,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #fac ,,new ,,york1 ,,october #a1 #ahhg4 ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xxiv41 ,no4 #fac4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,i4 ,,biography4--,dr4 ,morell ,mackenzie4--,biographical note and portrait of the great ,english laryngologist--the physician of the ,prussian ,crown ,prince4--#a illustration4 #igid ,,ii4 ,,botany4--,soudan ,coffee4--,the ,parkia biglobosa4--,its properties and appearance1 with analyses of its beans4--#h illustrations4 #igig ,wisconsin ,cranberry ,culture4--,the great cranberry crop of ,wisconsin4--,the ,indian pickers and details of the cultivation4 #igif ,,iii4 ,,chemistry4--,analysis of ,kola ,nut4--,a new article adapted as a substitute for cocoa and chocolate to military and other dietaries4--,its use by the ,french and ,german governments4 #ighe ,carbonic ,acid in the ,air4--,by ,,thomas ,c4 ,,van ,,nuys and ,,benjamin ,f4 ,,adams1 ,jr4--,the results of eighteen analyses of air by ,van ,nuys apparatus4 #ighe ,the ,crimson ,line of ,phosphorescent ,alumina4--,note on ,prof4 ,crooke's recent investigation of the anomalies of the oxide of aluminum as regards its spectrum4 #ighd ,,iv4 ,,electricity4--,electric ,time4--,by ,m4 ,,littmann4--,an abstruse research into a natural electric standard of time4--,the results and necessary formul4 #igic ,new ,method of ,maintaining the ,vibration of a ,pendulum4--,ingenious magneto-electric method of maintaining the swinging of a pendulum4 #igid ,the ,part that ,electricity ,plays in ,crystallization4--,c4 ,decharme's investigations into this much debated question4--,the results of his work described4--#c illustrations4 #igic ,v4 ,,engineering4--,a ,new ,type of ,railway ,car4--,a car with lateral passageways1 adapted for use in ,africa--#b illustrations4 #igib ,centrifugal ,pumps at ,mare ,island ,navy ,yard1 ,california4--,by ,h4,r4 ,,cornelius4--,the great pumps for the ,mare ,island dry docks4--,their capacity and practical working4 #igib ,foundations of the ,central ,viaduct of ,cleveland1 ,o4--,details of the foundations of this viaduct1 probably the largest of its kind ever constructed4 #igib ,,vi4 ,,metallurgy4--,chapin ,wrought ,iron4--,by ,w4,h4 ,,searles4--,an interesting account of the combined pneumatic and mechanical treatment of pig iron1 giving as product a true wrought iron4 #ighe ,,vii4 ,,meteorology4--,on the ,cause of ,iridescence in ,clouds4--,by ,g4 ,,johnstone ,,stoney4--,an interesting theory of the production of prismatic colors in clouds1 referring it to interference of light4 #igih ,the ,height of ,summer ,clouds4--,a compendious statement1 giving the most reliable estimation of the elevations of different forms of clouds4 #igig ,,viii4 ,,miscellaneous4--,the ,british ,association4--,portraits of the president and section presidents of the late ,manchester meeting of the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 with report of the address of the president1 ,sir ,henry ,e4 ,roscoe4--#i illustrations4 #ighc ,,ix4 ,,physiology4--,hypnotism in ,france4--,a valuable review of the present status of this subject1 now so much studied in ,paris4 #igie ,the ,duodenum a ,siphon ,trap4--,by ,,mayo ,,collier1 ,m4,s41 etc4--,a curious observation in anatomy4--,the only trap found in the intestinal canal4--,its uses4--#b illustrations4 #igif ,x4 ,,technology4--,apparatus for ,testing ,champagne ,bottles and ,corks4--,ingenious apparatus due to ,mr4 ,j4 ,salleron1 for use especially in the champagne industry4--#b illustrations4 #ighf ,celluloid4--,notes of the history and present method of manufacture of this widely used substance4 #ighe ,centrifugal ,extractors4--,by ,,robert ,f4 ,,gibson4--,the second installment of this extensive and important paper1 giving many additional forms of centrifugal apparatus--#ab illustrations4 #ighi ,cotton ,industries of ,japan4--,an interesting account of the primitive methods of treating cotton by the ,japanese4--,their methods of ginning1 carding1 etc41 described4 #ighh ,gas from ,oil4--,notes on a paper read by ,dr4 ,stevenson ,macadam at a recent meeting of the ,british ,gas ,institute1 giving his results with petroleum gas4 #ighg ,improved ,biscuit ,machine4--,a machine having a capacity for making #d1jjj small biscuits per minute4--#a illustration4 #ighg ,improved ,cream ,separator4--,a centrifugal apparatus for dairy use of high capacity4--#c illustrations4 #ighg ,the ,manufacture of ,salt near ,middlesbrough4--,by ,sir ,,lowthian ,,bell1 ,bart41 ,f4,c4,s4--,the history and origin of this industry1 the methods used1 and the soda ash process as there applied4 #ighh 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,british ,,association4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,british ,,association ,,at ,,manchester ,,portraits ,,of ,,the ,,president ,,and ,,presidents ,,of ,,sections ,the fifty-seventh annual meeting of the ,british ,association was opened on ,wednesday evening1 ,aug4 #ca1 #ahhg1 at ,manchester1 by an address from the president1 ,sir ,h4,e4 ,roscoe1 ,m4,p4 ,this was delivered in the ,free ,trade ,hall4 ,the chair was occupied by ,professor ,williamson1 who was supported by the ,bishop of ,manchester1 ,sir ,f4 ,bramwell1 ,professor ,gamgee1 ,professor ,milnes ,marshall1 ,professor ,wilkins1 ,professor ,boyd ,dawkins1 ,professor ,ward1 and many other distinguished men4 ,a telegram was read from the retiring president1 ,sir ,wm4 ,dawson1 of ,montreal1 congratulating the association and ,manchester on this year's meeting4 ,the new president1 ,sir ,h4 ,roscoe1 having been introduced to the audience1 was heartily applauded4 ,the president1 in his inaugural address1 said ,manchester1 distinguished as the birthplace of two of the greatest discoveries of modern science1 welcomed the visit of the ,british ,association for the third time4 ,those discoveries were the atomic theory of which ,john ,dalton was the author1 and the most far-reaching scientific principle of modern times1 namely1 that of the conservation of energy1 which was given to the world about the year #ahdb by ,dr4 ,joule4 ,while the place suggested these reminders1 the time1 the year of the ,queen's jubilee1 excited a feeling of thankfulness that they had lived in an age which had witnessed an advance in our knowledge of nature and a consequent improvement in the physical1 moral1 and intellectual well-being of the people hitherto unknown4 ,,progress ,,of ,,chemistry4 ,a sketch of that progress in the science of chemistry alone would be the subject of his address4 ,the initial point was the views of ,dalton and his contemporaries compared with the ideas which now prevail2 and he 7the president7 examined this comparison by the light which the research of the last fifty years had thrown on the subject of the ,daltonian atoms1 in the three-fold aspect of their size1 indivisibility1 and mutual relationships1 and their motions4 ,,size ,,of ,,the ,,atom4 ,as to the size of the atom1 ,loschmidt1 of ,vienna1 had come to the conclusion that the diameter of an atom of oxygen or nitrogen was the ten-millionth part of a centimeter4 ,with the highest known magnifying power we could distinguish the forty-thousandth part of a centimeter4 ,if1 now1 we imagine a cubic box each of whose sides had this length1 such a box1 when filled with air1 would contain from sixty to a hundred millions of atoms of oxygen and nitrogen4 ,as to the indivisibility of the atom1 the space of fifty years had completely changed the face of the inquiry4 ,not only had the number of distinct1 well-established elementary bodies increased from fifty-three in #ahcg to seventy in #ahhg1 but the properties of these elements had been studied1 and were now known with a degree of precision then undreamt of4 ,had the atoms of our present elements been made to yield8 ,to this a negative answer must undoubtedly be given1 for even the highest of terrestrial temperatures1 that of the electric spark1 had failed to shake any one of these atoms in two4 ,this was shown by the results with which spectrum analysis had enriched our knowledge4 ,terrestrial analysis had failed to furnish favorable evidence2 and1 turning to the chemistry of the stars1 the spectra of the white1 which were presumably the hottest stars1 furnished no direct evidence that a decomposition of any terrestrial atom had taken place2 indeed1 we learned that the hydrogen atom1 as we know it here1 can endure unscathed the inconceivably fierce temperature of stars presumably many times more fervent than our sun1 as ,sirius and ,vega4 ,it was therefore no matter for surprise if the earth-bound chemist should for the present continue to regard the elements as the unalterable foundation stones upon which his science is based4 ,,atomic ,,motion4 ,passing to the consideration of atoms in motion1 while ,dalton and ,graham indicated that they were in a continual state of motion1 we were indebted to ,joule for the first accurate determination of the rate of that motion4 ,clerk-,maxwell had calculated that a hydrogen molecule1 moving at the rate of seventy miles per minute1 must1 in one second of time1 knock against others no fewer than eighteen thousand million times4 ,this led to the reflection that in nature there is no such thing as great or small1 and that the structure of the smallest particle1 invisible even to our most searching vision1 may be as complicated as that of any one of the heavenly bodies which circle round our sun4 ,how did this wonderful atomic motion affect their chemistry8 ,,atomic ,,combination4 ,lavoisier left unexplained the dynamics of combustion2 but in #ahdc1 before the chemical section of the association meeting at ,cork1 ,dr4 ,joule announced the discovery which was to revolutionize modern science1 namely1 the determination of the mechanical equivalent of heat4 ,every change in the arrangement of the particles he found was accompanied by a definite evolution or an absorption of heat4 ,heat was evolved by the clashing of the atoms1 and this amount was fixed and definite4 ,thus to ,joule we owe the foundation of chemical dynamics and the basis of thermal chemistry4 ,it was upon a knowledge of the mode of arrangement of atoms1 and on a recognition of their distinctive properties1 that the superstructure of modern organic chemistry rested4 ,we now assumed on good grounds that the atom of each element possessed distinct capabilities of combination4 ,the knowledge of the mode in which the atoms in the molecule are arranged had given to organic chemistry an impetus which had overcome many experimental obstacles1 and organic chemistry had now become synthetic4 ,liebig and ,wohler1 in #ahcg1 foresaw the artificial production in the laboratories of all organic substances so far as they did not constitute a living organism4 ,and after fifty years their prophecy had been fulfilled1 for at the present time we could prepare an artificial sweetening principle1 an artificial alkaloid1 and salacine4 ,,synthesis4 ,we know now that the same laws regulate the formation of chemical compounds in both animate and inanimate nature1 and the chemist only asked for a knowledge of the constitution of any definite chemical compounds found in the organic world in order to be able to promise to prepare it artificially4 ,seventeen years elapsed between ,wohler's discovery of the artificial production of urea and the next real synthesis1 which was accomplished by ,kolbe1 when in #ahde he prepared acetic acid from its elements4 ,since then a splendid harvest of results had been gathered in by chemists of all nations4 ,in #ahcd ,dumas made known the law of substitution1 and showed that an exchange could take place between the constituent atoms in a molecule1 and upon this law depended in great measure the astounding progress made in the wide field of organic synthesis4 ,perhaps the most remarkable result had been the production of an artificial sweetening agent1 termed saccharin1 #bej times sweeter than sugar1 prepared by a complicated series of reactions from coal tar4 ,these discoveries were not only of scientific interest1 for they had given rise to the industry of coal tar colors1 founded by our countryman ,perkin1 the value of which was measured by millions sterling annually4 ,another interesting application of synthetic chemistry to the needs of everyday life was the discovery of a series of valuable febrifuges1 of which antipyrin might be named as the most useful4 ,an important aspect in connection with the study of these bodies was the physiological value which had been found to attach to the introduction of certain organic radicals1 so that an indication was given of the possibility of preparing a compound which will possess certain desired physiological properties1 or even to foretell the kind of action which such bodies may exert on the animal economy4 ,but now the question might well be put1 ,was any limit set to this synthetic power of the chemist8 ,although the danger of dogmatizing as to the progress of science had already been shown in too many instances1 yet one could not help feeling that the barrier between the organized and unorganized worlds was one which the chemist at present saw no chance of breaking down4 ,true1 there were those who professed to foresee that the day would arrive when the chemist1 by a succession of constructive efforts1 might pass beyond albumen1 and gather the elements of lifeless matter into a living structure4 ,whatever might be said regarding this from other standpoints1 the chemist could only say that at present no such problem lay within his province4 ,protoplasm1 with which the simplest manifestations of life are associated1 was not a compound1 but a structure built up of compounds4 ,the chemist might successfully synthesize any of its component molecules1 but he had no more reason to look forward to the synthetic production of the structure than to imagine that the synthesis of gallic acid led to the artificial production of gall nuts4 ,although there was thus no prospect of effecting a synthesis of organized material1 yet the progress made in our knowledge of the chemistry of life during the last fifty years had been very great1 so much so indeed that the sciences of physiological and of pathological chemistry might be said to have entirely arisen within that period4 ,,chemistry ,,of ,,vital ,,functions4 ,he would now briefly trace a few of the more important steps which had marked the recent study of the relations between the vital phenomena and those of the inorganic world4 ,no portion of the science of chemistry was of greater interest or greater complexity than that which1 bearing on the vital functions both of plants and of animals1 endeavored to unravel the tangled skein of the chemistry of life1 and to explain the principles according to which our bodies live1 and move1 and have their being4 ,if1 therefore1 in the less complicated problems with which other portions of our science have to deal1 we found ourselves often far from possessing satisfactory solutions1 we could not be surprised to learn that with regard to the chemistry of the living body--whether vegetable or animal--in health or disease1 we were still farther from a complete knowledge of phenomena1 even those of fundamental importance4 ,liebig asked if we could distinguish1 on the one hand1 between the kind of food which goes to create warmth and1 on the other1 that by the oxidation of which the motions and mechanical energy of the body are kept up4 ,he thought he was able to do this1 and he divided food into two categories4 ,the starchy or carbo-hydrate food was that1 said he1 which by its combustion provided the warmth necessary for the existence and life of the body4 ,the albuminous or nitrogenous constituents of our food1 the flesh meat1 the gluten1 the casein out of which our muscles are built up1 were not available for the purpose of creating warmth1 but it was by the waste of those muscles that the mechanical energy1 the activity1 the motions of the animal are supplied4 ,soon after the promulgation of these views1 ,j4,r4 ,mayer warmly attacked them1 throwing out the hypothesis that all muscular action is due to the combustion of food1 and not to the destruction of muscle4 ,what did modern research say to this question8 ,could it be brought to the crucial test of experiment8 ,it could2 but how8 ,in the first place1 we could ascertain the work done by a man or any other animal2 we could measure this work in terms of our mechanical standard1 in kilogramme-meters or foot-pounds4 ,we could next determine what was the destruction of nitrogenous tissue at rest and under exercise by the amount of nitrogenous material thrown off by the body4 ,and here we must remember that these tissues were never completely burned1 so that free nitrogen was never eliminated4 ,if now we knew the heat value of the burned muscle1 it was easy to convert this into its mechanical equivalent and thus measure the energy generated4 ,what was the result8 ,was the weight of muscle destroyed by ascending the ,faulhorn or by working on the treadmill sufficient to produce on combustion heat enough when transformed into mechanical exercise to lift the body up to the summit of the ,faulhorn or to do the work on the treadmill8 ,careful experiment had shown that this was so far from being the case that the actual energy developed was twice as great as that which could possibly be produced by the oxidation of the nitrogenous constituents eliminated from the body during twenty-four hours4 ,that was to say1 taking the amount of nitrogenous substance cast off from the body1 not only while the work was being done1 but during twenty-four hours1 the mechanical effect capable of being produced by the muscular tissue from which this cast-off material was derived would only raise the body half way up the ,faulhorn1 or enable the prisoner to work half his time on the treadmill4 ,hence it was clear that ,liebig's proposition was not true4 ,the nitrogenous constituents of the food did doubtless go to repair the waste of muscle1 which1 like every other portion of the body1 needed renewal1 while the function of the non-nitrogenous food was not only to supply the animal heat1 but also to furnish1 by its oxidation1 the muscular energy of the body4 ,we thus came to the conclusion that it was the potential energy of the food which furnished the actual energy of the body1 expressed in terms either of heat or of mechanical work4 ,but there was one other factor which came into play in this question of mechanical energy1 and must be taken into account2 and this factor we were as yet unable to estimate in our usual terms4 ,it concerned the action of the mind on the body1 and although incapable of exact expression1 exerted none the less an important influence on the physics and chemistry of the body1 so that a connection undoubtedly existed between intellectual activity or mental work and bodily nutrition4 ,what was the expenditure of mechanical energy which accompanied mental effort was a question which science was probably far from answering2 but that the body experienced exhaustion as the result of mental activity was a well-recognized fact4 ,,chemistry ,,of ,,vegetation4 ,the phenomena of vegetation1 no less than those of the animal world1 had1 however1 during the last fifty years been placed by the chemist on an entirely new basis4 ,liebig1 in #ahfj1 asserted that the whole of the carbon of vegetation was obtained from the atmospheric carbonic acid1 which1 though only present in the small relative proportion of four parts in #aj1jjj of air1 was contained in such absolutely large quantity that if all the vegetation on the earth's surface were burned1 the proportion of carbonic acid which would thus be thrown into the air would not be sufficient to double the present amount4 ,that this conclusion was correct needed experimental proof1 but such proof could only be given by long-continued and laborious experiment4 ,it was to our ,english agricultural chemists1 ,lawes and ,gilbert1 that we owed the complete experimental proof required1 and this experiment was long and tedious1 for it had taken forty-four years to give a definite reply4 ,at ,rothamsted a plot was set apart for the growth of wheat4 ,for forty-four successive years that field had grown wheat without the addition of any carbonized manure1 so that the only possible source from which the plant could obtain the carbon for its growth was the atmospheric carbonic acid4 ,the quantity of carbon which on an average was removed in the form of wheat and straw from a plot manured only with mineral matter was #a1jjj lb41 while on another plot1 for which a nitrogenous manure was employed1 #a1ejj lb4 more carbon was annually removed1 or #b1ejj lb4 of carbon were removed by this crop annually without the addition of any carbonaceous manure4 ,so that ,liebig's prevision had received a complete experimental verification4 ,,chemical ,,pathology4 ,touching us as human beings even still more closely than the foregoing was the influence which chemistry had exerted on the science of pathology1 and in no direction had greater progress been made than in the study of micro-organisms in relation to health and disease4 ,in the complicated chemical changes to which we gave the names of fermentation and putrefaction1 ,pasteur had established the fundamental principle that these processes were inseparately connected with the life of certain low forms of organisms4 ,thus was founded the science of bacteriology1 which in ,lister's hands had yielded such splendid results in the treatment of surgical cases1 and in those of ,klebs1 ,koch1 and others1 had been the means of detecting the cause of many diseases both in man and animals1 the latest and not the least important of which was the remarkable series of successful researches by ,pasteur into the nature and mode of cure of that most dreadful of maladies1 hydrophobia4 ,the value of his discovery was greater than could be estimated by its present utility1 for it showed that it might be possible to avert other diseases besides hydrophobia by the adoption of a somewhat similar method of investigation and of treatment4 ,here it might seem as if we had outstepped the boundaries of chemistry1 and had to do with phenomena purely vital4 ,but recent research indicated that this was not the case1 and pointed to the conclusion that the microscopist must again give way to the chemist1 and that it was by chemical rather than biological investigation that the causes of diseases would be discovered1 and the power of removing them obtained4 ,for we learned that the symptoms of infective diseases were no more due to the microbes which constituted the infection than alcoholic intoxication was produced by the yeast cell1 but that these symptoms were due to the presence of definite chemical compounds1 the result of the life of these microscopic organisms4 ,so it was to the action of these poisonous substances formed during the life of the organism1 rather than to that of the organism itself1 that the special characteristics of the disease were to be traced1 for it had been shown that the disease could be communicated by such poisons in the entire absence of living organisms4 ,had time permitted1 he would have wished to have illustrated the dependence of industrial success upon original investigation1 and to have pointed out the prodigious strides which chemical industry in this country had made during the fifty years of her ,majesty's reign4 ,as it was1 he must be content to remark how much our modern life1 both in its artistic and useful aspects1 owed to chemistry1 and therefore how essential a knowledge of the principles of the science was to all who had the industrial progress of the country at heart4 ,the country was now beginning to see that if she was to maintain her commercial and industrial supremacy1 the education of her people from top to bottom must be carried out on new lines4 ,the question how this could be most safely and surely accomplished was one of transcendent national importance1 and the statesman who solved this educational problem would earn the gratitude of generations yet to come4 ,in welcoming the unprecedentedly large number of foreign men of science who had on this occasion honored the ,british ,association by their presence1 he hoped that that meeting might be the commencement of an international scientific organization1 the only means nowadays existing of establishing that fraternity among nations from which politics appeared to remove them further and further1 by absorbing human powers and human work1 and directing them to purposes of destruction4 ,it would indeed be well if ,great ,britain1 which had hitherto taken the lead in so many things that are great and good1 should now direct her attention to the furthering of international organizations of a scientific nature4 ,a more appropriate occasion than the present meeting could perhaps hardly be found for the inauguration of such a movement4 ,but whether this hope were realized or not1 they all united in that one great object1 the search after truth for its own sake1 and they all1 therefore1 might join in re-echoing the words of ,lessing3 ,the worth of man lies not in the truth which he possesses1 or believes that he possesses1 but in the honest endeavor which he puts forth to secure that truth2 for not by the possession of truth1 but by the search after it1 are the faculties of man enlarged1 and in this alone consists his ever-growing perfection4 ,possession fosters content1 indolence1 and pride4 ,if ,god should hold in his right hand all truth1 and in his left hand the ever-active desire to seek truth1 though with the condition of perpetual error1 ,i would humbly ask for the contents of the left hand1 saying1 ',father1 give me this2 pure truth is only for thee4' ,at the close of his address a vote of thanks was passed to the president1 on the motion of the ,mayor of ,manchester1 seconded by ,professor ,asa ,gray1 of ,harvard ,college4 ,the president mentioned that the number of members is already larger than at any previous annual meeting1 namely1 #c1efh1 including eighty foreigners4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,crimson ,,line ,,of ,,phosphorescent ,,alumina4 ,crookes has presented to the ,royal ,society a paper on the color emitted by pure alumina when submitted to the electric discharge in vacuo1 in answer to the statements of ,de ,boisbaudran4 ,in #ahgi he had stated that next to the diamond1 alumina1 in the form of ruby1 is perhaps the most strikingly phosphorescent stone ,i have examined4 ,it glows with a rich1 full red2 and a remarkable feature is that it is of little consequence what degree of color the earth or stone possesses naturally1 the color of the phosphorescence is nearly the same in all cases2 chemically precipitated amorphous alumina1 rubies of a pale reddish yellow1 and gems of the prized 'pigeon's blood' color glowing alike in the vacuum4 ,these results1 as well as the spectra obtained1 he stated further1 corroborated ,becquerel's observations4 ,in consequence of the opposite results obtained by ,de ,boisbaudran1 ,crookes has now re-examined this question with a view to clear up the mystery4 ,on examining a specimen of alumina prepared from tolerably pure aluminum sulphate1 shown by the ordinary tests to be free from chromium1 the bright crimson line1 to which the red phosphorescent light is due1 was brightly visible in its spectrum4 ,the aluminum sulphate was then1 in separate portions1 purified by various processes especially adapted to separate from it any chromium that might be present2 the best of these being that given by ,wohler1 solution in excess of potassium hydrate and precipitation of the alumina by a current of chlorine4 ,the alumina filtered off1 ignited1 and tested in a radiant matter tube gave as good a crimson line spectrum as did that from the original sulphate4 ,a repetition of this purifying process gave no change in the result4 ,four possible explanations are offered of the phenomena observed3 7#a7 ,the crimson line is due to alumina1 but it is capable of being suppressed by an accompanying earth which concentrates toward one end of the fractionations2 7#b7 the crimson line is not due to alumina1 but is due to the presence of an accompanying earth concentrating toward the other end of the fractionations2 7#c7 the crimson line belongs to alumina1 but its full development requires certain precautions to be observed in the time and intensity of ignition1 degree of exhaustion1 or its absolute freedom from alkaline and other bodies carried down by precipitated alumina and difficult to remove by washing2 experience not having yet shown which of these precautions are essential to the full development of the crimson line and which are unessential2 and 7#d7 the earth alumina is a compound molecule1 one of its constituent molecules giving the crimson line4 ,according to this hypothesis1 alumina would be analogous to yttria4--,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,carbonic ,,acid ,,in ,,the ,,air4 ,by ,,thomas ,c4 ,,van ,,nuys and ,,benjamin ,f4 ,,adams1 ,,jr4 ,during the month of ,april1 #ahhf1 we made eighteen estimations of carbonic acid in the air1 employing ,van ,nuys' apparatus1#a recently described in this journal4 ,these estimations were made in the ,university ,park1 one-half mile from the town of ,bloomington4 ,the park is hilly1 thinly shaded1 and higher than the surrounding country4 ,the formation is sub-carboniferous and altitude #bbh meters4 ,there are no lowlands or swamps near4 ,the estimations were made at #aj ,a4,m4 ,footnote #a3 ,see ,,sci4 ,,am4 ,,supplement ,no4 #egg4 ,the air was obtained one-half meter from the ground and about #ajj meters from any of the university buildings4 ,the number of volumes of carbonic acid is calculated at zero ,c4 and normal pressure #gfj mm4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,vols4 ,,co#b ,date4 ,bar4 in #ajj1jjj ,state of ,weather4 ,pressure ,vols4 ,air4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,april #b #gdc4e #bh4hf ,cloudy1 snow on ground4 #e #gdc4e #bh4ig #f #gce #bh4fa ,snowing4 #g #gdd4e #bh4fc ,clear1 snow on ground4 #h #gdh #bg4ei thawing4 #i #gdg4e #bh4aj #ab #gdd #bh4jd ,cloudy4 #ac #gdd #bh4aj ,clear4 #ad #gdc4e #bh4ih #ae #gej4e #bh4ag ,raining4 #ai #gdh #bh4ji ,clear4 #bj #gdf #bg4gb #ba #gdf #bh4af #bb #gda4e #bg4ib #bc #gdj #bh4ab #bd #gch4e #bh4ae #be #gch4e #bg4df #bh #gch #bg4cd ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,the average number of volumes of carbonic acid in #ajj1jjj volumes of air is #bh4af1 the maximum number is #bh4ih1 and the minimum #bg4cd4 ,these results agree with estimations made within the last ten or fifteen years4 ,reiset#b made a great number of estimations from ,september #i1 #ahgb1 to ,august #bj1 #ahgc1 the average of which is #bi4db4 ,six years later#c he made many estimations from ,june to ,november1 the average of which is #bi4gh4 ,the average of ,schultze's#d estimations is #bi #b4 ,the results of estimations of carbonic acid in the air1 made under the supervision of ,munz and ,aubin#e in ,october1 ,november1 and ,december1 #ahhb1 at the stations where observations were made of the transit of ,venus by astronomers sent out by the ,french government1 yield the average1 for all stations north of the equator to latitude #bi #ed' in ,florida1 #bh4b volumes carbonic acid in #ajj1jjj volumes air1 and for all stations south of the equator #bg4a volumes4 ,the average of ,claesson's#f estimations is #bg4i volumes1 his maximum number is #cb4g1 and his minimum is #bc4g4 ,it is apparent1 from the results of estimations of carbonic acid of the air of various parts of the globe1 by the employment of apparatus with which errors are avoided1 that the quantity of carbonic acid is subject to slight variation1 and not1 as stated in nearly all text books of science1 from #d to #f volumes in #aj1jjj volumes of air2 and it is further apparent that the law of ,schloesing#g holds good4 ,by this law the carbonic acid of an atmosphere in contact with water containing calcium or magnesium carbonate in solution is dissolved according to the tension of the carbonic acid2 that is1 by an increased quantity its tension increases1 and more would pass in solution in the form of bicarbonates4 ,on the other hand1 by diminishing the quantity of carbonic acid in the atmosphere1 some of the bicarbonates would decompose and carbonic acid pass into the atmosphere4 ,footnote #b3 ,comptes ,rendus1 #hh1 #ajjg4 ,footnote #c3 ,comptes ,rendus1 #ij1 #aadd4 ,footnote #d3 ,chem4 ,centralblatt1 #ahgb and #ahge4 ,footnote #e3 ,comptes ,rendus1 #if1 #agic4 ,footnote #f3 ,berichte der deutsch chem4 ,gesellschaft1 #i1 #agd4 ,footnote #g3 ,comptes ,rendus1 #gd1 #aeeb1 and #ge1 #gj4 ,schloesing's law has been verified by ,r4 ,engel#h4 ,footnote #h3 ,comptes ,rendus1 #aja1 #idi4 ,the results of estimations of bases and carbonic acid in the water of the ,english ,channel lead ,schloesing#i to conclude that the carbonic acid combined with normal carbonates1 forming bicarbonates1 dissolved in the water of the globe is ten times greater in quantity than that of the atmosphere1 and on account of this available carbonic acid1 if the atmosphere should be deprived of some of its carbonic acid1 the loss would soon be supplied4 ,footnote #i3 ,comptes ,rendus1 #ij1 #adaj4 ,as1 in nearly all of the methods which were employed for estimating carbonic acid in the air1 provision is not made for the exclusion of air not measured containing carbonic acid from the alkaline fluid before titrating or weighing1 the results are generally too high and show a far greater variation than is found by more exact methods4 ,for example1 ,gilm#aj found from #cf to #dh volumes2 ,levy's#aa average is #cd volumes2 ,de ,luna's#ab #ej volumes2 and ,fodor's1#ac #ch4i volumes4 ,admitting that the quantity of carbonic acid in the air is subject to variation1 yet the results of ,reiset's and ,schultze's estimations go to prove that the variation is within narrow limits4 ,footnote #aj3 ,sitzungsher4 d4 ,wien4 ,akad4 d4 ,wissenschaften1 #cd1 #beg4 ,footnote #aa3 ,ann4 d4 l',observ4 d4 ,mountsouris1 #ahgh and #ahgi4 ,footnote #ab3 ,estudios quimicos sobre el aire atmosferico1 ,madrid1 #ahfj4 ,footnote #ac3 ,hygien4 ,untersuch41 #a1 #aj4 ,indiana ,university ,chemical ,laboratory1 ,bloomington1 ,indiana4 --,amer4 ,chem4 ,journal4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,analysis ,,of ,,kola ,,nut4 ,alkaloids or crystallizable principles3 ,per ,cent4 ,caffeine4 #b4gaj ,theobromine4 #j4jhd ,bitter principle4 #j4jah ,total alkaloids4 ----- #b4hab ,fatty matters3 ,saponifiable fat or oil4 #j4gcd ,essential oil4 #j4jha ,total oils4 ----- #j4hae ,resinoid matter 7sol4 in abs4 alcohol7 #a4jab ,sugar3 ,glucose 7reduces alkaline cuprammonium74 #c4cab ,sucrose8 7red4 alk4 cupram4 after inversion7#a4 #j4fjb ,total sugars4 ----- #c4iad ,starch1 gum1 etc43 ,gum 7soluble in ,h#b,o at #ij ,f474 #d4hgf ,starch4 #bh4iij ,amidinous matter 7coloring with iodine74 #b4acj ,total gum and fecula4 ----- #ce4iii ,albuminoid matters4 #h4fdb ,red and other coloring matters4 #c4fgj ,kolatannic acids4 #a4bjd ,mineral matter3 ,potassa4 #a4dae ,chlorine4 #j4gjb ,phosphoric acid4 #j4cga ,other salts1 etc4 #b4ccj ,total ash4 ----- #d4hah ,moisture4 #i4gbb ,ligneous matter and loss4 #bg4cie ------- #ajj4jjj ,footnote #a3 ,inverted by boiling with a #b4e per cent4 solution of citric acid for ten minutes4 ,both the ,french and ,german governments are introducing it into their military dietaries1 and in ,england several large contract orders cannot yet be filled1 owing to insufficiency of supply1 while a well-known cocoa manufacturing firm has taken up the preparation of kola chocolate upon a commercial scale4--,w4 ,lascelles-,scott1 in ,jour4 ,soc4 ,arts4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapin ,,wrought ,,iron4 ,by ,w4,h4 ,,searles1 ,chairman of the ,committee1 ,civil ,engineers' ,club of ,cleveland1 ,o4 ,notwithstanding the wonderful development of our steel industries in the last decade1 the improvements in the modes of manufacture1 and the undoubted strength of the metal under certain circumstances1 nevertheless we find that steel has not altogether met the requirements of engineers as a structural material4 ,although its breaking strain and elastic limit are higher than those of wrought iron1 the latter metal is frequently preferred and selected for tensile members1 even when steel is used under compression in the same structure4 ,the ,niagara cantilever bridge is a notable instance of this practice4 ,when steel is used in tension its working strains are not allowed to be over fifty per cent4 above those adopted for wrought iron4 ,the reasons for the suspicion with which steel is regarded are well understood4 ,not only is there a lack of uniformity in the product1 but apparently the same steel will manifest very different results under slight provocation4 ,steel is very sensitive1 not only to slight changes in chemical composition1 but also to mechanical treatment1 such as straightening1 bending1 punching1 planing1 heating1 etc4 ,initial strains may be developed by any of these processes that would seriously affect the efficiency of the metal in service4 ,among the steels1 those that are softer are more serviceable and reliable than the harder ones1 especially whereever shocks and concussions or rapidly alternating strains are to be endured4 ,in other words1 the more nearly steel resembles good wrought iron1 the more certain it is to render lasting service when used within appropriate limits of strain4 ,indeed1 a wrought iron of fine quality is better calculated to endure fatigue than any steel4 ,this is particularly noticeable in steam hammer pistons1 propeller shafts1 and railroad axles4 ,a better quality of wrought iron1 therefore1 has long been a desideratum1 and it appears now that it has at last been found4 ,several years since1 a pneumatic process of manufacturing wrought iron was invented and patented by ,dr4 ,chapin1 and an experimental plant was erected near ,chicago4 ,enough was done to demonstrate1 first1 that an iron of unprecedentedly good qualities was attainable from common pig2 and second1 that the cost of its manufacture would not exceed that of ,bessemer steel4 ,nevertheless1 owing to lack of funds properly to push the invention against the jealous opposition which it encountered1 the enterprise came to a halt until quite recently1 when its merits found a champion in ,gustav ,lindenthal1 ,c4,e41 member of this club1 who is now the general manager of the ,chapin ,pneumatic ,iron ,co41 and under whose direction this new quality of iron will soon be put upon the market4 ,the process of manufacture is briefly as follows3 ,the pig metal1 after being melted in a cupola and tapped into a discharging ladle1 is delivered into a ,bessemer converter1 in which the metal is largely relieved of its silicon1 sulphur1 carbon1 etc41 by the ordinary pneumatic process4 ,at the end of the blow the converter is turned down and its contents discharged into a traveling ladle1 and quickly delivered to machines called ballers1 which are rotary reverberatory furnaces1 each revolving on a horizontal axis4 ,in the baller the iron is very soon made into a ball without manual aid4 ,it is then lifted out by means of a suspended fork and carried to a ,winslow squeezer1 where the ball is reduced to a roll twelve inches in diameter4 ,thence it is taken to a furnace for a wash heat1 and finally to the muck train4 ,no reagents are employed1 as in steel making or ordinary iron puddling4 ,the high heat of the metal is sufficient to preserve its fluidity during its transit from the converter to the baller2 and the cinder from the blow is kept in the ladle4 ,the baller is a bulging cylinder having hollow trunnions through which the flame passes4 ,the cylinder is lined with fire brick1 and this in turn is covered with a suitable refractory iron ore1 from eight to ten inches thick1 grouted with pulverized iron ore1 forming a bottom1 as in the common puddling furnace4 ,the phosphorus of the iron1 which cannot be eliminated in the intense heat of the converter1 is1 however1 reduced to a minimum in the baller at a much lower temperature and on the basic lining4 ,the process wastes the lining very slightly indeed4 ,as many as sixty heats have been taken off in succession without giving the lining any attention4 ,the absence of any reagent leaves the iron simply pure and homogeneous to a degree never realized in muck bars made by the old puddling process4 ,thus the expense of a reheating and rerolling to refine the iron is obviated4 ,it was such iron as here results that ,bessemer1 in his early experiments1 was seeking to obtain when he was diverted from his purpose by his splendid discoveries in the art of making steel4 ,so effective is the new process1 that even from the poorest grades of pig may be obtained economically an iron equal in quality to the refined irons made from the best pig by the ordinary process of puddling4 ,numerous tests of the ,chapin irons have been made by competent and disinterested parties1 and the results published4 ,the samples here noted were cut and piled only once from the muck bar4 ,sample ,a was made from ,no4 #c mill cinder pig4 ,sample ,b was made from ,no4 #d mill pig and ,no4 #c ,bessemer pig1 half and half4 ,sample ,c was made from ,no4 #c ,bessemer pig1 with the following results3 ,sample4 ,a ,b ,c ,tensile strength per sq4 in4 #ef1jjj #fj1ggb #fd1cgg ,elastic limit4 #cd1jjj 4444 #cf1jjj ,extension1 per cent4 #aa4h 4444 #ag4j ,reduction of area1 per cent4 #fe4j #af4j #cc4j ,the tensile strength of these irons made by ordinary puddling would be about #ch1jjj1 #dj1jjj1 and #db1jjj respectively1 or the gain of the iron in tensile strength by the ,chapin process is about fifty per cent4 ,not only so1 but these irons made in this manner from inferior pig show a higher elastic limit and breaking strain than are commonly specified for refined iron of best quality4 ,the usual specifications are for refined iron3 ,tensile strength1 #ej1jjj2 elongation1 #ae per cent42 elastic limit1 #bf1jjj2 reduction1 #be cent4 ,thus the limits of the ,chapin iron are from #ab to #bj per cent4 above those of refined iron1 and not far below those of structural steel1 while there is a saving of some four dollars per ton in the price of the pig iron from which it can be made4 ,when made from the best pig metal its breaking and elastic limits will probably reach #gj1jjj and #dj1jjj pounds respectively4 ,if so1 it will be a safer material than steel under the same working strains1 owing to its greater resilience4 ,such results are very interesting in both a mechanical and economical point of view4 ,engineers will hail with delight the accession to the list of available building materials of a wrought iron at once fine1 fibrous1 homogeneous1 ductile1 easily weldable1 not subject to injury by the ordinary processes of shaping1 punching1 etc41 and having a tensile strength and elastic limit nearly equal to any steel that could safely be used in the same situation4 ,a plant for the manufacture of ,chapin iron is now in course of erection at ,bethlehem1 ,pa41 and there is every reason to believe that the excellent results attained in ,chicago will be more than reached in the new works4--,proceed4 ,jour4 ,asso4 of ,eng4 ,societies4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,celluloid4 ,professor ,sadler1 of the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 has lately given an account of the development and method of the manufacture of celluloid4 ,alexander ,parkes1 an ,englishman1 invented this remarkable substance in #ahee1 but after twelve years quit making it because of difficulties in manipulation1 although he made a fine display at the ,paris ,exposition of #ahfg4 ,daniel ,spill1 also of ,england1 began experiments two years after ,parkes1 but a patent of his for dissolving the nitrated wood fiber1 or pyroxyline1 in alcohol and camphor was decided by ,judge ,blatchford in a suit brought against the ,celluloid ,manufacturing ,company to be valueless4 ,no further progress was made until the ,hyatt ,brothers1 of ,albany1 ,n4,y41 discovered that gum camphor1 when finely divided1 mixed with the nitrated fiber and then heated1 is a perfect solvent1 giving a homogeneous and plastic mass4 ,american patents of #ahgj and #ahgd are substantially identical with those now in use in ,england4 ,in ,france there is only one factory1 and there is none elsewhere on the ,continent1 one in ,hanover having been given up on account of the explosive nature of the stuff4 ,in this country pure cellulose is commonly obtained from paper makers1 in the form of tissue paper1 in wide rolls2 this1 after being nitrated by a bath of mixed nitric and sulphuric acids1 is thoroughly washed and partially dried4 ,camphor is then added1 and the whole is ground together and thoroughly mixed4 ,at this stage coloring matter may be put in4 ,a little alcohol increases the plasticity of the mass1 which is then treated for some time to powerful hydraulic pressure4 ,then comes breaking up the cakes and feeding the fragments between heated rolls1 by which the amalgamation of the whole is completed4 ,its perfect plasticity allows it to be rolled into sheets1 drawn into tubes1 or moulded into any desired shape4--,jewelers' ,journal4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,apparatus ,,for ,,testing ,,champagne ,,bottles ,,and ,,corks4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,salleron has devised several apparatus which are destined to render valuable service in the champagne industry4 ,the apparently simple operation of confining the carbonic acid due to fermentation in a bottle in order to blow the cork from the latter with force at a given moment is not always successful1 notwithstanding the skill and experience of the manipulator4 ,how could it be otherwise8 ,everything connected with the production of champagne wine was but recently unknown and unexplained4 ,the proportioning of the sugar accurately dates1 as it were1 from but yesterday1 and the measurement of the absorbing power of wine for carbonic acid has but just entered into practice1 thanks to ,mr4 ,salleron's absorptiometer4 ,the real strength of the bottles1 and the laws of the elasticity of glass and its variation with the temperature1 are but little known4 ,finally1 the physical constitution of cork1 its chemical composition1 its resistance to compression and the dissolving action of the wine1 must be taken into consideration4 ,in fact1 all the elements of the difficult problem of the manufacture of sparkling wine show that there is an urgent necessity of introducing scientific methods into this industry1 as without them work can now no longer be done4 ,no one has had a better opportunity to show how easy it is to convert the juice of the grape into sparkling wine through a series of simple operations whose details are known and accurately determined1 so we believe it our duty to recommend those of our readers who are particularly interested in this subject to read ,mr4 ,salleron's book on sparkling wine4 ,we shall confine ourselves in this article to a description of two of the apparatus invented by the author for testing the resistance of bottles and cork stoppers4 ,it is well1 in the first place1 to say that one of the important elements in the treatment of sparkling wine is the normal pressure that it is to produce in the bottles4 ,after judicious deductions and numerous experiments1 ,mr4 ,salleron has adopted for the normal pressure of highly sparkling wines five atmospheres at the temperature of the cellar1 which does not exceed #aj degrees4 ,but1 in a defective cellar1 the bottles may be exposed to frost in winter and to a temperature of #be in summer1 corresponding to a tension of ten atmospheres4 ,it may naturally be asked whether bottles will withstand such an ordeal4 ,mr4 ,salleron has determined their resistance through the process by which we estimate that of building materials1 viz41 by measuring the limit of their elasticity1 or1 in other words1 the pressure under which they take on a new permanent volume4 ,in fact1 glass must be assimilated to a perfectly elastic body2 and bottles expand under the internal pressure that they support4 ,if their resistance is insufficient1 they continue to increase in measure as the pressure is further prolonged1 and at every increase in permanent capacity1 their resistance diminishes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--,,machine ,,for ,,testing ,,bottles4 ,the apparatus shown in ,fig4 #a is called an elasticimeter1 and permits of a preliminary testing of bottles4 ,the bottle to be tested is put into the receptacle1 ,a ,b1 which is kept full of water1 and when it has become full1 its neck is played between the jaws of the clamp1 p4 ,upon turning the hand wheel1 ,l1 the bottle and the receptacle that holds it are lifted1 and the mouth of the bottle presses against a rubber disk fixed under the support1 ,c ,d4 ,the pressure of the neck of the bottle against this disk is such that the closing is absolutely hermetical4 ,the support1 ,c ,d1 contains an aperture which allows the interior of the bottle to communicate with a glass tube1 a b1 which thus forms a prolongation of the neck of the bottle4 ,this tube is very narrow and is divided into fiftieths of a cubic centimeter4 ,a microscope1 m1 fixed in front of the tube1 magnifies the divisions1 and allows the position of the level of the water to be ascertained to within about a millionth of a cubic centimeter4 ,a force and suction pump1 ,p1 sucks in air through the tube1 t1 and compresses it through the tube1 t'1 in the copper tube1 ,t1 which communicates with the glass tube1 a b1 after passing through the pressure gauge1 ,m4 ,this pump1 then1 compresses the air in the bottle1 and the gauge accurately measures its pressure4 ,to make a test1 after the bottle full of water has been fastened under the support1 ,c ,d1 the cock1 s1 is opened and the liquid with which the small reservoir1 ,r1 has been filled flows through an aperture above the mouth of the bottle and rises in the tube1 a b4 ,when its level reaches the division1 ,o1 the cock1 s1 is closed4 ,the bottle and its prolongation1 a b1 are now exactly full of water without any air bubbles4 ,the pump is actuated1 and1 in measure as the pressure rises1 the level of the liquid in the tube1 a b1 is seen to descend4 ,this descent measures the expansion or flexion of the bottle as well as the compression of the water itself4 ,when the pressure is judged to be sufficient1 the button1 n1 is turned1 and the air compressed by the pump finding an exit1 the needle of the pressure gauge will be seen to redescend and the level of the tube1 a b1 to rise4 ,if the glass of the bottle has undergone no permanent deformation1 the level will rise exactly to the zero mark1 and denote that the bottle has supported the test without any modification of its structure4 ,but if1 on the contrary1 the level does not return to the zero mark1 the limit of the glass's elasticity has been extended1 its molecules have taken on a new state of equilibrium1 and its resistance has diminished1 and1 even if it has not broken1 it is absolutely certain that it has lost its former resistance and that it presents no particular guarantee of strength4 ,the vessel1 ,a ,b1 which must be always full of water1 is designed to keep the bottle at a constant temperature during the course of the experiment4 ,this is an essential condition1 since the bottle thus filled with water constitutes a genuine thermometer1 of which a b is the graduated tube4 ,it is therefore necessary to avoid attributing a variation in level due to an expansion of the water produced by a change in temperature1 to a deformation of the bottle4 ,the test1 then1 that can be made with bottles by means of the elasticimeter consists in compressing them to a pressure of ten atmospheres when filled with water at a temperature of #be1 and in finding out whether1 under such a stress1 they change their volume permanently4 ,in order that the elasticimeter may not be complicated by a special heating apparatus1 it suffices to determine once for all what the pressure is that1 at a mean temperature of #ae1 acts upon bottles with the same energy as that of ten atmospheres at #be4 ,experiment has demonstrated that such stress corresponds to twelve atmospheres in a space in which the temperature remains about #ae4 ,in addition1 the elasticimeter is capable of giving other and no less useful data4 ,it permits of comparing the resistance of bottles and of classifying them according to the degree of such resistance4 ,after numerous experiments1 it has been found that first class bottles easily support a pressure of twelve atmospheres without distortion1 while in those of an inferior quality the resistance is very variable4 ,the champagne wine industry should therefore use the former exclusively4 ,various precautions must be taken in the use of corks4 ,the bottles that lose their wine in consequence of the bad quality of their corks are many in number1 and it is not long since that they were the cause of genuine disaster to the champagne trade4 ,mr4 ,salleron has largely contributed to the improving of the quality of corks found in the market4 ,the physical and chemical composition of cork bark is peculiarly favorable to the special use to which it is applied2 but the champagne wine industry requires of it an exaggerated degree of resistance1 inalterability1 and elasticity4 ,a #a inch cork must1 under the action of a powerful machine1 enter a inch neck1 support the dissolving action of a liquid containing #ab per cent4 of alcohol compressed to at least five atmospheres1 and1 in a few years1 shoot out of the bottle and assume its pristine form and color4 ,out of a hundred corks of good quality1 not more than ten support such a test4 ,in order to explain wherein resides the quality of cork1 it is necessary to refer to a chemical analysis of it4 ,in cork bark there is #gj per cent4 of suberine1 which is soluble in alcohol and ether1 and is plastic1 ductile1 and malleable under the action of humid heat4 ,mixed with suberine1 cerine and resin give cork its insolubility and inalterability4 ,these substances are soluble in alcohol and ether1 but insoluble in water4 ,according to the origin of cork1 the wax and resin exist in it in very variable proportion4 ,the more resinous kinds resist the dissolving action of wine better than those that are but slightly resinous4 ,the latter soon become corroded and spoiled by wine4 ,an attempt has often been made1 but without success1 to improve poor corks by impregnating them with the resinous principle that they lack4 ,various other processes have been tried without success1 and so it finally became necessary simply to separate the good from the bad corks by a practical and rapid operation4 ,a simple examination does not suffice4 ,mr4 ,bouch has found that corks immersed in water finally became covered with brown spots1 and1 by analogy1 in order to test corks1 he immersed them in water for a fortnight or a month4 ,all those that came out spotted were rejected4 ,under the prolonged action of moisture1 the suberine becomes soft1 and1 if it is not resinous enough1 the cells of the external layer of the cork burst1 the water enters1 and the cork becomes spotted4 ,it was left to ,mr4 ,salleron to render the method of testing practical4 ,he compresses the cork in a very strong reservoir filled with water under a pressure of from four to five atmospheres4 ,by this means1 the but slightly resinous cork is quickly dissolved1 so that1 after a few hours' immersion1 the bad corks come out spotted and channeled as if they had been in the neck of a bottle for six months4 ,on the contrary1 good corks resist the operation1 and come out of the reservoir as white and firm as they were when they were put into it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--,,salleron',s ,,apparatus ,,for ,,testing ,,corks4 ,fig4 #b gives a perspective view of ,mr4 ,salleron's apparatus for testing corks4 ,a reservoir1 ,a ,b1 of tinned copper1 capable of holding #ajj corks1 is provided with a cover firmly held in place by a clamp4 ,into the cover is screwed a pressure gauge1 ,m1 which measures the internal pressure of the apparatus4 ,a pump1 ,p1 sucks water from a vessel through the tubulure1 t'1 and forces it through the tubulure1 t1 into the reservoir full of corks4 ,after being submitted to a pressure of five atmospheres in this apparatus for a few hours1 the corks are verified and then sorted out4 ,in addition to the apparatus here illustrated1 there is one of larger dimensions for industrial applications4 ,this differs from the other only in the arrangement of its details1 and will hold as many as #aj1jjj corks4--,revue ,industrielle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improved ,,biscuit ,,machine4 ,the accompanying illustration represents a combined biscuit cutting1 scrapping1 and panning machine1 specially designed for running at high speeds1 and so arranged as to allow of the relative movements of the various parts being adjusted while in motion4 ,the cutters or dies1 mounted on a cross head working in a vertical guide frame1 are operated from the main shaft by eccentrics and vertical connecting rods1 as shown4 ,these rods are connected to the lower strap of the eccentric by long guide bolts1 on which intermediate spiral springs are mounted1 and by this means1 although the dies are brought quickly down to the dough1 they are suffered to remain in contact therewith1 under a gradually increasing pressure1 for a sufficient length of time to insure the dough being effectually stamped and completely cut through4 ,illustration3 ,,improved ,,biscuit ,,machine4 ,further1 the springs tend to counteract any tendency to vibration that might be set up by the rapid reciprocation of the cross head1 cutters1 and their attendant parts4 ,mounted also on the main shaft is one of a pair of reversed cone drums4 ,these1 with their accompanying belt and its adjusting gear1 worked by a hand wheel and traversing screw1 as shown1 serve to adjust the speed of the feed rollers1 so as to suit the different lengths of the intermediate travel or skip of the dough-carrying web4 ,provision is made for taking up the slack of this belt by mounting the spindle of the outer coned drum in bearings adjustable along a circular path struck from the axis of the lower feed roller as a center1 thus insuring a uniform engagement between the teeth of the small pinion and those of the spur wheel with which the drum and roller are respectively provided4 ,the webs for carrying forward the dough between the different operations pass round rollers1 which are each operated by an adjustable silent clutch feed1 in place of the usual ratchet and pawl mechanism4 ,movement is given to each feed by the connecting links shown1 to each of which motion is in turn imparted by the bell crank lever placed beside the eccentric4 ,this lever is actuated by a crank pin on the main shaft1 working into a block sliding in a slot in the shorter or horizontal arm of the lever1 while a similar but adjustable block1 sliding in the vertical arm1 serves to impart the motion of the lever to the system of connecting links1 the adjustable block allowing of a longer or shorter stroke being given to the different feeds1 as desired4 ,the scraps are carried over the roller in rear of the cutters1 and so to a scrap pan1 while the stamped biscuits pass by a lower web into the pans4 ,these pans are carried by two endless chains1 provided with pins1 which take hold of the pans and carry them along in the proper position4 ,the roller over which these chains pass is operated by a silent clutch1 and in order to give an additional motion to the chains when a pan is full1 and it is desired to bring the next pan into position1 an additional clutch is caused to operate upon the roller4 ,this clutch is kept out of gear with its pulley by means of a projection upon it bearing against a disk slightly greater in diameter than the pulley1 and provided with two notches1 into which the projection passes when the additional feed is required4 ,the makers1 ,h4 ,edwards ,co41 ,liverpool1 have run one of these machines easily and smoothly at a hundred revolutions per minute1 at which speed1 and when absorbing about #c4e horse power1 the output would equal #d1jjj small biscuits per minute4--,industries4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improved ,,cream ,,separator4 ,a hand separator of this type was exhibited at the ,royal ,show at ,newcastle by the ,aylesbury ,dairy ,company1 of #ca ,st4 ,petersburg ,place1 ,bayswater1 ,england4 ,illustration3 ,,improved ,,cream ,,separator4 ,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,improved ,,cream ,,separator4 ,fig4 #b4 ,fig4 #a is a perspective view of the machine1 ,fig4 #b being a vertical section4 ,the drums of these machines1 which make #b1gjj revolutions per minute for the large and #d1jjj for the small one1 have a diameter of #bg in4 and #ae in4 respectively1 and are capable of extracting the cream from #bbj and #aae gallons of milk per hour4 ,these drums are formed by hydraulic pressure from one piece of sheet steel4 ,to avoid the possibility of the machines being overdriven1 which might happen through the negligence of the attendant or through the governing gear on the engine failing to act1 an ingenious controlling apparatus is fixed to the intermediate motion of the separator as shown in ,fig4 #c4 ,this apparatus consists of a pair of governor balls pivoted near the center of the arms and attached to the main shaft of the intermediate gear by means of a collar fixed on it4 ,the main shaft is bored out sufficiently deep to admit a steel rod1 against which bear the three ends of the governor arms4 ,the steel rod presses against the counterbalance1 which is made exactly the right weight to withstand the force tending to raise it1 when the intermediate motion is running at its designed speed4 ,the forks between which the belt runs are also provided with a balance weight4 ,this brings them to the loose pulley1 unless they are fixed by means of the ratchet4 ,should the number of revolutions of the intermediate increase beyond the correct amount1 the extra centrifugal force imparted to the governor balls enables them to overcome the balance weight1 and in raising this they raise the arm4 ,this arm striking against the ratchet detent releases the balance weight1 and the belt is at once brought on to the loose pulley4 ,illustration3 ,,improved ,,cream ,,separator4 ,fig4 #c4 ,the steel drum is fitted with an internal ring at the bottom 7see ,fig4 #b71 into which the milk flows1 and from which it is delivered1 by three apertures1 to the periphery of the drum1 thus preventing the milk from striking against the cone of the drum1 and from mixing with the cream which has already been separated4 ,the upper part of the drum is fitted with an annular flange1 about #a in4 from the top1 reaching to within one-sixteenth of an inch of the periphery4 ,after the separation of the skim milk from the cream1 the former passes behind and above this flange through the aperture1 ,b1 and is removed by means of the tube1 ,d1 furnished with a steel tip projecting from the cover of the machine into the space between the top of the drum and the annular flange1 a similar tube1 ,f1 reaching below this flange1 removing the cream which collects there4 ,the skim milk tube is provided with a screw regulator1 the function of which is to enable cream of any desired consistency to be obtained1 varying with the distance between the skim milk and cream points from the center of the drum4 ,another point about these tubes is their use as elevating tubes for the skim1 milk and cream1 as1 owing to the velocity at which the drum is rotating1 the products can be delivered by these tubes at a height of #h or #aj feet above the machine if required1 thus enabling scalding and cooling of either to be carried on while the separator is at work1 and saving hand labor4--,iron4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,gas ,,from ,,oil4 ,at the twenty-fourth annual meeting of the ,gas ,institute1 which was recently held in ,glasgow1 ,dr4 ,stevenson ,macadam1 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 lecturer on chemistry1 ,edinburgh1 submitted the first paper1 which was on ,gas from ,oil4 ,he said that during the last seventeen years he had devoted much attention to the photogenic or illuminating values of different qualities of paraffin oils in various lamps1 and to the production of permanent illuminating gas from such oils4 ,the earlier experiments were directed to the employment of paraffin oils as oils1 and the results proved the great superiority of the paraffin oils as illuminating agents over vegetable and animal oils1 alike for lighthouse and ordinary house service4 ,the later trials were mainly concerned with the breaking up of the paraffin oils into permanent illuminating gas4 ,experiments were made at low heats1 medium heats1 and high heats1 which proved that1 according to the respective qualities of the paraffin oils employed in the trials1 there was more or less tendency at the lower heats to distill oil instead of permanent gas1 while at the high heats there was a liability to decarbonize the oil and gas1 and to obtain a thin gas of comparatively small illuminating power4 ,when1 however1 a good cherry red heat was maintained1 the oils split up in large proportion into permanent gas of high illuminating quality1 accompanied by little tarry matter1 and with only a slight amount of separated carbon or deposited soot4 ,the best mode of splitting up the paraffin oils1 and the special arrangements of the retort or distilling apparatus1 also formed1 he said1 an extensive inquiry by itself4 ,in one set of trials the oil was distilled into gaseous vapor1 and then passed through the retort4 ,in another set of experiments1 the oil was run into or allowed to trickle into the retorts1 while both modes of introducing the oil were tried in retorts charged with red hot coke and in retorts free from coke4 ,ultimately1 it was found that the best results were obtained by the more simple arrangement of employing iron retorts at a good cherry red heat1 and running in the oil as a thin stream direct into the retort1 so that it quickly impinged upon the red hot metal1 and without the intervention of any coke or other matter in the retorts4 ,the paraffin oils employed in the investigations were principally3 7#a7 ,crude paraffin oil1 being the oil obtained direct from the destructive distillation of shale in retorts2 7#b7 green paraffin oil1 which is yielded by distilling or re-running the crude paraffin oil1 and removing the lighter or more inflammable portion by fractional distillation2 and 7#c7 blue paraffin oil1 which is obtained by rectifying the twice run oil with sulphuric acid and soda1 and distilling off the paraffin spirit1 burning oil1 and intermediate oil1 and freezing out the solid paraffin as paraffin scale4 ,the best practical trials were obtained in ,pintsch's apparatus and in ,keith's apparatus4 ,after describing both of these1 ,dr4 ,macadam went on to give in great detail the results obtained in splitting up blue paraffin oil into gas in each apparatus4 ,he then said that these experimental results demonstrated that ,pintsch's apparatus yielded from the gallon of oil in one case #ij4gj cubic feet of gas of #fb4ej candle power1 and in the second case #ajc4cf cubic feet of #ei4ae candle gas1 or an average of #ig4jc cubic feet of #fj4hb candle power gas4 ,in both cases1 the firing of the retorts was moderate1 though in the second trial greater care was taken to secure uniformity of heat1 and the oil was run in more slowly1 so that there was more thorough splitting up of the oil into permanent gas4 ,the gas obtained in the two trials was of high quality1 owing to its containing a large percentage of heavy hydrocarbons1 of which there were1 respectively1 #ci4be and #cg4ae per cent41 or an average of #ch4b per cent41 while the sulphureted hydrogen was nothing1 and the carbonic acid a mere trace4 ,besides testing the gas on the occasion of the actual trials1 he had also examined samples of the gas which he had taken from various cylinders in which the gas had been stored for several months under a pressure of ten atmospheres1 and in all cases the gas was found to be practically equal to the quantity mentioned1 and hence of a permanent character4 ,by using ,keith's apparatus the results obtained were generally the same1 with the exception that an average of #j4bg per cent4 of carbonic acid gas and decided proportions of sulphureted hydrogen were found to be present in the gas4 ,dr4 ,macadam devoted some remarks to the consideration of the question as to how far the gas obtained from the paraffin oil represented the light power of the oil itself1 and then he proceeded to say that1 taking the crude paraffin oil at #b;d4 a gallon1 and with a specific gravity of #hej 7water #a1jjj71 or #h lb4 to the gallon1 there were #bfd gallons to the ton1 at a cost of #b #ds4 per ton4 ,the sperm light from the ton of oil as gas being #c1ddc lb41 he reckoned that fully #f lb4 of sperm light were obtained from a pennyworth of the crude oil as gas4 ,then1 taking the blue paraffin oil at #d;d4 per gallon1 and there being #bee gallons to the ton1 it was found that the cost of one ton was #d #es41 and as the sperm light of a ton of that oil as gas was #e1aej lb41 it was calculated that #e lb4 of sperm light were yielded in the gas from a pennyworth of the blue oil4 ,the very rich character of the oil gas rendered it unsuitable for consumption at ordinary gas jets1 though it burned readily and satisfactorily at small burners not larger than ,no4 #a jets4 ,in practical use it would be advisable to reduce the quality by admixture with thin and feeble gas1 or to employ the oil gas simply for enriching inferior gases derived from the more common coals4 ,on the question of dilution1 he said that he preferred to use carbonic oxide and hydrogen1 and most of the remainder of his paper was devoted to an explanation of the best mode of preparing those gases 7water gases74 ,he concluded by saying3 ,the employment of paraffin oil for gas making has advantages in its favor1 in the readiness of charging the retorts1 as the oil can be run in continuously for days at a time1 and may be discontinued and commenced again without opening1 clearing out residual products1 recharging and reclosing the retorts4 ,there is necessarily1 therefore1 less labor and cost in working1 and as the gas is cleaner or freer from impurities1 purifying plant and material will be correspondingly less4 ,oil gas is now employed for lighthouse service in the illumination of the lanterns on ,ailsa ,craig and as motive power in the gas engines connected with the fog horns at ,langness and ,ailsa ,craig lighthouse stations4 ,it is also used largely in the lighting of railway carriages4 ,various populous places are now introducing oil gas for house service1 and he felt sure that the system is one which ought to commend itself for its future development to the careful consideration and practical skill of the members of the ,gas ,institute4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,salt ,,near ,,middlesbrough4#a ,footnote #a3 ,abstract of paper read before the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 ,may #ag1 #ahhg4 ,by ,sir ,,lowthian ,,bell1 ,bart41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,the geology of the ,middlesbrough salt region was first referred to1 and it was stated that the development of the salt industry in that district was the result of accident4 ,in #ahei1 ,messrs4 ,bolckow ,vaughan sank a deep well at ,middlesbrough1 in the hope of obtaining water for steam and other purposes in connection with their iron works in that town1 although they had previously been informed of the probably unsuitable character of the water if found4 ,the bore hole was put down to a depth of #a1bjj feet1 when a bed of salt rock was struck1 which proved to have a thickness of about #ajj feet4 ,at that time one-eighth of the total salt production of ,cheshire was being brought to the ,tyne for the chemical works on that river1 hence the discovery of salt instead of water was regarded by some as the reverse of a disappointment4 ,the mode of reaching the salt rock by an ordinary shaft1 however1 failed1 from the influx of water being too great1 and nothing more was heard of ,middlesbrough salt until a dozen years later1 when ,messrs4 ,bell ,brothers1 of ,port ,clarence1 decided to try the practicability of raising the salt by a method detailed in the paper4 ,a site was selected #a1cad yards distant from the well of ,messrs4 ,bolckow ,vaughan1 and the ,diamond ,rock ,boring ,company was intrusted with the work of putting down a hole in order to ascertain whether the bed of salt extended under their land4 ,this occupied nearly two years1 when the salt1 #fe feet in thickness1 was reached at a depth of #a1abg feet4 ,other reasons induced the owners of the ,clarence iron works to continue the bore hole for #aej feet below the bed of salt2 a depth of #a1cdb feet from the surface was then reached4 ,during the process of boring1 considerable quantities of inflammable gas were met with1 which1 on the application of flame1 took fire at the surface of the water in the bore hole4 ,the origin of this gas1 in connection with the coal measures underlying the magnesian limestone1 will probably hereafter be investigated4 ,for raising the salt1 recourse was had to the method of solution1 the principle being that a column of descending water should raise the brine nearly as far as the differences of specific gravity between the two liquids permitted--in the present case about #iig feet4 ,in other words1 a column of fresh water of #a1bjj feet brought the brine to within #bjc feet of the surface4 ,for the practical application of this system a hole of say #ab inches in diameter at the surface was commenced1 and a succession of wrought iron tubes put down as the boring proceeded1 the pipes being of gradually decreasing diameter1 until the bottom of the salt bed was reached4 ,the portion of this outer or retaining tube1 where it passed through the bed of salt1 was pierced with two sets of apertures1 the upper edge of the higher set coinciding with the top of the seam1 and the other set occupying the lower portion of the tube4 ,within the tube so arranged1 and secured at its lower extremity by means of a cavity sunk in the limestone1 a second tube was lowered1 having an outer diameter from two to four inches less than the interior diameter of the first tube4 ,the latter served for pumping the brine4 ,the pump used was of the ordinary bucket and clack type1 but1 in addition1 at the surface1 there was a plunger1 which served to force the brine into an air vessel for the purposes of distribution4 ,the bucket and clack were placed some feet below the point to which the brine was raised by the column of fresh water descending in the annulus formed between the two tubes4 ,in commencing work1 water was let down the annulus until the cavity formed in the salt became sufficiently large to admit of a few hours' pumping of concentrated brine4 ,on the machinery being set in motion1 the stronger brine was first drawn1 which1 from its greater specific gravity1 occupied the lower portion of the cavity4 ,as the brine was raised1 fresh water flowed down4 ,the solvent power of the newly admitted water was of course greater than that of water partially saturated1 and being also lighter it occupied the upper portion of the excavated space4 ,the combined effect was to give the cavity the form of an inverted cone4 ,the mode of extraction thus possessed the disadvantage of removing the greatest quantity of the mineral where it was most wanted for supporting the roof1 and had given rise to occasional accidents to the pipes underground4 ,these were referred to in detail1 and the question was started as to possible legal complications arising hereafter from new bore holes put down in close proximity to the dividing line of different properties1 the pumping of brine formed under the conditions described presenting an altogether different aspect from the pumping of water or natural brine4 ,the second part of the paper referred to the uses to which the brine was applied1 the chief one being the manufacture of common salt4 ,for this purpose the brine1 as delivered from the wells1 was run into a large reservoir1 where any earthy matter held in suspension was allowed to settle4 ,the clear solution was then run into pans sixty feet long by twenty feet wide by two feet deep4 ,heat was applied at one end by the combustion of small coal1 beyond which longitudinal walls1 serving to support the pan and to distribute the heat1 conducted the products of combustion to the further extremity1 where they escaped into the chimney at a temperature of from #ejj to #gjj ,fahr4 ,on the surface of the heated brine1 kept at #aif ,fahr41 minute cubical crystals speedily formed4 ,on the upper surface of these1 other small cubes of salt arranged themselves in such a way that1 in course of time1 a hollow inverted pyramid of crystallized salt was formed4 ,this ultimately sank to the bottom1 where other small crystals united with it1 so that the shape became frequently completely cubical4 ,every second day the salt was fished out and laid on drainers to permit the adhering brine to run back into the pans4 ,for the production of table salt the boiling was carried on much more rapidly1 and at a higher temperature than for salt intended for soda manufacture4 ,the crystals were very minute1 and adhered together by the solidification of the brine1 effected by exposure on heated flues4 ,for fishery purposes the crystals were preferred very coarse in size4 ,these were obtained by evaporating the brine more slowly and at a still lower temperature than when salt for soda makers was required4 ,at the ,clarence works experiments had been made in utilizing surplus gas from the adjacent blast furnaces1 instead of fuel1 under the evaporating pans1 the furnaces supplying more gas than was needed for heating air and raising steam for iron making4 ,by means of this waste heat1 from #bjj to #cjj tons of salt per week were now obtained4 ,the paper concluded with some particulars of the soda industry4 ,the well-known sulphuric acid process of ,leblanc had stood its ground for three-quarters of a century in spite of several disadvantages1 and various modes of utilizing the by-products having been from time to time introduced1 it had until recent years seemed too firmly established to fear any rivals4 ,about seven years ago1 however1 ,mr4 ,solvay1 of ,brussels1 revived in a practical form the ammonia process1 patented forty years ago by ,messrs4 ,hemming ,dyar1 but using brine instead of salt1 and thus avoiding the cost of evaporation4 ,this process consisted of forcing into the brine currents of carbonic acid and ammoniacal gases in such proportions as to generate bicarbonate of ammonia1 which1 reacting on the salt of the brine1 gave bicarbonate of soda and chloride of ammonium4 ,the bicarbonate was placed in a reverberatory furnace1 where the heat drove off the water and one equivalent of carbonic acid1 leaving the alkali as monocarbonate4 ,near ,middlesbrough1 the only branch of industry established in connection with its salt trade was the manufacture of soda by an ammonia process1 invented by ,mr4 ,schloesing1 of ,paris4 ,the works were carried on in connection with the ,clarence salt works4 ,it was believed that the total quantity of dry soda produced by the two ammonia processes1 ,solvay's and ,schloesing's1 in this country was something under #ajj1jjj tons per annum1 but this make was considerably exceeded on the ,continent4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,cotton ,,industries ,,of ,,japan4 ,the cotton plant principally cultivated in ,japan is of the species known as ,gossypium herbaceum1 resembling that of ,india1 ,china1 and ,egypt4 ,the plant is of short stature1 seldom attaining a growth of over two feet2 the flower is deciduous1 with yellow petals and purple center1 and the staple is short1 but fine4 ,it is very widely cultivated in ,japan1 and is produced in thirty-seven out of the forty-four prefectures forming the empire1 but the best qualities and largest quantities are grown in the southern maritime provinces of the mainland and on the islands of ,kiusiu and ,shikoku4 ,vice consul ,longford1 in his last report1 says that the plant is not indigenous to ,japan1 the seed having been first imported from ,china in the year #aeeh4 ,there are now many varieties of the original species1 and the cultivation of the plant varies in its details in different localities4 ,the variations are1 however1 mostly in dates1 and the general grinding principles of the several operations are nearly the same throughout the whole country4 ,the land best suited for cotton growing is one of a sandy soil1 the admixture of earth and sand being in the proportion of two parts earth to one of sand4 ,during the winter and spring months1 crops of wheat or barley are raised on it1 and it is when these crops have attained their full height during the month of ,may that the cotton is sown4 ,about fifty days prior to the sowing a manure is prepared consisting of chopped straw1 straw ashes1 green grass1 rice1 bran1 and earth from the bottom of the stagnant pools4 ,these ingredients are all carefully mixed together in equal proportions1 and the manure thus made is allowed to stand till required for use4 ,ten days before the time fixed for sowing1 narrow trenches1 about one inch in depth1 are dug in the furrows1 between the rows of standing wheat or barleys and the manure is liberally sprinkled along them by hand4 ,for one night before sowing the seed is steeped in water4 ,it is then taken out1 slightly mixed with straw ashes1 and sown in the trenches at intervals of a few inches4 ,when sown1 it is covered with earth to the depth of half an inch1 and gently trampled down by foot4 ,four or five days after sowing1 the buds begin to appear above the earth1 and almost simultaneously the wheat or barley between which they grow is ripe for the sickle4 ,while the latter is being harvested1 the cotton may be left to itself1 but not for very long4 ,the buds appear in much larger numbers than the soil could support if they were allowed to grow4 ,they have accordingly to be carefully thinned out1 so that not more than five or six plants are left in each foot of length4 ,the next process is the sprinkling of a manure composed of one part night soil and three parts water1 and again1 subsequent to this1 there are two further manurings2 one of a mixture of dried sardines1 lees of oil1 and lees of rice beer1 which is applied about the middle of ,june1 when the plant has attained a height of four inches2 and again early in ,july1 when the plant has grown to a height of six or seven inches1 a further manuring of night soil1 mixed with a larger proportion of water than before4 ,at this stage the head of the plant is pinched off with the fingers1 in order to check the excessive growth of the stem1 and direct the strength into the branches1 which usually number five or six4 ,from these branches minor ones spring1 but the latter are carefully pruned off as they appear4 ,in the middle of ,august the flowers begin to appear gradually4 ,they fall soon after their appearance1 leaving in their place the pod or peach 7momo71 which1 after ripening1 opens in ,october by three or four valves and exposes the cotton to view4 ,the cotton is gathered in baskets1 in which it is allowed to remain till a bright1 sunshiny day1 when it is spread out on mats to dry and swell in the sun for two or three days4 ,after drying1 the cotton is packed in bags made of straw matting1 and either sold or put aside until such time as the farmer's leisure from other agricultural operations enables him to deal with it4 ,the average yield of cotton in good districts in ,japan is about #abj lb4 to the acre1 but as cotton is only a secondary crop1 this does not therefore represent the whole profit gained by the farmer from his land4 ,the prefectures in which the production is largest are ,aichi on the east coast1 ,osaka1 ,hiogo1 ,hiroshima1 and ,yamaguchi on the inland sea1 and ,fukui and ,ishikawa on the west coast4 ,vice-consul ,longford says that the manufacture of cotton in ,japan is still in all its stages largely a domestic one4 ,gin1 spindle1 and loom are all found in the house of the farmer on whose land the cotton is grown1 and not only what is required for the wants of his own family is spun and woven by the female members thereof1 but a surplus is also produced for sale4 ,several spinning factories with important ,english machinery have been established during the last twenty years1 but ,consul ,longford says that he has only known of one similar cotton-weaving factory1 and that has not been a successful experiment4 ,other so called weaving factories throughout the country consist only of a collection of the ordinary hand looms1 to the number of forty or fifty1 scarcely ever reaching to one hundred1 in one building or shed1 wherein individual manufacturers have their own special piece goods made4 ,the first operation in the manufacture is that of ginning1 which is conducted by means of a small implement called the rokuro1 or windlass4 ,this consists of two wooden rollers revolving in opposite directions1 fixed on a frame about #ab inches high and #f inches in width1 standing on a small platform1 the dimensions of which slightly exceed that of the frame4 ,the operator1 usually a woman1 kneels on one side of the frame1 holding it firm by her weight1 works the roller with one hand1 and with the other presses the cotton1 which she takes from a heap at her side1 between the rollers4 ,the cotton passes through1 falling in small lumps on the other side of the frame1 while the seeds fall on that nearest the woman4 ,the utmost weight of unginned cotton that one woman working an entire day of ten hours can give is from #h lb4 to #aj lb41 which gives1 in the end1 only a little over #c lb4 weight of ginned cotton1 and her daily earnings amount to less than #b;d4 ,a few saw gins have been introduced into ,japan during the last fifteen years1 but no effort has been made to secure their distribution throughout the country districts4 ,after ginning1 a certain proportion of the seed is reserved for the agricultural requirements of the following year1 and the remainder is sent to oil factories1 where it is pressed1 and yields about one-eighth of its capacity in measurement in oil1 the refuse1 after pressing1 being used for manure4 ,the ginning having been finished in the country districts1 the cotton is either packed in bales and sent to the dealers in the cities1 or else the next process1 that of carding1 is at once proceeded with on the spot4 ,this process is almost as primitive as that of the ginning4 ,a long bamboo1 sufficiently thin to be flexible1 is fastened at its base to a pillar or the corner of a small room4 ,it slopes upward into the center of the room1 and from its upper end a hempen cord is suspended4 ,to this is fastened the bow1 an instrument made of oak1 about five feet in length1 two inches in circumference1 and shaped like a ladle4 ,a string of coarse catgut is tightly stretched from end to end of the bow1 and this is beaten with a small mallet made of willow1 bound at the end with a ring of iron or brass4 ,the raw cotton1 in its coarse state1 is piled on the floor just underneath the string of the bow4 ,the string is then rapidly beaten with the mallet1 and as it rises and falls it catches the rough cotton1 cuts it to the required degree of fineness1 removes impurities from it1 and flings it to the side of the operator1 where it falls on a hempen net stretched over a four-cornered wooden frame4 ,the spaces of the net are about one-quarter of an inch square1 and through these any particles of dust that may still have adhered to the cotton fall to the floor1 leaving piled on top of the net the pure cotton wool in its finished state4 ,this work is always performed by a man1 and by assiduous toil throughout a long day1 one man can card from ten to twenty pounds weight of raw cotton4 ,payment is made in proportion to the work done1 and in the less remote country districts is at the rate of about one penny for each pound carded4 ,as regards spinning and weaving1 in the first of these branches of cotton manufacture the ,japanese have largely had recourse to the aid of foreign machinery1 but it is still to a much greater extent a domestic industry1 or at best carried on like weaving in the establishments of cotton traders1 in which a number of workers1 varying from #bj to #ajj or more1 each with his own spinning wheel1 are collected together4 ,consul ,longford says the spinning wheel used in ,japan differs in no respect from that used in the country #cjj years ago or 7except that bamboo forms an integral part of the materials of which it is made7 from that used in ,england prior to the invention of the jenny4 ,the cost of one of the wheels is about #i;d41 it will last for five or six years1 and with it a woman of ordinary skill can spin about #a lb4 of yarn in a day of ten hours1 earning thereby about #b;d4 ,there are at present in various parts of ,japan1 in all1 #ba spinning factories worked by foreign machinery4 ,of four of these there is no information1 but of the remainder1 one has #abj spindles2 eleven1 #b1jjj spindles2 two1 #c1jjj spindles2 two1 #d1jjj spindles2 and one1 #ah1jjj spindles4--,journal ,soc4 of ,arts4 99 99 99 99 99 ,continued from ,,supplement1 ,no4 #fab1 page #iggd4 ,,centrifugal ,,extractors4 ,by ,,robert ,f4 ,,gibson4 ,,sugar ,,machines4--,besides separating the crystalline sugar and the sirup1 secondary objects are to wash the crystals and to pack them in cakes4 ,the cleansing fluid or white liquor is introduced at the center of the basket and is hurled against and passes through the sugar wall left from draining4 ,the basket may be divided into compartments and the liquor guided into each4 ,the compartments are removable boxes and are shaped to give bars or cakes or any form desired of sugar in mass4 ,these boxes being removable cannot fit tightly against the liquor guides1 and the liquor is apt to escape4 ,this difficulty is overcome by giving the guides radial movement or by having rubber packing around the edges4 ,sugar machines proper are of two kinds--those which are loaded1 drained and then unloaded and those which are continuous in their working4 ,the various figures preceding are of the first kind1 and what has been said of vibrations applies directly to these4 ,the general advantages claimed for continuous working over intermittent are--that saving is made of time and motive power incident to introducing charge and developing velocity1 in retarding and stopping1 and in discharging2 that1 as the power is brought into the machine continuously1 no shifting of belts or ungearing is necessary2 and that there are less of the dangers incident to variable motion1 either in the machine itself or the belting or gearing4 ,the magma 7the mixture of crystalline sugar and sirup7 is fed in gradually1 by which means it is more likely to assume a position of equilibrium in the basket4 ,there are two methods of discharging in continuous working--the sugar is thrown out periodically as the basket fills1 or continuously4 ,in neither case is the speed slackened4 ,in the first either the upper half of the basket has an upward motion1 on the lower half a downward motion 7,pat4 #beb1dhc72 and through the opening thus made the sugar is thrown4 ,fig4 #bb 7,r4,b4 ,palmer ,sons7 is a machine of this kind4 ,the bottom1 ,b1 with the cone distributor1 a1 have downward motion4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,continuous discharge of the second kind may be brought about by having a scoop fixed to the curb 7or casing71 extending down into the basket and delivering the sugar over the side 7,pat4 #add1cai74 ,another method will be described under ,beet ,machines4 ,,basket4--,the construction of the basket is exceedingly important4 ,hard experience has taught this4 ,when centrifugals were first introduced1 users were compelled by law to put them below ground2 for they frequently exploded1 owing to the speed being suddenly augmented by inequalities in the running of the engine or to the basket being too weak to resist the centrifugal force of the overcharge4 ,increasing the thickness merely adds to the centrifugal force1 and hence to the danger1 as even a perfectly balanced basket may sever4 ,one plan for a better basket was to have more than one wall4 ,for example1 there might be an inner wall of perforated copper1 then one of wire gauze1 and then another of copper with larger perforations4 ,another plan was to have an internal metallic cloth1 bearing against the internally projecting ridges of the corrugations of the basket wall4 ,a further complication is to give this internal gauze cylinder a rotation relative to the basket4 ,the basket wall has been variously constructed4 ,in one case it consists of wire wound round and round and fastened to uprights1 commonly known as the wire basket2 in another case of a periphery without perforations1 but spirally corrugated and having an opening at the bottom for the escape of the extracted liquid2 in still another of a series of narrow bars or rings1 placed edgewise1 packed as close as desired4 ,an advantage of this last style is that it is easily cleaned4 ,the best basket consists of sheet metal with bored perforations and having bands or flanges sprung on around the outside4 ,the metal is brass1 if it is apt to be corroded2 if not1 sheet iron4 ,the perforations may be round1 or horizontally much longer than wide vertically4 ,one method for the manufacture of the basket wall 7,pat4 #adi1eec7 is to roll down a plate1 having round perforations1 to the required thickness1 causing narrowing and elongation of the holes and at the same time hardening the plate by compacting its texture4 ,long narrow slots are well adapted to catch sugar crystals1 and this is not an unimportant point4 ,round perforations are usually countersunk4 ,instead of flanges1 wire bands have been used1 their lapping ends secured by solder4 ,as to comparative wear1 it maybe remarked that one perforated basket will outlast three wire ones4 ,as to size1 sugar baskets vary from #hj inches in diameter by #ad in4 depth to #ed by #bd4 ,they are made1 however1 in ,england as large as #f feet in diameter--a size which can be run only at a comparatively slow speed4 ,a peculiar complication of basket deserves notice 7,pat4 #bge #hgd74 ,it had been noticed that when a charge of magma was put into a centrifugal in one mass1 the sugar wall on the side of the basket was apt to form irregularly1 too thick at base and of varied color4 ,to remedy this it was suggested to have within and concentric with the basket a charger with flaring sides1 into which the mixture was to be put4 ,when this charger reached a certain rotary velocity1 the magma would be hurled out over the edge by centrifugal force and evenly distributed on the wall of the main basket4 ,,spindle4--,the spindle as now made is solid cast steel1 and the considerations governing its size1 form1 material1 etc41 are identical with those for any spindle4 ,in order that the basket might be replaced by another after draining1 the shaft has been made telescopic1 but at the expense of stability and rigidity4 ,in ,fig4 #af is shown a device to avoid crystallizations1 which are apt to occur in large forgings1 and would prove fatal should they creep into the upper part of the spindle proper in a hanging machine4 ,it consists of the secondary spindle1 c4 ,,discharging4--,the drained sugar may either be lifted over the top of the basket 7in machines which stop to be emptied71 or be cast through openings in the bottom provided with valves4 ,a section of the best form of valve may be seen in ,figs4 #ae and #ag4 ,fig4 #bc is a plan of the openings4 ,the valve turns on the basket bearing4 ,it may be constructed to open in the same direction in which the basket turns2 so that when the brake is put on1 the inertia of the valve operates to open it and while running to keep it closed4 ,there are many other styles1 but no other need be mentioned4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,,casing4--,the different styles of casing may be seen by reference to the various drawings4 ,in one machine 7not described7 the casing is rigidly fixed to the basket1 space enough being left between the bottom of the basket and the bottom of the casing to hold all the molasses from a charge4 ,this arrangement merely adds to the bulk of the revolving parts1 and no real advantage is gained4 ,,bearings4--,the various styles of bearings can be seen by reference to the figures4 ,one which deserves special attention is shown in ,fig4 #af and ,fig4 #ai4 ,in one case it consists of loose disks1 in the other of loose washers1 rotating on one another4 ,they are alternately of steel and hard bronze 7copper and tin74 ,there is probably no machine so little understood or so imperfectly constructed by the common manufacturer of sugar supplies as the high speed separator or centrifugal4 ,unless the product of experience and good workmanship1 it is a dangerous thing at high velocities4 ,besides1 its usual fate is to have an incompetent workman assigned to it1 who does not use judgment in charging and running4 ,so that designers and manufacturers have been forced not only to take into account the disturbing forces inherent in revolving bodies1 but also to make allowance for poor management in running and neglect in cleaning4 ,,cane ,,and ,,beet ,,machines4--,the first step in the process of sugar making is the extraction of the juice from the beet or cane4 ,this juice is obtained by pressure4 ,the operation is not usually1 but may be1 performed in a special kind of centrifugal4 ,one style 7,pat4 #bci1bbb7 consists of a conical basket with a spiral flange within on the shaft1 and turning on the shaft1 and having a slight rotary motion relative to the basket4 ,the material is fed in and moves downward under increased pressure1 the sirup released flying out through the perforations of the basket1 the whole revolving at high velocity4 ,the solid portion falls out at the bottom4 ,another plan suggested 7,pat4 #cdc1icb7 is to let a loose cover of an ordinary cylindrical basket screw itself down into the basket1 by reason of its slower velocity 7owing to inertia71 causing pressure on the charge4 ,various other applications of the different styles of sugar machines are the defibration of raw sugar juice1 freeing beet crystals of objectionable salts1 freeing various crystals of the mother liquor1 drying saltpeter4 ,,driers4--,another important division of this first class of centrifugals is that of driers or1 as they are variously styled1 whizzers1 wringers1 hydro-extractors4 ,the charge in these is never large in weight compared to a sugar charge1 and its initial distribution can be made more symmetrical4 ,the uses of driers are various1 such as extracting water from clothes1 cloth1 silk1 yarns1 etc4 ,water may be introduced at the center of the basket from above or below to wash the material before draining4 ,a typical form of drier is shown in ,fig4 #bd4 7,pat4 ,aug4 #bb1 #ahgf--,w4,p4 ,uhlinger47 ,baskets have been made removable for use in dyeing establishments1 basket and load together going into dyeing vat4 ,yarn and similar material can be drained by a method analogous to that of hanging it upon sticks in a room and allowing the water to drip off4 ,it is suspended from short sticks1 which are held in horizontal layers around the shaft in the basket1 and the action is such during the operation as to cause the yarn to stand out in radial lines4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,driers are not materially different from sugar machines4 ,any of the devices before enumerated for meeting vibrations in the latter may be applied to the former4 ,there is one curious invention which has been applied to driers only 7,pat4 #cbb1gfb--,w4,h4 ,tolhurst74 ,see ,fig4 #be4 ,a convex shaft-supporting step resting on a concave supporting base1 with the center of its arc of concavity at the center of the upper universal joint1 has been employed1 and its movements controlled by springs1 but the step was apt to be forced from its support4 ,the drawing shows the improvement on this1 which is to give the shaft-supporting step a less radius of curvature4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,an interesting form of drier has its own motor1 a little steam engine1 attached to the frame of the machine4 ,see ,fig #bd4 ,this of course demands fixed bearings4 ,the engine is very small4 ,one size used is #cd4 ,when a higher velocity of basket is required1 we have the arrangement in ,fig4 #bf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,,motors4--,this naturally introduces the subject of motive power4 ,we may have the engine direct acting as above1 or the power may be brought on by belting4 ,fig4 #bg shows a drier with pulley for belting4 ,fig4 #bh 7,w4,h4 ,tolhurst7 shows a very common arrangement of belting and also the fast and loose pulleys4 ,when the heaviest part of the engine is so far from the vertical shaft as to overhang the casing on one side1 there is apt to be an objectionable tremor4 ,to remedy this1 it is suggested to put these heavy parts as near the shaft as possible4 ,it has been suggested also to use the ,westinghouse type of engine1 although the type shown in ,fig4 #bd works faultlessly in practice4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,one plan 7,pat4 #cdf1jcj71 designed to combine the advantages of a direct acting motor and an oscillating shaft1 mounts the whole machine1 motor and all1 on a rocking frame4 ,the spindle is of course in fixed bearings in the frame4 ,however1 the plan is not practical4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,in driers the direct acting engine has many advantages over the belt4 ,the atmosphere is always very moist about a whizzer1 and there are frequently injurious fumes4 ,the belt will be alternately dry and wet1 stretched and limp1 and wears out rapidly and is liable to sever4 ,in all machines in which the shaft oscillates1 if the center of oscillation does not lie in the central plane of the belt1 the tension of the latter is not uniform4 ,this affects badly both the belt and the running4 ,a reference to the various figures will show the best position for the pulley4 ,the greatest difficulty experienced with belting is in getting up speed and stopping4 ,the basket must not be started with a sudden impulse4 ,its inertia will resist and something must give way4 ,a gradual starting can be obtained by the slipping of the belt at first1 but this is expensive4 ,the best plan is to conduct the power through a species of friction clutch--an iron disk between two wooden ones4 ,this has been found to work admirably4 ,,brakes4--,the first centrifugals had no brakes4 ,they ran until the friction of the bearings was sufficient to stop them4 ,this occasioned1 however1 rapid wearing and too great a loss of time4 ,the best material for a brake consists of soft wood into which shoe pegs have been driven1 and which is thoroughly saturated with oil4 ,the wooden disks referred to just above are of the same construction4 ,the center of oscillation ought to be in the central plane of the brake as well as that of the pulley1 but the preference is given to the pulley4 ,figs4 #ae and #af 7,i7 give sectional views of a brake for hanging machines4 ,figs4 #ai1 #bj1 and #ba give two sections and a view of a brake which can be used on both hanging and standing machines4 ,a very simple form of brake is shown in ,figs4 #bd1 #bf1 and #bg 7,a71 a mere block pressing on the rim of the basket4 ,,oil ,,and ,,fat4--,a machine in most respects like a whizzer is used for the extraction of oil and fat and oily and fatty matters from woolen yarns and fabrics1 and such other fibrous material or mixtures of materials as are from their nature affected in color or quality when hydrocarbons are used for the purpose of extracting such oily or fatty matters1 and are subsequently removed from the material under treatment by the slow process of admitting steam1 or using other means of raising the temperature to the respective boiling points of such hydrocarbons1 and so driving them off by evaporation4 ,in the centrifugal method carbon-bisulphide1 or some other volatile agent1 is admitted and is driven through the material by centrifugal force1 when the necessary reactions take place1 and is allowed to escape in the form of hydrocarbons4 ,a machine differing only in slight particulars from the above is used for cleansing wool4 ,,loose ,,fiber4--,another application is the drying of loose fiber4 ,two distinctive points deserve to be noticed in the centrifugal used for this purpose4 ,an endless chain or belt provided with blades moves the material vertically in the basket1 and discharges it over the edge4 ,during its upward course the material is subjected to a shower of water to wash it4 ,,oil ,,from ,,metal ,,chips4--,very material savings are made in many factories by collecting the metal chips and turnings1 coated and mixed with oil1 which fall from the various machines1 and extracting the oil centrifugally4 ,the separator consists of a chip holder1 having an imperforate shell flaring upward and outward from the spindle 7in fixed bearings7 to which it is attached4 ,when filled1 a cover is placed upon it and keyed to the spindle4 ,between the cover and holder there is a small annular opening through which oil1 but not chips1 can escape4 ,fig4 #bi 7,pat4 #bbe1idi--;,c4,f4 ,roper7 is designed 7like the greater part of the drawings inserted7 to show relative position of parts merely1 and not relative size4 ,this style of machine can be used for sugar separating 7,pat4 #cde1iid--;,f4,p4 ,sherman7 and many other purposes1 to which1 however1 there are other styles more especially adapted4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,,filterers4--,there are two distinct kinds of centrifugal filterers1 working on different principles4 ,petroleum separators 7,pat4 #bag1jfc7 are of the first kind4 ,they are in form in all respects like a sugar machine4 ,the flakes of paraffine1 stearine1 etc41 which are to be extracted1 when chilled are very brittle and would be disintegrated upon being hurled against a plain wire gauze and would escape4 ,even a woven fabric presents too harsh a surface4 ,it is necessary to have a very elastic basket lining of wool1 cotton1 or other fibrous material4 ,the basket itself may be either wire or perforated1 but must have a perfectly smooth bottom4 ,as the pressure of the liquor upon the filtering medium per unit of surface depends entirely upon its radial depth1 mere tubes1 connecting a central inlet with an annular compartment1 will serve the purpose quite as well as a whole basket4 ,in this style of machine 7,pat4 #aj1deg7 the filtering material constitutes a wall between two annular compartments4 ,the outer one is connected with a vacuum apparatus4 ,filterers of the second kind work on the following principle3 ,if a cylinder be rapidly revolved in a liquid in which solid particles are suspended1 the liquid will be drawn into a like rotation and the heavy particles will be thrown to the outer part of the receptacle4 ,if a perforated cylinder is used as stirrer1 the purified liquid will escape into it through the perforations and may be conducted away4 ,the impurities1 likewise1 after falling down the sides of the receptacle1 are carried off4 ,the advantages of this method are that no filtering material is needed and the filtering surface is never in contact with anything but pure liquor4 ,very fine sawdust is1 to a considerable extent1 employed in sugar refineries as a filtering medium4 ,by such use the sawdust becomes mixed with sand1 fine particles of cane1 etc4 ,as sawdust of such fineness is expensive1 it is desirable to purify it in order to reuse it4 ,a centrifugal 7,pat4 #cec1gge--;,j4,v4,v4 ,booraem7 built on the following principle is used for this purpose4 ,it has been observed that by rotating rather slowly small particles of various substances in water1 the finer particles will be thrown outward and deposit near the circumference of the vessel1 while the heavier and coarser particles will deposit nearer to or at the center1 their centrifugal force not being sufficient to carry them out4 ,a mere rod1 extending radially in both directions1 serves by its rotation to set the water in motion4 ,another form of filter of this second kind 7,pat4 #adh1eac7 has a rotating imperforate basket into which the impure liquor is run4 ,within and concentric with it is another cylinder whose walls are of some filtering medium4 ,the liquid already partly purified by centrifugal force passes through into the inner cylinder1 thus becoming further purified4 ,centrifugal filters are used also to cleanse gums for varnishes4 ,,honey4--,the simplest form of honey extractor 7,pat4 #fa1baf7 consists of a square framework1 symmetrical with respect to a vertical spindle4 ,this framework is surrounded by a wire gauze4 ,the combs1 after having the heads of the cells cut off1 are placed in comb-holders against the wire netting on the four sides1 the cells pointing outward4 ,the machine is turned by hand4 ,the honey is hurled against the walls of a receiving case and caught below4 ,but few improvements have been made on this4 ,the latest machines are still hand-driven1 as a sufficiently high velocity can be obtained in this manner4 ,in one style the combs are placed upon a floor which rests upon springs4 ,the rotating box is given a slight vertical and horizontal reciprocatory motion1 by which the combs are made to grate on the wire gauze sides1 breaking the cells and liberating the honey4 ,thus the labor of cutting the cells is saved4 ,every comb has two sides1 and to present each side in succession to the outside without removing from the basket1 several devices have been patented4 ,in some the comb holders are hinged in the corners of the basket1 and have an angular motion of ninety degrees4 ,decreasing the speed is sufficient to swing these4 ,the other side is then emptied by revolving in the opposite direction4 ,in one case each holder has a spindle of its own1 connected with the main spindle by gearing and1 to present opposite side1 turns through #ahj4 ,the usual number of sides and hence of comb holders is four1 but eight have been used4 ,there are minor differences in details of construction1 looking to the most convenient removal and insertion of comb1 the reception of the extracted honey in cups1 buckets1 etc41 and the best method of giving rapid rotation1 which cannot be touched upon4 ,the product of the operation is white and opaque1 but upon heating regains its golden color and transparency4 ,,starch4--,a centrifugal to separate starch from triturated grain1 carried in suspension in water1 is as follows4 7,pat4 #bgc1abg--,mller ,decastro47 ,the starch water is led to the bottom of a basket1 and1 as starch is heavier than the gluten with which it is mixed1 the former will be immediately compacted against the periphery of the basket1 lodging first in the lower corner1 the starch and gluten forming two distinct strata4 ,a tube with a cutting edge enters the compacted mass so deeply as to peel off the gluten and part of the starch1 which is carried through the tube to another compartment of the basket1 just above1 where the same operation is performed1 and so on4 ,there may be only one compartment1 the tube carrying the gluten directly out of the machine4 ,these machines are continuous working1 and hence some way must be devised to carry the water off4 ,the inner surface of the water is1 as we have seen1 a cylinder4 ,when the diameter of this cylinder becomes too small1 overflow must be allowed4 ,one plan is to have an overflow opening made in the bottom of the basket in such a way that as the starch wall thickens1 the opening recedes toward the center4 ,the starch wall is either lifted out in cakes or put again in suspension by spraying water on it and conducting the mixture off4 ,a centrifugal 7,pat4 #gd1jba7 to separate liquids from paints depends on building a wall of paint on the sides of the basket and carrying the liquids off at the center4 ,a centrifugal 7,pat4 #caj1dfi7 for assorting wood pulp1 paper pulp1 etc41 works by massing the constituents in two or three cylindrical strata1 and after action severing and removing these separately4 ,,brewing4--,in brewing1 centrifugals are quite useful4 ,after the wort has been boiled with hops1 albuminous matters are precipitated by the tannic acid1 which must be extracted4 ,besides these the mixture frequently contains husk1 fiber1 and gluten4 ,the machine 7,pat4 #cae1hgf71 although quite unique in construction1 has the same principle of working as a sugar centrifugal1 and need not be described4 ,there is one point1 however1 which might be noticed--that air is introduced at about the same point as the material1 and has an oxidizing and refrigerating effect4 ,class ,i4 includes also centrifugals for the following purposes3 ,the removal of must from the grape after crushing1 making butter1 extracting oils from solid fats1 separating the liquid and solid parts of sewerage1 drying hides1 skins1 spent tan and the like1 drying coils of wire4 ,,horizontal ,,centrifugals4--,only vertical machines have been and will be dealt with4 ,horizontal centrifugals1 that is1 those whose spindles are horizontal have been made1 but the great inconvenience of charging and discharging connected with them has occasioned their disuse2 though in other respects for liquids they are quite as good as vertical separators4 ,their underlying theory is practically the same as that hereinbefore discussed4 ,,class ,,ii41 ,,creamers4--,centrifugals of the second class separate liquids from liquids4 ,there are two main applications in this class--to separate cream from milk and fusel oil from alcoholic liquors4 ,when a liquid is to be separated from a liquid1 the receptacle must be imperforate4 ,the components of different specific gravity become arranged in distinct concentric cylindrical strata in the basket1 and must be conducted away separately4 ,in creamers the particles of cream must not be broken or subjected to any concussion1 as partial churning is caused and the cream will1 in consequence1 sour more rapidly4 ,the chief cause of oscillations in machines of this class1 where the charge is liquid1 is the waves which form on the inner surface4 ,they may be met by allowing a slight overflow over the inner edge of the rim of the basket2 or by having either horizontal partitions1 or vertical1 radial ones1 special cases of which will be noticed4 ,oscillations may also be met in the same manner as in sugar machines1 by allowing the revolving parts to revolve about an axis through their common center of gravity4 7,pat4 #cfj1cdb--;,j4 ,evans47 ,the crudest form of creamer contains a number of bottles1 with their necks all directed toward the spindle1 filled with milk4 ,the necks1 in which the cream collects1 are graduated to tell when the operation is complete4 ,many methods for introducing the milk into creamers have been devised4 ,it may run in from the top at the center1 or emerge from a pipe at the bottom of the basket2 or the spindle may be hollow and the milk sucked up through it from a basin below4 ,it is usual to let the milk enter under hydrostatic pressure 7,pat4 #bci1ijj--;,d4 ,m4 ,weston7 and let the force of expulsion of the cream be dependent on this pressure4 ,this renders the escape quiet1 and prevents churning4 ,gravity1 too1 is made effective in carrying the constituents off4 ,the cream may escape through a passage in the bottom at the center1 and the skim milk at the lower outer corner2 or by ingeniously managed passages both may escape at or near center4 ,the rate of discharge can be managed by regulating the size of opening of exit passages4 ,a curious method consists in having discharge pipes provided with valves and floats at their lower ends1 dipping into the liquid 7,pat4 #bdj1age74 ,the valves are opened and closed1 or partially opened or closed1 by the floats attached to them1 these floats being so constructed and arranged with reference to their specific gravity and the specific gravity of the component parts of the liquids operated upon1 that they will permit only a liquid of a determinate specific gravity to escape through the pipes to which they are respectively attached4 ,we may have tubes directed into the different strata with cutting edges4 7,pat4 #bhh1ghb47 ,a remarkable fact noticed in their use is that these edges wear as rapidly as if solids were cut instead of liquids4 ,the separated fluids may be received into recessed rings1 having discharge pipes1 the proportionate quantity discharged being regulated by the proximity of the discharge lips to the surface of the ring1 and the centrifugal force being availed of to project the liquids through the discharge pipes4 ,there is a very simple device by which a very rapid circulation of the liquid is brought about4 7,pat4 #ceh1ehg--;,c4,a4 ,backstrom47 ,the basket has radial vertical partitions1 all but one having communicating holes1 alternately in upper and lower corners4 ,the milk is delivered into the basket on one side of this imperforate partition and must travel the whole circuit of the basket through these communicating holes1 until it reaches the partition again1 and then passes into a discharge pipe4 ,thus during this long course every particle of cream escapes to the center4 ,as the holes are close to the walls of the basket1 the cream has not the undulatory motion of the milk1 which would injure it4 ,the greater the number of partitions1 the longer is the travel of the milk1 and the more rapid the circulation4 ,blades have been devised similar to the above1 having communicating passages extending the whole width of the blade1 but we see that here the cream would circulate with the milk2 which must not be allowed4 ,curved blades have been used1 and paddles and stirrers1 to set the milk in motion1 but to them the same objection may be made4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj ,fig4 #cj 7,pat4 #cee1jdh--;,c4,a4 ,backstrom7 illustrates one of the latest and best styles of creamers4 ,the milk enters at ,c4 ,the skim milk passes into tube1 ,t1 and the cream goes to the center and passes out of the openings in the bottom1 kl1 k#b1 and k#c1 out of the slit1 k1 and thence out through ,d#e4 ,the skim milk moves through ,t1 becoming more thoroughly separated all the while1 and at each of the radial branch tubes1 ,t#a1 ,t#b1 ,t#c1 and ,t#d1 some cream leaves it and goes to the center1 while it passes down out of slit1 t#c1 and thence out of ,d#f4 ,fig4 #ca 7,pat4 #cee1jej--;,c4,a4 ,backstrom7 shows another very late style of creamer4 ,a pipe delivers the milk into ,p#d4 ,passing out of the tube separation takes place1 and cream falls down the center to ,p#b and out of ,o#c4 ,when the compartment under the first shelf becomes full of the skim milk1 the latter passes up through the slot1 ,s1 strikes a radial partition1 ,r1 and its course is reversed4 ,here more cream separates and passes to center and falls directly1 and so on through the whole series of annular compartments1 until the top one1 when the skim milk enters tube ,t#b and passes out of ,o#b4 ,by this operation there are substantially repeated subjections of specified quantities of milk to the action of centrifugal force1 bringing about a thorough separation4 ,by changing the course of the milk in direction1 its path is made longer4 ,this machine can run at much lower speed than many other styles1 and yet do the same work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca ,,class ,,iii41 ,,solids ,,from ,,solids4--,as for grain machines1 which are in this class1 it may be said that in centrifugal flour bolters1 bran cleaners1 and middlings purifiers1 though theoretically centrifugal force plays an important part in their action1 yet practically the real separation is brought about by other agencies3 in some by brushes which rub the finer particles through wire netting as they rotate against it4 ,the principle exhibited in a separator of grains and seeds is very neat4 7,pat4 #afg1big47 ,see ,fig4 #cb4 ,that part of the machine with which we have to do consists essentially of a horizontal revolving disk4 ,the mixed grains are cast on this disk1 pass to the edge1 and are hurled off at a tangent4 ,suppose at ,a4 ,each particle is immediately acted on by three forces4 ,for all particles of the same size and having the same velocity the resistance of the air may be taken the same1 that is1 proportional to the area presented4 ,the acceleration of gravity is the same2 but the inertia of the heavier grain is greater4 ,the resultant of the two conspiring forces ,r and 7,mv#b7_/b varies1 and is greater for a heavier grain4 ,therefore1 the paths described in the air will vary1 especially in length2 and how this is utilized the drawing illustrates4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,,ore4--,in ore machines there is one for pulverizing and separating coal 7,pat4 #cjf1edd71 in which there is a breaker provided with helical blades or paddles1 partaking of rapid rotary motion within a stationary cylinder of wire netting4 ,the dust1 constituting the valuable part of the product1 is hurled out as fast as formed4 ,in this style of machine1 beaters are necessary not only for pulverizing1 but to get up rotary motion for generating centrifugal force4 ,in the classes preceding1 the friction of the basket sufficed for this latter purpose2 but here there is no rotating basket and no definite charge4 ,as the material falls through the machine1 separation takes place4 ,various kinds of ore may be treated in the same manner4 ,an ore concentrator 7,pat4 #bed1abc71 as it is called1 consists of a pan having rotary and oscillatory motions4 ,crushed ore is delivered over the edge in water4 ,the heavy particles of the metal are thrown by centrifugal force against the rim of the pan1 overcoming the force of the water1 which carries the sand and other impurities in toward the center and away4 ,,amalgamators4--,the best ore centrifugal or separator is what is called an amalgamator4 ,the last invention 7,pat4 #cee1ieh1 ,white7 consists essentially of a pan1 a meridian section of which would give a curve whose normal at any point is in the direction of the resultant of the centrifugal force at that point and gravity4 ,there is a cover to this pan whose convexity almost fits the concavity of the pan1 leaving a space of about an inch between4 ,crushed ore with water is admitted at the center between the cover and the pan1 and is driven by centrifugal force through a mass of mercury 7which occupies part of this space between the two7 and out over the edge of the pan4 ,the particles of metal coming in contact with the mercury amalgamate1 and as the speed is regulated so that it is never great enough to hurl the mercury out1 nothing but sand1 water1 etc41 escape4 ,there have been many different constructions devised1 but this general principle runs through all4 ,by having annular flanges running down from the cover with openings placed alternately1 the mixture is compelled to follow a tortuous course1 thus giving time for all the gold or other metal to become amalgamated4 ,there are ridges in the pan1 too1 against which the amalgam lodges4 ,it is claimed for this machine that not a particle of the precious metal is lost1 and experiments seem to uphold the claim4 ,a machine for separating fine from coarse clay for porcelain or for separating the finer quality of plumbago from the coarser for lead pencils uses an imperforate basket1 against the wall of which the coarser part banks and catches under the rim4 ,the finer part forms an inner cylindrical stratum1 but is allowed to spill over the edge of the rim4 ,the mixture is introduced at the bottom of the basket at the center4 ,,class ,,iv41 ,,gases ,,and ,,solids4--,there is a very simple contrivance illustrating machines of this class used to free air from dust or other heavy solid impurities which may be in suspension4 ,see ,fig4 #cc4 ,the air enters the passage1 ,b 7if it has no considerable velocity of itself1 it must be forced in71 forms a whirlpool in the conically shaped receptable1 ,a1 and passes up out of the passage1 ,d4 ,the heavy particles are thrown on the sides and collect there and fall through opening1 ,c1 into some closed receiver4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc ,,class ,v41 ,,gases ,,and ,,liquids4--,the occluded gases in steel and other metal castings1 if not separated1 render the castings more or less porous4 ,this separation is effected by subjecting the molten metal to the action of centrifugal force under exclusion of air1 producing not only the most minute division of the particles1 but also a vacuum1 both favorable conditions for obtaining a dense metal casting4 ,most of the devices for drying steam come under this head4 ,such are those in which the steam with the water in suspension is forced to take a circular path1 by which the water is hurled by centrifugal force against the concave side of the passage and passes back to the water in the boiler4 ,,speed4--,the centrifugal force of a revolving particle varies1 as we have seen1 as the square of the angular velocity1 so that the effort has been to obtain as high a number of revolutions per minute as was consistent with safety and with the principle of the machine4 ,for example1 creamers which are small and light make #d1jjj revolutions per minute1 though the latest styles run much more slowly4 ,driers and sugar machines vary from #fjj to #b1jjj1 while on the other hand the necessity of keeping the mercury from hurling off in an amalgamator prevents its turning more rapidly than sixty or eighty times a minute4 ,however1 speed in another sense1 the speed with which the operation is performed1 is what especially characterizes centrifugal extractors4 ,in this particular a contrast between the old methods and the new is impressive4 ,under the action of gravity1 cream rises to the milk's surface1 but compare the hours necessary for this to the almost instantaneous separation in a centrifugal creamer4 ,the sugar manufacturer trusted to gravity to drain the sirup from his crystals1 but the operation was long and at best imperfect4 ,an average sugar centrifugal will separate #fjj pounds of magma perfectly in three minutes4 ,gold quartz which formerly could not pay for its mining is now making its owners' fortunes4 ,it is boasted by a ,southern company that whereas they were by old methods making twenty-five cents per ton of gold quartz1 they now by the use of the latest amalgamator make twenty-five dollars4 ,centrifugal force1 as applied in extractors1 has opened up new industries and enlarged old ones1 has lowered prices and added to our comforts1 and centrifugal extractors may well command1 as they do1 the admiration of all as wonderful examples of the way in which this busy age economizes time4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,new ,,type ,,of ,,railway ,,car4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--;,,car ,,with ,,lateral ,,passageways4 ,figs4 #a and #b give a perspective view and plan of a new style of car recently adopted by the ,bone-,guelma ,railroad ,company1 and which has isolated compartments opening upon a lateral passageway4 ,in this arrangement1 which is due to ,mr4 ,desgranges1 the lateral passageway does not extend all along one side of the car1 but passes through the center of the latter and then runs along the opposite side so as to form a letter ,s4 ,the car consists in reality of two boxes connected beneath the transverse passageway1 but having a continuous roof and flooring4 ,the two ends are provided with platforms that are reached by means of steps1 and that permit one to enter the corresponding half of the car or to pass on to the next4 ,the length from end to end is #cc feet in the mixed cars1 comprising two first-class and four second-class compartments1 and #cb feet in cars of the third class1 with six compartments4 ,the width of the compartments is #e4f and #e feet1 according to the class4 ,the passageway is #bh inches in width in the mixed cars1 and #bd in those of the third class4 ,the roof is so arranged as to afford a circulation of cool air in the interior4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--,,plan4 ,the application of the zigzag passageway has the inconvenience of slightly elongating the car1 but it is advantageous to the passengers1 who can thus enjoy a view of the landscape on both sides of the train4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,foundations ,,of ,,the ,,central ,,viaduct ,,of ,,cleveland1 ,o4 ,the ,central viaduct1 now under construction in the city of ,cleveland1 is probably the longest structure of the kind devoted entirely to street traffic4 ,the superstructure is in two distinct portions1 separated by a point of high ground4 ,the main portion1 extending across the river valley from ,hill street to ,jennings avenue1 is #b1hdj feet long on the floor line1 including the river bridge1 a swing #bcc feet in length2 the other portion1 crossing ,walworth run from ,davidson street to ,abbey street1 is #a1jic feet long4 ,add to these the earthwork and masonry approaches1 #a1dae feet long1 and we have a total length of #e1cdh feet4 ,the width of roadway is #dj feet1 sidewalks #h feet each4 ,the elevation of the roadway above the water level at the river crossing is #ajb feet4 ,the superstructure is of wrought iron1 mainly trapezoidal trusses1 varying in length from #de feet to #aej feet4 ,the river piers are of first-class masonry1 on pile and timber foundations4 ,the other supports of the viaduct are wrought iron trestles on masonry piers1 resting on broad concrete foundations4 ,the pressure on the material beneath the concrete1 which is plastic blue clay of varying degrees of stiffness mixed with fine sand1 is about one ton per square foot4 ,the ,cuyahoga valley1 which the viaduct crosses from bluff to bluff1 is composed mainly of blue clay to a depth of over #aej feet below the river level4 ,no attempt is made to carry the foundation to the rock4 ,white oak piles from #ej to #fj feet in length and #aj inches in diameter at small end are driven for the bridge piers either side of the river bed1 and these are cut off with a circular saw #ah feet below the surface of the water4 ,excavation by dredging was made to a depth of #c feet below where the piles are cut off to allow for the rising of the clay during the driving of the piles4 ,the piles are spaced about #b feet #e inches each way1 center to center4 ,the grillage or platform covering the piles consists of #ad courses of white oak timber1 #ab inches by #ab inches1 having a few pine timbers interspersed so as to allow the mass to float during construction4 ,the lower half of the platform was built on shore1 care being taken to keep the lower surface of the mass of timber out of wind4 ,the upper and lower surfaces of each timber were dressed in a ,daniels planer1 and all pieces in the same course were brought to a uniform thickness4 ,the timbers in adjacent courses are at right angles to each other4 ,the lower course is about #eh feet by #bb feet1 the top course about #ej by #bd feet1 thus allowing four steps of one foot each all around4 ,the first course of masonry is #dh feet by #ba feet #h inches2 the first course of battered work is #da feet #h inches by #af feet #c inches4 ,thus the area of the platform on the piles is #a1hef square feet1 and of the first batter course of masonry #ggg4f square feet1 or in the ratio of #b4d to #a4 ,the height of the masonry is #gh feet above the timber1 or #gc feet above the water4 ,the number of piles in each foundation is #cab4 ,the average load per pile is about #aa tons1 and the estimated pressure per square inch of the timber on the heads of the piles is about #bjj pounds4 ,to prevent the submersion of the lower courses of masonry during construction1 temporary sides of timber were drift-bolted to the margin of the upper course of the timber platform1 and carried high enough to be above the surface of the water when the platform was sunk to the head of the piles by the increasing weight of masonry4 ,the center pier is octagonal1 and is built in the same general manner as to foundations as the shore piers1 but the piles are cut off #bb feet below water1 and there are eighteen courses of timber in the grillage4 ,the diameter of the platform between parallel sides is #ec feet1 while that of the lower course of battered masonry is but #cg feet4 ,the areas are as #b1ccb to #a1adg1 or as #b to #a nearly4 ,the pressure per square inch of timber on the heads of the piles is about the same as stated above for the shore piers4 ,the number of piles under the center pier is #dhc4 ,the risks and delays by this method of constructing the foundations were much less1 and the cost also1 than if an ordinary coffer dam had been used4 ,also the total weight of the piers is much less1 as that portion below a point about two feet below the water adds nothing to their weight4 ,the piles were driven with a ,cram steam hammer weighing two tons1 in a frame weighing also two tons4 ,the iron frame rests directly upon the head of the pile and goes down with it4 ,the fall of the hammer is about #dj inches before striking the pile4 ,the total penetration of the piles into the clay averaged #bg feet4 ,the settlement of the pile during the final strokes of the hammer varied from one quarter to three quarters of an inch per blow4 ,there are #abb masonry pedestals1 of which eight are large and heavy1 carrying spans of considerable length4 ,they will all be built upon concrete beds1 except a few near the river on the north side1 where piles are required4 ,the four abutments with their retaining walls are of first-class rock-faced masonry4 ,the footing courses are stepped out liberally1 so as to present an unusually large bottom surface4 ,they rest on beds of concrete #d feet thick4 ,the foundation pits are about #ej feet below the top of the bluffs1 and are in a material common to the ,cleveland plateau1 a mixture of blue sand and clay1 with some water4 ,the estimated load of masonry on the earth at the bottom of the concrete is one and seven tenths tons to the square foot4 ,two of the large abutments were completed last season4 ,they show an average settlement of three eighths of an inch since the lower footing courses were laid4 ,the facts and figures here given regarding the viaduct were kindly furnished by the city civil engineer1 ,c4,g4 ,force1 who has the work in charge4--,jour4 ,asso4 of ,eng4 ,societies4 99 99 99 99 99 ,for sticking paper to zinc1 use starch paste with which a little ,venice turpentine has been incorporated1 or else use a dilute solution of white gelatine or isinglass4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,centrifugal ,,pumps ,,at ,,mare ,,island ,,navy ,,yard1 ,,california4#a ,footnote #a3 ,built by the ,southwark ,foundry and ,machine ,company1 of ,philadelphia4 ,by ,h4,r4 ,,cornelius4 ,in ,december1 #ahhc1 bids were asked for by the ,united ,states government on pumping machinery1 to remove the water from a dry dock for vessels of large size4 ,the dimensions of the dock1 which is situated on ,san ,pablo ,bay1 directly opposite the city of ,vallejo1 are as follows3 ,five hundred and twenty-nine feet wide at its widest part1 #cf feet deep1 with a capacity at mean tide of #i1jjj1jjj gallons4 ,after receiving the contract1 several different sizes of pumps were considered1 but the following dimensions were finally chosen3 ,two #db inch centrifugal pumps1 with runner #ff inches in diameter and discharge pipes #db inches1 each driven direct by a vertical engine with #bh inch diameter cylinder and #bd inch stroke4 ,these were completed and shipped in ,june1 #ahhe1 on nine cars1 constituting a special train1 which arrived safely at its destination in the short space of two weeks1 and the pumps were there erected on foundations prepared by the government4 ,from the ,report of the ,chief of ,bureau of ,yards and ,docks ,i quote the following account of the official tests3 ,the board appointed to make the test resolved to fill the dock to about the level that would attain in actual service with a naval ship of second rate in the dock1 and the tide at a stage which would give the minimum pumping necessary to free the dock4 ,the level of the #bjth altar was considered as the proper point1 and the water was admitted through two of the gates of the caisson until this level was reached2 they were then closed4 ,the contents of the dock at this point is #e1ifc1iba gallons4 ,the trial was commenced and continued to completion without any interruption in a very satisfactory manner4 ,in the separate trials had of each pump1 the average discharge per minute was taken of the whole process1 and there was a singular uniformity throughout with equal piston speed of the engine4 ,it was to be expected1 and in a measure realized1 that during the first moments of the operations1 when the level of the water in the dock was above the center of the runner of the pumps1 that the discharge would be proportioned to the work done1 where no effort was necessary to maintain a free and full flow through the suction pipes2 but as the level passed lower and farther away from the center there was no apparent diminution of the flow1 and no noticeable addition to the load imposed on the engine4 ,the variation in piston speed1 noted during the trial1 was probably due to the variation of the boiler pressure1 as it was difficult to preserve an equal pressure1 as it rose in spite of great care1 owing to the powerful draught and easy steaming qualities of the boilers4 ,after the trial of the second pump had been completed the dock was again filled through the caisson1 and as both pumps were to be tried1 the water was admitted to a level with the #bc;d altar1 containing #g1cag1ggi gallons1 which was seven feet above the center of the pumps2 this was in favor of the pumps for the reasons before stated4 ,in this case all the boilers were used4 ,everything moved most admirably1 and the performance of these immense machines was almost startling4 ,by watching the water in the dock it could be seen to lower bodily1 and so rapidly that it could be detected by the eye without reference to any fixed point4 ,the well which communicates with the suction tunnel was open1 and the water would rise and fall1 full of rapid swirls and eddies1 though far above the entrance of these tunnels4 ,through the man hole in the discharge culvert the issuance from the pipes could be seen1 and its volume was beyond conception4 ,it flowed rapidly through the culvert1 and its outfall was a solid prism of water1 the full size of the tunnel1 projecting far into the river4 ,during a pumping period of #ee minutes1 the dock had been emptied from the twenty-third to two inches above the sixth altar1 containing #f1baj1fih gallons1 an average throughout of #aab1ibb gallons per minute4 ,at one time1 when the revolutions were increased to #afj per minute1 the discharge was #acg1gig gallons per minute4 ,this is almost a river1 and is hardly conceivable4 ,after the pumps were stopped1 on this occasion1 tests were made with each in succession as to the power of the ejectors with which each is fitted to recharge the pumps4 ,the valves in the discharge pipe were closed and steam admitted to the ejector1 the pump being still and no water in the gauge glass on the pump casing1 which must be full before the pumps will work4 ,the suction pipe of the ejector is only two and a half inches in diameter1 the steam pipe one inch in diameter4 ,to fully charge the pumps at this point required filling the pump casing and the suction pipe containing about #b1jjj gallons2 this was accomplished in four minutes1 and when the gauge glass was full the pump operated instantly and with certainty1 discharging its full volume of water4 ,i went on several occasions down in the valve pits on the ladder of the casing1 and to all accessible parts while in motion at its highest speed1 and there was no undue vibration1 only a uniform murmur of well-balanced parts1 and the peculiar clash of water against the sides of the casing as its velocity was checked by the blank spaces in the runner4 ,the pumps are noisy while at work1 due to the clashing of the water just mentioned1 but it affords a means of detecting any faulty arrangements of the runner or unequal discharge from any of its openings4 ,while moving at a uniform speed1 this clashing has a tone whose pitch corresponds with that velocity of discharge1 and if this tone is lacking in quality1 or at all confused1 there is want of equality of discharge through the various openings of the runner4 ,to this part ,i gave close attention1 and there was nothing that the ear could detect to indicate aught but the nicest adjustment4 ,the bearings of the runners worked with great smoothness1 and did not become at all heated4 ,through a simple1 novel arrangement1 these bearings are lubricated and kept cool4 ,there is a constant circulation of water from the pumps by means of a small pipe1 which completes a circuit to an annular in the bearings back to the discharge pipe while the pump is in motion1 requiring no oil and making it seemingly impossible to heat these bearings4 ,the large cast steel valves placed in the embouchement of the casing1 it was thought1 might act to check the free discharge1 and arrangements were provided for raising and keeping them open by a long lever key attached to their axes of revolution1 but1 to our great surprise1 at the first gush from the pumps these valves1 weighing nearly #a1ejj pounds1 were lifted into their recessed chambers1 giving an unobstructed opening to the flow1 and they floated on its surface unsupported1 save by the swiftly flowing water1 without a movement1 while the pump was in operation4 ,the steam-actuated valves in the suction and discharge pipes worked very well1 and the water cushion gave a slow1 uniform motion1 and without shock1 either in opening or closing them4 ,the engines worked noiselessly1 without shock or labor4 ,at no time during the trial was the throttle valve open more than three-eighths of an inch4 ,the indicator cards taken at various intervals gave #gif horse power1 and the revolutions did not exceed #afj at any time1 though it was estimated that #ijj horse power and #baj revolutions would be necessary to attain the requisite delivery4 ,so that there is a large reserve of power available at any time4 ,the erection of this massive machinery has been admirably done4 ,the parts1 as sent from the shops of the contractor1 have matched in all cases without interference here2 and1 when lowered into place1 its final adjustment was then made without the use of chisel or file1 and has never been touched since4 ,the joints of the steam and water connections were perfect1 and the method of concentrating all valves1 waste pipes1 and important movements at the post of the engineer in charge gives him complete control of the whole system of each engine and pump without leaving his place1 and reduces to a minimum the necessary attendance4 ,all the parts are strong and of excellent design and workmanship2 simple1 and without ornamentation4 ,looking down upon them from a level of the pump house gallery1 they are impressive and massive in their simplicity4 ,the government is well worth of congratulation in possessing the largest pumping machinery of this type and of the greatest capacity in the world1 and the contractors have reason to be proud of their work4--,proc4 ,eng4 ,club4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,part ,,that ,,electricity ,,plays ,,in ,,crystallization4 ,since the discovery of the multiplying galvanometer1 we know for an absolute certainty that in every chemical action there is a production of electricity in a more or less notable quantity1 according to the nature of the bodies in presence4 ,though1 in the play of affinity1 there is a manifestation of electricity1 is it the same with cohesion1 which also is a chemical force8 ,we know1 on another hand1 that1 on causing electricity to intervene1 we bring about the crystallization of a large number of substances4 ,but is the converse true8 ,is spontaneous crystallization accompanied with an appreciable manifestation of electricity8 ,if we consult the annals of science and works treating on electricity in regard to this subject1 we find very few examples and experiments proper to elucidate the question4 ,mr4 ,mascart is content to say3 ,some experiments seem to indicate that the solidification of a body produces electricity4 ,mr4 ,becquerel does more than doubt--he denies3 ,as regards the disengagement of electricity in the changing of the state of bodies1 we find none4 ,this assertion is too sweeping1 for further along we shall cite facts that prove1 on the contrary1 that in the phenomena of crystallization 7to speak of this change of state only7 there is an unequivocal production of electricity4 ,let us remark1 in the first place1 that when a number of phenomena of physical and chemical order incontestably testify to the very intimate correlation that exists between the molecular motions of bodies and their electrical state1 it would not be very logical to grant that electricity is absent in crystallization4 ,thus1 to select an example from among physical effects1 the vibratory phenomena that occur in telephone transmissions1 under the influence of a very feeble electric current1 show us that the molecular constitution of a solid body is extremely variable1 although within slight limits4 ,the feeblest modification in the electric current may be shown by molecular motions capable of propagating themselves to considerable distances in the conducting wire4 ,conversely1 it is logical to suppose that a modification in the molecular state of a body must bring electricity into play4 ,if1 in the phenomena of solidification1 and particularly of crystallization1 we collect but small quantities of electricity1 that may be due to the fact that1 under the experimental conditions involved1 the electricity is more or less completely absorbed by the work of crystal building4 ,on another hand1 the behavior of electricity shows in advance the multiple role that this agent may play in the various physical1 chemical1 and mechanical phenomena4 ,there is no doubt that electricity exists immovable or in circulation everywhere1 latent or imperceptible1 around us1 and within ourselves1 and that it enters as a cause into the majority of the chemical1 physical1 and mechanical phenomena that are constantly taking place before our eyes4 ,a body cannot change state1 nature1 temperature1 form1 or place1 even1 without electricity being brought into play1 and without its accompanying such modifications1 if it presides therein4 ,like heat1 it is the natural agent par excellence2 it is the invisible and ever present force which1 in the ultimate particles of matter1 causes those motions1 vibrations1 and rotations that have the effect of changing the properties of bodies4 ,upon entering their intimate structure1 it orients or groups their atoms1 and separates their molecules or brings them together4 ,from this1 would it not be surprising if it did not intervene in the wonderful phenomenon of crystallization8 ,crystallization1 in fact1 depends upon cohesion1 and1 in the thermic theory1 this force is not distinct from affinity1 just as solution and dissociation are not distinct from combination4 ,on this occasion1 it is necessary to say that1 between affinity1 heat1 and electricity there is such a correlation1 such a dependency1 that physicists have endeavored to reduce to one single principle all the causes that are now distinct4 ,the mechanical theory of heat has made a great stride in this direction4 ,the equivalence of the thermic1 mechanical and chemical forces has been demonstrated2 the only question hereafter will be to select from among such forces the one that must be adopted as the sole principle1 in order to account for all the phenomena that depend upon these causes of various orders4 ,but in the present state of science1 it is not yet possible to explain completely by heat or electricity1 taken isolatedly1 all the effects dependent upon the causes just mentioned4 ,we must confine ourselves for the present to a study of the relations that exist between the principal natural forces--affinity1 molecular forces1 heat1 electricity1 and light4 ,but from the mutual dependence of such forces1 it is admitted that1 in every natural phenomenon1 there is a more or less apparent simultaneous concurrence of these causes4 ,in order to explain electric or magnetic phenomena1 and also those of crystallization1 it is admitted that the atoms of which bodies are composed are surrounded1 each of them1 with a sort of atmosphere formed of electric currents1 owing to which these atoms are attracted or repelled on certain sides1 and produce those varied effects that we observe under different circumstances4 ,according to this theory1 then1 atoms would be small electro-magnets behaving like genuine magnets4 ,entirely free in gases1 but less so in liquids and still less so in solids1 they are nevertheless capable of arranging themselves and of becoming polarized in a regular order1 special to each kind of atom1 in order to produce crystals of geometrical form characteristic of each species4 ,thus1 as ,mr4 ,saigey remarks in ,physique ,moderne 7p4 #aha73 ,so long as the atmospheres of the molecules do not touch each other1 no trace of cohesion manifests itself2 but as soon as they come together force is born4 ,we understand why the temperatures of fusion and solidification are fixed for the same body4 ,such effects occur at the precise moment at which these atmospheres1 which are variable with the temperature1 have reached the desired diameter4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #a41 #b41 and #c4 ,although the phenomenon of crystallization does not essentially depend upon temperature1 but rather upon the relative quantity of liquid that holds the substance in solution1 it will be conceived that a moment will arrive when1 the liquid having evaporated1 the atmospheres will be close enough to each other to attract each other and become polarized and symmetrically juxtaposed1 and1 in a word1 to crystallize4 ,before giving examples of the production of electricity in the phenomenon of crystallization1 it will be well to examine1 beforehand1 the different circumstances under which electricity acts as the determining cause of crystallization or intervenes among the causes that bring about the phenomenon4 ,in the first place1 two words concerning crystallization itself3 ,we know that crystallization is the passage1 or rather the result of the passage1 of a body from a liquid or gaseous state to a solid one4 ,it occurs when the substance has lost its cohesion through any cause whatever1 and when1 such cause ceasing to act1 the body slowly returns to a solid state4 ,under such circumstances1 it may take on regular1 geometrical forms called crystalline4 ,such conditions are brought about by different processes--fusion1 volatilization1 solution1 the dry way1 wet way1 and electric way4 ,further along1 we shall give some examples of the last named means4 ,let us add that crystallization may be regarded as a general property of bodies1 for the majority of substances are capable of crystallizing4 ,although certain bodies seem to be amorphous at first sight1 it is only necessary to examine their fracture with a lens or microscope to see that they are formed of a large number of small juxtaposed crystals4 ,many amorphous precipitates become crystalline in the long run4 ,in the examination of the various crystallizations that occupy us1 we shall distinguish the following3 7#a7 ,those that are produced through the direct intervention of the electric current2 7#b7 those in which electricity is manifestly produced by small voltaic couples resulting from the presence of two different metals in the solution experimented with2 7#c7 those in which there are no voltaic couples1 but in which it is proved that electricity is one of the causes that concur in the production of the phenomenon2 7#d7 finally1 those in which it is rational1 through analogy with the preceding1 to infer that electricity is not absent from the phenomenon4 ,i4 ,we know that1 by means of voltaic electricity or induction1 we can crystallize a large number of substances4 ,despretz tried this means for months at a time upon carbon1 either by using the electricity from a ,ruhmkorff coil or the current from a weak ,daniell's battery4 ,in both cases1 he obtained on the platinum wires a black powder1 in which were found very small octohedral crystals1 having the property of polishing rubies rapidly and perfectly--a property characteristic of diamonds4 ,the use of voltaic apparatus of high tension has allowed ,mr4 ,cross to form a large number of mineral substances artificially1 and among these we may mention carbonate of lime1 arragonite1 quartz1 arseniate of copper1 crystalline sulphur1 etc4 ,as regards products formed with the concurrence of electricity 7oxides1 sulphides1 chlorides1 iodides1 etc471 see ,des ,forces ,physico-,chimiques1 by ,becquerel 7p4 #bca74 ,there is no doubt as to the part played by electricity in the chemical effects of electro-metallurgy1 but it will not prove useless for our subject to remark that when1 in this operation1 the current has become too weak1 the deposit of metal1 instead of forming in a thin1 adherent1 and uniform layer1 sometimes occurs under the form of protuberances and crystalline1 brittle nodules4 ,when1 on the contrary1 the current is very strong1 the deposit is pulverulent1 that is1 in a confused crystallization or in an amorphous state4 ,further along1 we shall find an application of this remark4 ,we obtain1 moreover1 all the intermediate effects of cohesion1 form1 and color of galvanic deposits4 ,when1 into a solution of acetate of lead1 we pass a current through two platinum electrodes1 we observe the formation1 at the negative pole1 of numerous arborizations of metallic lead that grow under the observer's eye 7,fig4 #a74 ,the phenomenon is of a most interesting character when1 by means of solar or electric light1 we project these brilliant vegetations on a screen4 ,one might believe that he was witness of the rapid growth of a plant 7,fig4 #b74 ,the same phenomenon occurs none the less brilliantly with a solution of nitrate of silver4 ,a large number of saline solutions are adapted to these decompositions1 in which the metal is laid bare under a crystalline form4 ,further along we shall see another means of producing analogous ramifications1 without the direct use of the electric current4--,c4 ,decharme1 in ,la ,lumiere ,electrique4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,electric ,,time4 ,by ,m4 ,,lippmann4 ,the unit of time universally adopted1 the second1 undergoes only very slow secular variations1 and can be determined with a precision and an ease which compel its employment4 ,still it is true that the second is an arbitrary and a variable unit--arbitrary1 in as far as it has no relation with the properties of matter1 with physical constants2 variable1 since the duration of the diurnal movement undergoes causes of secular perturbation1 some of which1 such as the friction of the tides1 are not as yet calculable4 ,we may ask if it is possible to define an absolutely invariable unit of time2 it would be desirable to determine with sufficient precision1 if only once in a century1 the relation of the second to such a unit1 so that we might verify the variations of the second indirectly and independently of any astronomical hypothesis4 ,now1 the study of certain electrical phenomena furnishes a unit of time which is absolutely invariable1 as this magnitude is a specific constant4 ,let us consider a conductive substance which may always be found identical with itself1 and to fix our ideas let us choose mercury1 taken at the temperature of #j ,c41 which completely fulfills this condition4 ,we may determine by several methods the specific electric resistance1 rho1 of mercury in absolute electrostatic units2 rho is a specific property of mercury1 and is consequently a magnitude absolutely invariable4 ,moreover1 rho is an interval of time4 ,we might1 therefore1 take rho as a unit of time1 unless we prefer to consider this value as an imperishable standard of time4 ,in fact1 rho is not simply a quantity the measure of which is found to be in relation with the measure of time4 ,it is a concrete interval of time1 disregarding every convention established with reference to measures and every selection of unit4 ,it may at first sight1 appear singular that an interval of time is found in a manner hidden under the designation electric resistance4 ,but we need merely call to mind that in the electrostatic system the intensities of the current are speeds of efflux and that the resistances are times1 i4e41 the times necessary for the efflux of the electricity under given conditions4 ,we must1 in particular1 remember what is meant by the specific resistance1 rho of mercury in the electrostatic system4 ,if we consider a circuit having a resistance equal to that of a cube of mercury1 the side of which the unit of length1 the circuit being submitted to an electromotive force equal to unity1 this circuit will take a given time to be traversed by the unit quantity of electricity1 and this time is precisely rho4 ,it must be remarked that the selection of the unit of length1 like that of the unit of mass1 is indifferent1 for the different units brought here into play depend on it in such a manner that rho is not affected4 ,it is now required to bring this definition experimentally into action1 i4e41 to realize an interval of time which may be a known multiple of rho4 ,this problem may be solved in various ways1#a and especially by means of the following apparatus4 ,footnote #a3 ,in this system the measurement of time is not effected1 as ordinarily1 by observing the movements of a material system1 but by experiments of equilibrium4 ,all the parts of the apparatus remain immovable1 the electricity alone being in motion4 ,such appliances are in a manner clepsydr4 ,this analogy with the clepsydr will be perceived if we consider the form of the following experiment3 ,two immovable metallic plates constitute the armatures of a charged condenser1 and attract each other with a force1 ,f4 ,if the plates are insulated1 these charges remain constant1 as well as the force1 ,f4 ,if1 on the contrary1 we connect the armatures of resistance1 ,r1 their charges diminish and the force1 ,f1 becomes a function of the time1 t2 the time1 t1 inversely becomes a function of ,p4 ,we find t by the following formula3 t rho 7l,s _/ ,spies7 log hyp7,f#j_/;,f7 ,f#j and ,f being the values of the force at the beginning and at the end of the time1 t4 ,the above formula is independent of the choice of units4 ,if we wish t to be expressed in seconds1 we must give rho the corresponding value 7rho #a4jeh ,x #aj-af74 ,if we take rho as a unit we make rho #a1 and we find the absolute value of the time by the expression3 7l,s7 _/ 7#hpies7 log hyp7,f#j_/;,f7 ,we remark that this expression of time contains only abstract numbers1 being independent of the choice of the units of length and force4 ,s and e denote surface and the thickness of the condenser2 s and l the section and the length of a column of mercury of the resistance1 ,r4 ,this form of apparatus enables us practically to measure the notable values of t only if the value of the resistance1 ,r1 is enormous1 the arrangement described in the text has not the same inconvenience4 ,a battery of an arbitrary electromotive force1 ,e1 actuates at the same time the two antagonistic circuits of a differential galvanometer4 ,in the first circuit1 which has a resistance1 ,r1 the battery sends a continuous current of the intensity1 ,i2 in the second circuit the battery sends a discontinuous series of discharges1 obtained by charging periodically by means of the battery a condenser of the capacity1 ,c1 which is then discharged through this second circuit4 ,the needle of the galvanometer remains in equilibrium if the two currents yield equal quantities of electricity during one and the same time1 tau4 ,let us suppose this condition of equilibrium realized and the needle remaining motionless at zero2 it is easy to write the conditions of equilibrium4 ,during the time1 tau1 the continuous current yields a ,e quantity of electricity -- tau2 on the other hand1 each charge of ,r the condenser ,,ce1 and during the time1 tau1 the number of tau discharges -----1 t being the fixed time between two discharges2 t tau and t are here supposed to be expressed by the aid of an arbitrary unit of time2 the second circuit yields1 therefore1 a tau quantity of electricity equal to ,,ce -----4 ,the condition of t ,e tau equilibrium is then ---tau ,,ce ----- 2 or1 more simply1 t ,,cr4 ,r t ,c and ,r are known in absolute values1 i4e41 we know that ,c is equal to p times the capacity of a sphere of the radius1 l2 we have1 therefore1 ,c pl2 in the same manner we know that ,r is equal to q times the resistance of a cube of mercury having l for its side4 ,we l rho have1 therefore1 ,r qrho --- q ----- 2 and consequently t pqrho4 l l ,such is the value of t obtained on leaving all the units undetermined4 ,if we express rho as a function of the second1 we have t in seconds4 ,if we take rho #a1 we have the absolute value ,theta of the same interval of time as a function of this unit2 we have simply ,theta pq4 ,if we suppose that the commutator which produces the successive charges and discharges of the condenser consists of a vibrating tuning fork1 we see that the duration of a vibration is equal to the product of the two abstract numbers1 pq4 ,it remains for us to ascertain to what degree of approximation we can determine p and q4 ,to find q we must first construct a column of mercury of known dimensions2 this problem was solved by the ,international ,bureau of ,weights and ,measures for the construction of the legal ohm4 ,the legal ohm is supposed to have a resistance equal to #ajf4jj times that of a cube of mercury of #j4ja meter1 side measurement4 ,the approximation obtained is comprised between #a_/ejjjj and #a_/bjjjjj4 ,to obtain p1 we must be able to construct a plane condenser of known capacity4 ,the difficulty here consists in knowing with a sufficient approximation the thickness of the stratum of air4 ,we may employ as armatures two surfaces of glass1 ground optically1 silvered to render them conductive1 but so slightly as to obtain by transparence ,fizeau's interference rings4 ,fizeau's method will then permit us to arrive at a close approximation4 ,in fine1 then1 we may1 a priori1 hope to reach an approximation of one hundred-thousandth of the value of pq4 ,independently of the use which may be made of it for measuring time in absolute value1 the apparatus described possesses peculiar properties4 ,it constitutes a kind of clock which indicates1 registers1 and1 if needful1 corrects automatically its own variations of speed4 ,the apparatus being regulated so that the magnetic needle may be at zero1 if the speed of the commutator is slightly increased1 the equilibrium is disturbed and the magnetic needle deviates in the corresponding direction2 if on the contrary the speed diminishes1 the action of the antagonistic circuit predominates1 and the needle deviates in the contrary direction4 ,these deviations1 when small1 are proportional to the variations of speed4 ,they may be1 in the first place1 observed4 ,they may1 further1 be registered1 either photographically or by employing a ,redier apparatus1 like that which ,m4 ,mascart has adapted to his quadrant electrometer2 finally1 we may arrange the ,redier to react upon the speed so as to reduce its variations to zero4 ,if these variations are not completely annulled1 they will still be registered and can be taken into account4 ,as an indicator of variations this apparatus can be of remarkable sensitiveness1 which may be increased indefinitely by enlarging its dimensions4 ,with a battery of #aj volts1 a condenser of a microfarad1 #aj discharges per second1 and a ,thomson's differential galvanometer sensitive to #aj-aj amperes1 we obtain already a sensitiveness of #a_/ajjjjjj1 i4e41 a variation of #a_/ajjjjjj in the speed is shown after some seconds of a deviation of one millimeter4 ,even the stroboscopic method does not admit of such sensitiveness4 ,we may therefore find1 with a very close approximation1 a speed always the same on condition that the solid parts of the apparatus 7the condenser and the resistance7 are protected from causes of variation and used always at the same temperature4 ,doubtless1 a well-constructed astronomical clock maintains a very uniform movement2 but the electric clock is placed in better conditions for invariability1 for all the parts are massive and immovable2 they are merely required to remain unchanged1 and there is no question of the wear and tear of wheel-work1 the oxidation of oils1 or the variations of weight4 ,in other words1 the system formed by a condenser and a resistance constitutes a standard of time easy of preservation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,new ,,method ,,of ,,maintaining ,,the ,,vibration ,,of ,a ,,pendulum4 ,a recent number of the ,comptes ,rendus contains a note by ,m4,j4 ,carpentier describing a method of maintaining the vibrations of a pendulum by means of electricity1 which differs from previous devices of the same character in that the impulse given to the pendulum at each vibration is independent of the strength of the current employed1 and that the pendulum itself is entirely free1 save at the point of suspension4 ,the vibrations are maintained1 not by direct impulsion1 but by a slight horizontal displacement of the point of suspension in alternate directions4 ,this1 as ,m4 ,carpentier observes1 is the method which we naturally adopt in order to maintain the amplitude of swing of a heavy body suspended from a cord held in the hand4 ,the required movement of the point of suspension is effected by means of a polarized relay1 through the coils of which the current is periodically reversed by the action of the pendulum1 in a manner which will presently be explained4 ,the armature of the relay oscillates between two stops whose distance apart is capable of fine adjustment4 ,it is clear1 therefore1 that the impulse is independent of the strength of the current in the relay1 provided that the armature is brought up to the stop on either side4 ,the reversal of the current is effected by means of a small magnet carried by the bob of the pendulum1 and which as it passes underneath the point of suspension is brought close to a soft iron armature1 which has the form of an arc of a circle described about the point of suspension4 ,this armature is pivoted at its center1 and thus executes vibrations synchronously with those of the pendulum4 ,these vibrations are adjusted to a very narrow range1 but are sufficient to close the contacts of a commutator which reverses the current at each semi-vibration of the pendulum4 ,the beauty and ingenuity of this device will readily be appreciated4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,dr4 ,,morell ,,mackenzie4 ,the name of the great ,english laryngologist1 which has long been honored by scientists of ,england and the ,continent1 has lately become familar to everyone1 even in unprofessional circles1 in ,germany because of his operations on the ,crown ,prince's throat4 ,if his wide experience and great skill enable him to permanently remove the growth from the throat of his royal patient1 if his diagnosis and prognosis are confirmed1 so that no fear need be entertained for the life and health of the ,crown ,prince1 the ,english specialist will certainly deserve the most sincere thanks of the ,german nation4 ,every phase of this treatment1 every new development1 is watched with suspense and hope4 ,many have been unable to suppress the expression of regret that this important case was not under the care of a ,german1 and part of the press look upon it as unjust treatment of the ,german specialists4 ,but science is international1 it knows no political boundaries1 and the choice of ,dr4 ,mackenzie by the family of the ,crown ,prince1 whose sympathy with ,england is natural1 cannot be considered a slight to ,german physicians when it is taken into consideration that the ,german authorities pronounced the growth suspicious and advised a difficult and doubtful operation1 and that ,prof4 v4 ,bergman recommended that a foreign authority be consulted4 ,as ,dr4 ,mackenzie removed the obstruction1 which had already become threatening and1 in fact1 dangerous1 causing a loss of voice1 and promised to remove any new growth from the inside without danger to the patient1 the ,crown ,prince naturally trusted him4 ,since ,virchow has made a microscopic examination of the part which was cut away1 and has declared the new growth to be benign1 all ,germans should watch the results of ,dr4 ,mackenzie's operations with sympathy1 trusting that all further growth will be prevented1 and that the ,crown ,prince will be restored to the ,german people in his former state of health4 ,illustration3 ,,dr4 ,,morell ,,mackenzie4 ,dr4 ,morell ,mackenzie has lately reached his fiftieth year1 and has attained the height of his fame as an author and practitioner4 ,he was born at ,leytonston in #ahcg1 and studied first in ,london4 ,at the age of twenty-two he passed his examination1 then practiced as physician in the ,london ,hospital1 and obtained his degree in #ahfb4 ,a year later he received the ,jackson prize from the ,royal ,society of ,surgeons for his treatment of a laryngeal case4 ,he completed his studies in ,paris1 ,vienna 7with ,siegmund71 and ,budapest4 ,in the latter place he worked with ,czermak1 making a special study of the laryngoscope4 ,later he published an excellent work on ,diseases of the ,throat and ,nose1 which was the fruit of twelve years' work4 ,the evening before the day on which this work was to have been issued1 the whole edition was destroyed by a fire which occurred in the printing establishment1 and had to be reprinted from the proof sheets1 which were saved4 ,in #ahgj his work ,on ,growths in the ,throat appeared1 and he has also published many articles in the ,british ,medical ,journal1 the ,lancet1 ,medical ,times and ,gazette1 etc41 which have been translated into different languages1 making his name renowned all over ,europe4 ,since he founded the first ,english hospital for diseases of the throat and chest1 in ,london in #ahfc1 and held the position of lecturer on diseases of the throat in the ,london ,medical ,college1 his career has been watched with interest by the public1 and his practice in ,england is remarkable4 ,therefore it is no wonder that his lately published work ,on the ,hygiene of the ,vocal ,organs has reached its fourth edition already4 ,this work is read not only by physicians1 but also by singers and lecturers4 ,as a learned man in his profession1 as an experienced diagnostician1 and as a skillful and fortunate practitioner1 he is surpassed by none2 and his ability will be well known far beyond the borders of ,great ,britain if fortune favors him and he restores the future ,emperor of ,germany to his former strength and vigor1 without which we cannot imagine this knightly form4 ,the certainty with which ,dr4 ,mackenzie speaks of permanent cures which he has effected in similar cases1 together with the clear and satisfactory report of the great pathologist ,virchow1 lead us to look to the future with confidence4--,illustrirte ,zeitung4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,hypnotism ,,in ,,france4#a ,footnote #a3 ,translated for ,science from ,der ,spinx4 ,the voluntary production of those abnormal conditions of the nerves which to-day are denoted by the term hypnotic researches has manifested itself in all ages and among most of the nations that are known to us4 ,within modern times these phenomena were first reduced to a system by ,mesmer1 and1 on this account1 for the future deserve the attention of the scientific world4 ,the historical description of this department1 if one intends to give a connected account of its development1 and not a series of isolated facts1 must begin with a notice of ,mesmer's personality1 and we must not confound the more recent development of our subject with its past history4 ,the period of mesmerism is sufficiently understood from the numerous writings on the subject1 but it would be a mistake to suppose that in ,braid's ,exposition of ,hypnotism the end of this subject had been reached4 ,in a later work ,i hope to show that the fundamental ideas of biomagnetism have not only had in all periods of this century capable and enthusiastic advocates1 but that even in our day they have been subjected to tests by ,french and ,english investigators from which they have issued triumphant4 ,the second division of this historical development is carried on by ,braid1 whose most important service was emphasizing the subjectivity of the phenomena4 ,without any connection with him1 and yet by following out almost exactly the same experiments1 ,professor ,heidenhain reached his physiological explanations4 ,a third division is based upon the discovery of the hypnotic condition in animals1 and connects itself to the experimentum mirabile4 ,in #ahgb the first writings on this subject appear from the pen of the physiologist ,czermak2 and since then the investigations have been continued1 particularly by ,professor ,preyer4 ,while ,england and ,germany were led quite independently to the study of the same phenomena1 ,france experienced a strange development1 which shows1 as nothing else could1 how truth everywhere comes to the surface1 and from small beginnings swells to a flood which carries irresistibly all opposition with it4 ,this fourth division of the history of hypnotism is the more important1 because it forms the foundation of a transcendental psychology1 and will exert a great influence upon our future culture2 and it is this division to which we wish to turn our attention4 ,we have intentionally limited ourselves to a chronological arrangement1 since a systematic account would necessarily fall into the study of single phenomena1 and would far exceed the space offered to us4 ,james ,braid's writings1 although they were discussed in detail in ,littr and ,robin's ,lexicon1 were not at all the cause of ,dr4 ,philips' first books1 who therefore came more independently to the study of the same phenomena4 ,braid's theories became known to him later by the observations made upon them in ,braud's ,elements of ,physiology and in ,littr's notes in the translation of ,mller's ,handbook of ,physiology2 and he then wrote a second brochure1 in which he gave in his allegiance to braidism4 ,his principal effort was directed to withdrawing the veil of mystery from the occurrences1 and by a natural explanation relegating them to the realm of the known4 ,the trance caused by regarding fixedly a gleaming point produces in the brain1 in his opinion1 an accumulation of a peculiar nervous power1 which he calls electrodynamism4 ,if this is directed in a skillful manner by the operator upon certain points1 it manifests itself in certain situations and actions that we call hypnotic4 ,beyond this somewhat questionable theory1 both books contained a detailed description of some of the most important phenomena2 but with the practical meaning of the phenomena1 and especially with their therapeutic value1 the author concerned himself but slightly4 ,just on account of this pathological side1 however1 a certain attention has been paid to hypnotism up to the present time4 ,in the year #ahdg two surgeons in ,poictiers1 ,drs4 ,ribaut and ,kiaros1 employed hypnotism with great success in order to make an operation painless4 ,this long and horrible work1 says a journal of the day1 was much more like a demonstration in a dissecting room than an operation performed upon a living being4 ,although this operation produced such an excitement1 yet it was twelve years later before decisive and positive official intelligence was given of these facts by ,broca1 ,follin1 ,velpeau1 and ,gurinau4 ,but these accounts1 as well as the excellent little book by ,dr4 ,azam1 shared the fate of their predecessors4 ,they were looked upon by students with distrust1 and by the disciples of ,mesmer with scornful contempt4 ,the work of ,demarquay and ,giraud ,teulon showed considerable advance in this direction4 ,the authors1 indeed1 fell back upon the theory of ,james ,braid1 which they called stillborn1 and of which they said1 ,elle est reste accroche en route2 but they did not satisfy themselves with a simple statement of facts1 as did ,gigot ,suard in his work that appeared about the same time4 ,through systematic experiments they tried to find out where the line of hypnotic phenomena intersected the line of the realm of the known4 ,they justly recognized that hypnotism and hysteria have many points of likeness1 and in this way were the precursors of the present ,parisian school4 ,they say that from magnetic sleep to the hypnotic condition an iron chain can be easily formed from the very same organic elements that we find in historical conditions4 ,at the same time1 as if to bring an experimental proof of this assertion1 ,lasigue published a report on catalepsy in persons of hysterical tendencies1 which be afterward incorporated into his larger work4 ,among his patients1 those who were of a quiet and lethargic temperament1 by simply pressing down the eyelids1 were made to enter into a peculiar state of languor1 in which cataleptic contractions were easily produced1 and which forcibly recalled hypnotic phenomena4 ,one can scarcely imagine1 says the author1 a more remarkable spectacle than that of a sick person sunk in deep sleep1 and insensible to all efforts to arouse him1 who retains every position in which he is placed1 and in it preserves the immobility and rigidity of a statue4 ,but this impulse also was in vain1 and in only a few cases were the practical tests followed up with theoretical explanations4 ,unbounded enthusiasm and unjust blame alike subsided into a silence that was not broken for ten years4 ,then ,charles ,richet1 a renowned scientist1 came forward in #ahge1 impelled by the duty he felt he owed as a priest of truth1 and made some announcements concerning the phenomena of somnambulism2 and in countless books1 all of which are worthy of attention1 he has since then considered the problem from its various sides4 ,he separates somnambulism into three periods4 ,the word here is used for this whole class of subjects as ,richet himself uses it1 viz41 torpeur1 excitation1 and stupeur4 ,in the first1 which is produced by the so-called magnetic passes and the fixing of the eyes1 silence and languor come over the subject4 ,the second period1 usually produced by constant repetition of the experiment1 is characterized chiefly by sensibility to hallucination and suggestion4 ,the third period has as its principal characteristics supersensibility of the muscles and lack of sensation4 ,yet let it be noticed that these divisions were not expressed in their present clearness until #ahhj2 while in the years between #ahgb and #ahhj1 from an entirely different quarter1 a similar hypothesis was made out for hypnotic phenomena4 ,jean ,martin ,charcot1 the renowned neurologist of the ,parisian ,salpetriere1 without exactly desiring it1 was led into the study of artificial somnambulism by his careful experiments in reference to hysteria1 and especially by the question of metallotherapie1 and in the year #ahgi had prepared suitable demonstrations1 which were given in public lectures at the ,salpetriere4 ,in the following years he devoted himself to closer investigation of this subject1 and was happily and skillfully assisted by ,dr4 ,paul ,richer1 with whom were associated many other physicians1 such as ,bourneville1 ,regnard1 ,fere1 and ,binet4 ,the investigations of these men present the peculiarity that they observe hypnotism from its clinical and nosographical side1 which side had until now been entirely neglected1 and that they observe patients of the strongest hysterical temperaments4 ,if we can reasonably assert that the hypnotic phenomena which depend upon the disturbance of a regular function of the organism demand for their development a peculiar temperament1 then we shall find the most marked phenomena when we turn to an hysterical person4 ,the inferences of the ,parisian school up to this time are somewhat the following1 but their results1 belonging almost entirely to the medical side of the question1 can have no place in this discussion4 ,they divide the phenomena of hystero-hypnotism1 which they also call grande hysterie1 into three plainly separable classes1 which ,charcot designates catalepsy1 lethargy1 and somnambulism4 ,catalepsy is produced by a sudden sharp noise1 or by the sight of a brightly gleaming object4 ,it also produces itself in a person who is in a state of lethargy1 and whose eyes are opened4 ,the most striking characteristic of the cataleptic condition is immobility4 ,the subject retains every position in which he is placed1 even if it is an unnatural one1 and is only aroused by the action of suggestion from the rigor of a statue to the half life of an automaton4 ,the face is expressionless and the eyes wide open4 ,if they are closed1 the patient falls into a lethargy4 ,in this second condition1 behind the tightly closed lids1 the pupils of the eyes are convulsively turned upward4 ,the body is almost entirely without sensation or power of thought4 ,especially characteristic of lethargy is the hyper-excitability of the nerves and muscles 7hyperexcitabilite neuromusculaire71 which manifests itself at the slightest touch of any object4 ,for instance1 if the extensor muscles of the arm are lightly touched1 the arm stiffens immediately1 and is only made flexible again by a hard rubbing of the same muscles4 ,the nerves also react in a similar manner4 ,the irritation of a nerve trunk not only contracts all the small nerves into which it branches1 but also all those muscles through which it runs4 ,finally1 the somnambulistic condition proceeds from catalepsy or from lethargy by means of a slight pressure upon the vertex1 and is particularly sensitive to every psychical influence4 ,in some subjects the eyes are open1 in others closed4 ,here1 also1 a slight irritation produces a certain amount of rigor in the muscle that has been touched1 but it does not weaken the antagonistic muscle1 as in lethargy1 nor does it vanish under the influence of the same excitement that has produced it4 ,in order to put an end to the somnambulistic condition1 one must press softly upon the pupil of the eye1 upon which the subject becomes lethargic1 and is easily roused by breathing upon him4 ,in this early stage1 somnambulism appears very infrequently4 ,charcot's school also recognize the existence of compound conditions1 the history of whose symptoms we must not follow here4 ,these slightly sketched results1 as well as a number of other facts1 were only obtained in the course of several years2 yet in #ahhb the fundamental investigations of this school were considered virtually concluded4 ,then ,dumont-,pallier1 the head of the ,parisian ,hospital ,piti1 came forward with a number of observations1 drawn also exclusively from the study of hystero-hypnotism1 and yet differing widely from those reached by the physicians of the ,salpetriere4 ,in a long series of communications1 he has given his views1 which have in their turn been violently attacked1 especially by ,magnin and ,brillon4 ,i give only the most important points4 ,according to these men1 the hyper-excitability of the nerves and muscles is present not only in the lethargic condition1 but in all three periods2 and in order to prove this1 we need only apply the suitable remedy1 which must be changed for each period and every subject4 ,slight irritations of the skin prove this most powerfully4 ,a drop of warm water or a ray of sunshine produces contractions of a muscle whose skin covering they touch4 ,dumont-,pallier and ,magnin accede to the theory of intermediate stages1 and have tried to lay down rules for them with as great exactness as ,charcot's school4 ,they also are very decided about the three periods1 whose succession does not appear to them as fixed2 but they discovered a new fundamental law which regulates the production as well as the cessation of the condition--,la cause qui fait1 defait2 that is1 the stimulus which produces one of the three periods needs only to be repeated in order to do away with that condition4 ,from this the following diagram of hypnotic conditions is evolved3 ,illustration ,and1 furthermore1 ,dumont-,pallier should be considered as the founder of a series of experiments1 for he was the first one to show in a decisive manner that the duality of the cerebral system was proved by these hypnotic phenomena2 and his works1 as well as those of ,messrs4 ,brillon and ,descourtis1 have brought to light the following facts3 ,under hypnotic conditions1 the psychical activity of a brain hemisphere may be suppressed without nullifying the intellectual activity or consciousness4 ,both hemispheres may be started at the same time in different degrees of activity2 and also1 when the grade is the same1 they may be independently the seat of psychical manifestations which are in their natures entirely different4 ,in close connection with this and with the whole doctrine of hemi-hypnotism1 which is founded upon these facts1 stand the phenomena of thought transference1 which we must consider later4 ,as an addition to the investigations of ,charcot and ,dumont-,pallier1 ,brmaud1 in #ahhd1 made the discovery that there was a fourth hypnotic state1 fascination1 which preceded the three others1 and manifested itself by a tendency to muscular contractions1 as well as through sensitiveness to hallucination and suggestion1 but at the same time left to the subject a full consciousness of his surroundings and remembrance of what had taken place4 ,descourtis1 in addition1 perceived a similar condition in the transition from hypnotic sleep to waking1 which he called delire posthypnotique1 and1 instead of using the word fascination to express the opening stage1 he substituted captation4 ,according to him1 the diagram would be the following3 ,illustration ,this whole movement1 which ,i have tried to sketch1 and whose chief peculiarity is that it considers hypnotism a nervous malady1 and one that must be treated clinically and nosographically1 was opposed in #ahhj in two directions--one source of opposition producing great results1 while the other fell to the ground4 ,the latter joined itself to the theory of the mesmerists1 and tried1 by means of exact experiments1 to measure the fluid emanating from the human body--an undertaking which gave slight promise of any satisfactory result4 ,baillif in his thesis 7#ahgh7 and ,chevillard in his 7for spiritualists7 very interesting books1 tried1 by means of various arguments1 to uphold the fluidic explanation4 ,despine also thought that by its help he had been able to explain the phenomena2 but it was ,barty who1 in the year #ahha1 first turned general attention in this direction4 ,according to him1 mankind possesses a nerve force which emanates from him in different kinds of streams4 ,those coming from the eyes and fingers produce insensibility to pain1 while those generated by the breath cause hypnotic conditions4 ,this nerve force goes out into the ether1 and there obeys the laws that govern light1 being broken into spectra1 etc4 ,claude ,perronnet has more lately advanced similar views1 and his greatest work is now in press4 ,frederick ,w4,h4 ,myers and ,edmund ,gurney sympathize with these views1 and try to unite them with the mesmerist doctrine of personal influence and their theory of telepathy4 ,the third champion in ,england of hypnotism1 ,prof4 ,hack ,tuke1 on the contrary1 sympathizes entirely with the ,parisian school1 only differing from them in that he has experimented with satisfactory results upon healthy subjects4 ,in ,france this view has lately been accepted by ,dr4 ,bottey1 who recognizes the three hypnotic stages in healthy persons1 but has observed other phenomena in them1 and vehemently opposes the conception of hypnotism as a malady4 ,his excellently written book is particularly commended to those who wish to experiment in the same manner as the ,french investigator1 without using hysterical subjects4 ,the second counter current that opposed itself to the ,french neuropathologists1 and produced the most lasting impression1 is expressed by the magic word suggestion4 ,a generation ago1 ,dr4 ,liebault1 the patient investigator and skillful physician1 had endeavored to make a remedial use of suggestion in his clinic at ,nancy4 ,charles ,richet and others have since referred to it1 but ,professor ,bernheim was the first one to demonstrate its full significance in the realm of hypnotism4 ,according to him1 suggestion--that is1 the influence of any idea1 whether received through the senses or in a hypersensible manner 7suggestion mentale7--is the key to all hypnotic phenomena4 ,he has not been able in a single case to verify the bodily phenomena of grandehypnotisme without finding suggestion the primary cause1 and on this account denies the truth of the asserted physical causes4 ,bernheim says that when the intense expectance of the subject has produced a compliant condition1 a peculiar capacity is developed to change the idea that has been received into an action as well as a great acuteness of acceptation1 which together will produce all those phenomena that we should call by the name of pathological sleep1 since they are only separable in a gradual way from the ordinary sleep and dream conditions4 ,bernheim is particularly strenuous that psychology should appear in the foreground of hypnotism1 and on this point has been strongly upheld by men like ,professors ,beaunis and ,richet4 ,the possibility of suggestion in waking conditions1 and also a long time after the sleep has passed off 7suggestions posthypnotiques ou suggestions a 7longue7 echeance71 as well as the remarkable capacity of subjects to change their personality 7changement de la personnalite objectivation des types71 have been made the subject of careful investigation4 ,the voluntary production of bleeding and stigmata through spiritual influence has been asserted1 particularly by ,messrs4 ,tocachon1 ,bourru1 and ,burot4 ,the judicial significance of suggestion has been discussed by ,professor ,liegeois and ,dr4 ,ladame4 ,professor ,pitres in ,bordeaux is one of the suggestionists1 though differing in many points from the ,nancy school4 ,this whole tendency brings into prominence the psychical influence1 while it denies the production of these results from purely physical phenomena1 endeavoring to explain them in a different manner4 ,these explanations carry us into two realms1 the first of which has been lately opened1 and at present seems to abound more in enigmas than in solutions4 ,metallotherapie1 which was called into existence by ,dr4 ,burg1 and further extended by ,dr4 ,gell1 contains a special point of interest--the so-called transference in the case of hysterically or hypnotically affected persons4 ,transference is caused by electro-magnetism1 which has this peculiarity--that in the case of specially sensitive persons it can transfer the bodily affection from left to right1 and vice versa4 ,the transference of paralysis1 the cures attempted on this plan1 and the so-called psychical transference1 which contains special interest for graphologists1 are at the present time still open questions1 as well as the closely connected theory of human polarity2 and the odic experiments of ,dr4 ,chazarain are yet waiting for their confirmation4 ,at present the problem of the connection between magnetism and hypnotism is under investigation1 and in such a manner that we may hope for a speedy solution4 ,still stranger than these reports are the accounts of the distant operation of certain bodies2 at least1 they seem strange to those unacquainted with psychometry and the literature of the past century relating to this subject4 ,two physicians in ,rochefort1 ,professors ,bourru and ,burot1 in treating a hystero-epileptic person1 found that gold1 even when at a distance of fifteen centimeters1 produced in him a feeling of unbearable heat4 ,they continued these experiments with great care1 and1 after a number of trials1 came to this conclusion--that in some persons certain substances1 even when carefully separated from them by long distance1 exercise exactly the same physiological influence as if introduced into their organism4 ,in order to explain these phenomena1 they refer to the radiating force of ,barty1 an explanation neither satisfactory to themselves nor to others4 ,lately the distinguished ,parisian physician1 ,dr4 ,luys1 has confirmed by his experiments the existence of these phenomena1 but he thinks the explanation referable to hyper-sensitiveness of the regions emotives et intellectuelles de l'encephale yet even he has not reached the kernel of the difficulty4 ,in close connection with action at a distance is the question of distant production of hypnotic sleep4 ,for an answer to this problem1 they are experimenting in both ,france and ,england2 and ,frederick ,w4,h4 ,myers has thrown an entirely new light upon the subject by the investigations he is making upon a purely experimental basis4 ,in ,italy they have limited themselves to the study of isolated cases of hystero-hypnotism1 except as the phenomena of magnetic fascination investigated by ,donato have given rise to further research2 but all the books ,i have seen upon this subject1 as well as many by ,french authors1 suffer from ignorance of the latest ,english discoveries4 ,with this ,i think that ,i have given a slight outline of the history of hypnotic investigation to the end of the year #ahhf4 ,i shall attempt a criticism of this whole movement at some other time1 as space is not afforded to me here2 but ,i should like to make this statement now1 that two of the characteristic indications of this period are of the gravest import--first the method 7,our work1 says ,richet1 is that of strictly scientific testing1 observation1 and arrangement72 and1 secondly1 the result4 ,hypnotism has been received into the realm of scientific investigation1 and with this the foundation of a true experimental psychology has been laid4 ,,max ,,dessoir4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,duodenum3 ,a ,,siphon ,,trap4 ,by ,,mayo ,,collier1 ,m4,s4 ,lond41 ,f4,r4,c4,s4 ,eng42 ,senior ,assistant ,surgeon1 ,north-,west ,london ,hospital2 ,assistant ,demonstrator of ,anatomy1 ,london ,hospital ,medical ,college4 ,we may take it for granted that all gases generated in the jejunum1 ileum1 and large intestines pass onward toward the anus1 and there sooner or later escape4 ,fetid gases--except those generated in the stomach and duodenum--never pass upward1 not even during vomiting due to hernia1 obstruction1 and other causes4 ,physiologists1 it would appear1 have never busied themselves to find an explanation for this apparent breach of the laws of gravity4 ,the intestinal canal is a tube with various dilatations and constrictions1 but at no spot except the pylorus does the constriction completely obliterate the lumen of the tube1 and here only periodically4 ,it is perfectly evident1 then1 that1 unless some system of trap exists in the canal1 gases are free to travel from below upward in obedience to the laws of gravity1 and would1 as a matter of fact1 sooner or later do so4 ,from the straight1 course and vertical position of the oesophagus1 a very slight pressure of gas in the stomach easily overcomes the closure of its cardiac sphincter and allows of escape4 ,when the stomach has digested its contents and the pylorus is relaxed1 gases generated in the duodenum can and do ascend into the stomach and so escape4 ,normally1 no fetid gases are generated in the stomach or duodenum4 ,if we follow the course of the intestines down1 we find that the duodenum presents a remarkable curve4 ,now1 there are some points of great interest in connection with this remarkable1 almost circular1 curve of the duodenum4 ,in the first place1 this curve is a constant feature in all mammalians4 ,mr4 ,treves says it is one of the most constant features in the anatomy of the intestines in man1 and1 speaking of mammalians in general1 that the curve of the duodenum varies in shape1 but is never absent1 becoming more complex in some of the higher primates1 but seldom less distinct than in man4 ,in birds the duodenum always forms a long loop embracing the pancreas4 ,a second point of great interest is the absolute constancy and fixation of its terminal portion at the point of junction with the jejunum1 more correctly termed second ascending or fourth portion4 ,mr4 ,treves says that this fourth portion is never less than an inch1 and is practically constant4 ,it extends along the side of the left crus of the diaphragm opposite the second lumbar vertebra1 and is there firmly fixed to the front of the aorta and crus of the diaphragm by a strong fibro-muscular band1 slinging it up and absolutely retaining it in position4 ,this band has been termed the musculus suspensorius duodeni1 but is chiefly composed of white fibrous tissue1 and is more of the native of a ligament than a muscle4 ,this ligament is always present1 and its position is never altered4 ,the curve of the duodenum may descend as far as the iliac fossa1 but the terminal portion is always maintained by this band in its normal position4 ,another point of great constancy is the position of the pancreas and its relation to the curve of the duodenum4 ,the duodenum always curves round the head of the pancreas and is1 as it were1 moulded on it and retained in position by it4 ,in birds the duodenum always forms a long loop embracing the pancreas4 ,further1 the ducts of the liver and pancreas always open into the center ,of the duodenum1 either separately or by a common opening4 ,illustration ,now1 the absolute constancy of the curve of the duodenum1 the complete fixation of its fourth portion1 the position of the pancreas1 and the place of entry of the ducts of the pancreas and liver1 are all component parts of a siphon trap1 whereby gases generated below the duodenum are prevented from passing upward4 ,a reference to the accompanying diagrams will make this quite clear4 ,a is a diagram of a siphon trap copied from ,parkes' hygiene4 ,b is a very diagrammatic outline of the stomach and duodenum1 a is intended to mark the position of the fibrous band1 or musculus suspensorius duodeni2 and b the position of entry of the ducts of the liver and pancreas4 ,the duodenum1 then1 is a siphon trap1 and a most efficient one4 ,now1 the efficiency of a siphon trap depends not only on its shape1 but what is absolutely essential is that the curve must be kept constantly full of fluid1 without which it ceases to be a trap1 and would allow gases to ascend freely4 ,the position of the place of entry of the ducts of the pancreas and liver assures that this sine qua non shall be present4 ,the discharge of the secretions of the pancreas and liver1 although more active during and after feeding1 is practically constant1 and so insures in an admirable manner that the curve on which the efficiency of the trap depends shall be constantly kept full not only with fluid1 but1 as ,i would suggest1 antiseptic fluid4 ,there is no other trap in the intestinal canal1 but the peculiar position of the colon would no doubt have more or less effect in preventing gases ascending through the ileo-ccal valve4--,lancet4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,wisconsin ,,cranberry ,,culture4 ,among the many thousands of well informed persons with whom the cranberry is a staple article of food throughout the autumn and winter1 and who especially derive from its pungent flavor sharp relish for their ,thanksgiving and ,christmas turkey1 not one in ten has any definite idea as to where the delicious fruit comes from1 or of the method of growing and harvesting it4 ,most people are1 however1 aware that it is raised on little truck patches somewhere down in ,new ,jersey or about ,cape ,cod1 and some have heard that it is gleaned from the swamps in the ,far ,west by ,indians and shipped to market by white traders4 ,but to the great majority its real history is unknown4 ,yet the cranberry culture is an industry in which millions of dollars are invested in this country1 and it gives employment1 for at least a portion of each year1 to many thousands of people4 ,in the ,east1 where the value of an acre of even swamp land may run up into the thousands of dollars1 a cranberry marsh of five or ten acres is considered a large one1 and1 cultivated in the careful1 frugal style in vogue there1 may yield its owner a handsome yearly income4 ,but in the great1 boundless ,west1 where land1 and more especially swamp land1 may be had for from #a to #e an acre1 we do these things differently1 if not better4 ,the ,state of ,wisconsin produces nearly one-half of the cranberries annually grown in the ,united ,states4 ,there are marshes there covering thousands of acres1 whereon this fruit grows wild1 having done so even as far back as the oldest tradition of the native red man extends4 ,in many cases the land on which the berries grow has been bought from the government by individuals or firms1 in vast tracts1 and the growth of the fruit promoted and encouraged by a system of dikes and dams whereby the effects of droughts1 frost1 and heavy rainfalls are counteracted to almost any extent desired4 ,some of these holdings aggregate many thousands of acres under a single ownership2 and after a marsh of this vast extent has been thoroughly ditched and good buildings1 water works1 etc41 are erected on it1 its value may reach many thousands of dollars1 while the original cost of the land may have been merely nominal4 ,large portions of ,jackson1 ,wood1 ,monroe1 ,marinette1 ,juneau1 and ,green counties are natural cranberry marshes4 ,the ,wisconsin ,valley division of the ,chicago1 ,milwaukee ,st4 ,paul ,railway runs through a closely continuous marsh1 forty miles long and nearly as wide1 as level as a floor1 which is an almost unbroken series of cranberry farms4 ,the ,indians1 who inhabited this country before the white man came1 used to congregate here every fall1 many of them traveling several hundred miles1 to lay in their winter supply of berries4 ,many thousands of barrels are now annually shipped from this region2 and thus this vast area1 which to the stranger looking upon it would appear utterly worthless1 is as valuable as the richest farming lands in the ,state4 ,in a few instances1 however1 this fruit is cultivated in ,wisconsin in a style similar to that practiced in the ,east2 that is1 by paring the natural sod from the bog1 covering the earth to a depth of two or three inches with sand1 and then transplanting the vines into soil thus prepared4 ,the weeds are then kept down for a year or two1 when the vines take full possession of the soil1 and further attention is unnecessary4 ,the natural stand of the vines in the sod is so productive1 however1 and the extent of country over which bountiful nature has distributed them so vast1 that few operators have thought it necessary to incur the expense of special culture4 ,one of the best and most perfectly equipped marshes in ,wisconsin is owned by ,mr4 ,g4,b4 ,sackett1 of ,berlin4 ,it is situated four miles north of that village1 and comprises #a1fjj acres1 nearly all of which is a veritable bog1 and is covered with a natural and luxuriant growth of cranberry vines4 ,a canal has been cut from the ,fox ,river to the southern limit of the marsh1 a distance of #d1djj ft4 ,it is #de ft4 wide1 and the water stands in it to a depth of nine feet1 sufficient to float fair sized steamboats4 ,at the intersection of the canal with the marsh steam water works have been erected1 with flood gates and dams by means of which the entire marsh may be flooded to a depth of a foot or more when desired4 ,there are two engines of #aej horse power each1 and two pumps that are capable of raising #hj1jjj gallons per minute4 ,when1 in early autumn1 the meteorological conditions indicate the approach of frost1 the pumps may he put to work in the afternoon and the berries be effectually covered by water and thus protected before nightfall4 ,at sunrise the gates are opened and the water allowed to run off again1 so that the pickers may proceed with their work4 ,the marsh is flooded to a depth of about two feet at the beginning of each winter and allowed to remain so until spring1 the heavy body of ice that forms preventing the upheaval that would result from freezing and thawing--a natural process which1 if permitted1 works injury to the vines4 ,there is a three-story warehouse on the marsh1 with a capacity of #bj1jjj barrels of berries1 and four large two-story houses capable of furnishing shelter for #a1ejj pickers4 ,the superintendent's residence is a comfortable cottage house1 surrounded by giant oaks and elms1 and stands near the warehouse on an island1 or small tract of high1 dry land near the center of the great marsh4 ,the pickers' quarters stand on another island about #bjj yards away4 ,a plank roadway1 built on piles1 about two feet above the level of the ground1 leads from the mainland to the warehouse and other buildings1 a distance of more than half a mile4 ,several wooden railways diverge from the warehouse to all parts of the marsh1 and on them flat cars1 propelled by hand1 are sent out at intervals during the picking season to bring in the berries from the hands of the pickers4 ,each picker is provided with a crate1 holding just a bushel1 which is kept close at hand4 ,the berries are first picked into tin pans and pails1 and from these emptied into the crates1 in which they are carried to the warehouse1 where an empty crate is given the picker in exchange for a full one4 ,thus equipped and improved1 the ,sackett marsh is valued at #aej1jjj4 ,thirteen thousand barrels have been harvested from this great farm in a single season4 ,the selling price in the ,chicago market varies1 in different seasons1 from #h to #af per barrel4 ,there are several other marshes of various sizes in the vicinity4 ,the picking season usually begins about ,sept4 #a1 and from that time until ,oct4 #a the marshes swarm with men1 women1 and children1 ranging in age from six to eight years1 made up from almost every nationality under the sun4 ,bohemians and ,poles furnish the majority of the working force1 while ,germans1 ,irish1 ,swedes1 ,norwegians1 ,danes1 negroes1 ,indians1 and ,americans contribute to the motley contingent4 ,they come from every direction and from various distances1 some of them traveling a hundred miles or more to secure a few days' or weeks' work4 ,almost every farmer or woodsman living anywhere in the region of the marshes turns out with his entire family2 and the families of all the laboring men and mechanics of the surrounding towns and cities join in the general hegira to the bogs1 and help to harvest the fruit4 ,those living within a few miles go out in the morning and return home at night1 taking their noon-day meal with them1 while those from a distance take provisions and bedding with them and camp in the buildings provided for that purpose by the marsh owners1 doing their own cooking on the stoves and with the fuel furnished them4 ,the wages vary from fifty cents to a dollar a bushel1 owing to the abundance or scarcity of the fruit4 ,a good picker will gather from three to four bushels a day where the yield is light1 and five to six bushels where it is good4 ,the most money is made by families numbering from half a dozen to a dozen members4 ,every chick and child in such families over six years old is required to turn out and help swell the revenue of the little household1 and the frugal father often pockets ten to twenty dollars a day as the fruits of the combined labors4 ,the pickers wade into the grass1 weeds1 and vines1 however wet with dew or rain1 or however deeply flooded underneath1 making not the slightest effort to keep even their feet dry1 and after an hour's work in the morning are almost as wet as if they had swum a river4 ,many of them wade in barefooted1 others wearing low cowhide shoes1 and their feet1 at least1 are necessarily wet all day long4 ,in many cases their bodies are thinly clad1 and they must inevitably suffer in frosty mornings and evenings and on the raw1 cold1 rainy days that are frequent in the autumn months in this latitude2 yet they go about their work singing1 shouting1 and jabbering as merrily as a party of comfortably clad school children at play4 ,how any of them avoid colds1 rheumatism1 and a dozen other diseases is a mystery2 and yet it is rarely that one of them is ill from the effects of this exposure4 ,as many as #cjjj or #djjj pickers are sometimes employed on a single marsh when there is a heavy crop1 and an army of such ragamuffins as get together for this purpose1 scattered over a bog in confusion and disorder1 presents a strange and picturesque appearance4 ,indians are not usually as good pickers as white people1 but in the sparsely settled districts1 where many of the berry farms are situated1 it is impossible to get white help enough to take care of the crop in the short time available for the work1 and owners are compelled to employ the aborigines4 ,a rake1 with the prongs shaped like the letter ,v1 is used for picking in some cases1 but owing to the large amount of grass and weeds that grow among the vines on these wild marshes1 this instrument is rarely available4 ,after being picked the berries are stored in warehouses for a period varying from one to three weeks4 ,they are washed and dried by being passed through a fanning mill made for the purpose1 and are then allowed to cure and ripen thoroughly before they are shipped to market4 ,from statistics gathered by the ,american ,cranberry ,growers' ,association it is learned that in #ahhc ,wisconsin produced #ace1ejg bushels1 in #ahhd #bd1gch bushels1 in #ahhe #bfd1dcb bushels1 and in #ahhf #gj1fhf bushels of this fruit4 ,by these figures it will be seen that the yield is very irregular4 ,this is owing1 principally1 to the fact that many of the marshes are not yet provided with the means of flooding1 and of course suffer from worms1 droughts1 late spring or early autumn frosts1 and extensive fires started by sparks from the engines on railroads running through the marshes4 ,these and various other evils are averted on the more improved farms4 ,so that1 while handsome fortunes have in many cases been made in cranberry growing1 many thousands of dollars have1 on the other hand1 been sunk in the same industry4 ,only the wealthier owners1 who have expended vast sums of money in improving and equipping their property1 can calculate with any degree of certainty on a paying crop of fruit every year4 ,chicago is the great distributing point for the berries produced in ,wisconsin1 shipments being made thence to nearly every ,state and ,territory in the ,union1 to ,canada1 to ,mexico1 and to several ,european countries4 ,berries sent to the ,southern markets are put up in watertight packages1 and the casks are then filled with water1 this being the only means by which they can be kept in hot weather4 ,even in this condition they can only be kept a few days after reaching hot climates4--,american ,magazine4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,soudan ,,coffee4 7,parkia biglobosa47 ,there are valuable plants on every continent4 ,civilized ,europe no longer counts them4 ,mysterious ,africa is no less largely and spontaneously favored with them than young ,america and the ancient territory of ,asia4 ,the latter has given us the majority of the best fruits of our gardens4 ,we have already shown how useful the butter tree 7,butyrospermum ,parkii7 is in tropical ,africa1 and we also know how the gourou 7,sterculia acuminata7 is cultivated in the same regions4 ,but that is not all1 for the great family of ,leguminos1 whose numerous representatives encumber this continent1 likewise furnishes the negro natives a food that is nearly as indispensable to them as the gourou or the products of the baobab--another valuable tree and certainly the most widely distributed one in torrid ,africa4 ,this leguminous tree1 which is as yet but little known in the civilized world1 has been named scientifically ,parkia biglobosa by ,bentham4 ,the negroes give it various names1 according to the tribe2 among the ,ouloffs1 it is the houlle2 among the ,mandigues1 naytay2 in ,cazamance 7,nalon language71 it is nayray2 in ,bornou1 rounuo2 in ,haoussa1 doroa2 in ,hant-fleure 7,senegal71 nayraytou4 ,on the old mysterious continent it plays the same role that the algarobas do in young ,america4 ,however1 it is quite a common rule to find in the order ,leguminos1 and especially in the section ,mimos1 plants whose pods are edible4 ,examples of this fact are numerous4 ,as regards the ,mediterranean region1 it suffices to cite the classic carob tree 7,ceratonia siliqua71 which also is of ,african nationality1 but which is wanting in the warm region of this continent4 ,throughout the tropical region of ,africa1 the aborigines love to consume the saccharine pulp and the seed contained in the pod of the houlle4 ,prepared in different ways1 according to tribe and latitude1 these two products constitute a valuable aliment4 ,the pulp is consumed either just as it is or as a fermented beverage4 ,as for the seeds1 they serve1 raw or roasted1 for the production of a tea-like infusion 7whence the name ,soudan coffee71 or1 after fermentation in water1 for making a national condiment1 which in certain places is called kinda1 and which is mixed with boiled rice or prepared meats4 ,this preparation has in most cases a pasty form or the consistency of cohesive flour2 but in order to render its carriage easier in certain of the ,african centers where the trade in it is brisk1 it is compressed into tablets similar to those of our chocolate4 ,as these two products are very little known in ,europe1 it has seemed to us that it would be of interest to give a description and chemical analysis of them4 ,we shall say but little of the plant1 which has sufficiently occupied botanists4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #a ,,to #f4--,,pods ,,of ,,the ,,houlle ,,and ,,microscopic ,,details4 ,the houlle 7,parkia biglobosa7 is a large tree from #ce to #ej feet in height1 with a gray bark1 many branches1 and large1 elegant leaves4 ,the latter are compound1 bipinnate 7,fig4 #g71 and have fifty pairs of leaflets1 which are linear and obtuse and of a grayish green4 ,the inflorescence is very pleasing to the eye4 ,the flowers1 say the authors of the ,flor ,senegambi ,tentamen1 form balls of a dazzling red1 contracted at the base1 and resembling the pompons of our grenadiers 7,fig4 #h74 ,the support of this latter consists only of male flowers4 ,the fruit that succeeds these flowers is supported by a club-shaped receptacle4 ,it consists of a large pod1 which at maturity is #ac inches in length by #aj in width 7,fig4 #a74 ,this pod is chocolate brown1 quite smooth or slightly tubercular1 and is swollen at the points where the seeds are situated4 ,the pods are straight or slightly curved4 ,the aborigines of ,rio ,nunez use the pods for poisoning the fishes that abound in the watercourses4 ,we do not know what the nature of the toxic principle is that is contained in these hard pods1 but we well know the nature of the yellowish pulp and of the seeds that entirely fill the pods4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--,,parkia ,,biglobosa4 ,although the pulp forms a continuous whole1 each seed easily separates from the following and carries with it a part of the pulp that surrounds it and that constitutes an independent mass 7,fig4 #b74 ,this pulpy substance1 formed entirely of oval cells filled with aleurone1 consists of two distinct layers4 ,the first1 an external one of a beautiful yellow1 is from #aj to #ae times bulkier than the internal one1 which likewise is of a beautiful yellow4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h--;,,flowers ,,of ,,parkia4 ,it detaches itself easily from the seed1 while the internal layer1 which adheres firmly to the exterior of the seed1 can be detached only by maceration in water4 ,this fresh pulp has a sweet and agreeable although slightly insipid taste4 ,upon growing old and becoming dry1 it takes on a still more agreeable taste1 for it preserves its sweetness and gets a perfume like that of the violet4 ,as for the seed1 which is of a brown color and provided with a hard1 shining skin1 that is #j4d inch long1 #j4c inch wide1 and #j4b inch thick4 ,it is oval in form1 with quite a prominent beak at the hilum 7,fig4 #d74 ,the margin is blunt and the two convex sides are provided in the center with a gibbosity limited by a line parallel with the margin1 and this has given the plant its specific name of biglobosa4 ,the mean weight of each seed is #d grains4 ,the skin1 though thick1 is not very strong4 ,it consists1 anatomically1 of four layers 7,fig4 #e7 of a thick cuticle1 c2 of a zone of palissade cells1 z p2 of a zone of cells with thick tangential walls arranged in a single row2 and of a zone tougher than the others1 formed of numerous cells with thick walls1 without definite form1 and filled with a blackish red coloring matter1 cs4 ,this perisperm covers an exalbuminous embryo formed almost entirely of two thick1 greenish yellow cotyledons having a strong taste of legumine4 ,when examined under the microscope1 these cotyledons1 the alimentary part of the seed1 have the appearance represented in ,fig4 #f1 where ep is the epidermic layer and cp constitutes the uniform parenchyma of the cotyledonary leaf4 ,this parenchymatous mass consists of oval cells filled with fatty matter and granules of aleurone4 ,according to some chemical researches made by ,professor ,schlagdenhauffen1 the pulp has the following composition per #ajj parts3 ,fatty matter #b4djg ,glucose #cc4ib ,inverted sugar #g4hbe ,coloring matter and free acids #a4cjj ,albuminous matter #e4bdj ,gummy matter #ai4aji ,cellulose #h4iba ,lignose #ag4aie ,salts #d4jhj ------- ,total #ajj4jjj ,the salient point of these analytical results is the enormous quantity of matter 7nearly #fj per cent47 formed almost exclusively by sugar4 ,it is not surprising1 from this that this product constitutes a food both agreeable and useful4 ,an analysis of the entire seed1 made by the same chemist1 has given the following results3 ,solid fatty matter #ba4ade ,unreduced sugar #f4ahc ,undetermined matters #e4eaj ,gummy #aj4bgb ,albuminoid #bd4fbf ,cellulosic #e4geb ,lignose and losses #bj4igh ,salts #e4ecd ------- ,total #ajj4jjj ,the presence in these seeds of a large quantity of fatty matters and sugar1 and especially of albuminoid matters 7very nutritive71 largely justifies the use made of them as a food4 ,the innate instinct of the savage peoples of ,africa has thus anticipated the data of science4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,height ,,of ,,summer ,,clouds4 ,a knowledge of the heights and movements of the clouds is of much interest to science1 and of especial importance in the prediction of weather4 ,the subject has therefore received much attention during recent years from meteorologists1 chiefly in this country and in ,sweden4 ,in the last published report of the ,meteorological ,council for #ahhe-hf will be found an account of the steps taken by that body to obtain cloud photographs2 and in the ,meteorologische ,zeitschrift for ,march last1 ,m4,m4 ,ekholm and ,hagstrom have published an interesting summary of the results of observations made at ,upsala during the summers of #ahhd-he4 ,they determined the parallax of the clouds by angular measurements made from two stations at the extremities of a base of convenient length and having telephonic connection4 ,the instruments used were altazimuths1 constructed under the direction of ,prof4 ,mohn1 specially for measuring the parallax of the aurora borealis4 ,a full description of these instruments and of the calculations will be found in the ,acta ,reg ,soc4 ,sc4 ,ups41 #ahhd4 ,the results now in question are based upon nearly #a1ejj measurements of heights2 the motions will form the subject of a future paper4 ,it was found that clouds are formed at all levels1 but that they occur most frequently at certain elevations or stages4 ,the following are1 approximately1 the mean heights1 in feet1 of the principal forms3 ,stratus1 #b1jjj2 nimbus1 #e1jjj2 cumulus 7base7 #d1ejj1 7summit7 #f1jjj2 cumulo-stratus 7base71 #d1fjj2 false-cirrus 7a form which often accompanies the cumulo-stratus71 #ab1hjj2 cirro cumulus1 #ba1jjj2 cirrus1 #bi1jjj 7the highest being #da1jjj74 ,the maximum of cloud frequency was found to be at levels of #b1cjj and #e1ejj feet4 ,generally speaking1 all the forms of cloud have a tendency to rise during the course of the day2 the change1 excepting for the cumulus form1 amounting to nearly #f1ejj feet4 ,in the morning1 when the cirrus clouds are at their lowest level1 the frequency of their lowest forms--the cirro-cumulus--is greatest2 and in the evening1 when the height of the cirrus is greatest1 the frequency of its highest forms--the cirro-stratus--is also greatest4 ,with regard to the connection between the character of the weather and the height of the clouds1 the heights of the bases of the cumulus are nearly constant in all conditions4 ,the summits1 however1 are lowest in the vicinity of a barometric maximum4 ,they increase in the region of a depression1 and attain their greatest height in thunderstorms1 the thickness of the cumulo stratus stretching sometimes for several miles4 ,the highest forms of clouds appear to float at their lowest levels in the region of a depression4 ,the forms of clouds are identical in all parts of the world1 as has been shown in papers lately read by the ,hon4 ,r4 ,abercromby before the ,english and ,scottish ,meteorological ,societies4--,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,the ,,cause ,,of ,,iridescence ,,in ,,clouds4 ,by ,g4 ,,johnstone ,,stoney4 ,when the sky is occupied by light cirro-cumulus cloud1 an optical phenomenon of the most delicate beauty sometimes presents itself1 in which the borders of the clouds and their lighter portions are suffused with soft shades of color like those of mother-of-pearl1 among which lovely pinks and greens are the most conspicuous4 ,usually these colors are distributed in irregular patches1 just as in mother-of-pearl2 but occasionally they are seen to form round the denser patches of cloud a regular colored fringe1 in which the several tints are arranged in stripes following the sinuosities of the outline of the cloud4 ,i cannot find in any of the books an explanation of this beautiful spectacle1 all the more pleasing because it generally presents itself in delightful summer weather4 ,it is not mentioned in the part of ,moigno's great ,repertoire d',optique which treats of meteorological optics1 nor in any other work which ,i have consulted4 ,it seems desirable1 therefore1 to make an attempt to search out what appears to be its explanation4 ,at the elevation in our atmosphere at which these delicate clouds are formed the temperature is too low1 even in midsummer1 for water to exist in the liquid state2 and accordingly1 the attenuated vapor from which they were condensed passed at once into a solid form4 ,they consist1 in fact1 of tiny crystals of ice1 not of little drops of water4 ,if the precipitation has been hasty1 the crystals will1 though all small1 be of many sizes jumbled together1 and in that case the beautiful optical phenomenon with which we are now dealing will not occur4 ,but if the opposite conditions prevail 7which they do on rare occasions71 if the vapor had been evenly distributed1 and if the precipitation took place slowly1 then will the crystals in any one neighborhood be little ice crystals of nearly the same form and size1 and from one neighborhood to another they will differ chiefly in number and size1 owing to the process having gone on longer or taken place somewhat faster1 or through a greater depth1 in some neighborhoods than others4 ,this will give rise to the patched appearance of the clouds which prevails when this phenomenon presents itself4 ,it also causes the tiny crystals1 of which the cloud consists1 to grow larger in some places than others4 ,captain ,scoresby1 in his ,account of the ,arctic ,regions1 gives the best description of snow crystals formed at low temperatures with which ,i am acquainted4 ,from his observations it appears--7a7 that when formed at temperatures several degrees below the freezing point1 the crystals1 whether simple or compound1 are nearly all of symmetrical forms2 7b7 that thin tabular crystals are extremely numerous1 consisting either of simple transverse slices of the fundamental hexagon or1 more frequently1 of aggregations of these attached edgewise and lying in one plane2 and 7c7 that1 according as atmospheric conditions vary1 one form of crystal or another largely preponderates4 ,a fuller account of these most significant observations is given in the appendix to this paper4 ,let us then consider the crystals in any one neighborhood in the sky1 where the conditions that prevail are such as to produce lamellar crystals of nearly the same thickness4 ,the tabular plates are subsiding through the atmosphere--in fact1 falling toward the earth4 ,and although their descent is very slow1 owing to their minute size1 the resistance of the air will act upon them as it does upon a falling feather4 ,it will cause them1 if disturbed1 to oscillate before they settle into that horizontal position which flat plates finally assume when falling through quiescent air4 ,we shall presently consider what the conditions must be1 in order that the crystals may be liable to be now and then disturbed from the horizontal position4 ,if this occasionally happens1 the crystals will keep fluttering1 and at any one moment some of them will be turned so as to reflect a ray from the sun to the eye of the observer from the flat surface of the crystal which is next him4 ,now1 if the conditions are such as to produce crystals which are plates with parallel faces1 and as they are also transparent1 part only of the sun's ray that reaches the front face of the crystal will be reflected from it2 the rest will enter the crystal1 and1 falling on the parallel surface behind1 a portion will be there reflected1 and passing out through the front face1 will also reach the eye of the observer4 ,these two portions of the ray--that reflected from the front face and that reflected from the back--are precisely in the condition in which they can interfere with one another1 so as to produce the splendid colors with which we are familiar in soap bubbles4 ,if the crystals are of diverse thicknesses1 the colors from the individual crystals will be different1 and the mixture of them all will produce merely white light2 but if all are nearly of the same thickness1 they will transmit the same color toward the observer1 who will accordingly see this color in the part of the cloud occupied by these crystals4 ,the color will1 of course1 not be undiluted2 for other crystals will send forward white light1 and this1 blended with the colored light1 will produce delicate shades in cases where the corresponding colors of a soap bubble would be vivid4 ,we have now only to explain how it happens that on very rare occasions the colors1 instead of lying in irregular patches1 form definite fringes round the borders of the cloudlets4 ,the circumstances that give rise to this special form of the phenomenon appear to be the following3 ,while the cloud is in the process of growth 7that is1 so long as the precipitation of vapor into the crystalline state continues to take place71 so long will the crystals keep augmenting4 ,if1 then1 a cloudlet is in the process of formation1 not only by the springing up of fresh crystals around1 but also by the continued growth of the crystals within it1 then will that patch of cloud consist of crystals which are largest in its central part1 and gradually smaller as their situation approaches the outside4 ,here1 then1 are conditions which will produce one color round the margin of the cloud1 and that color mixed with others1 and so giving rise to other tints1 farther in4 ,in this way there comes into existence that iris-like border which is now and then seen4 ,the occasional upsetting of the crystals1 which is required to keep them fluttering1 may be produced in any of three ways4 ,the cloudlets may have been formed from the blending together of two layers of air saturated at different temperatures1 and moving with different velocities or in different directions4 ,where these currents intermix1 a certain amount of disturbance will prevail1 which1 if sufficiently slight1 would not much interfere with the regularity of the crystals1 and might yet be sufficient to occasion little draughts1 which would blow them about when formed4 ,or1 if the cold layer is above1 and if it is in a sufficient degree colder1 there need not be any previous relative motion of the two layers2 the inevitable convection currents will suffice4 ,another1 and probably the most frequent1 cause for little breezes in the neighborhood of the cloudlets is that when the cloudlets are formed they immediately absorb the heat of the sun in a way that the previously clear air had not done4 ,if they absorb enough1 they will rise like feeble balloons1 and slight return currents will travel downward round their margins1 throwing all crystals in that situation into disorder4 ,i do not include among the causes which may agitate the crystals another cause which must produce excessively slight currents of air1 namely1 that arising from the subsidence of the cloudlets owing to their weight4 ,the crystals will fall faster wherein cloud masses than in the intervening portions where the cloud is thinner4 ,but the subsidence itself is so slow that any relative motions to which differences in the rate of subsidence can give rise are probably too feeble to produce an appreciable effect4 ,of course1 in general1 more than one of the above causes will concur2 and it is the resultant of the effects which they would have separately produced that will be felt by the crystals4 ,if the precipitation had taken place so very evenly over the sky that there were no cloudlets formed1 but only one uniform veil of haze1 then the currents which would flutter the crystals may be so entirely absent that the little plates of crystals can fixedly assume the horizontal position which is natural to them4 ,in this event the cloud will exhibit no iridescence1 but1 instead of it1 a vertical circle through the sun will present itself4 ,this1 on some rare occasions1 is a feature of the phenomenon of parhelia4 ,it thus appears that the occasional iridescence of cirrus clouds is satisfactorily accounted for by the concurrence of conditions1 each of which is known to have a real existence in nature4444--,phil4 ,mag41 ,july #ahhg4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,,architects ,,and ,,builders ,,edition4 #b4ej a ,year4 ,single ,copies1 #be cts4 ,this is a ,special ,edition of the ,,scientific ,,american1 issued monthly--on the first day of the month4 ,each number contains about forty large quarto pages1 equal to about two hundred ordinary book pages1 forming1 practically1 a large and splendid ,,magazine ,,of ,,architecture1 richly adorned with elegant plates in colors and with fine engravings1 illustrating the most interesting examples of modern ,architectural ,construction and allied subjects4 ,a special feature is the presentation in each number of a variety of the latest and best plans for private residences1 city and country1 including those of very moderate cost as well as the more expensive4 ,drawings in perspective and in color are given1 together with full ,plans1 ,specifications1 ,costs1 ,bills of ,estimate1 and ,sheets of ,details4 ,no other building paper contains so many plans1 details1 and specifications regularly presented as the ,,scientific 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