,illustration3 ,frontispiece4 ,come forth into the light of things1 ,let ,nature be your ,teacher4 --,,wordsworth4 ,,studies ,,of ,,trees ,,by ,j4,j4 ,,levison1 ,m4,f4 ,lecturer on ,ornamental and ,shade ,trees1 ,yale ,university ,forest ,school2 ,forester to the ,department of ,parks1 ,brooklyn1 ,n4,y4 ,,first ,,edition ,,first ,,thousand #aiad ,,preface ,in presenting this volume1 the author is aware that there are several excellent books1 dealing with one phase or another of tree life1 already before the public4 ,it is believed1 however1 that there is still need for an all-round book1 adapted to the beginner1 which gives in a brief and not too technical way the most important facts concerning the identification1 structure and uses of our more common trees1 and which considers their habits1 enemies and care both when growing alone and when growing in groups or forests4 ,in the chapters on the identification of trees1 the aim has been to bring before the student only such characters and facts as shall help him to distinguish the tree readily during all seasons of the year4 ,special stress is laid in each case on the most striking peculiarities4 ,possible confusion with other trees of similar appearance is prevented as far as possible through comparisons with trees of like form or habit4 ,only such information is given concerning the structure and requirements of trees as will enable the reader better to understand the subsequent chapters4 ,in the second half of the book1 practical application is made of the student's general knowledge thus acquired1 and he is acquainted with the fundamental principles of planting1 care1 forestry1 wood identification and nature study4 ,the author recognizes the vastness of the field he is attempting to cover and the impossibility of even touching1 in a small hand-book of this character1 on every phase of tree study4 ,he presumes no further2 yet he hopes that by adhering to what is salient and by eliminating the less important1 though possibly interesting1 facts1 he is able to offer a general and elementary resume of the whole subject of value to students1 private owners1 farmers and teachers4 ,in the preparation of ,chapter ,,viii on ,our ,common ,woods3 ,their ,identification1 ,properties and ,uses1 considerable aid has been received from ,prof4 ,samuel ,j4 ,record1 author of ,economic ,woods of the ,united ,states4 ,acknowledgment is also due to the ,u4,s4 ,forest ,service for the photographs used in ,figs4 #ah1 #abb to #ach inclusive and #adb2 to ,dr4 ,george ,b4 ,sudworth1 ,dendrologist of the ,u4,s4 ,forest ,service1 for checking up the nomenclature in the lists of trees under ,chapter ,v2 to ,dr4 ,e4,p4 ,felt1 ,entomologist of the ,state of ,new ,york1 for suggestions in the preparation of the section of the book relating to insects2 to ,dr4 ,w4,a4 ,murrill1 ,assistant ,director of the ,new ,york ,botanical ,gardens1 for ,fig4 #ajh2 and to ,mr4 ,hermann ,w4 ,merkel1 ,chief ,forester of the ,new ,york ,zoological ,park1 for ,figs4 #bf1 #ei and #fj4 ,j4,j4 ,,levison4 ,,brooklyn1 ,n4,y4 ,june1 #aiad4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,i ,,how ,,to ,,identify ,,trees ,the ,pines ,the ,spruce and ,hemlock ,the ,red ,cedar and ,arbor-vitae ,,chapter ,,ii ,,how ,,to ,,identify ,,trees 7,continued7 ,the ,larch and ,cypress ,the ,horsechestnut1 ,ash1 and ,maple ,trees ,told by their ,form ,trees ,told by their ,bark or ,trunk ,the ,oaks and ,chestnut ,,chapter ,,iii ,,how ,,to ,,identify ,,trees 7,continued7 ,the ,hickories1 ,walnut1 and ,butternut ,tulip ,tree1 ,sweet ,gum1 ,linden1 ,magnolia1 ,locust1 ,catalpa1 ,dogwood1 ,mulberry1 and ,osage ,orange ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,structure ,,and ,,requirements ,,of ,,trees ,,chapter ,v ,,what ,,trees ,,to ,,plant ,,and ,,how ,trees for the ,lawn ,trees for the ,street ,trees for ,woodland ,trees for ,screening ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,care ,,of ,,trees ,insects ,injurious to ,trees and ,how to ,combat ,them ,important ,insects ,tree ,diseases ,pruning ,trees ,tree ,repair ,,chapter ,,vii ,,forestry ,what ,forestry ,is and ,what ,it ,does ,care of the ,woodland ,,chapter ,,viii ,,our ,,common ,,woods3 ,,their ,,identification1 ,,properties ,,and ,,uses ,woods ,without ,pores 7,soft woods7 ,woods with ,pores 7,hard woods7 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,an ,,outdoor ,,lesson ,,on ,,trees ,,introduction ,a good many popular books on trees have been published in the ,united ,states in recent years4 ,the continually increasing demand for books of this character indicates the growing public interest not only in the trees that we pass in our daily walks1 but also in the forest considered as a community of trees1 because of its aesthetic and protective value and its usefulness as a source of important economic products4 ,as a nation1 we are thinking more about trees and woods than we were wont to do in the years gone by4 ,we are growing to love the trees and forests as we turn more and more to outdoor life for recreation and sport4 ,in our ramblings along shady streets1 through grassy parks1 over wooded valleys1 and in mountain wildernesses we find that much more than formerly we are asking ourselves what are these trees1 what are the leaf1 flower1 twig1 wood and habit characteristics which distinguish them from other trees2 how large do they grow2 under what conditions of soil and climate do they thrive best2 what are their enemies and how can they be overcome2 what is their value for wood and other useful products2 what is their protective value2 are they useful for planting along streets and in parks and in regenerating forests2 how can the trees of our streets and lawns be preserved and repaired as they begin to fail from old age or other causes8 ,all these questions and many more relating to the important native and exotic trees commonly found in the states east of the ,great ,lakes and north of ,maryland ,mr4 ,levison has briefly answered in this book4 ,the author's training as a forester and his experience as a professional arboriculturist has peculiarly fitted him to speak in an authoritative and interesting way about trees and woods4 ,the value of this book is not in new knowledge1 but in the simple statement of the most important facts relating to some of our common trees1 individually and collectively considered4 ,a knowledge of trees and forests adds vastly to the pleasures of outdoor life4 ,the more we study trees and the more intimate our knowledge of the forest as a unit of vegetation in which each tree1 each flower1 each animal and insect has its part to play in the complete structure1 the greater will be our admiration of the wonderful beauty and variety exhibited in the trees and woods about us4 ,j4,w4 ,,toumey1 ,director1 ,yale ,university ,forest ,school4 ,,new ,,haven1 ,,conn41 ,june1 #aiad4 ,,studies ,,of ,,trees ,,chapter ,i ,,how ,,to ,,identify ,,trees ,there are many ways in which the problem of identifying trees may be approached4 ,the majority attempt to recognize trees by their leaf characters4 ,leaf characters1 however1 do not differentiate the trees during the other half of the year when they are bare4 ,in this chapter the characterizations are based1 as far as possible1 on peculiarities that are evident all year round4 ,in almost every tree there is some one trait that marks its individuality and separates it1 at a glance1 from all other trees4 ,it may be the general form of the tree1 its mode of branching1 bark1 bud or fruit4 ,it may be some variation in color1 or1 in case of the evergreen trees1 it may be the number and position of the needles or leaves4 ,the species included in the following pages have thus been arranged in groups based on these permanent characters4 ,the individual species are further described by a distinguishing paragraph in which the main character of the tree is emphasized in heavy type4 ,the last paragraph under each species is also important because it classifies all related species and distinguishes those that are liable to be confused with the particular tree under consideration4 ,,group ,i4 ,,the ,,pines ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,twig of the ,austrian ,pine4 ,how to tell them from other trees3 ,the pines belong to the coniferous class of trees2 that is1 trees which bear cones4 ,the pines may be told from the other coniferous trees by their leaves1 which are in the form of needles two inches or more in length4 ,these needles keep green throughout the entire year4 ,this is characteristic of all coniferous trees1 except the larch and cypress1 which shed their leaves in winter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,twig of the ,white ,pine4 ,the pines are widely distributed throughout the ,northern ,hemisphere1 and include about #hj distinct species with over #fjj varieties4 ,the species enumerated here are especially common in the eastern part of the ,united states1 growing either native in the forest or under cultivation in the parks4 ,the pines form a very important class of timber trees1 and produce beautiful effects when planted in groups in the parks4 ,how to tell them from each other3 ,the pine needles are arranged in clusters2 see ,fig4 #a4 ,each species has a certain characteristic number of needles to the cluster and this fact generally provides the simplest and most direct way of distinguishing the different pines4 ,in the white pine there are five needles to each cluster1 in the pitch pine three1 and in the ,scotch pine two4 ,the ,austrian pine also has two needles to the cluster1 but the difference in size and character of the needles will distinguish this species from the ,scotch pine4 ,,the ,,white ,,pine 7,pinus strobus7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the tree can be told at close range by the number of needles to each cluster1 ,fig4 #b4 ,there are 99five99 needles to each cluster of the white pine4 ,they are bluish green1 slender1 and about four inches in length4 ,at a distance the tree may be told by the 99right angles99 which the branches form with the main trunk1 ,fig4 #c4 ,no other pine shows this character4 ,form and size3 ,a tall tree1 the stateliest of the evergreens4 ,range3 ,eastern ,north ,america4 ,soil and location3 ,prefers a deep1 sandy soil1 but will grow in almost any soil4 ,enemies3 ,sucking insects forming white downy patches on the bark and twigs1 the white pine weevil1 a boring insect1 and the white pine blister rust1 a fungus1 are among its principal enemies4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,the ,white ,pine4 ,value for planting3 ,aside from its value as an ornamental tree1 the white pine is an excellent tree to plant on abandoned farms and for woodlands and windbreaks throughout the ,new ,england ,states1 ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania1 and the ,lake ,states4 ,commercial value3 ,the wood is easily worked1 light1 durable1 and will not warp4 ,it is used for naval construction1 lumber1 shingles1 laths1 interior finish1 wooden ware1 etc4 ,other characters3 ,the fruit is a cone1 four to six inches long4 ,comparisons3 ,the tree is apt to be confused with the ,bhotan pine 7,pinus excelsa71 which is commonly grown as an ornamental tree4 ,the ,bhotan pine1 however1 has needles much longer and more drooping in appearance4 ,,the ,,pitch ,,pine 7,pinus rigida7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,here there are 99three99 needles to each cluster1 ,fig4 #d4 ,they are dark1 yellowish-green needles about four inches long4 ,the rough-looking branches of the tree may be seen studded with cones throughout the year1 and clusters of leaves may be seen sprouting directly from the trunk of the tree2 see ,fig4 #e4 ,the last two are very characteristic and will distinguish the tree at a glance4 ,form and size3 ,it is a low tree of uncertain habit and extremely rough looking at every stage of its life4 ,it is constantly full of dead branches and old cones which persist on the tree throughout the year4 ,range3 ,eastern ,united ,states4 ,soil and location3 ,grows in the poorest and sandiest soils where few other trees will grow4 ,in ,new ,jersey and on ,long ,island where it is native1 it proves so hardy and persistent that it often forms pure stands excluding other trees4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,twig of the ,pitch ,pine4 ,enemies3 ,none of importance4 ,value for planting3 ,well adapted for the sea coast and other exposed places4 ,it is of extremely uncertain habit and is subject to the loss of the lower limbs4 ,it frequently presents a certain picturesqueness of outline1 but it could not be used as a specimen tree on the lawn4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,the ,pitch ,pine4 ,commercial value3 ,the wood is coarse grained and is used for rough lumber1 fuel1 and charcoal4 ,other characters3 ,the fruit is a cone one to three inches long1 persistent on the tree for several years4 ,,the ,,scotch ,,pine 7,pinus sylvestris7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,there are 99two99 needles to each cluster1 and these are short compared with those of the white pine1 and slightly twisted2 see ,fig4 #f4 ,the bark1 especially along the upper portion of the trunk1 is reddish in color4 ,form and size3 ,a medium-sized tree with a short crown4 ,range3 ,europe1 ,asia1 and eastern ,united ,states4 ,soil and location3 ,will do best on a deep1 rich1 sandy soil1 but will also grow on a dry1 porous soil4 ,enemies3 ,in ,europe the ,scotch pine has several insect enemies1 but in ,america it appears to be free from injury4 ,value for planting3 ,suitable for windbreaks and woodland planting4 ,many excellent specimens may also be found in our parks4 ,commercial value3 ,in the ,united ,states1 the wood is chiefly used for fuel1 though slightly used for barrels1 boxes1 and carpentry4 ,in ,europe1 the ,scotch pine is an important timber tree4 ,comparisons3 ,the ,scotch pine is apt to be confused with the ,austrian pine 7,pinus austriaca71 because they both have two needles to each cluster4 ,the needles of the ,austrian pine1 however1 are much longer1 coarser1 straighter1 and darker than those of the ,scotch pine2 ,fig4 #a4 ,the form of the ,austrian pine1 too1 is more symmetrical and compact4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,twig of the ,scotch ,pine4 ,the red pine 7,pinus resinosa7 is another tree that has two needles to each cluster1 but these are much longer than those of the ,scotch pine 7five to six inches7 and are straighter4 ,the bark1 which is reddish in color1 also differentiates the red pine from the ,austrian pine4 ,the position of the cones on the red pine1 which point outward and downward at maturity1 will also help to distinguish this tree from the ,scotch and the ,austrian varieties4 ,,group ,,ii4 ,,the ,,spruce ,,and ,,hemlock ,how to tell them from other trees3 ,the spruce and hemlock belong to the evergreen class and may be told from the other trees by their leaves4 ,the characteristic leaves of the spruce are shown in ,fig4 #i2 those of the hemlock in ,fig4 #aj4 ,these are much shorter than the needles of the pines but are longer than the leaves of the red cedar or arbor vitae4 ,they are neither arranged in clusters like those of the larch1 nor in feathery layers like those of the cypress4 ,they adhere to the tree throughout the year1 while the leaves of the larch and cypress shed in the fall4 ,the spruces are pyramidal-shaped trees1 with tall and tapering trunks1 thickly covered with branches1 forming a compact crown4 ,they are widely distributed throughout the cold and temperate regions of the northern hemisphere1 where they often form thick forests over extended areas4 ,there are eighteen recognized species of spruce4 ,the ,norway spruce has been chosen as a type for this group because it is so commonly planted in the northeastern part of the ,united ,states4 ,the hemlock is represented by seven species1 confined to temperate ,north ,america1 ,japan1 and ,central and ,western ,china4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,the ,norway ,spruce4 ,how to tell them from each other3 ,the needles and branches of the spruce are coarse2 those of the hemlock are flat and graceful4 ,the individual leaves of the spruce1 ,fig4 #i1 are four-sided and green or blue on the under side1 while those of the hemlock1 ,fig4 #aj1 are flat and are marked by two white lines on the under side4 ,,the ,,norway ,,spruce 7,picea excelsa7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the characteristic appearance of the full-grown tree is due to the 99drooping branchlets99 carried on 99main branches which bend upward99 7,fig4 #g74 ,leaf3 ,the leaves are dark green in color and are arranged spirally1 thus making the twigs coarser to the touch than the twigs of the hemlock or fir4 ,in cross-section1 the individual leaflet is quadrilateral1 while that of the pine is triangular4 ,form and size3 ,a large tree with a straight1 undivided trunk and a well-shaped1 conical crown 7,fig4 #g74 ,range3 ,northern ,europe1 ,asia1 northern ,north ,america4 ,soil and location3 ,grows in cool1 moist situations4 ,enemies3 ,the foliage of the spruce is sometimes affected by red spider1 but is apt to be more seriously injured by drought1 wind1 and late frosts4 ,value for planting3 ,commonly planted as an ornamental tree and for hedges4 ,it does well for this purpose in a cool northern climate1 but in the vicinity of ,new ,york ,city and further south it does not do as well1 losing its lower branches at an early age1 and becoming generally scraggly in appearance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,a ,group of ,hemlock4 ,commercial value3 ,the wood is light and soft and is used for construction timber1 paper pulp1 and fuel4 ,other characters3 ,the fruit is a large slender cone1 four to seven inches long4 ,comparisons3 ,the white spruce 7,picea canadensis7 may be told from the ,norway spruce by the whitish color on the under side of its leaves and the unpleasant1 pungent odor emitted from the needles when bruised4 ,the cones of the white spruce1 about two inches long1 are shorter than these of the ,norway spruce1 but are longer than those of the black spruce4 ,it is essentially a northern tree growing in all sorts of locations along the streams and on rocky mountain slopes as far north as the ,arctic ,sea and ,alaska4 ,it often appears as an ornamental tree as far south as ,new ,york and ,pennsylvania4 ,the black spruce 7,picea mariana7 may be told from the other spruces by its small cone1 which is usually only about one inch in length4 ,in ,new ,england it seldom grows to as large a size as the other spruce trees4 ,it covers large areas in various parts of northern ,north ,america and grows to its largest size in ,manitoba4 ,the black spruce has little value as an ornamental tree4 ,the ,colorado blue spruce 7,picea parryana or ,picea pungens7 which is commonly used as an ornamental tree on lawns and in parks1 can be told from the other spruces by its pale-blue or sage-green color and its sharp-pointed1 coarse-feeling twigs4 ,its small size and sharp-pointed conical form are also characteristic4 ,it grows to a large size in ,colorado and the ,middle ,west4 ,in the ,eastern ,states and in northern ,europe where it is planted as an ornamental tree1 it is usually much smaller4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,twig of the ,norway ,spruce4 ,,hemlock 7,tsuga canadensis7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,its leaves are arranged in 99flat layers991 giving a flat1 horizontal and graceful appearance to the whole branch 7,fig4 #h74 ,the individual leaves are dark green above1 lighter colored below1 and are 99marked by two white lines on the under side99 7,fig4 #aj74 ,the leaves are arranged on little stalks1 a characteristic that does not appear in the other evergreen trees4 ,form and size3 ,a large tree with a broad-based pyramidal head1 and a trunk conspicuously tapering toward the apex4 ,the branches extend almost to the ground4 ,range3 ,the hemlock is a northern tree1 growing in ,canada and the ,united ,states4 ,soil and location3 ,grows on all sorts of soils1 in the deepest woods as well as on high mountain slopes4 ,enemies3 ,none of importance4 ,value for planting3 ,the hemlock makes an excellent hedge because it retains its lowest branches and will stand shearing4 ,in this respect it is preferable to the spruce4 ,it makes a fair tree for the lawn and is especially desirable for underplanting in woodlands1 where the shade from the surrounding trees is heavy4 ,in this respect it is like the beech4 ,commercial value3 ,the wood is soft1 brittle1 and coarse-grained1 and is therefore used mainly for coarse lumber4 ,its bark is so rich in tannin that it forms one of the chief commercial products of the tree4 ,other characters3 ,the fruit is a small cone about #c_/d of an inch long1 which generally hangs on the tree all winter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,twig of the ,hemlock4 ,,group ,,iii4 ,,the ,,red ,,cedar ,,and ,,arbor-,,vitae ,how to tell them from other trees3 ,the red cedar 7juniper7 and arbor-vitae may be told from other trees by their leaves1 which remain on the tree and keep green throughout the entire year4 ,these leaves differ from those of the other evergreens in being much shorter and of a distinctive shape as shown in ,figs4 #ab and #ac4 ,the trees themselves are much smaller than the other evergreens enumerated in this book4 ,altogether1 there are thirty-five species of juniper recognized and four of arbor-vitae4 ,the junipers are widely distributed over the northern hemisphere1 from the ,arctic region down to ,mexico in the ,new ,world1 and in northern ,africa1 ,china1 and ,japan in the ,old ,world4 ,the arbor-vitae is found in northeastern and northwestern ,america1 ,china1 and ,japan4 ,the species mentioned here are those commonly found in ,america4 ,how to tell them from each other3 ,the twigs of the arbor-vitae are flat and fan-like as in ,fig4 #ac2 the twigs of the red cedar are needle-shaped or scale-like as in ,fig4 #ab4 ,the foliage of the arbor-vitae is of a lighter color than that of the red cedar1 which is sombre green4 ,the arbor-vitae will generally be found growing in moist locations1 while the red cedar will grow in dry places as well4 ,the arbor-vitae generally retains its lower branches in open places1 while the branches of the red cedar start at some distance from the ground4 ,,red ,,cedar 7,juniperus virginiana7 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,the ,red ,cedar4 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the tree can best be told at a glance by its general form1 size and leaves4 ,it is a medium-sized tree with a symmetrical1 cone-like form1 ,fig4 #aa1 which1 however1 broadens out somewhat when the tree grows old4 ,its color throughout the year is dull green with a tinge of brownish red1 and its bark peels in thin strips4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab7;a74--,twig of ,young ,cedar4 ,,fig4 #ab7;b74--,twig of ,cedar 7,older ,tree74 ,leaf3 ,in young trees the leaf is needle-shaped1 pointed1 and marked by a white line on its under side1 ,fig4 #ab7;a74 ,in older trees it is scale-like1 ,fig4 #ab7;b71 and the white line on its under side is indistinct4 ,range3 ,widely distributed over nearly all of eastern and central ,north ,america4 ,soil and location3 ,grows on poor1 gravelly soils as well as in rich bottom lands4 ,enemies3 ,the cedar apple1 commonly found on this tree1 represents a stage of the apple rust1 and for that reason it is not desirable to plant such trees near orchards4 ,its wood is also sometimes attacked by small boring insects4 ,value for planting3 ,its characteristic slender form gives the red cedar an important place as an ornamental tree1 but its chief value lies in its commercial use4 ,commercial value3 ,the wood is durable1 light1 smooth and fragrant1 and is therefore used for making lead-pencils1 cabinets1 boxes1 moth-proof chests1 shingles1 posts1 and telegraph poles4 ,other characters3 ,the fruit is small1 round and berry-like1 about the size of a pea1 of dark blue color1 and carries from one to four bony seeds4 ,other common names3 ,the red cedar is also often called juniper and red juniper4 ,comparisons3 ,the red cedar is apt to be confused with the low juniper 7,juniperus communis7 which grows in open fields all over the world4 ,the latter1 however1 is generally of a low form with a flat top4 ,its leaves are pointed and prickly1 never scale-like1 and they are whitish above and green below4 ,its bark shreds and its fruit is a small round berry of agreeable aromatic odor4 ,,arbor-,,vitae2 ,,northern ,,white ,,cedar 7,thuja occidentalis7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the 99branchlets99 are extremely 99flat and fan-like991 ,fig4 #ac1 and have an agreeable aromatic odor when bruised4 ,the tree is an evergreen with a narrow conical form4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,twig of the ,arbor-vitae4 ,leaf3 ,leaves of two kinds1 one scale-like and flat1 the other keeled1 all tightly pressed to the twig 7see ,fig4 #ac74 ,form and size3 ,a close1 conical head with dense foliage near the base4 ,usually a small tree1 but in some parts of the northeastern ,states it grows to medium size with a diameter of two feet4 ,range3 ,northern part of ,north ,america4 ,soil and location3 ,inhabits low1 swampy lands2 in the ,state of ,maine often forming thick forests4 ,enemies3 ,very seldom affected by insects4 ,value for planting3 ,is hardy in ,new ,england1 where it is especially used for hedges4 ,it is also frequently used as a specimen tree on the lawn4 ,commercial value3 ,the wood is durable for posts1 ties1 and shingles4 ,the bark contains considerable tannin and the juices from the tree have a medicinal value4 ,other characters3 ,the fruit is a cone about #a_/b inch long4 ,other common names3 ,arbor-vitae is sometimes called white cedar and cedar4 ,comparisons3 ,the arbor-vitae is apt to be confused with the true white cedar 7,chamaecyparis thyoides7 but the leaves of the latter are sharp-pointed and not flattened or fan-shaped4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,how ,,to ,,identify ,,trees--7,continued7 ,,group ,,iv4 ,,the ,,larch ,,and ,,cypress ,how to tell them from other trees3 ,in summer the larch and cypress may easily be told from other trees by their leaves4 ,these are needle-shaped and arranged in clusters with numerous leaves to each cluster in the case of the larch1 and feathery and flat in the case of the cypress4 ,in winter1 when their leaves have dropped off1 the trees can be told by their cones1 which adhere to the branches4 ,there are nine recognized species of larch and two of bald cypress4 ,the larch is characteristically a northern tree1 growing in the northern and mountainous regions of the northern hemisphere from the ,arctic circle to ,pennsylvania in the ,new ,world1 and in ,central ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,japan in the ,old ,world4 ,it forms large forests in the ,alps of ,switzerland and ,france4 ,the ,european larch and not the ,american is the principal species considered here1 because it is being planted extensively in this country and in most respects is preferable to the ,american species4 ,the bald cypress is a southern tree of ancient origin1 the well-known cypress of ,montezuma in the gardens of ,chepultepec having been a species of ,taxodium4 ,the tree is now confined to the swamps and river banks of the ,south ,atlantic and ,gulf ,states1 where it often forms extensive forests to the exclusion of all other trees4 ,in those regions along the river swamps1 the trees are often submerged for several months of the year4 ,how to tell them from each other3 ,in summer the larch may be told from the cypress by its leaves 7compare ,figs4 #ad and #af74 ,in winter the two can be distinguished by their characteristic forms4 ,the larch is a broader tree as compared with the cypress and its form is more conical4 ,the cypress is more slender and it is taller4 ,the two have been grouped together in this study because they are both coniferous trees and1 unlike the other ,conifers1 are both deciduous1 their leaves falling in ,october4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,twig of the ,larch in ,summer4 ,,the ,,european ,,larch 7,larix europaea7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,its leaves1 which are needle-shaped and about an inch long1 are borne in 99clusters99 close to the twig1 ,fig4 #ad4 ,there are many leaves to each cluster4 ,this characteristic together with the 99spire-like99 form of the crown will distinguish the tree at a glance4 ,leaf3 ,the leaves are of a light-green color but become darker in the spring and in ,october turn yellow and drop off4 ,the cypress1 which is described below1 is another cone-bearing tree which sheds its leaves in winter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,twig of the ,larch in ,winter4 ,form and size3 ,a medium-sized tree with a conical head and a straight and tapering trunk4 7,see ,fig4 #ij47 ,range3 ,central ,europe and eastern and central ,united ,states4 ,soil and location3 ,requires a deep1 fresh1 well-drained soil and needs plenty of light4 ,it flourishes in places where our native species would die4 ,grows very rapidly4 ,enemies3 ,the larch is subject to the attacks of a sawfly1 which has killed many trees of the ,american species4 ,a fungus 7,trametes pini7 which causes the tree to break down with ease is another of its enemies4 ,value for planting3 ,a well-formed tree for the lawn4 ,it is also useful for group planting in the forest4 ,commercial value3 ,because its wood is strong and durable the larch is valuable for poles1 posts1 railroad ties1 and in shipbuilding4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,twig of the ,cypress4 ,other characters3 ,the fruit is a small cone about one inch long1 adhering to the tree throughout the winter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,the ,bald ,cypress4 ,comparisons3 ,the tree is apt to be confused with the ,american larch1 also known as tamarack and hackmatack1 but differs from it in having longer leaves1 cones twice as large and more abundant and branches which are more pendulous4 ,the larch differs from the bald cypress in the broader form of its crown and the cluster-like arrangement of its leaves4 ,the twigs of the bald cypress are flat and feathery4 ,the larch and bald cypress have the common characteristics of both shedding their leaves in winter and preferring to grow in moist or swampy soils4 ,the larch1 especially the native species1 forms the well-known tamarack swamps of the north4 ,the bald cypress grows in a similar way in groups in the southern swamps4 ,,bald ,,cypress 7,taxodium distichum7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the 99feathery character99 of the 99twigs991 ,fig4 #af1 and the 99spire-like form99 of the tree1 ,fig4 #ag1 which is taller and more slender than the larch1 will distinguish this species from others4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,cypress ,knees4 ,leaf3 ,the leaves drop off in ,october1 though the tree is of the cone-bearing kind4 ,in this respect it is like the larch4 ,form and size3 ,tall and pyramidal4 ,range3 ,the cypress is a southern tree1 but is found under cultivation in parks and on lawns in northern ,united ,states4 ,soil and location3 ,grows naturally in swamps1 but will also do well in ordinary well-drained1 good soil4 ,in its natural habitat it sends out special roots above water4 ,these are known as cypress knees 7,fig4 #ah7 and serve to provide air to the submerged roots of the tree4 ,enemies3 ,none of importance4 ,value for planting3 ,an excellent tree for park and lawn planting4 ,commercial value3 ,the wood is light1 soft1 and easily worked4 ,it is used for general construction1 interior finish1 railroad ties1 posts and cooperage4 ,other characters3 ,the bark is thin and scaly4 ,the fruit is a cone about an inch in diameter4 ,the general color of the tree is a dull1 deep green which1 however1 turns orange brown in the fall4 ,comparisons3 ,the cypress and the larch are apt to be confused1 especially in the winter1 when the leaves of both have dropped4 ,the cypress is more slender and is taller in form4 ,the leaves of each are very different1 as will be seen from the accompanying illustrations4 ,,group ,v4 ,,the ,,horsechestnut1 ,,ash ,,and ,,maple ,how to tell them from other trees3 ,the horsechestnut1 ash1 and maple have their branches and buds arranged on their stems 99opposite99 each other as shown in ,figs4 #bj1 #bb and #bd4 ,in other trees1 this arrangement is 99alternate991 as shown in ,fig4 #ai4 ,how to tell these three from each other4 ,if the bud is large--an inch to an inch and a half long--dark brown1 and sticky1 it is a horsechestnut4 ,if the bud is not sticky1 much smaller1 and rusty brown to black in color1 and the ultimate twigs1 of an olive green color1 are flattened at points below the buds1 it is an ash4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--;,alternate ,branching 7,beech47 ,if it is not a horsechestnut nor an ash and its small buds have many scales covering them1 the specimen with branches and buds opposite must then be a maple4 ,each of the maples has one character which distinguishes it from all the other maples4 ,for the sugar maple1 this distinguishing character is the sharp point of the bud4 ,for the silver maple it is the bend in the terminal twig4 ,for the red maple it is the smooth gray-colored bark4 ,for the ,norway maple it is the reddish brown color of the full1 round bud1 and for the box elder it is the greenish color of its terminal twig4 ,the form of the tree and the leaves are also characteristic in each of the maples1 but for the beginner who does not wish to be burdened with too many of these facts at one time1 those just enumerated will be found most certain and most easily followed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,opposite ,branching 7,horsechestnut47 ,,the ,,horsechestnut 7,aesculus hippocastanum7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the 99sticky99 nature of the 99terminal bud99 and its 99large size99 7about an inch long74 ,the bud is dark brown in color4 ,see ,fig4 #bj4 ,leaf3 ,five to seven leaflets1 usually seven4 ,fig4 #ba4 ,form and size3 ,medium-sized tree1 pyramidal head and coarse twigs4 ,range3 ,europe and eastern ,united ,states4 ,soil and location3 ,prefers a deep1 rich soil4 ,enemies3 ,the leaves are the favorite food of caterpillars and are subject to a blight which turns them brown prematurely4 ,the trunk is often attacked by a disease which causes the flow of a slimy substance4 ,value for planting3 ,on account of its showy flowers1 the horsechestnut is a favorite for the park and lawn4 ,commercial value3 ,the wood is not durable and is not used commercially4 ,other characters3 ,the flowers appear in large white clusters in ,may and ,june4 ,the fruit is large1 round1 and prickly4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,leaf of the ,horsechestnut4 ,comparisons3 ,the red horsechestnut differs from this tree in having red flowers4 ,the buckeye is similar to the horsechestnut1 but its bud is not sticky and is of a lighter gray color1 while the leaf generally has only five leaflets4 ,,the ,,white ,,ash 7,fraxinus americana7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the terminal 99twigs99 of glossy olive green color are 99flattened99 below the bud4 ,fig4 #bb4 ,the bud is rusty-brown4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,twig of ,white ,ash4 ,leaf3 ,five to nine leaflets4 ,fig4 #bc4 ,form and size3 ,a large tree with a straight trunk4 ,range3 ,eastern ,north ,america4 ,soil and location3 ,rich1 moist soil4 ,enemies3 ,in cities it is very often attacked by sucking insects4 ,value for planting3 ,the white ash grows rapidly4 ,on account of its insect enemies in cities1 it should be used more for forest planting and only occasionally for ornament4 ,commercial value3 ,it has a heavy1 tough1 and strong wood1 which is valuable in the manufacture of cooperage stock1 agricultural implements1 and carriages4 ,it is superior in value to the black ash4 ,other characters3 ,the bark is gray4 ,the flowers appear in ,may4 ,comparisons3 ,the white ash is apt to be confused with the black ash 7,fraxinus nigra71 but differs from the latter in having a lighter-colored bud4 ,the bud of the black ash is black4 ,the bark of the white ash is darker in color and the terminal twigs are more flattened than those of the black ash4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,leaf of ,white ,ash4 ,,sugar ,,maple 7,acer saccharum7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the 99bud is sharp-pointed991 scaly1 and reddish brown4 ,fig4 #bd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,twig of the ,sugar ,maple4 ,leaf3 ,has sharp points and round sinus4 ,fig4 #be4 ,form and size3 ,the crown is oval when the tree is young and round in old age4 ,fig4 #bf4 ,range3 ,eastern ,united ,states4 ,soil and location3 ,moist and deep soil1 and cool1 shady positions4 ,enemies3 ,subject to drouth1 especially in cities4 ,is attacked by the sugar maple borer and the maple phenacoccus1 a sucking insect4 ,value for planting3 ,its rich and yellow color in the fall1 and the fine spread of its crown make it a desirable tree for the lawn1 especially in the country4 ,commercial value3 ,its wood is hard and takes a good polish2 used for interior finish and furniture4 ,the tree is also the source of maple sugar4 ,fig4 #bg4 ,other characters3 ,the bark is smooth in young trees and in old trees it shags in large plates4 ,the flowers appear in the early part of ,april4 ,other common names3 ,the sugar maple is sometimes called rock maple or hard maple4 ,,silver ,,maple 7,acer saccharinum7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the tips of the 99twigs curve upwards99 7,fig4 #bh71 the bark is scaly1 and the leaves are very deeply cleft and are silvery on the under side4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,leaf of ,sugar ,maple4 ,leaf3 ,deeply cleft and silvery under side4 ,fig4 #bi4 ,form and size3 ,a large tree with the main branches separating from the trunk a few feet from the ground4 ,the terminal twigs are long1 slender1 and drooping4 ,range3 ,eastern ,united ,states4 ,soil and location3 ,moist places4 ,enemies3 ,the leopard moth1 a wood-boring insect1 and the cottony-maple scale1 a sucking insect4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,the ,sugar ,maple4 ,value for planting3 ,grows too rapidly and is too short-lived to be durable4 ,commercial value3 ,its wood is soft1 weak1 and little used4 ,other characters3 ,the bark is light gray1 smooth at first and scaly later on4 ,the scales are free at each end and attached in the center4 ,the flowers appear before the leaves in the latter part of ,march or early ,april4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,tapping the ,sugar ,maple4 ,other common names3 ,the silver maple is sometimes known as soft maple or white maple4 ,,red ,,maple 7,acer rubrum7 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--,terminal ,twig of ,silver ,maple4 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the 99bark is smooth and light gray991 like that of the beech1 on the upper branches in older trees1 and in young trees over the whole trunk4 ,fig4 #cj4 ,the buds are in clusters1 and the terminal twigs1 ,fig4 #ca1 are quite red4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,leaf of the ,silver ,maple4 ,leaf3 ,whitish underneath with three-pointed lobes4 ,fig4 #cb4 ,form and size3 ,a medium-sized tree with a narrow1 round head4 ,range3 ,eastern ,north ,america4 ,soil and location3 ,prefers moist places4 ,enemies3 ,leaf blotches 7,rhytisma acerinum7 which1 however1 are not very injurious4 ,value for planting3 ,suitable as a shade tree for suburban streets4 ,its rich red leaves in the fall make it attractive for the lawn4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--;,bark of the ,red ,maple4 ,commercial value3 ,its wood is heavy1 close-grained1 and takes a good polish4 ,used for furniture and fuel4 ,other characters3 ,the bud is small1 round1 and red4 ,the flowers appear before the leaves are out in the early part of ,april4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,twig of the ,red ,maple4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,leaf of the ,red ,maple4 ,other common names3 ,the red maple is sometimes known as swamp maple4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,twig of ,norway ,maple4 ,comparisons3 ,the red maple is apt to be confused with the silver maple1 but the latter can be distinguished by its turned-up twigs and scaly bark over the whole trunk of the tree1 which presents a sharp contrast to the straight twig and smooth bark of the red maple4 ,the latter has a bark similar to the beech1 but its branches are opposite1 while those of the beech are alternate4 ,,norway ,,maple 7,acer platanoides7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the bud1 ,fig4 #cc1 is 99oval and reddish-brown99 in color2 when taken off1 a 99milky juice exudes994 ,the bark is close4 ,fig4 #cd ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--;,bark of ,norway ,maple4 ,leaf3 ,like the leaf of the sugar maple but thicker in texture and darker in color4 ,fig4 #ce4 ,form and size3 ,a tall tree with a broad1 round head4 ,range3 ,europe and the ,united ,states4 ,soil and location3 ,will grow in poor soil4 ,enemies3 ,very few4 ,value for planting3 ,one of the best shade trees4 ,commercial value3 ,none4 ,other characters3 ,the bark is close like that of the mockernut hickory4 ,comparisons3 ,the ,norway maple is apt to be confused with the sycamore maple 7,acer pseudoplatanus71 but differs from the latter in having a reddish bud instead of a green bud1 and a close bark instead of a scaly bark4 ,,box ,,elder 7,acer negundo7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the terminal 99twigs are green991 and the buds are round and small4 ,fig4 #cf4 ,leaf3 ,has three to seven leaflets4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--,leaf of ,norway ,maple4 ,form and size3 ,a medium-sized tree with a short trunk and wide-spreading top4 ,range3 ,eastern ,united ,states to the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,soil and location3 ,grows rapidly in deep1 moist soil and river valleys1 but accommodates itself to the dry and poor soil conditions of the city4 ,illustration3 ,figure #cf4--,twig of the ,box ,elder4 ,enemies3 ,few4 ,value for planting3 ,used as a shade tree in the ,middle ,west1 but the tree is so ill formed and so short-lived that it is not to be recommended4 ,commercial value3 ,none4 ,the wood is soft4 ,other characters3 ,the bark of the trunk is smooth and yellowish-green in young trees and grayish brown in older specimens4 ,the flowers appear in the early part of ,april4 ,the fruit takes the form of yellowish-green keys which hang on the tree till late fall4 ,other common names3 ,the box elder is also commonly known as the ash-leaf maple4 ,,group ,,vi4 ,,trees ,,told ,,by ,,their ,,form3 ,,elm1 ,,poplar1 ,,gingko ,,and ,,willow ,how to tell them from other trees3 ,the trees described in this group are so distinctive in their general form that they may1 for the purpose of study1 be grouped together1 and distinguished from all other trees by this characteristic4 ,how to tell them from each other3 ,the ,american elm is vase-like in shape2 the ,lombardy poplar is narrow and spire-like2 the gingko1 or maidenhair tree1 is odd in its mode of branching2 and the weeping willow is extremely pendulous4 ,,american ,,elm 7,ulmus americana7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the tree can be told at a glance by its general branching habit4 ,the limbs arch out into a wide-spreading 99fan or vase-like crown99 which loses itself in numerous fine drooping branchlets4 ,see ,fig4 #cg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,american ,elm4 ,leaf3 ,the leaves are simple1 alternate1 and from #b to #e inches long4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--;,english ,elm in ,winter4 ,form and size3 ,it is a tall tree with a trunk that divides a short distance above ground4 ,its general contour1 together with the numerous branches that interlace its massive crown1 give the elm an interesting and stately appearance which is unequaled by any other tree4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--,lombardy ,poplar4 ,range3 ,eastern ,north ,america4 ,soil and location3 ,the elm prefers a deep1 rich and moist soil1 but will adapt itself even to the poor soil of the city street4 ,enemies3 ,the leopard moth1 a wood-boring insect1 and the elm leaf beetle1 a leaf-eating insect1 are the two most important enemies of the tree4 ,their ravages are very extensive4 ,value for planting3 ,the tree has a character of its own which cannot be duplicated for avenue or lawn planting4 ,commercial value3 ,the wood is strong and tough and therefore has a special value for cooperage1 agricultural implements1 carriages1 and shipbuilding4 ,other characters3 ,the buds are small1 brown1 and smooth1 while those of the ,european elms are covered with down4 ,the small side twigs come out at almost right angles to the larger terminal twigs1 which is not the case in other species of elm4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,leaf of ,carolina ,poplar4 ,other common names3 ,white elm4 ,comparisons3 ,the ,english elm 7,ulmus campestris7 is also a tall1 dignified tree commonly seen under cultivation in ,america1 but may be told from the ,american species by the difference in their general contour4 ,the branches of the ,english species spread out but do not arch like those of the ,american elm1 and the bark of the ,english elm is darker and coarser1 ,fig4 #ch4 ,little tufts of dead twigs along the main branches and trunk of the tree are characteristic of the ,english elm and will frequently help to distinguish it from the ,american elm4 ,the ,camperdown elm may be recognized readily by its dwarf size and its low drooping umbrella-shaped crown4 ,,lombardy ,,or ,,italian ,,poplar 7,populus nigra1 var4 italica7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,its 99tall1 slender1 spire-like form99 and rigidly 99erect branches991 which commence low on the trunk1 make this tree very distinct at all seasons of the year4 ,see ,fig4 #ci4 ,leaf3 ,triangular in shape1 similar to that of the ,carolina poplar but smaller1 see ,fig4 #dj4 ,range3 ,asia1 ,europe1 and ,north ,america4 ,soil and location3 ,the poplar is easily grown in poor soil1 in any location1 and is very hardy4 ,value for planting3 ,the tree has a distinctive form which makes it valuable for special landscape effects4 ,it is also used for shelter belts and screening4 ,like all poplars it is short lived and will stand pruning well4 ,commercial value3 ,none4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4--;,carolina ,poplar4 ,comparisons3 ,the ,carolina poplar1 or ,cottonwood 7,populus deltoides7 can be told from the ,lombardy poplar by its wider crown and its more open branching1 ,fig4 #da4 ,it may be recognized by its big terminal twigs1 which are light yellow in color and coarser than those of the ,lombardy poplar1 ,fig4 #db4 ,its bark is smooth1 light and yellowish-green in young trees1 and dark gray and fissured in older specimens4 ,its large1 conical1 glossy1 chestnut-brown bud is also characteristic1 ,fig4 #db4 ,its flowers1 in the form of large catkins1 a peculiarity of all poplars1 appear in the early spring4 ,the ,carolina poplar is commonly planted in cities because it grows rapidly and is able to withstand the smoke and drouth conditions of the city4 ,where other trees1 however1 can be substituted with success1 the poplar should be avoided4 ,its very fast growth is really a point against the tree1 because it grows so fast that it becomes too tall for surrounding property1 and its wood being extremely soft and brittle1 the tree frequently breaks in windstorms4 ,in many cases it is entirely uprooted1 because it is not a deep-rooted tree4 ,its larger roots1 which spread near the surface1 upset the sidewalk or prevent the growth of other vegetation on the lawn1 while its finer rootlets1 in their eager search for moisture1 penetrate and clog the joints of neighboring water and sewer pipes4 ,the tree is commonly attacked by the oyster-shell scale1 an insect which sucks the sap from its bark and which readily spreads to other more valuable trees like the elm4 ,the female form of this tree is even more objectionable than the male1 because in the early spring the former produces an abundance of cotton from its seeds which litters the ground and often makes walking dangerous4 ,the only justification for planting the ,carolina poplar is in places where the conditions for tree growth are so poor that nothing else will grow1 and in those cases the tree should be cut back periodically in order to keep it from becoming too tall and scraggly4 ,it is also desirable for screening in factory districts and similar situations4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4--;,bud of the ,carolina ,poplar4 ,the silver or white poplar 7,populus alba7 may be told from the other poplars by its characteristic smooth1 whitish-green bark1 often spotted with dark blotches1 ,fig4 #dc4 ,the leaves are silvery-white and downy on the under side4 ,the twigs are dark green in color and densely covered with a white down4 ,it grows to very large size and forms an irregular1 wide-spreading1 broad head1 which is characteristically different from that of any of the other poplars4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--;,bark of the ,silver ,poplar4 ,the quaking aspen 7,populus tremuloides71 the large-toothed aspen 7,populus grandidentata7 and the balsam poplar or balm of ,gilead 7,populus balsamifera7 are other common members of the poplar group4 ,the quaking aspen may be told by its reddish-brown twigs1 narrow sharp-pointed buds1 and by its small finely toothed leaves4 ,the large-toothed aspen has thicker and rather downy buds and broader and more widely toothed leaves4 ,the balsam poplar has a large bud thickly covered with a sticky1 pungent1 gelatinous substance4 ,,gingko ,,or ,,maidenhair ,,tree 7,gingko biloba7 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--;,gingko ,trees4 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the 99peculiar branches99 of this tree 99emerge upward99 from a straight tapering trunk 99at an angle of about #de deg499 and give to the whole tree a striking1 ,oriental appearance1 which is quite different from that of any other tree1 ,fig4 #dd4 ,leaf3 ,like that of a leaflet of maidenhair fern1 ,fig4 #de4 ,range3 ,a native of northern ,china and introduced into eastern ,north ,america4 ,soil and location3 ,the gingko will grow in poor soils4 ,enemies3 ,practically free from insects and disease4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4--,leaves of the ,gingko ,tree4 ,value for planting3 ,it makes a valuable tree for the street where heavy shade is not the object and forms an excellent wide-spreading specimen tree on the lawn4 ,other characters3 ,the fruit consists of a stone covered by sweet1 ill-smelling flesh4 ,the tree is dioecious1 there being separate male and female trees4 ,the male tree is preferable for planting in order to avoid the disagreeable odor of the fruit which appears on the female trees when about thirty years old4 ,the male tree has a narrower crown than the female tree4 ,the buds 7,fig4 #df7 are very odd and are conspicuous on the tree throughout the winter4 ,the leaves of the gingko shed in the winter4 ,in this respect the tree is like the larch and the bald cypress4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4--;,bud of the ,gingko ,tree4 ,the gingko belongs to the yew family1 which is akin to the pine family4 ,it is therefore a very old tree1 the remains of the forests of the ancient world4 ,the gingko in its early life is tall and slender with its few branches close to the stem4 ,but after a time the branches loosen up and form a wide-spreading crown4 ,in the ,orient it attains enormous proportions and in this country it also grows to a fairly large size when planted on the open lawn or in groups far apart from other trees so that it can have plenty of room to spread4 ,it then produces a picturesque effect of unusual interest4 ,,weeping ,,willow 7,salix babylonica7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,all the willows have a single cap-like scale to the bud1 and this species has an unusually 99drooping mass of slender branchlets99 which characterizes the tree from all others1 ,fig4 #dg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--,weeping ,willow4 ,form and size3 ,it grows to large size4 ,range3 ,asia and ,europe and naturalized in eastern ,united ,states4 ,soil and location3 ,prefers moist places near streams and ponds4 ,enemies3 ,none of importance4 ,value for planting3 ,the weeping willow has a special ornamental effect in cemeteries and along lakes and river banks in parks4 ,commercial value3 ,it is used in the ,united ,states for charcoal and for fuel4 ,comparisons3 ,the pussy willow 7,salix discolor7 may easily be told from the other willows by its small size2 it is often no higher than a tall shrub4 ,its branches are reddish green and the buds are dark red1 smooth and glossy4 ,the predominating color of the twigs and buds in the pussy willow is therefore a shade of red1 while in the weeping willow it is yellowish green4 ,,group ,,vii4 ,,trees ,,told ,,by ,,their ,,bark ,,or ,,trunk3 ,,sycamore1 ,,birch1 ,,beech1 ,,blue ,,beech1 ,,ironwood1 ,,and ,,hackberry ,how to tell them from other trees3 ,the color of the bark or the form of the trunk of each of the trees in this group is distinct from that of any other tree4 ,how to tell them from each other3 ,in the sycamore1 the bark is mottled2 in the white birch1 it is dull white2 in the beech1 it is smooth and gray2 in the hackberry1 it is covered with numerous corky warts2 in the blue beech1 the trunk of the tree is fluted1 as in ,fig4 #ed1 and in the ironwood1 the bark peels in thin perpendicular strips4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--;,bark of the ,sycamore ,tree4 ,,the ,,sycamore ,,or ,,plane ,,tree 7,platanus occidentalis7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the peculiar 99mottled appearance99 of the 99bark99 7,fig4 #dh7 in the trunk and large branches is the striking character here4 ,the bark produces this effect by shedding in large1 thin1 brittle plates4 ,the newly exposed bark is of a yellowish green color which often turns nearly white later on4 99,round seed balls991 about an inch in diameter1 may be seen hanging on the tree all winter4 ,in this species1 the seed balls are usually solitary1 while in the ,oriental sycamore1 a ,european tree similar to the native one1 they appear in clusters of two1 or occasionally of three or four4 ,see ,fig4 #di4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,seed-balls of the ,oriental ,sycamore4 ,note one ,seed-ball cut in half4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--;,gray or ,white ,birch ,trees4 ,leaf3 ,the stem of the leaf completely covers the bud4 ,this is a characteristic peculiar to sycamores4 ,form and size3 ,a large tree with massive trunk and branches and a broad head4 ,range3 ,eastern and southern ,united ,states4 ,soil and location3 ,prefers a deep rich soil1 but will adapt itself even to the poor soil of the city street4 ,enemies3 ,the sycamore is frequently attacked by a fungus 7,gloeosporium nervisequum71 which curls up the young leaves and kills the tips of the branches4 ,late frosts also often injure its young twigs4 ,the ,oriental sycamore1 which is the ,european species1 is more hardy in these respects than the native one and is therefore often chosen as a substitute4 ,value for planting3 ,the ,occidental sycamore is now planted very little1 but the ,oriental sycamore is used quite extensively in its place1 especially as a shade tree4 ,the ,oriental sycamore is superior to the native species in many ways4 ,it is more shapely1 faster growing1 and hardier than the native one4 ,both sycamores will bear transplanting and pruning well4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--;,bark of the ,black or ,sweet ,birch4 ,commercial value3 ,the wood of the sycamore is coarse-grained and hard to work2 used occasionally for inside finishing in buildings4 ,other names3 ,buttonball1 buttonwood4 ,comparisons3 ,the ,oriental sycamore 7,platanus orientalis7 an introduced species1 is apt to be confused with the ,occidental sycamore1 but may be told from the latter by the number of seed balls suspended from the tree4 ,in the case of the ,oriental species1 the seed balls hang in pairs or 7rarely7 three or four together4 ,in the ,occidental1 the seed balls are generally solitary and very rarely in pairs4 ,,gray ,,or ,,white ,,birch 7,betula populifolia7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the 99dull-white color of the bark99 on the trunk and the dark triangular patches below the insertion of the branches distinguish this tree2 see ,fig4 #ej4 ,the bark of the young trunks and branches is reddish-brown in color and glossy4 ,the bark adheres closely to the trunk of the tree and does not peel in loose1 shaggy strips1 as in the case of the yellow or golden birch4 ,it is marked by small raised horizontal lines which are the lenticels or breathing pores4 ,these lenticels are characteristic of all birch and cherry trees4 ,in addition to the distinction in the color of the bark1 an important character which distinguishes the gray birch from all other species of birch1 is found in the 99terminal twigs991 which are 99rough99 to the touch4 ,form and size3 ,a small tree4 ,frequently grows in clumps4 ,range3 ,eastern ,united ,states4 ,soil and location3 ,the gray birch does best in a deep1 rich soil1 but will also grow in poor soils4 ,enemies3 ,the bronze-birch borer1 a wood-destroying insect1 and ,polyporus betulinus1 a fungus1 are its chief enemies4 ,value for planting3 ,its graceful habit and attractive bark gives the tree an important place in ornamental planting4 ,it may be used to advantage with evergreens1 and produces a charming effect when planted by itself in clumps4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--;,bark of the ,beech4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--;,buds of the ,beech ,tree4 ,commercial value3 ,the wood is soft and not durable4 ,it is used in the manufacture of small articles and for wood pulp4 ,other characters3 ,the fruit is a catkin4 ,comparisons3 ,the paper birch 7,betula papyrifera7 is apt to be confused with the gray birch1 because both have a white bark4 ,the bark of the paper birch1 however1 is a clear white and peels off in thin papery layers instead of being close4 ,it very seldom shows any dark triangular markings on the trunk4 ,its terminal twigs are not rough and its trunk is usually straighter and freer from branches4 ,the black or sweet birch 7,betula lenta7 has a bark similar to the gray birch1 except that its color is dark gray4 ,see ,fig4 #ea4 ,the twigs have an aromatic taste4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--,trunk of ,blue ,beech4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--;,bark of the ,ironwood4 ,the yellow birch 7,betula lutea7 has a yellowish or golden bark which constantly peels in thin1 ragged1 horizontal films4 ,the ,european white birch 7,betula alba7 has a dull-white bark like the native white birch1 but has smooth terminal twigs instead of rough ones4 ,it is commonly seen in the ,united ,states on lawns and in parks4 ,,american ,,beech 7,fagus americana7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the 99close-fitting1 smooth1 gray bark99 will tell this tree from all others except the red maple and yellow-wood4 ,see ,fig4 #eb4 ,the red maple may then be easily eliminated by noting whether the branches are alternate or opposite4 ,they are alternate in the beech and opposite in the maple4 ,the yellow-wood may be eliminated by noting the size of the bud4 ,the 99bud99 in the yellow-wood is hardly noticeable and of a golden yellow color1 while that of the beech is very 99long1 slender1 and sharp-pointed991 and chestnut brown in color4 ,see ,fig4 #ec4 ,form and size3 ,it grows tall in the woods1 but on the open lawn spreads out into a massive1 round-headed tree4 ,range3 ,eastern ,canada and ,united ,states4 ,soil and location3 ,prefers a rich1 well-drained soil1 but will grow in any good soil4 ,enemies3 ,aphides or plant lice that suck the sap from the leaves in spring and early summer are the chief enemies of the tree4 ,value for planting3 ,the pleasing color of its bark1 its fine spread of branches1 which gracefully droop down to the ground1 and its autumnal coloring1 make the beech a favorite for lawn and park planting4 ,the several ,european species of beech are equally charming4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--;,bark of the ,hackberry4 ,commercial value3 ,the wood is strong1 close-grained1 and tough4 ,it is used mainly for cooperage1 tool handles1 shoe lasts1 chairs1 etc41 and for fuel4 ,other characters3 ,the fruit is a prickly burr encasing a sharply triangular nut which is sweet and edible4 ,comparisons3 ,the ,european beech 7,fagus sylvatica71 and its weeping1 purple-leaved1 and fern-leaved varieties1 are frequently met with in parks and may be told from the native species by its darker bark4 ,the weeping form may1 of course1 be told readily by its drooping branches4 ,the leaves of the ,european beeches are broader and less serrated than those of the ,american beech4 ,,blue ,,beech ,,or ,,hornbeam 7,carpinus caroliniana7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the 99fluted99 or muscular effect of its 99trunk99 will distinguish the tree at a glance1 ,fig4 #ed4 ,leaf3 ,doubly serrated2 otherwise the same as that of ironwood4 ,form and size3 ,a low-spreading tree with branches arching out at various angles1 forming a flattened head with a fine1 slender spray4 ,range3 ,very common in the eastern ,united ,states4 ,soil and location3 ,grows in low wet woods4 ,enemies3 ,none of importance4 ,value for planting3 ,its artistic branching and curious trunk give the tree an important place in park planting4 ,commercial value3 ,none4 ,other characters3 ,the bark is smooth and bluish gray in color4 ,comparisons3 ,the blue beech or hornbeam is often confused with the ironwood or hop hornbeam 7,ostrya virginiana74 ,the ironwood1 however1 has a characteristic bark that peels in perpendicular1 short1 thin segments1 often loose at the ends4 ,see ,fig4 #ee4 ,this is entirely different from the close1 smooth1 and fluted bark of the blue beech4 ,the color of the bark in the ironwood is brownish1 while that of the blue beech is bluish-gray4 ,the buds of the ironwood are greenish with brown tips1 while the bud of the blue beech shows no green whatever4 ,,hackberry 7,celtis occidentalis7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the tree may be told readily from other trees by the 99corky tubercles99 on the bark of the lower portion of the trunk4 ,see ,fig4 #ef4 ,leaf3 ,has three predominating veins and is a bit more developed on one side than on the other4 ,form and size3 ,a small or medium-sized tree with a single stem and broad conical crown4 ,range3 ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,soil and location3 ,grows naturally in fertile soils1 but will adapt itself to almost sterile soils as well4 ,enemies3 ,the hackberry is usually free from disease1 though often its leaves are covered with insect galls4 ,value for planting3 ,it is extensively planted as a shade tree in the ,middle ,west1 and is frequently seen as an ornamental tree in the ,east4 ,commercial value3 ,it has little economic value except for fuel4 ,other characters3 ,the fruit is berry-like1 with a hard pit4 ,the fleshy outer part is sweet4 ,other common names3 ,nettle tree2 sugarberry4 ,,group ,,viii4 ,,the ,,oaks ,,and ,,chestnut ,how to tell them from other trees3 ,the oaks are rather difficult to identify and1 in studying them it will often be necessary to look for more than one distinguishing character4 ,the oaks differ from other trees in bearing acorns4 ,their leaves have many lobes and their upper lateral buds cluster at the top of the twigs4 ,the general contour of each oak presents a characteristic branching and sturdiness uncommon in other trees4 ,the chestnut differs from other trees in bearing burs and its bark is also distinctly characteristic4 ,how to tell them from each other3 ,there are two groups of oaks1 the white oak and the black oak4 ,the white oaks mature their acorns in one year and1 therefore1 only acorns of the same year can be found on trees of this group4 ,the black oaks take two years in which to mature their acorns and1 therefore1 young acorns of the present year and mature acorns of the previous year may be found on the same tree at one time4 ,the leaves of the white oaks have rounded margins and rounded lobes as in ,fig4 #eg1 while those of the black oaks have pointed margins and sharp pointed lobes as shown in ,figs4 #fj1 #fb and #fd4 ,the bark of the white oaks is light colored and breaks up in loose flakes as in ,fig4 #eh1 while that of the black oaks is darker and deeply ridged or tight as in ,figs4 #ei and #fa4 ,the white oak is the type of the white oak group and the black1 red and pin oaks are types of the other4 ,for the characterization of the individual species1 the reader is referred to the following pages4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--,leaf and ,fruit of ,white ,oak4 7,quercus alba47 ,,white ,,oak 7,quercus alba7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the massive ramification of its branches is characteristic of this species and often an easy clue to its identification4 ,the 99bark99 has a 99light gray color99--lighter than that of the other oaks--and breaks into soft1 loose flakes as in ,fig4 #eh4 ,the 99leaves are deeply lobed99 as in ,fig4 #eg4 ,the 99buds are small1 round and congested99 at the end of the year's growth4 ,the acorns usually have no stalks and are set in shallow1 rough cups4 ,the kernels of the acorns are white and palatable4 ,form and size3 ,the white oak grows into a large tree with a wide-spreading1 massive crown1 dissolving into long1 heavy1 twisted branches4 ,when grown in the open it possesses a short sturdy trunk2 in the forest its trunk is tall and stout4 ,range3 ,eastern ,north ,america4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--;,bark of ,white ,oak4 7,quercus alba47 ,soil and location3 ,the white oak thrives in almost any well-drained1 good1 deep soil except in a very cold and wet soil4 ,it requires plenty of light and attains great age4 ,enemies3 ,the tree is comparatively free from insects and disease except in districts where the ,gipsy moth is common1 in which case the leaves of the white oak are a favorite food of its caterpillars4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--;,bark of ,black ,oak4 7,quercus velutina74 ,value for planting3 ,the white oak is one of the most stately trees4 ,its massive form and its longevity make the tree suitable for both lawn and woodland planting but it is not used much because it is difficult to transplant and grows rather slowly4 ,commercial value3 ,the wood is of great economic importance4 ,it is heavy1 hard1 strong and durable and is used in cooperage1 construction work1 interior finish of buildings and for railroad ties1 furniture1 agricultural implements and fuel4 ,comparisons3 ,the swamp white oak 7,quercus platanoides7 is similar to the white oak in general appearance of the bark and form and is therefore liable to be confused with it4 ,it differs from the white oak1 however1 in possessing a more straggly habit and in the fact that the bark on the under side of its branches shags in loose1 large scales4 ,its buds are smaller1 lighter colored and more downy and its acorns are more pointed and with cups more shallow than those of the white oak4 ,the tree also grows in moister ground1 generally bordering swamps4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--,leaf and ,fruit of ,black ,oak4 7,quercus velutina74 ,,black ,,oak 7,quercus velutina7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the 99bark99 is black1 rough and cut up into firm 99ridges99 especially at the base of the tree1 see ,fig4 #ei4 ,the inner bark has a bright yellow color3 the 99leaves99 have sharp points and are wider at the base than at the tip as shown in ,fig4 #fj4 ,the buds are large1 downy and sharp pointed4 ,the acorns are small and have deep1 scaly cups the inner margins of which are downy4 ,the kernels are yellow and bitter4 ,form and size3 ,the tree grows in an irregular form to large size1 with its branches rather slender as compared with the white oak and with a more open and narrow crown4 ,range3 ,eastern ,north ,america4 ,soil and location3 ,it will grow in poor soils but does best where the soil is rich and well drained4 ,enemies3 ,none of importance4 ,value for planting3 ,the black oak is the poorest of the oaks for planting and is rarely offered by nurserymen4 ,commercial value3 ,the wood is heavy1 hard and strong1 but checks readily and is coarse grained4 ,it is of little value except for fuel4 ,the bark is used for tannin4 ,other common names3 ,yellow oak4 ,comparisons3 ,the black oak might sometimes be confused with the red and scarlet oaks4 ,the yellow1 bitter inner bark will distinguish the black oak from the other two4 ,the light-colored1 smooth bark of the red oak and the dark1 ridged bark of the black oak will distinguish the two1 while the bark of the scarlet oak has an appearance intermediate between the two4 ,the buds of the three species also show marked differences4 ,the buds of the black oak are covered with hairs1 those of the scarlet oak have fewer hairs and those of the red are practically free from hairs4 ,the leaves of each of the three species are distinct and the growth habits are different4 ,,red ,,oak 7,quercus rubra7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the 99bark99 is perpendicularly fissured into long1 smooth1 light gray strips giving the trunk a characteristic 99pillar effect99 as in ,figs4 #fa and #id4 ,it has the straightest trunk of all the oaks4 ,the leaves possess more lobes than the leaves of any of the other species of the black oak group1 see ,fig4 #fb4 ,the acorns1 the largest among the oaks1 are semispherical with the cups extremely shallow4 ,the buds are large and sharp pointed1 but not as large as those of the black oak4 ,they also have a few fine hairs on their scales1 but are not nearly as downy as those of the ,black oak4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa--;,bark of ,red ,oak4 ,form and size3 ,the red oak is the largest of the oaks and among the largest of the trees in the northern forests4 ,it has a straight trunk1 free from branches to a higher point than in the white oak1 see ,fig4 #id4 ,the branches are less twisted and emerge at sharper angles than do those of the white oak4 ,range3 ,it grows all over ,eastern ,north ,america and reaches north farther than any of the other oaks4 ,soil and location3 ,it is less fastidious in its soil and moisture requirements than the other oaks and therefore grows in a great variety of soils4 ,it requires plenty of light4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--,leaf and ,fruit of ,red ,oak4 ,enemies3 ,like most of the other oaks1 this species is comparatively free from insects and disease4 ,value for planting3 ,the red oak grows faster and adapts itself better to poor soil conditions than any of the other oaks and is therefore easy to plant and easy to find in the nurseries4 ,it makes an excellent street tree1 is equally desirable for the lawn and is hardly surpassed for woodland planting4 ,commercial value3 ,the wood is hard and strong but coarse grained1 and is used for construction timber1 interior finish and furniture4 ,it is inferior to white oak where strength and durability are required4 ,,pin ,,oak 7,quercus palustris7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,its method of 99branching99 will characterize the tree at a glance4 ,it develops a well-defined main ascending stem with numerous drooping side branches as in ,fig4 #fc4 ,the buds are very small and sharp pointed and the leaves are small as in ,fig4 #fd4 ,the bark is dark1 firm1 smooth and in close ridges4 ,the acorn is small and carries a light brown1 striped nut1 wider than long and bitter4 ,the cup is shallow1 enclosing only the base of the nut4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--,pin ,oaks in ,winter4 ,form and size3 ,the pin oak is a medium-sized tree in comparison with other oaks4 ,it develops a tall1 straight trunk that tapers continuously through a pyramidal crown of low1 drooping tender1 branches4 ,range3 ,eastern ,north ,america4 ,soil and location3 ,it requires a deep1 rich1 moist soil and grows naturally near swamps4 ,its roots are deep and spreading4 ,the tree grows rapidly and is easily transplanted4 ,enemies3 ,none of importance4 ,value for planting3 ,the pin oak is an extremely graceful tree and is therefore extensively used for planting on lawns and on certain streets where the tree can find plenty of water and where conditions will permit its branches to droop low4 ,commercial value3 ,the wood is heavy and hard but coarse grained and liable to check and warp4 ,its principal use is in the construction of houses and for shingles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--,leaf and ,fruit of ,pin ,oak4 ,,chestnut 7,castanea dentata7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the 99bark99 in young trees is smooth and of a marked reddish-bronze color1 but when the tree grows older1 the bark breaks up into 99diamond-shaped ridges991 sufficiently characteristic to distinguish the tree at a glance1 see ,fig4 #fe4 ,a close examination of the terminal twig will show three ridges and two grooves running down along the stem from the base of each leaf or leaf-scar4 ,the twig has no true terminal bud4 ,the fruit1 a large1 round 99bur991 prickly without and hairy within and enclosing the familiar dark brown1 sweet edible nuts is also a distinguishing mark of the tree4 ,leaf3 ,the leaves are distinctly long and narrow4 ,they are from #f to #h inches long4 ,form and size3 ,the chestnut is a large tree with a massive trunk and broad spreading crown4 ,the chestnut tree when cut1 sprouts readily from the stump and therefore in places where the trees have once been cut1 a group of two to six trees may be seen emerging from the old stump4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--,trunk of ,chestnut ,tree4 ,range3 ,eastern ,united ,states4 ,soil and location3 ,it will grow on rocky as well as on fertile soils and requires plenty of light4 ,enemies3 ,during the past nine years nearly all the chestnut trees in the ,united ,states have been attacked by a fungus disease 7,diaporthe parasitica1 ,mur47 which still threatens the entire extinction of the chestnut trees in this country4 ,no remedy has been discovered and all affected trees should be cut down and the wood utilized before it decays and becomes worthless4 ,no species of chestnut tree is entirely immune from this disease1 though some species are highly resistant4 ,value for planting3 ,the chestnut is one of the most rapidly growing hardwood trees but1 on account of its disease1 which is now prevalent everywhere1 it is not wise to plant chestnut trees for the present4 ,commercial value3 ,the wood is light1 not very strong and liable to warp4 ,it is durable when brought in contact with the soil and is therefore used for railroad ties1 fence-posts1 poles1 and mine timbers4 ,it is also valuable for interior finish in houses and for fuel4 ,its bark is used in the manufacture of tanning extracts and the nuts are sold in cities in large quantities4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,how ,,to ,,identify ,,trees--7,continued7 ,,group ,,ix4 ,,the ,,hickories1 ,,walnut ,,and ,,butternut ,how to tell them from other trees and from each other3 ,the hickory trees1 though symmetrical1 have a rugged appearance and the branches are so sturdy and black as to give a special distinction to this group4 ,the buds are different from the buds of all other trees and sufficiently characteristic to distinguish the various species of the group4 ,the bark is also a distinguishing character4 ,the walnut and butternut have chambered piths which distinguish them from all other trees and from each other4 ,,shagbark ,,hickory 7,hicoria ovata7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the yellowish brown 99buds99 nearly as large as those of the mockernut hickory1 are each provided with two long1 dark1 outer scales which stand out very conspicuously as shown in ,fig4 #fg4 ,the 99bark99 in older specimens 99shags99 off in rough strips1 sometimes more than a foot long1 as shown in ,fig4 #fh4 ,these two characters will readily distinguish the tree at all seasons of the year4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--;,a ,shagbark ,hickory ,tree4 ,leaf3 ,the leaf is compound1 consisting of #e or #g leaflets1 the terminal one generally larger4 ,form and size3 ,a tall1 stately tree--the tallest of the hickories--of rugged form and fine symmetry1 see ,fig4 #ff4 ,range3 ,eastern ,north ,america4 ,soil and location3 ,the shagbark hickory grows in a great variety of soils1 but prefers a deep and rather moist soil4 ,enemies3 ,the hickory bark borer 7,scolytus quadrispinosus7 is its principal enemy4 ,the insect is now killing thousands of hickory trees in the vicinity of ,new ,york ,city and on several occasions has made its appearance in large numbers in other parts of the country4 ,value for planting3 ,it is difficult to transplant1 grows slowly and is seldom found in nurseries4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--;,bud of the ,shagbark ,hickory4 ,commercial value3 ,the wood is extremely tough and hard and is used for agricultural implements and for the manufacture of wagons4 ,it is excellent for fuel and the nuts are of great value as a food4 ,other characters3 ,the fruit is a nut covered by a thick husk that separates into #d or #e segments4 ,the kernel is sweet4 ,other common names3 ,shellbark hickory4 ,,mockernut ,,hickory 7,hicoria alba7 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--;,bark of the ,shagbark ,hickory4 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the 99bud99 is the largest among the hickories--nearly half an inch long--is hard and oval and covered with yellowish brown downy scales which do not project like those of the shagbark hickory1 see ,fig4 #fi4 ,the twigs are extremely coarse4 ,the 99bark99 is very tight on the trunk and branches and has a close1 hard1 wavy appearance as in ,fig4 #gj4 ,leaf3 ,the leaf consists of #e1 #g or #i leaflets all of which are large and pubescent and possess a distinct resinous odor4 ,form and size3 ,a tall tree with a broad spreading head4 ,range3 ,eastern ,north ,america4 ,soil and location3 ,the mockernut hickory grows on a great variety of soils1 but prefers one which is rich and well-drained4 ,enemies3 ,the same as for the shagbark hickory4 ,value for planting3 ,it is not commonly planted4 ,commercial value3 ,the wood is similar to that of the shagbark hickory and is put to the same uses4 ,other characters3 ,the fruit is a nut1 larger and covered with a shell thicker than that of the shagbark4 ,the husk is also thicker and separates into four segments nearly to the base4 ,the kernel is small and sweet4 ,other common names3 ,bigbud hickory2 whiteheart hickory4 ,comparisons3 ,the pignut hickory 7,hicoria glabra71 sometimes called broom hickory or brown hickory1 often has a shaggy bark1 but differs from both the shagbark and the mockernut hickory in possessing buds very much smaller1 twigs more slender and leaflets fewer4 ,the nut has a thinner husk which does not separate into four or five segments4 ,the tree prefers drier ground than the other hickories4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--;,bud of the ,mockernut ,hickory4 ,the bitternut 7,hicoria minima7 can be told from the mockernut and other species of hickory by its bud1 which has no scales at all4 ,the color of its bud is a characteristic orange yellow4 ,the bark is of a lighter shade than the bark of the mockernut hickory and the leaflets are more numerous than in any of the hickories1 varying from #g to #aa4 ,its nuts are bitter4 ,,black ,,walnut 7,juglans nigra7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,by cutting a twig lengthwise1 it will be seen that its 99pith99 is divided into little chambers as shown in ,fig4 #ga4 ,the bud is dark gray and satiny4 ,the bark is dark brown and deeply ridged and the fruit is the familiar round walnut4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--;,bark of the ,mockernut ,hickory4 ,form and size3 ,a tall tree with a spreading crown composed of stout branches4 ,in the open it grows very symmetrically4 ,range3 ,eastern ,united ,states4 ,soil and location3 ,the black walnut prefers a deep1 rich1 fertile soil and requires a great deal of light4 ,enemies3 ,the tree is a favorite of many caterpillars4 ,value for planting3 ,it forms a beautiful spreading tree on open ground1 but is not planted to any extent because it is hard to transplant4 ,it grows slowly unless the soil is very deep and rich1 develops its leaves late in the spring and sheds them early in the fall and produces its fruit in great profusion4 ,commercial value3 ,the wood is heavy1 strong1 of chocolate brown color and capable of taking a fine polish4 ,it is used for cabinet making and interior finish of houses4 ,the older the tree1 usually1 the better the wood1 and the consumption of the species in the past has been so heavy that it is becoming rare4 ,the ,european varieties which are frequently planted in ,america as substitutes for the native species yield better nuts1 but the ,american species produces better wood4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--,twig of the ,black ,walnut4 ,note the large chambers in the pith4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--,twig of the ,butternut4 ,note the small chambers in the pith4 ,other characters3 ,the fruit is a large round nut about two inches in diameter1 covered with a smooth husk which at first is dull green in color and later turns brown4 ,the husk does not separate into sections4 ,the kernel is edible and produces an oil of commercial value4 ,the leaves are compound and alternate with #ae to #bc leaflets to each4 ,comparisons3 ,the butternut 7,juglans cinerea7 is another tree that has the pith divided into little chambers1 but the little chambers here are shorter than in the black walnut1 as may be seen from a comparison of ,figs4 #ga and #gb4 ,the bark of the butternut is light gray while that of the black walnut is dark4 ,the buds in the butternut are longer than those of the black walnut and are light brown instead of gray in color4 ,the form of the tree is low and spreading as compared with the black walnut4 ,the fruit in the butternut is elongated while that of the black walnut is round4 ,the leaves of the butternut have fewer leaflets and these are lighter in color4 ,,group ,x4 ,,tulip ,,tree1 ,,sweet ,,gum1 ,,linden1 ,,magnolia1 ,,locust1 ,,catalpa1 ,,dogwood1 ,,mulberry ,,and ,,osage ,,orange ,,tulip ,,tree 7,liriodendron tulipifera7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,there are four characters that stand out conspicuously in the tulip tree--the 99bud991 the 99trunk991 the persistent 99fruit cups99 and the wedged 99leaf994 ,the bud1 ,fig4 #gd1 about three-quarters of an inch long1 is covered by two purplish scales which lend special significance to its whole appearance4 ,the trunk is extremely individual because it rises stout and shaft-like1 away above the ground without a branch as shown in ,fig4 #gc4 ,the tree flowers in the latter part of ,may but the cup that holds the fruit persists throughout the winter4 ,the leaf1 ,fig4 #ge1 has four lobes1 is nearly as broad as it is long and so notched at the upper end that it looks different from any other leaf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--,the ,tulip ,tree4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--;,bud of the ,tulip ,tree4 ,form and size3 ,the tulip tree is one of the largest1 stateliest and tallest of our trees4 ,range3 ,eastern ,united ,states4 ,soil and location3 ,requires a deep1 moist soil4 ,enemies3 ,comparatively free from insects and disease4 ,value for planting3 ,the tree has great value as a specimen on the lawn but is undesirable as a street tree because it requires considerable moisture and transplants with difficulty4 ,it should be planted while young and where it can obtain plenty of light4 ,it grows rapidly4 ,commercial value3 ,the wood is commercially known as whitewood and yellow poplar4 ,it is light1 soft1 not strong and easily worked4 ,it is used in construction1 for interior finish of houses1 woodenware and shingles4 ,it has a medicinal value4 ,other characters3 ,the flower1 shown in ,fig4 #ge1 is greenish yellow in color1 appears in ,may and resembles a tulip2 hence the name tulip tree4 ,the fruit is a cone4 ,other common names3 ,whitewood2 yellow poplar2 poplar and tulip poplar4 ,,sweet ,,gum 7,liquidambar styraciflua7 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--,leaf and ,flower of the ,tulip ,tree4 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the persistent1 spiny1 long-stemmed round 99fruit992 the corky growths on the 99twigs991 the characteristic star-shaped 99leaves99 7,fig4 #gf7 and the very shiny greenish brown buds and the perfect symmetry of the tree are the chief characters by which to identify the species4 ,form and size3 ,the sweet gum has a beautiful symmetrical shape1 forming a true monopodium4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,leaf and ,fruit of the ,sweet ,gum4 ,note the corky ridges along the twig4 ,range3 ,from ,connecticut to ,florida and west to ,missouri4 ,soil and location3 ,grows in any good soil but prefers low wet ground4 ,it grows rapidly and needs plenty of light4 ,enemies3 ,is very often a favorite of leaf-eating caterpillars4 ,value for planting3 ,the tree is sought for the brilliant color of its foliage in the fall1 and is suitable for planting both on the lawn and street4 ,in growing the tree for ornamental purposes it is important that it should be frequently transplanted in the nursery and that it be transported with burlap wrapping around its roots4 ,commercial value3 ,the wood is reddish brown in color1 tends to splinter and is inclined to warp in drying4 ,it is used in cooperage1 veneer work and for interior finish4 ,other characters3 ,on the smaller branches there are irregular developments of cork as shown in ,fig4 #gf1 projecting in some cases to half an inch in thickness4 ,other common names3 ,red gum4 ,comparisons3 ,the cork elm is another tree that possesses corky ridges along its twigs1 but this differs from the sweet gum in wanting the spiny fruit and its other distinctive traits4 ,,american ,,linden 7,tilia ,americana7 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--;,bud of the ,linden ,tree4 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the great distinguishing feature of any linden is the 99one-sided99 character of its 99bud99 and 99leaf994 ,the bud1 dark red and conical1 carries a sort of protuberance which makes it extremely one sided as shown in ,fig4 #gg4 ,the leaf1 ,fig4 #gh1 is heart-shaped with the side nearest the branch largest4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--,leaves and ,flowers of the ,european ,linden4 ,form and size3 ,the ,american ,linden is a medium-sized tree with a broad round head4 ,range3 ,eastern ,north ,america and more common in the north than in the south4 ,soil and location3 ,requires a rich1 moist soil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--;,european ,linden ,tree4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--;,bud of the ,umbrella ,tree4 ,enemies3 ,its leaves are a favorite food of caterpillars and its wood is frequently attacked by a boring insect known as the linden borer 7,saperda vestita74 ,value for planting3 ,the linden is easily transplanted and grows rapidly4 ,it is used for lawn and street planting but is less desirable for these purposes than the ,european species4 ,commercial value3 ,the wood is light and soft and used for paper pulp1 woodenware1 cooperage and furniture4 ,the tree is a favorite with bee keepers on account of the large quantities of nectar contained in its flowers4 ,other characters3 ,the fruit is like a pea1 gray and woody4 ,the flowers appear in early ,july1 are greenish-yellow and very fragrant4 ,other common names3 ,bass-wood2 lime-tree2 whitewood4 ,comparisons3 ,the ,european lindens1 ,fig4 #gi1 of which there are several species under cultivation1 differ from the native species in having buds and leaves smaller in size1 more numerous and darker in color4 ,,the ,,magnolias ,the various species of magnolia trees are readily distinguished by their buds4 ,they all prefer moist1 rich soil and have their principal value as decorative trees on the lawn4 ,they are distinctly southern trees2 some species under cultivation in the ,united ,states come from ,asia1 but the two most commonly grown in the ,eastern ,states are the cucumber tree and the umbrella tree4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--;,bark of the ,black ,locust4 ,,cucumber ,,tree 7,magnolia acuminata7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the 99buds99 are small and slender compared with those of the other magnolia trees and are covered with small silvery silky hairs4 ,the 99habit99 of the tree is to form a straight axis of great height with a symmetrical mass of branches1 producing a perfect monopodial crown4 ,the tree is sometimes known as mountain magnolia4 ,,umbrella ,,tree 7,magnolia tripetala7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the buds1 ,fig4 #hj1 are extremely long1 often one and a half inches1 have a purple color and are smooth4 ,the tree does not grow to large size and produces an open spreading head4 ,its leaves1 twelve to eighteen inches long1 are larger than those of the other magnolia trees4 ,the tree is sometimes called elkwood4 ,,black ,,locust 7,robinia pseudacacia7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the 99bark99 of the trunk is rough and deeply ridged1 as shown in ,fig4 #ha4 ,the 99buds99 are hardly noticeable2 the twigs sometimes bear small spines on one side4 ,the leaves are large1 compound1 and fern-like4 ,the individual leaflets are small and delicate4 ,form and size3 ,the locust is a medium-sized tree developing a slender straight trunk when grown alongside of others2 see ,fig4 #hb4 ,range3 ,canada and ,united ,states4 ,soil and location3 ,the locust will grow on almost any soil except a wet1 heavy one4 ,it requires plenty of light4 ,enemies3 ,the locust borer has done serious damage to this tree4 ,the grubs of this insect burrow in the sapwood and kill the tree or make it unfit for commercial use4 ,the locust miner is a beetle which is now annually defoliating trees of this species in large numbers4 ,value for planting3 ,it has little value for ornamental planting4 ,commercial value3 ,though short-lived1 the locust grows very rapidly4 ,it is extremely durable in contact with the soil and possesses great strength4 ,it is therefore extensively grown for fence-posts and railroad ties4 ,locust posts will last from fifteen to twenty years4 ,the wood is valuable for fuel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--;,black ,locust ,trees4 ,other characters3 ,the flowers are showy pea-shaped panicles appearing in ,may and ,june4 ,the fruit is a small pod4 ,other common names3 ,yellow locust2 common locust2 locust4 ,comparisons3 ,the honey locust 7,gleditsia triacanthos7 can be told from the black locust by the differences in their bark4 ,in the honey locust the bark is not ridged1 has a sort of dark iron-gray color and is often covered with clusters of stout1 sharp-pointed thorns as in ,fig4 #hc4 ,the fruit is a large pod often remaining on the tree through the winter4 ,this tree has an ornamental1 but no commercial value4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--;,bark of the ,honey ,locust4 ,,hardy ,,catalpa 7,catalpa speciosa7 ,distinguishing characters3 ,the tree may be told by its 99fruit991 which hang in long slender pods all winter4 ,the leaf-scars appear on the stem in whorls of three and rarely opposite each other4 ,form and size3 ,the catalpa has a short1 thick and twisted trunk with an irregular head4 ,range3 ,central and eastern ,united ,states4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--;,hardy ,catalpa ,trees4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4--;,bark of the ,flowering ,dogwood4 ,soil and location3 ,it grows naturally on low bottom-lands but will also do well in poor1 dry soils4 ,enemies3 ,practically free from disease and insects4 ,value for planting3 ,the catalpa grows very rapidly and is cultivated in parks for ornament and in groves for commercial purposes4 ,the hardy catalpa is preferable to the common catalpa for planting4 ,commercial value3 ,the wood is extremely durable in contact with the soil and is consequently used for posts and railroad ties4 ,other characters3 ,the flowers1 which appear in late ,june and early ,july1 are large1 white and very showy4 ,other common names3 ,indian bean2 western catalpa4 ,comparisons3 ,the white flowering dogwood 7,cornus florida7 is a small tree which also has its leaves in whorls of three or sometimes opposite4 ,it can be readily told from other trees1 however1 by the small square plates into which the outer bark on the trunk divides itself1 see ,fig4 #he1 and by the characteristic drooping character of its branches4 ,it is one of the most common plants in our eastern deciduous forests4 ,it is extremely beautiful both in the spring and in the fall and is frequently planted for ornament4 ,there are many varieties of dogwood in common use4 ,,white ,,mulberry 7,morus alba7 ,a small tree recognized by its small round reddish brown buds and light brown1 finely furrowed 7wavy looking7 bark4 ,the tree1 probably a native of ,china1 is grown under cultivation in eastern ,canada and ,united ,states4 ,it grows rapidly in moist soil and is not fastidious in its light requirements4 ,its chief value is for screening and for underplanting in woodlands4 ,the red mulberry 7,morus rubra7 is apt to be confused with the white mulberry1 but differs in the following characters3 ,the leaves of the red mulberry are rough on the upper side and downy on the under side1 whereas the leaves of the white mulberry are smooth and shiny4 ,the buds in the red are larger and more shiny than those of the white4 ,the ,osage orange 7,toxylon pomiferum7 is similar to the mulberry in the light1 golden color of its bark1 but differs from it in possessing conspicuous spines along the twigs and branches and a more ridged bark4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,structure ,,and ,,requirements ,,of ,,trees ,to be able fully to appreciate trees1 their mode of life1 their enemies and their care1 one must know something of their structure and life requirements4 ,structure of trees3 ,among the lower forms of plants there is very little distinction between the various parts--no differentiation into root1 stem1 or crown4 ,often the lower forms of animal and vegetable life are so similar that one cannot discriminate between them4 ,but as we ascend in the scale1 the various plant forms become more and more complex until we reach the tree1 which is the largest and highest form of all plants4 ,the tree is a living organism composed of cells like any other living organism4 ,it has many parts1 every one of which has a definite purpose4 ,the three principal parts are3 the stem1 the crown1 and the root4 ,the stem3 ,if we examine the cross-section of a tree1 ,fig4 #hf1 we will notice that it is made up of numerous rings arranged in sections of different color and structure4 ,the central part is known as the pith4 ,around the pith comes a dark1 close-grained series of rings known as the heartwood1 and outside the heartwood comes a lighter layer1 the sapwood4 ,the cambium layer surrounds the sapwood and the bark covers all4 ,the cambium layer is the most important tissue of the tree and1 together with part of the sapwood1 transports the water and food of the tree4 ,it is for this reason that a tree may be hollow1 without heart and sapwood1 and still produce foliage and fruit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--,the ,cross-,section of a ,tree4 ,the crown3 ,the crown varies in form in different species and is developed by the growth of new shoots from buds4 ,the bud grows out to a certain length and forms the branch4 ,afterwards it thickens only and does not increase in length4 ,new branches will then form from other buds on the same branch4 ,this explains in part the characteristic branching of trees1 ,fig4 #hg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--;,characteristic ,form and ,branching of ,trees4 ,the trees in the photograph are pin oaks4 ,the leaves are the stomach and lungs of the tree4 ,their broad blades are a device to catch the sunlight which is needed in the process of digesting the food of the tree4 ,the leaves are arranged on the twigs in such a way as to catch the most sunlight4 ,the leaves take up the carbonic acid gas from the air1 decompose it under the influence of light and combine it with the minerals and water brought up by the roots from the soil4 ,the resulting chemical combinations are the sugars and starches used by the cambium layer in building up the body of the tree4 ,a green pigment1 chlorophyll1 in the leaf is the medium by which1 with the aid of sunlight1 the sugars are manufactured4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--,roots of a ,hemlock ,tree in their ,search for ,water4 ,the chlorophyll gives the leaf its green color1 and this explains why a tree pales when it is in a dying condition or when its life processes are interfered with4 ,the other colors of the leaf--the reds1 browns and yellows of the fall or spring--are due to other pigments4 ,these are angular crystals of different hues1 which at certain times of the year become more conspicuous than at others1 a phenomenon which explains the variation in the colors of the leaves during the different seasons4 ,it is evident that a tree is greatly dependent upon its leaves for the manufacture of food and one can1 therefore1 readily see why it is important to prevent destruction of the leaves by insects or through over-trimming4 ,the root3 ,the root develops in much the same manner as the crown4 ,its depth and spread will vary with the species but will also depend somewhat upon the condition of the soil around it4 ,a deep or a dry soil will tend to develop a deep root1 while a shallow or moist soil will produce a shallow root1 ,fig4 #hh4 ,the numerous fine hairs which cover the roots serve the purpose of taking up food and water from the soil1 while the heavy roots help to support the tree4 ,the root-hairs are extremely tender1 are easily dried out when exposed to the sun and wind1 and are apt to become overheated when permitted to remain tightly packed for any length of time4 ,these considerations are of practical importance in the planting of trees and in the application of fertilizers4 ,it is these fine rootlets far away from the trunk of the tree that have to be fed1 and all fertilizers must1 therefore1 be applied at points some distance from the trunk and not close to it1 where merely the large1 supporting roots are located4 ,in the cultivation of trees the same principle holds true4 ,requirements of trees3 ,trees are dependent upon certain soil and atmospheric conditions which influence their growth and development4 7#a7 ,influence of moisture3 ,the form of the tree and its growth and structure depend greatly upon the supply of moisture4 ,botanists have taken the moisture factor as the basis of classification and have subdivided trees into those that grow in moist places 7hydrophytes71 those that grow in medium soils 7mesophytes71 and those that grow in dry places 7xerophytes74 ,water is taken up by the roots of the tree from the soil4 ,the liquid absorbed by the roots carries in solution the mineral salts--the food of the tree--and no food can be taken up unless it is in solution4 ,much of the water is used by the tree and an enormous amount is given off in the process of evaporation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--;,dead ,branches at the ,top ,caused by ,insufficient ,water4 ,these facts will explain some of the fundamental principles in the care of trees4 ,to a tree growing on a city street or on a lawn where nature fails to supply the requisite amount of water1 the latter must be supplied artificially1 especially during the hot summer months1 or else dead branches may result as seen in ,fig4 #hi4 ,too much thinning out of the crown causes excessive evaporation1 and too much cutting out in woodlands causes the soil to dry and the trees to suffer for the want of moisture4 ,this also explains why it is essential1 in wooded areas1 to retain on the ground the fallen leaves4 ,in decomposing and mixing with the soil1 the fallen leaves not only supply the trees with food material1 but also tend to conserve moisture in the ground and to prevent the drying out of the soil4 ,raking off the leaves from wooded areas1 a practice common in parks and on private estates--hurts the trees seriously4 ,some soils may have plenty of moisture1 but may also be so heavily saturated with acids or salts that the tree cannot utilize the moisture1 and it suffers from drought just the same as if there had been no moisture at all in the soil4 ,such soils are said to be physiologically dry and need treatment4 ,in the development of disease1 moisture is a contributing factor and1 therefore1 in cavities or underneath bandages where there is likely to be an accumulation of moisture1 decay will do more damage than in places that are dry and exposed to the sun4 7#b7 ,influence of soil3 ,soil is made up of fine particles of sand and rock and of vegetable matter called humus4 ,a tree will require a certain soil1 and unsuitable soils can be very often modified to suit the needs of the tree4 ,a deep1 moderately loose1 sandy loam1 however1 which is sufficiently aerated and well supplied with water1 will support almost any tree4 ,too much of any one constituent will make a soil unfit for the production of trees4 ,if too much clay is present the soil becomes stiff4 ,if too much vegetable matter is present1 the soil becomes sour4 ,the physical character of the soil is also important4 ,by physical character is meant the porosity which results from breaking up the soil4 ,this is accomplished by ploughing or cultivation4 ,in nature1 worms help to do this for the soil1 but on streets an occasional digging up of the soil about the base of the tree is essential4 ,humus or the organic matter in the soil is composed of litter1 leaves and animal ingredients that have decayed under the influence of bacteria4 ,the more vegetable matter in the humus1 the darker the soil2 and therefore a good soil such as one finds on the upper surface of a well-tilled farm has quite a dark color4 ,when1 however1 a soil contains an unusual quantity of humus1 it is known as muck1 and when there is still more humus present we find peat4 ,neither of these two soils is suitable for proper tree growth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--;,a ,tree in the ,open4 ,note the full development of the wide crown with branches starting near the ground4 ,the tree is the ,european larch4 7#c7 ,influence of light3 ,light is required by the leaves in the process of assimilation4 ,cutting off some of the light from a tree affects its form4 ,this is why trees grown in the open have wide-spreading crowns with branches starting near the ground as in ,fig4 #ij1 while the same species growing in the forest produces tall1 lanky trees1 free from branches to but a few feet from the top as in ,fig4 #ia4 ,some trees can endure more shade than others1 but all will grow in full light4 ,this explains why trees like the beech1 hemlock1 sugar maple1 spruce1 holly and dogwood can grow in the shade1 while the poplar1 birch and willow require light4 ,it also explains why1 in the forest1 the lower branches die and fall off--a process known in ,forestry as natural pruning1 ,the influence of light on the form of trees should be well understood by all those who plant trees and by those designing landscape effects4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--;,a ,tree in ,the ,forest4 ,note the tall stem free from branches and the small1 narrow crown4 7#d7 ,influence of heat3 ,trees require a certain amount of heat4 ,they receive it partly from the sun and partly from the soil4 ,evaporation prevents the overheating of the crown4 ,the main stem of the tree is heated by water from the soil2 therefore trees in the open begin growth in the spring earlier than trees in the forest because the soil in the open is warmer4 ,shrubs begin their growth earlier than trees because of the nearness of their crowns to their root systems4 ,this also explains why a warm rain will start vegetation quickly4 ,too much heat will naturally cause excessive drying of the roots or excessive evaporation from the leaves and therefore more water is needed by the tree in summer than in winter4 7#e7 ,influence of season and frost3 ,the life processes of a tree are checked when the temperature sinks below a certain point4 ,the tree is thus1 during the winter1 in a period of rest and only a few chemical changes take place which lead up to the starting of vegetation4 ,in eastern ,united ,states1 growth starts in ,april and ceases during the latter part of ,august or in early ,september4 ,the different parts of a tree may freeze solid during the winter without injury1 provided the tree is a native one4 ,exotic trees may suffer greatly from extreme cold4 ,this is one of the main reasons why it is always advisable to plant native trees rather than those that are imported and have not yet been acclimatized4 ,frosts during mid-winter are not quite as injurious as early and late frosts and1 therefore1 if one is going to protect plants from the winter's cold1 it is well to apply the covering early enough and to keep it on late enough to overcome this difficulty4 ,the mechanical injuries from frost are also important4 ,snow and sleet will weigh down branches but rarely break them1 while frost will cause them to become brittle and to break easily4 ,those who climb and prune trees should be especially cautious on frosty days4 7#f7 ,influence of air3 ,on the under side of leaves and on other surfaces of a tree little pores known as stomata may be found4 ,in the bark of birch and cherry trees these openings are very conspicuous and are there known as lenticels4 ,these pores are necessary for the breathing of the tree 7respiration71 whereby carbonic acid gas is taken in from the air and oxygen given out4 ,the process of assimilation depends upon this breathing process and it is therefore evident that when the stomata are clogged as may occur where a tree is subjected to smoke or dust1 the life processes of the tree will be interfered with4 ,the same injurious effect results when the stomata of the roots are interfered with4 ,such interference may occur in cases where a heavy layer of soil is piled around the base of a tree1 where the soil about the base of a tree is allowed to become compact1 where a tree is planted too deep1 or where the roots are submerged under water for any length of time4 ,in any case the air cannot get to the roots and the tree suffers4 ,nature takes special cognizance of this important requirement in the case of cypress trees1 which habitually grow under water4 ,here the trees are provided with special woody protuberances known as cypress knees1 which emerge above water and take the necessary air4 ,see ,fig4 #ah4 ,conclusions3 ,from the foregoing it will be seen that trees have certain needs that nature or man must supply4 ,these requirements differ with the different species1 and in all work of planting and care as well as in the natural distribution of trees it is both interesting and necessary to observe these individual wants1 to select species in accordance with local conditions and to care for trees in conformity with their natural needs4 ,,chapter ,v ,,what ,,trees ,,to ,,plant ,,and ,,how ,the following classification will show the value of the more important trees for different kinds of planting4 ,the species are arranged in the order of their merit for the particular object under consideration and the comments accompanying each tree are intended to bring out its special qualifications for that purpose4 ,conditions for tree growth in one part of the country differ from those of another and these lists1 especially applicable to the ,eastern ,states1 may not at all fit some other locality4 ,,trees ,,best ,,for ,,the ,,lawn ,,deciduous #a4 ,american elm 7,ulmus americana7 ,one of the noblest of trees4 ,possesses a majestic1 wide-spreading1 umbrella-shaped crown2 is easily transplanted1 and is suited to a variety of soils4 #b4 ,pin oak 7,quercus palustris7 ,has a symmetrical crown with low-drooping branches2 requires a moist situation4 #c4 ,european linden 7,tilia microphylla7 ,possesses a beautiful shade-bearing crown2 grows well in ordinary soil4 #d4 ,red maple 7,acer rubrum7 ,shows pleasing colors at all seasons2 grows best in a fairly rich1 moist soil4 #e4 ,copper beech 7,fagus sylvatica1 alropurpurea7 ,exceedingly beautiful in form1 bark1 and foliage and possesses great longevity and sturdiness4 ,it is difficult to transplant and therefore only small trees from #f to #aj feet in height should be used4 #f4 ,coffee tree 7,gymnocladus dioicus7 ,a unique and interesting effect is produced by its coarse branches and leaves4 ,it is free from insects and disease2 requires plenty of light2 will grow in poor soils4 #g4 ,european white birch 7,belula alba7 ,a graceful tree and very effective as a single specimen on the lawn1 or in a group among evergreens2 should be planted in early spring1 and special care taken to protect its tender rootlets4 #h4 ,gingko or ,maiden-hair tree 7,gingko biloba7 ,where there is plenty of room for the spread of its odd branches1 the gingko makes a picturesque specimen tree4 ,it is hardy and free from insect pests and disease4 #i4 ,horsechestnut 7,aesculus hippocastanum7 ,carries beautiful1 showy flowers1 and has a compact1 symmetrical low-branched crown2 is frequently subject to insects and disease4 ,the red flowering horsechestnut 7,a4 rubicunda7 is equally attractive4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--;,a ,lawn ,tree4 ,european ,weeping ,beech4 #aj4 ,sugar maple 7,acer saccharum7 ,has a symmetrical crown and colors beautifully in the fall2 requires a rich soil and considerable moisture4 #aa4 ,soulange's magnolia 7,magnolia soulangeana7 ,extremely hard and flowers in early spring before the leaves appear4 #ab4 ,flowering dogwood 7,cornus florida7 ,popular for its beautiful white flowers in the early spring and the rich coloring of its leaves in the fall2 does not grow to large size4 ,the red-flowering variety of this tree1 though sometimes not quite as hardy1 is extremely beautiful4 #ac4 ,japanese maple 7,acer polymorphum7 ,it has several varieties of different hues and it colors beautifully in the fall2 it does not grow to large size4 ,,coniferous #ad4 ,oriental spruce 7,picea orientalis7 ,forms a dignified1 large tree with a compact crown and low branches2 is hardy4 #ae4 ,austrian pine 7,pinus austriaca7 ,is very hardy2 possesses a compact crown2 will grow in soils of medium quality4 #af4 ,bhotan pine 7,pinus excelsa7 ,grows luxuriantly2 is dignified and beautiful2 requires a good soil1 and in youth needs some protection from extreme cold4 #ag4 ,white pine 7,pinus strobus7 ,branches gracefully and forms a large1 dignified tree2 will thrive on a variety of soils4 #ah4 ,european larch 7,larix europaea7 ,has a beautiful appearance2 thrives best in moist situations4 #ai4 ,blue spruce 7,picea pungens7 ,extremely hardy2 forms a perfect specimen plant for the lawn4 #bj4 ,japanese umbrella pine 7,sciadopitys verlicillata7 ,very hardy2 retains a compact crown4 ,an excellent specimen plant when grouped with other evergreens on the lawn4 ,does not grow to large size4 #ba4 ,mugho pine 7,pinus mughus7 ,a low-growing evergreen2 hardy2 important in group planting4 #bb4 ,obtuse leaf ,japanese cypress 7,retinospora obtusa7 ,beautiful evergreen of small size2 hardy2 desirable for group planting4 #bc4 ,english yew 7,taxus baccata7 ,an excellent evergreen usually of low form2 suitable for the lawn1 massed with others or as a specimen plant2 will grow in the shade of other trees4 ,there are various forms of this species of distinctive value4 ,,trees ,,best ,,for ,,the ,,street #a4 ,oriental sycamore 7,platanus orientalis7 ,very hardy2 will adapt itself to city conditions2 grows fairly fast and is highly resistant to insects and disease4 #b4 ,norway maple 7,acer platanoides7 ,very hardy2 possesses a straight trunk and symmetrical crown2 is comparatively free from insects and disease and will withstand the average city conditions4 #c4 ,red oak 7,quercus rubra7 ,fastest growing of the oaks2 very durable and highly resistant to insects and disease2 will grow in the average soil of the city street4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--,street ,trees4 ,norway ,maples4 #d4 ,gingko 7,gingko biloba7 ,hardy and absolutely free from insects and disease2 suited for narrow streets1 and will permit of close planting4 #e4 ,european linden 7,tilia microphylla7 ,beautiful shade-bearing crown2 is very responsive to good soil and plenty of moisture4 #f4 ,american elm 7,ulmus americana7 ,when planted in rows along an avenue1 it forms a tall majestic archway of great beauty4 ,it is best suited for wide streets and should be planted further apart than the other trees listed above4 ,requires a fairly good soil and plenty of moisture1 and is therefore not suited for planting in the heart of a large city4 #g4 ,pin oak 7,quercus palustris7 ,this tree exhibits its greatest beauty when its branches are allowed to droop fairly low4 ,it1 moreover1 needs plenty of moisture to thrive and the tree is therefore best suited for streets in suburban sections1 where these conditions can be more readily met4 #h4 ,red maple 7,acer rubrum7 ,beautiful in all seasons of the year2 requires a rich soil and considerable moisture4 ,,trees ,,best ,,for ,,woodland ,,for ,,open ,,places #a4 ,red oak 7,quercus rubra7 ,grows rapidly to large size and produces valuable wood2 will grow in poor soil4 #b4 ,white pine 7,pinus strobus7 ,rapid grower2 endures but little shade2 wood valuable2 will do well on large range of soils4 #c4 ,red pine 7,pinus resinosa7 ,very hardy2 fairly rapid growing tree4 #d4 ,tulip tree 7,liriodendron tulipifera7 ,grows rapidly into a stately forest tree with a clear tall trunk2 wood valuable2 requires a fairly moist soil4 ,use a small tree1 plant in the spring1 and pay special attention to the protection of the roots in planting4 #e4 ,black locust 7,robinia pseudacacia7 ,grows rapidly2 adapts itself to poor1 sandy soils4 ,the wood is suitable for posts and ties4 #f4 ,white ash 7,fraxinus americana7 ,grows rapidly2 prefers moist situations4 ,wood valuable4 #g4 ,american elm 7,ulmus americana7 ,grows rapidly to great height2 will not endure too much shade2 does best in a deep fertile soil4 ,wood valuable4 #h4 ,european larch 7,larix europaea7 ,grows rapidly2 prefers moist situations4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #id4--,woodland ,trees4 ,red ,oaks4 ,,for ,,planting ,,under ,,the ,,shade ,,of ,,other ,,trees #i4 ,beech 7,fagus7 ,will stand heavy shade2 holds the soil well along banks and steep slopes4 ,both the ,american and the ,english species are desirable4 #aj4 ,hemlock 7,tsuga canadensis7 ,will stand heavy shade and look effective in winter as well as in summer4 #aa4 ,dogwood 7,cornus florida7 ,will grow under other trees2 flowers beautifully in the spring and colors richly in the fall4 #ab4 ,blue beech 7,carpinus caroliniana7 ,native to the woodlands of the ,eastern ,states2 looks well in spring and fall4 ,,trees ,,best ,,for ,,screening #a4 ,hemlock 7,tsuga canadensis7 ,will stand shearing and will screen in winter as well as in summer4 ,plant from #b to #d feet apart to form a hedge4 #b4 ,osage orange 7,toxylon pomiferum7 ,very hardy4 ,plant close4 #c4 ,english hawthorn 7,crataegus oxyacantha7 ,flowers beautifully and grows in compact masses4 ,plant close4 #d4 ,lombardy poplar 7,populus nigra var4 italica7 ,forms a tall screen and grows under the most unfavorable conditions4 ,plant #h to #ab feet apart4 ,quality of trees3 ,trees grown in a nursery are preferable for transplanting to trees grown in the forest4 ,nursery-grown trees possess a well-developed root system with numerous fibrous rootlets1 a straight stem1 a symmetrical crown1 and a well-defined leader4 ,trees grown in neighboring nurseries are preferable to those grown at great distances1 because they will be better adapted to local climatic and soil conditions4 ,the short distances over which they must be transported also will entail less danger to the roots through drying4 ,for lawn planting1 the branches should reach low to the ground1 while for street purposes the branches should start at about seven feet from the ground4 ,for street planting1 it is also important that the stem should be perfectly straight and about two inches in diameter4 ,for woodland planting1 the form of the tree is of minor consideration1 though it is well to have the leader well defined here as well as in the other cases4 ,see ,fig4 #ie4 ,when and how to procure the trees3 ,the trees should be selected in the nursery personally4 ,some persons prefer to seal the more valuable specimens with leaden seals4 ,fall is the best time to make the selection1 because at that time one can have a wider choice of material4 ,selecting thus early will also prevent delay in delivery at the time when it is desired to plant4 ,when to plant3 ,the best time to plant trees is early spring1 just before growth begins1 and after the frost is out of the ground4 ,from the latter part of ,march to the early part of ,may is generally the planting period in the ,eastern ,states4 ,where one has to plant both coniferous and deciduous trees1 it is best to get the deciduous in first1 and then the conifers4 ,how to plant3 ,the location of the trees with relation to each other should be carefully considered4 ,on the lawn1 they should be separated far enough to allow for the full spread of the tree4 ,on streets1 trees should be planted thirty to thirty-five feet apart and in case of the elm1 forty to fifty feet4 ,in woodlands1 it is well to plant as close as six feet apart where small seedlings are used and about twelve feet apart in the case of trees an inch or more in diameter4 ,an abundance of good soil 7one to two cubic yards7 is essential with each tree where the specimens used are an inch or two in diameter4 ,a rich mellow loam1 such as one finds on the surface of a well-tilled farm1 is the ideal soil4 ,manure should never be placed in direct contact with the roots or stem of the tree4 ,protection of the roots from drying is the chief precaution to be observed during the planting process1 and for this reason a cloudy day is preferable to a sunny day for planting4 ,in case of evergreens1 the least exposure of the roots is liable to result disastrously1 even more so than in case of deciduous trees4 ,this is why evergreens are lifted from the nursery with a ball of soil around the roots4 ,all bruised roots should be cut off before the tree is planted1 and the crown of the tree of the deciduous species should be slightly trimmed in order to equalize the loss of roots by a corresponding decrease in leaf surface4 ,the tree should be set into the tree hole at the same depth that it stood in the nursery4 ,its roots1 where there is no ball of soil around them1 should be carefully spread out and good soil should be worked in carefully with the fingers among the fine rootlets4 ,every root fibre is thus brought into close contact with the soil4 ,more good soil should be added 7in layers7 and firmly packed about the roots4 ,the last layer should remain loose so that it may act as a mulch or as an absorbent of moisture4 ,the tree should then be thoroughly watered4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--,specifications for a ,street ,tree4 ,after care3 ,during the first season the tree should be watered and the soil around its base slightly loosened at least once a week1 especially on hot summer days4 ,where trees are planted on streets1 near the curb1 they should also be fastened to stakes and protected with a wire guard six feet high4 ,see ,fig4 #ie4 ,wire netting of #a_/b-;inch mesh and #ag gauge is the most desirable material4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #if4--;,a ,home ,nursery4 7,austrian pines in front47 ,suggestions for a home or school nursery3 ,schools1 farms1 and private estates may conveniently start a tree nursery on the premises and raise their own trees4 ,two-year seedling trees or four-year transplants are best suited for this purpose4 ,these may be obtained from several reliable nurseries in various parts of the country that make a specialty of raising small trees for such purposes4 ,the cost of such trees should be from three to fifteen dollars per thousand4 ,the little trees1 which range from one to two feet in height1 will be shipped in bundles4 ,immediately upon arrival1 the bundles should be untied and the trees immersed in a pail containing water mixed with soil4 ,the bundles should then be placed in the ground temporarily1 until they can be set out in their proper places4 ,in this process1 the individual bundles should be slanted with their tops toward the south1 and the spot chosen should be cool and shady4 ,at no time should the roots of these plants be exposed1 even for a moment1 to sun and wind1 and they should always be kept moist4 ,the little trees may remain in this trench for two weeks without injury4 ,they should then be planted out in rows1 each row one foot apart for conifers and two feet for broadleaf trees4 ,the individual trees should be set ten inches apart in the row4 ,careful weeding and watering is the necessary attention later on4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,care ,,of ,,trees ,,study ,i4 ,,insects ,,injurious ,,to ,,trees ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,combat ,,them ,in a general way1 trees are attacked by three classes of insects1 and the remedy to be employed in each case depends upon the class to which the insect belongs4 ,the three classes of insects are3 #a4 ,those that 99chew99 and swallow some portion of the leaf2 as1 for example1 the elm leaf beetle1 and the tussock1 gipsy1 and brown-tail moths4 #b4 ,those that 99suck99 the plant juices from the leaf or bark2 such as the ,san ,jose scale1 oyster-shell1 and scurfy scales1 the cottony maple scale1 the maple phenacoccus on the sugar maples1 and the various aphides on beech1 ,norway maple1 etc4 #c4 ,those that 99bore99 inside of the wood or inner bark4 ,the principal members of this class are the leopard moth1 the hickory-bark borer1 the sugar-maple borer1 the elm borer1 and the bronze-birch borer4 ,the chewing insects are destroyed by spraying the leaves with arsenate of lead or ,paris green4 ,the insects feed upon the poisoned foliage and thus are themselves poisoned4 ,the sucking insects are killed by a contact poison3 that is1 by spraying or washing the affected parts of the tree with a solution which acts externally on the bodies of the insects1 smothering or stifling them4 ,the standard solutions for this purpose are kerosene emulsion1 soap and water1 tobacco extract1 or lime-sulfur wash4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--;,a ,gas-power ,spraying ,apparatus4 ,the boring insects are eliminated by cutting out the insect with a knife1 by injecting carbon bisulphide into the burrow and clogging the orifice immediately after injection with putty or soap1 or in some cases where the tree is hopelessly infested1 by cutting down and burning the entire tree4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--;,a ,barrel ,hand-pump ,spraying ,outfit4 ,for information regarding the one of these three classes to which any particular insect belongs1 and for specific instructions on the application of a remedy1 the reader is advised to write to his ,state ,entomologist or to the ,u4,s4 ,bureau of ,entomology at ,washington1 ,d4,c4 ,the letter should state the name of the tree affected1 together with the character of the injury1 and should be accompanied by a specimen of the insect1 or by a piece of the affected leaf or bark1 preferably by both4 ,the advice received will be authentic and will be given without charge4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ii4--;,egg-masses of the ,tussock ,moth4 ,when to spray3 ,in the case of chewing insects1 the latter part of ,may is the time to spray4 ,the caterpillars hatch from their eggs1 and the elm leaf beetle leaves its winter quarters at that time4 ,in the case of sucking insects1 the instructions will have to be more specific1 depending upon the particular insect in question4 ,some sucking insects can best be handled in ,may or early ,june when their young emerge1 others can be effectively treated in the fall or winter when the trees are dormant4 ,how to spray3 ,thoroughness is the essential principle in all spraying4 ,in the case of leaf-eating insects1 this means covering every leaf with the poison and applying it to the under side of the leaves1 where the insects generally feed4 ,in the case of sucking insects1 thoroughness means an effort to touch every insect with the spray4 ,it should be borne in mind that the insect can be killed only when hit with the chemical4 ,the solution should be well stirred1 and should be applied by means of a nozzle that will coat every leaf with a fine1 mist-like spray4 ,mere drenching or too prolonged an application will cause the solution to run off4 ,special precautions should be taken with contact poisons to see that the formula is correct4 ,too strong a solution will burn the foliage and tender bark4 ,spraying apparatus3 ,there are various forms of spraying apparatus in the market1 including small knapsack pumps1 barrel hand-pumps1 and gasolene and gas-power sprayers1 ,figs4 #ig and #ih4 ,hose and nozzles are essential accessories4 ,one-half inch1 three-ply hose of the best quality is necessary to stand the heavy pressure and wear4 ,two #ej-;foot lengths is the usual quantity required for use with a barrel hand-pump4 ,each line of hose should be supplied with a bamboo pole #aj feet long1 having a brass tube passed through it to carry the nozzle4 ,the ,vermorel nozzle is the best type to use4 ,the cost of a barrel outfit1 including two lines of hose1 nozzles and truck1 should be from #cj to #dj4 ,power sprayers cost from #aej to #cjj or more4 ,spraying material3 ,arsenate of lead should be used in the proportion ,of #d pounds of the chemical to #ej gallons of water4 ,a brand of arsenate of lead containing at least #ad per cent of arsenic oxide with not more than #ej per cent of water should be insisted upon4 ,this spray may be used successfully against caterpillars and other leaf-eating insects in the spring or summer4 ,whale-oil soap should be used at the rate of #aa_/b pounds of the soap to #a gallon of hot water1 if applied to the tree in winter4 ,as a spray in summer1 use #a pound of the soap to #e gallons of water4 ,this treatment is useful for most sucking insects4 ,lime-sulfur wash is an excellent material to use against sucking insects1 such as the ,san ,jose scale and other armored scales4 ,the application of a lime-sulfur wash when put on during the dormant season is not likely to harm a tree and has such an excellent cleansing effect that the benefits to be derived in this direction alone are often sufficient to meet the cost of the treatment4 ,lime-sulfur wash consists of a mixture1 boiled one hour1 of #dj pounds of lime and #hj pounds of sulfur1 in #ej gallons of water4 ,it may be had in prepared form and should then be used at the rate of #a gallon to about #i gallons of water in winter or early spring before the buds open4 ,at other times of the year and for the softer-bodied insects a more diluted mixture1 possibly #a part to #cj or #dj parts of water1 should be used1 varying with each case separately4 ,kerosene emulsion consists of one-half pound of hard soap1 #a gallon of boiling water1 and #b gallons of kerosene4 ,it may be obtained in prepared form and is then to be used at the rate of one part of the solution to nine parts of water when applied in winter or to the bark only in summer4 ,use #b gallons of the solution to a #dj-;gallon barrel of water when applying it to the leaves in the summer4 ,kerosene emulsion is useful as a treatment for scale insects4 ,tobacco water should be prepared by steeping one-half pound of tobacco stems or leaves in a gallon of boiling water and later diluting the product with #e to #aj gallons of water4 ,it is particularly useful for plant lice in the summer4 ,the life history of an insect3 ,in a general way1 all insects have four stages of transformation before a new generation is produced4 ,it is important to consider the nature of these four stages in order that the habits of any particular insect and the remedies applicable in combating it may be understood4 ,all insects develop from eggs1 ,fig4 #ii4 ,the eggs then hatch into caterpillars or grubs1 which is the larva stage1 in which most insects do the greatest damage to trees4 ,the caterpillars or grubs grow and develop rapidly1 and hence their feeding is most ravenous4 ,following the larva stage comes the third or pupa stage1 which is the dormant stage of the insect4 ,in this stage the insect curls itself up under the protection of a silken cocoon like the tussock moth1 or of a curled leaf like the brown-tail moth1 or it may be entirely unsheltered like the pupa of the elm leaf beetle4 ,after the pupa stage comes the adult insect1 which may be a moth or a beetle4 ,a study of the four stages of any particular insect is known as a study of its life history4 ,the important facts to know about the life history of an insect are the stage in which it does most of its feeding1 and the period of the year in which this occurs4 ,it is also important to know how the insect spends the winter in order to decide upon a winter treatment4 ,,important ,,insects ,,the ,,elm ,,leaf ,,beetle ,life history3 ,the elm leaf beetle1 ,fig4 #ajj1 is annually causing the defoliation of thousands of elm trees throughout the ,united ,states4 ,several successive defoliations are liable to kill a tree4 ,the insects pass the winter in the beetle form1 hiding themselves in attics and wherever else they can secure shelter4 ,in the middle of ,may when the buds of the elm trees unfold1 the beetles emerge from their winter quarters1 mate1 and commence eating the leaves1 thus producing little holes through them4 ,while this feeding is going on1 the females deposit little1 bright yellow eggs on the under side of the leaves1 which soon hatch into small larvae or grubs4 ,the grubs then eat away the soft portion of the leaf1 causing it to look like lacework4 ,the grubs become full grown in twenty days1 crawl down to the base of the tree1 and there transform into naked1 orange-colored pupae4 ,this occurs in the early part of ,august4 ,after remaining in the pupa stage about a week1 they change into beetles again1 which either begin feeding or go to winter quarters4 ,remedies3 ,there are three ways of combating this insect3 ,first1 by spraying the foliage with arsenate of lead in the latter part of ,may while the beetles are feeding1 and repeating the spraying in ,june when the larvae emerge4 ,the spraying method is the one most to be relied on in fighting this insect4 ,a second1 though less important remedy1 consists in destroying the pupae when they gather in large quantities at the base of the tree4 ,this may be accomplished by gathering them bodily and destroying them1 or by pouring hot water or a solution of kerosene over them4 ,in large trees it may be necessary to climb to the crotches of the main limbs to get some of them4 ,the third remedy lies in gathering and destroying the adult beetles when found in their winter quarters4 ,the application of bands of burlap or tanglefoot1 or of other substances often seen on the trunks of elm trees is useless1 since these bands only prevent the larvae from crawling down from the leaves to the base and serve to prevent nothing from crawling up4 ,scraping the trunks of elm trees is also a waste of effort4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4--,the ,elm ,leaf ,beetle4 7,after ,dr4 ,e4,p4 ,felt47 #a4 ,egg cluster1 enlarged4 #a;a4 ,single egg1 greatly enlarged4 #b4 ,young larva1 enlarged4 #c4 ,full grown larva1 much enlarged4 #d4 ,pupa1 enlarged4 #e4 ,overwintered beetle1 enlarged4 #f4 ,fresh1 brightly colored beetle1 enlarged4 #g4 ,under surface of leaf showing larvae feeding4 #h4 ,leaf eaten by larvae4 #i4 ,leaf showing holes eaten by beetles4 ,,the ,,tussock ,,moth ,life history3 ,this insect appears in the form of a red-headed1 yellow-colored caterpillar during the latter part of ,may1 and in ,june and ,july4 ,the caterpillars surround themselves with silken cocoons and change into pupae4 ,the mature moths emerge from the cocoons after a period of about two weeks1 and the females1 which are wingless1 soon deposit their eggs on the bark of trees1 on twigs1 fences1 and other neighboring objects4 ,these eggs form white clusters of nearly #cej individual eggs each1 and are very conspicuous all winter1 see ,fig4 #aja4 ,remedies3 ,there are two ways of combating this insect3 7#a7 ,by spraying with arsenate of lead for the caterpillars during the latter part of ,may and early ,june4 7#b7 ,by removing and destroying the egg masses in the fall or winter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aja4--,the ,tussock ,moth4 7,after ,dr4 ,e4,p4 ,felt47 #a4 ,caterpillar4 #b4 ,male moth4 #c4 ,female moth laying eggs4 #d ,cocoons4 #e4 ,cast skins of caterpillar4 #f4 ,work of young caterpillar4 #g4 ,male pupa4 #h and #i4 ,girdled branches4 ,,the ,,gipsy ,,moth ,life history3 ,this insect1 imported from ,europe to this country in #ahfh1 has ever since proved a serious enemy of most shade1 forest1 and fruit trees in the ,new ,england ,states4 ,it even feeds on evergreens1 killing the trees by a single defoliation4 ,the insect appears in the caterpillar stage from ,april to ,july4 ,it feeds at night and rests by day4 ,the mature caterpillar1 which is dark in color1 may be recognized by rows of blue and red spots along its back4 ,after ,july1 egg masses are deposited by the female moths on the bark of trees1 and on leaves1 fences1 and other neighboring objects4 ,here they remain over the winter until they hatch in the spring4 ,the flat egg masses are round or oval in shape1 and are yellowish-brown in color4 ,see ,fig4 #ajb4 ,remedies3 ,spray for the caterpillars in ,june with arsenate of lead and apply creosote to the egg masses whenever found4 ,,the ,,brown-,,tail ,,moth ,life history3 ,this insect was introduced here from ,europe in #ahij and has since done serious damage to shade1 forest1 and fruit trees1 and to shrubs in the ,new ,england ,states4 ,it appears in the caterpillar stage in the early spring and continues to feed on the leaves and buds until the last of ,june4 ,then the caterpillars pupate1 the moths come out1 and in ,july and ,august the egg clusters appear4 ,these hatch into caterpillars which form nests for themselves by drawing the leaves together4 ,here they remain protected until the spring4 ,see ,fig4 #ajc4 ,remedies3 ,collect the winter nests from ,october to ,april and burn them4 ,also spray the trees for caterpillars in early ,may and especially in ,august with arsenate of lead4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4--,the ,gipsy ,moth4 7,after ,f4,w4 ,rane ,mass4 ,state ,forester47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4--,the ,brown-tail ,moth4 7,after ,f4,w4 ,rane1 ,mass4 ,state ,forester47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4--,larva of the ,leopard ,moth4 ,,the ,,fall ,,webworm ,the caterpillars of this insect congregate in colonies and surround themselves with a web which often reaches the size of a foot or more in diameter4 ,these webs are common on trees in ,july and ,august4 ,cutting off the webs or burning them on the twigs is the most practical remedy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aje4--;,branch ,showing ,work of the ,leopard ,moth ,larva4 ,,the ,,leopard ,,moth ,life history3 ,this insect does its serious damage in the grub form4 ,the grubs which are whitish in color with brown heads1 and which vary in size from #c_/h of an inch to #c inches in length 7,fig4 #ajd71 may be found boring in the wood of the branches and trunk of the tree all winter4 ,fig4 #aje4 ,the leopard moth requires two years to complete its round of life4 ,the mature moths are marked with dark spots resembling a leopard's skin1 hence the name4 ,fig4 #ajf4 ,it is one of the commonest and most destructive insects in the ,east and is responsible for the recent death of thousands of the famous elm trees in ,new ,haven and ,boston4 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4--,the ,leopard ,moth4 ,remedies3 ,trees likely to be infested with this insect should be examined three or four times a year for wilted twigs1 dead branches1 and strings of expelled frass2 all of which may indicate the presence of this borer4 ,badly infested branches should be cut off and burned4 ,trees so badly infested that treatment becomes too complicated should be cut down and destroyed4 ,where the insects are few and can be readily reached1 an injection of carbon bisulphide into the burrow1 the orifice of which is then immediately closed with soap or putty1 will often destroy the insects within4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4--;,elm ,tree ,attacked by the ,leopard ,moth4 ,,the ,,hickory ,,bark ,,borer ,life history3 ,this insect is a small brown or black beetle in its mature form and a small legless white grub in its winter stage4 ,the beetles appear from ,june to ,august4 ,in ,july they deposit their eggs in the outer sapwood1 immediately under the bark of the trunk and larger branches4 ,the eggs soon hatch and the grubs feed on the living tissue of the tree1 forming numerous galleries4 ,the grubs pass the winter in a nearly full-grown condition1 transform to pupae in ,may1 and emerge as beetles in ,june4 ,remedies3 ,the presence of the insect can be detected by the small holes in the bark of the trees and the fine sawdust which is ejected from these holes1 when the insects are active4 ,it is important to emphasize the advisability of detecting the fine sawdust because that is the best indication of the actual operations of the hickory bark borer4 ,these holes1 however1 will not be noticeable until the insect has completed its transformation4 ,in summer1 the infested trees show wilted leaves and many dead twigs4 ,holes in the base of the petioles of these leaves are also signs of the working of the insect4 ,since the insect works underneath the bark1 it is inaccessible for treatment and all infested trees should be cut down and burned1 or the bark removed and the insects destroyed4 ,this should be done before the beetles emerge from the tree in ,june4 ,,plant ,,lice ,,or ,,aphides ,these often appear on the under side of the leaves of the beech1 ,norway maple1 tulip tree1 etc4 ,they excrete a sweet1 sticky liquid called honey-dew1 and cause the leaves to curl or drop4 ,spraying with whale-oil soap solution formed by adding one pound of the soap to five gallons of water is the remedy4 ,,study ,,ii4 ,,tree ,,diseases ,because trees have wants analogous to those of human beings1 they also have diseases similar to those which afflict human beings4 ,in many cases these diseases act like cancerous growths upon the human body2 in some instances the ailment may be a general failing due to improper feeding1 and in other cases it may be due to interference with the life processes of the tree4 ,how to tell an ailing tree3 ,whatever the cause1 an ailing tree will manifest its ailment by one or more symptoms4 ,a change of color in the leaves at a time when they should be perfectly green indicates that the tree is not growing under normal conditions1 possibly because of an insufficiency of moisture or light or an overdose of foreign gases or salts4 ,withering of the leaves is another sign of irregularity in water supply4 ,dead tops point to some difficulty in the soil conditions or to some disease of the roots or branches4 ,spotted leaves and mushroom-like growths or brackets protruding from the bark as in ,fig4 #ajh1 are sure signs of disease4 ,in attempting to find out whether a tree is healthy or not1 one would therefore do well to consider whether the conditions under which it is growing are normal or not2 whether the tree is suitable for the location2 whether the soil is too dry or too wet2 whether the roots are deprived of their necessary water and air by an impenetrable cover of concrete or soil2 whether the soil is well drained and free from foreign gases and salts2 whether the tree is receiving plenty of light or is too much exposed2 and whether it is free from insects and fungi4 ,if1 after a thorough examination1 it is found that the ailment has gone too far1 it may not be wise to try to save the tree4 ,a timely removal of a tree badly infested with insects or fungi may often be the best procedure and may save many neighboring trees from contagious infection4 ,for this1 however1 no rules can be laid down and much will depend on the local conditions and the judgment and knowledge of the person concerned4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4--;,a ,bracket ,fungus 7,elfvingia megaloma7 on a ,tulip ,tree4 ,fungi as factors of disease3 ,the trees1 the shrubs and the flowers with which we are familiar are rooted in the ground and derive their food both from the soil and from the air4 ,there is1 however1 another group of plants1--the fungi1--the roots of which grow in trees and other plants and which obtain their food entirely from the trees or plants upon which they grow4 ,the fungi cannot manufacture their own food as other plants do and consequently absorb the food of their host1 eventually reducing it to dust4 ,the fungi are thus disease-producing factors and the source of most of the diseases of trees4 ,when we can see fungi growing on a tree we may safely assume that they are already in an advanced state of development4 ,we generally discover their presence when their fruiting bodies appear on the surface of the tree as shown in ,fig #aji4 ,these fruiting bodies are the familiar mushrooms1 puffballs1 toadstools or shelf-like brackets that one often sees on trees4 ,in some cases they spread over the surface of the wood in thin patches4 ,they vary in size from large bodies to mere pustules barely visible to the naked eye4 ,their variation in color is also significant1 ranging from colorless to black and red but never green4 ,they often emulate the color of the bark1 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,radiating from these fruiting bodies into the tissues of the tree are a large number of minute fibers1 comprising the mycelium of the fungus4 ,these fibers penetrate the body of the tree in all directions and absorb its food4 ,the mycelium is the most important part of the fungous growth4 ,if the fruiting body is removed1 another soon takes its place1 but if the entire mycelium is cut out1 the fungus will never come back4 ,the fruiting body of the fungus bears the seed or spores4 ,these spores are carried by the wind or insects to other trees where they take root in some wound or crevice of the bark and start a new infestation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aji4--,the ,fruiting ,body of a ,fungus4 ,the infestation will be favored in its growth if the spore can find plenty of food1 water1 warmth and darkness4 ,as these conditions generally exist in wounds and cavities of trees1 it is wise to keep all wounds well covered with coal tar and to so drain the cavities that moisture cannot lodge in them4 ,this subject will be gone into more fully in the following two studies on ,pruning ,trees and ,tree ,repair4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4--,the ,birch-fungus rot4 7,polyponis betulinus ,fr47 ,note the similarity in the color of the fruiting body and bark of the tree4 ,while the majority of the fungi grow on the trunks and limbs of trees1 some attack the leaves1 some the twigs and others the roots4 ,some fungi grow on living wood some on dead wood and some on both4 ,those that attack the living trees are the most dangerous from the standpoint of disease4 ,the chestnut disease3 ,the disease which is threatening the destruction of all the chestnut trees in ,america is a fungus which has1 within recent years1 assumed such vast proportions that it deserves special comment4 ,the fungus is known as ,diaporthe parasitica 7,murrill71 and was first observed in the vicinity of ,new ,york in #aije4 ,at that time only a few trees were known to have been killed by this disease1 but now the disease has advanced over the whole chestnut area in the ,united ,states1 reaching as far south as ,virginia and as far west as ,buffalo4 ,fig4 #aaa shows the result of the chestnut disease4 ,the fungus attacks the cambium tissue underneath the bark4 ,it enters through a wound in the bark and sends its fungous threads from the point of infection all around the trunk until the latter is girdled and killed4 ,this may all happen within one season4 ,it is not until the tree has practically been destroyed that the disease makes its appearance on the surface of the bark in the form of brown patches studded with little pustules that carry the spores4 ,when once girdled1 the tree is killed above the point of infection and everything above dies1 while some of the twigs below may live until they are attacked individually by the disease or until the trunk below their origin is infected4 ,all species of chestnut trees are subject to the disease4 ,the ,japanese and ,spanish varieties appear to be highly resistant1 but are not immune4 ,other species of trees besides chestnuts are not subject to the disease4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4--;,chestnut ,trees ,killed by the ,chestnut ,disease4 ,there is no remedy or preventive for this disease4 ,from the nature of its attack1 which is on the inner layer of the tree1 it is evident that all applications of fungicides1 which must necessarily be applied to the outside of the tree1 will not reach the disease4 ,injections are impossible and other suggested remedies1 such as boring holes in the wood for the purpose of inserting chemicals1 are futile4 ,the wood of the chestnut tree1 within three or four years after its death1 is still sound and may be used for telephone and telegraph poles1 posts1 railroad ties1 lumber and firewood4 ,spraying for fungous diseases3 ,where a fungous disease is attacking the leaves1 fruit1 or twigs1 spraying with ,bordeaux mixture may prove effective4 ,the application of ,bordeaux mixture is deterrent rather than remedial1 and should therefore be made immediately before the disease appears4 ,the nature of the disease and the time of treatment can be determined without cost1 by submitting specimens of affected portions of the plant for analysis and advice to the ,state ,agricultural ,experiment ,station or to the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture4 ,bordeaux mixture1 the standard fungicide material1 consists of a solution of #f pounds of copper sulphate 7blue vitriol7 with #d pounds of slaked lime in #ej gallons of water4 ,it may be purchased in prepared form in the open market1 and when properly made1 has a brilliant sky-blue color4 ,spraying with ,bordeaux mixture should be done in the fall1 early spring1 or early summer1 but never during the period when the trees are in bloom4 ,,study ,,iii4 ,,pruning ,,trees ,,fundamental ,,principles ,trees are very much like human beings in their requirements1 mode of life and diseases1 and the general principles applicable to the care of one are equally important to the intelligent treatment of the other4 ,the removal of limbs from trees1 as well as from human beings1 must be done sparingly and judiciously4 ,wounds1 in both trees and human beings1 must be disinfected and dressed to keep out all fungus or disease germs4 ,fungous growths of trees are similar to human cancers1 both in the manner of their development and the surgical treatment which they require4 ,improper pruning will invite fungi and insects to the tree1 hence the importance of a knowledge of fundamental principles in this branch of tree care4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aab4--;,a ,tree ,pruned ,improperly and too ,severely4 ,time3 ,too much pruning at one time should never be practiced 7,fig4 #aab71 and no branch should be removed from a tree without good reason for so doing4 ,dead and broken branches should be removed as soon as observed1 regardless of any special pruning season1 because they are dangerous1 unsightly and carry insects and disease into the heart of the tree4 ,but all other pruning1 whether it be for the purpose of perfecting the form in shade trees1 or for increasing the production of fruit in orchard trees1 should be confined to certain seasons4 ,shade and ornamental trees can best be pruned in the fall1 while the leaves are still on the tree and while the tree itself is in practically a dormant state4 ,proper cutting3 ,all pruning should be commenced at the top of the tree and finished at the bottom4 ,a shortened branch 7excepting in poplars and willows1 which should be cut in closely7 should terminate in small twigs which may draw the sap to the freshly cut wound2 where a branch is removed entirely1 the cut should be made-close and even with the trunk1 as in ,fig4 #aac4 ,wherever there is a stub left after cutting off a branch1 the growing tissue of the tree cannot cover it and the stub eventually decays1 falls out and leaves a hole 7see ,fig4 #aad71 which serves to carry disease and insects to the heart of the tree4 ,this idea of close cutting cannot be over-emphasized4 ,where large branches have to be removed1 the splitting and ripping of the bark along the trunk is prevented by making one cut beneath the branch1 about a foot or two away from the trunk1 and then another above1 close to the trunk4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aac4--;,branches ,properly ,cut ,close to the ,trunk4 ,too severe pruning3 ,in pruning trees1 many people have a tendency to cut them back so severely as to remove everything but the bare trunk and a few of the main branches4 ,this process is known as heading back4 ,it is a method1 however1 which should not be resorted to except in trees that are very old and failing1 and even there only with certain species1 like the silver maple1 sycamore1 linden and elm4 ,trees like the sugar maple will not stand this treatment at all4 ,the willow is a tree that will stand the process very readily and the ,carolina poplar must be cut back every few years1 in order to keep its crown from becoming too tall1 scraggy and unsafe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aad4--;,a ,limb ,improperly ,cut4 ,note how the stub is decaying and the resulting cavity is becoming diseased4 ,covering wounds3 ,the importance of immediately covering all wounds with coal tar cannot be overstated4 ,if the wound is not tarred1 the exposed wood cracks1 as in ,fig4 #aae1 providing suitable quarters for disease germs that will eventually destroy the body of the tree4 ,coal tar is by far preferable to paint and other substances for covering the wound4 ,the tar penetrates the exposed wood1 producing an antiseptic as well as a protective effect4 ,paint only forms a covering1 which may peel off in course of time and which will later protrude from the cut1 thus forming1 between the paint and the wood1 a suitable breeding place for the development of destructive fungi or disease4 ,the application of tin covers1 burlap1 or other bandages to the wound is equally futile and in most cases even injurious4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aae4--,result of a ,wound not ,covered with ,coal ,tar4 ,the exposed wood cracked and decay set in4 ,,special ,,considerations ,pruning shade trees3 ,here1 the object is to produce a symmetrical crown and to have the lowest branches raised from the ground sufficiently high to enable pedestrians to pass under with raised umbrellas4 ,such pruning should1 therefore1 necessarily be light and confined to the low limbs and dead branches4 ,pruning lawn trees3 ,here the charm of the tree lies in the low reach of the branches and the compactness of the crown4 ,the pruning should1 therefore1 be limited to the removal of dead and diseased branches only4 ,pruning forest trees3 ,forest trees have a greater commercial value when their straight trunks are free from branches4 ,in the forest1 nature generally accomplishes this result and artificial pruning seldom has to be resorted to4 ,trees in the forest grow so closely together that they shut out the sunlight from their lower limbs1 thus causing the latter to die and fall off4 ,this is known as natural pruning4 ,in some ,european forests1 nature is assisted in its pruning by workmen1 who saw off the side branches before they fall of their own accord2 but in this country such practice would be considered too expensive1 hence it is seldom adopted4 ,,tools ,,used ,,in ,,pruning ,good tools are essential for quick and effective work in pruning4 ,two or three good saws1 a pair of pole-shears1 a pole-saw1 a #af-;foot single ladder1 a #dj-;foot extension ladder of light spruce or pine with hickory rungs1 a good pruning knife1 plenty of coal tar1 a fire-can to heat the tar1 a pole-brush1 a small hand brush and plenty of good rope comprise the principal equipment of the pruner4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,the ,,safety ,,of ,,tree ,,climbers #a4 ,before climbing a tree1 judge its general condition4 ,the trunk of a tree that shows age1 disease1 or wood-destroying insects generally has its branches in an equally unhealthy condition4 #b4 ,the different kinds of wood naturally differ in their strength and elasticity4 ,the soft and brash woods need greater precautions than the strong and pliable ones4 ,the wood of all the poplars1 the ailanthus1 the silver maple and the chestnut1 catalpa and willow is either too soft or too brittle to be depended upon without special care4 ,the elm1 hickory and oak have strong1 flexible woods and are1 therefore1 safer than others4 ,the red oak is weaker than the other oaks4 ,the sycamore and beech have a tough1 cross-grained wood which is fairly strong4 ,the linden has a soft wood1 while the ash and gum1 though strong and flexible1 are apt to split4 #c4 ,look out for a limb that shows fungous growths4 ,every fungus sends fibers into the main body of the limb which draw out its sap4 ,the interior of the branch then loses its strength and becomes like a powder4 ,outside appearances sometimes do not show the interior condition1 but one should regard a fungus as a danger sign4 #d4 ,when a limb is full of holes or knots1 it generally indicates that borers have been working all kinds of galleries through it1 making it unsafe4 ,the silver maple and sycamore maple are especially subject to borers which1 in many cases1 work on the under side of the branch so that the man in the tree looking down cannot see its dangerous condition4 #e4 ,a dead limb with the bark falling off indicates that it died at least three months before and is1 therefore1 less safe than one with its bark tightly adhering to it4 #f4 ,branches are more apt to snap on a frosty day when they are covered with an icy coating than on a warm summer day4 #g4 ,always use the pole-saw and pole-shears on the tips of long branches1 and use the pole-hook in removing dead branches of the ailanthus and other brittle trees where it would be too dangerous to reach them otherwise4 #h4 ,be sure of the strength of a branch before tying an extension ladder to it4 ,,study ,,iv4 ,,tree ,,repair ,where trees have been properly cared for from their early start1 wounds and cavities and their subsequent elaborate treatment have no place4 ,but where trees have been neglected or improperly cared for1 wounds and cavities are bound to occur and early treatment becomes a necessity4 ,there are two kinds of wounds on trees3 7#a7 surface wounds1 which do not extend beyond the inner bark1 and 7#b7 deep wounds or cavities1 which may range from a small hole in a crotch to the hollow of an entire trunk4 ,surface wounds3 ,surface wounds 7,fig4 #aaf7 are due to bruised bark1 and a tree thus injured can no longer produce the proper amount of foliage or remain healthy very long4 ,the reason for this becomes very apparent when one looks into the nature of the living or active tissue of a tree and notes how this tissue becomes affected by such injuries4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4--;,a ,surface ,wound ,properly ,freed from ,decayed ,wood and ,covered with ,coal ,tar4 ,this living or active tissue is known as the cambium layer1 and is a thin tissue situated immediately under the bark4 ,it must completely envelop the stem1 root and branches of the trees4 ,the outer bark is a protective covering to this living layer1 while the entire interior wood tissue chiefly serves as a skeleton or support for the tree4 ,the cambium layer is the real1 active part of the tree4 ,it is the part which transmits the sap from the base of the tree to its crown2 it is the part which causes the tree to grow by the formation of new cells1 piled up in the form of rings around the heart of the tree2 and it is also the part which prevents the entrance of insects and disease to the inner wood4 ,from this it is quite evident that any injury to the bark1 and consequently to this cambium layer alongside of it1 will not only cut off a portion of the sap supply and hinder the growth of the tree to an extent proportional to the size of the wound1 but will also expose the inner wood to the action of decay4 ,the wound may1 at first1 appear insignificant1 but1 if neglected1 it will soon commence to decay and thus to carry disease and insects into the tree4 ,the tree then becomes hollow and dangerous and its life is doomed4 ,injury to the cambium layer1 resulting in surface wounds1 may be due to the improper cutting of a branch1 to the bite of a horse1 to the cut of a knife or the careless wielding of an axe1 to the boring of an insect1 or to the decay of a fungous disease4 7,see ,fig4 #aag47 ,whatever the cause1 the remedy lies in cleaning out all decayed wood1 removing the loose bark and covering the exposed wood with coal tar4 ,in cutting off the loose bark1 the edges should be made smooth before the coal tar is applied4 ,loose bark1 put back against a tree1 will never grow and will only tend to harbor insects and disease4 ,bandages1 too1 are hurtful because1 underneath the bandage1 disease will develop more rapidly than where the wound is exposed to the sun and wind4 ,the application of tin or manure to wounds is often indulged in and is equally injurious to the tree4 ,the secret of all wound treatment is to keep the wound smooth1 clean to the live tissue1 and well covered with coal tar4 ,the chisel or gouge is the best tool to employ in this work4 ,a sharp hawk-billed knife will be useful in cutting off the loose bark4 ,coal tar is the best material for covering wounds because it has both an antiseptic and a protective effect on the wood tissue4 ,paint1 which is very often used as a substitute for coal tar1 is not as effective1 because the paint is apt to peel in time1 thus allowing moisture and disease to enter the crevice between the paint and the wood4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aag4--;,a ,neglected ,surface ,wound4 ,note the rough surface of the wound1 the want of a coal tar covering and the fungous growth that followed4 ,cavities3 ,deep wounds and cavities are generally the result of stubs that have been permitted to rot and fall out4 ,surface wounds allowed to decay will deepen in course of time and produce cavities4 ,cavities in trees are especially susceptible to the attack of disease because1 in a cavity1 there is bound to exist an accumulation of moisture4 ,with this1 there is also considerable darkness and protection from wind and cold1 and these are all ideal conditions for the development of disease4 ,the successful application of a remedy1 in all cavity treatment1 hinges on this principal condition--that all traces of disease shall be entirely eliminated before treatment is commenced4 ,fungous diseases attacking a cavity produce a mass of fibers1 known as the mycelium1 that penetrate the body of the tree or limb on which the cavity is located4 ,in eliminating disease from a cavity1 it is1 therefore1 essential to go beyond the mere decaying surface and to cut out all fungous fibers that radiate into the interior of the tree4 ,where these fibers have penetrated so deeply that it becomes impossible to remove every one of them1 the tree or limb thus affected had better be cut down4 7,fig4 #aah47 ,the presence of the mycelium in wood tissue can readily be told by the discolored and disintegrated appearance of the wood4 ,the filling in a cavity1 moreover1 should serve to prevent the accumulation of water and1 where a cavity is perpendicular and so located that the water can be drained off without the filling1 the latter should be avoided and the cavity should merely be cleaned out and tarred4 7,fig4 #aaf47 ,where the disease can be entirely eliminated1 where the cavity is not too large1 and where a filling will serve the practical purpose of preventing the accumulation of moisture1 the work of filling should be resorted to4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aah4--;,a ,cavity ,filled in a ,tree that ,should ,have ,been ,cut ,down4 ,note how the entire interior is decayed and how the tree fell apart soon after treatment4 ,filling should be done in the following manner3 ,first1 the interior should be thoroughly freed from diseased wood and insects4 ,the chisel1 gouge1 mall and knife are the tools1 and it is better to cut deep and remove every trace of decayed wood than it is to leave a smaller hole in an unhealthy state4 ,the inner surface of the cavity should then be covered with a coat of white lead paint1 which acts as a disinfectant and helps to hold the filling4 ,corrosive sublimate or ,bordeaux mixture may be used as a substitute for the white lead paint4 ,a coat of coal tar over the paint is the next step4 ,the cavity is then solidly packed with bricks1 stones and mortar as in ,fig4 #aai1 and finished with a layer of cement at the mouth of the orifice4 ,this surface layer of cement should not be brought out to the same plane with the outer bark of the tree1 but should rather recede a little beyond the growing tissue 7cambium layer7 which is situated immediately below the bark1 ,fig4 #abj4 ,in this way the growing tissue will be enabled to roll over the cement and to cover the whole cavity if it be a small one1 or else to grow out sufficiently to overlap the filling and hold it as a frame holds a picture4 ,the cement is used in mixture with sand in the proportion of one-third of cement to two-thirds of sand4 ,when dry1 the outer layer of cement should be covered with coal tar to prevent cracking4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aai4--;,a ,cavity in the ,process of being ,filled4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abj--,the ,same ,cavity ,properly ,filled4 ,trees that tend to split3 ,certain species of trees1 like the linden and elm1 often tend to split1 generally in the crotch of several limbs and sometimes in a fissure along the trunk of the tree4 ,midwinter is the period when this usually occurs and timely action will save the tree4 ,the remedy lies in fastening together the various parts of the tree by means of bolts or chains4 ,a very injurious method of accomplishing this end is frequently resorted to1 where each of the branches is bound by an iron band and the bands are then joined by a bar4 ,the branches eventually outgrow the diameter of the bands1 causing the latter to cut through the bark of the limbs and to destroy them4 ,another method of bracing limbs together consists in running a single bolt through them and fastening each end of the bolt with a washer and nut4 ,this method is preferable to the first because it allows for the growth of the limbs in thickness4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aba4--;,diagram ,showing the ,triple-bar ,method of ,fastening ,limbs4 ,a still better method1 however1 consists in using a bar composed of three parts as shown in ,fig4 #aba4 ,each of the two branches has a short bolt passed through it horizontally1 and the two short bolts are then connected by a third bar4 ,this arrangement will shift all the pressure caused by the swaying of the limbs to the middle connecting-bar4 ,in case of a windstorm1 the middle bar will be the one to bend1 while the bolts which pass through the limbs will remain intact4 ,the outer ends of the short bolts should have their washers and nuts slightly embedded in the wood of the tree1 so that the living tissue of the tree may eventually grow over them in such a way as to hold the bars firmly in place and to exclude moisture and disease4 ,the washers and nuts on the inner side of the limbs should also be embedded4 ,a chain is sometimes advantageously substituted for the middle section of the bar and1 in some cases1 where more than two branches have to be joined together1 a ring might take the place of the middle bar or chain4 ,bolts on a tree detract considerably from its natural beauty and should1 therefore1 be used only where they are absolutely necessary for the safety of the tree4 ,they should be placed as high up in the tree as possible without weakening the limbs4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,forestry ,,study ,i4 ,,what ,,forestry ,,is ,,and ,,what ,,it ,,does ,although ,forestry is not a new idea but1 as a science and an art1 has been applied for nearly two thousand years1 there are many persons who still need an explanation of its aims and principles4 ,forestry deals with the establishment1 protection and utilization of forests4 ,by establishment1 is meant the planting of new forests and the cutting of mature forests1 in such a way as to encourage a natural growth of new trees without artificial planting or seeding4 ,the planting may consist of sowing seed1 or of setting out young trees4 ,the establishment of a forest by cutting may consist of the removal of all mature trees and dependence upon the remaining stumps to reproduce the forest from sprouts1 or it may consist of the removal of only a portion of the mature trees1 thus giving the young seedlings on the ground room in which to grow4 ,by protection1 is meant the safeguarding of the forest from fire1 wind1 insects1 disease and injury for which man is directly responsible4 ,here1 the forester also prevents injury to the trees from the grazing and browsing of sheep and goats1 and keeps his forest so well stocked that no wind can uproot the trees nor can the sun dry up the moist forest soil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abb4--;,a ,forest of ,bull ,pine ,cut on ,forestry ,principles4 7,photograph taken on the ,black ,hills ,national ,forest1 ,south ,dakota47 ,by utilization1 is meant the conservative and intelligent harvesting of the forest1 with the aim of obtaining the greatest amount of product from a given area1 with the least waste1 in the quickest time1 and without the slightest deterioration of the forest as a whole4 ,the forester cuts his mature trees1 only1 and generally leaves a sufficient number on the ground to preserve the forest soil and to cast seed for the production of a new crop4 ,in this way1 he secures an annual output without hurting the forest itself4 ,he studies the properties and values of the different woods and places them where they will be most useful4 ,he lays down principles for so harvesting the timber and the by-products of the forest that there will be the least waste and injury to the trees which remain standing4 ,he utilizes the forest1 but does not cut enough to interfere with the neighboring water-sheds1 which the forests protect4 ,illustration3 #abc4--;,a ,white ,pine ,plantation1 in ,rhode ,island1 ,where the ,crowns of the ,trees ,have ,met4 ,the trees are fifteen years old and in many cases every other tree had to be removed4 ,forestry1 therefore1 deals with a vast and varied mass of information1 comprising all the known facts relating to the life of a forest4 ,it does not deal with the individual tree and its planting and care1--that would be arboriculture4 ,nor does it consider the grouping of trees for aesthetic effect1--that would be landscape gardening4 ,it concerns itself with the forest as a community of trees and with the utilization of the forest on an economic basis4 ,each one of these activities in ,forestry is a study in itself and involves considerable detail1 of which the reader may obtain a general knowledge in the following pages4 ,for a more complete discussion1 the reader is referred to any of the standard books on ,forestry4 ,the life and nature of a forest3 ,when we think of a forest we are apt to think of a large number of individual trees having no special relationship to each other4 ,closer observation1 however1 will reveal that the forest consists of a distinct group of trees1 sufficiently dense to form an unbroken canopy of tops1 and that1 where trees grow so closely together1 they become very interdependent4 ,it is this interdependence that makes the forest different from a mere group of trees in a park or on a lawn4 ,in this composite character1 the forest enriches its own soil from year to year1 changes the climate within its own bounds1 controls the streams along its borders and supports a multitude of animals and plants peculiar to itself4 ,this communal relationship in the life history of the forest furnishes a most interesting story of struggle and mutual aid4 ,different trees have different requirements with regard to water1 food and light4 ,some need more water and food than others1 some will not endure much shade1 and others will grow in the deepest shade4 ,in the open1 a tree1 if once established1 can meet its needs quite readily and1 though it has to ward off a number of enemies1 insects1 disease and windstorm--its struggle for existence is comparatively easy4 ,in the forest1 the conditions are different4 ,here1 the tree-enemies have to be battled with1 just as in the open1 and in addition1 instead of there being only a few trees on a plot of ground1 there are thousands growing on the same area1 all demanding the same things out of a limited supply4 ,the struggle for existence1 therefore1 becomes keen1 many falling behind and but few surviving4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abd4--,measuring the ,diameter of a ,tree and ,counting its ,annual ,rings4 ,this struggle begins with the seed4 ,at first there are thousands of seeds cast upon a given area by the neighboring trees or by the birds and the winds4 ,of these1 only a few germinate2 animals feed on some of them1 frost nips some and excessive moisture and unfavorable soil conditions prevent others from starting4 ,the few successful ones soon sprout into a number of young trees that grow thriftily until their crowns begin to meet4 ,when the trees have thus met1 the struggle is at its height4 ,the side branches encroach upon each other 7,fig4 #abc71 shut out the light without which the branches cannot live1 and finally kill each other off4 ,the upper branches vie with one another for light1 grow unusually fast1 and the trees increase in height with special rapidity4 ,this is nature's method of producing clear1 straight trunks which are so desirable for poles and large timber4 ,in this struggle for dominance1 some survive and tower above the others1 but many become stunted and fail to grow1 while the majority become entirely overtopped and succumb in the struggle2 see ,fig4 #aci4 ,but in this strife there is also mutual aid4 ,each tree helps to protect its neighbors against the danger of being uprooted by the wind1 and against the sun1 which is liable to dry up the rich soil around the roots4 ,this soil is different from the soil on the open lawn4 ,it consists of an accumulation of decayed leaves mixed with inorganic matter1 forming1 together1 a rich composition known as humus4 ,the trees also aid each other in forming a close canopy that prevents the rapid evaporation of water from the ground4 ,the intensity of these conditions will vary a great deal with the composition of the forest and the nature and habits of the individual trees4 ,by composition1 or type of forest1 is meant the proportion in which the various species of trees are grouped2 i4e41 whether a certain section of woodland is composed of one species or of a mixture of species4 ,by habit is meant the requirements of the trees for light1 water and food4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abe4--,mountain ,slopes in ,north ,carolina ,well ,covered with ,forests4 ,some trees will grow in deep shade while others will demand the open4 ,in the matter of water and food1 the individual requirements of different trees are equally marked4 ,the natural rapidity of growth of different species is also important1 and one caring for a forest must know this rate of growth1 not only as to the individual species1 but also with respect to the forest as a whole4 ,if he knows how fast the trees in a forest grow1 both in height and diameter1 he will know how much wood1 in cubic feet1 the forest produces in a year1 and he can then determine how much he may cut without decreasing the capital stock4 ,the rate of growth is determined in this way3 ,a tree is cut and the rings on the cross-section surface are counted and measured2 see ,fig4 #abd4 ,each ring represents one year's growth4 ,the total number of rings will show the age of the tree4 ,by a study of the rings of the various species of trees on a given plot1 the rate of growth of each species in that location can be ascertained and1 by knowing the approximate number of trees of each species on the forest area1 the rate of growth of the whole forest for any given year can be determined4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abf4--;,bottom ,lands ,buried in ,waste from ,deforested ,mountains4 ,wu-t'ai-shan1 ,shan-si ,province1 ,china4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abg4--;,eroded ,slope in ,western ,north ,carolina4 ,forests prevent soil erosion and floods3 ,forests help to regulate the flow of streams and prevent floods4 ,most streams are bordered by vast tracts of forest growths4 ,the rain that falls on these forest areas is absorbed and held by the forest soil1 which is permeated with decayed leaves1 decayed wood and root fibers4 ,the forest floor is1 moreover1 covered with a heavy undergrowth and thus behaves like a sponge1 absorbing the water that falls upon it and then permitting it to ooze out gradually to the valleys and rivers below4 ,a forest soil will retain one-half of its own quantity of water2 i4e41 for every foot in depth of soil there can be six inches of water and1 when thus saturated1 the soil will act as a vast1 underground reservoir from which the springs and streams are supplied 7,fig4 #abe74 ,cut the forest down and the land becomes such a desert as is shown in ,fig4 #abf4 ,the soil1 leaves1 branches and fallen trees dry to dust1 are carried off by the wind and1 with the fall of rain1 the soil begins to wash away and gullies1 such as are shown in ,fig4 #abg1 are formed4 ,streams generally have their origins in mountain slopes and there1 too1 the forests1 impeding the sudden run off of the water which is not immediately absorbed1 prevent soil erosion4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abh4--;,flood in ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 ,where the soil is allowed to wash off1 frequent floods are inevitable4 ,rain which falls on bare slopes is not caught by the crowns of trees nor held by the forest floor4 ,it does not sink into the ground as readily as in the forest4 ,the result is that a great deal of water reaches the streams in a short time and thus hastens floods4 ,at other periods the streams are low because the water which would have fed them for months has run off in a few days4 ,the farms are the first to suffer from the drouths that follow and1 during the period of floods1 whole cities are often inundated4 ,fig4 #abh shows such a scene4 ,the history of ,forestry is full of horrible incidents of the loss of life and property from floods which are directly traceable to the destruction of the local forests and1 on the other hand1 there are many cases on record where flood conditions have been entirely obviated by the planting of forests4 ,france and ,germany have suffered from inundations resulting from forest devastation and1 more than a hundred years ago1 both of these countries took steps to reforest their mountain slopes1 and thereby to prevent many horrible disasters4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abi4--,planting a ,forest with ,seedling ,trees on the ,nebraska ,national ,forest4 ,the man on the right is placing the tree in a slit just made with the spade4 ,the man on the left is shoveling the dry sand from the surface before making the slit for the tree4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acj4--;,diagrammatic ,illustration of a ,selection ,forest4 ,how forests are established3 ,new forests may be started from seed or from shoots1 or suckers4 ,if from seed1 the process may be carried on in one of three ways3 ,first1 by sowing the seed directly on the land4 ,second1 by first raising young trees in nurseries and later setting them out in their permanent locations in the forest4 ,this method is applicable where quick results are desired1 where the area is not too large1 or in treeless regions and large open gaps where there is little chance for new trees to spring up from seed furnished by the neighboring trees4 ,it is a method extensively practiced abroad where some of the finest forests are the result4 ,the ,u4,s4 government1 as well as many of the ,states1 maintain forest-tree nurseries where millions of little trees are grown from seed and planted out on the ,national and ,state forests4 ,fig4 #abi shows men engaged in this work4 ,the fundamental principles of starting and maintaining a nursery have already been referred to in the chapter on ,what ,trees to ,plant and ,how4 ,the third method of establishing a forest from seed is by cutting the trees in the existing forest so that the seed falling from the remaining trees will1 with the addition of light and space1 readily take root and fill in the gaps with a vigorous growth of trees1 without artificial seeding or planting4 ,this gives rise to several methods of cutting or harvesting forests for the purpose of encouraging natural reproduction4 ,the cutting may extend to single trees over the whole area or over only a part of the whole area4 ,where the cutting is confined to single trees1 the system is known as the ,selection ,system1 because the trees are selected individually1 with a view to retaining the best and most vigorous stock and removing the overcrowding specimens and those that are fully mature or infested with disease or insects4 ,fig4 #acj is a diagrammatic illustration of the operation of this system4 ,in another system the cutting is done in groups1 or in strips1 and the number of areas of the groups or strips is extended from time to time until the whole forest is cleared4 ,this system is illustrated in ,fig4 #aca4 ,still another method consists in encouraging trees which will thrive in the shade1 such as the beech1 spruce and hemlock1 to grow under light-demanding trees like the pine4 ,this system presents a two-storied forest and is known by that name4 ,the under story often has to be established by planting4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aca4--;,diagrammatic ,illustration of the ,group or ,strip ,system4 ,in the system of reproducing forests from shoots or suckers1 all trees of a certain species on a given area are cut off and the old stumps and roots are depended upon to produce a new set of sprouts1 the strongest of which will later develop into trees4 ,the coniferous trees do not lend themselves at all to this system of treatment1 and1 among the broadleaf trees1 the species vary in their ability to sprout4 ,some1 like the chestnut and poplar1 sprout profusely2 others sprout very little4 ,how forests are protected3 ,forestry also tries to protect the forests from many destructive agencies4 ,wasteful lumbering and fire are the worst enemies of the forest4 ,fungi1 insects1 grazing1 wind1 snow and floods are the other enemies4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acb4--,the ,result of a ,forest ,fire4 ,the trees1 lodgepole pine and ,englemann spruce1 are all dead and down4 ,photograph taken in the ,colorado ,national ,forest1 ,colorado4 ,by wasteful lumbering is meant that the forest is cut with no regard for the future and with considerable waste in the utilization of the product4 ,conservative lumbering1 which is the term used by foresters to designate the opposite of wasteful lumbering1 will be described more fully later in this study4 ,protection from fire is no less important than protection from wasteful lumbering4 ,forest fires are very common in this country and cause incalculable destruction to life and property2 see ,fig4 #acb4 ,from ten to twelve million acres of forest-land are burnt over annually and the timber destroyed is estimated at fifty millions of dollars4 ,the history of ,forestry abounds in tales of destructive fires1 where thousands of persons have been killed or left destitute1 whole towns wiped out1 and millions of dollars in property destroyed4 ,in most cases1 these uncontrollable fires started from small conflagrations that could readily1 with proper fire-patrol1 have been put out4 ,there are various ways of fighting fires1 depending on the character of the fire1--whether it is a surface fire1 burning along the surface layer of dry leaves and small ground vegetation1 a ground fire1 burning below the surface1 through the layer of soil and vegetable matter that generally lines the forest floor1 or a top fire1 burning high up in the trees4 ,when the fire runs along the surface only1 the injury extends to the butts of the trees and to the young seedlings4 ,such fires can be put out by throwing dirt or sand over the fire1 by beating it1 and1 sometimes1 by merely raking the leaves away4 ,ground fires destroy the vegetable mold which the trees need for their sustenance4 ,they progress slowly and kill or weaken the roots of the trees4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acc4--;,a ,top ,fire near ,bear ,canyon1 ,arizona4 ,top fires1 ,fig4 #acc1 are the most dangerous1 destroying everything in their way4 ,they generally develop from surface fires1 though sometimes they are started by lightning4 ,they are more common in coniferous forests1 because the leaves of hardwoods do not burn so readily4 ,checking the progress of a top fire is a difficult matter4 ,some fires will travel as rapidly as five miles an hour1 and the heat is terrific4 ,the only salvation for the forest lies1 in many cases1 in a sudden downpour of rain1 a change of wind1 or some barrier which the fire cannot pass4 ,a barrier of this kind is often made by starting another fire some distance ahead of the principal one1 so that when the two fires meet1 they will die out for want of fuel4 ,in well-kept forests1 strips or lanes1 free from inflammable material1 are often purposely made through the forest area to furnish protection against top fires4 ,carefully managed forests are also patrolled during the dry season so that fires may be detected and attacked in their first stages4 ,look-out stations1 watch-towers1 telephone-connections and signal stations are other means frequently resorted to for fire protection and control4 ,notices warning campers and trespassers against starting fires are commonly posted in such forests4 7,fig4 #adc47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acd4--,sheep ,grazing on ,holy ,cross ,national ,forest1 ,colorado4 ,the drove consists of #afjj sheep1 of which only part are shown in the photograph4 ,the grazing of sheep1 goats and cattle in the forest is another important source of injury to which foresters must give attention4 ,in the ,west this is quite a problem1 for1 when many thousands of these animals pass through a forest 7,fig4 #acd71 there is often very little young growth left and the future reproduction of the forest is severely retarded4 ,grazing on our ,national ,forests is regulated by the ,government4 ,as a means of protection against insects and fungi1 all trees infested are removed as soon as observed and in advance of all others1 whenever a lumbering operation is undertaken4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ace4--;,a ,typical ,montana ,sawmill4 ,how forests are harvested3 ,forestry and forest preservation require that a forest should be cut and not merely held untouched4 ,but it also demands that the cutting shall be done on scientific principles1 and that only as much timber shall be removed in a given time as the forest can produce in a corresponding period4 ,after the cutting1 the forest must be left in a condition to produce another crop of timber within a reasonable time3 see ,fig4 #abb4 ,these fundamental requirements represent the difference between conservative lumbering and ordinary lumbering4 ,besides insuring a future supply of timber1 conservative lumbering1 or lumbering on forestry principles1 also tends to preserve the forest floor and the young trees growing on it1 and to prevent injury to the remaining trees through fire1 insects and disease4 ,it provides for a working plan by which the kind1 number and location of the trees to be cut are specified1 the height of the stumps is stipulated and the utilization of the wood and by-products is regulated4 ,conservative lumbering provides that the trees shall be cut as near to the ground as possible and that they shall be felled with the least damage to the young trees growing near by4 ,the branches of the trees1 after they have been felled1 must be cut and piled in heaps1 as shown in ,fig4 #abb1 to prevent fire4 ,when the trunks1 sawed into logs1 are dragged through the woods1 care is taken not to break down the young trees or to injure the bark of standing trees4 ,waste in the process of manufacture is provided against1 uses are found for the material ordinarily rejected1 and the best methods of handling and drying lumber are employed4 ,fig4 #ace shows a typical sawmill capable of providing lumber in large quantities4 ,in the utilization of the by-products of the forest1 such as turpentine and resin1 ,forestry has devised numerous methods for harvesting the crops with greater economy and with least waste and injury to the trees from which the by-products are obtained4 ,fig4 #acf illustrates an improved method by which crude turpentine is obtained4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acf4--;,gathering ,crude ,turpentine by the ,cup and ,gutter ,method4 ,this system1 devised by foresters1 saves the trees and increases the output4 ,forestry here and abroad3 ,forestry is practiced in every civilized country except ,china and ,turkey4 ,in ,germany1 ,forestry has attained1 through a long series of years1 a remarkable state of scientific thoroughness and has greatly increased the annual output of the forests of that country4 ,in ,france1 ,switzerland1 ,austria1 ,hungary1 ,norway1 ,sweden1 ,russia and ,denmark1 ,forestry is also practiced on scientific principles and the government in each of these countries holds large tracts of forests in reserve4 ,in ,british ,india one finds a highly efficient ,forest ,service and in ,japan ,forestry is receiving considerable attention4 ,in the ,united ,states1 the forest areas are controlled by private interests1 by the ,government and by the ,states4 ,on privately owned forests1 ,forestry is practiced only in isolated cases4 ,the ,states are taking hold of the problem very actively and in many of them we now find special ,forestry ,commissions authorized to care for vast areas of forest land reserved for ,state control4 ,these ,commissions employ technically trained foresters who not only protect the ,state forests1 but also plant new areas1 encourage forest planting on private lands and disseminate forestry information among the citizens4 ,new ,york ,state has such a ,commission that cares for more than a million acres of forest land located in the northern part of the ,state4 ,many other ,states are equally progressive4 ,the ,united ,states ,government is the most active factor in the preservation of our forests4 ,the ,government to-day owns over two hundred million acres of forest land1 set aside as ,national ,forests4 ,there are one hundred and fifty individual reserves1 distributed as shown in ,fig4 #acg and cared for by the ,forest ,service1 a bureau in the ,department of ,agriculture4 ,each of the forests is in charge of a supervisor4 ,he has with him a professional forester and a body of men who patrol the tract against fire and the illegal cutting of timber4 ,some of the men are engaged in planting trees on the open areas and others in studying the important forest problems of the region4 ,fig4 #ach4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acg4--,map ,showing ,our ,national ,forests4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ach4--;,government ,foresters in ,missouri ,studying the ,growth and ,habits of ,trees4 ,they are standing in water three feet deep4 ,where cutting is to be done on a ,national ,forest1 the conditions are investigated by a technically trained forester and the cutting is regulated according to his findings4 ,special attention is given to discovering new uses for species of trees which have hitherto been considered valueless1 and the demand upon certain rare species is lessened by introducing more common woods which are suitable for use in their place4 ,aside from the perpetuation of the national forests1 the ,u4,s4 ,forest ,service also undertakes such tree studies as lie beyond the power or means of private individuals4 ,it thus stands ready to cooperate with all who need assistance4 ,,study ,,ii4 ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,woodland ,almost every farm1 large private estate or park has a wooded area for the purpose of supplying fuel or for enhancing the landscape effect of the place4 ,in most instances these wooded areas are entirely neglected or are so improperly cared for as to cause injury rather than good4 ,in but very few cases is provision made for a future growth of trees after the present stock has gone4 ,proper attention will increase and perpetuate a crop of good trees just as it will any other crop on the farm1 while the attractiveness of the place may be greatly enhanced through the intelligent planting and care of trees4 ,how to judge the conditions3 ,a close examination of the wooded area may reveal some or all of the following unfavorable conditions3 ,the trees may be so crowded that none can grow well4 ,a few may have grown to large size but the rest usually are decrepit1 and overtopped by the larger trees4 ,they are1 therefore1 unable1 for the want of light and space1 to develop into good trees4 ,fig4 #aci shows woodland in such condition4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aci4--,woodland which ,needs ,attention4 ,the trees are overcrowded4 ,there may also be dead and dying trees1 trees infested with injurious insects and fungi and having any number of decayed branches4 ,the trees may be growing so far apart that their trunks will be covered with suckers as far down as the ground1 or there may be large1 open gaps with no trees at all4 ,here the sun1 striking with full force1 may be drying up the soil and preventing the decomposition of the leaves4 ,grass soon starts to grow in these open spaces and the whole character of the woodland changes as shown in ,figs4 #adj and #ada4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adj4--;,first ,stage of ,deterioration4 ,the woodland is too open and grass has taken the place of the humus cover4 ,where any of these conditions exist1 the woodland requires immediate attention4 ,otherwise1 as time goes on1 it deteriorates more and more1 the struggle for space among the crowded and suppressed trees becomes more keen1 the insects in the dying trees multiply and disease spreads from tree to tree4 ,under such conditions1 the soil deteriorates and the older trees begin to suffer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ada4--,second ,stage of ,deterioration4 ,the ,surface ,soil of the ,wooded ,area ,has ,washed ,away and the ,trees ,have ,died4 ,the attention required for the proper care of woodland may be summed up under the four general heads of soil preservation1 planting1 cutting1 and protection4 ,improvement by soil preservation3 ,the soil in a wooded area can best be preserved and kept rich by doing two things2 by retaining the fallen leaves on the ground and by keeping the ground well covered with a heavy growth of trees1 shrubs and herbaceous plants4 ,the fallen leaves decompose1 mix with the soil and form a dark-colored material known as humus4 ,the humus supplies the tree with a considerable portion of its food and helps to absorb and retain the moisture in the soil upon which the tree is greatly dependent4 ,a heavy growth of trees and shrubs has a similar effect by serving to retain the moisture in the soil4 ,improvement by planting3 ,the planting of new trees is a necessity on almost any wooded area4 ,for even where the existing trees are in good condition1 they cannot last forever1 and provision must be made for others to take their place after they are gone4 ,the majority of the wooded areas in our parks and on private estates are not provided with a sufficient undergrowth of desirable trees to take the place of the older ones4 ,thus1 also1 the open gaps must be planted to prevent the soil from deteriorating4 ,waste lands on farms which are unsuited for farm crops often offer areas on which trees may profitably be planted4 ,these lands are sufficiently good in most cases to grow trees1 thus affording a means of turning into value ground which would otherwise be worthless4 ,it has been demonstrated that the returns from such plantations at the end of fifty years will yield a six per cent investment and an extra profit of #aea4ig per acre1 the expense totaling at the end of fifty years1 #cjg4jc4 ,the value of the land is estimated at #d per acre and the cost of the trees and planting at #g per acre4 ,the species figured on here is white pine1 one of the best trees to plant from a commercial standpoint4 ,with other trees1 the returns will vary accordingly4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adb4--;,a ,farm ,woodlot4 ,the usual idea that it costs a great deal to plant several thousand young trees is erroneous4 ,an ordinary woodlot may be stocked with a well-selected number of young trees at a cost less than the price generally paid for a dozen good specimen trees for the front lawn4 ,it is not necessary to underplant the woodlot with big trees4 ,the existing big trees are there to give character to the forest and the new planting should be done principally as a future investment and as a means of perpetuating the life of the woodlot4 ,young trees are even more desirable for such planting than the older and more expensive ones4 ,the young trees will adapt themselves to the local soil and climatic conditions more easily than the older ones4 ,their demand for food and moisture is more easily satisfied1 and because of their small cost1 one can even afford to lose a large percentage of them after planting4 ,the young plants should be two-year-old seedlings or three-year-old transplants4 ,two-year-old seedlings are trees that have been grown from the seed in seed beds until they reach that age4 ,they run from two to fifteen inches in height1 depending upon the species4 ,three-year-old transplants have been grown from the seed in seed beds and at the end of the first or second year have been taken up and transplanted into rows1 where they grow a year or two longer4 ,they are usually a little taller than the two-year-old seedlings1 are much stockier and have a better root system4 ,for this reason1 three-year-old transplants are a little more desirable as stock for planting4 ,they will withstand drought better than seedlings4 ,the best results from woodland planting are obtained with native-grown material4 ,such stock is stronger1 hardier and better acclimated4 ,foreign-grown stock is usually a little cheaper1 owing to the fact that it has been grown abroad1 under cheap labor conditions4 ,the trees may be purchased from reputable dealers1 of whom there are many in this country4 ,these dealers specialize in growing young trees and selling them at the low cost of three to ten dollars per thousand4 ,in ,states in which a ,forestry ,commission has been inaugurated1 there have also been established ,state nurseries where millions of little trees are grown for reforestation purposes4 ,in order to encourage private tree planting1 the ,forestry ,commissions are usually willing to sell some of these trees at cost price1 under certain conditions1 to private land owners4 ,inquiries should be made to the ,state ,forestry ,commission4 ,great care must be taken to select the species most suitable for the particular soil1 climatic and light conditions of the woodlot4 ,the trees which are native to the locality and are found growing thriftily on the woodlot1 are the ones that have proven their adaptability to the local conditions and should therefore be the principal species used for underplanting4 ,a list from which to select the main stock would1 therefore1 vary with the locality4 ,in the ,eastern ,states it would comprise the usual hardy trees like the red1 pin and scarlet oaks1 the beech1 the red and sugar maples1 the white ash1 the tulip tree1 sycamore1 sweet gum and locust among the deciduous trees2 the white1 ,austrian1 red1 pitch and ,scotch pines1 the hemlock and the yew among the conifers4 ,with the main stock well selected1 one may add a number of trees and shrubs that will give to the woodland scene a pleasing appearance at all seasons4 ,the brilliant autumnal tints of the sassafras1 pepperidge1 blue beech1 viburnum1 juneberry and sumach are strikingly attractive4 ,the flowering dogwood along the drives and paths will add a charm in ,june as well as in autumn and an occasional group of white birch will have the same effect if planted among groups of evergreens4 ,additional undergrowth of native woodland shrubs1 such as ,new ,jersey tea1 red-berried elder and blueberry for the ,eastern ,states1 will augment the naturalness of the scene and help to conserve the moisture in the soil4 ,two or three years' growth will raise these plants above all grass and low vegetation1 and a sprinkling of laurel1 rhododendron1 hardy ferns and a few intermingling colonies of native wild flowers such as bloodroot1 false ,solomon's seal and columbines for the ,east1 as a ground cover will put the finishing touches to the forest scene4 ,as to methods of planting the little trees1 the following suggestions may prove of value4 ,as soon as the plants are received1 they should be taken from the box and dipped in a thick puddle of water and loam4 ,the roots must be thoroughly covered with the mud4 ,then the bundles into which the little trees are tied should be loosened and the trees placed in a trench dug on a slant4 ,the dirt should be placed over the roots and the exposed parts of the plants covered with brush or burlap to keep away the rays of the sun4 ,when ready for planting1 a few plants are dug up1 set in a pail with thin mud at the bottom and carried to the place of planting4 ,the most economical method of planting is for one man to make the holes with a mattock4 ,these holes are made about a foot in diameter1 by scraping off the sod with the mattock and then digging a little hole in the dirt underneath4 ,a second man follows with a pail of plants and sets a single plant in this hole with his hands1 see ,fig4 #abi1 making sure that the roots are straight and spread out on the bottom of the hole4 ,the dirt should then be packed firmly around the plant and pressed down with the foot4 ,improvement by cutting3 ,the removal of certain trees in a grove is often necessary to improve the quality of the better trees1 increase their growth1 make the place accessible1 and enhance its beauty4 ,cutting in a wooded area should be confined to suppressed trees1 dead and dying trees and trees badly infested with insects and disease4 ,in case of farm woodlands1 mature trees of market value may be cut1 but in parks and on private estates these have a greater value when left standing4 ,the cutting should leave a clean stand of well-selected specimens which will thrive under the favorable influence of more light and growing space4 ,considerable care is required to prevent injury to the young trees when the older specimens are cut and hauled out of the woods4 ,the marking of the trees to be removed can best be done in summer when the dead and live trees can be distinguished with ease and when the requisite growing space for each tree can be judged better from the density of the crowns4 ,the cutting1 however1 can be done most advantageously in winter4 ,immediately after cutting all diseased and infested wood should be destroyed4 ,the sound wood may be utilized for various purposes4 ,the bigger logs may be sold to the local lumber dealers and the smaller material may be used for firewood4 ,the remaining brush should be withdrawn from the woodlot to prevent fire during the dry summer months4 ,in marking trees for removal1 a number of considerations are to be borne in mind besides the elimination of dead1 diseased and suppressed trees4 ,when the marker is working among crowding trees of equal height1 he should save those that are most likely to grow into fine specimen trees and cut out all those that interfere with them4 ,the selection must also favor trees which are best adapted to the local soil and climatic conditions and those which will add to the beauty of the place4 ,in this respect the method of marking will be different from that used in commercial forestry1 where the aim is to net the greatest profit from the timber4 ,in pure forestry practice1 one sees no value in such species as dogwood1 ironwood1 juneberry1 sumac and sassafras1 and will therefore never allow those to grow up in abundance and crowd out other trees of a higher market value4 ,but on private estates and in park woodlands where beauty is an important consideration1 such species add wonderful color and attractiveness to the forest scene1 especially along the roads and paths1 and should be favored as much as the other hardier trees4 ,one must not mark too severely in one spot or the soil will be dried out from exposure to sun and wind4 ,when the gaps between the trees are too large1 the trees will grow more slowly and the trunks will become covered with numerous shoots or suckers which deprive the crowns of their necessary food and cause them to die back4 ,where the trees are tall and slim or on short and steep hillsides1 it is also important to be conservative in marking in order that the stand may not be exposed to the dangers of windfall4 ,no hard-and-fast rule can be laid down as to what would constitute a conservative percentage of trees to cut down4 ,this depends entirely on the local conditions and on the exposure of the woodlot4 ,but in general it is not well to remove more than twenty per cent of the stand nor to repeat the cutting on the same spot oftener than once in five or six years4 ,the first cutting will1 of course1 be the heaviest and all subsequent cuttings will become lighter and lighter until the woodlot is put in good growing condition4 ,on private estates and parks1 where beauty is the chief aim1 the woodland should be kept as natural1 informal and as thick as possible4 ,where the woodland is cut up by many paths and drives1 density of vegetation will add to the impression of depth and distance4 ,protection3 ,this subject has already been discussed considerably in the previous study on ,forestry1 and here it becomes necessary merely to add a few suggestions with special reference to private and park woodlands4 ,guarding woodlands from fire is the most important form of protection4 ,surface fires are very common on small woodland holdings and the damage done to the standing vegetation is generally underestimated4 ,an ordinary ground or surface fire on a woodland area will burn up the leaf-litter and vegetable mold1 upon which the trees depend so much for food and moisture1 and will destroy the young seedlings on the ground4 ,where the fire is a little more severe1 the older trees are badly wounded and weakened and the younger trees are frequently killed outright4 ,insects and disease find these trees an easy prey1 and all related forest conditions commence to deteriorate4 ,constant watchfulness and readiness to meet any emergency are the keynote of effective fire protection4 ,notices similar to the one shown in ,fig4 #adc often help to prevent fires4 ,it is also helpful to institute strict rules against dropping lighted matches or tobacco1 or burning brush when the ground is very dry1 or leaving smouldering wood without waiting to see that the fire is completely out4 ,there should be many roads and foot-paths winding through the woodland in order that they may serve as checks or fire lanes in time of fire4 ,these roads and paths should be kept free from brush and leaves and should be frequently patrolled4 ,when made not too wide1 unpretentious and in conformity with the natural surroundings1 such drives and paths can become a very interesting feature of the place1 winding through the woodland1 exposing its charms and affording opportunity for pleasant driving and walking4 ,the borders of the paths can be given special attention by placing the more beautiful native shrubs in prominent positions where they can lend increased attractiveness4 ,in case of fire1 it should be possible to call for aid by telephone directly from the woodland and to find within easy reach the tools necessary to combat fire4 ,it is also important to obtain the co-operation of one's neighbors in protecting the adjoining woodlands1 because the dangers from insects1 disease and fire threatening one bit of woodland area are more or less dependent upon the conditions in the adjoining woodland4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adc4--,poster ,suitable for ,private ,woodlands and ,forest ,parks4 ,the translations in ,italian and ,polish have been used by the writer in this particular instance to meet the local needs4 ,as to other forms of protection1 passing mention may be made of the importance of keeping out cattle1 sheep and hogs from the woods1 of eliminating all insects and disease1 of keeping the ground free from brush and other inflammable material1 of retaining on the ground all fallen leaves and keeping the forest well stocked with little trees and shrubs4 ,forest lands may be exempted from taxation3 ,in ,new ,york and other ,states there exists a ,state law providing for exemption or reduction in taxes upon lands which are planted with forest trees or maintained as wooded areas4 ,the object of the law is to encourage home forestry and to establish fairness in the agricultural land-tax law by placing forest lands in the same category with other crop-producing lands4 ,for detailed information and a copy of the law1 one should address the local ,state ,forestry ,commission4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,our ,,common ,,woods3 ,,their ,,identification1 ,,properties ,,and ,,uses ,woods have different values for various practical purposes because of their peculiarities in structure4 ,a knowledge of the structural parts of wood is therefore necessary as a means of recognizing the wood and of determining why one piece is stronger1 heavier1 tougher1 or better adapted for a given service than another4 ,structure of wood3 ,if one examines a cross-section of the bole of a tree1 he will note that it is composed of several distinct parts1 as shown in ,fig4 #ade4 ,at the very center is a small core of soft tissue known as the pith4 ,it is of much the same structure as the pith of cornstalk or elder1 with which all are familiar4 ,at the outside is the bark1 which forms a protective covering over the entire woody system4 ,in any but the younger stems1 the bark is composed of an inner1 live layer1 and an outer or dead portion4 ,between the pith at the center and the bark at the outside is the wood4 ,it will be noted that the portion next to the bark is white or yellowish in color4 ,this is the sapwood4 ,it is principally through the sapwood that the water taken in by the roots is carried up to the leaves4 ,in some cases the sapwood is very thin and in others it is very thick1 depending partly on the kind of tree1 and partly on its age and vigor4 ,the more leaves on a tree the more sapwood it must have to supply them with moisture4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #add4--,pine ,wood4 7,magnified #cj times47 ,very young trees are all sapwood1 but1 as they get older1 part of the wood is no longer needed to carry sap and it becomes heartwood4 ,heartwood is darker than the sapwood1 sometimes only slightly1 but in other instances it may vary from a light-brown color to jet black4 ,it tends to fill with gums1 resins1 pigments and other substances1 but otherwise its structure is the same as that of the sapwood4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ade4--;,cross-section of ,oak4 ,the wood of all our common trees is produced by a thin layer of cells just beneath the bark1 the cambium4 ,the cambium adds new wood on the outside of that previously formed and new bark on the inside of the old bark4 ,a tree grows most rapidly in the spring1 and the wood formed at that time is much lighter1 softer and more porous than that formed later in the season1 which is usually quite hard and dense4 ,these two portions1 known as early wood or spring wood1 and late wood or summer wood1 together make up one year's growth and are for that reason called annual rings4 ,trees such as palms and yucca do not grow in this way1 but their wood is not important enough in this country to warrant a description4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adf4--,white ,oak ,wood4 7,magnified #bj times47 ,if the end of a piece of oak wood is examined1 a number of lines will be seen radiating out toward the bark like the spokes in a wheel4 ,these are the medullary rays4 ,they are present in all woods1 but only in a few species are they very prominent to the unaided eye4 ,these rays produce the flakes or mirrors that make quartersawed 7radially cut7 wood so beautiful4 ,they are thin plates or sheets of cells lying in between the other wood cells4 ,they extend out into the inner bark4 ,while much may be seen with the unaided eye1 better results can be secured by the use of a good magnifying glass4 ,the end of the wood should be smoothed off with a very sharp knife2 a dull one will tear and break the cells so that the structure becomes obscured4 ,with any good hand lens a great many details will then appear which before were not visible4 ,in the case of some woods like oak1 ash1 and chestnut1 it will be found that the early wood contains many comparatively large openings1 called pores1 as shown in ,figs4 #adf and #adg4 ,pores are cross-sections of vessels which are little tube-like elements running throughout the tree4 ,the vessels are water carriers4 ,a wood with its large pores collected into one row or in a single band is said to be ring-porous4 ,fig4 #adf shows such an arrangement4 ,a wood with its pores scattered throughout the year's growth instead of collected in a ring is diffuse-porous4 ,maple1 as shown in ,fig4 #aeb1 is of this character4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adg4--;,example of the ,black ,oak ,group4 7,quercus coccinea47 7,magnified #bj times47 ,all of our broadleaf woods are either ring-porous or diffuse-porous1 though some of them1 like the walnut1 are nearly half way between the two groups4 ,if the wood of hickory1 for example1 be examined with the magnifying lens1 it will be seen that there are numerous small pores in the late wood1 while running parallel with the annual rings are little white lines such as are shown in ,fig4 #adi4 ,these are lines of wood parenchyma4 ,wood parenchyma is found in all woods1 arranged sometimes in tangential lines1 sometimes surrounding the pores and sometimes distributed over the cross-section4 ,the dark1 horn-like portions of hickory and oak are the woodfibers4 ,they give the strength to wood4 ,in many of the diffuse-porous woods1 the pores are too small to be seen with the unaided eye1 and in some cases they are not very distinct even when viewed with a magnifier4 ,it is necessary to study such examples closely in order not to confuse them with the woods of conifers4 ,the woods of conifers are quite different in structure from broadleaf woods1 though the difference may not always stand out prominently4 ,coniferous woods have no pores1 their rays are always narrow and inconspicuous1 and wood parenchyma is never prominent4 ,the woods of the pines1 spruces1 larches1 and ,douglas fir differ from those of the other conifers in having resin ducts1 ,fig4 #add4 ,in pines these are readily visible to the naked eye1 appearing as resinous dots on cross-sections and as pin scratches or dark lines on longitudinal surfaces4 ,the presence or absence of resin ducts is a very important feature in identifying woods1 hence it is very important to make a careful search for them when they are not readily visible4 ,how to identify a specimen of wood3 ,the first thing to do in identifying a piece of wood is to cut a smooth section at the end and note 7without the magnifier7 the color1 the prominence of the rays and pores1 and any other striking features4 ,if the pores are readily visible1 the wood is from a broadleaf tree2 if the large pores are collected in a ring it belongs to the ring-porous division of the broadleaf woods4 ,if the rays are quite conspicuous and the wood is hard and heavy1 it is oak1 as the key given later will show4 ,close attention to the details of the key will enable one to decide to what group of oaks it belongs4 ,in most cases the structure will not stand out so prominently as in oak1 so that it is necessary to make a careful study with the hand lens4 ,if pores appear1 their arrangement1 both in the early wood and in the late wood1 should be carefully noted2 also whether the pores are open or filled with a froth-like substance known as tyloses4 ,wood parenchyma lines should be looked for1 and if present1 the arrangement of the lines should be noted4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adh4--7,magnified about #h times47 ,if no pores appear under the magnifying lens1 look closely for resin ducts4 ,if these are found1 note whether they are large or small1 numerous or scattered1 open or closed1 lighter or darker than the wood4 ,note also whether the late wood is very heavy and hard1 showing a decided contrast to the early wood1 or fairly soft and grading into the early wood without abrupt change4 ,weigh the piece in your hand1 smell a fresh-cut surface to detect the odor1 if any1 and taste a chip to see if anything characteristic is discoverable4 ,then turn to the following key3 ,,key ,i4 ,,woods ,,without ,,pores--,,conifers ,,or ,,so-,,called ,,softwoods ,a4 ,woods with resin ducts4 #a4 ,pines4 ,fig4 #add4 ,resin ducts numerous1 prominent1 fairly evenly distributed4 ,wood often pitchy4 ,resinous odor distinct4 ,clear demarcation between heart and sapwood4 ,there are two groups of pines--soft and hard4 7a7 ,soft ,pines4 ,wood light1 soft1 not strong1 even-textured1 very easy to work4 ,change from early wood to late wood is gradual and the difference in density is not great4 7b7 ,hard ,pines4 ,wood variable but typically rather heavy1 hard and strong1 uneven textured1 fairly easy to work4 ,change from early wood to late wood is abrupt and the difference in density and color is very marked1 consequently alternate layers of light and dark wood show4 ,the wood of nearly all pines is very extensively employed in construction work and in general carpentry4 #b4 ,douglas fir4 ,resin ducts less numerous and conspicuous than in the pines1 irregularly distributed1 often in small groups4 ,odorless or nearly so4 ,heartwood and sapwood distinct4 ,the wood is of two kinds4 ,in one the growth rings are narrow and the wood is rather light and soft1 easy to work1 reddish yellow in color2 in the other the growth rings are wide1 the wood is rather hard to work1 as there is great contrast between the weak early wood and the very dense late wood of the annual rings4 ,douglas fir is a tree of great economic importance on the ,pacific ,coast4 ,the wood is much like hard pine both in its appearance and its uses4 #c4 ,spruces4 ,resin ducts few1 small1 unevenly distributed2 appearing mostly as white dots4 ,wood not resinous2 odorless4 ,the wood is white or very light colored with a silky luster and with little contrast between heart and sapwood4 ,it is a great deal like soft pine1 though lighter in color and with much fewer and smaller resin ducts4 ,the wood is used for construction1 carpentry1 oars1 sounding boards for musical instruments1 and paper pulp4 #d4 ,tamarack4 ,resin ducts the same as in the spruces4 ,the color of the heartwood is yellowish or russet brown2 that of the distinct sapwood much lighter4 ,the wood is considerably like hard pine1 but lacks the resinous odor and the resin ducts are much fewer and smaller4 ,the wood is used largely for cross-ties1 fence posts1 telegraph and telephone poles1 and to a limited extent for lumber in general construction4 ,b4 ,woods without resin ducts4 #a4 ,hemlock4 ,the wood has a disagreeable1 rancid odor1 is splintery1 not resinous1 with decided contrast between early and late wood4 ,color light brown with a slight tinge of red1 the heart little if any darker than the sapwood4 ,hemlock makes a rather poor lumber which is used for general construction1 also for cross-ties1 and pulp4 #b4 ,balsam fir4 ,usually odorless1 not splintery1 not resinous1 with little contrast between early and late wood4 ,color white or very light brown with a pinkish hue to the late wood4 ,heartwood little if any darker than the sapwood4 ,closely resembles spruce1 from which it can be distinguished by its absence of resin ducts4 ,the wood is used for paper pulp in mixture with spruce4 ,also for general construction to some extent4 #c4 ,cypress4 ,odorless except in dark-colored specimens which are somewhat rancid4 ,smooth surface of sound wood looks and feels greasy or waxy4 ,moderate contrast between early and late wood4 ,color varies from straw color to dark brown1 often with reddish and greenish tinge4 ,heartwood more deeply colored than the sapwood but without distinct boundary line4 ,wood used in general construction1 especially in places where durability is required2 also for shingles1 cooperage1 posts1 and poles4 #d4 ,red ,cedar4 ,has a distinct aromatic odor4 ,wood uniform-textured2 late wood usually very thin1 inconspicuous4 ,color deep reddish brown or purple1 becoming dull upon exposure2 numerous minute red dots often visible under lens4 ,sapwood white4 ,red cedar can be distinguished from all the other conifers mentioned by the deep color of the wood and the very distinct aromatic odor4 ,wood largely used for pencils2 also for chests and cabinets1 posts1 and poles4 ,it is very durable in contact with the ground4 ,western red cedar is lighter1 softer1 less deeply colored and less fragrant than the common ,eastern cedar4 ,it grows along the ,pacific ,coast and is extensively used for shingles throughout the country4 #e4 ,redwood4 ,wood odorless and tasteless1 uniform-textured1 light and weak1 rather coarse and harsh4 ,color light cherry4 ,close inspection under lens of a small split surface will reveal many little resin masses that appear as rows of black or amber beads which are characteristic of this wood4 ,redwood is confined to portions of the ,pacific ,coast4 ,it is used for house construction1 interior finish1 tanks and flumes1 shingles1 posts1 and boxes4 ,it is very durable4 ,,ii4 ,,woods ,,with ,,pores--,,broadleaf1 ,,or ,,so-,,called ,,hardwoods ,a4 ,ring-porous4 #a4 ,woods with a portion of the rays very large and conspicuous4 ,oak4 ,the wood of all of the oaks is heavy1 hard1 and strong4 ,they may be separated into two groups4 ,the white oaks and the red or black oaks4 7a7 ,white oaks4 ,pores in early wood plugged with tyloses1 collected in a few rows4 ,fig4 #adf4 ,the transition from the large pores to the small ones in the late wood is abrupt4 ,the latter are very small1 numerous1 and appear as irregular grayish bands widening toward the outer edge of the annual ring4 ,impossible usually to see into the small pores with magnifier4 7b7 ,red or black oaks4 ,pores are usually open though tyloses may occur1 ,fig4 #adg2 the early wood pores are in several rows and the transition to the small ones in late wood is gradual4 ,the latter are fewer1 larger and more distinct than in white oak and it is possible to see into them with a hand lens4 ,the wood of the oaks is used for all kinds of furniture1 interior finish1 cooperage1 vehicles1 cross-ties1 posts1 fuel1 and construction timber4 #b4 ,woods with none of the rays large and conspicuous4 7a7 ,pores in late wood small and in radial lines1 wood parenchyma in inconspicuous tangential lines4 ,chestnut4 ,pores in early wood in a broad band1 oval in shape1 mostly free from tyloses4 ,pores in late wood in flame-like radial white patches that are plainly visible without lens4 ,color medium brown4 ,nearly odorless and tasteless4 ,chestnut is readily separated from oak by its weight and absence of large rays2 from black ash by the arrangement of the pores in the late wood2 from sassafras by the arrangement of the pores in the late wood1 the less conspicuous rays1 and the lack of distinct color4 ,the wood is used for cross-ties1 telegraph and telephone poles1 posts1 furniture1 cooperage1 and tannin extract4 ,durable in contact with the ground4 7b7 ,pores in late wood small1 not radially arranged1 being distributed singly or in groups4 ,wood parenchyma around pores or extending wing-like from pores in late wood1 often forming irregular tangential lines4 #a4 ,ash4 ,pores in early wood in a rather broad band 7occasionally narrow71 oval in shape1 see ,fig4 #adh1 tyloses present4 ,color brown to white1 sometimes with reddish tinge to late wood4 ,odorless and tasteless4 ,there are several species of ash that are classed as white ash and one that is called black or brown ash4 7a7 ,white ash4 ,wood heavy1 hard1 strong1 mostly light colored except in old heartwood1 which is reddish4 ,pores in late wood1 especially in the outer part of the annual ring1 are joined by lines of wood parenchyma4 7b7 ,black ash4 ,wood more porous1 lighter1 softer1 weaker1 and darker colored than white ash4 ,pores in late wood fewer and larger and rarely joined by tangential lines of wood parenchyma4 ,the wood of the ashes is used for wagon and carriage stock1 agricultural implements1 oars1 furniture1 interior finish1 and cooperage4 ,it is the best wood for bent work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adi4--;,hickory ,wood4 7,magnified #de times47 #b4 ,locust4 ,pores in early wood in a rather narrow band1 round1 variable in size1 densely filled with tyloses4 ,color varying from golden yellow to brown1 often with greenish hue4 ,very thin sapwood1 white4 ,odorless and almost tasteless4 ,wood extremely heavy and hard1 cutting like horn4 ,locust bears little resemblance to ash1 being harder1 heavier1 of a different color1 with more distinct rays1 and with the pores in late wood in larger groups4 ,the wood is used for posts1 cross-ties1 wagon hubs1 and insulator pins4 ,it is very durable in contact with the ground4 7c7 ,pores in late wood comparatively large1 not in groups or lines4 ,wood parenchyma in numerous fine but distinct tangential lines4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aej4--;,elm4 7,magnified #be times47 ,hickory1 ,fig4 #adi4 ,pores in early wood moderately large1 not abundant1 nearly round1 filled with tyloses4 ,color brown to reddish brown2 thick sapwood1 white4 ,odorless and tasteless4 ,wood very heavy1 hard1 and strong4 ,hickory is readily separated from ash by the fine tangential lines of wood parenchyma and from oak by the absence of large rays4 ,the wood is largely used for vehicles1 tool handles1 agricultural implements1 athletic goods1 and fuel4 7d7 ,pores in late wood small and in conspicuous wavy tangential bands4 ,wood parenchyma not in tangential lines4 ,elm4 ,pores in early wood not large and mostly in a single row1 ,fig4 #aej 7several rows in slippery elm71 round1 tyloses present4 ,color brown1 often with reddish tinge4 ,odorless and tasteless4 ,wood rather heavy and hard1 tough1 often difficult to split4 ,the peculiar arrangement of the pores in the late wood readily distinguishes elm from all other woods except hackberry1 from which it may be told by the fact that in elm the medullary rays are indistinct1 while they are quite distinct in hackberry2 moreover1 the color of hackberry is yellow or grayish yellow instead of brown or reddish brown as in elm4 ,the wood is used principally for slack cooperage2 also for hubs1 baskets1 agricultural implements1 and fuel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aea4--7,magnified about #h times47 ,b4 ,diffuse-porous4 #a4 ,pores varying in size from rather large to minute1 the largest being in the early wood4 ,intermediate between ring-porous and diffuse-porous4 ,black ,walnut4 ,color rich dark or chocolate brown4 ,odor mild but characteristic4 ,tasteless or nearly so4 ,wood parenchyma in numerous1 fine tangential lines4 ,wood heavy and hard1 moderately stiff and strong4 ,the wood is used principally for furniture1 cabinets1 interior finish1 moulding1 and gun stocks4 #b4 ,pores all minute or indistinct1 evenly distributed throughout annual ring4 7a7 ,with conspicuously broad rays4 #a4 ,sycamore4 ,fig4 #aea4 ,rays practically all broad4 ,color light brown1 often with dark stripes or feather grain4 ,wood of medium weight and strength1 usually cross-grained1 difficult to split4 ,the wood is used for general construction1 woodenware1 novelties1 interior finish1 and boxes4 #b4 ,beech4 ,with only a part of the rays broad1 the others very fine1 ,fig4 #aea4 ,color pale reddish brown to white2 uniform4 ,wood heavy1 hard1 strong1 usually straight-grained4 ,the wood is used for cheap furniture1 turnery1 cooperage1 woodenware1 novelties1 cross-ties1 and fuel4 ,much of it is distilled4 7b7 ,without conspicuously broad rays4 #a4 ,cherry4 ,rays rather fine but very distinct4 ,color of wood reddish brown4 ,wood rather heavy1 hard1 and strong4 ,the wood is used for furniture1 cabinet work1 moulding1 interior finish1 and miscellaneous articles4 #b4 ,maple1 ,fig4 #aeb4 ,with part of the rays rather broad and conspicuous1 the others very fine4 ,color light brown tinged with red4 ,the wood of the hard maple is very heavy1 hard and strong2 that of the soft maples is rather light1 fairly strong4 ,maple most closely resembles birch1 but can be distinguished from it through the fact that in maple the rays are considerably more conspicuous than in birch4 ,the wood is used for slack cooperage1 flooring1 interior finish1 furniture1 musical instruments1 handles1 and destructive distillation4 #c4 ,tulip-tree1 yellow poplar or whitewood4 ,rays all fine but distinct4 ,color yellow or brownish yellow2 sapwood white4 ,wood light and soft1 straight-grained1 easy to work4 ,the wood is used for boxes1 woodenware1 tops and bodies of vehicles1 interior finish1 furniture1 and pulp4 #d4 ,red or sweet gum4 ,rays all fine but somewhat less distinct than in tulip tree4 ,color reddish brown1 often with irregular dark streaks producing a watered effect on smooth boards2 thick sapwood1 grayish white4 ,wood rather heavy1 moderately hard1 cross-grained1 difficult to work4 ,the best grades of figured red gum resemble ,circassian walnut1 but the latter has much larger pores unevenly distributed and is less cross-grained than red gum4 ,the wood is used for finishing1 flooring1 furniture1 veneers1 slack cooperage1 boxes1 and gun stocks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeb4--,maple4 7,magnified #be times47 #e4 ,black or sweet birch1 ,fig4 #aea4 ,rays variable in size but all rather indistinct4 ,color brown1 tinged with red1 often deep and handsome4 ,wood heavy1 hard1 and strong1 straight-grained1 readily worked4 ,is darker in color and has less prominent rays than maple4 ,the wood is used for furniture1 cabinet work1 finishing1 and distillation4 #f4 ,cottonwood4 ,rays extremely fine and scarcely visible even under lens4 ,color pale dull brown or grayish brown4 ,wood light1 soft1 not strong1 straight-grained1 fairly easy to work4 ,cottonwood can be separated from other light and soft woods by the fineness of its rays1 which is equaled only by willow1 which it rather closely resembles4 ,the wood is largely used for boxes1 general construction1 lumber1 and pulp4 ,how to judge the quality of wood3 ,to know the name of a piece of wood means1 in a general way1 to know certain qualities that are common to all other pieces of wood of that species1 but it does not explain the special peculiarities of the piece in question or why that particular piece is more suitable or unsuitable for a particular purpose than another piece of the same species4 ,the mere identification of the wood does not explain why a particular piece is tougher1 stronger or of darker color than another piece of the same species or even of the same tree4 ,the reason for these special differences lies in the fact that wood is not a homogeneous material like metal4 ,within the same tree different parts vary in quality4 ,the heartwood is generally heavier and of deeper color than the sapwood4 ,the butt is superior to the top wood1 and the manner in which the wood was sawed and dried will affect its quality4 ,knots1 splits1 checks1 and discoloration due to incipient decay are defects worth considering4 ,wood that looks lusterless is usually defective1 because the lack of luster is generally due to disease4 ,woods that are hard wear best4 ,hardness can be determined readily by striking the wood with a hammer and noting the sound produced4 ,a clear1 ringing sound is a sign of hardness4 ,the strength of a piece of wood can be judged by its weight after it is well dried4 ,heavy woods are usually strong4 ,a large amount of late wood is an indication of strength and the production of a clear sound when struck with a hammer is also an evidence of strength4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,an ,,outdoor ,,lesson ,,on ,,trees ,the importance of nature study in the training of the child is now well recognized4 ,the influences of such study from the hygienic1 moral and aesthetic point of view are far reaching and cannot be expressed in dollars and cents4 ,in his association with nature1 the child is led to observe more closely and to know and to be fond of what is truly beautiful in life--beautiful surroundings1 beautiful thoughts and beautiful deeds4 ,he is inspired with reverence for law1 order and truth because he sees it constantly reflected in all works of nature4 ,the social instinct is highly developed and even the parents are often bettered through the agency of their children4 ,the only way1 however1 to study nature--especially plants--is to study it out of doors4 ,our present tendency to gather in cities demands the upbuilding influences of trips into the open in order to equip the child mentally and physically to face the world and its work with the strength and tenacity characteristic of the country-bred4 ,moreover1 the study of objects rather than books is an axiom in modern education and here1 too1 we can readily see that the best way to study trees is to take the pupil to the trees4 ,such studies are more lasting than book study because they emphasize the spirit and the goal rather than the petty facts4 ,educators and parents are now recognizing the value of outdoor trips for their children and are beginning to indulge in them quite frequently4 ,in many instances teachers about to take out their children for a day have inquired of the writer how to go about giving a general field lesson when they reached the park or woodland4 ,the purpose of this chapter is to answer such a question and yet it is evident that it cannot be answered completely4 ,what to observe out doors and how to present one's impressions is a broad question and varies with the knowledge and ability of the teacher as well as with the age and experience of the children4 ,the how and the what in nature study is of greater import than the hard1 dry facts and that must be left entirely to the teacher4 ,a few suggestions1 however1 may not be amiss3 #a4 ,general observations with a view to character building3 ,first of all it is important to remember that the great value of all tree and nature study is the inculcation in the minds of the children of an appreciation and love for the beautiful4 ,inspiring them to love trees generally means more than teaching them to know trees4 ,mere facts about trees taught in an academic way are often no more lasting than the formulae in trigonometry which most of us have long ago forgotten4 ,the important thing is that permanent results be left and nothing else will produce such lasting impressions as the study of trees out of doors4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aec4--,trees ,have ,individuality4 ,general observations about trees can be made by pointing out the beauty and character of the individual forms and branching1 their harmony in their relations to each other as factors of a beautiful composition and the wealth of shades and colors in their leaves1 bark and flowers4 ,compare1 for instance1 the intricate ramification of an ,american elm with the simple branching of a sugar maple1 the sturdiness of a white oak with the tenderness of a soft maple1 the wide spread of a beech with the slender form of a ,lombardy poplar1 the upward pointing branches of a gingko with the drooping form of a weeping willow4 ,at close range1 each of these trees reveals itself as an individual with a character quite its own4 ,at little distance you may see them grouped together1 subordinating their individuality and helping to blend into a beautiful composition with a character all its own4 ,there is nothing more inspiring than the variety of greens in the spring foliage1 the diversity of color in the spring blossoms and the wonderful display of autumnal tints offered by the sweet gum1 sassafras1 dogwood1 black gum1 red maple1 sugar maple1 scarlet oak1 blue beech1 sorrel tree1 ash and gingko4 ,the white bark of the gray birch1 the dark bark of the black oak1 the gray of the beech1 the golden yellow of the mulberry and the mottled bark of the sycamore are interesting comparisons4 ,the smooth bark of the mockernut hickory contrasts greatly with the shaggy bark of the shagbark hickory--members of the same family and yet how different4 ,a wonderful opportunity is thus offered for a comparative study of human nature--individuality and community life1 all reflected in trees4 ,with this preliminary study and with the addition of some remarks on the value of trees as health givers and moral uplifters1 the child is interested and attracted4 ,the lesson so far has attained its aim4 #b4 ,specific observations with a view to training the observative powers3 ,the child's training in closeness of observation and scientific precision may be the next consideration4 ,his enthusiasm will now prompt him to lend his interest for greater detail4 ,we can teach him to recognize a few of the common trees by their general characters--an ,american elm by its fan-shaped form1 a gray birch by its white bark1 a white pine by the five needles to each cluster1 a horsechestnut by its opposite branching and big sticky bud and a willow by its drooping habit4 ,after that we may introduce1 if the age of the pupils justifies1 more details extending to greater differences which distinguish one species from another4 ,the lesson might continue by pointing out the requirements of trees for water and light4 ,find a tree on some slope where the roots are exposed and another which is being encroached upon by its neighbor1 and show how in one case the roots travel in search of water and food and in the other the branches bend toward the light1 growing more vigorously on that side4 ,compare the trees on the open lawn with those in the grove and show how those in the open have grown with branches near the ground while those in the woodland are slender1 tall and free from branches to some distance above the ground4 ,point out the lenticels on the bark of birch and sweet cherry trees and explain how trees breathe4 ,compare this process with that of the human body4 ,you may now come across an old stump and here you can point out the structure of the wood--the sapwood1 cambium and bark4 ,you can illustrate the annual rings and count the age of the tree4 ,at another point you may find a tree with a wound or bruised bark and here you can readily make a closer study of the cambium layer and its manner of growth4 ,the adaptation of plants to the seasonal changes opens another interesting field of study for beginners4 ,if the season is the fall or winter1 note how the trees have prepared themselves for the winter's cold by terminating the flow of sap1 by dropping their leaves too tender to resist the winter's cold1 and by covering their buds with scales lined with down on the inside4 ,observe how the insects have spun for themselves silken nests or remain preserved in the egg state over the winter4 ,if the season is spring or summer the opposite may be noted4 ,see how everything turns to life2 how the buds are opening1 the leaves emerging1 the sap running1 seeds germinating and flowers blooming4 ,the soil conditions on the lawn and in the grove furnish another interesting feature of comparison and study4 ,in the grove1 you can demonstrate the decomposition of the fallen leaves1 the formation of humus and its value to the tree4 ,the importance of the forest soil as a conservator of water and its relation to stream flow and soil erosion can be brought out at this juncture4 ,an eroded bank and a slope covered with trees and shrubs would provide excellent models for this study4 ,a consideration of the economic value of the trees would also be in place4 #c4 ,civic lessons reflected in trees3 ,the community life of trees in the grove1 their growth1 struggles for light and food and their mutual aid can be brought out and compared with the community life among people4 ,the trees may here be seen struggling with each other for light and food1 forcing each other's growth upward1 some winning out and developing into stalwart and thrifty specimens and others becoming suppressed or entirely killed4 ,on the other hand they may be seen helping each other in their community growth by protecting each other from windfall and by contributing to the fertility of the forest soil in dropping their leaves and shading the ground so that these fallen leaves may decompose readily4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aed4--,trees also ,grow in ,communities4 #d4 ,enemies of trees3 ,an old stump or tree may be seen crumbling away under the influence of fungi and here the children may be shown the effects of tree diseases both as destroyers of life and as up-builders1 because fungi turn to dust the living trees and build up others by furnishing them with the decomposed wood matter4 ,insects too1 may be invading the old dead tree1 and something of their nature1 habits and influences may be gone into4 ,they may be shown as wood borers1 leaf eaters1 or sap suckers1 all injurious to the tree4 ,on the other hand they may be shown as seed disseminators and as parasites on other injurious insects2 all benefactors4 ,forest fires as an enemy of trees might be touched upon by noting how easily the leaves may be ignited and a surface fire started when the season is dry4 ,top and ground fires emanating from surface fires can then be readily explained4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aee4--,trees ,blend ,together to ,form a ,beautiful ,composition4 #e4 ,expression3 ,the pupils have by this time been taught to feel the beautiful1 to observe carefully and to reason intelligently and they may now be trained to express themselves properly4 ,this may be accomplished by asking them to remember their observations and to write about them in the classroom4 ,the lesson may be supplemented with effective reading about trees and forests4 ,interesting reading matter of this sort can be found in abundance in children's readers1 in special books on the subject and in ,arbor ,day ,manuals published by the various ,state ,education ,departments4 #f4 ,preparation3 ,in order to save time looking for objects of interest and for the purpose of correlating the various observations so that all will follow in orderly sequence1 it is well for the teacher or leader to go over the ground beforehand and note the special features of interest4 ,the various topics can then be given some thought and a brief synopsis can be drawn up to serve as a memorandum and guide on the trip4 ,it is also well to be provided with a hatchet to cut into some decayed stump1 a trowel to dig up the forest soil1 a knife for cutting off twigs and a hand reading glass for examining the structural parts of the various objects under observation4 ,a camera is always a valuable asset because the photographs hung in the classroom become records of great interest to all participants4 #g4 ,suggestions for forming tree clubs3 ,a good way to interest children in trees and nature study is to form1 among them1 a ,tree ,club4 ,the idea has been fully developed in ,brooklyn1 ,n4,y41 ,newark1 ,n4,j41 and other cities and consists of forming clubs of children in the public schools and private institutions for the purpose of interesting them in the trees around their school and their homes4 ,the members of these clubs are each given the tree warden's badge of authority and assigned to some special duty in the preservation of the local trees4 ,a plan of study and of outdoor trips is laid out for them by their director and at stated periods they are given illustrated lectures on trees and taken to the neighboring parks or woodlands4 ,,index ,acer negundo1 -- platanoides1 -- polymorphum1 -- pseudoplatanus1 -- rubrum1 -- saccharinum1 -- saccharum1 ,aesculus hippocastanum1 -- rubicunda1 ,ailing tree1 how to tell an1 ,air1 influence of1 ,alternate branched trees1 ,american beech1 -- elm1 -- larch1 -- linden1 ,annual rings1 ,aphides or plant lice1 ,apple rust1 ,arbor-vita and red cedar1 description of1 -- 7northern white cedar71 ,arsenate of lead1 ,ash1 wood1 -- black1 -- white1 ,ash-leaf maple1 ,aspen1 large-toothed1 --1 quaking1 ,austrian pine1 ,bald cypress1 ,balm of ,gilead1 ,balsam1 fir1 --1 poplar1 ,bark1 ,bark1 how to prevent splitting when removing branches1 -- or trunk1 trees told by their1 ,bass-wood1 ,bean1 ,indian1 ,beech1 ,american1 --1 blue1 or hornbeam1 --1 copper1 --1 ,european1 -- tree1 ,beetle1 elm leaf1 ,betula alba1 -- lutea1 -- lenta1 -- papyrifera1 -- populifolia1 ,bhotan pine1 ,bigbud hickory1 ,birch1 black1 --1 ,european white1 -- fungus rot1 --1 gray1 --1 paper1 --1 sweet1 -- tree1 --1 white1 --1 yellow1 ,bitternut hickory1 ,black ash1 -- birch1 -- locust1 -- oak1 -- or sweet birch1 -- spruce1 -- walnut1 ,blotches1 leaf1 ,blue beech1 or hornbeam1 -- spruce1 ,bolting limbs1 ,bordeaux mixture1 ,borer1 bronze-birch1 --1 hickory bark1 --1 linden1 --1 locust1 --1 sugar maple1 ,boring insects1 ,box-elder1 ,bracing limbs1 various methods of1 ,bracket fungus1 ,branches1 dead and broken1 removal of1 --1 how to prevent bark splitting when removing1 ,broadleaf or hardwoods1 ,bronze-birch borer1 ,brooklyn1 ,n4,y41 ,broom hickory1 ,brown hickory1 ,brown-tail moth1 ,buckeye1 ,butternut1 ,buttonball1 ,buttonwood1 ,by-products of forests1 utilization of1 ,cambium layer1 ,camperdown elm1 ,care in selecting trees suitable for the soil1 ,carolina poplar1 ,carpinus caroliniana1 ,castanea dentata1 ,catalpa speciosa1 ,caterpillars1 ,caterpillars1 leaf-eating1 --1 spraying for1 ,catkin1 ,cattle grazing in forests a source of injury1 ,cavities1 fungous diseases attacking1 -- how caused1 --1 manner of filling1 ,cedar apple1 --1 white1 ,celtis occidentalis1 ,chamaecyparis thyoides1 ,character building and trees1 ,chestnut1 -- and oaks1 -- disease1 ,chewing insects1 ,cherry1 ,child training in observation and precision1 ,chlorophyll1 ,civic lessons reflected in trees1 ,climbing trees1 precautions1 ,clubs1 tree1 ,coffee tree1 ,colorado blue spruce1 ,color of leaves1 ,common catalpa1 -- locust1 ,community life of trees1 ,conifers or softwoods1 ,coniferous trees1 ,copper beech1 ,cork elm1 ,cornus florida1 ,corrosive sublimate1 ,cottonwood1 ,cottony-maple scale1 ,crataegus oxyacantha1 ,crown1 ,cucumber tree1 ,cypress1 -- and larch1 description of1 --1 bald1 -- knees1 -- obtuse leaf1 ,japanese1 ,dead and broken branches1 removal of1 ,deciduous trees1 ,destroying injurious insects1 methods of1 -- pupae1 ,developing disease1 moisture a factor in1 ,diaporthe parasitica1 ,diffuse-porous woods1 ,disease1 fungi as factors of1 -- moisture a factor in developing1 ,dogwood1 flowering1 ,douglas fir1 ,effect of heat on trees1 ,elkwood1 ,elm1 --1 ,american1 --1 ,camperdown1 --1 cork1 --1 ,english1 -- leaf beetle1 --1 poplar1 gingko and willow trees1 told by their form1 --1 white1 ,enemies of trees1 ,enemy of trees1 forest fires as an ,english elm1 -- hawthorn1 -- yew1 ,european beech1 -- larch1 -- linden1 -- weeping birch1 -- white birch1 ,fall webworm1 ,fagus1 -- americana1 -- sylvatica1 ,fern1 maidenhair1 ,fighting forest fires1 various ways of1 ,filling cavities1 manner of1 ,fire1 guarding woodlands from1 ,flowering dogwood1 ,foliage1 spraying1 ,forest fires as an enemy of trees1 -- --1 various ways of fighting1 -- lands1 exemption from taxation1 --1 life and nature of1 -- trees1 pruning1 ,forestry in various countries1 --1 what it is and what it does1 ,forests1 grazing cattle in1 a source of injury1 ,forest ,service1 ,u4,s41 --1 harvesting1 --1 harvesting of1 to increase production1 --1 how established1 --1 how harvested1 --1 how protected1 --1 how they help to regulate streams and prevent floods1 --1 method of establishing1 --1 planting1 with seedling trees1 -- prevent soil erosion1 --1 protecting from destructive agencies1 --1 safeguarding1 --1 utilization of by-products1 ,fraxinus americana1 -- nigra1 ,frost1 effect of1 on trees1 ,fungi and insects1 protection against1 -- as factors of disease1 ,fungous diseases attacking cavities1 -- diseases1 spraying for1 ,fungus1 fruiting body of1 ,gingko biloba1 -- or maidenhair tree1 ,gipsy moth1 ,gleditsia triacanthos1 ,gloeosporium nervisequum1 ,gray or white birch1 ,grazing effect on forests1 ,grove and lawn1 study of soil conditions on1 ,gum1 red or sweet1 ,gymnocladus dioicus1 ,hackberry tree1 ,hackmatack1 ,hard maple1 -- pines1 ,hardwoods1 or broadleaf trees1 ,hardy catalpa1 ,harvesting forests1 ,harvesting of forests to increase production1 ,hawthorn1 ,english1 ,healthy tree1 conditions which indicate1 ,heartwood1 ,heat1 effect of1 on trees1 ,hemlock1 -- and spruce1 description of1 ,hickory1 -- bark borer1 --1 bigbud1 --1 bitternut1 --1 broom1 --1 brown1 --1 mockernut1 --1 pignut1 --1 shagbark1 --1 shellbark1 --1 whiteheart1 ,hicoria alba1 -- glabra1 -- minima1 -- ovata1 ,honey locust1 ,hop hornbeam1 ,hornbeam1 7blue beech71 ,horsechestnut1 --1 red1 ,humus1 ,hydrophytes1 ,important insects1 ,improperly pruned trees1 ,indian bean1 ,individuality of trees1 ,insects and fungi1 protection against1 --1 boring1 --1 chewing1 -- galls1 --1 important kinds of1 -- injurious to trees1 --1 leaf-eating1 --1 methods of destroying injurious1 --1 nature1 habits and influences of1 --1 sucking1 --1 the four stages1 or life history of1 ,ironwood tree1 ,italian or ,lombardy poplar1 ,japanese maple1 -- umbrella pine1 ,juglans cinerea1 -- nigra1 ,juniper1 ,juniperus communis1 ,juniperus virginiana1 ,kerosene emulsion1 ,knees1 cypress1 ,larch1 ,american1 -- and cypress1 description of1 -- ,european1 ,large-toothed aspen1 ,larix europaea1 ,lawn and grove1 study of soil conditions on1 ,lawn trees1 -- --1 pruning1 ,leaf blotches1 ,leaf-eating caterpillars1 ----1 insect1 ,leaves1 --1 needle-shaped1 --1 scale-like1 --1 star-shaped1 ,lenticels1 ,leopard moth1 ,lesson on trees1 outdoor1 ,light1 influence of1 on trees1 ,limbs1 various methods of bracing1 ,lime-sulphur wash1 ,lime-tree1 ,linden1 ,american1 -- borer1 --1 ,european1 ,liquidambar styraciflua1 ,liriodendron1 tulipifers1 ,location of trees1 care to be exercised in1 ,locust1 --1 black1 -- borer1 --1 common1 --1 honey1 -- miner1 --1 yellow1 ,lombardy or ,italian poplar1 ,low juniper1 ,magnolia acuminata1 --1 mountain1 -- soulangeana1 --1 ,soulange's1 -- tripetala1 ,magnolias1 the1 ,maiden-hair fern1 -- or gingko tree1 ,maple wood1 --1 ash-leaf1 --1 hard1 --1 ,japanese1 --1 ,norway1 -- phenacoccus1 --1 red1 --1 rock1 --1 silver1 --1 soft1 -- sugar1 -- swamp1 --1 sycamore1 --1 white1 ,mesophytes1 ,method of covering wounds1 ,methods of destroying injurious insects1 ,mockernut hickory1 ,moisture a factor in developing disease1 --1 influence of1 on trees1 ,moral influence of trees1 ,morus alba1 -- rubra1 ,moth1 gipsy1 --1 leopard1 ,mountain magnolia1 ,mugho pine1 ,mulberry1 red1 --1 white1 ,national forests1 ,needle-shaped leaves1 ,nettle tree1 ,newark1 ,n4,j41 ,northern white cedar 7arbor-vitae71 ,norway maple1 -- spruce1 ,nursery1 tree1 ,oak1 --1 black1 --1 pin1 --1 red1 --1 scarlet1 --1 swamp white1 --1 white1 --1 yellow1 ,oaks and chestnut1 ,observations about trees1 general1 -- and precision1 child training in1 ,obtuse ,japanese cypress1 ,opposite branched trees1 ,orange1 ,osage1 ,oriental spruce1 -- sycamore1 ,osage orange1 ,ostrya virginiana1 ,outdoor lesson on trees1 ,oyster-shell scale1 ,paper birch1 ,picea canadensis1 -- excelsa1 -- mariana1 -- orientalis1 -- parryana1 -- pungens1 ,pignut hickory1 ,pin oak1 ,pine1 ,austrian1 --1 ,bhotan1 --1 ,mugho1 --1 red1 --1 ,scotch1 -- trees1 -- weevil1 white1 --1 white1 ,pines1 ,pinus ,austriaca1 -- excelsa1 -- mughus1 -- resinosa1 -- rigida1 -- strobus1 -- sylvestris1 ,pitch pine1 ,pith1 ,plane or sycamore tree1 ,plant lice1 or aphides1 -- study1 value of1 for children1 -- trees1 how to1 ,planting forests1 -- forests with seedling trees1 -- little trees1 methods of1 --1 improving woodland by1 -- new trees1 -- trees1 -- -- most economical method1 -- -- on land unsuitable for crops1 ,plants1 adaptation of1 to seasonal changes1 ,platanus occidentalis1 -- orientalis1 ,polyporus betulinus1 ,poplar1 balsam1 --1 ,carolina1 --1 ,lombardy or ,italian1 --1 silver1 --1 tulip1 --1 white1 --1 yellow1 ,populus alba1 -- balsamifera1 -- deltoides1 -- grandidentata1 -- nigra1 -- tremuloides1 ,pores in wood1 -- small or indistinct1 -- varying in size1 ,poster for private woodlands1 ,precautions against fire1 ,protection against fungi and insects1 ,pruning forest trees1 -- lawn trees1 -- shade trees1 --1 tools used in1 --1 too severe1 -- trees1 fundamental principles1 -- --1 time for1 ,pussy willow1 ,quaking aspen1 ,quality of trees1 how to judge1 ,quality of wood1 how to judge1 ,quercus alba1 -- palustris1 -- platanoides1 -- rubra1 -- velutina1 ,red cedar1 -- -- and arbor-vitae1 description of1 -- gum1 -- horsechestnut1 -- juniper1 -- maple1 -- mulberry1 -- oak1 -- pine1 -- or black oaks1 -- or sweet gum1 ,red spider1 ,redwood1 ,removal of dead and broken branches1 -- of trees1 how to mark1 ,requirements of trees1 ,retinospora obtusa1 ,rhytisma acerinum1 ,ring-porous woods1 ,robinia pseudacacia1 ,rock maple1 ,roots1 --1 development of1 --1 protection of1 from drying1 ,rust1 apple1 ,safeguarding forests1 ,salix babylonica1 ,salix discolor1 ,saperda vestita1 ,sapwood1 ,sawfly1 ,scale1 cottony-maple1 --1 oyster-shell1 ,scale-like leaves1 ,scarlet oak1 ,sciadopitys verticillata1 ,scolytus quadrispinosus1 ,scotch pine1 ,screening trees1 ,season1 influence of1 ,seasons for spraying trees1 ,seedling trees1 planting forests with1 ,shade trees1 pruning1 ,shagbark hickory1 ,shellbark hickory1 ,silver maple1 -- poplar1 ,soft maple1 -- pines1 ,softwoods or conifers1 ,soil erosion1 forests prevent1 --1 influence of1 on trees1 -- of wooded areas1 preserving1 --1 physical character of1 important for production of trees1 ,soulange's magnolia1 ,specifications for street tree1 ,specimens of wood1 how to identify1 ,split trees1 ,spray trees1 how to1 ,spraying apparatus1 -- foliage1 -- for caterpillars1 -- for fungous diseases1 -- material1 arsenate of lead1 kerosene emulsion1 lime-sulfur wash1 tobacco water1 whale-oil soap1 -- trees1 seasons for1 -- trees1 thoroughness essential1 ,spruce and hemlock1 description of1 --1 black1 --1 blue1 --1 ,oriental1 --1 ,norway1 --1 white1 ,spruces1 ,star-shaped leaves1 ,stem1 ,stomata1 ,streets1 trees for1 ,structure of trees1 -- of woods1 ,sucking insects1 ,sugarberry1 ,sugar maple1 -- maple borer1 ,suggestions for forming tree clubs1 -- for outdoor study of trees1 -- for planting little trees1 -- for safety of tree climbers1 -- for tree nursery1 ,surface wounds1 ,swamp maple1 -- white oak1 ,sweet birch1 -- gum1 ,sycamore1 -- maple1 -- tree1 ,tamarack1 ,taxation1 forest lands exempt from1 ,taxodium distichum1 ,taxus baccata1 ,thuja occidentalis1 ,tilia americana1 -- microphylla1 ,tobacco water1 ,tools used in pruning1 ,toxylon pomiferum1 ,training a child to recognize trees1 -- children in observation and precision1 ,trametes pini1 ,treating surface wounds1 ,tree1 ailing1 how to tell an1 -- and nature study1 value of1 --1 beech1 --1 birch1 --1 blue beech1 -- climbers1 suggestions for safety of1 -- clubs1 suggestions for forming1 --1 coffee1 -- diseases1 -- diseases1 effects of1 as destroyers and up-builders1 -- growth1 conditions for1 in different localities1 --1 hackberry1 --1 iron wood1 --1 nettle1 -- nursery1 suggestions for1 --1 plane1 -- repair1 --1 sycamore1 --1 tulip1 --1 weeping willow1 ,trees and character building1 --1 care of1 --1 care to be exercised in location of1 --1 civic lessons reflected in1 --1 community life of1 --1 coniferous1 --1 crowding1 --1 deciduous1 --1 effect of frost on1 --1 effect of heat on1 --1 enemies of1 -- for lawns1 -- for screening1 -- for streets1 -- for woodland1 --1 general observations about1 --1 hickories1 walnut1 and butternut1 --1 how to identify1 --1 how to mark for removal1 --1 how to plant1 --1 how to spray1 --1 improperly pruned1 --1 individuality of --1 influence of light on1 --1 influence of moisture on1 --1 influence of soil on1 --1 insects injurious to1 --1 measuring diameter of1 --1 methods of planting little1 --1 methods of removing1 --1 nature and habits of individual1 --1 needs that nature or man must supply1 --1 outdoor lesson on1 --1 physical character of soil important for production of1 --1 planting1 on land unsuitable for crops1 --1 pruning1 fundamental principles1 --1 --1 how to cut properly1 --1 quality1 --1 rapidity of growth of different species1 --1 requirements of1 --1 seasons for spraying1 --1 setting1 --1 structure of1 --1 study of rings of various species1 --1 suggestions for outdoor study of1 --1 suggestions1 for planting little1 -- suitable for the soil1 care in selecting1 --1 tendency to split1 --1 thoroughness essential in spraying1 --1 time for pruning1 -- told by their bark or trunk1 --1 training a child to recognize1 --1 value of1 as health givers and moral uplifters1 --1 what to plant and how1 --1 when and how to procure1 --1 when to plant1 --1 when to spray1 --1 wooded areas improved by planting new1 --1 yew1 ,tsuga canadensis1 ,tulip poplar1 -- tree1 ,tussock moth1 ,ulmus americana1 -- campestris1 ,umbrella pine1 ,japanese1 -- tree1 ,value of plant study for children1 -- of tree and nature study1 -- of trees as health givers and moral uplifters1 ,walnut1 --1 black1 ,wasteful lumbering1 ,weeping willow tree1 ,western catalpa1 ,whale-oil soap1 ,white ash1 -- birch1 ,european1 -- cedar1 -- elm1 -- flowering dogwood1 ,whiteheart hickory1 ,white maple1 -- mulberry1 -- oak1 -- oak1 swamp1 -- or gray birch1 -- pine1 -- pine weevil1 -- poplar1 -- spruce1 ,whitewood1 ,willow1 weeping1 --1 pussy1 ,wood1 diffuse-porous1 --1 diseased1 disposal of1 --1 early1 -- fibers1 --1 how to identify specimens1 --1 how to judge quality of1 --1 late1 -- medullary rays1 -- parenchyma1 -- resin ducts1 --1 ring-porous1 -- spring1 --1 structure1 of1 -- summer1 ,woodland1 care of the1 -- how to improve by removing trees1 -- how to judge1 unfavorable conditions1 -- trees1 ,woodlands1 other means of protecting1 ,woodlot1 small cost of well-selected young trees for the1 ,wood1 structure of1 ,wooded areas improved by planting new trees1 -- areas1 preserving soil of1 ,woods1 identification1 properties and uses of common1 --1 ring-porous1 -- with large and conspicuous rays1 -- with pores1 -- with resin ducts1 -- with small and inconspicuous rays1 -- without pores1 -- without resin ducts1 ,wounds1 importance of covering1 --1 methods of covering1 --1 treating surface1 ,xerophytes1 ,yellow birch1 -- locust1 -- oak1 -- poplar1 ,yew1 ,english1 ,yew trees1 ,young trees for the woodlot1 small cost of well-selected1