy4 ,plant close4 #c4 ,engli% haw?orn 7,crataegus oxyacan?a7 ,fl[]s beautifully & gr[s 9 compact masses4 ,plant close4 #d4 ,lomb>dy popl> 7,populus nigra v>4 italica7 ,=ms a tall scre5 & gr[s "u ! mo/ unfavorable conditions4 ,plant #h to #ab feet ap>t4 ,quality ( trees3 ,trees gr[n 9 a nurs]y are pref]able = transplant+ to trees gr[n 9 ! =e/4 ,nurs]y-gr[n trees possess a well-develop$ root sy/em ) num]\s fibr\s rootlets1 a /raight /em1 a symmetrical cr[n1 & a well-def9$ lead]4 ,trees gr[n 9 neighbor+ nurs]ies are pref]able to ^? gr[n at great di/ances1 because !y w be bett] adapt$ to local climatic & soil conditions4 ,! %ort di/ances ov] :i* !y mu/ be transport$ also w entail less dang] to ! roots ?r\gh dry+4 ,= lawn plant+1 ! bran*es %\ld rea* l[ to ! gr\nd1 :ile = /reet purposes ! bran*es %\ld />t at ab\t sev5 feet f ! gr\nd4 ,= /reet plant+1 x is also important t ! /em %\ld be p]fectly /raight & ab\t two in*es 9 diamet]4 ,= woodl& plant+1 ! =m ( ! tree is ( m9or consid]ation1 ?\gh x is well to h ! lead] well def9$ "h z well z 9 ! o!r cases4 ,see ,fig4 #ie4 ,:5 & h[ to procure ! trees3 ,! trees %\ld be select$ 9 ! nurs]y p]sonally4 ,"s p]sons pref] to seal ! m valuable specim5s ) lead5 seals4 ,fall is ! be/ "t to make ! selection1 because at t "t "o c h a wid] *oice ( mat]ial4 ,select+ ?us e>ly w also prev5t delay 9 deliv]y at ! "t :5 x is desir$ to plant4 ,:5 to plant3 ,! be/ "t to plant trees is e>ly spr+1 j be=e gr[? beg9s1 & aft] ! fro/ is out ( ! gr\nd4 ,f ! latt] "p ( ,m>* to ! e>ly "p ( ,may is g5]ally ! plant+ p]iod 9 ! ,ea/]n ,/ates4 ,:]e "o has to plant bo? conif]\s & decidu\s trees1 x is be/ to get ! decidu\s 9 fir/1 & !n ! conif]s4 ,h[ to plant3 ,! location ( ! trees ) relation to ea* o!r %\ld be c>efully consid]$4 ,on ! lawn1 !y %\ld be sep>at$ f> en\gh to all[ = ! full spread ( ! tree4 ,on /reets1 trees %\ld be plant$ ?irty to ?irty-five feet ap>t & 9 case ( ! elm1 =ty to fifty feet4 ,9 woodl&s1 x is well to plant z close z six feet ap>t :]e small se$l+s are us$ & ab\t twelve feet ap>t 9 ! case ( trees an in* or m 9 diamet]4 ,an abundance ( good soil 7"o to two cubic y>ds7 is ess5tial ) ea* tree :]e ! specim5s us$ are an in* or two 9 diamet]4 ,a ri* mell[ loam1 su* z "o f9ds on ! surface ( a well-till$ f>m1 is ! ideal soil4 ,manure %\ld nev] be plac$ 9 direct contact ) ! roots or /em ( ! tree4 ,protection ( ! roots f dry+ is ! *ief precaution to be obs]v$ dur+ ! plant+ process1 & = ?is reason a cl\dy day is pref]able to a sunny day = plant+4 ,9 case ( ev]gre5s1 ! lea/ exposure ( ! roots is liable to result disa/r\sly1 ev5 m s ?an 9 case ( decidu\s trees4 ,?is is :y ev]gre5s are lift$ f ! nurs]y ) a ball ( soil ar\nd ! roots4 ,all bruis$ roots %\ld be cut (f be=e ! tree is plant$1 & ! cr[n ( ! tree ( ! decidu\s species %\ld be slightly trimm$ 9 ord] to equalize ! loss ( roots by a correspond+ decrease 9 leaf surface4 ,! tree %\ld be set into ! tree hole at ! same dep? t x /ood 9 ! nurs]y4 ,its roots1 :]e !re is no ball ( soil ar\nd !m1 %\ld be c>efully spread out & good soil %\ld be work$ 9 c>efully ) ! f+]s among ! f9e rootlets4 ,e root fibre is ?us br\ght into close contact ) ! soil4 ,m good soil %\ld be add$ 79 lay]s7 & firmly pack$ ab\t ! roots4 ,! la/ lay] %\ld rema9 loose s t x may act z a mul* or z an absorb5t ( moi/ure4 ,! tree %\ld !n be ?or\ghly wat]$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--,specifications = a ,/reet ,tree4 ,aft] c>e3 ,dur+ ! fir/ season ! tree %\ld be wat]$ & ! soil ar\nd its base slightly loos5$ at lea/ once a week1 especially on hot summ] days4 ,:]e trees are plant$ on /reets1 ne> ! curb1 !y %\ld also be fa/5$ to /akes & protect$ ) a wire gu>d six feet high4 ,see ,fig4 #ie4 ,wire nett+ ( #a_/b-;in* me% & #ag gauge is ! mo/ desirable mat]ial4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #if4--;,a ,home ,nurs]y4 7,au/rian p9es 9 front47 ,sugge/ions = a home or s*ool nurs]y3 ,s*ools1 f>ms1 & private e/ates may conv5i5tly />t a tree nurs]y on ! premises & raise _! own trees4 ,two-ye> se$l+ trees or f\r-ye> transplants are be/ suit$ = ?is purpose4 ,^! may be obta9$ f sev]al reliable nurs]ies 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! c\ntry t make a specialty ( rais+ small trees = su* purposes4 ,! co/ ( su* trees %\ld be f ?ree to fifte5 doll>s p] ?\s&4 ,! little trees1 :i* range f "o to two feet 9 height1 w be %ipp$ 9 bundles4 ,imm$iately ^u arrival1 ! bundles %\ld be unti$ & ! trees imm]s$ 9 a pail conta9+ wat] mix$ ) soil4 ,! bundles %\ld !n be plac$ 9 ! gr\nd tempor>ily1 until !y c be set out 9 _! prop] places4 ,9 ?is process1 ! individual bundles %\ld be slant$ ) _! tops t[>d ! s\?1 & ! spot *os5 %\ld be cool & %ady4 ,at no "t %\ld ! roots ( ^! plants be expos$1 ev5 = a mom5t1 to sun & w9d1 & !y %\ld always be kept moi/4 ,! little trees may rema9 9 ?is tr5* = two weeks )\t injury4 ,!y %\ld !n be plant$ out 9 r[s1 ea* r[ "o foot ap>t = conif]s & two feet = broadleaf trees4 ,! individual trees %\ld be set t5 in*es ap>t 9 ! r[4 ,c>eful we$+ & wat]+ is ! necess>y att5tion lat] on4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,! ,,c>e ,,( ,,trees ,,/udy ,i4 ,,insects ,,injuri\s ,,to ,,trees ,,& ,,h[ ,,to ,,combat ,,!m ,9 a g5]al way1 trees are attack$ by ?ree classes ( insects1 & ! rem$y to be employ$ 9 ea* case dep5ds ^u ! class to :i* ! insect belongs4 ,! ?ree classes ( insects are3 #a4 ,^? t 99*ew99 & swall[ "s portion ( ! leaf2 z1 = example1 ! elm leaf beetle1 & ! tussock1 gipsy1 & br[n-tail mo?s4 #b4 ,^? t 99suck99 ! plant juices f ! leaf or b>k2 su* z ! ,san ,jose scale1 oy/]-%ell1 & scurfy scales1 ! cottony maple scale1 ! maple ph5acoccus on ! sug> maples1 & ! v>i\s aphides on bee*1 ,norway maple1 etc4 #c4 ,^? t 99bore99 inside ( ! wood or inn] b>k4 ,! pr9cipal memb]s ( ?is class are ! leop>d mo?1 ! hickory-b>k bor]1 ! sug>-maple bor]1 ! elm bor]1 & ! bronze-bir* bor]4 ,! *ew+ insects are de/roy$ by spray+ ! leaves ) ars5ate ( lead or ,p>is gre54 ,! insects fe$ ^u ! poison$ foliage & ?us are !mselves poison$4 ,! suck+ insects are kill$ by a contact poison3 t is1 by spray+ or wa%+ ! affect$ p>ts ( ! tree ) a solution :i* acts ext]nally on ! bodies ( ! insects1 smo!r+ or /ifl+ !m4 ,! /&>d solutions = ?is purpose are k]os5e emulsion1 soap & wat]1 tobacco extract1 or lime-sulfur wa%4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--;,a ,gas-p[] ,spray+ ,app>atus4 ,! bor+ insects are elim9at$ by cutt+ out ! insect ) a knife1 by inject+ c>bon bisulphide into ! burr[ & clogg+ ! orifice imm$iately aft] injection ) putty or soap1 or 9 "s cases :]e ! tree is hopelessly infe/$1 by cutt+ d[n & burn+ ! entire tree4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--;,a ,b>rel ,h&-pump ,spray+ ,outfit4 ,= in=mation reg>d+ ! "o ( ^! ?ree classes to :i* any p>ticul> insect belongs1 & = specific in/ructions on ! application ( a rem$y1 ! read] is advis$ to write to 8 ,/ate ,entomologi/ or to ! ,u4,s4 ,bureau ( ,entomology at ,wa%+ton1 ,d4,c4 ,! lett] %\ld /ate ! "n ( ! tree affect$1 toge!r ) ! "* ( ! injury1 & %\ld be accompani$ by a specim5 ( ! insect1 or by a piece ( ! affect$ leaf or b>k1 pref]ably by bo?4 ,! advice receiv$ w be au!ntic & w be giv5 )\t *>ge4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ii4--;,egg-masses ( ! ,tussock ,mo?4 ,:5 to spray3 ,9 ! case ( *ew+ insects1 ! latt] "p ( ,may is ! "t to spray4 ,! cat]pill>s hat* f _! eggs1 & ! elm leaf beetle leaves its w9t] qu>t]s at t "t4 ,9 ! case ( suck+ insects1 ! in/ructions w h to be m specific1 dep5d+ ^u ! p>ticul> insect 9 "q4 ,"s suck+ insects c be/ be h&l$ 9 ,may or e>ly ,june :5 _! "y em]ge1 o!rs c be effectively treat$ 9 ! fall or w9t] :5 ! trees are dormant4 ,h[ to spray3 ,?or\ghness is ! ess5tial pr9ciple 9 all spray+4 ,9 ! case ( leaf-eat+ insects1 ?is means cov]+ e leaf ) ! poison & apply+ x to ! "u side ( ! leaves1 :]e ! insects g5]ally fe$4 ,9 ! case ( suck+ insects1 ?or\ghness means an ef=t to t\* e insect ) ! spray4 ,x %\ld be borne 9 m9d t ! insect c be kill$ only :5 hit ) ! *emical4 ,! solution %\ld be well /irr$1 & %\ld be appli$ by means ( a nozzle t w coat e leaf ) a f9e1 mi/-l spray4 ,m]e dr5*+ or too prolong$ an application w cause ! solution to run (f4 ,special precautions %\ld be tak5 ) contact poisons to see t ! =mula is correct4 ,too /rong a solution w burn ! foliage & t5d] b>k4 ,spray+ app>atus3 ,!re are v>i\s =ms ( spray+ app>atus 9 ! m>ket1 includ+ small knapsack pumps1 b>rel h&-pumps1 & gasol5e & gas-p[] spray]s1 ,figs4 #ig & #ih4 ,hose & nozzles are ess5tial accessories4 ,"o-half in*1 ?ree-ply hose ( ! be/ quality is necess>y to /& ! heavy pressure & we>4 ,two #ej-;foot l5g?s is ! usual quantity requir$ = use ) a b>rel h&-pump4 ,ea* l9e ( hose %\ld be suppli$ ) a bamboo pole #aj feet long1 hav+ a brass tube pass$ ?r\gh x to c>ry ! nozzle4 ,! ,v]morel nozzle is ! be/ type to use4 ,! co/ ( a b>rel outfit1 includ+ two l9es ( hose1 nozzles & truck1 %\ld be f #cj to #dj4 ,p[] spray]s co/ f #aej to #cjj or m4 ,spray+ mat]ial3 ,ars5ate ( lead %\ld be us$ 9 ! proportion ,( #d p\nds ( ! *emical to #ej gallons ( wat]4 ,a br& ( ars5ate ( lead conta9+ at lea/ #ad p] c5t ( ars5ic oxide ) n m ?an #ej p] c5t ( wat] %\ld be insi/$ ^u4 ,?is spray may be us$ successfully aga9/ cat]pill>s & o!r leaf-eat+ insects 9 ! spr+ or summ]4 ,:ale-oil soap %\ld be us$ at ! rate ( #aa_/b p\nds ( ! soap to #a gallon ( hot wat]1 if appli$ to ! tree 9 w9t]4 ,z a spray 9 summ]1 use #a p\nd ( ! soap to #e gallons ( wat]4 ,?is treatm5t is useful = mo/ suck+ insects4 ,lime-sulfur wa% is an excell5t mat]ial to use aga9/ suck+ insects1 su* z ! ,san ,jose scale & o!r armor$ scales4 ,! application ( a lime-sulfur wa% :5 put on dur+ ! dormant season is n likely to h>m a tree & has su* an excell5t cleans+ effect t ! b5efits to be d]iv$ 9 ?is direction alone are (t5 suffici5t to meet ! co/ ( ! treatm5t4 ,lime-sulfur wa% consi/s ( a mixture1 boil$ "o h\r1 ( #dj p\nds ( lime & #hj p\nds ( sulfur1 9 #ej gallons ( wat]4 ,x may be _h 9 prep>$ =m & %\ld !n be us$ at ! rate ( #a gallon to ab\t #i gallons ( wat] 9 w9t] or e>ly spr+ be=e ! buds op54 ,at o!r times ( ! ye> & = ! s(t]-bodi$ insects a m dilut$ mixture1 possibly #a "p to #cj or #dj p>ts ( wat]1 %\ld be us$1 v>y+ ) ea* case sep>ately4 ,k]os5e emulsion consi/s ( "o-half p\nd ( h>d soap1 #a gallon ( boil+ wat]1 & #b gallons ( k]os5e4 ,x may be obta9$ 9 prep>$ =m & is !n to be us$ at ! rate ( "o "p ( ! solution to n9e p>ts ( wat] :5 appli$ 9 w9t] or to ! b>k only 9 summ]4 ,use #b gallons ( ! solution to a #dj-;gallon b>rel ( wat] :5 apply+ x to ! leaves 9 ! summ]4 ,k]os5e emulsion is useful z a treatm5t = scale insects4 ,tobacco wat] %\ld be prep>$ by /eep+ "o-half p\nd ( tobacco /ems or leaves 9 a gallon ( boil+ wat] & lat] dilut+ ! product ) #e to #aj gallons ( wat]4 ,x is p>ticul>ly useful = plant lice 9 ! summ]4 ,! life hi/ory ( an insect3 ,9 a g5]al way1 all insects h f\r /ages ( trans=mation be=e a new g5]ation is produc$4 ,x is important to consid] ! nature ( ^! f\r /ages 9 ord] t ! habits ( any p>ticul> insect & ! rem$ies applicable 9 combat+ x may be und]/ood4 ,all insects develop f eggs1 ,fig4 #ii4 ,! eggs !n hat* into cat]pill>s or grubs1 :i* is ! l>va /age1 9 :i* mo/ insects d ! greate/ damage to trees4 ,! cat]pill>s or grubs gr[ & develop rapidly1 & h5ce _! fe$+ is mo/ rav5\s4 ,foll[+ ! l>va /age comes ! ?ird or pupa /age1 :i* is ! dormant /age ( ! insect4 ,9 ?is /age ! insect curls itself up "u ! protection ( a silk5 cocoon l ! tussock mo?1 or ( a curl$ leaf l ! br[n-tail mo?1 or x may be entirely un%elt]$ l ! pupa ( ! elm leaf beetle4 ,aft] ! pupa /age comes ! adult insect1 :i* may be a mo? or a beetle4 ,a /udy ( ! f\r /ages ( any p>ticul> insect is kn[n z a /udy ( its life hi/ory4 ,! important facts to "k ab\t ! life hi/ory ( an insect are ! /age 9 :i* x does mo/ ( its fe$+1 & ! p]iod ( ! ye> 9 :i* ?is occurs4 ,x is also important to "k h[ ! insect sp5ds ! w9t] 9 ord] to decide ^u a w9t] treatm5t4 ,,important ,,insects ,,! ,,elm ,,leaf ,,beetle ,life hi/ory3 ,! elm leaf beetle1 ,fig4 #ajj1 is annually caus+ ! defoliation ( ?\s&s ( elm trees ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,sev]al successive defoliations are liable to kill a tree4 ,! insects pass ! w9t] 9 ! beetle =m1 hid+ !mselves 9 attics & :]ev] else !y c secure %elt]4 ,9 ! middle ( ,may :5 ! buds ( ! elm trees unfold1 ! beetles em]ge f _! w9t] qu>t]s1 mate1 & comm5ce eat+ ! leaves1 ?us produc+ little holes ?r\gh !m4 ,:ile ?is fe$+ is go+ on1 ! females deposit little1 bright yell[ eggs on ! "u side ( ! leaves1 :i* soon hat* into small l>vae or grubs4 ,! grubs !n eat away ! s(t portion ( ! leaf1 caus+ x to look l lacework4 ,! grubs become full gr[n 9 tw5ty days1 crawl d[n to ! base ( ! tree1 & !re trans=m into nak$1 orange-color$ pupae4 ,?is occurs 9 ! e>ly "p ( ,augu/4 ,aft] rema9+ 9 ! pupa /age ab\t a week1 !y *ange into beetles aga91 :i* ei!r beg9 fe$+ or g to w9t] qu>t]s4 ,rem$ies3 ,!re are ?ree ways ( combat+ ?is insect3 ,fir/1 by spray+ ! foliage ) ars5ate ( lead 9 ! latt] "p ( ,may :ile ! beetles are fe$+1 & repeat+ ! spray+ 9 ,june :5 ! l>vae em]ge4 ,! spray+ me?od is ! "o mo/ to be reli$ on 9 fight+ ?is insect4 ,a second1 ?\gh less important rem$y1 consi/s 9 de/roy+ ! pupae :5 !y ga!r 9 l>ge quantities at ! base ( ! tree4 ,?is may be accompli%$ by ga!r+ !m bodily & de/roy+ !m1 or by p\r+ hot wat] or a solution ( k]os5e ov] !m4 ,9 l>ge trees x may be necess>y to climb to ! crot*es ( ! ma9 limbs to get "s ( !m4 ,! ?ird rem$y lies 9 ga!r+ & de/roy+ ! adult beetles :5 f\nd 9 _! w9t] qu>t]s4 ,! application ( b&s ( burlap or tanglefoot1 or ( o!r sub/ances (t5 se5 on ! trunks ( elm trees is useless1 s9ce ^! b&s only prev5t ! l>vae f crawl+ d[n f ! leaves to ! base & s]ve to prev5t no?+ f crawl+ up4 ,scrap+ ! trunks ( elm trees is also a wa/e ( ef=t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4--,! ,elm ,leaf ,beetle4 7,aft] ,dr4 ,e4,p4 ,felt47 #a4 ,egg clu/]1 enl>g$4 #a;a4 ,s+le egg1 greatly enl>g$4 #b4 ,"y l>va1 enl>g$4 #c4 ,full gr[n l>va1 mu* enl>g$4 #d4 ,pupa1 enl>g$4 #e4 ,ov]w9t]$ beetle1 enl>g$4 #f4 ,fre%1 brightly color$ beetle1 enl>g$4 #g4 ,"u surface ( leaf %[+ l>vae fe$+4 #h4 ,leaf eat5 by l>vae4 #i4 ,leaf %[+ holes eat5 by beetles4 ,,! ,,tussock ,,mo? ,life hi/ory3 ,?is insect appe>s 9 ! =m ( a r$-head$1 yell[-color$ cat]pill> dur+ ! latt] "p ( ,may1 & 9 ,june & ,july4 ,! cat]pill>s surr\nd !mselves ) silk5 cocoons & *ange into pupae4 ,! mature mo?s em]ge f ! cocoons aft] a p]iod ( ab\t two weeks1 & ! females1 :i* are w+less1 soon deposit _! eggs on ! b>k ( trees1 on twigs1 f5ces1 & o!r neighbor+ objects4 ,^! eggs =m :ite clu/]s ( ne>ly #cej individual eggs ea*1 & are v conspicu\s all w9t]1 see ,fig4 #aja4 ,rem$ies3 ,!re are two ways ( combat+ ?is insect3 7#a7 ,by spray+ ) ars5ate ( lead = ! cat]pill>s dur+ ! latt] "p ( ,may & e>ly ,june4 7#b7 ,by remov+ & de/roy+ ! egg masses 9 ! fall or w9t]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aja4--,! ,tussock ,mo?4 7,aft] ,dr4 ,e4,p4 ,felt47 #a4 ,cat]pill>4 #b4 ,male mo?4 #c4 ,female mo? lay+ eggs4 #d ,cocoons4 #e4 ,ca/ sk9s ( cat]pill>4 #f4 ,"w ( "y cat]pill>4 #g4 ,male pupa4 #h & #i4 ,girdl$ bran*es4 ,,! ,,gipsy ,,mo? ,life hi/ory3 ,?is insect1 import$ f ,europe to ?is c\ntry 9 #ahfh1 has ev] s9ce prov$ a s]i\s enemy ( mo/ %ade1 =e/1 & fruit trees 9 ! ,new ,engl& ,/ates4 ,x ev5 fe$s on ev]gre5s1 kill+ ! trees by a s+le defoliation4 ,! insect appe>s 9 ! cat]pill> /age f ,april to ,july4 ,x fe$s at night & re/s by day4 ,! mature cat]pill>1 :i* is d>k 9 color1 may be recogniz$ by r[s ( blue & r$ spots along its back4 ,aft] ,july1 egg masses are deposit$ by ! female mo?s on ! b>k ( trees1 & on leaves1 f5ces1 & o!r neighbor+ objects4 ,"h !y rema9 ov] ! w9t] until !y hat* 9 ! spr+4 ,! flat egg masses are r\nd or oval 9 %ape1 & are yell[i%-br[n 9 color4 ,see ,fig4 #ajb4 ,rem$ies3 ,spray = ! cat]pill>s 9 ,june ) ars5ate ( lead & apply creosote to ! egg masses :5ev] f\nd4 ,,! ,,br[n-,,tail ,,mo? ,life hi/ory3 ,?is insect 0 introduc$ "h f ,europe 9 #ahij & has s9ce done s]i\s damage to %ade1 =e/1 & fruit trees1 & to %rubs 9 ! ,new ,engl& ,/ates4 ,x appe>s 9 ! cat]pill> /age 9 ! e>ly spr+ & cont9ues to fe$ on ! leaves & buds until ! la/ ( ,june4 ,!n ! cat]pill>s pupate1 ! mo?s come out1 & 9 ,july & ,augu/ ! egg clu/]s appe>4 ,^! hat* into cat]pill>s :i* =m ne/s = !mselves by draw+ ! leaves toge!r4 ,"h !y rema9 protect$ until ! spr+4 ,see ,fig4 #ajc4 ,rem$ies3 ,collect ! w9t] ne/s f ,octob] to ,april & burn !m4 ,also spray ! trees = cat]pill>s 9 e>ly ,may & especially 9 ,augu/ ) ars5ate ( lead4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4--,! ,gipsy ,mo?4 7,aft] ,f4,w4 ,rane ,mass4 ,/ate ,=e/]47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4--,! ,br[n-tail ,mo?4 7,aft] ,f4,w4 ,rane1 ,mass4 ,/ate ,=e/]47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4--,l>va ( ! ,leop>d ,mo?4 ,,! ,,fall ,,webworm ,! cat]pill>s ( ?is insect congregate 9 colonies & surr\nd !mselves ) a web :i* (t5 rea*es ! size ( a foot or m 9 diamet]4 ,^! webs are common on trees 9 ,july & ,augu/4 ,cutt+ (f ! webs or burn+ !m on ! twigs is ! mo/ practical rem$y4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aje4--;,bran* ,%[+ ,"w ( ! ,leop>d ,mo? ,l>va4 ,,! ,,leop>d ,,mo? ,life hi/ory3 ,?is insect does its s]i\s damage 9 ! grub =m4 ,! grubs :i* are :iti% 9 color ) br[n heads1 & :i* v>y 9 size f #c_/h ( an in* to #c in*es 9 l5g? 7,fig4 #ajd71 may be f\nd bor+ 9 ! wood ( ! bran*es & trunk ( ! tree all w9t]4 ,fig4 #aje4 ,! leop>d mo? requires two ye>s to complete its r\nd ( life4 ,! mature mo?s are m>k$ ) d>k spots resembl+ a leop>d's sk91 h5ce ! "n4 ,fig4 #ajf4 ,x is "o ( ! commone/ & mo/ de/ructive insects 9 ! ,ea/ & is responsible = ! rec5t dea? ( ?\s&s ( ! fam\s elm trees 9 ,new ,hav5 & ,bo/on4 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4--,! ,leop>d ,mo?4 ,rem$ies3 ,trees likely to be infe/$ ) ?is insect %\ld be exam9$ ?ree or f\r times a ye> = wilt$ twigs1 dead bran*es1 & /r+s ( expell$ frass2 all ( :i* may indicate ! pres5ce ( ?is bor]4 ,badly infe/$ bran*es %\ld be cut (f & burn$4 ,trees s badly infe/$ t treatm5t becomes too complicat$ %\ld be cut d[n & de/roy$4 ,:]e ! insects are few & c be readily rea*$1 an injection ( c>bon bisulphide into ! burr[1 ! orifice ( :i* is !n imm$iately clos$ ) soap or putty1 w (t5 de/roy ! insects )94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4--;,elm ,tree ,attack$ by ! ,leop>d ,mo?4 ,,! ,,hickory ,,b>k ,,bor] ,life hi/ory3 ,?is insect is a small br[n or black beetle 9 its mature =m & a small legless :ite grub 9 its w9t] /age4 ,! beetles appe> f ,june to ,augu/4 ,9 ,july !y deposit _! eggs 9 ! out] sapwood1 imm$iately "u ! b>k ( ! trunk & l>g] bran*es4 ,! eggs soon hat* & ! grubs fe$ on ! liv+ tissue ( ! tree1 =m+ num]\s gall]ies4 ,! grubs pass ! w9t] 9 a ne>ly full-gr[n condition1 trans=m to pupae 9 ,may1 & em]ge z beetles 9 ,june4 ,rem$ies3 ,! pres5ce ( ! insect c be detect$ by ! small holes 9 ! b>k ( ! trees & ! f9e sawdu/ :i* is eject$ f ^! holes1 :5 ! insects are active4 ,x is important to emphasize ! advisability ( detect+ ! f9e sawdu/ because t is ! be/ indication ( ! actual op]ations ( ! hickory b>k bor]4 ,^! holes1 h[ev]1 w n be noticeable until ! insect has complet$ its trans=mation4 ,9 summ]1 ! infe/$ trees %[ wilt$ leaves & _m dead twigs4 ,holes 9 ! base ( ! petioles ( ^! leaves are also signs ( ! work+ ( ! insect4 ,s9ce ! insect works und]nea? ! b>k1 x is inaccessible = treatm5t & all infe/$ trees %\ld be cut d[n & burn$1 or ! b>k remov$ & ! insects de/roy$4 ,?is %\ld be done be=e ! beetles em]ge f ! tree 9 ,june4 ,,plant ,,lice ,,or ,,aphides ,^! (t5 appe> on ! "u side ( ! leaves ( ! bee*1 ,norway maple1 tulip tree1 etc4 ,!y excrete a sweet1 /icky liquid call$ honey-dew1 & cause ! leaves to curl or drop4 ,spray+ ) :ale-oil soap solution =m$ by add+ "o p\nd ( ! soap to five gallons ( wat] is ! rem$y4 ,,/udy ,,ii4 ,,tree ,,diseases ,because trees h wants analog\s to ^? ( human be+s1 !y also h diseases simil> to ^? :i* afflict human be+s4 ,9 _m cases ^! diseases act l canc]\s gr[?s ^u ! human body2 9 "s in/ances ! ailm5t may be a g5]al fail+ due to improp] fe$+1 & 9 o!r cases x may be due to int]f]5ce ) ! life processes ( ! tree4 ,h[ to tell an ail+ tree3 ,:atev] ! cause1 an ail+ tree w manife/ its ailm5t by "o or m symptoms4 ,a *ange ( color 9 ! leaves at a "t :5 !y %\ld be p]fectly gre5 indicates t ! tree is n gr[+ "u normal conditions1 possibly because ( an insuffici5cy ( moi/ure or light or an ov]dose ( =eign gases or salts4 ,)]+ ( ! leaves is ano!r sign ( irregul>ity 9 wat] supply4 ,dead tops po9t to "s difficulty 9 ! soil conditions or to "s disease ( ! roots or bran*es4 ,spott$ leaves & mu%room-l gr[?s or brackets protrud+ f ! b>k z 9 ,fig4 #ajh1 are sure signs ( disease4 ,9 attempt+ to f9d out :e!r a tree is heal?y or n1 "o w\ld !re=e d well to consid] :e!r ! conditions "u :i* x is gr[+ are normal or n2 :e!r ! tree is suitable = ! location2 :e!r ! soil is too dry or too wet2 :e!r ! roots are depriv$ ( _! necess>y wat] & air by an imp5etrable cov] ( concrete or soil2 :e!r ! soil is well dra9$ & free f =eign gases & salts2 :e!r ! tree is receiv+ pl5ty ( light or is too mu* expos$2 & :e!r x is free f insects & fungi4 ,if1 aft] a ?or\gh exam9ation1 x is f\nd t ! ailm5t has gone too f>1 x may n be wise to try to save ! tree4 ,a timely removal ( a tree badly infe/$ ) insects or fungi may (t5 be ! be/ proc$ure & may save _m neighbor+ trees f contagi\s infection4 ,= ?is1 h[ev]1 no rules c be laid d[n & mu* w dep5d on ! local conditions & ! judgm5t & k ( ! p]son conc]n$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4--;,a ,bracket ,fungus 7,elfv+ia megaloma7 on a ,tulip ,tree4 ,fungi z factors ( disease3 ,! trees1 ! %rubs & ! fl[]s ) :i* we are famili> are root$ 9 ! gr\nd & d]ive _! food bo? f ! soil & f ! air4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ano!r gr\p ( plants1--! fungi1--! roots ( :i* gr[ 9 trees & o!r plants & :i* obta9 _! food entirely f ! trees or plants ^u :i* !y gr[4 ,! fungi _c manufacture _! own food z o!r plants d & consequ5tly absorb ! food ( _! ho/1 ev5tually r$uc+ x to du/4 ,! fungi are ?us disease-produc+ factors & ! s\rce ( mo/ ( ! diseases ( trees4 ,:5 we c see fungi gr[+ on a tree we may safely assume t !y are already 9 an advanc$ /ate ( developm5t4 ,we g5]ally discov] _! pres5ce :5 _! fruit+ bodies appe> on ! surface ( ! tree z %[n 9 ,fig #aji4 ,^! fruit+ bodies are ! famili> mu%rooms1 puffballs1 toad/ools or %elf-l brackets t "o (t5 sees on trees4 ,9 "s cases !y spread ov] ! surface ( ! wood 9 ?9 pat*es4 ,!y v>y 9 size f l>ge bodies to m]e pu/ules b>ely visible to ! nak$ eye4 ,_! v>iation 9 color is also significant1 rang+ f colorless to black & r$ b nev] gre54 ,!y (t5 emulate ! color ( ! b>k1 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,radiat+ f ^! fruit+ bodies into ! tissues ( ! tree are a l>ge numb] ( m9ute fib]s1 compris+ ! mycelium ( ! fungus4 ,^! fib]s p5etrate ! body ( ! tree 9 all directions & absorb its food4 ,! mycelium is ! mo/ important "p ( ! fung\s gr[?4 ,if ! fruit+ body is remov$1 ano!r soon takes its place1 b if ! entire mycelium is cut out1 ! fungus w nev] come back4 ,! fruit+ body ( ! fungus be>s ! se$ or spores4 ,^! spores are c>ri$ by ! w9d or insects to o!r trees :]e !y take root 9 "s w\nd or crevice ( ! b>k & />t a new infe/ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aji4--,! ,fruit+ ,body ( a ,fungus4 ,! infe/ation w be favor$ 9 its gr[? if ! spore c f9d pl5ty ( food1 wat]1 w>m? & d>kness4 ,z ^! conditions g5]ally exi/ 9 w\nds & cavities ( trees1 x is wise to keep all w\nds well cov]$ ) coal t> & to s dra9 ! cavities t moi/ure _c lodge 9 !m4 ,?is subject w be gone into m fully 9 ! foll[+ two /udies on ,prun+ ,trees & ,tree ,repair4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4--,! ,bir*-fungus rot4 7,polyponis betul9us ,fr47 ,note ! simil>ity 9 ! color ( ! fruit+ body & b>k ( ! tree4 ,:ile ! majority ( ! fungi gr[ on ! trunks & limbs ( trees1 "s attack ! leaves1 "s ! twigs & o!rs ! roots4 ,"s fungi gr[ on liv+ wood "s on dead wood & "s on bo?4 ,^? t attack ! liv+ trees are ! mo/ dang]\s f ! /&po9t ( disease4 ,! *e/nut disease3 ,! disease :i* is ?reat5+ ! de/ruction ( all ! *e/nut trees 9 ,am]ica is a fungus :i* has1 )9 rec5t ye>s1 assum$ su* va/ proportions t x des]ves special comm5t4 ,! fungus is kn[n z ,diapor! p>asitica 7,murrill71 & 0 fir/ obs]v$ 9 ! vic9ity ( ,new ,york 9 #aije4 ,at t "t only a few trees 7 kn[n to h be5 kill$ by ?is disease1 b n[ ! disease has advanc$ ov] ! :ole *e/nut area 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 rea*+ z f> s\? z ,virg9ia & z f> we/ z ,buffalo4 ,fig4 #aaa %[s ! result ( ! *e/nut disease4 ,! fungus attacks ! cambium tissue und]nea? ! b>k4 ,x ent]s ?r\gh a w\nd 9 ! b>k & s5ds its fung\s ?reads f ! po9t ( infection all ar\nd ! trunk until ! latt] is girdl$ & kill$4 ,?is may all happ5 )9 "o season4 ,x is n until ! tree has practically be5 de/roy$ t ! disease makes its appe>ance on ! surface ( ! b>k 9 ! =m ( br[n pat*es /udd$ ) little pu/ules t c>ry ! spores4 ,:5 once girdl$1 ! tree is kill$ above ! po9t ( infection & ev]y?+ above dies1 :ile "s ( ! twigs bel[ may live until !y are attack$ individually by ! disease or until ! trunk bel[ _! orig9 is infect$4 ,all species ( *e/nut trees are subject to ! disease4 ,! ,japanese & ,spani% v>ieties appe> to be highly resi/ant1 b are n immune4 ,o!r species ( trees besides *e/nuts are n subject to ! disease4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4--;,*e/nut ,trees ,kill$ by ! ,*e/nut ,disease4 ,!re is no rem$y or prev5tive = ?is disease4 ,f ! nature ( its attack1 :i* is on ! inn] lay] ( ! tree1 x is evid5t t all applications ( fungicides1 :i* mu/ necess>ily be appli$ to ! outside ( ! tree1 w n rea* ! disease4 ,injections are impossible & o!r sugge/$ rem$ies1 su* z bor+ holes 9 ! wood = ! purpose ( ins]t+ *emicals1 are futile4 ,! wood ( ! *e/nut tree1 )9 ?ree or f\r ye>s aft] its dea?1 is /ill s\nd & may be us$ = telephone & telegraph poles1 po/s1 railroad ties1 lumb] & firewood4 ,spray+ = fung\s diseases3 ,:]e a fung\s disease is attack+ ! leaves1 fruit1 or twigs1 spray+ ) ,bordeaux mixture may prove effective4 ,! application ( ,bordeaux mixture is det]r5t r ?an rem$ial1 & %\ld !re=e be made imm$iately be=e ! disease appe>s4 ,! nature ( ! disease & ! "t ( treatm5t c be det]m9$ )\t co/1 by submitt+ specim5s ( affect$ portions ( ! plant = analysis & advice to ! ,/ate ,agricultural ,exp]im5t ,/ation or to ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture4 ,bordeaux mixture1 ! /&>d fungicide mat]ial1 consi/s ( a solution ( #f p\nds ( copp] sulphate 7blue vitriol7 ) #d p\nds ( slak$ lime 9 #ej gallons ( wat]4 ,x may be pur*as$ 9 prep>$ =m 9 ! op5 m>ket1 & :5 prop]ly made1 has a brilliant sky-blue color4 ,spray+ ) ,bordeaux mixture %\ld be done 9 ! fall1 e>ly spr+1 or e>ly summ]1 b nev] dur+ ! p]iod :5 ! trees are 9 bloom4 ,,/udy ,,iii4 ,,prun+ ,,trees ,,fundam5tal ,,pr9ciples ,trees are v mu* l human be+s 9 _! requirem5ts1 mode ( life & diseases1 & ! g5]al pr9ciples applicable to ! c>e ( "o are equally important to ! intellig5t treatm5t ( ! o!r4 ,! removal ( limbs f trees1 z well z f human be+s1 mu/ be done sp>+ly & judici\sly4 ,w\nds1 9 bo? trees & human be+s1 mu/ be dis9fect$ & dress$ to keep out all fungus or disease g]ms4 ,fung\s gr[?s ( trees are simil> to human canc]s1 bo? 9 ! mann] ( _! developm5t & ! surgical treatm5t :i* !y require4 ,improp] prun+ w invite fungi & insects to ! tree1 h5ce ! importance ( a k ( fundam5tal pr9ciples 9 ?is bran* ( tree c>e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aab4--;,a ,tree ,prun$ ,improp]ly & too ,sev]ely4 ,"t3 ,too mu* prun+ at "o "t %\ld nev] be practic$ 7,fig4 #aab71 & no bran* %\ld be remov$ f a tree )\t good reason = s do+4 ,dead & brok5 bran*es %\ld be remov$ z soon z obs]v$1 reg>dless ( any special prun+ season1 because !y are dang]\s1 unsightly & c>ry insects & disease into ! he>t ( ! tree4 ,b all o!r prun+1 :e!r x be = ! purpose ( p]fect+ ! =m 9 %ade trees1 or = increas+ ! production ( fruit 9 or*>d trees1 %\ld be conf9$ to c]ta9 seasons4 ,%ade & ornam5tal trees c be/ be prun$ 9 ! fall1 :ile ! leaves are /ill on ! tree & :ile ! tree itself is 9 practically a dormant /ate4 ,prop] cutt+3 ,all prun+ %\ld be comm5c$ at ! top ( ! tree & f9i%$ at ! bottom4 ,a %ort5$ bran* 7except+ 9 popl>s & will[s1 :i* %\ld be cut 9 closely7 %\ld t]m9ate 9 small twigs :i* may draw ! sap to ! fre%ly cut w\nd2 :]e a bran* is remov$ entirely1 ! cut %\ld be made-close & ev5 ) ! trunk1 z 9 ,fig4 #aac4 ,:]ev] !re is a /ub left aft] cutt+ (f a bran*1 ! gr[+ tissue ( ! tree _c cov] x & ! /ub ev5tually decays1 falls out & leaves a hole 7see ,fig4 #aad71 :i* s]ves to c>ry disease & insects to ! he>t ( ! tree4 ,?is idea ( close cutt+ _c be ov]-emphasiz$4 ,:]e l>ge bran*es h to be remov$1 ! splitt+ & ripp+ ( ! b>k along ! trunk is prev5t$ by mak+ "o cut b5ea? ! bran*1 ab\t a foot or two away f ! trunk1 & !n ano!r above1 close to ! trunk4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aac4--;,bran*es ,prop]ly ,cut ,close to ! ,trunk4 ,too sev]e prun+3 ,9 prun+ trees1 _m p h a t5d5cy to cut !m back s sev]ely z to remove ev]y?+ b ! b>e trunk & a few ( ! ma9 bran*es4 ,?is process is kn[n z head+ back4 ,x is a me?od1 h[ev]1 :i* %\ld n be resort$ to except 9 trees t are v old & fail+1 & ev5 !re only ) c]ta9 species1 l ! silv] maple1 sycamore1 l9d5 & elm4 ,trees l ! sug> maple w n /& ?is treatm5t at all4 ,! will[ is a tree t w /& ! process v readily & ! ,c>ol9a popl> mu/ be cut back e few ye>s1 9 ord] to keep its cr[n f becom+ too tall1 scraggy & unsafe4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aad4--;,a ,limb ,improp]ly ,cut4 ,note h[ ! /ub is decay+ & ! result+ cavity is becom+ diseas$4 ,cov]+ w\nds3 ,! importance ( imm$iately cov]+ all w\nds ) coal t> _c be ov]/at$4 ,if ! w\nd is n t>r$1 ! expos$ wood cracks1 z 9 ,fig4 #aae1 provid+ suitable qu>t]s = disease g]ms t w ev5tually de/roy ! body ( ! tree4 ,coal t> is by f> pref]able to pa9t & o!r sub/ances = cov]+ ! w\nd4 ,! t> p5etrates ! expos$ wood1 produc+ an antiseptic z well z a protective effect4 ,pa9t only =ms a cov]+1 :i* may peel (f 9 c\rse ( "t & :i* w lat] protrude f ! cut1 ?us =m+1 betwe5 ! pa9t & ! wood1 a suitable bre$+ place = ! developm5t ( de/ructive fungi or disease4 ,! application ( t9 cov]s1 burlap1 or o!r b&ages to ! w\nd is equally futile & 9 mo/ cases ev5 injuri\s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aae4--,result ( a ,w\nd n ,cov]$ ) ,coal ,t>4 ,! expos$ wood crack$ & decay set 94 ,,special ,,consid]ations ,prun+ %ade trees3 ,"h1 ! object is to produce a symmetrical cr[n & to h ! l[e/ bran*es rais$ f ! gr\nd suffici5tly high to enable p$e/rians to pass "u ) rais$ umbrellas4 ,su* prun+ %\ld1 !re=e1 necess>ily be light & conf9$ to ! l[ limbs & dead bran*es4 ,prun+ lawn trees3 ,"h ! *>m ( ! tree lies 9 ! l[ rea* ( ! bran*es & ! compactness ( ! cr[n4 ,! prun+ %\ld1 !re=e1 be limit$ to ! removal ( dead & diseas$ bran*es only4 ,prun+ =e/ trees3 ,=e/ trees h a great] comm]cial value :5 _! /raight trunks are free f bran*es4 ,9 ! =e/1 nature g5]ally accompli%es ?is result & artificial prun+ seldom has to be resort$ to4 ,trees 9 ! =e/ gr[ s closely toge!r t !y %ut out ! sunlight f _! l[] limbs1 ?us caus+ ! latt] to die & fall (f4 ,?is is kn[n z natural prun+4 ,9 "s ,european =e/s1 nature is assi/$ 9 its prun+ by workm51 :o saw (f ! side bran*es be=e !y fall ( _! own accord2 b 9 ?is c\ntry su* practice w\ld be consid]$ too exp5sive1 h5ce x is seldom adopt$4 ,,tools ,,us$ ,,9 ,,prun+ ,good tools are ess5tial = quick & effective "w 9 prun+4 ,two or ?ree good saws1 a pair ( pole-%e>s1 a pole-saw1 a #af-;foot s+le ladd]1 a #dj-;foot ext5sion ladd] ( light spruce or p9e ) hickory rungs1 a good prun+ knife1 pl5ty ( coal t>1 a fire-c to heat ! t>1 a pole-bru%1 a small h& bru% & pl5ty ( good rope comprise ! pr9cipal equipm5t ( ! prun]4 ,,sugge/ions ,,= ,,! ,,safety ,,( ,,tree ,,climb]s #a4 ,be=e climb+ a tree1 judge its g5]al condition4 ,! trunk ( a tree t %[s age1 disease1 or wood-de/roy+ insects g5]ally has its bran*es 9 an equally unheal?y condition4 #b4 ,! diff]5t k9ds ( wood naturally diff] 9 _! /r5g? & ela/icity4 ,! s(t & bra% woods ne$ great] precautions ?an ! /rong & pliable ones4 ,! wood ( all ! popl>s1 ! ailan?us1 ! silv] maple & ! *e/nut1 catalpa & will[ is ei!r too s(t or too brittle to be dep5d$ ^u )\t special c>e4 ,! elm1 hickory & oak h /rong1 flexible woods & are1 !re=e1 saf] ?an o!rs4 ,! r$ oak is weak] ?an ! o!r oaks4 ,! sycamore & bee* h a t\gh1 cross-gra9$ wood :i* is fairly /rong4 ,! l9d5 has a s(t wood1 :ile ! a% & gum1 ?\gh /rong & flexible1 are apt to split4 #c4 ,look out = a limb t %[s fung\s gr[?s4 ,e fungus s5ds fib]s into ! ma9 body ( ! limb :i* draw out its sap4 ,! int]ior ( ! bran* !n loses its /r5g? & becomes l a p[d]4 ,outside appe>ances sometimes d n %[ ! int]ior condition1 b "o %\ld reg>d a fungus z a dang] sign4 #d4 ,:5 a limb is full ( holes or knots1 x g5]ally indicates t bor]s h be5 work+ all k9ds ( gall]ies ?r\gh x1 mak+ x unsafe4 ,! silv] maple & sycamore maple are especially subject to bor]s :i*1 9 _m cases1 "w on ! "u side ( ! bran* s t ! man 9 ! tree look+ d[n _c see its dang]\s condition4 #e4 ,a dead limb ) ! b>k fall+ (f indicates t x di$ at lea/ ?ree mon?s be=e & is1 !re=e1 less safe ?an "o ) its b>k tightly adh]+ to x4 #f4 ,bran*es are m apt to snap on a fro/y day :5 !y are cov]$ ) an icy coat+ ?an on a w>m summ] day4 #g4 ,always use ! pole-saw & pole-%e>s on ! tips ( long bran*es1 & use ! pole-hook 9 remov+ dead bran*es ( ! ailan?us & o!r brittle trees :]e x w\ld be too dang]\s to rea* !m o!rwise4 #h4 ,be sure ( ! /r5g? ( a bran* be=e ty+ an ext5sion ladd] to x4 ,,/udy ,,iv4 ,,tree ,,repair ,:]e trees h be5 prop]ly c>$ = f _! e>ly />t1 w\nds & cavities & _! subsequ5t elaborate treatm5t h no place4 ,b :]e trees h be5 neglect$ or improp]ly c>$ =1 w\nds & cavities are b\nd to occur & e>ly treatm5t becomes a necessity4 ,!re are two k9ds ( w\nds on trees3 7#a7 surface w\nds1 :i* d n ext5d beyond ! inn] b>k1 & 7#b7 deep w\nds or cavities1 :i* may range f a small hole 9 a crot* to ! holl[ ( an entire trunk4 ,surface w\nds3 ,surface w\nds 7,fig4 #aaf7 are due to bruis$ b>k1 & a tree ?us injur$ c no long] produce ! prop] am\nt ( foliage or rema9 heal?y v long4 ,! reason = ?is becomes v app>5t :5 "o looks into ! nature ( ! liv+ or active tissue ( a tree & notes h[ ?is tissue becomes affect$ by su* injuries4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4--;,a ,surface ,w\nd ,prop]ly ,fre$ f ,decay$ ,wood & ,cov]$ ) ,coal ,t>4 ,?is liv+ or active tissue is kn[n z ! cambium lay]1 & is a ?9 tissue situat$ imm$iately "u ! b>k4 ,x mu/ completely envelop ! /em1 root & bran*es ( ! trees4 ,! out] b>k is a protective cov]+ to ?is liv+ lay]1 :ile ! entire int]ior wood tissue *iefly s]ves z a skeleton or support = ! tree4 ,! cambium lay] is ! real1 active "p ( ! tree4 ,x is ! "p :i* transmits ! sap f ! base ( ! tree to its cr[n2 x is ! "p :i* causes ! tree to gr[ by ! =mation ( new cells1 pil$ up 9 ! =m ( r+s ar\nd ! he>t ( ! tree2 & x is also ! "p :i* prev5ts ! entrance ( insects & disease to ! inn] wood4 ,f ?is x is q evid5t t any injury to ! b>k1 & consequ5tly to ?is cambium lay] alongside ( x1 w n only cut (f a portion ( ! sap supply & h9d] ! gr[? ( ! tree to an ext5t proportional to ! size ( ! w\nd1 b w also expose ! inn] wood to ! action ( decay4 ,! w\nd may1 at fir/1 appe> insignificant1 b1 if neglect$1 x w soon comm5ce to decay & ?us to c>ry disease & insects into ! tree4 ,! tree !n becomes holl[ & dang]\s & its life is doom$4 ,injury to ! cambium lay]1 result+ 9 surface w\nds1 may be due to ! improp] cutt+ ( a bran*1 to ! bite ( a horse1 to ! cut ( a knife or ! c>eless wield+ ( an axe1 to ! bor+ ( an insect1 or to ! decay ( a fung\s disease4 7,see ,fig4 #aag47 ,:atev] ! cause1 ! rem$y lies 9 clean+ out all decay$ wood1 remov+ ! loose b>k & cov]+ ! expos$ wood ) coal t>4 ,9 cutt+ (f ! loose b>k1 ! edges %\ld be made smoo? be=e ! coal t> is appli$4 ,loose b>k1 put back aga9/ a tree1 w nev] gr[ & w only t5d to h>bor insects & disease4 ,b&ages1 too1 are hurtful because1 und]nea? ! b&age1 disease w develop m rapidly ?an :]e ! w\nd is expos$ to ! sun & w9d4 ,! application ( t9 or manure to w\nds is (t5 indulg$ 9 & is equally injuri\s to ! tree4 ,! secret ( all w\nd treatm5t is to keep ! w\nd smoo?1 clean to ! live tissue1 & well cov]$ ) coal t>4 ,! *isel or g\ge is ! be/ tool to employ 9 ?is "w4 ,a %>p hawk-bill$ knife w be useful 9 cutt+ (f ! loose b>k4 ,coal t> is ! be/ mat]ial = cov]+ w\nds because x has bo? an antiseptic & a protective effect on ! wood tissue4 ,pa9t1 :i* is v (t5 us$ z a sub/itute = coal t>1 is n z effective1 because ! pa9t is apt to peel 9 "t1 ?us all[+ moi/ure & disease to ent] ! crevice betwe5 ! pa9t & ! wood4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aag4--;,a ,neglect$ ,surface ,w\nd4 ,note ! r\gh surface ( ! w\nd1 ! want ( a coal t> cov]+ & ! fung\s gr[? t foll[$4 ,cavities3 ,deep w\nds & cavities are g5]ally ! result ( /ubs t h be5 p]mitt$ to rot & fall out4 ,surface w\nds all[$ to decay w deep5 9 c\rse ( "t & produce cavities4 ,cavities 9 trees are especially susceptible to ! attack ( disease because1 9 a cavity1 !re is b\nd to exi/ an accumulation ( moi/ure4 ,) ?is1 !re is also consid]able d>kness & protection f w9d & cold1 & ^! are all ideal conditions = ! developm5t ( disease4 ,! successful application ( a rem$y1 9 all cavity treatm5t1 h+es on ?is pr9cipal condition--t all traces ( disease %all be entirely elim9at$ be=e treatm5t is comm5c$4 ,fung\s diseases attack+ a cavity produce a mass ( fib]s1 kn[n z ! mycelium1 t p5etrate ! body ( ! tree or limb on :i* ! cavity is locat$4 ,9 elim9at+ disease f a cavity1 x is1 !re=e1 ess5tial to g beyond ! m]e decay+ surface & to cut out all fung\s fib]s t radiate into ! int]ior ( ! tree4 ,:]e ^! fib]s h p5etrat$ s deeply t x becomes impossible to remove e "o ( !m1 ! tree or limb ?us affect$ _h bett] be cut d[n4 7,fig4 #aah47 ,! pres5ce ( ! mycelium 9 wood tissue c readily be told by ! discolor$ & dis9tegrat$ appe>ance ( ! wood4 ,! fill+ 9 a cavity1 moreov]1 %\ld s]ve to prev5t ! accumulation ( wat] &1 :]e a cavity is p]p5dicul> & s locat$ t ! wat] c be dra9$ (f )\t ! fill+1 ! latt] %\ld be avoid$ & ! cavity %\ld m]ely be clean$ out & t>r$4 7,fig4 #aaf47 ,:]e ! disease c be entirely elim9at$1 :]e ! cavity is n too l>ge1 & :]e a fill+ w s]ve ! practical purpose ( prev5t+ ! accumulation ( moi/ure1 ! "w ( fill+ %\ld be resort$ to4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aah4--;,a ,cavity ,fill$ 9 a ,tree t ,%\ld ,h ,be5 ,cut ,d[n4 ,note h[ ! entire int]ior is decay$ & h[ ! tree fell ap>t soon aft] treatm5t4 ,fill+ %\ld be done 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,fir/1 ! int]ior %\ld be ?or\ghly fre$ f diseas$ wood & insects4 ,! *isel1 g\ge1 mall & knife are ! tools1 & x is bett] to cut deep & remove e trace ( decay$ wood ?an x is to leave a small] hole 9 an unheal?y /ate4 ,! inn] surface ( ! cavity %\ld !n be cov]$ ) a coat ( :ite lead pa9t1 :i* acts z a dis9fectant & helps to hold ! fill+4 ,corrosive sublimate or ,bordeaux mixture may be us$ z a sub/itute = ! :ite lead pa9t4 ,a coat ( coal t> ov] ! pa9t is ! next /ep4 ,! cavity is !n solidly pack$ ) bricks1 /ones & mort> z 9 ,fig4 #aai1 & f9i%$ ) a lay] ( cem5t at ! m\? ( ! orifice4 ,?is surface lay] ( cem5t %\ld n be br\ght out to ! same plane ) ! out] b>k ( ! tree1 b %\ld r rec$e a little beyond ! gr[+ tissue 7cambium lay]7 :i* is situat$ imm$iately bel[ ! b>k1 ,fig4 #abj4 ,9 ?is way ! gr[+ tissue w be enabl$ to roll ov] ! cem5t & to cov] ! :ole cavity if x be a small "o1 or else to gr[ out suffici5tly to ov]lap ! fill+ & hold x z a frame holds a picture4 ,! cem5t is us$ 9 mixture ) s& 9 ! proportion ( "o-?ird ( cem5t to two-?irds ( s&4 ,:5 dry1 ! out] lay] ( cem5t %\ld be cov]$ ) coal t> to prev5t crack+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aai4--;,a ,cavity 9 ! ,process ( be+ ,fill$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abj--,! ,same ,cavity ,prop]ly ,fill$4 ,trees t t5d to split3 ,c]ta9 species ( trees1 l ! l9d5 & elm1 (t5 t5d to split1 g5]ally 9 ! crot* ( sev]al limbs & sometimes 9 a fissure along ! trunk ( ! tree4 ,midw9t] is ! p]iod :5 ?is usually occurs & timely action w save ! tree4 ,! rem$y lies 9 fa/5+ toge!r ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! tree by means ( bolts or *a9s4 ,a v injuri\s me?od ( accompli%+ ?is end is frequ5tly resort$ to1 :]e ea* ( ! bran*es is b\nd by an iron b& & ! b&s are !n jo9$ by a b>4 ,! bran*es ev5tually outgr[ ! diamet] ( ! b&s1 caus+ ! latt] to cut ?r\gh ! b>k ( ! limbs & to de/roy !m4 ,ano!r me?od ( brac+ limbs toge!r consi/s 9 runn+ a s+le bolt ?r\gh !m & fa/5+ ea* end ( ! bolt ) a wa%] & nut4 ,?is me?od is pref]able to ! fir/ because x all[s = ! gr[? ( ! limbs 9 ?ickness4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aba4--;,diagram ,%[+ ! ,triple-b> ,me?od ( ,fa/5+ ,limbs4 ,a /ill bett] me?od1 h[ev]1 consi/s 9 us+ a b> compos$ ( ?ree p>ts z %[n 9 ,fig4 #aba4 ,ea* ( ! two bran*es has a %ort bolt pass$ ?r\gh x horizontally1 & ! two %ort bolts are !n connect$ by a ?ird b>4 ,?is arrangem5t w %ift all ! pressure caus$ by ! sway+ ( ! limbs to ! middle connect+-b>4 ,9 case ( a w9d/orm1 ! middle b> w be ! "o to b5d1 :ile ! bolts :i* pass ?r\gh ! limbs w rema9 intact4 ,! out] ends ( ! %ort bolts %\ld h _! wa%]s & nuts slightly emb$d$ 9 ! wood ( ! tree1 s t ! liv+ tissue ( ! tree may ev5tually gr[ ov] !m 9 su* a way z to hold ! b>s firmly 9 place & to exclude moi/ure & disease4 ,! wa%]s & nuts on ! inn] side ( ! limbs %\ld also be emb$d$4 ,a *a9 is sometimes advantage\sly sub/itut$ = ! middle section ( ! b> &1 9 "s cases1 :]e m ?an two bran*es h to be jo9$ toge!r1 a r+ might take ! place ( ! middle b> or *a94 ,bolts on a tree detract consid]ably f its natural beauty & %\ld1 !re=e1 be us$ only :]e !y are absolutely necess>y = ! safety ( ! tree4 ,!y %\ld be plac$ z high up 9 ! tree z possible )\t weak5+ ! limbs4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,=e/ry ,,/udy ,i4 ,,:at ,,=e/ry ,,is ,,& ,,:at ,,x ,,does ,al?\gh ,=e/ry is n a new idea b1 z a sci5ce & an art1 has be5 appli$ = ne>ly two ?\s& ye>s1 !re are _m p]sons :o /ill ne$ an explanation ( its aims & pr9ciples4 ,=e/ry deals ) ! e/abli%m5t1 protection & utilization ( =e/s4 ,by e/abli%m5t1 is meant ! plant+ ( new =e/s & ! cutt+ ( mature =e/s1 9 su* a way z to enc\rage a natural gr[? ( new trees )\t artificial plant+ or se$+4 ,! plant+ may consi/ ( s[+ se$1 or ( sett+ out "y trees4 ,! e/abli%m5t ( a =e/ by cutt+ may consi/ ( ! removal ( all mature trees & dep5d5ce ^u ! rema9+ /umps to reproduce ! =e/ f spr\ts1 or x may consi/ ( ! removal ( only a portion ( ! mature trees1 ?us giv+ ! "y se$l+s on ! gr\nd room 9 :i* to gr[4 ,by protection1 is meant ! safegu>d+ ( ! =e/ f fire1 w9d1 insects1 disease & injury = :i* man is directly responsible4 ,"h1 ! =e/] also prev5ts injury to ! trees f ! graz+ & br[s+ ( %eep & goats1 & keeps 8 =e/ s well /ock$ t no w9d c uproot ! trees nor c ! sun dry up ! moi/ =e/ soil4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abb4--;,a ,=e/ ( ,bull ,p9e ,cut on ,=e/ry ,pr9ciples4 7,photograph tak5 on ! ,black ,hills ,national ,=e/1 ,s\? ,dakota47 ,by utilization1 is meant ! cons]vative & intellig5t h>ve/+ ( ! =e/1 ) ! aim ( obta9+ ! greate/ am\nt ( product f a giv5 area1 ) ! lea/ wa/e1 9 ! quicke/ "t1 & )\t ! slighte/ det]ioration ( ! =e/ z a :ole4 ,! =e/] cuts 8 mature trees1 only1 & g5]ally leaves a suffici5t numb] on ! gr\nd to pres]ve ! =e/ soil & to ca/ se$ = ! production ( a new crop4 ,9 ?is way1 he secures an annual output )\t hurt+ ! =e/ itself4 ,he /udies ! prop]ties & values ( ! diff]5t woods & places !m :]e !y w be mo/ useful4 ,he lays d[n pr9ciples = s h>ve/+ ! timb] & ! by-products ( ! =e/ t !re w be ! lea/ wa/e & injury to ! trees :i* rema9 /&+4 ,he utilizes ! =e/1 b does n cut en\gh to int]f]e ) ! neighbor+ wat]-%$s1 :i* ! =e/s protect4 ,illu/ration3 #abc4--;,a ,:ite ,p9e ,plantation1 9 ,rhode ,isl&1 ,:]e ! ,cr[ns ( ! ,trees ,h ,met4 ,! trees are fifte5 ye>s old & 9 _m cases e o!r tree _h to be remov$4 ,=e/ry1 !re=e1 deals ) a va/ & v>i$ mass ( in=mation1 compris+ all ! kn[n facts relat+ to ! life ( a =e/4 ,x does n deal ) ! individual tree & its plant+ & c>e1--t w\ld be arboriculture4 ,nor does x consid] ! gr\p+ ( trees = ae/hetic effect1--t w\ld be l&scape g>d5+4 ,x conc]ns itself ) ! =e/ z a community ( trees & ) ! utilization ( ! =e/ on an economic basis4 ,ea* "o ( ^! activities 9 ,=e/ry is a /udy 9 itself & involves consid]able detail1 ( :i* ! read] may obta9 a g5]al k 9 ! foll[+ pages4 ,= a m complete discussion1 ! read] is ref]r$ to any ( ! /&>d books on ,=e/ry4 ,! life & nature ( a =e/3 ,:5 we ?9k ( a =e/ we are apt to ?9k ( a l>ge numb] ( individual trees hav+ no special relation%ip to ea* o!r4 ,clos] obs]vation1 h[ev]1 w reveal t ! =e/ consi/s ( a di/9ct gr\p ( trees1 suffici5tly d5se to =m an unbrok5 canopy ( tops1 & t1 :]e trees gr[ s closely toge!r1 !y become v int]dep5d5t4 ,x is ?is int]dep5d5ce t makes ! =e/ diff]5t f a m]e gr\p ( trees 9 a p>k or on a lawn4 ,9 ?is composite "*1 ! =e/ enri*es its own soil f ye> to ye>1 *anges ! climate )9 its own b\nds1 controls ! /reams along its bord]s & supports a multitude ( animals & plants peculi> to itself4 ,?is communal relation%ip 9 ! life hi/ory ( ! =e/ furni%es a mo/ int]e/+ /ory ( /ruggle & mutual aid4 ,diff]5t trees h diff]5t requirem5ts ) reg>d to wat]1 food & light4 ,"s ne$ m wat] & food ?an o!rs1 "s w n endure mu* %ade1 & o!rs w gr[ 9 ! deepe/ %ade4 ,9 ! op51 a tree1 if once e/abli%$1 c meet its ne$s q readily &1 ?\gh x has to w>d (f a numb] ( enemies1 insects1 disease & w9d/orm--its /ruggle = exi/5ce is comp>atively easy4 ,9 ! =e/1 ! conditions are diff]5t4 ,"h1 ! tree-enemies h to be battl$ )1 j z 9 ! op51 & 9 addition1 in/ead ( !re be+ only a few trees on a plot ( gr\nd1 !re are ?\s&s gr[+ on ! same area1 all dem&+ ! same ?+s out ( a limit$ supply4 ,! /ruggle = exi/5ce1 !re=e1 becomes ke51 _m fall+ beh9d & b few surviv+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abd4--,measur+ ! ,diamet] ( a ,tree & ,c\nt+ its ,annual ,r+s4 ,?is /ruggle beg9s ) ! se$4 ,at fir/ !re are ?\s&s ( se$s ca/ ^u a giv5 area by ! neighbor+ trees or by ! birds & ! w9ds4 ,( ^!1 only a few g]m9ate2 animals fe$ on "s ( !m1 fro/ nips "s & excessive moi/ure & unfavorable soil conditions prev5t o!rs f />t+4 ,! few successful ones soon spr\t into a numb] ( "y trees t gr[ ?riftily until _! cr[ns beg9 to meet4 ,:5 ! trees h ?us met1 ! /ruggle is at its height4 ,! side bran*es encroa* ^u ea* o!r 7,fig4 #abc71 %ut out ! light )\t :i* ! bran*es _c live1 & f9ally kill ea* o!r (f4 ,! upp] bran*es vie ) "o ano!r = light1 gr[ unusually fa/1 & ! trees increase 9 height ) special rapidity4 ,?is is nature's me?od ( produc+ cle>1 /raight trunks :i* are s desirable = poles & l>ge timb]4 ,9 ?is /ruggle = dom9ance1 "s survive & t[] above ! o!rs1 b _m become /unt$ & fail to gr[1 :ile ! majority become entirely ov]topp$ & succumb 9 ! /ruggle2 see ,fig4 #aci4 ,b 9 ?is /rife !re is also mutual aid4 ,ea* tree helps to protect its neighbors aga9/ ! dang] ( be+ uproot$ by ! w9d1 & aga9/ ! sun1 :i* is liable to dry up ! ri* soil ar\nd ! roots4 ,?is soil is diff]5t f ! soil on ! op5 lawn4 ,x consi/s ( an accumulation ( decay$ leaves mix$ ) inorganic matt]1 =m+1 toge!r1 a ri* composition kn[n z humus4 ,! trees also aid ea* o!r 9 =m+ a close canopy t prev5ts ! rapid evaporation ( wat] f ! gr\nd4 ,! int5sity ( ^! conditions w v>y a great deal ) ! composition ( ! =e/ & ! nature & habits ( ! individual trees4 ,by composition1 or type ( =e/1 is meant ! proportion 9 :i* ! v>i\s species ( trees are gr\p$2 i4e41 :e!r a c]ta9 section ( woodl& is compos$ ( "o species or ( a mixture ( species4 ,by habit is meant ! requirem5ts ( ! trees = light1 wat] & food4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abe4--,m\nta9 ,slopes 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a ,well ,cov]$ ) ,=e/s4 ,"s trees w gr[ 9 deep %ade :ile o!rs w dem& ! op54 ,9 ! matt] ( wat] & food1 ! individual requirem5ts ( diff]5t trees are equally m>k$4 ,! natural rapidity ( gr[? ( diff]5t species is also important1 & "o c>+ = a =e/ mu/ "k ?is rate ( gr[?1 n only z to ! individual species1 b also ) respect to ! =e/ z a :ole4 ,if he kn[s h[ fa/ ! trees 9 a =e/ gr[1 bo? 9 height & diamet]1 he w "k h[ mu* wood1 9 cubic feet1 ! =e/ produces 9 a ye>1 & he c !n det]m9e h[ mu* he may cut )\t decreas+ ! capital /ock4 ,! rate ( gr[? is det]m9$ 9 ?is way3 ,a tree is cut & ! r+s on ! cross-section surface are c\nt$ & measur$2 see ,fig4 #abd4 ,ea* r+ repres5ts "o ye>'s gr[?4 ,! total numb] ( r+s w %[ ! age ( ! tree4 ,by a /udy ( ! r+s ( ! v>i\s species ( trees on a giv5 plot1 ! rate ( gr[? ( ea* species 9 t location c be asc]ta9$ &1 by kn[+ ! approximate numb] ( trees ( ea* species on ! =e/ area1 ! rate ( gr[? ( ! :ole =e/ = any giv5 ye> c be det]m9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abf4--;,bottom ,l&s ,buri$ 9 ,wa/e f ,de=e/$ ,m\nta9s4 ,wu-t'ai-%an1 ,%an-si ,prov9ce1 ,*9a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abg4--;,erod$ ,slope 9 ,we/]n ,nor? ,c>ol9a4 ,=e/s prev5t soil erosion & floods3 ,=e/s help to regulate ! fl[ ( /reams & prev5t floods4 ,mo/ /reams are bord]$ by va/ tracts ( =e/ gr[?s4 ,! ra9 t falls on ^! =e/ areas is absorb$ & held by ! =e/ soil1 :i* is p]meat$ ) decay$ leaves1 decay$ wood & root fib]s4 ,! =e/ floor is1 moreov]1 cov]$ ) a heavy und]gr[? & ?us behaves l a sponge1 absorb+ ! wat] t falls ^u x & !n p]mitt+ x to ooze out gradually to ! valleys & riv]s bel[4 ,a =e/ soil w reta9 "o-half ( its own quantity ( wat]2 i4e41 = e foot 9 dep? ( soil !re c be six in*es ( wat] &1 :5 ?us saturat$1 ! soil w act z a va/1 und]gr\nd res]voir f :i* ! spr+s & /reams are suppli$ 7,fig4 #abe74 ,cut ! =e/ d[n & ! l& becomes su* a des]t z is %[n 9 ,fig4 #abf4 ,! soil1 leaves1 bran*es & fall5 trees dry to du/1 are c>ri$ (f by ! w9d &1 ) ! fall ( ra91 ! soil beg9s to wa% away & gullies1 su* z are %[n 9 ,fig4 #abg1 are =m$4 ,/reams g5]ally h _! orig9s 9 m\nta9 slopes & !re1 too1 ! =e/s1 imp$+ ! sudd5 run (f ( ! wat] :i* is n imm$iately absorb$1 prev5t soil erosion4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abh4--;,flood 9 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 ,:]e ! soil is all[$ to wa% (f1 frequ5t floods are inevitable4 ,ra9 :i* falls on b>e slopes is n caught by ! cr[ns ( trees nor held by ! =e/ floor4 ,x does n s9k into ! gr\nd z readily z 9 ! =e/4 ,! result is t a great deal ( wat] rea*es ! /reams 9 a %ort "t & ?us ha/5s floods4 ,at o!r p]iods ! /reams are l[ because ! wat] :i* w\ld h f$ !m = mon?s has run (f 9 a few days4 ,! f>ms are ! fir/ to suff] f ! dr\?s t foll[ &1 dur+ ! p]iod ( floods1 :ole cities are (t5 inundat$4 ,fig4 #abh %[s su* a sc5e4 ,! hi/ory ( ,=e/ry is full ( horrible incid5ts ( ! loss ( life & prop]ty f floods :i* are directly traceable to ! de/ruction ( ! local =e/s &1 on ! o!r h&1 !re are _m cases on record :]e flood conditions h be5 entirely obviat$ by ! plant+ ( =e/s4 ,france & ,g]many h suff]$ f inundations result+ f =e/ deva/ation &1 m ?an a hundr$ ye>s ago1 bo? ( ^! c\ntries took /eps to re=e/ _! m\nta9 slopes1 & !reby to prev5t _m horrible disa/]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abi4--,plant+ a ,=e/ ) ,se$l+ ,trees on ! ,nebraska ,national ,=e/4 ,! man on ! "r is plac+ ! tree 9 a slit j made ) ! spade4 ,! man on ! left is %ovel+ ! dry s& f ! surface be=e mak+ ! slit = ! tree4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acj4--;,diagrammatic ,illu/ration ( a ,selection ,=e/4 ,h[ =e/s are e/abli%$3 ,new =e/s may be />t$ f se$ or f %oots1 or suck]s4 ,if f se$1 ! process may be c>ri$ on 9 "o ( ?ree ways3 ,fir/1 by s[+ ! se$ directly on ! l&4 ,second1 by fir/ rais+ "y trees 9 nurs]ies & lat] sett+ !m out 9 _! p]man5t locations 9 ! =e/4 ,?is me?od is applicable :]e quick results are desir$1 :]e ! area is n too l>ge1 or 9 treeless regions & l>ge op5 gaps :]e !re is little *ance = new trees to spr+ up f se$ furni%$ by ! neighbor+ trees4 ,x is a me?od ext5sively practic$ abroad :]e "s ( ! f9e/ =e/s are ! result4 ,! ,u4,s4 gov]nm5t1 z well z _m ( ! ,/ates1 ma9ta9 =e/-tree nurs]ies :]e millions ( little trees are gr[n f se$ & plant$ out on ! ,national & ,/ate =e/s4 ,fig4 #abi %[s m5 engag$ 9 ?is "w4 ,! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( />t+ & ma9ta9+ a nurs]y h already be5 ref]r$ to 9 ! *apt] on ,:at ,trees to ,plant & ,h[4 ,! ?ird me?od ( e/abli%+ a =e/ f se$ is by cutt+ ! trees 9 ! exi/+ =e/ s t ! se$ fall+ f ! rema9+ trees w1 ) ! addition ( light & space1 readily take root & fill 9 ! gaps ) a vigor\s gr[? ( trees1 )\t artificial se$+ or plant+4 ,?is gives rise to sev]al me?ods ( cutt+ or h>ve/+ =e/s = ! purpose ( enc\rag+ natural reproduction4 ,! cutt+ may ext5d to s+le trees ov] ! :ole area or ov] only a "p ( ! :ole area4 ,:]e ! cutt+ is conf9$ to s+le trees1 ! sy/em is kn[n z ! ,selection ,sy/em1 because ! trees are select$ individually1 ) a view to reta9+ ! be/ & mo/ vigor\s /ock & remov+ ! ov]cr[d+ specim5s & ^? t are fully mature or infe/$ ) disease or insects4 ,fig4 #acj is a diagrammatic illu/ration ( ! op]ation ( ?is sy/em4 ,9 ano!r sy/em ! cutt+ is done 9 gr\ps1 or 9 /rips1 & ! numb] ( areas ( ! gr\ps or /rips is ext5d$ f "t to "t until ! :ole =e/ is cle>$4 ,?is sy/em is illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #aca4 ,/ill ano!r me?od consi/s 9 enc\rag+ trees :i* w ?rive 9 ! %ade1 su* z ! bee*1 spruce & hemlock1 to gr[ "u light-dem&+ trees l ! p9e4 ,?is sy/em pres5ts a two-/ori$ =e/ & is kn[n by t "n4 ,! "u /ory (t5 has to be e/abli%$ by plant+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aca4--;,diagrammatic ,illu/ration ( ! ,gr\p or ,/rip ,sy/em4 ,9 ! sy/em ( reproduc+ =e/s f %oots or suck]s1 all trees ( a c]ta9 species on a giv5 area are cut (f & ! old /umps & roots are dep5d$ ^u to produce a new set ( spr\ts1 ! /ronge/ ( :i* w lat] develop into trees4 ,! conif]\s trees d n l5d !mselves at all to ?is sy/em ( treatm5t1 &1 among ! broadleaf trees1 ! species v>y 9 _! ability to spr\t4 ,"s1 l ! *e/nut & popl>1 spr\t pr(usely2 o!rs spr\t v little4 ,h[ =e/s are protect$3 ,=e/ry also tries to protect ! =e/s f _m de/ructive ag5cies4 ,wa/eful lumb]+ & fire are ! wor/ enemies ( ! =e/4 ,fungi1 insects1 graz+1 w9d1 sn[ & floods are ! o!r enemies4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acb4--,! ,result ( a ,=e/ ,fire4 ,! trees1 lodgepole p9e & ,englemann spruce1 are all dead & d[n4 ,photograph tak5 9 ! ,colorado ,national ,=e/1 ,colorado4 ,by wa/eful lumb]+ is meant t ! =e/ is cut ) no reg>d = ! future & ) consid]able wa/e 9 ! utilization ( ! product4 ,cons]vative lumb]+1 :i* is ! t]m us$ by =e/]s to designate ! opposite ( wa/eful lumb]+1 w be describ$ m fully lat] 9 ?is /udy4 ,protection f fire is no less important ?an protection f wa/eful lumb]+4 ,=e/ fires are v common 9 ?is c\ntry & cause incalculable de/ruction to life & prop]ty2 see ,fig4 #acb4 ,f t5 to twelve million acres ( =e/-l& are burnt ov] annually & ! timb] de/roy$ is e/imat$ at fifty millions ( doll>s4 ,! hi/ory ( ,=e/ry ab\nds 9 tales ( de/ructive fires1 :]e ?\s&s ( p]sons h be5 kill$ or left de/itute1 :ole t[ns wip$ out1 & millions ( doll>s 9 prop]ty de/roy$4 ,9 mo/ cases1 ^! uncontrollable fires />t$ f small conflagrations t c\ld readily1 ) prop] fire-patrol1 h be5 put out4 ,!re are v>i\s ways ( fight+ fires1 dep5d+ on ! "* ( ! fire1--:e!r x is a surface fire1 burn+ along ! surface lay] ( dry leaves & small gr\nd vegetation1 a gr\nd fire1 burn+ bel[ ! surface1 ?r\gh ! lay] ( soil & vegetable matt] t g5]ally l9es ! =e/ floor1 or a top fire1 burn+ high up 9 ! trees4 ,:5 ! fire runs along ! surface only1 ! injury ext5ds to ! butts ( ! trees & to ! "y se$l+s4 ,su* fires c be put out by ?r[+ dirt or s& ov] ! fire1 by beat+ x1 &1 sometimes1 by m]ely rak+ ! leaves away4 ,gr\nd fires de/roy ! vegetable mold :i* ! trees ne$ = _! su/5ance4 ,!y progress sl[ly & kill or weak5 ! roots ( ! trees4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acc4--;,a ,top ,fire ne> ,be> ,canyon1 ,arizona4 ,top fires1 ,fig4 #acc1 are ! mo/ dang]\s1 de/roy+ ev]y?+ 9 _! way4 ,!y g5]ally develop f surface fires1 ?\gh sometimes !y are />t$ by lightn+4 ,!y are m common 9 conif]\s =e/s1 because ! leaves ( h>dwoods d n burn s readily4 ,*eck+ ! progress ( a top fire is a difficult matt]4 ,"s fires w travel z rapidly z five miles an h\r1 & ! heat is t]rific4 ,! only salvation = ! =e/ lies1 9 _m cases1 9 a sudd5 d[np\r ( ra91 a *ange ( w9d1 or "s b>ri] :i* ! fire _c pass4 ,a b>ri] ( ?is k9d is (t5 made by />t+ ano!r fire "s di/ance ahead ( ! pr9cipal "o1 s t :5 ! two fires meet1 !y w die out = want ( fuel4 ,9 well-kept =e/s1 /rips or lanes1 free f inflammable mat]ial1 are (t5 purposely made ?r\gh ! =e/ area to furni% protection aga9/ top fires4 ,c>efully manag$ =e/s are also patroll$ dur+ ! dry season s t fires may be detect$ & attack$ 9 _! fir/ /ages4 ,look-out /ations1 wat*-t[]s1 telephone-connections & signal /ations are o!r means frequ5tly resort$ to = fire protection & control4 ,notices w>n+ camp]s & trespass]s aga9/ />t+ fires are commonly po/$ 9 su* =e/s4 7,fig4 #adc47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acd4--,%eep ,graz+ on ,holy ,cross ,national ,=e/1 ,colorado4 ,! drove consi/s ( #afjj %eep1 ( :i* only "p are %[n 9 ! photograph4 ,! graz+ ( %eep1 goats & cattle 9 ! =e/ is ano!r important s\rce ( injury to :i* =e/]s mu/ give att5tion4 ,9 ! ,we/ ?is is q a problem1 =1 :5 _m ?\s&s ( ^! animals pass ?r\gh a =e/ 7,fig4 #acd71 !re is (t5 v little "y gr[? left & ! future reproduction ( ! =e/ is sev]ely ret>d$4 ,graz+ on our ,national ,=e/s is regulat$ by ! ,gov]nm5t4 ,z a means ( protection aga9/ insects & fungi1 all trees infe/$ are remov$ z soon z obs]v$ & 9 advance ( all o!rs1 :5ev] a lumb]+ op]ation is und]tak54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ace4--;,a ,typical ,montana ,sawmill4 ,h[ =e/s are h>ve/$3 ,=e/ry & =e/ pres]vation require t a =e/ %\ld be cut & n m]ely held unt\*$4 ,b x also dem&s t ! cutt+ %all be done on sci5tific pr9ciples1 & t only z mu* timb] %all be remov$ 9 a giv5 "t z ! =e/ c produce 9 a correspond+ p]iod4 ,aft] ! cutt+1 ! =e/ mu/ be left 9 a condition to produce ano!r crop ( timb] )9 a reasonable "t3 see ,fig4 #abb4 ,^! fundam5tal requirem5ts repres5t ! diff]5ce betwe5 cons]vative lumb]+ & ord9>y lumb]+4 ,besides insur+ a future supply ( timb]1 cons]vative lumb]+1 or lumb]+ on =e/ry pr9ciples1 also t5ds to pres]ve ! =e/ floor & ! "y trees gr[+ on x1 & to prev5t injury to ! rema9+ trees ?r\gh fire1 insects & disease4 ,x provides = a work+ plan by :i* ! k9d1 numb] & location ( ! trees to be cut are specifi$1 ! height ( ! /umps is /ipulat$ & ! utilization ( ! wood & by-products is regulat$4 ,cons]vative lumb]+ provides t ! trees %all be cut z ne> to ! gr\nd z possible & t !y %all be fell$ ) ! lea/ damage to ! "y trees gr[+ ne> by4 ,! bran*es ( ! trees1 aft] !y h be5 fell$1 mu/ be cut & pil$ 9 heaps1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #abb1 to prev5t fire4 ,:5 ! trunks1 saw$ into logs1 are dragg$ ?r\gh ! woods1 c>e is tak5 n to break d[n ! "y trees or to injure ! b>k ( /&+ trees4 ,wa/e 9 ! process ( manufacture is provid$ aga9/1 uses are f\nd = ! mat]ial ord9>ily reject$1 & ! be/ me?ods ( h&l+ & dry+ lumb] are employ$4 ,fig4 #ace %[s a typical sawmill capable ( provid+ lumb] 9 l>ge quantities4 ,9 ! utilization ( ! by-products ( ! =e/1 su* z turp5t9e & res91 ,=e/ry has devis$ num]\s me?ods = h>ve/+ ! crops ) great] economy & ) lea/ wa/e & injury to ! trees f :i* ! by-products are obta9$4 ,fig4 #acf illu/rates an improv$ me?od by :i* crude turp5t9e is obta9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acf4--;,ga!r+ ,crude ,turp5t9e by ! ,cup & ,gutt] ,me?od4 ,?is sy/em1 devis$ by =e/]s1 saves ! trees & increases ! output4 ,=e/ry "h & abroad3 ,=e/ry is practic$ 9 e civiliz$ c\ntry except ,*9a & ,turkey4 ,9 ,g]many1 ,=e/ry has atta9$1 ?r\gh a long s]ies ( ye>s1 a rem>kable /ate ( sci5tific ?or\ghness & has greatly increas$ ! annual output ( ! =e/s ( t c\ntry4 ,9 ,france1 ,switz]l&1 ,au/ria1 ,hung>y1 ,norway1 ,sw$51 ,russia & ,d5m>k1 ,=e/ry is also practic$ on sci5tific pr9ciples & ! gov]nm5t 9 ea* ( ^! c\ntries holds l>ge tracts ( =e/s 9 res]ve4 ,9 ,briti% ,india "o f9ds a highly effici5t ,=e/ ,s]vice & 9 ,japan ,=e/ry is receiv+ consid]able att5tion4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! =e/ areas are controll$ by private int]e/s1 by ! ,gov]nm5t & by ! ,/ates4 ,on privately own$ =e/s1 ,=e/ry is practic$ only 9 isolat$ cases4 ,! ,/ates are tak+ hold ( ! problem v actively & 9 _m ( !m we n[ f9d special ,=e/ry ,commissions au?oriz$ to c>e = va/ areas ( =e/ l& res]v$ = ,/ate control4 ,^! ,commissions employ te*nically tra9$ =e/]s :o n only protect ! ,/ate =e/s1 b also plant new areas1 enc\rage =e/ plant+ on private l&s & dissem9ate =e/ry in=mation among ! citiz5s4 ,new ,york ,/ate has su* a ,commission t c>es = m ?an a million acres ( =e/ l& locat$ 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ! ,/ate4 ,_m o!r ,/ates are equally progressive4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,gov]nm5t is ! mo/ active factor 9 ! pres]vation ( our =e/s4 ,! ,gov]nm5t to-day owns ov] two hundr$ million acres ( =e/ l&1 set aside z ,national ,=e/s4 ,!re are "o hundr$ & fifty individual res]ves1 di/ribut$ z %[n 9 ,fig4 #acg & c>$ = by ! ,=e/ ,s]vice1 a bureau 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture4 ,ea* ( ! =e/s is 9 *>ge ( a sup]visor4 ,he has ) him a pr(essional =e/] & a body ( m5 :o patrol ! tract aga9/ fire & ! illegal cutt+ ( timb]4 ,"s ( ! m5 are engag$ 9 plant+ trees on ! op5 areas & o!rs 9 /udy+ ! important =e/ problems ( ! region4 ,fig4 #ach4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acg4--,map ,%[+ ,our ,national ,=e/s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ach4--;,gov]nm5t ,=e/]s 9 ,miss\ri ,/udy+ ! ,gr[? & ,habits ( ,trees4 ,!y are /&+ 9 wat] ?ree feet deep4 ,:]e cutt+ is to be done on a ,national ,=e/1 ! conditions are inve/igat$ by a te*nically tra9$ =e/] & ! cutt+ is regulat$ accord+ to 8 f9d+s4 ,special att5tion is giv5 to discov]+ new uses = species ( trees :i* h hi!rto be5 consid]$ valueless1 & ! dem& ^u c]ta9 r>e species is less5$ by introduc+ m common woods :i* are suitable = use 9 _! place4 ,aside f ! p]petuation ( ! national =e/s1 ! ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice also und]takes su* tree /udies z lie beyond ! p[] or means ( private individuals4 ,x ?us /&s ready to coop]ate ) all :o ne$ assi/ance4 ,,/udy ,,ii4 ,,c>e ,,( ,,! ,,woodl& ,almo/ e f>m1 l>ge private e/ate or p>k has a wood$ area = ! purpose ( supply+ fuel or = enhanc+ ! l&scape effect ( ! place4 ,9 mo/ in/ances ^! wood$ areas are entirely neglect$ or are s improp]ly c>$ = z to cause injury r ?an good4 ,9 b v few cases is provision made = a future gr[? ( trees aft] ! pres5t /ock has gone4 ,prop] att5tion w increase & p]petuate a crop ( good trees j z x w any o!r crop on ! f>m1 :ile ! attractiv5ess ( ! place may be greatly enhanc$ ?r\gh ! intellig5t plant+ & c>e ( trees4 ,h[ to judge ! conditions3 ,a close exam9ation ( ! wood$ area may reveal "s or all ( ! foll[+ unfavorable conditions3 ,! trees may be s cr[d$ t none c gr[ well4 ,a few may h gr[n to l>ge size b ! re/ usually are decrepit1 & ov]topp$ by ! l>g] trees4 ,!y are1 !re=e1 unable1 = ! want ( light & space1 to develop into good trees4 ,fig4 #aci %[s woodl& 9 su* condition4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aci4--,woodl& :i* ,ne$s ,att5tion4 ,! trees are ov]cr[d$4 ,!re may also be dead & dy+ trees1 trees infe/$ ) injuri\s insects & fungi & hav+ any numb] ( decay$ bran*es4 ,! trees may be gr[+ s f> ap>t t _! trunks w be cov]$ ) suck]s z f> d[n z ! gr\nd1 or !re may be l>ge1 op5 gaps ) no trees at all4 ,"h ! sun1 /rik+ ) full =ce1 may be dry+ up ! soil & prev5t+ ! decomposition ( ! leaves4 ,grass soon />ts to gr[ 9 ^! op5 spaces & ! :ole "* ( ! woodl& *anges z %[n 9 ,figs4 #adj & #ada4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adj4--;,fir/ ,/age ( ,det]ioration4 ,! woodl& is too op5 & grass has tak5 ! place ( ! humus cov]4 ,:]e any ( ^! conditions exi/1 ! woodl& requires imm$iate att5tion4 ,o!rwise1 z "t goes on1 x det]iorates m & m1 ! /ruggle = space among ! cr[d$ & suppress$ trees becomes m ke51 ! insects 9 ! dy+ trees multiply & disease spreads f tree to tree4 ,"u su* conditions1 ! soil det]iorates & ! old] trees beg9 to suff]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ada4--,second ,/age ( ,det]ioration4 ,! ,surface ,soil ( ! ,wood$ ,area ,has ,wa%$ ,away & ! ,trees ,h ,di$4 ,! att5tion requir$ = ! prop] c>e ( woodl& may be summ$ up "u ! f\r g5]al heads ( soil pres]vation1 plant+1 cutt+1 & protection4 ,improvem5t by soil pres]vation3 ,! soil 9 a wood$ area c be/ be pres]v$ & kept ri* by do+ two ?+s2 by reta9+ ! fall5 leaves on ! gr\nd & by keep+ ! gr\nd well cov]$ ) a heavy gr[? ( trees1 %rubs & h]bace\s plants4 ,! fall5 leaves decompose1 mix ) ! soil & =m a d>k-color$ mat]ial kn[n z humus4 ,! humus supplies ! tree ) a consid]able portion ( its food & helps to absorb & reta9 ! moi/ure 9 ! soil ^u :i* ! tree is greatly dep5d5t4 ,a heavy gr[? ( trees & %rubs has a simil> effect by s]v+ to reta9 ! moi/ure 9 ! soil4 ,improvem5t by plant+3 ,! plant+ ( new trees is a necessity on almo/ any wood$ area4 ,= ev5 :]e ! exi/+ trees are 9 good condition1 !y _c la/ =ev]1 & provision mu/ be made = o!rs to take _! place aft] !y are gone4 ,! majority ( ! wood$ areas 9 our p>ks & on private e/ates are n provid$ ) a suffici5t und]gr[? ( desirable trees to take ! place ( ! old] ones4 ,?us1 also1 ! op5 gaps mu/ be plant$ to prev5t ! soil f det]iorat+4 ,wa/e l&s on f>ms :i* are unsuit$ = f>m crops (t5 (f] areas on :i* trees may pr(itably be plant$4 ,^! l&s are suffici5tly good 9 mo/ cases to gr[ trees1 ?us af=d+ a means ( turn+ into value gr\nd :i* w\ld o!rwise be wor?less4 ,x has be5 demon/rat$ t ! returns f su* plantations at ! end ( fifty ye>s w yield a six p] c5t inve/m5t & an extra pr(it ( #aea4ig p] acre1 ! exp5se total+ at ! end ( fifty ye>s1 #cjg4jc4 ,! value ( ! l& is e/imat$ at #d p] acre & ! co/ ( ! trees & plant+ at #g p] acre4 ,! species figur$ on "h is :ite p9e1 "o ( ! be/ trees to plant f a comm]cial /&po9t4 ,) o!r trees1 ! returns w v>y accord+ly4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adb4--;,a ,f>m ,woodlot4 ,! usual idea t x co/s a great deal to plant sev]al ?\s& "y trees is errone\s4 ,an ord9>y woodlot may be /ock$ ) a well-select$ numb] ( "y trees at a co/ less ?an ! price g5]ally paid = a doz5 good specim5 trees = ! front lawn4 ,x is n necess>y to und]plant ! woodlot ) big trees4 ,! exi/+ big trees are !re to give "* to ! =e/ & ! new plant+ %\ld be done pr9cipally z a future inve/m5t & z a means ( p]petuat+ ! life ( ! woodlot4 ,"y trees are ev5 m desirable = su* plant+ ?an ! old] & m exp5sive ones4 ,! "y trees w adapt !mselves to ! local soil & climatic conditions m easily ?an ! old] ones4 ,_! dem& = food & moi/ure is m easily satisfi$1 & because ( _! small co/1 "o c ev5 af=d to lose a l>ge p]c5tage ( !m aft] plant+4 ,! "y plants %\ld be two-ye>-old se$l+s or ?ree-ye>-old transplants4 ,two-ye>-old se$l+s are trees t h be5 gr[n f ! se$ 9 se$ b$s until !y rea* t age4 ,!y run f two to fifte5 in*es 9 height1 dep5d+ ^u ! species4 ,?ree-ye>-old transplants h be5 gr[n f ! se$ 9 se$ b$s & at ! end ( ! fir/ or second ye> h be5 tak5 up & transplant$ into r[s1 :]e !y gr[ a ye> or two long]4 ,!y are usually a little tall] ?an ! two-ye>-old se$l+s1 are mu* /ocki] & h a bett] root sy/em4 ,= ?is reason1 ?ree-ye>-old transplants are a little m desirable z /ock = plant+4 ,!y w )/& dr\ght bett] ?an se$l+s4 ,! be/ results f woodl& plant+ are obta9$ ) native-gr[n mat]ial4 ,su* /ock is /rong]1 h>di] & bett] acclimat$4 ,=eign-gr[n /ock is usually a little *eap]1 ow+ to ! fact t x has be5 gr[n abroad1 "u *eap labor conditions4 ,! trees may be pur*as$ f reputable deal]s1 ( :om !re are _m 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,^! deal]s specialize 9 gr[+ "y trees & sell+ !m at ! l[ co/ ( ?ree to t5 doll>s p] ?\s&4 ,9 ,/ates 9 :i* a ,=e/ry ,commission has be5 inaugurat$1 !re h also be5 e/abli%$ ,/ate nurs]ies :]e millions ( little trees are gr[n = re=e/ation purposes4 ,9 ord] to enc\rage private tree plant+1 ! ,=e/ry ,commissions are usually will+ to sell "s ( ^! trees at co/ price1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 to private l& own]s4 ,inquiries %\ld be made to ! ,/ate ,=e/ry ,commission4 ,great c>e mu/ be tak5 to select ! species mo/ suitable = ! p>ticul> soil1 climatic & light conditions ( ! woodlot4 ,! trees :i* are native to ! locality & are f\nd gr[+ ?riftily on ! woodlot1 are ! ones t h prov5 _! adaptability to ! local conditions & %\ld !re=e be ! pr9cipal species us$ = und]plant+4 ,a li/ f :i* to select ! ma9 /ock w\ld1 !re=e1 v>y ) ! locality4 ,9 ! ,ea/]n ,/ates x w\ld comprise ! usual h>dy trees l ! r$1 p9 & sc>let oaks1 ! bee*1 ! r$ & sug> maples1 ! :ite a%1 ! tulip tree1 sycamore1 sweet gum & locu/ among ! decidu\s trees2 ! :ite1 ,au/rian1 r$1 pit* & ,scot* p9es1 ! hemlock & ! yew among ! conif]s4 ,) ! ma9 /ock well select$1 "o may add a numb] ( trees & %rubs t w give to ! woodl& sc5e a pleas+ appe>ance at all seasons4 ,! brilliant autumnal t9ts ( ! sassafras1 pepp]idge1 blue bee*1 viburnum1 juneb]ry & suma* are /rik+ly attractive4 ,! fl[]+ dogwood along ! drives & pa?s w add a *>m 9 ,june z well z 9 autumn & an occasional gr\p ( :ite bir* w h ! same effect if plant$ among gr\ps ( ev]gre5s4 ,additional und]gr[? ( native woodl& %rubs1 su* z ,new ,j]sey tea1 r$-b]ri$ eld] & blueb]ry = ! ,ea/]n ,/ates1 w augm5t ! naturalness ( ! sc5e & help to cons]ve ! moi/ure 9 ! soil4 ,two or ?ree ye>s' gr[? w raise ^! plants above all grass & l[ vegetation1 & a spr9kl+ ( laurel1 rhodod5dron1 h>dy f]ns & a few int]m+l+ colonies ( native wild fl[]s su* z bloodroot1 false ,solomon's seal & columb9es = ! ,ea/1 z a gr\nd cov] w put ! f9i%+ t\*es to ! =e/ sc5e4 ,z to me?ods ( plant+ ! little trees1 ! foll[+ sugge/ions may prove ( value4 ,z soon z ! plants are receiv$1 !y %\ld be tak5 f ! box & dipp$ 9 a ?ick puddle ( wat] & loam4 ,! roots mu/ be ?or\ghly cov]$ ) ! mud4 ,!n ! bundles into :i* ! little trees are ti$ %\ld be loos5$ & ! trees plac$ 9 a tr5* dug on a slant4 ,! dirt %\ld be plac$ ov] ! roots & ! expos$ p>ts ( ! plants cov]$ ) bru% or burlap to keep away ! rays ( ! sun4 ,:5 ready = plant+1 a few plants are dug up1 set 9 a pail ) ?9 mud at ! bottom & c>ri$ to ! place ( plant+4 ,! mo/ economical me?od ( plant+ is = "o man to make ! holes ) a mattock4 ,^! holes are made ab\t a foot 9 diamet]1 by scrap+ (f ! sod ) ! mattock & !n digg+ a little hole 9 ! dirt und]nea?4 ,a second man foll[s ) a pail ( plants & sets a s+le plant 9 ?is hole ) 8 h&s1 see ,fig4 #abi1 mak+ sure t ! roots are /raight & spread out on ! bottom ( ! hole4 ,! dirt %\ld !n be pack$ firmly ar\nd ! plant & press$ d[n ) ! foot4 ,improvem5t by cutt+3 ,! removal ( c]ta9 trees 9 a grove is (t5 necess>y to improve ! quality ( ! bett] trees1 increase _! gr[?1 make ! place accessible1 & enhance its beauty4 ,cutt+ 9 a wood$ area %\ld be conf9$ to suppress$ trees1 dead & dy+ trees & trees badly infe/$ ) insects & disease4 ,9 case ( f>m woodl&s1 mature trees ( m>ket value may be cut1 b 9 p>ks & on private e/ates ^! h a great] value :5 left /&+4 ,! cutt+ %\ld leave a clean /& ( well-select$ specim5s :i* w ?rive "u ! favorable influ5ce ( m light & gr[+ space4 ,consid]able c>e is requir$ to prev5t injury to ! "y trees :5 ! old] specim5s are cut & haul$ out ( ! woods4 ,! m>k+ ( ! trees to be remov$ c be/ be done 9 summ] :5 ! dead & live trees c be di/+ui%$ ) ease & :5 ! requisite gr[+ space = ea* tree c be judg$ bett] f ! d5sity ( ! cr[ns4 ,! cutt+1 h[ev]1 c be done mo/ advantage\sly 9 w9t]4 ,imm$iately aft] cutt+ all diseas$ & infe/$ wood %\ld be de/roy$4 ,! s\nd wood may be utiliz$ = v>i\s purposes4 ,! bigg] logs may be sold to ! local lumb] deal]s & ! small] mat]ial may be us$ = firewood4 ,! rema9+ bru% %\ld be )drawn f ! woodlot to prev5t fire dur+ ! dry summ] mon?s4 ,9 m>k+ trees = removal1 a numb] ( consid]ations are to be borne 9 m9d besides ! elim9ation ( dead1 diseas$ & suppress$ trees4 ,:5 ! m>k] is work+ among cr[d+ trees ( equal height1 he %\ld save ^? t are mo/ likely to gr[ into f9e specim5 trees & cut out all ^? t int]f]e ) !m4 ,! selection mu/ also favor trees :i* are be/ adapt$ to ! local soil & climatic conditions & ^? :i* w add to ! beauty ( ! place4 ,9 ?is respect ! me?od ( m>k+ w be diff]5t f t us$ 9 comm]cial =e/ry1 :]e ! aim is to net ! greate/ pr(it f ! timb]4 ,9 pure =e/ry practice1 "o sees no value 9 su* species z dogwood1 ironwood1 juneb]ry1 sumac & sassafras1 & w !re=e nev] all[ ^? to gr[ up 9 abundance & cr[d out o!r trees ( a high] m>ket value4 ,b on private e/ates & 9 p>k woodl&s :]e beauty is an important consid]ation1 su* species add wond]ful color & attractiv5ess to ! =e/ sc5e1 especially along ! roads & pa?s1 & %\ld be favor$ z mu* z ! o!r h>di] trees4 ,"o mu/ n m>k too sev]ely 9 "o spot or ! soil w be dri$ out f exposure to sun & w9d4 ,:5 ! gaps betwe5 ! trees are too l>ge1 ! trees w gr[ m sl[ly & ! trunks w become cov]$ ) num]\s %oots or suck]s :i* deprive ! cr[ns ( _! necess>y food & cause !m to die back4 ,:]e ! trees are tall & slim or on %ort & /eep hillsides1 x is also important to be cons]vative 9 m>k+ 9 ord] t ! /& may n be expos$ to ! dang]s ( w9dfall4 ,no h>d-&-fa/ rule c be laid d[n z to :at w\ld con/itute a cons]vative p]c5tage ( trees to cut d[n4 ,?is dep5ds entirely on ! local conditions & on ! exposure ( ! woodlot4 ,b 9 g5]al x is n well to remove m ?an tw5ty p] c5t ( ! /& nor to repeat ! cutt+ on ! same spot (t5] ?an once 9 five or six ye>s4 ,! fir/ cutt+ w1 ( c\rse1 be ! heavie/ & all subsequ5t cutt+s w become light] & light] until ! woodlot is put 9 good gr[+ condition4 ,on private e/ates & p>ks1 :]e beauty is ! *ief aim1 ! woodl& %\ld be kept z natural1 in=mal & z ?ick z possible4 ,:]e ! woodl& is cut up by _m pa?s & drives1 d5sity ( vegetation w add to ! impression ( dep? & di/ance4 ,protection3 ,?is subject has already be5 discuss$ consid]ably 9 ! previ\s /udy on ,=e/ry1 & "h x becomes necess>y m]ely to add a few sugge/ions ) special ref]5ce to private & p>k woodl&s4 ,gu>d+ woodl&s f fire is ! mo/ important =m ( protection4 ,surface fires are v common on small woodl& hold+s & ! damage done to ! /&+ vegetation is g5]ally und]e/imat$4 ,an ord9>y gr\nd or surface fire on a woodl& area w burn up ! leaf-litt] & vegetable mold1 ^u :i* ! trees dep5d s mu* = food & moi/ure1 & w de/roy ! "y se$l+s on ! gr\nd4 ,:]e ! fire is a little m sev]e1 ! old] trees are badly w\nd$ & weak5$ & ! y\ng] trees are frequ5tly kill$ outright4 ,insects & disease f9d ^! trees an easy prey1 & all relat$ =e/ conditions comm5ce to det]iorate4 ,con/ant wat*fulness & read9ess to meet any em]g5cy are ! keynote ( effective fire protection4 ,notices simil> to ! "o %[n 9 ,fig4 #adc (t5 help to prev5t fires4 ,x is also helpful to in/itute /rict rules aga9/ dropp+ light$ mat*es or tobacco1 or burn+ bru% :5 ! gr\nd is v dry1 or leav+ sm\ld]+ wood )\t wait+ to see t ! fire is completely out4 ,!re %\ld be _m roads & foot-pa?s w9d+ ?r\gh ! woodl& 9 ord] t !y may s]ve z *ecks or fire lanes 9 "t ( fire4 ,^! roads & pa?s %\ld be kept free f bru% & leaves & %\ld be frequ5tly patroll$4 ,:5 made n too wide1 unpret5ti\s & 9 con=mity ) ! natural surr\nd+s1 su* drives & pa?s c become a v int]e/+ feature ( ! place1 w9d+ ?r\gh ! woodl&1 expos+ its *>ms & af=d+ opportunity = pleasant driv+ & walk+4 ,! bord]s ( ! pa?s c be giv5 special att5tion by plac+ ! m beautiful native %rubs 9 prom95t positions :]e !y c l5d increas$ attractiv5ess4 ,9 case ( fire1 x %\ld be possible to call = aid by telephone directly f ! woodl& & to f9d )9 easy rea* ! tools necess>y to combat fire4 ,x is also important to obta9 ! co-op]ation ( "o's neighbors 9 protect+ ! adjo9+ woodl&s1 because ! dang]s f insects1 disease & fire ?reat5+ "o bit ( woodl& area are m or less dep5d5t ^u ! conditions 9 ! adjo9+ woodl&4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adc4--,po/] ,suitable = ,private ,woodl&s & ,=e/ ,p>ks4 ,! translations 9 ,italian & ,poli% h be5 us$ by ! writ] 9 ?is p>ticul> in/ance to meet ! local ne$s4 ,z to o!r =ms ( protection1 pass+ m5tion may be made ( ! importance ( keep+ out cattle1 %eep & hogs f ! woods1 ( elim9at+ all insects & disease1 ( keep+ ! gr\nd free f bru% & o!r inflammable mat]ial1 ( reta9+ on ! gr\nd all fall5 leaves & keep+ ! =e/ well /ock$ ) little trees & %rubs4 ,=e/ l&s may be exempt$ f taxation3 ,9 ,new ,york & o!r ,/ates !re exi/s a ,/ate law provid+ = exemption or r$uction 9 taxes ^u l&s :i* are plant$ ) =e/ trees or ma9ta9$ z wood$ areas4 ,! object ( ! law is to enc\rage home =e/ry & to e/abli% fairness 9 ! agricultural l&-tax law by plac+ =e/ l&s 9 ! same category ) o!r crop-produc+ l&s4 ,= detail$ in=mation & a copy ( ! law1 "o %\ld address ! local ,/ate ,=e/ry ,commission4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,our ,,common ,,woods3 ,,_! ,,id5tification1 ,,prop]ties ,,& ,,uses ,woods h diff]5t values = v>i\s practical purposes because ( _! peculi>ities 9 /ructure4 ,a k ( ! /ructural p>ts ( wood is !re=e necess>y z a means ( recogniz+ ! wood & ( det]m9+ :y "o piece is /rong]1 heavi]1 t\gh]1 or bett] adapt$ = a giv5 s]vice ?an ano!r4 ,/ructure ( wood3 ,if "o exam9es a cross-section ( ! bole ( a tree1 he w note t x is compos$ ( sev]al di/9ct p>ts1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ade4 ,at ! v c5t] is a small core ( s(t tissue kn[n z ! pi?4 ,x is ( mu* ! same /ructure z ! pi? ( corn/alk or eld]1 ) :i* all are famili>4 ,at ! outside is ! b>k1 :i* =ms a protective cov]+ ov] ! entire woody sy/em4 ,9 any b ! y\ng] /ems1 ! b>k is compos$ ( an inn]1 live lay]1 & an out] or dead portion4 ,betwe5 ! pi? at ! c5t] & ! b>k at ! outside is ! wood4 ,x w be not$ t ! portion next to ! b>k is :ite or yell[i% 9 color4 ,?is is ! sapwood4 ,x is pr9cipally ?r\gh ! sapwood t ! wat] tak5 9 by ! roots is c>ri$ up to ! leaves4 ,9 "s cases ! sapwood is v ?9 & 9 o!rs x is v ?ick1 dep5d+ p>tly on ! k9d ( tree1 & p>tly on its age & vigor4 ,! m leaves on a tree ! m sapwood x mu/ h to supply !m ) moi/ure4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #add4--,p9e ,wood4 7,magnifi$ #cj times47 ,v "y trees are all sapwood1 b1 z !y get old]1 "p ( ! wood is no long] ne$$ to c>ry sap & x becomes he>twood4 ,he>twood is d>k] ?an ! sapwood1 sometimes only slightly1 b 9 o!r in/ances x may v>y f a light-br[n color to jet black4 ,x t5ds to fill ) gums1 res9s1 pigm5ts & o!r sub/ances1 b o!rwise its /ructure is ! same z t ( ! sapwood4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ade4--;,cross-section ( ,oak4 ,! wood ( all our common trees is produc$ by a ?9 lay] ( cells j b5ea? ! b>k1 ! cambium4 ,! cambium adds new wood on ! outside ( t previ\sly =m$ & new b>k on ! inside ( ! old b>k4 ,a tree gr[s mo/ rapidly 9 ! spr+1 & ! wood =m$ at t "t is mu* light]1 s(t] & m por\s ?an t =m$ lat] 9 ! season1 :i* is usually q h>d & d5se4 ,^! two portions1 kn[n z e>ly wood or spr+ wood1 & late wood or summ] wood1 toge!r make up "o ye>'s gr[? & are = t reason call$ annual r+s4 ,trees su* z palms & yucca d n gr[ 9 ?is way1 b _! wood is n important en\gh 9 ?is c\ntry to w>rant a description4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adf4--,:ite ,oak ,wood4 7,magnifi$ #bj times47 ,if ! end ( a piece ( oak wood is exam9$1 a numb] ( l9es w be se5 radiat+ out t[>d ! b>k l ! spokes 9 a :eel4 ,^! are ! m$ull>y rays4 ,!y are pres5t 9 all woods1 b only 9 a few species are !y v prom95t to ! unaid$ eye4 ,^! rays produce ! flakes or mirrors t make qu>t]saw$ 7radially cut7 wood s beautiful4 ,!y are ?9 plates or %eets ( cells ly+ 9 betwe5 ! o!r wood cells4 ,!y ext5d out into ! inn] b>k4 ,:ile mu* may be se5 ) ! unaid$ eye1 bett] results c be secur$ by ! use ( a good magnify+ glass4 ,! end ( ! wood %\ld be smoo!d (f ) a v %>p knife2 a dull "o w te> & break ! cells s t ! /ructure becomes obscur$4 ,) any good h& l5s a great _m details w !n appe> :i* be=e 7 n visible4 ,9 ! case ( "s woods l oak1 a%1 & *e/nut1 x w be f\nd t ! e>ly wood conta9s _m comp>atively l>ge op5+s1 call$ pores1 z %[n 9 ,figs4 #adf & #adg4 ,pores are cross-sections ( vessels :i* are little tube-l elem5ts runn+ ?r\gh\t ! tree4 ,! vessels are wat] c>ri]s4 ,a wood ) its l>ge pores collect$ into "o r[ or 9 a s+le b& is said to be r+-por\s4 ,fig4 #adf %[s su* an arrangem5t4 ,a wood ) its pores scatt]$ ?r\gh\t ! ye>'s gr[? in/ead ( collect$ 9 a r+ is diffuse-por\s4 ,maple1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #aeb1 is ( ?is "*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adg4--;,example ( ! ,black ,oak ,gr\p4 7,qu]cus cocc9ea47 7,magnifi$ #bj times47 ,all ( our broadleaf woods are ei!r r+-por\s or diffuse-por\s1 ?\gh "s ( !m1 l ! walnut1 are ne>ly half way betwe5 ! two gr\ps4 ,if ! wood ( hickory1 = example1 be exam9$ ) ! magnify+ l5s1 x w be se5 t !re are num]\s small pores 9 ! late wood1 :ile runn+ p>allel ) ! annual r+s are little :ite l9es su* z are %[n 9 ,fig4 #adi4 ,^! are l9es ( wood p>5*yma4 ,wood p>5*yma is f\nd 9 all woods1 arrang$ sometimes 9 tang5tial l9es1 sometimes surr\nd+ ! pores & sometimes di/ribut$ ov] ! cross-section4 ,! d>k1 horn-l portions ( hickory & oak are ! woodfib]s4 ,!y give ! /r5g? to wood4 ,9 _m ( ! diffuse-por\s woods1 ! pores are too small to be se5 ) ! unaid$ eye1 & 9 "s cases !y are n v di/9ct ev5 :5 view$ ) a magnifi]4 ,x is necess>y to /udy su* examples closely 9 ord] n to confuse !m ) ! woods ( conif]s4 ,! woods ( conif]s are q diff]5t 9 /ructure f broadleaf woods1 ?\gh ! diff]5ce may n always /& out prom95tly4 ,conif]\s woods h no pores1 _! rays are always n>r[ & inconspicu\s1 & wood p>5*yma is nev] prom95t4 ,! woods ( ! p9es1 spruces1 l>*es1 & ,d\glas fir diff] f ^? ( ! o!r conif]s 9 hav+ res9 ducts1 ,fig4 #add4 ,9 p9es ^! are readily visible to ! nak$ eye1 appe>+ z res9\s dots on cross-sections & z p9 scrat*es or d>k l9es on longitud9al surfaces4 ,! pres5ce or abs5ce ( res9 ducts is a v important feature 9 id5tify+ woods1 h5ce x is v important to make a c>eful se>* = !m :5 !y are n readily visible4 ,h[ to id5tify a specim5 ( wood3 ,! fir/ ?+ to d 9 id5tify+ a piece ( wood is to cut a smoo? section at ! end & note 7)\t ! magnifi]7 ! color1 ! prom95ce ( ! rays & pores1 & any o!r /rik+ features4 ,if ! pores are readily visible1 ! wood is f a broadleaf tree2 if ! l>ge pores are collect$ 9 a r+ x belongs to ! r+-por\s division ( ! broadleaf woods4 ,if ! rays are q conspicu\s & ! wood is h>d & heavy1 x is oak1 z ! key giv5 lat] w %[4 ,close att5tion to ! details ( ! key w enable "o to decide to :at gr\p ( oaks x belongs4 ,9 mo/ cases ! /ructure w n /& out s prom95tly z 9 oak1 s t x is necess>y to make a c>eful /udy ) ! h& l5s4 ,if pores appe>1 _! arrangem5t1 bo? 9 ! e>ly wood & 9 ! late wood1 %\ld be c>efully not$2 also :e!r ! pores are op5 or fill$ ) a fro?-l sub/ance kn[n z tyloses4 ,wood p>5*yma l9es %\ld be look$ =1 & if pres5t1 ! arrangem5t ( ! l9es %\ld be not$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adh4--7,magnifi$ ab\t #h times47 ,if no pores appe> "u ! magnify+ l5s1 look closely = res9 ducts4 ,if ^! are f\nd1 note :e!r !y are l>ge or small1 num]\s or scatt]$1 op5 or clos$1 light] or d>k] ?an ! wood4 ,note also :e!r ! late wood is v heavy & h>d1 %[+ a decid$ contra/ to ! e>ly wood1 or fairly s(t & grad+ into ! e>ly wood )\t abrupt *ange4 ,weigh ! piece 9 y\r h&1 smell a fre%-cut surface to detect ! odor1 if any1 & ta/e a *ip to see if any?+ *>act]i/ic is discov]able4 ,!n turn to ! foll[+ key3 ,,key ,i4 ,,woods ,,)\t ,,pores--,,conif]s ,,or ,,s-,,call$ ,,s(twoods ,a4 ,woods ) res9 ducts4 #a4 ,p9es4 ,fig4 #add4 ,res9 ducts num]\s1 prom95t1 fairly ev5ly di/ribut$4 ,wood (t5 pit*y4 ,res9\s odor di/9ct4 ,cle> dem>cation betwe5 he>t & sapwood4 ,!re are two gr\ps ( p9es--s(t & h>d4 7a7 ,s(t ,p9es4 ,wood light1 s(t1 n /rong1 ev5-textur$1 v easy to "w4 ,*ange f e>ly wood to late wood is gradual & ! diff]5ce 9 d5sity is n great4 7b7 ,h>d ,p9es4 ,wood v>iable b typically r heavy1 h>d & /rong1 unev5 textur$1 fairly easy to "w4 ,*ange f e>ly wood to late wood is abrupt & ! diff]5ce 9 d5sity & color is v m>k$1 consequ5tly alt]nate lay]s ( light & d>k wood %[4 ,! wood ( ne>ly all p9es is v ext5sively employ$ 9 con/ruction "w & 9 g5]al c>p5try4 #b4 ,d\glas fir4 ,res9 ducts less num]\s & conspicu\s ?an 9 ! p9es1 irregul>ly di/ribut$1 (t5 9 small gr\ps4 ,odorless or ne>ly s4 ,he>twood & sapwood di/9ct4 ,! wood is ( two k9ds4 ,9 "o ! gr[? r+s are n>r[ & ! wood is r light & s(t1 easy to "w1 r$di% yell[ 9 color2 9 ! o!r ! gr[? r+s are wide1 ! wood is r h>d to "w1 z !re is great contra/ betwe5 ! weak e>ly wood & ! v d5se late wood ( ! annual r+s4 ,d\glas fir is a tree ( great economic importance on ! ,pacific ,coa/4 ,! wood is mu* l h>d p9e bo? 9 its appe>ance & its uses4 #c4 ,spruces4 ,res9 ducts few1 small1 unev5ly di/ribut$2 appe>+ mo/ly z :ite dots4 ,wood n res9\s2 odorless4 ,! wood is :ite or v light color$ ) a silky lu/] & ) little contra/ betwe5 he>t & sapwood4 ,x is a great deal l s(t p9e1 ?\gh light] 9 color & ) mu* few] & small] res9 ducts4 ,! wood is us$ = con/ruction1 c>p5try1 o>s1 s\nd+ bo>ds = musical in/rum5ts1 & pap] pulp4 #d4 ,tam>ack4 ,res9 ducts ! same z 9 ! spruces4 ,! color ( ! he>twood is yell[i% or russet br[n2 t ( ! di/9ct sapwood mu* light]4 ,! wood is consid]ably l h>d p9e1 b lacks ! res9\s odor & ! res9 ducts are mu* few] & small]4 ,! wood is us$ l>gely = cross-ties1 f5ce po/s1 telegraph & telephone poles1 & to a limit$ ext5t = lumb] 9 g5]al con/ruction4 ,b4 ,woods )\t res9 ducts4 #a4 ,hemlock4 ,! wood has a disagreeable1 rancid odor1 is spl9t]y1 n res9\s1 ) decid$ contra/ betwe5 e>ly & late wood4 ,color light br[n ) a slight t+e ( r$1 ! he>t little if any d>k] ?an ! sapwood4 ,hemlock makes a r poor lumb] :i* is us$ = g5]al con/ruction1 also = cross-ties1 & pulp4 #b4 ,balsam fir4 ,usually odorless1 n spl9t]y1 n res9\s1 ) little contra/ betwe5 e>ly & late wood4 ,color :ite or v light br[n ) a p9ki% hue to ! late wood4 ,he>twood little if any d>k] ?an ! sapwood4 ,closely resembles spruce1 f :i* x c be di/+ui%$ by its abs5ce ( res9 ducts4 ,! wood is us$ = pap] pulp 9 mixture ) spruce4 ,also = g5]al con/ruction to "s ext5t4 #c4 ,cypress4 ,odorless except 9 d>k-color$ specim5s :i* are some:at rancid4 ,smoo? surface ( s\nd wood looks & feels greasy or waxy4 ,mod]ate contra/ betwe5 e>ly & late wood4 ,color v>ies f /raw color to d>k br[n1 (t5 ) r$di% & gre5i% t+e4 ,he>twood m deeply color$ ?an ! sapwood b )\t di/9ct b\nd>y l9e4 ,wood us$ 9 g5]al con/ruction1 especially 9 places :]e durability is requir$2 also = %+les1 coop]age1 po/s1 & poles4 #d4 ,r$ ,c$>4 ,has a di/9ct aromatic odor4 ,wood uni=m-textur$2 late wood usually v ?91 inconspicu\s4 ,color deep r$di% br[n or purple1 becom+ dull ^u exposure2 num]\s m9ute r$ dots (t5 visible "u l5s4 ,sapwood :ite4 ,r$ c$> c be di/+ui%$ f all ! o!r conif]s m5tion$ by ! deep color ( ! wood & ! v di/9ct aromatic odor4 ,wood l>gely us$ = p5cils2 also = *e/s & cab9ets1 po/s1 & poles4 ,x is v durable 9 contact ) ! gr\nd4 ,we/]n r$ c$> is light]1 s(t]1 less deeply color$ & less fragrant ?an ! common ,ea/]n c$>4 ,x gr[s along ! ,pacific ,coa/ & is ext5sively us$ = %+les ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry4 #e4 ,r$wood4 ,wood odorless & ta/eless1 uni=m-textur$1 light & weak1 r co>se & h>%4 ,color light *]ry4 ,close inspection "u l5s ( a small split surface w reveal _m little res9 masses t appe> z r[s ( black or amb] beads :i* are *>act]i/ic ( ?is wood4 ,r$wood is conf9$ to portions ( ! ,pacific ,coa/4 ,x is us$ = h\se con/ruction1 int]ior f9i%1 tanks & flumes1 %+les1 po/s1 & boxes4 ,x is v durable4 ,,ii4 ,,woods ,,) ,,pores--,,broadleaf1 ,,or ,,s-,,call$ ,,h>dwoods ,a4 ,r+-por\s4 #a4 ,woods ) a portion ( ! rays v l>ge & conspicu\s4 ,oak4 ,! wood ( all ( ! oaks is heavy1 h>d1 & /rong4 ,!y may be sep>at$ into two gr\ps4 ,! :ite oaks & ! r$ or black oaks4 7a7 ,:ite oaks4 ,pores 9 e>ly wood plugg$ ) tyloses1 collect$ 9 a few r[s4 ,fig4 #adf4 ,! transition f ! l>ge pores to ! small ones 9 ! late wood is abrupt4 ,! latt] are v small1 num]\s1 & appe> z irregul> grayi% b&s wid5+ t[>d ! out] edge ( ! annual r+4 ,impossible usually to see into ! small pores ) magnifi]4 7b7 ,r$ or black oaks4 ,pores are usually op5 ?\gh tyloses may occur1 ,fig4 #adg2 ! e>ly wood pores are 9 sev]al r[s & ! transition to ! small ones 9 late wood is gradual4 ,! latt] are few]1 l>g] & m di/9ct ?an 9 :ite oak & x is possible to see into !m ) a h& l5s4 ,! wood ( ! oaks is us$ = all k9ds ( furniture1 int]ior f9i%1 coop]age1 vehicles1 cross-ties1 po/s1 fuel1 & con/ruction timb]4 #b4 ,woods ) none ( ! rays l>ge & conspicu\s4 7a7 ,pores 9 late wood small & 9 radial l9es1 wood p>5*yma 9 inconspicu\s tang5tial l9es4 ,*e/nut4 ,pores 9 e>ly wood 9 a broad b&1 oval 9 %ape1 mo/ly free f tyloses4 ,pores 9 late wood 9 flame-l radial :ite pat*es t are pla9ly visible )\t l5s4 ,color m$ium br[n4 ,ne>ly odorless & ta/eless4 ,*e/nut is readily sep>at$ f oak by its weight & abs5ce ( l>ge rays2 f black a% by ! arrangem5t ( ! pores 9 ! late wood2 f sassafras by ! arrangem5t ( ! pores 9 ! late wood1 ! less conspicu\s rays1 & ! lack ( di/9ct color4 ,! wood is us$ = cross-ties1 telegraph & telephone poles1 po/s1 furniture1 coop]age1 & tann9 extract4 ,durable 9 contact ) ! gr\nd4 7b7 ,pores 9 late wood small1 n radially arrang$1 be+ di/ribut$ s+ly or 9 gr\ps4 ,wood p>5*yma ar\nd pores or ext5d+ w+-l f pores 9 late wood1 (t5 =m+ irregul> tang5tial l9es4 #a4 ,a%4 ,pores 9 e>ly wood 9 a r broad b& 7occasionally n>r[71 oval 9 %ape1 see ,fig4 #adh1 tyloses pres5t4 ,color br[n to :ite1 sometimes ) r$di% t+e to late wood4 ,odorless & ta/eless4 ,!re are sev]al species ( a% t are class$ z :ite a% & "o t is call$ black or br[n a%4 7a7 ,:ite a%4 ,wood heavy1 h>d1 /rong1 mo/ly light color$ except 9 old he>twood1 :i* is r$di%4 ,pores 9 late wood1 especially 9 ! out] "p ( ! annual r+1 are jo9$ by l9es ( wood p>5*yma4 7b7 ,black a%4 ,wood m por\s1 light]1 s(t]1 weak]1 & d>k] color$ ?an :ite a%4 ,pores 9 late wood few] & l>g] & r>ely jo9$ by tang5tial l9es ( wood p>5*yma4 ,! wood ( ! a%es is us$ = wagon & c>riage /ock1 agricultural implem5ts1 o>s1 furniture1 int]ior f9i%1 & coop]age4 ,x is ! be/ wood = b5t "w4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adi4--;,hickory ,wood4 7,magnifi$ #de times47 #b4 ,locu/4 ,pores 9 e>ly wood 9 a r n>r[ b&1 r\nd1 v>iable 9 size1 d5sely fill$ ) tyloses4 ,color v>y+ f gold5 yell[ to br[n1 (t5 ) gre5i% hue4 ,v ?9 sapwood1 :ite4 ,odorless & almo/ ta/eless4 ,wood extremely heavy & h>d1 cutt+ l horn4 ,locu/ be>s little resemblance to a%1 be+ h>d]1 heavi]1 ( a diff]5t color1 ) m di/9ct rays1 & ) ! pores 9 late wood 9 l>g] gr\ps4 ,! wood is us$ = po/s1 cross-ties1 wagon hubs1 & insulator p9s4 ,x is v durable 9 contact ) ! gr\nd4 7c7 ,pores 9 late wood comp>atively l>ge1 n 9 gr\ps or l9es4 ,wood p>5*yma 9 num]\s f9e b di/9ct tang5tial l9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aej4--;,elm4 7,magnifi$ #be times47 ,hickory1 ,fig4 #adi4 ,pores 9 e>ly wood mod]ately l>ge1 n abundant1 ne>ly r\nd1 fill$ ) tyloses4 ,color br[n to r$di% br[n2 ?ick sapwood1 :ite4 ,odorless & ta/eless4 ,wood v heavy1 h>d1 & /rong4 ,hickory is readily sep>at$ f a% by ! f9e tang5tial l9es ( wood p>5*yma & f oak by ! abs5ce ( l>ge rays4 ,! wood is l>gely us$ = vehicles1 tool h&les1 agricultural implem5ts1 a?letic goods1 & fuel4 7d7 ,pores 9 late wood small & 9 conspicu\s wavy tang5tial b&s4 ,wood p>5*yma n 9 tang5tial l9es4 ,elm4 ,pores 9 e>ly wood n l>ge & mo/ly 9 a s+le r[1 ,fig4 #aej 7sev]al r[s 9 slipp]y elm71 r\nd1 tyloses pres5t4 ,color br[n1 (t5 ) r$di% t+e4 ,odorless & ta/eless4 ,wood r heavy & h>d1 t\gh1 (t5 difficult to split4 ,! peculi> arrangem5t ( ! pores 9 ! late wood readily di/+ui%es elm f all o!r woods except hackb]ry1 f :i* x may be told by ! fact t 9 elm ! m$ull>y rays are indi/9ct1 :ile !y are q di/9ct 9 hackb]ry2 moreov]1 ! color ( hackb]ry is yell[ or grayi% yell[ in/ead ( br[n or r$di% br[n z 9 elm4 ,! wood is us$ pr9cipally = slack coop]age2 also = hubs1 baskets1 agricultural implem5ts1 & fuel4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aea4--7,magnifi$ ab\t #h times47 ,b4 ,diffuse-por\s4 #a4 ,pores v>y+ 9 size f r l>ge to m9ute1 ! l>ge/ be+ 9 ! e>ly wood4 ,int]m$iate betwe5 r+-por\s & diffuse-por\s4 ,black ,walnut4 ,color ri* d>k or *ocolate br[n4 ,odor mild b *>act]i/ic4 ,ta/eless or ne>ly s4 ,wood p>5*yma 9 num]\s1 f9e tang5tial l9es4 ,wood heavy & h>d1 mod]ately /iff & /rong4 ,! wood is us$ pr9cipally = furniture1 cab9ets1 int]ior f9i%1 m\ld+1 & gun /ocks4 #b4 ,pores all m9ute or indi/9ct1 ev5ly di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t annual r+4 7a7 ,) conspicu\sly broad rays4 #a4 ,sycamore4 ,fig4 #aea4 ,rays practically all broad4 ,color light br[n1 (t5 ) d>k /ripes or fea!r gra94 ,wood ( m$ium weight & /r5g?1 usually cross-gra9$1 difficult to split4 ,! wood is us$ = g5]al con/ruction1 wood5w>e1 novelties1 int]ior f9i%1 & boxes4 #b4 ,bee*4 ,) only a "p ( ! rays broad1 ! o!rs v f9e1 ,fig4 #aea4 ,color pale r$di% br[n to :ite2 uni=m4 ,wood heavy1 h>d1 /rong1 usually /raight-gra9$4 ,! wood is us$ = *eap furniture1 turn]y1 coop]age1 wood5w>e1 novelties1 cross-ties1 & fuel4 ,mu* ( x is di/ill$4 7b7 ,)\t conspicu\sly broad rays4 #a4 ,*]ry4 ,rays r f9e b v di/9ct4 ,color ( wood r$di% br[n4 ,wood r heavy1 h>d1 & /rong4 ,! wood is us$ = furniture1 cab9et "w1 m\ld+1 int]ior f9i%1 & miscellane\s articles4 #b4 ,maple1 ,fig4 #aeb4 ,) "p ( ! rays r broad & conspicu\s1 ! o!rs v f9e4 ,color light br[n t+$ ) r$4 ,! wood ( ! h>d maple is v heavy1 h>d & /rong2 t ( ! s(t maples is r light1 fairly /rong4 ,maple mo/ closely resembles bir*1 b c be di/+ui%$ f x ?r\gh ! fact t 9 maple ! rays are consid]ably m conspicu\s ?an 9 bir*4 ,! wood is us$ = slack coop]age1 floor+1 int]ior f9i%1 furniture1 musical in/rum5ts1 h&les1 & de/ructive di/illation4 #c4 ,tulip-tree1 yell[ popl> or :itewood4 ,rays all f9e b di/9ct4 ,color yell[ or br[ni% yell[2 sapwood :ite4 ,wood light & s(t1 /raight-gra9$1 easy to "w4 ,! wood is us$ = boxes1 wood5w>e1 tops & bodies ( vehicles1 int]ior f9i%1 furniture1 & pulp4 #d4 ,r$ or sweet gum4 ,rays all f9e b some:at less di/9ct ?an 9 tulip tree4 ,color r$di% br[n1 (t5 ) irregul> d>k /reaks produc+ a wat]$ effect on smoo? bo>ds2 ?ick sapwood1 grayi% :ite4 ,wood r heavy1 mod]ately h>d1 cross-gra9$1 difficult to "w4 ,! be/ grades ( figur$ r$ gum resemble ,circassian walnut1 b ! latt] has mu* l>g] pores unev5ly di/ribut$ & is less cross-gra9$ ?an r$ gum4 ,! wood is us$ = f9i%+1 floor+1 furniture1 v5e]s1 slack coop]age1 boxes1 & gun /ocks4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aeb4--,maple4 7,magnifi$ #be times47 #e4 ,black or sweet bir*1 ,fig4 #aea4 ,rays v>iable 9 size b all r indi/9ct4 ,color br[n1 t+$ ) r$1 (t5 deep & h&some4 ,wood heavy1 h>d1 & /rong1 /raight-gra9$1 readily work$4 ,is d>k] 9 color & has less prom95t rays ?an maple4 ,! wood is us$ = furniture1 cab9et "w1 f9i%+1 & di/illation4 #f4 ,cottonwood4 ,rays extremely f9e & sc>cely visible ev5 "u l5s4 ,color pale dull br[n or grayi% br[n4 ,wood light1 s(t1 n /rong1 /raight-gra9$1 fairly easy to "w4 ,cottonwood c be sep>at$ f o!r light & s(t woods by ! f95ess ( its rays1 :i* is equal$ only by will[1 :i* x r closely resembles4 ,! wood is l>gely us$ = boxes1 g5]al con/ruction1 lumb]1 & pulp4 ,h[ to judge ! quality ( wood3 ,to "k ! "n ( a piece ( wood means1 9 a g5]al way1 to "k c]ta9 qualities t are common to all o!r pieces ( wood ( t species1 b x does n expla9 ! special peculi>ities ( ! piece 9 "q or :y t p>ticul> piece is m suitable or unsuitable = a p>ticul> purpose ?an ano!r piece ( ! same species4 ,! m]e id5tification ( ! wood does n expla9 :y a p>ticul> piece is t\gh]1 /rong] or ( d>k] color ?an ano!r piece ( ! same species or ev5 ( ! same tree4 ,! reason = ^! special diff]5ces lies 9 ! fact t wood is n a homog5e\s mat]ial l metal4 ,)9 ! same tree diff]5t p>ts v>y 9 quality4 ,! he>twood is g5]ally heavi] & ( deep] color ?an ! sapwood4 ,! butt is sup]ior to ! top wood1 & ! mann] 9 :i* ! wood 0 saw$ & dri$ w affect its quality4 ,knots1 splits1 *ecks1 & discoloration due to incipi5t decay are defects wor? consid]+4 ,wood t looks lu/]less is usually defective1 because ! lack ( lu/] is g5]ally due to disease4 ,woods t are h>d we> be/4 ,h>dness c be det]m9$ readily by /rik+ ! wood ) a hamm] & not+ ! s\nd produc$4 ,a cle>1 r++ s\nd is a sign ( h>dness4 ,! /r5g? ( a piece ( wood c be judg$ by its weight aft] x is well dri$4 ,heavy woods are usually /rong4 ,a l>ge am\nt ( late wood is an indication ( /r5g? & ! production ( a cle> s\nd :5 /ruck ) a hamm] is also an evid5ce ( /r5g?4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,an ,,outdoor ,,lesson ,,on ,,trees ,! importance ( nature /udy 9 ! tra9+ ( ! *ild is n[ well recogniz$4 ,! influ5ces ( su* /udy f ! hygi5ic1 moral & ae/hetic po9t ( view are f> rea*+ & _c be express$ 9 doll>s & c5ts4 ,9 8 association ) nature1 ! *ild is l$ to obs]ve m closely & to "k & to be fond ( :at is truly beautiful 9 life--beautiful surr\nd+s1 beautiful ?\ghts & beautiful de$s4 ,he is inspir$ ) rev]5ce = law1 ord] & tru? because he sees x con/antly reflect$ 9 all works ( nature4 ,! social in/9ct is highly develop$ & ev5 ! p>5ts are (t5 bett]$ ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( _! *ildr54 ,! only way1 h[ev]1 to /udy nature--especially plants--is to /udy x out ( doors4 ,our pres5t t5d5cy to ga!r 9 cities dem&s ! upbuild+ influ5ces ( trips into ! op5 9 ord] to equip ! *ild m5tally & physically to face ! _w & its "w ) ! /r5g? & t5acity *>act]i/ic ( ! c\ntry-br$4 ,moreov]1 ! /udy ( objects r ?an books is an axiom 9 mod]n education & "h1 too1 we c readily see t ! be/ way to /udy trees is to take ! pupil to ! trees4 ,su* /udies are m la/+ ?an book /udy because !y emphasize ! _s & ! goal r ?an ! petty facts4 ,educators & p>5ts are n[ recogniz+ ! value ( outdoor trips = _! *ildr5 & are beg9n+ to indulge 9 !m q frequ5tly4 ,9 _m in/ances tea*]s ab\t to take out _! *ildr5 = a day h inquir$ ( ! writ] h[ to g ab\t giv+ a g5]al field lesson :5 !y rea*$ ! p>k or woodl&4 ,! purpose ( ?is *apt] is to answ] su* a "q & yet x is evid5t t x _c be answ]$ completely4 ,:at to obs]ve out doors & h[ to pres5t "o's impressions is a broad "q & v>ies ) ! k & ability ( ! tea*] z well z ) ! age & exp]i5ce ( ! *ildr54 ,! h[ & ! :at 9 nature /udy is ( great] import ?an ! h>d1 dry facts & t mu/ be left entirely to ! tea*]4 ,a few sugge/ions1 h[ev]1 may n be amiss3 #a4 ,g5]al obs]vations ) a view to "* build+3 ,fir/ ( all x is important to rememb] t ! great value ( all tree & nature /udy is ! inculcation 9 ! m9ds ( ! *ildr5 ( an appreciation & love = ! beautiful4 ,inspir+ !m to love trees g5]ally means m ?an tea*+ !m to "k trees4 ,m]e facts ab\t trees taught 9 an academic way are (t5 no m la/+ ?an ! =mulae 9 trigonometry :i* mo/ ( u h long ago =gott54 ,! important ?+ is t p]man5t results be left & no?+ else w produce su* la/+ impressions z ! /udy ( trees out ( doors4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aec4--,trees ,h ,individuality4 ,g5]al obs]vations ab\t trees c be made by po9t+ out ! beauty & "* ( ! individual =ms & bran*+1 _! h>mony 9 _! relations to ea* o!r z factors ( a beautiful composition & ! weal? ( %ades & colors 9 _! leaves1 b>k & fl[]s4 ,comp>e1 = in/ance1 ! intricate ramification ( an ,am]ican elm ) ! simple bran*+ ( a sug> maple1 ! /urd9ess ( a :ite oak ) ! t5d]ness ( a s(t maple1 ! wide spread ( a bee* ) ! sl5d] =m ( a ,lomb>dy popl>1 ! upw>d po9t+ bran*es ( a g+ko ) ! droop+ =m ( a weep+ will[4 ,at close range1 ea* ( ^! trees reveals itself z an individual ) a "* q its own4 ,at little di/ance y may see !m gr\p$ toge!r1 subord9at+ _! individuality & help+ to bl5d into a beautiful composition ) a "* all its own4 ,!re is no?+ m inspir+ ?an ! v>iety ( gre5s 9 ! spr+ foliage1 ! div]sity ( color 9 ! spr+ blossoms & ! wond]ful display ( autumnal t9ts (f]$ by ! sweet gum1 sassafras1 dogwood1 black gum1 r$ maple1 sug> maple1 sc>let oak1 blue bee*1 sorrel tree1 a% & g+ko4 ,! :ite b>k ( ! gray bir*1 ! d>k b>k ( ! black oak1 ! gray ( ! bee*1 ! gold5 yell[ ( ! mulb]ry & ! mottl$ b>k ( ! sycamore are int]e/+ comp>isons4 ,! smoo? b>k ( ! mock]nut hickory contra/s greatly ) ! %aggy b>k ( ! %agb>k hickory--memb]s ( ! same family & yet h[ diff]5t4 ,a wond]ful opportunity is ?us (f]$ = a comp>ative /udy ( human nature--individuality & community life1 all reflect$ 9 trees4 ,) ?is prelim9>y /udy & ) ! addition ( "s rem>ks on ! value ( trees z heal? giv]s & moral uplift]s1 ! *ild is int]e/$ & attract$4 ,! lesson s f> has atta9$ its aim4 #b4 ,specific obs]vations ) a view to tra9+ ! obs]vative p[]s3 ,! *ild's tra9+ 9 clos5ess ( obs]vation & sci5tific precision may be ! next consid]ation4 ,8 en?usiasm w n[ prompt him to l5d 8 int]e/ = great] detail4 ,we c tea* him to recognize a few ( ! common trees by _! g5]al *>act]s--an ,am]ican elm by its fan-%ap$ =m1 a gray bir* by its :ite b>k1 a :ite p9e by ! five ne$les to ea* clu/]1 a horse*e/nut by its opposite bran*+ & big /icky bud & a will[ by its droop+ habit4 ,aft] t we may introduce1 if ! age ( ! pupils ju/ifies1 m details ext5d+ to great] diff]5ces :i* di/+ui% "o species f ano!r4 ,! lesson might cont9ue by po9t+ out ! requirem5ts ( trees = wat] & light4 ,f9d a tree on "s slope :]e ! roots are expos$ & ano!r :i* is be+ encroa*$ ^u by its neighbor1 & %[ h[ 9 "o case ! roots travel 9 se>* ( wat] & food & 9 ! o!r ! bran*es b5d t[>d ! light1 gr[+ m vigor\sly on t side4 ,comp>e ! trees on ! op5 lawn ) ^? 9 ! grove & %[ h[ ^? 9 ! op5 h gr[n ) bran*es ne> ! gr\nd :ile ^? 9 ! woodl& are sl5d]1 tall & free f bran*es to "s di/ance above ! gr\nd4 ,po9t out ! l5ticels on ! b>k ( bir* & sweet *]ry trees & expla9 h[ trees brea!4 ,comp>e ?is process ) t ( ! human body4 ,y may n[ come across an old /ump & "h y c po9t out ! /ructure ( ! wood--! sapwood1 cambium & b>k4 ,y c illu/rate ! annual r+s & c\nt ! age ( ! tree4 ,at ano!r po9t y may f9d a tree ) a w\nd or bruis$ b>k & "h y c readily make a clos] /udy ( ! cambium lay] & its mann] ( gr[?4 ,! adaptation ( plants to ! seasonal *anges op5s ano!r int]e/+ field ( /udy = beg9n]s4 ,if ! season is ! fall or w9t]1 note h[ ! trees h prep>$ !mselves = ! w9t]'s cold by t]m9at+ ! fl[ ( sap1 by dropp+ _! leaves too t5d] to resi/ ! w9t]'s cold1 & by cov]+ _! buds ) scales l9$ ) d[n on ! inside4 ,obs]ve h[ ! insects h spun = !mselves silk5 ne/s or rema9 pres]v$ 9 ! egg /ate ov] ! w9t]4 ,if ! season is spr+ or summ] ! opposite may be not$4 ,see h[ ev]y?+ turns to life2 h[ ! buds are op5+1 ! leaves em]g+1 ! sap runn+1 se$s g]m9at+ & fl[]s bloom+4 ,! soil conditions on ! lawn & 9 ! grove furni% ano!r int]e/+ feature ( comp>ison & /udy4 ,9 ! grove1 y c demon/rate ! decomposition ( ! fall5 leaves1 ! =mation ( humus & its value to ! tree4 ,! importance ( ! =e/ soil z a cons]vator ( wat] & its relation to /ream fl[ & soil erosion c be br\ght out at ?is juncture4 ,an erod$ bank & a slope cov]$ ) trees & %rubs w\ld provide excell5t models = ?is /udy4 ,a consid]ation ( ! economic value ( ! trees w\ld also be 9 place4 #c4 ,civic lessons reflect$ 9 trees3 ,! community life ( trees 9 ! grove1 _! gr[?1 /ruggles = light & food & _! mutual aid c be br\ght out & comp>$ ) ! community life among p4 ,! trees may "h be se5 /ruggl+ ) ea* o!r = light & food1 =c+ ea* o!r's gr[? upw>d1 "s w9n+ out & develop+ into /alw>t & ?rifty specim5s & o!rs becom+ suppress$ or entirely kill$4 ,on ! o!r h& !y may be se5 help+ ea* o!r 9 _! community gr[? by protect+ ea* o!r f w9dfall & by contribut+ to ! f]tility ( ! =e/ soil 9 dropp+ _! leaves & %ad+ ! gr\nd s t ^! fall5 leaves may decompose readily4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aed4--,trees also ,gr[ 9 ,communities4 #d4 ,enemies ( trees3 ,an old /ump or tree may be se5 crumbl+ away "u ! influ5ce ( fungi & "h ! *ildr5 may be %[n ! effects ( tree diseases bo? z de/roy]s ( life & z up-build]s1 because fungi turn to du/ ! liv+ trees & build up o!rs by furni%+ !m ) ! decompos$ wood matt]4 ,insects too1 may be invad+ ! old dead tree1 & some?+ ( _! nature1 habits & influ5ces may be gone into4 ,!y may be %[n z wood bor]s1 leaf eat]s1 or sap suck]s1 all injuri\s to ! tree4 ,on ! o!r h& !y may be %[n z se$ dissem9ators & z p>asites on o!r injuri\s insects2 all b5efactors4 ,=e/ fires z an enemy ( trees might be t\*$ ^u by not+ h[ easily ! leaves may be ignit$ & a surface fire />t$ :5 ! season is dry4 ,top & gr\nd fires emanat+ f surface fires c !n be readily expla9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aee4--,trees ,bl5d ,toge!r to ,=m a ,beautiful ,composition4 #e4 ,expression3 ,! pupils h by ?is "t be5 taught to feel ! beautiful1 to obs]ve c>efully & to reason intellig5tly & !y may n[ be tra9$ to express !mselves prop]ly4 ,?is may be accompli%$ by ask+ !m to rememb] _! obs]vations & to write ab\t !m 9 ! classroom4 ,! lesson may be supplem5t$ ) effective read+ ab\t trees & =e/s4 ,int]e/+ read+ matt] ( ?is sort c be f\nd 9 abundance 9 *ildr5's read]s1 9 special books on ! subject & 9 ,arbor ,day ,manuals publi%$ by ! v>i\s ,/ate ,education ,dep>tm5ts4 #f4 ,prep>ation3 ,9 ord] to save "t look+ = objects ( int]e/ & = ! purpose ( correlat+ ! v>i\s obs]vations s t all w foll[ 9 ord]ly sequ5ce1 x is well = ! tea*] or lead] to g ov] ! gr\nd be=eh& & note ! special features ( int]e/4 ,! v>i\s topics c !n be giv5 "s ?\ght & a brief synopsis c be drawn up to s]ve z a memor&um & guide on ! trip4 ,x is also well to be provid$ ) a hat*et to cut into "s decay$ /ump1 a tr[el to dig up ! =e/ soil1 a knife = cutt+ (f twigs & a h& read+ glass = exam9+ ! /ructural p>ts ( ! v>i\s objects "u obs]vation4 ,a cam]a is always a valuable asset because ! photographs hung 9 ! classroom become records ( great int]e/ to all p>ticipants4 #g4 ,sugge/ions = =m+ tree clubs3 ,a good way to int]e/ *ildr5 9 trees & nature /udy is to =m1 among !m1 a ,tree ,club4 ,! idea has be5 fully develop$ 9 ,brooklyn1 ,n4,y41 ,new>k1 ,n4,j41 & o!r cities & consi/s ( =m+ clubs ( *ildr5 9 ! public s*ools & private in/itutions = ! purpose ( int]e/+ !m 9 ! trees ar\nd _! s*ool & _! homes4 ,! memb]s ( ^! clubs are ea* giv5 ! tree w>d5's badge ( au?ority & assign$ to "s special duty 9 ! pres]vation ( ! local trees4 ,a plan ( /udy & ( outdoor trips is laid out = !m by _! director & at /at$ p]iods !y are giv5 illu/rat$ lectures on trees & tak5 to ! neighbor+ p>ks or woodl&s4 ,,index ,ac] negundo1 -- platanoides1 -- polymorphum1 -- pseudoplatanus1 -- rubrum1 -- sac*>9um1 -- sac*>um1 ,aesculus hippoca/anum1 -- rubicunda1 ,ail+ tree1 h[ to tell an1 ,air1 influ5ce (1 ,alt]nate bran*$ trees1 ,am]ican bee*1 -- elm1 -- l>*1 -- l9d51 ,annual r+s1 ,aphides or plant lice1 ,apple ru/1 ,arbor-vita & r$ c$>1 description (1 -- 7nor!rn :ite c$>71 ,ars5ate ( lead1 ,a%1 wood1 -- black1 -- :ite1 ,a%-leaf maple1 ,asp51 l>ge-too!d1 --1 quak+1 ,au/rian p9e1 ,bald cypress1 ,balm ( ,gilead1 ,balsam1 fir1 --1 popl>1 ,b>k1 ,b>k1 h[ to prev5t splitt+ :5 remov+ bran*es1 -- or trunk1 trees told by _!1 ,bass-wood1 ,bean1 ,indian1 ,bee*1 ,am]ican1 --1 blue1 or hornbeam1 --1 copp]1 --1 ,european1 -- tree1 ,beetle1 elm leaf1 ,betula alba1 -- lutea1 -- l5ta1 -- papyrif]a1 -- populifolia1 ,bhotan p9e1 ,bigbud hickory1 ,bir*1 black1 --1 ,european :ite1 -- fungus rot1 --1 gray1 --1 pap]1 --1 sweet1 -- tree1 --1 :ite1 --1 yell[1 ,bitt]nut hickory1 ,black a%1 -- bir*1 -- locu/1 -- oak1 -- or sweet bir*1 -- spruce1 -- walnut1 ,blot*es1 leaf1 ,blue bee*1 or hornbeam1 -- spruce1 ,bolt+ limbs1 ,bordeaux mixture1 ,bor]1 bronze-bir*1 --1 hickory b>k1 --1 l9d51 --1 locu/1 --1 sug> maple1 ,bor+ insects1 ,box-eld]1 ,brac+ limbs1 v>i\s me?ods (1 ,bracket fungus1 ,bran*es1 dead & brok51 removal (1 --1 h[ to prev5t b>k splitt+ :5 remov+1 ,broadleaf or h>dwoods1 ,bronze-bir* bor]1 ,brooklyn1 ,n4,y41 ,broom hickory1 ,br[n hickory1 ,br[n-tail mo?1 ,buckeye1 ,butt]nut1 ,buttonball1 ,buttonwood1 ,by-products ( =e/s1 utilization (1 ,cambium lay]1 ,camp]d[n elm1 ,c>e 9 select+ trees suitable = ! soil1 ,c>ol9a popl>1 ,c>p9us c>ol9iana1 ,ca/anea d5tata1 ,catalpa speciosa1 ,cat]pill>s1 ,cat]pill>s1 leaf-eat+1 --1 spray+ =1 ,catk91 ,cattle graz+ 9 =e/s a s\rce ( injury1 ,cavities1 fung\s diseases attack+1 -- h[ caus$1 --1 mann] ( fill+1 ,c$> apple1 --1 :ite1 ,celtis occid5talis1 ,*amaecyp>is ?yoides1 ,"* build+ & trees1 ,*e/nut1 -- & oaks1 -- disease1 ,*ew+ insects1 ,*]ry1 ,*ild tra9+ 9 obs]vation & precision1 ,*lorophyll1 ,civic lessons reflect$ 9 trees1 ,climb+ trees1 precautions1 ,clubs1 tree1 ,c(fee tree1 ,colorado blue spruce1 ,color ( leaves1 ,common catalpa1 -- locu/1 ,community life ( trees1 ,conif]s or s(twoods1 ,conif]\s trees1 ,copp] bee*1 ,cork elm1 ,cornus florida1 ,corrosive sublimate1 ,cottonwood1 ,cottony-maple scale1 ,crataegus oxyacan?a1 ,cr[n1 ,cucumb] tree1 ,cypress1 -- & l>*1 description (1 --1 bald1 -- knees1 -- obtuse leaf1 ,japanese1 ,dead & brok5 bran*es1 removal (1 ,decidu\s trees1 ,de/roy+ injuri\s insects1 me?ods (1 -- pupae1 ,develop+ disease1 moi/ure a factor 91 ,diapor! p>asitica1 ,diffuse-por\s woods1 ,disease1 fungi z factors (1 -- moi/ure a factor 9 develop+1 ,dogwood1 fl[]+1 ,d\glas fir1 ,effect ( heat on trees1 ,elkwood1 ,elm1 --1 ,am]ican1 --1 ,camp]d[n1 --1 cork1 --1 ,engli%1 -- leaf beetle1 --1 popl>1 g+ko & will[ trees1 told by _! =m1 --1 :ite1 ,enemies ( trees1 ,enemy ( trees1 =e/ fires z an ,engli% elm1 -- haw?orn1 -- yew1 ,european bee*1 -- l>*1 -- l9d51 -- weep+ bir*1 -- :ite bir*1 ,fall webworm1 ,fagus1 -- am]icana1 -- sylvatica1 ,f]n1 maid5hair1 ,fight+ =e/ fires1 v>i\s ways (1 ,fill+ cavities1 mann] (1 ,fire1 gu>d+ woodl&s f1 ,fl[]+ dogwood1 ,foliage1 spray+1 ,=e/ fires z an enemy ( trees1 -- --1 v>i\s ways ( fight+1 -- l&s1 exemption f taxation1 --1 life & nature (1 -- trees1 prun+1 ,=e/ry 9 v>i\s c\ntries1 --1 :at x is & :at x does1 ,=e/s1 graz+ cattle 91 a s\rce ( injury1 ,=e/ ,s]vice1 ,u4,s41 --1 h>ve/+1 --1 h>ve/+ (1 to increase production1 --1 h[ e/abli%$1 --1 h[ h>ve/$1 --1 h[ protect$1 --1 h[ !y help to regulate /reams & prev5t floods1 --1 me?od ( e/abli%+1 --1 plant+1 ) se$l+ trees1 -- prev5t soil erosion1 --1 protect+ f de/ructive ag5cies1 --1 safegu>d+1 --1 utilization ( by-products1 ,frax9us am]icana1 -- nigra1 ,fro/1 effect (1 on trees1 ,fungi & insects1 protection aga9/1 -- z factors ( disease1 ,fung\s diseases attack+ cavities1 -- diseases1 spray+ =1 ,fungus1 fruit+ body (1 ,g+ko biloba1 -- or maid5hair tree1 ,gipsy mo?1 ,gl$itsia triacan?os1 ,gloeosporium n]visequum1 ,gray or :ite bir*1 ,graz+ effect on =e/s1 ,grove & lawn1 /udy ( soil conditions on1 ,gum1 r$ or sweet1 ,gymnocladus dioicus1 ,hackb]ry tree1 ,hackmatack1 ,h>d maple1 -- p9es1 ,h>dwoods1 or broadleaf trees1 ,h>dy catalpa1 ,h>ve/+ =e/s1 ,h>ve/+ ( =e/s to increase production1 ,haw?orn1 ,engli%1 ,heal?y tree1 conditions :i* indicate1 ,he>twood1 ,heat1 effect (1 on trees1 ,hemlock1 -- & spruce1 description (1 ,hickory1 -- b>k bor]1 --1 bigbud1 --1 bitt]nut1 --1 broom1 --1 br[n1 --1 mock]nut1 --1 pignut1 --1 %agb>k1 --1 %ellb>k1 --1 :itehe>t1 ,hicoria alba1 -- glabra1 -- m9ima1 -- ovata1 ,honey locu/1 ,hop hornbeam1 ,hornbeam1 7blue bee*71 ,horse*e/nut1 --1 r$1 ,humus1 ,hydrophytes1 ,important insects1 ,improp]ly prun$ trees1 ,indian bean1 ,individuality ( trees1 ,insects & fungi1 protection aga9/1 --1 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